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Lucerne

Lucerne (High Alemannic: Lozärn) or Luzern is a city in central Switzerland, in the German-speaking portion of the country. Lucerne is the capital of the canton of Lucerne and part of the district of the same name. With a population of approximately 82,000 people, Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland, and a nexus of economics, transportation, culture, and media in the region. The city's urban area consists of 19 municipalities and towns with an overall population of about 220,000 people.

Owing to its location on the shores of Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstättersee) and its outflow, the river Reuss, within sight of the mounts Pilatus and Rigi in the Swiss Alps, Lucerne has long been a destination for tourists. One of the city's landmarks is the Chapel Bridge (Kapellbrücke), a wooden bridge first erected in the 14th century.

The official language of Lucerne is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Lucerne German.

Early history and founding (750–1386)
After the fall of the Roman Empire beginning in the 6th century, Germanic Alemannic peoples increased their influence on this area of present-day Switzerland.

Around 750 the Benedictine Monastery of St. Leodegar was founded, which was later acquired by Murbach Abbey in Alsace in the middle of the 9th century, and by this time the area had become known as Luciaria.

The origin of the name is uncertain, it is possibly derived from the Latin name of the pike, lucius, thus designating a pike fishing spot in the river Reuss. Derivation from the theonym Lugus has been suggested but is phonetically implausible. In any case, the name was associated by popular etymology with Latin lucerna "lantern" from an early time.

In 1178 Lucerne acquired its independence from the jurisdiction of Murbach Abbey, and the founding of the city proper probably occurred that same year. The city gained importance as a strategically located gateway for the growing commerce from the Gotthard trade route.

By 1290, Lucerne had become a self-sufficient city of reasonable size with about 3000 inhabitants. About this time King Rudolph I von Habsburg gained authority over the Monastery of St. Leodegar and its lands, including Lucerne. The populace was not content with the increasing Habsburg influence, and Lucerne allied with neighboring towns to seek independence from their rule. Along with Lucerne, the three other forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden formed the "eternal" Swiss Confederacy, known as the Eidgenossenschaft, on November 7, 1332.

Later the cities of Zürich, Zug and Bern joined the alliance. With the help of these additions, the rule of Austria over the area came to an end. The issue was settled by Lucerne's victory over the Habsburgs in the Battle of Sempach in 1386. For Lucerne this victory ignited an era of expansion. The city shortly granted many rights to itself, rights which had been withheld by the Habsburgs until then. By this time the borders of Lucerne were approximately those of today.

From city to city-state (1386–1520)
In 1415 Lucerne gained Reichsfreiheit from Emperor Sigismund and became a strong member of the Swiss confederacy. The city developed its infrastructure, raised taxes, and appointed its own local officials. The city's population of 3000 dropped about 40% due to the Black Plague and several wars around 1350.

In 1419 town records show the first witch trial against a male person.

Swiss-Catholic town (1520–1798)
Among the growing towns of the confederacy, Lucerne was especially popular in attracting new residents. Remaining predominantly Catholic, Lucerne hosted its own annual passion play from 1453 to 1616, a two-day-long play of 12 hours performance per day. As the confederacy broke up during the Reformation, after 1520, most nearby cities became Protestant, but Lucerne remained Catholic. After the victory of the Catholics over the Protestants in the Battle at Kappel in 1531, the Catholic towns dominated the confederacy. It was during this period that Jesuits first came to Lucerne in 1567, with their arrival given considerable backing by Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. The region, though, was destined to be dominated by Protestant cities such as Zürich, Bern and Basel, which defeated the Catholic forces in the 1712 Toggenburg War. The former prominent position of Lucerne in the confederacy was lost forever. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wars and epidemics became steadily less frequent and as a result the population of the country increased strongly.

Lucerne was besieged by a peasant army and quickly signed a peace treaty with the rebels in the Swiss peasant war of 1653.

Century of revolutions (1798–1914)

In 1798, nine years after the beginning of the French Revolution, the French army marched into Switzerland. The old confederacy collapsed and the government became democratic. The industrial revolution hit Lucerne rather late, and by 1860 only 1.7% of the population worked in industry, which was about a quarter of the national average at that time. Agriculture, which employed about 40% of the workers, was the main form of economic output in the canton. Nevertheless, industry was attracted to the city from areas around Lucerne. From 1850 to 1913, the population quadrupled and the flow of settlers increased. In 1856 trains first linked the city to Olten and Basel, then Zug and Zürich in 1864 and finally to the south in 1897.

The 1804 play William Tell by Friedrich Schiller did much to establish the reputation of Lucerne and its environs. Schiller himself had not been to Lucerne, but was inspired to write the play by his wife Lotte and his friend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who had both personally visited the city and its surrounding canton. Goethe had lodged in the Hirschenplatz on his route to Italy in 1779.

It was during the latter part of the 19th century that Lucerne became a popular destination for artists, royalty and others to escape to. The German composer Richard Wagner established a residence at Tribschen in 1866, where he lived and worked. The city was then boosted by a visit by Queen Victoria to the city in 1868, during which she went sightseeing at the Kapellbrücke and Lion Monument and relished speaking with local people in her native German.

The American writer Mark Twain further popularised the city and its environs in his travel writings after visiting twice, in 1878 and 1897. In 1892 Swiss poet and future Nobel Prize laureate Carl Spitteler also established himself in Lucerne, living there until his death in 1924.

Lucerne's status as a fashionable destination led to it becoming one of the first centres of modern-style tourism. Some of the city's most recognisable buildings are hotels from this period, such as the Schweizerhof Hotel (1845), Grand Hotel National (1870), and Château Gütsch (1879). It was at the National that Swiss hotelier César Ritz would establish himself as manager between 1878 and 1888.

1993 great fire
In August 1993, the Kapellbrücke in the centre of the city suffered from a great fire which destroyed two thirds of its interior paintings. The bridge was subsequently reconstructed and reopened to the public in April 1994, after a total of CHF 3.4 million was spent on its repair.

Merge with Littau
On June 17, 2007, voters of the city of Lucerne and the adjacent town of Littau agreed to a merger in a simultaneous referendum. This took effect on January 1, 2010. The new city, still called Lucerne, has a population of around 80,000 people, making it the seventh-largest city in Switzerland. The results of this referendum are expected to pave the way for negotiations with other nearby cities and towns in an effort to create a unified city-region, based on the results of a study.

Topography
Lucerne is located at the outfall of Lake Lucerne into the river Reuss, which flows from south-east to north-west. The city occupies both banks of the river and the lowest reach of the lake, with the city centre straddling the river immediately downstream of the outfall. The city's suburbs climb the hills to the north-east and south-west, and stretch out along the river and lake banks, whilst the recently added area of Littau is to the north-west.

Besides this contiguous city area, the municipality also includes an exclave on the south shore of Lake Lucerne some 8 km away, comprising the northern slopes of the Bürgenstock. This section of the municipality is entirely surrounded by the lake and by land of the canton of Nidwalden. It does not contain any significant settlements, but the summit of the Bürgenstock is the highest point of the municipality.

The municipality has an area of 29.1 km2. Of this area and, 28.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while 22.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 47.6% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (2.1%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

Climate
Between 1961 and 1990 Lucerne had an average of 138.1 days of rain per year and on average received 1171 mm of precipitation. The wettest month was June during which time Lucerne received an average of 153 mm of rainfall. During this month there was rainfall for an average of 14.2 days. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 61 mm of precipitation over 10.2 days. Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

Government
The City Council (Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the city of Lucerne and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors (Stadtrat/-rätin), each presiding over a directorate (Direktion) comprising several departments and bureaus. The president of the executive department acts as mayor (Stadtpräsident). In the mandate period (Legislatur) September 2020 – August 2024 the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsident Beat Züsli. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Grand City Council are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of Lucerne allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Majorz. The mayor is elected as such as well by public election while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate.

, Luzern's City Council is made up of one representative of the SP (Social Democratic Party, who is also the mayor), and one each of CVP (Christian Democratic Party), GPS (Green Party), FDP (FDP.The Liberals), and glp (Green Liberal Party). The last regular election was held on 29 March/28 June 2020. All members have been re-elected, though two of them (Bitz Staub and Jost) only with the second round.

Michèle Bucher (FDP) is Town Chronicler (Stadtschreiberin) since 2020.

Parliament
The Grand City Council (Grosser Stadtrat) holds legislative power. It is made up of 48 members, with elections held every four years. The Grand City Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation.

The sessions of the Grand City Council are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the Grand City Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Luzern allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Grand City Council. The parliament holds its meetings in the Rathaus (Town Hall) am Kornmarkt.

The last regular election of the Grand City Council was held on 29 March 2020 for the mandate period (Legislatur) from September 2020 to August 2024. Currently the Grand City Council consist of 13 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section, the JUSO, 9 The Liberals (FDP/PLR), 7 Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), 7 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 6 Green Party (GPS/PES) and one of its junior section, the jg of Luzern, and 4 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL).

National Council
In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 25.0% (-0.7) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (20.8%, +7.4), the SVP (15.0%, -4.6), the CVP (14.1%, 0), FDP (13.0%, -2.5), the glp (10.5%, +1.8). In the federal election a total of 25,836 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.5%.

In the 2015 election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SP which received 25.8% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the SVP (19.5%), the FDP (15.4%), the CVP (14.1%), the GPS (13.3%), and the GLP (8.9%). In the federal election, a total of 26,521 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.48%.

Twin towns
Lucerne is twinned with the following towns:

 * Bournemouth, United Kingdom (1981)
 * 🇺🇸 Chicago, Illinois, United States (1999)
 * 🇵🇱 Cieszyn, Poland (1994)
 * 🇫🇷 Guebwiller / Murbach, France (1978)
 * 🇨🇿 Olomouc, Czech Republic (1994)
 * 🇩🇪 Potsdam, Germany (2002)

Population
Lucerne has a population (as of 31 December 2021) of 82,771 As of 2021, 20,508 or 24.78% of the population was made up of foreign nationals, of which 18.22% are from Europe, 3.63% from Asia, 1.85% from Africa and 0.97% from America. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1.2%.

Most of the population (as of 2020) speak German (83.26%), with English with 7.45%, as well as Italian (5.06%) and Serbo-Croatian (3.80%) being respectively second, third and fourth most common first languages reported. Following, there are Portuguese (2.81%), Spanish (2.53%), Albanian (2.25%) and French (2.11%) language speakers.

The age distribution in Lucerne is ; 12,916 people or 15.7% of the population is 0–19 years old. 26,381 people or 33.8% are 20–39 years old, and 25,863 people or 32.1% are 40–64 years old. The senior population distribution is 10,530 people or 13.1% are 65–79 years old, 4,208 or 5.2% are 80–89 years old and 900 people or 1.1% of the population are 90+ years old.

In Lucerne about 73.6% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

there are 30,586 households, of which 15,452 households (or about 50.5%) contain only a single individual. 853 or about 2.8% are large households, with at least five members. there were 5,707 inhabited buildings in the municipality, of which 4,050 were built only as housing, and 1,657 were mixed use buildings. There were 1,152 single family homes, 348 double family homes, and 2,550 multi-family homes in the municipality. Most homes were either two (787) or three (1,468) story structures. There were only 74 single story buildings and 1,721 four or more story buildings.

Historic population
The historical population of Lucerne is given in the following table:

Religion
The city grew up around Sankt Leodegar Abbey, founded in AD 840, and remained strongly Roman Catholic into the 21st century. By 1850, 96.9% of the population was Catholic, in 1900 it was 81.9% and in 1950 it was still 72.3%. the religious membership of Lucerne was: 35,682 (60%) Roman Catholic, 9,227 (15.5%) Protestant, with an additional 1,979 (3.33%) who were of some other Christian denominations; 1,824 individuals (3.07% of the population) Muslim; 196 individuals (0.33% of the population) Jewish. Of the remainder, 1,073 (1.8%) individuals were another religion; 6,310 (10.61%) stated they do not belong to any organized religion; and 3,205 (5.39%) did not answer the question.

Economy
, there were a total of 77,641 people employed in the municipality. Of these, a total of 166 people worked in 53 businesses in the primary economic sector. The secondary sector employed 7,326 workers in 666 separate businesses. Finally, the tertiary sector provided 70,149 jobs in 6,929 businesses. In 2013 a total of 11.0% of the population received social assistance. 51.7% of the population of the municipality were employed in some capacity. At the same time, women made up 47.9% of the workforce.

Lucerne is home to a number of major Swiss companies, including AlpTransit Gotthard rail link, Schindler Group, Chronoswiss, Emmi, and the Luzerner Kantonalbank. Suva, one of Switzerland's oldest accident insurance companies, is also based in Lucerne, as is the University of Lucerne, the youngest of Switzerland's traditional universities. An international company is the EF Education First.

Thanks to its continuous tax-cutting policies, Lucerne has become Switzerland's most business-friendly canton. Lucerne offers Switzerland's lowest corporate tax rate at cantonal level.

Furthermore, Lucerne also offers very moderate personal income tax rates. In a recent published study of BAK Basel Economics taxation index 2012, Lucerne made it to the 4th place with an only marginally 2% higher tax rate compared to the top canton in this comparison.

One of the first export oriented branches was the production of scythes from the 14th century onwards. Lucerne imported iron and steel and the cities blacksmiths produced scythes which were exported to western Switzerland and northern Italy. The workshops of the blacksmiths were located in the outskirts of the city due to fire concerns. The workshops at the Krienbach creek included hammers moved by watermills.

Sights
Since the city straddles the Reuss where it drains the lake, it has a number of bridges. These include the Chapel Bridge (Kapellbrücke), a 204 m long wooden covered bridge originally built in 1333, the oldest covered bridge in Europe, although much of it had to be replaced after a fire on 18 August 1993, allegedly caused by a discarded cigarette. Partway across, the bridge runs by the octagonal Water Tower (Wasserturm), a fortification from the 13th century. Inside the bridge are a series of paintings from the 17th century depicting events from Lucerne's history.

Downriver, between the Kasernenplatz and the Mühlenplatz, the Spreuer Bridge (Spreuerbrücke or Mühlenbrücke, Mill Bridge) zigzags across the Reuss. Constructed in 1408, it features a series of medieval-style 17th century plague paintings by Kaspar Meglinger (de) titled Dance of Death (Totentanzzyklus). The bridge has a small chapel in the middle that was added in 1568.

Old Town Lucerne is mainly located just north of the Reuss, and still has several fine half-timber structures with painted fronts. Remnants of the old town walls exist on the hill above Lucerne, complete with eight tall watch towers. An additional gated tower sits at the base of the hill on the banks of the Reuss.

The twin needle towers of the Church of St. Leodegar, which was named after the city's patron saint, sit on a small hill just above the lake front. Originally built in 735, the present structure was erected in 1633 in the late Renaissance style. However, the towers are surviving remnants of an earlier structure. The interior is richly decorated. The church is popularly called the Hofkirche (in German) and is known locally as the Hofchile (in Swiss-German).

Bertel Thorvaldsen's carving of a dying lion (the Lion Monument, or Löwendenkmal) is found in a small park just off the Löwenplatz. The carving commemorates the hundreds of Swiss Guards who were massacred in 1792 during the French Revolution, when an armed mob stormed the Tuileries Palace in Paris.

The Swiss Museum of Transport is a large and comprehensive museum exhibiting all forms of transport, including locomotives, automobiles, ships, and aircraft. It is to be found beside the lake in the northern-eastern section of the city.

The Culture and Convention Center (KKL) beside the lake in the center of the city was designed by Jean Nouvel. The center has one of the world's leading concert halls, with acoustics by Russell Johnson.

The Richard Wagner Museum is found on the lake at Tribschen and is dedicated to the composer Richard Wagner. Wagner lived in Lucerne from 1866 to 1872 and his former villa now hosts the museum dedicated to him.

Culture
Since plans for the new culture and convention centre arose in the late 1980s, Lucerne has found a balance between the so-called established culture and alternative culture. A consensus was reached that culminated in a culture compromise (Kulturkompromiss). The established culture comprises the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre (KKL), the city theater (Luzerner Theater) and, in a broader sense, smaller establishments such as the Kleintheater, founded by comedian Emil Steinberger, a Lucerne native, or Stadtkeller, a music restaurant in the city's old town. KKL houses a concert hall as well as the Museum of Art Lucerne (Kunstmuseum Luzern).

Alternative culture took place mostly on the premises of a former tube factory, which became known as Boa. Other localities for alternative culture have since emerged in the same inner city area as Boa. Initially, Boa staged various plays, but concerts became more and more common; this new use of the building clashed with the development of apartment buildings on nearby lots of land. Due to possible noise pollution, Boa was closed and a replacement in a less heavily inhabited area is currently under construction. Critics claimed though that the new establishment would not meet the requirements for an alternative culture.

Südpol is a center for performing arts in Lucerne presenting music-, dance- and theatre-events. The house at the foot of Pilatus opened in November 2008.

Lucerne is home to the Luzerner Sinfonieorchester, a category A symphonic orchestra, and to the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra, and they both hold most of their performances in the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre.

Lucerne is also home to Keramikkonzerte, a series of classical chamber music concerts held throughout each year, as well as Zaubersee, a festival dedicated to Russian classical music.

Events
Every year, towards the end of winter, Fasnacht (Carnival) breaks out in the streets, alleyways and squares of the old town. This is a glittering outdoor party, where chaos and merriness reign and nothing is as it normally is. Strange characters in fantastic masks and costumes make their way through the alleyways, while Guggenmusiken (carnival bands) blow their instruments in joyful cacophony and thousands of bizarrely clad people sing and dance away the winter. The Lucerner Fasnacht, based on religious, Catholic backgrounds, starts every year on the Thursday before Aschermittwoch (Ash Wednesday) with a big bang at 5am called Morgenwacht (Morning Watch). There are big parades in the afternoon on Schmotzige Donnerstag (literally: Lardy Thursday) and the following Monday, called Güdismontag (literally: Paunch Monday), which attract tens of thousands of people. Lucerne's Carnival ends with a crowning finish on Güdisdienstag (literally: Paunch Tuesday) evening with the Monstercorso, a tremendous parade of Guggenmusiken, lights and lanterns with even a larger audience. Rather recently a fourth Fasnacht day has been introduced on the Saturday between the others Fasnacht days, the Rüüdige Samstag while mainly several indoor balls take place. From dusk till dawn on the evenings of Schmotzige Donnerstag, Güdismontag, and after the Monstercorso many bands wander through the historical part of the city playing typical Fasnacht tunes. Until midnight, the historical part of the city usually is packed with people participating. A large part of the audience are also dressed up in costumes, even a majority in the evenings.

The city hosts various renowned festivals throughout the year. The Lucerne Festival for classical music takes place in the summer. Its orchestra, the Lucerne Festival Orchestra, is hand-picked from some of the finest instrumentalists in the world. In June yearly the pop music festival B-Sides takes place in Lucerne. It focuses on international acts in alternative music, indie rock, experimental rock and other cutting edge and left field artistic musical genres. In July, the Blue Balls Festival brings jazz, blues and punk music to the lake promenade and halls of the Culture and Convention Center. The Lucerne Blues Festival is another musical festival which usually takes place in November. Since spring 2004, Lucerne has hosted the Festival Rose d'Or for television entertainment. And in April, the well-established comics festival Fumetto attracts an international audience.

Being the cultural center of a rather rural region, Lucerne regularly holds different folklore festivals, such as Lucerne Cheese Festival, held annually. In 2004, Lucerne was the focus of Swiss Wrestling fans when it had hosted the Swiss Wrestling and Alpine festival (Eidgenössisches Schwing- und Älplerfest), which takes place every three years in a different location. A national music festival (Eidgenössiches Musikfest) attracted marching bands from all parts of Switzerland in 2006. In summer 2008, the yodelling festival (Eidgenössisches Jodlerfest) had a similar impact.

The 2021 Winter Universiade was planned to be hosted by Lucerne, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Transport

After Ferdinand von Zeppelin landed his airship in Lucerne in 1909, the city became a pioneer for the aeronautical industry in Switzerland. In February 1910 the countries first (and after the DELAG of Germany the second in the world ) air transport company was founded, in July the same year then also the first airship hangar at Tribschenmoos. The company provided flights with airships until 1914 without notable accidents.

Lucerne boasts a developed and well-run transport network, with the main operator, Verkehrsbetriebe Luzern (VBL), running both the trolleybuses in Lucerne and a motor buses network in the city and to neighboring municipalities. Other operators, such as PostAuto Schweiz and Auto AG Rothenburg, provide bus services to other towns and villages.

Lucerne is one of Switzerland's principal stations, and is well-connected to the rest of Switzerland via railway services operated by Swiss Federal Railways (SBB CFF FFS), the Südostbahn SOB, the BLS and the Zentralbahn (zb). There are 40 trains per day between Lucerne and Zürich, with an average travel time of 48 minutes. Zurich Airport can be reached in just over an hour. Adjacent to the station is Luzern Bahnhofquai, from which ships of the Lake Lucerne Navigation Company operate to various destinations on Lake Lucerne. Between April and mid October, the tourist oriented Gotthard Panorama Express connects Lucerne with Lugano once a day by boat and train, travelling by boat along the length of Lake Lucerne and then by train over the historic high-level Gotthard route.

Three other railway stations are located within the city boundaries, with Lucerne Allmend/Messe close to the Swissporarena in the south of the city, Luzern Littau in the former municipality of Littau and the Luzern Verkehrshaus adjacent to the Swiss Museum of Transport in the east.

Lucerne's city transit system is fully integrated into the coherent and integrated fare network system called passepartout encompassing all kind of public transport in the cantons of Lucerne, Obwalden, and Nidwalden.

A funicular, Gütschbahn, links the city to Château Gütsch, 90 m above. Standseilbahn Hotel Montana runs from the lakefront to Hotel Montana. From 1912 to 1978, there was Dietschibergbahn at Dietschiberg.

Sport
There are several football clubs throughout the city. The most successful one is FC Luzern which plays in Switzerland's premier league (Swiss Super League). The club plays its home matches at the new Swissporarena, with a capacity of 16,800.

The city's main hockey team is the HC Luzern which plays in the Swiss Second League, the fourth tier of Swiss hockey. They play their home games in the 5,000-seat Swiss Life Arena.

In the past, Lucerne also produced national successes in men's handball and women's volleyball and softball.

Having a long tradition of equestrian sports, Lucerne has co-hosted CSIO Switzerland, an international equestrian show jumping event, until it left entirely for St. Gallen in 2006. Since then, the Lucerne Equestrian Masters replaced it. There is also an annual horse racing event, usually taking place in August.

Lucerne annually hosts the final leg of the World Rowing Cup on Rotsee Lake. Numerous World Rowing Championships have been held in Lucerne including the inaugural World Championships of 1962 and then the regattas of 1974, 1982 and 2001.

Lucerne hosts the annual Spitzen Leichtathletik Luzern track and field meeting, which attracts world class athletes such as Yohan Blake and Valerie Adams.

The city also provides facilities for ice-hockey, figure-skating, golf, swimming, basketball, rugby, skateboarding, climbing and more.

Lucerne hosted FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour event Lucerne Open 2015 and FIVB Beach Volleyball U21 World Championship in 2016.

title: Lucerne


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Chlamydomonadales

Chlamydomonadales, also known as Volvocales, are an order of flagellated or pseudociliated green algae, specifically of the Chlorophyceae. Chlamydomonadales can form planar or spherical colonies. These vary from Gonium (four to 32 cells) up to Volvox (500 cells or more). Each cell has two flagella, and is similar in appearance to Chlamydomonas, with the flagella throughout the colony moving in coordination.

Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur. In the former, cells divide until they form new colonies, which are then released. In the smaller forms, typically all cells are involved, but larger forms have anterior vegetative and posterior reproductive cells. Sexual reproduction varies from isogamy (both genders produce flagellated gametes of equal size) to oogamy (one gender produces a much larger, nonmotile gamete).

The classification of the Chlamydomonadales varies. Very often they are taken to include the orders Volvocales and Dunallielales, which contain closely related unicellular flagellates, as suborders. Colony inversion is believed to have arisen twice in this order. Spheroidal colony formation differs between the two lineages: rotation of daughter protoplasts during successive cell divisions in Astrephomene, and inversion after cell divisions in the Volvocaceae.

Families
, AlgaeBase accepted the following families:

 * Actinochloridaceae Korshikov
 * Asteromonadaceae Péterfi
 * Carteriaceae Pascher
 * Characiochloridaceae Skuja
 * Characiosiphonaceae Iyengar
 * Chlamydomonadaceae F.Stein
 * Chlorangiellaceae Bourrelly ex Fott
 * Chlorochytriaceae Setchell & N.L.Gardner
 * Chlorococcaceae Blackman & Tansley
 * Chlorosarcinaceae Bourrelly ex Groover & Bold
 * Dunaliellaceae T.A.Christensen
 * Goniaceae (Pascher) Pascher
 * Haematococcaceae G.M.Smith
 * Hypnomonadaceae Korshikov
 * Palmellaceae Decaisne
 * Palmellopsidaceae Korshikov
 * Phacotaceae Francé
 * Pleurastraceae K.R.Mattox & K.D.Stewart
 * Protosiphonaceae Blackman & Tansley
 * Sphaerocystidaceae Fott ex Tsarenko
 * Sphaerodictyaceae C.-C.Jao
 * Spondylomoraceae Korshikov
 * Tetrabaenaceae H.Nozaki & M.Ito
 * Tetrasporaceae Wittrock
 * Volvocaceae Ehrenberg
 * Wislouchiaceae Molinari & Guiry

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chlamydomonadales


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Fynbos

Fynbos ( lit. 'fine plants') is a small belt of natural shrubland or heathland vegetation located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. This area is predominantly coastal and mountainous, with a Mediterranean climate and rainy winters. The fynbos ecoregion is within the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. In fields related to biogeography, fynbos is known for its exceptional degree of biodiversity and endemism, consisting of about 80% (8,500 fynbos) species of the Cape floral kingdom, where nearly 6,000 of them are endemic. This land continues to face severe human-caused threats, but due to the many economic uses of the fynbos, conservation efforts are being made to help restore it.

Etymology
The word fynbos is often confusingly said to mean "fine bush" in Afrikaans, as bos means "bush". Typical fynbos foliage is ericoid rather than fine. The term, in its pre-Afrikaans, Dutch form, fynbosch, was recorded by Noble as being in casual use in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, John Bews referred to: "South-Western or Cape Region of Macchia or Fynbosch". He said: "In this well-known region where the rain occurs in winter and the summers are more or less dry, the dominant vegetation is of a sclerophyllous type and there is little or no natural grassland, though there are many kinds of grass..." He also refers to a high degree of endemism in the grasses in that region. Elsewhere he speaks of the term as "...applied by the inhabitants of the Cape to any sort of small woodland growth that does not include timber trees"; in the current vernacular, this still is the effective sense of the word. However, in the technical, ecological sense, the constraints are more demanding. In the latter half of the 20th century, "fynbos" gained currency as the term for the "distinctive vegetation of the southwestern Cape".

Cape Floral Kingdom

Fynbos – which grows in a 100-to-200-km-wide coastal belt stretching from Clanwilliam on the West coast to Port Elizabeth on the Southeast coast – forms part of the Cape floral kingdom, where it accounts for half of the surface area and 80% of the plant species. The fynbos in the western regions is richer and more varied than in the eastern regions of South Africa.

Of the world's six floral kingdoms, this is the smallest and richest per unit of area. The Holarctic kingdom, in contrast, incorporates the whole of the Northern Hemisphere north of the tropics. The diversity of fynbos plants is extremely high, with over 9,000 species of plants occurring in the area, around 6,200 of which are endemic, i.e. growing nowhere else in the world. South Africa's Western Cape has the vast majority of species with one estimate finding 8,550 species in 89,000 km2, which is higher than that estimated for the Malayan forests, 7,900 species in 132,000 km2. It has been claimed that it exceeds even the richest tropical rainforest in South America, including the Amazon. Of the Ericas, over 600 occur in the fynbos kingdom, while only two or three dozen have been described in the rest of the world. This is in an area of 46,000 km2 – by comparison, the Netherlands, with an area of 33,000 km2, has 1,400 species, none of them endemic. Table Mountain in Cape Town supports 2,200 species, more than the entire United Kingdom. Thus, although the fynbos covers only 6% of the area of southern Africa, it has half the species on the subcontinent – and in fact has almost one in five of all African plant species so far described.

Five main river systems traverse the Cape floral kingdom: the Oliphants River of the Western Cape; the Berg River which drains the West Coast Forelands plain stretching from the Cape Flats to the Olifants; the Breede, which is the largest river on the Cape; the Olifants River (Southern Cape); Gourits and the Groot Rivers which drain the Little Karoo basin and the South Coast Forelands; and the Baviaanskloof and Gamtoos Rivers to the east.

Flora
The most conspicuous components of the flora are evergreen sclerophyllous plants, many with ericoid leaves and gracile habit, as opposed to timber forest. Several plant families are conspicuous in fynbos; the Proteaceae are prominent, with genera such as Protea, Leucospermum (the "pincushions"), and Leucadendron (the silver tree and "cone bushes"). Proteas are represented by many species and are prominent in the landscape, generally with large striking flowers, many of which are pollinated by birds, and others by small mammals. Most of these do not have anything like ericoid leaves, and nor do most Rhamnaceae, Fabaceae, or Geraniaceae. Fynbos Ericaceae include more species of Erica than all other regions combined. They are popularly called heaths and are generally smaller plants bearing many small, tubular or globular flowers and ericoid leaves. Restionaceae also occur in greater variety in fynbos than anywhere else; their species are superficially grass-like. Many of them grow in wet areas such as seasonal marshes and spongy basins in the sources of mountain streams, but others grow in decidedly arid conditions.

Depending on the locality and the aspects under discussion, several other families have equal claim to being characteristic, including Asteraceae, Rutaceae, and Iridaceae. More than 1400 bulb species occur among the fynbos, of which 96 are Gladiolus and 54 Lachenalia. Areas that are dominated by "renosterbos", Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis, (Asteraceae) are known as Renosterveld (Afrikaans for "rhinoceros field").

Vegetation types
Fynbos vegetation types, code FF:

 * Agulhas Limestone Fynbos (FFl 1)
 * Agulhas Sand Fynbos (FFd 7)
 * Albertinia Sand Fynbos (FFd 9)
 * Algoa Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 29)
 * Atlantis Sand Fynbos (FFd 4)
 * Bokkeveld Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 1)
 * Boland Granite Fynbos (FFg 2)
 * Breede Alluvium Fynbos (FFa 2)
 * Breede Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 4)
 * Breede Sand Fynbos (FFd 8)
 * Breede Shale Fynbos (FFh 4)
 * Canca Limestone Fynbos (FFl 3)
 * Cape Flats Sand Fynbos (FFd 5)
 * Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos (FFh 5)
 * Cederberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 4)
 * Central Coastal Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 4)
 * Central Inland Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 3)
 * De Hoop Limestone Fynbos (FFl 2)
 * Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 6)
 * Eastern Inland Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 5)
 * Elgin Shale Fynbos (FFh 6)
 * Elim Ferricrete Fynbos (FFf 1)
 * Garden Route Granite Fynbos (FFg 5)
 * Garden Route Shale Fynbos (FFh 9)
 * Graafwater Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 2)
 * Greyton Shale Fynbos (FFh 7)
 * Grootrivier Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 5)
 * Hangklip Sand Fynbos (FFd 6)
 * Hawequas Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 10)
 * Hopefield Sand Fynbos (FFd 3)
 * Kamiesberg Granite Fynbos (FFg 1)
 * Kango Conglomerate Fynbos (FFt 1)
 * Knysna Sand Fynbos (FFd 10)
 * Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 11)
 * Kouebokkeveld Alluvium Fynbos (FFa 1)
 * Kouebokkeveld Shale Fynbos (FFh 1)
 * Kouga Grassy Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 28)
 * Kouga Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 27)
 * Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos (FFd 2)
 * Loerie Conglomerate Fynbos (FFt 2)
 * Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos (FFa 4)
 * Matjiesfontein Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 3)
 * Matjiesfontein Shale Fynbos (FFh 2)
 * Montagu Shale Fynbos (FFh 8)
 * Namaqualand Sand Fynbos (FFd 1)
 * North Hex Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 7)
 * North Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 25)
 * North Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 15)
 * North Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 18)
 * North Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 21)
 * North Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 13)?
 * North Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 23)
 * Northern Inland Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 1)
 * Olifants Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 3)
 * Overberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 12)
 * Peninsula Granite Fynbos (FFg 3)
 * Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 9)
 * Piketberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 6)
 * Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos (FFf 2)
 * Potberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 17)
 * Robertson Granite Fynbos (FFg 4)
 * South Hex Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 8)
 * South Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 26)
 * South Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 16)
 * South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 19)
 * South Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 22)
 * South Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 14)
 * South Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 24)
 * Southern Cape Dune Fynbos (FFd 11)
 * Stinkfonteinberge Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 1)
 * Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 6)
 * Suurberg Shale Fynbos (FFh 10)
 * Swartberg Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 31)
 * Swartberg Shale Fynbos (FFh 3)
 * Swartland Alluvium Fynbos (FFa 3)
 * Swartruggens Quartzite Fynbos (FFq 2)
 * Swellendam Silcrete Fynbos (FFc 1)
 * Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 20)
 * Western Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 30)
 * Western Coastal Shale Band Vegetation (FFb 2)
 * Winterhoek Sandstone Fynbos (FFs 5)

Fauna
The fynbos is home to many unique and endemic animals, with seven species of endemic bird and an unknown number of endemic reptiles, amphibians, and arthropods. The seven avian endemics include the Cape rockjumper, Cape sugarbird, Victorin's warbler, Orange-breasted sunbird, Protea canary, Cape siskin, and Fynbos buttonquail.

Ecoregions
The fynbos area has been divided into two very similar ecoregions: the lowland fynbos (below 300 m above sea level) on the sandy soil of the west coast, and the montane fynbos of the Cape Fold Belt.

The Lowland Fynbos and Renosterveld experiences regular winter rainfall, especially to the west of Cape Agulhas. The ecoregion has been subdivided into nine areas: the West Coast Forelands from the Cape Flats to the Olifants River (Western Cape); the Warm Bokkeveld basin around the town of Ceres; the Elgin Valley around the town of Elgin; the sandy Agulhas Plain on the coast; the Breede River valley around the town of Worcester; the South Coast Forelands from Caledon west to Mossel Bay; the south-eastern end of the Little Karoo; Langkloof valley; and the Southeastern Coast Forelands west from Tsitsikamma to Gqeberha.

The flora of the lowlands contains a high number of endemic species, and tends to favour larger plants than those growing on the hillier areas. They include the larger Restionaceae such as species of Elegia, Thamnochortus, and Willdenowia and proteas such as king protea (Protea cynaroides) and blushing bride (Serruria florida). Particular types of lowland fynbos include the shrubs and herbs of the coastal sand dunes, the mixture of ericoids and restoids with thickets of shrubs such as Maytenus, and other Celastraceae, sideroxylons and other Sapotaceae, and Rhus and other Anacardiaceae on the coastal sands; the classic fynbos of the sandplains of the West Coast Forelands, and the Agulhas Plain; the grassy fynbos of the hillier and wetter areas of the South and South-Eastern Coast Forelands; areas where fynbos and renosterveld are mixed; coastal renosterveld on the West and South Coast Forelands; and the inland renosterveld of the drier inland Little Karoo and Warm Bokkeveld.

The area is also home to a large number of endemic creatures that have adapted to life in this area, such as the monkey beetles which pollinate Ixia viridiflora. Endemic species of fish in the five river systems occur in the area, too. Endemic reptiles and amphibians include a number of tortoises and the chameleon-like arum frog (Hyperolius horstockii).

The Montane Fynbos and Renosterveld is the area above 300 m, a total of 45000 km2 of the Cape Fold Mountains. The same level of floral variety, including all three characteristic fynbos families, is found there, but ericas predominate. Because the higher and wetter areas are more protected and contain important water sources, the original flora is more intact than in the lowlands; but agriculture and global warming are still threats. The region includes the mountains in the west from the Cape Peninsula to the Kouebokkeveld Mountains, the south coast hinterland from Elgin to Gqeberha, the mountains north of the Little Karoo from Laingsburg to Willowmore, and the inselberg hills within the Little Karoo. About half of these areas are originally fynbos, and about half are renosterveld.

Many different microclimates occur, so the flora changes from west to east, and also varies with altitude up the hillsides away from the coast and according to compass direction. Lower elevations are covered with protea fynbos, with ericas taking over further up. Plant species include pincushions (Leucospermum). The wildlife includes a number of endemic bees, beetles, horseflies, and ants, and birds such as Cape sugarbirds and the orange-breasted sunbird. Many of these birds and insects are important and specific pollinators for the fynbos, such as the mountain pride butterfly (Aeropetes tulbaghia) which only visits red flowers such as Disa uniflora and pollinates 15 different species. Larger animals include antelopes, particularly Cape grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), and klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus). The extinct blue antelope and quagga were also fynbos natives.

Economic uses
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia) are of economic importance, grown and harvested in large quantities in the Cederberg area, and providing important exports. Restios continue to be used for thatching, as they have for hundreds or even thousands of years. Proteas and other floral species are grown in many areas and their flowers harvested for export.

In many areas with Mediterranean climates, fynbos species have become popular garden plants, in particular aloes and geraniums, and in cooler regions are used as window plants.

A very large number of fynbos plant species are used in traditional medicine, and while only a tiny proportion have as yet been subjected to formal testing, many have already been identified as having medicinal properties.

Threats and conservation

The fynbos is the region of South Africa most affected by invasive alien species which collectively cover around 10% of the entire country. The most common invasive plants are wattles and hakeas, native to Australia, and pines native to Europe and the Californian coast of the United States. Pines had been introduced to South Africa by the 19th century and the wattles were imported into the mid-1870s to stabilize sand dunes. In 1997 it was estimated that invasion caused the fynbos region to decline in value by US$750 million per year.

The Working for Water (WfW) program was started in 1995 by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry to control these invasive species which were shown to sequester 9.95% of usable surface water runoff. Since then, over 100,000 hectares of land have been cleared of invasive species while providing jobs to around 20,000 people per year, most of which are women and unskilled workers. Systematic monitoring of WfW's progress is lacking but there is anecdotal evidence that endemic silver peas have returned to Table Mountain after being thought extinct.

title: Fynbos


text:
Pierre-Joseph Cambon

Pierre-Joseph Cambon (, 10 June 1756 – 15 February 1820) was a French statesman. He is perhaps best known for speaking up against Maximilien Robespierre at the National Convention, sparking the end of Robespierre's reign.

Born in Montpellier, Cambon was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant. In 1785, his father retired, leaving Pierre and his two brothers to run the business, but in 1788 Pierre entered politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy suppliant to the Estates-General, where he was mostly a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member of the municipality, co-founded the Jacobin Club in that city, and on the flight to Varennes of King Louis XVI in 1791, he drew up a petition to invite the National Constituent Assembly to proclaim a Republic —the first in date of such petitions.

Elected to the Legislative Assembly, Cambon was viewed as independent, honest, and talented in the financial domain. He was the most active member of the committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the treasury. His analytical skills were recorded in his remarkable speech of 24 November 1791.

It was Cambon who made the initial suggestion for the state debt to be "rendered republican and uniform" and it was he who proposed to convert all the contracts of the creditors of the state into an inscription in a great book, which should be called the "Great Book of the Public Debt". This proposal was implemented in 1792 when the Great Book of the Public Debt was created as a consolidation of all the states debts.

He held his distance from political clubs and even factions, but nonetheless defended the new institutions of the state. On 9 February 1792, he succeeded in having a law passed confiscating the possessions of the émigrés, and tried to arrange the deportation of non-juring priests to French Guiana. He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly.

Re-elected to the National Convention, Cambon opposed the pretensions of the Paris Commune and the proposed grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. On 15 December 1792, he persuaded the convention to adopt a proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the year after he denounced Jean-Paul Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Georges Danton to give an account of his ministry, supervised the furnishing of military supplies to the French Revolutionary Army, and was a strong opponent of Charles François Dumouriez, in spite of the general's great popularity.

Cambon incurred the hatred of the theist Maximilien Robespierre (see Cult of the Supreme Being) by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew steadily.

Although he took part in toppling Robespierre in July 1794, Cambon was targeted and pursued by the Thermidorian Reaction, and had to live in hiding in Montpellier. During the Hundred Days, he was a deputy to the lower chamber, but only took part in debates over the budget. Proscribed by the Bourbon Restoration in 1816, he died at Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, near Brussels.

title: Pierre-Joseph Cambon


text:
Ancistrus

Ancistrus is a genus of nocturnal freshwater fish in the family Loricariidae of order Siluriformes, native to freshwater habitats in South America and Panama. Fish of this genus are common in the aquarium trade where they are known as bushynose or bristlenose catfish. In the aquarium hobby they are often referred to as bushynose or bristlenose plecos instead, but this may lead to confusion as "pleco" usually is used for Hypostomus plecostomus and its allies and is often used as a catchall term for any loricariids remotely resembling that species.

Taxonomy
The type species is Ancistrus cirrhosus. This genus is the largest genus within the tribe Ancistrini.

The name ancistrus derives from the Ancient Greek agkistron "hook" – a reference to the form of the cheek odontodes. The genera Pristiancistrus, Thysanocara and Xenocara are now synonyms of Ancistrus.

Description
Ancistrus species show all the typical features of the Loricariidae. This includes a body covered in bony plates and a ventral suckermouth. The feature most commonly associated with the genus are the fleshy tentacles found on the head in adult males; females may possess tentacles along the snout margin but they are smaller and they lack tentacles on the head. Tentacules, tentacles directly associated with odontodes, develop on the pectoral fin spine of the males of some species. Males also have evertible cheek odontodes which are less developed or absent in females. They also lack odontodes along the snout. In comparison with a typical loricariid (pleco), a bristlenose is typically shorter (4–6 inches or 15 cm or less), more flattened and fatter with a comparatively wider head. Colouration is typically mottled brown, grey or black. Small white or yellow spots are common. In contrast to many other loricariid 'plecos' (many of which regularly exceed a foot in captivity), the bristlenose plecos do not usually exceed six inches in length; they can thus be kept in relatively small tanks, contributing to their popularity in the aquarium hobby.

Ancistrus species are unusual among vertebrates in possessing an X0 sex-determination system, which is the prevailing method in many lineages of arthropod but is very rare elsewhere in the animal kingdom.

Distribution and habitat
Ancistrus is one of the widest ranging Loricariid genera, and representatives are found in most areas where the family in general is present. Many species are found in the rivers and floodplain areas of the Amazon basin, but there are also species elsewhere in tropical South America, as well as species on the island of Trinidad and two species, A. centrolepis and A. chagresi in Panama. Three species are true cavefish (troglobites): A. cryptophthalmus, A. galani and A. formoso. These are the only known loricariids that possess adaptions for a subterranean lifestyle, such as reduced pigmentation (appearing overall whitish) and eyes.

Aquarium maintenance
In the wild, Ancistrus species prefer flowing water, so tanks with flow are typically used when keeping them in captivity. Since they are bottom-dwelling fish, substrate is considered preferable to a bare tank floor. Mixtures of gravel, dirt, and clay are frequently used as substrate for Ancistrus.

The aquarium size that is considered by some to be a minimum for fish of this genus is 25 gallons.

Species
There are currently 76 recognized species in this genus: • Ancistrus abilhoai Bifi, Pavanelli & Zawadzki, 2009

• Ancistrus agostinhoi Bifi, Pavanelli & Zawadzki, 2009

• Ancistrus aguaboensis Fisch-Muller, Mazzoni & C. Weber, 2001

• Ancistrus amaris De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

• Ancistrus bodenhameri L. P. Schultz, 1944

• Ancistrus bolivianus (Steindachner, 1915)

• Ancistrus brevifilis (C. H. Eigenmann, 1920)

• Ancistrus brevipinnis (Regan, 1904)

• Ancistrus bufonius (Valenciennes, 1840)

• Ancistrus caucanus Fowler, 1943

• Ancistrus centrolepis Regan, 1913

• Ancistrus chagresi C. H. Eigenmann & R. S. Eigenmann, 1889

• Ancistrus cirrhosus (Valenciennes, 1836)

• Ancistrus claro Knaack, 1999

• Ancistrus clementinae Rendahl (de), 1937

• Ancistrus cryptophthalmus R. E. dos Reis, 1987

• Ancistrus cuiabae Knaack, 1999

• Ancistrus damasceni (Steindachner, 1907)

• Ancistrus dolichopterus Kner, 1854 (Bushy-mouth catfish)

• Ancistrus dubius C. H. Eigenmann & R. S. Eigenmann, 1889

• Ancistrus erinaceus (Valenciennes, 1840)

• Ancistrus eustictus (Fowler, 1945)

• Ancistrus falconensis Taphorn, Armbruster & Rodríguez-Olarte, 2010

• Ancistrus formoso Sabino & Trajano, 1997

• Ancistrus fulvus (Holly, 1929)

• Ancistrus galani A. Pérez & Viloria, 1994

• Ancistrus greeni (Isbrücker, 2001)

• Ancistrus gymnorhynchus Kner, 1854

• Ancistrus heterorhynchus (Regan, 1912)

• Ancistrus hoplogenys (Günther, 1864)

• Ancistrus jataiensis Fisch-Muller, A. R. Cardoso, J. F. P. da Silva & Bertaco, 2005

• Ancistrus jelskii (Steindachner, 1877)

• Ancistrus karajas R. R. de Oliveira, Rapp Py-Daniel, Zawadzki & Zuanon, 2016

• Ancistrus kellerae De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

• Ancistrus krenakarore R. R. de Oliveira, Rapp Py-Daniel, Zawadzki & Zuanon, 2016

• Ancistrus latifrons (Günther, 1869)

• Ancistrus leoni De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

• Ancistrus leucostictus (Günther, 1864)

• Ancistrus lineolatus Fowler, 1943

• Ancistrus lithurgicus C. H. Eigenmann, 1912

• Ancistrus macrophthalmus (Pellegrin, 1912)

• Ancistrus maculatus (Steindachner, 1881)

• Ancistrus malacops (Cope, 1872)

• Ancistrus maracasae Fowler, 1946

• Ancistrus marcapatae (Regan, 1904)

• Ancistrus martini L. P. Schultz, 1944

• Ancistrus mattogrossensis A. Miranda-Ribeiro, 1912

• Ancistrus maximus R. R. de Oliveira, Zuanon, Zawadzki & Rapp Py-Daniel, 2015

• Ancistrus megalostomus N. E. Pearson, 1924

• Ancistrus minutus Fisch-Muller, Mazzoni & C. Weber, 2001

• Ancistrus montanus (Regan, 1904)

• Ancistrus mullerae Bifi, Pavanelli & Zawadzki, 2009

• Ancistrus multispinis (Regan, 1912)

• Ancistrus nudiceps (J. P. Müller & Troschel, 1849)

• Ancistrus occidentalis (Regan, 1904)

• Ancistrus occloi C. H. Eigenmann, 1928

• Ancistrus parecis Fisch-Muller, A. R. Cardoso, J. F. P. da Silva & Bertaco, 2005

• Ancistrus patronus De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

• Ancistrus piriformis Fisch-Muller, 1989

• Ancistrus ranunculus Fisch-Muller, Rapp Py-Daniel & Zuanon, 1994

• Ancistrus reisi Fisch-Muller, A. R. Cardoso, J. F. P. da Silva & Bertaco, 2005

• Ancistrus saudades De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

• Ancistrus sericeus (Cope, 1872)

• Ancistrus stigmaticus C. H. Eigenmann & R. S. Eigenmann, 1889

• Ancistrus tamboensis Fowler, 1945

• Ancistrus taunayi A. Miranda-Ribeiro, 1918

• Ancistrus temminckii (Valenciennes, 1840)

• Ancistrus tolima Taphorn, Armbruster, Villa-Navarro & C. K. Ray, 2013

• Ancistrus tombador Fisch-Muller, A. R. Cardoso, J. F. P. da Silva & Bertaco, 2005

• Ancistrus trinitatis (Günther, 1864)

• Ancistrus triradiatus C. H. Eigenmann, 1918

• Ancistrus variolus (Cope, 1872)

• Ancistrus verecundus Fisch-Muller, A. R. Cardoso, J. F. P. da Silva & Bertaco, 2005

• Ancistrus vericaucanus Taphorn, Armbruster, Villa-Navarro & C. K. Ray, 2013

• Ancistrus yutajae De Souza, Taphorn & Armbruster, 2019

Ecology
The diet of this genus is typical for a Loricariid – algae, aufwuchs, and detritus, with sediment, sand, and gravel presumably ingested accidentally alongside food items. Despite reports among fish-keepers that they require wood in their diet, no scientific evidence to date supports members of this genus feeding on wood. Bristlenoses do not school but hide when not feeding, juveniles however are typically found in brightly lit shallows at the water margin making them susceptible to predation by birds.

Ancistrus species have the capability of obtaining oxygen through their modified stomach. This allows them to survive in conditions with low oxygen levels.

Breeding takes place in hollows, caves and mud holes in banks. Males may clean the inside of the cavity with their suckermouth before allowing the female to approach and inspect the nest. Courtship includes expanding the dorsal and caudal fins and attempts by the male to escort the female to the nest. While the female inspects the nest, the male keeps close contact. The female may lay 20–200 adhesive eggs, usually to the ceiling of the cavity.

The female plays no role in parental care; the male takes care of its young. Males will clean the eggs and the cavity with its fins and mouth. Males inspect eggs to remove diseased or infertile eggs, and aerates the clutch by fanning them with its pectoral and pelvic fins. During this time, a male usually will not leave the cavity to feed, or will leave only occasionally and quickly return. The eggs hatch in 4–10 days over a period of 2–6 hours; the male guards the eggs for 7–10 days after hatching. The fry remain in the cave, attaching to the walls and ceiling with their mouths, absorbing their yolk sac in 2–4 days and becoming free swimming.

Males of these species are competitive and territorial. Males display to each other by positioning themselves parallel to each other, head to tail, with dorsal and caudal fins erect and cheek odontode spines everted. If this escalates to combat, the males will circle each other and direct attacks at the head. If an intruding male manages to evict another male from the nest, it may cannibalize the other male's young.

A male bristlenose may guard several clutches of eggs simultaneously. Females prefer males that are already protecting eggs and may prefer males that are protecting larvae; it has been suggested that the tentacles may act as a fry mimic to attract females, which would allow males without eggs in their nest to compete with males guarding eggs. Several clutches in various states of development from eggs to free-swimming larvae can be found in one nest.

In the aquarium
These fish are often kept by aquarists, as they are dutiful algae-eaters and smaller in adult size than the common plecos usually seen in pet shops. They reach up to 15 cm in males, and 12 cm in females. Their recommended temperature is 23-27 C. Their lifespan is up to 12 years. They are hardy animals, tolerant to a wide range of water conditions. They breed easily in captivity, and are compatible with most other freshwater fish. Though typically mottled brown or black-and-grey spotted in color, other species are more exotic – spots of bright yellow on a dark background being a common pattern. Albino variants are also common. The albino morph is not caused by exposure to light during development, it is a morph controlled by genetics.

Historically, commonly available species of Ancistrus were Ancistrus cirrhosus and Ancistrus temminckii; other species are now available, though exact identification is difficult.

Feeding is easy, bristlenoses will graze on algae/ algae wafers and other surface growing organisms as well as eating algae wafers or tablets, flake food, squash, spinach, cucumber, zucchini, green beans peas and even sliced carrots. They have also been known to accept frozen bloodworms as part of their diet. Aquarium specimens may starve for lack of algae or other plant matter; algae wafers or other low-protein foods are recommended. Keepers should watch for the abdomen to take on a sunken appearance, indicating insufficient nutrition.

Sexing is very easy as the female will only occasionally have bristles, around the edge of the chin, whereas the male will have them up the center of the head.

Breeding is also possible. Males attract females to a small cave or hollow, then guard eggs after fertilization through hatching (4–8 days) until fry are free swimming (4–6 days after hatching); the aquarist need only supply a suitable cave, food, and one of each sex.

Caution should be taken with the spines (odontodes); although the risk of personal injury is small with this genus, the hooked nature of the odontodes means that a bristlenose may become trapped in non-natural material such as sponge filters and netting.

title: Ancistrus


text: User:Gyan

title: User:Gyan


text:
User talk:Gyan

String Quartet No. 2 (Borodin), prose quality
I agree. Improving my style generally has been a priority of mine lately; I think there has been some improvement here and there - but it needed, and does need, improvement. By generally I mean not so much adherence to Wikipedia standards - which also needs much work - as comprehensibility. A good guide to which was written by Arnold Schoenberg (!!) in an article that got reprinted in Style and Idea but of course others exist (I need to read, and reread, those manuals of style...) Thanks. Schissel | Sound the Note! 16:23, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

welcome et al
Sorry about that. :P I had assumed you were a newbie, 'coz your talk page didnt contain any data. Only now did I notice that you had removed all of it. Sorry for the misunderstanding...-- thunderboltza.k.a.D e epu Joseph03:48, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

RfD nomination of Wikipedia:!Most wanted articles
I have nominated for discussion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at the discussion page. Thank you. Stifle (talk) 12:48, 20 April 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gyan