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Pomona College

Pomona College is a private liberal arts college in Claremont, California. It was established in 1887 by a group of Congregationalists who wanted to recreate a "college of the New England type" in Southern California. In 1925, it became the founding member of the Claremont Colleges consortium of adjacent, affiliated institutions.

Pomona is a four-year undergraduate institution that approximately  students. It offers 48 majors in liberal arts disciplines and roughly 650 courses, as well as access to more than 2,000 additional courses at the other Claremont Colleges. Its undefined undefined campus is in a residential community 35 mi east of downtown Los Angeles, near the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains.

Pomona has the lowest acceptance rate of any U.S. liberal arts college and is considered the most prestigious liberal arts college in the American West and one of the most prestigious in the country. It has a $ endowment, making it one of the 10 wealthiest schools in the U.S. on a per student basis. Nearly all students live on campus, and the student body is noted for its racial, geographic, and socioeconomic  diversity. The college's athletics teams, the Sagehens, compete jointly with Pitzer College in the SCIAC, a Division III conference.

Prominent alumni of Pomona include Oscar, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony award winners; U.S. Senators, ambassadors, and other federal officials; Pulitzer Prize recipients; billionaire executives; a Nobel Prize laureate; National Academies members; and Olympic athletes. The college is a top producer of Fulbright scholars and recipients of other fellowships.

Founding era

Pomona College was established as a coeducational and nonsectarian Christian institution on October 14, 1887, amidst a real estate boom and anticipated population influx precipitated by the arrival of a transcontinental railroad to Southern California. Its founders, a regional group of Congregationalists, sought to create a "college of the New England type", emulating the institutions where many of them had been educated. Classes first began at Ayer Cottage, a rental house in Pomona, California, on September 12, 1888, with a permanent campus planned at Piedmont Mesa four miles north of the city. That year, as the real estate bubble burst, making the Piedmont campus financially untenable, the college was offered the site of an unfinished hotel (later renamed Sumner Hall ) in the nearby, recently founded town of Claremont. It moved there but kept its name. Trustee Charles B. Sumner led the college during its first years, helping hire its first official president, Cyrus G. Baldwin, in 1890. The first graduating class, in 1894, had 11 members.

Pomona suffered through a severe financial crisis during its early years, but raised enough money to add several buildings to its campus. Although the first Asian and black students enrolled in 1897 and 1900, respectively, the student body (like most others of the era) remained almost all white throughout this period. In 1905, during president George A. Gates' tenure, the college acquired a 64 acre parcel of land to its east known as the Wash. In 1911, as high schools became more common in the region, the college eliminated its preparatory department, which had taught pre-college level courses. The following year, it committed to a liberal arts model, soon after turning its previously separate schools of art and music into departments within the college. In 1914, the Phi Beta Kappa honor society established a chapter at the college. Daily attendance at chapel was mandated until 1921, and student culture emphasized athletics and academic class rivalries. During World War I, male students were divided into three military companies and a Red Cross unit to assist in the war effort.

Mid-20th century

Confronted with growing demand in the 1920s, Pomona's fourth president, James A. Blaisdell, considered whether to grow the college into a large university that could acquire additional resources or remain a small institution capable of providing a more intimate educational experience. Seeking both, he pursued an alternative path inspired by the collegiate university model he observed at Oxford, envisioning a group of independent colleges sharing centralized resources such as a library. On October 14, 1925, Pomona's 38th anniversary, the college founded the Claremont Colleges consortium. Construction of the Clark dormitories on North Campus (then the men's campus) began in 1929, a reflection of president Charles Edmunds' prioritization of the college's residential life. Edmunds, who had previously served as president of Lingnan University in Guangzhou, China, inspired a growing interest in Asian culture at the college and established its Asian studies program.

Pomona's enrollment declined during the Great Depression as students became unable to afford tuition, and its budget was slashed by a quarter. The college reoriented itself toward wartime activities again during World War II, hosting an Air Force military meteorology program and Army Specialized Training Program courses in engineering and foreign languages.

Postwar transformations
Pomona's longest-serving president, E. Wilson Lyon, guided the college through a transformational and turbulent period from 1941 to 1969. The college's enrollment rose above 1,000 following the war, leading to the construction of several residence halls and science facilities. Its endowment grew steadily, due in part to the introduction in 1942 of a deferred giving fundraising scheme pioneered by Allen Hawley called the Pomona Plan, where participants receive a lifetime annuity in exchange for donating to the college upon their death. The plan's model has since been adopted by many other colleges.

Lyon made several progressive decisions relating to civil rights, including supporting Japanese-American students during internment and establishing an exchange program in 1952 with Fisk University, a historically black university in Tennessee. He and dean of women Jean Walton ended the gender segregation of Pomona's residential life, first with the opening of Frary Dining Hall (then part of the men's campus) to women beginning in 1957 and later with the elimination of parietal rules in the late 1960s and the introduction of co-educational housing in 1968. The student body, influenced by the countercultural revolution, became less socially conservative and more politically engaged in this era. Protesters opposed to the Vietnam War occupied Sumner Hall to obstruct Air Force recruiters in 1968 and forced the cancellation of classes at the end of the spring 1970 semester. The college's ethnic diversity also began to increase, and activists successfully pushed the consortium to establish black and Latino studies programs in 1969. A bomb exploded at the Carnegie Building that February, permanently injuring a secretary; no culprit was ever identified.

During the tenure of president David Alexander from 1969 to 1991, Pomona gained increased prominence on the national stage. The endowment increased ten-fold, enabling the construction and renovation of a number of buildings. Several identity-based groups, such as the Pomona College Women's Union (founded in 1984), were established. In the mid-1980s, out-of-state students began to outnumber in-state students.

In 1991, the college converted the dormitory basements used by fraternities into lounges, arguing that this created a more equitable distribution of campus space. The move lowered the profile of Greek life on campus.

21st century
In the 2000s, under president David W. Oxtoby, Pomona began placing more emphasis on reducing its environmental impact, committing in 2003 to obtaining LEED certifications for new buildings  and launching various sustainability initiatives. The college also entered partnerships with several college access groups (including the Posse Foundation in 2004 and QuestBridge in 2005 ) and committed to meeting the full demonstrated financial need of students through grants rather than loans in 2008. These efforts, combined with Pomona's previously instituted need-blind admission policy, resulted in increased enrollment of low-income and racial minority students.

In 2008, it was discovered that Pomona's alma mater may have been originally written to be sung as the ensemble finale to a student-produced blackface minstrel show performed on campus in 1910. The college stopped singing it at convocation and commencement, alienating some alumni.

Pomona requested proof of legal residency from employees amid a unionization drive by dining hall workers in 2011. Seventeen workers who were unable to provide documentation were fired, drawing national media attention and sparking criticism from activists; the dining hall staff voted to unionize in 2013. A rebranding initiative that year sought to emphasize students' passion and drive, angering students who thought it would lead to a more stressful culture. Several protests in the 2010s criticized the college's handling of sexual assault, leading to various reforms.

In 2017, G. Gabrielle Starr became Pomona's tenth president; she is the first woman and first African American to hold the office. From March 2020 through the spring 2021 semester, the college switched to online instruction in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Campus

Pomona's undefined undefined campus is in Claremont, California, an affluent suburban residential community 35 mi east of downtown Los Angeles. It is directly northwest of the Claremont Village (the city's downtown commercial district) and directly south of the other contiguous Claremont Colleges. The area has a Mediterranean climate and consists of a gentle slope from the alluvial fan of San Antonio Creek in the San Gabriel Mountains to the north.

In its early years, Pomona quickly expanded from its initial home in Sumner Hall, constructing several buildings to accommodate its growing enrollment and ambitions. Starting in 1908, development of the campus was guided by master plans from architect Myron Hunt, who envisioned a central quadrangle flanked by buildings connected via visual axes. In 1923, landscape architect Ralph Cornell expanded on Hunt's plans, envisioning a "college in a garden" defined by native Southern California vegetation but incorporating global influences in the tradition of the acclimatization movement. President James Blaisdell's decision to purchase undeveloped land around Pomona while it was still available later gave the college room to grow and found the consortium. Many of the earlier buildings were constructed in the Mission Revival and Spanish Colonial Revival styles, with stucco walls and red terracotta tile roofs. Other and later construction incorporated elements of neoclassical, Victorian, Italian Romanesque, modern, and postmodern styles. As a result, the present campus features a blend of architectural styles. Most buildings are three or fewer stories in height, and are designed to facilitate both indoor and outdoor use.

Athern Field, Pomona College (cropped).jpg Platinum certified.
 * alt=Dialynas and Sontag residence halls, contemporary buildings]]

The campus consists of 88 facilities, including 70 addressed buildings. It is bounded by First Street on the south, Mills and Amherst Avenues on the east, Eighth Street on the north, and Harvard Avenue on the west. It is informally divided into North Campus and South Campus by Sixth Street, with most academic buildings in the western half and a naturalistic area known as the Wash in the east. It has been featured in numerous films and television shows, often standing in for other schools.

Pomona has undertaken initiatives to make its campus more sustainable, including requiring that all new construction be built to LEED Gold standards, replacing turf with drought-tolerant landscaping, and committing to achieving carbon neutrality without the aid of purchased carbon credits by 2030. The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education gave the college a gold rating in its 2018 Sustainable Campus Index.

South Campus
South Campus consists of mostly first-year and second-year housing and academic buildings for the social sciences, arts, and humanities.

A row of four residence halls is south of Bonita Avenue, with Frank Dining Hall at the eastern end. Sumner Hall, the home of admissions and several other administrative departments, is to the north of the dormitories. Oldenborg Center, a foreign-language housing option that includes a foreign-language dining hall, is across from Sumner.

[[File:Marston Quad viewed through a California sycamore.jpg|thumb|Marston Quadrangle forms the center of Pomona's campus.
 * alt=Green lawn framed by California sycamore trees with early autumn foliage]]

South Campus has several arts buildings and performance venues. Bridges Auditorium ("Big Bridges") is used for concerts and speakers and has a capacity of 2,500. Bridges Hall of Music ("Little Bridges") is a concert hall with seating for 550. On the western edge of campus is the Benton Museum of Art, which has a collection of approximately  including Italian Renaissance panel paintings, indigenous American art and artifacts, and American and European prints, drawings, and photographs. The Seaver Theatre Complex has a 335-seat thrust stage theater and 125-seat black box theater, among other facilities. The Studio Art Hall garnered national recognition for its steel-frame design when it was completed in 2014.

Pomona's main social science and humanities buildings are located west of College Avenue. They include the Carnegie Building, a neoclassical structure built in 1908 as a Carnegie library. Several historic Victorian houses line the southern portion of the avenue, including the Queen Anne–style Renwick House, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.

Marston Quadrangle, a 5 acre lawn framed by California sycamore and coastal redwood trees, serves as a central artery for the campus, anchored by Carnegie on the west and Bridges Auditorium on the east. To its north is Alexander Hall, the college's central administration building, and the Smith Campus Center (SCC), home to many student services and communal spaces. East of the SCC is the Center for Athletics, Recreation and Wellness (Pomona's primary indoor athletics and recreation facility) and Smiley Hall dormitory, built in 1908.

At the intersection of Sixth Street and College Avenue are the college gates, built in 1914, which mark the historical northern edge of the campus. They bear two quotes from President Blaisdell Pomona's fourth president, James A. Blaisdell. On the north is "let only the eager, thoughtful and reverent enter here", and on the south is "They only are loyal to this college who departing bear their added riches in trust for mankind". Per campus tradition, enrolling students walk south through the gates during orientation and seniors walk north through them shortly before graduation.

The less-developed 40 acre eastern portion of the campus is known as the Wash (formally Blanchard Park ), and contains a large grove of coast live oak trees, as well as many of the college's athletics facilities, an outdoor amphitheater, an astronomical observatory, and the Pomona College Organic Farm, an experiment in sustainable agriculture.

North Campus
North Campus was designed by architect Sumner Spaulding, and its initial phase was completed in 1930. It consists primarily of residential buildings for third- and fourth-year students and academic buildings for the natural sciences.

The academic buildings are located to the west of North College Way. This area includes Dividing the Light (2007), a skyspace by Light and Space artist and alumnus James Turrell.

The residence halls include the Clark halls (I, III, and V) and several more recent constructions. The North Campus dining hall, Frary Dining Hall, features a vaulted ceiling and is the location of the murals Prometheus (1930) by José Clemente Orozco, the first Mexican fresco in the U.S., and Genesis (1960) by Rico Lebrun.

Other facilities
The college owns the 53 acre Trails Ends Ranch (a wilderness area in the Webb Canyon north of campus), the 320 acre Mildred Pitt Ranch in southeastern Monterey County, and the Halona Lodge retreat center in Idyllwild, California. The astronomy department built and operates a telescope at the Table Mountain Observatory in Big Pines, California.

Along the north side of campus are several joint buildings maintained by The Claremont Colleges Services. The consortium also owns the Robert J. Bernard Field Station north of Foothill Boulevard.

Governance
Pomona is governed as a private, nonprofit organization by a board of trustees responsible for overseeing the long-term interests of the college. The board consists of up to 42 members, most of whom are elected by existing members to four-year terms with a term limit of 12 years. It is responsible for hiring the college's president ( since ), approving budgets, setting overarching policies, and various other tasks. The president, in turn, oversees the college's general operation, assisted by administrative staff and a faculty cabinet. The college has total employees as of the   semester. Pomona operates under a shared governance model, in which faculty and students sit on many policymaking committees and have a degree of control over other major decisions.

Academic affiliations

Pomona is the founding member of the Claremont Colleges (colloquially "7Cs", for "seven colleges"), a consortium of five undergraduate liberal arts colleges ("5Cs")—Pomona, Scripps, Claremont McKenna, Harvey Mudd, and Pitzer—and two graduate schools—Claremont Graduate University and Keck Graduate Institute. All are located in Claremont. Although each member has individual autonomy and a distinct identity, there is substantial collaboration through The Claremont Colleges Services (TCCS), a coordinating entity that manages the central library, campus safety services, health services, and other resources. Overall, the 7Cs have been praised by higher education experts for their close cooperation, although there have been occasional tensions. Pomona is the largest undergraduate and wealthiest member.

Pomona is a member of several other consortia of selective colleges, including the Consortium of Liberal Arts Colleges, the Oberlin Group, and the Annapolis Group. The college is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission, which reaffirmed its status in 2021 with particular praise for its diversity initiatives.

Finances, costs, and financial aid
Pomona has an endowment of $, giving it one of the 10 highest endowments per student of any college or university in the U.S. The college's total assets (including its campus) are valued at $. Its operating budget for the academic year  $, of which roughly half  funded by endowment earnings. In 2022, 43% of the budget was allocated to instruction, 2% to research, 1% to public service, 14% to academic support, 16% to student services, and 25% to institutional support. In 2021, Fitch Ratings gave the college a AAA bond credit rating, its highest rating, reflecting an "extremely strong financial profile".

For the academic year, Pomona charged a tuition fee of US$, with a total estimated on-campus cost of attendance  of US$. In 20232024, 52% of students received a financial aid package, with an average award of $63,044, including 38% of international students, who received an average award of $73,927. The college meets the full demonstrated need of all admitted students, including international students, through grants rather than loans. It does not offer merit awards or athletic scholarships.

Academics and programs
Pomona offers instruction in the liberal arts disciplines and awards the Bachelor of Arts degree. The college operates on a semester system, with a normal course load of four full-credit classes per semester. 32 credits and a C average GPA are needed to graduate, along with the requirements of a major, a first-year critical inquiry seminar, at least one course in each of six "breadth of study" areas, proficiency in a foreign language, two physical education courses, a writing-intensive course, a speaking-intensive course, and an "analyzing difference" course (typically examining a type of structural inequality).

Pomona offers 48 majors, most of which also have a corresponding minor. For the 2023 graduation cohort, 21% of students majored in the arts and humanities, 39% in the natural sciences, 24% in the social sciences, and 16% in interdisciplinary fields. 19% of students completed a double major, 29% completed a minor, and 2% completed multiple minors. The college does not permit majoring in pre-professional disciplines such as medicine or law but offers academic advising for those areas and 3‑2 engineering programs with Caltech, Dartmouth, and Washington University.

Courses
Individually, Pomona offers approximately 650 courses per semester. Additionally, students may take a significant portion of their courses at the other Claremont Colleges, enabling access to approximately 2,700 courses total. The academic calendars and registration procedures across the colleges are synchronized and consolidated, and there are no additional fees for cross-enrollment. Students may also create independent study courses evaluated by faculty mentors.

All classes at Pomona are taught by professors (as opposed to teaching assistants). The average class size is 15; for the fall 2023 semester, 92% of traditional courses had under 30 students, and only two courses had 50 or more students. The college employs faculty members as of the   semester, approximately four-fifths of whom are full-time, resulting in a  ratio of students to full-time equivalent professors. Among full-time faculty, 36% are members of racial minority groups, 52% are women, and 96% have a doctorate or other terminal degree in their field. Students and professors often form close relationships, and the college provides faculty with free meals to encourage them to eat with students. Semesters end with a week-long final examination period preceded by two reading days. The college operates several resource centers to help students develop academic skills in quantitative tasks, writing, and foreign languages.

Research, study abroad, and professional development
More than half of Pomona students conduct research with faculty. The college sponsors an annual Summer Undergraduate Research Program (SURP), in which more than 200 students are paid a stipend of up to $5,600 to conduct research with professors or pursue independent research projects with professorial mentorship. The Pomona College Humanities Studio, established in 2018, supports research in the humanities. Pomona is home to the Pacific Basin Institute, a research institute that studies issues pertaining to the Pacific Rim.

Approximately half of Pomona students study abroad. , the college offers 68 pre-approved programs in 37 countries. Study-away programs are available for Washington, D.C., Silicon Valley, and the Marine Biological Laboratory in Massachusetts, and semester exchanges are offered at Colby, Spelman, and Swarthmore colleges.

The Pomona College Career Development Office (CDO) provides students and alumni with career advising, networking, and other pre-professional opportunities. It runs the Pomona College Internship Program (PCIP), which provides stipends for completing unpaid or underpaid internships during the semester or summer; more than 250 students participate annually. The office connects students with alumni for networking and mentoring via the Sagehen Connect platform. During the 20152016 academic year, 175 employers hosted on-site informational events at the Claremont Colleges and 265 unique organizations were represented in 9 career fairs.

Outcomes

For the entering class,  of students returned for their second year, giving Pomona one of the highest retention rates of any college or university in the U.S. For the  entering class,  of students graduated within four years (among the highest rate of any U.S. college or university ) and   graduated within six years.

Within 10 years, 81% of Pomona graduates attend graduate or professional school, according to a 2017 alumni survey. The college ranked 11th among all U.S. colleges and universities for doctorates awarded to alumni per capita, according to data collected by the National Science Foundation for 2012 to 2021. The top destinations between 2009 and 2018 (in order) were the University of California, Los Angeles; the University of California, Berkeley; Harvard University; the University of Southern California; and Stanford University. A 2023 analysis of the schools that send the most students per capita to the highest-ranked U.S. medical, business, and law schools placed Pomona 17th for medical schools, 22nd for business schools, and 14th for law schools.

The top industries for graduates are technology; education; consulting and professional services; finance; government, law, and politics; arts, entertainment, and media; healthcare and social services; nonprofits; and research. Pomona alumni earn a median early career salary of $73,700 and a median mid-career salary of $146,400, according to 2023 survey data from compensation analytics company PayScale.

Pomona ranks among the top producers of recipients of various competitive postgraduate fellowships, including the Churchill Scholarship, Fulbright Program, Goldwater Scholarship, Marshall Scholarship, National Science Foundation graduate research fellowship, and Rhodes Scholarship.

Reputation and rankings
Pomona is considered the most prestigious liberal arts college in the Western United States and one of the most prestigious in the country. However, among the broader public, it has less name recognition than many larger schools.

The 2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking places Pomona fourth in the national liberal arts colleges category out of 211 colleges. Pomona has been ranked in the top 10 liberal arts colleges every year by U.S. News since it began ranking them in 1984, and is one of five schools with such a history, alongside Amherst, Swarthmore, Wellesley, and Williams.

Pomona has rated similarly in other college rankings. In 2015, the Forbes ranking placed it first among all colleges and universities in the U.S., drawing media attention. Pomona is the third most desirable college or university in the U.S., according to a 2020 analysis of admitted students' revealed preferences among their college choices conducted by the digital credential service Parchment.

Admissions
Pomona offers three routes for students to apply: the Common Application, the QuestBridge application, and the Coalition Application. Applicants who want an earlier, binding decision can apply via early decision I or II; others apply through regular decision. Additionally, the college enrolls two 10-student Posse Foundation cohorts, from Chicago and Miami, in each class.

Pomona considers various factors in its admissions process, placing greatest importance on course rigor, class rank, GPA, application essays, recommendations, extracurricular activities, talent, and character. Interviews, test scores, first generation status, geographic residence, volunteer work, and work experience are considered. Alumni relationships, religious affiliation, and level of interest are not considered. Admission is need-blind for students who are U.S. citizens, permanent residents, DACA recipients, undocumented, or graduates of a U.S. high school, and need-aware for international students. The college is part of many coalitions and initiatives targeted at recruiting underrepresented demographics.

Pomona has the lowest acceptance rate of any national liberal arts college in the U.S. . The college admitted NaN% of applicants for the entering class chose to enroll. The number of transfer applicants admitted has varied by year; in 2023, Pomona admitted 34 of 474 applicants (7.2%).

Student body
, Pomona's student body of  degree-seeking undergraduate students and a token number of non–degree seeking students. Compared to its closest liberal arts peers, Pomona has been characterized as laid back, academically oriented, mildly quirky, and politically liberal.

The student body is roughly evenly split between men and women, and 91% of students are under 22 years old. Approximately 64% of domestic students are non-white and 12% of students are international, making Pomona one of the most racially and ethnically diverse colleges in the U.S.  The geographic origins of the student body are also diverse, with all 50 U.S. states, the major U.S. territories, and more than 60 foreign countries represented. Students from California make up 31%, with sizable concentrations from the other western states. The median family income of students was $166,500, with 52% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 22% from the bottom 60%. The college has been increasing its enrollment of low-income students since the early 2000s, and was ranked second among all private institutions and eighth among all institutions in The New York Times' 2017 College Access Index, a measure of economic diversity. Various religious and spiritual beliefs are represented among students, with many leaning secular.

Among students in the 2023 entering class who submitted test scores, the middle 50% scored 730770 on the SAT evidence-based reading and writing section, 750790 on the SAT math section, and 3335 on the ACT. Among students with an official high school class rank, 85% ranked in the top tenth and 97% ranked in the top quarter.

Residential life
[[File:Dialynas Hall common room.jpg|thumb|left|Common room in a Dialynas Hall suite
 * alt=Room in Dialynas Hall with sofas, a coffee table, a refrigerator, and plants. There is light streaming through two open windows, a warm earth-toned color palette, and an exposed concrete column.]]

Pomona is a residential campus, and nearly all students live on campus for all four years in one of the college's sixteen residence halls. All first-year students live on South Campus, and most third- and fourth-year students live on North Campus. Housing is offered in various configurations, including singles, one-room or two-room doubles, and "friendship suites" consisting of a cluster of rooms, often around a central common area. All incoming students are placed into a sponsor group, with ten to twenty peers and two or three upper-class "sponsors" tasked with easing the transition to college life but not enforcing rules (a duty given to resident advisors). Sponsor groups often share activities such as "fountaining", a tradition in which students are thrown into a campus fountain on their birthday. The program dates back to 1927 for women and was expanded in 1950 to include men.

Pomona's social scene is intertwined with that of the other 5Cs, with many activities and events shared between the colleges. The college's alcohol policies are aimed at encouraging responsible consumption and include a strict ban of hard liquor on South Campus. Dedicated substance-free housing is also offered. Overall, drinking culture is present but does not dominate over other elements of campus life, nor does athletics culture. Violations of the student code are typically handled by the student-run Judicial Council, known as "J-Board".

[[File:Frary Dining Hall during the holidays.jpg|thumb|Frary Dining Hall on North Campus is the largest of Pomona's three dining halls.
 * alt=Interior of Frary Dining Hall]]

Pomona's dining services are run in house. All on-campus students are required to have a meal plan, which can be used at any of the Claremont Colleges' seven buffet-style dining halls. The menus emphasize sustainable and healthy options, and the food quality is generally praised. Every night Sunday through Wednesday, Frary Dining Hall opens for a late-night snack. Meal plans also include "Flex Dollars" usable at the various campus eateries, including the Coop Fountain, Coop Store, and sit-down Café 47 in the SCC.

Campus organizations
Some extracurricular organizations at Pomona are specific to the college, whereas others are open to students at all of the Claremont Colleges. In total, there are nearly 300 clubs and organizations across the 5Cs.

The Associated Students of Pomona College (ASPC) is Pomona's official student government. Composed of elected representatives and appointed committee members, ASPC distributes funding for clubs and organizations, represents the student body in discussions with the administration, runs student programming (such as the Yule Ball dance and Ski-Beach Day ) through the Pomona Events Committee (PEC), and provides various student services such as an airport rideshare program.

Pomona's yearbook, Metate, was founded in 1894 and discontinued in 2012. The college's official magazine, Pomona College Magazine, is published three times per year by the communications office.

Pomona has numerous clubs or support offices which provide resources and mentoring programs for students with particular identities, including female, non-white, Asian, South Asian, Latino, black, indigenous, multi-ethnic or multi-racial, international, queer, religious, and undocumented or DACA recipient students. The college's first-generation and low-income community, FLI Scholars, has more than 200 members. The Campus Advocates and EmPOWER Center support survivors of sexual violence and work to promote consent culture.

The Pomona Student Union (PSU) facilitates the discussion of political and social issues on campus by hosting discussions, panels, and debates with prominent speakers holding diverse viewpoints. Other speech and debate organizations include a mock trial team, model UN team, and debate union. Pomona's secret society, Mufti, is known for gluing small sheets of paper around campus with cryptic puns offering social commentary on campus happenings.

Pomona's music department manages several ensembles, including an orchestra, band, choir, glee club, jazz ensemble, and Balinese gamelan ensemble. All students can receive free private music lessons.

The Draper Center for Community Partnerships, established in 2009, coordinates Pomona's various community engagement programs. These include mentoring for local youth communities, English tutoring for Pomona staff, and volunteering trips over spring break. It also operates the Pomona Academy for Youth Success (PAYS), a three-year pre-college summer program for local low-income and first-generation students of color.

Pomona has two remaining local Greek letter organizations, Sigma Tau and Kappa Delta, both of which are co-educational. Neither have special housing, and Greek life is not considered a major part of the social scene on campus the way it is at many other U.S. colleges.

Other traditions
As part of Pomona's 10-day orientation, incoming students spend four days off campus completing an "Orientation Adventure" or "OA" trip. The OA program began in 1995, and is one of the oldest outdoor orientation programs in the U.S.

Every spring, the college hosts "Ski-Beach Day", in which students visit a ski resort in the morning and then head to the beach after lunch. The tradition dates back to an annual mountain picnic established in 1891.

Since the 1970s, Pomona has used a cinder block flood barrier along the northern edge of its campus, Walker Wall, as a free speech wall. Over the years, provocative postings on the wall have spawned numerous controversies.

Transportation
Pomona's campus is located immediately north of Claremont Station, where the Metrolink San Bernardino Line train provides regular service to Los Angeles Union Station (the city's main transit hub) and the Foothill Transit bus system connects to cities in the San Gabriel Valley and Pomona Valley.

Pomona's "Green Bikes" program maintains a fleet of more than 300 bicycles that are rented free to students each semester. Non-first-year students are allowed to park on campus after registering their vehicle. The college has several Zipcar vehicles on campus that may be rented and owns vehicles that can be checked out for club and extracurricular purposes. PEC and SCC off-campus events are usually served with the college's "Sagecoach" passenger bus.

Athletics

Pomona's Pitzer's varsity athletics teams compete jointly with Pitzer College  Pomona College (another consortium member) as the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens. The 11 women's and 10 men's teams participate in NCAA Division III in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC). Pomona-Pitzer's mascot is Cecil the Sagehen, a greater sage-grouse, and its colors are blue and orange. Its main rival is the Claremont-Mudd-Scripps Stags and Athenas (CMS), the other sports combination of the Claremont Colleges.

Club and intramural sports are also offered in various areas, such as dodgeball, flag football, and surfing. The physical education department offers a variety of activity classes each semester, such as karate, playground games, geocaching, and social dance.

Athletics history
Pomona's first intercollegiate sports teams were formed in 1895. They competed under several names in the school's early years; the name "Sagehen" first appeared in 1913 and became the sole moniker in 1917. Pomona was one of the three founding members of the SCIAC in 1914. In 1946, it joined with Claremont Men's College (which would later be renamed Claremont McKenna College) to compete as Pomona-Claremont. The teams separated in 1956, and Pomona's athletics program operated independently until it joined with Pitzer College in 1970.

title: Pomona College


text:
Rest

Rest or REST may refer to:

Relief from activity

 * Sleep
 * Bed rest
 * Kneeling
 * Lying (position)
 * Sitting
 * Squatting position

Structural support

 * Structural support
 * Rest (cue sports)
 * Armrest
 * Headrest
 * Footrest

Music

 * Rest (music), a silence in a piece of music
 * Rest (band), Irish instrumental doom metal band
 * Rest (Gregor Samsa album), 2008
 * Rest (Charlotte Gainsbourg album), 2017
 * "Rest", a 1990 song by Green Day from 39/Smooth
 * "Rest", a 2014 song by Kutless from Glory
 * "Rest", a 2015 song by Matt Maher from Saints and Sinners
 * "Rest", a 2012 song by Michael Kiwanuka from Home Again
 * "Rest", a 2000 song by Skillet from Invincible
 * "Rest", a 2009 song by The Temper Trap from Conditions
 * "Rest", tune name for a setting of "Dear Lord and Father of Mankind"

Painting

 * Repose (painting), by Manet, c.1871
 * Le Repos (Picasso), 1932
 * Rest (Bouguereau), 1879

Businesses and organisations

 * Relief Society of Tigray, an NGO in Ethiopia
 * Rest (superannuation fund), an Australian industry superannuation fund

Places

 * Rest, Kansas, U.S.
 * Rest, Virginia, U.S.

Science and technology

 * Representational state transfer, a software architectural style
 * Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique, the deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses
 * reStructuredText, a lightweight markup language for Python
 * RE1-silencing transcription factor, a protein encoded by the REST gene

Other uses

 * Rest (finance), a financial terminology
 * Rest (physics), related to inertia
 * Revised Extended Standard Theory, a theory of linguistic competence developed by Noam Chomsky
 * James Rest (died 1999), American psychologist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rest


text:
Horn, Austria

Horn is a small town in the Waldviertel in Lower Austria, Austria and the capital of the district of the same name.

Notable people

 * Marie Andree-Eysn (1847-1929), an Austrian botanist and folklorist.
 * Moriz Winternitz (1863–1937), scholar, Orientalist and Indologist
 * Stefan Michael Newerkla (born 1972), an Austrian linguist, Slavist and philologist.
 * Nikolaus Newerkla (born 1974) an harpsichordist, arranger and conductor.
 * Dominik Baumgartner (born 1996), an Austrian footballer who has played over 200 games
 * Christoph Baumgartner (born 1999), an Austrian footballer who has played over 160 games and 36 for Austria

Sport
2008 Austrian Cup winner SV Horn is the local football club.

title: Horn, Austria


text:
Lifespan

Lifespan or life span may refer to:

 * Lifespan (film), 1976 film starring Klaus Kinski
 * Lifespan (video game), 1983 Atari 8-bit computer game
 * Lifespan (album), 2004 album by Kris Davis
 * Lifespan: Why We Age - and Why We Don't Have To, 2019 book by David Andrew Sinclair
 * Lifespan.io, non-profit crowdfunding platform of the Lifespan Extension Advocacy Foundation

title: Lifespan


text:
Talk:Theories of the origin of humans

I think this should be moved to origin of humanity. As it is now, it lists more mainstream views than alternative ones, plus that would make it in line with origin of life. Tuf-Kat

 * "mankind" is generally considered sexist and "humanity" preffered these days. As for the "alternative views on", I guess it depends on which way the entry heads. Tannin

 * To me, "humanity" implies a cultural context while "mankind" is synonymous with "the human race". "Origin of humanity" could be understood as answering "What makes humans human?" rather than "Where did human beings come from?" - no?
 * As for "alternative views on", I have no objections to removing it as long as it remains clear that all views deserve to be represented, not just the most popular one. Mkweise 23:41 Feb 23, 2003 (UTC)

I propose a move to Theories of the origin of humans. WDYT? Of course it will include all the proposed theories, and not discriminate against unpopular theories. It also clears up the mankind/humanity problem. We could be more specific still and call it Theories of the origin of homo sapiens, but people will probably object that it is biased towards the evolutionary explanation. --snoyes 19:47, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

"intelligent design" was moved to controversial scientific theories, though it is normally considered evidence for god. it could be evidence for aliens creating life, etc., too though. creationists believe creationism to be scientific, too. so which category should these belong in? - Omegatron

 * I changed it so it is organized by controversy rather than "scientificness", since that is pretty indisputable. - Omegatron 16:27, Apr 6, 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't think the proponents of intelligent design have actually made any claims about human origins. They do claim that evolution can't produce everything, but AFAIK their "proofs" are limited to things like the bacterial flagellum, certain metabolic pathways, and various non-biological examples. — B.Bryant 15:43, 20 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I gotta wonder if it's not a pretty American slant to consider Creationism a valid (if controversial) theory (and for that matter intelligent design), outside of the United States I am not aware of any serious consideration of those "theories" -- at least no more so than flat earth or moon landing conspiracy... I'm not going to edit, but I have to ask why they're not listed under a seperate category, they're certainly less mainstream than Aquatic Ape and Panspermia from where I sit. - Gabriel 22:08, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Maybe, but there are a lot of americans who believe christian creationism and would fight for it to the death with seemingly scientific arguments. And how does it compare to the amount of proponents of Lamarckianism?  And what about other religious theories?  i think it is pretty controversial overall - Omegatron

 * I don't wholly disagree with you in the sense that it's the "easy way out" but I think you'd be hard pressed to find a reputable source that would place either of them in the same realm as Lamarckianism. Lamarckianism is an outdated theory based on what was at the time a working understanding of how the world worked and a flawed application of scientific rigor.  I don't really think the same can be said of the pseudo-scientific stuff that is spewed from a marginal group of Christians (albeit a powerful group within the American polity).  Even the Pope doesn't put much heed in Creationism as it is presented these days and his endorsement of Intelligent Design is very liberal...  I guess my point is that this is a fringe withing a fringe.  The question becomes is it a fight worth fighting and given that I am certain that there are a healthy number of editors here who subscribe to these "theories" it's probably not worth causing a stink over it for fear of an edit war, but it might be nice if someone elaborated on the various theories a bit so as to make it clear that there is an incredibly divergent degree of support between the various options presented (even within the "controversial theories").  I'm a big supporter of the idea of a neutral point of view, but I cringe at the thought that this is a cop out to allow bullshit (pardon my French) to creep closer to the mainstream. (For the record I'm a spiritual person -- though not Christian -- I'm no atheist God hater.) - Gabriel 03:07, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm.. Maybe. Maybe it should be put back under "Controversial religious theories" after the controversial theories section.  For the record, I'm an ex-creationist myself, now effectively atheist and certainly not "spiritual" (what does that mean, anyway? :-) ), but I know that the only way anyone is going to change their mind from one to the other (like I did), is if the material is presented in a completely unbiased way without one dogmatic side screaming "my way is right!" and the other equally dogmatic side screaming "your way is bullshit!" and neither of them ever considering the other side for its merits. - Omegatron 13:15, Apr 27, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Theories of the origin of humans


text:
Battle of Dover (1652)

The naval Battle of Dover, fought on 19 May 1652 (29 May 1652 Gregorian calendar), was the first engagement of the First Anglo-Dutch War between the navies of the Commonwealth of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands. It proved to be an indecisive battle involving the flagships of Admirals Maarten Tromp and Robert Blake. Opinions about the outcome of that battle vary among historians of that period.

Background
The English Parliament had passed the first of the Navigation Acts in October 1651, aimed at hampering the shipping of the highly trade-dependent Dutch. Agitation among the Dutch merchants had been further increased by George Ayscue's capture in early 1652 of 27 Dutch ships trading with the royalist colony of Barbados in contravention of an embargo. Both sides had begun to prepare for war, but conflict might have been delayed if not for an unfortunate encounter on 29 May 1652 (19 May in the Julian calendar then in use in England) near the Straits of Dover between a Dutch convoy escorted by 40 ships under Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp and an English fleet of 25 ships under General-at-Sea Robert Blake.

Battle
An ordinance of Cromwell required all foreign fleets in the North Sea or the Channel to lower their flag in salute. English ships were attacking Dutch merchant ships, seizing cargoes and taking ships as prizes. Tromp subsequently was given general orders to protect Holland's commerce, while keeping watch over the English fleet. On 19 May 1652, Tromp was cruising in the English Channel with a fleet of forty ships between Nieuport and the mouth of the Meuse River. British Admiral Robert Blake was lying in Dover Roads with fifteen ships, with eight others were anchored in Bourne in the Downs. While on patrol Tromp received orders from a dispatch ketch to engage Blake's fleet, and had not struck his flag in salute. Blake, aboard his flagship the James, assumed Tromp had received orders to commence battle and fired two warning shots. A defiant Tromp hoisted a red battle flag, which prompted Blake to fire a third gun, hitting Tromp's ship and wounding some crew members. This was followed with Tromp returning fire with a warning broadside from his flagship Brederode. Blake in turn fired a broadside and a battle that would last five hours ensued. Tromp immediately engaged Blake's flag ship where the two ships exchanged broadsides as they passed one another. While tacking to turn and fire another broadside the Brederode came into violent contact with British Admiral Rosekrantz's ship, the Bonaventure, which grappled with the Brederode where its crew began boarding. During the fierce melee that followed Tromp's crew held the attackers back. At this time another British ship, the Garland, came along to the other side of Tromp's ship, placing Tromp's ship between the two British ships. Vice-admiral, John Evertsen, now aware of Tromp's plight quickly came to assist, placing his ship directly alongside of the Bonaventure and fired a broadside severing all her masts, after which Evertsen's crew boarded and engaged the English in hand-to-hand fighting and overcoming the English crews. The fighting continued until nightfall, where both sides withdrew, the battle having no distinct victor. The crews of Tromp and Evertsen divided the prisoners between the ships and sailed back toward Texel, with Blake, with his flagship in tow making his way to Dover.

Aftermath
Both fleets were damaged, but as darkness fell the Dutch fleet withdrew in a defensive line to protect the convoy, and the English captured two Dutch stragglers: Sint Laurens, which was taken back by them but not used, and Sint Maria, which was abandoned in a sinking condition and later made its way to the Netherlands. Tromp then offered his excuses to Blake and asked for the return of the prize, but this was refused by Blake.

War was declared by the Commonwealth of England on 8 July 1652.

England (Robert Blake)
Totals: Ships: 24 Cannon: 908

• President 36 (Anthony Young)
 * Anthony Young's squadron:

• Nightingale 24 (Jacob Reynolds)

• Recovery 24 (Edmund Chapman)

• James 60 (flag, Robert Blake, captain John Gilson)
 * Robert Blake's squadron in Rye Bay:

• Victory 52 (Lionel Lane)

• Garland 44 (John Gibbs)

• Speaker 52 (John Coppin)

• Ruby 42 (Anthony Houlding)

• Sapphire 38 (Robert Moulton, Jr)

• Worcester 42 (Charles Thorowgood)

• Star 24 (Robert Saunders)

• Portsmouth 36 (William Brandley)

• Martin 12

• Mermaid 24 (Richard Stayner)

• Ruben 26 (merchantman)

• 3 small

• Andrew 56 (Nehemiah Bourne)
 * Nehemiah Bourne's squadron in the Downs:

• Triumph 62 (William Penn) – Ashore during the battle

• Fairfax 52 (John Lawson)

• Entrance 44

• Centurion 36

• Adventure 36 (Andrew Ball)

• Assurance 40 (Benjamin Blake)

• Greyhound 20 (Henry Southwood)

• Seven Brothers 26 (hired merchantman, Robert Land)

The Netherlands (Maarten Tromp)
Totals: Ships: 44 Cannon: 1274

• Groningen 38 (Joris van der Zaan)
 * Convoyers:

• Zeelandia 34 (Jacob Huyrluyt)

• Brederode 54 (Maarten Tromp, Admiral, )
 * The fleet in The Downs:
 * Van:

• Alexander 28 (Jan Maijkers, )

• Blauwen Arend 28 (Dirck Pater, AD)

• Sint Salvador 34 (Matheeus Corneliszoon, AD)

• Vliegende Faam 28 (Jacob Corneliszoon Swart, AD)

• Arche Troijane 28 (Abraham van Kampen, AD)

• Kroon Imperiaal 34 (Cornelis Janszoon Poort, AD)

• Valck 28 (Cornelis Janszoon Brouwer, AD)

• Prinses Roijaal 28 (Maarten de Graeff, AD)

• Neptunis 34 (Gerrit van Lummen, AD)

• Sint Matheeus 34 (Cornelis Naeuoogh, AD)

• Prins Maurits 34 (Nicolaes de With, AD)

• Rozeboom 28 (Gerrit Schuyt, AD)

• Engel Gabriel 28 (Bastiaan Bardoel, AD)

• Witte Lam 28 (Cornelis van Houten, AD)

• Gideon van Sardam 34 (Hector Bardesius, AD)

• Sint Francisco 28 (Stoffel Juriaenszoon, AD)

• David en Goliad 34 (Claes Bastiaenszoon Jaarsveld, AD)

• Elias 34 (Jacob Sijvertsen Spanheijm, AD)

• Zwarte Leeuw 28 (Hendrik de Raedt, AD)

• Sint Maria 28 (Sipke Fockes, AD) – Captured but abandoned and recaptured

• Groote Liefde 38 (Bruyn van Seelst, AD)

• Nassouw van den Burgh 34 (Lambert Pieterszoon, AD)

• Groote Vergulde Fortuijn 35 (Frederick de Coninck, AD)

• Engel Michiel 28 (Fredrick Bogaart, AD)

• Vergulde Haan 30 (Jan le Sage, )

• Goude Leeuw 30 (Jacob Penssen, MD)

• Leeuwinne 30 (Joannes van Regermorter, MD)

• Sint Laurens 30 (Bastiaan Tuynemans, MD) – Captured

• Witte Lam 32 (Jan Tijssen Matheeus, ) • Monnikendam 32 (Pieter Florissen, Rear Admiral, )
 * Rear:

• Wapen van Hoorn 24 (Pieter Aldertszoon, NKA)

• Prins Maurits 28 (Cornelis Pieterszoon Taenman, NKA)

• Monnikendam 24 (Arent Dirckszoon, NKA)

• Wapen van Enkhuizen 30 (Gerrit Femssen, NKA)

• Wapen van Alkmaar 28 (Gerrit Nobel, NKA)

• Roode Leeuw 24 (Reynst Corneliszoon Sevenhuysen, NKA)

• Peereboom 24 (Tijs Sijmonszoon Peereboom, NKA)

• Huis van Nassau 28 (Gerrit Munth, NKA)

• Alkmaar 28 (Jan Warnaertszoon Capelman, NKA)

• Sampson 26 (Willem Ham, NKA)

• Stad van Medemblik 26 (Pieter Schellinger, NKA)

title: Battle of Dover (1652)


text:
Katrin Cartlidge

Katrin Juliet Cartlidge (15 May 1961 – 7 September 2002) was an English actress. She first appeared on screen as Lucy Collins in the Channel 4 soap opera Brookside (1982–1983), before going on to win the 1997 Evening Standard Film Award for Best Actress for the Mike Leigh film Career Girls. Her other film appearances included Leigh's Naked (1993), Before the Rain (1994), Breaking the Waves (1996) and From Hell (2001).

Early life
Cartlidge was born in London, to Derek, an English father and Bobbi, a German-Jewish refugee mother. She was educated at the Parliament Hill School for Girls in Camden.

Work
Her work on Manchevski's Before the Rain and on No Man's Land made her well known in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Balkans. Sophie, in Mike Leigh's Naked, was her first leading role. Cartlidge worked in two more Leigh films: in Career Girls she played one of the lead roles, Hannah, at the ages of both 20 and 30, and in Topsy Turvy she was a madam in a Paris brothel. She was due to play the lead role in Polish director Lech Majewski's 2004 film The Garden of Earthly Delights—that of an art historian dying of cancer—but she left shortly before production began. Cartlidge won a role in 21 Grams but was replaced by Charlotte Gainsbourg due to her death. Cartlidge was also filming Dogville at the time of her death and was replaced by Patricia Clarkson.

Cartlidge died at the age of 41, owing to complications from pneumonia and septicaemia, stemming from a pheochromocytoma.

Legacy
The impact of Cartlidge's sudden death saw the creation of the Katrin Cartlidge Foundation by the trustees Mike Leigh, Peter Gevisser, Simon McBurney, Chris Simon, and Cat Villiers. The patrons include Lars von Trier and Cartlidge's sister Michelle. Established at the Sarajevo Film Festival, an annual bursary is awarded by "an elected curator, chosen by the (Foundation) Trustees from a wide and eclectic number of Katrin Cartlidge’s friends and colleagues...(to) a new creative voice... While the new talent nominated each year will be a filmmaker, it is anticipated that the choices will be as varied and extraordinary as Katrin’s own choice of filmmakers and friends from across the arts."

Mike Leigh: "She took to the improvisation and character work instantly, easily and with extraordinary commitment and imagination. Other than in the Royal Court Young Peoples Theatre, she had had no formal training, but you would never have guessed it. (Drama Centre London turned her down, and that put her off). She often talked to me about [a] move into directing. I am in no doubt that we have lost not only one of our greatest actors but also one of the most interesting new directors of the future."

Following her death, British singer Morrissey dedicated a performance of his song "Late Night, Maudlin Street" at the Royal Albert Hall to Cartlidge, describing her as a "brilliant person and fantastic actor".

Tracy Letts dedicated his 2003 play Man from Nebraska to Cartlidge, stating "Man from Nebraska is dedicated to the memory of my dear friend Katrin Cartlidge".

Filmography
Film

Television

Television film and short works

title: Katrin Cartlidge


text:
Sten Sture the Younger

Sten Sture the Younger (Sten Sture den yngre) (1493 – 3 February 1520), was a Swedish nobleman who served as the regent of Sweden, during the era of the Kalmar Union.

Biography
Sture was born in 1493, as the son of Svante Nilsson (regent of Sweden) and Iliana Gisladotter Gädda, heiress of Ulvåsa. At the death of his father, regent Svante, Sture was only 18 years old. High Councillor Eric Trolle was chosen as regent by the High Council. He supported the union with Denmark. However, Sture utilized the castles and troops fiefed to him by his late father and executed a coup. After Sture promised to continue union negotiations with Denmark, the High Council accepted him as regent replacing Eric Trolle.

In reality, Sture's purpose was to keep Sweden independent from Denmark. He adopted the Sture surname, heritage from his great-grandmother, because it symbolized independence from Denmark and as a reminder of Sten Sture the Elder, his father's third cousin.

Conflict soon arose between Sture as regent and Gustav Trolle, Archbishop of Uppsala, and son of Eric Trolle. The archbishop claimed more autonomy for the church. Sture had Trolle removed from his office and imprisoned.

Sture knew that sooner or later, a war with King Hans of Denmark (died 1513) or his son and successor King Christian II would be inevitable. Therefore, in 1513 he agreed to a truce with Russia.

When Christian II started an invasion of Sweden, Sture was mortally wounded at the battle of Bogesund on 19 January 1520 and died on the ice of lake Mälaren on his way back to Stockholm. This was during the later part of Christian II of Denmark's war against Sweden.

Christian II was enthroned in Sweden in November 1520 and archbishop Gustav had his revenge against supporters of Sture and against those who deposed the archbishop: he listed those enemies and accusations against them, denouncing them as heretics. King Christian had those accused executed at the Stockholm Bloodbath (Stockholms blodbad) in November 1520, including Sten Sture's corpse which was desecrated as that of a heretic by being burnt at the stake.

Personal life
His marriage in 1511 to Christina Gyllenstierna, great-granddaughter of King Charles VIII, produced the son Svante Stensson Sture, later elevated to Riksmarsk and  Count  of Stegeholm. In the 20th century, his distant direct descendant, Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha married the hereditary Prince Gustaf Adolf. Their son was King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden.

Other sources

 * Greta Wieselgren (1949) Sten Sture d.y. och Gustav Trolle   (Stockholm: Gleerup,)
 * Greta Wieselgren (1949) Sten Sture d.y. och Gustav Trolle   (Stockholm: Gleerup,)
 * Greta Wieselgren (1949) Sten Sture d.y. och Gustav Trolle   (Stockholm: Gleerup,)

title: Sten Sture the Younger


text:
Eric Trolle

Eric Trolle (or Erik Arvidsson) (c. 1460–1530) was elected regent of Sweden in 1512, during the era of Kalmar Union. He was Justiciar of Närke and a Lord High Councillor of Sweden from 1487.

Biography
Eric Arvidsson was born around 1460 into an important family of high nobility and was apparently aiming at a clerical career. Eric's parents were lord Arvid Birgersson Trolle (died 1505) and his first wife Kerstin Jonsdotter (Gädda). His father had connected him to the powerful family Thott by marrying Beata Ivarsdotter Tott (died 1487) as his second wife in 1466. His last stepmother was his father's third wife Brita Turesdotter Bielke.

Eric studied at the University of Rostock and University of Cologne, had positions as Canon in Uppsala and Linköping but was never ordained. Eric was elected Regent (riksföreståndare) at the meeting of the High Council of Sweden in 1512 upon the death of regent Svante Nilsson, Lord of Ekesiö, but never actually took office, being superseded by Svante's son, the young Sten Sture the Younger.

He married in 1487 the wealthy Ingeborg Philipsdatter (Thott) (died 1495), his stepmother's first cousin, as his first wife and settled on her manor Ekholmen Castle (Ekholmens slott) in Uppland. His second wife, from about 1512, was Karin Eriksdotter Gyllenstierna, much his junior, who survived until around 1562. She was a great-granddaughter of King Charles VIII of Sweden. Eric Trolle's son Gustav Trolle (1488–1535) became Archbishop of Uppsala and leader of the Church of Sweden.

Wives

 * Ingeborg Filipsdotter Tott (married at Fållnäs 30 September 1487, drowned 1495 in Lake Mälaren)
 * Karin Eriksdotter Gyllenstierna (married about 1512, died about or before 12 March 1562)

First marriage

 * Gustaf Eriksson Trolle, christened 25 September 1488, died July 1535 a prisoner at Gottorp castle, archbishop
 * Ermegård Eriksdotter, drowned in lake Mälaren 1495
 * Kristina Eriksdotter, drowned in lake Mälaren 1495
 * Erik Eriksson, lived 1511

Second marriage

 * Beata Eriksdotter Trolle, died 13 April 1591 at Steninge, married 1538 Gabriel Kristiernsson Oxenstierna, who became 1st Baron of Mörby and Steninge (died 1585)
 * Ingeborg Eriksdotter Trolle, died 1590, married 13 January 1544 Niels Eriksen Ryning, Lord of Lagnoe and Gimmersta (died 1578)

either first or second marriage:
 * Joakim Eriksson Trolle

title: Eric Trolle


text:
Svante Nilsson (regent of Sweden)

Svante Nilsson ( c. 1460 – 2 January 1512) was a Swedish nobleman and regent of Sweden from 1504 to 1512. He was the father of Sten Sture the Younger (1493–1520), who later served as regent of Sweden during the era of the Kalmar Union.

Biography
Svante was born at Penningby Castle (Penningby slott), at Norrtälje in Uppland, the son of Nils Bosson Sture (ca 1426-1494). Nils belonged to the Natt och Dag dynasty, but took the surname Sture from his maternal grandfather Sven Sture. Svante himself never himself used the surname Sture, but his son Sten later adopted it in order to associate himself with the memory of Sten Sture the Elder (who, confusingly, was unrelated to Sven Sture but was nevertheless a distant cousin of Svante's through the Natt och Dag line). Svante's mother was Birgitta Tordsdotter Bonde (1439-1494), a member of the Bonde family and cousin of King Karl VIII.

Svante became a member of the Privy Council of Sweden no later than 1482, but acted in opposition to his distant kinsman Sten Sture the Elder, going as far as supporting King John of Denmark. Unwillingly he then switched sides and supported Sten Sture in overthrowing the king. When Sten Sture died in 1503, Svante became head of state in January 1504. His resignation was demanded by the Privy Council of Sweden in the summer of 1511, on the grounds that he had neglected the defense on the occasion of Danish ravages. In practice he remained in power until his death at Arboga on 2 January 1512. Svante Nilsson was buried in Västerås Cathedral.

His first marriage in 1486 was with Iliana Gisladotter Gädda. Through this marriage he was the father of future statesman and regent of Sweden, Sten Sture the Younger (1493–1520). He married a second time in 1504 with Mette Dyre (c. 1465-before 1533).

title: Svante Nilsson (regent of Sweden)


text:
Hermann Weyl

Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl, (9 November 1885 – 8 December 1955) was a German mathematician, theoretical physicist, logician and philosopher. Although much of his working life was spent in Zürich, Switzerland, and then Princeton, New Jersey, he is associated with the University of Göttingen tradition of mathematics, represented by Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski.

His research has had major significance for theoretical physics as well as purely mathematical disciplines such as number theory. He was one of the most influential mathematicians of the twentieth century, and an important member of the Institute for Advanced Study during its early years.

Weyl contributed to an exceptionally wide range of fields, including works on space, time, matter, philosophy, logic, symmetry and the history of mathematics. He was one of the first to conceive of combining general relativity with the laws of electromagnetism. Freeman Dyson wrote that Weyl alone bore comparison with the "last great universal mathematicians of the nineteenth century", Poincaré and Hilbert. Michael Atiyah, in particular, has commented that whenever he examined a mathematical topic, he found that Weyl had preceded him.

Biography
Hermann Weyl was born in Elmshorn, a small town near Hamburg, in Germany, and attended the Gymnasium Christianeum in Altona. His father, Ludwig Weyl, was a banker; whereas his mother, Anna Weyl (née Dieck), came from a wealthy family.

From 1904 to 1908, he studied mathematics and physics in both Göttingen and Munich. His doctorate was awarded at the University of Göttingen under the supervision of David Hilbert, whom he greatly admired.

In September 1913, in Göttingen, Weyl married Friederike Bertha Helene Joseph (March 30, 1893 – September 5, 1948 ) who went by the name Helene (nickname "Hella"). Helene was a daughter of Dr. Bruno Joseph (December 13, 1861 – June 10, 1934), a physician who held the position of Sanitätsrat in Ribnitz-Damgarten, Germany. Helene was a philosopher (she was a disciple of phenomenologist Edmund Husserl) and a translator of Spanish literature into German and English (especially the works of Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset). It was through Helene's close connection with Husserl that Hermann became familiar with (and greatly influenced by) Husserl's thought. Hermann and Helene had two sons, Fritz Joachim Weyl (February 19, 1915 – July 20, 1977) and Michael Weyl (September 15, 1917 – March 19, 2011), both of whom were born in Zürich, Switzerland. Helene died in Princeton, New Jersey, on September 5, 1948. A memorial service in her honor was held in Princeton on September 9, 1948. Speakers at her memorial service included her son Fritz Joachim Weyl and mathematicians Oswald Veblen and Richard Courant. In 1950. Hermann married sculptor Ellen Bär (née Lohnstein) (April 17, 1902 – July 14, 1988), who was the widow of professor Richard Josef Bär (September 11, 1892 – December 15, 1940) of Zürich.

After taking a teaching post for a few years, Weyl left Göttingen in 1913 for Zürich to take the chair of mathematics at the ETH Zürich, where he was a colleague of Albert Einstein, who was working out the details of the theory of general relativity. Einstein had a lasting influence on Weyl, who became fascinated by mathematical physics. In 1921, Weyl met Erwin Schrödinger, a theoretical physicist who at the time was a professor at the University of Zürich. They were to become close friends over time. Weyl had some sort of childless love affair with Schrödinger's wife Annemarie (Anny) Schrödinger (née Bertel), while at the same time Anny was helping raise an illegitimate daughter of Erwin's named Ruth Georgie Erica March, who was born in 1934 in Oxford, England.

Weyl was a Plenary Speaker of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in 1928 at Bologna and an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1936 at Oslo. He was elected a fellow of the American Physical Society in 1928, a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1929, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1935, and a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1940. For the academic year 1928–1929, he was a visiting professor at Princeton University, where he wrote a paper, "On a problem in the theory of groups arising in the foundations of infinitesimal geometry," with Howard P. Robertson.

Weyl left Zürich in 1930 to become Hilbert's successor at Göttingen, leaving when the Nazis assumed power in 1933, particularly as his wife was Jewish. He had been offered one of the first faculty positions at the new Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, but had declined because he did not desire to leave his homeland. As the political situation in Germany grew worse, he changed his mind and accepted when offered the position again. He remained there until his retirement in 1951. Together with his second wife Ellen, he spent his time in Princeton and Zürich, and died from a heart attack on December 8, 1955, while living in Zürich.

Weyl was cremated in Zürich on December 12, 1955. His ashes remained in private hands until 1999, at which time they were interred in an outdoor columbarium vault in the Princeton Cemetery. The remains of Hermann's son Michael Weyl (1917–2011) are interred right next to Hermann's ashes in the same columbarium vault.

Weyl was a pantheist.

Distribution of eigenvalues
In 1911 Weyl published Über die asymptotische Verteilung der Eigenwerte (On the asymptotic distribution of eigenvalues) in which he proved that the eigenvalues of the Laplacian in the compact domain are distributed according to the so-called Weyl law. In 1912 he suggested a new proof, based on variational principles. Weyl returned to this topic several times, considered elasticity system and formulated the Weyl conjecture. These works started an important domain—asymptotic distribution of eigenvalues—of modern analysis.

Geometric foundations of manifolds and physics
In 1913, Weyl published Die Idee der Riemannschen Fläche (The Concept of a Riemann Surface), which gave a unified treatment of Riemann surfaces. In it Weyl utilized point set topology, in order to make Riemann surface theory more rigorous, a model followed in later work on manifolds. He absorbed L. E. J. Brouwer's early work in topology for this purpose.

Weyl, as a major figure in the Göttingen school, was fully apprised of Einstein's work from its early days. He tracked the development of relativity physics in his Raum, Zeit, Materie (Space, Time, Matter) from 1918, reaching a 4th edition in 1922. In 1918, he introduced the notion of gauge, and gave the first example of what is now known as a gauge theory. Weyl's gauge theory was an unsuccessful attempt to model the electromagnetic field and the gravitational field as geometrical properties of spacetime. The Weyl tensor in Riemannian geometry is of major importance in understanding the nature of conformal geometry.

His overall approach in physics was based on the phenomenological philosophy of Edmund Husserl, specifically Husserl's 1913 ''Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie '' (Ideas of a Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy. First Book: General Introduction). Husserl had reacted strongly to Gottlob Frege's criticism of his first work on the philosophy of arithmetic and was investigating the sense of mathematical and other structures, which Frege had distinguished from empirical reference.

Topological groups, Lie groups and representation theory
From 1923 to 1938, Weyl developed the theory of compact groups, in terms of matrix representations. In the compact Lie group case he proved a fundamental character formula.

These results are foundational in understanding the symmetry structure of quantum mechanics, which he put on a group-theoretic basis. This included spinors. Together with the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, in large measure due to John von Neumann, this gave the treatment familiar since about 1930. Non-compact groups and their representations, particularly the Heisenberg group, were also streamlined in that specific context, in his 1927 Weyl quantization, the best extant bridge between classical and quantum physics to date. From this time, and certainly much helped by Weyl's expositions, Lie groups and Lie algebras became a mainstream part both of pure mathematics and theoretical physics.

His book The Classical Groups reconsidered invariant theory. It covered symmetric groups, general linear groups, orthogonal groups, and symplectic groups and results on their invariants and representations.

Harmonic analysis and analytic number theory
Weyl also showed how to use exponential sums in diophantine approximation, with his criterion for uniform distribution mod 1, which was a fundamental step in analytic number theory. This work applied to the Riemann zeta function, as well as additive number theory. It was developed by many others.

Foundations of mathematics
In The Continuum Weyl developed the logic of predicative analysis using the lower levels of Bertrand Russell's ramified theory of types. He was able to develop most of classical calculus, while using neither the axiom of choice nor proof by contradiction, and avoiding Georg Cantor's infinite sets. Weyl appealed in this period to the radical constructivism of the German romantic, subjective idealist Fichte.

Shortly after publishing The Continuum Weyl briefly shifted his position wholly to the intuitionism of Brouwer. In The Continuum, the constructible points exist as discrete entities. Weyl wanted a continuum that was not an aggregate of points. He wrote a controversial article proclaiming, for himself and L. E. J. Brouwer, a "revolution." This article was far more influential in propagating intuitionistic views than the original works of Brouwer himself.

George Pólya and Weyl, during a mathematicians' gathering in Zürich (9 February 1918), made a bet concerning the future direction of mathematics. Weyl predicted that in the subsequent 20 years, mathematicians would come to realize the total vagueness of notions such as real numbers, sets, and countability, and moreover, that asking about the truth or falsity of the least upper bound property of the real numbers was as meaningful as asking about truth of the basic assertions of Hegel on the philosophy of nature. Any answer to such a question would be unverifiable, unrelated to experience, and therefore senseless.

However, within a few years Weyl decided that Brouwer's intuitionism did put too great restrictions on mathematics, as critics had always said. The "Crisis" article had disturbed Weyl's formalist teacher Hilbert, but later in the 1920s Weyl partially reconciled his position with that of Hilbert.

After about 1928 Weyl had apparently decided that mathematical intuitionism was not compatible with his enthusiasm for the phenomenological philosophy of Husserl, as he had apparently earlier thought. In the last decades of his life Weyl emphasized mathematics as "symbolic construction" and moved to a position closer not only to Hilbert but to that of Ernst Cassirer. Weyl however rarely refers to Cassirer, and wrote only brief articles and passages articulating this position.

By 1949, Weyl was thoroughly disillusioned with the ultimate value of intuitionism, and wrote: "Mathematics with Brouwer gains its highest intuitive clarity. He succeeds in developing the beginnings of analysis in a natural manner, all the time preserving the contact with intuition much more closely than had been done before. It cannot be denied, however, that in advancing to higher and more general theories the inapplicability of the simple laws of classical logic eventually results in an almost unbearable awkwardness. And the mathematician watches with pain the greater part of his towering edifice which he believed to be built of concrete blocks dissolve into mist before his eyes." As John L Bell puts it: "It seems to me a great pity that Weyl did not live to see the emergence in the 1970s of smooth infinitesimal analysis, a mathematical framework within which his vision of a true continuum, not “synthesized” from discrete elements, is realized. Although the underlying logic of smooth infinitesimal analysis is intuitionistic — the law of excluded middle not being generally affirmable — mathematics developed within avoids the “unbearable awkwardness” to which Weyl refers above."

Weyl equation
In 1929, Weyl proposed an equation, known as the Weyl equation, for use in a replacement to the Dirac equation. This equation describes massless fermions. A normal Dirac fermion could be split into two Weyl fermions or formed from two Weyl fermions. Neutrinos were once thought to be Weyl fermions, but they are now known to have mass. Weyl fermions are sought after for electronics applications. Quasiparticles that behave as Weyl fermions were discovered in 2015, in a form of crystals known as Weyl semimetals, a type of topological material.

Quotes

 * The question for the ultimate foundations and the ultimate meaning of mathematics remains open; we do not know in which direction it will find its final solution nor even whether a final objective answer can be expected at all. "Mathematizing" may well be a creative activity of man, like language or music, of primary originality, whose historical decisions defy complete objective rationalization.
 * —Gesammelte Abhandlungen—as quoted in Year book – The American Philosophical Society, 1943, p. 392

 * In these days the angel of topology and the devil of abstract algebra fight for the soul of each individual mathematical domain.

 * Whenever you have to do with a structure-endowed entity S try to determine its group of automorphisms, the group of those element-wise transformations which leave all structural relations undisturbed. You can expect to gain a deep insight into the constitution of S in this way.
 * —Symmetry Princeton Univ. Press, p144; 1952

 * Beyond the knowledge gained from the individual sciences, there remains the task of comprehending. In spite of the fact that the views of philosophy sway from one system to another, we cannot dispense with it unless we are to convert knowledge into a meaningless chaos.
 * —Space-Time-Matter — 4th edition (1922), English translation, Dover(1952) p. 10; Weyl’s boldfaced highlight.

Topics named after Hermann Weyl

 * Majorana–Weyl spinor
 * Peter–Weyl theorem
 * Schur–Weyl duality
 * Weyl algebra
 * Weyl basis of the gamma matrices
 * Weyl chamber
 * Weyl character formula
 * Weyl equation, a relativistic wave equation
 * Weyl expansion
 * Weyl fermion
 * Weyl gauge
 * Weyl gravity
 * Weyl notation
 * Weyl quantization
 * Weyl spinor
 * Weyl sum, a type of exponential sum
 * Weyl symmetry: see Weyl transformation
 * Weyl tensor
 * Weyl transform
 * Weyl transformation
 * Weyl–Schouten theorem
 * Weyl's criterion
 * Weyl's lemma on hypoellipticity
 * Weyl's lemma on the "very weak" form of the Laplace equation

title: Hermann Weyl


text:
Sten Sture the Elder

Sten Sture the Elder (Sten Sture den äldre; 1440 – 14 December 1503) was a Swedish statesman and regent of Sweden from 1470 to 1497 and again from 1501 to 1503. As the leader of the victorious Swedish separatist forces against the royal unionist forces during the Battle of Brunkeberg in 1471, he weakened the Kalmar Union considerably and became the effective ruler of Sweden as Lord Regent for most of his remaining life.

Background
In contemporary sources he is alternatively referred to as Sten Gustavsson or Herr Sten (Lord Sten); the practice of using noble family names as part of a personal name was not yet in use in Sweden at the time. He was born around 1440, the son of Gustav Anundsson of the Sture family and Birgitta Stensdotter Bielke, half-sister of the future Charles VIII. The Sture family was one of the high-ranking noble families of the time, though only distantly related to the royal house; his closest royal ancestor was King Sverker II of Sweden (both through family of Vinga and through family of Aspenäs). Sture's father, Gustav Anundsson, was Castellan of Kalmar Castle and a Privy Councillor, but died when the son was four. Birgitta Stensdotter remarried Gustav Karlsson of the Gumsehuvud family, and the son was most likely raised in their home, first at Kalmar Castle and later at Ekholmen Castle.

The 15th century in Sweden was largely defined by the political struggles and civil wars between the unionists of the Kalmar Union, seeking to unite Sweden with Denmark and Norway under the rule of the Danish monarchs, with Danish support, and the separatists seeking to re-establish Sweden as an independent kingdom under a rival Swedish monarch. Due to his close family ties to the Swedish King Charles, the young Sten Sture became part of the Swedish separatist political movement from an early age, and visited Charles during his exile in Danzig. He is mentioned as a knight in 1462 and as a privy councillor in 1466, and took up residence on the family estate at Räfsnäs north of Mariefred. Sture fought with Bishop and Regent Kettil Karlsson Vasa during the uprising against the Danish King Christian I in 1464, taking part in the decisive victory at Haraker. He served as a military commander under King Charles VIII, defeating Erik Karlsson Vasa's uprising at Uppbo in 1470 and later in the same year successfully beating back Christian I's forces at Öresten.

He married Ingeborg Tott, niece by marriage of Magdalen of Sweden, in 1467; she was a renaissance personality interested in theology and science and seems to have had some importance in the intellectual development during his reign. The marriage was childless.

First regency
Sture's uncle, King Charles VIII named Sture heir to Charles' personal domains before his death in 1470, and left Sture in charge of the crown lands, including the city of Stockholm and Stockholm Castle. On the death of King Charles on 15 May 1470, Sture immediately became the most powerful noble and political force in the country and was elected Lord Protector and Regent of Sweden (riksföreståndare) by the Riksmöte in Arboga on 1 May 1471. Sture consolidated his position through the victory of Brunkeberg.

At the Battle of Brunkeberg on 10 October 1471, which was fought around Brunkebergsåsen outside the northern gates of Stockholm, his Swedish separatist army triumphed against Danish King Christian I's Swedish unionist and Danish forces, injuring Christian and routing the unionist army. This victory elevated Sture to the position of a national savior. The sculpture Saint George and the Dragon in Storkyrkan in Stockholm, commonly attributed to the German sculptor Bernt Notke, was raised to commemorate the battle.

For a quarter of a century he ruled Sweden making the regency almost an office in its own right. He was supported by the peasantry, the commercial interests of the mining district of Bergslagen and the lower nobility, playing them out against the unionist high-ranked nobility and clergy and managing a difficult act of balance towards the Danish demands of reunion. In a meeting in Kalmar in 1483, the high nobility confirmed the new Danish king Hans as the true king of Sweden on condition of extensive privileges and guarantees granted to the high nobility, clergy and Privy Council, but Sture nevertheless managed to hold on to the political power for the time being, refusing to give up his office as Regent.

Sture's reign saw the foundation of the first Swedish university, Uppsala University, founded by Archbishop Jakob Ulvsson in 1477 with support from Sture.

In 1493, the Danish and Norwegian king, Hans (also called John I), formed an alliance with Ivan III of Russia against Sten Sture. From 1495 to 1497, Sten successfully repelled a Russian invasion of Finland. However, he subsequently fell out with the majority of the Swedish nobility, most prominently Svante Nilsson, and the Swedish Privy Council declared him to be deposed as regent on 8 March 1497.

Second regency
In the ensuing war, Sten was supported by peasant forces, but they were defeated at the Battle of Rotebro by Hans of Denmark (also known as King John I of Denmark and Norway), who invaded Sweden in July the same year. On 6 October, Sten surrendered to King Hans in Stockholm and was reconciled with him. Hans was crowned King of Sweden, and Sten was given the highest position of authority in Sweden below the King. However, during the next rebellion against the Danes in 1501, he again took office as regent, leading the Swedish struggle for independence until his death. In May 1502, the unionist garrison in Stockholm, led by Queen Christina, capitulated due to severe starvation after a drawn-out siege. In early 1503 his forces were in control of Sweden apart from Kalmar and the island of Öland.

Sture used the capture of the Queen for propaganda purposes, personally accompanying the Queen to Halmstad in Denmark after a cease-fire had been negotiated by the Hanseatic League, in October 1503.

Death and aftermath
On his way back from Denmark, Sture fell ill and died on 14 December 1503. Bishop Hemming Gadh, who accompanied Sture on the journey, alerted Svante Nilsson at Stegeborg Castle. Sture's widow, Ingeborg Tott, who at the time was in control of the Stockholm garrison, was only presented with the news of her husband's death once Svante Nilsson had reached Stockholm. She was persuaded to turn over Stockholm Castle and received Häme Castle in Finland as compensation.

Sture had no legitimate children from his marriage with Ingeborg Tott, only a daughter born out of wedlock, Birgitta, who became a nun in Vadstena Abbey. The male line of the old Sture family, the Tre Sjöblad family, died out with Sten Sture. His closest relatives and heirs were his deceased sister's, the house of Vasa, and his nephew Erik Johansson Vasa, a knight and member of the Privy Council, inherited Sture's extensive personal domains in Södermanland and Uppland. Erik Johansson's son, the future King Gustav I of Sweden had been born a few years before Sten's death. However, Erik Johansson was described by his contemporaries as a simpleminded and brutal man, prone to violent outbursts and on more than one occasion charged with manslaughter, and lacked the political skill of his uncle Sten Sture.

Regent Sten was succeeded by his colleague from the Privy Council and former enemy Svante Nilsson, of the Natt och Dag family, as regent. Svante Nilsson's son and successor, Sten Sture the Younger, later chose to adapt the Sture name for political purposes, despite only being distantly related.

Burial and monuments
To commemorate the victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture ordered a wooden monument for Storkyrkan in Stockholm, Saint George and the Dragon, built in the late 1480s. Saint George's horse carries the coat of arms of the Tre Sjöblad family, Sten Sture's coat of arms, and the monument is therefore interpreted as a symbol of his victory over Denmark, the dragon. A bronze copy of the monument was placed on Köpmantorget in Stockholm in 1912.

Sten Sture was buried in the church of Mariefred Charterhouse, which he had helped establish and made significant contributions to during his reign. His remains were moved to Strängnäs Cathedral during the reign of Gustav I, after the short-lived monastery was closed in 1526, during the protestant reformation. A memorial outside the town church of Mariefred marks the former site of the monastery. The present burial monument in the choir of Strängnäs Cathedral was ordered in 1774 by King Gustav III.

Sture became a prominent symbolic figure in the 19th century nationalist movement in Sweden, together with the early 15th century rebel leader Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson and King Gustav I who ended the Kalmar Union. A large stone monument to Sten Sture, by the sculptor Carl Milles (1875–1955), was inaugurated in Uppsala in 1925. There are several places and buildings named after Sten Sture in the town of Arboga in central Sweden, where Sten Sture was elected in 1471, due to the efforts of the local Sture society in the late 19th century. Stureparken was created for the 400th anniversary in 1871, and an obelisk dedicated to the memory of the election of Sten Sture was erected in the park in 1890.

title: Sten Sture the Elder


text:
Kettil Karlsson (Vasa)

Kettil Karlsson (Vasa) (c. 1433 – 11 August 1465) was a Swedish clergyman, diplomat, military leader and statesman during the Kalmar Union era. He was a member of the house of Vasa. At age 25, he was elected Bishop of Linköping. He rebelled against King Christian I in 1463, was Captain General (rikshövitsman) and de facto regent of Sweden from February to August 1464, stepping down during the brief return of King Charles Canutesson from exile. After falling out with King Charles, Kettil Karlsson was subsequently elected Lord Protector and Regent (riksföreståndare) of Sweden from 26 December 1464 to his death.

Family and education
Kettil Karlsson was the son of Karl Kristiernsson (Vasa), Swedish Privy Councillor (riksråd) and Castellan (hövitsman) of Raseborg Castle, and Ebba Eriksdotter (Krummedige), daughter of the Danish Steward of the Realm and Privy Councillor Erik Segebodsen Krummedige, giving him family connections in the high nobility of both kingdoms. He was given an ecclesiastical education and was enrolled on 19 August 1454 at the University of Rostock, later also at the University of Leuven on 16 June 1455.

Church career
After obtaining a master's degree he returned to Sweden and served as canon in Uppsala, where his cousin Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna was Archbishop. Through his family connections he fell in favour with King Christian I of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, shortly after Christian became King of Sweden in 1457. King Christian recommended him as Coadjutor Bishop of Linköping, to serve under the aging Bishop Nils König, in a letter to Pope Callixtus III in February 1458. Nils König died just two months later, in April 1458, and the cathedral chapter chose Kettil Karlsson as his successor. Kettil Karlsson travelled to Rome to seek papal confirmation for his appointment. However, the approval was not given at first, seemingly due to Kettil Karlsson's young age (25) which required a papal dispensation. On a subsequent journey to Mantua, where the Bishop-elect also served as diplomat to the Holy See on behalf of King Christian, Pope Pius II granted the confirmation and dispensation on 24 September 1459. Kettil Karlsson was then received formally as Bishop of Linköping in 1460.

Rise to power
The deposed King Charles Canutesson had been in exile in Danzig since 1457. In the early 1460s, rumours about Charles' imminent return caused Christian I to attempt to increase his political control over Sweden.

In 1463, Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, who had been governing Sweden during King Christian's stay in Finland, was imprisoned by the King on his return and brought to Copenhagen, over the Archbishop's refusal to carry out the King's tax policies. The Archbishop's Oxenstierna and Vasa relatives, among them Kettil Karlsson, took up arms against the King, gathering a peasant militia and noble supporters. Kettil Karlsson became leader of the uprising in Östergötland and northern Småland, laying siege to the unionist-controlled royal castles. His relatives gathered their forces in the northern provinces of Västmanland, Dalecarlia and Uppland, where resistance among the farmers and miners against Christian's tax and foreign trade policies was strong. In February 1464 Kettil Karlsson was elected in Västerås as Captain general of the Swedish separatists. He briefly laid siege to Stockholm but broke off the siege on receiving news of Christian I's Danish army approaching from the south, plundering Kettil Karlsson's residence at Linköping Castle on their way.

Kettil Karlsson's separatist army won a decisive victory against King Christian's Danish unionist army on 17 April 1464 at the Battle of Haraker, north of Västerås. A subsequent attempt by the unionist Lord High Constable Ture Turesson Bielke to land troops in Västmanland was defeated by Kettil Karlsson's militia from Rekarne at Kvicksund. However, Stockholm remained in the unionists' control, and the separatists lacked a fleet to blockade Stockholm harbour. A Riksmöte called by Bishop Kettil and the separatist party recalled the exiled King Charles Canutesson, who brought a fleet and mercenary troops. The city of Stockholm was captured by the separatists, who hailed Charles Canutesson as King on 9 August 1464, but Stockholm Castle remained in the hands of Ture Turesson's unionists.

Meanwhile, Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson had been released from Danish captivity due to political pressure from the Church and abroad, reconciling with King Christian. The Archbishop's arrival in Stockholm caused a conflict between the bishops and King Charles Canutesson, which rapidly escalated into open warfare. Joining forces with Ture Turesson's garrison at Stockholm Castle, the bishops soon made King Charles' position untenable.

Regentship and death
Kettil Karlsson was elected Lord Protector and Regent of Sweden on 26 December 1464, with Jöns Bengtsson as co-ruler, and on 30 January 1465 King Charles abdicated, instead receiving the castles of Raseborg and Korsholm in Finland. Bishop Kettil's rule was brief. He died from the plague on 11 August 1465 at Stockholm Castle and was buried below the altar of Linköping Cathedral. On his death, Jöns Bengtsson became sole Regent of Sweden.

Aftermath and legacy
Jöns Bengtsson was deposed and replaced as Regent by the Privy Councillor Erik Axelsson Tott in 1466, who in 1467 brought Charles Canutesson back as King for a third regency. The conflict between the separatist party, led by the Sture family, and unionists under Erik Karlsson (Vasa), flared up in 1469, with Sten Sture the Elder, one of the separatist noble leaders from Kettil Karlsson's 1464 uprising, commanding the separatist army. After King Charles' death in 1470, Sten Sture was elected Regent. Sten Sture defeated Christian I at the Battle of Brunkeberg in 1471, leaving the Sture separatist party in control of Sweden for another generation. Gustav Eriksson Vasa (1496–1560), Kettil Karlsson's half cousin once removed, would eventually rise to the leadership of the separatist party and was elected King of Sweden in 1523, marking the beginning of the house of Vasa as hereditary royal dynasty of Sweden.

Literature

 * Gillingstam, Hans (1952). Ätterna Oxenstierna och Vasa under medeltiden: släkthistoriska studier. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.
 * Harrison, Dick (2004). Karl Knutsson: en biografi. Svenska regenter. Lund: Historiska media. ISBN 91-85057-54-1
 * Vasaätten, 4. Kettil Karlsson in Nordisk familjebok (2nd edition, 1921)

title: Kettil Karlsson (Vasa)