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Acer rubrum

Acer rubrum, the red maple, also known as swamp maple, water maple, or soft maple, is one of the most common and widespread deciduous trees of eastern and central North America. The U.S. Forest Service recognizes it as the most abundant native tree in eastern North America. The red maple ranges from southeastern Manitoba around the Lake of the Woods on the border with Ontario and Minnesota, east to Newfoundland, south to Florida, and southwest to East Texas. Many of its features, especially its leaves, are quite variable in form. At maturity, it often attains a height around 30 m. Its flowers, petioles, twigs, and seeds are all red to varying degrees. Among these features, however, it is best known for its brilliant deep scarlet foliage in autumn.

Over most of its range, red maple is adaptable to a very wide range of site conditions, perhaps more so than any other tree in eastern North America. It can be found growing in swamps, on poor, dry soils, and almost anywhere in between. It grows well from sea level to about 900 m. Due to its attractive fall foliage and pleasing form, it is often used as a shade tree for landscapes. It is used commercially on a small scale for maple syrup production and for its medium to high quality lumber. It is also the state tree of Rhode Island. The red maple can be considered weedy or even invasive in young, highly disturbed forests, especially frequently logged forests. In a mature or old-growth northern hardwood forest, red maple only has a sparse presence, while shade-tolerant trees such as sugar maples, beeches, and hemlocks thrive. By removing red maple from a young forest recovering from disturbance, the natural cycle of forest regeneration is altered, changing the diversity of the forest for centuries to come.

Description
Though A. rubrum is sometimes easy to identify, it is highly changeable in morphological characteristics. It is a medium to large sized tree, reaching heights of 27 to 38 m and exceptionally over 41 m in the southern Appalachians where conditions favor its growth. The leaves are usually 9 to 11 cm long on a full-grown tree. The trunk diameter often ranges from 46 to 88 cm; depending on the growing conditions, however, open-grown trees can attain diameters of up to 153 cm. The trunk remains free of branches until some distance up the tree on forest grown trees, while individuals grown in the open are shorter and thicker with a more rounded crown. Trees on poorer sites often become malformed and scraggly. Generally the crown is irregularly ovoid with ascending whip-like curved shoots. The bark is a pale grey and smooth when the individual is young. As the tree grows the bark becomes darker and cracks into slightly raised long plates. The largest known living red maple is located near Armada, Michigan, at a height of 38.1 m and a bole circumference, at breast height, of 4.95 m.

The leaves of the red maple offer the easiest way to distinguish it from its relatives. As with all North American maple trees, they are deciduous and arranged oppositely on the twig. They are typically 5 – long and wide with three to five palmate lobes with a serrated margin. The sinuses are typically narrow, but the leaves can exhibit considerable variation. When five lobes are present, the three at the terminal end are larger than the other two near the base. In contrast, the leaves of the related silver maple, A. saccharinum, are much more deeply lobed, more sharply toothed, and characteristically have five lobes. The upper side of A. rubrum's leaf is light green and the underside is whitish and can be either glaucous or hairy. The leaf stalks are usually red and are up to 10 cm long. The leaves can turn a characteristic brilliant red in autumn, but can also become yellow or orange on some individuals. Soil acidity can influence the color of the foliage and trees with female flowers are more likely to produce orange coloration while male trees produce red. The fall colors of red maple are most spectacular in the northern part of its range where climates are cooler.

The twigs of the red maple are reddish in color and somewhat shiny with small lenticels. Dwarf shoots are present on many branches. The buds are usually blunt and greenish to reddish in color, generally with several loose scales. The lateral buds are slightly stalked, and in addition, collateral buds may be present, as well. The buds form in fall and winter and are often visible from a distance due to their large size and reddish tint. The leaf scars on the twig are V-shaped and contain three bundle scars.

The flowers are generally unisexual, with male and female flowers appearing in separate sessile clusters, though they are sometimes also bisexual. They appear in late winter to early spring, from December to May depending on elevation and latitude, usually before the leaves. The tree itself is considered polygamodioecious, meaning some individuals are male, some female, and some monoecious. Under the proper conditions, the tree can sometimes switch from male to female, male to hermaphroditic, and hermaphroditic to female. The red maple will begin blooming when it is about 8 years old, but it significantly varies between tree to tree: some trees may begin flowering when they are 4 years old. The flowers are red with 5 small petals and a 5-lobed calyx, usually at the twig tips. The staminate flowers are sessile. The pistillate flowers are borne on pedicels that grow out while the flowers are blooming, so that eventually the flowers are in a hanging cluster with stems 1/2 to 2 in long. The petals are lineal to oblong in shape and are pubescent. The pistillate flowers have one pistil formed from two fused carpels with a glabrous superior ovary and two long styles that protrude beyond the perianth. The staminate flowers contain between 4 and 12 stamens, often with 8.

The fruit is a schizocarp of 2 samaras, each one 15 to 25 mm long. Prior to dehiscence, the wings of the fruit are somewhat divergent at an angle of 50 to 60°. They are borne on long slender pedicels and are variable in color from light brown to reddish. They ripen from April through early June, before even the leaf development is altogether complete. After they reach maturity, the seeds are dispersed for a 1- to 2-week period from April through July.

Distribution and habitat
Acer rubrum is one of the most abundant and widespread trees in eastern North America. It can be found from the south of Newfoundland, through Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and southern Quebec to the southwest west of Ontario, extreme southeastern Manitoba and northern Minnesota; southward through Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas in its western range; and east to Florida. It has the largest continuous range along the North American Atlantic Coast of any tree that occurs in Florida. In total it ranges 2600 km from north to south. The species is native to all regions of the United States east of the 95th meridian. The tree's range ends where the -40 °C mean minimum isotherm begins, namely in southeastern Canada. A. rubrum is not present in most of the Prairie Peninsula of the northern Midwest (although it is found in Ohio), the coastal prairie in southern Louisiana and southeastern Texas and the swamp prairie of the Florida Everglades. Red maple's western range stops with the Great Plains where conditions become too dry for it. The absence of red maple from the Prairie Peninsula is most likely due to the tree's poor tolerance of wildfires. Red maple is most abundant in the Northeastern US, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and northeastern Wisconsin, and is rare in the extreme west of its range and in the Southeastern US.

In several other locations, the tree is absent from large areas but still present in a few specific habitats. An example is the Bluegrass region of Kentucky, where red maple is not found in the dominant open plains, but is present along streams. Here the red maple is not present in the bottom land forests of the Grain Belt, despite the fact it is common in similar habitats and species associations both to the north and south of this area. In the Northeastern US, red maple can be a climax forest species in certain locations, but will eventually give way to sugar maple.

A. rubrum does very well in a wide range of soil types, with varying textures, moisture, pH, and elevation, probably more so than any other forest tree in North America. A. rubrum 's high pH tolerance means that it can grow in a variety of places, and it is widespread along the Eastern United States. It grows on glaciated as well as unglaciated soils derived from granite, gneiss, schist, sandstone, shale, slate, conglomerate, quartzite, and limestone. Chlorosis can occur on very alkaline soils, though otherwise its pH tolerance is quite high. Moist mineral soil is best for germination of seeds.

Red maple can grow in a variety of moist and dry biomes, from dry ridges and sunny, southwest-facing slopes to peat bogs and swamps. While many types of tree prefer a south- or north-facing aspect, the red maple does not appear to have a preference. Its ideal conditions are in moderately well-drained, moist sites at low or intermediate elevations. However, it is nonetheless common in mountainous areas on relatively dry ridges, as well as on both the south and west sides of upper slopes. Furthermore, it is common in swampy areas, along the banks of slow moving streams, as well as on poorly drained flats and depressions. In northern Michigan and New England, the tree is found on the tops of ridges, sandy or rocky upland and otherwise dry soils, as well as in nearly pure stands on moist soils and the edges of swamps. In the far south of its range, it is almost exclusively associated with swamps. Additionally, red maple is one of the most drought-tolerant species of maple in the Carolinas.

Red maple is far more abundant today than when Europeans first arrived in North America. It only contributed minimally to old-growth upland forests, and would only form same-species stands in riparian zones. The density of the tree in many of these areas has increased six- to seven-fold, and this trend seems to be continuing, all of which is due to human factors, mainly loss of forest management by Native Americans who managed the forests to enhance acorn production and oak tree growth. This loss of management has been further enhanced by continued heavy logging and a recent trend of young, shrubby forests recovering from past human disturbances. Also, the decline of American elm and American chestnut due to introduced diseases has contributed to its spread. Red maple dominates such sites, but largely disappears until it only has a sparse presence by the time a forest is mature. This species is in fact a vital part of forest regeneration in the same way that paper birch is.

Because it can grow on a variety of substrates, has a high pH tolerance, and grows in both shade and sun, A. rubrum is a prolific seed producer and highly adaptable, often dominating disturbed sites. While many believe that it is replacing historically dominant tree species in the Eastern United States, such as sugar maples, beeches, oaks, hemlocks and pines, red maple will only dominate young forests prone to natural or human disturbance. In areas disturbed by humans where the species thrives, it can reduce diversity, but in a mature forest, it is not a dominant species; it only has a sparse presence and adds to the diversity and ecological structure of a forest. Extensive use of red maple in landscaping has also contributed to the surge in the species' numbers as volunteer seedlings proliferate. Finally, disease epidemics have greatly reduced the population of elms and chestnuts in the forests of the US. While mainline forest trees continue to dominate mesic sites with rich soil, more marginal areas are increasingly being dominated by red maple.

Ecology
Red maple's maximum lifespan is 150 years, but most live less than 100 years. The tree's thin bark is easily damaged from ice and storms, animals, and when used in landscaping, being struck by flying debris from lawn mowers, allowing fungi to penetrate and cause heart rot. Its ability to thrive in a large number of habitats is largely due to its ability to produce roots to suit its site from a young age. In wet locations, red maple seedlings produce short taproots with long, well-developed lateral roots; while on dry sites, they develop long taproots with significantly shorter laterals. The roots are primarily horizontal, however, forming in the upper 25 cm of the ground. Mature trees have woody roots up to 25 m long. They are very tolerant of flooding, with one study showing that 60 days of flooding caused no leaf damage. At the same time, they are tolerant of drought due to their ability to stop growing under dry conditions by then producing a second-growth flush when conditions later improve, even if growth has stopped for 2 weeks.

A. rubrum is one of the first plants to flower in spring. A crop of seeds is generally produced every year with a bumper crop often occurring every second year. A single tree between 5 and 20 cm in diameter can produce between 12,000 and 91,000 seeds in a season. A tree 30 cm in diameter was shown to produce nearly a million seeds. Red maple produces one of the smallest seeds of any of the maples. Fertilization has also been shown to significantly increase the seed yield for up to two years after application.

The seeds are epigeal and tend to germinate in early summer soon after they are released, assuming a small amount of light, moisture, and sufficient temperatures are present. If the seeds are densely shaded, then germination commonly does not occur until the next spring. Most seedlings do not survive in closed forest canopy situations. However, one- to four-year-old seedlings are common under dense canopy. Though they eventually die if no light reaches them, they serve as a reservoir, waiting to fill any open area of the canopy above.

Trees growing in a Zone 9 or 10 area such as Florida will usually die from cold damage if transferred up north, for instance to Canada, Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire and New York, even if the southern trees were planted with northern red maples. Due to their wide range, genetically the trees have adapted to the climatic differences.

Red maple is able to increase its numbers significantly when associate trees are damaged by disease, cutting, or fire. One study found that 6 years after clearcutting a 3.4 ha Oak-Hickory forest containing no red maples, the plot contained more than 2,200 red maple seedlings per hectare (900 per acre) taller than 1.4 m. One of its associates, the black cherry (Prunus serotina), contains benzoic acid, which has been shown to be a potential allelopathic inhibitor of red maple growth. Red maple is one of the first species to start stem elongation. In one study, stem elongation was one-half completed in 1 week, after which growth slowed and was 90% completed within only 54 days. In good light and moisture conditions, the seedlings can grow 30 cm in their first year and up to 60 cm each year for the next few years, making it a fast grower.

The red maple is used as a food source by several forms of wildlife. Elk and white-tailed deer in particular use the current season's growth of red maple as an important source of winter food. Several Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) utilize the leaves as food, including larvae of the rosy maple moth (Dryocampa rubicunda); see List of Lepidoptera that feed on maples.

Due to A. rubrum's very wide range, there is significant variation in hardiness, size, form, time of flushing, onset of dormancy, and other traits. Generally speaking, individuals from the north flush the earliest, have the most reddish fall color, set their buds the earliest and take the least winter injury. Seedlings are tallest in the north-central and east-central part of the range. In Florida, at the extreme south of the red maple's range, it is limited exclusively to swamplands. The fruits also vary geographically with northern individuals in areas with brief, frost-free periods producing fruits that are shorter and heavier than their southern counterparts. As a result of such variation, there is much genetic potential for breeding programs with a goal of producing red maples for cultivation. This is especially useful for making urban cultivars that require resistance from verticillium wilt, air pollution, and drought.

Red maple frequently hybridizes with silver maple; the hybrid, known as Freeman's maple, Acer × freemanii, is intermediate between the parents.

Allergenic potential
The allergenic potential of red maples varies widely based on the cultivar.

The following cultivars are completely male and are highly allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 8 or higher:

 * 'Autumn Flame' ('Flame')
 * 'Autumn Spire'
 * 'Columnare' ('Pyramidale')
 * 'Firedance' ('Landsburg')
 * 'Karpick'
 * 'Northwood'
 * 'October Brilliance'
 * 'Sun Valley'
 * 'Tiliford'

The following cultivars have an OPALS allergy scale rating of 3 or lower; they are completely female trees, and have low potential for causing allergies:

 * 'Autumn Glory'
 * 'Bowhall'
 * 'Davey Red'
 * 'Doric'
 * 'Embers'
 * 'Festival'
 * 'October Glory'
 * 'Red Skin'
 * 'Red Sunset' ('Franksred')

Toxicity
The leaves of red maple, especially when dead or wilted, are extremely toxic to horses. The toxin is unknown, but believed to be an oxidant because it damages red blood cells, causing acute oxidative hemolysis that inhibits the transport of oxygen. This not only decreases oxygen delivery to all tissues, but also leads to the production of methemoglobin, which can further damage the kidneys. The ingestion of 700 grams (1.5 pounds) of leaves is considered toxic and 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds) is lethal. Symptoms occur within one or two days after ingestion and can include depression, lethargy, increased rate and depth of breathing, increased heart rate, jaundice, dark brown urine, colic, laminitis, coma, and death. Treatment is limited and can include the use of methylene blue or mineral oil and activated carbon in order to stop further absorption of the toxin into the stomach, as well as blood transfusions, fluid support, diuretics, and anti-oxidants such as Vitamin C. About 50% to 75% of affected horses die or are euthanized as a result.

Cultivation

Red maple's rapid growth, ease of transplanting, attractive form, and value for wildlife (in the eastern US) has made it one of the most extensively planted trees. In parts of the Pacific Northwest, it is one of the most common introduced trees. Its popularity in cultivation stems from its vigorous habit, its attractive and early red flowers, and most importantly, its flaming red fall foliage. The tree was introduced into the United Kingdom in 1656 and shortly thereafter entered cultivation. There it is frequently found in many parks and yards.

Red maple is a good choice of a tree for urban areas when there is ample room for its root system. Forming an association with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi can help A. rubrum grow along city streets. It is more tolerant of pollution and road salt than sugar maples, although the tree's fall foliage is not as vibrant in this environment. Like several other maples, its low root system can be invasive and it makes a poor choice for plantings near paving. It attracts squirrels, who eat its buds in the early spring, although squirrels prefer the larger buds of the silver maple.

Red maples make vibrant and colorful bonsai, and have year around attractive features for display.

Cultivars
Numerous cultivars have been selected, often for intensity of fall color, with 'October Glory' and 'Red Sunset' among the most popular. Toward its southern limit, 'Fireburst', 'Florida Flame', and 'Gulf Ember' are preferred. Many cultivars of the Freeman maple are also grown widely. Below is a partial list of cultivars:
 * 'Armstrong' – Columnar to fastigate in shape with silvery bark and modest orange to red fall foliage.
 * 'Autumn Blaze' – Rounded oval form with leaves that resemble the silver maple. The fall color is orange red and persists longer than usual.
 * 'Autumn Flame' – A fast grower with exceptional bright red fall color developing early. The leaves are also smaller than the species.
 * 'Autumn Radiance' – Dense oval crown with an orange-red fall color.
 * 'Autumn Spire' – Broad columnar crown; red fall color; very hardy.
 * 'Bowhall' – Conical to upright in form with a yellow-red fall color.
 * 'Burgundy Bell' – Compact rounded uniform shape with long lasting, burgundy fall leaves.
 * 'Columnare' – An old cultivar growing to 20 m with a narrow columnar to pyramidal form with dark green leaves turning orange and deep red in fall.
 * 'Gerling' – A compact, slow growing selection, this individual only reaches 10 m and has orange-red fall foliage.
 * 'Northwood' – Branches are at a 45 degree angle to the trunk, forming a rounded oval crown. Though the foliage is deep green in summer, its orange-red fall color is not as impressive as other cultivars.
 * 'October Brilliance' – This selection is slow to leaf in spring, but has a tight crown and deep red fall color.
 * 'October Glory' – Has a rounded oval crown with late developing intense red fall foliage. Along with 'Red Sunset', it is the most popular selection due to the dependable fall color and vigorous growth. This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
 * 'Redpointe' – Superior in alkaline soil, strong central leader, red fall color.
 * 'Red Sunset' – is also a recipient of the Award of Garden Merit. The other very popular choice, this selection does well in heat due to its drought tolerance and has an upright habit. It has very attractive orange-red fall color and is also a rapid and vigorous grower.
 * 'Scarlet Sentinel' – A columnar to oval selection with 5-lobed leaves resembling the silver maple. The fall color is yellow-orange to orange-red and the tree is a fast grower.
 * 'Schlesingeri' – A tree with a broad crown and early, long lasting fall color that is a deep red to reddish purple. Growth is also quite rapid. The original tree grew at the home of Barthold Schlesinger in Brookline, Massachusetts.
 * 'Shade King' – This fast growing cultivar has an upright-oval form with deep green summer leaves that turn red to orange in fall.
 * 'V.J. Drake' – This selection is notable because the edges of the leaves first turn a deep red before the color progresses into the center.

Other uses
In the lumber industry Acer rubrum is considered a "soft maple", a designation it shares, commercially, with silver maple (A. saccharinum). In this context, the term "soft" is more comparative, than descriptive; i.e., "soft maple", while softer than its harder cousin, sugar maple (A. saccharum), is still a fairly hard wood, being comparable to black cherry (Prunus serotina) in this regard. Like A. saccharum, the wood of red maple is close-grained, but its texture is softer, less dense, and has not as desirable an appearance, particularly under a clear finish. However, the wood from Acer rubrum while being typically less expensive than hard maple, also has greater dimensional stability than that of A. saccharum, and also machines and stains easier. Thus, high grades of wood from the red maple can be substituted for hard maple, particularly when it comes to making stain/paint-grade furniture. Red maple lumber also contains a greater percentage of "curly" (aka "flame"/"fiddleback") figure, which is prized by musical instrument/custom furniture makers, as well as the veneer industry. As a soft maple, the wood tends to shrink more during the drying process than with the hard maples.

Red maple is also used for the production of maple syrup, though the hard maples Acer saccharum (sugar maple) and Acer nigrum (black maple) are more commonly utilized. One study compared the sap and syrup from the sugar maple with those of the red maple, as well as those of the Acer saccharinum (silver maple), Acer negundo (boxelder), and Acer platanoides (Norway maple), and all were found to be equal in sweetness, flavor, and quality. However, the buds of red maple and other soft maples emerge much earlier in the spring than the sugar maple, and after sprouting chemical makeup of the sap changes, imparting an undesirable flavor to the syrup. This being the case, red maple can only be tapped for syrup before the buds emerge, making the season very short.

Native Americans used red maple bark as a wash for inflamed eyes and cataracts, and as a remedy for hives and muscular aches. They also would brew tea from the inner bark to treat coughs and diarrhea. Pioneers made cinnamon-brown and black dyes from a bark extract, and iron sulphate could be added to the tannin from red maple bark in order to make ink.

Red maple is a medium quality firewood, possessing less heat energy, nominally 18.7 e6Btu/cord , than other hardwoods such as ash: 24 e6Btu/cord, oak: 24 e6Btu/cord, or birch: 21 e6Btu/cord.

title: Acer rubrum


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Ardengus

Ardengus was a bishop of Florence, beginning in 1231. While he was bishop, he introduced reforms and excommunicated the Patarini. He was a canon of Pavia. Before that, he was a teacher in Paris, to ca. 1227–1229.

Works

 * Abbrevatio summae magistri Guillelmi Autissiodorensis Unedited, for MSS see Landgraf, Introduction, p. 174

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ardengus


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Choreography

Choreography is the art or practice of designing sequences of movements of physical bodies (or their depictions) in which motion or form or both are specified. Choreography may also refer to the design itself. A choreographer is one who creates choreographies by practising the art of choreography, a process known as choreographing. It most commonly refers to dance choreography.

In dance, choreography. may also refer to the design itself, which is sometimes expressed by means of dance notation. Dance choreography is sometimes called dance composition. Aspects of dance choreography include the compositional use of organic unity, rhythmic or non-rhythmic articulation, theme and variation, and repetition. The choreographic process may employ improvisation for the purpose of developing innovative movement ideas. In general, choreography is used to design dances that are intended to be performed as concert dance.

The art of choreography involves the specification of human movement and form in terms of space, shape, time and energy, typically within an emotional or non-literal context. Movement language is taken from the dance techniques of ballet, contemporary dance, jazz dance, hip hop dance, folk dance, techno, K-pop, religious dance, pedestrian movement, or combinations of these.

Etymology and history
The word choreography literally means "dance-writing" from the Greek words "χορεία" (circular dance, see choreia) and "γραφή" (writing). It first appeared in the American English dictionary in the 1950s, and "choreographer" was first used as a credit for George Balanchine in the Broadway show On Your Toes in 1936. Before this, stage credits and movie credits used phrases such as "ensembles staged by", "dances staged by", or simply "dances by" to denote the choreographer.

In Renaissance Italy, dance masters created movements for social dances which were taught, while staged ballets were created in a similar way. In 16th century France, French court dances were developed in an artistic pattern. In the 17th and 18th centuries, social dance became more separated from theatrical dance performances. During this time the word choreography was applied to the written record of dances, which later became known as dance notation, with the meaning of choreography shifting to its current use as the composition of a sequence of movements making up a dance performance.

The ballet master or choreographer during this time became the "arranger of dance as a theatrical art", with one well-known master being of the late 18th century being Jean-Georges Noverre, with others following and developing techniques for specific types of dance, including Gasparo Angiolini, Jean Dauberval, Charles Didelot, and Salvatore Viganò. Ballet eventually developed its own vocabulary in the 19th century, and romantic ballet choreographers included  Carlo Blasis, August Bournonville, Jules Perrot and Marius Petipa.

Modern dance brought a new, more naturalistic style of choreography, including by Russian choreographer Michel Fokine (1880-1942) and Isadora Duncan (1878-1927), and since then styles have varied between realistic representation and abstraction. Merce Cunningham, George Balanchine, and Sir Frederick Ashton were all influential choreographers of classical or abstract dance, but Balanchine and Ashton, along with Martha Graham, Leonide Massine, Jerome Robbins and others also created representational works. Isadora Duncan loved natural movement and improvisation. The work of Alvin Ailey (1931-1989), an African-American dancer, choreographer, and activist, spanned many styles of dance, including ballet, jazz, modern dance, and theatre.

Dance choreography techniques
Dances are designed by applying one or both of these fundamental choreographic methods:
 * Improvisation, in which a choreographer provides dancers with a score (i.e., generalized directives) that serves as guidelines for improvised movement and form. For example, a score might direct one dancer to withdraw from another dancer, who in turn is directed to avoid the withdrawal, or it might specify a sequence of movements that are to be executed in an improvised manner over the course of a musical phrase, as in contra dance choreography. Improvisational scores typically offer wide latitude for personal interpretation by the dancer.
 * Planned choreography, in which a choreographer dictates motion and form in detail, leaving little or no opportunity for the dancer to exercise personal interpretation.

Several underlying techniques are commonly used in choreography for two or more dancers:
 * Mirroring - facing each other and doing the same
 * Retrograde - performing a sequence of moves in reverse order
 * Canon - people performing the same move one after the other
 * Levels - people higher and lower in a dance
 * Shadowing - standing one behind the other and performing the same moves
 * Unison - two or more people doing a range of moves at the same time

Movements may be characterized by dynamics, such as fast, slow, hard, soft, long, and short.

Choreography today
Today, the main rules for choreography are that it must impose some kind of order on the performance, within the three dimensions of space as well the fourth dimension of time and the capabilities of the human body.

In the performing arts, choreography applies to human movement and form. In dance, choreography is also known as dance choreography or dance composition. Choreography is also used in a variety of other fields, including opera, cheerleading, theatre, marching band, synchronized swimming, cinematography, ice skating, gymnastics, fashion shows,   show choir,  cardistry, video game production, and animated art.

Competitions
The International Choreographic Competition Hannover, Hanover, Germany, is the longest-running choreography competition in the world (started c. 1982), organised by the Ballett Gesellschaft Hannover e.V. It took place online during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021, returning to the stage at the Theater am Aegi in 2022. Gregor Zöllig, head choreographer of dance at the Staatstheater Braunschweig was appointed artistic director of the competition in 2020. The main conditions of entry are that entrants must be under 40 years of age, and professionally trained. The competition has been run in collaboration with the Tanja Liedtke Foundation since her death in 2008, and from 2021 a new production prize has been awarded by the foundation, to complement the five other production awards. The 2021 and 2022 awards were presented by Marco Goecke, then director of ballet at the Staatstheater Hannover.

There are a number of other international choreography competitions, mostly focused on modern dance. These include:
 * Beijing International Ballet and Choreography Competition, Beijing, China
 * Contemporary Dance Platform, Cyprus, Greece
 * Copenhagen International Choreography Competition, Copenhagen, Denmark (CICC), founded in 2008, annual
 * Helsinki Ballet Competition, Choreography Award, Helsinki, Finland
 * International Choreographic Competition, Rome, Italy
 * Moscow Ballet Competition and Contest for Choreographers, Moscow, Russia
 * New Adventures Choreographer Award, London, UK
 * Prix de la Danse de Montreal, Montreal, Canada
 * Valentina Kozlova International Ballet Competition, Brussels, Belgium
 * Varna International Ballet Competition, Choreography Award, Varna, Bulgaria

The International Online Dance Competition (IODC) was introduced in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with a Grand Prix worth US$1000.

Copyright Protection of Choreography
Section 102(a)(4) of the Copyright Act provides protection in “choreographic works” that were created after January 1, 1978, and are fixed in a tangible medium of expression. Under copyright law, choreography is “the composition and arrangement of a related series of dance movements and patterns organized into a coherent whole.” Choreography consisting of ordinary motor activities, social dances, commonplace movements or gestures, or athletic movements may lack a sufficient amount of authorship to qualify for copyright protection.

A recent lawsuit was brought by professional dancer and choreographer Kyle Hanagami, who sued Epic Games, alleging that the video game developer copied a portion of Hanagami’s copyrighted dance moves in the popular game Fortnite. Hanagami published a YouTube video in 2017 featuring a dance he choreographed to the song "How Long" by Charlie Puth, and Hanagami claimed that Fortnight's "It's Complicated" "emote" copied a portion of his "How High" choreography. Hanagami's asserted claims for direct and contributory copyright infringement and unfair competition. Fortnite-maker Epic Games ultimately won dismissal of the copyright claims after the district court concluded that his two-second, four-beat sequence of dance steps was not protectable under copyright law.

title: Choreography


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BBC Light Programme

The BBC Light Programme was a national radio station which broadcast chiefly mainstream light entertainment and light music from 1945 until 1967, when it was replaced by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 2. It opened on 29 July 1945, taking over the long wave frequency which had earlier been used – prior to the outbreak of the Second World War on 1 September 1939 – by the BBC National Programme.

The service was intended as a domestic replacement for the wartime BBC General Forces Programme which had gained many civilian listeners in Britain as well as members of the British Armed Forces.

History
The long wave signal on 200 kHz / 1500 metres was transmitted from Droitwich in the English Midlands (as it still is today for BBC Radio 4, although adjusted slightly to 198 kHz / 1515 metres from 1 February 1988)  and gave fairly good coverage of most of the United Kingdom, although a number of low-power medium wave transmitters (using 1215 kHz / 247 metres) were added later to fill in local blank spots. Over the course of the 1950s and 1960s, the Light Programme (along with the BBC's two other national stations – the BBC Home Service and the BBC Third Programme) gradually became available on what was known at the time as VHF, as the BBC developed a network of local FM transmitters.

From its first day of broadcasting in 1945 until Monday 2 September 1957, the Light Programme would be on the air from 9.00 am until midnight each day, apart from Sundays when it would come on the air at 8.00 am until 11.00 pm.

There was, however, a period of a year when the Light Programme was forced to end its broadcasting day one hour earlier at 11.00 pm. This commenced in mid-February 1947 as an effect from the appalling winter of 1946–1947 which saw a fuel shortage in the country with the government enforcing electricity saving measures, one of which was losing one hour of broadcasting per day from the Light Programme. Even after the fuel shortage had ended by spring 1947, the 11.00 pm closedown each night continued as BBC Radio found itself in financial problems and needed to save money. The midnight closedown of the Light Programme resumed one year later from Sunday 11 April 1948. The long-running soap opera The Archers was first heard nationally on the Light Programme on New Year's Day 1951, although a week-long pilot version had been broadcast on the Midlands Home Service in 1950.

From Monday 2 September 1957, the Light Programme's broadcasting hours would start to increase, with a new early morning start time of 7.00 am until midnight, later moving to 6.30 am from Monday 29 September 1958.

In 1964, broadcasting hours were increased even more, with a new morning start time of 5.30 am from Monday 31 August. Up until September 1964, the Light Programme would always end its broadcasting day at midnight; however this changed on Sunday 27 September 1964, when a new closedown time of 2.02 am was introduced.

The Light Programme closed down for the last time at 2.03 am on Saturday 30 September 1967. At 5.30 am, it was replaced by BBC Radio 2 and at 7.00 am by BBC Radio 1 on medium wave.

Programming
Some programmes broadcast from the Light Programme still continue today, such as Junior Choice, The Archers, Pick of the Pops, Desert Island Discs and Woman's Hour. Other programmes included:

 * The Al Read Show
 * Appointment with Fear
 * The Archers (1951–1967)
 * The Beatles Invite You to Take a Ticket to Ride (1965)
 * Beyond Our Ken
 * Billy Cotton Band Show
 * Breakfast Special
 * The Clitheroe Kid
 * Dick Barton – Special Agent
 * Does the Team Think?
 * Desert Island Discs (1945–1946)
 * Easy Beat (1960–1967)
 * Educating Archie
 * Family Favourites (1945–1967)
 * Friday Night Is Music Night (1953–1967)
 * From Us to You (1964)
 * The Goon Show (repeats from the Home Service)
 * Hancock's Half Hour
 * Have a Go!
 * Housewives' Choice
 * Ignorance is Bliss
 * I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again
 * It's That Man Again (repeats from the Home Service)
 * Journey into Space (1953–1958)
 * Junior Choice (1954–1967)
 * Life with the Lyons
 * Listen with Mother (1950–1964)
 * Meet the Huggetts
 * Movie-Go-Round
 * Midday Spin
 * Mrs Dale's Diary (1948–1967)
 * Much Binding in the Marsh
 * Music While You Work
 * The Navy Lark
 * Orbiter X
 * Pick of the Pops (1955–1967)
 * Parade of the Pops (1960–1967)
 * Paul Temple
 * The Public Ear
 * Pop Go the Beatles (1963)
 * Radio Newsreel
 * Ray's a Laugh
 * Richard Attenborough's Record Rendezvous
 * Riders of the Range
 * Round the Horne (1965–1967)
 * Roundabout
 * Saturday Club (1957–1967)
 * Shadow of Sumuru
 * The Showband Show
 * Side by Side
 * Sing Something Simple (1959–1967)
 * The Sunday Half-Hour (1945–1967)
 * The Slide
 * Sports Report
 * Take It from Here
 * Teenager's Turn – Here We Go
 * Top Gear (1964–1967; a music show unrelated to the car franchise)
 * Variety Bandbox
 * Waterlogged Spa
 * Welsh Rarebit
 * Woman's Hour (1946–1967)
 * Workers' Playtime (Home Service until September 1957)
 * Your Hundred Best Tunes

Presenters

 * Barry Alldis
 * Marjorie Anderson
 * Richard Attenborough
 * Tony Blackburn
 * Tim Brinton
 * Michael Brooke
 * Desmond Carrington
 * Sam Costa
 * Bill Crozier
 * Alan Dell
 * Robert Dougall
 * David Dunhill
 * John Dunn
 * Don Durbridge
 * Simon Dee
 * Franklin Engelmann
 * Peter Fettes
 * Alan Freeman
 * Keith Fordyce
 * Tim Gudgin
 * Peter Haigh
 * Colin Hamilton
 * David Hamilton
 * Paul Hollingdale
 * David Jacobs
 * Brian Matthew
 * Jean Metcalfe
 * Sandy MacPherson
 * Roger Moffat
 * Ray Moore
 * Pete Murray
 * Annie Nightingale
 * Ray Orchard
 * Robin Richmond
 * Phillip Slessor
 * Douglas Smith
 * Ken Sykora
 * David Symonds
 * John Webster
 * Roy Williams
 * Bruce Wyndham
 * Terry Wogan
 * Jimmy Young

title: BBC Light Programme


text:
Talk:Space Shuttle Challenger

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Big Bird
Should we add that Caroll Spinney was supposed to go on this ship, as Big Bird, before the mission was abandoned cause the puppet proved to be too big? -- 68.163.108.150 (talk) 11:42, 1 July 2020 (UTC)

"Challenger Spacecraft" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Challenger Spacecraft. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 July 19 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Soumya-8974 talk contribs subpages 12:35, 19 July 2020 (UTC)

"The challenger" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect The challenger. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 July 19 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Soumya-8974 talk contribs subpages 12:37, 19 July 2020 (UTC)

Glaring omission...
Please include a list of passengers who died on the final flight. 63.152.66.105 (talk) 15:51, 21 February 2022 (UTC)

 * If you go to the article about the final flight it lists all of the crew. STS-51-L AlistairMcMillan (talk) 17:54, 21 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Space Shuttle Challenger


text:
Giovanni Carron

Giovanni Carron (ca. 1570 – 1649) was the First Duke of Buttigliera Alta. He was conferred the title as well as the fiefdom of the area, on April 25, 1619. His family, the Carrons, originated from Savoy, and established themselves in Turin in 1600, at the Lascaris Palace.

Giovanni had four children:
 * Alessandro (whose only son died without leaving an heir);
 * Nepumoceno;
 * Costanza (married the marquese Massimo di Ceva and died childless);
 * Celso, who was the father of Clementina Carron and Gerardo Carron. Clementina was the last of the Carron line.

title: Giovanni Carron


text:
Talk:Breidablik

Is this mythology? If so, please state
...In mythology? In what? :S -- Sam — Preceding undated comment added 17:04, 9 February 2003 (UTC)

Requested move 22 October 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: no consensus. (closed by non-admin page mover) — Ceso femmuin mbolgaig mbung, mellohi! (投稿) 17:03, 7 November 2022 (UTC)

Breidablik → Breiðablik – Convention is to use the non-anglicised version of the name for example in Skaði, Þrúðvangr and Útgarða-Loki. Ingwina (talk) 18:47, 22 October 2022 (UTC) — Relisting. — Ceso femmuin mbolgaig mbung, mellohi! (投稿) 17:16, 30 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME based on the Google Ngrams. We should be using the most common English name for all of these titles. Rreagan007 (talk) 20:34, 22 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. We use the correct orthography in cases like this. This is not a COMMONNAME question.  COMMONNAME is what tells us whether to use David Johansen or Buster Poindexter; it has nothing to do with typographic style questions.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  06:15, 23 October 2022 (UTC)
 * If this article is renamed Breiðablik, what should the dab nom initially created at Breiðablik be renamed? ? Breidablik (resulting in a page swap)? Rotideypoc41352 (talk · contribs) 20:10, 23 October 2022 (UTC)
 * This would be my intention if I understand you correctly. Breiðablik as the main page, for disambiguation and Breidablik as a redirect to the main page.  Ingwina (talk) 07:03, 24 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Support the correct spelling (after all this isn't the blonde Serbian ex-tennis player who here on en.wp can't have her surname spelled fully like all other Serbians...) but |Brei%C3%B0ablik_(sports_club)|Brei%C3%B0ablik_women%27s_basketball|Brei%C3%B0ablik_men%27s_football PAGEVIEWS suggest Breiðablik (mythology). Everything else should go to the dab. In ictu oculi (talk) 07:40, 24 October 2022 (UTC)
 * My rationale against the "(mythology)" is that the mythological hall came first and is the reason the others have the name, just as "Thor" is the page about the god rather than "Thor (mythology)", even though say "Thor (film)", even though the latter gets more visits. I'm less fussed about this though - my main qualm is the orthography. Ingwina (talk) 08:30, 24 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Support per nom.--Ortizesp (talk) 13:16, 24 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME and Ngrams cited by Rreagan007. We have Odin not Óðinn; when Norse typography is used, it's because it's used in English as well, or when there isn't a clear English common name, but there is in this case.  Skadi/Skathi should probably be moved as well so if there's a consistency argument to be made, it'd go the other way.  SnowFire (talk) 02:04, 27 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Support. This form Breiðablik could be anglized a few different ways, and this is partially why scholars overwhelmingly stick to Old Norse forms when discussing them (with a few exceptions that have become standard in English, like the form Thor). :bloodofox: (talk) 20:52, 27 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Rreagan007 and SnowFire. There are six entries listed upon the Breiðablik disambiguation page, with two of those entries using the Breidablik / Breidablick form, thus confirming that an Anglicized version of the letter "ð" is in common English usage. —Roman Spinner (talk • contribs) 01:00, 31 October 2022 (UTC)
 * The most commonly used form would be the Old Norse form. In this case, it's primarily scholars who have discussed this topic over the years, and they generally use the Old Norse form (for example, Simek's handbook or any number of scholastic papers discussing Baldr). :bloodofox: (talk) 16:26, 31 October 2022 (UTC)
 * I second this. In the research I did when rewriting the page, "Breiðablik" was by far the most common form in academic papers. Anglicisations were mostly only seen in translations of texts, when the name wasn't literally translated (which was roughly as common). Ingwina (talk) 09:40, 1 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Relisting comment: Argument-wise, there is a split on whether to use the proper spelling vs. a more common (but not Old Norse) spelling. — Ceso femmuin mbolgaig mbung, mellohi! (投稿) 17:16, 30 October 2022 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

title: Talk:Breidablik


text:
Bernardus Silvestris

Bernardus Silvestris, also known as Bernard Silvestris and Bernard Silvester, was a medieval Platonist philosopher and poet of the 12th century.

Biography
Little is known about Bernardus's life. In the nineteenth century, it was assumed that Bernardus was the same person as Bernard of Chartres, but the scholarly consensus is now that the two were different people. There is little evidence connecting Bernardus to Chartres, yet his work is consistent with the scholarship associated with Chartres in the twelfth century and is in that sense "Chartrian". Bernardus dedicated his Cosmographia to Thierry of Chartres, who became chancellor of Chartres in 1141; he most likely wrote the letter in order to win the favour of a powerful figure, known for his interest in science.

André Vernet, who edited Bernardus' Cosmographia, believed that he lived from 1085 to 1178. The most secure date in his life is 1147–48, when the Cosmographia was supposedly read to Pope Eugene III, though it could have been finished before then, perhaps between 1143 and 1148. There is some evidence that Bernardus was connected to Spanish schools of philosophy, but it seems likely that he was born and taught in Tours, because of the intimate descriptions of the city and the surrounding area found in the Cosmographia. Later medieval authors also associated him with that city.

Works
Bernardus' greatest work is the aforementioned Cosmographia, a prosimetrum on the creation of the world, told from a 12th-century Platonist perspective. This work influenced Chaucer and others with its pioneering use of allegory to discuss metaphysical and scientific questions. Its Christian neo-Platonism was most clearly prefigured in the Periphyseon of the 9th-century Irish theologian John Scotus Eriugena.

Bernardus also wrote the poem Mathematicus and probably the poem Experimentarius as well as some minor poems. Among the works attributed to Bernardus later in the Middle Ages were a commentary on Virgil's Aeneid (Bernardus' authorship of which has been questioned by modern scholars) and a commentary on Martianus Capella's De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. The commentary on the Aeneid is the longest medieval commentary on that work, although it is incomplete, ending about two-thirds of the way through book six.

Authorship of Aeneid commentary
Julian Ward Jones, Jr., in his article "The So-Called Silvestris Commentary on the Aeneid and Two Other Interpretations", attempts to clear up the issue of the authorship of the Aeneid commentary by distinguishing two distinct positions: the first by E. R. Smits, and the second by Christopher Baswell. Smits's account is rejected by Jones, who says that Baswell's account is mostly correct but requires some modification.

E. R. Smits, like André Vernet (1938), hypothesizes that Carnotensis (the pen-name of the commentary) is Bernard of Chartres – the individual who Silvestris is most confused with. Vernet says that Silvestris, for whom this confusion was normally detrimental, probably gained from this particular confusion, as he is most often credited for the commentary on Vergil's Aeneid. Smits and Vernet attribute Bernard of Chartres's authorship of the Aeneid commentary to a number of similarities and differences between this work and other texts.

On the other hand, Christopher Baswell attempts to interpret the Aeneid commentary through comparison to a commentary in Cambridge manuscript Peterhouse 158, seeing this as an important link between manuscripts of the commentary and the Silvestris commentary. By placing the passages in two columns, Baswell shows that the interpretations are congruent, although the notes in the Peterhouse MS appear to be shortened and simpler versions of notes in the Silvestris commentary. Baswell concludes that the Peterhouse MS represents an earlier version by Silvestris. Jones sets this conclusion aside, citing differences that in his opinion are more important than the striking similarities. By pointing to differences in organization among other things, Jones casts doubt on Baswell's hypothesis. Although Baswell and Jones both see Silvestris as the Aeneid commentator, Jones does not agree with the connection to the Peterhouse MS.

Impact and contributions
The Cosmographia influenced Chaucer and others with its pioneering use of allegory to discuss metaphysical and scientific questions. Theodore Silverstein praises Silvestris' works for their imaginative prose, as well as for positioning himself well in literature based on the time and place—particularly in the writing of the Cosmographia during the 12th-century controversies of evolution. In the Catholic Encyclopedia, William Turner wrote that there was a "pantheistic drift" to his philosophy.

There is evidence of influence in the works of medieval and renaissance authors, including Hildegard of Bingen, St. Bonaventure, Vincent of Beauvais, Dante, Chaucer, Nicolas of Cusa, and Boccaccio. In the modern era, Bernardus Silvestris has been referred to in the nonfiction and science fiction work of C. S. Lewis.

Editions and translations

 * Mathematicus, ed. and trans. Deirdre M. Stone, Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge 63 (1996): 209–83.
 * Experimentarius, ed. Charles Burnett, in "What Is the Experimentarius of Bernardus Silvestris?: A Preliminary Survey of the Material," Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge 44 (1977): 62–108. Reprinted in Burnett, Magic and Divination in the Middle Ages (Aldershot: Variorum, 1996). ISBN 0-86078-615-3
 * The Commentary on the First Six Books of the Aeneid of Virgil Commonly Attributed to Bernardus Silvestris, ed. Julian Ward Jones and Elizabeth Frances Jones (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977). ISBN 0-8032-0898-7
 * The Commentary on the First Six Books of Virgil's Aeneid, trans. Earl G. Schreiber and Thomas E. Maresca (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979). ISBN 0-8032-4108-9

title: Bernardus Silvestris


text:
Quercus velutina

Quercus velutina, the black oak, is a species of oak in the red oak group (Quercus sect. Lobatae), native and widespread in eastern and central North America. It is sometimes called the eastern black oak.

Quercus velutina was previously known as yellow oak due to the yellow pigment in its inner bark. It is a close relative of the California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) found in western North America.

Description
In the northern part of its range, Quercus velutina is a relatively small tree, reaching a height of 20-25 m and a diameter of 90 cm, but it grows larger in the south and center of its range, where heights of up to 42 m are known.

The leaves of the black oak are alternately arranged on the twig and are 10 – long with 5–7 bristle-tipped lobes separated by deep U-shaped notches. The upper surface of the leaf is a shiny deep green, and the lower is yellowish-brown. There are also stellate hairs on the underside of the leaf that grow in clumps. Some key characteristics for identification include that leaves grown in the sun have very deep U-shaped sinuses and that the buds are velvety and covered in white hairs.

Black oak is monoecious. The staminate flowers develop from leaf axils of the previous year and the catkins emerge before or at the same time as the current leaves in April or May. The pistillate flowers are borne in the axils of the current year's leaves and may be solitary or occur in two- to many-flowered spikes. The fruit, an acorn that occurs singly or in clusters of two to five, is about one-third enclosed in a scaly cup and matures in 2 years. Black oak acorns are brown when mature and ripen from late August to late October, depending on geographic location.

The fruits or acorns of the black oak are medium-sized and broadly rounded. The cap is large and covers almost half of the nut.

Habitat and distribution
Black oak is found in all the coastal states from Maine to Texas, inland as far as Michigan, Ontario, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas.

It grows on all aspects and slope positions. It grows best in coves and on middle and lower slopes with northerly and easterly aspects. It is found at elevations up to 1200 m in the southern Appalachians. In southern New England, black oak grows on cool, moist soils. Elsewhere it occurs on warm, moist soils. The most widespread soils on which black oak grows are the udalfs and udolls. These soils are derived from glacial materials, sandstones, shales, and limestone and range from heavy clays to loamy sands with some having a high content of rock or chert fragments. Black oak grows best on well drained, silty clay to loam soils.

The most important factors determining site quality for black oak are the thickness and texture of the A horizon, texture of the B horizon, aspect, and slope position. Other factors may be important in localized areas. For example, in northwestern West Virginia increasing precipitation to 1120 mm resulted in increased site quality; more than 1120 mm had no further effect. In southern Indiana, decreasing site quality was associated with increasing slope steepness.

Near the limits of its range, topographic factors may restrict its distribution. At the western limits black oak is often found only on north and east aspects where moisture conditions are most favorable. In southern Minnesota and Wisconsin it is usually found only on ridge tops and the lower two-thirds of south- and west-facing slopes.

Associated plant species
Common tree associates of black oak are white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), pignut hickory (Carya glabra), mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa), bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), and shagbark hickory (C. ovata); American elm (Ulmus americana) and slippery elm (U. rubra); white ash (Fraxinus americana); black walnut (Juglans nigra) and butternut (J. cinerea); scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), southern red oak (Q. falcata), and chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii); red maple (Acer rubrum) and sugar maple (A. saccharum); black cherry (Prunus serotina); and blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica).

Common small tree associates of black oak include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), redbud (Cercis canadensis), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), downy serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), and American bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia). Common shrubs include Vaccinium spp., mountain-laurel (Kalmia latifolia), witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), spicebush (Lindera benzoin), sumac (Rhus spp.), and Viburnum spp. The most common vines are greenbrier (Smilax spp.), grape (Vitis spp.), poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia).

Black oak is often a predominant species in the canopy of an oak–heath forest.

Seed production and dissemination
In forest stands, black oak begins to produce seeds at about age 20 and reaches optimum production at 40 to 75 years. It is a consistent seed producer with good crops of acorns every 2 to 3 years. In Missouri, the average number of mature acorns per tree was generally higher than for other oaks over a 5-year period, but the number of acorns differed greatly from year to year and from tree to tree within the same stand.

The number of seeds that become available for regenerating black oak may be low even in good seed years. Insects, squirrels, deer, turkey, small rodents, and birds consume many acorns. They can eat or damage a high percentage of the acorn crop in most years and essentially all of it in poor seed years.

Black oak acorns from a single tree are dispersed over a limited area by squirrels, mice, and gravity. The blue jay may disperse over longer distances.

Response to competition
Black oak is classed as intermediate in tolerance to shade. It is less tolerant than many of its associates such as white and chestnut oaks, hickories, beech (Fagus grandifolia), maples, elm, and blackgum. However, it is more tolerant than yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), black cherry, and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata). It is about the same as northern red oak and scarlet oak. Seedlings usually die within a few years after being established under fully stocked over stories. Most black oak sprouts under mature stands develop crooked stems and flat-topped or misshapen crowns. After the over story is removed, only the large stems are capable of competing successfully. Seedlings are soon overtopped. The few that survive usually remain in the intermediate crown class.

Even-aged silvicultural systems satisfy the reproduction and growth requirements of black oak better than the all-aged or uneven-aged selection system. Under the selection system, black oak is unable to reproduce because of inadequate light. Stands containing black oak that are managed under the selection system will gradually be dominated by more shade-tolerant species.

Dormant buds are numerous on the boles of black oak trees. These buds may be stimulated to sprout and produce branches by mechanical pruning or by exposure to greatly increased light, as by thinning heavily or creating openings in the stand. Dominant trees are less likely to produce epicormic branches than those in the lower crown class.

Damaging agents
Wildfires seriously damage black oak trees by killing the cambium at the base of the trees. This creates an entry point for decay fungi. The result is loss of volume because of heart rot. Trees up to pole size are easily killed by fire and severe fires may even kill saw timber. Many of the killed trees sprout and form a new stand. However, the economic loss may be large unless at least some of it can be salvaged.

Oak wilt (Bretziella fagacearum) is a potentially serious vascular disease of black oak that is widespread throughout the eastern United States. Trees die within a few weeks after the symptoms first appear. Usually scattered individuals or small groups of trees are killed, but areas several hectares in size may be affected. The disease is spread from tree to tree through root grafts and over larger distances by sap-feeding beetles (Nitidulidae) and the small oak bark beetle.

Shoestring root rot (Armillaria mellea) attacks black oak and may kill trees weakened by fire, lightning, drought, insects, or other diseases. A root rot, Phytophthora cinnamomi, may kill seedlings in the nursery. Cankers caused by Strumella and Nectria species damage the holes of black oak but seldom kill trees. Foliage diseases that attack black oak are the same as those that typically attack species in the red oak group and include anthracnose (Gnomonia quercina), leaf blister (Taphrina spp.), powdery mildews (Phyllactinia corylea and Microsphaera alni), oak-pine rusts (Cronartium spp.), and leaf spots (Actinopelte dryina).

Tunneling insects that attack the boles of black oak and cause serious lumber degrade include the carpenter worm (Prionoxystus robiniae), red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus), the twolined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus), the oak timber worm (Arrenodes minutus), and the Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus columbianus).

The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) feeds on foliage and is potentially the most destructive insect. Although black oaks withstood a single defoliation, two or three defoliations in successive years kill many trees. Other defoliators that attack black oak and may occasionally be epidemic are the variable oak leaf caterpillar (Heterocampa manteo), the orange striped oakworm (Anisota senatoria), and the brown tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea).

The nut weevils (Curculio spp.), gall-forming cynipids (Callirhytis spp.), filbertworm (Melissopus latiferreanus), and acorn moth (Valentinia glandulella) damage black oak acorns.

Named hybrids involving black oak
Black oak is well known to readily hybridize with other members of the red oak (Quercus sect. Lobatae) group, being one parent in at least a dozen different named hybrids.

 * Quercus × bushii (Quercus marilandica × Q. velutina) – Bush's oak
 * Quercus × cocksii (Quercus laurifolia × Q. velutina) – Cocks' oak
 * Quercus × demarei (Quercus nigra × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × discreta (Quercus shumardii × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × filialis (Quercus phellos × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × fontana (Quercus coccinea × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × hawkinsiae (Quercus rubra × Q. velutina) – Hawkin's oak
 * Quercus × leana (Quercus imbricaria × Q. velutina) – Lea's oak
 * Quercus × palaeolithicola (Quercus ellipsoidalis × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × podophylla (Quercus incana × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × rehderi (Quercus ilicifolia × Q. velutina) – Rehder's oak
 * Quercus × vaga (Quercus palustris × Q. velutina)
 * Quercus × willdenowiana (Quercus falcata × Q. velutina) – Willdenow's oak

Uses
The inner bark of the black oak contains a yellow-orange coloring from the pigment quercitron, which was sold commercially in Europe until the 1940s, and lending the species its former common name of yellow oak.

title: Quercus velutina


text:
Talk:ATP synthase

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): BiochemEkaterina.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 13:12, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Oldest comments
I don't recall all of the history of these particles, but given that it's one of the few enzyme complexes large enough to be visualized by a microscope, I think it deserves some space here, and perhaps a little more than a redirect to proton pump (which, under normal physiological conditions, it is not). Dwmyers 17:12 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

This is a wonderful reference with excellent discussions of the ATPase mechanism, and we need to incorporate some of this here: http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/educational/poster/1997/history.html Dwmyers 20:07 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)

ATP synthase is F-ATPase and there are articles under both headings they need to be condensed. If no one objects in either field I will do so and redirect on into the other.

Also there are several vary award grammatical structures that need fixing.

The worked of the Cell by Becker, Kleinsmith and Hardin has a good chapter on ATPases. I’ll up date this article from the information with in and fix the above problems soon if there are no objections. Jasoninkid April 16, 2006

Binding Change Mechanism section outdated
The last paragraph and the animated GIF are outdated. Subsequent experiments have found ATP release and ADP binding occur at the same time at different catalytic sites. Also Phosphate binding/release occurs at a different time than ATP/ADP binding release. I unfortunately do not have time to update this article myself, but here is the reference.

"Coupling of rotation and catalysis in F1-ATPase revealed by single-molecule imaging and manipulation" Kengo Adachi, Kazuhiro Oiwa, Takayuki Nishizaka, Shou Furuike, Hiroyuki Noji, Hiroyasu Itoh, Masasuke Yoshida, and Kazuhiko Kinosita Jr. Cell 130 (2007) 309-321. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.7.239.171 (talk) 00:45, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

types of ATP synthase
There should be some differentiation between F-type and A-type ATP synthases. Currently, only F-type ATPases are represented. Silasmellor (talk) 11:52, 27 April 2010 (UTC)

ATPase article
ATPase —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.238.176.160 (talk) 00:28, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

Evolution of ATP synthase is completely speculative and unscientific
The section devoted to the evolution of ATP synthase does not cite one fact, nor one experiment, nor one hard empirical study of the ATP synthase. It is mere speculation and completely without scientific merit. The article is mere metaphysics and has no place in a scientific article. Take a hard look and notice how often the word "could" is used. The section should be deleted. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kylefoley76 (talk • contribs) 18:12, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

ATP synthase picture
In the ATP synthase picture the F1 unit of the protein extends only to the alpha and beta subunits. While for example in "biochemistry 5th edition" by berg, tymoczko and stryer it also includes the stalk, i.e. the gamma and epsilon subunits (page 509). So probably the figure needs to be reedited or another figure used which incorporates these change. Latrocinia (talk) 09:35, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Picture
I'm not well educated on this subject. The animation on the page is great but I find myself wondering weather it is perfectly accurate at describing the timing of the process perhaps more could be written about it. Also I didn't understand what the animation was depicting without finding a graphic of the structure on another site. including such a picture on the page would make it much better. The most best I have come across is here http://www.ks.uiuc.edu/Research/f0atpase/. -Just some suggestions that I think would improve the page. 180.181.66.245 (talk) 12:11, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

Verification of statements concerning the nomenclature
Currently (2014) the article does not cite from where it got the names Fo and F1. A link should be added to confirm the statements given therein. 84.113.183.242 (talk) 13:13, 9 September 2014 (UTC)

F= Fraction, or Factor?
It is my understanding that the F in F1 and Fo stands for factor, not fraction. These preparations were called "coupling factors". However looking at the original literature "fraction" could be supported. There are phrases like "a mitochondrial fraction (Fo) which confers oligomycin sensitivity" but also "the factor(Fo) which confers oligomycin sensitivity" and "a preparation was obtained which was capable of conferring oligomycin sensitivity (Fo)". I believe "fraction" like "preparation" describes how it was obtained but "Factor" is what it is specifically named. Perhaps Racker's "Bioenegetics" book has the answer. Eaberry (talk) 06:53, 16 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Would it be reasonable to mention that of "fraction" and "factor", the latter is used more frequently? Jjexpat (talk) 05:42, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 19:43, 1 May 2016 (UTC)

Expansion
I would like to expand on the structure and  function of ATP synthase’s domains and subunits. Subunits have their own function that help for example, in F1 which is water soluble plays a major role in hydrolysis which was not stated in the article. I would also like to expand on the ATP synthase regulation and conformational change. Any feedback or suggestions would be greatly appreciated. Thank you. — Preceding unsigned comment added by BiochemEkaterina (talk • contribs) 22:09, 11 May 2017 (UTC)

History section
Hi, I am trying to better this page on the content and the structure and I would like to offer to move quoted below information to a new section named, History Names of ATP Synthase. I might be wrong, but it seems under section - Structure we would usually expand on the structure of the content and not on how the names are came about? Thank you. Your feedback is very much appreciated. "The nomenclature of the enzyme has a long history. The F1 fraction derives its name from the term "Fraction 1" and FO (written as a subscript letter "o", not "zero") derives its name from being the binding fraction for oligomycin, a type of naturally-derived antibiotic that is able to inhibit the FO unit of ATP synthase.[1][2] These functional regions consist of different protein subunits — refer to tables." — Preceding unsigned comment added by BiochemEkaterina (talk • contribs) 13:25, 26 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Since the subunits are discussed throughout the article, I have moved this section to the beginning of the article. Boghog (talk) 09:04, 17 June 2017 (UTC)

Graphics
Thank you for your contributions. Concerning the two figures that you have added: I would really help if you would indicate from which PDB structures (four character PDB IDs) these were derived from so that proper citations can be added. Also please take a look at How do I get a white background?. In PyMOL, it is a good idea to turn off depth cueing and fog. In addition these figures should be ray traced and cropped. Thanks. Boghog (talk) 09:14, 17 June 2017 (UTC)
 * File:Fo subunit of ATPase C1. Picture Created in PyMol .png, The caption points to ATP5J, but there are no structures of this protein in the PDB (see PDBe P18859 search.
 * File:Fo_complex_subunit_F6.png

 * I found the second structure which is based on  and updated the caption and figure accordingly. Boghog (talk) 10:01, 17 June 2017 (UTC)

 * I also found the first structure which is based on and have updated the caption and figure accordingly. Boghog (talk) 11:01, 17 June 2017 (UTC)

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ATP formation Gibbs free energy
ATP hydrolysis is energetically favourable and, to the best of my understanding, the formation of ATP is not. The standard Gibbs energy of ATP hydrolysis was finally found to be -31.55±1.27 kJ mol-1. DO correct me if I'm mistaken in this regard please. Revanchist317 (talk) 12:56, 9 October 2020 (UTC) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28282626/

proton pump equation conventions
I'm not a subject expert - the very kind of person for whom Wikipedia is written.

I have studied chemistry to below degree level and so am familiar with chemical equations.

I was mystified by the subscripted "out" and "in" used in the equation in the lead:

 * ADP + Pi + 3H+out ATP + H2O + 3H+in

I followed up a suspicion when I read, in the "Binding model" section, as far as "...with ATP hydrolysis driving proton pumping across the membrane." "Proton pump" was a term I knew by without much understanding, so I did a web search for "Proton pump" which led me back to Wikipedia article "Proton pump". (I have since created a link from the text "Proton pumping" in this article to the article "Proton pump".)

I am making the guess that the subscripted "out" and "in" mentioned above, correspond, respectively, with the subscripted "[on one side of a biological membrane]" and "[on the other side of the membrane]" found in the equation lead of the proton pump article:

 * [on one side of a biological membrane] + energy   [on the other side of the membrane]

- and presumably (from section "Structure and function" in the current article) the membrane we would be talking about here would be the inner mitochondrial membrane (in eukaryotes) and the thylakoid membrane (in photosynthesising organisms) or the plasma membrane in bacteria; so the "H+out" and "H+in" would refer to H+ respectively outside of and inside the mitochondrion, thylakoid or bacterium.

If this is the case, then I would suggest that an explanation that spells all this out would be helpful for anyone like myself who goes to Wikipedia for education on such topics and perhaps the place for it would be in the "Structure and function" section.

Since all the above is only guesswork, I have not made any changes, but - assuming it is correct -
 * (1) it did occur to me that a simple way of making the linkage slightly more obvious, right in the lead, would be to make a wikilink between the "out" and the "in" in the formula and the article "proton pump". however, I cannot recall having ever seen, in Wikipedia, a wikilink from an element of an equation, so I don't know if this would be considered within normal Wikipedia practice;
 * (2) Here is a suggested additional paragraph at the end of the "Structure and function" section

"The equation above:

 * ADP + Pi + 3H+out ATP + H2O + 3H+in

shows the movement of H+ ions (protons) through the membrane from outside to inside of the the organelle which powers the energy consuming reaction adding inorganic phosphate to ADP to produce the ATP product."

Alternatively something similar, but without repeat of the equation, could be added after the paragraph in the lead immediately under the equation, but perhaps some work needs to be done to combine it with that existing paragraph to avoid duplication of explanation.

Hedles (talk) 11:49, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

DNA code
May I put the DNA code of ATP synthase or at least a portion of it? BloxyColaSweet (talk) 21:30, 16 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:ATP synthase


text:
Montana (disambiguation)

Montana is the 41st state of the United States.

Montana may also refer to:

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 * Montana, Tasmania, Australia
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Other uses

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 * Montana (bush cricket), an insect genus in the tribe Platycleidini

title: Montana (disambiguation)


text: User talk:80.133.151.59

title: User talk:80.133.151.59


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List of Nintendo Entertainment System accessories

This is a list of accessories released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (known in Japan as the Family Computer, or Famicom) by Nintendo and other various third party manufacturers.

Family Computer
Since the Famicom lacked traditional game controller ports, third-party controllers were designed for use with the console's expansion slot.