text:
Talk:Folly

What should this article be about?
I'd rather we had an article on architectural follies than this bizarre sanctimonious article -- Tarquin 23:34 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

 * I agree with myself! (surprise!) Any objections before I remove the non-encyclopedic stuff? -- Tarquin 13:56, 27 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * And I agree with you. Do it. Vicki Rosenzweig 14:07, 27 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * There's probably encyclopedic stuff that could be written on "folly" (Erasmus' Praise of Folly, etc.) but the stuff that's there now certainly isn't it... Wield the knife! -- Someone else 14:11, 27 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Does the Taj Mahal qualify as a folly? --Paul A 01:08, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * No. The Taj Mahal is an islamic mausoleum. Cuddlyable3 17:13, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, it's a pretty fancy tomb; I'd have to say it, some Communist mausoleums, and the Pyramids may well have had elements of folly, but there may have been a religious aspect to those structures. I'd proceed a bit cautiously before considering a religious structure a folly, although these structures are often quite fanciful. —  Rickyrab | Talk 02:08, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

I wanted to incorporate something about Seward's Folly here, but I can't figure out how to make it fit. Any thoughts? Voyager640 03:24, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Does Portmeirion qualify as a folly? --Paul A 03:38, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I would vote yes. --james_anatidae 04:20, Feb 23, 2005 (UTC)

Irish Follies
Most of the comments I have read are written by people who are capable of contributing to this site themselves... I am not, but have read a little about follies in Ireland, which were built by Irish workers during the time of the Great Famine in exchange for pay by the British Government. This was the British government's way of aiding the Irish victims of the famine without giving general social aid.

I've heard of roads that led nowhere, as well as a lighthouse built miles from the coast in Co. Meath. Apparently the British government didn't want to commission any work to be done that a British contractor could get paid for... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.67.139.13 (talk • contribs) 04:42, 16 August 2005

 * Most of the follies and Famine projects were not government projects but rather private initiatives by landowners. The point about contractors is not generally germane.
 * An interesting background point is that there were "Famine follies" from earlier famines than the Great Famine. SeoR (talk) 12:33, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

Laissez faire

 * I'm not happy with the mention of laissez faire. The Famine (which began in 1845) helped bring on the free trade period, by providing moral impetus for the repeal (1846) of the protectionist Corn Laws.  —Tamfang 18:09, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with Tamfang. The whole idea of an aid program is intrinsically socialist, and the idea of protecting industries through legislation is completely opposite of laissez faire. The reference also seems to be written from a non-neutral standpoint so I'm just going to remove the reference to LF AND socialism.  Their mention doesn't help the understanding of the section anyways. --dmkrantz 19:34, 18 November, 2008 (CST)

Eiffel Tower?
Should the Eiffel Tower be listed here? Michael Hardy 23:37, 27 December 2005 (UTC)
 * No. The Eiffel Tower was an expression of engineering ambition, not an architectural doodle. Cuddlyable3 17:13, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I disagree; it had no real purpose, other than to look impressive to other people, and that is why folks stuck it up in the first place. The Eiffel Tower constitutes a folly. —  Rickyrab | Talk 01:57, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Agree with Rickyrab. Eiffel Tower seems to fit the description. Purpose-built strictly as an ornament, eccentric in design or construction. Although since its purpose was to demonstrate Eiffel's architecture and construction technique, maybe that gives it a purpose other than ornamentation? A 300 meter tall iron viewing platform doesn't seem much like a "functional building." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.19.56.104 (talk • contribs) 15:27, February 20, 2014
 * I'm against the Eiffel Tower's inclusion, for it served no real practical purpose. Therefore, the Eiffel Tower can't accurately be described as a folly according to the article. User:ZachariahReed 22:31, 16 September 2007 (UTC)
 * ZachariaReed: You seem to have read the description backward. "it served no real practical purpose" is an important point as to why it shoud be included as a folly. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.19.56.104 (talk • contribs) 15:27, February 20, 2014

Unless we have reliable sources that describe the Eiffel Tower as a "folly", including it in this article woulb be original research. - Sum mer PhD  (talk) 17:24, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

Las Vegas Hotels?
Would some of the hotels in Las Vegas (specifically the New York New York) qualify as follies in the architectural sense? The New York New York in particular is made to appear to be several separate buildings rather than one single structure. It seems akin to the imitations of Gothic castles described in this article. GeorgeJBendo 14:19, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
 * If "yes" to the above, then will you also include any of Disneyland's pseudo-historical structures? I think that buildings erected specifically for a modern commercial use (and liable to be replaced whenever that raison d'etre ceases) are too rational to be called follies. Cuddlyable3 17:13, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I think some of the edifices of the Disney amusement parks qualify (not necessarily all: some are very useful as well as good-looking, such as the Grand Floridian Beach and Polynesian Resorts). The Castles and the Matterhorn appear to be mainly for showing off (although the Matterhorn also serves as a roller coaster, while the Castles have such things in them as restaurants and a prize suite). —  Rickyrab | Talk 01:59, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * There are numerous parts of amusement and theme parks that are follies in their own right - architectural showoffs with little purpose other than to attract people and decorate the scene (or rides). —  Rickyrab | Talk 02:05, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

Folly or ruin?
Just reading the article, I'm not entirely sure what the dividing line is between a folly and someone intentionally creating a ruin. e.g. Would the ruins at the Mackenzie King Estates count? http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2802370-mackenzie_king_estate_ottawa-i A bit more elaboration would be helpful. Mucus 16:50, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

Seward's Folly
Not a folly by definition placed in this article, but deserves mention in the "See also" section. Seward's Folly refers to the Alaska purchase. --Geopgeop 17:01, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

 * That isn't even the same meaning of the word 'folly'. DJ Clayworth (talk) 20:16, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

Potential external links
1) The Folly Fellowship- An organization which celebrates architectural follies 2) Follies in the English Landscape 3) Follies and Monuments - A comprehensive catalogue of Follies within the UK 4) Images of follies on Odd-stuff! 5) - stylish blog of modern follies around the world

Leafy places
It seems unlikely that the alternative etymology can be correct, for a couple of reasons. For one thing, the Ordnance Survey wasn't even founded until 150 years after the OED's earliest cited instance of the architectural sense of "folly." For another, the OED lists a separate dialectical sense of "folly," with cites dating only to the late 19th century, defined as a cluster of fir-trees on a hilltop. Unless somebody can come up with a citable source for the "leafy" etymology, I suggest we delete that bit. 206.208.105.129 (talk) 19:10, 13 July 2011 (UTC)

Lawson Tower, Scituate, Massachusetts ??
Built originally as a water tower, should this be a folly ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mezawadzki (talk • contribs) 13:30, 9 September 2011 (UTC)

bowers?
What about bowers? Shouldn't they be mentioned? Chrisrus (talk) 20:49, 6 December 2011 (UTC)

Rename the article to Folly (architecture) for the purpose of disambiguation
I think the page Folly should redirect to Folly (disambiguation), to avoid any confusion. There are currently many pages that link here incorrectly, due to the multiple meanings of the word folly in the English language. I was surprised when I found that this article was about architecture, instead of being about folly in the more general sense of foolishness.
 * So which came first; the usage here or the synonym for foolishness. I would have assume the latter, not being particularly familiar with the architectural usage, but perhaps it was indeed the other way around. Wschart (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 15:04, 23 April 2013 (UTC)

Remove Lucy the Elephant
Per the definition above in the section What follies are not: "Fantasy and novelty buildings are essentially the converse of follies...The many American shops and water towers in the shapes of commonplace items, for example, are not properly follies." Lucy the Elephant is a novelty building, a shop in the shape of another object. It has been a functioning building for most of its 130 years of existence. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.19.56.104 (talk) 15:09, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

Remove Usen Castle
Per the section General properties: "They have no purpose other than as an ornament." "They are purpose-built. Follies are deliberately built as ornaments." "They were built or commissioned for pleasure." And per the section What follies are not: "Follies often look like real, usable buildings, but never are" "Many mansions and castles are quite eccentric, but being purpose-built to be used as residences, they are not properly follies." The article on Usen Castle clearly indicates that it violates all of these properties. It is, and always has been (since its construction in 1928), a functional building. It is not strictly ornamental, it was not build or commissioned for pleasure. It is simply a modern building with an unusual design. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.19.56.104 (talk) 15:18, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

 * just removed both 'Usen' and 'Lucy', though I have to say that MOST of the US entries seem to be 'novelty buildings' … but I didn't have the heart to remove most of them !Pincrete (talk) 20:52, 30 July 2014 (UTC)

Please link in the German-language article
There is a German-language article on "Folly (Gartenkunst)" - folly (garden art) that clearly shares the same semantic intent as this article: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folly_(Gartenkunst) In my opinion it should be linked here. 178.12.39.33 (talk) 19:31, 9 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Good point, I'm trying to do so (despite my uselessness at interwiki links) but am currently being prevented by some, er technical ishoo. Watch this space (but do not hold your breath). DBaK (talk) 20:05, 9 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Erm ... I have had a try. It hasn't shown up yet. If the Universe explodes later today, it is probably my fault. Sorry. DBaK (talk) 20:23, 9 May 2014 (UTC)

DBaK, I don't know if there is a better way, but one can put 'foreign' Wikipedia pages as an external link (with tag saying German).Pincrete (talk) 18:16, 4 August 2014 (UTC)

Grammar
The grammar in the opening sentence is broken at the moment. Can someone who knows that that sentence is trying to say please fix it, because I have no idea what it's trying to say. 116.48.12.222 (talk) 06:43, 4 August 2014 (UTC)
 * that work for you? Saffron Blaze (talk) 17:22, 4 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Think that 'by' breaks the necessary negation. So, I made a new edit that restores the negation ('but') and then adds the missing verb in the 'or' section of the either-or clause. The essential sentence now works out to "A folly is a (decorative) building..., but either (1) suggesting... some other purpose, or (2) appearing to be so extravagant that it transcends..." On another note, I do have an issue with "transcends the normal range". Do we mean somethings like "transcends the usual traits/characteristics"? —Waldhorn (talk) 20:58, 4 August 2014 (UTC)
 * I think you're right about the by/but … I also think your thought is right about the 'transcends etc.' phrase, but even your suggestion still seems unclear/complicated. Also the link to 'extravagance' leads to 'Tryphé' as a concept in antiquity (and doesn't really deal with 'excessive design'). I wonder if someone can come up with a simple phrasing of 'appearing to be … …' onwards (or even a reliably sourced definition).Pincrete (talk) 23:17, 4 August 2014 (UTC)
 * I agree that the opening needs simplification. The extravagance link should simply be removed. The core of the article appears to suffers from WP:SYNTH and lacks authoritative sources; so dolling up the grammar and sentence structure might be beside the point. By the way, introduced the current definition. I'll contact the editor to see if he has a source for the change. —Waldhorn (talk) 00:30, 5 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Agree 100% .... It occurred to me after posting my last comment, that garden ornaments are PRECISELY what follies are. However, ornaments of such a scale of conception, design and execution, and often in gardens/landscapes of such a scale, that the normal term no longer seems adequate. That thought is probably not helpful for the article, but helped me to clarify my own understanding.Pincrete (talk) 10:58, 5 August 2014 (UTC)
 * The wording is so dense, if not pompous, that I didn't even notice the negation was intended. Sorry about that. Saffron Blaze (talk) 15:02, 5 August 2014 (UTC)

Not really Grammar, but connected to prev.: As well as convoluted phrasing, there seem to be contradictions within the page, specifically about how useful a folly can be. In the opening saying 'not at all', but later saying However, very few follies are completely without a practical purpose … many originally had a use which was lost later, such as hunting towers.. Apart from being unclear, this affects whether certain buildings are included or not.Pincrete (talk) 16:14, 5 August 2014 (UTC)

How useful ?
The article contradicts itself in several places about how useful or practical a folly can be, I've just repaired one point of contradiction, however we need to decide. IMO, a folly can be a practical building, but its design has to not primarily be practical (an elaborate abbey ruin to keep the lawn mower in!). However we need to be consistent.Pincrete (talk) 13:00, 17 August 2014 (UTC)
 * I think the present description in the Characteristics section is clear. Probably there are follies with some practical use, for example as a viewing point or as a place to store things, but minor compared to what it looks like. Bever (talk) 09:07, 18 December 2014 (UTC)
 * We agree I think, not PRIMARILY practical, or a design which is incredibly elaborate for its practical purpose. The content has actually been 'toned down' considerably since August, such that the NO practical purpose condition has gone. Pincrete (talk) 19:38, 18 December 2014 (UTC)

Aschaffenburg
The Bavarian town of Aschaffenburg in Germany used to be the Summer residency of Ludwig I of Bavaria during the 19th century. Ludwig commissioned a number of buildings, among others the Pompejanum, a replica of a Roman villa. It was never intended to be inhabited, so I am wondering if the building counts as a folly?

Being regarded as eccentric, Ludwig also had a number of other structures erected in various parks (e.g. Nilkheimer Park, Park Schönbusch), such as replicas of Roman and Greek temples, pagodas, etc. I think these are relevant enough to be mentioned, maybe as a consolidated entry rather than listing each item separately - I am not exactly well-versed in history, but as I spent nearly twenty years living here, I would be happy to conduct the relevant research and add sources, if there are no objections. Cosmillogica (talk) 03:09, 20 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Hi Cosmillogica. Great ideas. Regarding the Nilkheimer Park structures, my suggestion would be to confirm that each is indeed a folly and then to integrate qualifying individual entries into the existing structure of this article. As a bonus, if you'd like to go into greater detail about these structures, consider adding a more detailed 'follies' section, with sources, to the Park Schönbusch article.

 * Looking at the Pompejanum article, it appears to me to be less of a decorative extravagance and more of a functional building that just happens to be a replica of a historic structure in the more ordinary sense. So, I don't see that it quite fits the unusual definition of folly; but I could be totally wrong. I hope that helps! Cheers. —Waldhorn (talk) 06:30, 20 April 2015 (UTC)

 * Throughout the article, there is an ongoing uncertainty as to precisely WHEN a building 'crosses over' from being merely eccentric to becoming a folly.Pincrete (talk) 08:43, 20 April 2015 (UTC)

 * Yes, the Pompejanum seems to be one of those borderline cases, which is why I thought I'd ask for other people's opinions first, rather than simply adding a new entry. I'm not sure how easy it is to find relevant information about the different buildings online, but the locals are very proud of their history; so I'm sure that if I manage to get in touch with the right person, they'd be happy to help. Just hoping that my German is still up to scratch after all those years! :) Cosmillogica (talk) 15:31, 20 April 2015 (UTC)

 * Cosmillogica, to be honest, I don't know. In the past the article emphasised that there should be NO practical purpose, this would exclude many buildings currently listed. The present wording is less rigid, but still not consistently applied. The lede itself says that ultimately the judgement is subjective.Pincrete (talk) 14:15, 21 April 2015 (UTC)

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Requested move 24 February 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved per consensus. — usernamekiran (talk)  05:51, 4 March 2018 (UTC)

– Most book results refer to the use of the word "folly" as it refers to the subject at Foolishness; when looking up "folly", directing readers to the article about the building is a WP:SURPRISE. I propose that the disambiguation page be moved to the base title so that readers can decide for themselves which topic they are attempting to locate. (In addition, I chose the disambiguator "(building)" for the move location due to precedence used in Church (building).) Steel1943  (talk) 20:02, 24 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Folly → Folly (building)
 * Folly (disambiguation) → Folly
 * Support per nom. The building as primary topic is a surprise, good find. Randy Kryn (talk) 21:38, 24 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The building type is the clear primary topic and dwarfs everything else in terms of traffic. I would support an additional link to foolishness in the hatnote. —Xezbeth (talk) 08:07, 25 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Support Erasmus. In ictu oculi (talk) 09:35, 25 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose, per Xezbeth, in encyc terms and traffic, the building is the primary topic. Whilst in ordinary usage "vain foolishness" may be more common, few readers are going to want to have "foolishness" explained to them. The same outcome would be achieved by a hatnote as suggested by Xezbeth above. I am actually surprised that the building type is not primary topic for "church", I would have thought that the building type dwarfs all other uses of the term (a specific denomination, the whole body of believers etc.). Pincrete (talk) 15:08, 25 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose the ambiguity usually disappears in normal prose with the presence or not of an article, which our disam setup does not really allow for. Nonetheless, I think things should remain as they are. Apparently only 29 people a day want to find out about foolishness in an encyclopedia (I mean almost any page on the web will do), while this gets 475. Johnbod (talk) 18:37, 25 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose is this another British English American English difference (like Cricket)? Many words have two meanings. One that belongs on Wiktionary (folly) an another Folly on Wikipedia. Wikipedia is not a dictionary so dictionary definition should be placed on Wiktionary and folly as in foolishness is a good example. -- PBS (talk) 17:26, 27 February 2018 (UTC)
 * No it isn't. I'm British and I support the nomination. -- Necrothesp (talk) 15:05, 28 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose the building is the primary use. Mnemonyx (talk) 07:05, 28 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. Even as an aficionado of architectural history, I'd dispute that the architectural sense is the primary meaning. -- Necrothesp (talk) 15:04, 28 February 2018 (UTC)
 * I don't think anyone thinks that the primary meaning is the building (ie the building type would almost certainly NOT be the first entry in a dictionary), but 'foolishness' is barely an encyclopaedic topic at all whereas the building type certainly IS, and is consulted by readers. Pincrete (talk) 20:50, 28 February 2018 (UTC)

 * Oppose Per Xezbeth.--Yaksar (let's chat) 03:30, 1 March 2018 (UTC)

 * Oppose per WP:NOTDICT. —  AjaxSmack  01:00, 4 March 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Palais idéal
Fellow wikipedias, I have just included the very extraordinary structure, the Palais idéal built by the French postman, known as Facteur Cheval. It may not fit in to all the criteria met by the other listed "follies". It does however have no practical purpose: it cannot be lived in. Moreover it is considered as an example of striking naive architecture. If you think it should be removed, I would not object, but would think it a shame. What do people think?--Po Mieczu (talk) 23:57, 9 June 2019 (UTC)

Are Namibia's castles follies?
Duwisib Castle etc … do they qualify? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.17.149.57 (talk) 10:06, 25 May 2020 (UTC)

 * No, as they served other practical functions, namely as forts, barracks, or purpose built residential structures. -- Katan gais (talk) 15:06, 27 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Agree. Certainly they are practical & functional - merely having a fancy design is not enough. Johnbod (talk) 16:06, 27 May 2020 (UTC)

Iowa's Grotto of Redemption
Grotto of the Redemption Does this count? If it does feel free to add it yourself. Xannon (talk) 09:01, 25 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Xannon, this probably wouldn't meet the definition as it has practical purposes (albeit religious ones). The usual definition is that there should be no practical purpose, or a very minimal one disproportionate to the elaborate design (a mock Roman villa/mock medieval ruin serving only as a sun-shelter or garden tool-shed for example). But mainly we need sources describing something as a folly. Pincrete (talk) 11:14, 25 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Folly


text:
Wild River (film)

Wild River is a 1960 American drama film directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Montgomery Clift, Lee Remick and Jo Van Fleet. It was filmed in the Tennessee Valley, and was adapted by Paul Osborn from two novels: Borden Deal's Dunbar's Cove and William Bradford Huie's Mud on the Stars, drawing for plot from Deal's story of a battle of wills between the nascent Tennessee Valley Authority and generations-old land owners, and from Huie's study of a rural Southern matriarchal family for characters and their reaction to destruction of their land, and the controversial employment of African-American laborers by the TVA. It marked Bruce Dern's film debut. The film was selected for National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 2002.

Plot
In 1937, Chuck Glover (Montgomery Clift), the new head of the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA) land purchasing office, arrives in Garthville, Tennessee, a town located upstream from a new hydroelectric dam.

Glover is supervising the clearing of the land to be flooded. His first need is to acquire Garth Island on the Tennessee River. Elderly Ella Garth (Jo Van Fleet), matriarch of a large family that has lived on the island for decades, refuses to sell. To avoid bad publicity, the TVA wants to acquire the island without force.

Clearing the land is behind schedule because the mayor uses only white labor. Chuck goes to Garth Island, but Ella and the other Garth women, including Ella's granddaughter Carol Baldwin (Lee Remick), ignore him. Glover tries reasoning with Ella's three adult sons, Hamilton (Jay C. Flippen), Cal (James Westerfield), and Joe John (Big Joe Bess in an uncredited role), but relocating means their having to work for a living.

Chuck is forced to leave, but Hamilton later invites him back to speak with Ella. Chuck finds Ella criticizing President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal to her black farm hands and their families. Chuck stresses the benefits the dam will bring, but Ella denounces dams and the taming of rivers as going "against nature." Ella then shows Chuck the family cemetery on the island's highest point.

Chuck learns that Carol is a widow with two small children. She returned to the island after her husband died. She is expected to marry Walter Clark (Frank Overton), a businessman in town. Chuck advises her against marrying if she does not love him. He then addresses the farmhands about working for the TVA, reasoning their leaving the island will force Ella to sell. Carol invites Chuck to her former home off the island. They spend the night together and are soon falling in love.

The mayor opposes Chuck's hiring "colored labor", saying it will cause problems with white workers. Chuck is urged to create segregated work gangs and pay black workers less. Chuck refuses despite receiving veiled threats.

Carol and Chuck spend another night together, unaware that Walter Clark has seen them. The next morning Ella's workers and their families leave the island. Ella remains alone except for her field hand, Sam, who loyally refuses to go. Ella knows about Carol and Chuck. When Carol begs her grandmother to stay at her house, she orders her off the island.

R. J. Bailey (Albert Salmi), a cotton farmer whose black sharecroppers are quitting to work for the TVA, agrees to help scare Chuck from seeing Carol. Walter lures Chuck to his hotel room where Bailey is waiting. After Chuck treats him decently regarding their rivalry for Carol, Walter warns Chuck about Bailey.

Bailey, awaiting with his shotgun in Chuck's hotel room, tells Chuck a story. It seems that one of Bailey's workers left his employ as a sharecropper to work for the TVA for $5 per day, as opposed to the $2 per day he made working for Bailey. Infuriated, Bailey found a stick of wood about two inches thick, kidnapped the worker, brought him back to his farm, and beat him senseless. The employee, now realizing he is enslaved to Bailey, cannot return to the fields for two days, as he recovers from the beating.

For the aforementioned trouble Chuck caused him, Bailey states that Chuck owes him $4, for the $2 per day in value of lost labor due to the recovery time of the employee. When Chuck refuses, Bailey beats him and takes the money.

Soon after, Chuck and Walter go to the island to see Ella. Chuck admits misunderstanding her fight to protect her dignity. The following day, Chuck learns that the dam's flood gates will be closed in a few days and Ella must be evicted immediately.

Chuck rejects Hamilton and Cal's idea to have Ella declared legally incompetent so they can sell the land. He reluctantly asks the U.S. marshal to remove Ella the next day, then goes to the island in a final attempt to persuade her to voluntarily leave. She refuses.

Carol wants to go with Chuck when he moves on to his next assignment, though he remains unsure. Walter arrives to warn them that Bailey and his men are coming to terrorize them.

While the local sheriff stands aside, believing the good ol' boys are harmless, the thugs shoot out a window, overturn Chuck's car, and drive Walter's truck into the side of the house. Refusing to be driven off, Chuck confronts Bailey, but is knocked unconscious. Only then, the sheriff runs off the thugs.

Chuck and Carol marry. The next day, with Chuck and Carol present, Ella is evicted from the island as her former workers fell the trees. At her new home, Ella sits on the porch, refusing to speak.

Soon after, Carol tells Chuck that Ella just died. Before leaving the valley, Chuck and Carol join her family and former workers to bury Ella in the family plot, the only part of Garth Island above water in the new lake.

Cast

 * Montgomery Clift as Chuck Glover
 * Lee Remick as Carol Garth Baldwin
 * Jo Van Fleet as Ella Garth
 * Albert Salmi as R.J. Bailey
 * Jay C. Flippen as Hamilton Garth
 * James Westerfield as Cal Garth
 * Barbara Loden as Betty Jackson
 * Frank Overton as Walter Clark
 * Malcolm Atterbury as Sy Moore
 * Bruce Dern as Jack Roper (uncredited)
 * Robert Earl Jones as Sam Johnson (uncredited)

Production
A script was written by Ben Maddow but he refused credit because none of it was used in the final film.

Coon Denton Island on the Hiwassee River, in northern Bradley County, Tennessee, upriver from Charleston, served as the fictional Garth Island, and the city of Charleston's old business district served as the fictional city of Garthville. A peninsula northwest of Cleveland, Tennessee, on Chickamauga Lake, was used, and a studio for interior shooting was created in the Cleveland armory. A few other locations in rural Bradley County near Charleston were also used. Principal photography began on October 19, 1959. On January 3, 1960, Kazan left for his New York home, and filming was completed over the following week.

Preservation
The film was preserved by the Academy Film Archive.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wild River (film)


text:
Tulane University

Tulane University, officially the Tulane University of Louisiana, is a private research university in New Orleans, Louisiana. Founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 by a cohort of medical doctors, it became a comprehensive public university in the University of Louisiana in 1847. The institution became private under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884 and 1887. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are, respectively, the 12th oldest law school and 15th oldest medical school in the United States.

Tulane has been a member of the Association of American Universities since 1958 and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Alumni include twelve governors of Louisiana; one Chief Justice of the United States; various members of Congress, including a Speaker of the U.S. House; two Surgeon Generals of the United States; 23 Marshall Scholars; 18 Rhodes Scholars; 15 Truman Scholars; 155 Fulbright Scholars; four living billionaires; and a former President of Costa Rica. Two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university.

Founding and early history – 19th century
The university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became the second medical school in the South, and the 15th in the United States at the time. In 1847, the state legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university, and the law department was added to the university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department. The first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopal priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time.

The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War. After reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nation's economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a prospering dry goods and clothing business, donated extensive real estate within New Orleans for the support of education. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund (TEF), whose board of administrators sought to support the University of Louisiana instead of establishing a new university. In response, through the influence of former Confederate general Randall Lee Gibson, the Louisiana state legislature transferred control of the University of Louisiana to the administrators of the TEF in 1884. This act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a state public institution to a private one.

Paul Tulane's endowment to the school specified that the institution could only admit white students, and Louisiana law passed in 1884 reiterated this condition.

In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane. He had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lee's death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University in 1880.

In 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, led to the establishment of the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College within Tulane University. Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would later become the School of Engineering. In the same year, the university moved to its present-day uptown campus on historic St. Charles Avenue, five miles (8 km) by streetcar from downtown New Orleans.

20th century
With the improvements to Tulane University in the late 19th century, Tulane had a firm foundation to build upon as the premier university of the Deep South and continued the legacy with growth in the 20th century. During 1907, the school established a four-year professional curriculum in architecture through the College of Technology, growing eventually into the Tulane School of Architecture. One year later, Schools of Dentistry and Pharmacy were established, albeit temporarily. The School of Dentistry ended in 1928, and Pharmacy six years later. In 1914, Tulane established a College of Commerce, the first business school in the South. In 1925, Tulane established the independent Graduate School. Two years later, the university set up a School of Social Work, also the first in the southern United States. Tulane was instrumental in promoting the arts in New Orleans and the South in establishing the Newcomb School of Art with William Woodward as director, thus establishing the renowned Newcomb Pottery. The Middle American Research Institute was established in 1925 at Tulane "for the purpose of advanced research into the history (both Indian and colonial), archaeology, tropical botany (both economic and medical), the natural resources and products, of the countries facing New Orleans across the waters to the south; to gather, index and disseminate data thereupon; and to aid in the upbuilding of the best commercial and friendly relations between these Trans-Caribbean peoples and the United States."

University College was established in 1942 as Tulane's division of continuing education. By 1950, the School of Architecture had grown out of Engineering into an independent school. In 1958, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities, an organization consisting of 62 of the leading research universities in North America. The School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine again became independent from the School of Medicine in 1967. It was established in 1912. Tulane's School of Tropical Medicine also remains the only one of its kind in the country. On April 23, 1975, US President Gerald Ford spoke at Tulane University's Fogelman Arena at the invitation of F. Edward Hebert, the US representative of Louisiana's 1st Congressional District. During the historic speech, Ford announced that the Vietnam War was "finished as far as America is concerned" one week before the fall of Saigon. Ford drew parallels to the Battle of New Orleans and said that such positive activity could do for America's morale what the battle did in 1815.

During World War II, Tulane was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.

In 1963, Tulane enrolled its first African American students. In 1990, Rhonda Goode-Douglas, alongside other black, female students, founded the first African American sorority in Tulane's history, AKA Omicron Psi. A detailed account of the history of Tulane University from its founding through 1965 was published by Dyer.

21st century
In July 2004, Tulane received two $30 million donations to its endowment, the largest individual or combined gifts in the university's history. The donations came from James H. Clark, a member of the university's board of trustees and founder of Netscape, and David Filo, a graduate of its School of Engineering and co-founder of Yahoo!. A fund-raising campaign called "Promise & Distinction" raised $730.6 million by October 3, 2008, increasing the university's total endowment to more than $1.1 billion; by March 2009, Yvette Jones, Tulane's Chief Operating Officer, told Tulane's Staff Advisory Council that the endowment "has lost close to 37%", affected by the Great Recession. In 2021, Tulane had to evacuate all students and close down for a month due to damage from Hurricane Ida. No classes took place for two weeks, then there were virtual classes for the remaining two weeks.

Hurricane Katrina
As a result of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 and its damaging effects on New Orleans, most of the university was closed for the second time in its history—the first being during the Civil War. The closing affected the first semester of the school calendar year. The School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine's distance learning programs and courses stayed active. The School of Medicine relocated to Houston, Texas for a year. Aside from student-athletes attending college classes together on the same campuses, most undergraduate and graduate students dispersed to campuses throughout the U.S. The storm inflicted more than $650 million in damages to the university, with some of the greatest losses impacting the Howard-Tilton Memorial Library and its collections.

Facing a budget shortfall, the Board of Administrators announced a "Renewal Plan" in December 2005 to reduce its annual operating budget and create a "student-centric" campus. Addressing the school's commitment to New Orleans, a course credit involving service learning became a requirement for an undergraduate degree. In 2006 Tulane became the first Carnegie ranked "high research activity" institution to have an undergraduate public service graduation requirement. In May 2006, graduation ceremonies included commencement speakers former Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton, who commended the students for their desire to return to Tulane and serve New Orleans in its renewal.

Uptown
Tulane's primary campus is located in Uptown New Orleans on St. Charles Avenue, directly opposite Audubon Park, and extends north to South Claiborne Avenue through Freret and Willow Street. The campus is known colloquially as the Uptown or St. Charles campus. It was established in the 1890s and occupies more than 110 acre of land. The campus is known both for its large live oak trees as well as its architecturally historic buildings. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1978. The campus architecture consists of several styles, including Richardsonian Romanesque, Elizabethan, Italian Renaissance, Mid-Century Modern, and contemporary styles. The front campus buildings use Indiana White Limestone or orange brick for exteriors, while the middle campus buildings are mostly adorned in red St. Joe brick, the staple of Newcomb College Campus buildings. Loyola University is directly adjacent to Tulane, on the downriver side. Audubon Place, where the President of Tulane resides, is on the upriver side. The President's residence is the former home of "banana king" Sam Zemurray, who donated it in his will.

The centerpiece of the Gibson Quad is the first academic building built on campus, Gibson Hall, in 1894. The School of Architecture is also located on the oldest section of the campus, occupying the Richardson Memorial Building. The middle of the campus, between Feret and Willow Streets, and bisected by McAlister Place and Newcomb Place, serves as the center of campus activities. The Lavin-Bernick Center for University Life, Devlin Fieldhouse, McAlister Auditorium, Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, and most of the student residence halls and academic buildings populate the center of campus.

The Howard-Tilton Memorial Library is located on Freret Street. It was under construction from 2013 to 2016, but it now has two additional floors, as well as a Rare Books room. The facilities for the Freeman School of Business line McAlister Place and sit next to the Tulane University Law School. The center of campus is also home to the historic Newcomb College Campus, which sits between Newcomb Place and Broadway. The Newcomb campus was designed by New York architect James Gamble Rogers, noted for his work with Yale University's campus. The Newcomb campus is home to Tulane's performing and fine arts venues.

The back of campus, between Willow Street and South Claiborne, is home to two residence halls (Aron Residences and Décou-Labat Residences), Reily Recreation Center, and Turchin Stadium, and in January 2013, ground was broken on Tulane's Yulman Stadium between Reily Recreation Center and Turchin Stadium. Tulane Green Wave football had played in the Mercedes-Benz Superdome since Tulane Stadium's demolition in 1980. They now play in Yulman Stadium, which opened in September 2014.

After Hurricane Katrina, Tulane has continued to build new facilities and renovate old spaces on its campus. The newest dorm buildings, Lake and River Residence Halls, were completed in 2023 following the demolition of Phelps Hall and Irby Hall. Weatherhead Hall was completed in 2011, and it now houses sophomore students. Construction on Greenbaum House, a Residential College in the Newcomb Campus area, began in January 2013 and was completed by Summer 2014. The Lallage Feazel Wall Residential College was completed in August 2005 and took in its first students when Tulane re-opened in January 2006. Usually an honors dorm, Wall began accommodating students of all academic standings during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lavin-Bernick Center for University Life (LBC) was renovated to be a green, environmentally friendly building and opened for student use in January 2007. In 2009, the university altered McAlister Drive, a street that ran through the middle of the uptown campus into a pedestrian walkway renamed McAlister Place. The area was resurfaced, and the newly added green spaces were adorned with Japanese magnolias, irises and new lighting. In late November 2008 the City of New Orleans announced plans to add bicycle lanes to the St. Charles Avenue corridor that runs in front of campus.

In 2019, a new student space located in the middle of the uptown campus, The Malkin Sacks Commons, was opened by President Mike Fitts. The Commons is the central dining area on campus. Catering to most dietary restrictions, The Commons directly connects to the Lavin-Bernick Center on the second floor, and on its third floor houses the Newcomb Institute.

Graduate housing
There is one graduate housing complex for Tulane University, Bertie M. and John W. Deming Pavilion, in the Downtown Campus. it is not operated by the university's Department of Housing and Residence Life.

There were previously two other complexes:
 * Global Collective, a graduate student housing complex on the Uptown campus of Tulane university operated by the university's Department of Housing and Residence Life
 * Papillon Apartments, an apartment complex in the Lower Garden District operated by the university's Department of Housing and Residence Life for graduate students and their families. It was managed by HRI Properties. The university acquired the building circa 2005, which previously served as an apartment for people unaffiliated with the university. The university initially paid the taxes for the apartments of legacy non-Tulane residents but began charging the taxes to these tenants in 2013. In June 2016 the university announced it would not renew the leases of the non-Tulane tenants.

Other campuses

 * Tulane University Health Sciences campus is located in the downtown New Orleans Central Business District between the Mercedes-Benz Superdome and Canal Street in 18 mid/high-rise buildings, which house the School of Medicine, the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and the main campus of the Tulane Medical Center. In addition to medical and public health education, the Health Sciences campus is the central location for biomedical research. Students and faculty from the Health Sciences campus are also involved in community-wide health promotion, such as community health fairs and distributing condoms to address the high rate of STIs in New Orleans. In 2014, the Tulane School of Social Work relocated from the Uptown campus to the Health Sciences campus, with facilities located in a renovated historic building on Elk Place;
 * Tulane University Square, 80000 sqft of space and 6 acre of surrounding land, is located on Broadway and Leake Avenue adjacent to the Mississippi River.
 * Tulane National Primate Research Center in Covington, La., one of eight such centers funded by the National Institutes of Health;
 * F. Edward Hebert Research Center, near Belle Chasse, La., which provides facilities for graduate training and research in computer science, bioengineering, and biology;
 * Satellite campuses of the School of Continuing Studies, Tulane's open admissions school of continuing studies, located in downtown New Orleans, in Elmwood, Louisiana, and in Biloxi, Mississippi. From 2010 to 2017 Tulane also operated a satellite campus in Madison, Mississippi.
 * Cali, Colombia; Santiago, Chile; Shanghai, China; and Taipei, Taiwan where the business school offers an executive MBA program. Tulane also has signed an educational affiliation agreement with International University in Geneva.
 * Tulane Law School offers classes through a European summer abroad program, utilizing many prestigious universities throughout several countries. In 2009, the school had programs in England, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, and the Netherlands.

Environmental sustainability
Tulane hosted an Environmental Summit at its law school in April 2009, an event that all students could attend for free. Many students from Tulane's two active environmental groups, Green Club and Environmental Law Society, attended. These student groups push for global citizenship and environmental stewardship on campus. In 2007 Tulane made a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10%, getting students involved by providing an Energy Smart Shopping Guide and electronics "greening" services from IT. In 2010 Tulane completed its renovation of 88-year-old Dinwiddie Hall, which was subsequently LEED Gold certified. A new residential college, Weatherhead Hall, opened in 2011 as housing for sophomore honors students. The residence has also applied for LEED Gold certification. Tulane received an "A−" on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card, garnering an award as one of the top 52 most sustainable colleges in the country.

Organization
Tulane University, as a private institution, has been governed since 1884 by the Board of Tulane (also known as the Board of Administrators of the Tulane Educational Fund) that was established in 1882. There have been 15 presidents of Tulane since then. The board comprises more than 30 regular members (plus several members emeriti) and the university president. In 2008, Tulane became one of 76 U.S. colleges and the only Louisiana college to maintain an endowment above $1 billion.

Schools and divisions
Tulane is organized into 10 schools centered around liberal arts, sciences, and specialized professions. All undergraduate students are enrolled in the Newcomb-Tulane College. The graduate programs are governed by the individual schools. Newcomb-Tulane College serves as an administrative center for all aspects of undergraduate life at Tulane, while individual schools direct specific courses of study.
 * The first architecture courses at Tulane leading to an architectural engineering degree were offered in 1894. After beginning as part of the College of Technology, the Tulane School of Architecture was separately formed as a school in 1953.
 * The A.B. Freeman School of Business was named in honor of Alfred Bird Freeman, former chair of the Louisiana Coca-Cola Bottling Co. and a prominent New Orleans philanthropist and civic leader. The business school is ranked 44th nationally and 28th among programs at private universities by Forbes magazine. U.S. News & World Report's Best Graduate Schools 2015 edition ranked the MBA program 63rd overall.

 * The Tulane University Law School, established in 1847, is the 12th oldest law school in the United States. In 1990, it became the first law school in the United States to mandate pro bono work as a graduation requirement. U.S. News & World Report's 2015 edition ranked the School of Law 46th overall and 6th in environmental law, while the 2022 edition ranked the School of Law 60th overall. "The Law School 100" ranks Tulane as 34th, relying on a qualitative (rather than quantitative) assessment. The 2010 Leiter law-school rankings put Tulane at 38th, based on student quality, using LSAT and GPA data. The Hylton law-school rankings, conducted in 2006, put Tulane at 39th. The school's maritime law program is widely considered to be the best in the United States, with the Tulane Maritime Law Journal being the paramount admiralty law journal of the country. In May 2007, Tulane Law announced a Strategic Plan to increase student selectivity by gradually reducing the incoming JD class size from a historical average of 350 students per year to a target of 250 students per year within several years.
 * The School of Liberal Arts encompasses 16 departments and 19 interdisciplinary programs in the social sciences, humanities, and fine and performing arts—including 50 undergraduate majors and two dozen M.A., M.F.A., and Ph.D. programs—plus the Shakespeare Festival, Summer Lyric Theatre, Carroll Gallery, Tulane Marching Band, and the Middle America Research Institute. The School of Liberal Arts is the largest of Tulane's nine schools with the greatest number of enrolled students, faculty members, majors, minors, and graduate programs. Tulane School of Medicine.JPG
 * The Tulane University School of Medicine was founded in 1834 and is the 15th oldest medical school in the United States. Faculty have been noted for innovation. For example, in 1850 J. Lawrence Smith invented the inverted microscope. In the following year John Leonard Riddell invented the first practical microscope to allow binocular viewing through a single objective lens. In 2001 the Tulane Center for Gene Therapy started as the first major center in the U.S. to focus on research using adult stem cells. The school has highly selective admissions, accepting only 175 medical students from more than 10,000 applications. It comprises 20 academic departments.
 * The Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is the first public health school established in the U.S. Although a program in hygiene was initiated in 1881, the School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine was not established until 1912 as a separate entity from the College of Medicine. In 1919 the separate school ceased to be an independent unit and was merged with the College of Medicine. By 1967 the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine reestablished as a separate academic unit of Tulane. In the fall of 2006, the School of Public Health began admitting undergraduate students.
 * The Tulane University School of Science and Engineering was established in 2005.
 * In 1914 the Southern School of Social Sciences and Public Services was the first training program for social workers in the Deep South. By 1927 the school became a separate program with a two-year Master of Arts. The Tulane University School of Social Work has awarded the master of social work degrees to more than 4,700 students from all 50 of the United States and more than 30 other countries.
 * Tulane offers continuing education courses and associate's and bachelor's degrees through the Tulane School of Professional Advancement.
 * Tulane has several academic and research institutes and centers including The Murphy Institute, Newcomb College Center for Research on Women, The Roger Thayer Stone Center for Latin American Studies, the Middle American Research Institute, and the law school's Payson Center for International Development.

Core curriculum
As part of the post-Hurricane Katrina Renewal Plan, the university initiated an extensive university-wide core curriculum. Several major elements of the university core include freshman seminars called TIDES classes, a two-tier writing course sequence, and a two-tier course sequence for public service. Many other course requirements of the core curriculum can be certified through Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) exam scores, or placement exams in English and foreign languages offered by the university before course registration. Some schools' core requirements differ (e.g., students in the School of Science and Engineering are required to take fewer language classes than students in the School of Liberal Arts).

Research
Tulane was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1958. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and had research expenditure of $193.3 million in fiscal year 2018.

In 2008, Tulane was ranked by the Ford Foundation as the major international studies research institution in the South and one of the top 15 nationally. The National Institutes of Health ranks funding to Tulane at 79th. The university is home to various research centers, including the Amistad Research Center.
 * Fulbright Scholars: 155
 * Rhodes Scholars: 17
 * Marshall Scholars: 23
 * Goldwater Scholars: 31
 * Truman Scholars: 13
 * National Science Foundation Fellows: 33

Rankings
Overall university rankings and ratings include:
 * One of 195 U.S. universities recognized by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching with a "community engagement" classification.
 * The 2023 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked Tulane tied for 73rd among U.S. national universities. In addition, U.S. News & World Report ranked Tulane tied for 58th "Most Innovative", tied for 62nd in "Best Undergraduate Teaching", and 114th for "Best Value" among national universities.
 * Tulane held multiple rankings from The Princeton Review in 2023: Best Quality of Life (#7), Best-Run Colleges (#22), Happiest Students (#1), Lots of Beer (#4), Lots of Hard Liquor (#5), Most Engaged in Community Service (#2), Their Students Love These Colleges (#6).
 * Forbes magazine ranked Tulane 106th in 2019 out of 650 U.S. universities, colleges and service academies.

Admissions
According to U.S. News & World Report Tulane is deemed a "Most Selective" university. Tulane is the only institution in Louisiana to have that distinction. The school accepts the Common Application for admission. Tulane has the second lowest percentage of Pell Grant recipients in the United States, only after Fairfield University. It is need-blind for domestic applicants.

The Office of Undergraduate Admission received over 43,000 applications for fall 2022 — over a 21 percent increase over the last five years. The acceptance rate for the class of 2026 was 8.4 percent. The yield rate was 52 percent. Among freshman students who committed to enroll in Fall 2022, the average converted SAT score was 1474. Composite ACT scores for the middle 50% ranged from 31 to 34.

Honors program admissions
The most impressive incoming undergraduate students are invited to join the honors program by the Office of Admission. Incoming freshmen who did not receive an invitation are allowed to apply for one after completing their first semester with at least a 3.8 cumulative GPA. To remain in good standing with the honors program, honors students are required to maintain at least a 3.8 cumulative GPA and enroll in honors classes their first year in the program. Honors students have access to special privileges and learning opportunities on campus.

In 2021, the Newcomb-Tulane College (NTC) created programming for First Year Honors Scholars and phased out its honors program. Many of the components of the honors program have been incorporated into other NTC programs.

Scholarships
The Dean's Honor Scholarship is a merit-based scholarship awarded by Tulane which covers full tuition for the duration of the recipient's undergraduate program. The scholarship is offered to between 75 and 100 incoming freshmen by the Office of Undergraduate Admission and is awarded only through a separate application. This scholarship is renewable provided that the recipient maintains a minimum 3.0 GPA at the end of each semester and maintains continuous enrollment in a full-time undergraduate division. Typically, recipients have SAT I score of 1450 or higher or an ACT composite score of 33 or higher, rank in the top 5% of their high school graduating class, have a rigorous course load including honors and Advanced Placement classes, and an outstanding record of extracurricular activities. Notable recipients include Sean M. Berkowitz and David Filo.

Beginning in 2014, Tulane has partnered with the Stamps Family Charitable Foundation to offer the full-ride merit-based Stamps Leadership Scholarship, Tulane's most prestigious scholarship. Approximately 5 incoming students are awarded the Stamps Scholarship each year, and Tulane graduated its first class of Stamps Scholars in May 2018.

Student life
The student body of Tulane University is represented by the Associated Student Body (ASB). In 1998, the students of Tulane University voted by referendum to split the Associated Student Body (ASB) Senate into two separate houses, the Undergraduate Student Government (USG) and the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GAPSA). USG and GAPSA came together twice a semester to meet as the ASB Senate, where issues pertaining to the entire Tulane student body were discussed, presided over by the ASB President. However, starting in 2021, Tulane students and administrators collaborated to create a new student governance model. The USG was dissolved, and in its place, the Tulane Undergraduate Assembly (TUA) was formed.

Tulane maintains 3,600 beds in 14 residence halls on its uptown campus for undergraduate students. First year residence halls include Warren House, Sharp Hall, Monroe Hall, Paterson Hall, Josephine Louise Hall, Wall Hall, and Butler Hall. Sophomore residence halls include Aron Residences, Décou-Labat Residences, Greenbaum Hall, Lake Hall, River Hall, and Weatherhead Hall. Per the Renewal Plan instituted after Hurricane Katrina, Tulane requires all freshmen and sophomores to live on campus, except those who are from surrounding neighborhoods in New Orleans. Due to the increasing size of incoming classes, Tulane has allowed a small number of rising sophomores to reside off campus instead of being required to remain in campus housing. Housing is not guaranteed for juniors and seniors.

Student media
The Tulane Hullabaloo is the university's weekly student-run newspaper.

Athletics
Tulane competes in NCAA Division I as a member of the American Athletic Conference (The American). The university was a charter member of the Southeastern Conference, in which it competed until 1966. Just before leaving the SEC, it had notably become the first conference school to field a black athlete when Stephen Martin, who was on an academic scholarship, played on the baseball team in the 1966 season. Tulane, along with other academically oriented, private schools had considered forming the "Southern Ivy League" (Magnolia Conference) in the 1950s. Tulane's intercollegiate sports include football, baseball, men's and women's basketball, women's volleyball, men's and women's track, men's and women's tennis, and cross country, women's swimming and diving, women's tennis, women's golf, women's bowling, and women's beach volleyball. Tulane's graduation rate for its student-athletes consistently ranks among the top of Division I athletics programs.

Tulane Green Wave teams have seen moderate success over the years. The school's national championships have all come from men's tennis, with one team title in 1959 and multiple singles and doubles titles. The baseball team has won multiple conference titles, and in both 2001 and 2005, it finished with 56 wins and placed 5th at the College World Series. The women's basketball team has won multiple conference titles and gone to numerous NCAA tournaments. The women's volleyball team won the 2008 Conference USA Championship tournament. The Green Wave football team won the 2002 Hawaii Bowl, the 1970 Liberty Bowl, and the inaugural Sugar Bowl. In 1998 it went 12–0, winning the Liberty Bowl and finishing the season ranked 7th in the nation by the AP and 10th by the BCS. On January 2, 2023, Tulane beat a favored USC team in the Cotton Bowl, finishing the 2022 season with a 12–2 record.

Most administrative and athletic support facilities are located in the Wilson Athletic Center in the center of Tulane's athletic campus. The adjacent area was once home to Tulane Stadium, which seated more than 80,000 people, held three Super Bowls, was home to the New Orleans Saints, and gave rise to the Sugar Bowl. Home football games moved to the Mercedes-Benz Superdome when it opened in 1975, and Tulane Stadium was demolished in 1980. The university has committed to upgrading its athletic facilities in recent years, extensively renovating Turchin Stadium (baseball) in 2008, Fogelman Arena (now Devlin Fieldhouse; basketball and volleyball) in 2006 and 2012, and Goldring Tennis Center in 2008. The Hertz Center, a new practice facility for the basketball and volleyball teams that includes athletic training and strength and conditioning rooms, offices, film rooms, and lockers, opened in 2011. Tulane completed construction of Yulman Stadium in September 2014 and began using it for home football games that season.

Notable people
Tulane is home to many alumni who have contributed to both the arts and sciences and to the political and business realms. For example, from television: Jerry Springer and Ian Terry, from literature: John Kennedy Toole, Pulitzer Prize-winning author of A Confederacy of Dunces, Shirley Ann Grau, Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winner, and conservative journalist Andrew Breitbart, who later criticized his education at Tulane for what he perceived as its inadequacy; from business: David Filo, co-founder of Yahoo!, Ashley Biden, daughter of Jill Biden and Joseph R. Biden and Neil Bush, economist and brother of President George W. Bush; from entertainment: Lauren Hutton, film actor and supermodel, and Paul Michael Glaser, TV actor of "Starsky and Hutch"; from fine arts: Sergio Rossetti Morosini, artist and conservator, and internationally renowned glass artist Mitchell Gaudet; from music: conductor and composer Odaline de la Martinez, who was the first woman to conduct at a BBC Proms concert in London; from government: Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the House who famously coordinated the first Congressional Republican majority in 40 years, Perry Chen, founder of Kickstarter and Luther Terry, former U.S. Surgeon General who issued the first official health hazard warning for tobacco; from medicine: Michael DeBakey and Dr. Regina Benjamin, President Obama's Surgeon General; from science A. Baldwin Wood, inventor of the wood screw pump and Lisa P. Jackson, United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administrator under President Obama; from sports: Bobby Brown, former New York Yankees third baseman and former president of the American League. A former graduate residence hall on campus was also named for Engineering graduate Harold Rosen, who invented the geosynchronous communications satellite. Douglas G. Hurley, NASA astronaut and pilot of mission STS-127, became the first alumnus to travel in outer space in July 2009.

Tulane also hosted several prominent faculty, such as two members who each won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Louis J. Ignarro and Andrew V. Schally. Other notables such as Rudolph Matas, "father of vascular surgery" and George E. Burch, inventor of the phlebomanometer in medicine, also were on faculty at Tulane. Five U.S. Supreme Court Justices have taught at Tulane, including Chief Justice William Rehnquist. Tulane has also hosted several prominent artists, most notably Mark Rothko, who was a Visiting Artist from 1956 to 1957. Currently on the faculty are Walter Isaacson, Nick Spitzer, Olawale Sulaiman and Melissa Harris-Perry.

Several football alumni played in the National Football League, including five-time NFL Champion Wide Receiver Max McGee, Mewelde Moore, Matt Forté, Troy Kropog, Dezman Moses, Cairo Santos (Chicago Bears) and Darnell Mooney (Chicago Bears).

Several baseball alumni played in the Major Leagues, including Brian Bogusevic (Chicago Cubs), Brandon Gomes (Tampa Bay Rays), Mark Hamilton (free agent), Aaron Loup (Toronto Blue Jays), Tommy Manzella (Colorado Rockies), Micah Owings (Washington Nationals), and J. P. France (Houston Astros).

Actor Harold Sylvester was the first African American to receive an athletic scholarship from Tulane. Turning down Harvard, he attended Tulane on a basketball scholarship and graduated in 1972 with a degree in theater and psychology.

Shalanda Young, who is an American political advisor who is the nominee to serve as deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in the Biden administration, graduated with her Masters in Health Administration.

In literature and media
Tulane has been portrayed in several books, television shows and films. Several movies have been filmed at the Uptown campus, especially since tax credits from the state of Louisiana began drawing more productions to New Orleans in the early 2000s. The Uptown campus has hosted two movie premieres from 2006 to 2007.

title: Tulane University


text:
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially ended the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). It was signed on 2 February 1848 in the town of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

After the defeat of its army and the fall of the capital in September 1847, Mexico entered into peace negotiations with the U.S. envoy, Nicholas Trist. The resulting treaty required Mexico to cede 55 percent of its territory including the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, and a small portion of Wyoming. Mexico also relinquished all claims for Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as the southern boundary of Texas.

In turn, the U.S. government paid Mexico $15 million "in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States" and agreed to pay debts owed to American citizens by the Mexican government. Mexicans in areas annexed by the U.S. could relocate within Mexico's new boundaries or receive American citizenship and full civil rights.

The United States ratified the treaty on 10 March and Mexico on 19 May. The ratifications were exchanged on 30 May, and the treaty was proclaimed on 4 July 1848.

The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The amount of land gained by the United States from Mexico was further increased due to the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, which ceded parts of present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico to the United States.

Negotiators
Nicholas Trist negotiated the peace talks; Trist, the chief clerk of the U.S. State Department, accompanied General Winfield Scott as a diplomat and President James K. Polk's representative. After two previous unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a treaty with General José Joaquín de Herrera, Trist and General Scott determined that the only way to deal with Mexico was as a conquered enemy. Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by José Bernardo Couto, Miguel de Atristain, and Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico.

Terms
Although Mexico ceded Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the text of the treaty did not list territories to be ceded and avoided the disputed issues that were causes of war: the validity of the 1836 revolution that established the Republic of Texas, Texas's boundary claims as far as the Rio Grande, and the right of the Republic of Texas to arrange the 1845 annexation of Texas by the United States.

Instead, Article V of the treaty described the new U.S.–Mexico border. From east to west, the border consisted of the Rio Grande northwest from its mouth to the point where it strikes the southern boundary of New Mexico (roughly 32 degrees north), as shown in the Disturnell map, then due west from this point to the 110th meridian west, then north along the 110th meridian to the Gila River and down the river to its mouth. Unlike the New Mexico segment of the boundary, which depended partly on unknown geography, "to preclude all difficulty in tracing upon the ground the limit separating Upper from Lower California", a straight line was drawn from the mouth of the Gila to one marine league south of the southernmost point of the port of San Diego, slightly north of the previous Mexican provincial boundary at Playas de Rosarito.

Comparing the boundary in the Adams–Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims and now has an area of 1,972,550 km2.

In the United States, the 1.36 e6km2 of the area between the Adams-Onis and Guadalupe Hidalgo boundaries outside the 1007935 km2 claimed by the Republic of Texas is known as the Mexican Cession. That is to say, the Mexican Cession is construed not to include any territory east of the Rio Grande, while the territorial claims of the Republic of Texas included no territory west of the Rio Grande. The Mexican Cession included essentially the entirety of the former Mexican territory of Alta California, but only the western portion of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, and includes all of present-day California, Nevada and Utah, most of Arizona, western portions of New Mexico and Colorado, and the southwestern corner of Wyoming.

Articles VIII and IX ensured the safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, land grants by the Mexican government to its citizens were often not honored by the United States because of unilateral modifications to and interpretations of the Treaty and U.S. legal decisions. Land disputes between the descendants of Mexican land owners and Anglo Americans continued into the 21st century. The United States also agreed to assume $3.25 million (equivalent to $ million today) in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens.

The residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship; over 90% chose American citizenship. The others moved to what remained of Mexico (where they received land) or, in some cases in New Mexico, were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens.

Article XII engaged the United States to pay, "In consideration of the extension acquired", 15 million dollars (equivalent to $ million today), in annual installments of 3 million dollars.

Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. It provided that the United States would prevent and punish raids by Indians into Mexico, prohibited Americans from acquiring property, including livestock, taken by the Indians in those raids, and stated that the United States would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war. This article promised relief to them.

Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U.S. presence near the Mexican border. Mexico filed 366 claims with the U.S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, Article XI was annulled.

Results
The land that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought into the United States became, between 1850 and 1912, all or part of nine states: California (1850), Nevada (1864), Utah (1896), and Arizona (1912), as well as, depending upon interpretation, the entire state of Texas (1845), which then included part of Kansas (1861); Colorado (1876); Wyoming (1890); Oklahoma (1907); and New Mexico (1912). The area of domain acquired was given by the Federal Interagency Committee as 338,680,960 acres. The cost was $16,295,149 or approximately 5 cents an acre. The remainder (the southern parts) of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase, the United States paid an additional $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) for land intended to accommodate a transcontinental railroad. However, the American Civil War delayed the construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed as a second transcontinental railroad, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition.

Background to the war
Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. The Spanish had conquered part of the area from the American Indian tribes over the preceding three centuries. Still, powerful and independent indigenous nations remained within that northern region of Mexico.

Most of that land was too dry and too mountainous to support a large population. About 80,000 Mexicans inhabited California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period 1845 to 1850, with far fewer in Nevada, southern and western Colorado, and Utah. On 1 March 1845, U.S. President John Tyler signed legislation to authorize the United States to annex the Republic of Texas, effective on 29 December 1845. The Mexican government, which had never recognized the Republic of Texas as an independent country, had warned that annexation would be viewed as an act of war. Both the United Kingdom and France recognized the Republic of Texas's independence and repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war against its northern neighbor. British efforts to mediate the quandary proved fruitless, in part because other political disputes (particularly the Oregon boundary dispute) arose between Great Britain (as the claimant of modern Canada) and the United States.

On 10 November 1845, before the outbreak of hostilities, President James K. Polk sent his envoy, John Slidell, to Mexico. Slidell had instructions to offer Mexico around $5 million for the territory of Nuevo México and up to $40 million for Alta California. The Mexican government dismissed Slidell, refusing to even meet with him. Earlier in that year, Mexico had broken off diplomatic relations with the United States, based partly on its interpretation of the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, under which newly independent Mexico claimed it had inherited rights. In that agreement, the United States had "renounced forever" all claims to Spanish territory.

Neither side took any further action to avoid a war. Meanwhile, Polk settled a major territorial dispute with Britain via the Oregon Treaty, which was signed on 15 June 1846. By avoiding any chance of conflict with Great Britain, the United States was given a free hand regarding Mexico. After the Thornton Affair of 25–26 April, when Mexican forces attacked an American unit in the disputed area, with the result that 11 Americans were killed, five wounded, and 49 captured, Congress passed a declaration of war, which Polk signed on 13 May 1846. The Mexican Congress responded with its own war declaration on 23 April 1846.

Conduct of war

U.S. forces quickly moved beyond Texas to conquer Alta California, and New Mexico. Fighting there ended on 13 January 1847 with the signing of the "Capitulation Agreement" at "Campo de Cahuenga" and the end of the Taos Revolt. By the middle of September 1847, U.S. forces had successfully invaded central Mexico and occupied Mexico City.

Peace negotiations
Some Eastern Democrats called for complete annexation of Mexico and recalled that a group of Mexico's leading citizens had invited General Winfield Scott to become dictator of Mexico after his capture of Mexico City (he declined). However, the movement did not draw widespread support. President Polk's State of the Union address in December 1847 upheld Mexican independence and argued at length that occupation and any further military operations in Mexico were aimed at securing a treaty ceding California and New Mexico up to approximately the 32nd parallel north and possibly Baja California and transit rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Despite several military defeats, the Mexican government was reluctant to agree to the loss of California and New Mexico. Even with its capital under enemy occupation, the Mexican government was inclined to consider factors such as the unwillingness of the U.S. administration to annex Mexico outright and what appeared to be deep divisions in domestic U.S. opinion regarding the war and its aims, which caused it to imagine that it was actually in a far better negotiating position than the military situation might have suggested. A further consideration was the growing opposition to slavery that had caused Mexico to end formal slavery in 1829 and its awareness of the well-known and growing sectional divide in the U.S. over the issue of slavery. It, therefore, made sense for Mexico to negotiate to play Northern U.S. interests against Southern U.S. interests.

The Mexicans proposed peace terms that offered only the sale of Alta California north of the 37th parallel north — north of Santa Cruz, California and Madera, California and the southern boundaries of today's Utah and Colorado. Anglo-American settlers already dominated this territory, but perhaps more importantly from the Mexican point of view, it represented the bulk of pre-war Mexican territory north of the Missouri Compromise line of parallel 36°30′ north — lands that, if annexed by the United States, would have been presumed by Northerners to be forever free of slavery. The Mexicans also offered to recognize the freedom of Texas from Mexican rule and its right to join the Union but held to its demand of the Nueces River as a boundary.

While the Mexican government could not reasonably have expected the Polk Administration to accept such terms, it would have had reason to hope that a rejection of peace terms so favorable to Northern interests might have the potential to provoke sectional conflict in the United States or perhaps even a civil war that would fatally undermine the U.S. military position in Mexico. Instead, these terms, combined with other Mexican demands (in particular, for various indemnities), only provoked widespread indignation throughout the United States without causing the sectional conflict the Mexicans hoped for.

Jefferson Davis advised Polk that if Mexico appointed commissioners to come to the United States, the government that appointed them would probably be overthrown before they completed their mission, and they would likely be shot as traitors on their return; so that the only hope of peace was to have a U.S. representative in Mexico. Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the State Department under President Polk, finally negotiated a treaty with the Mexican delegation after ignoring his recall by President Polk in frustration with the failure to secure a treaty. Notwithstanding that the treaty had been negotiated against his instructions, given its achievement of the major American aim, President Polk passed it on to the Senate.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed by Nicholas Trist (on behalf of the United States) and Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain as plenipotentiary representatives of Mexico on 2 February 1848 at the main altar of the old Basilica of Guadalupe at Villa Hidalgo (within the present city limits) as U.S. troops under the command of Gen. Winfield Scott were occupying Mexico City.

Debate in the American Congress
The version of the treaty ratified by the United States Senate eliminated Article X, which stated that the U.S. government would honor and guarantee all land grants awarded in lands ceded to the United States by those respective governments to citizens of Spain and Mexico. Article VIII guaranteed that Mexicans who remained more than one year in the ceded lands would automatically become full-fledged United States citizens (or they could declare their intention of remaining Mexican citizens); however, the Senate modified Article IX, changing the first paragraph and excluding the last two. Among the changes was that Mexican citizens would "be admitted at the proper time (to be judged of by the Congress of the United States)" instead of "admitted as soon as possible", as negotiated between Trist and the Mexican delegation.

An amendment by Jefferson Davis giving the United States most of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, all of Coahuila, and a large part of Chihuahua was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia and Ambrose Hundley Sevier were opposed, and the amendment was defeated 44–11.

An amendment by Whig Sen. George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35–15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.

A motion to insert into the treaty the Wilmot Proviso (banning slavery from the acquired territories) failed 15–38 on sectional lines.

The treaty was leaked to John Nugent before the U.S. Senate could approve it. Nugent published his article in the New York Herald and, afterward, was questioned by senators. He was detained in a Senate committee room for one month, though he continued to file articles for his newspaper and ate and slept at the home of the sergeant at arms. Nugent did not reveal his source, and senators eventually gave up their efforts.

The treaty was subsequently ratified by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on 10 March 1848 and by Mexico through a legislative vote of 51 to 34 and a Senate vote of 33 to 4, on 19 May 1848. News that New Mexico's legislative assembly had just passed an act for the organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico. The treaty was formally proclaimed on 4 July 1848.

Debate in the Mexican Congress
The Mexican Congress and President Manuel de la Peña y Peña met at Querétaro City in May, 1848 while Mexico City was occupied, and were now faced with the task of negotiating the treaty while dealing with separatism and anarchy spreading throughout the country. The Caste War was ongoing in Yucatán, and the insurgents in that conflict had occupied the major cities. Many states considered the federal government to be an enemy and refused to pay taxes. Meanwhile, most notably in the Federal District there was a Mexican element advocating annexation of the entire country to the United States.

The majority of congress supported the government's peace policy viewing in the Treaty of Guadalupe nothing but the unfortunate result of a poorly fought war, and viewed under this perspective as a national necessity. A foreign relations commission returned affirmative answers to two questions that congress had directed it to report upon: ''May the government with the consent of Congress cede a portion of territory? Is it suitable to make peace upon the terms which have been proposed?'' The first question was resolved based upon the principle that congress was the deposit of the national sovereignty. The second question was resolved upon the consideration that Mexico had never been in full possession of the territories that were about to be ceded, and that most of that land was either not populated, or populated by hostile indigenous tribes. It was also taken into account that Mexico could not continue the war without facing certain defeat and risking the loss of the entire country. After the commission reported its findings, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was approved by congress. President Peña y Peña prepared decrees to prevent disorder in the capital once the occupiers left and to establish a national guard. On 26 May 1848 the government received the commissioners Nathan Clifford and Ambrose Hundley Sevier who were in Mexico to negotiate the treaty after congress had approved it with some slight modifications.

Meanwhile, the President had to deal with guerilla warfare throughout the country afflicting both the American occupiers and Mexican merchants. The aim of the guerillas was to disrupt the American supply chain from Veracruz to the capital. This was also leading to indiscriminate American reprisals. As the peace treaty was concluded and the occupiers were on the point of leaving the country, congress named Jose Joaquin Herrera to the presidency of the republic, and Peña y Peña left his post as president in exchange for the presidency of the Supreme Court on 3 June 1848. The government left Querétaro and returned to the capital.

Protocol of Querétaro
On 30 May 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further negotiated a three-article protocol to explain the amendments. The first article stated that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants pursuant to Mexican law.

The protocol further noted that the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs had accepted said explanations on behalf of the Mexican Government, and was signed in Querétaro by A. H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford and Luis de la Rosa.

The United States would later ignore the protocol on the grounds that the U.S. representatives had over-reached their authority in agreeing to it.

Treaty of Mesilla
The Treaty of Mesilla, which concluded the Gadsden purchase of 1854, had significant implications for the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article II of the treaty annulled article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and article IV further annulled articles VI and VII of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article V, however, reaffirmed the property guarantees of Guadalupe Hidalgo, specifically those contained within articles VIII and IX.

Effects
In addition to the sale of land, the treaty also provided recognition of the Rio Grande as the boundary between the state of Texas and Mexico. The land boundaries were established by a survey team of appointed Mexican and American representatives, and published in three volumes as the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey. On 30 December 1853, the countries, by agreement, altered the border from the initial one by increasing the number of border markers from 6 to 53. Most of these markers were simply piles of stones. Two later conventions, in 1882 and 1889, further clarified the boundaries, as some of the markers had been moved or destroyed. Photographers were brought in to document the location of the markers. These photographs are in Record Group 77, Records of the Office of the Chief Engineers, in the National Archives.

The southern border of California was designated as a line from the junction of the Colorado and Gila rivers westward to the Pacific Ocean so that it passes one Spanish league south of the southernmost portion of San Diego Bay. This was done to ensure that the United States received San Diego and its excellent natural harbor.

The treaty extended the choice of U.S. citizenship to Mexicans in the newly purchased territories before many African Americans, Asians, and Native Americans were eligible. If they chose to, they had to declare to the U.S. government within a year of the Treaty being signed; otherwise, they could remain Mexican citizens, but they would have to relocate. Between 1850 and 1920, the U.S. Census counted most Mexicans as racially "white".

Community property rights in California and other western states are based on the Visigothic Code which Spain adopted and then brought to the Americas, including the former territories of Mexico that were ceded to the U.S. Although each state had different motivations for adopting the Spanish approach, one common driver was that it was already in place in the region for many years. Changing to a common law system for marital property "would have been nothing short of a revolution".

Land gained by the United States
The United States received the territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Today they comprise some or all of the U.S. states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. While this land was vast in area, most of it was very sparsely populated, inhabited mostly by indigenous Americans, rather than white Americans or Mexicans.

Additional issues
Disputes about whether to make all this new territory into free states or slave states contributed heavily to the rise in North–South tensions that led to the American Civil War just over a decade later.

Border disputes continued. Mexico's economic problems persisted, leading to the controversial Gadsden Purchase in 1854, intended to rectify an error in the original treaty, but led to Mexico demanding a large sum of money for the revision, which was paid. There was also William Walker's short-lived Republic of Lower California filibustering incident in that same year. The Channel Islands of California and Farallon Islands are not mentioned in the Treaty.

The border commission also faced many difficulties in mapping out the border, with the surveying process lasting over 7 years, due to the challenges of marking out a border in such a vast desolate territory and negotiating with indigenous Americans who had not been considered in the prior treaty negotiations.

The armed forces of both countries routinely crossed the border. Mexican and Confederate troops often clashed during the American Civil War, and the United States crossed the border during the war of Second French intervention in Mexico. In March 1916, Pancho Villa led a raid on the U.S. border town of Columbus, New Mexico, which was followed by the Pershing expedition. The shifting of the Rio Grande since the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe caused a dispute over the boundary between the states of New Mexico and Texas, a case referred to as the Country Club Dispute that was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1927. Controversy over community land grant claims in New Mexico persists to this day.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo led to the establishment in 1889 of the International Boundary and Water Commission to maintain the border and, according to newer treaties, to allocate river waters between the two nations and to provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades, the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, bypassed by modern social, environmental, and political issues.

Writing many years later, Nicholas Trist would describe the treaty as "a thing for every right-minded American to be ashamed of".

Sources and further reading

 * Morrison, Michael A. Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny (1999)
 * Pinheiro, John C. " 'Religion without Restriction': Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo." Journal of the Early Republic 23.1 (2003): 69–96. online
 * Sears, Louis Martin. "Nicholas P. Trist, A Diplomat with Ideals." Mississippi Valley Historical Review11#1 (1924): 85–98. online
 * Varg, Paul A. United States Foreign Relations, 1820-1860 (Michigan State UP, 1979) pp. 168–194.
 * Velazquez-Flores, Rafael. "Mexico's Foreign Policy in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Principled Pragmatism, 1821–1853." in Principled Pragmatism in Mexico's Foreign Policy: Variables and Assumptions (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022). 33–47.
 * Pinheiro, John C. " 'Religion without Restriction': Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo." Journal of the Early Republic 23.1 (2003): 69–96. online
 * Sears, Louis Martin. "Nicholas P. Trist, A Diplomat with Ideals." Mississippi Valley Historical Review11#1 (1924): 85–98. online
 * Varg, Paul A. United States Foreign Relations, 1820-1860 (Michigan State UP, 1979) pp. 168–194.
 * Velazquez-Flores, Rafael. "Mexico's Foreign Policy in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Principled Pragmatism, 1821–1853." in Principled Pragmatism in Mexico's Foreign Policy: Variables and Assumptions (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022). 33–47.
 * Varg, Paul A. United States Foreign Relations, 1820-1860 (Michigan State UP, 1979) pp. 168–194.
 * Velazquez-Flores, Rafael. "Mexico's Foreign Policy in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Principled Pragmatism, 1821–1853." in Principled Pragmatism in Mexico's Foreign Policy: Variables and Assumptions (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022). 33–47.

title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo