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Reduplication

In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.

The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edward Sapir's: "generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance." Reduplication is used in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical derivation to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. Examples of it can be found at least as far back as Sumerian, where it was used in forming some color terms, e.g. babbar "white", kukku "black".

Reduplication is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include cloning, doubling, duplication, repetition, and tautonym when it is used in biological taxonomies, such as Bison bison.

Form
Reduplication is often described phonologically in one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicated prosodic units (syllables or moras). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described morphologically as a reduplication of linguistic constituents (i.e. words, stems, roots). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.

The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as  RED  or sometimes just R.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times. Pingelapese has both forms. In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes:

Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. Ewe, Shipibo, Twi, Mokilese, Min Nan (Hokkien), Stau.

Sometimes gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

Full and partial reduplication
Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication:

Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" aspect formation:

Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC:

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu example below:

Reduplicant position
Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g.

Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix):

Final reduplication in Dakota (-CCV suffix):

Internal reduplication in Samoan (-CV- infix):

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Copying direction
A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama–Nyungan language of Australia):

Final R → L copying in Sirionó:

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

Initial R → L copying in Tillamook:

Final L → R copying in Chukchi:

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

Internal L → R copying in Quileute:

In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.

Internal R → L copying in Temiar (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia):

A rare type of reduplication is found in Semai (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:

Reduplication and other morphological processes
All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as vowel alternation, deletion, affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc.

For instance, in Tz'utujil a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment. This can be written succinctly as . Below are some examples:

 * 'red' → 'reddish'
 * 'yellow' → 'yellowish'
 * 'water' → 'watery'      (Dayley 1985)

Somali has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base):

 * 'ditch' → 'ditches'
 * 'lump of meat' → 'lumps of meat'
 * 'boy' → 'boys'      (Abraham 1964)

This combination of reduplication and affixation is commonly referred to as fixed-segment reduplication.

In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:

 * 'ox' → 'ox (distributive)'  (no-n-nowiu)
 * 'rock' → 'rock (distributive)'  (ho-h-hodai)
 * 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → 'dig out of ground (repetitive)'  (ko-k-kow)
 * 'hit (unitative)' → 'hit (repetitive)'      (Haugen forthcoming)

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.

Phonological processes, environment, and reduplicant-base relations

 * overapplication
 * underapplication
 * backcopying – A putative phenomenon of over-application in the reduplicant of a process triggered by the reduplicant in the base
 * base-reduplicant "identity" (OT terminology: BR-faithfulness)
 * tonal transfer/non-transfer

Function and meaning
In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):
 * Malay rumah "house", rumah-rumah "houses".

In pre-1972 Indonesian and Malaysian orthography, 2 was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people". This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication.

The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb: go, "look;", go-go "examine with attention".

Chinese also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in calligraphy.

Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or perfect. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:

 * spondeo, spopondi (Latin, "I vow, I vowed")
 * λείπω, λέλοιπα (Greek, "I leave, I left")
 * δέρκομαι, δέδορκα (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit ablaut as well as reduplication)
 * háitan, haíháit (Gothic, "to name, I named")

Those forms do not survive in Modern English but existed in its parent Germanic languages. Many verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present stem, rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") and Greek τίθημι, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process: compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of those Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.

Reduplication can be used to refer to the most prototypical instance of a word's meaning. In such a case, it is called contrastive focus reduplication. Finnish colloquial speech uses the process; nouns can be reduplicated to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated, as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, Söin jäätelöä ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food" is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say, "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipeä. Siis kipeäkipeä" ("I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is"); that means that one was actually suffering from an illness instead of making up excuses, as usual.

 * ruoka "food", ruokaruoka "proper food", as opposed to snacks
 * peli "game", pelipeli "complete game", as opposed to a mod
 * puhelin "phone", puhelinpuhelin "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
 * kauas "far away", kauaskauas "unquestionably far away"
 * koti "home", kotikoti "home of your parents", as opposed to one's current place of residence

Words can be reduplicated with their case morphemes, as in lomalla lomalla ("away, on vacation, on leave"), where the adessive morpheme --lla appears twice.

In Swiss German, the verbs gah or goh "go", cho "come", la or lo "let" and aafa or aafo "begin" reduplicate when they are combined with other verbs.

Si chunt üse Chrischtboum cho schmücke.

she comes our {Christmas tree} come adorn

She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.

Si lat ne nid la schlafe.

she lets him not let sleep

She doesn't let him sleep.

In some Salishan languages, reduplication can mark both diminution and plurality, with one process being applied to each end of the word, as in the following example from Shuswap. Note that the transcription is not comparable to the IPA, but the reduplication of both initial and final portions of the root is clear: ṣōk!Emē'’n 'knife' reduplicated as ṣuk!ṣuk!Emen'’me’n 'plural small knives' (Haeberlin 1918:159). Reduplication has been found to be a major part of Salish languages.

Reduplicative babbling in child language acquisition
At 25–50 weeks after birth, typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical babbling (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant-vowel combinations, such as nanana or idididi. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand movements and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less structure.

Proto-Indo-European
The Proto-Indo-European language used partial reduplication of a consonant and e in many stative aspect verb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of some Ancient Greek, Gothic, Latin, Sanskrit, Old Irish, and Old Norse verbs preserve this reduplication:
 * Ancient Greek λύω lúō 'I free' vs. λέλυκα léluka "I have freed"
 * Gothic hald "I hold" vs. haíhald (hĕhald) "I/he held"
 * Latin currō "I run" vs. cucurrī "I ran" or "have run"
 * Old Irish maidid "it breaks" vs. memaid "it broke"
 * Old Norse rœ "I row" vs. rera (røra) "I rowed"
 * Sanskrit लिखति likhati 'he writes' vs. लिलेख lilekha "he has written" or "he wrote"
 * A rare modern English reflex is do vs. did

Proto-Indo-European also used reduplication for the imperfective aspect. Ancient Greek preserves this reduplication in the present tense of some verbs. Usually, but not always, this is reduplication of a consonant and i, and contrasts with e-reduplication in the perfect:

 * δίδωμι dídōmi "I give" (present)
 * δέδωκα dédōka "I have given" (perfect)
 * *σίσδω sísdō → ἵζω hízō "I set" (present)
 * *σέσδομαι sésdomai → ἕζομαι hézomai "I sit down" (present; from sd-, zero-grade of root in *sed-os → ἕδος hédos "seat, abode")

Reduplication in nouns was rare, the best example being Proto-Indo-European  'wheel' (cf. Lithuanian kãklas 'neck', Sanskrit cakrá 'wheel', Greek κύκλος (kýklos) 'circle'), which doubled *kʷel-o- (cf. Old Prussian kelan 'wheel', Welsh pêl 'ball'), itself likely a deverbative of *kʷelh₁- 'to turn'.

English
English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). See also the alliteration section of the irreversible binomial article for cases like flip-flop, dribs and drabs, etc.

 * Rhyming reduplication: Artsy-fartsy, boogie-woogie, okey-dokey, easy-peasy, hanky-panky, hocus-pocus, hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, holy moly, hurdy-gurdy, itsy-bitsy, namby-pamby, raggle-taggle, ragtag, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie, willy-nilly, wingding.
 * Exact reduplications: Ack ack, aye-aye, back-to-back, blah-blah, boo-boo, bye-bye, chin-chin, choo-choo, chow-chow, dik-dik, doo-doo, fifty-fifty, gogo, ha ha, half-and-half, honk-honk, housey-housey, juju, klop-klop, mama, muumuu, night-night, no-no, papa, pee-pee, pip-pip, pom-pom, poo-poo, pooh-pooh, putt putt, so-so, ta-ta, there-there, tut-tut, tutu, wah-wah, wee-wee, yo-yo. While in many forms of English, exact reduplications can also be used to emphasise the strength of a word ("He wants it now now"), in South African English, 'now-now' means 'relatively soon'.
 * lexical reduplication: 'Each-each boy take one-one chair.' Indian English
 * Ablaut reduplications: In ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel (typically ɪ as in hit) and the reduplicated vowel is a low vowel (typically æ as in cat or ɒ as in top). Examples include: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, clip-clop, ding-dong, flimflam, flip-flop, hip-hop, jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mishmash, ping-pong, pitter-patter, riffraff, sing-song, slipslop, splish-splash, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, whiff-whaff, wibble-wobble, wishy-washy, zig-zag. Three-part ablaut sequences are less numerous, but are attested, e.g. tic-tac-toe, bing-bang-boom, bish-bash-bosh, splish-splash-splosh and "Live, Laugh, Love". Spike Milligan's poem "On the Ning Nang Nong" achieves comic effect by varying the ordering of vowels in such triples: There's a Nong Nang Ning/Where the trees go Ping!.
 * Shm-reduplication can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby, cancer-shmancer and fancy-shmancy. This process is a feature of American English from Yiddish, starting among the American Jews of New York City, then the New York dialect and then the whole country.

Of the above types, only shm-reduplication is productive, meaning that examples of the first three are fixed forms and new forms are not easily accepted.

 * Comparative reduplication: In the sentence "John's apple looked redder and redder," the reduplication of the comparative indicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly "John's apple looked progressively redder as time went on." In particular, this construction does  mean that John's apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in "John's apple looked redder."  With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time.  Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with "and".  This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts.  Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as "John's apple looked ever redder," these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form.  Comparative reduplication is fully productive and clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction.  For example, the temporal meaning of "The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier" is clear: despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, it is easy to grasp that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative "wuggier".
 * Contrastive focus reduplication: Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is stressed) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of Platonic ideal of the noun, as in "Is that carrot cheesecake or carrot cake cake?". This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. Furthermore, it is used to contrast "real" or "pure" things against imitations or less pure forms. For example, at a coffee shop one may be asked, "Do you want soy milk?" and respond, "No, I want milk milk." This gives the idea that they want "real" milk.
 * Intensificatory reduplication: Examples like a big, big problem, a long, long way, or very very difficult are instances of intensificatory reduplication. This type of reduplication is used to intensify the meaning of the original word. It's a way of expressing that something is not just big or long, but very big or very long. This type of reduplication is typically used only with a narrow range of words, and the meaning can often be inferred even if the specific combination is not a standard idiomatic expression. The more common items include gradable adjectives (e.g., big, great, deep, bad, old), along with intensificatory adverbs (e.g., very, really, so) and determiners (e.g., much). This is only possible for pre-head modifiers, and not with other syntactic functions. For example, a long long way is fine, but *the way is long long is ungrammatical, and I really really want it but not *I want it really really.

The double copula is in some cases a type of reduplication, which may be regarded as non-standard or incorrect.

More can be learned about English reduplication in, , and.

Dutch
While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g., pipi, blauwblauw (laten), taaitaai (gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch are loanwords (e.g., koeskoes, bonbon, (ik hoorde het) via via) or imitative (e.g., tamtam, tomtom). Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders: Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem (First talk, then have sex; lit. First blah-blah, then boom-boom). In Dutch the verb "gaan" (to go) can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication: we gaan (eens) gaan gaan (we are going to get going). The use of gaan as an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders. Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Daniëls (2000).

Afrikaans
Afrikaans makes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place. For example, krap means "to scratch one's self," while krap-krap-krap means "to scratch one's self vigorously", whereas "dit het plek-plek gereën" means "it rained here and there". Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature – see for example, and. Further examples of this include: "koes" (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence "Piet hardloop koes-koes weg" (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); "sukkel" (to struggle) becoming "sukkel-sukkel" (making slow progress; struggling on); and "kierang" (to cheat) becoming "kierang-kierang" to indicate being cheated on repeatedly.

Romance languages
In Italian reduplication was used both to create new words or word associations (tran-tran, via via, leccalecca) and to intensify the meaning (piano piano "very softly").

Common in Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions: Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar. ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.")

Common uses for reduplication in French are the creation of hypocoristics for names, whereby Louise becomes Loulou, and Zinedine Zidane becomes Zizou; and in many nursery words, like dada 'horsie' (vs. cheval 'horse'), tati/tata 'auntie' (vs. tante 'aunt'), or tonton 'unkie' (vs. oncle 'uncle').

In Romanian and Catalan, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from onomatopoeia) and expressions, for example,
 * Romanian: mormăi, ţurţur, dârdâi, expressions talmeş-balmeş, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ţac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc.
 * Catalan: així així, aixina aixana, balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum.

In colloquial Mexican Spanish it is common to use reduplicated adverbs such as luego luego (then then) meaning "immediately", or casi casi (almost almost) which intensifies the meaning of 'almost'.

Slavic languages
The reduplication in the Russian language serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a hyphenated or repeated word (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to shm-reduplication.

Celtic languages
Reduplication is a common feature of Irish and includes the examples rírá, ruaille buaille both meaning 'commotion' and fite fuaite meaning 'intertwined'.

Indo-Aryan
Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, like Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati and Bengali use partial or echoic reduplication in some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to mean etcetera. For example, in Hindi, chai-shai (chai means tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana. South Asian Indo Aryan languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual).
 * morphological:

Reduplication also occurs in the 3rd gaṇa (verb class) of the Sanskrit language: bibheti "he fears", bibharti "he bears", juhoti "he offers", dadāti, "he gives". Even though the general idea is to reduplicate the verb root as a prefix, several sandhi rules change the outcome.

There are a number of constructions in Hindi and Urdu that are constructed by reduplication. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, all have possibility of reduplications.

Armenian
In Armenian, reduplication follows the same classification as in Turkish (see below), namely emphatic reduplication, echo reduplication, and doubling. Many appear as lexical entries in Armenian lexicographical sources.
 * 1) Emphatic reduplication, one of two interpolated consonants (փ, ս), as in կարմիր (red), which becomes կասկարմիր (very red).
 * 2) Echo Reduplication, as in սեղան-մեղան (table schmable).
 * 3) Doubling, as in քիչ-քիչ (little [by] little)

Turkish
In Turkish, there are three kinds of reduplication.

Emphatic reduplication, also called intensification: A word can be reduplicated partially, such that an emphatic stem is created to be attached to the adjective. This is done by taking the first syllable of the adjective, dropping the syllable-final phoneme, and adding one of four interpolated consonants (p, s, m, r). For example, kırmızı (red) becomes kıpkırmızı (very red); mavi (blue) becomes masmavi (very blue); yeşil (green) becomes yemyeşil (very green), and temiz (clean) becomes tertemiz ("spotless"). The added consonant is unpredictable grammatically speaking, however phonological studies, such as Wedel (1999) shed light on the subject.

Echo reduplication: similar to echo word in other languages, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being m, and possibly missing) with m. The meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, tabak means "plate(s)", and tabak mabak then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied to all kinds of words, as in yeşil meşil meaning "green, greenish, whatever". Although not used in formal written Turkish, it is a standard accepted construction.

Doubling: A word can be reduplicated totally, giving a related but different meaning or used for emphasizing. For example, zaman zaman (time time) meaning "occasionally"; uzun uzun (long long) meaning "very long or many things long". This type is used also in formal Turkish, especially in literature. There are a lot of reduplications in this category which do not, if used as one word, have a place in the Turkish language's vocabulary but is used solely in this way. These words are called mimetic in linguistics. An example is 'şırıl şırıl' (used for the sound of a waterfall). They try to give sounds to not only audible but also non-audible phenomena. For example, 'mışıl mışıl' is used for sleeping soundly.

Dravidian
Reduplication is also used in Dravidian languages like Telugu for the same purpose.

 * phrasal:

Bantu
Reduplication is a common phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis. Popular names that have reduplication include
 * Swahili piga 'to strike'; pigapiga 'to strike repeatedly'
 * Ganda okukuba (oku-kuba) 'to strike'; okukubaakuba (oku-kuba-kuba) 'to strike repeatedly, to batter'
 * Chewa tambalalá 'to stretch one's legs'; tambalalá-tambalalá to stretch one's legs repeatedly'
 * Bafana Bafana
 * Chipolopolo
 * Eric Djemba-Djemba
 * Lomana LuaLua
 * Ngorongoro

Semitic
Semitic languages frequently reduplicate consonants, though often not the vowels that appear next to the consonants in some verb form. This can take the shape of reduplicating the antepenultimate consonant (usually the second of three), the last of two consonants, or the last two consonants.

Hebrew
In Hebrew, reduplication is used in nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs for various reasons:

 * For emphasis: in le'at le'at, where the adverb  "slowly" is duplicated to mean "very slowly". In the slangism  gever gever, the noun  "man" is duplicated to mean a "very manly man".
 * To mean "one by one":
 * yom yom is based on "day", and means "every day, day by day".
 * para para is based on "cow", and literally means "cow by cow", referring to "one thing at a time". This is possibly a folk etymology, and a derivation from Spanish "para" meaning "stop" is possible.
 * To create a diminutive: by reduplicating the last two consonants (bi-consonantal reduplication):
 * kelev "dog"
 * klavlav "puppy"
 * khatul "cat"
 * khataltul "kitten"
 * lavan "white"
 * levanban "whitish"
 * katan "small"
 * ktantan "tiny"
 * To create secondary derivative verbs: by reduplicating the root or part of it:
 * dal "poor" > dilel  "to dilute", and also dildel  "to impoverish, weaken".
 * nad "to move, nod" > nadad  "to wander" but also nidned  "to swing" and - due to phono-semantic matching of the Yiddish  lexical item נודיען nídyen / núdzhen "to bore, bother" - also "to bother, pest, nag, annoy".
 * tzakhak "to laugh" > tzikhkek  "to chuckle".
 * For onomatopoeia:
 * שקשק shikshék "to make noise, rustle".
 * רשרש rishrésh "to make noise, rustle".

There are also numerous examples in the Torah, for example "אם שמוע תשמעו" which means "if you listen diligently".

Amharic
In Amharic, verb roots can be reduplicated three different ways. These can result in verbs, nouns, or adjectives (which are often derived from verbs).

From the root sbr 'break', antepenultimate reduplication produces täsäbabbärä 'it was shattered' and biconsonantal reduplication produces täsbäräbbärä 'it was shattered repeatedly' and səbərbari 'a shard, a shattered piece'.

From the root kHb 'pile stones into a wall', since the second radical is not fully specified, what some call "hollow", the antepenultimate reduplication process reduplicates the k inserting the vowel a along with the consonant as a place holder for the hollow consonant, which is by some criteria antepenultimate, and produces akakabä 'pile stones repeatedly'.

Japanese
A small number of native Japanese nouns have collective forms produced by reduplication (possibly with rendaku), such as 人々 hitobito "people" (h → b is rendaku) – these are written with the iteration mark "々" to indicate duplication. This formation is not productive and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Chinese, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object; for example, the formal English equivalent of 人々 would be "people" (collective), rather than "persons" (plural individuals).

Japanese also contains a large number of mimetic words formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only onomatopoeia, but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states, such as きらきら kirakira (sparkling or shining). By one count, approximately 43% of Japanese mimetic words are formed by full reduplication, and many others are formed by partial reduplication, as in がささ〜 ga-sa-sa- (rustling) – compare English "a-ha-ha-ha".

Austronesian
Austronesian languages are known for their extensive use of reduplication in both nouns and verbs.

Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)
In the Malay language, reduplication is a semi-productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings:

 * 1) Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality:
 * 2) Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri = "All those birds are also exported out of the country".
 * 3) Conceptual similarity:
 * 4) langit-langit = "ceiling; palate; etc." (langit = "sky")
 * 5) jari-jari = "spoke; bar; radius; etc." (jari = "finger" etc.)
 * 6) Pragmatic accentuation:
 * 7) Saya bukan anak-anak lagi! "I am not a child anymore!" (anak = "child")

Reduplication of an adjective can express different things:
 * Adverbialisation: Jangan bicara keras-keras! = "Don't speak loudly!" (keras = hard)
 * Plurality of the corresponding noun: Rumah di sini besar-besar = "The houses here are big" (besar = "big").

Reduplication of a verb can express various things: Notice that in the first case, the nasalisation of the initial consonant (whereby /p/ becomes /m/) is repeated, while in the second case, it only applies in the repeated word.
 * Simple reduplication:
 * Pragmatic accentuation: Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang? = "Why aren't people coming?"
 * Reduplication with me- prefixation, depending on the position of the prefix me-:
 * Repetition or continuation of the action: Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya: "That man continuously beat his child";
 * Reciprocity: Kedua-dua orang itu pukul-memukul = "Those two men would beat each other".

Māori
The Māori language (New Zealand) uses reduplication in a number of ways.

Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instance wahine "woman", waahine "women", tangata "person", taangata "people". Biggs calls this "infixed reduplication". It occurs in a small subset of "people" words in most Polynesian languages.

Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for example mate "die", matemate "die in numbers"; and de-emphasis, for example wera "hot" and werawera "warm".

Reduplication can also extend the meaning of a word; for instance paki "pat" becomes papaki "slap or clap once" and pakipaki "applaud"; kimo "blink" becomes kikimo "close eyes firmly"

Mortlockese
The Mortlockese language is a Micronesian language spoken primarily on the Mortlock Islands. In the Mortlockese language, reduplication is used to show a habitual or imperfective aspect. For example, /jææjæ/ means "to use something" while the word /jæjjææjæ/ means "to use something habitually or repeatedly". Reduplication is also used in the Mortlockese Language to show extremity or extreme measures. One example of this can be seen in /ŋiimw alɛɛtɛj/ which means "hate him, her, or it". To mean "really hate him, her, or it," the phrase changes to /ŋii~mw al~mw alɛɛtɛj/.

Pingelapese
Pingelapese is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Pingelapese utilizes both duplication and triplication of a verb or part of a verb to express that something is happening for certain duration of time. No reduplication means that something happens. A reduplicated verb means that something IS happening, and a triplication means that something is STILL happening. For example, saeng means 'to cry' in Pingelapese. When reduplicated and triplicated, the duration of this verb is changed:
 * saeng – cries
 * saeng-saeng – is crying
 * saeng-saeng-saeng – is still crying

Few languages employ triplication in their language. In Micronesia, Pingelapese is one of only two languages that uses triplication, the other being Mokilese. Reduplication and triplication are not to be confused with tense however. In order to make a phrase past, present, or future tense, a temporal phrase must be used.

Rapa
Rapa is the French Polynesian language of the island of Rapa Iti. In terms of reduplication, the indigenous language known as Old Rapa uses reduplication consistent to other Polynesian languages. Reduplication of Old Rapa occurs in four ways: full, rightward, leftward, and medial. Full and rightward are generally more frequently used as opposed to the leftward and medial. Leftward and medial only occur as CV reduplication and partial leftward and medial usually denote emphasis.

Example of reduplication forms:

For the Rapa Language the implementation of reduplication has specific implications. The most evident of these are known as iterative, intensification, specification, diminutive, metaphorical, nominalizing, and adjectival.

Iterative:

 * naku 'come, go' → nakunaku 'pass by frequently'
 * ipuni 'hide' → ipunipuni 'hide and seek'

Intensification:

 * mare 'cough' → maremare 'cough forcefully'
 * roa 'much' → roroa 'very much'
 * maki 'sick'makimaki 'really sick'

Specification:

 * kini 'to pinch' → kinikini 'pinch skin'

Diminutive:

 * paki 'slap, strike'pakipaki 'clap'
 * kati 'bite' → katikati 'nibble'

Metaphorical (typically comparing an animal action with a human action):

 * kapa 'mime with hands' → kapakapa 'flap wings (a bird)'
 * mākuru 'detach oneself' → mākurukuru 'shed or molt'
 * taŋi 'Yell' → taŋitaŋi 'chirp (a bird)'

Nominalizing:

 * para 'Finished'parapara 'leftovers'
 * Panga'a 'divide' → panaga'anga'a 'a break, a divide'

Adjectival:

 * repo 'dirt, earth' → reporepo 'dirty'
 * pake 'sun' → pakepake 'shining, bright'

Tagalog
Philippine languages are characterized as having the most productive use of reduplication, especially in Tagalog (the basis of the Filipino language). Reduplication in Tagalog is complex. It can be roughly divided into six types:
 * 1) Monosyllabic; e.g. olol ("mad")
 * 2) Reduplication of the final syllable; e.g. himaymay ("separate meat from bones"), from himay (same meaning)
 * 3) Reduplication of the final syllable of a disyllabic word, where the added syllable is created from the first consonant of the first syllable and the last consonant of the second syllable; e.g. kaliskis ("[fish] scale"), from kalis ("to scrape")
 * 4) Reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; e.g. susulat ("will write"), from sulat ("to write")
 * 5) Full reduplication; e.g. araw-araw ("every day"), from araw ("day" or "sun")
 * 6) Combined partial and full reduplication; e.g. babalibaligtad ("turning around continually", "tumbling"), from baligtad ("reverse")

They can further be divided into "non-significant" (where its significance is not apparent) and "significant" reduplication. 1, 2, and 3 are always non-significant; while 5 and 6 are always significant. 4 can be non-significant when used for nouns (e.g. lalaki, "man").

Full or partial reduplication among nouns and pronouns can indicate emphasis, intensity, plurality, or causation; as well as a diminutive, superlative, iterative, restrictive, or distributive force.

Adjectives and adverbs employ morphological reduplication for many different reasons such as number agreement when the adjective modifies a plural noun, intensification of the adjective or adverb, and sometimes because the prefix forces the adjective to have a reduplicated stem".

Number agreement for adjectives is entirely optional in Tagalog (e.g., a plural noun does not have to have a plural article marking it):
 * "Ang magandang puno" "the beautiful tree".
 * "Ang magagandang puno" "the beautiful trees".

The entire adjective is repeated for intensification of adjectives or adverbs:
 * Magandang maganda ang kabayo "the horse is very pretty"

In verbs, reduplication of the root, prefix or infix is employed to convey different grammatical aspects. In "Mag- verbs" reduplication of the root after the prefix "mag-" or "nag-" changes the verb from the infinitive form, or perfective aspect, respectively, to the contemplated or imperfective aspect. Thus:
 * magluto inf/actor trigger-cook "to cook" or "cook!" (imperative)
 * nagluto actor trigger-cook "cooked"
 * nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook "cook" (as in "I cook all the time) or "is/was cooking"
 * magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) "will cook"

For ergative verbs (frequently referred to as "object focus" verbs) reduplication of part the infix and the stem occur:
 * lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook "to cook"
 * niluto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) "cooked"
 * niluluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook "cook"/"is/was cooking"
 * lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger "will cook".

The complete superlative prefix pagka- demands reduplication of the first syllable of the adjective's stem:
 * "Ang pagkagagandang puno" "The most beautiful tree (and there are none more beautiful anywhere)"

Wuvulu-Aua
Reduplication is not a productive noun derivation process in Wuvulu-Aua as it is in other Austronesian languages. Some nouns exhibit reduplication, though they are considered to be fossilized.

Verb roots can undergo whole or partial reduplication to mark aspect. Actions that are continuous are indicated by a reduplicated initial syllable. A whole reduplication can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect.
 * roni "to hurry"
 * roroni "hurrying"
 * rawani "good"
 * rarawani "good" (continuous)
 * ware "talk"
 * wareware "talked" (durative)

The onomatopoeia in Wuvulu language also uses reduplication to describe the sound. These onomatopoeic words can be used as alienable nouns.
 * "baʔa" or "baʔabaʔa" is a word for the sound of knocking.

Burmese
As in many Tibeto-Burman languages, in Burmese, reduplication is used in verbs and adjectives to form adverbs. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives such as လှပ ('beautiful' ), which consist of two syllables (when reduplicated, each syllable is reduplicated separately), when reduplicated (လှပ → လှလှပပ 'beautifully' ) become adverbs. This is also true of many Burmese verbs, which become adverbs when reduplicated.

Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, MY ပြည်, means "country," but when reduplicated to MY အပြည်ပြည်, it means "many countries" (as in MY အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ, "international"). Another example is MY အမျိုး, which means "kinds," but the reduplicated form MY အမျိုးမျိုး means "multiple kinds."

A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other":

 * MY ယောက် (measure word for people) → MY တစ်ယောက်ယောက် (someone)
 * MY ခု (measure word for things) → MY တစ်ခုခု (something)

Chinese
Reduplication is sometimes employed in verbs and adjectives to enhance the effect of them.

 * 帮帮忙 bāng bāng máng (Please help!) is a reduplicated form of 帮忙 bāngmáng (to help)
 * 胖胖的 pàng pàng de (quite fat) from 胖 pàng (fat)

Similar to other Sino-Tibetan languages, adjectives form adverbs by reduplication.

 * 漂漂亮亮 piào piào liàng liàng (prettily) is a reduplicated form of 漂亮 piàoliàng (pretty)

Other than verbs and adjectives, some nouns can be reduplicated to express plurality or a collection in Chinese.

 * 人人 rén rén (everyone) is derived from 人 rén (person).
 * 天天 tiān tiān (every day) is derived from 天 tiān (day).

title: Reduplication


text:
Roussillon

Roussillon (, , ; Rosselló , ; Rosselhon ) was a historical province of France that largely corresponded to the County of Roussillon and part of the County of Cerdagne of the former Principality of Catalonia. It is part of the region of Northern Catalonia or French Catalonia (the former used by Catalan-speakers and the latter used by French-speakers), corresponding roughly to the present-day southern French département of Pyrénées-Orientales (with Roussillon, Upper Cerdagne, Capcir, Vallespir, Conflent, and Fenouillèdes) in the former region of Languedoc-Roussillon (today Occitanie).

History
The name Roussillon is derived from Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel Rossello), a small fortified place near modern-day Perpignan where Gaulish chieftains met to consider Hannibal's request for a conference. The region formed part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis from 121 BC to AD 462, when it was ceded with the rest of Septimania to the Visigoth Theodoric II. His successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by Childebert I in 531, retired to Hispania, leaving a governor in Septimania.

In 719, the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees and maintained political hegemony of Septimania until their final defeat in 759 by Pepin the Short, who went on to occupy Roussillon after conquering Narbonne. Roussillon was occupied by the Carolingians in 760. Upon the invasion of Hispania in 778, Charlemagne found the Marca Hispanica wasted by war and the inhabitants settled in the mountains. He granted some lands in the plains to Visigothic refugees from Moorish Hispania and founded several monasteries. In 792, the Saracens again invaded France, but they were repulsed by Count Guillaume of Toulouse – regent of the child Louis the Pious, King of Aquitaine – whose hegemony extended into Catalonia.

The different portions of his kingdom in time grew into allodial fiefs and, in 893, Sunyer II became the first hereditary count of Roussillon. But his rule only extended over the eastern part of what became the later province. The western part, the Cerdanya (French, Cerdagne), was ruled in 900 by Miró as first count, and one of his grandsons, Bernat, became the first hereditary count of the middle portion, or Besalú. The counts of Roussillon were allied to their cousins the counts of Empúries in a centuries-long conflict with the surrounding great nobles. Count Girard I participated in the First Crusade in the following of Raymond IV of Toulouse, and was one of the first to set foot in Jerusalem when it was stormed by the Crusaders in 1099. At the beginning of the 12th century, the prestige of the Counts of Barcelona began to rise to such a height that the Counts of Roussillon had no choice but to swear fealty to them.

In 1111, Ramon Berenguer III, count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Besalú, to which Cerdanya was added in 1117. The possession of Roussillon by its last count, Girard II, was challenged by his illegitimate brothers. To ensure that his brothers would not inherit his territories, in his will Girard II left all his lands to Alfonso II of Aragon, who took possession in 1172. Under the Aragonese monarchs, economic and demographic growth of the region continued, and Collioure (Cotlliure), the port of Perpignan, became an important locus of Mediterranean trade.

As the French and Aragonese crowns grew in power, the region of Roussillon, forming part of the border between them, was frequently a site of military conflict. By the Treaty of Corbeil (1258), Louis IX of France formally surrendered his claims of sovereignty over Roussillon and to the title of Count of Barcelona to the Crown of Aragon, recognizing a centuries-old reality.

James I of Aragon had wrested the Balearic Isles from the Moors and joined these islands with Roussillon to create the Kingdom of Majorca, with its capital at Perpignan. In 1276, James I granted this kingdom to his son, who became James II. The subsequent disputes of this monarch with his brother Peter III were exploited by Philip III of France in his quarrel with Peter III for the crown of the Two Sicilies. Philip III espoused James II's cause and led an army into Catalonia but, retreating, died at Perpignan in 1285. Lacking the resources to continue the struggle, James then became reconciled to his brother Peter, and in 1311 the former was succeeded by his son Sanç I, or Sancho I, who founded the cathedral of Perpignan shortly before his death in 1324. His successor, James III of Majorca, refused to do homage to Philip VI of France for the seigneury of Montpellier, and applied to Peter IV of Aragon for aid. Peter not only refused, but declared war and seized Majorca and Roussillon in 1344.

The province was now reunited to the Principality of Catalonia within the Crown of Aragon, and it enjoyed peace until 1462. In that year, the disputes between John II of Aragon and his son over the Crown of Navarre spurred Louis XI of France to support John against his subjects, who had risen in revolt, the Catalan Civil War (1462-1472). The province, having been pledged as collateral to Louis for 300,000 crowns, was occupied by French troops until 1493, when Charles VIII evacuated the region as part of a settlement with Ferdinand the Catholic (son of John II of Aragon).

As part of a wider war (the Italian Wars), France and Spain clashed here between 1496 and 1498. Eventually the Spanish, under personal command of Ferdinand, not only secured Roussillon but managed to push into southern France before the new French monarch, Louis XII, signed the Treaty of Granada (1500).

The Habsburg dynasty took control of both the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1516 and the two crowns were for the first time ruled by the same physical person. This was under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (called Charles I of Spain), grandson of the Catholic Monarchs.

When Perpignan was besieged by the forces of Henry, Dauphin of France in 1542, the inhabitants were loyal to Charles V. Perpignan earned the royal sobriquet of "Fedelissima" ("Most Faithful City").

When the Catalans rose against the Spanish Crown in 1640 (the Reapers' War), Louis XIII of France entered the conflict on the side of the former. After a protracted war, the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) partitioned the Principality of Catalonia, securing Roussillon and part of the Cerdanya (Cerdagne) to the French crown, creating the French province of Roussillon.

The next fifty years saw a concerted effort by Louis XIV both to ensure the political allegiance of his new subjects and to alter their cultural identity. He was successful in the former but failed in the latter. Outside the capital of Perpignan, Roussillon remained distinctly Catalan in outlook and culture until the late nineteenth century, when industrialization began to replace Catalan identity with French.

During the French Revolution, the Ancien Régime province of Roussillon was abolished and a new department, the Department of Pyrénées-Orientales, was created instead. This department corresponds roughly to the old Roussillon, with the addition of the comarca of Fenouillèdes. Pyrénées-Orientales is the name by which this department is officially known in France. The old name of Roussillon did contribute to the French région of Languedoc-Roussillon.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Roussillon


text:
Sean Lennon

Sean Taro Ono Lennon (小野 太郎) is a British-American musician, songwriter, and producer. He is the son of John Lennon and Yoko Ono, and half-brother to Julian Lennon. Over the course of his career, he has been a member of the bands Cibo Matto, The Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger, The Claypool Lennon Delirium and his parents' group Plastic Ono Band. He has released two solo albums: Into the Sun (1998) and Friendly Fire (2006). He has produced numerous albums for various artists, including Black Lips and the Plastic Ono Band.

Early life and education
Sean Lennon was born at Weill Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan, New York City, on 9 October 1975, his father's 35th birthday. He is of Japanese descent on his mother's side and English, Welsh and Irish descent on his father's side. Julian Lennon is his half-brother, and Kyoko Chan Cox is his half-sister. Elton John is his godfather. After Sean's birth, John Lennon became a house husband, caring for his young son until his murder on December 8, 1980, when Sean was only five years old.

Sean attended kindergarten in Tokyo and, at his request, was educated at the exclusive private boarding school Institut Le Rosey in Rolle, Switzerland, and earlier at New York's private Ethical Culture Fieldston School and Dalton School. He attended Columbia University for three semesters, majoring in anthropology before dropping out to focus on his music and tour with his mother.

In October 1984, when Steve Jobs was visiting Manhattan, he attended Lennon's birthday party and gave him one of the first Macintosh computers as a present. That same year, he sang "It's Alright" on Every Man Has a Woman, a tribute album to his mother.

His parents kick-started his musical career: his debut into the music world came at age five, when he recited a story on his mother's 1981 album, Season of Glass. From childhood into his teen years, Lennon continued to collaborate with his mother, contributing vocals and receiving production credit on her solo albums It's Alright, Starpeace and Onobox. At 16 Lennon co-wrote the song "All I Ever Wanted" with Lenny Kravitz for his 1991 album Mama Said, and worked with Kravitz on a cover of his father's song "Give Peace a Chance" in protest of the Gulf War. By 1995 Lennon had formed the band IMA (with Sam Koppelman and Timo Ellis) to play alongside his mother on her album Rising. Lennon also made appearances in film, featured in the cast of Michael Jackson's 1988 Moonwalker and portraying a teenager experiencing visions of various M. C. Escher prints in Sony's 1990 promotional short-film Infinite Escher.

Lennon holds dual citizenship with the United States and United Kingdom.

Performance
In 1996, Miho Hatori and Yuka Honda of Cibo Matto were invited by Ono to remix the song "Talking to the Universe" for a Rising remix EP Rising Mixes. They met Lennon and invited him to join them on tour as a bass player. This eventually led to Lennon's contributing to their side-project Butter 08 and to his becoming a member of the group. He continued to play with them on tour, joining them on television and providing bass guitar and vocals on their EP Super Relax. Through his association with Cibo Matto, Lennon was approached by Adam Yauch (of Beastie Boys), who expressed an interest in his music and persuaded him to sign a record contract with Grand Royal Records. Regarding Grand Royal, Lennon has said:"I think I found the only label on the planet who doesn't care who my parents are and what my name is. It's a good feeling to know that I wouldn't have gotten the offer if they wouldn't have liked my songs. That's pretty rare in the music business!"

Lennon's solo debut, Into the Sun, was released in 1998. A music video for "Home", a single from the album, was directed by Spike Jonze and enjoyed extended airplay on MTV. The album was produced by fellow Cibo Matto member Yuka Honda, who Lennon claimed was his inspiration for the album, who he had begun dating at the time.

He went on tour (often backed by Cibo Matto) supporting Into the Sun. During this period he appeared on radio programs such as The Howard Stern Show and KCRW's Morning Becomes Eclectic. He later recalled promoting the album as a bitter experience due to the media focus on his family rather than his own music. In 1999, Lennon's EP Half Horse, Half Musician was released featuring new tracks such as "Heart & Lung" and "Happiness" as well as remixes of songs from Into the Sun. Along with Half Horse Half Musician, 1999 saw the release of Cibo Matto's second album Stereo Type A. Lennon stepped out of his traditional role as the group's bass player, this time playing a much wider range of instruments (such as drums, guitars, and synthesizers). Despite being well-received, Stereo Type A was followed by an extended Cibo Matto hiatus.

In 2000, Lennon contributed vocals to Del tha Funkee Homosapien (a single stanza on the Deltron 3030 track "Memory Loss"), Handsome Boy Modeling School and Jurassic 5. In 2001 on national television, Lennon performed several classics by the Beatles, "This Boy", "Across the Universe" and "Julia" alongside Robert Schwartzman, Rufus Wainwright and Moby for Come Together: A Night for John Lennon's Words and Music. In the following years, Lennon faded out of the spotlight to focus more on his role as a producer.

In 2000, Sean had a guest appearance on the Soulfly album Primitive on the song "Son Song". After the folding of Grand Royal Records in 2001, Lennon signed with Capitol Records, yet no solo material surfaced until February 2006, when "Dead Meat" was released as the first single from his new album, Friendly Fire. A promotional trailer for the CD/DVD package of Friendly Fire was leaked online in early 2006. The trailer featured scenes from the film version of the album, a DVD of music videos comprised into a film. The videos were actually screen tests for Coin Locker Babies, another project on which Lennon was working which became a cinematic counterpart to his new album.

Friendly Fire was released in October 2006. The theme of the album is love and betrayal, and it is dedicated to the memory of a close friend who died. The night the album was released, Lennon made his first major television appearance in five years, performing "Dead Meat" live on the Late Show with David Letterman. Lennon has since appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien and The Sharon Osbourne Show. When questioned about the eight-year gap between solo albums in interviews, Lennon said that he did not feel like a solo artist during those years and that he wanted to experience music anonymously without the spotlight on him and his girlfriend.

Since the release of Friendly Fire, Lennon has toured extensively around the world and while in France, he remixed his song "Parachute" in collaboration with French artist -M-. The remix is titled "L'éclipse" and was featured as a bonus track on the French release of Friendly Fire, while the single "Dead Meat" was featured in an episode of the TV drama True Blood.

With the release of new material and subsequent touring Lennon launched a website featuring music, videos, and a forum for his fans. Various members of the forum have created a fan-made cover album titled Truth Mask Replica.

Muhl and Lennon premiered the band the Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger during a live performance at Radio City on Valentine's Day, 2008. The duo, commonly referred to as the GOASTT, released their debut single, "Jardin Du Luxembourg", on 6 July 2010, and their debut album, Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger (Acoustic Sessions), on 26 October 2010, both on Chimera, their own label. In conjunction with the debut, they performed six songs during an hour-long interview on WNYC and four songs for a Tiny Desk Concert on NPR. Lennon has also collaborated with Muhl with a group called "Kemp and Eden" who premiered at The Living Room in the spring of 2012. On April 29, 2014, the Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger released their most successful album to date, titled Midnight Sun. The album was selected as one of the Top 50 best albums of 2014 by Rolling Stone. The album's release was followed by tours with the Flaming Lips, Tame Impala, Beck, Florence and the Machine, Dinosaur Jr., and Primus.

At the end of 2018, Lennon collaborated with Miley Cyrus and Mark Ronson for a cover of Yoko Ono and John Lennon's original Christmas song "Happy Xmas (War is Over)." The trio additionally performed the song at the Winter finale of Saturday Night Live.

In 2015, playing lead guitar, Lennon formed the Claypool Lennon Delirium with Primus' lead vocalist and bassist Les Claypool. The following year, the new group released their debut album, Monolith of Phobos, which reached the Top 10 of three Billboard charts, followed by a covers EP titled Lime and Limpid Green in 2017. Their second album, South of Reality, was released on 22 February 2019.

Production and other contributions
While reestablishing himself as a solo artist, Lennon continued his work as a session musician and producer, lending his talent to the likes of Dopo Yume, Albert Hammond, Jr. (of the Strokes) and model/singer Irina Lăzăreanu. Lennon first appeared on the Soulfly album Primitive, released in 2000, while in October 2007, Lennon joined Mark Ronson in the BBC Electric Proms where he sang "Sail on, Sailor", as well as "We Can Work It Out" alongside Daniel Merriweather, and Tawiah. The year prior, he wrote and directed his first film, Friendly Fire, starring Carrie Fisher, Lindsay Lohan and others. His eponymous second studio LP served as the film's soundtrack as well.

In 2009 Lennon produced a second album for his mother on his record label Chimera Music, Between My Head and the Sky, by Yoko Ono and the Plastic Ono Band. Lennon further worked with Ono as a producer for John Malkovich's 2016 remix EP Illuminated. Lennon co-produced Fat White Family's 2016 album Songs for Our Mothers, which was recorded in his New York City recording studio. Lennon also lent his production and songwriting talents to Lana Del Rey's fifth studio album Lust for Life, where he featured on the track "Tomorrow Never Came".

Lennon entered the field of film scores in 2009 with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Undead, directed by long-time friend and school mate Jordan Galland. Lennon again collaborated with Galland as he contributed the score to the 2012 film Alter Egos, and appeared as the character "Electric Death." The soundtrack premiered on Rolling Stone 's website following the film's release. In 2014, Lennon contributed the song "Animals" for the Zombeavers soundtrack, while he additionally wrote and recorded "Heart Grenade" for the Japanese anime TV series Ghost in the Shell: Arise. Lennon also created the film score for the 2015 comedy horror film Ava's Possessions, a project which took over two years to create. The lead single from the soundtrack "Demon Daughter" premiered alongside the film's DVD release.

Along with girlfriend Charlotte Kemp Muhl, Lennon started a record label, Chimera Music, which has signed a number of his collaborators including the Moonlandingz, Cibo Matto and Yoko Ono.

On April 12, 2024, James McCartney, son of Paul McCartney, released a song called "Primrose Hill" with Sean being credited as a composer and songwriter, marking their first collaboration.

Lennon is credited as co-producer for one song ("In the Eyes of the Girl") on the fifth studio album by The Lemon Twigs, "A Dream Is All We Know", and is credited as playing bass guitar on the same track.

Activism and beliefs
From 1996 to 1999, Lennon performed in and was involved in organizing the Tibetan Freedom Concerts with Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys. The series advocated for the independence of Tibet from China.

On October 19, 2011, Lennon was asked by Josh Sigurdson over Twitter what his opinion on the Occupy Wall Street protests was. He replied: "I'm heading down there this weekend." On October 22, 2011, Lennon showed up on Wall Street with Rufus Wainwright and Josh Fox. The three played music throughout the day to protesters and others joined in. Lennon did not speak to the media or press about the event.

On August 28, 2012, Lennon's opposition to hydraulic fracking was published as an editorial, "Destroying Precious Land for Gas", by The New York Times. Of Artists Against Fracking, in 2014 he said that "we can make more people aware of the damage fracking poses to our water supply, global warming, and climate change. Methane is 100 times more powerful of a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and most people don't realize how climate change will be triggered by a globalized fracking industry." On August 30, 2012, Lennon unveiled "Artists Against Fracking", a campaign aimed at preventing the expansion of fracking in the United States. Over 200 artists have signed onto the initiative, including Mark Ruffalo and Anne Hathaway, as well as Beatles' members Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr.

Asked by the Dallas Observer for his view of religion and spirituality, Lennon said: "I'm not against religion, because I think it serves a purpose in our society and it can be helpful to certain groups of people. But, for me, religion is mythology. ... I do think we all have a spirit, and I think there's a lot more to life and human consciousness than science can explain. But I prefer looking to science for answers because it can be tested and vigorously logical." On October 16, 2013, Lennon, along with Spacehog and Liv Tyler, played "Live on Earth" – an Internet-only performance – to benefit the David Lynch Foundation, which funds the teaching of Transcendental Meditation. Of his own practice of Transcendental Meditation, in 2014, Lennon said that "for me, it's like a scientific method to calm my brain down and making my frontal lobe more active. It's an exercise, really. It helps me to have about 10 percent more conscious thinking."

Lennon once described himself as a pacifist and anarchist; on February 6, 2016, he tweeted, "AnCap is the only logical result of the non aggression [principle]. I am a pacifist so therefore an anarchist."

Personal life
Lennon is in a relationship with Charlotte Kemp Muhl, whom he met at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in 2005. In an interview, Lennon states he stumbled upon Muhl's musical talents over a year after they had started dating, and formed The Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger around 2008. Muhl and Lennon are involved in several musical endeavors and much of their work is written at their home-based studio in Greenwich Village, New York.

Extended plays

 * Half Horse, Half Musician (1999)

with Cibo Matto

 * Super Relax (1997)
 * Stereo Type A (1999)

with the Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger

 * Acoustic Sessions (2010)
 * La Carotte Bleue (2011)
 * Midnight Sun (2014)

with Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band

 * Rising (1995)
 * Blueprint for a Sunrise (2001)
 * Don't Stop Me! EP (2009)
 * Between My Head and the Sky (2009)
 * The Flaming Lips 2011 EP: The Flaming Lips with Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band (2011)
 * Take Me to the Land of Hell (2013)

with Mystical Weapons

 * Mystical Weapons (2012)
 * Crotesque (2013)

with the Claypool Lennon Delirium

 * Monolith of Phobos (2016)
 * Lime and Limpid Green (2017)
 * South of Reality (2019)

Film scores

 * Smile for the Camera (2005)
 * The Stranger (2008)
 * Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Undead (2008)
 * Tea Fight (2008)
 * Alter Egos (2012)
 * Ava's Possessions (2015)

Producer

 * Soulfly – Primitive (2000)
 * Valentine Original Soundtrack (2001)
 * Five Children and It Soundtrack (2004)
 * Esthero – Wikked Lil' Grrrls (2005)
 * Irina Lăzăreanu – Some Place Along the Way (2007)
 * Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band – Between My Head and the Sky (2009)
 * The Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger - Acoustic Sessions (2010)
 * The Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger - Midnight Sun (2010)
 * The Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger - La Carotte Bleue (2011)
 * Kemp & Eden – Blackhole Lace (2012)Sean lennon candid 2006.jpg
 * Plastic Ono Band - Take Me to the Land of Hell (2013)
 * Fat White Family - Songs for Our Mothers (2016)
 * Lana Del Rey – Lust for Life (2017)
 * The Moonlandingz - Interplanetary Class Classics (2017)
 * Black Lips - Satan's Graffiti or God's Art? (2017)
 * Insecure Men - Insecure Men (2018)
 * Temples - Paraphernalia (2020)
 * Glume – Main Character (2023)
 * Temples - Exotico (2023)
 * The Lemon Twigs - A Dream Is All We Know (2024)

Other contributions

 * Marianne Faithfull's album Easy Come, Easy Go (2008) – "Salvation" (originally by Black Rebel Motorcycle Club)
 * Salyu's compilation album Merkmal (2008) – "Shady"
 * Lennon contributed vocals and guitar to "Son Song", on the Soulfly album Primitive. He can be heard in the final seconds of the song talking about how Soulfly guitarist/vocalist Max Cavalera's heavy-gauge strings hurt his fingertips.
 * Deltron 3030's album Deltron 3030 (2000) – "Memory Loss"
 * Lennon sang backing vocals on the track "Sandpaperback" on Ben Lee's 1998 album Breathing Tornados.
 * Collaborated in John Zorn's Great Jewish Music tributes to Marc Bolan, Burt Bacharach and Serge Gainsbourg, in 1997 and 1998.
 * Sean Lennon Vs. Kool Keith - "Rockets on the Battlefield" single (1999, Grand Royal)
 * Lennon remixed Tom Ze's single "O Olho Do Lago" in 1999.
 * Lennon made a spoken-word contribution to the Flaming Lips' "Found This Star on the Ground", a six-hour song. Lennon read the names of charity contributors who had donated in order to have their names featured in the song.
 * Lennon was a featured artist on the track "Before the Skies" for Haale's EP Paratrooper.
 * Lennon contributed vocals for the 2011 film A Monster in Paris.
 * Lennon co-wrote "Perfect Crime" with John Zorn (sung by Mike Patton and Sofia Rei Koutsovitis) for 2014's "The Song Project".
 * Lennon remixed the Moonlandingz' 2015 single "Sweet Saturn Mine" through Chimera Music.
 * Lennon covered "Row Bulies Row" with Charlotte Kemp Muhl and bassist Jack Shit for Son of Rogues Gallery: Pirate Ballads, Sea Songs & Chanteys (2013).
 * Lennon played slide guitar in Lady Gaga's "Sinner's Prayer", from her 2016 album Joanne.
 * Lennon appeared with the Sachal Ensemble on their album Song of Lahore (Universal, 2016)
 * Lennon remixed John Malkovich's 2016 single "Cryolite".
 * Lennon was a featured artist on the track "Tomorrow Never Came", included on Lana Del Rey's 2017 album Lust for Life.
 * Lennon co-wrote "Theme for Valhalla Dale", from the Moonlandingz 2017 album, Interplanetary Class Classics.
 * Lennon recorded a cover of "(Happy Xmas) War Is Over" with Miley Cyrus and Mark Ronson in 2018.
 * Lennon performed "Mambo Sun" with Charlotte Kemp Muhl on Angelheaded Hipster: The Songs of Marc Bolan & T. Rex, and the duo performed the song on Late Late Show with James Corden (2020)
 * Lennon performed with Lily Allen on her album No Shame (2018)
 * Lennon performed "Come Together" with Aerosmith at Madison Square Garden (2012)
 * Lennon is credited as composer/songwriter for the 2024 James McCartney track "Primrose Hill"
 * Lennon played bass on the tracks "Church Bells" and "In The Eyes Of The Girl" for The Lemon Twigs' A Dream Is All We Know (2024)

Filmography

 * Moonwalker (1988) – Himself
 * Imagine: John Lennon (1988) – Himself
 * Buffy the Vampire Slayer  – Season 2, Episode 1 – "When She Was Bad" (1997) – musician, Cibo Matto
 * Melrose Place – Season 7, Episode 8 – "The World According to Matt" (1998) – Himself
 * Smile for the Camera (2005) – Original score, writer
 * Friendly Fire (2006) – Actor, original score, writer
 * Coin Locker Babies (2008 in production) – Actor, writer
 * Rosencrantz And Guildenstern Are Undead (2010) - Score
 * A Monster in Paris (2011) – Francœur (English dub)
 * Alter Egos (2012) – Original score, cameo appearance
 * Ghost in the Shell: Arise, Episode 3 (2014) – Singer, lyrics
 * Ava's Possessions (2015) – Original score
 * Poker Face Episode 8, Guest Number 1

title: Sean Lennon


text:
Robbers' rummy

Robbers' rummy is a card game for two or more players. It is a variant of German Rummy dating to the early 20th century. Being derived from normal rummy, it emphasises arrangement of cards based on card matching rules (generally simplified, but thereby no less challenging), while abandoning the notions of card discards and scoring entirely.

Description
In Robbers' Rummy, not only are players allowed to lay off to existing melds as in basic Rummy, but they may also completely recombine the cards contained in the melds. In other words, players may 'rob' cards from already-made melds to make new ones. This makes it "much more exciting and engaging than any other [Rummy] variant...". Danyliuk describes it as "a fun, but difficult, variant of Rummy."

Object
The aim of Robber's Rummy is to be the first player to discard all the cards in hand by forming melds and placing them on table.

Cards
Robbers' rummy is played using two standard 52-card French packs, and 2 to 6 jokers.

Play
Initially, each player is dealt 11 to 13 cards from the shuffled pack, whose remainder, called the stock is placed face-down on the table. The goal of each player is to reduce the number of cards held in hand by placing them on the table, face-up, forming melds. A meld is:

 * Either any sequence by rank of three or more cards of the same suit (where the King may be followed by Ace, and 2, and so on),
 * Any three or four cards of equal rank, but of distinct suits.

Any one Joker card used within a meld must be identified as one card of appropriate rank and suit.

At each turn, a player may place one or more cards from their own hand on the table, such that melds are formed (or extended). For this purpose, each player may rearrange any or all melds on the table, including, if necessary, by reassigning the identification of Joker cards; provided all cards on the table form melds eventually, in completion of the placement. All cards which were on the table, before the placement of the own cards from hand, must remain on the table.

An essential point to recognize is that any meld consisting of four cards may be reduced to an equally regular three-card meld by removing or robbing one card, which in turn may be used to form other melds. The name Robbers' rummy reflects the characterization, by proponents of normal rummy, of such liberty in playing this game as excessive, or even "offensive."

Examples of valid melds:
 * On the table are ; Ann holds the second in her hand. She can now take the  and the  from the table and make a new meld with her.
 * On the table lie the and ; Ben holds,  and  in his hand. He can now combine these cards together with the table cards to form new melds as follows: ,  and.

Any jokers on the table may be re-used to represent a different card without having to be exchanged as in German Rummy, for example.

A player who was unable or disinclined to place at least one card from their own hand on the table accordingly, must draw one card from the stock into the hand. Alternatively, a player who did place one or more own cards on the table may draw one card from the stock, or must otherwise yield to the next player right away. After having drawn one card, the player at turn may still place any one or more cards on the table, and must then yield to the next player without drawing another card.

Danyliuk includes 2 additional rules:

 * The top card of the discard pile may only be used if it is immediately laid off or melded; it must not be added to the hand.
 * The player's first meld must score 40 points; cards may be laid off to existing melds in order to reach this total. To do this card values are assigned as follows: A = 1 or 11 depending on position, KQJ = 10 each, pips = 2-9 depending on face value.

Ending
The first player to meld or lay off all held cards is the winner.

title: Robbers' rummy


text:
Talk:Thranduil

Elvenking
Where is any proof that the unnamed Elvenking in The Hobbit is the same as Thranduil? JSoos (talk) 14:56, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", where Tolkien says "ruled by princes of Sindarin descent (as was the realm of Thranduil in the northern parts of Mirkwood;...", and the same chapter's "Appendix B: The Sindarin Princes of the Silvan Elves", where it says "when a thousand years of the Third Age had passed and the Shadow fell upon Greenwood the Great [aka Mirkwood], the Silvan Elves ruled by Thranduil 'retreated before it as it spread ever northward, until at last Thranduil established his realm in the north-east of the forest and delved there a fortress and great halls underground'". Chiswick Chap (talk) 15:48, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks it is very useful. JSoos (talk) 06:30, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:17, 14 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Elvenking, Erebor, Esgaroth.svg

title: Talk:Thranduil