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Thomas Gataker

Thomas Gataker (* London, 4 September 1574 – † Cambridge, 27 June 1654) was an English clergyman and theologian.

Life
He was born in London, the son of Thomas Gatacre. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge. From 1601 to 1611 he held the appointment of preacher to the society of Lincoln's Inn, which he resigned on accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642 he was chosen a member of the Westminster Assembly, and annotated for them the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations.

He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant and declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of the forty-seven London clergymen who disapproved of the trial of Charles I.

He engaged in a public controversy with the astrologer William Lilly, who had mentioned Gataker in an almanac, which has some further biographical details.

Works

His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons, are:
 * Of the Nature and Use of Lots (1619), a curious treatise which led to his being accused of favouring games of chance, but which Boswell called "a learned book of the age". Gataker understood the random nature of lots and argued that they could not be used to discern the intention of God. The second edition in 1627 contained a refutation of James Balmford's criticism. It was edited and republished in 2008 as  The Nature and Uses of Lotteries, Conall Boyle (ed.) Imprint Academic.
 * Dissertatio de stylo Novi Testamenti (1648)
 * Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in quibus Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis aliquam multis lux redditur (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined Adversaria Posthuma
 * an edition of Meditations by Marcus Aurelius (1652)

His collected works were published in Utrecht in 1698.

title: Thomas Gataker


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Organology

Organology (from Ancient Greek ὄργανον (organon) 'instrument' and λόγος (logos), 'the study of') is the science of musical instruments and their classifications. It embraces study of instruments' history, instruments used in different cultures, technical aspects of how instruments produce sound, and musical instrument classification. There is a degree of overlap between organology, ethnomusicology (being subsets of musicology) and the branch of the science of acoustics devoted to musical instruments.

History
A number of ancient cultures left documents detailing the musical instruments used and their role in society; these documents sometimes included a classification system. The first major documents on the subjects from the west, however, date from the 16th century, with works such as Sebastian Virdung's Musica getuscht und ausgezogen (1511), and Martin Agricola's Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1529).

One of the most important organologists of the 17th century is Michael Praetorius. His Syntagma musicum (1618) is one of the most quoted works from that time on the subject, and is the source of much of what we know about renaissance musical instruments. Praetorius's Theatrum instrumentorium (1620) contains possibly the first pictures of African instruments in a European publication.

For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, little work was done on organology. Explorers returned to Europe with instruments from different cultures, however, so that by the end of the 19th century, some musical instrument collections were quite large. This led to a renewed interest in the subject.

One of the most important organologists of the 20th century was Curt Sachs, who, as well as writing Real-Lexicon der Musikinstrumente (1913) and The History of Musical Instruments (1940), devised with Erich von Hornbostel the Hornbostel–Sachs scheme of instrument classification, which was first published in 1914 in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie(Hornbostel–Sachs). This system classified musical instruments into four distinct categories: idiophones, membranophones, chordophones, and aerophones. This system of classification was updated several times by Sachs and Hornbostel and still continues to be updated periodically. One update to the system was made by Sachs in 1940 through the addition of a 5th category-electrophones, a category encompassing instruments which produce music electronically. Sachs' 1940 book, The History of Musical Instruments was meant to be a comprehensive compilation of descriptions of instruments from many cultures and their functions within their societies. The book is primarily divided into four chronological periods of instruments- early instruments, antiquity, the middle ages, and the modern occident. These periods are further subdivided into regions and then to significant time periods within those regions. Andre Schaeffner introduced a system based on state-of-matter of the sound-producing mechanism, giving rise to two top-level categories: solid (containing strings and percussion), and gas (containing woodwind and brass). With the invention of hydraulophone, the physics-based organology has been expanded to use solid, liquid, and gas, wherein the top-level category is the state-of-matter of the material that makes the sound.

A number of societies exist dedicated to the study of musical instruments. Among the more prominent are the Galpin Society, based in the United Kingdom; and the American Musical Instrument Society, based in the United States.

Outside perspectives on the Hornbostel–Sachs classification system
According to one paper written by Henry M. Johnson published by the University of Oxford, “the universally used classification system established by musical instruments of Hornbostel and Sachs has become the paradigm of organology in many cultures”. Additionally, Eliot Bates states in a paper published in the Journal of the Society of Ethnomusicology that “The Hornbostel–Sachs system was not intended to classify the specificity of unique instruments, but rather to highlight commonalities across the world of instruments.”

Alternative perspectives on the classification of musical instruments
Margaret Kartomi, professor and chairperson in the Department of Music at Monash University in Melbourne, approached the topic of musical instrument classification in 1990 with the intention of understanding how musical instruments are classified across cultures. This approach was justified by her observation that the concepts upon which an outside European researcher might classify musical instruments of a particular culture are likely different from the way that those native to the culture choose to classify their musical instruments. Her book emphasizes the complexity that underlies the process of classifying musical instruments, as the classification system is often shaped by “socially influenced or structured ideas or belief systems”.

Connections to ethnomusicology
The 8th edition of UCLA’s publication on Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology published in 1990 was devoted to Issues in Organology. The first paper in the journal written by Sue Carole DeVale entitled “Organizing Organology” attempted to provide a more comprehensive system for defining the study of organology, particularly within the context of ethnomusicology. DeVale defines organology as “the science of sound instruments”. The word choice in this definition is very intentional- DeVale avoids the use of the term “music” or “musical” but rather "sound" because the function of some instruments, such as the Balinese slit drum, serves to signal an event rather than aid in a musical performance. She also defines three primary branches-classificatory, analytical, and applied- that serve as the basis for the study of organology. The classificatory branch essentially encompasses all of the ways in which musical instruments have been categorized, both cross-culturally and through cultural-specific systems. The analytical branch contains the body of work done on analyzing specific aspects of sound instruments and the cultural context/implications of the instruments. The applied branch is the aspects of organology that exist within the realm of museum work that involves the preservation of musical instruments, as well as instrument making. Devale also emphasizes throughout the paper the importance of the connections which exist between the three branches, as it is often essential to consider aspects of organology within all of three branches when doing work or research of any kind within the field. She states that “these branches are independent in theory, but in practice, research and processes conducted with and on instruments and their sounds continuously flow between them and permeate the whole.”

Another notable paper on the topic of the connection between ethnomusicology and organology was written by Henry M. Johnson and published in 1995 in the Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford. This paper sought to demonstrate the contribution that the field of ethnomusicology can make to the study of musical instruments. Johnson defines four facets of the connection between ethnomusicology and organology- form, context, performance environment, and the interrelationship between instrument, performer and sound object. These categories were meant to provide a more detailed look at the cultural significance of musical instruments. Johnson states, “Ethnomusicology can… produce a study of the instruments that includes an examination of the interrelationship between the material object, its context and its music, together with an understanding of the meanings connected with each of these areas in specific and general environments (i.e. the contexts in which a sound-producing instrument is played or understood)”.

In 2012, Eliot Bates of Cornell University approached the topic of the ethnomusicological study of musical instruments by focusing specifically on what he terms “the social life of musical instruments”. Bates argues that “‘the social’ has not been adequately studied and theorized because of a paucity of attention given to how social relations are mobilized around material objects and the thing-power that they possess.” Essentially, Bates states that material objects often hold significant social value. It is important to study the object not necessarily for the sake of categorization or understanding the way that it is played or how it works but the meaning that it holds for the musician and the audience.

Prominent organologists

 * Ivor Darreg, microtonal instrument builder
 * Leo Fender, innovator of several electric guitar constructions (bridges and electronic configurations)
 * Bart Hopkin, founder of the magazine Experimental Musical Instruments
 * Erich von Hornbostel, co-creator of the Hornbostel–Sachs musical instrument classification system
 * Victor-Charles Mahillon, organologist and museum curator
 * Bob Moog, inventor of the first synthesizer
 * Harry Partch, microtonal string division musical theorist
 * Curt Sachs, musicologist and organologist
 * Andre Schaeffner
 * Leon Theremin
 * Anthony Baines, historical organologist and early authority on bagpipes
 * William Waterhouse, author of The New Langwill Index, a Dictionary of Musical Wind Instrument Makers and Inventors

Ethno-organologists

 * Adolf Chybinski – Polish organologist
 * Hnat Khotkevych – Ukrainian engineer and musicologist.
 * Filaret Kolessa – Ukrainian folklorist and ethno-organologist.
 * Volodymyr Kushpet – contemporary Ukrainian ethno-organologist
 * Klyment Kvitka – Russian and Ukrainian ethno-organologist
 * Mykola Lysenko – Ukrainian composer and founder of Ukrainian organology
 * Igor Matsiyevsky – Russian and Ukrainian ethno-organologist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Blood Bowl

Blood Bowl is a miniatures board game created by Jervis Johnson for the British games company Games Workshop as a parody of American football. The game was first released in 1986 and has been re-released in new editions since. Blood Bowl is set in an alternate version of the Warhammer Fantasy setting, populated by traditional fantasy elements such as human warriors, goblins, dwarves, elves, orcs, trolls and Khorne, who are all variants of minotaurs.

In late 2016, Games Workshop released a new version of the game – the first in 22 years. It featured a double sided board and new plastic miniatures.

In November 2020, Games Workshop released a new version of the game, titled Blood Bowl Second Season Edition, which included miniatures for two teams and referees, a board (pitch), templates and the rule book. The rule book was also available separately, both physically and digitally. Cyanide Studio confirmed that the next videogame adaptation, Blood Bowl 3, would use the new ruleset.

Gameplay
Blood Bowl is a two-player, turn-based board game that typically uses 28 mm miniatures to represent a contest between two teams on a playing field. A board containing a grid overlay represents the field. Using dice, cards, and counters, the players attempt to score higher than each other by entering the opponent's end zone with a player who possesses the ball.

The "Blood" in Blood Bowl is represented by the violent actions available to players. Game play is based on a hybrid of gridiron football and Rugby. Players may attempt to injure or maim the opposition in order to make scoring easier by reducing the number of enemy players on the field.

The player races are drawn from the ranks of fantasy races and have characteristics that reflect the abilities of those races. Elves tend to be agile and good at scoring, while dwarfs and orcs are more suited to a grinding, physical style of play.

All teams offer a choice between player types with different statistics: related races (e.g. skeletons and zombies in undead teams, various lizardmen types), guests of allied races (e.g. trolls in orc and goblin teams), exotic or monstrous units (e.g. ghouls, wights and mummies in undead teams), and specialists of different roles (usually some combination of Blockers, Blitzers, Throwers, Catchers, Runners and Linemen). Teams can include any number of players of the most basic type (usually Linemen), while the stronger units are limited to 1, 2, 4 or 6 per team.

In league play, players gain additional skills and abilities based on their accumulation of experience points. Players face potential injury or even death on the field throughout their careers. Teams improve by the purchase of off-field staff such as cheerleaders, assistant coaches, and apothecaries. Disparity between team values is offset by the purchase of ad-hoc star players or mercenaries, as well as bribes and additional temporary support staff, such as wizards or a halfling cook.

Rules
Teams consist of eleven to sixteen players, of which eleven are allowed on the pitch at any one time. Each player is represented by an appropriate miniature and has statistics and skills that dictate their effect on play. To avoid confusion, the human playing the game is always referred to as the "coach" and never the player. There are five player statistics as of the 2020 Season 2 update:

In addition, players may have special skills that affect any number of circumstances in play. Some of the more commonly used skills are Block (for fighting), Dodge (for dodging out of an opponent's tackle zone), Sure Hands (for picking up the ball), Pass (for throwing the ball), and Catch (for catching the ball). These skills are not necessary to perform their corresponding actions, but will give the player an advantage.
 * MA (Move Allowance) indicates how fast the player is.
 * ST (Strength) indicates the player's basic fighting ability.
 * AG (Agility) indicates how well the player handles the ball and evades opposing players.
 * AV (Armour Value) indicates how difficult it is to injure the player.
 * PA (Passing) indicates how well the player can throw the ball. This is the only stat which some players do not possess.

In their turn, a coach may have each player take one of the following actions:

In addition, the following four actions may be taken by one player per team turn: Some skills also allow for special player actions.
 * Move – Move the player through empty squares (opposing players may try to trip the moving player if they move close to them).
 * Block – Fight an adjacent opposing player who is standing.
 * Blitz – Move and then Block an adjacent opposing player who is standing (or Block and then Move).
 * Foul – Move and then foul an adjacent opposing player who is prone (or just foul an adjacent player who is prone).
 * Pass – Move and then throw the ball (or just throw the ball). In certain circumstances, players may instead throw their own teammates with this action, who may or may not be carrying the ball – for instance an Ogre might throw a Goblin teammate.
 * Hand-Off – Move and then give the ball to an adjacent player (or just give the ball to an adjacent player).

Teams, and in a few cases players, have a limited stock of "re-rolls" which can be used to re-take failed rolls (not more than once per turn in the original rule-set of the game).

Whenever a player action fails (except throw teammate (unless also carrying the ball)), a "turnover" occurs: the team turn ends immediately, and the opposing team begins theirs. This turnover rule is arguably the defining feature of Blood Bowl. It sustains tension throughout the turn, rewards effective planning by coaches who seek to prioritise actions which are the most vital to improving their position, and can result in dramatic moments from unexpected outcomes. Further, a turnover automatically occurs after 4 minutes of play, to encourage fast-paced play.

Just as Blood Bowl has rules to encompass fouls and other forms of cheating by players, so too do the rules involve in-game consequences for actions by players that in most games would be considered either neutral book-keeping or downright cheating. For instance, players are responsible for policing each other's accounting for game turns; failing to move the turn marker at the start of one's turn is an "illegal procedure" which costs one of the offending team's valuable re-roll counters. Along the same lines, in some editions coaches are welcome to attempt to set up with more than 11 players on the pitch, and it is down to the other coach to spot this behaviour. Other rules are strictly off-limits.

Teams
Each team represents one race (or closely linked group of races) based on those present in Warhammer Fantasy Battle, though Blood Bowl has a more extensive roster of races including a number that were only briefly, or never, supported in Warhammer.

The game box supplies the coaches with players enough to field human and orc teams, which are also the teams recommended to newcomers for ease of learning. Teams may also contain individuals who are not part of the group of players used on the pitch, e.g. cheerleaders.

Each race plays differently, thanks to the different skills and characteristics of the players on offer. For instance, Dwarves, Orcs, Chaos and Undead teams all tend towards a blocking-heavy style of play, grinding down the opposing team as far as possible. Elves, by contrast, tend to have high Agility and plentiful movement, passing and dodging skills, so are more suited to avoiding contact while scoring through running and passing plays. Some teams pose challenges for experienced coaches because of inbuilt imbalances. For instance the Lizardmen team has a mixture of fast-moving Skinks and slow, heavy Sauruses, the challenge for the player being to make good use of these two complementary player types; the Halfling team is mainly composed of Halflings, who on the face of things are entirely incompetent thanks to being weak, slow, and unskilled, but can nonetheless be played effectively

The different races progress at different rates, with some having peaks at certain experience levels.

The most recent, official edition of the game, published in November 2020 has rules for playing the following teams:

Official Rule Book
 * Amazon
 * Black Orc
 * Chaos Chosen
 * Chaos Renegade
 * Dark Elf
 * Dwarf
 * Elven Union
 * Goblin
 * Halfling
 * Human
 * Imperial Nobility
 * Khorne
 * Lizardman
 * Necromantic Horror
 * Norse
 * Nurgle
 * Ogre
 * Old World Alliance
 * Orc
 * Shambling Undead
 * Skaven
 * Snotling
 * Underworld Denizens
 * Wood Elf

Teams of Legend, supplemental PDF
 * Chaos Dwarf
 * High Elf
 * Tomb Kings
 * Vampire

Background
The Blood Bowl universe has its own fictional background story which establishes the tone and spirit of the game. Additional background exists to describe the demeanour and character of the Blood Bowl players with frequent reference to rule breaking and excessive violence in a lighthearted manner. The over-the-top nature of the game is reflected through the game's mechanics, including the use of stylised secret weapons ranging from chainsaws to spiked steamrollers, the ability for large teammates to throw small teammates down field (even while they possess the ball), as well as in-game effects like fans throwing rocks and injuring players prior to kickoff.

Blood Bowl includes numerous tongue in cheek references to real life products and companies. The deity overseeing Blood Bowl is Nuffle – a pun on the pronunciation of NFL. The game spoofs at least four real-world trademarks, including McDonald's (McMurty's), Budweiser (Bloodweiser), Adidas (Orcidas), and Gatorade (Kroxorade). Many team names in the game's background are spoofs as well such as the Orcland Raiders (Oakland Raiders) and the Darkside Cowboys (Dallas Cowboys). Famous sporting personalities are parodied as well, with the most famous (and oldest) coach in Blood Bowl's background being Tomolandry the Undying (Tom Landry), and one of the most recently added stars being the Ogre thrower, Brick Far'th (Brett Favre).

With the advent of the 3rd edition, Blood Bowl moved closer to the traditional Warhammer Fantasy Battle world by changing the miniatures to look more similar to their Warhammer Fantasy Battle counterparts. Jervis Johnson, designer of the game, has admitted this was not the best direction for the game, and has since stated that the Blood Bowl world is similar to, but definitely not the same as, the Warhammer world. Recent changes to the rules reflect this, and newer miniatures for the game look more sporty in nature.

History
Blood Bowl has evolved through a series of rules revisions, boxed set releases, and electronic media.

First Edition
Released in 1986, the first edition of Blood Bowl was a simple game that used many of the elements of Games Workshop's existing tabletop games. Players in the first edition boxed set were represented by small pieces of cardboard illustrated with their likeness. Citadel Miniatures did release metal miniatures to represent players for 1st edition.

The pitch of this editions consists of six interlocking cardboard sections (end zones and centre, split in halves) with squares marked by white lines.

In 1982, TSR published a game called Monsters of the Midway which was very similar in concept to Blood Bowl but significantly different in-game play. Discussions with Jervis Johnson at the Chaos Cup tournament in 2006 revealed that he had never seen Monsters of the Midway until after Blood Bowl was published and that the concept of a fantasy football board game was simply a concept whose time had come in the 1980s.

Second Edition
The second edition of Blood Bowl, released in 1988, began to move Blood Bowl away from the battlefield mechanics of other Games Workshop systems and toward more brutal sports-oriented play. The game included plastic 28 mm miniatures of Orcs and Humans, with another set of metal miniatures available from Citadel Miniatures to represent most (but not all) of the other races.

The pitch of this edition consists of three thick, gray polystyrene boards (end zones and centre), with squares marked by grooves.

Games Workshop later provided a boxed supplement, Dungeonbowl, dealing with subterranean play and dwarvish and elvish teams, and, later, two source books, Blood Bowl Star Players (1989) and the Blood Bowl Companion (1990), which added to the basic rules, creating games with greater variation which could easily last several hours.

Kerrunch
In 1991, Games Workshop released Kerrunch, a light version of Blood Bowl, developed by Andy Jones. It was released along with Mighty Warriors, Ultra Marine and Space Fleet, and was predominantly aimed at the younger gamer as an introduction to the Games Workshop hobby. The rules are a simplified version of those from Blood Bowl's second edition. The game came with 24 plastic miniatures, and is considered a collector's item.

Third Edition
A new edition was released in 1994, radically changing the game play from the complex, lengthy second edition game to the simpler, more dramatic third edition game. Key changes were a set number of turns and the turnover rule. These changes increased the pace of the game and allowed it to be played within the span of around 2 hours.

The third edition also featured a completely new range of miniatures, including new versions of plastic 28 mm humans and orcs in the boxed set. The new range closely resembled Warhammer Fantasy Battle miniatures. Combined with the newly available races mirroring Warhammer armies, Blood Bowl moved much closer to Warhammer Fantasy Battle. In 1995, the Third Edition Blood Bowl won the Best Miniatures Rules of 1994 Origins Award.

The pitch of this edition consists of a cardboard foldable board, with squares marked by black crosses at the corners.

Fourth Edition, rule updates and Living Rulebook
Jervis Johnson produced a new official Fourth Edition of the Blood Bowl rules and presented it in the Fanatic Games' Official Blood Bowl magazine issue 1, with follow-up rules presented in issue 2. The new rules were a large departure from the previous edition with numerous changes, and Johnson later admitted that, "some of the changes would have benefited from rather more rigorous playtesting".

In 2001 the 4th edition rules, with corrections and retitled 4th Edition Gold, were placed on the Games Workshop website as a downloadable PDF file, and Johnson announced that the rules were now "experimental" and announced the creation of the Blood Bowl Rules Committee (BBRC), a group of Blood Bowl players, some GW staff, most not, that would look at the rules once a year and produce new official rules changes and experimental rules for possible inclusion in the future rules changes. The BBRC would meet in October each year, and their first release was the Living Rule Book 1 (LRB1) PDF.

Physically released in 2002, the fourth edition of the game is almost identical to the third edition, with all pieces remaining the same. Distinguishable elements include the 2002 copyright date and the editorial change from two rulebooks for the third edition, ("Handbook" for core rules and "DeathZone" for background information and alternate / optional advanced rules), to a single "Handbook" with the same material for the fourth edition.

All LRB updates included clarified or rewritten rules, coverage of previously unclear special cases, and game balance adjustments to skills, team lists, star players, cost and availability of star players and other special characters, etc.
 * LRB1 (2002) changed core rules about referees spotting fouls and use of wizards and league rules about player ageing (new) and the handicap system (overhauled from receiving extra Special Play cards to random choice on a table of favourable events).
 * LRB2 (2003) contained small changes, with some focus on the rules for passing and intercepting the ball.
 * LRB3 (2004) contained small changes.
 * LRB4 (2005) rule changes enforced the minimum team size of 11 and make other minor improvements. Vampire and Ogre teams become official and the respective player skills were added. Handicaps were changed by removing half the possible random results because they had various issues.
 * LRB5 (2006) changes cases of "turnover" (premature end of a player's turn), handling of stunned players and many parts of league rules: the sections about tournaments and playoffs was expanded, "spiralling expenses" were introduced as a way to handicap strong teams in the long term, post-game procedures were completely rewritten, random handicap rolls were replaced by "inducements" (the lower value team gets a budget to pay temporary players and other benefits), rules for post-game player improvements and results were modified, players can put team money in a "bank" (so that saved money doesn't count towards team value).
 * In 2007 the BBRC approved Slann, Chaos Pact and Underworld teams, but they were not included in the subsequent official LRB/CRP releases for lack of official miniatures.
 * LRB6 drafts, later re-edited as CRP (2009), contained small rule changes but significant changes to teams, star players and skills.

The Living Rulebook, in its sixth edition was said by the BBRC to be the final version, and was available from the official Blood Bowl site under the name "Blood Bowl Competition Rules Pack" or "CRP". Originally there were plans to release a printed version for Blood Bowl 20th anniversary, but that was cancelled. With the release of the CRP the BBRC was disbanded.

Blood Bowl 2016 Edition
In November 2015, Games Workshop announced the reintroduction of Specialist Games, and announced a new version of Blood Bowl was in development. At Warhammer Fest in May 2016, various elements of the new edition were announced, including a double sided pitch, all new plastic miniatures and an initial wave of teams (Humans, Orcs, Skaven, Elves, Nurgle and Dwarf) with future expansions in development to add more teams to the game (including a new release of Goblins).

Blood Bowl Second Season Edition (2020)
The current version of the game, released on 27 November 2020. It includes a hardback rulebook, miniatures for two teams (Imperial Nobility and Black Orc), a pair of referee miniatures, a double-sided pitch, two dugouts, two sets of dice, and templates, tokens, and counters. The rule book is also available separately, both physically and digitally.

Leagues and tournaments
League play is the foundation upon which Blood Bowl games are based. There are many kinds of league activity, but they all tie in to a general campaign where teams battle each other over a period of time, developing new abilities and suffering injuries or worse while attempting to earn the crown of league champion.

Tournaments are one-off events where large numbers of Blood Bowl teams gather to play against each other and try to become the tournament champion. This form of play differs from a recreational league. Games Workshop held four major tournaments across the world each year. The Blood Bowl was held at Warhammer World from 2003 until 2010 at Games Workshop's HQ in Nottingham, England in the spring and attracted around 200 players to play in the two-day event. The Dungeonbowl is held in Germany, the ''Spike! Magazine Trophy'' is held in Surrey, British Columbia, Canada in early September. The Chaos Cup was held in Chicago, Illinois, United States but will be held in Orlando, Florida in November 2024. In 2010, GW announced they were going to stop running the Blood Bowl tournament, but allowed the NAF to take over the running of the event, renamed as the NAF Championship. The Chaos Cup and Spike! are also no longer run by Games Workshop.

Numerous other events are held throughout the world at Games Workshop stores and events or independently. In January 2003, a website was opened for the purpose of helping people organise their own Blood Bowl tournaments, to promote Blood Bowl to the wargaming world, and to rank players' performance at tournaments. The organisation took the name NAF, after the fictional rules body in the Blood Bowl history. The most important Tournament in the world is the NAF WORLD CUP. The first World Cup was held in October 2007 in Nottingham, England over three days, with teams coming from as far afield as the United States and Australia. 272 players attended, making it not only the largest Blood Bowl event ever held to that date, but the largest Games Workshop related event in history. In the end, victory was awarded to a team from France, whilst a German coach won the individual coaching award. The NAF has run the World Cup every 4 years since, with numbers increasing each time. In 2011, 480 players attended in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The 2015 event in Lucca, Tuscany, Italy attracted 912 participants, and the 2019 World Cup held in Dornbirn, Austria on 3–6 October 2019 attracted 1.428 coaches. In 2023 in Alicante (Spain) 2.232 coaches attended the V Naf World Cup. These are the World Cup podiums until now:

Worldcup I - 2007 (Nottingham, England)

Winners: Les Azes (France) Second Place: Aros Super Stars (Denmark) Third place: FranceBloodBowl (France)

Worldcup II - 2011 (Amsterdam, Netherlands)

Winners: Waterbowl (England) Second Place: Team Argentina (Denmark) Third place: Lutece Noobz (France)

World Cup III - 2015 (Lucca, Italy)

Winners: Masters of Tilea (Italy) Second Place: Latino Lovers (Denmark) Third place: Pilous (France)

World Cup IV - 2019 (Dornbirn, Austria)

Winners: Amicale du Push Push (France) Second Place: Holy Six (Italy) Third place: Unqualified (Germany)

World Cup V - 2023 (Alicante, Spain)

Winners: Les Azes (France) Second Place: COCORIPOW (France) Third place: I Predatori di Atlantide (Italy)

Another important Tournament is the Eurobowl.

Video games
A conversion of Blood Bowl by UK company Tynesoft was reported to be in development, but the company went into bankruptcy in June 1990.

In 1995, an MS-DOS version of Blood Bowl was developed by Strategic Simulations, Inc. and released by MicroLeague, featuring the base teams as well as many of the free agents.

In 2004, French-based Cyanide Studio developed a game called Chaos League (and, later, a subsequent expansion Chaos League: Sudden Death) which bore a heavy resemblance to Blood Bowl in its style and rules, even though it was a real-time game (rather than turn-based, like Blood Bowl).

Games Workshop sued over the similarities, but later announced that Cyanide Studios had been granted a license to create computer games based on Blood Bowl, and that "Any differences between Games Workshop and Cyanide have been amicably settled for an undisclosed sum, and as part of the settlement the Chaos League title has been assigned to Games Workshop". This settlement led directly to Cyanide's release of an official new version for Windows computers on 26 June 2009 (with both "classic" turn-based mode and real-time mode). The playable races in the original video game version of Blood Bowl included Dwarfs, Wood Elves, Humans, Goblins, Orcs, Chaos, Skaven, and Lizardmen. With a subsequent patch, Dark Elves were added to the game as a playable race.

On 14 November 2007, the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, and Xbox 360 versions were announced. These were subsequently released, and followed very closely the tabletop rules at that time.

On 28 October 2010, Cyanide Studios released the Legendary Edition of Blood Bowl for PC only, called Blood Bowl: Legendary Edition. The game includes a reworked interface in the menu screens and a large number of new races added to the game, including Undead, Khemri, Norse, Elves, Halfling, Amazon, Ogre, Necromantic, Nurgle, Vampire and High Elves. This brings the total races represented to 20. The Chaos Edition released in October 2012 adds a further three races in the form of the Underworld, Chaos Dwarf, and Khorne teams, bringing the total to 23. Cyanide Studios released an adaption of Dungeonbowl in the same year.

A sequel, Blood Bowl 2, was released in 2015.

Another sequel, Blood Bowl 3, originally scheduled to be released in 2021, has been pushed back to 2022, and again to 2023. Closed beta started in early 2021.

Comic Book
In May 2008 Boom! Studios published Blood Bowl: Killer Contract a 5 issue mini-series written by Matt Forbeck and drawn by Lads Helloven. Storyline followed the "Bad Bay Hackers" in a grudge match against the "Orcland Raiders." The mini-series was collected into a graphic novel that was released in November 2008 as both a softcover and a hardcover.

Reception
Richard Meadows reviewed Blood Bowl for White Dwarf #85, and stated that "The combination of [its] presentation, and the chaos death mayhem that occurs on the pitch, makes this game very, very entertaining, and a must for all fans of American football, good old fashioned death and violence, or just having a good time."

In the October 1988 edition of Games International (Issue 1), Brian Walker gave the game an above-average rating of 4 out of 5, calling it "Highly suitable for two players interested in American football and gratuitous violence."

Other reviews

 * Adventurer (Issue 7 – Feb 1987)
 * Shadis #32 (1996)
 * Casus Belli #38 (June 1987)
 * Casus Belli #44 (April 1988)
 * Magia i Miecz (Issue 5 – 1993) (Polish)
 * Rollespilsmagasinet Fønix (Danish) (Issue 3 – July/August 1994)
 * Games #87
 * Jeux & Stratégie #50
 * Australian Realms #18

title: Blood Bowl


text:
Alfred of Sareshel

Alfred of Sarashel, also known as Alfred the Philosopher, Alfred the Englishman or Alfredus Anglicus, was born in England some time in the 12th century and died in the 13th century.

Not much more is known about his life apart from that he moved to Spain and worked in the Toledo School of Translators, where he translated several texts from Arabic and Greek into Latin.

Works

 * Translation of the pseudo-Aristotelian De plantis from the Arabic. " Alfred the Englishman translated the Arabic version into Latin in the reign of Henry III. It was retranslated from this version into Greek at the Renaissance by a Greek resident in Italy ."
 * Several commentaries on Aristotle, including four on his Meteors. These were extant down to the 17th century but have not survived.
 * Wrote De motu cordis (On the Motion of the Heart) and dedicated it to Alexander Nequam.
 * De naturis Rerum
 * De Educatione Accipitrum (On the mode of training hawks)
 * Five books on Boethius De consolatione philosophiae.
 * De Musica
 * De congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum (included in the Aristotel's Meteors) translation of ibn Sina text on mineralogy

title: Alfred of Sareshel


text:
Publilius Syrus

Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BC ), was a Latin writer, best known for his sententiae. He was a Syrian from Antioch who was brought as a slave to Roman Italy. Syrus was brought to Rome on the same ship that brought a certain Manilius, astronomer - not the famous Manilius of the 1st century AD (see Pliny, NH X, 4-5), and Staberius Eros the grammarian. By his wit and talent, Syrus won the favour of his master, who granted him manumission and educated him. He became a member of the Publilia gens. Publilius' name, due to the palatalization of 'l' between two 'i's in the Early Middle Ages, is often presented by manuscripts (and some printed editions) in corrupt form as 'Publius', Publius being a very common Roman praenomen.

Work
His mimes, in which he acted, had a great success in the provincial towns of Italy and at the games given by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. Publilius was perhaps even more famous as an improviser. He received from Julius Caesar the prize in a contest, in which Syrus vanquished all his competitors, including the celebrated Decimus Laberius.

His performances acquired the praise of many, but he drew the ire of Cicero who could not sit through his plays.

All that remains of his corpus is a collection of Sententiae, a series of moral maxims in iambic and trochaic verse. This collection must have been made at a very early date because it was known to Aulus Gellius in the 2nd century AD. Each maxim consists of a single verse, and the verses are arranged in alphabetical order according to their initial letters. Over time, the collection was interpolated with sentences drawn from other writers, especially from apocryphal writings of Seneca the Younger. The number of genuine verses is about 700. They include many pithy sayings, such as the famous "iudex damnatur ubi nocens absolvitur" ("The judge is condemned when the guilty is acquitted"), which was adopted as its motto by the Edinburgh Review. Due to the fragmentary nature of the collections, many of the sayings are contradictory or do not make much sense. The original plays and characters they were written for are lost to time. Only two titles of his plays survive: Putatores (the Pruners) and a play amended to Murmidon.

Texts
As of 1911, the best texts of the Sentences were those of Eduard Wölfflin (1869), A. Spengel (1874), and Wilhelm Meyer (1880), with complete critical apparatus and index verborum; editions with notes by O. Friedrich (1880), R. A. H. Bickford-Smith (1895), with full bibliography; see also W. Meyer, Die Sammlungen der Spruchverse des Publilius Syrus (1877), an important work. His works were also translated into English by J. Wight Duff and Arnold M. Duff in 1934.

Quotes

 * Ignorance is bliss (In nil sapiendo vita iucundissima est)
 * Death is fortunate for the child, bitter to the young man, too late for the old. (Mors infanti felix, iuveni acerba, nimis sera est seni.)
 * It may not be right but if it pays think it so (quamvis non rectum quod ivat rectum putes)
 * The end justifies the means (honesta turpitudo est pro causa bona)
 * Deliberation teaches wisdom (deliberando discitur sapientia)
 * Deliberation often loses a good chance (deliberando saepe perit occasio)
 * Honor among thieves (etiam in peccato recte praestatur fides)
 * Least said, soonest mended (male dictum interpretando facias acrius)
 * No man is a hero to his valet (inferior rescit quicquid peccat superior)
 * Where there is unity, there is always victory (Ubi concordia, ibi semper victoria).
 * To call yourself happy is to provoke disaster (irritare est calamitatem cum te felicem voces)
 * Necessity gives the law without itself acknowledging one (necessitas dat legem non ipsa accipit)
 * Necessity knows no law (necessitas non habet legem (proverb))
 * He gives the poor man twice as much good who gives quickly (inopi beneficium bis dat qui dat celeriter)

Titles of works

 * Putatores (lost)
 * amendation to Murmidon (lost)

Influence
Seneca the Younger strived to develop a "sententious style" like Publilius throughout his life. He quotes Syrus in his Moral Epistles to Lucilius in the eighth moral letter, "On the Philosopher's Seclusion" and the ninety-fourth, "On the Value of Advice".

William Shakespeare in the first scene of the fifth act of Much Ado About Nothing, has Don Pedro proverbially say: "if she did not hate him deadly, she would love him dearly." W.L. Rushton argues that this is derived from John Lyly's Euphues. If Shakespeare had not taken this from Lyly, then he and Lyly both derived this expression from Publilius.

The Muddy Waters song Rollin' Stone (1950) was named after a proverbial maxim of Publilius: "A rolling stone gathers no moss" (Saxum volutum non obducitur musco). The phrase also is given as "Musco lapis volutus haud obducitur" and in some cases as "Musco lapis volutus haud obvolvitur". The British rock band The Rolling Stones in turn was named after Muddy Waters' song.

title: Publilius Syrus


text:
1950 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1950.

Events

 * January 19 – Isaac Asimov's first full-length novel, Pebble in the Sky, is published in the United States by Doubleday.
 * January 26 – For the film noir Gun Crazy, released on this day in the United States, co-writer Dalton Trumbo is billed as Millard Kaufman, due to the former's inclusion on the Hollywood blacklist. This year Trumbo serves 11 months in prison for Contempt of Congress, in the federal penitentiary in Ashland, Kentucky.
 * February – Jack Kerouac has his first novel, The Town and the City, published in the United States.
 * April 8 – J. D. Salinger's wartime short story "For Esmé — with Love and Squalor" is published in The New Yorker.
 * May 11 – Eugène Ionesco's first play, The Bald Soprano is first performed, in Paris.
 * September 10 – George Bernard Shaw is taken to hospital after fracturing a hip falling out of a tree he was pruning. He is released from hospital a few weeks later after a successful operation, but suffers kidney failure and dies at his home, Shaw's Corner (Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire, England), aged 94.
 * October – Galaxy Science Fiction magazine launches in the United States.
 * October 2 – The daily comic strip Peanuts, by Charles M. Schulz, makes its debut in nine United States newspapers.
 * October 16 – C. S. Lewis's children's portal allegorical fantasy novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, illustrated by Pauline Baynes, is published by Geoffrey Bles in London, first of the seven-book The Chronicles of Narnia.
 * December 20 – Poet T. S. Eliot expresses concerns about "the television habit" in a letter to The Times (London).
 * unknown dates
 * Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn is sent to a "special camp" for political prisoners in Kazakhstan.
 * The 13th–14th century Japanese epic poem The Tale of the Heike (平家物語) is retold in modern prose by the historical novelist Eiji Yoshikawa as Shin Heike monogatari (New Tale of the Heike) and published in Asahi Weekly.
 * Blackwell's opens the first specialist children's bookshop, in Broad Street, Oxford (England).
 * Adrian Bell begins his Countryman's Notebook column in the Eastern Daily Press (England).

Fiction

 * Reginald Arkell – Old Herbaceous (reissued 2002)
 * Isaac Asimov
 * I, Robot (collected short stories)
 * Pebble in the Sky
 * Georges Bataille – L'Abbé C
 * Nicolas Bentley – The Floating Dutchman
 * Georges Bernanos – Night Is Darkest
 * Ray Bradbury – The Martian Chronicles
 * Gwen Bristow – Jubilee Trail
 * Pearl S. Buck – The Child Who Never Grew
 * John Bude – Death Steals the Show
 * Victor Canning
 * A Forest of Eyes
 * Venetian Bird
 * John Dickson Carr
 * The Bride of Newgate
 * Night at the Mocking Widow (as Carter Dickson)
 * Alec Coppel – Mr. Denning Drives North
 * Peter Cheyney
 * Dark Bahama
 * Lady, Behave!
 * Agatha Christie
 * A Murder is Announced
 * Three Blind Mice and Other Stories
 * Beverly Cleary – Henry Huggins
 * Catherine Cookson – Kate Hannigan
 * William Cooper – Scenes from Provincial Life
 * A. J. Cronin – The Spanish Gardener
 * L. Sprague de Camp and P. Schuyler Miller – Genus Homo
 * L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt – The Castle of Iron
 * Daphne du Maurier – The Parasites
 * Marguerite Duras – Un Barrage contre le Pacifique (The Sea Wall)
 * Friedrich Dürrenmatt – The Judge and His Hangman (Der Richter und sein Henker)
 * Hans Fallada (died 1947) – The Drinker (Der Trinker; written 1944)
 * Ford Madox Ford (died 1939) – Parade's End (tetralogy first published together under this title)
 * James Fugaté (as James Barr) – Quatrefoil: A Modern Novel
 * Hugh Garner – Cabbagetown
 * Gaito Gazdanov – The Buddha's Return (Возвращение Будды, Vozvrashchenie Buddy, serialization completed)
 * Anthony Gilbert
 * Murder Comes Home
 * A Nice Cup of Tea
 * Frank Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey – Belles on Their Toes
 * Winston Graham – Night Without Stars
 * Vasily Grossman – Stalingrad
 * Giovannino Guareschi – The Little World of Don Camillo
 * Frank Hardy – Power Without Glory
 * Ernest Hemingway – Across the River and Into the Trees
 * John Hersey – The Wall
 * Robert Hichens – Beneath the Magic
 * Patricia Highsmith – Strangers on a Train
 * Anne Hocking – Death Disturbs Mr. Jefferson
 * Elizabeth Jane Howard – The Beautiful Visit
 * Robert E. Howard – Conan the Conqueror
 * Hammond Innes – The Angry Mountain
 * MacKinlay Kantor – Lee and Grant at Appomattox
 * Margaret Kennedy – The Feast
 * Jack Kerouac – The Town and the City
 * Frances Parkinson Keyes – Joy Street
 * Damon Knight – To Serve Man (short stories)
 * Manuel Mujica Láinez – Misteriosa Buenos Aires (short stories)
 * Doris Lessing – The Grass Is Singing
 * Audrey Erskine Lindop – The Tall Headlines
 * E. C. R. Lorac – Accident by Design
 * Rose Macaulay – The World My Wilderness
 * Ross Macdonald – The Drowning Pool
 * Gladys Mitchell – Groaning Spinney
 * Roger Nimier – The Blue Hussar
 * Juan Carlos Onetti – La vida breve (A Brief Life)
 * Cesare Pavese – La Luna e i Falò
 * Mervyn Peake – Gormenghast
 * Pramoedya Ananta Toer – Perburuan (The Fugitive)
 * Kukrit Pramoj – Four Reigns (สี่แผ่นดิน, Si Phaen Din, serialized)
 * Barbara Pym – Some Tame Gazelle
 * Ellery Queen – Double, Double
 * Conrad Richter – The Town
 * Henry Morton Robinson – The Cardinal
 * Cezaro Rossetti – Kredu min, sinjorino!
 * Budd Schulberg – The Disenchanted
 * Samuel Shellabarger – The King's Cavalier
 * Nevil Shute – A Town Like Alice
 * Josef Škvorecký – Konec nylonového věku (The End of the Nylon Age)
 * John Steinbeck – Burning Bright
 * Rex Stout
 * Three Doors to Death
 * In the Best Families
 * Cecil Street
 * Family Affairs
 * The Two Graphs
 * A Village Afraid
 * Julian Symons – The Thirty-First of February
 * Edith Templeton – Summer In The Country
 * Josephine Tey – To Love and Be Wise
 * Tereska Torrès – Women's Barracks
 * Boris Vian – L'Herbe rouge
 * Gore Vidal – Dark Green, Bright Red
 * A. E. van Vogt – The Voyage of the Space Beagle
 * Mika Waltari – The Adventurer
 * Evelyn Waugh – Helena
 * Denton Welch – A Voice Through a Cloud
 * Antonia White – The Lost Traveller
 * Kathleen Winsor – Star Money
 * Yasushi Inoue
 * 黯い潮 (Kuroi ushio)
 * その人の名は云えない (Sono hito no na ha ienai)
 * 闘牛 (Tōgyū, The Bullfight)
 * Frank Yerby – Floodtide

Children and young people

 * Mabel Esther Allan
 * Over the Sea to School
 * A School in Danger
 * Rev. W. Awdry – Troublesome Engines (fifth in The Railway Series of 42 books by him and his son Christopher Awdry)
 * Leila Berg – The Adventures of Chunky (first in the Chunky series)
 * Joan Mary Wayne Brown as Mary Gervaise
 * A Pony of Your Own
 * Ponies and Holidays (first two in the Georgie series of ten books)
 * Anthony Buckeridge – Jennings Goes to School
 * Beverly Cleary – Henry Huggins
 * C. S. Forester – Mr. Midshipman Hornblower
 * William Glynne-Jones – Pennants on the Main
 * C. S. Lewis – The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (first in The Chronicles of Narnia series)
 * Elinor Lyon – The House in Hiding (first novel in Ian and Sovra series)
 * Katherine Milhous – The Egg Tree
 * Anne Parrish – The Story of Appleby Capple
 * Richard Scarry – First Book Ever
 * Dr. Seuss
 * If I Ran the Zoo
 * Gerald McBoing Boing
 * Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories
 * James Thurber – The 13 Clocks

Drama

 * Arthur Adamov
 * La Parodie
 * L'Invasion
 * La Grande et la Petite Manoeuvre
 * Bertolt Brecht – The Tutor (Der Hofmeister, adapted from Lenz)
 * Wynyard Browne – The Holly and the Ivy
 * Emilio Carballido – Rosalba y los Llaveros
 * Campbell Christie – His Excellency
 * John Dighton – Who Goes There!
 * Friedrich Dürrenmatt – Romulus the Great (Romulus der Große)
 * Christopher Fry – Venus Observed
 * Kermit Hunter – Unto These Hills
 * William Inge – Come Back, Little Sheba
 * Eugène Ionesco – The Bald Soprano (La Cantatrice chauve)
 * Benn Levy – Return to Tyassi
 * Frederick Lonsdale – The Way Things Go
 * Roger MacDougall
 * The Gentle Gunman
 * To Dorothy, a Son
 * Macadam and Eve
 * Esther McCracken – Cry Liberty
 * Colin Morris – Reluctant Heroes
 * Terence Rattigan – Who Is Sylvia?
 * Nelly Sachs – Eli: Ein Mysterienspiel vom Leiden Israels (verse)
 * C.P. Snow – View Over the Park
 * John Steinbeck – Burning Bright
 * Vernon Sylvaine – Will Any Gentleman?

Poetry

 * Leah Bodine Drake – A Hornbook for Witches
 * Pablo Neruda – Canto General
 * Stevie Smith – Not Waving but Drowning

Non-fiction

 * Roland Bainton – Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther
 * Elizabeth David – A Book of Mediterranean Food
 * Victor Gollancz (ed.) – A Year of Grace
 * Ernst Gombrich – The Story of Art
 * Thor Heyerdahl – The Kon-Tiki Expedition
 * Octavio Paz – The Labyrinth of Solitude
 * Lionel Trilling – The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society
 * Raymond Williams – Reading and Criticism
 * Cecil Woodham-Smith – Florence Nightingale
 * Desmond Young – Rommel: The Desert Fox

Births

 * January 5 – Valentina Tăzlăuanu, Moldovan essayist, journalist and theatre critic (died 2020)
 * January 17 – Luis López Nieves, Puerto Rican writer
 * January 19 – Will Weaver, American author
 * January 20 – Edward Hirsch, American poet
 * January 22 – Paul Bew, Irish historian and academic
 * January 24 – Benjamin Urrutia, Ecuadorian author and scholar
 * January 25 – Gloria Naylor, African-American novelist and academic (died 2016)
 * February 11 – Mauri Kunnas, Finnish children's author
 * February 20 – Jean-Paul Dubois, French novelist and journalist
 * February 26:
 * Irena Brežná, Slovak-Swiss writer, journalist and activist writing in German
 * Adam Cornford, English poet and essayist
 * March 17 – Peter Robinson, British-born Canadian novelist (died 2022)
 * March 19 – Kirsten Boie, German children's writer
 * March 23 – Ahdaf Soueif, Egyptian novelist
 * April 20 – Steve Erickson, American novelist
 * May 1 – Aldino Muianga, Mozambican physician and writer
 * May 27 – Alex Gray, Scottish crime writer
 * June 21 – Anne Carson, Canadian poet and scholar
 * June 25 – Barbara Gowdy, Canadian novelist
 * July 3 – Zhang Kangkang (张抗抗), Chinese writer
 * July 22 – Susan Eloise Hinton, American novelist
 * August 9 – Nicole Tourneur, French novelist (died 2011)
 * August 26 – Carl Deuker, American author
 * September 7 – Peggy Noonan, American columnist, political writer
 * September 16 – Henry Louis Gates, American literary critic
 * September 20 – James Blaylock, American fantasy author
 * September 28 – Christina Hoff Sommers, American author and philosopher
 * October 10 – Nora Roberts, American novelist
 * October 12 – Edward Bloor, American novelist
 * October 15 – Teresa Amy, Uruguayan poet and translator (died 2017)
 * October 17 – David Adams Richards, Canadian author
 * October 18 – Wendy Wasserstein, American playwright (died 2006)
 * October 27 – Fran Lebowitz, American writer
 * November 3 – Massimo Mongai, Italian author
 * November 4 – Charles Frazier, American novelist
 * December 18 – Leonard Maltin, American film critic and historian
 * December 20 – Sheenagh Pugh, English-born poet and novelist
 * December 30 – Timothy Mo, Hong Kong British novelist
 * unknown dates
 * Bandi, North Korean fiction writer
 * Greg McGee, New Zealand playwright and crime fiction writer
 * Candace Robb, American historical novelist

Deaths

 * January 5 – Basil Williams, English historian (born 1867)
 * January 8 – Joseph Schumpeter, Austrian/American political economist (born 1883)
 * January 21 – George Orwell (Eric Arthur Blair), English novelist (tuberculosis, born 1903)
 * February 7 – D. K. Broster, English historical novelist (born 1877)
 * February 13 – Rafael Sabatini, Italian-born English-language novelist (born 1875)
 * February 24 – Irving Bacheller, American journalist and novelist (born 1859)
 * March 5 – Edgar Lee Masters, American poet (born 1868)
 * March 11 – Heinrich Mann, German novelist (born 1871)
 * March 19 – Edgar Rice Burroughs, American author (born 1875)
 * March 22 – Emmanuel Mounier, French philosopher, journalist and theologian (born 1905)
 * circa March 30 – Henric Streitman, Romanian essayist and journalist (born 1873)
 * April 1 – F. O. Matthiessen, American historian and literary critic (born 1902)
 * April 4 – Cuthbert Whitaker, English yearbook editor (born 1873)
 * April 8 – Albert Ehrenstein, Austrian Expressionist poet (born 1886)
 * April 27 – H. Bonciu, Romanian novelist, poet and translator (cancer, born 1893)
 * May 6 – Agnes Smedley, American journalist and writer (born 1892)
 * May 8 – Cezaro Rossetti, Scottish-born Esperanto writer (born 1901)
 * May 10 – Belle da Costa Greene, American librarian (born 1883)
 * May 11 – Alfred O. Andersson, English-born American journalist and newspaper publisher (born 1874)
 * June 4 – George Cecil Ives, German-born English poet, writer and reformer (born 1867)
 * June 14 – Katharine Glasier, English writer and socialist (born 1867)
 * July 7 – Guy Gilpatric, American short story writer (suicide, born 1896)
 * August 27 – Cesare Pavese, Italian poet and novelist (born 1908)
 * September 6 – Olaf Stapledon, English philosopher and science fiction writer (heart attack, born 1886)
 * September 18 – Henrik Rytter, Norwegian dramatist, lyricist and translator (born 1887)
 * October 9 – Nicolai Hartmann, German-Latvian philosopher (born 1882)
 * October 19 – Edna St. Vincent Millay, American poet (heart attack, born 1892)
 * October 31 – Herbert Kelly, English religious writer and cleric (born 1860)
 * November 2 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish dramatist, critic and activist (born 1856)
 * November 25 – Johannes V. Jensen, Danish author (born 1873)
 * December 28 – Sigizmund Krzhizhanovsky, Soviet short-story writer (born 1887)
 * December 31 – Xavier Villaurrutia, Mexican poet and dramatist (born 1903)
 * unknown dates
 * Edith Escombe, English fiction writer and essayist (born 1866)
 * Helen Rowland, American journalist and humorist (born 1875)

Awards

 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: Elfrida Vipont, The Lark on the Wing
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Robert Henriques, Through the Valley
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: Cecil Woodham-Smith, Florence Nightingale
 * Mystery Writer Of Japan – Kazuo Shimada, Shakai-bu Kisha ("City Reporter")
 * Newbery Medal for children's literature: Marguerite de Angeli, The Door in the Wall
 * Newdigate prize: John Bayley
 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Bertrand Russell
 * Premio Nadal: Elena Quiroga, Viento del norte
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Joshua Logan, South Pacific
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: A. B. Guthrie, Jr., The Way West
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Gwendolyn Brooks, Annie Allen (first African American winner)

title: 1950 in literature


text:
1951 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1951.

Events

 * January 12 – Janie Moore, C. S. Lewis' so-called adoptive mother, dies.
 * March – The American writer Flannery O'Connor leaves hospital after being diagnosed with lupus at the age of 25.
 * March 12 – Hank Ketcham's U.S. Dennis the Menace appears for the first time in 16 United States newspapers.
 * March 17 – The homonymous U.K. Dennis the Menace comic strip first appears in the children's comic The Beano.
 * Spring – Arthur C. Clarke's short story "The Sentinel", which will form a basis for the film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and a subsequent novel, is published as "Sentinel of Eternity" in the only issue ever produced of the American science fiction and fantasy pulp magazine 10 Story Fantasy.
 * May – Joe Orton enters the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, where he meets his lover and ultimate murderer Kenneth Halliwell.
 * June 18 – Frank Hardy is acquitted of criminal libel in the Australian state of Victoria over his self-published 1950 roman à clef on corruption in Melbourne political life, Power Without Glory.
 * July 16 – J. D. Salinger's coming-of-age story The Catcher in the Rye is published by Little, Brown and Company in New York City.
 * September 6 – William S. Burroughs shoots and kills his common-law wife Joan Vollmer, apparently by accident, in Mexico City.
 * December 16 – Noël Coward leaves his home, White Cliffs, on the south coast of England, having sold it to Ian Fleming.
 * unknown dates
 * E. E. Cummings and Rachel Carson are awarded Guggenheim Fellowships. It is Cummings' second.
 * Janet Frame's first book, The Lagoon and Other Stories, is published by the Caxton Press (New Zealand) (dated 1952) while the author is a patient in Seacliff Lunatic Asylum, Seacliff, New Zealand, scheduled for a lobotomy. It is awarded the Hubert Church Memorial Award, at the time one of New Zealand's most prestigious literary prizes. This results in the cancellation of Frame's operation.
 * Béla Hamvas completes his epic novel Karnevál. He is banned from publication in Hungary at the time, so that it will appear only in 1985, 17 years after his death.
 * A Question of Upbringing, the first book in Anthony Powell's twelve-novel series A Dance to the Music of Time, is published by Heinemann in the U.K.
 * The custom of performing medieval mystery plays is revived at York and Chester, England.
 * The Théâtre national de la Colline in Paris is founded.

Fiction

 * Martha Albrand – Desperate Moment
 * Eric Ambler – Judgment on Deltchev
 * Charlotte Armstrong – The Black-Eyed Stranger
 * Sholem Asch – Moses
 * Isaac Asimov
 * Foundation
 * The Stars Like Dust
 * Nigel Balchin – A Way Through the Wood
 * Samuel Beckett – Molloy
 * Peter Blackmore – The Blue Goose
 * Ray Bradbury
 * The Illustrated Man
 * "The Last Night of the World" (short story)
 * John Brophy – Turn the Key Softly
 * Gill Hunt – Galactic Storm
 * Gerald Butler – Choice of Two Women
 * Taylor Caldwell – The Balance Wheel
 * Morley Callaghan – The Loved and the Lost
 * Truman Capote – The Grass Harp
 * L. Sprague de Camp
 * Rogue Queen
 * The Undesired Princess
 * John Dickson Carr – The Devil in Velvet
 * Henry Cecil – The Painswick Line
 * Camilo José Cela – The Hive (La Colmena)
 * James Hadley Chase – But a Short Time to Live
 * Peter Cheyney – Ladies Won't Wait
 * Agatha Christie
 * The Under Dog and Other Stories
 * They Came to Baghdad
 * Arthur C. Clarke – Prelude to Space
 * Beverly Cleary – Ellen Tebbits
 * Howard Clewes – The Long Memory
 * Claud Cockburn – Beat the Devil
 * Julio Cortázar – Bestiario
 * Freeman Wills Crofts – French Strikes Oil
 * Edmund Crispin – The Long Divorce
 * Robertson Davies – Tempest-Tost
 * August Derleth – The Memoirs of Solar Pons
 * Heimito von Doderer – Die Strudlhofstiege, oder Melzer und die Tiefe der Jahre (The Strudelhof Steps)
 * Owen Dodson – Boy at the Window
 * Daphne du Maurier – My Cousin Rachel
 * Friedrich Dürrenmatt – Suspicion
 * Howard Fast – Spartacus
 * Per Anders Fogelström – Sommaren med Monika
 * Anthony Gilbert – Lady Killer
 * Michael Gilbert – Death Has Deep Roots
 * Julien Gracq – Le Rivage des Syrtes (The Opposing Shore)
 * Graham Greene – The End of the Affair
 * Henri René Guieu – Le Pionnier de l'atome
 * Cyril Hare – An English Murder
 * John Hawkes – The Beetle Leg
 * Robert A. Heinlein – The Puppet Masters
 * A. P. Herbert – Number Nine
 * James Hilton – Morning Journey
 * Anne Hocking – Mediterranean Murder
 * Elizabeth Jane Howard and Robert Aickman – We Are for the Dark: Six Ghost Stories
 * Laurence Hyde – Southern Cross (wordless novel)
 * Hammond Innes – Air Bridge
 * Michael Innes – Operation Pax
 * James Jones – From Here to Eternity
 * Margaret Kennedy – Lucy Carmichael
 * A. M. Klein – The Second Scroll
 * Wolfgang Koeppen – Tauben im Gras (Pigeons on the Grass)
 * Kalki Krishnamurthy
 * Poiman Karadu
 * Ponniyin Selvan (பொன்னியின் செல்வன், The Son of Ponni; publication begins)
 * Louis L'Amour – The Rustlers of the West Fork
 * Eric Linklater – Laxdale Hall
 * E. C. R. Lorac – Murder of a Martinet
 * Ross Macdonald – The Way Some People Die
 * Olivia Manning – School for Love
 * Ngaio Marsh – Opening Night
 * John Masters – Nightrunners of Bengal
 * François Mauriac – Le Sagouin (The Marmoset)
 * James A. Michener – Return to Paradise
 * Nancy Mitford – The Blessing
 * Gladys Mitchell – The Devil's Elbow
 * Nicholas Monsarrat – The Cruel Sea
 * Alberto Moravia – The Conformist (Il conformista)
 * Robert Pinget – Entre Fantoine et Agapa
 * Anthony Powell – A Question of Upbringing
 * J. B. Priestley – Festival at Farbridge
 * Ernest Raymond – A Chorus Ending
 * John Rhode – Doctor Goodwood's Locum
 * Sax Rohmer – Sumuru
 * J. D. Salinger – The Catcher in the Rye
 * Ernst von Salomon – The Questionnaire (Der Fragebogen)
 * Ooka Shohei (大岡 昇平) – Fires on the Plain (野火, Nobi)
 * Vern Schneider – The Teahouse of the August Moon
 * Georges Simenon
 * Maigret and the Burglar's Wife
 * Maigret, Lognon and the Gangsters
 * Margit Söderholm – Meeting in Vienna
 * Cardinal Spellman – The Foundling
 * Howard Spring – The Houses in Between
 * John Steinbeck – The Log from the Sea of Cortez
 * Rex Stout
 * Curtains for Three
 * Murder by the Book
 * Cecil Street
 * Beware Your Neighbour
 * The Secret Meeting
 * William Styron – Lie Down in Darkness
 * Elizabeth Taylor – A Game of Hide and Seek
 * Phoebe Atwood Taylor – Diplomatic Corpse
 * Josephine Tey – The Daughter of Time
 * Jerrard Tickell – Appointment with Venus
 * Anne de Tourville – Jabadao
 * Henry Wade – Diplomat’s Folly
 * P. G. Wodehouse – The Old Reliable
 * Herman Wouk – The Caine Mutiny
 * John Wyndham – The Day of the Triffids
 * Frank Yerby – A Woman Called Fancy
 * Marguerite Yourcenar – Memoirs of Hadrian (Mémoires d'Hadrien)
 * Juan Eduardo Zúñiga – Inútiles totales (Totally useless)

Children and young people

 * M. E. Atkinson – Castaway Camp (first in the Fricka series of five books)
 * Rev. W. Awdry – Henry the Green Engine (sixth in The Railway Series of 42 books by him and his son Christopher Awdry)
 * Viola Bayley – The Dark Lantern
 * Margaret Biggs – The Blakes Come to Melling
 * Anne de Vries – Into the Darkness (De Duisternis in, first in the Journey Through the Night – Reis door de nacht – series of four books)
 * Eleanor Estes – Ginger Pye
 * Rumer Godden – The Mousewife
 * Cynthia Harnett – The Wool-Pack
 * C. S. Lewis – Prince Caspian
 * Elinor Lyon – We Daren't Go A'Hunting
 * Gianni Rodari – l romanzo di Cipollino (The Adventures of the Little Onion)
 * Sydney Taylor – All-of-a-Kind Family

Drama

 * Muriel Box and Sydney Box – The Seventh Veil
 * Agatha Christie – The Hollow
 * Ian Hay – The White Sheep of the Family
 * Kenneth Horne – And This Was Odd
 * Eugène Ionesco – The Lesson (La Leçon)
 * Ronald Jeans – Count Your Blessings
 * Maryat Lee – Dope!
 * A. A. Milne – Before the Flood
 * Lawrence Riley – Kin Hubbard
 * Jean-Paul Sartre – The Devil and the Good Lord (Le Diable et le Bon Dieu)
 * Peter Ustinov
 * The Love of Four Colonels
 * The Moment of Truth
 * John Van Druten – I Am a Camera
 * John Whiting
 * A Penny for a Song
 * Saint's Day (first performance)
 * Tennessee Williams – The Rose Tattoo

Poetry

 * Clark Ashton Smith – The Dark Chateau
 * Frank O'Hara – A City Winter and Other Poems
 * Iona and Peter Opie – The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes

Non-fiction

 * Nelson Algren – Chicago: City on the Make (essay)
 * Lou Andreas-Salomé (died 1937) – Lebensrückblick (Looking Back)
 * Hannah Arendt – The Origins of Totalitarianism
 * Albert Camus – The Rebel (L'Homme révolté)
 * Rachel Carson – The Sea Around Us
 * Nirad C. Chaudhuri – The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian
 * Wolfgang Clemen – The Development of Shakespeare's Imagery
 * Thomas B. Costain – The Magnificent Century (second book in the Plantagenet or Pageant of England series)
 * Daphne du Maurier (ed.) – The Young George du Maurier: a selection of his letters 1860–67
 * James A. Frost – Life On The Upper Susquehanna 1783-1860
 * Jacquetta Hawkes
 * A Land
 * A Guide to the Prehistoric and Roman Monuments in England and Wales
 * Eric Hoffer – The True Believer: Thoughts On The Nature Of Mass Movements
 * Karl Huber (executed 1943) – Leibniz
 * Dumas Malone – Jefferson and the Rights of Man
 * C. Wright Mills – White Collar: The American Middle Classes
 * Vladimir Nabokov – Speak, Memory
 * J. A. Schumpeter – Imperialism and Social Classes
 * Tran Duc Thao – Phénoménologie et matérialisme dialectique

Births

 * January 1 – Ashfaq Hussain, Urdu poet
 * January 13 – Nigel Cox, New Zealand novelist
 * January 22 – Steve J. Spears, Australian actor, singer, and playwright (died 2007)
 * February 13 – Katja Lange-Müller, German novelist
 * February 17 – Jagadish Mohanty, Indian novelist (died 2013)
 * March 4 – Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, South Korean-born novelist and artist (died 1982)
 * March 12 – Susan Musgrave, Canadian poet and children's writer
 * March 17 - Lian Tanner, Australian children's writer
 * April 5 – Guy Vanderhaeghe, Canadian author
 * April 16 – Ioan Mihai Cochinescu, Romanian novelist and essayist
 * April 19 – Pierre Lemaitre, French suspense novelist
 * May 3 – Tatyana Tolstaya, Russian novelist, essayist and TV presenter
 * May 9
 * Christopher Dewdney, Canadian poet
 * Joy Harjo, Native American poet
 * May 15 – David Almond, English writer for children and young adults
 * May 20 – Christie Blatchford, Canadian newspaper columnist, journalist, writer and broadcaster (died 2020)
 * May 21 – Al Franken, American comedian, actor, writer and politician
 * June 5 – Suze Orman, American financial advisor, writer and television personality
 * June 15 – Amir Barghashi, Iranian-born Swedish actor and dramatist
 * June 22 – Rosario Murillo, Nicaraguan poet and political activist
 * June 29 – Don Rosa, American writer and artist of Disney comics
 * August 20 – Greg Bear, American science fiction writer
 * August 24 – Orson Scott Card, American science fiction writer
 * September 14 – Volodymyr Melnykov, Ukrainian poet, writer, songwriter and composer
 * September 15 – Jared Taylor, American author and journalist
 * September 20 – Javier Marías, Spanish novelist
 * September 29 – Andrés Caicedo, Colombian novelist and cinema critic (suicide 1977)
 * October 3 – Bernard Cooper, American writer
 * October 11 – Louise Rennison, English author and comedian (died 2016)
 * October 12 – Peter Flannery, English dramatist
 * October 17 – Clark Parent, Haitian novelist, musician and politician
 * November 18 - Dennis Foon, Canadian playwright, screenwriter and novelist
 * December 6 – Tomson Highway, Canadian and Cree playwright, novelist and children's author
 * December 8 – Bill Bryson, American travel writer
 * December 20 – Peter May, Scottish novelist and television dramatist
 * December 22 – Charles de Lint, Canadian fantasy author and Celtic folk musician
 * Unknown dates
 * Mohammed Achaari, Moroccan writer
 * Carol Birch, English novelist

Deaths

 * January 6 – Maila Talvio, Finnish writer, nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature (born 1871)
 * January 7 – René Guénon, French philosophical writer (born 1886)
 * January 10 – Sinclair Lewis, American novelist (born 1885)
 * January 29 – James Bridie, Scottish dramatist (born 1888)
 * February 13 – Lloyd C. Douglas, American author (born 1877)
 * February 16 – Henri-René Lenormand, French dramatist (born 1882)
 * February 19 – André Gide, French author (born 1869)
 * February 28 – Vsevolod Vishnevsky, Russian dramatist and screenwriter (born 1900)
 * March 11 – János Zsupánek, Prekmurje Slovene poet and author (born 1861)
 * March 25 – Oscar Micheaux, African American author, film director and producer (born 1884)
 * April 3 – Henrik Visnapuu, Estonian poet and dramatist (born 1890)
 * April 9 – Sadegh Hedayat, Iranian-born novelist (born 1903; suicide)
 * April 12 - Henry De Vere Stacpoole. Irish author (born 1863)
 * April 29 – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian philosopher (born 1889)
 * May 2 – Alphonse de Châteaubriant, French writer (born 1877)
 * May 25 – Paula von Preradović, Austrian poet and writer (born 1887)
 * May 30 – Hermann Broch, Austrian writer (born 1886)
 * June 10 – Håkon Evjenth, Norwegian children's writer (born 1894)
 * June 11 – W. C. Sellar, Scottish humorist (born 1898)
 * August 14 – William Randolph Hearst, American newspaper tycoon (born 1863)
 * August 18 – Richard Malden, English editor, classical and Biblical scholar, and ghost story writer (born 1879)
 * August 31 – Abraham Cahan, American Jewish journalist and novelist (born 1860)
 * September 2 – Antoine Bibesco, Romanian dramatist (born 1878)
 * September 7 – F. G. Loring, English writer and naval officer (born 1869)
 * September 28 – Petre P. Negulescu, Romanian philosopher (born 1870)
 * November 5 – I. C. Vissarion, Romanian novelist, dramatist, poet and science writer (born 1879)
 * November 27 – Timrava (Božena Slančíková), Slovak novelist, short story writer and playwright (born 1867)
 * December 4 – Pedro Salinas, Spanish poet (born 1891)
 * December 10 – Algernon Blackwood, English novelist and journalist (born 1869)

Awards

 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: Cynthia Harnett, The Wool-Pack
 * Frost Medal: Wallace Stevens
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Chapman Mortimer, Father Goose
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: Noel Annan, Leslie Stephen
 * Newbery Medal: Elizabeth Yates, Amos Fortune, Free Man
 * Nobel Prize in Literature: Pär Lagerkvist
 * Premio Nadal: Luis Romero, La noria
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: no award given
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: Conrad Richter, The Town
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Carl Sandburg, Complete Poems

title: 1951 in literature


text:
Sunrise

Sunrise (or sunup) is the moment when the upper rim of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon.

Terminology
Although the Sun appears to "rise" from the horizon, it is actually the Earth's motion that causes the Sun to appear. The illusion of a moving Sun results from Earth observers being in a rotating reference frame; this apparent motion caused many cultures to have mythologies and religions built around the geocentric model, which prevailed until astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus formulated his heliocentric model in the 16th century.

Architect Buckminster Fuller proposed the terms "sunsight" and "sunclipse" to better represent the heliocentric model, though the terms have not entered into common language.

Astronomically, sunrise occurs for only an instant, namely the moment at which the upper limb of the Sun appears tangent to the horizon. However, the term sunrise commonly refers to periods of time both before and after this point:
 * Twilight, the period in the morning during which the sky is brightening, but the Sun is not yet visible. The beginning of morning twilight is called astronomical dawn.
 * The period after the Sun rises during which striking colors and atmospheric effects are still seen. Civil twilight being the brightest, while astronomical twilight being the darkest.

Angle with respect to horizon
The stage of sunrise known as false sunrise actually occurs before the Sun truly reaches the horizon because Earth's atmosphere refracts the Sun's image. At the horizon, the average amount of refraction is 34 arcminutes, though this amount varies based on atmospheric conditions.

Also, unlike most other solar measurements, sunrise occurs when the Sun's upper limb, rather than its center, appears to cross the horizon. The apparent radius of the Sun at the horizon is 16 arcminutes.

These two angles combine to define sunrise to occur when the Sun's center is 50 arcminutes below the horizon, or 90.83° from the zenith.

Time of day
The timing of sunrise varies throughout the year and is also affected by the viewer's latitude and longitude, altitude, and time zone. These changes are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. The analemma can be used to make approximate predictions of the time of sunrise.

In late winter and spring, sunrise as seen from temperate latitudes occurs earlier each day, reaching its earliest time near the summer solstice; although the exact date varies by latitude. After this point, the time of sunrise gets later each day, reaching its latest sometime around the winter solstice. The offset between the dates of the solstice and the earliest or latest sunrise time is caused by the eccentricity of Earth's orbit and the tilt of its axis, and is described by the analemma, which can be used to predict the dates.

Variations in atmospheric refraction can alter the time of sunrise by changing its apparent position. Near the poles, the time-of-day variation is exaggerated, since the Sun crosses the horizon at a very shallow angle and thus rises more slowly.

Accounting for atmospheric refraction and measuring from the leading edge slightly increases the average duration of day relative to night. The sunrise equation, however, which is used to derive the time of sunrise and sunset, uses the Sun's physical center for calculation, neglecting atmospheric refraction and the non-zero angle subtended by the solar disc.

Location on the horizon
Neglecting the effects of refraction and the Sun's non-zero size, whenever sunrise occurs, in temperate regions it is always in the northeast quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox and in the southeast quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunrises occur approximately due east on the March and September equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunrise on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.

The figure on the right is calculated using the solar geometry routine in Ref. as follows:

 * 1) For a given latitude and a given date, calculate the declination of the Sun using $$0^{\circ}$$ longitude and solar noon time as inputs to the routine;
 * 2) Calculate the sunrise hour angle using the sunrise equation;
 * 3) Calculate the sunrise time, which is the solar noon time minus the sunrise hour angle in degree divided by 15;
 * 4) Use the sunrise time as input to the solar geometry routine to get the solar azimuth angle at sunrise.

Hemispheric symmetry
An interesting feature in the figure on the right is apparent hemispheric symmetry in regions where daily sunrise and sunset actually occur.

This symmetry becomes clear if the hemispheric relation in to the sunrise equation is applied to the x- and y-components of the solar vector presented in Ref.

Colors
Air molecules and airborne particles scatter white sunlight as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere. This is done by a combination of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.

As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees. Because the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam.

At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer-wavelength orange and red hues seen at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight's wavelengths (more than 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength-dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light).

Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air. Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface.

Optical illusions and other phenomena

 * Atmospheric refraction causes the Sun to be seen while it is still below the horizon.
 * Light from the lower edge of the Sun's disk is refracted more than light from the upper edge. This reduces the apparent height of the Sun when it appears just above the horizon. The width is not affected, so the Sun appears wider than it is high.
 * The Sun appears larger at sunrise than it does while higher in the sky, in a manner similar to the Moon illusion.
 * The Sun appears to rise above the horizon and circle the Earth, but it is actually the Earth that is rotating, with the Sun remaining fixed. This effect results from the fact that an observer on Earth is in a rotating reference frame.
 * Occasionally a false sunrise occurs, demonstrating a very particular kind of parhelion belonging to the optical phenomenon family of halos.
 * Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset, a green flash can be seen. This is an optical phenomenon in which a green spot is visible above the Sun, usually for no more than a second or two.

title: Sunrise


text:
Joachim Camerarius

Joachim Camerarius (12 April 1500 – 17 April 1574), the Elder, was a German classical scholar. His critical abilities, his deep understanding of Greek and Latin, and his wide-ranging knowledge of the ancient world made him one of the foremost German scholars of his time.

Life
Camerarius was born in Bamberg, in the Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg. His family name was Liebhard, but he was generally called Kammermeister, previous members of his family having held the office of chamberlain (camerarius) to the bishops of Bamberg.

He studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became a student and friend of Philipp Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher of history and Greek at the gymnasium in Nuremberg (Ägidiengymnasium). In 1530 he was sent as deputy for Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg, where he helped Melanchthon in drawing up the Augsburg Confession.

Five years later he was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Württemberg to reorganize the University of Tübingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly spent. He played an important part in the Reformation movement, and his advice was frequently sought by leading men.

In 1535 he entered into a correspondence with Francis I as to the possibility of a reconciliation between the Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 Maximilian II sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same subject. He died in Leipzig on 17 April 1574.

He was the father of the physician Joachim Camerarius the Younger, and his grandson Ludwig Camerarius was a leading figure of the Thirty Years' War, as head of the Palatinate government in exile.

Works
He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes, Xenophon, Homer, Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus, Nicephorus, Ptolemy, Euclid, and other Greek writers. He published upwards of 150 works, including a Catalogue of the Bishops of the Principal Sees; Greek Epistles; a treatise on numismatics; the Hippocomicus, a book of horsemanship; accounts of his journeys in Latin verse; and biographies of such contemporaries as Eobanus Hessus, George of Anhalt, Melanchthon, and Albrecht Dürer. His Epistolae Familiares, published after his death, are a valuable contribution to the history of his time.

He produced the first printed Greek edition of Ptolemy's astrology text, the Tetrabiblos, in 1535. It was printed in a quarto format by the publisher Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg along with Camerarius's translation to Latin of Books I, II and portions of Books III and IV, accompanied with his notes on the first two books, the Greek text of the Centiloquium (Καρπός) and a Latin translation from Iovianus Pontanus. A second edition, with a Latin translation by Melanchthon, appeared in 1553, printed in Basel, Switzerland in octavo format by Johannes Oporinus. He was also responsible for the first edition of Ptolemy's Almagest, published in Basel in 1538.

His edition of the comic playwright Plautus, published in Basel in 1552, was the first to draw on the oldest extant manuscripts, one of which is still known today as the codex vetus Camerarii ("Camerarius's ancient codex"). His text of the plays was not substantially improved until the work of Friedrich Ritschl in the 19th century.

title: Joachim Camerarius


text:
1952 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1952.

Events

 * February – The historical periodical Past & Present is launched in Oxford, U.K.
 * February 29 – Derek J. de Solla Price reveals his discovery of a lost medieval scientific work entitled Equatorie of the Planetis, initially attributed to Geoffrey Chaucer, in the Times Literary Supplement.
 * March 3 – J. L. Carr takes over as Headmaster of Highfields Primary School, Kettering, which will later feature in his novel The Harpole Report.
 * May – The works of André Gide are placed on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books by Pope Pius XII.
 * July 10 – The first issue of Mad appears, edited by Harvey Kurtzman and published by William M. Gaines' EC Comics.
 * August 12 – The Night of the Murdered Poets brings the execution of 13 Soviet Jews in Lubyanka Prison, Moscow, including several writers.
 * September 6 – The Universal Copyright Convention is adopted at Geneva.
 * October 17 – Samuel Beckett's play Waiting For Godot is published in Paris as En attendant Godot by Les Éditions de Minuit.
 * October 28 – E. E. Cummings delivers the first of his Charles Eliot Norton lectures at Harvard University.
 * November 25 – Agatha Christie's play The Mousetrap opens at the New Ambassadors Theatre, London. It will still be running as of 2021, next door at St Martin's Theatre from 1974.
 * unknown dates
 * The publisher Diogenes Verlag is founded in Zürich, Switzerland, by Daniel Keel.
 * The National Library of Burma is established in Rangoon.

Fiction

 * Margery Allingham – The Tiger in the Smoke
 * Anthony Armstrong – He Was Found in the Road
 * Thomas Armstrong – Adam Brunskill
 * Isaac Asimov
 * The Currents of Space
 * Foundation and Empire
 * H. E. Bates – Love for Lydia
 * Margot Bennett – The Widow of Bath
 * John Bingham – My Name Is Michael Sibley
 * Christianna Brand – London Particular
 * Pearl S. Buck – The Hidden Flower
 * John Bude
 * Death on the Riviera
 * When the Case Was Opened
 * Ivan Bunin – The Life of Arseniev
 * Italo Calvino
 * The Argentine Ant (La Formica Argentina)
 * The Cloven Viscount (l visconte dimezzato, first of the Our Ancestors trilogy)
 * Victor Canning – The House of the Seven Flies
 * John Dickson Carr
 * The Nine Wrong Answers
 * Behind the Crimson Blind (as Carter Dickson)
 * Henry Cecil – No Bail for the Judge
 * Louis-Ferdinand Céline – Fable for Another Time
 * Agatha Christie
 * Mrs McGinty's Dead
 * They Do It with Mirrors
 * A Daughter's a Daughter (as Mary Westmacott)
 * Brian Cleeve – The Far Hills
 * Branko Ćopić – Prolom (The Break-out)
 * Thomas B. Costain – The Silver Chalice
 * A. J. Cronin – Adventures in Two Worlds
 * August Derleth
 * Three Problems for Solar Pons
 * Night's Yawning Peal: A Ghostly Company (as editor)
 * David F. Dodge – To Catch a Thief
 * Jean Dutourd – The Best Butter
 * Ralph Ellison – Invisible Man
 * Edna Ferber – Giant
 * C. S. Forester – Lieutenant Hornblower
 * Paul Gallico – The Small Miracle
 * Anthony Gilbert – Miss Pinnegar Disappears
 * Michael Gilbert – Death in Captivity
 * Jean Giono – The Malediction
 * Richard Gordon – Doctor in the House
 * Winston Graham – Fortune Is a Woman
 * Walter Greenwood – So Brief the Spring
 * Edward Grierson – Reputation for a Song
 * Vasily Grossman – Stalingrad («Сталингра́д»)
 * Han Suyin – A Many-Splendoured Thing
 * Robert A. Heinlein – The Rolling Stones
 * Ernest Hemingway – The Old Man and the Sea
 * Willem Frederik Hermans – Het behouden huis (The House of Refuge or An Untouched House, novella)
 * Patricia Highsmith – The Price of Salt (as Claire Morgan)
 * Dorothy B. Hughes – The Davidian Report
 * Hammond Innes – Campbell's Kingdom
 * Michael Innes – A Private View
 * Ernst Jünger – Visit to Godenholm
 * Frances Parkinson Keyes – Steamboat Gothic
 * David H. Keller – Tales from Underwood
 * Arthur Koestler – Arrow in the Blue
 * Halldór Laxness – Gerpla
 * Doris Lessing – Martha Quest
 * E. C. R. Lorac
 * Crossed Skis
 * The Dog It Was That Died
 * Murder in the Mill-Race
 * Ross Macdonald – The Ivory Grin
 * Compton Mackenzie – The Rival Monster
 * Bernard Malamud – The Natural
 * Wolf Mankowitz – Make Me an Offer
 * Ana Maria Matute – Fiesta al noroeste
 * Gladys Mitchell – The Echoing Strangers
 * Harry Mulisch – Archibald Strohalm
 * C. L. Moore – Judgment Night (science fiction short stories)
 * R. K. Narayan – The Financial Expert
 * Patrick O'Brian – Testimonies
 * Flannery O'Connor – Wise Blood
 * Vin Packer – Spring Fire
 * Anthony Powell – A Buyer's Market
 * Maurice Procter – Rich Is the Treasure
 * John Pudney – The Net
 * Barbara Pym – Excellent Women
 * Ellery Queen – The King is Dead
 * Lucien Rebatet – Les Deux étendards
 * John Rhode – Death in Wellington Road
 * Anne Scott-James – In the Mink
 * Charles Shaw – Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison
 * John Steinbeck – East of Eden
 * Rex Stout
 * Triple Jeopardy
 * Prisoner's Base
 * Noel Streatfeild – Aunt Clara
 * A. C. Swinburne (died 1909) – Lesbia Brandon (completed c.1868)
 * Edith Templeton – The Island of Desire
 * Jim Thompson – The Killer Inside Me
 * Agnes Sligh Turnbull – The Gown of Glory
 * Amos Tutuola – The Palm-Wine Drunkard
 * Sachchidananda Vatsyayan (Agyeya) – Nadi ke dweep (Islands in the stream)
 * Vercors – Les Animaux dénaturés
 * Arved Viirlaid – Ristideta hauad (Graves Without Crosses)
 * Kurt Vonnegut – Player Piano
 * Henry Wade – Be Kind to the Killer
 * Evelyn Waugh – Men at Arms
 * Hillary Waugh – Last Seen Wearing...
 * Vaughan Wilkins – A King Reluctant
 * Antonia White – The Sugar House
 * Angus Wilson – Hemlock and After
 * Frank Yerby – The Saracen Blade

Children and young people

 * Rev. W. Awdry – Toby the Tram Engine (seventh in The Railway Series of 42 books by him and his son Christopher Awdry)
 * Enid Blyton – Noddy and Big Ears
 * Bruce Carter – The Perilous Descent (Into a Strange Lost World)
 * Alice Dalgliesh – The Bears on Hemlock Mountain
 * Dorothy Edwards – My Naughty Little Sister. Stories from "Listen With Mother"
 * Rumer Godden – Mouse House
 * C. S. Lewis – The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
 * Eloise Jarvis McGraw – Moccasin Trail
 * Farley Mowat – People of the Deer
 * Mary Norton – The Borrowers (first in the eponymous series of 6 books)
 * Rhoda Power – Redcap Runs Away
 * William Matthew Scott – The Cherrys of River House (first in The Cherrys series of 14 books)
 * Louis Slobodkin – The Space Ship Under the Apple Tree
 * Geoffrey Trease – The Crown of Violet (also Web of Traitors)
 * E. B. White – Charlotte's Web

Drama

 * Rodney Ackland – The Pink Room
 * Jean Anouilh
 * The Lark (L'Alouette)
 * The Waltz of the Toreadors (La Valse des toréadors)
 * Jacinto Benavente – Ha llegado Don Juan
 * Alice Childress – Gold Through the Trees
 * Noël Coward – Quadrille
 * Constance Cox – Lord Arthur Savile's Crime
 * Robertson Davies – A Masque of Aesop
 * Henry de Montherlant – La Ville dont le prince est un enfant (The City Whose Prince is a Child; first performance in first published version)
 * Friedrich Dürrenmatt – The Marriage of Mr. Mississippi (Die Ehe des Herrn Mississippi, first performance)
 * Joseph Kramm – The Shrike
 * Charles Langbridge Morgan – The River Line
 * Eric Linklater – The Mortimer Touch
 * Roger MacDougall – Escapade
 * J. B. Priestley and Jacquetta Hawkes – Dragon's Mouth
 * Terence Rattigan – The Deep Blue Sea
 * Dodie Smith – Letter from Paris
 * Ben Travers – Wild Horses
 * John Van Druten – I've Got Sixpence
 * Arthur Watkyn – The Moonraker

Poetry

 * Paul Celan – Poppy and Memory (Mohn und Gedächtnis)
 * David Jones – The Anathemata: fragments of an attempted writing
 * Gabriela Mistral – Los sonetos de la muerte y otros poemas elegíacos
 * Sean O Riordain – Eireaball Spideoige

Non-fiction

 * Roland Bainton – The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century
 * L. Sprague de Camp and Willy Ley – Lands Beyond
 * Dorothy Day – The Long Loneliness
 * Lawrence Gowing – Vermeer
 * Heinrich Harrer – Sieben Jahre in Tibet. Mein Leben am Hofe des Dalai Lama (Seven Years in Tibet, 1954)
 * Aldous Huxley
 * The Devils of Loudun
 * Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow
 * Maurice Nicoll – Psychological Commentaries on the Teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff and P. D. Ouspensky
 * Norman Vincent Peale – The Power of Positive Thinking
 * Gwen Raverat – Period Piece
 * P. R. Reid – The Colditz Story
 * Jean-Paul Sartre – Saint Genet, comédien et martyr
 * Pierre Schaeffer – In Search of a Concrete Music (À la Recherche d'une Musique Concrète)
 * F. Sherwood Taylor – The Alchemists
 * Paul Tillich – Courage To Be
 * Immanuel Velikovsky – Ages in Chaos
 * J. M. Wallace-Hadrill – The Barbarian West, 400–1000
 * Raymond Williams – Drama from Ibsen to Eliot

Births

 * January 4 – Michele Wallace, American feminist author
 * January 12 – Walter Mosley, American novelist
 * January 21 – Louis Menand, American author and academic
 * February 10 – Gail Rebuck, English publisher
 * February 19
 * Ryū Murakami (村上 龍), Japanese novelist, essayist and filmmaker
 * Amy Tan, American novelist
 * February 29 – Tim Powers, American fantasy author
 * March 5 – Robin Hobb (Margaret Astrid Lindholm Ogden, Megan Lindholm), American fantasy author
 * March 7 – William Boyd, Gold Coast-born Scottish novelist and screenwriter
 * March 11 – Douglas Adams, English science fiction author (died 2001)
 * March 13 – Ágnes Rapai, Hungarian poet, writer and translator
 * March 23 – Kim Stanley Robinson, American science fiction author
 * March 26 – T. A. Barron, American novelist
 * May 5 – Hafsat Abdulwaheed, Nigerian author and poet
 * May 31 – Carole Achache, French writer, photographer and actress (died 2016)
 * June 4 – Dambudzo Marechera, Zimbabwean writer (died 1987)
 * June 7 – Orhan Pamuk, Turkish novelist and Nobel laureate
 * June 20
 * Vince Gotera, American poet and critic
 * Vikram Seth, Indian novelist
 * June 29 – Breece D'J Pancake (Breece Dexter Pancake), American short story writer (suicide 1979)
 * July 3 – Rohinton Mistry, Indian-born Canadian novelist
 * July 6 – Hilary Mantel, English novelist (died 2022)
 * July 10 – Candice F. Ransom, American children's and young-adult author
 * July 18 – Per Petterson, Norwegian novelist
 * August 28 – Rita Dove, American poet
 * September 29 - Pete Hautman, American young-adult novelist
 * October 18 – Bảo Ninh, Vietnamese author
 * November 15 – Rick Atkinson, American journalist, historian and author
 * November 21 – Pedro Lemebel, Chilean novelist
 * December 19 – Sean O'Brien, English poet
 * December 22 – Mick Inkpen, English children's writer and illustrator
 * December 28 – Hemant Shesh, Indian Hindi writer

Deaths

 * January 22 – Roger Vitrac, French poet and dramatist (born 1899)
 * January 26 – Lodewijk van Deyssel, Dutch novelist (born 1864)
 * January 28 – Nicolae Constantin Batzaria, Ottoman-born Romanian humorist, novelist, editor, and journalist (spinal cancer, born 1874)
 * February 7 – Norman Douglas, Austrian-born Scottish novelist (born 1868)
 * February 13 – Josephine Tey (Elizabeth MacKintosh), Scottish crime novelist (born 1896)
 * February 19 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist and Nobel laureate (born 1859)
 * March 1
 * Mariano Azuela, Mexican novelist, dramatist and critic (born 1873)
 * Masao Kume (久米 正雄), Japanese playwright, novelist and haiku poet (born 1891)
 * March 27 – Ioan A. Bassarabescu, Romanian short story writer and politician (born 1870)
 * April 1 – Ferenc Molnár (Ferenc Neumann), Hungarian dramatist and novelist (born 1878)
 * April 30 – Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș – Romanian art historian, ethnographer and journalist (born 1872)
 * May 17 – Paul Bujor, Romanian politician, zoologist and short story writer (born 1862)
 * May 26 – Eugene Jolas, American/French writer, literary translator and critic (born 1894)
 * June 1 – John Dewey, American philosopher and psychologist (born 1859)
 * July 1 – A. S. W. Rosenbach, American book collector (born 1876)
 * July 8 – August Alle, Estonian writer (born 1890)
 * August 9 – Jeffery Farnol, English historical novelist (born 1878)
 * August 22 – H. J. Massingham, English countryside writer (born 1888)
 * September 26 – George Santayana, Spanish philosopher, poet and novelist writing in English (born 1863)
 * October 4 – Keith Murdoch, Australian journalist (born 1885)
 * October 6 – Teffi (Nadezhda Alexandrovna Buchinskaya), Russian humorist (born 1872)
 * November 3 – Louis Verneuil, French playwright (suicide, born 1893)
 * November 4 – Gilbert Frankau, English novelist (born 1884)
 * November 13 – Margaret Wise Brown, American children's author (embolism, born 1910)
 * November 16 – Charles Maurras, French poet and critic (born 1868)
 * November 18 – Paul Éluard, French surrealist poet (heart attack, born 1895)
 * November 23 – Aaro Hellaakoski, Finnish poet (born 1893)
 * December 6 – Cicely Hamilton, English dramatist and suffragist (born 1872)

Awards

 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: Mary Norton, The Borrowers
 * Frost Medal: Carl Sandburg
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Evelyn Waugh, Men at Arms
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: G. M. Young, Stanley Baldwin
 * National Book Award: James Jones, From Here to Eternity.
 * Newbery Medal for children's literature: Eleanor Estes, Ginger Pye
 * Newdigate prize: Donald Hall
 * Nobel Prize for Literature: François Mauriac
 * Premio Nadal: María Medio Estrada, Nosotros, los Rivero
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: Joseph Kramm, The Shrike
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: Herman Wouk – The Caine Mutiny
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Marianne Moore, Collected Poems
 * King's Gold Medal for Poetry: Andrew Young
 * National Book Award for Fiction: James Jones – From Here to Eternity

title: 1952 in literature