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Solingen

Solingen (Solich) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located some 25 km east of Düsseldorf along the northern edge of the region called Bergisches Land, south of the Ruhr area, and, with a 2009 population of 161,366, is after Wuppertal the second-largest city in the Bergisches Land. It is a member of the regional authority of the Rhineland.

Solingen is called the "City of Blades", since it has long been renowned for the manufacturing of fine swords, knives, scissors and razors made by famous firms such as WKC, DOVO, Wüsthof, Zwilling J. A. Henckels, Böker, Güde, Hubertus, Diefenthal, Puma, Clauberg/Klauberg, Eickhorn, Linder, Carl Schmidt Sohn, Dreiturm, Herder, Martor Safety Knives, Wolfertz and numerous other manufacturers.

In medieval times, the swordsmiths of Solingen designed the town's coat of arms, which continues to the present. In the latter part of the 17th century, a group of swordsmiths from Solingen broke their guild oaths by taking their sword-making secrets with them to Shotley Bridge, County Durham in England.

Geography
Solingen lies southwest of Wuppertal in the Bergisches Land. The city has an area of 89.45 km2, of which roughly 50% is used for agriculture, horticulture, or forestry. The city's border is 62 km long, and the city's dimensions are 15.6 km east to west and 11.7 km north to south. The Wupper river, a right tributary of the Rhine, flows through the city for 26 km. The city's highest point at 276 metres (906 ft) is in the northern borough of Gräfrath at the Light Tower, previously the water tower, and the lowest point at 53 metres (174 ft) is in the southwest.

Neighbouring cities and communities
The following cities and communities share a border with Solingen, starting in the northeast and going clockwise around the city:
 * Wuppertal (unitary urban district)
 * Remscheid (unitary urban district)
 * Wermelskirchen (within the Rheinisch-Bergischer district)
 * Leichlingen (Rheinisch-Bergischer district)
 * Langenfeld (within the district of Mettmann)
 * Hilden (Mettmann)
 * Haan (Mettmann)

City administration
Solingen currently consists of five boroughs. Each borough has a municipal council of either 13 or 15 representatives (Bezirksvertreter) elected every five years by the borough's population. The municipal councils are responsible for many of the boroughs' important administrative affairs.

The five city boroughs:
 * Gräfrath
 * Wald (Solingen)
 * (Solingen-)Mitte
 * Ohligs/Aufderhöhe/Merscheid
 * Höhscheid/Burg

The individuals boroughs are in part composed of separate quarters or residential areas with their own names, although they often lack precise borders. These areas are:

 * Aufderhöhe: Aufderbech, Börkhaus, Gosse, Horn, Holzhof, Josefstal, Landwehr, Löhdorf, Pohligsfeld, Riefnacken, Rupelrath, Siebels, Steinendorf, Ufer, Wiefeldick
 * Burg: Angerscheid, Höhrath
 * Gräfrath: Central, Flachsberg, Flockertsholz, Focher Dahl, Fürkeltrath, Heide, Ketzberg, Külf, Nümmen, Piepersberg, Rathland, Schieten, Zum Holz
 * Höhscheid: Balkhausen, Bünkenberg, Dorperhof, Friedrichstal, Fürkelt, Glüder, Grünewald, Haasenmühle, Hästen, Katternberg, Kohlsberg, Meiswinkel, Nacken, Pfaffenberg, Pilghausen, Rölscheid, Rüden, Schaberg, Schlicken, Unnersberg, Weeg, Widdert, Wippe
 * Merscheid: Büschberg, Dahl, Dingshaus, Fürk, Fürker Irlen, Gönrath, Hübben, Hoffnung, Limminghofen, Scheuren, Schmalzgrube
 * Mitte: Entenpfuhl, Eick, Grunenburg, Hasseldelle, Kannenhof, Kohlfurth, Krahenhöhe, Mangenberg, Meigen, Müngsten, Papiermühle, Scheidt, Schlagbaum, Schrodtberg, Stöcken, Stockdum, Theegarten, Vorspel, Windfeln
 * Ohligs: Brabant, Broßhaus, Buschfeld, Caspersbroich, Deusberg, Engelsberger Hof, Hackhausen, Keusenhof, Mankhaus, Maubes, Monhofer Feld, Poschheide, Scharrenberg, Schnittert, Suppenheide, Unterland, Wilzhaus, Verlach
 * Wald: Bavert, Demmeltrath, Eschbach, Eigen, Fuhr, Garzenhaus, Itter, Kotzert, Lochbachtal, Rolsberg, Vogelsang, Weyer

Middle Ages
Solingen was first mentioned in 1067 by a chronicler who called the area "Solonchon". Early variations of the name included "Solengen", "Solungen", and "Soleggen", although the modern name seems to have been in use since the late 14th and early 15th centuries.

Blacksmiths' smelters, dating back over 2000 years, have been found around the town, adding to Solingen's fame as a Northern Europe blacksmith centre. Swords from Solingen have turned up in places such as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the British Isles. Northern Europe prized the quality of Solingen's manufactured weaponry, and they were traded across the European continent. Solingen today remains the knife-centre of Germany.

It was a tiny village for centuries, but became a fortified town in the 15th century.

Thirty Years' War
After being ravaged by the plague with about 1,800 deaths in 1614–1619, Solingen was heavily fought-over during the Thirty Years' War, repeatedly attacked and plundered, and the Burg Castle was destroyed.

Modern Age
Early in the 20th century, Ohligs's chief manufactures were cutlery and hardware, and there were iron-foundries and flour mills. Other industries were brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making. In 1929, Ohligs located in the Prussian Rhine Province, 17 mi by rail north of Cologne became part of Solingen.

In World War II, the Old Town was completely destroyed by a bombing raid by the RAF in 1944; 1,800 people died and over 1,500 people were injured. As such, there are few pre-war sites in the centre.

From 1945 to 1949 Solingen was part of the British occupation zone. Reconstruction of the old town began in 1949. The newly built Protestant church in Fronhof was consecrated in 1954, and the destroyed towers of the Catholic church of St. Clemens were rebuilt in a different style. By the end of the 1970s, the city's population had increased due to numerous new housing developments in all parts of the city. The city's infrastructure continued to grow, with the opening of the theatre and concert hall in 1963 and the construction of the Viehbachtalstraße motorway through the city in the late 1970s. In 1975, the city grew again with the incorporation of the previously independent town of Burg an der Wupper. In 1993, Solingen made international headlines for a right-wing extremist arson attack in which five Turkish girls and women were killed. The attack was followed by demonstrations and riots in the city.

Since the beginning of the new millennium, the Klingenstadt has undergone a massive transformation as a result of urban development projects such as Regionale 2006 and City 2013. For example, the new Korkenzieherstrasse cycle path was created and the demolition of the Turmhotel and the former Karstadt Passage made it possible to build a new shopping centre on Neumarkt in Solingen-Mitte. After the closure of the old central station in Solingen-Mitte, Ohligs station was officially named the new Solingen central station by Deutsche Bahn AG on 10 December 2006.

Population
Solingen's population doubled between the years 1880 and 1890 due to the incorporation of the town of Dorp into Solingen in 1889, at which time the population reached 36,000. The population again received a large boost on August 1, 1929 through the incorporation of Ohligs, Wald, Höhscheid, and Gräfrath into the city limits. This brought the population above the 100,000 mark, which gave Solingen the distinction of being a "large city" (Großstadt). The number of inhabitants peaked in 1971 with 177,899 residents, and the 2006 population figure was 163,263.

The following chart shows the population figures within Solingen's city limits at the respective points in time. The figures are derived from census estimates or numbers provided by statistical offices or city agencies, with the exception of figures preceding 1843, which were gathered using inconsistent recording techniques.

30.9% of the population of Solingen has foreign roots (statistics 2012).

Mayor
The people of Solingen have been able to elect a council and a mayor since 1374, the year the town was granted its charter. The mayor changed annually on 24 June. Solingen has had a mayor since 1896. During the National Socialist era (1933-1945), the mayor was appointed by the NSDAP and not democratically elected by the people of Solingen.

After the Second World War, the military government of the British occupation zone appointed a Lord Mayor. From 1946, the Solingen City Council elected an honorary Lord Mayor and a full-time Lord Mayor from among its members. Until 1997, the honorary lord mayors had mainly representative functions, while the full-time lord mayors were the chief administrative officers of the city of Solingen. In 1997, the dual leadership of the city administration was abolished. Since then there has been only one full-time Lord Mayor. He is the chairman of the council, the head of the city administration and the first representative of the city. Since 1999, the Lord Mayor has been directly elected by the electorate in a secret ballot.

The current Mayor of Solingen is Tim Kurzbach of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! %
 * align=left| Tim Kurzbach
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 31,836
 * 55.4
 * align=left| Carsten Heinrich Becker
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 15,776
 * 27.4
 * align=left| Raoul Torben Brattig
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 2,869
 * 5.0
 * align=left| Andreas Lukisch
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 2,499
 * 4.3
 * align=left| Adrian Scheffels
 * align=left| The Left
 * 2,172
 * 3.8
 * align=left| Andreas Lukisch
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 2,499
 * 4.3
 * align=left| Adrian Scheffels
 * align=left| The Left
 * 2,172
 * 3.8
 * 2,172
 * 3.8

! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 57,476 ! 99.1 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 523 ! 0.9 ! colspan=3| Total ! 57,999 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 126,301 ! 45.9
 * align=left| Jan Michael Lange
 * align=left| Citizens' Association for Solingen
 * 1,624
 * 2.8
 * align=left| Arnold Falkowski
 * align=left| Free Citizens' Union
 * 700
 * 1.2
 * align=left| Free Citizens' Union
 * 700
 * 1.2
 * colspan=5| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Solingen city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/− ! Seats ! +/− ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 57,314 ! 98.8 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 695 ! 1.2 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 58,009 ! 100.0 ! ! 52 ! ±0 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 126,301 ! 45.9 ! 2.2 ! !
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 17,326
 * 30.2
 * 3.9
 * 16
 * 1
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 16,229
 * 28.3
 * 1.3
 * 15
 * ±0
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 10,428
 * 18.2
 * 7.0
 * 9
 * 3
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 3,178
 * 5.5
 * 0.6
 * 3
 * ±0
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 2,892
 * 5.0
 * 2.1
 * 3
 * 1
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 2,435
 * 4.2
 * 0.7
 * 2
 * 1
 * align=left| Citizens' Association for Solingen (BfS)
 * 1,842
 * 3.2
 * 1.1
 * 2
 * ±0
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 1,367
 * 2.4
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * align=left| Alternative Citizens' Initiative (ABI)
 * 635
 * 1.1
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * align=left| Free Citizens' Union (FBU)
 * 531
 * 0.9
 * 0.5
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Solingen Active (Aktiv)
 * 417
 * 0.7
 * 0.7
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Independents
 * 34
 * 0.1
 * 0
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * align=left| Free Citizens' Union (FBU)
 * 531
 * 0.9
 * 0.5
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Solingen Active (Aktiv)
 * 417
 * 0.7
 * 0.7
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Independents
 * 34
 * 0.1
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Independents
 * 34
 * 0.1
 * 0
 * 0.1
 * 0
 * 0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Rail
Solingen Hauptbahnhof is served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn line S1 from Düsseldorf and Düsseldorf Airport Station. S-Bahn line S7 links Solingen (including the station nearest the city centre, Solingen Mitte, and Solingen-Grünewald) to Wuppertal via Remscheid, Remscheid-Lennep and Wuppertal-Ronsdorf. This line is currently operated by RheinRuhrBahn, a subsidiary of Transdev Germany. The Rhein-Wupper-Bahn (RB 48) runs over the Gruiten–Köln-Deutz line to Bonn-Mehlem via Opladen and Cologne. It has been operated by National Express as of 13 December 2015. Starting 11 December 2022, an additional line RE47, running from Remscheid to Düsseldorf via Solingen has been established. This line is served by Regiobahn.

Trolleybus
Solingen has a trolleybus network, one of only three in Germany remaining besides Eberswalde and Esslingen am Neckar.

Air transport
The nearest airports are Düsseldorf Airport and Cologne Bonn Airport. Both airports can be reached by train from Solingen-Hauptbahnhof (change trains at Köln Messe/Deutz station for the S-Bahn 13 to Cologne Bonn Airport). Other easily reached airports are Frankfurt Airport (ICE train stop), Dortmund Airport (railway station "Holzwickede" on the RE7 trainline) and the low cost Weeze Airport (coaches from Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof).

Christianity
Solingen has belonged from its beginnings to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne (Erzbistum Köln), and more specifically to the Archdeaconry of the Probst (provost) of St. Kunibert, the deanery of Deutz. Although the Protestant Reformation gradually made gains in the city, which was under the control of the Counts of Berg, the population by and large remained Roman Catholic for a while. The Catholic community was newly endowed by the local lord in 1658 and in 1701 received a new church building. In 1827 Solingen became the seat of its own deanery within the newly defined Archdiocese of Cologne, to which the city's current parishes still belong.

As mentioned, the Reformation only gradually gained a foothold in Solingen. A reformed church affiliated with the Bergisch synod was established in 1590, and the city's parish church became reformed in 1649. Lutherans had been present in Solingen since the beginning of the 17th century, and a Lutheran congregation was founded in 1635. In 1672 a formalized religious agreement was reached between the city's religious groups. The Reformation was also introduced in Gräfrath in 1590, where a church council was apparently established in 1629. The Reformed and Lutheran churches were formed into a united church community in 1838 following the general merger of Reformed and Lutheran churches in Prussia in 1817.

The Protestant parishes originally belonged to the district synod of Lennep, today part of the city Remscheid. A new synod was established in Solingen in 1843, and the city acquired its own superintendent, a form of church administrator. This formed the basis for the present-day Church District of Solingen, a member of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland. With the exception of the free churches, most Protestant churches belong to the Church District of Solingen.

Today approximately 34% of Solingen's population belongs to Protestant churches, and roughly 26% belong to Catholic churches. Other church communities in Solingen include Greek Orthodox, Evangelical Free (including Baptist and Brethren), Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, and free churches. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses and the New Apostolic Church also have communities in Solingen.

Islam
Most of the Turkish immigrants belong to the Muslim faith and they have several mosques/worship places in Solingen:
 * DITIB Solingen Wald
 * Mesjid Nur
 * Islamische Gemeinde Milli Görüs (IGMG)
 * Islamisches Kulturzentrum
 * Solingen Camii (Verband der Islamischen Kulturzentren, VIKZ)

Main sights

 * Burg Castle, the castle of the counts of Berg
 * Müngsten Bridge, a railway bridge connecting Solingen with the neighbour town of Remscheid. Standing at 107 m above the ground, it is the highest railway bridge in Germany. It was constructed in 1897 and originally named the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Brücke after Wilhelm I
 * Klosterkirche, former convent church (1690)

Museums

 * Rhineland Industrial Museum Hendrichs Drop Forge, an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage
 * German Blade Museum, presenting swords and cutlery of all epochs
 * Art Museum Solingen (Museum of Art)
 * Museum Plagiarius, the Plagiarius exhibition shows more than 350 product units – i.e., original products and their brazen plagiarisms – in direct comparison. The registered society conducts an annual competition that awards the anti-prize "Plagiarius" to those manufacturers and distributors that a jury of peers have found guilty of making or selling "the most flagrant" imitations.
 * Laurel and Hardy Museum
 * Zentrum für verfolgte Künste (Center for Persecuted Arts)

Parks and gardens

 * Botanischer Garten Solingen, a botanical garden
 * Bärenloch
 * Walder Stadtpark in Solingen-Wald
 * Gustav-Coppel-Park
 * Süd-Park
 * Brückenpark beneath the Müngsten Bridge

American football
The Solingen Paladins is an American football club which was founded in 2006.

Association football
Until its bankruptcy in 1990, SG Union Solingen was the main club, playing at the Stadion am Hermann-Löns-Weg.

Baseball
The Solingen Alligators are a baseball and softball club from Solingen. The club was founded in 1991 and the first men's team was promoted to the first division of the Baseball Bundesliga for the 2003 season. It has played there in every season since, winning the league championship in 2006 and 2014. The club claims over 250 members.

Chess
The Schachgesellschaft Solingen e.V. 1868 is best known for its chess team, which plays in the Schachbundesliga (Chess Bundesliga), the top tier of the German chess league system, and is the most successful club in German chess history, having won a record 12 national titles (1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1980/81, 1986/87, 1987/88, 1996/97 and 2015/16), three national cups (1986, 2006 und 2009) and 2 European cups (1976 and 1990).

Handball
In handball, Solingen's most successful team is Bergischer HC, playing in the top-tier Handball-Bundesliga which they were promoted to for the second time in 2013, reaching 15th place in the 2013–14 campaign and therefore staying in the top flight for a second consecutive season. BHC originates from a 2006 cooperation between the SG Solingen and rivals LTV Wuppertal from the nearby city of the same name. The club advertises itself as a representative of the entire Bergisches Land region. The team plays its home games at both Solingen's Klingenhalle (2,600 seats) and Wuppertal's Uni-Halle (3,200 seats).

Reception
In May 1955, the city of Solingen took over the partnership of the German general cargo ship Solingen of the Hamburg-American Packet Transit Actien-Gesellschaft (Hapag).

Twin towns – sister cities
Solingen is twinned with:

 * Gouda, Netherlands (1957)
 * 🇫🇷 Chalon-sur-Saône, France (1960)
 * 🏴 Blyth, England, United Kingdom (1962)
 * Jinotega, Nicaragua (1985)
 * 🇮🇱 Ness Ziona, Israel (1986)
 * 🇸🇳 Thiès, Senegal (1990)
 * 🇩🇪 Aue, Germany (1990)

Since 1990, Solingen also sponsors Złotoryja County in Poland.

Notable people

 * Johann Wilhelm Meigen (1764–1845), entomologist
 * J. C. C. Devaranne (1784–1813), helped to lead resistance against Napoleonic occupation in 1813
 * Karl Mager (1810–1858), school educator and school politician
 * Karl Adams (1811–1849), mathematician and teacher
 * Albert Bierstadt (1830–1902), landscape painter
 * Adolf Kamphausen (1829–1909), biblical scholar
 * Carl Klönne (1850–1915), banker
 * Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853–1923), chemist
 * Ludwig Woltmann (1871–1907), anthropologist, zoologist and neo-Kantian
 * Artur Möller van den Bruck (1876–1925), writer
 * Albert Müller (1891–1954), communist and politician
 * Paul Voss (1894–1976), designer
 * Paul Franken (1894–1944), socialist politician, victim of Stalinism
 * Karl Allmenröder (1896–1917), fighter pilot
 * Hanns Heinen (1895–1961), writer, journalist and publicist
 * Carl Clauberg (1898–1957), Nazi gynecologist and war criminal
 * Erwin Bowien (1899–1972), painter and writer
 * Hermann Friedrich Graebe (1900–1986), manager and engineer, 'Righteous Among the Nations' by Israel
 * Josef Dahmen (1903–1985), actor
 * Adolf Eichmann (1906–1962), SS-Obersturmbannführer and major organiser of the Holocaust
 * Georg Meistermann (1911–1990), painter of sacred and secular glass windows
 * Jürgen Thorwald (1915–2006), writer, journalist and historian
 * Christel Rupke (1919–1998), swimmer
 * Walter Scheel (1919–2016), politician (FDP), the 4th President of Germany (1974–1979)
 * Bettina Heinen-Ayech (1937–2020), painter and publicist
 * Klaus Lehnertz (born 1938), athlete
 * Adolf Weil (1938–2011), motocross rider
 * Christoph Wolff (born 1940), musicologist
 * Pina Bausch (1940–2009), dancer and choreographer
 * Ulay (1943–2020), artist
 * Wolfgang Schwerk (born 1955), Ultramarathon runner
 * Timotheus Höttges (born 1962), CEO of Deutsche Telekom
 * Richard David Precht (born 1964), philosopher, writer and publicist
 * Veronica Ferres (born 1965), actress
 * Sebastian Thrun (born 1967), entrepreneur, educator and computer scientist
 * Jens Weidmann (born 1968), President of Deutsche Bundesbank
 * Mola Adebisi (born 1973), TV-presenter
 * Marco Matias (born 1975), German-Portuguese singer
 * Fahriye Evcen (born 1986), actress
 * Kevin Kampl (born 1990), Slovenian footballer
 * Christoph Kramer (born 1991), footballer

The founders of Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, which later became the automobile company Studebaker, trace their lineage to bladesmen from the region that migrated to America in 1736.

title: Solingen


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Molde Airport

Molde Airport (Molde lufthavn; ) is an international airport serving the town of Molde, Norway. It is on the shore of the Moldefjord at Årø, 5 km east of town center. The airport's catchment area covers the district of Romsdal.

The airport features a runway measuring 2220 by, aligned 07/25. Owned and operated by the state-owned Avinor, the airport served 481,406 passengers in 2014. Scheduled services are provided domestically to Oslo by Scandinavian Airlines and Norwegian Air Shuttle, and to Bergen, Stord and Trondheim by Widerøe.

Proposals for an airport serving Molde were discussed from 1940, but the neighboring towns of Ålesund and Kristiansund were ultimately prioritized. Construction commenced in 1969 and the airport opened on 5 April 1972. Scheduled services were granted to Braathens SAFE, who variously operated Fokker F-27s and Fokker F-28s, later also with larger Boeing 737s. The government took over operation from 1978. New or expansions of the terminals have taken place four times, in 1982, 1993, 2008 and 2012. Inclusive tour (IT) charters have been offered since 2004.

Planning
Proposals for an airport serving Molde were first put forward in 1940. Following the German occupation of Norway, Luftwaffe was interested in building an airfield to cover the county of Møre og Romsdal. They considered two sites—Årø and the island of Gossen in Aukra. The latter was selected, resulting in the construction of Aukra Airport, Gossen with its 1600 m wooden runway. Following the end of the war, a civilian commission looked into building a civilian, central airport for the county. It concluded that Gossen was a suitable site as it was flat and situated between the major towns of Ålesund and Molde. Significant investments had been made and the cost of converting the facility to a civilian airport would be low. However, there was some opposition to the plans. There were complaints that the airport was located too far from Kristiansund and Ålesund and that the county would be best served with multiple airports. Parliament approved the airport at Gossen in 1952.

West Norway Airlines established a seaplane route from Bergen via Ålesund, Molde and Kristiansund to Trondheim in 1950. In Molde it operated out of a water airport situated at the port in the town center. The airline proposed in 1954 that four short take-off and landing airports be built along the coast, including one in Molde. They hoped to serve these using Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneers. Årø was the preferred site, although Langmyren was also considered. However, the aircraft were not approved by the authorities, mostly because of an insufficient de-icing system. This resulted in that the plans for Ålesund Airport, Vigra to be prioritized, and soon the site was upgraded to primary airport, allowing it to open on 7 June 1958. West Norway Airlines closed shut down its flights from Molde after the 1956 season.

As a response, Molde Municipality established an airport committee in September 1958 and bought land at Årø, which at the time was located in the municipality of Bolsøy. Led by merchant Petter Pettersson, it proposed the construction of a 1250 m runway, allowing it to handle Braathens SAFE's Fokker F-27 Friendships. At this time Molde Municipality was free to build a municipal airport, granted it followed safety regulations. This required trial landings, but due to limited capacity these were not conducted by the Civil Aviation Administration until October 1961. By then the rules had changed and airports needed a state concession to operate. A government airport commission was approved in 1962, placing all local airport plans on hold. The commission recommended that new safety margins be introduced, forcing a larger plot of land to be acquired. The effected land owners were not interested in selling, forcing the municipality to expropriate the land. The issue was not finalized until the Supreme Court came with a final ruling in favor of the municipality.

The state commission considered several locations which could serve Molde and Kristiansund, either jointly or by building two airports. Discarded sites included Gossen, Ytre Fræna, Henda in Averøy, Osmarka and Tingvoll. Only Årø and Kvernberget in Kristiansund were found suitable, with pivoting emphasis laid on their vicinity to their respective town centers. The commission concluded in 1964 that Kristiansund would receive the highest priority, along with Harstad/Narvik Airport, Evenes. Molde was ranked third.

Molde Municipality accepted the priority, but determined in June 1965 that they were free to finance an airport themselves. The municipal administration started working on plans and on 26 April 1966 Braathens SAFE confirmed that the airline was willing to connect Molde to Oslo, Trondheim and Bergen. Årø was aided in 1968 when the Civil Aviation Administration altered the priority of the airports, placing Molde at the top. It cited lower investments, stipulated at 13.2 million Norwegian krone rather than 22.4 million for Kvernberget. The municipality contacted contractor Olav T. Meisingset, who came with a bid for the leveling of the site. The municipality secured a loan from Kommunal Landspensjonskasse and applied the Ministry of Transport and Communications in 1969 for permission to start construction. They stated they were neutral, while the Ministry of Local Government was positive. By then construction of Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget was already under way, with the airport opening on 30 June 1970. There was a certain amount of controversy regarding the construction of Molde Airport. This would leave a smaller catchment area for the two airports, which could jeopardize good services from the region as a whole.

Construction
Ground work was contracted to Olav T. Meisingset & Co., with work commencing in early 1969. They used 110,000 man-hours to move 750000 m3 of earthwork. This involved filling in part of Moldefjorden, although the moraine ground eased the work. At the most thirty people were working on the project. When the groundwork was completed, there was interest from private aircraft to land. They were only held off by placing construction equipment strategically along the runway. After the asphalt was laid in 1970, the first such aircraft landed. They continued to use the aerodrome during the winter, without any official permission, yet without the airport authority taking any action to hinder the use. The first official landing was a test flight flown by the CAA on 17 March 1971. Next work commenced on the terminal, operations building and control tower. The main contractor was Arne Moen.

Airport employees started their new jobs on 1 March 1972. The same day Braathens SAFE opened a ticket office at Godtfred Lies plass in downtown Molde. The office also handled local sale of tickets for Widerøe. The official opening of the airport took place on 5 April and was attended by between seven and eight thousand people. The airport initially had fourteen employees. At the time of opening the instrument landing system was not yet installed. A non-directional beacon was installed on Tautra and a visual approach slope indicator at the runway. Later in 1972 two localizers were installed. The airport received a café.

Early operational history
The airport was dimensioned to handle one Fokker F-27 Friendship at a time. These aircraft were used by Braathens SAFE on both the coastal routes and the services to the capital. The 1972 summer routes involved three daily services to Oslo Airport, Fornebu, including one with a stop-over in Ålesund. Some of the larger routes instead were flown using the Fokker F-28 Fellowship. There were also three daily services on the coastal route. In cases when Ålesund Airport, Vigra was closed, Braathens would land their larger 124-seat Boeing 737-200s at Årø, making the terminal feel cramped.

Braathens SAFE were awarded the routes to the three primary airports in Møre og Romsdal as part of an arrangement where they split the primary market between themselves and Scandinavian Airlines System. Ålesund had by far the most traffic, about three times that of Molde and Kristiansund. Because they had to operate to three airports in close vicinity, they were unable to operate profitably from any of them. The services were cross-subsidized by the airline being granted monopolies on other routes with higher ridership and profitable operations.

Molde Aero Klubb was established on 6 October 1972. It initially had limited activity and did not have its own aircraft until November 1984. However, many of its members owned their own aircraft. Møre Flyklubb based its Piper Cherokees at Årø. In the first full year of operation—1973—the airport handled 70,227 passengers. Construction of oil platforms was carried out in Åndalsnes during the 1970s, leadingto frequent use of the airport by business jets. To bypass two ferry rides, a seaplane base was built at Årø to allow for connecting flights to the yard.

Increased ridership caused Braathens SAFE to replace all its F-27 turboprops with larger F-28 turbojets out of Molde from 1 June 1976. F-28s had until then only been used on Oslo-bound flights via Ålesund to Oslo, as well as on some coastal services. Travel time on direct Oslo flights was cut by 25 minutes. During the late 1970s Braathens SAFE introduced the Boeing 737 on the Oslo flights. Meanwhile, a court case was raised by thirty-four neighbors who demanded compensation due to noise pollution. Nineteen of these were awarded compensation by the court in 1998.

Ownership and operation of the airport passed from the municipality to the state, through the Civil Aviation Administration, in 1978. This led to more manning of the facility. The airport increased from three to four shifts—increasing its opening hours—and also increased the number of people per shift from three to four. New ground vehicles were also bought. Ridership fell the first years after the opening, and not until 90,063 passengers passed through the airport in 1978 did patronage exceed the 1973 figures. The first major project initiated by the CAA was the construction of a maintenance building. The municipality had let snowplows and other equipment stay parked outdoors, causing them to dilapidate into a state of disrepair. The 720 m2 structure opened in 1980. The apron for general aviation was expanded simultaneously.

The CAA's next investment was a new passenger terminal. It included amenities such as a baggage carousel—allowing passengers for the first time to pick up their baggage indoors. With 106,823 passengers in 1982, the airport exceeded the six-digit mark for the first time. A parachute club, Molde Fallskjermklubb, was founded in 1985.

Busy Bee started flights to Molde on 3 March 1980, using a F-27 to fly post to Oslo. Passengers were introduced on these flights from 1985. Braathens SAFE sold their F-28s in 1986. The West Coast route saw only an average 32 passengers to and from Bergen and Stavanger, and 23 to Kristiansund per day. Too small for Boeings, Braathens subcontracted the operations to is regional affiliate, Busy Bee, from March 1986. Patronage to Oslo increased sufficiently that Braathens the same year eliminated all stop-overs in Ålesund. The first proposals for charter flights were launched by Gullivers Reisebyrå in January 1986. They intended to fly a connecting flight to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen and from there onwards to the Mediterranean. Although a contract was signed with Busy Bee, noting came of the plans due to limited interest. Widerøe withdrew from services at Molde in 1987.

An airport coach service was introduced on 4 January 1988. The same year the CAA announced plans to build a new terminal and operations building. Traffic grew rapidly during the 1980s and hit 173,530 passengers that year. Meanwhile, there was a discussion if there was need for both Årø and Kvernberget, and both airports were proposed closed. However, the move was never official from either the CAA nor any political agencies and was confined to speculations in the press. The background for was the 1991 opening of the Kristiansand Fixed Link, which removed the ferry between the two towns.

The airport was partially flooded on 19 January 1989 when Årlelva breached its banks. The riverbed was subsequently moved and areas was freed up to allow for more parking, both on the air and land side. The airport partook in a major military exercise in 1991. The discussion regarding the airport's future was sealed on 6 April 1992 when the CAA announced the construction of a new terminal. Work commenced later that year and Braathens SAFE followed up with the construction of a freight terminal. The CAA invested NOK 54 million, of which 30 million was for the terminal. The airport was closed for a week in September 1993 to re-asphalt the runway and move systems to the new terminal, which opened on 13 September. It was designed to handle 300,000 passengers per year and had three gates. In addition to larger arrival and departure halls, offices were provided for car rental companies. After the official opening took place on 14 October, the old terminal building was demolished to make way for more parking.

Deregulation
Traffic hit 201,864 passengers in 1993. That year Busy Bee folded and their regional routes were taken over by Norwegian Air Shuttle, using the Fokker 50. The airline market was deregulated on 1 April 1994; thereafter any airline was free to fly any route in Norway. SAS chose initially to not take up the competition with Braathens out of Molde, and the only immediate effect was a slight hike in ticket prices. Later that year Braathens increased from three to four daily services to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. An air show was held at the airport on 30 June 1996, but it proved a failure due to overcast weather. The control tower was upgraded in 1997. As an interim solution a temporary tower was erected to serve in its place.

From 1 September 1997 security controls were introduced on a limited number of domestic passengers and all international passengers. This led to the physical separation of the check-in and departure halls. For passengers this had a dramatic effect on travel times. Passengers without check-in baggage had previously been able to meet at the airport five to ten minutes before boarding time and reach their aircraft. Security controls became a bottle-neck, with peaks just before departures and otherwise minimal traffic. Long queues were commonplace.

Molde FK had a good spell in European football before and after the turn of the millennium. Chartered aircraft with players and supporters attending games at Molde stadion normally constituted the bulk of international passengers at the airport in these years. The Danish carriers Muk Air and Scan Con Airways flew charter services from Molde to Aalborg Airport and Thisted Airport, respectively during the summer of 2000. Muk operated a Shorts 360 while Scan Con operated an Embraer 110 Bandeirante. The airport served 311,988 passengers that year, but fell the following years as part of the general slump in the aviation market.

Braathens was bought by SAS and became part of the SAS Group on 1 September 2002. That day SAS Ground Services took over ground handling at the airport. SAS Commuter look over Norwegian Air Shuttle's regional routes on 31 March 2003. Norwegian instead relaunched itself as a low-cost carrier. It opened a route from Molde to Oslo using a Boeing 737-300 from 19 June. It flew once a day during the afternoon. Although featuring low prices, its inconvenient time slot left it with few passengers, especially business travelers. Norwegian pulled out of the route in January 2004. The first inclusive tour (IT) charter was started by Apollo on 14 June to Crete. It was flown weekly by a Boeing 737-700 operated by Braathens. Combined the football and IT charters drew 3,037 international passengers to the airport in 2003.

Molde's first airline was Classic Norway Air, established with a Jetstream 31 in 2004. Its business idea was to fly tourists staying at their resorts in Romsdal. Braathens merged with Scandinavian Airlines in Norway to create SAS Braathens that year. They introduced Molde's first international route, to Barcelona, six Sundays starting 20 June. Work on the gas terminal at Nyhamna in Gossen started in May 2004. With many construction workers from other parts of the country and abroad, it brought an increase to traffic at the airport. Most of this flying was subcontracted to Atlantic Airways. They flew up to two daily charter flights to Gdańsk as well as weekly services to Inverness, Newcastle, Billund, Bergen, Stord and Stavanger.

IT charter services to Las Palmas commenced on 28 October 2005. Work on a new operations building started in December, costing 60 million kroner. Coast Air introduced services from Molde to Haugesund, Bergen and Trondheim in 2006 and West Air Sweden won the contract to fly the post. SAS Braathens had by then increased to five daily flights to Oslo and reached a load factor of ninety percent.

Work on the extension of the runway started on 31 January 2007, involving the moving of 700000 m3 of earthwork. The runway was extended westwards, causing a new ILS system to be installed in that direction. Costing 57 million kroner, the work saw the strip extended by 379 m to 2120 m. The extension opened on 1 July 2008. Although this allowed for longer take-off runs, the landing distances were unaffected. This allows the airport to serve as large aircraft as the Boeing 757-200 on a trans-Atlantic route.

Vildanden introduced a daily service to Skien Airport, Geiteryggen on 26 February 2007. They never reached their target ridership and terminated the route in November. With the completion of Nyhamna in the summer, ridership at the airport began to fall, dropping by 110,000 in 2008. Ving and Star Tour introduced winter IT charters to Las Palmas from October. This spurred the need for a larger terminal, with construction starting in March 2008. When completed, it could handle a full 180-seat Boeing 737-800 at both the domestic and international sections simultaneously. It also featured a duty-free shop.

Centralwings started a scheduled service to Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport and Warsaw Airport on 18 February 2009. Unstable use caused it to be terminated in April. Norwegian resumed flights from Oslo to Molde on 20 August, this time using their 737-800s twice daily. SAS responded by reducing their services from five to three daily flights. Norwegian thereafter, from 1 September, introduced a third daily service. Between them ridership increased by twenty percent. Røros Flyservice was established at the airport to provide ground handling for Norwegian.

SAS terminated its Trondheim service from 1 February 2010. Within days Krohn Air was established to operate the route, using a wet leased 32-passenger Dornier 328. SAS Commuter terminated its West Coast operations in June 2010 and transferred these to Widerøe, who introduced 50- and 74-seat Bombardier Dash 8-300s and -400, respectively. Korhn Air introduced flights to Bergen from 31 August. It followed up in September with flights to Stavanger Airport, Sola. Both the Stavanger and Bergen flights were unprofitable and terminated on 19 November 2010.

A further terminal extension was completed in 2012, consisting of 570 m2, mostly as a new second story. Of this, 200 m2 features a duty-free store. Krohn Air ceased all operations on 4 February 2014, and filed for bankruptcy the following day. Widerøe commenced flights on the Molde–Trondheim route from 1 September 2014. Wizz Air introduced two weekly flights from Gdańsk Airport to Molde starting 30 March 2015.

Facilities
Molde Airport is situated along Moldefjorden at Årø, 5 km from the town center. Owned and operated by the state-owned Avinor, it is the sole airport with scheduled services in Romsdal. It features an asphalt runway with physical dimensions 2220 by aligned 07/25. It has a takeoff run available (TORA) of 2120 and 2080 m on runways 07 and 25, respectively, and a landing distance available (LDA) of 1980 m. It is equipped with a category I instrument landing system in both directions. The airport is equipped with category 7 fire and rescue service. There is no parallel taxiway. The airport resides at a reference elevation of 3 m above mean sea level.

About 200 people work at the airport. It has opening hours from 05:30 to 23:00. There is parking for 600 cars. The airport is situated immediately off European Road E39. There is apron parking for six jetliners, as well as a general aviation area.

The departures area has dining area and a duty-free store. The operations building measures 2600 m2 and consists of offices, the fire station, garages and workshops. Aviation fuel is provided by Shell. Jetpak SAS Cargo owns a freight terminal, situated between the passenger terminal and the operations building. The control tower is located on an artificial peninsula on the south side of the runway. It provides aerodrome flight information service. The air space around the airport is controlled by Vigra Approach.

Airlines and destinations
The busiest route out of Molde are services to Oslo, which are flown by Norwegian Air Shuttle, with three daily round trips using Boeing 737s. Regional carrier Widerøe flies multiple daily trips to Trondheim and Bergen, using Bombardier Dash 8s. Årø served 481,406 passengers, 9,412 aircraft movements and handled 3,517 tonnes of cargo in 2014. Molde is the airport which handles the fourth-most domestic post in the country. Operation of the airport ran at a deficit of NOK 40 million in 2012.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Molde Airport


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Lunar day

A lunar day is the time it takes for Earth's Moon to complete on its axis one synodic rotation, meaning with respect to the Sun. Informally, a lunar day and a lunar night is each approx. 14 Earth days. The formal lunar day is therefore the time of a full lunar day-night cycle. Due to tidal locking, this equals the time that the Moon takes to complete one synodic orbit around Earth, a synodic lunar month, returning to the same lunar phase. The synodic period is about $29 1/2$ Earth days, which is about 2.2 days longer than its sidereal period.

Main definition
Relative to the fixed stars on the celestial sphere, the Moon takes 27 Earth days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 12 seconds to complete one orbit; however, since the Earth–Moon system advances around the Sun at the same time, the Moon must travel farther to return to the same phase. On average, this synodic period lasts 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds, the length of a lunar month on Earth. The exact length varies over time because the speed of the Earth–Moon system around the Sun varies slightly during a year due to the eccentricity of its elliptical orbit, variances in orbital velocity, and a number of other periodic and evolving variations about its observed, relative, mean values, which are influenced by the gravitational perturbations of the Sun and other bodies in the Solar System.

As a result, daylight at a given point on the Moon lasts approximately two weeks from beginning to end, followed by approximately two weeks of lunar night.

Alternate usage

 * The term lunar day may also refer to the period between moonrises or high moon in a particular location on Earth. This period is typically about 50 minutes longer than a 24-hour Earth day, as the Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth's axial rotation.
 * The term lunar day is also used in the context of night and day, i.e., opposite to the lunar night. This is common in discussions of the huge difference in temperatures, such as discussion about lunar rovers. For example, "the Soviet Union's Luna missions [...] were designed to survive one lunar day (two Earth weeks)", while China's Yutu-2 rover, which landed in January 2019, was designed to survive lunar nights by shutting down.

Lunar calendars
In some lunar calendars, such as the Vikram Samvat, a lunar day, or tithi, is defined as 1/30 of a lunar month, or the time it takes for the longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun to increase by 12 degrees. By this definition, lunar days generally vary in duration.

title: Lunar day


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Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood

Mary, Princess Royal (Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary; 25 April 1897 – 28 March 1965) was a member of the British royal family. She was the only daughter of King George V and Queen Mary, the sister of Kings Edward VIII and George VI, and aunt of Elizabeth II. In the First World War, she performed charity work in support of servicemen and their families. She married Henry Lascelles, Viscount Lascelles (later the 6th Earl of Harewood), in 1922. Mary was given the title of Princess Royal in 1932. During the Second World War, she was Controller Commandant of the Auxiliary Territorial Service. The Princess Royal and the Earl of Harewood had two sons, George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood, and The Honourable Gerald Lascelles.

Early life and education

Princess Mary was born on 25 April 1897 at York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of her great-grandmother Queen Victoria. She was the third child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York. Her father was the only surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, while her mother was the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. She was named Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary, after her paternal great-grandmother Queen Victoria; her paternal grandmother, Alexandra, Princess of Wales; her maternal grandmother, Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck; and her great-aunt, Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine, with whom she shared a birthday. She was known by the last of her Christian names, Mary. She was fifth in the line of succession at the time of her birth, preceded by her grandfather, father, and elder brothers Edward and Albert, though would later move down the line after the births of her younger brothers Henry, George, and John.

She was baptised at St Mary Magdalene's Church near Sandringham on 7 June 1897 by William Dalrymple Maclagan, Archbishop of York. Her godparents were: the Queen (her great-grandmother); the King of the Hellenes (her paternal great-uncle); the Dowager Empress of Russia (her paternal great-aunt); the Prince and Princess of Wales (her paternal grandparents); the Duchess of Teck (her maternal grandmother); Princess Victoria of Wales (her paternal aunt); and Prince Francis of Teck (her maternal uncle). Her grandfather ascended the throne in 1901 when Mary was three years old.

Princess Mary was educated by governesses, but shared some lessons with her brothers, Edward, Albert, and Henry. She became fluent in German and French, and developed a lifelong interest in horses and horse racing. Her first state appearance was at the coronation of her parents, King George V and Queen Mary at Westminster Abbey on 22 June 1911.

Charity work
During World War I, Princess Mary visited hospitals and welfare organisations with her mother; assisting with projects to give comfort to British servicemen and assistance to their families. One of these projects was Princess Mary's Christmas Gift Fund, through which a total of £100,000 worth of gifts was sent to serving British soldiers and sailors for Christmas, 1914, (the equivalent of £ in when adjusted for inflation). She took an active role in promoting the Girl Guide movement, the VADs, and the Land Girls. In June 1918, following an announcement in The Gentlewoman, she began a nursing course at Great Ormond Street Hospital, working two days a week in the Alexandra Ward.

On 20 November 1918, Princess Mary became the first member of the royal family to visit France following the Armistice. She visited centres associated with Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps or Voluntary Aid Detachment Units, and hospitals with wounded soldiers.

Princess Mary's public duties reflected her concerns with nursing, the Girl Guide movement, and the Women's Services. In the period leading up to her marriage, girls and women in the British Empire named Mary or its variants (including Marie, May and Miriam) banded together to form "The Marys of the Empire," and donated money toward a wedding present. She presented this fund to the Girl Guides Association for the purchase of the estate of Foxlease, and following the exhibition of her wedding presents, she also contributed half the proceeds to the same cause, for upkeep, a total of £10,000, which enabled the project to go ahead.

She became honorary president of the British Girl Guide Association in 1920, a position she held until her death. She received the Silver Fish Award, Girl Guiding's highest adult honour, in recognition of her contribution to the movement. It was reported in July 2013 that British Pathé had discovered newsreel film from 1927 in which the ancestors of Catherine Middleton are, as Lord Mayors of Leeds, playing host to Princess Mary at the Young Women's Christian Association in Hunslet, Leeds; both Sir Charles Lupton and his brother Hugh Lupton, were the uncles of Olive Middleton, the Princess of Wales's great-grandmother. In 1921, the Princess became the first patron of the Not Forgotten Association, a position she held until her death in 1965. The charity's first Christmas Tea Party was organised by Mary and held at St James's Palace in 1921 when she invited 600 wounded servicemen for afternoon tea and the event has been held annually ever since. In 1926, Princess Mary became the commandant-in-chief of the British Red Cross Detachments.

In the 1920s, she was a patron of the Leeds Triennial Musical Festival. By the 1940s, Princess Mary was attending the opening nights and many of the festival's performances, as was her son, George, and his wife, the Countess of Harewood, née Marion Stein, a former concert pianist. George was a noted music critic whose career included the role of artistic director of the Leeds Triennial Musical Festival.

In 1931, she was appointed patron of the Yorkshire Ladies Council of Education. She was also patron of the Girls' Patriotic Union of Day Schools.

It was reported in July 1927 that at a garden party at the Headingley Cricket Ground, the Princess was served tea alongside dignitaries who included members of the Middleton family; Olive Middleton, great-grandmother of Catherine, Princess of Wales, was one of them. The Princess and her son, George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood, were patrons of the Yorkshire Symphony Orchestra which had played at soirées  at their home, Harewood House. Attending these concerts was the orchestra's co-founder, Richard Noël Middleton, who was on friendly terms with the Princess. Middleton's wife, Olive, was a member of the Princess's fundraising committee for the Leeds General Infirmary. Olive's first cousin was fellow committee member Elinor G. Lupton who reportedly launched the  fund-raising appeal in 1933. The committee's vice-presidents included the Princess's sister-in-law, the Hon. Mrs Edward Lascelles, who served alongside Olive Middleton and her relative, Jessie Beatrice Kitson. Princess Mary became patron of the Leeds Infirmary in 1936.

Marriage and family

On 28 February 1922, Princess Mary married Viscount Lascelles, the elder son of the 5th Earl of Harewood and his wife, Lady Florence Bridgeman, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Bradford of Weston Park. The bride was 24 years old, while the groom was 39.

Their wedding was held at Westminster Abbey, and attracted large crowds along the route to Buckingham Palace. The ceremony was the first royal wedding to be covered in fashion magazines, including Vogue. The bride's gown was designed by Messrs Raville and featured emblems of Britain and India. It was the first royal occasion in which Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, a friend of Princess Mary, participated, as one of the bridesmaids. She later married Mary's brother, Prince Albert, and became queen consort of the United Kingdom upon his accession in 1936.

Princess Mary and Lord Lascelles had two sons:
 * George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood (7 February 1923 – 11 July 2011); married, 1949, Marion Stein; had issue; divorced 1967; married, 1967, Patricia Elizabeth Tuckwell; had issue.
 * The Honourable Gerald Lascelles (21 August 1924 – 27 February 1998); married, 1952, Angela Dowding; had issue; divorced 1978; married Elizabeth Collingwood; had issue.

Family homes and interests
The Princess and her husband had homes in London (Chesterfield House, Westminster) and in Yorkshire (first Goldsborough Hall, and later Harewood House). While at Goldsborough Hall, Princess Mary had internal alterations made by the architect Sydney Kitson, to suit the upbringing of her two children and instigated the development of formal planting of beech-hedge-lined long borders from the south terrace looking for a quarter of a mile down an avenue of lime trees. The limes were planted by her relatives as they visited the Hall throughout the 1920s, including her father, King George, and mother, Queen Mary.

After becoming the Countess of Harewood upon the death of her father-in-law, Princess Mary moved to Harewood House, and took a keen interest in the interior decoration and renovation of the Lascelles family seat. In farming pursuits, Princess Mary also became an expert in cattle breeding and was on the board of trustees of the Royal Agricultural Society of England of which her husband had been president. In December 2012, some of the Princess's belongings were sold in "Harewood: Collecting in the Royal Tradition", an auction organised by Christie's.

In the first half of the 20th century, she occasionally rode with the Bramham Moor Hunt – Lord Harewood was Master of the Hunt – and entertained many horse-racing enthusiasts at Harewood house parties for the race events at Wetherby and York.

Princess Royal
On 6 October 1929, Lord Lascelles, who had been created a Knight of the Garter upon his marriage, succeeded his father as 6th Earl of Harewood, Viscount Lascelles, and Baron Harewood. On 1 January 1932, George V declared that his only daughter should bear the title Princess Royal, succeeding her aunt Princess Louise, Duchess of Fife, who had died a year earlier.

The Princess Royal was particularly close to her eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, known as David to his close family, who subsequently became Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936. After the abdication crisis, she and her husband went to stay with the former Edward VIII, by then created Duke of Windsor, at Enzesfeld Castle near Vienna. Later, in November 1947, she allegedly declined to attend the wedding of her niece, Princess Elizabeth, to Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten as the Duke of Windsor had not been invited. She gave ill health as the official reason for her non-attendance. In March 1953, she cut short her tour of the West Indies and before returning to London, made a surprise diversion to New York, where she met with the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. She posed for photographs with them before she and the duke boarded the ship they travelled on to visit their ailing mother, Queen Mary.

At the outbreak of World War II, the Princess Royal became chief controller and later controller commandant of the Auxiliary Territorial Service, renamed the Women's Royal Army Corps in 1949. In that capacity, she travelled across the country, visiting its units, as well as wartime canteens and other welfare organisations. After the death in 1942 of her younger brother, the Duke of Kent, she became the president of Papworth Hospital. The Princess Royal became air chief commandant of Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service in 1950, and received the honorary rank of general in the British Army in 1956. Also, in 1949, the 10th Gurkha Rifles were renamed the 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles in her honour.

After her husband's death in 1947, the Princess Royal lived at Harewood House with her elder son and his family. She became the chancellor of the University of Leeds in 1951, and continued to carry out official duties at home and abroad. She attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in June 1953, and later represented the Queen at the independence celebrations of Trinidad and Tobago in 1962, and Zambia in 1964. One of her last official engagements was to represent the Queen at the funeral of Queen Louise of Sweden in early March 1965. The Princess Royal visited her brother, the Duke of Windsor, at the London Clinic in March 1965, while he recovered from recent eye surgery. The Princess also met his wife, the Duchess of Windsor, one of the Duchess's few meetings with her husband's immediate family to take place.

Death and legacy
On 28 March 1965, the Princess Royal had a fatal heart attack during a walk with her elder son, Lord Harewood, and his children in the grounds of the Harewood House estate. Mary was 67 years old. She was buried next to her husband in the Lascelles family vault at All Saints' Church, Harewood, after a private family funeral at York Minster. A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey, London. Her will was sealed in London after her death with her estate valued at £347,626 (or, £ in when adjusted for inflation).

Six British monarchs reigned during Princess Mary's lifetime: Victoria (her great-grandmother), Edward VII (her grandfather), George V (her father), Edward VIII and George VI (her brothers), and Elizabeth II (her niece). She is typically remembered as an uncontroversial figure of the royal family. The Princess was portrayed by Kate Phillips in Downton Abbey (2019).

During the British Mandate of Palestine, a major street in Jerusalem next to the Old City was called Princess Mary Street. After the creation of Israel, the street name was changed to Queen Shlomzion Street", to commemorate the Jewish queen.

Titles and styles
Mary was known as "Princess Mary of York" at birth. Mary was not styled "Her Royal Highness" from birth, only gaining that style in 1898 by letters patent granted by her great-grandmother, Queen Victoria. After Victoria's death in January 1901, Mary was known as Princess Mary of Cornwall and York, until her father's creation as Prince of Wales in November of that year, when she assumed the title "Princess Mary of Wales".

Upon her father's accession as George V in 1910, Mary assumed the style of "Her Royal Highness The Princess Mary". In 1922, Mary married Viscount Lascelles and began using the title "Her Royal Highness The Princess Mary, Viscountess Lascelles". When her husband succeeded as Earl of Harewood in 1929, Mary became known as "Her Royal Highness The Princess Mary, Countess of Harewood". In 1932, her father gave her the title Princess Royal, which had previously belonged to her aunt Louise until her death the year prior. For the rest of her life, Mary was known as "Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal".

British, British Empire and Commonwealth

 * CI: Companion of the Crown of India, 25 April 1919
 * GCStJ: Dame Grand Cross of St John of Jerusalem, 12 May 1926
 * GBE: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire, 3 June 1927
 * GCVO: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 11 May 1937
 * RRC: Member of the Royal Red Cross
 * Royal Family Order of King George V
 * Royal Family Order of King George VI
 * Royal Family Order of Queen Elizabeth II

Foreign

 * undefined: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 12 July 1926

Freedom of the City

 * 1952: Freeman of the City of York

British

 * 1935: Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Corps of Signals
 * 1939: Chief Controller and later Controller Commandant, of the Auxiliary Territorial Service
 * 1950: Air Chief Commandant, of Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service

Military ranks

 * 1956: General in the British Army

Arms

In 1931, Princess Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood, was awarded her own personal arms, being the royal arms, differenced by a label argent of three points, each bearing a cross gules.


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Moldejazz

Molde International Jazz Festival (MIJF) or Moldejazz (established 1961 in Molde) takes place annually in July, and is known as one of the oldest jazz festivals in Europe. It was initiated by the local Storyville Jazz Club. Since 1964 it has received government support, and the government Buddy Award was for several years awarded at this festival. To the extent Molde festival operates with records, is probably the bassist Bjørn Kjellemyr holder of "Most festivals in a row" musicians record. In 2015 he visits Moldejazz for the 17th time in row as performer. Two club gigs with Dag Arnesen's band is on the program for the versatile bassist. Guttorm Guttormsen (1974), Jon Balke (1975), Karin Krog (1978), Knut Riisnæs (1984), Terje Rypdal (1985, 1986, 1988) and Jon Eberson (1987, 1989) are among the artists he has visited Moldejazz through the years.

Artist in residence

 * 2000: Chick Corea
 * 2001: Pat Metheny
 * 2002: Paal Nilssen-Love
 * 2003: Michael Brecker
 * 2004: Håvard Wiik
 * 2005: Arild Andersen
 * 2006: Joshua Redman
 * 2007: Terje Rypdal
 * 2008: Marilyn Mazur
 * 2009: Arve Henriksen
 * 2010: Nils Petter Molvær
 * 2011: Dave Holland
 * 2012: Jon Balke
 * 2013: Jason Moran
 * 2014: Sidsel Endresen
 * 2015: Mats Gustafsson
 * 2016: Ola Kvernberg
 * 2017: Vijay Iyer
 * 2018: Maria Schneider
 * 2019: Gard Nilssen

Frequently visiting artists

 * Asmund Bjørken (1961/62,65–68/70/74/79/80/93)
 * Jan Garbarek (1964–66/68/69/71/75–78/80/82/85/88/90/94)
 * Karin Krog (1963/68/70/71/78/84/87/97, 2008)
 * Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen (1964–68/70–74/81/84/85/88–90/93, 2000/02)
 * John Scofield (1984–87/89/90/92/95/97/99, 2006)
 * Bjørn Kjellemyr (1974–)

The daily parade has for several years been led by New Orleans-musician Lionel Batiste.

Recordings and compositions
Concerts have been broadcast to the EBU, the first was Guttorm Guttormsen's quintet (1974), later Jan Gunnar Hoff Group (1996). The NRK transmit daily. The composition Break of day in Molde  (1969) was composed by Johs. Bergh and Karin Krog, based on Carla Bley's Ida Lupino. Live recordings include

 * 1973: Sam Rivers Live Trio Sessions including Suite for Molde and Arild Andersen
 * 1976: Carl Magnus Neumann's Live at Moldejazz 1976
 * 1978: Muddy Waters, Three concerts
 * 1980: Bill Evans in 1980 (The Oslo Concerts
 * 1981: Arild Andersen and Bill Frisells A Molde concert
 * 1984: Miles Davis Band Fra Idrettens Hus (DVD)
 * 1989: Hermeto Pascoal e Grupo
 * 1991: Rick Danko, Jonas Fjeld and Eric Andersen (One more shot, 1991/2000)
 * 1994: Farmers Market (Speed Balkan boogie, 1994)
 * 2000: Merzbow/Jazzkammer, Live at Molde
 * 2002/03: Michael Brecker (with Farmers Market 2002, directions in music 03)
 * 2004: Paal Nilssen-Love, Twentyseven years later (2002), Pipes and Bones
 * 2005: Trondheim Jazz Orchestra and Chick Corea, Live in Molde
 * 2005: Matthew Bourne, The Molde Concert (2005)
 * 2007: Peter Brötzmann, Chicago tentet at Molde 2007
 * 2008: Chick Corea and Gary Burton, The New Crystal Silence
 * 2010: Ytre Suløens Jassensemble, Live at Moldejazz

Pop artists
Concerts co-occurring with the jazz festival include blues-, rock- and pop-musicians such as

 * 1977: Muddy Waters
 * 1986: James Brown
 * 1989: Blues Brothers
 * 1991: Motorpsycho
 * 1996: Bob Dylan
 * 1996: Van Morrison
 * 1997: Eric Clapton
 * 1998: Gipsy Kings
 * 1999: Jeff Healey and Ray Charles
 * 2000: Buena Vista Social Club
 * 2001: B.B. King
 * 2002: Paul Simon, Santana and Joe Cocker
 * 2003: Ibrahim Ferrer
 * 2004: Stevie Wonder
 * 2005: Lauryn Hill
 * 2006: Sting
 * 2007: Steely Dan and Elvis Costello
 * 2008: Patti Smith and Mary J. Blige
 * 2009: Leonard Cohen, Jamie Cullum and Raphael Saadiq
 * 2010: Jeff Beck, Karpe Diem and Missy Elliott
 * 2011: Sinéad O'Connor
 * 2012: Norah Jones and Janelle Monáe
 * 2013: Bryan Ferry
 * 2015: Robert Plant
 * 2017: Aurora and Jarle Bernhoft
 * 2018: Van Morrison and Motorpsycho
 * 2019: Madrugada and Blood, Sweat & Tears

Molderosen
Molderosen is an award established in 1967 awarded annually at Moldejazz to a person that during the festival helped to put Molde on the map.

Literature

 * Arild Steen, Molde jazz (Gyldendal, 1972)
 * Terje Mosnes, Jazz i Molde two volumes (1981, 1991).

title: Moldejazz


text:
Chakri dynasty

The Chakri dynasty (ราชวงศ์จักรี,, ) is the current reigning dynasty of the Kingdom of Thailand. The head of the house is the king, who is head of state. The family has ruled Thailand since the founding of the Rattanakosin Era and the city of Bangkok in 1782; following the end of Taksin Thonburi's reign, when the capital of Siam shifted to Bangkok. The royal house was founded by Rama I, an Ayutthaya military leader of Sino-Mon descent.

Prior to his accession to the throne, Rama I held for years the title Chakri, the civil chancellor. In founding the dynasty, the king himself chose "Chakri" as the name for it. The emblem of the house is composed of the discus (Chakra) and the trident (Trishula), the celestial weapons of the gods Vishnu and Shiva, of whom the Thai sovereign is seen as an incarnation.

The current head of the house is Maha Vajiralongkorn who was proclaimed king on 1 December 2016, but has reigned with retroactive effect since 13 October 2016 after the death of his father Bhumibol Adulyadej. The house's current seat is the Grand Palace. On Saturday, 4 May 2019, the coronation of Vajiralongkorn, with the traditional ceremony, occurred in Bangkok.

Royal family
The present royal family of Thailand belongs to the House of Mahidol (ราชสกุลมหิดล; ), a cadet branch of the Chakri dynasty. The House was founded by Prince Mahidol Adulyadej (1891–1929) and Princess Srinagarindra (1900–1995). The Prince was a son of King Chulalongkorn and his wife Queen Savang Vadhana. The Prince was also the half-brother of both King Vajiravudh and King Prajadhipok. After the death of King Ananda Mahidol (Prince Mahidol's elder son), King Bhumibol Adulyadej (the Prince's younger son) ascended the throne in 1946. In 1949 the King married his first cousin once removed, Mom Rajawongse Sirikit Kitiyakara (a daughter of Mom Chao Nakkhatra Mangala Kitiyakara, a grandson of King Chulalongkorn). Bhumibol was succeeded by his son Maha Vajiralongkorn officially on 13 October 2016, but was proclaimed King on 1 December 2016.

Members
This is a list of current members of the royal family:
 * The King and Queen (the sovereign and his wife)
 * The Princess Rajasarini Siribajra (the King's eldest daughter)
 * Princess Sirivannavari (the King's youngest daughter)
 * Prince Dipangkorn Rasmijoti (the King's youngest son and heir presumptive)

 * Descendants of Rama IX
 * The Queen Mother (the King's mother)
 * Princess Ubolratana Rajakanya (the King's elder sister)
 * The Princess Royal (the King's younger sister)
 * The Princess Srisavangavadhana (the King's younger sister)
 * Princess Siribha Chudabhorn (the King's niece)
 * Princess Aditayadorn Kitikhun (the King's niece)

 * Descendants of Rama V
 * The Princess Suddhanarinatha (the King's ex-wife and maternal first cousin)
 * Prince Chaloemsuek Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)

Other members

 * Descendants of Rama V
 * Prince Nawaphan Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Prince Thikhamphon Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Prince Chatrichalerm Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Prince Chulcherm Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Princess Nopphadonchaloemsi Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)

 * Descendants of Rama IV
 * Princess Uthaithiang Jayankura (the King's paternal half-first cousin twice removed)
 * Prince Charunritdet Jayankura (the King's paternal half-first cousin twice removed)
 * Princess Uthaikanya Bhanubandhu (the King's paternal half-first cousin once removed)

Other noble relatives

 * Royal Noble Consort Sineenat Bilaskalayani (the King's concubine)
 * Sujarinee Vivacharawongse (the King's ex-wife and Princess Sirivannavari's mother)
 * Juthavachara Vivacharawongse and Riya Gough (the King's eldest son & daughter-in-law)
 * Vacharaesorn Vivacharawongse (the King's second son)
 * Chakriwat Vivacharawongse (the King's third son)
 * Vatchrawee Vivacharawongse (the King's fourth son)
 * Dame Srirasmi Suwadee (the King's ex-wife and Prince Dipangkorn's mother)

 * Descendants of Rama IX
 * Peter Ladd Jensen (Princess Ubolratana's ex-husband)
 * Dame Ploypailin Jensen and David Wheeler (the King's niece & nephew-in-law)
 * Maximus Wheeler (the King's grandnephew)
 * Leonardo Wheeler (the King's grandnephew)
 * Alexandra Wheeler (the King's grandniece)
 * Dame Sirikitiya Jensen (the King's niece)
 * Virayudh Tishyasarin (the Princess Srisavangavadhana's ex-husband)

 * Descendants of Mahidol Adulyadej
 * Dame Dhasanawalaya and Sinthu Sornsongkram (the King's paternal first cousin & her husband)
 * Jitat and Jessica Sornsongkram (the King's paternal first cousin once removed & his wife)

 * Descendants of Rama V
 * Induratana Paribatra (the King's paternal half-first cousin once removed)
 * Dame Wutchaloem Vudhijaya (the King's paternal half-first cousin once removed)
 * Dame Phansawali Kitiyakara (the King's paternal half-second cousin, maternal aunt by marriage, and the Princess Suddhanarinatha's mother)
 * The Hon. Sarali Kitiyakara (the King's maternal first cousin and the Princess Suddhanarinatha's younger sister)
 * Phanuma Yugala (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Sisawangwong Bunyachittradun (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Phumaripihrom Schell and Jean-Marie Schell (the King's paternal half-second cousin and her husband)
 * Patthamanarangsi Senanarong (the King's paternal half-second cousin)
 * Dame Busba Sathanapong (the King's maternal aunt)

 * Descendants of Rama IV
 * Phanwarophat Svetarundra (the King's paternal second cousin once removed)

Line of succession

 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Mongkut (1804–1868)
 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Chulalongkorn (1853–1910)
 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Vajiravudh (1881–1925)
 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Prajadhipok (1893–1941)
 * Mahidol Adulyadej, Prince Father (1892–1929)
 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Ananda Mahidol (1925–1946)
 * [[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] King Bhumibol Adulyadej (1927–2016)
 * [[Image:Simple gold crown.svg|15px]] King Vajiralongkorn (born 1952)
 * (1) Prince Dipangkorn Rasmijoti (born 2005)$P C$
 * (–) Juthavachara Vivacharawongse (born 1979)$X M P C$
 * (–) Vacharaesorn Vivacharawongse (born 1981)$X P C$
 * (–) Chakriwat Vivacharawongse (born 1983)$X P C$
 * (–) Vatchrawee Vivacharawongse (born 1985)$X P C$
 * (2) Bajrakitiyabha, Princess Rajasarinisiribajra (born 1978)$C$
 * (3) Princess Sirivannavari (born 1987)$C$
 * (–) Princess Ubolratana (born 1951)$X C$
 * (4) Sirindhorn, Princess Debaratanarajasuda, Princess Royal (born 1955)$C$
 * (5) Chulabhorn, Princess Srisavangavadhana (born 1957)$C$
 * Yugala Dighambara, Prince of Lopburi (1882–1932)
 * Prince Bhanubandhu Yugala (1910–1995)
 * (6) Prince Nawaphan Yugala (born 1978)$P C$
 * Prince Chaloemphonthikhamphon (1913–1991)
 * (7) Prince Chaloemsuek Yugala (born 1950)$P C$
 * (8) Prince Thikhamphon Yugala (born 1951)$P C$
 * Prince Anusorn Mongkolkarn (1915–1998)
 * (9) Prince Chatrichalerm Yugala (born 1942)$P C$
 * (10) Prince Chulcherm Yugala (born 1947)$P C$
 * Chaiyanuchit, Prince Phongsadisonmahip (1861–1936)
 * (11) Prince Charunritthidet Jayankura (born 1933)$P C$
 * (11) Prince Charunritthidet Jayankura (born 1933)⇭⇭⇭

Front Palaces
The Maha Uparat (มหาอุปราช) or the Krom Phrarajawang Boworn Sathan Mongkol (Vice or Second King of Siam/Viceroy of Siam) (กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล) was an office that was bestowed on the highest ranking prince, frequently the monarch's younger brother or son. Until 1885 every Chakri monarch had appointed a prince to this office. The Uprarat and his miniature court would reside at the Front Palace (วังหน้า) (a palace complex to the north of the Grand Palace, now the site of the Bangkok National Museum). By tradition the Uparat was designated the heir to the throne, however only Prince Itsarasunthon was able to ascend the throne as King Phutthaloetla Naphalai. The office was extremely prestigious and carried with it almost equal status to the king, this can be seen in Prince Chutamani (younger brother of King Mongkut), who was elevated to Vice King Pinklao in 1851 (he carried with him the styles and titles of a King). The office was abolished by King Chulalongkorn when his Uparat and cousin Prince Wichaichan died. He then declared his oldest son the crown prince of Siam, but not Uparat.

Rear Palace
Krom Phrarajawang Boworn Sathan Phimuk (กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานพิมุข), or the Rear Palace, was another office inherited from the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. However, since the founding of the dynasty there has only been one rear palace. Prince Anurak Devesh was the nephew of King Phutthayotfa Chualok (his mother Princess Thepsuthavadi was the king's elder sister) and was appointed to the office in 1785.

Crown Princes
The Crown Prince of Thailand or Sayam Makutrajakuman (สยามมกุฎราชกุมาร) is the designated and heir apparent to the throne and headship of the dynasty. The title was created in 1886 when King Chulalongkorn appointed his eldest son by Princess Consort Savang Vadhana, Prince Vajirunhis as Sayam Makutrajakuman. The title was copied directly from the Western tradition. Since then, there have only been three crown princes. The most recent crown prince, Maha Vajiralongkorn, was invested with the title in 1972 and became King in 2016. The succession is governed by the 1924 Palace Law of Succession passed by King Vajiravudh.

title: Chakri dynasty


text:
User:Chrmb

Hey, all! :)

Hmm... I seem to spam the "recent changes" page when I write. Sorry 'bout that, it's just that perfection doesn't seem to come in one iteration. And I also can't seem to get the "show preview"-button to do anything useful. (Maybe it pops up a pop-up that I kill. - A-HA, the preview is hidden beneath the rest of the page. Bad, bad design.)

 * You can change it to put the text at the top in your preferences. Mintguy (T) 08:36, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Chrmb


text:
Apollo/Domain

Apollo/Domain is a series of workstations that were developed and produced by Apollo Computer from c. 1980 to 1989. The machines were built around the Motorola 68k series of processors, except for the DN10000, which has from one to four of Apollo's RISC processors, named PRISM.

Operating system
The original operating system is Apollo's own product called Aegis, which was later renamed to Domain/OS. The Aegis and Domain/OS system offers advanced features for the time, for example an object oriented filesystem, network transparency, diskless booting, a graphical user interface, and, in Domain/OS, interoperability with BSD, System V, and POSIX.

Hardware
An Apollo workstation resembles a modern PC, with a base unit, keyboard, mouse, and screen. Early models are housed in short (about 2 ft high) 19" rack cabinets to be set beside a desk or under a table. The DN300 and later DN330 were designed as integrated units with the system and monitor in one unit. These models fit easily on a desk.

Every Apollo system (even standalone) includes at least one network interface. The only original option is the 12 Mbit/s Apollo Token Ring (ATR), and then 10 Mbit/s Ethernet was added as an option. It has been stated that the IBM Token Ring was an option but this was never available. The ATR is generally the best choice, because it is extremely scalable; the Ethernet of the time has serious performance loss as extra machines are added to the network, but this is not true of ATR, which can easily have over 100 machines on one network. One drawback is that, unlike Ethernet, one machine failure (which could easily happen with a single faulty connector) stops the entire network. For this reason, Apollo provided an optional, but strongly recommended, network cabling system of bypass switches and quick connect boxes which allow machines to be disconnected and moved without problems. Apollo Token Ring networks use 75 ohm RG-6U coaxial cabling.

Networking
The network orientation of the systems, together with the ATR functionality, enables easy and practicable booting to diskless machines using another machine's OS. In principle, as many machines can be booted from one host as it can cope with; in practice, four diskless machines from one host is about the limit. Provided the correct machine-specific software is installed on the host (again, very easy), any type of machine could be booted from any other. One complication is that a DN10000 can only be booted from another DN10000 or a 68K-based system which has "cmpexe" compound executables installed.

Some systems can have the graphics card removed for use as servers and the keyboard and mouse are automatically ignored, and the system is accessed either across the network, or via a dumb terminal plugged into the machine's serial port. Such a system is designated "DSP" instead of "DN".

Models
The model naming convention is DN (for Domain Node) with a model number. If the system has no display, it is a DSP (for Domain Service Processor).

The first model is the DN416 workstation, later referred to as the DN100 after the green screen was substituted with a black and white screen. This system uses two 68000 processors and implements virtual memory (which the 68000 is not theoretically capable of) by stopping one processor when there is a page fault and having the other processor handle the fault, then release the primary processor when the page fault was handled.

Later models have 68010, 68020, 68030, and 68040 processors which have native support for virtual memory. Some workstations have bit-slice CPU implementations that are instruction set compatible with the 68000.

The DSP90 is a fileserver built using a standard Multibus backplane and I/O controllers. The disk controller supports up to four 500MB hard drives. A 9-track tape controller was released.

Early performance models are the DN560 and DN660 which are housed in desk-side cabinets. These can have color graphics cards with graphics accelerators.

The DN300 and later DN330 are integrated desktop systems not much bigger than the included monitor.

In the late 1980s, Apollo introduced a new pair of machines, the DN3000 and DN4000 with 68020 processors, but are housed in IBM PC style cases of the time with IBM-AT compatible ISA expansion slots and PC-compatible disk drives. These became the mainstay of the Apollo range in the mid to late 1980s. In principle, a user or third party can install a standard AT expansion card, but since this requires writing a special device driver, in practice this is very rare. However, the size and design of the boxes make installing or replacing components very easy. A typical system can have between 2 MiB and 32 MiB of memory, a 76 MB, 150 MB or 330 MB (very occasionally 660 MB) hard disk, and 32-bit 68020 or 68030 processor running at 12 MHz to 33 MHz, depending on model. A half-height expansion bay could take either a 5¼-inch floppy disk drive or a QIC-type cartridge tape drive, capacity 30 MB, 45 MB, or 60 MB depending on cartridge. For printer access, the system came with a serial port as standard; a serial/parallel expansion card can provide a parallel printer port.

The DN3000 and DN4000 were later upgraded to DN3500 and DN4500 with a faster 68030 CPU. The DN3500 is approximately as powerful as the DN4000. A DN5500 with a 68040 was also produced in limited quantities.

Soon after HP acquired Apollo, the base DN2500 workstation was released at US$3900, advertised as "4 Mips, 4 MB of memory, for under $4,000". It features a single integrated motherboard using PC standard DRAM single in-line memory modules, as a significant departure from previous models from the competition still using custom memory modules. The motherboard incorporates a SCSI disk controller for an optional hard disk drive and a single AT expansion slot dedicated for the use of a network card to allow the system to attach to any of the three supported networks: Apollo Token Ring, IBM Token Ring, or Ethernet. Monochrome displays of up to 1280 x 1024 are supported, and the base configuration has a 1024 x 800 display. Based on the 68030 with 68882 floating-point unit running at 20 MHz, with 4 to 16 MB of RAM, the machine's list price of just under US$4000 reportedly represented "a major change in the price/performance ratio" for workstations. Educational institutions could purchase the base configuration starting at US$2500.

A merged line of workstations that runs either Domain/OS or HP-UX, was produced with the name HP/Apollo 425t and HP/Apollo 433s. The 425t is a "pizza box" design with a single network expansion slot. The 433s is a desk-side server systems with multiple expansion slots.

Compatibility
PC compatibility is possible either through software emulation, using the optional product DPCE, or through a plug-in card carrying an Intel 80286 processor. A third-party plug-in card with a 386 was produced.

An Apollo Token Ring network card can be placed in a standard PC and network drivers connect it to a PC SMB (Server Message Block) file server.

Usage
Apollo systems are easy to use and administer, but they became less cost-effective because the proprietary operating system made software more expensive than Unix software. The 68K processors are slower than the new RISC chips from Sun and Hewlett-Packard. Apollo addressed both problems by introducing the RISC-based DN10000 and Unix-friendly Domain/OS operating system. However, the DN10000, though fast, was extremely expensive, and a reliable version of Domain/OS came too late to make a difference. The increased speed and falling price of PCs ensured the obsolescence of high end systems such as Apollo workstations.

ARM CPU design
When Acorn Computers began designing the ARM 1 CPU in 1984, it used a single Apollo DN 600 workstation to do VLSI design with engineers taking shifts to use the machine. Later in the project they acquired additional workstations.

Acquisition
In 1989, Hewlett-Packard acquired Apollo. They later released the DN2500 series workstation, a cheap alternative to the DN3x00/4x00 series, and then the HP 9000 Series 400 line, which can run either HP's own version of Unix, HP-UX, or Domain/OS. In this case, the choice had to be made at time of purchase, partly because HP-UX and Domain/OS functionality required different keyboards and mice. The Domain/OS variants also include a Token Ring card not provided for the HP-UX variants.

title: Apollo/Domain


text:
Steer roping

Steer roping, also known as steer tripping or steer jerking, is a rodeo event that features a steer and one mounted cowboy.

Technique
The steer roper starts behind a "barrier" - a taut rope fastened with an easily broken string which is fastened lightly to the steer. When the roper calls for the steer, the chute man trips a lever, opening the doors. The steer breaks out running. When the steer reaches the end of the tether, the string breaks, releasing the barrier for the horse and roper. Should the roper break the barrier, a 10-second penalty is added to his time ). The roper must throw his rope in a loop around the steer's horns.

Once the rope is around the steer's horns, a right-handed roper throws the slack of the rope over the steer's right hip and then turns his horse to the left; when the rope comes tight, it pulls on the steer's hip up and turns the steer's head around, tripping or unbalancing the steer so that it falls. The roper dismounts while his horse continues to gallop, pulling the steer along the ground, which prevents the animal from getting back to its feet. The horse is trained to slow once the rider is completely off the horse and has reached the steer, but to keep the rope taunt while the contestant ties three of the steer's legs together with a piggin string using a half hitch knot colloquially called a hooey.

The roper returns to his horse, mounts, and moves the horse forward, releasing the tension on the rope. An official will then time six seconds. If the steer is still tied at the end of the six seconds, an official time for the event is awarded.

Team roping is an unrelated event using two riders to rope a steer, one which ropes the head, the other the heels, immobilizing the animal between them. Calf roping or tie-down roping is an event, using a weanling calf that the roper manually throws to the ground after roping and then ties. A related event using calves is breakaway roping, where the calf is roped but not tied.

Professional steer roping
Professional steer roping occurs at the highest level in the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA). At the end of each season, there is a finals event called the National Finals Steer Roping (NFSR) which takes place in early November at the Kansas Star Arena in Mulvane, Kansas. Other PRCA events take place in early December at the National Finals Rodeo (NFR) at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas, Nevada.

Animal welfare
Steer roping is considered controversial due to concerns about animal welfare. Within the United States it has been illegal in Rhode Island since 2001.

Steer roping is recognized by the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA), but downplayed, mentioned only in passing at the official PRCA website. It is only held at some rodeos, currently about 60 per year, the annual championship competition is held separately from other championship events, and steer roping is not included as part of the widely televised National Finals Rodeo.

title: Steer roping


text:
Blackthorne

Blackthorne (released as Blackhawk in some European countries) is a cinematic platform game developed by Blizzard Entertainment. It was released for the Super NES and MS-DOS in 1994. The cover art for the SNES version was drawn by Jim Lee. The following year, Blackthorne was released for the Sega 32X with additional content. In 2013, Blizzard released the game for free on their Battle.net PC client. In celebration of the company's 30th anniversary, Blackthorne was re-released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows and Xbox One as part of the Blizzard Arcade Collection in February 2021.

Plot
Blackthorne is set on the planet Tuul, which has existed for centuries without human knowledge. All of this time, Tuul's people have been ruled over by a single shaman who "was blessed with all knowledge". Years before the game begins, Thoros, the latest ruler, finds it near impossible to choose between his two sons as the next ruler. Believing it will solve the dilemma, he leads them to the deserts and kills himself. His body becomes two stones, light and dark, and he gives one to each boy to rule their own kingdoms respectively. The people of the lightstone form the kingdom of Androth, and the people of the darkstone form Ka'dra'suul. But while Androth respects their stone, Ka'dra'suul reject theirs, and are eventually transformed into monsters by it. In this time, a ka'dra named Sarlac seizes power. He forms an army and leads them against Androth. Knowing of his people's doom, the ruler of Androth, King Vlaros, with the aid of the Androthi magician Galadril, sends his son Kyle to Earth to save his life. Vlaros also gives Kyle the lightstone for safe keeping.

Twenty years later, Kyle has become a renowned military captain and mercenary. After breaking out of prison facing court martial, Kyle begins having strange dreams, and is eventually confronted by Galadril. He is told that it is time to return to Tuul and save his people. The game begins here with Kyle setting out to kill Sarlac and reclaim his throne.

Kyle ventures through the land fighting his way to Sarlac's castle. He confronts Sarlac and threatens to keep his skull as a mounted trophy on his wall. The two battle and Kyle is the victor. He avenges his father, King Vlaros. Kyle then becomes king of Androth, where it is stated that he ruled justly, fairly and with honor for many years. The final shot of the game shows him sitting on the throne with a woman sitting next to him. Sarlac's skull is seen mounted on the wall as a trophy, just as Kyle had promised.

Gameplay
The game focuses around protagonist Kyle "Blackthorne" Vlaros, out for revenge on Sarlac and his minions. The gameplay involves large platforming sequences, in which Kyle can run and climb around the environment, find keys and items and progress to the end of each maze-like level. Combat in Blackthorne takes the form of gunfights. Both Blackthorne and his enemies can press against walls to avoid incoming bullets. Blackthorne can also fire blindly behind himself. During the game, Kyle uses a pump-action shotgun as his primary weapon. As the game progresses, Androthi allies will help him upgrade the weapon, increasing its speed and power.

The game has seventeen levels within four areas—the mines of Androth, the Karrellian forests/swamps, the Wasteland desert and Shadow keep. The Sega 32X version includes a fifth area, the snowy mountains, which is not found in the other versions of the game. As the game progresses through these areas, Kyle becomes stronger and better armed, but so do the enemies.

Development
The inspiration for Blackthorne came from Another World and Flashback. For the first versions, the sprites for game characters were done using rotoscoping techniques just like Prince of Persia, using over 1000 frames to get smooth, lifelike animation. The Macintosh version improved the quality by using prerendered, motion-captured sprites. Interplay had intended to port the game to Sega Genesis but instead did so for the Sega 32X. There were also plans to port the game to PlayStation and Sega Saturn, but those plans were cancelled. A 3DO version was showcased by Interplay at E3 1995, but the port was never released for unknown reasons.

The protagonist's name Kyle was inspired by Kyle Reese from the 1984 film The Terminator.

Reception
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the SNES version their "Game of the Month" award, praising its dark tone, amazingly smooth animation, complex and intelligent gameplay, and the ability to kill prisoners after getting information from them. GamePro gave the SNES version a positive review, calling it "Flashback with an attitude". They particularly praised its detailed graphics and stronger emphasis on action over puzzle-solving as compared to similar games. Nintendo Power praised the game as "Total fun!" noting its animation and sound quality and stated that it had better play control than games like Out of This World, Prince of Persia and Flashback but was "still a bit slow".

They gave the 32X version a positive review as well, remarking that "with a solid graphical overhaul, Blackthorne delivers where many of the 16-bit conversions flounder in the 32X library".

A reviewer for Next Generation called Blackthorne "one of the best arcade-style games the [PC] has ever seen", citing the accessible and intelligent gameplay, smooth animation, and the "dark feel of the game". While noting that the game was over two years old by the time it was released for Macintosh, Next Generation gave this version a positive review as well, concluding that "at the very least, Blackthorne is one of the best—and only—action games to come out for the Macintosh in the last year".

IGN rated the game 90th on their "Top 100 SNES Games of All Time". In 2018, Complex placed Blackthorne at 96th in their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time". In 1995, Total! ranked the game 49 on its Top 100 SNES Games, writing: "It's a bit like Flashback, only it's more action based. This lack of puzzling elements makes it slightly less intriguing, but it delivers a whole heap of atmosphere."

title: Blackthorne