text:
Sex in advertising

Sex appeal in advertising is a common tactic employed to promote products and services. Research indicates that sexually appealing content, including imagery, is often used to shape or alter the consumer's perception of a brand, even if it is not directly related to the product or service being advertised. This approach, known as "sex sells," has become more prevalent among companies, leading to controversies surrounding the use of sexual campaigns in advertising.

Contemporary mainstream advertising, across various media platforms such as magazines, online, and television, frequently incorporates sexual elements to market a wide range of branded goods and services. Provocative images of attractively dressed men and women are commonly used to promote clothing, alcohol, beauty products, and fragrances. Renowned brands like Calvin Klein, Victoria's Secret, and Pepsi use such imagery to cultivate an alluring media presence.

In some cases, sexual content is overtly displayed, while in others, it is subtly integrated with imperceptible cues aimed at influencing the target audience. Furthermore, sexual content has been employed to promote mainstream products that were not traditionally associated with sex. For instance, the Dallas Opera's marketing of the more suggestive aspects of its performances is believed to have contributed to a boost in ticket sales.

The effectiveness of sex appeal in advertising varies depending on the cultural context and the gender of the recipient, though these aspects are subject to further research and discussion.

Concept
Gender Advertisements, a 1979 book by Canadian social anthropologist Erving Goffman, is a series of studies of visual communication and how gender representation in advertising communicates subtle, underlying messages about the sexual roles projected by masculine and feminine images in advertising. The book is a visual essay about sex roles in advertising and the symbolism implied in the depictions of men and women in advertising.

When couples are used in an advertisement, the sex roles played by each partner also sends out messages. The interaction of the couple may send out a message of relative dominance and power, and may stereotype the roles of one or both partners. Usually the message is very subtle, and sometimes advertisements attract interest by changing stereotypical roles. For example, companies including Spotify, Airbnb, Lynx and Amazon.com have used same-sex couples in adverts. These adverts appeal to same-sex couples; they also create the image that these companies are tolerant, allowing them to appeal to a wider consumer audience.

As many consumers and professionals are thinking people, sex may be used to grab a viewer's attention, but this is likely short-term success. Whether using sex in advertising is effective depends on the product. About three-quarters of advertisements using sex to sell the product are communicating a product-related benefit, such as the product making its users more sexually attractive.

Daily exposure on social media by adolescents to these types of influences can affect their development. Younger teenage girls are drawn to these ads in order to learn about romance and relationships.

Correlational studies have linked sociodemographic variables to adolescent viewing habits. This can include (but not limited to) sex, age, and even ethnicity. Adolescents who watch and listen to a lot of media are more likely than less regular audiences to consider stereotypes of sex roles on TV as realistic.

Physical attractiveness

The use of physically attractive models in advertising is a form of sex in advertising. Physical attractiveness can be conveyed through facial beauty, physique, hair, skin complexion as well as by the model's inferred personality. This form of sex in advertising is effective as it draws attention and influences the overall feeling of the ad. Furthermore, such ads create an association between physical attractiveness and the product which sends a message to the consumer that buying and using the product will help them achieve that physique. The sexual arousal possibly elicited by physical attractiveness in adverts is thought to transfer onto the advertised product.

Sexual behavior

Marketers often use tactics such as sexual imagery in their advertisements to capture the consumer's attention for longer. Sex in advertising is also incorporated using hints of sexual behavior. The latter is communicated by the models using flirtatious body language, open posture and making eye contact with the viewer. Sexual behavior can also be displayed using several models interacting in a more or less sexual way. Sexual behavior in advertising is used to arouse sexual interest from the viewer. Research has shown that sexual arousal elicited by an advert subsequently affects the overall ad evaluation and the chances of future purchase.

For example, in a Guess clothing advert, while the models are physically attractive, it is their behavior such as position, posture and facial expressions that communicate sexual interest to the viewer. Women are often shown as being shorter, put in the background of images, shown in more 'feminine' poses than men, and generally present a higher degree of 'body display' than men in print advertisements.

Sexual embeds
Sexual embeds are a controversial form of sex in advertising. They are a powerful technique that advertising agencies do not want consumers to consciously notice. They are subliminal elements that are detected as sexual information solely at the subconscious level. Sexual embeds can take the form of objects or words that, at the subconscious level (or when occasionally consciously identified) explicitly depict sexual acts or genitalia. For example, a perfume bottle could mimic a phallic shape and its positioning could suggest sexual intercourse. Embeds are especially effective as they unconsciously trigger sexual arousal in the consumer which drives motivation and goal directed behavior such as purchase intention.

Gender roles
After women achieved the vote in the United States, Britain and Canada in the 1920s, advertising agencies exploited the new status of women. For example, they associated driving an automobile with masculinity, power, control, and dominance over a beautiful woman sitting alongside. More subtly, they published automobile ads in women's magazines, at a time when the vast majority of purchasers and drivers were in fact men. The new ads promoted themes of women's liberation while also delineating the limits of this freedom. Automobiles were more than practical devices, they were also highly visible symbols of affluence, mobility and modernity. The ads offered women a visual vocabulary to imagine their new social and political roles as citizens and to play an active role in shaping their identity as modern women.

History

The earliest known use of sex in advertising is by the Pearl Tobacco brand in 1871, which featured a naked maiden on the package cover. In 1885, W. Duke & Sons inserted trading cards into cigarette packs that featured sexually provocative starlets. Duke grew to become the leading American cigarette brand by 1890.

Other early forms of sex appeal in advertising include woodcuts and illustrations of attractive women (often unclothed from the waist up) adorning posters, signs, and ads for saloons, tonics, and tobacco. In several notable cases, sex in advertising has been claimed as the reason for increased consumer interest and sales.

Sex and soap

Woodbury's Facial Soap, a woman's beauty bar, was almost discontinued in 1911. The soap's sales decline was reversed, however, with ads containing images of romantic couples and promises of love and intimacy for those using the brand. Jōvan Musk Oil, introduced in 1971, was promoted with sexual entendre and descriptions of the fragrance's sexual attraction properties. As a result, Jōvan, Inc.'s revenue grew from $1.5 million in 1971 to $77 million by 1978.

Kamasutra condoms in India
In 1991, J.K. Chemicals Group asked the Bombay office of Lintas Bombay to develop a campaign for a new condom brand. The problem was that in the late 1940s, the Nehru government had launched a major population limitation program to reduce India's birthrate. The program was very heavy-handed, using coercion, and demanding that men use condoms. The product therefore signified an oppressive governmental intrusion. The agency head hit on the idea of a pleasurable condom, "So when the user hears the brand name, he says, "Wow. It's a turn on. Not a turn off." A brainstorming session hit on the name "Kamasutra", which refers to an ancient Sanskrit treatise on lovemaking and the sculptures at temples that illustrate the positions involved. The term was known to well-educated Indians, the intended audience. Correctly predicting the huge impact the campaign would have, the agency purchased all the advertising space in the popular glamour magazine Debonair and filled it with erotic images of Bollywood actors and actresses promoting Kamasutra condoms. A television commercial followed featuring a steamy shower scene. The television ad was censored but the print campaign proved highly successful.

Benetton
The Italian clothing company Benetton gained worldwide attention in the late 20th century for its saucy advertising, inspired by its art director Oliviero Toscani. He started with multicultural themes, tied together under the campaign "United Colors of Benetton" then became increasingly provocative with interracial groupings, and unusual sexual images, such as a nun kissing a priest.

Calvin Klein – sex and jeans
Calvin Klein of Calvin Klein Jeans has been at the forefront of this movement to use sex in advertising, having claimed, "Jeans are about sex. The abundance of bare flesh is the last gasp of advertisers trying to give redundant products a new identity." Calvin Klein's first controversial jeans advertisement showed a 15-year-old Brooke Shields, in Calvin Klein jeans, saying, "Do you want to know what gets between me and my Calvins? Nothing." Calvin Klein has also received media attention for its controversial advertisements in the mid-1990s. Several of Calvin Klein's advertisements featured images of teenage models, some "who were reportedly as young as 15" in overly sexual and provocative poses. Although Klein insisted that these advertisements were not pornographic, some considered the campaign as a form of "soft porn" or "kiddie porn" that was exploitative, shocking, and suggestive. In 1999, Calvin Klein was the subject of more controversy when it aired advertisements of young children who were only wearing the brand's underwear. This "kiddie underwear ad campaign" was pulled only one day after it aired as a result of public backlash. A spokesperson from Calvin Klein insisted that these ads were intended "to capture the same warmth and spontaneity that you find in a family snapshot."

The film industry
Film studios often make use of provocative movie posters in order to increase publicity and draw in larger audiences. One example is the iconic poster for Quentin Tarantino's 1994 film Pulp Fiction, in which Uma Thurman lies on her front, wearing a low-cut top and stilettos and smoking a cigarette despite the fact that, in the actual movie, she wears a button-down shirt that is far less revealing. The idea that "sex sells" has also led to film studios going a step further - rather than dressing female stars in a certain way simply to promote the movie, they base their actual costume design around this concept. For example, in the 2004 film Catwoman, Halle Berry simply wore a black push-up bra with S&M inspired straps, heavily ripped leather trousers and heels with a cat mask and whip, which commentators said "oozed overt [...] sexuality". This costume was a move away from Catwoman's skin-tight black suit that she wears for the majority of her appearances within DC Comics and thus, despite being entirely more revealing, was actually not a popular decision among fans of the character.

Effective use
Gallup & Robinson, an advertising and marketing research firm, has reported that in more than 50 years of testing advertising effectiveness, it has found the use of the erotic to be a significantly above-average technique in communicating with the marketplace, "...although one of the more dangerous for the advertiser. Weighted down with taboos and volatile attitudes, sex is a Code Red advertising technique ... handle with care ... seller beware; all of which makes it even more intriguing." This research has led to the popular idea that "sex sells".

Marketing strategies centered around sex have been successful. Abercrombie & Fitch used sex to market their brand in a variety of ways, including store greeters dressed only in underwear, models working in store and topless models on the bags. Employees were hired based on physical attractiveness. This strategy was aimed at teenagers and young adults, who are the most impressionable consumer group and have significant disposable income. During the late 1990s, the company produced a magazine/catalogue (magalog), featuring semi-nude or nude models. The magalog was a success, with A&F issuing over 1.5 million copies. The use of sexual branding raised their revenue from $85 million in 1993 to $1.35 billion in 2002. A&F have expressed that they will move away from sexual marketing, and focus on showcasing product and trends.

Sexuality in advertising is extremely effective at attracting the consumer's attention and once it has their attention, to remember the message. This solves the greatest problem in advertising of getting the potential buyer to look at and remember the advertisement. However, the introduction of attraction and especially sexuality into an ad often distracts from the original message and can cause an adverse effect of the consumer wanting to take action.

Ineffective use
There are some studies that contradict the theory that sex is an effective tool for improving finances and gathering attention. A study from 2009 found that there was a negative correlation between nudity and sexuality in movies, and box office performance and critical acclaim. A 2005 research by MediaAnalyzer has found that less than 10% of men recalled the brand of sexual ads, compared to more than 19% of non sexual ads; a similar result was found in women (10.8% vs. 22.3%). It is hypothesized by that survey, that this is a result of a general numbing caused by overuse of sexual stimuli in advertising.

In another experimental study conducted on 324 undergraduate college students, Brad Bushman, professor and Chair of Mass Communication at Ohio State University, examined brand recall for neutral, sexual or violent commercials embedded in neutral, sexual or violent TV programs. He found that brand recall was higher for participants who saw neutral TV programs and neutral commercials versus those who saw sexual or violent commercials embedded in sexual or violent TV programs. Other studies have found that sex in television is extremely overrated and does not sell products in ads. Unless sex is related to the product (such as beauty, health or hygiene products), there is no clear effect.

Using sex may attract one market demographic while repelling another at the same time. The overt use of sexuality to promote breast cancer awareness, through fundraising campaigns like "I Love Boobies" and "Save the Ta-tas", is effective at reaching younger women, who are at low risk of developing breast cancer, but angers and offends some breast cancer survivors and older women, who are at higher risk of developing breast cancer.

In addition, sexually objectified content fails to achieve its goal of brand recall, a study by Vargas & Mensa (2020) shows. Despite the use of sex in marketing to influence men, Vargas & Mensa (2020) study highlights that young women are more influenced; thus, the approach can be ineffective when directed towards male products.

Gender differences
Recent research indicates that the use of sexual images of females in ads negatively affects women's interest. Research shows that females were more likely than males to be portrayed as nude, wearing sexual clothing or only a partial amount of clothing. A study from the University of Minnesota in 2013 of how printed ads with sexual content affects women clearly showed that women are not attracted to them except in the case of products being luxurious and expensive. Besides alienating women, there is a serious risk that the audience in general will reduce support for organisations that uses the sexual images of women without a legitimate reason.

Further research found that men have a positive attitude to sexual adverts, whereas women have a negative response to them; this study used an advert with both a male and female. This was thought to be because women had lower average sex drives than men. Another theory for this difference is that evolution has led men to seek casual sex, contrary to women who value commitment and intimacy in the context of a sexual relationship. In adverts sex tends to be represented in its own right and not as part of a relationship leading to the difference in responses. This theory is supported by research which found that women respond less negatively to sexual adverts when it is in the context of gift giving from a man to a woman, i.e. when the sexuality of the advert is the context of commitment. Men respond more negatively to the sexual advert when it involves gift giving as it emphasizes them having to spend money in a relationship. This is in line with evolutionary theory that women value men for their resources and men value women for sex and fertility. Further research found that even in men, recall of the advert is worsened by sexual content, as they focus on breasts and legs but not on the product.

Cultural differences

In order to be consistent, brands use standardized campaigns across various countries. Cultural differences have been found in response to sexual adverts. A 2016 study by the Korea Internet Advertising Foundation (KIAF) noted that 94.5% of South Korean high-schoolers were familiar with sex-driven ads, 83.4% of adults thought such ads have negative influence on society, and 91.2% said there are too many of such ads. A KIAF official noted that government legislation aimed to reduce such ads is not effective due to its ambiguity. Research has found that sex is used in adverts more in France than in the United States because they are more sexually liberated and so receptive to its use in advertising.

Prevalence

In the 21st century, the use of increasingly explicit sexual imagery in consumer-oriented print ads have become almost commonplace. Ads for jeans, perfumes and many other products have featured provocative images that were designed to elicit sexual responses from as large a cross section of the population as possible, to shock by their ambivalence, or to appeal to repressed sexual desires, which are thought to carry a stronger emotional load. Increased tolerance, more tempered censorship, emancipatory developments and increasing buying power of previously neglected appreciative target groups in rich markets (mainly in the West) have led to a marked increase in the share of attractive flesh 'on display'.

A 2008 cross-national study examined nudity in television advertising in Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, South Korea, Thailand, and the United States. It showed that female but not male levels of nudity differed substantially across countries, and that U.S. and Chinese commercials showed the lowest level of nudity, whereas German and Thai ads showed the highest level.

Historically, sex in advertising has focused on heterosexual gender roles, but there are increasing examples of sex being used to advertise to the LGBT community. The New Zealand Aids Foundation's Love Your Condom (LYC) campaign used provocative images of males alongside captions such as "Riding hard?", "Bear hunting?" and "Going deep?", followed by the hashtag #loveyourcondom. It was hoped by using images explicitly directed towards homosexual men, their use of condoms would increase, which would help decrease rates of HIV transmission amongst gay and bisexual men. The campaign has been successful, with a 12% reduction in new HIV infections among MSM in New Zealand.

In a 2003 study conducted at the University of Georgia’s Department of Advertising and Public Relations Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, researchers looked at sexual advertisements in magazines over the span of the last 30 years. The rate at which sex in advertising is being used increased from 15% to 27% in the advertisements that the researchers looked at. Their reasoning behind the increase is because they believe sex still sells, specifically with “low-risk products impulse purchases.” The study also mentions “alcohol, entertainment and beauty are the main product categories that use sex in advertising.

Ad Age, a magazine delivering news, analysis, and data on marketing and media, published a list of Top 100 most effective advertising of the century, out of the 100, only eight involved use of sex. Unruly Media's viral video tracker lists the Top-20 most viewed car commercial viral videos; only one uses sex, while the No.1 spot was held by VW's "The Force" ad. The overall top-spot (across all product segments), was held by VW's "Fun Theory" campaign, the most viewed viral video as of October 2011.

Stereotypes
The use of sex in advertising has been criticized for its tendency to reinforce sexist stereotypes. Since the late 1970s, many researchers have determined that advertisements depict women as having less social power than men, but the ways in which women are displayed as less powerful than men have evolved over time. In modern times, advertisements have displayed women's expanding roles in the professional realm and importance in business backgrounds. However, as this change occurred there has been a substantial increase in the number of images that showcase women as less sexually powerful than men and as objects of men's desire. The 2011 documentary film Miss Representation by Jennifer Siebel Newsom explores how the depiction of women in mainstream media contributes to the under-representation of women in leadership roles and other positions of influence.

Objectification
Furthermore, sex in advertising has been criticized for its emphasis on the importance of physical attractiveness and role as a mate. This emphasis has led men and women to value intelligence and general skills less. The rise in awareness of sexism portrayed in these types of adverts has led to stricter advertising policies. One group that enforces these rules is the Advertising Women of New York association. Adverts using highly sexual images containing nudity and unrealistic physiques can lead to self-objectification. In turn, this can lead to shame, disgust, appearance anxiety, eating disorders and depression. The increase in self-objectification caused by the use of sex in advertising has been found in women and men. The latter is not surprising with the increased sexual portrayal of men in advertising.

Social norms
Sex in advertising is an accepted marketing technique, however it is not unusual for it to cause backlash when it breaks social norms. In 1995, the Calvin Klein advertising campaign (see section on Calvin Klein, above) that showed teenage models in provocative poses wearing Calvin Klein underwear and jeans was deemed inappropriate and shocking. The ads were withdrawn when parents and child welfare groups threatened to protest and Hudson stores did not want their stores associated with the ads. It was reported that the U.S. Justice Department was investigating the ad campaign for possible violations of federal child pornography and exploitation laws. The Justice Department subsequently decided not to prosecute Calvin Klein for these alleged violations as the DOJ “independently verified that minors were not used as models in the particular photographs that raised questions,” according to Deputy Assistant Atty. Gen. Kevin V. Di Gregory.

title: Sex in advertising


text:
Talk:Draw poker

Opening comment
Note: Many of the poker pages were originally placed in the public domain, so their presence on other web sites, etc. does not necessarily indicate a copyright violation. See Talk:List_of_miscellaneous_poker_variants for discussion.

Mix Up
Why are there stud game variations in the Home Games section? there should only be Draw poker home game variations...70.111.224.85 16:01, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Draw poker


text:
Talk:Stud poker

Opening comment
Note: Many of the poker pages were originally placed in the public domain, so their presence on other web sites, etc. does not necessarily indicate a copyright violation. See Talk:List_of_miscellaneous_poker_variants for discussion.

copyvio charge
An editor pointed out that our text was very similar to http://www.gambling-poker.com/stud_poker.html. More than likely, the other site stole our text without attribution. -- Netoholic @ 03:57, 2004 Nov 10 (UTC)
 * The Wayback Machine shows this page appearing in April 2003.
 * Our wording was here much sooner.

Blind Stud
Since stud poker is defined as a form of poker where a mixture of cards are dealt face-up AND face-down, how can 'blind stud' be considered a form of stud poker? There's either something wrong with the description of stud poker or the categorisation of 'blind stud'. The question is: which one?Erdles 22:06, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Added to Wikipedia Project Poker
Seeking outside opinions from Wikipedia project poker on whether or not the self-published playwinningpoker links should be included. I do not wish to engage in an edit war with User:2005 and I think User:2005 should cease editing the article until opinions from other editors can be obtained. DegenFarang (talk) 07:54, 24 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Do to the lack of response I have also added this to Project Gambling, Project Software and Project Computing (the last two because of my inclusion of a request for assistance on SNG Wizard DegenFarang (talk) 12:12, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

Sökö/ Scandinavian poker
No poker books or sites I've read mentions a three-card straight. I've stripped this from the article. --Full steam (talk) 17:04, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stud poker


text:
Talk:Community card poker

Opening comment
Note: Many of the poker pages were originally placed in the public domain, so their presence on other web sites, etc. does not necessarily indicate a copyright violation. See Talk:List_of_miscellaneous_poker_variants for discussion.

Prohibition against original research
Wikipedia has a policy against original research: No original research. Basically, don't make stuff up. Any new variants you add must have verifiable references. Without a verifiable reference (e.g., link to a specific web page, book/pg nbr), another editor will come along and revert the entry as "unreferenced or original research". Please don't add games made up by your friends - the article should only include well known games that are widely played.--Toms2866 18:57, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

East Village in home games section
I'm just curious... i see that somebody deleted this from the home games section because "inventor claims it was invented in his sleep" or something like that. while that does sound a bit lame, i don't see how that proves that it's somehow not real or authentic? if Edison had the idea for the lightbulb while taking a dump, would you throw out that invention because of it's un-special origination? bad example. but... i'm actually just asking. am super curious. i don't edit wikipedia very often, but... i do know i've played East Village in Seattle, Chicago, and NYC, including at a cardroom in Brooklyn. So i'm just curious about how a game (or anything, for that matter) makes the transition from being "made up by your friends" to "well known... and widely played."

Older discussion
Zepter, if you have any other purpose than serving as an alias/personal ally for User:Mike Church, you may be interested to note there is a very clear No original research policy which these personal "variants" are; there is no significant establishment, these are the only places that these rules are posted, etc.. If you would like to take issue, lets resolve this in Peer review. Thanks.PilotPrecise (a troll) 22:25, 11 March 2004 (UTC)
 * Additionally, marking a major revert as a minor edit is an egregious use of the minor edit and can be seen as a sign of vandalism. PilotPrecise (a troll) 22:29, 11 March 2004 (UTC)

Zepter - You are free to sabatoge my edits (by relabeling my user tag with "a Troll") as you see fit. I hope you are able to get a laugh out of it, imagining that I would care. PilotPrecise 06:55, 12 March 2004 (UTC)

Pineapple
The article states that pineapple is generally played as a split game, but I'm not sure that's true. However, I don't have enough experience with it to say anything conclusive. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.108.174.102 (talk • contribs)

I agree, I've never seen this game played hi-lo split. Not that it couldn't be, but I think it's played high-only more often than not. I wouldn't mind seeing an expanded section on Pineapple and Crazy Pineapple, but I'm not sure where to begin. Aic_aks (talk) 05:10, 28 April 2008 (UTC)aic_aks

 * I've almost never seen it played high only. The game was played for years in Tahoe before catching on anywhere else, and is now played in LA more than anywhere, and that's all hi lo. 2005 (talk) 07:05, 28 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I've only played it high-low split, but the game I have played is usually described as "Crazy Pineapple", so I presume that there was at some point in history a "sane" version that was probably high-only. --LDC (talk) 18:01, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Community card poker


text:
Madras (cloth)

Madras is a lightweight cotton fabric with typically patterned texture and tartan design, used primarily for summer clothing such as pants, shorts, lungi, dresses, and jackets. The fabric takes its name from the former name of the city of Chennai in south India.

Definition
Authentic Madras comes from Chennai (Madras). Both sides of the cloth must bear the same pattern, and it must be handwoven (evidenced by the small flaws in the fabric). Madras was most popular in the 1960s.

Cotton madras is woven from a fragile, short-staple cotton fiber that cannot be combed, only carded. This results in bumps known as slubs which are thick spots in the yarn that give madras its unique texture. The cotton is hand-dyed after being spun into yarn, woven, and finished in some 200 small villages in the Madras area.

History
By the 16th century, madras cotton had morphed into something more elegant, printed with floral patterns or religious designs.

Dutch traders arrived in India in the early 17th century to trade in the local calico cloth, followed by the British. The English East India Company sought quality textiles, finding the small fishing village of Madrasapattinam (Madras), and the company established a trading post there in the mid-17th century.

The first madras material was a muslin overprinted or embroidered in elaborate patterns with vegetable dyes. To secure a reliable labor supply, the English East India Company promised a 30-year exemption from duties for Indian weavers in the area, and thus within a year nearly 400 families of weavers had settled in Madras.

Undyed madras cloth became popular in Europe because it was lightweight and breathable. Cotton plaid madras reached America in 1718 as a donation to the Collegiate School of Connecticut (now known as Yale University). Sears offered the first madras shirt for sale to the American consumer in its 1897 catalog.

In the Philippines, madras fabric was known as cambaya, after the state of Cambay (present-day Gujarat, India) that also exported madras fabrics. They were popular in the early 19th century for use in traditional women's skirts (saya) in the baro't saya ensemble, as well as for pants for the barong tagalog. Since they were expensive, they were copied by Chinese manufacturers as well as local industries, resulting in a lower-grade fabric that was usually used for clothing by commoners. The name "madras" was attributed to shirt maker David J. Anderson in 1844, although the material had been referred to as such much earlier. In 1958 William Jacobson, a leading textile importer, traveled to Bombay to trade with Captain C.P. Krishnan, an exporter of madras from Chennai (formerly Madras). The two men struck a dollar-a-yard deal for madras material possessing a "strong smell of vegetable dyes and sesame oils," woven of bright colors and originally bound for South Africa. Krishnan warned Jacobson that the fabric should be washed gently in cold water to avoid bleeding, advice that never reached the Brooks Brothers buyers to whom Jacobson sold 10,000 yards for the manufacture of madras clothing. Brooks Brothers then sold cotton madras garments to consumers without proper washing instructions, resulting in the bright madras dyes bleeding in the wash and the garments emerged discolored and faded. To counter dissatisfied customers, Madison Avenue advertising giant David Ogilvy coined the phrase "guaranteed to bleed" and used this as a selling point rather than a defect. A 1966 catalog advertisement stated: "Authentic Indian Madras is completely handwoven from yarns dyed with native vegetable colorings. Home-spun by native weavers, no two plaids are exactly the same. When washed with mild soap in warm water, they are guaranteed to bleed and blend together into distinctively muted and subdued colorings."

In the United States, the plaid cotton madras shirt became popular in the 1960s among the post-World War II generation of preppy baby boomers.

As early as the 1930s, cotton madras clothing was emerging as a status symbol in the US because only American tourists who could afford expensive Caribbean vacations during the Great Depression had access and thus the madras shirt was a signal of affluence.

Madras today is available as tartan (plaid) patterns in regular cotton, seersucker, and as patchwork madras, meaning cutting several madras fabrics into squares or rectangles and sewing them back together to form a mixed pattern of various plaids.

National costumes
In 1994 the government of Antigua and Barbuda adopted a new national dress, which featured madras cloth, that had been designed by artist Heather Doram, as a result of a national competition.

title: Madras (cloth)


text:
Talk:Five-card draw

Opening comment
Note: Many of the poker pages were originally placed in the public domain, so their presence on other web sites, etc. does not necessarily indicate a copyright violation. See Talk:List_of_miscellaneous_poker_variants for discussion.

I'm sympathetic to the idea that the "sample deal" section could be clearer--but let's rewrite it, not remove it. --LDC 07:28, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

More examples
I think that some more examples of 5 Card Draw should be placed on here, I've only recently learned how to play this game and I'm still a tad confused

 * Trusport:
 * I agree. Why are there so many uneducated people out there that don't know how to write basic rules! History, origin and variation can all come later! Just tell us how the fxxk this game is played!!!!!!!Unless you don't know yourself!!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.74.57.67 (talk) 17:56, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

Skills Required
Pretty dumb how it says you need social skills..

Actually, 5 card draw requires much more in the way of skills than Texas Hold 'em. This, and the inflated instance of high-ranking hands, which adds entertainment value to the unsophisticated, are what make the latter a more popular game with the general public. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 197.228.219.228 (talk) 12:19, 17 April 2019 (UTC)

History
I went to this page to look at the history of this game, particularly which area(s) it originated in and at what time frame (historically, poker games tend to be very geographic-specific). This page seems lacking. Does anyone know? 12.24.60.12 (talk) 23:55, 8 June 2009 (UTC)

Citations?
Regardless of accuracy, this article has ZERO citations. If it is not fully cited fairly quickly, it should be marked for deletion.

As well, readability by those unfamiliar with poker jargon is very poor. No links to other wiki pages explaining terms are given either. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.87.37.146 (talk) 00:31, 1 October 2011 (UTC)

touch?
In the "about the draw" section, it says "...playing a pair of aces as if it were a straight, touch, or full house". What is a "touch" - should this be flush? Bubba73 You talkin' to me? 06:08, 30 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Well, I changed it. Correct me if I was wrong.  Bubba73 You talkin' to me? 03:07, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Five-card draw


text:
America's Promise

America's Promise Alliance is the nation's largest cross-sector alliance of nonprofit, community organizations, businesses, and government organizations dedicated to improving the lives of young people.

The organization was founded on the idea that children and youth need "Five Promises" to thrive—caring adults, safe spaces, a healthy start, effective education, and the opportunity to serve—but that not nearly enough young people have access to these basic resources.

America's Promise works to raise awareness about the importance of these resources and inspire actions that help more children and youth receive them. The organization does this by leading national public awareness campaigns, conducting research, hosting events and convening summits, and partnering with hundreds of national, state, and community organizations that work directly with youth.

America’s Promise is currently chaired by Alma Powell and was formerly led by her husband and founding chairman, retired Gen. Colin L. Powell. The president and CEO is John S. Gomperts, a former leader of the Corporation for National and Community Service, Encore.org, and the Public Education Network.

History
The Presidents' Summit for America's Future in 1997 – a national summit held in Philadelphia to promote a civic response to many of the country's problems, particularly the challenges facing at-risk youth – led to the creation of America's Promise Alliance.

Presidents Bill Clinton and George H. W. Bush convened the summit, and Gen. Colin L. Powell, USA (Ret) served as the event's general chairman. Focusing specifically on helping the nation's young people, Gen. Powell agreed to lead a three-year campaign called America's Promise – The Alliance for Youth, which set out to improve the lives of 2 million of the nation's 15 million at-risk youth by 2000.

In 2000, the target end-date of the campaign, General Powell determined that America's Promise should continue its work and continue to operate as a nonprofit organization. Ending the work now, he said, would be "kind of like saying we'll be out of Bosnia in a year."

Early in its history, America's Promise drew criticism for not being able to prove it had achieved its goals. A later analysis from the National 4-H Council, the nation's largest youth development organization, agreed that while the organization's impact was difficult to document, “much of the increased focus on youth and positive youth development … can be attributed to the visibility, energy, and funding America's Promise brought to youth work.”

In the years since, the work of America’s Promise has grown to encompass awareness building (see GradNation campaign below), academic research (see Center for Promise), cross-sector collaboration (see Alliance partners), and events that bring people together (see GradNation campaign).

Presidents' Summit for America's Future
In July 1995, former Michigan Governor George Romney (and father of 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney) outlined his vision of "a summit at which all living presidents and leaders from all sectors of society would gather to support citizen service and show it was not a partisan issue." Only four days after completing this outline, Romney died of natural causes.

Before his death, however, Romney shared his vision of this bipartisan summit focused on volunteerism with former U.S. Senator Harris Wofford, who had recently become CEO of the Corporation for National and Community Service and Bob Goodwin, president of Bush's Points of Light Foundation. Wofford and Goodwin agreed to enlist their organizations in fulfilling Romney's plans for the summit, so Romney "died knowing that the summit would go forward."

In his 1997 State of the Union address, President Bill Clinton laid out the overarching theme and goal of the summit: "to mobilize America's citizen power in a united effort to solve our common problems, especially those that threaten our young people." Three months later, Presidents Clinton and George H. W. Bush officially co-convened the Presidents' Summit for America's Future in Philadelphia. Retired Gen. Colin Powell served as the chairman of the event, and four out of the five living presidents attended, with Nancy Reagan representing her husband Ronald Reagan.

More than 20 governors, nearly 100 mayors, 145 community delegations, and many prominent business leaders and celebrities also attended the summit. With the official slogan, "Two Million by 2000," the summit encouraged business, government, nonprofit, and community leaders across the country to work together to improve the lives of 2 million of the nation's 15 million at-risk youth by 2000.

In 1998, Gen. Powell responded to criticism that the summit and ensuing America's Promise campaign were little more than symbolic gestures and reported that, as a result of the summit, among other things, Big Brothers and Big Sisters amassed a 22 percent increase in adults enlisting as mentors; Boys and Girls Clubs of America added 100,000 new members; the U.S Chamber of Commerce committed to helping 3 million young people find summer jobs; and the LensCrafters company gave 100,000 free eye exams to children from low-income families.

Notable leaders
Gen. Colin L. Powell, USA (Ret) served as the founding chair of America’s Promise and remained board chair until 2001, when he stepped down to become U.S. Secretary of State. Former governor of Montana Marc Racicot took over as chair, followed by former U.S. Senator Harris Wofford in 2002.

Alma Powell, a respected audiologist and General Powell’s wife, became chair in 2004. She published two children’s books in 2003, America’s Promise and My Little Wagon.

In 2004, America’s Promise – The Alliance for Youth changed its name to America’s Promise Alliance to place a greater emphasis on the strength of Alliance partners (see Alliance partners). "We see ourselves as a convener, a catalyst for action, and we help our partners and communities that focus on the measurable goals," said then-CEO Marguerite Kondracke.

Kondracke retired as president and CEO in 2012 and was replaced by John S. Gomperts, whose “association with America’s Promise began when he served as chief of staff to Harris Wofford, the CEO of the Corporation for National & Community Service and one of the key conveners of the Summit for America’s Future.”

Gomperts remains CEO and Mrs. Powell continues to chair the board of directors, which includes notable members such as Miami Foundation President Javier Soto, former First Lady of Kentucky Jane Beshear, former Philadelphia Mayor Rev. Dr. Wilson Goode, and NCTA – The Internet and Television Association President, and General and Mrs. Powell’s son, Michael K. Powell.

The America’s Promise board of directors also includes three full voting youth members. Youth members must be between the ages of 18 and 24 and agree to serve two-year terms, operating as "a critical and necessary component to [the America’s Promise] leadership teams," according to Mrs. Powell.

For a full list of board members, visit the America’s Promise Alliance website.

The Five Promises
The Presidents' Summit for America's Future, the 1997 event that launched America's Promise Alliance, included a Summit Declaration signed by Presidents Clinton, GHW Bush, Carter, Ford, and Nancy Reagan on behalf of her husband.

The Summit Declaration pledged to fulfill the "promise of America" for every child, which remains the core objective of America's Promise. Specifically, the declaration outlined five essential resources the presidents agreed all children need to develop into successful adults, referred to as the Five Promises, which form the basis of America's Promise efforts and initiatives. President Gerald Ford, General Colin Powell, Mrs. Nancy Reagan, and Vice President Al Gore

The Five Promises are: caring adults to guide and encourage them; safe places, both physical and psychological, in which students can safely develop; a healthy start in the form of proper nutrition and exercise; effective education that prepares them for work and life; and opportunities to help others and foster a sense of community, self-respect and service.

In July 2001, President George W. Bush added his signature, and President Barack Obama signed the declaration in September 2014.

Alliance partners
One of the greatest strengths of America's Promise Alliance, one organizational analysis noted, is its ability to coordinate the national response to youth development by collaborating with its many partners, who "provide the arms and legs with which to carry out the Five Promises."

America's Promise counts nearly 400 national partners in its multi-sector alliance. Corporate partners include Target Corporation and State Farm; foundation partners include Usher's New Look Foundation and the Ford Foundation; nonprofit partners include Boys & Girls Clubs of America, the YMCA, and Big Brothers Big Sisters of America; education partners include the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), ASCD, and the Education Commission of the States; faith-based partners include Catholic Charities USA and Faith Leaders for Community Change.

America's Promise Alliance has the full list of its partners available on its website.

GradNation Campaign
In 2006, two America's Promise Alliance partner organizations, Civic Enterprises and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, released the study, The Silent Epidemic: Perspectives of High School Dropouts. The report revealed that nearly one third of public high school students were failing to graduate high school with their class. The research also explored the reasons why so many students were dropping out of school and drew national attention to the "silent epidemic" of high school dropouts. Spurred by the urgency to end this dropout crisis, America's Promise launched the Dropout Prevention campaign in 2008, later named the GradNation campaign, and hosted 105 Dropout Prevention Summits in all 50 states from April 2008 until 2010. The summits worked to increase awareness about the dropout crisis, encourage collaboration between different sectors and organizations, and facilitate action in states and communities to improve their graduation rates.

Overall, more than 33,000 educators, business leaders, nonprofit leaders, policymakers, families, and youth attended these summits. An analysis from Duke University found that these summits helped raise public awareness about the high school dropout crisis and inspired the creation of new programs and collaborative efforts.

In early 2009, America's Promise Alliance commissioned Grad Nation: A Guidebook to Help Communities Tackle the Dropout Crisis, written by Robert Balfanz and Joanna Hornig Fox of the Everyone Graduates Center at Johns Hopkins University and John M. Bridgeland and Mary McNaught from Civic Enterprises, to provide communities with research and best practices to raise graduation rates at the local level.

In 2010, America's Promise partnered with the Alliance for Excellent Education, Civic Enterprises, and the Everyone Graduates Center at Johns Hopkins University to set the GradNation campaign goal of achieving a 90 percent on-time national high school graduation rate and increasing postsecondary enrollment by 2020. President Obama joined U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan and General and Mrs. Powell for the announcement at the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.

State Farm was a lead sponsor of the campaign, which also pledged to focus on reducing the country's number of "dropout factories," or schools where "less than 60 percent of students who started as freshmen remain enrolled four years later."

For the past few years, researchers, governors, and President Obama have drawn attention to the steady increase in the national on-time high school graduation rate.

"Just 10 years ago, the nation's on-time high school graduation rate was hovering around 70 percent, where it had been stuck for decades," CEO John S. Gomperts wrote in Education Week in 2016.

In October 2016, President Obama announced that the on-time high school graduation rate had again reached a record high for the fifth year in a row, this time at 83.2 percent. "The greatest credit goes to students, families and teachers who are putting in the work and showing great determination and resolve, sometimes in the face of great challenge," Gomperts wrote in September 2016.

Building a Grad Nation
In 2010, the campaign's leading organizations worked together to release the Building a Grad Nation report, research that analyzes the progress and challenges of raising the national high school graduation rate.

U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan spoke at the launch of the report, calling it "required reading for those who believe that the high school dropout problem is too intractable to successfully take on." The four organizations – America's Promise Alliance, the Alliance for Excellent Education, Civic Enterprises, and the Everyone Graduates Center – have released the report every year since 2010.

In 2013, America's Promise committed to helping community partners across the nation convene 100 GradNation Community Summits over three years. Modeled after the Dropout Prevention Summits, the community summits were designed to inspire local collaboration and action to raise high school graduation rates.

Summits have been hosted in major cities like Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia, as well as smaller cities and rural areas in North Carolina, Northwest Indiana, and Tennessee.

In 2015, America's Promise launched the GradNation State Activation initiative, an effort to increase high school graduation rates at the state level. The three-year initiative provides funding to state organizations that encourage statewide innovation and collaboration, shares that knowledge, and develops successful models all states can replicate. Organizations in Arizona, Massachusetts, and Minnesota were each awarded with $200,000 grants.

The Center for Promise
In 2012, America's Promise partnered with Tufts University School of Arts and Sciences to open the Center for Promise, an applied research institute studying what helps "create the conditions so that all young people in America have the opportunity to succeed in school and life."

In 2014, the Center produced the report, Don't Call Them Dropouts: Understanding the Experiences of Young People Who Leave High School Before Graduation, which drew national attention to the challenging life and socioeconomic factors that cause many students to drop out of high school. Similar to the Silent Epidemic study, Don't Call Them Dropouts focused heavily on youth perspective and analysis.

"Rather than merely boredom or lack of motivation, young people who drop out are likely growing up in ‘toxic environments' with unstable families, violent neighborhoods, and unsafe schools," an Education Week article said of the report. "Some students are caregivers for parents, siblings, or their own children. Others are homeless or the victims of abuse."

In 2015, the Center for Promise moved from Tufts University to the Boston University School of Education. That same fall, the Center produced a follow-up study to Don't Call Them Dropouts that examined the role that relationships with adults play in keeping students in school called Don't Quit On Me: What Young People Who Left School Say About the Power of Relationships.

The Center's 2016 study, Who's Minding the Neighborhood? The Role of Adult Capacity in Keeping Young People on a Path to Graduation examined how adult-to-youth ratios in neighborhoods impact educational outcomes, the first study to do so. Adding seven adults to a neighborhood, researchers concluded, results in one fewer student dropping out of high school.

Also released in 2016: Barriers to Wellness: Voices and Views from Young People in Five Cities, a youth-led assessment that provides insight into the obstacles to wellness young people of color face in five cities.

The Youth Opportunity Fund
In 2015, America’s Promise partnered with the Citi Foundation to launch the Youth Opportunity Fund, a $3 million initiative to support programs that prepare urban youth for the workforce. It awarded $250,00 grants to each of 12 organizations in 10 U.S. cities: Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, Newark, St. Louis, San Francisco and Washington, D.C.

The program announced a second round of funding in 2016, providing an additional $3 million for 12 more organizations in the same cities, or a total of $6 million to support 24 organizations—including Communities In Schools, Year Up, Café Momentum, and Per Scholas—and reach more than 7,000 youth.

Promise of America Awards
America’s Promise recognizes people making extraordinary contributions to the lives of children and youth with the “Promise of America” award, the highest honor conferred by America's Promise. Past recipients include U.S. Senator Lamar Alexander, Magic Johnson Enterprises CEO and founder and NBA star Magic Johnson, and Corporation for Public Broadcasting President and CEO Patricia de Stacey Harrison.

title: America's Promise


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Talk:Greenwich

East Greenwich
I followed the link to this page from another page for 'East Greenwich'- what you have here is a lot of stuff about Greenwich, as the tourists know it. East Greenwich is different - it has a dynamic industrial history (sorry you don't note my various books on that!) but archaeological finds in the past year look to rewrite the history of both East Greenwich and tourist Greenwich - with all its stories of royalty and myths about the navy. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.2.223.224 (talk) 08:23, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
 * A little late, but for future reference see Greenwich Peninsula Pterre (talk) 13:44, 2 October 2011 (UTC)

Anachronism ?
I know that I should just rewrite the stuff, but haven´t got the time required at the moment. There are some grave inconsistencies in this, as an example this one : "Anne of Denmark had a house built by Inigo Jones on the hill above, overlooking the hospital" I know how this can be read, seen from today´s point of view, but phrases like this does indeed make the understanding of the history wrong. Anne was long dead when Charles, who commissioned the hospital, was born. So how could she build a house overlooking this hospital ??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.45.233.17 (talk) 10:10, 28 January 2010 (UTC)

Coordinate error
The following coordinate fixes are needed for Grenwich-0,0,0,0 —77.98.211.58 (talk) 20:54, 18 April 2011 (UTC)

 * And so they are, already. Please explain your request more fully below and remove the "tlc|" from the tag when you have done so. Regards,  T RANSPORTER M AN   ( TALK ) 13:59, 21 April 2011 (UTC)

Lord Romney
This figure, mentioned as having power to charter the original market in 1700, is identifiable as Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney because {a} he was alive in 1700, (b) he seems to have been the only Earl Romney with the name Henry, and (c) he held important offices including Groom of the Stole and Master-General of the Ordnance. It is reasonable to surmise that the latter post, with connections to the nearby Woolwich Warren and to the naval establishment, was the basis of his control over the Greenwich land. It would be preferable to replace the guesswork with a specific citation. Cheers, Bjenks (talk) 07:08, 23 December 2011 (UTC)

Coordinate error
The following coordinate fixes are needed for

—

the errors is that the greenwich is nor in eastern hemisphere neither in western hemisphere its longitude is just 00°00′00″
 * Well, actually, some of Greenwich is in the Eastern Hemisphere, and some of it is in the Western Hemisphere. In any event, 0° can be expressed as either 0° E or 0° W, so the coordinates in the article are not incorrect. It is a peculiarity of the infobox used in the article that if one enters 0.0000 in the longitude field, the longitude is displayed as 0.0000 E. Deor (talk) 19:31, 8 August 2013 (UTC)

Market photo
The photo of the market is not at all representative of the market or its environs. (In fact, I suspect it might be a photo of the small market by the clock tower rather then the market in Greenwich town centre). Does anybody have a suitable replacement? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 135.196.89.57 (talk) 12:58, 27 August 2013 (UTC)

Introductory inconsistencies
The second paragraph of the article is almost entirely incorrect or misleading.

It is incorrect to say that Greenwich is in East London, and misleading to say that it is sometimes described as such (since such description, if it happens, would be erroneous). There are online examples of Greenwich being described as in "East London", but they appear to be mentions in passing, rather than authoritative claims of fact. One of them has even been corrected since the article was referenced. Referring to the Wikipedia article on the subject of East London, it can be seen that the whole of East London lies north of the Thames, whereas Greenwich lies on the south bank of the Thames. It may be technically true to say that Greenwich is sometimes described as being in East London, but any such description is wrong and has no place being repeated in an encyclopaedic article.

It is incorrect to say that Greenwich is one of the five boroughs of the London Docklands. This article is about Greenwich, and it's clear from the first paragraph that a separate article exists to cover the Royal Borough of Greenwich, which is indeed one of the five boroughs mentioned. Greenwich itself, which this article is about, is a small town in the extreme northwest corner of the Royal Borough of Greenwich. It is not a borough, let alone one of the five boroughs of the London Docklands.
 * Fixed. Paul W (talk) 13:32, 26 September 2016 (UTC)

It is incorrect to say that Greenwich is connected to Canary Wharf (or anywhere else) by the East London Line. The East London Line does not pass through Greenwich, nor does it pass through Canary Wharf. The Docklands Light Railway, which is a completely separate rail system, connects Greenwich and Canary Wharf, as correctly noted in the Transport section towards the end of the article.
 * I have fixed this. Paul W (talk) 13:27, 26 September 2016 (UTC)

It's a long time since I've made any major edits and I don't want to delete the paragraph only for it to be rolled back. Someone with more recent experience than me may wish to make the necessary updates. Thank you in advance. Arcman (talk) 11:17, 25 September 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/5mYjJHOZA?url=http://www.greenwich.gov.uk/Greenwich/LeisureCulture/RoyalGreenwich/RoyalGreenwich.htm to http://www.greenwich.gov.uk/Greenwich/LeisureCulture/RoyalGreenwich/RoyalGreenwich.htm

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Greenwich Heritage Centre
There seems to be a problem with the website - can someone else check it. Jackiespeel (talk) 09:33, 2 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090414202633/http://www.greenwich.gov.uk/Greenwich/Travel/LocalTravelServices/RiverBoatCruise.htm to http://www.greenwich.gov.uk/Greenwich/Travel/LocalTravelServices/RiverBoatCruise.htm

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Origin of place names
"Some vestiges of the Danish camps may be traced in the names of Eastcombe and Westcombe". The source for this from 1796, but it is contradicted in article Westcombe Park, that states: "Westcombe is a topographical place name, derived from Combe, a common old English word for 'valley'". I think the last one makes more sense. --Finn Bjørklid (talk) 22:03, 28 January 2018 (UTC)]

Combe is in fact a Brythonic name element, predating even the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, although the East & West are certainly Old English. Unfortunately the claim is correctly cited from a source that appears reputable so probably cannot be removed without a source contradicting the existing citation. Sadly I doubt any such source exists that is specific enough to count, regardless, I hope the article at combe is enough evidence that the claim in the article is absurd and so I have removed it Tristanjlroberts (talk) 15:43, 1 July 2021 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Greenwich (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 21:36, 21 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Greenwich


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Certified Public Accountant

Certified Public Accountant (CPA) is the title of qualified accountants in numerous countries in the English-speaking world. It is generally equivalent to the title of chartered accountant in other English-speaking countries. In the United States, the CPA is a license to provide accounting services to the public. It is awarded by each of the 50 states for practice in that state. Additionally, all states except Hawaii have passed mobility laws to allow CPAs from other states to practice in their state. State licensing requirements vary, but the minimum standard requirements include passing the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination, 150 semester units of college education, and one year of accounting-related experience.

Continuing professional education (CPE) is also required to maintain licensure. Individuals who have been awarded the CPA but have lapsed in the fulfillment of the required CPE or who have requested conversion to inactive status are in many states permitted to use the designation "CPA Inactive" or an equivalent phrase. In most U.S. states, only CPAs are legally able to provide attestation (including auditing) opinions on financial statements. Many CPAs are members of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and their state CPA society.

State laws vary widely regarding whether a non-CPA is even allowed to use the title "accountant". For example, Texas prohibits the use of the designations "accountant" and "auditor" by a person not certified as a Texas CPA, unless that person is a CPA in another state, is a non-resident of Texas, and otherwise meets the requirements for practice in Texas by out-of-state CPA firms and practitioners.

CPA in various countries
In the United States, "CPA" is an initialism for Certified Public Accountant which is a designation given by a state governing agency, whereas other countries around the world have their own designations, which may be equivalent to "CPA".

In the United Kingdom, "CPA" is an initialism for Certified Public Accountant as well, but refers to an accounting and finance professional who is a member of the Certified Public Accountants Association (formerly the Association of Certified Public Accountants).

In Australia, the term "CPA" is an initialism for Certified Practicing Accountant. To become a CPA in Australia, it also requires a certain amount of education and experience to be eligible working in some specific areas in the accounting field.

In Canada, "CPA" is an initialism for Chartered Professional Accountant. This designation is for someone who would like to be a Canadian CPA. In order to be qualified for this certificate, candidates who major in accounting will get accepted to enter CPA Professional Education Program (CPA PEP). Provinces in Canada also allow non-accounting majors and international candidates to meet the requirements if they get into the CPA Prerequisite Education Program (CPA PREP).

History of profession
In 1660, the first person who would conduct an audit was chosen in order to be able to manage the money that was raised by England in Virginia, United States. With the help of chartered accountants from England and Scotland for training Americans to learn the procedures of accounting, many firms were established in America. The first American one was in 1895.

On July 28, 1882, the Institute of Accountants and Bookkeepers of the City of New York became the first accounting corporation which supports the need of people in the accounting field and for educational purposes. With the accountancy and industry growing in the world, the need of looking for services from professional accountants who had higher standards and were recognized had been considered. In 1887, the American Association of Public Accountants was created to set moral standards for the practice of accounting.

On April 17, 1896, Chapter 312 of the Laws of the State of New York established that the Regents of the University of the State of New York would provide a Certificate of Public Accountancy to individuals over age 21, of good moral character, and who possessed or intended to declare citizenship in the United States with appropriate accounting education or experience either through examination or previous experience. This was the first time the title "Certified Public Accountant" was regulated. Examinations were held in both Buffalo and New York City. Frank Broaker was licensee #1 and he received his certificate solely through previous experience as a public accountant and did not take an examination, commonly referred to as grandfathering. Broaker died on November 12, 1941. The first person to receive the CPA through examination and previous experience was Joseph Hardcastle, who would go on to become an accounting theorist and New York University professor. Hardcastle died on June 16, 1906, after being thrown from a horse after an accident with a wagon. The Chapter was introduced by New York Senator Albert Wray, New York Assemblyman Henry Marshall, and signed by New York Governor Morton as part of business reform. The Regents appointed a Board of Examiners, similar to today's NASBA, the first members of which were Charles Sprague, Frank Broaker, and C. W. Haskins

Many accounting professionals believed the 150 credit requirement—implemented in several states first in 1988 and then expanded to nearly all states in 2001—would lead to more knowledgeable, experienced CPAs. The National Association of State Board of Accountancy (NASBA) collected and analyzed data from 1996 to 1998 to verify the effectiveness of the measure. Researchers studied more than 116,000 candidates who took the exam between 1996 and 1998. 33% of respondents had more than 150 college credit hours, while 67% had less than 150 credit hours. The research reveals that for candidates with less than 150 credits, only 13% passed the CPA exam on their first try. Conversely, for candidates with 150 or more credits, 21% passed the CPA exam on their first try. Some suggest extraneous variables—including the additional study time those possessing 150 credits likely have while still enrolled in university—could distort the verifiability of the study.

Services provided
One important function performed by CPAs relates to assurance services. The most commonly performed assurance services are financial audit services where CPAs attest to the reasonableness of disclosures, the freedom from material misstatement, and the adherence to the applicable generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in financial statements. CPAs can also be employed within corporations (termed "the private sector" or "industry") in finance or operations positions such as financial analyst, finance manager, controller, chief financial officer (CFO), or chief executive officer (CEO). These CPAs do not provide services directly to the public.

Although some CPA firms serve as business consultants, the consulting role has been under scrutiny following the Enron scandal where Arthur Andersen simultaneously provided audit and consulting services which affected its ability to maintain independence in its audit duties. This incident resulted in many accounting firms divesting their consulting divisions, but this trend has since reversed. In audit engagements, CPAs are (and have always been) required by professional standards and federal and state laws to maintain independence (both in fact and in appearance) from the entity for which they are conducting an attestation (audit and review) engagement. Although most individual CPAs who work as consultants do not also work as auditors, if the CPA firm is auditing the same company that the firm also does consulting work for, then there is a conflict of interest. This conflict voids the CPA firm's independence for multiple reasons, including: the CPA firm would be auditing its own work or the work the firm suggested, and, the CPA firm may be pressured into unduly giving a positive (unmodified) audit opinion so as not to jeopardize the consulting revenue the firm receives from the client.

CPAs also have a niche within the income tax return preparation industry. Many small to mid-sized firms have both a tax and an auditing department. Along with attorneys and Enrolled Agents, CPAs may represent taxpayers in matters before the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Although the IRS regulates the practice of tax representation, it has no authority to regulate tax return preparers.

Some states also allow unlicensed accountants to work as public accountants. For example, California allows unlicensed accountants to work as public accountants if they work under the control and supervision of a CPA. However, the California Board of Accountancy itself has determined that the terms "accountant" and "accounting" are misleading to members of the public, many of whom believe that a person who uses these terms must be licensed. As part of the California Poll, survey research showed that 55 percent of Californians believe that a person who advertises as an "accountant" must be licensed, 26 percent did not believe a license was required, and 19 percent did not know.

Whether providing services directly to the public or employed by corporations or associations, CPAs can operate in virtually any area of finance including:
 * Assurance and attestation services
 * Corporate finance (merger and acquisition, initial public offerings, share and debt issuings)
 * Corporate governance
 * Estate planning
 * Financial accounting
 * Governmental accounting
 * Financial analysis
 * Financial planning
 * Forensic accounting (preventing, detecting, and investigating financial frauds)
 * Income tax
 * Information technology, especially as applied to accounting and auditing
 * Management consulting and performance management
 * Tax preparation and planning
 * Venture capital
 * Financial reporting
 * Regulatory compliance
 * SOC engagements

CPA exam
To become a CPA in the United States, the candidate must sit for and pass the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination (Uniform CPA Exam), which is set by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and administered by the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA). The Uniform CPA Exam consists of three core sections and three corresponding discipline sections. Candidates are required to take all three core sections and are permitted to choose one of the three discipline sections for a total of four sections. The CPA designation was first established in law in New York State on April 17, 1896.

To qualify for the CPA examination in the United States, individuals typically need a bachelor's degree from an accredited institution with a minimum number of accounting and business-related credit hours (ranging from 120 to 150), and specific coursework in subjects such as auditing and financial accounting. Additional educational requirements, like a master's degree, may be necessary in some states. Residency and citizenship requirements, if applicable, vary by state. Candidates must apply through their state's Board of Accountancy, pay the requisite fees, and may need to pass an ethics exam. While work experience is not typically required for the exam itself, it is necessary for CPA licensure.

Other requirements
Although the CPA exam is uniform, licensing and certification requirements are imposed separately by each state's laws and therefore vary from state to state. Some states have a two-tier system whereby an individual would first become certified—usually by passing the Uniform CPA Exam. That individual would then later be eligible to be licensed once a certain amount of work experience is accomplished. Other states have a one-tier system whereby an individual would be certified and licensed at the same time when both the CPA exam is passed and the work experience requirement has been met. Two-tier states include Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Montana, and Nebraska. The trend is for two-tier states to gradually move towards a one-tier system. Since 2002, the state boards of accountancy in Washington and South Dakota have ceased issuing CPA "certificates" and instead issue CPA "licenses". Illinois planned to follow suit in 2012. A number of states are two-tiered, but require work experience for the CPA certificate, such as Ohio and Pennsylvania.

Like other professionals, CPAs are required to take continuing education courses toward continuing professional development (continuing professional education [CPE]) to renew their license. Requirements vary by state (Wisconsin does not require any CPE for CPAs ) but the vast majority require an average of 40 hours of CPE every year with a minimum of 20 hours per calendar year. The requirement can be fulfilled through attending live seminars, webcast seminars, or through self-study (textbooks, videos, online courses, all of which require a test to receive credit). In general, state boards accept group live and group internet-based credits for all credit requirements, while some states cap the number of credits obtained through the self-study format. All CPAs are encouraged to periodically review their state requirements. As part of the CPE requirement, most states require their CPAs to take an ethics course at some frequency (such as every or every other renewal period). Ethics requirements vary by state and the courses range from 2–8 hours. AICPA guidelines (which are adopted by many state boards) grant licensees 1 hour of CPE credit for every 50 minutes of instruction.

Loss of licensure
A CPA license may be suspended or revoked for various reasons. Common reasons include these:
 * Allowing the license to lapse without renewing in a timely manner.
 * Performing attestation services under an unlicensed/unregistered CPA firm or under a CPA firm permit which has expired.
 * Continuing to hold out as an active CPA on an expired license, which includes continued use of the CPA title on business cards, letterhead, office signage, correspondence, etc. after the license has expired.
 * Using fraud or deceit in obtaining or renewing the CPA license, the most common occurrence being misrepresenting or falsifying compliance with or completion of the continuing education requirements as a condition for renewal.
 * Being suspended or barred from practicing before another regulatory body such as the SEC or the IRS.
 * "Discreditable acts", which can include
 * failure to follow applicable standards (such as auditing standards when examining financial statements, or tax code when preparing tax returns); or
 * violation of felony or serious misdemeanor criminal laws, which may or not be related to the practice of accountancy. (A notable example of a CPA whose license was revoked for non-financial related criminal activity is John Battaglia, convicted of the capital murders of his children).

Impact of technology
Many tasks that a CPA used to do while working have now been automated. Therefore, current and future CPAs are required to do more complex tasks with technology as the simpler tasks have become automated. An example of a more complex task would include analyzing and interpreting data using a visualization software. Technology is used regularly in the job to the point where technological proficiency is needed when starting as a CPA.

Since technological proficiency is more important than in prior years, accounting organizations have begun starting to teach technology within the accounting curricula in colleges and universities. One significant change was in 2013, when the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) mandated that information technology be included in all accredited accounting programs. The transition to add information technology has not been one without challenges. One specific challenge with regards to adding information technology into accounting curricula is the balance of preparing students for the CPA exam and preparing to work as a CPA following graduation. Preparing for the CPA exam and preparing to work as a CPA after graduation can be different, making this difficult for professors and schools to figure out what to include in their curricula. Instructors generally agree that including data analytics should be included when teaching about accounting information systems as a whole but few instructors think that data analytics should be in the entire accounting curricula at schools.

Demographics of CPAs
A disparity exists among the demographics of AICPA members, specifically as it relates to class and gender. Between 1976 and 2005, 77% of CPAs were either middle or upper class and nearly half of all CPA candidates belonged to an upper middle class socioeconomic background. Although AICPA membership is predominated by individuals from wealthier socioeconomic backgrounds, 20% of AICPA members were lower class between 1976 and 2005. This indicates that the CPA profession is not exclusionary, but rather that it provides upward social and economic mobility. While women only accounted for 2.4% of all CPAs between 1934 and 1975, 50-60% of all hiring's by CPA firms were women between 2001 and 2010. Considering the unique barriers female CPAs may experience within the accounting profession, it is theorized that female CPAs come from higher socioeconomic backgrounds to overcome any gender bias they may experience. This would elucidate the higher prevalence of wealthy AICPA members who are women. These findings indicate that the demographic discrepancies among AICPA members have narrowed significantly in recent years.

Practice mobility: the substantial equivalency rule
An accountant is required to meet the legal requirements of any state in which the accountant wishes to practice. In recent years, practice mobility for CPAs has become a major business concern for CPAs and their clients. Practice mobility for CPAs is the general ability of a licensee in good standing from a substantially equivalent state to gain practice privilege outside of the practitioner's home state without getting an additional license in the state where the CPA will serve a client or an employer. In today's digital age, many organizations require the professional services of CPAs to conduct business on an interstate and international basis and have compliance responsibilities in multiple jurisdictions. As a result, the practice of CPAs often extends across state lines and international boundaries.

Differing requirements for CPA certification, reciprocity, temporary practice and other aspects of state accountancy legislation in the 55 U.S. licensing jurisdictions (the 50 states, Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands) make the interstate practice and mobility of CPAs more complicated. By removing boundaries to practice in the US, CPAs are able to more readily serve individuals and businesses in need of their expertise. At the same time, the state board of accountancy's ability to discipline is enhanced by being based on a CPA and the CPA firm's performance of services (either physically, electronically or otherwise within a state), rather than being based on whether a state license is held.

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA) have analyzed the current system for gaining practice privileges across state lines and have endorsed a uniform mobility system. This model approach is detailed through the substantial equivalency provision (Section 23) of the Uniform Accountancy Act (UAA). The UAA is an "evergreen" model licensing law co-developed, maintained, reviewed and updated by the AICPA and NASBA. The model provides a uniform approach to regulation of the accounting profession.

Uniform adoption of the UAA's substantial equivalency provision creates a system similar to the nation's driver's license program by providing CPAs with mobility while retaining and strengthening state boards' ability to protect the public interest. The system enables consumers to receive timely services from the CPA best suited to the job, regardless of location, and without the hindrances of unnecessary filings, forms and increased costs that do not protect the public interest.

As of October 2012, a total of 49 out of the 50 states and the District of Columbia had passed mobility laws and were in the implementation and navigation phases. Only the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam have not passed mobility laws. A California mobility law went into effect July 1, 2013. The District of Columbia passed mobility laws effective on October 1, 2012.

AICPA membership
The CPA designation is granted by individual state boards, not the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). Membership in the AICPA is not obligatory for CPAs, although some CPAs do join. To become a full member of AICPA, the applicant must hold a valid CPA certificate or license from at least one of the fifty-five U.S. state/territory boards of accountancy; some additional requirements apply.

AICPA members approved a proposed bylaw amendment to make eligible for voting membership individuals who previously held a CPA certificate/license or have met all the requirements for CPA certification in accordance with the Uniform Accountancy Act (UAA). The AICPA announced its plan to accept applications from individuals meeting these criteria, beginning no later than January 1, 2011.

title: Certified Public Accountant


text:
Compressed-air car

A compressed-air car is a compressed-air vehicle powered by pressure vessels filled with compressed air. It is propelled by the release and expansion of the air within a motor adapted to compressed air. The car might be powered solely by air, or combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with other fuels such as gasoline, diesel, or an electric plant with regenerative braking.

Compressed-air cars use a thermodynamic process. Air cools when expanding and heats when compressed. Thermal energy losses in the compresser and tankage reduce the capacity factor of compressed air systems.

In 2020, Dr. Reza Alizade Evrin of Ontario Tech University developed an isothermal compressed air vehicle. This prototype used low pressure air tanks and exhaust air recovery to power a paraffin heat exchanger system. Its energy efficiency reached 74%. This is as much as 90% of the efficiency of lithium-ion electric cars. It had a driving range of 140 km. Efficiency and range might be increased by a number of practical improvements. For example, combining the storage tank into the car chassis, higher pressure tanks, new rotary engines, and a more efficient heat exchanger. Also, the weight and cost of tanks and pneumatic parts might be reduced by using recycled and bio-based thermoplastics.

This technology might develop into an inexpensive, clean transportation technology. The energy, vehicles and compressors might be produced easily by decentralized methods, even circular industry. Using plastic might permit open source fabrication using numerical control, including additive manufacturing. The compressed air for such vehicles might be produced easily by common types of renewable energy. For example, multistage air compressors and intercoolers or hydraulic pumps might be attached directly to trompes, hydropower, VAWT wind turbines or stirling engines using a solar concentrator. Direct mechanical compression avoids the Carnot inefficiencies of heat engines. Insulated storage of compressed air avoids energy conversion and battery storage. Heat-based systems might use tankage of solar-heated molten salts driving a heat exchanger rather than an onboard heat recovery system. Electric energy, electric grids and their issues might be avoided.

Engines for compressed air

There have been several dubious claims with undisclosed information. The "di pietro" engine has been tested partially with CAD and finite element analysis programs. The results were published by Jarosław Zwierzchowski from Lodz University of Technology in 2017. This motor is an eccentric shaft vane motor that uses low air pressure.

Compressed air tanks and collision safety

The tanks must be designed to safety standards for a pressure vessel. ISO 11439 is a similar standard, for compressed natural gas tanks.

The air storage tanks usable in compressed air cars can be low pressure (9 atm) or high pressure (240+ atm). Thus, they can be made of composite materials like thermoplastics and fiber reinforced thermoplastics, This might permit low priced tankage. It might be made by rotational molding. Such tanks can be much lighter than lithium-iron batteries and 70% lighter than steel tanks. They resist rust from air, water and condensation. They last longer with less maintenance.

To reduce car weight further the pressure vessels can be used as structural parts of the chassis. Advanced 700-atmosphere pressure vessels have been developed for hydrogen cars. Crash tests showed good safety. Fiber reinforced thermoplastic tanks only rupture in collisions. They do not shatter or explode.

Hydrogen tanks require ‘high strength’ to prevent rupture and ‘high stiffness’ for durability. Strength resists an external force. Stiffness maintains a shape. Carbon fiber hydrogen fuel tanks are as light as plastic but six times the strength of steel and four times the stiffness. “When a bullet penetrates a hydrogen tank, it does not explode. Instead, hydrogen leaks out through the bullet hole. In a standard collision test, not even a tiny amount of hydrogen was detected because none had leaked out."

Compressed air production and storage

Compressed air can also be produced by attaching an air compressor or hydraulic pump to a wind turbine or by using a river, tidal or wave hydropower turbine. These all convert directly from mechanical to pneumatic energy. Eliminating electricity from the cycle gives higher efficiency overall. It is also possible to use thermal solar energy with a parabolic or Fresnel lens solar concentrator to power a thermal Stirling engine. This can move the compressor or pump. Solar Stirling is more efficient than solar steam or photovoltaic.

Emissions
Compressed air cars are emission free. They also do not require a connection to the electric grid. A wind turbine or other renewable energy source can directly drive an air compressor or hydraulic pump. Compressed air cars do not rely on petrol stations or an electric grid. While centralized infrastructure might not be needed, it is an option. Tankage can be directly shipped, or a pipeline can be utilized.Compressed air is normally filtered to protect the compressor machinery. Therefore, discharge air has very little suspended dust. There may be some lubricants emitted by some systems, but further development might reduce this with oil free compressors and intercoolers

Resource consumption
Composite pressure vessels and pneumatic components could permit compressed air cars to be a circular industry. The materials would have to be biobased or recycled. Electric energy is not used, so there is no need for metals like copper, iron in magnets, etc.

Advantages
There can be a single conversion of mechanical energy to pneumatic or hydraulic energy. Therefore, compressed air can have high energy efficiency when using mechanical renewable energy such as wind turbines or hydropower. Thermal energy to mechanical energy conversion is possible, but less efficient due to Carnot conversion inefficiencies. Thermal storage of heat from a renewable solar source is also possible using a phase change material such as a molten salt.

Energy efficiency of the 2020 isothermal prototype vehicle was 59.4% of a lithium-ion vehicle.

Compressed air technology adapts to renewable energy and possibly a circular economy, if biobased or recycled composites can be used. Thus it is more sustainable than electric cars. For example, there is much less use of metals, or toxic battery chemistries. A centralized manufacturing and electric grid might be less necessary.

Efficiency is also helped by the low weight of composite pressure vessels relative to steel tanks or lithium-ion batteries. Weight might be further reduced if the tanks support the car chassis. Pneumatic engines also have lower weights than electric engines.

Refueling is possible in many places using only wind, solar power or hydropower to move an air compressor, hydraulic pump or Stirling engine.

Pneumatic power has energy synergy, because it is well suited to automotive mechatronics. Many car systems can be powered by small air motors. For example, active pneumatic suspension, pneumatic steering, or pneumatic shock absorbers. Expansion of the compressed air creates cold temperatures, and can directly provide air conditioning or climate control.

Energy recovery systems with regenerative suspension and regenerative braking produce low pressure compressed air. This can be stored in a pressure vessel.

Pistonless engines using compressed air are very quiet.

There is no fire hazard after accidents, unlike systems that utilize combustion fuels or high power batteries.

Compressed air engines reduce the cost of car production, because there is no need to build a cooling system, spark plugs, starter motor, or mufflers.

The rate of self-discharge is very low compared to batteries. A fueled, compressed-air vehicle may be left unused for a longer time than an electric car.

They reduce or eliminate hazardous chemicals such as gasoline, battery acids and related metals such as lead.

Compressed air cars are safer in more situations:
 * potentially explosive work atmospheres
 * brush-fire areas
 * the vicinity of strong magnetic electric fields
 * radio quiet zones

Disadvantages
Compressed air has a lower Energy density than liquid nitrogen or hydrogen.

While batteries somewhat maintain their voltage throughout their discharge and chemical fuel tanks provide the same power densities from the first to the last litre, the pressure of compressed air tanks falls as air is drawn off. There are mechanical methods (e.g. continuously variable transmissions or auxiliary motors) to reduce this effect, but they add expense.

Developers and manufacturers
Various companies are investing in the research, development and deployment of compressed air cars. The MDI Air Car made its public South African debut in 2002. It was predicted to be in production "within six months" in January 2004. As of 2022, it was not in production.

MDI
MDI has proposed a range of vehicles made up of AIRPod, OneFlowAir, CityFlowAir, MiniFlowAir and MultiFlowAir. One of the main innovations of this company is its implementation of its "active chamber", which is a compartment which heats the air (through the use of a fuel) in order to double the energy output. This 'innovation' was first used in torpedoes in 1904.

Tata Motors
, Tata Motors of India had planned to launch a car with an MDI compressed air engine in 2011. In December 2009 Tata's vice president of engineering systems confirmed that the limited range and low engine temperatures were causing problems.

Tata Motors announced in May 2012 that they have assessed the design past phase 1, the "proof of the technical concept", and were proceeding to full production for the Indian market. Tata moved to phase 2, "completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications".

In February 2017, Dr. Tim Leverton, president and head at Advanced and Product Engineering at Tata revealed that the project was "starting industrialisation" with the first vehicles to be available by 2020. Other reports indicate Tata is also reviving plans for a compressed air version of the Tata Nano, This had previously been under consideration as part of their collaboration with MDI.

Engineair Pty Ltd
Engineair is an Australian company. It produced prototypes of small vehicles using a rotary air engine designed by Angelo Di Pietro. The company is seeking commercial partners to utilise its engine.

Peugeot/Citroën
Peugeot and Citroën announced that they intended to build a car using compressed air as an energy source. However, it utilizes a hybrid system. A gasoline engine propels the car more than 70 km/h or when the compressed air tank has been depleted.

In January 2015, there was disappointing news from France: PSA Peugeot Citroën has delayed indefinitely the development of its promising-seeming Hybrid Air powertrain, apparently because the company has been unable to find a development partner willing to share the huge costs of engineering the system. Development costs are estimated to 500 million Euros. Production volumes would have to be more than 500,000 cars a year to repay these costs. The head of the project left Peugeot in 2014.

APUQ
APUQ (Association de Promotion des Usages de la Quasiturbine) has made the APUQ Air Car, a car powered by a Quasiturbine.

title: Compressed-air car