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Charles François Dumouriez

Charles-François du Périer Dumouriez (, 26 January 1739 – 14 March 1823) was a French military officer, minister of Foreign Affairs, minister of War in a Girondin cabinet and army general during the French Revolutionary War. Dumouriez is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 3.

With General Kellermann he shared the first French victory at Valmy where the Prussian army was forced to draw back. He rapidly advanced north (till Moerdijk); before entering Holland he decided to return to Brussels when the French armies lost territory in the east of Belgium and the Siege of Maastricht (1793). He disagreed with his successor Pache, the radical Convention and Jacobin deputies, like Robespierre and Marat, on the annexation of the wealthy Netherlands and the introduction of assignats. After losing the Battle of Neerwinden (1793), he deserted the Revolutionary Army. Fearing execution, he refused to surrender himself to the recently installed Revolutionary Tribunal and instead defected to the Austrian army.

Early life
Dumouriez was born in Cambrai, on the Scheldt River in northern France, to parents of noble rank. His father, Antoine-François du Périer, served as a commissary of the royal army, and educated his son most carefully and widely. He continued his studies in Paris at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, and was then sent to his uncle in Versailles for a year. In 1757 began his military career as a volunteer and served in six campaigns of the Seven Years' War. In the Battle of Rossbach, he served as a cornet in the Régiment d'Escars. He was stationed in Emden, Münster, Wesel and carried a small library with him. He received a commission for good conduct in action, with distinction (receiving 22 wounds during the battle of Corbach). In 1761 he recovered in the baths at Aachen. After the peace of Hubertusburg he retired at Abbeville as a captain, with a small pension (which was never paid), a love affair with his niece and the cross of St Louis.

Dumouriez then visited Italy, Spain and Corsica, and his memoranda to the duc de Choiseul on Corsican afairs at the time of the Corsican Republic led to his re-employment on the staff of the French expeditionary corps sent to the island, for which he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1769 Choiseul gave Dumouriez a military command as deputy quartermaster general to the army under the Marquis de Chauvelin. After two campaigns on the island, he became a member of the Secret du Roi, the secret service under Louis XV, which gave full scope to his diplomatic skills. The fall of Choiseul (1770) brought about Dumouriez's recall. In 1770 he undertook a mission into Poland, where, in addition to his political business, he organized a Polish militia for the Bar Confederation. There he met with Jozef Miaczinsky, the commander of a regiment. His Polish soldiers were pushed back by the Russian forces of General Alexander Suvorov in the first clash but Suvorov failed in the second clash. On 21 May 1771, Dumouriez' Polish soldiers were smashed in the third clash.

In 1772, upon returning to Paris, Dumouriez sought a military position from the marquis de Monteynard, Secretary of State for War, who gave him a staff position with the regiment of Lorraine writing diplomatic and military reports. In 1773, he was arrested in Hamburg found himself imprisoned in the Bastille for six months, apparently for diverting funds intended for the employment of secret agents into the payment of personal debts. During his captivity Dumouriez occupied himself with literary pursuits. He was sent to Caen, where he remained in detention until the accession of Louis XVI in 1774. Dumouriez was then recalled to Paris and assigned to posts in Lille and Boulogne-sur-Mer by the comte de Saint-Germain, the new king's minister of war.

Upon his release, Dumouriez married his cousin, a certain Mademoiselle de Broissy. In the meantime, Dumouriez had turned his attention to the internal state of his own country, and amongst the very numerous memoranda which he sent to the government was a project on the defence of Normandy and  Cherbourg navy port, which procured for him in 1778 the post of commandant of Cherbourg. He administered it with much success for more than ten years. The construction of the fortifications and dikes began in 1779/1782 and extended in 1786. He used a plan by Vauban to create an outer port. The city grew and even the King came to La Manche see it. For his ingenuity in fortifying he became a maréchal de camp in 1788. After the Storming of the Bastille he became commander of the National Guard in July 1789, but his ambition was not satisfied. Business and trade dropped in Cherbourg. He proved a neglectful and unfaithful husband, and the couple separated. Madame Dumouriez took refuge in a convent.

Political career

At the outbreak of the Revolution, seeing the opportunity for carving out a new career, he went to Paris, where he joined the Jacobin Club. In 1790, Dumouriez was appointed French military advisor to the newly established United Belgium States and remained dedicated to the cause of an independent Belgian Republic. In 1791 he was sent to the coast. The death of Mirabeau, to whose fortunes he had attached himself, proved a great blow. However, opportunity arose again when, in his capacity as a lieutenant-general and the commandant of Nantes, he offered to march to the assistance of the National Constituent Assembly after the royal family's unsuccessful flight to Varennes. Minister of War, Louis Lebègue Duportail, promoted Dumouriez from president of the War Council to major-general in June 1791 and attached him to the Twelfth Division, which was commanded by General Jacques Alexis de Verteuil.

He then attached himself to the Girondist party and, on 15 March 1792, became the French minister of foreign affairs. In March 1792 selected Lebrun-Tondu as his first officer for Belgian and Liégeois affairs. The relationship between the Girondists and Dumouriez was not based on ideology, but rather based on the practical benefit it gave to both parties. Dumouriez needed people in the Legislative Assembly to support him, and the Girondists needed a general to give them legitimacy in the army. He played a major part in the declaration of war against Austria (20 April), and he ordered General Dillon, commander of Lille, to attack Tournai, and the invasion of the Austrian Netherlands. His foreign policy was greatly influenced by Jean-Louis Favier. Favier had called for France to break its ties with Austria.

On the king's dismissal of Roland, Clavière and Servan (13 June 1792), he took Servan's post of minister of war, but resigned it a few days days later on account of Louis XVI's refusal to come to terms with the National Constituent Assembly, concerning his suspensive veto. Within a week he joined the army of the North under Marshal Luckner. After the émeute of 10 August 1792 and Lafayette’s flight, he gained appointment to the command of the "Army of the Centre". At the same moment, France's enemies assumed the offensive. Dumouriez acted promptly from Sedan, Ardennes.

On August 24, 1792, Dumouriez wrote to his ally General François Kellermann about the void in military power within France. Within this letter, Dumouriez voices his opinions adamantly that Lafayette was a "traitor" to France after being arrested for mobilizing his army from the borders of France to Paris to protect the Royal family from revolutionaries who were dissatisfied with the monarchy of France at the time. Within this letter, Dumouriez's attachment to the Jacobin club is explicitly present as he tells Kellermann that the army was finally "purged of aristocrats". Dumouriez's loyalty to France's military which was evident within this letter was instrumental to him ascending to his future position of Foreign Minister of France from March 1792 to June 1792, restoring the natural borders of France. Dumouriez outmaneuvered the invading forces of the Duke of Brunswick in the forest of Argonne. His subordinate Kellermann repulsed the Prussians at Valmy (20 September 1792). After these military victories, Dumouriez was ready to invade Belgium to spread revolution in the Flanders campaign.

Army of the North

Supported by minister Lebrun-Tondu, he declared in the National Convention on 12 October that he would liberate the Belgians and the Liège people. On 27 October 1792, he invaded the Austrian Netherlands. Dumouriez himself severely defeated the Austrians at Jemappes (6 November 1792). He became a military hero for this decisive victory, for which the newspaper "Révolutions de Paris" proclaimed him the liberator of the Belgians. On 14 November he arrived in Brussels. Several times he received a mission of Dutch revolutionary patriots, with whom he agreed on the principles; De Kock, Daendels and his friends settled in Antwerp. Cambon pointed at the empty treasury and the wealthy Dutch. Dumouriez wrote a letter to the Convention scolding it for not supplying his army to his satisfaction and for the Decree of 15 December, which allowed the French armies to loot in the territory they had won, besides the introduction of the inflation-prone assignats in the conquered areas, and to expropriate church property. The Decree insured that any plan concerning Belgium would fail due to a lack of popular support among the Belgians.

"Dumouriez wanted to establish an independent Belgian state, free of Austrian control, which would act as a buffer on France's eastern borders, but that would not worry the British. To achieve this he began negotiations with the local authorities in Belgium, but on 15 December the Convention passed a decree ordering the military commanders in the occupied territories to implement all revolutionary laws."

War with the Dutch Republic

Returning to Paris on 1 January 1793, Dumouriez encountered popular ovation, but he gained less sympathy from the revolutionary government. On 12 January he had a meeting with Lebrun-Tondu; on 23 January he was sent back. The Dutch were willing to pay and an invasion of the Netherlands was postponed. To the more radical elements in Paris, it became clear that Dumouriez was not a true patriot but worked during the trial of Louis XVI to save him from execution. On 29 January Dumouriez lost his negotiating mandate. With the help of the Girondists, Dumouriez ensured that defaulting Pache had to resign at the end of January 1793; at the most critical moment of the war.

To declare war had always been a prerogative of the king. On 1 February Brissot de Warville declared war against King of Great Britain and the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, not the people. The next day Francisco de Miranda, the only general from Latin America in French service, gave the command of the French forces back to Dumouriez. Although Dumouriez advised the government simply to recognise Belgium's independence, the Jacobins sent several agents. On 7 February Dumouriez appreciated the secret proposals of Van de Spiegel and Baron Auckland: in exchange for recognition of French Republic, France would have to refrain from aggression against other countries. On 15 February, Johan Valckenaer addressed Cambon, the president of the Convention, to give not the committee but Dumouriez all powers to depose regents and restore others to power. Lazare Carnot proposed that annexation be undertaken on behalf of French interests whether or not the people to be annexed so wished. On 17 February 1793, the French troops and the Batavian Legion crossed the Dutch border. Miranda, Stengel, Dampierre, Valence, and Eustace went northeast; Dumouriez and Daendels  went northwest. Breda, Klundert, and Geertruidenberg were occupied with an army of Sans-Culottes that lacked almost everything. After the French lost Venlo, Aachen, Maastricht and all the supply at Liège in early March, Dumouriez was ordered to return to Brussels rather than further entering Holland. The situation was alarming. Miranda wrote Dumouriez to continue his plan and not return to Belgium.

On 11 March, Dumouriez addressed the Brussels assembly, apologizing for the actions of the French commissioners and looting soldiers. On 12 March Dumouriez wrote an angry, insolent letter which is considered a "declaration of war on the Convention". He criticized the interference of officials of the War Ministry which employed many Jacobins. He attacked not only Pache, the former minister of war, but also Marat and Robespierre. Meanwhile Danton initiated the creation of the Revolutionary Tribunal to interrogate the generals at some time. Dumouriez had long been unable to agree with the course of the Convention. He was disenchanted with the radicalization of the revolution and its politics and put an end to the annexation efforts. He was liked by the Belgium population. It seems both Eustace and Miranda disagreed; on 14 March Eustace wrote a letter to Dumouriez. On 18 March 1793, Dumouriez's army attacked the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, also the brother of the Austrian emperor, Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld's army. A major defeat in the Battle of Neerwinden nearly ended the French invasion. On 20 March Danton and Charles-François Delacroix were sent to Louvain. On 22 March Dumouriez opened negotiations with the Austrian General Mack. He allowed Dumouriez to retreat to Brussels; Dumouriez' soldiers were deserting in large numbers. The next day Dumouriez promised the Austrians he would leave Belgium (though he had no permission and was without approval of the convention. ) On 24 March, Francisco de Miranda, the only general from Latin America in French service, blamed Dumouriez for the defeat in the Battle of Neerwinden (1793).

Dumouriez prevented the execution of the decrees of 15 and 27 December, according to Robespierre. He did not want the Dutch Republic to come under French authority, or even to be incorporated. It was his army that liberated the south of the Netherlands, and he would not allow it to fall into the hands of commissioners of the Convention. For Robespierre, the army had already more soldiers than it needed. On 25 March Dumouriez asked Karl Mack for his support to march on Paris. There he would negotiate peace, dissolve the convention, restore the French Constitution of 1791, plea for the restoration of a constitutional monarchy, and free Marie-Antoinette and her children. He urged Louis Philippe I Duke of Chartres, though still a teenager, to join his plan. The Jacobin leaders were quite sure that France had come close to a military coup mounted by Dumouriez and supported by Pétion and Brissot.

Dumouriez' defection

On 25 March Robespierre became one of members of the Committee of General Defence,  to coordinate the war effort. By the end of the month Robespierre called for the removal of Dumouriez, who in his eyes aspired to become a Belgian dictator. A body of four commissioners was sent to question and arrest him. The commissioners Camus, Bancal-des-Issarts, Quinette, and Lamarque were accompanied by the acting Minister of War, Pierre Riel de Beurnonville. Dumouriez sensed a trap and invited them to his headquarters at Saint-Amand-les-Eaux and ordered Miaczinski to arrest them at Orchies. After an hour of deliberations he refused to accept the decree by the convention to go with them to Lille and Paris. Instead Dumouriez arrested the five and sent them over to General Clerfayt on the next day.

Robespierre was convinced Brissot and Dumouriez wanted to overthrow the First French Republic. On 3 April Robespierre declared before the Convention that the whole war was a prepared game between Dumouriez and Brissot to overthrow the First French Republic. The next day Philippe Égalité was arrested.

On 4 April the convention declared Dumouriez a traitor and outlaw and put a price on his head. Davout's volunteer battalion tried to arrest Dumouriez. Dumouriez unsuccessfully tried to persuade Davout to his side and made a move to save himself from his radical enemies. He attempted to persuade his troops to march on Paris and overthrow the revolutionary government. The attempt proved unfeasible because many of his soldiers were staunch republicans and several of his officers opposed him. Without escort he rode on horseback to Tournai, along with his chief of staff Pierre Thouvenot, the Duke of Chartres, duc de Montpensier he arrived on 5 April 1793 into the Austrian camp at Maulde. This blow left the Brissotins vulnerable due to their association with Dumouriez. Dumouriez's defection changed the course of the events for the Brissotins. On 5 April the Convention substantially expanded the power of the Tribunal révolutionnaire. The Montagnards raised the stakes by sending out a circular from the Jacobin Club in Paris to all the sister Jacobin clubs across France, appealing for petitions demanding the recall – that is, the expulsion from the Convention – of any deputies who had tried to save the life of "the tyrant". On 6 April the Committee of Public Safety was installed. Suspicion rose against Phillipe Égalité, because of his eldest son who fled with Dumouriez in the Austrian camp. Philippe Égalité was then put under continuous surveillance.

In Brussels Dumouriez met with Metternich and received a passport for Germany. On 10 April Robespierre accused him in a speech: "Dumouriez and his supporters have brought a fatal blow to the public fortune, preventing circulation of assignats in Belgium".

The French armies took positions behind the frontier. The Army of Holland deployed near Lille, the Army of the Ardennes at Maulde, the Army of the North at Saint-Amand, and the Army of Belgium at Condé-sur-l'Escaut and Valenciennes.

Later life and death

Following his defection on 5 April 1793, Dumouriez remained in Brussels for a short time, and then travelled to Cologne, seeking a position at the elector's court. He soon learned he had become an object of suspicion among his countrymen, the royal houses, aristocracies, and clergy of Europe. In response, Dumouriez wrote and published in Hamburg (1794) a first volume of memoirs in which he offered his version of the previous year's events. He became a royalist intriguer during the reign of Napoleon as well as an adviser to the British government. Dumouriez wrote political pamphlets and letters analyzing the coastal defence of England and Ireland.

Dumouriez now wandered from country to country, occupied in ceaseless royalist intrigues, until 1804 when he settled in England, where the British government granted him a pension. He became a valuable adviser to the British War Office, and the Duke of York and Albany in his struggle against Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom, and the British anti-invasion preparations of 1803–05.

In 1808 Castlereagh had been warned by Dumouriez that the best policy England could adopt with respect to colonies in Spanish America was to relinquish all ideas of military conquest by Arthur Wellesley and instead support the emancipation of the territories. Furthermore, Dumouriez suggested that once emancipation was achieved, a constitutional monarchy should be established with the exiled Duke of Orleans as King.

In 1814 and 1815, he endeavoured to procure from Louis XVIII the baton of a marshal of France, but failed to do so. He died at Turville Park, near Henley-on-Thames, on 14 March 1823. An enlarged edition, La Vie et les mémoires du Général Dumouriez, appeared at Paris in 1823.

title: Charles François Dumouriez


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User:Gavinb

About Me
I am a postgraduate research student at The University of Melbourne, where I am working on a thesis in Medical Imaging.

Wikipedia Contributions
I have only just begun to learn about the Wikipedia, so this is kinda my sandbox for now. Once I get the hang of it, I will start writing some articles...

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Gavinb


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John I of Antioch

John I of Antioch was Patriarch of Antioch (429–441). He led a group of moderate Eastern bishops during the Nestorian controversy. He is sometimes confused with John Chrysostom, who is occasionally also referred to as John of Antioch, though John of Antioch is indeed mentioned in the Book of the Miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary. John gave active support to his friend Nestorius in the latter's dispute with Cyril of Alexandria. In the year 431, he arrived too late for the opening meeting of the First Council of Ephesus. Cyril, suspecting John of using procrastinating tactics to support Nestorius, decided not to wait and convened the council without John and his supporters, condemning Nestorius. When John reached Ephesus a few days after the council had begun, he convened a counter-council that condemned Cyril and vindicated Nestorius.

Two years later, in 433 John reconciled with Cyril based on the Formula of Reunion, a theological formula devised as a compromise. In the process, John lost many of his own supporters within his patriarchate. Some of his letters are extant.

title: John I of Antioch


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Pidgin (software)

Pidgin (formerly named Gaim) is a free and open-source multi-platform instant messaging client, based on a library named libpurple that has support for many instant messaging protocols, allowing the user to simultaneously log in to various services from a single application, with a single interface for both popular and obsolete protocols (from AIM to Discord), thus avoiding the hassle of having to deal with new software for each device and protocol.

, the number of Pidgin users was estimated to be over three million.

Pidgin is widely used for its Off-the-Record Messaging (OTR) plugin, which offers end-to-end encryption. For this reason it is included in the privacy and anonymity focused operating system Tails.

History

The program was originally written by Mark Spencer, an Auburn University sophomore, as an emulation of AOL's IM program AOL Instant Messenger on Linux using the GTK+ toolkit. The earliest archived release was on December 31, 1998. It was named GAIM (GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger) accordingly. The emulation was not based on reverse engineering, but instead relied on information about the protocol that AOL had published on the web. Development was assisted by some of AOL's technical staff. Support for other IM protocols was added soon thereafter.

On 6 July 2015, Pidgin scored seven out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. They have received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the providers don't have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondent's identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having their code open to independent review (open source), having their security designs well-documented, and having recent independent security audits.

Naming dispute
In response to pressure from AOL, the program was renamed to the acronymous-but-lowercase gaim. As AOL Instant Messenger gained popularity, AOL trademarked its acronym, "AIM", leading to a lengthy legal struggle with the creators of GAIM, who kept the matter largely secret.

On April 6, 2007, the project development team announced the results of their settlement with AOL, which included a series of name changes: Gaim became Pidgin, libgaim became libpurple, and gaim-text (the command-line interface version) became Finch. The name Pidgin was chosen in reference to the term "pidgin", which describes communication between people who do not share a common language. The name "purple" refers to "prpl", the internal libgaim name for an IM protocol plugin.

Due to the legal issues, version 2.0 of the software was frozen in beta stages. Following the settlement, it was announced that the first official release of Pidgin 2.0.0 was hoped to occur during the two weeks from April 8, 2007. However, Pidgin 2.0 was not released as scheduled; Pidgin developers announced on April 22, 2007, that the delay was due to the preferences directory " ".

Pidgin 2.0.0 was released on May 3, 2007. Other visual changes were made to the interface in this version, including updated icons.

Features

Pidgin provides a graphical front-end for libpurple using GTK+. Libpurple supports many instant-messaging protocols.

Pidgin supports multiple operating systems, including Windows and many Unix-like systems such as Linux, the BSDs, and AmigaOS. It is included by default in the operating systems Tails, Trisquel and Xubuntu.

Pluggability
The program is designed to be extended with plugins. Plugins are often written by third-party developers. They can be used to add support for protocols, which is useful for those such as Skype or Discord which have licensing issues (however, the users' data and interactions are still subject to their policies and eavesdropping). They can also add other significant features. For example, the "Off-the-Record Messaging" (OTR) plugin provides end-to-end encryption.

The TLS encryption system is pluggable, allowing different TLS libraries to be easily substituted. GnuTLS is the default, and NSS is also supported. Some operating systems' ports, such as OpenBSD's, choose to use OpenSSL or LibreSSL by default instead.

Contacts
Contacts with multiple protocols can be grouped into one single contact instead of managing multiple protocols, and contacts can be given aliases or placed into groups.

To reach users as they log on or a status change occurs (such as moving from "Away" to "Available"), Pidgin supports on-action automated scripts called Buddy Pounces to automatically reach the user in customizable ways.

File transfer
Pidgin supports file transfers for many protocols. Direct, peer-to-peer file transfers are supported over protocols such as XMPP.

Voice and video chat
As of version 2.6 (released on August 18, 2009), Pidgin supports voice/video calls using Farstream. , calls can only be initiated through the XMPP protocol.

Miscellaneous
Further features include support for themes, emoticons, spell checking, and notification area integration.

Supported protocols
The following protocols are officially supported by Pidgin 2.14.12, without any extensions or plugins:

 * Gadu-Gadu
 * IRC
 * Novell GroupWise (to be discontinued in 3.0)
 * SIMPLE
 * XMPP
 * Zephyr (to be discontinued in 3.0)

Some XMPP servers provide transports, which allow users to access networks using non-XMPP protocols without having to install plugins or additional software. Pidgin's support for XMPP means that these transports can be used to communicate via otherwise unsupported protocols, including not only instant messaging protocols, but also protocols such as SMS or E-mail.

Additional protocols, supported by third-party plugins, include Discord, Telegram, Microsoft OCS/LCS (extended SIP/SIMPLE), Facebook Messenger, QQ, Skype via skype4pidgin plugin, WhatsApp, and Signal.

Plugins
Various other features are supported using third-party plugins. Such features include:

 * Discord text chat via the purple-discord plugin
 * Facebook chat via purple-facebook
 * Google Chat via purple-googlechat
 * ICQ via icyque
 * microblogs (GNU social, Twitter)
 * Slack (software) via slack-libpurple
 * Skype text chat via skype4pidgin, renamed SkypeWeb plugin
 * Telegram (software) via tdlib-purple
 * End-to-end encryption, through Off-the-Record Messaging (OTR)
 * Adding mathematical formulas written in LaTeX to conversations
 * Notifications (such as showing "toaster" popups or Snarl notifications, or lighting LEDs on laptops)
 * Showing contacts what the user is listening to in various media players
 * Watching videos directly into a conversation when receiving a video sharing website link (YouTube, Vimeo)

Criticisms

 * As observed by Wired in 2015, the libpurple codebase is "known for its bountiful security bugs". In 2011, security vulnerabilities were already discovered in popular OTR plugins using libpurple.
 * As of version 2.4 and later, the ability to manually resize the text input box of conversations was removed. This led to a fork, Carrier (originally named Funpidgin).
 * Passwords are stored in a plaintext file, readable by any person or program that can access the user's files. Version 3.0 of Pidgin (no announced release date) will support password storage in system keyrings such as KWallet and the GNOME Keyring for Linux, Keychain for macOS, and winCred API for Windows.
 * Pidgin does not currently support pausing or reattempting file transfers.
 * Pidgin does not allow disabling the group sorting on the contact list.

Other notable software based on libpurple

 * Adium and the discontinued Proteus (both for macOS)
 * Meebo (web-based, no longer available)
 * Telepathy Haze (a Tube for some of the protocols supported by the Telepathy framework)
 * QuteCom (cross-platform, focused on VoIP and video. Discontinued)
 * Instantbird (discontinued) (cross-platform, based on Mozilla's Gecko engine)

BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks, and can be compiled with libpurple to increase functionality.

title: Pidgin (software)


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Yahoo!

Yahoo! (, styled yahoo! in its logo) is an American web services provider. It is headquartered in Sunnyvale, California, and operated by the namesake company Yahoo! Inc., which is 90% owned by investment funds managed by Apollo Global Management and 10% by Verizon Communications.

It provides a web portal, search engine Yahoo Search, and related services, including My Yahoo!, Yahoo Mail, Yahoo News, Yahoo Finance, Yahoo Sports and its advertising platform, Yahoo! Native.

Yahoo was established by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was one of the pioneers of the early Internet era in the 1990s. However, its use declined in the late 2000s as some of its services were discontinued, and it lost market share to Facebook and Google.

Founding

In January 1994, Jerry Yang and David Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named "Jerry and David's guide to the World Wide Web". The site was a human-edited web directory, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In March 1994, "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web" was renamed "Yahoo!" and became known as the Yahoo Directory. The "yahoo.com" domain was registered on January 18, 1995.

The word "yahoo" is a backronym for "Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle" or "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle". The term "hierarchical" described how the Yahoo database was arranged in layers of subcategories. The term "oracle" was intended to mean "source of truth and wisdom", and the term "officious", rather than being related to the word's normal meaning, described the many office workers who would use the Yahoo database while surfing from work. However, Filo and Yang insist they mainly selected the name because they liked the slang definition of a "yahoo" (used by college students in David Filo's native Louisiana in the late 1980s and early 1990s to refer to an unsophisticated, rural Southerner): "rude, unsophisticated, uncouth." This meaning derives from the Yahoo race of fictional beings from Gulliver's Travels.

Yahoo was incorporated on March 2, 1995. In 1995, a search engine function, called Yahoo Search, was introduced. This allowed users to search Yahoo Directory. Yahoo soon became the first popular online directory and search engine on the World Wide Web.

Expansion
Yahoo grew rapidly throughout the 1990s. Yahoo became a public company via an initial public offering in April 1996 and its stock price rose 600% within two years. Like many search engines and web directories, Yahoo added a web portal, putting it in competition with services including Excite, Lycos, and America Online. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users, and the human-edited Yahoo Directory the most popular search engine, receiving 95 million page views per day, triple that of rival Excite. It also made many high-profile acquisitions. Yahoo began offering free e-mail from October 1997 after the acquisition of RocketMail, which was then renamed to Yahoo Mail. In 1998, Yahoo replaced AltaVista as the crawler-based search engine underlying the Directory with Inktomi. Yahoo's two biggest acquisitions were made in 1999: Geocities for $3.6 billion and Broadcast.com for $5.7 billion.

Its stock price skyrocketed during the dot-com bubble, closing at an all-time high of $118.75/share on January 3, 2000. However, after the dot-com bubble burst, it reached a post-bubble low of $8.11 on September 26, 2001.

Yahoo began using Google for search in June 2000. Over the next four years, it developed its own search technologies, which it began using in 2004 partly using technology from its $280 million acquisition of Inktomi in 2002. In response to Google's Gmail, Yahoo began to offer unlimited email storage in 2007. In 2008, the company laid off hundreds of people as it struggled from competition.

In February 2008, Microsoft made an unsolicited bid to acquire Yahoo for $44.6 billion. Yahoo rejected the bid, claiming that it "substantially undervalues" the company and was not in the interest of its shareholders. Although Microsoft increased its bid to $47 billion, Yahoo insisted on another 10%+ increase to the offer and Microsoft cancelled the offer in May 2008.

Carol Bartz, who had no previous experience in Internet advertising, replaced Yang as CEO in January 2009. In September 2011, after failing to meet targets, she was fired by chairman Roy J. Bostock; CFO Tim Morse was named as Interim CEO of the company.

In April 2012, after the appointment of Scott Thompson as CEO, several key executives resigned, including chief product officer Blake Irving. On April 4, 2012, Yahoo announced 2,000 layoffs, or about 14% of its 14,100 workers by the end of year, expected to save around $375 million annually. In an email sent to employees in April 2012, Thompson reiterated his view that customers should come first at Yahoo. He also completely reorganized the company.

On May 13, 2012, Thompson was fired and was replaced on an interim basis by Ross Levinsohn, recently appointed head of Yahoo's new Media group. Several associates of Third Point Management, including Daniel S. Loeb were nominated to the board of directors. Thompson's total compensation for his 130-day tenure with Yahoo was at least $7.3 million.

On July 15, 2012, Marissa Mayer was appointed president and CEO of Yahoo, effective July 17, 2012.

In June 2013, Yahoo acquired blogging site Tumblr for $1.1 billion in cash, with Tumblr's CEO and founder David Karp continuing to run the site. In July 2013, Yahoo announced plans to open an office in San Francisco.

On August 2, 2013, Yahoo acquired Rockmelt; its staff was retained, but all of its existing products were terminated.

Data collated by comScore during July 2013 revealed that, during the month, more people in the U.S. visited Yahoo websites than Google; the first time that Yahoo outperformed Google since 2011. The data did not count mobile usage, nor Tumblr.

Mayer also hired Katie Couric to be the anchor of a new online news operation and started an online food magazine. However, by January 2014, doubts about Mayer's progress emerged when Mayer fired her own first major hire, Henrique de Castro.

On December 12, 2014, Yahoo acquired video advertising provider BrightRoll for $583 million.

On November 21, 2014, Yahoo acquired Cooliris.

In August 2023, it was announced Yahoo had acquired the San Francisco-headquartered social investing platform, Commonstock.

In April 2024, it was announced Yahoo had acquired the AI-driven news aggregator app, Artifact.

Decline, security breaches, and sale
By December 2015, Mayer was criticized as performance declined. Mayer was ranked as the least likable CEO in tech.

On February 2, 2016, Mayer announced layoffs amounting to 15% of the Yahoo! workforce.

On July 25, 2016, Verizon Communications announced the acquisition of Yahoo's core Internet business for $4.83 billion. The deal excluded Yahoo's 15% stake in Alibaba Group and 35.5% stake in Yahoo Japan.

On February 21, 2017, as a result of the Yahoo data breaches, Verizon lowered its purchase price for Yahoo by $350 million and reached an agreement to share liabilities regarding the data breaches.

On June 13, 2017, Verizon completed the acquisition of Yahoo and Marissa Mayer resigned.

Yahoo, AOL, and HuffPost were to continue operating under their own names, under the umbrella of a new company, Oath Inc., later called Verizon Media.

The parts of the original Yahoo! Inc. which were not purchased by Verizon Communications were renamed Altaba, which was later liquidated, making a final distribution in October 2020.

In September 2021, investment funds managed by Apollo Global Management acquired 90% of Yahoo.

In November 2021, Yahoo announced that it was ending operations in mainland China due to the increasingly challenging business and legal environment. Previously, the company discontinued China Yahoo! Mail on August 20, 2013.

In 2023, Yahoo announced that it would cut 20% of its workforce. The move followed mass layoffs from other tech giants including Google, Microsoft, Twitter, Inc, Meta, and Amazon. The company is set to lay off roughly 1,000 staff members of their 8,600 workers.

Chief executive officers
Eleven chief executives and interim leaders have led the Yahoo companies since 1995. They are:
 * Jim Lanzone, CEO of Yahoo Inc. (2021–present)
 * Guru Gowrappan, CEO of Oath Inc., Verizon Media, and Yahoo (2018–2021)
 * Tim Armstrong, CEO of Oath Inc. (2017–2018)
 * Marissa Mayer (2012–2017)
 * Ross Levinsohn Interim (2012)
 * Scott Thompson (2012)
 * Tim Morse Interim (2011–2012)
 * Carol Bartz (2009–2011)
 * Jerry Yang (2007–2009)
 * Terry Semel (2001–2007)
 * Timothy Koogle (1995–2001)

Products and services
For a list of all current and defunct services offered by Yahoo, see List of Yahoo!-owned sites and services.

Data breaches
On September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach that occurred in late 2014, in which information associated with at least 500 million user accounts, one of the largest breaches reported to date. The United States indicted four men, including two employees of Russia's Federal Security Service (FSB), for their involvement in the hack. On December 14, 2016, the company revealed that another separate data breach had occurred in 2014, with hackers obtaining sensitive account information, including security questions, to at least one billion accounts. The company stated that hackers had utilized stolen internal software to forge HTTP cookies.

On October 3, 2017, the company stated that all 3 billion of its user accounts were affected by the August 2013 theft.

DMCA notice to whistleblower
On November 30, 2009, Yahoo was criticized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation for sending a DMCA notice to whistleblower website "Cryptome" for publicly posting details, prices, and procedures on obtaining private information pertaining to Yahoo's subscribers.

Censorship of private emails affiliated with Occupy Wall Street protests
After some concerns over censorship of private emails regarding a website affiliated with Occupy Wall Street protests were raised, Yahoo responded with an apology and explained it as an accident.

Partners and sponsorships

On September 11, 2001, Yahoo! announced its partnership with FIFA for the 2002 FIFA World Cup and 2006 FIFA World Cup tournaments. It was one of FIFA's 15 partners at the tournaments. The deal included co-branding the organization's websites.

Yahoo! sponsored the 2012 Sundance Film Festival. NBC Sports Group aligned with Yahoo Sports the same year with content and program offerings on mobile and desktop platforms.

Yahoo announced television video partnerships in 2013 with Condé Nast, WWE, ABC NEWS, and CNBC. Yahoo entered into a 10-year collaboration in 2014, as a founding partner of Levi's Stadium, home of the San Francisco 49ers.

The National Basketball Association partnered with Yahoo Sports to stream games, offer virtual and augmented-reality fan experiences, and in 2018 NBA League Pass. Yahoo Sportsbook launched in November 2019, a collaboration with BetMGM.

BuzzFeed acquired HuffPost from Yahoo in November 2020, in a stock deal with Yahoo as a minority shareholder. The NFL partnered with Yahoo in 2020, to introduce a new "Watch Together" function on the Yahoo Sports app for interactive co-viewing through a synchronized livestream of local and primetime NFL games. The Paley Center for Media collaborated with Verizon Media to exclusively stream programs on Yahoo platforms beginning in 2020.

Yahoo became the main sponsor for the Pramac Racing team and the first title sponsor for the 2021 ESport/MotoGP Championship season. Yahoo, the official partner for the September 2021 New York Fashion Week event also unveiled sponsorship for the Rebecca Minkoff collection via a NFT space. In September 2021, it was announced that Yahoo partnered with Shopify, connecting the e-commerce merchants on Yahoo Finance, AOL and elsewhere.

title: Yahoo!


text:
Fritz Pregl Prize

Fritz Pregl Prize has been awarded annually since 1931, to an Austrian scientist for distinguished achievements in chemistry by the Austrian Academy of Sciences (Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften) from the funds left at its disposal by the Nobel prize-winning chemist Fritz Pregl.

Not currently awarded.

Recipients
• 1931 - Fritz Feigl

• 1932 -  Moritz Niessner

• 1933 -  Anton Benedetti-Pichler

• 1934 -  Ludwig Kofler

• 1935 -  Edgar Schally

• 1936 -  Franz Vieböck

• 1937 -  Max Haitinger

• 1938 -  Friedrich Hecht

• 1939 -  Josef Pirsch

• 1941 -  Josef Unterzaucher

• 1942 -  Julius Donau

• 1943 -  Karl Bürger

• 1947 -  Heinz Holter

• 1950 -  Hans Lieb

• 1951 -  Ernst Wiesen

• 1952 -  Georg Gorbach

• 1953 -  Ernst Abrahamczik

• 1954 -  Adelheid Kofler

• 1955 -  Engelbert Broda

• 1956 -  Heribert Michl

• 1957 -  Herbert Ballczo

• 1958 -  Friedrich Kuffner

• 1959 -  Gerald Kainz

• 1960 -  Hubert Roth

• 1961 -  Hans Spitzy

• 1962 -  Gerhard Billek

• 1963 -  Michael Zacherl

• 1964 -  Robert Fischer

• 1965 -  Hanns Malissa

• 1966 -  Johann Korkisch

• 1967 -  Herbert Weisz

• 1969 -  Vinzenz Anger

• 1970 -  Helmut Trutnovsky

• 1971 -  Theodor Leipert

• 1972 -  Maria Kuhnert-Brandstätter

• 1973 -  Wolfgang Kiesl

• 1974 -  Hans Leopold

• 1975 -  Erik Lassner

• 1976 -  Herbert Sorantin

• 1977 -  Robert Kellner

• 1979 -  Gottfried Machata

• 1981 -  Manfred Grasserbauer

• 1984 -  Alexej Nikiforov

• 1986 -  Wolfhard Wegscheider

• 1988 -  Karl Winsauer

• 1990 -  Wolfgang Merz

• 1992 -  Hans Malissa

• 1995 -  Hans Puxbaum

• 1996 -  Ernst Kenndler

• 1998 -  Wolfgang Buchberger

• 2000 -  Gerhard Sontag

• 2002 -  Bernhard Lendl

• 2004 –  Erwin Rosenberg and Leopold Jirovetz

• 2006 –  Michael Lämmerhofer and Michael Oberhuber

title: Fritz Pregl Prize


text:
IS tank family

The IS tanks (ИС) were a series of heavy tanks developed as a successor to the KV-series by the Soviet Union during World War II. The IS acronym is the anglicized initialism of Joseph Stalin (Ио́сиф Ста́лин, ). The heavy tanks were designed as a response to the capture of a German Tiger I in 1943. They were mainly designed as breakthrough tanks, firing a heavy high-explosive shell that was useful against entrenchments and bunkers. The IS-2 went into service in April 1944 and was used as a spearhead by the Red Army in the final stage of the Battle of Berlin. The IS-3 served on the Chinese-Soviet border, the Hungarian Revolution, the Prague Spring and on both sides of the Six-Day War. The series eventually culminated in the T-10 heavy tank.

KV-85 IS-85/IS-122 and IS-2
The KV-85 heavy tank was a modification of the KV-1S heavy tank. The tank was a result of the USSR's tank design bureau being torn in two, one half focusing on the KV-85 and its variants, and the other working on the later IS series. The IS-85 was soon finished and it combined the hull of the KV-13, and the new turret from the KV-85, and the same D-5T gun as both tanks. In December 1943, the IS-85 was up gunned with the 100mm BS-3 gun, creating the IS-100, and the IS-122, armed with the A19 gun (later adopted and renamed as the D-25T). The IS-122 was found to be better in trials, and the IS-100 was dropped. The IS-122 was renamed to IS-2 and production started with the 1943 model using a KV-13 chassis. The 1944 model was produced with a revised front slope that was better from an armor point of view while still saving weight. The first few KV-85 tanks were produced in 1943 as a stopgap while the IS-1's development cycle was wrapped up. Production in bulk of the IS series started in February 1944 and ended nearing the end of World War II. By the end of World War II, 3,854 IS-2 model 1943 and model 1944's combined had been produced. German general Hasso von Manteuffel, who met tanks of that series in combat for the first time in Rumania in 1944, considered the Stalin tank "the finest in the world."

Object 703 IS-3
There are two tanks known as IS-3: Object 244 was an IS-2 rearmed with the long-barrelled 85 mm cannon (D-5T-85-BM) and developed by the Leningrad Kirov Plant (LKZ), which was never series-produced for service use.

The IS-3 known as Object 703 is a Soviet heavy tank developed in late 1944. Its semi-hemispherical cast turret (resembling an upturned soup bowl), became the hallmark of post-war Soviet tanks. Its pike nose design was also mirrored by other tanks of the IS tank family such as the IS-7 and T-10 tank. Too late to see combat in World War II, the IS-3 participated in the Berlin Victory Parade of 1945, on the Chinese-Soviet border, the Soviet invasion of Hungary, the Prague Spring and the Six-Day War.

Object 701 IS-4
There are two tanks known as IS-4: Object 245 and Object 701. Object 245 was an IS-2 rearmed with a long 100 mm D-10T cannon.

The IS-4 known as the Object 701 was a Soviet heavy tank that started development in 1943 and began production in 1946. Derived from the IS-2 and part of the IS tank family the IS-4 featured a longer hull and increased armor. With the IS-3 already in production, and when sluggish mobility and decreased need for tanks (particularly heavy tanks) became an issue, many were sent to the Russian Far East with some eventually becoming pillboxes along the Chinese border in the 1960s. Less than 250 were produced.

Object 730 IS-5
The IS-5, is merely one of the many designations given to what would ultimately become the T-10 tank.

Object 252/253 IS-6
There existed two different IS-6s: the Object 253 was an attempt to develop a practical electrical transmission system for heavy tanks. Similar systems had been tested previously in France and the United States and had been used with limited success in the German Elefant/Ferdinand tank destroyer during World War II. The experimental transmission proved unreliable and was dangerously prone to overheating, and development was discontinued. The alternative Object 252 shared the same hull and turret as the Object 253, but used a different suspension with no return rollers, and a conventional mechanical transmission. The design was deemed to offer no significant advantages over the IS-2, just the reload time was less, and the IS-6 project was halted.

Upgraded version of IS-6
Since the IS-6 proved to have no significant advantages over IS-2 and its rival IS-4, in November 1944, they decided to dramatically upgrade the tank. The project was called "Object 252U" (U stands for "Improvement" in Russian). The tank featured a heavily sloped pike-nose armor, a new 122 mm D-13T gun, and more slope on the sides and rear. The design proved to be problematic in terms of crew comfort since the interior was too cramped and the design was cancelled.

Object 260 IS-7
The IS-7 heavy tank design began in Leningrad in 1945 by Nikolai Fedorovich Shashmurin and was developed in 1948. Weighing 68 tonnes, thickly armoured and armed with a 130 mm S-70 long-barrelled gun, it was the largest and heaviest member of the IS family.

Object 730 T-10
The IS-8 (also known as Objekt 730) was the final development of the KV and IS tank series. It was accepted into service in 1952 as the IS-8, but due to the political climate in the wake of Stalin's death in 1953, it was renamed T-10, as it was the tenth heavy tank in Soviet service.

The biggest differences from its direct ancestor, the IS-3, were a longer hull, seven pairs of road wheels instead of six, a larger turret mounting a new gun with fume extractor, an improved diesel engine, and increased armour. General performance was similar, although the T-10 could carry more ammunition.

T-10s (like the earlier tanks they replaced) were deployed in independent tank regiments belonging to armies, and independent tank battalions belonging to divisions. These independent tank units could be attached to mechanized units, to support infantry operations and perform breakthroughs.

The T-10M is the final iteration of this type. It featured a longer gun barrel than previous models with 5-baffle muzzle brake and 14.5 mm machine gun. This was the last Soviet heavy tank to enter service. When the advanced T-64 MBT became available it replaced the T-10 in front line formations.

Combat history
The IS-2 entered combat in World War II during the first months of 1944. The Soviets produced significant numbers of the type (close to 4,000) and deployed them against the most advanced German designs of the time, notably the Tiger I, Tiger II, and Panther, as well as against Elefant tank destroyers. The IS-2 was best used for bunker assault using its high-explosive ammunition, as its reload rate, just 2 rounds per minute, made it ineffective as a tank destroyer. The IS-3 saw service on the Chinese-Soviet border, the Soviet invasion of Hungary, the Prague Spring and on both sides of the Six-Day War. However, the mobility and firepower of medium-tanks and the evolution of the main battle tank rendered heavy tanks obsolete.

Variants

 * KV-85: A stopgap model built from a modified KV-1S hull mated to an Object 237(IS-1)'s turret and armed with the 85 mm D-5T.
 * IS-1K: (1942) The first prototype of the IS-1 tank, which was made in two copies in 1942. The turret was from an experimental KV-9 tank, which did not go into mass production. But the high military command decided that the turret and gun of the KV-9 tank were too outdated. As a result, a new turret had to be designed for the new gun.
 * IS-85 (IS-1): 1943 model armed with an 85 mm gun. When IS-2 production started, many were re-gunned with 122 mm guns before being issued.
 * IS-100: A prototype version armed with a 100 mm gun; it went into trials against the IS-122 which was armed with a 122 mm gun. Though the IS-100 was reported to have better anti-armor capabilities, the latter was chosen due to better all-around performance.
 * IS-122 (IS-2 model 1943): 1943 model, armed with A-19 122 mm gun (later adopted as the D-25T gun). Production ended after World War II.
 * IS-2 model 1944 :1944 improvement with D-25T 122 mm gun, with faster-loading drop breech and new fire control, and improved frontal hull armour using thinner armour with a more efficient shape.
 * IS-2M: 1950s modernization of IS-2 tanks.
 * IS-3:1944 armor redesign, with new rounded turret, angular front hull casting, integrated stowage bins over the tracks. Internally similar to IS-2 model 1944 and produced concurrently. About 350 built during the war.
 * IS-3M: (1952) Modernized version of IS-3. Fitted with additional jettisonable external fuel tanks and improved hull welding.
 * IS-4: 1944 design, in competition against the IS-3. Longer hull and thicker armor than IS-2. About 250 were built, after the war.
 * IS-6: Prototype with an experimental electrical transmission. Chassis tested further with a conventional transmission after failure of the experimental system, but not deemed a significant enough improvement over existing heavy tank designs to warrant mass production.
 * IS-7:1946 prototype, only three built. The IS-7 model 1948 variant had a weight of 68 metric tons and it was armed with the 130 mm S-70 naval cannon (7020 mm long barrel). The assisted loader can achieve up to 8 rounds per minute. Other equipment included stabilizers, infrared night scopes, and 8 machine guns. The hull armor was 150 mm placed at 50~52 degree angles. On the turret, the frontal thickness was 240–350 mm at an angle of 45-0 degrees. The IS-7 had a crew of five, with the driver in the hull, the commander and gunner in the front of the turret, with both loaders in the rear of the turret. A Slostin machine gun was to be installed as its AA armament.
 * IS-8 (T-10): 1952 improvement with a longer hull, seven pairs of road wheels instead of six, a larger turret mounting a new gun with fume extractor, an improved diesel engine, and increased armor. Renamed T-10 as part of the Destalinization of the Soviet Union in the 1950s.

Operators

 * 🇨🇳 China
 * People's Liberation Army: 60 IS-2s delivered in 1950–1951. Operated during the Korean War and in concrete bunkers along the Sino-Soviet border.
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba
 * Cuban Army: 41 IS-2Ms delivered in 1960.
 * Czechoslovakia
 * Czechoslovak Army: 8 IS-2/IS-2M in service between 1945 and 1960. Two IS-3 delivered in 1949 were used only for trials and military parades.
 * East Germany
 * NVA: 60 IS-2 delivered 1956. Operated until 1963.
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * Egyptian Army: 100 IS-3M operated from 1956 to 1967, some in use in the Six-Day War 1967.
 * Nazi Germany
 * Wehrmacht: Captured one or two IS-2 in May 1945.
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary
 * Hungarian People's Army: 68 IS-2s in service between 1950 and 1956. After the crackdown of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 all were returned to the Soviet Union.
 * 🇮🇱 Israel
 * IDF: Three IS-3M captured from Egypt in 1967. Reused as indirect fire artillery on the Sinai's Bar Lev line and as fixed turret bunkers fortifications along the Jordan Valley frontier.
 * 🇰🇵 North Korea
 * Korean People's Army: Small number of IS-2s; never deployed in combat in the Korean War.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland
 * Polish Land Forces: Approximately 71 IS-2s used in combat between 1944 and 1945. 180 IS-2s survived as of 1955 and remained in service until the 1960s; some later were converted to armoured recovery vehicles. Two IS-3s were bought in 1946 for trials only.
 * 🇷🇴 Romania
 * Romanian Land Forces: One IS-2 captured during clashes on the Romanian border between 28 May and 7 June 1944. The tank was subsequently exhibited in Bucharest.
 * South Ossetia
 * South Ossetian Army: Operated some IS-2s, IS-3s and T-10s until 1995.
 * USSR
 * Red Army: Heavy Breakthrough Tank from 1944 to 1945.
 * Soviet Army: Phased out of service in the early-1970s.
 * Novorossiyan rebels
 * One IS-3, previously displayed on a pedestal in the village of Aleksandro-Kalynove near Kostiantynivka as a World War II memorial, used in combat by the Novorossiyan Armed Forces in the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Kostiantynivka was retaken by Ukrainian forces on 7 July 2014, along with the IS-3.

Surviving vehicles
There are several surviving IS series tanks, with examples found at the following:
 * IS-2
 * Os. Górali [standing tank], Kraków, Poland
 * Polish Army Museum, Warsaw, Poland
 * Museum of Arms in Fort Winiary, Poznań, Poland
 * Museum of Armoured Weapon in Training Center of Land Forces, Poznań, Poland (operational, see movie)
 * Tank Museum of the People's Liberation Army, Beijing, China.
 * Liberty Park, Overloon, The Netherlands.
 * Museum of The History of Ukraine in World War II, Ukraine
 * Kurzeme Fortress Museum, Zante, Latvia.
 * Diorama Battle of Kursk, in Belgorod, Russia.
 * The American Heritage Museum, Greater Boston, USA
 * Army Technical Museum, Lešany, Czech Republic (previously in Prague as a Monument to Soviet tank crews)
 * Orvidai Homestead - Museum, Kretinga, Lithuania
 * IS-2M
 * Imperial War Museum Duxford, England.
 * Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia.
 * Victory Park (Park Pobedy - Парк Победы), Ulyanovsk, Russia.
 * Victory Park at Poklonnaya Gora, Moscow, Russia.
 * IS-3
 * IDF Armoured Corps Museum, Israel.
 * Museum of Armoured Arms, Training Center of Land Forces, Poznań, Poland
 * Army Technical Museum, Lešany, Czech Republic (operational).
 * Polish Army Museum, Warsaw, Poland. (Fort Czerniaków branch of the Museum).
 * National Armor and Cavalry Museum, Fort Benning, Georgia, United States.
 * Victory Park in the northern part of Ulyanovsk, Russia.
 * Ulyanovskoe SVU, Ulyanovsk, Russia
 * Military Glory Museum, Gomel, Belarus.
 * Diorama Battle of Kursk, in Belgorod, Russia.
 * At least one IS-3 was used by the separatist government in Donbas before being captured by Ukrainian forces.
 * IS-3M
 * Egyptian National Military Museum, Cairo Citadel, Egypt.
 * Military Vehicle Technology Foundation, California, United States.
 * Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and of Military History, Brussels, Belgium. (still operational)
 * IS-4
 * Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia.
 * IS-7
 * Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia.

title: IS tank family


text:
Vocal cord cyst

Vocal fold cysts (also known as vocal cord cysts) are benign masses of the membranous vocal folds. These cysts are enclosed, sac-like structures that are typically of a yellow or white colour. They occur unilaterally on the midpoint of the medial edge of the vocal folds. They can also form on the upper/superior, surface of the vocal folds. There are two types of vocal fold cysts:

 * 1) Sub-epithelial vocal fold cysts- located in the superficial lamina propria of the vocal folds.
 * 2) Ligament vocal fold cysts- located within the deeper layers of the lamina propria or on the vocal ligament.

The symptoms of vocal fold cysts vary but most commonly include a hoarse voice and problems with the pitch of the voice. Vocal fold cysts are diagnosed based on gathering a case history, perceptual examination, and laryngeal imaging. Practicing good vocal hygiene is recommended to prevent vocal fold cysts. Initial treatment of the cysts involves voice therapy to reduce harmful vocal behaviours. If symptoms remain after voice therapy, patients may require surgery to remove the cyst. Surgery is typically followed by vocal rest and further voice therapy to improve voice function. Cysts may also be treated using vocal fold steroid injection.

Histology
The vocal folds consist of 3 primary layers; the Epithelium, the Lamina Propria (containing superficial, intermediate and deep layers) and the Thyroarytenoid Muscle. Vocal fold cysts commonly appear in the Superficial portion of the Lamina Propria, the cyst size impacts the nature of this layer making it more rigid. The border of vocal fold cysts contains squamous or epithelial cells. In the case of retention cysts, the border consists of glandular epithelium. Epidermoid cysts closely resemble epidermal cysts that can occur anywhere in the body.

Types of Vocal Cord Cysts
Sub-epithelial cysts (also known as mucous retention cysts) are closed lesions that occur from a build-up of tissue on the vocal folds. They are typically found in the middle portion of the upper lamina propria of the vocal folds. Sub-epithelial cysts are small and white in colour. Their presence on the vocal folds usually does not disrupt the vibration of the vocal folds for speech (known as the "mucosal wave").

Ligament cysts (also known as epidermoid cysts) are closed lesions that occur near the vocal ligament in the deep layers of the lamina propria. Ligament cysts are usually larger in size than sub-epithelial cysts. They are yellow in colour and unlike sub-epithelial cysts, their presence is usually observed to disrupt the mucosal wave of the vocal folds in the region around the cyst.

Signs and Symptoms
Sub-epithelial vocal fold cysts and ligament vocal fold cysts are characterized by similar symptoms. The presence and severity of symptoms may be influenced by the location and size of the cyst.

Common symptoms include:

 * Hoarse voice
 * Inability to produce high pitch notes
 * Fatigue when speaking
 * Limited pitch range
 * Pain near the larynx
 * Variations in pitch when speaking

Signs and symptoms of vocal fold cysts may remain stable or increase over time. In rare cases it is also possible for symptoms to improve if the cyst ruptures spontaneously. Symptoms affecting quality of voice tend to worsen after speaking for long periods of time, or when speaking with increased volume. Many individuals who use their voice professionally find even a slight presence of symptoms to be problematic. However, some voice professionals are not impacted by the presence of vocal cysts.

Vocal Dynamics
Vocal fold cysts cause the properties of the vocal folds to change. When a cyst is present on a vocal fold, the cover of the vocal fold becomes more stiff and increases in mass. The increased mass and stiffness tends to result in hyperkinetic muscular movement during phonation. Hyperkinetic movement is characterized by increased rigidity in the affected vocal fold(s). This hyperkinetic movement results in the voice being perceived as hoarse. (see Signs and Symptoms) Specifically, the presence of a vocal fold cyst leads to an asynchronous mucosal wave of the vocal folds during phonation.

Causes
There are several possible causes of vocal fold cysts:
 * 1) They can be congenital.
 * 2) They can result from the blockage of a mucous gland's excretory duct. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as retention cysts.
 * 3) They can be the result of phonotrauma. Phonotrauma refers to behaviours that can lead to vocal fold injuries, such as vocal overuse (i.e. too much speaking), vocal misuse (i.e. speaking in an unnaturally high or low pitch), or vocal abuse (i.e. yelling or whispering for prolonged periods). Vocal folds vibrate during phonation resulting in repeated collisions of the right and left vocal folds. Phonotrauma subjects the vocal folds to excessive mechanical forces during these vibratory cycles, which can lead to the development of a wound. It is the healing of these wounds, which leads to tissue re-structuring, that can result in a vocal fold cyst.

Diagnosis
There are generally four components included in the full diagnosis of a vocal cord cyst: a medical and voice history, a head and neck exam, a perceptual assessment of the voice and imaging of the vocal folds. A medical and voice history can help distinguish patterns of misuse and phonotrauma to assist in diagnosis. The primary perceptual sign of vocal fold cysts is hoarseness of the voice. Diagnosis through perceptual means alone is difficult, therefore in the fourth component of diagnosis the patient often undergoes an imaging procedure. Imaging is most commonly done with laryngeal videostroboscopy. A videostroboscopy is an examination of the vocal folds using flashes of light to slow down the image of the vocal fold movement enough to provide a sharp picture of the phases of the movement cycle (mucosal wave.) This procedure provides information about vocal fold vibrations during speech, vocal intensity and vocal frequency. Imaging shows the reduced movement of the vocal folds (mucosal wave) when a vocal fold cyst is present. Further, videostroboscopy tends to show increased submucosal swelling in the affected areas of the vocal fold(s) More recently, other technologies have been introduced to assist with obtaining imaging of the vocal folds, including the use of Narrow-band imaging (NBI.) Narrow-band imaging involves the use of blue and yellow lights to improve the picture quality of an image and accentuate blood vessel visibility. NBI has been found to help improve visual identification of vocal fold cysts in some cases.

Vocal fold cysts can be differentiated from other vocal fold growths as they are usually unilateral. The two types of vocal fold cysts (sub-epithelial and ligament cysts) can be differentiated by colour, size and location. (See section on Types of vocal cord cysts for more information.)

If the vocal fold cyst(s) are presumed to be congenital, the patient should have a history of presenting with a hoarse voice.

Patients with vocal fold cysts are considered for surgery when presenting with:
 * Dysphonia
 * Lack of improvement through voice therapy

Prevention
A key aspect of preventing vocal fold cysts is good vocal hygiene. Good vocal hygiene promotes the healthy use of the vocal apparatus and the avoidance of phonotrauma. Good vocal hygiene practices involve the avoidance of: In addition, good vocal hygiene involves getting enough rest and drinking sufficient water. It is important to keep the vocal fold tissue healthy and hydrated, and when possible to limit the quantity of speaking in order to avoid damage.
 * Shouting
 * Whispering loudly or for long periods of time
 * Frequently of talking over loud background noise
 * Talking while yawning
 * Continual clearing of the throat
 * Speaking in an unnatural voice (i.e. too high or low)
 * Talking with a cold or laryngitis
 * Smoking tobacco or marijuana
 * The consumption of alcohol and coffee
 * The use of antihistamines, aspirin, steroids, tricyclic antidepressants, or any substance that alters perception (i.e. sleeping pills)
 * Foul air

Treatment
Vocal fold cysts are treated using a multidisciplinary approach. Vocal fold cysts are most responsive when surgical intervention is supplemented with voice therapy. Applying vocal therapy techniques in isolation has not yet been proven to remediate and decrease the actual size of the vocal fold cyst.

Voice therapy to address harmful vocal behaviours is recommended as the first treatment option. Voice therapy may involve reducing tension in the larynx, reducing loudness, reducing the amount of speech produced, and modifying the environment. If symptoms are significant, treatment usually involves microsurgery to remove the cyst. Although voice therapy is useful for preventing vocal fold cysts caused by phonotrauma and for promoting safe vocal practices, vocal fold cysts tend not to respond to therapy alone and typically require surgery for full repair.

During surgery, attempts are made to preserve as much vocal fold tissue as possible, given that glottal insufficiency (a gap in the vocal folds) is a possible consequence of surgery. Vocal fold tissue can be preserved during surgery by raising a micro-flap, removing the cyst, then laying the flap back down. This is intended to lead to minimal scarring and improved voice function. However, if any epithelium from the cyst sac is left behind during surgery, the cyst may regrow. Surgery of the larynx may also be conducted using a CO2 laser, which was reported as early as the 1970s. Congenital ductal cysts (those caused by blockage of a glandular duct) may be treated by marsupialization.

Following surgery, patients are recommended to take 2 to 14 days of vocal rest. In absolute vocal rest, activities such as talking, whispering, whistling, straining, coughing, and sneezing are restricted. Once adequate healing has occurred, the patient may be transitioned to relative vocal rest, which typically involves 5 to 10 minutes of breathy voicing per hour. Voice therapy is then required to restore as much function as possible. Post-operative voice therapy may include addressing harmful vocal behaviours, exercises to restrengthen the larynx, and reintegration into normal voice activities.

Professional voice users who do not experience substantial limitations due to their cysts may choose to forego surgery. Considering that some cysts remain stable over long periods of time, voice therapy alone may be an option for those who are resistant to surgery. Another option for those who are unwilling to undergo surgery is vocal fold steroid injection (VFSI). Injection of the vocal folds may be done transorally or percutaneously, through the thyrohyoid membrane, thyroid cartilage, or cricothyroid membrane. After VFSI, patients are recommended to take 1 to 7 days of vocal rest. VFSI may also be used to delay surgery, or as a treatment method when the risks associated with surgery are deemed to be too high.

Prognosis
Following diagnosis, voice therapy should be implemented to optimize vocal hygiene. Vocal fold cysts tend not to improve solely through vocal rest or vocal therapy.

Patients with sub-epithelial cysts have a better prognosis for timely recovery of vocal abilities than patients with ligament vocal fold cysts. Typically, patients can resume speaking activities in 7–30 days following surgery, and singing activities 30–90 days post-surgery.

Up to 20% of patients show scarring, polyps or vascular changes of the vocal folds following surgery. In severe cases, these resulting symptoms may require further surgery. The patient must always be aware of the impact and potential complications of surgery on their voice, especially if the voice is heavily used occupationally. In these cases, post-operative therapy should be discussed.

title: Vocal cord cyst


text:
Reinke's edema

Reinke's edema is the swelling of the vocal cords due to fluid (Edema) collected within the Reinke's space. First identified by the German anatomist Friedrich B. Reinke in 1895, the Reinke's space is a gelatinous layer of the vocal cord located underneath the outer cells of the vocal cord. When a person speaks, the Reinke's space vibrates to allow for sound to be produced (phonation). The Reinke's space is sometimes referred to as the superficial lamina propria.

Reinke's edema is characterized by the "sac-like" appearance of the fluid-filled vocal cords. The swelling of the vocal folds causes the voice to become deep and hoarse. Therefore, the major symptom of Reinke's edema is a hoarseness similar to laryngitis. The major cause associated with Reinke's edema is smoking. In fact, 97 percent of patients diagnosed with Reinke's edema are habitual smokers. Other identified risk factors include overuse of the vocal cords, gastroesophageal reflux, and hypothyroidism. The disease is more often cited in women than in men, because lower voice changes are more noticeable in women.

The first cases of Reinke's edema were recorded in 1891 by M. Hajek, followed by F. Reinke in 1895. In his investigations, Reinke injected a stained glue into the superficial lamina propria (Reinke's space) to mimic edema. Reinke's edema is considered to be a benign (non-cancercous) polyp (protrusion) that represents 10% of all benign laryngeal pathologies. Treatment of Reinke's edema starts with the elimination of associated risk factors, such as smoking, gastric reflux, and hypothyroidism. Advanced cases may undergo phonosurgery to remove the fluid from the vocal cords.

Signs and symptoms
List of common symptoms:
 * A "sac-like" appearance of the vocal folds
 * Hoarseness and deepening of the voice
 * Trouble speaking (dysphonia)
 * Reduced vocal range with diminished upper limits
 * Stretching of the mucosa (distension)
 * Shortness of breath (dyspnoea)

Reinke's edema is characterized by a "sac-like" appearance of the vocal folds. The edema is a white translucent fluid that causes a bulging (distension) of the vocal cord. The most common clinical symptom associated with Reinke's edema is an abnormally low pitched voice with hoarseness. The low pitch voice is a direct result of increased fluid in the Reinke's space, which vibrates at a lower frequency than normal (females <130 Hz; males <110 Hz). Hoarseness is a common problem of many laryngeal diseases, such as laryngitis. It is described as a harsh and breathy tone of voice. Hoarseness is often seen alongside dysphonia, a condition in which the individual has difficulty producing the sounds of speech normally.

The swelling of the vocal cords and the lowering of the voice are warning signs that an individual has Reinke's edema. At the microscopic level, an examination of the vocal cords in patients with Reinke's edema will show lowered levels of collagen, elastin, and extracellular matrix proteins. These characteristics can be used to diagnose Reinke's edema. Reinke's edema is considered a benign tumor or polyp that may become precancerous if smoking is involved. An indicator of cancer is the development of leukoplakia, which manifests as white patches on the vocal folds.

Smoking, gastric reflux, and hypothyroidism are all risk factors for Reinke's edema. The symptoms of Reinke's edema are considered to be chronic symptoms because they develop gradually over time and depend on how long the individual is exposed to the risk factor. In the case of smoking, as long as the individual continues the habit of smoking, the Reinke's edema will continue to progress. This is true for other risk factors as well, such as untreated gastric reflux and overuse of the voice, which is common to professions such as singers and radio announcers.

Causes
Smoking is the number one cause of Reinke's edema. Other factors include gastroesophageal reflux, hypothyroidism and chronic overuse of the voice. Smoking and reflux are the only risk factors that may lead to cancer. Additionally, the combination of several risk factors increase the likelihood of an individual developing Reinke's edema. For example, an individual who smokes and also has gastric reflux would have an increased susceptibility for developing Reinke's edema over time.

Reinke's edema is commonly diagnosed in middle-aged females with a history of smoking (aged 50 years or older). Because males have lower pitched voices than females, males are less likely to observe significant changes in the voice and are therefore less likely to seek treatment. Females also report more physical discomfort due to Reinke's edema. The risk of Reinke's edema increases with age and also with prolonged exposure to smoking. Additionally, individuals in professions that require constant use of the voice, such as singers, teachers, and radio hosts, may be at an increased risk for developing the disease.

Because the disease is heavily linked to smoking, there is no established way to screen for Reinke's edema. Similarly, the only way to prevent Reinke's edema is to avoid smoking. By adopting a non-smoking lifestyle after being diagnosed with Reinke's edema, it is possible to stop the disease's progression, although it is not possible to reverse it. Therefore, it is critical to maintain a non-smoking lifestyle even after surgery, because the fluid can re-emerge. In fact, in many cases surgeons will not perform surgery without the guarantee that the individual will stop smoking.

Mechanism
The vocal cords consist of five layers of cells: In order for humans to produce sound for speech, the vocal folds must readily vibrate. The two layers of the vocal cords that vibrate are the Reinke's space and the overlying epithelium. In fact, these layers move freely over the more rigid intermediate and deep lamina proprias. Accumulation of fluid within the Reinke's space alters the elasticity of the vocal cord, making it less stiff and more gelatinous. This slows the vocal cord vibration, which results in a deepened and hoarse voice. Because men normally have a lower voice than women, the change is more noticeable in women.
 * Squamous epithelium
 * Superficial lamina propria (Reinke's space)
 * Intermediate lamina propria
 * Deep lamina propria
 * Vocalis muscle

Edema usually occurs on both vocal cords. This is known as bilateral Reinke's edema. The pathophysiology or mechanism of Reinke's edema is not well known, however, chemicals contained within cigarette smoke are associated with an increased vascular permeability of blood vessels, which results in fluid leaking into the Reinke's space. Normally, the vocal cords are surrounded by neatly aligned blood vessels, however, these blood vessels can become disarranged and fragile in Reinke's edema. In addition, cigarette smoke can create reactive oxygen species that alter the environment of the vocal cords. Tissue analysis of Reinke's edema shows decreased amounts of the proteins fibronectin, elastin, collagens I and III, and extracellular matrix proteins. This leads to an overall decreased stiffness of the tissue layer, which vibrates more slowly and produces a deeper sounding voice.

The progression of Reinke's edema is gradual and is directly related to the duration of exposure to risk factors, such as smoking and gastric reflux. Disease progression is divided into two types: "pale" and "livid". The pale type is defined by a glazed appearance of the vocal cords with a clear (colorless) fluid underneath. This represents the early stage of the disease. The advanced livid type of Reinke's edema is identified by an increased amount of fluid, accompanied by fluid color change from colorless to yellow-grey. The swelling of the vocal folds cause ballooned-like appearance, known as a polyp. The polyps of Reinke's edema are usually benign, however, there may be a risk of cancer if the patient is a smoker. Additionally, if the edema becomes too severe, patients may experience difficulty breathing due to airway obstruction.

Diagnosis
Reinke's edema is often diagnosed by an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist (an Otorhinolaryngologist or Otolaryngologist) by examination of the vocal folds ("cords"). First, the doctor will review the patient's medical history and symptoms, such as hoarseness, dysphonia, and reduced vocal range. There is no familial or hereditary link to Reinke's edema. The doctor will need to know if the patient is a habitual smoker. Once the patient's history is reviewed, the vocal cords will be visualized using laryngoscopy, a technique in which a tube with a camera (endoscope) is passed through the nose and down the larynx. Laryngoscopes can be rigid or flexible. Flexible laryngoscopes, such as fiber laryngoscopes, allow the patient to produce sound as the tube is placed, and therefore allows the doctor to visualize movement of the vocal cord. The use of rigid laryngoscopes generally requires general anaesthesia due to the discomfort involved in distracting the soft tissues of the mouth and pharynx.

Based on the results of the laryngoscopy, Reinke's edema can be classified using a standardized system set in place by Yonekawa. This system characterizes the disease based on severity.

Yonekawa Classification: If further evaluation is needed, stroboscopy is used to examine the mucosal waves of the vocal cords. Mucosal waves describe the waves produced by vibration of the vocal cords during speech. Stroboscopes produce flashes of light that are timed to the patient's vocal frequency. Every time the light is flashed, it will create a still frame image of the vocal cords at that particular moment in time. These are combined to produce an image of the wave. In the case of Reinke's edema, structural changes to the vocal cords will result in abnormal wave patterns.
 * Grade I – Lesions contact the anterior third of the vocal fold
 * Grade II – Lesions contact the anterior two-thirds of the vocal fold
 * Grade III – Lesions contact the entirety of the vocal fold

Treatment
The first step in treating Reinke's edema is to eliminate or control those risk factors that are causing the disease. This includes the cessation of smoking, the control of Gastroesophageal reflux using antacids or Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs), and the discontinuation of activities that cause vocal distress. Those experiencing a hoarseness of the voice may choose to undergo voice therapy to improve the voice's quality and range. Most cases of Reinke's edema are caused by the long term usage of cigarettes. In this case, it is important to make lifestyle changes to stop smoking. While this will not resolve or improve the edema, the cessation of smoking will halt the disease's progression.

If the elimination of risk factors is not sufficient to improve the patient's symptoms, surgery may be required. The most common type of surgery performed today for Reinke's edema is called surgical microlaryngoscopy. Most procedures follow the microflap technique set in place by Hirano. During surgery, an incision is made into the vocal cord using either microscissors or a Carbon dioxide laser (CO2). A flap of mucous membrane is lifted and the affected tissue is removed using suction or a microdebrider. The flap is then re-draped and trimmed to the appropriate size.

Most cases of Reinke's edema are bilateral −affecting both vocal cords− rather than unilateral. In the case of bilateral edema, the surgeon must choose whether to operate each side of the vocal cord in two separate surgeries or to operate both sides in a single surgery. The complication associated with removing tissue from both sides in a single surgery is that the raw, cut ends of the vocal cords may form an anterior glottis web, in which the two sides grow together in a continuous sheet. Other complications of surgery include tissue scarring due to damage to the vocal ligament during the incision and vocal cord stiffening due to over-suctioning of the superficial lamina propria (Reinke's space).

While surgical microlaryngoscopy has its associated risks, if left untreated, Reinke's edema can lead to a variety of long-term complications. Besides dysphonia (impaired sound production for speech), the most serious of these complications is airway obstruction due to severe inflammation of the vocal cords. The risk of complications has decreased drastically with the creation of new tools, such as the CO2 laser for surgical microlaryngoscopy. Before the Hirano microflap method was developed in 1895, vocal stripping was the most common procedure used to correct Reinke's edema. Vocal stripping was often performed without magnification and with a monocular laryngoscope, instead of a binocular scope. This led to major complications such as vocal ligament scarring.

Women are more likely than men to undergo surgery due to a greater change in vocal pitch and quality. Surgery is capable of restoring the voice, with the condition that smoking is not resumed after surgery. Reinke's edema is not a life-limiting pathology unless the tissue becomes precancerous.

Research
Recent studies have examined the role of specific cell types in Reinke's edema, including the role of vocal cord fibroblasts. In normal tissue, these spindle-shaped CD34+ fibroblasts produce extracellular matrix proteins such as collagen and elastin. Recent findings have shown a morphological change in fibroblasts extracted from the tissue of Reinke's edema to a more dendritic-like shape with several protrusions. Large populations of these altered CD34+ fibroblasts have been found surrounding the areas of edema. They lack normal expression of several cluster of differentiation (CD) proteins and express additional proteins that are not expressed in normal vocal cord fibroblasts. Cigarette smoke was discovered to increase COX-2 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) expression in fibroblasts, which could explain the role of cigarette smoke in Reinke's edema.

While smoking is a clear risk factor for Reinke's edema, others are being investigated to explain Reinke's edema in nonsmokers. Research has suggested the role of bacterial colonies in non-neoplastic lesions such as Reinke's edema. In one study using pyrosequencing, thirty-one of the forty-four non-neoplastic lesions sampled were found to have Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae bacterial strains as the dominant bacteria present. Species of Streptococcus were present in every lesion analyzed, representing 72.9% of all bacteria found specifically within Reinke's edema lesions and 68.7% of bacteria across all the vocal fold lesions sequenced. While smoking, gastric reflux, and vocal abuse have been more widely agreed upon in literature as risk factors for Reinke's edema, the altered bacterial cultures could be developed as a diagnostic tool in the future.

The majority of the research within the last ten years focuses on improving surgery for Reinke's edema. Due to the importance of the Reinke's space in speech, it is important that minimally-invasive techniques be perfected that minimize the risk of complications. The carbon dioxide laser has been successfully incorporated into the surgical technique; there are several other lasers being investigated for use in Reinke's edema. These include photoangiolytic lasers and potassium titanyl phosphate lasers.

title: Reinke's edema


text:
Tom Armstrong (cartoonist)

Tom Armstrong (born 1950, Evansville, Indiana) is an American cartoonist and the creator of the daily newspaper comic strip Marvin, which he has written and drawn continuously since its creation in 1982.

He was also the original artist on Tom Batiuk's newspaper comic strip John Darling, which he drew from 1979 through 1985; he left the strip in 1985 to concentrate on Marvin, with Gerry Shamray replacing Armstrong on the John Darling strip.

He received the Elzie Segar Award in 1996. Armstrong graduated from the University of Evansville.

title: Tom Armstrong (cartoonist)


text:
Cyst

A cyst is a closed sac, having a distinct envelope and division compared with the nearby tissue. Hence, it is a cluster of cells that have grouped together to form a sac (like the manner in which water molecules group together to form a bubble); however, the distinguishing aspect of a cyst is that the cells forming the "shell" of such a sac are distinctly abnormal (in both appearance and behaviour) when compared with all surrounding cells for that given location. A cyst may contain air, fluids, or semi-solid material. A collection of pus is called an abscess, not a cyst. Once formed, a cyst may resolve on its own. When a cyst fails to resolve, it may need to be removed surgically, but that would depend upon its type and location.

Cancer-related cysts are formed as a defense mechanism for the body following the development of mutations that lead to an uncontrolled cellular division. Once that mutation has occurred, the affected cells divide incessantly and become cancerous, forming a tumor. The body encapsulates those cells to try to prevent them from continuing their division and contain the tumor, which becomes known as a cyst. That said, the cancerous cells still may mutate further and gain the ability to form their own blood vessels, from which they receive nourishment before being contained. Once that happens, the capsule becomes useless, and the tumor may advance from benign to cancerous.

Some cysts are neoplastic, and thus are called cystic tumors. Many types of cysts are not neoplastic, they are dysplastic or metaplastic. Pseudocysts are similar to cysts in that they have a sac filled with fluid, but lack an epithelial lining.

Terminology

 * microcyst – a small cyst that requires magnification to be seen
 * macrocyst – a cyst that is larger than usual or compared to others

Related structures
A pseudocyst is very similar to a cyst, but is a collection of cells without a distinct membrane (epithelial or endothelial cells).

A syrinx in the spinal cord or brainstem is sometimes inaccurately referred to as a "cyst".

Female reproductive system

 * Nabothian cyst (on the surface of the cervix)
 * Ovarian cyst (ovary)
 * Paratubal cyst (in front of fallopian tube behind the ovary)

 * Vaginal cysts
 * Gartner's duct cyst (lateral to vaginal wall)
 * Bartholin's cyst (at vaginal introitus)
 * Skene's duct cyst (beside the urinary meatus)
 * Ectopic ureterocoele (around the urinary meatus)
 * Urethral diverticulum (in front of vaginal wall)

Male reproductive system

 * Rete tubular ectasia (within the rete testis)
 * Epididymal cyst (in the epididymis)
 * Hydrocele testis (testicle): clear fluid within the cavum vaginale
 * Spermatocele (testicle): fluid within the head of epididymis

Cutaneous and subcutaneous

 * Acne cyst – Pseudocysts associated with cystic acne - an inflammatory nodule with or without an associated epidermoid inclusion cyst
 * Arachnoid cyst (between the surface of the brain and the cranial base or on the arachnoid membrane)
 * Epidermoid cyst
 * Myxoid cyst (cutaneous condition often characterized by nail plate depression and grooves)
 * Pilar cyst (cyst of the scalp)
 * Pilonidal cyst (skin infection near tailbone)
 * Sebaceous cyst – sac below skin
 * Trichilemmal cyst – same as a pilar cyst, a familial cyst of the scalp

Head and neck

 * Odontogenic cyst
 * Ceruminous cyst (ear)
 * Chalazion cyst (eyelid)
 * Mucous cyst of the oral mucosa
 * Nasolabial cyst
 * Nasopalatine duct cyst
 * Thyroglossal cyst
 * Vocal fold cyst

Chest

 * Fibrous cyst (breast cyst)
 * Pulmonary cyst (air pocket in the lung)
 * Pericardial cyst (abnormal dilatation of pericardium)

Abdomen

 * Liver cysts
 * Simple cysts
 * Hydatid cysts
 * Biliary cystadenoma
 * Biliary cystadenocarcinoma
 * Polycystic liver disease
 * Adrenal cyst (glands located above the kidneys) - It is a rare disease, affecting 0.06 to 0.18% of autopsy studies. It constitutes 5.4 to 6.0% of adrenal gland diseases. There are five major types of adrenal cysts: simple or endothelial cysts, true or epithelial cysts, pseudocysts, parasitic cysts, and cysts not classified elsewhere. 7% of the cysts can be malignant.
 * Renal cyst (kidneys)
 * Pancreatic cyst
 * Peritoneal inclusion cyst (lining of the abdominal cavity) - It is a cluster of fluid-filled cysts lining the abdominal cavity of reproductive age women with a history of pelvic, abdominal surgeries, or abdominal inflammation. Those affected maybe presented with an abdominal, pelvic, lower back that lasted for months.
 * Enteric duplication cyst

Central nervous system

 * Choroid plexus cyst
 * Colloid cyst
 * Pineal gland cyst (in the pineal gland in the brain)
 * Glial cyst
 * Tarlov cyst (spinal canal)

Musculoskeletal system

 * Aneurysmal bone cyst, a benign bone tumor with a radiographic cystic appearance.
 * Baker's cyst or popliteal cyst (behind the knee joint)
 * Mucoid cyst (ganglion cysts of the digits)
 * Stafne static bone cyst (an anatomic variant with radiographic cystic appearance in the posterior mandible)
 * Subchondral cyst (cysts near the bony joints)

Seen in various locations

 * Dermoid cyst (seen in ovaries, testes, and many other locations, from head to tailbone)
 * Ganglion cyst (hand and foot joints and tendons)
 * Mucoid cyst (ganglion cysts of the digits)

Infectious cysts

 * Cysticercal cyst – an infection due to the larval stage of Taenia sp. (Crain's backs)
 * Hydatid cyst – an infection in the liver or other parts of the body due to the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus (tapeworm)

Neoplastic cysts

 * Dermoid cyst
 * Keratocystic odontogenic tumor
 * Calcifying odontogenic cyst

Treatment
Treatment ranges from simple enucleation of the cyst to curettage to resection. There are cysts—e.g., buccal bifurcation cyst—that resolve on their own, in which just close observation may be employed, unless it is infected and symptomatic.

Cystic fibrosis
Despite being described in 1938 as "the microscopic appearance of cysts in the pancreas", cystic fibrosis is an example of a genetic disorder whose name is related to fibrosis of the cystic duct (which serves the gallbladder) and does not involve cysts.

This is just one example of how the Greek root cyst-, which simply means a fluid-filled sac, also is found in medical terms that relate to the urinary bladder and the gallbladder, neither of which involve cysts.

title: Cyst