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Iron Butterfly

Iron Butterfly is an American rock band formed in San Diego, California, in 1966. They are best known for the 1968 hit "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida", providing a dramatic sound that led the way towards the development of hard rock and heavy metal music. Although their heyday was the late 1960s, the band has been reincarnated with various members with varying levels of success with no new recordings since 1975. Their second album, In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (1968), remains a best-seller, and Iron Butterfly was the first group to receive an in-house platinum album award from Atlantic Records.

Formation and Heavy (1966–1968)

The band formed in 1966 in San Diego. The original members were Doug Ingle (vocals, organ, formerly of Jeri and the Jeritones and Palace Pages, Iron Butterfly's forerunner), Jack Pinney (drums), Greg Willis (bass), and Danny Weis (guitar, also of Palace Pages). The group were soon joined by vocalist and tambourine player Darryl DeLoach. DeLoach's parents’ garage served as the site for their almost nightly rehearsals.

Jerry Penrod replaced Willis after the band relocated to Los Angeles in the summer of 1966. Pinney eventually left to return to school. Bruce Morse then replaced Pinney until Ron Bushy (from a group called the Voxmen) came aboard when Morse left due to a family emergency. A booking at Bido Lito's club in Hollywood soon led to regular appearances at the Galaxy Club and the Whisky a Go Go.

In early 1968, after the band signed a deal with Atco Records, an Atlantic Records subsidiary, the band's debut album Heavy was released. The group was signed and managed by Atlantic's Charles Greene and Brian Stone, who were co-producers of Heavy. All but Ingle and Bushy left the band after completing the album in the late summer of 1967. The two remaining musicians, faced with the possibility of the record not being released, quickly found replacements in bassist Lee Dorman and 17-year-old guitarist Erik Brann (also known as "Erik Braunn" and "Erik Braun") and resumed touring. In a 1986 interview with IB's fan club fanzine, The Butterfly Net, Brann stated that Jeff Beck, Neil Young, and Michael Monarch (who would go on to join Steppenwolf) had also expressed interest in joining the group to replace Weis.

After Brann was chosen, Penrod and DeLoach, uncomfortable with Brann's young age and frustrated with the time it was taking him to learn the band's repertoire, left the group after Weis did. Weis and Penrod went on to form the group Rhinoceros. In 1970 DeLoach formed Flintwhistle along with Jerry Penrod and Erik Brann. They performed live for about a year before breaking up.

Success with In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida and first breakup (1968–1971)
The 17-minute "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida", the title track of Iron Butterfly's second album, became a top-30 hit (edited down to 2:52) in the U. S. The album was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA in December 1968. The album stayed on the Billboard charts for 140 weeks and ultimately sold over 30 million copies.

During this time, the band was represented by the William Morris Agency, which booked all their live concerts. Iron Butterfly played its first national tour in the summer of 1968 alongside Jefferson Airplane. By the end of 1968, the band was back in the studio at work on their next album. Iron Butterfly's third album, Ball, was released in January 1969 and went gold, reaching #3 on the Billboard charts.

The band had been booked to play at Woodstock in August 1969 but got stuck at New York City's LaGuardia Airport. They explained their situation to the concert promoters and asked for patience. Their manager, however, sent a telegram demanding that Iron Butterfly be flown in by helicopter, whereupon they would "immediately" take the stage. After their set, they would be paid and flown back to the airport. According to drummer Bushy, "We went down to the Port Authority three times and waited for the helicopter, but it never showed up". Woodstock production coordinator John Morris claims he sent the manager a telegram reading: "For reasons I can't go into / Until you are here / Clarifying your situation / Knowing you are having problems / You will have to find / Other transportation / Unless you plan not to come." The acrostic formed by the first letter of each line in the telegram made it clear that the band was not welcome.

Erik Brann left the band after a final show in San Diego on December 13, 1969. Brann was frustrated with the band's unwillingness to move towards a harder rock sound. He was replaced in the line-up by two new musicians: guitarist/vocalist Mike Pinera (whose Blues Image had opened for Iron Butterfly's Vida tour) and guitarist Larry Reinhardt (from the Allman Brothers Band forerunner Second Coming). Both Pinera and Larry "Rhino" Reinhardt had been rehearsing secretly with the band since September 1969 after Brann had voiced his objections to continuing. In August 1970 Iron Butterfly released its fourth studio album Metamorphosis. The album managed to get into the Billboard top 20.

While Iron Butterfly was touring in Europe with Yes in early 1971, Doug Ingle announced his intention to leave the group. Ingle had grown tired of endless touring and wasn't totally on board with the band's new guitar-oriented blues and soul direction. The remaining four members cut the 45 rpm single, "Silly Sally" (with Bushy eventually being replaced on the record by a session drummer, at the producer's prompting). Putting forth a horn-based sound more characteristic of groups like Blood Sweat and Tears, the single failed to chart and proved to be their last recording before their mid-1970s reformation.

The band, with Ingle in tow, decided to play one final tour, pairing with Black Oak Arkansas. Pinera's band-mate from Blues Image, drummer Manny Bertematti, filled in for Bushy for most of the tour dates because of the latter's shoulder injury. The group then broke up after playing the tour's final show at Central Oregon Community College in Bend, Oregon on May 23, 1971. Another reason for the band not continuing at this time, according to a later interview by Pinera, was the U. S. Internal Revenue Service's effort to collect unpaid taxes.

Dorman and Reinhardt subsequently founded Captain Beyond.

Reunions (1974–2011)

In 1974 Brann was contacted by a promoter about reforming Iron Butterfly, so he reunited with Ron Bushy to form a new version of the group, signing with MCA Records and joined by Bushy's friend, bassist Philip Taylor Kramer, and keyboardist Howard Reitzes, a friend of Brann's who worked in a music store. Brann, who had done occasional lead vocals during Iron Butterfly's original run, served as the band's main lead vocalist this time. Their first album for MCA, Scorching Beauty, was released in January 1975, and Reitzes was replaced by Bill DeMartines just after its release. The new lineup toured throughout the year and released Sun and Steel in October 1975 with DeMartines now on keyboards. Both albums were criticized for bearing little resemblance to the original tone of the group and sold poorly compared to their earlier releases.

In 1977 the Bushy/Brann/Kramer/DeMartines grouping wound down after being plagued with bad management and tour dates that had started off in theaters but ended up in bars and clubs. Bushy, Kramer and DeMartines formed Magic and Lee Dorman put together a new IB lineup with Rhino that contained British singer Jimi Henderson, Larry Kiernan on keyboards, David Love on guitar and Kevin Karamitros on drums. This grouping toured mostly in the South. By 1978 the lineup was Dorman, Karamitros, Pinera and John Leimseider on keyboards.

In the late fall of 1978, a German promoter made an offer for the band to tour. The Metamorphosis lineup (Ingle, Bushy, Dorman, Pinera and Rhino) made preparations, but just before they were to depart for Germany, Dorman's father took ill and another bassist, Keith Ellis (formerly of Boxer), was brought in to cover for Dorman in case he had to suddenly return to the US. During the tour, Ellis died in Darmstadt, Germany on December 12, 1978.

After their return to the US, the Metamorphosis group played a few homecoming shows in early 1979, joined by Erik Brann for guest appearances. Later in 1979, Bushy returned to his other group, Gold, and the next IB lineup was: Mike Pinera, Lee Dorman, Doug Ingle, a returning John Leimseider and Dorman's Captain Beyond band-mate, drummer Bobby Caldwell. Still later that same year, Bobby Hasbrook, from Hawaii, joined the band as lead guitarist and lead vocals alongside Dorman, Pinera, Caldwell and Leimseider.

IB's lineup was in a constant state of flux from late 1979 on as exhibited in the following groupings: Brann, Dorman, Leimseider, Caldwell and Hasbrook (1979); Pinera, Brann, Dorman, Hasbrook, Caldwell and Nathan Pino – keyboards (1979); Dorman, Brann, Hasbrook, Tim Kislan – keyboards, Zam Johnson – drums and Starz Vanderlocket – vocals, percussion (1980); Dorman, Rhino, Leimseider, Randy Skirvin – guitar, Jimmy Rock – drums and Luke – vocals, percussion (1981–1982); Pinera, Dorman, Rhino, Guy Babylon – keyboards and Jan Uvena – drums (1982) plus Pinera, Dorman, Rhino, Babylon and Bushy (1982).

On July 31, 1982 the Pinera, Dorman, Rhino, Babylon and Bushy lineup went into Music Sound Connection Studio in Studio City, California to record some material, none of which has ever been released.

At the tail end of 1982, Ingle returned to the fold once more as John Shearer (from Steve Hackett's band) came in on drums and percussionist Luke also rejoined since Bushy had taken a sales job outside of music for Makita Tools. Brann (who had guested at some shows during 1982) soon ended his association with the band at this time as well.

Pinera left again, as did Luke, in 1983 and IB worked on some more material in September of that year, with drummer Jerry Sommers playing on some tracks. But once again, nothing ever came of it.

Then Ingle, Dorman, Rhino and drummer Rick Rotante undertook the "Wings of Flight Tour" in early 1984, with Lenny Campanero (ex-Badfinger) replacing Rotante for more recording sessions at Salty Dog Studios in Van Nuys, California.

The "Legends Tour" took place in the fall of 1984 with Ingle, Dorman, Campanero and guitarist Steve Fister (later of Steppenwolf) and another Steppenwolf alumnus, bassist Kurtis Teel, took Dorman's spot for the "Phoenix Tour" in the fall of '85, which ended in late November, shortly after which, Teel suddenly died of a heart murmur on December 2. The group then disbanded once again due to managerial problems.

In the spring of 1987, Bushy and Pinera got back together to tour as Iron Butterfly for the "Wings of Flight 87" tour (Dorman was captaining a fishing boat, so was not available at this time) with Ace Baker (keyboards) and Kelly Reubens (bass). Tim Von Hoffman and Glen Rappold (guitar, bass) soon replaced Ace Baker and drummer Donny Vosburgh (who'd been in Thee Image with Pinera) guested at some of these 1987 shows and subbed for Bushy on others. But this was short-lived, as Bushy and then Brann both rehearsed different IB lineups in August and September of that year (see Lineups below) that never made it to the concert stage. In December 1987 the "classic lineup" of Ingle, Brann, Dorman and Bushy got together at The Roxy Theatre to prepare for a thirty date tour of the East Coast in the winter and spring of 1988 that culminated with an appearance at Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary celebration at Madison Square Garden on May 14, 1988, alongside Led Zeppelin and many others.

After this, Brann and Dorman decided to continue on, bringing in Rhino, keyboardist Derek Hilland and drummer Sal Rodriguez (replaced by Kenny Suarez). They were joined by singer/frontman Steve "Mick" Feldman and backup singers JoAnne Kurman-Montana and Cecelia Noel also appeared with the band for a few shows in 1989, as well as another drummer, Doug Freedman, who subbed for Suarez in the fall of '89. The 1989 IB lineup of Brann, Dorman, Rhino, Hilland, Feldman and Suarez appeared at Woodstock '89, which took place in August 1989 twenty years to the day of and on the site of the original Woodstock concert of 1969 as a spontaneous celebration of the event's 20th anniversary.

In 1990 after Brann fell out with the others and left Iron Butterfly for good, Dorman, Rhino, Hilland and Suarez recorded an album with singer Robert Tepper that was meant to be an IB album called We Will Rise but instead was shelved and eventually reworked into Tepper's 1996 solo album, No Rest For The Wounded Heart.

After the Tepper-led lineup failed to break through, Tepper left to continue his solo career and Dorman, Rhino and Bushy went back on the road in early 1993 with keyboardist Burt Diaz. But after Rhino and Diaz decided to leave, Pinera was brought back, along with keyboardist Hilland. Pinera, by this time, had formed his own group, the Classic Rock All-Stars, so was not available for all of the Butterfly's shows. Guitarist Denny Artache (summer 1993), then Doug Bossey (1994), filled in until Pinera was dropped in 1994, with Bossey, then Eric Barnett finally taking over (in 1995). Doug Ingle rejoined the band in July 1994. In the spring of 1997 the band did a tour of Europe with "classic era" members Ingle, Bushy and Dorman, along with Hilland and Barnett. A DVD of live performances from this tour was released in 2008. Hilland was dropped in 1997 and Ingle officially retired from performing in early 1999. Ingle died in May of 2024. Singer/keysman Damian Bujanda had a brief tenure, but after leaving for personal reasons, Larry Rust joined the band as vocalist/keyboardist from 1999 to 2005.

In 2001, after Dorman took ill, one of the band's road crew, Oly Larios, sat in on bass. Guitarist/vocalist Charlie Marinkovich joined the band in 2002. Originally from Seattle, Marinkovich had played with Randy Hansen and others.

Original vocalist Darryl DeLoach (born on September 12, 1947) died of liver cancer on October 3, 2002, at the age of 55.

On July 25, 2003, Erik Brann died of heart failure at the age of 52.

Derek Hilland returned to play keyboards for the group's 2003 dates when Larry Rust was not available.

Larry Rust parted ways with the band in 2005 and was replaced by German violinist, keyboardist, and composer Martin Gerschwitz, who had formerly worked with Lita Ford, Meat Loaf, Walter Trout, and most recently Eric Burdon and The Animals.

In early 2010, an announcement was made that Iron Butterfly would receive the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 20th Annual San Diego Music Awards, which took place on September 12, 2010. The award was presented by San Diego Mayor Jerry Sanders. Later the same year, Ray Weston (formerly of Wishbone Ash) came in to substitute on drums for Ron Bushy after he was sidelined by health issues.

In early 2012, Phil Parlapiano substituted for Martin Gerschwitz for a few shows when Gerschwitz was unable to play due to his own solo-tour schedule.

Deaths of Reinhardt and Dorman, and inactivity (2012–2014)
Former guitarist Larry "Rhino" Reinhardt died on January 2, 2012, at the age of 63, due to cirrhosis of the liver. Bassist Lee Dorman, who had a history of heart trouble, died on December 21, 2012, at the age of 70. Both Reinhardt and Dorman were also founding members of Captain Beyond.

Following Dorman's death, Iron Butterfly dissolved once more. Charlie Marinkovich revealed in 2013 that he had departed the band altogether and that Ron Bushy was very ill, shrouding the band's future in doubt. At times during his recovery in 2014, Ron Bushy entertained the idea of putting a new Iron Butterfly band together, possibly with Martin Gerschwitz returning on keyboards and lead vocals.

Third reunion/tribute band and deaths of Ron Bushy and Doug Ingle (2015–present)
In late 2014, reports surfaced of the band reforming, with a lineup consisting of Bushy, Mike Pinera, Doug Ingle, Jr. on keyboards and an unnamed bassist. However, this reformation did not come to fruition and in 2015 the band unveiled a lineup consisting of Bushy and returning guitarist Eric Barnett, along with new members Mike Green (vocals, percussion), Dave Meros (bass), Phil Parlapiano (vocals, keyboards) and Ray Weston (drums). Meros, Parlapiano and Weston had all previously played with Iron Butterfly as substitute musicians; Meros for Dorman (in 2006) Parlapiano for Gerschwitz (in 2012) and Weston for Bushy (in 2010) respectively. Gerschwitz came back to replace Parlapiano on keyboards in 2018.

At that time, Ron Bushy was still involved with Iron Butterfly, but was retired from performing due to his health concerns. This left Weston as the only active drummer in the band at all appearances from the 2015 reunion through the end of 2019. In the summer of 2018, Bushy made a rare guest appearance with the band at a gig in California. This turned out to be his first performance on stage with Iron Butterfly since 2012 and his very last one with the band.

Former Butterfly keyboardist Larry Rust died peacefully at his home near Los Angeles on November 25, 2016, at the age of 63. Founding bassist Greg Willis died on November 11, 2016. A tribute concert was staged November 30 at Nicky Rottens in El Cajon.

On January 15, 2020, the Official Iron Butterfly website and their booking agent announced the lineup of the band for 2020: Eric Barnett (guitar, vocals), Dave Meros (bass, vocals), Bernie Pershey (drums, percussion), Martin Gerschwitz (keyboards, vocals), with occasional guests or fill in musicians being Ron Bushy (drums, percussion), Ray Weston (drums, percussion) and Michael Thomas Franklin (keyboards).

On August 29, 2021, Iron Butterfly issued a statement that Bushy had died that morning at the UCLA Medical Center in Santa Monica following a battle with esophageal cancer, at the age of 79. Ingle died on May 24, 2024, at the age of 78. He was the last surviving member of the classic Iron Butterfly lineup that performed on the In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida album.

Current

 * Eric Barnett – guitar, vocals (1995–2002, 2015–present)
 * Martin Gerschwitz – keyboards, vocals (2005–2012, 2018–present)
 * Dave Meros – bass (2015–present; substitute – 2006)
 * Bernie Pershey – drums (2020–present)

Former

 * Doug Ingle – organ, vocals (1966–1971, 1978–79, 1983–1985, 1987–88, 1994–1999)
 * Jack Pinney – drums, percussion (1966)
 * Danny Weis – guitar (1966–1967)
 * Greg Willis – bass (1966)
 * Darryl DeLoach – tambourine, vocals (1966–1967)
 * Bruce Morse – drums, percussion (1966)
 * Jerry Penrod – bass, backing vocals (1966–1967)
 * Ron Bushy – drums, percussion (1966–1977, 1978–79, 1982, 1987–88, 1993–2012; guest 2015–2021)
 * Erik Brann – guitar, vocals (1967–1969, 1974–1977, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1982, 1987, 1987–1989)
 * Lee Dorman – bass, vocals (1967–1971, 1977–78, 1978–1985, 1987–2012)
 * Mike Pinera – guitar, vocals (1970–1972, 1978–1979, 1982, 1987, 1993)
 * Larry "Rhino" Reinhardt – guitar (1969–1971, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1981–1984, 1988–1993)
 * Philip Taylor Kramer – bass, keyboards, vocals (1974–1977)
 * Howard Reitzes – keyboards, vocals (1974–1975)
 * Bill DeMartines – keyboards, vocals (1975–1977, 1987)
 * Kevin Karamitros – drums (1977–1978)
 * Jimi Henderson – vocals (1977–1978)
 * Larry Kiernan – keyboards (1977–1978)
 * David Love – guitar (1977–1978)
 * John Leimseider – keyboards (1978, 1979, 1981–1982)
 * Keith Ellis – bass (1978)
 * Bobby Caldwell – drums, percussion (1979, substitute 1984)
 * Bobby Hasbrook – guitar, vocals (1979–1982)
 * Nathan Pino – keyboards (1979)
 * Zam Johnson – drums, percussion (1980)
 * Tim Kislan – keyboards (1980)
 * Starz Vanderlocket – percussion, vocals (1980)
 * Luke – percussion, vocals (1981–1982, 1982–1983)
 * Jimmy Rock – drums (1981–1982)
 * Randy Skirvin – guitar, vocals (1981–1982)
 * Guy Babylon – keyboards (1982–1983)
 * Jan Uvena – drums, percussion (1982)
 * John Shearer – drums (1982–1983)
 * Jerry Sommers – drums, percussion (1983)
 * Rick Rotante – drums, percussion (1983–1984)
 * Lenny Campanero – drums (1984–1985)
 * Steve Fister – guitar, backing vocals (1984–1985)
 * Kurtis Teel – bass (1985)
 * Kelly Reubens – bass (1987)
 * Tim Von Hoffman – keyboards (1987)
 * Glen Rappold – guitar, bass, vocals (1987)
 * Ace Baker – keyboards (1987)
 * Sal Rodriguez – drums (1987, 1988)
 * Jim Von Buelow – guitar (1987)
 * Bob Birch – bass (1987)
 * Doug Jackson – guitar (1987)
 * Lyle T. West – vocals (1987)
 * Derek Hilland – keyboards, backing vocals (1988–1990, 1993–1997; substitute – 2003)
 * Kenny Suarez – drums, percussion (1988–1992)
 * Steve "Mick" Feldman – vocals (1988–1990)
 * Robert Tepper – vocals (1990–1992)
 * Burt Diaz – keyboards (1993)
 * Denny Artache – guitar, vocals (1993)
 * Doug Bossey – guitar (1994–1995)
 * Damian Bujanda – keyboards, vocals (1999)
 * Larry Rust – keyboards, vocals (1999–2005)
 * Charlie Marinkovich – guitar, vocals (2002–2012)
 * Phil Parlapiano – keyboards, vocals (2015–2018, substitute – 2012)
 * Michael Green – percussion, vocals (2015–2019)
 * Ray Weston – drums, percussion (2015–2020; substitute – 2010, 2020)

Supporting musicians
 * Manny Bertematti – drums, percussion (substitute – 1971)
 * Donny Vosburgh – drums (guest – 1987)
 * Doug Freedman – drums, percussion (substitute – 1989)
 * JoAnne Kurman-Montana – backing vocals (live – 1989)
 * Cecelia Noel – backing vocals (live – 1989)
 * Oly Larios – bass (substitute – 2001)
 * Ken Chalupnik – bass (substitute – 2006)

Compilation albums

 * Evolution: The Best of Iron Butterfly (1971)
 * Star Collection (1973)
 * Rare Flight (1988)
 * Light & Heavy: The Best of Iron Butterfly (1993)

Box sets

 * Unconscious Power: An Anthology 1967–1971 (2020)

EPs

 * "Iron Butterfly Theme" b/w "Look for the Sun", "Possession"
 * Radio EP: "Iron Butterfly Theme", "Possession" b/w "Get Out of My Life Woman", "Unconscious Power"
 * "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida", "Flowers and Beads" b/w "My Mirage"

Videography
(Contained video performances of "Easy Rider" (3:21), "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida" (17:03) and "Butterfly Bleu" (19:51)) (Contained video performances of the full concert at Itchycoo Park in 1999)
 * In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (Rhino Home Video, R3-2215) 1995
 * Rock 'N' Roll Greats In Concert! (Passport Video) 2004

title: Iron Butterfly


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Voronoi diagram

In mathematics, a Voronoi diagram is a partition of a plane into regions close to each of a given set of objects. It can be classified also as a tessellation. In the simplest case, these objects are just finitely many points in the plane (called seeds, sites, or generators). For each seed there is a corresponding region, called a Voronoi cell, consisting of all points of the plane closer to that seed than to any other. The Voronoi diagram of a set of points is dual to that set's Delaunay triangulation.

The Voronoi diagram is named after mathematician Georgy Voronoy, and is also called a Voronoi tessellation, a Voronoi decomposition, a Voronoi partition, or a Dirichlet tessellation (after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet). Voronoi cells are also known as Thiessen polygons, after Alfred H. Thiessen. Voronoi diagrams have practical and theoretical applications in many fields, mainly in science and technology, but also in visual art.

The simplest case
In the simplest case, shown in the first picture, we are given a finite set of points $$\{p_1,\dots p_n\}$$ in the Euclidean plane. In this case each site $$p_k$$ is one of these given points, and its corresponding Voronoi cell $$R_k$$ consists of every point in the Euclidean plane for which $$p_k$$ is the nearest site: the distance to $$p_k$$ is less than or equal to the minimum distance to any other site $$p_j$$. For one other site $$p_j$$, the points that are closer to $$p_k$$ than to $$p_j$$, or equally distant, form a closed half-space, whose boundary is the perpendicular bisector of line segment $$p_jp_k$$. Cell $$R_k$$ is the intersection of all of these $$n-1$$ half-spaces, and hence it is a convex polygon. When two cells in the Voronoi diagram share a boundary, it is a line segment, ray, or line, consisting of all the points in the plane that are equidistant to their two nearest sites. The vertices of the diagram, where three or more of these boundaries meet, are the points that have three or more equally distant nearest sites.

Formal definition
Let $ X $ be a metric space with distance function $d$. Let $K$ be a set of indices and let $(P_k)_{k \in K}$  be a tuple (indexed collection) of nonempty subsets (the sites) in the space $ X$. The Voronoi cell, or Voronoi region, $ R_k$, associated with the site $P_k$  is the set of all points in $X$  whose distance to $ P_k$  is not greater than their distance to the other sites $P_j$ , where $j$  is any index different from $k$. In other words, if $ d(x,\, A) = \inf\{d(x,\, a) \mid a \in A\}$ denotes the distance between the point $x$  and the subset $A$, then

$$ R_k = \{x \in X \mid d(x, P_k) \leq d(x, P_j)\; \text{for all}\; j \neq k\}$$

The Voronoi diagram is simply the tuple of cells $(R_k)_{k \in K} $. In principle, some of the sites can intersect and even coincide (an application is described below for sites representing shops), but usually they are assumed to be disjoint. In addition, infinitely many sites are allowed in the definition (this setting has applications in geometry of numbers and crystallography), but again, in many cases only finitely many sites are considered.

In the particular case where the space is a finite-dimensional Euclidean space, each site is a point, there are finitely many points and all of them are different, then the Voronoi cells are convex polytopes and they can be represented in a combinatorial way using their vertices, sides, two-dimensional faces, etc. Sometimes the induced combinatorial structure is referred to as the Voronoi diagram. In general however, the Voronoi cells may not be convex or even connected.

In the usual Euclidean space, we can rewrite the formal definition in usual terms. Each Voronoi polygon $R_k$ is associated with a generator point  $P_k$. Let $X$ be the set of all points in the Euclidean space. Let $P_1$ be a point that generates its Voronoi region  $R_1$, $P_2$  that generates  $R_2$ , and $P_3$  that generates  $R_3$ , and so on. Then, as expressed by Tran et al, "all locations in the Voronoi polygon are closer to the generator point of that polygon than any other generator point in the Voronoi diagram in Euclidean plane".

Illustration
As a simple illustration, consider a group of shops in a city. Suppose we want to estimate the number of customers of a given shop. With all else being equal (price, products, quality of service, etc.), it is reasonable to assume that customers choose their preferred shop simply by distance considerations: they will go to the shop located nearest to them. In this case the Voronoi cell $$R_k$$ of a given shop $$P_k$$ can be used for giving a rough estimate on the number of potential customers going to this shop (which is modeled by a point in our city).

For most cities, the distance between points can be measured using the familiar Euclidean distance:

 * $$\ell_2 = d\left[\left(a_1, a_2\right), \left(b_1, b_2\right)\right] = \sqrt{\left(a_1 - b_1\right)^2 + \left(a_2 - b_2\right)^2}$$

or the Manhattan distance:

 * $$d\left[\left(a_1, a_2\right), \left(b_1, b_2\right)\right] = \left|a_1 - b_1\right| + \left|a_2 - b_2\right|$$.

The corresponding Voronoi diagrams look different for different distance metrics.

Properties

 * The dual graph for a Voronoi diagram (in the case of a Euclidean space with point sites) corresponds to the Delaunay triangulation for the same set of points.
 * The closest pair of points corresponds to two adjacent cells in the Voronoi diagram.
 * Assume the setting is the Euclidean plane and a discrete set of points is given. Then two points of the set are adjacent on the convex hull if and only if their Voronoi cells share an infinitely long side.
 * If the space is a normed space and the distance to each site is attained (e.g., when a site is a compact set or a closed ball), then each Voronoi cell can be represented as a union of line segments emanating from the sites. As shown there, this property does not necessarily hold when the distance is not attained.
 * Under relatively general conditions (the space is a possibly infinite-dimensional uniformly convex space, there can be infinitely many sites of a general form, etc.) Voronoi cells enjoy a certain stability property: a small change in the shapes of the sites, e.g., a change caused by some translation or distortion, yields a small change in the shape of the Voronoi cells. This is the geometric stability of Voronoi diagrams. As shown there, this property does not hold in general, even if the space is two-dimensional (but non-uniformly convex, and, in particular, non-Euclidean) and the sites are points.

History and research
Informal use of Voronoi diagrams can be traced back to Descartes in 1644. Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet used two-dimensional and three-dimensional Voronoi diagrams in his study of quadratic forms in 1850. British physician John Snow used a Voronoi-like diagram in 1854 to illustrate how the majority of people who died in the Broad Street cholera outbreak lived closer to the infected Broad Street pump than to any other water pump.

Voronoi diagrams are named after Georgy Feodosievych Voronoy who defined and studied the general n-dimensional case in 1908. Voronoi diagrams that are used in geophysics and meteorology to analyse spatially distributed data are called Thiessen polygons after American meteorologist Alfred H. Thiessen, who used them to estimate rainfall from scattered measurements in 1911. Other equivalent names for this concept (or particular important cases of it): Voronoi polyhedra, Voronoi polygons, domain(s) of influence, Voronoi decomposition, Voronoi tessellation(s), Dirichlet tessellation(s).

Examples

Voronoi tessellations of regular lattices of points in two or three dimensions give rise to many familiar tessellations.
 * A 2D lattice gives an irregular honeycomb tessellation, with equal hexagons with point symmetry; in the case of a regular triangular lattice it is regular; in the case of a rectangular lattice the hexagons reduce to rectangles in rows and columns; a square lattice gives the regular tessellation of squares; note that the rectangles and the squares can also be generated by other lattices (for example the lattice defined by the vectors (1,0) and (1/2,1/2) gives squares).
 * A simple cubic lattice gives the cubic honeycomb.
 * A hexagonal close-packed lattice gives a tessellation of space with trapezo-rhombic dodecahedra.
 * A face-centred cubic lattice gives a tessellation of space with rhombic dodecahedra.
 * A body-centred cubic lattice gives a tessellation of space with truncated octahedra.
 * Parallel planes with regular triangular lattices aligned with each other's centers give the hexagonal prismatic honeycomb.
 * Certain body-centered tetragonal lattices give a tessellation of space with rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedra.

Certain body-centered tetragonal lattices give a tessellation of space with rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedra.

For the set of points (x, y) with x in a discrete set X and y in a discrete set Y, we get rectangular tiles with the points not necessarily at their centers.

Higher-order Voronoi diagrams
Although a normal Voronoi cell is defined as the set of points closest to a single point in S, an nth-order Voronoi cell is defined as the set of points having a particular set of n points in S as its n nearest neighbors. Higher-order Voronoi diagrams also subdivide space.

Higher-order Voronoi diagrams can be generated recursively. To generate the nth-order Voronoi diagram from set S, start with the (n − 1)th-order diagram and replace each cell generated by X = {x1, x2, ..., xn−1} with a Voronoi diagram generated on the set S − X.

Farthest-point Voronoi diagram
For a set of n points the (n − 1)th-order Voronoi diagram is called a farthest-point Voronoi diagram.

For a given set of points S = {p1, p2, ..., pn} the farthest-point Voronoi diagram divides the plane into cells in which the same point of P is the farthest point. A point of P has a cell in the farthest-point Voronoi diagram if and only if it is a vertex of the convex hull of P. Let H = {h1, h2, ..., hk} be the convex hull of P; then the farthest-point Voronoi diagram is a subdivision of the plane into k cells, one for each point in H, with the property that a point q lies in the cell corresponding to a site hi if and only if d(q, hi) > d(q, pj) for each pj ∈ S with hi ≠ pj, where d(p, q) is the Euclidean distance between two points p and q.

The boundaries of the cells in the farthest-point Voronoi diagram have the structure of a topological tree, with infinite rays as its leaves. Every finite tree is isomorphic to the tree formed in this way from a farthest-point Voronoi diagram.

Generalizations and variations
As implied by the definition, Voronoi cells can be defined for metrics other than Euclidean, such as the Mahalanobis distance or Manhattan distance. However, in these cases the boundaries of the Voronoi cells may be more complicated than in the Euclidean case, since the equidistant locus for two points may fail to be subspace of codimension 1, even in the two-dimensional case.

A weighted Voronoi diagram is the one in which the function of a pair of points to define a Voronoi cell is a distance function modified by multiplicative or additive weights assigned to generator points. In contrast to the case of Voronoi cells defined using a distance which is a metric, in this case some of the Voronoi cells may be empty. A power diagram is a type of Voronoi diagram defined from a set of circles using the power distance; it can also be thought of as a weighted Voronoi diagram in which a weight defined from the radius of each circle is added to the squared Euclidean distance from the circle's center.

The Voronoi diagram of $$n$$ points in $$d$$-dimensional space can have $O(n^{\lceil d/2 \rceil})$ vertices, requiring the same bound for the amount of memory needed to store an explicit description of it. Therefore, Voronoi diagrams are often not feasible for moderate or high dimensions. A more space-efficient alternative is to use approximate Voronoi diagrams.

Voronoi diagrams are also related to other geometric structures such as the medial axis (which has found applications in image segmentation, optical character recognition, and other computational applications), straight skeleton, and zone diagrams.

Meteorology/Hydrology
It is used in meteorology and engineering hydrology to find the weights for precipitation data of stations over an area (watershed). The points generating the polygons are the various station that record precipitation data. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the line joining any two stations. This results in the formation of polygons around the stations. The area $$(A_i)$$ touching station point is known as influence area of the station. The average precipitation is calculated by the formula $$\bar{P}=\frac{\sum A_i P_i}{\sum A_i}$$

Humanities and social sciences

 * In classical archaeology, specifically art history, the symmetry of statue heads is analyzed to determine the type of statue a severed head may have belonged to. An example of this that made use of Voronoi cells was the identification of the Sabouroff head, which made use of a high-resolution polygon mesh.
 * In dialectometry, Voronoi cells are used to indicate a supposed linguistic continuity between survey points.
 * In political science, Voronoi diagrams have been used to study multi-dimensional, multi-party competition.

Natural sciences

 * In biology, Voronoi diagrams are used to model a number of different biological structures, including cells and bone microarchitecture. Indeed, Voronoi tessellations work as a geometrical tool to understand the physical constraints that drive the organization of biological tissues.
 * In hydrology, Voronoi diagrams are used to calculate the rainfall of an area, based on a series of point measurements. In this usage, they are generally referred to as Thiessen polygons.
 * In ecology, Voronoi diagrams are used to study the growth patterns of forests and forest canopies, and may also be helpful in developing predictive models for forest fires.
 * In ethology, Voronoi diagrams are used to model domains of danger in the selfish herd theory.
 * In computational chemistry, ligand-binding sites are transformed into Voronoi diagrams for machine learning applications (e.g., to classify binding pockets in proteins). In other applications, Voronoi cells defined by the positions of the nuclei in a molecule are used to compute atomic charges. This is done using the Voronoi deformation density method.
 * In astrophysics, Voronoi diagrams are used to generate adaptative smoothing zones on images, adding signal fluxes on each one. The main objective of these procedures is to maintain a relatively constant signal-to-noise ratio on all the images.
 * In computational fluid dynamics, the Voronoi tessellation of a set of points can be used to define the computational domains used in finite volume methods, e.g. as in the moving-mesh cosmology code AREPO.
 * In computational physics, Voronoi diagrams are used to calculate profiles of an object with Shadowgraph and proton radiography in High energy density physics.

Health

 * In medical diagnosis, models of muscle tissue, based on Voronoi diagrams, can be used to detect neuromuscular diseases.
 * In epidemiology, Voronoi diagrams can be used to correlate sources of infections in epidemics. One of the early applications of Voronoi diagrams was implemented by John Snow to study the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak in Soho, England. He showed the correlation between residential areas on the map of Central London whose residents had been using a specific water pump, and the areas with the most deaths due to the outbreak.

Engineering

 * In polymer physics, Voronoi diagrams can be used to represent free volumes of polymers.
 * In materials science, polycrystalline microstructures in metallic alloys are commonly represented using Voronoi tessellations.
 * In island growth, the Voronoi diagram is used to estimate the growth rate of individual islands.
 * In solid-state physics, the Wigner-Seitz cell is the Voronoi tessellation of a solid, and the Brillouin zone is the Voronoi tessellation of reciprocal (wavenumber) space of crystals which have the symmetry of a space group.
 * In aviation, Voronoi diagrams are superimposed on oceanic plotting charts to identify the nearest airfield for in-flight diversion (see ETOPS), as an aircraft progresses through its flight plan.
 * In architecture, Voronoi patterns were the basis for the winning entry for the redevelopment of The Arts Centre Gold Coast.
 * In urban planning, Voronoi diagrams can be used to evaluate the Freight Loading Zone system.
 * In mining, Voronoi polygons are used to estimate the reserves of valuable materials, minerals, or other resources. Exploratory drillholes are used as the set of points in the Voronoi polygons.
 * In surface metrology, Voronoi tessellation can be used for surface roughness modeling.
 * In robotics, some of the control strategies and path planning algorithms of multi-robot systems are based on the Voronoi partitioning of the environment.

Mathematics

 * A point location data structure can be built on top of the Voronoi diagram in order to answer nearest neighbor queries, where one wants to find the object that is closest to a given query point. Nearest neighbor queries have numerous applications. For example, one might want to find the nearest hospital or the most similar object in a database. A large application is vector quantization, commonly used in data compression.
 * In geometry, Voronoi diagrams can be used to find the largest empty circle amid a set of points, and in an enclosing polygon; e.g. to build a new supermarket as far as possible from all the existing ones, lying in a certain city.
 * Voronoi diagrams together with farthest-point Voronoi diagrams are used for efficient algorithms to compute the roundness of a set of points. The Voronoi approach is also put to use in the evaluation of circularity/roundness while assessing the dataset from a coordinate-measuring machine.
 * Zeroes of iterated derivatives of a rational function on the complex plane accumulate on the edges of the Voronoi diagam of the set of the poles (Pólya's shires theorem ).

Informatics

 * In networking, Voronoi diagrams can be used in derivations of the capacity of a wireless network.
 * In computer graphics, Voronoi diagrams are used to calculate 3D shattering / fracturing geometry patterns. It is also used to procedurally generate organic or lava-looking textures.
 * In autonomous robot navigation, Voronoi diagrams are used to find clear routes. If the points are obstacles, then the edges of the graph will be the routes furthest from obstacles (and theoretically any collisions).
 * In machine learning, Voronoi diagrams are used to do 1-NN classifications.
 * In global scene reconstruction, including with random sensor sites and unsteady wake flow, geophysical data, and 3D turbulence data, Voronoi tesselations are used with deep learning.
 * In user interface development, Voronoi patterns can be used to compute the best hover state for a given point.

Civics and planning

 * In Melbourne, government school students are always eligible to attend the nearest primary school or high school to where they live, as measured by a straight-line distance. The map of school zones is therefore a Voronoi diagram.

Bakery

 * Ukrainian pastry chef Dinara Kasko uses the mathematical principles of the Voronoi diagram to create silicone molds made with a 3D printer to shape her original cakes.

Algorithms
Several efficient algorithms are known for constructing Voronoi diagrams, either directly (as the diagram itself) or indirectly by starting with a Delaunay triangulation and then obtaining its dual. Direct algorithms include Fortune's algorithm, an O(n log(n)) algorithm for generating a Voronoi diagram from a set of points in a plane. Bowyer–Watson algorithm, an O(n log(n)) to O(n2) algorithm for generating a Delaunay triangulation in any number of dimensions, can be used in an indirect algorithm for the Voronoi diagram. The Jump Flooding Algorithm can generate approximate Voronoi diagrams in constant time and is suited for use on commodity graphics hardware.

Lloyd's algorithm and its generalization via the Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm (aka k-means clustering), use the construction of Voronoi diagrams as a subroutine. These methods alternate between steps in which one constructs the Voronoi diagram for a set of seed points, and steps in which the seed points are moved to new locations that are more central within their cells. These methods can be used in spaces of arbitrary dimension to iteratively converge towards a specialized form of the Voronoi diagram, called a Centroidal Voronoi tessellation, where the sites have been moved to points that are also the geometric centers of their cells.

Voronoi in 3D
Voronoi meshes can also be generated in 3D.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Voronoi diagram


text:
Jay Gould

Jason Gould (May 27, 1836 – December 2, 1892) was an American railroad magnate and financial speculator who founded the Gould business dynasty. He is generally identified as one of the robber barons of the Gilded Age. His sharp and often unscrupulous business practices made him one of the wealthiest men of the late nineteenth century. Gould was an unpopular figure during his life and remains controversial.

Early life and education
Gould was born in Roxbury, New York, to Mary More (1798–1841) and John Burr Gould (1792–1866). His maternal grandfather Alexander T. More was a businessman, and his great-grandfather John More was a Scottish immigrant who founded the town of Moresville, New York. Gould however grew up in poverty and had to work at his family's small dairy farm. Gould studied at the Hobart Academy in Hobart, New York, paying his way by bookkeeping. As a young boy, he decided that he wanted nothing to do with farming, his father's occupation, so his father dropped him off at a nearby school with fifty cents and a sack of clothes.

Early career
Gould's school principal was credited with getting him a job as a bookkeeper for a blacksmith. A year later, the blacksmith offered him half interest in the blacksmith shop, which he sold to his father during the early part of 1854. Gould devoted himself to private study, emphasizing surveying and mathematics. In 1854, he surveyed and created maps of the Ulster County, New York, area. In 1856, he published History of Delaware County, and Border Wars of New York, which he had spent several years writing. While engaged in surveying he started a side activity financing operators making woodash for tannin used in tanning leather.

In 1856, Gould entered a partnership with Zadock Pratt to create a tanning business in Pennsylvania in an area that was later named Gouldsboro. He eventually bought out Pratt, who retired. In 1856, Gould entered a partnership with Charles Mortimer Leupp, a son-in-law of Gideon Lee and one of the leading leather merchants in the United States. The partnership was successful, until the Panic of 1857. Leupp lost all his money in that financial crisis, but Gould took advantage of the depreciation in property value and bought up former partnership properties.

Gould also started an ice harvesting industry on the large Gouldsboro lake. In the winter, ice was harvested and stored in large ice houses at the side of the lake. He had a railroad line installed next to the lake and he supplied New York City with ice during the summer months.

The Gouldsboro Tannery became a disputed property after Leupp's death. Leupp's brother-in-law David W. Lee was also a partner in Leupp and Gould, and he took armed control of the tannery. He believed that Gould had cheated the Leupp and Lee families in the collapse of the business. Gould eventually took physical possession, but he was later forced to sell his shares in the company to Lee's brother.

Railroad investing
In 1859, Gould began speculative investing by buying stock in small railways. His father-in-law Daniel S. Miller introduced him to the railroad industry by suggesting that Gould help him save his investment in the Rutland and Washington Railroad in the Panic of 1857. Gould purchased stock for 10 cents on the dollar, which left him in control of the company. He engaged in more speculation on railroad stocks in New York City throughout the Civil War, and he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad in 1863.

The Erie Railroad encountered financial troubles in the 1850s, despite receiving loans from financiers Cornelius Vanderbilt and Daniel Drew. It entered receivership in 1859 and was reorganized as the Erie Railway. Gould, Drew, and James Fisk engaged in stock manipulations known as the Erie War, and Drew, Fisk, and Vanderbilt lost control of the Erie in the summer of 1868, while Gould became its president.

Tammany Hall
It was during the same period that Gould and Fisk became involved with Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that largely ran New York City at the time. They made its boss, notorious William M. "Boss" Tweed, a director of the Erie Railroad, and Tweed arranged favorable legislation. Tweed and Gould became the subjects of political cartoons by Thomas Nast in 1869. Gould was the chief bondsman in October 1871 when Tweed was held on $1 million bail. Tweed was eventually convicted of corruption and died in jail.

Black Friday
Due to the struggle to keep Cornelius Vanderbilt from taking over their interests in railroad, Goukld and James Fisk engaged in financial manipulations. In August 1869, Gould and Fisk conspired to begin to buy gold in an attempt to illegally corner the market. During this time, Gould used contacts with President Ulysses S. Grant's brother-in-law Abel Corbin to influence the president and his Secretary General Horace Porter. These speculations culminated in the financial panic of Black Friday on September 24, 1869, when the greenback (cash) premium over face value fell on a gold double eagle from 62 percent to 35 percent. Gould made a small profit from this operation by hedging against his own attempted corner as it was about to collapse, but he lost it in subsequent lawsuits. The gold corner established Gould's reputation in the press as an all-powerful figure who could drive the market up and down at will. Favored by Tweed Ring judges, the conspiratorial partners escaped prosecution, but the months of economic turmoil that rocked the nation following the failed corner proved both ruinous to farmers and bankrupting of some of Wall Street's most venerable financial institutions.

Erie Railroad
In 1873, Gould attempted to take control of the Erie Railroad by recruiting foreign investments from Lord Gordon-Gordon, supposedly a cousin of the wealthy Campbell clan who was buying land for immigrants. He bribed Gordon-Gordon with a million dollars in stock, but Gordon-Gordon was an impostor and cashed the stock immediately. Gould sued him, and the case went to trial in March 1873. In court, Gordon-Gordon gave the names of the Europeans whom he claimed to represent, and he was granted bail while the references were checked. He immediately fled to Canada, where he convinced authorities that the charges were false.

Having failed to convince Canadian authorities to hand over Gordon-Gordon, Gould attempted to kidnap Gordon-Gordon with the help of his associates and future members of Congress Loren Fletcher, John Gilfillan, and Eugene McLanahan Wilson. The group captured him successfully, but they were stopped and arrested by the North-West Mounted Police before they could return to the US. Canadian authorities put them in prison and refused them bail, and this led to an international incident between the United States and Canada. Governor Horace Austin of Minnesota demanded their return when he learned that they had been denied bail, and he put the local militia on full readiness, and thousands of Minnesotans volunteered for an invasion of Canada. After negotiations, the Canadian authorities released them on bail. Gordon-Gordon was eventually ordered to be deported but committed suicide before the order could be carried out.

Western railroads

After being forced out of the Erie Railroad, Gould started to build up a system of railroads in the Midwest and west. He took control of the Union Pacific in 1873 when its stock was depressed by the Panic of 1873, and he built a viable railroad that depended on shipments from farmers and ranchers. He immersed himself in every operational and financial detail of the Union Pacific system, building an encyclopedic knowledge and acting decisively to shape its destiny. Biographer Maury Klein states that "he revised its financial structure, waged its competitive struggles, captained its political battles, revamped its administration, formulated its rate policies, and promoted the development of resources along its lines."

By 1879, Gould gained control of two important western railroads, including the Missouri Pacific Railroad and the Denver and Rio Grande Railway. He controlled 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of railway, about one-ninth of the rail in the United States at that time. He obtained a controlling interest in the Western Union telegraph company and in the elevated railways in New York City after 1881, and he had controlling interest in 15 percent of the country's railway tracks by 1882. The railroads were making profits and set their own rates, and his wealth increased dramatically. He withdrew from management of the Union Pacific in 1883 amid political controversy over its debts to the federal government, but he realized a large profit for himself.

In 1889, he organized the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis which acquired a bottleneck in east–west railroad traffic at St. Louis, but the government brought an antitrust suit to eliminate the bottleneck control after Gould died.

Criticism and appraisal
Gould was extensively criticized in his lifetime, on the basis of being a trader rather than a builder of businesses, and of being unscrupulous. More recent appraisal has suggested that his business ethics were not unusual for the time.

Some historians have proposed the idea that Gould's business practices were unfairly maligned, as he was one of the only railroad financiers who consistently betrayed the railroad cartels' proposed rate fixing by starting new railroad lines, thus driving rates down for consumers.

Personal life

Gould was a member of West Presbyterian Church at 31 West 42nd Street. It later merged with Park Presbyterian to form West-Park Presbyterian.

He married Helen Day Miller (1838–1889) in 1863 and they had six children.

Together with his son George, Gould was a founding member of American Yacht Club. He owned the steam yacht Atalanta (1883). He purchased the Gothic Revival mansion Lyndhurst (sometimes spelled "Lindhurst") to use as a country house in 1880.

Gould died of tuberculosis, then referred to as "consumption" on December 2, 1892, and was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery, The Bronx, New York. His fortune was conservatively estimated for tax purposes at $72 million (equivalent to $ in 2024), which he willed in its entirety to his family.

At the time of his death, Gould was a benefactor in the reconstruction of the Reformed Church of Roxbury, New York, now known as the Jay Gould Memorial Reformed Church. It is located within the Main Street Historic District and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The family mausoleum was designed by Francis O'Hara.

Descendants

Gould married Helen Day Miller (1838–1889) in 1863; they had:

 * George Jay Gould I (1864–1923), married Edith M. Kingdon (1864–1921)
 * Kingdon Gould Sr. (1887–1945), married Annunziata Camilla Maria Lucci (1890–1961)
 * Jay Gould II (1888–1935), married Anne Douglass Graham
 * Marjorie Gould (1891–1955), married Anthony Joseph Drexel II
 * Helen, Lady Decies (1893–1931), married John Graham Hope DeLaPoer Horsley Beresford (1866–1945)
 * George Jay Gould II (1896–1963), married Laura Carter
 * Edith Catherine Gould (1901–1937), married Carroll Livingston Wainwright I (1899–1967), then Sir Hector Murray MacNeal
 * Gloria Gould (1906–1943), married Henry A. Bishop II, then Walter McFarlane Barker
 * Edwin Gould I (1866–1933), married Sarah Cantine Shrady
 * Edwin Gould Jr. (1894–1917), died on Jekyll Island in 1917
 * Frank Miller Gould (c. 1895–1945), married Florence Amelia Bacon, died on January 13, 1945
 * Helen Gould (1868–1938), married Finlay Johnson Shepard (1867–1942) They adopted three children.
 * Howard Gould (1871–1959), married Viola Katherine Clemmons on October 12, 1898, then actress Grete Mosheim in 1937
 * Anna, Duchess de Talleyrand-Périgord (1875–1961), married Paul Ernest Boniface, Comte de Castellane (1867–1932), then Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord, 5th Duke of Talleyrand, 5th Duc of Dino, 4th Duke von Sagan, and Prince of Sagan (1858–1937).
 * Children with Boniface:
 * Marie Louise Boniface de Castellane (1896–?), died during infancy or early childhood
 * Antoine Boniface, Marquis de Castellane (1896–1946), married Yvonne Patenôtre
 * Georges Paul Ernest Boniface de Castellane (1897 or 1899–1944), married Florinda Fernández y Anchorena (1901–?)
 * Georges Gustave Boniface de Castellane (c. 1898–1946)
 * Jay Boniface de Castellane (1902–1956)
 * Children with Talleyrand:
 * Howard de Talleyrand, duc de Sagan (1909–1929), he killed himself when told that he could not marry
 * Helen Violette de Talleyrand-Périgord (1915–2003), married James Robert de Pourtales on March 29, 1937, then Gaston Palewski (1901–1984)
 * Frank Jay Gould (1877–1956), married Helen Kelley; then Edith Kelly; then Florence La Caze (1895–1983)

title: Jay Gould


text:
Pennsylvania Dutch

The Pennsylvania Dutch (Pennsylvanisch Deitsche),  also referred to as Pennsylvania Germans, are an ethnic group in Pennsylvania and other regions of the United States, predominantly in the Mid-Atlantic region of the nation. They largely originate from the Palatinate region of Germany, and settled in Pennsylvania during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. While most were from the Palatinate region of Germany, a lesser number were from other German-speaking areas of Germany and Europe, including Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Saxony, and Rhineland in Germany, Switzerland, and the Alsace–Lorraine region of France.

The Pennsylvania Dutch are either monolingual English speakers or bilingual speakers of both English and the Pennsylvania Dutch language, which is also commonly referred to as Pennsylvania German. Linguistically it consists of a mix of German dialects which have been significantly influenced by English, primarily in terms of vocabulary. Based on dialect features, Pennsylvania Dutch can be classified as a variety of Rhine Franconian, with the Palatine German dialects being most closely related.

Geographically, Pennsylvania Dutch are largely found in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country and Ohio Amish Country. The main division among Pennsylvania Dutch is that between sectarians (those belonging to the Old Order Mennonite, Amish or related groups) and nonsectarians, sometimes colloquially referred to as ″Church Dutch″ or ″Fancy Dutch″. Notable Americans of Pennsylvania Dutch descent include Henry J. Heinz, founder of the Heinz food conglomerate, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the family of businessman Elon Musk.

Autonym
Differing explanations exist on why the Pennsylvania Dutch are referred to as “Dutch”, which typically refers to the inhabitants of the Netherlands or the Dutch language, which is only distantly related to Pennsylvania German.

Several authors and etymological publications consider the word “Dutch” in “Pennsylvania Dutch”, which in medieval times could also be used to refer to speakers of various German dialects, to be an archaism specific to 19th-century American English, particularly in its colloquial form. An alternative interpretation commonly found among laypersons and scholars alike is that the “Dutch” in “Pennsylvania Dutch” is a anglicization or corruption of the Pennsylvania German autonym “deitsch”, which in the Pennsylvania German language refers to the Pennsylvania Dutch or Germans in general. Some authors however, have described this hypothesis as a misapprehension.

The migration of the Pennsylvania Dutch to the United States predates the emergence of a distinct German national identity, which did not form until the late 18th century. The formation of the German Empire in 1871 resulted in a semantic shift, in which "deutsch" was no longer principally a linguistic and cultural term, but was increasingly used to describe all things related to Germany and its inhabitants. This development did not go unnoticed among the Pennsylvania Dutch who, in the 19th and early 20th century, referred to themselves as "Deitsche", while calling newer German immigrants "Deitschlenner" meaning "Germany-ers".

Language
Although speakers of Pennsylvania Dutch can be found among both sectarians and nonsectarians, most speakers belong to the Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonites. Nearly all Amish and Mennonites are naturally ambilingual, speaking both Pennsylvania Dutch and English natively. The Pennsylvania Dutch language is a mix of German dialects which have been significantly influenced by English, primarily in terms of vocabulary. Based on dialect features, Pennsylvania Dutch can be classified as a variety of Rhine Franconian, with the Palatine German dialects being most closely related. The language is both commonly referred to as ″Pennsylvania Dutch″ and ″Pennsylvania German″, with the latter being more common in scholarly publications.

The primary use of Pennsylvania Dutch, both historically and today, has focussed on spoken communication. Although there is a relatively large collection of written texts in the language dating back to the mid-nineteenth century (such as newspaper columns, short stories, poems, plays, and dialogues) their production and reception have been limited to a minority of speakers. The significance of English among today's sectarians extends far beyond its use for communication with outsiders for business and other purposes as English is the primary language for active literacy. While Amish and Mennonite sectarians can read the Bible, prayer books, and hymnals in German, most other reading materials are in English. Research has show that nonsectarian speakers of Pennsylvania Dutch have a more pronounced Pennsylvania Dutch accent when speaking English compared to sectarian speakers such as the Old Order Amish or Old Order Mennonites.

In the 20th century, two linguists, Albert F. Buffington and Preston A. Barba developed a system for writing Pennsylvania Dutch that was largely based on contemporary German orthography, however this is not in common use. No prescribed norms for writing Pennsylvania Dutch exist and in practice most speakers orientate themselves on both German and English spelling systems.

Due to anti-German sentiment between World War I and World War II, the use of the Pennsylvania Dutch language declined, except among the more insular and tradition-bound Plain people, such as the Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonites. Many German cultural practices continue in Pennsylvania in the present-day, and German remains the largest ancestry claimed by Pennsylvanians, according to the 2008 census.

Geographic distribution

The Pennsylvania Dutch live primarily in the Delaware Valley and in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country, a large area that includes South Central Pennsylvania, in the area stretching in an arc from Bethlehem and Allentown in the Lehigh Valley westward through Reading, Lebanon, and Lancaster to York and Chambersburg. Smaller enclaves include Pennsylvania Dutch-speaking areas in New York, Delaware, Maryland, Ohio, West Virginia, North Carolina, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Virginia, and the Canadian province of Ontario.

Immigration to America

The Pennsylvania Dutch, primarily German-speaking immigrants from Germany (particularly the Palatinate region), Switzerland, and Alsace, moved to the USA seeking better opportunities and a safer, more tolerant environment. Many, including Amish and Mennonites, faced religious persecution in Europe. Pennsylvania, established by William Penn as a haven for religious minorities, promised the religious freedom they sought. Economic hardship, marked by war, famine, and limited land access in 17th and 18th century Germany, pushed many to seek a better life in the New World, which offered abundant land and resources.

Europe’s, and especially Germany's, political instability, with frequent wars like the devastating Thirty Years' War, contrasted with the relatively stable environment of the American colonies. The availability of fertile land was a significant draw for the immigrants, who were mainly farmers and craftsmen, for whom the chance to own and cultivate their own farms was highly appealing. Positive reports from early settlers as well as active recruitment by William Penn encouraged friends and family to join them, fostering tightly-knit communities.

About three fourths of all Germans in Pennsylvania were subject to several years of indentured servitude contracts. These indentured servants, known as redemptioners, were made to work on plantations or perform other work to pay off the costs of the sponsor or shipping company which had advanced the cost of their transatlantic voyage. In 1764, the German Society of Pennsylvania was founded to protect the German redemptioners.

The bulk of German migration to the American colonies began in 1683 but concentrated on the first half of the 18th century. Overall, the historian Marianne Wokeck estimates that just under 81,000 German-speakers entered the port of Philadelphia between 1683 and 1775, with two thirds of the immigrants arriving before 1755 of whom the majority (ca. 35,000) arrived in the five year period between 1749 and 1754. In 1790, ethnic Germans comprised 38% of the population of Pennsylvania, or approximately 165,000 people. Of these, over half resided in the counties of Berks, Lancaster, Northampton and York.

Some Americans were suspicious of or hostile towards the heavy German immigration to Pennsylvania, including Benjamin Franklin who noted the following in his Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind (1751): "Why should the Palatine boors be suffered to swarm into our settlements, and by herding together establish their language and manners to the exclusion of ours? Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of aliens, who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of us Anglifying them, and will never adopt our language or customs, any more than they can acquire our complexion."

The Germans who immigrated to the United States saw themselves as related though distinct from later (post-1830) waves of German-speaking immigrants. The Pennsylvania Dutch referred to themselves as Deitsche and would refer to Germans who arrived after the period of almost non-existent emigration between 1760 and 1830 from the German lands as Deitschlenner, literally "Germany-ers", compare Deutschländer.

Pennsylvania Dutch during the American Revolutionary War
The Pennsylvania Dutch composed nearly half of the population of the Province of Pennsylvania. The Fancy Dutch population generally supported the Patriot cause in the American Revolution; the nonviolent Plain Dutch minority did not fight in the war. Heinrich Miller of the Holy Roman Principality of Waldeck (1702-1782), was a journalist and printer based in Philadelphia, and published an early German translation of the Declaration of Independence (1776) in his newspaper Philadelphische Staatsbote. Miller, having Swiss ancestry, often wrote about Swiss history and myth, such as the William Tell legend, to provide a context for patriot support in the conflict with Britain.

Frederick Muhlenberg (1750–1801), a Lutheran pastor, became a major patriot and politician, rising to be elected as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.

The Pennyslvania Dutch contribution to the war effort was notable: "In the marked influence for right and freedom of these early Hollanders and Palatines, in their brave defense of home, did such valiant service in promoting a love of real freedom to the preserving and hence making of our country."

"In the town halls in Dutch cities liberty bells were hung, and from the 'Liberty Bell' placed in Philadelphia by Pennsylvania Dutchmen, on July 4th 1776, freedom was proclaimed 'throughout all the land and to all the inhabitants thereof.' These Palatine Dutchmen gave us some of our bravest men in the war of the American Revolution, notably Nicholas Herkimer."

Many Hessian prisoners, German mercenaries fighting for the British, were held in camps at the interior city of Lancaster, home to a large German community known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. Hessian prisoners were subsequently treated well, with some volunteering for extra work assignments, helping to replace local men serving in the Continental Army. Due to shared German heritage and abundance of land, many Hessian soldiers stayed and settled in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country after the war's end.

Pennsylvania Dutch Provost Corps
Pennsylvania Dutch were recruited for the American Provost corps under Captain Bartholomew von Heer, a Prussian who had served in a similar unit in Europe before immigrating to Reading, Pennsylvania, prior to the war.

During the Revolutionary War the Marechaussee Corps were utilized in a variety of ways, including intelligence gathering, route security, enemy prisoner of war operations, and even combat during the Battle of Springfield. The Marechausee also provided security for Washington's headquarters during the Battle of Yorktown, acted as his security detail, and was one of the last units deactivated after the Revolutionary War. The Marechaussee Corps was often not well received by the Continental Army, due in part to their defined duties but also due to the fact that some members of the corps spoke little or no English. Six of the provosts had even been Hessian prisoners of war prior to their recruitment. Because the provost corps completed many of the same functions as the modern U.S. Military Police Corps, it is considered a predecessor of the current United States Military Police Regiment.

Pennsylvania Dutch during the Civil War
Nearly all of the regiments from Pennsylvania that fought in the American Civil War had German-speaking or Pennsylvania Dutch-speaking members on their rosters, the majority of whom were Fancy Dutch.

Some regiments like the 153rd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry were entirely composed of Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers. The 47th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment also had a high percentage of German immigrants and Pennsylvania-born men of German heritage on its rosters; the regiment's K Company was formed with the intent of it being an "all-German company."

Pennsylvania Dutch companies sometimes mixed with English-speaking companies. (The Pennsylvania Dutch had the habit of labeling anyone who did not speak Pennsylvania Dutch "English.") Many of the Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers who fought in the Civil War were recruited and trained at Camp Curtin, Pennsylvania.

Pennsylvania Dutch regiments composed a large portion of the Federal Forces who fought in the Battle of Gettysburg at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the bloodiest battle of the Civil War.

Decline of the Pennsylvania Dutch
Immediately after the Civil War, the federal government took steps to replace Pennsylvania German schools with English-only schools. The Pennsylvania Dutch fought to retain German as an official language in Pennsylvania to little success.

Literary German disappeared from Pennsylvania Dutch life little by little, starting with schools, and then to churches and newspapers. Pennsylvania Dutch became mainly a spoken language, and as education came to only be provided in English, many Pennsylvania Dutch became bilingual.

Anti-German sentiment and Americanization
The next blow to Pennsylvania Dutch came during World War I and World War II. Prior to the wars, Pennsylvania Dutch was an urban language spoken openly in the streets of towns such as Allentown, Reading, Lancaster and York; afterwards, it became relegated only to rural areas.

There was rampant social & employment discrimination for anyone suspected of being German. Meritt G. Yorgey, a Pennsylvania Dutch descendant who grew up during the height of anti-German sentiment, remembers the instructions of his father: "Don't ever call yourself "Dutch" or "Pennsylvania German." You're just American."

Many Pennsylvanians of German heritage have chosen to assimilate into Anglo-American culture, except for a significant number of Amish and Mennonite plain people who have chosen to remain insular, which has added to the modern misconception that "Pennsylvania Dutch" is synonymous with "Amish."

Pennsylvania Dutch during World War I
Palatine Dutch in the 27th Infantry Division broke through the Hindenburg Line in 1917.

Interwar period
Before World War II, the Nazi Party sought to gain the loyalty of the German-American community, and established pro-Nazi German-American Bunden, emphasizing German-American immigrant ties to the "Fatherland". The Nazi propaganda effort failed in the Pennsylvania Dutch community, as the Pennsylvania Dutch felt no sense of loyalty to Germany.

Pennsylvania Dutch during World War II
During World War II, a platoon of Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers on patrol in Germany was once spared from being machine-gunned by Nazi soldiers who listened to them approaching. The Germans heard them speaking Pennsylvania Dutch amongst each other and assumed that they were natives of the Palatinate.

Canadian Pennsylvania Dutch
An early group, mainly from the Roxborough-Germantown area of Pennsylvania, emigrated to then colonial Nova Scotia in 1766 and founded the Township of Monckton, site of present-day Moncton, New Brunswick. The extensive Steeves clan descends from this group.

After the American Revolution, John Graves Simcoe, lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, invited Americans, including Mennonites and German Baptist Brethren, to settle in British North American territory and offered tracts of land to immigrant groups. This resulted in communities of Pennsylvania Dutch speakers emigrating to Canada, many to the area called the German Company Tract, a subset of land within the Haldimand Tract, in the Township of Waterloo, which later became Waterloo County, Ontario. Some still live in the area around Markham, Ontario, and particularly in the northern areas of the current Waterloo Region. Some members of the two communities formed the Markham-Waterloo Mennonite Conference. Today, the Pennsylvania Dutch language is mostly spoken by Old Order Mennonites.

From 1800 to the 1830s, some Mennonites in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania moved north to Canada, primarily to the area that would become Cambridge, Kitchener/Waterloo and St. Jacobs/Elmira in Waterloo County, Ontario, plus the Listowel area adjacent to the northwest. Settlement started in 1800 by Joseph Schoerg and Samuel Betzner, Jr. (brothers-in-law), Mennonites, from Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Other settlers followed mostly from Pennsylvania typically by Conestoga wagons. Many of the pioneers arriving from Pennsylvania after November 1803 bought land in a sixty thousand-acre section established by a group of Mennonites from Lancaster County Pennsylvania, called the German Company Lands.

Fewer of the Pennsylvania Dutch settled in what would later become the Greater Toronto Area in areas that would later be the towns of Altona, Ontario, Pickering, Ontario, and especially Markham Village, Ontario, and Stouffville, Ontario. Peter Reesor and brother-in-law Abraham Stouffer were higher profile settlers in Markham and Stouffville.

William Berczy, a German entrepreneur and artist, had settled in upstate New York and in May 1794, he was able to obtain sixty-four acres in Markham Township, near the current city of Toronto. Berczy arrived with approximately one hundred and ninety German families from Pennsylvania and settled here. Others later moved to other locations in the general area, including a hamlet they founded, German Mills, Ontario, named for its grist mill; that community is now called Thornhill, Ontario, in the township that is now part of York Region.

Canadian Black Mennonites
In Canada, an 1851 census shows many Black people and Mennonites lived near each other in a number of places and exchanged labor; the Dutch would also hire Black laborers. There were also accounts of Black families providing childcare assistance for their Dutch neighbors. These Pennsylvania Dutch were usually Plain Dutch Mennonites or Fancy Dutch Lutherans. The Black-Mennonite relationship in Canada soon evolved to the level of church membership.

Society

Pennsylvania Dutch society can be divided into two main groups: the sectarian "Plain Dutch" and the nonsectarian "Church Dutch" also known as "Fancy Dutch". These classifications highlight differences in religious practices, lifestyle, and degrees of assimilation into broader American society.

The Plain Dutch consist of Anabaptist sects, including the Amish, Mennonites, and Brethren. They are known for their conservative, simple lifestyle, characterized by plain dress and limited use of modern technology. These communities typically reside in rural areas, maintaining traditional farming practices and close-knit communal living. Pennsylvania Dutch (a dialect of German) is widely spoken among them, both in daily life and religious settings. The Plain Dutch adhere strictly to their religious and community norms, emphasizing a strong cultural and religious identity with minimal integration into mainstream American culture.

The Church Dutch, in contrast, belong to more mainstream Protestant denominations such as Lutheran, Reformed, United Church of Christ, and some Methodist and Baptist congregations. This group is more integrated into broader American society and is more likely to adopt modern conveniences and technologies. While they may still preserve some Pennsylvania Dutch traditions and language, English is predominantly used in daily life and religious practices. The Church Dutch exhibit a higher degree of assimilation into American culture, while still retaining elements of their Pennsylvania Dutch heritage.

The primary differences between these groups lie in their religious practices, lifestyle, language use, and cultural integration. The Plain Dutch are more conservative and focused on maintaining their distinct cultural identity, whereas the Church Dutch are more assimilated and open to modern influences. In time the Fancy Dutch came to control much of the best agricultural lands, ran many newspapers and maintained their German-inspired architecture when founding new towns in Pennsylvania.

There is little evidence specifically of Black Pennsylvania Dutch speakers during the early 19th century; following the Civil War, some Black Southerners who had moved to Pennsylvania developed close ties with the Pennsylvania Dutch community, adopting the language and assimilating into the culture. An 1892 article in The New York Sun noted a community of "Pennsylvania German Negroes" in Lebanon County for whom German was their first language.

Today Pennsylvania Dutch culture is still prevalent in some parts of Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Dutch speak English, with some being bilingual in English and Pennsylvania Dutch. They share cultural similarities with the Mennonites in the same area. Pennsylvania Dutch English retains some German grammar and literally translated vocabulary, some phrases include "outen or out'n the lights" (German: die Lichter loeschen) meaning "turn off the lights", "it's gonna make wet" (German: es wird nass) meaning "it's going to rain", and "it's all" (German: es ist alle) meaning "it's all gone". They also sometimes leave out the verb in phrases turning "the trash needs to go out" in to "the trash needs out" (German: der Abfall muss raus), in alignment with German grammar.

Cuisine
The Pennsylvania Dutch have some foods that are uncommon outside of places where they live. Some of these include shoo-fly pie, funnel cake, pepper cabbage, filling and jello salads such as strawberry pretzel salad.

Religion

The Pennsylvania Dutch maintain numerous religious affiliations; the greatest number are Lutheran or German Reformed with a lesser number of Anabaptists, including Mennonites, Amish, and Brethren. The Anabaptist groups espoused a simple lifestyle, and their adherents were known as Plain Dutch; this contrasts with the Fancy Dutch, mostly of the Lutheran, or Evangelical and Reformed churches, who tended to assimilate more easily into the American mainstream. By the late 1700s, other denominations were also represented in smaller numbers.

Among immigrants from the 1600s and 1700s, those known as the Pennsylvania Dutch included Mennonites, Swiss Brethren (also called Mennonites by the locals) and Amish but also Anabaptist-Pietists such as German Baptist Brethren and those who belonged to German Lutheran or German Reformed Church congregations. Other settlers of that era were of the Moravian Church while a few were Seventh Day Baptists. Calvinist Palatines and several other denominations were also represented to a lesser extent.

Over sixty percent of the immigrants who arrived in Pennsylvania from Germany or Switzerland in the 1700s and 1800s were Lutherans and they maintained good relations with those of the German Reformed Church. The two groups founded Franklin College (now Franklin & Marshall College) in 1787.

According to Elizabeth Pardoe, by 1748, the future of the German culture in Pennsylvania was in doubt, and most of the attention focused on German language schools. Lutheran schools in Germantown and Philadelphia thrived, but most outlying congregations had difficulty recruiting students. Furthermore Lutherans were challenged by Moravians who actively recruited Lutherans to their schools. In the 1750s, Benjamin Franklin led a drive for free charity schools for German students, with the proviso that the schools would minimize Germanness. The leading Lutheran school in Philadelphia school had internal political problems in the 1760s, but Pastor Henry Melchior Muhlenberg resolved them. The arrival of John Christopher Kunze from Germany in 1770 gave impetus to the Halle model in America. Kunze began training clergy and teachers in the Halle system. Reverend Heinrich Christian Helmuth arrived in 1779 and called for preaching only in German, while seeking government subsidies. A major issue was the long-term fate of German culture in Pennsylvania, with most solutions focused on schools. Helmuth saw schools as central to the future of the ethnic community. However most Lutheran clergy believed in assimilation and rejected Helmuth's call to drop English instruction. Kunze's seminary failed, but the first German college in the United States was founded in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787 as Franklin College; it was later renamed Franklin and Marshall College. The Moravians settled Bethlehem and nearby areas and established schools for Native Americans.

In Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Dutch Christians and Pennsylvania Dutch Jews have often maintained a special relationship due to their common German language and cultural heritage. Because both Yiddish and the Pennsylvania Dutch language are High German languages, there are strong similarities between the two languages and a limited degree of mutual intelligibility. Historically, Pennsylvania Dutch Christians and Pennsylvania Dutch Jews often had overlapping bonds in German-American business and community life. Due to this historical bond there are several mixed-faith cemeteries in Lehigh County, including Allentown's Fairview Cemetery, where German-Americans of both the Jewish and Protestant faiths are buried.

Notable people

 * Jacob Albright (1759–1808), founder of the Evangelical Association
 * Anne F. Beiler (1949–present), founder of Auntie Anne's Pretzels
 * John Birmelin (1873–1950), poet, playwright
 * Solomon DeLong (1849–1925), writer, journalist
 * George Ege (1748–1829), Representative for Pennsylvania
 * Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969), 34th President of the United States
 * H. L. Fischer (1822–1909), writer, translator
 * Heinrich Funck (c. 1697 – 1730), miller, author, Mennonite bishop
 * John Fries (1750–1818), auctioneer, organizer of Fries's Rebellion
 * Betty Groff (1935–2015), celebrity chef, cookbook author
 * Michael Hillegas (1729–1804), first Treasurer of the United States
 * Hedda Hopper (1885–1966), actress, gossip columnist
 * Ralph Kiner (1922–2014), Hall of Fame baseball player and Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Mets legend.
 * William Kohl (1820–1892), sea captain, shipowner, shipbuilder, businessman
 * James H. Maurer (1864–1944), Labor leader, three-term Pennsylvania House of Representatives member, and two-time Vice Presidential nominee
 * Stephen Miller (1816–1881), 4th Governor of Minnesota
 * Bodo Otto (1711–1787), physician in the Continental Army
 * Harry Hess Reichard (1878–1956), writer, scholar
 * Joseph Ritner (1780–1869), 8th Governor of Pennsylvania
 * Victor Schertzinger (1888–1941), composer, film director, producer, screenwriter
 * Evelyn Ay Sempier (1933–2008), Miss America 1954
 * Francis R. Shunk (1788–1848), 10th Governor of Pennsylvania
 * Simon Snyder (1759–1813), 3rd Governor of Pennsylvania
 * Clement Studebaker (1831–1901), co-founder of Studebaker Corporation
 * Clement Studebaker Jr. (1871–1932), businessman, son of Clement Studebaker Sr.
 * John Studebaker (1833–1917), co-founder of Studebaker Corporation
 * Conrad Weiser (1696–1760), colonial diplomat between Pennsylvania and Native American nations.

title: Pennsylvania Dutch


text:
Barnstorming

Barnstorming was a form of entertainment in which stunt pilots performed tricks individually or in groups that were called flying circuses. Devised to "impress people with the skill of pilots and the sturdiness of planes," it became popular in the United States during the Roaring Twenties.

Barnstormers were pilots who flew throughout the country to sell airplane rides and perform stunts. Charles Lindbergh first began flying as a barnstormer. Barnstorming was the first major form of civil aviation in the history of aviation.

Background

The Wright brothers and Glenn Curtiss had early flying exhibition teams, with solo flyers like Lincoln Beachey and Didier Masson also popular before World War I, but barnstorming did not become a formal phenomenon until the 1920s. The first barnstormer, taught to fly by Curtiss in 1909, was one Charles Foster Willard, who is also credited as the first to be shot down in an airplane when an annoyed farmer fired a squirrel gun and broke his propeller.

During World War I, the United States manufactured a significant number of Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" biplanes to train its military aviators, and almost every American airman learned to fly using the plane. After the war the U.S. federal government sold off the surplus material, including the Jennys, for a fraction of their initial value (they had cost the government $5,000 each, but were being sold for as low as $200). This allowed many servicemen who already knew how to fly the JN-4s to purchase their own planes. The similar-looking Standard J-1 biplane was also available.

At the same time, numerous aircraft manufacturing companies sprang up, most failing after building only a handful of planes. Many of these were reliable and even advanced designs which suffered from the failure of the aviation market to expand as expected, and a number of these found their way into the only active markets—mail carrying, barnstorming, and smuggling. Sometimes a plane and its owner would drift between the three activities as opportunity presented.

Combined with the lack of Federal Aviation Regulations at the time, these factors allowed barnstorming to flourish.

Flying circuses
Although barnstormers often worked alone or in very small teams, some also organized large "flying circuses" with multiple planes and stunt people. These acts employed promoters to book shows in towns ahead of time. They were the largest and most organized of all of the barnstorming acts. Well-known circuses included the Five Blackbirds (an African American flying group), the Flying Aces Air Circus, the 13 Black Cats, Mabel Cody’s Flying Circus, the Inman Brothers Flying Circus, and the Marie Meyer Flying Circus. Perhaps the largest and most successful of these was the Gates Flying Circus, which attracted in its heyday tens of thousands to a single show. A Time magazine article estimated it staged 2000 air meets in 44 states.

Women and minorities
Barnstorming was performed not only by former military men, but also by women, minorities, and minority women. For example, on July 18, 1915, Katherine Stinson became the first woman in the world to perform a loop. Bessie Coleman, an African-American woman, "not only thrilled audiences with her skills as a barnstormer, but she also became a role model for women and African Americans. Her very presence in the air threatened prevailing contemporary stereotypes. She also fought segregation when she could by using her influence as a celebrity."

Charles Lindbergh, before his fame
Charles Lindbergh engaged in barnstorming in his early years, with the Marie Meyer Flying Circus and others, making a marginal living; Errold Bahl hired him as an assistant, and as a promotional stunt, Lindbergh "volunteered to climb out onto the wing and wave to the crowds below," a performance known as "wing walking." During a barnstorming tour in Minnesota and Wisconsin in 1923, he made the "decision to pursue further formal instruction with the U.S. Army Air Service."

Regulation and decline
The sensational journalism and economic prosperity that marked the Jazz Age in the United States allowed barnstormers to publicize aviation and eventually contributed to bringing about regulation and control. In 1925, the U.S. government began regulating aviation, when it passed the Contract Air Mail Act, which allowed the U.S. Post Office to hire private airlines to deliver mail with payments made based on the weight of the mail. The following year, President Calvin Coolidge signed the Air Commerce Act, which shifted the management of air routes to a new branch in the Department of Commerce, which was also responsible for "licensing of planes and pilots, establishing safety regulations, and general promotion."

Barnstorming "seemed to be founded on bravado, with 'one-upmanship' a major incentive." By 1927, competition among barnstormers resulted in their performing increasingly dangerous tricks, and a rash of highly publicized accidents led to new safety regulations, which led to the demise of barnstorming. Spurred by a perceived need to protect the public and in response to political pressure by local pilots upset at barnstormers stealing their customers, the federal government enacted laws to regulate a fledgling civil aviation sector.

The laws included safety standards and specifications that were virtually impossible for barnstormers to meet,, such as the minimun altitude at which certain tricks could be performed (making it harder for spectators to see what was happening). The military also stopped selling Jennys in the late 1920s. This made it too difficult for barnstormers to make a living. Clyde Pangborn, who was the pilot of the two-man aviation team who were the first to cross the Pacific Ocean nonstop in 1931, ended his barnstorming career in 1931. Some pilots, however, continued to wander the country giving rides as late as fall 1941.

Planning
"Barnstorming season" ran from early spring until after the harvest and county fairs in the fall. Most barnstorming shows started with a pilot, or team of pilots flying over a small rural town to attract local attention. They would then land at a local farm (hence the term "barnstorming") and negotiate for the use of a field as a temporary runway from which to stage an air show and offer airplane rides. After obtaining a base of operation, the pilot or group of aviators would "buzz" the village and drop flyers. In some towns the arrival of a barnstormer or an aerial troupe would lead to a town-wide shutdown as people attended the show.

Stunts
Barnstormers performed a variety of stunts, with some specializing as stunt pilots or aerialists. Stunt pilots performed a variety of aerobatic maneuvers, including spins, dives, loop-the-loops and barrel rolls. Meanwhile, aerialists performed feats of wing walking, stunt parachuting, midair plane transfers, or even playing tennis, target shooting, and dancing on the plane's wings. Other stunts included nose dives and flying through barns, which sometimes led to pilots crashing their planes.

Business
Barnstormers offered plane rides for a small fee. Lindbergh, for example, charged five dollars for a 15-minute ride in his plane. However exciting and glamorous, it was not an easy way to make a steady living. To make ends meet, the barnstormers—including Charles Lindbergh—often had to moonlight as flying instructors, handymen, gas station attendants, etc. Barnstormers often traded plane rides for room and board, both for commercial lodging and in private homes.

Notable barnstormers

 * Jimmie Angel
 * Pancho Barnes
 * Lincoln Beachey
 * Lillian Boyer
 * Jerrie Cobb
 * Alan Cobham
 * Bessie Coleman
 * Doug Davis
 * Meg Fisher
 * Roland Garros
 * Tex Johnston
 * Hubert Julian
 * William Carpenter Lambert
 * Charles Lindbergh
 * Didier Masson
 * Marie Meyer
 * John Moisant
 * Clyde Pangborn
 * Louis Paulhan
 * Adolphe Pégoud
 * Wiley Post
 * Harriet Quimby
 * Tex Rankin
 * Abraham Whalomie Raygorodsky
 * René Simon
 * Slonnie Sloniger
 * Dean Smith
 * Roscoe Turner
 * Ernst Udet
 * Odo Valentine
 * EE Armstrong

Books

 * William Faulkner's 1935 novel Pylon tells the story of a group of barnstormers
 * Nevil Shute's 1951 novel Round the Bend gives a detailed account of the activities of Alan Cobham's National Aviation Day. Archive sources show that Shute, in research for writing the book, wrote to Cobham to check details.
 * Many of Richard Bach's novels feature modern barnstormers as protagonists, or otherwise incorporate barnstorming
 * Philip Jose Farmer's 1982 book A Barnstormer in Oz featured a barnstorming pilot named Hank Stover
 * In the Peanuts comic strip, Snoopy's alter ego, the World War I Flying Ace, states that he may do a little barnstorming after the war
 * The novel The Flying Circus by Susan Crandall follows the exploits of a trio of individuals who come together to create their own barnstorming troupe.

Movies and TV

 * The Tarnished Angels (1957) – melodrama by Douglas Sirk based on the Faulkner novel about barnstorming
 * Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965) – comedy about the "pioneer era" (1903-1914) of air racing and barnstorming in Europe
 * Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies (1973) – based on a story by Steven Spielberg starring Cliff Robertson as a Jenny pilot who barnstorms with his young son
 * The Great Waldo Pepper (1975)
 * Nothing by Chance (1975) – documentary by Hugh Downs about the biplanes that barnstormed across America in the 1920s
 * Days of Heaven (1978) – movie by Terrence Mallick in which a barnstorming troupe visits a farm and performs
 * The Gypsy Moths (1969) – American drama film directed by John Frankenheimer starring Burt Lancaster and Deborah Kerr, based on the novel of the same name by James William Drought
 * The MTV show Nitro Circus features Travis Pastrana, Jolene Van Vugt, and Erik Roner wing-walking on a biplane without chutes or harnesses
 *  The Fall Guy (1981-1986)- An action/adventure television series originally airing on ABC. The show was about a stuntman who moonlights as a bounty hunter using his skills as a stuntman to catch the bad guys. A scene in the intro shows of a biplane running through a farm field and crashing into the side of a barn suggestively a barnstorming stunt gone wrong causing the stuntman ‘Colt’ to wind up hitting the hay. Actually this scene in The Fall Guy intro was borrowed from a scene from a movie Singin’ in the Rain. In season 2, episode 18 of The Fall Guy, titled ‘Guess Who’s Coming to Town’, the episode starts out with Colt performing a stunt from a Robert Redford movie The Great Waldo Pepper. As the biplane gains altitude to avoid crashing into the barn, it wasn’t enough to avoid Colt from doing the same. Colt crashes through the barn roof and winds up falling into the hay (in effect hitting the hay).

Video games

 * In 1982, Activision produced a Barnstorming game cartridge for the Atari 2600
 * In RollerCoaster Tycoon 2, the "Barnstorming Roller Coaster" has coaster cars that are replica biplanes
 * In RollerCoaster Tycoon 3's Wild! Expansion Pack, a "Barn Stormer" ride can be built
 * In Kentucky Route Zero, the small town surrounding 5 dogwood drive was established and lived in by a troupe of barnstormers.

Music

 * "The Immelmann Turn," by Al Stewart, a song set in the 1920s barnstorming era which refers to an aerobatic maneuver of the same name
 * "Barn Storming," by State Radio

title: Barnstorming