text:
Talk:Coccidioidomycosis

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Spelling error?
I have always heard and read the spelling as CoccidiomycosisItalic text. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.138.17.129 (talk) 06:54, 9 May 2009 (UTC)

The
The basis of this article is derived from the public domain information at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/coccidioidomycosis_t.htm and http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018831.htm.

I don't think that the external link to http://www.histopathology-india.net/Cocci.htm should be included. It is apparently one doctor's personal web site, doesn't cite any sources, and is not peer-reviewed. I don't think it's at the same level of information as the CDC and MedLine Plus, but I didn't want to just delete it without giving the opportunity for discussion. Archivizt 21:23, 29 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I've deleted it primarily because it's been linkspammed to over 200 other medicine articles. Graham 87 02:31, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

buzz words for usmle cocci
I think there are some buzz words for USMLE med students that could be considered for this article.

Thoughts? Tkjazzer 00:15, 12 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Somet that come to mind are San Wakee valley (spelling?)
 * ____ Desert (I can't remember which desert)
 * Fresno

They've been included, and its not just Fresno, might as well include Bakersfield. Spelling corrections (word corrections). -San Joaquin Valley -Mojave Desert? Not sure if that's what you're referring to -Fresno/Bakersfield/any other San Joaquin Valley cities/towns.Hengineer (talk) 08:58, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

Contagiousness
I'm puzzled. If the disease is not spread person to person, as the article states, then why is it a big problem in prison populations? MdArtLover (talk) 23:18, 28 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I'm assuming it's because there's a high concentration of people there, so when the soil containing the fungus gets disturbed, the fungus can infect a lot of people in one go. --79.65.61.64 (talk) 20:11, 11 November 2008 (UTC)

Tweaks
I made a few minor edits to the section on Incidence. I changed "incidence rate" to "incidence." Incidence and rate are synonyms. It's like naming a geologic formation "table mesa" when "mesa" is the Spanish word for table. I changed an instance of "incident rate" to "incidence." "incident rate" is more correct than "incidence rate" as it is similar to "accident rate," but why not make it simpler. I added a few commas in large numbers to make number formating consistent, as some numbers were written as "100000" on one place, but as "100,000" in other places. I renamed the section "Incidence" from "Occurance" for final consistency and mad a few other minor grammar changes.

Lorem Ipsum —Preceding unsigned comment added by Deliverance (talk • contribs) 16:05, 10 January 2010 (UTC)

Case series
150 cases in a series JFW |  T@lk  20:19, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

Technical Jargon
I replaced some technical jargon. I replaced "PO" with "Oral," and I replaced "IV" with "intravenous." I deleted the reference to "fluconozole" from the third sentence. It doesn't make sense to refer to fluconozole as a first-line treatment in the second sentence and as an alternate treatment in the third sentence.

Lorem Ipsum —Preceding unsigned comment added by Deliverance (talk • contribs) 16:26, 10 January 2010 (UTC)

Interesting Volokh article on the disease
Not sure how to really work in here, but take a look:

TCO (talk) 17:51, 6 July 2013 (UTC)

P.s. The map shown is CDC and probably "free". Only shows U.S., but has more detail and is more recent than other maps in article now. (TCO)

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The two types
The article includes C. immitis and C. posadasii then treats them pretty much as the same (morphologically identical, but genetically and epidemiologically distinct) "except" sources I have run across list that C. immitis is native to the San Joaquin Valley of California, also referred to as "California fever," while C. posadasii is endemic to the rest of the areas. The article mentions the two separately in the lead then "It is endemic in certain parts...", being singular, then listing both fungi as covering all the areas. There is also some history that needs including in all three articles. Otr500 (talk) 12:18, 19 November 2016 (UTC)
 * You're welcome to add it! TylerDurden8823 (talk) 18:48, 19 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Thanks, while I can do so under WP:BOLD I find that adding a note might uncover someone guarding an article (not a bad thing), previous discussions "sometimes" heading off a BRD cycle, and also gives me a "note" when I run across something, while already involved in something else. This topic, which covers a lot of others, like Amphotericin B that especially includes Amphotericin B injections, do have a lot of potential for expansion. Otr500 (talk) 11:14, 20 November 2016 (UTC)
 * I don't think you'll run into any trouble as long as you add well-sourced material. If you have any questions or need help, feel free to ask. :) TylerDurden8823 (talk) 11:46, 20 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Thank you again. You can most definitely keep an eye on it. If you catch me submitting content without a references let me know so I can span myself--LOL. The similarities in the two fungi seems to confuse even some sources so I am digging through them. I will very likely run into some issues so also if you see something off let me know or certainly fix it. Otr500 (talk) 22:52, 20 November 2016 (UTC)
 * I suppose exceptions would be lead expansion, from the body of the article and referenced, and minor changes. I did notice that there are double spacings at the beginning of sentences. I have been fixing these (I thought) when I run into them but this appears deliberate so could you advise me on this? Otr500 (talk) 23:36, 20 November 2016 (UTC)

Reorganization
As well as expansion per the discussions above, I am also going to reorganize at least two sections, following the principle of causation. The section Signs and symptoms is followed by the Cause section. It is logical that what causes something to happen should be established before any after-effects. I also plan a lead expansion to include content concerning the also above mentioned Coccidioides posadasii. Otr500 (talk) 17:17, 15 January 2017 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 12:51, 25 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Spherule of Coccidioides immitis with endospores PHIL 481 lores.jpg

Expansion
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GH000209 discusses expected expansion due to climate change.

https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/wcas/13/1/wcas-d-20-0036.1.xml evaluates the economic impacts of expansion of the disease.

-- John Broughton (♫♫) 16:24, 19 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coccidioidomycosis


text:
Empress Gi

Empress Gi or Empress Ki (1315–1369(?)), also known as Empress Qi or Öljei Khutuk (Mongolian: Өлзийхутаг; ), was a Goryeo-born empress consort of the Yuan dynasty. She was one of the primary empresses of Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), and the mother of Biligtü Khan (Emperor Zhaozong), who would become an emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty. Gi was originally from an aristocratic family of the Goryeo dynasty, and first served as concubine of Toghon Temür. During the last years of the Yuan dynasty, she became one of its most powerful women and political figures, controlling the country economically and politically, and ruling with de facto imperial powers.

Biography
Empress Gi was born in Haengju (행주, 幸州; modern Goyang), Goryeo to a lower-ranked aristocratic family of bureaucrats. Her father was Gi Ja-oh. Lady Gi's maternal side was also related to  the noble  Jangheung Im clan, one of the prominent clans in Goryeo Kingdom. from her maternal great-grandmother Princess Consort Im of the Jangheung Im clan. In 1333, the teenage Lady Gi was among the concubines sent to Yuan by the Goryeo king, who had to provide a certain number of beautiful teenage girls to serve as concubines of the Yuan emperor once every three years. It was considered prestigious to marry Goryeo women. Extremely beautiful and skilled at dancing, conversation, singing, poetry, and calligraphy, Lady Gi quickly became the favorite concubine of Toghon Temür. He fell in love with her, and it was soon noted that he was spending far more time in her company than he was with the first empress Danashiri.

The primary empress Danashiri was executed on 22 July 1335 in a purge because of the rebellion of her brother Tangqishi. When Toghon Temür tried to promote Lady Gi to secondary wife, which was contrary to the standard practice of only taking secondary wives from the Mongol clans, it created such opposition at court to this unheard of promotion for a Goryeo woman that he was forced to back down. Bayan, who held the real power in Yuan, opposed the promotion of Lady Gi as did the Empress Dowager, who considered Lady Gi to be cunning. In 1339, when Lady Gi gave birth to a son, Ayushiridara, whom Toghon Temür decided would be his successor, he was finally able to have Lady Gi named as his secondary wife (in 1340). As the favorite wife of the emperor, Lady Gi was a very powerful woman in Yuan. When Bayan was purged, Lady Gi became the secondary empress in 1340 (the primary empress was Bayan Khutugh of the Khongirad).

Toghon Temür increasingly lost interest in governing as his reign continued. During this time power was increasingly exercised by a politically and economically talented Lady Gi. Lady Gi's older brother Ki Ch'ŏl was appointed the commander of the Mongol Eastern Field Headquarters—making him in effect the real ruler of Goryeo—owing to her influence, and she closely monitored Goryeo affairs. Her son was designated Crown Prince in 1353. Using her eunuch Park Bul-hwa as her agent, she began a campaign to force the emperor to pass the imperial throne to her son. However, her intentions became known to the emperor and he grew apart from her.

Depending on Lady Gi's position in the imperial capital, her elder brother Ki Ch'ŏl came to threaten the position of the king of Goryeo, which was a client state of the Yuan dynasty. King Gongmin of Goryeo exterminated the Gi family in a coup in 1356 and became independent of the Yuan. Lady Gi responded by selecting Tash Temür as the new king of Goryeo and dispatched troops to Goryeo. However, the Yuan troops were defeated by the army of Goryeo while attempting to cross the Yalu River.

Within the Yuan capital an internal strife was fought between supporters and opponents of the Crown Prince. An opposition leader, Bolud Temür, finally occupied the capital in 1364. Her son fled to Köke Temür who supported him, but Lady Gi was imprisoned by Bolud Temür. Bolud Temür was overthrown by Köke Temür the next year. Once again, she tried to install her son as Khagan, this time with the support of Köke Temür, but in vain. After Bayan Khutugh died, Lady Gi was elevated to the primary empress in December 1365.

The collapse of Yuan dynasty in 1368 forced her to flee to Yingchang's city, today's Inner Mongolia. In 1370, Toghon Temür died and his son ascended to the throne. Empress Gi became the Grand Empress, but soon after that went missing.

Family

 * Father
 * Ki Cha-o (1266–1328)
 * Mother
 * Lady Yi of the Iksan Yi clan
 * Siblings
 * Older brother: Ki Sik ; died prematurely
 * Older brother: Ki Ch'ŏl (? – 1356)
 * Older brother: Ki Won
 * Older brother: Ki Chu
 * Older brother: Ki Yun
 * Husband
 * Toghon Temür (25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370)
 * Issue
 * Son: Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (必里克圖汗; 23 January 1340 – 28 April/26 May 1378)
 * Daughter-in-law - Empress Gwon of the Andong Gwon clan (? – 1378/22 May 1410); daughter of Gwon Gyeom (? – 1356)
 * Prince Maidilibala (26 March 1363 – 16 May 1375)
 * Princess Ariun (14 September 1377 – 15 February 1423)
 * Grandson-in-law: Jorightu Khan Yesüder (卓里克圖汗; 1358–1392)

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Kim Hye-ri in 2005 MBC TV series Shin Don.
 * Portrayed by Hyun Seung-min and Ha Ji-won in 2013–2014 MBC TV series Empress Ki.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Empress Gi


text:
Eddie Stobart

Edward Pears Stobart (born 18 April 1929) is a British businessman who started an agriculture business in the late 1940s. This became Eddie Stobart Limited in 1970 and expanded to a haulage company during the 1970s with the help of his late son Edward Stobart who gradually took over the running of the company.

Life and career
He was born to John and Adelaide Stobart in July 1929. Stobart married Nora Boyd on 26 December 1951, and they live in Cumbria. They had four children: Anne (born 1952), John (1953–2022), Edward (1954–2011) and William (born 1961). Eddie bought his first lorry (a Guy Invincible four-wheeler truck) second-hand from the local garage in 1960, and had it re-painted in his choice of colours: post office red and Brunswick green. He took over the collection of basic slag (a waste product of steelworks used as fertiliser) when local company Harrison Ivinson went out of business, and purchased two Ford Thames Trader trucks which were also painted in his favourite colours with his logo on the doors. A contract with ICI for storage of basic slag in 1963 enabled expansion of the business, and it became a limited company: Eddie Stobart Limited in November 1970 with a share value of ten thousand pounds. In 1978 with a downturn in the Economy Eddie had 8 vehicles on the road along with a leased vehicle to Pickervance.

Eddie continued to run the company until 1976, when son Edward took over running the transport side.

title: Eddie Stobart


text:
Talk:Empress Gi

Untitled
I find it very difficult to transcript Mongolian names from Chinese without knowledge of Mongolian. Are these correct?

-- Nanshu
 * Ayushiridar: 愛猷識理達臘
 * Tas Temür: 塔思帖木兒
 * Bayan Temür: 伯顏帖木兒

 * Google searching on the Chinese titles and look for professional trancriptions in any of pages. User:kt2

As Mr. Corff said at, Mongolian names have irritating spelling variants and there seems no standard. For example, the current capital of Mongolia can be: Ulaanbaatar, Ulaan Baatar, Ulan Bator, Ulaan Baator, Ulagan Bagator, Ulaghan Baghator, UlaGan BaGator, etc. My romanization method is based on the Classical Mongolian script except for things about Outer Mongolia after the Mongolian Revolution. I want to apply an uniform policy to those classical names.

According to 愛猷識理達臘 is Аюуширдар in the Cyrillic script. Ayuurshirdar in Latin transliteration. However the classical spelling at is "Ayus(h)iridar Khaghan".

Then here is the result of Google search. What do you think?

-- Nanshu 22:56 Apr 7, 2003 (UTC)
 * Ayuurshirdar: 0
 * Ayurshirdar: 3
 * Ayushiridar: 0
 * Ayurshiridara: 3
 * Ayushiridara: 2
 * Ayushrider: 1

If his name in Hanja has three characters (奇子敖), how come its Korean Romanization has only two (Ki Jao)? Can two Hanja = 1 Han-geul? --Menchi 10:01 11 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * It's indeed three. Ki Ja O. There's no diphthong /ao/ in Korean. -- Anon

Since Ki is her surname, shouldn't it be "Empress Ki", like "Miss Ki"? --Menchi 14:19 13 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Öljei Khutugh -> This women IS NOT Korean. I'm sure 'bout it cuz I'm Korean. Maybe she's Mongolian Or Somthing.
 * Dear anonymous, she is originally from Goryeo. Maybe you'll recognise her if we refer to her as 기황후. She has a Mongolian name in addition to her original Korean name, as did a great number of Koreans did during that period in history. --Iceager 30 June 2005 03:14 (UTC)

The rules
Last March, I added quite a bit of material here based on the book A History of Korea by Hwang Kyung Moon who is a respected historian. Much of what I have done has been undo by an IP who complains about "distortions" of history. One can only base what's edits on a reliable source. I believe Hwang is a RS. If he is wrong, please cite a RS saying so. Deleting material that is cited because an editor and not even a registered editor thinks it is a "distortion" without so much as providing a single RS backing his or her edits is vandalism. It is also a little disturbing that the reference to the harem system as "gloried sexual slavery" was removed. The women in the Emperor's harem were his slaves and were there for his sexual use. I don't mean to sound anti-Asian, but all this business of vacuuming up young women to serve as concubines in the Emperor's harem (who not allowed to leave nor were asked if they wanted to join the harem) does reflect a view of women that is extremely sexist. Nobody asked Lady Gi if she wanted to go to China, and she didn't want to go; she was taken and that was that. I am going to revert the edits of this IP; if he or she wants to discuss the issue, please do so here. --A.S. Brown (talk) 21:19, 21 November 2016 (UTC)
 * But why use subjective adjectives like "gloried"? If you insist on citing reliable sources, you should also insist on being objective and factual and not sound like an anti-propaganda page. It's not neutral point of view to write things like "in effect the Emperor's harem was glorified sexual slavery". Concubines were high ranking officials and many of them had power. There are two sides of a coin, always. Yet you insist on showing only one side of it, that you deem "sexist". Those were the times, none of the states in those times were feminist or equalist, not just in Asia. Europe was none the better in treating women in the Middle Ages. yet you kind of make it look like only Asian kingdoms were "sexist". You need a better understanding of the era. Teemeah  편지 (letter)  08:53, 22 November 2016 (UTC)

do you know real history?
1. This history is only in goryeo, not in entire Korea. 2. 기 is Gi not Ki. 3. drama  distorted real Empress Gi. and korean historist told she is only betrayer, not good woman. you have no idea in korean history you aren't Korean, but I know real Korean history because I'm Korean. 4.making her the object of enduring fascination in Korea? no. she is only betrayer, not a enduring fascination! 5. goryeo style? she is only one of thousands of human tribute. human tribute spreaded goryeo style not her. she devoted human tribute as a bribe. Trust Me, please! I'm very upset because of rollback. It's real history. she is worst case of betrayer. Please refer to Korean Wikipedia if you want to know source. more source : http://premium.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/03/04/2014030404668.html, http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201308292016531&code=960801, http://www.encykorea.com/enc/ency_012375.html — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.150.235.19 (talk) 13:03, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

Sexist language
The treatment of women in this article is problematic and sexist with a likely Han-chinese chauvanist bias. It needs editing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sumaiyahle (talk • contribs) 20:31, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Empress Gi


text:
Talk:Dependent area

If the Balearics, the Canaries, the Basque Country, and Catalonia are in here, why aren't the rest of the Spanish autonomous communities, and for that matter American states and Canadian provinces? - Montréalais

 * You're right. The initial sentence of the article specifies that this is a list of colonies, overseas territories and other not or only partially independent country-like units. The Balearics, etc. are Autonomous communities of Spain and should be removed. D.D. 00:12 Feb 7, 2003 (UTC)

 * Other question: shouldn't Tibet be mentioned here? According to China it's an integral part of that country; on the other hand, it does have a government in exile. I would classify it as a non-independent country-like unit (however vague that term is). D.D. 00:23 Feb 7, 2003 (UTC)

 * Agree. This is actually the beauty of Wikipedia vs a commercial Encyclopedia. Wikipedia can keep an NPOV without being afraid of offending any particular political entity. Sebastian 03:48 Feb 7, 2003 (UTC)

 * The problem is that the government in exile is not international recognized, and there is no formal recognition by any government that Tibet is a dependent area. The other issue is that the government in exile does not de-facto control Tibet.  Finally, I doubt that the Tibetan government-in-exile claims that Tibet is a dependent area of China, rather their claim is that it is an independent nation under occupation which is different from a dependent area.

 * One more thing. On Wikipedia, You don't have to worry so much about offending a particular political entity, but you do have to worry about offending people who do agree with that political entity. -- User:Roadrunner

Why are Sicily and Sealand on this list? Sicily is an integral part of Italy, no more a dependency than Tuscany. And Sealand would claim not to be a dependency of anybody. -- Zoe

-

Removed Spratly Islands. It's disputed territory not a dependent area.

A general comment. Since there seem to be so many different entities (colonies, overseas territories, disputed territories, occupied territories, territories with a government in exile, etc...), why don't we change the name of this article into non-independent areas (which is a broader term than dependent areas). Then we can subdivide the list in all these different entities, a bit like the Dutch language wikipedia has done here. Of course, independent countries and integral parts of countries (states, provinces, etc...) should not be included. Any comments? D.D. 11:17 Feb 7, 2003 (UTC)

The above proposal has been here for 9 days. Since there has been no reaction I have moved the page. I have subdivided the list into two main parts: "dependent areas" and "other non-independent areas". I realise that the latter currently contains a very uncomplete mix of entities, but of course this can be improved a lot (I haven't been able to find a better name for it yet). D.D. 09:58 Feb 16, 2003 (UTC)

Moved content
I merged the content of this page into the List of dependent territories. Electionworld 11:09, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dependent area


text:
UTF-32

UTF-32 (32-bit Unicode Transformation Format) is a fixed-length encoding used to encode Unicode code points that uses exactly 32 bits (four bytes) per code point (but a number of leading bits must be zero as there are far fewer than 232 Unicode code points, needing actually only 21 bits). UTF-32 is a fixed-length encoding, in contrast to all other Unicode transformation formats, which are variable-length encodings. Each 32-bit value in UTF-32 represents one Unicode code point and is exactly equal to that code point's numerical value.

The main advantage of UTF-32 is that the Unicode code points are directly indexed. Finding the Nth code point in a sequence of code points is a constant-time operation. In contrast, a variable-length code requires linear-time to count N code points from the start of the string. This makes UTF-32 a simple replacement in code that uses integers that are incremented by one to examine each location in a string, as was commonly done for ASCII. However, Unicode code points are rarely processed in complete isolation, such as combining character sequences and for emoji.

The main disadvantage of UTF-32 is that it is space-inefficient, using four bytes per code point, including 11 bits that are always zero. Characters beyond the BMP are relatively rare in most texts (except, for example, in the case of texts with some popular emojis), and can typically be ignored for sizing estimates. This makes UTF-32 close to twice the size of UTF-16. It can be up to four times the size of UTF-8 depending on how many of the characters are in the ASCII subset.

History
The original ISO/IEC 10646 standard defines a 32-bit encoding form called UCS-4, in which each code point in the Universal Character Set (UCS) is represented by a 31-bit value from 0 to 0x7FFFFFFF (the sign bit was unused and zero). In November 2003, Unicode was restricted by RFC 3629 to match the constraints of the UTF-16 encoding: explicitly prohibiting code points greater than U+10FFFF (and also the high and low surrogates U+D800 through U+DFFF). This limited subset defines UTF-32. Although the ISO standard had (as of 1998 in Unicode 2.1) "reserved for private use" 0xE00000 to 0xFFFFFF, and 0x60000000 to 0x7FFFFFFF these areas were removed in later versions. Because the Principles and Procedures document of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 Working Group 2 states that all future assignments of code points will be constrained to the Unicode range, UTF-32 will be able to represent all UCS code points and UTF-32 and UCS-4 are identical.

Utility of fixed width
A fixed number of bytes per code point has a number of theoretical advantages, but each of these has problems in reality:

 * Truncation becomes easier, but not significantly so compared to UTF-8 and UTF-16 (both of which can search backwards for the point to truncate by looking at 2–4 code units at most).
 * Finding the Nth character in a string. For fixed width, this is simply a O(1) problem, while it is O(n) problem in a variable-width encoding. Novice programmers often vastly overestimate how useful this is. Also what a user might call a "character" is still variable-width, for instance the combining character 'á' could be 2 code points, the emoji '👨🦲' is three, and the ligature 'ﬀ' is one.
 * Quickly knowing the "width" of a string. In practice, even with a "fixed width" font and restricting the characters to the BMP, finding the string width from a count of code points is impossible. There are combining forms like 'é' as expressed using two code points 'e' + ' ́ ' and "fixed width" may assign a width of 2 to CJK ideographs, and some code points take multiple character positions per code point ("grapheme clusters" for CJK).

Use
The main use of UTF-32 is in internal APIs where the data is single code points or glyphs, rather than strings of characters. For instance, in modern text rendering, it is common that the last step is to build a list of structures each containing coordinates (x,y), attributes, and a single UTF-32 code point identifying the glyph to draw. Often non-Unicode information is stored in the "unused" 11 bits of each word.

Use of UTF-32 strings on Windows (where wchar_t is 16 bits) is almost non-existent. On Unix systems, UTF-32 strings are sometimes, but rarely, used internally by applications, due to the type wchar_t being defined as 32 bit. Python versions up to 3.2 can be compiled to use them instead of UTF-16; from version 3.3 onward all Unicode strings are stored in UTF-32 but with leading zero bytes optimized away "depending on the [code point] with the largest Unicode ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes)" to make all code points that size. Seed7 and Lasso programming languages encode all strings with UTF-32, in the belief that direct indexing is important, whereas the Julia programming language moved away from builtin UTF-32 support with its 1.0 release, simplifying the language to having only UTF-8 strings (with all the other encodings considered legacy and moved out of the standard library to package ) following the "UTF-8 Everywhere Manifesto".

Variants
Though technically invalid, the surrogate halves are often encoded and allowed. This allows invalid UTF-16 (such as Windows filenames) to be translated to UTF-32, similar to how the WTF-8 variant of UTF-8 works. Sometimes paired surrogates are encoded instead of non-BMP characters, similar to CESU-8. Due to the large number of unused 32-bit values, it is also possible to preserve invalid UTF-8 by using non-Unicode values to encode UTF-8 errors, though there is no standard for this.

title: UTF-32


text:
Coober Pedy

Coober Pedy is a town in northern South Australia, 846 km north of Adelaide on the Stuart Highway. The town is sometimes referred to as the "opal capital of the world" because of the quantity of precious opals that are mined there. A blower truck is raised above the town sign, representing the importance of opal mining to the town's history. Coober Pedy is also renowned for its below-ground dwellings, called "dugouts", which are built in this fashion due to the scorching daytime heat.

The name "Coober Pedy" is thought to derive from the Kokatha-Barngarla term kupa-piti, which translates to "whitefellas' hole", but in 1975 the local Aboriginal people of the town adopted the name Umoona, which means "long life" and is also their name for the mulga tree.

According to the 2021 Australian census, 1,566 people lived in Coober Pedy.

History
Aboriginal peoples have a long-standing connection with the area. Coober Pedy is considered by the Western Desert people to be the traditional land of the Arabana people country, though Kokatha and Yankunytjatjara people are also closely attached to some ceremonial sites in the area. The origin of the name of the town (decided in 1920 ) is thought to derive from the words in the Kokatha language, kupa piti, usually translated as "whitefella – hole in the ground", or guba bidi, "white man's holes", relating to white people's mining activities (also reported as meaning "boys' waterhole" in some sources ). Further investigation into the words by linguists shows that kupa may have originated from the Parnkalla language and that piti may be the Kokatha word specifically created for "quarry" (a white man's activity).

In 1858, Scottish-born John McDouall Stuart was the first European explorer to pass near the site of Coober Pedy.

On February 1, 1915, Wille Hutchison discovered the first opal in the area, after which the town was established. Opal miners started moving in around 1916.

In 1920, five years later, a meeting settled on the name of Coober Pedy, when a post office was established.

In July 1975, the local Aboriginal people of Coober Pedy adopted the name Umoona, which means "long life" and is also their name for the Acacia aneura, or mulga tree, which is plentiful in the area. The name has since been used for various establishments in the town (Umoona Opal Mine and Museum, Umoona Community Art Centre, Umoona Tjutagku Health Service Aboriginal Corporation).

Description
Coober Pedy is a small town about halfway between Adelaide and Alice Springs. It is situated on the edge of the erosional scarp of the Stuart Ranges, on beds of sandstone and siltstone 30 m deep and topped with a stony, treeless desert. Very little plant life exists in town due to the region's low rainfall, high cost of water, and lack of topsoil.

The harsh summer desert temperatures mean that many residents prefer to live in caves bored into the hillsides (known as "dugouts"). A standard three-bedroom cave home with lounge, kitchen, and bathroom can be excavated out of the rock in the hillside for a similar price to building a house on the surface. However, dugouts remain at a constant temperature, while surface buildings need air conditioning, especially during the summer months, when temperatures often exceed 40 C. The relative humidity rarely gets over 20% on these hot days, and the skies are usually cloud-free. The average maximum temperature is 30 - 32 C, but it can get quite cool in the winter.

The town's water supply, managed by the District Council which operates a bore and associated treatment plant, comes from the Great Artesian Basin. Problems with ageing pipes, high water losses, and lack of subsidies contribute to consumer water charges being the highest in South Australia.

Opals
In 1915, the first opals in near Coober Pedy were found by a gold prospector. Earlier opal mining in Australia was mainly concentrated in New South Wales in towns such as Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs, and nearby Andamooka in South Australia. Following World War I, returning soldiers sought employment in the opal mines, which were expanding rapidly, and following World War II many refugees, veterans, and immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe found employment in the mines as well. At some points in the post-war period, up to 60 per cent of miners at Coober Pedy had Southern or Eastern European ancestry.

In August 1956 at the 'Eight Mile' opal field, the Olympic Australis opal was found approximately 30 feet below the ground. It is the largest and one of the most valuable opals mined to date, consisting of 99 per cent gem opal (the other 1 per cent being soil). The Olympic Australis measures 11 inches in length, $4 3/4$ inches height, $4 1/2$ inches in width, and weights 17,000 carats (3,450–g, 121.7–oz, 7.6–lb). It was valued at AU$2,500,000 (roughly US$1,708,000) in both 1997 and 2005, and is currently held in the offices of Altmann & Cherny Ltd, one of Australia's most prominent vendors and authorities on opals.

Starting around the 1970s, mechanized opal mining became more common, allowing for faster and comparatively less dangerous shaft digging, tunnelling, and tailings removal.

By 1999, there were more than 250,000 mine shaft entrances in the area. Fossicking and mining laws discouraged large-scale mining by allowing each prospector a 165 sqft claim. These laws were also enacted in response to the hazards of walking around the town, with many mine shafts unmarked, abandoned, or merely dangerous to navigate. Coober Pedy supplies most of the world's gem-quality opal; it has over 70 opal fields. An opalized fossil skeleton of an Umoonasaurus that has been nicknamed "Eric" was discovered in the Zorba Extension Opal Field near to Coober Pedy. The fossil is now in the Westpac Long Gallery of the Australian Museum.

Around 95 per cent of the opals mined today are gray, white potch, or common opals which are less valuable as they do not have opalescence. Black opals and other precious opals are rarer, but much more valuable for their opalescence and other desirable optical properties.

Other minerals
In May 2009, South Australian Premier Mike Rann opened the $1.15 billion Prominent Hill Mine, 130 km southeast of Coober Pedy. The copper-gold mine is operated by OZ Minerals.

In August 2010, Rann opened the Cairn Hill iron ore/copper/gold mine operated by IMX Resources near Coober Pedy. It was the first new iron ore mining area opened in South Australia since the 19th century. Due to low iron ore prices, the Cairn Hill mine was closed in June 2014. It was sold to Cu-River Mining who reopened the mine in 2016.

Oil reserves
In 2013, a potentially significant tight oil (oil trapped in oil-bearing shales) resource was found near the outskirts of Coober Pedy in the Arckaringa Basin. This resource was estimated to hold between 3.5 and 223 Goilbbl of oil, providing the potential for Australia to become a net oil exporter.

Tourism
The town has become a popular stopover point and tourist destination, especially since 1987, when the sealing of the Stuart Highway was completed.

Coober Pedy today relies as much on tourism as the opal mining industry to provide the community with employment and sustainability. Visitors' attractions in Coober Pedy include the mines, the graveyard and the underground churches (the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church). There are several motels offering underground accommodation, ranging from a few rooms to the entire motel being a dug-out. The hybrid Coober Pedy Solar Power Station supplies power to the off-grid area.

The dugout of crocodile hunter and WWII Latvian National Armed Forces soldier Arvid Blumenthal (or 'Crocodile Harry') is a famous tourist spot, known as 'Crocodile Harry's Underground Nest'. It is known for its bone collection, art and graffiti, and messages written by tourists. The dugout is featured as a set in movies, including Pitch Black and Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome.

The Umoona Opal Mine and Museum is a popular attraction.

The annual Coober Pedy Opal Festival takes place in June, with the 34th edition occurring in 2023.

Heritage sites
Coober Pedy has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

 * 13 Hutchison Street: Three-Roomed Dugout
 * 9 Hutchison Street: Coober Pedy Catholic Church and Presbytery

Amenities and services
The Umoona Tjutagku Health Service Aboriginal Corporation (UTHSAC) was established in 2005 to provide health services for local Aboriginal people.

Local media
Coober Pedy is home to the Coober Pedy Regional Times, a free community publication released fortnightly since 15 March 2001. Under a previous name, it had begun as a newsletter called the Coober Pedy Times, which was first issued in August 1982, itself continuing from a publication known as "Opal Chips". After some financial difficulties, the Times was bought by its editor, Margaret McKay, in 2006 and now includes online versions.

Coober Pedy is served by both local and national radio and television services. The government-owned ABC provides three broadcast radio stations — local radio ABC North & West SA 106.1FM & and the national networks ABC Radio National 107.7FM and Triple J 101.3FM.

Commercial radio stations are Dusty Radio 104.5FM and Flow FM 99.7. Community radio is provided by indigenous broadcaster CAAMA Radio 102.9FM.

Five broadcast television services operate in Coober Pedy: commercial stations Imparja Television, Southern Cross Central (formally known as Seven Central) and 10 Central. Also including the Government-owned ABC and SBS.

Sport and recreation
The local golf course – mostly played at night with glowing balls, to avoid daytime heat – is completely free of grass, and golfers take a small piece of "turf" around to use for teeing off. As a result of correspondence between the two clubs, the Coober Pedy Golf Club is the only club in the world to enjoy reciprocal rights at The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews.

The town also has an Australian rules football club, the Coober Pedy Saints, established in 2004, which competes in the Far North Football League (formerly the Woomera & Districts Football League). Due to the town's isolation, to play matches the Saints must make round trips of over 900 km to Roxby Downs, where the rest of the league's teams are located.

The town has a drive-in theatre. It opened in 1965, but became less popular after 1980 with the arrival of television to the town, and ceased regular operation in 1984. It was re-opened in 1996, and with the closure of the Mainline Drive-in at Gepps Cross in February 2022, became the last drive-in in the state.

Art centre
A board for the Umoona Community Art Centre was established in 2021, but needs government funding to establish a permanent location in the town. A group of highly talented artists has joined the APY Art Centre Collective, which helps to create employment opportunities for Indigenous artists in the region. An exhibition in the Adelaide gallery of the collective in September 2021 featured the work of 24 of these artists.

In philately
A rare exhibition cachet, signed by Coober Pedy postmaster Alfred P. North, was discovered in Memphis, Tennessee, by philatelist David Saks on 3 February 2016. To date, it is the only known example of this cachet in the world.

In popular culture
Both the town and its hinterland, for different reasons, are photogenic and have attracted film makers. The town itself is the setting for several films, and its environment has also attracted movie producers. These include:

Films

 * Fire in the Stone (1984)
 * Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985)
 * Ground Zero (1987)
 * The Blood of Heroes (1989)
 * Until the End of the World (1991)
 * Stark (1993), a TV miniseries
 * The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994)
 * Siam Sunset (1999)
 * Pitch Black (2000)
 * Red Planet (2000)
 * Kangaroo Jack (2003)
 * Opal Dream (2006)
 * The Osiris Child: Science Fiction Volume One (2016)
 * Instant Hotel Season 2 (2018)
 * Mortal Kombat (2021)
 * Stars on Mars (2023)
 * Limbo (2023)

Video game

 * Forza Horizon 3.

Climate
Coober Pedy experiences a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh, Trewartha: BWhl), with very hot, dry summers; mild to hot, dry springs and autumns; and mild, dry winters. Typical of a desert climate, diurnal ranges are wider than in most places, with an annual average high of 27.8 C and an annual average low of just 14.2 C. Summer temperatures range from 35 C in the shade, with occasional dust storms. The annual rainfall in the area is low and amongst the lowest in Australia, at around 141 mm. Precipitation is well-distributed through the year, although the lowest amounts are recorded in the winter months.

Extremes of annual rainfall since 1921 range from 30.6 mm in 1929 to 427.2 mm in 1973.

Coober Pedy was flooded when 115 mm of rainfall was recorded in 24 hours (which is over three-quarters of the mean annual rainfall) on 10 April 2014.

Transport

The town is served by daily coach services from Adelaide by Greyhound Australia. The Ghan train serves the town through the Manguri Siding, 42 km from Coober Pedy, which is served by trains once weekly in each direction. Passengers on The Ghan are not usually allowed to disembark at Manguri unless they have prearranged transport, due to the siding's isolation and the extremely cold temperatures at night.

Coober Pedy is a gateway to the outback communities of Oodnadatta and William Creek, which are both located on the Oodnadatta Track. There is a twice-a-week mail run from Coober Pedy to these communities and other outback homesteads. It carries the mail, general freight and passengers.

Regional Express also has direct flights to Adelaide, from Coober Pedy Airport.

title: Coober Pedy


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Alexander Henry the elder

Alexander Henry 'The Elder', in French: Alexandre Henri Le Vieux (August 1739 – 4 April 1824) was an American-born explorer, author, merchant who settled in Quebec following the Conquest of New France and was a partner in the North West Company and a founding member and vice-chairman of the Beaver Club. From 1763 to 1764, he lived and hunted with Wawatam of the Ojibwe, who had adopted him as a brother.

"Blessed with as many lives as a cat", he recounted his time with the Ojibwe and subsequent explorations in his Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the years 1760 and 1776 (published in New York City in 1809), which he dedicated to his friend Sir Joseph Banks. The book is considered an adventure classic and one of the best descriptions of Native Indian life at this time.

An "easy and dignified" raconteur, in 1776 Henry was invited to give an account of his journeys at the Royal Society in London and at Versailles to Queen Marie Antoinette. In the 1780s, Henry introduced John Jacob Astor into the North American fur trade; subsequently, Astor would stay as Henry's guest during his annual visits to Montreal.

Early life
Alexander Henry was born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, to an educated merchant family related to Matthew Henry. His father was from England and his mother was from Wales. He was the eldest son of John Henry (d. 1766), a merchant whose father, Alexander Henry (d. 1744), had emigrated to British North America from the West of England to seek his fortune. He received a good education and afterward took an apprenticeship in business. From the age of twenty, Henry was working as a merchant out of Albany, New York. He made a lucrative but hazardous living supplying the British army during the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War). In 1760, after Wolfe's victory at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, Henry was placed in charge of three loaded supply bateaux, which followed Lord Amherst's advance along Lake Ontario to Montreal. In 1760, Henry was the first British subject known to have visited the area of Milwaukee.

In early 1761, at Les Cèdres, Henry met the former fur trader Jean-Baptiste Leduc, who acquainted him with the rich possibilities of trading at Michilimackinac and around Lake Superior. That spring at Montreal, he secured a fur trade pass from Thomas Gage, the second British subject (by only a few days) to do so. Henry wrote, "proposing to avail myself of the new market, which was thus thrown open to British adventure, I... procured a quantity of goods" and set out on the Ottawa River to Fort Michilimackinac. As he was "altogether a stranger to the commerce in which (he) was engaging," he stopped while still in Canada to hire a guide, Etienne-Charles Campion, an experienced voyageur.

Michilimackinac and the Ojibwe
In 1761, as they travelled west, Henry was repeatedly warned by the Indians they encountered not to risk his life among the Ojibwe, who remained fiercely loyal to the French. When Henry took the warnings seriously, he did not have enough supplies to turn back. He disguised himself as a voyageur and let Campion pass for the proprietor. No one was fooled. When he arrived among the Ojibwe at Michilimackinac, Henry found himself surrounded by sixty of their warriors, "each with his tomahawk in one hand, and scalping knife in the other." The imposingly tall war chief Mihnehwehna reminded him that the British may have conquered the French, but they had not conquered the Ojibwe. After capturing New France, the British had neglected to make peace with the Indian allies of the French. Having put to use all of his diplomatic skills for which he would become well known, Henry "inwardly endured the tortures of suspense" before Mineweh declared that he admired Henry's bravery for entering their lands. He said since Henry did not come intending to make war, he could "sleep tranquilly" among them. That winter of 1761–62, a minor Ojibwe chief, Wawatam, adopted Henry as a brother. Henry described the Ojibwe as "peaceful", "wholesome", "kind" and "trustworthy" and said that he had a "great and deep respect" for them.

Henry's ability to make friends with both the French and their allied Indians greatly facilitated his trading activities. Between 1762 and 1763, Henry did business at Sault Ste Marie, where he formed friendships with Jean Baptiste Cadotte, Sr. (father of Michel Cadotte) and Sir Robert Davers. However, when they returned to Michilimackinac, Chief Pontiac had already launched a pan-tribal offensive against British outposts in the Ohio Country. The Ojibwe warriors attacked Fort Michilimackinac. Danvers was killed and Henry, after hiding for a time in the house of Charles Michel de Langlade, was captured by the Ojibwe.

On June 6, Henry and three other British prisoners were taken by canoe toward Beaver Island. As they reached Waugoshance Point, an Odawa tribal appeared and spoke with them, luring them close to land. Several Odawa warriors sprang from cover and charged the canoe, forcibly removing the four prisoners, who were taken back to Mackinac.

During the ensuing division of the spoils from the fort, Henry ended up as a possession of the Ojibwe leader Minavavana. Fortunately Wawatam intervened and spirited Henry away to his own lodge. Several days later, when Henry was threatened again, Wawatam came to his rescue and hid him in Mackinac Island's Skull Cave overnight.

He lived with the Wawatam and his family for nearly a year and followed them on their seasonal moves to hunting and fishing territories in lower Michigan. Henry's experiences during this winter of 1763–64, described in his memoirs, are a valuable primary source into Native American life during the fur trade era.

They returned to Michilimackinac in the spring of 1764 to trade their furs, but some of the Ojibwe residing in Saginaw Bay plotted to kill Henry, and Wawatam permitted him to go to Sault Ste Marie to seek the protection of Cadotte. He was still not safe since another Ojibwe chief, Madjeckewiss, followed him there with some of his warriors intent on killing him, and it took Cadotte's diplomatic skills to dissuade them. Soon afterward, Sir William Johnson at lastheld a peace conference at Fort Niagara, and both Henry and the Ojibwes attended. Eager to return to Michilimackinac to recover his property, Henry accompanied the expedition of Colonel John Bradstreet from Niagara to Detroit, and from there, he went with Captain William Howard's troops who reoccupied Michilimackinac in September, 1764.

Lake Superior and the Canadian Northwest
In 1765, Henry acquired a license to trade in the Lake Superior region. Combining British capital with French Canadian experience, he formed a partnership with Cadot. For the next few years Henry was able to maintain a complete monopoly over the Lake Superior trade and without competition he was able to charge exorbitant prices. There, he also came into contact with the Frontiersman Robert Rogers, but Henry reported that Rogers never paid him for certain services rendered.

In 1767–68 he wintered on the Michipicoten River and entered into a partnership with Sir William Johnson, the Duke of Gloucester and others, forming a company to mine silver found in copper ore on the shores of Lake Superior. The expenses involved made the venture unprofitable and the company wound up its affairs in 1774.

In 1775, Henry took four large and twelve small canoes to explore the territory northwest of Lake Superior. Henry, Cadot, Peter Pond, the brothers Thomas and Joseph Frobisher then began to challenge the Hudson's Bay Company. Their group, with forty men, stopped at Cumberland House and afterwards built a trading post on Amisk Lake, the first post to be built north of the Saskatchewan River. In 1776, Henry set off by foot to Fort à la Corne, following the Saskatchewan River, and having satisfied his curiosity secured some furs from the Assiniboines. He then purchased 12,000 additional beaver skins from a trip up the Churchill River from the Chipewyans, and some of his last packs were forcibly acquired from Robert Longmoor, an agent for the Hudson's Bay Company. Laden with furs, Henry returned to Montreal and gave the governor, Sir Guy Carleton, a large map of the western region through which he had travelled.

England and France
Henry's imagination was caught by the rich potential of the Northwest Territories and he sailed to England in the autumn of 1776 with a proposal for the Hudson's Bay Company. Bearing a Letter of introduction from Luc de la Corne to his brother Abbé Joseph-Marie de La Corne de Chaptes, Henry next went to France where he was met with "a most flattering reception". Through the influence of the Abbé, Henry was received by Marie-Antoinette at the French Court. Though he was a natural raconteur who was used to winning friends with ease, it was a great sadness to Henry for the rest of his days that he was met with nothing other than condescension from the young queen and her court.

Henry returned to British North America in 1777 in partnership with Jean-Baptiste Blondeau andtaded at the Michipicoten River and Sault Ste Marie; all the time, he worked closely with his old friend Cadot. Between 1778 and 1781 he visited England three times and developed friendships with Sir Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. Having discussed the possibility at Banks' residence on Soho Square with him and Solander, on his last trip to England, Henry delivered a detailed plan to Banks for an expedition to find an overland route to the Pacific Ocean. That had seemed possible when they had studied Captain Cook's recent findings, but as it was, Cook had made a mistake and so the planned expedition came to nothing.

Montreal, Chinese fur trade, and Cuyahoga Purchase
Henry had made a prominent name for himself, and from 1781 he settled in Montreal as a general merchant. He was still very much attached to the fur trade with occasional trips made to Detroit or Michilimackinac, and particularly the latter when he sustained heavy losses following the conclusion of the American Revolution. In 1785, Henry with seventeen of the other most prominent fur traders was a founding member of the Beaver Club at Montreal.

During the mid-1780s, Henry encouraged a friend in New York, William Edgar (1736–1820), to enter the trade in furs with China. Fascinated by the prospects offered by the Pacific coast, Henry passed on his ideas, which he called "my favorite plan," to the New York merchant John Jacob Astor. He introduced Astor into the Canadian trade and Astor was Henry's guest during his annual visits to Montreal. In the 1790s, Henry and Astor assisted Simon McTavish and the North West Company in organizing shipments of furs to China. In 1792, a fur trade partnership between John Forsyth, Jacob Jordan and Alexander Ellice attempted to entice Henry and Peter Pond to join them in opposition to the North West Company.

During the 1790s, Henry and another close friend, John Askin, were interested in land speculation in Ohio. One of their ventures, known as the Cuyahoga Purchase, came to naught when the Ohio Indians from whom the land had been acquired at the end of the Northwest Indian War refused to bring forth their land claims at the Treaty of Greenville. The deeds that had been obtained by Henry and his associates were considered invalid, which caused Henry to moan, "We have lost a fortune of at least one million of dollars."

Later Years at Montreal
In 1792, Henry and his nephew Alexander Henry the younger together obtained one share in the North West Company for six years. In 1796 he sold his interest to William Hallowell (1771–1838), but continued to buy furs from traders and export them to England. When one of his uninsured shipments was captured by the French in 1801, he suffered a serious financial crisis. In order to repair his fortunes, Henry became a commission merchant and auctioneer in partnership with William Lindsay. Plagued by ill health, he worked hard at a job that he did not find satisfying.

Despite those reverses of fortune, Henry maintained a secure place in Montreal's mercantile society. He served as a captain in the militia and from 1794 to 1821 as justice of the peace. He lavishly entertained leading merchants in his home, regularly signed petitions and memorials, and attended parties. He was particularly active in the Beaver Club, reactivated in 1807, of which he was the senior member and on its creation, the vice-chairman. In 1806, he was one of the principal donators to the building of Nelson's Column, Montreal. In 1812, he was appointed vendue master and King's Auctioneer for the district of Montreal, working in partnership with his nephew Norman Bethune, who lived with him at 14 Rue Saint-Urbain. He remained close to his old friends, and Isaac Todd, who Henry enjoyed teasing, returned again to Montreal from his native Ireland to be close to Henry and McGill.

In 1809, Henry had written to Askin, "There is only us four old friends (James McGill, Isaac Todd, Joseph Frobisher, and himself) alive, all the new North westards are a parcel of boys and upstarts, who were not born in our time, and supposes they know much more of the Indian trade than any before them." To recapture his exciting past, he wrote a memoir of his life which he published in New York that year and dedicated to his English friend, Sir Joseph Banks. Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between the years 1760 and 1776 has become a Canadian adventure classic and is still considered as one of the best descriptions of Native Indian life at the time of Henry's travels.

"A middle-sized man, easy yet dignified." Henry was known among the Indians and the French as "the handsome Englishman." He never recovered the wealth he had amassed during the height of the fur trade, but is remembered for his accomplishments in society and as one of the most important business leaders who turned Montreal into an innovative centre of business expansion. At age 85, he died at his home on Notre-Dame Street, Montreal, "esteemed by all who knew him."

Family
As was the custom with early fur traders, Henry had taken a 'country wife', a Native Indian whose sister was in the same way married to Simon McTavish. By her he was said to have fathered several children, but only one daughter is recorded. In 1785, having by then returned to society at Montreal, he married Julia Calcutt Kittson (1756–1835), "a woman of considerable personal fortitude". She was a native of Limavady and the widow of an Anglo-Irish army officer, John George Kittson (d. 1779), whose home was in County Cork but had seen considerable service in North America. Mrs Julia Henry was the godparent with Sir Isaac Brock of William McGillivray's youngest daughter. It is open to debate whether Julia and Alexander met in Canada, England or Ireland around 1780, but they were the parents of several children, two of whom were born before they were married. Henry was step-father to two Kittsons, and the father of six known children,

 * Martha Henry (1777–1849), natural daughter by Henry's country wife. At Albany, New York, 1798, she married William Hallowell (1771–1838), who had purchased his partnership into the North West Company from Henry that year. Their daughter, Elizabeth, married John Bethune, Dean of Montreal.
 * Mary Kittson, Henry's stepdaughter, married to John Cates, brother of Lt. Samuel Cates of the King's Royal Rifle Corps whose wife (Mary Tucker) was the sister of Mrs George Kittson.
 * George Kittson (1779–1832), Henry's stepson, married Anne Tucker and was the father of several children including Norman Kittson. Their daughter, Margaret, married Henry's business partner in later life, Norman Bethune (1789–1848), son of Rev. John Bethune. Another son, William Henry Kittson, married a sister of Chief Justice Sir William Collis Meredith. Meredith's former business partner at Montreal, Strachan Bethune, was the grandson of George Kittson's sister, Martha (Henry) Hallowell.
 * Julia Henry (b.1780), died unmarried.
 * William Henry (1784–1864), was a fur trader with the North West Company and later a surveyor and civil engineer at Montreal. He carried several scars from knife wounds received in quarrels with various Indians, and in the Rocky Mountains he had his scalp torn off by a Grizzly bear before being rescued by an Indian. He was inducted into the Beaver Club in 1817. He was married to Jane Doe Felton, sister of The Hon. William Bowman Felton. They had several children including Charles Henry (1832–1897), who ran away from home at the age of thirteen to lead an adventurous life on the seas which included being shipwrecked on one of the islands off Hawaii, for a brief period, where he was married to a native.
 * Alexander Henry (1785–1812), not be confused with his first cousin Alexander Henry the younger. He also worked for the North West Company, but was "barbarously murdered" by Native Indians at Fort Nelson near Port Nelson, Manitoba.
 * Robert Henry (born after 1785-), wintering partner of the North West Company and director of the Commercial Bank of the Midland District at Cobourg. He was inducted into the Beaver Club in 1815. He married Christine Bethune (1787–1865), daughter of Rev John Bethune.
 * John Henry (1786–1787), died an infant. His godparents were Mrs Isaac Todd and Mrs John Gregory, wives of two of the earliest and most prominent partners of the North West Company.

title: Alexander Henry the elder


text:
T Tauri star

T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable stars that are less than about ten million years old. This class is named after the prototype, T Tauri, a young star in the Taurus star-forming region. They are found near molecular clouds and identified by their optical variability and strong chromospheric lines. T Tauri stars are pre-main-sequence stars in the process of contracting to the main sequence along the Hayashi track, a luminosity–temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than 3 solar masses in the pre-main-sequence phase of stellar evolution. It ends when a star of or larger develops a radiative zone, or when a smaller star commences nuclear fusion on the main sequence.

History
While T Tauri itself was discovered in 1852, the T Tauri class of stars were initially defined by Alfred Harrison Joy in 1945.

Characteristics
T Tauri stars comprise the youngest visible F, G, K and M spectral type stars. Their surface temperatures are similar to those of main-sequence stars of the same mass, but they are significantly more luminous because their radii are larger. Their central temperatures are too low for hydrogen fusion. Instead, they are powered by gravitational energy released as the stars contract, while moving towards the main sequence, which they reach after about 100 million years. They typically rotate with a period between one and twelve days, compared to a month for the Sun, and are very active and variable.

There is evidence of large areas of starspot coverage, and they have intense and variable X-ray and radio emissions (approximately 1000 times that of the Sun). Many have extremely powerful stellar winds; some eject gas in high-velocity bipolar jets. Another source of brightness variability are clumps (protoplanets and planetesimals) in the disk surrounding T Tauri stars.

Their spectra show a higher lithium abundance than the Sun and other main-sequence stars because lithium is destroyed at temperatures above 2,500,000 K. From a study of lithium abundances in 53 T Tauri stars, it has been found that lithium depletion varies strongly with size, suggesting that "lithium burning" by the p-p chain during the last highly convective and unstable stages during the later pre–main sequence phase of the Hayashi contraction may be one of the main sources of energy for T Tauri stars. Rapid rotation tends to improve mixing and increase the transport of lithium into deeper layers where it is destroyed. T Tauri stars generally increase their rotation rates as they age, through contraction and spin-up, as they conserve angular momentum. This causes an increased rate of lithium loss with age. Lithium burning will also increase with higher temperatures and mass, and will last for at most a little over 100 million years.

The p-p chain for lithium burning is as follows

 * {| border="0"
 * - style="height:2em;"
 * - style="height:2em;"
 * - style="height:2em;"
 * ||+ || ||→ || || ||(unstable)
 * - style="height:2em;"
 * || || ||→ ||2 ||+ energy
 * }
 * || || ||→ ||2 ||+ energy
 * }

It will not occur in stars with less than sixty times the mass of Jupiter. The rate of lithium depletion can be used to calculate the age of the star.

Types
Several types of TTSs exist:
 * Classical T Tauri star (CTTS)
 * Weak-line T Tauri star (WTTS)
 * Naked T Tauri star (NTTS), which is a subset of WTTS.

Roughly half of T Tauri stars have circumstellar disks, which in this case are called protoplanetary discs because they are probably the progenitors of planetary systems like the Solar System. Circumstellar discs are estimated to dissipate on timescales of up to 10 million years. Most T Tauri stars are in binary star systems. In various stages of their life, they are called young stellar object (YSOs). It is thought that the active magnetic fields and strong solar wind of Alfvén waves of T Tauri stars are one means by which angular momentum gets transferred from the star to the protoplanetary disc. A T Tauri stage for the Solar System would be one means by which the angular momentum of the contracting Sun was transferred to the protoplanetary disc and hence, eventually to the planets.

Analogs of T Tauri stars in the higher mass range (2–8 solar masses)—A and B spectral type pre–main-sequence stars, are called Herbig Ae/Be-type stars. More massive (>8 solar masses) stars in pre–main sequence stage are not observed, because they evolve very quickly: when they become visible (i.e. disperses surrounding circumstellar gas and dust cloud), the hydrogen in the center is already burning and they are main sequence objects.

Planets
Planets around T Tauri stars include:
 * HD 106906 b around an F-type star
 * 1RXS J160929.1−210524b around a K-type star
 * Gliese 674 b around an M-type star
 * V830 Tau b around an M-type star
 * PDS 70b around a K-type star

title: T Tauri star


text:
Starspot

Starspots are stellar phenomena, so-named by analogy with sunspots. Spots as small as sunspots have not been detected on other stars, as they would cause undetectably small fluctuations in brightness. The commonly observed starspots are in general much larger than those on the Sun: up to about 30% of the stellar surface may be covered, corresponding to starspots 100 times larger than those on the Sun.

Detection and measurements
To detect and measure the extent of starspots one uses several types of methods.
 * For rapidly rotating stars – Doppler imaging and Zeeman-Doppler imaging. With the Zeeman-Doppler imaging technique the direction of the magnetic field on stars can be determined since spectral lines are split according to the Zeeman effect, revealing the direction and magnitude of the field.
 * For slowly rotating stars – Line Depth Ratio (LDR). Here one measures two different spectral lines, one sensitive to temperature and one which is not. Since starspots have a lower temperature than their surroundings the temperature-sensitive line changes its depth. From the difference between these two lines the temperature and size of the spot can be calculated, with a temperature accuracy of 10K.
 * For eclipsing binary stars – Eclipse mapping produces images and maps of spots on both stars.
 * For giant binary stars - Very-long-baseline interferometry
 * For stars with transiting extrasolar planets – Light curve variations.

Temperature
Observed starspots have a temperature which is in general 500–2000 kelvins cooler than the stellar photosphere. This temperature difference could give rise to a brightness variation up to 0.6 magnitudes between the spot and the surrounding surface. There also seems to be a relation between the spot temperature and the temperature for the stellar photosphere, indicating that starspots behave similarly for different types of stars (observed in G–K dwarfs).

Lifetimes
The lifetime for a starspot depends on its size.
 * For small spots the lifetime is proportional to their size, similar to spots on the Sun.
 * For large spots the sizes depend on the differential rotation of the star, but there are some indications that large spots which give rise to light variations can survive for many years even in stars with differential rotation.

Activity cycles
The distribution of starspots across the stellar surface varies analogous to the solar case, but differs for different types of stars, e.g., depending on whether the star is a binary or not. The same type of activity cycles that are found for the Sun can be seen for other stars, corresponding to the solar (2 times) 11-year cycle.

Maunder minimum
Some stars may have longer cycles, possibly analogous to the Maunder minima for the Sun which lasted 70 years, for example some Maunder minimum candidates are 51 Pegasi, HD 4915 and HD 166620.

Flip-flop cycles
Another activity cycle is the so-called flip-flop cycle, which implies that the activity on either hemisphere shifts from one side to the other. The same phenomena can be seen on the Sun, with periods of 3.8 and 3.65 years for the northern and southern hemispheres. Flip-flop phenomena are observed for both binary RS CVn stars and single stars although the extent of the cycles are different between binary and singular stars.

title: Starspot


text:
Stellar wind

A stellar wind is a flow of gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a star. It is distinguished from the bipolar outflows characteristic of young stars by being less collimated, although stellar winds are not generally spherically symmetric.

Different types of stars have different types of stellar winds.

Post-main-sequence stars nearing the ends of their lives often eject large quantities of mass in massive ($$ \scriptstyle \dot{M} > 10^{-3}$$ solar masses per year), slow (v = 10 km/s) winds. These include red giants and supergiants, and asymptotic giant branch stars. These winds are understood to be driven by radiation pressure on dust condensing in the upper atmosphere of the stars.

Young T Tauri stars often have very powerful stellar winds.

Massive stars of types O and B have stellar winds with lower mass loss rates ($$\scriptstyle \dot{M} < 10^{-6}$$ solar masses per year) but very high velocities (v > 1–2000 km/s). Such winds are driven by radiation pressure on the resonance absorption lines of heavy elements such as carbon and nitrogen. These high-energy stellar winds blow stellar wind bubbles.

G-type stars like the Sun have a wind driven by their hot, magnetized corona. The Sun's wind is called the solar wind. These winds consist mostly of high-energy electrons and protons (about 1 keV) that are able to escape the star's gravity because of the high temperature of the corona.

Stellar winds from main-sequence stars do not strongly influence the evolution of lower-mass stars such as the Sun. However, for more massive stars such as O stars, the mass loss can result in a star shedding as much as 50% of its mass whilst on the main sequence: this clearly has a significant impact on the later stages of evolution. The influence can even be seen for intermediate mass stars, which will become white dwarfs at the ends of their lives rather than exploding as supernovae only because they lost enough mass in their winds.

title: Stellar wind