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Talk:Normal matrix

Too many terms in this stub are not defined. This article either needs expanding to explain the terms, to have the terms converted into links where they are explained or the be merged into the main matrix page.

My matrix stuff was too many years ago for me to be able to fix this. -- SGBailey 22:19 Jan 17, 2003 (UTC)

Capitalization
Should "Hermitian" be written with a capital 'H'? I think it always is everywhere else I've seen it, but I don't know what accepted style is for this. --DudeGalea 16:22, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Positive definiteness
Correction : a positive definite matrix is not normal ! Take a small 2 by 2 example to see that : $$A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}5&1\\0&7\end{array})\right.$$ The matrix $A$ is positive definite but non normal.

 * The matrix $$\begin{bmatrix}1&1\\0&1\end{bmatrix}$$ is an even simpler example. I think the original author assumed positive definiteness implied symmetry.  This isn't necessarily the case for real matrices.  (See the article on positive definite matrix.)  Lunch 04:17, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

'Hermitian' vs 'hermitian' etc.
(1) Such words are sometimes uncapitalized if they are being used intensively, by specialists in a particular area. But I don't think 'Hermitian' is usually in this category. In an encyclopaedia, I would leave the capital in. (Likewise with 'Laplacian', 'Lagrangian' etc.)

(2) Positive definite. Horn and Johnson,'Matrix Analysis', p396, make being Hermitian (and therefore symmetric, in the case of real matrices) part of the definition of being positive definite. A misjudgment, surely? - it certainly confused me for a while. Note to self or request to others - check Wikipedia's article on positive definiteness.

(3) Some more simple examples of matrices that are not normal would aid understanding. NTSORTO - insert some discussion accordingly.

Rwb001 7 March 2007

 * (1) I agree.
 * (2) I had some discussion about this on Talk:Cholesky decomposition. This led to the impression that the definition of Horn and Johnson is common, but not universal. Therefore, it's best to be explicit on Wikipedia, instead of relying on the definition being used in positive-definite matrix. Anyway, the latter article does not say clearly whether Hermitian is required, precisely because the literature is confused about this issue.
 * (3) I tend to agree, but I'm not totally sure what you mean and I don't fully grasp the concept of "normal matrix".
 * Jitse Niesen (talk) 09:58, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

 * (2) for complex matrices,  ≥ 0 for all x implies that A is Hermitian, but this is not true in general for real matrices. perhaps Horn and Johnson required Hermiticity in both the real and complex cases to get a uniform definition?

 * (3) the unilateral shift T is an example of a non-normal operator. the commutator T*T - TT* is a rank-1 projection. for a similar finite dimensional example, consider the square matrix that is 1 on the superdiagonal and 0 elsewhere. Mct mht 10:37, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

Analogy section
The "analogy" section of this page states that it is "occasionally useful" to make the analogy with complex numbers - but it doesn't give any explanation of why or in what way it can be useful. Without such information the statement of the analogy doesn't seem very helpful. Nathaniel Virgo (talk) 17:13, 10 October 2009 (UTC)
 * I didn't add that section, but after reading it I found it useful. If nothing else, it helps understand what the defintions mean. :) Shreevatsa (talk) 20:01, 10 October 2009 (UTC)

I think the point is that a normal matrix is similar to a diagonal matrix with complex entries. If all of the entries are real/imag/unit/positive then the matrix itself is Hermitian/AnitHermitian/Unitary/Positive. Since addition and multiplication of diagonal matrices act individually on each entry, normal matrices share the same properties as the corresponding complex numbers. This only works for more multiple matrices if they are simultaneously diagonalizable, however.Chris2crawford (talk) 04:50, 7 February 2022 (UTC)

Perhaps something like above could be added to this section. There are already a few similar Propositions in the "Consequences" section, but they are separately stated and not tied together, which obscures the generality of the normal matrix analogy.Chris2crawford (talk) 04:50, 7 February 2022 (UTC)

chicken vs egg
In Joel Franklin's classic 1968 Matrix Theory, he defines normal matrices as the matrices which have orthogonal eigenvectors, and then proves that these matrices are characterized by the property that they commute with their adjoint. This article does the reverse: it defines normal matrices as those matrices that commute with their adjoint, and then as a "consequence" show that these matrices have orthogonal eigenvectors. Neither approach is "right" or "wrong", but it may be worth checking other literature to see if there is a consensus. Lavaka (talk) 19:12, 15 April 2010 (UTC)

Equivalences
There seems to be a problem with equivalence number 10: "A commutes with some normal matrix N with distinct eigenvalues" if and only if A is normal. I think this is only true if A has N distinct eigenvalues. If A is normal with some degeneracy, any matrix commuting with A will share its eigenspaces, and therefore share its degeneracy. Can anyone check this for me please? Bobathon71 (talk) 22:32, 28 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Distinct eigenvalues means N has one dimensional eigenspaces corresponding to each eigenvalue. So the statement is OK. The fact that two normal matrices commute say nothing about their kernels. Take, for example, the identity matrix and the zero matrix. Mct mht (talk) 12:19, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Ok... I think I'm with you. Just checked the proof I was looking at. If A commutes with B and B is normal, then every k-dimensional eigenspace of A has to contain an orthogonal set of k eigenvectors for B. I interpreted that as eigenspace of B, which it obviously doesn't have to be. B could have N distinct eigenvalues and still satisfy that condition. Thanks. (Let me know if I'm not getting it) Bobathon71 (talk) 18:42, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Let's look at it this way. Take a normal matrix B. If B has, say, 3 eigenvalues λ1, λ2, and λ3 with multiplicities k1, k2, and k3 respectively. So in some orthonormal basis, B takes the form

 * $$B = \begin{pmatrix} \lambda_1 I_{k_1} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \lambda_2 I_{k_2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \lambda_3 I_{k_3} \end{pmatrix}$$

 * where $$I_k$$ denotes the k by k identity matrix. Now, in the same basis, a matrix A commutes with B if and only if A is of the form

 * $$A = \begin{pmatrix} M_{k_1} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & M_{k_2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & M_{k_3} \end{pmatrix}$$

 * where $$M_k$$ is a k by k matrix. If B has distinct eigenvalues, then each ki is 1, i.e. A is unitarily diagonalizable, hence normal. Mct mht (talk) 05:07, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Thanks. That's a good way of putting it. A is then diagonalisable in the unique basis that diagonalises B... but not necessarily uniquely. If A has any multiple eigenvalues then the diagonal form of A will contain blocks of $$\lambda I_k$$, and any change of basis among the degenerate eigenvectors will also leave A diagonal. Bobathon71 (talk) 10:15, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

Eigenvectors of commuting normal matrices
Can anybody link a proof (or references) of the statement "the columns of U* are eigenvectors of both A and B"? (last phrase of section "consequences") — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.168.20.183 (talk) 13:56, 22 December 2011 (UTC)

 * If $$\mathbf{A}$$ is diagonizable by a unitary matrix $$\mathbf{U}$$, then $$\mathbf{UAU^*}=\mathbf{\Lambda}$$, with non-zero elements $${\Lambda}_{ii}=\lambda_{i}$$.

 * Pre-multiplying by $$\mathbf{U^*}$$, and using its unitary property, we have $$\sum_{j=1}^n A_{ij}(U^*)_{jk}=\sum_{j=1}^n (U^*)_{ij}{\Lambda}_{jk}=(U^*)_{ik}{\lambda}_{k}$$.

 * This is an eigenvalue equation $$\mathbf{Au_k}=\lambda_{k}\mathbf{u_k}$$, where $$\mathbf{u_k}$$ is the $$k$$th column of the matrix $$\mathbf{U^*}$$
 * You can do the same with $$\mathbf{B}$$.

 * Bobathon71 (talk) 01:44, 6 January 2012 (UTC)

Test for diagonalizability
How widely is normality used as a test for diagonalizability? I personally found the second paragraph confusing since it seems to imply that many or most diagonalizable matrices are normal, and normality is a quick and easy way to test for it.

"Normality is a convenient test for diagonalizability: every normal matrix can be converted to a diagonal matrix by a unitary transform, and every matrix which can be made diagonal by a unitary transform is also normal, but finding the desired transform requires much more work than simply testing to see whether the matrix is normal." --Aluchko (talk) 20:49, 14 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Normality is equivalent to unitary diagonalizability, which is stronger than diagonalizability. But to actually find the unitary transform that diagonalizes the matrix means to find the eigenvectors, which from what I hear can be numerically tricky. Mct mht (talk) 03:30, 15 May 2012 (UTC)

Orthonormal set of eigenvectors
"The entire space is spanned by some orthonormal set of eigenvectors of A." I could not find any material stating this, but rather statements equivalent with the eigenvectors of A spanning the entire space. If so, the vectors are generating the space, thus a basis can be selected. If a basis can be selected, then via the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization, an orthogonal set of vectors can be constructed, which are still the eigenvectors of the matrix, and normalizing them does not change that. Is this reasoning sound? If so, wouldn't it be better to elaborate a bit in the article? Andorxor (talk) 01:58, 5 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Orthonormality follows trivially from that unitary diagonalizability of a normal matrix. Having a set of eigenvectors which forms a basis (mere diagonalizability) is strictly weaker than normality. Mct mht (talk) 02:08, 5 January 2013 (UTC)

 * The article already mentions that the columns of U are eigenvectors. They are orthonormal because U is unitary. Conversely, given an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors, let U be the matrix having the basis vectors as columns; it is unitary, by orthonormality. In the product AU every column is scaled by its eigenvalue, i.e., AU = UΛ. Multiply both sides by U*. Certainly a reader new to the subject might not see this immediately, but to me this point does not stand out as needing a citation among other statements of the same nature in the article. Tag removed.  Styrofoams (talk) 17:05, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

EPness and normality
I have undone changes, which introduced the following text: "EP matrices are also a special case of normal matrices. EPness, however, is not a sufficient condition to normality. For example,

 * $A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 2 & 0 \\ 3 & 4 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix}$

is an EP matrix, but not normal."

There is an obvious misunderstanding of the terms "special case" and "sufficient". Since I am not an expert in this field, I decided to remove the contribution instead of rectifying it. 209.141.188.140 (talk) 01:20, 20 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Thanks for spotting the error and sorry for the trouble. I got mixed up when I was writing the first paragraph... Is the set of normal matrices that are a subset of EP matrices. But looking back now and seeing the EP matrices article, I think this article is better without this contribution. Saung Tadashi (talk) 20:39, 20 February 2021 (UTC)

Matrix Classes panel at the end
In the classification, Dirac and Pauli matrices should be in the same category, since they are so similar.--Chris2crawford (talk) 04:55, 7 February 2022 (UTC)

2×2 normal matrices are multiples of unitary matrices
I have doubts about the last sentence of comment in source in #Special cases

 * but among 2×2 matrices, there are only ones that are multiples of unitary matrices.

The matrix $$A=\begin{bmatrix}1&-1\\1&1+i\end{bmatrix}$$ is a normal matrix, but its eigenvalues have unequal modulus 1.90211, 1.17557, so A is not a multiple of unitary matrix. Hbghlyj (talk) 23:06, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

Fancy boxes
I suggest getting rid of the fancy boxes. They contribute nothing to the article except a graphic design, which is unnecessary. (I find them intrusive.) Opinions? Zaslav (talk) 10:36, 3 December 2023 (UTC)

 * 👍 I haven't checked out the boxes on this page, but on other pages I've seen colored boxes cause the equations to be illegible when viewed in dark mode on mobile. The-erinaceous-one (talk) 07:00, 4 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Normal matrix


text:
ReplayTV

ReplayTV was a former DVR company that from 1999 until 2005, produced a brand of digital video recorders (DVR), a term synonymous with personal video recorder (PVR). It is a consumer video device which allows users to capture television programming to internal hard disk storage for later viewing (and time shifting). ReplayTV was founded in September 1997 by future Roku founder Anthony Wood, who was president and CEO of ReplayTV until August 2001.

The first ReplayTV model was introduced in January 1999 during the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, at the same time as a competing DVR model from rival company TiVo. After the sale of assets to DirecTV, ReplayTV's only ongoing activity was maintenance of the electronic program guide service by D&M Holdings, which was to be discontinued on July 31, 2011. However, on July 29, 2011, a notice was placed on the ReplayTV website stating that service would be continued without interruption for lifetime subscribers and monthly subscribers may have a short interruption in service. On September 2, 2011, programming contact through the ReplayTV dialup system was terminated without any update message being sent to subscribers or posted on replaytv.com. DNNA filed for bankruptcy on July 20, 2015. EPG data from their servers ran out on July 15, 2015. Even with the end of support from DNNA, third-party solutions are available to provide Electronic Program Guide data to ReplayTV units.

History
ReplayTV was founded in September 1997 by businessman Anthony Wood, who later founded Roku in October 2002. Initial sales to consumers were launched in April 1999, while volume production and sales did not begin until later in 2000. ReplayTV was purchased by SONICblue in 2001.

On March 23, 2003, SONICblue filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and on April 16 sold most of its assets, including ReplayTV, to the Japanese electronics giant D&M Holdings. SONICblue was fighting a copyright infringement suit over the ReplayTV's ability to skip commercials when it filed for bankruptcy.

On December 19, 2005, Digital Networks North America announced that it was exiting the hardware business as soon as current inventory was sold out. ReplayTV would then concentrate on PC software sales of its DVR technology in a partnership with Hauppauge Computer Works, a manufacturer of television cards for PCs.

On December 13, 2007, D&M Holdings sold most of the assets of ReplayTV to DirecTV. It still provided electronic program guide service to existing customers, using content from Tribune Media Services. The domains replay.com, replaytv.com, and replaytv.net used by the ReplayTV units to access the electronic program guide are owned by DirecTV.

On June 15, 2011, D&M Holdings announced it was permanently discontinuing the ReplayTV electronic program guide service:"'The ReplayTV Electronic Programming Guide (EPG) Service will be permanently discontinued on July 31, 2011. After this date, owners of ReplayTV DVR units will still be able to manually record analog TV programs, but will not have the benefit of access to the interactive program guide. Effective immediately, monthly billing for the ReplayTV service to remaining customers has been suspended.'"

On July 29, 2011, D&M announced they would continue providing guide service. The following was appearing on the ReplayTV website:"Important Announcement. After the announced shutdown of the ReplayTV programming guide service, we have had many positive, enthusiastic comments about the ReplayTV DVR products and services. In light of this response, ReplayTV and its parent company Digital Networks North America, Inc. have decided to continue the electronic programming guide service pursuant to the terms of your service activation agreement. We thank you very much for all of your support and enthusiasm over the many years these products have been sold."

Around July 4, 2015, new guide data was not being sent to ReplayTV units. The last day of guide data was July 15. ReplayTV said they were working on the problem, although it was never fixed. It is assumed this problem is a result of the bankruptcy.

Bankruptcy
On July 20, 2015, ReplayTV.com posted the following information: "Digital Networks North America, Inc. filed for chapter 7 bankruptcy relief with the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware on July 20, 2015 and has ceased all business operations. A chapter 7 trustee will be appointed by the Bankruptcy Court to oversee the administration and liquidation of the bankruptcy estate for Digital Networks North America, Inc. Creditors will receive a notice of the bankruptcy filing by mail."

Parent company of ReplayTV, Digital Networks North America filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy. Following the announcement, ReplayTV ended services.

Legal battle
On October 31, 2001, numerous TV companies, including the three major networks, filed a lawsuit against SONICblue, which at the time marketed the ReplayTV device. They alleged that the ReplayTV 4000 series was part of an “unlawful scheme” that “attacks the fundamental economic underpinnings of free television and basic nonbroadcast services” according to the lawsuit.

The TV industry attacked ReplayTV for two reasons:

 * 1) The machines enabled people to record television programs and then watch them without commercials via the optional "Commercial Advance" feature. This had the potential to undercut advertising revenues which the lawsuit called "the lifeblood of most television channels".
 * 2) The machines allowed users to share programs they have recorded with others via the "Send Show" feature, which transmits digital copies of shows not only on a local network, but also over the Internet to other ReplayTV owners, thereby enabling people who had not paid for premium channels to watch premium content for free.

Both the “Commercial Advance” and the “Send Show” features were alleged to violate U.S. copyright and other federal and state laws, according to the TV industry plaintiffs, who wanted sales of the ReplayTV 4000 devices—slated for shipment on Nov. 15, 2001—stopped.

The lawsuit against SONICblue was stayed when the company filed for bankruptcy protection in March 2003. In August 2003, the ReplayTV 5500 series went on sale without the Autoskip and Send Show features though the features continued to be enabled on the earlier models.

Operation
ReplayTV service is only available in the United States via its subscription program. The hardware is no longer sold and the subscription service was ended in June 2011. The subscriptions service's feature of searchable program guides will end effective July 31, 2011. After this date, owners of ReplayTV DVR units will still be able to manually record analog TV programs, but will not have the benefit of access to the interactive program guide. Older units were only able to accomplish this download via a dial-up connection. Later models were also capable of downloading program guides via the user's existing internet connection (broadband or DSL), as well as via the dialup connection.

Like other DVRs, ReplayTV allows users to record television programs. The subscription service was operated on a monthly fee, or one time payment, lifetime subscription. Each individual unit required a separate subscription. Older units, like the 2000 and 3000 series, did not require monthly subscription fees, and those units that were still in operation and continue to receive programming data without a subscription until July 31, 2011. The price of the original ReplayTV units was higher than comparable TiVo units by approximately the same amount as TiVo's lifetime subscription, so a lifetime subscription was essentially priced into the units.

Some ReplayTV models allow automatic commercial skipping with no user intervention. It scanned for the black frames local television stations used to insert commercials.

Hardware and features
The "4000 Series" and "5000 Series" ReplayTV units have Ethernet connections that allow the user to stream shows to another similar ReplayTV unit within the same local network, transfer shows to another similar ReplayTV unit (either on the local network or across the Internet) or to a personal computer. This capability enables users to move recorded programs to PCs using third-party programs. These units also have the capability to automatically skip commercial advertisements during playback (known as "Commercial Advance", which was trademarked by the original company). This commercial advance feature used several heuristics to detect commercials and had an accuracy of about 90 to 95 percent. Recording of television programs could be accomplished either manually, or through use of the program guide using various criteria. Shows to be recorded could also be described via thematic categories. Shows could be recorded or lightly managed through MyReplayTV at my.replaytv.com

The most recent "5500 Series" ReplayTV units had the ability to stream shows to another similar ReplayTV unit within the same local network, but when loaded with up-to-date system software they can no longer transfer shows to other ReplayTV units across the Internet. The "5500 Series" units have also had the automatic commercial advance feature removed in favor of a manual "Show|Nav" feature. The units are otherwise identical to the "5000 Series" units. System software releases prior to version 5.1 build 144 retain the original features even in 5500-series hardware devices, but the software is automatically updated to 5.1 build 144 via through-the-web software updates.

The "4000 Series", "5000 Series" and "5500 Series" ReplayTV units stored the content using MPEG2.
 * Video: mpeg2video, yuv420p, 720x480, 29.97 frame/s, 7413 kbit/s
 * Audio: mp2, 48000 Hz, stereo, 192 kbit/s

The operating system used on the "4000 Series", "5000 Series" and "5500 Series" was Vxworks. Several versions of the software were released, some older versions supported commercial advance even on newer units.

Other features
Beginning with the earliest models, ReplayTV units had an undocumented "random access skip" feature. While playing a recorded program, the user could enter a number from the remote control, then press the QuickSkip button to advance that number of minutes forward in the program, or press the "Skip Back" button to go back that number of minutes. If no number was entered, the skip buttons would advance 30 seconds or retreat ten seconds, respectively. This feature spanned several models of ReplayTV. Users could also type a number followed by pressing Jump to go to that exact minute in the recording.

Models
The first models released were the 2000 series from ReplayTV (the company name at that time). In 1999, the price of the ReplayTV 2001 was $995 and it provided 6 hours of video storage. The ReplayTV model 2004 was $1,995 and provided 26 hours. Each of these models included a lifetime offer of program guide service. The ReplayTV 2020 model, offering 20 hours of recording storage, was also released in 1999 at a cost of $699. It replaced the previously released models.

In the year 2000 the 3000-series models were released, as well as an equivalent "ShowStopper" model branded by Panasonic. This was followed by the 4000 line in the fall of 2001. The 4000-series models were the first to include an Ethernet port, and to support the sharing of shows between different units either locally (using video streaming) or over the Internet (by duplicating the content).

In 2002 the 4500-series was released. These had hardware that was much like the 4000-series, but they could be purchased without lifetime program guide service for a substantially reduced price. All subsequent models also unbundled the guide service from the hardware. Units without lifetime activation become almost completely unusable if the monthly activation is terminated.

2005 products with list prices (no longer available):
 * ReplayTV RTV5504 40-Hour Digital Video Recorder ($149.99)
 * ReplayTV RTV5508 80-Hour Digital Video Recorder ($299.99)
 * ReplayTV RTV5516 160-Hour Digital Video Recorder ($449.99)
 * ReplayTV RTV5532 320-Hour Digital Video Recorder ($799.99)

The ReplayTV 5000 series included a JP1 remote which could be reprogrammed or upgraded using free software.

Subscription
The ReplayTV subscription has two different options, a monthly recurring charge of $12.95, or one-time lifetime activation fee of $299. Subscriptions for additional units were $6.95 a month. PC edition customers are charged $20 per year and come with one year of service.

On June 15, 2011, ReplayTV announced that it would be permanently discontinuing its Electronic Programming Guide Service (the channel guide) on July 31, 2011. "After this day, your ReplayTV DVR will still be able to manually record analog TV programs, but will not have the benefit of access to the interactive program guide. All billing for your service has been suspended."

Their website states the reasoning as being that the industry conversion to HDTV is complete, and customers should contact their local providers for options.

However, there may be options to keep service alive after official support ends using the WiRNS application as all units should be permanently activated if they contact ReplayTV servers before July 31, 2011.

On July 29, 2011, D&M Holdings reversed their previous decision and will continue the ReplayTV electronic program guide service. "For monthly subscribers of the ReplayTV service, we are exploring options by which you may continue paying for and receiving such service going forward. We apologize in advance should there be any minor disruptions in the ReplayTV service while we implement the continuation of the programming guide. Thank you. ReplayTV"

On or around July 4, 2015, DirectTV apparently turned off their guide servers at production.replaytv.net. On July 15, 2015, the last guide data disappeared from ReplayTV units; it is doubtful that the guide data will return. However, alternatives exist which can provide ReplayTVs with guide data for as long as they (the ReplayTV units themselves) are functional. Three such options are LaHO, WiRNS and Perc Data.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: ReplayTV


text: User talk:192.251.125.40

title: User talk:192.251.125.40


text:
Talk:Top 40 (radio format)

Untitled
I'm not familiar with the use of the term "Top 40" to describe a radio format, so I've put the meaning of a singles chart at the top of the article. Most of the pages which link to the Top 40 article are actually talking about either the UK Top 40 or the US Top 40, rather than about a radio format, so those links should be changed as soon as there are individual articles on those two subjects. -- Oliver PEREIRA 22:21 Jan 17, 2003 (UTC)
 * Sure. As a term, the list may be more common now than the radio format.  I was just tired of putting top 40 in articles and having it come up red.  I do think the radio format was first though.  Having 40 songs in rotation is just about the right number.  I remember some Top 30 stations and they just didn't make it.  Too repetitive even for pop radio.   On the other hand, I noticed the same thing about the links that you did, and stopped making them.  I can't quite imagine the content of the US Top 40 and UK Top 40 articles.  I suppose they could be lists of annual top 40 lists.   The radio format is important for noting all the wack songs that have made it.  The Mormon Tabernacle Choir is not what you usually think of as a Top 40 group, but because of the radio rules, there it was, mixing it up with the pop bands.  Ortolan88

There's some sorting out needed here. there's an articel Hit parade which pop chart is redirected to and then music charts is redirected here. There should be one main article about the history, method etc. of popular music charts and others about specific angles e.g. the radio play thing. Btljs 16:23, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

I belive it should because the contempary hit radio isn't that big, so it could just make wikipedia free of excess pages. Jmclark911 17:48, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Top 40 is a Radio Format, it was the most popular format in the US in the late 50's and early 60's. The closest currently active radio format is Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR), but current CHR does not encompass the breadth of musical styles included in Top 40. Basically, if a song was popular, regardless of genre, it could be played on Top 40 radio. The number of songs actually played was probably never exactly 40. But, the intent of the format is to play only the most popular songs regardless of genre. Boss Radio was a similar, tighter format with a nominal 30 song playlist.

Merger proposal
I proposed merging this article with Contemporary hit radio. Both formats (and variations such as rhythmic, adult top 40, etc.) are basically the same. Stations that carry/carried the format are often referred to as contemporary hit radio (CHR), and the term "Top 40" for describing the format has not been widely used since the 1980s.-- milk the cows (Talk) 20:04, 19 September 2007 (UTC)

Top 40 Radio was a Radio format that existed in the US in the 1950's & the 1960's that no longer exists. Top 40 Radio played all the best selling records of the day regardless of genre. A Top 40 station would play Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, Louis Armstrong and The Beatles. The intent was to play "all the hits all the time" and "much more music" in order to capture the widest possible audience. In order to fit more music into an hour, songs were "overlapped" (one song faded while the next started paying), announcers spoke of the song introductions, songs we played at faster than the intended speed or otherwise "edited".

Contemporary Hit Radio, Adult Top 40, Urban Top 40, etc. were the ultimate descendants of Top 40 Radio - playing a single genre of music, but otherwise emulating the style and shortened playlists of Top 40 Radio. — Preceding unsigned comment added by DennisKQV (talk • contribs) 16:46, 26 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Top 40 (radio format)


text:
Copal

Copal is a tree resin, particularly the aromatic resins from the copal tree Protium copal (Burseraceae) used by the cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica as ceremonially burned incense and for other purposes. More generally, copal includes resinous substances in an intermediate stage of polymerization and hardening between "gummier" resins and amber. Copal that is partly mineralized is known as copaline.

It is available in different forms; the hard, amber-like yellow copal is a less expensive version, while the milky-white copal is more expensive.

Etymology
The word "copal" is derived from the Nahuatl language word copalli, meaning "incense".

History and uses
Subfossil copal is well known from New Zealand (kauri gum from Agathis australis (Araucariaceae)), Japan, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, and Madagascar. It often has inclusions and is sometimes sold as "young amber". When it is treated or enhanced in an autoclave (as is sometimes done to industrialized Baltic amber) it is used for jewelry. In its natural condition copal can be easily distinguished from old amber by its lighter citrine colour and its surface getting tacky with a drop of acetone or chloroform. Copal resin from Hymenaea verrucosa (Fabaceae) is found in East Africa and is used in incense. East Africa apparently had a higher amount of subfossil copal, which is found one or two meters below living copal trees, from roots of trees that may have lived thousands of years earlier. This subfossil copal produces a harder varnish.

By the 18th century, Europeans found it to be a valuable ingredient in making a good wood varnish. It became widely used in the manufacture of furniture and carriages. It was also sometimes used as a picture varnish. By the late 19th and early 20th century, varnish manufacturers in England and America were using it on train carriages, greatly swelling its demand. In 1859, Americans consumed 68% of the East African trade, which was controlled through the Sultan of Zanzibar, with Germany receiving 24%. The American Civil War and the creation of the Suez Canal led to Germany, India, and Hong Kong taking the majority by the end of that century.

Copal is still used by a number of indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America as an incense, during sweat lodge ceremonies and sacred mushroom ceremonies.

title: Copal


text:
Family saga

The family saga is a genre of literature which chronicles the lives and doings of a family or a number of related or interconnected families over a period of time. In novels (or sometimes sequences of novels) with a serious intent, this is often a thematic device used to portray particular historical events, changes of social circumstances, or the ebb and flow of fortunes from a multitude of perspectives.

The word saga comes from Old Norse, where it meant "what is said, utterance, oral account, notification" and "(structured) narrative, story (about somebody)", and was originally borrowed into English from Old Norse by scholars in the eighteenth century to refer to the Old Norse prose narratives known as sagas.

The typical family saga follows generations of a family through a period of history in a series of novels. A number of subgenres of the form exist such as the AGA saga.

Successful writers of popular family sagas include Susan Howatch, R. F. Delderfield and Philippa Carr.

Literature

 * The sagas of Icelanders – the medieval Icelandic family sagas in which the word "saga" is derived
 * Mahabharata, by Valmiki – the chronicle of the Chandravanshi Rajput clan founded by Puru, also considered the longest poem in human history
 * Dream of the Red Chamber – one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, it chronicles the rise and decline of the Jia family
 * A Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight, by Henry Williamson
 * Ada or Ardor, by Vladimir Nabokov
 * Absalom, Absalom!, by William Faulkner
 * The Artamonov Business, by Maxim Gorky
 * Brideshead Revisited, by Evelyn Waugh
 * Beauty Is a Wound, by Eka Kurniawan
 * Buddenbrooks, by Thomas Mann
 * Captains and the Kings, by Taylor Caldwell
 * Harmonia Caelestis, a historicist piece by Péter Esterházy
 * The Cairo Trilogy, by Naguib Mahfouz
 * The Cazalet Chronicles, by Elizabeth Jane Howard
 * The Covenant, by James A. Michener
 * The Crowthers of Bankdam, by Thomas Armstrong
 * Dune, by Frank Herbert
 * East of Eden, by John Steinbeck
 * The Emberverse series, by S. M. Stirling
 * Evergreen, by Belva Plain
 * Fall on Your Knees, by Ann-Marie MacDonald
 * Family Tree tetralogy, by Ann M. Martin
 * Fire & Blood by George R. R. Martin
 * The Forsyte Saga, by John Galsworthy
 * The Golovlyov Family, by Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin
 * The Good Earth and its sequels, by Pearl S. Buck
 * Holes, by Louis Sachar
 * Homegoing, by Yaa Gyasi
 * Homestuck, by Andrew Hussie
 * The House of the Spirits, by Isabel Allende
 * The Immigrants, by Howard Fast
 * The Jalna books, by Mazo de la Roche
 * The Kent Family Chronicles and The Crown Family Saga, by John Jakes
 * Kristin Lavransdatter, by Sigrid Undset
 * Os Maias, by Eça de Queiroz
 * Old-fashioned Story by Magda Szabó
 * I Malavoglia, by Giovanni Verga
 * The Mallens, by Catherine Cookson
 * Middlesex, by Jeffrey Eugenides
 * One Hundred Years of Solitude, by Gabriel García Márquez
 * The Oppermanns, by Lion Feuchtwanger
 * The Palaeologian Dynasty. The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, by George Leonardos
 * The Promise, by Damon Galgut
 * Radetzkymarsch (Radetzky March), by Joseph Roth
 * Roma, by Steven Saylor
 * Roots, by Alex Haley
 * The Silmarillion, by J. R. R. Tolkien
 * Sometimes A Great Notion, by Ken Kesey
 * Strangers and Brothers, by C. P. Snow
 * The Thibaults, by Roger Martin du Gard
 * Time and the Wind, by Erico Verissimo
 * The Thorn Birds, by Colleen McCullough
 * The Lymond Chronicles and The House of Niccolò, Renaissance-set novel series by Dorothy Dunnett
 * ''Under the North Star, by Väinö Linna
 * The Vorkosigan Saga, by Lois McMaster Bujold
 * White Teeth, by Zadie Smith
 * The Witcher, by Andrzej Sapkowski

Film and television

 * American Pop
 * Arrested Development
 * The Best of Youth, in Italian La Meglio Gioventù
 * Blackadder
 * Dark
 * Game of Thrones
 * The Godfather
 * Heimat
 * House of the Dragon
 * Household Saints
 * How the West Was Won
 * I, Claudius
 * In a Land of Plenty
 * JoJo's Bizarre Adventure
 * Our Friends in the North
 * Raajneeti
 * Roots
 * Roots: The Next Generations
 * Sibiriada
 * Star Wars
 * Succession
 * Sunshine
 * Taken
 * The Thorn Birds
 * The Dirtwater Dynasty
 * This Is Us
 * Vacas

Video games

 * What Remains of Edith Finch

title: Family saga


text:
Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday is a holy day of prayer and fasting in many Western Christian denominations. It is preceded by Shrove Tuesday and marks the first day of Lent, the six weeks of penitence before Easter.

Ash Wednesday is observed by Catholics, Lutherans, Moravians, Anglicans, and United Protestants, as well as by some churches in the Reformed, (including certain Congregationalist, Continental Reformed, and Presbyterian churches), Baptist, Methodist and Nazarene traditions.

Ash Wednesday is traditionally observed with fasting and abstinence from meat in several Christian denominations. As it is the first day of Lent, many Christians begin Ash Wednesday by marking a Lenten calendar, praying a Lenten daily devotional, and making a Lenten sacrifice that they will not partake of until the arrival of Eastertide.

Many Christians attend special Ash Wednesday church services at which churchgoers receive ash on their foreheads or the top of their heads, as the wearing of ashes was a sign of repentance in biblical times. Ash Wednesday derives its name from this practice, in which the placement of ashes is accompanied by the words, "Repent, and believe in the Gospel" or the dictum "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return." The ashes are prepared by burning palm leaves from the previous year's Palm Sunday celebrations.

Observing and non-observing denominations
Ash Wednesday is observed by numerous denominations within Western Christianity. Latin Church Catholics observe it, along with certain Protestants like Lutherans, Anglicans, some Baptists, many Methodists (including Nazarenes and Wesleyans), the Evangelical Covenant Church, and some Mennonites. The Moravian Church and Metropolitan Community Churches observe Ash Wednesday. Churches in the United Protestant tradition, such as the Church of North India and United Church of Canada honour Ash Wednesday too. Some Independent Catholics, and the Community of Christ also observe it.

Reformed churches have historically not observed Ash Wednesday, nor Lent in general, due to the Reformed regulative principle of worship. Nevertheless, some churches in the Reformed tradition (including certain Congregationalist, Continental Reformed, and Presbyterian churches) do observe Lent today, although often as a voluntary observance. The Reformed Church in America, for example, describes Ash Wednesday as a day "focused on prayer, fasting, and repentance." The liturgy for Ash Wednesday thus contains the following "Invitation to Observe a Lenten Discipline" read by the presider: "We begin this holy season by acknowledging our need for repentance and our need for the love and forgiveness shown to us in Jesus Christ. I invite you, therefore, in the name of Christ, to observe a Holy Lent, by self-examination and penitence, by prayer and fasting, by practicing works of love, and by reading and reflecting on God's Holy Word."

The Eastern Orthodox Church does not, in general, observe Ash Wednesday. Instead, Orthodox Great Lent begins on Clean Monday. There are a relatively small number of Orthodox Christians who follow the Western Rite. These do observe Ash Wednesday, although often on a different day from the previously mentioned denominations, as its date is determined from the Orthodox calculation of Pascha, which may be as much as a month later than the Western observance of Easter.

Fasting and abstinence

Many Lent-observing denominations emphasize making a Lenten sacrifice, as well as fasting and abstinence during the season of Lent, particularly on Ash Wednesday. The First Council of Nicaea spoke of Lent as a period of fasting for forty days in advance of Easter, although it is unclear whether the prescribed fast applied to all Christians, or specifically to new Christians preparing to be baptized. Whatever the council's original intent, this forty-day fast came into wide practice throughout the church.

While starting a Lenten sacrifice on Ash Wednesday (e.g. giving up watching television), it is customary to pray for strength to keep it through the whole season of Lent; many often wish others to do so as well, e.g. "May God bless your Lenten sacrifice." In many places, Christians historically abstained from food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Western Christians traditionally broke the Lenten fast, which is often known as the Black Fast.

In India and Pakistan, many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, with some fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent. In India, Ash Wednesday is called व्रत विभूति (Vrat Vibhuti - meaning, "the sacred ash of the Holy Fast"). After attending a worship service, often on Wednesday evenings, it is common for Christians of various denominations that celebrate Lent to break that day's Lenten fast together through a communal Lenten supper, which is held in the church's parish hall.

Among Catholics, Ash Wednesday is observed by fasting, abstinence from meat (which begins at age 14 according to canon law 1252 ), and repentance. On Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, Roman Catholics between the ages of 18 and 59, whose health enables them to fast, are permitted to consume one full meal, along with two smaller meals, which together should not equal the full meal. Some Catholics will go beyond the minimum obligations put forth by the Church and undertake a complete fast or a bread and water fast until sunset. Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are also days of abstinence from meat (mammals and fowl), as are all Fridays during Lent. Some Roman Catholics continue fasting throughout Lent, as was the Church's traditional requirement, concluding only after the celebration of the Easter Vigil. Where the Ambrosian Rite is observed, the day of fasting and abstinence is postponed to the first Friday in the Ambrosian Lent, nine days later.

Several Lutheran parishes teach communicants to fast on Ash Wednesday, with some parishioners choosing to continue doing so throughout the entire season of Lent, especially on Good Friday. One Lutheran congregation's A Handbook for the Discipline of Lent recommends that the faithful "Fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday with only one simple meal during the day, usually without meat".

In the Church of England, and throughout much of the Worldwide Anglican Communion, the entire forty days of Lent are designated days of fasting. Fridays are designated as days of abstinence in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. Saint Augustine's Prayer Book, a resource for Anglo-Catholics, defines "Fasting" as "usually meaning not more than a light breakfast, one full meal, and one-half meal, on the forty days of Lent." The same text defines abstinence as refraining from flesh meat on all Fridays of the Church Year, except for those during Christmastide.

In the Methodist tradition, John Wesley's sermons on the topic of the Sermon on the Mount stress the importance of the Lenten fast, which begins on Ash Wednesday. The United Methodist Church therefore states that: "There is a strong biblical base for fasting, particularly during the 40 days of Lent leading to the celebration of Easter. Jesus, as part of his spiritual preparation, went into the wilderness and fasted 40 days and 40 nights, according to the Gospels." Rev. Jacqui King, the minister of Nu Faith Community United Methodist Church in Houston explained the philosophy of fasting during Lent as "I'm not skipping a meal because in place of that meal, I'm dining with God".

Members of the Moravian Church may voluntarily fast during the season of Lent, along with making a Lenten sacrifice for the season as a form of penitence.

Date of Ash Wednesday
Ash Wednesday is always 46 days before Easter. Easter is determined as the Sunday following the first full moon that happens on or after the March equinox (which is always 21 March).

Lent is 40 days long, not including Sundays. According to the calendar, that means the season is 46 days long overall. Lent begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Saturday (in the Moravian Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Church, Methodist Church, Reformed Churches {Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist}, Western Rite Orthodox Church, and United Protestant Churches ) or at the start of the Easter Triduum on the evening of Maundy Thursday in the Catholic Church.

Ashes

Ashes are ceremonially placed on the heads of Christians on Ash Wednesday, either by being sprinkled over their heads or, in English-speaking countries, more often by being marked on their foreheads as a visible cross. The words (based on Genesis 3:19) used traditionally to accompany this gesture are, "Memento, homo, quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverteris." ("Remember, man, that thou art dust, and to dust thou shalt return.") This custom is credited to Pope Gregory I the Great (c. 540–604), although this is probably incorrect since Ash Wednesday was not part of Lent in his time.

In the 1969 missal of the Roman Rite, an alternative formula (based on Mark 1:15) was introduced and given first place "Repent, and believe in the Gospel" and the older formula was translated as "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return." The old formula, based on the words spoken to Adam and Eve after their sin, reminds worshippers of their sinfulness and mortality and thus, implicitly, of their need to repent in time.

Various manners of placing the ashes on worshippers' heads are in use within the Latin Church, the two most common being to use the ashes to make a cross on the forehead and sprinkle the ashes over the crown of the head. Originally, the ashes were strewn over men's heads, but, probably because women had their heads covered in church, were placed on the foreheads of women. In the Catholic Church the manner of imposing ashes depends largely on local custom since no fixed rule has been laid down.

Although the account of Ælfric of Eynsham shows that in about the year 1000 the ashes were "strewn" on the head, the marking of the forehead is the method that now prevails in English-speaking countries and is the only one envisaged in the Occasional Offices of the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea, a publication described as "noticeably Anglo-Catholic in character". In its ritual of "Blessing of Ashes", this states that "the ashes are blessed at the beginning of the Eucharist. After they have been blessed they are placed on the forehead of the clergy and people."

The Ash Wednesday ritual of the Church of England, Mother Church of the Anglican Communion, contains "The Imposition of Ashes" in its Ash Wednesday liturgy. On Ash Wednesday, the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, traditionally takes part in a penitential procession from the Church of Saint Anselm to the Basilica of Santa Sabina, where, by the custom in Italy and many other countries, ashes are sprinkled on his head, not smudged on his forehead, and he places ashes on the heads of others in the same way.

The Anglican ritual, used in Papua New Guinea states that, after the blessing of the ashes, "the priest marks his forehead and then the foreheads of the servers and congregation who come and kneel, or stand, where they normally receive the Blessed Sacrament." The corresponding Catholic ritual in the Roman Missal for celebration within Mass merely states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the head of those present who come to him, and says to each one ..." Pre-1970 editions had much more elaborate instructions about the order in which the participants were to receive the ashes, but again without any indication of the form of placing the ashes on the head.

The 1969 revision of the Roman Rite inserted into the Mass the solemn ceremony of blessing ashes and placing them on heads, but also explicitly envisaged a similar solemn ceremony outside of Mass. The Book of Blessings contains a simple rite. While the solemn rite would normally be carried out within a church building, the simple rite could appropriately be used almost anywhere. While only a priest or deacon may bless the ashes, laypeople may do the placing of the ashes on a person's head. Even in the solemn rite, laymen or women may assist the priest in distributing the ashes. In addition, laypeople take blessed ashes left over after the collective ceremony and place them on the heads of the sick or of others who are unable to attend the blessing. (In 2014, Anglican Liverpool Cathedral likewise offered to impose ashes within the church without a solemn ceremony.)

In addition, those who attend such Catholic services, whether in a church or elsewhere, traditionally take blessed ashes home with them to place on the heads of other members of the family, and it is recommended to have envelopes available to facilitate this practice. At home the ashes are then placed with little or no ceremony.

Unlike its discipline regarding sacraments, the Catholic Church does not exclude anyone from receiving sacramentals, such as the placing of ashes on the head, even those who are not Catholics and perhaps not even baptized. Even those who have been excommunicated and are therefore forbidden to celebrate sacramentals are not forbidden to receive them. After describing the blessing, the rite of Blessing and Distribution of Ashes (within Mass) states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the heads of all those present who come to him." The Catholic Church does not limit the distribution of blessed ashes to church buildings and has suggested the holding of celebrations in shopping centers, nursing homes, and factories. Such celebrations presume preparation of an appropriate area and include readings from Scripture (at least one) and prayers, and are somewhat shorter if the ashes are already blessed.

The Catholic Church and the Methodist Church say that the ashes should be those of palm branches blessed at the previous year's Palm Sunday service, while a Church of England publication says they "may be made" from the burnt palm crosses of the previous year. These sources do not speak of adding anything to the ashes other than, for the Catholic liturgy, a sprinkling with holy water when blessing them. An Anglican website speaks of mixing the ashes with a small amount of holy water or olive oil as a fixative.

Where ashes are placed on the head by smudging the forehead with a sign of the cross, many Christians choose to keep the mark visible throughout the day. The churches have not imposed this as an obligatory rule, and the ashes may even be wiped off immediately after receiving them; but some Christian leaders, such as Lutheran pastor Richard P. Bucher and Catholic bishop Kieran Conry, recommend keeping the ashes on the forehead for the rest of the day as a public profession of the Christian faith. Morgan Guyton, a Methodist pastor, and leader in the Red-Letter Christian movement, encourages Christians to wear their ashed cross throughout the day as an exercise of religious freedom.

Ashes to Go
Since 2007, some members of major Christian Churches in the United States, including Anglicans, Lutherans, and Methodists, have participated in 'Ashes to Go' activities, in which clergy go outside of their churches to public places, such as city centres, sidewalks and railroad stations, to distribute ashes to passers-by, even to people waiting in their cars for a stoplight to change. The Anglican priest Emily Mellott of Calvary Church in Lombard took up the idea and turned it into a movement, stated that the practice was also an act of evangelism.

Anglicans and Catholics in parts of the United Kingdom such as Sunderland, are offering Ashes to Go together: Marc Lyden-Smith, the priest of Saint Mary's Church, stated that the ecumenical effort is a "tremendous witness in our city, with Catholics and Anglicans working together to start the season of Lent, perhaps reminding those who have fallen away from the Church, or have never been before, that the Christian faith is alive and active in Sunderland." The Catholic Student Association of Kent State University, based at the University Parish Newman Center, offered ashes to university students who were going through the Student Center of that institution in 2012, and Douglas Clark of St. Matthew's Roman Catholic Church in Statesboro, among others, have participated in Ashes to Go.

On Ash Wednesday 2017, Father Paddy Mooney, the priest of St Patrick's Roman Catholic Church in the Irish town of Glenamaddy, set up an Ashes to Go station through which commuters could drive and receive ashes from their car; the parish church also had "drive-through prayers during Lent with people submitting requests into a box left in the church grounds without having to leave their car". Reverend Trey Hall, pastor of Urban Village United Methodist Church, stated that when his local church offered ashes in Chicago "nearly 300 people received ashes – including two people who were waiting in their car for a stoplight to change."

In 2013, churches not only in the United States but also at least one church each in the United Kingdom, Canada, and South Africa, participated in Ashes to Go. Outside of their church building, Saint Stephen Martyr Lutheran Church in Canton offered Ashes to Go for "believers whose schedules make it difficult to attend a traditional service" in 2016. In the United States itself 34 states and the District of Columbia had at least one church taking part. Most of these churches (parishes) were Episcopal, but there were also several Methodist churches, as well as Presbyterian and Catholic churches.

Commination Office
Robin Knowles Wallace states that the traditional Ash Wednesday church service includes Psalm 51 (the Miserere), prayers of confession, and the sign of ashes. No single one of the traditional services contains all of these elements. The Anglican church's traditional Ash Wednesday service, titled A Commination, contains the first two elements, but not the third. On the other hand, the Catholic Church's traditional service has the blessing and distribution of ashes but, while prayers of confession and recitation of Psalm 51 (the first psalm at Lauds on all penitential days, including Ash Wednesday) are a part of its general traditional Ash Wednesday liturgy, they are not associated specifically with the rite of blessing the ashes.

The rite of blessing has acquired an untraditionally weak association with that particular psalm only since 1970 when it was inserted into the celebration of Mass, at which a few verses of Psalm 51 are used as a responsorial psalm. Where the traditional Gregorian Chants are still used, the psalm continues to enjoy a prominent place in the ceremony.

In the mid-16th century, the first Book of Common Prayer removed the ceremony of the ashes from the liturgy of the Church of England and replaced it with what would later be called the Commination Office. In that 1549 edition, the rite was headed: "The First Day of Lent: Commonly Called Ash-Wednesday". The ashes ceremony was not forbidden, but was not included in the church's official liturgy. Its place was taken by reading biblical curses of God against sinners, to each of which the people were directed to respond with Amen.

The text of the "Commination or Denouncing of God's Anger and Judgments against Sinners" begins: "In the primitive Church there was a godly discipline, that, at the beginning of Lent, such persons as stood convicted of notorious sin were put to open penance, and punished in this world, that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend. Instead whereof, until the said discipline may be restored, (which is much to be wished,) it is thought good that at this time (in the presence of you all) should be read the general sentences of God's cursing against impenitent sinners". In line with this, Joseph Hooper Maude wrote that the establishment of The Commination was due to a desire of the reformers "to restore the primitive practice of public penance in church". He further stated that "the sentences of the greater excommunication" within The Commination corresponded to those used in the ancient Church.

The Anglican Church's Ash Wednesday liturgy, he wrote, also traditionally included the Miserere, which, along with "what follows" in the rest of the service (lesser Litany, Lord's Prayer, three prayers for pardon and final blessing), "was taken from the Sarum services for Ash Wednesday". From the Sarum Rite practice in England the service took Psalm 51 and some prayers that in the Sarum Missal accompanied the blessing and distribution of ashes. In the Sarum Rite, the Miserere psalm was one of the seven penitential psalms that were recited at the beginning of the ceremony. In the 20th century, the Episcopal Church introduced three prayers from the Sarum Rite and omitted the Commination Office from its liturgy.

Low church ceremonies
In some of the low church traditions, other practices are sometimes added or substituted, as other ways of symbolizing the confession and penitence of the day. For example, in one common variation, small cards are distributed to the congregation on which people are invited to write a sin they wish to confess. These small cards are brought forth to the altar table where they are burned.

Regional customs
In the Victorian era, theatres refrained from presenting costumed shows on Ash Wednesday, so they provided other entertainment, as mandated by the Church of England (Anglican Church).

In Iceland, children "pin small bags of ashes on the back of some unsuspecting person", dress up in costumes, and sing songs for candy.

In Hungary if someone in the village didn't receive ash, they "shared their blessing" by rubbing their foreheads together, and the Csángó people of Moldova even cover the pots with ashes to bring good luck. Ash Wednesday also marks the start of Lent. An interesting related tradition is that since dancing was forbidden, children played dancing games (like ulicskázás and hajujvárazás) and ball games (as mancsozás, csülgözés, kutyasatú and sajbózás), all specific to Hungary.

Biblical significance of ashes
Ashes were used in ancient times to express grief. When Tamar was raped by her half-brother, "she sprinkled ashes on her head, tore her robe, and with her face buried in her hands went away crying". The gesture was also used to express sorrow for sins and faults. Ashes could be symbolic of the old sinful self dying and returning to the dust. In Job, Job says to God: "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent in dust and ashes."

The prophet Jeremiah calls for repentance by saying: "O daughter of my people, gird on sackcloth, roll in the ashes" (Jer 6:26). The prophet Daniel recounted pleading to God: "I turned to the Lord God, pleading in earnest prayer, with fasting, sackcloth, and ashes" (Daniel 9:3). Just before the New Testament period, the rebels fighting for Jewish independence, the Maccabees, prepared for battle using ashes: "That day they fasted and wore sackcloth; they sprinkled ashes on their heads and tore their clothes" (1 Maccabees 3:47; see also 4:39).

Examples of the practice among Jews are found in several other books of the Bible, including Numbers, , Jonah , Book of Esther , and Hebrews. Jesus is quoted as speaking of the practice in Matthew and Luke : "If the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago (sitting) in sackcloth and ashes."

Christian use of ashes
Christians continued the practice of using ashes as an external sign of repentance. Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 225) said that confession of sin should be accompanied by lying in sackcloth and ashes. The historian Eusebius (c. 260/265 – 339/340) recounts how a repentant apostate covered himself with ashes when begging Pope Zephyrinus to readmit him to communion.

John W. Fenton writes that "by the end of the 10th century, it was customary in Western Europe (but not yet in Rome) for all the faithful to receive ashes on the first day of the Lenten fast. In 1091, this custom was then ordered by Pope Urban II at the council of Benevento to be extended to the church in Rome. Not long after that, the name of the day was referred to in the liturgical books as "Feria Quarta Cinerum" (i.e., Ash Wednesday)."

The public penance that grave sinners underwent before being admitted to Holy Communion just before Easter lasted throughout Lent, on the first day of which they were sprinkled with ashes and dressed in sackcloth. When, towards the end of the first millennium, the discipline of public penance was dropped, the beginning of Lent, seen as a general penitential season, was marked by sprinkling ashes on the heads of all. This practice is found in the Gregorian Sacramentary of the late 8th century. About two centuries later, Ælfric of Eynsham, an Anglo-Saxon abbot, wrote of the rite of strewing ashes on heads at the start of Lent.

The article on Ash Wednesday in the  Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition states that, after the Protestant Reformation, the ashes ceremony was not forbidden in the Church of England; liturgical scholar Blair Meeks notes that the Lutheran and Anglican denominations "never lapsed in this observance". It was even prescribed under King Henry VIII in 1538 and under King Edward VI in 1550, but it fell out of use in many areas after 1600. In 1536, the Ten Articles issued by authority of Henry VIII commended "the observance of various rites and ceremonies as good and laudable, such as clerical vestments, a sprinkling of holy water, bearing of candles on Candlemas-day, giving of ashes on Ash-Wednesday".

After Henry's death in January 1547, Thomas Cranmer, within the same year, "procured an order from the Council to forbid the carrying of candles on Candlemas-day, and the use of ashes on Ash-Wednesday, and of palms on Palm-Sunday, as superstitious ceremonies", an order that was issued only for the ecclesiastical province of Canterbury, of which Cranmer was archbishop. The Church Cyclopædia states that the "English office had adapted the very old Salisbury service for Ash-Wednesday, prefacing it with an address and a recital of the curses of Mount Ebal, and then with an exhortation uses the older service very nearly as it stood."

The new Commination Office had no blessing of ashes and therefore, in England as a whole, "soon after the Reformation, the use of ashes was discontinued as a 'vain show' and Ash Wednesday then became only a day of marked solemnity, with a memorial of its original character in a reading of the curses denounced against impenitent sinners". The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in the 19th century, observed Ash Wednesday: "as a day of fasting and humiliation, wherein we are publicly to confess our sins, meekly to implore God's mercy and forgiveness, and humbly to intercede for the continuance of his favour". In the 20th century, the Book of Common Prayer provided prayers for the imposition of ashes.

Monte Canfield and Blair Meeks state that after the Protestant Reformation, Lutherans and Anglicans kept the rite of blessing and distributing ashes to the faithful on Ash Wednesday, and that the Protestant denominations that did not keep it, such as the Methodists, encouraged its use "during and after the ecumenical era that resulted in the Vatican II proclamations". Jack Kingsbury and Russell F. Anderson likewise state that the practice was continued among some Lutherans and Anglicans.

As part of the liturgical revival ushered in by the ecumenical movement, the practice was encouraged in Protestant churches, including the Methodist Church. It has also been adopted by Anabaptist and Reformed churches and some less liturgical denominations.

The Eastern Orthodox churches generally do not observe Ash Wednesday, although in recent times, the creation of the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate has led to the observance of Ash Wednesday among Western Orthodox parishes. In this tradition, ashes "may be distributed outside of the mass or any liturgical service" although "commonly the faithful receive their ashes immediately before the Ash Wednesday mass". In Orthodoxy, historically, "serious public sinners in the East also donned sackcloth, including those who made the Great Fast a major theme of their entire lives such as hermits and desert-dwellers." Byzantine Rite Catholics, although in the United States use "the same Gregorian calendar as the Roman Catholic rite", do not practice the distribution of ashes as it is "not part of their ancient tradition".

In the Ambrosian Rite, ashes are blessed and placed on the heads of the faithful not on the day that elsewhere is called Ash Wednesday, but at the end of Mass on the following Sunday, which in that rite inaugurates Lent, with the fast traditionally beginning on Monday, the first weekday of the Ambrosian Lent.

Dates
Ash Wednesday is exactly 46 days before Easter Sunday, a moveable feast based on the cycles of the moon. The earliest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 4 February (which is only possible during a common year with Easter Sunday on 22 March), which happened in 1598, 1693, 1761, and 1818 and will next occur in 2285. The latest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 10 March (when Easter Sunday falls on 25 April) which occurred in 1666, 1734, 1886 and 1943 and will next occur in 2038.

Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, Ash Wednesday has never occurred on Leap Year Day (29 February) but it will do so for the first time in 2096. The only other years of the third millennium that will have Ash Wednesday on 29 February are 2468, 2688, 2840, and 2992. (Ash Wednesday falls on 29 February if and only if Easter is on 15 April in a leap year.) Also, there are certain times that Ash Wednesday coincides with Valentine's Day (14 February), which occurred in 1923, 1934, 1945, 2018, 2024, and will next occur in 2029.

Ash Wednesday marks the start of a 40-day period which is an allusion to the separation of Jesus in the desert to fast and pray. During this time he was tempted. ,, and. While not specifically instituted in the Bible text, the 40 days of fast and pray is also analogous to the 40 days during which Moses repented and fasted in response to the making of the Golden calf (Exo. 34:27–28). (Jews today follow 40 days of repenting in preparation for and during the High Holy Days from Rosh Chodesh Elul to Yom Kippur.)

National No Smoking Day
In the Republic of Ireland, Ash Wednesday is National No Smoking Day. The date was chosen because quitting smoking ties in with giving up a luxury for Lent, and because of the link between ash and smoking. In the United Kingdom, No Smoking Day was held for the first time on Ash Wednesday in 1984 but is now fixed as the second Wednesday in March.

title: Ash Wednesday


text:
Maundy Thursday

Maundy Thursday or Holy Thursday, among other names, is the day during Holy Week that commemorates the Washing of the Feet (Maundy) and Last Supper of Jesus Christ with the Apostles, as described in the canonical gospels.

It is the fifth day of Holy Week, preceded by Holy Wednesday (Spy Wednesday) and followed by Good Friday. "Maundy" comes from the Latin word mandatum, or commandment, reflecting Jesus' words "I give you a new commandment." The date of the day will vary according to whether the Gregorian calendar or the Julian calendar is used. Eastern churches generally use the Julian system.

Names
Use of the names "Maundy Thursday", "Holy Thursday", and others is not evenly distributed. The generally accepted name for the day varies according to geographical area and religious affiliation. Thus, although in England "Maundy Thursday" is the normal term, the term "Holy Thursday" is more commonly used in Ireland, Scotland, Canada and the United States. The latter is the official name used in English by the Catholic Church in England and Wales.

The Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, which is the mother Church of the Anglican Communion, uses the name "Maundy Thursday" for this observance. The corresponding publication of the US Episcopal Church, which is another province of the Anglican Communion, also refers to the Thursday before Easter as "Maundy Thursday". Throughout the Anglican Communion, the term "Holy Thursday" is a synonym for Ascension Day.

The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church uses the name "Holy Thursday" in its modern English-language liturgical books. The Latin books use the name Feria quinta in Cena Domini ("Thursday of the Supper of the Lord"; the medieval spelling Cœna was used in place of Cena in documents predating the 1955 decree Maxima redemptionis), along with Maundy Thursday as the English name, as given in The Saint Andrew Daily Missal. The personal ordinariates in the Catholic Church, which have an Anglican patrimony, retain the traditional English term "Maundy Thursday", however. An article in the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia used the term "Maundy Thursday", and some Catholic writers use the same term either primarily, or alternatively.

The Methodist Book of Worship for Church and Home (1965) uses the term "Maundy Thursday"; the Book of Worship (1992) uses the term "Holy Thursday", and other official sources of the United Methodist Church use both "Maundy Thursday" and "Holy Thursday".

Both names are used by other Christian denominations as well, including the Lutheran Church, and certain Reformed Churches. Certain Presbyterian Churches use the term "Maundy Thursday" to refer to the holy day in their official sources.

In the Byzantine Rite the name for the holy day is "Great and Holy Thursday" or "Holy Thursday", and in Western Rite Orthodoxy "Maundy Thursday",  "Holy Thursday" or both. The Coptic Orthodox Church uses the term "Covenant Thursday" or "Thursday of the Covenant".

In the Maronite Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church, the name is "Thursday of Mysteries".

"Maundy Thursday" is the official name of the day in the civil legislation of England and the Philippines.

The day has also been known in English as Shere Thursday (also spelled Sheer Thursday), from the word shere (meaning "clean" or "bright"). This name might refer to the act of cleaning, or to the fact that churches would switch liturgical colors from the dark tones of Lent, or because it was customary to shear the beard on that day, or for a combination of reasons. This name has cognates in the Nordic languages, such as Danish skærtorsdag, Swedish skärtorsdag, Norwegian skjærtorsdag, Faroese skírhósdagur and skírisdagur, Icelandic skírdagur, and Finnish kiirastorstai.

Derivation of the name "Maundy"
Maundy is the name of the Christian rite of footwashing, which traditionally occurs during Maundy Thursday church services.

The English word maundy in the name for the day is derived through Middle English and Old French mandé, from the Latin mandatum (also the origin of the English word "mandate"), the first word of the phrase "Mandatum novum do vobis ut diligatis invicem sicut dilexi vos" ("A new commandment I give unto you: That you love one another, as I have loved you, that you also love one another.") By this statement in chapter 13 of the Gospel of John, Jesus explained to the Apostles the significance of his action of washing their feet.

The phrase is used as the antiphon sung in the Roman Rite during the Maundy (Ecclesiastical Latin: "Mandatum") ceremony of the washing of the feet, which may be held during Mass or as a separate event. A priest or bishop, representing Christ, ceremonially washes the feet of others, typically 12 persons chosen as a cross-section of the community. In 2016, it was announced that the Roman Missal had been revised to allow women to participate as part of the 12 in the Mandatum. Previously, only males partook of the rite.

Others theorize that the English name "Maundy Thursday" arose from "maunds" or baskets or "maundy purses" of alms which the king of England distributed to certain poor at Whitehall before attending Mass on that day. Thus, "maund" is connected to the Latin mendicare, and French mendier, to beg.

A source from the Shepherd of the Springs, Lutheran Church likewise states that, if the name was derived from the Latin mandatum, we would call the day Mandy Thursday, or Mandate Thursday, or even Mandatum Thursday. The term "Maundy" comes from the Latin mendicare, Old French mendier, and English maund, which as a verb means to beg and as a noun refers to a small basket held out by maunders as they maunded. Other sources reject this etymology.

Western Christianity
Maundy Thursday initiates the Paschal Triduum, the period which commemorates the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus. This period includes Good Friday and Holy Saturday, and ends on the evening of Easter Sunday. The Mass of the Lord's Supper or service of worship is normally celebrated in the evening, when Friday begins according to Jewish tradition, as the Last Supper was held on the feast of Passover, according to the three Synoptic Gospels.

Services
In the United Kingdom, the Royal Maundy service involves the Monarch offering "alms" to deserving senior citizens – one man and one woman for each year of the sovereign's age. These coins, known as Maundy money or Royal Maundy, are distributed in red and white purses, and is a custom dating back to King Edward I. The red purse contains regular currency and is given in place of food and clothing. The white purse has money in the amount of one penny for each year of the Sovereign's age. Since 1822, rather than ordinary money, the Sovereign gives out Maundy coins, which are specially minted 1, 2, 3 and 4 penny pieces, and are legal tender. The service at which this takes place rotates around English and Welsh churches, though in 2008 it took place for the first time in Northern Ireland at Armagh Cathedral. Until the death of King James II, the Monarch would also wash the feet of the selected poor people. There is an old sketch, done from life, of Queen Elizabeth I washing people's feet on Maundy Thursday.

The Maundy (washing of the feet) is practised among many Christian groups on Maundy Thursday, including the Anglican/Protestant Episcopal, Armenian, Ethiopian, Lutheran, Methodist, Eastern Catholic, Schwarzenau (German Baptist) Brethren, Mennonite,  Presbyterian and Roman Catholic traditions.

With Maundy Thursday commemorating the Last Supper, Christian denominations who observe this day universally celebrate the sacrament of Holy Communion, which they teach was instituted by Jesus on this night. In the Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church and in certain Anglican congregations, the Mass of the Lord's Supper begins as usual, but the Gloria is accompanied by the ringing of church bells, which are then silent until the Easter Vigil. After the homily the washing of feet may be performed. The Blessed Sacrament remains exposed, at least in the Catholic Mass, until the service concludes with a procession taking it to the place of reposition. The altar is later stripped bare, as are all other altars in the church except the Altar of Repose. In pre-1970 editions, the Roman Missal of the Catholic Church envisages this being done ceremonially, to the accompaniment of, a practice which continues in the Lutheran churches and Anglican churches of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship. In other Christian denominations, such as the Methodist Churches, the stripping of the altar and other items on the chancel also occurs, as a preparation for the somber Good Friday service. The stripping of the altar represents "the abandonment of Jesus by his disciples and the stripping of Jesus by the soldiers before his crucifixion."

Chrism Mass
The Chrism Mass is a religious service held in Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism and Anglicanism.

Maundy Thursday is notable for being the day on which the Chrism Mass is celebrated in each diocese. Usually held in the diocesan cathedral, it is generally held on the morning of Maundy Thursday, but may in some dioceses take place on another day during Holy Week. The Mass is a celebration of the institution of the priesthood.

During the Mass, those present are called to renew their baptismal promises. Priests/ministers and deacons also reaffirm their ministry by renewing the promises made at their ordination. The Mass takes its name from the blessing of the holy oils used in the sacraments throughout the year, which are then given to priests to take back to their parishes.

The service is a 1967 restoration of the rite recorded in the early 200s by the historian Hippolytus who writes of a ceremony taking place during the Easter Vigil at which two holy oils were blessed and one was consecrated. In the decree renewing this rite Pope Paul VI said, "The Chrism Mass is one of the principal expressions of the fullness of the bishop's priesthood and signifies the closeness of the priests with him."

The Holy Oils are:
 * Chrism – used in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and Holy Orders, as well as for the consecration of altars and the dedication of churches.
 * the oil of catechumens – also used in the sacrament of Baptism, and
 * the oil of the sick – used in the rite of the Anointing of the Sick

The oil of the catechumens and chrism are used on the upcoming Holy Saturday at the Easter Vigil, for the baptism and confirmation of those entering the church. While the Oil of the Catechumens and the Oil of the Sick, are simply "blessed," the Sacred Chrism is "consecrated,". Holy chrism is a mixture of olive oil and balsam, an aromatic resin. Balsam is poured into the oil, which gives it a sweet smell intended to remind those who encounter it of the "odor of sanctity" to which those who are marked with it, are called to strive.

With respect to Anglicanism, the 1979 Book of Common Prayer (p. 307) calls for chrism to be consecrated by the bishop. In many dioceses, the consecration of chrism by the bishop may be done at a service of reaffirmation of ordination vows during Holy Week. During the Chrism Eucharist, the Bishop will bless the oils used throughout the next year for baptisms and healing. In addition, the Bishop and clergy in attendance will reaffirm their Ordination Vows.

Plenary indulgence
In the Roman Catholic Church, plenary indulgence is obtained in the following cases:
 * 1) If during the solemn reservation of the Blessed Sacrament (typically on a side altar), which follows the Mass of the Lord’s Supper, it is recited or sung the Eucharistic hymn Tantum ergo.
 * 2) If it is adored the solemnly reserved Blessed Sacrament for a half hour.

Eastern Orthodoxy
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the liturgical colours are brighter, white being common. On this day alone during Holy Week, the fast is relaxed to permit consumption of wine and oil.

The primary service of this day is Vespers combined with the Liturgy of St. Basil the Great at which is read a Composite Gospel, primarily taken from Matthew, but with episodes inserted from John (the Washing of the Feet) and Luke (Jesus sweating blood), and many of the normal hymns of the Divine Liturgy are substituted with the following troparion:

"Of Thy Mystical Supper, O Son of God, accept me today as a communicant; for I will not speak of Thy Mystery to Thine enemies, neither will I give Thee a kiss like Judas. But like the Thief will I confess Thee: Remember me, O Lord, in Thy Kingdom."

When necessary to replenish the sacrament for communing the sick at a time not following a divine liturgy, an additional Lamb (Host) is consecrated on this day, intincted, covered, and left to dry until Holy Saturday when it is divided, completely dried with a candle flame, and the pieces placed in the artophorion.

In cathedrals and monasteries the ceremony of the Washing of Feet is normally performed. When there is need to consecrate more chrism, that is performed by patriarchs and other heads of the various autocephalous churches.

In the evening, after the Liturgy, all of the hangings and vestments are changed to black or some other dark colour, to signify the beginning of the Passion. Anticipating the Matins of Friday morning, the Holy Passion service of the reading of the Twelve Gospels is conducted. In these readings Christ's last instructions to his disciples are presented, as well as the prophecy of the drama of the Cross, Christ's prayer, and his new commandment. The twelve readings are: Beginning on Holy and Great Thursday, the memorial service for the dead is forbidden until after Thomas Sunday.

Local customs

 * In Greek practice, the Mystery of Unction is performed on Great Wednesday as preparation for the reception of Holy Communion on Great Thursday and Pascha, a custom that originated when Greece was under Ottoman control and parish priests, being uneducated, were not permitted to hear confession, so this sacrament, by which sins are believed to be forgiven, came to be performed.
 * In Greek tradition, a procession is made during the service of the Twelve Passion Gospels. It takes place after the reading of the fifth gospel during the singing of "Today He Who Hung". During this procession, a large cross with the body of Christ is carried throughout the church while lights are extinguished, bells are slowly tolled, and the faithful prostrate themselves. The cross, with Christ's body hung upon it, is placed in front of the Royal Doors. The icon of Christ on the cross (sometimes with nails affixing it) is struck upon the hands and feet with a stone multiple times, and is then stood up in front of the church, where it is censed.
 * In some Slavic traditions, a lesser procession is made after the Twelve Passion Gospels immediately prior to the dismissal with an icon of Christ's crucifixion which is placed on the central icon stand, where it is censed by the clergy, and then venerated.

Oriental Orthodoxy
Oriental Orthodox Churches celebrate Covenant Thursday during Holy Week (based on their local calendars). They offer praises and vespers every day of week, and on Thursday and Saturday they remain in church praising God and reading about the First Liturgy and Judas' Betrayal. On Saturday they sing praises for the Entrance of the Messiah in Hades freeing all of the faithful ones including Moses and Abraham.

Customs and names around the world

 * If statues and crucifixes have been covered during Passiontide (the last 2 weeks of Lent, at least in the 1962 Catholic missal), the crucifix covers are allowed to be white instead of purple for Holy Thursday.
 * The popular German name Gründonnerstag means either "mourning Thursday" or "green Thursday".
 * In the Czech Republic and Slovakia the day is called Zelený čtvrtek or Zelený štvrtok respectively, again meaning "Green Thursday", because the typical meals of this day were made of fresh, green vegetables etc. From that day there is no usage of the church bells until Holy Saturday, here called "White Saturday", because "they have flown to Rome" (a euphemism); in some regions they are replaced by groups of children walking round their village (or around the church) and making noise with wooden rattles. This is to announce to the people approaching beginning of the liturgy and to call the people to church.
 * The tradition of silent bells also occurs in Luxembourg: the bells fall silent until Easter, because "they have flown to Rome for Confession", so children take to the streets, calling people to church with melancholy wooden rattling.
 * In the Netherlands and Belgium, the day is called Witte Donderdag (White Thursday) referring to the liturgical colour of the day.
 * In Malta, Holy Thursday is known as Ħamis ix-Xirka (Communion Thursday) and the tradition of visiting seven churches (see below) is called is-seba' visti or is-Sepulkri.
 * Eastern Slavic cultures traditionally carried out a range of cleansing ceremonies on Maundy Thursday (sometimes known in Russian as "Clean Thursday" (Чистый четверг)).
 * In Welsh, Maundy Thursday is Dydd Iau Cablyd.
 * In Sweden Maundy Thursday (skärtorsdagen) is connected to old folklore as the day of the witches. Young children often dress up as witches and knock on doors getting coins or candy for Easter eggs.
 * In Bulgaria Maundy Thursday is called Veliki Chetvurtuk (Great Thursday), and is traditionally the day when people color their Easter eggs and perform other household chores geared toward preparing for Razpeti Petuk (Crucifixion Friday), Velika Subota (Great Saturday) and Velikden (Easter Day).
 * In Kerala the day is called as Pesaha (പെസഹ), a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic or Syriac word "Peshai" meaning Passover . Maundy Thursday and following Good Friday are observed as statewide public holiday declared by the Government of Kerala, given the high number of Syrian Christians in the state. The tradition of consuming Pesaha appam or Indariyappam is customary after special longer Holy Qurbana, which are conducted on the or at midnight till morning in churches of Saint Thomas Christians. On the evening before Good Friday the Pesaha bread is made at home. It is made with unleavened flour and they use a sweet drink call Pesaha Paal made up of coconut milk and jaggery along with this bread. On the Pesaha night the bread is steamed in a new vessel, immediately after rice flour is mixed with water and they pierce it many times with handle of the spoon to let out the steam so that the bread will not rise. This bread is cut by the head of the family and shared among the family members after prayers. In some families, Pesaha Paal a creamy dip made up of jaggery and coconut milk is used along with the Pesaha bread. If the family is in mourning following a death, Pesaha bread is not made at their home, but some of the Saint Thomas Christian neighbours share their bread with them. The Saint Thomas Christians diaspora also celebrate this day by having Holy Communion services in the parishes according to their respective liturgies. The tradition of washing feet by priests is practiced in every parish commemorating Jesus washing the feet of his disciples symbolizing humbleness.
 * In the Philippines, the day is officially known as Huwebes Santo (phonetic transliteration of Jueves Santo in Spanish, Holy Thursday) or "Maundy Thursday". Most businesses are closed during the Easter Triduum, with shopping malls opening on Black Saturday. Terrestrial television and radio stations either go completely off-air during the Triduum or operate on shorter hours with special programming; cable channels usually retain their normal programming. Newspapers do not publish on Good Friday and Black Saturday.

Public holiday
Maundy Thursday is a public holiday in most countries that were part of the Spanish empire (Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Spain, Uruguay and Venezuela), countries that were part of the Danish colonial empire (Denmark, Iceland, Norway and United States Virgin Islands), and in the Kerala State of India. Certain German states declare a public holiday for public sector employees. In the UK, civil servants were traditionally granted a half-day holiday (known as "privilege leave") on this date, but that was abolished, by David Cameron, after 2012.

Seven Churches Visitation
The tradition of visiting seven churches on Holy Thursday is an ancient practice, probably originating in Rome. and occurs among the faithful in countries around the world.

In India, the custom is to visit fourteen churches, one per Station of the Cross. Traditionally, this is performed on Maundy Thursday evening but is more often done on the morning of Good Friday or on any day of Lent. Usually, whole families would participate, customarily fasting for the duration of the rite. It is also undertaken by parish devotional groups.

In the Philippines the tradition is called Visita Iglesia (Spanish, "church visit") – people visit churches to pray, usually reciting the Stations of the Cross. It is a chiefly urban custom, as churches are located closer to each other in cities, and supposedly because it originates in visiting the seven churches of Intramuros that stood until the 1945 Bombing of Manila. The original purpose of the ritual was to venerate the Blessed Sacrament in the Altar of Repose on Maundy Thursday night, but since no prayers were prescribed (apart from those for the Pope), the Stations of the Cross were recited.

In Singapore, the visiting of churches occurs shortly after the evening Mass of the Lord's Supper. Prayers at each church consist of seven repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, Ave Maria, and the Gloria Patri. Due to the new trend of late Mass times (sometimes 7 or 8 pm) to allow for more churchgoers, eight churches are the maximum number visited (even in the city area, where these are closer to each other than in outer residential areas) before these close at midnight. A festive atmosphere exists, with the sale of drinks, hot cross buns and other local snacks like the traditional kueh ko chee. Observant Catholics have a 'Last Supper' meal in anticipation of the next day's fast.

title: Maundy Thursday


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Atomic chess

Atomic chess is a chess variant. Standard rules of chess apply, but all captures result in an "explosion" through which the capturing piece, captured piece, and all surrounding pieces of both colors other than pawns are removed from play. Some variations additionally remove rules concerning check such that the king may be able to move into or remain in check.

Rules and variations
Rules of atomic chess are the same as standard chess with a few important differences concerning capturing, check, and winning conditions.

Capturing
When a capture is made, an explosion occurs on the destination square of the capturing piece. This explosion causes the captured piece, the capturing piece, and all adjacent non-pawn pieces to be removed from the board. Captures that result in the explosion of a player's own king are illegal; therefore, a king can never capture.

Check
Threats to the king can be direct or indirect. Putting a king in check is a direct attack and is sometimes called "atomic check". An indirect threat occurs when a player threatens to explode the king by capturing an adjacent piece. In most variations of atomic chess, players must respond to being checked in a similar way they would in traditional chess—by moving the king out of check, blocking the check, or removing the checking piece—but an exception exists when the checked player can win the game by exploding the checking player's king.

As the king cannot take another piece, it is possible to move the kings next to each other without a check occurring or to escape check. This possibility is often used by a losing player to defensively position his king next to his opponent's at endgame, hoping for a draw. Depending on the board setup, this strategy is sometimes optimal and allows the draw to be forced. At other times, a player can counter by forcing a win with a position such that a piece or pawn can be exploded next to their opponent's king without blowing up their own king, or they can force the opposing king away using their king and the remaining pieces on the board, which will typically result in a loss for the retreating king.

The variant of atomic chess played at the Internet Chess Club is one that does not enforce check at all, making legal any move, even one leaving the king to be captured directly in the next move.

Winning conditions
In all variations of atomic chess, a player wins by exploding the king of the opposite color without exploding their own king. This is usually done by capturing a piece on a square adjacent to the opponent's king or putting a queen next to the king which results in checkmate since a king cannot take any piece.

In variations that require a response to being checked, it is possible to checkmate an opponent to win the game, creating a situation in which a king is directly threatened and cannot make a legal move. This is sometimes called "atomic checkmate". It is likewise possible for the game to end in stalemate if a king is not directly threatened and no legal moves are possible.

When typical rules of check are not enforced, victory is only attained via the explosion of the enemy king. In these variations without check, the king may be forced into check and thus capture through zugzwang.

History
In 1995 the German Internet Chess Server (GICS) introduced the game, based on rules one of its users collected from friends who played offline. It was soon after incorporated into the Middle East Wild Internet Server (MEWIS) and other smaller servers before being implemented at Chess Live and Internet Chess Club in 2000, Free Internet Chess Server in 2003 and Lichess in 2015. It was added to Chess.com in late 2020. In 2021, 4.9 million atomic chess games were played on Lichess. Lichess also hosts 24-hour tournaments called "Atomic Revolution" with cash prizes where 8 thousand people participated in the 2022 edition.

It has garnered serious attention from chess grandmasters with Andrew Tang reaching quarterfinals and Jeffery Xiong reaching semifinals of Atomic Chess Championship 2017 hosted on Lichess, where both got knocked out by GM Arka50 who has won the championship in 2017, 2018 and 2020 whereas he did not participate in 2019 and 2021 editions.

Strategy
The first-move advantage enjoyed by White is much greater in this game than in standard chess. However, no attempts to prove a win for White have been successful.

Material sacrifices are more common in atomic chess than in chess. In the opening and middlegame, it is common to offer a piece in order to open spaces to seize an initiative.

Opening
White has the initiative in atomic chess, and many openings begin with a quick attempt to explode Black's d-, e-, or f-pawns, and thus the black king. For this reason, atomic openings are fraught with traps, and Black may have to respond precisely to defend. Several common traps begin with 1.Nf3 followed by Ng5 or Ne5, forcing Black to start with 1..f6 to maintain rough equality. Games between experienced players follow more traditional opening principles, such as piece, controlling , and winning.

Endgame
As with atomic opening theory, a small amount of endgame theory and analyses have been published online by strong players.

A common scenario in atomic endgames is to have two kings on adjacent squares. As a player cannot intentionally blow up their own king, a king can never capture another piece, including another king. Similarly, because a capture affects all adjacent squares, one king cannot be captured directly if it means destruction of the other. Moving one king towards the other is thus a strategy to achieve a draw. The player with the advantage must then maneuver into a position where a non-king piece can be captured that is adjacent to one king but not the other. If there is no piece that can be captured, the player with the advantage can promote two queens and force the opponent into zugzwang and therefore forcing the opponent's king away from their king. Creative use of zugzwang is a common tactic to force a win in these situations.

The Internet Chess Club variation of atomic chess ignores check completely, and thus leads to different outcomes in certain situations. For example, a king and rook vs. king endgame that would be a draw under normal circumstances can become a forced win on ICC.

title: Atomic chess


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Brighton, New York

Brighton, New York may refer to:

 * Brighton, Erie County, New York
 * Brighton, Franklin County, New York
 * Brighton, Monroe County, New York
 * Brighton, Syracuse, New York, a neighborhood in Syracuse, New York

title: Brighton, New York