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Ørland

Ørland is a municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Fosen region. Ørland is located at the southwestern tip of the Fosen peninsula at the northern shore of the mouth of Trondheimsfjord where the Stjørnfjorden arm begins. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Bjugn. Other larger settlements in Ørland include Brekstad (which declared itself to be a town in 2005), Uthaug, Opphaug, Ottersbo, Høybakken, Jøssund, Lysøysundet, Nes, Oksvoll, and Vallersund.

The 457 km2 municipality is the 220th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Ørland is the 110th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 10,472. The municipality's population density is 24.4 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 6.6% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality of Ørland was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). In 1853, the northern district of Bjugn was separated to become a municipality of its own. This left Ørland with 3,361 residents. On 1 January 1896, the southern district of Værnes was separated from Ørland to become the municipality of Agdenes. After the division, Ørland had 3,649 residents and it was just a fraction of its original size.

On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county.

On 1 January 2020, the municipalities of Ørland and Bjugn merged to form a new municipality called Ørland with its administrative centre located at Bjugn.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named "Ørland" (Yrjar). The first element of the current name is Yrjar which is a plural form of which means "gravel". During the 16th century, the suffix (which means "land") was added. In 1590, the name was spelled Ørieland, and by the 1700s, the name was standardized to Ørlandet. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Ørland, removing the definite form ending -et.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 9 February 1979. The official blazon is "Party per bend sinister argent and sable" (Venstre skrådelt sølv og svart). This means the arms have a field (background) that is divided diagonally from the bottom left to the top right. The left side of the line has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The right side of the line has a tincture of black. The design is derived from the historic coat of arms of Inger, Lady of Austraat, a noblewoman from the Rømer family who lived at the Austrått manor in Ørland from 1488 to 1555. She played a major role in the history of the area. She was later portrayed by Henrik Ibsen in his play Lady Inger of Ostrat. The arms were designed by Hallvard Trætteberg. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has four parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Ørland. It is part of the Fosen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

Geography
Ørland is on the Norwegian mainland, situated on the northern shore of the mouth of the Trondheimsfjord, and is largely flat lowland. Ørland faces the Norwegian Sea to the west with Trondheimsfjord and the mouth of the Stjørnfjord to the east. Ørland's topography differs markedly from most other areas in Norway. Only 2% of the municipality exceeds an altitude of 160 m above sea level. Ørland consists of wide open spaces mainly used by Norway's Ørland Main Air Station, agriculture, nature conservation areas and residential neighborhoods. The municipality also includes three inhabited islands (Garten, Kråkvåg and Storfosna) as well as many islets. The Kjeungskjær lighthouse lies at the mouth of the Bjugnfjorden in the northeastern part of the municipality.

The highest peak, Osplikammen at 285 m above sea level, is located within Rusaset that forms a mountainous area in the eastern parts of the municipality. Fosenheia, a peak south of Storfosna, is also highly visible in the landscape. The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Ørland has four Ramsar areas: Grandefjæra nature conservancy, and the wildlife protection areas of Hovsfjæra, Innstrandfjæra, and Kråkvågsvaet, all of which are significant for seabirds, wading birds and migratory birds. The area around Rusasetvatnet is important for bird life. Austråttlunden landscape conservancy also has protected status.

Climate
Ørland has a very mild climate for the latitude, albeit at times windy. Ørland is one of the northernmost locations to have a mild enough winter and long enough summer to fulfill all criteria as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb). The all-time high is 32.4 C recorded 28 July 2019. The warmest month on record is August 2002 with mean 17.5 °C and average daily high 23 °C. The all-time low is -20.5 C recorded February 1958, and the coldest low after 2000 is -18.6 C from February 2010. The coldest month on record is February 1966 with mean -6.1 C and average daily low -9.3 C. The average date for the last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C) in spring is 27 April and average date for first freeze in autumn is 21 October (1981–2010 average) giving a frost-free season of 176 days. The prevailing wind direction is from the southwest, a wind sometimes accompanied by precipitation. Snow rarely remains after 3–4 days in the town Brekstad and other coastal areas of the municipality. However, in the eastern parts of the municipality the snow remains longer making possible skiing and other winter activities at the lighted track near the Yrjar ski cabin. The weather station is located at Ørland Main Air Station

Government
Ørland Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Ørland is made up of 35 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Ørland:

 * 1838–1841: Augustinius Gaarder
 * 1842–1845: Rasmus Gaarder
 * 1846–1849: Eiler Hagerup Nannestad
 * 1850–1853: Rasmus Gaarder
 * 1854–1857: Eiler Hagerup Nannestad
 * 1857–1859: Jacob C. Uthaug
 * 1860–1864: Johan Nicolai Franzen
 * 1865-1865: Johan Arnt Vik
 * 1866–1869: Jonas Angell
 * 1870–1877: Ole Wiggen
 * 1878–1879: Carl Grann
 * 1880–1881: Hans Aage Uthaug
 * 1882–1916: Jakob T. Hoff (V)
 * 1917–1928: Peder Næsset (Bp)
 * 1929–1934: Per J. Gjelvold (Bp)
 * 1935–1940: Leiv Aas (V)
 * 1941–1945: Harald A. Dahl (Bp/NS)
 * 1945–1951: Leiv Aas (V)
 * 1952–1963: Akim Murvold (Sp)
 * 1964–1969: Johan Bakken (Sp)
 * 1970–1973: Alf Bjørkum (V)
 * 1974–1975: Leif Johan Lyngstad (H)
 * 1976–1983: Oddbjørn Hågård (Sp)
 * 1984–1987: Einar Løkra (Sp)
 * 1988–1989: Turid Skogstad (Ap)
 * 1990–1997: Oddvar Hoøen (Sp)
 * 1997–1999: Hallgeir Grøntvedt (Sp)
 * 1999–2003: Knut Ring (Ap)
 * 2003–2015: Hallgeir Grøntvedt (Sp)
 * 2015–2022: Tom Myrvold (H)
 * 2022–2023: Ogne Undertun (Ap)
 * 2023–present: Hallgeir Grøntvedt (Sp)

Economy
Major occupations are the Ørland Air Base, part of the Royal Norwegian Air Force; agriculture; industry, public services; and commerce.

The largest employer of the Fosen peninsula is the military air force base located in Ørland municipality. In 2013 about 650 employees and 254 drafted soldiers worked at the base. With the upgrade of the base it is estimated that the base will have 1070 employees and 565 drafted soldiers in 2020. Ørland Air Base is currently one of two main air force bases in Norway. The Norwegian parliament decided in 2012 to concentrate most of fighter planes at one base: Ørland. The base is currently in the process of upgrading to be able to operate Norway's new fighter jet, the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. Fifty-two planes are to be acquired from Lockheed Martin, most of which will be stationed in Ørland. Ørland is also operating Westland Sea King search and rescue helicopters as well as being a forward operations location of NATO's surveillance plane the E-3/AWACS. The Norwegian F-16 Immediate Reaction Force is stationed at Ørland along with support and administration.

Mascot Høie, established in 1986, is the largest industrial employer in the municipality. The company produces duvets, pillows, blankets duvet covers and bed linens. Headquarters are located in Brekstad, Ørland and employs about 100.

Grøntvedt Pelagic, established in 1988, employs around 100 and processes herring, mackerel and other pelagic species in their factories in Uthaug and Kråkvåg. The company is the world's largest producer of barrel-marinated herring.

In 2010, agriculture employed about 8% of the population of Ørland and the sector is dominating the landscape of Ørland. The most important products were milk, grain and meat. Ørland Cheese and Milk Factory closed its doors in 2011. Ørland Savings Bank was established in 1849, only 26 years after the first of its kind in Norway (in Christiania). The bank is an independent bank, but is part of Eika-Gruppen.

Ørland is a regional center for both shopping and business services. In the city of Brekstad shoppers can visit and enjoy several clothing stores, grocery stores, cafes, lumber, and hardware stores, goldsmiths, flower shop, convenience stores, sports stores, gift stores, restaurants, optometry store, health food store, drug store, Asian grocery store, bookshop, banks, office supply, pet supplies, paint store, art galleries, furniture store, bakeries, car dealers and liquor store. Business services like accountants, attorneys, banks, consultants, advertising agencies, office supplies, auditing, print shops, collection agency and office services are readily available.

Transportation and communication
Passenger ferries run between Brekstad and Trondheim eight times each direction on weekdays (reduced service on weekends). This makes commuting convenient and many commute to and from Trondheim for work or studies on a daily basis. Several employees of the air force live outside of Ørland. There is a daily weekday average of about 900 passengers – 400 of which travels to or from Hitra/Frøya or Kristiansund.

Automobile ferry service connects Brekstad to Valset in Agdenes municipality. This connection is a part of Norwegian County Road 710 (Fv 710) from Orkanger to Krinsvatn. On weekdays the ferry departs every 30 minutes during rush hour; hourly the rest of the day.

Air Norway is an airline owned by Ørland municipality, Nordic Air AS and North Flying AS. The company operates direct flights between Ørland and Oslo Airport, Gardermoen as well continuation of flight to Aalborg, Denmark.

In 1923, the island of Garten was connected to the mainland by bridge. The bridge between the two islands of Storfosna and Kråkvåg opened in 2003. A ferry connects Garten to Storfosna. The ferry also connects Garten and Storfosna with Leksa and Værnes in Agdenes municipality across the Trondheim Fjord.

Good electronic communications is available via fiber network to most residents in Brekstad and the towns of Uthaug and Opphaug while ADSL/VDSL is available everywhere else. Mobile G4 service is available in most of Ørland.

Education and health services
The municipality has two recently renovated public primary schools: Opphaug skole (which serves the villages of Opphaug, Ottersbo and Uthaug) and Hårberg skole (which serves the city of Brekstad as well as the villages of Beian, Garten, Grande, Kråkvåg, Rønne, and Storfosna). A new primary school in Brekstad is planned completed by the school year starting in 2017. Middle school kids attend a school renovated in 2009: Ørland ungdomsskole in Brekstad. Most high school students attend Fosen videregående skole in nearby Botngård.

For preschool children, the municipality offers services at Futura and Borgen childcare centers. The private childcare centers Marihøna Music and Outdoors childcare center, Teletun Nature- and Farm childcare center and Solblomsten Steiner childcare center.

The municipal health services are located in Ørland Medical Center (Ørland Medisinske Senter)/ Fosen Helse IKS/Fosen DMS. The center has developed from being a health clinic and birthing center founded and run by the Norwegian Women's Public Health Association (N.K.S) to a health care center that offers a wide range of services. The municipality has one of the largest offering within decentralized health services in Norway: emergency room, health promotion and disease prevention center, cancer coordinators, mental health services, psychologist, X-ray services, dermatologist, phototherapy, endocrinology (stomach and intestinal diseases), otorhinolaryngology (ear, nose and throat), gynecology, surgery, orthopedics. In addition, the center offers services such as specialized rehabilitation, ambulance, midwife and ophthalmologist.

Attractions
Major attractions are the Ramsar Convention Bird Protection areas, the coastal areas themselves, and the Manor of Austrått, dated 1656 and with a known history from around 1000 AD. Other attractions are the single, large Sessile oak (the northernmost in the world, known as Austråtteika) in the nearby forest; and the fortifications of the triple 28 cm gun turret from World War II, which is now open to public viewing.

History
Archaeological digs has shown that Ørland has been a regional center at least starting at the Iron Age. One of the longhouses found has a unique structure, believed to have served a special purpose, for example a court, customs house or assembly hall. Excavation ongoing for expansion of the airport revealed post holes for long houses and a large midden (rubbish pile), giving detailed information about how the inhabitants lived.

A hillfort from the Migration Period (about 500 A.D.) similarly shows that there must have been something to defend in the area. The hillfort is located on Borgklinten, east of Ottersbo and Austrått. Due to Ørlands geographical location at the entrance of the Trondheim fjord it must have been a strategically important place for the exercise of power or to control trade.

Austrått Manor is the municipality's most important historical building. Austrått has been the site of a manor or royal estate since about 1000 A.D. and several historical figures have been associated with the place. At the time of the Battle of Stiklestad, Finn Árnasson was lord of Austrått. His wife was Bergljot (Bergljót Halvdansdóttir), niece of Kings Harald Hardrada and Olaf II of Norway. Finn's daughter Ingibiorg Finnsdottir became the wife of Thorfinn, earl of the Orkney Islands. Lady Inger of Austrått (1473–1555) was at the time Norway's most prominent woman. Through inheritance, use of force and other methods Lady Inger increased her wealth and controlled vast land areas. After the death of her husband, Niels Henrikssøn (ca. 1458–1523), she had strong political and economical influence. Henrik Ibsen's romantic portrayal of her as an idealistic freedom fighter is probably not accurate. It is believed that Lady Inger and Niels started what later Ove Bjelke completed: the Austrått Manor. Ove Bjelke (1611–1674) built Austrått Manor the way we see it today. It is a manor with a sense of symmetry and symbols of power and inspired by the builder's time as a student in Italy. The complex, which was built around a church from the Middle Ages, was probably completed around 1656. The manor was consumed by a fire in 1916, but was later restored—a process which was completed in 1961.

Storfosen Manor (Storfosen Gods) also has a long history dating at least as far back as the 12th century. This manor was a royal estate in the 14th century, but was for the next 300 years part of the land holdings of the rulers at Austrått. Lady Inger lived here as a widow. The property is still amongst the biggest farms in the county. Ruins of a 14th-century chapel is located on the property. The manor changed hands in 2014; the new owners are developing the manor into a hotel.

Uthaug Manor (Uthaugsgården) owned by the Lund family from 1829, developed throughout the 19th century to become a full-fledged trading company comprising trade in fish and other commodities as well as a guesthouse, post office, telegraph and a steamship terminal. The place is today occupied by Museet Uthaugsgården and is unique due to the preservation of many rooms and items in their original condition.

At the same time Ørland was the center for a large coastal district with a district judge and tax collector. The district comprised the area from Hemne to Osen including islands to the west. Starting in 1837 the church parish and the municipality included what is today Ørland, Bjugn and the northern parts of Agdenes municipalities. The Savings bank, established in 1849, covered the same area. In 1853, Bjugn incorporated as a separate municipality. Ørland got its present-day shape and size when Agdenes incorporated into its own municipality in 1896.

The people of Ørland has for generations made their living as coastal farmers who combined farming, coastal fishing, and seasonal work at the fishing grounds further out. Ørland has had its own cheese and milk factory since 1878 and a grain mill predating written records. Later fish processing has been part of the mix.

With the arrival of the 20th century came new problems and new opportunities. The German occupation was a boom time for workers who built the airport. The airport changed the landscape significantly. Several prison camps, in places like Austrått, Uthaug and Hovde, made a strong impression on the population leading to Fosen being a key area for Norwegian-Yugoslav relations. After the war, in 1954, the airport reopened as a NATO facility. The establishment of the airport the air force became a good opportunity for jobs and careers for the locals. , the Ørland air force base is the biggest employer in the Fosen. The military employees are often in relationships where both partners have high income jobs.

Ørland had its own dairy school from 1894 to 2001, school of home economics since 1923 and vocational school since 1960. The latter two were merged into the Fosen videregående skole in 2000.

Sister Cities
Ørland has sister city agreements with:

Notable people

 * John Aalberg (born 1960), a Norwegian-born American skier
 * Håkon Grjotgardsson (ca.860–870 – ca.900–920), the first Earl of Lade and an ally of King Harald Fairhair of Norway; lived in Ørland
 * Otte Rømer (ca.1330–1409), a nobleman, state councilor, and landowner who established his family ownership of the Austrått estate
 * Inger Ottesdotter Rømer (ca.1475–1555), the wealthiest landowner in Norway, ultimate heiress of the noble Rømer family, and a political intriguer
 * Peter Høier Holtermann (1820 in Austrått – 1865), a Norwegian architect
 * Jørleif Uthaug (1911 in Brekstad – 1990), a Norwegian illustrator, painter, and sculptor
 * Oddbjørn Hågård (1940 in Ørland – 2013), a Norwegian politician and Mayor of Ørland from 1975–1983
 * Hallgeir Grøntvedt (born 1959), a Norwegian politician and Mayor of Ørland from 1997–1999 and 2003–2015
 * Tom Nordtvedt (born 1963), a retired Paralympic swimmer and twice silver medallist who lives in Ørland
 * Jo Tessem (born 1972 in Brekstad), a Norwegian footballer with over 400 club caps

title: Ørland


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Agdenes

Agdenes is a former municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. The 317 km2 municipality existed from 1896 until its dissolution in 2020 when it became part of Orkland Municipality. It was part of the Fosen region. The administrative centre was the village of Selbekken. Other villages in the municipality included Ingdalen, Lensvik, Vassbygda, Vernes, and Leksa. The Brekstad–Valset Ferry connected Agdenes to the town of Brekstad in Ørland municipality on the other side of the Trondheimsfjorden.

At the time of its dissolution, the 317 km2 municipality was the 270th largest by area out of the 422 municipalities in Norway. Agdenes is the 344th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,684. The municipality's population density is 5.7 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 4.2% over the last decade.

General information
The municipality of Værnes was established on 1 January 1896 when it was separated from the large municipality of Ørland which originally included land on both sides of the mouth of the Trondheimsfjorden. The new municipality of Værnes encompassed the area along the south side of the Trondheimsleia and Trondheimsfjorden and it initially had a population of 1,412. The name was changed to Agdenes on 17 May 1897 by a royal resolution. The administrative centre was originally at the village of Værnes where the Agdenes Church is located.

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the western part of Agdenes (Ytre Agdenes) was separated from the rest of the municipality and it was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Snillfjord (population: 681) and Heim (population: 724) to form the new municipality of Snillfjord. On the same date, the rest of Agdenes municipality (population: 858) was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Lensvik (population: 1,136) and the Ingdalen area of Stadsbygd (population: 171) and together, they formed a new, larger municipality of Agdenes.

On 1 January 1995, the Moldtun area (population: 21) was transferred from Agdenes to the neighboring municipality of Snillfjord. This transfer was approved because the area had been without an outside road connection, and so the only connection was by boat which made it very close to the village of Vernes in Agdenes. When the road was built, it was built to the west, connecting it to Snillfjord, not Agdenes. Therefore, it was logical for the residents to vote to change municipalities.

On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county. On 1 January 2020, the municipalities of Agdenes, Orkdal, and Meldal along with the majority of Snillfjord were merged to form the new municipality of Orkland.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Agdenes farm (Agðanes), since the first Agdenes Church was built there. The meaning of the first element is unknown (but it is probably the same meaning as in the name Agder) and the last element is nes which means "headland".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 30 August 1991 and it was in use until the dissolution of the municipality on 1 January 2020. The official blazon is "Ermine, a chief gules" (I hermelin et rødt skjoldhode). This means the arms have a field (background) that has a tincture of ermine, a type of fur design that mimics the winter coat of a stoat. The chief has a tincture of red. The ermine field symbolizes the fur farming industry in the municipality. As ermine is also a royal symbol, it symbolises the fact that in historical times the local overlords (jarls) and kings have resided in the village. The red chief across the top was chosen to represent the importance of strawberry farming in the municipality, although another interpretation is to represent the blood from the axe of the 10th-century King Eric Bloodaxe. The arms were designed by Einar Skjervold.

Churches
The Church of Norway had one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Agdenes. It is part of the Orkdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

Economy
The industrial density of Agdenes is above the national average, and the primary sector is the biggest. Most of the inhabitants work within the milk or forest industry. The growth of strawberries and the breeding of fur animals are important industries as well.

The growth of strawberries has been a major industry in Agdenes for the past 100 years, started by the farmer Lars H. Selbæk in 1886 by planting some strawberry flowers and then giving them away to neighbouring farms. The most common varieties of strawberry grown here are Korona, Sephyr, Senga Sengana, and Bounty. Today, strawberry collection is performed by foreign workers, which are mainly from Poland and Lithuania. In the initial stages, the Norwegian youth were the main workforce, but after the 1970s, it became less attractive for them to pick strawberries in a field.

Government
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor. The municipality fell under the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Agdenes is made up of 17 representatives that are elected every four years. The party breakdown of the final municipal council is as follows:

Mayors
The mayors of Agdenes:

 * 1896–1900: Olaus Tyskø (V)
 * 1900–1919: John O. Bjørgan (V)
 * 1920–1933: Johan Wingan (V)
 * 1933–1934: Anton E. Lystad (Bp)
 * 1935–1943: Kristian Vatn (V)
 * 1943–1945: Lorentz Bjørgan (NS)
 * 1945-1945: Kristian Vatn (V)
 * 1946–1947: Knut Langnes (Ap)
 * 1948–1955: Thomas Valseth (V)
 * 1956–1957: Arne F. Fjorden (V)
 * 1958–1959: Oskar S. Selvli (H)
 * 1960–1963: Arne F. Fjorden (V)
 * 1964–1967: Arne Utnes (Sp)
 * 1968–1975: Ole K. Tøndel (Sp)
 * 1976–1983: Jens G. Singstad (Sp)
 * 1984–1987: Audun Selbæk (Sp)
 * 1988–1995: Anne Marie Grymyr Sterten (Sp)
 * 1995–2019: Oddvar Indergård (H)

Geography
The municipality is situated at the south end of the mouth of the Trondheimsfjord where it meets the Trondheimsleia. It includes several islands including Leksa. The municipality borders the municipalities of Hitra, Ørland, Indre Fosen, Orkdal, and Snillfjord. The lake Øyangsvatnet is located in the west central part of the municipality. The Agdenes Lighthouse sits on the edge of the Trondheimsfjord.

Birdlife
The municipality of Agdenes has a rich and varied birdlife. One of the better places is Litlvatnet. Fully protected since 1983, this nature reserve comprises shallow water with extensive reed beds. The lake is surrounded by farm land, which in its own right provides food and shelter for several species. Formed during the last ice age when sea levels dropped leaving exposed areas of land and trapped water from the melting ice, today's Litlvatnet is a remnant of this.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Agdenes


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Rissa, Norway

Rissa is a former municipality in the old Sør-Trøndelag county in Norway in the Fosen region. The municipality existed from 1860 until its dissolution on 1 January 2018 when it became part of the municipality of Indre Fosen in Trøndelag county. The administrative centre of the municipality was the village of Årnset. Other villages in the municipality included Askjem, Hasselvika, Husbysjøen, Rørvika, Råkvåg, and Stadsbygd.

Prior to its dissolution in 2018, the 621 km2 municipality was the 179th largest by area out of the then 426 municipalities in Norway. Rissa was the 158th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 6,628. The municipality's population density was 11.3 PD/km2 and its population had increased by 4.1% over the last decade.

The municipality was located on the southern end of the Fosen peninsula along the Trondheimsfjord and the Stjørnfjord. The large lake Storvatnet lies on the eastern border with Lensvik. To the north were the municipalities of Åfjord, Bjugn, and Ørland.

The Flakk–Rørvik Ferry crosses the Trondheimsfjord connecting the village of Rørvik with the city of Trondheim.

Toponym
The municipality (originally the parish) was historically named "Rissen", or more recently spelled "Rissa" (Rissi). This was probably the old name of the brackish basin of Botn (literally "the bottom" of the fjord). Even though this is a heavily land-locked fjord with a river-like inlet from the Trondheimsfjord (it was probably a shallow bay in prehistoric times). The name is probably derived from the verb which means "raise" or "rise". (The average water level of Botnen is today about 1.7 m above mean sea level and the surface water is almost fresh from accumulated internal runoff.) Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Rissen. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Rissa.

History
The former municipality of Rissen was established in 1860 when it was separated from the big municipality of Stadsbygd. Initially, Rissen had 3,733 residents. The spelling was later changed to Rissa. On 1 January 1905, the southwestern district of Lensvik (population: 1,019) on the west side of the Trondheimsfjord was separated from Rissa to form a municipality of its own. This left Rissa with 3,394 residents. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, most of Stadsbygd municipality (except for the Ingdalen area) and the southern part of the municipality of Stjørna were merged with Rissa to form a new, enlarged municipality of Rissa. On 1 January 2018, the neighboring municipalities of Rissa and Leksvik merged to form the new municipality of Indre Fosen which became part of the new Trøndelag county on the same date.

Landslide
On 29 April 1978, a major quick-clay landslide occurred south of Rissa at 63.55624°N, 9.9447°W. An area of 330000 m2 sent 6000000 m3 of quick clay slid down into the shores of Botn. The landslip caused a tsunami to strike the north shore at Leira, which destroyed a saw mill and flooded several houses. Out of the 40 people who were in the area at the time of the slide, one person died. A large portion of the slide was recorded on film by two amateur photographers. Almost four years after the event, a new road and stabilisation work in the area had removed most traces of the slide. The area being returned to agricultural use.

Governance
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 23 January 1987 and it was in use until 1 January 2018 when the municipality was dissolved. The official blazon is "Vert, a chaplet of three quatrefoils argent" (I grønt en sølv rosekrans). This means the arms have a green field (background) and the charge is a chaplet (crown) with three quatrefoils. The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The crown design was chosen to symbolize a similar crown of Skule Bårdsson that is depicted on an old tombstone at the Nidaros Cathedral. Bårdsson was the founder of Rein kloster at the Rein estate (which he also owned) in Rissa. The crown is a typical headdress used by the medieval Norwegian dukes. Typically, there are five quatrefoils on a crown like this, but Rissa has only three to symbolize the three municipalities that were merged in 1964 to form Rissa (Rissa, Stadsbygd, and Stjørna). The arms were designed by Oscar Bergsaune. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Rissa was made up of 23 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Mayors
The mayors of Rissa:

 * 1860–1863: Henrik Horneman
 * 1864–1865: Svend Busch Schmidt
 * 1866–1869: Eiler Hagerup Nannestad
 * 1870–1873: Svend Busch Schmidt
 * 1874–1875: Thomas Horneman
 * 1876–1881: Ebbe Bakøen
 * 1882–1895: Torger Halten (V)
 * 1896–1897: Ole H. Rokseth (H)
 * 1898-1898: Torger Halten (V)
 * 1899–1902: Fredrik Horneman (H)
 * 1903–1904: Ole H. Rokseth (H)
 * 1905–1907: Bernt Johannes Ræder (V)
 * 1908–1910: Andreas H. Berg (V)
 * 1911–1916: Bernt Johannes Ræder (V)
 * 1917–1919: Johan A. Dybdahl (V)
 * 1920–1922: Elias Aalmo (V)
 * 1923–1925: Peter L. Kimo (Bp)
 * 1926–1928: Elias Aalmo (V)
 * 1929–1931: Peter L. Kimo (Bp)
 * 1932–1934: Gustav J. Krognes (Bp)
 * 1935–1941: Peter L. Kimo (Bp)
 * 1942–1945: Martin Aalmo (NS)
 * 1945-1945: Peter L. Kimo (Bp)
 * 1946–1947: Martin Skaug (V)
 * 1948–1954: Henrik O. Grenne (Bp)
 * 1955-1955: Petter Åsarød (V)
 * 1956–1959: Marentzius Selven (LL)
 * 1960–1967: Andreas Fallin (Sp)
 * 1968–1971: Arne Holten (V)
 * 1972–1979: Magnar Indseth (Sp)
 * 1980–1985: Johan Arnt Sannan (H)
 * 1986–1991: Olav Lindgaard (Sp)
 * 1992–1995: Ivar Dybdahl (Sp)
 * 1995–1998: Astrid Rathe (V)
 * 1998–2011: Per Skjærvik (V)
 * 2011–2017: Ove Vollan (H)
 * 2017-2017: Liv Darell (Sp)

Fosen Yards
One major employer in Rissa is Fosen Yard AS. Opened in 1972 as Fosen Mekaniske Verksteder, it has built a number of vessels used in Norway and abroad:

 * MV Blue Puttees - ferry with Marine Atlantic
 * MV Highlanders - ferry with Marine Atlantic
 * MV Leif Ericson - ferry with Marine Atlantic

The company was originally Frengen Slip and Motorverksted (c. 1918) located in Fevåg and moved to Fosen by Jens Petter Bye who acquired Frengen Slip and Motorverksted in 1962.

Churches
The Church of Norway had four parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Rissa. It was part of the Fosen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

title: Rissa, Norway


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Bjugn

Bjugn is a former municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. The municipality existed from 1853 until its dissolution in 2020 when it was merged into Ørland Municipality. It was part of the Fosen region. The village of Botngård was the administrative centre of Bjugn municipality. Other villages in Bjugn included Høybakken, Jøssund, Lysøysundet, Nes, Oksvoll, and Vallersund. Bjugn was on the Robek-list in 2015.

At the time of its dissolution in 2020, the 384 km2 municipality was the 245th largest by area out of the 422 municipalities in Norway. Bjugn was the 207th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 4,864. The municipality's population density was 13.7 PD/km2 and its population had increased by 5.6% over the last decade.

General information
The municipality of Bjugn was established in 1853 when it was separated from the large municipality of Ørland. Initially, Bjugn had 2,903 residents. On 26 March 1870, a royal resolution moved an unpopulated part of Aafjord to Bjugn. On 1 January 1899, the municipality of Bjugn was divided into three municipalities. The western district (population: 1,285) became the municipality of Nes. The southern district (population: 2,166) became the municipality of Skjørn. The rest of the municipality (population: 1,256) remained the (much smaller) municipality of Bjugn.

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the neighboring municipalities of Nes (population: 1,107), Jøssund (population: 1,917), Bjugn (population: 1,240), and the northern part of the municipality of Stjørna (population: 676) were all merged to create a new, larger municipality called Bjugn. The population of Bjugn then increased from 1,240 to 4,940.

On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county.

On 1 January 2020, the neighboring municipalities of Bjugn and Ørland merged to become a single municipality called Ørland with its administrative centre at Botngård.

Name
The municipality is named after the old Bjugn farm (Bjugn) since the first Bjugn Church was built there. The name is derived from the Old Norse word bjúgr which means "bent" or "crooked", probably referring to the bent/crooked path of the local fjord, the Bjugnfjorden.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 17 February 1989 and it was in use until the municipality was dissolved on 1 January 2020. The official blazon is "Azure, a rudder Or" (I blått et gull ror). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is a rudder. The rudder has a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The blue color in the field and the rudder design symbolizes the historical importance of fishing in the municipality. The arms were designed by Einar H. Skjervold.

Churches
The Church of Norway had three parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Bjugn. It was part of the Fosen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

Geography
The municipality of Bjugn is located on the Fosen peninsula on the mainland, plus many islands, including the Tarva islands. The Asenvågøy Lighthouse is located in the far north of the municipality. The Bjugnfjorden and Stjørnfjorden both are located partially in Bjugn.

Neighboring Bjugn were the municipalities of Ørland to the southwest, Rissa to the south and southeast, and Åfjord to the northeast.

There are five nature reserves in Bjugn. Hildremsvatnet Nature Reserve is the largest at 23441 daa and includes several nature types, among these are 9 localities identified as boreal rainforest (see Scandinavian coastal conifer forests).

Sports
The Fosenhallen are an indoor multi-use ice rink. The Fosenhallen was used to host the 2014 World Junior Speed Skating Championships.

Government
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor. The municipality fell under the Fosen District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Bjugn was made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Mayors
The mayors of Bjugn:

 * 1857–1863: Rasmus Gaarder
 * 1864–1867: Jacob H. Stuenæs
 * 1868–1875: Lorentz Hegstad
 * 1876–1881: Christian Jenssen (V)
 * 1882–1889: Johan Arnt Hegvik (V)
 * 1890–1891: Johan G. Haugen (V)
 * 1892–1895: Hilmar M. Romstad (V)
 * 1896–1898: Johan Arnt Hegvik (V)
 * 1899–1905: Hilmar M. Romstad (V)
 * 1906–1916: Johan G. Haugen (V)
 * 1916–1922: Størk Hansen (V)
 * 1923–1926: Johan Hegvik (V)
 * 1926–1931: Claus Lien (Bp)
 * 1932–1934: Johan Hegvik (V)
 * 1935–1941: Einar Furunes (Bp)
 * 1941–1945: Erling Hansen (NS)
 * 1945-1945: Gustav Hyllmark (Bp)
 * 1945-1945: Einar Furunes (Bp)
 * 1946–1975: Alf Nebb (Sp)
 * 1976–1983: Bjarne Nilsen (Sp)
 * 1984–1987: Alf Nebb (Sp)
 * 1988–1993: Morten Lund (Sp)
 * 1993–1995: Helen Harsvik (Sp)
 * 1995–1999: Arent M. Henriksen (SV)
 * 1999–2014: Arnfinn Astad (Ap)
 * 2014–2019: Ogne Undertun (Ap)

title: Bjugn


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Wikipedia:Reference Desk archive 1

Reference Desk -- Archive

2001-11-07: If you look at a chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet (see http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html), under pulmonary consonants, there are several combinations of features not given IPA symbols, but not marked as impossible either. Why? Could a language use those consonants? e.g. bilabial tap and approximant, labiodental plosive, trill and tap, retroflex trill and lateral fricative, etc... -- User:SJK

 * 2002-03-17: As I Understand It™, these were omitted from the chart because at the time of publishing, they had not been documented as phonemes in human languages, or at least are extremely rare. However, some of this is now out of date - for example, there are some documented Adamawan and Ubangan languages that have a phonemeic labiodental flap, as well as several Sudanic languages that have a nonphonemic labiodental flap.  (Check out the SIL International's web page for more information on this, and other research in the area of linguistics.)  pgdudda

What is the best way to view the upcoming Leonids meteor shower? Will everyone be able to see it? Might it be a dud? (Posted Nov. 16.)
 * It's too late now, but the best way to view it was simply go somewhere outdoors, not cloudy, and dark, at the right time, and bring a MOTAS :) I had the first four, but not the last, and it was still pretty spectacular.  --Robert Merkel

What is the cause of halos around the moon? I found an answer here:. This is a NASA page. So a follow-up question: can we use that content here on Wikipedia, or not? (Anyone want to do the research?) (Posted Nov. 2, 2001.) -- ''NASA photos are PD unless listed as copyrighted. This one of the halo is listed as c. by Juan Carlos Casado (jccasado@skylook.net). http://www.nasa.gov/qanda/nasa_internet.html allows informational and educational use of photos, links to NASA, & screenshots of pages but it says nothing about the actual text of the pages. The best person to contact appears to be Brian Dunbar, Internet Services Manager, NASA Office of Public Affairs. Sorry, no e-mail address but you can snail mail via NASA Headquarters - Washington, DC 20546''

What are the chances of human colonization of the moon and Mars? Are there any active plans for this? What are some of the prerequisites? (Posted October 24, 2001.) -- There are no plans for this by any current spacefaring organizations, but see Mars Direct for a feasable near-term idea. In the extreme long-term, see Terraforming. I can't find any good entries for medium-term colonization methods offhand (space habitats, etc.). At the moment, colonization plans are really just speculation. Read "Entering Space" by Robert Zubrin for an accessible, and plausible, view of this kind of thing.

What does the scroll lock do? User:Eean (Oct 8 2001) -- not much in today's software; see scroll lock.

I heard on the news shortly after 9/11 that they may have secret military tribunals in the US. Did anything come of this? (Oct 6 2001) -- (i don't think so, but maybe you are thinking of the secret Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court).

Who was Thomas Reid and what did he have to do with the Scottish School of Common Sense? (Posted June 26.) -- See Thomas Reid and common sense.

In "A Study in Scarlet" by Arthur Conan Doyle, an account is given of the early history of the Mormons, in which they are made out to be grossly intolerant, extremely brutal to dissenters, and in which leaders are portrayed as all being polygamists. In what details is Doyle's story correct, and in what details is it exaggerated? (Posted June 26.) (SEE Mormons -- I added what I know)

What is the history of Finno-Ugric people and language (I'm not sure what to call the relevant article)? How did it come to be that people who speak closely-related languages live in such relatively far-flung places as Finland, Hungary, and the middle of Russia (Udmurtia)? (Posted June 26.)

 * 2002-03-17: (pgdudda again...) For an indirect answer, see the article on Uralic languages, to which Finnish and Hungarian belong. The short answer is that the two languages mentioned are the endpoints of a backwards-C-shaped archipelago of related languages, with the "spine" of the "C" running along the Ural mountains.

Presumably, at some point in history, the days on which the weekend or Sabbath is held were made consistent around the world. Presumably, they weren't always the same day. So when did that happen, and was there any resistance? For example, when did Japan start observing weekends at the same time as Europe? (Posted June 26.) Hmm. for a book-length answer, see Eviatar Zerubavel, The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week.

Why do joints pop? Why do knuckles and backs crack? Is it dangerous to constantly crack knuckles or backs? (Not sure what article this would be answered in...one called "joint"? Maybe not?)  (Posted June 26.) -- I'd put it under cracking knuckles, since that seems to be the most common joint-cracking habit as far as I can see. Have created a stubby article answering why the sound is generated under cracking knuckles, looking for info on the consequences of doing this...

What are the main practical applications of mathematics? (Not sure what article would have this answer...) (Posted June 26.)  Well, poker of course! More seriously, I can't think of any major practical field offhand that isn't dependant on mathematics. physics, engineering, telecommunications, architecture, aeronautics, computer science, accounting all come to mind as biggies.

What is the deepest lake in the world? What lake has the greatest volume of water? What lake has the greatest surface area? How do geologists define the word "lake"? (Posted June 26.) (first and third questions answered - July 16)

How do the different parts of a computer (processor, memory, etc.) work together with software to create a functioning desktop computer? I imagine this should be answered on computer, which now has a paltry line, "programmable machine that processes data," and a link to computing, which page consists just of a list of links. Even computer hardware consists of a list of links. All I wanna know is how a computer works. :-)
 * Have a look at the computer article now. (Posted June 29.)

Is interstellar space travel possible? (Posted July 13.) See interstellar travel.

Why isn't there powdered alcohol? (Wouldn't that be great? "Just add water...") (Posted July 16.)

 * Answer, 16 July: Such powders only work with things that are actually suspensions of very fine-grained solids in water, such as milk. Alcohol is a fluid on its own, and does not contain water, thus you cannot 'take the water out'. Still, pure alcohol comes quite close to what you describe (actually, it's rarely pure, more like 95-98%) - however, it's a fluid, not a powder.

 * Would you belive there is such a thing... sort of. I belive they bind the alcohol to something. Add water and ... There's a company I found on google that sells it for food use. http://www.senbausa.com/import.html

 * You'd divide the contents of this answer into such articles as alcohol, suspension, and even powdered drink.

Playing with a magnifying glass and a piece of paper on a sunny day, I had the brilliant idea of making a really, really big magnifying glass, in Arizona, and using it to make electricity? C'mon, tell me why this isn't the next big thing in alternative energy circles!! (July 16.)

 * Answer, 16 July: You would still need some apparatus to turn the energy that is focused by your magnifying glass into a usable form of energy, like electricity. Once you have found a way to do that, you will probably realise that you get at least as much energy, with less difficulties and less space use, with an array of solar collectors the size of your original magnifying glass.

 * This one you would put in a (probably very long) article about alternative energy, or about magnifying glasses, or power generation (or should that be electrical generation).
 * note - you should see what they have in barstow, ca, it is a tower with a lot of mirrors pointing at a central mass that gets very hot to produce steam and electricity. --mike dill

 * this would fit under solar power. Using mirrors to concentrate sunlight has hte same effect as using lenses, but it's much easier and cheaper to build.

Why is arsenic poisonous? -- Partial answer at arsenic.

title: Wikipedia:Reference Desk archive 1


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Roan (color)

Roan is a coat color found in many animals, including horses, cattle, antelope, cats and dogs. It is defined generally as an even mixture of white and pigmented hairs that do not "gray out" or fade as the animal ages. There are a variety of genetic conditions which produce the colors described as "roan" in various species.

Roan horses
A horse with intermixed white and colored hairs of any color is usually called a roan. However, such mixtures, which can appear superficially similar, are caused by a number of separate genetic factors. Identifiable types of roans include true or classic roan, varnish roan, and rabicano, though other currently unknown factors may be responsible for ambiguous "roaning." Gray horses, which become lighter as they age until their hair coat is nearly completely white, may be confused with roans when they are young. Duns, which are solid-colored horses affected by the dun dilution factor on their bodies but with darker points, are also sometimes confused with roans, but they do not have the intermixed white and colored hairs of a roan.

Horses with the classic or true roan pattern may be any base color which is intermingled with unpigmented white hairs on the body. Except for white markings under the control of other genes, the head, mane, tail, and lower legs are dark. Roan is a simple dominant trait symbolized by the Rn allele. The University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine's genetics services have developed a DNA test that uses genetic markers to indirectly determine the number of Rn or rn alleles a horse has. The mutation responsible for true roan has not yet been identified exactly, but been assigned to equine chromosome 21 (ECA21) in the KIT sequence. The overall effect is that of a silver or lightened appearance to the affected part of the coat. Descriptions of roan coat colors are as follows:
 * Red Roan or strawberry roan describes true or classic roan on a chestnut base coat. The mane and tail remain red or have only a few white hairs, while the body ranges from nearly chestnut to pinkish. Geneticists prefer the term "chestnut roan," but this term is not in common use.
 * Bay Roan is true roan on a bay coat. The particular shade depends on the underlying shade of bay; but the mane, tail, and lower legs are black, and the reddish body is intermingled with white hairs. The head is usually red. Formerly, bay roans were lumped together with chestnut roans and both called "red roans."
 * Blue Roan is true roan on a black coat. The mane, tail, head, and legs remain black, while the body takes on a grayish or bluish appearance. Blue roans are sometimes mistaken for grays or grullos. However, Grays fade with age, while roans do not; and grullos are blue duns and possess dun markings but not intermingled white hairs.

Any other coat color may also be affected by roaning. Few combinations have the same unique terminology applied to the common roan colors, although palomino roans are sometimes called honey roans.

Roan mimics
A varnish roan is not a true roan; it is actually one of the leopard complex coat patterns associated with Appaloosa, Knabstrupper, Noriker horse and related breeds. Rabicano is a white pattern that falls into the category of roaning or scattered white hairs, the genetics of which are not yet fully understood. Sometimes called ticking, rabicano is common even in breeds that do not have true or classic roan, including Arabians and Thoroughbreds. This pattern usually takes the form of scattered white hairs around the junction of the stifle and flank, and peculiar rings of white hairs near the base of the tail. This trait is called a coon tail or skunk tail. Some forms of sabino, which is a pinto pattern, have roaning along the edges of other white spots or markings A roan horse may not fit into any of the traditional categories as there is much still to be learned about the genetics of roan. The existence of other types of roaning conditions not covered by those mentioned here is possible and likely.

Roan dogs
The genetics behind roan dogs are still unclear, and at present candidate genes have been ruled out. There remains a great deal of ambiguity in terminology regarding mottled dogs, which are called roan, ticked, mottled and belton depending on the context. The roan or ticked color is described in many breeds of gundogs such as English Cocker Spaniels, American Cocker Spaniels, English Springer Spaniels, Field Spaniels and Brittanys, German Longhaired Pointers, German Shorthaired Pointers, Bracchi Italiani, Spinoni Italiani, Lagotti Romagnoli, English Setters, Small Münsterländer as well as Border Collies and many other breeds.

In dogs, roan manifests itself only in unpigmented areas, the presence and shape of which are determined by other genes. This is in stark contrast to true roan horses and roan cattle, which are roan only in pigmented regions of their coat and may have white markings. Instead, dogs with roaning or ticking are born with clear, open white markings which begin to fill in with flecking in the subsequent weeks and continue to darken with age. Most breed standards use the terms "ticked" and "roan" interchangeably, with the former referring to clearly defined flecks on a white background and the latter to flecks so closely spaced that the mixture appears even. The terminology that relates the underlying coat color with the roan modifier is often breed-specific, but most standards call a black dog with roaning blue. In breeds that are characterized by roaning and ticking such as the Large Munsterlander, clear white-marked individuals may be called plated. The term belton is reserved for English Setters.

In 1957, Little suggested that roan and ticking were controlled separately, and postulated that roan may have been homologous to "silvered" coat in mice. This condition in mice is actually homologous to merle, which might be described by some as "roan." In 2007, the gene responsible for roan cattle (KITLG) was refuted as a possible cause of roan in dogs. Neither roan nor ticking, if they are independently caused, appear to be recessive.

Roan cattle
Breeds of cattle known for roans are the Belgian Blue and Shorthorn. Among the former, coat color may be solid black, solid white, or blue roan; the latter may be solid red, solid white, or red roan. Belgian Blues also typically exhibit spotting patterns, which are genetically separate from roan. As a result, most roan cows exhibit blotches of clearly colored and clearly white hair, with roan patches. Some "cryptic" roan cattle appear solid, but upon close inspection reveal a small roan patch. Roan cattle cannot "breed true" but breeding white cattle to a solid mate will always yield a roan calf. The white color typical of Charolais and White Park breeds is not related to roan.

Roan in Shorthorns and Belgian Blues is controlled by the mast cell growth factor (MGF) gene, also called the steel locus, on bovine chromosome 5. Part of the KIT ligand, this region is involved in many cell differentiation processes. Mast cell growth factor promotes pigment production by pigment cells, and without it, skin and hair cells lack pigment. With two functional MGF genes (homozygous dominant), cattle are fully pigmented; without any functional MGF genes (homozygous recessive), they are white. MGF-controlled roan occurs when cattle possess one functional and one non-functional MGF gene (heterozygous), resulting in a roughly even mixture of white regions and colored regions.

The reproductive condition "White Heifer Disease," associated with the MGF gene, is characterized by homozygous MGF-white heifers with incomplete reproductive tracts.

Roan guinea pigs
The roan coloration of guinea pigs is linked to microphthalmia. The allele that controls roaning in guinea pigs is incompletely dominant: an animal with one copy of the allele will have varying amounts of white hair scattered through its coat, particularly on the back and sides.

About 25% of guinea pigs born to two roans are completely white, having two copies of the "roan" allele, and may have a constellation of deformities associated with "lethal white syndrome", although this condition has no relation to overo lethal white syndrome in horses or double merle syndrome in dogs. Lethal white guinea pigs ("lethals") often die shortly after birth or at weaning age, but with hand-feeding and regular dental care, lethals may live 2 to 3 years. Some lethals have reportedly lived to 6 or 7 years. It is worth noting that, unlike anophthalmic hamsters, guinea pigs with the condition are not sterile, but females may be unable to deliver live young.

Lethal white syndrome symptoms include:
 * Partial or complete blindness
 * Partial or complete deafness
 * Microphthalmia or anophthalmia
 * Unpigmented eyes
 * Missing or deformed incisors
 * Deformed molars
 * Elongated tooth roots
 * Malabsorption in the small intestine, due in some cases to lack of intestinal villi
 * Increased susceptibility to illness

Roan coloration is not to be confused with the "magpie" coloration of guinea pigs, which is a brindle color lacking red pigment due to the "chinchilla" allele, an allele also responsible for self white and silver agouti coloration.

title: Roan (color)


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Michael J. Smith

Michael John Smith (April 30, 1945 – January 28, 1986), (Capt USN) was an American engineer and astronaut. He served as the pilot of the Space Shuttle Challenger when it was destroyed during the STS-51-L mission, breaking up 73 seconds into the flight, and at an altitude of 48,000 feet (14.6 km), killing all seven crew members. Smith's voice was the last one heard on the Challenger voice recorder.

During his Naval career, Smith flew 28 different types of civilian and military aircraft and logged 4,867 hours of flying time. Following the Challenger disaster, he was promoted posthumously by Congress to the rank of captain, and has had a chair named in his honor at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey, California.

Early life and military career
Smith was born April 30, 1945, in Beaufort, North Carolina. He graduated from Beaufort High School in 1963 and went on to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Naval Science from the United States Naval Academy in 1967.

Smith subsequently attended the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey, California, from which he graduated with a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in 1968. Smith was awarded a Marshall Scholarship and went on to complete naval aviation jet training at Naval Air Station Kingsville, Texas, receiving his aviator wings in May 1969. Smith was then assigned to the Advanced Jet Training Command (VT-21) where he served as an instructor from May 1969 to March 1971. During the two-year period that followed, Smith flew A-6 Intruders and completed a tour in 1972 during the Vietnam War while assigned to Attack Squadron 52 (VA-52) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63). During his deployment with VA-52, Smith took part in Operation Linebacker, the first continuous bombing effort conducted against North Vietnam since 1968.

After returning from Vietnam, Smith attended U.S. Naval Test Pilot School (NTPS), graduating from the program in 1974. Following NTPS, he was assigned to the Strike Aircraft Test Directorate at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, to work on the A-6E TRAM and Cruise missile guidance systems. Smith returned to NTPS in 1976 and completed an 18-month assignment there as an instructor. From Patuxent River, he was assigned to Attack Squadron 75 (VA-75), serving as a maintenance and operations officer while completing two Mediterranean cruises aboard the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV-60).

During his time in the Navy, Smith flew 28 different types of civilian and military aircraft, cumulating in 4,867.7 hours of flying time.

Astronaut career
Smith was selected for the astronaut program in May 1980; he served as a commander in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL), Deputy Chief of Aircraft Operations Division, Technical Assistant to the Director, Flight Operations Directorate, and was also assigned to the Astronaut Office Development and Test Group. In addition to being pilot on the Challenger, Smith had been slated to pilot a future Shuttle mission (STS-61-I) which had been scheduled for Fall 1986. Smith's voice was the last one heard on the flight deck tape recorder aboard Challenger; his final remark was "Uh oh."

Following the Challenger disaster, examination of the recovered vehicle cockpit revealed that three of the crew members' Personal Egress Air Packs were activated: those of Smith, mission specialist Judith Resnik, and mission specialist Ellison Onizuka. The location of Smith's activation switch, on the back side of his seat, means that either Resnik or Onizuka could have activated it for him. This is the only evidence available from the disaster that shows Onizuka and Resnik were alive after the cockpit separated from the vehicle. However, if the cabin had lost pressure, the packs alone would not have sustained the crew during the two-minute descent.

While analyzing the wreckage, investigators discovered that several electrical system switches on Smith's right-hand panel had been moved from their usual launch positions. Fellow Astronaut Richard Mullane wrote, "These switches were protected with lever locks that required them to be pulled outward against a spring force before they could be moved to a new position." Later tests established that neither the force of the explosion, nor the impact with the ocean could have moved them indicating that he made the switch changes, presumably in an attempt to restore electrical power to the cockpit after the crew cabin detached from the rest of the orbiter.

Recognition
Smith was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 2004, along with all crew members lost in the Challenger and Columbia accidents. He also received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal (posthumous), the Navy Distinguished Flying Cross, three Air Medals, 13 Strike/Flight Air Medals, the Navy Commendation Medal with "V" Device, the Navy Unit Citation, and the Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Silver Star.

The Michael J. Smith Field airfield in his hometown of Beaufort, North Carolina is named after Smith.

Smith was portrayed by Brian Kerwin in the 1990 TV movie Challenger.

title: Michael J. Smith


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Osen

Osen is a municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Fosen region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Steinsdalen.

The 387 km2 municipality is the 240th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Osen is the 340th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 904. The municipality's population density is 2.4 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 10.5% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality of Osen was established on 1 June 1892 when the old municipality of Bjørnør was split into three new municipalities: Osen (population: 1,575), Roan (population: 2,069), and Stoksund (population: 1,122). The municipal boundaries have not changed since.

On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Osen farm (Óss) since the first Osen Church was built there. The name,, means "mouth of a river" (referring to the mouth of the Steinselva river). The suffix -en was added later to give the finite form of, giving the meaning of Osen as "the Os" or "the mouth of the river".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 27 March 1987. The official blazon is "Azure, a net argent" (Blått dekket med sølv fiskegarn). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is part of a fishing net. The fishing net has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The design is based on an old petroglyph and it was chosen to symbolize the importance of fishing for the community. Several different arms were designed, all with fisheries as the main theme, but the council finally chose this one, which is unique among Norwegian civic heraldry. The arms were designed by Einar H. Skjervold. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Osen. It is part of the Fosen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

History
Osen was used as a satellite prison camp during the World War Two, mainly for Yugoslavian population.

Geography
The municipality of Osen is located to the north of Roan and the ocean lies to the west.

Most of the residents live in the Steinsdalen valley or along the coast. The northern part of the municipality has no direct road connection to the rest of the municipality, but is connected to the municipality of Flatanger to the north.

The Kya lighthouse is situated on a small island west in the Norwegian Sea, while Buholmråsa lighthouse lie on an island along the coast in the western part of the municipality.

Climate
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute has a weather station located near Buholmråsa lighthouse, with recording since 1965, showing a marine west coast climate/oceanic climate (Cfb). The all-time high temperature is 30.3 °C recorded July 2014; the all-time low is -20.7 °C recorded in February 1966. The four months June - September have never recorded overnight freezes. The average date for the first overnight freeze (below 0 °C) in autumn is November 7 (1981-2020 average). The driest month on record is January 1972 with 5.4 mm precipitation, and the wettest is September 1975 with 232.6 mm.

Government
Osen Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Osen is made up of 15 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Osen:

 * 1892–1893: Johan Moses Møller (H)
 * 1894–1895: Sivert Kolstad (V)
 * 1896–1901: Johan Moses Møller (H)
 * 1902–1913: Sivert Kolstad (V)
 * 1913–1914: Joakim Brusdal (V)
 * 1914–1916: Johan Sundet (V)
 * 1916-1916: Johan J. Vingsand
 * 1917–1922: Morten L. Osen
 * 1923–1934: Jakob Hopen (V)
 * 1935–1941: Svein Osen (V)
 * 1942–1945: Magnus Sundet
 * 1945–1947: Svein Osen (V)
 * 1948–1955: Marius Sæther (Ap)
 * 1956–1957: Fredrik Brattgjerd (Ap)
 * 1958–1963: Lars Nesmo (Sp)
 * 1964–1967: Morten Johannessen (Sp)
 * 1968–1971: Harald Hanssen (V)
 * 1972–1975: Ingar Nilssen (KrF)
 * 1976–1979: Vidar Sætran (Ap)
 * 1980–1983: Tormod Storvoll (Sp)
 * 1984–1985: Einar Hepsø (Ap)
 * 1985–1991: Asbjørn Teigen (Ap)
 * 1992–1995: Bjarne Hestmo (Sp)
 * 1995–2003: Einar Hepsø (Ap)
 * 2003–2007: Julla Engan (Ap)
 * 2007–2015: Jørn Nordmeland (V)
 * 2015–2023: John Einar Høvik (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Håvard Strand (LL)

Notable people

 * Augusta Aasen (1878 in Osen – 1920), a Norwegian politician who was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis (the only Norwegian woman buried there)
 * Einar Hepsø (1926–2005), a Norwegian fishers' leader and politician who was Mayor of Osen 1984-1985 and 1995-2003
 * Vivian Sørmeland (born 1985 in Osen), a contestant in Idol (Norway) in May 2006

title: Osen


text:
Oppdal

is a municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Dovre region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Oppdal. Other villages in the municipality include Lønset, Vognillan, Fagerhaug, and Holan. The Oppdal Airport, Fagerhaug is located in the northeastern part of the municipality.

The 2274 km2 municipality is the 24th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Oppdal is the 139th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 7,256. The municipality's population density is 3.3 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 6.8% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The prestegjeld of Oppdal was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). The municipal boundaries have not changed since that time. On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Oppdal farm (Uppdalr) since the first Oppdal Church was built there. The first element is upp which means "upper". The last element is dalr which means "valley" or "dale". Historically, the name was also spelled Opdal.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 19 February 1982 (they were re-approved on 13 May 1983 after the government slightly changed the wording of the blazon). The official blazon is "Azure, three piles argent conjoined in pall" (I blått tre motstøtende sølv spisser i form av et gaffelkors). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is three triangles that meet in the centre, forming a Y-shaped design. The triangle design has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The design was nicknamed "meeting of ways" (vegamot) representing three important roads that meet in Oppdal, making it a major centre of commerce and transportation. One road comes from Dombås in the south going over the Dovre Mountains, one road comes from Sunndalsøra in Nordmøre from west, and the third road comes from Trondheim in the north(east). Historically, this area was a gathering place due to its central location. The arms were designed by Einar H. Skjervold. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has three parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Oppdal. It is part of the Gauldal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

History
Oppdal is an alpine community which dates back to the Norwegian Iron Age. It is located at a crossroads for traffic from Trondheim, the Dovrefjell mountain range, and Sunndal on the west coast. This is reflected in the three rays in the coat-of-arms.

Oppdal was first settled sometime before 600 CE. By then there were about 50 farms in the area, and this number grew by about 20 more in the Viking Age. There are remnants of over 700 Pagan grave mounds from the time at Vang, in which jewelry and other pieces from the British Isles were found. This indicates that the area was relatively affluent and participated in the Viking trade. Much of the affluence was likely derived from the availability of game, both in the area and from nearby mountain ranges. Several game traps can still be seen in mountains around Oppdal, particularly ditches for reindeer. There have been more than 80 finds of at least two different types of arrowheads in the area.

Archeological finds in Oppdal indicate that there were less pronounced economic disparities than elsewhere in Norway. Communal efforts to hold off famine and share burdens appear to have been common throughout several centuries.

During the Christian era, Pagan shrines and grave mounds were replaced by churches and chapels. Five rural churches were built in Oppdal at the time, in Vang, Ålbu, Lønset, Lo, and Nordskogen. The Oppdal Church, built to replace an earlier stave church in 1653, stands to this day.

Oppdal was a stop for pilgrims on their way to the St. Olav shrine at the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim during the Middle Ages. As a result of the heavy stream of pilgrims who followed the Pilgrim's Route prior to the Reformation, King Eystein erected mountain stations where the pilgrims could find food and shelter. Kongsvoll, located on the Driva River along the route where pilgrims passed from the Gudbrandsdal valley into Oppdal was one of these stations, and is still an inn today. Drivstua, further north, was another.

Oppdal was particularly affected by the Black Plague, which led to the abandonment of a number of farms. With a worsening of the climate, the community hadn't recovered 170 years later, and there were only 35 farms and 350 people left. Only one church at Vang was still in use. As late as 1742, people in Oppdal died of hunger.

In the early 17th century, Oppdal's fortunes turned and population grew. By 1665, 2,200 people lived in Oppdal, and a new church was built at Vang, the Oppdal Church, which stands to this day. The Lønset Chapel and Fagerhaug Chapel have been re-established, and Oppdal houses several other religious communities. Since the 18th century, the inhabitants of Oppdal have made significant investments in education, leading to the establishment of several small rural schools and, recently, a high school.

In the 19th century, increased fertility and reduced mortality led to population growth that could not be sustained by agricultural resources. Many became tenant farmers, and eventually a large proportion of people from Oppdal emigrated to the United States. The population decreased until 1910, when the railroad from Oslo to Trondheim via Dovre (the Dovre Line) created employment and opened the area for tourism. In 1952, the first ski lift opened, and with further expansions Oppdal now offers one of Norway's largest downhill networks.

In 2013, NRK said that a Labour Party politician was fighting against the establishment of a refugee center.

Government
Oppdal Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Oppdal is made up of 25 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Oppdal:

 * 1837–1841: Ingebrigt Haldorsen Sæter
 * 1842–1845: Peder Sæther
 * 1846–1847: John Furunes
 * 1848–1871: Ingebrigt Haldorsen Sæter
 * 1872–1875: Peder Sæther
 * 1876–1879: Ingebrigt Vigen
 * 1880–1889: Mons Bjørlo (V)
 * 1890–1895: Iver Ørsta (V)
 * 1896–1904: Ole P. Haugseth (V)
 * 1905–1907: Iver Ørsta (V)
 * 1908–1916: Ole P. Haugseth (V)
 * 1917–1919: John Engelsjord (V)
 * 1920–1922: Engel Meslo (V)
 * 1923–1925: Sivert H. Sæther (Bp)
 * 1926–1928: Esten K. Gorseth (Bp)
 * 1929–1931: Ole Olsen Stuen (Bp)
 * 1932–1937: Peder O. Haugseth (Bp)
 * 1938–1940: Esten K. Gorseth (Bp)
 * 1941-1941: Håkon S. Wognild (NS)
 * 1941–1945: Georg K. Aalbu (NS)
 * 1945-1945: Esten K. Gorseth (Bp)
 * 1946–1947: Ole I. Aalbu (V)
 * 1948–1951: Leif Skorem (Bp)
 * 1952–1959: Knut H. Dørum (Bp)
 * 1960–1965: Hallvard Bjørndal (Sp)
 * 1966–1967: Ola P. Hoel (Sp)
 * 1968–1971: Ola Erik Stugu (Sp)
 * 1972–1975: Ola P. Hoel (Sp)
 * 1976–1979: Erik A. Nerhoel (Sp)
 * 1980–1983: Ola P. Hoel (Sp)
 * 1984–1985: Per Asphaug (H)
 * 1986–1987: Hans Rogstad (KrF)
 * 1988-1992: Ola Røtvei (Ap)
 * 1992-1993: Ola Arne Aune (Sp)
 * 1994-2003: John Egil Holden (Sp)
 * 2003-2015: Ola Røtvei (Ap)
 * 2015-2019: Kirsti Welander (Ap)
 * 2019–2023: Geir Arild Espnes (Sp)
 * 2023-present: Elisabeth Hals (V)

Geography
Oppdal is bordered by two municipalities in Trøndelag county (Rennebu to the northeast and Rindal to the west), two municipalities in Møre og Romsdal county (Surnadal to the north and Sunndal to the west), and three municipalities in Innlandet county (Tynset to the east and Folldal and Dovre to the south).

European route E6 passes straight through the commercial center of Oppdal going north and south, and Norwegian National Road 70 connects Oppdal to Kristiansund in the west.

The southeastern part of Trollheimen mountain range is located in the municipality. The municipality covers an area equal to the entire county of Vestfold. The administrative centre is at 545 m above sea level. In 2001, its drinking water was named the best in Norway.

Most of Oppdal's area is mountainous, with large areas above the treeline. At an elevation of 1985 m, Storskrymten is the highest mountain in the county. Other mountains include Blåhøa and Allmannberget. The Speilsalen tunnel was a glacial formation near Blåhøa.

In the valleys there are creeks and rivers which are surrounded by spruce and pine woods; closer to the treeline, birches dominate. There are several lakes in the municipality, the most famous being Gjevilvatnet, a particularly scenic lake with hiking and cross-country skiing trails around it. The lake Fundin is located in the southern part of the municipality.

Heather and alpine meadows provide grazing for sheep in the summer. About 1161 km2 of the mountains has been held since time immemorial as a collective (almenning) by farmers in the area, giving them the right to hunt, fish, and rent cabins.

Climate
Oppdal has a boreal climate, with spring as the driest season and summer as the wettest season. The climate is slightly continental with an average annual precipitation of only 600 mm. Considering the inland location and the altitude of 600 m above sea level, the winters are fairly mild. The all-time high 30.1 C was recorded 26 July 2019. The all-time low -26.1 C is from February 2010. The weather station at Oppdal-Sæther (elevation: 604 m) started recording December 1999. The earlier weather station Oppdal-Bjørke (elevation: 625 m) recorded from 1975 to August 1992. Data for precipitation days is from Oppdal-Mjøen (elevation: 512 m), which averaged just 470 mm annually in 1961–1990.

Snakes have never made it to Oppdal, and snowy weather is not that unusual on the 17 May National Day celebrations.

Economy
The main industries in Oppdal today are agriculture, tourism, and some light manufacturing. It has the largest sheep population of any municipality in Norway, with 45,000 head of sheep put out to graze in the mountains every year. It is one of Norway's best ski resorts and is surrounded by national parks. A slate quarry exists.

Notable people

 * Inge Krokann (1893 in Oppdal – 1962), a writer, his use of the Oppdal dialect makes the area central to his work
 * Olav Dalgard(1898–1980), an art historian, filmmaker, author and educator who was raised at Oppdal
 * Einar Ingvald Haugen (1906–1994), a Norwegian-American linguist, author, and professor at University of Wisconsin–Madison; he was born in Sioux City, Iowa to Norwegians from Oppdal
 * Sivert Donali (1931 in Oppdal – 2010), a Norwegian sculptor
 * Harald Sæther (born 1946 in Oppdal), a Norwegian composer who lives in Oppdal
 * Kåre Jostein Simonsen (born 1948 in Oppdal), a Norwegian bandoneon player
 * Sjur Loen (born 1958 in Oppdal), a world champion curler
 * Ingebrigt Håker Flaten (born 1971 in Oppdal), a bassist active in the jazz and free jazz genres
 * Bård Bjorndalseter, a local woodcarver lives and works in Oppdal
 * Twins Silje Øyre Slind & Astrid Øyre Slind (born 1988 in Oppdal), a Norwegian cross-country skiers
 * Markus Høiberg (born 1991 in Oppdal), a curler who competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics

title: Oppdal


text:
Priesthood of all believers

The priesthood of all believers is either the general Christian belief that all Christians form a common priesthood, or, alternatively, the specific Protestant belief that this universal priesthood precludes the ministerial priesthood (holy orders) found in some other churches, including Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.

The inclusionary Catholic version proposes a common priesthood that is different from both Holy Orders and the priesthood of Christ. The exclusionary version, elaborated in the theology of Martin Luther and John Calvin, became prominent as a tenet of Protestant Christian doctrine, though the exact meaning of the belief and its implications vary widely among denominations.

Antiquity
Hebrew Old Testament texts speak of a national "kingdom of priests" (Exodus, 19:5–6), Levites (Exodus 40:15, Leviticus 21:10), and specific priests (e.g. Genesis 14:18–20.) Some issue of illegitimate priestly activity is found in the story of the "schism of Korah" (Numbers 16:1-40).

The Odes of Solomon (c. q70-120 AD) has an early understanding of a view of the priesthood of all believers, suggesting that Jewish-Christians in the region of Antioch believed themselves to be priests of God making spiritual sacrifices. Tertullian held a belief similar to the priesthood of all believers. However his views on the laity may have been influenced by Montanism, as the Montanists supposedly believed in the priesthood of every believer.

Irenaeus has been argued to have held to a view of universal priesthood because he stated "for all the righteous possess the sacerdotal rank". For St Augustine, baptism (including infant baptism) was an ordination into Christ’s royal priesthood. In his exposition of 1 Peter 2:9, he writes ‘we call them all priest insomuch as they are members of the One Priest’.

In the millennium from the 6th to 16th centuries, this common priesthood was sometimes overshadowed, to some extent, by the influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite's book Celestial Hierarchy, which was widely believed then to be a second-century and near-apostolic teaching, that appropriated a pagan multi-level schema to make a hierarchical description of Christianity with a succession of intermediaries (energies, names, angels, priests, etc.) between God and man.

Catholic view
The Catholic Church teaches a version of the priesthood of all believers. The dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium of the Second Vatican Council specifically highlights the priesthood of all believers. The primary difference between the teachings of the Catholic Church and those of the Protestant churches that reject the ordained priesthood, is that the Catholic Church believes in three different types of Christian priests:
 * 1) the common priesthood of all Christians (1 Peter 2:5–9)
 * 2) the ordained priesthood (Acts 14:23, Romans 15:16, 1 Timothy 5:17, Titus 1:5, James 5:14–15); and
 * 3) the high priesthood of Jesus (Hebrews 3:1)

Christian priesthood is not a continuation of Jewish temple priests who sacrifice animals but, like Christ, a priesthood in the order of Melchizedek who "offered bread and wine". The first two priesthoods are a participation in Christ's priesthood:

""The redemptive sacrifice of Christ is unique, accomplished once for all; yet it is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice of the Church. The same is true of the one priesthood of Christ; it is made present through the ministerial priesthood without diminishing the uniqueness of Christ's priesthood: "Only Christ is the true priest, the others being only his ministers."""

- Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1454 with quote of Aquinas

Catholicism often expresses the idea of the priesthood of all baptized Christians in English as the "common" or "universal" priesthood; in parallel, it refers to Catholic clergy as the "ministerial" priesthood. It defends this distinction with the original language of scripture. The Catholic Church holds that the consecration of the eucharist and absolution from sin may only be validly performed by ministerial priests with true apostolic succession.

Orthodox churches have a similar view to the Catholic view.

Protestant views
The universal priesthood of all believers which excludes a ministerial priesthood is a foundational concept of Protestantism. Anglican and Lutheran churches may retain office-titles such as "bishop" and, for some Evangelical Catholics and Anglo-Catholics, "priest", however ordination is not a sacrament.

Lutheranism
While Martin Luther did not use the phrase "priesthood of all believers", he adduces a general priesthood in Christendom in his 1520 To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation in order to dismiss the medieval view that Christians in the present life were to be divided into two classes: "spiritual" and "secular". He put forward the doctrine that all baptized Christians are "priests" and "spiritual" in the sight of God:

"That the pope or bishop anoints, makes tonsures, ordains, consecrates, or dresses differently from the laity, may make a hypocrite or an idolatrous oil-painted icon, but it in no way makes a Christian or spiritual human being. In fact, we are all consecrated priests through Baptism, as St. Peter in 1 Peter 2[:9] says, "You are a royal priesthood and a priestly kingdom," and Revelation [5:10], "Through your blood you have made us into priests and kings.""

Two months later Luther would write in his On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520):

"How then if they are forced to admit that we are all equally priests, as many of us as are baptized, and by this way we truly are; while to them is committed only the Ministry (ministerium) and consented to by us (nostro consensu)? If they recognize this they would know that they have no right to exercise power over us (ius imperii, in what has not been committed to them) except insofar as we may have granted it to them, for thus it says in 1 Peter 2, "You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a priestly kingdom." In this way we are all priests, as many of us as are Christians. There are indeed priests whom we call ministers. They are chosen from among us, and who do everything in our name. That is a priesthood which is nothing else than the Ministry. Thus 1 Corinthians 4:1: "No one should regard us as anything else than ministers of Christ and dispensers of the mysteries of God.""

The belief in the priesthood of all believers does not preclude order, authority or discipline within congregations or denominational organizations. For example, Lutheranism maintains the doctrine of "the preaching office" or the "office of the holy ministry" established by God in the Christian Church. The Augsburg Confession states:

"[From Article 5:] To obtain such (saving) faith God instituted the office of preaching, giving the gospel and the sacraments. Through these, as through means, he gives the Holy Spirit who produces faith, where and when he wills, in those who hear the gospel ... [Article 14:] Concerning church government it is taught that no one should publicly teach, preach, or administer the sacraments without a proper [public] call."

Nonconformists
The doctrine is strongly asserted within Methodism and the Plymouth Brethren movement. Within Methodism it can plausibly be linked to the strong emphasis on social action and political involvement within that denomination, and can be seen in the role of local preachers and lay speakers in Methodist churches. Within the Plymouth Brethren, the concept is most usually evidenced in the lack of distinction between "clergy" and "laity", the refusal to adopt formal titles such as reverend or bishop, the denial of formal ordination, and in some cases the refusal to hire any "professional staff" or paid Christian workers at all.

It was one of the foundation principles of Pietism.

Baptist movements, which generally operate on a form of congregational polity, also lean heavily on this concept. The Laestadian pietist movement has a specific interpretation of the doctrine as underlying its solemn rite concerning the declaration of the forgiveness of sins. British Quakers (Society of Friends) and US and African Quakers in some cases, have no priests and no order of service. God can speak through any person present, and any planned service is at risk of getting in God's way; hence the bulk of the observance is in silence.

Some groups during the Reformation believed that priesthood authority was still needed but was lost from the earth. American Puritan Roger Williams believed, "There is no regularly constituted church of Christ on earth, nor any person qualified to administer any church ordinances; nor can there be until new apostles are sent by the Great Head of the Church for whose coming I am seeking." The Seekers, believed that the Roman Catholic Church had lost its authority through corruption and waited for Christ to restore his true church and authority.

The vast majority of Protestants draw some distinction between their own ordained ministers and lay people. Pastors and ordained ministers are usually regarded as congregational leaders and theologians who are well versed with Christian liturgy, scripture, and church teachings, and are qualified to lead worship and preach sermons. Although many religions use priests, most Protestant denominations reject the idea of a priesthood as a group that is spiritually distinct from lay people. They typically employ professional clergy who perform many of the same functions as priests such as clarifying doctrine, administering communion, performing baptisms, marriages, etc. In many instances, Protestants see professional clergy as servants acting on behalf of the local believers. This is in contrast to the priest, whom some Protestants see as having a distinct authority and spiritual role different from that of ordinary believers.

Democratic churches
Luther's doctrine of the universal priesthood of all believers gave laypersons and the clergy equal rights and responsibilities. It had strong, far-reaching consequences both within the Protestant churches and outside of them with respect to the development of distinct political and societal structures.

Luther had the intention to organize the church in such a way as to give the members of a congregation the right to elect a pastor by majority-decision and, if necessary, to dismiss him again. The Lutheran church would get an institutional framework based on the majoritarian principle, the central characteristic of democracy. But mainly because of the strong political and military pressure from the Catholic powers, the developing Lutheran churches in the German territories had to seek the protection of their worldly rulers who turned them into state churches. In the Scandinavian countries, Lutheran state churches were established, too.

John Calvin put Luther's intended democratic church polity into effect. The church members elected lay elders from their midst who, together with pastors, teachers, and deacons, were also elected by the parishioners, formed the representative church leadership. To this presbyterian polity, the Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members, laymen and clergymen alike, were elected by the parishioners as well. This combination of presbyteries and synods was taken over by all Reformed churches, except the Congregationalists who had no synods.

When Lutherans from Germany and Scandinavia emigrated to North America, they took over the church polity based on presbyteries and synods which had been developed by the denominations with Calvinist traditions (for example, Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod). In Germany, Lutheran churches established the first presbyteries in the 19th century, and after the downfall of the monarchies in 1918 synods were formed which assumed the task of leading the churches. They are made up of both laypersons and clergy. Since 1919, the Anglican church has also had a synod (National Assembly), which has elected laypersons among its members.

It is a featured doctrine of Restorationist churches, such as the Churches of Christ.

North American Pilgrims
The Separatist Congregationalists (Pilgrim Fathers) who founded Plymouth Colony in North America in 1620 took the next step in evolving the consequences of Luther's universal priesthood doctrine by combining it with the federal theology that had been developed by Calvinist theologians, especially Robert Browne, Henry Barrowe, and John Greenwood. On the basis of the Mayflower Compact, a social contract, the Pilgrims applied the principles that guided their congregational democracy also to the administration of the worldly affairs of their community. It was, like Massachusetts Bay Colony, founded by Puritans in 1628, de facto a small democratic, self-governing republic until 1691, when the two colonies were united under a royal governor. Both colonies had a representative political structure and practiced separation of powers. The General Court functioned as the legislative and the judiciary, the annually elected governor and his assistants were the executive branch of government. These Protestants believed that democracy was the will of God. In so doing, they followed Calvin who had, in order to safeguard the rights and liberties of ordinary people, praised the advantages of democracy and recommended that political power should be distributed among several institutions to minimise its misuse. He had in effect advocated separation of powers.

In Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), and Pennsylvania (1682), Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, gave the democratic concept another turn by linking it with religious freedom, a basic human right that had its origin also in Luther's theology. In this view, faith in Jesus Christ was a gift of the Holy Spirit and could therefore not be forced on a person. Williams, Hooker, and Penn adopted Luther's position. Precondition for granting freedom of conscience in their colonies was the separation of church and state. This had been made possible by Luther's separation of the spiritual and the worldly spheres in his doctrine of the two kingdoms. The inseparable combination of democracy with its civil rights on the one hand and religious freedom and other human rights on the other hand became the backbone of the American Declaration of Independence (1776), Constitution, and Bill of Rights. In turn, these documents became models for the constitutions of nations in Europe, Latin America, and other parts of the world. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was mainly based on the draft of Marquis de Lafayette, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. These are also echoed in the United Nations Charter and Declaration of Human Rights.

A practical example of the priesthood of all believers may be found in modern Anabaptist churches, such as the Amish, Bruderhof and Hutterites. While these groups appoint leaders, it is held that all members are responsible for the functioning of the church and church meetings. For example, at the Bruderhof, meetings are held with members sitting in a circle, breaking down the tradition of "preacher" and "congregation".

Priesthood of each believer
The phrase "Priesthood of each believer" has been used to express the teaching that this priesthood is not collective or participatory but entirely individual, especially in "a congregation of faithful believers united in a common confession working as priests to each other."

Priesthood of no believers
Commentators sometimes use the phrase "Priesthood of no believers" for example for democratized Protestant groups where there are no clergy, or in churches which have purely symbolic, or no, sacraments, or which do not make a distinction between religions. Some Lutheran theologians have pushed back on idea that the priesthood of all believers entails a democratic leveling of offices: "Luther's text "cannot mean, "anyone can be a pastor," but rather, "all of us are members of the one body of Christ and individually servants to each other in our respective offices." The Protestant and pietistic appropriation of these terms turns everything on its head and replaces service with power-grabbing and the unity of Christ's body with the disunity of individualistic spirituality. Or, as my friend Paul Rorem puts it, the democratic, American misconstrual of the priesthood of all believers means in actuality the priesthood of no believers.""

It has also been used for households without heads and for mutually-indifferent Christians.

Theology
The Bible passage considered to be the basis of this belief is :

"But you are not like that, for you are a chosen people. You are royal priests, a holy nation, God’s very own possession. As a result, you can show others the goodness of God, for he called you out of the darkness into his wonderful light."

(This New Living Translation version reflects the Protestant view, as the universal "royal priesthood" from the Bible Luther cites above has been changed to individual "royal priests".) Other relevant Scripture passages include, , Revelation 1:4–6, , and the Epistle to the Hebrews.

Most Protestants today recognize only Christ as a mediator between themselves and God. The Epistle to the Hebrews calls Jesus the supreme "high priest," who offered himself as a perfect sacrifice (Hebrews 7:23–28). Protestants believe that through Christ they have been given direct access to God, just like a priest; thus the doctrine is called the priesthood of all believers. God is equally accessible to all the faithful, and every Christian has equal potential to minister for God. This doctrine stands in opposition to the concept of a spiritual aristocracy or hierarchy within Christianity.

Much of the doctrinal dispute on this matter is caused by the difference between the Greek words ἱερεύς (hiereus meaning "sacred one"; represented in Latin by the word sacerdos) and πρεσβύτερος (presbyteros meaning "one with elderhood"), which are usually both translated in English with the word "priest". The former term refers to the sacrificial ritual leaders of Judaism, the kohanim, and to those holding the office of conducting sacrifices in ancient pagan temples, whereas the latter term refers to an acknowledged elder of a community.

title: Priesthood of all believers