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Paranoia (role-playing game)

Paranoia is a dystopian science-fiction tabletop role-playing game originally designed and written by Greg Costikyan, Dan Gelber, and Eric Goldberg, and first published in 1984 by West End Games. Since 2004 the game has been published under license by Mongoose Publishing. The game won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules of 1984 and was inducted into the Origins Awards Hall of Fame in 2007. Paranoia is notable among tabletop games for being more competitive than co-operative, with players encouraged to betray one another for their own interests, as well as for keeping a light-hearted, tongue in cheek tone despite its dystopian setting.

Several editions of the game have been published since the original version, and the franchise has spawned several spin-offs, novels and comic books based on the game.

Premise
The game is set in a dystopian future city controlled by the Computer (also known as "Friend Computer"), and where information (including the game rules) are restricted by color-coded "security clearance". Player characters are initially enforcers of the Computer's authority (known as Troubleshooter, mainly for the fact that they shoot trouble), and will be given missions to seek out and eliminate threats to the Computer's control. The player characters are also part of prohibited underground movements (which means that the players' characters are usually included among the aforementioned 'security threats'), and will have secret objectives including theft from and murder of other player characters.

Tone
Paranoia is a humorous role-playing game set in a dystopian future along the lines of Nineteen Eighty-Four, Brave New World, Logan's Run, and THX 1138; however, the tone of the game is rife with black humor, frequently tongue-in-cheek rather than dark and heavy. Most of the game's humor is derived from the players' (usually futile) attempts to complete their assignment while simultaneously adhering to the Computer's arbitrary, contradictory and often nonsensical security directives.

The Paranoia rulebook is unusual in a number of ways; demonstrating any knowledge of the rules is forbidden, and most of the rulebook is written in an easy, conversational tone that often makes fun of the players and their characters, while occasionally taking digs at other notable role-playing games.

Setting
The game's main setting is an immense, futuristic city called Alpha Complex. Alpha Complex is controlled by the Computer, a civil service AI construct (a literal realization of the "Influencing Machine" that some schizophrenics fear). The Computer serves as the game's principal antagonist, and fears a number of threats to its 'perfect' society, such as the Outdoors, mutants, and secret societies (especially Communists). To deal with these threats, the Computer employs Troubleshooters, whose job is to go out, find trouble, and shoot it. Player characters are usually Troubleshooters, although later game supplements have allowed the players to take on other roles, such as High-Programmers of Alpha Complex.

The player characters frequently receive mission instructions from the Computer that are incomprehensible, self-contradictory, or obviously fatal if adhered to, and side-missions (such as Mandatory Bonus Duties) that conflict with the main mission. Failing a mission generally results in termination of the player character, but succeeding can just as often result in the same fate, after being rewarded for successfully concluding the mission. They are issued equipment that is uniformly dangerous, faulty, or "experimental" (i.e., almost certainly dangerous and faulty). Additionally, each player character is generally an unregistered mutant and a secret society member (which are both termination offenses in Alpha Complex), and has a hidden agenda separate from the group's goals, often involving stealing from or killing teammates. Thus, missions often turn into a comedy of errors, as everyone on the team seeks to double-cross everyone else while keeping their own secrets. The game's manual encourages suspicion between players, offering several tips on how to make the gameplay as paranoid as possible.

Every player's character is assigned six clones, known as a six-pack, which are used to replace the preceding clone upon his or her death. The game lacks a conventional health system; most wounds the player characters can suffer are assumed to be fatal. As a result, Paranoia allows characters to be routinely killed, yet the player can continue instead of leaving the game. This easy spending of clones tends to lead to frequent firefights, gruesome slapstick, and the horrible yet humorous demise of most if not all of the player character's clone family. Additional clones can be purchased if one gains sufficient favour with the Computer.

Security clearances
Paranoia features a security clearance system based on colors of the visible spectrum which heavily restricts what the players can and cannot legally do; everything from corridors to food and equipment have security restrictions. The lowest rating is Infrared, but the lowest playable security clearance is Red; the game usually begins with the characters having just been promoted to Red grade. Interfering with anything which is above that player's clearance carries significant risk.

The full order of clearances from lowest to highest is Infrared (visually represented by black), Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet, and Ultraviolet (visually represented by white). Within the game, Infrared-clearance citizens live dull lives of mindless drudgery and are heavily medicated, while higher clearance characters may be allowed to demote or even summarily execute those of a lower rank and those with Ultraviolet clearance are almost completely unrestricted and have a great deal of access to the Computer; they are the only citizens that may (legally) access and modify the Computer's programming, and thus Ultraviolet citizens are also referred to as "High Programmers". Security clearance is not related to competence but is instead the result of the Computer's often insane and unjustified calculus of trust concerning a citizen. It is suggested that it may in fact be the High Programmers' meddling with The Computer's programming that resulted in its insanity.

Secret societies
In the game, secret societies tend to be based on sketchy and spurious knowledge of historical matters. For example, previous editions included societies such as the "Seal Club" that idolizes the Outdoors but is unsure what plants and animals actually look like. Other societies include the Knights of the Circular Object (based on the Knights of the Round Table), the Trekkies, and the First Church of Christ Computer Programmer. In keeping with the theme of paranoia, many secret societies have spies or double agents in each other's organizations. The 1st edition also included secret societies such as Programs Groups (the personal agents and spies of the High Programmers at the apex of Alpha Complex society) and Spy For Another Alpha Complex.

The actual societies which would be encountered in a game depends on the play style; some societies are more suited for more light-hearted games (Zap-style, or the lighter end of Classic), whereas others represent a more serious threat to Alpha Complex and are therefore more suitable for Straight or the more dark sort of Classic games.

Publication history
Six editions have been published. Three of these were published by West End Games - the 1st, 2nd, and "Fifth" Editions - whereas the later three editions (Paranoia XP, the 25th Anniversary edition and the "Red Clearance" edition) were published by Mongoose Publishing. In addition to these six published editions, it is known that West End Games were working on a "Third Edition" - to replace the poorly received Fifth Edition - in the late 1990s, but their financial issues would prevent this edition from being published, except for being included in one tournament adventure.

1st edition
1st edition was written by Greg Costikyan, Dan Gelber, and Eric Goldberg - published in 1984 by West End Games. In 1985, this edition of Paranoia won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules of 1984. This edition, while encouraging dark humour in-game, took a fairly serious dystopian tone; the supplements and adventures released to accompany it emphasised the lighter side, however, establishing the freewheeling mix of slapstick, intra-team backstabbing and satire that is classically associated with a game of Paranoia.

2nd edition
2nd edition credited to Costikyan, Gelber, Goldberg, Ken Rolston, and Paul Murphy was published in 1987 by West End Games. This edition can be seen as a response to the natural development of the line towards a rules-light, fast and entertaining play style. Here, the humorous possibilities of life in a paranoid dystopia are emphasised, and the rules are simplified.

Metaplot and the Second Edition
Many of the supplements released for the Second edition fall into a story arc set up by new writers and line editors that was intended to freshen up the game and broaden roleplay possibilities. Players could travel in space and time, play in a Computerless Alpha Complex, or an Alpha Complex in which Computer battled for control with other factions. Some fans criticized the change to the default narrative. Second edition supplements can generally be divided into four eras:
 * 1) Classic: No metaplot.
 * 2) Secret Society Wars: Introduced in The DOA Sector Travelogue, and supported by a series of Secret Society Wars modules. Individual missions can be run in the Classic format, but running themes and conspiracies persist from book to book.
 * 3) The Crash: Detailed in The Crash Course Manual, and supported by the Vulture Warriors of Dimension X series of time-travelling modules. Adventures occur in a fractured Complex in which there is no Computer, possibly as a result of the Secret Society Wars, possibly not.
 * 4) Reboot: Detailed in The Paranoia Sourcebook, and supported by a few modules and supplements. The Computer returns, but does not control all of Alpha Complex - plays as a hybrid of the other eras, with players free to choose sides.

"Fifth" Edition
"Fifth Edition" was published in 1995 by West End Games. It was the third edition of the game released; two editions were skipped as a joke, and possibly also as a reference to the two major revisions to the game released during the lifetime of the Second Edition with the Crash Course Manual and the Paranoia Sourcebook. It has since been declared an "un-product" by the writers of the current edition, due to its extremely poor commercial and critical reception. Almost none of the original production staff were involved, and the books in this line focused less on the dark humor and oppressive nature of Alpha, and more on cheap pop culture spoofs, such as a Vampire: The Masquerade parody. It had a lighter and sillier atmosphere and fans and more cartoonish illustrations.

In his introduction to Flashbacks, a compilation of Paranoia adventures from the West End Games era, Allen Varney details the management decisions which led, in the eyes of many, to the decline of the Paranoia line, and cites rumours that the line saw a 90% decline in sales before West End Games went into bankruptcy:

Art director Larry Catalano left West End in 1986. Catalano’s successor fired (illustrator) Jim Holloway and brought in a succession of increasingly poor cartoonists. (Writer/editor) Ken Rolston left shortly thereafter for unrelated reasons. In Ken’s wake, developers Doug Kaufman and Paul Murphy in turn briefly supervised the Paranoia line. After they too departed, editorial control fell to—how do I put this tactfully?—people with different views of the Paranoia line.

Unreleased West End Games Third Edition
Following the unfavorable reception of the Fifth Edition, West End Games began planning a new edition of the game, which would be released as the "Third Edition". Pages from this planned edition were exhibited at Gen Con in 1997 - two years after the release of the Fifth Edition. Due to West End Games' financial problems this edition was never completed. In an interview in 1999 Scott Palter of West End expressed hopes that the Third Edition would be published that summer; however, he also disclosed that court proceedings had been begun by the original designers in order to reclaim the rights to the game. The designers did succeed in purchasing the rights to the game, putting an end to any possibility that the final West End Games edition would be released.

A single adventure has surfaced which contained a summary of the third edition rules.

Paranoia XP
Following the bankruptcy of West End Games, the original designers of Paranoia banded together and purchased the rights to the game from West End in order to regain control of the line. The designers in turn granted a license to Mongoose Publishing to produce a new version of the game, with the result that Paranoia XP, written by Allen Varney, Aaron Allston, Paul Baldowski, Beth Fischi, Dan Curtis Johnson and Greg Costikyan, was published in 2004. In 2005, Microsoft requested that the 'XP' be removed. As such, the name was shortened to just Paranoia. This edition of the game has received a much warmer critical reception, as well as selling well.

This edition also introduced three different styles of play, with some game mechanics differing between the various modes to support the specific tone being sought-after:
 * Zap is anarchic slapstick with no claims to making sense and little effort at satire. Zap represents Paranoia as popularly understood: troubleshooters who open fire on each other with little to no provocation. It is often associated with the "Fifth Edition". Best for a one-shot game of Paranoia.
 * Classic is the atmosphere associated with the 2nd edition. Conflict within troubleshooter teams is less common and less lethal. Good for a one-shot game of Paranoia, but still suitable for an ongoing campaign.
 * Straight represents a relatively new style. This is more serious and focuses more on dark, complex satire. Players are punished for executing other characters without first filing evidence of the other character's treason; this encourages slower, more careful gameplay and discourages random firefights and horseplay. Poor for one-shots, good for an ongoing campaign.

Primary designer Allen Varney, in the designer's notes, explained that his aim with the new edition was to return to the game's roots whilst updating both the game system and the satirical setting to take account of twenty years of game design progress. In both the core rulebook and the Flashbacks supplement - a reprint of classic adventures originally published by West End Games - Varney was highly critical of West End Games' handling of the product line in its latter days. In a posting on RPG.net he explained that the point of including the three playstyles in Paranoia XP was to counteract the impression that "Zap"-styled play was the default for Paranoia, an impression which had in part been created by the more cartoonish later supplements in the West End Games line (as well as "Fifth Edition").

In order to distance the new edition from the less commercially and critically successful aspects of the West End Game line, and to discourage new players from wasting time and money on what he considered to be inferior products, Varney additionally used the designer's notes to declare many West End products, including the "Fifth Edition" and everything published for the 2nd Edition after The People's Glorious Revolutionary Adventure, to be "unproducts" - no longer part of the game's continuity, and not recommended for use with the new edition. An upshot of this is that much of the poorly received metaplot established late in the West End Games line, from the Secret Society Wars to the Reboot and beyond, was disposed of. Varney has explained that this is due mainly to his distaste for the direction the metaplot took the game line in, a distaste he asserts is shared by the game's fan community. He has also stated that he personally has little affection for the "Zap" style, and therefore may have given it short shrift in the main rulebook, although later supplements for Paranoia XP did provide more support for Zap play.

Long-time Paranoia artist Jim Holloway, called "the master of the fun-filled illustration", drew the cover art and much of the internal art for the game until 1986. His art for the series generally portray comedic scenarios that capture the essential "deathtrap" feeling of Alpha Complex. Paranoia XP marked his return to the line as well; he designed every cover of the XP edition, and many books contain both his classic and new Paranoia art.

While Paranoia XP kept Communists as the big bad scapegoat in spite of the Cold War being long over, the updated edition integrates several 21st-century themes into its satire. Troubleshooters carry PDCs (Personal Digital Companion) that are reminiscent of Personal digital assistants (PDAs) and smartphones and can try to acquire gear by bidding on CBay (an obvious pun on eBay). New threats to Alpha Complex include file sharing, phishing scams, identity theft and weapons of mass destructions. Consumerism in Alpha Complex has been tooled into its economy and has taken on an element of patriotism, echoing sentiments expressed after 9/11 along similar trends. A mission pack released in 2009 titled War On (Insert Noun) lampoons government initiatives like the War on Drugs and the War on Terror.

In writing the new edition, Varney, Goldberg and Costikyan reached out to and actively collaborated with the Paranoia online fan community through an official blog and through Paranoia-Live.net. In addition, Varney ran an online game, the Toothpaste Disaster, where players took the role of High Programmers documenting the titular disaster in a Lexicon format. Many ideas established in the Lexicon game were written into the rulebook. Later, some of the best players and writers from the game and a few other places were formally integrated as the Traitor Recycling Studio to write official Paranoia material; their first credited work was the mission supplement Crash Priority.

In 2006, Varney's fellow Paranoia writer, Mongoose Publishing employee Gareth Hanrahan, took over as primary writer for the Paranoia line. During the lifetime of the XP line Mongoose released numerous supplements and adventures for the game. Notable amongst the supplements was Extreme Paranoia, which provided ideas for scenarios based around characters of security clearances Orange to Violet, with premises differing greatly from the standard Red-clearance Troubleshooter concept but remaining thematically appropriate to the game's setting and atmosphere. (This included an updated reprint of the 1st Edition supplement HIL Sector Blues, which focused on playing Blue-clearance IntSec agents.) The idea of devising new and varied concepts to base Paranoia adventures and campaigns around would be revisited for the next edition of the game.

25th Anniversary Editions
In June 2009, Mongoose Publishing announced that they would be retiring the books in the XP line to clear the way for the 25th Anniversary Edition line - revealing a new edition of the rulebook as well as two new rulebooks, one casting the players as higher-clearance Internal Security investigators and one as Ultraviolet High Programmers. They stated that the XP material would "maintain a 90% compatibility rating with the new Paranoia books".

Each of the three books is an entirely self-contained and playable game: Paranoia: Troubleshooters, Paranoia: Internal Security, and Paranoia: High Programmers. The Troubleshooters volume presents a slimmed-down version of the XP rules, the most notable difference being the removal of the Service Firms and the advanced economy of the XP edition, with the focus firmly on the game's traditional premise of casting the player characters as Red-clearance Troubleshooters. The Internal Security volume casts the player characters as Blue-clearance Internal Security agents, a refinement of the premise of the 1st edition supplement HIL Sector Blues (reprinted in the XP line as part of Extreme Paranoia). The third game, Paranoia: High Programmers, casts the player characters as the Ultraviolet-clearance elite of Alpha Complex society and focuses on the political plotting and infighting that dominates the High Programmers' lives, a premise not dissimilar to the Violet-level campaign ideas presented in Extreme Paranoia.

The Troubleshooters volume retains the play styles of the XP rulebook; however, the "Classic" playstyle is assumed by default, with "Zap" and "Straight" relegated to an appendix. Allen Varney, designer of the XP edition, explained in a posting on RPG.net that this decision came about as a result of the XP edition successfully convincing the wider gaming public that "Zap" was not the default playstyle for the game; since it was now generally accepted that Paranoia could have a variety of playstyles and each GM would interpret it somewhat differently, it was considered no longer necessary to emphasise the different playstyles in the main text. The Internal Security volume includes an appendix listing three new styles tailored for the game - "Heist", "Overkill" and "Horror". High Programmers does not specify playstyles.

Red Clearance Edition
The Red Clearance edition from Mongoose Publishing was announced through Kickstarter 24 October 2014. In a departure from previous Mongoose editions, RED Clearance Edition utilises a d6-based dice pool system as well as using cards for equipment, mutant powers, secret societies, and combat actions. The base game was primarily designed by James Wallis with co-authors Grant Howitt and Paul Dean, and released in March 2017. Additional writing for the new edition was initially provided by Gareth Hanrahan, while the first major expansion, Acute PARANOIA, was written by various writers and funded through Kickstarter in 2018 for an early 2019 release.

The All New Shiny Edition
Originally known as "Perfect Edition", this edition from Mongoose Publishing was launched as a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign on 22 October 2022, and released on 22 September 2023. This edition was written and designed by WJ MacGuffin and Keith Garrett. It uses a heavily revised version of the Red Clearance Edition rules, removing the card based system that was introduced in Red Clearance Edition, maintaining the d6-based dice pool system, and adding more lore and new features such as "favours".

Reception
In the Jan-Feb 1985 edition of Space Gamer (Issue No. 72), the editorial staff were enthusiastic about the game, commenting "If you're likely to take it personally when your best friend's character plugs your character from behind, stay away from this game. But if you like high-tension suspense along with a slightly bent sense of humor, Paranoia is a unique and highly desirable experience."

Marcus L. Rowland reviewed Paranoia for White Dwarf #65, giving it an overall rating of 7 out of 10, and stated that "I like Paranoia, but I'm not sure that I'd want to run it as a prolonged campaign. It's the sort of concept which works well as light relief from a 'serious' RPG campaign, and will definitely appeal to 'hack and slay' merchants. Dedicated rule lawyers and wargamers will hate it. Overall, a lot of fun for a minimum of three or four players."

In the April 1988 edition of Dragon (Issue 132), Jim Bambra thought that the second edition had marked improvements compared to the first edition: "The first edition of Paranoia promised hilarious fun and a combat system that didn’t get bogged down in tedious mechanics. It soon found a following among gamers looking for something different in their role-playing adventures. Still, a close inspection of the combat system revealed that it was slow moving and cumbersome. The mechanics were hard to grasp in places, making it difficult to get into the freewheeling fun. Now, all that’s changed. The Paranoia game has been treated to a revamp, and this time the rules are slick. All that tricky stuff which made the combat system such a pain to run has been shelved off into optional rules. If you want the extra complications, you’re welcome to them, or you can do what most people did anyway and simply ignore them." Bambra did express reservations about the suitability of the game for an on-going campaign, saying "It doesn't lend itself easily to long-term campaign play. This game is best treated as a succession of short adventure sessions in which players get to enjoy themselves doing all those despicable things that would spoil a more 'serious' game." However Bambra concluded with a recommendation, saying "As a tongue-in-cheek science-fiction game, this one is hard to beat."

In The Games Machine #3, John Wood enjoyed the "darkly humorous" artwork of the second edition, and complimented the writers for a better-organized set of rules. He concluded, "The new edition is far more suitable for those with little or no RPG experience, and is excellent value for a complete system (just add a 20-sided die)."

In his 1990 book The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games, game critic Rick Swan called this game "a brilliant, revolutionary RPG ... that defies categorization and stands as one of the most thoroughly enjoyable games of the last ten years." After summarizing the lack of personal freedom under the control of the insane Computer, Swan allowed that "It sound oppressive, but it's all quite hilarious, thanks to the tongue-in-cheek approach permeating every aspect of the game." Swan noted the elaborate rules for character creation and combat resolution, "but they're essentially irrelevant, because the referee is encouraged to make up everything as he goes along." Swan did note that this puts a lot of pressure on the referee. Likewise, he warned that "players used to the rigid structures and cooperative emphasis of traditional RPGs may have trouble with a game this chaotic." Nevertheless, Swan concluded by giving this game his top rating of 4 out of 4, saying, "This is sophisticated, intelligent role-playing at its most subversive, a satiric masterpiece that should delight any experienced player with a taste for the bizarre."

In a 1996 reader poll conducted by Arcane magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time, Paranoia was ranked 7th. Editor Paul Pettengale commented: "For players of games where character development and campaign continuity are a priority, Paranoia is an absolute no-no. If a character (of which there are six versions - each person in Alpha Complex has six clones) lives through an entire scenario then they're doing well. Hell, they're doing better than well, they're probably Jesus Christ reborn (er, no offence intended, all ye Christian types). Suffice to say that Paranoia is, and always will be, a complete laugh - it should be played for nothing more than fun".

Paranoia was chosen for inclusion in the 2007 book Hobby Games: The 100 Best. Steve Jackson described the game as "the first sophisticated parody of the basic tropes of roleplaying. Paranoia didn't offer dungeons full of monsters with sillier names than those in D&D. It introduced something scarier... the futuristic tunnels of Alpha Complex, in which all the monsters were human and nobody ever got out. Paranoia held all of roleplaying, as it was then practiced, to a dark and twisted mirror. Then it threw cream pies."

Early development
Daniel Seth Gelber designed his own role-playing game about a dystopic world controlled by a computer called "Alpha Complex" and ran adventures using this game for his local group. In this game which Gelber designed, the player characters were called "Plaukers" by the non-player characters, and these player characters often undercut and upstaged each other. Gelber was a friend of Greg Costikyan who approached Gelber with Eric Goldberg to get the setting published. Gelber gave Goldberg and Costikyan his notes for the game and they used those ideas to complete a full manuscript for a game. Gelber, Costikyan, and Goldberg licensed this Paranoia game to West End Games, and Ken Rolston helped rewrite the rules before it was published in 1984.

Gelber also designed (with Jeffrey Simons and Evan Jones) The Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game.

Awards

 * Paranoia won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules of 1984.
 * The game was inducted into the Origins Awards Hall of Fame in 2007.

Paranoia-related software
JParanoia is freeware fan-made software specifically created for playing Paranoia over the Internet. It runs on the Java Virtual Machine and consists of a client and a server with built-in features for character and gameplay management. In September 2004, both attracted some mainstream attention when the UK edition of PC Gamer magazine ran an article about Paranoia as one of their "Extra Life" columns and showcased JParanoia and Paranoia Live; coincidentally the publicity came right before the site was poised to celebrate the launch of the new Paranoia edition from Mongoose.

Paranoia was also made into a video game called The Paranoia Complex released in 1989 by Magic Bytes. It was available for Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. It took the form of a top-down maze shooter dressed in a Paranoia plot and trappings; reviews of the game from hobby magazines of the period pegged it as mediocre to poor.

A Paranoia mini-gamebook was published in issue #77 of SpaceGamer/FantasyGamer magazine in the late 1980s. Unauthorized automated versions of the story (a Troubleshooter's assignment to undermine the subversive activity known as Christmas) have circulated via machine-independent ports to C, Python, Go and Inform as well as to Adventure Game Toolkit and for Applix, CP/M and the Cybiko.

Paranoia: Happiness is Mandatory is a video game that was released on 5 December 2019, for PC on the Epic Games Store. It was developed by Cyanide and Black Shamrock studios and is published by Bigben Interactive. It is an isometric view real-time RPG. In mid-January 2020, the game was removed from the Epic Games Store without explanation from Cyanide or BigBen Interactive. Court reports suggest a lawsuit by the creators of the property against the publishers is a factor. In December 2023, after the creators reached an agreement with BigBen/Nacon, the game returned to be publicly available at Epic Games Store once more as well as on Steam.

title: Paranoia (role-playing game)


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Wide-body aircraft

A wide-body aircraft, also known as a twin-aisle aircraft and in the largest cases as a jumbo jet, is an airliner with a fuselage wide enough to accommodate two passenger aisles with seven or more seats abreast. The typical fuselage diameter is 5 to 6 m. In the typical wide-body economy cabin, passengers are seated seven to ten abreast, allowing a total capacity of 200 to 850 passengers. Seven-abreast aircraft typically seat 160 to 260 passengers, eight-abreast 250 to 380, nine- and ten-abreast 350 to 480. The largest wide-body aircraft are over 6 m wide, and can accommodate up to eleven passengers abreast in high-density configurations.

By comparison, a typical narrow-body aircraft has a diameter of 3 to 4 m, with a single aisle, and seats between two and six people abreast.

Wide-body aircraft were originally designed for a combination of efficiency and passenger comfort and to increase the amount of cargo space. However, airlines quickly gave in to economic factors, and reduced the extra passenger space in order to insert more seats and increase revenue and profits. Wide-body aircraft are also used by commercial cargo airlines, along with other specialized uses.

By the end of 2017, nearly 8,800 wide-body airplanes had been delivered since 1969, with production peaking at 412 per year in 2015.

History

Following the success of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 in the late 1950s and early 1960s, airlines began seeking larger aircraft to meet the rising global demand for air travel. Engineers were faced with many challenges as airlines demanded more passenger seats per aircraft, longer ranges and lower operating costs.

Early jet aircraft such as the 707 and DC-8 seated passengers along either side of a single aisle, with no more than six seats per row. Larger aircraft would have to be longer, higher (double-deck aircraft), or wider in order to accommodate a greater number of passenger seats.

Engineers realized having two decks created difficulties in meeting emergency evacuation regulations with the technology available at that time. During the 1960s, it was also believed that supersonic airliners would succeed larger, slower planes. Thus, it was believed that most subsonic aircraft would become obsolete for passenger travel and would be eventually converted to freighters. As a result, airline manufacturers opted for a wider fuselage rather than a taller one (the 747, and eventually the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar). By adding a second aisle, the wider aircraft could accommodate as many as 10 seats across, but could also be easily converted to a freighter and carry two eight-by-eight freight pallets abreast.

The engineers also opted for creating "stretched" versions of the DC-8 (61, 62 and 63 models), as well as longer versions of Boeing's 707 (-320B and 320C models) and 727 (-200 model); and Douglas' DC-9 (-30, -40, and -50 models), all of which were capable of accommodating more seats than their shorter predecessor versions.

The wide-body age began in 1970 with the entry into service of the first wide-body airliner, the four-engined, partial double-deck Boeing 747. New trijet wide-body aircraft soon followed, including the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the L-1011 TriStar. The first wide-body twinjet, the Airbus A300, entered service in 1974. This period came to be known as the "wide-body wars".

L-1011 TriStars were demonstrated in the USSR in 1974, as Lockheed sought to sell the aircraft to Aeroflot. However, in 1976 the Soviet Union launched its own first four-engined wide-body, the Ilyushin Il-86.

After the success of the early wide-body aircraft, several subsequent designs came to market over the next two decades, including the Boeing 767 and 777, the Airbus A330 and Airbus A340, and the McDonnell Douglas MD-11. In the "jumbo" category, the capacity of the Boeing 747 was not surpassed until October 2007, when the Airbus A380 entered commercial service with the nickname "Superjumbo". Both the Boeing 747 and Airbus A380 "jumbo jets" have four engines each (quad-jets), but the upcoming Boeing 777X ("mini jumbo jet") is a twinjet.

In the mid-2000s, rising oil costs in a post-9/11 climate caused airlines to look towards newer, more fuel-efficient aircraft. Two such examples are the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A350 XWB. The proposed Comac C929 and C939 may also share this new wide-body market.

The production of the large Boeing 747-8 and Airbus A380 four-engine, long-haul jets has come to an end as airlines are now preferring the smaller, more efficient Airbus A350, Boeing 787 and Boeing 777 twin-engine, long-range airliners.

Fuselage

Although wide-body aircraft have larger frontal areas (and thus greater form drag) than narrow-body aircraft of similar capacity, they have several advantages over their narrow-body counterparts, such as:

 * Larger cabin space for passengers, giving a more open feeling.
 * Lower ratio of surface area to volume, and thus lower drag per passenger or cargo volume. The only exception to this would be with very long narrow-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 757 and Airbus A321.
 * Twin aisles that accelerate loading, unloading, and evacuation compared to a single aisle (wide-body airliners typically have 3.5 to 5 seats abreast per aisle, compared to 5–6 on most narrow-body aircraft).
 * Reduced overall aircraft length for a given capacity, improving ground manoeuvrability and reducing the risk of tail strikes.
 * Greater under-floor freight capacity.
 * Better structural efficiency for larger aircraft than would be possible with a narrow-body design.

British and Russian designers had proposed wide-body aircraft similar in configuration to the Vickers VC10 and Douglas DC-9, but with a wide-body fuselage. The British BAC Three-Eleven project did not proceed due to lack of government backing, while the Russian Ilyushin Il-86 wide-body proposal eventually gave way to a more conventional wing-mounted engine design, most likely due to the inefficiencies of mounting such large engines on the aft fuselage.

Engines

As jet engine power and reliability have increased over the last decades, most of the wide-body aircraft built today have only two engines. A twinjet design is more fuel-efficient than a trijet or quadjet of similar size. The increased reliability of modern jet engines also allows aircraft to meet the ETOPS certification standard, which calculates reasonable safety margins for flights across oceans. The trijet design was dismissed due to higher maintenance and fuel costs compared to a twinjet. Most modern wide-body aircraft have two engines, although the heaviest wide-body aircraft, the Airbus A380 and the Boeing 747-8, are built with four engines. The upcoming Boeing 777X-9 twinjet is approaching the capacity of the earlier Boeing 747.

The Boeing 777 twinjet features the most powerful jet engine, the General Electric GE90. The early variants have a fan diameter of 123 in, and the larger GE90-115B has a fan diameter of 128 in. This is almost as wide as the 3.30 m Fokker 100 fuselage. Complete GE90 engines can only be ferried by outsize cargo aircraft such as the Antonov An-124, presenting logistics problems if a 777 is stranded in a place due to emergency diversions without the proper spare parts. If the fan is removed from the core, then the engines may be shipped on a Boeing 747 Freighter. The General Electric GE9X, powering the Boeing 777X, is wider than the GE90 by 6 in.

The 560 t maximum takeoff weight of the Airbus A380 would not have been possible without the engine technology developed for the Boeing 777 such as contra-rotating spools. Its Trent 900 engine has a fan diameter of 116 in, slightly smaller than the GE90 engines on the Boeing 777. The Trent 900 is designed to fit into a Boeing 747-400F freighter for easier transport by air cargo.

Interior
The interiors of aircraft, known as the aircraft cabin, have been undergoing evolution since the first passenger aircraft. Today, between one and four classes of travel are available on wide-body aircraft.

Bar and lounge areas which were once installed on wide-body aircraft have mostly disappeared, but a few have returned in first class or business class on the Airbus A340-600, Boeing 777-300ER, and on the Airbus A380. Emirates has installed showers for first-class passengers on the A380; twenty-five minutes are allotted for use of the room, and the shower operates for a maximum of five minutes.

Depending on how the airline configures the aircraft, the size and seat pitch of the airline seats will vary significantly. For example, aircraft scheduled for shorter flights are often configured at a higher seat density than long-haul aircraft. Due to current economic pressures on the airline industry, high seating densities in the economy class cabin are likely to continue.

In some of the largest single-deck wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 777, the extra space above the cabin is used for crew rest areas and galley storage.

Jumbo jets
The term "jumbo jet" usually refers to the largest variants of wide-body airliners; examples include the Boeing 747 (the first wide-body and original "jumbo jet"), Airbus A380 ("superjumbo jet"), Boeing 777X and Boeing 777 ("mini jumbo jet"). The phrase "jumbo jet" derives from Jumbo, a circus elephant in the 19th century.

Wake turbulence and separation

Aircraft are categorized by ICAO according to the wake turbulence they produce. Because wake turbulence is generally related to the weight of an aircraft, these categories are based on one of four weight categories: light, medium, heavy, and super.

Due to their weight, all current wide-body aircraft are categorized as "heavy", or in the case of the A380 in U.S. airspace, "super".

The wake-turbulence category also is used to guide the separation of aircraft. Super- and heavy-category aircraft require greater separation behind them than those in other categories. In some countries, such as the United States, it is a requirement to suffix the aircraft's call sign with the word heavy (or super) when communicating with air traffic control in certain areas.

Special uses
Wide-body aircraft are used in science, research, and the military. Some wide-body aircraft are used as flying command posts by the military like the Ilyushin Il-80 or the Boeing E-4, while the Boeing E-767 is used for airborne early warning and control. New military weapons are tested aboard wide-bodies, as in the laser weapons testing on the Boeing YAL-1. Other wide-body aircraft are used as flying research stations, such as the joint German–U.S. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Airbus A340, Airbus A380, and Boeing 747 four-engine wide-body aircraft are used to test new generations of aircraft engines in flight. A few aircraft have also been converted for aerial firefighting, such as the DC-10-based Tanker 910 and the 747-200-based Evergreen Supertanker.

Some wide-body aircraft are used as VIP transport. To transport those holding the highest offices, Canada uses the Airbus A310, while Russia uses the Ilyushin Il-96. Germany replaced its Airbus A310 with an Airbus A340 in spring 2011. Specially-modified Boeing 747-200s (Boeing VC-25s) are used to transport the President of the United States.

Outsize cargo
Some wide-body aircraft have been modified to enable transport of oversize cargo. Examples include the Airbus Beluga, Airbus BelugaXL and Boeing Dreamlifter. Two specially modified Boeing 747s were used to transport the U.S. Space Shuttle, while the Antonov An-225 was initially built to carry the Buran shuttle.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wide-body aircraft


text:
Talk:Wide-body aircraft

Opening heading
I thought a Jumbo Jet was a 747 only. Mintguy

 * Hard to say, Mintguy, as it's a term used by people who know so little about aircraft that they don't know the difference between a 747 and an A-330 anyway. (Never mind 777s and DC-10s and L-1011s.) Sorry to be snotty about it, but dat's da trufh. It should be Wide-body aircraft.

 * Wel there's an anomaly that needs to be resolved one way or the other because Jumbo jet has this info whilst Jumbo Jet redirects to the 747. Mintguy

 * I agree with Mintguy, Jumbo Jet is, in my not-so-humble opinion, used only for the 747. I think that if you asked the public what a jumbo jet was most would try to describe a 747 ie the one with the bulge on top. Wide body is a more general description covering the biggies but I don't think we should use jumbo jet for them. Arpingstone 19:29 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * A bit more info - the wide bodies are these:
 * Ilyushin IL86
 * Airbus A300, A310, A330 and A340
 * DC10 and MD11
 * Boeing 747, 767 and 777
 * Tristar
 * Arpingstone 20:19 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

 Please not be using the term "gayness" in that manor, it is not appropriate for Wikipedia.

 * Sorry - you are quite right, of course. There was an anon contributor a few days back who marked almost every edit as "removing gayness" - the lord only knows why. Lots of people complained and he stopped. (I would have complained myself, but there were plenty of others beat me to it.) This was just my little in-joke. No offence intended. Tannin

- Are the C-17 and C-141 not also wide-body aircraft as well as the C-5? Rmhermen 17:23 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * Hmmm ... Good question. I'm not sure of the cabin dimensions. The C-17, probably not: it weighs about the same as a big DC-8 or an A-310, a fraction more than a 707, much less than a 767, and uses 757 engines. The C-117 definately not: it's 707 sized and shaped, bar the high wing. Tannin
 * c-17 -- Cargo Compartment: height, 12 feet 4 inches (3.76 meters), width, 18 feet (5.48 meters), length, 88 feet (26.82 meters)
 * c-5 -- Cargo Compartment: height 13.5 feet (4.11 meters); width, 19 feet (5.79 meters); length, 143 feet, 9 in (43.8 meters)

so the c-5 has only one extra foot in height and width than the c-17 although 55 feet extra length.
 * c-141 -- Cargo Compartment: Height, 9 feet 1 inch (2.77 meters); length, 93 feet 4 inches (28.45 meters); width, 10 feet 3 inches (3.12 meters)

so the c-141 is in fact quite a bit smaller. Rmhermen 18:16 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * C-17 added. Tannin

767
The article states that widebodies have a cross-section of over 5m. The cross-section of the Boeing 767 is 4,7 m. Is it really a widebody?--Arado 18:06, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Airbus cross section picture
I've added a picture of the Airbus fuselage cross-section, but I cannot quite remember which model it is. I think it's an A300, but can anyone confirm this? The picture is from the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany, if that helps. Thanks. Asiir 14:38, 20 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I now believe it's an A300. Asiir 12:34, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

$$Insert formula here$$
 * You're absolutely right. It's the A300 prototype. Logawi 22:51, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

Appropos the Jumbo comments: Jumbo was the name of a very celebrated elephant with the PT Barnum circus. I think it became a word to describe anything huge. Which of course, made it perfect for the launch of the 747, an aircraft that Juan Trippe of Pan Am and the Boeing Company bet their shirts on. My submission is that Jumbo Jet refers only to the 747 and no other aircraft, and the fact that any wide-body is a 'jumbo' aircraft does not count in this matter. On another note, I may remember reading that the word 'cockpit' became a common way to refer to the flight deck after the 747, and it was a term jocularly used by the Yanks on the 747 design team because they were familiar with the roosters roosting (!) in the topmost part of any barn. All this is from memory, and requires checking and verification.

Alvin Saldanha alvinjamessaldanha@gmail.com

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Fair Use Information:

Image:XWB mockup.png|Economy class of an Airbus A350, nine-abreast (mockup). Fair Use Rationale: Purpose of use: Illustration of interior of planned aircraft Replaceable? No: aircraft is yet to be built, so no official images of interior except for Airbus-copyrighted images.

Image:Airbus A350.jpg|Interior mockup of the business class on an A350. Fair Use Rationale: Purpose of use: Illustration of interior of planned aircraft Replaceable? No: aircraft is yet to be built, so no official images of interior except for Airbus-copyrighted images.

PolarYukon (talk) 12:08, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

Cabin to baggage compartment: fact or fantasy?
This may be a very peripheral topic, but could someone describe whether there is any reality to the Hollywood movie idea where people go back and forth from the passenger cabin to the baggage compartment in flight using a hatch, dumbwaiter, ventilation shaft, spiral staircase... Wnt (talk) 16:19, 8 January 2009 (UTC)
 * The DC-10 had sliding doors that could be opened at the rear of the lower galley, which then gave access to the forward lower deck baggage container compartment. Access to the lower galley was via an elevator that could hold two persons at a time. 66.81.215.30 (talk) 13:23, 16 January 2011 (UTC)

Cathay and Singapore
Should CX and SQ be taken off the list of airlines exclusively operating widebodies due to Dragonair (CX) and SilkAir (SQ) operating A320s? Flight cx873 (talk) 01:53, 17 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Either remove them or remove the whole section, or add all other widebodies-only aircraft. I don't know how many there are, but VS is surely one of them

Tupolev Tu-114
Visually the Tupolev Tu-114 does not look like a widebody. However, I have a book that says the Tu-114 was occasionally set up with seven-abreast seating. Was this four seats one one side of a single aisle, and three on the other? Or did it actually have two aisles in this configuration? If the latter is the case then wouldn't the airplane qualify as a widebody? -- Gyrofrog (talk) 21:18, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

 * I would say that it would count in that latter case, considering the first sentence of the article defines a wide-body aircraft as having two aisles. Any chance you can nail down whether it has two aisles in the 7 seat config? (2-3-2 probably) SidewinderX (talk) 17:50, 27 July 2009 (UTC)
 * That's as specific as the source got, 7 abreast. (My source was Propeller Airliners, Bill Gunston, ed.). -- Gyrofrog (talk) 20:00, 27 July 2009 (UTC)
 * This image suggests it was 4 seats on one side, 3 on the other side of a single aisle, i.e. not a wide-body (dual aisle). -- Gyrofrog (talk) 16:31, 6 February 2018 (UTC)

Bristol Brabazon
Does the Bristol Brabazon warrant mention in this article? That article mentions a 25-foot diameter fuselage, and a book review I read this morning calls it the first wide-body. -- Gyrofrog (talk) 14:15, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

I think it needs to be removed. The Boeing 377 flew in 1947 transatlantic, same passenger volume and had two decks. The bristol flew 1949 and never went into production. I have removed it, if a problem please discuss. Jacob805 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.64.176.178 (talk) 12:31, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

Merge article?
I would offer that the jumbo jet article remain separate from wide-body aircraft. Jumbo jet is a special term with its own meaning. We need to find some accurate source(s), but the term jumbo jet really only refers to the Boeing 747, when used in commercial aviation. It is not used to generically refer to wide-body aircraft, as the current version of the article states.

Thank you for your consideration. PolarYukon (talk) 21:48, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree. A wide body aircraft is a different thing to a jumbo jet. 90.208.151.250 (talk) 18:23, 24 July 2011 (UTC)

 * I'd like to respectfully disagree. I've been doing some research on Eastern Air Lines Flight 401, which was the crash of a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, and so far the newspaper articles have been refering to it as both a "wide-body aircraft" and and "jumbo jet," some even within the same article. -- Mûĸĸâĸûĸâĸû (blah?) 12:00, 4 February 2011 (UTC)

Proposal to delete section: All wide-body airlines
What are your thoughts on this section of the article? There are no citations in this section, and it is questionable what value this section brings to the article as a whole.

 * I propose we delete this section of the article.

If someone finds the information useful, we can create a new category to contain the listed airlines.

Cheers, PolarYukon (talk) 03:58, 15 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Proceeding to delete the section. Further discussion always welcome here. Regards, PolarYukon (talk) 06:50, 25 January 2010 (UTC)

Proposal to rename article

 * Modern usage of the word widebody seems to have eliminated the use of the hyphenated version, wide-body; please see [Wiktionary/widebody].
 * Propose we rename the article to Widebody aircraft.
 * Propose we update the spelling in article text from wide-body to widebody.
 * All comments welcome. Regards, PolarYukon (talk) 07:09, 25 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Proceeding with name change. All comments welcome. PolarYukon (talk) 22:43, 15 May 2010 (UTC)

Move? (2010)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page not moved.   A rbitrarily 0   ( talk ) 14:16, 25 May 2010 (UTC)

Wide-body aircraft → —
 * as per the modern spelling. Rename proposal has been on article talk page for over four months with no comments so far. Thank you for your help! PolarYukon (talk) 22:52, 15 May 2010 (UTC)
 * "Wide-body" gets more Ghits, so I suggest submitting a formal move request. --DAJF (talk) 00:40, 16 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Regarding the Ghits you are referring to: is that what the web-users are typing in, or is that what the web-users are clicking on? Do you have any link(s) for your source?
 * The way we count hits makes a difference because, if you type in either widebody or wide-body into Google, this article comes up at the 1st or 2nd article (Google images sometimes comes first). So we need an accurate way to see what web-users are really typing in.
 * In any case, the modern spelling of commonly-used hyphenated words drops the hyphen at a given point in time. Whether we are at the tipping point or not for widebody is open for discussion.
 * Regards, PolarYukon (talk) 13:14, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

 * I assumed most people knew how Google works these days, but the number of Google hits (sometimes referred to as "Ghits") is an estimate of the number of occurrences on the World Wide Web - not what people are typing in or what people are clicking on. I see 159,000 hits for "widebody aircraft" compared to 3,760,000 hits for "wide-body aircraft". As the person proposing the move, the onus is actually on you to provide evidence that "widebody" is the commonly used spelling rather than asking others to provide evidence that this is not the case. --DAJF (talk) 05:48, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Oppose no proof given that "widebody" is the WP:COMMONNAME. 70.29.208.247 (talk) 04:52, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Oppose, given lack of evidence that one spelling is more accepted and more modern. (Also, searching the adjectival  vs.   is no contest: 101  000 to 21  600 hits using Google (web search), 53 to 2 using Google News and 25  700 to 956 using Google Books.) TheFeds 00:56, 18 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Support, given current usage style from reliable sources. Please consider the following search results:
 * widebody at airbus.com, 1,510 hits
 * wide-body at airbus.com, 950 hits
 * widebody at aviationtoday.com, 6,670 hits
 * wide-body at aviationtoday.com, 385 hits
 * widebody at boeing.com, 1,040 hits
 * wide-body at boeing.com, 463 hits
 * widebody at flightglobal.com, 9,860 hits
 * wide-body at flightglobal.com, 3,190 hits
 * widebody at pprune.org, 10,400 hits
 * wide-body at pprune.org, 2,680 hits

 * Regards, -PolarYukon (talk) 13:31, 19 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Oppose AFAIK this is the first time I've seen "widebody", though I certainly don't follow airline stuff. There may be an ENGVAR issue. I see Reuters was still using "wide-body" yesterday, and many papers in the US. Johnbod (talk) 04:26, 20 May 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Lufthansa A380 seat width
// copied and inserted from polarYukon talk page //

Hi. On SeatGuru you can see that the seatwidth in Lufthansa's economy class is 20.5 and i think thats something that should be in the article because it´s the widest seatwidth in the Airbus A380. '' E W R " 17:40, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your message. The information you have provided from Seat Guru appears erroneous for two reasons:
 * On the page which you have cited, the claimed economy-class width of 20.5" is wider than the claimed business-class seat width of 19.6.
 * No other airline has an economy-class width over 20".
 * Therefore, without any additional sources, the information appears to be erroneous. We should check with further sources to confirm this. Ideally, information directly from Lufthansa would be ideal.

 * Cheers,
 * PolarYukon (talk) 17:12, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I have edited the article and removed the citation which appears erroneous:

 * 10 across (20.5" wide) in 3-4-3 on LH

 * and restored the previous citation:

 * 10 across (18.6" wide) in 3-4-3 on SQ

 * until we are able to verify which information is correct. Comments and feedback are appreciated!

 * Kind regards,
 * PolarYukon (talk) 17:21, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

Safety
There should be a mention about how for the first two years after the introduction of wide-body aircraft into commercial aviation the planes were considered to be the safest aircraft to fly on because they didn't crash. It wasn't until Eastern Flight 401 crashed in December 1972 that this myth disappeared. And it wasn't until 1973 when the airplanes started being linked to wake turbulence and the crashes of smaller aircraft. -- Mûĸĸâĸûĸâĸû (blah?) 23:13, 4 February 2011 (UTC)

Specifications of wide-body aircraft
I am wondering if the table of Specification of wide body aircraft is misplaced. Each basic type is made in a range of specifications to meed differing customer requirements, and compiling all the variations that have been used just for the sake of it is not really encyclopedic. I would suggest that only the fuselage outside diameter is significant, and that could be entered in the Description column of the standard List of wide-body aircraft.

So - is there anything in this table that should not be either merged into the List of wide-body aircraft or deleted? — Cheers, Steelpillow (Talk) 16:01, 20 April 2014 (UTC)

 * I would say that outside diameter as a fair approximation of useful width is a reasonable assumption. (But it is a combination of useful internal length and width that is relevant to maximum capacity). This table I think was given to show what could be fitted inside. I suggest stripping this table down to some "examples" with only Model year of introduction Ext diameter maximum no of seats across as the columns. For the main list give maximum capacity insofar as known. GraemeLeggett (talk) 17:31, 20 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Up to a point. Some of the biggest types are reaching a point where enough passengers could be physically jammed in to overload the thing, so that wing area and engine power dictate the maximum capacity. For example there may be space to fit in say twelve economy seats abreast, but in practice only eleven are fitted so that the thing can actually take off. The Boeing 747 had to await uprated engines before the upper deck could be filled with extra passengers, long before it was ever stretched. As for the max. no. of seats across, ISTR that the A380 has a policy of wider seats than the narrowest historical 747 seating, so it is not really possible to compare like with like. What can be fitted inside is too complex a question to answer in a simple table like this. That leaves this a table without a mission. — Cheers, Steelpillow (Talk) 18:43, 20 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Then just delete the table. GraemeLeggett (talk) 19:04, 20 April 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm thinking to steal the fuselage diameters first. — Cheers, Steelpillow (Talk) 21:21, 20 April 2014 (UTC)

Future Development
The section on future development states "Airbus and Boeing are racing to market with two new widebody designs, currently in development". The citation is broken and it is unclear which aircraft this sentence refers to. Propose revising to state specific aircraft or remove since I believe there are no widebody airframes that are in development (A350 first delivery is made, all other "in development" airframe are iterative). Also, the follow-on sentence refers to B787 and A380 competition. Both aircraft are no longer in development. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.74.153.36 (talk) 01:53, 21 January 2015 (UTC)

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"Jumbo jet"
The usage of "" is under discussion, see talk:jumbo jet (disambiguation) -- 70.51.44.60 (talk) 08:49, 27 October 2015 (UTC)

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Calculation of seat widths
Why are seat widths calculated rather than sourced. What assumptions are being made in the calculation, are they justified? If the seat width can't be sourced then they ought to be removed. GraemeLeggett (talk) 11:30, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Seat width are not always explicitly given, but if it's not stated every ACAP gives a cross section with a bench width. The assumption (as noted in the table) is a 2" armrest, an industry habit. I think a ref can be easily found. This simple calculation could fall within Routine calculations do not count as original research. Cheers!--Marc Lacoste (talk) 09:32, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * The calculation of seat width has five parameters: Internal fuselage width, number of seats, number of aisles, width of aisle, seat gap. That makes it a bit more complex than area of a rectangle or power/weight calculations. GraemeLeggett (talk) 11:46, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

 * It's often a bench width, with a simple calculation to determine seat width.--Marc Lacoste (talk) 15:20, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wide-body aircraft


text:
Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha

Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (30 November 1719 – 8 February 1772) was Princess of Wales by marriage to Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son and heir apparent of King George II. She never became queen consort, as Frederick predeceased his father in 1751. Augusta's eldest son succeeded her father-in-law as George III in 1760. After her spouse died, Augusta was the presumptive regent of Great Britain in the event of a regency, until her son reached majority in 1756.

Early life
Princess Augusta was born in Gotha to Frederick II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1676–1732) and Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1679–1740). Her paternal grandfather was Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, eldest surviving son of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

In 1736, it was proposed that she marry 29-year-old Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of George II of Great Britain and his queen consort Caroline of Ansbach. Originally, Frederick was intended to marry the eldest daughter of the King of Prussia. A marriage alliance between Great Britain and Prussia had been an ambition for many years. However, when George II suggested that his eldest son would marry the eldest (unmarried) daughter of the King of Prussia, while his second (unmarried) daughter would marry the eldest son of the Prussian king, the King of Prussia demanded that his eldest son should likewise marry the eldest (unmarried) daughter of the King of Great Britain, and George II refused to agree to this demand.

Around the time the Prussian plan was cancelled, there were rumours that Frederick might marry Diana Russell, Duchess of Bedford, granddaughter of the Duchess of Marlborough, and that such a marriage had been proposed when he visited the duchess's lodge at Richmond. Queen Caroline felt a need to arrange a marriage for her son quickly, to preempt any possibility of such a mésalliance. She therefore suggested to the king that, when he next visited the Electorate of Hanover, he should also visit Saxe-Gotha and view the princesses there. The king did so, and informed the queen that he considered Augusta suitable. When the matter was broached with Frederick, he simply replied that he would accept any bride his father decided was suitable for him. His attitude arose from a desire to obtain an additional allowance from Parliament to be financially independent of his father.

Augusta did not speak French or English, and it was suggested that she be given lessons before the wedding, but her mother did not consider it necessary, as the British royal family were from Germany. She arrived in Britain, speaking virtually no English, aged 16, for a wedding ceremony which took place almost immediately, on 8 May 1736, at the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace, London.

Princess of Wales

Augusta of Saxe-Gotha left Hellevoetsluis 17 April 1736 and arrived at Greenwich on the royal yacht William and Mary on the 25th, where she was welcomed by her groom. On 27 April 1736, she was escorted to St James's Palace, London, where she met the rest of the royal family. When she was introduced to the royal family, she made a favourable impression on the king and queen by throwing herself on the floor before them in a gesture of respect. The wedding ceremony was held at the Royal Chapel inside St. James's Palace the same day (27 April O.S., 8 May N.S.)

During the first year of marriage, Augusta could be seen playing with her doll in the windows of her residence, until her sister-in-law, Princess Caroline, told her to stop. Frederick took advantage of her inexperience when he had his then lover, Lady Archibald Hamilton, employed as her First Lady of the Bedchamber, after convincing Augusta that there was no truth in the rumour of his affair. Augusta and Frederick had nine children, the last born after Frederick's death.

Frederick once stated that he would never allow himself to be influenced by his consort as his father was, and he thus never made Augusta his confidante. He did, however, instruct her to act in accordance with his wishes in his feud with his parents, and on several occasions, Frederick reportedly instructed her to snub them. When she attended the service of the German Lutheran Chapel, for example, which was also attended by the queen, Frederick instructed Augusta to make sure she always arrived after the queen, so that she would be forced to push in front of the queen to reach her place. This eventually made the queen insist that Augusta should be directed to her place by another entrance, which in turn caused Frederick to instruct Augusta to refuse to enter the Chapel if the queen had arrived before her.

When Augusta's first pregnancy was announced, the queen stated that she would be sure to witness the birth, to be assured that the pregnancy was indeed genuine. She reportedly wished the succession to pass to her second surviving son, Prince William, Duke of Cumberland. The birth of their first daughter, Princess Augusta, on 31 July 1737, took place at St James's after the Princess of Wales was forced by Frederick to travel from Hampton Court Palace while in labour, to prevent his hated parents from being present at the birth. The delivery was traumatic: St James Palace was not ready to receive them, no bed was prepared, no sheets could be found, and Augusta was forced to give birth on a tablecloth. Queen Caroline once said of her daughter-in-law and the inconveniences she had inflicted on her: "Poor creature, were she to spit in my face, I should only pity her for being under such a fool's direction, and wipe it off."

The circumstances of the birth of Princess Augusta led to a dispute between the Prince and Princess of Wales and the king and queen, who were not reconciled until public opinion during the Jacobite rebellion in 1745 pressured them to. After the reconciliation, the couple became less isolated from high society, allowing courtiers to appear at both courts without giving offence. Augusta made a good impression in society life, where she was described as pretty, elegant, and a gracious hostess. On some occasions, the children of Augusta were made to give amateur theatre performances for their guests, notably on 4 January 1749, when George, Augusta, Elizabeth, Edward and some of their playmates acted in the tragedy of Cato.

Princess dowager
On 31 March 1751, Frederick unexpectedly died, making Augusta a widow at thirty-two. Dr. Doran described her at the death of her spouse: "She had, throughout her married life exhibited much mental superiority, with great kindness of disposition, and that under circumstances of great difficulty, and sometimes of a character to inflict vexation on the calmest nature. [...] She was then the mother of eight children, expecting shortly to be the mother of a ninth, and she was brought reluctantly to knowledge that their father was no more. It was six in the morning before her attendants could persuade her to retire to bed; but she arose again at eight, and then, with less thought for her grief than anxiety for the honour of him whose death was the cause of it, she proceeded to the Prince's room, and burned the whole of his private papers. By this the world lost some rare supplementary chapters to a Chronique Scandaleuse!"

The King reportedly did not show much feeling upon the death of his son and the funeral was simple. On receiving the King's condolences, Augusta replied that she placed herself and her children upon his mercy and protection, and he was evidently touched by her widowhood and minor children, and was willing to show them consideration. Following Frederick's death, her role as mother of the heir-apparent to the throne became a more prominent one, and she was named prospective regent by the king and the parliament, should the King die during the minority of her eldest son, the Prince of Wales. This caused a controversy and opposition from Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, who had expected to be given that role instead.

During the remaining years of the reign of George II, Augusta chose to live in seclusion with her children, devoting herself to their care. The few occasions when she did appear in public, the King gave her the same ceremonial role and honours previously given to the Queen, and she was honored the same way by the public as well as the court.

However, Augusta suffered a loss of popularity as a widow. She was to be criticised for her manner of raising her children, as she isolated them from the outside world into a secluded family environment, seldom meeting people outside the family.

As her eldest son came of age, the King attempted to arrange a marriage. His favoured choice was a princess of Brunswick-Wolffenbüttel or a princess of Prussia, but Augusta refused, favouring a member of her own family, the House of Saxe-Gotha.

On 25 October 1760, her son succeeded his grandfather as George III. The year after his succession, he married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Augusta's relationship with her daughter-in-law was not a good one. She reportedly made it difficult for Charlotte to establish social contacts by referring to rigged court etiquette. Furthermore, she initially appointed a large part of Charlotte's court staff, several of whom were suspected of reporting to Augusta about Charlotte's behaviour. When Charlotte turned to her German companions for friends, she was criticised by Augusta for keeping favourites, notably her close confidant Juliane von Schwellenberg.

Augusta had an acknowledged political influence upon her son, who "strove to follow the counsels she gave", and in which he trusted. Reportedly, she was in turn influenced by Lord Bute, who was appointed prime minister with her support in 1762. His appointment caused a serious crisis and exposed both Augusta and Bute to such public hostility that Bute had to resign from his post the following year. Thackeray described the public sentiments and the circulating rumours: "Bute was hated with a rage there have been few examples in English history. He was the butt for everybody's abuse; for Wilkes, for Churchill's slashing satire, for the hooting of the mob who roasted his booth, his emblem, in a thousand bonfires; that hated him because he was a favourite and a Scotsman, calling him Mortimer, Lothario, and I know not what names, and accusing his royal mistress of all kinds of names – the grave, lean, demure, elderly woman, who, I dare say, was quite as good as her neighbours. Chatham lent the aide of his great malice to influence the popular sentiment against her. He assailed, in the House of Lords, 'The secret influence, more mighty than the throne itself, which betrayed and dogged every administration'. The most furious pamphlets echoed the cry 'Impeach the King's mother', was scribbled over every wall at the Court end of the town".

When the King had a first, temporary, bout of mental illness in 1765, Augusta and Lord Bute kept Queen Charlotte unaware of the situation. The Regency Bill of 1765 stated that if the King should become permanently unable to rule, Charlotte was to become Regent. Augusta was suggested as regent, but there was fierce opposition to her appointment, as there were concerns of the influence of Lord Bute in her potential regency, and fears that should she become regent, Bute would de facto rule as "King".

Augusta reportedly resented the marriages of her younger sons, which took place without her consent.

In 1769, the husband of her daughter Caroline Matilda, Christian VII of Denmark, visited Great Britain. During his visit, Augusta, upon the initiative of Caroline Matilda, asked him publicly during a dinner to reinstate Louise von Plessen, a favourite of Caroline Matilda whom Christian had fired, to her position. He answered that he had made a sacred vow never to do so, but that if Caroline Matilda preferred von Plessen's company over his, so be it. In the end, Louise von Plessen was not reinstated, and Augusta apparently asked Caroline Matilda not to press the matter and to show more affection to Christian.

In 1770, rumours about Caroline Matilda, the queen of Denmark, began to circulate. In particular these concerned the mental state of her spouse as well as the fall of prime minister Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, in which Caroline Matilda was rumoured to have participated. When Augusta visited her eldest daughter in Brunswick that year, she also took the opportunity to see Caroline Matilda, who received her in breeches, which at that time was regarded as scandalous. Upon Augusta's lamentations, her daughter answered: "Pray, madam, allow me to govern my own kingdom as I please!"

Augusta died of throat cancer at the age of 52 at Carlton House, and was buried seven days later at Westminster Abbey.

Kew Gardens
Princess Augusta enlarged and greatly extended Kew Gardens after her husband's death. Sir William Chambers built several garden structures for her. One of these, the lofty Great Pagoda built in 1761, still remains.

Legacy
Several places in British America were named in her honour:
 * Augusta, Georgia
 * Augusta County, Virginia
 * Fort Augusta, Northumberland County, Pennsylvania

Michelle Fairley portrayed a fictionalized version of Augusta in Queen Charlotte: A Bridgerton Story (2023).

title: Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha


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Charlotte Mary Yonge

Charlotte Mary Yonge (11 August 1823 – 24 March 1901) was an English novelist, who wrote in the service of the church. Her abundant books helped to spread the influence of the Oxford Movement and show her keen interest in matters of public health and sanitation.

Life
Charlotte Mary Yonge was born in Otterbourne, Hampshire, England, on 11 August 1823 to William Yonge and Fanny Yonge, née Bargus. She was educated at home by her father, studying Latin, Greek, French, Euclid, and algebra. Her father's lessons could be harsh: "He required a diligence and accuracy that were utterly alien to me. He thundered at me so that nobody could bear to hear it, and often reduced me to tears, but his approbation was so delightful that it was a delicious stimulus.... I believe, in spite of all breezes over my innate slovenliness, it would have broken our hearts to leave off working together. And we went on till I was some years past twenty."

Yonge's devotion to her father was lifelong and her relations with him seem to have set the standard for all other relations, including marriage. His "approbation was throughout life my bliss; his anger my misery for the time."

Yonge was born into a religious family. Devoted to the High church, she was much influenced by John Keble, Vicar of Hursley from 1835, a near neighbour and one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. Yonge was herself sometimes referred to as "the novelist of the Oxford Movement", as her work frequently reflects values and concerns of Anglo-Catholicism. She remained in Otterbourne all her life and taught for 71 years in the village Sunday school. Her house, 'Elderfield', became a Grade II listed building in 1984.

In 1858 she paid for the construction of a combined school and chapel of ease to Hursley parish church in the village of Pitt. It was designed by William Butterfield and, like Elderfield, has been a Grade II listed building since 1984. In 1868 a new parish was formed to the south of Yonge's home village of Otterbourne. This was to contain the villages of Eastley and Barton. Yonge donated £500 towards the Church of the Resurrection, the Church of England parish church, and was asked to choose which of the two villages the parish should be named after. She chose Eastley, but decided that it should be spelt Eastleigh as she perceived this as being more modern.

Yonge died in her home village of Otterbourne on 24 March 1901. Her obituary in The Times stated, "Her friends, and especially her poorer neighbours, knew both the strength and the winning charm of her character. Thus the late Archbishop Benson noted in his diary her 'odd majesty and kindliness, which are very strong.'

But it is of course as a writer that Miss Yonge will be remembered. She had an inventive mind and a ready pen, and a bare list of the books written or edited by her would probably occupy nearly a whole column of The Times. She wrote chiefly for young people, especially young girls, and her books are the result not only of a strong ethical purpose, but also of her firm devotion to the High Church view of Christian doctrine and practice."

Literary career
Yonge began writing in 1848 and published in her long life about 160 works, chiefly novels. Her first commercial success, The Heir of Redclyffe (1853), provided the funding to put the schooner Southern Cross into service on behalf of George Selwyn. Similar charitable works were done with the profits from later novels. Yonge was also a founder and editor for 40 years of The Monthly Packet, a magazine founded in 1851, with a varied readership, but targeted at British Anglican girls, though in later years it turned to a somewhat wider readership).

Among her other well-known works are Heartsease, and The Daisy Chain. A Book of Golden Deeds is a collection of true stories of courage and self-sacrifice. Other titles were Cameos from English History, Life of John Coleridge Patteson: Missionary Bishop of the Melanesian Islands, and Hannah More. Her History of Christian Names was described as "the first serious attempt at tackling the subject" and as the standard work on names in the preface to the first edition of Betty Withycombe's The Oxford Dictionary of English Christian Names (1944).

Around 1859 Yonge created a literary group of younger girl cousins, to write essays and gain advice from Yonge on their writing. Together they created a private magazine, The Barnacle, which continued until about 1871. This was valuable as they may have belonged to the last generation of girls educated at home. Her goddaughter, Alice Mary Coleridge, contributed as "Gurgoyle" to the first issue, drawing the covers and contributing translations, articles and verses.

Yonge's personal example and influence on her goddaughter Alice Mary Coleridge were formative in her zeal for women's education, leading indirectly to the foundation of Abbots Bromley School for Girls.

After Yonge's death, her friend, assistant and collaborator, Christabel Coleridge, published the biographical Charlotte Mary Yonge: her Life and Letters (1903).

Reputation
Yonge's work was widely read and respected in the 19th century. Among her admirers were Lewis Carroll, George Eliot, William Ewart Gladstone, Charles Kingsley, Christina Rossetti, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and Anthony Trollope. William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones read The Heir of Redclyffe aloud to each other while undergraduates at Oxford University and "took [the hero, Guy Morville's] medieval tastes and chivalric ideals as presiding elements in the formation of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood." Yonge's work was compared favourably with that of Trollope, Jane Austen, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, and Émile Zola.

Sir John Arthur Ransome Marriott called her: "... not only a prolific novelist, but a serious student of history, especially in its personal aspects. Having dealt in The Constable's Tower with Hubert de Burgh, with his famous defence of Dover Castle against Prince Louis of France (1213), and his still more famous victory at sea off Sandwich, and with Edward I as a crusader (The Prince and the Page), Miss Yonge drew on the Vie de Bertrand du Guesclin as well as on Froissart for her fascinating tale The Lances of Lynwood. With characteristic modesty she expressed the hope that her sketch might 'serve as an inducement to some young readers to make acquaintance with the delectable old Canon (Froissart) for themselves.' The wise, of all ages, will fulfil her hope."

So popular were her works that "A midshipman was able to supply from memory a missing page in his ship's copy of The Daisy Chain. An officer in the Guards, asked in a game of 'Confessions' what his prime object in life was, answered that it was to make himself like Guy Morville, hero of The Heir of Redclyffe."

C. S. Lewis thought highly of her, at one point bracketing her evocations of domestic life with those of Homer and Leo Tolstoy. Abraham Kuyper, who read The Heir of Redclyffe on the recommendation of his fiancé, Johanna Schaay, found it a moving experience. The novel was "next to the Bible in its meaning for my life." Yonge was one of the favourite writers of Barbara Pym, who mentions Yonge's novels favourably in several of her own novels.

However, according to the critic Catherine Sandbach-Dahlström, Yonge's work has been "constantly be-devilled" by a "tendency to confuse the moral quality of [her] view of life with the quality of her literary expression".

Her novels such as The Daisy Chain, The Young Stepmother, The Trial, and The Three Brides encompass Victorian problems of urban pollution, sanitary reform, and epidemics of cholera and typhoid. She urged social, economic and medical reform of dirt-ridden Victorian cities. The dualism found in her writings, writes Alethea Hayter, "serves to illustrate the triumphs and mistakes of reforming zeal, to contrast selfish irresponsibility with courageous philanthropy, to balance tradition against progress."

Yonge's work has been sparely studied, with the possible exception of The Heir of Redclyffe.

Graham Greene used epigraphs from The Little Duke for each chapter of his 1943 novel The Ministry of Fear. In Chapter 1, the protagonist Arthur Rowe buys a copy of the book at a fête for sixpence. In 2015 a sculpture by Vivien Mallock was installed outside Eastleigh railway station, as a tribute to Yonge for having effectively named the town. It shows her at the age of about 45, when she named Eastleigh parish. It shows her sitting on a bench with a book on her lap, with space for members of the public to sit alongside her.

Works

 * Abbeychurch; or, Self Control and Self Conceit (1844)
 * Scenes and Characters, or, Eighteen Months at Beechcroft (1847)
 * Kings of England: a History for Young Children (1848)
 * The Railroad Children (1849)
 * Langley School (1850)
 * The Two Guardians, or, Home in this World (1852)
 * The Heir of Redclyffe (1853)
 * Heartsease; or, The Brother's Wife (1854)
 * The Little Duke: Richard the Fearless (1854)
 * The Lances of Lynwood (1855)
 * The History of Sir Thomas Thumb (1855)
 * The Daisy Chain, or Aspirations (1856)
 * Marie Thérèse de Lamourous: Foundress of the House of la Misércorde, at Bourdeaux (1858)
 * Countess Kate (1860)
 * Friarswood Post-Office (1860)
 * The Young Step-Mother; or a Chronicle of Mistakes (1861)
 * History of Christian Names (1863)
 * A Book of Golden Deeds of All Times and All Lands (1864)
 * The Trial; or, More Links of the Daisy Chain (1864)
 * The Clever Woman of the Family (1865)
 * The Prince and the Page: A Story of the Last Crusade (1866)
 * The Dove in the Eagle's Nest (1866)
 * The Chaplet of Pearls; or, The White and Black Ribaumont  (1868)
 * Cameos from English History, from Rollo to Edward II (1868)
 * Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe and Other Stories (1871)
 * Aunt Charlotte's Stories of Greek History (1873)
 * The Pillars of the House: or, Under Wode, Under Rode (1873)
 * Life of John Coleridge Patteson: Missionary Bishop of the Melanesian Islands (1874)
 * The Three Brides (1876)
 * Aunt Charlotte's Stories of French History for the Little Ones (1877)
 * Young Folks' History of Rome (1878)
 * Young Folks' History of England (1879)
 * Young Folks' History of France (1879)
 * Magnum Bonum; or, Mother Carey's Brood (1879)
 * Unknown to History: A Story of the Captivity of Mary of Scotland (1881)
 * History of France (1882)
 * The Armourer's Prentices (1884) Historical novel set in the time of Henry VIII.
 * The Two Sides of the Shield (1885) – sequel to Scenes and Characters,
 * Hannah More (1888)
 * A Reputed Changeling (1889)
 * Two Penniless Princesses (1891)
 * The Long Vacation (1895)
 * Modern Broods (1900)

title: Charlotte Mary Yonge


text: User:Sumar

title: User:Sumar


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Johann Gerhard

Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.

Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the age of fourteen he came under the personal influence of Johann Arndt, author of Das wahre Christenthum, and resolved to study for the church. He entered the University of Wittenberg in 1599, and studied philosophy and theology. A relative then persuaded him to change his subject, and he studied medicine for two years. In 1603, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, and in the following year received a new impulse from J.W. Winckelmann and Balthasar Mentzer at Marburg. He graduated in 1605 and began to give lectures at Jena, then in 1606 he accepted the invitation of John Casimir, Duke of Coburg, to the superintendency of Heldburg and mastership of the gymnasium Casimirianum Coburg; soon afterwards he became general superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616, when he became the senior theological professor at Jena, where the remainder of his life was spent.

Here, with Johann Major and Johann Himmel, he formed the "Trias Johannea." Though still comparatively young, Gerhard was already regarded as the greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany; in the "disputations" of the period he was always protagonist, and his advice was sought on all public and domestic questions touching on religion or morals. During his lifetime he received repeated calls to almost every university in Germany (e.g. Giessen, Altdorf, Helmstedt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to Uppsala in Sweden. He died in Jena.

Writings
His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dogmatic and practical theology. To the first category belong the Commentarius in harmoniam historiae evangelicae de passione Christi (1617), the Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistolam (1641), and also his commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy (1658). Of a controversial character are the Confessio Catholica (1633–1637), an extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical and catholic character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession from the writings of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the Loci communes theologici (1610–1622), his principal contribution, in which Lutheranism is expounded "nervose, solide et copiose," in fact with a fulness of learning, a force of logic and a minuteness of detail that had never before been approached.

The Meditationes sacrae (1606), a work expressly devoted to the uses of Christian edification, has been frequently reprinted in Latin and has been translated into most of the European languages, including Greek.

Works

 * A full listing of printings of Gerhard's works from 1601 to 2002 is in Johann Anselm Steiger, ed., Bibliographia Gerhardina 1601–2002: Verzeichnis der Druckschriften Johann Gerhards (1582–1637) sowie ihrer Neuausgaben, Übersetzungen und Bearbeitungen (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2003). ISBN 3-7728-1930-3
 * Loci Theologici (1610–1625; reprint, Berlin: Schlawitz, 1863–85), vol. 1 (1625 Exegesis), vol. 3 (1610 Loci), vol. 5, vol. 7, vol. 8, vol. 9, vol. 1-9
 * Confessio Catholica (Jena, 1634–37), volume 1, volume 2/1, volume 2/2, volume 2/3, (Frankfurt, 1679).
 * Meditationes Sacrae (original Latin text with audio recordings)
 * Johann Gerhards Handexemplar der Lutherbibel - Digital copy of Johann Gerhard's personal annotated Bible

Translations

 * Theological Commonplaces: Exegesis, or A More Copious Explanation of Certain Articles of the Christian Religion (1625): On the Nature of Theology and on Scripture, rev. ed., translated by Richard J. Dinda, edited with annotations by Benjamin T. G. Mayes (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2009). ISBN 978-0-7586-1512-1
 * Theological Commonplaces: Exegesis, or A More Copious Explanation of Certain Articles of the Christian Religion (1625): On the Nature of God and On the Most Holy Mystery of the Trinity, translated by Richard J. Dinda, edited with annotations by Benjamin T. G. Mayes (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2007). ISBN 978-0-7586-0989-2
 * Theological Commonplaces: Exegesis, or A More Copious Explanation of Certain Articles of the Christian Religion (1625): On the Person and Office of Christ, translated by Richard J. Dinda, edited with annotations by Benjamin T. G. Mayes (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2009). ISBN 978-0-7586-1010-2
 * Theological Commonplaces: On the Church, translated by Richard J. Dinda, edited with annotations by Benjamin T. G. Mayes (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2010). ISBN 978-0-7586-1867-2
 * Meditations on Divine Mercy, translated by Matthew C. Harrison (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2003).
 * Sacred Meditations, translated by C. W. Heisler (Philadelphia: Lutheran Publication Society, 1896).
 * An Explanation of the History of the Suffering and Death of our Lord Jesus Christ, translated by Elmer M. Hohle (Malone, TX: Repristination Press, 1999).
 * The External Symbols or Earthly Matter in the Lord's Supper, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
 * Commentary on 1 Timothy 4:12, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2012).
 * Not Ashamed of the Cross: Commentary on 2 Timothy 1:11–18, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2011).
 * Troublesome Times: Commentary on 2 Timothy 3:1–5, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
 * The Necessity of Being Persecuted: Commentary on 2 Timothy 3:10-13, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2014).
 * Finishing the Race: Commentary on 2 Timothy 4:6–8, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2015).

title: Johann Gerhard