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Gale Storm

Josephine Owaissa Cottle (April 5, 1922 – June 27, 2009), known professionally as Gale Storm, was an American actress and singer. After a film career from 1940 to 1952, she starred in two popular television programs of the 1950s, My Little Margie and The Gale Storm Show. Six of her songs were top ten hits. Storm's greatest recording success was a cover version of "I Hear You Knockin'," which hit No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1955.

Early life
Storm was born in Bloomington, Texas, United States. The youngest of five children, she had two brothers and two sisters. Her father, William Walter Cottle, died after a year-long illness when she was only 17 months old, and her mother, Minnie Corina Cottle, struggled to raise the children alone.

Storm attended Holy Rosary School in what is now Midtown, Houston. She performed in the drama club at both Albert Sidney Johnston Junior High School and San Jacinto High School.

When Storm was 17, two of her teachers urged her to enter a contest on Gateway to Hollywood, broadcast from the CBS Radio studios in Hollywood. First prize was a one-year contract with a movie studio, which she won, and was immediately given the stage name Gale Storm. Her performing partner (and future husband), Lee Bonnell from South Bend, Indiana, became known as Terry Belmont.

Career
Storm had a role in the radio version of Big Town. After winning the contest in 1940, Storm made several films for the RKO Radio Pictures studio. Her first was Tom Brown's School Days, playing opposite Jimmy Lydon and Freddie Bartholomew. She worked steadily in low-budget films released during this period. In 1941, she sang in several soundies, three-minute musicals produced for "movie jukeboxes".

She acted and sang in Monogram Pictures' Frankie Darro series, and played ingénue roles in other Monogram features with the East Side Kids, Edgar Kennedy, and the Three Stooges, most notably in the film Swing Parade of 1946. Monogram had always relied on established actors with reputations, but in Gale Storm, the studio finally had a star of its own. She played the lead in the studio's most elaborate productions, both musical and dramatic. She shared top billing in Monogram's The Crime Smasher (1943), opposite Edgar Kennedy, Richard Cromwell, and Frank Graham in the role of Jones, a character derived from network radio.

Storm starred in a number of films, including the romantic comedies G.I. Honeymoon (1945) and It Happened on Fifth Avenue (1947), the Western Stampede (1949), and the 1950 film-noir dramas The Underworld Story and Between Midnight and Dawn. U.S. audiences warmed to Storm and her fan mail increased. She performed in more than three dozen motion pictures for Monogram, experience which made possible her success in other media.

In the 1950s, she made singing appearances on such television variety programs as The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom.

In 1950, Storm made her television debut in Hollywood Premiere Theatre on ABC. From 1952 to 1955, she starred in My Little Margie, with former silent film actor Charles Farrell as her father. The series began as a summer replacement for I Love Lucy on CBS Television, but ran for 126 episodes on NBC and then CBS. The series was broadcast on CBS Radio from December 1952 to August 1955 with the same actors. Her popularity was capitalized on when she served as hostess of the NBC Comedy Hour in the winter of 1956.

In 1956, Storm starred in a situation comedy, The Gale Storm Show (Oh! Susanna), featuring another silent movie star, ZaSu Pitts. The show ran for 143 episodes on CBS and ABC between 1956 and 1960. Storm appeared regularly on other television programs in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1957 she was both a panelist and a "mystery guest" on CBS's What's My Line?

Recording artist
In Gallatin, Tennessee, in November 1954, a 10-year-old girl, Linda Wood, was watching Storm on a Sunday night television variety show, NBC's Colgate Comedy Hour, hosted by Gordon MacRae, singing one of the popular songs of the day. Linda's father asked her who was singing and was told it was Gale Storm from My Little Margie. Linda's father Randy Wood was president of Dot Records, and he liked Storm so much that he called to sign her before the end of the television show. Her first record, "I Hear You Knockin'", a cover of a rhythm and blues hit by Smiley Lewis, sold over a million copies.

The follow-up was a two-sided hit, with Storm covering Dean Martin's "Memories Are Made of This" backed with her cover of Gloria Mann's "Teen Age Prayer". That was followed by a hit cover of Frankie Lymon's "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Storm's subsequent record sales began to slide, but soon rebounded with a cover of fellow Dot Records recording artist Bonnie Guitar's haunting ballad "Dark Moon" that went to No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. Storm had several other hits, headlined in Las Vegas and appeared in numerous stage plays. Storm recorded for five years with Dot Records, then gave up recording because of her husband's concerns with the time she had to devote to that career.

Personal life
Storm was married and widowed twice. In 1941, while still a teenager, she married Lee Bonnell (1918–1986), then an actor and later a businessman. They had four children: Peter, Phillip, Paul, and Susanna. In 1988, two years after she was widowed, she married Paul Masterson (1917–1996), who also predeceased her.

In her fifties, Storm struggled with alcoholism. She later said: "During the 1970s I experienced a terribly low and painful time of dealing with alcoholism. I had Lee's unfailing support through the entire ordeal. My treatment and recovery were more than rugged. At that time, there was such a stigma attached to alcoholism, particularly for women, that it could be hazardous to your reputation and career. I thank God daily that I have been fully recovered for more than 20 years. During my struggle, I had no idea of the blessing my experience could turn out to be! I've had the opportunity to share with others suffering with alcoholism the knowledge that there is help, hope, and an alcohol-free life awaiting them."

Storm later became an active member of the South Shores Baptist Church. She once said: "Life has been good and I thank God for His many blessings and the happy life He has given to me." Storm was a registered Republican and campaigned for U.S. Senator Barry M. Goldwater in the 1960s.

Later years
Storm appeared on two episodes of Burke's Law, 1964 and 1965. Storm made occasional television appearances from 1979 to 1989, such as The Love Boat and Murder, She Wrote.

In 1981, she published her autobiography, I Ain't Down Yet, which described her battle with alcoholism. She was also interviewed by author David C. Tucker for The Women Who Made Television Funny: Ten Stars of 1950s Sitcoms, published in 2007 by McFarland and Company.

Storm continued to make personal appearances and autographed photos at fan conventions, along with Charles Farrell from the My Little Margie series. She also attended events such as the Memphis Film Festival, Cinecon, the Friends of Old-Time Radio and the Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention.

Death
Storm lived alone in Monarch Beach, California, near two of her sons and their families, until failing health forced her into a convalescent home in Danville, California. She died there on June 27, 2009, aged 87.

Storm has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to television, recordings, and radio.

Filmography

 * Tom Brown's School Days (1940)
 * One Crowded Night (1940)
 * Let's Go Collegiate (1941)
 * City of Missing Girls (1941)
 * Saddlemates (1941)
 * Gambling Daughters (1941)
 * Uncle Joe (1941)
 * Red River Valley (1941)
 * Jesse James at Bay (1941)
 * Lure of the Islands (1942)
 * Freckles Comes Home (1942)
 * Man from Cheyenne (1942)
 * Smart Alecks (1942)
 * Foreign Agent (1942)
 * Rhythm Parade (1942)
 * Nearly Eighteen (1943)
 * Where Are Your Children? (1943)
 * Revenge of the Zombies (1943)
 * Campus Rhythm (1943)
 * The Crime Smasher (1943)
 * G. I. Honeymoon (1945)
 * Sunbonnet Sue (1945)
 * Forever Yours (1945)
 * Swing Parade of 1946 (1946)
 * It Happened on Fifth Avenue (1947)
 * The Dude Goes West (1948)
 * Abandoned (1949)
 * Stampede (1949)
 * The Kid from Texas (1950)
 * Curtain Call at Cactus Creek (1950)
 * The Underworld Story (1950)
 * Between Midnight and Dawn (1950)
 * Al Jennings of Oklahoma (1951)
 * The Texas Rangers (1951)
 * Woman of the North Country (1952)

Albums

 * Sentimental Me (Dot, 1956)
 * Gale Storm (Dot, 1956)
 * Gale's Great Hits (Dot, 1958)
 * Softly and Tenderly (Dot, 1959)
 * Gale Storm Sings (Dot, 1959)
 * I Don't Want to Walk Without You (Hamilton, c. 1960s)

title: Gale Storm


text:
New Jersey Route 71

Route 71 is a state highway in New Jersey that runs 16.78 mi near the shore in Monmouth County. It begins at Route 35 in Brielle just north of the Manasquan River and the Ocean County line and heads north to Route 35 in Eatontown with a four block concurrency with Route 35 in Belmar. Monmouth University is located off Route 71 in West Long Branch.

Route 71 is the former alignment of State Highway Route 4 and Route 35. In 1927, the alignment became the designation of State Highway Route 4-N. This alignment remained intact until the state highway renumbering in 1953, when it became Route 71. The route has remained virtually unchanged since. Route 71 was also to serve as the eastern terminus of the New Jersey Route 33 Freeway in Neptune, but this never came to be.

Route description
Route 71 begins at large grade-separated interchange with New Jersey Route 35 in the community of Brielle, New Jersey. The route heads northward through Brielle as Union Avenue, passing through the commercial district and residential after the intersection with Harvey Avenue. Route 71 continues northward through Brielle as a two-lane highway before beginning a parallel with NJ Transit's North Jersey Coast Line. After entering the community of Manasquan, the highway enters a large commercial district and crosses over the Stockton Brook before curving onto Seventh Avenue. After the intersection with Monmouth County Route 49 (Sea Girt Avenue), Route 71 enters the community of Sea Girt. The route continues north through Sea Girt until the intersection with Monmouth County Route 20 (Manasquan Turnpike), where it enters a short portion of Wall Township. There, the route crosses over the North Branch of the Wreck Pond and enters Spring Lake Heights. Route 71 quickly passes the Spring Lake Golf Club and the nearby Spring Lake train station before entering the downtown portions of Spring Lake Heights.

Most of Spring Lake Heights is residential, with a large condominium complex surrounding the southbound direction on Route 71. The highway continues northward, intersecting with County Route 524 (Alliare Road) and passes Marucci Park. Route 71 intersects with Monmouth County Route 30 (Eighteenth Avenue), where the highway enters the Belmar community of West Belmar. After crossing the intersection with Monmouth County Route 18 (Sixteenth Avenue), Route 71 enters the downtown portion of Belmar, intersecting with Route 35 (River Road). There, Routes 35 and 71 become concurrent through Belmar, passing the local Belmar train station. At the intersection with Eighth Avenue, Route 71 turns off to the east and crosses parallel to Route 35 over the Shark River to the community of Avon-by-the-Sea. There, the two routes continue to parallel, with Route 71 becoming a divided one-way street through Avon-by-the-Sea. The route continues northward through the residential seashore community, crossing the Sylvan Creek and entering Bradley Beach. Through Bradley Beach, Route 71 intersects with Monmouth County Route 2 (Brinley Avenue), which serves access to the Bradley Beach train station. The highway continues northward through the residential district, and enters Neptune Township. There, Route 71 intersects with the eastern terminus of the cross-state New Jersey Route 33 at Corlies Avenue before entering the large city of Asbury Park.

Through Asbury Park, Route 71 intersects with several local streets at traffic lights as Main Street. The route also serves as the terminus of both County Route 16 and County Route 18. After crossing through Sunset Park, Route 71 approaches Deal Lake, where the highway turns to the east along Deal Lake Drive. Route 71's right-of-way on Main Street becomes County Route 15 and Route 71 continues through the lakeshore community as a two-lane arterial. Soon after, Route 71 turns on Park Avenue, crosses over Deal Lake and enters Loch Arbour. However, the highway heads northward into the community of Allenhurst soon after. Route 71, now known as Norwood Avenue, crosses out of Allenhurst after an intersection with Cedar Avenue, entering the community of Deal. Before the intersection with Roseld Avenue, the highway becomes a divided one with a center median. The route continues this way through the residential portions of Deal, crossing into Ocean Township. There, the route comes back together, crossing over the North Jersey Coast Line once again near the Elberon train station. Route 71 continues through Ocean Township until entering the community of West Long Branch near Whale Pond Brook. At that point, Route 71 serves as the main road to access Monmouth University. At the intersection with Cedar Avenue, Norwood Avenue ends, and Route 71 northbound turns westward along Cedar. The route crosses through Monmouth University and enters the residential portions of West Long Branch, intersecting with County Route 15 and 32 within a mile of each other. At the intersection with County Route 15, Route 71 turns to the northwest through a residential area.

Route 71 parallels the Glenwood Cemetery before intersecting with New Jersey Route 36 in West Long Branch. Here, Route 71 continues northwestward on Monmouth Road through large commercial complexes and the local country club. The highway continues northward into Eatontown, where it enters a local residential area and intersects with County Route 547 (Eatontown Boulevard), which become concurrent. Routes 71 and 547 enter downtown Eatontown as Broad Street, heading westward with County Route 547 splitting at Wyckoff Road. The highway continues into the commercial district of Eatontown, where it intersects New Jersey Route 35 once again but Route 71 terminates.

History
From Long Branch to Deal Lake, the road was maintained as part of the Long Branch and Deal Turnpike, which also stretched north along Norwood Avenue and Branchport Avenue. Route 71 originates as part of the Jersey Coast Way, an auto trail running from the Staten Island Ferry to Cape May. This was later an alignment of State Highway Route 4 in the 1920s, which ran from Absecon in Atlantic County northward to Rahway in Union County. Route 4 remained intact through the 1927 state highway renumbering, when Route 4 was realigned onto the current alignment of Route 35 most of its length. The older alignment from Belmar to Eatontown was re-designated as State Highway Route 4-N by the New Jersey State Highway Department. Route 4-N was one of four routes that used the -N suffix from the original numbering. Route 35 was designated on the southern portion, but this got reversed, allowing the designation to be extended to Brielle. The highway department originally planned for maintenance of this section to revert to local maintenance, but years of campaigning by locals prompted the highway department to restore the state highway in 1931. The route remained intact for the next 22 years, until the second state highway renumbering in 1953. Route 35 remained on its basic alignment, but State Highway Route 4-N was renumbered to Route 71. Route 71 has remained virtually unchanged since the 1953 renumbering in terms of its alignment from Brielle to Eatontown. During the time of the proposed Route 33 Freeway from Trenton to Neptune, the intersection with Route 33 in Neptune was to be upgraded to a grade-separated interchange, but this portion was never built after being canned in 1967.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: New Jersey Route 71


text:
New Jersey Route 72

Route 72 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 28.74 mi from the Four Mile Circle with Route 70 in Woodland Township in Burlington County to County Route 607 (CR 607) in Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Route 72 travels through the Pine Barrens as a two-lane undivided road. After an interchange with the Garden State Parkway, the route becomes a four- to six-lane divided highway through built-up areas of Manhawkin and crosses the Manahawkin Bay via the Manahawkin Bay Bridge onto Long Beach Island.

What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in 1927, a spur of Route 40 (now Route 70) running from Four Mile to Manahawkin. The road was extended to Ship Bottom by 1941 before it was renumbered to Route 72 in 1953. A realignment that took place in 1969 between U.S. Route 9 (US 9) and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge resulted in the designation of Route 180 on the former alignment; this road is now CR 50. Plans in the late 1960s and the 1970s called for a proposed Route 72 freeway, running from the western terminus at Route 70 to the concurrently proposed Interstate 895 (I-895) at the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township, connecting Philadelphia's northern suburbs with the Jersey Shore. The freeway plans along with I-895 were canceled by the 1980s. The Manahawkin Bay Bridge underwent deck repairs completed in May 2010, with the bridge slated to be rehabilitated and a parallel span to be built to the south.

Route description
Route 72 begins at the Four Mile Circle intersection with Route 70, CR 644, and CR 646 in Woodland Township, Burlington County, heading to the southeast on Barnegat Road, a two-lane undivided road. The route passes through heavily wooded areas of the Pine Barrens that are a part of the Brendan T. Byrne State Forest. The road passes near a state hospital before coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 563. Past CR 563, the route continues through the Pine Barrens, passing under an abandoned railroad line prior to a junction with CR 532. Here, Route 72 forms a concurrency with CR 532 and the road enters Barnegat Township in Ocean County, where it comes to a crossroads with CR 539. From this intersection, Route 72 and CR 532 continue to a junction with CR 610, where CR 532 splits from the route by heading to the east. A short distance later, the route intersects the western terminus of CR 554, which continues along Barnegat Road, and Route 72 turns to the south-southeast through more wooded areas.

The highway enters Stafford Township and passes to the southwest of the residential Ocean Acres community. The route heads to the southwest of Hackensack Meridian Health Southern Ocean Medical Center before it comes to a junction with Nautilus Drive (CR 111). Past this junction, Route 72 widens into a four-lane divided highway, intersecting CR 105 and CR 2 before coming to an interchange with the Garden State Parkway. Following this interchange, the route enters the Manahawkin area and widens to six lanes as it passes woods to the northeast and business areas to the southwest. Route 72 has an interchange with US 9 and continues southeast through a mix of woods and commercial areas as a four-lane road, with CR 50 (Bay Avenue) paralleling the route to the north. The road intersects CR 20 and CR 6 before it passes to the north of the Beach Haven West residential development and passes near wetlands. A road provides access to Bay Avenue before Route 72 crosses the Manahawkin Bay on the Manahawkin Bay Bridge, also known as the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge. After traversing two small islands consisting of a mix of residences and marshland, the road continues into Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island. Upon entering Ship Bottom, the route splits into a one-way pair following 9th Street eastbound and 8th Street westbound. Route 72 passes by resort businesses, intersecting CR 4 and CR 89 before ending at CR 607 a block from the Atlantic Ocean.

Route 72 is a major route providing access to Long Beach Island, a popular Jersey Shore resort, from Philadelphia via Route 70 and from New York City via the Garden State Parkway. As such, the portion of the route east of the Garden State Parkway interchange sees congestion during the summer months. It is also the only road bridge to connect Long Beach Island to the mainland; therefore, in emergency evacuations such as hurricanes, the highway and Manahawkin Bridge becomes clogged.

History
What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering. It was to be a spur of Route 40 that was to run from Route 40 at Four Mile to Route 4 (now US 9) in Manahawkin. By 1941, the route was extended east to the intersection with Long Beach Boulevard in Ship Bottom. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route S40 was renumbered to Route 72. By 1969, Route 72 was moved to a new alignment to the south between US 9 and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge; the old alignment became Route 180. This route was eventually removed from the state highway system and is now CR 50, although more commonly known as "Bay Avenue".

A freeway was originally proposed for the Route 72 corridor in the late 1960s. The Route 72 freeway was planned to run from the Four Mile Circle to the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township, where it would connect to the proposed I-895 that would continue to I-95 near Bristol, Pennsylvania. The existing Route 72 would also be widened into a four-lane divided highway. Both I-895 and Route 72 were intended to connect Bucks County, Pennsylvania and the Willingboro area with the Jersey Shore. The proposed freeway for Route 72 was to cost $39 million. However, construction costs and the desire to use money for mass transit led to cancellation of both I-895 and the Route 72 freeway by the 1980s.

In 2000, the Manahawkin Bay Bridge was dedicated the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge in honor of Dorland J. Henderson, who was one of NJDOT’s top engineers that designed the lighting system for the Manahawkin Bay Bridge. In September 2009, the NJDOT began repairs to the deck of the Manahawkin Bay Bridge. This project, completed in May 2010, cost $4 million and received funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. The Manahawkin Bay Bridge underwent a rehabilitation project and a parallel bridge was built to the south. Construction began on the project May 3, 2013. The new bridge was completed in 2016 and carried traffic from both directions while the older bridge was rehabilitated. The rehabilitation of the original bridge was completed in 2019, at which point traffic began using both bridges.

title: New Jersey Route 72


text:
Gang of Four (disambiguation)

The Gang of Four was a political faction of four Chinese Communist Party officials, prominent during the Cultural Revolution 1966–1976.

Gang of Four may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Gang of Four (band), an English post-punk band
 * Gang of Four (board game), by Days of Wonder
 * Gang of Four, 2004 novel by Liz Byrski
 * Gang of Four (film), a 1989 French film

Political groups

 * Gang of Four (Afghanistan): Aslam Watanjar, Sayed Muhammad Gulabzoy, Sherjan Mazdoryar, Asadullah Sarwar
 * Gang of Four (Australian Labor Party): Kevin Rudd, Julia Gillard, Wayne Swan, Lindsay Tanner
 * Gang of Four (Australian Democrats): Lyn Allison, John Cherry, Andrew Murray, Aden Ridgeway
 * Gang of Four (Harlem), U.S.: David Dinkins, Basil Paterson, Charles Rangel, Percy Sutton
 * Gang of Four (Pakistan): two different uses to describe four generals
 * Gang of Four (Papua New Guinea): Mekere Morauta, Charles Lepani, Rabbie Namaliu and Anthony Siaguru
 * Gang of Four (pro-Contra) in the U.S.: Bernard W. Aronson, Bruce P. Cameron, Robert S. Leiken, Penn Kemble
 * Gang of Four (SDP), UK: four politicians who founded the Social Democratic Party
 * Gang of Four (Seattle), U.S.: Bernie Whitebear, Bob Santos, Roberto Maestas, Larry Gossett
 * Gang of Four in Colorado, U.S., or the Four Horsemen: Pat Stryker, Jared Polis, Tim Gill, Rutt Bridges

Other groups

 * Big Four tech companies, or Gang of Four: Alphabet, Amazon, Apple and Meta
 * Gang of Four (software), authors of computing book Design Patterns
 * Gang of Four (Cisco, DEC, StrataCom and Nortel) who set a standard for a Local Management Interface in networking
 * Gang of Four paper by Kreps, Milgrom, Roberts and Wilson, about game theory and reputation formation

title: Gang of Four (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:New Imperialism/veracruz and 127

New Imperialism Talk:New Imperialism

D0Servo: hello. this is 172 D0Servo: are you there vera cruz? kimuradet: aye kimuradet: it would seem we both feel we are a better editor than the other D0Servo: You're not really editing the work. You're deleting huge, vital sections. D0Servo: Your only goal seems to be shortening the article. kimuradet: that is a big part of my goal kimuradet: which is why im trying to figure out what vital section kimuradet: i have deleted D0Servo: There are other much longer articles. kimuradet: is immaterial kimuradet: condensation is very important kimuradet: especially kimuradet: and note this kimuradet: at the beginning of an article kimuradet: it should be damn-near grade school kimuradet: for instance your theories of imperialism kimuradet: is on its own page now kimuradet: where it belongs D0Servo: You are fair-minded, but a lot of people are just arbitrarily criticizing my contributions to spite me. kimuradet: i agree D0Servo: hold on one minute please kimuradet: and they will ban you if you aren't careful D0Servo: The theories are important. Theory is meant to illuminate the historical record. By giving lay readers an overview of the theory before the section on the historical record, we will be able to help them bring in perspective. kimuradet: the theories are very important kimuradet: but you had them kimuradet: above the history D0Servo: We also have as it is many different theories presented. kimuradet: a big reason its so clunky right now kimuradet: is because i didnt even know u had a history in there kimuradet: cuz it was at the end kimuradet: the theories should be very very briefly discussed on that page D0Servo: So far we have three sections: causes, theories, history kimuradet: right D0Servo: The version that I keep restoring clearly establishes that New Imperialism had its roots in the breakdown of Pax Britannica. That's why "Pax Britannica" is relegated to the background section. D0Servo: Please, give me a list of flaws. I'd be able to better edit this article. kimuradet: as the articles are very different there are obviously a lot of things i changed kimuradet: why not try rewriting my version to more clearly explain that new imperialism came of the pax britannica section kimuradet: just try it D0Servo: Your sections on the "African Power Vacuum" and the "Changes in Technology" are way-off. kimuradet: how so kimuradet: go ahead and edit my version kimuradet: im fine with that D0Servo: In my section pertaining to causes, no information can be removed. kimuradet: but get something different than what u had kimuradet: u know calculus? D0Servo: Why? kimuradet: yes no? kimuradet: information can be removed kimuradet: imagine it like kimuradet: you wrote your paper on a computer kimuradet: and i came along kimuradet: being a virus kimuradet: and ate parts of it kimuradet: instead of reverting-try to rewrite it anew D0Servo: Did you read the Causes section of the article that I keep restoring? kimuradet: causes are in there D0Servo: I've fixed it since the first time that you've read it. kimuradet: mention a specific cause kimuradet: everything u did last night kimuradet: is in my version kimuradet: except edited kimuradet: i went through your changes and picked them out kimuradet: some were quite good D0Servo: These causes are too interconnected. They have to be woven together somehow. kimuradet: its like kimuradet: u knitted a scarf kimuradet: and i didnt like the colors kimuradet: so i took it apart kimuradet: and gave u some new yarns kimuradet: or using the calculus example kimuradet: its like finding a limit kimuradet: u were .5 over kimuradet: now im .25 under kimuradet: so u do .125 over kimuradet: its your turn now-but you gotta take my ball D0Servo: Did you read the section that I keep restoring? kimuradet: there were two main sections that i can think of kimuradet: the first one kimuradet: talked about the cavalier victorian age kimuradet: and distinguished kimuradet: new imperialism D0Servo: read the article D0Servo: read the article kimuradet: from earlier imperialist eras kimuradet: i didnt like it kimuradet: and u kept adding it in kimuradet: the other one D0Servo: I reverted that paragraph. kimuradet: was the section kimuradet: which discussed the american revolution kimuradet: and mercantilism kimuradet: and adam smith D0Servo: You've only read a small portion kimuradet: ive read it all kimuradet: and i wasnt quite sure where u were going with all of that D0Servo: I fixed those sections according to your suggestions D0Servo: That's why I'm restoring the article kimuradet: so i took those two paragraphs out D0Servo: I do not mention spanish mercantilism though kimuradet: now the first one is kinda back in there kimuradet: first off kimuradet: let me explain straight off kimuradet: why your reverting is completely wrong kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&oldid=557517 kimuradet: click on there D0Servo: very funny kimuradet: hold on D0Servo: this article is worse than no article kimuradet: just chill kimuradet: here we go kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&oldid=557454 kimuradet: and... kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557454 D0Servo: read the version that i keep reverting D0Servo: hold on kimuradet: which is your differences kimuradet: no kimuradet: u click on kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557454 kimuradet: that compares the two D0Servo: i've seen that version D0Servo: i know the differences by heart kimuradet: now kimuradet: what is the first difference D0Servo: you don't realize that that i've changed much of mine according to your suggestions kimuradet: oh i do kimuradet: what is the first difference on kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557454 D0Servo: I have too many screens popping up. You're getting me too confused. kimuradet: i only want u to have 2 kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557454 kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557454 D0Servo: Could you please just go through the version that I have restored and tell me what flaws you see. kimuradet: and on the diff screen D0Servo: Then I will edit it myself. kimuradet: what is the first difference kimuradet: u spot kimuradet: between my version and your version D0Servo: just tell me your point kimuradet: u see it then? kimuradet: agree or disagree? kimuradet: was or is kimuradet: which word shall we use D0Servo: i see the differences D0Servo: what's your point? kimuradet: im not making a point kimuradet: im asking a question kimuradet: the first difference between our articles is kimuradet: New Imperialism was the expansionist foreign economic policy seen amongst the D0Servo: okay kimuradet: New Imperialism is the expansionist foreign economic policy seen amongst the more kimuradet: now D0Servo: i'll revise that kimuradet: hold on kimuradet: the next question kimuradet: do u think we should link state to nation-state kimuradet: or rather nation kimuradet: so that the reader can go to a more general discussion of what nationalism is D0Servo: you wrote that opening paragraph, not me kimuradet: so u agree kimuradet: now the second half of this paragraph kimuradet: is quite different kimuradet: between the two version kimuradet: the primary difference kimuradet: is my "Deletion of critical text" kimuradet: that is kimuradet: Ushering out the gradual, rational empire-building of the mid-Victorian era known as the age of Pax Britannica D0Servo: Why are you nitpicking? You removed the vast majority of the text in the article that I keep restoring. kimuradet: i have deleted that, yes? kimuradet: and you want that in your version, don't you? D0Servo: yes kimuradet: do u know where i want it kimuradet: i want it down under ==Pax Britannica== kimuradet: and not in the opening paragraph D0Servo: Lay readers will want to understand what makes this period of colonialism different from the preceding one. D0Servo: They will want to know early on kimuradet: thats not something to address at this point kimuradet: right now we are defining a term kimuradet: that term being "new Imperialism" D0Servo: yes kimuradet: Ushering out the gradual, rational empire-building of the mid-Victorian era known as the age of Pax Britannica, the late nineteenth century late-Victorian era was an one of "empire for empire's sake". kimuradet: does not belong in paragraph 1 kimuradet: half of that sentence does D0Servo: That distinction is necessary for the definition. kimuradet: and half of it does not kimuradet: why is it necessary to mentaion pax britannica? kimuradet: new imperialism exists all by itself D0Servo: NO! kimuradet: i do not define 1980s when i define 1990s D0Servo: New Imperialism is the outcome of the breakdown of Pax Britannica kimuradet: now that i like D0Servo: that's evident in my causes section kimuradet: i will be making a change to my version kimuradet: in a few seconds D0Servo: please, read my version in its entirety. kimuradet: i have kimuradet: thats how i edited it kimuradet: by reading it D0Servo: not the newest one D0Servo: i'm talking about the one i finished editing half an hour ago kimuradet: now that i have edited my version we will get a new differences screen kimuradet: so close yours kimuradet: do u play chess? kimuradet: and open kimuradet: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism&diff=0&oldid=557714 kimuradet: where your text is now on the left kimuradet: and mine is on the right D0Servo: This is futile unless you've read the last version that I've posted in its entirety. kimuradet: the notable change is kimuradet: New Imperialism was the expansionist foreign economic policy, resulting from the breakdown of Pax Britannica, which was seen amongst the more powerful of the European nation-states, kimuradet: with that change in there kimuradet: is it necessary to state kimuradet: Ushering out the gradual, rational empire-building of the mid-Victorian era known as the age of Pax Britannica, the late nineteenth century late-Victorian era was an one of "empire for empire's sake". kimuradet: u need a comma after era in your version D0Servo: fine D0Servo: i'll take not of that kimuradet: so now D0Servo: but that's no reason to remove 2/3 of the text in the entire article kimuradet: which opening paragraph do u prefer? kimuradet: u should play chess kimuradet: then u would understand what we are doing here kimuradet: which opening paragraph do u prefer? D0Servo: New Imperialism was the expansionist foreign economic policy seen amongst the more powerful of the European states, between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I. During this period, Europe added almost 23,000,000 km² (20% of Earth's land area) to its collection of overseas colonial possessions, with the focus of expansion being the colonization of Africa. Ushering out the gradual, rational empire-building of the mid-Victorian era known as the age of Pax Britannica, the late nineteenth century late-Victorian era was an one of "empire for empire's sake". kimuradet: but kimuradet: yours doesnt mentioned the breakdown of Pax Britannica kimuradet: and the fact that new imperialism derived from said breakdown D0Servo: that's not important for now kimuradet: is very important in the opening definition of new imperialism D0Servo: there's an entire section devoted to that D0Servo: i have an entire section called the "breakdown of Pax Britannica" kimuradet: but why not say it in the first paragraph? kimuradet: get right out there in the open kimuradet: the first damn sentence kimuradet: the british empire failed kimuradet: and there was a new era of imperialism D0Servo: I don't care if it's said in the first paragraph or not. I just care that you removed something like 2/3 of my text arbitrarily. kimuradet: if u dont care kimuradet: why dont u accept my first paragraph kimuradet: then we can move on kimuradet: but we cant move on until we get this out of the way kimuradet: because its the first paragraph D0Servo: Edit the first paragraph however you want. I just don't want you to massacre the sections pertaining to Pax Britannica, the Breakdown of Pax Britannica, Theories of Imperialism, History of New Imperialism, and the subsequent sections on changes in colonial societies. kimuradet: ok then kimuradet: i win paragraph 1 kimuradet: paragraph 2 kimuradet: you would agree, naturally, kimuradet: that scholars are continuing to debate this subject kimuradet: so we will assume that small change should stay kimuradet: and we move on to kimuradet: we likewise agree kimuradet: that scholars debate the relationship between this period and world war I kimuradet: but in the middle u state kimuradet: dubbed “The New Imperialism” to distinguish it from earlier eras of overseas expansion, such as the mercantilism of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries or the age of anti-mercantilist ‘free trade’ colonialism of the mid-nineteenth century and kimuradet: whereas i have used kimuradet: See also: mercantilism and free-trade colonialism D0Servo: Do you want to go through each paragraph like this? Please, don't torture me! Write of list of flaws in my new version (the one that you won't read!) and post it on my talk page. I'll go through it my self. kimuradet: my good sir! D0Servo: I put the See also section on the bottom kimuradet: we will never settle this unless we do go through this paragraph by paragraph kimuradet: ah! kimuradet: but kimuradet: in your version D0Servo: the see also section always goes on the bottom kimuradet: no kimuradet: in your version kimuradet: we HAVE to link kimuradet: those words kimuradet: mercantilism kimuradet: and free-trade colonialism kimuradet: we have to kimuradet: its a wiki kimuradet: the question i ask kimuradet: is can't we just have a short see also: D0Servo: i have to go kimuradet: we will continue later! D0Servo: i'll be back on in an hour or two kimuradet: ok D0Servo: please read my entire article kimuradet: indeed D0Servo: will you please not revert my new version for now? D0Servo: at least not make any huge changes? kimuradet: u must understand kimuradet: we have a history kimuradet: its all backed up kimuradet: i have to edit my own version kimuradet: and improve upon it kimuradet: so eventually you will give up on your own kimuradet: seeing that mine has been improved D0Servo: Why? D0Servo: I wrote this whole article. D0Servo: I started this article. kimuradet: yes kimuradet: and im finishing it D0Servo: It's finished kimuradet: u can feel free kimuradet: nope kimuradet: u can feel free kimuradet: to go to military history of the philippines kimuradet: and start editing there kimuradet: i will be very interested in what u think D0Servo: I'm not an expert on that field of history kimuradet: so become one kimuradet: i have a great deal of beginning info there kimuradet: as the point is to educate kimuradet: u can determine whether it accomplishes that D0Servo: I'm not a military historian kimuradet: if you are writing about imperialism kimuradet: you are kimuradet: its just a matter of whether you want to sit in a gilded stateroom kimuradet: or a trench command post kimuradet: now u have to go D0Servo: In many respects, New Imperialism is a matter of political economy kimuradet: i agree kimuradet: and economics is the cause of war kimuradet: but thats marxism kimuradet: a whole nother topic D0Servo: Will you please read my new version? kimuradet: yep D0Servo: Why can't you change the first two paragraphs without deleting huge portions of my work kimuradet: because when u come back kimuradet: we talk about paragraph 3 kimuradet: and maybe u convince me kimuradet: and paragraph 4 kimuradet: and 5 D0Servo: wait D0Servo: read my new version kimuradet: yep D0Servo: you haven't even looked at my new version D0Servo: read the whole section D0Servo: Causes of New Imperialism, the Breakdown of Bax Britannica kimuradet: yes kimuradet: goodbye kimuradet: cya later

title: Talk:New Imperialism/veracruz and 127


text:
New Jersey Route 73

Route 73 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 34.64 mi as an outer bypass of the Camden area from an intersection with U.S. Route 322 (US 322) in Folsom, Atlantic County, north to the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge in Palmyra, Burlington County, where the road continues into Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as Pennsylvania Route 73 (PA 73). South of the interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway in Winslow Township, Camden County, Route 73 is a two-lane undivided county-maintained road and is signed as County Route 561 Spur (CR 561 Spur), a spur of CR 561. North of the Atlantic City Expressway, the route is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and is mostly four lanes, with the portion north of the CR 561 concurrency a divided highway. North of the US 30 interchange near Berlin, Route 73 runs through suburban areas of the Delaware Valley metropolitan area, intersecting Route 70 in Marlton, the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate 295 (I-295) in Mount Laurel Township, Route 38 and Route 41 in Maple Shade Township, Route 90 in Cinnaminson Township, and US 130 in Pennsauken Township.

What is today Route 73 between the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge and Berlin was legislated as Route S41 in 1927, a spur of Route 41. An extension of this spur called Route S41A was designated in 1938 to continue south from Berlin to Route 42 (now US 322) in Folsom. In 1953, both these routes became Route 73 in order to match PA 73. The portion of Route 73 between Berlin and the Atlantic City Expressway became a state highway by 1969. By the 2000s, Route 73 was extended south along CR 561 Spur to US 322. Several traffic circles along Route 73 have been modified or replaced over time. Among these was the Berlin Circle, which was turned into an at-grade intersection in 2006. The Marlton Circle at Route 70, which was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to pass through the circle, was replaced with an interchange completed in 2011.

US 322 to Atlantic City Expressway

Route 73 begins at an intersection with US 322 (Black Horse Pike) in Folsom, Atlantic County, heading to the northwest on Blue Anchor Road, a two-lane undivided county-maintained road signed as CR 561 Spur. This portion of the route is officially considered a part of Route 73 but is not signed as such, with signs directing motorists north on CR 561 Spur to reach Route 73. The road runs through forested areas of the Pine Barrens with some homes and farms, coming to a crossroads with Route 54. Following this intersection, the road continues northwest as Mays Landing Road, crossing the Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line operated by the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad at-grade. It enters a small corner of Hammonton before it crosses into Winslow Township in Camden County. Here, Route 73 crosses the Southern Railroad of New Jersey's Southern Running Track railroad line at-grade and intersects CR 725. From this point, the road heads north to a partial interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway that has access from southbound Route 73 to the eastbound Atlantic City Expressway and from the westbound Atlantic City Expressway to northbound Route 73.

Atlantic City Expressway to Route 70
After the Atlantic City Expressway, Route 73 becomes officially signed and maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, although CR 561 Spur is still signed along the route. It heads to the north as a four-lane undivided road, passing through wooded areas with some residences and businesses and crosses CR 723, which provides access to the westbound Atlantic City Expressway and from the eastbound Atlantic City Expressway. The route continues to an intersection with CR 561, where it briefly widens into a four-lane divided highway. At this junction, CR 561 Spur ends and Route 73 forms a concurrency with CR 561. The road intersects CR 722 and CR 721, becoming Camden Road at the latter junction. It heads north through more rural areas, meeting CR 720. CR 561C, a former segment of CR 561, splits from Route 73 by heading north through the community of Cedar Brook while Route 73 and CR 561 bypass the community to the east, crossing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations' (CSAO) Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line.

North of Cedar Brook, the route traverses CR 536, becoming Cedarbrook Road. It intersects CR 680 and CR 711 before widening into a divided highway prior to a junction where CR 712 heads northeast and CR 561 splits from Route 73 by heading north on Cedarbrook Road. Past this intersection, Route 73 becomes an unnamed road and encounters CR 710 at a four-way intersection. A short distance later, the route enters Waterford Township and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with US 30 (White Horse Pike) and CR 536 Spur.

Following US 30, Route 73 passes through a small corner of Berlin Boro before it goes under NJ Transit's Atlantic City Line west of the Atco station. At the railroad underpass, the route enters Berlin Township and meets CR 534 at a crossroad. After the intersection with this route, the road proceeds back into Berlin Boro, where the route runs through a mix of residences and businesses. Route 73 widens to a six-lane highway and comes to the former Berlin Circle, where it meets both CR 689 and CR 708. From here, the road turns north and reenters Berlin Township as a four-lane divided highway, continuing through developed areas and intersecting CR 692. Prior to the junction with CR 693, the route enters Voorhees Township, where it encounters CR 675 before passing east of Virtua Voorhees Hospital.

At the intersection with CR 671, Route 73 comes into Evesham Township, Burlington County. In Evesham, it heads to a junction with CR 544 before coming to Marlton, where it passes west of The Promenade at Sagemore shopping center and Virtua Marlton Hospital before turning northwest at CR 607. The route intersects CR 600 and CR 620 before meeting Route 70 at a partial cloverleaf interchange that was formerly the Marlton Circle.

Route 70 to Tacony–Palmyra Bridge
Past the Route 70 interchange, Route 73 continues through suburban commercial areas, crossing the unsigned CR 674, and heading into Mount Laurel Township. The route comes to an intersection with CR 616, where it turns to the northwest. A short distance later, the road has a double trumpet interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike. Following this interchange, Route 73 widens into a six-lane divided highway and encounters CR 673 before coming to a cloverleaf interchange with I-295. From the I-295 interchange, the route goes into Maple Shade Township. Route 73 comes to two exits for Route 38 and Route 41 within a short distance of each other. After Route 41, the road intersects CR 610 and bypasses the center of Maple Shade to the east as a four-lane divided highway. The route has an interchange with CR 537 and runs under CSAO's Pemberton Industrial Track railroad line before turning northwest and paralleling the North Branch of the Pennsauken Creek, meeting CR 609.

Route 73 enters Cinnaminson Township, where the Route 90 freeway splits from the road before crossing over the South Branch of the Pennsauken Creek into Pennsauken Township, Camden County. In Pennsauken, the route has exits with CR 644 and US 130. Route 73 briefly enters Cinnaminson Township, Burlington County, again before crossing into Palmyra at the bridge over the Pennsauken Creek. In Palmyra, the road has an interchange with CR 543 before running under NJ Transit's River Line. The route comes to the intersection with Temple Boulevard, where it becomes maintained by the Burlington County Bridge Commission and comes to the northbound toll plaza for the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge. A short distance later, the road traverses the Delaware River on the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge, a combination steel tied-arch bridge and drawbridge with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane, where it continues into Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as PA 73. The Tacony–Palmyra Bridge was designed by Ralph Modjeski, who also engineered the Ben Franklin Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge, that opened to traffic in 1929, replacing a ferry service across the Delaware River.

Route 73 serves as a main road in South Jersey that helps provide access between the Philadelphia area and the southern part of the Jersey Shore as well as connections to several local roads. It has been rated one of the worst roads in the state in terms of traffic, accidents, and driver aggression.

History
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, a spur of Route 41 called Route S41 was legislated to run from the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge south to Berlin along what is today Route 73. A southern extension of Route S41 called Route S41A was proposed to run from Berlin south to Route 42 (now US 322) in Folsom in 1938. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route S41 and Route S41A were renumbered to Route 73 in order to match PA 73. With the establishment of the 500-series county routes in 1952, the current alignment of Route 73 between Berlin and Blue Anchor became a part of CR 561 while it became CR 561 Spur between Blue Anchor and Folsom. By 1969, Route 73 was designated south of Berlin along CR 561 and CR 561 Spur to the Atlantic City Expressway. By the 2000s, Route 73 was extended south along with CR 561 Spur from the Atlantic City Expressway to US 322.

Over the years, several traffic circles have been modified or replaced along Route 73. The Marlton Circle at Route 70 in Marlton was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to run directly straight through the circle. This circle became known for traffic backups and was replaced with an interchange. Construction on this interchange, which cost $31 million, began in April 2009. In May 2010, the circle was eliminated with a temporary at-grade intersection constructed while the Route 73 bridge over Route 70 was being built. The interchange was completed in June 2011. A traffic circle that existed at the intersection of Route 38 and Route 41 in Maple Shade Township was removed by the 1960s and replaced by the current set of interchanges. In addition, the Berlin Circle in Berlin was replaced by an at-grade intersection between August 2005 and September 2006 at a cost of $73 million.

title: New Jersey Route 73


text:
Sacramental character

Some Christian denominations believe that a sacramental character, an indelible spiritual mark (the meaning of the word character in Latin), is imprinted by any of three of the seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, and holy orders.

History
The doctrine was expressed by Augustine of Hippo in his religious controversies. The doctrine of the sacramental character was dogmatically defined by the Catholic Church at the 16th century Council of Trent.

Catholicism
This teaching is expressed as follows in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992):

The three sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders confer, in addition to grace, a sacramental character or seal by which the Christian shares in Christ's priesthood and is made a member of the Church according to different states and functions. This configuration to Christ and to the Church, brought about by the Spirit, is indelible; it remains for ever in the Christian as a positive disposition for grace, a promise and guarantee of divine protection, and as a vocation to divine worship and to the service of the Church. Therefore these sacraments can never be repeated.

If it is doubtful whether a person has received the sacrament, the sacrament may be administered conditionally (using words such as for conditional baptism: "If thou art not baptized, I baptize thee in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit"). However, such an administration is only valid and effective to the extent that no valid administration of the same sacrament has already occurred, as it does not in any event constitute an effective repetition of a valid previous administration of that sacrament.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church, explains as follows the significance of the image of "seal", used as an alternative to that of "character":

'The Father has set his seal' on Christ (John 6:27) and also seals us in him (cf. 2 Corinthians 1:22; Ephesians 1:23, 4:30). Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (σφραγίς) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible 'character' imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.

Lutheranism
Lutheran theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg stated that "in terms of the thought of promise and sending that constantly govern the ordained and claim them for Christ's service, we no longer need to oppose [indelible character] on the Lutheran side, since this point of view finds expression in the Lutheran churches, too. Here there is no repetition of ordination".

US Episcopal Church
The Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America teaches that "The bond which God establishes in Baptism is indissoluble".

Eastern Orthodoxy
In Eastern Orthodoxy, opinion on this concept vary.

Rodopoulos discusses the theory of what he calls the "ineradicable nature of priesthood", which is the theory that "ordination is ineradicable, and should a defrocked priest be restored, his ordination is not repeated". Rodopoulos states that "[t]he [Eastern] Orthodox Church has not declared officially on this matter. The Church of Rome established this doctrine at the Council of Trent (1545 – 1563)". Rodopoulos adds: "Only some [Eastern] Orthodox theologians, influenced by Roman Catholic teachings, have accepted this theory. The long-standing practice of the Church, however, as well as its teaching on grace, reject the theory of the ineradicable nature of the priesthood. Priest who are defrocked return to the ranks of the laity or monks".

Calivas believe that "[t]he character of ordination is indelible".

Scouteris considers that "no evidence concerning the indelible mark theory can be found in Patristic teaching. On the contrary, the canonical data leave no doubt that a defrocked priest or bishop, after the decision of the Church to take back his priesthood, returns to the rank of the laity. The anathematized or the defrocked are in no way considered to maintain their priesthood".

title: Sacramental character


text:
Constitution of the Irish Free State

The Constitution of the Irish Free State (Bunreacht Shaorstát Éireann) was adopted by Act of Dáil Éireann sitting as a constituent assembly on 25 October 1922. In accordance with Article 83 of the Constitution, the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 of the British Parliament, which came into effect upon receiving the royal assent on 5 December 1922, provided that the Constitution would come into effect upon the issue of a Royal Proclamation, which was done on 6 December 1922. In 1937 the Constitution of the Irish Free State was replaced by the modern Constitution of Ireland following a referendum.

As enacted, the Constitution of the Irish Free State was firmly shaped by the requirements of the Anglo-Irish Treaty that had been negotiated between the British government and Irish leaders in 1921. However, following a change of government in 1932 and the adoption of the Statute of Westminster a series of amendments progressively removed many of the provisions that had been required by the Treaty.

The Constitution established a parliamentary system of government under a form of constitutional monarchy, and contained guarantees of certain fundamental rights. It was intended that the constitution would be a rigid document that, after an initial period, could be amended only by referendum. However, amendments were made to the Constitution's amendment procedure, so that all amendments could be and were in fact made by a simple Act of the Oireachtas (parliament).

Debate on whether a written constitution was required
Whether or not the Irish Free State would have a written constitution was the subject of some debate when the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Bill was introduced to the Provisional Parliament by President Cosgrave. The Labour leader, Thomas Johnson, remarked:

"[T]here is no compulsion—so far as I can read in the Treaty—for a Constitution —a written Constitution—to be established at all.... It would be wiser, I suggest, to leave the enactment of a Constitution until there is something like quietude in the country.... I submit that it would be enough, in so far as any obligations that have been entered into, to re-enact, re-affirm, or ratify – whichever phrase you like – the Treaty itself, and let the Constitution grow out from that and thereby flatter our neighbours by following their own practice, in allowing the Constitution to develop by custom and usage."

Another reason put forward not to adopt a written constitution was that constitutional conventions between members of the British Commonwealth were evolving and there was likely to be an Imperial Conference on the matter before long. The Labour leader also objected to the manner in which the Provisional Parliament was being described as a "constituent assembly" when in fact it was not acting of its "free volition" and thereby at liberty to adopt a constitution. He compared it to re-establishing Poynings' Law.

Nonetheless, there were counter arguments in favour of adopting a written constitution. Irish nationalists who fought the War of Independence believed themselves to be fighting on behalf of a newly formed state called the Irish Republic. The Irish Republic had its own president, an elected assembly called Dáil Éireann, and a judicial system in the form of the Dáil Courts. This republic was recognised by the revolutionary government in Russia. In the negotiations leading to the Anglo-Irish Treaty the British government insisted that the new Irish state must remain within the Commonwealth and not be a republic. Furthermore, while the Irish Republic had a constitution, of sorts, in the form of the Dáil Constitution, this was a very brief document and had been intended to be only provisional. It was therefore the prevalent view that when, in 1921, the British government agreed to the creation of a largely independent Irish state, that a new constitution was needed. The Anglo-Irish Treaty made a number of requirements of the new constitution. Among these were that:

 * the new state would be called the Irish Free State and would be a dominion of the British Commonwealth;
 * the King would be the head of state and would be represented by a Governor General;
 * members of the Oireachtas (parliament) would swear an oath of allegiance to the Irish Free State and declare their fidelity to the King. This Free State Oath of Allegiance was controversial; and
 * Northern Ireland would be included in the Irish Free State unless its Parliament decided to opt out (which it did).

Legislative competence
On 31 March 1922, an act of the United Kingdom Parliament called the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922 was passed. It gave the force of law to the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It also provided by for the election of a body to be called the "House of the Parliament", sometimes called the "Provisional Parliament", to which the Provisional Government established under that act would be responsible. The act gave no power to the Provisional Parliament to enact a constitution for the Irish Free State. In due course, "the House of the Parliament," provided for by that act, was elected and met on 9 September 1922, and calling itself Dáil Éireann, proceeded to sit as a constituent assembly for the settlement of what became the Constitution of the Irish Free State.

Constitution Committee
Shortly after the British evacuated their troops from Dublin Castle in January 1922, Michael Collins set about establishing a committee to draft a new constitution for the nascent Irish Free State which would come into being in December 1922. Mr Collins chaired the first meeting of that committee and at that point (he died before the constitution was finalised) was its chairman. Darrell Figgis, the vice-chairman became acting Chair. The committee produced three draft texts, designated A, B and C. A was signed by Figgis, James McNeill and John O'Byrne. B was signed by James G. Douglas, C.J. France and Hugh Kennedy and it differed substantially from A only in proposals regarding the Executive. This difference was intended by Douglas to permit the anti-treaty faction a say in the final proposed constitution before its submission to the British Government. As such it was, according to Douglas, an attempt to ameliorate the pro- and anti-treaty split. Draft C was the most novel of the three. It was signed by Alfred O'Rahilly and James Murnaghan, and provided for the possibility of representation for the people of the northern counties in the Dáil in the event of that area opting out of the proposed free state. The Irish text was then drafted as a translation of the English text. The Irish language version was drafted by a committee which included the Minister for Education, Eoin MacNeill; the Leas-Cheann Comhairle (deputy speaker), Pádraic Ó Máille; the Clerk of the Dáil, Colm Ó Murchadha; Piaras Béaslaí; Liam Ó Rinn and Professors Osborn Bergin and T. F. O'Rahilly.

Method of adoption
As a practical matter, the process of drafting the constitution began with the establishment by Michael Collins of the committee to draft a new constitution. This started shortly after the Provisional Government was established in January 1922. In subsequent months members of the Provisional Government negotiated the draft constitution with the British authorities. After that process was completed, a bill entitled the Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Bill was introduced into Dáil Éireann (the Third Dáil) in September 1922, the Dáil sitting as a "constituent assembly". It was enacted by the Third Dáil on 25 October 1922.

Article 83 of the constitution provided that "The passing and adoption of this Constitution by the Constituent Assembly and the British Parliament shall be announced as soon as may be, and not later than the sixth day of December, Nineteen hundred and twenty-two, by Proclamation of His Majesty, and this Constitution shall come into operation on the issue of such Proclamation."

The British Parliament then passed the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, which came into force on 5 December 1922. This act recited that the House of Parliament constituted pursuant to the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act, 1922, sitting as a constituent assembly for the settlement of the Constitution of the Irish Free State, had passed the measure set forth in the schedule to the act, (namely the constitution adopted by Dáil Éireann), which it then referred to as "the Constituent Act". It then provided that the Constituent Act should be the Constitution of the Irish Free State and should come into operation on the same being proclaimed by His Majesty in accordance with Article 83 of the constitution.

The Royal Proclamation bringing the constitution into force was made on 6 December 1922. Referring to the constitution as a "Measure" whereby the constitution appearing as the First Schedule to the Constituent Act was declared to be the Constitution of the Irish Free State, the Royal Proclamation went on to "announce and proclaim that the Constitution of the Irish Free State as the same was passed and adopted by the said Constituent Assembly has been passed and adopted by Parliament". The 6 December 1922 was the latest possible date allowed for by the Anglo-Irish Treaty for the continued authority of the Provisional Government set up by the treaty pending "the constitution of a Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State". On this date also the members of the Dáil took the Oath of Allegiance, and nominated the members of the Executive Council (the cabinet).

Incorporation of the treaty
The Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922 contained two schedules. One schedule contained the new constitution, and the other the text of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. As enacted in 1922, Section 2 of the act provided for the supremacy of the treaty's provisions, voiding any part of the Constitution or other Free State law that was "repugnant" to it. Similarly, both Section 2 of the act and Article 50 of the constitution provided that no constitutional amendment would stand so far as it violated the terms of the treaty.

The enactment by the British Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 changed the legal framework as understood by the British. The statute was designed to increase the legislative autonomy of all the dominions. In contrast with certain of the other dominions, the statute did not specifically place any reservation on this power as exercisable by the Free State, and thus granted it the power to alter Irish law in any way it chose. The new government under Éamon de Valera soon used this new freedom to enact the Constitution (Removal of Oath) Act 1933. Besides abolishing the Oath of Allegiance, a requirement of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the act also expressly repealed the provisions both of the constitution proper and of the Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922 that required compliance with the treaty. Subsequent legislation soon began to dismantle other constitutional provisions that had been required or limited by the treaty's terms.

Constitution's authority
Under British constitutional legal theory, the Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922 held the force of law because of the enactment of the United Kingdom's Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. However, under Irish law the constitution "derived its authority not from the Act of the imperial parliament passed on the 5th December, 1922, or from the proclamation made on the 6th December, 1922, but from the Act of Dáil Éireann sitting as a constituent assembly passed on the 25th October, 1922".

Structure
As enacted, the Constitution proper consisted of 83 separate articles, totalling around 7,600 words. The Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922 consisted of only a short preamble and three short sections, but was a far longer document because, as noted above, it included as schedules the full text of both the constitution proper and the Anglo-Irish Treaty.

The articles of the Constitution proper were not grouped together under headings, save for the final ten articles (which came under the title of "Transitory Provisions"). However, divided by subject matter the articles of the Constitution broke down roughly as follows:

 * Introductory provisions (Arts. 1–4)
 * Fundamental rights (Arts. 5–10)
 * Legislature (Arts. 13–46)
 * Dáil Éireann (Arts. 26–29)
 * The Senate (Arts. 30–34)
 * Initiative and referendum (Arts. 47–48)
 * Constitutional amendments (Art. 50)
 * Cabinet (Arts. 51–59)
 * Governor-General (Art. 60)
 * Regulation of state finances (Arts. 61–63)
 * Courts (Arts. 64–72)
 * Transitory Provisions (Arts. 73–83)

Preamble
The constitution itself had no preamble. However, the Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922 began with the following words:

"Dáil Éireann sitting as a Constituent Assembly in this Provisional Parliament, acknowledging that all lawful authority comes from God to the people and in the confidence that the National life and unity of Ireland shall thus be restored, hereby proclaims the establishment of The Irish Free State (otherwise called Saorstát Éireann) and in the exercise of undoubted right, decrees and enacts as follows:—"

Characteristics of the state

 * Commonwealth membership: Article 1 stated that the state would be a "co-equal member" of the British Commonwealth.
 * Popular sovereignty: It was stated that the "all powers of government... are derived from the people of Ireland" (Article 2).
 * Citizenship: The constitution provided that those living in the state at the time of its coming into force who had been born in Ireland, had parents born in Ireland or had been resident in the state for seven years would become citizens. However anyone who was the citizen of another state could choose not to become an Irish citizen (Article 3).
 * National language: It was provided that Irish was the "National Language" but English was "equally recognised as an official language" (Article 4). The constitution included the terms Saorstát Éireann (as one name for the Irish Free State), Oireachtas (for the legislature), and Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann (for the houses of the legislature), all of which were intended for use even in English speech.

Individual rights
Unlike the then constitutions of Australia and Canada, the constitution included a bill of rights, in Articles 6–10. Rights were also protected by a number of provisions contained in other articles.

 * Prohibition of titles of nobility: It was provided that no title of honour, including knighthoods and peerages, could be conferred on an Irish citizen in respect of any services rendered in or in relation to the Irish Free State without the consent of the Executive Council (Article 5).
 * Liberty and habeas corpus: Article 6 provided that no-one could be deprived of liberty except in accordance with the law, and that habeas corpus would be upheld. The military forces were granted an exemption from this article during time of war or rebellion.
 * Inviolability of the home: The home could not be entered except in accordance with the law (Article 7).
 * Freedom of conscience and worship: Protected by Article 9 subject to "public order and morality" (Article 8).
 * Prohibition of establishment: The state could not "endow" any religion (Article 8).
 * Religious discrimination: The state could not discriminate on religious grounds (Article 8).
 * Freedom of speech, assembly and association: All guaranteed subject to "public morality". Laws regulating freedom of assembly and association could not be discriminatory (Article 9).
 * Right to education: Free elementary education guaranteed to all citizens (Article 10).
 * Trial by jury: Guaranteed by Article 72, which granted an exemption for minor offences and offences triable by court martial.

The constitution empowered the courts to strike down laws they found to be unconstitutional. However judicial review of legislation was made largely meaningless by the ease with which the Oireachtas could alter the constitution. Furthermore, as the state had only recently seceded from the UK, Irish judges were trained in British jurisprudence. To this tradition, founded on deference to the legislature and parliamentary sovereignty, constitutional review was an alien concept. This meant that despite the adoption of a new, more rigid constitution in 1937, constitutional review did not become a significant feature of Irish jurisprudence until the 1960s. During the entire period of the Free State, only two pieces of legislation were declared by the courts to be unconstitutional.

The Free State had significant problems with public order in early years. It was founded during the Irish Civil War which did not come to an end until May 1923, and thereafter there were continuing problems of public disorder and subversive activities by the Irish Republican Army (IRA). This situation led to an erosion of civil rights in the new state. During the Civil War a law provided the death penalty for the crime of unlawful possession of a firearm, and more than seventy people were executed for the offence. Strong security measures continued to be used after the war's conclusion; these included internment of former rebels and the punishment of flogging for arson and armed robbery, introduced in 1924.

In 1931, acting in response to IRA violence, the Oireachtas adopted Amendment No. 17 of the constitution. This added a sweeping set of provisions called Article 2A to the constitution. Article 2A was very large, consisting of five parts and 34 sections. Among other provisions it granted powers of arrest, detention and trial of people before military tribunals not bound by normal rules of evidence, despite the fact that many crimes triable before the tribunals carried a mandatory death sentence. To protect itself from being undermined by the courts, Article 2A was drafted to state that it took precedence over all other provisions of the constitution (save Article 1).

The provisions for military tribunals were challenged in 1935 in the case of The State (Ryan) v. Lennon. In this case the majority of the Supreme Court reluctantly held that, because Amendment No. 17 had been duly adopted in accordance with the correct procedure, it was not open to the judges to strike it down. However Chief Justice Kennedy disagreed, arguing, in a dissenting opinion, that the Article 2A violated natural law.

Economic and social rights
The drafting committee considered the inclusion of economic and social rights in the Irish constitution. C.J. France proposed provisions to ensure state control of natural resources. He further proposed that the state would capture the “unearned increment” arising from land value increases, thereby checking speculation in land and promoting investment in industrial development. During the parliamentary debates on the constitution, Labour TDs such as Tom Johnson and T.J. O’Connell proposed the inclusion of modest welfare measures as well as provisions to protect children’s rights.

These proposals met with opposition. The economist, George O’Brien, and Archbishop Harty both questioned the social provisions’ economic viability as well as their political viability given their potential to alienate conservative, land-owning supporters of the Treaty. British law officers further objected to the “Soviet character” of the constitution’s declaration of “economic sovereignty”. The Provisional Government dropped the offending provisions.

Ultimately, the 1922 Constitution was limited to two “programmatic declarations” only, one specifying a pre-existing right to elementary education (Article 10) and the other providing for the possibility of state ownership of national resources (Article 11).

Organs of government
The constitution provided for a parliamentary system of government. The legislature was called the Oireachtas, consisting of the monarch and two houses: the Chamber of Deputies, to be known generally as Dáil Éireann, was established as the lower house, and the Senate, to be known generally as Seanad Éireann, as the upper house. The Seanad had only limited powers of delay so the Dáil was the dominant house.

Executive authority was vested in the King and exercised by the Governor-General of the Irish Free State, who would appoint an Executive Council to "aid and advise" him. The Executive Council was headed by a prime minister, the President of the Executive Council. In practice, however, the President was nominated by the Dáil and formally appointed by the Governor-General. The President then nominated the remaining members of the Executive Council. The Dáil was empowered to dismiss it by a vote of no confidence. With few exceptions, the Governor-General was required to act on the Executive Council's advice.

The constitution provided that the judiciary would consist of the Supreme Court, the High Court, and any lower courts established by law.

Initiative and referendum
As originally adopted the constitution contained (in Articles 47, 48 and 50) innovative provisions for direct democracy but, owing to constitutional amendments, these provisions were never permitted to come into effect. The provisions stated that the referendum and initiative would operate on the same franchise as the Dáil; this was universal suffrage beginning at the age of 21. The constitution provided for three forms of direct democracy:

 * Constitutional referendum: After an initial period all constitutional amendments would be subject to a mandatory, binding referendum. An amendment would not be deemed to have been passed unless at least a majority of registered voters participated in the referendum and the votes in favour were equal to either: (1) a majority of all eligible voters, or (2) a two-thirds majority of votes cast. This provision was stricter than the modern Constitution of Ireland, which merely requires a majority of votes cast.
 * Veto of legislation: Once a bill had been approved by both houses of the Oireachtas (or just by the Dáil, if it had over-ridden the Senate) its enactment into law could be suspended if, within seven days, either a majority of the Senate or 40% of all members of the Dáil so requested. There would then be a further period of ninety days within which either 5% of all registered voters, or a 60% majority in the Senate, could demand a referendum on the bill. The referendum would be decided by a majority of votes cast. If rejected the bill would not become law. These provisions did not apply to money bills or bills declared by both houses to be "necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health or safety".
 * Initiative: Ordinary citizens would have the right, through an initiative process, to draft both constitutional amendments and ordinary laws, and insist that they be submitted to a referendum. The constitution provided a general frame-work for how the initiative would work, empowering the Oireachtas to fill in the details with legislation. It required that a proposal could be initiated by a petition of 50,000 registered voters. Once initiated a proposal would be referred to the Oireachtas, but if the Oireachtas did not adopt the law it would be obliged to submit it to a binding referendum. The constitution gave the Oireachtas two years to adopt a law allowing voters to introduce initiatives. However, after this time voters had power to force the issue. This is because the initiative process itself could then by made the subject of an initiative. After two years the introduction of an initiative process would be put to a referendum if demanded by a petition of not less than 75,000 voters on the register (not more than fifteen thousand of whom could be voters in any one constituency).

The Achilles' heel of the direct democracy provisions was contained in Article 50 which provided that, for eight years after the constitution came into force, the Oireachtas could amend the constitution without a referendum. As interpreted by the courts, this even included the power to amend the article itself and extend this period.

The Oireachtas did not adopt legislation providing for the initiative within the two years stipulated by the constitution and, eventually, a petition of 96,000 signature was gathered by the opposition to trigger a referendum forcing the Oireachtas to introduce an initiative process. The Oireachtas responded by removing all provisions for direct democracy from the constitution, save for the requirement that, once the eight-year transitional period had passed, it would be necessary to hold referendums on all constitutional amendments. Then in 1929 the Oireachtas extended this period to sixteen years. This meant that, by the time the constitution was replaced in 1937, the provisions for the constitutional referendum had still not come into force.

Method of amendment

The procedure for adopting constitutional amendments was laid out in Article 50. This foresaw that amendments would first be approved by both houses of the Oireachtas, then submitted to a referendum, and finally receive the royal assent from the Governor-General. However, as already noted, the requirement for a referendum was postponed by the Oireachtas so that during the entire period of the Irish Free State the Constitution could be amended by means of an ordinary law. As noted above it was originally provided that any amendments that violated the Anglo-Irish Treaty would be inadmissible, but this sole restriction was removed in 1933.

The Oireachtas readily used its powers of amendment so that, during the 15 years of the Constitution's operation, 25 formal constitutional amendments were made. This can be contrasted with the fact that, during its first 60 years, the current Constitution of Ireland was amended only 16 times. In addition to the adoption of constitutional amendments, the courts ruled that the Oireachtas could also implicitly amend the constitution. When the Oireachtas adopted the Public Safety Act 1927, which affected civil rights, it included a section requiring that should the act be found to be unconstitutional it would be treated as a constitutional amendment. Section 3 of the act provided that:

"Every provision of this Act which is in contravention of any provision of the Constitution shall to the extent of such contravention operate and have effect as an amendment [...] of the Constitution."

In the Attorney General v. McBride (1928) it was ruled that this kind of section was unnecessary because even if a law did not contain such a provision it could be interpreted as a tacit amendment of the constitution anyway, owing to the doctrine of implied repeal. This meant that, in addition to formal amendments, almost any act of the Oireachtas could be considered an amendment of the constitution. The long process of ad hoc amendment that occurred until 1937 meant that, by the time it was replaced that, according to President (of the Executive Council) Éamon de Valera, the constitution had become a "tattered and torn affair".

While Article 50 provided for the amendment of the constitution proper, there was no explicit provision in any law for the amendment of the Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) Act 1922. Some jurists therefore maintained that the Oireachtas did not have power to amend the Act; rather, if it were possible to alter the law at all, it might be necessary to request the British Parliament to do so, or to elect another constituent assembly. Chief Justice Kennedy was among those who took the view that the act could not be altered by the Oireachtas. Nonetheless, changes were eventually made to the act, when the Oireachtas passed the Constitution (Removal of Oath) Act 1933, and it was superseded with the adoption of the 1937 constitution. The 1922 Act was formally repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2007.

When the new constitution was drafted lessons had been learned from the Free State constitution. It too granted the Oireachtas a temporary power to make constitutional amendments by ordinary law, but, unlike the Free State constitution, it expressly forbade the legislature from using this power to extend the transitional period. Article 46 of the new constitution required that constitutional amendments be approved by referendum while Article 51 of the Transitory Provisions suspended this requirement for an initial three years (beginning when the first president assumed office). However, Article 51 forbade the legislature from amending either itself or Article 46. In the event the Oireachtas used its transitional power only twice, when it adopted the First Amendment and the Second Amendment. The new constitution then settled down and was not amended again for thirty years. Another difference from the Free State constitution is that the modern constitution requires constitutional amendments to be expressly identified as such. Every amendment must have the long title "An Act to amend the Constitution".

Subjects of amendments
Some amendments made minor changes, such as removing the requirement that elections occur on a public holiday, but others were more radical. These included extending the term of the Dáil in 1927, the abolition of the initiative and of direct elections to the Senate in 1928, extending the period during which the Oireachtas could amend the constitution in 1928, and the introduction of provisions for trial by military tribunals in 1931. From 1933 onwards a series of further amendments were made that gradually dismantled the Treaty settlement by, for example, abolishing the Oath of Allegiance and the office of Governor General. Because a majority of its members disagreed with this process, the Senate was abolished in 1936.

List of amendments
In each case but one, the acts amending the Constitution were titled in the form Constitution (Amendment No. 1) Act 1925. The exception is Constitution (Removal of Oath) Act 1933, which does not have a number. The acts are listed below in order of their enactment, but the numbering of constitutional amendments coincides with the order in which they were introduced as bills, so that the sequence does not follow in strict order. There were no Amendments numbered 18, 19 or 25. In addition, "ordinary" Acts of the Oireachtas could modify the constitution. The amendments effected by these acts all lapsed in 1937 with the repeal of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and adoption of the Constitution of Ireland, and the acts themselves were formally repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2016.

title: Constitution of the Irish Free State