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Rugby, Warwickshire

Rugby is a market town in eastern Warwickshire, England, close to the River Avon. At the 2021 census, its population was 78,117, making it the second-largest town in Warwickshire. It is the main settlement within the larger Borough of Rugby, which had a population of 114,400 in 2021.

Rugby is situated on the eastern edge of Warwickshire, near to the borders with Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. It is the most easterly town within the West Midlands region, with the nearby county borders also marking the regional boundary with the East Midlands. It is 83 miles north of London, 30 miles east-south-east of Birmingham, 11.5 miles east of Coventry, 18 miles north-west of Northampton and 19 miles south-south-west of Leicester.

Rugby became a market town in 1255. In 1567, Rugby School was founded as a grammar school for local boys but, by the 18th century, it had gained a national reputation and eventually became a public school. The school is the birthplace of rugby football which, according to legend, was invented in 1823 by a Rugby schoolboy named William Webb Ellis. Rugby remained a small and fairly unimportant town until the mid-19th century, when a major railway junction was established there, which spurred the development of industry and the rapid growth of population.

Ancient history
Early Iron Age settlement existed in the Rugby area: The River Avon formed a natural barrier between the Dobunni and Corieltauvi tribes, and it is likely that defended frontier settlements were set up on each side of the Avon valley. Rugby's position on a hill overlooking the Avon, made it an ideal location for a defended Dobunni watch settlement. During the Roman period the Roman town of Tripontium was established on the Watling Street Roman road around 3.4 miles north-east of what is now Rugby, this was later abandoned when the Romans left Britain.

Medieval
The small settlement at Rugby was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons around 560 AD, and it was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Rocheberie; there are several theories about the origin of the name; one is that it is derived from an old Celtic name droche-brig meaning 'wild hilltop'. Another theory is that Rocheberie was a phonetic translation of the Old English name Hrocaberg meaning 'Hroca's hill fortification'; Hroca being an Anglo-Saxon man's name pronounced with a silent 'H', and berg being a name for a hill fortification, with the 'g' being pronounced as an 'ee' sound. By the 13th century the name of the town was commonly spelt as Rokeby (or Rookby) before gradually evolving into the modern form by the 18th century.

In 1140, the first recorded mention was made of St Andrew's Church, which was originally a chapel of ease to the mother church at Clifton-upon-Dunsmore, until Rugby was established as a parish in its own right in 1221, at which point it was elevated to the status of parish church. In 1255, the lord of the manor Henry de Rokeby obtained a charter to hold a weekly market in Rugby, which soon developed into a small country market town.

In the 12th century, Rugby was mentioned as having a castle at the location of what is now Regent Place. However, the nature of the 'castle' is unknown, and it was possibly little more than a fortified manor house. In any event, the 'castle' may have been short lived: It has been speculated that it was constructed early in the reign of King Stephen (1135–1154) during the period of civil war known as The Anarchy, and then, as a so-called adulterine castle, built without Royal approval, demolished in around 1157 on the orders of King Henry II. The earthworks for the castle were still clearly visible as late as the 19th century, but have since been built over. According to one theory, the stones from the castle were later used to construct the west tower of St Andrew's Church, which bears strong resemblance to a castle, and was probably intended for use in a defensive as well as a religious role.

17th century
The Rugby area has associations with the Gunpowder Plot of 1605: On the eve of the plot, the plotters stayed at the 'Lion Inn' (now a private residence called 'Guy Fawkes House') in nearby Dunchurch, convened by Sir Everard Digby, awaiting news of Guy Fawkes's attempt to blow up the Houses of Parliament. If he had been successful they planned to kidnap the King's daughter Princess Elizabeth from Coombe Abbey in the countryside between Rugby and Coventry.

During the English Civil War, one of the earliest armed confrontations of the conflict took place at the nearby village of Kilsby in August 1642. That same year, King Charles I passed through Rugby on his way to Nottingham, and 120 Cavalier Horse Troops reportedly stayed at the town, however the townsfolk were sympathetic to the Parliamentarian cause, and they were disarmed by the Cavalier soldiers. Later, in 1645, Rugby was strongly Parliamentarian, and Oliver Cromwell and two regiments of Roundhead soldiers stayed at Rugby in April that year, two months before the decisive Battle of Naseby, some 12 miles to the east, in nearby Northamptonshire.

Influence of Rugby School
Rugby School was founded in 1567 with money left in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, a locally born man, who had moved to London and made his fortune as the grocer to Queen Elizabeth I. Sheriff had intended Rugby School to be a free grammar school for local boys, but by the 18th century it had acquired a national reputation and gradually became a mostly fee-paying private school, with most of its pupils coming from outside Rugby. The Lawrence Sheriff School was eventually founded in 1878 to continue Sheriff's original intentions. Until the 19th century, Rugby was a small and relatively unimportant settlement, with only its school giving it any notability. Its growth was slow, due in part to the nearby markets at Dunchurch and Hillmorton which were better positioned in terms of road traffic. In 1663 Rugby was recorded as containing 160 houses with a population of around 650. By 1730 this had increased to 183 houses, with a population of around 900. Rugby's importance and population increased more rapidly during the late 18th and early 19th century due to the growing national reputation of Rugby School, which had moved from its original location at a (now long vanished) schoolhouse north of St Andrew's Church, to its present location south of the town centre by 1750. By the time of the first national census in 1801, Rugby had a population of 1,487 with 278 houses. By 1831 this had increased further to 2,501 in 415 houses. This growth was driven by parents who wished to send their boys to Rugby School, but were unable to afford the boarding fees and so took up residence in Rugby, this in turn attracted domestic staff and tradesmen to the town to service the needs of the newcomers.

Railway town
Rugby's growth into a significant town was prompted by the arrival of the railways, as its location made it an ideal meeting place for various railway lines, by the middle of the 19th century, the railway junction at Rugby had become one of the most important in the country: The first railway arrived in 1838 when one of the earliest inter-city main lines, the London and Birmingham Railway (L&BR) was constructed around the town. In 1840 the Midland Counties Railway made a junction with the L&BR at Rugby, which was followed by a junction with the Trent Valley Railway in 1847. A line to Peterborough opened in 1850, followed by a line to Leamington in 1851, by which time there were more than sixty trains a day passing through Rugby railway station via the five converging lines. A line to Northampton opened in 1881, and finally the Great Central Main Line opened in 1899.

Rugby was transformed into a railway town, and the influx of railway workers and their families rapidly expanded the population. Rugby's population grew to nearly 8,000 by 1861. reaching nearly 17,000 by 1901. By which time around 1 in 5 Rugbeians were employed by the railways.

Growth of industry
The arrival of the railways had the effect of transforming Rugby from a rural backwater, into a substantial industrial town. In the later half of the 19th century, local industries began to develop: Large-scale cement production began in the town in 1862 when the Rugby Lias Lime & Cement Company Ltd was founded to take advantage of the locally available deposits of Blue Lias limestone. A factory producing corsets was opened in 1882, employing local women, this survived until 1992, by which time it was making swimwear.

In the 1890s and 1900s heavy engineering and electrical industries began to set up in Rugby, attracted by its central location and good transport links, causing the town to rapidly grow into a major industrial centre: Willans and Robinson were the first engineering firm to arrive in 1897, building steam engines to drive electrical generators, they were followed by British Thomson-Houston (BTH) in 1902, who manufactured electrical motors and generators. Within a short time, their product range expanded, and a wide array of electrical equipment came to be produced by BTH at Rugby. Both firms started producing turbines in 1904, and were in competition until both were united as part of GEC in 1969. Another name associated with Rugby was Lodge Plugs, manufacturer of spark plugs, who set up a factory in the town in 1916.

For most of the 20th century, the various engineering works dominated employment in Rugby; at their height in the 1960s, BTH alone employed around 22,000 people. Rugby expanded rapidly in the early decades of the 20th century as workers moved in. By the 1940s, the population of Rugby had grown to over 40,000, and then to over 50,000 by the 1960s.

Civic history
The parish of Rugby was made a local board district in 1849, which was the town's first modern form of local government; previously it had been governed by its vestry and manorial court. The local board's main responsibilities were to provide the town with infrastructure such as paved roads, street lighting, clean drinking water and sewerage. Such districts were converted into urban districts in 1894. Rugby's status was upgraded to that of a municipal borough in 1932, and its boundaries were expanded to incorporate the formerly separate villages of Bilton (including New Bilton), Hillmorton, Brownsover and Newbold-on-Avon which have become suburbs of the town. In 1974 the municipal borough was merged with the Rugby Rural District to form the present Borough of Rugby.

Modern history
In the postwar years, Rugby became a major junction of the motorway network, with the M1 and M6, and M45 merging close to the town. The railways went into decline during the same period, with several of the railway lines into Rugby closed. Since the 1980s, the engineering industries have gone into steady decline, with many former industrial sites redeveloped for housing and retail. Due to its proximity to the motorway network, Rugby has become a major centre for logistics, becoming, in some definitions, part of the area known as the golden logistics triangle.

In the 21st century, Rugby's urban area has undergone further expansion with large new developments at Cawston and the large new development of Houlton on the site of the former Rugby Radio Station to the east of the town.

Fame
Rugby is most famous for the invention of rugby football, which is played throughout the world. The invention of the game is credited to William Webb Ellis, a Rugby School pupil who, according to legend, broke the existing rules of football by picking up the ball and running with it at a match played in 1823. Although there is little evidence to support this story, the school is credited with codifying and popularising the sport. In 1845, three Rugby School pupils produced the first written rules of the "Rugby style of game".

Rugby School is one of England's oldest and most prestigious public schools, and was the setting of Thomas Hughes's semi-autobiographical masterpiece Tom Brown's Schooldays, published in 1857. Hughes later set up a colony in America for the younger sons of the English gentry, who could not inherit under the laws of primogeniture, naming the town Rugby. The settlement of Rugby, Tennessee still exists.

Rugby School is said to have been a major inspiration behind the revival of the Olympic Games: the French educator, and father of the modern Olympics Pierre de Coubertin, visited Rugby School several times in the late 19th century, and cited the school as one of his major inspirations behind his decision to revive the Olympic Games.

Rugby is a birthplace of the jet engine. In April 1937 Frank Whittle built and tested the world's first prototype jet engine at the British Thomson-Houston (BTH) works in Rugby, and during 1936–41 based himself at Brownsover Hall on the outskirts, where he designed and developed early prototype engines. Much of his work was carried out at nearby Lutterworth. Whittle is commemorated in Rugby by a modern sculpture near the town hall dating from 2005, made by Stephen Broadbent.

Holography was invented in Rugby in 1947, by the Hungarian born inventor Dennis Gabor, also while working at BTH. For this he later received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1971.

In the 19th century, Rugby became famous for its once important railway junction which was the setting for Charles Dickens's story Mugby Junction.

Rugby today
The modern town of Rugby is an amalgamation of the original town with the former settlements of Bilton, Hillmorton, Brownsover and Newbold-on-Avon which were incorporated into Rugby in 1932 when the town became a borough, all except Brownsover still have their former village centres. Rugby also includes the areas of New Bilton, Overslade, Hillside and the partially constructed Houlton housing development. The spread of Rugby has nearly reached the villages of Clifton-upon-Dunsmore, Cawston, Dunchurch and Long Lawford.

Town centre
The town centre is mostly Victorian and early 20th century, however a few much older buildings survive, along with some more modern developments. Rugby was described by Nikolaus Pevsner as 'Butterfieldtown' due to the number of buildings designed by William Butterfield in the 19th century, including much of Rugby School and the extension of St Andrew's Church.

The main shopping area in Rugby has traditionally been in the streets around the Clock Tower, two of which – High Street and Sheep Street – were pedestrianised in the 1980s. Until the 19th century, Rugby's urban area consisted of only Market Place, High Street, Sheep Street, Church Street, North Street and what is now Lawrence Sheriff Street. These centred on what is now the Clock Tower, which was built in 1887 on the site of an ancient cross. These streets still form the core of the town centre. In the Victorian and Edwardian eras several more shopping streets were added in order to cater for the growing town, including Albert Street and Regent Street, the latter of which was built in 1905, and was intended to be Rugby's main shopping street, although it never achieved this goal. The town centre has an indoor shopping centre called Rugby Central Shopping Centre which opened in 1979 (previously named The Clock Tower shopping centre). A street market is held in the town centre several days a week. In recent years several out-of-town retail centres have opened and expanded to the north of the town, including: Elliott's Field Retail Park, Junction 1 Retail Park and Technology Drive.

Geography
Most of Rugby sits around 400 ft above sea level on an irregular shaped plateau which is situated between the valleys of the River Avon and Swift to the north, and the Rains Brook and River Leam to the south. During its modern growth, Rugby spread north across the Avon valley and enveloped the villages of Brownsover and Newbold, which are to the north of the Avon valley.

The county boundary between Warwickshire, Northamptonshire and Leicestershire to the east of Rugby is defined by the A5 road (the former Watling Street) around 3 mi east of Rugby town centre. The three counties meet at Dow Bridge; the point where the A5 road crosses the River Avon, forming a tripoint. To the south-east of Rugby the county boundary with Northamptonshire is defined by the Rains Brook. Rugby is the easternmost town within Warwickshire (and the entire West Midlands region) Suburbs and districts of Rugby include: Places adjoining or adjacent to Rugby, but not part of the town itself:
 * Suburbs and districts
 * Bilton
 * Brownsover
 * Hillmorton
 * Hillside
 * New Bilton
 * Newbold-on-Avon
 * Overslade
 * Rokeby
 * Adjacent settlements
 * Cawston
 * Clifton-upon-Dunsmore
 * Dunchurch
 * Houlton (under construction)
 * Long Lawford
 * Newton

 * Nearby places
 * Nearby cities: Birmingham, Coventry and Leicester
 * Nearby towns: Bedworth, Daventry, Hinckley, Kenilworth, Leamington Spa, Lutterworth, Northampton, Nuneaton, Southam and Warwick.
 * Nearby villages: Barby, Braunston, Brinklow, Catthorpe, Harborough Magna, Kilsby, Lilbourne, Monks Kirby, Newton and Pailton.

Climate
Rugby has an oceanic climate typical of the English interior. Temperatures are mild for the latitude and winter nights average above freezing. Summers are highly variable depending on wind patterns, with an all-time record of 38.7 C in spite of the mild averages. Annual rainfall is moderate, but frequent drizzle results in about 125 precipitation days per year.

Demographics
At the 2021 census, there were 78,125 residents in Rugby, up from 70,628 on the 2011 census, and 62,580 at the 2001 census.

In terms of ethnicity in 2021:

 * 84.3% of Rugby residents were White
 * 8.3% were Asian
 * 3.1% were Black
 * 3.0% were Mixed.
 * 1.1% were from another ethnic group.

In terms of religion, 52.9% of Rugby residents identified as Christian, 38.6% said they had no religion, 4.0% were Hindu, 2.3% were Muslim, 1.2% were Sikh, 0.4% were Buddhists, and 0.6% were from another religion.

National representation
From 1885 until 1983 Rugby was a constituency in itself, a status it regained in 2010. Rugby was historically one of the Midlands' most marginal seats. From 1885 until 1924 Rugby was a marginal seat which changed hands between the Conservative and Liberal parties. From 1924 until 1942, the prominent Conservative David Margesson was Rugby's MP, his resignation triggered the 1942 Rugby by-election which was won by an independent trade unionist William Brown, who retained the seat until losing it to James Johnson of the Labour Party in 1950. From 1950 until 1983 Rugby was a Labour-Conservative marginal, with the Labour Party holding it for the majority of that period.

In 1983 Rugby was joined with Kenilworth to become part of the parliamentary constituency of Rugby and Kenilworth. Between 1983 and 1997 Jim Pawsey was the Conservative Member of Parliament, losing in 1997 to Labour's Andy King. At the 2005 general election Jeremy Wright regained the seat for the Conservatives.

Following the recommendations of the Boundary Commission for England, Warwickshire was allocated a sixth parliamentary seat. In the 2010 general election, the existing Rugby and Kenilworth constituency was abolished and split in two. A new Rugby constituency was created, and a new constituency of Kenilworth and Southam formed to the south of Rugby, and as a result the town regained its pre-1983 status of returning its own member of parliament, albeit with the addition of the Bulkington Ward from Nuneaton. Jeremy Wright chose to stand for Kenilworth and Southam in the 2010 general election and was successful. Mark Pawsey, son of former Rugby MP Jim Pawsey, was elected for Rugby in 2010. In the 2024 general election the Labour Party's John Slinger won the seat from the Conservatives.

Local government
Rugby is administered by two local authorities: Rugby Borough Council which covers Rugby and its surrounding countryside, and Warwickshire County Council. The two authorities are responsible for different aspects of local government. Rugby is an unparished area and so does not have its own town council.

The Borough of Rugby was created in its current form in 1974, with the first elections held in 1973, since then, Rugby Borough Council has spent the majority of its time under no overall control, alternating with periods of Conservative control. (see Rugby Borough Council elections) since 2023 it has been under no overall control.

Public services
Rugby is covered by Warwickshire Police and Warwickshire Fire and Rescue Service. Ambulance services are covered by the West Midlands Ambulance Service.

The local hospital in Rugby is the Hospital of St. Cross which is part of the University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust. A more extensive range of health services are provided at the University Hospital Coventry, some ten miles away.

Culture and recreation
The largest general purpose venue in Rugby is the Benn Hall which opened in 1961 as part of the town hall complex, Rugby has two theatres, a professional theatre, the Macready Theatre, and the amateur Rugby Theatre, both in the town centre. A nine-screen cinema run by Cineworld is located at a retail park north of the town centre. The Rugby Art Gallery, Museum and Library which opened in 2000, hosts various temporary art exhibitions. The main collection, which is not on permanent display, is the nationally-renowned Rugby Collection of 20th Century and Contemporary British Art, which comprises 170 artworks by artists including L. S. Lowry, Stanley Spencer, Paula Rego and Graham Sutherland. The museum displays Roman artefacts excavated from the nearby Romano-British town of Tripontium, as well as an exhibition of the social history of Rugby. The building also houses the town's library.

The Webb Ellis Rugby Football Museum also in the town centre also hosts rugby memorabilia.

The poet Rupert Brooke was born and grew up in Rugby, and is commemorated in the town by a statue in Regent Place.

In the 1960s, Clifton Hall at Rugby was owned by the music manager Reginald Calvert and became a centre of the Midlands rock music scene, with a number of Midlands bands such as The Fortunes, and the local band Pinkerton's Assorted Colours starting their careers there. In the 1980s the influential rock band Spacemen 3 was formed in Rugby by the local musicians Jason Pierce and Pete Kember. Following its demise in 1991, both musicians went on to form successful subsequent projects; Pierce formed the critically acclaimed band Spiritualized and Kember continued performing under the names Sonic Boom/Spectrum. Other notable musical acts to emerge from Rugby include the 1970s pop band Jigsaw which was formed by musicians from Rugby and Coventry, the 2000s singer-songwriter James Morrison, and more recently Emily Burns.

There are two large urban parks in the town centre, one is Caldecott Park alongside the town hall, and on the edge of the town centre is the Whitehall Recreation Ground.

Rugby has an indoor leisure centre, the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Centre which opened in 2013, replacing the older Ken Marriott Leisure Centre, it is run by GLL a charitable social enterprise on behalf of the local council.

Sport

 * Rugby has a number of rugby union teams including; the Rugby Lions, Rugby Welsh, Rugby St. Andrews RFC, Newbold-on-Avon RFC, AEI (Rugby) Rugby Football Club and Old Laurentian RFC.
 * Rugby has two non-league football clubs, Rugby Town F.C., who play in the United Counties League Premier Division, and Rugby Borough F.C., formed in 2017, who were Leicestershire Senior League Division One Champions in 2017–18.
 * There are two golf courses near the town: Rugby Golf Club to the East, and Whitefields Golf Club to the South West.
 * The Rugby Lawn Tennis Club, is one of the oldest in the world, having been established in 1876.
 * Rugby's Artistic Swimming Club is competitive on a regional and national level.

Economy
For most of the 20th Century manufacturing was the largest employer in Rugby. Manufacturing employment peaked in the 1950s, and has gone into steady decline since, and service industries are now the largest source of employment.

In 2017 the average annual workplace wage in the Rugby borough was £29,059; above the Warwickshire (£28,513) and UK (£28,296) averages.

Engineering and manufacturing
Rugby remains an engineering centre and has a long history of producing gas and steam turbines and electrical equipment. Engineering in Rugby has taken place under a myriad of different companies; it was established in the 1900s by British Thomson-Houston (BTH) and Willans & Robinson, which later became parts of Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) and English Electric respectively, until both were united as part of the General Electric Company (GEC) in the late-1960s, which itself merged with Alstom in 1989. Most of the engineering works in Rugby were based in the Avon valley area north of the railway station, since the 1980s much of the engineering works have closed with their land sold off for housing and commercial development, however engineering still continues in Rugby on a smaller scale under the auspices of GE Power Conversion, which produces large electric motors, and services and manufactures steam turbines. In 2019 the Rugby site was threatened with closure, but was saved following an order for motors from the Ministry of Defence, after the House of Commons Defence Select Committee, decided that closing the site would lead to a 'loss of sovereign capability and security'.

Further afield, within the Rugby borough is the Rolls-Royce engineering works near Ansty. This is nearer to Coventry than Rugby.

Rugby is also a centre of laser manufacturing: This was started by the local firm JK Lasers, which was founded in 1972. In 1982 JK Lasers merged with Lumonics of Canada and was for a time one of the largest industrial laser companies in the world. Following takeovers and mergers, the JK Lasers brand name disappeared in 2015, and it is now part of SPI Lasers, a subsidiary of the Trumpf company. In 2018, SPI Lasers announced that their manufacturing site at Rugby was to be doubled in size. A second laser manufacturing firm in Rugby is Litron Lasers, which was established in 1997.

Cement
Another major industry in Rugby is cement making; This industry started on a small scale locally in the early 19th century, but began on a large scale in the 1860s when the Rugby Cement company was founded, making cement from the local Jurassic Blue Lias limestone at New Bilton. The current cement works at Rugby has the largest cement kiln in the UK, capable of producing 1.8 million tonnes of cement a year. The current plant was opened in 2000, having been rebuilt and substantially enlarged in the late-1990s, upon its opening other Rugby Cement plants at Southam and Rochester were closed, with all production moved to the enlarged Rugby plant. Rugby Cement was taken over in 2000 and is now owned by the Mexican firm Cemex, who moved their UK headquarters to Rugby in 2018.

Logistics
Rugby is often described as being part of the area known as the golden logistics triangle due to its central location and good transport links. In 2021 Rugby had the highest percentage of business units used for transport and storage in the UK, at 17%. Since the 1980s several large industrial estates have been built to the north, and warehousing, distribution and light industry have become major employers. This is due to the town's close proximity to the M6 motorway (Junction 1) and M1 (Junction 19), at the heart of the UK's motorway network. In 2017 nearly half of Warwickshire's businesses in the 'Transport and storage' sector were in Rugby. In 2017 Hermes opened its 'Midlands Super Hub' parcel delivery depot at the Rugby Gateway development to the north of the town, which is the largest of its type in the UK. To the east of Rugby is the large Daventry International Rail Freight Terminal (DIRFT), which opened in the 1990s; although this is across the county border in Northamptonshire, it is closest to Rugby.

Organisations based in Rugby
The American fashion retailer Gap Inc. has had its UK headquarters and distribution centre in Rugby since 2002, as does the construction firm Morgan Sindall, and the historic legal firm Brethertons. In addition a number of trade, professional and charitable organisations have headquarters in Rugby, including the Institution of Chemical Engineers, the Institution of Lighting Professionals, the Master Locksmiths Association, the Auto-Cycle Union, the Oral Health Foundation, and the development charity Practical Action.

Tourism and other
Tourism is also important to the town's economy, especially related to Rugby football.

One of the last links to Rugby's rural past was the cattle market held near the railway station, and earlier in the "Market Place" in the old centre of Rugby since medieval times. The market near the railway station was closed in late 2008 and the site has been redeveloped into housing, a hotel and a Tesco store as part of a wider scheme of work in the station area.

Notable buildings and landmarks
One of the most notable landmarks around Rugby was, until August 2007, the Rugby Radio Station, a large radio transmitting station just to the east of the town. The station was opened in 1926, at its height in the 1950s it was the largest radio transmitting station in the world, with a total of 57 radio transmitters, covering an area of 1600 acres. Traffic slowly dwindled from the 1980s onwards, and the site was closed between 2003 and 2007. Several of the masts were decommissioned and demolished by explosives in 2004, although a few, including four of the biggest masts remained until 2007. (Firing the explosive charges was delayed by rabbits gnawing the wires). The remaining four 'tall' masts were demolished on the afternoon of 2 August 2007 with no prior publicity. The site is now being developed as a new housing development known as Houlton

Rugby Cement works, is to the west of the town. The main tower of the cement works stands at 400 ft tall, and can be seen from as far away as the Cotswolds and the Malvern Hills in Worcestershire. The landmark is controversial; in 2005 it came in the top ten of a poll of buildings people would like to see demolished on the Channel 4 television series Demolition. In October 2006, the owners of the Rugby Cement works, Cemex, were fined £400,000 for excessive pollution after a court case brought by the Environment Agency.

The town has statues of three famous locals: Rupert Brooke, Thomas Hughes and William Webb Ellis. The Rupert Brooke statue is situated at the forked junction of Regent Street on the green and commemorates his contribution to poetry. Thomas Hughes' statue stands in the gardens of the Temple Reading Rooms (the central library of Rugby school) on Barby Road. Since England won the Rugby World Cup in 2003, the William Webb Ellis statue outside Rugby School is one of the most visited parts of the town.

As the main growth of Rugby occurred in the 19th century. The central area of Rugby, is known for its many fine examples of Victorian architecture, these include: St Andrew's Church, in the town centre, is Rugby's original Church of England parish church. A church has stood on the site since 1140. The oldest surviving part of the church is the 22 metre high west tower which bears strong resemblance to a castle turret, the west tower was possibly built during the reign of Henry III (1216–1272) to serve a defensive as well as religious role, and is Rugby's oldest building. The church has other artefacts of medieval Rugby including the 13th-century parish chest, and a medieval font. The church was extensively re-built and expanded in the 19th century, designed by William Butterfield. The expanded church included a new east tower, added in 1895 which has a spire 182 feet high. The church is grade II* listed. Very unusually, both of the church towers have ringable bells, the main peal of bells (all cast in 1896 by Mears & Stainbank, London) being located in the eastern tower, and the old peal (all cast in 1711 by Joseph Smith of Edgbaston) located in the western tower. St Marie's Church on Dunchurch Road, is Rugby's main Roman Catholic church. It is one of the town's most well-known landmarks as it is quite dominant on the skyline. The church was first opened in 1847, designed by Pugin in the Gothic revival style, it was enlarged in 1864, and in 1872 the current tall and slender spire was added, which is nearly 200 ft tall. The church is also grade II* listed. The buildings of Rugby School are major landmarks mostly dating from the 18th and 19th century with some early 20th Century additions. The oldest buildings are the Old Quad Buildings and the School House the oldest parts of which date from 1748, but were mostly built between 1809 and 1813 by Henry Hakewill, these are grade II* listed. Most of the current landmark buildings date from the Victorian era and were designed by William Butterfield: The most notable of these is the chapel, dating from 1872, which is topped by an octagonal tower 138 ft tall, and is grade I listed. Butterfield's New Quad buildings are grade II* listed and date from 1867 to 1885. The War Memorial chapel designed by Charles Nicholson is a later addition dating from 1922.

There are two further grade I listed buildings in Rugby, although these are not in the town centre, one of these is St Botolph's Church in Newbold-on-Avon, the second is Bilton Hall in Bilton.

Rugby's Jubilee Clock Tower in Market Place is one of the town's best known landmarks, which traditionally marks the centre of Rugby. The clock tower dates from 1887, and was built to celebrate Queen Victoria's jubilee. It is 43 ft tall, built of Derby Dale stone, and was designed by Goodacres of Leicester. The clocks were donated by Evans and Sons of Birmingham. It is grade II listed.

Places of interest
Places of interest in the town include: Places of interest around Rugby include:
 * The Rugby School Museum, which has audio-visual displays about the history of Rugby School and of the town.
 * The combined Rugby Art Gallery and Museum. The art gallery contains a nationally recognised collection of contemporary art. The museum contains, amongst other things, Roman artefacts dug up from the nearby Roman settlement of Tripontium.
 * The Webb Ellis Rugby Football Museum, where traditional rugby balls are handmade. It contains much rugby football memorabilia.
 * The Benn Hall, a conference, seminar, exhibition and party venue.
 * Newbold Quarry Park, nature reserve
 * Swift Valley Nature Reserve
 * Rainsbrook Valley Railway, miniature railway
 * Brandon Marsh
 * Brinklow Castle
 * Coombe Abbey
 * Dunchurch – Historic village
 * Draycote Water – Reservoir and nature reserve
 * Garden Organic
 * Oxford Canal
 * Stanford Hall

Railways

Rugby railway station is a principal stop on the West Coast Main Line, with frequent regular services to London Euston, Birmingham New Street, Stafford, Crewe and Northampton. There are also some infrequent services to Glasgow Central, the North West of England, Shrewsbury, Chester and Holyhead. Routes are operated by West Midlands Trains and Avanti West Coast.

Rugby has had a railway station since 1838, when the London and Birmingham Railway was opened, though the present station dates from 1885. It was once served by lines which have now been closed, including to Leicester, Leamington Spa and Peterborough; these were closed in the 1960s as part of the Beeching cuts.

Between 1899 and 1969, Rugby had a second station; Rugby Central station was a stop on the former Great Central Main Line, which hosted services to London Marylebone to the south and Leicester, Nottingham and Sheffield to the north. The station and line were closed in the 1960s as part of the Beeching cuts.

British Railways' locomotive testing centre was located in Rugby.

Warwickshire County Council have proposed a new station in the area; Rugby Parkway station is to be sited on the Northampton Loop Line, south-east of the existing station; it will serve the Hillmorton area of the town and the new development at Houlton. The station is to be built in between the current edge of town and DIRFT to accommodate for the future expansion of the town where 6,200 homes are planned to be built over a 15 to 20-year period. No date, however, has been given for the opening of this station.

Roads
Rugby is situated near to several major trunk routes including the M1, M6 and M45 motorways, and the A5, A14 and A45 roads. Other main roads in the town include the A426 road, the A428 road and the Rugby Western Relief Road, which links the A45 with the Leicester Road, that connects with junction 1 of the M6.

In 2010, a short local bypass was opened; it was the first part of the Rugby Western Relief Road. It runs from the A428 (Lawford Road), along the edge of the built-up area to the A4071 (road from Rugby through Bilton and Cawston), a little west of Cawston; it takes through heavy traffic off suburban housing roads such as Addison Road. On 10 September 2010, the final part of Rugby's Western Relief Road was opened. The road runs from Potsford Dam near Cawston, through the Lawford Road and ending at Newbold Road, near the Avon Valley School. The initial estimated cost was projected at £36.6 million, while the final figure was in excess of £60 million.

Buses
Stagecoach in Warwickshire is the town's primary operator, with routes to Coventry, Southam, Leamington Spa, Daventry, Leicester and Northampton; it also serves the major estates of the town.

Air
There are direct railway links to Birmingham Airport, via Birmingham International railway station; the smaller Coventry Airport is also nearby.

Canal

The Oxford Canal, which runs from near Coventry to Oxford, passes around Rugby and through the areas of Newbold, Brownsover and Hillmorton. The canal was opened in 1790, as a winding contour canal, but was straightened out in the 1830s. Notable features of the canal locally are the 250 yard long tunnel at Newbold and the flight of locks at Hillmorton, which are the busiest flight of locks on the national canal network.

Cycling
There are a number of cycling routes in Rugby, including roadside cycle lanes; others are off-road and traffic free, some of which reuse old railway infrastructure.

Born in Rugby

 * Chris Adams (1955–2001), wrestler
 * Neil Adams (born 1958), judoka
 * Junade Ali (born 1996), computer scientist, youngest ever fellow of a professional engineering institution on record and inventor of Compromised Credential Checking amongst other technologies
 * Melanie Astles, (born 1982) French aerobatic champion
 * David Barby (1943–2012), antiques expert
 * Ian Bell (born 1982), cricketer
 * Laura Bettinson (born 1987), singer-songwriter
 * Andrew Bloxam (1801–1878), clergyman and naturalist
 * Matthew Bloxam (1805–1888), antiquarian and archaeologist
 * Arthur Bostrom (born 1955), actor, best known for his role as Officer Crabtree in the BBC TV sitcom 'Allo 'Allo!
 * Rupert Brooke (1887–1915), poet
 * Richard Cockerill (born 1970), rugby union coach and former player
 * Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw (born 1983), comedic writer
 * Jim Dewes (born 1957), cricketer
 * Maud Russell England (1863–1956), New Zealand teacher, feminist, educationalist and art dealer
 * Walter Gilbert (1871–1946), sculptor
 * Herbert Haddock (1861–1946), ship captain, the first person to captain Titanic
 * Michael John Harrison (born 1945), writer
 * Peter Kember (born 1965), musician (Spacemen 3, Spectrum)
 * Jeremy R. Knowles (1935–2007), organic chemist and enzymologist at Oxford and Harvard
 * Richard Lindon (1816–1887), leatherworker, inventor
 * Norman Lockyer (1836–1920), scientist, discovered the gas helium
 * Rose Macaulay (1881–1958), writer
 * Ray Mawby (1922–1990) - Conservative politician and Member of Parliament - later revealed to have been a spy for Communist Czechoslovakia.
 * Katharine Merry (born 1974), former sprinter
 * James Morrison (born 1984), singer-songwriter
 * James Petiver (1665–1718), botanist
 * Jason Pierce (born 1965), musician (Spiritualized, Spacemen 3)
 * Tim Pigott-Smith (1946–2017), actor
 * Marjorie Pollard (1899–1982), field hockey and cricket player, film maker and writer, and the first woman to commentate on sport for the BBC
 * Carole Quinton (born 1936) former track and field athlete
 * Peter Rogers (1947-2020), businessman
 * Sam Ruddock (born 1990), track and field athlete
 * Lawrence Sheriff (c. 1510–1567), grocer, philanthropist
 * Barbara Stocking (born 1951), public servant
 * Vikki Stone, (born 1985), comedienne
 * Lauren Taylor (born 1994), golfer
 * Chris Wakelin (born 1992), snooker player
 * Peter Whalley (1722–1791), clergyman, academic and schoolmaster
 * Mona Wilson (1872–1954), civil servant and author
 * Arnold Wolfendale (1927–2020), Astronomer Royal
 * Albert Wratislaw (1822–1892), clergyman and scholar

Lived or lives in Rugby

 * Joseph Addison (1672-1719), writer and politician
 * Matthew Arnold (1822–1888), poet
 * Thomas Arnold (1795–1842), educator
 * Emily Burns (born 1994), singer-songwriter
 * Lewis Carroll (1832–1898), writer
 * Will Carruthers (born 1967), musician
 * Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940), politician
 * Paul Dirac (1902-1984), physicist
 * William Webb Ellis (1806–1872), clergyman, claimed inventor of rugby football
 * Reginald Foort (1893–1980), organist
 * Dennis Gabor (1900–1979), physicist
 * William Gilbert (1799–1877) established Gilbert company sports equipment manufacturer.
 * Thomas Hughes (1822–1896), writer
 * Billy J. Kramer (born 1943), singer
 * Unity Mitford (1914–1948), socialite
 * John Moultrie (1799–1874), clergyman and poet
 * Kevin Painter (born 1967), darts player
 * Louise Porton (born 1996), double murderer who killed her own two children in Rugby in January 2018
 * Peter Purves (born 1939), television presenter
 * Yvonne Ruddock (1965-1981), victim of the New Cross house fire in London.
 * Salman Rushdie (born 1947), novelist
 * Judy Simpson (born 1960), athlete
 * Lesley Souter (1917–1981) first female electrical engineering student at the University of Glasgow
 * Franco Wanyama (1968–2019), boxer
 * Frank Whittle (1907–1996), inventor
 * Clem Wilson (1875–1944), cricketer
 * Johnny Williams (1926–2007), boxer, one time both the British and Empire heavyweight champion
 * Richard Henry Wood (1820–1908), antiquary and philanthropist

Primary

 * State schools

 * Abbots Farm Junior School
 * Abbots Farm Infant School
 * Bawnmore Infant School
 * Bilton Infant School
 * Bilton CE Junior School
 * Boughton Leigh Infant
 * Boughton Leigh Junior
 * Brownsover Community Infant School
 * Cawston Grange Primary School
 * Clifton-upon-Dunsmore Primary School
 * Eastlands Primary School
 * English Martyrs Catholic Primary School
 * Henry Hinde Infant School
 * Henry Hinde Junior School
 * Hillmorton Primary School
 * Northlands Primary School
 * Oakfield Primary Academy
 * Paddox Primary School
 * Riverside Academy
 * Rokeby Infant School
 * Rokeby Junior School
 * Rugby Free Primary School
 * St Andrew's Benn CE Primary School
 * St Gabriels's CofE Academy
 * St Maries RC Infant School
 * St Maries RC Junior School
 * St Matthews Bloxham CE Primary School

 * Independent
 * Crescent School

Secondary

 * Comprehensive Schools
 * Avon Valley School
 * Bilton School
 * Harris Church of England Academy
 * Houlton School
 * Rugby Free Secondary School
 * Partially selective schools
 * Ashlawn School
 * Grammar schools
 * Lawrence Sheriff School
 * Rugby High School for Girls
 * Independent schools
 * Rugby School
 * Bilton Grange

Further education

 * Rugby College – which is a part of the Warwickshire College Group.
 * Percival Guildhouse - Independent adult education charity.

Former schools and colleges

 * Bishop Wulstan School
 * Hillbrow School
 * William Temple College (1954–71): an Anglican theological college.

Radio
The local radio stations are:
 * BBC CWR: 104.0 FM
 * Hits Radio Coventry & Warwickshire (formally known as Free Radio Coventry and Warwickshire): 97.0FM
 * Capital Mid-Counties: 107.1 FM

Written media
The main local newspapers are:
 * The Rugby Advertiser
 * The Rugby Observer
 * The Warwickshire Telegraph; a localised sub-edition of the Coventry Telegraph.

Television news
The Rugby area is covered on regional TV News by:
 * BBC Midlands Today
 * ITV News Central

Twin towns
Rugby is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Évreux, France (since 1959)
 * 🇩🇪 Rüsselsheim, Germany (since 1977)

title: Rugby, Warwickshire


text:
NMEA 0183

NMEA 0183 is a combined electrical and data specification for communication between marine electronics such as echo sounder, sonars, anemometer, gyrocompass, autopilot, GPS receivers and many other types of instruments. It has been defined and is controlled by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA). It replaces the earlier NMEA 0180 and NMEA 0182 standards. In leisure marine applications, it is slowly being phased out in favor of the newer NMEA 2000 standard, though NMEA 0183 remains the norm in commercial shipping.

Details
The electrical standard that is used is EIA-422, also known as RS-422, although most hardware with NMEA-0183 outputs are also able to drive a single EIA-232 port. Although the standard calls for isolated inputs and outputs, there are various series of hardware that do not adhere to this requirement.

The NMEA 0183 standard uses a simple ASCII, serial communications protocol that defines how data are transmitted in a "sentence" from one "talker" to multiple "listeners" at a time. Through the use of intermediate expanders, a talker can have a unidirectional conversation with a nearly unlimited number of listeners, and using multiplexers, multiple sensors can talk to a single computer port.

At the application layer, the standard also defines the contents of each sentence (message) type, so that all listeners can parse messages accurately.

While NMEA 0183 only defines an RS-422 transport, there also exists a de facto standard in which the sentences from NMEA 0183 are placed in UDP datagrams (one sentence per packet) and sent over an IP network.

The NMEA standard is proprietary and sells for at least US$2000 (except for members of the NMEA) as of September 2020. However, much of it has been reverse-engineered from public sources.

UART settings
There is a variation of the standard called NMEA-0183HS that specifies a baud rate of 38,400. This is in general use by AIS devices.

Message structure

 * All transmitted data are printable ASCII characters between 0x20 (space) to 0x7e (~)
 * Data characters are all the above characters except the reserved characters (See next line)
 * Reserved characters are used by NMEA0183 for the following uses:
 * Messages have a maximum length of 82 characters, including the $ or ! starting character and the ending
 * The start character for each message can be either a $ (For conventional field delimited messages) or ! (for messages that have special encapsulation in them)
 * The next five characters identify the talker (two characters) and the type of message (three characters).
 * All data fields that follow are comma-delimited.
 * Where data is unavailable, the corresponding field remains blank (it contains no character before the next delimiter – see Sample file section below).
 * The first character that immediately follows the last data field character is an asterisk, but it is only included if a checksum is supplied.
 * The asterisk is immediately followed by a checksum represented as a two-digit hexadecimal number. The checksum is the bitwise exclusive OR of ASCII codes of all characters between the $ and *, not inclusive. According to the official specification, the checksum is optional for most data sentences, but is compulsory for RMA, RMB, and RMC (among others).
 *  ends the message.

As an example, a waypoint arrival alarm has the form:
 * $GPAAM,A,A,0.10,N,WPTNME*32

Another example for AIS messages is:
 * !AIVDM,1,1,,A,14eG;o@034o8sd062D,0*7D

NMEA sentence format
The main talker ID includes:

 * BD or GB - Beidou
 * GA - Galileo
 * GP - GPS
 * GL - GLONASS.

NMEA message mainly include the following "sentences" in the NMEA message: One example, the sentence for Global Positioning System Fixed Data for GPS should be "$GPGGA".

Vendor extensions
Most GPS manufacturers include special messages in addition to the standard NMEA set in their products for maintenance and diagnostics purposes. Extended messages begin with "$P". These extended messages are not standardized.

Software compatibility
NMEA 0183 is supported by various navigation and mapping software. Notable applications include:
 * Infrakit SURVEY
 * DeLorme Street Atlas
 * ESRI
 * Google Earth
 * Google Maps Mobile Edition
 * gpsd - Unix GPS Daemon
 * JOSM - OpenStreetMap Map Editor
 * MapKing
 * Microsoft MapPoint
 * Microsoft Streets & Trips
 * NetStumbler
 * OpenCPN - Open source navigation software
 * OpenBSD's hw.sensors framework with the  pseudo-device driver
 * OpenNTPD through sysctl API
 * Rand McNally StreetFinder
 * ObserVIEW
 * QGIS

Sample file
A sample file produced by a Tripmate 850 GPS logger. This file was produced in Leixlip, County Kildare, Ireland. The record lasts two seconds.

$GPGGA,092750.000,5321.6802,N,00630.3372,W,1,8,1.03,61.7,M,55.2,M,,*76 $GPGSA,A,3,10,07,05,02,29,04,08,13,,,,,1.72,1.03,1.38*0A $GPGSV,3,1,11,10,63,137,17,07,61,098,15,05,59,290,20,08,54,157,30*70 $GPGSV,3,2,11,02,39,223,19,13,28,070,17,26,23,252,,04,14,186,14*79 $GPGSV,3,3,11,29,09,301,24,16,09,020,,36,,,*76 $GPRMC,092750.000,A,5321.6802,N,00630.3372,W,0.02,31.66,280511,,,A*43 $GPGGA,092751.000,5321.6802,N,00630.3371,W,1,8,1.03,61.7,M,55.3,M,,*75 $GPGSA,A,3,10,07,05,02,29,04,08,13,,,,,1.72,1.03,1.38*0A $GPGSV,3,1,11,10,63,137,17,07,61,098,15,05,59,290,20,08,54,157,30*70 $GPGSV,3,2,11,02,39,223,16,13,28,070,17,26,23,252,,04,14,186,15*77 $GPGSV,3,3,11,29,09,301,24,16,09,020,,36,,,*76 $GPRMC,092751.000,A,5321.6802,N,00630.3371,W,0.06,31.66,280511,,,A*45 Note some blank fields, for example:
 * GSV records, which describe satellites 'visible', lack the SNR (signal–to–noise ratio) field for satellite 16 and all data for satellite 36.
 * GSA record, which lists satellites used for determining a fix (position) and gives a DOP of the fix, contains 12 fields for satellites' numbers, but only 8 satellites were taken into account—so 4 fields remain blank.

Status
NMEA 0183 continued to be maintained separately: V4.10 was published in early May 2012, and an erratum noted on 12 May 2012. On November 27, 2018, it was issued an update to version 4.11, which supports Global Navigation Satellite Systems other than GPS.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: NMEA 0183


text:
Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza

Dom Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza (Duarte Pio de Bragança, born 15 May 1945) is the current Duke of Braganza and a claimant to the dormant Portuguese throne, as the head of the House of Braganza. The Miguelist Braganzas, to whom Duarte Pio belongs as great-grandson of King Miguel I, is a cadet branch of the House of Braganza. With the extinction of male-line dynasts descended from Queen Maria II in 1932, King Miguel's descendants became the only male-line Braganzas remaining and the closest male-line heirs to the defunct Portuguese throne.

Duarte Pio is a figure within the European network of royal houses, often being invited to various foreign royal events. Despite his support for a monarchical government and widespread recognition as pretender to the throne, there are no major movements or parties that support restoration of the monarchy.

In 1995, the Duke married Isabel Inês de Castro Curvelo de Herédia, a Portuguese businesswoman and descendant of Portuguese nobility. Their marriage was the first marriage of a Portuguese royal to happen in Portuguese territory since the marriage of King Carlos I and Princess Amélie of Orléans, in 1886. The Duke and Duchess have three children, thus continuing the line of the Braganzas, as neither of the Duke's brothers has married or had children.

The Duke of Braganza holds Portuguese citizenship, by birth, and East Timorese citizenship due to high service to the country.

Early life
Duarte Pio was born on 15 May 1945 in Bern, Switzerland, as the first of three sons of Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza, and Princess Maria Francisca of Orléans-Braganza. Duarte Pio uses a full name ending with Miguel Gabriel Rafael, a naming tradition of the House of Braganza that honors the three archangels in the Catholic Church. His name as registered at birth was simply Duarte Pio de Bragança. His father was the grandson of King Miguel I, while his mother was a great-granddaughter of King Pedro IV (Emperor Pedro I of Brazil), who was Miguel's elder brother. Through his father, he is a member of the Miguelist branch of the House of Braganza. Duarte Pio's godparents were Pope Pius XII and Queen Amélie of Portugal (the mother of King Manuel II, the last monarch of Portugal).

The Duke is regarded as a Portuguese national by descent, since his father was Portuguese (and so Duarte Pio's birth was legitimately included in the Portuguese Civil Registry). At the time of his birth, Duarte Pio and the rest of the Miguelist Braganzas were banned from entering Portugal, by the laws of exile of 19 December 1834. On 27 May 1950, the Portuguese National Assembly revoked both the laws of exile from 19 December 1834, which banned the Miguelist Braganzas, and the laws of exile from 15 October 1910, which banned the Legitimist Braganzas. In 1951, Dom Duarte visited Portugal for the first time, accompanied by his aunt, Infanta Filipa. In 1952, he moved to Portugal permanently with his parents and brothers.

From 1957 to 1959, Duarte was enrolled in the Colégio Nun'Álvares in Santo Tirso. In 1960, he entered the Colégio Militar in Lisbon. He attended the Instituto Superior de Agronomia (now part of the Technical University of Lisbon) and later the Graduate Institute of Development Studies of the University of Geneva.

From 1968 to 1971, Dom Duarte fulfilled his military service as a helicopter pilot in the Portuguese Air Force in Portuguese Angola at the time of the Portuguese Colonial War. In 1972, he participated with a multi-ethnic Angolan group in the organization of an independent list of candidates to the National Assembly. This resulted in his expulsion from Angola by order of the Prime Minister Marcelo Caetano.

Succession
Duarte Pio claims the throne as the heir of King Manuel II according to the Constitutional Charter of 1826. Duarte Pio is widely considered the heir of the abolished Portuguese throne, but a small number of Portuguese monarchists do not recognise him as pretender to the throne or as Duke of Braganza. The dispute dates back to 1828 when Duarte Pio's great-grandfather was said to have usurped the throne as King Miguel I, starting the Liberal Wars. Miguel's forces were defeated in 1834 by the forces led by his own brother. Miguel I was exiled and his niece, Queen Maria II, was restored to her throne. According to the Law of Banishment (Lei do Banimento) of 1834, Miguel I and all his descendants were forever excluded from the succession to the throne. This exclusion was reinforced four years later with the approval of the Constitution of 1838, which had a similar provision. However, the Constitutional Charter of 1826 was reinstated in 1842; this constitution (which was in place until 1910 when the monarchy was overthrown) did not bar Miguel's descendants from ascending the throne. Finally, the Law of Banishment of 1834 was repealed in 1950.

In 1912 and 1922, Duarte Pio's grandfather, Miguel Januário, Duke of Braganza, reconciled with King Manuel II, but this reconciliation was not accepted by all of their adherents. There are several monarchist organizations in Portugal (like the People's Monarchist Party) which maintain that only the Cortes or the National Assembly could legally determine the rightful claimant if ever Portugal decided to restore the monarchy. One monarchist group in Portugal that did support Miguel Januário, Duke of Braganza, instead of the deposed King Manuel II was the Integralismo Lusitano.

Parliamentary statements
In May 2006, the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement where it referred to Duarte Pio as Duke of Braganza. On 5 July 2006, in response to this statement, Nuno da Câmara Pereira, then leader of the People's Monarchist Party, addressed the President of the Assembly of the Republic, asking for a clarification as to the official recognition of Duarte Pio as pretender to the throne and as Duke of Braganza. In its official response on 11 July 2006, the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs restated the fact that the Portuguese constitution guarantees the republican regime, and that the reference to Duarte Pio as Duke of Braganza was merely a polite courtesy.

Roles and positions
The Duke often interacts with both national and international political and cultural institutions, by which he represents the Portuguese people and their culture. Though not a head of state or official representative of the Portuguese state, Duarte Pio has been received with such honours by various foreign heads of state, government, and organizations.

Politics
Dom Duarte was a major campaigner for the independence of Timor-Leste, a former Portuguese colony which was forcibly annexed by Indonesia in 1975. Before the issue's global popularity from the 1990s onward, the Duke contributed with several national and international campaigns for the political self-determination of the territory, including Timor 87 Vamos Ajudar and Lusitânia Expresso. In 1997, Dom Duarte also suggested a referendum on the independence of East Timor to the Indonesian Vice-President Jusuf Habibie. After Habibie became president of Indonesia in 1999, a referendum was held that resulted in the independence of the country.

In December 2010, Timor-Leste President José Ramos-Horta expressed his interest in making Duarte Pio a Timorese citizen, which the Duke accepted, because of the "profound and spiritual relations of the Timorese people with Portugal", continuing by saying that the symbols of the House of Braganza have a "great significance" in Timor-Leste. In February 2012, with final approval and support of Timor-Leste parliament, President Ramos-Horta conferred Timorese citizenship upon Duarte Pio, along with the Order of Merit. President Ramos-Horta stated that these honours were given because of Duarte Pio's "dedication of a large part of his life to defending justice and liberty for the Timorese people."

In September 2011, President Bashar al-Assad of Syria invited the Duke on a state visit to Damascus. The Duke stated he was invited by President al-Assad with the intention that Duarte Pio relay the Syrian head of state's plans and intents for Syria and its people. Duarte Pio told several Portuguese news outlets that it was the Syrian President's intention to "collaborate on the creation of a future constitution for Syria, close to that of Morocco, which guarantees political, religious, and press freedom." Alongside communicating the political and reformist intentions of the Syrian President, Duarte Pio stated that President al-Assad was a "good and well-intentioned man" and that "since he has assumed power, he has tried to democratize and humanize politics and [that] he has already achieved great advancements."

In his capacity as the President of the King Manuel II Foundation, Duarte Pio is often involved with the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, intergovernmental organization for economic, political, and cultural friendship between Portugal and many of its former colonies. In 2009, the Duke petitioned for the King Manuel II Foundation to become a consultative observer within the CPLP, but with no success. In 2012, Duarte Pio petitioned, with Maria Hermínia Cabral, Director of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, for their respective organizations to become CPLP consultative observers, to which both succeeded in their endeavor. In November 2012, for a meeting of the consultative observers of the CPLP the Duke visited Mindelo, Cabo Verde. While there, the Duke visited various locations within Cabo Verde, and was received by President Jorge Carlos de Almeida Fonseca. During the visit, Duarte Pio decorated President Almeida Fonseca with the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa. Duarte Pio often visits various municipalities around the country, in an official charge, for economic and political events. On 14 November 2007, the Duke visited the Santiago do Cacém Municipality and was received with honours by the President of the Municipality, in the Palace of the Concelho. On 11 October 2011, Duarte Pio visited the freguesia of São Pedro de Oliveira, in Braga, and was received with honours by the President of the Freguesia Augusto de Carvalho. On 28 March 2012, the Duke and his son, Afonso, Prince of Beira, were guests of honour at the XII Exposition of Folar and Products of the Earth, an exposition staged for the purpose of economic promotion of products from the Valpaços Municipality.

In 2014, the Court of Lisbon forbade Duarte Pio of Braganza from using the insignia of the Order of Saint Michael of the Wing and demanded that he compensate 300,000 euros to the legal owner of the rights, Nuno da Câmara Pereira, who allegedly registered the name "Order of Saint Michael of the Wing" in 1981, whereas Duarte Pio is said to have registered it in 2004. The condemnation was repeated on 5 October 2015, but on 3 November 2015, the rights of Nuno da Câmara Pereira to the symbols was lost, and on 7 December, Duarte Pio of Braganza won the case and regained the legal rights.

Culture
Duarte Pio often travels and visits various places, in an official charge, for matters concerning cultural affairs, both in Portugal and overseas. From 24 until 25 May 2009, the Duke visited Terceira Island, in the Azores Autonomous Region, as a guest of honour of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia, for the presentation of Mendo Castro Henriques's book, Dom Duarte e a Democracia – Uma Biografia Portuguesa. While in Terceira, Duarte Pio was received with honours by the President of the Municipality of Praia da Vitória and attended and visited various cultural and religious institutions and events, including a dinner at the Santa Casa da Misericórdia and assisting in a Portuguese bullfight.

On 12 September 2011, the Duke, as President of the Henry the Navigator Award, a partner award of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award, visited Funchal, in the Madeira Autonomous Region, for an official visit. While there, the Duke was received with honours by Miguel Albuquerque, President of the Municipality of Funchal, visited the Municipal Gardens of Funchal and held a ceremony for the presentation of the Henry the Navigator Award. On 30 September 2011, Duarte Pio visited Vila Franca de Xira, as a guest of honour for the Royal Tourada, and visited various cultural institutions of the municipality, including the Museum of Neo-Realism and the Celeiro da Patriarcal. On 8 January 2012, the Duke visited the Vila Verde Municipality, as a special guest of the Association for Regional Development of Minho, where he attended an exhibition on regional culture and products and was presented a traditional Lenço de Namorados, made in 1912.

Every year, on 1 December, Restoration Day, the Duke gives his annual speech in honour of the Portuguese Restoration at the dinner of the Forty Conspirators. It was on 1 December 1640 that João II, Duke of Braganza, an ancestor of Duarte Pio, deposed the Portuguese House of Habsburg, installed the House of Braganza as the reigning house of Portugal, and restored sovereign rule to Portugal. In his speeches, the Duke reflects on the historical significance of the date, events of the previous year, and the road ahead for both Portugal in general and the monarchist cause. In 2012, Restoration Day ceased to be an official holiday of the Portuguese state, prompting Duarte Pio to speak out against the action, stating that extinction of the official holiday "devalues the day which should unite the Portuguese".

Marriage and issue
On 13 May 1995, Dom Duarte Pio married Isabel Inês de Castro Curvelo de Herédia, a Portuguese businesswoman and descendant of nobility. This was the first marriage of a member of the Portuguese royal family to take place in Portugal since the marriage of King Carlos I in 1886. The ceremony was celebrated in the Monastery of Jerónimos in Lisbon and presided over by Cardinal António Ribeiro, Patriarch of Lisbon. Present at the ceremony were representatives of various European royal and noble houses. These included Prince Philippe of Belgium, Duke of Brabant, Prince Henri, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg and Infanta Margarita of Spain, Duchess of Soria, among others. The principal Portuguese political figures, including the President of the Republic Mário Soares, Prime Minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva, and President of the Assembly António Barbosa de Melo, were also present.

Following her marriage, Isabel de Herédia began a gradual withdrawal from her professional life, a process which was completed by the time her eldest child, Afonso of Braganza, was born. Thereafter, Isabel has devoted herself to the care of her family and the patronage of various charities. Duarte Pio and Isabel de Herédia have three children:

In December 2022, the engagement of Maria Francisca to a Lisbon-based lawyer, Duarte de Sousa Araújo Martins, was announced: the couple married on 7 October 2023 at the Basilica of the Palace of Mafra.

Line of succession
The list below includes line of succession of the Miguelist branch.

 * [[Image:Simple gold crown.svg|15px]] Miguel I of Portugal (1802–1866)
 * Prince Miguel, Duke of Braganza (1853–1927)
 * Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza (1907–1976)
 * (1) Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza (b. 1945)
 * (2) Afonso, Prince of Beira (b. 1996)
 * (3) Dinis, Duke of Porto (b. 1999)
 * (4) Maria Francisca, Duchess of Coimbra (b. 1997)
 * (5) Miguel, Duke of Viseu (b. 1946)
 * Henrique, Duke of Coimbra (1949–2017)

Foreign

 * Order of Timor-Leste.png Grand Collar of the Order of Timor-Leste (East Timor)
 * Medaglia d'oro al merito CRI BAR.svg Gold Medal of Merit (Italian Red Cross)

Dynastic

 * 436px ribbon bar of the Order of the Rose (Brazil).svg Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Rose (Brazilian House of Orléans-Braganza)
 * IT TSic Order Santo Gennaro BAR.svg Knight of the Order of Saint Januarius (Castroan House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies)
 * ESP_Sacred_Military_Constantinian_Order_of_Saint_George_Justicia_BAR.svg Bailiff Knight Grand Cross with Collar of Justice of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George (Calabrian House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies)
 * Großkreuz-PS.png Grand Cordon of the Royal and Hashemite Order of the Pearl (Royal House of Sulu)
 * Order of the Crown Ribbon Bar.png Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of the Crown (Royal House of Laanui) (illegitimate)

title: Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza


text:
Joseph Vinoy

Joseph Vinoy (10 August 1803 – 27 April 1880) was a French soldier.

Biography
He originally intended to join the Church, but, after some years at a seminary, he decided upon a military career and joined the French army in 1823. As a sergeant in the 14th line infantry, he took part in the Algerian expedition of 1830. He won his commission at the capture of Algiers and during the subsequent campaigns rose to the rank of Colonel. He returned to France in 1850. In the Crimean War, he served under François Certain Canrobert as general of brigade. For his brilliant conduct at the Battle of Malakoff in 1855 he was promoted to General of division. He later led a division of Adolphe Niel's corps in the Battle of Solférino.

Retired on account of his age in 1865, he was recalled to active service on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. After the early reverses he was made head of the XIII army corps, which did not arrive at the front in time to be involved in the catastrophe of Sedan. By a skilful retreat he brought his corps intact to Paris on September 7. During the Siege of Paris, Vinoy commanded the III army operating on the south side of the capital and took part in all the actions in that quarter. On Louis Jules Trochu's resignation he was appointed to the supreme command, in which capacity he negotiated France's surrender.

During the Paris Commune, he held important commands in the army of Versailles, occupying the burning Tuileries and the Louvre on May 23, 1871. He was subsequently made a Grand Chancellor of the Legion of Honour.

Vinoy wrote several memoirs of the Franco-Prussian War: Operations de l'armée pendant le siege de Paris (1872); L'Armistice et la commune (1872); and L'Armée française (1873).

The Municipality of Vinoy in Quebec, Canada, was named in his honour (since 1996 part of the Municipality of Chénéville).

title: Joseph Vinoy


text:
Adolphe Niel

Adolphe Niel (4 October 1802 – 13 August 1869) was a French Army general and statesman.

He was born at Muret, Haute-Garonne and entered the École Polytechnique in 1821. Niel entered the engineer school at Metz, became lieutenant in the Engineers Corps in 1827, and captain in 1833. He fought in the French conquest of Algeria, participating in the storming of Constantine. There Niel led the engineer detachment with one of the storming parties, and his conduct gained for him the rank of chef de bataillon in 1837. Niel was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1840 and to colonel in 1846. His next war service was as chief of staff to General Vaillant during the 1849 siege of Rome, after which he was made general of brigade and director of engineer services at headquarters.

In 1851, Niel became a member of the Committee of Fortifications. He became a member of the council of state in 1852 and in 1853 was promoted to general of division. In the first part of the Crimean War, Niel was employed in the expedition to the Baltic Sea and directed engineering operations against Bomarsund. Early in 1855 Niel was sent to the Crimea, where he succeeded General Michel Bizot as chief of engineers. For some years Niel had been the most trusted military adviser of Napoleon III, and he was now empowered to advise the generals on the spot in accordance with the wishes of the sovereign and the home government.

Niel managed to carry out this delicate and difficult task with as much success as could be expected, and he directed siege operations at the Battle of Malakoff. His reward was the grand cross of the Légion d'honneur. From 1855 to 1859 Niel was employed at headquarters and also served in the French Senate. In the war against the Austrians, Niel commanded the IV Corps and took part in the Battle of Magenta and the Battle of Solferino. Niel was made a marshal of France on the field at Solferino.

After he served for some years in a home command, Niel became minister of war and held the position from 1867 to 1869. In this capacity he drafted and began to carry out a far-reaching scheme of army reform, based on universal service and the automatic creation of large reserves which needed only time to mature. Under his system, those men who had purchased exemption from conscription into the army would nonetheless be called up into a new service, the Garde Mobile. He also was able to rearm the whole of the army with the chassepot rifle, but not the Garde Mobile. He did not live to complete the development of his system.

Niel died in Paris during an operation for a bladder stone, and a year later the Franco-Prussian War destroyed the old imperial army upon which the new formations were to have been grafted.

Decorations

 * Légion d'honneur
 * Knight (21 October 1838)
 * Officer (17 March 1845)
 * Commander (10 May 1852)
 * Grand Officer (28 August 1854)
 * Grand Cross (22 September 1855)
 * Médaille militaire (4 July 1859)
 * Honorary Companion of the Order of the Bath (UK)
 * Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (UK, 3 January 1856)
 * Crimea Medal (UK)
 * Baltic Medal (UK)
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Sardinia)

title: Adolphe Niel


text:
Talk:Network Time Protocol

NTS, the NTP replacement are missing on article

 * NTS is like NTP and advanced by a TLS serure layer.
 * Have the RFC 8915, https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc8915
 * Are supported by https://www.cloudflare.com/time/

Note: This text above was added by an IP address user coming in from 92.208.243.129 at 10:44, 26 March 2021

 * I agree that NTS needs to be added in here. More information and sources can be found at links off of https://www.networktimesecurity.org/resources/ and https://www.networktimesecurity.org/news/ - Dyork (talk) 01:02, 27 March 2021 (UTC)

 * +1 - Reference 78 points to the IETF draft, but the draft was approved as RFC 8915 nearly a year ago.

 * Network Time Security redirects to this article. NTS and its RFC is mentioned in the lead and also in Network_Time_Protocol. ~Kvng (talk) 16:33, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

Challenge to "chrony designed for VM" claim
As I write this, the article has the sentence "It is also designed for virtual machines, a more unstable environment." under the chrony section. The main chrony article in the Wikipedia does not contain "virtual" or "VM" so it doesn't support this claim. The reference attached to that sentence (Both, David. "Manage NTP with Chrony". Opensource.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20190629174030/https://opensource.com/article/18/12/manage-ntp-chrony) does not make any such claim.

I suggest that the sentence (and reference) be removed. MabryTyson (talk) 21:14, 19 June 2023 (UTC)

"a networking protocol for clock synchronization"
That's a common, but incomplete and sometimes confusing description. For example, later on we see: "[W32time] The version in Windows 2000 and Windows XP only implements SNTP".

But SNTP is the same networking protocol as NTP, and Win32time on XP and 2000 "has the ability to synchronize the computer clock to an NTP server"

The problems of course are that (1) the XP time server lacks "NTP's data analysis and clock disciplining algorithms", which is time server clock synchronization protocol, and (2) the word "synchronization" has been used in two different senses: NTP disciplined synchronization, and SNTP occasional synchronization.121.200.27.15 (talk) 04:52, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

 * This seems rather tautologous to me. NTP is the protocol; SNTP is a primitive subset of NTP; SNTP was eventually absorbed into NTP; therefore, NTP indeed remains 'a (the) networking protocol for clock synchronization'. The SNTP subsection of the article explains this. cheers. anastrophe, an editor he is. 05:26, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Network Time Protocol


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Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud

Armand-Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud (20 August 1798 – 29 September 1854) was a French soldier and Marshal of France. He served as French Minister of War until the Crimean War when he became Commander-in-chief of the army of the East.

Biography
Born in Paris, he entered the army in 1817, but after ten years of garrison service he still held only the lowest commissioned grade. He then resigned, led a life of adventure in several lands and returned to the army at the age of thirty as a sub-lieutenant. He took part in the suppression of the Vendée émeute (1832), and served for a time on the staff of General (Marshal) Bugeaud. However, his debts and the scandals of his private life compelled him to go to Algeria as a captain in the French Foreign Legion. There he distinguished himself on numerous occasions, and after twelve years had risen to the rank of maréchal de camp (major general).

Following the example of Marshal Aimable Pélissier, Saint Arnaud suffocated 500 Arab tribesmen (8 August 1845), in a cave between Tenes and Mostaganem, in the Sbeah area. Three days later he wrote "I hermetically sealed all exits and made a vast cemetery. The earth will cover the corpses of these fanatics for ever. No one went down to the caverns; no one but me knows that there are 500 brigands under here who will not cut the throats of the French any more. A confidential report related everything to the Marshal simply, without terrible poetry and without images. Brother, no one is good by taste and by nature like me. From the 8th to the 12th, I was sick, but my conscience does not blame me for anything. I did my duty". These massacres were regarded with absolute horror in the French press, as an article in The Times relates.

He also burnt 200 villages in 1846, including rich arable fields."I left in my wake a vast conflagration. All the villages, some 200 in number, were burned down, all the gardens destroyed, all the olive trees cut down."

In 1848 Saint Arnaud commanded a brigade during the revolution in Paris. On his return to Africa, possibly because Louis Napoleon considered him a suitable military head of a potential coup d'état, an expedition took place into Little Kabylie in northern Algeria, in which Saint Arnaud showed his prowess as a commander-in-chief and provided his superiors with the pretext for bringing him home as a general of division (July 1851). He succeeded Marshal Magnan as minister of war and superintended the military operations of the coup d'état of 2 December 1851, which placed Louis Napoleon on the throne as Emperor Napoleon III. A year later he became a Marshal of France and a senator, remaining at the head of the war office until 1854, when he set out to command the French forces in the Crimean War, alongside his British colleague Lord Raglan. Ill with stomach cancer, he died on board ship just over a week after commanding troops at the Battle of the Alma on 20 September 1854. His body was returned to France, and lies buried in Les Invalides.

After his death Saint Arnaud was regarded as a military hero, by both the French state and army. However, in Victor Hugo's long poem "Saint Arnaud", he is described as a criminal ‘jackal’ who had orchestrated the bloody massacres that followed Louis-Napoleon’s coup d’état. Algernon Charles Swinburne later described the poem of Saint Arnaud as an example of Hugo's 'poetic genius'. Swinburne said 'Then... came the great and terrible poem on the life and death of the miscreant marshal who gave the watchword of massacre in the streets of Paris'.

Legacy
The town of St Arnaud, Victoria, Australia was named after Jacques and has a commemorative statue of him in the town's botanical gardens on Napier Street. Another town, located in Algeria, was called Saint Arnaud under French rule; currently, its name is El Eulma. The Saint Arnaud Range and the nearby locality of Saint Arnaud in New Zealand both derive their name from him.

Honours

 * Second French Empire: Baton of Maréchal de France
 * Second French Empire: Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour
 * Second French Empire: Médaille militaire
 * Kingdom of Sardinia: Grand Croix of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
 * Two Sicilies: Grand Croix of the Order of Saint George and Reunion
 * Papal States: Grand Croix of the Order of Pope Pius IX
 * Papal States: Grand Croix of the Order of St. Gregory the Great
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium: Commander of the Order of Leopold
 * Ottoman Empire: First Class of the Order of the Medjidie
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia: First Class of the Order of Glory

title: Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud


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Dao (Chinese sword)

Dao ( pronunciation:, English approximation: , Chinese: 刀; pinyin: dāo; jyutping: dou1) are single-edged Chinese swords, primarily used for slashing and chopping. They can be straight or curved. The most common form is also known as the Chinese sabre, although those with wider blades are sometimes referred to as Chinese broadswords. In China, the dao is considered one of the four traditional weapons, along with the gun (stick or staff), qiang (spear), and the jian (double-edged sword), called in this group "The General of Weapons".

Name
In Chinese, the word can be applied to any weapon with a single-edged blade and usually refers to knives. Because of this, the term is sometimes translated as knife or sword-knife. Nonetheless, within Chinese martial arts and in military contexts, the larger "sword" versions of the dao are usually intended.

General characteristics
While dao have varied greatly over the centuries, most single-handed dao of the Ming period and later and the modern swords based on them share several characteristics. Dao blades are moderately curved and single-edged, though often with a few inches of the back edge sharpened; the moderate curve allows them to be reasonably effective in the thrust. Hilts are sometimes canted, curving in the opposite direction of the blade, which improves handling in some forms of cuts and thrusts. The cord is usually wrapped over the wood of the handle. Hilts may also be pierced like those of jian (straight-bladed Chinese sword) for the addition of lanyards. However, modern swords for performances will often have tassels or scarves instead. Guards are typically disc-shaped and often cupped. This was to prevent rainwater from getting into the sheath and blood dripping down to the handle, making it more difficult to grip. Sometimes guards are thinner pieces of metal with an s-curve, the lower limb of the curve protecting the user's knuckles; very rarely, they may have guards like those of the jian.

Other variations to the basic pattern include the large bagua dao and the long handled pudao.

Early history
The earliest dao date from the Shang dynasty in China's Bronze Age, and are known as zhibeidao (直背刀) – straight-backed knives. As the name implies, these were straight-bladed or slightly curved weapons with a single edge. Originally bronze, these weapons were made of iron or steel by the time of the late Warring States period as metallurgical knowledge became sufficiently advanced to control the carbon content. Originally less common as a military weapon than the jian – the straight, double-edged blade of China – the dao became popular with cavalry during the Han dynasty due to its sturdiness, superiority as a chopping weapon, and relative ease of use – it was generally said that it takes a week to attain competence with a dao/saber, a month to attain competence with a qiang/spear, and a year to attain competence with a jian/straight sword. Soon after dao began to be issued to infantry, beginning the replacement of the jian as a standard-issue weapon. Late Han dynasty dao had round grips and ring-shaped pommels, and ranged between 85 and 114 centimeters in length. These weapons were used alongside rectangular shields.

By the end of the Three Kingdoms period, the single-edged dao had almost completely replaced the jian on the battlefield. The jian subsequently became known as a weapon of self-defense for the scholarly aristocratic class, worn as part of court dress.

Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties

As in the preceding dynasties, Tang dynasty dao were straight along the entire length of the blade. Single-handed peidao ("belt dao") were the most common sidearm in the Tang dynasty. These became known as hengdao ("horizontal dao" or "cross dao") from the preceding Sui dynasty onward. Two-handed changdao ("long dao") or modao were also used in the Tang, with some units specializing in their use.

During the Song dynasty, one form of infantry dao was the shoudao, a chopping weapon with a clip point. While some illustrations show them as straight, the 11th century Song military encyclopedia the Wujing Zongyao depicts them with curved blades – possibly an influence from the steppe tribes of Central Asia, who would conquer parts of China during the Song period. Also dating from the Song are the falchion-like dadao, the long, two-handed zhanmadao, and the long-handled, similarly two-handed buzhandao (步戰刀).

Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties

With the Mongol invasion of China in the early 13th century and the formation of the Yuan dynasty, the curved steppe saber became a greater influence on Chinese sword designs. Sabers had been used by Turkic, Tungusic, and other steppe peoples of Central Asia since at least the 8th century CE. It was a favored weapon among the Mongol aristocracy. Its effectiveness for mounted warfare and popularity among soldiers throughout the Mongol empire had lasting effects.

In China, Mongol influence lasted long after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty at the hands of the Ming, continuing through both the Ming and the Qing dynasties, furthering the popularity of the dao and spawning a variety of new blades. Blades with greater curvature became popular, and these new styles are collectively referred to as peidao (佩刀). During the mid-Ming, these new sabers would completely replace the jian as a military-issue weapon. The four main types of peidao are:

Yanmaodao
The yanmaodao or "goose-quill saber" is largely straight like the earlier zhibeidao, with a curve appearing at the center of percussion near the blade's tip. This allows for thrusting attacks and overall handling similar to that of the jian while preserving much of the dao's strengths in cutting and slashing.

Liuyedao
The liuyedao or "willow leaf saber" is the most common form of Chinese saber. It first appeared during the Ming dynasty and features a moderate curve along the length of the blade. This weapon became the standard sidearm for cavalry and infantry, replacing the yanmaodao, and is the sort of saber used by many schools of Chinese martial arts.

Piandao
The piandao or "slashing saber" is a deeply curved dao meant for slashing and draw-cutting. This weapon bears a strong resemblance to the shamshir and scimitar. Skirmishers generally used it in conjunction with a shield.

Niuweidao
The niuweidao or "oxtail saber" is a heavy-bladed weapon with a characteristic flaring tip. It is the archetypal "Chinese broadsword" of kung fu movies today. It was first recorded in the early 19th century (the latter half of the Qing dynasty) and only as a civilian weapon: there is no record of it being issued to troops, and it does not appear in any listing of official weaponry. Its appearance in movies and modern literature is thus often anachronistic.

Other types
Besides these four major types of dao, the duandao or "short dao" was also used, this being a compact weapon generally in the shape of a liuyedao. The dadao saw continued use, and during the Ming dynasty the large two-handed changdao and zhanmadao were used both against the cavalry of the northern steppes and the wokou (pirates) of the southeast coast; these latter weapons (sometimes under different names) would continue to see limited use during the Qing period. Also, during the Qing, there appeared weapons such as the nandao, regional variants in the name or shape of some of the above dao, and more obscure variants such as the "nine ringed broadsword", these last likely invented for street demonstrations and theatrical performances rather than for use as weapons. The word dao is also used in the names of several polearms that feature a single-edged blade, such as the pudao and guandao.

The Chinese spear and dao (liuyedao and yanmaodao) were commonly issued to infantry due to the expense of and relatively greater amount of training required for the effective use of the Chinese straight sword, or jian. Dao can often be depicted in period artwork worn by officers and infantry.

During the Yuan dynasty and after, some aesthetic features of Persian, Indian, and Turkish swords would appear on dao. These could include intricate carvings on the blade and "rolling pearls": small metal balls that would roll along fuller-like grooves in the blade.

Recent history
The dadao was used by some Chinese militia units against Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War, occasioning "The Sword March". The miaodao, a descendant of the changdao, also saw use. These were used during planned ambushes on Japanese troops because the Chinese military and patriotic resistance groups often had a shortage of firearms.

Most Chinese martial arts schools still train extensively with the dao, seeing it as a powerful conditioning tool and a versatile weapon, with self-defense techniques transferable to similarly sized objects more commonly found in the modern world, such as canes, baseball or cricket bats, for example. Some schools teach double sword shuangdao 雙刀, forms and fencing, one dao for each hand.

One measure of the proper length of the sword should be from the hilt in your hand, the tip of the blade at the brow, and, in some schools, the shoulder height. Alternatively, the sword's length should be from the middle of the throat along the size of the outstretched arm. There are also significantly larger versions of dao used for training in some Baguazhang and Taijiquan schools.

Nandao
The nandao or "southern broadsword" is a modern innovation used for contemporary wushu practice.

In contemporary wushu
Daoshu refers to the competitive event in modern wushu taolu where athletes utilize a dao in a routine. It was one of the four main weapon events implemented at the 1st World Wushu Championships due to its popularity. The dao itself, consists of a thin blade that makes noise when stabbing or cutting techniques are used. Over time, the edge has become more flimsy to create more noise, the sword has become lighter to allow for faster handling, and the flag of the broadsword has become smaller to become less of a distraction. The IWUF has also created three standardized routines for competition and an elementary practice. The first compulsory routine was produced and recorded by Zhao Changjun in 1989.

Daoshu routines in international competitions require certain sword techniques, including:

 * Chán Tóu (Broadsword Twining)
 * Guǒ Nǎo,(Wrapping with the Broadsword)
 * Pī Dāo (Broadsword Chop)
 * Zhā Dāo (Broadsword Thrust)
 * Zhǎn Dāo (Broadsword Hack)
 * Guà Dāo (Broadsword Hooking Parry)
 * Yún Dāo (Broadsword Cloud Waving)
 * Bèi Huā Dāo (Broadsword Wrist Figure 8 Behind the Back).

Only the Chán Tóu and Guǒ Nǎo techniques have deduction content (code 62) where the back of the blade has to be kept close to the body. Daoshu routines have been judged with the degree of difficulty criteria at the World Wushu Championships since 2005.

title: Dao (Chinese sword)


text:
Eyvind Johnson

Eyvind Johnson (29 July 1900 – 25 August 1976) was a Swedish novelist and short story writer. Regarded as the most groundbreaking novelist in modern Swedish literature he became a member of the Swedish Academy in 1957 and shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in Literature with Harry Martinson with the citation: for a narrative art, far-seeing in lands and ages, in the service of freedom.

Biography
Johnson was born Olof Edvin Verner Jonsson in Svartbjörnsbyn village in Överluleå parish, near the town of Boden in Norrbotten. The small house where he was born is preserved and marked with a commemorative plaque.

Johnson left school at the age of thirteen and then held various jobs such as log driving and working at a saw mill and as a ticket-seller and projectionist in a cinema. In 1919 he left his hometown and moved to Stockholm where he began to publish articles in anarchist magazines like Brand. In Stockholm he became friends with other young proletarian writers and started the magazine Vår nutid. He travelled in Germany in the 1920s and lived in Saint-Leu-la-Foret, near Paris, France, between 1927 and 1930 with his wife Aase Christoffersen (1900–1938). At this point he had published his first books. The first De fyra främlingarna, a collection of short stories, was published in 1924. Influenced by writers such as Marcel Proust, André Gide and James Joyce, Johnson gradually took distance from the traditional novel and became the most important representative of modernist literature in Sweden. Johnson's early novels were not widely read, but his 1929 novel Kommentar till ett stjärnfall ("Comment on a falling star"), an attack on capitalist society, was a critical success.

Johnson's first major success as a writer was four autobiographical novels published between 1934 and 1937, published together as Romanen om Olof ("The Novel about Olof"), about a young man growing up in the northern parts of Sweden. In the novels Johnson blended realism with fairy tales and typical modernist features such as inner monologue and changing point of view. Romanen om Olof became a classic in Swedish literature and was later filmed as Here Is Your Life.

Increasingly upset by the rising totalitarianism in the 1930s, Johnson was strongly against fascism and nazism. During World War II he was editor of the magazine Håndslag and published Krilon, a trilogy of novels that in the form of an allegory deals with the events during the war. In the novels Johnson condemns Nazi oppression and criticises the controversial Swedish neutrality policy during the war. Krilon is considered to be one of Johnson's best works. In the same period he was a member of the nationalist association Samfundet Nordens Frihet and among the contributors of its magazine, Nordens Frihet.

In 1946 he published one of his most famous novels, Return to Ithaca (Strändernas svall), based on the story of Odysseus as he returns to Ithaca after the Trojan war. Johnson married translator Cilla Johnson in 1940. He lived with his family in Switzerland 1947–1949 and then a year in England. Travels to Italy and France inspired him to write several well-received historical novels. Among the best known are Dreams of Roses and Fire (Drömmar om rosor och eld, 1949) set in Cardinal Richelieus 17th century France, and Molnen över Metapontion ("The Clouds above Metapontion", 1957) that typically for his later novels switches back and forth between different time levels. In 1957 he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy.

Johnson has nominated the Nobel laurate Giorgos Seferis twice for a Nobel in literature in 1962 and in 1963, which Seferis won.

Johnson's most noted works internationally include Return to Ithaca and The Days of His Grace (Hans nådes tid, 1960) which have been translated to many languages. For the latter novel Johnson was awarded the Nordic Council Literature Prize in 1962.

Novels

 * Timans och rättfärdigheten (1925)
 * Stad i mörker (1927)
 * Stad i ljus (1928)
 * Minnas (1928)
 * Kommentar till ett stjärnfall (1929)
 * Avsked till Hamlet (1930)
 * Bobinack (1932)
 * Regn i gryningen (1933)
 * Romanen om Olof (1934-1937, published together in 1945)
 * Nu var det 1914 (1934)
 * Här har du ditt liv! (1935)
 * Se dig inte om! (1936)
 * Slutspel i ungdomen (1937)
 * Nattövning (1938)
 * Soldatens återkomst (1940)
 * Krilon (1941-1943, published together in 1948)
 * Grupp Krilon (1941)
 * Krilons resa (1942)
 * Krilon själv (1943)
 * Return to Ithaca (Strändernas svall, 1946)
 * Dreams of Roses and Fire (Drömmar om rosor och eld, 1949)
 * Lägg undan solen (1951)
 * Romantisk berättelse (1953)
 * Tidens gång (1955)
 * Molnen över Metapontion (1957)
 * The Days of His Grace (Hans nådes tid, 1960)
 * Livsdagen lång (1964)
 * Favel ensam (1968)
 * Några steg mot tystnaden (1973)
 * Herr Clerk vår mästare (original version of Minnas, novel, 1998)

Short story collections

 * De fyra främlingarna (1924)
 * Natten är här (1932)
 * Än en gång, kapten!  (1934)
 * Den trygga världen (1940)
 * Sju liv (1944)
 * Pan mot Sparta (1946)
 * Olibrius och gestalterna (1986)

Plays

 * Return to Ithaca (Strändernas svall, 1948)

Nonfiction

 * Dagbok från Schweiz (1949)
 * Vinterresa i Norrbotten (1955)
 * Vägar över Metaponto – en resedagbok (1959)
 * Spår förbi Kolonos – en berättelse (1961)
 * Stunder, vågor – anteckningar, berättelser (1965)
 * Resa i hösten 1921 (1973)

title: Eyvind Johnson