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Södermanland

Södermanland, locally Sörmland, sometimes referred to under its Latinized form Sudermannia or Sudermania, is a historical province (or landskap) on the south eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Östergötland, Närke, Västmanland and Uppland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea.

Södermanland means "(The) Land of the Southern Men", where the "southern men" (södermännen) were the people living south of Uppland.

Administration
The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, but are historical and cultural entities. There is a corresponding administrative Södermanland County. However, the bulk of the population is within Stockholm County.

Heraldry
The coat of arms was granted in 1560. The arms is represented with a ducal coronet. Blazon: "Or, a Griffin rampant Sable beaked, langued, membered and armed Gules." The same CoA was granted for the county in 1940.

Geography

Södermanland is situated between lake Mälaren to the north and the Baltic Sea to the south and east. In the south, the border to Östergötland is comprised by the Kolmården forest.

The terrain is flat, with its highest altitude being Skogsbyås at 124 m elevation. The terrain largely consists of water filled hollows covered with woods on the heights.

There are three major water regions. One in the west, where lake Hjälmaren drains into Mälaren. There is a second water region on Södertörn, which is rather small in size and has no larger lakes. Smaller lakes in that region include Bornsjön (6.5 sqkm), Orlången (2.5 sqkm), and Magelungen (2.9 sqkm) as well as Naten lake. The third region is to the south towards Kolmården.

Both the city of Stockholm and Stockholm County are divided in the middle between Södermanland (southern part) and Uppland (northern part).

 * National parks: Tyresta

Lakes

 * Klämmingen
 * Kolsnaren
 * Likstammen
 * Lockvattnet
 * Näsnaren
 * Orrhammaren
 * Tornbergssjön
 * Träskaten

Population
The population of Södermanland is 1,320,477 as of 31December 2016. It is distributed over three counties as follows:

Södermanland is, with 160 PD/sqkm, the most densely populated of the provinces. A great part of Stockholm urban area is situated within its limits.

History
Södermanland is one of the ancient Swedish provinces. People probably settled there in the early Stone Age, from which time the earliest remains date. There are a total of 96,000 known ancient remains such as grave fields, coins, knives, etc. There are prominent finds especially from the Neolithic, but also a substantial amount from the Nordic Bronze Age. From the early Iron Age, before 1 AD, the finds are however more sparse. Then from the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the finds are again plenty, now of gold. In 1774, a treasure of 12 kg of gold from that time was found on a farm in Tureholm.

From the Viking Age 300 runestones remain, second only to Uppland in quantity. The oldest, which is dated from the late 6th century, is the Skåäng Runestone.

The earliest recorded history is generally of the legendary kind. Before the 7th century it is deemed to have been governed by petty kingdoms. This period ended when Ingjald the Ill-Ruler allegedly had a number of local rulers arsoned around 640.

Nyköping has remnents of city structures in the archeological record from around 600. The excavated remnants if buildings were of several types with boat houses for longboats, according to the excavations 2010-2011 at Åkroken 3 (Report 2016:77). The boat houses were in use for about 400 years, during vendel era and viking age.

The oldest city with the historical city status in Södermanland was Södertälje, a privilege granted around 1000. Nyköping received the privilege in 1187. In the 13th century, Stockholm was granted the privilege; in the 14th century followed by Strängnäs, Torshälla and Trosa.

Around 1100, Strängnäs became the episcopal seat with a bishop and cathedral. It was for a long time the only diocese of the province. In 1942 the Diocese of Stockholm was established, claiming parts of the Strängnäs territory. The first affirmative records date from the 13th century. King Magnus Ladulås was given the province in 1266, and settled himself on the manor at Nyköping. Nyköping became one of the most important cities in Sweden. In 1317, Nyköping become the location of the infamous Nyköping Banquet where King Birger had both his brothers murdered to take possession of the crown and avenge earlier wrong-deeds.

In 1523 the King Gustav Vasa, referred to as the Sweden's Father of the Nation, was crowned in Strängnäs. The date, 6June, eventually is commemorated as the national holiday. Charles IX, a son of Gustav Vasa, favoured the province, fortifying castles and establishing early industries.

The largest of very many paintings made by David von Krafft is the Hildebrand family portrait from 1713 (at Nynäs Manor, in Södermanland), depicting the merchant and industrialist Henrik Jacob Hildebrand and his wife Anna Sofia Amya on the occasion of their 50th anniversary surrounded by their over twenty children and grandchildren, as well as some deceased relatives in paintings on the wall in the background.

Dukes and Duchesses of Södermanland

 * Prince Magnus (as of 1252; king from 1275)
 * Prince Eric (1302–1310 – also Dalsland, North Halland, Värmland and West Gothland)
 * Prince Carl (as of 1560; king from 1604 – also Närke and Värmland)
 * Princess Maria, his first wife (1579–1589 – also Närke and Värmland)
 * Princess Christina, his second wife and widow (as of 1592; queen from 1604 – also Närke and Värmland)
 * Crown Prince Gustav Adolph (1604–1607 – also Västmanland)
 * Prince Carl Philip (1607–1618 – also Närke and Värmland)
 * Prince Carl (as of 1772; king from 1809)
 * Princess Charlotte, his wife and widow (as of 1774; queen from 1809)
 * Crown Prince Oscar (as of 1811; king from 1844)
 * Crown Princess Josephine, his wife and widow (as of 1823; queen from 1844)
 * Prince Carl Oscar (1852–1854)
 * Prince Wilhelm (1884–1965)
 * Princess Maria, his wife (1909 until divorce 1914)
 * Prince Alexander (2016–present)

Culture
The area has been inhabited since the Stone Age, and medieval churches, runestones and graveyards are plentiful throughout the countryside.

Of buildings, the arguably most impressive is the castle of Gripsholm. Nearby is the Gripsholm Runestone, a typical Viking Runestone, commemorating an earlier Viking expedition.

The cemetery Skogskyrkogården in southern Stockholm is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Sub-divisions
Södermanland was historically divided into chartered cities and into hundreds.

Cities (year city rights were granted)

 * Eskilstuna (1659)
 * Flen (1949)
 * Katrineholm (1917)
 * Mariefred (1605)
 * Nacka (1949)
 * Nyköping (1187)
 * Nynäshamn (1946)
 * Oxelösund (1950)
 * Stockholm (1250)
 * Strängnäs (1336)
 * Södertälje (approximately 1000)
 * Torshälla (1317)
 * Trosa (approximately 1300)

Hundreds
• Asker Hundred

• Daga Hundred

• Hölebo Hundred

• Jönåker Hundred

• Oppunda Hundred

• Rönö Hundred

• Selebo Hundred

• Sotholm Hundred

• Svartlösa Hundred

• Villåttinge Hundred

• Västerrekarne Hundred

• Åkerbo Hundred

• Åker Hundred

• Öknebo Hundred

• Österrekarne Hundred

Sports
Football in the province is administered by Södermanlands Fotbollförbund. Ice hockey is also popular, with Södertälje SK.

title: Södermanland


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Värmland

Värmland is a landskap (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west.

Name
Several Latinized versions of the name exist, including Varmelandia, Vermelandia, Wermelandia, Værmalandia, Værmolandia, Virmolandia and Vermillandia.

Some of the Latinised forms show the origin of the name to come from the large local lake by the name of Värmeln (from older *Virmil); others from the river name *Værma, the main outlet of that lake. The province was originally part of Götaland, and became part of Svealand in 1815.

Wermland is an obsolete Swedish spelling of the name, which may still be seen in proper names such as Nya Wermlands-Tidningen, a newspaper.

Sub-divisions
Sweden's provinces were sub-divided into hundreds or districts. Värmland was historically divided into chartered cities and districts. One district formed part of Bergslagen and was a mountain district, and all the other districts were hundreds.

 * Edsberg Hundred
 * Fryksdal Hundred
 * Färnebo Hundred
 * Gillberg Hundred
 * Grums Hundred
 * Jösse Hundred
 * Karlstad Hundred
 * Karlskoga Mountain District
 * Kil Hundred
 * Nordmark Hundred
 * Nyed Hundred
 * Näs Hundred
 * Visnum Hundred
 * Väse Hundred
 * Älvdal Hundred
 * Ölme Hundred

Geography
The largest lake is Vänern. Most streams of importance lead to Vänern. However, the province is rich in small lakes, ponds and streams. The scenery, with mountains and lakes, is usually regarded as picturesque and has inspired painters and writers.

Western Värmland
There are several mountain plateaus in the western part of Värmland, which is in the Scandinavian Mountains. The highest elevations are found in the northern parts, with plateaus of 500–700 m. The highest peak is also located here, Granberget at Höljes, 701 m.

Eastern Värmland
The eastern part of Värmland is counted as part of the Bergslagen, the Central Swedish Mining District. Its terrain is rather hilly, with a few high hills: Hvitklinten 414 m, Dalkarlsberget 450 m and Vålbergsrös 476 m.

This part of Värmland is rich in minerals, most notably iron ore which exists in large quantities. Some notable sites in this area are around Långban and Nordmark Hundred. In the southeast, the ridge of Kilsbergen marks the border with Närke.

Population
The population of Värmland is 322,612 as of 31 December 2022. It is distributed over three counties as follows:

History
The province was sparsely populated in the pre-historic age compared to Sweden's southern half. Its 5,500 registered ancient remains are few, compared to other areas. The province was considered to be of minor importance in the Swedish Realm. There are, however, interesting histories told by Snorri Sturlasson about Värmland in the 13th century. It extends back to Ingjald Illråde a legendary king in the 7th century. These stories say that Olof Trätälja, the son of Ingjald, was not accepted as king and had to flee and settled in the then sparsely populated Värmland. More men had to flee the brutal successor of Ingjald and settled in Värmland. Archaeology shows that there was at this time a large increase of population, and construction of some big memorials of powerful men. According to Snorri and other Icelandic sources, Värmland came under Norwegian control in the late 9th and through the 10th century. However, by the time of Adam of Bremen in the 11th century the region is described as Swedish. In Adam's account, the värmlänningar are described as a distinct "Swedish tribe" along with the Sviar, Geats and Skridfinnar (commonly taken to be Sami people).

The early history strongly influenced was not only by the proximity to Västergötland, but also by its western neighbour Norway. Sweden's war with Norway had a strong effect on Värmland too. In 1225, Haakon IV of Norway (Haakon the Old) invaded Sweden and burnt down all villages if they did not pay a ransom. This feud was eventually settled in 1249.

Värmland was originally considered a part of Götaland, and had a strong connection to its southern neighbour Västergötland. Eastern Värmland traditionally belongs to the Bergslagen area, Sweden's central mining district.

In 1582, Värmland was granted its first city privileges, Kristinehamn, but those were revoked. The second city, Karlstad, on the north shore of lake Vänern, was granted by Duke Charles, later king Charles IX of Sweden, in 1584. It became the capital of the province and its name is derived from the King, and literally means Charles' City. The third city was Filipstad in 1611; however, its privilege was revoked in 1694 after a devastating fire. King Charles IX took great personal interest in expanding mining in the province and the industry developed significantly during his reign.

The early 17th century marked the beginning of substantial immigration from Finland. The areas where they centred were known as Finnskog. They kept their Finnish customs and language until the late 19th century. The last native resident to speak Finnish here died in the 1980s.

The most significant coup d'état of modern Swedish history had its beginning in Karlstad. The man behind the uprising was a liberal nobleman and a prominent man of the opposition, major general Georg Adlersparre. He was backed up by the radical guards captain Carl Henrik Anckarsvärd and used the part of the western army that was stationed in Värmland to occupy Karlstad on the night of 7 March 1809. From there he officially proclaimed a revolution, a proclamation which held the view that wars and oppression had ruined the country and the government therefore had to be overthrown. On 9 March, Adlersparre and his enthusiastic soldiers (many of Finnish origin) finally began their march towards Stockholm, and in the events that followed, the king Gustav IV Adolf abdicated under pressure.

Under the Continental system (1806–1814), the timber industry flourished in Värmland and continuing into the modern era, forestry became industrialized and is still the economic backbone of the province.

Bordering on Norway, Värmland was affected by Sweden's last war, Crown Prince Jean Baptiste Bernadottes military campaign against Norway in 1814. The province saw large troop movement and many soldiers originating from the province were involved in battles. The Värmland Regiment had three battalions attached to the 9th Brigade under Colonel Klingspor and one battalion attached to the 10th Brigade under Colonel Gahn af Colqhoun. Both brigades were part of the 5th Army Division under Major General Rosenblad. The 9th Brigade crossed the border to Norway on 30 July 1814 and participated in the siege of Fredrikstad Fortress, which capitulated on 4 August, while other parts of the regiment a few days later followed later Lieutenant General Vegesacks department north and participated in battles at Rakkestad and Langenäs on 6 August 1814 and Askim on 9 August 1814. A battalion of the regiment, commanded by Major Lagerlöv, managed to fight back a Norwegian attack from the bridgehead at Langenäs. The 10th Brigade crossed the border on 1 August 1814 and went in the direction of Morast. It participated in the Battle of Lier south of Kongsvinger on 2 August 1814 and then retreated to the border, where the battalion participated in the battle of Midskog on 5 August 1814 and suffered heavy losses.

During World War II, western Värmland was again an area of heavy military deployment. A major part of the Swedish Armed Forces was concentrated to Värmland following the German invasion of Norway. Approximately 150,000 military personnel were mobilised to Värmland in June 1941, by the time of German demands to transport the fully armed Division Engelbrecht through the country and before the launch of Operation Barbarossa, and with several large military exercises being conducted in the province during the period. Even more military personnel, possibly as many as 250,000, were mobilised to Värmland in the fall of 1943, due to the pending Swedish announcement to end German military transits and fear of a German attack.

An agreement from the dissolution of the union with Norway in 1905 stated that no fortification was allowed on the border between the two nations, but after the German occupation of Norway, old fortifications were renovated and many new constructed. Notably is the fortification Skansen Hultet (Skans 153 Hultet) in Eda Municipality, constructed 1940-1941 (although improvements continued until 1945), and equipped with a network of machine gun emplacements, casemates and other concrete bunkers, surrounded by barbed wire, walls and several lines of tank traps. The fortifications have been renovated by locals and are now open to the public. Formerly classified Swedish military documents shows that the Swedish Armed Forces spent approximately SEK 30 million on fortifications in Värmland during the 1940s. There are around 12,000 military objects, including 123 fortified sites, in Värmland dating from World War II.

The film Gränsen (Eng. Beyond the Border) from 2011, telling the story about the life of the young soldiers guarding the border between Sweden and German-occupied Norway in 1942, takes place in northern Värmland and was filmed near Torsby.

Dukes
Since 1772, Sweden's Princes have been created Dukes of various provinces in Sweden. This is solely a nominal title.
 * Prince Carl Adolf (1798)
 * Crown Prince Gustaf (from his birth in 1858 until he became King in 1907)
 * Prince Carl Philip (1979-)

Chartered cities

 * Arvika (town charter 1811, city charter 1911)
 * Filipstad (city charter 1611–1695, town charter 1720, city charter 1835)
 * Hagfors (city charter 1950)
 * Karlskoga (city charter 1940)
 * Karlstad (city charter 1584)
 * Kristinehamn (city charter 1582–1584, city charter 1642)
 * Säffle (town charter 1882, city charter 1951)

Provincial districts

 * Fryksdal
 * Färnebo
 * Gillberg
 * Grums
 * Jösse
 * Karlskoga
 * Karlstad
 * Kil
 * Nordmark
 * Nyeds (ceded from Kil, 1681)
 * Näs
 * Visnums
 * Väse
 * Älvdal
 * Ölme

Literature

The province has powerful literary and musical traditions and has spawned some of the most well-known and loved authors of Sweden. In the 19th century several leading authors had their origin here, and retained links to Värmland, among them Erik Gustaf Geijer, Esaias Tegnér, Gustaf Fröding and Nobel Prize winner Selma Lagerlöf. Lagerlöf's novel, Gösta Berlings Saga, is a neo-romantic saga that takes place in Värmland in the 1820s and 1830s. It was also made into a film starring Greta Garbo. It was also made into an opera, I cavalieri di Ekebù, by Italian composer Riccardo Zandonai in 1925.

Education, theatre and a somewhat glamorous lifestyle were buoyed by the landed gentry and the wealth being generated through a lively local iron trade, and also by the position of the landscape on the edge between civilization and wilderness, which inspired art, literature and folklore. During the second half of the 19th century, the iron processing industry was largely put out of business by the revolution in the steel industry which made Central Europe and the United States vastly superior in this field, and the overall economic crisis throughout Europe of the 1870s and 1880s, and the subsequent emigration to North America, shook the landscape. The consequence, however, was to make authors like Lagerlöf and Fröding more aware of the heritage of their province, and they both drew on what they felt to be an oral tradition of story-telling and local legends. This emphasis on richly textured, often romantic or burlesque tales which nonetheless transcend the local has remained a focus of later writers, such as Göran Tunström (1937–2000) and Lars Andersson (b. 1954).

The musical traditions have inspired a number of prominent musicians, such as singers Zarah Leander, Monica Zetterlund and Rigmor Gustafsson.

Ice hockey
Ice hockey is a popular sport in Värmland. The two most prominent teams in recent years are Färjestads BK from Karlstad and BIK Karlskoga from Karlskoga. Färjestad BK is the most successful team in the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). The team has won 10 Swedish championships since the introduction of the SHL in 1975. BIK Karlskoga plays in the second tier HockeyAllsvenskan. Other notable teams are Forshaga IF from Forshaga and Grums IK from Grums. The two teams played in the top tier of Swedish ice hockey in the 1940s and 1950s.

Football
Football in the province is administered by Värmlands Fotbollförbund. The two most prominent teams in recent years are Degerfors IF from Degerfors and Mallbackens IF Sunne from Lysvik, north of Sunne. Degerfors IF was founded in 1907. Team made its first appearances in the top tier Allsvenskan in 1938. Degerfors IF achieved its greatest success in 1993 when the team won Svenska Cupen and qualified for play in the 1993–94 European Cup Winners' Cup. Mallbackens IF Sunne has played 14 seasons in the women's top tier Damallsvenskan. Other notable teams are QBIK from Karlstad, IF Karlstad Fotboll from Karlstad, Nordvärmlands FF from Ambjörby and FBK Karlstad from Karlstad.

Winter sports
There are several larger locations for winter sports in Värmland:

 * Torsby is home to the Torsby Ski Tunnel and Sports Center. Torsby Ski Tunnel and Sports Center is a complete indoor and outdoor training facility. The ski tunnel was inaugurated in 2006 and is the first ski tunnel in Sweden. The ski tunnel has a length of 1.3 kilometers, but skiing is possible in both directions, which gives a total length of around 2.5 kilometers. At its inauguration, the ski tunnel was the longest ski tunnel in the world. The indoor facility also houses the first indoor shooting range for biathlon in Sweden. The facility also has a complete test center. The outdoor facility includes several trails for cross-country skiing, additional shooting ranges for biathlon, and a ski slope for alpine skiing. In total, there are up to 50 kilometers cross-country skiing trails in the area. Torsby Ski Tunnel and Sports Center is an official patner of the national cross-country skiing team of Sweden. The facility is regularly used by elite and national team athletes from Sweden and other countries. Torsby Ski Tunnel and Sports Center is an official Vasaloppet Centre. Directly adjacent to the facility is Torsby Sports hotel. The larger Valbergsängen Sports Hotel is also located in the area. Torsby Ski Tunnel and Sports Center is located next to Torsby Airport, with scheduled flights to and from Stockholm Arlanda Airport.

 * Torsby is also home to Stjerneskolan upper secondary school, which specializes in sports. The school has sports programmes specialized in, among other things, cross-country skiing, biathlon and alpine skiing. The programmes in cross-country skiing and biathlon are graded as national sports gymnasiums (RIG). Notable alumnus of the school includes the Swedish former cross-country skier Gunde Svan, Swedish biathlete and former cross-country skier Stina Nilsson and Swedish cross-country skier Linn Persson.

 * Mattila holiday village is located in Finnskogen northwest of Torsby. The village stems from a former Finnish settlement dating back to the 1640s. Mattila offers an extensive system of cross-country skiing trails. The trails measures up to 170 kilometers in total. Some trails extend all the way into Norway. The trails are groomed by the same grooming machine that was used for the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Falun. The cross-country skiing competition Mattila Ski Marathon is held annually in Mattila. The competition is a seeding competition for Vasaloppet.

 * The Långberget cross-country skiing facility is located north of Sysslebäck in northern Värmland. The facility is 630 metes above sea level. The facility offers up to 63 kilometers of cross-country skiing trails and a smaller ski slope for alpine skiing, as well as a sports hotel and hostel. The Långberget cross-country skiing facility is an official Vasaloppet Centre.

 * The sports facility Kalhyttan is located in Filipstad in eastern Värmland. The facility includes a multi-sport arena and an artificial snow facility. Kalhyttan has one of the most modern artificial snow systems in Sweden. The facility offers a total of 40 kilometers of cross-country skiing trails, including a 4 kilometer long cross-country skiing trail with artificial snow. Kalhyttan has been the venue for the Swedish Skiing Championship ten times.

There are several ski resorts in Värmland:

 * Branäs ski resort is located near Dalby in northern Vämland. Branäs is the largest ski resort in Värmland and the fourth largest ski resort in Sweden. The facility includes 33 slopes for alpine skiing, 30 lifts, including a gondola, a total of 29 kilometers of cross-country skiing trails and a ski cross course, as of 2024. The facility has a lift-served vertical drop of 415 meters. The two longest runs are 3 kilometers each.

 * Hovfjället ski resort is located outside Torsby. The ski resort is 542 meters above sea level. The facility includes 13 slopes for alpine skiing, six lifts, and a total of 22 kilometers of cross-country skiing trails. The ski resort has been in use since the 1960s.

 * Valfjället Skicenter is located near Gryttved, west of Åmotfors in western Värmland. The facility includes 12 slopes for alpine skiing, five lifts and several trails for cross-country skiing. With a vertical drop of 220 metres, the ski facility has one of southern Sweden's highest vertical drop. The longest run is 1.8 kilometers.

 * The ski resort Ski Sunne (also known as Finnfallet) is located outside Sunne. The facility includes 10 slopes for alpine skiing and seven lifts (including two chairlifts). Ski Sunne has a drop height of 265 metres. The longest run is 1,8 kilometes. Ski Sunne is operated and used by the slalom skiing club Sunne Alpina Klubb.

Motor sports
Värmland is the site of the Höljesbanan rallycross circuit in Höljes. Höljesbanan annyally hosts the Swedish round of the European and World Rallycross championships. The province also hosted the Rally Sweden rally competion for many years. However, the event wes relocated north to Umea in 2022.

Notable natives

 * Adam Alsing, (1968 in Karlstad – 2020) TV and radio presenter
 * Johanna Anderson, (1856—1904) Baptist missionary in Burma
 * Adolph Olson Eberhart, (1870 in Kil – 1944), Swedish-American Governor of Minnesota
 * August Hjalmar Edgren (1840 in Östanås – 1903), Swedish-American linguistics professor
 * John Alexis Edgren (1839 in Östanås – 1908), Swedish-American Minister
 * Nils Ericson (1802 in Langbanshyttan – 1870), inventor and mechanical engineer
 * John Ericsson (1803 in Langbanshyttan – 1889), inventor and mechanical engineer.
 * Lars Magnus Ericsson, (1846 in Värmskog – 1926) inventor, founder of Ericsson
 * Tage Erlander, (1901 in Ransäter – 1985) Prime Minister of Sweden, 1946-1969
 * Nils Ferlin, (1898 in Karlstad - 1961) poet and lyricist.
 * Gustaf Fröding, (1860 in Alster – 1911) poet and writer
 * Erik Gustaf Geijer, (1783 in Ransäter – 1847) writer, historian, poet, philosopher and composer.
 * Göran Hägglund, (born 1959 in Degerfors) Minister for Social Affairs, 2006-2014
 * Selma Lagerlöf, (1858 in Mårbacka – 1940) author and teacher
 * Zarah Leander, (1907 in Karlstad – 1981) singer and actress
 * Bruce Magnuson, (1909–1995) former leader of the Communist Party of Canada
 * Oscar F. Mossberg, (1866–1937) Swedish-American manufacture of firearms, co-founder of O.F. Mossberg & Sons
 * Adolf Noreen, (1854 in Östra Ämtervik – 1925) linguist
 * Harry Nyquist, (1889 in Filsby – 1976) physicist and electronic engineer
 * Victor Sjöström, (1879 in Årjäng – 1960) film director, screen writer and actor
 * Mia Skäringer, (born 1976 in Kristinehamn) actress and comedian
 * Esaias Tegnér (1782 in Kyrkerud – 1846) writer, professor of the Greek language and bishop.
 * Sten Tolgfors, (born 1966 in Forshaga) arms lobbyist and former Minister for Defence
 * Göran Tunström, (1937 in Borgvik – 2000) author.
 * Östen Undén, (1886 in Karlstad – 1974) Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1924–1926 and 1945–1962
 * Monica Zetterlund, (1937 in Hagfors – 2005) jazz singer and actress.

Sport

 * Gunnar Andersson, (1928 in Arvika – 1969) former footballer, famous in Olympique de Marseille
 * Marcus Berg, (born 1986 in Torsby) footballer in FC Krasnodar
 * Andreas Bergwall, (born 1974) bandy goalkeeper
 * Kenny Bräck, (born 1966 in Arvika) a former race car driver, 1999 Indy 500 Winner
 * Sven-Göran Eriksson, (born 1948 in Sunne) football coach, former England head coach
 * Bengt-Åke Gustafsson, (born 1958 in Karlskoga) former ice hockey player and head coach of Sweden men's national ice hockey team
 * Stefan Holm, (born 1976 in Forshaga) high jumper, gold medallist at the 2004 Summer Olympics
 * Willy Lindström, (born 1951 in Grums) former ice hockey player and twice winner of Stanley Cup
 * Lina Länsberg, (born 1982 in Karlstad) mixed martial artist and twice IFMA gold medalist
 * Ola Toivonen, (born 1986 in Degerfors) footballer in Malmö FF
 * Thomas Wassberg, (born 1956 in Lennartsfors) retired cross-country skier, four times Olympic gold medallist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Värmland


text:
Västmanland

Västmanland ( or ) is a historical Swedish province, or landskap, in middle Sweden. It borders Södermanland, Närke, Värmland, Dalarna and Uppland.

Västmanland means "(The) Land of the Western Men", where the "western men" (västermännen) were the people living west of Uppland, the core province of early Sweden.

Administration
The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes (except sometimes as sport districts), but are historical and cultural entities. In the case of Västmanland the corresponding administrative county, Västmanland County, constitutes the eastern part of the province. The western part is in Örebro County where the municipalities of Hällefors, Lindesberg, Ljusnarsberg and Nora are located.

Heraldry
The coat of arms was granted in 1560. At the time it featured one fire mountain, to represent the mine of Sala Municipality. Soon, their numbers were increased to three, to also symbolize the Lindesberg and Norberg/Skinnskatteberg mines and the present blazon was ratified in 1943. Blazon: "Argent, in base triple Mount Azure issuant from each Flames Gules." When crowned with a ducal coronet it represents the province. However rather different in size Västmanland County was granted the same CoA in 1943.

Geography
The terrain is to the north and north-west rocky. In these parts the highest mountains are located: Älvhöjden with 422 meters, and Gillersklack with 408 meters.

In the other parts it consists mostly of plains.

The largest lake is Mälaren marking the southern border, Sweden's third largest lake.
 * National parks: Färnebofjärden

Western Västmanland traditionally belonged to the mining district of Bergslagen.

In 2014, the area around Ramnäs saw the largest forest fire in Sweden in modern times.

History
The oldest city of Västmanland is Västerås, founded sometime around 990. The city was once the provincial capital, and from 1120 it became the seat of the diocese of Västerås. Västerås is today also the largest city in the province, with 140,000 inhabitants in the municipality.

After that Arboga, was chartered in the 12th century, Köping in 1474, Sala in 1624; Lindesberg and Nora both in 1643, and finally Fagersta in 1944. With city status in Sweden being abolished in 1971, these are solely historical titles.

The mines of Norberg and Skinnskatteberg began being in use in the 14th century. The mine of Lindesberg was being cultivated in the early 16th century.

Dukes of Västmanland
Since 1772, Swedish Princes have been created Dukes of various provinces. This is solely a nominal title.
 * Prince Erik (1889–1918)

Culture
Engelsberg Ironworks is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Notable residents

 * Johan Wilhelm Dalman (1787–1828), physician and naturalist
 * Carl Wilhelm von Scheele
 * Mikael Mogren, Bishop

Sports
Västerås SK is the most successful Swedish bandy team with 20 titles as of 2017. Several Bandy World Championship finals have been played in Västerås.

Subdivisions
Västmanland was historically divided into districts. Within Bergslagen they were called mountain districts (bergslag), and in the rest of the province hundreds.

• Fellingsbro Hundred

• Norrbo Hundred

• Siende Hundred

• Simtuna Hundred

• Snevringe Hundred

• Tu Hundred

• Vagnsbro Hundred

• Yttertjurbo Hundred

• Åkerbo Hundred

• Övertjurbo Hundred • Grythytte and Hällefors Mountain District

• Lindes and Ramsberg Mountain District

• New Kopparberg Mountain District

• Nora and Hjulsjö Mountain District

• Old Norberg Mountain District

• Skinnskatteberg Mountain District

title: Västmanland


text:
Talk:Indifference curve

microeconomist's major ignorance
''Independence of purchase choices from budget: When individual demand curve is aggregated to the group's the major assumption is made that consumers all spend the same fraction of their wealth on each commodity, no matter whether they are a pauper or a billionaire. This underlies the microeconomist's major ignorance of the distribution of wealth in society.''

I removed this; an odd assumption is introduced, not based on the theory discussed in the article, and then it is used as argument against the theory. - Patrick 09:55 Mar 2, 2003 (UTC)

the assertion is correct its inclusion in thie article is misplaced--Jgard5000 (talk) 02:35, 25 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

assumetions section
User:67.42.28.222 Replaced the assumetions section from:

Evidence
Is it only 'economics' where a 'theory' can be described without any concern for references to empirical evidence? This 'theory' is fantasy. The mention of indifference curves being a 'straightforward' idea is equally laughable: it talks about 'satisfaction' as though this was something empirically measurable, as though satisfaction and utility were synonyms perhaps? Would a meal with MSG and Opium in it be of measurable satisfaction and would that equate with utility? What is utility? All we are dealing with here are tautologies and truisms, and the attempts of the confused to impose a systematic view on things.It is a terrible shame that these ideas have been allowed to propagate and infect the minds of decision makers. There should be no wonder we must suffer a financial crisi. 90.179.192.118 (talk) 19:56, 12 September 2009 (UTC)

Even though economics is a social science - a science of human behavior economists justify avoiding empirical research into human preferences and motives on the ground that people are bad to lie. therefore since human frailities complicate the math lets eliminate human behavior from the mix.--Jgard5000 (talk) 05:02, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

Assumptions Original
These properties follow mathematically from the first three of the following list of assumptions. These assumptions, which are troublesome, are made in conceiving of indifference curves and demand functions:

Completeness: This assumption rests on the assertions that choice-makers have (1) infinite knowledge not just about the details of any apparent options, but about all (other) existing possibilities, and how much they would cost (including all implicit costs not reflected in the price), and (2) infinite knowledge about the set of factors which affect the personal satisfaction inherent in the option. This is thus subject to another selection problem: the total utility of a given choice depends on how many tangible and intangible factors one takes into account. Does one want to know how a commodity was made, who or what was destroyed by its production, or what the alternatives might have been, given that such knowledge will likely affect the object's desirability (utility)? Since not buying something but rather waiting for a future alternative (which might radically change the attractiveness of existing options) is always one option, the current utility is not even theoretically assessable. All these (thoroughly impossible) conditions would together mean that every pair of options has a unique ordering of utility.

Transitivity: Essentially, this says the pair ordering above extends to more than two options and is unique.

Non-satiation: This is the idea that people always want more --- not of something, but of everything and anything! This has elsewhere been called the philosophy of the cancer cell. Non-satiation is frequently relaxed when the specifics of the market show that this is the case.

Satiation: The marginal value a person gets from each commodity falls with the number of units. This is also called convexity. If one has much of something, one is not very happy with even more (but, according to the previous assumption, still a little).

Robotic behaviour: This seems separate from the other "rationality" criteria above. This is the assumption that a consumer not only can order options according to preference, but acts on such a utility-based rationale rather than, say, primarily out of habit or subject to an influence like "training" (e.g. due to marketing). In other words, the relationship between "utility" and effective "preference" is quietly assumed, in contradiction to what any psychologist or advertising agent knows. In reality, people making choices are well aware that they are not acting on the sum of their knowledge, but rather on habit, bias, and impulse as well. Consumers do not make their purchase decisions all at once, and thus do not have a "budget line" for most decisions. This "irrationality" applies to mass behaviour (subject to "fashion") even more than it does to individuals. Note however that a preference based on habit, bias or fashion does not necessarily contradict the theory.

Independence of budget and desires: It is assumed that consumers do not have control over the amount of their income. In reality, many people are in a position to earn extra income when they need to purchase something big, and to emphasize work which does not earn monetary compensation when they have enough.

Independence of purchase choices from non-monetary choices: More generally, since the given formalism is used to represent money-transactions only --- i.e. in the context of a market --- there is an assumption that a consumer's set of choices which concern monetary costs is entirely independent from the set of choices which do not have any cost involved. Instead, humans are social beings and thus use heuristics such as morality and social influence to make these decisions. If this is true, the rational choice theory cannot be repaired with any perturbation; it is simply inapplicable.

 * with:

Note that perfect knowledge means that in deciding whether to buy a beer a consumer weighs all the benefits and costs to be derived from the consumption of the beer present and future. He would take into consideration what effect if any the present consumption of a beer would have 30 years in the future. And in considering whether to consume a beer he would consider the benefitsi of all other optional uses of his time and money. Of course, one might say that the smartest thing to do would not be to not spend your time thinking about what effect the present consumption of a beer will have 30 years from now or 1000 years from now. Of course an assumption of neoclassical theory is that information costs are zero. So calculating the present value of the future benefits of chugging a Pabst Blue Ribbon is no problem. --Jgard5000 (talk) 04:58, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

Note that the numbers associated with indifference curves are indexes they have no cardinal implications, Economists could label the curves blue, red and green but that would slightly complicate the mathemaical analysis.--Jgard5000 (talk) 12:45, 24 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

67.42.28.222's Assumptions
The first three assumptions are necessary, the next two are convenient.

Completeness: Consumers know their individual preferences; they can choose between any consumption bundle X and consumption bundle Y. They know either that X is preferred to Y, Y is preferred to X, or that they are indifferent between X and Y.

Transitivity: If a consumer prefers bundle X to bundle Y, and prefers bundle Y to bundle Z, then he must prefer bundle X to bundle Z.

Continuity: This means that you can choose to consume any amount of the good. For example, I could drink 11 mL of soda, or 12 mL, or 132 mL. I am not confined to drinking 2 liters or nothing.

Non-satiation: This is the idea that more of any good is always preferred to less.

Convexity: The marginal value a person gets from each commodity falls relative to the other good. In a two good world, if a consumer has relatively lots of one good he would be a happier with a little less of that good and a little more of the other.

 * 67.42.28.222 is certainly correct, I am not sure if some of the information in the original should be readded. Jrincayc 15:02, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

incorrect ???

 * I removed the incorrect phrase in the following paragraph. Both ordinal and cordinal approaches to utility are theories. I do not think the word "incorrect" or "wrong" should be placed upon a theory unless proven so. --Voidvector 18:41, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC)

History
The theory of indifference curves was developed by Edgeworth, Pareto and others in the first part of the 20th century. The theory was developed so that analysis of economic choices could be based upon preferences which can be observed and compared (ordinal utility), rather than the older concept of utility which was based on the incorrect and unrealistic assumption that the satisfaction derived from economic choices could be measured (cardinal utility).

diff== Positive Indifference curves ==

 * A special case of Indifference curve slopes upward from left to right (positive slope) for goods known as "Giffen goods". Giffen goods (named after Robert Giffen) are inferior goods that increase in demand as their price increases.  Giffen's example was of demand for bread by the poor which increases as the price of bread increases because the additional cost displaces the purchase of more expensive foods in their limited budget.

The indifference curve for giffen goods still have negative slope. They just are scrunched up in a particular way. Positive slopes on indifference curves imply that one of the 'goods' is a bad, since the person would trade less of good y for less of good x. So say I have pizza and garbage. A positive indifference curve example would be I would give up 3 pizzas and 5 bags of garbage and still be just as happy. Jrincayc 13:44, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Instead of removing that, can you please add a section for showing behaviour of indifference curve in case of Giffen goods. pamri 07:51, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This article needs renaming or a thorough rearrangement
The title is "Indifference curves." But the formal treatment comes first. Who's the audience for this, first-year grad students? Probably, b/c nobody has complained. But who wants to use this article as a link to other articles? Possibly also nobody. Wiki readers would be better served with the curves coming first and with a ground-up exposition. Thx. Thomasmeeks 07:33, 12 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Merci! Or is it, "Mercy!" Thomasmeeks 19:00, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

I Agree
Surely, the typical person who comes to Wikipedia to read about indifference curves will require some kind of non-technical introduction. Will continue work on this over the next day or two. UbiquitousUK

 * Why have a statment of the formal preference relationships when the purpose is to replicate the properties of the real number system so that the math will work. Does an encyclopedic article really need to include that?--Jgard5000 (talk) 00:21, 30 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

Inaccurate
The article treats indifference curves as a microeconomic theory. It is a microeconomic theory, but it's worth noting that they they are used extensively in macroeconomic modeling as well, with the AS/AD model. The article's emphasis on microeconomics is misleading at best, inaccurate at worst. Zenwhat (talk) 09:58, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * An indifference curve is not a "microeconomic theory" in ordinary usage. Rather, indifference-curve analysis is commonly used in the part of economic theory described as microeconomic. Historically, modern macroeconomics was criticized for not spelling out micro foundations.  A tool commonly described as microtheoretic does not preclude a macro use.  The article as it stands is not inaccurate.   Rather than inserting an arguably inaccurate or overly-general template in the article, why not remedy the alleged defect ("incompleteness"?), preferably with a scholarly reference to support the point about macro usage? --Thomasmeeks (talk) 18:47, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

perfect substitutes: constant slope vs. parallel lines
Indifference curves are not necessarily lines, as shown in first graphic on the page, so probably best to avoid word 'line' if possible. Also see line where it says that a line must be perfectly straight, which is not necessarily the case. Although constant slope would seem to imply parallel lines, you can also have goods that are substitutes only along some sub-range of their indifference curve. In that case, the indifference curves would have constant slope on that subrange, but not elsewhere, hence it is not a line. So although this section describes perfect substitutes putting this in terms of parallel lines seems potentially misleading. Finally, from the section entitled "Perfect Substitutes" in the closest reference I have at hand, "Intermediate Micro Economics" by Hal Varian 7th edition page 39, it says

"The important fact about perfect substitutes is that the indifference curves have a constant slope."

This is despite the fact that in the accompanying figure and previous text, the indifference curves are shown as parallel lines. Finally, although a technicality, if one did want to say line, it would have to be "line segment" in this case. More confusion. So how about we go back to "constant slope." (Econotechie (talk) 19:36, 19 September 2008 (UTC))

Perfect Complements
Am i wrong or does the diagram mean that a person would be indifferent between consuming two left shoes and two right and two left shoes and one quintillion right shoes?--Jgard5000 (talk) 04:37, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

 * You're right, the (quintillion-2) extra right shoes wouldn't affect utility. C RETOG 8(t/c) 12:01, 21 September 2009 (UTC)

I think i am partially right or right in a resticted sense. Perloff provides the answer to this issue on page 72 of Microeconomics, theory and applications with calculus ISBN 0-321-27794-5. The conumer would consume only the corner bundles - she would only consume pairs of shoes - a combination like 2 - quintillion would not be possible - so i'm wrong.--Jgard5000 (talk) 13:14, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

 * I suppose it depends on what you mean by "consume" exactly. If a quintillion right shoes were (due to volume discounting) cheaper than 2 right shoes, the consumer would purchase the quintillion shoes. C RETOG 8(t/c) 16:08, 21 September 2009 (UTC)

By consume I mean that the consumer would instantaneously derive all benefits from the shoe present and future.--Jgard5000 (talk) 21:12, 22 September 2009 (UTC)Jgard5000

Assumptions
The assumptions have nothing to do with reality they simply allow economist to use calculus in their analysis. They are a restatement of the properties of the real number system.--Jgard5000 (talk) 04:41, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

Mutually Parallel
No problem with statement - all curves would be parallel - however the graph makes it appear as if the distance between the curves is of some consequence which i don't think is correct but i have been wrong before.--Jgard5000 (talk) 13:26, 21 September 2009 (UTC)jgard50000

if one tries to construct a social indifference curve map intersecting indifference curves are a certainty.--Jgard5000 (talk) 18:16, 25 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

The Crux of the Problem
The problem with traditional consumer theory is not in the derivation of individual demand curves using the assumptions of consumer preference theory. As Keen. an unrelenting critic of traditional theory has said, "“the economic model of how an individual [maximizes utility] is intellectually watertight.” The problem is aggregating individual indifference curve, demand functions or utility functions to derive a market or aggregate demand function. In order, to sum individual demand functions to obtain a market demand functions requires two additional "strong" assumptions - everyone has the same tastes and that "each person’s taste remain the same as income changes so each additional income is spent exactly the same way as all previous dollars." As Keen notes, the first assumption amounts to assuming that there is a single consumer the second that there is a single good. The implications for traditional economics you cannot draw conclusions about social welfare. Now Keen is not a mainline neoclassical economist. In fact, he has been unrelenting in his criticism of the neoclassical school. However, the basis of his criticisms should not be dismissed. In fact, the summation of his criticism that traditional economics has little to say concerning aggregate demand is earily similar to the comments of Varian and Kreps who are members in good standing of the neoclassical school. Apparently, the word has not filtered down to the foot soldiers - the economists who write principles and intermediate text. --Jgard5000 (talk) 00:56, 24 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000

More is better
Non satiation among other things means that more is better. But it is more than that - it means more is always better. If you drew a total utility function i think it would mean that eventually the curve would increase at a decreasing rate but it would never reach a maximum value and it certainly would not reach a stage of decreasing utility, You could never eat enough pizza to get sick.--Jgard5000 (talk) 01:37, 27 September 2009 (UTC)jgard5000 You could experience diminishing marginal utility but not diminishing utility.

Assumptions (redux)
Since there now appears to be two competing sections in the articles, I have removed what I felt to be the weak section:

Let a, b, and c be bundles (vectors) of goods, such as (x, y) combinations above, with possibly different quantities of each respective good in the different bundles. The first assumption is necessary for a well-defined representation of stable preferences for the consumer as agent; the second assumption is convenient.

Rationality (called an ordering relationship in a more general mathematical context): Completeness + transitivity. For given preference rankings, the consumer can choose the best bundle(s) consistently among a, b, and c from lowest on up.

Continuity: This means that you can choose to consume any amount of the good. For example, I could drink 11 mL of soda, or 12 mL, or 132 mL. I am not confined to drinking 2 liters or nothing. See also continuous function in mathematics.

Of the remaining properties above, suppose, property (5) (convexity) is violated by a bulge of the indifference curves out from the origin for a particular consumer with a given budget constraint. Consumer theory then implies zero consumption for one of the two goods, say good Y, in equilibrium on the consumer's budget constraint. This would exemplify a corner solution. Further, decreases in the price of good Y over a certain range might leave quantity demanded unchanged at zero beyond which further price decreases switched all consumption and income away from X and to Y. The eccentricity of such an implication suggests why convexity is typically assumed.

I don't think there's anything in there which isn't in the rest of the article, but I'm open to ideas to the contrary. Regards, - Jarry1250 [Who? Discuss.] 14:30, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
Hi - someone's already mentioned it, but I don't know if anything's been done: the opening paragraph is still oddly difficult to understand, and I wonder if it could be rewritten to make it a little more accessible. iPhil (talk) 23:37, 14 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Yes, given it's such a simplistic concept, it wasn't clear to me if it was using economic jargon that hadn't been defined or wikilinked. 'Bundle' of what?  The accompanying image is fairly clear, but the first sentence dissonantly described the curve itself as a 'graph', linking to graph of a function, when a curve could be based on empirical data and it's hard to see how it can be a continuous function when goods cannot be infinitely subdivided.  Also confusing was the choice of preposition in 'That is, at each point on the curve, the consumer has no preference'.  Also 'One can equivalently refer to each point on the indifference curve as rendering the same level of utility' is hard to understand when we're considering 'equivalent' points, and strict equivalence is dubious given that a few sentences later the Geanakoplos point questions the usefulness of the notion of utility. After my edit, the first para is still a bit repetitive, perhaps the result of multiple edits.  --Cedderstk 21:32, 9 October 2016 (UTC)

Negative transitivity
I have the idea what's said about 'negative transitivity' is not correct. The article states for a relation R to be negative transitive:
 * $$x \not R y \Rarr x\not R z \lor z\not Ry$$.

This is equivalent to
 * $$xRz \land zRy \Rarr xRy $$,

i.e. (normal) transitivity.

I know negative transitivity to be:
 * $$x\not R z \land z\not R y \Rarr x\not R y $$

or equivalently
 * $$xRy \Rarr xRz \lor zRy$$.

Madyno (talk) 09:38, 31 May 2017 (UTC)

Can't understand.
I am not an economist, though I am good at math. Could you, please, give some simple example with apples and pears? 85.193.228.103 (talk) 13:23, 8 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Okay, I no longer need it. A short video on YouTube proved to be enough for me. As someone noticed, economics is just simple concepts that are explained with complex graphs and convoluted jargon. BTW, the first graph is misleading. "'Good X" should be replaced with "Quantity of good X"', and respectively for the vertical axis. 85.193.228.103 (talk) 14:57, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Indifference curve


text:
Electronic publishing

Electronic publishing (also referred to as e-publishing, digital publishing, or online publishing) includes the digital publication of e-books, digital magazines, and the development of digital libraries and catalogues. It also includes the editing of books, journals, and magazines to be posted on a screen (computer, e-reader, tablet, or smartphone).

About
Electronic publishing has become common in scientific publishing where it has been argued that peer-reviewed scientific journals are in the process of being replaced by electronic publishing. It is also becoming common to distribute books, magazines, and newspapers to consumers through tablet reading devices, a market that is growing by millions each year, generated by online vendors such as Apple's iTunes bookstore, Amazon's bookstore for Kindle, and books in the Google Play Bookstore. Market research suggested that half of all magazine and newspaper circulation would be via digital delivery by the end of 2015 and that half of all reading in the United States would be done without paper by 2015.

Although distribution via the Internet (also known as online publishing or web publishing when in the form of a website) is nowadays strongly associated with electronic publishing, there are many non-network electronic publications such as encyclopedias on CD and DVD, as well as technical and reference publications relied on by mobile users and others without reliable and high-speed access to a network. Electronic publishing is also being used in the field of test-preparation in developed as well as in developing economies for student education (thus partly replacing conventional books) – for it enables content and analytics combined – for the benefit of students. The use of electronic publishing for textbooks may become more prevalent with Apple Books from Apple Inc. and Apple's negotiation with the three largest textbook suppliers in the U.S.

Electronic publishing is increasingly popular in works of fiction. Electronic publishers are able to respond quickly to changing market demand, because the companies do not have to order printed books and have them delivered. E-publishing is also making a wider range of books available, including books that customers would not find in standard book retailers, due to insufficient demand for a traditional "print run". E-publication is enabling new authors to release books that would be unlikely to be profitable for traditional publishers. While the term "electronic publishing" is primarily used in the 2010s to refer to online and web-based publishers, the term has a history of being used to describe the development of new forms of production, distribution, and user interaction in regard to computer-based production of text and other interactive media.

Digitization
The first digitization initiative was in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, a student at the University of Illinois at Chicago, who launched Project Gutenberg, designed to make literature more accessible to everyone, through the internet. It took a while to develop, and in 1989 there were only 10 texts that were manually recopied on computer by Michael S. Hart himself and some volunteers. But with the appearance of the Web 1.0 in 1991 and its ability to connect documents together through static pages, the project moved quickly forward. Many more volunteers helped in developing the project by giving access to public domain classics.

In the 1970s, the French National Centre for Scientific Research digitized a thousand books from diverse subjects, mostly literature but also philosophy and science, dating back to the 12th century to present times. In this way were built the foundations of a large dictionary, the Trésor de la langue française au Québec. This foundation of e-texts, named Frantext, was published on a compact disc under the brand name Discotext, and then on the worldwide web in 1998.

Mass-scale digitization
In 1974, American inventor and futurist Raymond Kurzweil developed a scanner which was equipped with an Omnifont software that enabled optical character recognition for numeric inputs. The digitization projects could then be more ambitious since the time needed for digitization decreased considerably, and digital libraries were on the rise. All over the world, e-libraries started to emerge.

The ABU (Association des Bibliophiles Universels), was a public digital library project created by the Cnam in 1993. It was the first French digital library in the network; suspended since 2002, they reproduced over a hundred texts that are still available.

In 1992, the Bibliothèque nationale de France launched a vast digitization program. The president François Mitterrand had wanted since 1988 to create a new and innovative digital library, and it was published in 1997 under the name of Gallica. In 2014, the digital library was offering 80 255 online books and over a million documents, including prints and manuscripts.

In 2003, Wikisource was launched, and the project aspired to constitute a digital and multilingual library that would be a complement to the Wikipedia project. It was originally named "Project Sourceberg", as a word play to remind the Project Gutenberg. Supported by the Wikimedia Foundation, Wikisource proposes digitized texts that have been verified by volunteers.

In December 2004, Google created Google Books, a project to digitize all the books available in the world (over 130 million books) to make them accessible online. 10 years later, 25 000 000 books, from a hundred countries and in 400 languages, are on the platform. This was possible because by that time, robotic scanners could digitize around 6 000 books per hour.

In 2008, the prototype of Europeana was launched; and by 2010, the project had been giving access to over 10 million digital objects. The Europeana library is a European catalog that offers index cards on millions of digital objects and links to their digital libraries. In the same year, HathiTrust was created to put together the contents of many university e-libraries from USA and Europe, as well as Google Books and Internet Archive. In 2016, over six millions of users had been using HathiTrust.

Electronic publishing
The first digitization projects were transferring physical content into digital content. Electronic publishing is aiming to integrate the whole process of editing and publishing (production, layout, publication) in the digital world.

Alain Mille, in the book Pratiques de l'édition numérique (edited by Michael E. Sinatra and Marcello Vitali-Rosati), says that the beginnings of Internet and the Web are the very core of electronic publishing, since they pretty much determined the biggest changes in the production and diffusion patterns. Internet has a direct effect on the publishing questions, letting creators and users go further in the traditional process (writer-editor-publishing house).

The traditional publishing, and especially the creation part, were first revolutionized by new desktop publishing softwares appearing in the 1980s, and by the text databases created for the encyclopedias and directories. At the same time the multimedia was developing quickly, combining book, audiovisual and computer science characteristics. CDs and DVDs appear, permitting the visualization of these dictionaries and encyclopedias on computers.

The arrival and democratization of Internet is slowly giving small publishing houses the opportunity to publish their books directly online. Some websites, like Amazon, let their users buy eBooks; Internet users can also find many educative platforms (free or not), encyclopedic websites like Wikipedia, and even digital magazines platforms. The eBook then becomes more and more accessible through many different supports, like the e-reader and even smartphones. The digital book had, and still has, an important impact on publishing houses and their economical models; it is still a moving domain, and they yet have to master the new ways of publishing in a digital era.

Online edition
Based on new communications practices of the web 2.0 and the new architecture of participation, online edition opens the door to a collaboration of a community to elaborate and improve contents on Internet, while also enriching reading through collective reading practices. The web 2.0 not only links documents together, as did the web 1.0, it also links people together through social media: that's why it's called the Participative (or participatory) Web.

Many tools were put in place to foster sharing and creative collective contents. One of the many is the Wikipedia encyclopedia, since it is edited, corrected and enhanced by millions of contributors. OpenStreetMap is also based on the same principle. Blogs and comment systems are also now renown as online edition and publishing, since it is possible through new interactions between the author and its readers, and can be an important method for inspiration but also for visibility.

Process
The electronic publishing process follows some aspects of the traditional paper-based publishing process but differs from traditional publishing in two ways: 1) it does not include using an offset printing press to print the final product and 2) it avoids the distribution of a physical product (e.g., paper books, paper magazines, or paper newspapers). Because the content is electronic, it may be distributed over the Internet and through electronic bookstores, and users can read the material on a range of electronic and digital devices, including desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers, smartphones or e-reader tablets. The consumer may read the published content online on a website, in an application on a tablet device, or in a PDF document on a computer. In some cases, the reader may print the content onto paper using a consumer-grade ink-jet or laser printer or via a print-on-demand system. Some users download digital content to their devices, enabling them to read the content even when their device is not connected to the Internet (e.g., on an airplane flight).

Distributing content electronically as software applications ("apps") has become popular in the 2010s, due to the rapid consumer adoption of smartphones and tablets. At first, native apps for each mobile platform were required to reach all audiences, but in an effort toward universal device compatibility, attention has turned to using HTML5 to create web apps that can run on any browser and function on many devices. The benefit of electronic publishing comes from using three attributes of digital technology: XML tags to define content, style sheets to define the look of content, and metadata (data about data) to describe the content for search engines, thus helping users to find and locate the content (a common example of metadata is the information about a song's songwriter, composer, genre that is electronically encoded along with most CDs and digital audio files; this metadata makes it easier for music lovers to find the songs they are looking for). With the use of tags, style sheets, and metadata, this enables "reflowable" content that adapts to various reading devices (tablet, smartphone, e-reader, etc.) or electronic delivery methods.

Because electronic publishing often requires text mark-up (e.g., HyperText Markup Language or some other markup language) to develop online delivery methods, the traditional roles of typesetters and book designers, who created the printing set-ups for paper books, have changed. Designers of digitally published content must have a strong knowledge of mark-up languages, the variety of reading devices and computers available, and the ways in which consumers read, view or access the content. However, in the 2010s, new user friendly design software is becoming available for designers to publish content in this standard without needing to know detailed programming techniques, such as Adobe Systems' Digital Publishing Suite and Apple's iBooks Author. The most common file format is .epub, used in many e-book formats. .epub is a free and open standard available in many publishing programs. Another common format is .folio, which is used by the Adobe Digital Publishing Suite to create content for Apple's iPad tablets and apps.

Academic publishing
After an article is submitted to an academic journal for consideration, there can be a delay ranging from several months to more than two years before it is published in a journal, rendering journals a less than ideal format for disseminating current research. In some fields, such as astronomy and some areas of physics, the role of the journal in disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint repositories such as arXiv.org. However, scholarly journals still play an important role in quality control and establishing scientific credit. In many instances, the electronic materials uploaded to preprint repositories are still intended for eventual publication in a peer-reviewed journal. There is statistical evidence that electronic publishing provides wider dissemination, because when a journal is available online, a larger number of researchers can access the journal. Even if a professor is working in a university that does not have a certain journal in its library, she may still be able to access the journal online. A number of journals have, while retaining their longstanding peer review process to ensure that the research is done properly, established electronic versions or even moved entirely to electronic publication.

Copyright
In the early 2000s, many of the existing copyright laws were designed around printed books, magazines and newspapers. For example, copyright laws often set limits on how much of a book can be mechanically reproduced or copied. Electronic publishing raises new questions in relation to copyright, because if an e-book or e-journal is available online, millions of Internet users may be able to view a single electronic copy of the document, without any "copies" being made.

Emerging evidence suggests that e-publishing may be more collaborative than traditional paper-based publishing; e-publishing often involves more than one author, and the resulting works are more accessible, since they are published online. At the same time, the availability of published material online opens more doors for plagiarism, unauthorized use, or re-use of the material. Some publishers are trying to address these concerns. For example, in 2011, HarperCollins limited the number of times that one of its e-books could be lent in a public library. Other publishers, such as Penguin, are attempting to incorporate e-book elements into their regular paper publications.

Electronic versions of traditional media

 * CD-ROM
 * E-book
 * Electronic journal
 * Online magazine
 * Online newspaper
 * Online catalog
 * Online brochure
 * Online newsletter
 * Online presentation
 * Online flyer
 * Online menu
 * Online pamphlet
 * PDF

New media

 * Blog
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Coevolution

In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution.

Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859). Although he did not use the word coevolution, he suggested how plants and insects could evolve through reciprocal evolutionary changes. Naturalists in the late 1800s studied other examples of how interactions among species could result in reciprocal evolutionary change. Beginning in the 1940s, plant pathologists developed breeding programs that were examples of human-induced coevolution. Development of new crop plant varieties that were resistant to some diseases favored rapid evolution in pathogen populations to overcome those plant defenses. That, in turn, required the development of yet new resistant crop plant varieties, producing an ongoing cycle of reciprocal evolution in crop plants and diseases that continues to this day.

Coevolution as a major topic for study in nature expanded rapidly from the 1960s, when Daniel H. Janzen showed coevolution between acacias and ants (see below) and Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven suggested how coevolution between plants and butterflies may have contributed to the diversification of species in both groups. The theoretical underpinnings of coevolution are now well-developed (e.g., the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution), and demonstrate that coevolution can play an important role in driving major evolutionary transitions such as the evolution of sexual reproduction or shifts in ploidy. More recently, it has also been demonstrated that coevolution can influence the structure and function of ecological communities, the evolution of groups of mutualists such as plants and their pollinators, and the dynamics of infectious disease.

Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, thereby affecting each other's evolution. Coevolution includes many forms of mutualism, host-parasite, and predator-prey relationships between species, as well as competition within or between species. In many cases, the selective pressures drive an evolutionary arms race between the species involved. Pairwise or specific coevolution, between exactly two species, is not the only possibility; in multi-species coevolution, which is sometimes called guild or diffuse coevolution, several to many species may evolve a trait or a group of traits in reciprocity with a set of traits in another species, as has happened between the flowering plants and pollinating insects such as bees, flies, and beetles. There are a suite of specific hypotheses on the mechanisms by which groups of species coevolve with each other.

Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but researchers have applied it by analogy to fields such as computer science, sociology, and astronomy.

Mutualism
Coevolution is the evolution of two or more species which reciprocally affect each other, sometimes creating a mutualistic relationship between the species. Such relationships can be of many different types.

Flowering plants
Flowers appeared and diversified relatively suddenly in the fossil record, creating what Charles Darwin described as the "abominable mystery" of how they had evolved so quickly; he considered whether coevolution could be the explanation. He first mentioned coevolution as a possibility in On the Origin of Species, and developed the concept further in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862).

Insects and insect-pollinated flowers

Modern insect-pollinated (entomophilous) flowers are conspicuously coadapted with insects to ensure pollination and in return to reward the pollinators with nectar and pollen. The two groups have coevolved for over 100 million years, creating a complex network of interactions. Either they evolved together, or at some later stages they came together, likely with pre-adaptations, and became mutually adapted.

Several highly successful insect groups—especially the Hymenoptera (wasps, bees and ants) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) as well as many types of Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles)—evolved in conjunction with flowering plants during the Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago). The earliest bees, important pollinators today, appeared in the early Cretaceous. A group of wasps sister to the bees evolved at the same time as flowering plants, as did the Lepidoptera. Further, all the major clades of bees first appeared between the middle and late Cretaceous, simultaneously with the adaptive radiation of the eudicots (three quarters of all angiosperms), and at the time when the angiosperms became the world's dominant plants on land.

At least three aspects of flowers appear to have coevolved between flowering plants and insects, because they involve communication between these organisms. Firstly, flowers communicate with their pollinators by scent; insects use this scent to determine how far away a flower is, to approach it, and to identify where to land and finally to feed. Secondly, flowers attract insects with patterns of stripes leading to the rewards of nectar and pollen, and colours such as blue and ultraviolet, to which their eyes are sensitive; in contrast, bird-pollinated flowers tend to be red or orange. Thirdly, flowers such as some orchids mimic females of particular insects, deceiving males into pseudocopulation.

The yucca, Yucca whipplei, is pollinated exclusively by Tegeticula maculata, a yucca moth that depends on the yucca for survival. The moth eats the seeds of the plant, while gathering pollen. The pollen has evolved to become very sticky, and remains on the mouth parts when the moth moves to the next flower. The yucca provides a place for the moth to lay its eggs, deep within the flower away from potential predators.

Birds and bird-pollinated flowers

Hummingbirds and ornithophilous (bird-pollinated) flowers have evolved a mutualistic relationship. The flowers have nectar suited to the birds' diet, their color suits the birds' vision and their shape fits that of the birds' bills. The blooming times of the flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons. The floral characteristics of ornithophilous plants vary greatly among each other compared to closely related insect-pollinated species. These flowers also tend to be more ornate, complex, and showy than their insect pollinated counterparts. It is generally agreed that plants formed coevolutionary relationships with insects first, and ornithophilous species diverged at a later time. There is not much scientific support for instances of the reverse of this divergence: from ornithophily to insect pollination. The diversity in floral phenotype in ornithophilous species, and the relative consistency observed in bee-pollinated species can be attributed to the direction of the shift in pollinator preference.

Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds. Flowers compete for pollinators, and adaptations reduce unfavourable effects of this competition. The fact that birds can fly during inclement weather makes them more efficient pollinators where bees and other insects would be inactive. Ornithophily may have arisen for this reason in isolated environments with poor insect colonization or areas with plants which flower in the winter. Bird-pollinated flowers usually have higher volumes of nectar and higher sugar production than those pollinated by insects. This meets the birds' high energy requirements, the most important determinants of flower choice. In Mimulus, an increase in red pigment in petals and flower nectar volume noticeably reduces the proportion of pollination by bees as opposed to hummingbirds; while greater flower surface area increases bee pollination. Therefore, red pigments in the flowers of Mimulus cardinalis may function primarily to discourage bee visitation. In Penstemon, flower traits that discourage bee pollination may be more influential on the flowers' evolutionary change than 'pro-bird' adaptations, but adaptation 'towards' birds and 'away' from bees can happen simultaneously. However, some flowers such as Heliconia angusta appear not to be as specifically ornithophilous as had been supposed: the species is occasionally (151 visits in 120 hours of observation) visited by Trigona stingless bees. These bees are largely pollen robbers in this case, but may also serve as pollinators.

Following their respective breeding seasons, several species of hummingbirds occur at the same locations in North America, and several hummingbird flowers bloom simultaneously in these habitats. These flowers have converged to a common morphology and color because these are effective at attracting the birds. Different lengths and curvatures of the corolla tubes can affect the efficiency of extraction in hummingbird species in relation to differences in bill morphology. Tubular flowers force a bird to orient its bill in a particular way when probing the flower, especially when the bill and corolla are both curved. This allows the plant to place pollen on a certain part of the bird's body, permitting a variety of morphological co-adaptations.

Ornithophilous flowers need to be conspicuous to birds. Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the red end of the visual spectrum, so red is particularly conspicuous to them. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet "colors". The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous (insect-pollinated) flowers warns the bird to avoid these flowers. Each of the two subfamilies of hummingbirds, the Phaethornithinae (hermits) and the Trochilinae, has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethornithinae species are associated with large monocotyledonous herbs, while the Trochilinae prefer dicotyledonous plant species.

Fig reproduction and fig wasps

The genus Ficus is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, including the cultivated fig, defined by their syconia, the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. Each fig species has its own fig wasp which (in most cases) pollinates the fig, so a tight mutual dependence has evolved and persisted throughout the genus.

Acacia ants and acacias
The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae. Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different evolutionary strategies. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.

Parasites and sexually reproducing hosts
Host–parasite coevolution is the coevolution of a host and a parasite. A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.

The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite. Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.

Brood parasites
Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest.

Antagonistic coevolution
Antagonistic coevolution is seen in the harvester ant species Pogonomyrmex barbatus and Pogonomyrmex rugosus, in a relationship both parasitic and mutualistic. The queens are unable to produce worker ants by mating with their own species. Only by crossbreeding can they produce workers. The winged females act as parasites for the males of the other species as their sperm will only produce sterile hybrids. But because the colonies are fully dependent on these hybrids to survive, it is also mutualistic. While there is no genetic exchange between the species, they are unable to evolve in a direction where they become too genetically different as this would make crossbreeding impossible.

Predators and prey

Predators and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes selective pressures. These often lead to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in anti-predator adaptations.

The same applies to herbivores, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964 proposed the theory of escape and radiate coevolution to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies. In the Rocky Mountains, red squirrels and crossbills (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the lodgepole pine. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore.

Competition
Both intraspecific competition, with features such as sexual conflict and sexual selection, and interspecific competition, such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution.

Intraspecific competition can result in sexual antagonistic coevolution, an evolutionary relationship analogous to an arms race, where the evolutionary fitness of the sexes is counteracted to achieve maximum reproductive success. For example, some insects reproduce using traumatic insemination, which is disadvantageous to the female's health. During mating, males try to maximise their fitness by inseminating as many females as possible, but the more times a female's abdomen is punctured, the less likely she is to survive, reducing her fitness.

Multispecies

The types of coevolution listed so far have been described as if they operated pairwise (also called specific coevolution), in which traits of one species have evolved in direct response to traits of a second species, and vice versa. This is not always the case. Another evolutionary mode arises where evolution is reciprocal, but is among a group of species rather than exactly two. This is variously called guild or diffuse coevolution. For instance, a trait in several species of flowering plant, such as offering its nectar at the end of a long tube, can coevolve with a trait in one or several species of pollinating insects, such as a long proboscis. More generally, flowering plants are pollinated by insects from different families including bees, flies, and beetles, all of which form a broad guild of pollinators which respond to the nectar or pollen produced by flowers.

Geographic mosaic theory
Mosaic coevolution is a theory in which geographic location and community ecology shape differing coevolution between strongly interacting species in multiple populations. These populations may be separated by space and/or time. Depending on the ecological conditions, the interspecific interactions may be mutualistic or antagonistic. In mutualisms, both partners benefit from the interaction, whereas one partner generally experiences decreased fitness in antagonistic interactions. Arms races consist of two species adapting ways to "one up" the other. Several factors affect these relationships, including hot spots, cold spots, and trait mixing. Reciprocal selection occurs when a change in one partner puts pressure on the other partner to change in response. Hot spots are areas of strong reciprocal selection, while cold spots are areas with no reciprocal selection or where only one partner is present. The three constituents of geographic structure that contribute to this particular type of coevolution are: natural selection in the form of a geographic mosaic, hot spots often surrounded by cold spots, and trait remixing by means of genetic drift and gene flow. Mosaic, along with general coevolution, most commonly occurs at the population level and is driven by both the biotic and the abiotic environment. These environmental factors can constrain coevolution and affect how far it can escalate.

Outside biology
Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by analogy.

In algorithms
Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating artificial life as well as for optimization, game learning and machine learning. Daniel Hillis added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at local maxima. Karl Sims coevolved virtual creatures.

In architecture
The concept of coevolution was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist Henrik Valeur as an antithesis to "star-architecture". As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion.

At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, a coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers."

In cosmology and astronomy
In his book The Self-organizing Universe, Erich Jantsch attributed the entire evolution of the cosmos to coevolution.

In astronomy, an emerging theory proposes that black holes and galaxies develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution.

In management and organization studies
Since year 2000, a growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing.

In sociology
In Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future (1994) Richard Norgaard proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other. In Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship".

In technology
Computer software and hardware can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, operating systems and computer applications, web browsers, and web applications. All these systems depend upon each other and advance through a kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside. The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in sociotechnical systems analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and a "social system" of relationships and procedures through which the technology is tied into the goals of the system and all the other human and organizational relationships within and outside the system. Such systems work best when the technical and social systems are deliberately developed together.

title: Coevolution