text:
Family Guy

Family Guy is an American animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series premiered on January 31, 1999, following Super Bowl XXXIII, with the rest of the first season airing from April 11, 1999. The show centers around the Griffins, a dysfunctional family consisting of parents Peter and Lois, their children, Meg, Chris, and Stewie, and their anthropomorphic pet dog, Brian. Set in the fictional city of Quahog, Rhode Island, the show exhibits much of its humor in the form of metafictional cutaway gags that often lampoon American culture.

The family was conceived by MacFarlane after he developed two animated films, The Life of Larry and Larry & Steve. MacFarlane redesigned the films' protagonist, Larry, and his dog, Steve, and renamed them Peter and Brian, respectively. MacFarlane pitched a seven-minute pilot to Fox in December 1998, and the show was greenlit and began production. Family Guy cancellation was announced shortly after the third season had aired in 2002, with one unaired episode eventually premiering on Adult Swim in 2003, finishing the series' original run. Favorable DVD sales and high ratings from syndicated reruns since then convinced Fox to revive the show in 2004; a fourth season began airing the following year, on May 1, 2005.

Since its premiere, Family Guy has received generally positive reviews. In 2009, it was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the first time an animated series had been nominated for the award since The Flintstones in 1961. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Family Guy as the ninth-greatest TV cartoon. The series has also garnered considerable amounts of criticism and controversy, ranging from storylines and character stereotypes, to allegations of racism, homophobia, and misogyny.

Many tie-in media based on the show have been released, including Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story, a straight-to-DVD special released in 2005; Family Guy: Live in Vegas, a soundtrack-DVD combo released in 2005, featuring music from the show as well as music created by MacFarlane and Walter Murphy; a video game and pinball machine, released in 2006 and 2007, respectively; since 2005, six books published by Harper Adult; and Laugh It Up, Fuzzball: The Family Guy Trilogy (2010), a collection of three episodes parodying the original Star Wars trilogy. A spin-off series, The Cleveland Show, featuring Cleveland Brown, aired from September 27, 2009, to May 19, 2013.

On January 26, 2023, Fox announced that the series had been renewed for seasons 22 and 23, taking the show through the 2024–25 television season. Season 22 premiered on October 1, 2023. Family Guy moved to Wednesday nights beginning March 6, 2024, marking the first time the show airs on a weeknight since 2002.

Characters
The show centers around the adventures and activities of the dysfunctional Griffin family, consisting of father Peter Griffin, a bumbling and clumsy yet well-intentioned blue-collar worker; his wife Lois, a stay-at-home mother and piano teacher (in early episodes) who is a member of the affluent Pewterschmidt family; Meg, their often bullied teenage daughter who is constantly ridiculed or ignored by the family; Chris, their awkward teenage son, who is overweight, unintelligent, unathletic, and in many respects a younger version of his father; and Stewie, their diabolical infant son of ambiguous sexual orientation who is an adult-mannered evil genius and uses stereotypical archvillain phrases. Living with the family is their witty, smoking, martini-swilling, sarcastic, English-speaking anthropomorphic dog Brian, although he is still considered a pet in many ways.

Recurring characters appear alongside the Griffin family. These include the family's neighbors: sex-crazed airline pilot bachelor Glenn Quagmire; deli owner/mail carrier Cleveland Brown and his wife Loretta (later Donna); paraplegic police officer Joe Swanson, his wife Bonnie, their son Kevin and their baby daughter Susie; neurotic Jewish pharmacist Mort Goldman, his wife Muriel, and their geeky and annoying son Neil, and elderly child molester Herbert. TV news anchors Tom Tucker and Diane Simmons, Asian reporter Tricia Takanawa, and Blaccu-Weather meteorologist Ollie Williams also make frequent appearances. Actor James Woods guest stars as himself in multiple episodes, as did Adam West, prior to his death.

Setting
The primary setting of Family Guy is Quahog, a fictional city in Rhode Island that was founded by Peter's ancestor, Griffin Peterson. MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student at Rhode Island School of Design, and the show contains distinct Rhode Island landmarks similar to real-world locations. MacFarlane often borrows the names of Rhode Island locations and icons such as Pawtucket and Buddy Cianci for use in the show. MacFarlane, in an interview with Providence's Fox affiliate WNAC-TV, stated that the town is modeled after Cranston, Rhode Island.

Development
MacFarlane conceived Family Guy in 1995 while studying animation at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD). During college, he created his thesis film titled The Life of Larry, which was submitted by his professor at RISD to Hanna-Barbera. MacFarlane was hired by the company. In 1996, MacFarlane created a sequel to The Life of Larry titled Larry and Steve, which featured a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve; the short was broadcast in 1997 as one of Cartoon Network's World Premiere Toons.

Executives at Fox saw the Larry shorts and contracted MacFarlane to create a series, titled Family Guy, based on the characters. Fox proposed that MacFarlane complete a 15-minute short and gave him a budget of $50,000. Several aspects of Family Guy were inspired by the Larry shorts. While MacFarlane worked on the series, the characters of Larry and his dog Steve slowly evolved into Peter and Brian. MacFarlane stated that the difference between The Life of Larry and Family Guy was that "Life of Larry was shown primarily in my dorm room and Family Guy was shown after the Super Bowl." After the pilot aired, the series was given the greenlight. MacFarlane drew inspiration from several sitcoms such as The Simpsons and All in the Family. Premises were drawn from several 1980s Saturday-morning cartoons he watched as a child, such as The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang and Rubik, the Amazing Cube.

The Griffin family first appeared on the demo that MacFarlane pitched to Fox on May 15, 1998. Family Guy was originally planned to start out as short movies for the sketch show Mad TV, but the plan changed, because MADtv's budget was not large enough to support animation production. MacFarlane noted that he then wanted to pitch it to Fox, as he thought that it was the place to create a prime-time animation show. Family Guy was originally pitched to Fox in the same year as King of the Hill, but the show was not bought until years later, when King of the Hill became successful. Fox ordered 13 episodes of Family Guy to air in midseason after MacFarlane impressed executives with a 14-minute pilot.

Executive producers
MacFarlane has served as an executive producer throughout the show's entire history. The first executive producers were David Zuckerman, Lolee Aries, David Pritchard, and Mike Wolf. Family Guy has had many executive producers in its history, including Daniel Palladino, Kara Vallow, and Danny Smith. David A. Goodman joined the show as a co-executive producer in season three and eventually became an executive producer.

Writing
The first team of writers assembled for the show consisted of Chris Sheridan, Danny Smith, Gary Janetti, Ricky Blitt, Neil Goldman, Garrett Donovan, Matt Weitzman, and Mike Barker. The writing process of Family Guy typically starts with 14 writers that take turns writing the scripts; when a script is finished it is given to the rest of the writers to read.

These scripts generally include cutaway gags. Various gags are pitched to MacFarlane and the rest of the staff, and those deemed the funniest are included in the episode. MacFarlane has explained that it normally takes 10 months to produce an episode because the show uses hand-drawn animation. The show rarely comments on current events for this reason. The show's initial writers had never written for an animated show, and most came from live-action sitcoms.

MacFarlane explained that he is a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense, which led him to give early episodes ominous titles like "Death Has a Shadow" and "Mind Over Murder." MacFarlane said that the team dropped the naming convention after individual episodes became hard to identify, and the novelty wore off. For the first few months of production, the writers shared one office, lent to them by the King of the Hill production crew.

Credited with 19 episodes, Steve Callaghan is the most prolific writer on the Family Guy staff. Many of the writers that have left the show have gone on to create or produce other successful series. Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan co-wrote 13 episodes for the NBC sitcom Scrubs during their eight-year run on the show, while also serving as co-producers and working their way up to executive producers. Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman left the show and went on to create the long-running and still ongoing adult animated series American Dad! MacFarlane is also a co-creator of American Dad! On November 4, 2013, it was announced that Barker had departed American Dad! during its run as well, after 10 seasons of serving as producer and co-showrunner over the series.

During the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, official production of the show halted for most of December 2007 and for various periods afterward. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, which he termed "a colossal dick move" in an interview with Variety. Though MacFarlane refused to work on the show, his contract under Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it would subsequently produce. Production officially resumed after the end of the strike, with regularly airing episodes recommencing on February 17, 2008. According to MacFarlane, in 2009, it cost about $2 million to make an episode of Family Guy.

During his September 2017 AMA on Reddit, MacFarlane revealed that he had not written for the show since 2010, choosing instead to focus on production and voice acting.

On May 12, 2023, it was announced that the showrunners of Family Guy, including Seth MacFarlane, would temporarily leave the show as a result of the 2023 Writers Guild of America Strike. They returned to the show on September 27, 2023, once the strike was declared to be over.

Early history and cancellation
Family Guy officially premiered after Fox's broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIII on January 31, 1999, with "Death Has a Shadow". The show debuted to 22 million viewers and immediately generated controversy regarding its adult content. The show returned on April 11, 1999, with "I Never Met the Dead Man". Family Guy garnered decent ratings in Fox's 8:30 pm slot on Sunday, scheduled between The Simpsons and The X-Files. At the end of its first season, the show ranked No. 33 in the Nielsen ratings, with 12.8 million households tuning in. The show launched its second season in a new time slot, Thursday at 9 pm, on September 23, 1999. Family Guy was pitted against NBC's Frasier, and the series' ratings declined sharply. Subsequently, Fox removed Family Guy from its schedule and began airing episodes irregularly. The show returned on March 7, 2000, at 8:30 pm on Tuesdays, where it was constantly beaten in the ratings by ABC's then-new breakout hit Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, coming in at No. 114 in the Nielsen ratings with 6.32 million households tuning in. Fox announced that the show had been canceled in May 2000, at the end of the second season. However, following a last-minute reprieve, on July 24, 2000, Fox ordered 13 additional episodes of Family Guy to form a third season.

The show returned on November 8, 2001, once again in a tough time slot: Thursday nights at 8:00 pm. This slot brought it into competition with Survivor and Friends (a situation that was later referenced in Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story). During its second and third seasons, Fox frequently moved the show around to different days and time slots with little or no notice and, consequently, the show's ratings suffered. Upon Fox's annual unveiling of its 2002 fall line-up on May 15, 2002, Family Guy was absent. Fox announced that the show had been officially canceled shortly thereafter.

Cult success and revival
Fox attempted to sell the rights for reruns of the show, but finding networks that were interested was difficult; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights "basically for free", according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television. Family Guy premiered in reruns on Adult Swim on April 20, 2003, and immediately became the block's top-rated program, dominating late-night viewing in its time period versus cable and broadcast competition and boosting viewership by 239%. The complete first and second seasons were released on DVD the same week the show premiered on Adult Swim, and the show became a cult phenomenon, selling 400,000 copies within one month. Sales of the DVD set reached 2.2 million copies, becoming the best-selling television DVD of 2003 and the second-highest-selling television DVD ever, behind the first season of Comedy Central's Chappelle's Show. The third-season DVD release also sold more than a million copies. The show's popularity in DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox's interest, and, on May 20, 2004, Fox ordered 35 new episodes of Family Guy, marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales.

"North by North Quahog", which premiered May 1, 2005, was the first episode to be broadcast after the show's hiatus. It was written by MacFarlane and directed by Peter Shin. MacFarlane believed the show's three-year hiatus was beneficial, because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses, and towards the end of their seasons, "... you see a lot more sex jokes and bodily function jokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried". With "North by North Quahog", the writing staff tried to keep the show "[...] exactly as it was" before its cancellation, and "None of us had any desire to make it look any slicker". The episode was watched by 11.85 million viewers, the show's highest ratings since the airing of the first season episode "Brian: Portrait of a Dog".

Lawsuits
In March 2007, comedian Carol Burnett filed a $6 million lawsuit against 20th Century Fox, claiming that her charwoman cartoon character had been portrayed on the show without her permission. She stated it was a trademark infringement and that Fox violated her publicity rights. On June 4, 2007, United States District Judge Dean D. Pregerson rejected the lawsuit, stating that the parody was protected under the First Amendment, citing Hustler Magazine v. Falwell as a precedent.

On October 3, 2007, Bourne Co. Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing the show of infringing its copyright on the song "When You Wish Upon a Star", through a parody song titled "I Need a Jew" appearing in the episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein". Bourne Co., the sole United States copyright owner of the song, alleged the parody pairs a "thinly veiled" copy of its music with antisemitic lyrics. Named in the suit were 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network, MacFarlane, and Murphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages. Bourne argued that "I Need a Jew" uses the copyrighted melody of "When You Wish Upon a Star" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not a First Amendment-protected parody per the ruling in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. On March 16, 2009, United States District Judge Deborah Batts held that Family Guy did not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode.

In December 2007, Family Guy was again accused of copyright infringement when actor Art Metrano filed a lawsuit regarding a scene in Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature "magic" act involving absurd "faux" magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune "Fine and Dandy". 20th Century Fox, MacFarlane, Callaghan and Borstein were all named in the suit. In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved – "purpose and character of the use", "nature of the infringed work" and "amount and substantiality of the taking" – counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth – "economic impact" – had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers – not Metrano or his act. The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms.

Voice cast
Seth MacFarlane voices three of the show's main characters: Peter Griffin, Brian Griffin, and Stewie Griffin. Since MacFarlane had a strong vision for these characters, he chose to voice them himself, believing it would be easier than for someone else to attempt it. MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design. Stewie's voice was based on the voice of English actor Rex Harrison, especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama film My Fair Lady. MacFarlane uses his regular speaking voice when playing Brian. MacFarlane also provides the voices for various other recurring and one-time-only characters, most prominently those of the Griffins' neighbor Glenn Quagmire, news anchor Tom Tucker, and Lois' father, Carter Pewterschmidt.

Alex Borstein voices Peter's wife Lois Griffin, Asian correspondent Tricia Takanawa, Loretta Brown, and Lois' mother, Babs Pewterschmidt. Borstein was asked to provide a voice for the pilot while she was working on MADtv. She had not met MacFarlane or seen any of his artwork and said it was "really sight unseen". At the time, Borstein was performing in a stage show in Los Angeles. She played a redheaded mother whose voice she had based on one of her cousins.

Seth Green primarily voices Chris Griffin and Neil Goldman. Green stated that he did an impression of the character Buffalo Bill from the thriller film The Silence of the Lambs during his audition.

Mila Kunis and Lacey Chabert have both voiced Meg Griffin. Chabert left the series after the first season because of time conflicts with schoolwork (at the time) and her role on Party of Five. When Kunis auditioned for the role, she was called back by MacFarlane, who instructed her to speak slower. He then told her to come back another time and enunciate more. Once she claimed that she had it under control, MacFarlane hired her. Archival recordings of Lacey Chabert's voice that she provided as Meg Griffin are used in the tenth season episode "Back to the Pilot" in which Brian and Stewie go back in time to the events of "Death Has a Shadow."

Mike Henry voices Herbert, Bruce the Performance Artist, Consuela, the Greased-up Deaf Guy, and until 2021, Cleveland Brown. Henry met MacFarlane at the Rhode Island School of Design and kept in touch with him after they graduated. A few years later, MacFarlane contacted him about being part of the show; he agreed and came on as a writer and voice actor. During the show's first four seasons, he was credited as a guest star, but beginning with season five's "Prick Up Your Ears", he has been credited as a main cast member. On June 26, 2020, after twenty years of voicing the character, Mike Henry announced on Twitter that he was stepping down from voicing Cleveland, stating "persons of color should play characters of color." On September 25, 2020, it was announced that Arif Zahir would take over as the voice of Cleveland.

Other recurring cast members include Patrick Warburton as Joe Swanson, Jennifer Tilly as Bonnie Swanson, John G. Brennan as Mort Goldman and Horace the bartender, Carlos Alazraqui as Jonathan Weed, Adam Carolla and Norm Macdonald as Death, Lori Alan as Diane Simmons, Phil LaMarr as Ollie Williams and Judge Dignified Q. Blackman, and Kevin Michael Richardson as Jerome. Fellow cartoonist Butch Hartman has made guest voice appearances in episodes as various characters. Also, writer Danny Smith voices various recurring characters, such as Ernie the Giant Chicken. Alexandra Breckenridge also appears as many various characters. Adam West appeared as the eponymous Mayor Adam West, until his death in 2017.

Episodes often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions, including actors, athletes, authors, bands, musicians, and scientists. Many guest voices star as themselves. Leslie Uggams was the first to appear as herself, in the fourth episode of the first season, "Mind Over Murder". The episode "Not All Dogs Go to Heaven" guest starred the entire cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation, including Patrick Stewart, Jonathan Frakes, Brent Spiner, LeVar Burton, Gates McFadden, Michael Dorn, Wil Wheaton, Marina Sirtis, and even Denise Crosby (season 1 as Tasha Yar), playing themselves; this is the episode with the most guest stars of the seventh season.

"Road to" episodes
The "Road to" episodes are a series of hallmark travel episodes. They are a parody of the seven Road to... comedy films starring Bing Crosby and Bob Hope. These episodes have always involved Stewie and Brian in some foreign, supernatural or science-fiction location, unrelated to the show's normal location in Quahog. The first, titled "Road to Rhode Island", aired on May 30, 2000, during the second season. The episodes are known for featuring elaborate musical numbers, similar to the Road films. The episodes contain several trademarks, including a special version of the opening sequence, custom musical cues and musical numbers, and parodies of science fiction and fantasy films.

The original idea for the "Road to" episodes came from MacFarlane, as he is a fan of the films of Crosby, Hope and Dorothy Lamour. The first episode was directed by Dan Povenmire, who would direct the rest of the "Road to" episodes until the episode "Road to Rupert", at which point he had left the show to create Phineas and Ferb with Jeff "Swampy" Marsh. Series regular Greg Colton then took over Povenmire's role as director of the "Road to" episodes.

The "Road to" episodes are generally considered by critics and fans to be some of the greatest in the series, thanks to the developing relationship between Stewie and Brian and the strong plotlines of the episodes themselves.

Humor
Family Guy uses the film-making technique of cutaways, which occur in the majority of Family Guy episodes. Emphasis is often placed on gags which make reference to social phenomena and/or modern cultural icons.

Early episodes based much of their comedy on Stewie's "super villain" antics, such as his constant plans for total world domination, his evil experiments, plans and inventions to get rid of things he dislikes, and his constant attempts at matricide. As the series progressed, the writers and MacFarlane agreed that his personality and the jokes were starting to feel dated, so they began writing him with a different personality. Family Guy often includes self-referential humor. The most common form is jokes about the Fox network, and occasions where the characters break the fourth wall by addressing the audience. For example, in "North by North Quahog", the first episode that aired after the show's revival, included Peter telling the family that they had been canceled because Fox had to make room in their schedule for shows like Dark Angel, Titus, Undeclared, Action, That '80s Show, Wonderfalls, Fastlane, Andy Richter Controls the Universe, Skin, Girls Club, Cracking Up, The Pitts, Firefly, Get Real, FreakyLinks, Wanda at Large, Costello, The Lone Gunmen, A Minute with Stan Hooper, Normal, Ohio, Pasadena, Harsh Realm, Keen Eddie, The $treet, The American Embassy, Cedric the Entertainer Presents, The Tick, Luis, and Greg the Bunny. Lois asks whether there is any hope, to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance; the shows were indeed canceled during Family Guy's hiatus.

The show uses catchphrases, and most of the primary and secondary characters have them. Notable expressions include Quagmire's "Giggity giggity goo", Peter's "Freakin' sweet", Cleveland's "Oh, that's nasty", and Joe's "Bring it on!" The use of many of these catchphrases declined in later seasons. The episode "Big Man on Hippocampus" mocks catchphrase-based humor: when Peter, who has forgotten everything about his life, is introduced to Meg, he exclaims "D'oh!", to which Lois replies, "No, Peter, that's not your catchphrase."

Reception and legacy
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that, like other satirical comedies, Family Guy "is most popular in cities. The show's popularity was more correlated with support for Hillary Clinton than any other show". As of 2008, the franchise has generated US$1 billion in total revenue, including US$400 million from TV syndication, US$400 million from DVD sales, and US$200 million from merchandise sales.

Critical reception
Family Guy has received generally positive reviews, particularly for its pop culture references, blue humor, satire, and non-sequitur storytelling. Catherine Seipp of National Review Online described it as a "nasty but extremely funny" cartoon. Caryn James of The New York Times called it a show with an "outrageously satirical family" that "includes plenty of comic possibilities and parodies". The Sydney Morning Herald named Family Guy the "Show of the Week" on April 21, 2009, hailing it a "pop culture-heavy masterpiece". Frazier Moore from The Seattle Times called it an "endless craving for humor about bodily emissions". He thought it was "breathtakingly smart" and said a "blend of the ingenious with the raw helps account for its much broader appeal". He summarized it as "rude, crude and deliciously wrong". The New Yorker's Nancy Franklin said that Family Guy is becoming one of the best animated shows; she commented on its ribaldry and popularity. The show has become a hit on Hulu; it is the second-highest viewed show after Saturday Night Live. IGN called Family Guy a great show and commented that it has gotten better since its revival. They stated that they cannot imagine another half-hour sitcom that provides as many laughs as Family Guy. Empire praised the show and its writers for creating really hilarious moments with unlikely material. They commented that one of the reasons they love the show is because nothing is sacred—it makes jokes and gags of almost everything. Robin Pierson of The TV Critic praised the series as "a different kind of animated comedy which clearly sets out to do jokes which other cartoons can't do." Family Guy has proven popular in the United Kingdom, regularly obtaining between 700,000 and 1 million viewers for re-runs on BBC Three.

The series has attracted many celebrities. Robert Downey Jr. telephoned the show production staff and asked if he could produce or assist in an episode's creation, as his son is a fan of the show; the producers subsequently created a character for Downey. Lauren Conrad met MacFarlane while recording a Laguna Beach clip for the episode "Prick Up Your Ears" (season 5, 2006). She has watched Family Guy for years and considers Stewie her favorite character. Commenting on his appearance in the episode "Big Man on Hippocampus" (season 8, 2010), actor Dwayne Johnson stated that he was a "big fan" of Family Guy. Johnson befriended MacFarlane after he had a minor role in Johnson's 2010 film Tooth Fairy. R&B singer Rihanna has admitted to being a fan of Family Guy, as has pop singer Britney Spears; she tries to imitate Stewie's English accent. Spears, who was mocked for her personal problems in the South Park episode "Britney's New Look" in 2008, offered to appear in a cameo to hit back at the similar animated show, but MacFarlane declined, stating that he did not want to start a feud with the series.

Awards
Family Guy and its cast have been nominated for 27 Emmy Awards, with 8 wins. MacFarlane won the Outstanding Voice-Over Performance award for his performance as Stewie; Murphy and MacFarlane won the Outstanding Music and Lyrics award for the song "You Got a Lot to See" from the episode "Brian Wallows and Peter's Swallows"; Steven Fonti won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode "No Chris Left Behind"; and Greg Colton won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode "Road to the Multiverse". The show was nominated for eleven Annie Awards, and won three times, twice in 2006 and once in 2008. In 2009, it was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series, becoming the first animated program to be nominated in this category since The Flintstones in 1961. The Simpsons was almost nominated in 1993, but voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs. The show was nominated for a Grammy in 2011. Family Guy has been nominated and has won various other awards, including the Teen Choice Awards and the People's Choice Awards. In the 1,000th issue of Entertainment Weekly, Brian Griffin was selected as the dog for "The Perfect TV Family".  Wizard Magazine rated Stewie the 95th-greatest villain of all time. British newspaper The Times rated Family Guy the 45th-best American show in 2009. IGN ranked Family Guy number seven in the "Top 100 Animated Series" and number six in the "Top 25 Primetime Animated Series of All Time". Empire named it the twelfth-greatest TV show of all time in 2008. In 2005, viewers of the UK television channel Channel 4 voted Family Guy number 5 on their list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons. Brian was awarded the 2009 Stoner of the Year award by High Times for the episode "420", marking the first time an animated character received the honor. In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide ranked Family Guy number 12 and number 15 in their list of top cult shows ever. Family Guy has garnered six Golden Reel Awards nominations, winning three times. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Family Guy the ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time.

Criticism and controversy
One of the initial critics to give the show negative reviews was Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly; he called it "The Simpsons as conceived by a singularly sophomoric mind that lacks any reference point beyond other TV shows". The Parents Television Council (PTC), a conservative non-profit watchdog, has attacked the series since its premiere and has branded various episodes as "Worst TV Show of the Week". In May 2000, the PTC launched a letter-writing campaign to the Fox network in an effort to persuade the network to cancel the show. The PTC has placed the show on their annual lists of "Worst Prime-Time Shows for Family Viewing" in 2000, 2005, and 2006. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has received multiple petitions requesting that the show be blocked from broadcasting on indecency grounds. Tucker and the PTC have both accused the show of portraying religion negatively, and of being racist. Because of the PTC, some advertisers have canceled their contracts after reviewing the content of the episodes, claiming it to be unsuitable. Critics have compared the show's humor and characters with those of The Simpsons.

Various episodes of the show have generated controversy. In "420" (season seven, 2009), Brian decides to start a campaign to legalize cannabis in Quahog; the Venezuelan government reacted negatively to the episode and banned Family Guy from airing on their local networks, which generally syndicate American programming. Venezuelan justice minister Tareck El Aissami, citing the promotion of the use of cannabis, stated that any cable stations that did not stop airing the series would be fined; the government showed a clip which featured Brian and Stewie singing the praises of marijuana as a demonstration of how the United States supports cannabis use. In "Extra Large Medium" (season eight, 2010) a character named Ellen (who has Down syndrome) states that her mother is the former Governor of Alaska, which strongly implies that her mother is Sarah Palin, the only woman to have served in the office of governor in the state. Sarah Palin, the mother of a child with Down syndrome, criticized the episode in an appearance on The O'Reilly Factor, calling those who made the show "cruel, cold-hearted people".

Broadcast and streaming
In the United States, the show currently airs on FX, FXX, Freeform, and The CW in some regions. The show was syndicated to Adult Swim and TBS from 2003 to 2021, sharing the rights to the first fifteen seasons. In April 2019, FX Networks began airing reruns of season 16 on FXX, with season 17 debuting that October, and shared off-network rights to both seasons with sister channel Freeform. After Adult Swim and TBS' rights expired on September 18, 2021, FXX and Freeform began airing the first fifteen seasons. The show also joined FX's lineup that month. These deals did not affect the syndication rights held by local broadcast stations. The series is available for streaming exclusively on Hulu, which will launch two holiday specials in 2024.

The show's departure from Adult Swim on September 18, 2021, was commemorated with a remembrance bumper created by the network, which played after the final airing (the episode "Stewie is Enceinte"). The bumper showed animations of several Adult Swim characters bidding farewell to Family Guy, including shots of Peter crying at the beginning and the Griffin family waving goodbye towards the end.

Internationally Family Guy is available to stream on Star on Disney+, except in Latin America, where the series is exclusively available on the standalone service Star+.

Family Guy premiered in Australia on April 9, 1999, on the Seven Network, in 2000 on Fox8, and on 7mate on September 27, 2010. Initially, only 2 seasons were available to stream on Disney+ Star due to pre existing contracts. The other 17 seasons were added on December 1, 2021, after the contract expired.

In Canada, the series premiered January 31, 1999, on Global and September 1, 2003, on Teletoon at Night. Beginning in the 2015–2016 season, the show moved to Citytv; the show would once again return to the channel in 2023. Starting in November 2021, the series moved to Disney+. In addition to Teletoon at Night, the show has been syndicated to TVtropolis (now DTour), Adult Swim Canada, and FX Canada. Since 2024, CHCH and Citytv share the broadcast rights to the series due to scheduling issues.

The show airs in India on Star World Premiere, in Ireland on 3e, and in New Zealand on TVNZ Duke; previously it screened on defunct channel Four.

In the United Kingdom, Family Guy premiered in September 1999, originally on Channel 4 and Sky One. In January 2005, Fox UK (then known as FX) began broadcasting the show. From October 2005, BBC Two started screening Family Guy before the show moved to BBC Three in September 2006. Beginning with season 14, the show moved to ITV2, premiering on February 29, 2016, while the BBC would continue to hold the rights for past seasons until 2017.

In South Korea, the show premiered January 11, 2008, on Tooniverse.

Books
Family Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One was written by executive story editor Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and actress Alex Borstein. The book was first published on May 8, 2007. The book is a biographical monologue by Lois Griffin covering a portion of her life, spanning from her memories of growing up to her attempted run for mayor in the town of Quahog. Though the book primarily consists of a loose narrative monologue by Lois, it is also interspersed with sections from other characters such as Peter Griffin. The book covers events featured in the Family Guy episode "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One", with which it shares a title. It was published in the United Kingdom in 2007 by Orion Books.

A comic book based on the Family Guy universe was produced. Published by Titan Comics, edited by Steve White, and illustrated by Anthony Williams and S. L. Gallant, the writing and the illustrations were supervised by the show's producers. The first comic book was released on July 27, 2011.

Live performances
As promotion for the show and as Newman described "[to] expand interest in the show beyond its diehard fans", Fox organized four Family Guy Live! performances, which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud. The cast also performed musical numbers from the Family Guy: Live in Vegas comedy album. The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004 Montreal Comedy Festival. The Family Guy Live! performances, which took place in Los Angeles and New York, sold out and were attended by around 1,200 people each.

At the 59th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards in 2007, MacFarlane performed (as the digitally inserted Stewie and Brian) the ceremony's opening number. He performed a song insulting modern television to the tune of the song "The Fellas at the Freakin' F.C.C." performed in the episode "PTV". The song insulted TV shows such as Two and a Half Men, Desperate Housewives, and Scrubs, as well as the final scene of The Sopranos.

In 2009, a special televised performance show aired, titled Family Guy Presents Seth & Alex's Almost Live Comedy Show, in which voice actors Alex Borstein and MacFarlane performed songs from the show, as well as a parody of Lady Gaga's song "Poker Face" in the voice of Marlee Matlin, who appeared on stage as a guest during the performance. Some new animated gags also appeared in the show.

Film
In a July 22, 2007, interview with The Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although "nothing's official." In TV Week on July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released Family Guy feature film sometime "within the next year." He came up with an idea for the story, "something that you could not do on the show, which [to him] is the only reason to do a movie." He later went on to say he imagines the film to be "an old-style musical with dialogue" similar to The Sound of Music, saying that he would "really be trying to capture, musically, that feel." On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for a Family Guy film had been made, and that it would be written by him and series co-producer Ricky Blitt.

On November 30, 2012, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a Family Guy film. The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked on Ted 2.

On August 10, 2018, Fox announced that a live-action/animated film based on the series is in development.

In July 2019, MacFarlane confirmed that there will be a Family Guy movie.

During PaleyFest in April 2024, MacFarlane revealed that he has known what the plot of the film would be for the past 15 years, but had not had the time to write it.

Spin-off
MacFarlane co-created—alongside Mike Henry and Richard Appel—the Family Guy spin-off The Cleveland Show, which premiered September 27, 2009. They began discussing the project in 2007.

Video games
The Family Guy Video Game! is a 2006 action game released by 2K Games and developed by High Voltage Software.

Family Guy: Back to the Multiverse, which is centered around the episode "Road to the Multiverse", was released on November 20, 2012.

Family Guy: The Quest for Stuff launched on iOS and Android on April 10, 2014.

Animation Throwdown: The Quest For Cards, a card game with content and characters from five animated television shows from Fox – Family Guy, Futurama, American Dad!, Bob's Burgers and King of the Hill – was released in 2016 by Kongregate.

Family Guy: Another Freakin' Mobile Game was released on iOS on April 25, 2017.

Warped Kart Racers is a racing game that was released on Apple Arcade in May 2022. The game features the entire Griffin family, and includes characters from American Dad!, King of the Hill and Solar Opposites.

Merchandise
As of 2009, six books have been released about the Family Guy universe, all published by HarperCollins since 2005. The first, Family Guy: Stewie's Guide to World Domination (ISBN 978-0-06-077321-2) by Steve Callahan, was released on April 26, 2005. Written in the style of a graphic novel, the plot follows Stewie's plans to rule the world. Other books include Family Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One (ISBN 978-0-7528-7593-4), which covers the events of the episode of the same name; and Family Guy and Philosophy: A Cure for the Petarded (ISBN 978-1-4051-6316-3), a collection of 17 essays exploring the connections between the series and historical philosophers. A book written from Brian's point of view (written by Andrew Goldberg) was published in 2006, called Brian Griffin's Guide to Booze, Broads and the Lost Art of Being a Man.

Family Guy has been commercially successful in the home market. The show was the first to be resurrected because of high DVD sales. The first volume, covering the show's first two seasons, sold 1.67 million units, topping TV DVD sales in 2003, while the second volume sold another million units. Volumes six and seven debuted at fifth place in United States DVD sales; volume seven was the highest-selling television DVD, selling 171,000 units by June 21, 2009. Family Guy Presents Blue Harvest, the DVD featuring the Star Wars special "Blue Harvest", was released on January 15, 2008, and premiered at the top of United States DVD sales. The DVD was the first Family Guy DVD to include a digital copy for download to the iPod. In 2004, the first series of Family Guy toy figurines was released by Mezco Toyz; each member of the Griffin family had their own toy, with the exception of Stewie, of whom two different figures were made. Over the course of two years, four more series of toy figures were released, with various forms of Peter. In 2008, the character Peter appeared in advertisements for Subway Restaurants, promoting the restaurant's massive feast sandwich.

title: Family Guy


text:
Wikipedia:Most-edited talk pages

Here are the talk pages with the most revisions, as of November 11, 2003.

 * 1) Talk:Main_Page: 1430
 * 2) Talk:New_Imperialism/archive_9: 545
 * 3) Talk:Daniel_C._Boyer: 509
 * 4) Talk:Current_events: 438
 * 5) Talk:Creationism/Archive6: 436
 * 6) Talk:Mother_Teresa: 397
 * 7) Talk:Anti-Semitism: 396
 * 8) Talk:Jesus_Christ: 360
 * 9) Talk:Main_Page/Layout_design: 356
 * 10) Talk:Silesia: 313
 * 11) Talk:People's_Republic_of_China: 305
 * 12) Talk:List_of_French_monarchs/archive_4: 293
 * 13) Talk:Jehovah's_Witnesses: 290
 * 14) Talk:Scientific_method: 273
 * 15) Talk:List_of_Canadians: 263
 * 16) Talk:Rachel_Corrie: 253
 * 17) Talk:Richard_Wagner: 250
 * 18) Talk:New_Imperialism: 242
 * 19) Talk:Main_Page/Temp: 239
 * 20) Talk:Global_warming: 234
 * 21) Talk:Irish_potato_famine: 234
 * 22) Talk:Saddam_Hussein: 227
 * 23) Talk:List_of_famous_gay,_lesbian_or_bisexual_people: 221
 * 24) Talk:Reciprocal_System_of_Theory: 210
 * 25) Talk:Communist_state: 209
 * 26) Talk:Genocide: 208
 * 27) Talk:Idolatry: 208
 * 28) Talk:Christopher_Columbus: 205
 * 29) Talk:History_of_the_Soviet_Union: 203
 * 30) Talk:2003_invasion_of_Iraq: 202
 * 31) Talk:History_of_China: 202
 * 32) Talk:Clitoris: 201
 * 33) Talk:American_and_British_English_Differences: 198
 * 34) Talk:Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome: 197
 * 35) Talk:Open_Directory_Project: 196
 * 36) Talk:Adolf_Hitler: 195
 * 37) Talk:Israel: 195
 * 38) Talk:Open_Directory_Project/Temp: 179
 * 39) Talk:Jesus_Christ/Archive_1: 178
 * 40) Talk:Creationism/Archive_2: 177
 * 41) Talk:Gaia_philosophy: 175
 * 42) Talk:Feminism: 166
 * 43) Talk:Homophobia: 165
 * 44) Talk:Crass: 161
 * 45) Talk:List_of_footballers_(soccer): 158
 * 46) Talk:Kosovo_War: 157
 * 47) Talk:United_States: 157
 * 48) Talk:Israeli-Palestinian_conflict: 156
 * 49) Talk:Evolution: 153
 * 50) Talk:Republic_of_Ireland: 151
 * 51) Talk:British_Broadcasting_Corporation: 146
 * 52) Talk:Orders_of_magnitude: 145
 * 53) Talk:Noam_Chomsky: 141
 * 54) Talk:Jews_in_the_New_Testament: 140
 * 55) Talk:Water_vapor: 137
 * 56) Talk:Genetic_drift: 135
 * 57) Talk:God: 135
 * 58) Talk:Conspiracy_theory: 133
 * 59) Talk:Joseph_Stalin: 131
 * 60) Talk:George_W._Bush/Archive_2: 130
 * 61) Talk:List_of_people_from_the_United_States: 130
 * 62) Talk:Holocaust: 128
 * 63) Talk:AKFD: 128
 * 64) Talk:Apartheid: 127
 * 65) Talk:Emperor_of_Japan: 124
 * 66) Talk:Gdansk: 122
 * 67) Talk:Idol_worship: 122
 * 68) Talk:Slogan_'Islamofascism': 122
 * 69) Talk:Race: 121
 * 70) Talk:Anarchism/Archive1: 120
 * 71) Talk:Early_infanticidal_childrearing: 119
 * 72) Talk:AKFD/from_Talk:Anti-gay_slogan: 119
 * 73) Talk:Circumcision: 118
 * 74) Talk:Hezbollah: 115
 * 75) Talk:Christianity_and_anti-Semitism: 114
 * 76) Talk:Creationism: 114
 * 77) Talk:Nigger_(word): 114
 * 78) Talk:List_of_heterosexuals/deletion_(final_archive): 111
 * 79) Talk:Pseudoscience: 111
 * 80) Talk:U.S._invasion_of_Afghanistan: 111
 * 81) Talk:Australia: 110
 * 82) Talk:Judaism: 110
 * 83) Talk:September_11,_2001_Terrorist_Attacks: 110
 * 84) Talk:Biblical_canon: 109
 * 85) Talk:Christian-Jewish_reconciliation: 109
 * 86) Talk:Ley_line: 109
 * 87) Talk:Supernatural: 109
 * 88) Talk:History_of_Poland_(1939-1945): 108
 * 89) Talk:Yoism: 108
 * 90) Talk:Zionism_and_racism: 108
 * 91) Talk:Gene: 107
 * 92) Talk:Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming): 107
 * 93) Talk:Fluoride: 106
 * 94) Talk:List_of_United_States_people/archive: 106
 * 95) Talk:Bush_family_conspiracy_theory: 105
 * 96) Talk:Law/Old_2: 105
 * 97) Talk:War_on_Terror/Archive_1: 104
 * 98) Talk:Special_relativity: 103
 * 99) Talk:Bowling_for_Columbine: 101
 * 100) Talk:Reptilian_humanoid: 101
 * 101) Talk:World_War_II/Archive_3: 101
 * 102) Talk:Christianity/Archive1: 100
 * 103) Talk:List_of_people_known_by_one_name: 99
 * 104) Talk:Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change: 98
 * 105) Talk:Japanese_American_Internment: 98
 * 106) Talk:Football_(soccer): 97
 * 107) Talk:Neutrosophy: 97
 * 108) Talk:Islam: 96
 * 109) Talk:Reality: 96
 * 110) Talk:Main_Page/Temp5: 95
 * 111) Talk:Occam's_Razor: 95
 * 112) Talk:Catholicism/Archive1: 94
 * 113) Talk:Clovis_I: 94
 * 114) Talk:Gender_role: 94
 * 115) Talk:List_of_words_of_disputed_pronunciation: 94
 * 116) Talk:Robert_Mugabe: 94
 * 117) Talk:Schizophrenia: 94
 * 118) Talk:Bushism: 93
 * 119) Talk:List_of_songs_whose_title_does_not_appear_in_the_lyrics: 93
 * 120) Talk:Jewish_ethnocentrism: 92
 * 121) Talk:Johnny_Rebel: 92
 * 122) Talk:Neoconservatism_(United_States): 91
 * 123) Talk:Norway: 91
 * 124) Talk:Pit_bull: 89
 * 125) Talk:Islam_and_Judaism: 88
 * 126) Talk:List_of_famous_Canadians_(archive)_/old_temp_page: 88
 * 127) Talk:Netherlands: 87
 * 128) Talk:Privatization: 87
 * 129) Talk:Suicide_bombing: 87
 * 130) Talk:Palestine: 86
 * 131) Talk:List_of_famous_Canadians_(archive)_/old_temp_page/discuss_this_page: 85
 * 132) Talk:Proposals_for_a_Palestinian_state: 85
 * 133) Talk:Anarchism: 84
 * 134) Talk:Eisenhower_and_German_POWs: 84
 * 135) Talk:Libertarian_socialism: 83
 * 136) Talk:Pol_Pot: 83
 * 137) Talk:Astrology: 82
 * 138) Talk:Capitalism: 82
 * 139) Talk:Gödel's_ontological_proof: 82
 * 140) Talk:Hitler_has_only_got_one_ball: 82
 * 141) Talk:Arab-Israeli_conflict: 81
 * 142) Talk:Eastern_Orthodoxy: 81
 * 143) Talk:Israeli_terrorism: 81
 * 144) Talk:Kosovo_and_Metohia: 81
 * 145) Talk:Temples_of_the_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints: 81
 * 146) Talk:Catholicism: 80
 * 147) Talk:Falsifiability: 80
 * 148) Talk:Iraq_disarmament_crisis: 80
 * 149) Talk:Pennsylvania_German: 80
 * 150) Talk:Wikipedia: 80
 * 151) Talk:Prime_Minister_of_the_United_States: 79
 * 152) Talk:Chess: 78
 * 153) Talk:Harry_Potter/archive_1: 78
 * 154) Talk:Comparing_and_contrasting_Judaism_and_Christianity: 77
 * 155) Talk:World_War_II: 77
 * 156) Talk:H._Jonat: 76
 * 157) Talk:Homosexuality: 76
 * 158) Talk:Palestinian: 76
 * 159) Talk:Book_of_Mormon: 75
 * 160) Talk:Droop_Quota: 75
 * 161) Talk:Jerusalem: 75
 * 162) Talk:Woman: 75
 * 163) Talk:Anti-French_sentiment_in_the_United_States: 74
 * 164) Talk:Religion: 74
 * 165) Talk:Elizabeth_Ann_Smart: 73
 * 166) Talk:Homelessness: 73
 * 167) Talk:Quebecois: 73
 * 168) Talk:Ethics: 71
 * 169) Talk:Images_of_Rachel_Corrie: 71
 * 170) Talk:Intelligent_design: 71
 * 171) Talk:U.S._presidential_election,_2000/Archive_1: 71
 * 172) Talk:Judeo-Christo-Islamic_tradition: 70
 * 173) Talk:Kyoto_Protocol: 70
 * 174) Talk:List_of_British_monarchs: 70
 * 175) Talk:Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution: 70
 * 176) Talk:Particle_physics: 70
 * 177) Talk:List_of_Christians: 69
 * 178) Talk:Anti-psychiatry: 68
 * 179) Talk:London_Congestion_Charge: 68
 * 180) Talk:Poznan: 68
 * 181) Talk:Race_and_intelligence: 68
 * 182) Talk:Documentary_hypothesis: 67
 * 183) Talk:Esperanto: 67
 * 184) Talk:Galileo_Galilei: 67
 * 185) Talk:History_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China: 67
 * 186) Talk:Osama_bin_Laden: 67
 * 187) Talk:Resurrection_of_Jesus_Christ: 67
 * 188) Talk:Normal_distribution: 65
 * 189) Talk:Coalition_of_the_willing: 64
 * 190) Talk:Cold_War: 64
 * 191) Talk:Nikola_Tesla: 64
 * 192) Talk:Philosophy_of_mathematics: 64
 * 193) Talk:Arabic_alphabet/from_the_French_Wikipedia: 63
 * 194) Talk:Free_software: 63
 * 195) Talk:James_I_of_England: 63
 * 196) Talk:Musical_genre: 63
 * 197) Talk:Original_sin: 63
 * 198) Talk:Shock_site/Archive: 63
 * 199) Talk:Timeline_of_trends_in_music: 63
 * 200) Talk:2003_US-Canada_blackout: 62
 * 201) Talk:Apollo_moon_landing_hoax_accusations: 62
 * 202) Talk:Class_(object-oriented_programming): 62
 * 203) Talk:Distinguishing_accents_in_English: 62
 * 204) Talk:Earth: 62
 * 205) Talk:Fifth_World: 62
 * 206) Talk:Global_protests_against_war_on_Iraq: 62
 * 207) Talk:List_of_nicknames_for_George_W._Bush: 62
 * 208) Talk:Henry_Ford: 61
 * 209) Talk:Isaac_Asimov: 61
 * 210) Talk:Islamism: 61
 * 211) Talk:Israeli_attack_on_USS_Liberty: 61
 * 212) Talk:Palestinian_refugee: 61
 * 213) Talk:Croatian_linguistic_purism: 60
 * 214) Talk:Jessica_Lynch: 60
 * 215) Talk:List_of_novelists: 60
 * 216) Talk:Unification_Church: 60
 * 217) Talk:Cornwall: 59
 * 218) Talk:English_plural: 59
 * 219) Talk:Nicolaus_Copernicus: 59
 * 220) Talk:Politics_of_Canada: 59
 * 221) Talk:Shenzhou_5: 59
 * 222) Talk:Canada: 58
 * 223) Talk:Christian_views_of_homosexuality: 58
 * 224) Talk:Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints: 58
 * 225) Talk:Lists_of_people: 58
 * 226) Talk:Micronation: 58
 * 227) Talk:Relationship_between_segments_of_Judaism: 58
 * 228) Talk:Terrorism: 58
 * 229) Talk:Blood_libel: 57
 * 230) Talk:Definition_of_art: 57
 * 231) Talk:Doctrines_of_Jehovah's_Witnesses: 57
 * 232) Talk:Hirohito: 57
 * 233) Talk:Homosexuality_and_morality: 57
 * 234) Talk:Periodic_table: 57
 * 235) Talk:Sola_scriptura: 57
 * 236) Talk:Soviet_Union: 57
 * 237) Talk:Buddhism: 56
 * 238) Talk:George_Washington: 56
 * 239) Talk:Masculism: 56
 * 240) Talk:Old_Testament_views_on_women: 56
 * 241) Talk:Pacifism: 56
 * 242) Talk:Racism: 56
 * 243) Talk:Timeline_of_Slovene_history: 56
 * 244) Talk:Where_Mathematics_Comes_From: 56
 * 245) Talk:Anti-Defamation_League: 55
 * 246) Talk:George_I_of_Great_Britain: 55
 * 247) Talk:Homeopathy: 55
 * 248) Talk:Martin_Luther/archive_1: 55
 * 249) Talk:Penis: 55
 * 250) Talk:Sea_monster: 55
 * 251) Talk:Anti-Zionism: 54
 * 252) Talk:Anti-globalization_movement: 54
 * 253) Talk:Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu: 54
 * 254) Talk:Bipolar_disorder: 54
 * 255) Talk:History_of_British_Socialism/archive: 54
 * 256) Talk:European_Union: 53
 * 257) Talk:Abortion: 52
 * 258) Talk:Carolingian_Dynasty: 52
 * 259) Talk:Deng_Xiaoping: 52
 * 260) Talk:Luís_In?cio_Lula_da_Silva: 52
 * 261) Talk:Middle-earth: 52
 * 262) Talk:Rush_Limbaugh: 52
 * 263) Talk:Sex_education: 52
 * 264) Talk:Chiropractic_medicine: 51
 * 265) Talk:Copernicus_as_Ermland_Administrator_and_the_Prussian_Coin_Reform: 51
 * 266) Talk:Floating_point: 51
 * 267) Talk:George_W._Bush: 51
 * 268) Talk:History_of_United_States_Imperialism: 51
 * 269) Talk:List_of_interesting_or_unusual_place_names: 51
 * 270) Talk:Madeline_Amy_Sweeney: 51
 * 271) Talk:Predestination: 51
 * 272) Talk:White_trash: 51
 * 273) Talk:Christian_views_of_women: 50
 * 274) Talk:Fuck: 50
 * 275) Talk:Inherently_funny_word: 50
 * 276) Talk:Supernaturalization: 50
 * 277) Talk:Tensor: 50
 * 278) Talk:United_States_Constitution: 50
 * 279) Talk:Vegetarianism: 50
 * 280) Talk:Anti-Americanism: 49
 * 281) Talk:First_Lady_of_the_United_States: 49
 * 282) Talk:Great_Apostasy/Archive1: 49
 * 283) Talk:Shock_site: 49
 * 284) Talk:Silesian_language: 49
 * 285) Talk:Surrealism: 49
 * 286) Talk:Theory_of_evolution: 49
 * 287) Talk:Timeline_of_Jewish_history: 49
 * 288) Talk:Ustase: 49
 * 289) Talk:Victor's_justice: 49
 * 290) Talk:Euro: 48
 * 291) Talk:Infanticide: 48
 * 292) Talk:Joseph_McCarthy: 48
 * 293) Talk:List_of_French_people: 48
 * 294) Talk:Mao_Zedong: 48
 * 295) Talk:Non-sexist_language: 48
 * 296) Talk:People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals: 48
 * 297) Talk:Recent_deaths: 48
 * 298) Talk:The_Lord_of_the_Rings: 48
 * 299) Talk:Vietnam_War: 48
 * 300) Talk:Arabs_and_anti-Semitism: 47
 * 301) Talk:Ariel_Sharon: 47
 * 302) Talk:Common_phrases_in_different_languages: 47
 * 303) Talk:Coup_d'état: 47
 * 304) Talk:Democracy: 47
 * 305) Talk:Fundamentalism: 47
 * 306) Talk:George_Bush: 47
 * 307) Talk:One-hit_wonder: 47
 * 308) Talk:Palestinian_homeland: 47
 * 309) Talk:Pornography_in_Japan: 47
 * 310) Talk:Propositional_knowledge: 47
 * 311) Talk:Serbo-Croatian_language: 47
 * 312) Talk:Sexual_orientation: 47
 * 313) Talk:Taliban: 47
 * 314) Talk:2003_invasion_of_Iraq_media_coverage: 46
 * 315) Talk:Argument_from_ignorance: 46
 * 316) Talk:Automobile: 46
 * 317) Talk:Centenarian: 46
 * 318) Talk:Germany: 46
 * 319) Talk:International_Criminal_Court: 46
 * 320) Talk:Opera_(browser): 46
 * 321) Talk:Pomerania: 46
 * 322) Talk:Quebec/archive_1: 46
 * 323) Talk:Semitism: 46
 * 324) Talk:Trinity: 46
 * 325) Talk:U.S.-led_occupation_of_Iraq: 46
 * 326) Talk:United_Kingdom: 46
 * 327) Talk:Virus_(disambiguation): 46
 * 328) Talk:World_War_II/Archive_1: 46
 * 329) Talk:Yugoslavia: 46
 * 330) Talk:_Deconstruction: 46
 * 331) Talk:2003_in_music: 45
 * 332) Talk:Adolescence: 45
 * 333) Talk:Dispute_over_the_name_Sea_of_Japan: 45
 * 334) Talk:List_of_Montreal_metro_stations: 45
 * 335) Talk:List_of_assassinated_persons: 45
 * 336) Talk:Pakistan/Temp: 45
 * 337) Talk:Taiwan: 45
 * 338) Talk:The_UN_Security_Council_and_the_Iraq_war: 45
 * 339) Talk:Dwight_D._Eisenhower: 44
 * 340) Talk:Homosexual_bishop: 44
 * 341) Talk:Jehovist: 44
 * 342) Talk:Juliette_Binoche: 44
 * 343) Talk:List_of_German_Kings_and_Emperors: 44
 * 344) Talk:List_of_forerunners_of_punk_music: 44
 * 345) Talk:List_of_mathematical_topics: 44
 * 346) Talk:List_of_people_associated_with_World_War_II: 44
 * 347) Talk:Persuasion_technology: 44
 * 348) Talk:Republic_of_Macedonia: 44
 * 349) Talk:Spinifex_Hopping_Mouse: 44
 * 350) Talk:The_stories_of_Christianity: 44
 * 351) Talk:AIDS_reappraisal: 43
 * 352) Talk:Christian_Mythology: 43
 * 353) Talk:Gaia_theory_(science): 43
 * 354) Talk:German_expulsion_after_World_War_II: 43
 * 355) Talk:Gun_politics: 43
 * 356) Talk:Mathematics: 43
 * 357) Talk:Maxwell's_equations: 43
 * 358) Talk:Pacifica: 43
 * 359) Talk:Rationalism: 43
 * 360) Talk:Revolution: 43
 * 361) Talk:Slovene_language: 43
 * 362) Talk:Spider: 43
 * 363) Talk:Algorithm: 42
 * 364) Talk:Bible: 42
 * 365) Talk:EPR_paradox: 42
 * 366) Talk:Friedrich_Nietzsche: 42
 * 367) Talk:Guns,_Germs_and_Steel: 42
 * 368) Talk:Intelligent_Design: 42
 * 369) Talk:Jean-Marie_Le_Pen: 42
 * 370) Talk:Leopold_II_of_Belgium: 42
 * 371) Talk:List_of_French_monarchs: 42
 * 372) Talk:List_of_anti-heroes: 42
 * 373) Talk:Morning-after_pill: 42
 * 374) Talk:Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom: 42
 * 375) Talk:Raelism: 42
 * 376) Talk:Reciprocal_System_of_Theory/Temp: 42
 * 377) Talk:Ultra-Orthodox_Judaism: 42
 * 378) Talk:African_American: 41
 * 379) Talk:British: 41
 * 380) Talk:Chinese_Canadian: 41
 * 381) Talk:Fundamental_Dimensions: 41
 * 382) Talk:History_of_Australia: 41
 * 383) Talk:Idi_Amin: 41
 * 384) Talk:Israelites: 41
 * 385) Talk:Korea: 41
 * 386) Talk:Microsoft_Windows: 41
 * 387) Talk:Military_fiat: 41
 * 388) Talk:Protestantism: 41
 * 389) Talk:Tel_Aviv: 41
 * 390) Talk:Vampirism: 41
 * 391) Talk:Arnold_Schwarzenegger: 40
 * 392) Talk:Characters_(The_Simpsons): 40
 * 393) Talk:Gas_chamber: 40
 * 394) Talk:Horoscope: 40
 * 395) Talk:Iraq_crisis_of_2003: 40
 * 396) Talk:List_of_British_English_words_not_used_in_American_English: 40
 * 397) Talk:List_of_characters_from_The_Simpsons: 40
 * 398) Talk:Macedonia_(Greece): 40
 * 399) Talk:Pi: 40
 * 400) Talk:Plasma_cosmology: 40
 * 401) Talk:Same-sex_marriage: 40
 * 402) Talk:Software_engineering: 40
 * 403) Talk:French_phrases_used_by_English_speakers: 39
 * 404) Talk:Great_Depression: 39
 * 405) Talk:Hominid: 39
 * 406) Talk:Inverse_functions_and_differentiation: 39
 * 407) Talk:Japanese_language: 39
 * 408) Talk:Lisp_programming_language: 39
 * 409) Talk:Mexico/Old_version: 39
 * 410) Talk:Native_American: 39
 * 411) Talk:Nazism: 39
 * 412) Talk:New_Age_(archive_3): 39
 * 413) Talk:Persecution_of_Christians: 39
 * 414) Talk:Quantum_mechanics: 39
 * 415) Talk:The_Labour_Party_(UK): 39
 * 416) Talk:The_problem_of_evil: 39
 * 417) Talk:Towns_of_the_United_Kingdom: 39
 * 418) Talk:Yngwie_J._Malmsteen: 39
 * 419) Talk:Cockney_rhyming_slang: 38
 * 420) Talk:Copenhagen_interpretation: 38
 * 421) Talk:Easter_Bradford: 38
 * 422) Talk:Edward_Said: 38
 * 423) Talk:Florentin_Smarandache: 38
 * 424) Talk:Go_(board_game): 38
 * 425) Talk:Hangul: 38
 * 426) Talk:Hugo_Chávez: 38
 * 427) Talk:Jack_the_Ripper: 38
 * 428) Talk:List_of_atheists: 38
 * 429) Talk:List_of_dictators: 38
 * 430) Talk:Negative_and_non-negative_numbers: 38
 * 431) Talk:Poetry: 38
 * 432) Talk:Punk_rock: 38
 * 433) Talk:Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989: 38
 * 434) Talk:Vacuous_truth: 38
 * 435) Talk:Atlantium: 37
 * 436) Talk:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor: 37
 * 437) Talk:Central_Line: 37
 * 438) Talk:DDT: 37
 * 439) Talk:Dutch_language: 37
 * 440) Talk:False_friend: 37
 * 441) Talk:Fidel_Castro: 37
 * 442) Talk:Fluorine: 37
 * 443) Talk:Gender_identity_disorder: 37
 * 444) Talk:List_of_Christian_denominations: 37
 * 445) Talk:List_of_encyclopedias: 37
 * 446) Talk:List_of_saints: 37
 * 447) Talk:Main_Page/Temp4: 37
 * 448) Talk:Oregon_City,_Oregon: 37
 * 449) Talk:Rocketdyne_Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory_Contamination: 37
 * 450) Talk:Slogan:_'homicide_bombing': 37
 * 451) Talk:Soong_May-ling: 37
 * 452) Talk:Suicide: 37
 * 453) Talk:The_Virgin_Mary: 37
 * 454) Talk:VANDALISM_IN_PROGRESS: 37
 * 455) Talk:Chinese_fire_drill: 36
 * 456) Talk:Deconstruction: 36
 * 457) Talk:Female_circumcision: 36
 * 458) Talk:Fucking_?m?l: 36
 * 459) Talk:Genericized_trademark: 36
 * 460) Talk:Girly_girl: 36
 * 461) Talk:Human: 36
 * 462) Talk:Israel_Defence_Forces: 36
 * 463) Talk:Lee_Harvey_Oswald: 36
 * 464) Talk:List_of_US_political_families: 36
 * 465) Talk:List_of_countries: 36
 * 466) Talk:MichaelTinkler: 36
 * 467) Talk:Mieszko_I_of_Poland: 36
 * 468) Talk:New_York,_New_York: 36
 * 469) Talk:Object-oriented_programming: 36
 * 470) Talk:Palestinian_territories: 36
 * 471) Talk:Received_Pronunciation: 36
 * 472) Talk:The_Beatles: 36
 * 473) Talk:The_Origin_of_Species: 36
 * 474) Talk:Warmia: 36
 * 475) Talk:Winston_Churchill: 36
 * 476) Talk:Albanian_language: 35
 * 477) Talk:Albert_Einstein: 35
 * 478) Talk:Allies: 35
 * 479) Talk:Aria_Giovanni: 35
 * 480) Talk:Astronomy: 35
 * 481) Talk:Balkan_peninsula: 35
 * 482) Talk:Bill_O'Reilly_(commentator): 35
 * 483) Talk:Caterpillar_D9: 35
 * 484) Talk:Censorship_in_the_United_States: 35
 * 485) Talk:Compound_verb: 35
 * 486) Talk:Goreism: 35
 * 487) Talk:Group_(mathematics): 35
 * 488) Talk:Ice_hockey: 35
 * 489) Talk:Interpreted_language: 35
 * 490) Talk:Jim_Morrison: 35
 * 491) Talk:Lewis_Carroll: 35
 * 492) Talk:Libertarianism: 35
 * 493) Talk:Monkeypox: 35
 * 494) Talk:Nicholas_II_of_Russia: 35
 * 495) Talk:Prime_Minister: 35
 * 496) Talk:Programming_language: 35
 * 497) Talk:Python_vs_java_typing_example: 35
 * 498) Talk:Religious_Pluralism: 35
 * 499) Talk:Sex: 35
 * 500) Talk:Sherlock_Holmes: 35

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikipedia:Most-edited talk pages


text:
Lamarckism

Lamarckism, also known as Lamarckian inheritance or neo-Lamarckism, is the notion that an organism can pass on to its offspring physical characteristics that the parent organism acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime. It is also called the inheritance of acquired characteristics or more recently soft inheritance. The idea is named after the French zoologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who incorporated the classical era theory of soft inheritance into his theory of evolution as a supplement to his concept of orthogenesis, a drive towards complexity.

Introductory textbooks contrast Lamarckism with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. However, Darwin's book On the Origin of Species gave credence to the idea of heritable effects of use and disuse, as Lamarck had done, and his own concept of pangenesis similarly implied soft inheritance.

Many researchers from the 1860s onwards attempted to find evidence for Lamarckian inheritance, but these have all been explained away, either by other mechanisms such as genetic contamination or as fraud. August Weismann's experiment, considered definitive in its time, is now considered to have failed to disprove Lamarckism, as it did not address use and disuse. Later, Mendelian genetics supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the modern synthesis, and the general abandonment of Lamarckism in biology. Despite this, interest in Lamarckism has continued.

Since c. 2000 new experimental results in the fields of epigenetics, genetics, and somatic hypermutation proved the possibility of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of traits acquired by the previous generation. These proved a limited validity of Lamarckism. The inheritance of the hologenome, consisting of the genomes of all an organism's symbiotic microbes as well as its own genome, is also somewhat Lamarckian in effect, though entirely Darwinian in its mechanisms.

Origins

The inheritance of acquired characteristics was proposed in ancient times and remained a current idea for many centuries. The historian of science Conway Zirkle wrote in 1935 that:

"Lamarck was neither the first nor the most distinguished biologist to believe in the inheritance of acquired characters. He merely endorsed a belief which had been generally accepted for at least 2,200 years before his time and used it to explain how evolution could have taken place. The inheritance of acquired characters had been accepted previously by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, Roger Bacon, Jerome Cardan, Levinus Lemnius, John Ray, Michael Adanson, Jo. Fried. Blumenbach and Erasmus Darwin among others."

Zirkle noted that Hippocrates described pangenesis, the theory that what is inherited derives from the whole body of the parent, whereas Aristotle thought it impossible; but that all the same, Aristotle implicitly agreed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics, giving the example of the inheritance of a scar, or of blindness, though noting that children do not always resemble their parents. Zirkle recorded that Pliny the Elder thought much the same. Zirkle pointed out that stories involving the idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics appear numerous times in ancient mythology and the Bible and persisted through to Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories. The idea is mentioned in 18th century sources such as Diderot's D'Alembert's Dream. Erasmus Darwin's Zoonomia (c. 1795) suggested that warm-blooded animals develop from "one living filament... with the power of acquiring new parts" in response to stimuli, with each round of "improvements" being inherited by successive generations.

Darwin's pangenesis

Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species proposed natural selection as the main mechanism for development of species, but (like Lamarck) gave credence to the idea of heritable effects of use and disuse as a supplementary mechanism. Darwin subsequently set out his concept of pangenesis in the final chapter of his book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868), which gave numerous examples to demonstrate what he thought was the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Pangenesis, which he emphasised was a hypothesis, was based on the idea that somatic cells would, in response to environmental stimulation (use and disuse), throw off 'gemmules' or 'pangenes' which travelled around the body, though not necessarily in the bloodstream. These pangenes were microscopic particles that supposedly contained information about the characteristics of their parent cell, and Darwin believed that they eventually accumulated in the germ cells where they could pass on to the next generation the newly acquired characteristics of the parents.

Darwin's half-cousin, Francis Galton, carried out experiments on rabbits, with Darwin's cooperation, in which he transfused the blood of one variety of rabbit into another variety in the expectation that its offspring would show some characteristics of the first. They did not, and Galton declared that he had disproved Darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis, but Darwin objected, in a letter to the scientific journal Nature, that he had done nothing of the sort, since he had never mentioned blood in his writings. He pointed out that he regarded pangenesis as occurring in protozoa and plants, which have no blood, as well as in animals.

Lamarck's evolutionary framework

Between 1800 and 1830, Lamarck proposed a systematic theoretical framework for understanding evolution. He saw evolution as comprising four laws:

 * 1) "Life by its own force, tends to increase the volume of all organs which possess the force of life, and the force of life extends the dimensions of those parts up to an extent that those parts bring to themselves;"
 * 2) "The production of a new organ in an animal body, results from a new requirement arising. and which continues to make itself felt, and a new movement which that requirement gives birth to, and its upkeep/maintenance;"
 * 3) "The development of the organs, and their ability, are constantly a result of the use of those organs."
 * 4) "All that has been acquired, traced, or changed, in the physiology of individuals, during their life, is conserved through the genesis, reproduction, and transmitted to new individuals who are related to those who have undergone those changes."

Lamarck's discussion of heredity
In 1830, in an aside from his evolutionary framework, Lamarck briefly mentioned two traditional ideas in his discussion of heredity, in his day considered to be generally true. The first was the idea of use versus disuse; he theorized that individuals lose characteristics they do not require, or use, and develop characteristics that are useful. The second was to argue that the acquired traits were heritable. He gave as an imagined illustration the idea that when giraffes stretch their necks to reach leaves high in trees, they would strengthen and gradually lengthen their necks. These giraffes would then have offspring with slightly longer necks. In the same way, he argued, a blacksmith, through his work, strengthens the muscles in his arms, and thus his sons would have similar muscular development when they mature. Lamarck stated the following two laws:

 * 1) Première Loi: Dans tout animal qui n' a point dépassé le terme de ses développemens, l' emploi plus fréquent et soutenu d' un organe quelconque, fortifie peu à peu cet organe, le développe, l' agrandit, et lui donne une puissance proportionnée à la durée de cet emploi; tandis que le défaut constant d' usage de tel organe, l'affoiblit insensiblement, le détériore, diminue progressivement ses facultés, et finit par le faire disparoître.
 * 2) Deuxième Loi: Tout ce que la nature a fait acquérir ou perdre aux individus par l' influence des circonstances où leur race se trouve depuis long-temps exposée, et, par conséquent, par l' influence de l' emploi prédominant de tel organe, ou par celle d' un défaut constant d' usage de telle partie; elle le conserve par la génération aux nouveaux individus qui en proviennent, pourvu que les changemens acquis soient communs aux deux sexes, ou à ceux qui ont produit ces nouveaux individus.

English translation:

 * 1) First Law [Use and Disuse]: In every animal which has not passed the limit of its development, a more frequent and continuous use of any organ gradually strengthens, develops and enlarges that organ, and gives it a power proportional to the length of time it has been so used; while the permanent disuse of any organ imperceptibly weakens and deteriorates it, and progressively diminishes its functional capacity, until it finally disappears.
 * 2) Second Law [Soft Inheritance]: All the acquisitions or losses wrought by nature on individuals, through the influence of the environment in which their race has long been placed, and hence through the influence of the predominant use or permanent disuse of any organ; all these are preserved by reproduction to the new individuals which arise, provided that the acquired modifications are common to both sexes, or at least to the individuals which produce the young.

In essence, a change in the environment brings about change in "needs" (besoins), resulting in change in behaviour, causing change in organ usage and development, bringing change in form over time—and thus the gradual transmutation of the species. As the evolutionary biologists and historians of science Conway Zirkle, Michael Ghiselin, and Stephen Jay Gould have pointed out, these ideas were not original to Lamarck.

Weismann's experiment

August Weismann's germ plasm theory held that germline cells in the gonads contain information that passes from one generation to the next, unaffected by experience, and independent of the somatic (body) cells. This implied what came to be known as the Weismann barrier, as it would make Lamarckian inheritance from changes to the body difficult or impossible.

Weismann conducted the experiment of removing the tails of 68 white mice, and those of their offspring over five generations, and reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter tail. In 1889, he stated that "901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of a rudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ." The experiment, and the theory behind it, were thought at the time to be a refutation of Lamarckism.

The experiment's effectiveness in refuting Lamarck's hypothesis is doubtful, as it did not address the use and disuse of characteristics in response to the environment. The biologist Peter Gauthier noted in 1990 that:

"Can Weismann's experiment be considered a case of disuse? Lamarck proposed that when an organ was not used, it slowly, and very gradually atrophied. In time, over the course of many generations, it would gradually disappear as it was inherited in its modified form in each successive generation. Cutting the tails off mice does not seem to meet the qualifications of disuse, but rather falls in a category of accidental misuse... Lamarck's hypothesis has never been proven experimentally and there is no known mechanism to support the idea that somatic change, however acquired, can in some way induce a change in the germplasm. On the other hand it is difficult to disprove Lamarck's idea experimentally, and it seems that Weismann's experiment fails to provide the evidence to deny the Lamarckian hypothesis, since it lacks a key factor, namely the willful exertion of the animal in overcoming environmental obstacles."

Ghiselin also considered the Weismann tail-chopping experiment to have no bearing on the Lamarckian hypothesis, writing in 1994 that:

"The acquired characteristics that figured in Lamarck's thinking were changes that resulted from an individual's own drives and actions, not from the actions of external agents. Lamarck was not concerned with wounds, injuries or mutilations, and nothing that Lamarck had set forth was tested or 'disproven' by the Weismann tail-chopping experiment."

The historian of science Rasmus Winther stated that Weismann had nuanced views about the role of the environment on the germ plasm. Indeed, like Darwin, he consistently insisted that a variable environment was necessary to cause variation in the hereditary material.

Textbook Lamarckism

The identification of Lamarckism with the inheritance of acquired characteristics is regarded by evolutionary biologists including Ghiselin as a falsified artifact of the subsequent history of evolutionary thought, repeated in textbooks without analysis, and wrongly contrasted with a falsified picture of Darwin's thinking. Ghiselin notes that "Darwin accepted the inheritance of acquired characteristics, just as Lamarck did, and Darwin even thought that there was some experimental evidence to support it." Gould wrote that in the late 19th century, evolutionists "re-read Lamarck, cast aside the guts of it ... and elevated one aspect of the mechanics—inheritance of acquired characters—to a central focus it never had for Lamarck himself." He argued that "the restriction of 'Lamarckism' to this relatively small and non-distinctive corner of Lamarck's thought must be labelled as more than a misnomer, and truly a discredit to the memory of a man and his much more comprehensive system."

Context

The period of the history of evolutionary thought between Darwin's death in the 1880s, and the foundation of population genetics in the 1920s and the beginnings of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s, is called the eclipse of Darwinism by some historians of science. During that time many scientists and philosophers accepted the reality of evolution but doubted whether natural selection was the main evolutionary mechanism.

Among the most popular alternatives were theories involving the inheritance of characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime. Scientists who felt that such Lamarckian mechanisms were the key to evolution were called neo-Lamarckians. They included the British botanist George Henslow (1835–1925), who studied the effects of environmental stress on the growth of plants, in the belief that such environmentally-induced variation might explain much of plant evolution, and the American entomologist Alpheus Spring Packard, Jr., who studied blind animals living in caves and wrote a book in 1901 about Lamarck and his work. Also included were paleontologists like Edward Drinker Cope and Alpheus Hyatt, who observed that the fossil record showed orderly, almost linear, patterns of development that they felt were better explained by Lamarckian mechanisms than by natural selection. Some people, including Cope and the Darwin critic Samuel Butler, felt that inheritance of acquired characteristics would let organisms shape their own evolution, since organisms that acquired new habits would change the use patterns of their organs, which would kick-start Lamarckian evolution. They considered this philosophically superior to Darwin's mechanism of random variation acted on by selective pressures. Lamarckism also appealed to those, like the philosopher Herbert Spencer and the German anatomist Ernst Haeckel, who saw evolution as an inherently progressive process. The German zoologist Theodor Eimer combined Larmarckism with ideas about orthogenesis, the idea that evolution is directed towards a goal.

With the development of the modern synthesis of the theory of evolution, and a lack of evidence for a mechanism for acquiring and passing on new characteristics, or even their heritability, Lamarckism largely fell from favour. Unlike neo-Darwinism, neo-Lamarckism is a loose grouping of largely heterodox theories and mechanisms that emerged after Lamarck's time, rather than a coherent body of theoretical work.

19th century

Neo-Lamarckian versions of evolution were widespread in the late 19th century. The idea that living things could to some degree choose the characteristics that would be inherited allowed them to be in charge of their own destiny as opposed to the Darwinian view, which placed them at the mercy of the environment. Such ideas were more popular than natural selection in the late 19th century as it made it possible for biological evolution to fit into a framework of a divine or naturally willed plan, thus the neo-Lamarckian view of evolution was often advocated by proponents of orthogenesis. According to the historian of science Peter J. Bowler, writing in 2003:

"One of the most emotionally compelling arguments used by the neo-Lamarckians of the late nineteenth century was the claim that Darwinism was a mechanistic theory which reduced living things to puppets driven by heredity. The selection theory made life into a game of Russian roulette, where life or death was predetermined by the genes one inherited. The individual could do nothing to mitigate bad heredity. Lamarckism, in contrast, allowed the individual to choose a new habit when faced with an environmental challenge and shape the whole future course of evolution."

Scientists from the 1860s onwards conducted numerous experiments that purported to show Lamarckian inheritance. Some examples are described in the table.

Early 20th century

A century after Lamarck, scientists and philosophers continued to seek mechanisms and evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Experiments were sometimes reported as successful, but from the beginning these were either criticised on scientific grounds or shown to be fakes. For instance, in 1906, the philosopher Eugenio Rignano argued for a version that he called "centro-epigenesis",     but it was rejected by most scientists. Some of the experimental approaches are described in the table.

Late 20th century
The British anthropologist Frederic Wood Jones and the South African paleontologist Robert Broom supported a neo-Lamarckian view of human evolution. The German anthropologist Hermann Klaatsch relied on a neo-Lamarckian model of evolution to try and explain the origin of bipedalism. Neo-Lamarckism remained influential in biology until the 1940s when the role of natural selection was reasserted in evolution as part of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Herbert Graham Cannon, a British zoologist, defended Lamarckism in his 1959 book Lamarck and Modern Genetics. In the 1960s, "biochemical Lamarckism" was advocated by the embryologist Paul Wintrebert.

Neo-Lamarckism was dominant in French biology for more than a century. French scientists who supported neo-Lamarckism included Edmond Perrier (1844–1921), Alfred Giard (1846–1908), Gaston Bonnier (1853–1922) and Pierre-Paul Grassé (1895–1985). They followed two traditions, one mechanistic, one vitalistic after Henri Bergson's philosophy of evolution.

In 1987, Ryuichi Matsuda coined the term "pan-environmentalism" for his evolutionary theory which he saw as a fusion of Darwinism with neo-Lamarckism. He held that heterochrony is a main mechanism for evolutionary change and that novelty in evolution can be generated by genetic assimilation. His views were criticized by Arthur M. Shapiro for providing no solid evidence for his theory. Shapiro noted that "Matsuda himself accepts too much at face value and is prone to wish-fulfilling interpretation."

Ideological neo-Lamarckism

A form of Lamarckism was revived in the Soviet Union of the 1930s when Trofim Lysenko promoted the ideologically driven research programme, Lysenkoism; this suited the ideological opposition of Joseph Stalin to genetics. Lysenkoism influenced Soviet agricultural policy which in turn was later blamed for the numerous massive crop failures experienced within Soviet states.

Critique
George Gaylord Simpson in his book Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944) claimed that experiments in heredity have failed to corroborate any Lamarckian process. Simpson noted that neo-Lamarckism "stresses a factor that Lamarck rejected: inheritance of direct effects of the environment" and neo-Lamarckism is closer to Darwin's pangenesis than Lamarck's views. Simpson wrote, "the inheritance of acquired characters, failed to meet the tests of observation and has been almost universally discarded by biologists."

Zirkle pointed out that Lamarck did not originate the hypothesis that acquired characteristics could be inherited, so it is incorrect to refer to it as Lamarckism:

"What Lamarck really did was to accept the hypothesis that acquired characters were heritable, a notion which had been held almost universally for well over two thousand years and which his contemporaries accepted as a matter of course, and to assume that the results of such inheritance were cumulative from generation to generation, thus producing, in time, new species. His individual contribution to biological theory consisted in his application to the problem of the origin of species of the view that acquired characters were inherited and in showing that evolution could be inferred logically from the accepted biological hypotheses. He would doubtless have been greatly astonished to learn that a belief in the inheritance of acquired characters is now labeled 'Lamarckian,' although he would almost certainly have felt flattered if evolution itself had been so designated."

Peter Medawar wrote regarding Lamarckism, "very few professional biologists believe that anything of the kind occurs—or can occur—but the notion persists for a variety of nonscientific reasons." Medawar stated there is no known mechanism by which an adaptation acquired in an individual's lifetime can be imprinted on the genome and Lamarckian inheritance is not valid unless it excludes the possibility of natural selection, but this has not been demonstrated in any experiment.

Martin Gardner wrote in his book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (1957):

"A host of experiments have been designed to test Lamarckianism. All that have been verified have proved negative. On the other hand, tens of thousands of experiments— reported in the journals and carefully checked and rechecked by geneticists throughout the world— have established the correctness of the gene-mutation theory beyond all reasonable doubt... In spite of the rapidly increasing evidence for natural selection, Lamarck has never ceased to have loyal followers.... There is indeed a strong emotional appeal in the thought that every little effort an animal puts forth is somehow transmitted to his progeny."

According to Ernst Mayr, any Lamarckian theory involving the inheritance of acquired characters has been refuted as "DNA does not directly participate in the making of the phenotype and that the phenotype, in turn, does not control the composition of the DNA." Peter J. Bowler has written that although many early scientists took Lamarckism seriously, it was discredited by genetics in the early twentieth century.

Mechanisms resembling Lamarckism
Studies in the field of epigenetics, genetics and somatic hypermutation have highlighted the possible inheritance of traits acquired by the previous generation. However, the characterization of these findings as Lamarckism has been disputed.

Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance

Epigenetic inheritance has been argued by scientists including Eva Jablonka and Marion J. Lamb to be Lamarckian. Epigenetics is based on hereditary elements other than genes that pass into the germ cells. These include methylation patterns in DNA and chromatin marks on histone proteins, both involved in gene regulation. These marks are responsive to environmental stimuli, differentially affect gene expression, and are adaptive, with phenotypic effects that persist for some generations. The mechanism may also enable the inheritance of behavioral traits, for example in chickens, rats  and human populations that have experienced starvation, DNA methylation resulting in altered gene function in both the starved population and their offspring. Methylation similarly mediates epigenetic inheritance in plants such as rice. Small RNA molecules, too, may mediate inherited resistance to infection. Handel and Ramagopalan commented that "epigenetics allows the peaceful co-existence of Darwinian and Lamarckian evolution."

Joseph Springer and Dennis Holley commented in 2013 that:

"Lamarck and his ideas were ridiculed and discredited. In a strange twist of fate, Lamarck may have the last laugh. Epigenetics, an emerging field of genetics, has shown that Lamarck may have been at least partially correct all along. It seems that reversible and heritable changes can occur without a change in DNA sequence (genotype) and that such changes may be induced spontaneously or in response to environmental factors—Lamarck's 'acquired traits.' Determining which observed phenotypes are genetically inherited and which are environmentally induced remains an important and ongoing part of the study of genetics, developmental biology, and medicine."

The prokaryotic CRISPR system and Piwi-interacting RNA could be classified as Lamarckian, within a Darwinian framework. However, the significance of epigenetics in evolution is uncertain. Critics such as the evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne point out that epigenetic inheritance lasts for only a few generations, so it is not a stable basis for evolutionary change.

The evolutionary biologist T. Ryan Gregory contends that epigenetic inheritance should not be considered Lamarckian. According to Gregory, Lamarck did not claim that the environment directly affected living things. Instead, Lamarck "argued that the environment created needs to which organisms responded by using some features more and others less, that this resulted in those features being accentuated or attenuated, and that this difference was then inherited by offspring." Gregory has stated that Lamarckian evolution in epigenetics is more like Darwin's point of view than Lamarck's.

In 2007, David Haig wrote that research into epigenetic processes does allow a Lamarckian element in evolution but the processes do not challenge the main tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis as modern Lamarckians have claimed. Haig argued for the primacy of DNA and evolution of epigenetic switches by natural selection. Haig has written that there is a "visceral attraction" to Lamarckian evolution from the public and some scientists, as it posits the world with a meaning, in which organisms can shape their own evolutionary destiny.

Thomas Dickens and Qazi Rahman (2012) have argued that epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modification are genetically inherited under the control of natural selection and do not challenge the modern synthesis. They dispute the claims of Jablonka and Lamb on Lamarckian epigenetic processes.

In 2015, Khursheed Iqbal and colleagues discovered that although "endocrine disruptors exert direct epigenetic effects in the exposed fetal germ cells, these are corrected by reprogramming events in the next generation." Also in 2015, Adam Weiss argued that bringing back Lamarck in the context of epigenetics is misleading, commenting, "We should remember [Lamarck] for the good he contributed to science, not for things that resemble his theory only superficially. Indeed, thinking of CRISPR and other phenomena as Lamarckian only obscures the simple and elegant way evolution really works."

Somatic hypermutation and reverse transcription to germline
In the 1970s, the Australian immunologist Edward J. Steele developed a neo-Lamarckian theory of somatic hypermutation within the immune system and coupled it to the reverse transcription of RNA derived from body cells to the DNA of germline cells. This reverse transcription process supposedly enabled characteristics or bodily changes acquired during a lifetime to be written back into the DNA and passed on to subsequent generations.

The mechanism was meant to explain why homologous DNA sequences from the VDJ gene regions of parent mice were found in their germ cells and seemed to persist in the offspring for a few generations. The mechanism involved the somatic selection and clonal amplification of newly acquired antibody gene sequences generated via somatic hypermutation in B-cells. The messenger RNA products of these somatically novel genes were captured by retroviruses endogenous to the B-cells and were then transported through the bloodstream where they could breach the Weismann or soma-germ barrier and reverse transcribe the newly acquired genes into the cells of the germ line, in the manner of Darwin's pangenes.

The historian of biology Peter J. Bowler noted in 1989 that other scientists had been unable to reproduce his results, and described the scientific consensus at the time:

"There is no feedback of information from the proteins to the DNA, and hence no route by which characteristics acquired in the body can be passed on through the genes. The work of Ted Steele (1979) provoked a flurry of interest in the possibility that there might, after all, be ways in which this reverse flow of information could take place. ... [His] mechanism did not, in fact, violate the principles of molecular biology, but most biologists were suspicious of Steele's claims, and attempts to reproduce his results have failed."

Bowler commented that "[Steele's] work was bitterly criticized at the time by biologists who doubted his experimental results and rejected his hypothetical mechanism as implausible."

Hologenome theory of evolution
The hologenome theory of evolution, while Darwinian, has Lamarckian aspects. An individual animal or plant lives in symbiosis with many microorganisms, and together they have a "hologenome" consisting of all their genomes. The hologenome can vary like any other genome by mutation, sexual recombination, and chromosome rearrangement, but in addition it can vary when populations of microorganisms increase or decrease (resembling Lamarckian use and disuse), and when it gains new kinds of microorganism (resembling Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics). These changes are then passed on to offspring. The mechanism is largely uncontroversial, and natural selection does sometimes occur at whole system (hologenome) level, but it is not clear that this is always the case.

Baldwin effect
The Baldwin effect, named after the psychologist James Mark Baldwin by George Gaylord Simpson in 1953, proposes that the ability to learn new behaviours can improve an animal's reproductive success, and hence the course of natural selection on its genetic makeup. Simpson stated that the mechanism was "not inconsistent with the modern synthesis" of evolutionary theory, though he doubted that it occurred very often or could be proven to occur. He noted that the Baldwin effect provided a reconciliation between the neo-Darwinian and neo-Lamarckian approaches, something that the modern synthesis had seemed to render unnecessary. In particular, the effect allows animals to adapt to a new stress in the environment through behavioural changes, followed by genetic change. This somewhat resembles Lamarckism but without requiring animals to inherit characteristics acquired by their parents. The Baldwin effect is broadly accepted by Darwinists.

In sociocultural evolution
Within the field of cultural evolution, Lamarckism has been applied as a mechanism for dual inheritance theory. Gould viewed culture as a Lamarckian process whereby older generations transmitted adaptive information to offspring via the concept of learning. In the history of technology, components of Lamarckism have been used to link cultural development to human evolution by considering technology as extensions of human anatomy.

title: Lamarckism


text:
Wikipedia talk:Most-edited talk pages

Query to generate: select concat( '# Talk:', old_title, ': '), count(*) as count from old where old_namespace=1 group by old_namespace,old_title order by count desc limit 500;

Aside from a few weird ones that crept in, this really does read like a list of some of the most controversial subjects in the last couple years, minus a few like the War on Drugs, where I think most Wikipedians agree. I thought it would be more bizarre. Tuf-Kat

BTW, when you do update this list, maybe you should set the limit a bit higher, at least 300, I think. In fact, I'll just go a ahead and set the limit on the query above to 500, edit it down, if that is too much of a strain on the hardware. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogostick 21:36, Nov 10, 2003 (UTC)

- My God! One of the dozen or so talk archives of New Imperialism is #2 - behind only the main page! I'm speechless! 172 10:07, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Why November 11, 2003??
Why doesn't this page get updated?? 66.32.98.190 00:53, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Here's another request for this to get updated -- it's been six months since the last update, a lot has happened since. I guess the problem is that this needs a developer/steward to be able to run the query, and it probably puts a considerable strain on the database servers. There were some dumps somewhere, though... --Shallot 14:34, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

I'm pretty sure there's a page for this, but I can't find it
Can someone update Most-edited talk pages, preferably removing the main page and any of its subpages from the list? Tuf-Kat 05:40, Aug 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * Try Scripts.

Votes for deletion results
This article was listed on Votes for deletion in accordance with the deletion policy on February 10. The result of this nomination was keep. Please see this page's entry for archive of the debate. -- AllyUnion (talk) 09:12, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Most-edited talk pages


text:
Talk:Kateretes

Untitled
Isn't this orphan page as well as sap beetle? -- Taku 00:03 Feb 24, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kateretes


text:
User:Someone else/genealogical bibliography

 * Faris, David, Plantagenet Ancestry of Seventeenth-Century Colonists, Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., Baltimore, 1996.
 * Anderson, Robert Charles, The Great Migration Begins: Immigrants to New England 1620-1633, New England Historic Genealogical Society, Boston, Massachusetts, 1995.
 * Weis, Frederick Lewis, Th.D, The Magna Charta Sureties, 1215: The Barons Named in the Magna Charta, 1215 and Some of their Descendants Who Settled in America During the Early Colonial Years, with Additions and Corrections by Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., M.S. with David Faris, Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., Baltimore, MD, 1991.
 * Roberts, Gary Boyd, Ancestors of American Presidents, First Authoritative Edition, 1995.
 * Roberts, Gary Boyd, Notable Kin, Volumes One & Two, with contributions by David Curtis Dearborn, Julie Helen Otto, Michael J. Wood, and David Allen Lambert, published in cooperation with the New England Historic and Genealogical Society, Boston, Massachusetts, by Carl Boyer, 3rd, Santa Clarita, California, 1998 1999.
 * Roberts, Gary Boyd & William Addams Reitwiesner, American Ancestors and Cousins of The Princess of Wales, Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, Maryland, 1984.
 * Roberts, Gary Boyd, The Royal Descents of 500 Immigrants to the American Colonies or the United States, Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, Maryland, 1993, Roberts, Gary Boyd. (published corrections must be consulted)
 * Weis, Frederick Lewis, Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists who came to America before 1700, Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., Baltimore, 1995, seventh edition, with additions and corrections by Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., assisted by David Faris.
 * Roberts, Gary Boyd, "Royally-Descended Immigrant Kin and Presidential Cousins of Sir Winston Churchill," NEXUS, vol. XIII, no. 6, Nov/Dec 1996, p. 204-211.
 * Schwennicke, Detlev. Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten, Neue Folge. [European Family Trees: Family Trees for the History of European States, New Series.]   First series by Wilhelm Karl, Prinz zu Isenburg, continued second series by Frank, Baron Freytag von Loringhoven. 16 vols.  Marburg, Germany: Verlag von J. A. Stargardt, 1978-1995.
 * Willis, Daniel (also known as Daniel A. Brewer-Ward), The Descendants of Louis XIII, Clearfield Co., Inc., Baltimore, Maryland, 1999
 * Cokayne, George Edward, The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, A. Sutton, Gloucester, 1982.
 * Genealogisches Handbuch des in Bayern immatrikulierten Adels
 * Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels
 * Reitwiesner, William Addams, The Lesbian Ancestors of Prince Rainier of Monaco, Dr. Otto von Habsburg, Brooke Shields, and the Marquis de Sade. (monograph)
 * Willis, Daniel A., The Descendants of King George I of Great Britain, Clearfield Publishing, Baltimore, Maryland, 2002., 0-8063-5172-1.
 * Burke's Peerage & Baronetcy