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Jean du Bellay

Jean du Bellay (1492 – 16 February 1560) was a French diplomat and cardinal, a younger brother of Guillaume du Bellay, and cousin and patron of the poet Joachim du Bellay. He was bishop of Bayonne by 1526, member of the Conseil privé (privy council) of King Francis I from 1530, and bishop of Paris from 1532. He became Bishop of Ostia and Dean of the College of Cardinals in 1555.

Biography
Du Bellay was born at Souday, second of the six sons of Louis, son of Jean du Bellay, Seigneur de Langey, and Marguerite, daughter of Raoullet, Baron of La Tour-Landry. Four of their sons survived infancy, including Guillaume, Martin, and René. They had two daughters, Renée, who married Ambroise Baron des Cousteaux, and Louise, who married Jacques d'Aunay, Sieur de Villeneuve-la-Guyart. The fief of Bellay was located near Saumur in Anjou.

He is said to have gotten his education in Paris. It is also speculated, however, that he studied at the University of Angers. He had a licenciate in utroque iure (Civil Law and Canon Law). He was a priest of the diocese of Le Mans. He was appointed Bishop of Bayonne by King Francis I, an appointment was approved by Pope Clement VII on 12 February 1524. He held the position until his transfer to the See of Paris in 1532. On 2 March 1533, Pope Clement granted Bishop du Bellay the privilege of holding multiple benefices both in the diocese of Paris and in other dioceses as well. King Francis confirmed this indult on 1 October 1534. Jean du Bellay was succeeded as Bishop of Paris by his nephew Eustache, on 16 March 1551, after Cardinal Jean was dismissed by King Henry II.

Diplomat in England
He was well-fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out several missions in England (1527–1534). He was Ambassador Ordinary from November 1527 to February 1529, when his elder brother Guillaume replaced him. When his brother departed, he was again Ambassador, from 15 May 1529 to January 1530. He returned on a mission in August–September 1530, and again, as Ambassador Extraordinary, in October 1531. After returning to Court, he was immediately dispatched again to England on 6 November 1531. He was in England again as Ambassador Extraordinary in August and September 1532. A meeting between the English and French monarchs took place at Boulogne on 20 October 1532, at which Bishop du Bellay was present, and immediately thereafter Cardinals Tournon and de Gramont were sent to Rome to negotiate with Pope Clement VII. Du Bellay returned to England from November 1533 to January 1534. In this last embassy, it was his duty to explain the agreements made between Francis I and Pope Clement VII during their negotiations in Marseille in October and November 1533.

Rome
He was then sent as Ambassador Extraordinary to the Papal Court in Rome (January–May 1534). His mission in both English and Roman embassies was to prevent the implementation of Pope Clement's decree of excommunication against Henry VIII, who was a valuable ally of France against the Emperor Charles. One of the members of du Bellay's suite in his embassy to Rome was François Rabelais, who was making the first of his four journeys to Rome. On their arrival in Rome, they were accommodated in the residence of the Bishop of Faenza Rodolfo Pio di Carpi, the future Cardinal, who had recently returned from a papal embassy to the French Court. Despite the Bishop's best efforts, the Imperial agents, who were well entrenched and vigorous in their advocacy, influenced the papal Consistory to vote to approve the sentence against Henry VIII on 23 March 1534. Henry's plea to await further action until he could send a Procurator to the Papal Court—only a delaying action—was allowed. And so the execution of the bull of excommunication was temporarily suspended.

In September 1534 Bishop du Bellay's secretary, Claude de Chappuys accompanied the French cardinals who were going to Rome for the Conclave that followed the death of Pope Clement VII. There, the Cardinals and Chappuys used their influence to promote the candidacy of the Bishop of Paris for a cardinal's hat. They were assured that the new pope, Pope Paul III, was favourable to their importuning.

Cardinal
On 21 May 1535, at his second Consistory for the promotion of cardinals, Pope Paul III created seven new cardinals, among them Jean du Bellay. He was named Cardinal Priest of the titulus of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere on 31 May. His cardinal's hat was sent to him in France on 3 April. Beginning on 27 June he made the journey to Rome, stopping in Ferrara for negotiations with the Duke about the war over Milan, and then moving on to Rome, where he appeared personally for his induction ceremonies at the Consistory of 6 August. He had additional reasons, however, for going to Rome. He was sent by King Francis to seek papal assistance against the aggression of the Emperor Charles V in the struggle for the Duchy of Milan. He was again accompanied by François Rabelais.

On 21 July 1536 du Bellay was nominated "Lieutenant-General" to the king at Paris and in the Île de France, and was entrusted with the organisation of the defence against the Imperialists under the leadership of the Count of Nassau, who, under the direction of the Emperor Charles V, were invading eastern France while Charles was attacking Provence. When his brother Guillaume du Bellay went to Piedmont, Jean was put in charge of the negotiations with the German Protestants, principally through the humanist Johannes Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan.

In the last years of the reign of Francis I, cardinal du Bellay was in favour with the duchesse d'Étampes, and received a number of benefices: he was Administrator of the bishopric of Limoges on the nomination of the King and with the approval of Pope Paul III on 22 August 1541; he held the diocese until the appointment of Antoine Seguin on 13 August 1544. He was named Administrator of the archbishopric of Bordeaux, and approved by the Pope on 17 December 1544; he held the post until 3 July 1551. He became Bishop of Le Mans on 1 November 1546 upon the resignation of his brother René; he himself resigned in July 1556.

Eclipse under Henry II
King Francis I died on 31 March 1547. His funeral ceremonies were conducted at S. Denis on 23 May, and were presided over by Cardinal du Bellay. With the death of King Francis, however, the Cardinal's influence in the council was overshadowed by that of François de Tournon. His niece and patroness, the duchesse d'Étampes was replaced by King Henri's mistress, Diane de Poitiers. The old court favourites had to give way to new favourites. When Henry II announced his new Royal Council (Conseil Privé), du Bellay's name was not among the thirteen councillors admitted to the morning meeting, but only (along with other cardinals, Bourbon, Ferrara and Châtillon) to the meetings which took place after dinner. The only cardinals in the first rank were Tournon and Charles, Duke of Guise Duke of Lorraine, the Archbishop of Rheims. Du Bellay, along with most of councillors of Francis I, found themselves excluded from major decisions. Du Bellay was sent away to Rome (1547), to oversee French affairs before the Holy See. He was not the French Ambassador; that role belonged to Claude d'Urfé (1501–1558). In a letter of 29 April 1549 Secretary of State,Jean du Thiers complained to the King that du Bellay's letters from Rome were voluminous, but contained not one word of substance. His position as a French representative was cancelled when the Cardinal of Ferrara, Ippolito d'Este arrived in Rome. Du Bellay complained bitterly to the King in a letter of 23 August 1549. He returned to France.

Following the death of Pope Paul III in November 1549, Cardinal du Bellay left for Rome once again. He and the other French cardinals were sent by Henry II, who also sent letters to Rome, threatening trouble if the cardinals in Rome did not wait for the French cardinals before they began the Conclave. Du Bellay obtained eight votes as the new pope. This is remarkable, since there were more than twenty Cardinals in the French faction. Evidently he did not have the favour of the French King. The leading candidates were Reginald Pole, Giovanni Morone, and Gian Pietro Carafa; Cardinal du Bellay was not papabile. On 25 February 1550 he was promoted suburbicarian Bishop of Albano by the new pope, Julius III, replacing Cardinal Ennio Filonardi, who died during the Conclave. When Cardinal du Bellay returned to France after the Conclave, he took up residence in his Italian-style villa at Saint-Maur, some seven miles southeast of Paris, where he enjoyed the company of Rabelais, Macrin, Michel l'Hôpital, and his young cousin Joachim du Bellay. King Henry II struck again in 1551, dismissing him from the See of Paris. Catherine de' Medici was a frequent visitor, and in 1563 she purchased the from his heirs.

After three quiet years passed in retirement in France (1550–1553), the Cardinal was charged with a new mission to Pope Julius III. In Rome he discovered that the Imperialists were in control everywhere, and he was shocked when, on 11 December 1553, Cardinal Carafa was given the See of Ostia and the office of Dean of the College of Cardinals, which Du Bellay believed ought to have been his. He complained in a letter of 22 December 1553 to the Constable de Montmorency.

The Cardinal du Bellay continued to live in Rome thenceforth in great state. In 1555 he was appointed bishop of Ostia and Dean of the College of Cardinals, to fill the position left vacant by the election of Cardinal Giovanni Pietro Carafa to the Papacy as Pope Paul IV. The appointment was disapproved of by Henry II and brought du Bellay into fresh disgrace.

Paul IV died on 18 August 1559 after a contentious reign of four years, two months and twenty-seven days. The Conclave to elect his successor held its opening ceremonies on 5 September 1559 with forty-four cardinals in attendance. On 6 September, Cardinal du Bellay, who was Dean of the College of Cardinals, celebrated the Mass of the Holy Spirit, and then the Conclave settled down to a leisurely conduct of business. They finished the Electoral Capitulations on 8 September, and the bulls referring to conclave rules were read on 9 September. Du Bellay, however, was ill, and did not attend the reading. In the First Scrutiny, held later that day, he had to cast his vote from his sickbed. Beginning on 26 September various ambassadors, led by the Spanish Ambassador, appeared at the entrance to the Conclave area and harangued the cardinals inside about the necessity of getting a pope elected. Security was so bad that on 2 October, the cardinals appointed a reform committee, with Du Bellay its leader, to restore order. It was ineffective. On 9 October the known agents of the Powers and a considerable number of Conclavists were expelled. On 1 November there were forty-seven cardinals at the Conclave, five confined to bed. On the afternoon of Christmas Day, after a good deal of politicking, the cardinals finally settled on Cardinal Giovanni Angelo de' Medici, who was elected by acclamation. He was asked if he would consent to a Scrutiny the next morning, and he agreed, providing that it was recognised that he had been validly and canonically elected on the 25th. He chose the throne name Pius IV. Cardinal du Bellay was absent.

Death
Cardinal Jean du Bellay died in Rome on 16 February 1560 at 13:30 hours, Rome time, in his gardens at the Baths of Diocletian. He was buried in the Church of Santissima Trinità dei Monti. Since he had died in Rome, the appointment to his vacated benefices, according to the Concordat of Bologna of 1516, belonged to the Pope, not to the King. Pope Pius IV reminded Henry II of this in a letter of 9 August 1560. This was one of the principal reasons that French kings did not want their very richly beneficed cardinals to reside in Rome; as a result, when a Conclave became necessary, either the French party did not arrive in time, or did not bother to come at all. Since they were unknown to most of the cardinals, they were rarely serious candidates for the papal office.

Du Bellay's Last Will and Testament was contested, and his relatives fought over various parts of the inheritance. The Cardinal's sister Louise, who had received the Cardinal's property still kept in the Episcopal Palace in Paris, to ensure her claim to the inheritance, made a donation of the Cardinal's antiquities to the Queen Mother, Catherine de' Medicis.

Appreciation
Less resolute and reliable than his brother Guillaume, the Cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and free mind. He was on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Guillaume Budé was his friend, François Rabelais his faithful secretary and doctor; men of letters, like Etienne Dolet, and the poet Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for assistance. An orator and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of graceful Latin poems (printed with Salmon Macrin's Odes, 1546, by Robert Estienne), and some other compositions, including Francisci Francorum regis epistola apologetica (1542). His voluminous correspondence, now being published, is remarkable for its verve and picturesque quality.

Du Bellay and François Rabelais
Rabelais travelled frequently to Rome with his friend Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and lived for a short time in Turin with du Bellay's brother, Guillaume, during which François I was his patron. Rabelais probably spent some time in hiding, threatened by being labelled a heretic. Only the protection of du Bellay saved Rabelais after the condemnation of his novel by the Sorbonne. They put Gargantua and Pantagruel on their index in 1542, the Third Book in 1546–1547, and the Fourth Book in 1552.

Rabelais was under scrutiny by the church due to "humanistic" nature of his writings. Rabelais's main work of this nature is the Gargantua and Pantagruel series, which contain a great deal of allegorical, suggestive messages.

Attribution

 * [Caution should be used; the content is obsolete.]

title: Jean du Bellay


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Las Palmas

Las Palmas, officially Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, is a Spanish city and capital of Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean.

It is the capital city of the Canary Islands (jointly with Santa Cruz de Tenerife) and the most populous city in the autonomous community of the Canary Islands, and the ninth-largest city in Spain with a population of 381,223 in 2020. It is also the fifth-most populous urban area in Spain and (depending on sources) ninth or tenth most populous metropolitan area in Spain.

Las Palmas is located in the northeastern part of the island of Gran Canaria, about 150 km west of the Moroccan coast in the Atlantic Ocean. Las Palmas experiences a hot desert climate, offset by the local cooler Canary Current, with warm temperatures throughout the year. It has an average annual temperature of 21.2 °C.

The city was founded in 1478, and considered the de facto (without legal and real recognition) capital of the Canary Islands until the seventeenth century. It is the home of the Canarian Ministry of Presidency (shared in a four-year term with Santa Cruz de Tenerife), as well as half of the ministries and boards of the Canarian government, and the High Court of Justice of the Canary Islands.

History
The city was founded by Juan Rejón on 24 June 1478, with the name "Real de Las Palmas". Rejón was head of the invading Castilian army, which then engaged in war with the locals.

The war began at the mouth of the Guiniguada ravine, where he settled together with his 30 soldiers El Real de Las Palmas, which today is the district of Vegueta.

The struggle lasted for a period of five years, costing a great number of lives, especially on the aboriginal side, which lacked sufficient means to defend itself against the armies sent by the Catholic monarchs. Even so, resistance was fierce. The end of the conquest came in 1483, with the incorporation of the island into the Crown of Castile by Pedro de Vera, who managed to subjugate the natives of Gáldar in the northwest of the island.

20 November 1485 the diocese was transferred from El Rubicón (Lanzarote) to Real de Las Palmas. The importance of the city grew gradually, with the establishment of the Bishopric of the Canary Islands, the first Court of the Holy Inquisition, the Royal Court of the Canary Islands and the residence of the Captains General of the Canary Islands. Although the capital, as understood from the 19th century onwards, did not exist as such in the archipelago, given that the Captain General's Residence was in Las Palmas, it can be considered that this was the capital of the Canary Islands during part of the 16th and 17th centuries; afterwards, although without legal or real significance, it continued to be considered the honorary capital of the Canary archipelago.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus (Spanish: Cristóbal Colón) anchored in the port of Las Palmas for a repair of the rudder of his ship Pinta and spent some time on the neighbour island on his first trip to the Americas. He also stopped there on the way back to Spain. The - a museum in the  district of the city - is named after him.

In 1595, Francis Drake tried to plunder the town, leading to the Battle of Las Palmas. A Dutch raid under vice-admiral Pieter van der Does in 1599 was only slightly more successful; some of the town was destroyed, but the raiders were repelled.

Las Palmas' seaport, Puerto de la Luz (known internationally as La Luz port), the construction of which began in 1883 played significant role in modernizing the city and sped up its advancement. The port benefited greatly from the closure of the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis. Many foreign workers migrated to the city at this time.

In 1927, the Province of Canary Islands was split into two provinces: of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria became the capital of the latter, and integrated the islands of Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.

Las Palmas is a sister city of San Antonio, Texas, in the United States, which was founded in 1718 by about 25 Canary Islanders.

Administrative divisions

Las Palmas is divided into five administrative districts, which in turn are subdivided into districts, not necessarily consistent with the traditional neighborhoods.

Geography
The city has four main beaches: Las Canteras, Las Alcaravaneras, La Laja, and El Confital.
 * Playa de Las Canteras (Las Canteras Beach) is the largest beach in the city, and is frequented throughout the year by city dwellers as well as by large numbers of foreign visitors. The beach lies on the west side of the isthmus of Guanarteme, which links the peninsula of La Isleta, located to the northeast, with the rest of the island of Gran Canaria. The 3,100 m beach is oriented toward the northwest in what is known as Confital bow or bay, and stretches from the foothills of La Isleta until shortly before the mouth of the ravine Tamaraceite. Along much of this length, the beach is sheltered from most of the waves and currents of the Atlantic by a natural barrier of coral sandstone popularly known as "the bar", which is in easy swimming distance from shore. A system for environmental management has been introduced, and the beach has received ISO 14001 certification – one of only three beaches in Spain to do so, namely La Concha in San Sebastián and La Victoria in Cádiz. Inside the beach runs the Paseo de Las Canteras, a wide pedestrian boardwalk, or sidewalk, which runs parallel to the beach from near the Auditorio Alfredo Kraus to the area known as "Puntilla" until reaching Playa del Confital. La Playa de Las Canteras covers three areas that correspond to the arches and inflections that it conducts on the coast. Each presents certain morphological characteristics.

 * Playa de Las Alcaravaneras (Las Alcaravaneras beach) extends from the rising side of the Isthmus of Guanarteme, an old spit of sand dunes and mountains linking the peninsula of La Isleta, located to the northeast, with the rest of the island of Gran Canaria. It extends from the Real Club Náutico de Gran Canaria to the new marina breakwater of the city, for just over 1/2 mi of fine golden sand. The whole beach is serviced by the promenade, which starts in Las Alcaravaneras, connects with the Playa de San Cristobal, and ends in Playa de La Laja, 10 mi to the south. The promenade is one of the recreational areas of the city and is popular with people who take the opportunity to walk, run, play sports, or cycle. The tranquility of the bay, and yacht clubs close to the existing beach, make Playa de Las Alcaravaneras a great place to practice sports such as sailing and canoeing. The beach also offers facilities for sports such as beach volleyball, beach soccer or futvóley (which has organized tournaments in the summer) and court sports such as basketball, indoor soccer, and volleyball.
 * Playa de la Laja (La Laja Beach), with fine gray sand, is approximately 1200 m long and has an average width of 40 m. Its moderate waves and currents are no longer dangerous since the construction of a dam in the south in the 1990s. At the time, the Ministry of Environment also trawled the seabed to bring sand onto the beach, and the construction of a boardwalk has significantly improved pedestrian access. Due to the intensity of its streams and incoming waves, La Laja has been hailed as a favorite surfers' beach. It is the starting point for boat races that occur every weekend between April and October.
 * Playa del Confital (Confital Beach), southwest of the peninsula of La Isleta, is the northern part of the large bay which contains Playa de Las Canteras and Playa del Confital. While Playa de Las Canteras is a long and wide, sandy beach, Playa del Confital is a narrower and mostly hard, volcanic beach equipped with comfortable foot paths and large, slanted slabs of stone suitable for relaxing, exercising and sunbathing. Advanced off the beach surfing replaces swimming as the major water activity on Playa del Confital. Until some years ago, the beach was home to a small shanty town, which has since been eradicated and the land of the Playa del Confital returned to general, public use. Ensuing improvements, however, proved controversial as some environmental organizations and residents questioned the legality of the proceedings. The waves arriving at the beach are highly thought of by amateur and professional surfers alike, some of whom consider the Confital as having one of the best right hand breaks in Europe. Here, the ocean currents form a tube that is used by more experienced surfers for its speed and strong contrasts. Each year, qualifying events for the professional world surfing championship take place on this beach.

Climate
Las Palmas has a desert climate (according to the Koppen climate classification: BWh) with warm dry summers and warm enough winters to classify it as a tropical climate. Its average annual temperature is 21.2 °C – 28 °C during the day and 18 °C at night. In January, the coldest month, the temperature typically ranges from 19 to 23 C (and sometimes higher) during the day, and around 15 to 16 C at night, with an average sea temperature at 20 °C. In the warmest months – August and September – the temperature typically ranges from 27 to 30 C during the day, above 21 °C at night, with the average sea temperature at 23 °C. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare.

August 1990 was the warmest month on record, with the average maximum temperature of the month during the day being 30.6 °C. The highest temperature ever recorded was 44.2 °C, and the coldest temperature ever recorded was 9.4 °C. The highest wind speed ever recorded was on 28 November 2005, measuring 113 km/h. Las Palmas city has never recorded any snow or sleet.

Annual average relative humidity is 66%, ranging from 64% in March to 69% in October. The amount of annual sunshine hours is above 2,800 per year, from around 190 in winter (average of six hours a day) to around 300 in summer (average of 10 hours a day). It rains on average only 22 days a year, with total precipitation per year of only 151 mm.

Demographics
, nearly half (45.9%) of Gran Canaria's inhabitants live in Las Palmas, as well as 18.35% of the Canary Islands' total population. According to a study by the National Statistics Institute of Spain Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has a life expectancy of 80.9 years.

Throughout history, Las Palmas received waves of immigrants from mainland Spain and countries from every continent. The majority of the population is Spanish, although large North- and sub-Saharan African and Latin American communities exist (especially the Venezuelan community, which is growing fast), as well as important historical minorities such as Indians (Sindhi), Koreans, and a growing Chinese population.

One street near the city's port has a number of Korean businesses, and has been called the city's Koreatown. It caters to Korean sailors who arrive at the island, who affectionately call the city the "Second Busan", after the port city in South Korea.

Ethnically, most autochthonous Canarians are descendants of a mixture of aboriginal people (guanches) of the Canary Islands (now extinct), the Spanish conquistadores and later European (mainly Spanish, Portuguese, Flemish, French, Italian, German, and British) colonizers.

Education
Las Palmas is home to University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, founded in 1989.

The city also has a variety of state and public primary and secondary schools.

International schools include:
 * Deutsche Schule Las Palmas (German)
 * The British School of Gran Canaria (Tafira School is in the city limits)
 * The American School of Las Palmas
 * Lycée Français René-Verneau, the French international school, is in the city limits of Telde
 * Colegio Japonés de Las Palmas, a Japanese international school, was formerly located within Tafira Alta in the city; opened in October 1973, and closed in March 2001.
 * Canterbury School of Gran Canaria, a British international school.

The Escuela Complementaria Japonesa de Las Palmas previously provided a weekend supplementary Japanese programme.

Culture

Las Palmas offers a variety of theater, cinema, opera, concerts, visual arts and dance performances. The city hosts the Canary Islands Music Festival, the Theatre and Dance and the International Film Festival. The main City Festival, celebrating the foundation of the "City Fiestas de San Juan" is held in June. The Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is one of the main attractions for tourists. The city center of Las Palmas, specifically the Vegueta and Triana neighbourhoods, are included in the tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Museums, theatres and exhibition halls

 * The Museo Canario is located in the historic district of Vegueta. Founded in 1879, it is an international partner of the Council for Scientific Research (CSIC). It has a valuable collection of Canary archaeological objects, which are exhibited in 16 halls. It is also equipped with a library of over 60,000 volumes, many of them dealing with the Canary Islands topics. Its archive covers the period from 1785 until today.
 * The Casa Museo de Colón is in the Plaza de San Antonio Abad, behind the cathedral of Santa Ana, focusing on the history of the Canary Islands and its relations with America. It has 13 permanent exhibition halls, a library and a dedicated study center, and diverse spaces for temporary activities. The complex consists of several houses, one of which was accessed by Christopher Columbus during his first trip to America in 1492; it was the residence of former Governor (now better known as the home of Columbus). It is organized into five subject areas: America before the Discovery, Columbus and his journeys, Canary enclave strategic base for experimenting with the New World, The history and genesis of the city of Palmas, and painting of the 16th century to start of the 20th century.
 * The Casa Museo Pérez Galdós is located in the Triana neighborhood of the city. It is the birthplace of Benito Pérez Galdós. It has an extensive collection of documents, books, furniture and personal belongings of the writer.
 * The Museo Néstor is in the neighborhood of Garden City. Dedicated to the modernist painter Néstor Martín-Fernández de la Torre, the museum was opened in 1956 in the architectural ensemble of the Pueblo Canario, which was conceived and built by his brother Miguel. It has 10 exhibition halls, as well as a documentation center and pedagogy.
 * The Elder Museum of Science and Technology is an innovative, interactive, engaged in scientific and technological culture. Elder located in the building, which dates from the end of the 19th century has 4500 m² of exhibition halls, workshops, interactive modules, large-format film and greenhouse ecosystem.
 * The Maritime Museum, located in the former Jet Foil station has around 1000 m² of floor space. When the expansion is finished, will have a giant pool to simulate interactive bay, where a large ship can be handled by visitors.
 * The Atlantic Center of Modern Art (CAAM), opened in 1989, is one of the most important references for the cultural and artistic life of the Canary Islands, and is responsible for disseminating the art made in the islands to the rest of the world, especially Africa, America and Europe. It has permanent and temporary exhibitions that range from the historical avant-garde to the latest trends. It is located on Calle Los Balcones de Vegueta, and preserves the original façade of the 18th century.
 * The Teatro Pérez Galdós was designed by the architect Francisco Jareño y Alarcón in 1867. Its current appearance, with some modifications, is due to the intervention of Fernando Navarro and Miguel Martín Fernández de la Torre after the fire that destroyed it almost entirely in 1928. Miguel Martín's brother, the painter Néstor Martín-Fernández de la Torre, was commissioned to decorate the stalls, lounges and the stage. It was originally called Teatro Tirso de Molina until 1901, when, with the occasion of the premiere of Electra, the theatre was renamed after the canarian writer Benito Pérez Galdós. Following works of renovation, the theatre reopened in April 2007.
 * The Cuyás Theater, on the stage of the former Cine Cuyás is a work of rationalist Canarian architect Miguel Martín Fernández de la Torre. Its main hall has a capacity for 940 people, divided between the stalls and two amphitheatres. It also has a large patio that allows the organization of outdoor events. It is currently constructing an alternative test room with a capacity for one hundred seats.
 * The Sala Insular de Teatro is a scenic area which lies in the main hall of an old church. In 2007, after some refurbishment, the Board reopened its doors to the public, welcoming small local assemblies.
 * The Guiniguada Theater after a decade long refurbishment, will reopen in 2011.

Auditorium and Convention Centre

 * The Auditorio Alfredo Kraus, named after the world renowned Spanish operatic tenor Alfredo Kraus, who was born in Las Palmas, is located on the Atlantic, near the Playa de Las Canteras, one of the most privileged areas of the city. Its 13200 m² floor area has 11 rooms which accommodate from large conventions and concerts to conferences.
 * The Palais des congrès de Gran Canaria is in the premises of the Institución Ferial de Canarias with a capacity for 800 people on 16000 m².
 * The Center for Initiatives of the Caja de Ahorros de Canarias (CICC) is housed in a mid-19th-century building by the architect Manuel Ponce de Leon in the neighborhood of Triana. It is a small conference center with the latest technology and up to 500 guests.

Libraries
The city has 11 municipal libraries and there are three specialized centres:

 * The Library Island has a capacity for 500 persons over its three floors, in addition to a study hall and more than 100 computer connections, and 20 Internet access points.
 * La Biblioteca Simón Benitez Padilla specialises in geology, biology and ecology, and contains valuable bibliographical data from Simón Benitez Padilla, a notable advocate of the study of Canarian culture and former president of the Museum Canario.
 * The Archives Joaquín Blanco contains 160 years of history of the city; the burning of the Houses Consistoriales (in 1845) destroyed the previous document repository.

A library is also situated on the first floor of Woermann Tower.

Cultural events

 * Dance Center
 * Festival of Theater and Dance
 * Festival Internacional de Cine de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
 * Canary Islands Music Festival
 * Jazz Festival
 * Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
 * Founding Celebrations
 * WOMAD Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (World of Music Arts and Dance)
 * Opera Festival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
 * Fantastic and Terror Film Festival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

Districts
Source:

 * Vegueta, Cono Sur and Tafira
 * Centro
 * Isleta – Puerto – Guanarteme
 * Ciudad Alta
 * Tamaraceite – San Lorezo – Tenoya

Parks and squares

 * Avenida Marítima
 * Avenida Mésa y López
 * El Confital
 * Fuente Luminosa
 * Parque de la Mayordomía
 * Parque de Santa Catalina
 * Parque Doramas
 * Parque Juan Pablo II
 * Parque de San Telmo
 * Plaza de España
 * Plaza de La Feria
 * Plaza de Las Ranas
 * Plaza Santa Ana
 * Triana

Architecture

 * Bandama Caldera (Bandama Natural Monument) in Santa Brígida, Las Palmas is part of the Tafira Protected Landscape. It is considered a point of geological interest because of the Caldera de Bandama: this volcanic caldera reaches 569 m above sea level at the highest point on its rim, Pico de Bandama, and is about 1000 m wide and 200 m deep. The steep walk to the bottom of the caldera takes about half an hour. Volcanic ash of different hues is in great abundance, and there are some interesting botanic species of Canary Islands origin. There are facilities for food and refreshments as well.
 * Archaeological sites in Santa Brígida. In the valley of La Angostura and Las Meleguinas can find numerous traces of Aboriginal canaries that have prompted the declaration of the area as a Cultural, as groups of caves carved into rock, silos or sidewalks. In the archaeological site of El Tope, discovered on 16 July 1988, where you can see remnants that suggest the existence of an aboriginal burial mound, as well as ceramics, pottery and curious pintaderas. EOn the north wall of the Caldera de Bandama is the Cueva de los Canarios, used by the aborigines as a granary. It has been discovered Libyco-Berber inscriptions belonging to the ancient Guanche autochthones and some vessels (which are now in the Museo Canario).  Also in the same area in the wall of the volcano in the stew is the Cueva de Los Frailes was discovered in 1933 a set of 37 caves.
 * Church of San Juan Bautista (also vulgarly known as Catedral de Arucas due to its big size) built entirely in Arucas stone by local master masons, and it dates from 1909 (Initial Configuration from the 17th century). Apart from the wealth of the carved stone columns and column heads, there are also some beautiful stained glass windows, the works of Canary Island painter Cristobal Hernandez de Quintana, and an extraordinary carving of the Reclining Christ, by Manuel Ramos.
 * Jardín de la Marquesa de Arucas – Botanical Garden in Arucas.
 * Iglesia de San Juan Bautista de Telde is the true spiritual centre of Telde. Located in the square of the same name and founded in 1483, the old church was erected by the Garcia del Castillo family at the time of the town's foundation. It still has the original gateway, an example of Sevillian–Portuguese Gothic architecture. The towers, however, are an example of early 20th neo-Gothic construction. The real marvels are inside the building: the statue of Christ on the main altar, made from corn dough by the Purépecha Mexican Indians, brought here before 1550, the Flemish Gothic main altar, which dates back to before 1516, and the triptych of the Virgin Mary, brought from Flanders, also in the 16th century, depicting five religious scenes.
 * Basílica de Nuestra Señora del Pino in Teror from 1760.
 * Archaeological sites in Telde. Telde has 101 archaeological sites and 709 listed assets of ethnographic interest. In regard to the aboriginal time deposits, each year it expands its number or discover new aspects of old fields, but most are in disrepair and many are disappearing. Some of the most prominent are the coastal town of Tufia, in good condition and extensively excavated by archaeologists; Four Doors cave site, Telde, a large cave with four doors located on top of a mountain and overlooking the teldense plain; an almogarén (religious vessel) at the top; a troglodyte village with collective barn in the back, the caves of Tara and Cendro remains of the ancient center of population, the town of Draguillo on the border with Ingenio, Las Cuevas Chalasia which consist of a labyrinthine series of artificial caves linked by tunnels and the impressive Necropolis of Jinámar which includes more than 500 tombs of various types belonging to the old canary.
 * Basílica de San Juan Bautista in Telde
 * Basílica de Nuestra Señora del Pino in Teror from 1760.
 * Palacete Rodriguez Quegles, an eclectic modernist mansion from the turn of the 20th century, it is a venue for exhibitions and other cultural events, and the center for coordinating events around the city.

Places of worship
Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Diocese of Canarias (Catholic Church), Spanish Evangelical Church (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Baptist Evangelical Union of Spain (Baptist World Alliance), Assemblies of God. There are also Muslim mosques.

Roads and highways
Urban road infrastructure is overburdened on workdays and in certain areas; the city street plan is not at all rectilinear, and may be confusing even to experienced drivers. However, there are no toll roads; entrances, exits, main streets and important zones are all well-signposted.

Las Palmas, being the centre of the Las Palmas metropolitan area, is the hub for the island's motorway network. The city is linked with three highways: the GC-1 to the south, the GC-2 to the west and GC-3 to the center of the island.

The GC-1 links the capital with Puerto de Mogán in the south. It is the fastest route from the top of the island to the bottom and vice versa with a speed limit of 120 km/h. It is approximately 75 km in length and runs along the eastern and the southern coasts, and is also the second longest superhighway in the Canary Islands. The road provides easy access from the Airport to the major cities and resorts, which include Maspalomas and Playa del Inglés. The increase in tourism over the years has necessitated the route's upgrading and widening to cope with traffic growth. The GC-1 begins south of the downtown area of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the highway runs within the beach of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and 2 km south intersects with the GC-2 and later runs with a few clover leaf interchanges and later forms a junction with GC-5 and south, the GC-31.

The GC-2 North Highway connects Las Palmas with the small northern port and village of Agaete. The highway begins by the beach area of the island, and runs through the downtown area, linking with the GC31 at a roundabout interchange. The freeway runs within the beaches and the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean for the half part but at around the 20th km, it becomes a highway after the unidirectional parclo interchanges and runs within the coastline, it later has several interchanges and several towns as it passes to the northwest and finally, it ends in Agaete.

Airport
Las Palmas is served by Gran Canaria Airport, also called Las Palmas Airport.

The airport is located in the eastern part of the island, about 18 km from Las Palmas city centre. In 2008, it handled 10,212,106 passengers and 33695248 kg of cargo, and is the fourth busiest in Spain. It is also the only airport on the islands with two runways, thus can accommodate up to 53 landings and take-offs per hour. The lengthy runways made the airport an alternative landing site for the NASA Space Shuttle. This airport is also a base for Binter Canarias and Canaryfly, airlines which operate regional inter-island flights within the Canary Islands.

An airbase of the Spanish Air Force is located to the east of the runways. Beyond several hangars opposite the passenger terminal, the Gando Air Base (Base Aérea de Gando) contains ten shelters situated on the southern end of the eastern runway.

Seaport
Puerto de Las Palmas (Las Palmas Port), also known as Puerto de la Luz, is a main port for fishing, commercial, passenger and sports in the northwest of the city. It has been the traditional base for scale and supplying ships on their way through the Middle Atlantic for five centuries. The Port of Las Palmas is not only the first port of the Canary Islands, it is one of the main ports of Spain and the first of the geographical area of West Africa. As the leading port in the mid-Atlantic, it serves as the crossroads between Europe, Africa and America. In 2007, the port received some 11,262 ships; it welcomed a total of 907,782 cruise passengers, a 16.26% increase on 2006. In terms of annual TEU, the port of Las Palmas ranks as the 5th in Spain, and is among the first 15 ports of Europe.

The Port of Las Palmas is the first Mid-Atlantic fishing base, with an annual traffic of more than 4,500 stopovers and with some 400,000 tons of frozen fish processed. Despite experiencing some decline in recent years, it retains its dominance in the fishing industry over other ports in the Canary Islands. At the foot of pier, special refrigerated containers and preparation rooms for frozen products can carry out the entire chain of post-processing and storage of fish, from refrigeration and distribution, to manufacture and supply of industrial ice. The port's EU-approved border inspection post is responsible for inspecting all types of imports and exports between the European Economic Union and its trading partners.

Muelle Deportivo is the main yachting marina on the island opposite the commercial port with a capacity of 1250 boats. Close to the centre of the city it is popular with yachtsmen largely as a base for preparing their trans Atlantic passage. It is the start point for the ARC and ARC+ (Atlantic Rally for Cruisers) in which up to 300 yachts of different sizes leave in November for the Caribbean.

Bus
Las Palmas boasts a bus system, provided by the company Guaguas Municipales. Municipal Bus Lines offers 40 urban transport routes. The main lines are the 1 (Teatro – Puerto), 2 (Alameda de Colón – Puerto), 17 (Teatro – El Rincón), 25 (Campus Universitario – El Rincón), 12 (Puerto – Hoya de la Plata) and 30 (Alameda de Colón – Santa Catalina, via Rehoyas). In addition, two circular lines (A: Santa Catalina – Santa Catalina, via Alcaraveneras) and B (Santa Catalina – Santa Catalina, via Ciudad Alta).

The most important bus lines have frequencies of between 3 and 15 minutes during the day and between 10 and 40 minutes at night; some lines have service throughout the night. The bright yellow buses are known simply as 'guaguas'.

The 10-ride ticket ('bono de diez') was once a disposable paper card ticket with magnetic stripe at one time widely available in city shops. This is now replaced by a reusable plastic card issued by the company which may be re-charged in multiples of 10 at bus stations and at machines situated at various sites such as public libraries. The Tarjeta Insular (Island Card) which offered a 20% discount on both municipal buses and Global buses was discontinued on 1 January 2011.

A separate bus company Global with distinctive blue color, inter-hire company, has 119 lines, many to or from the capital. This company was formed 17 March 2000, resulting from the merger of the previous Salcai and interurban lines Utinsa.

There is also the Guagua Turística, which covers the most interesting sites of the city with a guide in several languages.

Rail
There is currently no rail transport system on Gran Canaria. Between 1893 and 1944 steam tram ran between Las Palmas and Puerto de La Luz. The line was electrified in 1910, although the line reverted to steam traction in 1944, when trams were hauled by a steam locomotive known as La Pepa. A reproduction of this locomotive is now on display in the Elder Museum in Las Palmas. In the early 1970s an experimental elevated railway line operated through Las Palmas. Called the Tren Vertebrado ("vertebrate train"), it was designed by Basque engineer Alejandro Goicoechea and consisted of an unusual low-profile train running on elevated concrete tracks through the city. The project was unsuccessful and was dismantled in 1974.

In the early 21st century, plans were put forward by the Gran Canaria Cabildo to develop a rapid transit railway line on Gran Canaria. If built, the Tren de Gran Canaria (TGC) line would run along the eastern coast and connect Las Palmas with the airport and Maspalomas in the south. In 2004 the Spanish Ministry of Development put a contract out to competitive tender for a feasibility study on a 50 km railway line from Las Palmas to Maspalomas. This railway project is currently suspended due to funding difficulties.

Sports
Las Palmas is home to three major professional sports teams. These are:
 * UD Las Palmas – association football club playing in Spain's La Liga. The team play their home games at Estadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,665. The team used to play at Estadio Insular (which is now closed), with a capacity of 22,000. Honours: Spanish SuperLeague: Runner-up 1968–69, Spanish Cup: Runner-up 1977–78, Semifinal: 1974, 1984, 1997.
 * CB Gran Canaria – basketball club playing in Liga ACB at the Palacio de Deportes de Las Palmas, with a capacity of 9,870. Honours: Spanish SuperCup: 2016 Winner.
 * La Caja de Canarias (Club Voleibol J.A.V. Olímpico) – women's volleyball club playing in Superliga Femenina de Voleibol.

Las Palmas was one of the arenas of 2014 FIBA World Championship for Group D, consisting, , , , and. Matches were played in the new arena – Gran Canaria Arena with a capacity of about 10,000.

Many (mainly) outdoor sports are practised in city and neighbourhood, for example: surfing, windsurfing, kitesurfing, swimming, diving, skydiving, paragliding, running, cycling, rowing, tennis and golf (mainly in Las Palmeras Golf, Real Club De Golf De Las Palmas, El Cortijo Club de Campo and Oasis Golf). Real Club De Golf De Las Palmas, inaugurated on 17 December 1891, is the oldest golf club in Spain.

Health system
The two general hospitals of Gran Canaria are in Las Palmas. While Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Doctor Negrín (Doctor Negrín University Hospital of Gran Canaria) is geared to health care in the north and west of the island, Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria (Insular University Hospital of Gran Canaria) is geared to health care in the south and east of the island. There are also smaller private hospitals and clinics.

Twin towns – sister cities
Las Palmas is twinned with:

 * 🇪🇸 Garachico, Spain
 * 🇺🇸 San Antonio, United States
 * 🇲🇽 Guanajuato, Mexico
 * Nouadhibou, Mauritania

In addition, the municipality has approved in plenary willingness twinning with the following cities, if they are not well formalized these twinning:

 * 🇲🇦 Rabat, Morocco
 * 🇷🇺 Ekaterinburg, Russia
 * 🇨🇻 Praia, Cape Verde
 * 🇪🇸 Vigo, Spain
 * 🇵🇱 Gdańsk, Poland
 * 🇮🇹 Genoa, Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Martinsicuro, Italy
 * 🇲🇽 Jalisco, Mexico
 * 🇨🇳 Xiamen, China

People from Las Palmas

 * Santi Aldama (10 January 2001), professional basketball player for the Memphis Grizzlies
 * Wenceslao Benitez Inglott (1879-1954), counter admiral, scientist, and engineer
 * Alfredo Kraus (1927–1999), 20th-century tenor
 * Javier Bardem (1 March 1969–), actor
 * Antonio Betancort (13 March 1937 – 15 March 2015), former football player
 * Juan Bordes (15 July 1948), sculptor
 * Pino Caballero Gil (born 1968), scientist
 * Juan Hidalgo Codorniu (1927–2018), composer
 * José Comas Quesada (3 February 1928 – 14 January 1993), painter
 * Pedro Déniz (1 August 1964), Spanish interdisciplinary artist
 * José Doreste (19 September 1956), Spanish sailor and olympic champion
 * Luis Doreste (7 March 1961), Spanish sailor and 2x olympic champion
 * Nicolás Estévanez (1838–1914), military officer, politician and poet
 * Manuel Pablo García Díaz (25 January 1976), football (soccer) player
 * Nicolás García Hemme (20 June 1988), taekwondo olympic medalist
 * Sven Giegold (17 November 1969), German politician
 * Mateo Gil (23 September 1972), writer and film director
 * Patricia Guerra (21 July 1965), sailor and Olympic champion
 * Jesé (26 February 1993), footballer
 * María Juncal (c. 1981), flamenco dancer
 * Francisco Kraus (1926–2016), Spanish baritone and voice teacher
 * Juan Fernando López Aguilar (10 June 1961), former Spanish Minister of Justice
 * Úrsula López (1870–1966), singer
 * Marta Marrero (16 January 1983), tennis player
 * Kira Miró (13 March 1980), actress and presenter
 * Roberto Molina (5 June 1960), Spanish sailor and olympic champion
 * Juan Negrín (1892–1956), politician; President of Government of Republican Spain 1937–39
 * Rebeca Nuez Suarez (10 November 1993), Classical Violinist.
 * Pinito del Oro (1930–2017), trapeze artist, member of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey
 * Benito Pérez Galdós (1843–1920), 19th-century writer
 * Sandro Ramirez (born 1995), football player
 * María del Carmen Reina Jiménez (born 1942), essayist, writer, activist, and politician
 * Misa Rodríguez (born 1999), goalkeeper for Spain
 * Leticia Romero (28 May 1995), Spanish international basketball player
 * Borja del Rosario (14 January 1985), footballer
 * Jerónimo Saavedra Acevedo (3 June 1936), President of the Government of the Canaries, minister of Public administrations, minister of Education and Sciences of Spain and Mayor
 * Antonia San Juan (22 May 1961), Spanish actress, director and screenwriter
 * Magüi Serna (1 March 1979), tennis player
 * David Silva (8 January 1986-), Spain National Team footballer
 * Carla Suárez Navarro (3 September 1988), tennis player
 * Domingo Tejera de Quesada (1881–1944), publisher and politician
 * Juan Carlos Valerón (17 June 1975), footballer
 * José de Viera y Clavijo (28 December 1731 – 1813), ecclesiastic historian and botanist
 * Isabel Torres (1969–2022), radio and television presenter, talk-show host, and actress.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Las Palmas


text:
Joachim du Bellay

Joachim du Bellay (c. 1522 – 1 January 1560) was a French poet, critic, and a founder of La Pléiade. He notably wrote the manifesto of the group: Défense et illustration de la langue française, which aimed at promoting French as an artistic language, equal to Greek and Latin.

Biography
Joachim du Bellay was born at the Castle of La Turmelière, not far from Liré, near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, Lord of Gonnor, first cousin of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. His mother was Renée Chabot, daughter of Perceval Chabot and heiress of La Turmelière (Plus me plaît le séjour qu'ont bâti mes aïeux).

Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was twenty-three, however, he received permission to study law at the University of Poitiers, no doubt with a view to his obtaining preferment through his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin (1490–1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of the Ars Poetica of Horace, with a preface in which much of the program advocated later by La Pléiade is to be found in outline.

It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common, and became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Dorat at the Collège de Coqueret.

While Ronsard and Jean-Antoine de Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared the Art poétique of Thomas Sébillet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point of view, since he held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples. Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sébillet on this and other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented.

The famous manifesto of the Pléiade, the Défense et illustration de la langue française (Defense and Illustration of the French Language, 1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of Sébillet's treatise. This book (inspired in part by Sperone Speroni's Dialogo delle lingue, 1542) was the expression of the literary principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. This work also bolstered French political debate as a means of learned men to reform their country. To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pléiade, the Defence should be further considered in connection with Ronsard's Abrégé d'art poétique and his preface to the Franciade. Du Bellay maintained that the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute imitations, though he does not in the Defense explain precisely how one is to go about this. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and by discreet borrowing from Italian, Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to Latinize their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views.

The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on Sébillet, did not go unanswered. Sébillet replied in the preface to his translation of the Iphigenia of Euripides; Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation in a digression in his Réplique aux furieuses defenses de Louis Meigret (Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of the Collège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in his Quintil Horatian (Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French language.

Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequence Olive, with which he also published two polemical poems, the Musagnaeomachie, and an ode addressed to Ronsard, Contre les envieux fioles. Olive, a collection of sonnets modeled after the poetry of Petrarch, Ariosto, and contemporary Italians published by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari, first appeared in 1549. With it were printed thirteen odes entitled Vers lyriques. Olive has been supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarchan exercise, especially as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses.

About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years' duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Liré, became seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published a Recueil de poésies dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of the Aeneid, with other translations and some occasional poems.

In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years' residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his Antiquités de Rome, published in 1558. Sonnet III of the Antiquités, "Nouveau venu qui cherches Rome en Rome," has been shown to reflect the direct influence of a Latin poem by a Renaissance writer named Jean or Janis Vitalis. The Antiquités were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser (The Ruins of Rome, 1591), and the sonnet "Nouveau venu qui cherches Rome en Rome" was rendered into Spanish by Francisco de Quevedo ("A Roma sepultada en sus ruinas," 1650). These sonnets were more personal and less imitative than the Olive sequence, and struck a note which was revived in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an attendant. He had to meet the cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses of the household. Nevertheless, he found many friends among Italian scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny.

Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had brought back with him from Rome, the Latin Poemata, the Antiquités de Rome, the Divers Jeux Rustiques, and the 191 sonnets of the Regrets, the greater number of which were written in Italy. The Regrets show that he had moved away from the theories of the Défence.

The simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with Ronsard were not renewed, but he formed a close friendship with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers La Nouvelle Manière de faire son profit des lettres, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnèbe, and with it Le Poète courtisan, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry. The Nouvelle Manière is believed to be directed at Pierre de Paschal, who was elected as royal historiographer, and who had promised to write Latin biographies of the great, but who in fact never wrote anything of the sort. Both works were published under the pseudonym of J Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be Mellin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however, been on friendly terms.

Last works and death
A long and eloquent Discours au roi (detailing the duties of a prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l'Hôpital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II in 1559, and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension, although it was not published until 1567, after his death. In Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the outspoken Regrets. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on 1 January 1560 he died at the age of 38. There is no evidence that he was in priest's orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.

title: Joachim du Bellay


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Talk:Remodernism

[Untitled]
Is this word used by anybody other than the stuckists? If not, is there any reason for it to have a separate page - can't the info just be incorporated into stuckism? --Camembert

I'm afraid this is en route to becoming a mainstream concept Camembert so best we leave it as is. user:sjc

Fair enough. It's a new one on me, I must admit. --Camembert

Ahem! I submit that this 'movement' has gone nowhere, and takes up far too much brain space on wiki. I think Stuckism itself is barely viable at present, but of course I could be wrong...Actio 07:05, 11 February 2007 (UTC)actio

I've never heard of Stuckism or Remodernism but nor have I ever heard of Cubism. Bus stop 07:11, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

There's plenty of refs for Stuckism, and Remodernism was started by them, but has been taken up by other groups too. It also has refs, so I don't see a major issue. We don't make personal assessments of things: we go by verifiable sources. Tyrenius 07:29, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

This sounds similar (But not identical) to the term 'New Sincerity', which had it's article pulled down a year ago. I definately think we need a page on what is a very apparent and growing cultural change from Postmodernism, but perhaps a page that includes various art theories instead of seperate pages. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 139.153.12.126 (talk • contribs).

 * You can always start a page (if you register a user name). However, beware of writing an essay. It should be drawn from secondary sources per WP:ATT. This is not incompatible with separate articles also. Tyrenius 23:11, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Remodernism


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Jean Daurat

Jean Daurat (Occitan: Joan Dorat; Latin: Auratus) (3 April 1508 – 1 November 1588) was a French poet, scholar and a member of a group known as The Pléiade.

Early life
He was born Joan Dinemandy in Limoges and was a member of a noble family. After studying at the College of Limoges, he came to Paris to be presented to King Francis I of France, who made him tutor to his pages. He rapidly gained an immense reputation as a classical scholar.

Career
As a private tutor in the house of Lazare de Baif, he had Jean-Antoine de Baif for his pupil. His son, Louis, showed great precocity and at the age of ten, translated into French verse one of his father's Latin pieces. His poems were published with his father's.

Daurat became director of the Collège de Coqueret, where he had among his pupils Antoine de Baif, Pierre de Ronsard, Remy Belleau, and Pontus de Tyard. Joachim du Bellay was added by Ronsard to this group, and these five young poets, under the direction of Daurat, formed a society for the reformation of the French language and literature. They increased their number to seven by the initiation of the dramatist Étienne Jodelle, and thereupon they named themselves La Pléiade, in emulation of the seven Greek poets of Alexandria. The election of Daurat as their leader proved his personal influence, and the value his pupils set on the learning to which he introduced them, but as a writer of French verse he is the least important of the seven. Meanwhile, he collected around him a sort of Academy, and encouraged the students in a passionate study of Greek and Latin poetry. He himself wrote incessantly in both those languages, and was styled "the modern Pindar". His influence extended beyond the bounds of his own country, and he was famous as a scholar in England, Italy, and Germany.

In 1556 he was appointed professor of Greek at the Collège Royal. In 1567, he resigned the post in favour of his nephew, Nicolas Goulu. King Charles IX gave him the title of poeta regius ("the king's poet"). His prolific output was the wonder of his time; he is said to have composed more than 15,000 Greek and Latin verses. The best of these he published at Paris in 1586. He died at Paris, having survived all his illustrious pupils of the Pléiade, except Pontus de Tyard. The Œuvres poétiques in the vernacular of Jean Daurat were edited in 1875 with biographical notice and bibliography by Charles Marty-Laveaux in his Pléiade française.

Daurat has been credited with the development of the claque in the French theatre, in which professional applauders are paid to ensure the success of (or in other cases, booed to ensure the failure of) certain plays, playwrights, and actors.

Scholarship
Daurat is described by Eduard Fraenkel as "the true initiator of the study of Greek poetry in France". His pupils, including Joseph Justus Scaliger, were responsible for circulating the numerous textual conjectures made by Daurat, especially in Aeschylus' Agamemnon, which Daurat himself left unpublished.

title: Jean Daurat


text:
Wasteland (video game)

Wasteland is a role-playing video game developed by Interplay Productions and published by Electronic Arts in 1988. The first installment of the Wasteland series, it is set in a futuristic, post-apocalyptic America destroyed by a nuclear holocaust generations before. Developers originally made the game for the Apple II and it was ported to the Commodore 64 and MS-DOS. It was re-released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux in 2013 via Steam and GOG.com, and in 2014 via Desura. A remastered version titled Wasteland Remastered was released on February 25, 2020, in honor of the original game's 30th anniversary.

Critically acclaimed and commercially successful, Wasteland was intended to be followed by two separate sequels in the 1990s, but Electronic Arts dropped claims of Fountain of Dreams being a sequel and Interplay's Meantime was canceled. The game's general setting and concept inspired Interplay's 1997 role-playing video game Fallout and the Fallout series. Decades later, inXile Entertainment, founded by the game's director Brian Fargo, released two proper sequels: Wasteland 2 (2014) and Wasteland 3 (2020).

Gameplay

Wasteland's game mechanics are based on those used in tabletop role-playing games, such as Tunnels & Trolls and Mercenaries, Spies and Private Eyes created by Wasteland designers Ken St. Andre and Michael Stackpole. Characters in Wasteland have seven attributesstrength, intelligence, luck, speed, agility, dexterity, and charismathat allow the characters to use different skills and weapons. Experience is gained through combat and skill usage to level up, or promote, characters. The player's party begins with four members and can grow to as many as seven by recruiting citizens and wasteland creatures. Unlike other computer role-playing games of the time, these non-player characters might at times refuse to follow the player's commands, such as when the player orders the character to give up an item or perform an action. The game is noted for its high and unforgiving difficulty level. The prose appearing in the game's combat screens, such as phrases saying an enemy is "reduced to a thin red paste" and "explodes like a blood sausage", prompted an unofficial PG-13 sticker on the game packaging in the U.S.

Wasteland was one of the first games featuring a persistent world, where changes to the game's open world were stored and kept. Returning to an area later in the game, the player would find it in the state the player left it, rather than being reset, as was common for games of the time. Since hard drives were still rare in home computers in 1988, this meant the original game disk had to be copied first.

Another feature of the game was the inclusion of a printed collection of paragraphs that the player would read at the appropriate times. These paragraphs described encounters, conversations and contained clues. Because disk space was at a premium, it saved on resources to have most of the game's story printed out in a separate manual rather than stored within the game's code itself. The paragraph books also served as a rudimentary form of copy protection; someone playing a copied version of the game would miss out on story elements and clues necessary to progress. The paragraphs included an unrelated story line about a mission to Mars intended to mislead those who read the paragraphs when not instructed to, and a false set of passwords that would trip up cheaters.

Plot
In 2087, generations after the devastation of a global nuclear war in 1998, a remnant force of the United States Army called the Desert Rangers operates in the Southwestern United States, acting as peacekeepers to protect fellow survivors and their descendants. A team of Desert Rangers is assigned to investigate a series of disturbances in nearby areas. Throughout the game, the rangers explore the remaining enclaves of human civilization, including a post-apocalyptic Las Vegas.

As the group's investigation deepens, the rangers discover evidence of a larger menace threatening to exterminate what is left of humankind. A pre-war artificial intelligence operating from a surviving military facility, Base Cochise, is constructing armies of killer machines and cybernetically modified humans to attack human settlements with the help of Irwin Finster, the deranged former commander of the base. Finster has gone so far as to transform himself into a cyborg under the AI's control. The AI's ultimate goal is to complete Finster's "Project Darwin" and replace the world's "flawed" population with genetically pure specimens. With help from a pre-war android named Max, the player recovers the necessary technology and weapons in order to confront the AI at Base Cochise and destroy it by making the base's nuclear reactor melt down.

Development

In an interview with Hartley and Patricia Lesse for MicroTimes in 1987, game director Brian Fargo said that Interplay Productions started work on the game in 1986. He also said the game was created on the Apple II, as it was equally important to him as the Commodore 64. Fargo described the game as a hybrid of the Ultima series and The Bard's Tale, with a post-apocalyptic setting similar to the Mad Max film series. As to the combat, Fargo stated that it resembled that of The Bard's Tale and contained additional strategy elements, including the ability to split or disband the party and change the player's character point-of-view.

In later interviews, Fargo said Wasteland came about after the success of The Bard's Tale and Interplay's desire to make another role-playing game for Electronic Arts separate from a sequel to the game. He added that the setting was inspired by his love for Mad Max 2 and post-apocalyptic fiction. While searching for a gameplay system for their new game, they came across the system of Mercenaries, Spies and Private Eyes. Its author Michael Stackpole was announced as the writer for Wasteland in 1987.

Alan Pavlish was the lead developer of the game, writing it in Apple II machine language and programming the game to react to player choices. Ken St. Andre said Fargo's pitch to him was for a post-nuclear holocaust game that allowed for weapons capable of inflicting area effect damage to be used and the map be modified "on the fly". Fargo said the game was in development for five years.

Writing

St. Andre said that Interplay wanted to make a best-seller that would elevate the team's reputation. He said that the story-writing process took more than a year, mostly due to feeding various scenarios into the game to see how it would react. According to St. Andre, he and Stackpole wanted to create something new with the story.

The original plot was supposed to be similar to Red Dawn, with Russians occupying the United States and fighting against Americans engaged in liberating their nation. St. Andre eventually decided to change this and pitched a new story involving killer robots wanting to wipe out and replace humanity, calling it a sort of cross between The Terminator and Daffy Duck, with Fargo accepting this new storyline. The game's location was chosen due to St. Andre's familiarity with the area and ability to ensure the locations of real-world places were accurate in the game.

Release
The game was copyrighted in 1986. Close to release, Interplay insisted that it be labeled PG-13. Wasteland was originally released in 1988 for the Apple II, Commodore 64, and IBM compatibles. Wasteland was re-released as part of Interplay's 10 Year Anthology: Classic Collection in 1995, and also included in the 1998 Ultimate RPG Archives through Interplay's DragonPlay label.

Reception
Wasteland sold approximately 250,000 units on release.

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Computer Gaming World lauded Wasteland for its gameplay, plot, problem solving, skills system, non-player characters, and the moral dilemmas players face. The magazine named Wasteland the Adventure Game of the Year in 1988. In 1994, the magazine cited Wasteland as an example of how "older, less sophisticated engines can still play host to a great game".

Orson Scott Card gave Wasteland a mixed review in Compute!, commending the science fiction elements and setting, but stating that it lacked a meaningful overarching story. However, James Trunzo praised the game in the November 1988 issue of Compute!, citing its non-linear design and multiple puzzle solutions, the vague nature of the goal, and customizable player stats.

Julia Martin's review for Challenge favorably recommended the game for those into RPGs and adventure games, comparing it to Twilight: 2000, praising its combat system, choices and for differing from the usual sword-and-spells fantasy genre. She criticized having to insert the primary "A" disk in order to play the game after copying it from four disks, the game's save system, and characters starting out with useless items.

In 2000, Wasteland was ranked as the 24th-best PC game of all time by the staff of IGN for its innovations.

According to a retrospective review by Richard Cobbett of Eurogamer in 2012, "even now, it offers a unique RPG world and experience ... a whole fallen civilisation full of puzzles and characters and things to twiddle with, all magically crammed into less than a megabyte of space." In another retrospective article that same year, IGN's Kristan Reed wrote that "time has not been kind to Wasteland, but its core concepts stand firm."

Sequels and spiritual successor
Wasteland was followed in 1990 by a less-successful intended sequel, Fountain of Dreams, set in post-war Florida. The game neither contained any of the code from Wasteland nor involved any of the staff that worked on it. Electronic Arts eventually decided to downplay its connection to Wasteland, and said it was not a sequel in 2003. Interplay worked on Meantime, which was advertised as a spiritual successor to Wasteland and did not take place in the same universe. Coding of Meantime was nearly finished and a beta version was produced, but the game was canceled as the Apple II market declined.

Interplay has described the first Fallout game as the spiritual successor to Wasteland. According to IGN, "Interplay's inability to prise the Wasteland brand name from EA's gnarled fingers actually led to it creating Fallout in the first place." There are Wasteland homage elements in Fallout and Fallout 2 as well.

Fargo's inXile Entertainment acquired the rights to the franchise from Electronic Arts in 2003. The studio developed and published Wasteland 2 in 2014. The game's production team included original Wasteland designers Alan Pavlish, Michael Stackpole, Ken St. Andre and Liz Danforth, and was crowdfunded through a Kickstarter campaign. In 2016, inXile announced a crowdfunding campaign via Fig to develop Wasteland 3. It was released in August 2020.

Re-release
In an August 2013 Kickstarter update for Wasteland 2, project lead Chris Keenan announced that they had reached an agreement with Electronic Arts to release the original Wasteland for modern operating systems. He added that it will be given for free to backers of Wasteland 2 on Kickstarter, in addition to being made available for purchase on GOG and Steam. The re-release was designed to run on higher resolutions and added a song by Mark Morgan, higher resolution portraits, the ability to use the original game's manual in-game and the paragraph book's text, and expanded the save-game functionality.

In November, Keenan announced that the re-release titled Wasteland 1: The Original Classic had gone gold, and had been submitted to GOG and Steam for approval. In response to the player feedback, inXile included the ability to turn off smoothing, including the manual in tooltips, swapping and tweaking portraits while making it work on Mac OS X and Linux. Those who backed Torment: Tides of Numenera and received Wasteland 2, also received the re-release for free.

The Original Classic edition was released on November 8, 2013, and was downloaded more than 33,000 times before its general availability. On November 12, the game was released on GOG. The next day, the game was also released on Steam for Windows, Mac and Linux. On March 11, 2014, it was released for Desura.

Remaster
inXile Entertainment announced a remastered version in honor of the original's 30th anniversary, to be produced by Krome Studios. During E3 2019, Brian Fargo announced it was coming to both Windows and Xbox One. He also released screenshots of the game. On January 23, 2020, the release date was revealed as February 25. It was released by inXile Entertainment on GOG, Steam and Microsoft Store for Windows, OS X and Linux; the Xbox One version was published by Xbox Game Studios. The graphics and sounds were completely overhauled and the game uses 3D models. In addition, it features voiced lines and new portraits for characters. The "remastered" edition also includes cross-save support and Xbox Play Anywhere support.

title: Wasteland (video game)


text:
Harrow (tool)

In agriculture, a harrow is a farm implement used for surface tillage. It is used after ploughing for breaking up and smoothing out the surface of the soil. The purpose of harrowing is to break up clods and to provide a soil structure, called tilth, that is suitable for planting seeds. Coarser harrowing may also be used to remove weeds and to cover seed after sowing.

Harrows differ from ploughs, which cut the upper 12 to 25 centimetre (5 to 10 in) layer of soil, and leave furrows, parallel trenches. Harrows differ from cultivators in that they disturb the whole surface of the soil, while a cultivator instead disturbs only narrow tracks between the crop rows to kill weeds.

There are four general types of harrows: disc harrows, tine harrows (including spring-tooth harrows, drag harrows, and spike harrows), chain harrows, and chain-disk harrows. Harrows were originally drawn by draft animals, such as horses, mules, or oxen, or in some times and places by manual labourers. In modern practice they are almost always tractor-mounted implements, either trailed after the tractor by a drawbar or mounted on the three-point hitch.

A modern development of the traditional harrow is the rotary power harrow, often just called a power harrow.

Harrow action
In modern mechanized farming, generally a farmer will use two harrows, one after the other. The disk harrow is used first to slice up the large clods left by the mould-board plough, followed by the spring-tooth harrow. To save time and fuel they may be pulled by one tractor; the disk hitched to the tractor, and the spring-tooth hitched to, and directly behind, the disk. The result is a smooth field with powdery dirt at the surface.

Types
In cooler climates the most common types are the disc harrow, the chain harrow, the tine harrow or spike harrow and the spring tine harrow. Chain harrows are often used for lighter work such as levelling the tilth or covering seed, while disc harrows are typically used for heavy work, such as following ploughing to break up the sod. In addition, there are various types of power harrow, in which the cultivators are power-driven from the tractor rather than depending on its forward motion.

Tine harrows are used to refine seed-bed condition before planting, to remove small weeds in growing crops and to loosen the inter-row soils to allow for water to soak into the subsoil. The fourth is a chain disk harrow. Disk attached to chains are pulled at an angle over the ground. These harrows move rapidly across the surface. The chain and disk rotate to stay clean while breaking up the top surface to about 1 in deep. A smooth seedbed is prepared for planting with one pass. Chain harrowing can be used on pasture land to spread out dung, and to break up dead material (thatch) in the sward, and similarly in sports-ground maintenance a light chain harrowing is often used to level off the ground after heavy use, to remove and smooth out boot marks and indentations. Used on tilled land in combination with the other two types, chain harrowing rolls remaining larger soil clumps to the surface where weather breaks them down and prevents interference with seed germination.

All four harrow types can be used in one pass to prepare soil for seeding. It is also common to use any combination of two harrows for a variety of tilling processes. Where harrowing provides a very fine tilth, or the soil is very light so that it might easily be wind-blown, a roller is often added as the last of the set.

Harrows may be of several types and weights, depending on their purpose. They almost always consist of a rigid frame that holds discs, teeth, linked chains, or other means of moving soil—but tine and chain harrows are often only supported by a rigid towing-bar at the front of the set.

In the southern hemisphere, so-called giant discs are a specialised kind of disc harrows that can stand in for a plough in rough country where a mouldboard plough cannot handle tree-stumps and rocks, and a disc-plough is too slow (because of its limited number of discs). Giant scalloped-edged discs operate in a set, or frame, that is often weighted with concrete or steel blocks to improve penetration of the cutting edges. This sort of cultivation is usually followed by broadcast fertilisation and seeding, rather than drilled or row seeding.

A drag is a heavy harrow.

Power harrow
A rotary power harrow, or simply power harrow, has multiple sets of vertical tines. Each set of tines is rotated on a vertical axis and tills the soil horizontally. The result is that, unlike a rotary tiller, soil layers are not turned over or inverted, which is useful in preventing dormant weed seeds from being brought to the surface, and there is no horizontal slicing of the subsurface soil that can lead to hardpan formation.

Historical reference

In Europe, harrows were used in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The oldest known illustration of a harrow is in Scene 10 of the eleventh-century Bayeux Tapestry. An Arabic reference to harrows is to be found in Abu Bakr Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture (Kitab al-Filaha al-Nabatiyya), of the 10th century, but claiming knowledge from Babylonian sources.

title: Harrow (tool)


text:
Étienne Jodelle

Étienne Jodelle, seigneur de Limodin (1532 – July 1573), French dramatist and poet, was born and died in Paris of a noble family. Member of La Pléiade, he will strive to revitalize the principles of ancient Greek and Roman theater during the Renaissance. He was the first to introduce the alexandrine into tragedy in his time, notably with Cléopâtre captive, the first tragédie à l'antique, as well as L'Eugène in comedy. He is recognized as a precursor of the theater which was born in the second half of the 16th century, a convulsive period by Wars of Religion which saw its uncertainties embodied in his work.

Biography
Jodelle belongs to the Parisian bourgeoisie, but he is attracted to the nobility. He is “Seigneur du Lymodin”. The premature death of her father when Jodelle was only four years old forced her mother, Marie Drouet, to take care of the education of her children, Étienne and his sister. Her maternal uncle, Étienne de Passavant, who owned a large collection of books, seems to have been the one who ignited Jodelle's taste for literature.

He stayed in Lyon to 1550, then he settled in Paris where he became friends with Jean Antoine de Baïf, Nicolas Denisot and Remy Belleau. He belongs to the circle of the patron Jean II Brinon. Attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pléiade and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical drama that should be in every respect different from the moralities and soties that then occupied the French stage, his first play, Cléopâtre captive, was represented before the court at the hôtel de Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title role, and the cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean Bastier de La Péruse, in honour of the play's success the friends organized a ceremony inspired by pagan rites called  at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in procession and presented to the author. The ceremony was exaggerated by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan rites of the worship of Bacchus.

Jodelle wrote two other plays. Eugène, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle's predecessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so very different from theirs. Didon se sacrifiant, a tragedy which follows Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented. Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected the year after his death by Charles de la Mothe. They include a quantity of miscellaneous verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small. Cléopâtre is lyric rather than dramatic. Throughout the five acts of the piece nothing actually happens. The death of Antony is announced by his ghost in the first act; the story of Cleopatra's suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each act is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as the inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on human pride. But the play was the starting-point of French classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the Médée (1553) of Jean Bastier de La Péruse and the Aman (1561) of. Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and fond of dissipation. His friend Ronsard said that his published poems gave no adequate idea of his powers.

While he was considered favorable to the Reformation, he wrote the sonnets Contre les ministres de la nouvelle opinion. He was later accused of having defended the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, notably by Pierre de l'Estoile. He may have been part of the literary circle of Maréchale de Retz.

Jodelle received five hundred pounds from Charles IX of France in 1572, but continued to fall into debt, and he died in poverty in July 1573, in a hovel on rue Champ-Fleury2. The Protestant poet Agrippa d'Aubigné celebrated him in Funereal Verses. It was Charles de La Mothe who, after the poet's death, had his Œuvres et melanges poëtiques printed (Paris, N. Chesneau and M. Patisson, 1574).

In modern times, the contribution of his work has gained importance, as a precursor of theater in the country but also in the development of what would later be called French classical theater.

Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the Pléiade française of Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full information of the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism is reprinted in its entirety.

Plays and posterity
His works exerted a strong influence on the subsequent development of various genres of dramaturgy which continued long after him.

 * L'Eugène (1553)
 * Cléopâtre captive (1553)
 * Didon se sacrifiant (1555) which takes up the material and a certain number of verses from The Aeneid by Virgil (IV).
 * Poésies politiques (1572)
 * Les Amours et autres poésies Online

 * Modern editions
 * Didon se sacrifiantf, text edited and presented by Mariangela Miotti, Tragedy at the time of Henry II and Charles IX (1573–1575), 1st series, vol . 5, Florence-Paris, Olschki-P.U.F., 1993, p. 359-430.
 * Complete works, edited by E. Balmas, Paris, Gallimard, 1968
 * L'Amour obscure, Poems chosen and presented by Robert Melançon, Paris, Orphée/La Différence, 1991
 * Didon se sacrifiant, edited by J.-C. Ternaux, Paris, Champion, 2002
 * Cleopatre catpive, edited and presented by Emmanuel Buron, Tragic theater of the 16th century, Garnier Flammarion, 2020
 * Like one who got lost in the deep forest: sonnets; edited by Agnes Rees; preface by Florence Delay, Gallimard, 2022, 225 p.

Tributes

 * Pathelin, Cléopâtre, Arlequin. Le théâtre dans la France de la Renaissance at Château d'Écouen, exposition in collaboration with Bibliothèque nationale de France and Musée national de la Renaissance, 22 November 2018.
 * The asteroid 317917-Jodelle was named in her honor.

title: Étienne Jodelle


text:
Inner London Education Authority

The Inner London Education Authority (ILEA) was the local education authority for the City of London and the 12 Inner London boroughs from 1965 until its abolition in 1990. From 1965 to 1986 it was an ad hoc committee of the Greater London Council; on 1 April 1986 it was reconstituted as a directly elected body corporate.

History
The Inner London Education Authority was established when the Greater London Council (GLC) replaced the London County Council (LCC) as the principal local authority for London in 1965. The LCC had, in 1904, taken over from the London School Board responsibility for education in Inner London. In what was to become Outer London, education was during the first half of the twentieth century primarily administered by the relevant county councils and county boroughs, with some functions delegated to second-tier councils in the area.

The Herbert Commission report in 1960 recommended the establishment of the Greater London Council. It advocated a London-wide division of educational powers between the GLC and the London boroughs. The GLC would be responsible for strategic control of schools, and the boroughs for routine management. This part of the report was rejected by the government. Councils in the future Outer London area wanted greater control over education, preventing the creation of a London-wide local education authority (LEA), and there was strong opposition from teachers and other bodies to the idea of dividing up the LCC LEA. The London Government Act 1963 therefore created the ILEA to inherit the educational responsibilities of the LCC, and gave Outer London boroughs LEA status. The ILEA was originally conceived as a provisional body whose status would be reviewed before 1970, but the Labour government made its status permanent in 1965.

The ILEA did not cover the small area of North Woolwich, where the LCC had provided a secondary school. This part of the County of London was transferred to the new London Borough of Newham in Outer London and Newham Council was therefore an education authority.

The ILEA had a somewhat anomalous legal status. Technically the GLC itself was the education authority for inner London, but it was both administratively difficult and politically questionable to allow outer London members of the GLC to have an input. Therefore, the GLC delegated responsibility to the ILEA as a 'special committee', consisting of the members of the GLC from the Inner London area, plus one member delegated from each of the inner London boroughs and the City of London. Those who were members of both the GLC and the ILEA tended to concentrate on one duty only, although they attended the meetings of both bodies.

Political composition
It was possible for the ILEA to have a majority of Labour members when the GLC had a majority of Conservative members, and this happened from 1970 to 1973 and 1977 to 1981. In addition, most of the important decisions taken by the ILEA were taken by its Education Committee, on which every member sat. The Education Committee could also co-opt members with experience of education, some of them representing the teaching unions.

The initial composition of the ILEA in 1964 was 43 Labour members to 9 Conservatives, with one Independent. After the 1967 election the Conservatives won a majority, and Christopher Chataway became Leader. However, Labour won control in 1970 and Ashley Bramall began his long leadership. His term saw the ILEA go over to comprehensive education, and the abolition of school corporal punishment. He retained power despite the Conservative election victory in the 1977 GLC elections.

When the Left, under Ken Livingstone, won control of the GLC after the 1981 elections, Bramall lost his position in an internal Labour Party vote, being replaced by Bryn Davies. Livingstone later expressed regret for this decision and expressed his admiration for Bramall's leadership abilities. The remaining years of the ILEA saw a succession of left-wing leaderships, none of which lasted long or established a strong reputation. Frances Morrell, formerly an assistant to Tony Benn, led a feminist ILEA from 1983 to 1987 which threatened to defy its rate-capping in November 1984, before Neil Fletcher took over.

List of leaders
The ILEA was formally created in 1964 and began operations in 1965, but the post of Leader did not exist until April 1967. For the period 1964–67 the de facto leadership was shared between the Chairman of the Education Committee, James Young, and the Chairmen of the Authority, Harold Shearman (1964–1965) and Ashley Bramall (1965–1967). From 1967 the Leaders of the ILEA were:

 * Christopher Chataway 1967–1969
 * Lena Townsend 1969–1970
 * Ashley Bramall 1970–1981
 * Bryn Davies 1981–1983
 * Frances Morrell 1983–1987
 * Neil Fletcher 1987–1990

Additional functions
The ILEA had its own schools broadcasting service, the Educational Television Service, based in the former Tennyson Secondary School, Thackeray Road, SW8. The television centre had two functional television studios, a training studio, a master control and sound and vision mixing suites. At one stage this was believed to be the largest closed-circuit television system in the world. The first transmission took place on 16 September 1969 and the Television Service ran until 1977. When the Post Office, whose cabling was used for the distribution, wanted to withdraw from its contract in the late 1970s, the programming was transferred to VHS tapes and the CCTV network closed down.

The Cockpit Theatre, Marylebone (also known at the Cockpit Youth and Arts Centre), in Gateforth Street, London, NW8, was built for the ILEA on the edge of the Lisson Green estate in 1969–70. It was designed as a Theatre in the round by Edward Mendelsohn. The ILEA created the first Theatre in Education company to be entirely housed within a local education authority. It employed seven actor-teachers and a stage manager and focused its work on secondary schools and Further Education. As well as traditional T.I.E. the Cockpit team used the approach to develop shows analysing set texts. When ILEA was abolished in 1990, ownership of the theatre transferred to the London Borough of Westminster.

The ILEA also ran a watersports centre at Greenland Dock in Bermondsey, and the Centre For Life Studies, a training centre for biologists in secondary education, at London Zoo; and funded the Horniman Museum in Forest Hill, south London, and the Geffrye Museum, now the Museum of the Home, in Hoxton.

Reconstitution
The ILEA was reformed by the Local Government Act 1985 which reconstituted it as a standalone body corporate and a directly elected authority. The replacement body came into existence before the abolition of the special committee of the GLC and was known as the Inner London Interim Education Authority until it came into its powers on 1 April 1986.

In the May 1986 elections, each Inner London Parliamentary constituency elected two members of the ILEA. Labour won easily.

Abolition
The ILEA had fought off one attempt to abolish it in 1980. The abolition of the GLC, announced in 1983, led to another attempt to get rid of the ILEA, but the Inner London Boroughs were adjudged not ready to handle education services. The Conservative government was led by Margaret Thatcher, who had grown to dislike the ILEA as over-spending and over-bureaucratic while Education Secretary in the early 1970s, and would have liked to abolish it.

Backbench Conservative MPs continued to oppose the continuation of the ILEA. The Education Reform Bill of Kenneth Baker proposed to allow Boroughs who wanted to opt out of the ILEA and become education authorities. However, the Government's hand was forced when an amendment was tabled in the House of Commons by Norman Tebbit and supported by Michael Heseltine to abolish the ILEA altogether. This unlikely alliance was particularly notable as Tebbit and Heseltine represented very different ideological wings of the Conservative Party. It was also the source of some local controversy at the time, as both members represented constituencies (Chingford and Henley respectively) outside the ILEA area.

The Government announced on 4 February 1988 that it would accept the Tebbit/Heseltine amendment and abolish the ILEA in 1990 as part of the Education Reform Act 1988. Once the Bill was passed, the ILEA then complied with this decision in the interests of education. The Inner London boroughs then became education authorities, and remain so today.

The abolition of the ILEA meant that Inner London boroughs had to, among other things, establish their own admissions policies. This indirectly impacted school admissions across the country, because the Greenwich judgment of 1989 established that LEAs could no longer give their own residents priority access to schools.

title: Inner London Education Authority