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Mansfield Smith-Cumming

Captain Sir Mansfield George Smith-Cumming (1 April 1859 – 14 June 1923) was a British naval officer who served as the first chief of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS).

Origins
He was a great-great-grandson of the prominent merchant John Smith, a director of both the South Sea Company and the East India Company, the second son of Abel Smith (d. 1756), the Nottingham banker who founded a banking dynasty and whose business much later became National Westminster Bank, now one of the largest banks in the United Kingdom. His father was Colonel John Thomas Smith of the Madras Royal Engineers who became Master of the Madras and Calcutta Mints and designed a machine for minting coins that was displayed at the Great Exhibition in 1851.

Early naval career
Smith joined the Royal Navy and underwent training at Dartmouth from the age of twelve and was appointed acting sub-lieutenant in 1878. He was posted to HMS Bellerophon in 1877, and for the next seven years served in operations against Malay pirates (during 1875–6) and in Egypt in 1883. However, he increasingly suffered from seasickness, and in 1885 was placed on the retired list as "unfit for service". Prior to being appointed to run the Secret Service Bureau (SSB), he was working on boom defences in Bursledon on the River Hamble.

He added the surname Cumming after his marriage in 1889 to Leslie Marian Valiant-Cumming, heiress of Logie near Forres in the County of Moray.

Pre-1914
In 1909, Major (later Colonel Sir) Vernon Kell became director of the new Secret Service Bureau and created as a response to growing public opinion that all Germans living in England were spies. In 1911, the various security organizations were re-organised under the Bureau, Kell's division becoming the Home Section, and Cumming's becoming the new Foreign Section, responsible for all operations outside Britain. Over the next few years he became known as 'C', after his habit of sometimes signing himself with a C eventually written in green ink. That habit became a custom for later directors, although the C now stands for "Chief". Ian Fleming took these aspects for his "M" from the James Bond novels.

In 1914, he was involved in a serious road accident in France in which his son was killed. Legend has it that to escape the car wreck he was forced to amputate his own leg using a pen knife. Hospital records have shown, however, that while both his legs were broken, his left foot was amputated only the day after the accident. Later he often told all sorts of fantastic stories as to how he lost his leg and would shock people by interrupting meetings in his office by suddenly stabbing his artificial leg with a knife, letter opener or fountain pen.

Budgets were severely limited prior to World War I, and Cumming came to rely heavily on Sidney Reilly (aka the Ace of Spies), a secret agent of dubious veracity based in Saint Petersburg.

World War I
At the outbreak of war he was able to work with Vernon Kell and Sir Basil Thomson of the Special Branch to arrest twenty-two German spies in England. Eleven were executed, as was Sir Roger Casement, found guilty of treason in 1916. During the war, the offices were renamed. The Home Section became MI5 or Security Service, while Cumming's Foreign Section became MI6 or the Secret Intelligence Service. Agents who worked for MI6 during the war included Augustus Agar, Paul Dukes, John Buchan, Compton Mackenzie and W. Somerset Maugham.

When the SSB discovered that semen made a good invisible ink, his agents adopted the motto "Every man his own stylo". However, the use of semen as invisible ink was ceased because of the smell it produced for the eventual receiver. It also raised questions over the masturbatory habits of the agents.

Ireland
The Government Committee on Intelligence decided to slash Kell's budget and staff and to subordinate MI5 under a new Home Office Civil Intelligence Directorate led by Special Branch's Sir Basil Thomson in January 1919. The powerful partnership of MI5 and Special Branch had managed counterintelligence and subversives during the war, but that was suddenly thrown into disarray. These bureaucratic intrigues happened at the very moment when the Irish abstentionist party Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) were launching their own independence campaign.

Cumming and SIS (then MI1(c)) organized a new espionage unit in Ireland in mid-1920 called the Dublin District Special Branch. It consisted of some 20 line officers drawn from the regular army and trained by Cumming's department in London. Cumming also began importing some of his own veteran case officers into Ireland from Egypt, Palestine, and India, while Basil Thomson organized a special unit consisting of 60 Irish street agents managed by communications from Scotland Yard in London.

On Sunday, 21 November 1920, the Headquarters Intelligence Staff of the IRA and its special Counterintelligence Branch under the leadership of Michael Collins assassinated 14 of Cumming's case officers. Many agents appear to have escaped the IRA execution squads that morning, but Whitehall feared that more of its professional agents would be identified and suffer the same fate; this prompted the hasty withdrawal of most of the remaining SIS agents from Ireland in the days that followed.

Commemmoration
A blue plaque was unveiled on 30 March 2015 in Cumming's name at the SIS headquarters at 2 Whitehall Court.

Portrayal in popular culture

 * Cumming was the basis for the fictional head of the SIS, named Control, in the John le Carré espionage novel The Spy Who Came in from the Cold and other novels. In the movie version of le Carré's Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy Control signs his name as 'C' using green ink, as Cumming did in real life.
 * Cumming was also the basis for the fictional head of SIS in the original James Bond novels by Ian Fleming. Fleming chose to name his chief 'M' from Cumming's first name, Mansfield; this naming convention was extended to characters such as Q and R.
 * In the television series Reilly, Ace of Spies, he was portrayed by Norman Rodway.
 * He was portrayed by Joss Ackland in the BBC1 TV series Ashenden in 1991.

title: Mansfield Smith-Cumming


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Thermoplastic

A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is any plastic polymer material that becomes pliable or moldable at a certain elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling.

Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight. The polymer chains associate by intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, yielding a viscous liquid. In this state, thermoplastics may be reshaped, and are typically used to produce parts by various polymer processing techniques such as injection molding, compression molding, calendering, and extrusion. Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers (or "thermosets"), which form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt when heated, but typically decompose and do not reform upon cooling.

Above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the glass transition temperature, retaining some or all of their amorphous characteristics. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is necessary, as light is scattered strongly by crystallites larger than its wavelength. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a crystalline structure.

Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the mobility of amorphous chain segments to effectively lower the glass transition temperature. Modification of the polymer through copolymerization or through the addition of non-reactive side chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it. Before these techniques were employed, plastic automobile parts would often crack when exposed to cold temperatures. These are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules capable of repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling.

Acrylic
Today's acrylics industry can be divided into two distinct multibillion-dollar markets: on one hand the polyacrylic acids (PAA) and its ester derivatives (PAc) market, on the other hand, the poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) market. PMMA is also known by trade names such as Lucite, Perspex and Plexiglas. It serves as a sturdy substitute for glass for items such as aquariums, buttons, motorcycle helmet visors, aircraft windows, viewing ports of submersibles, and lenses of exterior lights of automobiles. It is extensively used to make signs, including lettering and logos. In medicine, it is used in bone cement and to replace eye lenses. Acrylic paint consists of PMMA particles suspended in water.

For many decades, PMMA has been the predominant methacrylic ester produced worldwide. Major players in the PMMA market are Mitsubishi Rayon (Japan), Arkema SA (France), LG MMA (South Korea), Chi Mei Corp. (Taiwan), Sumimoto Chemical Company Ltd (Japan), Evonik Industries (Germany), BASF (Germany), Dow Chemical Company (U.S.), AkzoNobel (The Netherlands), Quinn Plastics (UK) and Cytec Industries (U.S.). Regarding the PAA and PAc market, key manufacturers are Nippon Shokubai Company Ltd. (Japan), Arkema SA (France) and Dow Chemical Company (U.S.)

ABS
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a terpolymer synthesized from styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. ABS is a light-weight material that exhibits high impact resistance and mechanical toughness. It poses few risks to human health under normal handling. It is used in many consumer products, such as toys, appliances, and telephones.

Nylon
Nylon belongs to a class of polymers called polyamides. It has served as a substitute mainly for hemp, cotton and silk, in products such as parachutes, cords, sails, flak vests and clothing. Nylon fibres are useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets and musical strings, whereas, in bulk form, nylon is used for mechanical parts including machine screws, gears and power tool casings. In addition, it is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant composite materials.

PLA
Polylactic acid (polylactide) is a compostable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as corn starch (in the United States), sugar beet pulp (in Europe), tapioca roots, chips or starch (mostly in Asia), or sugarcane. It is the most common material used for 3D printing with fused deposition modeling (FDM) techniques.

Polybenzimidazole
Polybenzimidazole (PBI, short for Poly-[2,2’-(m-phenylen)-5,5’-bisbenzimidazole]) fiber is a synthetic fiber with a very high melting point. It has exceptional thermal and chemical stability and does not readily ignite. It was first discovered by American polymer chemist Carl Shipp Marvel in the pursuit of new materials with superior stability, retention of stiffness, toughness at elevated temperature. Due to its high stability, polybenzimidazole is used to fabricate high-performance protective apparel such as firefighter's gear, astronaut space suits, high temperature protective gloves, welders' apparel and aircraft wall fabrics. In recent years, polybenzimidazole found its application as membrane in fuel cells.

Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate (PC) thermoplastics are known under trademarks such as Lexan, Makrolon, Makroclear, and arcoPlus. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed for many applications, such as electronic components, construction materials, data storage devices, automotive and aircraft parts, check sockets in prosthetics, and security glazing. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code. Items made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA). Susceptible to UV light, exposure results in yellowing (degradation is especially visible in headlamps that lost or didn't have proper protective coating).

Polyether sulfone
Polyether sulfone (PES) or polysulfone is a class of specially engineered thermoplastics with high thermal, oxidative, and hydrolytic stability, and good resistance to aqueous mineral acids, alkalis, salt solutions, oils and greases.

Polyoxymethylene
Polyoxymethylene (POM), also known as acetal, polyacetal and polyformaldehyde, is an engineering thermoplastic used in precision parts requiring high stiffness, low friction, and excellent dimensional stability. As with many other synthetic polymers, it is produced by different chemical firms with slightly different formulas and sold variously by such names as Delrin, Celcon, Ramtal, Duracon, Kepital and Hostaform.

Polyether ether ketone
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is a colourless organic thermoplastic polymer in the polyaryletherketone (PAEK) family, used in engineering applications. It was originally introduced by Victrex PLC, then ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries) in the early 1980s. It has attractive properties like good abrasion resistance, low flammability and emission of smoke and toxic gases.

Polyetherimide
Polyetherimide (PEI), produced by a novel nitro displacement reaction involving bisphenol A, 4, 4’-methylenedianiline and 3-nitrophthalic anhydride, has high heat distortion temperature, tensile strength and modulus. They are generally used in high performance electrical and electronic parts, microwave appliances, and under-the-hood automotive parts.

Polyethylene
Polyethylene (polyethene, polythene, PE) is a family of similar materials categorized according to their density and molecular structure. It is also known as poly and is obtained by the addition polymerisation of ethylene. It may be of low density or high density depending upon the process used in its manufacturing. It is resistant to moisture and most of the chemicals. It is flexible at room temperature (and low temperature) and can be heat sealed. Since it is an inexpensive plastic it is made in large amounts to cater to the demand. For example:
 * ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is tough and resistant to chemicals. It is used to manufacture moving machine parts, bearings, gears, artificial joints and some bulletproof vests.
 * High-density polyethylene (HDPE), recyclable plastic no. 2, is commonly used as milk jugs, liquid laundry detergent bottles, outdoor furniture, margarine tubs, portable gasoline cans, drinking water distribution systems, water drainage pipes, and grocery bags.
 * Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for packaging film, sacks and gas pipes and fittings.
 * Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is flexible and is used in the manufacture of squeeze bottles, milk jug caps, retail store bags and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) as stretch wrap in transporting and handling boxes of durable goods, and as the common household food covering.

Polyphenylene oxide
Polyphenylene oxide (PPO), which is obtained from the free-radical, step-growth oxidative coupling polymerization of 2,6-xylenol, has many attractive properties such as high heat distortion and impact strength, chemical stability to mineral and organic acids, and low water absorption. PPO is difficult to process, and hence the commercial resin (Noryl) is made by blending PPO with high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), which serves to reduce the processing temperature.

Polyphenylene sulfide
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) obtained by the condensation polymerization of p-dichlorobenzene and sodium sulfide, has outstanding chemical resistance, good electrical properties, excellent flame retardance, low coefficient of friction and high transparency to microwave radiation. PPS is principally used in coating applications. This is done by spraying an aqueous slurry of PPS particles and heating to temperatures above 370 °C. Particular grades of PPS can be used in injection and compression molding at temperatures (300 to 370 °C) at which PPS particles soften and undergo apparent crosslinking. Principal applications of injection and compression molded PPS include cookware, bearings, and pump parts for service in various corrosive environments.

Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is useful for such diverse products as reusable plastic food containers, microwave- and dishwasher-safe plastic containers, diaper lining, sanitary pad lining and casing, ropes, carpets, plastic moldings, piping systems, car batteries, insulation for electrical cables and filters for gases and liquids. In medicine, it is used in hernia treatment and to make heat-resistant medical equipment. Polypropylene sheets are used for stationery folders and packaging and clear storage bins. Polypropylene is defined by the recyclable plastic number 5. Although relatively inert, it is vulnerable to ultraviolet radiation and can degrade considerably in direct sunlight. Polypropylene is not as impact-resistant as the polyethylenes (HDPE, LDPE). It is also somewhat permeable to highly volatile gases and liquids.

Polystyrene
Polystyrene is manufactured in various forms that have different applications and can have medium to very low density. Extruded polystyrene (PS or xPS, sometimes colored pink/blue) is used in the manufacture of disposable cutlery, rigid ground contact rated insulating foam board, CD and DVD cases, plastic models of cars and boats, and smoke detector housings. Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS or "styrofoam", white) is used in making insulation and packaging materials, such as the "peanuts" and molded foam used to cushion fragile products. Polystyrene copolymers are used in the manufacture of toys and product casings.

Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a tough, lightweight material that is durable, fairly rigid and versatile, and is resistant to acids and bases. Much of it is used by the construction industry, such as for vinyl siding, drainpipes, gutters and roofing sheets. It is also converted to flexible forms with the addition of plasticizers, thereby making it useful for items such as hoses, tubing, electrical insulation, coats, jackets and upholstery. Flexible PVC is also used in inflatable products, such as water beds and pool toys. PVC is also a common material in vinyl action figures, especially in countries such as Japan, where the material is used extensively in so-called Sofubi figures (Soft vinyl toys ). As PVC bends easily and has a tendency to be bent during transit, a method to mitigate this deformation is to heat the plastic until it becomes mobile, then reform the material into the desired shape.

PVC is produced in many specific modifications to affect its chemical and physical properties. In plasticized polyvinyl chloride (pPVC), plasticizers are added to the raw material before molding to make it more flexible or pliable. Early on, the health and environmental aspects of this were poorly understood and replacements and product bans resulted after studies. The original form is often referred to as unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC), which is the more commonly used type for installations such as water, waste, and sewer conveyance plumbing.

Chemical modification often produces more drastic changes in properties. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is produced through exposing PVC to the continued free-radical chlorination reaction that originally formulates the PVC polymer. The chlorination reaction continues to add chlorine atoms to the polymer hydrocarbon backbone until most commercial applications reach a percent range between 56 and 74% total chlorine. This increase in elemental chlorine content contributes to CPVC's increased expression of chlorine-based characteristics, such as chemical durability, resistance to acids, bases, and salts; susceptibility to ammonia-based compounds, aromatics, esters, ketones; chemical stability; heat energy transfer resistance. CPVC is commonly used in water, chemical, hot and cold, delivery systems for residential, commercial, and industrial applications.

Polyvinylidene fluoride
Polyvinylidene fluoride, PVDF, belongs to the fluoropolymer class of thermoplastics and is known for its high chemical inertness and resistance. PVDF is obtained through the polymerization of the vinylidene fluoride monomer. PVDF thermoplastic is fabricated into sheets and pipes for engineering uses as well as powders and coatings that can be dissolved in solvents and applied across a product surface. PVDF is widely used in the chemical industry as piping for aggressive chemicals and high purity liquids. The PVDF material is used in construction, transportation, chemical processes, electricity, batteries, waste water and treatment.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene is commonly recognized under the brand name Teflon. PTFE is hydrophobic: aqueous liquids do not wet the material, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due to the high electronegativity of fluorine. This also supports its use in coatings of cooking ware. The polymer has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid and is therefore commonly used for bearings and support of moving mechanical parts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thermoplastic


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Fermi liquid theory

Fermi liquid theory (also known as Landau's Fermi-liquid theory) is a theoretical model of interacting fermions that describes the normal state of the conduction electrons in most metals at sufficiently low temperatures. The theory describes the behavior of many-body systems of particles in which the interactions between particles may be strong. The phenomenological theory of Fermi liquids was introduced by the Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau in 1956, and later developed by Alexei Abrikosov and Isaak Khalatnikov using diagrammatic perturbation theory. The theory explains why some of the properties of an interacting fermion system are very similar to those of the ideal Fermi gas (collection of non-interacting fermions), and why other properties differ.

Fermi liquid theory applies most notably to conduction electrons in normal (non-superconducting) metals, and to liquid helium-3. Liquid helium-3 is a Fermi liquid at low temperatures (but not low enough to be in its superfluid phase). An atom of helium-3 has two protons, one neutron and two electrons, giving an odd number of fermions, so the atom itself is a fermion. Fermi liquid theory also describes the low-temperature behavior of electrons in heavy fermion materials, which are metallic rare-earth alloys having partially filled f orbitals. The effective mass of electrons in these materials is much larger than the free-electron mass because of interactions with other electrons, so these systems are known as heavy Fermi liquids. Strontium ruthenate displays some key properties of Fermi liquids, despite being a strongly correlated material that is similar to high temperature superconductors such as the cuprates. The low-momentum interactions of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in atomic nuclei are also described by Fermi liquid theory.

Description
The key ideas behind Landau's theory are the notion of adiabaticity and the Pauli exclusion principle. Consider a non-interacting fermion system (a Fermi gas), and suppose we "turn on" the interaction slowly. Landau argued that in this situation, the ground state of the Fermi gas would adiabatically transform into the ground state of the interacting system.

By Pauli's exclusion principle, the ground state $$\Psi_0$$ of a Fermi gas consists of fermions occupying all momentum states corresponding to momentum $$p<p_{\rm F}$$ with all higher momentum states unoccupied. As the interaction is turned on, the spin, charge and momentum of the fermions corresponding to the occupied states remain unchanged, while their dynamical properties, such as their mass, magnetic moment etc. are renormalized to new values. Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elementary excitations of a Fermi gas system and a Fermi liquid system. In the context of Fermi liquids, these excitations are called "quasiparticles".

Landau quasiparticles are long-lived excitations with a lifetime $$\tau$$ that satisfies $$\frac{\hbar}{\tau}\ll\epsilon_{\rm p}$$ where $$\epsilon_{\rm p}$$ is the quasiparticle energy (measured from the Fermi energy). At finite temperature, $$\epsilon_{\rm p}$$ is on the order of the thermal energy $$k_{\rm B}T$$, and the condition for Landau quasiparticles can be reformulated as $$\frac{\hbar}{\tau}\ll k_{\rm B}T$$.

For this system, the many-body Green's function can be written (near its poles) in the form

 * $$G(\omega,p)\approx\frac{Z}{\omega+\mu-\epsilon(p)}$$

where $$\mu$$ is the chemical potential and $$\epsilon(p)$$ is the energy corresponding to the given momentum state.

The value $$Z$$ is called the quasiparticle residue and is very characteristic of Fermi liquid theory. The spectral function for the system can be directly observed via angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), and can be written (in the limit of low-lying excitations) in the form:

 * $$A(\mathbf{k},\omega)=Z\delta(\omega-v_{\rm F}k_{\|})$$

where $$v_{\rm F}$$ is the Fermi velocity.

Physically, we can say that a propagating fermion interacts with its surrounding in such a way that the net effect of the interactions is to make the fermion behave as a "dressed" fermion, altering its effective mass and other dynamical properties. These "dressed" fermions are what we think of as "quasiparticles".

Another important property of Fermi liquids is related to the scattering cross section for electrons. Suppose we have an electron with energy $$\epsilon_1$$ above the Fermi surface, and suppose it scatters with a particle in the Fermi sea with energy $$\epsilon_2$$. By Pauli's exclusion principle, both the particles after scattering have to lie above the Fermi surface, with energies $$\epsilon_3,\epsilon_4>\epsilon_{\rm F}$$. Now, suppose the initial electron has energy very close to the Fermi surface $$\epsilon\approx\epsilon_{\rm F}$$ Then, we have that $$\epsilon_2,\epsilon_3,\epsilon_4$$ also have to be very close to the Fermi surface. This reduces the phase space volume of the possible states after scattering, and hence, by Fermi's golden rule, the scattering cross section goes to zero. Thus we can say that the lifetime of particles at the Fermi surface goes to infinity.

Similarities to Fermi gas
The Fermi liquid is qualitatively analogous to the non-interacting Fermi gas, in the following sense: The system's dynamics and thermodynamics at low excitation energies and temperatures may be described by substituting the non-interacting fermions with interacting quasiparticles, each of which carries the same spin, charge and momentum as the original particles. Physically these may be thought of as being particles whose motion is disturbed by the surrounding particles and which themselves perturb the particles in their vicinity. Each many-particle excited state of the interacting system may be described by listing all occupied momentum states, just as in the non-interacting system. As a consequence, quantities such as the heat capacity of the Fermi liquid behave qualitatively in the same way as in the Fermi gas (e.g. the heat capacity rises linearly with temperature).

Differences from Fermi gas
The following differences to the non-interacting Fermi gas arise:

Energy
The energy of a many-particle state is not simply a sum of the single-particle energies of all occupied states. Instead, the change in energy for a given change $$\delta n_k$$ in occupation of states $$k$$ contains terms both linear and quadratic in $$\delta n_k$$ (for the Fermi gas, it would only be linear, $$\delta n_k \epsilon_k$$, where $$\epsilon_k$$ denotes the single-particle energies). The linear contribution corresponds to renormalized single-particle energies, which involve, e.g., a change in the effective mass of particles. The quadratic terms correspond to a sort of "mean-field" interaction between quasiparticles, which is parametrized by so-called Landau Fermi liquid parameters and determines the behaviour of density oscillations (and spin-density oscillations) in the Fermi liquid. Still, these mean-field interactions do not lead to a scattering of quasi-particles with a transfer of particles between different momentum states.

The renormalization of the mass of a fluid of interacting fermions can be calculated from first principles using many-body computational techniques. For the two-dimensional homogeneous electron gas, GW calculations and quantum Monte Carlo methods  have been used to calculate renormalized quasiparticle effective masses.

Specific heat and compressibility
Specific heat, compressibility, spin-susceptibility and other quantities show the same qualitative behaviour (e.g. dependence on temperature) as in the Fermi gas, but the magnitude is (sometimes strongly) changed.

Interactions
In addition to the mean-field interactions, some weak interactions between quasiparticles remain, which lead to scattering of quasiparticles off each other. Therefore, quasiparticles acquire a finite lifetime. However, at low enough energies above the Fermi surface, this lifetime becomes very long, such that the product of excitation energy (expressed in frequency) and lifetime is much larger than one. In this sense, the quasiparticle energy is still well-defined (in the opposite limit, Heisenberg's uncertainty relation would prevent an accurate definition of the energy).

Structure
The structure of the "bare" particles (as opposed to quasiparticle) many-body Green's function is similar to that in the Fermi gas (where, for a given momentum, the Green's function in frequency space is a delta peak at the respective single-particle energy). The delta peak in the density-of-states is broadened (with a width given by the quasiparticle lifetime). In addition (and in contrast to the quasiparticle Green's function), its weight (integral over frequency) is suppressed by a quasiparticle weight factor $$0<Z<1$$. The remainder of the total weight is in a broad "incoherent background", corresponding to the strong effects of interactions on the fermions at short time scales.

Distribution
The distribution of particles (as opposed to quasiparticles) over momentum states at zero temperature still shows a discontinuous jump at the Fermi surface (as in the Fermi gas), but it does not drop from 1 to 0: the step is only of size $$Z$$.

Electrical resistivity
In a metal the resistivity at low temperatures is dominated by electron–electron scattering in combination with umklapp scattering. For a Fermi liquid, the resistivity from this mechanism varies as $$T^2$$, which is often taken as an experimental check for Fermi liquid behaviour (in addition to the linear temperature-dependence of the specific heat), although it only arises in combination with the lattice. In certain cases, umklapp scattering is not required. For example, the resistivity of compensated semimetals scales as $$T^2$$ because of mutual scattering of electron and hole. This is known as the Baber mechanism.

Optical response
Fermi liquid theory predicts that the scattering rate, which governs the optical response of metals, not only depends quadratically on temperature (thus causing the $$T^2$$ dependence of the DC resistance), but it also depends quadratically on frequency. This is in contrast to the Drude prediction for non-interacting metallic electrons, where the scattering rate is a constant as a function of frequency. One material in which optical Fermi liquid behavior was experimentally observed is the low-temperature metallic phase of Sr2RuO4.

Instabilities
The experimental observation of exotic phases in strongly correlated systems has triggered an enormous effort from the theoretical community to try to understand their microscopic origin. One possible route to detect instabilities of a Fermi liquid is precisely the analysis done by Isaak Pomeranchuk. Due to that, the Pomeranchuk instability has been studied by several authors with different techniques in the last few years and in particular, the instability of the Fermi liquid towards the nematic phase was investigated for several models.

Non-Fermi liquids
Non-Fermi liquids are systems in which the Fermi-liquid behaviour breaks down. The simplest example is a system of interacting fermions in one dimension, called the Luttinger liquid. Although Luttinger liquids are physically similar to Fermi liquids, the restriction to one dimension gives rise to several qualitative differences such as the absence of a quasiparticle peak in the momentum dependent spectral function, and the presence of spin-charge separation and of spin-density waves. One cannot ignore the existence of interactions in one dimension and has to describe the problem with a non-Fermi theory, where Luttinger liquid is one of them. At small finite spin temperatures in one dimension the ground state of the system is described by spin-incoherent Luttinger liquid (SILL).

Another example of non-Fermi-liquid behaviour is observed at quantum critical points of certain second-order phase transitions, such as heavy fermion criticality, Mott criticality and high-$$T_{\rm c}$$ cuprate phase transitions. The ground state of such transitions is characterized by the presence of a sharp Fermi surface, although there may not be well-defined quasiparticles. That is, on approaching the critical point, it is observed that the quasiparticle residue $$Z\to0$$.

In optimally doped cuprates and iron-based superconductors, the normal state above the critical temperature shows signs of non-Fermi liquid behaviour, and is often called a strange metal. In this region of phase diagram, resistivity increases linearly in temperature and the Hall coefficient is found to depend on temperature.

Understanding the behaviour of non-Fermi liquids is an important problem in condensed matter physics. Approaches towards explaining these phenomena include the treatment of marginal Fermi liquids; attempts to understand critical points and derive scaling relations; and descriptions using emergent gauge theories with techniques of holographic gauge/gravity duality.

title: Fermi liquid theory


text:
Dave Matthews

David John Matthews (born January 9, 1967) is an American musician and the lead vocalist, songwriter, and guitarist for the Dave Matthews Band (DMB). Matthews was born in Johannesburg, and moved frequently between South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States while growing up. He started playing acoustic guitar at the age of nine.

From 1991 to 2003, Matthews predominantly focused on songwriting and performing with the Dave Matthews Band, which he started in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1991. He also has done various solo performances and produced other records. During the period from 2000 to 2010, his band sold more tickets and earned more money than any other act in North America. The band's 2012 album Away from the World made them the only group to have six consecutive studio albums debut at number one on the Billboard charts. This record was extended to seven consecutive number one albums with the 2018 release, Come Tomorrow.

In addition to music, Matthews has had multiple acting roles. He has also won two Grammy Awards: one with the Dave Matthews Band in 1997 for Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group ("So Much to Say") and one in 2004 for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance ("Gravedigger") from his solo album.

Early life
David John Matthews was born on January 9, 1967 in Johannesburg, the third of four children of John and Val Matthews. At age two, Matthews moved with his family to Yorktown Heights, New York, where his father, a physicist, started working for IBM.

In 1974, the Matthews family moved to Cambridge, England, for a year, then returned to New York, where his father died from lung cancer in 1977 when Matthews was ten years old. At some point, while residing in New York, Matthews attended his first concert, when his mother took him to a performance by Pete Seeger. The family returned to Johannesburg in 1977.

Matthews naturalized as a U.S. citizen in 1980.

Upon Matthews's graduation from secondary school in 1985, he was faced with conscription into the South African military just as civil disobedience to the practice was becoming widespread. As a Quaker (and consequently pacifist), Matthews left South Africa to avoid service.

Matthews moved to New York in 1986 where he worked for IBM for a short time, then joined his mother that same year in Charlottesville, Virginia, a town Matthews's family had lived in before he was born. In Charlottesville, he became part of the local music community, rehearsing in a warehouse owned by Roulhac Toledano. Although Matthews had started playing the guitar at age nine, it was only in Charlottesville that he started performing publicly. Matthews met local star (and future collaborator) Tim Reynolds through mutual friend, Nic Cappon. In time, Reynolds had Matthews join him on stage, and Matthews was persuaded to record some of his own songs. This led to his first professional musical gig at a modern dance performance by the Miki Liszt Dance Company, based at McGuffey Art Center in Charlottesville, singing "Meaningful Love", composed by John D'earth and Dawn Thompson. In 1991, he hatched the idea to form his own band. Before recording his first demo, Matthews bartended at Miller's in Charlottesville.

Formation of Dave Matthews Band
After writing his first few songs, including "I'll Back You Up", "The Song That Jane Likes" and "Recently", Matthews formed Dave Matthews Band in early 1991 with LeRoi Moore, Carter Beauford, Stefan Lessard, Peter Griesar (who left the band in 1993), and Boyd Tinsley while working at Miller's as a bartender. The band's first show was on March 14, 1991, as part of a benefit for the Middle East Children's Alliance at Trax Nightclub in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Matthews's older sister Anne, who lived in South Africa, was murdered by her husband in early 1994. Her husband then died by suicide on or around January 27 of that year. The event had a profound effect on Matthews's outlook on life and was referenced in a few of his songs. On January 29, 1994, he performed with Tim Reynolds at the Wetlands in New York, where he dedicated that performance "to her [Anne's] memory". Dave Matthews Band's Under the Table and Dreaming, released later that year, was dedicated to her. Anne Matthews was survived by her two children, and they traveled to the United States following her death. Dave and his younger sister Jane (after whom the Dave Matthews Band song "The Song That Jane Likes" is named) took responsibility for the children's upbringing.

Other musical work
Matthews focused primarily on songwriting and performances with Dave Matthews Band from 1990 to 2003. The band's sound blends acoustic guitar, bass, saxophone, drums and violin. In 1994, DMB signed with RCA Records. Since that period, he has occasionally ventured outside the band in various solo performances and records. Matthews sang on the track "Sing Along" on Blue Man Group's second album The Complex in 2003. Later that year he released the solo album Some Devil, which went platinum; its single "Gravedigger" won a Grammy Award in 2004. To support the album, Matthews toured with a group of musicians (many of whom performed on "Some Devil") under the name Dave Matthews & Friends.

Dave often collaborates with banjoist Béla Fleck. Fleck is the frontman and namesake of Béla Fleck and the Flecktones; Matthews appears as guest vocalist with the band on their 1998 release, Left of Cool. Both Fleck and the Flecktones' bassist Victor Wooten have made numerous live appearances and in studio with the Dave Matthews Band. Wooten soloed in the second part of the Daniel Lanois song "The Maker", and also in "#41" on the 1998 live album Live in Chicago. The Flecktones also opened for DMB on several tours. Matthews performed a duet with Emmylou Harris on "My Antonia" on her 2000 album Red Dirt Girl. They also appeared together on the musical television show CMT Crossroads, where the two performed Matthews's "Gravedigger" and the folk song "Long Black Veil".

Matthews played a cover of Neil Young's song "The Needle and the Damage Done" at the 2010 tribute MusiCares Person of the Year, honoring Young on January 29, 2010. The Dave Matthews Band opened for the Rolling Stones on their Bridges to Babylon Tour (1997–1998), and Matthews sang "Wild Horses" and "Memory Motel" with Mick Jagger.

Acting
Before he was known as a musician, Dave Matthews was an amateur actor, appearing onstage in several productions at Charlottesville's Offstage Theatre and Live Arts theater in the early 1990s; the role for which he is best remembered is as a used car salesman in Offstage Theatre's "Just Say No," directed by John Quinn, co-starring Kylie Suture. He played Will Coleman in the 2003 adaptation of the novel Where the Red Fern Grows. In 2005, he played in Because of Winn-Dixie as Otis, a man who works at a pet store and plays guitar. In 2007, Matthews appeared briefly in the movie I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry, where he plays a homosexual salesman. In 2008, he appeared in the Adam Sandler movie You Don't Mess with the Zohan as a racist redneck character named James. He also had a significant role in Lake City with Sissy Spacek and Troy Garity, in which he portrays the character Red. He was in one movie in 2011: the Adam Sandler/Jennifer Aniston comedy Just Go with It.

In 2007, Matthews guest-starred in the medical-drama series House in the episode "Half-Wit". He played a piano-playing musical savant who had the two hemispheres of his brain severed from each other in order to recover from his epilepsy, but at the expense of his musical abilities. Dave had a piano double for the complex pieces, but played the simpler pieces himself. In the season one episode of House, "Love Hurts", the song "Some Devil" can be heard playing at the end. In another episode, one of the tracks from Stand Up, "You Might Die Trying" was played in the season five episode, "Not Cancer".

The fifth time Matthews appeared as musical guest on Saturday Night Live in November 2009 (which was also the fourth time the Dave Matthews Band appeared on the show), he made an appearance as Ozzy Osbourne in a skit called "The Mellow Show". Bill Hader impersonated Matthews in the same skit.

Matthews was also a cast member and performer in the popular music documentary Before the Music Dies. In 2018, Matthews guest-starred on Pete the Cat as the voice of Gustavo's father, a platypus.

Other activities
In 1999, Matthews purchased more than 10 acres of land in Albemarle County, Virginia, known as Blenheim Farm, to preserve its historical significance. He later decided to plant grapes on the property, since it is located within both the Virginia and Monticello viticultural areas. Blenheim Vineyards was founded in 2000, and currently produces 5,500 cases of wine per year, including its signature Petit Verdot and several special edition wines that have featured unique labels with drawings by Matthews.

In 2011, Matthews collaborated with wine makers Steve Reeder and Sean McKenzie in creating the Dreaming Tree Wines.

In April 2012, Matthews was credited as producer on the documentary Last Call at the Oasis, directed by Jessica Yu.

In early 2013, Matthews participated in a jam session at Blade Studios in Shreveport, Louisiana, with Jakob Dylan, Charlie Sexton, Blade studios co-owner Brady Blade, and Sexton's brother Will. This led to the formation of a band named The Nauts with Matthews, Dylan, Blade, and the Sexton brothers as members. However, there has been no news regarding an album release since that jam session.

On May 16, 2020, in the midst of the COVID-19 quarantine, Matthews appeared streaming on the virtual graduation ceremonies for the University of Virginia. He wished students his best and said "it is now your small opportunity to make the world a better place, as you see fit." He then sang the song "Singing from the Windows".

Personal life
Dave Matthews married longtime girlfriend Jennifer Ashley Harper in 2000. They have twin daughters born in 2001, and a son born in 2007. They reside in Seattle. In a 2001 interview, Matthews stated that he was agnostic. He joined the Farm Aid board of directors in 2001, to serve alongside fellow musicians Willie Nelson, John Mellencamp and Neil Young to raise money for family farmers in the United States.

Political activism
Matthews published an Internet video before the 2000 U.S. presidential election, urging viewers to vote without advocating any candidate. He mentioned only Ralph Nader by name, and updated fans about the recording sessions for Everyday. Although his music often explores political and social issues, Matthews refrained from public campaigning for presidential candidates until 2004. He cast his support strongly with Democratic nominee John Kerry, performing at political events including the Vote for Change tour.

Matthews also supported Barack Obama for president in 2008, both in the primaries and in the general election. On April 6, 2008, he and Tim Reynolds played a concert titled "Change Rocks" at Indiana University to encourage students to register to vote. The tickets were distributed by the Obama campaign. Questions regarding his citizenship were answered by advertisements and videos on YouTube, where he says he is a "real American" and a "real Virginian," stating that "real Virginians get out and vote." Although bereaved by the loss of band co-founder and saxophonist LeRoi Moore on August 19, 2008, he and Tim Reynolds played for the Democratic National Convention delegates on Sunday, August 24, at Red Rocks, and again with Reynolds at Virginia Commonwealth University on October 26, 2008, among other places. Matthews has often supported environmental initiatives, such as biofuel availability and the fight against global climate change.

On September 21, 2009, Matthews stated that some of President Barack Obama's harsher critics were motivated by his race, and stated that he "sees it [racism] everywhere" in the United States. Matthews is also a strong supporter of gay rights and participated in "Love Unites Shepard Fairey Equality Project", a gay marriage advocacy project.

On May 10, 2012, Matthews entertained a sellout crowd at the Paramount Theatre in Seattle where President Obama was hosting a campaign fundraiser.

In a September 28, 2015, interview with Rolling Stone, Matthews said that "when I hear someone like Bernie Sanders talking, I think there's a hope." Matthews performed at a San Francisco rally for Sanders during the 2016 presidential primaries and later, during the general election campaign. He was a major donor to the 2017 gubernatorial campaign of progressive Charlottesville politician Tom Perriello.

On October 30, 2021, Matthews performed at a Democratic get out the vote event in Charlottesville, Virginia with gubernatorial candidate Terry McAuliffe. During the 2022 election campaign, Matthews performed at campaign events for Democratic candidates Tim Ryan in Ohio and John Fetterman in Pennsylvania.

During a Dave Matthews Band concert in Virginia Beach on June 15, 2024, Matthews paused in the set to call for a ceasefire in Gaza.

Grammy Awards

 * 1997: Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group – "So Much to Say", Dave Matthews Band
 * 2004: Best Male Rock Vocal Performance – "Gravedigger", Dave Matthews

ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards

 * Most Performed Song from a Motion Picture – "Where Are You Going" (for Mr. Deeds)
 * Dave Matthews was awarded D.M.A. honoris causa by Haverford College on May 15, 2005.
 * 2002: Matthews was the recipient of the Orville Gibson Award for Best Acoustic Guitarist.

Studio albums

 * Under the Table and Dreaming (1994)
 * Crash (1996)
 * Before These Crowded Streets (1998)
 * Everyday (2001)
 * Busted Stuff (2002)
 * Some Devil (2003)
 * Stand Up (2005)
 * Imagine We Were (2005) – as Tribe of Heaven; originally recorded in 1989
 * Big Whiskey & the GrooGrux King (2009)
 * Away from the World (2012)
 * Come Tomorrow (2018)
 * Walk Around the Moon (2023)

Live solo albums

 * Live at Sweet Briar College (2016); originally recorded in 1996

Digital downloads
Two shows have been released as part of the Dave Matthews Band's DMBlive series available only for online download.

 * Dave Matthews Benaroya Hall, Seattle, WA (October 24, 2002) – 2008
 * Dave Matthews China Club, NYC (01/09/2004) – 2008

Live albums with Tim Reynolds

 * Live at Luther College – (1999)
 * Live at Radio City – (2007)
 * DMBLive. Prism Coffeehouse, Charlottesville, VA (04.22.1993) – (2008)
 * DMBLive. Appalachian State University, Boone, NC (03.29.2003) – (2008)
 * Live in Las Vegas – (2010)
 * Live Trax Vol. 23 Whittemore Center Arena, Durham, NH (02.19.96) – (2012)
 * Live Trax Vol. 24 Spartanburg Memorial, Spartanburg, SC (02.08.97) – (2012)
 * DMBLive. Memphis, Richmond, VA (06.13.1993) – (2012)
 * DMBLive. J.T. Kingsbury Hall, Salt Lake City, UT (03.03.1999) – (2014)
 * Live Trax Vol. 41 Berkeley Community Theater, Berkeley, CA (03.13.99) – (2017)
 * Live Trax Vol. 48 The Birchmere, Alexandria, VA (08.25.94) – (2019)
 * Live Trax Vol. 49 Constellation Brands – Marvin Sands Performing Arts Center, Canandaigua, NY, (06.18.19) – (2019)

Guest singles

 * A "I What What" charted as an album cut in 2008 before being released as a single in 2009

Collaborations

 * "Eleanor" and "See Jane" (1994), off the Shannon Worrell album Three Wishes
 * "Communication" and "Trouble and Strife" (1998), off the Béla Fleck and the Flecktones album Left of Cool
 * "Love Of My Life" (1999), off the Santana album Supernatural (Santana album)
 * "My Antonia" (2000) off the Emmylou Harris studio album Red Dirt Girl, where Dave duets with Emmylou on her composition
 * "For You" (2002) off the We Were Soldiers soundtrack with Johnny Cash
 * "Iwoya" (2002) off the Angélique Kidjo album Black Ivory Soul
 * "Joyful Girl" (2002) off the Soulive album Next
 * "Sing Along" (2003) off the Blue Man Group album The Complex with music video
 * "Tremendous Brunettes" (2005) off the Mike Doughty album Haughty Melodic
 * "Love Is The Only Way" (2006) off the Robert Randolph and the Family Band album Colorblind
 * "Work It Out" produced by DJ Nu-Mark (2006) off the Jurassic 5 album Feedback
 * "Fat Man in the Bathtub" (2008) off the Little Feat album "Join the Band"
 * "I'm Alive" (2008) off the Kenny Chesney album Lucky Old Sun
 * "Mamma Boulet" (2008) off the Dave Grant album Bubbalon by Bass
 * "Caveman", "Sleep" & "Overdue" (2009) off the Danny Barnes album Pizza Box
 * "Tomorrow Never Knows" (2010), off the Herbie Hancock album The Imagine Project
 * "You Should Know Me", "Oh, Bangladesh" & "And He Slayed Her" (2010) off the Liz Phair album Funstyle
 * "All the Same"(2011) off the Vieux Farka Touré album – The Secret
 * "A Pirate Looks at Forty" (2012) with Jack Johnson and Tim Reynolds, off the live album Jack Johnson and Friends – Best of Kokua Festival
 * "Walk of Shame" (2012) with Jimmy Fallon, off the comedy album Blow Your Pants Off
 * "Take Me to Tomorrow" (2013) off the John Denver tribute album – The Music Is You: A Tribute to John Denver
 * "Forsaken Savior" (2013) off the Gov't Mule album Shout!
 * "Sweetheart" (2018), off the Sarah White album "High Flyer"

title: Dave Matthews


text:
User:Giorgio~enwiki

My name is Giorgio Baresi and I'm a 25 year old web designer based in Italy.

I'm really interested in wikies and I think that Wikipedia is a great site.

title: User:Giorgio~enwiki


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User:Bronger

de:Benutzer:Bronger

My full name is Torsten Bronger. I'm a 44 years old physicist from Aachen in Germany.

You can email me or use my talk page.

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title: User:Bronger


text:
Democratic National Committee

The Democratic National Committee (DNC) is the principal committee of the United States Democratic Party. The committee coordinates strategy to support Democratic Party candidates throughout the country for local, state, and national office, as well as works to establish a "party brand". It organizes the Democratic National Convention held every four years to nominate candidates for President and Vice President of the United States and to formulate the party platform. While it provides support for party candidates, it does not have direct authority over elected officials. When a Democrat is president, the White House controls the Committee. According to Boris Heersink, "political scientists have traditionally described the parties’ national committees as inconsequential but impartial service providers."

Its chair is elected by the committee. It conducts fundraising to support its activities.

The DNC was established on May 26, 1848, at that year's Democratic National Convention. The DNC's main counterpart is the Republican National Committee.

Role and organization
The DNC is responsible for articulating and promoting the Democratic platform and coordinating party organizational activity. The DNC is more focused on campaign and organizational strategy than public policy. When the president is a Democrat, the party generally works closely with the president. In presidential elections, it supervises the national convention and, both independently and in coordination with the presidential candidate, raises funds, commissions polls, and coordinates campaign strategy. Following the selection of a party nominee, the public funding laws permit the national party to coordinate certain expenditures with the nominee, but additional funds are spent on general, party-building activities. There are state committees in every state, as well as local committees in most cities, wards, and towns (and, in most states, counties).

The chairperson of the DNC is elected by vote of members of the Democratic National Committee. The DNC is composed of the chairs and vice-chairs of each state Democratic Party's central committee, two hundred members apportioned among the states based on population and generally elected either on the ballot by primary voters or by the state Democratic Party committee, a number of elected officials serving in an ex officio capacity, and a variety of representatives of major Democratic Party constituencies.

The DNC establishes rules for the caucuses and primaries which choose delegates to the Democratic National Convention, but the caucuses and primaries themselves are most often run not by the DNC but instead by each individual state. Primary elections, in particular, are conducted by state governments according to their own laws. Political parties can choose whether to participate and accept the results of a state's primary election.

All DNC members are superdelegates to the Democratic National Convention, and their role can affect the outcome over a close primary race only if no candidate receives a majority of pledged delegates. These delegates, officially described as "unpledged party leader and elected official delegates," fall into three categories based on other positions they hold:
 * elected members of the Democratic National Committee,
 * sitting Democratic governors and members of Congress, and
 * distinguished party leaders, consisting of current and former presidents, vice presidents, congressional leaders, and DNC chairs, are all superdelegates for life.

Current leadership
In 2021, Jaime Harrison was selected by President Joe Biden to Chair the Democratic National Committee, and his nomination was approved by its members.
 * Chair: Jaime Harrison, former Chairman of the South Carolina Democratic Party
 * Executive Director: Sam Cornale, former Chief of Staff of the Democratic National Committee
 * Deputy Executive Director: Roger Lau, former Campaign Manager for Elizabeth Warren for President
 * Political Director: Alana Mounce, former Executive Director of the Nevada State Democratic Party
 * Chief of Staff: Anatole Jenkins, former National Organizing Director for Kamala Harris For The People
 * Vice Chair of Civic Engagement and Voter Participation: Keisha Lance Bottoms
 * Vice Chairs:
 * Gretchen Whitmer, Governor of Michigan
 * Tammy Duckworth, U.S. Senator from Illinois
 * Ken Martin, Chair of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party
 * Vacant
 * Treasurer: Virginia McGregor
 * Secretary: Jason Rae
 * Finance Chair: Chris Korge

In addition, a National Advisory Board exists for purposes of fundraising and advising the executive. The present chair is Elizabeth Frawley Bagley, former U.S. Ambassador to Portugal.

Deputy Chairs
The Deputy Chair of the Democratic National Committee was re-established by Tom Perez in February 2017 after his win in the 2017 DNC Chair race.

After a close victory over Minnesota Congressman Keith Ellison, Perez appointed Ellison as Deputy Chair in an attempt to lessen the divide in the Democratic Party after the contentious 2016 Democratic presidential primaries, which saw conflicts between supporters of Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders. Perez was seen as being more in line with the Clinton wing, while Ellison was more in line with the Sanders wing. The role's revival in 2017 has been described by critics as largely titular and ceremonial.

On November 8, 2018, Ellison resigned from the position due to his win in the Minnesota Attorney General election. The position remains unoccupied.

History
The DNC has existed since 1848. During the 1848 Democratic National Convention, a resolution was passed creating the Democratic National Committee, composed of thirty members, one person per state, chosen by the states' delegations, and chaired by Benjamin F. Hallett.

In order to strengthen the national party organization, Franklin Roosevelt proposed in 1925 that the DNC should open a permanent headquarters in order to function "every day in every year" and exist on a "business-like financial basis." In 1929, John Raskob led the creation of the first permanent national headquarters for the DNC in Washington, DC.

Watergate
In the 1970s, the DNC had its head office, located in the Watergate complex at the time, burglarized by entities working for Richard Nixon's administration during the Watergate scandal.

Chinagate
Chinagate was an alleged effort by the People's Republic of China to influence domestic American politics prior to and during the Clinton administration. In 2002, the Federal Election Commission fined the Democratic National Committee $115,000 for its part in fundraising violations in 1996.

Cyber attacks
Cyber attacks and hacks were claimed by or attributed to various individual and groups such as:
 * According to committee officials and security experts, two competing Russian intelligence services were discovered on DNC computer networks. One intelligence service achieved infiltration beginning in the summer of 2015 and the other service breached and roamed the network beginning in April 2016. The two groups accessed emails, chats, and research on an opposing presidential candidate. They were expelled from the DNC system in June 2016.
 * The hacker Guccifer 2.0 claimed that he hacked into the Democratic National Committee computer network and then leaked its emails to the newspaper The Hill. During a CNN interview with Jake Tapper, Hillary Clinton's campaign manager, Robby Mook, cited experts saying that the DNC emails were leaked by the Russians but did not name the experts. The press and cybersecurity firms discredited the Guccifer 2.0 claim, as investigators now believe Guccifer 2.0 was an agent of the G.R.U., Russia's military intelligence service.

2016 email leak
On July 22, 2016, WikiLeaks released approximately 20,000 DNC emails. Critics claimed that the Committee unequally favored Hillary Clinton and acted in support of her nomination while opposing the candidacy of her primary challenger Bernie Sanders. Donna Brazile corroborated these allegations in an excerpt of her book published by Politico in November 2017. The leaked emails spanned sixteen months, terminating in May 2016.

The WikiLeaks releases led to the resignations of Chairperson Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Communications Director Luis Miranda, Chief Financial Officer Brad Marshall and Chief Executive Amy Dacey. After she resigned, Wasserman Schultz put out a statement about possible FBI assistance in investigating the hacking and leaks, saying that "the DNC was never contacted by the FBI or any other agency concerned about these intrusions." During a Senate hearing in January 2017, James Comey testified that the FBI requested access to the DNC's servers, but its request was denied. He also testified that old versions of the Republican National Committee's servers were breached, but then-current databases were unaffected.

The DNC subsequently filed a lawsuit in federal court against WikiLeaks and others alleging a conspiracy to influence the election.

title: Democratic National Committee


text:
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), also called EDTA acid after its own abbreviation, is an aminopolycarboxylic acid with the formula [CH2N(CH2CO2H)2]2. This white, water-insoluble solid is widely used to bind to iron (Fe2+/Fe3+) and calcium ions (Ca2+), forming water-soluble complexes even at neutral pH. It is thus used to dissolve Fe- and Ca-containing scale as well as to deliver iron ions under conditions where its oxides are insoluble. EDTA is available as several salts, notably disodium EDTA, sodium calcium edetate, and tetrasodium EDTA, but these all function similarly.

Textiles and paper
In industry, EDTA is mainly used to sequester (bind or confine) metal ions in aqueous solution. In the textile industry, it prevents metal ion impurities from modifying colours of dyed products. In the pulp and paper industry, EDTA inhibits the ability of metal ions, especially Mn2+, from catalysing the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide, which is used in chlorine-free bleaching.

Food
In a similar manner, EDTA is added to some food as a preservative or stabiliser to prevent catalytic oxidative decolouration, which is catalysed by metal ions.

Water softener
The reduction of water hardness in laundry applications and the dissolution of scale in boilers both rely on EDTA and related complexants to bind Ca2+, Mg2+, as well as other metal ions. Once bound to EDTA, these metal complexes are less likely to form precipitates or to interfere with the action of the soaps and detergents. For similar reasons, cleaning solutions often contain EDTA. In a similar manner EDTA is used in the cement industry for the determination of free lime and free magnesia in cement and clinkers.

The solubilisation of Fe3+ ions at or below near neutral pH can be accomplished using EDTA. This property is useful in agriculture including hydroponics. However, given the pH dependence of ligand formation, EDTA is not helpful for improving iron solubility in above neutral soils. Otherwise, at near-neutral pH and above, iron(III) forms insoluble salts, which are less bioavailable to susceptible plant species.

Scrubbing
Aqueous [Fe(EDTA)]− is used for removing ("scrubbing") hydrogen sulfide from gas streams. This conversion is achieved by oxidising the hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur, which is non-volatile:
 * 2 [Fe(EDTA)]− +  H2S  →  2 [Fe(EDTA)]2−  +  S  +  2 H+

In this application, the iron(III) centre is reduced to its iron(II) derivative, which can then be reoxidised by air. In similar manner, nitrogen oxides are removed from gas streams using [Fe(EDTA)]2−.

The oxidising properties of [Fe(EDTA)]− are also exploited in photography, where it is used to solubilise silver particles.

Ion-exchange chromatography
EDTA was used in separation of the lanthanide metals by ion-exchange chromatography. Perfected by F. H. Spedding et al. in 1954, the method relies on the steady increase in stability constant of the lanthanide EDTA complexes with atomic number. Using sulfonated polystyrene beads and Cu2+ as a retaining ion, EDTA causes the lanthanides to migrate down the column of resin while separating into bands of pure lanthanides. The lanthanides elute in order of decreasing atomic number. Due to the expense of this method, relative to countercurrent solvent extraction, ion exchange is now used only to obtain the highest purities of lanthanides (typically greater than 99.99%).

Medicine
Sodium calcium edetate, an EDTA derivative, is used to bind metal ions in the practice of chelation therapy, such as for treating mercury and lead poisoning. It is used in a similar manner to remove excess iron from the body. This therapy is used to treat the complication of repeated blood transfusions, as would be applied to treat thalassaemia.

Dentistry
Dentists and endodontists use EDTA solutions to remove inorganic debris (smear layer) and lubricate the root canals in endodontics. This procedure helps prepare root canals for obturation. Furthermore, EDTA solutions with the addition of a surfactant loosen up calcifications inside a root canal and allow instrumentation (canal shaping) and facilitate apical advancement of a file in a tight or calcified root canal towards the apex.

Eyedrops
It serves as a preservative (usually to enhance the action of another preservative such as benzalkonium chloride or thiomersal) in ocular preparations and eyedrops.

Analysis
In medical diagnosis and organ function tests (here, kidney function test), the chromium(III) complex [Cr(EDTA)]− (as radioactive chromium-51 (51Cr)) is administered intravenously and its filtration into the urine is monitored. This method is useful for evaluating glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in nuclear medicine.

EDTA is used extensively in the analysis of blood. It is an anticoagulant for blood samples for CBC/FBCs, where the EDTA chelates the calcium present in the blood specimen, arresting the coagulation process and preserving blood cell morphology. Tubes containing EDTA are marked with lavender (purple) or pink tops. EDTA is also in tan top tubes for lead testing and can be used in royal blue top tubes for trace metal testing.

EDTA is a slime dispersant, and has been found to be highly effective in reducing bacterial growth during implantation of intraocular lenses (IOLs).

Alternative medicine
Some alternative practitioners believe EDTA acts as an antioxidant, preventing free radicals from injuring blood vessel walls, therefore reducing atherosclerosis. These ideas are unsupported by scientific studies, and seem to contradict some currently accepted principles. The U.S. FDA has not approved it for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Cosmetics
In shampoos, cleaners, and other personal care products, EDTA salts are used as a sequestering agent to improve their stability in air.

Laboratory applications
In the laboratory, EDTA is widely used for scavenging metal ions: In biochemistry and molecular biology, ion depletion is commonly used to deactivate metal-dependent enzymes, either as an assay for their reactivity or to suppress damage to DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides. EDTA also acts as a selective inhibitor against dNTP hydrolyzing enzymes (Taq polymerase, dUTPase, MutT), liver arginase and horseradish peroxidase independently of metal ion chelation. These findings urge the rethinking of the utilisation of EDTA as a biochemically inactive metal ion scavenger in enzymatic experiments. In analytical chemistry, EDTA is used in complexometric titrations and analysis of water hardness or as a masking agent to sequester metal ions that would interfere with the analyses.

EDTA finds many specialised uses in the biomedical labs, such as in veterinary ophthalmology as an anticollagenase to prevent the worsening of corneal ulcers in animals. In tissue culture, EDTA is used as a chelating agent that binds to calcium and prevents joining of cadherins between cells, preventing clumping of cells grown in liquid suspension, or detaching adherent cells for passaging. In histopathology, EDTA can be used as a decalcifying agent making it possible to cut sections using a microtome once the tissue sample is demineralised.

EDTA is also known to inhibit a range of metallopeptidases, the method of inhibition occurs via the chelation of the metal ion required for catalytic activity. EDTA can also be used to test for bioavailability of heavy metals in sediments. However, it may influence the bioavailability of metals in solution, which may pose concerns regarding its effects in the environment, especially given its widespread uses and applications.

EDTA is also used to remove crud (corroded metals) from fuel rods in nuclear reactors.

Side effects
EDTA exhibits low acute toxicity with (rat) of 2.0 g/kg to 2.2 g/kg. It has been found to be both cytotoxic and weakly genotoxic in laboratory animals. Oral exposures have been noted to cause reproductive and developmental effects. The same study also found that both dermal exposure to EDTA in most cosmetic formulations and inhalation exposure to EDTA in aerosolised cosmetic formulations would produce exposure levels below those seen to be toxic in oral dosing studies.

Synthesis
The compound was first described in 1935 by Ferdinand Münz, who prepared the compound from ethylenediamine and chloroacetic acid. Today, EDTA is mainly synthesised from ethylenediamine (1,2-diaminoethane), formaldehyde, and sodium cyanide. This route yields the tetrasodium EDTA, which is converted in a subsequent step into the acid forms:

 * H2NCH2CH2NH2 +  4 CH2O  +  4 NaCN  +  4 H2O   →  (NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2  +  4 NH3

 * (NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2 +  4 HCl  →  (HO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2H)2  +  4 NaCl

This process is used to produce about 80,000 tonnes of EDTA each year. Impurities cogenerated by this route include glycine and nitrilotriacetic acid; they arise from reactions of the ammonia coproduct.

Nomenclature
To describe EDTA and its various protonated forms, chemists distinguish between EDTA4−, the conjugate base that is the ligand, and H4EDTA, the precursor to that ligand. At very low pH (very acidic conditions) the fully protonated H6EDTA2+ form predominates, whereas at very high pH or very basic condition, the fully deprotonated EDTA4− form is prevalent. In this article, the term EDTA is used to mean H4−xEDTAx−, whereas in its complexes EDTA4− stands for the tetraanion ligand.

Coordination chemistry principles
In coordination chemistry, EDTA4− is a member of the aminopolycarboxylic acid family of ligands. EDTA4− usually binds to a metal cation through its two amines and four carboxylates, i.e., it is a hexadentate ("six-toothed") chelating agent. Many of the resulting coordination compounds adopt octahedral geometry. Although of little consequence for its applications, these octahedral complexes are chiral. The cobalt(III) anion [Co(EDTA)]− has been resolved into enantiomers. Many complexes of EDTA4− adopt more complex structures due to either the formation of an additional bond to water, i.e. seven-coordinate complexes, or the displacement of one carboxylate arm by water. The iron(III) complex of EDTA is seven-coordinate. Early work on the development of EDTA was undertaken by Gerold Schwarzenbach in the 1940s. EDTA forms especially strong complexes with Mn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Pb(II) and Co(III).

Several features of EDTA's complexes are relevant to its applications. First, because of its high denticity, this ligand has a high affinity for metal cations:

 * [Fe(H2O)6]3+ +  H4EDTA   [Fe(EDTA)]−  +  6 H2O  +  4 H+  Keq = 1025.1

Written in this way, the equilibrium quotient shows that metal ions compete with protons for binding to EDTA. Because metal ions are extensively enveloped by EDTA, their catalytic properties are often suppressed. Finally, since complexes of EDTA4− are anionic, they tend to be highly soluble in water. For this reason, EDTA is able to dissolve deposits of metal oxides and carbonates.

The pKa values of free EDTA are 0, 1.5, 2, 2.66 (deprotonation of the four carboxyl groups) and 6.16, 10.24 (deprotonation of the two amino groups).

Abiotic degradation
EDTA is in such widespread use that questions have been raised whether it is a persistent organic pollutant. While EDTA serves many positive functions in different industrial, pharmaceutical and other avenues, the longevity of EDTA can pose serious issues in the environment. The degradation of EDTA is slow. It mainly occurs abiotically in the presence of sunlight.

The most important process for the elimination of EDTA from surface waters is direct photolysis at wavelengths below 400 nm. Depending on the light conditions, the photolysis half-lives of iron(III) EDTA in surface waters can range as low as 11.3 minutes up to more than 100 hours. Degradation of FeEDTA, but not EDTA itself, produces iron complexes of the triacetate (ED3A), diacetate (EDDA), and monoacetate (EDMA) – 92% of EDDA and EDMA biodegrades in 20 hours while ED3A displays significantly higher resistance. Many environmentally-abundant EDTA species (such as Mg2+ and Ca2+) are more persistent.

Biodegradation
In many industrial wastewater treatment plants, EDTA elimination can be achieved at about 80% using microorganisms. Resulting byproducts are ED3A and iminodiacetic acid (IDA) – suggesting that both the backbone and acetyl groups were attacked. Some microorganisms have even been discovered to form nitrates out of EDTA, but they function optimally at moderately alkaline conditions of pH 9.0–9.5.

Several bacterial strains isolated from sewage treatment plants efficiently degrade EDTA. Specific strains include Agrobacterium radiobacter ATCC 55002 and the sub-branches of Pseudomonadota like BNC1, BNC2, and strain DSM 9103. The three strains share similar properties of aerobic respiration and are classified as gram-negative bacteria. Unlike photolysis, the chelated species is not exclusive to iron(III) in order to be degraded. Rather, each strain uniquely consumes varying metal–EDTA complexes through several enzymatic pathways. Agrobacterium radiobacter only degrades Fe(III) EDTA while BNC1 and DSM 9103 are not capable of degrading iron(III) EDTA and are more suited for calcium, barium, magnesium and manganese(II) complexes. EDTA complexes require dissociation before degradation.

Alternatives to EDTA
Interest in environmental safety has raised concerns about biodegradability of aminopolycarboxylates such as EDTA. These concerns incentivize the investigation of alternative aminopolycarboxylates. Candidate chelating agents include nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), iminodisuccinic acid (IDS), polyaspartic acid, S,S-ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS), methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA), and L -Glutamic acid N,N-diacetic acid, tetrasodium salt (GLDA).

Iminodisuccinic acid (IDS)
Commercially used since 1998, iminodisuccinic acid (IDS) biodegrades by about 80% after only 7 days. IDS binds to calcium exceptionally well and forms stable compounds with other heavy metal ions. In addition to having a lower toxicity after chelation, IDS is degraded by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (BY6), which can be harvested on a large scale. The enzymes involved, IDS epimerase and C−N lyase, do not require any cofactors.

Polyaspartic acid
Polyaspartic acid, like IDS, binds to calcium and other heavy metal ions. It has many practical applications including corrosion inhibitors, wastewater additives, and agricultural polymers. A Polyaspartic acid-based laundry detergent was the first laundry detergent in the world to receive the EU flower ecolabel. Calcium binding ability of polyaspartic acid has been exploited for targeting of drug-loaded nanocarriers to bone. Preparation of hydrogels based on polyaspartic acid, in a variety of physical forms ranging from fiber to particle, can potentially enable facile separation of the chelated ions from a solution. Therefore, despite being weaker than EDTA, polyaspartic acid can still be regarded as a viable alternative due to these features as well as biocompatibility, and biodegradability.

S,S-Ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS)
A structural isomer of EDTA, ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS) is readily biodegradable at high rate in its S,S form.

Methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA)
Trisodium dicarboxymethyl alaninate, also known as methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA), has a high rate of biodegradation at over 68%, but unlike many other chelating agents can degrade without the assistance of adapted bacteria. Additionally, unlike EDDS or IDS, MGDA can withstand higher temperatures while maintaining a high stability as well as the entire pH range. MGDA has been shown to be an effective chelating agent, with a capacity for mobilization comparable with that of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), with application to water for industrial use and for the removal of calcium oxalate from urine from patients with kidney stones.

Methods of detection and analysis
The most sensitive method of detecting and measuring EDTA in biological samples is selected reaction monitoring capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry (SRM-CE/MS), which has a detection limit of 7.3 ng/mL in human plasma and a quantitation limit of 15 ng/mL. This method works with sample volumes as small as 7–8 nL.

EDTA has also been measured in non-alcoholic beverages using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) at a level of 2.0 μg/mL.

In popular culture
In the movie Blade (1998), EDTA is used as a weapon to kill vampires, exploding when in contact with vampire blood.

title: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid


text:
Hochsauerlandkreis

Hochsauerlandkreis (meaning “High Sauerland District” in German) is a Kreis (district) in the east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Neighboring districts are Soest, Paderborn, Höxter, Waldeck-Frankenberg, Siegen-Wittgenstein, Olpe, Märkischer Kreis.

The district is named “High Sauerland” because two of the highest mountains of the Sauerland mountainous landscape, Langenberg and Kahler Asten are in its territory. With 2,766 ft / 843 m (Langenberg) and 2,762 ft / 842 m (Kahler Asten) these are also the highest mountains of North Rhine-Westphalia.

History
The district was established in 1975 in the reorganization of the districts in North Rhine-Westphalia by merging the previous districts Arnsberg, Brilon and Meschede.

Geography
Geographically the district covers a big part of the Sauerland mountains, including the highest and third highest elevation – the Langenberg near Olsberg with 2,766 ft / 843 m, and the better known Kahler Asten with 2,762 ft / 842 m near Winterberg. These are also the two highest mountains of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was inherited from the former district Arnsberg. It shows the eagle as the symbol of the Earls of Arnsberg. When their county lost independence in 1368 it fell to the bishops of Cologne, thus the sign on the breast of the eagle shows the Cologne cross.

Town twinnings
Hochsauerland is twinned with the following areas:

 * 🏴 West Lothian, Scotland

Notable persons

 * Franz Hoffmeister (died 1943), Roman Catholic priest

Notable places

 * Abbey Bergkloster, Bestwig
 * Abbey Grafschaft, Schmallenberg
 * Abbey Königsmünster, Meschede

title: Hochsauerlandkreis


text:
Corrin

Corrin is a heterocyclic compound. Although not known to exist on its own, the molecule is of interest as the parent macrocycle related to the cofactor and chromophore in vitamin B12. Its name reflects that it is the "core" of vitamin B12 (cobalamins). Compounds with a corrin core are known as "corrins".

There are two chiral centres, which in natural compounds like cobalamin have the same stereochemistry.

Coordination chemistry
Upon deprotonation, the corrinoid ring is capable of binding cobalt. In vitamin B12, the resulting complex also features a benzimidazole-derived ligand, and the sixth site on the octahedron serves as the catalytic center.

The corrin ring resembles the porphyrin ring. Both feature four pyrrole-like subunits organized into rings. Corrins have a central 15-membered C11N4 ring whereas porphryins have an interior 16-membered C12N4 ring. All four nitrogen centers are linked by conjugation structure, with alternating double and single bonds. In contrast to porphyrins, corrins lack one of the carbon groups that link the pyrrole-like units into a fully conjugated structure. With a conjugated system that extends only 3/4 of the way around the ring, and does not include any of the outer edge carbons, corrins have a number of non-conjugated sp3 carbons, making them more flexible than porphyrins and not as flat. A third closely related biological structure, the chlorin ring system found in chlorophyll, is intermediate between porphyrin and corrin, having 20 carbons like the porphyrins and a conjugated structure extending all the way around the central atom, but with only 6 of the 8 edge carbons participating. Corroles (octadehydrocorrins) are fully aromatic derivatives of corrins.

title: Corrin


text:
Frankie Valli

Francesco Stephen Castelluccio (born May 3, 1934), better known by his stage name Frankie Valli, is an American singer, best known as the frontman of the Four Seasons beginning in 1960. He is known for his unusually powerful lead falsetto voice.

Valli scored 29 top 40 hits with the Four Seasons, one top 40 hit under the Four Seasons alias the Wonder Who?, and nine top 40 hits as a solo artist. As a member of the Four Seasons, Valli's number-one hits include "Sherry" (1962), "Big Girls Don't Cry" (1962), "Walk Like a Man" (1963), "Rag Doll" (1964) and "December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)" (1975). Valli's recording of the song "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" reached number two in 1967. As a solo artist, Valli scored number-one hits with the songs "My Eyes Adored You" (1974) and "Grease" (1978).

Valli, Tommy DeVito, Nick Massi and Bob Gaudio—the original members of the Four Seasons—were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. Valli is also a 2010 inductee of the New Jersey Hall of Fame, with the Four Seasons (Gaudio, Massi, DeVito and Joe Long) inducted separately in 2017 and Valli speaking on Massi's behalf.

Early life
Valli was born Francesco Stephen Castelluccio on May 3, 1934 to an Italian family in the First Ward of Newark, New Jersey; he was the eldest of three sons. His father, Anthony Castelluccio, was a barber and display designer for Lionel model trains; his mother, Mary Rinaldi, was a homemaker and beer company employee. He was inspired to take up a singing career at age seven after his mother took him to see Frank Sinatra at the Paramount Theater in New York City. One of his early favorite singers was "Texas" Jean Valli, from whom he took his stage name. He worked as a barber until he could support himself with music.

Valli's birth year has been called into question. He never addressed the issue himself until a 2007 posting at the Official Frankie Valli Site, sponsored by his record label Universal Records. Much of his previous official publicity used 1937 as his birth year. Other sources gave his year of birth as 1934, such as the Bear Family Records release The Four Lovers (BCD 15424) and a 1965 mug shot, available through The Smoking Gun.

Music career
Valli began his singing career in the early 1950s with the Variety Trio (Nickie DeVito, Tommy DeVito, and Henry "Hank" Majewski), and was mentored in much of his early career by Nick Macioci, who would later join Valli in The Four Seasons, and by "Texas" Jean Valli, a female hillbilly singer, from whom he adopted the "Valli" surname. Geoff Herbert explains, "Frankie said in 2010 that Jean took him to meet music publishers Paul and Dave Kapp, telling them he was her brother. As a result, his first single was listed under 'Frankie Valley', and the name stuck—though he eventually changed it to the same spelling" that Texas Jean used. His desire to sing in public was initially granted when the group offered him a guest spot when they performed. In late 1952, the Variety Trio disbanded and Valli and Tommy DeVito became part of the house band at The Strand in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Valli played bass and sang.

Valli recorded his first single, "My Mother's Eyes", in 1953, a cover of the 1929 George Jessel song from Lucky Boy, with his stage name "Frankie Valley." Around this time, Valli, Majewski and Tommy DeVito left the house band at The Strand and formed The Variatones with Frank Cottone and Billy Thompson. In 1956, the group impressed New York recording agent Peter Paul, and he got them an audition at RCA Victor a week later.

The group changed its name to the Four Lovers and recorded several singles and an album's worth of tracks. They had a minor hit with "You're the Apple of My Eye" in 1956, which earned them their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show. After two years of no further success, DeVito fired his brother and Majewski for insubordination (they had refused to take a gig opening for Tony Bennett) and creative differences, as Majewski's comic persona did not mesh with the group's musical talents. The Four Lovers continued, with Valli, DeVito and an ad hoc lineup that variously included Macioci (by then also pursuing a solo career as "Nickie Massey" ), Charles Calello and Hollywood Playboys keyboardist Hugh Garrity. In 1959, after being introduced at a gig in Baltimore by mutual friend Joe Pesci, Royal Teen Bob Gaudio became a member.

By 1960, after several years of session work under numerous stage names, the lineup of Valli, DeVito, Gaudio and a now-renamed Nick Massi took on the name "The 4 Seasons," taking the name from a bowling alley in Union, New Jersey that had rejected them after an audition.

As the lead singer of the Four Seasons, Valli had a string of hits, beginning with the number-one hit "Sherry" in 1962 and continuing through most of the rest of the decade.

During the 1960s, Gaudio and his songwriting partner Bob Crewe worked with Valli to craft solo recordings, with varying degrees of success. It was rare at the time for a major recording artist to perform solo while still recording with their own group. Valli's debut solo album was a collection of single releases and a few new recordings. He used the opportunity to transition away from the power falsetto that had made Valli and the Four Seasons famous, showcasing a natural tenor voice that Valli had always preferred. (Calello noted in 2000 that Valli's voice could go down to a baritone and that Valli would take on the baritone parts in harmony arrangements when he did not sing lead. )

"You're Ready Now", a Valli solo recording from 1966, became part of the Northern soul scene and reached number eleven on the UK Singles Chart in December 1970. "The Night" originally released in 1970 also became a huge Northern soul hit and as a result it reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart in 1975.

In 1975, his single "My Eyes Adored You" hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number 5 in the UK chart. This caused an awkward situation within the band, as Valli's label at the time, Private Stock Records, was willing to sign Valli but not the band. Warner Bros. Records was willing to sign the band, but greatly preferred if someone other than Valli sang lead vocals. As part of that agreement, Valli—with great reluctance—ceded some of the lead vocals for the group to new band members Gerry Polci and, to a lesser extent, Don Ciccone. In the same year, he also had a number six Billboard hit with the disco-laden "Swearin' to God" reaching number 31 in the UK chart, while further UK chart success came with "Fallen Angel", written by Guy Fletcher and Doug Flett. Valli was in the UK charts, reaching number 11. Meanwhile, the Four Seasons had a string of hits from their new LP Who Loves You in 1975; the title track with Valli, "December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)" with Valli, Polci and Ciccone, and minor hits "Silver Star" and "Down the Hall" (the latter from the follow-up album Helicon) with Polci alone.

In 1976, Valli covered the Beatles song "A Day in the Life" for the ephemeral musical documentary All This and World War II, to which the Seasons also contributed a cover of "We Can Work It Out."

In 1978, with the Four Seasons temporarily broken up, Valli embarked on a solo tour and sang the theme song for the film version of the stage play Grease, a song by Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees, which became a number one hit. He had two further chart successes over the next year: "Save Me, Save Me" in November 1978, which entered the Billboard Easy Listening chart, and "Fancy Dancer" in January 1979, which entered the pop charts.

Valli began suffering from otosclerosis in 1967, forcing him to "sing from memory" in the latter part of the 1970s. Surgery performed by Los Angeles ear specialist Victor Goodhill restored most of his hearing by 1980.

In 2005, the musical Jersey Boys opened on Broadway. Besides performances of many of Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons hit recordings, it has a biographical narrative, told from four separate points of view by each member of the Four Seasons (DeVito, Valli, Massi and Gaudio). John Lloyd Young portrayed Valli in the original production, while West End's production Ryan Molloy is the "longest-serving Frankie Valli". The musical dramatizes several real-life incidents from Valli's life, including his estrangement from daughter Francine, who died in 1980. The show has been widely acclaimed, financially successful, and was nominated for eight Tony Awards, winning four, notably Best Musical, Actor, and Supporting Actor. It has touring companies around the world, as well as a version at Paris Las Vegas, and was adapted into a 2014 film of the same name directed by Clint Eastwood, with Young again appearing as Valli; Valli was less enthusiastic about the film, believing that some parts were miscast and that Eastwood was a poor fit for the material.

In October 2007, Valli released Romancing the '60s, an album containing covers of his favorite songs from the 1960s, two of which—"Sunny" and "Any Day Now"—he had previously recorded. It was Valli's first solo album in nearly 27 years since 1980's Heaven Above Me.

In 2012, Valli made his Broadway debut with a week-long concert engagement at the Broadway Theatre in New York starting October 19.

From March 2016 to January 2017, "Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons" were touring the US, scheduled to play small-to-mid-size venues such as the Silver Legacy Casino in Reno, Nevada, the Celebrity Theatre in Phoenix, Arizona and the County Fair in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. In October 2016, Valli released his first solo album in nine years, 'Tis the Seasons, which features some of his favorite Christmas songs.

As part of the BBC Proms in the Park Valli, together with the Four Seasons performed with the BBC Concert Orchestra in Hyde Park on September 10, 2016.

Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons continued touring in 2018 and 2019, with a new lineup after his lineup since 2003 spun off as its own act, The Modern Gentlemen. In 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic canceled all touring plans. Touring resumed in the summer of 2021 with dates scheduled through October 2024; in October 2023, Valli indicated that it would be his farewell tour and that The Four Seasons would effectively end its 64-year run with his retirement. Valli did not rule out future performances after the tour ends but noted that the nature of touring, and a move from longer residencies to frequent one-night stops, was wearing on him, while the actual act of performing each night was not. In June 2021, Valli released his 12th studio album, his first in five years, Touch of Jazz, which features a collection of jazz cover songs.

Acting career
Valli has appeared as an actor in Miami Vice (as Mafia boss Frank Doss), Full House, the 1998 TV movie Witness to the Mob (as Frank LoCascio of the Gambino crime family), The Sopranos (as mobster Rusty Millio), and the 2014 film And So It Goes.

On the November 21, 2014, episode of Hawaii Five-0 entitled "Ka Hana malu (Inside Job)", Valli played mysterious lawyer Leonard Cassano, who was engaged to Carol Burnett's character, Aunt Deb.

In 2015, Valli did interviews as himself on the AMC television series The Making of the Mob: New York.

Personal life
Valli has been married four times. He married his first wife, Mary, who already had a two-year-old daughter named Celia, in his early twenties. They raised two daughters together, Antonia and Francine, and divorced after 13 years in 1971. He married MaryAnn Hannagan in 1974, and that marriage lasted eight years. He then married Randy Clohessy in 1984; they had three sons and separated in 2004. In 1980, his stepdaughter, Celia, was killed when she fell off a fire escape. Six months later, Francine, his youngest daughter from his marriage to Mary, died reportedly from a drug overdose. Antonia later briefly married Four Seasons drummer/vocalist Gerry Polci, and their daughter Olivia Polci, who also adopted the stage surname Valli, is a professional stage actress. She portrayed her grandmother Mary in a Jersey Boys production in 2019. Frankie married Jackie Jacobs on June 26, 2023, in Las Vegas. Valli and Jacobs reside in Encino, California.

One issue in Valli's third divorce went up on appeal to the Supreme Court of California: whether a life insurance policy purchased in 2003 was community property. On May 15, 2014, the Court unanimously affirmed the trial court's ruling that the policy was community property (and not Randy's separate property), in an opinion signed by Associate Justice Joyce Kennard.

title: Frankie Valli


text:
Talk:Antiochus VII Sidetes

Untitled
what's a "Seleucidian king"? i mean i could look it up, but i'd like that info here

MarcusAurelius

title: Talk:Antiochus VII Sidetes


text:
Tippecanoe River

The Tippecanoe River is a gentle, 182 mi river in the Central Corn Belt Plains ecoregion in northern Indiana. It flows from Crooked Lake in Noble County to the Wabash River near what is now Battle Ground, about 12 mi northeast of Lafayette. The name "Tippecanoe" was derived from a Miami-Illinois word for buffalo fish, reconstructed as */kiteepihkwana/ or as kiteepihkwana siipiiwi.

The Tippecanoe River is fed by 88 natural lakes and has a drainage area of 1250000 acres, spanning 14 counties. It supports more numerous imperiled species and overall species diversity than most streams of the upper Midwest. The Nature Conservancy has identified it as one of the top ten rivers in the United States to preserve due to its ecological diversity and the high proportion of endangered species found in it.

Course
The Tippecanoe River originates from multiple kettle lakes formed by ancient glaciers in what is now Noble County, Indiana. Numerous dams were built along its length, to create lakes and ponds for water power. The river flows west into Wilmot Pond, which is formed by a small dam on its western side. After Wilmot, it crosses into Kosciusko County and enters Backwaters Lake, the basin of Webster Lake. After going over the dam at Webster Lake, the river travels a few miles and enters Tippecanoe Lake. From there the river flows south and west through the southeast corner of Marshall County, then bends northwest through the northern part of Fulton County and through Pulaski County, from the northeast corner to the south central portion, traversing Tippecanoe River State Park along the way. It enters White County, where dams form Lake Freeman and Lake Shafer. The river exits Lake Freeman from the south and flows through the west part of Carroll County into Tippecanoe County, where it joins the Wabash River.

In addition to Tippecanoe County, five townships through which the river flows are named Tippecanoe:
 * Tippecanoe Township, Carroll County, Indiana
 * Tippecanoe Township, Kosciusko County, Indiana
 * Tippecanoe Township, Marshall County, Indiana
 * Tippecanoe Township, Pulaski County, Indiana
 * Tippecanoe Township, Tippecanoe County, Indiana

History
The Battle of Tippecanoe, in which Governor William Henry Harrison defeated the Indian confederacy of Tecumseh, occurred near the south bank of the river. Modern Lafayette developed near this site.

Aquatic Life
The Upper Tippecanoe River continues to have habitat suitable for unionid (freshwater mussel) species. The rivershed has retained much of its natural condition, continuing to provide a high quality habitat for freshwater mussels. Surveys done since 1903 show that the waterway continues to support 57 species of mussels. Modern changes in the surrounding land use and dredging the river channel affect the silt levels and stream flow, which threaten the mussel populations. Of the existing species, several are state listed as endangered, including the northern riffleshell (Epioblasma Torulosa rangiana), the wavyrayed lampmussel (Lampsilis fasciola), the kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus fasciolaris), and the purple lilliput (Toxolasma lividus). The clubshell (Pleurobema clava) is a federally endangered specie.

The river fishery is similar to the early 1900s, even with the changes in river use and the increase in urban and agricultural use. Survey's done in the early 21st century found representatives of 14 families and 54 species of fishes. Nearly 80% of collected fish are game fish species, including: Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Yellow perch (Perca flavescens), Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), Muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), White and Black crappie (Pomoxis annularis and P. nigromaculatus), Longear sunfish (Lepomis megalotis), Northern pike (Esox lucius), Rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), White bass (Morone chrysops) and Warmouth (Lepomis gulosus). Bluegills were the dominant fish, being 50% of the river population.

Dams
In the 1920s, two dams were built along the Tippecanoe River to produce electricity.
 * Oakdale Hydro Plant, built in 1925, created Lake Freeman. Lake Freeman reached 7 mi north through Monticello.  It provides 9.2 MW of power through NiSource.  Lake Freeman is held at 610 ft above sealevel.
 * Norway Hydro Plant, built in 1925, created Lake Shafer. Lake Shafer reached 6 mi north from Norway.  It provides 7.2 MW of power through NiSource.  Lake Shafer is held at 645 ft above sealevel.

title: Tippecanoe River