text:
User:Skysmith

Good morning,

I have been analyzed as INTP, 5W4 and wet skeptic. Those who know what those mean are likely to either deride or fervently support the first two systems. I do neither but I do not really consider them scientific methods.

It seems that I am among the minority that is interested about these things (and mainly things that have actually existed). I admit that one of the reasons I began to contribute was the fact that some entries elicited a comment equivalent to "What is this?!". So I decided to correct the matter. Another reason is that this is as good an excuse as any to organize my jumbled notes.

However, my daily time online is limited. By necessity, my Wikipedoholic rating is just 37. Therefore, I usually cannot find time to de-orphan the articles I've written. Sometimes I also find it hard to find suitable categories. Those willing to correct my spelling are welcome to do that.

I've also noticed that many of the web pages I used as sources for older articles have disappeared. Mainly the book and magazine article references remain.

And no, I have nothing to do with the aviation insurance company of the same name.

Other pages:
 * Thoughts about articles about smaller communities
 * My list of missing articles

Original version of the following articles (with at least some overlap between the categories. Also note that the names of some of the articles have changed over the last couple of years)

Crime
Adam Worth - Algoth Niska - Alves dos Reis - Anne Bonny - Aqua Tofana - Armata Corsa - Aydin Dikmen - Barry Minkow - Black Hand (disambiguation) - Black Hand (extortion) - Bonnot Gang - Burke and Hare murders - Cato Street Conspiracy - Claude Duval - Edward Sexby - Eleanor Jarman - Eugène François Vidocq - Gaetano Badalamenti - Great Gold Robbery of 1855 - Jack Lee Harelson - Jacques Mesrine - James Townsend Saward - John Nichols Thom - London Monster - Miles Sindercombe - Percy Toplis - Robert Toye - Robert Vesco - Sadamichi Hirasawa - Shrigley Abduction - Soapy Smith - Steven Jay Russell - Theft of the Jules Rimet Trophy - Virginia Hill –

Duplicity
Bre-X Minerals - Cecil Jacobson - Charles Redheffer - Civil War gold hoax - David Begelman - Diamond hoax of 1872 - David Rorvik - Edmund Backhouse - Elizabeth Canning - George Dupre - Giovanni Vigliotto - Gregor MacGregor - Henri Lemoine - Impostor - J. Bam Morrison - Maria Monk - Marthe Hanau - Martin Frankel - Mary Carleton - Mel Spillman - Omega Trust - Oscar Hartzell - Otto von Bressensdorf - Phesheya Dube - Poyais - Rakesh Saxena - Reiner Protsch - Thérèse Humbert - Titus Oates -

Impostors
Adelaide Abankwah - Alexis Brimeyer - Bhawal case - Binjamin Wilkomirski - Brianna Stewart - Cassie Chadwick - Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance - Christophe Rocancourt - Eugenio Lascorz - Ferdinand Waldo Demara - Frank Abagnale - Frédéric Bourdin - Frederick Emerson Peters - George Psalmanazar - Grey Owl - Harry Domela - James Hogue - Jean-Claude Romand - Karoly Hajdu - Louis de Rougemont - Marvin Hewitt - Michael Pelligrino - Princess Caraboo - Robert Hendy-Freegard - Sarah Wilson - Stanley Clifford Weyman - Tichborne Claimant - Two Moon Meridas - Wilhelm Voigt -

Nonexistent people
Andreas Karavis (hoax) - Araki Yasusada (stub) - Bridey Murphy - Eddie Burrup - H. Rochester Sneath - J. Fortescue - Wanda Koolmatrie (stub) -

Forgery
Alexander Howland Smith - Archaeological forgery - Archaeoraptor - Art forgery - Brigido Lara - Charles Weisberg - Emile Schuffenecker (stub) - David Stein (stub) - Elmyr de Hory - Ely Sakhai - Eric Hebborn - Etruscan terracotta warriors - Fernand Legros - Flower portrait - Fujimura Shinichi - Geert Jan Jansen - Guy Hain - Henry Woodhouse - James Ossuary - Jean de Sperati - Jean-Pierre Schecroun (stub) - John Drewe - John Myatt - Joseph Cosey - Lothar Malskat - Louis Enricht - Michigan relics - Moses Shapira - Otto Wacker - Persian Princess - Robert Spring - Vrain Denis-Lucas - William Blundell (stub) - William Henry Ireland -

Espionage
André Dewavrin - Hermann Görtz - Horst Kopkow - Hugo Bleicher (Abwehr) - John Thurloe - Joseph Darnand (Milice) - Leopold Trepper - Lionel Crabb - Maurice Buckmaster - Red Orchestra (spy) - Richard Sorge - Salon Kitty - Sidney Reilly - Stewart Menzies - Venlo Incident - Walter Schellenberg - William Melville -

French Resistance
Albert Guérisse - Andrée Borrel - Andrée de Jongh - Brian Stonehouse - Charles Delestraint - Eliane Plewman - Emmanuel d'Astier - George Rodocanachi - George Starr - Georges Bégué - Georges Bidault - Harry Rée - Henri Dericourt - Henri Frenay - Henri Giraud - Henri Rol-Tanguy - Lucie Aubrac (stub) - Marie Dissard - Mathilde Carré - Nancy Wake - Peter Churchill - Pierre Brossolette -

History (of various scales)
Airship R101 - Abergele train disaster - Acta Diurna - Agrionia - Amphictyonic League - Arval Brethren - Catalpa rescue - Court Jew - Forty-seven Ronin (first version) - Garamantes - Garrat Elections - Helots - Holmgang - Housecarl (stub) - Poison affair - The Raft of the Medusa - Tribute -

Archaeology
Alfred Maudslay - Archaeological Survey of India (stub) - Augusta Raurica - Ciudad Perdida - Deer stone - Georgi Kitov - Girl of the Uchter Moor - Guachimontones - Guge - Katherine Routledge - Maria Reiche - Persepolis Fortification Archive - Sagalassos -

Explorers
Alessandro Malaspina - Jean Francois de Galaup -

Military History
Authors in War - Blood chit - De Re Militari - Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation - Malayan Emergency - Oblique order - Shimabara Rebellion - Siege of La Rochelle -

Military Units
Assam Rifles - Black Company - Blue Division - Brigade of Gurkhas - Charlemagne Division - Chindits - Cuirassier - Flying Tigers - Gideon Force - Hessians - Merrill's Marauders - Persian Immortals - Potsdam Giants - Royal Highland Regiment - Sipahi -

Noted combatants
Albert Cashier - Andreas Hofer - Charles Lallemand - Charles Portal - Deborah Sampson - Franz von Werra - Fritz Bayerlein - Gazan de la Peyrière - Hannah Snell - Haydee Tamara Bunke Bider - Henri Giraud - Italo Balbo - Jan Krukowiecki - Johnny and Luther Htoo - Khun Sa - Laskarina Bouboulina - Laszlo Almasy - Lucio Cabañas - Mary Anne Talbot - Orde Charles Wingate - Percy Hobart - Saburo Sakai - Sepp Dietrich - Sven Hassel - Theodoros Kolokotronis -

Weapons
Bolas - Kukri -

Medical matters
Aboulia - Agnosia - Alopecia areata - Elisha Perkins - Georges Gilles de la Tourette - James Morison - Samuel Jean de Pozzi - Theodore de Mayerne - Theriac - William Cadogan -

Incumbents
Paul Magloire - Samora Machel - Suharto - Sukarno - Zog of Albania -

Intriguing people
Alain Bombard - Arthur Lintgen - Chang Apana - Chung Ling Soo - Count of St Germain - Dominick Arduin - Ercole Antonio Mattioli - Eustace the Monk - George Polley (stub) - Harry Grindell Matthews - Horace Ridler (Omi the Great) - Jacques Inaudi (stub) - Jamake Highwater - James Burnett, Lord Monboddo - James de la Cloche - James Hampton - Jemmy Hirst - Joseph Suss Oppenheimer - Morris Cohen - Rene Belbenoit - Roy Sullivan - Seamus McSporran - Slavomir Rawicz - Stephen Tennant -

Heroes All
Chiune Sugihara - Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz - Hannah Szenes - Hugh O'Flaherty - Jan Zwartendijk - Janusz Korczak - Kate ter Horst (stub) - Poon Lim - Sabine Zlatin -

Ladies as men
Albert Cashier - Billy Tipton - Deborah Sampson - Hannah Snell - James Barry - Julie d'Aubigny - Loreta Janeta Velazquez - Mary Anne Talbot -

Ladies in deed
Eleanor Rathbone - Geneviève de Galard - Gloria Steinem - Jennifer Miller - Laskarina Bouboulina - Maria Bochkareva - Maria Sibylla Merian - Rosika Schwimmer - Sue Ryder - Temple Grandin - Torey Hayden - Veronica Guerin - Yuri Kochiyama -

Different bodies
Alison Lapper - Annie Jones - Carl Herman Unthan - Clémentine Delait - Daisy and Violet Hilton - Frank Lentini - Herculine Barbin - Hervé Paillet - Jane Barnell - Jennifer Miller - John Middleton - Joseph Boruwlaski - Josephine Clofullia - Julia Pastrana - Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo - Lili Elbe - Masha and Dasha Krivoshlyapova - Myrtle Corbin - Ovitz family - Robert Pershing Wadlow - Saartjie Baartman - Sarah Biffen -

Eccentrics
Charles Hatfield - Cherry Sisters - Ferdinand Cheval - Fonthill Abbey - Hetty Green - John Mytton - Justo Gallego Martínez - Martin van Butchell - Matthew Robinson - Orelie-Antoine de Tounens - Robert Coates - Roy Bean - Timothy Dexter - William John Cavendish Bentinck-Scott -

Pranksters
Alan Abel - Brian G. Hughes - Harry Reichenbach - Horace de Vere Cole - Joey Skaggs -

Savants
Alonzo Clemons - Derek Paravicini - Gottfried Mind (stub)- Hikari Oe - James Henry Pullen - Jonathan Lerman - Kim Peek - Leslie Lemke - Thristan Mendoza (stub) - Tony DeBlois - Truman Henry Safford -

Miscellaneous biographies
Alexis Soyer - Alphonse Bertillon - Andrew Crosse - Bernard Cornfeld - Cesca Chenevix Trench - Daniel K. Ludwig - Dido Elizabeth Belle - Edmund Berry Godfrey - Feliks Topolski - Fet-Mats Israelsson - Francisco Maldonado da Silva (stub) - Genie (feral child) - George Steer - George Wombwell - Giambattista Basile - Giovanni Francesco Straparola - Ingeborg of Denmark (1175-1238) - James Finlayson - Jay Carsey - Johann Theodor de Bry - John Banvard - John Tresilian - Juan Vucetich - Judith Exner - Jukka Ammondt - Kimon Evan Marengo - Liz Carmichael (stub) - Marie Duplessis - Max Bauer - Mohamed Harbi - Nicole-Reine Lepaute - Oliver Sacks - Panna Cinka - Pelorus Jack - Philippos Syrigos - Piero Manzoni - Richard Ingle - Robert Blincoe - Roux de Marsilly (stub) - Samuel Maverick - Ulrich von Liechtenstein - William Lamport - Wouter Basson -

IMC (The Inevitable Miscellaneous Category)
African Movement of Working Children and Youth - Ala kachuu - Alawism - Almoner - Ama divers - Ancient lights - Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory - Bathybius - Beetle bank (stub) - Capuchin catacombs of Palermo - Catacombs of Rome - Charivari - Enneagram of personality - Flying Flea - Futuwa - Gurkha - Honne and tatemae (stub) - Ice palace - Jari project - Khian Sea waste disposal incident - Lady Greyhound - Ley farming - Phoenix Foundation - Rai stones - Ralstonism - Tinku (stub) - Toyi-toyi - Ulama (game) - Vogalonga -

Nonexistent things
Borduria - San Theodoros -

Additional info to these articles
Agitator - Albert Camus - Albert Spaggiari - Alceo Dossena - Alexander Mosaic - Algerian War of Independence - Alison Bechdel - Allobroges (allobrogs) - Anne de Montmorency - Archibald McIndoe - Arnold Rothstein - Arquebus - Asa Earl Carter - Ashigaru - Béla Kiss - Bernard Spilsbury - Berserker - Blind Tom Wiggins - Book of hours - Brandenburgers - Bugsy Siegel - Butrint (Buthrotum)- Carcassonne - Cardiff Giant - Carl Clauberg - Catacombs of Paris - Cecily Neville - Cestus - Charles Higham - Chersonesos - Chevalier d'Eon - Clifford Irving - Coldstream Guards - Collyer brothers - Commando - Crucifixion - Dario Fo - Dervish - Dorothy Arnold - Dreadnought hoax - Earl - Edith Sitwell - False Dmitriy I - Farinelli - Felice Orsini - Vendetta - Francis Walsingham - Free Frank McWorter - French Resistance - Fritz Kreisler - Galen - Gertrude Bell - Gladiator - Goseck circle - Great Brink's Robbery - Grenadier - Guinea Pig Club - Harry Bensley - Helen Darville - Hélène Jegado - Hoax - Hope Diamond - Hugh Troy - Human sacrifice - Impi (Zulu warriors) - Indian Mutiny - Ivar Kreuger - James Mellaart - Janet Cooke - Janissary - Jasper Maskelyne - John Cornwell - John Ernst Worrell Keely - John Hawkwood - John Pendlebury - Jomo Kenyatta - Karl Wilhelm Naundorff - Kaspar Hauser - Ladies of Llangollen - Lal Bihari - Lambert Simnel - Louis Slotin - Mameluks - Man in the Iron Mask - Manlio Brosio - Marcel Pétiot - Marcello Malpighi - Marie Pierre Koenig - Maronite Church - Mau Mau Uprising - Maundy Gregory - Mercer Girls - MI9 - Michael Davitt - Mikhail Gerasimov - Miyamoto Musashi - Mut - New Philadelphia Town Site - Nicholas Throckmorton - Normandie-Niemen - Oflag IV-C (Colditz Castle) - Osceola - Otto Dix - Peking Man - Percy Fawcett - Peterloo Massacre - Plain of Jars - Polisario Front - Bannerman's Castle - Popham Colony - Red Brigades - René Goulaine de Laudonnière - Richard Martin ("Humanity Dick") - Richard Wawro - Robert Brasillach - Robert Dudley - Rondo Hatton - Rosetta Stone - Salvatore Giuliano - Samurai - Sawney Bean - Slovak National Uprising - Spartacus - Special Air Service - Special Boat Service - Stavisky Affair - Stephen Wiltshire - Stidda - Tanganyika groundnut scheme - Thomas Gainsborough - Thomas Guy - Thomas Tompion - Thomas Young - Tom Keating - Tommy Armour - Tomoe Gozen - Toussaint Louverture - Tulip mania - Volkssturm - William Brodie - Yakuza - Yazidi - Yevno Azef -

Compiled wikibooks
 * User:Skysmith/Books/Imposture and Deception

Temporary pages
 * Thor Chemicals draft

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Skysmith


text:
User talk:Skysmith

 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2003-2005
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2006
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2007
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2008
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2009
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2010
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2011
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2012
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2013
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2014
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2015
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2016
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2017
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2018
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2019
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2020
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2021
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2022
 * User talk:Skysmith/Archive_2023

"Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communist_Party_of_India_(Marxist_Leninist&redirect=no Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Utopes (talk / cont) 01:14, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

Category:Impostors has been nominated for deletion
Category:Impostors has been nominated for deletion. A discussion is taking place to decide whether it complies with the categorization guidelines. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the categories for discussion page. Thank you. User:Namiba 21:53, 31 January 2024 (UTC)

Editor experience invitation
Hi Skysmith :) I'm looking for people to interview here. Feel free to pass if you're not interested. Clovermoss 🍀  (talk) 07:11, 17 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks for participating (I always like reading people's answers). Just one thing I thought I should mention, though? The backlog isn't really 15 years long, even if it often gets to thousands of pages on a frequent basis. The reason you get 15 year old pages in there is when something about it changes (e.g. a redirect is converted into an article, an article is converted into a redirect, page move shenanigans). Clovermoss 🍀  (talk) 06:48, 20 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Good to know. Should be fixed, then - Skysmith (talk) 08:23, 20 March 2024 (UTC)

"Comazant" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comazant&redirect=no Comazant] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Utopes (talk / cont) 04:48, 21 March 2024 (UTC)

"Pensiero" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pensiero&redirect=no Pensiero] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Cavarrone 15:46, 4 April 2024 (UTC)

"Creek Massacre" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creek_Massacre&redirect=no Creek Massacre] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Mdewman6 (talk) 02:56, 21 April 2024 (UTC)

"Alcohol drinking" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcohol_drinking&redirect=no Alcohol drinking] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Mondtaler (talk) 19:13, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

Category:People on the autism spectrum has been nominated for renaming
Category:People on the autism spectrum has been nominated for renaming. A discussion is taking place to decide whether it complies with the categorization guidelines. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the categories for discussion page. Thank you. -- MikutoH talk! 00:00, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

"Suiattle tribe" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suiattle_tribe&redirect=no Suiattle tribe] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. PersusjCP (talk) 01:40, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Skysmith


text:
Wickham, Hampshire

Wickham is a village in the civil parish of Wickham and Knowle, in the Winchester district, in the county of Hampshire, England. It is about 3 miles north of Fareham. In 2021 it had a population of 2173. At the 2001 census, it the parish a population of 4,816, falling to 4,299 at the 2011 Census.

Wickham has one of the oldest continuous historic market squares lined with historic buildings and is designated a conservation area. Most of the square is taken by parking spaces.

It was the fording place of the River Meon on the Roman road between Noviomagus Regnorum (Chichester) and Venta Belgarum (Winchester), and the inferred divergent point of the route to Clausentum (Bitterne). The Roman road from Wickham to Chichester is still followed today by local roads, passing behind Portsdown Hill to the north of Portsmouth Harbour and then onwards via Havant. In contrast, the route to Winchester is mostly likely lost through neglect in the Dark Ages, before present field patterns emerged.

Nearby sites have been connected to Romano-British industry, mainly pottery kilns focused around the limit of navigation of the River Hamble, near Botley, and a ford on the Clausentum road.

Wickham has been suggested as an alternative to Nursling (on the River Test) or Neatham (near Alton) for the Roman station Onna listed in the Antonine Itinerary. However, no definite location for Onna has been determined.

It was the birthplace of William of Wykeham, founder of Winchester College and New College, Oxford.

The Admiralty Shutter Telegraph Line had a station at Wickham.

The village was an intermediate station on the Meon Valley Railway, a late Victorian route, until the line closed in 1955. At one time this railway was conceived as a direct route from London to the Isle of Wight. The closed line is now established as a cycle path and bridleway along the valley of the River Meon.

A traditional gypsy horse fair is held annually every 20 May, or another day if a Sunday, in the village square.

Early settlements
The Romans established a settlement at Wickham, on the road from the Roman centres of Chichester and Winchester. Iron works have been found northeast of the village, and various Roman finds to the southwest.

It was in Saxon Britain that the first written mention of the village appears, in a Royal Charter document dated 826. Recent excavation (1965–70) at the Manor House showed its grounds had dwellings and huts, evidence of Saxon settlement.

Post-Norman Conquest
After the Norman Conquest, King William granted the Manor of Wickham to Hugo de Port and the Village appeared in the Doomsday Book of 1086, as part of the Titchfield Hundred. The present church of St Nicholas dates from 1126 and was run by the Canons of Titchfield. In 1269, King Henry III granted a charter to Roger de Scures, the Lord of The Manor at the time, for markets to be held on a Thursday. It is from this time that the layout of the village as we now know it began to emerge. Wickham also had a fair which attracted buyers and sellers from a wide area. Wickham fair (often referred to Wickham Horse Fair) is still held each year on 20 May. The Church of St Nicholas in Wickham was built in the early 12th century (although there has probably been a church on the site since the 7th century when the people of Hampshire were first converted to Christianity), however the church was largely rebuilt in the 19th century.

Industrialisation and Victorian Wickham
In the 18th century, there was a tanning industry in Wickham and in the 18th and 19th centuries a brewing industry. Both needed a supply of fresh water, which was readily available from the River Meon. In 1801, Wickham had a population of 901 and compared to most of the villages in Hampshire it was a large community. In 1820, Chesapeake Mill was built with timber taken from an American ship USS Chesapeake (1799), which was captured in the War of 1812. Sir Richard Grindall who commanded HMS Prince (1788) at the Battle of Trafalgar is buried in Wickham churchyard.

In 1903, a branch railway was built from Fareham through Wickham, to Droxford and Alton. It was closed to passengers in 1955 and the line converted to a footpath. The original station platforms can still be found.

In 1978, Wickham was twinned with the French village of Villiers-Sur-Mer. Wickham Vineyard opened in 1984.

In 1990, an old brewery and village hall in Wickham were converted into flats called Riverside Mews. The brewery had shut in 1910 and the buildings were given to Wickham Parish Council to use as a village hall.

Wickham Festival

Farmland north of Wickham serves as the venue for the award-winning Wickham Festival, which is an annual 4-day music event. The first Wickham Festival was held from 3–6 August 2006 in the Community Centre and environs. Artists performing included Daby Blade from Senegal, Spiers and Boden, Los Pacaminos, Richard Thompson, Shooglenifty, Sparks, Oysterband, Fiddlers' Bid, Osibisa, Flook, Steeleye Span and The Larry Love Showband.

After briefly moving to Stokes Bay in 2008 and 2009, the festival returned to Wickham in 2010, where it has remained ever since. Wickham Festival has expanded over the years, and has featured performances from such artists as James Blunt, 10cc, Wilko Johnson, The Proclaimers, KT Tunstall, Hugh Cornwell and Lightning Seeds.

Taste of Wickham
Taste of Wickham is a food festival, first held in Wickham's medieval square in 2014. The festival offers local produce, barbecues, tasters and cookery demonstrations, and has attracted crowds of over 4,000 people to the village. Taste of Wickham returned in 2015, with increased numbers of stalls, crafts and musical displays.

Wickham horse fair
England's biggest and oldest horse fair takes place in Wickham on 20 May every year. It is one of just two major horse-trading events in the country and can trace its history back to the year 1269, making it one of the oldest fairs of this type in the UK. Ever since, crowds have gathered annually in the village to trade secrets, meet with friends and parade their stock. The fair includes bareback parades with ponies decorated with ribbons.

Shopping
Wickham's village square has bars, restaurants, shops and hotels. Bay Tree Walk is a shopping walk. The Chesapeake Mill is a former water mill which is a retail centre.

Sport and leisure
Wickham has a community centre "Wickham Community Centre".

Wickham has a tennis club. The village has a public skatepark and a floodlit astroturf pitch located behind the Community Centre.

The Meon Valley Railway Line is a 17.5 km (11 mi) recreational bridleway that runs through the village. The trail follows part of the bed of the former Meon Valley Railway (Alton to Fareham), which closed in 1968. It ends at West Meon due to removal of the former viaduct across the Meon Valley, and the presence of tunnels further north.

Wickham and Knowle civil parish
Known as Wickham civil parish until its name was changed in 2022 to Wickham and Knowle.

Wickham Common is an area of common land a mile south-east of Wickham village. It is a mix of grassland and woodland. Wickham Common is also the name of a hamlet on Forest Lane, south of the common.

Main roads running through the parish are the A32, the A334 and the B2177 (former A333).

Notable people

 * Mary Donaldson, Baroness Donaldson of Lymington - first female Lord Mayor of London.
 * Vice Admiral Thomas Revell Shivers (1751–1827)

title: Wickham, Hampshire


text:
Mamluk

Mamluk or Mamaluk (مملوك (singular), مماليك, mamālīk (plural); translated as "one who is owned",  meaning "slave")  were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-soldiers, and freed slaves who were assigned high-ranking military and administrative duties, serving the ruling Arab and Ottoman dynasties in the Muslim world.

The most enduring Mamluk realm was the knightly military class in medieval Egypt, which developed from the ranks of slave-soldiers. Originally the Mamluks were slaves of Turkic origins from the Eurasian Steppe,     but the institution of military slavery spread to include Circassians,    Abkhazians,   Georgians,   Armenians,   Russians, and Hungarians, as well as peoples from the Balkans such as Albanians, Greeks, and South Slavs  (see Saqaliba). They also recruited from the Egyptians. The "Mamluk/-Ghulam Phe-nom-enon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class, was of great political importance; for one thing, it endured for nearly 1,000 years, from the 9th century to the early 19th century.

Over time, Mamluks became a powerful military knightly class in various Muslim societies that were controlled by dynastic Arab rulers. Particularly in Egypt and Syria,   but also in the Ottoman Empire, Levant, Mesopotamia, and India, mamluks held political and military power. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, while in others they held regional power as emirs or beys. Most notably, Mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered on Egypt and Syria, and controlled it as the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously defeated the Ilkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut. They had earlier fought the western European Christian Crusaders in 1154–1169 and 1213–1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt and the Levant. In 1302 the Mamluk Sultanate formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades.

While Mamluks were purchased as property,    their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt, from the Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks were considered to be "true lords" and "true warriors", with social status above the general population in Egypt and the Levant. In a sense, they were like enslaved mercenaries.

Overview

Daniel Pipes argued that the first indication of the Mamluk military class was rooted in the practice of early Muslims such as Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Uthman ibn Affan who, before Islam, owned many slaves and practiced Mawla (Islamic manumission of slaves). The Zubayrids army under Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, son of Zubayr, used these freed slave retainers during the second civil war.

Meanwhile, historians agree that the massive implementation of a slave military class such as the Mamluks appears to have developed in Islamic societies beginning with the 9th-century Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad, under the Abbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim. Until the 1990s, it was widely believed that the earliest Mamluks were known as Ghilman or Ghulam (another broadly synonymous term for slaves,) and were bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especially al-Mu'tasim (833–842).

By the end of the 9th century, such slave warriors had become the dominant element in the military. Conflict between the Ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted the caliph al-Mu'tasim to move his capital to the city of Samarra, but this did not succeed in calming tensions. The caliph al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by some of these slave soldiers in 861 (see Anarchy at Samarra).

Since the early 21st century, historians have suggested that there was a distinction between the Mamluk system and the (earlier) Ghilman system, in Samarra, which did not have specialized training and was based on pre-existing Central Asian hierarchies. Adult slaves and freemen both served as warriors in the Ghilman system. The Mamluk system developed later, after the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the 870s. It included the systematic training of young slaves in military and martial skills. The Mamluk system is considered to have been a small-scale experiment of al-Muwaffaq, to combine the slaves' efficiency as warriors with improved reliability. This recent interpretation seems to have been accepted.

After the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either Mamluks or Ghilman, were used throughout the Islamic world as the basis of military power. The Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) of Egypt had forcibly taken adolescent male Armenians, Turks, Sudanese, and Copts from their families to be trained as slave soldiers. They formed the bulk of their military, and the rulers selected prized slaves to serve in their administration. The powerful vizier Badr al-Jamali, for example, was a Mamluk from Armenia. In Iran and Iraq, the Buyid dynasty used Turkic slaves throughout their empire. The rebel al-Basasiri was a Mamluk who eventually ushered in Seljuq dynastic rule in Baghdad after attempting a failed rebellion. When the later Abbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the Ghilman as their warriors.

Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the Mamluks increased and they claimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the Mamluk Sultanate. Throughout the Islamic world, rulers continued to use enslaved warriors until the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire's devşirme, or "gathering" of young slaves for the Janissaries, lasted until the 17th century. Regimes based on Mamluk power thrived in such Ottoman provinces as the Levant and Egypt until the 19th century.

Organization

Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks were purchased while still young males. They were raised in the barracks of the Citadel of Cairo. Because of their isolated social status (no social ties or political affiliations) and their austere military training, they were trusted to be loyal to their rulers. When their training was completed, they were discharged, but remained attached to the patron who had purchased them. Mamluks relied on the help of their patron for career advancement, and likewise the patron's reputation and power depended on his recruits. A Mamluk was "bound by a strong esprit de corps to his peers in the same household".

Mamluks lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least once a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices.

Sultans owned the largest number of mamluks, but lesser amirs also owned their own troops. Many Mamluks were appointed or promoted to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status was non-hereditary. Sons of Mamluks were prevented from following their father's role in life. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers.

Relations with homelands and families
In Egypt, studies have shown that mamluks from Georgia retained their native language, were aware of the politics of the Caucasus region, and received frequent visits from their parents or other relatives. In addition, they sent gifts to family members or gave money to build useful structures (a defensive tower, or even a church) in their native villages.

Early origins in Egypt

 * See also: Balkan slave trade

The practice of recruiting slaves as soldiers in the Muslim world and turning them into Mamluks began in Baghdad during the 9th century CE, and was started by the Abbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim.

From the 900s through the 1200s, medieval Egypt was controlled by dynastic foreign rulers, notably the Ikhshidids, Fatimids, and Ayyubids. Throughout these dynasties, thousands of Mamluk slave-soldiers and guards continued to be used and even took high offices. This increasing level of influence among the Mamluks worried the Ayyubids in particular. Eventually, a Mamluk rose to become Sultan of Egypt. The Mamluks in medieval Egypt were predominantly of White Turkic and Circassian origins, and most of them descended from enslaved Christians. After they were taken from their families, they became renegades. Because Egyptian Mamluks were enslaved Christians, Muslim rulers and clerics did not believe they were true believers of Islam despite the fact that they were deployed for fighting in wars on behalf of several Islamic kingdoms as slave-soldiers.

By 1200, Saladin's brother al-ʿĀdil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory, al-ʿĀdil incorporated the defeated Mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at al-ʿĀdil's death in 1218, and at his son al-Kāmil's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the Mamluks, who acted semi-autonomously as regional atabegs. The Mamluks increasingly became involved in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself as various factions used them as allies.

French attack and Mamluk takeover
In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took Damietta. After the Egyptian troops retreated at first, the sultan had more than 50 commanders hanged as deserters.

When the Egyptian sultan as-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son al-Muazzam Turanshah and then his favorite wife Shajar al-Durr, a Turk according to most historians, while others say she was an Armenian. She took control with Mamluk support and launched a counterattack against the French. Troops of the Bahri commander Baibars defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamluks in March 1250. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000 livres tournois to gain release (150,000 livres were never paid).

Because of political pressure for a male leader, Shajar married the Mamluk commander, Aybak. He was assassinated in his bath. In the ensuing power struggle, viceregent Qutuz, also a Mamluk, took over. He formally founded the Mamluke Sultanate and the Bahri mamluk dynasty.

The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the Bahriyyah or River Island regiment. Its name referred to their center on Rhoda Island in the Nile. The regiment consisted mainly of Kipchaks and Cumans.

Relationship with the Mongols
When the Mongol Empire's troops of Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 and advanced towards Syria, the Mamluk emir Baibars left Damascus for Cairo. There he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. After taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops.

When Möngke Khan died in action against the Southern Song, Hulagu pulled the majority of his forces out of Syria to attend the kurultai (funeral ceremony). He left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge with a token force of about 18,000 men as a garrison. The Mamluk army, led by Qutuz, drew the reduced Ilkhanate army into an ambush near the Orontes River, routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and captured and executed Kitbuqa.

After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was widely said that Baibars, who seized power, had been involved in the assassination plot. In the following centuries, the Mamluks ruled discontinuously, with an average span of seven years.

The Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanids a second time in the First Battle of Homs and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connections among the local princes. Baibars' troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesarea in 1265, and took Antioch in 1268.

Mamluks also defeated new Ilkhanate attacks in Syria in 1271 and 1281 (the Second Battle of Homs). They were defeated by the Ilkhanids and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. Soon after that the Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanids and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323.

Burji dynasty
By the late fourteenth century, the majority of the Mamluk ranks were made up of Circassians from the North Caucasus region, whose young males had been frequently captured for slavery. In 1382 the Burji dynasty took over when Barquq was proclaimed sultan. The name "Burji" referred to their center at the citadel of Cairo.

Barquq became an enemy of Timur, who threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria, defeating the Mamluk army, and he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus. The Ottoman sultan, Bayezid I, then invaded Syria. After Timur's death in 1405, the Mamluk sultan an-Nasir Faraj regained control of Syria. Frequently facing rebellions by local emirs, he was forced to abdicate in 1412. In 1421, Egypt was attacked by the Kingdom of Cyprus, but the Egyptians forced the Cypriotes to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan Barsbay. During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns.

Al-Ashraf came to power in 1453. He had friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire, which captured Constantinople later that year, causing great rejoicings in Muslim Egypt. However, under the reign of Khushqadam, Egypt began a struggle with the Ottoman sultanate. In 1467, sultan Qaitbay offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II, whose brother was poisoned. Bayezid II seized Adana, Tarsus and other places within Egyptian territory, but was eventually defeated. Qaitbay also tried to help the Muslims in Spain, who were suffering after the Catholic Reconquista, by threatening the Christians in Syria, but he had little effect in Spain. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great trading families of the Republic of Venice.

Portuguese–Mamluk Wars
Vasco da Gama in 1497 sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and pushed his way east across the Indian Ocean to the shores of Malabar and Kozhikode. There he attacked the fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea, and struck terror into the potentates all around. Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri was affronted at the attacks around the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traffic, the indignities to which Mecca and its port were subjected, and above all for losing one of his ships. He vowed vengeance upon Portugal, first sending monks from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as envoys, he threatened Pope Julius II that if he did not check Manuel I of Portugal in his depredations on the Indian Sea, he would destroy all Christian holy places.

The rulers of Gujarat in India and Yemen also turned for help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. They wanted a fleet to be armed in the Red Sea that could protect their important trading sea routes from Portuguese attacks. Jeddah was soon fortified as a harbor of refuge so Arabia and the Red Sea were protected. But the fleets in the Indian Ocean were still at the mercy of the enemy.

The last Mamluk sultan, Al-Ghawri, fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval warfare, he sought help from the Ottomans to develop this naval enterprise. In 1508 at the Battle of Chaul, the Mamluk fleet defeated the Portuguese viceroy's son Lourenço de Almeida.

But, in the following year, the Portuguese won the Battle of Diu and wrested the port city of Diu from the Gujarat Sultanate. Some years after, Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Aden, and Egyptian troops suffered disaster from the Portuguese in Yemen. Al-Ghawri fitted out a new fleet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade. Before it could exert much power, Egypt had lost its sovereignty. The Ottoman Empire took over Egypt and the Red Sea, together with Mecca and all its Arabian interests.

Ottomans and the end of the Mamluk Sultanate
The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II was engaged in warfare in southern Europe when a new era of hostility with Egypt began in 1501. It arose out of the relations with the Safavid dynasty in Persia. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by the Ottomans. Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghawri was charged by Selim I with giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. To appease him, Al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them.

After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim attacked the bey of Dulkadirids, as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof, and sent his head to Al-Ghawri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he formed a great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that he intended further attacks on Persia.

In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and Janissary infantry. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, Sultan Al-Ghawri was killed. Syria passed into Turkish possession, an event welcomed in many places as it was seen as deliverance from the Mameluks.

The Mamluk Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, when Selim captured Cairo on 20 January. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but as vassals of the Ottomans.

Independence from the Ottomans

In 1768, Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence from the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus.

Napoleon invades
In 1798, the ruling Directory of the Republic of France authorised a campaign in "The Orient" to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. To this end, Napoleon Bonaparte led an Armée d'Orient to Egypt.

The French defeated a Mamluk army in the Battle of the Pyramids and drove the survivors out to Upper Egypt. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed only by the addition of muskets. The French infantry formed square and held firm. Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mounting conflict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French fleet by the British Royal Navy at the Battle of the Nile decided the issue.

On 14 September 1799, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber established a mounted company of Mamluk auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries from Turkish troops captured at the siege of Acre. Menou reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, forming three companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la République". In 1801 General Jean Rapp was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals three officers and 155 of other rank. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks were organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Imperial Guard (see Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard).

Napoleon left with his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber, was assassinated on 14 June 1800. Command of the Army in Egypt fell to Jacques-François Menou. Isolated and out of supplies, Menou surrendered to the British in 1801.

After Napoleon
After the departure of French troops in 1801 the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire. In 1803, Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Bey and Osman Bey al-Bardisi wrote to the Russian consul-general, asking him to mediate with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Constantinople refused however to intervene, because of nationalist unrest in Georgia that might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return.

In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This provided a chance for the Mamluks to seize power, but internal friction prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces in several clashes. in June the rival parties concluded an agreement by which Muhammad Ali, (appointed as governor of Egypt on 26 March 1806), was to be removed and authority returned to the Mamluks. However, they were again unable to capitalize on this opportunity due to discord between factions. Muhammad Ali retained his authority.

End of power in Egypt

Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with the Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power. However, the economic strain of sustaining the military manpower necessary to defend the Mamluks's system from the Europeans and Turks would eventually weaken them to the point of collapse.

On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded for this purpose in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's forces killed almost all of these near the Al-Azab gates in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hill. This ambush came to be known as the Massacre of the Citadel. According to contemporary reports, only one Mamluk, whose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a Besleney), survived when he forced his horse to leap from the walls of the citadel.

During the following week an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives were killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad's regular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died.

Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now Sudan. In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at Dunqulah in the Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the Pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The Pasha's forces received the submission of the Kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi VII.

Impact
According to Eric Chaney and Lisa Blades, the reliance on mamluks by Muslim rulers had a profound impact on the Arab world's political development. They argue that, because European rulers had to rely on local elites for military forces, lords and bourgeois acquired the necessary bargaining power to push for representative government. Muslim rulers did not face the same pressures partly because the Mamluks allowed the Sultans to bypass local elites.

Other regimes
There were various places in which Mamluks gained political or military power as a self-replicating military community. Some examples of this can be seen in the Tripolitania region of Libya, where Mamluk governors instated their various policies under the Ottoman Empire until October 18, 1912, when Italian forces took over the region in the Italo-Turkish war.

India
In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent, Qutb al-Din Aibak, proclaimed himself Sultan, creating the Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi which lasted until 1290.

Iraq
Mamluk corps were first introduced in Iraq by Hasan Pasha of Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who succeeded in asserting autonomy from the Sublime Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans overthrew Dawud Pasha, the last Mamluk ruler, and imposed direct control over Iraq.

Bahri Dynasty

 * 1250 Shajar al-Durr (al-Salih Ayyub's Widow de facto ruler of Egypt)
 * 1250 Aybak
 * 1257 Al-Mansur Ali
 * 1259 Qutuz
 * 1260 Baibars
 * 1277 Al-Said Barakah
 * 1280 Solamish
 * 1280 Qalawun
 * 1290 al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil
 * 1294 al-Nasir Muhammad first reign
 * 1295 al-Adil Kitbugha
 * 1297 Lajin
 * 1299 al-Nasir Muhammad second reign
 * 1309 al-Muzaffar Rukn-ad-Din Baybars II al-Jashankir
 * 1310 al-Nasir Muhammad third reign
 * 1340 Saif ad-Din Abu-Bakr
 * 1341 Kujuk
 * 1342 An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan of Egypt
 * 1342 As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt
 * 1345 Al-Kamil Sha'ban
 * 1346 Al-Muzaffar Hajji
 * 1347 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan first reign
 * 1351 al-Salih Salah-ad-Din Ibn Muhammad
 * 1354 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan second reign
 * 1361 al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Mohamed Ibn Hajji
 * 1363 al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban
 * 1376 al-Mansur Ala-ad-Din Ali Ibn al-Ashraf Shaban
 * 1382 al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II first reign

Burji Dynasty

 * 1382 Barquq, first reign
 * 1389 Hajji II second reign (with honorific title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) – Temporary Bahri rule
 * 1390 Barquq, Second reign – Burji rule re-established
 * 1399 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj
 * 1405 Al-Mansoor Azzaddin Abdal Aziz
 * 1405 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj (second time)
 * 1412 al-Musta'in (Abbasid Caliph, proclaimed as Sultan)
 * 1412 Al-Muayad Sayf ad-Din Shaykh
 * 1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
 * 1421 Az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Tatar
 * 1421 As-Salih Nasir ad-Din Muhammad
 * 1422 Barsbay
 * 1438 Al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Yusuf
 * 1438 Jaqmaq
 * 1453 Al-Mansoor Fakhr ad-Din Osman
 * 1453 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Enal
 * 1461 Al-Muayad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad
 * 1461 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushkadam
 * 1467 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Bilbay
 * 1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha
 * 1468 Qaitbay
 * 1496 al-Nasir Abu al-Sa'adat Muhammad bin Qait Bay first reign
 * 1497 Qansuh Khumsama'ah
 * 1497 al-Nasir Abu al-Sa'adat Muhammad bin Qait Bay second reign
 * 1498 Qansuh Al-Ashrafi
 * 1500 Al-Bilal Ayub
 * 1500 Al-Ashraf Janbalat
 * 1501 Tuman bay I
 * 1501 Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri
 * 1517 Tuman bay II

In India

 * 1206 Qutb-ud-din Aybak, founded Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi
 * 1210 Aram Shah
 * 1211 Shams ud din Iltutmish. Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.
 * 1236 Rukn ud din Firuz. Son of Iltutmish.
 * 1236 Razia Sultana. Daughter of Iltutmish.
 * 1240 Muiz ud din Bahram. Son of Iltutmish.
 * 1242 Ala ud din Masud. Son of Rukn ud din.
 * 1246 Nasiruddin Mahmud. Grandson of Iltutmish.
 * 1266 Ghiyas ud din Balban. Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.
 * 1286 Muiz ud din Qaiqabad. Grandson of Balban and Nasiruddin.
 * 1290 Kayumars. Son of Muiz ud din.

In Iraq

 * 1704 Hasan Pasha
 * 1723 Ahmad Pasha, son of Hasan
 * 1749 Sulayman Abu Layla Pasha, son-in-law of Ahmad
 * 1762 Omar Pasha, son of Ahmad
 * 1780 Sulayman Pasha the Great, son of Omar
 * 1802 Ali Pasha, son of Omar
 * 1807 Sulayman Pasha the Little, son of Sulayman Great
 * 1813 Said Pasha, son of Sulayman Great
 * 1816 Dawud Pasha (1816–1831)

In Acre

 * 1805 Sulayman Pasha al-Adil, mamluk of Jezzar Pasha
 * 1819 Abdullah Pasha ibn Ali (1819–1831)

Office titles and terminology
The following terms originally come from either Turkish or Ottoman Turkish language (the latter composed of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian words and grammar structures).

Dynasties founded by Mamluks

 * Tulunids (868–905)
 * Ikhshidids (935–969)
 * Ghaznavids (977–1186)
 * Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231)
 * Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) (1206–1290)
 * Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) (1250–1517)
 * Bahri dynasty (1250–1382)
 * Burji dynasty (1382–1517)
 * Mamluk dynasty (Iraq) (1704–1831)

title: Mamluk


title: User:Gdc34


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Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Nice work on Winchester College! --mav

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Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place! --mav

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William of Wykeham

William of Wykeham (1320 or 1324 – 27 September 1404) was Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of England. He founded New College, Oxford, and New College School in 1379, and founded Winchester College in 1382. He was also the clerk of works when much of Windsor Castle was built.

Early life
William of Wykeham (born William Longe) was the son of John Longe, a freeman from Wickham in Hampshire. He was educated at a school in Winchester, and probably enjoyed early patronage from two local men, Sir Ralph Sutton, constable of Winchester Castle, and Sir John Scures, lord of the manor of Wickham, and then from Thomas Foxley, Constable of Windsor Castle. In 1349, Wykeham was described as a chaplain when he was appointed rector of Irstead in Norfolk, a position which was in the gift of the Crown.

Builder

William became secretary to the constable of Winchester Castle and in that capacity learned about building. This led to architectural work for King Edward III, for whom he reconstructed Windsor Castle whilst residing at Bear's Rails in Old Windsor.

William developed a reputation for the administration and supervision of royal building works during the reign of Edward III. By May 1356, he was clerk of the works for houses being built for the Crown at Henley on the Heath in Surrey and Easthampstead in Berkshire, and he was appointed surveyor of the long-running works to develop Windsor Castle in October 1356. He rapidly rose in royal service, and in July 1359 he was appointed chief keeper and surveyor of Windsor Castle, Leeds Castle, Dover Castle, and Hadleigh Castle, and many royal manors, including Sheen, Eltham and Langley, effectively in the office later called clerk of the king's works. He also took charge of the building works at Queenborough on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent.

State administrator under Edward III
William's career took a turn by 1361, when he became a royal secretary, part of the administration of the royal finances, and by 1363 he was a royal councillor. He was present when the Treaty of Brétigny was agreed in Calais in 1360. In January 1361, Edward III and John II of France jointly to petitioned Pope Innocent VI, to make William a canon at Lincoln Cathedral. He was appointed Justice in Eyre south of the Trent along with Peter Atte Wode in 1361, a position he held until about 1367. William was ordained in 1362 and paid for his services by being given the incomes of various churches. For instance, in April 1363, Edward III presented him to the archdeaconry of Lincoln, a move that was approved by Pope Urban V in November 1363 only after representations from Sir Nicholas de Loveyne, the king's ambassador to the papal court. By 1366, William held two benefices and eleven prebends, with an annual income exceeding £800.

William had shown considerable talent as an administrator and in June 1363 was appointed Lord Privy Seal and then in October 1366 he was elected Bishop of Winchester, Pope Urban V approved his appointment in July 1367, and he was consecrated at St Paul's Cathedral in London on 10 October 1367 and enthroned at Winchester Cathedral in July 1368. In 1367 he was appointed Chancellor of England. He struggled to find the funds necessary to pay the army fighting against France after conflict resumed in 1369. He lost the favour of the king, who turned to William Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer, and he resigned as Chancellor in 1371.

As Edward III aged and weakened, William maintained good relationships with Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, John of Gaunt and Edward, the Black Prince. He remained politically important, and was one of four bishops appointed to the new royal council in May 1376 after Latimer was impeached during the Good Parliament. His friendship with the Earl of March led to a long conflict with John of Gaunt, who supported Latimer. Latimer was pardoned by king in October 1376, and William found himself charged with financial irregularities and mismanagement towards the end of the year. He was banished from court and the income from his church properties was seized in late 1376, but he was pardoned by the new king Richard II in July 1377, weeks after Edward III died. (Richard was the son of Edward, the Black Prince, who had died in June 1376, a year before his father.)

Richard II
Under Richard II, William resumed his position as a royal councillor. Although he took the side of the Lords Appellant in their disputes with the king in 1388, he also managed to maintain good relations with the king, and served as Chancellor again from May 1389 to September 1391.

After years of supporting poor scholars at Oxford University, he founded New College, which was granted a royal charter in 1379. He also founded a school, Winchester College, to supply New College with students, obtaining a papal bull in 1378 and a royal licence in 1382. Construction work began in Oxford in 1380, and in Winchester in 1387, under the architect William Wynford. At both colleges, William stipulated daily prayers for Richard II and his queen, William and his parents, and his former patrons, Sir Ralph Sutton, Sir John Scures, and Thomas Foxley. The funds to endow the colleges, and pay for the building works, came from William's lucrative church positions, discounting of exchequer tallies (that is, speculation on tax revenues due to the king), exporting wool, and using his influence to obtain papal approval for the acquisition of the income of the "alien priories" that belonged to monasteries in France, which were confiscated by the crown during the Hundred Years' War. He also started the rebuilding of the nave of Winchester Cathedral in 1394.

William was concentrating on his foundation by the time Henry IV deposed Richard II in 1399, but he welcomed the new king in Winchester in 1400.

Death and legacy
William died at Bishop's Waltham in Hampshire on 27 September 1404 and was buried in his chantry chapel on the south side of the nave in Winchester Cathedral. At the time of his death, he was one of the richest men in England. Much of his wealth went into the schools he patronised, but he also contrived to leave a fortune to a nephew, whose descendants include the Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes family and the Longe family.

William's motto was 'Manners makyth man'. This, along with a coat of arms, was assumed by him and not acquired by descent. His biography was written by Bishop Lowth. He was also written about by Lord Brougham in his 'Old England's Worthies' (1857) and by Froissart. 'Manners Makyth Man' is also the motto of the establishments Wykeham founded, Winchester College and New College, Oxford.

title: William of Wykeham


text:
Talk:Cfront

Cfront isn't a language
No, no, no.

Cfront isn't a language. Cfront was (still is?) a C++ compiler. It was implemented as a pre-processor that converted C++ to C. It was written in C++. (unsigned comment by 137.205.8.4)

 * Feel free to dive in and corrent the article itself, anonymous visitor :-) -- Tarquin 11:38 Jan 22, 2003 (UTC)

Cfront did not compile to "C with classes"
The "C with classes" compiler was called Cpre (page 4 of http://www.research.att.com/~bs/hopl2.pdf ). Page 36 of that same PDF includes C++'s population growth, and the 1983 and 1984 numbers don't include people using Cpre.

The current first sentence of the article ("Cfront was the original compiler for C++ (then known as 'C with Classes') from around 1983, which converted C++ to C; developed by Bjarne Stroustrup.") is therefore wrong. It should be something like "Cfront was the original compiler for C++, released in 1983 and developed by Bjarne Stroustrup. Cfront replaced a simpler preprocessor -- Cpre -- which worked on a languages called "C with Classes".  Cfront was written in C with Classes, was a traditional multi-pass compiler and output C code which was then compiled with the target system's native C compiler." 12.146.21.162 (talk) 18:08, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Yeah, but remember, the standard for WP is "verifiability, not truth"..

 * To the point that (at least.. hypothetically I suppose, maybe) truth might not matter, as long as something could be "verified" (??!! what ??) No, that doesn't really make sense to me either. This sarcastic remark comes from my reading of the Talk:Karoline_Leach page about Karoline Leach, and whatever it is she has to say or not said regarding Lewis Carroll and the "Carroll Myth" - the page doesn't actually say anything about what she says regarding this "Myth", nor even give a single-sentence description of what it actually is for someone who doesn't already know.  But comments are welcome here :) )

 * But, to paraphrase someone else that Talk page (or maybe it was another one I looked at), "I don't do edit wars". Jimw338 (talk) 22:34, 19 December 2013 (UTC)

written in C++?!
I doubt Cfront was written in C++. How would it have been compiled? (unsigned comment by 164.107.199.102)

 * gcc is written in C and compiles itself. Similarly, it is entirely possible that Cfront bootstraps itself.  --Yamla 16:31, 2005 Mar 30 (UTC)

 * The article claims it was the first C++ compiler therefore if it was initially written in C++ it could not have been compiled. I'd guess the very first versions were written in C and then changed to C++ as soon as cfront became usable. Plugwash 00:08, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

 * cfront was written in an early dialect of C++. Versions 1 and 2 used single dots for the "::", for instance; and the operator notation for typecasting was only sporadically used in version 1, as opposed to version 2. Versions 1, 2, 3 all used the old scoping rule for for-loops. Version 3 can compile -- with a few fixups -- in g++ if you use the compiler's option to control for-loop scoping. All the versions may be found on Paul McJones' archive site ; the code for version 1 (which is not self-contained) I transcribed from its printouts. All three versions use a "scratch" directory where ready-made C code can be found or deposited into for a first "bootstrap" run; particularly useful when cross-compiling. All of this happened early on before a clear-cut distinction between C and C++ had been made in the minds of the latter's developers. So the C++ version uses the ".c" suffix (instead of ".C" or ".cc") and the "scratch" C version uses "..c" and "..h". If you try to compile straight out of the box; you're going to run into library conflicts; since the old C code [both used AND generated] is pre-ANSI as are library functions like malloc and free! This should be compared to the routine for gcc. Even if you have a gcc version in place and you're bumping up from (say) version 4 to 6 it's STILL going to end up doing a bootstrap compile with THREE separate compiling runs! On my machine it was about 100 minutes each and 1.0-1.5 GB workspace for each. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.128.235.10 (talk) 21:15, 31 October 2016 (UTC)
 * Actually, "Version 1" alluded to above is Release E, from 1985 February, that existed only in printout form until 2016, and was the first external release of the translator. The printout is clipped, while the transcribed version restored most of what was clipped. "Version 2" is Release 1.0, and was the first commercial release, from 1985 October, and includes translated C code in the "scratch" directory to use for bootstrapping. Later releases would have to be compiled from each preceding release, afterwards. As mentioned above, Release 1.0 does indeed compile, while Release E will require reverse-patching from and cannibalization of Release 1.0 to compile, and may require the Release 1.0 cfront to compile it, since it doesn't have any of the C-translated files.

As I understand, a super simple preprocessor converted the first c++ into c. CFront was then written using that preprocessor.70.71.145.81 04:52, 14 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Wait, then why not just use the original simple preprocessor, rather than write cfront? lol Family Guy Guy (talk) 01:55, 13 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I suspect the simple preprocessor only supported a subset of c++ Plugwash (talk) 01:28, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

The cfront compiler commonly available in 1991 was written in C, and the source code was freely available for download. It was promoted as an interim solution until the arrival of native C++ compilers, which always seemed to be delayed for one reason or another. There may have been multiple versions of cfront. In contrast to some statements in the article, I recall that there was no widely reputable and reliable native C++ compiler until 1992 or 1993 (but that may only have been the understanding in my little corner of the world). I recall that SGI came out with a decent native compiler for their MIPS machines in about 1993, as did others, and all of them went through bug-fixing updates for awhile.

Problems related to name mangling were an ongoing source of aggravation, and objectionable oddities were constantly popping up (for example, it was discovered that data was stored in C "struct", which meant that the data location was discoverable and the data accessible outside of its class, a problem that was fixed in a later update).

The cfront commonly used in academia and non-commercial research may have been given to the public domain (meaning that anyone could do anything to it and call it their own). A cfront was offered to our group in 1992, with heavy promotion. A comparison with our own version, using a "diff" on every file, showed that the only difference was a comment statement inserted into one of the files of the promoted version.

24.178.228.14 (talk) 16:59, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

The article currently contains a link to Stroustrup's FAQ which includes the statement "The first C++ compiler (Cfront) was written in C++. To build that, I first used C to write a 'C with Classes'-to-C preprocessor. 'C with Classes' was a C dialect that became the immediate ancestor to C++. That preprocessor translated 'C with Classes' constructs (such as classes and constructors) into C. It was a traditional preprocessor that didn't understand all of the language, left most of the type checking for the C compiler to do, and translated individual constructs without complete knowledge. I then wrote the first version of Cfront in 'C with Classes'." 12.146.21.162 (talk) 17:58, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

Availibility
Is cfront freely available on the net? (unsigned comment by 64.40.48.243)

 * Yes. See the cfront section of this article. --DavidCary (talk) 23:43, 2 August 2023 (UTC)

the first widely-used language which required link-time type checking
...if you exclude pascal and all other languages which required link-time type checking...150.101.166.15 (talk) 05:44, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

Contradiction
"...the relative complexity of Standard C++ mandates a compiler capable of understanding the entire language rather than just the C++-specific constructs" as most of the paragraph is out of place. In the beginning it is mentioned that Cfront had a complete C++ parser, so in what way shouldn't it be unable to understand non-C++-specific (i.e. C subset) constructs?

Just before it there is a passage about Cfronts approach being unappropriate ("it is unlikely a similar translation effort would be 100% successful with the modern C++ standard"), which is obviously wrong. --138.246.7.170 (talk) 09:04, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

Challenge to bootstrap due to dependency on C++?
This is a completely stupid statement. Since cfront translated C++ to C, a distribution of Cfront merely has to include the C translation. Bootstrapping is then done with a C compiler.

Doh. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.79.96.174 (talk) 21:17, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cfront


text:
Transmeta Crusoe

The Transmeta Crusoe is a family of x86-compatible microprocessors developed by Transmeta and introduced in 2000.

Instead of the instruction set architecture being implemented in hardware, or translated by specialized hardware, the Crusoe runs a software abstraction layer, or a virtual machine, known as the Code Morphing Software (CMS). The CMS translates machine code instructions received from programs into native instructions for the microprocessor. In this way, the Crusoe can emulate other instruction set architectures (ISAs). This is used to allow the microprocessors to emulate the Intel x86 instruction set.

Design

The Crusoe is notable for its method of achieving x86 compatibility. Instead of the instruction set architecture being implemented in hardware, or translated by specialized hardware, the Crusoe runs a software abstraction layer, or a virtual machine, known as the Code Morphing Software (CMS). The CMS translates machine code instructions received from programs into native instructions for the microprocessor. In this way, the Crusoe can emulate other instruction set architectures (ISAs). This is used to allow the microprocessors to emulate the Intel x86 instruction set. In theory, it is possible for the CMS to be modified to emulate other ISAs. Transmeta demonstrated Crusoe executing Java bytecode by translating the bytecodes into instructions in its native instruction set. The addition of an abstraction layer between the x86 instruction stream and the hardware means that the hardware architecture can change without breaking compatibility, just by modifying the CMS. For example, Transmeta Efficeon — a second-generation Transmeta design — has a 256-bit-wide VLIW core versus the 128-bit core of the Crusoe. Efficeon also supports SSE instructions.

The Crusoe is a VLIW microprocessor that executes bundles of instructions, termed molecules by Transmeta. Each molecule contains multiple instructions, termed atoms. The Code Morphing Software translates x86 instructions into native instructions. The native instructions are 32 bits long. Instructions that meet a set of conditions can be executed simultaneously and are combined to form a 64- or 128-bit molecule containing two or four atoms, respectively. In the event that there are not enough instructions to fill a molecule, the software inserts NOPs as padding to fill out empty slots. This is required in all VLIW architectures and is criticised for being inefficient, which is why there are molecules of two separate lengths.

The Crusoe performs in software some of the functionality traditionally implemented in hardware (e.g. instruction re-ordering), resulting in simpler hardware with fewer transistors. The relative simplicity of the hardware means that Crusoe consumes less power (and therefore generates less heat) than other x86-compatible microprocessors running at the same frequency. A 700 MHz Crusoe ran x86 programs at the speed of a 500 MHz Pentium III x86 processor, although the Crusoe processor was smaller and cheaper than the corresponding Intel processor.

The Crusoe was initially available in two forms: the TM3120 (later called TM3200) for embedded applications and the TM5400 for low-power personal computing. Both were based on the same architecture but differed in clock frequency and peripheral support. The TM3120/TM3200 were manufactured in speeds of 333(TM3120 only) 366 and, 400 MHz using a 220 nm process. It has a 96k L1 cache (64 KB instruction and 32 KB data) and no L2 cache. The TM3120/TM3200 has an integrated SDRAM memory controller and a PCI interface. It measures 77 mm² and uses a 1.5 V power supply, dissipating less than 1.5 W of power (typically). The TM5400 differs from the TM3120/TM3200 with the inclusion of a 128K of L1 Cache(with the addition of 32 KB data cache) as well as the addition of DDR memory support, 256 KB unified L2 cache and LongRun power reduction technology manufactured using a smaller 180 nm process. It measures 73 mm² and uses a 1.10 V (f = 25%) and 1.6 V (f = 100%) power supply, dissipating 0.5–1.5 W typically and a maximum of 6 W. Later the TM5600 was introduced as a higher end offering to the TM5400 with double the L2 cache (512 KB vs 256 KB). Both the TM5400 and TM5600 operated at clock frequencies of 500–700 MHz.

The TM5500/TM5800 are die shrunk versions of the TM5400/5600 Built on a TSMC 130 nm process at clock frequencies of 667-1000 MHz. Embedded versions rated for 10 years of continuous use were marketed as Crusoe SE (for Special Embedded) TM55E/TM58E respectively at clock frequencies of 667-993 MHz.

The TM5700/TM5900 removes SDRAM support for its integrated memory controller and now comes in a 54% smaller 399 pin FC-OBGA package rather than the ceramic 479 BGA package used previously. Clock speed remains the same between 667 and 1000 MHz.

Production
Transmeta was a fabless semiconductor company, without the facilities to fabricate their designs. Instead, both processors were fabricated by IBM Microelectronics, the semiconductor business of International Business Machines (IBM). IBM fabricated the Crusoe in a 0.18 μm CMOS process with five levels of copper interconnect.

Software limitations
The Crusoe processor supports MMX but not SSE. As of 2022, most browsers on Windows and Linux, and some other programs, need SSE or SSE2 support; therefore, that software will no longer run on the Crusoe platform. For example, Firefox dropped support for systems without SSE2 in 2017, although K-Meleon could run without SSE on Windows XP. The Efficeon processor added support for SSE and SSE2.

Products

 * Blue Coat Systems Proxy SG210-25 (800 MHz TM5800)
 * Casio Cassiopeia Fiva MPC-205/206E
 * Casio MPC-701 pen tablet PC
 * Compaq TC1000
 * Compaq T5300, T5500, T5510, T5515, T5700 and T5710 thin clients
 * Dialogue Flybook A33i/V33i
 * ECS EZ-Tablet EZ30
 * ECS i-Buddie A907
 * ECS A530 (ODM, was sold as IRu Stilo 1514 and PCChips A530)
 * Flybook
 * Fujitsu FMV-BIBLO LOOX s5/53w, t5/53w, t5/53
 * Fujitsu / Siemens Futro S300 (800 MHz TM5800)
 * Fujitsu LifeBook P1032, P1100, P1120, P2040, P2110, P2120
 * Gateway Touch Pad
 * HP Compaq t5300 thin client (with TM5600 533 MHz)
 * HP Compaq t5500 thin client (with TM5800 733 MHz)
 * HP Compaq t5700 thin client (with TM5800 733 MHz or 1 GHz)
 * NEC LaVie MX
 * MSI PenNote3100 (TM5800 at 1 GHz)
 * NEC PowerMate Eco
 * NEC Versa DayLite/UltraLite
 * OQO Model 01 and 01+
 * Orion Multisystems DT-12 desktop cluster workstation
 * Orion Multisystems DS-96 deskside cluster workstation
 * RLX ServerBlade 1000t
 * Sharp Actius/Mebius MM10
 * SONICblue ProGear information appliance
 * Sony VAIO PCG-U1 and PCG-U3
 * Sony VAIO PCG-C1VE, PCG-C1VP, PCG-C1VPK and PCG-C1VN
 * Sony VAIO PCG-GT1 (with TM5600 at 600 MHz)
 * Syntax A530 laptop (TM5600 clocked at 599.174 MHz)
 * TDV Vison V800XPT Tablet
 * Toshiba Libretto L1, L2, L3, L3 Adidas Edition and L5 (L1–L3 at 600 MHz and L5 at 800 MHz)

title: Transmeta Crusoe


text:
Illbient

Illbient is a genre of electronic music and an art movement that originated among hip hop-influenced experimental musicians from New York City in the early 1990s. The word "illbient" combines the hip hop slang term "ill" and "ambient"; DJ Olive and DJ Spooky, pioneers of the genre, have claimed to have coined the term.

Though there are many individualistic variants of illbient, the music is characterized by dub- and industrial-influenced layering of beats and soundscapes, hip hop-influenced use of breaks and samples, and a progressive approach to beat programming that encompasses many forms of world music and electronic music.

Besides DJ Olive and DJ Spooky, other notable names and acts that were part of the original illbient scene included Raz Mesinai, We™, Byzar, Spectre and the artists that were released on his WordSound label around that time. Subsequent illbient artists have included Techno Animal, Sixtoo and Odd Nosdam.

title: Illbient