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Klaus Voormann

Klaus Otto Wilhelm Voormann (born 29 April 1938) is a German artist, musician, and record producer.

Voormann was the bassist for Manfred Mann from 1966 to 1969, and performed as a session musician on a host of recordings, including "You're So Vain" by Carly Simon, Lou Reed's Transformer album, and on many recordings of the former members of the Beatles. As a producer, Voormann worked with the band Trio on their worldwide hit "Da Da Da".

Voormann's association with the Beatles dates back to their time in Hamburg in the early 1960s. He lived in the band's London flat with George Harrison and Ringo Starr after John Lennon and Paul McCartney moved out to live with their respective partners. He designed the cover of their 1966 album Revolver, for which he won a Grammy Award. He also designed the graphics for the sheet music of songs from Revolver. Following the band's split, rumors circulated of the formation of a group named the Ladders, consisting of Lennon, Harrison, Starr and Voormann. This failed to materialise; however, all four would-be Ladders (plus Billy Preston) performed on the Starr track "I'm the Greatest", and Voormann did play on solo albums by Lennon, Harrison and Starr, as well as briefly being a member of the Plastic Ono Band. In the 1990s, he designed the artwork for The Beatles Anthology albums.

In 2009, Voormann released his debut solo album A Sideman's Journey, which featured the two surviving Beatles, McCartney and Starr, performing as "Voormann and Friends".

Voormann has designed artwork for many bands, including the Beatles, The Dirty Knobs, Harry Nilsson, the Bee Gees, Wet Wet Wet and Turbonegro.

Early life
Klaus Otto Wilhelm Voormann was born in Berlin, Germany, and raised in the suburbs of north Berlin. His father was a physician and Klaus was one of six brothers. In an interview for Talking Germany, broadcast in July 2010, Voormann discussed his dyslexia.

The Voormann family were interested in art, classical music and books, with a feeling for history and tradition. His parents decided that instead of studying music, it would be best for Klaus to study commercial art in Berlin at the Meisterschule für Grafik und Buchgewerbe. He later moved to Hamburg to study at the Meisterschule für Gestaltung. However, before finishing his education in the graphic arts, Voormann started work as a commercial artist graphic designer and illustrator, spending eight months in Düsseldorf working for magazines.

It was in Hamburg that Voormann first met Astrid Kirchherr. One day, after an argument with her and Jürgen Vollmer, Voormann wandered down the Reeperbahn, in the St. Pauli district of Hamburg, and heard music coming from the Kaiserkeller club. He walked in on a performance by Rory Storm and the Hurricanes. The next group to play was the Beatles. Voormann was left "speechless" by the performances. He had never heard rock 'n' roll before, having previously only listened to traditional jazz, Nat King Cole, and The Platters. Voormann invited Kirchherr and Vollmer to watch the performances the next day. After joining Voormann at a performance, the trio decided upon spending as much time as possible close to the group and immersing themselves in the music.

The St. Pauli district was a dangerous section of town, with illicit behavior commonplace. It was an area where prostitutes worked, and anyone who looked different from the usual clientele was at risk of violence. As a trio, Voormann, Kirchherr and Vollmer stood out in the Kaiserkeller, dressed in suede coats, wool sweaters, jeans and round-toed shoes, when most of the customers had greased-back Teddy boy hairstyles and wore black leather jackets and pointed boots. During a break, Voormann tried to talk (in faltering English) to Lennon, and pressed a crumpled record sleeve he had designed into Lennon's hands. Lennon took little interest, suggesting that he talk to Stu Sutcliffe, who Lennon said was "the artist 'round here".

Sutcliffe was fascinated by the trio, who he thought looked like "real bohemians". He later wrote that he could hardly take his eyes off them, and had wanted to talk to them during the next break, but they had already left the club. Sutcliffe managed to meet them eventually, and learned that all three had attended the Meisterschule für Mode, which was the Hamburg equivalent of the Liverpool art college that both Sutcliffe and Lennon had attended. Lennon dubbed the trio the Exies, as a joke about their affection for existentialism.

Voormann was in a relationship with Kirchherr at the time, and lived just around the corner from her parents' upper-class home in the Altona district of Hamburg. Kirchherr's bedroom, which was all in black, including the walls and furniture, was decorated especially for Voormann. After the visits to the Kaiserkeller, their relationship became purely platonic as Astrid started dating Sutcliffe, who was fascinated by her. Nevertheless, she always remained a close friend of Voormann.

Move to London and affiliation with the Beatles
In the early 1960s, Voormann decided to leave Germany and move to London. George Harrison invited him to live in the Green Street flat in London's Mayfair, formerly shared by all four members of the Beatles: Lennon had moved out to live with his wife Cynthia Lennon, and McCartney went to live in the attic of the home of the parents of his girlfriend Jane Asher. Voormann lived with Harrison and Ringo Starr for a time, before finding work as a commercial artist and renting an apartment of his own. He returned to Hamburg in 1963, where he founded a band called 'Paddy, Klaus & Gibson' with Paddy Chambers on guitar and vocals, Voormann on bass and vocals and Gibson Kemp on drums.

In 1965, Voormann returned to London and was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the album Revolver. Voormann had a style of "scrapbook collage" art in mind. The cover went on to win the Grammy Award for Best Album Cover, Graphic Arts. In a major Tate Britain exhibition of the work of the late-Victorian artist Aubrey Beardsley (4 March – 25 May 2020) the Revolver cover was displayed to show how interest in Beardsley's monochrome pen-and-ink style was revived in the 1960s. Voormann later designed the cover art for Harrison's 1988 single "When We Was Fab", which included the image of Harrison from the cover of Revolver along with an updated drawing in the same style.

Around the same time, Voormann was hired to design the cover for Bee Gees 1st, which featured all five group members standing above a colourful, psychedelic collage painted by Voormann. The following year, artwork by Voormann graced the front cover of the American edition of the Bee Gees' album Idea. In 1973, Voormann created the album sleeve and booklet artwork for Starr's album Ringo, on which he also played bass. In 1966, Voormann became a member of Manfred Mann, having turned down offers by the Hollies and the Moody Blues, although Voormann did substitute for Eric Haydock on a couple of television performances by the Hollies. Voormann mentions his negotiations with the group in his autobiography, Warum spielst Du Imagine nicht auf dem weißen Klavier, John? (Why Don't You Play "Imagine" on the White Piano, John?). Voormann played bass and flutes for Manfred Mann from 1966 to 1969, appearing on all their UK hits from "Just Like a Woman" (July 1966) to their final single "Ragamuffin Man" (April 1969) and including the 1968 international hit "The Mighty Quinn".

After that, Voormann became a session musician, playing on solo projects by Lou Reed, Carly Simon, James Taylor and Harry Nilsson, among others. He was a member of Yoko Ono and Lennon's Plastic Ono Band, with Ono, Alan White and Eric Clapton, playing on their album Live Peace in Toronto 1969, recorded in Toronto on 13 September that year, prior to the break-up of the Beatles.

After the Beatles disbanded, there were rumours of them reforming as the Ladders, with Voormann on bass as a replacement for Paul McCartney, but the plan never materialised. This line-up (Voormann, Lennon, Harrison and Starr) did perform on Starr's 1973 song "I'm the Greatest". Voormann served as the three former Beatles' bassist of choice through the mid-1970s, playing on Lennon's albums John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970), Imagine (1971), Some Time in New York City (1972), Walls and Bridges (1974) and Rock 'n' Roll (1975); Harrison's All Things Must Pass (1970), Living in the Material World (1973), Dark Horse (1974) and Extra Texture (Read All About It) (1975); and Starr's Ringo (1973), Goodnight Vienna (1974) and Ringo's Rotogravure (1976). He played bass at Harrison's Concert for Bangladesh shows, at which Starr also appeared, in August 1971. That year, Lennon told an interviewer that although the Beatles had disbanded, "if you'd said that George, Ringo and John had an idea they might play a live show or two, then Klaus would be our man to play with us."

Studio work in Los Angeles
In 1971, Voormann moved to Los Angeles. He played in Harrison's band at The Concert for Bangladesh, held at New York's Madison Square Garden in August 1971. Harrison introduced him to the audience by saying, "There's somebody on bass who many people have heard about, but they've never actually seen him – Klaus Voormann."

Return to Germany
In 1979, Voormann moved back to Germany; he had a cameo as Von Schnitzel the Conductor in the 1980 film adaptation of Popeye. He went on to produce three studio albums and a live album by the German band Trio, as well as their worldwide hit single "Da Da Da". After Trio broke up in 1986, Voormann produced the first solo album by their singer Stephan Remmler and played bass on some songs of the album. The following year, he produced a single by former Trio drummer Peter Behrens.

Semi-retirement
Voormann retired from the music business in 1989, deciding to spend more time with his family. He lives at Lake Starnberg, near Munich with his second wife Christina and their two children, born in 1989 and 1991. From time to time, he appears on television programmes. In 1995, Voormann was asked by Apple Records to design the covers for The Beatles Anthology albums. He painted the covers along with his friend, fellow artist Alfons Kiefer. In the 1994 movie Backbeat, about the Hamburg days of the Beatles, Voormann was portrayed by German actor Kai Wiesinger. In 2000, Voormann also designed the cover for Me Rio, the debut album of Enja Records recording artist Azhar Kamal, which was influenced by his design for Revolver.

On 29 November 2002 Voormann played bass on the song "All Things Must Pass" at the Concert for George, held at London's Royal Albert Hall. In an interview with author Simon Leng, he described Harrison as not only a "really great guitarist" but "the best friend I ever had".

In April 2003 Voormann designed the cover of Scandinavian Leather for the Norwegian band Turbonegro. In October that same year, he published his autobiography, ''Warum spielst du Imagine nicht auf dem weißen Klavier, John? Erinnerungen an die Beatles und viele andere Freunde (Why Don't You Play "Imagine" on the White Piano, John?: Memories of the Beatles and Many Other Friends''); the book gives special focus to the 1960s and 1970s, and covers Voormann's close friendship with the Beatles and other musicians and artists, as well as his private life. A BBC documentary, Stuart Sutcliffe: The Lost Beatle, broadcast in 2005, features interviews with Voormann and shows drawings he made of the Beatles in Hamburg. That year also saw the publication of his book Four Track Stories, which contains his experiences with the Beatles during the Hamburg days, stories narrated both in English and German, and pictures made by him. In 2007 he designed the sleeve for the album Timeless by Wet Wet Wet.

Comeback
On 7 July 2009, Voormann released his first solo album, A Sideman's Journey. It was credited to 'Voormann & Friends' and featured McCartney, Starr, Yusuf Islam (formerly known as Cat Stevens), Don Preston, Dr. John, The Manfreds, Jim Keltner, Van Dyke Parks, Joe Walsh and many others. The album has been available in a limited number of audio CDs, vinyl LPs, and deluxe box sets with original (and signed) graphics by Voormann; and included new versions of old songs such as "My Sweet Lord", "All Things Must Pass", "Blue Suede Shoes", "You're Sixteen" and Bob Dylan's "Quinn the Eskimo (The Mighty Quinn)". A bonus DVD of Making of a Sideman's Journey was released with the album.

On 30 June 2010, Franco-German television network ARTE released a 90-minute documentary entitled All You Need is Klaus, which featured footage from the 'Voormann & Friends' sessions, as well as interview footage with Voormann and some of the artists he had collaborated with in his storied career.

Art
In 2014, Voormann designed the cover to the album Music Life by Japanese rock band Glay; the image depicting the face of each member of the band is strongly reminiscent of the cover to The Beatles' Revolver.

In 2016, Voormann created a graphic novel based on his experiences recording Revolver, calling it ''Revolver 50. Birth of an Icon''. In 2017, he designed the artwork featured in the deluxe box set edition of As You Were, the debut solo album from Liam Gallagher. He also made a surreal pencil drawing of Mad magazine mascot Alfred E. Neuman for the publication's December 2017 issue.

Voormann designed the cover art and booklet sketch of the album ¡Spangled!, by Gaby Moreno and Van Dyke Parks, released in 2019.

In 2020, Voormann did the cover art for Wreckless Abandon, an album by Mike Campbell's band The Dirty Knobs.

Singles

 * "Just Like a Woman"/"I Wanna Be Rich" (Fontana/Mercury/Philips) (1966)
 * "When Will I Be Loved"/"Do You Have to Do That" (Capital/United Artist) (1966)
 * "Semi-Detached, Suburban Mr. James"/"Morning After the Party" (Fontana) (1966) UK
 * "Semi-Detached, Suburban Mr. James"/"Each and Every Day" (Mercury/Philips) (1966) US/Australia
 * "You're My Girl"/"Box Office Draw" (Fontana) (1967)
 * "Ha! Ha! Said the Clown"/"Feeling So Good" (Fontana) (1967)
 * "Sweet Pea"/"One Way" (Fontana) (1967)
 * "So Long, Dad"/"Funniest Gig" (Fontana) (1967)
 * "Mighty Quinn"/"By Request-Edith Garvey" (Fontana/Mercury) (1968)
 * "(Theme From) Up the Junction"/"Sleepy Hollow" (Fontana/Mercury) (1968)
 * "My Name is Jack"/"There is a Man" (Fontana/Mercury) (1968)
 * "Fox on the Run"/"Too Many People" (Fontana/Mercury) (1968)
 * "Ragamuffin Man"/"A 'B' Side" (Fontana/Mercury) (1969)

Albums

 * Pretty Flamingo (United Artist) (1966) US
 * As Is (Fontana) (1966) UK
 * Up The Junction (Fontana/Mercury) (1968) UK/US – movie soundtrack
 * Mighty Garvey! (Fontana) (1968) UK
 * The Mighty Quinn (Mercury) (1968) US

Collaborations
With Hoyt Axton
 * Fearless (A&M Records, 1976)

With Badfinger
 * Straight Up (Apple Records, 1971)

With Cate Brothers
 * Cate Bros. (Asylum Records, 1975)

With Patti Dahlstrom
 * Your Place or Mine (20th Century Records, 1975)

With Dion DiMucci
 * Born to Be with You (Phil Spector Records, 1975)

With Donovan
 * Slow Down World (Epic Records, 1976)

With Peter Frampton
 * Wind of Change (A&M Records, 1972)

With Art Garfunkel
 * Breakaway (Columbia Records, 1975)

With George Harrison
 * All Things Must Pass (Apple Records, 1970)
 * Living in the Material World (Apple Records, 1973)
 * Dark Horse (Apple Records, 1974)
 * Extra Texture (Read All About It) (Apple Records, 1975)

With B.B. King
 * B.B. King in London (ABC Records, 1971)

With Nicolette Larson
 * Nicolette (Warner Bros. Records, 1978)
 * Radioland (Warner Bros. Records, 1981)

With John Lennon
 * Imagine (Apple Records, 1971)
 * Walls and Bridges (Apple Records, 1974)
 * Rock 'n' Roll (Apple Records, 1975)

With Jackie Lomax
 * Is This What You Want? (Apple Records, 1969)

With Geoff Muldaur
 * Motion (Reprise Records, 1976)

With Maria Muldaur
 * Maria Muldaur (Reprise Records, 1973)

With Randy Newman
 * Little Criminals (Reprise Records, 1977)

With Harry Nilsson
 * Nilsson Schmilsson (RCA Victor, 1971)
 * Son of Schmilsson (RCA Records, 1972)
 * Pussy Cats (RCA Victor, 1974)
 * Duit on Mon Dei (RCA Victor, 1975)
 * Sandman (RCA Victor, 1976)
 * ...That's the Way It Is (RCA Victor, 1976)
 * Flash Harry (Mercury Records, 1980)

With Yoko Ono
 * Fly (Apple Records, 1971)

With Van Dyke Parks
 * Clang of the Yankee Reaper (Warner Bros. Records, 1975)

With Billy Preston
 * Encouraging Words (Apple Records, 1970)

With Lou Reed
 * Transformer (RCA Records, 1972)

With Martha Reeves
 * Martha Reeves (MCA Records, 1974)

With Stephan Remmler
 * Stephan Remmler (Mercury Records, 1986)
 * Lotto (Mercury Records, 1988)
 * Vamos (Mercury Records, 1993)

With Leon Russell
 * Leon Russell (A&M Records, 1970)

With Carly Simon
 * No Secrets (Elektra Records, 1972)
 * Hotcakes (Elektra Records, 1974)
 * Playing Possum (Elektra Records, 1975)
 * Another Passenger (Elektra Records, 1976)

With Splinter
 * The Place I Love (Dark Horse Records, 1974)

With Ringo Starr
 * Ringo (Apple Records, 1973)
 * Goodnight Vienna (Apple Records, 1974)
 * Ringo's Rotogravure (Polydor Records, 1976)

With Loudon Wainwright III
 * Unrequited (Columbia Records, 1975)

With Howlin' Wolf
 * The London Howlin' Wolf Sessions (Chess Records, 1971)

title: Klaus Voormann


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Salami

Salami is a cured sausage consisting of fermented and air-dried meat, typically pork. Historically, salami was popular among southern, eastern, and central European peasants because it can be stored at room temperature for up to 45 days once cut, supplementing a potentially meager or inconsistent supply of fresh meat. Countries and regions across Europe make their own traditional varieties of salami.

Small-sized salami are also referred to as salametti or salamini.

Salami belongs to the group of southern European meat specialties referred to as salumi, together with prosciutto, coppa and pancetta.

Etymology
The word salami in English comes from the plural form of the Italian salame. It is a singular or plural word in English for cured meats of a European (particularly Italian) style. In Romanian, Bulgarian, and Turkish, the word is salam; in Macedonian and Serbo-Croatian it is salama; in Hungarian it is szalámi; in Czech it is salám; in Slovak it is saláma; in Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian it is salyami, while Polish, French, German, Greek and Dutch have the same word as English. The name may be derived from the Latin word salumen.

The word originates from the word sale (lit. 'salt') with a termination (-ame), which in Italian indicates a collective noun. Thus, it originally referred to all kinds of salted meats. The Italian tradition of cured meats includes several styles, and the word salame soon specifically meant only the most popular kind—a salted and spiced meat, ground and extruded into an elongated, thin casing (usually cleaned animal intestine), then left to undergo natural fermentation and drying for days, months, or even years.

Origin and history
Fermentation—allowing beneficial or benign organisms to grow in food to prevent destructive or toxic ones from growing—has been around for thousands of years. Environmental conditions dictate what food processes are used, as seen in the Mediterranean and southern Europe, where "meat products are dried to lower water activity (Aw) values, taking advantage of the long, dry and sunny days, while in northern Europe, fermented sausages require smoking for further preservation".

The modern recipe of salami probably originated in Italy in the early 18th century. It was adopted later in other countries, particularly in central Europe, with adapted manufacturing procedures. At that time, it was largely consumed by the wealthy, as meat in general was very expensive.

In Europe, the main countries that produce salami are France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Spain, which make several hundred million kilograms per year.

Worldwide, the many different versions of sausage each have their own cultural and flavor profiles. Additionally, each sausage has its own type of seasonings and amount of salt, making each flavor and texture unique. This wide array of fermented sausages, especially in terms of salami, shows its ubiquitous but exclusive nature. For example, due to emigration to North America, European settlers brought many traditions, including fermented meats such as pepperoni. Similar types of sausages are found in the Middle East, where various meats such as beef, lamb, and mutton are used; or in China, where lap cheong (lit. 'waxed intestines') are usually pork.

Likewise, in central Europe, Hungarian salami is quite popular. Hungarian salami is "intensively smoked, and then its surface is inoculated with mold starters or spontaneous mold growth".

In the United States, National Salami Day is celebrated on September 7 of each year.

Ingredients
A traditional salami, with its typical marbled appearance, is made from beef or pork (sometimes specifically veal). Beef is usual in halal and kosher salami, which never include pork for religious reasons. Makers also use other meats, including venison and poultry (mostly turkey). Goose salami is traditional in parts of northern Italy. Salami has also been made from horse meat. In the Provence region of France and in the Veneto region of Italy donkey meat is used for salami, as well, the product being sold in street markets. Typical additional ingredients include:
 * Garlic
 * Minced fat
 * Salt
 * Spices, usually white pepper
 * Various herbs
 * Vinegar
 * Wine

The maker usually ferments the raw meat mixture for a day, then stuffs it into either an edible natural or inedible cellulose casing, and hangs it up to cure. Some recipes apply heat to about 40 °C (104 °F) to accelerate fermentation and drying. Higher temperatures (about 60 °C (140 °F)) stop the fermentation when the salami reaches the desired pH, but the product is not fully cooked (75 °C (167 °F) or higher). Makers often treat the casings with an edible mold (Penicillium) culture. The mold imparts flavor, helps the drying process, and helps prevent spoilage during curing.

Manufacturing process
Though completely uncooked, salami is not raw, but cured. Salame cotto (lit. 'cooked salami')—typical of the Piedmont region of Italy—is cooked or smoked before or after curing to impart a specific flavor, but not for any benefit of cooking. Before cooking, a salame cotto is considered raw and not ready to eat.

Three major stages are involved in the production of salami: preparation of raw materials, fermentation, and ripening and drying. Minor differences in the formulation of the meat or production techniques give rise to the various kinds of salami across different countries.

Preparation
Before fermentation, raw meat (usually pork or beef depending on the type of salami that is produced) is ground (usually coarsely) and mixed with other ingredients such as salt, sugar, spices, pepper and, if the particular salami variety requires it, lactic acid bacterial starter culture.

Fermentation
This mixture is then inserted into casings of the desired size. To achieve the flavor and texture that salami possesses, fermentation, which can also be referred to as a slow acidification process promoting a series of chemical reactions in the meat, has to take place. Direct acidification of meat was found to be inappropriate for salami production, since it causes protein denaturation and an uneven coagulation, thereby causing an undesirable texture in the salami.

For a more modern controlled fermentation, makers hang the salami in warm, humid conditions for 1–3 days to encourage the fermenting bacteria to grow, then hang it in a cool, humid environment to slowly dry. In a traditional process, the maker skips the fermentation step and immediately hangs the salami in a cool, humid curing environment. Added sugars (usually dextrose) provide a food source for the curing bacteria.

The bacteria produce lactic acid as a waste product, which lowers the pH and coagulates the proteins, reducing the meat's water-holding capacity. The bacteria-produced acid makes the meat an inhospitable environment for pathogenic bacteria and imparts a tangy flavor that distinguishes salami from machine-dried pork. Salami flavor relies as much on how these bacteria are cultivated as it does on the quality and variety of the other ingredients. Originally, makers introduced wine into the mix, favouring the growth of other beneficial bacteria. Now, they use starter cultures.

The climate of the curing environment, casing size, and style determine the drying and curing process. According to the particular variety of salami, different fermentation methods involving different acids have been explored to create various colors and flavors. Starter cultures, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and coagulase-negative cocci (CNC), like specific strains of Staphylococcus xylosus or Micrococcus, are most commonly used in salami production. More species of LAB and CNC were discovered during recent decades and they were found to have different fermentation temperatures with variable rates of acidification. Despite the fact that these bacteria can help maintain a longer shelf life for meat products and even retard the growth of pathogens, there are a few studies that argue some starter cultures may be related to the production of enterotoxins or biogenic amines that can be harmful to the human body. Therefore, starter cultures have to be carefully selected by producers and properly used in fermentation.

Drying
After fermentation, the sausage must be dried. This changes the casings from water-permeable to reasonably airtight. A white covering of either mold or flour helps prevent photo-oxidation of the meat and rancidity in the fat.

Ripening and drying happens after fermentation. This stage causes the main physical and microbial changes through the large amount of water loss. About half of the water is evaporated and further water loss has to be prevented by packaging. Nonuniform drying processes could cause the formation of a hard shell on the surface of salami. This is similar to other food products such as fruits that undergo dehydration to decrease the risk of diseases or spoilage-causing microbial growth. In modern manufacturing temperature and relative humidity are strictly controlled according to the size of the salami.

Nitrates or nitrites may be added to provide additional color and inhibit growth of harmful bacteria from the genus Clostridium. Salt, acidity, nitrate/nitrite levels, and dryness of the fully cured salami combine to make the uncooked meat safe to consume. High quality, fresh ingredients are important to helping prevent deadly microorganisms and toxins from developing.

Properties
The quality of salami is dependent on the quality of the raw materials and the level of technology used in its production. The aroma and taste of salami are developed by enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. The characteristic fermented meat flavor is believed to be developed by a combination of endogenous enzymatic activities and the lactic acid produced by the starter culture. Lactic acid bacteria develop the tangy flavor of salami through the fermentation of carbohydrates and produces an appealing red color to the meat after fermentation, while coagulase-negative cocci can catabolize amino acids and fatty acids to produce volatile compounds. The flavor itself consists of odour properties, which comes from volatile substances, and taste and tactile properties, which comes from non-volatile substances that are a result of enhancers and synergists.

When smoke is applied to salami, it also affects the taste, smell, appearance, and texture. Some of these changes are due to the formation of phenolic compounds, which slow fat oxidation. The pyrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses in the salami casing produces carbonyls, which develop the color of the meat.

More than 400 volatile compounds have been identified in different types of dry-fermented sausages. For example, the organic compounds identified in Hungarian salami produced the dominant flavors of smokiness, sweetness, pungency, sourness, and cloves;  secondary flavors included cooked meat, cheese, popcorn, cooked potato, mushroom, seasoning, phenols, roasting, sulfur, and sweatiness. Some minor flavors included malt, garlic, fruit, pine, grass, citrus, honey, caramel, and vanilla. The overall smoky note is the result of numerous phenols. Whether these odorants are formed in the salami or simply transferred from the raw materials during manufacturing is unknown; systematic studies have yet to compare the odorants present in the raw materials to those in the final product.

Shelf life
Salami will remain stable for long periods of time, as it has a low water activity and contains preservatives, colorings, flavorings, antioxidants and acidifying cultures. Semi-ripened salami will maintain its flavor for a long time under retail display conditions, but it will eventually deteriorate due to the development of incipient rancidity. The shelf life of salami is mainly determined by sensory deterioration, which is the result of various oxidation phenomena; pathogenic or spoilage bacteria do not readily proliferate in dry-cured sausage. The main cause of flavor deterioration in dry-cured sausage is rancidity, though the possible formation of other off-flavors, such as mouldy, acid, putrid or pungent traits, may contribute to the decreased quality.

The use of coriander essential oil in salami has been shown to increase the higher synthetic antioxidant effect of butylated hydroxytoluene, which delays lipid oxidation and the rancid aroma and taste that come with it. Additionally, salami with coriander essential oil shows improvements in the sensory attributes of taste, odor, texture, brightness, and red color intensity.

Varieties

Salami (salame) varieties from Italian-speaking regions include:
 * Cacciatore (cacciatora, cacciatorini), "hunter" salami, Italy
 * Ciauscolo, typical of Marche
 * Cotto, a soft, cooked version of salami that has a similar look and feel to bologna
 * Fegatelli
 * Felino, province of Parma
 * Finocchiona, typical of southern Tuscany
 * Genovese
 * Napoletano, Naples
 * Milanese, a finely ground salami from Milan
 * 'Nduja
 * Soppressata, typical of Calabria, Apulia, and Basilicata
 * Strolghino
 * Ticinese (also called salame nostrano), a coarsely ground salami from southern Switzerland

Other salami varieties include:
 * Hard Salami, smoked salami from central Europe
 * Lovecký salám/Lovecká saláma, salami in a rectangular shape from Czechia and Slovakia, registered as a traditional speciality guaranteed.
 * Pepperoni
 * Sibiu Salami (a Romanian variety of salami)
 * Winter salami (Hungarian téliszalámi)

Many Old World salami are named after their region or country of origin—such as Genoa and Hungarian salami, and salame Milano. Many are flavored with garlic. Some types—including some varieties from Hungary (pick salami), and Italy (such as Neapolitan varieties that led to American pepperoni) include paprika or chili powder. Varieties also differ by coarseness or fineness of the chopped meat and size and style of the casing.

Naples-type salami is also a popular southern Italian dry fermented sausage made of coarsely minced pork meat. In northeast Italy, traditional dry fermented salami sausages made of fresh pork display unique organoleptic sensory profiles characterized by accented acidity, slight sourness, and elastic semi hard consistency. Other popular dry salamis in Italy are mainly made from a combination of pork and small bits of beef, seasoned with garlic; pepperoni is also made of pork and beef, and is usually smoked; chorizo is highly spiced and smoked.

Hungarian-type salami is a specialty in salami production, because it is first slightly smoked and mold-ripened afterward. Szegedi téliszalámi, a Hungarian winter salami, is made of raw pork, bacon, salt, spices, sugars, and sodium nitrite. The Mangalitsa pork breed, with equine large intestine used as its casing to preserve and serve it. This type acquires a grey mold cover on it and has a firm texture and excellent keeping quality after a 30% weight loss reached in 3 to 4 months.

Dry fermented sausage ('salami aeros') is an important product of the Greek meat industry with an annual production of about 10,000 tons. Its manufacture varies depending on the skill and experience of the meat manufacturer rather than a process solely based on scientific and technological means of production. This type of traditional sausage, which undergoes spontaneous fermentation, is of superior quality compared to those inoculated with starters and made at industrial scale. This type of traditional salami is often more expensive due to its high quality.

In Germany, Westphalian salami is made with fast technology from pork meat, pepper, garlic, and sometimes mustard seeds, and is a smoked, firm, sliceable product with a distinctly fermented/sour flavor. The sausages are stuffed into large-diameter casings and ripened by lowering the temperature from 24 °C to 12–14 °C until a water loss of 25% is obtained.

In the Netherlands, the most popular Dutch products are finely chopped salami, Cervelat, Snijworst (with high fat content and rind added), Boerenmetworst (which is coarsely chopped), and chorizo (which is less spicy than the Spanish product). In Russia, typical products are Moscow-type and Russian-type salamis made from pork and beef meat. A particular feature of Moscow-type salami is the large size of fat particles (7–8 mm) that give the sausage a rough cover.

Health effects
Salami has been found to be a possible allergen to some people due to the use of penicillium species mold starter during the drying and curing portion of processing to add flavor and stop growth of undesirable molds. These molds occur predominantly in the skin of salami.

Fermented pork back fat that is used to make salami has very high saturated fatty acid and cholesterol content, which are believed to be risk factors for cardiovascular disease. However, it has been shown that it is possible to replace the pork back fat in salami with extra virgin olive oil, thereby changing the fatty acid profile of the salami. Olive oil contains far more monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, so this substitution purportedly creates a healthier product. Salami is considered slightly acidic due to lactic acid that is present. Salami where extra virgin olive oil was substituted for the pork back fat has been shown to have a lower pH of around 5.00 compared to its original levels of around 6.35 to 6.55, making the salami more acidic. These lower pH levels are healthier for humans as higher populations of lactic acid bacteria inhibit the spread of spoilage microorganisms.

In 1994, there was an outbreak of Escherichia coli O157 with 17 cases all occurring from the consumption of pre-sliced salami that was processed by one company. A research investigation of the factory where the salami was processed found that all processing techniques and production methods complied with all regulations, and there was no evidence of contamination after processing.

Preservation of any meat products is important. Some fungi can create undesirable color and flavor in the contaminated meat and produce toxins. Some fungi that are not harmful to humans, such as those that are formed on the surface of dried salami, are an indication of maturation after ripening. Thus, producers have to eliminate fungi that have potential risks to human health. As natural preservatives are becoming more desirable food additives than artificial preservatives in food industries, some studies about salami have been focusing on the use of essential oils such as oregano and clove oil as preservatives that can be applied to salami production due to their anti-fungal activities. Several types of oils including rosemary, clove, oregano and sage oils were found to have different levels of inhibitory effect to various types of fungi that could possibly grow on salami. Since several of these oils contain volatile compounds whose amount can affect the flavor of the food, researchers often perform a sensory test to find the amount of the oil that can best serve as an anti-fungal preservative but have the least effect on the flavor or appearance of the salami.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Salami


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Sauerkraut

Sauerkraut (, lit. 'sour cabbage') is finely cut raw cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid formed when the bacteria ferment the sugars in the cabbage leaves.

Although it is considered a national dish in Germany and is known under its German name in English-speaking countries, it did not originate in Germany and is also a traditional and ubiquitous dish in Central and Eastern Europe.

Overview and history
Fermented foods have a long history in many cultures. The Roman writer Cato (in his De agri cultura) and Columella (in his De re Rustica) mentioned preserving cabbages and turnips with salt. According to Wilhelm Holzapfel et al, Plinius the Elder, writing in the first century A.D., is reputed to have been the first writer to describe the making of sauerkraut by preserving what the Romans called salt cabbage in earthen vessels. Popular folklore has imagined that sauerkraut was introduced to Europe by the trade networks formed across Eurasia by the Golden Horde. However, according to Mack and Surina (2005), there is no evidence to support this theory, nor any evidence that fermented cabbage arrived from an East Asian source, and there is evidence of sauerkraut production in Europe dating back to the early period of the Western Roman Empire.

Although "sauerkraut" is from a German word (Sauerkraut), the dish did not originate in Germany. Some claim fermenting cabbage suan cai was already practised in the days of the building of the Great Wall of China. However, the Romans, as previously noted, pickled forms of cabbage, and were the more likely source of modern-day European sauerkraut. It then took root in Central and Eastern European cuisines, but also in other countries including the Netherlands, where it is known as zuurkool, and France, where the name became choucroute. According to Mack and Surina (2005), the Slavic peoples of Europe likely discovered fermented cabbage on their own. The English name is borrowed from German where it means "sour cabbage".

The names in Slavic and other Central and Eastern European languages have similar meanings with the German word: "fermented cabbage" (lakër turshi, kələm turşusu, квашаная капуста, kysané zelí, rauginti kopūstai, kapusta kiszona, квашеная капуста/кислая капуста, lahana turşusu, varză murată,, кисело зеле, hapukapsas, hapankaali, savanyúkáposzta, skābēti kāposti, расол / кисела зелка, кисели купус / кисело зеље, kyslá kapusta, kislo zelje, кисла капуста, kysla kapusta).

Before frozen foods, refrigeration, and cheap transport from warmer areas became readily available in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe, sauerkraut – like other preserved foods – provided a source of nutrients during the winter. Captain James Cook always took a store of sauerkraut on his sea voyages, since experience had taught him it prevented scurvy.

The word "Kraut", derived from this food, is a derogatory term for the German people. During World War I, due to concerns the American public would reject a product with a German name, American sauerkraut makers relabeled their product as "liberty cabbage" for the duration of the war.

Production
Sauerkraut is made by a process of pickling called lactic acid fermentation that is analogous to how traditional (not heat-treated) pickled cucumbers and kimchi are made. The cabbage is finely shredded, layered with salt, and left to ferment. Fully cured sauerkraut keeps for several months in an airtight container stored at 15 °C (60 °F) or below. In temperate climates, this allows storage over the full winter and early-Spring. Neither refrigeration nor pasteurization is required, although these treatments prolong storage life.

Fermentation by lactobacilli is introduced naturally, as these air-borne bacteria culture on raw cabbage leaves where they grow. Yeasts also are present, and may yield soft sauerkraut of poor flavor when the fermentation temperature is too high. The fermentation process has three phases, collectively sometimes referred to as population dynamics. In the first phase, anaerobic bacteria such as Klebsiella and Enterobacter lead the fermentation, and begin producing an acidic environment that favors later bacteria. The second phase starts as the acid levels become too high for many bacteria, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides and other Leuconostoc species take dominance. In the third phase, various Lactobacillus species, including L. brevis and L. plantarum, ferment any remaining sugars, further lowering the pH. Properly cured sauerkraut is sufficiently acidic to prevent a favorable environment for the growth of Clostridium botulinum, the toxins of which cause botulism.

A 2004 genomic study found an unexpectedly large diversity of lactic acid bacteria in sauerkraut, and that previous studies had oversimplified this diversity. Weissella was found to be a major organism in the initial, heterofermentative stage, up to day 7. It was also found that Lactobacillus brevis and Pediococcus pentosaceus had smaller population numbers in the first 14 days than previous studies had reported.

The Dutch sauerkraut industry found that inoculating a new batch of sauerkraut with an old batch resulted in an exceedingly sour product. This sourdough process is known as "backslopping" or "inoculum enrichment"; when used in making sauerkraut, first- and second-stage population dynamics, important to developing flavor, are bypassed. This is due primarily to the greater initial activity of species L. plantarum.

Regional varieties
In Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moravian, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine, chopped cabbage is often pickled together with shredded carrots. Other ingredients may include caraway seeds, whole or quartered apples for additional flavor or cranberry for flavor and better keeping (the benzoic acid in cranberries is a common preservative). Bell peppers and beets are added in some recipes for color. The resulting sauerkraut salad is typically served cold, as zakuski or a side dish.

A homemade type of very mild sauerkraut is available, where white cabbage is pickled with salt in a refrigerator for only three to seven days. This process results in very little lactic acid production. Sometimes in Russia double fermentation is used, with the initial step producing an exceptionally sour product, which is then "corrected" by adding 30-50% more fresh cabbage and fermenting the mix again. The flavor additives like apples, beets, cranberries, and sometimes even watermelons are usually introduced at this step.

Sauerkraut may be used as a filling for Polish pierogi, Ukrainian varenyky, Russian pirogi and pirozhki. Sauerkraut is also the central ingredient in traditional soups, such as shchi (a national dish of Russia), kwaśnica (Poland), kapustnica (Slovakia), and zelňačka (Czech Republic resp. Moravian). It is an ingredient of Polish bigos (a hunter's stew).

In Ukraine, sauerkraut is known as кисла капуста 'sour cabbage' or квашена капуста  'fermented cabbage'.

In Russia, sauerkraut is known as кислая капуста 'sour cabbage' or квашеная капуста  'fermented cabbage'.

In Germany and Austria, cooked sauerkraut is often flavored with juniper berries or caraway seeds; apples and white wine are added in popular variations. In South Tyrol, it is made with Juniper berries, Extra-virgin olive oil and smoked pancetta. Traditionally it is served warm, with pork (e.g. eisbein, schweinshaxe, Kassler) or sausages (smoked or fried sausages, Frankfurter Würstchen, Vienna sausages, black pudding), accompanied typically by roasted or steamed potatoes or dumplings (knödel or schupfnudel). Similar recipes are common in other Central European cuisines. The Czech national dish vepřo knedlo zelo consists of roast pork with knedliky and sauerkraut.

In Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, North Macedonia and Slovenia, usually the whole cabbage heads are pickled. Such produce is used for many dishes, from a simple salad made of chopped cabbage and sprinkled with paprika, to cabbage rolls. In northern parts of Serbia and Croatia, it is often added to the bean soup. In central Serbia, a local specialty called "wedding cabbage" is made by slowly stewing roughly cut cabbage with at least three kinds of meats, lean, fatty, and smoked.

In Szeklerland it is an essential part of székelygulyás and the erdélyi rakott káposzta (a type of casserole).

In Romania, the local type of sauerkraut ("varza murata" = whole pickled cabbage heads) are used as wrap for the national dish called "Sarmale", a Turkish-inspired roll, made of pickled cabbage leaves with minced pork and rice, having its own personality and very distinct in taste from its Ottoman predecessor.

In France, sauerkraut is the main ingredient of the Alsatian meal choucroute garnie (French for "dressed sauerkraut"), sauerkraut with sausages (Strasbourg sausages, smoked Morteau or Montbéliard sausages), charcuterie (bacon, ham, etc.), and often potatoes.

In Chile it is called chucrut and is a common topping for sandwiches and hotdogs, especially for completos.

Sauerkraut, along with pork, is eaten traditionally in Pennsylvania on New Year's Day. The tradition, started by the Pennsylvania Dutch, is thought to bring good luck for the upcoming year. Sauerkraut is also used in American cuisine as a condiment upon various foods, such as sandwiches and hot dogs. In Maryland, particularly in Baltimore and on the Eastern Shore, sauerkraut is a traditional accompaniment for the Thanksgiving turkey.

As Europeans, especially Germans, emigrated to other countries, many of them continued making and eating sauerkraut around the world.

Benefits
Many health benefits have been claimed for sauerkraut:

 * It is a high source of vitamins K and (if uncooked) C; the fermentation process increases the bioavailability of nutrients rendering sauerkraut even more nutritious than the original cabbage. It is also low in food energy and high in calcium and magnesium, and it is a very good source of dietary fiber, folate, iron, potassium, copper and manganese.
 * If unpasteurized and uncooked, sauerkraut also contains live lactobacilli and beneficial microbes and is rich in enzymes. Fiber and probiotics improve digestion and promote the growth of healthy bowel flora, protecting against many diseases of the digestive tract.

 * During the American Civil War, the physician John Jay Terrell (1829–1922) was able to successfully reduce the death rate from disease among prisoners of war; he attributed this to feeding his patients raw sauerkraut.
 * Sauerkraut and its juice is a time-honored folk remedy for canker sores. The treatment is to rinse the mouth with sauerkraut juice for about 30 seconds several times a day, or place a wad of sauerkraut against the affected area for a minute or so before chewing and swallowing the sauerkraut.
 * In 2002, the Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry reported that Finnish researchers found the isothiocyanates produced in sauerkraut fermentation inhibit the growth of cancer cells in test tube and animal studies. A Polish study in 2010 concluded that "induction of the key detoxifying enzymes by cabbage juices, particularly sauerkraut, may be responsible for their chemopreventive activity demonstrated by epidemiological studies and in animal models".

Disadvantages
Excessive consumption of sauerkraut may lead to bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot break down. This does not negatively affect long-term health, although it might be uncomfortable. Additionally, sauerkraut has a very high sodium content.

Similar foods
Many other vegetables are preserved by a similar fermentation pickling process:

 * Achaar in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan
 * Atsara in the Philippines
 * Brovada in Friuli, northern Italy
 * Curtido in El Salvador
 * Dill pickles in eastern and central Europe
 * Encurtido in Central America
 * Kimchi in Korea
 * Silage, a feed for cattle
 * Suan cai in northeastern China
 * Tsukemono in Japan
 * Kabichima in The Caribbean
 * Kiseli kupus in Bosnia, Serbia, Croatia, and Bulgaria

title: Sauerkraut


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Kimchi

Kimchi (김치, ) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings is used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), spring onions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (a salted seafood). Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is a staple food in Korean cuisine and is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.

There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called gimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called onggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.

Ji
The term ji (지), which has its origins in archaic Korean dihi (디히), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times. The sound change can be roughly described as: The Middle Korean form dihi is found in several books from Joseon (1392–1897). In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix -ji in the standard language (as in jjanji, seokbak-ji), and as the suffix -ji as well as the noun ji in Gyeongsang and Jeolla dialects. The unpalatalized form di is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.
 * dihi (디히) > di (디) > ji (지)

Kimchi
Kimchi (김치) is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include timchɑi, a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word 沈 菜 (literally "submerged vegetable"). Timchɑi appears in Sohak Eonhae, the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, Xiaoxue. Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:
 * timchɑi (沈菜) > dimchɑi > jimchɑi  > jimchui (짐츼) >  gimchi (김치)

The aspirated first consonant of timchae became unaspirated in dimchɑe, then underwent palatalization in jimchɑe. The word then became jimchui with the loss of the vowel ɑ in Korean language, then Kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters 沈菜 are pronounced chimchae (침채), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word Kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word. Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: jimchae (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects), jimchi (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects), and dimchi (P'yŏngan dialect).

The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from kimch'i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word kimchi (김치).

Early history
Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time. Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food. During the Silla dynasty (57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.

The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family. A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common in Goryeo (918–1392).

"Pickled radish slices make a good summer side-dish, Radish preserved in salt is a winter side-dish from start to end. The roots in the earth grow plumper every day, Harvesting after the frost, a slice cut by a knife tastes like a pear."

Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish. Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper. Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a New World crop. Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders. The first mention of chili pepper is found in Jibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614. Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers. However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread. Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.

A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi. However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century, and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in Siuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.

Modern history
During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.

In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal Kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.

South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.

1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan
In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi, キムチ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar to asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes. In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives. Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.

2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis
Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis. Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup. In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas. "The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.

Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)
Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.

Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)
North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015 as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi. Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.

Kimchi Day
In the United States, states California, Virginia, Maryland and New York, and capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.

2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports
Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai. However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations. Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.

2017 boycott in China
A 2017 article in The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China had risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed to not eat kimchi. The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to Korea in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.

2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with China
In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of pao cai. The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi". This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people, as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.

However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese word pao cai. After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained it was simply a "misunderstanding in translation", where they had meant to refer to Chinese pao cai, and their Chinese language article had used the term pao cai, but their English language version had "erroneously" translated it as "kimchi", and that the dispute arose from being innocently "lost in translation". They acknowledged that kimchi and pao cai are two different foods, where "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while pàocài, or Sichuan pàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China." Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request.

According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of the University of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often called pao cai in China, but China has its own Sichuanese fermented vegetable dish that it also calls pao cai. In 2021, the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term xīnqí (辛奇) as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, while pàocài was no longer the acceptable translation. However, CNN reported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognise the difference between dishes, but don't like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn't have an authentic Korean sound.

Ingredients
Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.

Vegetables
Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes.

Seasonings
Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods. Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.

Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood) Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula. If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot (salted hairtail) is commonly used. Raw seafood or daegu-agami-jeot (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.

Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.

Production
The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism. The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours.

The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added. The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature. The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%.

Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas. The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.

Microorganisms in kimchi
The microorganisms present in kimchi include Bacillus mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lb. curvatus, Lb. kimchii, Lb. parabrevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. sakei, Lb. spicheri, Lactococcus carnosum, Lc. gelidum, Lc. lactis, Leuconostoc carnosum, Ln. citreum, Ln. gasicomitatum, Ln. gelidum, Ln. holzapfelii, Ln. inhae, Ln. kimchii, Ln. lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, Serratia marcescens, Weissella cibaria, W. confusa, W. kandleri, W. kimchii. W. koreensis, and W. soli. Archaea and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi, with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.

In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations. Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the Lactobacillus and Weissella variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. Lactobacillus also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.

These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi. The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism. These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl. A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.

Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs. The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome. In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of Leu. mesenteroides, Leu. citreum, and Lb. plantarum are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.

By-products of microorganisms
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting. This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract. Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms. Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.

Odor
Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets. These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.

Varieties
Kimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables. It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish. Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.

New variations of kimchi continue to be created, and the taste can vary depending on the region and season. Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands. However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.

Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference. There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi. The most common kimchi variations are:
 * Baechu-kimchi (배추김치) spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
 * Baechu-geotjeori (배추겉절이) unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
 * Bossam-kimchi (보쌈김치) wrapped kimchi
 * Baek-kimchi (백김치) white kimchi, made without chili pepper
 * Dongchimi (동치미) a non-spicy watery kimchi
 * Nabak-kimchi (나박김치) a mildly spicy watery kimchi
 * Chonggak-kimchi (총각김치) cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi
 * Kkakdugi (깍두기) spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
 * Oi-sobagi (오이소박이) cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
 * Pa-kimchi (파김치) spicy green onion kimchi
 * Yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
 * Gat-kimchi (갓김치), made with Indian mustard
 * Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)

Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla Province and Gyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot (멸치젓, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot (새우젓, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot (멸치액젓), anchovy fish sauce, kkanariaekjeot (까나리액젓), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.

Saeujeot (새우젓) or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (풀). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.

Color
White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in dongchimi brine (dongchimi-guksu).

Age

 * Geotjeori (겉절이): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
 * Mugeun-ji (묵은지), also known as mugeun-kimchi (묵은김치): aged kimchi

Region
The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.
 * Pyongan Province (North Korea, outside of Pyongyang): Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
 * Hamgyong Province (Upper Northeast): Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
 * Hwanghae Province (Midwest): The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae-do is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae-do is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).Korean.food-kimchi-02.jpg'', a savoury Korean pancake with kimchi]]
 * Gyeonggi Province (Lower Midwest of Hwanghae-do)
 * Chungcheong Province (between Gyeonggi-do and Jeolla-do): Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong-do has the most varieties of kimchi.
 * Gangwon Province, South Korea/Kangwon Province, North Korea (Mideast): In Gangwon-do, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
 * Jeolla Province (Lower Southwest): Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
 * Gyeongsang Province (Lower Southeast): This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot (멸치젓) which produce a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
 * Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.

Seasonal variations
Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.

Spring
After a long period of consuming gimjang kimchi (김장김치) during the winter, fresh potherbs and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.

Summer
Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.

Autumn
Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called sok (literally inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of sok (속) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of myeolchijeot or saeujeot had been used.

Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.

Winter
Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi (김장 김치) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations. "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen, garlic, and ginger.

Korean preference
As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.

Nutrition
Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber, while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.

A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually. Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish. Adult Koreans eat from 50 g to 200 g of kimchi a day.

Trade
South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017. South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person. It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.

Consumption
In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.

Food regulations
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5. Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested. This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes. The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.

title: Kimchi


text:
Tree-kangaroo

Tree-kangaroos are marsupials of the genus Dendrolagus, adapted for arboreal locomotion. They inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea and far northeastern Queensland, along with some of the islands in the region. All tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. They are the only true arboreal macropods.

Evolutionary history
The evolutionary history of tree-kangaroos possibly begins with a rainforest floor-dwelling pademelon-like ancestor. This ancestor possibly evolved from an arboreal possum-like ancestor as is suspected of all macropodid marsupials in Australia and New Guinea. During the late Eocene, the Australian/New Guinean continent began a period of drying that caused a retreat in the area of rainforest, which forced the ancestral pademelons to begin living in a drier, rockier environment. After some generations of adaptation to the new environment, the pademelons may have evolved into rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.), which developed a generalist feeding strategy due to their dependence on a diverse assortment of vegetation refuges. This generalist strategy allowed the rock-wallabies to easily adapt to Malesian rainforest types that were introduced to Australia from Asia during the mid-Miocene. The rock-wallabies that migrated into these introduced forests adapted to spend more time climbing trees. One species in particular, the Proserpine rock-wallaby (Petrogale persephone), displays equal preference for climbing trees as for living in rocky outcrops. During the Late Miocene, the semi-arboreal rock-wallabies could have evolved into the now extinct tree-kangaroo genus Bohra. Global cooling during the Pleistocene caused continent-wide drying and rainforest retractions in Australia and New Guinea.

The rainforest contractions isolated populations of Bohra which resulted in the evolution of today's tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus spp.), as they adapted to lifestyles in geographically small and diverse rainforest fragments, and became further specialized for a canopy-dwelling lifestyle.

Species

These species are assigned to the genus Dendrolagus:

Seri's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus stellarum) has been described as a subspecies of Doria's tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus stellarum), but some recent authorities have treated it as a separate species based on its absolute diagnostability.

The Wondiwoi tree-kangaroo is among the 25 "most wanted lost" species that are the focus of Global Wildlife Conservation's "Search for Lost Species" initiative.

The extinct species D. noibano from the Pleistocene of Chimbu Province, Papua New Guinea is substantially larger than living species. However, it has since been suggested to be a larger extinct form of Doria's tree-kangaroo.

The case for the golden-mantled tree-kangaroo (D. pulcherrimus) is comparable to that of D. stellarum; it was first described as a subspecies of D. goodfellowi, though recent authorities have elevated it to species status based on its absolute diagnostability. A population of the tenkile (Scott's tree-kangaroo) recently discovered from the Bewani Mountains may represent an undescribed subspecies.

Distribution and habitat
Tree-kangaroos inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Australia, and some of the islands in the region, in particular, the Schouten Islands and the Raja Ampat Islands. Although most species are found in mountainous areas, several also occur in lowlands, such as the aptly named lowlands tree-kangaroo. Most tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. Because much of their lifestyle involves climbing and jumping between trees, they have evolved an appropriate method of locomotion. Tree-kangaroos thrive in the treetops, as opposed to terrestrial kangaroos which survive on mainland Australia. Two species of tree-kangaroos are found in Australia, Bennett's (D. bennetianus), which is found north of the Daintree River and Lumholtz's (D. lumholtzi). Tree-kangaroos have adapted better to regions of high altitudes. Tree-kangaroos must find places comfortable and well-adapted for breeding, as they only give birth to one joey per year. They are known to have one of the most relaxed and leisurely birthing seasons. They breed cautiously in the treetops during the monsoon season. Their habitats are breeding grounds for danger, as they can easily fall prey to their natural predator, the amethystine python, which also climbs and lives in the treetops. Tree-kangaroos are known to be able to live in both mountainous regions and lowland locations.

Description
Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo is the smallest of all tree-kangaroos. Its body and head length ranges about 48–65 cm, and its tail, 60-74 cm, with males weighing an average of 7.2 kg (16 lb) and females 5.9 kg (13 lb). The length of Doria's tree-kangaroo is 51-78 cm, with a long 44-66 cm tail, and weighs 6.5-14.5 kg. Matschie's tree-kangaroo has a body and head length of 81 cm (20 to 32 inches), adult males weigh 9–11 kg (20-25 lb) and adult females weigh 7–9 kg (15-20 lb). The grizzled tree-kangaroo grows to a length of 75–90 cm (30 to 35 in), with males being considerably larger than females, and its weight is 8–15 kg (18-33 lb).

Tree-kangaroos have several adaptations to an arboreal life-style. Compared to terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos have longer and broader hind feet with longer, curved nails. They also have a sponge-like grip on their paws and soles of their feet. Tree-kangaroos have a much larger and pendulous tail than terrestrial kangaroos, giving them enhanced balance while moving about the trees. Locomotion on the ground is by hopping, as with true kangaroos. Like terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos do not sweat to cool their bodies, rather, they lick their forearms and allow the moisture to evaporate in an adaptive form of behavioural thermoregulation.

Locomotion
Tree-kangaroos are slow and clumsy on the ground. They move at approximately human walking pace and hop awkwardly, leaning their body far forward to balance the heavy tail. However, in trees, they are bold and agile. They climb by wrapping their forelimbs around the trunk of a tree and, while allowing the forelimbs to slide, hop up the tree using their powerful hind legs. They are expert leapers; 9 m downward jumps from one tree to another have been recorded and they have the extraordinary ability to jump to the ground from 18 m or more without being hurt.

Diet
The main diet of the tree-kangaroo is leaves and fruit that it gathers from the trees, but occasionally scavenged from the ground. Tree-kangaroos will also eat grains, flowers, various nuts, sap and tree bark. Some captive tree-kangaroos (perhaps limited to New Guinea species) eat protein foods such as eggs, birds and snakes, making them omnivores.

Reproduction
Little is known about the reproduction of tree-kangaroos in the wild. The only published data are from captive individuals. Female tree-kangaroos reach sexual maturity as early as 2.04 years of age and males at 4.6 years. The female's fertile period is estimated to be approximately two months. They have one of the longest marsupial offspring development/maturation periods; pouch life for the young is 246–275 days long and weaning occurs 87–240 days later.

Threats
The two most significant threats to tree-kangaroos are habitat loss and hunting. Tree-kangaroo habitats are being destroyed or replaced by logging and timber production, along with coffee, rice and wheat production. This habitat loss can make tree-kangaroos more exposed to predators such as feral domestic dogs. Being hunted by local community members also contributes markedly to the declines in tree-kangaroo populations. Research conducted on Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo, a species that dwells in the rain forests of northeastern Australia, determined the frequency of causes of death. This showed that of 27 deceased tree-kangaroos, 11 had been killed by vehicles, six by dogs, four by parasites and the remaining six died from other causes.

Captivity
As of 2021 five of the species are held in captivity. These include populations of Goodfellow's (D. goodfellowi) and Matschie's (D. matschiei), with smaller numbers of Lumholtz's (D. lumholtzi), Grizzled (D. inustus), and Doria's (D. dorianus) tree kangaroos. These are being kept in a variety of facilities across North America, Oceania, and Europe, with smaller holdings in Asia. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums coordinates with regional zoological associations to ensure the coordination of breeding programs to maintain viable breeding populations and genetic diversity outside of the wild populations.

In November 2014 at the Adelaide Zoo, an orphaned tree-kangaroo joey was transferred to the pouch of a yellow-footed rock-wallaby when his mother was killed by a falling branch. The joey survived, having been successfully reared by the surrogate mother rock-wallaby.

On April 29, 2022, the Bronx Zoo announced the birth of a Matschie's tree kangaroo joey, the first of its species born at the zoo since 2008. The joey was the size of a human thumbnail at birth.

title: Tree-kangaroo


text:
Kudara

Kudara may refer to:
 * Kudara, the Japanese name for Baekje, an old Korean Kingdom
 * Kudara, Republic of Buryatia, a rural locality in Kabansky District, Republic of Buryatia, Russia
 * Kudara no Konikishi, a Japanese clan
 * Kudara Kannon, a Buddhist sculptures of the Asuka period that is a treasure of the Hōryū-ji temple.

title: Kudara


text:
Kruithof curve

The Kruithof curve describes a region of illuminance levels and color temperatures that are often viewed as comfortable or pleasing to an observer. The curve was constructed from psychophysical data collected by Dutch physicist Arie Andries Kruithof, though the original experimental data is not present on the curve itself. Lighting conditions within the bounded region were empirically assessed as being pleasing or natural, whereas conditions outside the region were considered uncomfortable, displeasing or unnatural. The Kruithof curve is a sufficient model for describing sources that are considered natural or closely resemble Planckian black bodies, but its value in describing human preference has been consistently questioned by further studies on interior lighting.

For example, natural daylight has a color temperature of 6500 K and an illuminance of about 104 to 105 lux. This color temperature–illuminance pair results in natural color rendition, but if viewed at a low illuminance, would appear bluish. At typical indoor office illuminance levels of about 400 lux, pleasing color temperatures are lower (between 3000 and 6000 K), and at typical home illuminance levels of about 75 lux, pleasing color temperatures are even lower (between 2400 and 2700 K). These color temperature-illuminance pairs are often achieved with fluorescent and incandescent sources, respectively. The pleasing region of the curve contains color temperatures and illuminance levels comparable to naturally lit environments.

History
At the emergence of fluorescent lighting in 1941, Kruithof conducted psychophysical experiments to provide a technical guide to design artificial lighting. Using gas-discharge fluorescent lamps, Kruithof was able to manipulate the color of emitted light and ask observers to report as to whether or not the source was pleasing to them. The sketch of his curve as presented consists of three major regions: the middle region, which corresponds to light sources considered pleasing; the lower region, which corresponds to colors that are considered cold and dim; and the upper region, which corresponds to colors that are warm and unnaturally colorful. These regions, while approximate, are still used to determine appropriate lighting configurations for homes or offices.

Perception and adaptation
Kruithof's findings are directly related to human adaptation to changes in illumination. As illuminance decreases, human sensitivity to blue light increases. This is known as the Purkinje effect. The human visual system switches from photopic (cone-dominated) vision to scotopic (rod-dominated) vision when luminance levels decrease. Rods have a very high spectral sensitivity to blue energy, whereas cones have varying spectral sensitivities to reds, greens and blues. Since the dominating photoreceptor in scotopic vision is most sensitive to blue, human sensitivity to blue light is therefore increased. Because of this, intense sources of higher (bluer) color temperatures are all generally considered to be displeasing at low luminance levels, and a narrow range of pleasing sources exist. Subsequently, the range of pleasing sources increases in photopic vision as luminance levels are increased.

Criticism
While the curve has been used as a guide to design artificial lighting for indoor spaces, with the general suggestion to use sources with low correlated color temperatures (CCT) at low illuminances, Kruithof did not describe the method of evaluation, the independent variables, nor the test sample that were used to develop the curve. Without these data, nor other validation, the conclusions should not be considered credible. The relationship between illuminance and CCT was not supported by subsequent work.

Illuminance and CCT has been examined in many studies of interior lighting  and these studies consistently demonstrate a different relationship to that suggested by Kruithof. Rather than having upper and lower boundaries, these studies do not suggest CCT to have significant effect and for illuminance suggest only to avoid levels below 300 lux. Current studies have not explored the main critical part that is the low illumination regime or the low CCT range beneath 3000K in general, though some of the studies above reached down to 2850K. This lacunae in the data is particularly important as it relates to almost all "lifestyle" environments in which lighting designers operate - hotels, restaurants and residential settings. Further evaluation of these areas would serve well, given the implications for recent learning on the health implications of light on the circadian rhythm.

Further studies
The Kruithof curve, as presented, does not contain experimental data points and serves as an approximation for desirable lighting conditions. Therefore, its scientific accuracy has been reassessed.

Color rendering index is a metric for describing the appearance of a source and whether or not it is considered pleasing. The color rendering index of a given source is a measure of that source's ability to faithfully reproduce colors of an object. Light sources, like candles or incandescent light bulbs produce spectrums of electromagnetic energy that closely resemble Planckian black bodies; they look much like natural sources. Many fluorescent lamps or LED light bulbs have spectrums that do not match those of Planckian blackbodies and are considered unnatural. Therefore, the way that they render the perceived colors of an environment may be also considered unnatural. While these newer sources can still achieve correlated color temperatures and illuminance levels that are within the comfortable region of the Kruithof curve, variability in their color rendering indices may cause these sources to ultimately be displeasing.

Different activities or scenarios call for different color temperature–illuminance pairs: preferred light sources change depending on the scenario the source is illuminating. Individuals did prefer color temperature–illuminance pairs within the comfortable region for dining, socializing and studying, but also preferred color temperature–illuminance pairs that were in the lower uncomfortable region for night time activities and preparing for bed. This is linked to the Purkinje effect; individuals who desire some light at night time desire lower (redder) color temperatures even if luminance levels are very low.

Kruithof's findings may also vary as a function of culture or geographic location. Desirable sources are based on an individual's previous experiences of perceiving color, and as different regions of the world may have their own lighting standards, each culture would likely have its own acceptable light sources.

The illuminance of a source is the dominating factor for deciding as to whether or not a source is pleasing or comfortable, as viewers participating in this experiment evaluated a range of correlated color temperatures and illuminance levels, yet their impressions remained generally unchanged as correlated color temperature changed. Additionally, there is a relationship between correlated color temperature and apparent brightness of a source. From these findings, it is evident that color rendering index, in place of correlated color temperature, may be a more appropriate metric for determining as to whether or not a certain source is considered pleasing.

title: Kruithof curve