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Toxicity

Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage.

A central concept of toxicology is that the effects of a toxicant are dose-dependent; even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose, whereas for even a very toxic substance such as snake venom there is a dose below which there is no detectable toxic effect. Toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints.

Etymology
In Ancient Greek medical literature, the adjective τoξικόν (meaning "toxic") was used to describe substances which had the ability of "causing death or serious debilitation or exhibiting symptoms of infection." The word draws its origins from the Greek noun τόξον toxon (meaning "arc"), in reference to the use of bows and poisoned arrows as weapons.

English-speaking American culture has adopted several figurative usages for toxicity, often when describing harmful inter-personal relationships or character traits (e.g. "toxic masculinity").

History
Humans have a deeply rooted history of not only being aware of toxicity, but also taking advantage of it as a tool. Archaeologists studying bone arrows from caves of Southern Africa have noted the likelihood that some aging 72,000 to 80,000 years old were dipped in specially prepared poisons to increase their lethality. Although scientific instrumentation limitations make it difficult to prove concretely, archaeologists hypothesize the practice of making poison arrows was widespread in cultures as early as the paleolithic era. The San people of Southern Africa have managed to preserved this practice into the modern era, with the knowledge base to form complex mixtures from poisonous beetles and plant derived extracts, yielding an arrow-tip product with a shelf life beyond several months to a year.

Types
There are generally five types of toxicities: chemical, biological, physical, radioactive and behavioural.

Disease-causing microorganisms and parasites are toxic in a broad sense but are generally called pathogens rather than toxicants. The biological toxicity of pathogens can be difficult to measure because the threshold dose may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or worm can reproduce to cause a serious infection. If a host has an intact immune system, the inherent toxicity of the organism is balanced by the host's response; the effective toxicity is then a combination. In some cases, e.g. cholera toxin, the disease is chiefly caused by a nonliving substance secreted by the organism, rather than the organism itself. Such nonliving biological toxicants are generally called toxins if produced by a microorganism, plant, or fungus, and venoms if produced by an animal.

Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibres or finely divided silicon dioxide, all of which can ultimately be fatal if inhaled. Corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but are not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in extremely high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically with too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, not chemically toxic gases.

Radiation can have a toxic effect on organisms.

Behavioral toxicity refers to the undesirable effects of essentially therapeutic levels of medication clinically indicated for a given disorder (DiMascio, Soltys and Shader, 1970). These undesirable effects include anticholinergic effects, alpha-adrenergic blockade, and dopaminergic effects, among others.

Measuring
Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target (organism, organ, tissue or cell). Because individuals typically have different levels of response to the same dose of a toxic substance, a population-level measure of toxicity is often used which relates the probabilities of an outcome for a given individual in a population. One such measure is the. When such data does not exist, estimates are made by comparison to known similar toxic things, or to similar exposures in similar organisms. Then, "safety factors" are added to account for uncertainties in data and evaluation processes. For example, if a dose of a toxic substance is safe for a laboratory rat, one might assume that one-tenth that dose would be safe for a human, allowing a safety factor of 10 to allow for interspecies differences between two mammals; if the data are from fish, one might use a factor of 100 to account for the greater difference between two chordate classes (fish and mammals). Similarly, an extra protection factor may be used for individuals believed to be more susceptible to toxic effects such as in pregnancy or with certain diseases. Or, a newly synthesized and previously unstudied chemical that is believed to be very similar in effect to another compound could be assigned an additional protection factor of 10 to account for possible differences in effects that are probably much smaller. This approach is very approximate, but such protection factors are deliberately very conservative, and the method has been found to be useful in a deep variety of applications.

Assessing all aspects of the toxicity of cancer-causing agents involves additional issues, since it is not certain if there is a minimal effective dose for carcinogens, or whether the risk is just too small to see. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cancer cell is all it takes to develop the full effect (the "one hit" theory).

It is more difficult to determine the toxicity of chemical mixtures than a pure chemical because each component displays its own toxicity, and components may interact to produce enhanced or diminished effects. Common mixtures include gasoline, cigarette smoke, and industrial waste. Even more complex are situations with more than one type of toxic entity, such as the discharge from a malfunctioning sewage treatment plant, with both chemical and biological agents.

The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ- and dose-specific toxic effects of an investigational product. The toxicity of substances can be observed by (a) studying the accidental exposures to a substance (b) in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines (c) in vivo exposure on experimental animals. Toxicity tests are mostly used to examine specific adverse events or specific endpoints such as cancer, cardiotoxicity, and skin/eye irritation. Toxicity testing also helps calculate the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) dose and is helpful for clinical studies.

Classification

For substances to be regulated and handled appropriately they must be properly classified and labelled. Classification is determined by approved testing measures or calculations and has determined cut-off levels set by governments and scientists (for example, no-observed-adverse-effect levels, threshold limit values, and tolerable daily intake levels). Pesticides provide the example of well-established toxicity class systems and toxicity labels. While currently many countries have different regulations regarding the types of tests, numbers of tests and cut-off levels, the implementation of the Globally Harmonized System has begun unifying these countries.

Global classification looks at three areas: Physical Hazards (explosions and pyrotechnics), Health Hazards and environmental hazards.

Health hazards
The types of toxicities where substances may cause lethality to the entire body, lethality to specific organs, major/minor damage, or cause cancer. These are globally accepted definitions of what toxicity is. Anything falling outside of the definition cannot be classified as that type of toxicant.

Acute toxicity
Acute toxicity looks at lethal effects following oral, dermal or inhalation exposure. It is split into five categories of severity where Category 1 requires the least amount of exposure to be lethal and Category 5 requires the most exposure to be lethal. The table below shows the upper limits for each category.

Note: The undefined values are expected to be roughly equivalent to the category 5 values for oral and dermal administration.

Other methods of exposure and severity
Skin corrosion and irritation are determined through a skin patch test analysis, similar to an allergic inflammation patch test. This examines the severity of the damage done; when it is incurred and how long it remains; whether it is reversible and how many test subjects were affected.

Skin corrosion from a substance must penetrate through the epidermis into the dermis within four hours of application and must not reverse the damage within 14 days. Skin irritation shows damage less severe than corrosion if: the damage occurs within 72 hours of application; or for three consecutive days after application within a 14-day period; or causes inflammation which lasts for 14 days in two test subjects. Mild skin irritation is minor damage (less severe than irritation) within 72 hours of application or for three consecutive days after application.

Serious eye damage involves tissue damage or degradation of vision which does not fully reverse in 21 days. Eye irritation involves changes to the eye which do fully reverse within 21 days.

Other categories

 * Respiratory sensitizers cause breathing hypersensitivity when the substance is inhaled.
 * A substance which is a skin sensitizer causes an allergic response from a dermal application.
 * Carcinogens induce cancer, or increase the likelihood of cancer occurring.
 * Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to a substance – specifically, a neurotoxin or neurotoxicant– alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause permanent or reversible damage to nervous tissue.
 * Reproductively toxic substances cause adverse effects in either sexual function or fertility to either a parent or the offspring.
 * Specific-target organ toxins damage only specific organs.
 * Aspiration hazards are solids or liquids which can cause damage through inhalation.

Environmental hazards
An Environmental hazard can be defined as any condition, process, or state adversely affecting the environment. These hazards can be physical or chemical, and present in air, water, and/or soil. These conditions can cause extensive harm to humans and other organisms within an ecosystem.

Common types of environmental hazards
The EPA maintains a list of priority pollutants for testing and regulation.
 * Water: detergents, fertilizer, raw sewage, prescription medication, pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, PCBs
 * Soil: heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides, PCBs
 * Air: particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, asbestos, ground-level ozone, lead (from aircraft fuel, mining, and industrial processes)

Occupational hazards
Workers in various occupations may be at a greater level of risk for several types of toxicity, including neurotoxicity. The expression "Mad as a hatter" and the "Mad Hatter" of the book Alice in Wonderland derive from the known occupational toxicity of hatters who used a toxic chemical for controlling the shape of hats. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace environment may be required for evaluation by industrial hygiene professionals.

Hazards in the arts
Hazards in the arts have been an issue for artists for centuries, even though the toxicity of their tools, methods, and materials was not always adequately realized. Lead and cadmium, among other toxic elements, were often incorporated into the names of artist's oil paints and pigments, for example, "lead white" and "cadmium red".

20th-century printmakers and other artists began to be aware of the toxic substances, toxic techniques, and toxic fumes in glues, painting mediums, pigments, and solvents, many of which in their labelling gave no indication of their toxicity. An example was the use of xylol for cleaning silk screens. Painters began to notice the dangers of breathing painting mediums and thinners such as turpentine. Aware of toxicants in studios and workshops, in 1998 printmaker Keith Howard published Non-Toxic Intaglio Printmaking which detailed twelve innovative Intaglio-type printmaking techniques including photo etching, digital imaging, acrylic-resist hand-etching methods, and introducing a new method of non-toxic lithography.

Mapping environmental hazards
There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET) and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.

Aquatic toxicity
Aquatic toxicity testing subjects key indicator species of fish or crustacea to certain concentrations of a substance in their environment to determine the lethality level. Fish are exposed for 96 hours while crustacea are exposed for 48 hours. While GHS does not define toxicity past 100 mg/L, the EPA currently lists aquatic toxicity as "practically non-toxic" in concentrations greater than 100 ppm.

Note: A category 4 is established for chronic exposure, but simply contains any toxic substance which is mostly insoluble, or has no data for acute toxicity.

Factors influencing toxicity
Toxicity of a substance can be affected by many different factors, such as the pathway of administration (whether the toxicant is applied to the skin, ingested, inhaled, injected), the time of exposure (a brief encounter or long term), the number of exposures (a single dose or multiple doses over time), the physical form of the toxicant (solid, liquid, gas), the concentration of the substance, and in the case of gases, the partial pressure (at high ambient pressure, partial pressure will increase for a given concentration as a gas fraction), the genetic makeup of an individual, an individual's overall health, and many others. Several of the terms used to describe these factors have been included here.

 * Acute exposure: A single exposure to a toxic substance which may result in severe biological harm or death; acute exposures are usually characterized as lasting no longer than a day.
 * Chronic exposure: Continuous exposure to a toxicant over an extended period of time, often measured in months or years; it can cause irreversible side effects.

Alternatives to dose-response framework
Considering the limitations of the dose-response concept, a novel Abstract Drug Toxicity Index (DTI) has been proposed recently. DTI redefines drug toxicity, identifies hepatotoxic drugs, gives mechanistic insights, predicts clinical outcomes and has potential as a screening tool.

title: Toxicity


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William de Braose (died 1230)

William de Braose (c. 1197 – 2 May 1230) was the son of Reginald de Braose by his first wife, Grecia Briwere. He was an ill-fated member of the House of Braose, a powerful and long-lived dynasty of Marcher Lords.

Biography
William de Braose was born in Brecon, probably between 1197 and 1204. The Welsh, who detested him and his family name, called him Gwilym Ddu, Black William. He succeeded his father in his various lordships in 1227, including Abergavenny and Buellt.

William married Eva Marshal, daughter of William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke. They had four daughters:
 * Isabella de Braose (born c. 1222 – 1248), wife of Prince Dafydd ap Llywelyn
 * Maud de Braose (born c. 1224 – 1301), wife of Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer another very powerful Marcher dynasty.
 * Eleanor de Braose (c. 1226 – 1251), wife of Humphrey (son of Humphrey de Bohun) and mother of Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford.
 * Eva de Braose (c. 1227 – July 1255), wife of William de Cantilupe (died 1254).

He was captured by the Welsh forces of Prince Llywelyn the Great, in fighting in the commote of Ceri near Montgomery, in 1228. William was ransomed for the sum of £2,000 and then furthermore made an alliance with Llywelyn, arranging to marry his daughter Isabella de Braose to Llywelyn's only legitimate son Dafydd ap Llywelyn. However, it became known that William had committed adultery with Llywelyn's wife, Joan, Lady of Wales, and Braose was taken at his own home and transported to Wales. The marriage planned between their two children did, however, take place.

The Chronicle of Ystrad Fflur's entry for 1230 reads:
 * "In this year William de Breos the Younger, lord of Brycheiniog, was hanged by the Lord Llywelyn in Gwynedd, after he had been caught in Llywelyn's chamber with the king of England's daughter, Llywelyn's wife".

Llywelyn had William publicly hanged on 2 May 1230, possibly at Crogen, near Bala, though others believe the hanging took place near Llywelyn's palace at Abergwyngregyn.

After William's death, his wife Eva continued to hold de Braose lands and castles in her own right. She was listed as the holder of Totnes in 1230, and was granted 12 marks to strengthen Hay Castle by King Henry III on the Close Rolls (1234–1237).

Legacy
With William's death by hanging and his having four daughters, who divided the de Braose inheritance between them and no male heir, the titles now passed to the junior branch of the de Braose dynasty, and the only male heir was now John de Braose who had already inherited the titles of Gower and Bramber from his far-sighted uncle Reginald de Braose.

Literature

 * Sion Eirian – The Royal Bed (play) 2015 adaptation and Siwan (play)
 * Saunders Lewis – Siwan
 * Thomas Parry – Llywelyn Fawr (play)
 * Edith Pargeter – The Green Branch (novel)
 * Sharon Penman – Here Be Dragons (novel)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William de Braose (died 1230)


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Isla de los Estados

Isla de los Estados (English: Staten Island, from the Dutch Stateneiland; Chuainisin in the Yamana language, meaning "land of abundance"; Jaiwesen in the Haush language, meaning "region of cold"; and Kéoin-harri in the Selknam language, meaning "mountain range of the roots" ) is an Argentine island that lies 29 km off the eastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by the Le Maire Strait. It was named after the Netherlands States-General, the Dutch parliament.

The island is part of the Argentine province of Tierra del Fuego, and of the department and city of Ushuaia. It has been declared an "Ecological, Historic, and Tourist Provincial Reserve" ("Reserva provincial ecológica, histórica y turística"), with access limited to tours from Ushuaia.

The only settlement is the Puerto Parry Naval Station, located in a deep and narrow fjord on the northern coast of the island. The naval station, established in 1978, is staffed by a team of four marines on a 45-day rotation. They monitor environmental conservation and ship movements, and provide emergency assistance.

History
Prior to European arrival, the island was visited by the Yamana people, who inhabited the islands south of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego.

The first Europeans to encounter the island were the Spanish naval captain Francisco de Hoces and his crew in 1526. His ship, the San Lesmes, was part of the Spanish Loaísa expedition to the Pacific Ocean. The ship found the island after it had become separated from the rest of the fleet in a storm.

Almost a century after the Spaniards, the Dutch explorers Jacob le Maire and Willem Schouten passed the island on 25 December 1615, naming it Staten Landt. Le Maire and Schouten sailed their ship, Eendracht, through a route south of the Straits of Magellan, a route now called the Le Maire Strait. To his left Le Maire noted the land mass which he called Staten Landt; he theorized it was perhaps a portion of the great 'Southern Continent.' (The first European name for New Zealand was Staten Landt, the name given to it by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who in 1642 became the first European to see the islands. Tasman also assumed it was part of the 'Southern Continent' later known as Antarctica.)

The Dutch expedition to Valdivia of 1643 intended to sail through Le Maire Strait but strong winds made it instead drift south and east. The small fleet led by Hendrik Brouwer managed to enter the Pacific Ocean sailing south of the island disproving earlier beliefs that it was part of Terra Australis.

No Europeans are known to have settled on the island for more than 200 years. In 1862 Argentine pilot Luis Piedrabuena established a shelter near Port Cook, and built a small seal oil extraction facility on the island.

On New Year's Day, 1775, Captain James Cook named what is now "Puerto Año Nuevo", "New Year's Port". Seal hunters established a short-lived factory there (1786-1787), but abandoned it after Duke of York wrecked there on 11 September 1787 while bringing supplies.

The island is also referenced in Richard Henry Dana Jr.'s book Two Years Before the Mast as the first land they see after leaving San Diego. He describes the land as ". . . bare, broken, and girt with rocks and ice, with here and there, between rocks and broken hillocks, a little stunted vegetation of shrubs. . ."

More than twenty years later, the San Juan del Salvamento Lighthouse was inaugurated on May 25, 1884, by Comodoro Augusto Lasserre. It operated until September 1900. The lighthouse, better known as Faro del fin del mundo ("Lighthouse at the end of the world"), is said to have inspired Jules Verne's novel The Lighthouse at the End of the World (1905). A military prison was based on the island from 1896 to 1902. It had to be moved to Tierra del Fuego after being compromised by the strong winds.

Geography
The island is approximately 65 km long east-west, and 15 km wide, with an area of 534 sqkm. The island is deeply indented by bays. Its highest point is 823 m, and is considered to be the last prominence of the Andes mountain range. It receives around 2000 mm of rain per year.

The island is surrounded by minor islands and rocks, the largest being Observatorio island 6.5 km north, with an area of 4 sqkm. At the eastern end of the island is Cape St John, a landmark for ships sailing around the island in order to avoid the currents and tides of the Le Maire Strait to the west.

Geology
The island is mainly composed of the Jurassic Lemaire Formation, composed of tuffs and lavas. The Islas Año Nuevo, Isla Observatoria, and the Caleta Lacroix region on the west coast, however, have exposures of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Beauvoir Formation, mainly composed of shales, mudstones, limestones, and graywacke, plus silt, clay, sand and gravel glacial fluvial deposits. There are at least 18 fjords, with associated glacial sediments such as moraines and till, especially prevalent at Cape San Antonio and Cape Colnett on the north coast. Key fjords on the north coast include Port Hoppner, Port Parry, Port Basil Hall, Port Año Nuevo, Port Cook, and Port San Juan Del Salvamento going east to west. Key fjords on the south coast include Bahía Capitan Cánepa, Port Lobo, Port Vancouver, and Bahía Blossom, going east to west. Cape Kempe on the south coast lies opposite Cape San Antonio.

Climate
The island has a cold and humid climate and is characterized by rapid and unpredictable changes in the weather from day to day. Under the Köppen climate classification, despite the vegetation, it would be classified as a mild tundra climate (ET), a cold climate with a mean temperature in the warmest month below 10 C with abundant precipitation year-round.

The climate of the island is strongly influenced by the subpolar low pressure system which develops around the Antarctic Circle and the surrounding oceans. Being located between the semi–permanent high pressure cell and the subpolar low (which does not change in intensity through the year and have little seasonal variation), the island is exposed to westerlies throughout the year.

Temperatures are low year round but without extreme minimum temperatures. The mean temperature in summer is 8.3 C with mean extremes of 16.2 C and 3.0 C while in winter, the mean temperature is 3.3 C with mean extremes of 7.7 C and -4 C. Mean temperatures are lower than in Tierra del Fuego but due to the moderating influence of the ocean, extreme minimum temperatures are higher than in Tierra del Fuego. Coastal areas have average temperatures above 0 C in the coldest month while higher altitude locations may average below 0 C.

Though no reliable records are available, it is estimated that the island averages around 2000 mm of precipitation per year. However, owing to its relief, precipitation is highly variable across the island. In the eastern parts of the island, it averages 1400 mm based on 4 years of data. Precipitation occurs frequently on the island, averaging 252 days with precipitation. June is the wettest month while October is the driest. Thunderstorms are very rare. Snow frequently falls during the winter months, averaging 33 days although snow can fall during Autumn and Spring. The island receives high cloud cover throughout the year, with 74% of the days being cloudy. June is the cloudiest month while October is the least cloudy month. Fog is uncommon, averaging only 16 days per year. Similar to the rest of Patagonia, the island is exposed to strong westerly winds. These winds often carry moisture with them, leading to frequent storms. Average wind speeds range from a high of 37 km/h in August to a low of 24 km/h in December.

Flora and fauna
Isla de los Estados is covered with dense low forests of Nothofagus southern beech. The animal life is composed mainly of penguins, orcas, seals, seagulls and cormorants, as well as the human-introduced deer and goats. The island is the location of one of the more southerly Atlantic breeding colonies of the Magellanic penguin. As early as the last part of the 18th century, Isla de los Estados was used as a seal harvesting location.

title: Isla de los Estados


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Macalester College

Macalester College is a private liberal arts college in Saint Paul, Minnesota. Founded in 1874, Macalester is exclusively an undergraduate four-year institution with an enrollment of 2,142 students in the fall of 2023. The college has Scottish roots and emphasizes internationalism and multiculturalism.

The college offers 39 majors, 40 minors, and 11 concentrations. Students also have the option to design their own major. Macalester's sports teams compete in the NCAA Division III-level Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. The college's 60-acre main campus is bordered by Summit Avenue to the north and St. Clair Avenue to the south. The 300-acre Ordway Field Station, a nature reserve and research station, is on the outskirts of the Twin Cities, along the Mississippi River.

History
Macalester College was founded by Rev. Dr. Edward Duffield Neill in 1874 with help from the Presbyterian Church in Minnesota. Neill had served as a chaplain in the American Civil War and traveled to Minnesota Territory in 1849. He became connected politically and socially. He went on to found two local churches, was appointed the first Chancellor of the University of Minnesota, and became the state's first superintendent of public education. In leaving the University of Minnesota Board of Regents he desired to build a religious college affiliated with the Presbyterian Church that would also be open to members of other Christian churches.

The college's original name was Baldwin College; it was affiliated with the Baldwin School, a Presbyterian secondary school. After a large donation from Charles Macalester, a prominent businessman and philanthropist from Philadelphia, the institution was renamed Macalester College. Macalester donated a hotel, the Winslow House, as the first permanent classroom building. With additional funding from the Presbyterian Church and its trustees, Macalester College opened for courses in 1885 with five teachers, six freshmen, and 52 preparatory students.

James Wallace joined the faculty in 1887 and later became president. He helped stabilize the college's finances and advance the institution. During his tenure, Macalester created a focus on a liberal arts curriculum. In 1897, Nellie A. Hope was the first woman appointed to the institution's newly organized music department.

In 2008 Macalester publicly launched a $150 million campaign. In 2009, construction was completed on Markim Hall, a new home for the Institute for Global Citizenship. Plans called for the building to qualify for Platinum certification under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system, a building rating system devised by the U.S. Green Building Council that evaluates structures' sustainability and environmental impact. In 2012, Macalester opened its renovated and expanded Janet Wallace Fine Arts Center.

In 2020, Suzanne Rivera became the college's 17th president; she is the first woman and first Hispanic person to serve in the role.

Rankings
In 2023, U.S. News & World Report ranked Macalester the 27th-best liberal arts college in the U.S., 6th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", 28th for "Study Abroad", and 26th for "Best Value" liberal arts college.

Macalester ranked 14th out of 378 colleges in Niche's 2024 "Best Liberal Arts Colleges in America" and 15th on its "Best Small Colleges in America" list.

In 2023, Money magazine selected Macalester as one of only 58 U.S. colleges as a "Best College" from a pool of over 2,400.

In 2019, Forbes rated it 86th out of 650 colleges, universities and service academies in the U.S., and 38th among liberal arts colleges.

In 2022, Washington Monthly ranked Macalester 16th among 215 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.

Macalester was named one of the Hidden Ivies based on academics, admissions process, financial aid, and student experience. Its most popular majors, based on 2021 graduates, were:
 * Biology/Biological Sciences (52)
 * Econometrics & Qualitative Economics (52)
 * Computer & Information Sciences (34)
 * Research & Experimental Psychology (32)
 * Political Science & Government (31)

Admissions
Macalester is considered "most selective" by the U.S. News & World Report rankings. For the Class of 2027, Macalester received 8,434 applications and accepted 28% of applicants.

Faculty

Macalester has 188 full-time faculty, 94% of whom have a doctorate or the highest degree in their field. Twenty-nine percent of faculty are international or U.S. citizens of color. The student-faculty ratio is 10:1 and the average class size 17.

Academic program
Macalester offers over 800 courses each academic year, providing pathways to 39 majors, 40 minors, and 11 concentrations. Students may also design their own interdisciplinary majors. Courses are available in the physical sciences, humanities, mathematics and computer sciences, arts, social sciences, foreign languages, classics, several interdisciplinary fields, and pre-professional programs. Pre-professional programs includes pre-law, pre-medical, a cooperative architecture program, and a cooperative engineering program. The most popular majors (in order) are economics, mathematics, biology, psychology, and political science.

The academic calendar at Macalester is divided into a 14-week fall semester (September to December) and a 14-week spring semester (January to May). All courses are offered for semester credit. Most courses are offered for four semester credits, but the amount of credit may vary.

During January, Macalester students may earn up to two semester credits in independent projects, internships, or Macalester-sponsored off-campus courses. They may also earn up to eight semester credits in independent study during the summer through independent projects or internships.

Study abroad and off-campus
About 60% of Macalester students study abroad before graduation. Eleven departments require off-campus study for completion of a major.

Academic consortia memberships

Macalester is a member of the Associated Colleges of the Twin Cities (ACTC), a consortium of five liberal arts colleges in Saint Paul and Minneapolis formed to develop cooperative programs and offer cross-registration to their students. The other members are the University of St. Thomas, Augsburg University, Hamline University, and St. Catherine University. In addition to over 800 courses available on campus, Macalester students have access to all courses offered through the consortium without paying additional tuition. ACTC provides free busing among the campuses.

Macalester also has an agreement with the Minneapolis College of Art and Design (MCAD) whereby students may take one course per term there, provided that Macalester approves the course.

Tuition and financial aid
Two out of three Macalester students qualify for need-based financial aid. Macalester also provides merit-based scholarships to around half of all students (most also receive need-based aid). Its comprehensive tuition, room, and board fee for the 2021–22 academic year was $74,060.

Student body
Macalester maintains a high international enrollment for its institutional type as a percentage of its student body. As of fall 2023, international students constituted approximately 12% of the student body. Its 2,142 students come from 49 U.S. states, Washington D.C., Puerto Rico, the Mariana Islands and 102 countries; 31% of the U.S. student body are students of color. Macalester's student body is 40% male and 60% female.

Civic engagement
Macalester is one of 360 institutions that have been awarded the Carnegie Community Engagement Classification for excellence in civic engagement. The college encourages student dialogue by bringing in speakers, hosting an International Roundtable to bring distinguished international scholars to discuss emerging global issues, and hosting collective meetings such as Women of Color.

Macalester links academic learning to community involvement. In 2011–12, 16 departments offered 59 courses with civic engagement components. Each year approximately 200 students complete internships, 65% of which are in the nonprofit sector, schools, government, or the arts. Macalester also allows students to earn their work-study financial aid award while working at a local nonprofit or elementary school.

Almost all students (96%) volunteer in the Twin Cities while at Macalester. Many student organizations encourage active civic engagement, including MPIRG, Maction, Queer Union (QU), Macalester Habitat for Humanity.

Macalester is the primary financial contributor and sponsor of the Minnesota Institute for Talented Youth, which was founded in 1967 and has its main facilities in the Lampert Building. MITY provides two different gifted education programs during the summer and one on weekends during the academic year. Macalester also participates in Project Pericles, a commitment to further encourage civic engagement at the college. In 2000, Macalester signed the Talloires Declaration, making a commitment to environmental sustainability, as well as a sweatshop pledge, making a commitment to fair-labor practices in the purchase of college apparel.

LGBTQ community
The Campus Pride Index awarded Macalester a full five out of five stars for LGBTQ-friendly campuses. In 2007, The Princeton Review named Macalester the most gay-friendly college in the nation. Macalester has started an initiative to ensure access to single-stall and all-gender bathrooms across campus.

Macalester has a student-powered Gender and Sexuality Resource Center that aims to build a culture of resistance against all forms of oppression. It also has active LGBTQ student organizations and groups, including Queer Union, the Trans Identity Collective, Allies Project Training, and the Macalester Out and Proud Community.

Athletics
Macalester's athletic teams are nicknamed the Scots. Macalester is a member of the NCAA Division III Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC) in all sports. The Scots' football team set an NCAA Division III record by losing 50 straight games from 1974 to 1980. Earlham College broke that record in 2018, losing 51 straight games. In 1977, Macalester set a Division III record by allowing 59.1 points per game. The losing streak ended in dramatic fashion: Kicker Bob Kaye put a 23-yarder through the uprights with 11 seconds remaining in a September 1980 game as the Scots beat Mount Senario College. The Scots left the MIAC after the 2001 season and competed as independents until 2014, when they joined the Midwest Conference. Under head coach Tony Jennison, Macalester won the Midwest Conference title, the Scots' first conference football title since 1947. Macalester also won nine games in 2014, the most ever in a Scots season in their 121 years of intercollegiate football.

Both men's and women's soccer teams remain competitive, appearing in multiple NCAA playoffs since 1995. The women's team won the NCAA championship in 1998. The 2010 men's team won the MIAC regular-season championship and both the men and women's teams received at-large bids for the 2010 NCAA Division III tournament. Both teams are well-supported by students, parents and alumni. Mental Floss cited one of Macalester sports fans' most (in)famous cheers—"Drink blood, smoke crack, worship Satan, go Mac!"—as one of "7 Memorable Sports Chants".

Macalester Athletics compete in the Leonard Center, which opened in August 2008. The $45 million facility encompasses 175,000 square feet and includes a 200-meter track, a natatorium, a fitness center, several multipurpose rooms, and a health and wellness center. Materials from the former facility were disposed of in environmentally friendly ways, with some incorporated into the new structure.

Every year in early May, Macalester hosts the Al Storm Games, a competition between various athletes at Macalester consisting of various events such as a Hunger Games simulation.

Sustainability
In the Sustainable Endowments Institute's 2011 College Sustainability Report Card, Macalester received an overall grade of A−, earning it recognition as an "Overall Campus Sustainability Leader". In 2011, The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) awarded Macalester a Sustainability Tracking, Assessment & Rating System (STARS) Silver Rating in recognition of its sustainability achievements.

Many student organizations focus on sustainability, including Macalester Conservation and Renewable Energy Society (MacCARES), Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), Mac Bike, Macalester Urban Land and Community Health (MULCH), and Outing Club.

In April 2003, Macalester installed a 10 kW Urban Wind Turbine on campus thanks to that year's senior class gift donating the installation cost and Xcel Energy donating the tower and turbine. MacCARES is developing a proposal for Macalester to invest in a Utility-Scale Wind Turbine in the range of 2MW. Other projects include the Eco-House, a student residence with a range of green features and research opportunities; a rain garden that prevents stormwater from running off into groundwater, a bike share program, and a veggie co-op. The Class of 2008 designated its senior class gift to a Sustainability Fund to support initiatives to improve environmental sustainability on campus and in the greater community. On January 1, 2013, Macalester started campus composting.

In September 2009, Macalester set a goal to become carbon-neutral by 2025 and Zero-Waste by 2020. The school is a signatory to the Talloires Declaration and the American College and University President's Climate Commitment, the latter obligating the college to work toward carbon neutrality. On April 18, 2012, President Brian Rosenberg signed the “Commitment to Sustainable Practices of Higher Education Institutions on the Occasion of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development”.

In 2009, Macalester opened Markim Hall, a LEED Platinum building that houses the school's Institute for Global Citizenship. The building uses 45% less water and 75% less energy than a typical Minnesota building. Macalester is planning to remodel its Music, Theater, and Art buildings and is designing them to Minnesota B3 Guidelines.

Recent sustainability efforts have highlighted the intersection of social justice and climate change at Macalester as well as the potential conflict between its on-campus sustainability and its investments. Since 2012, students have criticized the college for making significant endowment investments in fossil fuel companies, including direct investments in oil and gas private partnerships. The student organization Fossil Free Mac has led a campaign urging the college to divest from fossil fuel companies. The campaign initially proposed full endowment divestment from the top 200 publicly traded fossil fuel companies, which Macalester's Social Responsibility Committee rejected in 2015. In 2018, the Social Responsibility Committee unanimously approved a revised Fossil Free Mac proposal advocating a moratorium on the college's direct investment partnerships with oil and gas companies, which the board of trustees is considering. The divestment campaign has received significant support from the student body, student government, faculty, staff, and alumni.

Notable alumni

 * Jeremy Allaire, 1993, co-founder of Circle, the blockchain-based payments and treasury infrastructure company that created USDC
 * Kofi Annan, 1961, former UN secretary general and Nobel Peace Prize laureate
 * Siah Armajani, 1963, sculptor
 * Charles Baxter, 1969, University of Minnesota professor, author and National Book Award finalist (The Feast of Love)
 * Peter Berg, 1983, actor, film director (Friday Night Lights and Hancock); one scene in Hancock shows Charlize Theron wearing a Macalester t-shirt
 * Richard P. Binzel, 1980, astronomer and professor of planetary sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 * Amy Briggs, 1984, video game designer and creator of Plundered Hearts
 * Mike Carr, 1973, creator of Dawn Patrol game, author of the classic Dungeons & Dragons adventure In Search of the Unknown, commodities trader
 * Michael James Davis, 1969, Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota
 * Chank Diesel, 1990, typographer
 * Mark Doten, 2001, novelist and librettist, The Source, one of Granta's "Best of Young American Novelists"
 * Ari Emanuel, 1983, talent agent, basis for the character Ari Gold on Entourage
 * William P. Gerberding, 1951, president of the University of Washington
 * Danai Gurira, 2001, actress (The Walking Dead, Black Panther) and playwright
 * Christy Haynes, 1998, award-winning Professor of Chemistry at University of Minnesota
 * Marilyn Gayle Hoff, 1964, author, educator, activist
 * Mary Karr, 1974, author of New York Times Bestseller (The Liars' Club), Whiting Award winner, Guggenheim Fellow, Pushcart awardee
 * Carl Lumbly, 1973, actor (Cagney and Lacey and Alias)
 * Walter Mondale, 1950, former vice president of the United States and U.S. ambassador to Japan (1993–97)
 * Bob Mould, 1982, musician, guitarist, writer, and vocalist for Hüsker Dü and Sugar as well as a solo artist
 * Tim O'Brien, 1968, author of The Things They Carried and the winner of the 1979 National Book Award for his novel Going After Cacciato
 * Rebecca Otto, 1985, Minnesota State Auditor; former Minnesota House member (2003–04)
 * Shawn Lawrence Otto, 1984, screenwriter and film producer (House of Sand and Fog)
 * Richmond Sarpong, 1995, award-winning Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Berkeley
 * Fred Swaniker, 1999, co-founder African Leadership Academy
 * DeWitt Wallace, 1911, founder of Reader's Digest, philanthropist
 * Christopher O. Ward, 1976, executive director of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
 * Robert Willis Warren, 1950, judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Wisconsin
 * Dave Zirin, 1996, political sportswriter

title: Macalester College


text:
Talk:Worm compost

Wow I want write the 'How to' article. User:Two16 Also I have copyright concerns. Does poster know Gnu documentation rules?

 * Apparently they know little about the format here, given the format of what they posted. It's a very interseting article, to be sure, but lots of studies have looked at these elements of organic farming (use of urine or feces plus worms) in such depth in a third world country.  This one is quite interesting, but hardly unique.  I suggest we rewrite paragraph by paragraph (of interest) into vermicompost and then finally remove this and redirect worm compost there. 142

title: Talk:Worm compost


text:
Jarkko Oikarinen

Jarkko Oikarinen (born 16 August 1967) is a Finnish IT professional and the inventor of the first Internet chat network, called Internet Relay Chat (IRC), where he is known as WiZ.

Biography and career
Oikarinen was born in Kuusamo. While working at the University of Oulu in August 1988, he wrote the first IRC server and client programs, which he produced to replace the MUT (MultiUser Talk) program on the Finnish BBS OuluBox. Using the Bitnet Relay chat system as inspiration, Oikarinen continued to develop IRC over the next four years, receiving assistance from Darren Reed in co-authoring the IRC Protocol. In 1997, his development of IRC earned Oikarinen a Dvorak Award for Personal Achievement—Outstanding Global Interactive Personal Communications System; in 2005, the Millennium Technology Prize Foundation, a Finnish public-private partnership, honored him with one of three Special Recognition Awards.

He started working for medical image processing in 1990 in Oulu University Hospital, developing research software for a neurosurgical workstation in Professor John Koivukangas' research group, and between 1993 and 1996 he worked for Elekta in Stockholm, Sweden and Grenoble, France putting the research into commercial products marketed by Elekta. In 1997 he returned to Oulu University Hospital to finish his PhD as Joint Assistant Professor / Research Engineer, receiving the PhD from the University of Oulu in 1999, in areas of computer graphics and medical imaging. During these years he focused on telemedicine, volume rendering, signal processing and computed axial tomography. Once finishing his PhD, he has held the positions of Chief Software Architect of Add2Phone Oy (Helsinki, Finland), Head of R&D in Capricode (Oulu, Finland) and General Manager in Nokia.

He is also partner and chief software architect at an electronic games developer called Numeric Garden (Espoo, Finland).

Oikarinen and his wife, Kaija-Leena, were married in 1996 and have three children: Kasper, Matleena, and Marjaana.

Oikarinen has been working for Google since 2011, initially in Stockholm, Sweden, to work on the Google Hangouts project, and later on to develop its successor, Google Meet. In 2016 he moved to Kirkland, Washington and since 2021 he has again been working in Stockholm, Sweden.

title: Jarkko Oikarinen


text:
Talk:Toxicity

Acute toxicity table
The note below the table indicates "expected values" for undefined values. Its confusing, doesn't make sense, and has no citation. I'd remove it but I wondered if anyone else had an opinion on this.

There
There are toxins, mutagens, tetragens... classified according to their impact on cells. Colloquially, the latter are considered toxic, so they should be linked here too.

The unsigned comment above was the original message on this page, placed by 142.177.77.65 on 18 January 2003

What is the derivation relating to the idea of the Saftey Factor?
IN article "Toxicity" - refered in paragraph starting: Toxicity can be measured by the effects on the target (organism, organ, or tissue). a concept is refered to. The saftey factor is brought up in my Toxicology course in college when the NOEL concept is explained. NOEL being the No Observable Effects Limit, is then divided by a safety factor (i.e 100).

Is this to put representation into numerical form to reflect the results of the toxicity study of a particular substance? So would the Safety Factor really be a percentage type figure, or is it more focused on why the result was returned. i.e - factors such as, how the organism metabolised the substance, how the dose was inflicted upon the organism, how reliable the substance is at reacting in an organism, etc. If the latter is the case, this would mean that no 'universal saftey factor' would exist for a substance because all organisms are different from eachother both in families and not in families.

Kthx, please respond with an answer that states: Saftey Factor is used when.... Saftey Factor is applied to return what exactly when relating to a NOEL graph.

 * A Safety Factor is an arbitrary number applied as a divisor "just in case" - after all available quantitative adjustments and calculations as a way to be more comfortable that a suggested acceptable level would not be likely to produce a toxic effect in humans. There used to be a broad agreement in the toxicology community as to what safety factor should be applied.  The agreement seems to have broken down over the last couple of decades, with more variation in what is proposed based on who is speaking and what the toxic effect is being examined.  Pzavon 02:39, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

See added text in article. OccDoc 23:09, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

Plant toxicity to pets
I don't know if this is the proper place to ask this, but I'm looking for a page about the various toxicities of plants to pets. If there is no such page, or no such information on wikipedia, what would we need to do to get such a page started? I don't know enough about it to do it myself, but I think it's something that's pretty important. Question posted 2 July 2007 by User:Ishmayl

Water
Water can kill (e.g. 20 literes) but not by toxic effect. It can kill by physical effect. Otherwise the notion of toxicity loses it's sense because in this way every substance in the Universe will be a toxine. And also a brick fallen down on a head and killing by strike will be also a toxine.

Toxine effects in different ways: 1. Direct toxic influence 2. Influence for separate organs 3. Influence for separate cells

Also toxin dose is relatively small in comparison to the body weigth. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.25.100.169 (talk) 21:21, 15 July 2010 (UTC)

 * See The dose makes the poison, and Water intoxication. WhatamIdoing (talk) 03:56, 7 January 2011 (UTC)

I agree fully by this. The definition of toxicity needs to be redone. For something to be regarded as "toxic", I would say the chemical or substance or mixture, must have its own active mechanism for harming the organism, either by blocking oxygen supply (not replacing) or blocking neural signals from reaching or passing certain points, or directly harmful effects like dissolving of tissue (acids). Examle of toxic substances: For example, carbon monoxide, is a toxic substance, since it binds to the red blood cells 250 times harder than oxygen, and thus block the red blood cells from transporting oxygen. Same with cyanide, which blocks the ability for an cell to consume the oxygen and produce ATP energy. Example of nontoxic substances: Helium is nontoxic, even if it replaces oxygen and can kill by asphyxiation. Oxygen and water is nontoxic, because they are harmful in too large quanities just because the cells have no ability to regulate the intake of the substance, and will happily consume more than they are able to handle by osmos, and the cell membrane will rupture. Oxygen and water do not have their own harmful effects.

Sebastiannielsen (talk) 21:47, 17 July 2019 (UTC)

Radioactive Toxicity
Surely there should be a section on Radioactive Toxicity.

"Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism." Plutonium is a substance and its radioactivity can damage organisms. At the very least there should be a pointer to whatever article is appropriate, but there is not an immediately obvious article that I could find, except the empty hold in this one. Hu (talk) 10:59, 3 April 2011 (UTC)

introduction
What is a non-living organism? --David Munch (talk) 17:51, 1 January 2012 (UTC)

(ditto) Given a non-living organism (i.e. a dead organism), how can we judge degree of toxicity? Certainly LD50 is not useful. A non-living organism cannot be 'harmed' and there is little distinction between being dead and really dead. Perhaps there is a protocol to identify toxicity based on test effects on preserved tissue specimens. I would recommend removing this text unless there is a technical reference document that spells out what is meant by toxicity in regards to 'non-living organisms'. kradak (talk) 13:10, 14 February 2012 (UTC)

I agree 101.171.42.157 (talk) 05:01, 20 May 2012 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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Abrasive substances
Can substances either abrasive in their own right (silica) or capable of breaking down into abrasive substances through metabolization be considered toxic? They can be extremely harmful.Pbrower2a (talk) 04:08, 24 August 2021 (UTC)

"Non-toxic" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Non-toxic and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 September 29 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. — CrafterNova [ TALK ]  [ CONT ] 13:01, 29 September 2022 (UTC)

Rewriting this article
Widespread lack of referencing and incomplete thoughts are a problem with this article. The "Classifications" section has a heavily US-centric tone, reading like a Safety data sheet about no chemical in particular--while simultaneously all of the worst ones. Considering the scope in the more than 2,000 articles that link here, "Toxicity" should be embraced as something that enriches the experience of readers from every background, not just the narrow sector that may work with hazardous waste. Imagine this article renewed as a place for people to learn something new about the nuances of life as we have shaped it here on Earth, in spite of all the toxicities.

I plan on beginning the process of rewriting this article in its entirety soon. Specifically, I believe this article could be improved by:

 * Providing a historical overview on how changing cultural norms and industrialization have impacted our impressions on toxicity, with an emphasis on global perspectives.
 * Providing a more global perspective on toxicity regulations in countries beyond the US
 * Giving better context to the field of medicine by:
 * A more nuanced discussion of the individual response to toxicity, especially toward people that are immunocompromised.
 * Broad overview on LD50 and how that relates to toxicology studies on animals.
 * Expanding the discussion of environmental toxicity by
 * Introducing the concept of anthropogenic vs. "natural" causes (i.e. harmful algal blooms, melting of permafrost releasing toxic levels of iron)
 * Comments on varying levels of environmental toxicity exposure in the developed vs. developing world
 * Including comments on toxicities which effect both humans and ecological systems, especially in response to changing climates
 * The intentional application of toxicity by humans toward non-humans via herbicides, pesticides, fungicides, algaecide, antibiotics, etc.
 * Throughout: more linking to currently relevant instances across the world of toxicity outbreaks, pandemics, industrial accidents, etc.

I could definitely use some help in the area of medicinal research/applications, as the environmental side is more my strong suit. Of course, I enthusiastically encourage everyone to please contribute in any way possible. Looking forward to the fruitful discussions to come. AdmiresCycles (talk) 09:51, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Adding on, I want to apologize in advance if/when I stumble through this process. To be sure, I am not suggesting a complete deletion this article and starting blank. Also, I definitely want to apologize for being dismissive of the valuable effort made by the many editors here before me. I realize there is a vetted process for big changes like this to happen involving consensus. I plan to incrementally add to the article, expanding in the areas noted above, participating in discussions along the way. My research has me beginning in the historical contexts of toxicity, so you might expect to see additions in a 'History' section in the coming days. AdmiresCycles (talk) 23:26, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Toxicity


text:
Vermicompost

Vermicompost (vermi-compost) is the product of the decomposition process using various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. This process is called vermicomposting, with the rearing of worms for this purpose is called vermiculture.

Vermicast (also called worm castings, worm humus, worm poop, worm manure, or worm faeces) is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. These excreta have been shown to contain reduced levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than the organic materials before vermicomposting.

Vermicompost contains water-soluble nutrients which may be extracted as vermiwash and is an excellent, nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is used in gardening and sustainable, organic farming.

Vermicomposting can also be applied for treatment of sewage. A variation of the process is vermifiltration (or vermidigestion) which is used to remove organic matter, pathogens, and oxygen demand from wastewater or directly from blackwater of flush toilets.

Overview
Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both industrial and domestic settings because, as compared with conventional composting, it provides a way to treat organic wastes more quickly. In manure composing, the use of vermicomposting generates products that have lower salinity levels, as well as a more neutral pH.

The earthworm species (or composting worms) most often used are red wigglers (Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis, synonym Dendrobaena veneta) and red earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus) could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most vermicomposting experts, as they have some of the best appetites and breed very quickly. Users refer to European nightcrawlers by a variety of other names, including dendrobaenas, dendras, Dutch nightcrawlers, and Belgian nightcrawlers.

Containing water-soluble nutrients, vermicompost is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy for plants to absorb. Worm castings are sometimes used as an organic fertilizer. Because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms, plants need only minimal effort to obtain them. The worms' digestive systems create environments that allow certain species of microbes to thrive to help create a "living" soil environment for plants. The fraction of soil which has gone through the digestive tract of earthworms is called the drilosphere.

Vermicomposting is a common practice in permaculture.

Vermiwash can also be obtained from the liquid potion of vermicompost. Vermiwash is found to contain enzyme cocktail of proteases, amylases, urease and phosphatase. Microbiological study of vermiwash reveals that it contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria like Azotobactrer sp., Agrobacterium sp. and Rhizobium sp. and some phosphate solublizing bacteria. Laboratory scale trial shows effectiveness of vermiwash on plant growth.

Suitable worm species
All worms make compost but some species are not suitable for this purpose. Vermicompost worms are generally epigean. Species most often used for composting include:

 * Eisenia fetida (Europe), the red wiggler or tiger worm. Closely related to Eisenia andrei, which is also usable.
 * Eisenia hortensis (Europe), European nightcrawlers, prefers high C:N material.
 * Eudrilus eugeniae (West Africa), African Nightcrawlers. Useful in the tropics.
 * Perionyx excavatus (South and East Asia), blueworms. May be used in the tropics and subtropics.
 * Lampito mauritii (Southern Asia), used locally.

These species commonly are found in organic-rich soils throughout Europe and North America and live in rotting vegetation, compost, and manure piles. As they are shallow-dwelling and feed on decomposing plant matter in the soil, they adapt easily to live on food or plant waste in the confines of a worm bin. Some species are considered invasive in some areas, so they should be avoided (see earthworms as invasive species for a list).

Composting worms are available to order online, from nursery mail-order suppliers or angling shops where they are sold as bait. They can also be collected from compost and manure piles. These species are not the same worms that are found in ordinary soil or on pavement when the soil is flooded by water.

The following species are not recommended:
 * Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestris (Europe). The two closely related species are anecic: they like to burrow underground and come up for food. As a result, they adapt poorly to shallow compost bins and should be avoided. They are also invasive in North America.

Large scale
Large-scale vermicomposting is practiced in Canada, Italy, Japan, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, and the United States. The vermicompost may be used for farming, landscaping, to create compost tea, or for sale. Some of these operations produce worms for bait and/or home vermicomposting.

There are two main methods of large-scale vermicomposting, windrow and raised bed. Some systems use a windrow, which consists of bedding materials for the earthworms to live in and acts as a large bin; organic material is added to it. Although the windrow has no physical barriers to prevent worms from escaping, in theory they should not, due to an abundance of organic matter for them to feed on. Often windrows are used on a concrete surface to prevent predators from gaining access to the worm population.

The windrow method and compost windrow turners were developed by Fletcher Sims Jr. of the Compost Corporation in Canyon, Texas. The Windrow Composting system is noted as a sustainable, cost-efficient way for farmers to manage dairy waste.

The second type of large-scale vermicomposting system is the raised bed or flow-through system. Here the worms are fed an inch of "worm chow" across the top of the bed, and an inch of castings are harvested from below by pulling a breaker bar across the large mesh screen which forms the base of the bed.

Because red worms are surface dwellers constantly moving towards the new food source, the flow-through system eliminates the need to separate worms from the castings before packaging. Flow-through systems are well suited to indoor facilities, making them the preferred choice for operations in colder climates.

Small scale
For vermicomposting at home, a large variety of bins are commercially available, or a variety of adapted containers may be used. They may be made of old plastic containers, wood, Styrofoam, or metal containers. The design of a small bin usually depends on where an individual wishes to store the bin and how they wish to feed the worms.

Some materials are less desirable than others in worm bin construction. Metal containers often conduct heat too readily, are prone to rusting, and may release heavy metals into the vermicompost. Styrofoam containers may release chemicals into the organic material. Some cedars, yellow cedar, and redwood contain resinous oils that may harm worms, although western red cedar has excellent longevity in composting conditions. Hemlock is another inexpensive and fairly rot-resistant wood species that may be used to build worm bins.

Bins need holes or mesh for aeration. Some people add a spout or holes in the bottom for excess liquid to drain into a tray for collection. The most common materials used are plastic: recycled polyethylene and polypropylene and wood. Worm compost bins made from plastic are ideal, but require more drainage than wooden ones because they are non-absorbent. However, wooden bins will eventually decay and need to be replaced.

Small-scale vermicomposting is well-suited to turn kitchen waste into high-quality soil amendments, where space is limited. Worms can decompose organic matter without the additional human physical effort (turning the bin) that bin composting requires.

Composting worms which are detritivorous (eaters of trash), such as the red wiggler Eisenia fetida, are epigeic (surface dwellers) and together with symbiotic associated microbes are the ideal vectors for decomposing food waste. Common earthworms such as Lumbricus terrestris are anecic (deep burrowing) species and hence unsuitable for use in a closed system. Other soil species that contribute include insects, other worms and molds.

Climate and temperature
There may be differences in vermicomposting method depending on the climate. It is necessary to monitor the temperatures of large-scale bin systems (which can have high heat-retentive properties), as the raw materials or feedstocks used can compost, heating up the worm bins as they decay and killing the worms.

The most common worms used in composting systems, redworms (Eisenia fetida, Eisenia andrei, and Lumbricus rubellus) feed most rapidly at temperatures of 15 –. They can survive at 10 °C. Temperatures above 30 °C may harm them. This temperature range means that indoor vermicomposting with redworms is possible in all but tropical climates. Other worms like Perionyx excavatus are suitable for warmer climates. If a worm bin is kept outside, it should be placed in a sheltered position away from direct sunlight and insulated against frost in winter.

Feedstock
There are few food wastes that vermicomposting cannot compost, although meat waste and dairy products are likely to putrefy, and in outdoor bins can attract vermin. Green waste should be added in moderation to avoid heating the bin.

Small-scale or home systems
Such systems usually use kitchen and garden waste, using "earthworms and other microorganisms to digest organic wastes, such as kitchen scraps". This includes:
 * All fruits and vegetables (including citrus, in limited quantities)
 * Vegetable and fruit peels and ends
 * Coffee grounds and filters
 * Tea bags (even those with high tannin levels)
 * Grains such as bread, cracker and cereal (including moldy and stale)
 * Eggshells (rinsed off)
 * Leaves and grass clippings (not sprayed with pesticides )
 * Newspapers (most inks used in newspapers are not toxic)
 * Paper toweling (which has not been used with cleaners or chemicals)

Large-scale or commercial
Such vermicomposting systems need reliable sources of large quantities of food. Systems presently operating use:
 * Dairy cow or pig manure
 * Sewage sludge
 * Brewery waste
 * Cotton mill waste
 * Agricultural waste
 * Food processing and grocery waste
 * Cafeteria waste
 * Grass clippings and wood chips

Harvesting

Factors affecting the speed of composting include the climate and the method of composting. There are signs to look for to determine whether compost is finished. The finished compost would have an ambient temperature, dark color, and be as moist as a damp sponge. Towards the end of the process, bacteria slow down the rate of metabolizing food or stop completely. There is the possibility of some solid organic matter still being present in the compost at this point, but it could stay in and continue decomposing for the next couple of years unless removed. The compost should be allowed to cure after finished to allow acids to be removed over time so it becomes more neutral, which could take up to three months and results in the compost being more consistent in size. Elevating the maturing compost off the ground can prevent unwanted plant growth. It compost should consistently be slightly damp and should be aerated but does not need to be turned. The curing process can be done in a storage bin or on a tarp.

Methods
Vermicompost is ready for harvest when it contains few-to-no scraps of uneaten food or bedding. There are several methods of harvesting from small-scale systems: "dump and hand sort", "let the worms do the sorting", "alternate containers" and "divide and dump." These differ on the amount of time and labor involved and whether the vermicomposter wants to save as many worms as possible from being trapped in the harvested compost.

The pyramid method of harvesting worm compost is commonly used in small-scale vermicomposting, and is considered the simplest method for single layer bins. In this process, compost is separated into large clumps, which is placed back into composting for further breakdown, and lighter compost, with which the rest of the process continues. This lighter mix is placed into small piles on a tarp under the sunlight. The worms instinctively burrow to the bottom of the pile. After a few minutes, the top of the pyramid is removed repeatedly, until the worms are again visible. This repeats until the mound is composed mostly of worms.

When harvesting the compost, it is possible to separate eggs and cocoons and return them to the bin, thereby ensuring new worms are hatched. Cocoons are small, lemon-shaped yellowish objects that can usually be seen with the naked eye. The cocoons can hold up to 20 worms (though 2–3 is most common). Cocoons can lay dormant for as long as two years if conditions are not conducive for hatching.

Properties
Vermicompost has been shown to be richer in many nutrients than compost produced by other composting methods. It has also outperformed a commercial plant medium with nutrients added, but levels of magnesium required adjustment, as did pH.

However, in one study it has been found that homemade backyard vermicompost was lower in microbial biomass, soil microbial activity, and yield of a species of ryegrass than municipal compost.

It is rich in microbial life which converts nutrients already present in the soil into plant-available forms.

Unlike other compost, worm castings also contain worm mucus which helps prevent nutrients from washing away with the first watering and holds moisture better than plain soil.

Increases in the total nitrogen content in vermicompost, an increase in available nitrogen and phosphorus, a decrease in potassium, as well as the increased removal of heavy metals from sludge and soil have been reported. The reduction in the bioavailability of heavy metals has been observed in a number of studies.

Benefits of vermicomposting
Soil
 * Improves soil aeration
 * Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulase)
 * Microbial activity in worm castings is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and organic matter that the worm ingests
 * Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil
 * Improves water holding capacity

Plant growth
 * Enhances germination, plant growth and crop yield
 * It helps in root and plant growth
 * Enriches soil organisms (adding plant hormones such as auxins and gibberellic acid)

Economic
 * Biowastes conversion reduces waste flow to landfills
 * Elimination of biowastes from the waste stream reduces contamination of other recyclables collected in a single bin (a common problem in communities practicing single-stream recycling)
 * Creates low-skill jobs at local level
 * Low capital investment and relatively simple technologies make vermicomposting practical for less-developed agricultural regions

Environmental
 * Helps to close the "metabolic gap" through recycling waste on-site
 * Large systems often use temperature control and mechanized harvesting, however other equipment is relatively simple and does not wear out quickly
 * Production reduces greenhouse gas emissions such as methane and nitric oxide (produced in landfills or incinerators when not composted).

Soil conditioner
Vermicompost can be mixed directly into the soil, or mixed with water to make a liquid fertilizer known as worm tea.

The light brown waste liquid, or leachate, that drains into the bottom of some vermicomposting systems is not to be confused with worm tea. It is an uncomposted byproduct from when water-rich foods break down and may contain pathogens and toxins. It is best discarded or applied back to the bin when added moisture is needed for further processing.

The pH, nutrient, and microbial content of these fertilizers varies upon the inputs fed to worms. Pulverized limestone, or calcium carbonate can be added to the system to raise the pH.

Smells
When closed, a well-maintained bin is odorless; when opened, it should have little smell—if any smell is present, it is earthy. The smell may also depend on the type of composted material added to the bin. An unhealthy worm bin may smell, potentially due to low oxygen conditions. Worms require gaseous oxygen. Oxygen can be provided by airholes in the bin, occasional stirring of bin contents, and removal of some bin contents if they become too deep or too wet. If decomposition becomes anaerobic from excess wet feedstock added to the bin, or the layers of food waste have become too deep, the bin will begin to smell of ammonia.

Moisture
Moisture must be maintained above 50%, as lower moisture content will not support worm respiration and can increase worm mortality. Operating moisture-content range should be between 70 and 90%, with a suggested content of 70–80% for vermicomposting operations. If decomposition has become anaerobic, to restore healthy conditions and prevent the worms from dying, excess waste water must be reduced and the bin returned to a normal moisture level. To do this, first reduce addition of food scraps with a high moisture content and second, add fresh, dry bedding such as shredded newspaper to your bin, mixing it in well.

Pest species
Pests such as rodents and flies are attracted by certain materials and odors, usually from large amounts of kitchen waste, particularly meat. Eliminating the use of meat or dairy product in a worm bin decreases the possibility of pests.

Predatory ants can be a problem in African countries.

In warm weather, fruit and vinegar flies breed in the bins if fruit and vegetable waste is not thoroughly covered with bedding. This problem can be avoided by thoroughly covering the waste by at least 5 cm of bedding. Maintaining the correct pH (close to neutral) and water content of the bin (just enough water where squeezed bedding drips a couple of drops) can help avoid these pests as well.

Worms escaping
Worms generally stay in the bin, but may try to leave the bin when first introduced, or often after a rainstorm when the humidity outside is high. Maintaining adequate conditions in the worm bin and putting a light over the bin when first introducing worms should eliminate this problem.

Nutrient levels
Commercial vermicomposters test and may amend their products to produce consistent quality and results. Because the small-scale and home systems use a varied mix of feedstocks, the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) content of the resulting vermicompost will also be inconsistent. NPK testing may be helpful before the vermicompost or tea is applied to the garden.

In order to avoid over-fertilization issues, such as nitrogen burn, vermicompost can be diluted as a tea 50:50 with water, or as a solid can be mixed in 50:50 with potting soil.

Additionally, the mucous layer created by worms which surrounds their castings allows for a "time release" effect, meaning not all nutrients are released at once. This also reduces the risk of burning the plants, as is common with the use and overuse of commercial fertilizers.

Application examples
Vermicomposting is widely used in North America for on-site institutional processing of food scraps, such as in hospitals, universities, shopping malls, and correctional facilities. Vermicomposting is used for medium-scale on-site institutional organic material recycling, such as for food scraps from universities and shopping malls. It is selected either as a more environmentally friendly choice than conventional disposal, or to reduce the cost of commercial waste removal.

From 20 July 2020, the State Government of Chhattisgarh India started buying cow dung under the "Godhan Nyay Yojana" Scheme. Cow dung procured under this scheme will be utilised for the production of vermicompost fertilizer.

title: Vermicompost