text:
Talk:Worship

Deleted reference
I have deleted a sentence early in the article that refers to cults, and to sociologists of religion. I have taught sociology and considered the sentence to be rather misguided and very misleading in its connotations. In sociology, a cult is a smaller-scale religious organization that is centered around a living person as its leader. "Cult" is far too specific a concept to be properly connected with an introductory explanation of the very general religious concept of "worship," so I took the liberty of simply deleting the entire sentence instead of bothering to try to rewrite it or pull out some redeemable aspect of the sentence for retention in the article MikeS
 * Your are mistaken. The sentence in question (not mine) refers to cultus rather than cults—not the same thing at all. I have accordingly reverted your edit. Wingspeed (talk) 04:48, 20 December 2008 (UTC)

NPOV Problem in introduction
It seems to me that with this "...In others words, one is invited to honour God by the way you live your life", someone is pushing the same idea as was recently removed from the "Christian Worship" page - namely that "everything we do is worship". I cannot see how this belongs in either article unless just mentioned as a popular present-day teaching. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alisternz (talk • contribs) 06:58, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

Child worship
Not listed, with no article, but it exists... Is there no studies on this recurrent theme? (Jesus is not the only religious figure to call forth children)...

many words
2/22/03 "At the level of folk religion, especially, the success of these denominations in putting this distinction into practice is open to question" hardly seems like a "restoration of NPOV." A more neutral phrasing of the case might read, "Protestant Christians, however, question whether such a distinction can be maintained in actual devotional practice."

 * Neither did the assertion of this distinction without a difference as established fact, which is how it read before. I have no problems with your change, but I did restore the link to folk religion, since this is where many of the problems seem to lie in practice.  The Roman Church may teach that the saints are not a pantheon of deities, but the several historical incidents of syncretism of the saints with a number of pagan traditions seems to underline the hazards of the practice.  ---User:Ihcoyc

 * It does not violate NPOV to report objectively what a particular church or denomination teaches, which is what I originally did, so long as it is made clear that it is the teaching of a particular group (in this case, the Catholics and Orthodox), and not presented as the belief of all Christians.

 * On what grounds to you call the Catholic/Orthodox teaching a "distinction without a difference"? I have yet to meet even a simple-minded Catholic or Orthodox Christian who worship Mary and the saints as gods and goddesses.

 * The fact that a teaching may be misunderstood, or a practice abused, does not in itself invalidate the teaching or the practice. Athanasius 11:21 Feb 24, 2003 (UTC)

 * An neutral outsider, seeing people praying to a supernatural being, lighting candles before a statue representing it, singing hymns to it, and conducting religious festivals in its honour, would rightly conclude that this being was a god or goddess, and that the participants were worshipping it. Even if some mental reservation required the believers to reserve the words "worship," "god," and "goddess" for some other being, the entity they actually pray to is obviously filling the role of a god or goddess.  ---User:Ihcoyc

 * A truly neutral observer will not assume that he knows what is going on in the minds and hearts of those he is observing. He might even take the trouble of asking them what they mean by their actions. You are assuming that certain external observances are ipso facto evidence of the worship of a deity.  That is a pre-judgment, not a neutral position.

 * You are incorrect. He is not assuming this; rather he is a stating a fact. It is easy to check for yourself: Ask Christians in prayer to saints who they are praying to. A huge number of Christians will tell you that they are praying directly to saints, and that they are asking the Saints themselves to reply to their prayers. This is identical to polytheism. Is this what the Catholic Church or Greek Orthodox church teaches? Maybe not, but this is what actually exists. You are confusing what is taught with what many people actually believe. RK

 * Try asking those same Christians the question, "Are the saints gods?" They may not be very sophisticated in their theological terminology, but they know the difference between a saint, who has power to answer prayer only because they have received that power from God, and God Himself, who owes His power to no-one.  Athanasius

If you observe a Chinese person lighting candles or incense by their ancestors' tombs or by their pictures, are they praying to their ancestors? Worshiping them? Do they generally believe that their ancestors are actually gods? When a psychic medium attempts to speak to departed spirits through a seance and perhaps relays a message from the "other side", is the medium praying? Does she think the departed spirits are gods? Belief that communication of some sort with the dead is possible, is clearly not equivalent to believing that some or all dead people are gods. A typical brief prayer to a saint might be "Save us, by your holy prayers." If this is shortened to "Save us", I would expect that the "by your prayers" portion is still implied in the minds of most people who offer these sorts of prayers; it is clear that if the prayer is answered, God will be the one answering the prayer, through the intercession of the saint(s) as well as through the intercession of any living persons who may have also prayed the same petition. Wesley

 * By your criteria, what would a "neutral observer" make of the rituals around the American flag? People make symbolic gestures of respect to it, sing to it, parade behind it, and even light candles in front of it.  How about the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier?  The elaborate daily parade, the "eternal flame"... Then there are the Kennedy Tomb, the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial (identical in structure to a Greek temple), each the site of great shows of reverence. I'm afraid a "neutral observer" would have to conclude that Americans worship their flag, the remains of dead soldiers, and certain deceased presidents as some kind of deities.  Athanasius

 * I disagree. Again, all we need to do is ask Americans what they are thinking when they engage in these activities. Very few, probably none, would say that they worship the flag. RK

 * The very point I was making about prayer to saints. Athanasius

 * I might suggest that some Americans do, in fact, worship the flag. Again, a hypothetical innocent stranger, without the benefit or hindrance of ideologies or belief systems, may well conclude that such things as the pledge of allegiance ritual are religious or quasi-religious, and that the flag is a holy totem, at least to some.  The rituals involving the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier seem even more clearly religious: God is mentioned on the Tomb, and the government has undertaken the religious function of conducting rituals to honour the dead.  If some doctrine prevents people from calling it religion, it does not mean that it isn't fulfilling a religious function: in other words, it is religion whether people recognise the fact or not.  Words are not things.  This is one of the reasons why the concept of civil religion exists.  The vehemence with which people speak of the flag, war casualties, and so forth, tends to undermine the claim that the flag is not worshipped by some. --Ihcoyc

 * I would argue that the people who treat the flag with great respect are venerating the flag, not worshiping it. They know perfectly well that the flag is just a piece of colored cloth, and don't believe it possesses any intrinsic magical powers. The respect they show for the flag is a way to outwardly express the way they feel about the nation represented by the flag, and the lofty ideals that the nation and flag represent. Anti-war demonstrators burn flags in order to show the low opinion they have of the nation or government represented by the flag. Sociologically speaking, there may be some religious functions going on in the events you describe, but I don't think you really want to equate everything that's given some amount of religious respect with an object of worship, do you? If so, then many Protestants are also guilty of "worshiping" their Bibles, crosses, church buildings and other religious items and places. Wesley

 * Of course, the relation between the human symbol and the deity is complicated. Intelligent pagans never imagined that Zeus was a marble statue.  The way flag worshippers treat the flag is rather animistic; it suggests that they imagine that the flag does indeed somehow embody mana of a sort, that is increased by acts of reverence, and decreased by irreverence.
 * Civil War stories are full of tales of soldiers who braved enemy fire to recover a fallen flag, as opposed to saving their courage for some more sensible military objective. Yes, indeed, some Protestants worship Bibles, crosses, and church buildings.  Monotheism is not easy, and humans are weak and fallible.  The temptations of idolatry, fetishism, and polytheism are always there, even among the theologically sophisticated.
 * If it is in fact possible to distinguish veneration and worship in a way that clearly distinguishes between the two in human ethology, so that our hypothetical observer could tell them apart without regard to the doctrines of any particular faith, I'd be happy to see it tried. I am sceptical. --Ihcoyc

 * I won't deny that some Orthodox and Catholic Christians may very well worship icons, just as some Protestants worship their Bibles and so forth. I don't think this is the norm though. Would you trust the words of the prayers that are prayed and the hymns that are sung during a typical 'worship service' or liturgy? If so, just visit the nearest Eastern Orthodox church that prays in a language you understand. The distinction is made constantly in the prayers and the hymns; part of the reason for this (I suspect) is to guard against the lay people developing a misunderstanding on the 'folk religion' level. The hymns scheduled to be sung on the "Triumph of Orthodoxy", which commemorates the Seventh Ecumenical Council, treat this subject in greater depth than some. If you're going by what the external actions look like to you, then what you're dealing with is a simple case of cross-cultural miscommunication. In that case, you might be better served by an introductory course in cultural anthropology. Wesley

 * Kontakion of the Holy Fathers of the 7th Ecumenical Council
 * How the Son proceeded from the Father our words cannot express;
 * but having two natures, He was born of a woman.
 * We do not reject His image when we behold it,
 * but in faith we venerate and honor it.
 * And the Church professes it as true belief
 * when she honors the image of Christ's incarnation.
 * from the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom Athanasius

Ok, that hymn just ties the veneration of icons to the doctrine of the incarnation; by venerating the icon of Christ (who himself is the Image of the invisible God according to scripture), we affirm the incarnation. Among the more common prayers is this one to the Theotokos that begins, "It is truly meet to bless you, O Theotokos..." while many prayers to God are concluded with the phrase "For unto you is deserved all                         glory, honor and worship...". These both occur in the standard Great Vespers prayers, and probably in the Divine Liturgy as well (I'm working from memory). Words like bless, praise and honor will be used in connection with Mary or one of the other saints, but the word "worship" is only ever used in connection with God. The theology of the Orthodox Church is really in its prayers; you have to pray with the church through the church year to grasp its theology. Just one reason why for the Orthodox, a "theologian" is "one who truly prays". Wesley

Someone suggested that this page be deleted. I tried to make it slightly more useful. Not at all sure if the bit about dog worship belongs here, especially not linked with goddess worship, but it was here before so I left it for now. ---User:Ihcoyc

Shouldn't this page be redirected to the entry on prayer? I get the feeling that this stub was written by someone who didn't know we already had an excellent article on this topic. RK

 * There is more to worship than prayer. Worship is the most general term as far as I can tell; it may be useful to have the page, if only to redirect people to more specific kinds of worship.  ---User:Ihcoyc

A note about icons: when icons are written properly, they are written by monks after much prayer and fasting, etc., and writing such an icon could possibly be considered by some to be an act of prayer itself. Great care is taken in part to ensure that the icon conveys the correct theology and meaning, as intended. Even if a lay person writes an icon, it would normally be under the supervision of a priest or bishop; therefore, it is unlikely that the actual creating or writing of an icon would be so misunderstood or mispracticed as to be an act of worship, although it is still reasonably possible that the icon may be later misunderstood or misused. Wesley 19:36 Feb 24, 2003 (UTC)

A user identified only by a digit address added the word "SATIN" before the Eastern Orthodox here. I'm a bit uncertain what this edit was meant to achieve. I was under the impression that the Orthodox were mostly polyester in any case. I am removing it, but preserving a record of its presence here. -- Smerdis of Tlön 01:19, 25 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Disambiguation page necessary
Is it worth starting a disambig page? As well as the two options at the top of the main page, I can think of a play with this name, and a couple more books --TimothyJacobson (talk) 14:19, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

Christian Worship is not the same as Catholic Worship
I was browsing through this page for research and wanted to check out a source (it looked promising from what was said) source 5 leads to a Catholic study on what devotion to the virgin Mary looks like in a daily life. This article was used to explain the Christian worship philosophy and ethic, neither of which match that of the Catholic church. I did not delete the article, since it does use some terms which are important, but I did add a disclaimer just before the block quote to ensure that nobody assumes this article to be talking about Christian worship. I assume the author of the wiki page here intended to use it as a guide or help to explain the point made later... if not it needs to be deleted...

since i am not logged in-- I am user Benito Burrito (just to clarify)

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.181.192.66 (talk)

 * First of all, no such user exists on English Wikipedia. Secondly, Catholicism is a denomination of Christianity, so to say that Catholic worship is not Christian worship is absurd and violates WP:NPOV. Thirdly, the source and context are already explicitly mentioned. Fourthly, you inserted that clarification in the middle of a blockquote. Fifthly, nobody is going to delete anything. If you blank the page you will be reported to an administrator for blocking.--Newbiepedian (talk · contribs · X! · logs) 17:31, 8 January 2016 (UTC)

RE
Why people worship 96.43.175.100 (talk) 17:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

Worship
Worship 2402:B400:41C0:8A3F:0:0:90E2:1668 (talk) 08:16, 26 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Worship


text:
Dies irae

"Dies irae" ("the Day of Wrath") is a Latin sequence attributed to either Thomas of Celano of the Franciscans (1200–1265) or to Latino Malabranca Orsini (d. 1294), lector at the Dominican studium at Santa Sabina, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (the Angelicum) in Rome. The sequence dates from the 13th century at the latest, though it is possible that it is much older, with some sources ascribing its origin to St. Gregory the Great (d. 604), Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), or Bonaventure (1221–1274).

It is a medieval Latin poem characterized by its accentual stress and rhymed lines. The metre is trochaic. The poem describes the Last Judgment, the trumpet summoning souls before the throne of God, where the saved will be delivered and the unsaved cast into eternal flames.

It is best known from its use in the Roman Rite Requiem Catholic (Mass for the Dead or Funeral Mass). An English version is found in various Anglican Communion service books.

The first melody set to these words, a Gregorian chant, is one of the most quoted in musical literature, appearing in the works of many composers. The final couplet, Pie Jesu, has been often reused as an independent song.

Use in the Roman liturgy
The "Dies irae" has been used in the Roman Rite liturgy as the sequence for the Requiem Mass for centuries, as made evident by the important place it holds in musical settings such as those by Mozart and Verdi. It appears in the Roman Missal of 1962, the last edition before the implementation of the revisions that occurred after the Second Vatican Council. As such, it is still heard in churches where the Tridentine Latin liturgy is celebrated. It also formed part of the pre-conciliar liturgy of All Souls' Day.

In the reforms to the Catholic Church's Latin liturgical rites ordered by the Second Vatican Council, the "Consilium for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy", the Vatican body charged with drafting and implementing the reforms (1969–70), eliminated the sequence as such from funerals and other Masses for the Dead. A leading figure in the post-conciliar liturgical reforms, Archbishop Annibale Bugnini, explains the rationale of the Consilium: "They got rid of texts that smacked of a negative spirituality inherited from the Middle Ages. Thus they removed such familiar and even beloved texts as "Libera me, Domine", "Dies irae", and others that overemphasized judgment, fear, and despair. These they replaced with texts urging Christian hope and arguably giving more effective expression to faith in the resurrection."

"Dies irae", slightly edited, remains in use ad libitum as a hymn in the Liturgy of the Hours on All Souls' Day and during the last week before Advent, for which it is divided into three parts for the Office of Readings, Lauds and Vespers, with the insertion of a doxology after each part.

Indulgence
In the Roman Catholic Church there was formerly an indulgence of three years for each recitation and a plenary indulgence for reciting the prayer daily for a month. This indulgence was not renewed in the Manual of Indulgences.

Text
The Latin text below is taken from the Requiem Mass in the 1962 Roman Missal. The first English version below, translated by William Josiah Irons in 1849, albeit from a slightly different Latin text, replicates the rhyme and metre of the original. This translation, edited for more conformance to the official Latin, is approved by the Catholic Church for use as the funeral Mass sequence in the liturgy of the Catholic ordinariates for former Anglicans. The second English version is a more formal equivalence translation.

Because the last two stanzas differ markedly in structure from the preceding stanzas, some scholars consider them to be an addition made in order to suit the great poem for liturgical use. The penultimate stanza, Lacrimosa, discards the consistent scheme of rhyming triplets in favour of a pair of rhyming couplets. The last stanza, Pie Iesu, abandons rhyme for assonance, and, moreover, its lines are catalectic.

In the liturgical reforms of 1969–71, stanza 19 was deleted and the poem divided into three sections: 1–6 (for Office of Readings), 7–12 (for Lauds) and 13–18 (for Vespers). In addition, "Qui Mariam absolvisti" in stanza 13 was replaced by "Peccatricem qui solvisti" so that that line would now mean, "You who absolved the sinful woman". This was because modern scholarship denies the common mediæval identification of the woman taken in adultery with Mary Magdalene, so Mary could no longer be named in this verse. In addition, a doxology is given after stanzas 6, 12 and 18:

Manuscript sources
The text of the sequence is found, with slight verbal variations, in a 13th-century manuscript in the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III at Naples. It is a Franciscan calendar missal that must date between 1253 and 1255 for it does not contain the name of Clare of Assisi, who was canonized in 1255, and whose name would have been inserted if the manuscript were of later date.

Inspiration
A major inspiration of the hymn seems to have come from the Vulgate translation of Zephaniah 1:15–16:

Other images come from the Book of Revelation, such as (the book from which the world will be judged),  (sheep and goats, right hand, contrast between the blessed and the accursed doomed to flames),  (trumpet),  (heaven and earth burnt by fire), and  ("men fainting with fear... they will see the Son of Man coming").

From the Jewish liturgy, the prayer Unetanneh Tokef appears to be related: "We shall ascribe holiness to this day, For it is awesome and terrible"; "the great trumpet is sounded", etc.

Other translations
A number of English translations of the poem have been written and proposed for liturgical use. A very loose Protestant version was made by John Newton; it opens:

Jan Kasprowicz, a Polish poet, wrote a hymn entitled "Dies iræ" which describes the Judgment day. The first six lines (two stanzas) follow the original hymn's metre and rhyme structure, and the first stanza translates to "The trumpet will cast a wondrous sound".

The American writer Ambrose Bierce published a satiric version of the poem in his 1903 book Shapes of Clay, preserving the original metre but using humorous and sardonic language; for example, the second verse is rendered:

The Rev. Bernard Callan (1750–1804), an Irish priest and poet, translated it into Gaelic around 1800. His version is included in a Gaelic prayer book, The Spiritual Rose.

Literary references

 * Walter Scott used the first two stanzas in the sixth canto of his narrative poem "The Lay of the Last Minstrel" (1805).
 * Johann Wolfgang von Goethe used the first, the sixth and the seventh stanza of the hymn in the scene "Cathedral" in the first part of his drama Faust (1808).
 * Oscar Wilde's "Sonnet on Hearing the Dies Iræ Sung in the Sistine Chapel" (Poems, 1881), contrasts the "terrors of red flame and thundering" depicted in the hymn with images of "life and love".
 * In Gaston Leroux's 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera, Erik (the Phantom) has the chant displayed on the wall of his funereal bedroom.
 * It is the inspiration for the title and major theme of the 1964 novel Deus Iræ by Philip K. Dick and Roger Zelazny. The English translation is used verbatim in Dick's novel Ubik two years later.

Musical settings
The words of "Dies iræ" have often been set to music as part of the Requiem service. In some settings, it is broken up into several movements; in such cases, "Dies iræ" refers only to the first of these movements, the others being titled according to their respective incipits.

The original setting was a sombre plainchant (or Gregorian chant). It is in the Dorian mode. In four-line neumatic notation, it begins:

In 5-line staff notation:

The earliest surviving polyphonic setting of the Requiem by Johannes Ockeghem does not include "Dies iræ". The first polyphonic settings to include the "Dies iræ" are by Engarandus Juvenis (1490) and Antoine Brumel (1516) to be followed by many composers of the renaissance. Later, many notable choral and orchestral settings of the Requiem including the sequence were made by composers such as Charpentier, Delalande, Mozart, Berlioz, Verdi, Britten and Stravinsky. Giovanni Battista Martini ended his set of (mostly humorous) 303 canons with a set of 20 on extracts of the sequence poem.

Musical quotations
The traditional Gregorian melody has been used as a theme or musical quotation in many classical compositions, including:

 * Thomas Adès – Totentanz (2013)
 * Charles-Valentin Alkan – Souvenirs: Trois morceaux dans le genre pathétique, Op. 15 (No. 3: Morte) (1837)
 * Eric Ball – "Resurgam" (1950)
 * Hector Berlioz – Symphonie fantastique (1830), Requiem (1837)
 * Ernest Bloch – Suite Symphonique (1944)
 * Johannes Brahms – Six Pieces for Piano, Op. 118, No. 6, Intermezzo in E-flat minor (1893)
 * Antoine Brumel - Missa pro defunctis (before 1519)
 * Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco – 24 Caprichos de Goya, Op. 195: "XII. No hubo remedio" (plate 24) (1961)
 * Marc-Antoine Charpentier – Prose des morts – Dies iræ H.12 (1670)
 * George Crumb – Black Angels (1970)
 * Luigi Dallapiccola – Canti di prigionia
 * Michael Daugherty – Metropolis Symphony 5th movement, "Red Cape Tango"; Dead Elvis for bassoon and chamber ensemble (1993)
 * Michel-Richard Delalande, Dies irae S.31 (1690 & 1712)
 * Ern%C5%91 Dohn%C3%A1nyi – no. 4 (E-flat minor) of "Four Rhapsodies" for Piano, op. 11
 * Alberto Ginastera – Bomarzo, Op. 34 (1967)
 * Alexander Glazunov – Symphony No. 5 (4th movement), Op. 55 (1885), From the Middle Ages Suite, No. 2 "Scherzo", Op. 79 (1902)
 * Benjamin Godard – Dante opera, act 4, No. 35 Suite du Finale "Partons !" (1890)
 * Charles Gounod – Faust opera, act 4 (1859), Mors et vita, part II, oratorio (1886)
 * Kirk Hammet – The Incantation (5:57-6:35) on the EP Portals (2022)
 * Joseph Haydn – Symphony No. 103, "The Drumroll" (1795)
 * Gustav Holst – The Planets, movement 5, "Saturn, the Bringer of Old Age"
 * Arthur Honegger – La Danse des Morts, H. 131 (1938)
 * Hans Huber quotes the melody in the second movement ("Funeral March") of his Symphony No. 3 in C major, Op. 118 (Heroic, 1908).
 * Alexander Kastalsky – Requiem for Fallen Brothers, movements 3 and 4 (1917)
 * Aram Khachaturian – Symphony No. 2 (1944)
 * Teofil Klonowski – Preludes on Polish Church Hymns: Dies Irae (1867)
 * György Ligeti – Le Grand Macabre (1974–77)
 * Franz Liszt – Totentanz (1849)
 * Jean-Baptiste Lully – Dies iræ LWV 64/1 (1683)
 * Gustav Mahler – Symphony No. 2, movements 1 and 5 (1888–94)
 * Jules Massenet – Eve (1874)
 * Nikolai Medtner – Piano Quintet in C, movement 2 (Op.posth)
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Requiem (Mozart) quotes portions of the poem
 * Modest Mussorgsky – Songs and Dances of Death, No. 3 "Trepak" (1875)
 * Edvard Mirzoyan – Introduction and Perpetuum Mobile (1957)
 * Nikolai Myaskovsky – Symphony No. 4 (first movement), Symphony No. 6, Op. 23 (1921–23); Piano Sonata No.2, Op.13
 * Vítězslav Novák – used the theme near the end of his May Symphony
 * Sergei Rachmaninoff – Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 1 (1891); Symphony No. 1, Op. 13 (1895); Six moments musicaux, Op. 16 No. 3 (1896); Suite No. 2, Op. 17 (1901); Symphony No. 2, Op. 27 (1906–07); Piano sonata No. 1 (1908); Isle of the Dead, Op. 29 (1908); The Bells choral symphony, Op. 35 (1913); Études-Tableaux, Op. 39 No. 2, 5, 7 (1916); Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 40 (1926); Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43 (1934); Symphony No. 3, Op. 44 (1935–36); Symphonic Dances, Op. 45 (1940)
 * Ottorino Respighi – quoted near the end of the second movement of Impressioni Brasiliane (Brazilian Impressions) (1927)
 * Camille Saint-Saëns – Danse Macabre; Symphony No. 3 (Organ Symphony), Requiem (1878)
 * Dmitri Shostakovich – Symphony No. 14; Aphorisms, Op. 13 – No. 7, "Dance of Death" (1969)
 * Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji – Sequentia cyclica super "Dies iræ" ex Missa pro defunctis (1948–49) and nine other works
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky – Modern Greek Song (In Dark Hell) Op. 16 No. 6 (1872); 6 Pieces on a Single Theme op 21 (1873); Orchestral Suite No. 3 (1884); Manfred Symphony (1885)
 * Giuseppe Verdi – Requiem (Verdi) quotes the entire poem
 * Eugène Ysaÿe – Solo Violin Sonata in A minor, Op. 27, No. 2 "Obsession" (1923)
 * Bernd Alois Zimmermann – Musique pour les soupers du roi Ubu
 * Antonio Estévez - Cantata Criolla (1954)

It has also been used in many film scores and popular works, such as:

 * Francis Monkman – additional track "Dies Irae" on Sky (1979 studio album by Sky)' (1979)

 * Hugo Friedhofer – opening scene of ''Between Heaven and Hell (film)' ' (1956)
 * Bathory – on album Blood Fire Death (1988)
 * Wendy Carlos and Rachel Elkind – Opening theme for The Shining (1980)
 * The Newton Brothers - Doctor Sleep, the sequel to The Shining (2019)
 * Danny Elfman – "Making Christmas" from The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993)
 * Gerald Fried – Opening theme for The Return of Dracula, 1958
 * Diamanda Galás – Masque of the Red Death: Part I – The Divine Punishment
 * Jerry Goldsmith – The Mephisto Waltz (1971)
 * Donald Grantham – Baron Cimetiére's Mambo (2004)
 * Bernard Herrmann quoted in the main theme for Citizen Kane (1941)
 * Bernard Herrmann – Jason and the Argonauts (1963) (quoted during the scene of the scattering of the hydra's teeth)
 * Gottfried Huppertz – Score for Metropolis (1927)
 * Jethro Tull – The instrumental track "Elegy" featured on the band's 12th studio album Stormwatch is based on the melody.
 * Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez – Frozen II (soundtrack), "Into the Unknown" (2019)
 * Harry Manfredini – main title theme for Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986)
 * The Melvins – on their album "Nude with Boots" (2008)
 * Alan Menken, Stephen Schwartz – The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) soundtrack; "The Bells of Notre Dame" features passages from the first and second stanzas as lyrics.
 * Ennio Morricone – "Penance" from his score for The Mission (1986)
 * Lionel Newman – Compulsion
 * Leonard Rosenman – the main theme of The Car (1977)
 * Stephen Sondheim – Sweeney Todd – quoted in "The Ballad of Sweeney Todd" and the accompaniment to "Epiphany" (1979)
 * John Williams – "Old Man Marley" leitmotif from his score for Home Alone (1990) and quoted in Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (1977) when Luke discovers that Imperial Stormtroopers have killed his uncle and aunt.
 * Hans Zimmer – "The Rightful King" from The Lion King soundtrack, "Rock House Jail" from The Rock soundtrack, and "House Atreides" from the 2021 Dune adaptation.
 * Guy Gross – "Salve me Lacrimosa" from the American-Australian television series Farscape
 * Cristobal Tapia de Veer – The White Lotus opening credits
 * Symphony X – Their album V – The New Mythology Suite references this work multiple times, such as in the song "A Fool's Paradise".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dies irae


text:
Clitoral hood

In female humans and other mammals, the clitoral hood (also called preputium clitoridis, clitoral prepuce, and clitoral foreskin) is a fold of skin that surrounds and protects the glans of the clitoris; it also covers the external clitoral shaft, develops as part of the labia minora and is homologous with the foreskin (also called the prepuce) in the male reproductive system. The clitoral hood is composed of mucocutaneous tissues; these tissues are between the mucous membrane and the skin, and they may have immunological importance because they may be a point of entry of mucosal vaccines.

Development and variation
The clitoral hood is formed during the fetal stage by the cellular lamella. The cellular lamella grows down on the dorsal side of the clitoris and is eventually fused with the clitoris.

The clitoral hood varies in the size, shape, thickness, and other aesthetic aspects. Some women have large clitoral hoods that completely cover the clitoral glans. Some of these can be retracted to expose the clitoral glans, such as for hygiene purposes or for pleasure; others do not retract. Other women have smaller hoods that do not cover the full length of the clitoral glans, leaving the clitoral glans exposed all the time. Sticky bands of tissue called adhesions can form between the hood and the glans; these stick the hood onto the glans so the hood cannot be pulled back to expose the glans and smegma can accumulate.

Stimulation
The clitoral glans itself is very sensitive and its direct stimulation, such as in cases where the hood is retracted, is often not enjoyable. Females with hoods covering most of the clitoral glans can often masturbate by stimulating the hood over the clitoral glans; those with smaller, or more compact, structures tend to rub the clitoral glans and hood together. The clitoral hood provides protection to the clitoral glans, analogous to the foreskin on the penile glans.

Modifications
In most of the world, clitoral modifications are uncommon. In some cultures, female genital mutilation (FGM) is practiced as a rite of passage into womanhood, is perceived as an improvement to the appearance of the genitalia, or is used to suppress or reduce female sexual desire and pleasure (including masturbation). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, FGM was performed on many children in Western countries, including the United States, to discourage masturbation and reduce diseases believed to relate to it.

One modification that females sometimes choose is to have the hood pierced and insert jewelry, both for adornment and physical pleasure. Though less common, other females opt to have their own hood surgically trimmed or removed so as to permanently expose part or all of the clitoral glans.

Other animals
Regarding the clitoral prepuce in non-primate mammals, there is a similar structure typically referred to as the clitoral sheath, which is homologous to the penile sheath in male mammals.

title: Clitoral hood


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Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond

Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond (c. 1430 – 3 November 1456, also known as Edmund of Hadham), was the father of King Henry VII of England and a member of the Tudor family of Penmynydd. Born to Sir Owen Tudor and the dowager queen Catherine of Valois, Edmund was the half-brother of Henry VI of England. He was raised for several years by Katherine de la Pole and Henry took an interest in Edmund's upbringing, granting him a title and lands once he came of age. Both Edmund and his brother, Jasper, were made advisers to the King, as they were his closest remaining blood relatives.

The brothers were made senior earls in the royal court and had influential positions in the Parliament of England. Edmund was also granted Baynard's Castle, London, and ran a successful estate. He was married to Lady Margaret Beaufort, after her first marriage was annulled. Prior to the start of the Wars of the Roses, Edmund liaised with Richard, Duke of York and supported him when the King fell ill during 1453–1454. After war began in 1455, York sent Edmund to uphold the authority of the King in South Wales. While he was there, York was overthrown by the King and, in retaliation, Yorkist forces were sent to engage those of Tudor's in South Wales. Edmund was captured and imprisoned at Carmarthen Castle, where he died of the bubonic plague on 3 November 1456, three months before the birth of his son, the future Henry VII.

Birth and early life
Following the death of Henry V of England, the Queen dowager Catherine of Valois married Owen Tudor. The marriage was in secret, and was not common knowledge until after Catherine's death. It is accepted that Catherine and Owen were married around 1429/30, as the Queen stopped living in the household of her son Henry VI, and Owen was granted the rights of an Englishman in the Parliament of May 1432.

The children of Catherine and Owen were born away from court. Their first son, Edmund, was born at Much Hadham Palace, Hertfordshire. The manor house was owned by the Bishop of London. In 1436, his mother retired to Bermondsey Abbey, where she died on 3 January 1437. With Catherine dead, the Queen's enemies moved against Owen. He was called to London, but was acquitted by the Royal court of charges relating to the marriage. While en route to Wales, he was arrested and imprisoned in Newgate Prison. After he escaped in early 1438, he was recaptured and imprisoned once more in Windsor Castle.

Following the death of their mother and the imprisonment of their father, Edmund and his brother Jasper were brought up in the care of Katherine de la Pole, the daughter of Michael de la Pole, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, with whom they remained till at least March 1442. Henry VI began to take notice of his half-brothers by that point. He ensured that they were placed in the care of priests who oversaw their teaching. Edmund, and his brother and father, were taken into Henry's royal household. Henry was seemingly fond of his half brothers, and ennobled each of them with Edmund becoming Earl of Richmond on 15 December 1449, and Jasper Earl of Pembroke on 23 November 1452.

Earl of Richmond
As earls and half-brothers of the king, Edmund and Jasper had unparalleled precedence over all other non-clerics in the court, with the exception of the dukes. They were each given lands, although Jasper received a yearly stipend until Pembroke became available. After seven years of marriage to Margaret of Anjou, Henry was still childless. After the death of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the royal line was at risk, and the Tudor brothers were considered as possible heirs. There were concerns that while they were of French royal descent through Catherine, they had no blood relation to the English throne.

By 1452, Edmund and Jasper were both among Henry's small group of personal advisers; they were the only blood relations in court. However, neither was skilled at matters of state within England, and instead they were primarily given the task of ensuring the authority of the king within Wales. This resulted in a long-held affection for the family in that country. The formal investiture of the duo took place in the Tower of London on 5 January 1453. Later that year on 6 March, they took their seats in the Parliament of England as the head of all the earls in the court. After a petition by the House of Commons of England, both Jasper and Edmund were recognised officially as legitimate half-brothers of the king and the statutory disabilities associated with being considered Welsh were removed. In 1452 and 1453, Henry gave them large monetary grants, and also gave Edmund property in Westmorland and Lancashire. Edmund ran a profitable estate and invested in the wool industry based in Boston, Lincolnshire. Henry also granted him the medieval palace of Baynard's Castle, near to the River Thames in London.

Wars of the Roses and marriage
In the summer of 1453, Henry suffered a mental breakdown which lasted over 17 months. Several parties sought to take power during this period. Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou, demanded to be declared regent. The Tudor brothers supported Richard of York, who sought to become Protector of the Realm. However, Edmund did not attend the Parliament of 3 April 1454 where York was named protector. Edmund did attend York's council of advisors, although not as frequently as Jasper. Both brothers were in attendance in November 1445, when the council reduced the size of the royal household. As a result, they each received an entourage of a chaplain, two esquires, two yeomen and two chamberlains.

Henry recovered around Christmas of 1454, and dismissed York, with resultant hostility. This left the Tudor brothers in a quandary. Edmund was not at the First Battle of St Albans on 22 May 1455, where Henry was captured by Richard of York. Both brothers attended the following Parliament where York was once again named Protector. While York cancelled the majority of the grants Henry had made during his reign, those to Edmund and Jasper were exempt. Both brothers were absent when the second session of Parliament that year began on 12 November; Edmund had been sent to Wales to put down the rebellion of Gruffudd ap Nicolas.

Margaret Beaufort was the daughter and only child of John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset. Through her father, she also was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt. As such she carried a claim to the throne. Thus she was married as a child to John de la Pole, son of the ambitious Duke of Suffolk. However, the Duke was murdered in 1450.

In early 1453, the marriage of Margaret and John was annulled, and on 24 March Edmund was given wardship of Margaret, still only nine years old. Edmund married Margaret on 1 November 1455 at Bletsoe Castle. It was through Margaret that Edmund's son could claim the English throne.

The marriage was consummated immediately. Edmund died a year later, leaving a 13-year-old widow who was seven months pregnant with their child, Henry Tudor.

Capture, captivity and death
Gruffudd made war with the troops under Edmund, capturing the castles at Aberystwyth, Carmarthen and Carreg Cennen by June 1456. The rebellion didn't last long, and by early August, Edmund's forces had retaken those castles although minor skirmishes continued for several months longer. While Edmund was in Wales, the King had deposed York. In retaliation, York sent 2,000 men under William Herbert on 10 August to take South Wales. When they arrived at Carmarthen Castle, they took the stronghold and captured Edmund Tudor.

As Herbert's troops moved on to Aberystwyth, Edmund was left behind, imprisoned in Carmarthen Castle. On 3 November 1456, Edmund became infected with the bubonic plague and died there. He was buried at the nearby Franciscan Church in Carmarthen. There were suspicions that Edmund may have been murdered, and so a trial was held several months later with several parties accused, but no one was found guilty. Edmund's remains were removed to the choir of St David's Cathedral, Pembrokeshire, in 1539, due to the dissolution of the monasteries enacted by his grandson, King Henry VIII of England of the Royal House of Tudor.

title: Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond


text:
Portcullis

A portcullis is a heavy, vertically closing gate typically found in medieval fortifications, consisting of a latticed grille made of wood and/or metal, which slides down grooves inset within each jamb of the gateway.

Usage
Portcullises fortified the entrances to many medieval castles, securely closing off the castle during times of attack or siege. Every portcullis was mounted in vertical grooves in the walls of the castle and could be raised or lowered quickly by means of chains or ropes attached to an internal winch. Portcullises had an advantage over standard gates in that they could be closed immediately at a time of crisis by a single guard.

Often, two portcullises to the main entrance would be used. The one closer to the inside would be closed first, and then the one farther away. This was used to trap the enemy, and often, burning wood or fire-heated sand would be dropped onto them from the roof or murder-holes. Hot oil, however, was not commonly used in this manner, contrary to popular belief, since oil was extremely expensive. Arrowslits in the sides of the walls enabled archers and crossbowmen to kill the trapped group of attackers.

In England, working portcullises survive at the Tower of London, Monk Bar in York, Hever Castle in Kent, and at the hotel conversion, Amberley Castle. In Scotland, a working portcullis is at Edinburgh Castle.

Heraldry
The portcullis was the heraldic badge of the House of Beaufort, and the first Tudor king, Henry VII, who was of matrilineal Beaufort descent, adapted both the portcullis and the Tudor rose into Royal badges of the House of Tudor. Since then, the portcullis has been a moderately common motif of English heraldry, especially that heraldry dating from the Tudor period. The heraldic office of Portcullis Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary, a junior officer of arms in the College of Arms at London, dates from this period.

Through Lord Charles Somerset, son of The 5th Duke of Beaufort, the portcullis has found its way into several South African coats of arms. Somerset established several towns during his governorship at the then-Cape Colony and named them for his family. These include Worcester, Somerset West, Fort Beaufort, and Beaufort West. Institutions that derive the portcullis from these arms include a school, a chamber of commerce, and a rugby club. Other (around 30) South African coats of arms that include a portcullis are not necessarily related to either Lord Charles Somerset or any of the towns named after and by him.

Although the Palace of Westminster served as the official royal residence for both Henry VII and Henry VIII until 1530, the current use of the portcullis as a symbol of the palace and of Parliament does not date from that time. Rather, the symbol was developed as part of Sir Charles Barry's plans for the rebuilt palace after the original burned down on 16 October 1834; he conceptualized the new palace as a "legislative castle", and the symbol of a castle gate—i.e., a portcullis—fit well with the scheme.

Since then, the portcullis has become the primary symbol of Parliament; an office building for Members of Parliament (MPs), opened in 2001, is named "Portcullis House". During the 20th century, use of the portcullis as a symbol of Parliament spread beyond Britain and to the other Commonwealth realms; for instance, the coat of arms of Canberra features a portcullis in its crest, preserving a connection between the British Parliament at Westminster and the Australian Parliament to which Canberra is home.

The badge, coat of arms, and flag of the Canada Border Services Agency all include a portcullis, symbolising the agency's role as His Majesty's agents responsible for the border services of Canada. A portcullis was previously found on the British one-penny coin and on the predecimal thrupenny bit; this has since been replaced by a section of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom. It was also featured in the now-defunct HM Customs and Excise in the United Kingdom and still appears in the rank insignia for the various grades of commissioner in the Australian Border Force.

The portcullis may appear:

 * as a charge in its own right, as in the arms of the London Borough of Richmond: Ermine, a portcullis chained or, a bordure gules charged with eight fleurs-de-lys or
 * with nail heads shown in a contrasting colour, as in the arms of Wallingford Town Council: Gules, a portcullis or studded sable, chained Argent, ensigned with an ancient crown of the second, all within an orle of bezants
 * with spikes of a contrasting colour, as in the crest of Tendring District Council: ...a portcullis or, nailed and spiked azure
 * in the gateways of castles, fully lowered or part raised, as in the arms of Winchester City Council: ...five castles triple towered in saltire argent masoned proper the portcullis of each part-raised or...; though these do not appear in gateways of castles unless the blazon specifies them.

It is often shown with chains attached, even when the blazon does not mention them.

title: Portcullis