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Iveland

Iveland is a municipality in Agder County, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Setesdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Birketveit. Other villages in the municipality include Bakken, Skaiå, and Vatnestrøm.

The 262 km2 municipality is the 279th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Iveland is the 307th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,344. The municipality's population density is 5.5 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 4.8% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality was established on 1 January 1886, when the old municipality of Hornnes og Iveland was split into two municipalities: Iveland (population 1103) and Hornnes (population 1113). The municipal boundaries have not changed since that time.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Iveland farm (Ífuland) since the first Iveland Church was built there. This old farm is now part of the village of Birketveit. The first element is the genitive case of the local river name which now called the Frøysåna. The river name is probably derived from the word which means "yew" (Taxus baccata). The last element is which means "land" or "district".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 9 October 1987. The official blazon is "Vert, a hammer bendwise argent" (I grønt en skråstilt sølv hammer). This means the arms have a green field (background) and the charge is a stonemason's hammer. The hammer has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The green color in the field symbolizes the importance of forestry and agriculture in the municipality. The hammer was chosen to symbolize the importance of mining in the area (such as quartz and nickel). The arms were designed by Ulf Skauge. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Iveland. It is part of the Otredal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.

History
Although nothing is found in written sources about Iveland before the 15th century, there is evidence of occupation for thousands of years prior to that. Stone Age implements have been found, which are 4000–5000 years old. A King's road (Kongevegen), which allowed horse travel, went in an east–west direction through the area and was in use as early as the 9th century, and perhaps before. But the first written record of farms created by clearing the land goes back about 600 years.

The Setesdalsbanen was a narrow-gauge steam railway built in 1896, which went across Iveland on its route between Vennesla and Byglandsfjord in Bygland. The Setesdal Line's operation was terminated in 1962, and the track was removed between Byglandsfjord and Beihølen. When it was constructed, it revived the lumber industry. Large quantities of planks, poles, and timbers were brought by horse to the Iveland station and forwarded by railroad to Kristiansand. This resulted in better prices, since it provided competition with the floated timber.

Geography
Iveland is the smallest municipality in Setesdal. The Otra river, which flows through Iveland, is the largest river in the Sørlandet district. Towards the east it borders on lake Oggevatn.

The municipality is bordered in the northwest by Evje og Hornnes, in the northeast and east by Birkenes, and in the south and west by Vennesla. The municipality has three population centers: Birketveit, Vatnestrøm, and Skaiå.

The Iveland area includes several hundred old mines. These pegmatite mines and quarries yield more than 100 different minerals, including minerals containing rare-earth elements, beryllium, scandium, uranium, and thorium.

Government
Iveland Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Agder District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Iveland is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Iveland (incomplete list):

 * 1934-1942: Einar Iveland (V)
 * 1945-1950: Einar Iveland (V)
 * 1962-1968: Olav Andreas Vatnestrøm (Sp)
 * 1972-1979: Karstein Lie (Sp)
 * 1995-2011: Ole Magne Omdal (Sp)
 * 2011-2021: Gro-Anita Mykjåland (Sp)
 * 2021-2023: Terje Møkjåland (KrF)
 * 2023-present: Jan André Myhren (H)

Notable people

 * Einar Iveland (1892 in Iveland – 1975), a politician who held various positions on Iveland's municipal council from 1933-1950
 * Anne Gerd Eieland (born 1982 in Iveland), Norway's third best female high jumper

title: Iveland


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Evje og Hornnes

Evje og Hornnes is a municipality in Agder county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Setesdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Evje. Other villages in the municipality include Åneland, Dåsnesmoen, Flatebygd, Gautestad, Hornnes, Kjetså, and Øvre Dåsvatn. Evje og Hornnes was created as a new municipality on 1 January 1960 after the merger of the two older municipalities of Evje and Hornnes. The Norwegian National Road 9 runs north–south through the municipality, along the river Otra.

The 587 km2 municipality is the 191st largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Evje og Hornnes is the 204th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 3,904. The municipality's population density is 7.1 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 9.8% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
During the 1960s, Norway enacted many municipal reforms such as mergers and border adjustments due to the work of the Schei Committee, and the municipality of Evje og Hornnes was established during this time. On 1 January 1960, the neighboring municipalities of Evje (population: 1,646) and Hornnes (population: 1,280) were merged to form Evje og Hornnes. On 1 January 1986, the Lislevand farm area (population: 8) was transferred from neighboring Birkenes municipality to Evje og Hornnes. On 1 January 2019, the Hovlandsdalen area (population: 27) was transferred from neighboring Birkenes municipality to Evje og Hornnes.

Name
The municipalities of Evje and Hornnes were merged in 1960 and the new, resulting municipality was given the compound name Evje og Hornnes, literally meaning "Evje and Hornnes".

The municipality of Evje (originally the parish) is named after the old Evje farm (Efja) since the first Evje Church was built there. The name is identical to the word which means "backwater" or "mud" (likely referring to a shallow, backwater part of the local river Otra).

The municipality of Hornnes (originally the parish) is named after the old Hornnes farm (Hornnes) since the first Hornnes Church was built there. The first element is which means "horn". The last element is which means "headland". So the meaning of Hornnes is "the headland shaped like a horn". This is likely referring to the two horn-shaped peninsulas that jut out into the river Otra at the entrance to the lake Breidflå.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 24 April 1992. The official blazon is "Or, two wagons sable in pale" (På gull grunn to svarte vogner, 1-1). This means the arms have a charge that is two black mining wagons in the centre, one above the other. The field (background) of the arms have a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The arms were chosen because mining has been of great importance for the area already for many centuries. One of Europe's largest nickel mines is in the municipality. There are two wagons to represent the fact that the municipality was created from two former municipalities: Evje and Hornnes. The arms were designed by Daniel Rike. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has two parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Evje og Hornnes. It is part of the Otredal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.

History
The Flåt mine in Evje og Hornnes municipality was Europe's largest nickel mine for a period. Flåt mine came into operation in 1844 as a copper mine. From 1872 until 1946 it was mined for nickel. At the point operations were terminated, it was 422 m deep (reaching below sea level). Over 3 million tons of ore were removed and refined into 14,500 t of copper and 20000 t of nickel. Local mining technology and mine history can be seen at the museum at Fennefoss, just outside of the village of Evje.

Evjemoen was a Norwegian military camp in use from 1912 to 2002. The camp lies south of Evje, on the eastern shore of the river Otra. From 1953 to 1995, Evjemoen was used as a training area for Infanteriets øvingsavdeling II (IØ2). The camp was retired in December 2002.

Geography
Evje og Hornnes is bordered by the municipalities of Bygland and Froland to the northeast and by Birkenes and Iveland to the southeast. To the west it is bounded by Åseral and Lyngdal and to the south by Lindesnes and Vennesla municipalities.

The Otra river which flows through Evje og Hornnes is the largest river in the Sørlandet district. It flows from the Setesdalsheiene mountains to the north in Bykle municipality down to the municipality of Kristiansand in the south. The lake Kilefjorden is part of the Otra river, along the southern part of the municipality.

The lake Gyvatn is located along the border with Bygland and Åseral. The lake Høvringsvatnet is located about 10 km northeast of the municipal center of Evje. The lake Byglandsfjorden has its southernmost point in the northern part of the municipality.

Government
Evje og Hornnes Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Agder District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Evje og Hornnes is made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Evje og Hornnes:

 * 1960-1965: Torvald Haavardstad (Ap)
 * 1965-1966: Gunnar Uleberg (Ap)
 * 1966-1975: Gunnar Østerhus (Ap)
 * 1976-1979: Jostein Berget (Ap)
 * 1980-1983: Asbjørn Kjetsaa (Sp)
 * 1984-1989: Jostein Berget (Ap)
 * 1990-1991: Bjarne Johansen (Ap)
 * 1991-1993: Carl Martin Thorsen (H)
 * 1993-1999: Svein Tallaksen (Ap)
 * 1999-2019: Bjørn A. Ropstad (KrF)
 * 2019-2023: Svein Arne Haugen (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Morten Haraldstad (KrF)

Geology
The Evje og Hornnes municipality is situated at the southwestern margin of the Baltic Shield, the exposed section of the East European craton. Rocks in the area are dominated by different types of precambrian gneis and a large metagabbro body stretching into the neighboring Iveland municipality.

During the final stages of Sveconorwegian (0.9–1.1 gigaannum) orogeny, a large pluton of granitic/monzonitic composition was emplaced in the northern part of the municipality and is assumed to have a relationship with the thousands of pegmatite veins in the Evje-Iveland area.

Earlier during the Sveconorwegian orogeny, mafic rocks (gabbro-diorite) were emplaced. Most of the gabbro has been affected by the Sveconorwegian orogeny and became a metagabbro (amfibolite) with only minor remnants of the original gabbro. The Flåt Nickel Mine is situated at the north-western margin in a diorite intrusion post-dating the gabbro.

The pegmatites of the Evje-Iveland area have become worldwide known for a large number of rare and often crystallized minerals.

The pegmatites were initially mined for quartz, used in the melter at Fennefoss to extract the nickel from the ore from the Flåt Nickel Mine. Later, large quantities of feldspar were mined for use in the ceramic industry, both in Norway and abroad. Also mica (muscovite), beryl, rare-earth minerals, scandium ore, and minor quantities of uranium ore were mined.

After 1983, almost all mines were abandoned, and nowadays only minor quantities of "tannspat" or dentalspat are mined in a couple of mines. This is microcline or plagioclase feldspar of very high purity and used to make porcelain teeth-fillings or dentures. The tannspat is exported to Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and sometimes Japan.

A number of the mines is still open to mineral collectors.

Economy
The area is internationally known for its geology and its mineral richness. Deposits of nickel, quartz, feldspar, mica, beryl, REE minerals, scandium, and uranium ore have been exploited. Nowadays only ultra-pure feldspar for dental applications is being mined.

Tourism is a major source of income for the entire area. During the summer, many thousands of tourist visit Evje. Outdoor activities in the area include rafting, rock climbing, biking, cross-country skiing, kayaking, canoeing, paddling, water skiing, riverboarding, swimming, fishing, mineral collecting, and mine excursions. Additionally, there are several museums and farms open to visitors.

The shopping center of Evje is of regional importance. In addition, there is some industry in Evje. One such industry is Skibsplast, a producer of fiberglass boats.

Geology
The Setesdal museum manages the Evje og Hornnes Geomuseum Fennesfoss, which is based out of Rysstad in Valle municipality. The geomuseum has an extensive collection of local minerals, most notably minerals from the pegmatite veins in the Evje-Iveland district. These pegmatites have been exploited for quartz, feldspar, mica, beryl, thortveitite, REE-containing minerals and uraninite. In addition, gemstone material has been found: aquamarine, golden beryl, rock crystal, smoky quartz, citrine, spessartine and amazonite. The geomuseum has samples of all these minerals. Marie Curie had several consignments of radioactive minerals sent to her from this region. The museum includes a collection of laboratory equipment, among which an electroscope with "Pierre Curie" engraved.
 * Evje og Hornnes geomuseum Fennefoss

The Mineralparken is located at Auensneset, 5 km south of the village of Evje. The displays are entirely constructed in underground mining adits. The collection consists of more than 1000 foreign and Norwegian minerals. The Setesdal Mineralpark is internationally acclaimed to be a unique museum, with a collection of very high quality. The outside area is an activity park for children.
 * Mineralparken

The Flåt nickel mine was in operation 1872–1946, and was once Europe's largest in its kind. Most of the mining buildings have been torn down, but the area has been developed as a tourist attraction with many sign posts explaining what once has been at the different localtions.
 * Flåt nickel mine (Flåt nikkelgruve)

The five pegmatite quarries at the 2 km long Evje Mineralsti trail that people can visit. It is possible to find samples of many types of minerals such as amazonite, different types of quartz, fluorite, pyrite and many others. It is also possible to find samples of the pegmatite rock, with feldspar/quartz/mica. The first mine, Landsverk I, is also the most mineral-rich pegmatite of the entire Evje-Iveland district.
 * Evje mineral trail (Evje Mineralsti)

The Oddestemmen Steinsliperi is probably the only remaining historic stone-cutter workshop left in Norway. The workshop specializes in the cabochon technique and produces silver jewelry with stones from own production.
 * Oddestemmen steinsliperi

The Evje-Iveland area is famous for its mineral richness. Several of the old pegmatite mines in the area are open to collectors. During the 2021 season the following mines are open: Knipane, Solås, Steli (all in Iveland), and Evje Mineralsti (in Evje).
 * Mineral tourism

Otra
The Otra river is the largest river in the south of Norway. It springs from the Setesdalsheiene in Bykle municipality and runs southwards to Kristiansand, where it runs out in the sea. The Otra is known for salmon fishing and is known for a rare salmon variety, the "bleka" or "bleke". The Otra is extensively used for outdoor activities, like rafting, paddling, swimming and fishing.

Notable people

 * Jørgen Løvland (1848 in Evje – 1922), an educator and Prime Minister of Norway from 1907 to 1908
 * Torleiv Hannaas (1874 in Hornnes – 1929), a philologist and academic
 * Torvald Haavardstad (1893 in Evje – 1965), a teacher, church singer, and long-time mayor of Evje
 * Geir Kjetsaa (1937–2008), a professor in Russian literary history who grew up and died in Hornnes
 * Per Sefland (born 1949 in Evje), a police officer who served in various police roles and as Governor of Svalbard
 * Helena Iren Michaelsen (born 1977 in Evje), a singer-songwriter with symphonic metal band Imperia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Evje og Hornnes


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Bygland

Bygland is a municipality in Agder county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Setesdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Bygland. Other villages in the municipality include Åraksbø, Austad, Byglandsfjord, Grendi, Langeid, Lauvdal, Litveit, Longerak, Moi, Ose, Sandnes, Skåmedal, and Tveit. The Norwegian National Road 9 runs through the municipality, following the river Otra where most of the population of Bygland lives.

The 1312 km2 municipality is the 76th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Bygland is the 323rd most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,136. The municipality's population density is 1 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 5.9% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The parish of Bygland was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). Since that time, the municipal boundaries have not changed.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Bygland farm (Byggland) since the first Bygland Church was built there. The first element is which means "barley". The last element is which means "land" or "farm".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 15 November 1991. The official blazon is "Vert, a lynx rampant Or langued gules and the tips of ears and tail sable" (På grøn grunn ei oppspringande gull gaupe). This means the arms have a green field (background) and the charge is a European lynx (Lynx lynx) with a red tongue and with the tips of ears and tail being black. The lynx has a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The green color in the field symbolizes the importance of the agriculture and forests in the municipality. The lynx was chosen to symbolize the wild and rich nature in the rural highlands of the municipality. The arms were designed by Daniel Rike. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has two parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Bygland. It is part of the Otredal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.

Geography
Bygland lies in the middle of the Setesdal valley which is also a traditional district in Aust-Agder county. The valley includes the municipalities of Bykle, Valle, Bygland, Iveland, and Evje og Hornnes. The Otra river flows from the glacially scoured Hardangervidda plateau in the north, through the Setesdal valley (and through Bygland), and into the sea near the city of Kristiansand. The municipality is bordered on the north by Valle, in the east by Fyresdal (Telemark county) and Åmli (Agder county), in the south by Froland and Evje og Hornnes, and in the west by Åseral, Kvinesdal, and Sirdal (all in Agder county).

Bygland is Agder's third largest municipality in area. The majority of the area of the municipality lies in the Setesdalsheiene mountains, at an elevation of over 700 m above sea level. The municipality stretches from the small town Byglandsfjord in the south to the farms at Langeid in the north. Lake Byglandsfjorden is 40 km long and lies on the river Otra. Other lakes include the Åraksfjorden, Gyvatn, Hovatn, Kvifjorden, Longerakvatnet, Straumsfjorden, and Topsæ. The rivers Otra and Topdalsfjorden both run through Bygland on their way south. The Reiårsfossen waterfall is one of many waterfalls in the municipality.

Climate
Byglandsfjord is situated inland in the southernmost of Norway's main valleys and has a humid continental climate (Dfb) or temperate oceanic climate (Cfb), depending on winter threshold used (0 °C as in USA or -3 °C as in Europe). The precipitation pattern, with autumn and winter as wettest seasons, is in line with an oceanic climate. The all-time high 33.7 °C was recorded in July 1986. The all-time low -31 °C is from January 1941. The coldest low after 1980 is -23.6 °C recorded February 1986. The average date for the last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C) in spring is 3 May and average date for first freeze in autumn is 14 October giving a frost-free season of 163 days (1981-2010 average).

History
The Setesdal Line was a narrow gauge steam railway which went between Vennesla and Byglandsfjord in Bygland. It was built in 1896. The Setesdal Line's operation was terminated in 1962 and the track was removed between Byglandsfjord and Beihølen.

Other transport up the Setesdal valley was provided by the steamships SS Bjoren and Dølen. First placed in operation in 1866, the SS Bjoren is still in operation as a tourist attraction on lake Byglandsfjorden during the summers.

Government
Bygland Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Agder District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Bygland is made up of 15 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Bygland:

 * 1838–1841: C.A. Münster
 * 1841–1851: Andreas Møglestue
 * 1851–1863: Gunstein Grundeson Frøyrak
 * 1863–1866: Gunstein Jørundson Langerak
 * 1866–1869: Daniel Grundeson Aakhus
 * 1869–1879: Gunnar Olavson Nese
 * 1879–1887: Olav Grundeson Aakhus
 * 1887–1889: Tarald Bjørgulvson Langeid
 * 1889–1902: Lars Knutson Liestøl (V)
 * 1902–1908: Aasulv Lande
 * 1908–1911: Tarkjel K. Austad
 * 1911–1914: Aasulv Lande
 * 1914–1917: Olav T. Nordgaren
 * 1917–1923: Aanund O. Langerak
 * 1923-1929: Knut O. Sandnes
 * 1929–1935: Jørund Kvaale (Bp)
 * 1935-1941: Nere Aakhus (V)
 * 1941-1942: Olav Ottar Abusdal (NS)
 * 1942-1945: Gunnar Heistein (NS)
 * 1945-1945: Gunnar Lande
 * 1945-1947: Hallvard Lidi
 * 1947-1958: Jørund Kvaale (Bp)
 * 1958–1959: Osmund Faremo (Ap)
 * 1960-1963: Tarkjel Langerak
 * 1963–1966: Osmund Faremo (Ap)
 * 1966–1968: Hallvard Frøysnes (Ap)
 * 1968-1972: Gunnar Gakkestad (Sp)
 * 1972–1985: Knut P. Sandnes (Sp)
 * 1985–1987: Magnhild Rygg (Sp)
 * 1988-1991: Sigbjørn Horverak (KrF)
 * 1992-1995: Torbjørn Borgi (Ap)
 * 1995–2011: Knut A. Austad	(Sp)
 * 2011–2019: Leiv Rygg Langerak	(Sp)
 * 2019–2023: Sigbjørn Åge Fossdal (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Runar Granheim (Ap)

Attractions

 * Byglandsfjord Station, a former railway station constructed in 1896
 * SS Bjoren, a wood-fuelled heritage steamboat that travels the route between Byglandsfjord-Bygland and Bygland-Ose on the lake Byglandsfjorden in the summer.
 * Bygland tower, a folk museum.

Notable people

 * Even Torkildsen Lande (1758 in Bygland – 1833), a Norwegian farmer and blacksmith who served on the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly
 * Oscar Castberg (1846 in Bygland – 1917), a Norwegian painter and sculptor
 * Hallvard Sandnes (1893 in Sandnes - 1968), a Norwegian schoolteacher and writer
 * Olav Bø (1918 in Bygland – 1998), a Norwegian folklorist
 * Kjell Kristian Rike (1944 in Byglandsfjord – 2008), a Norwegian sports commentator

title: Bygland


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Valle, Norway

Valle is a municipality in Agder county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Setesdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Valle. Other villages in Valle include Besteland, Brokke, Homme, Hovet, Rygnestad, Rysstad, and Uppstad.

The 1265 km2 municipality is the 82nd largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Valle is the 321st most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,180. The municipality's population density is 1 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 7.6% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
Valle was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). On 1 January 1902, the northern part of Valle (population: 476) was separated to become the separate municipality of Bykle. This left Valle with 1,720 inhabitants. On 1 July 1915, the southern district of Valle (population: 658) was separated to form the new municipality of Hylestad. This left Valle with a population of 1,051. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1962, the municipalities of Hylestad (population: 662) and Valle (population: 902) were merged into one municipality named Valle.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Valle farm (Vallar) since the first Valle Church was built there. The name is the genitive case of the word which means "meadow" or "field".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 11 May 1984. The official blazon is "Gules, five saltires couped Or in saltire (På raud grunn fem gull Andreas-krossar, 2-1-2). This means the arms have a red field (background) and the charge is a group of five saltire (St. Andrew's cross). The crosses are couped which means they are cut off or separate and they are laid out in saltire which means they are in the form of an X, in the pattern 2-1-2, together forming a larger cross. The crosses have a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The design was based on the diagonal beams forming construction and decoration in old Norwegian wooden churches, especially decorating the railings of the second floor balconies. This design was part of the medieval Hylestad Stave Church, located in Rysstad. This pattern is also used in traditional Setesdal sweaters that have long been made and worn in the municipality. The arms were designed by Daniel Rike. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Valle. It is part of the Otredal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.

Geography
The municipality of Valle is bordered to the north by the municipalities of Bykle (in Agder county) and Tokke (in Telemark county). To the east, it is bordered by Fyresdal municipality in Telemark, to the south it is bordered by Bygland municipality in Agder, and to the west it is bordered by Sirdal municipality, also in Agder county.

Valle lies in the middle of Setesdal, a valley and a traditional district in Aust-Agder that included the municipalities of Bykle, Valle, Bygland, Iveland, and Evje og Hornnes. The Otra river flows from the Hardangervidda plateau in Telemark to the north, through the Setesdal valley (and through Valle), into the sea near the city of Kristiansand.

Valle is separated from the neighbouring valleys in the east and west by the large Setesdalsheiene mountain plateaus. Before the valley was linked by road to Kristiansand in the 1840s, people routinely traveled east and west across these moorlands. The highest point is the 1418 m tall Skammevarden. Other high mountains in Valle include Bergeheii, Skjerkenuten, Svarvarnuten, and Urddalsknuten.

The high mountains are the starting points for several large rivers including the Kvina and Tovdalselva. Several large lakes are also located in Valle including Botnsvatnet, Kolsvatnet, Rosskreppfjorden, Store Bjørnevatn, Straumsfjorden, and Øyarvatnet. The Hallandsfossen and the Gloppefossen are two larger waterfalls in Valle.

There are two central population centres in the municipality: Valle and Rysstad. The village of Valle is the site of the municipal administration and Rysstad was the site of the municipal administration in the old municipality of Hylestad.

Climate
Situated in a long valley at some altitude, Valle has a humid continental climate (Dfb), close to a boreal climate. The driest season is spring, while the wettest is autumn and early winter.

History
The Hylestad stave church, constructed in the 12th century in Setesdal was demolished in the 19th century. Its portal, with several carved scenes illustrating the legend of Sigurd Fåvnesbane (Sigurd the Dragon-slayer), is on display at University Museum of Antiquities in Oslo (Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Historisk Museum, Oslo). Sigurd's slaying of Fafnir with his sword Gram is described in the Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson and the Volsunga saga as well as alluded to in Beowulf and Njáls saga.

Rygnestadtunet is a historical family farm in Rygnestad, built by Vonde-Åsmund (Åsmund the Evil) in the mid-1500s. Today, it is an open-air museum that is part of the Setesdal Museum. The farm was sold to museum by Gyro Rygnestad and her family in the 1920s. Today, it is represented to visitors exactly as it was in 1919. Grave findings around the farm indicate that the site was settled as early as 900 AD. Another farm museum in Valle is Tveitetunet. There are also several old silver smithies and barns that can be seen in Rysstad.

Historically, Valle was very isolated from other parts of Setesdal. To get from Valle to the Bykle area to the north, residents had to traverse the Byklestigen pass along the river Otra. The pass was a torturous trail up a steep cliff face. Until the 1870s, it was the only route to travel from Valle in the middle Setesdal valley to Bykle in the north. It runs above the river Otra and was the site of numerous accidents on the hazardous route. Today, the Norwegian National Road 9 passes through the mountain in a tunnel providing a fast, easy route north.

Between Valle in Setesdal on the western side of the mountains and Fyresdal on the eastern side, one finds a medieval trail over the high plateau that priests and bishops used in order to get between the counties of Agder and Telemark. This track is named Bispevegen ("Bishop's Road") and every year a march called "Bispevegmarsjen" ("The Bishop's Road March") starts at Kleivgrend in Fyresdal.

Traditional music is popular in this region. There is a Jew's harp monument in Valle. (Photo)

Government
Valle Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Agder District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Valle is made up of 15 representatives that are elected to four-year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordførar) of Valle:

 * 1838–1844: Johan Koren Dahl
 * 1844–1856: Olav H. Kyrvestad
 * 1856–1857: Tor B. Homme
 * 1857–1863: Torleiv Bjugson Aakre
 * 1863–1865: Olav Olsson Aamli
 * 1865–1880: Peder Blom
 * 1880–1885: Knut Olsson Løyland
 * 1889–1895: Olav Pålsson Kjelleberg
 * 1895-1907: Hallvard K. Kvassaker
 * 1908-1916: Olav M. Harstad
 * 1917–1922: Knut K. Løyland
 * 1923–1931: Tarald Å. Åmli
 * 1932–1945: Knut O. Løyland
 * 1945-1945: Aasulv K. Austad
 * 1945-1945: Olav D. Rike
 * 1945-1945: Tarald Å. Åmli
 * 1946–1947: Knut O. Rike
 * 1948–1951: Torgeir Sagneskar
 * 1952–1957: Knut O. Løyland
 * 1958–1961: Daniel A. Homme
 * 1962–1963: Torjus Nomeland
 * 1964–1975: Dreng Brokka (Sp)
 * 1976–1987: Gudmund Åkre (Sp)
 * 1988–1991: Pål Åmlid (Ap)
 * 1992–1999: Tarald Myrum (Sp)
 * 1999–2007: Steinar Kyrvestad (Sp)
 * 2007–2011: Bjørgulv S. Lund (H)
 * 2011-2015: Tarald Myrum (Sp)
 * 2015-2023: Steinar Kyrvestad (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Lars Tarald Myrum (Sp)

Notable people

 * Ole Knudsen Tvedten (1757/8 in Valle – 1837), a farmer, district sheriff, and representative at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly in 1814
 * Bjug Harstad (1848 in Setesdal – 1933), a Lutheran pastor whose family emigrated to USA in 1861 and later became the founding president of Pacific Lutheran University
 * Aani Aanisson Rysstad (1894 in Valle – 1965), a politician who was mayor of Valle 1934–1937
 * Sigurd Helle (1920 in Hylestad – 2013), a topographer and explorer
 * Paal-Helge Haugen (born 1945 in Valle), a poet, novelist, dramatist, and children's writer
 * Kirsten Bråten Berg (born 1950), a traditional folk singer, silversmith, and government scholar

title: Valle, Norway


text:
Bykle

Bykle is a municipality in Agder county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Setesdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Bykle. Other villages in Bykle municipality include Berdalen, Bjåen, Breive, Hoslemo, Hovden, and Nordbygdi. Bykle was established as a municipality on 1 January 1902 when it was separated from the municipality of Valle.

The 1467 km2 municipality is the 60th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Bykle is the 333rd most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 995. The municipality's population density is 0.8 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 7.1% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality of Bykle was created when it was separated from the older municipality of Valle on 1 January 1902 after a dispute over the costs of road building (Bykle was the bigger area, while Valle had more people and more money). Initially, Bykle had a population of 476 residents in the new municipality. The boundaries of the municipality have not changed since that time.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Byklum farm (Byklar) since the first Bykle Church was built there. The farm is named after Lake Bykil, but the meaning of that name is uncertain. The name possibly comes from the word bauka which means "to splash" or "to slosh". Historically, the name has been spelled Bøgle or Bøckle, but the spelling has been Bykle since the 19th century.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 4 April 1986. The official blazon is "Vert, goutte d'eau" (Grøn grunn strødd med sølv dropar). This means the arms have a green field (background) and the charge is droplets of water that are equally spaced all over the shield. The water droplets have a tincture of argent which means they are commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The green color in the field symbolizes the importance of agriculture in the municipality. The water droplets were chosen as a symbol for the water and rivers in the municipality, as well as for the hydropower plant which was founded in 1915. The plant has brought prosperity to the area since then. The arms were designed by Daniel Rike. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Bykle. It is part of the Otredal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.

Geography
Bykle sits in the northern part of the Setesdalen valley. It is bordered to the north by Vinje municipality and to the east by Tokke municipality both of which are in Telemark county. It is bordered to the south by Valle and Sirdal municipality, both in Agder county. It is bordered in the southwest by Sandnes municipality and in the west by Hjelmeland and Suldal municipalities–all in Rogaland county.

There are many lakes that are located within the mountainous municipality including Blåsjø, Botsvatn, Hartevatnet, Holmavatnet, Ormsavatnet, Reinevatn, Skyvatn, Store Urevatn, Svartevatnet, and Vatndalsvatnet, and Ytre Storevatnet.

The Setesdalsheiene mountain range runs through the municipality, including the tallest mountain in that range, Sæbyggjenuten at 1507 m. The Byklestigen pass is a torturous trail up a steep cliff face. Until the 1870s, it was the only route to reach Bykle from the middle Setesdal valley to the south. It runs above the river Otra and was the site of numerous accidents on the hazardous route. The eastern side of the valley (and the municipal/county border) is lined by the mountains Gråsteinsnosi, Brandsnutene, Svolhusgreini, Sæbyggjenuten, and Støylsdalsnutene. The western side of the valley (and the municipal/county border) is lined by the mountains Storhellernuten, Skyvassnuten, Sveigen, and Kaldafjellet. The southern border of the municipality is marked by the mountain Steinheii. The mountains Urevassnutene, Djuptjønnuten, Snjoheinuten, and Kvervetjønnuten mark the highlands in the southwestern part of the municipality, northwest of the village of Bykle.

Economy
Bykle has several hydroelectric power generation facilities. The second-largest sector of income for Bykle is the alpine skiing facility in Hovden. Due to its vast amount of hydroelectric power, Bykle is now the wealthiest of the municipalities in Setesdal.

Government
Bykle Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Agder District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Bykle is made up of 13 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Politics
Bykle has been run by one mayor, Kai Jeiskelid, from 1985 until 2011. In September 2011, a new mayor was elected: Jon-Rolf Næss. Due to a law implemented for 50 years ago by the Labour Party, the obligation of politicians' residence in this municipality is required.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Bykle (incomplete list):
 * 1985-2011: Kay Jeiskelid (Ap/H)
 * 2011-2023: Jon-Rolf Næss (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Hans Blattmann (Ap)

History
At Storhedder, north of the lake Storheddervatnet near the mountain Storheddernuten, there are prehistoric runic inscriptions dating over 1000 years old.

The Hovden area was interconnected more with the districts to the west of the mountains than communities further down the Setesdal valley. The main mountain plateau trade route led west to Suldal municipality in Rogaland. The Byklestigen pass was the line of divisions between dialects; in Valle to the south the classic Setesdal tongue was spoken while in Bykle the dialect includes a significant mixture from neighboring Telemark county.

Falcons were trapped in the heights above Bykle. From as early as 1203 and as late as 1780 there are reports of English and Dutch trapping of falcons at Breivik in Bykle. One byproduct of the numerous Dutch visits in the 1560s was the discovery that the natives had no natural resistance to syphilis; a state physician had to be dispatched there to stem the disease.

Attractions

 * Old Bykle Church, built in 1619, is found in the village of Bykle. It stands on the site of an older stave church
 * Open air museums at Huldreheimen and Lislestog.
 * Hovden ski resort and village is found in the north along Norwegian National Road 9.
 * Viking Age bog iron museum, which recognizes the industry in the area over 1000 years ago, located at Hovden
 * Prehistoric runic inscriptions at Storhedder

Notable people

 * Tore Segelcke (1901–1979), an actress who bought and restored Huldreheimen in Bykle with her husband, Anton Raabe

title: Bykle


text:
Flora, Norway

Flora is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the traditional district of Sunnfjord. The administrative centre was the town of Florø, which was founded in 1860. Florø has 8,957 inhabitants (2017) and the Eikefjord area in the east has 387 inhabitants (2017). Other village areas in the municipality included Rognaldsvåg, Stavang, Grov, Norddalsfjord, Nyttingnes, Steinhovden, and Brandsøy.

At the time of its dissolution in 2020, the 693 km2 municipality was the 163rd largest by area out of the 422 municipalities in Norway. Flora was the 96th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 11,988. The municipality's population density was18.5 PD/km2, and its population had increased by 5.1% over the last decade.

The municipality stretched from inner fjords where the mountains ascend to the Ålfotbreen glacier, to the outermost islands off the mainland coast. The town at its centre had industries that developed continuously. Trade and industry in Flora were mainly fishing industry, shipyards, and supply for the oil and gas industry in the North Sea.

Name
The municipality is named after the old Flora farm (Flóra) on the island of Brandsøya, near where the town of Florø was built in 1860. The meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain with a couple of different likely possibilities. The old name, is the accusative case/genitive case of the word which means "floor", from which the names Florø and Florelandet are derived. This Old Norse word is probably derived from a Germanic root word,, meaning "flat ground". Another possibility for the meaning of the name is that it is derived from the word which means "flood" or "deluge". A common misunderstanding is that the name Florø includes the Danish word which means "island" as a suffix that was attached to the farm name Flora. Although not true, it almost led to the town being renamed Florøy in the 1930s.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 19 February 1960 for the town of Florø. A few years later on 1 January 1964, the new Flora Municipality was created, including the town of Florø. On 6 October 1967, the old arms of Florø were granted as the arms for Flora Municipality. These arms were in use until 1 January 2020 when the municipality was dissolved. The official blazon is "Gules, three herrings bendwise argent" (På raud botn tre sølv sildar i skrå-stilling). This means the arms have a red field (background) and the charge is a set of three diagonal herring. The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The three herrings are a symbol for the great local importance of herring fishing for the development and economy of Flora. The arms were designed by Hallvard Trætteberg. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Background
The old municipality of Kinn was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). The original municipality was identical to the Kinn parish (prestegjeld) with the sub-parishes (sokn) of Bru, Kinn, and Bremanger.

On 3 January 1861, the village area of Florø (population: 846) was incorporated as a ladested (port town) by royal decree, which removed it from the rural municipality of Kinn. This left Kinn with 6,531 residents. In 1864, the northern district of the municipality was separated from the Kinn parish and became the new parish of Bremanger. Then, on 1 January 1866, Bremanger (population: 1,852) became a separate municipality. After the split, Kinn was left with 4,679 inhabitants. On 1 January 1923, the municipality of Kinn was divided into three separate municipalities: the western (island) area was Kinn (population: 2,508); the central (mostly mainland) area was Bru (population: 1,560); and the southeasternmost inland area was Eikefjord (population: 929).

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the new municipality of Flora was created upon the merger of the following areas: After the merger, the new municipality of Flora had a total of 7,715 residents.
 * the town of Florø (population: 2,040)
 * the parts of the municipality of Bru that were north of the Førdefjorden (population: 1,155)
 * the municipality of Eikefjord (population: 919)
 * the Steindal area of the municipality of Vevring (population: 25)
 * the Husefest and Breivik farms in Bremanger (population: 9)
 * the municipality of Kinn (population: 3,567)

On 1 January 2020, Flora was merged with most of the old Vågsøy Municipality to form a new Kinn Municipality. This non-contiguous municipality is separated by the municipality of Bremanger, making it the only non-contiguous municipality in Norway.

Churches
The Church of Norway had four parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Flora. It was part of the Sunnfjord prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin.

Government
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment, social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor was indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality was under the jurisdiction of the Sogn og Fjordane District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Flora was made up of 31 representatives that were elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Mayors
The mayors of Flora:

 * 1964-1971: Odd Færøyvik (V)
 * 1972-1975: Mons Monsen (LL)
 * 1976-1979: Ludvig Botnen (V)
 * 1980-1985: Dagfinn Hjertenes (H)
 * 1986-1987: Odd Husebø (H)
 * 1988-1989: Dagfinn Hjertenes (H)
 * 1990-1991: Odd Husebø (H)
 * 1992-2003: Kolbjørn Dyrli (Ap)
 * 2003-2011: Bente Frøyen Steindal (Ap)
 * 2011-2015: Bengt Solheim-Olsen (H)
 * 2015-2019: Ola Teigen (Ap)

Geography
Flora is located in the western central part of Sogn og Fjordane county. To the west, it is bordered by the North Sea, to the north it is bordered by Bremanger Municipality, to the east by Gloppen Municipality, and to the south by Naustdal Municipality and Askvoll Municipality. Flora includes many islands, including Reksta, Askrova, Svanøya, Skorpa, Fanøya, Hovden, and Kinn. The municipality also includes the large lakes of Endestadvatnet, Lykkjebøvatnet, and Vassetevatnet. The Norddalsfjorden runs through the northern part of the municipality, and it is crossed by the Norddalsfjord Bridge.

Kinn
Off the coast is the grassy island of Kinn. The area around Kinn was the central herring area in Norway for the most part of the 19th century. At the height, there lived approximately 15,000 people on Kinn and the surrounding islands in the herring season. Today, there are 15 inhabitants on Kinn.

On the island of Kinn, on the edge of the ocean lies the historic Kinn Church from the 12th century. The church, built in Romanesque style, is the oldest church in the Sunnfjord region. It has long been associated with the legend of St. Sunniva. The church choir is the oldest part of the church, and the lectern is the only preserved example of its kind in Scandinavia.

Every year during the third weekend in June, the Kinna Pageant is an historical play about love, hate, fidelity and loyalty to the church and humankind. About 150 actors take part, and audiences of several thousand tourists visit the island to watch the play.

Svanøy
Svanøya is the southernmost and greenest island in the district of Flora. The island was the district's most important trade centre last century, and exports and shipping were major activities. A stone cross memorial commemorating King Olav the Holy and a sacrificial site from the Viking Age can be found here.

The Svanøy Estate is an old seat of nobility from 1685. It includes 62 acre of cultivated land and 30 acre of woodland, as well as a garden.

Eirikstad Farm
The Saga says that the Viking King Eirik Blodøks grew up here, hence the name. It contains a museum with old farming tools. Fjord horses are bred and trained here.

Batalden Boathouse
Norway's westernmost art gallery is housed in a restored fishing building. Regular painting and drawing courses are held.

Troll Cave
Trollhola, a prehistoric cave, is located on the island of Askrova. The main cavern is the size of a cathedral, has several passages leading from it. The highest point of the island, 233 m above sea level, provides a view of the archipelago.

Rock Carvings
In Ausevika, which is 41 km south of Florø, lies one of the largest rock carving sites in Norway. The site has over 300 carvings depicting both animal and human figures, some of which are 3,000 years old.

Coastal Museum
The Coastal Museum in Sogn og Fjordane county was established in 1980. The aim was to concentrate on coastal nature and culture both past and present. Old boat houses and domestic dwellings were moved from various places in the district and re-erected in Florø near the museum. The 250-year old Holmedalsjekta (coastal freighter) is Norway's oldest non-Viking ship. A large exhibition on North Sea oil, Snorreankeret, based on the Snorre platform is located in the museum.

Lighthouses
The waters around Florø are dangerous and exposed. Three lighthouses were built in the fairways to the town at an early date. Two of them, Stabben Lighthouse and Kvanhovden Lighthouse are now automated and unmanned. The third and largest, Ytterøyane Lighthouse, is still manned. There are many shallow areas in the waters west of Florø. Several shipwrecks are located beneath these waters, which attract divers.

Sports
Local sport teams include Florø TIF and Florø SK.

Notable people

 * Ivar Lykke Falch Lind, a jurist and politician in Kinn and Vevring.

title: Flora, Norway


text:
Catalpa

Catalpa, commonly also called catawba, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Bignoniaceae, native to warm temperate and subtropical regions of North America, the Caribbean, and East Asia.

Description
Most Catalpa are deciduous trees; they typically grow to 12 - 18 m tall, with branches spreading to a diameter of about 6 - 12 m. They are fast growers and a 10-year-old sapling may stand about 6 m tall. They have characteristic large, heart-shaped leaves, which in some species are three-lobed. The appearance of the leaves sometimes causes confusion with species such as the unrelated tung tree (Vernicia fordii) and Paulownia tomentosa. Catalpa species bear broad panicles of showy flowers, generally in summer. The flower colour generally is white to yellow. In late summer or autumn the fruit appear; they are siliques about 20 - 50 cm long, full of small flat seeds, each with two thin wings to aid in wind dispersal.

The large leaves and dense foliage of Catalpa species provide good shelter from rain and wind, making the trees an attractive habitat for many species of birds. They do not present many threats of falling limbs, but the dark-brown fruit husks that they drop in late summer may be a nuisance.

Though Catalpa wood is quite soft, it is popular for turning and for furniture when well seasoned, being attractive, stable and easy to work.

Most catalpas begin flowering after roughly three years, and produce fruit after about five years.

Species
The two North American species, Catalpa bignonioides (southern catalpa) and Catalpa speciosa (northern catalpa), have been widely planted outside their natural ranges as ornamental trees for their showy flowers and attractive shape. Northern and southern catalpas are very similar in appearance, but the northern species has slightly larger leaves, flowers, and bean pods. Flowering starts after 275 growing degree days. Catalpa ovata from China, with pale yellow flowers, is also planted outside its natural range for ornamental purposes. This allowed C. bignonioides and C. ovata to hybridize, with the resultant Catalpa × erubescens also becoming a cultivated ornamental.

List of species
Sources: (GRIN accepts 8 species) (KEW accepts 8 species)
 * Section Catalpa (North America and East Asia):
 * Catalpa bignonioides Walter – southern catalpa
 * Catalpa bungei C.A.Mey. – Manchurian catalpa
 * Catalpa fargesii Bureau (sometimes treated as a synonym of C. bungei)
 * Catalpa ovata G.Don – Chinese catalpa, yellow catalpa
 * Catalpa speciosa Warder ex Engelm. – northern catalpa
 * Section Macrocatalpa (Caribbean):
 * Catalpa brevipes Urb.
 * Catalpa purpurea Griseb
 * Catalpa macrocarpa Ekman
 * Catalpa longissima (Jacq.) Dum.Cours

Evolution
The genus likely originated in North America, with the oldest fossils of the genus being seeds from the Early Oligocene (Rupelian) of Oregon, USA. Fossil species are also known from the Late Oligocene (Chattian) of Europe, but they appear to have become extinct in the region by the Miocene epoch. The fossil species Catalpa hispaniolae known from Dominican amber indicates the presence of the genus in the Caribbean by the Miocene. Fossil leaves from China indicate their presence in East Asia by the mid Miocene. The living North American species C. bignonioides and C. speciosa seem to have originated from a back-migration to North America from East Asia, probably during the late Miocene.

Etymology
The name derives from the Muscogee name for the tree, "kutuhlpa" meaning "winged head" and is unrelated to the name of the Catawba people. The spellings "Catalpa" and "Catalpah" were used by Mark Catesby between 1729 and 1732, and Carl Linnaeus published the tree's name as Bignonia catalpa in 1753. Giovanni Antonio Scopoli established the genus Catalpa in 1777.

The bean-like seed pod is the origin of the alternative vernacular names Indian bean tree and cigar tree for Catalpa bignonioides and Catalpa speciosa, respectively.

Food source
The tree is the sole source of food for the catalpa sphinx moth (Ceratomia catalpae), the leaves being eaten by the caterpillars. When caterpillars are numerous, infested trees may be completely defoliated. Defoliated catalpas produce new leaves readily, but with multiple generations occurring, new foliage may be consumed by subsequent broods. Severe defoliation over several consecutive years can cause death of trees. Because the caterpillars are an excellent live bait for fishing, some dedicated anglers plant catalpa mini-orchards for their own private source of "catawba-worms", particularly in the southern states.

Other uses
Catalpa is also occasionally used as a tonewood in guitars.

title: Catalpa


text:
Polar circle

A polar circle is a geographic term for a conditional circular line (arc) referring either to the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. These are two of the keynote circles of latitude (parallels). On Earth, the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude (i.e. without taking into account the astronomical nutation) of N; the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude of  S. Polar circles are often equated with polar regions of Earth. Due to their inherent climate environment, the bulk of the Arctic Circle, much of which is sea, is sparsely settled whereas this applies to all of Antarctica which is mainly land and sheltered ice shelves.

If Earth had no atmosphere then both polar circles (arcs) would see at least a day a year when the center of the Sun is continuously above the horizon and at least a day a year when it is always below the horizon – a polar day and a polar night as is the case for longer, within the circles. Up to and including the associated poles (North and South), known geographically as the frigid zones such duration extends up to half of the year, namely, close to the poles. Instead, atmospheric refraction and the Sun's light reaching the planet as an extended object rather than a point source means that just within each circle the Earth's surface does not experience any proper polar night, 24 hours where the sun does not rise. By these same two factors, just outward of each circle still experiences a polar day (a day in which the sun does not fully set).

The latitude of the polar circles is + or −90 degrees (which refers to the North and South Pole, respectively) minus the axial tilt (that is, of the Earth's axis of daily rotation relative to the ecliptic, the plane of the Earth's orbit). This predominant, average tilt of the Earth varies slightly, a phenomenon described as nutation. Therefore, the latitudes noted above are calculated by averaging values of tilt observed over many years. The axial tilt also exhibits long-term variations as described in the reference article (a difference of 1 second of arc (″) in the tilt is equivalent to a change of about 31 metres north or south in the positions of the polar circles on the Earth's surface).

Correspondence to polar night and day
The polar circles would almost precisely match the boundaries for the zones where the polar night and the polar day would occur throughout the winter solstice and summer solstice day respectively. They do so loosely due to two effects. The first one is atmospheric refraction, in which the Earth's atmosphere bends light rays near the horizon. The second effect is caused by the angular diameter of the Sun as seen from the Earth's orbital distance (which varies very slightly during each orbit). These factors mean the ground-observed boundaries are 80 to 100 km away from the circle. A further global factor for this numerical range is Earth's nutation, which is a very small change in tilt. Observers higher above sea level can see a tiny amount of the Sun's disc (see horizon) where at lower places it would not rise. For the Arctic Circle, being 80–100 km north of the circle in winter, and 80–100 km south of the circle in summer; the inverse directions apply to the other circle.

title: Polar circle


text:
Talk:Digital photography

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Advantages of consumer digital cameras
"Smaller sensor format, compared to 35mm film frame, allows for smaller lenses, wider zoom ranges, and greater depth of field." Is the latter true? This the article's sole reference to "depth", and the issue does not seem to be tackled elsewhere. I did not want to issue a citation for it ;-| but does anyone have any info on this? The lens size and zoom range have been covered, but does a small-lens-and-small-sensor combination necessarily produce greater DoF? IOW, is the aperture reduction better relative to the sensor size?--P00r (talk) 02:31, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

 * It's the common wisdom, but only true when the entrance pupil is smaller and therefore the camera has to make the image from fewer photons. If you compare at equal f-numbers, the DOF is more, but the shot noise is also more.  These comparisons are seldom "fair" or say what they're holding constant. Dicklyon (talk) 03:18, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

U.S. military is phasing out the periscope
I'd like to add in a pharagraph about the military, but I'm not sure where I'd put it. In 2004, the United States Navy began fitting photonics masts to Virginia class submarines. These masts replace the need for a periscope by using technology similar to that of a digital camera array.

Any suggestions?--Sparkygravity (talk) 16:38, 17 June 2008 (UTC)

RAW image format
"The ability to shoot in a raw image format, containing data directly from the sensor. However, as of this writing, there are a number of proprietary RAW formats, some of which require specific software to manipulate."

I can't see how this is an advantage over film. Surely the film is also a sensor, and therefore when using film you also get data "directly from the sensor". Of course there are many advantages when using digital, but I just can't see how this is one of them. Removing it; please correct me if I'm wrong.

80.42.146.175 (talk) 22:59, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed. Raw has advantages over JPEG, which is another digital format. But it doesn't apply to the film vs digital comparison. --Imroy (talk) 01:01, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree as well that section either needs a citation or needs to be redone. In it's current state is doesn't make much sense and I feel is in accurate.--Firewire87 (talk) 01:25, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

Merging with digital camera
Since I didn't find this topic mentioned here, I want to present a link to a discussion on this topic at: Mikael Häggström (talk) 07:57, 21 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Talk:Digital_camera/Archive_1

Relation to digital camera
I agree with the discussion at Talk:Digital_camera/Archive_1, that these articles should remain as two separate articles, but the relation between them can be more conveniently arranged. I'm now making one section for the more digital camera-related aspects of digital photography. Additional ideas are appreciated. Mikael Häggström (talk) 16:11, 3 June 2011 (UTC)
 * That discussion ended with my comment of April 5, 2008, and has been archived. If you'd like to start a new merge proposal, you can.  But it seems unlikely that it will get support this time. Dicklyon (talk) 03:18, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

Change in the social use of photography
I feel as though the Social Impact section of this page is quite broad and could use some editing to make it more focused. Also the entire page never talks about how the social uses of photography have completely changed since digital photography was introduced. Since the shift to digital we can see that the primary use of photography has shifted, from a documentation tool to a communication tool. I'd like to make an edit to this section. Is there any other input on how to improve this section?--Firewire87 (talk) 02:53, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

Post Processing
What do you all think? Would we now need a page on digital post-processing of photos? Not just to mention photoshop, but also all the various techniques that go along with it (sharpening, blurring, layers, etc), which is of course, the digital equivalent of the darkroom ... Ll1324 (talk) 02:12, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I think it might be useful. I think this is the kind of pages that Wiki needs to have more of to separate themselves from the traditional encyclopaedia--Firewire87 (talk) 01:14, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Like photo manipulation? Dicklyon (talk) 03:14, 29 October 2011 (UTC): Cou

 * Photo manipulation covers a lot of the same territory, but post processing typically covers white balance, sharpening, contrast adjustments, etc. which are not mentioned as photo manipulation, but are quite common post-processing things. That is more the domain of Adobe Lightroom (also not mentioned in the photo manipulation article) but commonly part of post processing. (Adobe Photoshop can be used for post processing also). I think post processing is a bit larger of a topic than the photo manipulation article describes.Ll1324 (talk) 16:54, 11 November 2011 (UTC)

I would be happy to join in on any effort to build a digital PPing page - and I think I can bring in a group of others who would also participate.

Lew the traveler (talk) 22:52, 3 December 2011 (UTC)

Proposing removal of "Social Use- Film VS Digital"
Apologies to everyone who's worked on it, but this article is a bit of a mess. I think an important step towards improvement would be to remove the section "Social Use- Film VS Digital". It looks like someone just copy pasted an essay they wrote. I originally thought I would tag the problems in it with, but I ended up with a list of 10 issues. That is kind of ridiculous and it seems like a much better idea to remove than revise here. Here are the problems I tagged on the section: citation style = February 2012 dead end = February 2012 essay-like = February 2012 inappropriate person = February 2012 peacock = February 2012 POV = February 2012 primary sources = February 2012 recentism = February 2012 tone = February 2012 wikify = February 2012 Thanks,  O x g u y 3  t  c  00:12, 10 February 2012 (UTC)
 * While browsing for things to do I stumbled across this nightmare which is clearly an academic essay of questionable quality and relevance. The history of photography is not the history of digital photography alone; the essay (as I too believe it is) is not even complete or scholarly and makes no point to address the effects of digital photography in any way. The fact it details the history of photography; and poorly; skipping the topic of digital photography and the key details surrounding its creation and resurgence just asks for a delete before addressing other clean ups.ChrisGualtieri (talk) 05:59, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Digital Photography not Digital Cameras
As the article Photography does not carry on about the history of the digital camera and seems to be the first jumping point; I wonder if the history of the digital camera section even needs to be there. This article should cover the various types of digital photography; from cameras to recorders to those found in cell phones that are now being used for medical purposes. This article is sorely lacking in relevant and strong information. I've begun to make some edits here and there and will continue to do so; but this article really needs a lot of work. Most importantly is the fact that this seems to be entirely dated in just about every form and way. Lots of the advantages and disadvantages are not even applicable anymore. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ChrisGualtieri (talk • contribs) 06:19, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

 * The social impact section is another area of incorrect research that I will try to correct later; much of the information is correct such as, "Digital photography began to be available in the early 2000s" The direction of the entry just needs citations and corrections; the biggest thing about social impact is the surprising trend that most pictures are taken and never viewed at maximum resolution on most computer displays.ChrisGualtieri (talk) 07:04, 22 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I'm going to hold off on further changes for the time being; I want some response before considering further changes. The article itself is still to bloated and rambles on unrelated topics. Cell phone cameras and cell phone use should be noted, but I don't know if it deserves its own section or should just be indicated and point to the relevant pages. Please comment on what direction this article should go on. ChrisGualtieri (talk) 17:16, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Out of date comparisons to film
This article seems out of date in the way it compares film and digital. Unreferenced statements about slow frame rates and lower resolution in digital cameras appear to have been written before the advances of the last couple of years. If film still offers some performance advantage, the article should have recent references that support that. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.0.186.135 (talk • contribs)

 * Agreed. I followed your lead and removed some additional unsourced, outdated content. - MrX 02:18, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

Frame Rate
Hi all, Is the 'frame rate' paragraph up-to-date? It talks about the Nikon D3 and the Canon F1, which are older models (the canon f1 was produced in the 70s and is not even available anymore). There are lots of other cameras nowadays which shoot at higher fps!! Thanks Zalunardo8 (talk) 12:18, 4 July 2013 (UTC)
 * No, and neither is the article as a whole. The Canon 1D X for example will captures 14fps. I've been trying to update this article as I can, removing unsourced and out of date content. Feel free to join in! - MrX 12:36, 4 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your answer MrX, I'll try to help as best as I can! Cheers, Zalunardo8 (talk) 14:08, 4 July 2013 (UTC)

Image removal
Since when does a picture of a person doing digital photography with a leading DSLR camera get described as "This has nothing to do with digital photography".--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 23:40, 13 April 2016 (UTC)
 * There's nothing encyclopedic about someone using a camera. It is a very, very common activity. It's ubiquitous. It does not need illustrating. Also, what possible reason, consistent with WP:NOTPROMO, would we include a link and the name of the photographer in the caption?- MrX 23:46, 13 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I agree with the removal. We might as well use the same photo in an article for the brand of shoes or shirt that adorn him..   SPECIFICO  talk  00:14, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I am just using an image that we have in related articles. It is not promotion. Since you mention a brand of shoes, look at how many athletes are named and pictured in the Adidas article (3). Nike, Inc. also includes a named athlete. Maybe you might be familiar with the term illustration. Digital photography should have images of people doing digital photography. That is what the photo showed.--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 00:29, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * The analogy is nonsense and even worse it's a lousy photo. SPECIFICO talk  00:58, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Is there some reason why you are posting this image and related content across multiple articles ? It leaves me wondering if you have a COI.- MrX 01:29, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * , Nope. Just a fan. In fact, I am going to be nominating Emily Ratajkowski at FAC within the next week in hopes of getting it promoted to FA in time for a 25th birthday WP:TFA. During discussions at Featured article candidates/Emily Ratajkowski/archive3, discovered the source file that availed many high quality video resources for of a supermodel for WP. Look at uses of the files at places like Lip liner, hair rollers, pop out cake and hair spray. Where do you think we can find a supermodel in creative commons licensed content. I have been trying to incorporate her content in relevant articles. I think the majority of the files that I have tried to add improve the articles they are in. If you know any good copyeditors, Ms. Ratajkowski's article might benefit from one.--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 04:19, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

 * , what about File:Tony Kelly looking at digital photography for 2013 GQ Türkiye photo shoot.png with the caption "Tony Kelly viewing digital photography on a laptop for the 2013 GQ Türkiye photo shoot of Emily Ratajkowski."--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 05:11, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * P.S., he is looking at the pop out cake images in that photo.--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 05:15, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I would be opposed to using that screen capture image. It's poor quality and doesn't illustrate this subject well. A better one would be a good image of a DSLR or digital medium format back tethered to a PC. Another possibility would be a histogram. - MrX 10:56, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I am no longer following this page. If there is further discussion I should be aware of ping me.--TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 12:16, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Please don't feel dejected because of a minor disagreement over content. I'm sure we all want to improve the article and certainly your help is appreciated.- MrX 22:51, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

PPI or PPCM?
If a digital photo is described as 1600*1200 is this pixels per inch or per cm? Is this the same as DPI/DPCM? Quentin Durward (talk) 11:55, 24 August 2016 (UTC)

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SONY Mavica
I'm surprised there is no mention of one of the first digital cameras in the 90s, the Sony Mavica. It stored images on 3.5" diskettes. Jimj wpg (talk) 05:03, 18 June 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Digital Media
— Assignment last updated by Pg-547 (talk) 21:25, 22 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Digital photography


text:
Gulen

is a municipality in the western part of Vestland county, Norway. It is part of the traditional district of Sogn. The administrative center of the municipality is the village of Eivindvik. Other villages in Gulen include Brekke, Byrknes, Dalsøyra, Dingja, Instefjord, Mjømna, Rutledal, and Ytre Oppedal.

The municipality of Gulen sits to the south of the Sognefjorden and it surrounds the Gulafjorden, which is considered to be the place where Norway's west-coastal Vikings met for the Gulating, a governing body. The area along the Gulafjorden called Flolid (just east of the village of Eivindvik) is now a national historic place, where an open-air theater and annual summer play commemorates the Vikings who gathered there 1000 years ago to accept Christianity.

The 599 km2 municipality is the 190th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Gulen is the 265th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 2,228. The municipality's population density is 3.9 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 3.3% over the previous 10-year period.

In 2016, the chief of police for Vestlandet formally suggested a reconfiguration of police districts and stations. He proposed that the police station in Gulen be closed.

General information
Evindvig was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). The municipality of 1838 was created to be identical to the Evindvig parish (prestegjeld) that included the three sub-parishes (sokn) of Evindvig, Brekke, and Husøy. The sub-parish of Brekke (population: 898) was separated from the municipality in 1850 to form a municipality of its own, leaving a total of 3,944 residents in Evindvig. (Later, Brekke was merged with Lavik as the municipality of Lavik og Brekke. This was short-lived and Brekke later became a separate municipality once again.) In 1858, the sub-parish of Husøy (population: 1,384) was separated from Evindvig to form its own municipality called Utvær (renamed Solund in 1923). This left Evindvig with 3,018 inhabitants. On 1 July 1890, the name of Evindvig municipality was officially changed to Gulen.

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Brekke (population: 782) was merged (back) with Gulen. Also on that same date, the island of Losna (population: 40) was transferred from Gulen to the neighboring municipality of Solund. After these changes, Gulen had a population of 3,250.

On 1 January 2020, the municipality became part of the newly created Vestland county after Sogn og Fjordane and Hordaland counties were merged.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) was originally named after the old Evindvig farm (Eyvindarvík, now spelled Eivindvik) since the first Evindvig Church was built there. The first element is derived from the male name Eyvindr. The last element is which means "small bay", "cove", or "inlet". In 1891, the municipal name was changed to Gulen (Guli) which was the original name of the local Gulafjorden. The name is probably derived from the word gul which means "(strong) wind" or "gale".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 9 February 1990. The official blazon is "Azure, two Latin crosses formée argent" (På blå grunn to utbøygde sølv krossar). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is a set of two Latin crosses that are designed as a cross formée. The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The crosses represent the two stone crosses found near the village of Eivindvik that are believed to be about 1000 years old, erected there in 1023 after the Vikings who met at the Gulating gathering embraced Christianity. These are some of the oldest monuments to Christianity still existing in Norway. One of the crosses was damaged by a falling tree in 2012. The arms were designed by Even Jarl Skoglund. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has three parishes(sokn) within the municipality of Gulen. It is part of the Nordhordland prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin.

Schools
The roughly 2,500 residents live scattered throughout the municipality and are divided into four school districts: Brekke, Eivindvik, Dalsøyra, and Byrknes.

Government
Gulen Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Sogn og Fjordane District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Gulen is made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordførar) of Gulen:

 * 1838–1849: Niels Griis Alstrup Dahl
 * 1850–1851: Rognald Pederson Haugland
 * 1852–1853: Niels Alstrup
 * 1854–1855: Rognald Pederson Haugland
 * 1856–1857: Nathanael Sunde Ross
 * 1858–1877: Rognald Pederson Haugland
 * 1878–1879: Mikal L. Vadsø
 * 1880–1881: Otto L. Midthun
 * 1882–1885: Mikal L. Vadsø
 * 1886–1889: Gjert J. Grinde
 * 1890–1910: Anders Hantveit
 * 1911–1931: Hans K. Rutledal
 * 1932–1941: Henrik H. Tveit
 * 1945–1945: Henrik H. Tveit
 * 1946–1946: Søren Randal
 * 1947–1963: Ludvik J. Kjellevold
 * 1964–1967: Søren Randal
 * 1968–1971: John L. Kjellevold
 * 1971–1975: Harald Takle (V)
 * 1976–1978: Ola Byrknes (Sp)
 * 1978-1983: Olav Solheim (Ap)
 * 1983-1999: Ola Byrknes (Ap)
 * 1999-2011: Trude Brosvik (KrF)
 * 2011–2023: Hallvard S. Oppedal (Sp)
 * 2023-present: May-Lynn Osland (Ap)

Geography
Gulen has an area of about 600 km2 including about 1500 small islands, islets, and skerries. The largest of the islands are Byrknesøyna, Hiserøyna, Mjømna, and Sandøyna. The mainland is characterized by small valleys and large mountains crossing the landscape. The lake Dingevatn is one of Norway's deepest lakes.

Gulen is bounded on the north by the Sognefjorden and the Sognesjøen, and to the south by the Fensfjorden with the North Sea to the west of the municipality. Gulen is bordered by the municipalities of Solund and Hyllestad to the north (across the Sognefjorden), by Høyanger to the east, and by Austrheim (across the Fensfjorden), Lindås, and Masfjorden to the south.

The area is a geological region that contains a relatively low nutrition content ground, which characterizes the types of flora. The moors, which are frequently covered with wild purple heather, are the dominating picture of the area. Due to the large quantity of rain in the area, there are many types of moss and lichen in Gulen. Most of the land in Gulen is very mountainous and inhospitable.

Climate
Gulen has a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification), also known as a marine west coast climate. Gulen is among the wettest areas of Norway, with almost 3000 mm of annual precipitaiton, and on average 202 days annually with precipitation, mostly as rain. Wettest season is autumn and winter, and December the wettest month. The average date for the last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C) in spring is 19 April and average date for first freeze in autumn is 31 October giving a frost-free season of 194 days (1981-2010 average). The Takle weather station started recording in June 1950.

Economy
Historically, Gulen's economy has been centered around farming and fishing. More recently, Gulen has become important because of its close proximity to the Mongstad industrial area which includes many oil refineries operated by Statoil, Shell Oil, and other oil companies. Other factories and industries in Gulen include Wergeland-Halsvik, Baker Oil Tools, Johnny Birkeland Transport, and Vest Tank. There are many other small businesses located in Gulen today.

Tusenårsstedet Gulatinget
The Gulating was a legislative assembly which met regularly for a period of at least five hundred years in Gulen on the shores of the Gulafjorden. In 1300, the assembly was moved to Bergen. The members of the assembly represented the farmers of Western Norway. This was where important political issues were discussed and decisions were made. The old assembly was also used as a law court for both civil and criminal cases. The Gulating was thus related to the representative institutions of today such as the municipal council and the Norwegian Parliament, Storting.

A sculpture park was built in Flolid in Gulen in order to commemorate the Gulating legislative assembly. Norwegian sculptor Bård Breivik was responsible for the artistic elements which were opened by the public during August 2005. The park is a work of art in its own right that is used as the setting for outdoor dance and musical performances in beautiful and unique natural surroundings.

Sellevåg Wooden Shoe Factory
Wooden shoes were produced in Sellevåg from 1899 to 1975. The factory was powered by water in the Sellevåg Lake. The wooden shoe factory is still there with all its production equipment intact. A guided tour with demonstration can be arranged on request.

Trondheim Post-Road
The historic mail route from Bergen and Trondheim, The post-road goes through the municipalities of Fjaler, Hyllestad and Gulen. Built between 1801 and 1806, it passes over many beautiful stone bridges.

Notable people

 * Ole Elias Holck (1774 in Hyllestad – 1842), a Norwegian military officer and representative at the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly
 * Peder Furubotn (1890 in Brekke – 1975), a Norwegian cabinetmaker, politician, and resistance member
 * Fredrik Lange-Nielsen (1891 in Eivindvik – 1980), a mathematician and insurance company manager

title: Gulen


text:
Solund

Solund is a municipality in the county of Vestland, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Sogn. Solund is the westernmost island municipality in Norway. Holmebåen on the island of Steinsøy is the westernmost point in all of Norway. Most residents of Solund live on the main islands of Sula and Ytre Sula. The administrative centre of Solund is the village of Hardbakke on Sula island. Some other villages in Solund include Kolgrov on Ytre Sula, Hersvikbygda on Sula, and Losnegard on Losna.

The 228 km2 municipality is the 295th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Solund is the 345th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 756. The municipality's population density is 3.5 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 10.2% over the previous 10-year period.

In 2016, the chief of police for Vestlandet formally suggested a reconfiguration of police districts and stations. He proposed that the police station in Solund be closed.

General information
Utvær was established as a municipality in 1858. The two sub-parishes, or sokn, of Solund and Husøy were separated from the Gulen parish (prestegjeld) to form the new municipality and parish of Utvær at that time. The initial population of Utvær was 1,384.

On 1 January 1888, the Krakken farm (population: 17) on the extreme northeastern part of Sula island was transferred from Hyllestad Municipality and eight farms in the Hersvikbygda area (population: 317) on northern Sula island were transferred from Askvoll Municipality and they were all added to the municipality of Utvær.

On 1 July 1890, the municipal name of Utvær was changed to Sulen. The spelling was later altered to Solund by royal decree on 16 November 1923. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the island of Losna (population: 40) was transferred from Gulen Municipality to Solund.

On 1 January 2020, the municipality became part of the newly created Vestland county after Sogn og Fjordane and Hordaland counties were merged.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) was originally named after the old Utvær farm (Útver) since the first Utvær Chapel was built there. The first element is which means "outer". The last element is which means "fishing station". The municipality had this name from 1858 until 1 July 1890 when it was renamed Sulen. The new name was chosen since it was the name of the large island of Sula (Sólund or Sólundir). The first element comes from the word sól which means "furrow" or "incision". The last element is a suffix, -und, which means "a place where it is found", thus it means something like "an island where furrows and incisions are found", likely referring to the jagged, rocky form of the island. In Old Norse times, the sea between Norway and Scotland was called Sólundirhaf which means "the sea of Solund." On 16 November 1923, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Solund.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 16 February 1990. The official blazon is "Argent, five lozenges azure in fess" (På sølv grunn fem blå spissruter). This means the arms have a field (background) has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The charge is a set of five blue lozenges (diamonds) lined up horizontally. The arms were inspired by the coat of arms of the now-extinct medieval noble family from the island of Losna. The arms were designed by Arvid Sveen from Vadsø who based it off an original idea by Hans H. Steinsund. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) (made up of three churches) within the municipality of Solund. It is part of the Nordhordland prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin.

Government
Solund Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Sogn og Fjordane District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Solund is made up of 15 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors of Solund:

 * 1858-1861: Kristoffer Furrevik
 * 1866-1869: Johannes Mathiesen
 * 1870-1873: Halvor Jensen
 * 1874-1875: Berthel A. Tungodden
 * 1876-1881: Halvor Jensen
 * 1882-1885: Petter Olai Johnsen
 * 1886-1889: Halvor Jensen
 * 1890-1895: Mons A. Aarø
 * 1896-1901: Johannes K. Laagø
 * 1902-1904: Henrik B. Tungodden
 * 1905-1913: Johannes K. Laagø
 * 1914-1919: Paul Takle
 * 1920-1928: Bernt Kverhellen
 * 1929-1940: Johan Færøy
 * 1945-1947: Truls Pollen
 * 1948-1955: Sverre Takle (H)
 * 1956-1959: Anna Herland (V)
 * 1960-1967: Henrik Nybø (V)
 * 1968-1975: Johannes R. Oddekalv (V)
 * 1976-1981: Steinar Krakhellen (H)
 * 1981-1987: Reidar Engevik (KrF)
 * 1988-1991: Sveinung Kråkås (H)
 * 1991-1999: Vigdis Midtbø (Ap)
 * 1999-2003: Steinar Krakhellen (H)
 * 2003-2011: Gunn Åmdal Mongstad (Sp)
 * 2011-2015: Ole Gunnar Krakhellen (H)
 * 2015–present: Gunn Åmdal Mongstad (Sp)

Population
Solund is one of the least populated municipalities in all of Norway. The population of Solund is scattered among the islands in small villages as follows:

 * Hardbakke - 246 inhabitants
 * Storøy/Dalesund - 139 inhabitants
 * Nesefjord - 89 inhabitants
 * Kolgrov/Trovåg - 62 inhabitants
 * Hjønnevåg - 59 inhabitants
 * Strand/Oddekalv - 53 inhabitants
 * Færøy/Leknessund - 52 inhabitants
 * Hersvikbygda - 42 inhabitants
 * Austrefjord/Dumbefjord - 26 inhabitants
 * Indrevær/Utvær - 11 inhabitants
 * Krakhella - 6 inhabitants
 * Losnegard - 4 inhabitants

Geography
Solund is a municipality made up of many islands. The two largest islands are Sula and Ytre Sula. Other islands are Losna, Steinsundøyna, Nesøyna, Ospa, Rånøyna, Færøyna, Lågøyna, and Hågøyna. The westernmost point in Norway is Holmebåen in the tiny Utvær islands which are mostly uninhabited. Utvær Lighthouse is located at Utvær.

Solund is bordered to the north by the municipality of Askvoll, to the east by Fjaler and Hyllestad, to the south by Gulen, and to the west by the North Sea. The Sognesjøen strait runs along the southern border of the municipality. It is the main connection between the sea and the large Sognefjorden. The mouth of the Sognefjorden lies just east of Solund.

Economy
Fishing is the most important industry in Solund. Solund Verft is the largest industrial business with 21 employees working on the maintenance, reconstruction, and repair of ships. Solund is popular with boaters with its myriad exciting islands and also attracts numerous tourists looking for outdoor recreation and fishing. Utvær island and the Utvær Lighthouse is a popular destination for tourists during the summer.

Gåsvær
Gåsvær is among the outermost islands of northern Solund. It is far west out at sea between the Lågøyfjorden and the Gåsværosen river outlet. The fishing banks are just off the island's coastline, and Gåsvær most probably has a long history of trade. In 1767, the island had both its own guesthouse and pub. Over the past century, the islanders have made their living from fishing and agriculture, and in more modern times, taking passengers over the waters and tourism. The oldest section of the characteristic main house dates back to the 18th century, while another section was built using timber from a shipwrecked sailing ship.

Utvær
One cannot travel any further west in Norway and still be on solid ground. There are no longer any permanent residents on the island of Utvær, but there are always two people on duty at the lighthouse. To visit Utvær one has to travel by boat. There is a service available on request from Kolgrov all year round. In the summer season there is a scheduled service with departures from Hardbakke, Eivindvik, and Korssund.

The County Governor of Vestland declared Utvær to be a nature reserve. This decision applies to the Utvær island group and surrounding sea. An exception is made for the island of Utvær itself and the sea immediately around it. The Norwegian Riksantikvar (preservation of Norwegian heritage) has made a proposal to preserve the lighthouse itself.

In the Middle Ages, Utvær Chapel was located to the south of the existing settlement. It is somewhat uncertain when the chapel was built. The first written references to if appear in the work of Bjørgynar Kalveskinn from 1320. The chapel had an income from gifts and fishing tithes. In the 17th century the chapel owned 15 cows and 27 sheep that were rented out. Later on in the 17th century the chapel of Utvær was robbed by Scottish pirates.

The chapel was made of timber and was approximately 7.5 x, and it could seat a congregation of about 120. The chapel bell from 1641 is currently exhibited at the Heibergske Samlingar exhibition in Kaupanger. Four sermons a year were held in the chapel and the priest had to come by boat from Eivindvik. He was often stranded on the islands nearer the mainland as a result of bad weather. In 1718 the chapel was moved into the island of Husøy (Husøy Chapel). It was pulled down at the end of the 19th century when Straumen church was inaugurated.

The lighthouse burned down in February 1945 during an allied air attack during World War II. The lighthouse was reconstructed from 1948 to 1952. The lighthouse itself took on a different form from previously and the "balcony" on the top was one storey lower.

Arboretum
The Coastal Arboretum in Hardbakke is a collection of trees and plants of largely indigenous species. There are 60 different species planted there. The rhododendron collection is a sight to behold in early summer. Integrated into the arboretum, there is a 5 km long footpath over a variety of terrain with a wonderful view over the outer Sognefjord. There is also a marked footpath up to the top of Ravnenipa mountain.

Notable people

 * Mimi Sverdrup Lunden (1894 in Sulen – 1955), a Norwegian educator, non-fiction writer, and proponent for women's rights
 * Einar Sverdrup (1895 in Solund – 1942), a Norwegian mining engineer who was killed in action during Operation Fritham
 * Paul Vårdal (1925 in Solund – 2010), a Norwegian accountant and a pioneer of accounting education in Norway

title: Solund