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Robert W. Chambers

Robert William Chambers (May 26, 1865 – December 16, 1933) was an American artist and fiction writer, best known for his book of short stories titled The King in Yellow, published in 1895.

Early life
Chambers was born in Brooklyn, New York, to William P. Chambers (1827–1911), a corporate and bankruptcy lawyer, and Caroline Smith Boughton (1842–1913). His parents met when his mother was twelve years old and William P. was interning with her father, Joseph Boughton, a prominent corporate lawyer. Eventually the two formed the law firm of Chambers and Boughton which continued to prosper even after Joseph's death in 1861. Robert Chambers's great-grandfather, William Chambers (birth unknown), a lieutenant in the British Royal Navy, was married to Amelia Saunders (1765–1822), a great granddaughter of Tobias Saunders of Westerly, Rhode Island. The couple moved from Westerly to Greenfield, Massachusetts and then to Galway, New York, where their son, also William Chambers (1798–1874), was born. The second William graduated from Union College at the age of 18, and then went to a college in Boston, where he studied medicine. Upon graduating, he and his wife, Eliza P. Allen (1793–1880), a direct descendant of Roger Williams, the founder of Providence, Rhode Island, were among the first settlers of Broadalbin, New York. His brother was the architect Walter Boughton Chambers.

Chambers was first educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, and then entered the Art Students' League at around the age of twenty, where the artist Charles Dana Gibson was a fellow student. Chambers studied in Paris at the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Julian from 1886 to 1893, and his work was displayed at the Salon as early as 1889.

Career
On his return to New York, he succeeded in selling his illustrations to Life, Truth, and Vogue magazines. Then, for reasons unclear, he devoted his time to writing, producing his first novel, In the Quarter, written in 1887 in Munich. His most famous, and perhaps most meritorious, effort is The King in Yellow, a collection of Art Nouveau short stories published in 1895. This included several famous weird short stories which are connected by the theme of a fictitious drama of the same title, which drives those who read it insane. E. F. Bleiler described The King in Yellow as one of the most important works of American supernatural fiction. It was also strongly admired by H. P. Lovecraft and his circle.

Chambers returned to the weird genre in his later short story collections The Maker of Moons, The Mystery of Choice and The Tree of Heaven, but none earned him as much success as The King in Yellow. Some of Chambers's work contains elements of science fiction, such as In Search of the Unknown and Police!!!, about a zoologist who encounters monsters.

Chambers's main work of historical fiction was a series of novels set during the Franco-Prussian War. These novels were The Red Republic (1895, centring on the Paris Commune), Lorraine (1898), Ashes of Empire (1898) and Maids of Paradise (1903). Chambers wrote Special Messenger (1909), Ailsa Paige (1910) and Whistling Cat (1932), novels set during the American Civil War. Chambers also wrote Cardigan (1901), a historical novel for younger readers, set at the outbreak of the American Revolution. Chambers later turned to writing romantic fiction to earn a living. According to some estimates, Chambers had one of the most successful literary careers of his period, his later novels selling well and a handful achieving best-seller status. Chambers' romance novels often featured intimate relationships between "caddish" men and sexually willing women, resulting in some reviewers accusing Chambers' works of promoting immorality. Many of his works were also serialised in magazines.

His novel The Man They Hanged was about Captain Kidd, and argued that Kidd was not a pirate but had been made a scapegoat by the British government.

During World War I, Chambers wrote war adventure novels and war stories, some of which showed a strong return to his old weird style, such as "Marooned" in Barbarians (1917). After 1924 he devoted himself solely to writing historical fiction.

Chambers for several years made Broadalbin, New York, his summer home. Some of his novels touch upon colonial life in Broadalbin and Johnstown.

Personal life
On July 12, 1898, he married Elsa (Elsie) Vaughn Moller (1872–1939). They had a son, Robert Edward Stuart Chambers (1899–1955) (who sometimes used the name Robert Husted Chambers).

Death
Robert W. Chambers died on December 16, 1933, three days after undergoing intestinal surgery.

Criticism and legacy
H. P. Lovecraft said of Chambers in a letter to Clark Ashton Smith:

Despite Chambers's effective later abandonment of the weird supernatural tale, these early works are all that remained in print through most of the twentieth century, thanks to Lovecraft's inclusion of them in the critical study "Supernatural Horror in Literature".

Frederic Taber Cooper commented:

In an overview of Chambers' historical fiction, Wendy Bousfield stated that the historical novel Cardigan was "Chambers' most highly praised historical novel" during his lifetime. Bousfield also argued that much of Chambers' historical fiction was marred by poorly written characters and "insensitive humor at the expense of ethnic types". Bousfield also wrote that "Chambers' trivializing of human relationships is regrettable, since his recreation of period details of dress and daily life is vivid and historically accurate."

Critical studies of Chambers's horror and fantasy work include Lee Weinstein's essay in Supernatural Fiction Writers, Brian Stableford's essay in the St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers and a chapter in S. T. Joshi's book The Evolution of the Weird Tale (2004).

Chambers's novel The Tracer of Lost Persons was adapted into a long-running (1937–54) radio crime drama, Mr. Keen, Tracer of Lost Persons, by soap opera producers Frank and Anne Hummert.

Chambers's The King in Yellow has inspired many modern authors, including Karl Edward Wagner, Joseph S. Pulver, Lin Carter, James Blish, Nic Pizzolatto, Michael Cisco, Stephen King, Ann K. Schwader, Robert M. Price, Galad Elflandsson and Charles Stross.

Novels and story collections

 * In the Quarter (1894)
 * The King in Yellow (1895) – short stories
 * The Red Republic (1895)
 * The Maker of Moons (1896) – short stories
 * A King and A Few Dukes (1896)
 * With the Band (1896)
 * The Mystery of Choice (1897) – short stories
 * Lorraine (1898)
 * Ashes of Empire (1898)
 * The Haunts of Men (1898) – short stories
 * Outsiders (1899)
 * The Cambric Mask (1899)
 * The Conspirators (1899)
 * Cardigan (1901)
 * The Maid-at-Arms (1902)
 * The Maids of Paradise (1903)
 * In Search of the Unknown (1904)
 * A Young Man in a Hurry (1904) – short stories
 * The Reckoning (1905)
 * Iole (1905)
 * The Tracer of Lost Persons (1906)
 * The Fighting Chance (1906)
 * The Tree of Heaven (1907) – short stories
 * The Younger Set (1907)
 * Some Ladies in Haste (1908)
 * The Firing Line (1908)
 * Special Messenger (1909)
 * The Danger Mark (1909)
 * The Green Mouse (1910)
 * Ailsa Paige (1910)
 * The Common Law (1911)
 * The Adventures of a Modest Man (1911)
 * Blue-Bird Weather (1912)
 * The Streets of Ascalon (1912)
 * The Japonette (1912) – serialized in Cosmopolitan under the title The Turning Point
 * The Gay Rebellion (1913)
 * The Business of Life (1913)
 * Quick Action (1914)
 * The Hidden Children (1914)
 * Anne's Bridge (1914)
 * Between Friends (1914)
 * Who Goes There! (1915)
 * Athalie (1915)
 * Police!!! (1915) – short stories
 * The Girl Philippa (1916)
 * The Better Man (1916) – short stories
 * The Dark Star (1917)
 * Barbarians (1917)
 * The Laughing Girl (1918)
 * The Restless Sex (1918)
 * The Moonlit Way (1919)
 * In Secret (1919)
 * The Crimson Tide (1919)
 * A Story of Primitive Love (1920)
 * The Slayer of Souls (1920)
 * The Little Red Foot (1920)
 * Eris (1922)
 * The Flaming Jewel (1922)
 * The Talkers (1923)
 * The Hi-Jackers (1923)
 * America; or, The Sacrifice (1924)
 * The Mystery Lady (1925)
 * Marie Halkett (1925 UK, 1937 US)
 * The Girl in Golden Rags (1925 UK, 1936 US)
 * The Man They Hanged (1926)
 * The Drums of Aulone (1927)
 * The Gold Chase (1927)
 * The Sun Hawk (1928)
 * The Rogue's Moon (1928)
 * The Happy Parrot (1929)
 * The Painted Minx (1930)
 * The Rake and the Hussy (1930)
 * War Paint and Rouge (1931)
 * Gitana (1931)
 * Whistling Cat (1932)
 * Whatever Love Is (1933)
 * Secret Service Operator 13 (1934) – short stories published in Cosmopolitan between 1930 and 1932
 * The Young Man's Girl (1934) – serialized in The Delineator, 1933
 * Love and the Lieutenant (1935) – serialized in The Woman's Home Companion, 1934
 * Beating Wings (1936) – serialized in McCall's, 1927
 * The Fifth Horseman (1937) – serialized in McCall's, 1930
 * Smoke of Battle (1938) – this novel was possibly finished by Rupert Hughes.

Children's books

 * Outdoorland (1902) Illustrated by Reginald Bathurst Birch
 * Orchard-Land (1903) Illustrated by Reginald Bathurst Birch
 * River-Land (1904) Illustrated by Elizabeth S. Green
 * Forest-Land (1905) Illustrated by Emily Benson Knipe
 * Mountain-Land (1906) Illustrated by Frederick Richardson & Walter King Stone
 * Garden-Land (1907) Illustrated by Harrison Cady
 * The Happy Parrot (1931) Illustrated by Norman Price

Reprint collections

 * The King in Yellow and Other Horror Stories, edited by E. F. Bleiler, Dover 1970
 * The Yellow Sign and Other Stories, edited by S.T. Joshi, Chaosium 2004

Anthologies containing reprinted work by Robert W. Chambers

 * Sporting Blood: The Great Sports Detective Stories, edited by Ellery Queen, Little, Brown and Company 1942 – contains "The Purple Emperor"
 * Sleep No More, edited by August Derleth, Rinehart & Company 1944 – contains "The Yellow Sign"
 * The Faded Banners, edited by Eric Solomon, T. Yoseloff 1960 – contains "Pickets"
 * The Dark Descent, edited by David G. Hartwell, Tor 1987 – contains "The Repairer of Reputations"
 * The Horror Hall of Fame, edited by Robert Silverberg and Martin H. Greenberg, Carroll & Graf 1991 – contains "The Yellow Sign"
 * The Hastur Cycle, edited by Robert M. Price, Chaosium 1993 – contains "The Repairer of Reputations" and "The Yellow Sign"
 * Detection by Gaslight, edited by Douglas G. Greene, Dover Publications 1997 – contains "The Purple Emperor"
 * The Innsmouth Cycle, edited by Robert M. Price, Chaosium 1998 – contains "The Harbor-Master" (the first five chapters of In Search of the Unknown)
 * American Supernatural Tales, edited by S. T. Joshi, Penguin Classics 2007 – contains "The Yellow Sign"
 * The Tindalos Cycle, edited by Robert M. Price, Hippocampus Press 2010 – contains "The Maker of Moons"

Movies

 * The Reckoning (1908), silent short film adaptation of novel. Directed by D. W. Griffith
 * The Common Law (1916), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Albert Capellani
 * The Fighting Chance (1916 film) (1916), silent film adaptation of novel.
 * The Girl Philippa (1917), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by S. Rankin Drew
 * The Hidden Children (1917), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Oscar Apfel
 * The Fettered Woman (1917), silent film adaptation of Anne's Bridge. Directed by Tom Terriss
 * Who Goes There? (1917 film) (1917), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by William P. S. Earle
 * The Woman Between Friends (1918), silent film adaptation of Between Friends. Directed by Tom Terriss
 * The Business of Life (film) (1918), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Tom Terriss
 * The Danger Mark (1918), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Hugh Ford
 * The Girl of Today (1918), silent film adaptation of short story. Directed by John S. Robertson
 * The Cambric Mask (1919), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Tom Terriss
 * The Firing Line (1919), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Charles Maigne
 * The Dark Star (1919), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Allan Dwan
 * The Black Secret (1919), silent film serial adaptation of In Secret. Directed by George B. Seitz
 * Even as Eve (1920), silent film adaptation of short story "The Shining Band". Directed by Chester De Vonde and B. A. Rolfe
 * The Turning Point (1920), silent film adaptation of The Japonette. Directed by J. A. Barry
 * The Fighting Chance (1920), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Charles Maigne
 * The Restless Sex (1920), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by Leon D'Usseau and Robert Z. Leonard
 * Unseen Forces (1920), silent film adaptation of Athalie. Directed by Sidney A. Franklin
 * Cardigan (1922), silent film adaptation of novel. Screenplay by Chambers. Directed by John W. Noble
 * The Common Law (1923), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by George Archainbaud
 * America (1924), silent film adaptation of The Reckoning. Screenplay by Chambers. Directed by D. W. Griffith
 * Between Friends (1924), silent film adaptation of novel. Directed by J. Stuart Blackton
 * The Common Law (1931), film adaptation of novel. Directed by Paul L. Stein
 * Operator 13 (1934), film adaptation of short stories from Secret Service Operator 13. Directed by Richard Boleslawski
 * A Time Out of War (1954), short film adaptation of short story "Pickets". Directed by Denis Sanders
 * The Yellow Sign (2001), film adaptation of short story. Directed by Aaron Vanek

title: Robert W. Chambers


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Oil lamp

An oil lamp is a lamp used to produce light continuously for a period of time using an oil-based fuel source. The use of oil lamps began thousands of years ago and continues to this day, although their use is less common in modern times. They work in the same way as a candle but with fuel that is liquid at room temperature, so that a container for the oil is required. A textile wick drops down into the oil, and is lit at the end, burning the oil as it is drawn up the wick.

Oil lamps are a form of lighting, and were used as an alternative to candles before the use of electric lights. Starting in 1780, the Argand lamp quickly replaced other oil lamps still in their basic ancient form. These in turn were replaced by the kerosene lamp in about 1850. In small towns and rural areas the latter continued in use well into the 20th century, until such areas were finally electrified and light bulbs could be used.

Sources of fuel for oil lamps include a wide variety of plants such as nuts (walnuts, almonds and kukui) and seeds (sesame, olive, castor, or flax). Also widely used were animal fats (butter, ghee, fish oil, shark liver, whale blubber, or seal). Camphine, made of purified spirits of turpentine, and burning fluid, a mixture of turpentine and alcohol, were sold as lamp fuels starting in the 1830s as the whale oil industry declined. Burning fluid became more expensive during the Civil War when a federal tax on alcohol was reenacted. Sales of both camphene and burning fluid decreased in the late 1800s as other sources of lighting, such as kerosene made from petroleum, gas lighting and electric lighting, began to predominate.

Most modern lamps (such as fueled lanterns) have been replaced by gas-based or petroleum-based fuels to operate when emergency non-electric light is required. Oil lamps are currently used primarily for their ambience.

Components

The following are the main external parts of a terra-cotta lamp:
 * Shoulder
 * Pouring hole
 * The hole through which fuel is put inside the fuel chamber. The width generally ranges from 0.5 –. There may be one hole or multiple holes.

 * Wick hole and the nozzle
 * May be either an opening in the body of the lamp or an elongated nozzle. In some specific types of lamps, there is a groove on the top of the nozzle that runs along to the pouring hole to re-collect the oozing oil from the wick.

 * Handle
 * Lamps can come with a handle. The handle can come in different shapes. The most common is a ring-shaped for the forefinger surmounted by a palmette, on which the thumb is pressed to stabilize the lamp. Other handles can be crescent-shaped, triangular, or oval-shaped. The handleless lamps usually have an elongated nozzle, and sometimes have a lug rising diagonally from the periphery. The lug may act as a small handle where the thumb rests. Some lugs are pierced. It was speculated that pierced lugs were used to place a pen or straw, called the acus or festuca, with which the wick was trimmed. Others think that the pierced lugs were used to hang the lamp on a metal hook when not in use.

 * Discus
 * Fuel chamber
 * The fuel reservoir. The mean volume in a typical terra-cotta lamp is 20 cc.

Types
Lamps can be categorized based on different criteria, including material (clay, silver, bronze, gold, stone, slip), shape, structure, design, and imagery (e.g. symbolic, religious, mythological, erotic, battles, hunting).

Typologically, lamps of the Ancient Mediterranean can be divided into seven major categories:

 * Wheel-made: This category includes Greek and Egyptian lamps that date before the 3rd century BC. They are characterized by simplicity, with little or no decoration, a wide pour-hole, a lack of handles, and a pierced or unpierced lug. Pierced lugs occurred briefly between the 4th and 3rd century BC. Unpierced lugs continued until the 1st century BC.

 * Volute, Early Imperial: With spiral, scroll-like ornaments called volutes extending from their nozzles, these lamps were predominantly produced in Italy during the Early Roman period. They have a wide discus, a narrow shoulder, no handle, elaborate imagery and artistic finishing, and a wide range of patterns of decoration.

 * High Imperial: These lamps are late Roman. The shoulder is wider and the discus is smaller with fewer decorations. These lamps have handles, short, plain nozzles, and less artistic finishing.

 * Frog: This is a regional style lamp exclusively produced in Egypt and found in the regions around it, between c. 100 and 300 AD. The frog (Heqet) is an Egyptian fertility symbol.

 * African Red Slip: Lamps made in North Africa, but widely exported, decorated in a red slip. They date from the 2nd to the 7th century AD and comprise a wide variety of shapes including a flat, heavily decorated shoulder with a small and relatively shallow discus. Their decoration is either non-religious, Christian or Jewish. Grooves run from the nozzle back to the pouring hole. It is hypothesized that this is to take back spilled oil. These lamps often have more than one pour-hole.

 * Slipper: These lamps are oval-shaped and found mainly in the Levant. They were produced between the 3rd to 9th centuries AD. Decorations include vine scrolls, palm wreaths, and Greek letters.

 * Factory lamps: Also called Firmalampen, these are universal in distribution and simple in appearance. They have a channeled nozzle, plain discus, and two or three bumps on the shoulder. Initially made in factories in Northern Italy and Southern Gaul between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, they were exported to all Roman provinces. The vast majority were stamped on the bottom to identify the manufacturer.

Judaism

Lamps appear in the Torah and other Jewish sources as a symbol of "lighting" the way for the righteous, the wise, and for love and other positive values. While fire was often described as being destructive, light was given a positive spiritual meaning. The oil lamp and its light were important household items, and this may explain their symbolism. Oil lamps were used for many spiritual rituals. The oil lamp and its light also became important ritualistic articles with the further development of Jewish culture and religion. The Temple Menorah, a ritual seven-branched oil lamp used in the Second Temple, forms the centre of the Chanukah story.

Christianity

There are several references to oil lamps in the New Testament. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, and Eastern Catholic Churches oil lamps (kandili, lampada) are still used both on the Holy Table (altar) and to illuminate icons on the iconostasis and around the temple (church building). Orthodox Christians will also use oil lamps in their homes to illuminate their icon corner. Traditionally, the sanctuary lamp in an Orthodox church is an oil lamp. It is lit by the bishop when the church is consecrated, and ideally it should burn perpetually thereafter. The oil burned in all of these lamps is traditionally olive oil. Oil lamps are also referenced as a symbol throughout the New Testament, including in the Parable of the Ten Virgins.

Hinduism

Oil lamps are commonly used in Hindu temples as well as in home shrines. Generally the lamps used in temples are circular with places for five wicks. They are made of metal and either suspended on a chain or screwed onto a pedestal. There will usually be at least one lamp in each shrine, and the main shrine may contain several. Usually only one wick is lit, with all five burning only on festive occasions. The oil lamp is used in the Hindu ritual of Aarti.

In the home shrine, the style of lamp is usually different, containing only one wick. There is usually a piece of metal that forms the back of the lamp, which has a picture of a Hindu deity embossed on it. In many houses, the lamp burns all day, but in other homes, it is lit at sundown. The lamp in the home shrine is supposed to be lit before any other lights are turned on at night.

A hand-held oil lamp or incense sticks (lit from the lamp) are also used during the Hindu puja ceremony. In the North of India, a five-wick lamp is used, usually fueled with ghee. On special occasions, various other lamps may be used for puja, the most elaborate having several tiers of wicks.

In South India, there are a few types of oil lamps that are common in temples and traditional rituals. Some of the smaller ones are used for offerings as well.
 * Deepalakshmi: A brass lamp with a depiction of goddess Sri Lakshmi over the back piece. They are usually small and have only one wick.
 * Nilavilakku: A tall brass or bronze lamp on a stand where the wicks are placed at a certain height.
 * Paavai vilakku: A brass or bronze lamp in the form of a lady holding a vessel with her hands. This type of lamp comes in different sizes, from very small to almost life-size. There are also large stone versions of this lamp in Hindu temples and shrines of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, especially at the base of columns and flanking the entrance of temples. They have only one wick.
 * Thooku vilakku: A brass or bronze lamp hanging from a chain, often with multiple wicks.
 * Nachiarkoil lamp: An ornamental brass lamp made of series of diyas, a handicraft product which is exclusively made by the Pather (Kammalar) community in Nachiyar Koil, Tamil Nadu, India.

Chinese
Oil lamps are lit at traditional Chinese shrines before either an image of a deity or a plaque with Classical Chinese characters giving the name of the deity. Such lamps are usually made from clear glass (giving them a similar appearance to normal drinking glasses) and are filled with oil, sometimes with water underneath. A cork or plastic floater containing a wick is placed on top of the oil with the bottom of the wick submerged in the oil.

Such lamps are kept burning in shrines, whether private or public, and incense sticks or joss sticks are lit from the lamp.

History
Curved stone lamps were found in places dated to the 10th millennium BC (Mesolithic, Middle Stone Age Period, c. 10,300–8000 BC). The oldest stone-oil lamp was found in Lascaux in 1940 in a cave that was inhabited 10,000 to 15,000 years ago.

Some archaeologists claim that the first shell-lamps existed more than 6,000 years ago (Neolithic, Later Stone Age, c. 8500–4500 BC). They believe that the alabaster shell-shaped lamps dug up in Sumerian sites dating to 2600 BC were imitations of real shell-lamps that had been used for a long time (Early Bronze Age, Canaanite/Bronze I–IV, c. 3300–2000 BC).

It is generally agreed that the evolution of handmade lamps moved from bowl-shaped to saucer-shaped, then from saucer with a nozzle, to a closed bowl with a spout.

Chalcolithic Age (4500–3300 BC)
The first manufactured red pottery oil lamps appeared in the Chalcolithic. These were of the round bowl type.

Bronze Age (3200–1200 BC)
Bronze Age lamps were simple wheel-made bowls with a slight pinch on four sides for the wick. Later lamps had only one pinch. These lamps vary in the shape of the rim, the general shape of the bowl and the shape of the base.

Intermediate Bronze Age (EBIV/MBI)
A design with four spouts for wicks appeared in the Intermediate Bronze Age (2300-2000 BC). Lamps are made from large bowls with flattened bases for stability, and four equally spaced shallow pinches in the rim for wicks, although some lamps with only a single pinch have also been found. The four-spout design evolved to provide sufficient light when fueled with fish or animal oils, which burn less efficiently than olive oil.

Middle Bronze Age lamps (MB)
The four-wick oil lamps persist into this period. However, most lamps now have only one wick. Early in this period the pinch is shallow, while later on it becomes more prominent and the mouth protrudes from the lamp's body. The bases are simple and flat. The crude potter's wheel is introduced, transforming the handmade bowls to a more uniform container. The saucer style evolves into a single spout shape.

Late Bronze Age lamps (LB)
A more pronounced, deeper single spout is developed, and it is almost closed on the sides. The shape is evolving to be more triangular, deeper and larger. All lamps are now wheel-made, with simple and usually flat bases.

Iron Age (1200–560 BC)
During the Iron Age, lamp rims become wider and flatter, with a deeper and higher spout. The tip of the spout is more upright in contrast to the rest of the rim. The lamps are becoming variable in shape and distribution, although some remain similar to lamps from the Late Bronze period. In addition, other forms evolve, such as small lamps with a flat base and larger lamps with a round base. The later form continues into the Iron Age II.

In the later Iron Age, variant forms appear. One common type is small, with a wide rim and a wide base. Another type is a small, shallow bowl with a thick and high discus base.

Arctic

The qulliq (seal-oil lamp) provided warmth and light in the harsh Arctic environment where there was no wood and where the sparse population relied almost entirely on seal oil. This lamp was the most important article of furniture for the Inuit, Yupik and other Inuit peoples.

The lamps were made of stone and their sizes and shapes of lamps could be different, but mostly were elliptical or half-moon shaped. The wicks were mostly made of dried moss or cottongrass and were lit along the edge of the lamp. A slab of seal blubber could be left to melt over the lamp feeding it with more fat.

Persian
Persian lamps were large, with thin sides and a deep pinch that flattens the mouth and makes it protrude outward.

Greek
Greek lamps are more closed to avoid spilling. They are smaller and more refined. Most are handle-less. Some are with a lug, which may be pierced or not pierced. The nozzle is elongated. The rim is folded over so it overlaps in order to make the nozzle, and is then pinched to make the wick hole.

They are round in shape and wheel-made.

Chinese
The earliest Chinese oil lamps are dated from the Warring States period (481–221 BC). The ancient Chinese created oil lamps with a refillable reservoir and a fibrous wick, giving the lamp a controlled flame. Lamps were constructed from jade, bronze, ceramic, wood, stone, and other materials. The largest oil lamp excavated so far is one discovered in a 4th-century tomb located in modern Pingshan, Hebei.

Early Roman

Production of oil lamps shifted to Italy as the main source of supply in the Early Roman era. Molds began to be used, and lamps were produced in large scale in factories. All lamps are closed in type. The lamp is produced in two parts, the upper part with the spout and the lower part with the fuel chamber. Most are of the characteristic "Imperial Type"—round, with nozzles of different forms (volute, semi-volute, U-shaped), a closed body, a central disk decorated with reliefs and a filling hole.

Late Roman
Late Roman lamps were of the "High Imperial" type. They included more decorations, and were produced locally or imported in large scale. The multiple-nozzled lamps appeared during this period. Many different varieties were created.

Frog type lamps also appeared during this period. These are kidney-shaped, heart-shaped or oval, and feature the motif of a frog or its abstraction, and sometimes geometrical motifs. They were produced around 100 AD. They are so variant that two identical lamps are seldom found.

Late Middle Age
Early Christian and late antique oil lamps were diverse. One of the most notable ones were Mediterranean sigillata (“African”) lamps. The motifs were largely geometric, vegetative and graphic (monograms), with figural depiction of animals and human figures, often Christ. Those depicting Christ or the Chi Rho often categorized as Hayes Type II.

Byzantine
Oil lanterns of the Byzantine were slipper-shaped and highly decorative. The multiple-nozzle design continued and most lamps bore handles. Some have complex exteriors.

Early Islamic

There is a transition period from Byzantine to Islamic lamps. The decoration on lamps of this transition period changed from crosses, animals, human likenesses, birds, or fish to plain linear, geometric, and raised-dot patterns.

The early Islamic lamps continued the traditions of Byzantine lamps. Decorations were initially a stylized form of a bird, grain, tree, plant, or flower. Later, they became entirely geometric or linear with raised dots.

An early description of the kerosene lamp comes from 9th-century Baghdad by al-Razi (Rhazes). He referred to it as the naffatah in his Kitab al-Asrar ('Book of Secrets').

In the transition period, some lamps had Arabic writing. Writing later disappears until the Mamluk period (13th to 15th century AD).

Industrial age
Oil burning carriage lamps provided a model for the first bicycle lamps in the 1860s.

Land of Israel/Palestine region

 * Jerusalem oil lamp: The clay has a characteristic black color because it was burned without oxygen. Usually of high quality.
 * Daroma oil lamp
 * Jerash oil lamp
 * Nabatean oil lamp
 * Herodian oil lamp: Considered to be used mainly by Jews. Wheel-made, rounded, and have a nozzle with concave sides. The lamps are usually not decorated; if there is decoration, it tends to be simple. Very common throughout all of Palestine, and some lamps have also been found in Jordan. Date from the 1st century BC to the end of the 1st century AD.
 * Menorah oil lamp, seven nozzles: Rare and are associated with Judaism because of the numerical connection with the seven branches or arms of the Menorah.
 * Samaritan oil lamp: Characterized by a sealed filling hole, which was to be broken by the buyer. This was probably done to ensure ritual purity. They have a wider spout, and the concavities flanking the nozzle are almost always emphasized with a ladder pattern band. In general, the lamps are uncoated. The decorations are linear or geometric.
 * Type I: A distinct channel runs from the pouring hole to the nozzle. They have a small knob handle, a ladder pattern around the nozzle and no ornamentation on the bottom of the base.
 * Type II: Pear-shaped and elongated, with a lined channel that extends from the filling hole to the nozzle. Continued to be used up to the early Muslim period.
 * Candle Stick oil lamp: Menorah design on the nozzle and bunch of grapes on the shoulders.
 * Byzantine oil lamp: The upper parts and their handles are covered with braided patterns. All are made of a dark orange-red clay. A rounded bottom with a distinct X or cross appears inside the circled base.
 * Early Islamic oil lamp: Large knob handle and the channel above the nozzle are the dominant elements of these. The handle is tongue-shaped, and decoration is rich and elegant. The lower parts are extremely broad and the nozzles are pointed.

India

In Vedic times, fire was kept alive in every household in some form and carried with oneself while migrating to new locations. Later, the presence of fire in the household or a religious building was ensured by an oil lamp. Over the years various rituals and customs were woven around an oil lamp.

For Deep Daan, the gift of a lamp was and still is believed to be the best daan ('donation'). During marriages, spinsters of the household stand behind the bride and groom, holding an oil lamp to ward off evil. The presence of an oil lamp is an important aspect of ritual worship (the Shodashopachar Puja) offered to a deity. Moreover, a day is kept aside for the worship of the lamp in the busy festival calendar, on one amavasya (moonless) day in the month of Shravan. This reverence for the deep is based on the symbolism of the journey from darkness and ignorance to light and the knowledge of the ultimate reality – "tamaso ma jyotirgamaya".

Earlier lamps were made out of stone or seashells. The shape was like a circular bowl with a protruding beak. Later, they were replaced by earthen and metal lamps. In the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, there are references to gold and silver lamps as well. The simple shape evolved and the lamps were created in the shapes of the matsya ('fish'), kurma ('tortoise') and other incarnations of god Vishnu. Lamps were also created in the shape of the many emblems of gods, like conch shells or lotuses. Birds such as swans, peacocks, or parrots, and animals like snakes, lions, elephants and horses were also favorites when decorating a lamp. For lighting multiple lamps, wooden and stone deepastambhas ('towers of light') were created.

Erecting a deepastambha in front of a temple is still a general practice in western and southern India. In some of the South Indian temples, raised brass lamp towers called Kamba Vilakku can be seen. To adapt the design to households and smaller spaces, the deepavriksha ('tree of light') was created. As the name suggests, it is a metal lamp container with curvi-linear lines branching out from the base, each holding a lamp. The Deepalakshmi is another common design, where the goddess Lakshmi holds the lamp in her hands. Kuthuvilakku is another typical lamp traditionally used for household purposes in South India.

Oil lamps also were included in proverbs. For example, a Bradj (pre-Hindi) proverb says, "Chiraag tale andhera", 'the [utmost] darkness is under the oil-lamp (chiraag)', meaning that what you seek could be close but unnoticed (right under your nose or feet), in various senses (a lamp's container casts a strong shadow).

Tax
When the Big Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, was built 1010 AD, there were elaborate measures taken to provide lighting for the temple. Lands were donated to or conquered for the temple for this sole objective. The income from these lands would go towards providing the oil for the lights.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Oil lamp


text:
USS Connecticut

USS Connecticut may refer to the following ships that were operated by the United States:

 * USS Connecticut (1776) was a gundalow that served with the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War
 * USS Connecticut (1799) served during the Quasi-War
 * USS Connecticut (1861) was a sidewheel steamer launched in 1861 and in service during the American Civil War
 * USS Pompanoosuc, a screw steamer whose building began in 1863, was renamed Connecticut on 15 May 1869, but never launched; broken up in 1884
 * USS Connecticut (1899) was a monitor renamed during construction and commissioned as USS Nevada
 * USS Connecticut (BB-18) was a Connecticut-class battleship, flagship of the Great White Fleet and saw action during World War I
 * USS Connecticut (SSN-22) is the second Seawolf-class submarine currently in service

title: USS Connecticut


text:
Talk:Syringe

Ok
Ok then when or where syringe is used? To me, the article is too context-dependent. -- Taku 01:18 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

A syringe is a syringe no matter where you use it. If you are using it in surgery, it is a syringe. If you are using it in the kitchen, it is a syringe. If you are using it to apply glue, it is a syringe.

Indeed; it would be clutter to link to medicine, and cooking, and recreational drug use, and artificial insemination'', etc. It would be downright misleading to link it to surgery, because an injection is not a surgical procedure.

Ok how about what article we should put at see also of this article? I am not advocating something I just try to make context more clear. Please give me more constructive advice. I will appreciate. -- Taku 01:28 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

There is no need for any 'see also' link of any kind.

 * how about 'see also' useful tools invented by humans ?

"See also" is a useful technique to impose tied connections into wikipedia sturcture. To explain Syringe, I don't think see also is necessary but "see also" provides convinient paths to other articles. Don't you imagine any kind of articles that readers of this article might want to head for? -- Taku 01:40 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

If Taku is confused, then the article should be fixed so he is not. Articles should be accessible to people with little knowledge of the subject (if there are exceptions, it should be terms that are only of interest to specialists, but a syringe is surely not one). I see no reason why not to have a paragraph describing the various uses of a syringe, which would be more informative than a see also. Tuf-Kat

Sorry, writing this comment here so I can keep myself from defacing the article. For some reason I think it would be really funny to add a big section on turkey basters.65.87.167.22 02:51, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

I would like to see a bit of amplification of the so called "dental syringe". I recollect that in the mid 60's these syringes with prefilled capsules had a common name (not in the actual article) and were in common use in hospitals (at least in Australia) particularly for analgesics. In my experience they fell out of favour for general use bust seem to have hung on in the dental field to the point that they are still commonly used in 2015. The injected product was contained in a glass cylinder with a rubber stopper at one end which was punctured as one depressed the main handle. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.228.173.154 (talk) 11:29, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

Images
I uploaded this hypodermic syringe to have a more sightly picture for the MKULTRA article, but it didn't last an hour there. It might be interesting here if we expand the text a bit. -- ke4roh 14:04, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

I think we need to mention retractable syringes and probably create a seperate article. Retractable syringes are constantly being hailed as the solution to several problems (needle stick injury, disease transmission) but have yet to become a commercial success. xaviergisz 6 June, 2006

formatting (images and white space)
I noticed that you removed my edits. Sorry if my format editing was intrusive. The reason I moved the images to the upper section (where there was a list, nothing was deleted) is because the article will automatically format for all sizes of computer screens. I have a larger display, so there was white space created in the middle of the article when viewed from that perspective. Perhaps my changes looked arbitary to you depending on how your display might have shown it. Most people do not object if an image for a section is not immediately adjacent to the text in a particular section, and it solves the untentional white space issue. Again, sorry for the inconvenience. mbbradfor d 16:42, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

Remove injections in nature

 * I think this section is just trivial, and the article would be improved overall if it were just removed. Any objections?      mbbradfor d  20:55, 5 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Leave it in. It is relevant to the topic of injections. Anthony Appleyard 09:50, 6 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I wont take it out then. But the topic is syringe, not injections.  Bees do not use syringes!     mbbradfor d  17:08, 6 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I have moved it to Injection (medicine). Anthony Appleyard 19:19, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

Auto Disable
The story of Auto Disable syringes is missing from this article. ref: Marc Koska and his company Star Syringe. Johnalexwood (talk) 07:35, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

"hypodermic"
I just put a fact on this:

 * ===Governmental control of syringes===
 * In some jurisdictions, the sale or possession of hypodermic syringes may be controlled or prohibited without a prescription, due to its potential use with illegal intravenous drugs.

And do these laws restrict syringes without needles, syringes with needles, or just needles?

But before I made that edit, I was really thinking about the use of "hypodermic" in this article. Assuming it's from Greek and means "under the skin", is it correct to refer to syringes as hypodermic?

(A little bit of research with Google shows the term "hypodermic syringe" might be correct (from "hypodermis"), in which case the term should be in the intro (and explained as well).)—Dah31 (talk) 02:44, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

How to contribute an image of a glass (reusable) syringe?
Hey all, I have a few reusable syringes from DDR (East Germany). Should I snap a picture and upload it? What's the procedure with this stuff? Please help me help the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Blind cyclist (talk • contribs) 18:32, 7 January 2010 (UTC)

What is...
What is the drug containing thing above the syringes in the third picture down? The ones that you stick the needle in and pull back the plunger to get the drug in. I think it is relevant enough to mention it and link its page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.252.244.58 (talk) 21:58, 4 May 2011 (UTC)

Link Rot
Hello, just thought that I would bring up that the first source "^ "Pediatric Oncall-Insulin Delivery-Injection". Pediatriconcall.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30." has suffered from link rot. Apologies if this is not the proper venue for this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.145.59.235 (talk) 13:40, 29 June 2011 (UTC)

Possible false claim about overdose fatality
The historical timeline claims that Woods' wife became the first fatality of hypodermic needle overdose. However the article about Alexander Wood disputes this: "There is a story in circulation that Wood's wife, Rebecca Massey, was the first known intravenous morphine addict and died of an overdose delivered by her husband's invention, however, Richard Davenport-Hines states that, 'It is a myth: she outlived him, and survived until 1894." Richard Davenport-Hines (2003). The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics. W.W. Norton. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-393-32545-4. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bokskar (talk • contribs) 04:43, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

Spelling error in the greek???
192.102.11.41 (talk) 19:20, 5 December 2013 (UTC)
 * In the etymology of the word, "("σύριγγες", syringes)" is mentioned, but it seems to me the Greek is spelled wrong, it should perhaps be "σύριγλες" but I'm not certain enough to actually change it.
 * It is σύριγγες. Look in Liddell and Scott's dictionary. Anthony Appleyard (talk) 12:23, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

Blade?
Syringes come with a number of designs for the area in which the blade locks to the syringe body.
 * Is that term really used? I didn't find any source for it. Prevalence  02:58, 5 May 2016 (UTC)

Infusion set
what it means 154.160.0.40 (talk) 19:15, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Syringe


text:
Malcolm Williamson

Malcolm Benjamin Graham Christopher Williamson, (21 November 1931 – 2 March 2003) was an Australian composer. He was the Master of the Queen's Music from 1975 until his death. According to Grove Music Online, although Williamson's earlier compositions aligned with Serialist techniques, "he later modified his approach to composition in the search of a more inclusive musical language that was fundamentally tonal and, above all, lyrical. In the 1960s, he was commonly referred to as the most often commissioned composer in Britain, and over his lifetime he produced more than 250 works in a wide variety of genres."

Life and career
Williamson was born in Sydney in 1931; his father was an Anglican priest, Rev. George Williamson. He studied composition and horn at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. His teachers included Eugene Goossens. In 1950 he moved to London where he worked as an organist, a proofreader, and a nightclub pianist. In 1952 he converted to Roman Catholicism. From 1953 he studied with Elisabeth Lutyens and Erwin Stein. His first major success was with his Piano Concerto No. 1, premiered by Clive Lythgoe at the 1958 Cheltenham Festival to a standing ovation. Williamson was a prolific composer at this time, receiving many commissions and often performing his own works, both on organ and piano.

In 1975, the death of Arthur Bliss left the title of Master of the Queen's Music vacant. The selection of Williamson to fill this post was a surprise, over other composers such as Benjamin Britten (whose compositional inactivity and terminal illness were not then publicly known), Michael Tippett and Malcolm Arnold, such that William Walton had remarked that "the wrong Malcolm" had been chosen. In addition, Williamson was the first non-Briton to hold the post. He wrote a number of pieces connected to his royal post, including Mass of Christ the King (1978) (see below) and Lament in Memory of Lord Mountbatten of Burma (1980). However, controversy attended his tenure, notably his failure to complete the intended "Jubilee Symphony" for the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977. He became less prolific in "Royal" works during the last twenty years or so of his life, although he never completely ceased to take interest in writing music for the Royal Family (see list of Royal works below). His overall compositional output slowed considerably due to a series of illnesses. He died in 2003 in a hospital in Cambridge. He was widely reported to have been an alcoholic.

Williamson married an American, Dolores "Dolly" Daniel, in 1960 and they had one son and two daughters.

Williamson had a number of relationships with both sexes, both before and after his marriage. After his marriage broke down in the 1970s, “a deep relationship with musician and publisher Simon Campion helped sustain him through the inevitably stormy periods, both in Australia and in England, that characterised the final stages of his career.”

He had a series of strokes that left him needing a wheelchair, and he spent his final months in hospital. His funeral was not attended by any representatives of the Royal Family.

Music
Some of Williamson's early works use the twelve-tone technique of Arnold Schoenberg, but his greatest influence is often said to be Olivier Messiaen. He discovered Messiaen's music shortly before converting to Roman Catholicism in 1952. He was also influenced by Benjamin Britten, as well as by jazz and popular music (this latter influence may have come in part from him working as a night club pianist in the 1950s).

Williamson wrote seven symphonies; four numbered piano concertos (plus the Concerto for Two Pianos and Strings, the Concerto for Two Pianos and Wind Quintet, after Alan Rawsthorne, and the Sinfonia Concertante), concertos for violin, organ, harp and saxophone; and many other orchestral works. He wrote ballets, including Sun into Darkness and The Display, many effective choral works, chamber music, music for solo piano, and music for film and television including the prologue and main title of Watership Down. His operas include English Eccentrics, to a libretto by Edith Sitwell; Our Man in Havana, after the novel by Graham Greene; The Violins of Saint-Jacques, from Patrick Leigh Fermor's novel; and two adaptations of plays by August Strindberg, Lucky Peter's Journey after Lycko-Pers resa, and The Growing Castle after A Dream Play. Williamson's music for children includes the operas The Happy Prince (based on the story by Oscar Wilde) and Julius Caesar Jones as well as cassations, which are short operas with audience participation. The cassation The Valley and the Hill was written for the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 and performed by 18,000 children.

The composer's largest choral work, his Mass of Christ the King, was commissioned by the Three Choirs Festival, also for the 1977 jubilee. It attracted attention partly because Williamson delivered it late. Scored for two sopranos, tenor, baritone; soprano, alto, tenor, bass (henceforth SATB) chorus; SATB echo choir; and large orchestra, the work received several performances over a few years, including a live BBC broadcast in 1981, but has more recently been overlooked. A recording of a performance at the Perth Festival 1981 can be found on YouTube.

Williamson became generally much less prolific in later life, although he had some very busy years. For example, in 1988 Williamson wrote a large-scale choral-orchestral work The True Endeavour, the orchestral Bicentennial Anthem, the Fanfare of Homage for military band, a ballet Have Steps Will Travel for John Alleyne and the National Ballet of Canada, Ceremony for Oodgeroo (Oodgeroo Noonuccal, formerly known as Kath Walker) for brass quintet, and also commenced work on a substantial new choral-symphony The Dawn is at Hand (to texts by Kath Walker), completed and performed in Australia the following year. Other works include the Requiem for a Tribe Brother (another Australian work, completed in 1992), a third string quartet (1993), a fourth piano concerto (1994, for Marguerite Wolff ) and a symphony for solo harp, Day That I Have Loved (1994). The orchestral song cycle on texts by Iris Murdoch, A Year of Birds, premiered at The Proms in 1995. The same year also saw the premiere of an orchestral work With Proud Thanksgiving, commissioned for the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, and dedicated to the memory of Williamson's long-time friend, the UK Prime Minister Harold Wilson.

At the funeral of Queen Elizabeth II, held on Monday, 19 September 2022, mourners filed into Westminster Abbey to 'O Paradise' by Williamson.

Honours
Williamson was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1976, and an honorary Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) in 1987. Honorary awards of the Order of Australia are made only to people who are not citizens of Australia. It is not clear why Williamson did not qualify for a substantive award, as there appears to be nothing on the public record to suggest he ever relinquished his Australian citizenship. The citation for the award read "For service to music and the mentally handicapped". He was the first Master of the Queen's Music in over a century not to be knighted.

title: Malcolm Williamson


text:
USS Georgia

Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Georgia in honor of the fourth state.

 * USS Georgia (BB-15), a Virginia-class battleship, provided training and convoy escort services during World War I, and became a transport to bring troops home after the war ended
 * USS Georgia (SSGN-729), the fourth Ohio-class submarine, no longer serves as a ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), but has been converted into a guided missile submarine (SSGN).
 * USS State of Georgia (1851), an American Civil War gunboat steamer of the Union Navy

title: USS Georgia


text:
Bioethics

Bioethics is both a field of study and professional practice, interested in ethical issues related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes animal ethics), including those emerging from advances in biology, medicine, and technologies. It proposes the discussion about moral discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or "bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy and practice, but also to broader questions as environment, well-being and public health. Bioethics is concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, theology and philosophy. It includes the study of values relating to primary care, other branches of medicine ("the ethics of the ordinary"), ethical education in science, animal, and environmental ethics, and public health.

Etymology
The term bioethics (Greek, "life"; , "moral nature, behavior" ) was coined in 1927 by Fritz Jahr in an article about a "bioethical imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research. In 1970, the American biochemist, and oncologist Van Rensselaer Potter used the term to describe the relationship between the biosphere and a growing human population. Potter's work laid the foundation for global ethics, a discipline centered around the link between biology, ecology, medicine, and human values. Sargent Shriver, the spouse of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, claimed that he had invented the term "bioethics" in the living room of his home in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1970. He stated that he thought of the word after returning from a discussion earlier that evening at Georgetown University, where he discussed with others a possible Kennedy family sponsorship of an institute focused around the "application of moral philosophy to concrete medical dilemmas".

Purpose and scope
The discipline of bioethics has addressed a wide swathe of human inquiry; ranging from debates over the boundaries of lifestyles (e.g. abortion, euthanasia), surrogacy, the allocation of scarce health care resources (e.g. organ donation, health care rationing), to the right to refuse medical care for religious or cultural reasons. Bioethicists disagree among themselves over the precise limits of their discipline, debating whether the field should concern itself with the ethical evaluation of all questions involving biology and medicine, or only a subset of these questions. Some bioethicists would narrow ethical evaluation only to the morality of medical treatments or technological innovations, and the timing of medical treatment of humans. Others would increase the scope of moral assessment to encompass the morality of all moves that would possibly assist or damage organisms successful of feeling fear.

The scope of bioethics has evolved past mere biotechnology to include topics such as cloning, gene therapy, life extension, human genetic engineering, astroethics and life in space, and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, XNA and proteins. These (and other) developments may affect future evolution and require new principles that address life at its core, such as biotic ethics that values life itself at its basic biological processes and structures, and seeks their propagation. Moving beyond the biological, issues raised in public health such as vaccination and resource allocation have also encouraged the development of novel ethics frameworks to address such challenges. A study published in 2022 based on the corpus of full papers from eight main bioethics journals demonstrated the heterogeneity of this field by distinguishing 91 topics that have been discussed in these journals over the past half a century.

Principles
One of the first areas addressed by modern bioethicists was human experimentation. According to the Declaration of Helsinki published by the World Medical Association, the essential principles in medical research involving human subjects are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. The autonomy of individuals to make decisions while assuming responsibility for them and respecting the autonomy of others ought to be respected. For people unable to exercise their autonomy, special measures ought to be taken to protect their rights and interests.

In US, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was initially established in 1974 to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. However, the fundamental principles announced in the Belmont Report (1979)—namely, respect for persons, beneficence and justice—have influenced the thinking of bioethicists across a wide range of issues. Others have added non-maleficence, human dignity, and the sanctity of life to this list of cardinal values. Overall, the Belmont Report has guided lookup in a course centered on defending prone topics as properly as pushing for transparency between the researcher and the subject. Research has flourished within the past 40 years and due to the advance in technology, it is thought that human subjects have outgrown the Belmont Report, and the need for revision is desired.

Another essential precept of bioethics is its placement of cost on dialogue and presentation. Numerous dialogue based bioethics organizations exist in universities throughout the United States to champion precisely such goals. Examples include the Ohio State Bioethics Society and the Bioethics Society of Cornell. Professional level versions of these organizations also exist.

Many bioethicists, in particular scientific scholars, accord the easiest precedence to autonomy. They trust that every affected person ought to decide which direction of motion they think about most in line with their beliefs. In other words, the patient should always have the freedom to choose their own treatment.

Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a utilized department of ethics that analyzes the exercise of clinical medicinal drug and associated scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values. These values consist of the appreciation for autonomy, beneficence, and justice.

Ethics affects medical decisions made by healthcare providers and patients. Medical ethics is the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. The four main moral commitments are respect for autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. Using these four principles and thinking about what the physicians' specific concern is for their scope of practice can help physicians make moral decisions. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.

Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as applied professional ethics; whereas bioethics has a more expansive application, touching upon the philosophy of science and issues of biotechnology. The two fields often overlap, and the distinction is more so a matter of style than professional consensus. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of healthcare ethics, such as nursing ethics. A bioethicist assists the health care and research community in examining moral issues involved in our understanding of life and death, and resolving ethical dilemmas in medicine and science. Examples of this would be the topic of equality in medicine, the intersection of cultural practices and medical care, ethical distribution of healthcare resources in pandemics, and issues of bioterrorism.

Medical ethical concerns frequently touch on matters of life and death. Patient rights, informed consent, confidentiality, competency, advance directives, carelessness, and many other topics are highlighted as serious health concerns.

The proper actions to take in light of all the circumstances are what ethics is all about. It discusses the difference between what is proper and wrong at a certain moment and a particular society. Medical ethics is concerned with the duties that doctors, hospitals, and other healthcare providers have to patients, society, and other health professionals.

The health profession has a set of ethical standards that are relevant to various organizations of health workers and medical facilities. Ethics are never stagnant and always relevant. What is seen as acceptable ethics now may not be so one hundred years ago. The hospital administrator is required to have a thorough awareness of their moral and legal obligations.

Medical sociology
The practice of bioethics in clinical care have been studied by medical sociology. Many scholars consider that bioethics arose in response to a perceived lack of accountability in medical care in the 1970s. Studying the clinical practice of ethics in medical care, Hauschildt and Vries found that ethical questions were often reframed as clinical judgments to allow clinicians to make decisions. Ethicists most often put key decisions in the hands of physicians rather than patients.

Communication strategies suggested by ethicists act to decrease patient autonomy. Examples include, clinicians discussing treatment options with one another prior to talking to patients or their family to present a united front limited patient autonomy, hiding uncertainty amongst clinicians. Decisions about overarching goals of treatment were reframed as technical matters excluding patients and their families. Palliative care experts were used as intermediaries to guide patients towards less invasive end-of-live treatment. In their study, Hauschild and Vries found that 76% of ethical consultants were trained as clinicians.

Studying informed consent, Corrigan found that some social processes resulted in limitations to patients choice, but also at times patients could find questions regarding consent to medical trials burdensome.

The most prevalent subject is how social stratification (based on SES, gender, class, ethnicity, and age) affects patterns of behavior related to health and sickness, illness risk, disability, and other outcomes related to health care. The study of health care organization and provision, which encompasses the evolving organizational structures of health care organizations and the social psychology of health and health care, is another important approach. These latter research cover topics including connections between doctors and patients, coping mechanisms, and social support. The description of other important fields of medical sociology study emphasizes how theory and research have changed in the twenty-first century.

Perspectives and methodology
Bioethicists come from a wide variety of backgrounds and have training in a diverse array of disciplines. The field contains individuals trained in philosophy such as Baruch Brody of Rice University, Julian Savulescu of the University of Oxford, Arthur Caplan of NYU, Peter Singer of Princeton University, Frances Kamm of Rutgers University, Daniel Callahan of the Hastings Center, and Daniel Brock of Harvard University; medically trained clinician ethicists such as Mark Siegler of the University of Chicago and Joseph Fins of Cornell University; lawyers such as Nancy Dubler of Albert Einstein College of Medicine or Jerry Menikoff of the federal Office for Human Research Protections; political scientists like Francis Fukuyama; religious studies scholars including James Childress; and theologians like Lisa Sowle Cahill and Stanley Hauerwas.

The field, formerly dominated by formally trained philosophers, has become increasingly interdisciplinary, with some critics even claiming that the methods of analytic philosophy have harmed the field's development. Leading journals in the field include The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, the Hastings Center Report, the American Journal of Bioethics, the Journal of Medical Ethics, Bioethics, the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, Public Health Ethics, and the Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. Bioethics has also benefited from the process philosophy developed by Alfred North Whitehead.

Another discipline that discusses bioethics is the field of feminism; the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has played an important role in organizing and legitimizing feminist work in bioethics.

Many religious communities have their histories of inquiry into bioethical issues and have developed rules and guidelines on how to deal with these issues from within the viewpoint of their respective faiths. The Jewish, Christian and Muslim faiths have each developed a considerable body of literature on these matters. In the case of many non-Western cultures, a strict separation of religion from philosophy does not exist. In many Asian cultures, for example, there is a lively discussion on bioethical issues. Buddhist bioethics, in general, is characterized by a naturalistic outlook that leads to a rationalistic, pragmatic approach. Buddhist bioethicists include Damien Keown. In India, Vandana Shiva is a leading bioethicist speaking from the Hindu tradition.

In Africa, and partly also in Latin America, the debate on bioethics frequently focuses on its practical relevance in the context of underdevelopment and geopolitical power relations. In Africa, their bioethical approach is influenced by and similar to Western bioethics due to the colonization of many African countries. Some African bioethicists are calling for a shift in bioethics that utilizes indigenous African philosophy rather than western philosophy. Some African bioethicists also believe that Africans will be more likely to accept a bioethical approach grounded in their own culture, as well as empower African people.

Masahiro Morioka argues that in Japan the bioethics movement was first launched by disability activists and feminists in the early 1970s, while academic bioethics began in the mid-1980s. During this period, unique philosophical discussions on brain death and disability appeared both in the academy and journalism. In Chinese culture and bioethics, there is not as much of an emphasis on autonomy as opposed to the heavy emphasis placed on autonomy in Western bioethics. Community, social values, and family are all heavily valued in Chinese culture, and contribute to the lack of emphasis on autonomy in Chinese bioethics. The Chinese believe that the family, community, and individual are all interdependent of each other, so it is common for the family unit to collectively make decisions regarding healthcare and medical decisions for a loved one, instead of an individual making an independent decision for his or her self.

Some argue that spirituality and understanding one another as spiritual beings and moral agents is an important aspect of bioethics, and that spirituality and bioethics are heavily intertwined with one another. As a healthcare provider, it is important to know and understand varying world views and religious beliefs. Having this knowledge and understanding can empower healthcare providers with the ability to better treat and serve their patients. Developing a connection and understanding of a patient's moral agent helps enhance the care provided to the patient. Without this connection or understanding, patients can be at risk of becoming "faceless units of work" and being looked at as a "set of medical conditions" as opposed to the storied and spiritual beings that they are.

Islamic bioethics
Bioethics in the realm of Islam differs from Western bioethics, but they share some similar perspectives viewpoints as well. Western bioethics is focused on rights, especially individual rights. Islamic bioethics focuses more on religious duties and obligations, such as seeking treatment and preserving life. Islamic bioethics is heavily influenced and connected to the teachings of the Qur'an as well as the teachings of Muhammad. These influences essentially make it an extension of Shariah or Islamic Law. In Islamic bioethics, passages from the Qur'an are often used to validate various medical practices. For example, a passage from the Qur'an states "whosoever killeth a human being ... it shall be as if he had killed all humankind, and whosoever saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he saved the life of all humankind." This excerpt can be used to encourage using medicine and medical practices to save lives, but can also be looked at as a protest against euthanasia and assisted suicide. A high value and worth are placed on human life in Islam, and in turn, human life is deeply valued in the practice of Islamic bioethics as well. Muslims believe all human life, even one of poor quality, needs to be given appreciation and must be cared for and conserved.

The Islamic education on sensible problems associated to existence in normal and human lifestyles in unique can be sought in Islamic bioethics. As we will see later, due to the fact of interconnectedness of the Islamic regulation and the Islamic ethics, the Islamic bioethics has to reflect on consideration on necessities of the Islamic regulation (Shari‘ah) in addition to ethical considerations.

To react to new technological and medical advancements, informed Islamic jurists regularly will hold conferences to discuss new bioethical issues and come to an agreement on where they stand on the issue from an Islamic perspective. This allows Islamic bioethics to stay pliable and responsive to new advancements in medicine. The standpoints taken by Islamic jurists on bioethical issues are not always unanimous decisions and at times may differ. There is much diversity among Muslims varying from country to country, and the different degrees to which they adhere by Shariah. Differences and disagreements in regards to jurisprudence, theology, and ethics between the two main branches of Islam, Sunni, and Shia, lead to differences in the methods and ways in which Islamic bioethics is practiced throughout the Islamic world. An area where there is a lack of consensus is brain death. The Organization of Islamic Conferences Islamic Fiqh Academy (OIC-IFA) holds the view that brain death is equivalent to cardiopulmonary death, and acknowledges brain death in an individual as the individual being deceased. On the contrary, the Islamic Organization of Medical Sciences (IOMS) states that brain death is an "intermediate state between life and death" and does not acknowledge a brain dead individual as being deceased.

Islamic bioethicists look to the Qur'an and religious leaders regarding their outlook on reproduction and abortion. It is firmly believed that the reproduction of a human child can only be proper and legitimate via marriage. This does not mean that a child can only be reproduced via sexual intercourse between a married couple, but that the only proper and legitimate way to have a child is when it is an act between husband and wife. It is okay for a married couple to have a child artificially and from techniques using modern biotechnology as opposed to sexual intercourse, but to do this out of the context of marriage would be deemed immoral.

Islamic bioethics is strongly against abortion and strictly prohibits it. The IOMS states that "from the moment a zygote settles inside a woman's body, it deserves a unanimously recognized degree of respect." Abortion may only be permitted in unique situations where it is considered to be the "lesser evil".

Islamic bioethics may be used to find advice on practical matters relating to life in general and human life in particular. As we will see later, Islamic bioethics must take into account both moral concerns and the requirements of the Islamic law (Shari'ah) due to the interdependence of Islamic law and Islamic ethics. In order to avoid making a mistake, everything must be thoroughly examined, first against moral criteria and then against legal ones. It appears that many writers on Islamic bioethics have failed to distinguish between the two.

Despite the fact that Islamic law and morality are completely in agreement with one another, they may have distinct prescriptions because of their diverse ends and objectives. One distinction, for instance, is that Islamic ethics seeks to teach those with higher desires how to become more perfect and closer to God, but Islamic law seeks to decrease criteria for perfection or pleasure in both realms that are doable for the average or even lower than average.

So whatever is deemed essential or required by Islamic law is undoubtedly viewed the same way by Islamic ethics. However, there may be situations where something is not against Islamic law but is nonetheless condemned by Islamic ethics. Or there can be circumstances that, while not required by Islamic law, are essential from an ethical standpoint. For instance, while idle conversation is not strictly forbidden by Islamic law, it is morally unacceptable since it wastes time and is detrimental to one's spiritual growth. The night prayers are another illustration (which should be performed after midnight and before dawn).

Islamic bioethics' first influences Islamic bioethics is founded on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and reason (al-'aql), much like any other inquiry into Islam. Sunni Muslims may use terms like ijmaa' (consensus) and qiyas in place of reason (analogy). Ijmaa' and qiyas as such are not recognized by Shi'a since they are insufficient proofs on their own.

Christian bioethics
In Christian bioethics it is noted that the Bible, especially the New Testament, teaches about healing by faith. Healing in the Bible is often associated with the ministry of specific individuals including Elijah, Jesus and Paul. The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures, the Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times, he employs material such as spit and mud.

Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views faith healing as a pathway of healing in which God uses both the natural and the supernatural to heal. Being healed has been described as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption on the cross. Pentecostal writer Wilfred Graves Jr. views the healing of the body as a physical expression of salvation. , after describing Jesus exorcising at sunset and healing all of the sick who were brought to him, quotes these miracles as a fulfillment of the prophecy in : "He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases".

Jesus endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), who "bound up [an injured man's] wounds, pouring on oil and wine" (verse 34) as a physician would. Jesus then told the doubting teacher of the law (who had elicited this parable by his self-justifying question, "And who is my neighbor?" in verse 29) to "go, and do likewise" in loving others with whom he would never ordinarily associate (verse 37).

The principle of the sacredness of human life is at the basis of Catholic bioethics. On the subject of abortion, for example, Catholics and Orthodox are on very similar positions. Catholic bioethics insists on this concept, without exception, while Anglicans, Waldensians and Lutherans have positions closer to secular ones, for example with regard to the end of life.

In 1936, Ludwig Bieler argued that Jesus was stylized in the New Testament in the image of the "divine man" (Greek: theios aner), which was widespread in antiquity. It is said that many of the famous rulers and elders of the time had divine healing powers.

Contemporary bioethical and health care policy issues, including abortion, the distribution of limited resources, the nature of appropriate hospital chaplaincy, fetal experimentation, the use of fetal tissue in treatment, genetic engineering, the use of critical care units, distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary treatment, euthanasia, free and informed consent, competency determinations, the meaning of life, are being examined within the framework of traditional Christian moral commitments.

Feminist bioethics
Feminist bioethics critiques the fields of bioethics and medicine for its lack of inclusion of women's and other marginalized group's perspectives. This lack of perspective from women is thought to create power imbalances that favor men. These power imbalances are theorized to be created from the androcentric nature of medicine. One example of a lack of consideration of women is in clinical drug trials that exclude women due to hormonal fluctuations and possible future birth defects. This has led to a gap in the research on how pharmaceuticals can affect women. Feminist bioethicists call for the necessity of feminist approaches to bioethics because the lack of diverse perspectives in bioethics and medicine can cause preventable harm to already vulnerable groups.

This study first gained prevalence in the field of reproductive medicine as it was viewed as a "woman's issue". Since then, feminist approaches to bioethics has expanded to include bioethical topics in mental health, disability advocacy, healthcare accessibility, and pharmaceuticals. Lindemann notes the need for the future agenda of feminist approaches to bioethics to expand further to include healthcare organizational ethics, genetics, stem cell research, and more.

Notable figures in feminist bioethics include Carol Gilligan, Susan Sherwin, and the creators of the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, Mary C. Rawlinson and Anne Donchin. Sherwin's book No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics in Health Care (1992) is credited with being one of the first full-length books published on the topic of feminist bioethics and points out the shortcomings in then-current bioethical theories. Sherwin's viewpoint incorporates models of oppression within healthcare that intend to further marginalize women, people of color, immigrants, and people with disabilities. Since created in 1992, the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has done much work to legitimize feminist work and theory in bioethics.

By pointing out the male marking of its purportedly generic human subject and the fact that the tradition does not see women's rights as human rights, feminist bioethics challenges bioethics. This article explores how the other gender becomes mute and invisible as a result of this unseen gendering of the universal. It demonstrates how the dehumanization of "man" is a root cause of illness on a social and personal level. Finally, it makes many recommendations for how representations of women's experience and bodies could help to constructively reconsider fundamental ethical principles.

Environmental bioethics
Bioethics, the ethics of the life sciences in general, expanded from the encounter between experts in medicine and the laity, to include organizational and social ethics, environmental ethics. As of 2019 textbooks of green bioethics existed.

Ethical issues in gene therapy
Gene therapy involves ethics, because scientists are making changes to genes, the building blocks of the human body. Currently, therapeutic gene therapy is available to treat specific genetic disorders by editing cells in specific body parts. For example, gene therapy can treat hematopoietic disease. There is also a controversial gene therapy called "germline gene therapy", in which genes in a sperm or egg can be edited to prevent genetic disorder in the future generation. It is unknown how this type of gene therapy affects long-term human development. In the United States, federal funding cannot be used to research germline gene therapy.

The ethical challenges in gene therapy for rare childhood diseases underscore the complexity of initiating trials, determining dosage levels, and involving affected families. With over a third of gene therapies targeting rare, genetic, pediatric-onset, and life-limiting diseases, fair participant selection and transparent engagement with patient communities become crucial ethical considerations. Another concern involves the use of virus-derived vectors for gene transfer, raising safety and hereditary implications. Additionally, the ethical dilemma in gene therapy explores the potential harms of human enhancement, particularly regarding the birth of disabled individuals. Addressing these challenges is vital for responsible development, application, and equitable access to gene therapies. The experience with human growth hormone further illustrates the blurred lines between therapy and enhancement, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations in balancing therapeutic benefits and potential enhancements, especially in the rapidly advancing field of genomic medicine. As gene therapies progress towards FDA approval, collaboration with clinical genetics providers becomes essential to navigate the ethical complexities of this new era in medicine.

Professional practice
Bioethics as a subject of expert exercise (although now not a formal profession) developed at the beginning in North America in the Nineteen Eighties and Nineteen Nineties, in the areas of clinical / medical ethics and research ethics. Slowly internationalizing as a field, since the 2000s professional bioethics has expanded to include other specialties, such as organizational ethics in health systems, public health ethics, and more recently Ethics of artificial intelligence. Professional ethicists may be called consultants, ethicists, coordinators, or even analysts; and they may work in healthcare organizations, government agencies, and in both the public and private sectors. They may also be full-time employees, unbiased consultants, or have cross-appointments with educational institutions, such as lookup centres or universities.

Models of bioethics
According to Igor Boyko's book "Bioethics", there are three models of bioethics in the world:

 * Model 1 is "liberal" when there are no restrictions.
 * Model 2 is "utilitarian", when what is prohibited is allowed for one person or a group of persons, if it is useful and beneficial for the majority of people.
 * Model 3 is "personalistic", where the human person is considered a supernatural and inviolable integrity.

Learned societies and professional associations
The field of bioethics has developed national and international learned societies and professional associations, such as the American Society for Bioethics and Humanities, the Canadian Bioethics Society, the Canadian Association of Research Ethics Boards, the Association of Bioethics Program Directors, the Bangladesh Bioethics Society and the International Association of Bioethics.

Education
Bioethics is taught in courses at the undergraduate and graduate level in different academic disciplines or programs, such as Philosophy, Medicine, Law, Social Sciences. It has become a requirement for professional accreditation in many health professional programs (Medicine, Nursing, Rehabilitation), to have obligatory training in ethics (e.g., professional ethics, medical ethics, clinical ethics, nursing ethics). Interest in the field and professional opportunities have led to the development of dedicated programs with concentrations in Bioethics, largely in the United States, Canada (List of Canadian bioethics programs) and Europe, offering undergraduate majors/minors, graduate certificates, and master's and doctoral degrees.

Training in bioethics (usually clinical, medical, or professional ethics) are part of core competency requirements for health professionals in fields such as nursing, medicine or rehabilitation. For example, every medical school in Canada teaches bioethics so that students can gain an understanding of biomedical ethics and use the knowledge gained in their future careers to provide better patient care. Canadian residency training programs are required to teach bioethics as it is one of the conditions of accreditation, and is a requirement by the College of Family Physicians of Canada and by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.

Criticism
As a field of study, bioethics has also drawn criticism. For instance, Paul Farmer noted that bioethics tends to focus its attention on problems that arise from "too much care" for patients in industrialized nations while giving little or no attention to the ethical problem of too little care for the poor. Farmer characterizes the bioethics of handling morally difficult clinical situations, normally in hospitals in industrialized countries, as "quandary ethics". He does not regard quandary ethics and clinical bioethics as unimportant; he argues, rather, that bioethics must be balanced and give due weight to the poor.

Additionally, bioethics has been condemned for its lack of diversity in thought, particularly concerning race. Even as the field has grown to include the areas of public opinion, policymaking, and medical decision-making, little to no academic writing has been authored concerning the intersection between race–especially the cultural values imbued in that construct–and bioethical literature. John Hoberman illustrates this in a 2016 critique, in which he points out that bioethicists have been traditionally resistant to expanding their discourse to include sociological and historically relevant applications. Central to this is the notion of white normativity, which establishes the dominance of white hegemonic structures in bioethical academia and tends to reinforce existing biases.

These points and critiques, along with the neglect of women's perspectives within bioethics, have also been discussed amongst feminist bioethical scholars.

However, differing views on bioethics' lack of diversity of thought and social inclusivity have also been advanced. For example, one historian has argued that the diversity of thought and social inclusivity are the two essential cornerstones of bioethics, albeit they have not been fully realized.

In order to practice critical bioethics, bioethicists must base their investigations in empirical research, refute ideas with facts, engage in self-reflection, and be skeptical of the assertions made by other bioethicists, scientists, and doctors. A thorough normative study of actual moral experience is what is intended.

Issues
Research in bioethics is conducted by a broad and interdisciplinary community of scholars, and is not restricted only to those researchers who define themselves as "bioethicists": it includes researchers from the humanities, social sciences, health sciences and health professions, law, the fundamental sciences, etc. These researchers may be working in specialized bioethics centers and institutes associated with university bioethics training programs; but they may also be based in disciplinary departments without a specific bioethics focus. Notable examples of research centers include, amongst others, The Hastings Center, the Kennedy Institute of Ethics, the Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics, the Centre for Human Bioethics.

Areas of bioethics research that are the subject of published, peer-reviewed bioethical analysis include: • Abortion

• Alternative medicine

• Animal rights

• Applied ethics

• Artificial insemination

• Artificial life

• Artificial womb

• Assisted suicide

• Biocentrism

• Biological agent

• Biological patent

• Biopiracy

• Biorisk

• Biotic ethics

• Blood transfusion

• Body modification

• Brain–computer interface

• Chimeras

• Circumcision

• Cloning

• Cognitive liberty

• Confidentiality (medical records)

• Conflict of interest in the healthcare industry

• Consent

• Contraception (birth control)

• Cryonics

• Disability

• End-of-life care

• Eugenics

• Euthanasia (human, non-human animal)

• Exorcism

• Faith healing

• Feeding tube

• Gain-of-function research

• Gene theft

• Gene therapy

• Genetic testing

• Genetically modified food

• Genetically modified organism

• Genomics

• Great Ape Project

• HeLa cells

• Human cloning

• Human enhancement

• Human experimentation in the United States

• Human genetic engineering

• Iatrogenesis

• Infertility treatments

• Intersex

• Life extension

• Life support

• Lobotomy

• Medicalization

• Medical malpractice

• Medical research

• Medical torture

• Mediation

• Mitochondrial donation

• Moral obligation

• Moral status of animals

• Nanomedicine

• Neuroethics

• Neuroenhancement

• Nazi human experimentation

• Ordinary and extraordinary care

• Overtreatment

• Organ donation

• Organ transplant

• Pain management

• Parthenogenesis

• Patients' Bill of Rights

• Placebo

• Pharmacogenetics

• Political abuse of psychiatry

• Population control

• Prescription drug prices in the United States

• Procreative beneficence

• Professional ethics

• Psychosurgery

• Quality of life (healthcare)

• Quaternary prevention

• Recreational drug use

• Reproductive rights

• Reproductive technology

• Reprogenetics

• Research ethics

• Resource allocation

• Sex reassignment therapy

• Sperm and egg donation

• Spiritual drug use

• Stem cell research

• Sterilization (medicine)

• Suicide

• Surrogacy

• Transsexuality

• Transhumanism

• Transplant trade

• Triage

• Tubal ligation

• Vaccination controversy

• Xenotransfusion

• Xenotransplantation

title: Bioethics


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