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Riesling

Riesling is a white grape variety that originated in the Rhine region. Riesling is an aromatic grape variety displaying flowery, almost perfumed, aromas as well as high acidity. It is used to make dry, semi-sweet, sweet, and sparkling white wines. Riesling wines are usually varietally pure and are seldom oaked. , Riesling was estimated to be the world's 20th most grown variety at 48700 ha (with an increasing trend), but in terms of importance for quality wines, it is usually included in the "top three" white wine varieties together with Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Riesling is a variety that is highly "terroir-expressive", meaning that the character of Riesling wines is greatly influenced by the wine's place of origin.

In cool climates (such as many German wine regions), Riesling wines tend to exhibit apple and tree fruit notes with noticeable levels of acidity that are sometimes balanced with residual sugar. A late-ripening variety that can develop more citrus and peach notes is grown in warmer climates (such as Alsace and parts of Austria). In Australia, Riesling is often noted for a characteristic lime note that tends to emerge in examples from the Clare Valley and Eden Valley in South Australia. Riesling's naturally high acidity and pronounced fruit flavors give wines made from the grape exceptional aging potential, with well-made examples from favorable vintages often developing smokey, honey notes, and aged German Rieslings, in particular, taking on a "petrol" character.

In 2015, Riesling was the most grown variety in Germany with 23.0% and 23596 ha, and in the French region of Alsace with 21.9% and 3350 ha. In Germany, the variety is particularly widely planted in the Mosel, Rheingau, Nahe and Pfalz wine regions. There are also significant plantings of Riesling in Austria, Slovenia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Luxembourg, northern Italy, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, China, Crimea, and the United States (Washington, California, Michigan, and New York).

History
Riesling has a long history, and there are several written references to the variety dating from the 15th century, although with varying orthography. The earliest of these references dates from March 13, 1435, when the storage inventory of Count John IV of Katzenelnbogen in Rüsselsheim (close to the Rheingau) lists "22 ß umb seczreben Rießlingen in die wingarten" ("22 shillings for Riesling vine cuttings for the vineyard"). The spelling Rießlingen is repeated in many other documents of the time. The modern spelling Riesling was first documented in 1552 when it was mentioned in Hieronymus Bock's Latin herbal.

A map of Kintzheim in Alsace from 1348 contains the text zu dem Russelinge, but it is not certain that this reference is to the grape variety. However, in 1477, Riesling was documented in Alsace under the spelling Rissling. In Wachau in Austria, there is a small stream and a small vineyard both called Ritzling, which are claimed locally to have given Riesling its name. However, there seems to be no documentary evidence to back this up, so this claim is not widely believed to be correct.

Parentage
Earlier, Riesling was sometimes claimed to have originated from wild vines of the Rhine region, without much support to back up that claim. More recently, DNA fingerprinting by Ferdinand Regner indicated that one parent of Riesling is Gouais blanc, known to the Germans as Weißer Heunisch, a variety that, while rare today, was widely grown by the French and German peasantry of the Middle Ages. The other parent is a cross between a wild vine and Traminer. It is presumed that the Riesling was born somewhere in the valley of the Rhine, since both Heunisch and Traminer have a long documented history in Germany, but with parents from either side of the Adriatic the cross could have happened anywhere on the way.

It has also been suggested, but not proved, that the red-skinned version of Riesling is the forerunner of the common, "white" Riesling. The genetic differences between white and red Riesling are minuscule, as is also the case between Pinot noir and Pinot gris.

Longevity

Riesling wines are often consumed when young, when they make a fruity and aromatic wine that may have aromas of green or other apples, grapefruit, peach, gooseberry, honey, rose blossom or cut green grass, and usually a crisp taste due to the high acidity. However, Riesling's naturally high acidity and range of flavours make it suitable for extended aging. International wine expert Michael Broadbent rates aged German Rieslings, some hundreds of years old, highly. Sweet Riesling wines, such as German Trockenbeerenauslese, are especially suited for cellaring since the high sugar content provides for additional preservation. However, high-quality dry or off-dry Riesling wine is also known not just to have survived but also to have been enjoyable at an age exceeding 100 years.

The Ratskeller (council wine cellar) of the townhall of Bremen, Germany, stores 650+ German wines, including Riesling-based wines, often in barrel and back to the 1653 vintage.

More common aging periods for Riesling wines would be 5–15 years for dry, 10–20 years for semi-sweet and 10–30+ for sweet versions.

Petroleum notes in aged Riesling wines
On release, certain Riesling wines reveal a striking petrol note (goût de pétrole in French) that is sometimes described with comparisons to kerosene, lubricant, or rubber. While an integral part of the aroma profile of mature Riesling and sought after by many experienced drinkers, it may be off-putting to those unaccustomed to it, and those who primarily seek young and fruity aromas in their wine. The negative attitude to petrol aromas in young Riesling, and the preference for fruitier young wines of this variety, seem more common in Germany than in Alsace or on the export market, and some German producers, especially the volume-oriented ones, have even gone so far as to consider the petrol notes a defect which they try to avoid, even at the cost of producing wines that are less suited to extended cellar aging. In that vein, the German Wine Institute has gone so far as to omit the mentioning of "petrol" as a possible aroma on their German-language Wine Aroma Wheel, which is supposed to be specially adapted to German wines, and despite the fact that professor Ann C. Noble had included petrol in her original version of the wheel.

The petrol note is considered to be caused by the compound 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN), which during the aging process is created from carotenoid precursors by acid hydrolysis. The initial concentration of precursors in the wine determines the wine's potential to develop TDN and petrol notes over time. From what is known of the production of carotenoids in grapes, factors that are likely to increase the TDN potential are: These factors are usually also considered to contribute to high-quality Riesling wines, so the petrol note is in fact more likely to develop in top wines than in simpler wines made from high-yielding vineyards, especially those from the New World, where irrigation is common.
 * Ripe grapes, i.e., low yields and late harvest
 * High sun exposure
 * Water stress, which is most likely in regions which do not practice irrigation, and there primarily in certain dry vineyard sites in hot and dry years
 * High acid content

Noble rot

The most expensive wines made from Riesling are late harvest dessert wines (often amongst the most expensive in the world), produced by letting the grapes hang on the vines well past normal picking time. Through evaporation caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea ("noble rot") or by freezing and pressing (as is the case for ice wine - in German, Eiswein), water is removed and the resulting ultra concentrated juice is used to make the sweet wines. These wines are felt to offer richer layers on the palate, and have more sugar (in extreme cases hundreds of grams per litre), more acid (to give balance to the sugar), more flavour, and more complexity. These elements combine to make wines that are amongst the most long lived of all white wines. The beneficial use of "noble rot" in Riesling grapes was discovered in the late 18th century at Schloss Johannisberg. Permission from the Abbey of Fulda (which owned the vineyard) to start picking Riesling grapes arrived too late and the grapes had begun to rot; yet it turned out that the wine made from them was still of excellent quality.

Noble rot is employed in many viticultural areas, including the Clare, Barossa, and Eden Valleys in South Australia, and in the southern growing region of Tasmania, though none are as renowned as those from Germany.

Production regions
Riesling is considered one of the grape varieties that best expresses the terroir of the place where it is grown. It is particularly well suited for slate and sandy clay soil.

Germany
Today Riesling is Germany’s leading grape variety, known for its characteristic “transparency” in flavour and presentation of terroir, and its balance between fruit and mineral flavours. In Germany, Riesling normally ripens between late September and late November, and late harvest Riesling can be picked as late as January.

Two common characteristics of German Riesling are that they are rarely blended with other varieties and usually never exposed to oak flavour (despite some vintners fermenting in "traditionel" old oak barrels already leached). To this last item there is an exception with some winters in the wine regions of Palatinate (Pfalz) and Baden using new oak aging. The warmer temperatures in those regions produce heavier wines with a higher alcohol content that can better contend with the new oak. While clearer in individual flavours when it is young, a German Riesling will harmonize more as it ages, particularly around ten years of age.

In Germany, sugar levels at time of harvest are an important consideration in the wine's production with prädikat levels measuring the sweetness of the wine. Equally important to winegrowers is the balance of acidity between the green tasting malic acid and the more citrus tasting tartaric acid. In cool years, some growers will wait until November to harvest in expectation of having a higher level of ripeness and subsequent tartaric acid.

Before technology in wineries could stabilize temperatures, the low temperatures in winter of the northern German regions would halt fermentation and leave the resulting wines with natural sugars and a low alcohol content. According to local tradition, in the Mosel region the wine would then be bottled in tall, tapered, and green hock bottles. Similar bottles, although brown, are used for Riesling produced in the Rhine region.

Riesling is also the preferred grape in production of Deutscher Sekt, German sparkling wine.

Riesling wines from Germany cover a vast array of tastes from sweet to off-dry halbtrocken to dry trocken. Late harvest Rieslings can ripen to become very sweet dessert wines of the beerenauslese (BA) and trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) class.

France
Riesling is on record as being planted in the Alsace region by 1477 when its quality was praised by the Duke of Lorraine. Today over a fifth of Alsace's vineyards are covered with Riesling vines, mostly in the Haut-Rhin district, with the varietal being very different from neighboring German Riesling. This is partly from difference in the soil with the clay Alsatian soil being more dominately calcareous than the slate composition of Rheingau. The other differences come in wine making styles, with the Alsatian preferring more French-oriented methods that produce wines of higher alcohol content (normally around 12%) and more roundness due to longer time spent in neutral oak barrels or steel tanks. In contrast to German wine laws, Alsatian rieslings can be chaptalized, a process in which the alcoholic content is increased through the addition of sugar to the must.

In contrast to other Alsatian wines, Rieslings d'Alsace are usually not meant to be drunk young, but many are still best in the first years. Rieslings d'Alsace tend to be mostly very dry with a cleansing acidity. They are thick-bodied wines that coat the palate. These wines age exceptionally well with a quality vintage aging up to 20 years. This is beneficial since the flavours in an Alsace wine will often open up after three years, developing softer and fruitier flavours. Riesling is very suitable for the late harvest Vendange Tardive and the botrytized Sélection de Grains Nobles, with good acidity keeping up the sweetness of the wine.

In addition to Muscat, Gewürztraminer and Pinot gris, Riesling is one of the acceptable varieties whose planting is allowed in Alsace grand cru sites.

Australia and New Zealand
In 1838 William Macarthur planted Riesling vines near Penrith in New South Wales. Riesling was the most planted white grape in Australia until the early 1990s when Chardonnay greatly increased in popularity. Riesling still flourishes in the Great Southern of Western Australia (in particular Mt Barker, Frankland River and Porongurup), and in South Australia in the Clare Valley, and particularly in the areas of Watervale and around Polish Hill River, and the cooler Eden Valley and High Eden. The warmer Australian climate produces thicker skinned grapes, sometimes seven times the thickness of German grown grapes. The grapes ripen in free draining soil composed of red soil over limestone and shale, producing a lean wine that, as it matures, produces toasty, honeycomb and lime aromas and flavors. It is common for Australian Rieslings to be fermented at low temperatures in stainless steel tanks with no oxidation of the wine, followed by earlier bottling.

Australian Rieslings are noted for their oily texture and citrus fruit flavors in their youth and a smooth balance of freshness and acid as they age. The botrytized Rieslings have immense levels of flavor concentrations that have been favorably compared to lemon marmalade.

Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Central Otago, the home of cool climate wines, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven Rieslings.

Austria
Riesling is the second leading white grape varietal after the indigenous Grüner Veltliner. Austrian Riesling is generally thick bodied, coating the palate and producing a strong clarity of flavour coupled with a mouthwatering aroma. A particular Austrian Riesling trademark is a long finish that includes hints of white pepper. It flourishes in the cool climate and free-draining granite and mica soil of the Wachau region where Austrian wine laws allow for irrigation. With levels normally around 13% it has a relatively high alcohol content for Riesling and is generally at its peak after 5 years. Austrian Riesling is not known for its sweetness and is mostly dry with very few grapes affected by botrytis.

United States
In the late nineteenth century, German immigrants brought with them Riesling vines, borrowing the name of Schloss Johannisberg to mark the plants' origin. "Johannisberg Riesling" became a semi-generic name for Riesling until an agreement between the U.S. and EU prohibited its use in 2006. New York, particularly in the Finger Lakes region, was one of the earliest U.S. producers of Riesling. Plantings started to appear in California by 1857 and followed in Washington State in 1871.

New York Riesling generally has a characteristic effervescent light body with a similarly light, mellow flavor. The wine can be dynamic though rarely robust, and ranges from dry to sweet. New York is also a notable producer of Riesling-based ice wine, although a large majority of New York Ice Wine is made from Vidal blanc and Vignoles.

In California, Riesling lags far behind Chardonnay in popularity and is not as commonly planted. A notable exception is the growing development of high quality Late Harvest dessert wines. So far, the Late Harvest wines most successfully produced are in the Anderson and Alexander Valleys where the weather is more likely to encourage the needed botrytis to develop. The Riesling that does come out of California tends to be softer, fuller, and having more diverse flavours than a "typical" German Riesling.

In the Pacific Northwest, there is a stark contrast in Riesling production. Although Oregon was once viewed as a promising destination for the grape, Burgundy-style wines came to dominate, while in Washington, large producers such as Chateau Ste. Michelle spearheaded Riesling's growth. Chateau Ste. Michille championed German styles and partnered with well-known German firm Dr. Ernest Loosen to create specialty wines such as the Eroica brand. With annual productions of over 2,000,000 cases a year, Chateau Ste. Michelle is the worldwide leader in the production of Riesling wines by volume. In 2007 Pacific Rim Winemakers, another Pacific Northwest winery and owned by Randall Grahm of Bonny Doon, has built the first wine facility in Red Mountain AVA dedicated completely to Riesling production. Riesling from this area ranges from dry to sweet, and has a crisp lightness that bodes well for easy drinking. Often there will be an easily detectable peach and mineral complex

In Michigan, whose Old Mission Peninsula and Leelanau Peninsula AVAs (near Traverse City) are known for their ice wine, Riesling is a fairly common variety, in part on account of its suitability for that purpose.

Riesling is grown in other regions as well, including colder parts of relatively warm states such as Oklahoma (where it has even been made into an eiswein ) and Texas.

Riesling is also grown throughout all the regions in Ohio and is produced and sold at award-winning wineries across the state.

Canada
In Ontario, Riesling is commonly used for icewine, where the wine is noted for its breadth and complexity. Niagara is a major producer of ice wine in general, putting it neck-and-neck with Germany. Late Harvest wines and some sparkling wines are produced with Riesling in Niagara but it is table wines from dry to off-dry that hold the largest share of production. The climate of the region is typically quite warm in the summertime, which adds a layer of richness in the wines. The founder of St. Urbanshoff in the Mosel, Herman Weiss, was an early pioneer in Niagara's modern viticulture, selling his strain of Mosel clone Riesling to many producers in west Niagara (these vines are well over 20 years old now). This clone and Niagara's summer heat make for uniquely bright wines and often show up in interesting dry styled versions. Many producers and wine critics will argue that Niagara's best offerings come from the Niagara Escarpment region, which encompasses the Short Hills Bench, 20 Mile Bench, and Beamsville Bench.

In British Columbia, Riesling is commonly grown for use in icewine, table wine, and sekt-style sparkling wines, a notable example of which is Cipes Brut.

In Nova Scotia, particularly in the Annapolis Valley region, Riesling is showing significant promise, being shaped by the warm summer days with cool nights and the extension of the growing season that is being observed. The Maritime climate combined with glacial soils contribute to the interesting expressions that are showing.

Other regions
Riesling is also widely grown in Luxembourg (where it represents some 12% of the vineyard), Hungary, Italy, particularly Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Croatia, South Africa, Chile and Central Europe, particularly Romania and Moldova, Serbia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

Production
In wine making, the delicate nature of the Riesling grape requires special handling during harvesting to avoid crushing or bruising the skin. Without this care, the broken skins could leak tannin into the juice, giving a markedly coarse taste and throwing off balance the Riesling's range of flavors and aromas.

A wine that is best at its "freshest" states, the grapes and juice may be chilled often throughout the vinification process. Once, right after picking to preserve the grapes' more delicate flavours. Second, after it has been processed through a bladder press and right before fermentation. During fermentation, the wine is cooled in temperature controlled stainless steel fermentation tanks kept between 10 and 18 C. This differs from red wines that normally ferment at 24 to 29 C

Unlike Chardonnay, most Riesling do not undergo malolactic fermentation. This helps preserve the tart, acidic characteristic of the wine that gives Riesling its "thirst-quenching" quality. (Producers of Sauvignon blanc and Pinot grigio often avoid malolactic fermentation for the same reason.) Riesling is often put through a process of cold stabilization, where the wine is stored just above its freezing point. The wine is kept at this temperature until much of the tartaric acid has crystallized and precipitated out of the wine. This helps prevent crystallization of the acid (often called "wine diamonds") in the bottle. After this, the wine is normally filtered again to remove any remaining yeast or impurities.

In viticulture, the two main components in growing Riesling grapes are to keep it "Long & Low" meaning that the ideal situation for Riesling is a climate that allows for a long, slow ripening and proper pruning to keep the yield low and the flavor concentrated.

With food
Riesling is a versatile wine for pairing with food, because of its balance of sugar and acidity. It can be paired with white fish or pork, and is one of the few wines that can stand up to the stronger flavours and spices of Thai and Chinese cuisine. A Riesling's typical aromas are of flowers, tropical fruits, and mineral stone (such as slate or quartz), although, with time, the wine acquires a petrol note as mentioned above.

Riesling is almost never fermented or aged in new oak (although large old oak barrels are often used to store and stabilize Riesling-based wines in Germany and Alsace). This means that Riesling tends to be lighter weight and therefore suitable to a wider range of foods. The sharp acidity/sweetness in Rieslings can serve as a good balance to foods that have a high salt content. In Germany, cabbage is sometimes cooked with riesling to reduce the vegetable's smell.

As with other white wines, dry Riesling is generally served at a cool 11 °C. Sweeter Rieslings are often served warmer.

Clones
There exists a large number of commercial clones of Riesling, with slightly different properties. In Germany, approximately 60 clones are allowed, and the most famous of these have been propagated from vines in the vineyards of Schloss Johannisberg. Most other countries have sourced their Riesling clones directly from Germany, but they are sometimes propagated under different designations.

Red Riesling
A very rare version of Riesling that has recently received more attention is Red Riesling (Roter Riesling). As the name suggests, this is a red-skinned clone of Riesling (a skin color commonly found for, e.g., Gewürztraminer), but not a dark-skinned clone, i.e., it is still a white wine grape. It is considered a mutation of White Riesling, but some experts have suggested the opposite relationship, i.e., that Red Riesling could be the forerunner of White Riesling. Small amounts of Red Riesling are grown in Germany and Austria. In 2006, the Rheingau winery Fritz Allendorf planted what has been claimed to be the first commercial amounts of Red Riesling. To confuse matters, "Red Riesling" has also been used as a synonym for red-skinned Traminer grapes (such as the Savagnin rose of Klevener de Heiligenstein) and the obscure variety Hanns, which is a seed plant of Roter Veltliner. Roter Riesling has nothing to do with Schwarzriesling.

Crosses
In the late 19th century, German horticulturalists devoted many efforts to develop new Riesling hybrids that would create a more flexible, less temperamental grape that could still retain some of the elegant characteristics of Riesling. The most notable is the Müller-Thurgau developed in the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute in 1882, which is a cross of Riesling and Madeleine Royale (although long believed to be Riesling x Silvaner). Other Riesling/Silvaner crosses include the Palatinate regional favorite Scheurebe and Rieslaner. Kerner, a cross between Riesling and the red wine grape Trollinger is a high-quality cross that has recently eclipsed Riesling in plantings.

The VIVC lists the following crosses with Riesling as the first parent:

Alb de Yaloven, Arnsburger, Augustriesling, Beutelriesling, Bouquetriesling, Dalkauer, Edelmuskat, Ehrenfelser, Feinriesling, Floricica, Frühriesling, Geisenheim 195, Geisenheim 643-10, Geisenheim 643-20, Geisenheim 649, Johanniter, Kocsis Zsuzsa, Manzoni bianco, Marienriesling, Müller Thurgau, Multaner, Muscat de la Republique, Naumburg 231-52, Oraniensteiner, Osiris, Osteiner, Quanyu B, Rabaner, Rieslina, Riesling Magaracha, Romeo, Weinsberg S186, Weinsberg S195

And as the second parent: Aris, Arnsburger, Aurelius, Dalmasso 12-40, Dona Emilia, Dr. Deckerrebe, Elbriesling, Freiburg 3-29, Geilweilerhof F.S. 4-208-13, Geilweilerhof Koe-49-81, Geilweilerhof Koe-68-107, Geilweilerhof Koe-70-4, Geilweilerhof Koe-70-96, Geilweilerhof Sbl. 2-19-43, Geisenheim 154, Geisenheim 156, Kamchia, Kerner, Lafayette, Misket Varnenski, Negritienok, President Carnot, Rabaner, Rieslaner, Riesling Bulgarski, Ruling, Thurling, Weinsberg S509, Weinsberg S516, Weinsberg S523, Weinsberg S2630

Naming
Many grapes that incorporate the name Riesling are not true Riesling. For example:

 * Welschriesling is an unrelated variety, which is common in Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, and Romania, and that may also be labelled as Riesling Italico, Welsch Rizling, Olasz Rizling or Laski Rizling.
 * Schwarzriesling (Black Riesling) is the German name for Pinot Meunier, a grape used in Champagne, but which is also grown in Southern Germany.
 * Cape Riesling is the South African name for the French grape Crouchen.
 * Gray Riesling is actually Trousseau gris, a white mutant of the Bastardo port wine grape.
 * White Riesling is the 'real' Riesling, which is also called Johannisberg Riesling (named after the famed Schloss Johannisberg) and Rhine Riesling (= Riesling Renano in Italy, occasionally Rheinriesling in Austria).

title: Riesling


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Proposed deletion of Caddie (CAD system)

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Your article Treaty of Shimonoseki
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Peter Lehmann (winemaker)

Peter Leon Lehmann AM, (18 August 1930 – 28 June 2013) was an Australian wine producer based in the Barossa Valley.

Biography
Lehmann was born in Angaston, South Australia in Barossa Valley on 18 August 1930.

His father was Lutheran Pastor Franz Julius Lehmann, and son may have joined father in the ministry but for Franz' sudden death in 1945, aged 55. Peter soon dropped out of school "ostensibly to be some support to my recently widowed mother," he says.

In 1947, he started work at the Yalumba winery under Rudi Kronberger. From 1960 to 1980 he was Winemaker/Manager at Saltram Wines. He parted company with Saltram to become the Chairman of Peter Lehmann Wines, a role later filled by his son Doug.

Peter Lehmann has been described as one of Australia's most respected and innovative wine makers. His success in winning international trophies has been noted by the Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation.

Family
Lehmann's eldest son Doug Lehmann was also a noted winemaker who worked for the family company. He died in June 2014.

Peter Lehmann Wines
Founded in 1979, Peter Lehmann Wines produces around 600,000 cases annually, with distribution to Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States and many other countries. It is located in the Barossa Valley, approximately 70 kilometres north of Adelaide in South Australia.

In 1977, Saltram instructed then winemaker/manager Peter Lehmann to buy less grapes from their Barossa growers. Since Peter had given the growers his word to buy the grapes, he refused. After months of negotiations with Dalgety plc, which owned Saltram, he was allowed to start an outside company called Masterson Barossa Vineyards in order to buy and process the grapes. Tyre retailer MS Mcleod gave financial backing to the venture. The inspiration of the name came from the legendary gambler Sky Masterson (see Guys and Dolls), because starting the company was such a gamble, and in keeping with the theme the queen of clubs was chosen as the logo for the company.

In 1979 Saltram was sold to Canadian multinational spirit producer Seagram which informed Peter that he could no longer make wine on the side, so he quit his job at Saltram and worked fully for Masterson. In 1982 the company was renamed Peter Lehmann Wines.

In 1992 MS Mcleod decided to divest themselves of their investment in the company, and with no local buyer in the offing and the company again facing closure or a fire sale to a multinational, a public float was devised. While the core shareholding was intended to be taken up by the growers themselves and by staff, it was feared that the capital raised would be insufficient and so a share and option package was offered publicly. In the end the float was oversubscribed and the new company performed strongly.

In late 2003 'PLW' became the subject of a heated bidding war between UK-based Allied Domecq and Swiss based Hess Group. Allied Domecq had acquired 14.5% of Peter Lehmann Wines when it first submitted a takeover bid on 22 September. Peter Lehmann and the board of directors countered by recommending sale to the Hess Group instead. Hess matched the Allied Domecq offer, adding a special dividend to the deal, and purchased the company for a market valuation of $103 million USD.

By 2016, Peter Lehmann Wines was owned by Casella Family Brands.

title: Peter Lehmann (winemaker)


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Barossa Valley

The Barossa Valley (Barossa German: Barossa Tal) is a valley in South Australia located 60 km northeast of Adelaide city centre. The valley is formed by the North Para River. It is notable as a major wine-producing region and tourist destination.

The Barossa Valley Way is the main road through the valley, connecting the main towns on the valley floor of Nuriootpa, Tanunda, Rowland Flat and Lyndoch. The Barossa Trail walking and cycling path is 40 km long, and passes the main towns, starting from near Gawler on the Adelaide Plains, to Angaston to the east of the valley.

History

The traditional owners of the land including the Barossa Valley are the Peramangk people, who comprise a number of family groups. Evidence of their thousands of years of occupation can be seen all around the area, in the form of artefacts, scar trees and shelter paintings. The Barossa Valley derives its name from the Barossa Range, which was named by Colonel William Light in 1837. Light chose the name in memory of the British victory over the French in the Battle of Barrosa, in which he fought in 1811. The name "Barossa" was registered in error, due to a clerical error in transcribing the name "Barrosa". The area is approximately 13 by.

The three major towns of the Barossa have distinctive characteristics. Tanunda is generally recognised as the most German of the three, with traditions dating back to the 1840s when the first German settlers arrived in the area. Since many of the German settlers came from Prussian Silesia, they called the Barossa Neu-Schlesien, or "New Silesia".

The German influence survives to this day (see Barossa German). Angaston, in contrast, is considered the English town as it was settled predominantly by Cornish miners and others from Britain. The third, and largest town, Nuriootpa, was influenced by both German and British settlers, and today is the commercial hub of the Barossa and it is where most of the larger stores are located.

In February 2011, South Australian Premier, Mike Rann, announced that special legislation would be introduced to protect the unique heritage of the Barossa Valley and of McLaren Vale. He said: "Barossa and McLaren Vale food and wine are key icons of South Australia. We must never allow the Barossa or McLaren Vale to become suburbs of Adelaide." The Character Preservation (Barossa Valley) Act 2012 was subsequently passed by the South Australian Parliament.

People
In 2021, 25,066 people lived in the Barossa Valley. Most inhabitants live in Tanunda, Nuriootpa, Angaston, Williamstown and Lyndoch, each having over 1,000 people. The remaining population lives in the countryside, or a few smaller towns such as Moculta and Springton. All of these towns are part of the Barossa local government. The townships of Greenock, population 1087, Seppeltsfield, population 138, and Maranaga, population 104, are located on the western ridge of the valley in Light Regional Council. Many facilities not available in these towns are usually supplemented in nearby Gawler. In recent years, increased development in the area has seen opposition from the local communities.

Railway
The Barossa Valley railway line runs through several townships in the valley. The line opened in 1911 and was last used in June 2014. It has since been closed.

Religion
The region has a strong German Lutheran history, and many residents identify themselves as Lutherans. Some towns have more than one Lutheran church. Tanunda, for example, has Langmeil, St. Paul's, Tabor and St. Johns. Nuriootpa has St. Petri and Holy Trinity. Angaston has Zion and Salem (Penrice).

Each major town has a Lutheran primary school. Tanunda has Tanunda Lutheran School, Nuriootpa has Redeemer, and Angaston has Good Shepherd. St. Jakobi, the Lutheran primary school at Lyndoch, hosts the Barossa Airshow annually as its fundraiser.

Population
Major Town Populations:

As a rural region, there is also significant population outside of the town centres (not shown here).

Wine industry
The wine industry plays a major role in the Barossa, being the main source of employment for many residents. The many hectares of vineyards are the most distinctive feature of the area, especially when viewed from the Mengler Hill lookout, positioned on the Barossa Range which forms much of the eastern side of the valley. The success of the wine industry has historically been celebrated every two years with a week-long Barossa Valley Vintage Festival. The festival draws visitors from all over the world, and has entertainment for all tastes including a huge street parade, concerts and gourmet dining.

The Barossa Valley is primarily known for its red wine, in particular Shiraz. Normally, large proportions of Barossa Shiraz are used in Penfolds Grange, Australia's most famous wine. Other main grape varieties grown in the region include: Riesling; Semillon; Grenache and Cabernet Sauvignon. Fortified wines have been traditionally produced in the region as well.

Marananga is home to the only sub-regional wine competition in Australia, hosted by the Gnadenfrei Lutheran church community since 2004 and focussed solely on benchmarking wines produced on the Western Ridge of the valley.

The Barossa Valley is a rich source of some of the oldest Shiraz vines in the world. Shiraz vines planted as early as 1847 by Johann Frederick August Fiedler on Lot 1, Hundred of Moorooroo (the township of Tanunda) are still in commercial production today by Turkey Flat Vineyards.

Food production
Although it is overshadowed by the wine industry, significant food production occurs in the Barossa Valley, including:
 * Bakeries that produce traditional German breads and pastries
 * Butchers who produce meat and smallgoods in the German style
 * Artisan cheesemakers
 * Maggie Beer is a renowned cook, food author, restaurateur and food manufacturer. Her Farm Shop sells a range of condiments under her name. She is co-presenter of ABC Television's programme The Cook and the Chef.

The Barossa Valley holds a weekly Farmers' Market, supplying local produce which is sold directly by the producer.

Barossa Vintage Festival
The week-long Barossa Vintage Festival is held biennially, in odd-numbered years. The festival runs for around a week in autumn, and traditionally marks and celebrates the completion of the year's vintage season, at the end of March and beginning of April. A variety of wine-themed events are held during the festival, including wine tastings and competitions, musical events, food events with local produce, balls and parades.

The Barossa Vintage Festival was first held in 1947, to celebrate the end of the grape harvest, and the end of hostilities in World War II, and has run continually since. It is Australia's oldest and longest-running wine festival.

Barossa Gourmet Weekend
The Barossa Gourmet Weekend is a three-day food, wine and art celebration held in the third weekend of August every year. Local wineries and venues host individual events throughout the Barossa, offering food, wine, music, arts and hospitality.

In the arts

 * Novel set among the German settlers in the Barossa during World War II.

title: Barossa Valley


text:
Geoid

The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent. This surface is extended through the continents (such as might be approximated with very narrow hypothetical canals). According to Gauss, who first described it, it is the "mathematical figure of the Earth", a smooth but irregular surface whose shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of Earth. It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations. Despite being an important concept for almost 200 years in the history of geodesy and geophysics, it has been defined to high precision only since advances in satellite geodesy in the late 20th century.

The geoid is often expressed as a geoid undulation or geoidal height above a given reference ellipsoid, which is a slightly flattened sphere whose equatorial bulge is caused by the planet's rotation. Generally the geoidal height rises where the Earth's material is locally more dense and exerts greater gravitational force than the surrounding areas. The geoid in turn serves as a reference coordinate surface for various vertical coordinates, such as orthometric heights, geopotential heights, and dynamic heights (see Geodesy).

All points on a geoid surface have the same geopotential (the sum of gravitational potential energy and centrifugal potential energy). At this surface, apart from temporary tidal fluctuations, the force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to the geoid, meaning that plumb lines point perpendicular and bubble levels are parallel to the geoid. Being an equigeopotential means the geoid corresponds to the free surface of water at rest (if only the Earth's gravity and rotational acceleration were at work); this is also a sufficient condition for a ball to remain at rest instead of rolling over the geoid. Earth's gravity acceleration (the vertical derivative of geopotential) is thus non-uniform over the geoid.

Description
The geoid surface is irregular, unlike the reference ellipsoid (which is a mathematical idealized representation of the physical Earth as an ellipsoid), but is considerably smoother than Earth's physical surface. Although the "ground" of the Earth has excursions on the order of +8,800 m (Mount Everest) and −11,000 m (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.

If the ocean were of constant density and undisturbed by tides, currents or weather, its surface would resemble the geoid. The permanent deviation between the geoid and mean sea level is called ocean surface topography. If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid. Geodesists are able to derive the heights of continental points above the geoid by spirit leveling.

Being an equipotential surface, the geoid is, by definition, a surface upon which the force of gravity is perpendicular everywhere, apart from temporary tidal fluctuations. This means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulation of the geoid; neglecting tides, the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it. Likewise, spirit levels will always be parallel to the geoid.

Simplified example
Earth's gravitational field is not uniform. An oblate spheroid is typically used as the idealized Earth, but even if the Earth were spherical and did not rotate, the strength of gravity would not be the same everywhere because density varies throughout the planet. This is due to magma distributions, the density and weight of different geological compositions in the Earth's crust, mountain ranges, deep sea trenches, crust compaction due to glaciers, and so on.

If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere. Instead, the water level would be higher or lower with respect to Earth's center, depending on the integral of the strength of gravity from the center of the Earth to that location. The geoid level coincides with where the water would be. Generally the geoid rises where the Earth's material is locally more dense, exerts greater gravitational force, and pulls more water from the surrounding area.

Shape
The geoid undulation, geoid height, or geoid anomaly is the height of the geoid relative to a given ellipsoid of reference. The undulation is not standardized, as different countries use different mean sea levels as reference, but most commonly refers to the EGM96 geoid.

Relationship to GPS/GNSS
In maps and common use, the height over the mean sea level (such as orthometric height) is used to indicate the height of elevations while the ellipsoidal height results from the GPS system and similar GNSS.

The deviation $$N$$ between the ellipsoidal height $$h$$ and the orthometric height $$H$$ can be calculated by

$$N=h-H$$

(An analogous relationship exists between normal heights and the "quasigeoid", which disregards local density variations.)

So a GPS receiver on a ship may, during the course of a long voyage, indicate height variations, even though the ship will always be at sea level (neglecting the effects of tides). That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid. To obtain one's orthometric height, a raw GPS reading must be corrected. Conversely, height determined by spirit leveling from a tide gauge, as in traditional land surveying, is closer to orthometric height. Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from the current position, the height of the geoid (e.g., the EGM96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid. They are then able to correct the height above the WGS ellipsoid to the height above the EGM96 geoid. When height is not zero on a ship, the discrepancy is due to other factors such as ocean tides, atmospheric pressure (meteorological effects), local sea surface topography, and measurement uncertainties.

Relationship to mass density
The surface of the geoid is higher than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a positive gravity anomaly (mass excess) and lower than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a negative gravity anomaly (mass deficit).

This relationship can be understood by recalling that gravity potential is defined so that it has negative values and is inversely proportional to distance from the body. So, while a mass excess will strengthen the gravity acceleration, it will decrease the gravity potential. As a consequence, the geoid's defining equipotential surface will be found displaced away from the mass excess. Analogously, a mass deficit will weaken the gravity pull but will increase the geopotential at a given distance, causing the geoid to move towards the mass deficit. The presence of a localized inclusion in the background medium will rotate the gravity acceleration vectors slightly towards or away from a denser or lighter body, respectively, causing a bump or dimple in the equipotential surface.

The largest absolute deviation can be found in the Indian Ocean Geoid Low, 106 meters below the average sea level.

Gravity anomalies

Variations in the height of the geoidal surface are related to anomalous density distributions within the Earth. Geoid measures thus help understanding the internal structure of the planet. Synthetic calculations show that the geoidal signature of a thickened crust (for example, in orogenic belts produced by continental collision) is positive, opposite to what should be expected if the thickening affects the entire lithosphere. Mantle convection also changes the shape of the geoid over time.

Determination
Calculating the undulation is mathematically challenging. This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.

The precise geoid solution by Petr Vaníček and co-workers improved on the Stokesian approach to geoid computation. Their solution enables millimetre-to-centimetre accuracy in geoid computation, an order-of-magnitude improvement from previous classical solutions.

Geoid undulations display uncertainties which can be estimated by using several methods, e.g., least-squares collocation (LSC), fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, radial basis functions (RBF), and geostatistical techniques. Geostatistical approach has been defined as the most-improved technique in prediction of geoid undulation.

Temporal change
Recent satellite missions, such as the Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) and GRACE, have enabled the study of time-variable geoid signals. The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency. ESA launched the satellite in March 2009 on a mission to map Earth's gravity with unprecedented accuracy and spatial resolution. On 31 March 2011, a new geoid model was unveiled at the Fourth International GOCE User Workshop hosted at the Technical University of Munich, Germany. Studies using the time-variable geoid computed from GRACE data have provided information on global hydrologic cycles, mass balances of ice sheets, and postglacial rebound. From postglacial rebound measurements, time-variable GRACE data can be used to deduce the viscosity of Earth's mantle.

Spherical harmonics representation

Spherical harmonics are often used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM2020 (Earth Gravitational Model 2020), determined in an international collaborative project led by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, or NGA). The mathematical description of the non-rotating part of the potential function in this model is:

$$ V=\frac{GM}{r}\left(1+{\sum_{n=2}^{n_\text{max}}}\left(\frac{a}{r}\right)^n{\sum_{m=0}^n} \overline{P}_{nm}(\sin\phi)\left[\overline{C}_{nm}\cos m\lambda+\overline{S}_{nm}\sin m\lambda\right]\right), $$

where $$\phi\ $$ and $$\lambda\ $$ are geocentric (spherical) latitude and longitude respectively, $$\overline{P}_{nm}$$ are the fully normalized associated Legendre polynomials of degree $$n\ $$ and order $$m\ $$, and $$\overline{C}_{nm}$$ and $$\overline{S}_{nm}$$ are the numerical coefficients of the model based on measured data. The above equation describes the Earth's gravitational potential $$V$$, not the geoid itself, at location $$\phi,\;\lambda,\;r,\ $$ the co-ordinate $$r\ $$ being the geocentric radius, i.e., distance from the Earth's centre. The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute. The gradient of this potential also provides a model of the gravitational acceleration. The most commonly used EGM96 contains a full set of coefficients to degree and order 360 (i.e., $$n_\text{max} = 360$$), describing details in the global geoid as small as 55 km (or 110 km, depending on the definition of resolution). The number of coefficients, $$\overline{C}_{nm}$$ and $$\overline{S}_{nm}$$, can be determined by first observing in the equation for $$V$$ that for a specific value of $$n$$ there are two coefficients for every value of $$m$$ except for $$m=0$$. There is only one coefficient when $$m=0$$ since $$ \sin (0\lambda) = 0$$. There are thus $$(2n+1)$$ coefficients for every value of $$n$$. Using these facts and the formula, $\sum_{I=1}^{L}I = \frac{1}{2}L(L + 1)$, it follows that the total number of coefficients is given by

$$\sum_{n=2}^{n_\text{max}}(2n+1) = n_\text{max}(n_\text{max}+1) + n_\text{max} - 3 = 130317$$ using the EGM96 value of $$n_\text{max} = 360$$.

For many applications, the complete series is unnecessarily complex and is truncated after a few (perhaps several dozen) terms.

Still, even higher resolution models have been developed. Many of the authors of EGM96 have published EGM2008. It incorporates much of the new satellite gravity data (e.g., the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment), and supports up to degree and order 2160 (1/6 of a degree, requiring over 4 million coefficients), with additional coefficients extending to degree 2190 and order 2159. EGM2020 is the international follow-up that was originally scheduled for 2020 (still unreleased in 2024), containing the same number of harmonics generated with better data.

title: Geoid


text:
Barossa

Barossa may refer to:

Places

 * Barossa Valley, a valley in South Australia
 * Electoral district of Barossa
 * Barossa Council, a local government area in South Australia
 * Barossa Goldfields, South Australia, also in the same area
 * Barossa Range, mountains in South Australia
 * Hundred of Barossa, a cadastral unit in South Australia
 * Barrosa (Portugal), a parish of Portugal
 * Playa de la Barrosa, a beach in Spain

Ships

 * HMS Barossa – any one of four vessels of the British Royal Navy
 * SS Barossa, a cargo ship built for the Adelaide Steamship Company in 1938

Other uses

 * Barossa German, a German dialect spoken in the Barossa Valley
 * Barossa project, a proposed natural gas field off the coast of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia

title: Barossa


text:
Talk:Modern World

I think the list of people at the end should be ordered either alphabetically or chronologically. Is there a wikipedia convention for this?

In compiling the list of the key thinkers I have followed the rough chronological outline of their DATES of BIRTH and DEATH. There is some overlap, but look closely and you'll see that there is "chronological purpose" behind them. An alphebetical list is not necessary since all these names are linked to each personality IZAK

title: Talk:Modern World


text:
Algherese dialect

Algherese or Alguerese (autonym: alguerés ) is the variant of Catalan spoken in the city of Alghero (L'Alguer in Catalan), in the northwest of Sardinia, Italy.

The dialect has its roots in 1372, when Catalan-speaking colonists were allowed to repopulate Alghero and expel the native population, after several revolts. Catalan was replaced as the official language by Spanish, then by Italian in the mid-18th century. Today the language has semi-official recognition alongside Italian.

Studies give an approximate number of 20,000 to 30,000 native speakers of the language worldwide. In communities where Algherese is spoken, Italian and Logudorese Sardinian are often used as well.

History
Algherese is a regional dialect spoken by anywhere from 20,000 to 30,000 individuals, most of whom reside in the town of Alghero, located in the northwest of Sardinia. The language, though distinct, is initially derived from, and thus considered a variant of, the Catalan language. The origins of the language can be traced back to 1372, when Catalan invaders repopulated the city of Alghero after exiling the indigenous populations in Sardinia. Despite the city's increasing Italianization, the use of this Catalan dialect remained widespread until at least the 1970s.

Present status
As a result of the city's extensive Italianization, Italian is now the predominant language in Alghero, being estimated by a 2004 survey to be first language of close to 60% of those surveyed. The use of the dialect in schools and media, to name a few, remains sparse. Teaching of the dialect in school is also rare. However, in an attempt to reverse the trend, the Regional Council of Sardinia officially recognized "Algherese Catalan" as a separate language in 1997, in order to promote its use and circulation. According to the 2004 survey, Algherese was used by approximately 14% of the population for daily interactions. The dialect is mostly a local language, often used to supplement Italian and/or Sardinian in relatively small circles.

The following figures were obtained from the Enquesta d’usos lingüístics a l’Alguer ("Survey of linguistic usage in Alghero", EULAL) of 2004 and the Els usos lingüístics a l’Alguer of 2015 (EULA 2015), both of which were studies conducted in the town of Alghero about the general use of Algherese in several media.

Official recognition
In 1999, Catalan and Sardinian were among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "historical linguistic minorities" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999. Prior to this, the Regional Council of Sardinia had passed the Regional Law No. 26 of 15 October 1997 which, aside from promoting the equality in dignity of the Sardinian language with the Italian language throughout the island, provided that the other languages of smaller scope be afforded the same treatment as the aforementioned languages, among which Catalan is cited, in the city of Alghero. The city council, for its part, promulgated its protection and standardization in its city statute.

Phonology
A narrow transcription is provided here to clarify the sounds of Algherese. Note that transcriptions elsewhere should use a broader transcription.

Algherese has these phonetic features:
 * Like in other languages of Sardinia and  may merge into mid vowels  and  (here transcribed without diacritics), respectively.
 * Coalescing of unstressed vowels, and  to  (transcribed without the diacritic for the sake of simplicity) (unlike the rest of Eastern Catalan, which uses ): aura ('aura')  (Eastern Standard),  (Algherese)
 * Algherese preserves as a distinct phoneme from, like Balearic and most of Valencian: viu ('he/she lives')  (Algherese).
 * Mutation of intervocalic and  to : Barceloneta ('Barcelonette')  (Eastern Standard),  (Algherese); and vila ('town') and vida ('life') are homophones in Algherese.
 * Mutation of syllable final  to lateral, and the possible resulting group  + consonant is further simplified to : forn ('oven')  (Eastern Standard),  (Algherese).
 * Depalatalization of syllable final sonorants: lateral to, nasal  to : ball ('dance')  (Eastern Standard),  (Algherese); any ('year')  (Eastern Standard),  (Algherese).

Morphology

 * The simple past is replaced by the present perfect (present of haver "to have" + past participle), possibly by Italian influence.
 * The imperfect past preserves etymological -v- in all conjugations: 1st -ava, 2nd -iva, 3rd -iva unlike modern Eastern and Western Standard Catalan, which use 1st -ava, 2nd -ia, 3rd -ia, a feature shared with the Ribagorçan dialect.
 * Large-scale lexical borrowing and calques from Sardinian, Spanish and Italian: nearly half of the vocabulary is not from Catalan.

Differences from Standard Catalan
The Algherese variant is Eastern Catalan, but it has many differences from Central Catalan, with some of the most obvious ones as follows:

Vocabulary
The following abbreviations are used: m. (masculine), f. (feminine), pl. (plural), f. pl. (feminine plural), inf. (informal), f. (formal). The following phrases were gathered from a Catalan translation set, but the common phrases in Algherese are similar:

Literature
The Premi Rafael Sari, organised by the Obra Cultural de l'Alguer, is a series of prizes awarded in September each year to the best literary works of poetry and prose written in Algherese Catalan.

Notable poets include Rafael Sari, Pasquale Scanu and Maria Chessa Lai. There is also a long tradition of writing and performing songs in Algherese Catalan and the Premi Pino Piras is awarded for new songs written in the language. Notable singer-songwriters include Pino Piras and Franca Masu.

In 2015 Carla Valentino published an Algherese translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince.

title: Algherese dialect


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Shenandoah Valley

The Shenandoah Valley is a geographic valley and cultural region of western Virginia and the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia in the United States. The Valley is bounded to the east by the Blue Ridge Mountains, to the west by the eastern front of the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians (excluding Massanutten Mountain), to the north by the Potomac River, to the south by the James River, and to the Southwest by the New River Valley. The cultural region covers a larger area that includes all of the Valley plus the Virginia Highlands to the west and the Roanoke Valley to the south. It is physiographically located within the Ridge and Valley Province and is a portion of the Great Appalachian Valley.

Geography
Named for the river that stretches much of its length, the Shenandoah Valley encompasses eight counties in Virginia and two counties in West Virginia:
 * Augusta County, Virginia
 * Clarke County, Virginia
 * Frederick County, Virginia
 * Page County, Virginia
 * Rockbridge County, Virginia
 * Rockingham County, Virginia
 * Shenandoah County, Virginia
 * Warren County, Virginia
 * Berkeley County, West Virginia
 * Jefferson County, West Virginia

The antebellum composition included four additional counties that are now in West Virginia as well as four additional Virginia counties:
 * Morgan County, West Virginia
 * Hampshire County, West Virginia
 * Hardy County, West Virginia
 * Pendleton County, West Virginia
 * Botetourt County, Virginia
 * Alleghany County, Virginia
 * Bath County, Virginia
 * Highland County, Virginia

The cultural region includes five more counties in Virginia:
 * Highland County
 * Bath County
 * Alleghany County
 * Botetourt County
 * Roanoke County

Between the Roanoke Valley in the south and Harpers Ferry in the north, where the Shenandoah River joins the Potomac, the Valley cultural region contains 10 independent cities:
 * Winchester
 * Harrisonburg
 * Waynesboro
 * Staunton
 * Lexington
 * Buena Vista
 * Covington
 * Roanoke
 * Salem

The central section of the Shenandoah Valley is split in half by the Massanutten Mountain range, with the smaller associated Page Valley lying to its east and Fort Valley within the mountain range.

Notable caves
The Shenandoah Valley contains a number of geologically and historically significant limestone caves:
 * Skyline Caverns
 * Luray Caverns, designated a National Natural Landmark in 1974
 * Shenandoah Caverns
 * Endless Caverns
 * Grand Caverns, designated a National Natural Landmark in 1973
 * Dixie Caverns

Etymology
The word Shenandoah is of unknown Native American origin. It has been described as being derived from the Anglicization of Native American terms, resulting in words such as Gerando, Gerundo, Genantua, Shendo and Sherando. The meaning of these words is of some question. Schin-han-dowi, the "River Through the Spruces"; On-an-da-goa, the "River of High Mountains" or "Silver-Water"; and an Iroquois word for "Big Meadow", have all been proposed by Native American etymologists. The most popular, romanticized belief is that the name comes from a Native American expression for "Beautiful Daughter of the Stars".

Another legend relates that the name is derived from the name of the Iroquoian chief Sherando (Sherando was also the name of his people), who fought against the Algonquian Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy (1618–1644). Opechancanough liked the interior country so much that he sent his son Sheewa-a-nee from the Tidewater with a large party to colonize the valley. Sheewa-a-nee drove Sherando back to his former territory near the Great Lakes. According to this account, descendants of Sheewanee's party became the Shawnee. According to tradition, another branch of Iroquoians, the Senedo, lived in present-day Shenandoah County. They were exterminated by "Southern Indians" (Catawba or Cherokee) before the arrival of white settlers.

Another story dates to the American Revolutionary War. Throughout the war, Chief Skenandoa of the Oneida, an Iroquois nation based in New York, persuaded many of the tribe to side with the colonials against the British. Four Iroquois nations became British allies and caused many fatalities and damage in the frontier settlements west of Albany. Skenandoa led 250 warriors against the British and Iroquois allies. According to Oneida oral tradition, during the harsh winter of 1777–1778 at Valley Forge, where the colonials suffered, Chief Skenando provided aid to the soldiers. The Oneida delivered bushels of dry corn to the troops to help them survive. Polly Cooper, an Oneida woman, stayed some time with the troops to teach them how to cook the corn properly and care for the sick. General Washington gave her a shawl in thanks, which is displayed at Shako:wi, the museum of the Oneida Nation near Syracuse, New York. Many Oneida believe that after the war, George Washington named the Shenandoah River and valley after his ally.

First European explorers
Despite the valley's potential for productive farmland, colonial settlement from the east was long delayed by the barrier of the Blue Ridge Mountains. These were crossed by explorers John Lederer at Manassas Gap in 1671, Batts and Fallam the same year, and Cadwallader Jones in 1682. The Swiss Franz Ludwig Michel and Christoph von Graffenried explored and mapped the Valley in 1706 and 1712, respectively. Von Graffenried reported that the Indians of Senantona (Shenandoah) had been alarmed by news of the recent Tuscarora War in North Carolina.

18th century
Governor Alexander Spotswood's legendary Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition of 1716 crossed the Blue Ridge at Swift Run Gap and reached the river at Elkton, Virginia. Settlers did not immediately follow, but someone who heard the reports and later became the first permanent settler in the Valley was Adam Miller (Mueller), who in 1727 staked out claims on the south fork of the Shenandoah River, near the line that now divides Rockingham County from Page County.

The Great Wagon Road (later called the Valley Pike or Valley Turnpike) began as the Great Warriors Trail or Indian Road, a Native road through common hunting grounds shared by several tribes settled around the periphery, which included Iroquoian, Siouan and Algonquian-language family tribes. Known native settlements within the Valley were few but included the Shawnee occupying the region around Winchester, and Tuscarora around what is now Martinsburg, West Virginia. In the late 1720s and 1730s, Quakers and Mennonites began to move in from Pennsylvania. They were tolerated by the natives, while "Long Knives" (English settlers from coastal Virginia colony) were less welcomed. During these same decades, the valley route continued to be used by war parties of Seneca (Iroquois) and Lenape en route from New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey to attack the distant Catawba in the Carolinas, with whom they were at war. The Catawba in turn pursued the war parties northward, often overtaking them by the time they reached the Potomac. Several fierce battles were fought among the warring nations in the Valley region, as attested by the earliest European-American settlers.

Later colonists called this route the Great Wagon Road; it became the major thoroughfare for immigrants' moving by wagons from Pennsylvania and northern Virginia into the backcountry of the South. The Valley Turnpike Company improved the road by paving it with macadam prior to the Civil War and set up toll gates to collect fees to pay for the improvements. After the advent of motor vehicles, the road was refined and paved appropriately for their use. In the 20th century, the road was acquired by the Commonwealth of Virginia, which incorporated it into the state highway system as U.S. Route 11. For much of its length, the newer Interstate 81, constructed in the 1960s, parallels the old Valley Pike.

Along with the first German settlers, known as "Shenandoah Deitsch", many Scotch-Irish immigrants came south in the 1730s from Pennsylvania into the valley, via the Potomac River. The Scotch-Irish comprised the largest group of non-English immigrants from the British Isles before the Revolutionary War, and most migrated into the backcountry of the South. This was in contrast to the chiefly English immigrants who had settled the Virginia Tidewater and Carolina Piedmont regions.

Along with the Ulster Scots many Irishmen arrived in the Shenandoah valley, usually after their indentured service was up. These Irishmen usually had converted to Protestantism or kept their faith secret. In the 18th-century Thirteen Colonies and the independent United States, while interethnic marriage among Catholics remained a dominant pattern, Catholic-Protestant intermarriage became more common (notably in the Shenandoah Valley where intermarriage among Ulster Protestants and the significant minority of Irish Catholics in particular was not uncommon or stigmatized), and while fewer Catholic parents required that their children be disinherited in their wills if they renounced Catholicism, it remained more common among Catholic parents to do so if their children renounced their parents' faith than it was in the rest of the U.S. population.

Governor Spotswood had arranged the Treaty of Albany with the Iroquois (Six Nations) in 1721, whereby they had agreed not to come east of the Blue Ridge in their raiding parties on tribes farther to the South. In 1736, the Iroquois began to object, claiming that they still legally owned the land to the west of the Blue Ridge; this led to a skirmish with Valley settlers in 1743. The Iroquois were on the verge of declaring war on the Virginia Colony as a result, when Governor Gooch paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the Valley that was claimed by them. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold all their remaining claim to the Valley for 200 pounds in gold.

The few Shawnees who still resided in the Valley abruptly headed westward in 1754, having been approached the year before by emissaries from their kindred beyond the Alleghenies.

19th century
The Shenandoah Valley was known as the breadbasket of the Confederacy during the Civil War and was seen as a backdoor for Confederate raids on Maryland, Washington, and Pennsylvania. Because of its strategic importance it was the scene of three major campaigns. The first was the Valley Campaign of 1862, in which Confederate General Stonewall Jackson defended the Valley against three numerically superior Union armies. The final two were the Valley Campaigns of 1864. First, in the summer of 1864, Confederate General Jubal Early cleared the Valley of its Union occupiers and then proceeded to raid Maryland, Pennsylvania, and D.C. Then during the autumn, Union General Philip Sheridan was sent to drive Early from the Valley and once-and-for-all deny its use to the Confederates through the use of scorched-earth tactics. The Valley, especially in the lower northern section, was also the scene of bitter partisan fighting as the region's inhabitants were deeply divided over loyalties, and Confederate partisan John Mosby and his Rangers frequently operated in the area.

20th century
A series of newspaper mergers, ending in 1914, established the Daily News-Record of Harrisonburg as the daily newspaper of the Shenandoah Valley.

In the late 20th century, the Valley's vineyards began to reach maturity. They constituted the new industry of the Shenandoah Valley American Viticultural Area.

21st century
In 2018, a series of strikes and protests were held in Dayton's Cargill plant.

Transportation
Transportation in the Shenandoah Valley consists mainly of road and rail and contains several metropolitan area transit authorities. The main north-south road transportation is Interstate 81, which parallels the old Valley Turnpike (U.S. Route 11) and the ancient Great Path of the Native Americans through its course in the valley. In the lower (northern) valley, on the eastern side, U.S. Route 340 also runs north-south, starting from Waynesboro in the south, running through the Page Valley to Front Royal, and on to Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, where it exits the valley into Maryland. Major east-west roads cross the valley as well, providing access to the Piedmont and the Allegheny Mountains. Starting from the north, these routes include U.S. Route 50, U.S. Route 522, Interstate 66, U.S. Route 33, U.S. Route 250, Interstate 64, and U.S. Route 60.

CSX Transportation operates several rail lines through the valley, including the old Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, Virginia Central Railroad. Norfolk Southern operates the old Manassas Gap Railroad and the Norfolk and Western and Chesapeake Western. There are also more modern lines that run the length of the valley parallel to the Valley Pike and U.S. 340. The rail lines are primarily used for freight transportation, though Maryland Area Rail Commuter (MARC) trains utilize the old B&O line from stations in Martinsburg, Duffields, and Harper's Ferry to Washington Union Station in Washington, D.C., and vice versa. Amtrak utilizes Harpers Ferry and Martinsburg as well along the Capitol Limited route. Amtrak also runs the Cardinal through the valley along the old Virginia Central.

Several localities in the valley operate public transportation systems, including Front Royal Area Transit (FRAT), which provides weekday transit for the town of Front Royal; Page County Transit, providing weekday transit for the town of Luray and weekday service between Luray and Front Royal; and Winchester Transit, which provides weekday transit for the city of Winchester. In addition, Shenandoah Valley Commuter Bus Service offers weekday commuter bus service from the northern Shenandoah Valley, including Shenandoah County and Warren County, to Northern Virginia (Arlington County and Fairfax County) and Washington. Origination points in Shenandoah County include Woodstock. Origination points in Warren County include Front Royal and Linden.

In popular culture
The Shenandoah Valley serves as the setting for the 1965 film Shenandoah and its 1974 musical adaptation. Both stories follow the Anderson family during the Civil War. An associated song by James Stewart titled "The Legend of Shenandoah" was a very minor hit in 1965, reaching #133 on the Billboard Bubbling Under the Hot 100 chart. One of the most famous cultural references to the area does not mention the valley itself: West Virginia's state song, "Take Me Home, Country Roads" by John Denver, contains the words "Blue Ridge Mountain, Shenandoah River" in the first verse.

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Gender marking in job titles

A gender-specific job title is a name of a job that also specifies or implies the gender of the person performing that job. For example, in English, the job titles stewardess and seamstress imply that the person is female, whilst the corresponding job titles steward and seamster imply that the person is male. A gender-neutral job title, on the other hand, is one that does not specify or imply gender, such as firefighter or lawyer. In some cases, it may be debatable whether a title is gender-specific; for example, chairman appears to denote a male (because of the ending -man), but the title is also applied sometimes to women.

Proponents of gender-neutral language generally advocate the use of gender-neutral job titles, particularly in contexts where the gender of the person in question is not known or not specified. For example, they prefer flight attendant to stewardess or steward, and police officer to policeman or policewoman. In some cases this may involve deprecating the use of certain specifically female titles (such as authoress), thus encouraging the use of the corresponding unmarked form (such as author) as a fully gender-neutral title.

The above applies to gender neutrality in English and in some other languages without grammatical gender (where grammatical gender is a feature of a language's grammar that requires every noun to be placed in one of several classes, often including feminine and masculine). In languages with grammatical gender, the situation is altered by the fact that nouns for people are often constrained to be inherently masculine or feminine, and the production of truly gender-neutral titles may not be possible. In such cases, proponents of gender-neutral language may instead focus on ensuring that feminine and masculine words exist for every job, and that they are treated with equal status.

Examples
The suffix -man had the meanings "person" and "adult male" in Old English (see man), but, even when used as a gender-neutral term to include women, it was understood to still mainly refer to males. Around the 20th century, the gender-neutral use of man and -man declined. Thus job titles that include this suffix, such as fireman, salesman and alderman, generally imply that the holder is male. While some of these job titles have feminine variants (e.g. alderwoman), others do not, because traditionally the positions in question were not occupied by women. For most such titles, gender-neutral equivalents now also exist, such as police officer, salesperson or sales representative (for salesman or saleswoman), etc. However, some proposed gender-neutral terms have not attained such common usage (as with fisher as an alternative to fisherman). Military ranks with the suffix -man normally remain unchanged when applied to females: for example, a woman serving in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers might be known as Craftsman Atkins.

Examining the Time magazine corpus (texts from the 1920s to the 2000s), researcher Maria Bovin found:

In the case of chairman, gender-neutral alternatives (such as chair and chairperson) exist, although in some contexts the word chairman is used even where it denotes (or could denote) a woman. For details, see Chairman.

Feminine terms such as actress, usherette and comedienne are marked with respect to the masculine (actor, usher, comedian) both formally (i.e. something is added to the masculine form) and in the sense that only the masculine form can be used generically to describe a mixed-gender group of people. This means that the "masculine" form can in fact serve as a gender-neutral term (a solution often favored by proponents of gender-neutral language, who thus tend to deprecate or restrict usage of the specifically feminine forms). Some such feminine forms, such as poetess and authoress, are now rarely used. Others, such as actress, remain common, although increasing numbers of women are calling themselves actors rather than actresses. The Screen Actors Guild annually gives out awards for "Best Male Actor" and "Best Female Actor".

The term waiter appears to retain masculine specificity (with waitress as the corresponding feminine term). Other gender-neutral terms have therefore been proposed, such as server (alternatives include waitron, waitstaff or waitperson), though these are rarely used outside North America.

The term midwife looks superficially to be feminine (since it ends with -wife), but it is used for either gender. The term comes from an Old English term meaning "with the woman".

In an examination of "business-related titles" such as businessman and business people, "overall usage of these terms seems to have decreased since the 1960s" when examining Time magazine: When "looking specifically at the difference between the gender-marked titles and the gender-neutral ones, businessperson(s) and businesspeople, there has been an increase usage of the neutral businesspeople (if all spelling variations are included). Yet, this is not a large increase, and as it is used to refer to a group of people rather than an individual, its relevance may be questionable. Noticeable is the fact that businessperson is remarkably infrequent, and only appears in three decades. The term businesswoman may be increasing again between the 1980s and the 2000s, after a lower usage in the preceding fifty years. It has its highest frequency of usage in the 1920s."

Origin of the word "master" are late Old English: "a man having control or authority; a teacher or tutor", from Latin magister (n.), a contrastive adjective ("he who is greater") meaning "chief, head, director, teacher", and the source of Old French maistre, French maître, Spanish and Italian maestro, Portuguese mestre, Dutch meester, German Meister.

"Garner's Usage Tip of the Day" states, in regards to "layman; layperson; lay person", that Layman' is the most common among these terms and is commonly regarded as unexceptionable — in reference to members of both sexes, of course."

Evolution over time
The case for switching to gender-neutral job titles usually makes an ideological argument, that gender-specific job titles at some level promote sexism in the workplace. For example, fire chiefs have argued that when the public uses the term "fireman" instead of "firefighter", it reinforces the popular image that firefighting is only a job for men, and thus makes it difficult for them to recruit women. Studies found that people assume maleness when they read job titles with -man, and they found that women were less likely to apply to jobs that used -man in their application.

During the 19th century, attempts to overlay Latin grammar rules onto English required the use of feminine endings in nouns ending with -ess. This produced words like doctress and professoress and even lawyeress, all of which have fallen out of use; though waitress, stewardess, and actress are in modern use.

Use of the term chairman remains widespread in predominantly male sectors of society, but chairperson or chair is now widespread in society in general, at least in the US, Canada and increasingly in the UK. For example, the boards of most Fortune 500 companies in the United States are presided over by a "chairman" and also the overwhelming majority of the (FTSE 100) companies in the United Kingdom have a "chairman", while committees in the United States House of Representatives are presided over by a "chair", as of 2009. Since most of these are, however, men, a more correct description of the current language situation needs to consider use in organisations whose chairperson is a woman. Less than half of the members of the American Heritage Dictionary 's usage panel accept the use of the word chairman in describing a woman.

Some usage guides, such as The Cambridge Guide to English Usage, advocate gender-neutral language in circumstances where all sexes are meant to be included. For instance, a business might advertise that it is looking for a new chair or chairperson rather than chairman. Gender-neutral language discourages chairman, on the grounds that some readers would assume women and those of other genders are implicitly excluded from responding to an advertisement using this word.

Feminist Philosophy of Language, a guide on sexism in language and feminist language reform, also discourages the usage of man and -man as gender-neutral because it has male bias and erases women under a masculine word. They also discourage titles like "lady doctor" because it makes men the default and implies that the ability and competence of workers, in this case a doctor, are dependent on their sex.

The United States military has also examined traditional job titles, in line with the 2016 decision to allow women to serve in all combat jobs.

Generally accepted writing conventions
Proponents of gender-neutral job titles believe that such titles should be used, especially when referring to hypothetical persons. For example, firefighter instead of fireman; mail carrier, letter carrier, or post worker rather than mailman; flight attendant instead of steward or stewardess; bartender instead of barman or barmaid. In the rare case where no useful gender-neutral alternative is available, they believe both male and female terms should be used.

Proponents of gender-neutral language advocate the use of a neuter form when/where appropriate. For example, a company may seek to fill a vacancy and hire a new chairperson. Since a gendered individual doesn't currently hold the position, its title reverts to a neuter form. Once that position is filled, many advocates believe gender can be attached to the title as appropriate (chairman or chairwoman).

Sometimes this formulation can lead to inconsistent gender-specific usage, in which women become chairpersons but men remain chairmen. Some women opt to use the word chairman in preference to chairwoman, subject to the style Madam or Mister prefixing the title, which they perceive to be gender-neutral by itself. Particularly in academia, the word Chair is often used to designate the person chosen to oversee the agenda at meetings of an organized group.

The principle of gender-neutral language dictates that job titles that add suffixes to make them feminine should be avoided. For example, "usher", not "usherette"; "comedian", not "comedienne". Some of these are almost entirely obsolete now, such as sculptress, authoress, poetess, and aviatrix. If gender is relevant, the words woman or female should be used instead of "lady" ("my grandmother was the first female doctor in the province"), except if the masculine is "lord" (as in "landlady"). In the case of landlord or landlady, it may be preferable to find an equivalent title with the same meaning, such as proprietor or lessor. However, when a female is in the office of "the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod", it is changed to "the Lady Usher of the Black Rod" or simply "Usher of the Black Rod", as in Canada.

Advisors on non-sexist usage deprecate terms such as "male nurse", "female doctor", "male model", or "female judge" because such terms are often used when the gender and sex is irrelevant. These advisors say that the statement of exception reinforces harmful assumptions about the gender of people in those professions.

Languages other than English
When words have a grammatical gender associated with them, in many languages, they may impose morphological requirements to maintain sentence agreement. That is, there is a non-political content to the word changes, or inflection. Nevertheless, gender-identification word endings are sometimes dropped, something that happened often in the former East Germany, for example. Sometimes an entirely new or etymologically unrelated word is coined. For example, when men in France wanted to become midwives, which up until then was an exclusively female occupation, they chose not to adapt the existing term sage-femme ('wise woman'), and instead coined maïeuticien.

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Speedy deletion of Forcenra!
A tag has been placed on Forcenra! requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a band, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, as well as our subject-specific notability guideline for musical topics.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the page that has been nominated for deletion (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on the talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Lastly, please note that if the article does get deleted, you can contact one of these admins to request that a copy be emailed to you. Blowdart | talk 10:32, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

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