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Postage stamp separation

For postage stamps, separation is the means by which individual stamps are made easily detachable from each other.

Methods of separation include:
 * 1) perforation: cutting rows and columns of small holes
 * 2) rouletting: small horizontal and vertical cuts
 * 3) diecutting: cut paper to shape using a metal die—used for self-adhesive stamps.

Early years
In the early years, from 1840 until 1850, all stamps were issued imperforate, and had to be cut from the sheet with scissors or knife. This was time-consuming and error-prone (as mangled stamps of the era attest). Once reliable separation equipment became available, nations switched rapidly. Imperforate stamps have been issued occasionally since then, either because separation equipment was temporarily unavailable (in newborn nations for instance), to makers of automatic stamp vending equipment (the United States did this in the 1900s and 1910s), as novelties for stamp collectors (particularly when stamps are issued in souvenir sheets), or as errors.

Henry Archer
In 1847, Henry Archer of the United Kingdom constructed the first (rouletting) machine, the "Archer Roulette", to separate stamps. His plan, submitted to the Postmaster General on 1 October 1847, was referred to the departments of the General Post Office and the Inland Revenue. Two such machines were built. After experimentation both machines proved to be failures. From one machine a few stamps from Plates 70 and 71 have survived. This machine consisted of lancet-shaped blades working on a fly-press principle and piercing the paper with a series of cuts.

Archer then abandoned this approach in favour of perforation, a process which used rows of small round pins to punch out the holes. In 1848 Archer patented his perforation machine which worked on the "stroke" principle. The arrangement of the pins enabled the top and sides of each stamp across the row to be perforated in a single operation, and this became known as "comb" perforation. Perforation trials were conducted in 1849 and 1850 under the auspices of the British Government and stamps from these trials were first issued towards the end of 1850. The Archer machine proved the viability of the process but never entered service. Archer's patent for his perforating machine (no. 12,340 of 1848, dated May 23, 1849) was purchased for £4,000 in June 1853. New machines based on Archer's principles were constructed by David Napier and Son Ltd; these were initially used in October 1853 for revenue stamps and from January 1854 for postage stamps.

The rotary process
Also in 1854 a "rotary process" was patented by William Bemrose and Henry Howe Bemrose. The Bemrose machine was designed as a rouletting machine. As such, it proved impracticable for stamp separation but in 1856 was successfully converted to a perforating machine by George C. Howard of Toppan Carpenter, stamp printers for the American Government. Both the stroke and rotary processes have been refined since then, but are basically still the ones in use in the 21st century. The key decision for the perforator is the spacing of the holes; if too far apart, the stamps will not separate easily, and the stamps are likely to tear, but if too close, the stamps will tend to come apart in normal handling. In a few cases the size of the holes has been a factor. In the case of certain stamps produced by Australia for sale in rolls rather than sheets (coil stamps) a pattern can be seen on the stamp's short side of two small, ten large and two small holes.

Measurement and variations
The standard for describing perforation is the number of holes (or the "teeth" or perfs of an individual stamp) in a 2-centimeter span. The finest gauge ever used is 18 on stamps of the Malay States in the early 1950s, and the coarsest is 2, seen on the 1891 stamps of Bhopal. Modern stamp perforations tend to range from 11 to 14.

Stamps that are perforated on one pair of opposite sides and imperforate on the other have most often been produced in coils instead of sheets, but they can sometimes come from booklet panes. Booklet panes can be associated with any combination of one, two or three imperforate sides. Sheet edges can produce any one imperforate side or two adjacent imperforate sides when the stamp comes from the corner of the sheet.

Variations include syncopated perforations which are uneven, either skipping a hole or by making some holes larger. In the 1990s, Great Britain began adding large elliptical holes to the perforations on each side, as an anti-counterfeiting measure.

Rouletting
Rouletting uses small cuts in the paper instead of holes. It was used by a number of countries, but was rarely if ever seen on modern stamps until the die-cut serpentine roulette self-adhesive varieties appeared. Varieties, often described by philatelists in French terms, include straight cuts (percée en lignes, and percée en lignes colorées with inked cutting bar), arc (percée en arc), sewing-machine (perce en points), sawtooth and the serpentine roulettes (perce en serpentin) used by the early stamps of Finland. Because self-adhesive stamps contain a sticky layer, it is far easier to roulette the separations, than to actually punch out the holes for perforations.

A few types of stamps have combined rouletting and perforation, for instance South Africa in 1942.

Self-adhesive stamps
The first self-adhesive stamp was issued by Sierra Leone in 1964, and by the 1990s these stamps came into wide use. These are inevitably diecut, meaning that the stamps themselves are cut entirely apart, held together only by the backing paper. At first the backing paper was itself solid, but in a repeat of history, is now slightly rouletted so as to facilitate tearing off blocks of stamps without having to remove them from the backing. Since the diecut goes all the way through the stamp, any shape will work, and the original self-adhesives were straight-edged. However, the tradition of perforation is so strong that more recent self-adhesives have a wavy diecut simulating the perforation. It can be recognized by studying the edge of the stamp closely; true perforations will have torn paper fibers on each tooth, while simulated perforations are smooth. From 2012 to 2016 the United States also sold small numbers of the stamps issued during this period in sheets without die cuts, thus creating imperforated varieties of them. Their issuance was very controversial.

Collecting
For the stamp collector, perforations matter, not only as a way to distinguish different stamps (a perf 10 may be rarer and more valuable than a perf 11 of the same design), but also as part of the condition of stamps. Short or "nibbed" perfs are undesirable and reduce value, as are bent or creased perfs. Although the collector could count the number of holes using a ruler, the usual practice is to use a perforation gauge, which has preprinted patterns of holes in a selection of common perforations, requiring one merely to line up the stamp's perforations with the closest match. Rare stamps are often expertized in case they have been reperforated.

Errors
As is inevitable for a mechanical process like perforation, many things can go wrong. Blind perfs are common, occurring when a hole is not completely punched out, as are off-center perfs that cut into the design of the stamp, sometimes very badly. Occasionally pairs or larger groups of stamps may be imperforate between meaning that they are not separated on all sides. Although it is very common to have different gauges of perforation horizontally and vertically, in rare circumstances a stamp may have different perforations on opposite sides; in the case of US stamps only a handful of these are known to exist. The various types of perforation errors are collectively known as misperfs.

References and sources

 * Notes

 * Sources
 * Williams, L.N. and M. Fundamentals of Philately (American Philatelic Society, 1990) Chap. 15 ISBN 0-933580-13-4

title: Postage stamp separation


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Flags of the Confederate States of America

The flags of the Confederate States of America have a history of three successive designs during the American Civil War. The flags were known as the "Stars and Bars", used from 1861 to 1863; the "Stainless Banner", used from 1863 to 1865; and the "Blood-Stained Banner", used in 1865 shortly before the Confederacy's dissolution. A rejected national flag design was also used as a battle flag by the Confederate Army and featured in the "Stainless Banner" and "Blood-Stained Banner" designs. Although this design was never a national flag, it is the most commonly recognized symbol of the Confederacy.

Since the end of the Civil War, private and official use of the Confederate flags, particularly the battle flag, has continued amid philosophical, political, cultural, and racial controversy in the United States. These include flags displayed in states; cities, towns and counties; schools, colleges and universities; private organizations and associations; and individuals. The battle flag was also featured in the state flags of Georgia and Mississippi, although it was removed by Georgia in 2003 and Mississippi in 2020. However, the new design of the Georgia flag still references the original "Stars and Bars" iteration of the Georgia flag. After the Georgia flag was changed in 2001, the city of Trenton, Georgia, has used a flag design nearly identical to the previous version with the battle flag.

It is estimated that 500–544 flags were captured during the civil war by the Union. The flags were sent to the War Department in Washington.

First flag: the "Stars and Bars" (1861–1863)
The Confederacy's first official national flag, often called the Stars and Bars, flew from March 4, 1861, to May 1, 1863. It was designed by Prussian-American artist Nicola Marschall in Marion, Alabama, and is said to resemble the Flag of Austria, with which Marschall would have been familiar. The original version of the flag featured a circle of seven white stars in the navy-blue canton, representing the seven states of the South that originally composed the Confederacy: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The "Stars and Bars" flag was adopted on March 4, 1861, in the first temporary national capital of Montgomery, Alabama, and raised over the dome of that first Confederate capitol. Marschall also designed the Confederate army uniform.

A monument that was in Louisburg, North Carolina, claims the "Stars and Bars" "was designed by a son of North Carolina / Orren Randolph Smith / and made under his direction by / Catherine Rebecca (Murphy) Winborne. / Forwarded to Montgomery, Ala. Feb 12, 1861, / Adopted by the Provisional Congress March 4, 1861".

One of the first acts of the Provisional Confederate Congress was to create the Committee of the Flag and Seal, chaired by William Porcher Miles, a Democratic congressman, and Fire-Eater from South Carolina. The committee asked the public to submit thoughts and ideas on the topic and was, as historian John M. Coski puts it, "overwhelmed by requests not to abandon the 'old flag' of the United States." Miles had already designed a flag that later became known as the Confederate Battle Flag, and he favored his flag over the "Stars and Bars" proposal. But given the popular support for a flag similar to the U.S. flag ("the Stars and Stripes" – originally established and designed in June 1777 during the Revolutionary War), the "Stars and Bars" design was approved by the committee.

As the Confederacy grew, so did the numbers of stars: two were added for Virginia and Arkansas in May 1861, followed by two more representing Tennessee and North Carolina in July, and finally two more for Missouri and Kentucky.

When the American Civil War broke out, the "Stars and Bars" confused the battlefield at the First Battle of Bull Run because of its similarity to the U.S. (or Union) flag, especially when it was hanging limply on its flagstaff. The "Stars and Bars" was also criticized on ideological grounds for its resemblance to the U.S. flag. Many Confederates disliked the Stars and Bars, seeing it as symbolic of a centralized federal power against which the Confederate states claimed to be seceding. As early as April 1861, a month after the flag's adoption, some were already criticizing the flag, calling it a "servile imitation" and a "detested parody" of the U.S. flag. In January 1862, George William Bagby, writing for the Southern Literary Messenger, wrote that many Confederates disliked the flag. "Everybody wants a new Confederate flag," Bagby wrote. "The present one is universally hated. It resembles the Yankee flag, and that is enough to make it unutterably detestable." The editor of the Charleston Mercury expressed a similar view: "It seems to be generally agreed that the 'Stars and Bars' will never do for us. They resemble too closely the dishonored 'Flag of Yankee Doodle' ... we imagine that the 'Battle Flag' will become the Southern Flag by popular acclaim." William T. Thompson, the editor of the Savannah-based Daily Morning News also objected to the flag, due to its aesthetic similarity to the U.S. flag, which for some Confederates had negative associations with emancipation and abolitionism. Thompson stated in April 1863 that he disliked the adopted flag "on account of its resemblance to that of the abolition despotism against which we are fighting."

Over the course of the flag's use by the CSA, additional stars were added to the canton, eventually bringing the total number to thirteen-a reflection of the Confederacy's claims of having admitted the border states of Kentucky and Missouri, where slavery was still widely practiced. The first showing of the 13-star flag was outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky; the 13-star design was also in use as the Confederate navy's battle ensign.

Second flag: the "Stainless Banner" (1863–1865)
Many different designs were proposed during the solicitation for a second Confederate national flag, nearly all based on the Battle Flag. By 1863, it had become well-known and popular among those living in the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress specified that the new design be a white field "...with the union (now used as the battle flag) to be a square of two-thirds the width of the flag, having the ground red; thereupon a broad saltire of blue, bordered with white, and emblazoned with mullets or five-pointed stars, corresponding in number to that of the Confederate States."

The flag is also known as the Stainless Banner, and the matter of the person behind its design remains a point of contention. On April 23, 1863, the Savannah Morning News editor William Tappan Thompson, with assistance from William Ross Postell, a Confederate blockade runner, published an editorial championing a design featuring the battle flag on a white background he referred to later as "The White Man's Flag", a name which never caught on. In explaining the white background of his design, Thompson wrote, "As a people, we are fighting to maintain the Heaven-ordained supremacy of the white man over the inferior or colored race; a white flag would thus be emblematical of our cause." Most contemporary interpretations of the white area on the flag hold that it represented the purity of the secessionist cause. In a letter to Confederate Congressman C. J. Villeré, dated April 24, 1863, a design similar to the flag which was eventually created was proposed by General P. G. T. Beauregard, "whose earlier penchant for practicality had established the precedent for visual distinctiveness on the battlefield, proposed that 'a good design for the national flag would be the present battle-flag as Union Jack, and the rest all white or all blue'... The final version of the second national flag, adopted May 1, 1863, did just this: it set the St. Andrew's Cross of stars in the Union Jack with the rest of the civilian banner entirely white."

The Confederate Congress debated whether the white field should have a blue stripe and whether it should be bordered in red. William Miles delivered a speech supporting the simple white design that was eventually approved. He argued that the battle flag must be used, but it was necessary to emblazon it for a national flag, but as simply as possible, with a plain white field. When Thompson received word the Congress had adopted the design with a blue stripe, he published an editorial on April 28 in opposition, writing that "the blue bar running up the center of the white field and joining with the right lower arm of the blue cross, is in bad taste, and utterly destructive of the symmetry and harmony of the design." Confederate Congressman Peter W. Gray proposed the amendment that gave the flag its white field. Gray stated that the white field represented "purity, truth, and freedom."

Regardless of who truly originated the Stainless Banner's design, whether by heeding Thompson's editorials or Beauregard's letter, the Confederate Congress officially adopted the Stainless Banner on May 1, 1863. The flags that were actually produced by the Richmond Clothing Depot used the 1.5:1 ratio adopted for the Confederate navy's battle ensign, rather than the official 2:1 ratio.

Initial reaction to the second national flag was favorable, but over time it became criticized for being "too white." Military officers also voiced complaints about the flag being too white, for various reasons, such as the danger of being mistaken for a flag of truce, especially on naval ships where it was too easily soiled. The Columbia-based Daily South Carolinian observed that it was essentially a battle flag upon a flag of truce and might send a mixed message. Due to the flag's resemblance to one of truce, some Confederate soldiers cut off the flag's white portion, leaving only the canton.

The first official use of the "Stainless Banner" was to drape the coffin of General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson as it lay in state in the Virginia capitol, May 12, 1863. As a result of this first usage, the flag received the alternate nickname of the "Jackson Flag".

Third flag: the "Blood-Stained Banner" (1865)
Rogers lobbied successfully to have this alteration introduced in the Confederate Senate. Rogers defended his redesign as symbolizing the primary origins of the people of the Confederacy, with the saltire of the Scottish flag and the red bar from the flag of France, and having "as little as possible of the Yankee blue" — the Union Army wore blue, the Confederates gray.

The Flag Act of 1865, passed by the Confederate congress near the very end of the War, describes the flag in the following language:

"The Congress of the Confederate States of America do enact, That the flag of the Confederate States shall be as follows: The width two-thirds of its length, with the union (now used as the battle flag) to be in width three-fifths of the width of the flag, and so proportioned as to leave the length of the field on the side of the union twice the width of the field below it; to have the ground red and a broad blue saltire thereon, bordered with white and emblazoned with mullets or five pointed stars, corresponding in number to that of the Confederate States; the field to be white, except the outer half from the union to be a red bar extending the width of the flag."

Due to the timing, very few of these third national flags were actually manufactured and put into use in the field, with many Confederates never seeing the flag. Moreover, the ones made by the Richmond Clothing Depot used the square canton of the second national flag rather than the slightly rectangular one that was specified by the law.

Battle flag

At the First Battle of Manassas, near Manassas, Virginia, the similarity between the "Stars and Bars" and the "Stars and Stripes" caused confusion and military problems. Regiments carried flags to help commanders observe and assess battles in the warfare of the era. At a distance, the two national flags were hard to tell apart. Also, Confederate regiments carried many other flags, which added to the possibility of confusion.

After the battle, General P. G. T. Beauregard wrote that he was "resolved then to have [our flag] changed if possible, or to adopt for my command a 'Battle flag', which would be Entirely different from any State or Federal flag". He turned to his aide, who happened to be William Porcher Miles, the former chairman of the Confederate Congress's Committee on the Flag and Seal. Miles described his rejected national flag design to Beauregard. Miles also told the Committee on the Flag and Seal about the general's complaints and request that the national flag be changed. The committee rejected the idea by a four-to-one vote, after which Beauregard proposed the idea of having two flags. He described the idea in a letter to his commanding General Joseph E. Johnston:

The flag that Miles had favored when he was chairman of the "Committee on the Flag and Seal" eventually became the battle flag and, ultimately, the Confederacy's most popular flag. According to Museum of the Confederacy Director John Coski, Miles' design was inspired by one of the many "secessionist flags" flown at the South Carolina secession convention in Charleston of December 1860. That flag was a blue St George's Cross (an upright or Latin cross) on a red field, with 15 white stars on the cross, representing the slave-holding states, and, on the red field, palmetto and crescent symbols. Miles received various feedback on this design, including a critique from Charles Moise, a self-described "Southerner of Jewish persuasion." Moise liked the design but asked that "... the symbol of a particular religion not be made the symbol of the nation." Taking this into account, Miles changed his flag, removing the palmetto and crescent, and substituting a heraldic saltire ("X") for the upright cross. The number of stars was changed several times as well. He described these changes and his reasons for making them in early 1861. The diagonal cross was preferable, he wrote, because "it avoided the religious objection about the cross (from the Jews and many Protestant sects), because it did not stand out so conspicuously as if the cross had been placed upright thus." He also argued that the diagonal cross was "more Heraldric [sic] than Ecclesiastical, it being the 'saltire' of Heraldry, and significant of strength and progress."

According to Coski, the Saint Andrew's Cross (also used on the flag of Scotland as a white saltire on a blue field) had no special place in Southern iconography at the time. If Miles had not been eager to conciliate the Southern Jews, his flag would have used the traditional upright "Saint George's Cross" (as used on the flag of England, a red cross on a white field). James B. Walton submitted a battle flag design essentially identical to Miles' except with an upright Saint George's cross, but Beauregard chose the diagonal cross design.

Miles' flag and all the flag designs up to that point were rectangular ("oblong") in shape. General Johnston suggested making it square to conserve material. Johnston also specified the various sizes to be used by different types of military units. Generals Beauregard and Johnston and Quartermaster General Cabell approved the 12-star Confederate Battle Flag's design at the Ratcliffe home, which served briefly as Beauregard's headquarters, near Fairfax Court House in September 1861. The 12th star represented Missouri. President Jefferson Davis arrived by train at Fairfax Station soon after and was shown the design for the new battle flag at the Ratcliffe House. Hetty Cary and her sister and cousin made prototypes. One such 12-star flag resides in the collection of Richmond's Museum of the Confederacy and the other is in the Confederate Memorial Hall Museum in New Orleans.

On November 28, 1861, Confederate soldiers in General Robert E. Lee's newly reorganized Army of Northern Virginia received the new battle flags in ceremonies at Centreville and Manassas, Virginia, and carried them throughout the Civil War. Beauregard gave a speech encouraging the soldiers to treat the new flag with honor and that it must never be surrendered. Many soldiers wrote home about the ceremony and the impression the flag had upon them, the "fighting colors" boosting morale after the confusion at the Battle of First Manassas. From then on, the battle flag grew in its identification with the Confederacy and the South in general. The flag's stars represented the number of states in the Confederacy. The distance between the stars decreased as the number of states increased, reaching thirteen when the secessionist factions of Kentucky and Missouri joined in late 1861.

The Army of Northern Virginia battle flag assumed a prominent place post-war when it was adopted as the copyrighted emblem of the United Confederate Veterans. Its continued use by the Southern Army's post-war veteran's groups, the United Confederate Veterans (U.C.V.) and the later Sons of Confederate Veterans, (S.C.V.), and elements of the design by related similar female descendants organizations of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, (U.D.C.), led to the assumption that it was, as it has been termed, "the soldier's flag" or "the Confederate battle flag."

The square "battle flag" is also properly known as "the flag of the Army of Northern Virginia". It was sometimes called "Beauregard's flag" or "the Virginia battle flag". A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker declaring Fairfax, Virginia, as the birthplace of the Confederate battle flag was dedicated on April 12, 2008, near the intersection of Main and Oak Streets, in Fairfax, Virginia. To boost the morale of the Army of Tennessee, General Johnston introduced a new battle flag for the entire army. This flag bore a basic design similar to the one he had contributed to creating in Virginia in 1861 and had been commissioned in Mobile while he was in command in Mississippi in 1863. These flags for infantry and cavalry were to measure 37 by 54 inches. The white edging cross was about 2 inches wide and was often filled with battle honors. The stars were from 3 ½ inches to 4, and a 6 inch wide cross. Flags for artillery 30 by 41 inches overall.

Naval flags
The fledgling Confederate States Navy adopted and used several types of flags, banners, and pennants aboard all CSN ships: jacks, battle ensigns, and small boat ensigns, as well as commissioning pennants, designating flags, and signal flags.

The first Confederate Navy jacks, in use from 1861 to 1863, consisted of a circle of seven to fifteen five-pointed white stars against a field of "medium blue." It was flown forward aboard all Confederate warships while they were anchored in port. One seven-star jack still exists today (found aboard the captured ironclad CSS Atlanta) that is actually "dark blue" in color (see illustration below, left).

The second Confederate Navy Jack was a rectangular cousin of the Confederate Army's battle flag and was in use from 1863 until 1865. It existed in a variety of dimensions and sizes, despite the CSN's detailed naval regulations. The blue color of the diagonal saltire's "Southern Cross" was much lighter than the battle flag's dark blue.

The first national flag, also known as the Stars and Bars (see above), served from 1861 to 1863 as the Confederate Navy's first battle ensign. It was generally made with a 2:3 aspect ratio, but a few very wide 1:2 ratio ensigns still survive today in museums and private collections. As the Confederacy grew, so did the numbers of white stars on the ensign's dark blue canton: seven-, nine-, eleven-, and thirteen-star groupings were typical. Even a few fourteen- and fifteen-starred ensigns were made to include states expected to secede but never completely joined the Confederacy.

The second national flag was later adapted as a naval ensign, using a shorter 2:3 aspect ratio than the 1:2 ratio adopted by the Confederate Congress for the national flag. This particular battle ensign was the only example taken around the world, finally becoming the last Confederate flag lowered in the Civil War; this happened aboard the commerce raider CSS Shenandoah in Liverpool, England, on November 7, 1865.

National flag proposals
Hundreds of proposed national flag designs were submitted to the Confederate Congress during competitions to find a First National flag (February–May 1861) and Second National flag (April 1862; April 1863).

First National flag proposals
When the Confederate States of America was founded during the Montgomery Convention that took place on February 4, 1861, a national flag was not selected by the Convention due to not having any proposals. President Jefferson Davis' inauguration took place under the 1861 state flag of Alabama, and the celebratory parade was led by a unit carrying the 1861 state flag of Georgia.

Realizing that they quickly needed a national banner to represent their sovereignty, the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States set up the Committee on Flag and Seal. The chairman was William Porcher Miles, who was also the Representative of South Carolina in the Confederate House of Representatives.

The Committee began a competition to find a new national flag, with an unwritten deadline being that a national flag had to be adopted by March 4, 1861, the date of President Lincoln's inauguration. This would serve to show the world the South was truly sovereign. Hundreds of examples were submitted from across the Confederate States and from states that were not yet part of Confederacy (e.g. Kentucky), and even from Union states (such as New York). Many of the proposed designs paid homage to the Stars and Stripes, due to a nostalgia in early 1861 that many of the new Confederate citizens felt towards the Union. Some of the homages were outright mimicry, while others were less obviously inspired by the Stars and Stripes, yet were still intended to pay homage to that flag.

Those inspired by the Stars and Stripes were discounted almost immediately by the Committee due to mirroring the Union's flag too closely. While others were wildly different, many of which were very complex and extravagant, these were largely discounted due to the being too complicated and expensive to produce.

The winner of the competition was Nicola Marschall's "Stars and Bars" flag. The "Stars and Bars" flag was only selected by the Congress of March 4, 1861, the day of the deadline. The first flag was produced in rush, due to the date having already been selected to host an official flag-raising ceremony, W. P. Miles credited the speedy completion of the first "Stars and Bars" flag to "Fair and nimble fingers". This flag, made of Merino, was raised by Letitia Tyler over the Alabama state capitol. The Congress inspected two other finalist designs on March 4: One was a "Blue ring or circle on a field of red", while the other consisted of alternating red and blue stripes with a blue canton containing stars. These two designs were lost, and we only know of them thanks to an 1872 letter sent by William Porcher Miles to P. G. T. Beauregard.

William Porcher Miles, however, was not really happy with any of the proposals. He did not share in the nostalgia for the Union that many of his fellows Southerners felt, believing that the South's flag should be completely different from that of the North. To this end, he proposed his own flag design featuring a blue saltire on white Fimbriation with a field of red. (Miles had originally planned to use a blue St. George's Cross like that of the South Carolina Sovereignty Flag, but was dissuaded from doing so.) Within the blue saltire were seven white stars, representing the current seven states of the Confederacy, two on each of the left arms, one of each of the right arms, and one in the middle.

However, Miles' flag was not well received by the rest of the Congress. One Congressman even mocked it as looking "like a pair of Suspenders". Miles' flag lost out to the "Stars and Bars".

Flag variants
In addition to the Confederacy's national flags, a wide variety of flags and banners were flown by Southerners during the Civil War. Most famously, the "Bonnie Blue Flag" was used as an unofficial flag during the early months of 1861. It was flying above the Confederate batteries that first opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, in South Carolina beginning the Civil War. The "Van Dorn battle flag" was also carried by Confederate troops fighting in the Trans-Mississippi and Western theaters of war. Besides, many military units had their own regimental flags they would carry into battle.

Controversy
Though never having historically represented the Confederate States of America as a country, nor having been officially recognized as one of its national flags, the Battle Flag of the Army of Northern Virginia and its variants are now flag types commonly referred to as the Confederate Flag. This design has become commonly regarded as a symbol of racism and white supremacy or white nationalism, especially in the Southern United States. It is also known as the rebel flag, Dixie flag, and Southern cross (not to be confused with another use of the term Southern Cross, referring to Crux, a constellation of the southern sky used on the coats of arms and flags of various countries and sub-national entities). It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Stars and Bars, the name of the first national Confederate flag. The "rebel flag" is considered by some to be a highly divisive and polarizing symbol in the United States. A 2020 Quinnipiac poll showed that 55% of Southerners saw the Confederate flag as a symbol of racism, with a similar percentage for Americans as a whole. A YouGov poll in 2020 of more than 34,000 Americans reported that 41% viewed the flag as representing racism, and 34% viewed it as symbolizing southern heritage. A July 2021 Politico-Morning Consult poll of 1,996 registered voters reported that 47% viewed it as a symbol of Southern pride while 36% viewed it as a symbol of racism.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:List of minerals

earlier comments
I think it would be quite a good idea to standardise the various mineral pages so that they all present roughly the same information in the same way. An example of a layout that I think works is actinolite. If anyone wants to help go through the current list of minerals and tidy them up a bit... :) cferrero 17:35 Feb 27, 2003 (UTC)

 * See WikiProject_Rocks_and_Minerals. Syntax 04:42, 8 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I completely agree, there is currently no standardization in the articles. I also don't like the way that some mineral names have (not a valid species) next to them. It doesn't look right to me and conveys the idea that the list is full of invalid names for minerals......

Dlloyd 07:23, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)

If someone wants to put in a list of only valid mineral names, then they can take the list from:

http://www.mindat.org/ima.php

That gives a list of only valid mineral names. I would add it in, but feel that would be best done by the original creator of this page.

--217.169.9.126 16:46, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Numbered list
The recent additions to the A list by Heron prompted the question: How many? So I answered it with numbered lists. Any comments? What about the invalid ones, synonyms, and group names? Move them to separate lists after each letter or at the end? -Vsmith 05:56, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I have been playing with the lists from Mindat.org and using a macro to semi-automate formatting for Wiki listing. Just uploaded some of my experimenting on my user page: User:Vsmith/experimental. Using the lists creates a lot (the majority) of red links as in the A listing. I'm thinking of having a double listing: the complete one with all that red and another list with only the minerals for which we have articles (blue list). A similar concept is in use at: WikiProject Rocks and Minerals/Worklist. When a new article is produced - move or copy link to the blue list. -Vsmith 19:33, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Also I have started a classified mineral listing, Silicate minerals, and plan to expand this to include all the mineral classes following basically the Dana and/or Strunz systems. -Vsmith 19:33, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Complete mineral list is up. 3970 mineral names listed. Still needs a bit of fixing - later. Also have modified this list - moved varieties and others to end of each section. Plan more here as I get time to compare this with the complete one more, there are some that have an article not listed here. They show up on the big one. Later - gotta go grade astronomy tests now. -Vsmith 02:33, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Wow. Lots of minerals. I think there should be a key for synonyms and invalid species, etc. Perhaps as subcategories under the ones they are supposed to represent. --DanielCD 14:28, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * The big list is supposed to be all valid (from: mindat.org) but, I'm a bit skeptical about a few of them - well haven't looked at ALL of 'em. I've started separating the varieties and odd ones from the little list. Lots to do :-) -Vsmith 00:12, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Synonyms
I found in the A section a mineral's synonym in the original list. However, a synonym was taken out later. Are the synonyms in or are they out?

It is hard to tell
Should this list be at the WP Rocks and Minerals or is it dead? the WP? SatuSuro 09:48, 11 February 2009 (UTC)
 * It's been rather inactive for quite awhile. Vsmith (talk) 11:25, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

Potash
I'm wondering if we could add potash to the list. According to Category:Potassium minerals potash is a mineral. I'm not knowledgeable in mineralogy so I'm not sure.--Lorikeet (talk) 03:07, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Hm... it doesn't seem to be on mindat after a search, and seems more like a common name for a chemical compound. Perhpas it should be taken off of the "minerals" categorizations? Awickert (talk) 03:34, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Potash is not a mineral in it's own right thus should probably not be included on the minerals list. It is a common name for a mixture of salts, usually halite and sylvite, and potassium carbonate.  It can also sometimes (rarely) be used to refer to potassium feldspars (potash feldspars).  Turgan Talk 04:45, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Yeah, that's what I thought even before doing the search. I'll remove it from the list and categories - thanks. Awickert (talk) 05:26, 20 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Done, perhaps the confusion was that one link was to the USGS list of minerals. Awickert (talk) 05:28, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

Aetites
Why is this listed here when it is defined ''...the aetites (singular in Latin) or aetite (anglicized) is a stone used to promote childbirth. The stone is said to prevent....''? --Tranletuhan (talk) 05:38, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Gone, thanks. Vsmith (talk) 13:05, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

Where is Peridot?
Where is Peridot? Not here for some reason.Mocha2007 (talk) 14:31, 3 October 2010 (UTC)

 * See the olivine article, peridot is gem-quality olivine. Mikenorton (talk) 14:35, 3 October 2010 (UTC)

Representative images?
I wanted to float the idea -- could we include a small representative image for all the minerals that have one? Currently the page seems a lot like a category listing with a few images floating around on the side. One possibility would be to do a somewhat more condensed, two-column version of List of sandwiches. There's a few obvious drawbacks -- some minerals have several very different-looking forms and we may not have images for all the ones listed on this page. Overall, I think it could be an improvement. Any thoughts? a13ean (talk) 20:34, 17 February 2015 (UTC)

Should be up to date
A list of articles in those subcategories of Category:Minerals where minerals should reside, but that are not currently in this list, can be found here. There shouldn't be any IMA-valid mineral species in the list, but there will be a few groups that could be added, and a fair few "varieties" of varying "notability" that, depending on how variety is being defined here, could be added. There's also a small number of poorly categorized articles in need of recatting. Dong, where is my automobile? (talk) 09:38, 23 July 2015 (UTC)

Missing minerals (e.g., IMA CNMMN Newsletter no. 37)
Protoenstatite, ferro-tschermakite, batagayite, greenlizardite, aurihydrargyrumite, hydrokenopyrochlore, katerinopoulosite, ferrobobfergusonite, ferrovorontsovite (and vorontsovite, from one of the previous newsletters), levantite, betpakdalite-FeFe (and all other betpakdalite-group species), garmite, schmidite, sharyginite, chlorellestadite, piccoliite; examples from older newsletters: odigitriaite, mendeleevite-(Ce), mendeleevite-(Nd) Eudialytos (talk) 12:45, 18 June 2017 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the information, but please note that this article is a list of mineral articles present on Wikipedia, not a complete list of all minerals (which is at List of minerals (complete)). GeoWriter (talk) 12:26, 19 June 2017 (UTC)

Removal of mineraloids
I suggest that mineraloids should be removed from this list article because they are not minerals. (They are, however, listed in the mineraloid article). Comments? GeoWriter (talk) 12:01, 17 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I have removed the mineraloids. GeoWriter (talk) 12:00, 12 August 2020 (UTC)

aluminum/aluminium is an element, not a mineral - why is it listed here?
Why is aluminimum/aluminum in this list of minerals? It's an element (atomic number 13), not a mineral. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.233.56.35 (talk) 21:40, 16 January 2021 (UTC)
 * According to the Wikipedia's own page for minerals, "a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form." Native aluminium, while rare, is solid, a chemical compound, definitely has a well-defined chemical composition and has its specific crystal structure as a metal. It has occurred naturally in pure form, as seen in the Billeekh intrusion. Hence it is a mineral, as well as a chemical element. IceBlaeze (talk) 10:07, 2 July 2021 (UTC)
 * The definition of a mineral is not actually universally agreed, therefore the words "broadly speaking" are significant - there are various exceptions e.g. for historical reasons that override chemistry. In the three most widely used mineral classification systems (Nickel-Strunz, Dana, IMA/CNMNC), there is a class for element minerals, but only some elements qualify as minerals. Aluminium is a mineral because it is a naturally occurring solid element with a specific crystal structure. (It is not a chemical compound because it is an element and therefore cannot also be a combination of elements). GeoWriter (talk) 11:25, 2 July 2021 (UTC)

Numerous errors and obsolete character
This list is obsolete and with numerous systematics/nomenclature errors. For instance, antitaenite is listed even though it is not a separate mineral species (it's just a variety); apophyllite: non-existent as a mineral - this is a group; ampphibole is NOT a group - it is a SUPERgroup, within which there are numerous groups, and within them - subgroups. The correct data is to be found at https://mineralogy-ima.org/ and www.mindat.orgEudialytos (talk) 00:02, 13 May 2023 (UTC)

 * More:
 * "analcite" is not a correct name (the IMA regards such synonyms as uncorrect names);
 * andorite: "IV" and "VI" - no longer; "IV" is now quatrandorite (see https://www.mindat.org/min-11345.html); "VI" is now senandorite (see https://www.mindat.org/min-29150.html);
 * "alum" is not a variety...... it is a group name;
 * argentite is not a "high temperature form of acanthite" - it is a high-temperature natural crystalline form of Ag2S (argentite and acanthite are polymorphous);
 * brewsterite: not a "series of zeolites", but a subgroup - known as brewsterite subgroup - within the zeolite group
 * "barite" - no, baryte; "barite" is the former, non-recommended (by the IMA) name
 * "boehmite" - no such mineral... the correct name is böhmite
 * "Crossite (not approved by IMA)": true (then why is it in the approved species list?)
 * "Elbaite (type of multicoloured tourmaline)" - not a type, but a species within the tourmaline group; also, not all elbaites are multi-coloured
 * "Feldspathoid (mineral group)" - not true: no such group of minerals is recognized in the nomenclature; it is a family of minerals (https://www.mindat.org/min-47865.html)
 * "Fluororichterite": non-existent; correct name: fluoro-richterite
 * "Franklinite (spinel group)" - nope; spinel subgroup, that belongs to oxyspinel group, that belongs to spinel supergroup
 * "Ferronigerite-2N1S": polysomes are (usually) not treated as separate species; on the other hand: why the other polysomes are missing here?
 * Garnet (mineral group): yes; but also a supergroup, with more than just silicates
 * "Hornblende (series of amphiboles)": not true; there's no such a mineral "hornblende"; this is synonymous with 2 species
 * "Hatchettite (a paraffin wax)": not a variety, and not a mineral at all: this is a wax, and as such (non-crystalline) can't be a mineral; this is a mineraloid
 * "Hydrogrossular (series of garnets)" - not true; this is a variety of grossular; the correct series name is grossular-katoite series.
 * ...and so on...
 * There are almost 6000 mineral species (see http://forum.amiminerals.it/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=30&sid=ec4686e9e8d04d4364a4a3647cfc1a7b&start=300), and a lot is lacking here. Full listing may be found under the aforementioned websites.
 * Btw, some years ago I began tidying-up the mineralogical articles in Wiki, but I stopped doing this simply because this was a waste of time here: there's no use in updating & correcting when some other users go into the "I know better just because so" mode, and there was a large misunderstanding of the fact that mineralogy is a separate science and - as chemistry - has its own, proper, decisive commission.Eudialytos (talk) 00:30, 13 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of minerals


text:
Bonnie Blue flag

The "Bonnie Blue flag" was a banner associated at various times with the Republic of Texas, the short-lived Republic of West Florida, and the Confederate States of America at the start of the American Civil War in 1861. It consists of a single, five-pointed white star on a blue field. Its first use being as early as 1810, it is considered the first lone star flag in U.S. history.

History
The first recorded use of this flag (typically with a white star) was in 1810 when it was used to represent the Republic of West Florida, a republic of English-speaking inhabitants in parts of Louisiana east of the Mississippi River who rebelled against the reign of Spanish government and overthrew Spain's district governor, Carlos de Hault de Lassus, at Baton Rouge. The republic's independence lasted barely three months, dissolved after the annexation of Louisiana's portion of the disputed land to the United States territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase.

Later referred to as the Burnet flag, it was adopted by the Congress of the Republic of Texas on December 10, 1836. This version consisted of an azure background with a large golden star, inspired by the 1810 flag of the Republic of West Florida. Variants of the Burnet flag with a white star, virtually identical to the Bonnie Blue flag, were also common. Other variants featured the star, of either color, upside down, and/or ringed with the word Texas, with each letter filling one of the gaps of the star (the De Zavala flag). These flags, combined with the flag of the Fredonian Rebellion, are ancestral to the modern flag of Texas.

When the state of Mississippi seceded from the Union in January 1861, a flag bearing a single white star on a blue field was flown from the capitol dome. Harry Macarthy helped popularize this flag as a symbol of independence, writing the popular song "The Bonnie Blue Flag" early in 1861. Some seceding Southern states incorporated the motif of a white star on a blue field into new state flags.

Although the name "Bonnie Blue" dates only from 1861, there is no doubt that the flag is identical with the banner of the Republic of West Florida. In 2006 the state of Louisiana formally linked the name "Bonnie Blue" to the West Florida banner, passing a law designating the Bonnie Blue flag as "the official flag of the Republic of West Florida Historic Region".

The Bonnie Blue flag was used as an unofficial flag during the early months of 1861. It was flying above the Confederate batteries that first opened fire on Fort Sumter, beginning the Civil War. In addition, many military units had their own regimental flags they would carry into battle.

In 2007, one of six known Bonnie Blue flags from the Civil War era was sold at auction for US$47800. The flag had been carried by the Confederate 3rd Texas Cavalry, and later exhibited as part of the 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition.

In popular culture
In the 1936 novel by Margaret Mitchell and the 1939 film Gone with the Wind, Rhett Butler nicknames his newborn daughter "Bonnie Blue" after Melanie Wilkes remarks that her eyes will be "as blue as the bonnie blue flag."

Both flag and song appear in the film Gods and Generals (2003).

In 2012, sectarian Irish folk singer, Derek Warfield, released an album called Bonnie Blue Flag, celebrating the Confederate Army and particularly the Irish people who fought for the Confederacy.

title: Bonnie Blue flag


text:
Pott's disease

Pott's disease, or Pott disease, named for British surgeon Percivall Pott who first described the symptoms in 1799, is tuberculosis of the spine, usually due to haematogenous spread from other sites, often the lungs. The lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae areas of the spine are most often affected.

It causes a kind of tuberculous arthritis of the intervertebral joints. The infection can spread from two adjacent vertebrae into the adjoining intervertebral disc space. If only one vertebra is affected, the disc is normal, but if two are involved, the disc, which is avascular, cannot receive nutrients, and collapses. In a process called caseous necrosis, the disc tissue dies, leading to vertebral narrowing and eventually to vertebral collapse and spinal damage. A dry soft-tissue mass often forms and superinfection is rare.

Spread of infection from the lumbar vertebrae to the psoas muscle, causing abscesses, is not uncommon.

Diagnosis

 * Blood tests
 * Complete blood count: leukocytosis
 * Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate: >100 mm/h
 * Tuberculin skin test
 * Tuberculin skin test (purified protein derivative [PPD]) results are positive in 84–95% of patients with Pott disease who are not infected with HIV.

 * Radiographs of the spine
 * Radiographic changes associated with Pott disease present relatively late. These radiographic changes are characteristic of spinal tuberculosis on plain radiography:
 * Lytic destruction of anterior portion of vertebral body
 * Increased anterior wedging
 * Collapse of vertebral body
 * Reactive sclerosis on a progressive lytic process
 * Enlarged psoas shadow with or without calcification
 * Additional radiographic findings may include:
 * Vertebral end plates are osteoporotic
 * Intervertebral disks may be shrunken or destroyed
 * Vertebral bodies show variable degrees of destruction
 * Fusiform paravertebral shadows suggest abscess formation
 * Bone lesions may occur at more than one level

 * Bone scan
 * Computed tomography of the spine
 * Bone biopsy
 * MRI

Epidemiology
Half of the cases of musculoskeletal tuberculosis are Pott's Disease, of which 98% affect the anterior column. The disease can be attributed to 1.3 million deaths per year. There is a correlation between tuberculosis infections and cases of Pott's disease, as it's prevalent in areas where tuberculosis infections are common. Factors like socioeconomic status, habits, medical history, and interactions with people with tuberculosis can influence the rate of diagnosis.

Underdeveloped countries have a higher incidence rate of Pott's disease as it is associated with less ventilated rooms, crowded spaces, poorer hygiene, and less access to healthcare facilities. Increasing food security, reducing poverty, and improving living and working conditions will help to prevent infection and generally enhance the care of those sick.

Pott's disease is more common in the working-age population. It is becoming increasingly prevalent in older adults due to increased life expectancies, increased immunosuppressant use, chronic diseases like diabetes, and a rise in drug-resistant tuberculosis strains. In older populations, the disease is often misdiagnosed, often being disregarded for other degenerative diseases. Children's spines contain more cartilage, increasing the effect of spinal deformations caused by the disease.

Multidrug resistant tuberculosis poses a threat to people with Pott's disease, making it difficult to determine infection in people because of the paucibacillary symptoms of the disease. Cases of tuberculosis have been on the decline; however, infections of multidrug resistant tuberculosis have remained constant since the 1990s.

Prevention
Controlling the spread of tuberculosis infection can prevent tuberculous spondylitis and arthritis. Patients who have a positive PPD test (but not active tuberculosis) may decrease their risk by properly taking medicines to prevent tuberculosis. To effectively treat tuberculosis, patients must take their medications exactly as prescribed.

Management

 * Nonoperative:
 * antituberculous drugs
 * Analgesics
 * Immobilization of the spine region using different types of braces and collars
 * Physical therapy for pain-relieving modalities, postural education, and teaching a home-exercise program for strength and flexibility
 * Surgery may be necessary, especially to drain spinal abscesses or debride bony lesions fully or to stabilize the spine. A 2007 review found just two randomized clinical trials with at least one-year follow-up that compared chemotherapy plus surgery with chemotherapy alone for treating people diagnosed with active tuberculosis of the spine. As such, no high-quality evidence exists, but the results of this study indicates that surgery should not be recommended routinely and clinicians have to selectively judge and decide on which patients to operate.
 * Thoracic spinal fusion with or without instrumentation as a last resort

Prognosis

 * Paraplegia (so-called Pott's paraplegia)
 * Vertebral collapse resulting in kyphosis
 * Sinus formation
 * Spinal cord compression

History

 * Saint Gemma of Lucca had tuberculosis of the spine.
 * English poets Alexander Pope and William Ernest Henley both had Pott disease.
 * Anna Roosevelt Cowles, sister of President Theodore Roosevelt, had Pott disease.
 * Søren Kierkegaard may have died from Pott disease, according to professor Kaare Weismann and literature scientist Jens Staubrand
 * Chick Webb, a swing-era drummer and band leader, was affected by tuberculosis of the spine as a child, which left him hunchbacked, and eventually caused his death.
 * The Sicilian mafia boss Luciano Leggio had the disease and wore a brace.
 * Italian writer, poet, and philosopher Giacomo Leopardi had the disease.
 * American actor Pat Morita was hospitalized as a child with the disease, and when he recovered, was sent directly to an internment camp.
 * It features prominently in the book This Is a Soul, which chronicles the work of American physician Rick Hodes in Ethiopia.
 * Jane Addams, social activist and Nobel Peace Prize winner, had Pott disease.
 * Willem Ten Boom, brother of Corrie Ten Boom, died of tuberculosis of the spine in December 1946.
 * Writer Max Blecher had Pott disease and wrote about the affliction.
 * Marxist thinker and Communist leader Antonio Gramsci had Pott disease which, together with the bad conditions of his incarceration in fascist Italy during the 1930s, contributed to his death.
 * Gavrilo Princip, who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, leading to World War I, died in prison of bone tuberculosis.
 * English writer Denton Welch (1915–1948) died of spinal tuberculosis after being involved in a motor accident (1935) that irreparably damaged his spine.
 * Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, son of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
 * George Mercer Dawson, Canadian surveyor, geologist and president of the Geological Society of America, had Pott's disease.
 * Masaoka Shiki, Japanese poet, author and literary critic, had Pott's disease.

In works of literature

 * Max Blecher's semi-autobiographical novel Inimi cicatrizate (1937) is about a young man named Emanuel who is afflicted with Pott disease in a sanatorium, as is the Radu Jude film Scarred Hearts (2016), loosely based on it.
 * A. J. Cronin's story "Two Gentlemen of Verona," includes a character named Lucia with tuberculosis of spine.
 * In William Golding's novel The Spire (1964), Jocelin, the dean who wanted a spire on his cathedral, probably dies as a result of the disease.
 * Katharine Butler Hathaway's memoir The Little Locksmith (1943) is about the effects of spinal tuberculosis on her childhood and adult life.
 * In Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831) the title character has a gibbus deformity similar to the type caused by spinal tuberculosis.
 * In Henrik Ibsen's play A Doll's House (1879), Dr. Rank has "consumption of the spine."
 * In Sergio Leone's film Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), Morton, the railroad magnate, has the disease and needs crutches to walk.
 * In Ernest Poole's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, His Family (1917), young Johnny Geer has a terminal case of Pott disease.
 * In Edmund Wilson's Memoirs of Hecate County (1946), the novella "The Princess with the Golden Hair," has a character with Pott disease.

title: Pott's disease


text:
Uniform act

In the United States, a uniform act is a proposed state law drafted and approved by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), also known as the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL).

Federalism in the United States traditionally limits the legislative authority of the federal government in favor of the states. Specifically, the Tenth Amendment of the United States Constitution states that "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people". Therefore, state governments are free to enact unique laws in any area beyond the purview of federal preemption. Under the doctrine of Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938), federal courts cannot dictate law to states on pure issues of state common law (i.e., almost all of contract, tort, and family law). However, a variety of legal issues regularly transcend state lines, which makes a predictable and relatively uniform set of laws across states a desirable objective. "Uniform acts" are collaboratively written model laws intended to facilitate the enactment of identical or similar laws by the separate states. Such laws are distinct from interstate compacts.

Drafting
The NCCUSL is a body of private and government lawyers, state and federal judges, and law professors who are typically appointed by state governors. It drafts laws on a variety of subjects and proposes them for enactment by each state, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. NCCUSL was established in 1892. The NCCUSL, while influential, does not have any direct legislative power itself; uniform acts become laws only to the extent they are enacted into law by state legislatures.

Among the most influential uniform acts are the Uniform Commercial Code, Uniform Probate Code, Uniform Trust Code, Uniform Partnership Act, Uniform Limited Liability Company Act, Uniform Transfers to Minors Act, Uniform Certification of Questions of Law Act, Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act, Uniform Controlled Substances Act, Uniform Arbitration Act, Uniform Environmental Covenants Act, Uniform Conservation Easements Act, Uniform Management of Institutional Funds Act, Uniform Interstate Family Support Act, Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act, and Uniform Anatomical Gift Act.

In total, there are more than 100 uniform acts, which the NCCUSL periodically updates. Recent examples include the Revised Uniform Anatomical Gift Act, Revised Uniform Arbitration Act, Revised Uniform Partnership Act, Revised Uniform Limited Liability Company Act, and the Uniform Prudent Management of Institutional Funds Act.

A state may adopt a uniform act as written by NCCUSL, or a state may adopt a modified version. Unless such changes are minor, they can seriously obstruct the purpose of uniform acts—legal harmonization. Therefore, persons doing business in different states must always still check local law to ensure that (1) a uniform act was enacted in the state that governs a particular legal issue, and (2) the local act actually conforms to the text promulgated by NCCUSL.

For example, in Payne v. Stalley (1995), a lawyer relied on the official text of the Uniform Probate Code and failed to check the relevant Florida statute. As a result, the lawyer missed a filing deadline on a multimillion-dollar claim. The court wrote, "[w]e cannot rewrite Florida probate law to accommodate a Michigan attorney more familiar with the Uniform Probate Code".

U.S. Territory of Palmyra Island
Uniform acts enacted in Hawaii after statehood in 1959 do not apply in the federal Territory of Palmyra Island. Palmyra Island was in the former Territory of Hawaii but was excluded from the state, and the territorial statutes remain in force there unless superseded by subsequent federal laws or cases.

title: Uniform act


text:
GH

Gh or GH may refer to:

Businesses and organisations

 * Gästrike-Hälsinge nation, a student society at Uppsala University, Sweden
 * Globus Airlines (IATA: )
 * Grubhub, an American online food delivery platform
 * Iron Guard (Argentina) (Guardia de Hierro), a socialist organisation

Entertainment

 * Guitar Hero, a video game series
 * Guitar Hero (video game), the first in the series
 * General Hospital, an American daytime medical drama

Science and technology

 * .gh, Ghana's Internet top-level domain
 * Gigahenry, an SI unit of electrical inductance
 * Growth hormone, a hormone which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other animals
 * DGH Degrees of general hardness (properly dGH or °GH, but sometimes written simply GH)

Other uses

 * gh (digraph), in language
 * Howard GH, an American WWII transport and utility plane
 * Ghana (ISO 3166-1 country code: )
 * GH, a suspect in the assassination of Olof Palme

title: GH


text:
List of uniform acts (United States)

This is a list of uniform acts.

Model Penal Code
The Model Penal Code, which seeks to harmonize state criminal law statutes, is in effect a uniform act but it was developed by the American Law Institute and not the NCCUSL.

Other model laws
The National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) has written a large number of model laws and model regulations that heavily influence insurance law and regulation throughout the United States.

The Uniform Auction and Auctioneer Licensing Act (2006) is a sample law, proposed by the National Auctioneers Association, intended to be used by states as a template when drafting their own legislation governing auctions and auctioneers.

Other notable non-NCCUSL model laws include the Uniform Vehicle Code, the Model State Emergency Health Powers Act, the Model Business Corporation Act, the Model Nonprofit Corporation Act, UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration and the Model Vital Statistics Act (1992).

title: List of uniform acts (United States)


text:
Talk:History of football

From Mintguy's original article (User:Mintguy/Sandbox):

 * "Later attempts at banning the game in England (notably by Richard II in 1389, Henry IV in 1401, James II 1457 and Henry VIII in 1540)"

But James II was king of Scotland, not England. At a guess he tried to ban it in Scotland, but I won't put it in the article as I don't know. Bagpuss

I put a small note in the article, but from Googling it seems that "fut-ball" and "fute-ball" were used in Scotland well before Shakey wrote King Lear. It may be that historians have rejected these documents, but if not it's worth putting in. Bagpuss

Bagpuss, well done. I've got some more stuff following this period, but it's in rough form, and I'm going to be away for a few days. Mintguy

Yes. I dunno how James II slipped by me, it should go with Scotland of course. I wanted to find a proper citation for early references to the word "football" and Shakespeare was the earliest authoriative one I could find. One website claims "King James I of Scotland decreed in 1424 'that na manplay at the fute-ball, uder the paine of fiftie shillings'", but I'd like to find a proper citation. Mintguy

 * Ah, well, it's provisionally in the article for now. Should I remove it? Bagpuss

I'm going to merge this back into Football as people seem to be expanding the History section of that article rather than adding anything to this one.

title: Talk:History of football


text:
Tony Cragg

Sir Anthony Douglas Cragg (born Liverpool 9 April 1949) is an Anglo-German sculptor, resident in Wuppertal, Germany since 1977.

Early life and training
Tony Cragg was born in Liverpool. His father was an aerospace engineer. He first worked as a lab technician for the British Rubber Producers Research Association after high school. He studied art at Gloucestershire College of Arts and Technology, Cheltenham, from 1968 to 1970, and painted at the Wimbledon School of Art, London, from 1970 to 1973. The same year he went on to study sculpture at the Royal College of Art, London, completing an MA in 1977.

He moved to Wuppertal in 1977 because his first wife was from there. There were also cheap studio spaces and exhibition organisers looking for new artists. He was fascinated by the importance of sculpture in Germany, and struck by German seriousness.

In 1979 Daniel the first of his 4 children was born. He is currently married to the artist Tatjana Verhasselt.

Career
Tony Cragg's early work involved site-specific installations of found objects and discarded materials.

From the mid-1970s through to the early 1980s he presented assemblages in primary structures (as in his first mature piece, the 1975 Stack) as well as in colourful, representational reliefs on the floors and walls of gallery spaces (as in Red Indian of 1982–83). Cragg constructed these early works by arranging individual fragments of mixed materials, often according to their artificial colours and profiles, so as to form larger images.

In 1977 Cragg moved to Wuppertal, Germany and had several solo exhibitions including Lisson Gallery, London (1979); Lützowstraße Situation, Berlin (1979) and Künstlerhaus Weidenallee, Hamburg (1979). He also exhibited in seminal group shows including the Silver Jubilee Sculpture Show, Battersea Park, London (1977); Europa-Kunst der 80er Jahre, Stuttgart (1979); Kunst in Europa na '68, Museum van Hedendaagse Kunst, Gent (1980) and L'art degli anni Settanta/Aperto '80, Venice Biennale (1980).

In 1981 he created "Britain Seen from the North" considered a signature early work, made of multi-coloured scraps of various materials assembled in relief on the wall. The piece depicts the outline of the island of Great Britain, orientated sideways so that Northern Britain is positioned to the left. The island is scrutinized by a figure, representing Cragg himself, who looks at his native country from the position of an outsider. The piece is often interpreted as commenting on the social and economic difficulties that Britain was facing under Thatcherism, which had particular effect in the north. This work was first exhibited in the large upstairs space at the Whitechapel Art gallery in London in 1981 and is now in the Tate collection.

In the early 1980s Cragg gradually moved away from installation art and began to examine more closely the individual objects used as parts of his larger constellations. This was the beginning of his engagement and experimentation with the properties and possibilities of a wide range of more permanent materials in the form of wood, plaster, stone, fiberglass, Kevlar, stainless steel, cast iron and bronze. During this time Cragg exhibited at Arnolfini Gallery, Bristol (1980); Whitechapel Art Gallery, London (1980); Von der Heydt-Museum, Wuppertal (1981); Institute of Contemporary Art, London (1982); Documenta 7, Kassel (1982) and the Hayward and Serpentine Galleries, London (1983). Since then Cragg has exhibited extensively at many of world's most important art institutions. In 1988 Cragg received the Turner Prize at the Tate Gallery in London, represented Britain at the 42nd Venice Biennale (1988) and was appointed Professor at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (1988–2001).

Throughout the 1990s Cragg continued to develop two larger groups of work that have sustained his production up to the present: the "Early Forms" and the "Rational Beings". The Early Forms series investigate the possibilities of manipulating everyday, familiar containers and the ways in which they can morph into and around one another in space. The sculptures derive their profiles and contours from simple, tick-walled vessels such as chemistry vessels, plastic bottles and mortars. The surface of these initial objects are extended and contorted until new, sculpturally independent forms of movement arise. Through these processes of manipulation the initial objects develop new lines and contours, positive and negatively curving surfaces and volumes, protrusions and deep recessing folds. The broad field of containers and vessels used function as metaphors for cell, organ, organism or body. The Early Forms can be characterized as forms transmutating along a bilaterally curved axis, often with organic, even figurative, qualities. The Rational Beings are describable as organic looking forms often made of carbon fibre on a core of polystyrene. These sculptures derive their forms from the contours of gestural drawings, which Cragg then translates into the third dimension using thick, circular or oval discs which are superimposed (often vertically), glued together and covered with a skin.

During the 1990s he exhibited at the 45th Venice Biennale (1993); the "Terrae Motus" collection at the Royal Palace of Caserta, Italy (1994); The National Gallery, Prague (1995); MNAM, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris (1996); MACBA, Barcelona (1997) and the Royal Academy, London (1999). In the early 2000s Cragg was awarded the Shakespeare Prize (2001) and the Piepenbrock Prize for Sculptures (2002). He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) (2002), Honorary Doctor of the Royal College of Art, London (2009), Professor at the Universitüt der Künste, Berlin (2001–2006), and began a Professorship at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (2006). Among many major solo shows, Cragg exhibited at Tate Gallery Liverpool (2000); MACRO Museum of Contemporary Art, Rome (2003); and The Central House of Artists, Moscow (2005).

In 2011 Cragg exhibited at the Musée du Louvre in Paris, the Scottish National Gallery in Edinburgh and in 2012 at CAFA Museum in Beijing. His sculpture Accurate Figure is currently on display in the garden at the Nasher Sculpture Center in Dallas, Texas. Amongst new developments in Cragg's work is an increase in sculptures that can be exhibited outdoors; more works wrought from bronze, steel, stone, wood and glass; as well as a vigorous return to his initial interest in art – that of drawing.

Following Brexit he became a German Citizen. He stated that he had found his life in Germany and "wouldn't like to experience any disadvantages in the future either".

Waldfrieden Sculpture Park & the Cragg Foundation
The Cragg Foundation is a non-profit general foundation based in Wuppertal. It was founded in 2005 by the Cragg family and incorporated on 13 December 2005. It includes Tatjana Cragg as chairperson, Tony Cragg as deputy chairperson and Michael Brämer. Its foundation purpose is "Art and culture – in general". The foundation runs the 25 acre Waldfrieden Sculpture Park in the Barmer district of Hesselnberg, Wuppertal. There is a house and 2 other exhibition buildings in a wooded park. The park opened in 2008. There are about 40 outdoor sculptures by various artists including Tony Cragg, Henry Moore, Jaume Plensa, Thomas Schütte, Richard Deacon, Eva Hild, Bogomir Ecker, Hubert Kiecol, Hede Bühl and Markus Lüpertz. There are temporary exhibitions, and a music and lecture programme.

Recognition, awards
Cragg was selected to represent Britain at the 43rd Venice Biennale in 1988, and won the Turner Prize in the same year. In the early 1990s, Cragg was awarded the Chevalier des Arts Lettres (1992) and appointed Royal Academician in London (1994). In 2001 he received the annual Shakespeare Prize of the Alfred Toepfer Foundation of Hamburg. He was made a CBE for services to art in the 2002 New Year Honours List, and also won the Piepenbrock Prize for Sculpture in that year. In 2007, he received the Praemium Imperiale for sculpture of the Imperial House of Japan for the Japan Art Association. Since 2010, Cragg has been appointed Honorary Fellow of University of the Arts London (2012); awarded Artist's Medal of Honor of the Hermitage, Russia (2012) as well as the Grand Cross 1st Class Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (2012). In 2018 he was awarded the Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia; the Lifetime Achievement in Contemporary Sculpture Award. In 2014 he was awarded honorary citizenship of Wuppertal.

In the 2016 Birthday Honours Cragg was created a Knight Bachelor for services to visual arts and UK-German relations.

title: Tony Cragg


text:
Ruby Keeler

Ethel Ruby Keeler (August 25, 1909 – February 28, 1993) was an American actress, dancer, and singer who was paired on-screen with Dick Powell in a string of successful early musicals at Warner Bros., particularly 42nd Street (1933). From 1928 to 1940, she was married to actor and singer Al Jolson. She retired from show business in the 1940s, but made a widely publicized comeback on Broadway in 1971.

Early life
Keeler was born in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, in 1909 to Ralph Hector and Nellie (née Lahey) Keeler, one of six siblings in an Irish Catholic family. Two sisters, Helen and Gertrude, had brief performing careers. Her father was a truck driver. When Ruby was three years old, her family moved to New York City, where her father could get better pay. Although Keeler was interested in taking dance lessons, the family could not afford to send her.

Keeler attended St. Catherine of Siena on New York's East Side, and one period each week, a dance teacher taught all styles of dance. The teacher saw potential in Keeler and spoke to her mother about Ruby taking lessons at her studio. Though her mother declined, apologizing for the lack of money, the teacher wanted to work with her so badly that she asked her mother if she would bring her to class lessons on Saturdays, and she agreed.

During the classes, a girl told her about auditions for chorus girls. The law required professional chorus girls to be at least 16 years old; although they were only 13, they decided to lie about their ages at the audition. It was a tap audition, and many other talented girls were there. The stage was covered except for a wooden apron at the front. When it was Ruby's turn to dance, she asked the dance director, Julian Mitchell, if she could dance on the wooden part so that her taps could be heard. He did not answer, so she went ahead, walked up to the front of the stage, and started her routine. The director said "Who said you could dance up there?" She replied "I asked you!", and she got a job in George M. Cohan's The Rise of Rosie O'Reilly (1923), in which she made $45 per week, equal to $ today.

Early dance career
Around 1923, when she was around 14 years old, she was hired by Nils Granlund, the publicity manager for Loews Theaters, who also served as the stage-show producer for Texas Guinan at Larry Fay's El Fay nightclub, a speakeasy frequented by gangsters. She was noticed by Broadway producer Charles B. Dillingham, who gave her a role in Bye, Bye, Bonnie (produced by L. Lawrence Weber), which ran for six months. She then appeared in Lucky and as Mamie in The Sidewalks of New York, also produced by Dillingham. In the later show, she was seen by Flo Ziegfeld, who sent her a bunch of roses and a note that stated, "May I make you a star?"

She appeared in Ziegfeld's Whoopee! (before being replaced before the opening by Ethel Shutta) in 1928, the same year she married Al Jolson. The two met in Los Angeles (not at Texas Guinan's as he would claim), where Granlund had sent her to assist in the marketing campaign for The Jazz Singer. Jolson was smitten and immediately proposed. The couple married September 21, 1928, in Port Chester, New York, in a private ceremony. The two sailed the following morning for a brief honeymoon before she began her tour with Whoopee! She was 19 years old, and he was around 42.

In 1933, producer Darryl F. Zanuck cast Keeler in the Warner Bros. musical 42nd Street opposite Dick Powell and Bebe Daniels. The film was a huge success due to Busby Berkeley's lavish, innovative choreography. Following 42nd Street, Jack L. Warner gave Keeler a long-term contract and cast her in Gold Diggers of 1933, Footlight Parade, Dames, and Colleen. Keeler and Jolson starred together in Go into Your Dance, which was their only film together. They are satirized in Frank Tashlin's 1937 cartoon The Woods Are Full of Cuckoos. Jolson and Keeler appeared on Broadway one last time together for the unsuccessful show Hold on to Your Hats.

Later life
In 1963, Keeler appeared in The Greatest Show on Earth, Jack Palance's television series based on the earlier Charlton Heston circus film of the same name, and made a brief cameo in the 1970 film The Phynx. In 1971, Keeler was acclaimed as a star again in the successful Broadway revival of the 1920s musical No, No, Nanette, opposite Jack Gilford, Bobby Van, Helen Gallagher, and Patsy Kelly. The production was supervised by Keeler's 42nd Street director Busby Berkeley, adapted and directed by Burt Shevelove, and choreographed by Donald Saddler, who won the Tony Award for his musical staging. Keeler starred in the musical for two seasons on Broadway, followed by two additional years touring in the show. After suffering a brain aneurysm in 1974, she became spokeswoman for the National Stroke Association.

Honors
In 1992, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to Keeler. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6730 Hollywood Boulevard. In 1979, she was awarded an honorary doctor of humane letters degree by St. Bonaventure University.

Personal life
Keeler and Jolson adopted a son, but later divorced in 1940. In 1941, she married John Homer Lowe, a businessman, and left show business the same year. Keeler and Lowe had four children. Lowe died in 1969.

Keeler had two nephews who also worked in the film business. Joey D. Vieira, also known as Donald Keeler, is best remembered for portraying Sylvester "Porky" Brockway on TV's Lassie (retitled Jeff's Collie in syndicated reruns and on DVD) from 1954 to 1957. Vieira's brother, Ken Weatherwax, played Pugsley Addams on the 1960s TV series The Addams Family. Ruby's son John Lowe had a career as a Broadway stage manager for a number of productions beginning with No, No, Nanette in 1970.

Keeler was a Catholic. She was also a Republican who supported Dwight Eisenhower's campaign during the 1952 presidential election.

Death
Keeler died of kidney cancer on February 28, 1993, in Rancho Mirage, California, aged 83.

Short subjects

 * Ruby Keeler (1929)
 * Screen Snapshots Series 9, No. 20 (1930)
 * And She Learned About Dames (1934)
 * Screen Snapshots Series 16, No. 7 (1937)
 * A Day at Santa Anita (1937)
 * Hollywood Handicap (1938)
 * Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Recreation (1940)

Stage work

 * The Rise of Rosie O'Reilly (1923)
 * Bye, Bye, Bonnie (1927)
 * Lucky (1927)
 * Sidewalks of New York (1927)
 * Whoopee! (1928) (replaced by Ethel Shutta before opening)
 * Show Girl (1929)
 * Hold on to Your Hats (1940) (replaced by Eunice Healey before opening)
 * No, No, Nanette (1971)

title: Ruby Keeler


text:
Jay Silverheels

Jay Silverheels (born Harold Jay Smith; May 26, 1912 – March 5, 1980, Mohawk) was a Canadian actor and athlete, descended from three Iroquois nations. He was well known for his role as Tonto, the Native American companion of the Lone Ranger in the American Western television series The Lone Ranger.

Early life
Silverheels was born Harold Jay Smith in Canada, on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve, near Hagersville, Ontario. He was a grandson of Mohawk Chief A. G. Smith and Mary Wedge, and one of the 11 children of Captain Alexander George Edwin Smith, MC, Cayuga, and his wife Mabel Phoebe Dockstater, maternal Mohawk, and paternal Seneca. His father was wounded and decorated for service at the battles of Somme and Ypres during World War I (Jay would have been four years old at this time), and later was an adjutant training Polish-American recruits for the Blue Army for service in France, at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario.

Athlete
Silverheels excelled in athletics, most notably in lacrosse, before leaving home to travel around North America. In 1931, owners of National Hockey League's franchises in Toronto and Montreal created indoor lacrosse (also known as "box lacrosse") as a means to fill empty arenas during the summers. Playing as "Harry Smith", Silverheels was among the first players chosen to play for the Toronto Tecumsehs. Along with his brothers and cousin, Russell (Beef), Sid (Porky), and George (Chubby), he also played on teams in Buffalo, Rochester, Atlantic City, and Akron throughout the 1930s on teams in the North American Amateur Lacrosse Association. He lived for a time in Buffalo, New York. In 1938, he placed second in the middleweight class of the Golden Gloves tournament held at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Silverheels was inducted into the Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame as a veteran player in 1997.

Films
While playing in Los Angeles on a touring box lacrosse team in 1937, Silverheels impressed Joe E. Brown with his athleticism. Brown encouraged him to do a screen test, which led to his acting career. Silverheels began working in motion pictures as an extra and stuntman in 1937. He was billed variously as Harold Smith and Harry Smith, and appeared in low-budget features, Westerns, and serials.

He adopted his screen name from the nickname he had as a lacrosse player. Jay Silverheels was cast in a short feature film, I Am an American (1944). From the late 1940s, he played in major films, including Captain from Castile starring Tyrone Power (1947), Key Largo with Humphrey Bogart (1948), Lust for Gold with Glenn Ford (1949), Broken Arrow (1950) with James Stewart, War Arrow (1953) with Maureen O'Hara, Jeff Chandler and Noah Beery Jr., The Black Dakotas (1954) as Black Buffalo, Drums Across the River (1954), Walk the Proud Land (1956) with Audie Murphy and Anne Bancroft, Alias Jesse James (1959) with Bob Hope, and Indian Paint (1964) with Johnny Crawford. He made a brief appearance in True Grit (1969) as a condemned criminal about to be executed. He played a substantial role as John Crow in Santee (1973), starring Glenn Ford. One of his last roles was a wise, white-haired chief in The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing (1973).

Television
Jay Silverheels achieved his greatest fame as Tonto on The Lone Ranger TV series (1949–1957). Silverheels appeared in the film sequels: The Lone Ranger (1956) and The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958).

When The Lone Ranger television series ended, Silverheels continued to be typecast as a Native American. On January 6, 1960, he portrayed a Native American fireman trying to extinguish a forest fire in the episode "Leap of Life" in the syndicated series, Rescue 8, starring Jim Davis and fellow Canadian Lang Jeffries.

Silverheels appeared in an episode of the TV series Love, American Style. The segment, "Love and the Test of Manhood", first aired on February 11, 1972.

Eventually, he went to work as a salesman to supplement his acting income. He also began to publish poetry inspired by his youth on the Six Nations Indian Reserve and recited his work on television. In 1966, he guest-starred as John Tallgrass in the short-lived ABC comedy/Western series The Rounders, with Ron Hayes, Patrick Wayne, and Chill Wills.

Despite the typecasting, Silverheels in later years often poked fun at his character. In 1969, he appeared as Tonto without the Lone Ranger in a comedy sketch on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. The sketch was featured on the 1974 record album Here's Johnny: Magic Moments from the Tonight Show. "My name is Tonto. I hail from Toronto and I speak Esperanto." In 1970, he appeared in a commercial for Chevrolet as a Native American chief who rescues two lost hunters, who had ignored his advice, in that year's Chevy Blazer. The William Tell Overture is heard in the background.

Silverheels spoofed his Tonto character, opposite Clayton Moore, in a Stan Freberg Jeno's Pizza Rolls TV commercial, which was set to the music of Gioachino Rossini's 'William Tell Overture," and in The Phynx, opposite John Hart, both having played the Lone Ranger in the original television series.

He appeared in three 1964/5 episodes of NBC's Daniel Boone, starring Fess Parker in the title role.

His later appearances included an episode of ABC's The Brady Bunch, as a Native American who befriends the Bradys in the Grand Canyon, and in an episode of the short-lived Dusty's Trail, starring Bob Denver of Gilligan's Island.

In the early 1960s, Silverheels supported the Indian Actors Workshop, where Native American actors refined their skills in Echo Park, Los Angeles. Today, the workshop is firmly established.

Personal life
Silverheels raised, bred, and raced Standardbred horses in his spare time. Once, when asked about possibly running Tonto's paint horse Scout in a race, Jay laughed off the idea: "Heck, I can outrun Scout!"

Married twice, Silverheels had two sons (Steve, with his first wife; Jay Anthony Jr., who followed his father into acting) and four daughters (Marilyn, Gail, Pamela, and Karen).

Death
Silverheels suffered a stroke in 1976, and the following year, Clayton Moore – his co-star on The Lone Ranger – rode an American Paint Horse in Silverheels' honor in the Pasadena Tournament of Roses Parade. Silverheels died on March 5, 1980, from a stroke, at age 67, in Calabasas, California. He was cremated at Chapel of the Pines Crematory, and his ashes were returned to the Six Nations Reserve in Ontario.

Legacy

In 1993, Silverheels was inducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. He was named to the Western New York Entertainment Hall of Fame, and his portrait hangs in Shea's Performing Arts Center in Buffalo, New York. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6538 Hollywood Boulevard. First Americans in the Arts honored Silverheels with their Life Achievement Award.

In 1997, Silverheels was inducted, under the name Harry "Tonto" Smith, into the Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame in the Veteran Player category in recognition of his lacrosse career during the 1930s.

A fictionalized version of Silverheels appears in the Thrilling Adventure Hour serialized segment "Tales from the Black Lagoon".

His friend Milan Smith, a trainer and racehorse owner, promised that he would name a horse after Silverheels. He named a pacer "Hi Ho Silverheels".

Selected filmography

 * Make a Wish (1937) – Indian Guide (uncredited)
 * The Sea Hawk (1940) – Native Lookout (uncredited)
 * Kit Carson (1940) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Too Many Girls (1940) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Hudson's Bay (1941) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Western Union (1941) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Jungle Girl (1941, Serial) – Lion Man Guard [Chs. 2–3, 15] (uncredited)
 * This Woman Is Mine (1941) – Indian Marauder (uncredited)
 * Valley of the Sun (1942) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Perils of Nyoka (1942, Serial) – Tuareg (uncredited)
 * Good Morning, Judge (1943) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Daredevils of the West (1943, Serial) – Kiaga [Ch. 8–9] (uncredited)
 * The Girl from Monterrey (1943) – Fighter Tito Flores
 * Northern Pursuit (1943) – Indian (uncredited)
 * The Phantom (1943, Serial) – Astari Warrior (uncredited)
 * Passage to Marseille (1944) – Sailor Crewman on Boat Deck (uncredited)
 * The Tiger Woman (1944, Serial) – Native at Shack Shoot-Out [Ch. 7] (uncredited)
 * Call of the Jungle (1944) – Native (uncredited)
 * Haunted Harbor (1944, Serial) – Native [Chs. 11–12] (uncredited)
 * Lost in a Harem (1944) – Guard at Execution (uncredited)
 * Tahiti Nights (1944) – Lua (uncredited)
 * Song of the Sarong (1945) – Spearman (uncredited)
 * Romance of the West (1946) – Young Bear (uncredited)
 * Singin' in the Corn (1946) – Indian Brave
 * Gas House Kids Go West (1947) – Kingsley's Henchman (uncredited)
 * Northwest Outpost (1947) – Indian Scout (uncredited)
 * Unconquered (1947) – Indian (uncredited)
 * The Last Round-up (1947) – Sam Luther (uncredited)
 * The Prairie (1947) – Running Deer
 * Captain from Castile (1947) – Coatl (uncredited)
 * The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) – Indian Guide at Pier (uncredited)
 * Fury at Furnace Creek (1948) – Little Dog (uncredited)
 * Key Largo (1948) – Tom Osceola (uncredited)
 * Singin' Spurs (1948) – Abel
 * Family Honeymoon (1948) – Elevator Boy (uncredited)
 * The Feathered Serpent (1948) – Diego (uncredited)
 * Yellow Sky (1948) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Song of India (1949) – Villager (uncredited)
 * Tulsa (1949) – Creek Indian (uncredited)
 * Laramie (1949) – Running Wolf (uncredited)
 * Lust for Gold (1949) – Deputy Walter (uncredited)
 * Trail of the Yukon (1949) – Poleon
 * Sand (1949) – Indian (uncredited)
 * The Cowboy and the Indians (1949) – Lakoma
 * Broken Arrow (1950) – Geronimo (uncredited)
 * The Wild Blue Yonder (1951) – Benders
 * Red Mountain (1951) – Little Crow
 * The Battle at Apache Pass (1952) – Geronimo
 * The Half-Breed (1952) – Apache (uncredited)
 * Brave Warrior (1952) – Tecumseh
 * The Story of Will Rogers (1952) – Joe Arrow (uncredited)
 * Yankee Buccaneer (1952) – Lead Warrior
 * The Pathfinder (1952) – Chingachgook
 * The Legend of the Lone Ranger (1952) – Tonto
 * Last of the Comanches (1953) – Indian (uncredited)
 * Jack McCall, Desperado (1953) – Red Cloud
 * The Nebraskan (1953) – Spotted Bear
 * War Arrow (1953) – Satanta
 * Saskatchewan (1954) (with Alan Ladd) – Cajou
 * Drums Across The River (1954) (with Audie Murphy) – Taos
 * The Black Dakotas (1954) – Black Buffalo
 * Four Guns to the Border (1954) – Yaqui
 * Masterson of Kansas (1954) – Yellow Hawk
 * The Lone Ranger Rides Again (1955, TV Movie) – Tonto
 * The Lone Ranger Story (1955) – Tonto
 * The Vanishing American (1955) – Beeteia
 * The Lone Ranger (1956) – Tonto
 * Walk the Proud Land (1956) – Geronimo
 * Return to Warbow (1958) – Indian Joe
 * The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958) – Tonto
 * Alias Jesse James (1959) – Tonto (uncredited)
 * Indian Paint (1965) – Chief Hevatanu
 * Smith! (1969) – McDonald Lasheway
 * True Grit (1969) – Condemned Man at Hanging (uncredited)
 * The Phynx (1970) – Tonto
 * In Pursuit of Treasure (1972)
 * One Little Indian (1973) – Jimmy Wolf
 * The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing (1973) – The Chief
 * Santee (1973) – John Crow

Television

 * The Lone Ranger – 217 episodes – Tonto (1949–1957)
 * Wide Wide World – episode – The Western – Himself (1958)
 * Wanted Dead or Alive – S2 E14 – Man on Horseback – Charley Red Cloud (1959)
 * Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color – episode – Texas John Slaughter: Apache Friendship & Texas John Slaughter: Geronimo's Revenge – Natchez (1960)
 * Gunslinger – episode – The Recruit – Hopi Indian (1961)
 * Wagon Train – episode – Path of the Serpent – The Serpent (1961)
 * Rawhide – episode – The Gentleman's Gentleman – Pawnee Joe (1961)
 * Laramie – episode – The Day of the Savage – Toma (1962)
 * Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) – Chenrogan – S1/E11 "Mountain of the Dead" (1964)
 * Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) – Latawa – S1/E20 "The Quietists" (1965)
 * Branded – episode – The Test – Wild Horse (1965)
 * Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) – Sashona – S2/E14 "The Christmas Story" (1965)
 * Gentle Ben – episode – Invasion of Willie Sam Gopher – Willie Sam Gopher (1967)
 * The Virginian – episode – The Heritage – Den'Gwatzi (1968)
 * The Brady Bunch – episode – The Brady Braves – Chief Eagle Cloud (1971)
 * The Virginian – episode – The Animal – Spotted Hand (1971)
 * Cannon – episode – Valley of the Damned – Jimmy One Eye (1973)

title: Jay Silverheels