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Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau

Pierre Marie René Ernest Waldeck-Rousseau (2 December 1846 – 10 August 1904) was a French Republican politician who served for three years as the Prime Minister of France.

Early life
Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau was born in Nantes, Brittany. His father, René Waldeck-Rousseau, a barrister at the Nantes bar and a leader of the local republican party, figured in the revolution of 1848 as one of the deputies elected to the Constituent Assembly for Loire Inférieure.

The son was a delicate child whose eyesight made reading difficult, and his early education was therefore entirely oral. He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris, where he took his licentiate in January 1869. His father's record ensured his reception in high republican circles. Jules Grévy stood sponsor for him at the Parisian bar. After six months of waiting for briefs in Paris, he decided to return home and to join the bar of St Nazaire early in 1870. In September he became, in spite of his youth, secretary to the municipal commission temporarily appointed to carry on the town business. He organized the National Defence at St Nazaire, and himself marched out with his contingent, though they saw no active service owing to lack of ammunition, their private store having been commandeered by the state.

Under the Third Republic
In 1873, following the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, he moved to the bar of Rennes, and six years later was returned to the Chamber of Deputies. In his electoral program he had stated that he was prepared to respect all liberties except those of conspiracy against the institutions of the country and of educating the young in hatred of the modern social order. In the Chamber he joined the Republican Union parliamentary group (Union républicaine) and supported the policy of Léon Gambetta.

The Waldeck-Rousseau family was strictly Catholic in spite of its republican principles; nevertheless, Waldeck-Rousseau supported the Jules Ferry laws on public, laic and mandatory education, enacted in 1881–1882. In 1881 he became minister of the interior in Gambetta's grand ministry. He further voted for the abrogation of the law of 1814 forbidding work on Sundays and fast days, for one year of compulsory military service for seminarists and for the re-establishment of divorce. He made his reputation in the Chamber by a report which he drew up in 1880 on behalf of the committee appointed to inquire into the French judicial system.

Capital/labour relations
He was chiefly occupied with the relations between capital and labour, and had a large share in securing the recognition of trade unions in 1884. He became again minister of the interior in the Jules Ferry cabinet of 1883–1885, when he gave proof of great administrative powers. He sought to put down the system by which civil posts were obtained through the local deputy, and he made it clear that the central authority could not be defied by local officials. Waldeck-Rousseau also introduced the bill which became the 27 May 1885 act establishing penal colonies, dubbed "Law on relegation of recidivists", along with Martin Feuillée. The law was supported by Gambetta and his friend, the criminologist Alexandre Lacassagne.

Law practice
Waldeck-Rousseau had begun to practise at the Paris bar in 1886, and in 1889 he did not seek re-election to the Chamber, but devoted himself to his legal work. The most famous of the many noteworthy cases in which his cold and penetrating intellect and his power of clear exposition were retained was the defense of Gustave Eiffel in the Panama scandals of 1893.

Return to political life
In 1894 he returned to political life as senator for the department of the Loire, and next year stood for the presidency of the republic against Félix Faure and Henri Brisson, being supported by the Conservatives, who were soon to be his bitter enemies. He received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot to allow Faure to receive an absolute majority. During the political crisis of the next few years he was recognized by the Opportunist Republicans as the successor of Jules Ferry and Gambetta, and at the crisis of 1899 on the fall of the Charles Dupuy cabinet he was asked by President Émile Loubet to form a government.

Coalition cabinet
After an initial failure he succeeded in forming a coalition cabinet of "Republican Defense", supported by the Radical-Socialists and the Socialists, which included such widely different politicians as the Socialist Alexandre Millerand and the General de Galliffet, dubbed the "repressor of the Commune". He himself returned to his former post at the ministry of the interior, and set to work to quell the discontent with which the country was seething, to put an end to the various agitations which under specious pretences were directed against republican institutions (far-right leagues, Boulangist crisis, etc.), and to restore independence to the judicial authority. His appeal to all republicans to sink their differences before the common peril met with some degree of success, and enabled the government to allow the second court-martial of Alfred Dreyfus at Rennes a completely free hand, and then to find a compromise by negotiating a presidential pardon for Dreyfus. Waldeck-Rousseau achieved a considerable personal success in October by his successful intervention in the strikes at Le Creusot.

With the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul Deroulède and his nationalist followers by the High Court the worst of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in Paris without having recourse to irritating displays of force. The Senate was staunch in support of Waldeck-Rousseau, and in the Chamber he displayed remarkable astuteness in winning support from various groups. The Amnesty Bill, passed on 19 December, chiefly through his unwearied advocacy, went far to smooth down the acerbity of the preceding years. With the object of aiding the industry of wine-producing, and of discouraging the consumption of spirits and other deleterious liquors, the government passed a bill suppressing the octroi duties on the three "hygienic" drinks—wine, cider and beer. The act came into force at the beginning of 1901. A year earlier, in 1900, seats had been mandated for female clerks.

Associations Bill of 1901
The most important measure of Waldeck-Rousseau's later administration was the Associations Bill of 1901. With his anti-clerical sentiment, he was convinced that the stability of the republic demanded restraining religious associations. All previous attempts in this direction had failed. In his speech in the Chamber, Waldeck-Rousseau recalled the fact that he had tried to pass an Associations Bill in 1882 and again in 1883. He declared that religious associations were now being subjected for the first time to the regulations common to all others and that the object of the bill was to ensure the supremacy of the civil power. Royalist sympathies given to the pupils in the religious seminaries was a principal cause of the passing of this bill, and the government took strong measures to secure the presence of officers of undoubted fidelity to the republic in the higher positions on the staff. His speeches on the religious question were published in 1901 under the title of Associations et congregations, following a volume of speeches on Questions sociales (1900).

All Conservative parties opposed Waldeck-Rousseau's policies, especially the mass closure of church schools, as a persecution of religion. He led the anti-clerical coalition on the left, facing opposition primarily organized by the pro-Catholic Action libérale populaire, (ALP). The ALP had a stronger popular base, with better financing and a stronger network of newspapers, but had far fewer seats in parliament.

As the general election of 1902 approached, all sections of the Opposition united their efforts under the Bloc des gauches, and the name of Waldeck-Rousseau served as a battle-cry for one side, and on the other as a target for abuse. The result was a decisive victory for the left and Waldeck-Rousseau considered his task ended. Therefore, on 3 June 1902 he resigned office, having proved himself the "strongest personality in French politics since the death of Gambetta."

He emerged from his retirement to protest in the Senate against the construction put on his Associations Bill by Émile Combes, who refused en masse the applications of the teaching and preaching congregations for official recognition.

Death
In January 1904, Waldeck-Rousseau announced that he was suffering from "calculus of the liver". In May, he underwent surgery, — and, as was later revealed, attempted suicide; He died on August 11, 1904, after further surgery.

Publication of speeches
His speeches were published as Discours parlementaires (1889); Pour la République, 1883–1903 (1904), edited by H Leyret; L'État et la liberté (1906); and his Plaidoyers (1906) were edited by H Barboux. See also H Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la Troisième République (1908).

Honours

 * 🇳🇴 Norway: Order of St. Olav (grade unknown) – July 1902 – during a lunch with King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway.

Waldeck-Rousseau's Ministry, 22 June 1899 – 7 June 1902

 * Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior and Worship
 * Théophile Delcassé – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Marquis de Gallifet – Minister of War
 * Joseph Caillaux – Minister of Finance
 * Ernest Monis – Minister of Justice
 * Jean-Marie de Lanessan – Minister of the Navy
 * Georges Leygues – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Jean Dupuy – Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Decrais – Minister of Colonies
 * Pierre Baudin – Minister of Transport
 * Alexandre Millerand – Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs

Changes
 * 20 May 1900 – Louis André succeeds Gallifet as Minister of War.

title: Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau


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Ibis

The ibis (collective plural ibises; classical plurals ibides and ibes ) are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae that inhabit wetlands, forests and plains. "Ibis" derives from the Latin and Ancient Greek word for this group of birds. It also occurs in the scientific name of the western cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) mistakenly identified in 1757 as being the sacred ibis.

Description
Ibises all have long, downcurved bills, and usually feed as a group, probing mud for food items, usually crustaceans. They are monogamous and highly territorial while nesting and feeding. Most nest in trees, often with spoonbills or herons. All extant species are capable of flight, but two extinct genera were flightless, namely the kiwi-like Apteribis in the Hawaiian Islands, and the peculiar Xenicibis in Jamaica. The word ibis comes from Latin ibis from Greek ἶβις ibis from Egyptian hb, hīb.

Species in taxonomic order
There are 29 extant species and 4 extinct species of ibis.

An extinct species, the Jamaican ibis or clubbed-wing ibis (Xenicibis xympithecus) was uniquely characterized by its club-like wings. Extinct ibis species include the following:

 * Geronticus perplexus. Discovered in France. It is known only from a piece of distal right humerus, found at Sansan France, in Middle Miocene rocks. It appears to represent an ancient member of the Geronticus lineage, in line with the theory that most living ibis genera seem to have evolved before 15 million years ago (mya).
 * Geronticus apelex. Discovered in South Africa.
 * Geronticus balkanicus. Discovered in Bulgaria.
 * Theristicus wetmorei. Discovered in Peru.
 * Eudodmus peruvianus. Discovered in Peru.
 * Gerandibis pagana. Discovered in France. It is the sole species known for this genera.
 * Aptertbis glenos. Discovered in Hawaii.
 * Xenicibis xympithecus. Discovered in Jamaica.

Habitat
Most ibises are freshwater wetland birds using natural marshes, ponds, lakes, riversides for foraging. Some ibis species such as the White-faced Ibis, and Black-headed Ibis benefit from flooded and irrigated agriculture. The Andean ibis is unusual in being found in high altitude grasslands of South America. The foraging and nesting behaviour, and fluctuating numbers of the White ibis matches closely with water levels in the Everglades ecosystem leading to its selection as a potential indicator species for the system. Few ibis species such as the Olive iibis and Green ibis are also found in dense forests. The Llanos grasslands of Venezuela have the highest global ibis diversity with seven species sharing the marshes and grasslands.

Breeding
Ibises breeding habits are very diverse. Many ibises such as the black-headed Ibis, scarlet ibis, glossy ibis, American white ibis and Australian white ibis breed in large colonies on trees. Nest trees are located either in large wetlands or in agricultural fields, with many species like the Red-naped Ibis breeding inside cities. The Australian white ibis also breeds extensively inside cities and has greatly expanded its population. The White-faced ibis sometimes nests on dry land and on low shrubs in marshes.

In culture
The African sacred ibis was an object of religious veneration in ancient Egypt, particularly associated with the deity Djehuty or otherwise commonly referred to in Greek as Thoth. He is responsible for writing, mathematics, measurement, and time as well as the moon and magic. In artworks of the Late Period of Ancient Egypt, Thoth is popularly depicted as an ibis-headed man in the act of writing. However, Mitogenomic diversity in sacred ibis mummies indicates that ancient Egyptians captured the birds from the wild rather than farming them.

At the town of Hermopolis, ibises were reared specifically for sacrificial purposes, and in the Ibis Galleries at Saqqara, archaeologists found the mummies of one and a half million ibises.

According to local legend in the Birecik area, the northern bald ibis was one of the first birds that Noah released from the Ark as a symbol of fertility, and a lingering religious sentiment in Turkey helped the colonies there to survive long after the demise of the species in Europe.

The mascot of the University of Miami is an American white ibis named Sebastian. The ibis was selected as the school mascot because of its legendary bravery during hurricanes. According to legend, the ibis is the last of wildlife to take shelter before a hurricane hits and the first to reappear once the storm has passed.

Harvard University's humor magazine, Harvard Lampoon, uses the ibis as its symbol. A copper statue of an ibis is prominently displayed on the roof of the Harvard Lampoon Building at 44 Bow Street.

The short story "The Scarlet Ibis" by James Hurst uses the red bird as foreshadowing for a character's death and as the primary symbol.

The African sacred ibis is the unit symbol of the Israeli Special Forces unit known as Unit 212 or Maglan (Hebrew מגלן).

According to Josephus, Moses used the ibis to help him defeat the Ethiopians.

The Australian white ibis has become a focus of art, pop culture, and memes since rapidly adapting to city life in recent decades, and has earned the popular nicknames "bin chicken" and "tip turkey". In December 2017, the ibis placed second in Guardian Australia inaugural Bird of the Year poll, after leading for much of the voting period.

In April 2022, Queensland sports minister Stirling Hinchliffe suggested the ibis as a potential mascot for the 2032 Olympic Games, which are scheduled to be held in Brisbane. Hinchcliffe's suggestion prompted much discussion in the media.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ibis


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Aragonite

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral and one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate (Ca CO3), the others being calcite and vaterite. It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.

The crystal lattice of aragonite differs from that of calcite, resulting in a different crystal shape, an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal. Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms. Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous, occasionally in branching helictitic forms called flos-ferri ("flowers of iron") from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines.

Occurrence
The type location for aragonite is Molina de Aragón in the Province of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, for which it was named in 1797. Aragonite is found in this locality as cyclic twins inside gypsum and marls of the Keuper facies of the Triassic. This type of aragonite deposit is very common in Spain, and there are also some in France.

An aragonite cave, the Ochtinská Aragonite Cave, is situated in Slovakia.

In the US, aragonite in the form of stalactites and "cave flowers" (anthodite) is known from Carlsbad Caverns and other caves. For a few years in the early 1900s, aragonite was mined at Aragonite, Utah (now a ghost town).

Massive deposits of oolitic aragonite sand are found on the seabed in the Bahamas. Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate. As such, it occurs in high pressure metamorphic rocks such as those formed at subduction zones.

Aragonite forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, and as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals (Scleractinia). Several serpulids have aragonitic tubes. Because the mineral deposition in mollusk shells is strongly biologically controlled, some crystal forms are distinctively different from those of inorganic aragonite. In some mollusks, the entire shell is aragonite; in others, aragonite forms only discrete parts of a bimineralic shell (aragonite plus calcite). The nacreous layer of the aragonite fossil shells of some extinct ammonites forms an iridescent material called ammolite.

Aragonite also forms naturally in the endocarp of Celtis occidentalis.

The skeleton of some calcareous sponges is made of aragonite.

Aragonite also forms in the ocean inorganic precipitates called marine cements (in the sediment) or as free crystals (in the water column). Inorganic precipitation of aragonite in caves can occur in the form of speleothems. Aragonite is common in serpentinites where magnesium-rich pore solutions apparently inhibit calcite growth and promote aragonite precipitation.

Aragonite is metastable at the low pressures near the Earth's surface and is thus commonly replaced by calcite in fossils. Aragonite older than the Carboniferous is essentially unknown.

Aragonite can be synthesized by adding a calcium chloride solution to a sodium carbonate solution at temperatures above 60 C or in water-ethanol mixtures at ambient temperatures.

Physical properties
Aragonite is a thermodynamically unstable phase of calcium carbonate at any pressure below about 3000 bar at any temperature. Aragonite nonetheless frequently forms in near-surface environments at ambient temperatures. The weak Van der Waals forces inside aragonite give an important contribution to both the crystallographic and elastic properties of this mineral. The difference in stability between aragonite and calcite, as measured by the Gibbs free energy of formation, is small, and effects of grain size and impurities can be important. The formation of aragonite at temperatures and pressures where calcite should be the stable polymorph may be an example of Ostwald's step rule, where a less stable phase is the first to form. The presence of magnesium ions may inhibit calcite formation in favor of aragonite. Once formed, aragonite tends to alter to calcite on scales of 107 to 108 years.

The mineral vaterite, also known as μ-CaCO3, is another phase of calcium carbonate that is metastable at ambient conditions typical of Earth's surface, and decomposes even more readily than aragonite.

Uses
In aquaria, aragonite is considered essential for the replication of reef conditions. Aragonite provides the materials necessary for much sea life and also keeps the pH of the water close to its natural level, to prevent the dissolution of biogenic calcium carbonate.

Aragonite has been successfully tested for the removal of pollutants like zinc, cobalt and lead from contaminated wastewaters.

title: Aragonite


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Corymbia

Corymbia, commonly known as bloodwoods, is a genus of about one hundred species of tree that, along with Eucalyptus, Angophora and several smaller groups, are referred to as eucalypts. Until 1990, corymbias were included in the genus Eucalyptus and there is still considerable disagreement among botanists as to whether separating them is valid. As of January 2020, Corymbia is an accepted name at the Australian Plant Census.

Description
Eucalypts in the genus Corymbia are trees, sometimes mallee-like, that either have rough, fibrous or flaky bark, or smooth bark that is shed in small flakes or short strips. Young plants and coppice regrowth have leaves that differ from adult leaves. The adult leaves are arranged alternately (strictly disjunct opposite, but appearing alternate), with oil glands. The flower buds are arranged in groups on a branching peduncle, each branch usually with seven buds, but with the pedicels of differing lengths, so that the inflorescence is flat-topped or convex. The anthers are joined to the filament at their mid-point and open by parallel slits. As in Eucalyptus, the five sepals are fused to form an outer calyptra (or operculum) and the five petals an inner calyptra, the two calyptra being shed separately or together as the flower opens. Also as in Eucalyptus the fruit is usually a woody capsule, but in this case the disc is always depressed and the valves are always enclosed.

Taxonomy and naming
The genus Corymbia was first formally described in 1995 by Ken Hill and Lawrie Johnson in the journal Telopea. The type species is C. gummifera. The genus name, Corymbia is from the Latin word corymbus, meaning "a corymb".

The bloodwoods had been recognised as a distinct group within the large and diverse genus Eucalyptus since 1867. Molecular research in the 1990s, however, showed that they, along with the rest of the section Corymbia, are more closely related to Angophora than to Eucalyptus, and are now regarded as a separate genus by the Australian Plant Census. All three genera, Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus, are closely related, and are generally referred to as "eucalypts".

Botanists Ken Hill and Lawrie Johnson were the first to define the genus Corymbia in 1995, identifying the bloodwoods, ghost gums and spotted gums as a group distinct from Eucalyptus.

Since 1995, there have been ongoing investigations into the relationships between the genera. Genetic analysis of ETS and ITS sequences of DNA in 2006 by Carlos Parra-O and colleagues of 67 taxa (47 of which were within Corymbia) yielded Corymbia and Angophora as each other's closest relatives, with the genus Eucalyptus as an earlier offshoot. The small genera Eucalyptopsis, Stockwellia and Allosyncarpia formed a clade which arose earlier still. In 2009, Parra-O and colleagues added more taxa and published a  combined analysis of nuclear rDNA (ETS + ITS) and morphological characters published to clarify relationships within the genus. This confirmed two main clades, which they defined as the subgenera Corymbia and Blakella.

Distribution
Species of Corymbia occur in all mainland states of Australia and in the Northern Territory. There are about 100 species, all endemic to Australia except for four species that also occur in New Guinea, and one that is endemic to that country.

title: Corymbia


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Colonial militia in Canada

The colonial militias in Canada were made up of various militias prior to Confederation in 1867. During the period of New France and Acadia, Newfoundland Colony, and Nova Scotia (1605–1763), these militias were made up of Canadiens (French Canadians), First Nations, British and Acadians. Traditionally, the Canadian Militia was the name used for the local sedentary militia regiments throughout the Canadas.

However, the term "militia" was also used to refer to the Canadian regular professional land forces, beginning with the passing of the Militia Act of 1855. Passed by the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, the act created the Active Militia, later referred to as the Permanent Active Militia. After PAM's formation, the remaining sedentary colonial militia regiments were collectively referred to as the Non-Permanent Active Militia (NPAM). The terms PAM and NPAM continued to be used in Canada until 1940, when the Canadian militias was reorganized into the Canadian Army. The term Militia is still used to refer to the Canadian Army's part-time Primary Reserve.

French colonial militia

Military service has been part of Canadian life since the 17th century in New France, where colonists were required to serve in local militia to support regular units of the French army and navy. In 1651, Pierre Boucher received a commission of captain from the governor of New France and asked to raise militia corps in Trois-Rivières. Until the arrival of the Carignan-Salières Regiment in 1665, militia corps were the only defence of New France. In the long struggle between the French and British colonies, they were organized into companies, usually one per church parish, and structured in the same way as a regular French infantry company. The Governor General, Louis de Buade de Frontenac, arranged during the 1690s to provide all militiamen with clothing and equipment. This consisted generally of a capote, a breechcloth, leggings, a blanket, moccasins, a knife and two shirts, The clothing did not constitute a military uniform but was simply Canadian-style civilian wear. Since these men were not paid, this was a relatively economical way of maintaining an effective militia. British and colonial American troops found that the Indigenous-style tactics (i.e., guerrilla warfare, scalping) of the Canadian militia made them a formidable adversary. Perhaps the two most famous Canadian attacks against New England were the Siege of Pemaquid (1696) and the Raid on Deerfield (1704).

The success of the Canadians was underscored during the French and Indian War by George Washington's defeat at Great Meadows and Edward Braddock's embarrassment at the Monongahela River. The British response was to create new "ranger" and "light infantry" units adept at woodland warfare. When France ceded Canada to Great Britain in 1763, defence of the territory remained a duty shared by Canadian and British colonists, Indian nations, and the regular forces of Britain. As the colonies advanced to nationhood, its people were called to their own defence three times in the next 100 years.

Approximate numbers of militiamen in New France in 1759:

 * Acadian Militia – 150 militiamen
 * Canadien Cavalry: 200 cavalrymen
 * District of Quebec: 5,640 militiamen
 * District of Montreal: 5,455 militiamen 4,200 sent to Quebec City
 * District of Trois-Rivière: 1,300 militiamen 1,100 to Quebec City
 * First Nations: 1,800

Acadia
Until the establishment of Halifax (1749), the militia units in Acadia (present day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) were primarily Mi'kmaq,  Maliseet and Acadian militia. Before the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, these militias fought the New Englanders in King William's War and Queen Anne's War. After the conquest, the Mi'kmaq, Acadian and Maliseet militias continued to fight the British through Father Rale's War, King George's War, and Father Le Loutre's War. The two latter wars saw the arrival Gorham's Rangers, the first British militias established in the colony (the British regulars of the 40th Regiment of Foot was raised in the colony 1720). The Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias continued to fight in Nova Scotia throughout the French and Indian War.

American Revolutionary War
In 1775, during the American Revolutionary War, plans to invade Canada were drawn up as the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec (modern day Canada), and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the revolution on the side of the Thirteen Colonies. There were only two British regiments in the colony of Quebec. Companies of Canadian volunteers had to be raised to support the regular troops. Pro-American sympathies were a problem among the anglophone company raised by the Montreal merchants. In November 1775, Governor Carleton organized the defenders of Quebec City to face a siege by the American rebels. British regular troops were few in number. Canadian militia, from both the anglophone and francophone communities, made up the majority of the defenders. The militia of Quebec City was divided into two sections in 1775—'Canadian Militia' drawn from the francophone population, and 'British Militia' made up of anglophones. During the siege of Quebec, both were issued with the same uniform: green coat without lapels, with green facings; buff waistcoats and breeches; tricorne hat. The uniforms were drawn from stocks sent from Britain in the summer of 1775 for a proposed but never raised corps of Canadian light infantry.

In the aftermath of the American Revolutionary came an exodus of 40,000 Loyalists into the Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, joined by many of the Six Nations Iroquois who had remained loyal to the United Kingdom. Since many of the new Canadians were also veterans of Loyalist regiments, they brought both the British sympathies and the military training to establish competent professional forces to oppose the perceived American threat. Called "fencibles", the new units were organized within the British army, but charged wholly with the defence of their home colonies. Their professional presence also enhanced training for the citizen militia and established many traditions that continue to modern times.

War of 1812
In 1812, with the United Kingdom engaged in Europe, the United States took the opportunity to declare war and launch another attempt to capture Canada and expand westward into Indian territories. While British redcoats did most of the fighting in the War of 1812, Canadian militia and allied Indian warriors proved to be a vital part of Canada's defence.

The merit of British professional commanders was illustrated by Major-General Sir Isaac Brock in Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry, a French Canadian, in Lower Canada (Quebec). As soon as war was declared, Brock hastened to capture the American post on Lake Huron at Michilimackinac. Besides closing a key crossing on the Great Lakes, his success earned the admiration and loyalty of the Indian leader, Tecumseh. Brock then led a force of his troops along with colonial militia, fencibles and Tecumseh's Indians to capture Fort Detroit, securing the upper Great Lakes.

In the east, the French Canadians fought a crucial battle at Châteauguay, south of Montreal. With only a force of Canadian regulars and militia supported by allied Indians, de Salaberry turned back a larger column of Americans advancing on Montreal.

Brock died a Canadian hero as he repelled the American landing at the Battle of Queenston Heights and Tecumseh was later killed at the Battle of the Thames. Many engagements proved to be bloody but indecisive, including the Battle of Lundy's Lane near Niagara Falls, Ontario, the burning of both York (Toronto) and Washington, and in numerous naval engagements on the Great Lakes. When the war concluded in 1815, nothing material had changed for the European powers. The Treaty of Ghent restored all pre-war boundaries. Canadians, meanwhile, discovered the seeds of nationhood in their victories and their sacrifices, while their allies, the Indian nations, saw their hopes for secure boundaries of their own vanish.

Rebellions of 1837–1838
The militia were actively engaged in the Rebellions of 1837–1838, as well as the aftermath of the Patriot War, which involved American groups invading the Canadas, such as the Battle of the Windmill.

Fenian Raids

In 1855, the Parliament of the Province of Canada passed the Militia Act, which authorized the raising of an initial force of 5,000 (later increased to 10,000) regulars. The act was passed to raise an active force of militia which could partially compensate for the withdrawal of British regulars as a result of the Crimean War. Although additional British troops were re-deployed to Canada to deter a potential Union invasion during the American Civil War, this force played an instrumental role in the defence of Canada from that point forward.

Founded in the mid 19th-century, the Fenian Brotherhood was an association of Irish-American veterans of the American Civil War who plotted to gain Ireland independence from British rule by attacking Britain's overseas colonies within striking distance. In response, 20,000 Canadians volunteered for militia service, many from the Orange Order. Several hundred soldiers were quickly deployed from nearby Toronto, many of them coming from The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada. In Hamilton, the 13th Battalion (today's Royal Hamilton Light Infantry) mobilized over two hundred soldiers for frontier service.

The first serious raid came in June 1866 with 850 Fenians attacking at Ridgeway in the Niagara region, then withdrawing quickly back across the border. This was the largest and best-organized raid, and militia units, again primarily the Queen's Own Rifles and Hamilton's 13th Battalion, were called out. The engagement ended with Fenian victory at Ridgeway, but the Fenians withdrew back to the United States through Fort Erie, where another skirmish was fought before the invaders withdrew across the Niagara River. Militia units skirmished with the Fenians sporadically until 1871. The raids ended after unsuccessful attacks during the Battle of Eccles Hill in Quebec and in the northwest frontier, near the Manitoba border. The Fenians accomplished little, but the Canadian colonies came to recognize a shared need for a vigilant and coordinated defence: a key factor leading to a confederation of the provinces into one country in 1867.

Forts
Forts were utilized by both French and British militia units throughout Canada's colonial history. The following forts built by the authorities of New France were used by its military, including its militia units: Military fortifications continued to be used by the British after the conquest of 1760. In addition to using the forts already built by the previous French regime, the British Army, and Canadian militia units, also built their own fortifications. The following British-built fortifications were used by members of the Canadian militia:

title: Colonial militia in Canada


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Alexandre Millerand

Alexandre Millerand (February 10, 1859 – April 6, 1943) was a French politician. He was Prime Minister of France from 20 January to 23 September 1920 and President of France from 23 September 1920 to 11 June 1924. His participation in Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet at the start of the 20th century, alongside the Marquis de Galliffet, who had directed the repression of the 1871 Paris Commune, sparked a debate in the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) and in the Second International about the participation of socialists in bourgeois governments.

In 1912 Millerand was appointed as war minister in Poincaré's cabinet. He returned to the same post during the first year of World War I, helping set French war strategy. After Clemenceau's defeat in 1920, Millerand formed a cabinet and held both the premiership and the ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1920-1924 he served as president of France. He faced criticism for openly supporting conservative candidates in the 1924 elections and the left majority forced his resignation. Thereafter he played only a minor role in politics.

Early life and religion
Millerand was brought up in Paris, to Jean-François Millerand and Amélie-Mélanie Cahen of Alsatian Jewish origin, while his paternal family originated from Franche-Comté.

Millerand was baptized in 1860, while his mother converted to Catholicism. However, Millerand later became an agnostic, even going as far as to participate in a civil marriage ceremony. None of his children were baptized either.

Early activism
Born in Paris, he was educated for the bar and was elected Secrétaire of the Conférence des avocats du barreau de Paris. He made his reputation through his defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche and Duc-Quercy, the instigators of the strike at Decazeville in 1883. He then took Laguerre's place on Georges Clemenceau's newspaper, La Justice. He was a freemason between 1883 and 1905.

He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Seine département in 1885 as a Radical Socialist. He was associated with Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike (1892). He had long had the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation, and after the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians, his influence grew.

He was chief of the Independent Socialist faction, a group which then mustered sixty members. Until 1896, he edited their organ in the press, La Petite République. His programme included the collective ownership of the means of production and the international association of labour.

Government minister
In June 1899 he entered Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet of "republican defence" as Minister of Commerce. In contrast to his earlier activism, he now limited himself to practical reforms, devoting his attention to the improvement of the merchant marine, to the development of trade, of technical education, of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and insurance office was also raised to the status of a "direction".

In 1902, he did not join fellow independent socialist Jean Jaurès in forming the Parti Socialiste Français, but in 1907 instead formed the small Independent Socialist Party, which became the Republican-Socialist Party (PRS) in 1911. His influence with the far-left had already declined, for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition had disintegrated the movement.

In 1909/1910, he served as Minister of Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs.

As labour minister, he was responsible for the introduction of a wide range of reforms, including the reduction in the maximum workday from 11 to 10 hours in 1904, the introduction of an 8-hour workday for postal employees, the prescribing of maximum hours and minimum wages for all work undertaken by public authorities, the bringing of workers' representatives into the Conseil supérieur de travail, the establishment of arbitration tribunals and inspectors of labour, and the creation of a labour section inside his Ministry of Commerce to tackle the problem of social insurance.

The introduction of trade union representatives on the Supreme Labour Council, the organisation of local labour councils, and instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in communication with the councils of the trade unions were valuable concessions to labour. He further secured the rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection of the working class. His name was especially associated with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which became law in 1905. In 1898, he became editor of La Lanterne.

Millerand twice served as Minister of War, first from 1912 to 1913 and again, during the early stages of World War I, from 1914 to 1915.

Prime minister
Millerand continued to move to the right, being appointed Prime Minister by the conservative President, Paul Deschanel. During his time as Prime Minister, a decree of February 1920 introduced the eight-hour day for seamen.

Presidency and later years
When Deschanel had to resign later in 1920 due to his mental disorder, Millerand emerged as a compromise candidate for President between the Bloc National and the remnants of the Bloc des gauches. Millerand appointed Georges Leygues, a politician with a long career of ministerial office, as Prime Minister and attempted to strengthen the executive powers of the Presidency. This move was resisted in the Chamber of Deputies and the French Senate, and Millerand was forced to appoint a stronger figure, Aristide Briand. Briand's appointment was welcomed by both left and right, although the Socialists and the left wing of the Radical Party did not join his government.

However, Millerand dismissed Briand after just a year, and appointed the conservative republican Raymond Poincaré.

Millerand was accused of favouring conservatives in spite of the traditional neutrality of French Presidents and the composition of the legislature. On 14 July 1922, Millerand escaped an assassination attempt by Gustave Bouvet, a young French anarchist. Two years later, on 11 June 1924, Millerand resigned in the face of growing conflict between the elected legislature and the office of the President, following the victory of the Cartel des Gauches. Gaston Doumergue, who was the president of the Senate at the time, was chosen on 13 June to replace Millerand.

Millerand died in 1943 at Versailles, and was interred in the Passy Cemetery. He was awarded Serbian Order of Karađorđe's Star.

Millerand's Ministry, 20 January 1920 – 24 September 1920

 * Alexandre Millerand - President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * André Joseph Lefèvre - Minister of War
 * Théodore Steeg - Minister of the Interior
 * Frédéric François-Marsal - Minister of Finance
 * Paul Jourdain - Minister of Labour
 * Gustave L'Hopiteau - Minister of Justice
 * Adolphe Landry - Minister of Marine
 * André Honnorat - Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * André Maginot - Minister of War Pensions, Grants, and Allowances
 * Joseph Ricard - Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Sarraut - Minister of Colonies
 * Yves Le Trocquer - Minister of Public Works
 * Auguste Isaac - Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Émile Ogier - Minister of Liberated Regions

title: Alexandre Millerand


text:
1901 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1901.

Events

 * January 31 – Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters (Три сeстры, Tri sestry) opens at the Moscow Art Theatre, directed by Constantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko with Stanislavski as Vershinin, Olga Knipper as Masha, Margarita Savetskaya as Olga, Maria Andreyeva as Irina, and Maria Lilina (Stanislavsky's wife) as Natasha.
 * February 22 – Leo Tolstoy is excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox Church.
 * May 1 – Publication of Maurice Maeterlinck's The Life of the Bee in Belgium.
 * May 6 – Swedish dramatist August Strindberg, 52, marries his third wife, the Swedish-Norwegian actress Harriet Bosse, 23, after an engagement in March during rehearsals for his play Easter (Påsk).
 * May 25 – Chekhov marries Olga Knipper in a quiet ceremony.
 * May 28 – Cherry v. Des Moines Leader is decided in the Iowa Supreme Court, upholding the right to publish critical reviews.
 * June 28 – G. K. Chesterton marries Frances Blogg at St Mary Abbots, Kensington.
 * July – The first modern performances of Everyman, the 15th-century morality play, are given by William Poel's Elizabethan Stage Society outdoors at the Charterhouse in London.
 * July 24 – O. Henry is released from prison in Columbus, Ohio after serving three years for embezzlement.
 * October
 * Thomas Mann's first novel, Buddenbrooks, is published in Berlin.
 * The Irish Literary Theatre project gives its final performance.
 * October 23 – Mark Twain receives an honorary doctorate of literature from Yale University. In the same month he moves to Riverdale, New York.
 * December 2 – The Romanian literary review Sămănătorul is founded.
 * December 10 – The first Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded, to French poet Sully Prudhomme.
 * unknown date – World's Classics series of publications is founded by Grant Richards in England.

Fiction

 * Ignacio Manuel Altamirano – El Zarco
 * Leonid Andreyev – «повести» (stories)
 * E.F. Benson – The Luck of the Vails
 * René Boylesve – La Becquée
 * Samuel Butler – Erewhon Revisited
 * Hall Caine – The Eternal City
 * Winston Churchill – The Crisis
 * Colette – Claudine à Paris
 * Joseph Conrad and Ford Madox Ford – The Inheritors
 * Victoria Cross – Anna Lombard
 * Patrick S. Dinneen – Cormac Ó Conaill (first novel in Irish published complete in book form)
 * George Douglas – The House with the Green Shutters
 * Miles Franklin – My Brilliant Career
 * Géza Gárdonyi – A láthatatlan ember (The Invisible Man)
 * George Griffith – A Honeymoon in Space
 * Henry James – The Sacred Fount
 * Johannes V. Jensen – The Fall of the King
 * Rudyard Kipling – Kim
 * Jean Lorrain
 * Monsieur de Phocas
 * Le Vice errant
 * George Barr McCutcheon – Graustark: The Story of a Love Behind a Throne
 * Thomas Mann – Buddenbrooks
 * George Moore – Sister Theresa
 * Frank Norris – The Octopus
 * Charles-Louis Philippe – Bubu de Montparnasse
 * Luigi Pirandello – L'Esclusa (The Excluded Woman)
 * Liane de Pougy – Idylle Saphique
 * José Maria de Eça de Queiroz – A Cidade e as Serras
 * M. P. Shiel
 * Lord of the Sea
 * The Purple Cloud
 * Bram Stoker and Valdimar Ásmundsson – Makt Myrkranna (Powers of Darkness, Icelandic language adaptation of Stoker's Dracula)
 * Rabindranath Tagore – Nastanirh (নষ্টনীড়, The Broken Nest)
 * William Alexander Taylor – Intermere
 * Jules Verne
 * The Sea Serpent (Les Histoires de Jean-Marie Cabidoulin)
 * The Village in the Treetops (Le Village aérien)
 * H. G. Wells – The First Men in the Moon
 * Émile Zola – Travail

Children and young people

 * John Kendrick Bangs – Mr. Munchausen
 * L. Frank Baum
 * American Fairy Tales
 * The Master Key
 * Dot and Tot of Merryland
 * Evelyn Everett-Green – True Stories of Girl Heroines
 * Mary Catherine Judd, illustrated by Angel De Cora – Wigwam stories

Drama

 * Gabriele D'Annunzio – Francesca da Rimini
 * J. M. Barrie – Quality Street
 * Roberto Bracco – Lost in the Dark (Sperduti nel buio)
 * Hall Caine – The Eternal City
 * Anton Chekhov – Three Sisters
 * Clyde Fitch – The Climbers
 * Haralamb Lecca – Quinta. Suprema forță
 * Wilhelm Meyer-Förster – Old Heidelberg (Alt Heidelberg)
 * Louis N. Parker – The Cardinal
 * August Strindberg – A Dream Play (Ett drömspel, published)
 * Stanisław Wyspiański
 * Warszawianka (Varsovian Anthem, stage première)
 * The Wedding (Wesele)

Poetry

 * Henry Ames Blood – Selected Poems of Henry Ames Blood
 * Maxim Gorky – The Song of the Stormy Petrel (Песня о Буревестнике)
 * Thomas Hardy – Poems of the Past and the Present
 * Akiko Yosano (与謝野 晶子) – Midaregami (みだれ髪, Tangled Hair)

Non-fiction

 * Annie Besant, Charles Webster Leadbeater – Thought-Forms: A Record of Clairvoyant Investigation
 * Sigmund Freud – The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens)
 * Seebohm Rowntree – Poverty, A Study of Town Life
 * Edith Helen Sichel – Women and Men of the French Renaissance
 * Rudolf Steiner – Die Mystik im Aufgange des neuzeitlichen Geisteslebens, und ihr Verhältnis zur modernen Weltan-schauung (Mysticism at the Dawn of Modern Spiritual Life, and its Relationship with Modern World-views)
 * A. E. Waite – The Life of Louis Claude de Saint-Martin
 * Booker T. Washington – Up from Slavery
 * H. G. Wells – Anticipations of the Reaction of Mechanical and Scientific Progress Upon Human Life and Thought

Births

 * January 1 – Elisabeth Kyle, Scottish novelist and journalist (died 1982)
 * January 17 – Hryhorii Epik, Ukrainian writer and journalist (shot with many other Ukrainian intellectuals at Sandarmokh 1937)
 * January 31 – Marie Luise Kaschnitz (Marie Luise von Holzing-Berslett), German story writer, novelist and poet (died 1974)
 * February 2 – Valerian Pidmohylny, Ukrainian modernist (shot at Sandarmokh 1937)
 * February 3 – Rosamond Lehmann, English novelist (died 1990)
 * February 13 – Lewis Grassic Gibbon (James Leslie Mitchell), Scottish novelist (died 1935)
 * February 23 – Ivar Lo-Johansson, Swedish novelist and journalist (died 1990)
 * March 4 (or 1903) – Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo (Joseph-Casimir Rabearivelo), Malagasy Francophone poet (suicide 1937)
 * April 10 – Anna Kavan (Helen Emily Woods, Helen Ferguson), French-born English novelist and short story writer (died 1968)
 * April 21 – Gladys Mitchell, English crime fiction writer (died 1983)
 * May 1 – Antal Szerb, Hungarian writer (died 1945)
 * May 2 – Margaret Wetherby Williams (Margaret Erskine), English crime fiction writer (died 1984)
 * May 15 – Xavier Herbert, Australian novelist (died 1984)
 * May 26 – Norman Denny, English writer and translator (died 1982)
 * June 1 – John Van Druten, English-born American dramatist (died 1957)
 * June 23 – Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Turkish novelist and essayist (died 1962)
 * July 9 – Barbara Cartland, English romantic novelist, historian and playwright (died 2000)
 * July 20 – Dilys Powell, English film critic (died 1995)
 * July 25 – Ruth Krauss, American children's author and poet (died 1993)
 * August 10 – Sergio Frusoni, Cape Verde poet and promoter of Cape Verdean Creole language (died 1975)
 * August 17 – Heðin Brú, Faroese fiction writer and translator (died 1987)
 * August 20 – Salvatore Quasimodo, Italian poet and translator (died 1968)
 * October 25 – Samuil Lehtțir, Soviet Moldovan poet, critic and literary theorist (shot 1937)
 * November 3 – André Malraux, French author (died 1976)
 * November 4 – Ernest Elmore (John Bude), English crime writer and theatre director (died 1957)
 * December 9 – Ödön von Horváth, Austro-Hungarian dramatist and novelist (died 1938)
 * December 16 – Margaret Mead, American anthropologist and author (died 1978)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Ignatius L. Donnelly, American politician and writer (born 1831)
 * January 14 – Víctor Balaguer, Catalan Spanish dramatist and poet (born 1824)
 * January 17 – Frederic W. H. Myers, British poet (born 1843)
 * January 26 – Grigore Sturdza, Moldavian and Romanian adventurer, literary sponsor and philosopher (pneumonia, born 1821)
 * February 2 – John Cordy Jeaffreson, English novelist and non-fiction writer (born 1831)
 * February 7 – Rowena Granice Steele, first female novelist in California (born 1824)
 * February 15 – Maurice Thompson, American novelist (born 1844)
 * February 18 – Anna Gardner, American author, abolitionist, teacher, reformer (born 1816)
 * March 19 – Philippe Gille, French dramatist (born 1831)
 * April 6 – George Murray Smith, English publisher (born 1824)
 * April 10 — Harriet Newell Kneeland Goff, reformer and author (born 1828)
 * April 12 – Louis Auguste Sabatier, French theologian (born 1839)
 * April 26 – Harriett Ellen Grannis Arey, American educator, author, editor, and publisher (born 1819)
 * May 24 – Charlotte Mary Yonge, English novelist (born 1823)
 * June 4 – Charlotte Fowler Wells, American phrenologist and publisher (born 1814)
 * June 5 – Dagny Juel, Norwegian writer and artists' model (shot, born 1867)
 * June 9 – Walter Besant, English novelist and historian (born 1836)
 * June 10 – Robert Williams Buchanan, Scottish poet, novelist and dramatist (born 1841)
 * July 7 – Johanna Spyri, Swiss children's writer (born 1827)
 * July 18 – Jan ten Brink, Dutch novelist (born 1834)
 * July 20 – William Cosmo Monkhouse, English poet and critic (born 1840)
 * July 27 – Brooke Foss Westcott, English theologian (born 1825)
 * August 4 – Harriet Pritchard Arnold, American author (born 1858)
 * August 9 – Vishnudas Bhave, Indian dramatist (unknown birth year)
 * October 28 – Paul Rée, German author and philosopher (born 1849)
 * October 31 – Julien Leclercq, French Symbolist poet and art critic (born 1865)
 * November 6 – Kate Greenaway, English children's illustrator and writer (born 1846)
 * November 21 – V. A. Urechia, Romanian historian, writer and politician (born 1834)
 * December 28 – Mary K. Buck, Bohemian-born American author (born 1849)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Sully Prudhomme

title: 1901 in literature


text:
1902 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1902.

Events

 * January 5
 * The political drama Danton's Death (Dantons Tod, completed and published in 1835) by Georg Büchner (died 1837), is first performed, at the Belle-Alliance-Theater in Berlin by the Vereins Neue Freie Volksbühne.
 * George Bernard Shaw's controversial 1893 play Mrs. Warren's Profession receives its first performance at a private London club.
 * January 23 – The first example of a Sherlockian game – a study of inconsistencies of dates in Arthur Conan Doyle's The Hound of the Baskervilles (the serialisation of which in The Strand Magazine concludes in April) by publisher Frank Sidgwick – appears in The Cambridge Review.
 * April – Mark Twain buys a home in Tarrytown, New York. On June 4 he receives an honorary doctorate of literature from the University of Missouri.
 * June 16 – Bertrand Russell writes to Gottlob Frege about the mathematical problem to become known as Russell's paradox.
 * July 1 – The Romanian language literary review Luceafărul begins publication in Budapest.
 * August 6 – În sat sau la oraș (In the Village or in the City), by the Romanian peasant leader Constantin Dobrescu-Argeș, is performed in his native Mușătești, in front of an audience comprising Education Minister Spiru Haret and some 2,000 villagers.
 * September 9 – P. G. Wodehouse leaves his job at the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Company in London to become a freelance writer. On September 18, his first published novel, the St. Austin's school story The Pothunters, is published in London by A & C Black, as a truncation of the version in their Public School Magazine from January to March.
 * Early October – Beatrix Potter's self-illustrated children's book The Tale of Peter Rabbit (originally published privately a year earlier) appears in its first trade edition with Frederick Warne & Co in London. It sells 28,000 copies by the end of the year.
 * October 5 – Thousands attend the funeral of the French novelist Émile Zola at the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris. They include Alfred Dreyfus, given special permission by Mme Zola to attend.
 * November 4 – J. M. Barrie's comedy The Admirable Crichton is first performed, at the Duke of York's Theatre in London, starring H. B. Irving, Henry Kemble and Irene Vanbrugh. It runs for 828 performances.
 * December 5 – Leo Tolstoy's drama The Power of Darkness («Власть тьмы», Vlast' t'my, written in 1886) has its Russian-language première at the Moscow Art Theatre by Konstantin Stanislavski with some success, although Stanislavski is self-critical.
 * December 18 – Maxim Gorky's drama The Lower Depths – Scenes from Russian Life («На дне», Na dne) is first performed, at the Moscow Art Theatre, as a first major success for Konstantin Stanislavsky as director and star.
 * unknown date – The poet Ștefan Petică's cycle Fecioara în alb is published, marking a maturing of Romanian Symbolism.

Fiction

 * Azorín – La voluntad (Volition)
 * Jane Barlow – The Founding of Fortunes
 * Pío Baroja – Camino de perfección (pasión mística) (Road to Perfection)
 * Edward Harold Begbie (as Caroline Lewis) – Clara in Blunderland
 * Arnold Bennett
 * Anna of the Five Towns
 * The Grand Babylon Hotel
 * Rhoda Broughton – Lavinia
 * Joseph Conrad
 * Typhoon (serialized in The Pall Mall Magazine January–March and US book publication)
 * Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories, incorporating Youth: a Narrative (1898) and Heart of Darkness (first 1899)
 * The End of the Tether
 * Marie Corelli – Temporal Power: A Study in Supremacy
 * Miguel de Unamuno – Amor y pedagogía
 * Ramón del Valle-Inclán – Sonatas: Memorias del Marqués de Bradomín – Sonata de otoño (Sonatas: The Pleasant Memories of the Marquis of Bradomín – Autumn Sonata)
 * Arthur Conan Doyle – The Hound of the Baskervilles
 * Paul Laurence Dunbar – The Sport of the Gods
 * Hamlin Garland – The Captain of the Gray-Horse Troop
 * André Gide – L'immoraliste
 * Ellen Glasgow – The Battle-Ground
 * Annie French Hector – Kitty Costello
 * Theodor Herzl – The Old New Land
 * Violet Jacob – The Sheepstealers
 * W. W. Jacobs – The Lady of the Barge (short stories, including "The Monkey's Paw")
 * Henry James – The Wings of the Dove
 * Alfred Jarry – Supermale (Le Surmâle: roman moderne)
 * Mary Johnston – Audrey
 * Olha Kobylianska – Zemlya (Land)
 * Liang Qichao – Xin Zhongguo weilai ji (新中國未來記, The Future of New China; unfinished)
 * Jack London – A Daughter of the Snows
 * George Barr McCutcheon – Brewster's Millions
 * Charles Major – Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall
 * A. E. W. Mason – The Four Feathers
 * W. Somerset Maugham – Mrs Craddock
 * Dmitri Merejkowski – The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci
 * Frank Norris – The Pit (serialization)
 * Luigi Pirandello – Il Turno
 * W. Heath Robinson – The Adventures of Uncle Lubin
 * Saki – The Westminster Alice
 * Percy Sykes – Ten Thousand Miles in Persia
 * Jules Verne – The Kip Brothers (Les Frères Kip)
 * Eduard Vilde – Mahtra sõda (The War at Mahtra)
 * Owen Wister – The Virginian

Children and young people

 * L. Frank Baum – The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus
 * J. M. Barrie – The Little White Bird (includes the story "Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens")
 * Edith Ogden Harrison – Prince Silverwings and other fairy tales
 * William Dean Howells – The Flight of Pony Baker
 * Rudyard Kipling – Just So Stories for Little Children
 * Bessie Marchant – Fleckie: A Story of the Desert, etc.
 * E. Nesbit – Five Children and It
 * Beatrix Potter – The Tale of Peter Rabbit
 * Edward Stratemeyer – The Young Volcano Explorers
 * Mrs George de Horne Vaizey – A Houseful of Girls
 * C. N. and A. M. Williamson – The Lightning Conductor: the Strange Adventures of a Motor-car
 * P. G. Wodehouse – The Pothunters

Drama

 * J. M. Barrie – The Admirable Crichton
 * Gordon Bottomley – The Crier by Night
 * Gaston Arman de Caillavet and Robert de Flers – Le Cœur a ses raisons
 * Constantin Dobrescu-Argeș – În sat sau la oraș (In the Village or in the City, first performance)
 * Clyde Fitch – The Girl with the Green Eyes
 * Cosmo Gordon-Lennox – The Marriage of Kitty
 * Maxim Gorky – The Lower Depths
 * Haralamb Lecca – Septima. Câiniĭ
 * Maurice Maeterlinck – Monna Vanna
 * Frank Wedekind – King Nicolo
 * W. B. Yeats – Cathleen Ní Houlihan

Poetry

 * Edwin James Brady – The Earthen Floor
 * Walter de la Mare (as Walter Ramal) – Songs of Childhood
 * Ștefan Petică – Fecioara în alb

Non-fiction

 * Jane Addams – Democracy and Social Ethics
 * James Allen – As a Man Thinketh
 * Hilaire Belloc – The Path to Rome
 * Euclides da Cunha – Os Sertões (translated as Rebellion in the Backlands)
 * Arthur Conan Doyle – The War in South Africa: Its Cause and Conduct
 * Michael Fairless (pseudonym of Margaret Barber) – The Roadmender
 * John A. Hobson – Imperialism: a study
 * William James – The Varieties of Religious Experience
 * Vilfredo Pareto – Les Systèmes socialistes
 * Bertrand Russell – A Free Man's Worship
 * Southern Education Board – Educational Conditions in the Southern Applachians
 * William Wynn Westcott – Collectanea Hermetica (finishes publication)

Births

 * January 1 - Muhammad Zaki Abd al-Qadir, Egyptian journalist and writer (d. 1981)
 * January 5 – Stella Gibbons, English novelist (died 1989)
 * January 20 – Nazim Hikmet, Turkish lyricist and dramatist (died 1963)
 * January 30 – Nikolaus Pevsner, German-born architectural historian (died 1983)
 * February 1 – Langston Hughes, African-American poet and novelist (died 1967)
 * February 16 – Ion Călugăru, Romanian novelist, short story writer and journalist (died 1956)
 * February 19 – Kay Boyle, American writer, educator and political activist (died 1992)
 * February 27 – John Steinbeck, American novelist and journalist (died 1968)
 * March 9 – Thomas Owen Beachcroft, English novelist (died 1988)
 * March 10 – Stefan Inglot, Polish historian (died 1994)
 * March 29 – Marcel Aymé, French novelist and short-story writer (died 1967)
 * April 2 – Jan Tschichold, German-born typographer (died 1974)
 * April 6 – Julien Torma, French poet and dramatist (died 1933)
 * April 9 – Lord David Cecil, English literary critic and biographer (died 1986)
 * April 23 – Halldór Laxness, Icelandic novelist (died 1998)
 * June 5 – Hugo Huppert, Austrian poet, writer and translator (died 1982)
 * July 10 – Nicolás Guillén, Afro-Cuban poet (died 1989)
 * July 8 – Gwendolyn B. Bennett, African American writer and artist (died 1981)
 * July 27 - Yaroslav Halan, Ukrainian playwright, translator, and publicist (died 1949)
 * August 15 – Katharine Brush, American short story writer (died 1952)
 * August 16 – Georgette Heyer, English novelist (died 1974)
 * August 19 – Ogden Nash, American poet and humorist (died 1971)
 * August 24
 * Felipe Alfau, Spanish-American fiction writer, poet and translator (died 1999)
 * Fernand Braudel, French historian (died 1985)
 * September 21 – Luis Cernuda, Spanish poet (died 1963)
 * September 25 – Ernst von Salomon, German writer (died 1972)
 * October 13 – Arna Bontemps, African American poet (died 1973)
 * October 23 – Dadie Rylands (George Rylands), English Shakespeare scholar (died 1999)
 * October 26 – Beryl Markham (Beryl Clutterbuck), English-born Kenyan adventurer and memoirist (died 1986)
 * October 31 – Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Brazilian poet (died 1987)
 * November 1 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian poet and author (killed in action 1943)
 * November 2
 * Hu Feng (胡风), Chinese novelist (died 1985)
 * Gyula Illyés, Hungarian author (died 1983)
 * November 29 – Carlo Levi, Italian writer (died 1975)
 * December 7 – Nicolae Crevedia, Romanian poet, novelist and journalist (died 1978)
 * December 20 – Jolán Földes, Hungarian novelist and playwright (died 1963)

Deaths

 * January 7 – Wilhelm Hertz, German poet and translator (born 1835)
 * April 6 – Gleb Uspensky, Russian writer (born 1843)
 * April 20 – Frank R. Stockton, American writer and humorist (born 1834)
 * April 21 – Ethna Carbery, Irish poet (born 1866)
 * April 27 – Nancy H. Adsit, American art lecturer, art educator, and writer of art literature (born 1825)
 * May 5 – Bret Harte, American author and poet (born 1836)
 * May 6
 * Martha Perry Lowe, American social activist and organizer (born 1829)
 * Emma Augusta Sharkey, American dime novelist (born 1858)
 * May 17/18 — Harriet Abbott Lincoln Coolidge, American philanthropist, author and reformer (b. 1849)
 * June 10 – Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan poet (born 1845)
 * June 18 – Samuel Butler, English novelist (born 1835)
 * July 10 – Annie French Hector (pseudonym Mrs Alexander), Irish-born novelist (born 1825)
 * August 31
 * August 31
 * Grace Hinsdale, American religious writer (born 1832)
 * Mathilde Wesendonck, German poet (born 1828)
 * September 11 – Ernst Dümmler, German historian (born 1830)
 * September 19 – Masaoka Shiki (正岡 子規), Japanese haiku poet (born 1867)
 * September 29
 * William McGonagall, Scottish doggerel poet (born 1825)
 * Émile Zola, French novelist (carbon monoxide poisoning, born 1840)
 * October 7 – George Rawlinson, English historian (born 1812)
 * October 13 – John George Bourinot, Canadian historian (born 1836)
 * October 25 – Frank Norris, American novelist (peritonitis, born 1870)
 * October 31 – Cornélie Huygens, Dutch writer, social democrat and feminist (born 1848)
 * November 16 – G. A. Henty, English historical novelist (born 1832)
 * December 26 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (born 1849)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen

title: 1902 in literature


text:
List of cities in Switzerland

Below is a list of towns and cities in Switzerland. Until 2014 municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants were considered to be towns (Stadt/Städte, ville(s), città). Since 2014, the Federal Statistical Office (FSO) uses a new algorithm (called Statistische Städte 2012, or Villes statistiques 2012) to define whether a municipality can be called a town or not; it now also depends on its character. Currently, FSO considers 162 municipalities as towns/cities (Statistische Städte, Villes statistiques) in Switzerland. Further, some municipalities which would fulfill such a definition nevertheless prefer to understand themselves still as a village, or consequently refer to themselves just as municipalities (Gemeinde, commune, comune). The Swiss definition of a town differs from the definition of a municipality.

List of towns and cities
This is an alphabetical list of towns or cities (these English terms can be used interchangeably, as there is no official differentiation), which follows the FSO's definition (Statistische Städte 2012, Villes statistiques 2012), as well as places with historic town rights (h) and/or market towns (m).

 * Places in bold print are towns because of the FSO's definition and historic town/market rights.
 * Places in italics are towns excluded by the FSO's definition, but places which have either historic town rights (h) or historic market rights (m).
 * Places in normal print are towns according to the FSO's definition.
 * Places that had lost historic town rights previously are identified with "-h".
 * Cantonal capitals (Hauptort, chef-lieu, capoluogo) are underlined.

title: List of cities in Switzerland


text:
Madura Island

Madura Island (Indonesian: Pulau Madura, Madurese: Polo Madhurâ; [pɔlɔ ˈmaʈʰurɤ], Pèghu:, Carakan: ꦥꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦩꦢꦸꦫ) is an Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately 4436.77 km2 (administratively 5374.17 km2 including various smaller islands to the east, southeast and north that are administratively part of Madura's easternmost Sumenep Regency). Administratively, Madura is part of the province of East Java. It is separated from Java by the narrow Madura Strait. The administered area had a density of 755.6 people per km2 (1,957 per sq. mile) in mid-2023, while the main island had a somewhat higher figure of 840 per km2 (2,175.5 per sq. mile).

Etymology
Madura is named for Madurai, the home of the Hindu deity Azhagar.

History
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura, and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakraningrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.

Following the First Javanese War of Succession between Amangkurat III and his uncle, Pangeran Puger, the Dutch gained control of the eastern half of Madura in 1705. Dutch recognition of Puger was influenced by the lord of West Madura, Cakraningrat II who is thought to have supported Puger's claims in the hope that a new war in central Java would provide the Madurese with a chance to interfere. However, while Amangkurat was arrested and exiled to Ceylon, Puger took the title of Pakubuwono I and signed a treaty with the Dutch that granted them, East Madura.

The Cakraningrats agreed to help the Dutch quash the 1740 rebellion in Central Java after the Chinese massacre in 1740. In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded the full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch, which was contested by Cakraningrat IV. Cakraningrat fled to Banjarmasin, took refuge with the British, was robbed and betrayed by the sultan, and captured by the Dutch and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope.

The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago. The Dutch gradually sidelined the Sultan and took over direct control of the entire island in the 1880s, governing it as the Madoera Residency. From 1948 to 1950, under the United States of Indonesia, Madura was administered as a federative state known as the State of Madura.

Geography
Madura Island is a relatively flat topography and there is no significant difference in elevation, which makes Madura a badland. Geologically, Madura is part of the northern limestone mountains of Java. The limestone hills in Madura are lower, rougher, and rounder than the hills in northern Java.

Demography
Madura (including its offshore islands) has a population of about four million, most of whom are ethnically Madurese. The main language of Madura is Madurese, one of a family of Austronesian languages, which is also spoken in part of eastern Java and on many of the 66 outlying islands.

The Madurese are a large ethnic population in Indonesia, numbering around 7 million inhabitants. They come from the island of Madura as well as surrounding islands, such as Gili Raja, Sapudi, Raas, and the Kangean Islands. In addition, many Madurese live in the eastern part of East Java, commonly called the "Horseshoe", from Pasuruan to the north of Banyuwangi. Madurese are found in Situbondo and Bondowoso, and east of Probolinggo, Jember, and a few at most who speak Javanese, including North Surabaya, as well as some of Malang.

Madura has a Sunni Muslim majority and a large Shia minority. However, since 2012, interfaith discord has escalated violent, resulting in attacks on many Shia villages around the city of Sampang being attacked and the residents' escape for government refugee centers. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has provided details of such attacks in 2013.

Administrative divisions
Madura Island is part of East Java province and is divided into the following four regencies, listed from west to east:

Note: Sumenep Regency, besides including the eastern quarter of Madura Island, also includes many offshore islands - notably the Kangean Islands to the east of Madura, the smaller Sapudi Islands lying between Madura and the Kangean Islands, and Talango Island closer to Madura; it also includes the small Masalembu Islands to the north (between Madura and Kalimantan) and the Giligenteng Islands to the southeast of Madura. The mainland (i.e. the area on Madura Island itself) covers 1,156.07 km2 (with 808,553 inhabitants in mid 2023) consisting of 18 districts, while the various islands are 937.40 km2 in area (with 333,657 people in mid 2023), comprising 9 districts, with 128 islands, 46 inhabited.

Economy

On the whole, Madura is one of the poorest regions of the East Java province. Unlike Java, the soil is not fertile enough to make it a major agricultural producer. Limited economic opportunities have led to chronic unemployment and poverty. These factors have led to long-term emigration from the island, such that most ethnically Madurese people do not now live on Madura. People from Madura were some of the most numerous participants in government transmigration programs, moving to other parts of Indonesia.

Subsistence agriculture is a mainstay of the economy. Maize is a key subsistence crop, on the island's many small landholdings. Cattle-raising is also a critical part of the agricultural economy, providing extra income to peasant farmer families, in addition to being the basis for Madura's famous bull-racing competitions. Small-scale fishing is also important to the subsistence economy.

Among export industries, tobacco farming is a major contributor to the island's economy. Madura's soil, while unable to support many food crops, helps make the island an important producer of tobacco and cloves for the domestic kretek (clove cigarette) industry. Since the Dutch era, the island has also been a major producer and exporter of salt.

Bangkalan, on the western end of the island, has industrialized substantially since the 1980s. This region is within a short ferry ride of Surabaya, Indonesia's second-largest city, and hence has gained a role as a suburb for commuters to Surabaya, and as a location for industry and services that need to be near the city.

The Surabaya-Madura (Suramadu) Bridge, opened in 2009, is expected to further increase the Bangkalan area's interaction with the regional economy.

Climate
Almost all parts of Madura are lowlands and closer to equator, which make the island is warmer and drier than the mainland of East Java.

According to Köppen-Geiger climate classification, the climate of coastal Madura is tropical savannah (Aw).

According to Köppen-Geiger climate classification, the climate of inland Madura is tropical savannah (Aw).

Bull racing
Madura is famous for its bull-racing competition (called karapan sapi), where a jockey, usually a young boy, rides a simple wooden sled pulled by a pair of bulls over a course of about 100 meters in ten to fifteen seconds.

Music and theatre
Several forms of music and theatre are popular on Madura, particularly among lower-class people for whom they provide an inexpensive form of entertainment and community-building. The topeng theatre, which involves masked performances of classic stories such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, is the Madurese performance artist best known outside the island, due to its role as a representative Madurese art form at exhibitions of regional cultures from all over Indonesia. However, performances of it are rare on Madura and are generally restricted to entertainment at large official functions. The less formal loddrok theatre, where performers do not wear masks and perform a wider range of themes, is more popular on the island.

The gamelan orchestra, best known as a classical Javanese instrument, is also played on Madura, where several of the former royal courts, such as at Bangkalan and Sumenep, possess elaborate gamelans. Tongtong music, more exclusive to Madura, is played on several wooden or bamboo drums, and often accompanies bull-racing competitions.

Vessels
The Madurese are considered to be excellent sailors. Madurese vessels loaded with cargoes of wood from other islands, like Borneo, used to ply their trade between Indonesia and Singapore. Traditional vessels of Madura include the golekan, leti leti (or leteh-leteh), lis-alis, and janggolan.

title: Madura Island


text:
Corymbia ficifolia

Corymbia ficifolia, commonly known as red flowering gum, is a species of small tree that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has rough, fibrous bark on the trunk and branches, egg-shaped to broadly lance-shape adult leaves, flower buds in groups of seven, bright red, pink or orange flowers and urn-shaped fruit. It has a restricted distribution in the wild but is one of the most commonly planted ornamental eucalypts.

Description
Corymbia ficifolia is a straggly tree that typically grows to a height of 10 m and forms a lignotuber. It has rough, fibrous brownish bark on the trunk and branches. The adult leaves are dull to slightly glossy, paler on the lower surface, egg-shaped to broadly lance-shaped, 70-130 mm long and 25-50 mm wide, tapering to a petiole 8-20 mm long. The flower buds are arranged on the ends of branchlets on a branched peduncle 15-32 mm long, each branch of the peduncle with seven buds on pedicels 13-27 mm long. Mature buds are oval to pear-shaped, 12-18 mm long and 6-8 mm wide with a rounded to flattened operculum. Flowering occurs from December to May and the flowers are bright red to pink or orange. The fruit is a woody urn-shaped capsule 20-42 mm long and 18-30 mm wide with the valves enclosed in the fruit.

The other two bloodwoods found in the south-west of Western Australia are C. haemotoxylon and marri (C. calophylla). Unlike C. ficifolia, they have tessellated bark rather than fibrous bark.

Taxonomy
Red-flowering gum was first formally described in 1860 by Ferdinand von Mueller, who gave it the name Eucalyptus ficifolia and published the description in his book, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. In 1995, Ken Hill and Lawrence Alexander Sidney Johnson changed the name to Corymbia ficifolia.

In 2009, Parra-O and colleagues published a  combined analysis of nuclear rDNA (ETS + ITS) and morphological characters published to clarify relationships within the genus Corymbia. C. ficifolia was shown to comprise a natural group with two other Western Australian species C. calophylla and C. haematoxylon. They classified the group as section Calophyllae within the subgenus Corymbia.

The specific epithet ficifolia is from Latin ficus meaning 'fig' and folium 'leaf', referring to the similarity of its leaves to some species of Ficus.

The type specimen was collected from around the Broke Inlet by George Maxwell.

Distribution and habitat
Corymbia ficifolia grows in sandy soil in low forest on slopes and is restricted to a sub-coastal distribution south-east of Perth, east of Mount Frankland, Walpole and the Stirling Range.

Use in horticulture
Red-flowering gum is one of the most widely cultivated of all eucalypts, both in Australia and overseas. It is best suited to temperate districts with low summer rainfall and is rarely reliable on the east coast of Australia. In suitable climates it is moderately fast-growing and is often larger and more vigorous in cultivation than in the wild. Eucalypts are difficult to grow from cuttings and are usually grown from seed. As a result, flower colour cannot be guaranteed, although some small forms have become available as grafted plants.

In nature Corymbia ficifolia prefers infertile, sandy soils but it is readily adaptable to most temperate locations, provided it is not exposed to severe frost or sustained tropical damp. It is an ideal street tree as it is hardy, moderately fast growing, and rarely grows large enough to require pruning. The largest known single-stemmed tree of this species in the world (216.5 cm diameter) is located on Princes Street in Hamilton, New Zealand. Because of its big and lovely colourful flowers, genetic improvement for cold resistance in Dublin area in Ireland is being carried out by collecting seeds in the coldest parts of Western and Southern Australia where it grows. In Ireland most of the plants were killed by severe frosts but the surviving shoots have been kept by tissue culture.

title: Corymbia ficifolia


text:
Jean Henri Georges Laguerre

Jean Henri Georges Laguerre (24 June 1858 - 17 June 1912) was a French lawyer and politician.

Born in Paris, he was called to the bar in 1879 and distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyon in 1883, and Louise Michel in the same year. In 1886, with Alexandre Millerand as a colleague, he defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville strike. His strictures on the procureur de la Republique on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire.

He pleaded in the greatest criminal cases of his time, but from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of his connection with La Presse. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme, and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly written for Georges Clemenceau's organ La Justice, but when Clemenceau refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director of La Presse. He rallied to the republican party in May 1891 some months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the Chamber in 1893.

Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary period of French history, concerning which he had collected many valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the "Little Dauphin" (Louis XVII), whose supposed remains, buried at Ste Marguerite, proved to be those of a boy of fourteen.

title: Jean Henri Georges Laguerre


text:
Foss Dyke

The Foss Dyke, or Fossdyke, connects the River Trent at Torksey to Lincoln, the county town of Lincolnshire, and may be the oldest canal in England that is still in use. It is usually thought to have been built around AD 120 by the Romans, but there is no consensus among authors. It was refurbished in 1121, during the reign of King Henry I, and responsibility for its maintenance was transferred to the city of Lincoln by King James I. Improvements made in 1671 included a navigable sluice or lock at Torksey, and warehousing and wharves were built at Brayford Pool in the centre of Lincoln.

Connection to the River Witham at Brayford was hampered by the small bore and depth of High Bridge, a medieval structure just below the pool. The channel through it was made deeper in 1795, but John Rennie's plans to demolish it in 1803 were not adopted. The canal was leased to several generations of the Ellison family, who profited from the tolls but failed to maintain it. Although cargoes of coal and wool moved to the railway, the carriage of grain continued, and the last commercial operation was in 1972. The Brayford Mere Trust have turned Brayford Pool into a marina, and the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership are opening a footpath and cycleway from Lincoln to Torksey; the section to Saxilby was officially opened on 26 July 2011.

Route
The Foss Dyke joins the River Trent at Torksey. A branch leaves the main channel, passes under the A156 bridge, and immediately enters Torksey lock, which is the only lock on the canal. It has six sets of gates, three sets facing Lincoln, and three facing the river, which is tidal at this point, and so its level can be higher than the level of the canal. The gates allow the lock to be used at most states of the tide. A steel footbridge crosses the lock near the road, and both the footbridge and the lock are grade II listed structures. The canal runs to the east, and then turns south, passing to the east of Fenton and Kettlethorpe. Soon it is joined by the A57, and turns east again. The road runs along the south bank, until Saxilby is reached.

At Saxilby, the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway crosses the waterway, to run along the south bank all the way to Lincoln. There was once a swing bridge beyond the railway bridge, which was removed in 1937, although the foundations are still obvious. Access over the canal at this point was reinstated in 1987, when a footbridge was installed. The original bridge was manufactured in 1884, and crossed the Great Northern Railway at Newark-on-Trent for 103 years before it was put to a new use. The A57 crosses to the north bank soon after the railway bridge. The River Till flows south and under the road to join the Foss Dyke, after which a new marina has been built at Burton Waters. Because the construction has breached the flood bank, it is protected by a flood gate. The canal crosses under the A46 on the outskirts of Lincoln, and then over a drainage ditch, to run alongside the Carholme golf club. The final bridge carries the B1273 Brayford Way over the canal as it enters Brayford Pool, once a busy commercial wharf in the centre of Lincoln, but now a marina with the University of Lincoln on the southern bank. The unnavigable River Witham flows into the bottom end of the pool, and becomes the Witham Navigation when it flows out on its way to Boston.

History
The Foss Dyke was long thought to have been constructed by the Romans around 120. Pointers include an inscribed statuette of the god Mars found in it at Torksey, which is now in the British Museum, but there is a lack of consensus among authors writing on the subject.

The first record of it comes from Symeon of Durham, whose Historia Regium notes the following for the year 1121: "In the same year, king Henry cut a large canal from Torksey to Lincoln, and by causing the River Trent to flow into it, he made it navigable for vessels."

Some take this to mean that the canal did not exist before Henry's construction work. Thus Kevin Leahy writes: "Even if the Fossdyke had been built by the Romans it needs a high level of maintenance and after a few hundred years of neglect it would have been difficult to find, let alone navigate."

Others, though, consider that Henry I merely scoured out an existing structure; Mark Bennett, writing for the East Midlands Archaeological Research Framework says: "The Foss Dyke is almost certainly Roman. No quay has been identified at Lincoln as yet although a length of wall suggestive of a quay was uncovered in the 1950s at the site of the Telephone Exchange east of the walled city and north of the Witham."

The canal is about 11 mi long. It possibly follows an earlier line of the Trent, which emptied into the Wash prior to the end of the last Ice Age. Together with the 56 mi Car Dyke it formed part an important transport route from Peterborough to York.

It was reputedly used by the Danes when they invaded England and by the Normans to carry stone to build Lincoln Cathedral in the 11th century. Following King Henry I's work discussed above, the canal deteriorated, until by the 17th century it was virtually impassable. Katherine Swynford, who lived in the area, is credited with having organized a protest to repair it, in 1375. King James I transferred ownership to the Corporation of Lincoln.

In 1671, during the reign of Charles II, Lincoln obtained an Act (22 & 23 Cha. 2. c. 25) which authorised improvements from Boston to the Trent. Work was carried out on the Foss Dyke, but only the first 100 yd of the Witham, from Brayford Pool to High Bridge, received attention. The work was carried out by Samuel Fortrey, a man with previous experience of draining the fens. He was required to bear some of the cost himself, in exchange for some of the profits. The work was completed in 1672, and included a navigable sluice or lock at Torksey, which had first been proposed by Simon Hill in 1632. Warehouses and wharves were built at Brayford Pool, but by 1717, passage from Torksey was again difficult. Coal traffic averaged 1357 LT per year, bound for Lincoln, but tolls were insufficient to finance repairs. The city of Lincoln did not have the expertise to manage the waterway, and so leased it to Richard Ellison in 1741, who had experience with the River Don Navigation. He paid £75 per year for a navigation which generated around £100 in toll receipts. He dredged it to provide 3 ft of depth, and re-opened it in 1744. Two years later, the tolls were £595, and continued to increase. Under his son, the tolls were £2,367 in 1789, while his grandson collected £5,159 in 1811.

Navigation through Lincoln and on to Boston was hampered by the shallow draught available under the medieval High Bridge, just below Brayford Pool. Sir Joseph Banks, when proposing the construction of the Horncastle Canal knew that the problem needed addressing, and William Jessop was commissioned to survey the Witham and the Foss Dyke in 1791, with particular reference to the junction between the two. He proposed a bypass to the south of the city, using the Sincil Dyke, or excavating the channel beneath the bridge, although he recognized that this solution was not ideal, due to the narrow width of the bridge hole, and the lack of a towing path through it. However, the city was keen to keep trade within its limits, and improvements to High Bridge, which were completed by 1795, were authorised as part of the Horncastle Canal Act 1792 (32 Geo. 3. c. 107).

The Witham Navigation was soon needing repairs, and the commissioners asked John Rennie for advice in 1802. His report, published in 1803, included recommendations to demolish High Bridge so that a waterway 34 ft wide could be built under a new bridge, and improvements to the Foss Dyke costing £12,260. Neither action was followed. The canal was difficult to maintain, because much of it ran through sand and quicksand. The situation was more complex, because it had been leased to the Ellisons for three generations, and Richard Ellison III was not keen to spend any money on it. Income from tolls would have more than covered repairs, but there was little that could be done. A challenge to the legality of his lease was considered in the 1820s, but was not thought likely to succeed. He died in 1827, and Humphrey Sibthorp, his niece's husband, who was a proprietor on the River Witham, took over responsibility for it. He asked Isambard Brunel to survey it, and although he did so in 1833, no improvements were made.

Railways arrived in Lincoln in 1848. The Wakefield, Lincoln and Boston Railway had negotiated with the proprietors of the Witham and Foss Dyke in 1846, to guarantee them an income by leasing the waterways. Richard Ellison IV had agreed a lease for 894 years, at £9,570 per year, based on the average profit for the previous three years plus 5 per cent. The line was built by the Great Northern Railway (GNR), who took over the leases already agreed. The Witham was affected more than the Foss Dyke, as the line followed its bank from Lincoln to Boston. The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway (MSLR) passed through Saxilby to Lincoln a little later. Combined figures for the two waterways showed a drop in goods carried of two-thirds between 1848 and 1868. Cargoes of coal and wool were the first to transfer to the railways. However, the MSLR, by then renamed the Great Central Railway (GCR), built a dock and transshipment warehouse at Brayford in 1897. The Foss Dyke carried 75881 LT in 1905, and an average of 69611 LT between 1913 and 1917, most of it general goods and agricultural produce. A series of takeovers and mergers resulted in its ownership changing several times, before it was nationalised, and became the responsibility of the British Waterways Board in 1948.

Although its date of construction is unknown, the London and North Eastern Railway (successors of both the GNR and the GCR) built a small pumping station to the west of Torksey lock. It contained a steam-powered beam engine, which was probably made by Davy Brothers of Sheffield, and drove a double-acting bucket pump. It was situated close to the land drainage pumping station, which pumps into the tidal part of the Foss Dyke, draining some 13000 acre of low-lying land to the south of Torksey. Its job was to maintain the water levels in the navigation, but it was demolished in 1936, and no traces of it remain. A new pumping station at a similar location was commissioned in 1974. This forms part of the Trent–Witham–Ancholme transfer scheme. A pumping station at Short Ferry on Barlings Eau pumps water through an 11 mi pipeline to Toft Newton reservoir, on the upper reaches of the Ancholme. The water is used to maintain the flow and level of the Ancholme during the summer months and other dry periods. When there is insufficient water in Barlings Eau and the Witham, Torksey pumping station transfers water from the Trent through a short pipeline into Foss Dyke. From there it flows for 10.8 mi along the waterway to Brayford Pool and so into the Witham, to supplement the water available for pumping.

Restoration
Unlike many waterways, the Foss Dyke never closed, and continued to carry grain traffic until 1972. However, the demise of general commercial traffic had left Brayford Pool in the centre of Lincoln as a derelict body of water, full of debris such as rubbish and sunken boats. The local Chamber of Commerce sought to address the issue in 1965, and formed Brayford Improvement Committee. Advice was sought from the Inland Waterways Association, and eventually the Brayford Mere Trust was constituted. They removed the wrecks from the pool, and have rebuilt the site, so that it offers facilities for visiting pleasure craft, now the major users of the waterway. A former lift bridge, which crossed the western entrance to the pool, was replaced in August 1996 by a new concrete flyover, as part of the redevelopment of the south bank, which included the opening of the University in the same year. 2 mi to the west of Lincoln, a new 15 acre marina has been constructed at Burton Waters, as part of a 140 acre housing development.

Construction of a footpath and cycleway beside the canal from Lincoln to Saxilby has been carried out by the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership, a joint initiative by Lincolnshire County Council, the Environment Agency and British Waterways. For much of its route it runs along the top of the northern floodbank, but drops down to a new crossing of the A57 road and a new bridge across the River Till near Saxilby. The route was officially opened on 26 July 2011. Extending the path to Torksey is a longer term aim.

title: Foss Dyke


text:
Talk:Doom (1993 video game)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 22 October 2018 and 16 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Hunterhamilton109.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 19:43, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

DOS version in Japan and Australia
When did it release in Japan and Australia. Hellonature (talk) 21:00, 15 October 2022 (UTC)

Shortdesc
I think we should be using the genre in this case. From WP:VG/SHORTDESC:

Per WP:SDDUPLICATE, "avoid duplicating information that is already in the title (but don't worry too much if you need to repeat a word or two for context)". For example, for the article God of War (2018 video game), "2018 video game" is already in the title, so use the short description to add the genre instead: "Action-adventure game". Popcornfud (talk) 17:05, 20 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm good either way, so if you feel strongly I'll revert myself. -- Pres N  18:21, 20 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm kind of fine with either too, just trying to follow the guidance. IMO it's slightly more useful to add the genre to help people identify the article I guess. Popcornfud (talk) 18:50, 20 August 2023 (UTC)

Rewording sentance about "Can it run doom?" meme
Hi, I edited earlier this week that simply reworded a sentence to make it read better. The edit was undone by @IceWelder, so I'd like to try again. I thought it'd be a good idea to talk about it here before I do anything, though. Not sure if I'm doing this totally right, so if I'm not, please tell me. I'd like to improve.

The original text is as follows: "Doom has been ported unofficially to numerous platforms due to the release of the source code; so many ports exist, including for esoteric devices such as smart thermostats and oscilloscopes, that variations of "It runs Doom" or "Can it run Doom?" are long-running memes."

I edited it to say: "Doom has been ported unofficially to numerous platforms due to the release of its source code. Several of these ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats and oscilloscopes, which lead to variations of a long-running meme of the question, "It runs Doom" or "Can it run Doom?"."

The reasoning behind the undo was fair. "It runs Doom" is not a question. So, couldn't we just remove "question"?

Doom has been ported unofficially to numerous platforms due to the release of its source code. Several of these ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats and oscilloscopes, which lead to variations of a long-running meme, "It runs Doom" or "Can it run Doom?" Coulomb1 (talk) 02:20, 13 December 2023 (UTC)

 * i think something like
 * Due to [the release of its source code], Doom has been unofficially ported to numerous platforms. Several of these ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats, pianos, and Doom itself, which led to variations of a long-running meme, "Can it run Doom?", often followed by the answer "It runs Doom".
 * would work, but both seem fine honestly, aside from the minor spelling mistakes in the sentence and this question's title  cogsan (give me attention)  (see my deeds) 13:48, 13 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Gosh, I always mistype "sentence"
 * I like this, but I would replace "often followed by the answer" with just "and." Also, why include "and Doom itself"? We're talking about ports, and devices that Doom has been ported to. Coulomb1 (talk) 01:07, 17 December 2023 (UTC)
 * because as mentioned in sources 59 and 60, there's a functional enough doom port for a gzdoom port of doom
 * that's probably the funniest example i can name until someone finds a way to run doom in bad apple
 * by the way, the opposite has actually happened, but i found no sources mentioning it :(  cogsan (give me attention)  (see my deeds) 11:51, 17 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Haha I didn't even consider Doom being run in Doom. I've always wanted to try to make a Doom port.
 * So is this good? "Due to the release of its source code, Doom has been unofficially ported to numerous platforms. Several of these ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats, pianos, and Doom itself, which led to which led to variations of a long-running meme, "Can it run Doom?" and "It runs Doom."" Coulomb1 (talk) 01:24, 18 December 2023 (UTC)
 * yeah, that seems good  cogsan (give me attention)  (see my deeds) 11:11, 18 December 2023 (UTC)

Doom was also ported to Unix by ID
I'm a bit surprised this article doesn't mention that the NeXT-based code was also easily ported to other Unix systems running X. ID's David Taylor (his initials are the "ddt" in the secret codes) and I got together to run his IRIX (SGI's Unix) port on an SGI Onyx RE2 at Origin Games (also in Austin, like ID) where it ran well at 1280x1024, possibly the single most attractive run of the game on anything at the time. Alex North-Keys (talk) 22:05, 17 May 2024 (UTC)
 * It's listed at List of Doom ports, along with the Solaris port he did; the only reason the Linux port is listed here but not those two is that I don't have a good reliable source for him doing it- using the usenet post for the linux port is honestly stretching things quite a bit as it is. -- Pres  N  04:26, 18 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Doom (1993 video game)