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Thermodynamic activity

In chemical thermodynamics, activity (symbol $a$) is a measure of the "effective concentration" of a species in a mixture, in the sense that the species' chemical potential depends on the activity of a real solution in the same way that it would depend on concentration for an ideal solution. The term "activity" in this sense was coined by the American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis in 1907.

By convention, activity is treated as a dimensionless quantity, although its value depends on customary choices of standard state for the species. The activity of pure substances in condensed phases (solids and liquids) is taken as $a$ = 1. Activity depends on temperature, pressure and composition of the mixture, among other things. For gases, the activity is the effective partial pressure, and is usually referred to as fugacity.

The difference between activity and other measures of concentration arises because the interactions between different types of molecules in non-ideal gases or solutions are different from interactions between the same types of molecules. The activity of an ion is particularly influenced by its surroundings.

Equilibrium constants should be defined by activities but, in practice, are often defined by concentrations instead. The same is often true of equations for reaction rates. However, there are circumstances where the activity and the concentration are significantly different and, as such, it is not valid to approximate with concentrations where activities are required. Two examples serve to illustrate this point:
 * In a solution of potassium hydrogen iodate KH(IO3)2 at 0.02 M the activity is 40% lower than the calculated hydrogen ion concentration, resulting in a much higher pH than expected.
 * When a 0.1 M hydrochloric acid solution containing methyl green indicator is added to a 5 M solution of magnesium chloride, the color of the indicator changes from green to yellow—indicating increasing acidity—when in fact the acid has been diluted. Although at low ionic strength (< 0.1 M) the activity coefficient approaches unity, this coefficient can actually increase with ionic strength in a high ionic strength regime. For hydrochloric acid solutions, the minimum is around 0.4 M.

Definition
The relative activity of a species $i$, denoted $a_{i}$, is defined as:
 * $$a_i = e^{\frac{\mu_i - \mu^{\ominus}_i}{RT}}$$

where $μ_{i}$ is the (molar) chemical potential of the species $i$ under the conditions of interest, $μo i$ is the (molar) chemical potential of that species under some defined set of standard conditions, $R$ is the gas constant, $T$ is the thermodynamic temperature and $e$ is the exponential constant.

Alternatively, this equation can be written as:
 * $$\mu_i = \mu_i^{\ominus} + RT\ln{a_i}$$

In general, the activity depends on any factor that alters the chemical potential. Such factors may include: concentration, temperature, pressure, interactions between chemical species, electric fields, etc. Depending on the circumstances, some of these factors, in particular concentration and interactions, may be more important than others.

The activity depends on the choice of standard state such that changing the standard state will also change the activity. This means that activity is a relative term that describes how "active" a compound is compared to when it is under the standard state conditions. In principle, the choice of standard state is arbitrary; however, it is often chosen out of mathematical or experimental convenience. Alternatively, it is also possible to define an "absolute activity" (i.e., the fugacity in statistical mechanics), $λ$, which is written as:

 * $$\lambda_i = e^{\frac{\mu_i}{RT}}\,$$

Note that this definition corresponds to setting as standard state the solution of $$\mu_i = 0$$, if the latter exists.

Activity coefficient
The activity coefficient $γ$, which is also a dimensionless quantity, relates the activity to a measured mole fraction $x_{i}$ (or $y_{i}$ in the gas phase), molality $b_{i}$, mass fraction $w_{i}$, molar concentration (molarity) $c_{i}$ or mass concentration $ρ_{i}$:
 * $$a_{ix} = \gamma_{x,i} x_i,\ a_{ib} = \gamma_{b,i}\frac {b_i} {b^{\ominus}},\, a_{iw}=\gamma_{w,i} w_i,\ a_{ic} = \gamma_{c,i} \frac{c_i}{c^{\ominus}},\, a_{ir} = \gamma_{\rho,i} \frac{\rho_i}{\rho^{\ominus}}\, $$

The division by the standard molality $b^{ o }$ (usually 1 mol/kg) or the standard molar concentration $c^{ o }$ (usually 1 mol/L) is necessary to ensure that both the activity and the activity coefficient are dimensionless, as is conventional.

The activity depends on the chosen standard state and composition scale; for instance, in the dilute limit it approaches the mole fraction, mass fraction, or numerical value of molarity, all of which are different. However, the activity coefficients are similar.

When the activity coefficient is close to 1, the substance shows almost ideal behaviour according to Henry's law (but not necessarily in the sense of an ideal solution). In these cases, the activity can be substituted with the appropriate dimensionless measure of composition $x_{i}$, $b_{i}⁄b^{ o }$ or $c_{i}⁄c^{ o }$. It is also possible to define an activity coefficient in terms of Raoult's law: the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the symbol $f$ for this activity coefficient, although this should not be confused with fugacity.
 * $$a_i = f_i x_i\,$$

Gases
In most laboratory situations, the difference in behaviour between a real gas and an ideal gas is dependent only on the pressure and the temperature, not on the presence of any other gases. At a given temperature, the "effective" pressure of a gas $i$ is given by its fugacity $f_{i}$: this may be higher or lower than its mechanical pressure. By historical convention, fugacities have the dimension of pressure, so the dimensionless activity is given by:
 * $$a_i = \frac{f_i}{p^{\ominus}} = \varphi_i y_i \frac{p}{p^{\ominus}}$$

where $φ_{i}$ is the dimensionless fugacity coefficient of the species, $y_{i}$ is its mole fraction in the gaseous mixture ($y = 1$ for a pure gas) and $p$ is the total pressure. The value $p^{ o }$ is the standard pressure: it may be equal to 1 atm (101.325 kPa) or 1 bar (100 kPa) depending on the source of data, and should always be quoted.

Mixtures in general
The most convenient way of expressing the composition of a generic mixture is by using the mole fractions $xi$ (written $yi$ in the gas phase) of the different components (or chemical species: atoms or molecules) present in the system, where

 * $$x_i = \frac{n_i}{n}\,, \qquad n =\sum_i n_i\,, \qquad \sum_i x_i = 1\,$$

 * with $ni$, the number of moles of the component i, and $n$, the total number of moles of all the different components present in the mixture.

The standard state of each component in the mixture is taken to be the pure substance, i.e. the pure substance has an activity of one. When activity coefficients are used, they are usually defined in terms of Raoult's law,
 * $$a_i = f_i x_i\,$$

where $f_{i}$ is the Raoult's law activity coefficient: an activity coefficient of one indicates ideal behaviour according to Raoult's law.

Dilute solutions (non-ionic)
A solute in dilute solution usually follows Henry's law rather than Raoult's law, and it is more usual to express the composition of the solution in terms of the molar concentration $c$ (in mol/L) or the molality $b$ (in mol/kg) of the solute rather than in mole fractions. The standard state of a dilute solution is a hypothetical solution of concentration $c^{ o }$ = 1 mol/L (or molality $b^{ o }$ = 1 mol/kg) which shows ideal behaviour (also referred to as "infinite-dilution" behaviour). The standard state, and hence the activity, depends on which measure of composition is used. Molalities are often preferred as the volumes of non-ideal mixtures are not strictly additive and are also temperature-dependent: molalities do not depend on volume, whereas molar concentrations do.

The activity of the solute is given by:
 * $$\begin{align}

a_{c,i} &= \gamma_{c,i}\, \frac{c_i}{c^{\ominus}} \\[6px] a_{b,i} &= \gamma_{b,i}\, \frac{b_i}{b^{\ominus}} \end{align}$$

Ionic solutions
When the solute undergoes ionic dissociation in solution (for example a salt), the system becomes decidedly non-ideal and we need to take the dissociation process into consideration. One can define activities for the cations and anions separately ($a_{+}$ and $a_{–}$).

In a liquid solution the activity coefficient of a given ion (e.g. Ca2+) isn't measurable because it is experimentally impossible to independently measure the electrochemical potential of an ion in solution. (One cannot add cations without putting in anions at the same time). Therefore, one introduces the notions of

 * mean ionic activity

 * mean ionic molality

 * mean ionic activity coefficient

where $aν ± = aν_{+} +aν_{−} −$ represent the stoichiometric coefficients involved in the ionic dissociation process

Even though $bν ± = bν_{+} +bν_{−} −$ and $γν ± = γν_{+} +γν_{−} −$ cannot be determined separately, $ν = ν_{+} + ν_{–}$ is a measurable quantity that can also be predicted for sufficiently dilute systems using Debye–Hückel theory. For electrolyte solutions at higher concentrations, Debye–Hückel theory needs to be extended and replaced, e.g., by a Pitzer electrolyte solution model (see external links below for examples). For the activity of a strong ionic solute (complete dissociation) we can write:

Measurement
The most direct way of measuring the activity of a volatile species is to measure its equilibrium partial vapor pressure. For water as solvent, the water activity aw is the equilibrated relative humidity. For non-volatile components, such as sucrose or sodium chloride, this approach will not work since they do not have measurable vapor pressures at most temperatures. However, in such cases it is possible to measure the vapor pressure of the solvent instead. Using the Gibbs–Duhem relation it is possible to translate the change in solvent vapor pressures with concentration into activities for the solute.

The simplest way of determining how the activity of a component depends on pressure is by measurement of densities of solution, knowing that real solutions have deviations from the additivity of (molar) volumes of pure components compared to the (molar) volume of the solution. This involves the use of partial molar volumes, which measure the change in chemical potential with respect to pressure.

Another way to determine the activity of a species is through the manipulation of colligative properties, specifically freezing point depression. Using freezing point depression techniques, it is possible to calculate the activity of a weak acid from the relation,
 * $$b^{\prime} = b(1 + a)\,$$

where $b′$ is the total equilibrium molality of solute determined by any colligative property measurement (in this case $γ_{+}$), $b$ is the nominal molality obtained from titration and $a$ is the activity of the species.

There are also electrochemical methods that allow the determination of activity and its coefficient.

The value of the mean ionic activity coefficient $γ_{–}$ of ions in solution can also be estimated with the Debye–Hückel equation, the Davies equation or the Pitzer equations.

Single ion activity measurability revisited
The prevailing view that single ion activities are unmeasurable, or perhaps even physically meaningless, has its roots in the work of Edward A. Guggenheim in the late 1920s. However, chemists have not given up the idea of single ion activities. For example, pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. By implication, if the prevailing view on the physical meaning and measurability of single ion activities is correct it relegates pH to the category of thermodynamically unmeasurable quantities. For this reason the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) states that the activity-based definition of pH is a notional definition only and further states that the establishment of primary pH standards requires the application of the concept of 'primary method of measurement' tied to the Harned cell. Nevertheless, the concept of single ion activities continues to be discussed in the literature, and at least one author purports to define single ion activities in terms of purely thermodynamic quantities. The same author also proposes a method of measuring single ion activity coefficients based on purely thermodynamic processes.

Use
Chemical activities should be used to define chemical potentials, where the chemical potential depends on the temperature $T$, pressure $p$ and the activity $a_{i}$ according to the formula:
 * $$\mu_i = \mu_i^{\ominus} + RT\ln{a_i}$$

where $R$ is the gas constant and $γ_{±}$ is the value of $μ_{i}$ under standard conditions. Note that the choice of concentration scale affects both the activity and the standard state chemical potential, which is especially important when the reference state is the infinite dilution of a solute in a solvent. Chemical potential has units of joules per mole (J/mol), or energy per amount of matter. Chemical potential can be used to characterize the specific Gibbs free energy changes occurring in chemical reactions or other transformations.

Formulae involving activities can be simplified by considering that: Therefore, it is approximately equal to its concentration.
 * For a chemical solution:
 * the solvent has an activity of unity (only a valid approximation for rather dilute solutions)
 * At a low concentration, the activity of a solute can be approximated to the ratio of its concentration over the standard concentration: $$a_i = \frac{c_i}{c^{\ominus}}$$

 * For a mix of gas at low pressure, the activity is equal to the ratio of the partial pressure of the gas over the standard pressure: $$a_i = \frac{p_i}{p^{\ominus}}$$ Therefore, it is equal to the partial pressure in atmospheres (or bars), compared to a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere (or 1 bar).
 * For a solid body, a uniform, single species solid has an activity of unity at standard conditions. The same thing holds for a pure liquid.

The latter follows from any definition based on Raoult's law, because if we let the solute concentration $a_{2} = aν ± = γν ±mν ±$ go to zero, the vapor pressure of the solvent $p$ will go to $p*$. Thus its activity $ΔT_{fus}$ will go to unity. This means that if during a reaction in dilute solution more solvent is generated (the reaction produces water for example) we can typically set its activity to unity.

Solid and liquid activities do not depend very strongly on pressure because their molar volumes are typically small. Graphite at 100 bars has an activity of only 1.01 if we choose $γ_{±}$ as standard state. Only at very high pressures do we need to worry about such changes. Activity expressed in terms of pressure is called fugacity.

Example values
Example values of activity coefficients of sodium chloride in aqueous solution are given in the table. In an ideal solution, these values would all be unity. The deviations tend to become larger with increasing molality and temperature, but with some exceptions.

title: Thermodynamic activity


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Lord Melody

Lord Melody (1926 – 26 September 1988) was a popular Trinidadian calypsonian, best known for singles such as "Boo Boo Man", "Creature From The Black Lagoon", "Shame & Scandal", "Jonah and the Bake", "Juanita", and "Rastaman Be Careful". Melody's career spanned forty years, from the beginnings of popular calypso music to his embrace of the more dance oriented Soca style by the late 1970s.

Career
Melody was born Fitzroy Alexander at San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago, raised at an orphanage in Port of Spain, and met Alwyn Roberts (soon to become better known as Lord Kitchener) after moving to Arima while still in his teens. Roberts took him under his wing and they returned to Port of Spain, where Lord Kitchener became the leading calypso star, with Melody one of his main challengers. His popularity increased locally when Lord Kitchener emigrated to England in 1947. Melody's career started in the 1940s with performances in calypso tents, and he continued to perform in this and other venues in the Caribbean until the 1960s. His early successes included "Berlin on a Donkey", mocking Adolf Hitler, and "Boo Boo Man" first recorded in 1955 and released on several record labels. His rendition of "Second Spring" won him the Calypso Monarch title in 1954 and he signed with Cook Records in 1956.

He was one of the six vocalists chosen to perform for Princess Margaret when she visited Trinidad in 1956.

His first known album was Calypso Fiesta - Limbo In Trinidad, which was released in 1956 on Vitadisc records and contained eight songs, including his popular "Mama Look A Boo Boo". Another album, Calypso Carnival 1958, was released on Balisier records in 1958. It was a split release - the first side contained six Lord Melody songs (some of which did not appear elsewhere), and the second side comprised instrumental tracks by Cyril Diaz (whose band usually backed Melody on his recordings).

Cook Records released several live tracks featuring him on their albums Jump Up Carnival and Calypso Kings And Pink Gin in 1957, which led to him recording a full album for the label the next year.

His first album on Cook Records, Lord Melody Sings Calypso, was released in 1958, with a second album, Again! released the following year.

The rivalry between Melody and Mighty Sparrow was a feature of the calypsos "Ten to One is Murder" and "Cowboy Sparrow". Melody's third album, Calypso Through The Looking Glass, was released in 1960 and featured the infamous "Belmont Jackass", in which Melody berates Sparrow's wife. Melody's song "Wau, Wau" (more commonly known as "Shame and Scandal") was popular in 1962. The song was a version of a song originally recorded by Sir Lancelot in 1943 with new verses written by Melody. This subsequently became the most widely known version of the song and Melody's version was covered by The Wailers with Peter Tosh on lead vocal.

Harry Belafonte recorded Lord Melody's compositions "Boo Boo Man" (retitled "Mama Look at Bubu" and "Mama Look at Boo Boo") and "Sweetheart from Venezuela" (aka "Juanita"), having a top 20 hit in the US with the former in 1957. "Mama Look a Boo Boo" was also recorded by Robert Mitchum and others. Several singles became favourites with Britain's West Indian community in the late 1950s. In the first half of the 1960s, his popularity waned, but he again found success in 1965 when his "Melody Mas" won the Panorama at the Carnival. He released three albums in 1962, but despite recording a number of singles and compilation exclusives over the rest of the 1960s, did not record another album until 1974's Salt And Pepper.

Melody moved to New York he toured with Belafonte in the 1960s. He was diagnosed with cancer in the early 1970s and the illness restricted his career, although he continued to release albums throughout the 1970s. In this decade he gradually moved away from calypso and instead embraced the emerging soca and reggae styles. These recordings are distinguished by the synths and drum machines of the era and a more reverb-based production sound, as well as the aging quality of Melody's voice at the time. Around 1979 he became a Rastafarian, and released the I Man album, a reggae-tinged album on which he spoke on the subject, the singles "Brown Sugar" and "Rastaman Be Careful" becoming local hits in the same era. In 1982 he made another album, the soca-styled Lola.

Melody's health continued to deteriorate, and he died from cancer in September 1988, in Port of Spain.

Compilations

 * Precious Melodies (1994) Ice. Contains most of the tracks from the two RCA albums The Mighty Lord Melody and "Lord Melody Sings Calypsoes" (in most cases, their only appearance on CD). Also includes several previously unreleased songs from the 1950s and early 1960s.

Notable appearances on various artists compilations

 * Jump Up Carnival (1956) Cook
 * Calypso Kings and Pink Gin (1957) Cook
 * Calypso Carnival 1958 (1958) Balisier
 * Calypso Exposed (1961) Cook
 * Top Calypsonians (1963) RCA
 * Trinidad All Time Calypso Hits 1967-1968 (1968) Telco
 * Sing Along With Melo (1970) Benroy's Records
 * Super Calypso Hits (1973) Camille
 * Calypso Cavalcade Vol 1 (1974) Sounds Of The Caribbean
 * Calypso Cavalcade Vol 2 (1974) Sounds Of The Caribbean
 * Calypso Cavalcade Vol 3 (1974) Sounds Of The Caribbean
 * Calypso Awakening from the Emory Cook Collection (2000) Smithsonian Folkways
 * Al Seales Forever GEMS Vol 1 (20??) Caribbean Gems
 * Al Seales Forever GEMS Vol 2 (20??) Caribbean Gems

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lord Melody


text:
Talk:Calypso music

Seriously Messed Up & Needs ASAP Fixing!
I really hope someone has this on a "Watch List", because towards the end of the first section the article's gone all haywire! I don't know if it was a weird edit by someone or what, but I know nothing about this article... hi

There appears to be info there that belongs in someone's notes that they wrote while researching or something, as well as...well, I don't know exactly. Formatting issue, maybe?

Anyway, someone PLEASE come take a gander at this and try to fix it! Kailey elise (talk) 19:48, 20 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Subsequently fixed. The easiest way to fix these things is by examining the page history; very often the problem will have occurred within the last edit or two.  In this case someone had done a crude copy-paste from another Wikipedia article.  Adrian J. Hunter(talk•contribs) 11:09, 18 January 2010 (UTC)

 * I know it's over a year later, but I just wanted to thank you for noticing & taking care of the edit error, Adrian! :) I must confess that even after all this time, I'm not very good at accessing/reading page histories & seeing the differences between various edits. *blush* I am ever so grateful that we have users like you who *do* take the time to understand how it works & generously donate their time to fixing things like this, as well as adding new stuff to the Wikipedia.  Thanks again!

 * I signed up for an account mostly to just fix glaring spelling/grammar errors as I come across them in my generalized reading. ;) All the best!  Kailey elise (talk) 16:33, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

really, what is calypso music?, need citation and facts on this —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.82.90.213 (talk) 03:11, 26 November 2010 (UTC)

Correction
This article states that "Calypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music which originated in the British and French colonial islands of the Caribbean at about the start of the 20th century." The 20th century would be the 1900s; however, later in the article, it says that Calypso music became more popular after "the abolition of slavery in 1834."

This seems to be contradictory...

Another Correction
I removed:

''Lord Invader did not have a band called the Twelve Penetrators, and probably did not write "Zombie Jamboree" which is credited to Conrad Mauge. This story comes from a spoken introduction to the song by the Kingston Trio.''

Because I don't understand it enough to incorporate the info, and I hate it when somebody contradicts the previous paragraph with new information that attempts to correct it. It's a roundabout way of doing things -- if the info on Lord Invader isn't correct, then correct it, but this schizophrenic method of adding contradictory information within the same article is just silly. User:Tokerboy

 * I agree. I removed the "Twelve Penetrators" from the main article; I don't know if he ever had a band called that but on the few Lord Invader cuts I have that isn't listed.  -- Infrogmation

Sorry, I wanted to correct the mistake but didn't know if it was OK to just remove it. James Fryer (posted the removed section).

 * There really was a Lord Invader, but the Twelve Penetrators was a slightly blue song intro joke by Dave Guard before the Kingston Trio's performance of it on their landmark ...From the Hungry i album. But Invader didn't write the song - it was written by Winston O'Connor, a Trinidadian whose stage name was "Lord Intruder" who for whatever reason made up the "C.E. Mauge" pseudonym.But since that album sold 900,000 copies, the myth has persisted to this day.Sensei48 (talk) 22:34, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Conrad Mauge and Lord Intruder were not the same person as far as I can ascertain. My belief is that Mauge copyrighted Intruder/O'Connor's song as happened to many songs in the mid-20th century (e.g. Invader's Rum & Coca Cola, Lion's Ugly Woman, the Jamaican folk song Day-O). However there are no reliable external sources for this. See the articles Jumbie Jamberee and Lord Intruder. Someone recently changed the credits in those articles to Mauge because there is documentation for his copyright even though it is probable he stole the song rather than writing it. James Fryer (talk) 09:08, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

Harry Belafonte
Is it really appropriate to include him in an article about 'calypso'? After all, as it mentions, his best known song is a Jamaican folk song (no banana exports from Trinidad to speak of). Calypso is a matter of composition and originality as well as song - Belafonte re-made calypsos, but you might as well call the Andrews Sisters calypsonians for their re-make of Lord Invader's Rum and Coca-Cola. True, he had more respect for the art-form than they did, but I would not call him a calypsonian. In addition, by changing the beat and mode he changed the substance. When Sparrow sang 'The Slave' people said it was a great song, but not a calypso.

History of the term Calypso in "Calypso Music"
If anyone knows it, it would be very informative to add the actual history of the term Calypso and how the music came to be named (for example, I would guess that it is not based on the Greek Sea Nymph or the Cousteau ship or camera, but I don't know).

 * There are a few theories, but no-one knows for sure. Some say it derives from "Kaiso", others from a slave named "Calypso" (slaves were often given Classical names).  I'll see if I can dig out some references.  Guettarda 23:01, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

The etymology section needs a reference to the earliest use of "Calypso" in its current form.--Jack Upland (talk) 22:33, 29 October 2010 (UTC)

THE IBIBIO OF SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA, LIMBO, AND THE MEANING OF KAISO.

The Ibibio people and the origins of limbo and calypso. The enslaved Ibibios and, I suppose, other slaves would gather, plant two poles on opposite ends, and place a bar across. They’d take turn(individually) dancing and negotiating their bodies to go underneath the bar and exit on the opposite end without upsetting it, no matter how low the bar was. The accompanying chant used to egg on and lead the dancer to a successful exit went something like this: ‘kaiso, kaiso, kaiso—–.’ That means go forward, go ahead, more, etc. The dance was later named limbo. Ka means go. Iso means forward. Kaiso therefore, means go forward in the Ibibio language of Southeastern Nigeria. The Ibibios who were kidnapped from the Niger Delta, shipped across the vast Atlantic ocean, and subsequently enslaved in the caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago brought their music, language, and traditions with them. In slavery, their customs and traditions got interwoven into the larger slave culture of the area, but the word kaiso(go forward, go ahead or, more) survived. It later became the name of Trinidad and Tobago’s most popular music. Kaiso evolved into calypso and, that too, evolved into soca;a blend of American soul music (so) and calypso (ca); hence, soca. The very fact that the word kaiso was common and accepted enough to be used for naming a dance or song suggests that the Ibibio slave population of that area was strong and socially influential. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:558:6045:2F:B1E5:3177:F1E5:FE3E (talk) 22:09, 9 December 2012 (UTC)

Elements of the Music
Someone should add the elements of calypso to this page. I can't because I'm the one researching, not the source of research.

A bit more description please, and what about soca?
How about you calypso fans sharing a description of what makes calypso calypso? Describe it so that someone who hasn't heard it before might be able to identify it when first listening to it - typical rhythms, instruments, lyrics, etc.

I also suggest adding soul calypso or soca as a subgenre.

Apocalypsolically yours :), DBlomgren 10:42, 22 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I support DBlogren's question. And I have some questions about first paragraph: articles says, that calypso formed in the beginning of 20th century (but Africans used to sing to each other instead of speaking). But why then calypso took part in Carnival in 19th century, if it is not formed yet? If calypso already formed only in the beginning of 20th, then how do we call the roots of the calypso in 19th? Please, make that clear, because I'm not advanced in English, and for me this text is not understandable enough. Thank you. --ru:User:Nagash.

Wisky Tango Foxtrot?
Can someone explain what this means:

"Early forms of calypso were also heavily influenced by jazz such as Sans Humanitae, the extempo melody in which calypsonians lyricise impromptu, commenting socially or insulting each other, without humanity - once again the French influence."--24.15.11.254 06:54, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

Kitchener as melodic genius
I agree that he is, but I'm not sure that's something that's testable or encylopedic. I removed it. 129.79.32.239 (talk) 20:52, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

media
Isn't there an example in Wikimedia Commons that can be added here? Abisharan (talk) 22:39, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

Problematic edits
Hi

I am concerned that a user - Howie Bledsoe - is editing articles and not listening to advice. I tried to help him by copyediting one article for him, Lovey's String Band, put the refs in properly and left a note on his talk page [] with advice on how to improve his edits.

I have told him that he needs to check his edits as there have been many cases of him incorrectly adding carriage returns and spaces. This is resulting in articles wiht 6 or 7 paragraphs ending up being one huge paragraph such as Calypso music(where the lead summary is now longer than the article itself) Wilmoth_Houdini, Blake Alphonso Higgs, Lionel Belasco, Harry Belafonte and Lionel Belasco.

You also now have a List of calypso musicians that is peppered with red links introduced mainly by him.

He is also refusing to add edit summaries, in the around 100 edits he has done there is NOT ONE summary

Can someone have a look at his work please before this gets out of hand.

He is a new user and I am trying to give him leeway before starting more vigourous methods of control

Thanks...Chaosdruid (talk) 16:31, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

Chronological error
Here’s what is said,

“The term "calypso" is recorded from the 1930s onwards. The word was bastardized into "Calypso" when the early European settlers put the word into print.”

In the page about Trinidad and Tobago http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago it says that the early settlers got there as early as 1498. How could the early European settlers bastardize a word that wasn’t used until the 1930’s? Either the info about when the word was first recorded is wrong or the part about the early settlers is wrong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.11.120.189 (talk) 16:03, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

Jazz Instrumentation
No mention that modern calypso instrumentation from the early 20th century is actuality JAZZ. Most of THE INSTRUMENTS USED ARE FROM Jazz. Jazz was the very First Black western popular music that traveled internationally. Jazz exploded in the 1920's which is they same time Calypso started to become more well known. Most of the instrumentation is the same is you are not using modern technology — Preceding unsigned comment added by Starbwoy (talk • contribs) 02:03, 28 March 2015 (UTC)
 * The earliest recordings from Trinidad (1910s to mid 20s) are of string bands with a Spanish American influence but after this you are correct, jazz instrumentation and arrangements became more popular. There is definitely a jazz influence on calypso arrangements from the late 20s onwards. There is some evidence the influence went both ways, as Trinidadian musicians travelled to the US and some stayed there. It's not really clear to me though what your point is or how it could be incorporated into the article? James Fryer (talk) 09:53, 28 March 2015 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Black American Music 209
— Assignment last updated by Rokeena (talk) 03:42, 16 December 2022 (UTC)

Good detailed source for article expansion
This article will be useful for editors eager to expand this article: https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20171010-the-surprising-politics-of-calypso --Danimations (talk) 08:56, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

Brazilian Calypso
A while ago, I learned that there's a Brazilian genre that's also called Calypso (it's also known as Brega Calypso or just Brega-pop) but it only has articles in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. I think it deserves an article in English as well. 2600:6C5A:417F:794E:9071:DD5C:3225:E1B (talk) 03:38, 18 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Your first task is to find at least two really good WP:Reliable sources discussing the genre. WP:SECONDARY sources anchor the facts on Wikipedia. Binksternet (talk) 03:48, 18 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Here are some references (both of which are in Portuguese):
 * https://archive.is/MLGY6
 * https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/agora/show/sh1212200501.htm
 * 2600:6C5A:417F:794E:1C:9EB3:EC0D:6A1B (talk) 00:36, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calypso music


text:
STS-31

STS-31 was the 35th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The primary purpose of this mission was the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) into low Earth orbit. The mission used the Space Shuttle Discovery (the tenth mission for this orbiter), which lifted off from Launch Complex 39B on April 24, 1990, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Following the Challenger accident clarification was required on mission numbering. As STS-51-L was also designated STS-33, future flights with the previous STS-26 through STS-33 designators would require the R in their documentation to avoid conflicts in tracking data from one mission to another.

Discovery's crew deployed the Hubble Space Telescope on April 25, 1990, and then spent the rest of the mission tending to various scientific experiments in the Shuttle's payload bay as well as operating a set of IMAX cameras to record the mission. Discovery's launch marked the first time since January 1986 that two Space Shuttles had been on the launch pad at the same time – Discovery on 39B and Columbia on 39A.

Crew notes
This mission was originally to be flown in August 1986 as STS-61-J using Atlantis, but was postponed due to the Challenger disaster. John W. Young was originally assigned to command this mission, which would have been his seventh spaceflight, but was reassigned to an administrative position and was replaced by Loren J. Shriver in 1988.

Mission highlights

STS-31 was launched on April 24, 1990, at 8:33:51 a.m. EDT. A launch attempt on April 10, 1990, was scrubbed at T-4 minutes for a faulty valve in auxiliary power unit (APU) number one. The APU was eventually replaced and the Hubble Space Telescope's batteries were recharged. On launch day, the countdown was briefly halted at T-31 seconds when Discovery's computers failed to shut down a fuel valve line on ground support equipment. Engineers ordered the valve closed and the countdown continued.

The main purpose of this mission was to deploy Hubble. It was designed to operate above the Earth's turbulent and obscuring atmosphere to observe celestial objects at ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The Hubble mission was a joint NASA-ESA (European Space Agency) effort going back to the late 1970s. The rest of the mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. To launch HST into an orbit that guaranteed longevity, Discovery entered an orbit of around 613 xx. At one point during the mission, Discovery briefly reached an apogee of 621 km, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter. The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Motion pictures were recorded by two IMAX cameras, and the results appeared in the 1994 IMAX film Destiny in Space. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. Discovery's reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time. Discovery also orbited the Earth 80 times during the mission.

During the deployment of Hubble, one of the observatory's solar arrays stopped as it unfurled. While ground controllers searched for a way to command HST to unreel the solar array, Mission Specialists McCandless and Sullivan began preparing for a contingency spacewalk in the event that the array could not be deployed through ground control. The array eventually came free and unfurled through ground control, while McCandless and Sullivan were pre-breathing inside the partially depressurized airlock.

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, Radiation Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.

The mission marked the flight of an 5 kg human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.

Discovery landed on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base in California April 29, 1990, at 6:49:57 a.m. PDT. The landing had a rollout distance of 2705 m took 61 seconds, and marked the first use of carbon brakes on a shuttle. Discovery was returned to Kennedy Space Center after STS-31 on May 7, 1990.

Wake-up calls
NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Project Gemini, which was first used to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by their families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.

title: STS-31


text:
Lord Kitchener (calypsonian)

Aldwyn Roberts HBM DA (18 April 1922 – 11 February 2000), better known by the stage name Lord Kitchener (or "Kitch"), was a Trinidadian calypsonian. He has been described as "the grand master of calypso" and "the greatest calypsonian of the post-war age".

Information
Roberts was born in Arima, Trinidad and Tobago, the son of a blacksmith, Stephen, and housewife, Albertha. He was educated at the Arima Boys Government School until he was 14, when his father died, leaving him orphaned. His father had encouraged him to sing and taught him to play the guitar, and he became a full-time musician,.

Music career
He moved to Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad in 1943 where he joined the Roving Brigade. He was spotted singing "Mary I am Tired and Disgusted" (aka "Green Fig") with the group by Johnny Khan, who invited him to perform in his Victory Tent, where he met fellow calypsonian Growling Tiger, who decided Roberts should from that point be known as Lord Kitchener. He became known as an innovator, introducing musical and lyrical changes, including frequent criticism of the British government's control of the island. During World War II Kitchener became popular with US troops based on the island, leading to performances in New York. After the end of World War II, the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival took place in early March 1946, during which Kitchener won his very first official Road March title with a catchy calypso leggo called "Jump In The Line".

He toured Jamaica for six months in 1947–48 with Lord Beginner (Egbert Moore) and Lord Woodbine (Harold Phillips) before they took passage on the Empire Windrush to England in 1948. Upon his arrival at Tilbury Docks, Kitchener performed the specially-written song "London Is the Place for Me", which he sang live on a report for Pathé News.

Within two years he was a regular performer on BBC radio, and was much in demand for live performances. He found further success in the UK in the 1950s, building a large following in the expatriate communities of the West Indian islands, and having hits with "Kitch", "Food from the West Indies", "Tie Tongue Mopsy", and "Alec Bedser Calypso", while remaining popular in Trinidad and Tobago.

His prominence continued throughout the 1950s, when calypso achieved international success. Kitchener became a very important figure to those first 5,000 West Indian migrants to the UK. His music spoke of home and a life that they all longed for but in many cases could not or would not return to. He immortalised the defining moment for many of the migrants in writing the "Victory Calypso" with its lyrics "Cricket, Lovely Cricket" to celebrate West Indies cricket team's first victory over England in England, in the Second Test at Lord's in June 1950. This was one of the first widely known West Indian songs, and epitomised an event that historian and cricket enthusiast C. L. R. James defined as crucial to West Indian post-colonial societies.

Kitchener opened a nightclub in Manchester and also had a successful residency at The Sunset in London. Further US performances followed in the mid-1950s. In the 1950s, he also composed "Bebop Calypso".

In 1962, he returned to Trinidad, where he and the Mighty Sparrow proceeded to dominate the calypso competitions of the 1960s and 1970s. Lord Kitchener won the road march competition 10 times between 1963 and 1976, more often than any other calypsonian. For 30 years, he ran his own calypso tent, Calypso Revue, within which he nurtured the talent of many calypsonians. Calypso Rose, David Rudder, Black Stalin and Denyse Plummer are among the many artists who got their start under Kitchener's tutelage. Later he moved towards soca, a related style, and continued recording until his death. Kitchener's compositions were enormously popular as the chosen selections for steel bands to perform at the annual National Panorama competition during Trinidad Carnival. He won his only Calypso King title in 1975 with "Tribute to Spree Simon". He stopped competing in 1976.

Kitchener saw the potential of the new soca phenomenon of the late 1970s and adopted the genre on a string of albums over the years that followed. In 1977 he recorded his most commercially successful song, and one of the earliest major soca hits, "Sugar Bum Bum", which became a big hit for the 1978 Trinidad Carnival season.

In 1993 a campaign was launched for Kitchener to receive the island's highest civilian honour, the Trinity Cross. The government declined but offered him a lesser honour, which he turned down.

Having been diagnosed with bone marrow cancer, Kitchener retired in 1999 after delivering a final album, Vintage Kitch. He died on 11 February 2000 of a blood infection and kidney failure at the Mount Hope Hospital in Port of Spain. He is buried in the Santa Rosa Cemetery in Arima.

It was always important to Kitchener throughout his career to gain new experiences that could be woven into his material. This led him to performances in Curaçao, Aruba and Jamaica in the early days, and finally to London, when he was already flying high in Trinidad. Kitchener once said: "I have reached the height of my popularity in Trinidad. What am I doing here? I should make a move."

Kitchener is honoured with a statue in Port of Spain. A bust is also on display on Hollis Avenue, Arima, not far from the Arima Stadium.

Family
In 1952, he met his wife Elsie Lines. They married in 1953, and lived for a period in Manchester where Kitchener ran a nightclub. Together, they adopted a baby, to be named Tyrone Roberts, and the three of them moved back to Trinidad. They divorced in 1968. He later married and had four children (Christian, Kernel, Quweina and Kirnister Roberts) with Valerie Green, and also had a relationship with Betsy Pollard.

Kitchener's son Kernal Roberts is also a performer, playing drums for a soca band Traffik in the 90's and then in the early 2000s, Xtatik. He was also their musical director and is a composer of multiple Soca Monarch and Road March titles.

Discography

 * Calypso Kitch (1960), RCA Victor
 * Lord Kitchener (1964), RCA Victor
 * Mr. Kitch (1965), RCA Victor
 * King of Calypso (1965), Melodisc
 * Kitch 67 (1966) RCA Victor
 * King of the Road (1969), Tropico
 * Sock It to Me Kitch (1970), Tropico
 * Curfew Time (1971), Trinidad
 * Hot Pants (1972), Trinidad/Straker's
 * We Walk 100 Miles with 'Kitch' (1973), Trinidad
 * Tourist in Trinidad with Kitch (1974), Trinidad
 * Carnival Fever (1975), Trinidad
 * Sings Calypsos (With And Without Social Significance) (1975), Sounds of the Caribbean
 * Home for Carnival (1976), Kalinda
 * Hot and Sweet (1976), Charlie's
 * Melody Of The 21st Century (1977), Charlie's
 * Spirit of Carnival (1978), Trinidad
 * Shooting with Kitch (1980), Charlie's
 * Kitch Goes Soca - Soca Jean (1980), Charlie's
 * Authenticity (1981), Charlie's
 * 200 Years Of Mass (1982), Charlie's
 * Simply Wonderful (1983), Trinidad
 * The Master At Work (1984), Kalico
 * The Grand Master (1986), B's
 * Kitch On The Equator (1986), Benmac
 *  TrinGhana "Haunting Melodies" (1987), Trinighana - with Little Joe Ayesu
 * 100% Kitch (1987), B's
 * A Musical Excursion (1989), JW Productions
 * The Honey In Kitch (1991), MC Productions
 * Roadmarch & Panorama King Still #1 (1991), JW Productions
 * Longevity (1993), JW Productions
 * Still Escalating (1994), JW Productions
 *  Ah Have It Cork (1995), JW Productions
 * Incredible Kitch (1996), JW Productions
 * Symphony On The Street (1997), JW Productions
 * Classic Kitch (1999), JW Productions

title: Lord Kitchener (calypsonian)


text:
Chassis

A chassis (, ; plural chassis from French châssis ) is the load-bearing framework of a manufactured object, which structurally supports the object in its construction and function. An example of a chassis is a vehicle frame, the underpart of a motor vehicle, on which the body is mounted; if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the driver's seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis.

Vehicles
In the case of vehicles, the term rolling chassis means the frame plus the "running gear" like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential, and suspension. The "rolling chassis" description originated from assembly production when an integrated chassis "rolled on its own tires" just before truck bodies were bolted to the frames near the end of the line. An underbody (sometimes referred to as "coachwork"), which is usually not necessary for the integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle.

For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the essential parts of a truck without the body to be ready for operation on the road. A car chassis will be different from one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads and constant work use. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell "chassis only", "cowl and chassis", as well as "chassis cab" versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc.

In particular applications, such as school buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the U.S. defines the design standards of chassis and body conversions.

An armoured fighting vehicle's hull serves as the chassis and comprises the bottom part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, driver's seat, and crew compartment. This describes the lower hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured personnel carriers, combat engineering vehicles, etc.

In the intermodal trucking industry, a chassis is a type of semi-trailer onto which a cargo container can be mounted for road transport.

Electronics
In an electronic device (such as a computer), the chassis consists of a frame or other internal supporting structure on which the circuit boards and other electronics are mounted.

In some designs, such as older ENIAC sets, the chassis is mounted inside a heavy, rigid cabinet, while in other designs such as modern computer cases, lightweight covers or panels are attached to the chassis.

The combination of chassis and outer covering is sometimes called an enclosure.

Firearms

In firearms, the chassis is a bedding frame on long guns such as rifles to replace the traditionally wooden stock, for the purpose of better accurizing the gun. The chassis is usually made from hard metallic material such as aluminium alloy (and less frequently stainless steel, titanium alloy or recently magnesium alloy) due to metals having superior stiffness and compressive strength compared with wood or synthetic polymer, which are commonly used in conventional rifle stocks.

The chassis essentially functions as a more extensive pillar bedding, providing a metal-on-metal bearing surface that has reduced shifting potential under the stress of recoil. A barreled action bedded into a metal chassis would theoretically operate more consistently during repeated firing, resulting in better precision. With the increasing availability of CNC machining, chassis have become more affordable and sophisticated as well as gained increasing popularity as these types of chassis can be expanded to accommodate customizable "furniture" (buttstock, pistol grip, etc.) and rail interface systems that provide mounting points for various accessories.

title: Chassis


text:
Mighty Spoiler

Theophilus Philip (23 March 1926 – 24 December 1960), better known as Mighty Spoiler, was a Trinidadian calypsonian.

Spoiler's career began in 1946 (see 1946 in music) at the House of Lords Tent, and he soon became one of the most popular calypso singers, known for hits such as "Bedbug", "Magistrate Try Himself", "Picking Sense From Nonsense", "Royal Wedding". He won the Calypso King title on three occasions, in 1948 (with "Royal Wedding"), 1953 ("Bed Bug"), and 1955 ("Picking Sense From Nonsense").

He died in 1960 of an alcohol-related illness.

Legacy
Derek Walcott in his poem "The Spoiler's Return" borrows the calypsonian's persona, reworking his "Bedbug" calypso and making satirical use of Spoiler's trademark incantation: "Ah wanna fall!"

Among Spoiler's students was Grenadian-born calypsonian The Mighty Bomber (Clifton Ryan).

title: Mighty Spoiler


text:
Glyn Moody

Glyn Moody is a London-based technology writer. He is best known for his book Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution (2001). It describes the evolution and significance of the free software and open source movements with interviews of hackers.

His writings have appeared in Wired, Computer Weekly, Linux Journal, and Ars Technica. In 2009, he criticised the software education policy of the government of José Luís Rodríguez Zapatero on his blog.

Selective bibliography

 * Walled Culture: How Big Content Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Keep Creators Poor (Paperback or ebook - 2022) ISBN 978-946459849-0
 * Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business by Glyn Moody (Hardcover - Feb 3, 2004) ISBN 0-471-32788-3
 * Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution by Glyn Moody (Paperback - Jul 15, 2002) ISBN 0-7382-0670-9
 * The Internet with Windows by Glyn Moody (Paperback - Jan 15, 1996) ISBN 0-7506-9704-0

title: Glyn Moody


text:
Piano Red

Willie Lee Perryman (October 19, 1911 – July 25, 1985), usually known professionally as Piano Red and later in life as Dr. Feelgood, was an American blues musician, the first to hit the pop music charts. He was a self-taught pianist who played in the barrelhouse blues style (a loud percussive type of blues piano suitable for noisy bars or taverns). His performing and recording careers emerged during the period of transition from completely segregated "race music" to rhythm and blues, which was marketed to both white and black audiences. Some music historians credit Perryman's 1950 recording "Rocking With Red" for the popularization of the term rock and roll in Atlanta. His simple, hard-pounding left hand and his percussive right hand, coupled with his cheerful shout, brought him considerable success over three decades.

Early life
Perryman was born on a farm near Hampton, Georgia, United States, where his parents, Ada and Henry Perryman, were sharecroppers. He was part of a large family, though sources differ on exactly how many brothers and sisters he had. Perryman was an albino African American, as was his older brother Rufus, who also had a blues piano career as "Speckled Red".

When Perryman was six years old, his father gave up farming and moved the family to Atlanta, where he worked in a factory. Not much is known about Perryman's education or early life, but he recalled that his mother bought a piano for her two albino sons. Both brothers had very poor vision, an effect of their albinism, so neither took formal music lessons, but they developed their barrelhouse style through playing by ear. Perryman sometimes recalled imitating Rufus's style after watching him play, but it is doubtful that his brother was a major influence. Rufus, nineteen years older than Perryman, left Georgia in 1925 and did not return until a 1960 visit. Another influence that Perryman cited in interviews was Fats Waller, whose records his mother brought home. Other influences were likely the local blues pianists playing at "house" or "rent" parties, which were common community fund-raisers of that era.

1930s–1940s
By the early 1930s, Perryman was playing at house parties, juke joints, and barrelhouses in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. He developed his percussive playing style and harsh singing style to compensate for the lack of sound systems and to overcome the noise of people talking in venues. He worked these circuits with other Georgia bluesmen, including Barbecue Bob, Charlie Hicks, Curley Weaver, and Blind Willie McTell.

He obtained seasonal employment performing in Brevard, North Carolina, a mountain resort town, and commuted back and forth between there and Atlanta. The Brevard job brought him before white audiences; by 1934 he had also begun to play at white clubs in Atlanta. In Atlanta he would play at a white club until midnight and then head over to an African-American club, where he would play until 4 a.m. Perryman developed a repertoire of pop standards, which were more popular among the white audiences, while continuing his blues sets in African-American clubs.

Around 1936 he began to be billed as "Piano Red". He made his first recordings with McTell in Augusta for Vocalion Records, but they were never released. He also began working as an upholsterer, a trade which he occasionally maintained through later years.

1950s–1960s
In 1950, after spending the previous 14 years upholstering and playing music on weekends, Perryman recorded "Rockin' with Red" and "Red's Boogie" at the WGST radio studios in Atlanta for RCA Victor. Both songs became national hits, reaching numbers five and three, respectively, on the Billboard R&B chart, and "Rockin' with Red" has since been covered many times under many titles. This success, along with the further hits "The Wrong Yo Yo" (allegedly written by Speckled Red), "Laying the Boogie" and "Just Right Bounce", allowed him to resume an active performing schedule. He also recorded sessions in New York City and Nashville during the early 1950s.

Red played for white teenagers' high school parties in people's homes in Atlanta. Patrons would arrange for him to be picked up at his home and returned and would provide a "bottle" of booze for him and a modest fee.

During the mid-1950s, Perryman also worked as a disc jockey on radio stations WGST and WAOK in Atlanta, broadcasting The Piano Red Show (later The Dr. Feelgood Show) directly from a shack in his back yard. A young James Brown made an appearance on his show in the late 1950s. Perryman's involvement had him appearing on a flatbed truck in many parades, which led to his song "Peachtree Parade". From the mid-1950s until the late 1960s, he recorded for several record labels, including Columbia, for which he made several records; Checker, for which he recorded eight sides with Willie Dixon on bass; and Groove Records, a subsidiary of RCA Victor, producing the first hit for that label.

Signed to Okeh Records in 1961, Perryman began using the name Dr. Feelgood and the Interns, releasing several hits, including the much-covered "Doctor Feelgood". The persona was one he had initially adopted on his radio shows. The new career was short-lived, though, and he was never able to regain his former stature. In 1963, The Merseybeats recorded a cover of the B-side of "Doctor Feelgood," entitled "Mr. Moonlight" (written by Roy Lee Johnson) as the B-side of their UK top 5 hit "I Think of You". It was also recorded by The Beatles, appearing on the album Beatles for Sale in the United Kingdom and the album Beatles '65 in the United States. In 1966, the Lovin' Spoonful recorded Perryman's song "Bald Headed Lena" on their second album, Daydream.

Late career
Perryman continued to be a popular performer in Underground Atlanta. He made several European tours late in his career, including appearances at the Montreux Jazz Festival, the Berlin Jazz Festival, and the inauguration of Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, and he also performed on BBC Radio. During this time, he was befriended by Bill Wyman, Keith Richards, Mick Jagger, Eric Clapton, and Paul McCartney, and Pete Ham of Badfinger wrote a song in his honor.

Muhlenbrink's Saloon closed in 1979, and Perryman found himself without a regular job. That lasted until 1981, when he was hired to perform five nights a week at the Excelsior Mill in Atlanta. In 1984, he asked co-owner Michael Reeves to arrange a live recording, and Reeves arranged for a mobile recording in October of that year.

In 1985, Perryman recorded the song "Yo Yo", a duet with Danny Shirley, who was later the lead singer of the band Confederate Railroad. The record reached the national chart in that year.

The tapes from the Excelsior Mill remained in Reeves's possession for twenty-five years. In April 2010, he formed a partnership with the writer and producer David Fulmer to release a CD of the recording under the title The Lost Atlanta Tapes. The CD was released by Landslide Records on August 17, 2010.

Personal life
Perryman married in the early 1930s, and he and his wife, Flora, had two daughters.

Death and funeral
Perryman was diagnosed with cancer in 1985. He died in July that same year, at Dekalb General Hospital in Decatur, Georgia. Among those who attended his funeral were the governor of Georgia and the mayor of Atlanta.

Legacy
Piano Red's song "Mr. Moonlight" was covered by several UK beat groups, including The Beatles and Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, who recorded it as the B-side of their 1964 single "Always and Ever".

title: Piano Red


text:
Dragonlance

Dragonlance is a shared universe created by Laura and Tracy Hickman, and expanded by Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis under the direction of TSR, Inc. into a series of fantasy novels. The Hickmans conceived Dragonlance while driving in their car on the way to TSR for a job interview. Tracy Hickman met his future writing partner Margaret Weis at TSR, and they gathered a group of associates to play the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game. The adventures during that game inspired a series of gaming modules, a series of novels, licensed products such as board games, and lead miniature figures.

In 1984, TSR published the first Dragonlance game module, Dragons of Despair, and the first novel, Dragons of Autumn Twilight. The novel began the Chronicles trilogy, a core element of the Dragonlance world. While the authoring team of Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis wrote the setting's central books, numerous other authors contributed novels, short stories and game supplements to the setting. Over 190 novels have used the Dragonlance setting; the Dragonlance campaign setting has also been used for multiple editions of Dungeons & Dragons and for the SAGA System. Following Wizards of the Coast's acquisition of TSR in 1997, Wizards licensed Dragonlance to Margaret Weis's company Sovereign Press to produce game materials; this licensing agreement ran from 2001 to 2007. Dragonlance returned in 2022 with a new adventure module and the start of a new novel trilogy.

The fictional Dragonlance world of Krynn contains numerous characters, an extensive timeline, and a detailed geography. The history of Krynn consists of five ages. The novels and related game products are primarily set in the fourth age, The Age of Despair. Since the publication of Dragonlance: Fifth Age in 1996, the fifth age, the Age of Mortals, has been used. The Heroes of the Lance, created by Weis and Hickman, are the popular protagonists of the Chronicles trilogy. Along with D&D world of the Forgotten Realms, Dragonlance is one of the most popular shared worlds in fiction.

Creation
Hickman developed his world creation technique by writing and self-publishing with his wife Laura the adventure modules Rahasia (1979) and Pharaoh (1980), and writing TSR's Ravenloft module (1983). He was unemployed in 1982, and TSR offered him a job based on his submission of several modules. That year, while driving from Utah to Wisconsin to start a job with TSR, Hickman and his wife created the Dragonlance universe concept. During the trip, Hickman and his wife discussed two ideas they had had for several years: an entire world used to support a storyline, and a world dominated by dragons.

Their ideas were well received by TSR, whose marketing department felt they had enough dungeons, but not enough dragons. Hickman suggested a series of twelve modules, each featuring a different dragon. TSR employee Harold Johnson suggested that Hickman should try to get additional support from other TSR staff members and, after a period of months, Hickman had the support of Jeff Grubb, Larry Elmore, Roger Moore, Doug Niles, Michael Williams, and others with whom they discussed ideas for the project. Meanwhile, Weis was editing and writing various Endless Quest books for TSR. The Dragonlance group decided that novels should accompany the game modules; TSR reluctantly agreed and hired a writer. Hickman became the design coordinator for Project Overlord, the cover name for what would later be known as the Dragonlance saga.

TSR decided to create a franchise, including modules, board games, lead figures, and - for the first time - novels. Weis had been hired as an editor; with Hickman, she began working with the author hired to write the novels. They weren't satisfied with the author, and decided they should be the ones to write the books. They collaborated over a weekend, writing the prologue for the first five chapters of the first novel, Dragons of Autumn Twilight, based on the module Dragons of Despair. TSR liked their treatment and gave them the assignment, firing the author. After two years of development, TSR released the module Dragons of Despair and the novel Dragons of Autumn Twilight in March and November 1984, respectively. TSR had doubts about the finished novel's sales potential, and attempted to order thirty thousand copies, ultimately ordering the minimum print run of fifty thousand. The success of the novel prompted TSR to publish more copies to meet demand. The novel was written after the completion of the first Dragonlance game modules. Weis and Hickman felt this was constraining and made the novel feel too episodic, so they reversed the process for the next books and completed the novels before the related modules were written. Dragonlance received support products such as novels, calendars, computer games, and books of artwork.

Further development
In the mid to late 1980s, a rift developed between TSR and the authors. Weis and Hickman were feeling under-appreciated and, when TSR turned down their Darksword series of novels, they went to Bantam Books. Bantam made them an offer, which they accepted, and they stopped writing Dragonlance novels for TSR. They returned to write Dragons of Summer Flame for TSR in 1995, thinking it would be their final Dragonlance novel. At the time, Dragonlance gaming had been converted to the SAGA System, with limited success, and that, combined with TSR's general financial troubles, put the setting's future in doubt. Wizards of the Coast bought the troubled TSR in 1997, and Weis and Hickman then proposed the War of Souls trilogy, which was published in 2000-2002. All three novels made the New York Times bestseller list, and the setting was commercially revitalized. By 1998, the original Dragonlance trilogy had sold well over three million copies worldwide and spawned dozens of sequels. The central books of the Dragonlance series were written by the authoring team of Weis and Hickman, but many other writers have made contributions, including Richard A. Knaak, Douglas Niles, Roger E. Moore, Don Perrin, Jean Rabe, Paul B. Thompson, Tonya C. Cook, Michael Williams, Nancy Varian Berberick, and Chris Pierson.

In 2001, Wizards of the Coast licensed Sovereign Press to publish further Dragonlance game materials. This began with the newly revised Dragonlance Campaign Setting in 2003, which used the new Dungeons & Dragons 3rd Edition rules. In April 2007, Wizards of the Coast had not renewed Sovereign's license, and Dragonlance RPG game supplements and accessories were only released through the end of the year.

In October 2020, Weis and Hickman filed suit against Wizards of the Coast for breaching a licensing deal with Weis and Hickman for a new Dragonlance novel trilogy. Boing Boing reported that "according to the lawsuit, Weis and Hickman agreed with Wizards of the Coast to produce the new novels in 2017, capping off the series and giving fans a final sendoff, but the company pulled the plug in August 2020". In December, Weis and Hickman filed to voluntarily dismiss without prejudice their lawsuit, and "the filing noted that Wizards of the Coast had not formally answered their lawsuit, nor had they filed for a summary judgement". Weis and Hickman's publishing agent affirmed a few weeks following this that a new trilogy of Dragonlance novels was in the works; the first of the new trilogy was released in August 2022.

In December 2022, the first Dragonlance adventure module, titled Dragonlance: Shadow of the Dragon Queen, for 5th Edition was released. The module is set during the War of the Lance; Wizards of the Coast has stated that the module does not require prior knowledge of the setting or the novels to play the module. An integrated board game, titled Dragonlance: Warriors of Krynn, was released in 2023, designed by Stephen Baker and Rob Daviau. Dragonlance: Warriors of Krynn is a wargame that focuses on military battles during the War of the Lance. Both games can be played independently, but the adventure module includes rules for using the board game to resolve the military battles that occur in the narrative.

Campaign setting
TSR created Dragonlance as a campaign setting for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) roleplaying game in 1982, publishing the first of a series of modules, Dragons of Despair, in March 1984. They published the first world-spanning sourcebook, Dragonlance Adventures, in 1987. When AD&D was updated to the 2nd edition in 1989, the Dragonlance campaign setting was updated as well. However, in 1996, Dragonlance was converted to use the new SAGA System, which uses cards to determine the effects of actions, with the publication of the Dragonlance: Fifth Age roleplaying game.

When the 3rd edition of Dungeons & Dragons was released in 2000, Dragonlance was not initially updated for the new edition. In 2002, Margaret Weis's company Sovereign Press acquired the license to publish 3rd Edition Dragonlance material. The official update, Dragonlance Campaign Setting, was published in 2003 for the 3.5 Edition. Wizards of the Coast turned over all responsibility for maintaining the Dragonlance setting to Sovereign Press until 2007. The campaign setting was not supported during the 4th Edition era (2008-2013) of Dungeons & Dragons.

In March 2022, Wizards released the PDF Heroes of Krynn which is part of the "Unearthed Arcana" public playtest series for the 5th Edition of Dungeons & Dragons. Polygon commented that this "all but confirmed" the return of the Dragonlance setting. The setting was revisited in December 2022 with a new adventure module for the 5th Edition. On December 6, Wizards released the adventure book Dragonlance: Shadow of the Dragon Queen.

Novels
The main storyline of the original Dragonlance series has been written by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman, with multiple books written by other authors, covering years between and sometimes during the main events.
 * The Chronicles trilogy relates the events since the meeting of the Companions until the end of the War of the Lance and the defeat of the Dragon armies of Ansalon.
 * The Lost Chronicles trilogy is a companion to the original Chronicles. Each book of the trilogy fills in sections of the story previously left untold. It tells the story surrounding the recovery of the Hammer of Kharas, how the Companions retrieve the dragon orb from Ice Wall, how Kitiara Uth Matar and Lord Soth became allies, and how Raistlin Majere took the Black Robes in Neraka.
 * The Legends trilogy covers the Blue Lady's War, as well as the past adventures of Raistlin and Caramon Majere, culminating in Raistlin's attempt to achieve godhood. The books feature time travel, and focus on events in Istar before the Cataclysm, as well as the ensuing Dwarfgate Wars.
 * The Second Generation is a single compilation book which picks the most important tales from the Tales series and details the children of the Companions, all of whom become players in the later story. This book is considered to be part of the main storyline, as it must be read to understand the events that happened between the War of the Lance and the Chaos War. This novel develops characters that would later be seen in the War of Souls trilogy.
 * Dragons of Summer Flame covers the Chaos War, also known as the Second Cataclysm. The gods and mortals join forces to defeat Chaos in his attempt to destroy Krynn. The war ends with the withdrawal of Chaos and the gods of Krynn in a divine agreement to keep the world safe.
 * Dragons in the Archives: The Best of Weis and Hickman Anthology is another compilation of short stories which were previously published in other anthologies. These stories take place at different points of time in the world of Krynn. This book provides backstory to some of the characters and situations presented in the War of Souls trilogy.
 * The War of Souls trilogy begins as a strange storm courses through Krynn, heralding the War of Souls. The end of the war brings the return of the gods, Takhisis's death, and the departure of Paladine as head of the good gods in order to maintain the balance between Good and Evil.
 * The Dark Disciple trilogy follows the death of Takhisis and the departure of Paladine, when the lesser gods strive to maintain dominance.

Video games
Eight video games are set in the Dragonlance world. They belong to six different genres and were released within five years, from 1988 to 1992.

DL01 - Dragons of Despair and DL02 - Dragons of Flame (corresponding to the events in the first novel, Dragons of Autumn Twilight) were adapted into the video games Heroes of the Lance and Dragons of Flame, respectively. Instead of being role-playing video games, they are platform games using the Silver Box game engine. DL03 - Dragons of Hope and DL04 - Dragons of Desolation (corresponding to the events between the first and the second novel) were adapted into the video game Shadow Sorcerer. Released in 1991, this early real-time strategy game is a direct sequel to the first two games and a prequel to War of the Lance (1989). DL11 - Dragons of Glory is a self-contained tabletop strategy game (corresponding to the events in the background of the third novel, Dragons of Spring Dawning) that was adapted into the turn-based strategy game War of the Lance.

DragonStrike is a 1990 combat flight simulation game whose plot begins halfway through the previous video game. The 1992 NES remake is a scrolling shooter that features an ending different from the one in the novels, but following and fixing a "bad ending" from DL14 - Dragons of Triumph. Neither game is based directly on any tabletop module. The Gold Box trilogy (Champions of Krynn, Death Knights of Krynn, and The Dark Queen of Krynn) are the only role-playing video games based on Dragonlance. They tell an original story that begins shortly after the events in the 14 tabletop modules.

Apart from those, the MUSH game DragonLance is based on Krynn during the final stage of the War of the Lance.

Other
The series has inspired mention in music as well, including "Wishmaster", a song by Nightwish based partially on the master and apprentice relationship between Raistlin Majere and Dalamar. The Swedish metal band Lake of Tears also recorded a song called "Raistlin and the Rose" on their 1997 album Crimson Cosmos, while the German group Blind Guardian wrote "The Soulforged", another song inspired by Raistlin's story, which appeared on the band's 2002 album A Night at the Opera. Also Danish/American band Pyramaze recorded in their 2008 album Immortal song "Caramon's Poem". Another German metal band, Evertale, released The Chronicles Chapter I EP in 2008 and the full album Of Dragons And Elves in 2013 - both releases were composed entirely of songs inspired by and relating to Dragonlance. Yet another German metal band, Pegasus, bases all its material on the Dragonlance mythos. A Russian concept album (2009-2010) and musical (premiered 2014) based on Raitslin's story, The Last Trial, was created by Anton Kruglov and Yelena Khanpira.

In 2008, Dragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, an animated film based on the first Dragonlance book of the same name, was released direct-to-video. The animation was produced by Toonz Animation, and featured the voices of Lucy Lawless, Kiefer Sutherland, Michael Rosenbaum, and Michelle Trachtenberg. In late 2011, Holysoft Studios Ltd. released the first part of a German audio adaption of the Chronicles Trilogy, with subsequent releases of the later trilogies being announced.

In comics, Krynn has been represented on the 1988 Dragonlance series by DC Comics and TSR. More recently, Devil's Due Publishing and Wizards of the Coast have also produced a number of comic book series: The Legend of Huma (2003), Chronicles (2005) and Legends (2008).

World
The Dragonlance world is described in dozens of books and novels. The setting contains numerous characters, an extensive timeline, and a detailed geography.

Setting
Dragonlance is set on the world of Krynn. The majority of the novels take place in the various regions of Ansalon, a small continent, though some have taken place on the continent of Taladas, located northeast of Ansalon. The world's major gods are the High God and his children: good Paladine, neutral Gilean, and evil Takhisis. The gods are opposed by Chaos, who seeks to destroy Krynn. Depending on the time period, the evil chromatic and the good metallic dragons are rare or plentiful. Humans are Krynn's most common humanoid race, but elves, dwarves, kender, gnomes, and minotaurs occupy the world as well. Clerics derive magical powers from their gods, and wizards derive their power from the three moon gods, good Solinari, neutral Lunitari, and evil Nuitari. Hickman had previously served as a Mormon missionary in Java for two years, and uses Indonesian in Dragonlance spells. During Krynn's various wars, armies of draconians are used as troops. Draconians are created by corrupting a dragon egg, thereby creating a reptilian humanoid. Any dragon egg can be used to make a draconian, although the ones most commonly used are good dragon eggs because the evil kings want more evil dragons to hatch.

Other gods of the setting include the gods of good Branchala, Habbakuk, Kiri-Jolith, Majere, and Mishakal; the gods of neutrality Chislev, Reorx, Shinare, Sirrion, and Zivilyn; and the gods of evil, Chemosh, Hiddukel, Morgion, Sargonnas, and Zeboim.

Fictional history
The history of the world of Krynn, and thus the settings for both the novels and gaming supplements, is roughly split into five separate ages. The first age is the time of creation, when the gods are born and Krynn is formed. The Age of Dreams, the second age, is marked by the rapid growth of the world's first great civilizations and the appearance of myriad new races. This era is also marked by three great wars between dragons and their minions. Following the Third Dragon War, in the Age of Might, the Cataclysm obliterates the great empire of Istar and changes almost the entire surface of Krynn. A 300-year depression follows this event, in what is called the Age of Despair. This period also marks the War of the Lance. When Dragonlance was first introduced to Dungeons & Dragons, events such as the Lost Wars happened during The Age of Despair. Later Age of Mortals novels and game supplements took Krynn into the Fifth Age (the Age of Mortals).

Dragonlances
Dragonlances are weapons first created in the Third Dragon War, designed with the purpose of killing evil dragons, and are the only weapons with which mortals who cannot use magic can kill dragons. Dragonlances have this power because of the way in which they are created, which requires the use of "two god-blessed artifacts".

Dragonlances are rare and not commonly traded. There are lesser dragonlances, which are made when only one of the artifacts is used to create them, and greater dragonlances, which are made when both artifacts are used to make them. Greater dragonlances are blessed with the power of Good, unlike lesser dragonlances.

There are two sizes of dragonlance. The smaller footman's dragonlance is around eight feet long and functions as a polearm, while the larger mounted dragonlance is around sixteen feet long and most commonly used when mounted on a dragon.

Characters

The Heroes of the Lance are the protagonists of the Chronicles trilogy, the first series of Dragonlance books. They were created by Weis and Hickman, then fleshed out as player characters in gaming sessions of Dungeons & Dragons at Hickman's apartment. One player at this initial gaming session was game designer Terry Phillips, who was playing as Raistlin. According to Hickman in the foreword to The Soulforge, "[we] were just settling in to the game when I turned to my good friend Terry Phillips and asked what his character was doing. Terry spoke...and the world of Krynn was forever changed. His rasping voice, his sarcasm and bitterness all masking an arrogance and power that never needed to be stated suddenly were real. Everyone in the room was both transfixed and terrified. To this day Margaret [Weis] swears that Terry wore the black robes to the party that night".

In a "Traveling Road Show" put on to publicize the novels, the Heroes of the Lance were played by various people. Authors Gary and Janet Pack played the half-elf Tanis Half-Elven and the kender Tasslehoff Burrfoot, respectively. Author Douglas Niles played the dwarf Flint Fireforge. TSR employee Harold Johnson played the Solamnic knight Sturm Brightblade. The rest of the Heroes are the barbarians Goldmoon and Riverwind, elf Laurana Kanan, and humans Caramon Majere (Raistlin's brother) and Tika Waylan. Weis played Fizban the Fabulous.

In the beginning, Margaret Weis had problems depicting Tanis Half-Elven in the novels. Tracy Hickman finally told her that "he's James T. Kirk of the Starship Enterprise". After that explanation, Margaret had no more difficulty writing about Tanis. Other noteworthy antagonists, and sometimes protagonists, are the Death Knight Lord Soth and Kitiara Uth Matar, the half-sister of Raistlin and Caramon, and leader of one of the Dragonarmies of Ansalon. According to Hickman, Lord Soth is the most unpredictable character to write about: "Every time that character made an appearance in one of our books he would try to run off with the story".

Locations
The world of Dragonlance is set on the planet of Krynn, with most of the action taking place on the continent of Ansalon. Some of the key countries and areas on Ansalon are the Plains of Dust, Solamnia with its great metropolis, Palanthas, the Blood Sea Isles, the Empire of Ergoth, Istar, and Sancrist, the elven kingdom of Silvanesti, as well as the dwarven realm of Thorbardin. Important cities and towns and other locations include Solace (location of the Inn of the Last Home, and Sad Town), the High Clerist's Tower, Palanthas, Kendermore, Port Balifor (location of the Pig and Whistle Tavern), and the various Towers of High Sorcery.

Races
Like in many Dungeons & Dragons campaign settings, the fictional world of the Dragonlance campaign is shaped by the division by race, with white humans as the central focus, but also including elves, goblins, and many others. With the species in many cases clearly assigned to "good" and "evil", some critics have suggested that the setting had the potential to raise racist expectations. The authors take an active stance against racist ideology and ensure that a "fascistic genocidal campaign to wipe-out species that are considered 'impure'" would have catastrophic consequences. In contrast, the authors emphasize the need for tolerance and cooperation between the races.

Reception
Dragonlance is one of the most popular shared worlds, worlds in which writers other than those that created them place adventures. The first Dragonlance trilogy, Chronicles, launched the Dungeons & Dragons line of novels, with many of its characters spun off into other novels. Along with Forgotten Realms, Dragonlance is TSR's most popular series of novels. According to The 1990s by Marc Oxoby, what is most notable about the series is that "what may at one time been considered disposable, escapist literature" found "unprecedented popularity" in the 1990s. All of the Dragonlance novels remained in print during the decade, turning Weis and Hickman into literary stars and boosting sales of their non-Dragonlance novels. Although the series was initially published in paperback, its success led to hardcover printings. The hardcover version of Dragons of Summer Flame had an "impressive" first printing of 200,000 books. Every Dragonlance novel by Weis and Hickman since 1995 has been released in hardcover, and some previous novels have been re-released in hardcover collector's editions. Dragonlance made TSR one of the most successful publishers of science fiction and fantasy in the 1990s.

By 2008, there were more than 190 novels in the Dragonlance franchise. Weis and Hickman's Dragonlance novels have made over twenty bestseller lists, with sales in excess of 22 million. The pair's novels have been translated into German, Japanese, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, Spanish, French, Italian, Hebrew, Portuguese, Greek and Turkish and have sold well in the United States, Britain, and Australia.

Not all critics have praised Dragonlance and its creators. According to author Stephen Hunt, Wendy Bradley of Interzone magazine does not think highly of their work. Hunt feels that it is unusual for authors to receive such loathing among "fantasy's literary mafia", saying that "behind every critic's scorn laden insult, there lays [sic] that unsaid thought at the end: 'But I could have written that! Visions of Wonder, edited by David G. Hartwell and Milton T. Wolf, and published by the Science Fiction Research Association, argues that Dragonlance is published under the "omnivore theory" of publishing. In this theory, the readership is made up of teenagers, and completely replaces itself every three to five years. This allows publishers to release subpar novels and still reach a small yet profitable audience.

title: Dragonlance