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Discrete logarithm

In mathematics, for given real numbers a and b, the logarithm logb a is a number x such that bx = a. Analogously, in any group G, powers bk can be defined for all integers k, and the discrete logarithm logb a is an integer k such that bk = a. In number theory, the more commonly used term is index: we can write x = indr a (mod m) (read "the index of a to the base r modulo m") for r x ≡ a (mod m) if r is a primitive root of m and gcd(a,m) = 1.

Discrete logarithms are quickly computable in a few special cases, however, no efficient method is known for computing them in general. In cryptography, the computational complexity of the discrete logarithm problem and its application, was first proposed in the Diffie–Hellman problem. Several important algorithms in public-key cryptography, such as ElGamal, base their security on the hardness assumption that the discrete logarithm problem (DLP) over carefully chosen groups has no efficient solution.

Definition
Let G be any group. Denote its group operation by multiplication and its identity element by 1. Let b be any element of G. For any positive integer k, the expression bk denotes the product of b with itself k times:
 * $$b^k = \underbrace{b \cdot b \cdot \ldots \cdot b}_{k \; \text{factors}}.$$

Similarly, let b−k denote the product of b−1 with itself k times. For k = 0, the kth power is the identity: b0 = 1.

Let a also be an element of G. An integer k that solves the equation bk = a is termed a discrete logarithm (or simply logarithm, in this context) of a to the base b. One writes k = logb a.

Powers of 10
The powers of 10 are
 * $$\ldots, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000, \ldots.$$

For any number a in this list, one can compute log10 a. For example, log10 10000 = 4, and log10 0.001 = −3. These are instances of the discrete logarithm problem.

Other base-10 logarithms in the real numbers are not instances of the discrete logarithm problem, because they involve non-integer exponents. For example, the equation log10 53 = 1.724276… means that 101.724276… = 53. While integer exponents can be defined in any group using products and inverses, arbitrary real exponents, such as this 1.724276…, require other concepts such as the exponential function.

In group-theoretic terms, the powers of 10 form a cyclic group G under multiplication, and 10 is a generator for this group. The discrete logarithm log10 a is defined for any a in G.

Powers of a fixed real number
A similar example holds for any non-zero real number b. The powers form a multiplicative subgroup G = {…, b−3, b−2, b−1, 1, b1, b2, b3, …} of the non-zero real numbers. For any element a of G, one can compute logb a.

Modular arithmetic
One of the simplest settings for discrete logarithms is the group Zp×. This is the group of multiplication modulo the prime p. Its elements are non-zero congruence classes modulo p, and the group product of two elements may be obtained by ordinary integer multiplication of the elements followed by reduction modulo p.

The kth power of one of the numbers in this group may be computed by finding its kth power as an integer and then finding the remainder after division by p. When the numbers involved are large, it is more efficient to reduce modulo p multiple times during the computation. Regardless of the specific algorithm used, this operation is called modular exponentiation. For example, consider Z17×. To compute 34 in this group, compute 34 = 81, and then divide 81 by 17, obtaining a remainder of 13. Thus 34 = 13 in the group Z17×.

The discrete logarithm is just the inverse operation. For example, consider the equation 3k ≡ 13 (mod 17). From the example above, one solution is k = 4, but it is not the only solution. Since 316 ≡ 1 (mod 17)—as follows from Fermat's little theorem—it also follows that if n is an integer then 34+16n ≡ 34 × (316)n ≡ 13 × 1n ≡ 13 (mod 17). Hence the equation has infinitely many solutions of the form 4 + 16n. Moreover, because 16 is the smallest positive integer m satisfying 3m ≡ 1 (mod 17), these are the only solutions. Equivalently, the set of all possible solutions can be expressed by the constraint that k ≡ 4 (mod 16).

Powers of the identity
In the special case where b is the identity element 1 of the group G, the discrete logarithm logb a is undefined for a other than 1, and every integer k is a discrete logarithm for a = 1.

Properties
Powers obey the usual algebraic identity bk + l = bk b l. In other words, the function
 * $$f \colon \mathbf{Z} \to G$$

defined by f(k) = bk is a group homomorphism from the integers Z under addition onto the subgroup H of G generated by b. For all a in H, logb a exists. Conversely, logb a does not exist for a that are not in H.

If H is infinite, then logb a is also unique, and the discrete logarithm amounts to a group isomorphism

 * $$\log_b \colon H \to \mathbf{Z}.$$

On the other hand, if H is finite of order n, then logb a is unique only up to congruence modulo n, and the discrete logarithm amounts to a group isomorphism
 * $$\log_b\colon H \to \mathbf{Z}_n,$$

where Zn denotes the additive group of integers modulo n.

The familiar base change formula for ordinary logarithms remains valid: If c is another generator of H, then

 * $$\log_c a = \log_c b \cdot \log_b a.$$

Algorithms
The discrete logarithm problem is considered to be computationally intractable. That is, no efficient classical algorithm is known for computing discrete logarithms in general.

A general algorithm for computing logb a in finite groups G is to raise b to larger and larger powers k until the desired a is found. This algorithm is sometimes called trial multiplication. It requires running time linear in the size of the group G and thus exponential in the number of digits in the size of the group. Therefore, it is an exponential-time algorithm, practical only for small groups G.

More sophisticated algorithms exist, usually inspired by similar algorithms for integer factorization. These algorithms run faster than the naïve algorithm, some of them proportional to the square root of the size of the group, and thus exponential in half the number of digits in the size of the group. However, none of them runs in polynomial time (in the number of digits in the size of the group).

 * Baby-step giant-step
 * Function field sieve
 * Index calculus algorithm
 * Number field sieve
 * Pohlig–Hellman algorithm
 * Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms
 * Pollard's kangaroo algorithm (aka Pollard's lambda algorithm)

There is an efficient quantum algorithm due to Peter Shor.

Efficient classical algorithms also exist in certain special cases. For example, in the group of the integers modulo p under addition, the power bk becomes a product bk, and equality means congruence modulo p in the integers. The extended Euclidean algorithm finds k quickly.

With Diffie–Hellman a cyclic group modulus a prime p is used, allowing an efficient computation of the discrete logarithm with Pohlig–Hellman if the order of the group (being p−1) is sufficiently smooth, i.e. has no large prime factors.

Comparison with integer factorization
While computing discrete logarithms and integer factorization are distinct problems, they share some properties:
 * both are special cases of the hidden subgroup problem for finite abelian groups,
 * both problems seem to be difficult (no efficient algorithms are known for non-quantum computers),
 * for both problems efficient algorithms on quantum computers are known,
 * algorithms from one problem are often adapted to the other, and
 * the difficulty of both problems has been used to construct various cryptographic systems.

Cryptography
There exist groups for which computing discrete logarithms is apparently difficult. In some cases (e.g. large prime order subgroups of groups Zp×) there is not only no efficient algorithm known for the worst case, but the average-case complexity can be shown to be about as hard as the worst case using random self-reducibility.

At the same time, the inverse problem of discrete exponentiation is not difficult (it can be computed efficiently using exponentiation by squaring, for example). This asymmetry is analogous to the one between integer factorization and integer multiplication. Both asymmetries (and other possibly one-way functions) have been exploited in the construction of cryptographic systems.

Popular choices for the group G in discrete logarithm cryptography (DLC) are the cyclic groups Zp× (e.g. ElGamal encryption, Diffie–Hellman key exchange, and the Digital Signature Algorithm) and cyclic subgroups of elliptic curves over finite fields (see Elliptic curve cryptography).

While there is no publicly known algorithm for solving the discrete logarithm problem in general, the first three steps of the number field sieve algorithm only depend on the group G, not on the specific elements of G whose finite log is desired. By precomputing these three steps for a specific group, one need only carry out the last step, which is much less computationally expensive than the first three, to obtain a specific logarithm in that group.

It turns out that much internet traffic uses one of a handful of groups that are of order 1024 bits or less, e.g. cyclic groups with order of the Oakley primes specified in RFC 2409. The Logjam attack used this vulnerability to compromise a variety of internet services that allowed the use of groups whose order was a 512-bit prime number, so called export grade.

The authors of the Logjam attack estimate that the much more difficult precomputation needed to solve the discrete log problem for a 1024-bit prime would be within the budget of a large national intelligence agency such as the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA). The Logjam authors speculate that precomputation against widely reused 1024 DH primes is behind claims in leaked NSA documents that NSA is able to break much of current cryptography.

title: Discrete logarithm


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Talk:Paw Paw Lake, Michigan

Town
Not only does the Census Bureau declare this as a town, but a google search will yield a number of hits for the town. I assume the town is named after the lake it sits next to (or around). Even Michigan's website claims it is a city. So thus, I added back the data. I don't know if it was a vandal that added it or something else. -- RM

Actual Town
Paw Paw Lake is not a town. Paw Paw Lake is the name of the lake that is bordered by two towns. On the West side of the lake is a town by the name of Coloma and to the East is the town of Watervliet. Paw Paw Lake is often thought to be in Paw Paw, Michigan but, it is not. Paw Paw Lake is a spring fed 900 acre, All Sports lake that is dam controlled by the Army Corp. of Engineers. Thanks so much. A proud resident of Coloma.

 * The present revision of the article does not say it is a town. It is however designated by the census bureau as a place for statistical purposes. In fact, there is no official meaning to "town" in Michigan. The only official designations for municipalities are villages and cities (and perhaps charter townships). Townships and counties are other forms of local government (along with some assorted others like school districts). BTW, if there is no entry for Paw Paw Lake, feel free to create it. older ≠ wiser 21:19, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Paw Paw Lake, Michigan


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Capital city

A capital city or just capital is the municipality holding primary status in a country, state, province, department, or other subnational division, usually as its seat of the government. A capital is typically a city that physically encompasses the government's offices and meeting places; the status as capital is often designated by its law or constitution. In some jurisdictions, including several countries, different branches of government are in different settlements, sometimes meaning multiple official capitals. In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.

English-language news media often use the name of the capital city as an alternative name for the government of the country of which it is the capital, as a form of metonymy. For example, the "relations between London and Washington" refers to the "relations between the United Kingdom and the United States".

Terminology and etymology

The word capital derives from the Latin word caput (genitive capitis), meaning 'head', later borrowed from Medieval Latin capitālis ('of the head'). The Latin phrase Roma Caput Mundi meaning 'Rome capital of the world' (lit. 'head of the world') was already used by the poet Ovid in 1st century BC. It originates out of a classical European understanding of the known world: Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The phrase is related to the enduring power of the city first as the capital of the Republic and the Empire, and later as the centre of the Catholic Church.

In several English-speaking states, the terms county town and county seat are also used in lower administrative divisions. In some unitary states, subnational capitals may be known as 'administrative centres'. The capital is often the largest city of its constituent, though not always.

Origins
Historically, the major economic centre of a state or region has often become the focal point of political power, and became a capital through conquest or federation. Historical examples are ancient Babylon, ancient Athens, ancient Rome, Abbasid Baghdad, Constantinople, Chang'an, and ancient Cusco. The modern capital city has not always existed: in medieval Western Europe, an itinerant (wandering) government was common.

The capital city attracts politically motivated people and those whose skills are needed for efficient administration of national or imperial governments, such as lawyers, political scientists, bankers, journalists, and public policy makers. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e.g. Constantinople (more than one religion), Rome/Vatican City (the Roman Catholic Church), Jerusalem (more than one religion), Babylon, Moscow (the Russian Orthodox Church), Belgrade (the Serbian Orthodox Church), Paris, and Beijing. In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its position during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.

The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal. Traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals as is the case with Nanjing by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and several US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its capital city, as occurred at Babylon and Cahokia. "Political nomadism" was practiced in ancient Near East to increase ties between the ruler and the subjects.

Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no such legal designation, including Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, and Wellington. They are recognized as capitals as a matter of convention, and because all or almost all the country's central political institutions, such as government departments, supreme court, legislature, embassies, etc., are located in or near them.

Modern capitals

Many modern capital cities are located near the centre of the country, so that they are more accessible to its population and have better protection from possible invasions. The location may also be based on a compromise between two or more cities or other political divisions, historical reasons, or enough land was needed to deliberately build a new planned city for the capital. The majority of national capitals are also the largest city in their respective countries. Modern examples are Beijing, Berlin, Cairo, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Moscow, Paris, and Tokyo.

Counties in the United Kingdom have historic county towns, which are often not the largest settlement within the county and often are no longer administrative centres, as many historical counties are now only ceremonial, and administrative boundaries are different. The number of new capitals in the world increased substantially since the Renaissance period, especially with the founding of independent nation-states since the eighteenth century.

In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil (including the famous cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, capitals of their respective states), and Australia also each have capital cities. For example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the term "capital cities" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory. Abu Dhabi is the capital city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and also of the United Arab Emirates overall.

In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent nations, such as the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Denmark, each will usually have its own capital city. Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom. Similarly, each of the autonomous communities of Spain and regions of Italy has a capital city, such as Seville and Naples, while Madrid is the capital of the Community of Madrid and of the Kingdom of Spain as a whole and Rome is the capital of Italy and of the region of Lazio.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, each of its constituent states (or Länder, plural of Land) has its own capital city, such as Dresden, Wiesbaden, Mainz, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and Munich, as do all of the republics of the Russian Federation. The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right. Each of the states of Austria and cantons of Switzerland also have their own capital cities. Vienna, the national capital of Austria, is also one of the states, while Bern is the (de facto) capital of both Switzerland and of the Canton of Bern.

Planned capitals
Governing entities sometimes plan, design and build new capital cities to house the seat of government of a polity or of a subdivision. Deliberately planned and designed capitals include: • Abuja, Nigeria (1991)

• Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil (1855)

• Ankara, Turkey (1923)

• Astana, Kazakhstan (1997)

• Austin, Texas, US (1839)

• Belmopan, Belize (1970)

• Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (1897)

• Brasília, Brazil (1960)

• Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India (1948)

• Canberra, Australia (1927)

• Chandigarh, Punjab and Haryana, India (1966)

• Columbia, South Carolina, US (1786)

• Constantinople, Roman Empire (324–330)

• Frankfort, Kentucky, US (1792)

• Gaborone, Botswana (1964)

• Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India (1960)

• Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil (1933)

• Huambo (Nova Lisboa), Huambo, Angola (1912)

• Indianapolis, Indiana, US (1825)

• Islamabad, Pakistan (1960)

• Jefferson City, Missouri, US (1821)

• La Plata, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (1882)

• Nava Raipur or Atal Nagar, Chhattisgarh, India (2003)

• Naypyidaw, Myanmar (2005–2006)

• New Delhi, British India (1911)

• Nusantara, Indonesia (2024)

• Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, US (1889)

• Palmas, Tocantins, Brazil (1989)

• Putrajaya, Malaysia (1995)

• Quezon City, Philippines (1948–76)

• Raleigh, North Carolina, US (1792)

• San Salvador, El Salvador (1525, 1545-1546)

• Seoul, Korea (1394)

• Smederevo, Serbian Despotate (1428–1459)

• Soltaniyeh, Ilkhanate (1306–1335)

• Teresina, Piauí, Brazil (1852)

• Valletta, Malta (1571)

• Washington, D.C., US (1800)

• Zhongxing New Village, Nantou County, Taiwan Province, Rep. of China (1956)

These cities satisfy one or both of the following criteria:

 * 1) A deliberately planned city that was built expressly to house the seat of government, superseding a capital city that was in an established population center. There have been various reasons for this, including overcrowding in that major metropolitan area, and the desire to place the capital city in a location with a better climate (usually a less tropical one).
 * 2) A town that was chosen as a compromise among two or more cities (or other political divisions), none of which was willing to concede to the other(s) the privilege of being the capital city. Usually, the new capital is geographically located roughly equidistant between the competing population centres.

Compromise locations
Some examples of the second situation (compromise locations) are:
 * Canberra, Australia, chosen as a compromise location between Melbourne and Sydney.
 * Washington, D.C., United States, founded as a compromise between more urbanized Northern states and agrarian Southern slave states to share national power. The Compromise of 1790, resulted in the passage of the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River on land ceded from Maryland and Virginia.
 * Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.
 * Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, along the boundary between the two former colonies that formed the core of pre-Confederation Canada—primarily English-speaking Upper Canada and primarily French-speaking Lower Canada. Today, this border separates the two most populous of Canada's ten modern provinces, Ontario and Quebec.
 * Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.
 * Wellington became the capital city of New Zealand in 1865. It lies at the southern tip of the North Island of New Zealand, the smaller of New Zealand's two main islands (which subsequently became the more populous island) immediately across Cook Strait from the South Island. The previous capital, Auckland, lies much further north in the North Island; the move followed a long argument for a more central location for parliament.
 * Managua, Nicaragua, chosen to appease rivals in León and Granada, which also were associated with the liberal and conservative political factions respectively
 * Jefferson City, Missouri was selected as the state capital in 1821, the year after Missouri was admitted to the Union, due to its central location within the state. It is almost halfway between Missouri's two largest cities, Kansas City in the west and St. Louis in the east, although Kansas City was not incorporated until 1850.

Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital. Akmola (renamed Astana in 1998) became the capital of Kazakhstan in 1997, following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Naypyidaw was founded in Burma's interior as the former capital, Rangoon, was claimed to be overcrowded.

Unusual capital city arrangements

A few nation-states have multiple capitals, and there are also several states that have no capital. Some have a city as the capital but with most government agencies elsewhere.

There is also a ghost town which is currently the de jure capital of a territory: Plymouth in Montserrat.

 * Belize: Belmopan was designated the national capital of the then British Honduras in 1971, but most government offices and embassies are still located in Belize City.
 * Canary Islands (Spain): Until 1927, the capital of the Province of Canarias was Santa Cruz de Tenerife. When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status. There is currently a balance of institutions between the two capitals; the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain which has two capitals.
 * Chile: Santiago is the capital even though the National Congress of Chile meets in Valparaíso.
 * Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.
 * France: The French constitution does not recognize any capital city in France. By law Paris is the seat of both houses of Parliament (the National Assembly and the Senate), but their joint congresses are held at the Palace of Versailles. In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.
 * Germany: The official capital Berlin is home to the parliament and the highest bodies of the executive branch (consisting of the ceremonial presidency and effective chancellery). Various ministries are located in the former West German capital of Bonn, which now has the title "Federal City". The Federal Constitutional Court has its seat in Karlsruhe which, as a consequence, is sometimes called Germany's "judicial capital"; none of Germany's highest judicial organs are located in Berlin. Various German government agencies are located in other parts of Germany.
 * India:
 * Andhra Pradesh: Hyderabad is the de jure capital of the state until 2024, while Amaravati is the de facto seat of government since 2014. The Governor of Andhra Pradesh has his official residence in Vijayawada
 * Chhattisgarh: Raipur is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court (judiciary capital) is located in Bilaspur. The proposed future capital is Nava Raipur.
 * Jammu and Kashmir: Srinagar serves as the summer capital of the state while Jammu is the winter capital. Every six months, the entire state machinery shifts from one city to another.
 * Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram is the administrative and legislative capital of the state, while the high court is located in Ernakulam.
 * Himachal Pradesh: Shimla is the primary capital city. Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.
 * Madhya Pradesh: Bhopal is the administrative and legislative capital of the state, while the high court is located in Jabalpur.
 * Punjab and Haryana: Both states share Chandigarh as their capital city. The city itself is administered as a Union territory.
 * Odisha: Bhubaneswar is the administrative and legislative capital of the state, while the high court is located in Cuttack.
 * Rajasthan: Jaipur is the administrative and legislative capital of the state, while the high court is located in Jodhpur.
 * Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital. The proposed future capital is Gairsain.
 * Ladakh: Leh and Kargil serve as joint capitals of the Union Territory.
 * South Korea: Seoul remains as the capital and seat of the government's branches, but many government agencies have moved to Sejong City.
 * Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur is the constitutional capital, home of the King, and seat of Parliament, but the federal administrative centre and judiciary have been moved 30 km south to Putrajaya.
 * Monaco, Singapore, and the Vatican City are city-states, and thus do not contain any distinct capital city as a whole. However, in Singapore's case, the main judiciary and legislative offices are located in the Downtown Core. Similarly, while Victoria was the capital of colonial Hong Kong, the heart of old Victoria, now known as Central, serves as the seat of government offices today. Vatican City, however, is the religious centre of the Roman Catholic Church and houses the offices and departments of Holy See which serves as the government of both the city-state and worldwide Catholic Church.
 * Montenegro: The official capital Podgorica is home to the parliament and the executive, but the seat of the presidency is in the former royal capital of Cetinje.
 * Myanmar (Burma): Naypyidaw was designated the national capital in 2005, the same year it was founded, but most government offices and embassies are still located in Yangon (Rangoon).
 * Nauru: Nauru, a microstate of only 21 km2, has no distinct capital city, but has a capital district instead.
 * Philippines:
 * National capital: Presidential Decree No. 940, issued on 24 June 1976, designates the whole of National Capital Region (NCR) or Metro Manila as the seat of government, with the City of Manila as the country's capital. Some national government institutions and agencies are located within the Manila capital city, while others are scattered on other parts of the metropolitan area. The presidential palace (Malacañang Palace, serving as the seat of the President of the Philippines) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city while the two houses of Congress are located outside the capital Manila but within the metropolis of the same name.
 * Cavite: Imus is designated as the provincial capital, while government offices are in Trece Martires.
 * Portugal:
 * National capital: the Portuguese constitution has no reference to a capital. Although Lisbon is home to the Parliament, the President's and the Prime Minister's official residences, all the Government's departments, all the embassies and the highest courts, no Portuguese official document states that Lisbon is the national capital.
 * Azores: since the establishment of local autonomy in 1976, the Azores has three designated regional capital cities: Ponta Delgada at São Miguel Island (seat of the Autonomous Government); Horta at Faial Island (seat of the Legislative Assembly); and Angra do Heroísmo at Terceira Island (seat of the judiciary and the historical capital of the Azores, in addition to being the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Angra).
 * Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the "commercial capital". However, many government offices are still located in Colombo. Both cities are in the Colombo District.
 * South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein. This is the outcome of the compromise that created the Union of South Africa in 1910. Despite Bloemfontein's status as the judicial capital, the country's highest court, the Constitutional Court of South Africa, sits in its largest city, Johannesburg.
 * Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital. However, the Swiss Supreme Court is located in Lausanne which is also the Olympic Capital.
 * Canton of Zürich: Zürich is the de facto capital of the canton, but the cantonal constitution makes no mention of a capital city.
 * Tanzania: Dodoma was designated the national capital in 1996, but most government offices and embassies are still located in Dar es Salaam.
 * United States:
 * California: The state executive and legislative branches and most government agencies are based in Sacramento but the California Supreme Court is headquartered in San Francisco with secondary meeting places in Sacramento and Los Angeles.
 * Illinois: Springfield has the seats of the branches of state government and serves as the official state capital. However various Illinois government officials primarily reside in or are primarily active in Chicago. (see:  for a further explanation)
 * Louisiana: The state executive and legislative branches and most government agencies are based in Baton Rouge, but the Louisiana Supreme Court is located in New Orleans.
 * New York: The state capital and government are headquartered in Albany, but many officials are mostly active in or live in New York City.
 * Pennsylvania: The state capital is Harrisburg but each one of the state Supreme Court and its two appellate courts holds hearings in the three cities of Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. Also, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.

Capitals that are not the seat of government
There are several countries where, for various reasons, the official capital and de facto seat of government are separated:
 * Benin: Porto-Novo is the official capital, but Cotonou is the seat of government.
 * Bolivia: Sucre is the constitutional capital, and the supreme tribunal of justice is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital. The Palacio Quemado, the national congress and national electoral court are located in La Paz, making it the seat of government.
 * Ivory Coast: Yamoussoukro was designated the national capital in 1983, but most government offices and embassies are still located in Abidjan.
 * Netherlands: Amsterdam is the constitutional national capital even though the Dutch government, the parliament, the supreme court, the Council of State, and the work palace of the King are all located in The Hague, as are all the embassies. (For more details see: Capital of the Netherlands.)

Some historical examples of similar arrangements, where the recognized capital was not the official seat of government:
 * Kingdom of England: The traditional capital was the City of London, while Westminster, outside of the boundaries of the City of London, was the seat of government. They are both today part of the urban core of Greater London.
 * Kingdom of France: The traditional capital was Paris, though from 1682 to 1789 the seat of government was at the Palace of Versailles, located in a rural area southwest of Paris.

Disputed capitals

 * Cyprus and Northern Cyprus: Nicosia, "the last divided capital", is divided in two by the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus (Green Line). Both the Republic of Cyprus, which has de facto control of the south, and the largely unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which has de facto control of North Nicosia, claim the entire city as their capital.
 * Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital. Jerusalem serves as Israel's capital, with the presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) located there, while the Palestinian Authority has no de facto or de jure control over any of Jerusalem. Many countries, with the notable exception of the United States, which recognizes Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, take the position that the final status of Jerusalem is unsettled pending future negotiations. Most countries maintain their diplomatic missions to Israel in Tel Aviv, while diplomatic missions to Palestine are in various places such as Ramallah, Gaza City, Cairo and Damascus.

Capital as symbol
With the rise of the modern nation-state, the capital city has become a symbol for the state and its government, and imbued with political meaning. Unlike medieval capitals, which were declared wherever a monarch held his or her court, the selection, relocation, founding, or capture of a modern capital city is a highly symbolic event. For example:

 * The ruined and almost uninhabited Athens was made capital of newly independent Greece in 1834, four years after the country gained its independence, with the romantic notion of reviving the glory of Ancient Greece. Similarly, following the Cold War and German reunification, Berlin once again became the capital of Germany. Other restored capital cities include Moscow after the October Revolution.
 * A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital). Peter the Great moved his government from Moscow to Saint Petersburg to give the Russian Empire a European orientation. The economically significant city of Nafplion became the first capital of Greece, when Athens was an unimportant village. The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols. During the 1857 rebellion, Indian rebels considered Delhi their capital, and Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed emperor, but the ruling British had their capital in Calcutta. In 1877, the British formally held a 'Durbar' in Delhi, proclaiming Queen Victoria as 'Empress of India'. Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947. Other examples include Abuja, Astana, Brasília, Helsinki, Islamabad, Naypyidaw, and Yamoussoukro.
 * The selection or founding of a "neutral" capital city, one unencumbered by regional or political identities, was meant to represent the unity of a new state when Ankara, Bern, Brasília, Canberra, Madrid, Ottawa and Washington became capital cities. Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Brasília, Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.
 * The British-built town of New Delhi represented a simultaneous break and continuity with the past, the location of Delhi being where many imperial capitals were built (Indraprastha, Dhillika, and Shahjahanabad) but the actual capital being the new British-built town designed by Edwin Lutyens. Wellington, on the southwestern tip of the North Island of New Zealand, replaced the much more northerly city of Auckland to place the national capital close to the South Island and hence to placate its residents, many of whom had sympathies with separatism.
 * During the American Civil War, tremendous resources were expended to defend Washington, D.C., which bordered on the Confederate States of America (with the Commonwealth of Virginia), from Confederate attack even though the relatively small federal government could easily have been moved elsewhere. Likewise, great resources were expended by the Confederacy in defending the Confederate capital from attack by the Union, in its exposed location of Richmond, Virginia, barely 100 mi south of Washington, D.C.
 * Two national capitals refer to another sovereign state. The name of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is thought to be derived from Taani linn, originally meaning "Danish Castle" and now "Danish Town" in Estonian, named after the Toompea Castle, which Denmark controlled in 1219–1227, 1238–1332 and in 1340–1346. Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad and Tobago, was named so in Spanish by the first settlers from Spain in the 16th century. See List of national capital city name etymologies for more.

Capitals in military strategy
The capital city is usually but not always a primary target in a war, as capturing it usually guarantees capture of much of the enemy government, victory for the attacking forces, or at the very least demoralization for the defeated forces.

In ancient China, where governments were massive centralized bureaucracies with little flexibility on the provincial level, a dynasty could easily be toppled with the fall of its capital. In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell. The Ming dynasty relocated its capital from Nanjing to Beijing, where they could more effectively control the generals and troops guarding the borders from Mongols and Manchus. The Ming was destroyed when Li Zicheng took their seat of power, and this pattern repeats itself in Chinese history, until the fall of the traditional Confucian monarchy in the 20th century. After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.

National capitals were arguably less important as military objectives in other parts of the world, including the West, because of socioeconomic trends toward localized authority, a strategic modus operandi especially popular after the development of feudalism and reaffirmed by the development of democratic and capitalistic philosophies. In 1204, after the Latin Crusaders captured the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, Byzantine forces were able to regroup in several provinces; provincial noblemen managed to reconquer the capital after 60 years and preserve the empire for another 200 years after that. The British forces sacked various American capitals repeatedly during the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, but American forces could still carry on fighting from the countryside, where they enjoyed support from local governments and the traditionally independent civilian frontiersmen. Exceptions to these generalizations include highly centralized states such as France, whose centralized bureaucracies could effectively coordinate far-flung resources, giving the state a powerful advantage over less coherent rivals, but risking utter ruin if the capital were taken.

title: Capital city


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Talk:Capital city

Canary Islands
Canary Islands (Spain): Until 1927 the capital of the province of Canarias was Santa Cruz de Tenerife, status who lost to the administrative division of the archipelago carried out in two provinces. In forming the autonomous community in 1982 shared capital between the two provincial capitals, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was established. There is currently a balance of institutions between the two capitals, in fact Canary Islands is the only autonomous region of Spain which has two capitals.--88.9.98.101 (talk) 10:49, 3 June 2016 (UTC)

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Capital city vs National capital?
In the Wikidata there are different objects: wikidata:Category:National capitals (Q7214555) and wikidata:Category:Capitals. Different ones?--Estopedist1 (talk) 08:03, 15 September 2017 (UTC)

Capital vs capitol
So wait, why is a capitol not a "capital building" then? I ad some stupid idea that they were related somehow, without ever putting any actual thought into it. AnnaGoFast (talk) 00:32, 24 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Because the words are false friends. The word "capitol" derives from Capitolium, the great temple built on the Capitoline Hill in Rome.  The United States Capitol was named directly for the building, as it was built in the neoclassical Federal style prominent in the early 19th century; i.e. the name was chosen solely because it was the name of a prior Roman temple.  The word "capital" as a noun meaning "seat of government" is a shortening from the phrase "capital city" (earlier "capital" in English was an adjective, the noun use is a later innovation) and in that case, the adjective "capital" derives from the word Latin word "caput" meaning "head" (c.f. "captain").  Ultimately, "Capitol" probably derives from "caput" but from a much more circuitous route, so much so that the use of the word "Capitol" to refer to the specific building which houses the legislature really has no recent etymological connection to the word "Capital" meaning "city where the government meets".  See here and here for the etymologies of both words.  -- Jayron 32 04:13, 24 February 2018 (UTC)

 * This really ought to be noted somewhere in the article...in the lede section, even. the confusion over the two words is likely to be extremely common, it seems odd that the article never even mentions the word capitol at all. Firejuggler86 (talk) 08:16, 22 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia isn't a dictionary, so articles don't typically have a "common misspellings" or "false friends" section. Nearly none of the world's capitals have a building named "Capitol", so there's scarcely more reason to mention it in the article on substantive grounds than there is "white house" or "casa rosada". Navigational considerations are taken care of, as searches for both capitol and capitol city end up elsewhere, so there's no need to mention it in a hatnote either. Largoplazo (talk) 12:41, 22 January 2021 (UTC)

Egypt
The new planned capital of Egypt, about 50km west of Cairo, is as yet unnamed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Yerongcreek (talk • contribs) 05:58, 29 January 2019 (UTC)

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 * The City of Tegucigalpa, in the central region of Honduras.jpg

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Intro Photos
Per request by User 103.58.92.10 who reverted my edit of the lead photos (showing the capitals of several major powers) for the reason of "taking a consensus before changing" (but changed the photo of Moscow after reverting my edition anyway). Simply wish to know the thresholds of changing such photos. Cheers! In Dialogue with  The Rover  undefined paths 08:56, Tuesday, 17 November 2020 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:07, 30 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Kashif rahman home.jpg

History
Explain why the capital city was removed from beriba to nian 41.57.95.244 (talk) 22:51, 22 May 2022 (UTC)

History
List all the countries in the world and their capital cities — Preceding unsigned comment added by 41.191.104.66 (talk) 10:07, 24 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Have you read Lists of capitals? - David Biddulph (talk) 10:10, 24 November 2022 (UTC)

Italy's capital and coast
The municipality of Rome includes its suburb Ostia which is on the seashore, hence Otaly should be considered as a country whose capital is on the coast. 151.30.171.236 (talk) 18:39, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

"Coastal capitals" map
I have doubts whether the map showing countries divided three ways (coastal capital, inland capital, landlocked country) is adding value to the article. Of course it is possible to construct such a map, but what does it really tell us? Not much. What exactly is a "coastal capital"? If one with a sea-going port, then London is a coastal capital. As pointed out above, perhaps Italy should also count? The map is "own work" (pinging ), and has some idiosyncracies. Like rectilinear lines joining offshore islands to the country. And inaccuracies: it shows the Falklands as part of Argentina, which is not correct. I suggest that the map is not adding encyclopedic value, and should be deleted. Similar comments might apply to the next one: about "multiple capitals" (not even clear exactly what this means). Imaginatorium (talk) 11:36, 19 July 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm in favor of getting rid of both of them. The article contains no context for the coastal breakdown. In the absence of that, it's just one of many breakdowns that are possible, such as capitals that have airports within their city limits, those that have one outside of city limits but within a 30-minute drive of the government center, and those that have neither. Showing this sort of information in map form is generally pointless unless one intends to illustrate regional trends or the prevalance of something. That last part goes for both maps; there's nothing about the list of countries with multiple capitals that is better handled by a map than by simply listing them in a sentence. Largoplazo (talk) 16:09, 19 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Nobody else has said anything, so I have gone ahead and removed them. Imaginatorium (talk) 05:31, 26 July 2023 (UTC)
 * 👍 Good move. Happy days, ~ LindsayHello 07:40, 26 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Capital city


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The Valley of Decision

The Valley of Decision is a 1945 American drama film directed by Tay Garnett, adapted by Sonya Levien and John Meehan from Marcia Davenport's 1942 novel of the same name. Set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the 1870s, it stars Greer Garson and Gregory Peck. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Greer Garson) and Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture. This was Garson's sixth nomination and her fifth consecutive, a record for most consecutive Best Actress nominations that still stands (tied with Bette Davis). The Allegheny City railroad station is misspelled as Alleghany City.

Plot
A young Irish house maid, Mary Rafferty, falls in love with Paul Scott, the son of her employer, a Pittsburgh steel mill owner. Their romance is endangered when Mary's family and friends, all steel mill workers, go on strike against Paul's father as the local steel industry is bought out by bigger concerns. When the Scott family refuses to sell their mill, Paul, the only son who cares about the mill and the workers, tries to intervene amid rumors the union is calling for violence under threat of strikebreakers. The Scott family, Mary and her father, and the union leader try to reach an agreement despite opposition from Paul’s brother.

Reception
Bosley Crowther wrote, "the early phases of the picture are rather studiously on the 'cute' side" and "the middle phases are also somewhat artificially contrived...but the final phase...does have authority and depth;"

TV Guide said it is "huge (and) sprawling... the realism of the sets is a tribute to the art directors and set decorators...three out of five stars." The film was a massive hit, earning $4,566,000 in the U.S. and Canada and $3,530,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $3,480,000.

title: The Valley of Decision


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Love Letters (1945 film)

Love Letters is a 1945 American romantic film noir directed by William Dieterle from a screenplay by Ayn Rand, based on the novel Pity My Simplicity by Christopher Massie. It stars Jennifer Jones, Joseph Cotten, Ann Richards, Cecil Kellaway, Gladys Cooper and Anita Louise. The plot tells the story of a man falling in love with an amnesiac woman with two personalities, who is believed to have killed his soldier friend.

The film was nominated for four Academy Awards, including a Best Actress in a Leading Role nomination for Jones.

Plot
Alan Quinton, an American soldier in Italy during World War II, has been writing letters for his friend, Roger Morland, a man who admits he "never had any standards, manners or taste." Alan has never met Victoria Remington, but regards her as a "pin-up girl of the spirit," to whom he can express feelings he has never expressed in person. He realizes that Victoria has fallen in love with the letters and is concerned that she will be disappointed by the real Roger, who abruptly leaves for paratrooper training in England (and to see Victoria when on leave) after Alan tells him this.

Alan is subsequently injured on the Italian front and finds out that Roger is dead. He is having trouble readjusting to civilian life and spending time with his fiancée, Helen Wentworth. He decides to live at his aunt's farm in Essex. In London, his brother takes him to a party at which he meets Dilly Carson and a woman who introduces herself as Singleton. He drunkenly tells them the story of the letters and falling in love with a woman he's never met, and Dilly realizes he is referring to Victoria. She tells Alan that a murder was committed and the letters were somehow involved.

Alan and his fiancée realize they aren't in love and part amicably before he moves to the farm. While in Essex, Alan sees a sign for Longreach — the address of the farm where he sent all the letters — and visits the house, where he is told that Victoria died over a year ago. He also learns that Roger was murdered by his wife, and Alan feels guilty for ever writing the letters. Back in London, Dilly informs him that Singleton is suffering from amnesia and is actually Victoria. She begs him not to tell Singleton that he wrote the letters because Victoria fell in love with Roger through the letters and married him based on them.

Dilly recounts that one day, she found Roger stabbed to death in the country house on Longreach, but Victoria was completely unable to remember what happened, even though she was holding the murder weapon right beside him. After a trial during which she cannot remember anything, she is sent to a prison psychiatric hospital for a year and then released into the care of Dilly. Victoria never regained her memory, and continues to now live as Singleton, her original name as a foundling. Singleton believes that Alan is in love with Victoria, but does not realize Victoria is actually herself. Nevertheless, Alan and Singleton marry after he gets permission from her adoptive mother, Beatrice Remington. Their marriage is troubled, however, by Alan's love of who Singleton believes is another woman.

Beatrice returns to the farm and Singleton is drawn by her suppressed memories during a drive in the country to visit Longreach and the farm. Conversing with Beatrice, Singleton begins to remember the events of that fateful night: Victoria and an inebriated Roger argue as Victoria rereads the letters to remind herself of the man she loves and not the bitter man with her now. Roger reveals that he is not the one who wrote the letters, and he becomes abusive, striking her. Beatrice takes a knife and stabs him to death as Victoria tries to save the letters he had thrown into the fireplace.

As Alan arrives at the house, Victoria recalls her true identity and realizes that Alan was the one who wrote the letters. Then they passionately kiss.

Cast

 * Jennifer Jones as Singleton / Victoria Morland
 * Joseph Cotten as Alan Quinton
 * Ann Richards as Dilly Carson
 * Cecil Kellaway as Mac
 * Gladys Cooper as Beatrice Remington
 * Anita Louise as Helen Wentworth
 * Robert Sully as Roger Morland
 * Reginald Denny as Defense counsel Phillips
 * Ernest Cossart as Bishop
 * Byron Barr as Derek Quinton

Adaptation and production
The movie was one of the first produced by Hal Wallis, who had recently left his position as head of production at Warner to become a producer with Paramount.

Rand's screenplay adaptation of Massie's book was also influenced by Edmond Rostand's famous play Cyrano de Bergerac. Rand had admired the work since reading it in the original French in her youth. As in Rostand's play, the heroine falls in love with a soldier believing him to be the author of certain love letters that had been written for him by another soldier, including a moving note sent from the front. In Rand's version, a dimension of psychological mystery is added, and the heroine discovers the identity of the true author in time for the protagonists to experience a "happy ending."

Love Letters is the second of four films that featured both Jones and Cotten in leading roles. The others are Since You Went Away (1944), Duel in the Sun (1946), and Portrait of Jennie (1948).

Hal Wallis had to borrow the services of Jones and Cotten from David O. Selznick who had both actors under personal contract (along with director William Dieterle). Cotten was Wallis' second choice, after his first choice, Gregory Peck, turned down the film for being too close to Spellbound. Wallis said Selznick was difficult to deal with and tried to exert control over the film.

Ann Richards had recently been put under contract to Wallis. She and Barry Sullivan tested for the leads and for a moment it looked like they might play them but Wallis decided to cast more established stars. Richards was cast in the second female lead role.

Filming started October 1944 and ended by 1 January.

Music
The musical score by Victor Young was nominated for an Oscar, and featured the melody of the hit song "Love Letters". The first notable release of the song, with lyrics by Edward Heyman, was by vocalist Dick Haymes whose recording peaked in popularity in September 1945. The song has been recorded by numerous artists since 1945, including Ketty Lester, Alison Moyet, Rosemary Clooney, Nat King Cole, Elvis Presley, Jack Jones, Elton John, Del Shannon, and Sinéad O'Connor, among others. The melody or song has been used in other films, including the David Lynch film Blue Velvet (1986), which features the Ketty Lester version.

Reception
Although critical reviews were mostly negative, Love Letters succeeded at the box office. New York Times reviewer Bosley Crowther berated it as "sentimental twaddle", calling Jones' performance "fatuous", Rand's writing "a mucky muddle", and Dieterle's direction "mushy and pretentious".

The Chicago Tribune was indifferent: “This is one of those ‘depends’ pictures — meaning that liking it is a matter of personal taste. Incurable romantics will probably eat it up; others may have a very different reaction. ... Miss Jones does some fine acting in the last half of the film, but seems just plain silly, with affectation extending even to the way she walked, in the beginning. Mr. Cotten, as always, gives a solid and talented performance, but even he almost sinks into the morass of melodramatic verbiage and situations. No one in the film talks like a human being — every one philosophizes all over the place, even the old handyman, coyly known as ‘the gargoyle.’ Maybe I just ain’t erudite, and don’t appreciate that life isn’t a burden, etc., but except for rare moments, I found ‘Love Letters’ a distinct bore.

Accolades
The film was nominated in several categories at the 18th Academy Awards:
 * Best Actress: Jennifer Jones
 * Best Art Direction (Black-and-White): Art Direction: Hans Dreier, Roland Anderson; Interior Decoration: Sam Comer, Ray Moyer
 * Music (Score of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture): Victor Young
 * Academy Award for Best Original Song: "Love Letters," Music by Victor Young; Lyrics by Eddie Heyman

title: Love Letters (1945 film)


text:
Talk:Mad Jack Fuller

Untitled
This is really ugly. Not only does it need full sentences and prose instead of a list of non-sentences, but it doesn't explain who this man is, what his folly was, and what the heck his pyramid was. -- Zoe

 * "Folly", in this sense, is the British term for a particular type of monument or architectural addition; one popular form of folly is the anachronistic building (e.g. Peckforton Castle, a medieval-style castle built in Victorian times). It's a fascinating subject that someone should write a Wikipedia article about, and then we wouldn't get people complaining that they don't know what a folly is. :o)
 * I don't see what your problem with the Pyramid is. The article says what it was.
 * I agree the article needs re-formatting with proper sentences and paragraphs and so on, though.
 * --Paul A

 * The Pyramid is erected in Brightling Churchyard as a future mausoleum for Jack Fuller - "The Pyramid"? Is it known as this world-wide? -- Zoe

 * Well, I've never heard of it before today; but I don't see why it shouldn't be known as "the Pyramid", since that is clearly the thing's name.
 * --Paul A

 * So what's wrong with saying that, in such-and-such a year, he built a pyramid which was to become his mausoleum? -- Zoe

 * Not a thing that I can see. --Paul A

He seems an interesting guy. I can't to see the reformatted version. (I've looked at the website). You can probably add in a link to 'folly' then. (Might even be able to get some jpegs of some famous follies. I know we have a few here in Ireland.) JTD 03:07 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

Discrepancies
I changed the date to 23 Jul 1761. Source: Fuller of Sussex-A Georgian Squire by Geoff Hutchinson, pp. 30 which includes photo of Henry Fuller's tombstone with inscription of date of death. Annette Lloyd Thomas
 * Annette Lloyd Thomas's genealogical website (which has a downloadable GEDCOM file of Fuller's family - hurray!) gives Rev. Henry Fuller's date of death as "23 Jul 1761". The article has 21 Jul.
 * Addendum: Someone has now removed the "21" without explanation! Whoever it was, please let us know how you sorted out this discrepancy. -- Oliver P. 17:23 Feb 15, 2003 (UTC)
 * A "Megalab 99" (it's a BBC thing) page says that the Belle Tout lighthouse was built in 1832; the Mad Jack Fuller website says 1828.

Hmm. How many more pedantic date discrepancies do you think I can find...? -- Oliver P. 02:36 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

Nice work, Oliver. I just didn't even want to tackle that. :-) -- Zoe

 * Thanks! It was actually quite fun. :) Well, not really fun as such, but it was a good way of putting off doing the work that I'm supposed to be doing! It still needs a bit of rewriting, though, as I'm afraid my prose style is a bit rubbish. I might come back to it later... -- Oliver P. 05:03 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

I wrote the original page here as a first attempt - it obviously didn't fit your standard format very well. Don't be too hard on me - I'm new around here. My wife Annette Lloyd Thomas runs the John 'Mad Jack' Fuller website and we spend much time and effort researching the Georgian era here in Toronto, Canada. I'll try to answer any queries re content. --Rupert

 * Aha! In that case, welcome to the Wikipedia! And congratulations to your wife on the website: I found it very interesting. You put a lot of interesting facts into the "Mad Jack" Fuller article. I've tried to put them into paragraphs, but you'd better look over them to see if you can improve upon them. Good luck with the research, and I'm looking forward to seeing any other articles you might write. -- Oliver P. 04:09 Feb 12, 2003 (UTC)

Am I going bonkers and misremembering, or was this lighthouse the one that was recently (a year or two ago perhaps) moved back from the cliff some distance to avoid it going over??? I see the lighthouse itself does not yet have an article and wondered if this was correct, and should be included, when it does get one?Nevilley 17:29 Feb 15, 2003 (UTC)

 * Look at the Megalab 99 page listed above. Mintguy

 * Yes, I was vaguely thinking of starting a stubby article for the lighthouse itself, since all that moving about business might be amusing to talk about, but I haven't got round to it yet... -- Oliver P. 18:22 Feb 15, 2003 (UTC)

A wooden lighthouse financed by Jack Fuller was built at Beachy Head in 1828. This structure was replaced by the more permanent stone Belle Tout lighthouse erected in 1831. The lamp at Belle Tout was not lit until 1834. Annette Lloyd Thomas

Inside the Pyramid
Minor point, he is not actually buried in the pyramid, but rather underneath it. I had the opportunity to go inside the pyramid when there was some concern over its structural soundness and it was opened for inspection. The pyramid itself was empty, although there was a handwritten inscription in charcoal or pencil on the back wall, possibly contemporary with its construction, The inscription which is taken from Thomas Gray's "Elegy in a country churchyard" reads:-

"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of pow’r, And all that beauty, all that wealth e’er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave."

from Dave Lock (Mad Jacks Morris)

 * I think this should be on the main page. It is very interesting and insightful and if someone bothered enough to write it inside of a pyramid tomb, someone could bother to write it on the page associated with the pyramid's creator. If I considered myself at all knowledgeable about this subject of follies and Fullers I would do it myself. Jake Papp (talk) 12:37, 30 May 2011 (UTC)
 * LOL you can do it yourself, trust me, this is Wikipedia, not some kind of scientific journal. You take this place too seriously, if you only knew the inner working and better knew the community of editors you would really laugh. ....SandwitchHawk.... (talk) 22:00, 12 September 2016 (UTC)

Article cleanup.
I did a minor clean up of the article, mainly correcting or removing the redlinks which studded the page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by IrishStephen (talk • contribs) 00:46, 4 August 2011 (UTC)

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Jay Cooke

Jay Cooke (August 10, 1821 – February 16, 1905) was an American financier who helped finance the Union war effort during the American Civil War and the postwar development of railroads in the northwestern United States. He is generally acknowledged as the first major investment banker in the United States and creator of the first wire house firm.

Early life

Cooke was born at Sandusky, Ohio, the son of Eleutheros Cooke and Martha Carswell Cooke. Eleutheros Cooke was a pioneer Ohio lawyer and Whig, a member of the Ohio General Assembly, and a member of Congress from Ohio from 1831 to 1833.

Financier of the Civil War

In 1838, Cooke went to Philadelphia, where he entered the banking house of E. W. Clark & Co. as a clerk, and became a partner in 1842. He left this firm in 1858. On January 1, 1861, just months before the start of the American Civil War, Cooke opened the private banking house of Jay Cooke & Company in Philadelphia. Soon after the war began, the state of Pennsylvania borrowed $3 million ($0 today) to fund its war efforts.

In the early months of the war, Cooke worked with Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase to secure loans from the leading bankers in the Northern cities. (Cooke and his brother, a newspaper editor, had helped Chase get his job by lobbying for him, even though all were former Democrats.)

Cooke's own firm was so successful in distributing Treasury notes that Chase engaged him as special agent to sell the $500 million in "five-twenty" bonds – callable in five years and matured in 20 years – authorized by Congress on February 25, 1862. The Treasury had previously tried and failed to sell these bonds. Promised a sales commission of 0.5 percent of the revenue from the first $10 million, and 0.375 percent of subsequent bonds, Cooke financed a nationwide sales campaign, appointing about 2,500 sub-agents who traveled through every northern and western state and territory, as well as the Southern states as they came under control of the Union Army. Meanwhile, Cooke secured the support of most Northern newspapers, purchasing ads through advertising agencies, and often working directly with editors on lengthy articles about the virtues of buying government bonds. These efforts heralded a particular type of patriotism based on classical liberalist notions of self-interest. His editorials, articles, handbills, circulars, and signs most often appealed to Americans' desire to turn a profit, while simultaneously aiding the war effort. Cooke quickly sold the $500 million in bonds, and $11 million more. Congress immediately sanctioned the excess.

Cooke influenced the establishment of national banks, and organized a national bank at Washington and another at Philadelphia almost as quickly as Congress could authorize the institutions.

In the early months of 1865, the government faced pressing financial needs. After the national banks saw disappointing sales of "seven-thirty" notes, the government again turned to Cooke. He sent agents into remote villages and hamlets, and even into isolated mining camps in the west, and persuaded rural newspapers to praise the loan. Between February and July 1865, he disposed of three series of the notes, reaching a total of $830,000,000. This allowed the Union soldiers to be supplied and paid during the final months of the war.

It was in this effort that he pioneered the use of price stabilization. This practice, whereby bankers stabilize the price of a new issue, is still in use by investment bankers in IPOs and other security issuances.

Although Cooke's bond campaigns were widely praised as a patriotic contribution to the Union cause, his huge personal financial gains did not go unnoticed. Notorious for stalling the deposit of bond proceeds into federal coffers, he was accused of corruption, and on December 22, 1862, Representative Charles R. Train proposed a Congressional investigation of the Treasury – though the investigation was never realized.

Northern Pacific Railway
Cooke moved to Duluth, Minnesota after purchasing land, particularly in Carlton and St. Louis counties, mostly through agricultural college scrip. He saw the lakes as a link to a "Western Empire" and wanted to make it a "new Chicago." He bought bonds for the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad, part of the Northern Pacific Railway and secured an interest in the Western Land Association with the intent of uniting Lake Superior and the Mississippi, as well as reaching European markets through the Great Lakes. He believed the lumber industry would be furthered by the road which lay through hundreds of miles of white pine and hundreds more of bare prairie for settlers. The line was completed in 1870. Along with encouraging the Duluth lumber industry, Cooke built a grain elevator to store grain while the Great Lakes were icebound. Cooke's investments brought other lumbermen to the area to purchase blocks of timber. However, in advancing the money for the work (especially on the railway), the firm overestimated its capital, and at the approach of the Panic of 1873 it was forced to suspend operations. Cooke himself was forced into bankruptcy. Jay Cooke was heavily involved in financial scandals with the Canadian government and caused the Prime Minister John A. Macdonald to lose his office in the 1873 election. Cooke's shares in the Northern Pacific Railway were purchased for pennies on the dollar by George Stephen and Donald Smith, who then finished building the Canadian Pacific Railway.

In the mid-1860s, Cooke had taken his son-in-law, Charles D. Barney, into the firm. After Jay Cooke & Company collapsed in the 1873 panic, Barney reorganized the firm as Chas. D. Barney & Co. Jay Cooke, Jr.—Cooke's son and Barney's brother-in-law—joined the new firm as a minority partner.

By 1880, Cooke had met all his financial obligations, and through an investment in the Horn Silver Mine in Utah, had again become wealthy. He died in the Ogontz (now Elkins Park) section of Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania, on February 16, 1905.

Personal life
Cooke married Dorothea Elizabeth Allen in 1844; she died in 1871. He died in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, in 1905 at the age of 83.

Summer home
Cooke owned a summer home, constructed in 1864–65 and still standing, on the small island of Gibraltar in the Lake Erie harbor of Put-in-Bay, Ohio. John Brown's son Owen was winter caretaker for some years. The island was a lookout for Commodore Perry during the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813.

Philanthropy
A devout Episcopalian, Cooke regularly gave 10 percent (a tithe) of his income for religious and charitable purposes. He donated funds to the Philadelphia Divinity School and for the building of Episcopal churches. These include St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, and St. Paul's Episcopal Church on South Bass Island, across the bay from his summer home on Gibraltar. After he had been forced to give up his Ogontz estate in bankruptcy, he later repurchased it and converted it into a school for girls.

Legacy
A number of geographic features are named in his honor, including:

 * Jay Cooke State Park, a large state park located near Duluth
 * The village of Cooke City, Montana
 * Cooke Township in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania
 * Jay Cooke Elementary School in Philadelphia
 * Cooke Road in Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania
 * Jay, Pitt, and Cooke streets in the Lakeside neighborhood of Duluth
 * A statue of Jay Cooke by Henry Shrady is located in Jay Cooke Plaza near the intersection of 9th Avenue East and Superior Street in Duluth.

title: Jay Cooke


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Tony Morrison

Tony Morrison (born December 17, 1965) is an English former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990s. He played at club level for Oldham (Heritage No.), Swinton, and Castleford (Heritage No. 698).

Background
Tony Morrison was born in St Helens. Lancashire, England.

Regal Trophy Final appearances
Tony Morrison played left- in Castleford's 33–2 victory over Wigan in the 1993–94 Regal Trophy Final during the 1993–94 season at Headingley, Leeds on Saturday 22 January 1994.

Club career
Tony Morrison was transferred from Swinton to Castleford on 27 May 1992.

title: Tony Morrison


text:
Interjection

An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations (ouch!, wow!), curses (damn!), greetings (hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), hesitation markers (uh, er, um), and other words (stop, cool). Due to its diverse nature, the category of interjections partly overlaps with a few other categories like profanities, discourse markers, and fillers. The use and linguistic discussion of interjections can be traced historically through the Greek and Latin Modistae over many centuries.

Historical classification
Greek and Latin intellectuals as well as the Modistae have contributed to the different perspectives of interjections in language throughout history. The Greeks held that interjections fell into the grammatical category of adverbs. They thought interjections modified the verb much in the same way as adverbs do, thus interjections were closely connected to verbs.

Unlike their Greek counterparts, many Latin scholars took the position that interjections did not rely on verbs and were used to communicate emotions and abstract ideas. They considered interjections to be their own independent part of speech. Further, the Latin grammarians classified any small non-word utterances as interjections.

Several hundred years later, the 13th- and 14th-century Modistae took inconsistent approaches to interjections. Some, such as Thomas of Erfurt, agreed with the former Greeks that the interjection was closely tied to the verb while others like Siger of Courtrai held that the interjection was its own part of speech syntactically, much like the Latin scholars.

Meaning and use
In contrast to typical words and sentences, the function of most interjections is related to an expression of feeling, rather than representing some idea or concept. Generally, interjections can be classified into three types of meaning: volitive, emotive, or cognitive. While there exists some apparent overlap between emotive and cognitive interjections, as both express a feeling, cognitive interjections can be seen as more related to knowledge of something (i.e., information previously known to the speaker, or recently learned).
 * Volitive interjections function as imperative or directive expressions; requesting or demanding something from the addressee (e.g., Shh! = "Be quiet!"; Boo! as in "Boo!" she cried, jumping to frighten him)''.
 * Emotive interjections are used to express emotions, such as disgust and fear (e.g., Yuck! expressing disgust; Boo! signalling contempt as in Boo! Shame on you or by audience members or spectators after a performance).
 * Cognitive interjections express thoughts which are more related to cognition, or information known to the speaker of the utterance (e.g., Um! indicating confusion or thinking).

Primary and secondary interjections
Interjections may be subdivided and classified in several ways. A common distinction is based on relations to other word categories: primary interjections are interjections first and foremost (examples: Oops., Ouch!, Huh?), while secondary interjections are words from other categories that come to be used as interjections in virtue of their meaning (examples: Damn!, Hell!)  Primary interjections are generally considered to be single words (Oh!, Wow!). Secondary interjections can consist of multi-word phrases, or interjectional phrases, (examples: sup! from What's up?, Excuse me!, Oh dear!, Thank God!), but can also include single-word alarm words (Help!), swear and taboo words (Heavens!), and other words used to show emotion (Drats!). Although secondary interjections tend to interact more with the words around them, a characteristic of all interjections—whether primary or secondary—is that they can stand alone. For example, it is possible to utter an interjection like ouch! or bloody hell! on its own, whereas a different part of speech that may seem similar in function and length, such as the conjunction the, cannot be uttered alone (you can not just say the! independently in English).

Further distinctions can be made based on function. Exclamations and curses are primarily about giving expression to private feelings or emotions, while response particles and hesitation markers are primarily directed at managing the flow of social interaction.

Interjections and other word classes
Interjections are sometimes classified as particles, a catch-all category that includes adverbs and onomatopoeia. The main thing these word types share is that they can occur on their own and do not easily undergo inflection, but they are otherwise divergent in several ways. A key difference between interjections and onomatopoeia is that interjections are typically responses to events, while onomatopoeia can be seen as imitations of events.

Interjections can also be confused with adverbs when they appear following a form of the verb “go” (as in "he went 'ouch!'"), which may seem to describe a manner of going (compare: 'he went rapidly'). However, this is only a superficial similarity, as the verb go in the first example does not describe the action of going somewhere. One way to differentiate between an interjection and adverb in this position is to find the speaker of the item in question. If it is understood that the subject of the utterance also utters the item (as in "ouch!" in the first example), then it cannot be an adverb.

Routines are considered as a form of speech acts that rely on an understood social communicative pattern between the addressee and addressed. This differs from an interjection that is more of a strategic utterance within a speech act that brings attention to the utterance but may or may not also have an intended addressed (directed at an individual or group). In addition, routines generally are multi-word expressions whereas interjections tend to be single utterances.

Under a different use of the term 'particle', particles and interjections can be distinctions in that particles cannot be independent utterances and are fully a part of the syntax of the utterance. Interjections, on the other hand, can stand alone and also are always preceded by a pause, separating them from the grammar and syntax of other surrounding utterances.

Interjections as deictics
Interjections are bound by context, meaning that their interpretation is largely dependent on the time and place at which they are uttered. In linguistics, interjections can also be considered a form of deixis. Although their meaning is fixed (e.g., "Wow!" = surprised), there is also a referencing element which is tied to the situation. For example, the use of the interjection "Wow!" necessarily references some relation between the speaker and something that has just caused surprise to the speaker at the moment of the utterance. Without context, the listener would not know the referent of the expression (viz., the source of the surprise). Similarly, the interjection "Ouch!" generally expresses pain, but also requires contextual information for the listener to determine the referent of the expression (viz., the cause of the pain).

While we can often see deictic or indexical elements in expressive interjections, examples of reference are perhaps more clearly illustrated in the use of imperative examples. Volitive interjections such as "Ahem", "Psst!", and "Shh!" could be considered imperative, as the speaker is requesting or demanding something from the listener. Similar to the deictic pronoun "you", the referent of these expressions changes, dependent on the context of the utterance.

Interjections across languages
Interjections can take very different forms and meanings across cultures. For instance, the English interjections gee and wow have no direct equivalent in Polish, and the closest equivalent for Polish ' fu'  (an interjection of disgust) is the different sounding ' Yuck! '. Curses likewise are famously language-specific and colourful. On the other hand, interjections that manage social interaction may be more similar across languages. For instance, the word ' Huh? ', used when one has not caught what someone just said, is remarkably similar in 31 spoken languages around the world, prompting claims that it may be a universal word. Similar observations have been made for the interjections 'Oh! ' (meaning, roughly, "now I see") and ' Mm/m-hm ' (with the meaning "keep talking, I'm with you").

Across languages, interjections often use special sounds and syllable types that are not commonly used in other parts of the vocabulary. For instance, interjections like ' brr'  and ' shh! ' are made entirely of consonants, where in virtually all languages, words have to feature at least one vowel-like element. Some, like ' tut-tut ' and 'ahem ', are written like normal words, but their actual production involves clicks or throat-clearing. The phonetic atypicality of some interjections is one reason they have traditionally been considered as lying outside the realm of language.

Examples from English
Several English interjections contain sounds, or are sounds as opposed to words, that do not (or very rarely) exist in regular English phonological inventory. For example:
 * Ahem, ("Attention!") may contain a glottal stop or a  in any dialect of English; the glottal stop is common in American English, some British dialects, and in other languages, such as German.
 * Gah, ("Gah, there's nothing to do!") ends with , which does not occur with regular English words.
 * Psst ("Listen closely!") is an entirely consonantal syllable, and its consonant cluster does not occur initially in regular English words.
 * Shh ("Quiet!") is another entirely consonantal syllable word.
 * Tut-tut ("Shame on you"), also spelled tsk-tsk, is made up entirely of clicks, which are an active part of regular speech in several African languages. This particular click is dental. (This also has the spelling pronunciation  .)
 * Ugh ("Disgusting!") ends with a velar fricative consonant, which is otherwise restricted to just a few regional dialects of English, though is common in languages like Spanish, German, Gaelic, and Russian.
 * Whew or phew, [] ("What a relief!"), also spelled shew, may start with a bilabial fricative, a sound pronounced with a strong puff of air through the lips. This sound is a common phoneme in such languages as Suki (a language of New Guinea) and Ewe and Logba (both spoken in Ghana and Togo).
 * Uh-oh ("Oh, no!") contains a glottal stop.
 * Yeah ("Yes") ends with the vowel, or in some dialects the short vowel  or tensed , none of which are found at the end of any regular English words.

title: Interjection