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Octatonic scale

An octatonic scale is any eight-note musical scale. However, the term most often refers to the ancohemitonic symmetric scale composed of alternating whole and half steps, as shown at right. In classical theory (in contrast to jazz theory), this symmetrical scale is commonly called the octatonic scale (or the octatonic collection), although there are a total of 43 enharmonically inequivalent, transpositionally inequivalent eight-note sets.

The earliest systematic treatment of the octatonic scale was in Edmond de Polignac's unpublished treatise "Étude sur les successions alternantes de tons et demi-tons (Et sur la gamme dite majeure-mineure)" (Study of the Succession of Alternating Whole Tones and Semitones (and of the so-called Major-Minor Scale)) from c. 1879, which preceded Vito Frazzi's Scale alternate per pianoforte of 1930 by 50 years.

Nomenclature
In Saint Petersburg at the turn of the 20th century, this scale had become so familiar in the circle of composers around Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov that it was referred to as the Korsakovian scale (Корсаковская гамма). As early as 1911, the Russian theorist Boleslav Yavorsky described this collection of pitches as the diminished mode (уменьшённый лад), because of the stable way the diminished fifth functions in it. In more recent Russian theory, the term octatonic is not used. Instead, this scale is placed among other symmetrical modes (total 11) under its historical name Rimsky-Korsakov scale, or Rimsky-Korsakov mode.)

In jazz theory, it is called the diminished scale or symmetric diminished scale because it can be conceived as a combination of two interlocking diminished seventh chords, just as the augmented scale can be conceived as a combination of two interlocking augmented triads. The two modes are sometimes referred to as the half-step/whole step diminished scale and the whole step/half-step diminished scale.

Because it was associated in the early 20th century with the Dutch composer Willem Pijper, in the Netherlands it is called the Pijper scale.

Construction
The twelve tones of the chromatic scale are covered by three disjoint diminished seventh chords. The notes from two such seventh-chords combination form an octatonic collection. Because there are three ways to select two from three, there are three octatonic scales in the twelve-tone system.

Each octatonic scale has exactly two modes: the first begins its ascent with a whole step, while the second begins its ascent with a half step (semitone). These modes are sometimes referred to as the whole step/half-step diminished scale and the half-step/whole step diminished scale, respectively.

Each of the three distinct scales can form differently named scales with the same sequence of tones by starting at a different point in the scale. With alternative starting points listed below in square brackets, and return to tonic in parentheses, the three are, ascending by semitones:

 * C♯ D♯ [E] F♯ [G] A [A♯] B♯ (C♯)
 * D E [F] G [G♯] A♯ [B] C♯ (D)
 * E♭ F [G♭] A♭ [A♮] B [C] D (E♭)

It may also be represented as semitones, either starting with a whole tone (as above): 0 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 (12), or starting with a semitone: 0 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 (12), or labeled as set class 8‑28.

With one more scale tone than described by the western diatonic scale, it is not possible to perfectly notate music of the octatonic scale using any conventional key signature without the use of accidentals. Across all conventional key signatures, at least two of the octatonic notes must share similar horizontal alignment on the staves, although the precise combination of accidentals and naturals varies. There are usually several equally succinct combinations of key signature and accidentals, and different composers have chosen to notate their music differently, sometimes ignoring the niceties of notation conventions designed to facilitate diatonic tonality.

Symmetry
The three octatonic collections are transpositionally and inversionally symmetric—that is, they are related by a variety of transposition and inversion operations:

They are each closed under transpositions by 3, 6, or 9 semitones. A transposition by 1, 4, 7, or 10 semitones will transform the E♭ scale into the D♭ scale, the C♯ scale into the D scale, and the D scale into the E♭ scale. Conversely, transpositions by 2, 5, 8, or 11 semitones acts in the reverse way; the E♭ scale goes to the D scale, D to C♯ and C♯ to E♭. Thus, the set of transpositions acts on the set of diminished collections as the integers modulo 3. If the transposition is congruent to 0 mod 3 the pitch collection is unchanged and the transpositions by 1 semitone or by 2 semitones are inverse to one another.

The E♭ and C♯ collections can be swapped by inversions around E♭, F♯, A or C (the tones common to both scales). Similarly, the C♯ and D collections can be swapped by inversions around E, G, B♭/A♯, D♭/C♯ and the D and E♭ collections by inversions around D, F, A♭, or B. All other transformations do not change the classes (e.g. reflecting the E♭ collection around E gives the E♭ collection once again). This unfortunately means that the inversions do not act as a simple cyclic group on the set of diminished scales.

Subsets
Among the collection's remarkable features is that it is the only collection that can be disassembled into four transpositionally related pitch pairs in six different ways, each of which features a different interval class. For example:
 * semitone: (C, C♯), (D♯, E) (F♯, G), (A, B♭)
 * whole step: (C♯, D♯), (E, F♯), (G, A), (B♭, C)
 * minor third: (C, E♭), (F♯, A), (C♯, E), (G, B♭)
 * major third: (C, E), (F♯, B♭), (E♭, G), (A, C♯)
 * perfect fourth: (C♯, F♯), (B♭, E♭), (G, C), (E, A)
 * tritone: (C, F♯), (E♭, A), (C♯, G), (E, B♭)

Another remarkable feature of the diminished scale is that it contains the first four notes of four different minor scales separated by minor thirds. For example: C, D, E♭, F and (enharmonically) F♯, G♯, A, B. Also E♭, F, G♭, A♭, and A, B, C, D.

The scale "allows familiar harmonic and linear configurations such as triads and modal tetrachords to be juxtaposed unusually but within a rational framework" though the relation of the diatonic scale to the melodic and harmonic surface is thus generally oblique.

Early examples
Joseph Schillinger suggests that the scale was formulated already by Persian traditional music in the 7th century AD, where it was called "Zar ef Kend", meaning "string of pearls", the idea being that the two different sizes of intervals were like two different sizes of pearls.

Octatonic scales first occurred in Western music as byproducts of a series of minor-third transpositions. While Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov claimed he was conscious of the octatonic collection "as a cohesive frame of reference" in his autobiography My Musical Life, instances can be found in music of previous centuries. Eytan Agmon locates one in Domenico Scarlatti's Sonata K. 319. In the following passage, according to Richard Taruskin, "its descending whole-step/half-step bass progression is complete and continuous".

Taruskin also cites the following bars from J. S. Bach's English Suite No. 3 as octatonic:

Honoré Langlé's 1797 harmony treatise contains a sequential progression with a descending octatonic bass, supporting harmonies that use all and only the notes of an octatonic scale.

19th century
In 1800, Beethoven composed his Piano Sonata No. 11 in B♭, Op. 22. The slow movement of this work contains a passage of what was, for its time, highly dissonant harmony. In a lecture (2005), pianist András Schiff describes the harmony of this passage as "really extraordinary". The chord progressions at the beginning of the second and third bars of this passage are octatonic:

Octatonic scales can be found in Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 50, No. 3 and in several Liszt piano works: the closing measures of the third Étude de Concert, "Un Sospiro," for example, where (mm. 66–70) the bass contains a complete falling octatonic scale from D-flat to D-flat, in the opening piano cadenzas of Totentanz, in the lower notes between the alternating hands, and in the First Mephisto Waltz, in which a short cadenza (m. 525) makes use of it by harmonizing it with a B-flat Diminished Seventh chord. Later in the 19th century, the notes in the chords of the coronation bells from the opening scene of Modest Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov, which consist of "two dominant seventh chords with roots a tritone apart" according to Taruskin, are entirely derived from an octatonic scale. Taruskin continues: "Thanks to the reinforcement the lesson has received in some equally famous pieces like Scheherazade, the progression is often thought of as being peculiarly Russian."

Tchaikovsky was also influenced by the harmonic and coloristic potential of octatonicism. As Mark DeVoto points out, the cascading arpeggios played on the celesta in the "Sugar Plum Fairy" from The Nutcracker ballet are made up of dominant seventh chords a minor third apart. "Hagens Watch", one of the darkest and most sinister scenes in Richard Wagner's opera Götterdämmerung features chromatic harmonies using eleven of the twelve chromatic notes, within which the eight notes of the octatonic scale may be found in bars 9–10 below:

Late 19th and 20th century

The scale is also found in the music of Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Melodic phrases that move by alternating tones and semitones frequently appear in the works of both these composers. Allen Forte identifies a five-note segment in the cor anglais melody heard near the start of Debussy's "Nuages" from his orchestral suite Nocturnes as octatonic. Mark DeVoto describes "Nuages" as "arguably [Debussy's] boldest single leap into the musical unknown. 'Nuages' defines a kind of tonality never heard before, based on the centricity of a diminished tonic triad (B-D-F natural)." According to Stephen Walsh, the cor anglais theme "hangs in the texture like some motionless object, always the same and always at the same pitch". There is a particularly striking and effective use of the octatonic scale in the opening bars of Liszt's late piece Bagatelle sans tonalité from 1885.

The scale was extensively used by Rimsky-Korsakov's student Igor Stravinsky, particularly in his Russian-period works such as Petrushka (1911), The Rite of Spring (1913), up to the Symphonies of Wind Instruments (1920). Passages using this scale are unmistakable as early as the Scherzo fantastique, Fireworks (both from 1908), and The Firebird (1910). It also appears in later works by Stravinsky, such as the Symphony of Psalms (1930), the Symphony in Three Movements (1945), most of the neoclassical works from the Octet (1923) to Agon (1957), and even in some of the later serial compositions such as the Canticum Sacrum (1955) and Threni (1958). In fact, "few if any composers have been known to employ relations available to the collection as extensively or in as varied a manner as Stravinsky".

The second movement of Stravinsky's Octet for wind instruments opens with what Stephen Walsh calls "a broad melody completely in the octatonic scale". Jonathan Cross describes a highly rhythmic passage in the first movement of the Symphony in Three Movements as "gloriously octatonic, not an unfamiliar situation in jazz, where this mode is known as the 'diminished scale', but Stravinsky of course knew it from Rimsky. The 'rumba' passage... alternates chords of E-flat7 and C7, over and over, distantly recalling the coronation scene from Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov. In celebrating America, the émigré looked back once again to Russia." Van den Toorn catalogues many other octatonic moments in Stravinsky's music.

The scale also may be found in music of Alexander Scriabin and Béla Bartók. In Bartók's Bagatelles, Fourth Quartet, Cantata Profana, and Improvisations, the octatonic is used with the diatonic, whole tone, and other "abstract pitch formations" all "entwined... in a very complex mixture". Mikrokosmos Nos. 99, 101, and 109 are octatonic pieces, as is No. 33 of the 44 Duos for Two Violins. "In each piece, changes of motive and phrase correspond to changes from one of the three octatonic scales to another, and one can easily select a single central and referential form of 8–28 in the context of each complete piece." However, even his larger pieces also feature "sections that are intelligible as 'octatonic music.

Olivier Messiaen made frequent use of the octatonic scale throughout his career as a composer, and indeed in his seven modes of limited transposition, the octatonic scale is Mode 2. Peter Hill writes in detail about "La Colombe" (The Dove), the first of a set of Preludes for piano that Messiaen completed in 1929, at the age of 20. Hill speaks of a characteristic "merging of tonality (E major) with the octatonic mode" in this short piece.

Other twentieth-century composers who used octatonic collections include Samuel Barber, Ernest Bloch, Benjamin Britten, Julian Cochran, George Crumb, Irving Fine, Ross Lee Finney, Alberto Ginastera, John Harbison, Jacques Hétu, Aram Khachaturian, Witold Lutosławski, Darius Milhaud, Henri Dutilleux, Robert Morris, Carl Orff, Jean Papineau-Couture, Krzysztof Penderecki, Francis Poulenc, Sergei Prokofiev, Alexander Scriabin, Dmitri Shostakovich, Toru Takemitsu, Joan Tower, Robert Xavier Rodriguez, John Williams and Frank Zappa. Other composers include Willem Pijper, who may have inferred the collection from Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, which he greatly admired, and composed at least one piece—his Piano Sonatina No. 2—entirely in the octatonic system.

In the 1920s, Heinrich Schenker criticized the use of the octatonic scale, specifically Stravinsky's Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments, for the oblique relation between the diatonic scale and the harmonic and melodic surface.

Jazz
Both the half-whole diminished and its partner mode, the whole-half diminished (with a tone rather than a semitone beginning the pattern) are commonly used in jazz improvisation, frequently under different names. The whole-half diminished scale is commonly used in conjunction with diminished harmony (e.g., the Edim7 chord) while the half-whole scale is used in dominant harmony (e.g., with an F♭9 chord).

Examples of octatonic jazz include Jaco Pastorius' composition "Opus Pocus" from the album Pastorius and Herbie Hancock's piano solo on "Freedom Jazz Dance" from the album Miles Smiles (1967).

Rock and pop
Jonny Greenwood of the English rock group Radiohead uses the octatonic scale extensively, such as in the song "Just" and his soundtrack for the film The Power of the Dog. He said "It's a slightly more grownup version of the pentatonic scales that we're all taught to do with xylophones and glockenspiels when you're a kid. It's not a major scale or a minor scale; it's something else. But all the notes work together and make a certain color that is its own thing."

The scale is used in progressive heavy metal music such as that by Dream Theater and Opeth, both of which strive for a dissonant and tonally ambiguous sound in their music. Examples include the instrumental break in Dream Theater's Octavarium and Opeth's Deliverance. Earlier examples of the scale's use in progressive rock include King Crimson's Red and Emerson Lake & Palmer's The Barbarian.

Progressive keyboardist Derek Sherinian is also closely associated with the octatonic scale, which can be found in most of his works, both solo and as part of a band. Examples include Planet X's Desert Girl and Sons of Apollo's King of Delusion. The dissonances associated with the scale when used in conjunction with conventional tonality form an integral part of his signature sound which has influenced hundreds of keyboardists of the 21st century.

Petrushka chord
The Petrushka chord is a recurring polytonal device used in Igor Stravinsky's ballet Petrushka and in later music. In the Petrushka chord, two major triads, C major and F♯ major – a tritone apart – clash, "horribly with each other", when sounded together and create a dissonant chord. The six-note chord is contained within an octatonic scale.

French sixth and Mystic chord
While used functionally as a pre-dominant chord in the classical period, late romantic composers saw the French sixth used as a dissonant and unstable chord. The chord can be built from the first, fourth, sixth and eighth degrees of the half-step/whole-step octatonic scale, and is transpositionally invariant about a tritone, a property somewhat contributing to its popularity. The octatonic collection contains two distinct French sixth chords a minor third apart, and since they share no notes, the scale can be thought of as the union of those two chords. For example, two French sixths based on G and E contain all the notes of an octatonic scale between them.

The octatonic scale is used very frequently for melodic material above a French sixth chord throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in Russia, in the music of Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky, Scriabin and Stravinsky, but also outside Russia in the works of Debussy and Ravel. Examples include Rimsky's Scheherezade, Scriabin's Five Preludes, Op. 74, Debussy's Nuages and Ravel's Scarbo. All works are full of non-functional French sixths, and the octatonic scale is almost always the mode of choice.

By adding a major sixth above the root, from within the scale, and a major second, from outside the scale, the new chord is the Mystic chord found in some of Scriabin's late works. While no longer transpositionally invariant, Scriabin teases the tritone symmetry of the French sixth in his music by alternating transpositions of the Mystic chord a tritone apart, implying the notes of an octatonic scale.

Bitonality
In Béla Bartók's piano piece, "Diminished Fifth" from Mikrokosmos, octatonic collections form the basis of the pitch content. In mm. 1–11, all eight pitch classes from the E♭ diminished scale appear. In mm. 1–4, the pitch classes A, B, C, and D appear in the right hand, and the pitch classes E♭, F, G♭, and A♭ are in the left hand. The collection in the right hand outlines the first four notes of an A minor scale, and the collection in the left hand outlines the first four notes of an E♭ minor scale. In mm. 5–11, the left and right hand switch—the A minor tetrachord appears in the left hand, and the E♭ minor tetrachord appears in the right hand.

From this, one can see that Bartók has partitioned the octatonic collection into two (symmetrical) four-note segments of the natural minor scales a tritone apart. Paul Wilson argues against viewing this as bitonality since "the larger octatonic collection embraces and supports both supposed tonalities".

Bartók also utilizes the two other octatonic collections so that all three possible octatonic collections are found throughout this piece (D♭, D, and E♭). In mm. 12–18, all eight pitch classes from the D♭ octatonic collection are present. The E♭ octatonic collection from mm. 1–11 is related to this D♭ octatonic collection by the transposition operations, T, T4, T7, T10. In mm. 26–29, all eight pitch classes from the D octatonic collection appear. This collection is related to the E♭ octatonic collection from mm. 1–11 by the following transposition operations: T2, T5, T8, T11.

Other relevant features of the piece include the groups of three notes taken from the whole-half diminished scale in mm. 12–18. In these measures, the right hand features D♭, E♭, and G♭, the tetrachord without the 3rd (F). The left hand has the same tetrachord transposed down a tritone (G, A, C). In mm. 16, both hands transpose down three semitones to B♭, C, E♭ and E, G♭, A respectively. Later on, in mm. 20, the right hand moves on to A− and the left back to E♭−. After repeating the structure of mm. 12–19 in mm. 29–34 the piece ends with the treble part returning to A− and the bass part returning to E♭.

Alpha chord
The alpha chord (α chord) collection is, "a vertically organized statement of the octatonic scale as two diminished seventh chords", such as: C♯–E–G–B♭–C–E♭–F♯–A.

One of the most important subsets of the alpha collection, the alpha chord (Forte number: 4-17, pitch class prime form (0347)), such as E–G–C–E♭; using the theorist Ernő Lendvai's terminology, the C alpha chord may be considered a mistuned major chord or major/minor in first inversion (in this case, C major/minor). The number of semitones in the interval array of the alpha chord corresponds to the Fibonacci sequence.

Beta chord
The beta chord (β chord) is a five-note chord, formed from the first five notes of the alpha chord (integers: 0,3,6,9,11; notes: C♯, E, G, B♭, C♮). The beta chord can also occur in its reduced form, that is, limited to the characteristic tones (C♯, E, G, C♮ and C♯, G, C♮). Forte number: 5-31B.

The beta chord may be created from a diminished seventh chord by adding a diminished octave. It may be created from a major chord by adding the sharpened root (solfege: in C, di is C♯: C♯, E, G, C♮), or from a diminished triad by adding the root's major 7th (called a diminished major 7th, or C#Maj7. The diminished octave is inverted creates a minor ninth, creating a C(♭9) chord, a sound commonly heard in the V chord during an authentic cadence in a minor key.

Gamma chord
The gamma chord (γ chord) is 0,3,6,8,11 (Forte number 5-32A) It is the beta chord with one interval diminished: C♯, E, G, A, C♮. It may be considered a major-minor minor seventh chord on A: A, C♮, C♯, E, G. See also: Elektra chord. This is also commonly known as the Hendrix chord, or in jazz music as a Dominant 7♯9 chord; the notes in this case creating an A7♯9.

Hungarian major and Romanian major
The Hungarian major scale and Romanian major scale are both heptatonic subsets of the octatonic scale with one scale degree removed. The Hungarian major scale has the ♭2 degree removed, while the Romanian major scale has the ♭3 degree removed.

title: Octatonic scale


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Altered scale

In jazz, the altered scale, altered dominant scale, or Super Locrian scale (Locrian ♭4 scale) is a seven-note scale that is a dominant scale where all non-essential tones have been altered. This means that it comprises the three irreducibly essential tones that define a dominant seventh chord, which are root, major third, and minor seventh and that all other chord tones have been altered. These are:
 * the fifth is altered to a ♭5 and a ♯5
 * the ninth is altered to a ♭9 and a ♯9
 * the eleventh is altered to a ♯11 (equivalent to a ♭5)
 * the thirteenth is altered to a ♭13 (equivalent to a ♯5)

The altered forms of some of the non-essential tones coincide (augmented eleventh with diminished fifth and augmented fifth with minor thirteenth) meaning those scale degrees are enharmonically identical and have multiple potential spellings. The natural forms of the non-essential tones are not present in the scale. This means it lacks a major ninth, a perfect eleventh, a perfect fifth, and a major thirteenth.

This is written below in musical notation with the essential chord tones coloured black and the non-essential altered chord tones coloured red.

The altered scale is made by the sequence:

 * Half, Whole, Half, Whole, Whole, Whole, Whole

The abbreviation "alt" (for "altered") used in chord symbols enhances readability by reducing the number of characters otherwise needed to define the chord and avoids the confusion of multiple equivalent complex names. For example, "C7alt" supplants "C7♯5♭9♯9♯11", "C7−5+5−9+9", "Caug7−9+9+11", etc.

This scale has existed for a long time as the 7th mode of the ascending melodic minor scale.

Enharmonic spellings and alternate names
The C altered scale is also enharmonically equivalent to the C Locrian mode with F changed to F♭. For this reason, the altered scale is sometimes called the Locrian ♭ 4 scale.

It is also enharmonically the seventh mode of the ascending melodic minor scale. The altered scale is also known as the Pomeroy scale after Herb Pomeroy, the Ravel scale after Maurice Ravel, and the diminished whole tone scale due to its resemblance to the lower part of the diminished scale and the upper part of the whole tone scale.

The super-Locrian scale (enharmonically identical to the altered scale) is obtained by flattening the fourth note of the diatonic Locrian mode:

Another way to obtain the altered scale is by raising the tonic of a major scale by a half step. For example taking the tonic of the B-major scale, and raising the tonic by a half step produces the scale C–C–D–E–F–G–A–C.

The altered scale can also be the major scale with all of the notes except the tonic being flattened.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Altered scale


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According to Jim

According to Jim is an American sitcom television series starring Jim Belushi in the title role as a suburban father of three children (and then five children, starting with the seventh season finale). It originally ran on ABC from October 3, 2001, to June 2, 2009.

Synopsis

Jim is a happy-go-lucky suburban father. Much like his real-life counterpart, Jim's character is a fan of blues music, as well as the Chicago Bears, Chicago Cubs, Chicago Bulls and Chicago Blackhawks. Together with his wife Cheryl, they have three children, daughters Ruby and Gracie and son Kyle. In the seventh season they become parents of twin boys Gordon and Jonathan.

Jim often finds himself in difficult situations, because his slacker sensibilities cause him to search for alternative ways to get things done with less effort. While Cheryl's brother Andy is Jim's best friend/brother-in-law, her sister Dana frequently teams up with Cheryl against Jim. He also prefers to lie to Cheryl and Dana to do his own activities but they end up backfiring on him. He hates losing to women, especially if Cheryl or Dana find out. He doesn't like people interrupting him when he talks, so he speaks over them to shut them up. Jim often makes an example of Andy, who for most of the series does not have a steady girlfriend. Dana and Jim argue constantly, but Dana flirts with Jim when she's drunk, discovering after one such event that she respects Jim as a loving father despite his flaws.

Main and recurring cast

 * Jim Belushi as James "Jim" (seasons 1–8): the titular role of the series. Jim is a suburban family man, successful construction business owner (Ground Up Design), and blues garage band frontman. In his stubborn ways, Jim gets himself into various predicaments, which compel him to solve in creative ways, all while battling his own conscience. Despite his best efforts, Jim ultimately admits his wrong-doings to Cheryl and others involved. Shenanigans aside, Jim is happily married to his loving wife, Cheryl. Jim and Cheryl's three children (Ruby, Gracie and Kyle) complement the family dynamic through the series' run. At the end of season 7, Cheryl gives birth to the series' identical twin sons, Johnathan and Gordon. Jim is an avid Chicago sports enthusiast. In numerous episodes, Jim is seen watching Chicago Bears football games in his living room. In season 4's "Poking the Bear" episode, Jim shows his disdain for other football teams when his potential client takes him to a Green Bay Packers game.  He enjoys playing harmonica and fronting his garage band. In various episodes, he and his band practice in the garage, except when Cheryl takes over the garage with a yoga class in season 2's "The Closet" episode, forcing Jim and the band to practice in the attic.
 * Courtney Thorne-Smith as Cheryl (seasons 1–8): Jim's wife, as well as Dana and Andy's older sister. Last names were never revealed for Jim and Cheryl, only middle names, (Orenthal and Mable).
 * Kimberly Williams-Paisley as Dana Gibson (seasons 1–7; special guest season 8): Cheryl's younger sister. Dana is a vice president for a marketing company and prides herself at being good at her job. She often sides with her sister, Cheryl, during family quarrels.
 * Larry Joe Campbell as Andrew "Andy" (seasons 1–8): Cheryl's younger brother. Andy is a Stanford University graduate and works for Jim as an architect at their construction company, Ground Up Design. He often sides with Jim during family squabbles. He is a sci-fi enthusiast who collects video games, Nerf guns, DVD movies, board games, and comic books (as seen in season 6's "Separate Ways"). Andy considers himself to be a "ladies’ man", but his pick-up lines don't bring many long-term relationships.
 * Taylor Atelian as Ruby (seasons 1–8): Jim and Cheryl's first child. Like her mother, Cheryl, Ruby is a leader amongst her siblings.
 * Billi Bruno as Gracie (seasons 1–8): Jim and Cheryl's second child. Gracie often sides with Ruby during sibling rivalries against Kyle.
 * Conner Rayburn as Kyle (seasons 4–8): Jim and Cheryl's third child. Kyle is not particularly interested in sports and finds it difficult to connect with his father on the topic.
 * Mitch Rouse as Dr. Ryan "Doc" Gibson (recurring seasons 4–6; guest season 8): Cheryl's doctor in season 4's "Poking the Bear" episode. Ryan later becomes Dana's boyfriend, the two eventually marry, and have 1 child together.

Other appearances

 * Tony Braunagel as Tony (seasons 1–8): A member of Jim's band
 * Connor and Garret Sullivan as baby Kyle (seasons 1–3)
 * John Rubano as John (seasons 1–8): A member of Jim's band
 * Charlie Hartsock as Charlie (seasons 3–8): A member of Jim's band
 * Robert Belushi as Pizza boy / adult Kyle / Various (seasons 1–6, 8)
 * Mark Beltzman as Beltzman (seasons 3–4, 6): A member of Jim's band
 * Christopher Moniyhan as Chris (seasons 1–2): A member of Jim's band
 * Jamison Belushi as Various (seasons 5–8)
 * Dan Aykroyd as Danny Michalski (seasons 1–3, 8): Jim's long-time friend and police officer
 * Kathleen Noone as Maggie (seasons 1–2, 4–5): Cheryl, Dana and Andy's mother
 * Jackie Debatin as Mandy (season 8): Ruby's piano teacher. Later, Andy's girlfriend.
 * Cynthia Stevenson as Cindy Devlin (seasons 2–4, 6): Cheryl's obnoxious soccer-mom friend
 * Tim Bagley as Tim Devlin (seasons 2–4, 6): Cindy's husband
 * Mo Collins as Emily (seasons 7–8): Andy's girlfriend
 * Chris Elliott as Reverend Pierson (seasons 2–3)
 * Brad Paisley as Eddie (season 2): Dana's boyfriend and Andy's replacement on keyboards for a gig. He also portrays Chad (season 2) in the episodes "You Gotta Love Somebody (Parts 1 & 2)".
 * Laraine Newman as Officer Laraine Elkin (seasons 2–3): Danny's police officer partner
 * Jennifer Coolidge as Roxanne (seasons 2–3): Jim's estranged sister
 * Erik Estrada as Himself (season 5). He also portrays the Devil (season 8) in the episode "Heaven Opposed to Hell".
 * Lee Majors as God (seasons 7–8)
 * Nicole Sullivan as Alicia (season 1): Ruby's piano teacher and Andy's girlfriend
 * Brian Urlacher as Himself (season 1)
 * Cindy Crawford as Gretchen Saunders (season 2): A seductive female manager at a car dealership in "Cars & Chicks"
 * Mike Ditka as Himself (season 2)
 * Trista Sutter as Herself (season 2)
 * Bo Diddley as Himself (season 2)
 * Jack Coleman as Sean Curran (season 2)
 * Wayne Newton as Himself (season 2)
 * Jane Lynch as Janice (season 3): Jim and Cheryl's neighbor
 * Tom Bergeron as Himself (season 3)
 * James Earl Jones as the voice of Royal Flush (season 3): A stainless steel talking toilet
 * Dave Coulier as the voice of Angry Pete (season 4): A psychotic turkey in "The Hunters"
 * Tom Arnold as Max (season 4): A Green Bay Packers fan and Jim's potential client
 * Hugh Hefner as Himself (season 5)
 * Linda Hamilton as Melissa Evans (season 5): Jim's former girlfriend
 * Barry Williams as Ben (season 5)
 * Julie Newmar as Herself (season 5)
 * Tim Meadows as Dennis (season 6)
 * George Takei as Himself (season 6)
 * Phil LaMarr as Kurt (season 6)
 * Cole Sprouse as Himself (season 7)
 * Dylan Sprouse as Himself (season 7)
 * Steve Guttenberg as Himself (season 8)
 * Rob Moran as Director (season 8)
 * Constance Marie as Victoria (season 8): Jim's former girlfriend
 * James Lipton as The Devil (season 7)

Development
According to Jim was created by Tracy Newman and Jonathan Stark. The sitcom was produced by ABC's in-house production company and Newman/Stark, Suzanne Bukinik Entertainment and Brad Grey Television. The series was filmed at the CBS Studio Center in Los Angeles.

Belushi, besides playing Jim, directed 30 episodes and is credited as executive producer.

Belushi's fictional character Jim's band in the series is the real-life House of Blues band The Sacred Hearts, for which Jim Belushi often sings lead.

Influences
Belushi says he set the show's trademark tone back in the show's 2001 pilot.

"The original script called for Jim to go to the wife and apologize," he recalls. "I said to the writers, 'Why do we have to do a show where the guy is going to apologize at the end of every episode? Was he really wrong? He's contrite, sure. But isn't he just being a man?'"

In an interview, Jim Belushi explained that the show many times directly reflected his actual life. Quite a few episodes were experiences taken directly from Belushi's home. Most of the episodes were taken from experiences inside the writers' homes, too. He adds:

""Every show is based in somebody's reality. Whether it's [co-stars] Larry's, or mine, or Courtney's, or the writers'. Because it was a relationship show about a family, everyone would bring in their experiences as a family, and we would do shows around them.""

Family names
Last names were never really addressed for the entire run of the show. None of the main characters did get a last name until Season 4 when Kimberly Williams-Paisley's character Dana married Dr. Ryan Gibson (played by Mitch Rouse). She became Dana Gibson with their marriage. Only guest characters had first and last names in most cases.

Music
The According to Jim soundtrack was recorded at Ultratone Studies in Studio City, California and released by Hollywood Records on November 1, 2005.

Track listing
All songs are performed by Jim Belushi and The Sacred Hearts.

Broadcast
The show first aired following the surprise hit comedy My Wife and Kids and quickly developed an audience of its own. For its second season ABC placed it on its revitalized Tuesday line-up, which also included John Ritter's 8 Simple Rules, Bonnie Hunt's Life with Bonnie and Sara Rue's Less than Perfect. Week by week, the show attracted more and more viewers, becoming ABC's second most watched sitcom. The show performed so well that the network made a risky move: putting Jim opposite the NBC juggernaut Frasier. Although Jim did not beat the competition, it performed well enough to secure itself that spot on the 2003 fall schedule.

On May 15, 2007, ABC announced that According to Jim would not be renewed for another season. ABC Entertainment President Stephen McPherson said, "We are talking to the studio to see if there's something financially, a deal that would make sense for us." But on June 27, 2007, ABC renewed the show for a seventh season with 18 episodes.

According to Jim returned to ABC's schedule on Tuesday, January 1, 2008, with two episodes at 9 pm and 9:30 pm. After that, the series moved to its regular time slot at 8 pm. Despite the writer's strike, ABC announced that the show would produce all 18 episodes ordered for this season.

On February 27, 2008, it was reported that ABC was close to renewing According to Jim for an eighth season. On May 13, 2008, ABC officially renewed the series and Season 8 began airing on December 2, 2008. Kimberly Williams-Paisley left the show's regular cast at the beginning of Season 8 and was not in the Season 8 opening credits, to devote her time to motherhood. She made a guest appearance only in the season finale.

In December 2008, co-star Larry Joe Campbell said that the sets had been destroyed, indicating that the series was canceled, but that a series finale had been recorded. After the first six episodes of Season 8 all aired in December, According to Jim returned to ABC's schedule on April 14, 2009, for the final 12 episodes. The series finale of According to Jim aired on June 2, 2009, on ABC, and was titled "Heaven Opposed to Hell."

Home media
Lionsgate Home Entertainment (under license from ABC Studios) has released the first five seasons on DVD in Region 1.

Ratings
The sitcom debuted in 2001 on ABC with an average of 10 million viewers for its first year. The audience grew in the second year to over 10.3 million. The ratings remained consistent for Seasons 3 and 4 as well. Starting with Season 5, the ratings began to decline. The series was often scheduled against the hugely successful American Idol. By Season 6, According to Jim was down to 6.7 million viewers.

Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of According to Jim on ABC.

Note: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.

Accolades
According to Jim was nominated for 20 awards, including four Primetime Emmy Awards (all for cinematography).

title: According to Jim


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Heinrich Kramer

Heinrich Kramer (c. 1430 – 1505, aged 74-75), also known under the Latinized name Henricus Institor, was a German churchman and inquisitor. With his widely distributed book Malleus Maleficarum (1487), which describes witchcraft and endorses detailed processes for the extermination of witches, he was instrumental in establishing the period of witch trials in the early modern period. Professor Malcolm Gaskill has described Kramer as a "superstitious psychopath."

Life
Born in Schlettstadt, now Sélestat, Alsace, he joined the Dominican Order at an early age and while still a young man was appointed Prior of the Dominican house of his native town.

At some date before 1474 he was appointed Inquisitor for the Tyrol, Salzburg, Bohemia and Moravia. His eloquence in the pulpit and tireless activity received recognition at Rome and he was the right-hand man of the Archbishop of Salzburg.

The papal bull Summis desiderantes which Pope Innocent VIII published in 1484 acknowledges the existence of witches and explicitly empowers the inquisition to prosecute witches and sorcerers. The bull aimed to reaffirm the jurisdiction of Kramer, who was denied authority as an inquisitor in Germany.

One year later, he went to Innsbruck as the head of an inquisitorial commission with the stated intention of "bringing witches to justice". Despite being granted episcopal jurisdiction to conduct trials by Georg Golser, bishop of Brixen, the latter eventually acquired a distaste for Kramer's alleged scandals.

This most likely referred to the whole interrogation of Helena Scheuberin in Innsbruck and six other citizens accused of witchcraft. Helena herself, married to a prosperous burgher named Sebastian, was described as an "aggressive, independent woman who was not afraid to speak her mind". Right after Kramer had arrived in the city, she had passed him in the street, spat and cursed him publicly: "Fie on you, you bad monk, may the falling evil take you". Later, it was discovered she was not attending Kramer's sermons and encouraged others to do likewise, all of which were brought against her as charges for the crime of witchcraft. Helena even disrupted one of his sermons "by loudly proclaiming that she believed Institor to be an evil man in league with the devil".

During her trial, as Kramer focused heavily on the sexuality of Scheuberin, he was accused by the bishop of having "presumed much that had not been proved". Kramer remained in Innsbruck to continue the investigation, collect evidence, and interrogate suspected witches. Golser and Kramer exchanged letters encouraging Kramer to quit the investigation, ending with a final letter in 1486 in which Golser ordered Kramer to leave his diocese, the trials in Innsbruck finally being suspended. Kramer finally relented and returned to Cologne.

In response to the Bishop's criticism, Kramer began to write a treatise on witchcraft that later became the Malleus Maleficarum (commonly translated as "The Hammer of Witches"). The bull Summis desiderantes, which gave him the authority of prosecuting and investigating cases of sorcery, was included in the forefront of the book, first published in 1487.

Kramer failed in his attempt to obtain endorsement for this work from the top theologians of the Inquisition at the Faculty of Cologne, and they condemned the book as recommending unethical and illegal procedures, as well as being inconsistent to what they perceived as the orthodox Catholic doctrines of demonology.

In the overall evaluation, his works were praised and his prestige was growing. He was asked by the Nuremberg council to provide expert consultation on the procedure of witch trial in 1491. In 1495 he was summoned by the Master General of the Order, Joaquin de Torres, O.P. to Venice and gave very popular public lectures and disputations. They were worthy of presence and patronage of Patriarch of Venice. He also wrote treatises Several Discourses and Various Sermons upon the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist (Nuremberg, 1496); A Tract Confuting the Errors of Master Antonio degli Roselli (Venice, 1499); followed by The Shield of Defence of the Holy Roman Church Against the Picards and Waldenses which were quoted by many authors. He was appointed as papal nuncio and his assignment as inquisitor was changed to Bohemia and Moravia by Pope Alexander VI in 1500.

Summers observes that 17th-century "Dominican chroniclers, such as Quétif and Échard, number Kramer and Sprenger among the glories and heroes of their Order".

He passed his last days intensely writing and preaching until his death in Kroměříž in Moravia, in 1505.

Major works

 * Malleus Maleficarum, 1487
 * Several Discourses and Various Sermons upon the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, Nuremberg, 1496
 * The Shield of Defence of the Holy Roman Church Against the Picards and Waldenses, c. 1500
 * The Shield of Defence of the Holy Roman Church Against the Picards and Waldenses, c. 1500

title: Heinrich Kramer


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Carpetbag steak

Carpetbag steak or carpetbagger steak is a traditional working class dish from Mumbles, a historic oyster fishing village in Swansea, South Wales, UK. Over the years it has become a luxury dish, popular in the 1950s and 1960s in Australia and New Zealand.

It consists of an end cut of steak, such as scotch fillet or eye fillet. A pocket is cut in the meat via a small entry cut and then expanded internally, into which oysters are stuffed, and the opening closed with toothpicks or thread. As the dish is grilled, the flavour of the fresh oysters permeates the steak and blends with the juice of the tender meat.

The combination of beef and oysters is traditional and formed part of the everyday diet of oyster fisherman in Swansea in the mid 1800s. The earliest specific reference in the United States was a newspaper in 1891, which may indicate a connection with carpetbaggers or to gluttony. The earliest specific Australian reference is a printed recipe from between 1899 and 1907. Another recipe from 1909 includes cayenne pepper as an ingredient, which may indicate an American origin. The more recent Australian versions typically use Worcestershire sauce, as does the local version of Oysters Kilpatrick.

It is sometimes served standing up like a miniature mountain. A strip of bacon may be wrapped around the serving and surrounded by peeled and browned baby potato halves. In one style, the steak is marinated in a sauce of thyme, pepper, tarragon, lemon, sugar and tamarind and served with a glass of dessert wine.

title: Carpetbag steak


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Wellesley College

Wellesley College is a private women's liberal arts college in Wellesley, Massachusetts. Founded in 1870 by Henry and Pauline Durant as a female seminary, it is a member of the Seven Sisters Colleges, an unofficial grouping of current and former women's colleges in the northeastern United States.

Wellesley contains 60 departmental and interdepartmental majors spanning the liberal arts, as well as over 150 student clubs and organizations. Wellesley athletes compete in the NCAA Division III New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference. Its 500-acre (200 ha) campus was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and houses the Davis Museum and a botanic garden.

History
Wellesley was founded by Pauline and Henry Fowle Durant, believers in educational opportunity for women, who intended that the college should prepare women for "...great conflicts, for vast reforms in social life". Its charter was signed on March 17, 1870, by Massachusetts Governor William Claflin. The original name of the college was the Wellesley Female Seminary; its renaming to Wellesley College was approved by the Massachusetts legislature on March 7, 1873. Wellesley first opened its doors to students on September 8, 1875. At the time of its founding, Wellesley College's campus was actually situated in Needham; however, in 1880 residents of West Needham voted to secede and in 1881 the area was chartered as a new town, Wellesley.

Wellesley College was a leading center for women's study in the sciences. Between 1875 and 1921, Wellesley employed more female scientists than any other U.S. institution of high education. After MIT, it was the second college in the United States to initiate laboratory science instruction for undergraduates. In early 1896, Sarah Frances Whiting, the first professor of physics and astronomy, was among the first U.S. scientists to conduct experiments in X-rays.

The first president of Wellesley was Ada Howard. There have been thirteen more presidents in its history: Alice Freeman Palmer, Helen Almira Shafer, Julia Irvine, Caroline Hazard, Ellen Fitz Pendleton, Mildred H. McAfee, Margaret Clapp, Ruth M. Adams, Barbara W. Newell, Nannerl O. Keohane (later the president of Duke University from 1993 to 2004), Diana Chapman Walsh, H. Kim Bottomly, and current president Paula Johnson.

The original architecture of the college consisted of one very large building, College Hall, which was approximately 150 m in length and five stories in height. It was completed in 1875. The architect was Hammatt Billings. College Hall was both an academic building and a residential building. On March 17, 1914, it was destroyed by fire, the precise cause of which was never officially established. The fire was first noticed by students who lived on the fourth floor near the zoology laboratory. It has been suggested that an electrical or chemical accident in this laboratory—specifically, an electrical incubator used in the breeding of beetles—triggered the fire.

A group of residence halls known as the Tower Court complex is located on top of the hill where the old College Hall once stood.

After the loss of the Central College Hall in 1914, the college adopted a master plan in 1921 and expanded into several new buildings. The campus hosted a Naval Reserve Officer Training program during the Second World War, and the College President Mildred McAfee took a leave of absence to lead the Women's Reserve of the U.S. Navy. She received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945. Wellesley College began to significantly revise its curriculum after the war and through the late 1960s; in 1968, the college began its exchange programs between other colleges in the area such as MIT. In 2013 the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.

The school has admitted transgender, non-binary, and genderqueer students since adopting an inclusive admissions policy in 2015.

Campus
The 500 acre campus overlooks Lake Waban and includes evergreen, deciduous woodlands and open meadows. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Boston's preeminent landscape architect at the beginning of the 20th century, described Wellesley's landscape as "not merely beautiful, but with a marked individual character not represented so far as I know on the ground of any other college in the country". He also wrote: "I must admit that the exceedingly intricate and complex topography and the peculiarly scattered arrangement of most of the buildings somewhat baffled me". The campus is adjacent to the privately owned Hunnewell Estates Historic District, the gardens of which can be viewed from the lake's edge on campus.

The original master plan for Wellesley's campus landscape was developed by Olmsted, Arthur Shurcliff, and Ralph Adams Cram in 1921. This landscape-based concept represented a break from the architecturally-defined courtyard and quadrangle campus arrangement that was typical of American campuses at the time. The 720 acre site's glaciated topography, a series of meadows, and native plant communities shaped the original layout of the campus, resulting in a campus architecture that is integrated into its landscape.

The campus offers multiple housing options, including Tower Court, which was built after College Hall burnt down, the Quad (Quint, including Munger), the "New Dorms", referring to the east-side dormitories erected in the 1950s, and multiple "Branch Halls", including both a Spanish and French-speaking house. In total, Wellesley offers 17 different residence halls for students to live in.

The most recent master plan for Wellesley College was completed in 1998 by Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. According to the designers, this plan was intended to restore and recapture the original landscape character of the campus that had been partially lost as the campus evolved through the 20th century. In 2011, Wellesley was listed by Travel+Leisure magazine as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States.

Wellesley is home to Green Hall, completed in 1931, the only building bearing the name of famed miser Hetty Green; the building was funded by her children. Part of the building is the Galen L. Stone Tower, housing a 32-bell carillon, which is routinely played between classes by members of the Guild of Carillonneurs.

Houghton Chapel was dedicated in 1899 in the center of the college campus. The architectural firm of Heins & LaFarge designed Houghton of gray stone in the classic Latin cross floor plan. The exterior walls are pierced by stained glass windows. Window designers include Tiffany; John La Farge; Reynolds, Francis & Rohnstock; and Jeffrey Gibson. The chapel can seat up to 750 people. Houghton is used by the college for a variety of religious and secular functions, like lectures and music concerts, and is also available for rental. The lower-level houses the Multifaith Center.

In 1905 Andrew Carnegie donated $125,000 to build what is now known as Clapp Library, on the condition that the college match the amount for an endowment. The money was raised by 1907 and construction began June 5, 1909. In 1915 Carnegie gave another $95,446 towards an addition. This renovation added a recreational reading room, offices, archives, a reserve reading room, added space for rare books and additional stacks. The building underwent renovations from 1956 to 1959, that doubled its size. From 1973 to 1975 a major addition was added to the right-hand side of the building. In 1974 the building was renamed for Margaret Antoinette Clapp, a Pulitzer Prize-winning author and member of the 1930 class who served as the eighth college president from 1949 to 1966.

The Davis Museum, opened in 1993, was the first building in North America designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Rafael Moneo, whose notion of the museum as a "treasury" or "treasure chamber" informs its design. The Davis is at the heart of the arts on the Wellesley campus adjacent to the academic quad and is connected by an enclosed bridge to the Jewett Arts Center, designed by Paul Rudolph. The collections span from ancient art from around the world to contemporary art exhibitions, and admission is free to the general public.

Administration
The current president of Wellesley College is Paula Johnson. With a remarkable track record of accomplishments—she founded the Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology at Brigham and Women's Hospital—she has led in the field of women's health, taking an interdisciplinary approach to biology by integrating insights from sociology, economics, and many other fields. Paula Johnson was the Grace A. Young Family Professor of Medicine in the Field of Women's Health at Harvard Medical School, as well as professor of epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Johnson succeeded H. Kim Bottomly to become Wellesley's 14th President in July 2016.

Wellesley's fund-raising campaign in 2005 set a record for liberal arts colleges with a total of $472.3 million, 18.1% more than the goal of $400 million. According to data compiled by The Chronicle of Higher Education, Wellesley's campaign total is the largest of any liberal arts college. In late 2015, the college launched another campaign, with a goal of $500 million. Many notable alumnae including Madeleine Albright, Hillary Clinton, Diane Sawyer, Susan Wagner, and Cokie Roberts collaborated on the campaign video and launch festivities. As of Fall 2017, over $446 million has been raised.

Wellesley Centers for Women
The Wellesley Centers for Women (WCW) is one of the largest gender-focused social science research-and-action organizations in the United States. Located on and nearby the Wellesley College campus, WCW was established when the Center for Research on Women (founded 1974) and the Stone Center for Development Services and Studies at Wellesley College (founded 1981) merged into a single organization in 1995. It is home to several prominent American feminist scholars, including Jean Kilbourne and Peggy McIntosh. The current executive director of the Wellesley Centers for Women is Layli Maparyan. Since 1974, the Wellesley Centers for Women has produced over 200 scholarly articles and over 100 books.

The Wellesley Centers for Women has five key areas of research: education, economic security, mental health, youth and adolescent development, and gender-based violence. WCW is also home to long-standing and highly successful action programs that engage in curriculum development and training, professional development, evaluation, field building, and theory building. Those programs include the National SEED Project, the National Institute on Out-of-School Time, Open Circle, the Jean Baker Miller Training Institute, and Women's Review of Books.

Academics

Wellesley's average class size is between 17 and 20 students, with a student-faculty ratio of 7:1. 60 departmental and interdepartmental majors are offered.

Wellesley offers support to nontraditional aged students through the Elisabeth Kaiser Davis Degree Program, open to students over the age of 24. The program allows women who, for various reasons, were unable to start or complete a bachelor's degree at a younger age to attend Wellesley. Wellesley offers dual degree programs with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Olin College of Engineering, enabling students to receive a Bachelor of Science at those schools in addition to a Bachelor of Arts at Wellesley. Wellesley also has a joint five-year BA/MA program with Brandeis University's International Business School, which allows qualified Wellesley students to receive a Masters of Arts degree from the school as well as a Bachelor of Arts at Wellesley.

Wellesley College offers research collaborations and cross-registration programs with other Boston-area institutions, including Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Babson College, Olin College, and Brandeis University.

Its most popular majors, based on 2023 graduates, were:
 * Economics (94)
 * Computer Sciences (67)
 * Psychology (53)
 * Political Science (45)
 * Biological Sciences (37)
 * Neuroscience (35)
 * Mathematics (27)
 * English (27)

Admissions
The 2020 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes admission to Wellesley as "most selective". For the Class of 2023 (enrolling fall 2019), the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 680–750 for evidence-based reading and 680–780 for math, while the middle 50% range for the ACT composite score was 31–34 for enrolled first-year students. For the incoming class of 2028, Wellesley received a record number of applications, totaling over 8,900 applications, and 13% of applicants were offered admission. During the 2023-2024 admissions cycle (enrolling Fall 2024), the college was test-optional and did not publish standardized testing statistics for the class of 2027 as of July 2024. The college is need-blind for domestic applicants.

Transgender applicants
The college's admissions policy was updated in 2015 to allow trans women and non-binary people assigned female at birth to be considered for admittance. The first Wellesley transgender students enrolled in Fall 2017.

Nontraditional age applicants
Wellesley began its program for non-traditional students in 1971 when the Continuing Education Program was launched. This program was renamed in 1991 for Elisabeth Kaiser Davis, a member of the Class of 1932. Wellesley allows applicants older than 24 who had begun but have not completed a bachelor's degree to apply to the Elizabeth Kaiser Davis Degree Program. Davis Scholars are fully integrated into the Wellesley community; they take the same classes as traditional students and can choose to live on campus. According to the Wellesley web site, Davis Scholars' "diverse backgrounds, experiences and perspectives enrich the lives of the whole student body."

Rankings
In its 2021 rankings of national liberal arts colleges in the U.S., U.S. News & World Report ranked Wellesley tied for fourth best overall, first for women's colleges, 13th for "best value", tied at 11th for "best undergraduate teaching", and tied at 63rd for "top performers on social mobility".

In 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Wellesley 13th among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.

In addition, Forbes' 2019 "America's Top Colleges" ranked the institution 44th among 650 U.S. colleges, service academies and universities. Wellesley College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

Student life
Approximately 98% of students live on campus. Some cooperative housing is available, including a sustainable living co-op, a feminist co-op, and a French language house located slightly off-campus. Wellesley offers housing for Davis Scholars as well, though not for their children or spouses, which is a point of frequent debate on campus.

For more than 50 years, Wellesley has offered a cross-registration program with MIT. Students can participate in research at MIT through the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP). In recent years, cross-registration opportunities have expanded to include nearby Babson College, Brandeis University, and Olin College of Engineering. To facilitate cross-registration, the Wellesley College Senate bus connects Wellesley to the Harvard University and MIT campuses in Cambridge, Massachusetts; additionally, the college also operates a shuttle to the Babson College and Olin College campuses. It is also a member of a number of exchange programs with other small colleges, including opportunities for students to study a year at Amherst, Connecticut College, Dartmouth, Mount Holyoke, Smith, Trinity, Vassar, Wesleyan, and Wheaton.

Organizations
The college has approximately 180 student organizations, ranging from cultural and political organizations to community service, publications, campus radio, and club sports.

WZLY is the college's campus radio station. It is entirely student-run and plays on 91.5 FM in the town of Wellesley and some surrounding areas. Founded in 1942, it holds claim to be the oldest still-running women's college radio station in the country.

Publications on campus include Counterpoint, the monthly journal of campus life; The Wellesley News, the campus newspaper; International Relations Council Journal, the internationally oriented campus publication; The Wellesley Review, the literary magazine; and W.Collective, the fashion and lifestyle magazine.

Athletics
Wellesley fields 13 varsity sports teams – basketball, crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball. Wellesley does not have a mascot in the traditional sense – its sports teams are referred to both individually and collectively as "the Blue" (the school colors are royal blue and white). Wellesley is a member of the NCAA NCAA Division III and the Eastern Conference Athletic Conference (ECAC) and competes primarily as a member of the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference (NEWMAC).

The Wellesley College Crew Team, affectionately known as "Blue Crew", was founded in 1970 and was the first women's intercollegiate rowing team in the country. In 2016, Blue Crew won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team for the first time in Wellesley history, with its first Varsity 8+ boat placing first and second Varsity 8+ boat placing second. This historic win marked the first time a team from Wellesley College won a national championship and the first time a women's college won the NCAA Rowing Championships. In 2022, Blue Crew won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team for a second time, with both its first Varsity 8+ and second Varsity 8+ boats placing second. In 2023, Blue Crew again won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team, with its first Varsity 8+ boat placing first and second Varsity 8+ boat placing second.

Wellesley also fields club teams in archery, alpine & Nordic skiing, equestrian, ice hockey, rugby, sailing, squash, Ultimate Frisbee, and water polo. Squash was originally a varsity sport but was downgraded to a club sport status in 2017.

From 1943 to 1946, Judy Atterbury won multiple national intercollegiate women's tennis championships in both singles (1943, 1946) and doubles (1943, 1944). Nadine Netter won the Eastern Women's College Tournament in 1962, and was the Eastern Intercollegiate Champion and New England Intercollegiate women's Tennis Championship winner in 1965.

Wellesley has won three team national championships (Blue Crew's wins at the NCAA Championships in 2016, 2022, and 2023), three individual national championships, and two individual boat championships (NCAA Division III Varsity 8+ event in 2016 and 2023) in its history.

Tennis
In 1991, Karyn Cooper was the NCAA Tennis Singles Champion.

Swimming and diving
In 2015, Maura Sticco-Ivins was the NCAA National Champion in the three-meter diving competition and runner-up in the one-meter diving competition. Sticco-Ivins was named the 2015 NCAA Division III Diver of The Meet.

Wellesley College Diving Coach Zach Lichter was voted the 2015 NCAA Division III Female Diving Coach of the Year.

Track and field
In 2011, Randelle Boots was the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Champion in the mile.

In 2022, Ari Marks won the NCAA DIII 10,000 Meter National Championship and the NCAA DIII 5,000 Meter National Championship. Marks was also named the 2022 NCAA Division III Women's Outdoor Track & Field National Track Athlete of the Year.

Crew
In both 2016 and 2023, Wellesley College's first Varsity 8+ boat became a national champion in its event at the NCAA Rowing Championships. Wellesley College Crew Team's head coach, Tessa Spillane, was voted the NCAA Division III Rowing Coach of the Year in 2010–11, 2015–16, and 2021–22. Additionally, Wellesley College Crew Team's coaching staff received the 2015–16 and 2021–22 CRCA NCAA Division III National Coaching Staff of the Year awards.

Traditions
Hoop rolling is an annual tradition at the college that dates to 1895. Each upperclasswoman has a wooden hoop, often passed down to her from her "big sister". Before graduation, the seniors, wearing their graduation robes, run a short race while rolling their hoops. In the early 20th century, the winner was said to be the first in her class to marry; in the 1980s, the winner was said to become the class's first CEO; and since the 1990 Commencement speech by then-First Lady Barbara Bush, the winner has been said to be the first to achieve success, however she defines it.

The Wellesley campus sits just before the halfway mark on the Boston Marathon course, and students come out to cheer runners in what has become known as the "Scream Tunnel". Student have been cheering on runners since the first running of the marathon. In 1966 the school heard word that a woman was running in the race and turned out in numbers in cheer her on. Once women were officially allowed to register for the 1972 race, the campus cheer tradition became more popular.

Financial aid
In 2015, 58 percent of all Wellesley students received financial aid. In 2020–2021, the average annual aid offer was over $56,000. In February 2008, the college stopped offering financial-aid loans to students from families with incomes under $60,000, including international students and Davis Scholars, and it lowered the total amount of student loans by one-third (to a maximum of $8,600 total over four years) to students from families with incomes between $60,000 and $100,000. The maximum loan level for other students on aid is $12,825 total for four years.

Notable alumnae
Wellesley's alumnae are represented among business executives and also work in a variety of other fields, ranging from government and public service to the arts. They include the first woman to be named professor of clinical medicine Connie Guion, class of 1906; architect Ann Beha, class of 1972; author Harriet Stratemeyer Adams (author and publisher) class of 1914; astronomer Annie Jump Cannon, class of 1884; archaeologist Josephine Platner Shear, class of 1924; astronaut Pamela Melroy class of 1983; screenwriter Nora Ephron, class of 1962; composers Elizabeth Bell and Natalie Sleeth; and professor and songwriter Katharine Lee Bates. Journalists Callie Crossley, Diane Sawyer, Cokie Roberts, Lynn Sherr, and Michele Caruso-Cabrera also graduated from Wellesley as did Amalya Lyle Kearse, Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Sandra Lynch, United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, and political scientist Jane Mansbridge, class of 1961. Rebecca Lancefield, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, graduated from Wellesley, as did Alice Ames Winter (B.A. 1886; M.A. 1889), president of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. Adaline Emerson Thompson, class of 1880, later served as a trustee for twenty years.

Both Madeleine Albright ('59), and Hillary Rodham Clinton ('69), have spoken about the formative impact their Wellesley experiences had on their careers. During her life, Secretary Albright returned annually to campus to lead the Madeleine Korbel Albright Institute for Global Affairs, a month-long pedagogical seminar where students learn more about global affairs through analysis and action. Additionally, three U.S. ambassadors (Julieta Valls Noyes, Anne Patterson, and Michele Sison) are Wellesley alumnae. Soong Mei-ling (also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek), the former First Lady of China, graduated from Wellesley.

Other notable Wellesley graduates who have received the college's Alumnae Achievement Award include: Anna Medora Baetjer, class of 1920, public health expert, physiologist, toxicologist; Marian Burros '54, journalist, food writer; Sally Carrighar, class of 1922, writer, naturalist; Elyse Cherry '75, an entrepreneur, financial, and social equity activist; Suzanne Ciani '68, electronic music composer, recording artist; Phyllis Curtin '43, opera singer; Jocelyn Gill '38, astronomer; Marjory Stoneman Douglas, class of 1912, environmental activist, author; Persis Drell '77, particle physicist; Nora Ephron '62, writer and director; Helen Hays '53, ornithologist; Dorothea Jameson '42, psychologist; Jean Kilbourne '64, media educator; Judith Martin '59, (pen name Miss Manners) author; Nergis Mavalvala '90, a quantum astrophysicist; Lorraine O'Grady '55, conceptual artist and cultural critic; Santha Rama Rau '45, writer; Marilyn Yalom '54, historian, feminist scholar; and Patricia Zipprodt '46, costume designer.

Additional notable alumni include Jasmine Guillory '97, American New York Times Best-selling author, and Vicky Tsai '00, Tatcha Founder.

Notable faculty
Notable Wellesley faculty include:

 * Myrtilla Avery, art historian and a Monuments Men
 * Emily Green Balch, economist and peace activist
 * Katharine Lee Bates, poet, novelist, essayist
 * Frank Bidart, poet
 * Karl E. Case, economist
 * Dan Chiasson, poet and writer
 * Margaret Clapp, author
 * Katharine Coman, economic historian
 * Rose Laub Coser, sociologist
 * Alona E. Evans, political scientist
 * Jorge Guillén, poet and literary critic
 * Charlotte Houtermans, physicist
 * Grace E. Howard, botanist
 * Jonathan B. Knudsen, historian
 * Frances Lowater, physicist and astronomer
 * Paul K. MacDonald, political scientist
 * Mary Kate McGowan, philosoher of language
 * Peggy McIntosh, women's studies scholar
 * Vladimir Nabokov, novelist
 * Adrian Piper, philosopher
 * Marietta Sherman Raymond, violinist, music educator, orchestral conductor
 * Susan Mokotoff Reverby, Gender Studies professor
 * Alan Schechter, political scientist
 * Vida Dutton Scudder, English professor
 * Helen L. Webster, philologist and educator
 * Sarah Frances Whiting, physicist and astronomer

title: Wellesley College


text:
Talk:Pedestrian

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Lilyb283.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:18, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

So
So are we going to have an edit war over "footpath"? (Edit wars are always over something silly, aren't they? And when we've finished that discussion, we could always argue over what the bit of grass or gardened earth between the curb/kerb & sidewalk/footpath is called. I'm not sure there is a standardly accepted word for it inside the US. (I call it a "parking", but I'm probably the only one.) -- llywrch 03:31 Jan 29, 2003 (UTC)

Worse than that, why are we spending time on a "simple" definition of the word pedestrian. This should be in the wiktionary not in wikipedia. The best thing that you could do for this page is delete it, not use it to argue over pointless dialect differences -- Derek Ross 03:39 Jan 29, 2003 (UTC)
 * Amen. Tannin

Not over "footpath" per se but maybe over "pavement". In Australia the typical arrangement is a pavement separated from the road by a grassy "nature strip". As I understand it, the issue was that once upon a time pavement was paved on UK roads, and the meaning has transferred (fully paved roads were "streets"). But since UK English does have a specific meaning for "footpath", that has to be allowed for; suggesting it for that roadside bit is plain wrong, in that context. The concession allowing the alternative meaning implies that people in Britain would look to the side of the road if someone said "footpath". They wouldn't.

Digressing somewhat: UK English doesn't allow people to drop the term "Street" or "Road" in giving a location - no "corner of A and B" meaning "corner of A Road and B Street". There isn't enough redundancy. I remember being stopped by an angry US tourist in London and asked how to get to "Sloane". I rather enjoyed explaining to him that he would have to go back to his hotel and get the full address, as within a quarter of a mile were Sloane Street, Lower Sloane Street, Sloane Square, Sloane Terrace, Sloane Gardens, Sloane Avenue, and no doubt others whose names had escaped me. PML.

Another digression, and as long as we're defining: pedestrian prose usually means mediocre, average, or unimpressive. See the article on Tom Clancy. Atorpen 03:53 Jan 29, 2003 (UTC)

Seems doomed to be a dictionary entry -- what can we say that is encyclopedic about pedestrians? *thinks* ... various right of way laws? link to rambling?

Is there really such a thing as "International English" which differs from both the more traditional USA English and the more modern standard British English? I am inclined to doubt it. Michael Hardy 02:50 Feb 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * No, there isn't. There seems to have been some confusion about the http://www.ielts.org/ (whether "International" applied to English or the testing program, it's the testing program) that resulted, partially at least, in the creation of an "English language|" page, which I changed to just point at English.  There doesn't really seem to be an international standard for English.  Otherwise, we'd have fewer debates about spelling here...  Even Canadian English which is lumped into Commonwealth English differs quite a bit from British English.  Daniel Quinlan 03:29 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * "Even Canadian English which is lumped into Commonwealth English differs quite a bit from British English. " Perhaps this is why "Commonwealth English" isn't the best term. It doesn't appear to be an oft-used term (google gives is 767 hits). It's hard to do a similar test with "International English" as this phrase can be used in other contexts. Mintguy 08:59 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * It isn't the best term, but it does seem to work fairly well if you need to lump them all together and it does not have quite the same UK viewpoint problems as say "International English". The problem is that some countries that use what we call "Commonwealth English" here are no longer members of the Commonwealth of Nations, most notably Ireland.  And, as we agree, Canadian English has diverged from British English more than most Commonwealth countries.  I'm not sure how to address the terminology problem.  Writing with a good NPOV sometimes mean we lack the right word for a concept.  The concepts that we lack the terms to describe is the divergence of English and the similarities and differences between the different versions.  I'm still thinking about it... Daniel Quinlan 07:05, Oct 21, 2003 (UTC)

Don't forget Hiberno-English! :-) FearÉIREANN 03:52 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

sidewalks
i wonder if the sidewalk was normally for a pedestrian or was it a road or was it both. what im trying to say is which was first known for a pedestrian to use.

 * Roads existed first, originally as tracks. -- Derek Ross | Talk 07:00, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

walk with or against traffic
Mention what countries still require one to dangerously walk in the same direction as traffic, and why this is easy to get hit from the rear. Jidanni (talk) 18:11, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Possible source
http://www.slate.com/articles/life/walking/2012/04/walking_in_america_what_scientists_know_about_how_pedestrians_really_behave_.html is part of a series on how pedestrians behave that might be useful as a source for this article. WhatamIdoing (talk) 18:38, 16 April 2012 (UTC)

Walking has always been the primary means of human locomotion.
'*facepalm* Does this really need to be stated? How else are humans suppose to move about? Roll around on the ground? It sounds like the sort of introduction that I would write, and I know very well that I am hopeless at writing introductions.202.73.1.98 (talk) 06:44, 12 November 2015 (UTC)

Jimmy Saville
I undid a previous edit that removed Jimmy Savile. While Jimmy Savile is not critical to the content of the article, I cannot recall any Wiki policy that states criminals should be purged from wiki articles. Feel free to enlighten me if I am wrong.202.73.1.98 (talk) 06:57, 12 November 2015 (UTC)

History
By my count, this section has at least 10 facts that are not cited. Also, it seems to actually be a history of pedestrianism (i.e. walking as a sport/event), which is not the subject of this article. The entire section should probably be removed. Sadievico (talk) 22:05, 11 August 2020 (UTC)
 * That would be the lazy way of fixing it. An industrious Wikipedian might well consider researching some appropriate citations instead. An industrious Wikipedian might also discover that the original subject of the article (after the stupid argument about names for bits of roads was deleted) was the historical sport of Pedestrianism before the addition of the other material changed its focus. -- Derek Ross | Talk'' 02:42, 12 August 2020 (UTC)

More balance needed
The article has much information about safety in the United States. Globalisation could be improved by adding similar information for other regions, for example the European Union. Humphrey Tribble (talk) 05:32, 5 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I think the article needed less on the whole subject of safety, it is only one aspect of pedestrians, and there are other articles specialising in accidents and safety. As such, I have removed a significant amount of statistic dumps and the undue granularity of pedestrian safety in specific states in the US.

 * We have articles for Road traffic safety, Automotive safety, Bicycle safety, Safety of cycling infrastructure, Motorcycle safety, Jaywalking and Transport accidents and incidents, but Pedestrian safety is just a redirect to Road traffic safety, which has a tiny section about pedestrians. Perhaps, instead of a redirect, turn it into a proper article with the sort of detail that we don't need in this article. (Hohum @ ) 20:37, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

Wheelchair users
The article makes no mention of pedestrians who are wheelchair users or otherwise disabled. A person walking/rolling in a wheelchair is also a pedestrian. Bohemian Baltimore (talk) 11:56, 19 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pedestrian


text:
Jacob Sprenger

Jacob Sprenger (also James, 1436/1438 – 6 December 1495) was a Dominican inquisitor and theologian principally known for his association with a well-known guide for witch-hunters from 1486, Malleus Maleficarum. He was born in Rheinfelden, Further Austria, taught at the University of Cologne, and died in 1495 in Strasbourg.

Novice
Sprenger was admitted as a novice in the Dominican house of Rheinfelden in 1452 and became a zealous reformer. He founded an association of the Confraternity of the Holy Rosary in Strasbourg in 1474.

Theologian
He became a Master of Theology and then in 1480 Dean of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Cologne and was a popular lecturer.

Inquisitor
In 1481 he was appointed as an Inquisitor for the Provinces of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, a post that demanded constant traveling through an extensive district.

Associated authorship of Malleus Maleficarum
Sprenger was named along with Heinrich Kramer in the 1484 papal bull Summis desiderantes of Pope Innocent VIII and reprinted in the infamous Malleus Maleficarum. All editions after 1519 named Sprenger as Heinrich Kramer's co-author.

It has been claimed that Sprenger cannot be linked to any witch trial, that his personal relationship to Kramer was acrimonious, and that Sprenger used his powerful position whenever he could to make Kramer's life and work as difficult as possible. Some scholars now believe that he became associated with the Malleus Maleficarum largely as a result of Kramer's wish to lend his book as much official authority as possible.

Friedrich Spee in Cologne
In a 1631 work most concerned with innocence, and opposed to the Malleus Maleficarum, Friedrich Spee attributes authorship of the book to "Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer." Though Spee was Jesuit (not Dominican) and his work was written more than a century after Malleus Maleficarum, both Spee and Sprenger were professors of theology in Cologne and both travelled extensively in many of the same areas. Some of Spee's fellow professors in Cologne were appalled by Spee's book and thought it should be listed on the papal Index of Forbidden Books. This would suggest that, whether or not Sprenger initially endorsed or opposed the work of Heinrich Kramer, the book carrying Sprenger's name did eventually find a degree of influence among the Catholic theologians in Cologne.

Salem Witch Trials
The Harvard President and Puritan Increase Mather cited "Sprenger" as a reference to the Malleus Maleficarum in an influential pro-witch-hunting work published in 1684, as well as another work published in 1692, the same year as the Salem Witch Trials: "Witches have often (as Sprenger observes) desired that they might stand or fall by this trial by hot iron, and sometimes come off well."

title: Jacob Sprenger


text:
User:HarmonicSphere

Real name: James Munroe. Computer programmer (Java, ASP, JavaScript, CSS, X(HT)ML, C/C++, various flavours of SQL, PHP, Perl, C/C++, ActionScript, bash, DOS, sed, awk, AppleScript, CSound) and musician (lead & backup vocals, tenor trombone, jazz and blues piano, synths), arranger (duo to 20-piece big band), composer, sound designer, and computer programmer who lives in Sydney, Nova Scotia, on beautiful Cape Breton Island. Currently I'm the trombonist and one of three lead vocalists in a four-piece called The B'ye Gones featuring an electric bassist, acoustic guitarist, and accordion player; I play piano in The Midnight Magic, a jazz band featuring a drummer, lead vocalist, electric bassist, trumpet and tenor sax; and play trombone in Second Wind, a community concert band that averages about 35 pieces (including 4 percussionists). Having perfect pitch gave me an early interest in music theory, although I've started only two pages in that section to date, on the diminished and altered scales. Other interests include Taijiquan, JKDC, Vipassana, Tonglen, metta, the I Ching, Asian cooking, R & B (also known as soul music or Motown), the Blues, mathematics, anything having to do with deep space including science fiction, and Tibetan Buddhism.

A small selection of the many sites I find personally interesting: Portland Pattern Repository wiki -- where it all began Wired Magazine MIT's Open Courseware site MIT's Blogdex How Stuff Works New Scientist ScienceDaily Scientific American Playing with Time

title: User:HarmonicSphere


text:
Pirate radio

A pirate radio station is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid license.

In some cases, radio stations are considered legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially when the signals cross a national boundary. In other cases, a broadcast may be considered "pirate" due to the nature of its content, its transmission format (especially a failure to transmit a station identification according to regulations), or the transmit power (wattage) of the station, even if the transmission is not technically illegal (such as an amateur radio transmission). Pirate radio is sometimes called bootleg radio (a term especially associated with two-way radio), clandestine radio (associated with heavily politically motivated operations) or free radio.

History
Radio "piracy" began with the advent of regulations of the airwaves at the dawn of the age of radio. Initially, radio, or wireless as it was more commonly called at the time, was an open field of hobbyists and early inventors and experimenters. The degree of state control varied by country, for example in the UK, Marconi's work was supported by the post office, but in an era of weak regulation, a music hall magician Nevil Maskelyne deliberately hijacked a demonstration.

The United States Navy began using radio for time signals and weather reports on the eastern coast of the United States in the 1890s. Before the advent of vacuum tube technology, early radio enthusiasts used (electronically) noisy spark-gap transmitters. The navy soon began complaining to a sympathetic press that amateurs were disrupting naval transmissions. The May 25, 1907, edition of Electrical World in an article called "Wireless and Lawless" reported authorities were unable to prevent an amateur from interfering with the operation of a government station at the Washington, D.C. Navy Yard using legal means.

In the run-up to the London Radiotelegraph Convention in 1912, and amid concerns about the safety of marine radio following the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15 of that year, the New York Herald of April 17, 1912, headlined President William Howard Taft's initiative to regulate the public airwaves in an article titled "President Moves to Stop Mob Rule of Wireless."

United States
In the US the 1912 "Act to Regulate Radio Communication" assigned amateurs and experimenters their own frequency spectrum, and introduced licensing and call-signs. A federal agency, the Federal Radio Commission, was formed in 1927 and succeeded in 1934 by the Federal Communications Commission. These agencies would enforce rules on call-signs, assigned frequencies, licensing, and acceptable content for broadcast.

The Radio Act of 1912 gave the president legal permission to shut down radio stations "in time of war". During the first two and a half years of World War I, before US entry, President Wilson tasked the US Navy with monitoring US radio stations, nominally to "ensure neutrality." The US was divided into two civilian radio "districts" with corresponding call-signs, beginning with "K" in the west and "W" in the east, in the regulatory measures; the Navy was assigned call-signs beginning with "N". The Navy used this authority to shut down amateur radio in the western part of the US. When Wilson declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, he also issued an executive order closing most radio stations not needed by the US government. The Navy took it a step further and declared it was illegal to listen to radio or possess a receiver or transmitter in the US, but there were doubts they had the authority to issue such an order even in war time. The ban on radio was lifted in the US in late 1919.

In 1924, New York City station WHN was accused by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) of being an "outlaw station" for violating trade licenses which permitted only AT&T stations to sell airtime on their transmitters. As a result of the AT&T interpretation a landmark case was heard in court, which even prompted comments from Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover when he took a public stand in the station's defense. Although AT&T won its case, the furor created was such that those restrictive provisions of the transmitter license were never enforced.

In 1926, WJAZ in Chicago changed its frequency to one previously reserved for Canadian stations without getting permission to make the change, and was charged by the federal government with "wave piracy". The resulting legal battle found that the Radio Act of 1912 did not allow the U.S. government to require stations to operate on specific frequencies, and the result was the passage of the Radio Act of 1927 to strengthen the government's regulatory authority.

While Mexico issued radio station XERF with a license to broadcast, the power of its 250 kW transmitter was far greater than the maximum of 50 kW authorized for commercial use by the government of the United States of America. Consequently, XERF and many other radio stations in Mexico, which sold their broadcasting time to sponsors of English-language commercial and religious programs, were labelled as "border blasters", but not "pirate radio stations", even though the content of many of their programs could not have been aired by a US-regulated broadcaster. Predecessors to XERF, for instance, had originally broadcast in Kansas, advocating "goat-gland surgery" for improved masculinity, but moved to Mexico to evade US laws about advertising medical treatments, particularly unproven ones.

Europe
In Europe, Denmark had the first known radio station in the world to broadcast commercial radio from a vessel in international waters without permission from the authorities in the country to which it broadcast (Denmark in this case). The station was named Radio Mercur and began transmission on August 2, 1958. In the Danish newspapers it was soon called a "pirate radio". In the Netherlands in 1964 Radio Noordzee and TV Noordzee began broadcasting from the REM Island and Radio Veronica acquired a new ship, a converted fishing trawler named MV Norderney.

United Kingdom
In the 1960s in the UK, the term referred to not only a perceived unauthorized use of the state-run spectrum by the unlicensed broadcasters but also the risk-taking nature of offshore radio stations that actually operated on anchored ships or marine platforms. The term had been used previously in Britain and the US to describe unlicensed land-based broadcasters and even border blasters (for example, a 1940 British comedy about an unauthorized TV broadcaster, Band Waggon, uses the phrase "pirate station" several times). A good example of this kind of activity was Radio Luxembourg located in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The English language evening broadcasts from Radio Luxembourg were beamed by Luxembourg-licensed transmitters. The audience in the United Kingdom originally listened to their radio sets by permission of a wireless license issued by the British General Post Office (GPO). However, under terms of that wireless license, it was an offence under the Wireless Telegraphy Act to listen to unauthorised broadcasts, which possibly included those transmitted by Radio Luxembourg. Therefore, as far as the British authorities were concerned, Radio Luxembourg was a "pirate radio station" and British listeners to the station were breaking the law (although as the term 'unauthorised' was never properly defined it was somewhat of a legal grey area). This did not stop British newspapers from printing programme schedules for the station, or a British weekly magazine aimed at teenage girls, Fab 208, from promoting the DJs and their lifestyle (Radio Luxembourg's wavelength was 208 metres (1439, then 1440 kHz)).

Radio Luxembourg was later joined by other well-known pirate stations received in the UK in violation of UK licensing, including Radio Caroline and Radio Atlanta (subsequently Radio Carolines North and South respectively, following their merger and the original ship's relocation), Radio London and Laser 558, all of which broadcast from vessels anchored outside of territorial limits and were therefore legitimate. Radio Jackie, for instance (although transmitting illegally), was registered for VAT and even had its address and telephone number in local telephone directories.

By the 1970s, pirate radio in the UK had mostly moved to land-based broadcasting, transmitting from tower blocks in towns and cities.

Free radio
Another variation on the term pirate radio came about during the "Summer of Love" in San Francisco during the 1960s. These were "Free radio", which usually referred to secret and unlicensed land-based transmissions. These were also tagged as being pirate radio transmissions. Free Radio was used only to refer to radio transmissions that were beyond government control, as was offshore radio in the UK and Europe.

The term free radio was adopted by the Free Radio Association of listeners who defended the rights of the offshore radio stations broadcasting from ships and marine structures off the coastline of the United Kingdom.

Félix Guattari points out:

"Technological development, and in particular the miniaturization of transmitters and the fact that they can be put together by amateurs, 'encounters' a collective aspiration for some new means of expression."

- Félix Guattari

In Europe, in addition to adopting the term free radio, supportive listeners of what had been called pirate radio adopted the term offshore radio, which was usually the term used by the owners of the marine broadcasting stations.

More recently the term "free radio" implied that the broadcasts were commercial-free and the station was there only for the output, be it a type of music or spoken opinion. In this context, 'pirate' radio thus refers to stations that do advertise and plug various gigs and raves.

Pirate radio by geographical area
Since this subject covers national territories, international waters and international airspace, the only effective way to treat this subject is on a country by country, international waters and international airspace basis. Because the laws vary, the interpretation of the term pirate radio also varies considerably.

The longest-running pirate radio station, at 57 years, may be Radio Britannia of South Yorkshire, England, from 1965 to 2022.

Propaganda broadcasting
Propaganda broadcasting may be authorized by the government at the transmitting site, but may be considered unwanted or illegal by the government of the intended reception area. Propaganda broadcasting conducted by national governments against the interests of other national governments has created radio jamming stations transmitting noises on the same frequency to prevent reception of the incoming signal. While the United States transmitted its programs towards the Soviet Union, which attempted to jam them, in 1970 the government of the United Kingdom decided to employ a jamming transmitter to drown out the incoming transmissions from the commercial station Radio North Sea International, which was based aboard the motor vessel (MV) Mebo II anchored off southeast England in the North Sea. Other examples of this type of unusual broadcasting include the USCGC Courier (WAGR-410), a United States Coast Guard cutter which both originated and relayed broadcasts of the Voice of America from an anchorage at the Greek island of Rhodes to Soviet bloc countries. Balloons have been flown above Key West, Florida, to support the TV transmissions of TV Martí, which are directed at Cuba (the Cuban government jams the signals). Military broadcasting aircraft have been flown over Vietnam, Iraq, and many other nations by the United States Air Force.

Piracy in amateur and two-way radio
Illegal use of licensed radio spectrum (also known as bootlegging in CB circles) is fairly common and takes several forms.

 * Unlicensed operation—Particularly associated with amateur radio and licensed personal communication services such as GMRS, this refers to use of radio equipment on a section of spectrum for which the equipment is designed but on which the user is not licensed to operate (most such operators are informally known as "bubble pack pirates" from the sealed plastic retail packaging common to such walkie-talkies). While piracy on the US GMRS band, for example, is widespread (some estimates have the number of total GMRS users outstripping the number of licensed users by several orders of magnitude), such use is generally disciplined only in cases where the pirate's activity interferes with a licensee. A notable case is that of former United States amateur operator Jack Gerritsen operating under the revoked call sign KG6IRO who was successfully prosecuted by the FCC for unlicensed operation and malicious interference. A subcategory of this is free banding, the use of allocations nearby a legal allocation, most typically the 27 MHz Citizen's Band using modified or purpose-built gear.
 * Inadvertent interference—Common when personal communications gear is brought into countries where it is not certified to operate. Such interference results from clashing frequency allocations, and occasionally requires wholesale reallocation of an existing band due to an insurmountable interference problem; for example, the 2004 approval in Canada of the unlicensed use of the United States General Mobile Radio Service frequencies due to interference from users of FRS/GMRS radios from the United States, where Industry Canada had to transfer a number of licensed users on the GMRS frequencies to unoccupied channels to accommodate the expanded service.
 * Deliberate or malicious interference—refers to the use of two-way radio to harass or jam other users of a channel. Such behaviour is widely prosecuted, especially when it interferes with mission-critical services such as aviation radio or marine VHF radio.
 * Illegal equipment—This refers to the use of illegally modified equipment or equipment not certified for a particular band. Such equipment includes illegal linear amplifiers for CB radio, antenna or circuit modifications on walkie-talkies, the use of "export" radios for free banding, or the use of amateur radios on unlicensed bands that amateur gear is not certified for. The use of marine VHF radio gear for inland mobile radio operations is common in some countries, with enforcement difficult since marine VHF is generally the province of maritime authorities.

Examples of pirate radio stations

 * Beat Radio, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
 * BMIR, Black Rock City, Nevada, USA
 * Britain Radio, United Kingdom
 * Citizens Radio 102.8 FM, Hong Kong
 * Dread Broadcasting Corporation, London's first black music radio station
 * Free Radio Santa Cruz California, United States
 * Laser 558, North Sea
 * Mix FM, Ottawa
 * KQLZ, a legal radio station billed as Pirate Radio Los Angeles (with a mailing address at a P.O. Box in Avalon)
 * Pirate Cat Radio, San Francisco Bay Area
 * Portland Radio Authority, Portland, Oregon, USA
 * Radio 270, United Kingdom
 * Radio 390, United Kingdom
 * Radio Caroline, United Kingdom (now licensed and legal)
 * Radio City, United Kingdom
 * Radio First Termer, Saigon, Vietnam 1971
 * Radio Hauraki, New Zealand (ship, Tiri 1 and Tiri 2) (now licensed and legal)
 * Radio Jackie, United Kingdom (now licensed and legal)
 * Radio Mercur, Denmark
 * Radio Milinda, Dublin
 * Radio North Sea International
 * Radio Newyork International, Jones Beach, New York, United States (1987 and 1988 pirate ship)
 * Radio Nova, Dublin 1981–1986
 * Radio Scotland, United Kingdom (1960s pirate ship)
 * Radio Solidarity, Poland (1982–1989)
 * Radio Veronica, Netherlands
 * Rinse FM, London (gained a license in 2010)
 * Swinging Radio England, United Kingdom
 * Thameside Radio London
 * TSF, Lisbon, Portugal (now licensed and legal)
 * Twilight FM, Hull, East Yorkshire 1993–1997
 * Voice of Peace, Israel (pirate ship)
 * Wonderful Radio London, United Kingdom
 * Freedom FM, Ireland

In popular culture
The films The Boat That Rocked, Pump Up the Volume, and On the Air Live with Captain Midnight, as well as the TV series People Just Do Nothing are set in the world of pirate radio, while Born in Flames features pirate radio stations as being part of an underground political movement. Pirate radio is also a central plot point of the video game Jet Set Radio and its sequel Jet Set Radio Future.

title: Pirate radio