text:
Talk:Franz Joseph I of Austria

Italian question
Under the Foreign policy section there is currently a subsection with regards to the "German question" but a section with regards to the equally important "Italian question" is lacking. Nonetheless, the Italian question was a very important part of the early part of Franz Josef's reign. It culminated in the Second War of Italian Independence against Piemont-Sardinia and the Second French Empire, where Franz Josef personally commanded the Austrian army at Solferino and after the loss of that battle he was forced to cede Lombardy to Piemont. After that battle he never commanded in the field again. Seven years later as a consequence of losing the Austro-Prussian War, and regardless of the Austrians winning at Custozza against the Prussian allied new Intalian Kingdom, he was obliged to cede the Veneto to the new Italian Kingdom. Methinks thus a new section should be introduced in the article with regards to this topic. -- fdewaele, 3 May 2020, 23:26.

Requested move 7 June 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: no consensus, see also WP:TRAINWRECK. Mdaniels5757 (talk) 17:11, 17 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Franz Joseph I of Austria → Franz Joseph I
 * Nicholas II of Russia → Nicholas II
 * Charles XIV John of Sweden → Charles XIV John
 * William I, German Emperor → Wilhelm I
 * Wilhelm II, German Emperor → Wilhelm II

The recent move of "Elizabeth I of England" to "Elizabeth I" prompts this reevaluation of what I'll call "WP:NCROY-style." My view is that if a subject is primary topic, we should give the name as it is given in published reference works. Merriam-Webster spelling is standard in America while the British turn to Oxford Dictionaries. See Francis Joseph I, Nicholas II, Charles XIV John, Wilhelm I, Wilhelm II. Allan Rice (talk) 14:05, 7 June 2020 (UTC)

Survey
Question- Why does he need to be called Franz Joseph I? There weren't any others. Smeat75 (talk) 15:13, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * OpposeI didn't vote on Elizabeth, but was rather dubious about that although it was effectively unambiguous in English. These rulers of non-Anglophone lands certainly need the extra clarity. Johnbod (talk) 15:05, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * The reason why is because the ordinal is in official use. See No. 4 in WP:SOVEREIGN. Interstellarity (talk) 15:32, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Merriam-Webster says "Francis Joseph I," while Oxford and Britannica say "Franz Joseph." Columbia says "Francis Joseph or Franz Joseph." Allan Rice (talk) 00:08, 8 June 2020 (UTC)
 * He used the number himself. On his coins he was or . Opera hat (talk) 10:20, 9 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Comment. I'm not necessarily opposed to any of these moves, but this list seems kind of abritrary. I would prefer each article be evaluated on its own or at least on a country-by-country basis. See also WP:TRAINWRECK.  Calidum   15:33, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose Nicholas II could easily apply to Pope Nicholas II. Dimadick (talk) 18:12, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * The last Russian emperor is the primary topic over the eleventh-century pope. Opera hat (talk) 10:20, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * There are other names of Nicholas II, but not this primary article about the last Emperor of Russia. --ZmeytheDragon16 (talk) 11:25, 9 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Support William I really should be referred to as Wilhelm I
 * Support Franz Joseph I per my previous RM; oppose the rest. Srnec (talk) 22:11, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree that the list is arbitrary (five people from four countries and three centuries). I support Franz Joseph I, as it is clearly the primary meaning, precise, and concise. Surtsicna (talk) 09:20, 8 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Support because it will help readers. Rjensen (talk) 09:41, 8 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose these should be looked at individually rather than a bulk exercise. There's a lot to consider, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" is an extremely common term for example (as shown in the Further reading part of the article) and possibly more recognisable than just Wilhelm II, in English sources is Charles John, William or Francis Joseph more common, or id the native language versions Karl Johan, Wilhelm, Franz Joseph (or Josef). - dwc lr (talk) 13:07, 8 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose only titles were used in later British monarchs. For example, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, but instead of full title, then it is shorten to Elizabeth II. --ZmeytheDragon16 (talk) 02:39, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * This title Charles XIV John of Sweden, perhaps with "of Sweden" example, it is required for Swedish monarchs, instead without "of Sweden", it might be ambiguous royal title. --ZmeytheDragon16 (talk) 05:07, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * It's not ambiguous: no other country has had fourteen kings called Charles. Opera hat (talk) 10:06, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * There are sixteen kings named Charles of Sweden for example, Charles X Gustav of Sweden, which is using byline "of Sweden". --ZmeytheDragon16 (talk) 11:11, 9 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Support. As these are all the primary topic for their names and ordinals, it seems unnecessary to have a redirect from a shorter title to a longer one. See also the changes I proposed to WP:SOVEREIGN two years ago. Opera hat (talk) 10:06, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * I think, may I suggest this primary title William II, German Emperor in English, unlike his grandfather William I. --ZmeytheDragon16 (talk) 11:03, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose We should keep the 'country' in the monarchial bio article titles. GoodDay (talk) 23:42, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. I object to change without some clear benefit and none of the reasons given constitute a clear benefit.  OTOH, if we were going the other way, I would argue that adding the country does provide some clear benefits, in that it helps to clarify that the title refers to the monarch of a specific country (or some other name that needs further qualification) and it provides more consistency in articles named which really require this context.  Including the country is one less question that the reader has to wonder about. (Original version posted at Talk:Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden) Fabrickator (talk) 07:57, 10 June 2020 (UTC)
 * By that logic, we could put a descriptor after everyone's name. Why limit it to monarchs? "Other encyclopedias are among the sources that may be helpful in deciding what titles are in an encyclopedic register," according to WP:TITLE. No published encyclopedia uses this "of [country]" format. Allan Rice (talk) 07:06, 11 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Comment These should probably be discussed separately.
 * Undecided, but even if William I keeps his full title, it should probably be Wilhelm I for consistency.
 * Oppose, especially for Nicholas II which really is ambiguous per above potential confusion with the Pope. But even for the others, the addition of the country aids understanding in my opinion.  Charles XIV John also might look like someone with a very eccentric middle name to a casual reader rather than a ruler.  SnowFire (talk) 20:22, 15 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose since William I is still primarily called “William” in English. If anything, we should move [Wilhelm II to “William II”, since that’s what he was called in English in his own time, and his British family called him William and some sources today still do. Also, “Charles XIV John” without the “of Sweden” looks like it should be one of Elon Musk’s kids or something. HippoBloom (talk) 00:59, 16 June 2020 (UTC)

Requested move 10 September 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. Result is clear, but... There is a strange lack of overlap between participants here and at the simultaneous RM at Talk:William IV. The results of these two RMs are quite inconsistent. Srnec (talk) 12:14, 23 September 2020 (UTC)

Franz Joseph I of Austria → Franz Joseph I – The title is more concise. Interstellarity (talk) 18:50, 10 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose - We should go back to the Name # of country, per consistency among all monarch article titles. GoodDay (talk) 13:35, 11 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose - I recall that this foolish movement began with the articles about British royals, more specifically, with Victoria and the reigning monarch Elizabeth II. It was a mistake then and it's still a mistake today. It should be the reigning name followed by the country. --Lecen (talk) 17:09, 11 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose - As per comments above. Nothing is gained by reducing recognizability.  And only three months after prior RM got rejected?  Walrasiad (talk) 17:32, 11 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose per GoodDay. Deb (talk) 15:13, 13 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose I agree with Lecen. Dimadick (talk) 16:39, 13 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose per GoodDay and Lecen. --Governor Sheng (talk) 23:33, 16 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Support per CONCISE.
 * Support. This format appears to be peculiar to Wikipedia. Perhaps the purpose is disambiguation. But if there is no other "Franz Joseph I," what's the point? 3K008P9 (talk) 01:32, 19 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose per WP:PRECISE. --122.2.10.69 (talk) 00:24, 23 September 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Misattributed quote
I removed this passage from the article on Franz Joseph I of Austria: Franz Joseph's German identity was made explicitly clear during a meeting in August 1908 between himself and Edward VII when the latter tried to persuade him to abandon Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany for co-operation with Britain; Franz Joseph replied that he was a "loyal ally" and said "I am a German prince."

The reason for this I can justify with the German Wikiquote:

''Fälschlich zugeschrieben:

"Sir, ich bin ein deutscher Fürst." - angeblich am 12. August 1908 in Ischl zu Eduard VII. von England, als dieser ihn von seinem Bündnis mit dem Deutschen Reich abbringen wollte, z. B. in: Walter Wiltschegg: Österreich, der "zweite deutsche Staat"?: der nationale Gedanke in der Ersten Republik, Stocker, 1992, S. 41. Das Zitat wurde in dieser Schreibweise schon am 16. Juli 1907 im Reichsrat verwendet mit einem sehr vagen Hinweis auf den Ursprung. Q: Stenographische Protokolle - Abgeordnetenhaus - Sitzungsprotokolle. Haus der Abgeordneten - 14. Sitzung der XVIII. Session am 16. Juli 1907, S. 1337 (alex.onb.ac.at) In der Schreibweise „Sire, ich bin ein deutscher Fürst“ mit direktem Hinweis auf Franz Joseph („ein noch lebender österreichischer Kaiser“), aber ohne Hinweis auf ein Ereignis, kommt das Zitat in Zusammenhang mit Engagements der Kaiserfamilie in nicht-deutschen Teilen der Monarchie in einem Artikel des „Deutschen Nordmährerblattes“ vor, der konfisziert wurde und deshalb in einer parlamentarischen Anfrage an den Justizminister wiedergegeben wird. Q: Stenographische Protokolle - Abgeordnetenhaus - Sitzungsprotokolle, Haus der Abgeordneten, 331. Sitzung der XVII. Session am 12. Mai 1905, S. 29465 (alex.onb.ac.at)''

Translation:

Falsely attributed:

'''"Sir, I am a German prince." - allegedly on 12th of August 1908 in Ischl to Edward VII of England when the latter tried to dissuade him from his alliance with the German Empire, e.g. in: Walter Wiltschegg: Österreich, der "zweite deutsche Staat"?: der nationale Gedanke in der Ersten Republik, Stocker, 1992, p. 41.''' ''' A very vague reference to its origin can be traced back to the use of an identical quote in the Reichsrat on 16th of July 1907. Source: Stenographische Protokolle - Abgeordnetenhaus - Sitzungsprotokolle. Haus der Abgeordneten - 14. Sitzung der XVIII. Session am 16. Juli 1907, S. 1337 (alex.onb.ac.at)''' '''In the spelling "Sire, I am a German prince" with direct reference to Franz Joseph ("a still living Austrian emperor"), but without a reference to its context, the quotation is connected with the the imperial family's engagements in non-German parts of the monarchy in an article from the "Deutsches Nordmährerblatt" which was confiscated and consequently reproduced in a parliamentary inquiry to the Minister of Justice at the time. Source: Stenographische Protokolle - Abgeordnetenhaus - Sitzungsprotokolle, Haus der Abgeordneten, 331. Sitzung der XVII. Session am 12. Mai 1905, S. 29465 (alex.onb.ac.at)''' — Preceding unsigned comment added by Brat Forelli (talk • contribs) 14:04, 15 March 2021 (UTC)

Wait isn't franz josep die at 1914?
I'm really confused right now in history book it's said 1914 meanwhile in wiki say 1916 2001:448A:1150:2016:A525:3426:14F6:20CE (talk) 15:47, 11 February 2023 (UTC)
 * I expect you're thinking of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Good luck with those exams! Johnbod (talk) 17:32, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Franz Joseph I of Austria


text:
Viktor Frankl

Viktor Emil Frankl (26 March 1905 – 2 September 1997) was an Austrian neurologist, psychologist, philosopher, and Holocaust survivor, who founded logotherapy, a school of psychotherapy that describes a search for a life's meaning as the central human motivational force. Logotherapy is part of existential and humanistic psychology theories.

Logotherapy was promoted as the third school of Viennese Psychotherapy, after those established by Sigmund Freud, and Alfred Adler.

Frankl published 39 books. The autobiographical Man's Search for Meaning, a best-selling book, is based on his experiences in various Nazi concentration camps.

Early life
Frankl was born the middle of three children to Gabriel Frankl, a civil servant in the Ministry of Social Service, and Elsa (née Lion), a Jewish family, in Vienna, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His interest in psychology and the role of meaning developed when he began taking night classes on applied psychology while in junior high school. As a teenager, he began a correspondence with Sigmund Freud upon asking for permission to publish one of his papers. After graduation from high school in 1923, he studied medicine at the University of Vienna.

In 1924, Frankl's first scientific paper was published in the Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse. In the same year, he was president of the Sozialistische Mittelschüler Österreich, the Social Democratic Party of Austria's youth movement for high school students. Frankl's father was a socialist who named him after Viktor Adler, the founder of the party. During this time, Frankl began questioning the Freudian approach to psychoanalysis. He joined Alfred Adler's circle of students and published his second academic paper, "Psychotherapy and Worldview" ("Psychotherapie und Weltanschauung"), in Adler's International Journal of Individual Psychology in 1925. Frankl was expelled from Adler's circle when he insisted that meaning was the central motivational force in human beings. From 1926, he began refining his theory, which he termed logotherapy.

Psychiatry
Between 1928 and 1930, while still a medical student, he organized youth counselling centers to address the high number of teen suicides occurring around the time of end of the year report cards. The program was sponsored by the city of Vienna and free of charge to the students. Frankl recruited other psychologists for the center, including Charlotte Bühler, Erwin Wexberg, and Rudolf Dreikurs. In 1931, not a single Viennese student died by suicide.

After earning his M.D. in 1930, Frankl gained extensive experience at Steinhof Psychiatric Hospital, where he was responsible for the treatment of suicidal women. In 1937, he began a private practice, but the Nazi annexation of Austria in 1938 limited his opportunity to treat patients. In 1940, he joined Rothschild Hospital, the only hospital in Vienna still admitting Jews, as head of the neurology department. Prior to his deportation to the concentration camps, he helped numerous patients avoid the Nazi euthanasia program that targeted the mentally disabled.

In 1942, just nine months after his marriage, Frankl and his family were sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. His father died there of starvation and pneumonia. In 1944, Frankl and his surviving relatives were transported to Auschwitz, where his mother and brother were murdered in the gas chambers. His wife Tilly died later of typhus in Bergen-Belsen. Frankl spent three years in four concentration camps.

Following the war, he became head of the neurology department of the General Polyclinic Vienna hospital, and established a private practice in his home. He worked with patients until his retirement in 1970.

In 1948, Frankl earned a PhD in philosophy from the University of Vienna. His dissertation, The Unconscious God, examines the relationship between psychology and religion, and advocates for the use of the Socratic dialogue (self-discovery discourse) for clients to get in touch with their spiritual unconscious.

In 1955, Frankl was awarded a professorship of neurology and psychiatry at the University of Vienna, and, as visiting professor, lectured at Harvard University (1961), Southern Methodist University, Dallas (1966), and Duquesne University, Pittsburgh (1972).

Throughout his career, Frankl argued that the reductionist tendencies of early psychotherapeutic approaches dehumanised the patient, and advocated for a rehumanisation of psychotherapy.

The American Psychiatric Association awarded Frankl the 1985 Oskar Pfister Award for his contributions to religion and psychiatry.

Man's Search for Meaning
While head of the Neurological Department at the general Polyclinic Hospital, Frankl wrote Man's Search for Meaning over a nine-day period. The book, originally titled A Psychologist Experiences the Concentration Camp, was released in German in 1946. The English translation of Man's Search for Meaning was published in 1959, and became an international bestseller. Frankl saw this success as a symptom of the "mass neurosis of modern times," since the title promised to deal with the question of life's meaningfulness. Millions of copies were sold in dozens of languages. In a 1991 survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book of the Month Club, Man's Search for Meaning was named one of the ten most influential books in the US.

Logotherapy and existential analysis
Frankl developed logotherapy and existential analysis, which are based on philosophical and psychological concepts, particularly the desire to find a meaning in life and free will. Frankl identified three main ways of realizing meaning in life: by making a difference in the world, by having particular experiences, or by adopting particular attitudes.

The primary techniques offered by logotherapy and existential analysis are:
 * Paradoxical intention: clients learn to overcome obsessions or anxieties by self-distancing and humorous exaggeration.
 * Dereflection: drawing the client's attention away from their symptoms, as hyper-reflection can lead to inaction.
 * Socratic dialogue and attitude modification: asking questions designed to help a client find and pursue self-defined meaning in life.

His acknowledgement of meaning as a central motivational force and factor in mental health is his lasting contribution to the field of psychology. It provided the foundational principles for the emerging field of positive psychology. Frankl's work has also been endorsed in the Chabad philosophy of Hasidic Judaism.

Statue of Responsibility
In Man's Search for Meaning, Frankl states:"Freedom, however, is not the last word. Freedom is only part of the story and half of the truth. Freedom is but the negative aspect of the whole phenomenon whose positive aspect is responsibleness. In fact, freedom is in danger of degenerating into mere arbitrariness unless it is lived in terms of responsibleness. That is why I recommend that the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast be supplemented by a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast."Frankl's concept for the statue grew in popularity, and drew the affection of Stephen Covey, author of The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Covey teamed up with Kevin Hall to push the idea of the statue forward in the 1990s, and eventually commissioned the sculptor Gary Lee Price who came up with the concept of two hands clasped together. The design was approved by Frankl's widow, and they began looking for a location to construct it. Their first choice was California, to have it in a Pacific Ocean harbour to complement the Statue of Liberty's position in the Atlantic harbour of New York. However, the state regulations proved difficult to navigate, and the governor of Utah, Spencer Cox, suggested a location in his state for the project, which was approved in 2023. Construction has not yet started.

"Auschwitz survivor" testimony
In The Missing Pieces of the Puzzle: A Reflection on the Odd Career of Viktor Frankl, Professor of history Timothy Pytell of California State University, San Bernardino, conveys the numerous discrepancies and omissions in Frankl's "Auschwitz survivor" account and later autobiography, which many of his contemporaries, such as Thomas Szasz, similarly have raised. In Frankl's Man's Search for Meaning, the book devotes approximately half of its contents to describing Auschwitz and the psychology of its prisoners, suggesting a long stay at the death camp. However his wording is contradictory and, according to Pytell, "profoundly deceptive", as contrary to the impression Frankl gives of staying at Auschwitz for months, he was held close to the train, in the "depot prisoner" area of Auschwitz, and for no more than a few days. Frankl was neither registered at Auschwitz nor assigned a number there before being sent on to a subsidiary work camp of Dachau, known as Kaufering III, that (together with Terezín) is the true setting of much of what is described in his book.

Origins and implications of logotherapy
Frankl's doctrine was that one must instill meaning in the events in one's life, and that work and suffering can lead to finding meaning, with this ultimately what would lead to fulfillment and happiness. In 1982 the scholar and Holocaust analyst Lawrence L. Langer, critical of what he called Frankl's distortions of the true experience of those at Auschwitz, and of Frankl's amoral focus on "meaning", that in Langer's assessment could just as equally be applied to Nazis "finding meaning in making the world free from Jews", went on to write that "if this [logotherapy] doctrine had been more succinctly worded, the Nazis might have substituted it for the cruel mockery of Arbeit Macht Frei" ["work sets free", read by those entering Auschwitz]. In Pytell's view, Langer also penetrated through Frankl's disturbing subtext that Holocaust "survival [was] a matter of mental health." Langer criticized Frankl's tone as self-congratulatory and promotional throughout, so that "it comes as no surprise to the reader, as he closes the volume, that the real hero of Man's Search for Meaning is not man, but Viktor Frankl" by the continuation of the same fantasy of world-view meaning-making, which is precisely what had perturbed civilization into the holocaust-genocide of this era and others.

Pytell later would remark on the particularly sharp insight of Langer's reading of Frankl's Holocaust testimony, stating that with Langer's criticism published in 1982 before Pytell's biography, the former had thus drawn the controversial parallels, or accommodations in ideology without the knowledge that Victor Frankl was an advocate/"embraced" the key ideas of the Nazi psychotherapy movement ("will and responsibility" ) as a form of therapy in the late 1930s. When at that time Frankl would submit a paper and contributed to the Göring institute in Vienna 1937 and again in early 1938 connecting the logotherapy focus on "world-view" to the "work of some of the leading Nazi psychotherapists", both at a time before Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938. Frankl's founding logotherapy paper, was submitted to and published in the Zentrallblatt fuer Psychotherapie [sic] the journal of the Goering Institute, a psychotherapy movement, with the "proclaimed agenda of building psychotherapy that affirmed a Nazi-oriented worldview".

The origins of logotherapy, as described by Frankl, were therefore a major issue of continuity that Pytell argues were potentially problematic for Frankl because he had laid out the main elements of logotherapy while working for/contributing to the Nazi-affiliated Göring Institute. Principally Frankl's 1937 paper, that was published by the institute. This association, as a source of controversy, that logotherapy was palatable to Nazism is the reason Pytell suggests, Frankl took two different stances on how the concentration-camp experience affected the course of his psychotherapy theory. Namely, that within the original English edition of Frankl's most well known book, Man's Search for Meaning, the suggestion is made and still largely held that logotherapy was itself derived from his camp experience, with the claim as it appears in the original edition, that this form of psychotherapy was "not concocted in the philosopher's armchair nor at the analyst's couch; it took shape in the hard school of air-raid shelters and bomb craters; in concentration camps and prisoner of war camps." Frankl's statements however to this effect would be deleted from later editions, though in the 1963 edition, a similar statement again appeared on the back of the book jacket of Man's Search for Meaning.

Frankl over the years would with these widely read statements and others, switch between the idea that logotherapy took shape in the camps to the claim that the camps merely were a testing ground of his already preconceived theories. An uncovering of the matter would occur in 1977 with Frankl revealing on this controversy, though compounding another, stating "People think I came out of Auschwitz with a brand-new psychotherapy. This is not the case."

Jewish relations and experiments on the resistance
In the post war years, Frankl's attitude towards not pursuing justice nor assigning collective guilt to the Austrian people for collaborating with or acquiescing in the face of Nazism, led to "frayed" relationships between Frankl, many Viennese and the larger American Jewish community, such that in 1978 when attempting to give a lecture at the institute of Adult Jewish Studies in New York, Frankl was confronted with an outburst of boos from the audience and was called a "nazi pig". Frankl supported forgiveness and held that many in Germany and Austria were powerless to do anything about the atrocities which occurred and could not be collectively blamed.

In 1988 Frankl would further "stir up sentiment against him" by being photographed next to and in accepting the Great Silver Medal with Star for Services to the Republic of Austria as a Holocaust survivor, from President Waldheim, a controversial president of Austria who concurrent with the medal ceremony, was gripped by revelations that he had lied about his WWII military record and was under investigation for complicity in Nazi War crimes. It was later concluded that he was not involved in war crimes but had knowledge of them. Frankl's acceptance of the medal was viewed by many in the international Jewish community as a betrayal.

In his "Gutachten" Gestapo profile, Frankl is described as "politically perfect" by the Nazi secret police, with Frankl's membership in the Austro-fascist "Fatherland Front" in 1934, similarly stated in isolation. It has been suggested that as a state employee in a hospital he was likely automatically signed up to the party regardless of whether he wanted to or not. Frankl was interviewed twice by the secret police during the war, yet nothing of the expected contents, the subject of discussion or any further information on these interviews, is contained in Frankl's file, suggesting to biographers that Frankl's file was "cleansed" sometime after the war.

None of Frankl's obituaries mention the unqualified and unskilled brain lobotomy and trepanation medical experiments approved by the Nazis that Frankl performed on Jews who had committed suicide with an overdose of sedatives, in resistance to their impending arrest, imprisonment and enforced labour in the concentration camp system. The goal of these experiments were to try and revive those who had killed themselves, Frankl justified this by saying that he was trying to find ways to save the lives of Jews. Operating without any training as a surgeon, Frankl would voluntarily request of the Nazis to perform the experiments on those who had killed themselves, and once approved – published some of the details on his experiments, the methods of insertion of his chosen amphetamine drugs into the brains of these individuals, resulting in, at times, an alleged partial resuscitation, mainly in 1942 (prior to his own internment at Theresienstadt ghetto in September, later in that year). Historian Günter Bischof of Harvard University, suggests Frankl's approaching and requesting to perform lobotomy experiments could be seen as a way to "ingratiate" himself amongst the Nazis, as the latter were not, at that time, appreciative of the international scrutiny that these suicides were beginning to create, nor "suicide" being listed on arrest records.

Response to Timothy Pytell
Timothy Pytell's critique towards Viktor Frankl was used by Holocaust denier Theodore O'Keefe, according to Alexander Batthyány. Alexander Batthyány was a researcher and member of staff of the Viktor Frankl Archive in Vienna. Throughout the first chapter of his book "Viktor Frankl and the Shoah", he reflects on Timothy Pytell's work about Viktor Frankl, and the flaws in it. Batthyány points out that Pytell never visited the archive to consult primary sources from the person about whom he was writing. Batthyány also critiques Pytell for not interviewing Viktor Frankl while Frankl was still alive. Pytell even explains in his book on Frankl that he had the opportunity to meet him – as a friend offered it, yet he decided that he could not meet Frankl.

Decorations and awards

 * 1956: Promotion Award for Public Education of the Ministry of Education, Austria
 * 1962: Cardinal Innitzer Prize, Austria
 * 1969: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
 * 1976: Prize of the Danubia Foundation
 * 1980: Honorary Ring of Vienna, Austria
 * 1981: Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
 * 1985: Oskar Pfister Award, US
 * 1986: Honorary doctorate from the University of Vienna, Austria
 * 1986: Honorary member of the association Bürgervereinigung Landsberg im 20. Jahrhundert
 * 1988: Great Silver Medal with Star for Services to the Republic of Austria
 * 1995: Hans Prinzhorn Medal
 * 1995: Honorary Citizen of the City of Vienna
 * 1995: Great Gold Medal with Star for Services to the Republic of Austria

Personal life
In 1941, Frankl married Tilly Grosser, who was a station nurse at Rothschild Hospital. Soon after they were married she became pregnant, but they were forced to abort the child. Tilly died in the Bergen Belsen concentration camp.

Frankl's father, Gabriel, originally from Pohořelice, Moravia, died in the Theresienstadt Ghetto concentration camp on 13 February 1943, aged 81, from starvation and pneumonia. His mother and brother, Walter, were both killed in Auschwitz. His sister, Stella, escaped to Australia.

In 1947, Frankl married Eleonore "Elly" Katharina Schwindt. She was a practicing Catholic. The couple respected each other's religious backgrounds, both attending church and synagogue, and celebrating Christmas and Hanukkah. They had one daughter, Gabriele, who went on to become a child psychologist. Although it was not known for 50 years, his wife and son-in-law reported after his death that he prayed every day and had memorized the words of daily Jewish prayers and psalms.

Frankl died of heart failure in Vienna on 2 September 1997. He is buried in the Jewish section of the Vienna Central Cemetery.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Viktor Frankl


text:
Meja

Meja Anna Pernilla Kullersten (formerly Beckman; born Anna Pernilla Torndahl, 12 February 1969) is a Swedish composer, artist and singer. Among her best known songs are "Happy" (with Legacy of Sound), "Private Emotion", a duet with Ricky Martin from his multi-Platinum album Ricky Martin (1999), and "All 'Bout the Money", which was nominated for a Grammy Award in 1998.

Biography
Meja was born Anna Pernilla Torndahl in Nynäshamn, Stockholm County. She had her stage debut at "Ystads City theatre" at the age of 7. She was brought up in a musical family, her grandfather, Per Lundkvist, was a composer of both classical and contemporary music and her mother, a recording artist as a child before choosing a path as a painter.

In 1986, at the age of 16, she moved to Mallorca, Spain, to study. She was introduced to American jazz trumpet player/singer Stephen Frankevich and started to take vocal lessons with singer Deborah Carter.

Meja went to Stockholm in 1990. She sang in different bands there before getting out on tour as a backup singer for the Swedish group Rob n Raz DLC in 1991. In 1992 Meja moved to Los Angeles to continue her studies at the Musicians Institute in Hollywood. She graduated from the vocal program in late 1992 then returned to Sweden.

Legacy of Sound (1993–1995)
In 1993, Meja worked with the dance project Legacy of Sound. She co-wrote with Anders Bagge the first single, "Happy", from the album Holy Groove. The song reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart, and it peaked at number 68 on the Top 100 during a 12-week stay on the chart. "Happy" was released in over 20 countries. Meja recorded one more album with Legacy of Sound in 1994, Tour de Force.

Solo artist
Meja teamed in 1995 with Swedish manager Lasse Karlsson, manager of Ace of Base, and writer/producer Douglas Carr to provide the vocals for the demo The Juvenile titled The Goldeneye.

The first solo album Meja, was released in 1996, with songs co-written by Billy Steinberg. In 1997 Meja had her first concert tour in Japan: The Flower Girl Jam Tour.

Meja released the album Seven Sisters in 1998. Later that year Columbia (Sony) launched the album in the U.S with the single "How Crazy Are You?" That song would later be notable for its use as the theme song for Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball.

Realitales (2000)
Meja went to Miami in 1999 to record "Private Emotion", a duet with Ricky Martin for his debut album Ricky Martin. After shooting a video for the song, Meja stayed in Los Angeles to work on her next album Realitales (2000) with Steinberg. She also co-wrote two tracks for the album in London with Stephen Lipson. The artwork for this album was shot by Swedish director Jonas Åkerlund.

Mellow (2004)
In 2003 Meja started to work with her former Sony Music boss, Richard Ogden. The album Mellow was released in 2004, with songs in Portuguese ("Água de Beber", "Dindi") and Spanish. She covered a Caetano Veloso song "O'Leaonzinho" that she named "Little Lion." The album was produced by Hamish Stuart. One song, "Simple Days-Walking the Distance", was used in the Japanese film Lakeside Murder Case.

NU Essential (2005)
Sony Music Japan released Meja's album NU Essential in 2005.

Urban Gypsy (2009)
In 2006 Meja went back to Los Angeles to collaborate again with Steinberg on a new album, also working with writers Jeff Barry, Billy Gibbons, Jed Leiber and Boz Boorer.

The first single "At the Rainbow's End" was released in June 2009, the second single "Regrets (I Have None)" in August, and the album Urban Gypsy was released on her own label Seven Sisters Network in October on a license deal with Sony Music. A remix of Mando Diao's "Dance with Somebody" was released early 2010.

AniMeja (2010)
As a tribute to the Japanese Studio Ghibli, Meja released an album on which she covered soundtrack songs from Japanese films.

Stroboscope Sky (2015)
The first release from the album Stroboscope Sky was the single "Blame it on the Shadows" (2013) produced by Ebbot Lundberg. Meja teamed with producer Nicolas Gunthardt and together with his sister Alessandra they wrote "Yellow Ribbon" which served as the theme song for the album. "Yellow Ribbon" was released as a single in collaboration with Amnesty International/Free the Angola 3 to help raise awareness of the case of Albert Woodfox. A remix EP was released with remixes by Deep Forest, Dj Swami, Gota Yashiki, DF Tram, NORD and more.

Compilation and live albums

 * Live in Japan-The Flower Girl Jam (1997)
 * My Best (2002) (Certifications #JPN:Gold)
 * The Nu Essential (2005)
 * Original Album Collection (2010)
 * Kozmic Surfer: Flower Girl 25th Anniversary (2019)
 * Kozmic Surfer: Live in Japan (Acoustic) (2020)

Awards

 * Grammy Nomination, Category Best Modern Dance Legacy of Sound, 1994
 * The North Wave Award, newcomer of the year, 1996, Japan
 * Pop album of the year, Meja Japan 1996
 * Grammy Nomination, Category Song of the Year "All 'Bout the Money" 1998
 * Grammy Nomination Category Female Pop/Rock Artist 1998
 * Artist of the year, Japan 1999
 * 14th Japan Gold Disc Awards, 1999, Pop Album of the year, "Seven Sisters"
 * World Music Awards 1999 Best Selling Female Scandinavian Artist, Monte Carlo, Monaco
 * The Swedish Society of Popular Music Composers Prize Award (SKAP) 2001

title: Meja


text:
List of data structures

This is a list of well-known data structures. For a wider list of terms, see list of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. For a comparison of running times for a subset of this list see comparison of data structures.

Primitive types

 * Boolean, true or false.
 * Character
 * Floating-point representation of a finite subset of the rationals.
 * Including single-precision and double-precision IEEE 754 floats, among others
 * Fixed-point representation of the rationals
 * Integer, a direct representation of either the integers or the non-negative integers
 * Reference, sometimes erroneously referred to as a pointer or handle, is a value that refers to another value, possibly including itself
 * Symbol, a unique identifier
 * Enumerated type, a set of symbols
 * Complex, representation of complex numbers

Composite types or non-primitive type

 * Array, a sequence of elements of the same type stored contiguously in memory
 * Record (also called a structure or struct), a collection of fields
 * Product type (also called a tuple), a record in which the fields are not named
 * String, a sequence of characters representing text
 * Union, a datum which may be one of a set of types
 * Tagged union (also called a variant, discriminated union or sum type), a union with a tag specifying which type the data is

Abstract data types

 * Container
 * List
 * Tuple
 * Associative array, Map
 * Multimap
 * Set
 * Multiset (bag)
 * Stack
 * Queue (example Priority queue)
 * Double-ended queue
 * Graph (example Tree, Heap)

Some properties of abstract data types:

"Ordered" means that the elements of the data type have some kind of explicit order to them, where an element can be considered "before" or "after" another element. This order is usually determined by the order in which the elements are added to the structure, but the elements can be rearranged in some contexts, such as sorting a list. For a structure that isn't ordered, on the other hand, no assumptions can be made about the ordering of the elements (although a physical implementation of these data types will often apply some kind of arbitrary ordering). "Uniqueness" means that duplicate elements are not allowed. Depending on the implementation of the data type, attempting to add a duplicate element may either be ignored, overwrite the existing element, or raise an error. The detection for duplicates is based on some inbuilt (or alternatively, user-defined) rule for comparing elements.

Linear data structures
A data structure is said to be linear if its elements form a sequence.

Arrays

 * Array
 * Bit array
 * Bit field
 * Bitboard
 * Bitmap
 * Circular buffer
 * Control table
 * Image
 * Dope vector
 * Dynamic array
 * Gap buffer
 * Hashed array tree
 * Lookup table
 * Matrix
 * Parallel array
 * Sorted array
 * Sparse matrix
 * Iliffe vector
 * Variable-length array

Lists

 * Doubly linked list
 * Array list
 * Linked list also known as a Singly linked list
 * Association list
 * Self-organizing list
 * Skip list
 * Unrolled linked list
 * VList
 * Conc-tree list
 * Xor linked list
 * Zipper
 * Doubly connected edge list also known as half-edge
 * Difference list
 * Free list

Trees
Trees are a subset of directed acyclic graphs.

Binary trees

 * AA tree
 * AVL tree
 * Binary search tree
 * Binary tree
 * Cartesian tree
 * Conc-tree list
 * Left-child right-sibling binary tree
 * Order statistic tree
 * Pagoda
 * Randomized binary search tree
 * Red–black tree
 * Rope
 * Scapegoat tree
 * Self-balancing binary search tree
 * Splay tree
 * T-tree
 * Tango tree
 * Threaded binary tree
 * Top tree
 * Treap
 * WAVL tree
 * Weight-balanced tree
 * Zip tree

B-trees

 * B-tree
 * B+ tree
 * B*-tree
 * Dancing tree
 * 2–3 tree
 * 2–3–4 tree
 * Queap
 * Fusion tree
 * Bx-tree

Heaps

 * Heap
 * Min-max heap
 * Binary heap
 * B-heap
 * Weak heap
 * Binomial heap
 * Fibonacci heap
 * AF-heap
 * Leonardo heap
 * 2–3 heap
 * Soft heap
 * Pairing heap
 * Leftist heap
 * Treap
 * Beap
 * Skew heap
 * Ternary heap
 * D-ary heap
 * Brodal queue

Bit-slice trees
In these data structures each tree node compares a bit slice of key values.
 * Radix tree
 * Suffix tree
 * Suffix array
 * Compressed suffix array
 * FM-index
 * Generalised suffix tree
 * B-tree
 * Judy array
 * Trie
 * X-fast trie
 * Y-fast trie
 * Merkle tree

Multi-way trees

 * Ternary search tree
 * Ternary tree
 * K-ary tree
 * And–or tree
 * (a,b)-tree
 * Link/cut tree
 * SPQR-tree
 * Spaghetti stack
 * Disjoint-set data structure (Union-find data structure)
 * Fusion tree
 * Enfilade
 * Exponential tree
 * Fenwick tree
 * Van Emde Boas tree
 * Rose tree

Space-partitioning trees
These are data structures used for space partitioning or binary space partitioning.
 * Segment tree
 * Interval tree
 * Range tree
 * Bin
 * K-d tree
 * Implicit k-d tree
 * Min/max k-d tree
 * Relaxed k-d tree
 * Adaptive k-d tree
 * Quadtree
 * Octree
 * Linear octree
 * Z-order
 * UB-tree
 * R-tree
 * R+ tree
 * R* tree
 * Hilbert R-tree
 * X-tree
 * Metric tree
 * Cover tree
 * M-tree
 * VP-tree
 * BK-tree
 * Bounding interval hierarchy
 * Bounding volume hierarchy
 * BSP tree
 * Rapidly exploring random tree

Application-specific trees

 * Abstract syntax tree
 * Parse tree
 * Decision tree
 * Alternating decision tree
 * Minimax tree
 * Expectiminimax tree
 * Finger tree
 * Expression tree
 * Log-structured merge-tree
 * PQ tree

Hash-based structures

 * Approximate Membership Query Filter
 * Bloom filter
 * Cuckoo filter
 * Quotient filter
 * Count–min sketch
 * Distributed hash table
 * Double hashing
 * Dynamic perfect hash table
 * Hash array mapped trie
 * Hash list
 * Hash table
 * Hash tree
 * Hash trie
 * Koorde
 * Prefix hash tree
 * Rolling hash
 * MinHash
 * Ctrie

Graphs
Many graph-based data structures are used in computer science and related fields:

 * Graph
 * Adjacency list
 * Adjacency matrix
 * Graph-structured stack
 * Scene graph
 * Decision tree
 * Binary decision diagram
 * Zero-suppressed decision diagram
 * And-inverter graph
 * Directed graph
 * Directed acyclic graph
 * Propositional directed acyclic graph
 * Multigraph
 * Hypergraph

Other

 * Lightmap
 * Winged edge
 * Quad-edge
 * Routing table
 * Symbol table
 * Piece table
 * E-graph

title: List of data structures


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Spectral line

A spectral line is a weaker or stronger region in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum. It may result from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. Spectral lines are often used to identify atoms and molecules. These "fingerprints" can be compared to the previously collected ones of atoms and molecules, and are thus used to identify the atomic and molecular components of stars and planets, which would otherwise be impossible.

Types of line spectra

Spectral lines are the result of interaction between a quantum system (usually atoms, but sometimes molecules or atomic nuclei) and a single photon. When a photon has about the right amount of energy (which is connected to its frequency) to allow a change in the energy state of the system (in the case of an atom this is usually an electron changing orbitals), the photon is absorbed. Then the energy will be spontaneously re-emitted, either as one photon at the same frequency as the original one or in a cascade, where the sum of the energies of the photons emitted will be equal to the energy of the one absorbed (assuming the system returns to its original state).

A spectral line may be observed either as an emission line or an absorption line. Which type of line is observed depends on the type of material and its temperature relative to another emission source. An absorption line is produced when photons from a hot, broad spectrum source pass through a cooler material. The intensity of light, over a narrow frequency range, is reduced due to absorption by the material and re-emission in random directions. By contrast, a bright emission line is produced when photons from a hot material are detected, perhaps in the presence of a broad spectrum from a cooler source. The intensity of light, over a narrow frequency range, is increased due to emission by the hot material.

Spectral lines are highly atom-specific, and can be used to identify the chemical composition of any medium. Several elements, including helium, thallium, and caesium, were discovered by spectroscopic means. Spectral lines also depend on the temperature and density of the material, so they are widely used to determine the physical conditions of stars and other celestial bodies that cannot be analyzed by other means.

Depending on the material and its physical conditions, the energy of the involved photons can vary widely, with the spectral lines observed across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.

Nomenclature
Strong spectral lines in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum often have a unique Fraunhofer line designation, such as K for a line at 393.366 nm emerging from singly-ionized calcium atom, Ca+, though some of the Fraunhofer "lines" are blends of multiple lines from several different species.

In other cases, the lines are designated according to the level of ionization by adding a Roman numeral to the designation of the chemical element. Neutral atoms are denoted with the Roman numeral I, singly ionized atoms with II, and so on, so that, for example:

Cu II — copper ion with +1 charge, Cu1+

Fe III — iron ion with +2 charge, Fe2+

More detailed designations usually include the line wavelength and may include a multiplet number (for atomic lines) or band designation (for molecular lines). Many spectral lines of atomic hydrogen also have designations within their respective series, such as the Lyman series or Balmer series. Originally all spectral lines were classified into series: the principal series, sharp series, and diffuse series. These series exist across atoms of all elements, and the patterns for all atoms are well-predicted by the Rydberg-Ritz formula. These series were later associated with suborbitals.

Line broadening and shift
There are a number of effects which control spectral line shape. A spectral line extends over a tiny spectral band with a nonzero range of frequencies, not a single frequency (i.e., a nonzero spectral width). In addition, its center may be shifted from its nominal central wavelength. There are several reasons for this broadening and shift. These reasons may be divided into two general categories – broadening due to local conditions and broadening due to extended conditions. Broadening due to local conditions is due to effects which hold in a small region around the emitting element, usually small enough to assure local thermodynamic equilibrium. Broadening due to extended conditions may result from changes to the spectral distribution of the radiation as it traverses its path to the observer. It also may result from the combining of radiation from a number of regions which are far from each other.

Natural broadening
The lifetime of excited states results in natural broadening, also known as lifetime broadening. The uncertainty principle relates the lifetime of an excited state (due to spontaneous radiative decay or the Auger process) with the uncertainty of its energy. Some authors use the term "radiative broadening" to refer specifically to the part of natural broadening caused by the spontaneous radiative decay. A short lifetime will have a large energy uncertainty and a broad emission. This broadening effect results in an unshifted Lorentzian profile. The natural broadening can be experimentally altered only to the extent that decay rates can be artificially suppressed or enhanced.

Thermal Doppler broadening
The atoms in a gas which are emitting radiation will have a distribution of velocities. Each photon emitted will be "red"- or "blue"-shifted by the Doppler effect depending on the velocity of the atom relative to the observer. The higher the temperature of the gas, the wider the distribution of velocities in the gas. Since the spectral line is a combination of all of the emitted radiation, the higher the temperature of the gas, the broader the spectral line emitted from that gas. This broadening effect is described by a Gaussian profile and there is no associated shift.

Pressure broadening
The presence of nearby particles will affect the radiation emitted by an individual particle. There are two limiting cases by which this occurs:

 * Impact pressure broadening or collisional broadening: The collision of other particles with the light emitting particle interrupts the emission process, and by shortening the characteristic time for the process, increases the uncertainty in the energy emitted (as occurs in natural broadening). The duration of the collision is much shorter than the lifetime of the emission process. This effect depends on both the density and the temperature of the gas. The broadening effect is described by a Lorentzian profile and there may be an associated shift.
 * Quasistatic pressure broadening: The presence of other particles shifts the energy levels in the emitting particle (see spectral band), thereby altering the frequency of the emitted radiation. The duration of the influence is much longer than the lifetime of the emission process. This effect depends on the density of the gas, but is rather insensitive to temperature. The form of the line profile is determined by the functional form of the perturbing force with respect to distance from the perturbing particle. There may also be a shift in the line center. The general expression for the lineshape resulting from quasistatic pressure broadening is a 4-parameter generalization of the Gaussian distribution known as a stable distribution.

Pressure broadening may also be classified by the nature of the perturbing force as follows:

 * Linear Stark broadening occurs via the linear Stark effect, which results from the interaction of an emitter with an electric field of a charged particle at a distance $$r$$, causing a shift in energy that is linear in the field strength. $$(\Delta E \sim 1/r^2)$$
 * Resonance broadening occurs when the perturbing particle is of the same type as the emitting particle, which introduces the possibility of an energy exchange process. $$(\Delta E \sim 1/r^3)$$
 * Quadratic Stark broadening occurs via the quadratic Stark effect, which results from the interaction of an emitter with an electric field, causing a shift in energy that is quadratic in the field strength. $$(\Delta E \sim 1/r^4)$$
 * Van der Waals broadening occurs when the emitting particle is being perturbed by Van der Waals forces. For the quasistatic case, a Van der Waals profile is often useful in describing the profile. The energy shift as a function of distance between the interacting particles is given in the wings by e.g. the Lennard-Jones potential. $$(\Delta E \sim 1/r^6)$$

Inhomogeneous broadening
Inhomogeneous broadening is a general term for broadening because some emitting particles are in a different local environment from others, and therefore emit at a different frequency. This term is used especially for solids, where surfaces, grain boundaries, and stoichiometry variations can create a variety of local environments for a given atom to occupy. In liquids, the effects of inhomogeneous broadening is sometimes reduced by a process called motional narrowing.

Broadening due to non-local effects
Certain types of broadening are the result of conditions over a large region of space rather than simply upon conditions that are local to the emitting particle.

Opacity broadening
Opacity broadening is an example of a non-local broadening mechanism. Electromagnetic radiation emitted at a particular point in space can be reabsorbed as it travels through space. This absorption depends on wavelength. The line is broadened because the photons at the line center have a greater reabsorption probability than the photons at the line wings. Indeed, the reabsorption near the line center may be so great as to cause a self reversal in which the intensity at the center of the line is less than in the wings. This process is also sometimes called self-absorption.

Macroscopic Doppler broadening
Radiation emitted by a moving source is subject to Doppler shift due to a finite line-of-sight velocity projection. If different parts of the emitting body have different velocities (along the line of sight), the resulting line will be broadened, with the line width proportional to the width of the velocity distribution. For example, radiation emitted from a distant rotating body, such as a star, will be broadened due to the line-of-sight variations in velocity on opposite sides of the star (this effect usually referred to as rotational broadening). The greater the rate of rotation, the broader the line. Another example is an imploding plasma shell in a Z-pinch.

Combined effects
Each of these mechanisms can act in isolation or in combination with others. Assuming each effect is independent, the observed line profile is a convolution of the line profiles of each mechanism. For example, a combination of the thermal Doppler broadening and the impact pressure broadening yields a Voigt profile.

However, the different line broadening mechanisms are not always independent. For example, the collisional effects and the motional Doppler shifts can act in a coherent manner, resulting under some conditions even in a collisional narrowing, known as the Dicke effect.

Bands
The phrase "spectral lines", when not qualified, usually refers to lines having wavelengths in the visible band of the full electromagnetic spectrum. Many spectral lines occur at wavelengths outside this range. At shorter wavelengths, which correspond to higher energies, ultraviolet spectral lines include the Lyman series of hydrogen. At the much shorter wavelengths of X-rays, the lines are known as characteristic X-rays because they remain largely unchanged for a given chemical element, independent of their chemical environment. Longer wavelengths correspond to lower energies, where the infrared spectral lines include the Paschen series of hydrogen. At even longer wavelengths, the radio spectrum includes the 21-cm line used to detect neutral hydrogen throughout the cosmos.

Visible light
For each element, the following table shows the spectral lines which appear in the visible spectrum at about 400-700 nm.

title: Spectral line


text:
Tabula (game)

Tabula (Byzantine Greek: τάβλι), meaning a plank or board, was a Greco-Roman board game for two players that has given its name to the tables family of games of which backgammon is a member.

History
According to the Etymologiae by Isidore of Seville, tabula was first invented by a Greek soldier of the Trojan War named Alea. The earliest description of "τάβλι" (tavli) is in an epigram of Byzantine emperor Zeno (r. 474–475; 476–491), given by Agathias of Myrine (6th century AD), who describes a game in which Zeno goes from a strong position to a very weak one after an unfortunate dice roll. The rules of Tabula were reconstructed in the 19th century by Becq de Fouquières based upon this epigram. The game was played on a board with a similar layout to that of a modern backgammon board: there were 24 points, 12 on each side. Two players had 15 pieces each, and moved them in the same direction —anticlockwise —around the board, according to the roll of three dice. A piece resting alone in a space on the board (a singleton) was vulnerable to being captured. If a piece was moved to a point occupied by an enemy singleton, the latter was sent off the board and had to be re-entered on the next turn. The known differences compared with modern backgammon were: three dice were used, all pieces started the board, both players moved in the same direction and there was no doubling die. It is not known whether players had to re-enter 'hit' pieces playing those on the board, nor whether players had to gather all pieces in the fourth quadrant before bearing off. It is also not clear whether there was a "bar".

In the epigram, Zeno was white (red in illustration) and had one point with seven pieces on it, three points with two pieces and two singletons (pieces that stand alone on a point and were therefore in danger of being put outside the board by an incoming opposing piece). Zeno threw the three dice with which the game was played and obtained 2, 5, and 6. Zeno could not move to a space occupied by two opposing (black) pieces. The white and black pieces were so distributed on the points that the only way to use all of the three results, as required by the game rules, was to break the three points with two pieces into singletons, thus exposing them to capture and ruining the game for Zeno.

Tabula was most likely a later refinement of ludus duodecim scriptorum, with the board's middle row of points removed, and only the two outer rows remaining.

Today, the word Tavli (τάβλι) is still used to refer to various tables games in Greece, as well as in Syria and Turkey (as tavla), Bulgaria (as tabla) and in Romania (as table); in these countries, tables games remain popular in town squares and cafes.

title: Tabula (game)


text:
Mars Pathfinder

Mars Pathfinder is an American robotic spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars in 1997. It consisted of a lander, renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station, and a lightweight, 10.6 kg wheeled robotic Mars rover named Sojourner, the first rover to operate outside the Earth–Moon system.

Launched on December 4, 1996, by NASA aboard a Delta II booster a month after the Mars Global Surveyor, it landed on July 4, 1997, on Mars's Ares Vallis, in a region called Chryse Planitia in the Oxia Palus quadrangle. The lander then opened, exposing the rover which conducted many experiments on the Martian surface. The mission carried a series of scientific instruments to analyze the Martian atmosphere, climate, and geology and the composition of its rocks and soil. It was the second project from NASA's Discovery Program, which promotes the use of low-cost spacecraft and frequent launches under the motto "cheaper, faster and better" promoted by then-administrator Daniel Goldin. The mission was directed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), a division of the California Institute of Technology, responsible for NASA's Mars Exploration Program. The project manager was JPL's Tony Spear.

This mission was the first of a series of missions to Mars that included rovers, and was the first successful lander since the two Vikings landed on Mars in 1976. Although the Soviet Union successfully sent rovers to the Moon as part of the Lunokhod program in the 1970s, its attempts to use rovers in its Mars program failed.

In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as airbag-mediated touchdown and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the Mars Exploration Rover mission. The Mars Pathfinder was also remarkable for its extremely low cost relative to other robotic space missions to Mars. Originally, the mission was conceived as the first of the Mars Environmental Survey (MESUR) program.

Mission objectives

 * To prove that the development of "faster, better and cheaper" spacecraft was possible (with three years for development and a cost under $150 million for the lander, and $25 million for the rover ).
 * To show that it was possible to send a load of scientific instruments to another planet with a simple system and at one-fifteenth the cost of a Viking mission. (For comparison, the Viking missions cost $935 million in 1974 or $3.5 billion in 1997 dollars.)
 * To demonstrate NASA's commitment to low-cost planetary exploration by finishing the mission with a total expenditure of $280 million, including the launch vehicle and mission operations.

Science experiments
The Mars Pathfinder conducted different investigations on the Martian soil using three scientific instruments. The lander contained a stereoscopic camera with spatial filters on an expandable pole called Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP), and the Atmospheric Structure Instrument/Meteorology Package (ASI/MET) which acted as a Mars meteorological station, collecting data about pressure, temperature, and winds. The MET structure included three windsocks mounted at three heights on a pole, the topmost at about 1 m and generally registered winds from the West.

The Sojourner rover had an Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), which was used to analyze the components of the rocks and soil. The rover also had two black-and-white cameras and a color one. These instruments could investigate the geology of the Martian surface from just a few millimeters to many hundreds of meters, the geochemistry and evolutionary history of the rocks and surface, the magnetic and mechanical properties of the land, as well as the magnetic properties of the dust, atmosphere and the rotational and orbital dynamics of the planet. The rover was equipped with three CCD cameras, all manufactured by Eastman Kodak Company and controlled by the rover's CPU. The two front-facing monochrome cameras served navigation purposes and were coupled with five laser stripe projectors for stereoscopic hazard detection. These front cameras had a resolution of 484 vertical by 768 horizontal pixels, and an optical resolution capable of discerning details as small as 0.6 cm across a range of 0.65 m. Images from these cameras could be compressed using the block truncation coding (BTC) algorithm.

The third camera, situated at the rear near the APXS, was used for color imaging. It shared the resolution of the front cameras but was rotated 90 degrees to capture images of both the APXS target area and the rover's tracks. This rear camera featured a 4x4 pixel block with specific color sensitivities: 12 pixels for green, two for red, and two for infrared. All cameras employed lenses made of zinc selenide, which blocks light wavelengths below 500 nm; as a result, the blue/infrared pixels effectively detected only infrared light. Each camera had auto-exposure and bad-pixel handling functions. Image parameters, such as exposure time and compression settings, were included in the transmitted image headers. If BTC compression was to be used on the rear camera, the color information would need to be discarded.

Pathfinder lander
==== Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP), (includes magnetometer and anemometer) ==== The IMP had a set of filters designed to record surface and atmospheric phenomena. There were two cameras, or eyes, allowing for stereoscopic imagery, with the set of filters being slightly different between them.

Atmospheric and meteorological sensors (ASI/MET)
The ASI/MET recorded temperature, pressure and wind data, during entry and descent, and once on the surface. It also housed electronics for sensor operation and data recording.

Sojourner rover

 * 1) Imaging system (three cameras: front B&W stereo, 1 rear color)
 * 2) Laser striper hazard detection system
 * 3) Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS)
 * 4) Wheel Abrasion Experiment
 * 5) Materials Adherence Experiment
 * 6) Accelerometers

Landing site
The landing site was an ancient flood plain in Mars's northern hemisphere called "Ares Vallis" ("the valley of Ares", the ancient Greek equivalent of the ancient Roman deity Mars) and is among the rockiest parts of Mars. Scientists chose it because they found it to be a relatively safe surface to land on and one that contained a wide variety of rocks deposited during a catastrophic flood. After the landing, at 19.13°N, -33.22°W, succeeded, the lander received the name The Carl Sagan Memorial Station in honor of the astronomer. (See also List of extraterrestrial memorials)

Entry, descent and landing

Mars Pathfinder entered the Martian atmosphere and landed using an innovative system involving an entry capsule, a supersonic parachute, followed by solid rockets and large airbags to cushion the impact.

Mars Pathfinder directly entered Mars atmosphere in a retrograde direction from a hyperbolic trajectory at 6.1 km/s using an atmospheric entry aeroshell (capsule) that was derived from the original Viking Mars lander design. The aeroshell consisted of a back shell and a specially designed ablative heatshield to slow to 370 m/s where a supersonic disk-gap-band parachute was inflated to slow its descent through the thin Martian atmosphere to 68 m/s. The lander's on-board computer used redundant on-board accelerometers to determine the timing of the parachute inflation. Twenty seconds later the heatshield was pyrotechnically released. Another twenty seconds later the lander was separated and lowered from the backshell on a 20 m bridle. When the lander reached 1.6 km above the surface, a radar was used by the on-board computer to determine altitude and descent velocity. This information was used by the computer to determine the precise timing of the landing events that followed.

Once the lander was 355 m above the ground, airbags were inflated in less than a second using three gas generators. The airbags were made of four inter-connected multi-layer vectran bags that surrounded the tetrahedron lander. They were designed and tested to accommodate grazing angle impacts as high as 28 m/s. However, as the airbags were designed for no more than about 15 m/s vertical impacts, three solid retrorockets were mounted above the lander in the backshell. These were fired at 98 m above the ground. The lander's on-board computer estimated the best time to fire the rockets and cut the bridle so that the lander velocity would be reduced to about zero between 15 and 25 m above the ground. After 2.3 seconds, while the rockets were still firing, the lander cut the bridle loose about 21.5 m above the ground and fell to the ground. The rockets flew up and away with the backshell and parachute (they have since been sighted by orbital images). The lander impacted at 14 m/s and limited the impact to only 18 G of deceleration. The first bounce was 15.7 m high and continued bouncing for at least 15 additional bounces (accelerometer data recording did not continue through all of the bounces).

The entire entry, descent and landing process was completed in four minutes.

Once the lander stopped rolling, the airbags deflated and retracted toward the lander using four winches mounted on the lander "petals". Designed to right itself from any initial orientation, the lander happened to roll right side up onto its base petal. Eighty-seven minutes after landing, the petals were deployed with Sojourner rover and the solar panels attached on the inside.

The lander arrived at night at 2:56:55 Mars local solar time (16:56:55 UTC) on July 4, 1997. The lander had to wait until sunrise to send its first digital signals and images to Earth. The landing site was located at 19.30° north latitude and 33.52° west longitude in Ares Vallis, only 19 km southwest of the center of the 200 km wide landing site ellipse. During Sol 1, the first Martian solar day the lander spent on the planet, the lander took pictures and made some meteorological measurements. Once the data was received, the engineers realized that one of the airbags had not fully deflated and could be a problem for the forthcoming traverse of Sojourner's descent ramp. To solve the problem, they sent commands to the lander to raise one of its petals and perform additional retraction to flatten the airbag. The procedure was a success and on Sol 2, Sojourner was released, stood up and backed down one of two ramps.

Sojourner deployment
The Sojourner rover departed from the lander on Sol 2, after its landing on July 4, 1997. As the next sols progressed it approached some rocks, which the scientists named "Barnacle Bill", "Yogi", and "Scooby-Doo", after famous cartoon characters. The rover made measurements of the elements found in those rocks and in the martian soil, while the lander took pictures of the Sojourner and the surrounding terrain, in addition to making climate observations.

The Sojourner is a six-wheeled, 65 cm long vehicle, 48 cm wide, 30 cm tall and weighing 10.5 kg. Its maximum speed reached 1 cm/s. Sojourner travelled approximately 100 m in total, never more than 12 m from the Pathfinder station. During its 83 sols of operation, it sent 550 photographs to Earth and analyzed the chemical properties of 16 locations near the lander. (See also Space exploration rovers)

Sojourner's rock analysis
The first analysis on a rock started on Sol 3 with Barnacle Bill. The Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) was used to determine its composition, the spectrometer taking ten hours to make a full scan of the sample. It found all the elements except hydrogen, which constitutes just 0.1 percent of the rock's or soil's mass.

The APXS works by irradiating rocks and soil samples with alpha particles (helium nuclei, which consist of two protons and two neutrons). The results indicated that "Barnacle Bill" is much like Earth's andesites, confirming past volcanic activity. The discovery of andesites shows that some Martian rocks have been remelted and reprocessed. On Earth, andesite forms when magma sits in pockets of rock while some of the iron and magnesium settle out. Consequently, the final rock contains less iron and magnesiums and more silica. Volcanic rocks are usually classified by comparing the relative amount of alkalis (Na2O and K2O) with the amount of silica (SiO2). Andesite is different from the rocks found in meteorites that have come from Mars.

Analysis of the Yogi rock again using the APXS showed that it was a basaltic rock, more primitive than Barnacle Bill. Yogi's shape and texture show that it was probably deposited there by a flood.

Another rock, named Moe, was found to have certain marks on its surface, demonstrating erosion caused by the wind. Most rocks analyzed showed a high content of silicon. In another region known as Rock Garden, Sojourner encountered crescent moon-shaped dunes, which are similar to crescentic dunes on Earth.

By the time that final results of the mission were described in a series of articles in the journal Science (December 5, 1997), it was believed that the rock Yogi contained a coating of dust, but was similar to the rock Barnacle Bill. Calculations suggest that the two rocks contain mostly the minerals orthopyroxene (magnesium-iron silicate), feldspars (aluminum silicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium), and quartz (silicon dioxide), with smaller amounts of magnetite, ilmenite, iron sulfide, and calcium phosphate.

On-board computer
The embedded computer on board the Sojourner rover was based around the 2 MHz Intel 80C85 CPU with 512 KB of RAM and 176 KB of flash memory solid-state storage, running a cyclic executive.

The computer of the Pathfinder lander was a Radiation Hardened IBM Risc 6000 Single Chip (Rad6000 SC) CPU with 128 MB of RAM and 6 MB of EEPROM and its operating system was VxWorks.

The mission was jeopardised by a concurrent software bug in the lander, which had been found in preflight testing but was deemed a glitch and therefore given a low priority as it only occurred in certain unanticipated heavy-load conditions, and the focus was on verifying the entry and landing code. The problem, which was reproduced and corrected from Earth using a laboratory duplicate thanks to the logging and debugging functionality enabled in the flight software, was due to computer resets caused by priority inversion. No scientific or engineering data was lost after a computer reset, but all the following operations were interrupted until the next day. Four resets occurred (on July 5, 10, 11 and 14) during the mission, before patching the software on July 21 to enable priority inheritance.

Results from Pathfinder
The lander sent more than 2.3 billion bits (287.5 megabytes) of information including 16,500 pictures and made 8.5 million measurements of the atmospheric pressure, temperature and wind speed.

By taking multiple images of the sky at different distances from the Sun, scientists were able to determine that the size of the particles in the pink haze was about one micrometre in radius. The color of some soils was similar to that of an iron oxyhydroxide phase which would support the theory of a warmer and wetter climate in the past. Pathfinder carried a series of magnets to examine the magnetic component of the dust. Eventually, all but one of the magnets developed a coating of dust. Since the weakest magnet did not attract any soil, it was concluded that the airborne dust did not contain pure magnetite or just one type of maghemite. The dust probably was an aggregate possibly cemented with ferric oxide (Fe2O3). Using much more sophisticated instruments, Mars Spirit rover found that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars. Magnetite was found in the soil and the most magnetic part of the soil was dark. Magnetite is very dark.

Using Doppler tracking and two-way ranging, scientists added earlier measurements from the Viking landers to determine that the non-hydrostatic component of the polar moment of inertia is due to the Tharsis bulge and that the interior is not melted. The central metallic core is between 1300 and 2000 km in radius.

End of mission
Although the mission was planned to last from a week to a month, the rover operated successfully for almost three months. Communication failed after October 7, with a final data transmission received from Pathfinder at 10:23 UTC on September 27, 1997. Mission managers tried to restore full communications during the following five months, but the mission was terminated on March 10, 1998. During the extended operation a high-resolution stereo panorama of the surrounding terrain was being made, and the Sojourner rover was to visit a distant ridge, but the panorama was only about one-third completed and the ridge visit had not begun when communication failed.

The on-board battery—designed to operate for one month—may have failed after repeated charging and discharging. The battery was used to heat the probe's electronics to slightly above the expected nighttime temperatures on Mars. With the failure of the battery, colder-than-normal temperatures may have caused vital parts to break, leading to loss of communications. The mission had exceeded its goals in the first month.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spotted the Pathfinder lander in January 2007 (see photo).

Naming the rover
The name Sojourner was chosen for the Mars Pathfinder rover when 12-year old Valerie Ambroise, of Bridgeport, Connecticut, won a year-long, worldwide competition in which students up to 18 years old were invited to select a heroine and submit an essay about her historical accomplishments. The students were asked to address in their essays how a planetary rover named for their heroine would translate these accomplishments to the Martian environment.

Initiated in March 1994 by The Planetary Society of Pasadena, California, in cooperation with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the contest got under way with an announcement in the January 1995 issue of the National Science Teachers Association's magazine Science and Children, circulated to 20,000 teachers and schools across the nation.

Ambroise's winning essay, which suggested naming the rover for the 19th century women's rights activist Sojourner Truth, was selected from among 3,500 essays. First runner-up was Deepti Rohatgi, 18, of Rockville, Maryland, who suggested scientist Marie Curie. Second runner-up was Adam Sheedy, 15, of Round Rock, Texas, who submitted the name of the late astronaut Judith Resnik, who perished in the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger explosion. Other popular suggestions included explorer and guide Sacajewea and aviator Amelia Earhart.

Honors

 * In 1997, the Sojourner Team was awarded a JPL Award for Technical Excellence
 * On October 21, 1997, at the Geological Society of America's annual meeting in Salt Lake City, Utah, Sojourner was awarded honorary membership in the Planetary Geology Division of the society
 * In 2003, Sojourner was inducted into the Robot Hall of Fame

In popular culture

 * The opening title sequence of the television series Star Trek: Enterprise features footage of Sojourner on the Martian surface, intermixed with various other images representative of humankind's evolution of air and space flight.
 * In the 2000 film Red Planet, astronauts stranded on Mars make a makeshift radio from parts of Pathfinder, and use it to communicate with their spaceship.
 * In the 2011 novel The Martian by Andy Weir, and its 2015 film adaptation, the protagonist, Mark Watney, who is stranded alone on Mars, travels to the long-dead Pathfinder site (noting the "Twin Peaks" as a landmark in the novel), and returns it to his base in an attempt to communicate with Earth.

title: Mars Pathfinder