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Transcription (linguistics)

Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of spoken language in written form. The source can either be utterances (speech or sign language) or preexisting text in another writing system.

Transcription should not be confused with translation, which means representing the meaning of text from a source-language in a target language, (e.g. Los Angeles (from source-language Spanish) means The Angels in the target language English); or with transliteration, which means representing the spelling of a text from one script to another.

In the academic discipline of linguistics, transcription is an essential part of the methodologies of (among others) phonetics, conversation analysis, dialectology, and sociolinguistics. It also plays an important role for several subfields of speech technology. Common examples for transcriptions outside academia are the proceedings of a court hearing such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter) or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical transcription). This article focuses on transcription in linguistics.

Phonetic and orthographic transcription
There are two main types of linguistic transcription. Phonetic transcription focuses on phonetic and phonological properties of spoken language. Systems for phonetic transcription thus furnish rules for mapping individual sounds or phones to written symbols. Systems for orthographic transcription, by contrast, consist of rules for mapping spoken words onto written forms as prescribed by the orthography of a given language. Phonetic transcription operates with specially defined character sets, usually the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The type of transcription chosen depends mostly on the context of usage. Because phonetic transcription strictly foregrounds the phonetic nature of language, it is mostly used for phonetic or phonological analyses. Orthographic transcription, however, has a morphological and a lexical component alongside the phonetic component (which aspect is represented to which degree depends on the language and orthography in question). This form of transcription is thus more convenient wherever semantic aspects of spoken language are transcribed. Phonetic transcription is more systematic in a scientific sense, but it is also more difficult to learn, more time-consuming to carry out and less widely applicable than orthographic transcription.

As a theory
Mapping spoken language onto written symbols is not as straightforward a process as may seem at first glance. Written language is an idealization, made up of a limited set of clearly distinct and discrete symbols. Spoken language, on the other hand, is a continuous (as opposed to discrete) phenomenon, made up of a potentially unlimited number of components. There is no predetermined system for distinguishing and classifying these components and, consequently, no preset way of mapping these components onto written symbols.

Literature is relatively consistent in pointing out the nonneutrality of transcription practices. There is not and cannot be a neutral transcription system. Knowledge of social culture enters directly into the making of a transcript. They are captured in the texture of the transcript (Baker, 2005).

Transcription systems
Transcription systems are sets of rules which define how spoken language is to be represented in written symbols. Most phonetic transcription systems are based on the International Phonetic Alphabet or, especially in speech technology, on its derivative SAMPA.

Examples for orthographic transcription systems (all from the field of conversation analysis or related fields) are:

CA (conversation analysis)
Arguably the first system of its kind, originally sketched in (Sacks et al. 1978), later adapted for the use in computer readable corpora as CA-CHAT by (MacWhinney 2000). The field of Conversation Analysis itself includes a number of distinct approaches to transcription and sets of transcription conventions. These include, among others, Jefferson Notation. To analyze conversation, recorded data is typically transcribed into a written form that is agreeable to analysts. There are two common approaches. The first, called narrow transcription, captures the details of conversational interaction such as which particular words are stressed, which words are spoken with increased loudness, points at which the turns-at-talk overlap, how particular words are articulated, and so on. If such detail is less important, perhaps because the analyst is more concerned with the overall gross structure of the conversation or the relative distribution of turns-at-talk amongst the participants, then a second type of transcription known as broad transcription may be sufficient (Williamson, 2009).

Jefferson Transcription System
The Jefferson Transcription System is a set of symbols, developed by Gail Jefferson, which is used for transcribing talk. Having had some previous experience in transcribing when she was hired in 1963 as a clerk typist at the UCLA Department of Public Health to transcribe sensitivity-training sessions for prison guards, Jefferson began transcribing some of the recordings that served as the materials out of which Harvey Sacks' earliest lectures were developed. Over four decades, for the majority of which she held no university position and was unsalaried, Jefferson's research into talk-in-interaction has set the standard for what became known as conversation analysis (CA). Her work has greatly influenced the sociological study of interaction, but also disciplines beyond, especially linguistics, communication, and anthropology. This system is employed universally by those working from the CA perspective and is regarded as having become a near-globalized set of instructions for transcription.

DT (discourse transcription)
A system described in (DuBois et al. 1992), used for transcription of the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English (SBCSAE), later developed further into DT2.

GAT (Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem – Conversation analytic transcription system)
A system described in (Selting et al. 1998), later developed further into GAT2 (Selting et al. 2009), widely used in German speaking countries for prosodically oriented conversation analysis and interactional linguistics.

HIAT (Halbinterpretative Arbeitstranskriptionen – Semiinterpretative working transcriptions)
Arguably the first system of its kind, originally described in (Ehlich and Rehbein 1976) – see (Ehlich 1992) for an English reference - adapted for the use in computer readable corpora as (Rehbein et al. 2004), and widely used in functional pragmatics.

Software
Transcription was originally a process carried out manually, i.e. with pencil and paper, using an analogue sound recording stored on, e.g., a Compact Cassette. Nowadays, most transcription is done on computers. Recordings are usually digital audio files or video files, and transcriptions are electronic documents. Specialized computer software exists to assist the transcriber in efficiently creating a digital transcription from a digital recording.

Two types of transcription software can be used to assist the process of transcription: one that facilitates manual transcription and the other automated transcription. For the former, the work is still very much done by a human transcriber who listens to a recording and types up what is heard in a computer, and this type of software is often a multimedia player with functionality such as playback or changing speed. For the latter, automated transcription is achieved by a speech-to-text engine which converts audio or video files into electronic text. Some of the software would also include the function of annotation.

title: Transcription (linguistics)


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Plaque

Plaque may refer to:

Commemorations or awards

 * Commemorative plaque, a plate, usually fixed to a wall or other vertical surface, meant to mark an event, person, etc.
 * Memorial Plaque (medallion), issued to next-of-kin of dead British military personnel after World War I
 * Plaquette, a small plaque in bronze or other materials

Science and healthcare

 * Amyloid plaque
 * Atheroma or atheromatous plaque, a buildup of deposits within the wall of an artery
 * Dental plaque, a biofilm that builds up on teeth
 * A broad papule, a type of cutaneous condition
 * Pleural plaque, associated with mesothelioma, cancer often caused by exposure to asbestos
 * Senile plaques, an extracellular protein deposit in the brain implicated in Alzheimer's disease
 * Skin plaque, a plateau-like lesion that is greater in its diameter than in its depth
 * Viral plaque, a visible structure formed by virus propagation within a cell culture

Other uses

 * Plaque, a rectangular casino token

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Plaque


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User talk:Kku

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Disambiguation link notification for November 28
Hi. Thank you for your recent edits. Wikipedia appreciates your help. We noticed though that when you edited Spring Web Flow, you added a link pointing to the disambiguation page MVC (check to confirm | fix with Dab solver). Such links are almost always unintended, since a disambiguation page is merely a list of "Did you mean..." article titles. Read the FAQ* Join us at the DPL WikiProject.

Proposal to merge some small forestry articles
Maybe you edit on forestry was small but as it was fairly recent and I am struggling to get comments from that wikiproject perhaps you would like to comment on https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Ecoforestry#Merge_proposal

annlink errors
I fixed two problems with your edit at Dark Enlightenment: New semi-automated editing tool? Please be careful out there :) Jruderman (talk) 08:00, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Reverted breakage of Korean characters
 * Fixed italics leaking into annotations
 * ouch. only quarter-automatic. vim doesn't like korean. that was too quick, then. thanks for noticing. just as an aside: what's the use of korean references in w:wikipedia? -- Kku (talk) 08:29, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * A non-English source, cited inside a "see also" section, is an unusual way to encounter non-ASCII characters. But I still recommend using a tool that supports Unicode, because many article titles do contain en dashes (e.g. Canada–Mexico relations) or diacritics (e.g. Lech Wałęsa).
 * By the way, I peeked at the docs for . It doesn't have a nice shortcut for italicizing the article title, which is why my edit repeats the book titles. But the template does have an option to put quotes around the title, useful for song titles and such. Jruderman (talk) 09:19, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kku


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Harlot (disambiguation)

Harlot is an archaic name for a prostitute.

Harlot may also refer to:
 * Harlot (1964 film)
 * Harlot (1971 film), pornographic film
 * Harlot (poetry collection), 2007 anthology by Jill Alexander Essbaum
 * Hellfire Harlots, a roller derby league based in Nottingham, England
 * We Are Harlot, or Harlot, a rock band
 * Harlots (TV series), 2017 Hulu series

title: Harlot (disambiguation)


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Angry young men

The "angry young men" were a group of mostly working- and middle-class British playwrights and novelists who became prominent in the 1950s. The group's leading figures included John Osborne and Kingsley Amis; other popular figures included John Braine, Alan Sillitoe, and John Wain. The phrase was originally coined by the Royal Court Theatre's press officer in order to promote Osborne's 1956 play Look Back in Anger. It is thought to be derived from the autobiography of Leslie Paul, founder of the Woodcraft Folk, whose Angry Young Man was published in 1951.

Following the success of the Osborne play, the label "angry young men" was later applied by British media to describe young writers who were characterised by a disillusionment with traditional British society. The term, always imprecise, began to have less meaning over the years as the writers to whom it was originally applied became more divergent, and many of them dismissed the label as useless. Literary critic Terry Eagleton noted that the group "weren't exactly a clique since they scarcely knew each other, and apart from being young they shared almost nothing in common, least of all anger."

John Osborne
The playwright John Osborne was the archetypal example, and his signature play Look Back in Anger (1956) attracted attention to a style of drama contrasting strongly with the genteel and understated works of Terence Rattigan that had been in fashion. Osborne's The Entertainer (1957) secured his reputation, with Laurence Olivier playing the protagonist Archie Rice. Osborne became a successful entrepreneur, partnering with Tony Richardson to form the film production company Woodfall. In addition to being seen as archetypal, Osborne was claimed to be one of the leading literary figures of the Angry Young Men "movement". This "movement" was identified after the Second World War as some British intellectuals began to question orthodox mores. Osborne expressed his own concerns through his plays and could be relied upon to provide controversial "angry" pronouncements, delivered with an immaturity compared to impatient youth.

Some critics ridiculed Osborne for a lack of maturity in his statements, and fuelled a debate about his politics and those of the "movement". Osborne also had consistent and often sarcastic criticism of the British Left. In 1961, he made public headlines with "Letter to my Fellow Countrymen" that represented a "damn you, England" mentality. and protested against Britain's decision to join the arms race. Osborne strongly expressed anger at what Britain had become at that time, but also at what he felt it had failed to become.

Look Back in Anger
Osborne's play Look Back in Anger was the monumental literary work that influenced the concept of the Angry Young Man. He wrote the play to express what it felt like to live in England during the 1950s. The main issues that Angry Young Men had were "impatience with the status quo, refusal to be co-opted by a bankrupt society, an instinctive solidarity with the lower classes". Referred to as "kitchen sink realism", literary works began to deal with lower class themes. In the decades prior to Osborne and other authors, less attention had been given to literature that illuminated the treatment and living circumstances experienced by the lower classes. As the Angry Young Men movement began to articulate these themes, the acceptance of related issues was more widespread. Osborne depicted these issues within his play through the eyes of his protagonist, Jimmy. Throughout the play, Jimmy was seeing "the wrong people go hungry, the wrong people be loved, the wrong people dying".

In Britain, following the Second World War, the quality of life for lower-class citizens was still poor; Osborne used this theme to demonstrate how the state of Britain was guilty of neglect towards those who needed assistance the most. In the play there are comparisons of educated people with savages, illuminating the major difference between classes. Alison remarks on this issue while she, Jimmy and Cliff are sharing an apartment, stating how "she felt she had been placed into a jungle". Jimmy was represented as an embodiment of the young, rebellious post-war generation that questioned the state and its actions. Look Back in Anger provided some of its audience with the hope that Osborne's work would revitalise the British theatre and enable it to act as a "harbinger of the New Left".

Definition and divisions
Not all members of the movement were angry, young, or male, but all disliked the title "Angry Young Men". Life in 1958 wrote that "the most common prevailing attitude among them is of wry irritation", and named Osborne, Kingsley Amis, John Wain, and John Braine as the best-known. As a catchphrase, the term was applied to a large, incoherently defined group, and was rejected by most of the writers to whom it was applied: see, for example, "Answer to a Letter from Joe" by Wain (Essays on Literature and Ideas, 1963). Publisher Tom Maschler, who edited a collection of political-literary essays by the 'Angries' (Declaration, 1957), commented: "(T)hey do not belong to a united movement. Far from it; they attack one another directly or indirectly in these pages. Some were even reluctant to appear between the same covers with others whose views they violently oppose".

AYM preferred realism, rejecting the experimental literature of the 1920s and 1930s. Life observed that "They hate the 'phony' in any form and mistrust anything that seems precious or preposterous. they are literary conservatives. They would find the Beat Generation preposterous". Their politics were radical, usually left but sometimes right, sometimes anarchistic, and they described social alienation of different kinds. They also often expressed their critical views on society as a whole, criticising certain behaviours or groups in different ways. On television, their writings were often expressed in plays in anthology drama series such as Armchair Theatre (ITV, 1956–68) and The Wednesday Play (BBC, 1964–70); this leads to a confusion with the kitchen sink drama category of the early 1960s.

Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the "Angries" often met at or were nurtured by the Royal Shakespeare Company, and through this venue other such emerging playwrights as Edward Bond and Wole Soyinka were exposed to the AYM movement directly.

The New University Wits (a term applied by William Van O'Connor in his 1963 study The New University Wits and the End of Modernism) refers to Oxbridge malcontents who explored the contrast between their upper-class university privilege and their middle-class upbringings. These included Amis, Philip Larkin, and Wain, all of whom were also part of the poetic circle known as "The Movement".

Also included among the Angry Young Men was a small group of young existentialist philosophers, led by Colin Wilson and also including Stuart Holroyd and Bill Hopkins.

Outside of these subgroupings, the 'Angries' included writers mostly of lower-class origin concerned with their political and economic aspirations. Apart from Osborne, these included Harold Pinter, Braine, Arnold Wesker, and Alan Sillitoe. Some of these (e.g., Pinter) were left-wing and some (e.g., Braine) later became right-wing. William Cooper, the early-model Angry Young Man, though Cambridge-educated, was a "provincial" writer in his frankness and material and is included in this group.

Crosscurrents in the late 1950s
"A few are friends, but for the most part they know one another slightly if at all, and they are continually writing unfriendly essays about each other in the literary magazines."

- Life, 1958

Friendships, rivalries, and acknowledgments of common literary aims within each of these groups could be intense (the relationship between Amis and Larkin is considered one of the great literary friendships of the 20th century). However, the writers in each group tended to view the other groups with bewilderment and incomprehension. Observers and critics could find no common thread between them all. They were contemporaries by age. They were not of the upper-class establishment, nor were they protégés of existing literary circles. It was essentially a male "movement", but Shelagh Delaney, author of A Taste of Honey (1958), was described as an "angry young woman"; other female members included Iris Murdoch and Doris Lessing.

Associated writers

 * Kingsley Amis
 * John Arden
 * Stan Barstow
 * Edward Bond
 * John Braine
 * Michael Hastings
 * Thomas Hinde
 * Stuart Holroyd
 * Bill Hopkins
 * Bernard Kops
 * Doris Lessing
 * Iris Murdoch
 * John Osborne
 * Harold Pinter
 * Alan Sillitoe
 * David Storey
 * Kenneth Tynan
 * John Wain
 * Keith Waterhouse
 * Arnold Wesker
 * Colin Wilson

Other media
In the song "Where Are They Now" from the 1973 album Preservation Act 1 by The Kinks, the following lines appear: "Where have all the angry young men gone?/ Barstow and Osborne, Waterhouse and Sillitoe/ Where on earth did they all go?"

title: Angry young men


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Talk:Santalum

sorry mav! -- Tarquin 10:52 Jan 10, 2003 (UTC)

Loop
S. album is a redirect to sandalwood. I have approached that page as a general article. An important commodity, managed or exploited at various times by several cultures. Fred 12:06, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

 * This would have been a temporary redirect; always intended to be replaced by a species article eventually. If you want to overwrite it with an article, go for it! Even a crappy substub would be better than a redirect to the genus. Hesperian 12:12, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Santalum


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Alfredo Stroessner

Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda (3 November 1912 – 16 August 2006) was a Paraguayan army officer, politician and dictator who served as President of Paraguay from 15 August 1954 until his overthrow from power on 3 February 1989. His rule is commonly referred inside Paraguay as El Stronato.

Stroessner led a coup d'état on 4 May 1954 with the support of the army and the Colorado Party, with which he was affiliated. After a brief provisional government headed by Tomás Romero Pereira, he was the Colorado Party's presidential candidate for the 1954 general election, and was elected unopposed since all other parties were banned from 1947 to 1962. Stroessner later officially assumed the presidency on 15 August 1954, quickly suspended constitutional and civil rights, and began a period of harsh repression with the support of the army and the military police (which also served as a secret police) against anyone who opposed his authoritarian rule. Even when opposition parties were legalized in 1962, they were barely tolerated, and the repression continued. On 25 August 1967, he introduced a new constitution enabling him to re-elect himself; in 1977 he modified that constitution to permit himself to be re-elected indefinitely. He was fraudulently re-elected seven times from 1958 until 1988; approximately six months after the 1988 general election, he was overthrown in the coup d'état of 2 and 3 February 1989, led by his most trusted confidant, Lieutenant general Andrés Rodríguez Pedotti, with the support of the army.

On 5 February 1989, two days after the coup, Stroessner was exiled to Brazil, where he spent the last 17 years of his life. He died in August 2006 at the Santa Luzia Hospital in Brasília after suffering from pneumonia. He was buried in the Campo da Esperança Cemetery.

Early life
Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda was born in Encarnación on 3 November 1912. Stroessner's parents were Hugo Strößner, who emigrated from Hof, Bavaria, Germany, and worked as an accountant for a brewery, and Heriberta Matiauda, who grew up in a wealthy Paraguayan family of Criollo Spanish and Guarani descent. He enrolled in the Francisco López Military Academy in 1929, and received his commission as a lieutenant in the Paraguayan Army in 1931.

In 1932, he fought against Bolivian forces in the Battle of Boquerón during the Chaco War. After the war he rose steadily in rank; by 1940, he had risen to the rank of major and joined the general staff in 1946. When the Paraguayan Civil War broke out in 1947, he commanded the artillery division at Paraguarí that ensured that President Higinio Morínigo won the war by destroying a working-class rebel area of Asunción. Morínigo found Stroessner's military skills very useful and promoted him rapidly. As one of the few officers who had remained loyal to Morínigo, Stroessner became a formidable political and social player once he entered the higher echelons of the Paraguayan armed forces. He became a brigadier, and the youngest general officer in South America, in 1948. His accurate political sense failed him only once, when, in 1948, he was on the wrong side of a failed coup attempt and had to be driven to the Brazilian embassy in the trunk of a car, earning him the nickname of "Colonel Trunk". Stroessner backed Felipe Molas López in a successful coup against Juan Natalicio González. He then backed Federico Chávez against Molas López and by 1951 he was Commander-in-chief of the Armed forces of Paraguay.

Dictatorship (1954–1989)
Stroessner objected to President Federico Chávez's plans to arm the national police and threw him out of office in a coup on 4 May 1954. The National Assembly appointed Tomás Romero Pereira president, who called for special elections to complete Chávez's term. Stroessner became the nominee for the Colorado Party in that year's election on 11 July. He won, as he was the only candidate.

He was reelected seven times—in 1958, 1963, 1968, 1973, 1978, 1983 and 1988. He appeared alone on the ballot in 1958. In his other elections, he won by implausibly high margins; only once (1968) did he drop below 80 percent of the vote. That campaign was also the only time an opposition candidate got more than 20 percent of the vote. He served for 35 years, with only Fidel Castro having a longer tenure among 20th-century Latin American leaders; though Castro's tenure as president was shorter at 32 years (1976–2008).

Soon after taking office, Stroessner placed the entire country under a state of siege and suspended civil liberties. The state-of-siege provisions allowed the government to arrest and detain anyone indefinitely without trial, as well as forbid public meetings and demonstrations. It was renewed every 90 days until 1987, except for a brief period in 1959. Although it technically only applied to Asunción after 1970, the courts ruled that anyone charged with security offenses could be brought to the capital and charged under the state-of-siege provisions—even if the offense took place outside the capital. Apart from one 24-hour period on election days, Stroessner ruled under what amounted to martial law for nearly all of his tenure. A devoted anti-communist who brought Paraguay into the World Anti-Communist League, he justified his repression as a necessary measure to protect the country. The use of political repression, threats and death squads was a key factor in Stroessner's longevity as dictator of Paraguay. He maintained virtually unlimited power by giving a free hand to the military and to Minister of Interior Edgar Ynsfrán, who began to harass, terrorize, and occasionally murder family members of the regime's opponents. Stroessner heavily relied on various Colorado Party militias, subordinated to his control, to crush any dissent within the country.

The Stroessner regime's strong anti-communist stance earned it the support of the United States, with which it enjoyed close military and economic ties and supported the U.S. invasion of the Dominican Republic. The Stroessner regime even offered to send troops to Vietnam alongside the Americans. The United States played a "critical supporting role" in the domestic affairs of Stoessner's Paraguay. Between 1962 and 1975 the US provided $146 million to Paraguay's military government and Paraguayan officers were trained at the U.S. Army School of the Americas. Although the military and security forces under Stroessner received less material support from the United States than other South American countries, strong inter-military connections existed through military advisors and military training. Between 1962 and 1966, nearly 400 Paraguayan military personnel were trained by the United States in the Panama Canal Zone and on US soil. Strong Paraguayan-U.S. relations continued until the Carter Administration emphasized a foreign policy that recognized human rights abuses, although both military and economic aid were allotted to the Paraguayan government in Carter's budgets. The Reagan Administration restored more cordial relations due to Stroessner's staunch anti-communism, but by the mid 1980s relations cooled, largely because of the international outcry over the regime's excesses, along with its involvement in narcotics trafficking and money-laundering. In 1986, the Reagan administration added his regime to its list of Latin American dictatorships.

As leader of the Colorado Party, Stroessner exercised nearly complete control over the nation's political scene. Although opposition parties were nominally permitted after 1962 (the Colorado Party had been the only legal party in the country since 1947), Paraguay remained for all intents and purposes a one-party state. Elections were so heavily rigged in favor of the Colorados that the opposition had no realistic chance of winning, and opposition figures were subjected to varying degrees of harassment. Furthermore, Stroessner's Paraguay became a haven for Nazi war criminals, including Josef Mengele, and non-communist peaceful opposition was crushed. Given Stroessner's affinity for Nazism and harboring of Nazi war criminals, foreign press often referred to his government as the "poor man's Nazi regime".

Stroessner's rule brought more stability than most of the country's living residents had previously known. From 1927 to 1954, the country had had 22 presidents, including six from 1948 to 1954 alone. However, that stability came at a high cost. Corruption was rampant (Stroessner himself did not dispute charges of corruption at some levels in his government) and Paraguay's human rights record was considered one of the poorest in South America. During Stroessner's regime, an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 people were murdered, 400 to 500 more "disappeared," and thousands more imprisoned and tortured.

Press freedom was also limited, constitutional guarantees notwithstanding. Any outcry about government mistreatment or attacks toward the Colorado Party would result in destruction of the media outlets. Many media executives were sent to prison or tortured. Because of this, political opponents were few and far between. Near the end of this presidency, he declared that he would remove the state of siege, but quickly recanted after students began protesting trolley fares.

For the first 13 years of his rule, Stroessner ruled under a severely authoritarian constitution enacted in 1940. In the mid 1960s, in an attempt to placate growing international criticism, Stroessner began allowing some opposition parties to function, although these functioned as opposition in name only. Stroessner also fired the interior minister Ynsfrán in 1966, but his replacement, Sabino Augusto Montanaro (a member of the "Cuatrinomio de Oro", a group of politicians intimately connected to Stroessner) continued the same violent policies. The 1940 constitution was replaced in 1967 with an equally repressive document. Like its predecessor, it gave the president broad powers to take exceptional actions for the good of the country, such as suspending civil liberties and intervening in the economy. It thus formed the legal basis for the state of virtual martial law under which Stroessner governed. While it limited the president to two five-year terms, it stipulated that only those terms completed after the 1968 election would count toward that limit. In 1977, faced with having to leave office for good the following year, Stroessner pushed through a constitutional amendment allowing him to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms.

Operation Condor
Paraguay was a leading participant in Operation Condor, a campaign of state terror and security operations officially implemented in 1975 which were jointly conducted by the military dictatorships of six South American countries (Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil) with the support of the United States. Human rights violations characteristic of those in other South American countries such as kidnappings, torture, forced disappearances and extrajudicial killings were routine and systematic during the Stroessner regime. Following executions, many of the bodies of those killed by the regime were dumped in the Chaco or the Río Paraguay. The discovery of the "Archives of Terror" in 1992 in the Lambaré suburb of Asunción confirmed allegations of widespread human rights violations.

During Stroessner's rule, two special departments were organized under the Ministry of the Interior led by Edgar Ynsfrán: the Department of Investigations of the Metropolitan Police (Departamento de Investigaciones de la Policía de la Capital, DIPC) under the leadership of Pastor Coronel, and the National Directorate of Technical Affairs (Dirección Nacional de Asuntos Técnicos, DNAT) directed by Antonio Campos Alum. Both units specialized in political repression. Pastor Coronel became infamous for his brutality. He would interview people in a pileta, a bath of human vomit and excrement, or ram electric cattle prods up their rectums. In 1975, the Secretary of the Paraguayan Communist Party, Miguel Ángel Soler, was dismembered alive with a chainsaw while Stroessner listened on the phone. The screams of tortured dissidents were often recorded and played over the phone to family members, and sometimes the bloody garments of those killed were sent to their homes.

Under Stroessner, egregious human rights violations were committed against the indigenous Aché population of Paraguay's eastern districts, largely as the result of U.S. and European corporations wanting access to the country's forests, mines and grazing lands. The Aché resided on land that was coveted and had resisted relocation attempts by the Paraguayan army. The government retaliated with massacres and forced many Aché into slavery. In 1974, the UN accused Paraguay of slavery and genocide. Only a few hundred Aché remained alive by the late 1970s. The Stroessner regime financed this genocide with U.S. aid.

Stroessner was careful not to show off or draw attention from jealous generals or foreign journalists. He avoided rallies and took simple holidays in Patagonia. He became more tolerant of opposition as the years passed, but there was no change in the regime's basic character.

During Stroessner's rule, no socialist nations had diplomatic relations with Paraguay, with the sole exception of non-aligned Yugoslavia. Stroessner made many state visits, including to Japan, the United States, and France, as well as to South Africa, a country which Paraguay developed close bilateral ties with in the 1970s. He also made several visits to West Germany, although over the years his relations with that country deteriorated. Since he had always been known as pro-German, this worsening of relations, combined with his feeling that the U.S. had abandoned him, was regarded as a personal blow to Stroessner.

It has been asserted that the Roman Catholic Church is the only reason Stroessner did not have absolute control over the country. After the destruction of Asunción University in 1972 by police, the Archbishop of Paraguay Ismael Rolón Silvero excommunicated the minister of the interior and the chief of police, and proscribed the celebration of Holy Mass in a sign of protest against the Stroessner regime. When Pope John Paul II visited Paraguay in 1988, his visit bolstered what was already a robust anti-Stroessner movement within the country.

Stroessner gave a written television interview to Alan Whicker as part of a documentary called The Last Dictator (UK: 7 April 1970) for the television series Whicker's World. The programme was released in a Region 2 DVD box-set by the UK's Network imprint.

Economics
Stroessner dedicated large proportions of the Paraguayan national budget to the military and police apparatus, both fundamental to the maintenance of the regime. According to a 1963 article from Time magazine, Stroessner spent 33% of the 1962 annual budget on army and police, 15% for education, and just 2% for public works. There was no income tax and public spending was the smallest percentage of GDP in Latin America.

Stroessner enacted several economic development projects, including the building of the Itaipu Dam, the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world at the time: although Paraguay received only 15% of the contracts, it was a major factor in the country having the highest rate of growth in Latin America for most of the 1970s. The construction of the Itaipu Dam, as well as that of the subsequent Yacyretá Dam on the Paraguay–Argentina Border, displaced thousands of Paraguayans, often without any restitution. The Itaipu Dam displaced at least 80,000 Paraguayans, and the Yacyretá was estimated to have displaced at least as many by December 2008. 160 workers died building the Itaipu Dam.

Stroessner also promoted projects that purportedly developed the country's infrastructure. Amongst these were the improvement of highways and the issuing of 15–20 hectare land grants to military personnel upon completion of their service, provided that the land would be used for farming purposes. Over 10,000 soldiers took up this offer. By the end of the Stronato, the second biggest city was Puerto Flor de Lis (renamed "Puerto Presidente Stroessner," then "Ciudad del Este"), founded just 32 years before.

Downfall
In April 1987, Stroessner lifted the state of siege as part of the run-up to elections the following spring. However, several draconian security laws remained in effect, meaning that the substance (if not the form) of the state of siege was still in place. As had been the case for over three decades, opposition leaders continued to be arbitrarily arrested and opposition meetings and demonstrations were broken up (often brutally). Stroessner was nominated by the Colorados once again, and was the only candidate who was allowed to campaign completely unmolested. Under these circumstances, the February 1988 election was no different from past elections, with Stroessner officially registering 89 percent of the vote — a margin that his rivals contended could have been obtained only through massive fraud.

On 3 February 1989, only six months after being sworn in for what would have been his eighth full term, Stroessner was ousted in a coup d'état led by General Andrés Rodríguez, his closest confidant for over three decades. One reason for the coup was that the generals feared one of Stroessner's offspring would succeed him. Of the two, Alfredo was a cocaine addict and Gustavo, a pilot, was loathed for being homosexual. A more outlandish rumour was that Lino Oviedo threatened Rodríguez with a grenade if he did not launch the coup. The two generals, Rodríguez and Oviedo, fought a brief artillery duel over Asunción.

Later life and death
After the coup, Stroessner fled to Brazil, where he lived in exile for the next 17 years.

The eastern city of Puerto Flor de Lis, which had been renamed Puerto Presidente Stroessner in his honour, in 1989 was again renamed Ciudad del Este. Asunción's airport had been named after him during his regime, but was later renamed Silvio Pettirossi International Airport.

Stroessner died on 16 August 2006, in Brasília, at the age of 93. The immediate cause of death was a stroke. He had been suffering from pneumonia after undergoing a hernia operation. The Paraguayan government preemptively dismissed any suggestions for honouring the late president within Paraguay. He tried to return to Paraguay before his death, but he was rebuked and threatened with arrest by the government.

Marriage and children
Stroessner was married to Eligia Mora (26 December 1910 – 3 February 2006). They had three children. The couple were forcibly separated after his exile; she fled to the US, while he was given asylum in Brazil. Although they stayed in touch by phone and occasionally met, they were unable to live together, and neither Stroessner nor his son were able to return to Paraguay to attend her funeral.

Extramarital affairs and child abuse
Stroessner engaged in extramarital affairs before and during his presidency. According to many sources he also engaged in child abuse with girls as young as 8 years old. As a result of this he may have fathered over 30 illegitimate children. The affairs and child abuse were divulged after his downfall, further tarnishing his image.

Legacy

Stroessner was the second-longest serving leader of a Latin American country. His 35 year dictatorship was surpassed in length by only Fidel Castro's rule of Cuba. It was also the longest-lived dictatorship in South America.

Stroessner's supporters are known as "Stronistas", and they refer to him as "El Único Líder" (The Only Leader). Every year, nostalgic Stronistas celebrate the anniversary of Stroesssner's birth. In 2022, for his 110th birthday anniversary, several supporters, including a woman claiming to be his granddaughter, asserted that "another Stroessner" was needed to govern modern Paraguay, and that his was a time of security and stability.

As part of political persecution, Stroessner's regime was responsible for exiling 20,814 Paraguayans. Around 425 to 500 people were forcibly disappeared. The search for some bodies of the disappeared by families of the victims was still ongoing as of 2022. An estimated 18,000 to 20,000 people were subjected to torture and other abuses by Stroessner's government.

In part due to Stroessner's abuses, Paraguay's current constitution limits the president to a single five-year term with no possibility of reelection, even if nonsuccessive. The ban on any sort of reelection has become so entrenched in Paraguayan politics that in 2017, when the legislature debated an amendment that would have allowed then-president Horacio Cartes to run for reelection, massive protests forced the Colorados to abandon those plans.

title: Alfredo Stroessner


text:
Paul Stoddart

Paul Gerard Stoddart (born 26 May 1955) is an Australian businessman, airline owner and former Minardi Formula One team boss.

Personal life
Born in Coburg, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, and attended Preston Technical School and St Joseph's College Melbourne. Stoddart's first business was a car dealership. He was later based in England and was the Yugo car distributor for the UK and also had a hire car detailing business in Manchester detailing the ex-hire cars before sale to the public.

European Aviation
In late 1989, Stoddart purchased two BAC 1-11 aircraft and three Falcon 20 business jets (and a large assortment of spare parts for both aircraft) from the Royal Australian Air Force's 'VIP Squad' (the Canberra-based No 34 SQN). Stoddart formed European Aviation, hired Trevor Whetter from British Aerospace as his Managing Director and sold the BAC 1-11 aircraft to Okada Air in Nigeria. Following discussions with British Airways, Stoddart purchased 16 aircraft, and following Dan Air's absorption into British Airways, the airline was formed in 1994.

Stoddart and European Aviation made the news in the UK during the coronavirus pandemic in 2020. Airbus A340 aircraft, acquired from Etihad Airways and owned by Stoddart's business were used to transport PPE from China and Malaysia back to the UK.

OzJet
In 2005, Stoddart formed OzJet an Australian based, all business class airline. He wanted to challenge Qantas who at the time were the only domestic carrier with this luxury option. The airline flew with three Boeing 737 aircraft that had 60 seats. It was not a commercial success, and in March 2006 Stoddart cancelled its commercial service and turned it into a charter airline. In 2009, OzJet was sold to Strategic Airlines.

Tyrrell
In 1996, Stoddart purchased a 1990 Tyrrell 019 Formula One car. During this time, he connected with Rupert Mainwaring the team manager at Tyrrell. In 1997, Stoddart sponsored the team with his company, European Aviation, appearing on the front wing of the car and in 1998 the rear. Stoddart's relationship with owner Ken Tyrrell grew, and the two were discussing building a wind tunnel at Stoddart's base at Bournemouth Airport. Tyrrell was lining up the sale of the team to Stoddart and in 1997, a deal of $25 million was almost agreed upon. However, British American Tobacco ultimately would purchase Tyrrell and enter the 1999 season as British American Racing. Stoddart purchased a volume of Tyrrell cars and equipment and moved them to his base in Ledbury, Herefordshire.

Jordan & Arrows
In 1999, European Aviation sponsored the Jordan Grand Prix team. There was speculation he would purchase a minority shareholding in the team from owner Eddie Jordan.

European Aviation moved on to sponsor Arrows in and his European Racing became the Arrows Junior Team, with driver Mark Webber.

Minardi
In 2001, Stoddart purchased Minardi when Gabriele Rumi sold the team to him prior to the 2001 Formula One Season. From purchase to the first race the team completed the PS01 in six weeks. The car was emblazoned with European Aviation sponsorship and used an uprated version of the 2000 Minardi Fondmetal V10. Whilst perennial backmarkers, during 2001 future world champion Fernando Alonso drove for the team and was rated highly. In 2002, Stoddart hired Australian Mark Webber who scored points on his debut at the 2002 Australian Grand Prix. Finances were always a challenge for the team, as was sponsorship. In 2003, Formula One owner Bernie Ecclestone invested $4 million into the struggling team. Wilux became a lead sponsor in 2004, however terminated their agreement after they were not told the team would run without logos at the 2004 British Grand Prix. Stoddart had elected to run blank cars due to the death of Minardi sporting director John Walton. In 2005, the team was sponsored by another Stoddart firm—OzJet. One of the team's greatest successes under Stoddart's ownership would come at the 2005 United States Grand Prix where just six cars competed—Minardi scoring 7 points with both cars finishing.

Throughout his ownership, Stoddart regularly campaigned for budget caps and greater consideration of financial incentives to smaller teams like his own. This included a public battle with McLaren boss Ron Dennis. When Eddie Jordan sold Jordan Grand Prix to Alex Shnaider in 2005, Stoddart expressed concerns for his team's future. On 12 September 2005, Stoddart announced that he had sold the team to Red Bull Racing owner Dietrich Mateschitz who subsequently rebranded the team as Toro Rosso.

In March 2006, less than a year after selling his team to Red Bull, Stoddart announced his intentions to return the Minardi name to Formula One after lodging an entry with the FIA for the championship season. However, rival entry Prodrive were awarded the 12th and final place on the grid (which they ultimately did not use).

F1 Experience
With the new F1 management wanting to expand the F1 experience for fans, starting from the 2017 Spanish Grand Prix Stoddart is offering fans the ability to ride in one of his Minardi Fx2 cars.

Minardi Team USA
In December 2006 Stoddart purchased the CTE-HVM ChampCar team which he renamed Minardi Team USA. The team was successful, with Robert Doornbos finishing third overall and taking the Rookie of the Year honours. However, a month before the 2008 season, ChampCar was absorbed by the rival Indy Racing League. Although enthusiastic about the future of the series, Stoddart opted not to enter it, fearing that he and the other ex-ChampCar teams would be unable to be competitive. However, the half of the team owned by Keith Wiggins continued on as HVM Racing in the IRL.

title: Paul Stoddart


text:
Microarray

A microarray is a multiplex lab-on-a-chip. Its purpose is to simultaneously detect the expression of thousands of biological interactions. It is a two-dimensional array on a solid substrate—usually a glass slide or silicon thin-film cell—that assays (tests) large amounts of biological material using high-throughput screening miniaturized, multiplexed and parallel processing and detection methods. The concept and methodology of microarrays was first introduced and illustrated in antibody microarrays (also referred to as antibody matrix) by Tse Wen Chang in 1983 in a scientific publication and a series of patents. The "gene chip" industry started to grow significantly after the 1995 Science Magazine article by the Ron Davis and Pat Brown labs at Stanford University. With the establishment of companies, such as Affymetrix, Agilent, Applied Microarrays, Arrayjet, Illumina, and others, the technology of DNA microarrays has become the most sophisticated and the most widely used, while the use of protein, peptide and carbohydrate microarrays is expanding.

Types of microarrays include:
 * DNA microarrays, such as cDNA microarrays, oligonucleotide microarrays, BAC microarrays and SNP microarrays
 * MMChips, for surveillance of microRNA populations
 * Protein microarrays
 * Peptide microarrays, for detailed analyses or optimization of protein–protein interactions
 * Tissue microarrays
 * Cellular microarrays (also called transfection microarrays)
 * Chemical compound microarrays
 * Antibody microarrays
 * Glycan arrays (carbohydrate arrays)
 * Phenotype microarrays
 * Reverse phase protein lysate microarrays, microarrays of lysates or serum
 * Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS)

People in the field of CMOS biotechnology are developing new kinds of microarrays. Once fed magnetic nanoparticles, individual cells can be moved independently and simultaneously on a microarray of magnetic coils. A microarray of nuclear magnetic resonance microcoils is under development.

Fabrication and operation of microarrays
A large number of technologies underlie the microarray platform, including the material substrates, spotting of biomolecular arrays, and the microfluidic packaging of the arrays. Microarrays can be categorized by how they physically isolate each element of the array, by spotting (making small physical wells), on-chip synthesis (synthesizing the target DNA probes adhered directly on the array), or bead-based (adhering samples to barcoded beads randomly distributed across the array).

Production process
The initial publication on microarray production process dates back to 1995, when 48 cDNAs of a plant were printed on glass slide typically used for light microscopy, modern microarrays on the other hand include now thousands of probes and different carriers with coatings. The fabrication of the microarray requires both biological and physical information, including sample libraries, printers, and slide substrates. Though all procedures and solutions always dependent on the fabrication technique employed. The basic principle of the microarray is the printing of small stains of solutions containing different species of the probe on a slide several thousand times.

Modern printers are HEPA-filtered and have controlled humidity and temperature surroundings, which is typically around 25°C, 50% humidity. Early microarrays were directly printed onto the surface by using printer pins which deposit the samples in a user-defined pattern on the slide. Modern methods are faster, generate less cross-contamination, and produce better spot morphology. The surface to which the probes are printed must be clean, dust free and hydrophobic, for high-density microarrays. Slide coatings include poly-L-lysine, amino silane, epoxy and others, including manufacturers solutions and are chosen based on the type of sample used. Ongoing efforts to advance microarray technology aim to create uniform, dense arrays while reducing the necessary volume of solution and minimizing contamination or damage.

For the manufacturing process, a sample library which contains all relevant information is needed. In the early stages of microarray technology, the sole sample used was DNA, obtained from commonly available clone libraries and acquired through DNA amplification via bacterial vectors. Modern approaches do not include just DNA as a sample anymore, but also proteins, antibodies, antigens, glycans, cell lysates and other small molecules. All samples used are presynthesized, regularly updated, and more straightforward to maintain. Array fabrication techniques include contact printing, lithography, non-contact and cell free printing.

Contact printing
Contact printing microarray include Pin printing, microstamping or flow printing. Pin printing is the oldest and still widest adopted methodology in DNA microarray contact printing. This technique uses pin types like solid pins, split or quill pins to load and deliver the sample solution directly on solid microarray surfaces. Microstamping offers an alternative to the commonly used pin printing and is also referred as soft lithography, which in theory covers different, related pattern transfer technologies using patterned polymer monolithic substrates, the most prominent being microstamping. In contrast to pin printing, microstamping is a more parallel deposition method with less individuality. Certain stamps are loaded with reagents and printed with these reagent solutions identically.

Lithography
Lithography combines various methods like Photolithography, Interference lithography, laser writing, electron-beam and Dip pen. The most widely used and researched method remains Photolithography, in which photolithographic masks are used to target specific nucleotides to the surface. UV light is passed through the mask that acts as a filter to either transmit or block the light from the chemically protected microarray surface. If the UV light has been blocked, the area will remain protected from the addition of nucleotides, whereas in areas which were exposed to UV light, further nucleotides can be added. With this method high-quality custom arrays can be produced with a very high density of DNA features by using a compact device with few moving parts.

Non contact
Non-contact printing methods vary from Photochemistry-based printing, Electro-printing and droplet dispensing. In contrast to the other methods, non-contact printing does not involve contact between the surface and the stamp, pin, or other used dispenser. The main advantages are reduced contamination, lesser cleaning and higher throughput which increases steadily. Many of the methods are able to load the probes in parallel, allowing multiple arrays to be produced simultaneously.

Cell free
In cell free systems, the transcription and translation are carried out in situ, which makes the cloning and expression of proteins in host cells obsolete, because no intact cells are needed. The molecule of interest is directly synthesized onto the surface of a solid area. These assays allow high-throughput analysis in a controlled environment without inferences associated with intact cells.

title: Microarray


text:
Robert Rankin

Robert Fleming Rankin (born 27 July 1949) is a prolific British author of comedic fantasy novels. Born in Parsons Green, London, he started writing in the late 1970s, and first entered the bestsellers lists with Snuff Fiction in 1999, by which time his previous eighteen books had sold around one million copies. His books are a mix of science fiction, fantasy, the occult, urban legends, running gags, metafiction, steampunk and outrageous characters. According to the (largely fictional) biography printed in some Corgi editions of his books, Rankin refers to his style as 'Far Fetched Fiction' in the hope that bookshops will let him have a section to himself. Many of Rankin's books are bestsellers.

Most of Rankin's books are set in Brentford, a suburb of London where the author grew up, and which, in his novels, is usually infested with alien conspiracies and ancient evil.

In addition to his novels, Rankin held a position as the Writer in Residence of Brentford's Watermans Arts Centre during the 1980s, and organised a regular poetry event there which he claims was the largest in Britain. He also has performed on stage with bands.

Rankin's fan club, The Order of the Golden Sprout (named after Rankin's fixation with the vegetable), maintain a website and arrange events, many around Brentford. In 2009 he was created the first Fellow of The Victorian Steampunk Society in recognition of his contribution to the genre. He lives in Brighton with his wife, Dr. Rachel Hayward-Rankin.

During 2012, Rankin published his first 23 novels (up to and including Fandom of the Operator) on Kindle through his own publishing enterprise, Far Fetched Books, with new cover artwork, making them available to a wider audience, despite many of them being out of print.

Awards

 * British Fantasy Society Best Novel nominee (1997) for The Brentford Chainstore Massacre
 * SFX Best Novel Award Winner (2003) for The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse
 * British Fantasy Society Best Novel nominee (2006) for The Brightonomicon
 * Coventry Inspiration Book Awards (2007) Lost Worlds: for The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse
 * The Hub Best Comedy (Audio) Award for "The Brightonomicon - Audio Series"
 * Fellow of The Victorian Steampunk Society (2009)

Other media
In 2008, The Brightonomicon was adapted into a 13-part full-cast audio drama by Hokus Bloke Productions and BBC Audiobooks starring David Warner, Andy Serkis, Jason Isaacs, Ben Miller, Rupert Degas, Mark Wing-Davey, Martin Jarvis and Sarah Douglas. Initially released as a 7-CD boxset and as a digital download, the series has now been re-edited for radio transmission, and Robert's first ever radio series aired on BBC7 from 23 August to 15 November 2008. Rankin has also had his novel The Antipope dramatised for audio, and has also read unabridged versions of many of his novels as audiobooks. He recorded eleven of his titles for Audible. His free, full colour webcomic called Robert Rankin's Empires for Beyond Reality Media in New Zealand, can be viewed online, and illustrated work Alice on Mars will also be released via the same website.

 * The Brightonomicon - audio drama and radio series (BBC7)
 * The Antipope - audio drama and audiobook
 * The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse - audiobook
 * The Toyminator - audiobook
 * The Fandom of the Operator - audiobook
 * Nostradamus Ate My Hamster - audiobook

Art and illustration
Rankin studied at Ealing School of Art, where he was a contemporary of Freddie Mercury and Alan Lee. He worked for Playboy magazine and illustrated a book about The Beatles before his portfolio was stolen and he abandoned the idea of working as a professional illustrator. However he created many of the sculptures which feature on his book covers, many of which were on display at The Collection, a gallery in Lincoln during September 2010. Some of these works were previously exhibited in Waterstones, Brighton, and at Gunnersbury Park Museum in 2007-8. In 2009 Rankin was commissioned by his publisher to provide a series of new illustrations for his back catalogue of books (from The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse to the present), he also created new internal illustrations for The Brightonomicon, Retromancer and The Japanese Devil Fish Girl and Other Unnatural Attractions. A cartoon by Rankin "The Robot and the Elongated Author" was published in Issue 13 of Murky Depths, and 2010 also saw the publication of his first illustrated book, written by Neil Gardner, The Bumper Book of Ficts, which was launched on 18 September 2010 in Brentford. A limited hard-back edition of Empires was launched in the UK mid-2012 which is now sold out. In July 2013 Rankin's own publishing house Far-Fetched Books launched Alice on Mars, in a limited edition of 3000; this book is being made into a full-length feature film by award-winning independent film-maker Martin Gooch. July 2014 saw the release of his next illustrated book, The Divine Commodore, also published by Far-Fetched Books in a limitied run of 3000. He has recently completed writing his memoirs which were published in the autumn of 2015 under the title I,Robert.

title: Robert Rankin


text:
Talk:Protein biosynthesis

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 1 September 2021 and 6 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Leon Zatulovski.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 07:21, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Article editing for Coursework - Update
Hi all, now that I've finished with my edits to the page I'd like to thank anyone who assisted in editing the article and the addition of the GIF. The now aim/structure of the article is that the lead section provides sufficient detail and is accessible to a GCSE student. The rest of the details in the article are to the level of A-level with various extensions to include some degree level content e.g the section on types of glycosylation or sickle cell anaemia and figures to support visual learners throughout. Kep17 (talk) 11:08, 17 April 2020 (UTC)

Article editing for Coursework
Hi all, I'm a final year life sciences student at Imperial College London. For part of my Science Communication coursework, we have been tasked with improving a Wikipedia article. Based on your comments and the analysis by Wikipedia, I have chosen this article to improve. My goals are to edit/re-write this article to make it coherent, logical and streamlined, I'm specifically aiming to make this article accessible to GCSE and A-level students as Protein Biosynthesis is a core part of many curricula - for context, the textbooks referenced in this article are undergraduate level despite protein biosynthesis being a core concept in Biology. In addition, I will be adding my own illustrations to try and make it easier to understand. Any comments or suggestions would be appreciated Kep17 (talk) 15:51, 3 March 2020 (UTC)

Untitled
following translation you are bound to run in circles. translation (genetic) really deserves a page of it's own. Kku 11:43 Jan 10, 2003 (UTC)

language is very disorganized
I agree with many users that this article is impossible to read. While I make no particular claim to expertise in the subject matter, anyone with a middle schooler's grasp of English can plainly see that the writing style is utterly contrary to scholarly writing. The introduction is a rambling presentation of numerous facts and arguments which are unrelated to each other and which do not introduce the topic. While the introduction could potentially be rewritten to be grammatically and structurally sound, I suspect that the facts themselves have merely been picked from the body for arbitrary reasons. I recommend the article be tagged as in need of editing or numerous issues. 192.107.155.5 (talk) 18:18, 20 April 2015 (UTC)

= Post-translational modification = I can see how you'd be confused, Dominus, but I can also understand why the article would be worded that way, as there are different post-translational modification processes involving different chemical/structural changes, and if a protein is not chemically modified, then PTMs are irrelevant. Perhaps it would clarify things to word the statement as follows: "Proteins may undergo post-translational modification, including the formation of disulfide bridges or attachment of any of a number of biochemical functional groups." Just in case you were wondering the post translational modification of proteins occurs in the Golgi Apparatus... Rena Silverman 16:04, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

= Post-translational modification =

The article says:

 * Many proteins undergo post-translational modification.

Don't all proteins undergo post-translational modification to remove the methionine unit that is always present at the initial end of the strand after it is manufactured by the ribosome? -- Dominus 16:07, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

needs pictures
Some pictures would really help this article. --67.80.171.173 20:21, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

I have to agree that some pictures or even animated diagrams would help--ManInStone 10:07, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

By now, ANYTHING WOULD HELP!!!!!!!! --Heero Kirashami (talk) 06:29, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

NIGA.........

diagram incorrect
not being a clever biologist myself at my GCSEs, i couldn't help but notice that the diagram "The chemical process of connecting two amino acids resulting in a dipeptide and a water molecule" was incorrect.

Water, being H²O, is connected up as H-O-H, but is connected as a right angle, so more like
 * H
 * O -- H
 * O -- H
 * O -- H

Thanks

Stwalkerster 19:14, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Water is a lot more than the diagram above as well. For the purpose of this article, a representation of HOH is adequate, as we are more interested in the nature of the dipeptide. Water as a matter of fact is joined at and angle of 105 degrees... just correcting the previous error...

not understandable
this article and the ones under it like transcription are not understandable to me, a scientist not trained in biology. they assume more knowledge than many interested readers will have. they jump right into arcane technical details without giving upfront motivation. --Rmalloy 04:46, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

hey, you're a scientist not trained in biology. me, I'm just a smart minor who is trying to understand this stuff.--Heero Kirashami (talk) 06:31, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

i have been trying to figure outt how long this process is. its an important part to this article. if any1 knows plz let me no. my email is ammenworb@gmail.com thx<3 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.172.235.100 (talk) 21:53, 6 March 2008 (UTC)

Translation?
Why doesn't this article contain information about Translation? It seems to be that this is the most important step of protein biosynthesis (that is to say, it is the step that immediately results in a protein). Malignon 16:25, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I just added a section on translation... but it may be a bit long and probably needs some editing... if someone could look it over please! :) -ComCC 01:38, 18 April 2007 (UTC)

Strange use of words
What is the scientific background behind the sentence; "The amino acids are then loaded onto tRNA trains for use in the process of journeying forth to the world beyond."? I think this should be removed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lozzaaa (talk • contribs) 13:44, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

copyvio
Since the translation section was in odd language and was signed with a book and publisher, assuming copyvio - quick fix replaced with lead section from Translation (biology) Leevanjackson (talk) 01:48, 24 March 2008 (UTC)

Merge Proposal
I propose the merger of the "Protein synthesis" page into "Protein biosynthesis".

From a Wikipedia Operational perspective:

Both pages are marked "It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with ..." but I see no discussion of the merger. Nor were the merger "Discuss" link set up (I've now set them up). Am I missing something?

From a merits of merging perspective:

"Protein synthesis" makes no mention of artificial synthesis. The "Protein" page references "Protein synthesis". "Protein" has a "Chemical synthesis" section. A Google search sent me to "Protein synthesis".

Assuming that the interested parties concur; I volunteer to perform a quick, and not too clean, merge of the two articles. The article resulting from the merge will still require a good deal of work.

At 6:00pm, reading a New York Time genetics article, I looked up "Coding region (Biology)" in Wikipedia and have been Wikipedia-ing since. It is now midnight and I have a headache.

--Deicas (talk) 07:10, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

=Redirect=

I added a redirect from the page "proteosynthesis" as this term showed up as a synonym for Protein synthesis in a couple of papers I read recently. It is not that common of a term as far as I can see. Colincbn (talk) 05:59, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Protein synthesis inhibitors
Hello. I just wanted to note that the while Protein synthesis inhibitors redirects here (or used to redirect here), there is in fact a Protein synthesis inhibitor article out there. I've modified the redirect but perhaps some here will find it appropriate to merge back here the content of the Protein synthesis inhibitor article. Pichpich (talk) 22:23, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

Article should be merged with Central Dogma
Both articles contain almost identical information and protein synthesis is a part of the Central Dogma

--Arafitos (talk) 00:55, 18 January 2011 (UTC)

The articles Gene expression and Protein biosynthesis are similar
Both the articles refer to the same thing. I see no dissimilarities. The ultimate goal of gene expression is protein synthesis. These two articles are like seeing a snake from its mouth and from the tail. So I propose to merge the two articles. This message will also be posted on Gene expression article. --G.Kiruthikan (talk) 13:57, 1 March 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 03:28, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

wrong syntax
"Phenomena of RNA synthesis from DNA template In transcription an mRNA chain"

this doesn't look right

title: Talk:Protein biosynthesis