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Limes (Roman Empire)

Limes (Latin;, : limites) is a term used primarily for the Germanic border defence or delimiting system of Ancient Rome marking the borders of the Roman Empire. The term has been extended in modern times to refer to the frontier defences in other parts of the empire, such as in the east and in Africa.

Overview

The Roman frontier stretched for more than 5000 km from the Atlantic coast of northern Britain, through Europe to the Black Sea, and from there to the Red Sea and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The positions of the borders changed especially during the main periods of Roman expansion and contraction, and first became more stable during the early Empire period under Augustus, but the borders continued to change with time in different provinces. The borders had different constituents depending on local needs; often they consisted of natural boundaries (e.g. rivers) with roads behind for easier movement of troops between linked forts (e.g. Danubian Limes), or else roads with linked forts (e.g. Stanegate, Fosse Way).

The remains of the frontiers today consist of vestiges of roads, forts, fortresses, walls and ditches, and associated civilian settlements. The soldiers at a border were referred to as limitanei. They were not expected to win large-scale wars, but rather to deter small-to-medium-sized raiding parties.

Notable examples of Roman frontiers include:
 * Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain
 * Antonine Wall – in Scotland
 * Saxon Shore, late Roman coastal forts in South-East England
 * Limes Arabicus, the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea facing the desert
 * Limes Tripolitanus, the frontier in modern Libya facing the Sahara
 * Fossatum Africae, the southern frontier of the Roman Empire, extending south of the Roman province of Africa in North-Africa.
 * Germanic Limes including the:
 * Lower Germanic Limes
 * Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
 * Danubian Limes including the:
 * Rhaetian Limes (only those elements along the Danube)
 * Noric Limes, the frontier of the Roman province Noricum, from the River Inn along the Danube to Cannabiaca (Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing) in Austria.
 * Pannonian Limes, the frontier of the Roman province Pannonia, along the Danube from Klosterneuburg Austria to Taurunum in Serbia.
 * Moesian Limes, the frontier of the Roman province Moesia, from Singidunum Serbia along the Danube to Moldavia.
 * Dacian Limes including:
 * Limes Alutanus, the eastern border of the Roman province of Dacia
 * Limes Transalutanus, the later advanced eastern frontier of Dacia

Etymology
The stem of limes, limit-, which can be seen in the genitive case, limitis, marks it as the ancestor of an entire group of words in many languages related to Latin; for example, English limit or French limite. The Latin noun līmes (Latin pl. līmitēs) had a number of different meanings: a path or balk delimiting fields; a boundary line or marker; any road or path; any channel, such as a stream channel; or any distinction or difference. The term was also commonly used after the 3rd century AD to denote a military district under the command of a dux limitis.

An etymology by Julius Pokorny in Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch says that limes comes from Indo-European el-, elei-, lei-, "to bow", "to bend", "elbow". According to Pokorny, Latin limen, "threshold", is related to limes, being the stone over which one enters or leaves the house. Some scholars have viewed the frontier as a threshold. The Merriam–Webster dictionaries take this view, as does J. B. Hofmann in Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen under leimon. The White Latin Dictionary denies any connection, deriving limen from *ligmen, as in lien from *leig-, "tie". In this sense, the threshold ties together the doorway. W. Gebert also wrote an article discussing the term.

The first use of the term limes as meaning "land border" appears for the first time in 98 AD by Tacitus:

"...nec iam de limite imperii et ripa, sed de hibernis legionum et de possessione dubitatum (...not only were the frontier of the empire and the banks [of the Danube] in danger but also the winter-quarters of the legions and the provinces)."

Its definitive use for the Danubian border seems to date from about 122 in the time of Hadrian:

"Per ea tempora et alia frequenter in plurimis locis, in quibus barbari non fluminibus sed limitibus dividuntur, stipitibus magnis in modum muralis saepis funditus iactis atque conexis barbaros separavit (During this period and on many other occasions also, in many regions where the barbarians are held back not by rivers but artificial barriers, [Hadrian] shut them out by tall stakes planted deep in the ground and fastened together in the manner of a palisade)."

Some experts suggested that the Germanic limes may have been called Munimentum Traiani (Trajan's Bulwark) by contemporaries, referring to a passage by Ammianus Marcellinus, according to which emperor Julian had reoccupied this fortification in 360 AD.

Britain

The frontier in Britain existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD. Initially the Fosse Way road was a frontier. From the 1st to the 2nd century first the Gask Ridge and then the Stanegate, with their chains of forts and watchtowers, marked the northern boundary of Britannia. Later Hadrian's Wall was built as the frontier and for a short time the Antonine Wall further north. The defence of Hadrian's Wall was achieved through the incorporation of forts and castella. Security and monitoring on the coasts in the west and southeast were achieved by forts and by chains of watchtowers or signal towers, both along the coastline.

The garrisons, Exercitus Britannicus, consisted mostly of cohorts of auxilia. The strategic reserve comprised three legions based in Eburacum (York), Isca Silurum and Deva. The observation and surveillance of the waters around the British Isles was the responsibility of the Classis Britannica, whose headquarters were in Rutupiae (Richborough). Legions, auxilia and the fleet were commanded by the provincial governors. From the 3rd century, units of comitatenses, limitanei and liburnaria (marines) came under the command of two generals:

 * Comes Britanniarum
 * Dux Britanniarum

Saxon Shore
This section of the limes existed from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD and covered the provinces of:

 * Britannia Inferior
 * Belgica
 * Lugdunensis
 * Aquitania

This limes of the Late Antiquity ran through the territory of the present-day United Kingdom and France. In the 3rd century, a separate military district, the Litus Saxonicum, was established on the British side of the English Channel between the estuaries of the Wash and the Solent, to repel Saxon pirates and plunderers. The Gallic side of the English Channel and Atlantic coast were included therein. Monitoring and coastal surveillance were carried out by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers, forts and fortified ports (Gaul). Most of the Saxon Shore camps probably served as naval bases.

The garrisons of the forts were composed of infantry and several cavalry regiments. Monitoring and surveillance of the Channel were the responsibility of the Classis Britannica and Classis Sambrica, whose headquarters were in Locus Quartensis (Port d'Etaple), guarding the mouth of the River Somme. The units of comitatenses, limitanei and liburnaria in this area came under the command of three generals:

 * Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam (Count of the Saxon Shore)
 * Dux Belgicae secundae
 * Dux tractus Armoricani et Nervicani

Lower Germania
This section of limes existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the province of Lower Germania (Germania Inferior).

It lies on the territory of today's Netherlands and Germany. This limes was a river border (limes ripa) on the Rhine, defended by a chain of camps, that ran from the North Sea (Katwijk-Brittenburg camp) to Vinxtbach (opposite Rheinbrohl fort on the Upper Germanic Limes), forming the border between the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, it was not marked by a solid palisade or wall. Neither can any defensive ditch or rampart be identified. The guards were stationed in nearby castra and watchtowers usually built immediately on the Rhine. The limes was served by a well-developed military road. Each camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area, because the Rhine not only formed the border but was also the most important transport and trade route in the region. In the first section, between the camps of Rigomagus (Remagen) and Bonna (Bonn), there were only a few camps. In the second, middle, section between Bonna and Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen), there were considerably more. Here there were also larger legion camps; with one exception, all were cavalry barracks. The landscape of the third section between Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum and Mare Germanicum (the North Sea) was characterised by numerous small streams and boggy marshland. Consequently, in this area there was only one cavalry camp. Border security here consisted mainly of tightly packed, relatively small cohort forts.

The occupying troops, Exercitus Germaniae Inferioris, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve comprised three legions stationed in Bonna/Bonn, Novaesium/Neuss, Vetera/Xanten and Noviomagus/Nijmegen. The control and surveillance of the waters of the North Sea, the Rhine estuary and the Lower Rhine was the responsibility of the Classis Germanica whose headquarters was in Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium/Cologne. Legions, auxilia and fleet units were commanded by the respective provincial governor. From the 3rd century the ripenses (river guards), comitatenses, and liburnaria were under the command of the Dux Belgicae secundae.

Upper Germania and Rhaetia

This limes existed from the 1st to 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:

 * Germania Superior
 * Rhaetia

It lay on the territory of the present German states of Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria. To the north, it bordered those parts of the Roman province of Rhaetia that lay north of the Danube and guarded the eastern border of that part of Germania Superior that lay east of the Rhine. In Upper Germania the border defences initially consisted only of a post road. From about 162/63 AD, the Romans constructed a defensive barrier with watchtowers and signal towers, palisades, ditches and earthworks. On one short section of the Rhaetian Limes, a solid stone wall was erected. In its final stages, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes was about 550 kilometres long and ran from Rheinbrohl, in the county of Neuwied in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, as far as Hienheim on the Danube. Between the villages of Osterburken and Welzheim, the limes ran for 81 kilometres almost in a straight line southwards. In the scholarly literature, this unusual section is considered as evidence that this type of boundary wall had never been used for defensive purposes.

The land of Agri Decumates that was guarded by this limes had to be vacated by the Romans in 260–285 AD. They moved their bases back to the banks of the Rhine and Danube, which were much easier to defend militarily. The exact route of the limes along the border between Upper Germania and Raetia has not been fully explored. In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, the Rhaetian Limes was reorganized and divided into three sections. The northern border of Rhaetia formed the pars superior (upper part), the western border was the pars media (central part) with the fortified town of Cambodunum and bases from Vemania (Isny im Allgäu) to Cassilacum (Memmingen); the pars inferior (lower part) was the section between Castra Regina (Regensburg) and Batavis (Passau).

The defending troops, Exercitus Germaniae superioris and Exercitus Raeticus, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve was formed from three legions stationed in Mogontiacum/Mainz, Argentorate/Strasbourg and Castra Regina/Regensburg. The monitoring of the Upper Rhine was the responsibility of the Classis Germanica; that of the Rhaetic Danube came under the Classis Pannonia, whose headquarters was in Aquincum/Budapest. Legions and auxilia cohorts were under the command of the governor. From the 3rd century the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian border troops (comitatenses, repenses, and liburnaria), were commanded by three generals:

 * Dux Raetiae
 * Dux Mogontiacensis
 * Comes tractus Argentoratensis

Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL)

This limes existed from the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:

 * Germania Superior
 * Rhaetia

It lies on the territory of present-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. As early as the period 15 BC to about 70 AD, the border between Rome and Germania ran mostly along the line of the late antique Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) before the Romans advanced further north into the Agri decumates. Because of troop withdrawals and massive barbarian invasions, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes were abandoned in the late 3rd century and the Roman forces pulled the border back to the banks of the three rivers. Especially around the year 300, the Emperor Diocletian had new fortifications built directly on the river banks or on major roads in the hinterland here. Around 370 AD, the line of fortifications was considerably strengthened under the Emperor Valentinian I to counter the Alemanni, who were steadily advancing southwards. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, the DIRL primarily fulfilled defensive purposes; its camps had much stronger and higher walls than their High Imperial predecessors. Furthermore, they had in most cases been built to conform to the local topography. This meant that they could not be built in the classical 'pack of cards' shape. Between them a dense chain of watchtowers and signal towers were constructed to provide an additional security measure (burgi).

Flotillas of patrol boats were stationed on the large lakes in this region.

 * Lake Constance: Numerus Barcariorum (HQ at Brigantium/Bregenz)
 * Lake Neuchâtel: Classis Barcariorum (HQ at Eburodunum/Yverdon).

Comitatenses, ripenses, and liburnaria in this section of the limes were under the command of four generals:

 * Dux Raetiae
 * Dux provinciae Sequanicae
 * Comes tractus Argentoratensis
 * Dux Germaniae primae

Noricum

This section of the limes existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and guarded part of the Roman province of Noricum.

It is on the soil of the present-day Austrian states of Upper and Lower Austria. It ran  along the Danube from Passau/Boiodurum to Zeiselmauer/Cannabiaca. This is also a ripa (river border), which was guarded by a loose chain of cohort forts. The main road on the Norican Limes was the via iuxta amnem Danuvium. The initially simple wood and earth structures were systematically converted under Emperor Hadrian into stone encampments. During the 4th century, they were brought once more up to date and massively reinforced. Between the camps, in strategic places or good points of observation, were watchtowers or signal towers and, in the Late Antiquity, burgi. In the middle section, between the camps of Favianis and Melk, watchtowers were built only sporadically. Here the narrow valley of the Wachau, with its densely forested escarpments, made access to the riverbank more difficult, providing some defensive function. Every camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area because the Danube was not only a border zone, but also the most important transport and trade route in the region. Over time civilian settlements or vici were established immediately next to the camps. In the immediate hinterland of the limes, walled towns or municipia were founded – for example, Aelium Cetium or Ovilava (Wels). They were the administrative or commercial centres of the region. In late antiquity, the Norican area was divided into two parts (pars inferior and pars superior). It is probable that a second, defensive line was created to the rear (Castrum Locus Felicis).

The occupying troops, Exercitus Noricus, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts and a legion stationed in Lauriacum/Enns acted as the strategic reserve. The surveillance and security of the Danube and its tributaries were the responsibility of the Classis Pannonia. Units of the legions, naval and auxiliary forces were commanded by the respective governors. In late antiquity – according to Notitia Dignitatum – four newly established flotillas undertook this task. From the 3rd century, the Norian comitatenses, ripenses and liburnari were under the command of two generals:

 * Comes Illyrici
 * Dux Pannoniae Primae et Norici Ripensis

Pannonia

This stretch of limes was in use from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD and helped to guard the provinces of:

 * Pannonia inferior
 * Pannonia

The Pannonian Limes is situated on the territory of present-day Austria, Slovakia and Hungary. Although this section of the frontier was relatively well protected by the Danube river border or Ripa, the Roman military presence here was always exceptionally strong (three military camps in Pannonia, but only one in Lower Pannonia) because especially after the abandonment of Roman Dacia in the late 3rd century, the pressure of migrant peoples from the east on this section of the limes intensified. The tributaries emptying into the Danube offered cheap transport routes, but also made good approach routes for invaders and raiders. The military camps were therefore built by the most important fords or confluences and road termini. The legion- and auxilia camps were mainly located in the immediate vicinity of the riverbank. The initial wood and earth structures, were systematically converted under Emperor Hadrian into stone barracks and, in the 4th century, redesigned and massively strengthened in order to match new strategic requirements. The gaps between the camps were closed by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers. In late Roman times huge inland camps were built and towns in the hinterland were fortified to create a second line of defence. In addition, at vulnerable points, units of the Danube fleet were stationed. In the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius the first mention is made in Pannonia of stone watchtowers (burgi, panelled towers and fortlets (praesidia). In late antiquity, the Pannonian military district was divided into two parts (pars inferior and pars superior). Advance defences were provided by bridgehead camps (e.g. Castra Contra Aquincum or Celemantia) and military stations on main transport routes in the Barbaricum (e.g. near Musov).

In Africa

At the greatest extent of the Roman Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East (see History of the Romans in Arabia) and the Sahara in North Africa, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the Nile many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan.

In Africa Romans controlled the area north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, with many sections of limes (Limes Tripolitanus, Limes Numidiae, etc.).

The Fossatum Africae ("African ditch") of at least 750 km controlled the southern borders of the Empire and had many similarities of construction to Hadrian's Wall.

There are similar, but shorter, fossatae in other parts of North Africa. Between the Matmata and Tabaga ranges in modern Tunisia there is a fossatum which was duplicated during World War II. There also appears to be a 20 km fossatum at Bou Regreg, in Morocco, although this would not have been within the scope of the proclamation of the Codex Theodosianus because at that time the province was not in Africa, administratively speaking.

In the south of Mauritania Tingitana the frontier in the third century lay just north of Casablanca near Sala and stretched to Volubilis.

Septimius Severus expanded the "Limes Tripolitanus" dramatically, even briefly holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by Quintus Anicius Faustus, the legate of Legio III Augusta.

Following his African conquests, the Roman Empire may have reached its greatest extent during the reign of Septimius Severus, under whom the empire encompassed an area of 2 million square miles (2.0 mi2 million square kilometers).

Fossatum Africae

Fossatum Africae ("African ditch") is a linear defensive structure (limes) that extended over 750 km or more in northern Africa constructed during the Roman Empire to defend and control the southern borders of the Empire in the Roman province of Africa. It is considered to have many similarities of construction to Hadrian's Wall at the northern border of the Empire in Britain. Generally the Fossatum consists of a ditch and earth embankments on either side using the material from the ditch. Sometimes the embankments are supplemented by dry stone walls on one or both sides; rarely, there are stone walls without a ditch. The width of the Fossatum is generally 3–6 m but in exceptional cases may be as much as 20 m. Wherever possible, it or its highest wall is constructed on the counterscarp. Excavations near Gemellae showed the depth there to be 2–3 m, with a width of 1 m at the bottom widening to 2–3 m at the top.

The Fossatum is accompanied by many small watchtowers and numerous forts, often built within sight of one another.

In Asia
The Limes Arabicus was the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, facing the desert. It runs from the Gulf of Aqaba to northern Syria, for about 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) at its greatest extent

Post-Roman limites
The Limes Saxoniae in Holstein was established in 810 AD, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Charlemagne considered his empire (later called the Carolingian Empire) as the true successor to the Roman Empire and called himself "Emperor of the Romans". Official edicts were issued in Latin, which affected the naming of the Empire's frontier as well.

In fiction

 * The novel series Romanike is set at the Limes Germanicus in the decades until the first assault of Germanic peoples in 161 AD.
 * Roman Wall: A Novel, by Winifred Bryher is set in 265 during the Limesfall.

title: Limes (Roman Empire)


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BoPET

BoPET (biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate) is a polyester film made from stretched polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and is used for its high tensile strength, chemical stability, dimensional stability, transparency, reflectivity when metallized, gas and moisture barrier properties, and electrical insulation. The film is "biaxially oriented", which means that the polymer chains are oriented parallel to the plane of the film, and therefore oriented in two axes. A variety of companies manufacture boPET and other polyester films under different brand names. In the UK and US, the best-known trade names are Mylar, Melinex, Lumirror and Hostaphan. It was the first biaxially oriented polymer to manufactured on a mass commercial scale.

History
BoPET film was developed in the mid-1950s, originally by DuPont, Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), and Hoechst.

In 1953 Buckminster Fuller used Mylar as a skin for a geodesic dome, which he built with students at the University of Oregon.

In 1955 Eastman Kodak used Mylar as a support for photographic film and called it "ESTAR Base". The very thin and tough film allowed 6000 ft reels to be exposed on long-range U-2 reconnaissance flights.

In 1964, NASA launched Echo II, a 40 m diameter balloon constructed from a 9 μm thick mylar film sandwiched between two layers of 4.5 μm thick aluminium foil bonded together.

Manufacture and properties

The manufacturing process begins with a film of molten polyethylene terephthalate (PET) being extruded onto a chill roll, which quenches it into the amorphous state. It is then biaxially oriented by drawing. The most common way of doing this is the sequential process, in which the film is first drawn in the machine direction using heated rollers and subsequently drawn in the transverse direction, i.e., orthogonally to the direction of travel, in a heated oven. It is also possible to draw the film in both directions simultaneously, although the equipment required for this is somewhat more elaborate. Draw ratios are typically around 3 to 4 in each direction.

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Applications
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Science

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Printing media

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Other

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 * Used in dentistry when restoring teeth with composite
 * In nail polish, as a coloured and finely shredded additive to create a glitter effect
 * Numismatics – Storing coins for long periods of time. PVC was previously used for this, but over long periods of time PVC can release chlorine, which reacts with the silver and copper in coins. BoPET does not have this problem.
 * In fishing fly tying, metallized Mylar strips are sometimes wound around the hook shank for reflective striping or shimmer in certain patterns.
 * Military uniform accoutrements are often accented by gold mylar, such as shoulder epaulets or shoulder knots. For example: US Army Officer's Mess Dress Uniform.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: BoPET


text:
Ignition (The Offspring album)

Ignition is the second studio album by American punk rock band the Offspring, released on October 16, 1992, by Epitaph Records. Issued during the alternative rock and grunge era, the album brought the band small success in Southern California as they started to gather a following. This success would continue to grow with their next album, Smash (1994).

Ignition was certified gold on January 22, 1996, nearly two years after the release of Smash, and has sold over one million copies worldwide. For the album's 20th anniversary in 2012, The Offspring played Ignition in its entirety for some selected concerts. They also performed the album in 2017 at a benefit concert for 924 Gilman Street.

The band re-recorded Ignition's sixth track "Dirty Magic" for their ninth studio album Days Go By, released twenty years later.

Background and recording
In 1991, The Offspring teamed up with producer Thom Wilson to record the Baghdad 7-inch EP. This EP was instrumental to the band's signing with Epitaph Records. Wilson had been trying to get The Offspring to switch to Epitaph, a label run by Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz. Gurewitz felt that The Offspring was just not quite pronounced enough for his label, but Baghdad convinced him to give the band a shot. Thanks to the success of Baghdad, The Offspring managed to record their second full-length album. The band entered two recording studios, Westbeach Recorders and Track Record, in June 1992 to record Ignition, in a similar fashion to the production schedule for The Offspring and Baghdad, which were both recorded in just one month (March 1989 and February 1991 respectively).

Some of the material (including "Take It Like a Man", which was originally recorded in 1991 for a Flipside magazine compilation, The Big One, and "Get It Right", which appeared on Baghdad) are updated versions of songs that were recorded around The Offspring/Baghdad-era. The album also had one outtake, "Mission from God", which was later slightly remixed and then released on the compilation album Punk-O-Rama Vol. 10 in 2005. "Mission from God" was then released as a bonus download when Ignition was reissued on vinyl, albeit in its original 1992 mix.

Release and reception
Ignition was released through Epitaph Records on October 16, 1992. Like their self-titled debut album, Ignition did not chart on the Billboard 200; however, The Offspring began to gather small success in the Southern region of California, mainly the areas of San Diego, Orange County and Los Angeles, and spent a-year-and-a-half touring relentlessly behind the album. Although no videos were released for Ignition, "Kick Him When He's Down" was released as an airplay-only single in 1995. Ignition was certified Gold on January 22, 1996, nearly two years after the release of Smash.

The album has received generally favorable reviews in the years since its initial release, with several reviewers having deemed Ignition one of The Offspring's best albums. In October 2011, the album was ranked number two (between Alice in Chains' Dirt and Bad Religion's Generator) on Guitar World magazine's top ten list of guitar albums of 1992.

On June 17, 2008, Epitaph re-released Ignition (along with Smash) in remastered form. This reissue was released on the same day as then-current album Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace.

Touring and promotion
The Offspring toured for a-year-and-a-half to promote Ignition. Their audience continued to hone, supporting such bands as Youth Brigade, The Vandals, Bad Religion, D.I., Guttermouth,  Voodoo Glow Skulls, Glue Gun, Momentum, Final Conflict, Face to Face, Pennywise, Rancid, Unwritten Law, RKL, Untrust, Cadillac Tramps and Korn. The Offspring then managed to secure a slot in three major tours in 1993. They opened for NOFX on their White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean tour, and in that summer, the band supported Lunachicks and Iceburn. After the tour ended, The Offspring took a break and went back into the studio to record their third album Smash. In early 1994, The Offspring landed the opening slot for Pennywise on their Unknown Road tour. The Ignition tour ended on April 1, 1994, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, just one week before the release of Smash.

The Offspring

 * Dexter Holland – lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar (uncredited for rhythm guitar and backing vocals)
 * Noodles – lead guitar (credited as guitar), backing vocals (uncredited for backing vocals)
 * Greg K. – bass, backing vocals (uncredited for backing vocals)
 * Ron Welty – drums

Production

 * Thom Wilson – production, mixing
 * Ken Paulakovich – mixing
 * Donnell Cameron and Joe Peccerillo – assistent engineer
 * Eddie Schreyer – mastering

title: Ignition (The Offspring album)


text:
Prescott, Ontario

Prescott is a town on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River in province of Ontario, Canada. The town is a part of the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville. In 2021, it had a population of 4,078. The Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge, 5 km east of Prescott at Johnstown, crosses the Canada–United States border and connects the town with the city of Ogdensburg, New York.

Prescott was founded in the early 19th century by Edward Jessup, a Loyalist soldier during the American Revolution, who named the village after a former Governor-in-Chief, Robert Prescott. Before 1834, the town was a part of Augusta township; however, in that year, the town became a police village and severed its ties with Augusta. The land here was ideal for settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries as it was situated between Montreal and Kingston along the St. Lawrence River at the head of the rapids.

French period

Before the arrival of Europeans to the Grenville County area, it was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquois. The French began occupation of the area in the late 17th century, starting with a supply depot and fortified outpost named La Galette en route to Fort Frontenac (Kingston), which was built in the 1670s. Some sources place La Galette at Prescott, while others place it at neighbouring Johnstown. Fort de La Présentation was later built in 1749 on the other side of the river, at Lighthouse Point near present-day Ogdensburg, New York. This was soon abandoned in favour of Fort Lévis, which was located on Isle Royale (Chimney Island) in the centre of the river.

The area became a battleground during the 1754−1763 French and Indian War between Britain and France, as both parties wanted to control what was a strategic stretch of the Saint Lawrence River. This led to the 1760 Battle of the Thousand Islands when a 10,000-strong British–Iroquois force besieged the French at Fort Lévis. Despite a spirited defence by the 300-strong French garrison, the British took the fort after an extensive artillery bombardment. Afterward, the British occupied the fort, renaming it Fort William Augustus, though they soon abandoned it in favour of the older Fort de La Présentation, which they renamed Fort Oswegatchie. The ruins of Fort Lévis, and the island the fort stood on, were later submerged during the creation of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.

Arrival of the Loyalists
British settlement in the area began with a group of United Empire Loyalists led by Edward Jessup. During the American Revolutionary War, Jessup fought with the King's Royal Regiment of New York and later led his own Loyal Rangers, which served in a defensive capacity along the Saint Lawrence. After the war, members of the regiment were resettled in what would later become Eastern Ontario. Jessup, his son, and their followers settled in Augusta and Edwardsburgh townships. Johnstown in Edwardsburgh Township was an initial landing place and was the town site to be settled in 1789. In 1792, it was briefly the administrative seat for the Eastern District before a more permanent administration was established at New Johnstown (now Cornwall); later, it was the seat of the eponymous Johnstown District before again losing its position, this time to Elizabethtown (Brockville). In 1796, provisions of the Jay Treaty led to a British evacuation from Fort Oswegatchie, as the land had legally become a part of the United States. Within months, this area was soon occupied by American settlers, who named it Ogdensburgh (later Ogdensburg) after Samuel Ogden, a prominent landowner and speculator.

Fort Wellington
In 1810, Jessup and his son laid out a townsite within Augusta Township near Johnstown, which they named Prescott in honour of General Robert Prescott, who had been governor-in-chief in The Canadas and had participated in British campaigns in the area, being the aide-de-camp tasked with delivering the news of the fall of Fort Lévis fifty years earlier. Jessup began to take the first steps toward building a concentrated settlement by constructing a log schoolhouse along with a teacher's residence, which was built from stone. With the outbreak of the War of 1812, American troops began using Ogdensburg and Fort Oswegatchie as a base to raid settlements in Upper Canada. Soon, the two Jessup home plots were expropriated by the British Army for use as barracks. The army also later constructed a purpose-built fort, which was named Fort Wellington. The fort served its intended purpose of impeding American use of the Saint Lawrence for military purposes and was never directly attacked. Following the end of the war, the fort was soon abandoned and began to deteriorate.

During the Upper Canada Rebellion, Fort Wellington was repaired and reactivated. It became the main supply base for government forces in the region, which made it a tempting military target. In 1838, a group of Hunter Patriots attempted to land at Prescott, hoping to use Fort Wellington as a beachhead for an invasion of Upper Canada. They were repelled by the town militia and fled downriver, then landed at the small hamlet of Newport, which afforded them a strong defensive position dominated by a large stone windmill. The Battle of the Windmill ensued, leading to the defeat of the Hunter Patriot group.

Transport industry
Prescott's harbour developed considerably in the early 19th century, supporting the growing Great Lakes shipping industry. It became notable for its freight forwarding businesses, as local forwarders shuttled Great Lakes freight between Prescott and Montreal. This was commemorated at the Forwarders' Museum, which was housed in a building originally constructed in the 1820s by local forwarder William Gilkinson.

By the mid-19th century, however, the forwarding industry began to decline. Navigability of the Saint Lawrence had improved, allowing more Great Lakes ships to reach Montreal directly. Soon, Upper Canada experienced a railway boom, which provided competition for the maritime shipping industry. The Bytown and Prescott Railway began operating in 1854, connecting Prescott to Bytown (now Ottawa). This was followed by the construction of the Grand Trunk Railway mainline between Toronto and Montreal, which connected to the Bytown and Prescott Railway at Prescott Junction. With parallel railway development occurring across the river in Ogdensburg, railway car ferry services began between the two towns, which later evolved into the Canadian Pacific Car and Passenger Transfer Company. Freight traffic declined abruptly during the Great Depression, though a recovery took place after the outbreak of the Second World War. Traffic volumes slowly declined again after the war, and ferry service ended entirely in the early 1970s.

Project Jericho
Project Jericho, which was one of the largest and most highly publicized sexual abuse investigations in Canada, took place in the 1980s–1990s and focused on a case of multi-generational child sexual abuse in Prescott, which was "staggering in its reach and its routine violation of hundreds of victims." When the investigation concluded, the total victim count was 275 (including 113 adults who disclosed that they were abused as children), and the total perpetrator count was 119. The case was sensationalized as an example of Satanic ritual abuse, though it was never linked to a satanic cult, but rather, "a group of adults of limited intelligence who lived on the margins of society." Many of both the perpetrators and the victims were developmentally disabled. By 1994, of the cases which went to trial, the conviction rate was. However, the Prescott case bears many similarities to other instances of "Satanic Panic" that happened in the 1980s and 1990s.

St Lawrence Shakespeare Festival
The St Lawrence Shakespeare Festival (SLSF) runs annually in Prescott, Ontario, in July and August, attracting thousands of audience members each season. SLSF contracts professional actors through the Canadian Actors Equity Association, is a member of PACT (the Professional Association of Canadian Theatres), and is a member of the Shakespeare Theatre Association. The offerings of the Festival are based on two mainstage shows that run from mid-July to mid-August (often, but not always, both plays by Shakespeare) as well as additional productions that are presented in shorter runs of fewer performances.

Cemeteries
Prescott contains two cemeteries, Prescott Cemetery (known as Sandy Hill) and St. Mark's Roman Catholic Cemetery. Prescott Cemetery is located along Edward Street across from South Grenville District High School and is one of the oldest burying grounds in the area. The land for this cemetery was given to the town in 1830, in Edward Jessup III's will, which stated the area then known as Sand Hill was to become a “burial ground for the different churches in the town of Prescott.”. Prior to becoming the town's cemetery, the area was already used as a burial ground for the Jessup family. The earliest-known burial was that of Susannah Jessup's father, who died in 1798. Edward Jessup I, the original recipient of the land here, was also buried in the cemetery early in 1816. Along the south side of the front of the cemetery are many unmarked graves of pioneers who died of cholera. In 1929, the cemetery was expanded, and the entrance gates were added. In 1967, the stone steps leading up the hill to the Jessup family graves were placed. This cemetery is still in use today.

The Roman Catholics of Prescott were initially buried in Prescott Cemetery, which had a reserved area specifically for Roman Catholic burials. During the 1850s, the Roman Catholic community desired to have their own cemetery. In 1859, a local reverend bought land from a resident for $1 for this specific purpose. Additional such land was purchased in 1875. This cemetery is located north of the 401 on the west side of County Road 18 and is known as St. Mark's Cemetery. The older, back section of the cemetery was blessed in 1860, and the newer part in 1935. The earliest legible tombstone in the cemetery dates to before the land was purchased and belonged to Thomas Allen, who died in 1845. This cemetery is also currently still in use.

Churches
Currently, Prescott contains six churches, all of which are still in operation. The town includes a Presbyterian, Anglican, Roman Catholic, United, Pentecostal and an Evangelist church. The Pentecostal church, called Seaway Christian Church, is located on Churchill Road and the Evangelist church, called Harvest Church, is located on Edward Street; services are currently held in these churches regularly.

St. Andrew's Presbyterian church is located on the corner of Centre and Dibble Street in Prescott. The first St. Andrew's Presbyterian, located on the same site as the current church, was constructed in 1821 and dedicated in 1822. The first church was a frame structure built on land donated by Susannah Jessup. This church was replaced in 1850 by a stone church, which burned in 1892. The present building that replaced it was constructed in 1893. Prior to this church, the Presbyterian congregation met in the schoolhouse at the corner of West and King Street. St. Andrew's is still in use today.

St. John's Anglican Church in Prescott is located at the corner of James and Centre Street. The original St. John's Church on this site was a frame building constructed in 1821. The land for the church was donated by Susannah Jessup. The present church, which is still in use, was constructed in 1860 in a Gothic style to replace the original frame building. Some parts of the building are currently being renovated into apartments.

The Roman Catholic church, known as St. Mark's Roman Catholic Church, was built in the 1830s on land purchased from the Jessup family. Prior to its construction, a Roman Catholic priest served the area out of homes or community buildings. The present church stands in the exact location as the original St. Mark's on Dibble Street.

Currently, St. Paul's United Church is located on George Street; however, the former site of St. Paul's United Church was on Dibble Street, near St. Mark's church. Between 1854 and 1856, the Wesleyan Methodist congregation in Prescott planned, financed and erected their own church. This church became known as St. Paul's United Church. On July 28, 1979, the church was burned beyond repair and demolished. Sometime after the fire, a new St. Paul's United Church was built to serve the congregation; this school is still used today.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Prescott had a population of $4,078$ living in $1,889$ of its $1,993$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $4,222$. With a land area of 4.94 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Mother tongue:
 * English as first language: 91%
 * French as first language: 4%
 * English and French as first language: 0%
 * Other as first language: 5%

Notable people

 * Leo Boivin, ice hockey player and member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
 * Jean Casselman Wadds, politician
 * James Morrow Walsh, North-West Mounted Police officer
 * Ben Hutton, ice hockey player
 * Thomas Pope, mayor of Quebec City 1861–1863
 * Alaine Chartrand, figure skater
 * Sir Richard William Scott, politician and cabinet minister
 * Bruce Hutchison, author and journalist
 * Edward Jessup III, politician
 * Hamilton Dibble Jessup, doctor and politician
 * Earl Roche, professional hockey player
 * John Philip Wiser, Canadian distiller

title: Prescott, Ontario