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Cesare Lombroso

Cesare Lombroso (,  , ; born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 – 19 October 1909) was an Italian eugenicist, criminologist, phrenologist, physician, and founder of the Italian school of criminology. He is considered the founder of modern criminal anthropology by changing the Western notions of individual responsibility.

Lombroso rejected the established classical school, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, using concepts drawn from physiognomy, degeneration theory, psychiatry, and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone "born criminal" could be identified by physical (congenital) defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage or atavistic.

Early life and education
Lombroso was born in Verona, Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, on 6 November 1835 to a wealthy Jewish family. His father was Aronne Lombroso, a tradesman from Verona, and his mother was Zeffora (or Zefira) Levi from Chieri near Turin. Cesare Lombroso descended from a line of rabbis, which led him to study a wide range of topics in university. He studied literature, linguistics, and archæology at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris. Despite pursuing these studies in university, Lombroso eventually settled on pursuing a degree in medicine, which he graduated with from the University of Pavia.

Career
Lombroso initially worked as an army surgeon, beginning in 1859 when he enlisted as a volunteer. He claimed that he developed the theory of atavistic criminality during this period. In 1866, he was appointed visiting lecturer at Pavia, and later took charge of the insane asylum at Pesaro in 1871. His research into the bodily characteristics of soldiers and asylum inmates became the foundation of his work on criminal anthropology. He became professor of forensic medicine and hygiene at Turin in 1878. That year he wrote his most important and influential work, L'uomo delinquente (Criminal Man in English), which went through five editions in Italian and was published in various European languages.

Three of his works had been translated into English by 1900, including a partial translation of The Female Offender published in 1895 and read in August of that year by the late nineteenth-century English novelist George Gissing (1857-1903).

Lombroso became a professor of psychiatry (1896) and of criminal anthropology (1906) at Turin University.

Personal life and final years
Lombroso married Nina de Benedetti on 10 April 1870. They had five children together, one of whom—Gina—would go on to publish a summary of Lombroso's work after his death. Later in life, Lombroso came to be influenced by Gina's husband, Guglielmo Ferrero, who led him to believe that not all criminality comes from one's inborn factors and that social factors also played a significant role in the process of shaping a criminal.

He died in Turin in 1909.

Concept of criminal atavism
Lombroso's general theory suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies. He postulated that criminals represented a reversion to a primitive or subhuman type of person characterized by physical features reminiscent of apes, lower primates, and early humans and to some extent preserved, he said, in modern "savages". The behaviour of these biological "throwbacks" will inevitably be contrary to the rules and expectations of modern civilized society.

Through years of postmortem examinations and anthropometric studies of criminals, the insane, and normal individuals, Lombroso became convinced that the "born criminal" (reo nato, a term given by Ferri) could be anatomically identified by such items as a sloping forehead, ears of unusual size, asymmetry of the face, prognathism, excessive length of arms, asymmetry of the cranium, and other "physical stigmata". Specific criminals, such as thieves, rapists, and murderers, could be distinguished by specific characteristics, he believed. Lombroso also maintained that criminals had less sensitivity to pain and touch; more acute sight; a lack of moral sense, including an absence of remorse; more vanity, impulsiveness, vindictiveness, and cruelty; and other manifestations, such as a special criminal argot and the excessive use of tattooing.

Besides the "born criminal", Lombroso also described "criminaloids", or occasional criminals, criminals by passion, moral imbeciles, and criminal epileptics. He recognized the diminished role of organic factors in many habitual offenders and referred to the delicate balance between predisposing factors (organic, genetic) and precipitating factors such as one's environment, opportunity, or poverty.

In Criminal Woman, as introduced in an English translation by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson, Lombroso used his theory of atavism to explain women's criminal offending. In the text, Lombroso outlines a comparative analysis of "normal women" as opposed to "criminal women" such as "the prostitute." However, Lombroso's "obdurate beliefs" about women presented an "intractable problem" for this theory: "Because he was convinced that women are inferior to men Lombroso was unable to argue, based on his theory of the born criminal, that women's lesser involvement in crime reflected their comparatively lower levels of atavism."

Lombroso's research methods were clinical and descriptive, with precise details of skull dimensions and other measurements. He did not engage in rigorous statistical comparisons of criminals and non-criminals. Although he gave some recognition in his later years to psychological and sociological factors in the etiology of crime, he remained convinced of and identified with, criminal anthropometry. After he died, his skull and brain were measured according to his own theories by a colleague as he requested in his will; his head was preserved in a jar and is still displayed with his collection at the Museum of Psychiatry and Criminology in Turin.

Lombroso's theories were disapproved throughout Europe, especially in schools of medicine: notably by Alexandre Lacassagne in France. His notions of physical differentiation between criminals and non-criminals were seriously challenged by Charles Goring (The English Convict, 1913), who made elaborate comparisons and found insignificant statistical differences.

Legacy
Self-proclaimed the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, Lombroso is purported to have coined the term criminology. He institutionalized the science of psychiatry in universities. His graduating thesis from the University of Pavia dealt with "endemic cretinism". Over the next several years, Lombroso's fascination with criminal behaviour and society began, and he gained experience managing a mental institution. After a brief stint in the Italian army, Lombroso returned to the University of Pavia and became the first professor specializing in mental health. By the 1880s, his theories had reached the pinnacle of their fame, and his accolades championed them throughout the fields dedicated to examining mental illness. Lombroso differentiated himself from his predecessor and rival, Cesare Beccaria, by depicting his positivist school in opposition to Beccaria's classist one (which centred around the idea that criminal behaviour is born out of free will rather than inherited physical traits). Lombroso's psychiatric theories were conglomerated and collectively called the positivist school by his followers, which included Antonio Marro and Alfredo Niceforo. Ideas similar to Lombroso's assessment of white and northern-European supremacy over other races would be used by fascists to gird, for example, the promulgation of Italian racial laws. His school of thought was only truly abandoned in Italian universities' curriculum after World War II.

Through his various publications, Lombroso established a school of psychiatry based on biological determinism and the idea that mental illness was via genetic factors. A person's predisposition to mental illness was determinable through his appearance, as explained in the aforementioned criminal atavism segment. Lombroso's theory has been cited as possibly "the most influential doctrine" in all areas studying human behaviour, and indeed, its impact extended far and wide. According to Lombroso, criminal appearance was not just based on inherited physiognomy such as nose or skull shape, but also could be judged through superficial features like tattoos on the body. In particular, Lombroso began searching for a relationship between tattoos and an agglomeration of symptoms eut (which are currently diagnosed as borderline personality disorder). He also believed that tattoos indicated a certain type of criminal.

Through his observations of sex workers and criminals, Lombroso hypothesized a correlation between left-handedness, criminality, and degenerate behaviour. He also propagated the idea that left-handedness leads to other disabilities, by linking left-handedness with neurodegeneration and alcoholism. Lombroso's theories were likely accepted due to the pre-existing regional stigma against left-handedness, and greatly influenced the reception of left-handedness in the 20th century. His hypothesis even manifested in a new way during the 1980s and 1990s with a series of research studies grouping left-handedness with psychiatric disorders and autoimmune diseases.

Despite his stance on inherited immorality and biologically destined criminal behaviour, Lombroso believed in socialism and supposedly sympathized with the stigmatization of lower socioeconomic statuses, placing him at odds with the biological determinism he espoused. His work stereotyping degenerates can even be seen as an influence behind Benito Mussolini's movement to clean the streets of Italy. Many adherents to Lombroso's positivist school stayed powerful during Mussolini's rule, because of the seamless way criminal atavism and biological determinism justified both the racial theories and eugenic tendencies of fascism. However, certain legal institutions did press back against the idea that criminal behaviour is biologically determined.

Within the penal system, Lombroso's work led to new forms of punishment, where occasionally punishment varied based on the defendant's biological background. There are a few instances in which case the physiognomy of the defendant actually mattered more than witness testimony and the defendant was subjected to harsher sentences.

During the period in Italy between the 1850s and 1880s, the Italian government debated legislation for the insanity plea. Judges and lawyers backed Beccaria's classist school, tending to favour the idea that wrongdoers are breaking a societal contract with the option to exercise free will, tying into Beccaria's classist school of social misbehaviour. Lombroso and his followers argued for a criminal code, in which the criminal was understood as unable to act with free will due to their biological predisposition to crime.

Since his research tied criminal behaviour together with the insane, Lombroso is closely credited with the genesis of the criminally insane asylum and forensic psychiatry. His work sponsored the creation of institutions where the criminally insane would be treated for mental illness, rather than placed in jails with their saner counterparts. One example of an asylum for the criminally insane is Bridgewater State Hospital, which is located in the United States. Other examples of these institutions are Matteawan State Hospital and Danvers State Hospital. Most have closed down, but the concept is kept alive with modern correctional facilities like Cook County Jail. This facility houses the largest population of prisoners with mental illness in the United States. However, criminal insane asylums did exist outside of Italy while Lombroso was establishing them within the country. His influence on the asylum was at first regional, but eventually percolated to other countries who adopted some of Lombroso's measures for treating the criminally insane.

In addition to influencing criminal atavism, Lombroso wrote a book called Genio e Follia, in which he discussed the link between genius and insanity. He believed that genius was an evolutionarily beneficial form of insanity, stemming from the same root as other mental illnesses. This hypothesis led to his request to examine Leo Tolstoy for degenerate qualities during his attendance at the 12th International Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897. The meeting went poorly, and Tolstoy's novel Resurrection shows great disdain for Lombroso's methodology.

Towards the end of his life, Lombroso began to study pellagra, a disease which Joseph Goldberger simultaneously was researching, in rural Italy. He postulated that pellagra came from a nutrition deficit, officially proven by Goldberger. This disease also found its roots in the same poverty that caused cretinism, which Lombroso studied at the start of his medical career. Furthermore, before Lombroso's death, the Italian government passed a law in 1904 standardizing treatment in mental asylums and codifying procedural admittance for mentally ill criminals. This law gave psychiatrists free rein within the criminally insane asylum, validating the field of psychiatry by giving the psychiatrists the sole authority to define and treat the causes of criminal behaviour (a position which Lombroso argued for from his early teaching days to his death).

The Man of Genius
Lombroso believed that genius was closely related to madness. In his attempts to develop these notions, while in Moscow in 1897 he travelled to Yasnaya Polyana to meet Lev Tolstoy in hopes of elucidating and providing evidence for his theory of genius reverting or degenerating into insanity.

Lombroso published The Man of Genius in 1889, a book which argued that artistic genius was a form of hereditary insanity. In order to support this assertion, he began assembling a large collection of "psychiatric art". He published an article on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated thirteen typical features of the "art of the insane." Although his criteria are generally regarded as outdated today, his work inspired later writers on the subject, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.

Lombroso's The Man of Genius provided inspiration for Max Nordau's work, as evidenced by his dedication of Degeneration to Lombroso, whom he considered to be his "dear and honored master". In his exploration of geniuses descending into madness, Lombroso stated that he could only find six men who did not exhibit symptoms of "degeneration" or madness: Galileo, Da Vinci, Voltaire, Machiavelli, Michelangelo and Darwin. By contrast, Lombroso cited that men such as Shakespeare, Plato, Aristotle, Mozart and Dante all displayed "degenerate symptoms". In order to classify geniuses as "degenerate," or insane, Lombroso judged each genius by whether they exhibited "degenerate symptoms," such as precocity, longevity, versatility and inspiration. Lombroso supplemented these psychological observations with skeletal and cranial measurements, including facial angles, "abnormalities" in bone structure, and volumes of brain fluid. Measurements of skulls taken included those from Immanuel Kant, Alessandro Volta, Ugo Foscolo, and Ambrogio Fusinieri. Lombroso's reference to skull measurements was inspired by the phrenological work and research of German doctor Franz Joseph Gall. In commenting on skull measurements, Lombroso made observations such as, "I have noted several characters which anthropologists consider to belong to the lower races, such as prominence of the styloid apophysis". This observation was recorded in response to his analysis of Alessandro Volta's skull. Lombroso connected geniuses to various health disorders as well, by listing signs of degeneration in chapter two of his work, some of which include abnormalities and discrepancies in height and pallor. Lombroso listed the following geniuses, among others, as "sickly and weak during childhood": Demosthenes, Francis Bacon, Descartes, Isaac Newton, John Locke, Adam Smith, Robert Boyle, Alexander Pope, John Flaxman, Nelson, Albrecht von Haller, Körner and Blaise Pascal. Other physical afflictions that Lombroso associated with degeneracy included rickets, emaciation, sterility, lefthandedness, unconsciousness, stupidity, somnambulism, smallness or disproportionality of the body, and amnesia. In his explanation of the connection between genius and the "degenerative marker" of height, Lombroso cites the following people: Robert and Elizabeth Browning, Henrik Ibsen, George Eliot, Thiers, Louis Blanc and Algernon Charles Swinburne, among others. He continues by listing the only "great men of tall stature" that he knows of, including Petrarch, Friedrich Schiller, Foscolo, Bismarck, Charlemagne, Dumas, George Washington, Peter the Great, and Voltaire. Lombroso further cited certain personality traits as markers of degeneracy, such as "a fondness for special words" and "the inspiration of genius".

Lombroso's methods and explanations in The Man of Genius were rebutted and questioned by the American Journal of Psychiatry. In a review of The Man of Genius they stated, "Here we have an hypothesis claiming to be the result of strict scientific investigation and reluctant conviction, bolstered by half-told truths, misrepresentations and assumptions." Lombroso's work was also criticized by Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi, who, in his review of Lombroso's The Man of Genius—and specifically his classifications and definitions of "the genius"—stated, "By creating a genius according to his own fancy, an ideal and abstract being, and not by examining the personality of a real living genius, he naturally arrives at the conclusion that all theories by which the origin of genius is sought to be explained on a basis of observation, and especially that particular one which finds in degeneration the cause or one of the causes of genius, are erroneous." Sergi went on to state that such theorists are "like the worshippers of the saints or of fetishes, who do not recognize the material from which the fetish is made, or the human origin from which the saint has sprung".

Spiritualism
Later in his life Lombroso began investigating mediumship. Although originally sceptical, he later became a believer in spiritualism. As an atheist Lombroso discusses his views on the paranormal and spiritualism in his book After Death – What? (1909) which he believed the existence of spirits and claimed the medium Eusapia Palladino was genuine. The article "Exit Eusapia!" was published in the British Medical Journal on 9 November 1895. The article questioned the scientific legitimacy of the Society for Psychical Research for investigating Palladino a medium who had a reputation of being a fraud and imposter and was surprised that Lombroso had been deceived by Palladino.

The anthropologist Edward Clodd wrote "[Lombroso] swallowed the lot at a gulp, from table raps to materialisation of the departed, spirit photographs and spirit voices; every story, old or new, alike from savage and civilised sources, confirming his will to believe". Lombroso's daughter Gina Ferrero wrote that during the later years of his life, Lombroso suffered from arteriosclerosis and his mental and physical health was wrecked. The sceptic Joseph McCabe wrote that because of this it was not surprising that Palladino managed to fool Lombroso into believing spiritualism by her tricks.

Literary impact
Historian Daniel Pick argues that Lombroso serves "as a curious footnote to late-nineteenth-century literary studies", due to his referencing in famous books of the time. Jacques in Émile Zola's The Beast Within is described as having a jaw that juts forward on the bottom. It is emphasized especially at the end of the book when he is overwhelmed by the desire to kill. The anarchist Karl Yundt in Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent, delivers a speech denouncing Lombroso. The assistant prosecutor in Leo Tolstoy's Resurrection uses Lombroso's theories to accuse Maslova of being a congenital criminal. In Bram Stoker's Dracula, Count Dracula is described as having a physical appearance Lombroso would describe as criminal.

Original Italian

 * 1859 Ricerche sul cretinismo in Lombardia
 * 1864 Genio e follia
 * 1865 Studi clinici sulle mallatie mentali
 * 1871 L'uomo bianco e l'uomo di colore
 * 1873 Sulla microcefala e sul cretinismo con applicazione alla medicina legale
 * 1876 L'uomo delinquente
 * 1879 Considerazioni al processo Passannante
 * 1881 L'amore nel suicidio e nel delitto
 * 1888 L'uomo di genio in rapporto alla psichiatria
 * 1890 Sulla medicina legale del cadavere (second edition)
 * 1891 Palimsesti del carcere
 * 1892 Trattato della pellagra
 * 1893 La Donna Delinquente: La prostituta e la donna normale (Co-authored with Lombroso's son-in-law Guglielmo Ferrero).
 * 1894 Le più recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed antropologia criminale
 * 1894 Gli anarchici
 * 1894 L'antisemitismo e le scienze moderne
 * 1897 Genio e degenerazione
 * 1898 Les Conquêtes récentes de la psychiatrie
 * 1899 Le crime; causes et remédes
 * 1900 Lezioni de medicina legale
 * 1902 Delitti vecchi e delitti nuovi
 * 1909 Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici

In 1906, a collection of papers on Lombroso was published in Turin as L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazioni.

English translations

 * 1891 The Man of Genius, Walter Scott.
 * 1895 The Female Offender. The 1895 English translation was a partial translation which left out the entire section on the normal woman and which, in true Victorian fashion, sanitised Lombroso's language.
 * 1899 Crime: Its Causes and Remedies
 * 1909 After Death - What?
 * 1911 Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
 * 2004 The Criminal Anthropological Writings of Cesare Lombroso
 * 2004 Criminal Woman, the Prostitute, and the Normal Woman. Translated by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson.
 * 2006 Criminal Man. Translated by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson.

Selected articles

 * "Illustrative Studies in Criminal Anthropology", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 2, 1890.
 * "The Physiognomy of the Anarchists", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.
 * "Innovation and Inertia in the World of Psychology", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.
 * "The Modern Literature of Italy Since the Year 1870", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.
 * "Criminal Anthropology Applied to Pedagogy", The Monist, Vol. VI, No. 1, October 1895.
 * "The Heredity of Acquired Characteristics," The Forum, Vol. XXIV, 1898.
 * "Was Columbus Morally Irresponsible?," The Forum, Vol. XXVII, 1899.
 * "Why Criminals of Genius Have No Type," The International Quarterly, Vol. VI, 1902.

Introductions

 * MacDonald, Arthur. Criminology, Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1893.
 * Drahms, August. The Criminal, Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, The Macmillan Company, 1900.

title: Cesare Lombroso


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Cambridge, Ontario

Cambridge is a city in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, located at the confluence of the Grand and Speed rivers. The city had a population of 138,479 as of the 2021 census. Along with Kitchener and Waterloo, Cambridge is one of the three core cities of Canada's tenth-largest metropolitan area.

Cambridge was formed in 1973 by the amalgamation of Galt, Preston, Hespeler, the settlement of Blair and a small portion of surrounding townships. The former Galt covers the largest portion of Cambridge, making up the southern half of the city, while Preston and Blair cover the western side. Hespeler makes up the most northeastern section of Cambridge. Historical information and records of each entity are well documented in the Cambridge City Archives.

History of the City of Galt
Galt is situated on land once granted to the Iroquois people by the British Crown at the end of the American Revolutionary War. In the late 1700s, developers began to buy land around the Grand River from the Six Nations who were led by Joseph Brant. One speculator, William Dickson, a wealthy immigrant from Scotland, bought 90000 acre of land along the Grand River in 1816; this was later to become Galt and the Dumfries Townships. Dickson divided the land and sold smaller lots, particularly to Scottish settlers. The centre of the planned community was built at the junction of Mill Creek and the Grand River, then called Shade's Mills.

Dickson decided to name the Post Office Galt, in honour of John Galt of the Canada Company which was developing this entire area. Primarily agricultural in early years, Galt had attracted industry by 1840 and became the largest town in the Grand River area until the early 1900s. The town continued to grow, however, based on a large industrial base. In fact, Galt was called "Manchester of Canada" because of the extensive industry, powered by the Grand River. Some of the important businesses in about 1870 included the Dickson Mills (opened in 1843), the Axe Factory forge, two furniture factories, The Dumfries iron and brass foundry, three large woolen factories, a malt factory, the Victoria Steam Carriage Works, the Dumfries Flour Mill, the Victoria Foundry making farm implements, a large soap and candles works and two steam-powered tanneries.

Records from 1846 indicate that Galt had very valuable water-power that allowed for milling and manufacturing. Stone buildings in the downtown area had already been erected and the population was 1,000, most of whom were originally from Scotland. Amenities included a curling club, library, a weekly newspaper, a school, a bank (Gore) and a fire company. The post office was receiving daily mail. Industries included two grist mills, two saw mills, two foundries, two carding machines and cloth factories, one brewery, two distilleries, one tannery, eight stores, nine taverns, two grocery stores and various tradesmen.

The largest of the early schools in the community, the Galt Grammar School, opened in 1852 with William Tassie as headmaster starting in 1853 at the site of what later became the Galt Collegiate. The school gained widespread recognition and attracted students from across North America. By 1872, it had been recognized as a Collegiate Institute.

Galt was incorporated as a town on January 1, 1857, with Morris C. Lutz elected as the first mayor. By 1858, a "Town Hall and Market House" had been built with an "Italianate", particularly Tuscan, influence. In later years, the building became the City Hall and was extensively modified. Throughout that entire period, it continued to grow based on a large industrial base.

The railway reached Galt in 1879, increasing the opportunities of exporting local goods and importing others. The Credit Valley Railway planned to implement several lines running west and north from Toronto and in 1873, built freight and passenger buildings in Galt. By 1879, the company had installed a bridge crossing the river and in December completed a preliminary test run with a train; it was successful. The CVR venture was not long-lived, however, and in 1883, the line was taken over by the Canadian Pacific Railway, which built a brick passenger building that still stands.

The first hospital in Waterloo County opened in 1890 as Galt General Hospital. Additional buildings and facilities were added in the early 1900s. By 1918, the facility had an X-ray room, a 27-room nurses' residence, and also served as a nurses' training school.

A new streetcar system, the Galt, Preston and Hespeler electric railway, (later called the Grand River Railway Company) also began to operate in 1894, connecting Preston and Galt. In 1911, the line reached Hespeler, Berlin (later called Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover. The electric rail system ended passenger services in April 1955.

Galt was incorporated as a city in 1915 and continued to grow due to a large industrial base.

In 1911, most of the population of Galt were Protestant: 4,240 Presbyterians, 1,930 Anglicans, and 2,122 Methodists. There were very few Roman Catholics.

Not long after Galt had become part of Cambridge, in May 1974, flooding on the Grand River filled city streets with water to a depth of about 4 ft. In some areas of the downtown core, the depth was 17.4 ft, smashing windows and carrying goods along the streets. Approximately 75 businesses were affected, with virtually none covered by relevant insurance. The flood caused an estimated $5 million in damage.

The Dickson Hill Heritage Conservation District, located in West Galt, is composed of stately homes from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

History of the Town of Preston

Preston was formed on land belonging to the German Company Tract, along the Speed River, which was purchased earlier from the Six Nations Indians. The name Preston is from the hometown of William Scollick, who was surveyor and a native of Preston, Lancashire in England.

In the 1800s a group of German-speaking Mennonites from Pennsylvania arrived in the area and purchased land. Among the first settlers to arrive in what was later to become Preston was John Erb, a Mennonite from Lancaster County, who arrived in 1805. He bought 7500 acre including land at the confluence of the Grand and Speed Rivers in what later became Preston. and later built a sawmill in 1806 and a gristmill in 1807. This settlement became known as Cambridge Mills.

Even in the early 1800s, the area included homes, a store, an inn, small shops operated by artisans and craftsmen, mostly immigrants from Germany. The Erb sons had hired William Scollick for their development business and the latter completed a full survey in 1834; he also convinced the Erbs to rename the Cambridge Mills area Preston. After Erb's death in 1832, a son sold off property on both sides of the Speed River. What eventually became Preston started as a large settlement on the north side.

There were only 250 inhabitants in 1836, many from Pennsylvania, but the population had reached about 1600 by 1855, with some 70% originally from Germany. By then, the area had eight hotels and taverns.

The Canadian Gazetteer of 1846 indicates a population of about 600 inhabitants, two churches, a post office that receives mail each day, a steam grist mill, and tradesmen of various types. At the time, there was no significant industry.

The Preston post office opened in 1837 and the population continued to grow primarily because of immigration from Germany. Preston was incorporated as a village in 1853. The population declined in the late 1800s but by 1900, it had increased to 2,000 partly because of the new electric railway systems that started in 1894. In 1911, the line reached Hespeler, Berlin (later called Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover. This made visiting other communities and carrying of goods very convenient.

Due to continued growth, by 1879 there were many industries such as a foundry, carriage manufacturer, potteries and a furniture company. This was also the year that the Cherry Flour Mills started, which would later become the Dover Flour Mills, a Preston company that still operates today.

By 1888, the Preston Springs Hotel, then called the Del Monte Hotel, was operating. Demolition of the building began in December 2020 for reasons of public safety. On September 30, 1899, Preston was incorporated as a town with a population of just under 11,000. The Great Road between Dundas and Berlin (Kitchener) as well as the railroad connections helped the community to continue growing into an important industrial centre. Products made here included flour, agricultural implements, furniture, stoves, shoes and textiles. Preston grew and continued to be a successful industrial area; expansion followed in the 1950s and 1960s.

While most of the population of what became Waterloo County, Ontario was Protestant in 1911, Preston had a larger share of Roman Catholics, 844, while 862 were Lutherans, 707 Methodists, 704 Anglicans, and 525 Presbyterians.

History of the Town of Hespeler
The area that eventually came to be Hespeler was also on land (Block 2 measuring over 90000 acre purchased in 1798 by Mennonites from Pennsylvania from the Six Nations Indians with the assistance of developer Richard Beasley. The first of settler, in 1809, was Abraham Clemens who had bought 515 acre of land from Mr. Beasley on the Speed River. In 1810, Cornelius Pannabecker arrived and set up a blacksmithy a year or two later. Twenty years later, Joseph Oberholtzer purchased a much larger area of land that would become the early Hespeler. It was named Bergeytown in honour of his brother-in-law and the name became New Hope in about 1835. Settler Jacob Hespeler arrived in 1845 and bought a 145 acre tract on the Speed River. He built an industrial complex that was the beginning of Hespeler's future industrialization which would consist primarily of woollen and textile mills. Records from 1846 indicate a population of only 100 inhabitants, a grist and a saw mill, a tannery, a tavern, one store, one pail factory, two blacksmiths, two tailors, two shoemakers.

In 1858, Jacob Hespeler opened the Post Office and the settlement, previously called New Hope, was incorporated as the village of Hespeler.

The arrival of the railway in 1859 helped businesses to develop and prosper. By 1864, there was a large flour mill, cloth and wool manufacturing plants, a sawmill and a distillery all built of cut stone. There was also a large furniture factory and four churches.

Continued growth allowed Hespeler to be incorporated as a town in January 1901. Over the following years, the community continued growing slowly. By 1911 the electric railway system between Preston and Galt had reached Hespeler as well as Berlin (later called Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover.

Textile production mills were the primary industry in the early 1900s and continued to be successful until the late 1940s, when this industry began to decline. Other industries continued to boom and by 1969, Hespeler's population was 6,000.

History of the Village of Blair

The land (west of what is now Preston), including Carolinian forest, that would eventually become Blair was purchased from the Six Nations, through land speculator Richard Beasley. It was settled in 1800 by Samuel D. Betzner, one of the Mennonites from Pennsylvania. The group later discovered that Beasley had gotten into financial trouble and that a lien was placed on the lands. To solve the problem, the group created the German Company that bought an additional 60,000 acres of land from Beasley, who used the proceeds to pay off the debt on the previous lands. This ensured a clear title for the Mennonite group.

The first school in what later became Waterloo County opened in 1802 near Blair, then known as Shinglebridge. The first teacher's name was Mr. Rittenhaus.

By 1804, the first cemetery in Waterloo County had been founded. Also located in Blair, it is often referred to as the Old Blair Cemetery or the Old Blair Memorial Cemetery. The first recorded burial was of an infant, the son of Mennonite settler John Bricker, who died on March 10 of that year.

Joseph Bowman, a man called Wismer and John Bechtel were responsible for the early development of the community in an area laid out by Benjamin B. Bowman. They built a dam, then a sawmill and grist mill. In 1846, a large flour mill opened, which was called the Bowman Mill, Blair Mill and also the Carlisle Mill. In about 1876, a 15-horsepower hydroelectric system, the Sheave Tower, was built on Bowman Creek by Allan Bowman to help power the flour mill using a series of shafts and gears. This was a significant achievement in that era.

Although the name Carlisle (or New Carlisle) was commonly used then, the name Blair was chosen for the first post office in 1858 because a village of Carlisle had already been established in Halton County. The new name honoured Adam Johnston Fergusson Blair, the first judge of Wellington District and a militia colonel in the area. In addition to Carlisle, earlier names for the village had included Shinglebridge, because a bridge with a shingle roof crossed the Grand River in this area from 1853 to 1857. It was also called Durham (or Durhamville) and Lambs' Bridge.

By 1864, the settlement was receiving mail daily, had a large school, a Mennonite meeting house, a large brick church and a population of 200. Railway service arrived in Blair in 1873 when the Grand Trunk Railway, having acquired the Great Western Railway's defunct Preston and Berlin Railway, rerouted it through Blair on its way to Galt, bypassing Preston, the railway's original destination.

Blair became part of Preston in 1969. Many historic buildings still stand in the village, including some from the early 1820s. This includes the Sheave Tower (restored in 1999) and the John Bechtel residence.

Galt, Preston and Hespeler Electric Railway
A new electric street railway system, the Galt, Preston and Hespeler Street Railway (later called the Grand River Railway Company) began to operate in 1894, initially connecting Preston and Galt. In 1911, the line reached Hespeler, Berlin (later called Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover. The electric rail system ended passenger services in April 1955. The light rail transit plan for the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, decades later, would be reminiscent of the original Electric Railway.

Government
The first mayor of Cambridge, taking office as of the city's creation in 1973, was Claudette Millar. Most recently, Kathryn McGarry was elected in the 2018 municipal election to succeed Doug Craig as the city's sixth mayor, taking office on December 1, 2018.

Cambridge City Council consists of the mayor and eight councillors, each representing a ward.

A referendum question asking municipal electors if they wished to change to ranked voting was approved on October 23, 2018.

In 2020, Scott Hamilton was elected in a by-election for Ward 7 to replace Councillor Frank Monteiro who passed while serving the community.

City councillors by ward:
 * Ward 1: Donna Reid
 * Ward 2: Mike Devine
 * Ward 3: Mike Mann
 * Ward 4: Jan Liggett
 * Ward 5: Pam Wolf
 * Ward 6: Shannon Adshade
 * Ward 7: Scott Hamilton
 * Ward 8: Nicholas Ermeta

Cambridge is also represented on the higher-tier Waterloo Regional Council which consists of the regional chair, the mayors of the seven cities and townships, and eight additional councillors - four from Kitchener and two each from Cambridge and Waterloo. Ken Seiling has held the position of regional chair from 1985-November 30, 2018. In the 2018 Region of Waterloo elections, Karen Redman was elected as Regional Chair.

The City of Cambridge is represented by:
 * Cambridge Mayor Kathryn McGarry
 * Regional Councillor Karl Kiefer
 * Regional Councillor Helen Jowett

Cambridge (federal electoral district) is represented in Ottawa by Bryan May (Liberal), the federal member of Parliament who defeated the previous incumbent MP (Gary Goodyear, Conservative – 2004 to 2015) in the October 2015 election. The second federal representative for Cambridge is Valerie Bradford (Liberal), who represents the federal riding of Kitchener South—Hespeler.

The MPP for the provincial district of Cambridge is Brian Riddell (Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario), who defeated New Blue Party of Ontario co-founder Belinda Karahalios in 2022. The second provincial representative for Cambridge is Jess Dixon (Progressive Conservative), who represents the provincial riding of Kitchener South—Hespeler.

Municipal services
The city is responsible for Community Services, Economic Development, Transportation & Public Works, Corporate Services, Fire Department and Planning Services. Many municipal services are provided through the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (often referred to as Waterloo Region or the Region of Waterloo), which consists of the cities of Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo, and the townships of Woolwich, Wilmot, Wellesley, and North Dumfries. The region of Waterloo responsibilities includes Social Services, Community Health Services, Grand River Transit and Community Policing through Waterloo Regional Police Service.

Hospital
Hospital services are provided by Cambridge Memorial Hospital at 700 Coronation Boulevard. A small hospital in the Galt area had opened in 1890, the first in Waterloo County, while the current facility, originally named South Waterloo Memorial Hospital, was completed in 1953. It was expanded in the early 1970s with the addition of Wing B, the inpatient tower. This facility began a $187 million expansion project in 2014 that was expected to be completed by 2019. The hospital summarized the plan as follows in 2013: "This transformation includes a larger Emergency Department and a 33% increase in beds to accommodate expanded mental health, medicine, surgery, birthing programs and so much more".

Difficulties with the general contractor, Bondfield Construction, which eventually went into receivership, delayed the process significantly. A news report on 29 December 2018 stated that "After two decades of planning and community fundraising, the expansion project, promising 54 new beds and a twice-as-large emergency department, is not quite half-complete and stalled". A consortium of banks, led by the receiver, the Bank of Montreal, called on the contractor's insurer, Zurich, to activate its surety bond. That step provided the funding to continue work on the new wing to correct the many deficiencies; the process was moving slowly as of late April 2019. At that time, Infrastructure Ontario, Zurich Insurance Company and the project lenders were in discussions with a contractor who will be hired to renovate the existing B wing after the new wing is occupied. An estimate in late 2018 indicated that the completion date for the entire hospital project was 2021 at the earliest.

Part of the hospital expansion, the new patient care wing, was completed in mid-November 2019 and was scheduled to open in January 2020, after new equipment has been installed and staff have been trained.

Climate
The climate in Cambridge is typical of southwestern Ontario, and has a humid continental climate under the Köppen climate classification (Köppen Dfb) with mostly moderate winters but the occasional deep freeze. In summer, the temperatures tend to be in the high twenties on the Celsius scale, and like most of southern Ontario, there can be stretches of high humidity creating some discomfort. On most days, Cambridge tends to be slightly warmer than Kitchener and Guelph, just to the north.

The last frost date of the season is around May 11, though most gardeners plant on the May 24 long weekend to be safe. Environment Canada issues frost warnings for the area from October 30 through to May 9.

Economy
In 1988, Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada opened a plant in Cambridge, which employs approximately 4,500 people and is the city's largest employer. Several other industrial companies also have locations in Cambridge, including Rimowa, Gerdau, ATS Automation Tooling Systems, Loblaw Companies Limited, Dare Foods, Frito-Lay Canada (formerly Hostess), Babcock & Wilcox, Rockwell Automation and COM DEV International in addition to service companies such as Coronation Dental Specialty Group.

The city encourages the filming of movie and TV productions and many have done location work here. Filmmakers come to the city for the European architecture and proximity to Toronto. Cambridge has become more "film-friendly" and has an increase in filmmakers coming to the city, with 15 projects filmed in 21 days in 2016. According to an interview with the Cambridge Record, Devon Hogue, economic development officer with the City of Cambridge noted what draws filmmakers: "First and foremost, they come for the river... Once they are here, they fall in love with the built architecture. That's not something you can get very easily in Toronto or Hamilton." In 2016, filming in Cambridge contributed $1.2 million to the economy and Hogue states that: "Seeing Cambridge on the screen creates a sense of community pride." Notable films shot in Cambridge include John Q (2002), Red (2010), Silent Hill: Revelation (2012) and Flatliners (2017). Notable television series filmed in Cambridge include Murdoch Mysteries (2008–), Between (2015–2016), Bitten (2014–2016), 11.22.63 (2016), The Handmaid's Tale (2017–), Designated Survivor (2016–), V-Wars (2019–), The October Faction (2019–) and American Gods (2017–). In 2019, Cambridge was nominated for "Outstanding Film Office" by the Location Manager's Guild International for their work on The Handmaid's Tale. This was the first time in the history of the award that a Canadian office was nominated.

Education

English-language public schooling is provided by the Waterloo Region District School Board, which operates 26 elementary and five secondary schools in Cambridge. Public high schools in the city include the 165-year-old Galt Collegiate Institute and Vocational School; Preston High School, Glenview Park Secondary School; Southwood Secondary School; and Jacob Hespeler Secondary School.

Publicly funded Catholic education is available through schools operated by the Waterloo Catholic District School Board. The WCDSB runs 15 elementary and two secondary schools in the city. St. Benedict Catholic Secondary School & Monsignor Doyle Catholic Secondary School. Cambridge is also home to École secondaire Père-René-de-Galinée, the only French-language Catholic high school in the region. There are also a number of private elementary and secondary schools in the area.

The University of Waterloo School of Architecture campus is located in Cambridge in the Riverside Silk Mill, also known as the Tiger Brand Building. Inside there is a theatre, a fitness room, and the gallery "Design at Riverside", which is one of two publicly funded galleries dedicated to architecture in Canada. The School of Architecture is home to 380 students who live, study, and learn within the Cambridge community.

In 2009, Conestoga College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning set up a new School of Engineering Technology specializing in advanced technology programs related to Robotics, Process Automation, Electronics, Communications, Engineering, and Information Technology. With over 200000 sqft of applied learning and research space.

An announcement in mid-December 2019 indicated that Conestoga College had decided to purchase 42 acres of land in this city with the intention of relocating all of the trades and apprenticeship programs (offered at various other campuses) to Cambridge at a future date. Specifics were not immediately provided.

Attractions

Cambridge is home to many cultural events and activities, including the Mill Race Festival and the Rock the Mill music festivals in downtown Galt, and the Cambridge Highland Games in Churchill Park in July. There is also the Cambridge Butterfly Conservatory, the annual dragon boat festival, the Cambridge fall fair, and the Santa Claus Parade.

There is also the festive "Christmas in Cambridge" winter festival at Christmas featuring events like Unsilent Night, which began in New York City by Phil Kline. The City of Cambridge's take on this event uniquely involves other aspects of the community such as Christie digital projection technology. University of Waterloo School of Architecture Cambridge students in Dr. Jeff Lederer's Urban Revitalization and Design class designed the spectacular light installations.

The Cambridge Farmers' Market has been in operation in the original building on the original site circa 1830; making it the third-oldest market in the country. The Cambridge Farmers' Market is now ranked as one of the top 10 markets in the country by Best Health Magazine. All the vendors come from within a 100 km radius to sell fresh fruits, cheese, vegetables, baked goods and more.

The Cambridge Centre of the Arts is a municipally operated community arts centre that is available to area residents, artists and organizations. The Arts Centre was opened in May 2001. Cambridge Galleries are a part of the Cambridge Public Library system or Idea Exchange, with art exhibition spaces at Queen's Square, Preston and the new Design at Riverside location. Together, the three galleries host approximately 23 exhibitions per year. Along with the art gallery projects, Cambridge Libraries (Idea Exchange) are undergoing a $13.5 million restoration project of a former post-office into a digital library. The building was unused for some time before the city bought it for $950,000 and a Parks Canada grant of $800,000 restored some of the building. The new project will not house physical print but focus on 3D & laser printers, maker labs, performance and studio for teen, a large children's area including a Lego wall and a coffee shop.

The Federal and Ontario governments and the City of Cambridge came together and built the Dunfield Theatre in 2013 in an effort to promote Canadian talent and the performing arts. The 59,000-square-foot arts complex boasts 500 seats and over $20 million was contributed/donated. Michael Chan Minister of Tourism, Culture, and Sport said of the theatre's construction:"Arts and culture help to stimulate the economy, draw visitors to our province and enhance our quality of life...The new Dunfield Theatre Cambridge will enrich the cultural fabric of this community and provide exciting opportunities for people to engage in the arts. The Ontario government is pleased to support such a worthy project." In 2018, the theatre's name was changed to the Hamilton Family Theatre.

In June 2008, the new Cambridge City Hall facility opened as the first city hall in Canada to achieve the ranking of gold in the LEED from the Canada Green Building Council. The $30 million project was completed on time and on budget and financed through a settlement of a loan with the city's hydro utility. A conservative estimate comparing a standard 85000 sqft building to the new City Hall LEED-standard building results in a $160,000 savings on energy per year or some $1.6 million over 10 years. The open concept of the facility allows for greater airflow, reducing cooling costs and increasing the penetration of natural light to offset other light sources. A four-story "living wall" of tropical plants is located in the atrium and cleanses the air of pollutants such as formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, dust, and spores. Behind the living wall is a running water supply that provides humidity during the winter months and a soothing sound for employees and visitors to enjoy all year round.

The historic city hall in Cambridge was built in 1858 by local architect H.B. Sinclair for $3,650, replacing the original structure built in 1838. Built of granite and white limestone, locally found blue granite was used as a decorative feature. The Historic City Hall served as the community's town hall and marketplace. Today, the Historic City Hall and the New City Hall are connected by a hallway constructed shortly after the New City Hall was built.

In the tradition of environmental stewardship, Cambridge preserves over 365 ha of parkland which make up more than 80 parks in the city, as well as over 140 km of on-road cycling lanes.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Cambridge had a population of $138,479$ living in $51,269$ of its $53,013$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $129,920$. With a land area of 112.99 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Kitchener - Cambridge - Waterloo CMA had a population of $575,847$ living in $219,060$ of its $229,809$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $523,894$. With a land area of 1092.33 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

In 2021, the median age was 39.2 years, lower than the provincial median age of 41.6 years. 17.7% of the population was under 15 years of age and 16% was 65 years and over.

Ethnicity
According to the 2021 census, the population of Cambridge was approximately 74.3% White, 23.9% visible minority and 1.9% Indigenous. The largest visible minority group, at 11.7% of the population, was South Asian, followed by Black (3.6%), Latin American (1.7%), Filipino (1.3%), Southeast Asian (1.2%), Arab (1.1%), and Chinese (0.9%).
 * Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses.

Religion
As of 2021, 54.6% of the population identify as Christian (down from 69.6% in 2011). Others identify as Muslim (6.8%), Sikh (2.9%), Hindu (2.9%), and Buddhist (0.7%). 31.4% of the population report no religious affiliation, up from 24% in 2011

Roads
There are two main arterial roads that form an 'X' through the city. The intersecting point is colloquially referred to as the Delta. The intersection was once known as Hunter's Corners. The Delta is adjacent to a Canadian Pacific Rail spur and the Babcock & Wilcox plant, and at peak rush hour times traffic would back up for miles radiating outwards from the Delta. A number of strategies were investigated to alleviate delays caused by trains and as of December 2012 construction of a bridge over Hespeler Road commenced, and was completed 18 months later. While this eliminated delays caused by trains, the Delta remains a very busy intersection. Multiphase traffic signals with restrictions on right turns on red constrain vehicular throughput compared to typical signalized intersections. Highway 8 (Ontario) travels through the city as Shantz Hill Road, King Street in Preston, Coronation Boulevard, and Dundas Street, linking Cambridge to Kitchener and Waterloo in the west, and Hamilton in the east. Highway 24 runs through Cambridge as Hespeler Road, Water Street, and Ainslie Street, connecting to Guelph in the northeast and Brantford in the south.

Bridges
Cambridge has some of the most historic bridges in Waterloo Region. The Black Bridge Road Bridge (1916) is Cambridge's only truss bridge and has been designated a heritage site since 1997. It is still driven upon, though it is prone to major flooding and subsequent closure in the spring. The Main Street Bridge (1931) is a bowstring arch bridge made of concrete and is set over the Grand River. Also in Cambridge is the Park Hill Road Bridge (2002), formally known as the Queen Street Bridge (1933). This bridge was one of the three bridges credited with contributing to the development of early Galt. The bridge was reconstructed and widened to four lanes in 2002 retaining much of the original appearance. The Mill Creek Bridge (1837) in Cambridge is the oldest remaining bridge structure in the region and one of only two stone masonry arch bridges in the Region of Waterloo.

In 2007, the Region of Waterloo completed the first pedestrian/cycling bridge to cross the 401. This bridge connects Morningside Drive (Cambridge) with Doon Valley Drive (Kitchener) and is an integral part of the Grand River trails system.

Public transportation
Since 2000, public transport throughout the Region of Waterloo has been provided by Grand River Transit (GRT), which was created by a merger of the former Cambridge Transit and Kitchener Transit. GRT operates a number of routes in Cambridge that provide service within Cambridge itself and service to Kitchener & Waterloo, including 1 Bus Rapid Transit line and 2 limited-stop express bus lines. Ainslie Street Terminal serves as the main transportation hub for Grand River Transit and Coach Canada, while Sportsworld GO serves as the primary transit hub for GO Transit in Cambridge.

Frequency of transit may vary between routes. Some routes like 51 Hespeler may provide faster & more frequent service throughout the week, while routes like the 60 Burnett receive lower service and operate for lesser time.

Coach Canada runs almost every two hours during the daytime between Hamilton and Kitchener, and connecting to Niagara Falls.

Railways
The Canadian Pacific Railway's Galt Subdivision is the primary rail corridor in the city. It passes through the community of Galt, from which it takes its name, on an approximately east–west axis. It is a part of the Canadian Pacific mainline connecting Toronto with points southwest. Other cities on the Galt Subdivision (from east to west) are Toronto, Mississauga, and London; the line also passes through the towns of Milton and Woodstock.

Although freight trains serving the Toyota factory are a common sight in Cambridge, the city at present has no passenger rail service. , Cambridge is the only municipality in Ontario with both a population of over 100,000 people and no passenger rail service. The nearest Via Rail stations in the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor are Kitchener station, Guelph station, and Brantford.

The most easily accessible GO Transit railway stations are in Kitchener, Guelph and in Milton. GO bus service between Mississauga, Cambridge, and Kitchener was introduced in 2009 as a forerunner to GO train service to Kitchener.

Light rail

The first appearance of light rail in Cambridge was an electric street railway system between Galt and Preston, which was called the Galt and Preston Street Railway. This later expanded with a branch line from Preston to Hespeler, and was subsequently renamed the Galt, Preston and Hespeler Street Railway (GP&H). A separate extension line, the Preston and Berlin Street Railway, was built and then merged with the GP&H, and the whole system was renamed the Grand River Railway, which at its greatest extent ran as far north as Waterloo. With this extension, as well as infrastructure upgrades, it became a true interurban. A sister railway, the Lake Erie and Northern Railway, connected to the Grand River Railway at Galt, running south to Port Dover via Paris, Brantford, and Simcoe. The electric rail system ended passenger services in April, 1955.

In June 2011, the Waterloo regional council approved the plan for a light rail transit (LRT) service from Conestoga Mall in north Waterloo to Fairview Park Mall in south Kitchener, with express buses through to Cambridge. In Phase 1, which started operating in 2019, the Ion LRT runs between Waterloo and Kitchener, passing through the downtown and uptown areas of the two cities. The stations for the rapid buses along the southern half, known as Stage 2, were put in place by 2016.

Stage 2 of the rail line would run from Fairway to the "downtown Galt" area of Cambridge. At least one journalist has pointed out the similarity between this plan and the electric Grand River Railway of the early 1900s that connected Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo. Cambridge Mayor Doug Craig was a determined opponent of the plan. He felt that a series of buses would be just as effective but much less expensive.

The Ion rapid transit service in Kitchener-Waterloo (Stage 1) began on June 21, 2019, after delays caused by Bombardier's late deliver of the trains needed for the service. Most of the rails had been installed by the end of 2016; the maintenance facility and all underground utility work had been completed. The start date of service was postponed to early 2018, however, because of delays in the manufacture and delivery of the vehicles by Bombardier Transportation. As of 24 February 2017, only a single sample of a train car had arrived for testing.

In late February 2017, plans for the Stage 2 (Cambridge section) of the Ion rail service were still in the very early stage; public consultations had just started at the time. Some routes and stops had been agreed upon in 2011, but the final plan will not be established until mid 2017. No estimated date has been published for the start of light rail service to Cambridge.

Until the completion of Stage 2, rapid transit is provided between Fairview Park Mall and the Ainslie Street Transit Terminal (in the downtown Galt area) using branded buses with WiFi. Other stops for this Ion bus are at Hespeler Road at the Delta, Can-Amera, Cambridge Centre, Pinebush, and Sportsworld. The ION bus provides a direct link to the LRT half of the system in Kitchener-Waterloo.

GO train service proposals
In the years following the discontinuance of all passenger rail service to Cambridge, municipal officials lobbied for its return. In 2013, then-mayor Doug Craig reported positive results from negotiations with the Ontario Ministry of Transportation around an extension of GO Transit's Milton line service from its terminus at Milton; both Galt and Milton are located along the Canadian Pacific Railway's Galt Subdivision, which Milton line trains use. Craig pointed to the number of existing GO bus riders in Cambridge, as well as the number of Cambridge residents driving to Milton or to Paris, the latter to board Via Rail intercity trains which could reach Toronto in around an hour. The full business case for the Milton line extension, entitled "Cambridge on the GO", was released in 2015.

In 2018, citing the inability to successfully negotiate with Canadian Pacific for further access for passenger trains along the Galt Subdivision, regional and municipal governments, along with Metrolinx and the Ministry of Transportation, began to pursue a possible passenger rail connection to the Kitchener line at Guelph Central Station, using the existing CN Fergus Subdivision to reach it. An early 2021 report detailed the second stage of the feasibility study, which addressed details around service levels and station locations. The report proposed a service launch of 2026. Proposed train frequencies would be between one and four per hour, with travel times of around 15 minutes. Ridership estimates for 2026 would be 80,000–385,000 per year in different scenarios, dependent on the level of infrastructure investment in the line. The study estimated a lower cost and travel time to Toronto compared to driving directly or using existing GO or Via services; this differential was projected to increase approaching the mid-21st century, driven by road congestion and the effects of infrastructure investment on the Kitchener line, which would decrease train travel times. The study also argued that the service would aid in intensification of development in low-density areas of Cambridge, be highly deliverable due to its use of an existing rail corridor,  and improve labour mobility and economic development in Southwestern Ontario. The preferred station location was at Pinebush, which is also planned to be an Ion LRT station, making direct transfers between the light rail system and Cambridge–Guelph trains possible. Cambridge city councillors responded to the report favourably, highlighting a positive response from constituents.

Air

The nearest airport to Cambridge is the Region of Waterloo International Airport in neighboring Breslau. While it is a thriving general aviation field, commercial airlines from this location serve few destinations. On 22 June 2016 American Airlines announced it would be suspending flights to Chicago from this airport effective 5 October 2016.

Sports and recreation

Cambridge has 365 ha of parkland, 99 parks, over 140 sports fields, and many golf courses. As well, the city has over 70 km of urban and natural trails, 18 km of which run along the Grand and Speed Rivers.

Teams
The Cambridge Turbos are the most successful team in the National Ringette League with six titles at the Canadian Ringette Championships, including three straight from 2015 to 2017.

Cambridge is the home of the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League's Cambridge Redhawks (Previously The Cambridge Winter Hawks.) The Winter Hawks were the winners of the 2006 and 2007 Sutherland Cup. Cambridge also was the home of the four-time Allan Cup winning Cambridge Hornets of the Original OHA Senior A League, the last OHA Senior A Hockey League, and Major League Hockey. The team folded in 2006 following a points deduction by the Ontario Hockey Association for fielding an ineligible player, which caused the team to miss the playoffs. Following the dispute, the owners attempted to sell the team but were unsuccessful. Several attempts to revive the club have failed.

The Scorpions Youth Volleyball Club was formed in 2009 and has over 400 youth registered in their indoor and beach volleyball programs. The Scorpions have 8 competitive indoor teams. In September 2012 the Scorpions have the City of Cambridge 1st every boys competitive team (15U team) playing in the Ontario Volleyball Association. The club is a member of the Ontario Volleyball Association, with Learn to Play and House League programs for girls and boys Grades 3–12. They also have one of the largest youth beach volleyball programs in Ontario.

The Cambridge Aquajets are a competitive swim team that was founded in the early 1950s. The club practices at all of the City of Cambridge pools throughout the year.

The outstanding athletic achievement of individuals participating in sports has been honoured in Cambridge every November at the Cambridge Sports Awards banquet since 1974.

The Galt Red Wings were a junior ice hockey team based in Galt that played in the Ontario Hockey Association from 1944 to 1947. They were operated as an affiliate of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League. During the 1944–45 season, the Red Wings were led by Gordie Howe. They reached the league finals for the J. Ross Robertson Cup in 1945, but lost to Toronto St. Michael's Majors in four games. Their home arena was the Galt Arena Gardens.

Recreational buildings
The City of Cambridge has 6 public skating arenas: Dickson Centre, Duncan McIntosh Arena, Galt Arena Gardens, Hespeler Memorial Arena, Karl Homuth Arena, and Preston Auditorium; and 2 private skating areas: Cambridge Ice Centre and Ice Park. As well, the city has 2 public indoor pools (John Dolson Centre and W.G. Johnson Centre) and 3 public outdoor pools (Edward Newland Pool, George Hancock Pool, and Kinsmen – Soper Pool), in addition to the indoor pool at the Chaplin Family YMCA.

Cambridge has one lawn bowling club: the Preston Lawn Bowling Club is on Queenston Road in the Preston area of the city.

On October 24, 2008, the city completed the COM DEV Indoor Soccer Park. The $2.8 million project was funded by the City of Cambridge, COM DEV, and the Cambridge Youth Soccer Club, and will help accommodate a large number of kids playing soccer in the Waterloo Region.

Notable people

 * Tim Brent, hockey player
 * Nathan Brannen, three time track Olympian, 1500m (2008, 2012, 2016)
 * Raymond Brown, competitive swimmer, Olympic swimmer 1992
 * Jessica Camara, boxer
 * Adam Butcher, actor
 * Derrick Campbell, Olympic short-track speedskater (1994 and 1998)
 * Alexandra Chaves, dancer and actress
 * Louie DeBrusk, hockey player and announcer
 * Jake Dotchin, hockey player
 * Carmen Douma-Hussar, runner, 2004 World Indoor Championships silver medallist in 1500m
 * Rob Ducey, baseball player, first Ontario-born player to play for the Toronto Blue Jays
 * Hayley Elsaesser, fashion designer
 * J. R. Fitzpatrick, NASCAR racer
 * Madeline Gardiner, Canadian Olympic gymnast Alternate 2012
 * Russ Gillow, hockey player
 * Jet Greaves, hockey player
 * Peter Gzowski, writer, newspaper and magazine editor, CBC Radio host
 * C. Ernst Harth, actor
 * The Highlanders, Derek Graham-Couch and Russell Murray, a professional wrestling tag-team, who wrestled in World Wrestling Entertainment
 * Bob Hodges, National Hockey League linesman
 * Lyndon John X, reggae musician
 * Ian Leggatt, pro golfer
 * Bryan Little, hockey player
 * Kirk Maltby, hockey player
 * Steve McKenna, hockey player
 * Victoria Moors, Canadian Olympic gymnast (2012)
 * John Errington Moss, academic, author and Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada
 * Hilda Ranscombe, captain of the Preston Rivulettes
 * Gord Renwick, recipient of the Order of Hockey in Canada
 * Jim Schoenfeld, hockey player
 * Donald Shaver, poultry industry pioneer
 * Ron Shaver, figure skater, 1977 Canadian national champion
 * John Tanner, ice hockey goaltender
 * Scott Thorman, baseball player
 * Yvonne Tousek, Canadian Olympic gymnast (1996 and 2000)
 * Amelia Beers Warnock, poet, critic, and short story writer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cambridge, Ontario


text:
Hitman 2: Silent Assassin

Hitman 2: Silent Assassin is a 2002 stealth video game developed by IO Interactive and published by Eidos Interactive for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. The game was re-released for Windows through the Steam online distribution service, and a DRM-free version was later made available through GOG.com. It is the second installment in the Hitman video game series and the sequel to Hitman: Codename 47. The single-player story once again follows Agent 47, a genetically enhanced human clone who worked for the International Contract Agency (ICA) as an assassin. Following the events of Codename 47, the former contract killer has retired and started a peaceful life at a church, but after his only friend, Reverend Emilio Vittorio, is kidnapped by unknown assailants, 47 resumes work for the ICA in hopes of tracking him down.

Like its predecessor, gameplay focuses on eliminating targets while trying to remain undetected for as long as possible, may it be by taking disguises, avoiding suspicious enemies, or other means. The more action-focused segments from Codename 47 have been removed in favor of entirely stealth-focused missions, though players are free to choose their own style of gameplay. The game introduces the option for a first-person view, the ability to incapacitate enemies instead of killing them, and missions with multiple possible approaches.

Silent Assassin received generally positive reviews from critics, who considered it to be an improvement over its predecessor in every respect. The game was also a commercial success, having sold more than 3.7 million copies as of 23 April 2009, which makes it the best-selling Hitman game in the original series (prior to 2016's Hitman). High-definition ports of Silent Assassin and its successors, Contracts and Blood Money, were released on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in January 2013 in the form of the Hitman HD Trilogy.

Gameplay
Hitman 2 features mission-based gameplay and is presented from the third-person perspective, which can optionally be switched to a first-person view. On each level, the main character, a contract killer named Agent 47, is given a set of objectives to complete. Most levels require the assassination of one or more people. The way through which the missions are to be completed is up to the player, and there are often a variety of ways to complete missions. Instead of taking an action-oriented, aggressive approach, one can also set traps, like poisoning a drink, to terminate the target in silence. Some missions have assassination possibilities unique to the level.

Agent 47 can find disguises or remove them from an incapacitated person to blend in with his surroundings and access restricted areas. This plays in with the "suspicion" system; a bar beside the health meter on the HUD represents how much suspicion the player garners. There are multiple ways to blend in more effectively; for example, the player can make sure to carry an AK-47 assault rifle while disguised as a Russian soldier. Despite the usage of a uniform, being near to fellow guards will increase the suspicion as they would have an opportunity to more closely examine 47. Running, climbing and being in restricted places are other ways to garner concern.

Agent 47's cover can be blown if suspicion gets too high, and the disguise will no longer be of any use. It is possible to switch between multiple disguises throughout the level.

Hitman 2 uses the concept of a post-mission ranking system, in which the player is given a status based on how they completed the mission, rated along a stealthy-aggressive axis, between "Silent Assassin", a stealthy player who manages to complete the level without being noticed and only killing two non-targeting people excluding the intended target(s), and "Mass Murderer", a non-stealthy player who kills everyone. The game rewards the player for critical thinking and problem solving, encouraging the player not to treat the game as a simple shooter. Achieving "Silent Assassin" status on multiple missions rewards the player with bonus weapons. These weapons, plus items found in previous levels, can be carried over into future ones, allowing for differing means of accomplishing the tasks. Big weapons like rifles and shotguns cannot be concealed, thus the player has to either be wearing an appropriate disguise to match the weapon, or make sure no one sees the player use it.

Plot
Following the events of Hitman: Codename 47, two men investigate the massacre left by Agent 47 at the facility of his creator, Dr. Ort-Meyer, in Romania. One of them recognizes the former assassin on video footage of the events, and decides that they must "hire" him. Meanwhile, 47, having retired after erasing all evidence of his existence, leads a new life as a humble gardener at a Sicilian church owned by the Reverend Emilio Vittorio. One day, after 47 attends confession to ask for forgiveness for his past, a group of unknown men arrive at the church and abduct Vittorio, leaving behind a ransom note demanding $500,000.

Unable to pay such a sum, 47 contacts his former employers, the International Contract Agency (ICA), for assistance. The organisation agrees to help in exchange for 47 returning to complete several contracts for them. Although he learns that the abduction was conducted by the local Mafia and kills the person who handled it, 47 is unable to find Vittorio, and is left to repay his debt to the ICA. His missions take him to various locations in Russia, Japan, Malaysia, Afghanistan and India, and each require collecting an important item for his client. In time, he eventually gives up his search for Vittorio, who he assumes is dead.

After eliminating his last target, 47 is informed by the ICA that Vittorio's kidnapping was orchestrated by Sergei Zavorotko, the brother of Arkadij Jegorov (one of 47's five genetic donors and targets from the first game), in order to lure 47 out of retirement. In addition, he learns that all the targets were connected to the sale of a nuclear warhead to Sergei, who needed them eliminated in order to conceal the fact that he intended to arm the warheads to missiles that possessed software which would disguise them as American-made, therefore bypassing the American missile defense system, and sell them to interested parties. 47 pursues Sergei, who has taken Vittorio back to his church, and kills him and his men. Concerned for his soul, Vittorio begs 47 to renounce his path of violence and lead a good life, handing him his rosary. Unable to find inner peace, however, 47 leaves the rosary on the church's door, and formally returns to the ICA.

Development
One of the major complaints critics made about the first game was that it was inaccessible to most players due to its unfriendly nature, featuring difficult gameplay and a broken checkpoint system. Improvements were made to the game's AI and many levels were made smaller and more focused. Additional items would be available in the second installment, including chloroform for quietly taking down enemies and a crossbow which could silently kill opponents. The initial story for the game would take place after the events of the first game. After hearing the changes planned for Hitman 2, PC Gamer declared in December 2001 that "Hitman 2 should be everything we wished of its predecessor – and that gives us extremely high hopes."

Reception
Hitman 2: Silent Assassin received "generally positive" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. GameSpot gave it a score of 8.6/10, saying that it "fixes virtually all of the problems of its predecessor" and is still an "outstanding" game. Electronic Gaming Monthly scored Hitman 2's GameCube version 7/8/8.5: the first reviewer criticized its artificial intelligence and mission briefings, but said that "each time I circumvented the immeasurable odds and made the crucial killing blow, Hitman 2 was briefly a blast"; the third reviewer summarized it as "an engaging adventure title that rewards patient players".

Despite the 7/8/8.5 scores given by Electronic Gaming Monthly, the cover of the GameCube release says "9/10 Electronic Gaming Monthly Gold Award". This score is erroneously taken from the magazine's review of the PlayStation 2 version. When confronted with the issue by Electronic Gaming Monthly, Eidos said it would remove the score in future printings.

Hitman 2 has sold more than 3.7 million copies as of 23 April 2009. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Hitman 2 had sold 1.1 million copies and earned $39 million in the United States. Next Generation ranked it as the 47th-highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined console sales of Hitman games released in the 2000s reached 2 million units in the United States by July 2006. Hitman 2's PC and Xbox releases each received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies per version in the United Kingdom. ELSPA gave the game's PlayStation 2 release a "Platinum" certification for sales of at least 300,000 copies in the region.

Hitman 2 was nominated for Computer Gaming World's 2002 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Medal of Honor: Allied Assault. The editors wrote, "Hitman 2 is a huge improvement over the original, and it's one of the best games of last year in any genre." GameSpot presented the game with its annual "Most Improved Sequel on PC" award. It was also nominated for GameSpot's "Best Music on PC", "Best Single-Player Action Game on PC", "Best Music on Xbox", "Best Sound on PlayStation 2", "Best Music on PlayStation 2" and "Best Action Adventure Game on Xbox" prizes. During the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Hitman 2 for "Console Action/Adventure Game of the Year".

Controversy
The game's release sparked controversy due to a level featuring the killing of Sikhs within a depiction of their most holy site, the Golden Temple, where hundreds of Sikhs were massacred in 1984. In response, the level was edited from the Microsoft Windows and GameCube versions of Silent Assassin, removing all Sikh-related references.

title: Hitman 2: Silent Assassin


text:
Hitman 2

Hitman 2 may refer to the following titles in the Hitman franchise:

 * Hitman 2: Silent Assassin, a 2002 game developed by IO Interactive
 * Hitman 2 (2018 video game), a 2018 game developed by IO Interactive
 * Hitman: Agent 47, the second film adaptation of the series

title: Hitman 2


text:
Talk:Rudolf Steiner

Too many citations for any given sentence
See WP:citekill; we shouldn't have large numbers of citations for any single sentence. 2-3 citations should suffice normally. Butterfly or Chuang Tzu? (talk) 19:06, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Well, that's a response to people claiming at this talk page that it would be somehow doubtful that the mainstream academic POV is that Steiner was a pseudoscientist pur sang. They did not seem to be content with just four or five citations.
 * And there are Wikipedians willing to argue that Anthroposophy isn't a religion, although I WP:CITED more than 50 scholars endorsing that it is (see Talk:Anthroposophy).
 * I had to argue with people who denied these are the mainstream academic views unless one cites at least two dozens scholars. See the archives of this talk page and Fringe theories/Noticeboard/Archive 63. So, yup, there are so many citations because such pro-Anthroposophy group of editors (see the cited FTN topic) either honestly did not know how mainstream science and mainstream academia view Anthroposophy, or at least pretended they didn't.
 * They denied that Rudolf Steiner is a pseudoscientist, they denied he is a pseudohistorian, they denied that Anthroposophy is a religion—despite these facts being print-published in reputable sources for more than seventy years, and still published in reasonably recent WP:RS.
 * While I can see the reason for the second overcite, I can't see the reason for the first one. Solved. I do notice that Citation overkill is against many citations (i.e. the numbers in superscript), not against many reliable sources. tgeorgescu (talk) 16:43, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm not seeing anything really standing out in the current version at least for excessive foot notes (don't think I saw more than 3). That said, if there's ever a sparing need for many references in one footnote, there's always multiref templates. KoA (talk) 17:45, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

First marriage
His first marriage ended in divorce in June 1904, according to Dutch Wikipedia, citing (Lindenberg 2011:356; Zander 2007:241).

The only thing that is doubtful is separation (without divorce) vs. divorce. My German is not good enough for such nuances. E.g. religious Dutchies get formally separated instead of divorcing, since their religion does not allow them to divorce.

Reason? His second wife moved in his home, while he was married to his first wife. tgeorgescu (talk) 01:45, 26 April 2024 (UTC)

Schizophrenic
Now we have two psychiatrists who have diagnosed Rudolf Steiner with schizophrenia. Unlike (I presume) Wolfgang Treher, C.G. Jung actually met Rudolf Steiner, not to speak that Jung was much more famous than Treher. tgeorgescu (talk) 00:10, 9 May 2024 (UTC)

 * And yet somehow the man managed to write books, lead and develop a community, a schooling system, and create architectural masterpieces. Stupid. Project Apollo (talk) 21:37, 14 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Besides, if Steiner had freedom of speech, so did Treher and Jung. All of them wrote opinions which are germane to this article. tgeorgescu (talk) 06:46, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Besides, we don't tell that what Treher and Jung claimed would be true or false, we just state they made such claims. tgeorgescu (talk) 23:45, 26 May 2024 (UTC)

Univocality
In respect to the claims about Steiner's Docetism, Adoptionism, Nestorianism, and Gnosticism: I don't believe in the univocality of the Bible, why I would believe in the univocality of mainstream WP:SCHOLARSHIP? tgeorgescu (talk) 16:19, 18 May 2024 (UTC)

NOT gnostic
id suggest removing this introductory statement that Steiner was influenced by Gnosticism as it's too speculative. Citing academic opinions on the nature of Steiner's work isn't the same as reading the words from the man himself. Anthroposophy is the study of man and the cosmos - it's more aligned to Hermeticism than it is to gnosticism as gnosticism is a faith based system, whereas Anthroposophy is a scientific examination (whether people accept it to be or not). He does not focus on the idea of a Demiurge, but utilizes the belief systems and names of and in multiple religions.

Here is a quote from Steiner: "... And if people who venture to judge of Anthroposophy to-day, would take the trouble to observe these things, they would not fall into the calumny of confusing Anthroposophy with what is really only a dishing up of ancient Gnosticism, or similar things." - Feb 06, 1921, public lecture

Project Apollo (talk) 21:34, 14 May 2024 (UTC)

 * The fact he is influenced by gnosticism is hardly speculative and clearly well cited given that you had to remove five wp:RELIABLESOURCES supporting the claim—blindlynx 01:49, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Hi,, see especially which is a verbatim quote inside our article. See also the quote below it. It's a complicated matter, and cannot be answered simplistically.
 * To delve into terminology, "Gnostic" means "one who knows," rather than "one who believes." So, does not exactly help your argument that Steiner isn't Gnostic.
 * Hermeticism, Gnosticism, and Rosicrucianism are not mutually exclusive terms. Also, you say it like it can be only black or white, while in fact there are nuances.
 * So, to answer the charge, Anthroposophy is not, but it is certainly influenced by Ancient Gnosticism. I mean, Steiner did not take everything from Gnosticism at face value, but was certainly influenced by it (to the extent it was known in Steiner's time).
 * Either he was a full-blown Gnostic, or he was no Gnostic at all is a false dilemma. Ancient Gnosticism means a bewildering variety of sects and religious beliefs, to the extent that some scholars have questioned if speaking of Ancient Gnosticism has any meaning at all. I don't know if Steiner knew that, but present-day scholars know it full well.
 * Steiner being influenced by Gnosticism has been described based upon at least 13 WP:RS, several of them being written by full professors who are experts in this field. What about the Catholic Church, what made them decide that Anthroposophy is a neognostic heresy? I did not analyze their statements, but two elements are obvious: reincarnation and Steiner's Christology, plus a suggestion that the Holy Trinity does not mean the seven Elohim. tgeorgescu (talk) 06:42, 17 May 2024 (UTC)
 * If I wanted to smear Steiner as a Gnostic, why did I WP:CITE two WP:RS which say that's only half-true? tgeorgescu (talk) 19:11, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Rudolf Steiner's official journal was called Lucifer Gnosis. My emphasis is not upon Lucifer, like that of theological prudes, but upon Gnosis. This is at least a token he moved inside (neo)Gnostic circles. tgeorgescu (talk) 10:29, 11 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rudolf Steiner


text:
Caroline B. Cooney

Caroline B. Cooney (born May 10, 1947) is an American author of suspense, romance, horror, and mystery books for young adults.

Biography
Cooney was born in 1947 in Geneva, New York. She grew up in Old Greenwich, Connecticut. She attended Indiana University from 1965 to 1966, then went to Massachusetts General Hospital School of Nursing from 1966 to 1967. She went to the University of Connecticut in 1968. She attended several colleges but didn't want to obtain a degree because of certain circumstances. She did not initially know she wanted to be a writer. Cooney took care of three children while writing after her first book got published. That's when the books started getting published one after another.

Cooney's books have received several honors, including an IRA–CBC Children's Choice and being named an ALA Best Book for Young Adults. Most recently Cooney's Diamonds in the Shadow was named a 2008 ALA/YALSA Quick Pick and was a nominee for the Edgar Allan Poe Award.

She currently resides in Rock Hill, South Carolina.

Stand-alone novels

 * Safe as the Grave (1979)
 * Rear-View Mirror (1980)
 * The Paper Caper (1981)'' (with Gail Owens)
 * An April Love Story (1981)
 * Nancy and Nick (1982)
 * The Personal Touch (1982)
 * He Loves Me Not (1982)
 * Sand Trap (1983)
 * Holly in Love (1983)
 * Sun, Sea and Boys (1984)
 * Nice Girls Don't (1984)
 * I'm Not Your Other Half (1984)
 * Don't Blame the Music (1986)
 * Saturday Night (1986)
 * The Rah Rah Girls (1987)
 * Last Dance (1987)
 * Among Friends (1987)
 * New Year's Eve (1988)
 * The Girl Who Invented Romance (1988)
 * Camp Girl-Meets-Boy (1988)
 * Summer Nights (1988)
 * Family Reunion (1989)
 * Summer Love (1990)
 * Camp Reunion (1991)
 * The Party's Over (1991)
 * Twenty Pageants Later (1991)
 * Freeze Tag (1992)
 * Flight #116 Is Down (1992)
 * Operation: Homefront (1992)
 * Perfume (1993)
 * Forbidden (1993)
 * The Stranger (1993)
 * Emergency Room (1994)
 * Driver's Ed (1994)
 * Twins (1994)
 * Unforgettable (1994)
 * Night School (1995)
 * Flash Fire (1995)
 * Wanted! (1997)
 * The Terrorist (1997)
 * What Child is This?: A Christmas Story (1997)
 *  Prisoner of Time (1998)
 * Hush Little Baby (1999)
 * Burning Up (1999)
 * Tune in Anytime (1999)
 * Mummy (2000)
 * Mercy (2001) aka The Ransom of Mercy Carter
 * Fatality (2001)
 * Goddess of Yesterday (2002) aka On the Seas to Troy
 * Evil Returns (2003)
 * Fatal Bargain (2003)
 * The Vampire's Promise: Deadly Offer (2003)
 * Code Orange (2005)
 * Hit the Road (2006)
 * A Friend at Midnight (2006)
 * Enter Three Witches (2007)
 * Diamonds in the Shadow (2007)
 * A Night to Remember (2009)
 * If the Witness Lied (2009)
 * They Never Came Back (2009)
 * Three Black Swans (2010)
 * The Lost Songs (2011)
 * No Such Person (2015)

The Vampire's Promise trilogy

 * Deadly Offer (originally titled The Cheerleader) (1991)
 * Evil Returns (originally titled The Return of the Vampire) (1992)
 * Fatal Bargain (originally titled The Vampire's Promise) (1993)

Janie Johnson series

 * The Face on the Milk Carton
 * Whatever Happened to Janie?
 * The Voice on the Radio
 * What Janie Found
 * What Janie Saw (New Ebook)
 * Janie Face to Face

Losing Christina series
The Losing Christina books have since been retitled Fog, Snow, and Fire.
 * The Fog (1989)
 * The Snow (1990)
 * The Fire (1990)

Time Travelers Quartet

 * Both Sides of Time (1995)
 * Out of Time (1996)
 * Prisoner of Time (1998)
 * For All Time (2001)

title: Caroline B. Cooney


text:
Colm Meaney

Colm J. Meaney (Colm Ó Maonaigh; born 30 May 1953) is an Irish actor best known for playing Miles O'Brien in Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993–1999). He has guest-starred on many TV shows including Law & Order and The Simpsons, and starred as Thomas C. Durant on Hell on Wheels (2011–2016).

He has a career in films, appearing in  Layer Cake, The Damned United, all three film adaptations of Roddy Doyle's The Barrytown Trilogy, and in Get Him to the Greek. He portrayed a principal character in the film The Englishman who Went up a Hill but Came down a Mountain. In 2017, Meaney won the Best Actor IFTA for his portrayal of Irish politician Martin McGuinness in the film The Journey. In 2020, he was listed at number 24 on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors.

Early life
Meaney was born in Finglas, Dublin. He began studying acting at age 14, and he entered the Abbey Theatre School of Acting after secondary school. He became a member of the Irish National Theatre and worked for the next eight years in England, touring with several theatre companies, including the 7:84 theatre group founded by John McGrath.

Career
Meaney's first television appearance was in Z-Cars on BBC One, in 1978. He guest-starred on shows such as Remington Steele and Moonlighting before embarking on a successful film career; he received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor for his role in The Snapper.

Meaney first appeared on Star Trek: The Next Generation in its 1987 pilot episode, "Encounter at Farpoint", as an unnamed helm officer. His character became a frequently recurring one, and was given the name of Miles O'Brien as he became more prominent in the crew as Transporter Chief. In 1993, Meaney left The Next Generation for a main role in its spin-off Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and remained on that show until its final episode, in 1999. With 225 total appearances on Star Trek, he is second to Michael Dorn with most appearances on the franchise.

Meaney played Colum O'Hara in the 1994 miniseries Scarlett, the sequel to Gone With the Wind. He has played a minor recurring role as Cowen, leader of the Genii on the series Stargate Atlantis, guest-starred on Law & Order, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and appeared as Bob O'Donnell on the ABC show Men in Trees. Meaney appeared in the film Die Hard 2, playing the pilot of the plane Windsor 114 that was later crashed by Colonel Stuart.

He was the only actor to appear in all three film adaptations of Roddy Doyle's The Barrytown Trilogy, as the father of the Rabbitte family. His stage appearances include the Old Vic production of Eugene O'Neill's A Moon for the Misbegotten. Meaney starred in British comedy film Three and Out (released in the UK on 25 April 2008). In July of the same year An Post (the Irish Post Office ) issued a postage stamp showing Meaney as Joe Mullen in the film Kings.

In 2009, Meaney co-starred with Gerard Butler and Jamie Foxx in Law Abiding Citizen, playing Detective Dunnigan. In March 2009, Meaney voiced an Irish bartender on the St. Patrick's Day episode of The Simpsons, "In the Name of the Grandfather". In the same month the film The Damned United was released, a mostly fictional retelling of the 44-day period in which Brian Clough was manager of Leeds United F.C. Meaney played former Leeds manager Don Revie. He co-starred in Soldiers of Fortune. In 2013, Meaney co-starred in Alan Partridge: Alpha Papa. In 2014, he appeared as The Horse in the BBC's three-part crime story The Driver. For five seasons he portrayed railroad magnate Thomas C. Durant on AMC's drama series Hell on Wheels.

Personal life
Meaney married Irish actress Bairbre Dowling in 1977. Their daughter Brenda, also an actor, was born in 1984. The couple divorced in 1994. He married French costume designer Ines Glorian in March 2007. Their daughter was born in 2005. They live in the Majorcan town of Sóller.

Meaney is a supporter of Sinn Féin.

title: Colm Meaney