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West Pomeranian Voivodeship

West Pomeranian Voivodeship is a voivodeship (province) in northwestern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Szczecin. Its area equals 22 892.48 km2, and in 2021, it was inhabited by 1,682,003 people.

It was established on 1 January 1999, out of the former Szczecin and Koszalin Voivodeships and parts of Gorzów, Piła and Słupsk Voivodeships, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. It borders on Pomeranian Voivodeship to the east, Greater Poland Voivodeship to the southeast, Lubusz Voivodeship to the south, the German federal-states of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania and Brandenburg to the west, and the Baltic Sea to the north.

Geography and tourism
West Pomeranian Voivodeship is the fifth largest voivodeship of Poland in terms of area. The largest cities in the region are the capital Szczecin, as well as Koszalin, Stargard, Kołobrzeg and Świnoujście.

This is a picturesque region of the Baltic Sea coast, with many beaches, lakes and woodlands. Szczecin, Świnoujście and Police are important ports. Other major seaside towns include Międzyzdroje, Dziwnów, Kołobrzeg, and Mielno.

West Pomerania is considered one of the greenest regions of Poland, and one of the most attractive for tourists. It is characterized by incredible diversity of the landscape: beaches, hundreds of lakes, and forests full of wildlife (e.g. Wkrzanska Forest), spreading mainly up the hills of the glacial lakes areas, and Poland's two largest islands, Wolin and Usedom.

West Pomerania is also rich in various forms and styles of architecture that were built during the Middle Ages as well as the Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque periods. Darłowo, the birthplace of Eric of Pomerania, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, contains a preserved old town with the Gothic Our Lady of Częstochowa church, which holds the king's sarcophagus. The St. Mary's Church in Stargard and Saint John Co-Cathedral in Kamień Pomorski are considered two of the most precious Gothic churches of entire Poland, and as such are listed as Historic Monuments of Poland, whereas the Saint Stanislaus Kostka church in Chwarszczany is a nationally unique former Knights Templar church. In Cedynia, the westernmost town of Poland, there is a memorial commemorating the Battle of Cedynia of 972, the oldest recorded battle in the history of Poland. The Świnoujście Lighthouse is the tallest brick lighthouse in the world. The War Cemetery in Stargard is the burial place of over 5,000 Allied soldiers and prisoners of war from both world wars, including Polish, French, Serbian/Yugoslav, Russian/Soviet, Italian, Romanian, Belgian, British, Moroccan, Portuguese and Dutch. There are also numerous World War II memorials, including memorials to Allied POWs from World War II at the former Oflag II-B, Oflag II-D and Stalag Luft IV German POW camps in Choszczno, Kłomino and Tychowo, and a memorial to British pilots of the No. 617 Squadron RAF shot down by Germany in Karsibór, Świnoujście.

There is a diverse repertoire of theaters, festivals, museums and galleries. During a few-day long annual Sea Festival in Szczecin, a number of free open-air concerts take place. In Świnoujście during the summer, the FAMA Academic Youth Arts Festival takes place – an event with several years of tradition, which attracts not only young people but also older alumni. In Międzyzdroje, there is a Festival Of The Stars, which draws many popular actors. In Wolin, a Viking Festival takes place, which draws "Vikings" from all across Europe.

Another draw to the area is a wide array of health resorts. Brine and peloid, discovered in the 19th century, together with geothermal water resources, are popular attractions in Świnoujście, Kamień Pomorski and Połczyn Zdrój.

A notable phenomenon on a worldly scale is the Crooked Forest outside the town of Gryfino.

Cities and towns
The voivodeship contains five cities and 61 towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (according to official figures for 2019): • Cities (governed by a city mayor or prezydent miasta):

• # Szczecin (402,067)

• # Koszalin (107,225)

• # Stargard (67,795)

• # Kołobrzeg (46,309)

• # Świnoujście (40,883)

• Towns:

• # Szczecinek (40,016)

• # Police (32,575)

• # Wałcz (25,312)

• # Białogard (24,250)

• # Goleniów (22,284)

• # Gryfino (21,221)

• # Nowogard (16,603)

• # Gryfice (16,524)

• # Świdwin (15,533)

• # Choszczno (15,213)

• # Dębno (13,775)

• # Barlinek (13,752)

• # Darłowo (13,710)

• # Złocieniec (12,901)

• # Pyrzyce (12,581)

• # Sławno (12,511)

• # Drawsko Pomorskie (11,597)

• # Myślibórz (11,151)

• # Łobez (10,167)

• # Trzebiatów (9,986)

• # Kamień Pomorski (8,807)

• # Połczyn-Zdrój (8,073)

• # Chojna (7,375)

• # Czaplinek (7,109)

• # Sianów (6,621)

• # Karlino (5,945)

• # Międzyzdroje (5,376)

• # Borne Sulinowo (5,116)

• # Wolin (4,878)

• # Kalisz Pomorski (4,366)

• # Resko (4,217)

• # Bobolice (3,991)

• # Płoty (3,965)

• # Lipiany (3,922)

• # Barwice (3,715)

• # Mieszkowice (3,647)

• # Maszewo (3,357)

• # Chociwel (3,177)

• # Mirosławiec (3,081)

• # Mielno (2,956)

• # Polanów (2,917)

• # Recz (2,898)

• # Węgorzyno (2,816)

• # Dziwnów (2,663)

• # Golczewo (2,660)

• # Pełczyce (2,583)

• # Tychowo (2,520)

• # Stepnica (2,465)

• # Gościno (2,430)

• # Człopa (2,322)

• # Dobra (2,307)

• # Drawno (2,280)

• # Dobrzany (2,267)

• # Trzcińsko-Zdrój (2,263)

• # Biały Bór (2,185)

• # Tuczno (1,934)

• # Ińsko (1,924)

• # Moryń (1,630)

• # Cedynia (1,555)

• # Suchań (1,471)

• # Nowe Warpno (1,190)

The Polish districts of the historical region Western Pomerania (the three westernmost districts of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship) had a population of about 520,000 in 2012 (cities of Szczecin, Świnoujście and Police County combined) – while the German districts had a population of about 470,000 in 2012 (Vorpommern-Rügen and Vorpommern-Greifswald combined). Overall, about 1 million people live in the historical region of Western Pomerania today, while the Szczecin agglomeration reaches even further.

Administrative division
West Pomeranian Voivodeship is divided into 21 counties (powiats): three city counties and 18 land counties. These are further divided into 114 gminas.

The counties are listed in the following table (ordering within categories is by decreasing population in 2019):

Protected areas

Protected areas in West Pomeranian Voivodeship include two National Parks and seven Landscape Parks. These are listed below.
 * Drawno National Park (partly in Lubusz and Greater Poland Voivodeships)
 * Wolin National Park
 * Barlinek-Gorzów Landscape Park (partly in Lubusz Voivodeship)
 * Cedynia Landscape Park
 * Drawsko Landscape Park
 * Ińsko Landscape Park
 * Lower Odra Valley Landscape Park
 * Szczecin Landscape Park
 * Ujście Warty Landscape Park (partly in Lubusz Voivodeship)

Cuisine
Apart from nationwide Polish cuisine, the region has its local traditional foods and beverages. The voivodeship is notable for production of honey, with several varieties listed as traditional foods by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland.

As a coastal province, there are several local fish dishes, including the Szczecin-style and Kołobrzeg-style herring. Szczecinek krówki, Szczecin gingerbread and Choszczno strucla (type of poppy seed roll) are local delicacies.

Traditional beverages include mead, produced in Cedynia and Wolin, beer from Lipiany and Szczecin and nalewka from Dębina.

Demography
After Germany's defeat in World War II, the region became again part of Poland by way of the Potsdam Agreement, which created territorial changes demanded by the Soviet Union.

In 1948, 67 percent of the populace originated from central Poland, Greater Poland and Pomerelia while 25 percent came from the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Another 6 percent returned to Poland from Western Europe. About 50,000 Ukrainians were forcefully resettled to West Pomerania in the Operation Vistula in 1947.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, some Scots settled in several towns of the current West Pomeranian Voivodeship, i.e. Wałcz, Biały Bór, Człopa and Gryfice, whereas in the 18th century French Huguenots settled in Szczecin and Gryfino.

Education and science

 * University of Szczecin (Polish Uniwersytet Szczeciński) with 35,000 students
 * Technical University in Koszalin with 14,000 students (Politechnika Koszalińska)
 * West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin with 15,300 students (Zachodniopomorski Uniwersytet Technologiczny), formed as a result of merger of Szczecin University of Technology (Politechnika Szczecińska) and University of Agriculture in Szczecin (Akademia Rolnicza w Szczecinie)
 * Pomeranian Medical University with 4,000 students (Pomorski Uniwersytet Medyczny)
 * The Szczecin Academy of Arts (Akademia Sztuki w Szczecinie)
 * Maritime University of Szczecin (Akademia Morska w Szczecinie)
 * The West Pomeranian Business School with 3,000 students (Zachodniopomorska Szkoła Biznesu)
 * Szczeciński Park Naukowo-Technologiczny (science park in Szczecin)

Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 18.3 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 3.7% of Polish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 17,700 euros or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 67% of the EU average.

The Świnoujście LNG terminal, Poland's main liquefied natural gas import terminal, is located in the province.

Industrial, science and technology parks

 * Goleniowski Park Przemysłowy (industrial park in Goleniów)
 * Infrapark Police (industrial park in Police, Poland)
 * Stargardzki Park Przemysłowy (industrial park in Stargard)
 * Szczeciński Park Naukowo-Technologiczny (science park in Szczecin)

Transportation
There are two main international road routes that pass through the voivodeship: National road 3 (Poland) Świnoujście-Szczecin-Gorzów Wielkopolski-Zielona Góra-Legnica-Czech border (part of European route E65 from Swedish Malmö to Chaniá in Greece) and National road 6 (Poland) Szczecin-Koszalin-Słupsk-Gdańsk (part of European route E28 from Berlin to Minsk). Most of the National road 3 in the voivodeship is in a standard of an expressway (Expressway S3 (Poland)). The National road 6 between German border and Rzęśnica is in the standard of autostrada (A6 autostrada (Poland)), whereas part between Rzęścnica and Goleniów and bypasses of Goleniów and Nowogard are in standards of an expressway (Expressway S6 (Poland)). Other important national roads are National road 10 (Poland) (German border-Szczecin-Piła-Bydgoscz-Toruń-Płońsk) and National road 11 (Poland) (Kołobrzeg-Koszalin-Piła-Poznań-Bytom). Apart from the above, some other national roads are located in the voivodeship. The voivodeship possesses also a well-developed network of regional roads.

Main railways in the province are line no. 351 Szczecin-Poznań, line no. 273 Szczecin-Wrocław (so-called "Odra railway"), line no. 202 Stargard-Gdańsk, line no. 401 Szczecin-Świnoujście and line no. 404 Kołobrzeg-Szczecinek. The main railway stations of the province are Szczecin main station, Stargard and Koszalin. The stations are served by fast PKP Intercity trains which connect them with the capital Warsaw, as well as other major Polish cities. In addition to these fast express services, inter-regional trains and intra-regional trains are operated by the firm Przewozy Regionalne. Szczecin main station possesses international train connections with Berlin, Schwerin and Lübeck (operated by DB Regio). Świnoujście has a direct train connection with Stralsund, which is operated by Usedomer Bäderbahn.

The only domestic and international airport in West Pomeranian Voivodeship is Szczecin-Goleniów "Solidarność" Airport. Also, part of the runway of an abandoned airport in Bagicz (near Kołobrzeg) was converted to an airport licensed to service planes carrying not more than 20 passengers on board.

Sports
Football and basketball enjoy the largest following in the voivodeship.

Curiosities

 * In the 10th and 11th centuries, Wolin was one of five largest cities of Poland, and the largest port city on the Baltic Sea.
 * Darłowo, Sławno, Szczecin and Szczecinek were medieval ducal seats of the House of Griffin.
 * The West Pomeranian Voivodeship is one of four first-level administrative divisions containing the name of the region of Pomerania, the other being the Pomeranian Voivodeship and Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.

title: West Pomeranian Voivodeship


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Cubit

The cubit is an ancient unit of length based on the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was primarily associated with the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. The term cubit is found in the Bible regarding Noah's Ark, the Ark of the Covenant, the Tabernacle, and Solomon's Temple. The common cubit was divided into 6 palms × 4 fingers = 24 digits. Royal cubits added a palm for 7 palms × 4 fingers = 28 digits. These lengths typically ranged from 44.4 to 52.92 cm, with an ancient Roman cubit being as long as 120 cm.

Cubits of various lengths were employed in many parts of the world in antiquity, during the Middle Ages and as recently as early modern times. The term is still used in hedgelaying, the length of the forearm being frequently used to determine the interval between stakes placed within the hedge.

Etymology
The English word "cubit" comes from the Latin noun cubitum "elbow", from the verb cubo, cubare, cubui, cubitum "to lie down", from which also comes the adjective "recumbent".

Ancient Egyptian royal cubit
The ancient Egyptian royal cubit is the earliest attested standard measure. Cubit rods were used for the measurement of length. A number of these rods have survived: two are known from the tomb of Maya, the treasurer of the 18th dynasty pharaoh Tutankhamun, in Saqqara; another was found in the tomb of Kha (TT8) in Thebes. Fourteen such rods, including one double cubit rod, were described and compared by Lepsius in 1865. These cubit rods range from 523.5 to 529.2 mm in length and are divided into seven palms; each palm is divided into four fingers, and the fingers are further subdivided. Early evidence for the use of this royal cubit comes from the Early Dynastic Period: on the Palermo Stone, the flood level of the Nile river during the reign of the Pharaoh Djer is given as measuring 6 cubits and 1 palm. Use of the royal cubit is also known from Old Kingdom architecture, from at least as early as the construction of the Step Pyramid of Djoser designed by Imhotep in around 2700 BC.

Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement
Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement originated in the loosely organized city-states of Early Dynastic Sumer. Each city, kingdom and trade guild had its own standards until the formation of the Akkadian Empire when Sargon of Akkad issued a common standard. This standard was improved by Naram-Sin, but fell into disuse after the Akkadian Empire dissolved. The standard of Naram-Sin was readopted in the Ur III period by the Nanše Hymn which reduced a plethora of multiple standards to a few agreed upon common groupings. Successors to Sumerian civilization including the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians continued to use these groupings.

The Classical Mesopotamian system formed the basis for Elamite, Hebrew, Urartian, Hurrian, Hittite, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Babylonian, Assyrian, Persian, Arabic, and Islamic metrologies. The Classical Mesopotamian System also has a proportional relationship, by virtue of standardized commerce, to Bronze Age Harappan and Egyptian metrologies.

In 1916, during the last years of the Ottoman Empire and in the middle of World War I, the German assyriologist Eckhard Unger found a copper-alloy bar while excavating at Nippur. The bar dates from c. 2650 BCE and Unger claimed it was used as a measurement standard. This irregularly formed and irregularly marked graduated rule supposedly defined the Sumerian cubit as about 518.6 mm.

There is some evidence that cubits were used to measure angular separation. The Babylonian Astronomical Diary for 568-567 BCE refers to Jupiter being one cubit behind the elbow of Sagittarius. One cubit measures about 2 degrees.

Biblical cubit
The standard of the cubit (אמה) in different countries and in different ages has varied. This realization led the rabbis of the 2nd century CE to clarify the length of their cubit, saying that the measure of the cubit of which they have spoken "applies to the cubit of middle-size". In this case, the requirement is to make use of a standard 6 handbreadths to each cubit, and which handbreadth was not to be confused with an outstretched palm, but rather one that was clenched and which handbreadth has the standard width of 4 fingerbreadths (each fingerbreadth being equivalent to the width of a thumb, about 2.25 cm). This puts the handbreadth at roughly 9 cm, and 6 handbreadths (1 cubit) at 54 cm. Epiphanius of Salamis, in his treatise On Weights and Measures, describes how it was customary, in his day, to take the measurement of the biblical cubit: "The cubit is a measure, but it is taken from the measure of the forearm. For the part from the elbow to the wrist and the palm of the hand is called the cubit, the middle finger of the cubit measure being also extended at the same time and there being added below (it) the span, that is, of the hand, taken all together."

Rabbi Avraham Chaim Naeh put the linear measurement of a cubit at 48 cm. Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz (the "Chazon Ish"), dissenting, put the length of a cubit at 57.6 cm.

Rabbi and philosopher Maimonides, following the Talmud, makes a distinction between the cubit of 6 handbreadths used in ordinary measurements, and the cubit of 5 handbreadths used in measuring the Golden Altar, the base of the altar of burnt offerings, its circuit and the horns of the altar.

Ancient Greece
In ancient Greek units of measurement, the standard forearm cubit (πῆχυς) measured approximately 460 mm. The short forearm cubit (πυγμή, lit. "fist"), from the knuckle of the middle finger (i.e., fist clenched) to the elbow, measured approximately 340 mm.

Ancient Rome
In ancient Rome, according to Vitruvius, a cubit was equal to $1 1/2$ Roman feet or 6 palm widths (approximately 444 mm). A 120-centimetre cubit (approximately four feet long), called the Roman ulna, was common in the Roman empire, which cubit was measured from the fingers of the outstretched arm opposite the man's hip. ; also, with

Islamic world
In the Islamic world, the cubit had a similar origin, being originally defined as the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. Several different cubit lengths were current in the medieval Islamic world for the unit of length, ranging from 48.25-145.6 cm, and in turn the was commonly subdivided into six handsbreadths, and each handsbreadth into four fingerbreadths. The most commonly used definitions were:
 * the legal cubit, also known as the hand cubit , cubit of Yusuf (, named after the 8th-century Abu Yusuf), postal cubit , "freed" cubit  and thread cubit . It measured 49.8 cm, although in the Abbasid Caliphate it measured 48.25 cm, possibly as a result of reforms of Caliph al-Ma'mun ((r. 813 – 833)).
 * the black cubit, adopted in the Abbasid period and fixed by the measure used in the Nilometer on Rawda Island at 54.04 cm. It is also known as the common cubit , sack-cloth cubit , and was the most commonly used in the Maghreb and Islamic Spain under the name.
 * the king's cubit, inherited from the Sassanid Persians. It measured eight for a total of 66.5 cm on average. It was this measure used by Ziyad ibn Abihi for his survey of Iraq, and is hence also known as Ziyadi cubit  or survey cubit . From Caliph al-Mansur ((r. 754 – 775)) it was also known as the Hashemite cubit . Other identical measures were the work cubit  and likely also the , which measures 65.6 cm.
 * the cloth cubit, which fluctuated widely according to region: the Egyptian cubit ( or ) measured 58.15 cm, that of Damascus 63 cm, that of Aleppo 67.7 cm, that of Baghdad 82.9 cm, and that of Istanbul 68.6 cm.

A variety of more local or specific cubit measures were developed over time: the "small" Hashemite cubit of 60.05 cm, also known as the cubit of Bilal (, named after the 8th-century Basran Bilal ibn Abi Burda); the Egyptian carpenter's cubit  or architect's cubit  of c. 77.5 cm, reduced and standardized to 75 cm in the 19th century; the house cubit  of 50.3 cm, introduced by the Abbasid-era  Ibn Abi Layla; the cubit of Umar  of 72.8 cm and its double, the scale cubit  established by al-Ma'mun and used mainly for measuring canals.

In medieval and early modern Persia, the cubit (usually known as ) was either the legal cubit of 49.8 cm, or the Isfahan cubit of 79.8 cm. A royal cubit appeared in the 17th century with 95 cm, while a "shortened" cubit  of 6.8 cm (likely derived from the widely used cloth cubit of Aleppo) was used for cloth. The measure survived into the 20th century, with 1 equal to 104 cm. Mughal India also had its own royal cubit  of 81.3 cm.

Other systems
Other measurements based on the length of the forearm include some lengths of ell, the Russian lokot (локоть), the Indian hasta, the Thai sok, the Malay hasta, the Tamil muzham, the Telugu (మూర), the Khmer, and the Tibetan  (ཁྲུ).

Cubit arm in heraldry
A cubit arm in heraldry may be dexter or sinister. It may be vested (with a sleeve) and may be shown in various positions, most commonly erect, but also fesswise (horizontal), bendwise (diagonal) and is often shown grasping objects. It is most often used erect as a crest, for example by the families of Poyntz of Iron Acton, Rolle of Stevenstone and Turton.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cubit


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Talk:Animal Farm

edit request on 12 Dec 2018
Think is important to note that it was written in 1943. Source could be JOURNAL ARTICLE Revolution on Animal Farm: Orwell's Neglected Commentary V. C. Letemendia Journal of Modern Literature Vol. 18, No. 1 (Winter, 1992), pp. 127-137 (11 pages) at https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831551 where at P. 132 quoting Orwell author reports ... he did not mean pigs and men to appear reconciled completely at the end of the book. On the contrary "I meant it to end on a loud note of discord, for I wrote it immediately after the Teheran Conference [parodied by the final scene in Animal Farm] .." CEJL, III, pp. 459-59

Link for Preface
Here is a link for the preface. Can someone add it to main article, so that people know where the quote is coming from. https://www.orwellfoundation.com/the-orwell-foundation/orwell/essays-and-other-works/the-freedom-of-the-press/

Stage adaptations of Animal Farm -- request for addition
I wish to note that the list of stage adaptations of "Animal Farm" in this article is incomplete. The first version, adapted by Nelson S. Bond and published by Samuel French, Inc. in 1964 (still in print) is still widely performed (example one) (example two) (example three)

"Classic"
"George Orwell's own Nineteen Eighty-Four is a classic dystopian novel about totalitarianism."

Is it ok to call something a "classic" as a factual statement in an encyclopedia? Or is it a subjective thing even in a case like "1984"? Isn't it against NPOV? I'm asking out of curiosity. Dornwald (talk) 00:18, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

 * That seems a bit POV and also unneeded; I've gone ahead and removed it. DonIago (talk) 02:03, 26 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks Dornwald (talk) 02:18, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Animal Farm


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Brian Henderson (television presenter)

Brian Weir Henderson (15 September 1931 – 5 August 2021) was a New Zealand-born Australian radio and television personality and pioneer known for his association with the Nine Network as a television news anchor in Sydney, as well as a variety show presenter and host of music program Bandstand, the local version of the US music program American Bandstand. Henderson, who started his career in radio, went on to become a long-serving Australian newsreader for 45 years, having presented the news bulletins for Sydney station TCN-9, either on weekends or weeknights, from 14 January 1957 until retiring from TCN-9 on 29 November 2002. His role as weeknight presenter at the time was subsequently given to Jim Waley. TCN-9 bulletins would eventually be relayed to regional New South Wales through Nine's regional affiliates WIN Television and NBN Television.

Early life and career in New Zealand
Henderson was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, on 15 September 1931. His father worked as a bus driver and a pastry cook, and served in World War II. Henderson grew up in the South Island, and attended Waitaki Boys' High School. He caught tuberculosis while in high school and spent three years recovering in a hospital. During this time, his interest in broadcasting was piqued when he became resident announcer and disc jockey of the hospital's radio station. He started working for 4ZB when he was 16 years old, initially as a copywriter, before becoming the country's youngest DJ.

Career in Australia
Henderson moved to Australia in 1953 and settled in Sydney, New South Wales. He first worked for radio station 2CH before switching to television. After joining the Nine Network, he started presenting Nine News in Sydney from 1957, four months after it was established. He went on to host the music variety program Bandstand from 1958 until 1972.

From his first news broadcast in January 1957, Henderson used the tagline "...and that's the way it is", or "the way it is", followed by the date of the broadcast, to sign off after every bulletin, similar to United States newsreader Walter Cronkite.

At the end of his final bulletin, Henderson's voice wavered as he told viewers it was time to watch the news, not present it: "Not the way it was, as has been suggested, but for the last time, the way it is, this Friday the 29th of November, this is Brian Henderson, a sad Brian Henderson, saying not good night, this time, but goodbye."

A pair of Henderson's familiar dark-rimmed spectacles, worn while reading the news, are in the collection of the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney.

Henderson came out of retirement in 2012 to narrate a documentary for the Foxtel network, The Train: The Granville Rail Disaster, which examined the aftermath of the 1977 rail disaster and the rescue workers' heroism.

National honours
In the 2009 Australia Day Honours, Henderson was named a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for "service as a pioneer in the television news and entertainment sectors, and as a mentor to aspiring and established presenters, readers and journalists".

Awards
Henderson won his first TV Week Gold Logie award for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television in 1968. He received a second Gold Logie at the Logie Awards in April 2013 when he was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame. Industry peers vote for the award and he was the 30th inductee since the award began in 1983. Henderson was on the shortlist in 2010 when it was awarded, posthumously, to Brian Naylor.

The King of Pop Awards were voted by the readers of  TV Week. The award started in 1967 and ended in 1978. Henderson won the award for his Contribution to Teenage Television in 1972.

Henderson won a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2019 Kennedy Awards.

Personal life
Henderson was married to Mardi Ozoux from 1966 until his death. Together, they had two children, Nicole and Jodie. He also had two children from his first marriage.

Henderson revealed he had throat cancer in 2014. He previously had other cancers; doctors said his prognosis was good. In February 2020, it was announced that Henderson had kidney cancer and that he had opted not to receive treatment.

Death
Henderson died on 5 August 2021 at his home in Sydney, at the age of 89. A private funeral was held on 16 August, in front of a limited number of family members including his 5 grandchildren (Jess, Jamie, Jade, Thomas and Charles) due to COVID-19 restrictions in place at the time.

title: Brian Henderson (television presenter)


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Grammy Hall of Fame

The Grammy Hall of Fame is a hall of fame to honor musical recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance. Inductees are selected annually by a special member committee of eminent and knowledgeable professionals from all branches of the recording arts. It is compiled by The Recording Academy in the United States, and was established in 1973. Recordings (singles and albums) in all genres are eligible for selection, and must be over 25 years old to be considered. Additions to the list are chosen annually by a committee of recording arts professionals.

Alphabetical listing by title:
 * List of Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients (A–D)
 * List of Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients (E–I)
 * List of Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients (J–P)
 * List of Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients (Q–Z)

title: Grammy Hall of Fame


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Talk:1936 in television

Porky Pig
I cut "*January 6 - Porky Pig premieres ". My guess is this was from someone confusing film with television. I'd be happy to put it back if someone can provide a source. -- Infrogmation

High definition
High definition television in 1936? What did that mean in those days? --Mzellers 16:40, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * It was generally agreed to mean any television service of over 200 vertical lines. Angmering 16:52, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:1936 in television


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MIDlet

A MIDlet is an application that uses the Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP) of the Connected Limited Device Configuration (CLDC) for the Java ME environment. Typical applications include games running on mobile devices and cell phones which have small graphical displays, simple numeric keypad interfaces and limited network access over HTTP. MIDlet can run on Android devices via the J2ME Loader emulator application.

The  file describing a MIDlet suite is used to deploy the applications in one of two ways. Over the air (OTA) deployment involves uploading the  and   files to a Web server which is accessible by the device over HTTP. The user downloads the  file and installs the MIDlets they require. Local deployment requires that the MIDlet files be transferred to the device over a non-network connection (such as through Bluetooth or IrDa, and may involve device-specific software). Phones that support microSD cards can sometimes install .jar or .jad files that have been transferred to the memory card.

Restrictions
Unlike a Java applet, a MIDlet is limited to use of the LCDUI rather than the more familiar widgets of AWT and Swing. There are also restrictions on the size of  files and the number of concurrent HTTP connections based on the MIDP specification.

title: MIDlet


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Whitelist

A whitelist or allowlist is a list or register of entities that are being provided a particular privilege, service, mobility, access or recognition. Entities on the list will be accepted, approved and/or recognized. Whitelisting is the reverse of blacklisting, the practice of identifying entities that are denied, unrecognised, or ostracised.

Email whitelists
Spam filters often include the ability to "whitelist" certain sender IP addresses, email addresses or domain names to protect their email from being rejected or sent to a junk mail folder. These can be manually maintained by the user or system administrator - but can also refer to externally maintained whitelist services.

Non-commercial whitelists
Non-commercial whitelists are operated by various non-profit organisations, ISPs, and others interested in blocking spam. Rather than paying fees, the sender must pass a series of tests; for example, their email server must not be an open relay and have a static IP address. The operator of the whitelist may remove a server from the list if complaints are received.

Commercial whitelists
Commercial whitelists are a system by which an Internet service provider allows someone to bypass spam filters when sending email messages to its subscribers, in return for a pre-paid fee, either an annual or a per-message fee. A sender can then be more confident that their messages have reached recipients without being blocked, or having links or images stripped out of them, by spam filters. The purpose of commercial whitelists is to allow companies to reliably reach their customers by email.

Advertising whitelists
Many websites rely on ads as a source of revenue, but the use of ad blockers is increasingly common. Websites that detect an adblocker in use often ask for it to be disabled - or their site to be "added to the whitelist" - a standard feature of most adblockers.

LAN whitelists
A use for whitelists is in local area network (LAN) security. Many network admins set up MAC address whitelists, or a MAC address filter, to control who is allowed on their networks. This is used when encryption is not a practical solution or in tandem with encryption. However, it's sometimes ineffective because a MAC address can be faked

IP whitelist
Firewalls can usually be configured to only allow data-traffic from/to certain (ranges of) IP-addresses.

Application whitelists
One approach in combating viruses and malware is to whitelist software which is considered safe to run, blocking all others. This is particularly attractive in a corporate environment, where there are typically already restrictions on what software is approved.

Leading providers of application whitelisting technology include Bit9, Velox, McAfee, Lumension, ThreatLocker, Airlock Digital and SMAC

On Microsoft Windows, recent versions include AppLocker, which allows administrators to control which executable files are denied or allowed to execute. With AppLocker, administrators are able to create rules based on file names, publishers or file location that will allow certain files to execute. Rules can apply to individuals or groups. Policies are used to group users into different enforcement levels. For example, some users can be added to a report-only policy that will allow administrators to understand the impact before moving that user to a higher enforcement level.

Linux systems typically have AppArmor and SE Linux features available which can be used to effectively block all applications which are not explicitly whitelisted, and commercial products are also available.

On HP-UX introduced a feature called "HP-UX Whitelisting" on 11iv3 version.

Controversy regarding name
In 2018, a journal commentary on a report on predatory publishing was released making claims that "white" and "black" are racially charged terms that need to be avoided in instances such as "whitelist" and "blacklist". The journal became mainstream in Summer 2020 following the George Floyd protests in America wherein a black man was murdered by an officer, sparking protests on police brutality.

The premise of the journal is that "black" and "white" have negative and positive connotations respectively. It states that since "blacklisting" was first referred to during "the time of mass enslavement and forced deportation of Africans to work in European-held colonies in the Americas," the word is therefore related to race. There is no mention of "whitelist" and its origin or relation to race.

This issue is most widely disputed in computing industries where "whitelist" and "blacklist" are prevalent (e.g. IP whitelisting ). Despite the commentary nature of the journal, some companies and individuals in others have taken to replacing "whitelist" and "blacklist" with new alternatives such as "allow list" and "deny list". Those adopting this change consider using the "whitelist"/"blacklist" names as a code smell.

Those that oppose these changes question its attribution to race, citing the same etymology quote that the 2018 journal uses. According to the remark, the term "blacklist" evolved from the term "black book" about a century ago. The term "black book" does not appear to have any etymology or sources that support racial associations, instead originating in the 1400s as a reference to "a list of people who had committed crimes or fallen out of favor with leaders", and popularized by King Henry VIII's literal use of a black book. Others also note the prevalence of positive and negative connotations to "white" and "black" in the Bible, predating attributions to skin tone and slavery. It wasn't until the 1960s Black Power movement that "Black" became a widespread word to refer to one's race as a person of color in America (alternate to African-American) lending itself to the argument that the negative connotation behind "black" and "blacklist" both predate attribution to race.

title: Whitelist


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Instrumental temperature record

The instrumental temperature record is a record of temperatures within Earth's climate based on direct measurement of air temperature and ocean temperature. Instrumental temperature records do not use indirect reconstructions using climate proxy data such as from tree rings and marine sediments. Instead, data is collected from thousands of meteorological stations, buoys and ships around the globe. Areas that are densely populated tend to have a high density of measurement points. In contrast, temperature observations are more spread out in sparsely populated areas such as polar regions and deserts, as well as in many regions of Africa and South America. In the past, thermometers were read manually to record temperatures. Nowadays, measurements are usually connected with electronic sensors which transmit data automatically. Surface temperature data is usually presented as anomalies rather than as absolute values. A temperature anomaly is presented compared to a reference value, also called baseline period or long-term average, usually a period of 30 years. For example, a commonly used baseline period is the time period from 1951 to 1980.

The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series, which starts in 1659. The longest-running quasi-global records start in 1850. For temperature measurements in the upper atmosphere a variety of methods can be used. This includes radiosondes launched using weather balloons, a variety of satellites, and aircraft. Satellites can monitor temperatures in the upper atmosphere but are not commonly used to measure temperature change at the surface. Ocean temperatures at different depths are measured to add to global surface temperature datasets. This data is also used to calculate the ocean heat content.

The data clearly shows a rising trend in global average surface temperatures (i.e. global warming) and this is due to emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature show a warming of 1.09 °C (range: 0.95 to 1.20 °C) from 1850–1900 to 2011–2020, based on multiple independently produced datasets. The trend is faster since 1970s than in any other 50-year period over at least the last 2000 years. Within that upward trend, some variability in temperatures happens because of natural internal variability (for example due to El Niño–Southern Oscillation).

Methods
Instrumental temperature records are based on direct, instrument-based measurements of air temperature and ocean temperature, unlike indirect reconstructions using climate proxy data such as from tree rings and ocean sediments. The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series, which starts in 1659. The longest-running quasi-global records start in 1850. Temperatures on other time scales are explained in global temperature record.

"Global temperature" can have different definitions. There is a small difference between air and surface temperatures.

Global record from 1850
The period for which reasonably reliable instrumental records of near-surface temperature exist with quasi-global coverage is generally considered to begin around 1850. Earlier records exist, but with sparser coverage, largely confined to the Northern Hemisphere, and less standardized instrumentation.

The temperature data for the record come from measurements from land stations and ships. On land, temperatures are measured either using electronic sensors, or mercury or alcohol thermometers which are read manually, with the instruments being sheltered from direct sunlight using a shelter such as a Stevenson screen. The sea record consists of ships taking sea temperature measurements, mostly from hull-mounted sensors, engine inlets or buckets, and more recently includes measurements from moored and drifting buoys. The land and marine records can be compared.

Land and sea measurement and instrument calibration is the responsibility of national meteorological services. Standardization of methods is organized through the World Meteorological Organization (and formerly through its predecessor, the International Meteorological Organization).

Most meteorological observations are taken for use in weather forecasts. Centers such as European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts show instantaneous map of their coverage; or the Hadley Centre show the coverage for the average of the year 2000. Coverage for earlier in the 20th and 19th centuries would be significantly less. While temperature changes vary both in size and direction from one location to another, the numbers from different locations are combined to produce an estimate of a global average change.

Satellite and balloon temperature records (1950s–present)
Weather balloon radiosonde measurements of atmospheric temperature at various altitudes begin to show an approximation of global coverage in the 1950s. Since December 1978, microwave sounding units on satellites have produced data which can be used to infer temperatures in the troposphere.

Several groups have analyzed the satellite data to calculate temperature trends in the troposphere. Both the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) and the private, NASA funded, corporation Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) find an upward trend. For the lower troposphere, UAH found a global average trend between 1978 and 2019 of 0.130 degrees Celsius per decade. RSS found a trend of 0.148 degrees Celsius per decade, to January 2011.

In 2004 scientists found trends of +0.19 degrees Celsius per decade when applied to the RSS dataset. Others found 0.20 degrees Celsius per decade up between 1978 and 2005, since which the dataset has not been updated.

The most recent climate model simulations give a range of results for changes in global-average temperature. Some models show more warming in the troposphere than at the surface, while a slightly smaller number of simulations show the opposite behaviour. There is no fundamental inconsistency among these model results and observations at the global scale.

The satellite records used to show much smaller warming trends for the troposphere which were considered to disagree with model prediction; however, following revisions to the satellite records, the trends are now similar.

Absolute temperatures v. anomalies
Records of global average surface temperature are usually presented as anomalies rather than as absolute temperatures. A temperature anomaly is measured against a reference value (also called baseline period or long-term average). For example, a commonly used baseline period is 1951-1980. Therefore, if the average temperature for that time period was 15 °C, and the currently measured temperature is 17 °C, then the temperature anomaly is +2 °C.

Temperature anomalies are useful for deriving average surface temperatures because they tend to be highly correlated over large distances (of the order of 1000 km). In other words, anomalies are representative of temperature changes over large areas and distances. By comparison, absolute temperatures vary markedly over even short distances. A dataset based on anomalies will also be less sensitive to changes in the observing network (such as a new station opening in a particularly hot or cold location) than one based on absolute values will be.

The Earth's average surface absolute temperature for the 1961–1990 period has been derived by spatial interpolation of average observed near-surface air temperatures from over the land, oceans and sea ice regions, with a best estimate of 14 °C (57.2 °F). The estimate is uncertain, but probably lies within 0.5 °C of the true value. Given the difference in uncertainties between this absolute value and any annual anomaly, it's not valid to add them together to imply a precise absolute value for a specific year.

Total warming and trends
The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature, show a warming of 1.09 °C (range: 0.95 to 1.20 °C) from 1850–1900 to 2011–2020, based on multiple independently produced datasets. The trend is faster since 1970s than in any other 50-year period over at least the last 2000 years.

Most of the observed warming occurred in two periods: around 1900 to around 1940 and around 1970 onwards; the cooling/plateau from 1940 to 1970 has been mostly attributed to sulfate aerosol. Some of the temperature variations over this time period may also be due to ocean circulation patterns.

Land air temperatures are rising faster than sea surface temperatures. Land temperatures have warmed by 1.59 °C (range: 1.34 to 1.83 °C) from 1850–1900 to 2011–2020, while sea surface temperatures have warmed by 0.88 °C (range: 0.68 to 1.01 °C) over the same period.

For 1980 to 2020, the linear warming trend for combined land and sea temperatures has been 0.18 °C to 0.20 °C per decade, depending on the data set used.

It is unlikely that any uncorrected effects from urbanisation, or changes in land use or land cover, have raised global land temperature changes by more than 10%. However, larger urbanisation signals have been found locally in some rapidly urbanising regions, such as eastern China.

Warmest years

The warmest years in the instrumental temperature record have occurred in the last decade (i.e. 2012-2021). The World Meteorological Organization reported in 2021 that 2016 and 2020 were the two warmest years in the period since 1850.

Each individual year from 2015 onwards has been warmer than any prior year going back to at least 1850. In other words: each of the seven years in 2015-2021 was clearly warmer than any pre-2014 year.

The year 2023 was by 1.48 °C hotter than the average in the years 1850-1900 according to the Copernicus Climate Change Service. It was declared as the warmest on record almost immediately after it ended and broke many climate records.

There is a long-term warming trend, and there is variability about this trend because of natural sources of variability (e.g. ENSO such as 2014–2016 El Niño event, volcanic eruption). Not every year will set a record but record highs are occurring regularly.

While record-breaking years can attract considerable public interest, individual years are less significant than the overall trend. Some climatologists have criticized the attention that the popular press gives to "warmest year" statistics.

Based on the NOAA dataset (note that other datasets produce different rankings ), the following table lists the global combined land and ocean annually averaged temperature rank and anomaly for each of the 10 warmest years on record. For comparison: IPCC uses the mean of four different datasets and expresses the data relative to 1850–1900. Although global instrumental temperature records begin only in 1850, reconstructions of earlier temperatures based on climate proxies, suggest these recent years may be the warmest for several centuries to millennia, or longer.

Warmest decades

Numerous drivers have been found to influence annual global mean temperatures. An examination of the average global temperature changes by decades reveals continuing climate change: each of the last four decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's surface than any preceding decade since 1850. The most recent decade (2011-2020) was warmer than any multi-centennial period in the past 11,700 years.

The following chart is from NASA data of combined land-surface air and sea-surface water temperature anomalies.

Factors influencing global temperature
Factors that influence global temperature include:

 * Greenhouse gases trap outgoing radiation warming the atmosphere which in turn warms the land (greenhouse effect).
 * El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO): El Niño generally tends to increase global temperatures. La Niña, on the other hand, usually causes years which are cooler than the short-term average. El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña the cold phase. In the absence of other short-term influences such as volcanic eruptions, strong El Niño years are typically 0.1 °C to 0.2 °C warmer than the years immediately preceding and following them, and strong La Niña years 0.1 °C to 0.2 °C cooler. The signal is most prominent in the year in which the El Niño/La Niña ends.
 * Aerosols and volcanic eruptions: Aerosols diffuse incoming radiation generally cooling the planet. On a long-term basis, aerosols are primarily of anthropogenic origin, but major volcanic eruptions can produce quantities of aerosols which exceed those from anthropogenic sources over periods of time up to a few years. Volcanic eruptions which are sufficiently large to inject significant quantities of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere can have a significant global cooling effect for one to three years after the eruption. This effect is most prominent for tropical volcanoes as the resultant aerosols can spread over both hemispheres. The largest eruptions of the last 100 years, such as the Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991 and Mount Agung eruption in 1963-1964, have been followed by years with global mean temperatures 0.1 °C to 0.2 °C below long-term trends at the time.
 * Land use change like deforestation can increase greenhouse gases through burning biomass. Albedo can also be changed.
 * Incoming solar radiation varies very slightly, with the main variation controlled by the approximately 11-year solar magnetic activity cycle.

Robustness of evidence
There is a scientific consensus that climate is changing and that greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver. The scientific consensus is reflected, for example, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international body which summarizes existing science, and the U.S. Global Change Research Program.

The methods used to derive the principal estimates of global surface temperature trends—HadCRUT3, NOAA and NASA/GISS—are largely independent.

Other reports and assessments

The U.S. National Academy of Sciences, both in its 2002 report to President George W. Bush, and in later publications, has strongly endorsed evidence of an average global temperature increase in the 20th century.

The preliminary results of an assessment carried out by the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature group and made public in October 2011, found that over the past 50 years the land surface warmed by 0.911 °C, and their results mirrors those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the NOAA, the Hadley Centre and NASA's GISS. The study addressed concerns raised by "skeptics" including urban heat island effect, "poor" station quality, and the "issue of data selection bias" and found that these effects did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies.

The Berkeley Earth dataset has subsequently been made operational and is now one of the datasets used by IPCC and WMO in their assessments.

Global surface and ocean datasets
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) maintains the Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN-Monthly) data base containing historical temperature, precipitation, and pressure data for thousands of land stations worldwide. Also, NOAA's National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) of surface temperature measurements maintains a global temperature record since 1880.

HadCRUT, a collaboration between the University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit and the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies maintains GISTEMP.

More recently the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature dataset. These datasets are updated frequently, and are generally in close agreement.

Internal climate variability and global warming
One of the issues that has been raised in the media is the view that global warming "stopped in 1998". This view ignores the presence of internal climate variability. Internal climate variability is a result of complex interactions between components of the climate system, such as the coupling between the atmosphere and ocean. An example of internal climate variability is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The El Niño in 1998 was particularly strong, possibly one of the strongest of the 20th century, and 1998 was at the time the world's warmest year on record by a substantial margin.

Cooling over the 2007 to 2012 period, for instance, was likely driven by internal modes of climate variability such as La Niña. The area of cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures that defines La Niña conditions can push global temperatures downward, if the phenomenon is strong enough. The slowdown in global warming rates over the 1998 to 2012 period is also less pronounced in current generations of observational datasets than in those available at the time in 2012. The temporary slowing of warming rates ended after 2012, with every year from 2015 onwards warmer than any year prior to 2015, but it is expected that warming rates will continue to fluctuate on decadal timescales through the 21st century.

Siting of temperature measurement stations
The U.S. National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program has established minimum standards regarding the instrumentation, siting, and reporting of surface temperature stations. The observing systems available are able to detect year-to-year temperature variations such as those caused by El Niño or volcanic eruptions.

Another study concluded in 2006, that existing empirical techniques for validating the local and regional consistency of temperature data are adequate to identify and remove biases from station records, and that such corrections allow information about long-term trends to be preserved. A study in 2013 also found that urban bias can be accounted for, and when all available station data is divided into rural and urban, that both temperature sets are broadly consistent.

Trends and predictions
Each of the seven years in 2015-2021 was clearly warmer than any pre-2014 year, and this trend is expected to be true for some time to come (that is, the 2016 record will be broken before 2026 etc.). A decadal forecast by the World Meteorological Organisation issued in 2021 stated a probability of 40% of having a year above 1.5 C in the 2021-2025 period.

Global warming is very likely to reach 1.0 °C to 1.8 °C by the late 21st century under the very low GHG emissions scenario. In an intermediate scenario global warming would reach 2.1 °C to 3.5 °C, and 3.3 °C to 5.7 °C under the very high GHG emissions scenario. These projections are based on climate models in combination with observations.

Regional temperature changes
The changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics. There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans.

title: Instrumental temperature record