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Islamic fundamentalism

Islamic fundamentalism has been defined as a revivalist and reform movement of Muslims who aim to return to the founding scriptures of Islam. The term has been used interchangeably with similar terms such as Islamism, Islamic revivalism, Qutbism, Islamic activism, but also criticized as pejorative, a term used by outsiders who instead ought to be using more positive terms such as Islamic activism or Islamic revivalism.

Some of the beliefs attributed to Islamic fundamentalists are that the primary sources of Islam (the Quran, Hadith, and Sunnah), should be interpreted in a literal and originalist way; that corrupting non-Islamic influences should be eliminated from every part of Muslims' lives; and that the societies, economies, and governance of Muslim-majority countries should return to the fundamentals of Islam, the system of Islam, and become Islamic states.

Definitions and descriptions
The term fundamentalism has been deemed misleading by those who suggest that all mainstream Muslims believe in the literal divine origin and perfection of the Quran and are therefore "fundamentalists", and others who believe it is a term that is used by outsiders in order to describe perceived trends within Islam. A professor of religious studies at Georgetown University, John L. Esposito, criticized the usage of the term "Islamic Fundamentalism" due to its ambiguous nature; asserting that the linguistic deployment of the term has been heavily influenced through Western-centric lens of Christian presuppositions. According to him, the more appropriate terms would be "Islamic revivalism" and "Islamic activism", since the traditions of Tajdid (revival) and Islah (reform) are rooted within the Islamic religious history, from the early Islamic centuries to the contemporary times. During the 1990s, the post-Soviet states used "Islamic fundamentalism" as a synonym for "Wahhabism".

Some 20th century preachers and writers sometimes dubbed Islamic fundamentalist include Sayyid Qutb, Ibn Saud, Abul Ala Mawdudi, and Israr Ahmed. The Wahhabi movement and its funding by Saudi Arabia is often described as being responsible for the popularity of contemporary Islamic fundamentalism.

Definitions vary as to what Islamic fundamentalism exactly is and how it differs from Islamism (or political Islam) or Islamic revivalism.

"...didn't hesitate to attend Hindu ceremonies. Khomeini never proposed giving Iranian Christians and Jews the status of dhimmi (protected communities) as provided for in the sharia: the Armenians of Iran have remained Iranian citizens, are required to perform military service and pay the same taxes as Muslims, and have the right to vote (with separate electoral colleges). Similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal to employ non-Muslims as experts in the eyes of Islam."
 * Form of Islamism – Graham Fuller believes that Islamic fundamentalism is a subset of Islamism rather than a distinctive form of it, and to him, Islamic fundamentalists are "the most conservative element among Islamists". Its "strictest form" includes "Wahhabism, which is sometimes referred to as salafiyya. ... For fundamentalists the law is the most essential component of Islam, and it leads to an overwhelming emphasis upon jurisprudence, usually narrowly conceived." Author Olivier Roy takes a similar line, describing "neo-fundamentalists", (i.e. contemporary fundamentalists) as being more passionate than earlier Islamists in their opposition to the perceived "corrupting influence of Western culture", avoiding Western dress, "neckties, laughter, the use of Western forms of salutation, handshakes, applause", discouraging but not forbidding other activities such as sports, ideally limiting the Muslim public space to "the family and the mosque". In this fundamentalists have "drifted" away from the stand of the Islamists of the 1970s and 1980s, such as [Abul A'la Maududi] who:
 * Umbrella term – Another American observer, Robert Pelletreau, Jr., Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs, believes it the other way around, Islamism being the subset of Muslims "with political goals ... within" the "broader fundamentalist revival". American historian Ira Lapidus sees Islamic fundamentalism as "an umbrella designation for a very wide variety of movements, some intolerant and exclusivist, some pluralistic; some favourable to science, some anti-scientific; some primarily devotional and some primarily political; some democratic, some authoritarian; some pacific, some violent."
 * Synonym – Still another, Martin Kramer, sees little difference between the two terms (at least in usage in one country): "To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage."
 * Scriptural literalism – According to another academic, Natana J. Delong-Bas, the contemporary use of the term Islamic fundamentalism applies to Muslims who seek not just "to return to the primary sources", but who use "a literal interpretation of those sources".
 * Use of ijtihad in Islamic law – According to academic John Esposito, one of the most defining features of Islamic fundamentalism is belief in the "reopening" of the gates of ijtihad ("independent reasoning" used in reaching a legal decision in Sunni law).

Differences with Islamism
According to Roy distinctions between Fundamentalism and Islamism (or at least pre-1990 Islamism) are in the fields of:

 * Politics and economics. Islamists often talk of "revolution" and they believe "that the society will only be Islamized through social and political action: it is necessary to leave the mosque ..." Fundamentalists are primarily interested in Islamic practice, less interested in "modernity or Western models of politics or economics", and less willing to associate with non-Muslims.
 * Sharia. While both Islamists and fundamentalists are committed to implementing Sharia law, Islamists "tend to consider it more a project than a corpus."
 * Issue of women. "Islamists generally tend to favour the education of women and their participation in social and political life: the Islamist woman militates, studies, and has the right to work, but in a chador. Islamist groups include women's associations." While the fundamentalist preaches that women should return to their homes, Islamism believes that it is sufficient if "the sexes are separated in public".
 * Variety and diversity within Islamic social movements has been highlighted by Husnul Amin in his work by referring to plurality within these movements.

Curiously, historian Ervand Abrahamian (who essentially devoted a book—Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic—to why Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Iranian Revolution, was not a fundamentalist but a populist, and calls the term "Islamic fundamentalism" in general "not only confusing but also misleading and even downright wrong"), notes that in the Islamic Republic of Iran, supporters of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini "finding no equivalent in Persian or Arabic" for fundamentalist, "have proudly coined a new word, bonyadegar, by translating literally the English term fundamental-ist."

Differences with Christian fundamentalism
Differences between Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism include (according to Bernard Lewis): "'In western usage, these words [Revivalism and Fundamentalism] have a rather specific connotation; they suggest a certain type of religiosity- emotional indeed sentimental; not intellectual, perhaps even anti-intellectual; and in general apolitical and even anti-political. Fundamentalists are against liberal theology and biblical criticism and in favor of a return to fundamentals-i.e. to the divine inerrant text of the scriptures. For the so call fundamentalists of Islam these are not and never have been the issues. Liberal theology have not hitherto made much headway in Islam, and the divinity and inerrancy of the Quran are still central dogmas of the faith ... Unlike their Christian namesakes, the Islamic fundamentalists do not set aside but on the contrary embrace much of the post-scriptural scholastic tradition of their faith, in both its theological and its legal aspects.'"

Types
Islamic fundamentalism (at least among Sunni Muslims) traditionally tends to fall into "traditionalist" and "reformist" tendencies:
 * Traditionalists accept "the continuity" between the founding Islamic "texts"—the Quran and the Sunnah—and their commentaries. Traditionalists take "imitation" (taqlid), accepting what was said before and refusing to innovate (bidah), as a "basic principle, They follow one of the great schools of religious jurisprudence (Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanafi, Hanbali). Their vision of the sharia is essentially legalistic and used to determine what is religiously right or wrong for Enjoining good and forbidding wrong. Traditionalists are sometimes connected to the popular forms of Sufism such as the Barelvi school in Pakistan)."
 * "Reformist" fundamentalism, in contrast, "criticizes the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices" (Maraboutism, the cult of saints), "deviations, and superstitions"; it aims to purify Islam by returning to the Quran and the Sunnah. 18th-century examples are Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in India and Ibn Abdul Wahhab in the Arabian Peninsula. This reformism is often "developed in response to an external threat" such as "the influence of Hinduism on Islam". In the late 19th century, the salafiyya movement spread throughout the Arab countries; "marking a phase between Fundamentalism and Islamism". Sayyid Rashid Rida (1865–1935), a major scholar of the early Salafiyya, believed that the triumphs of early generations of Muslims (Salaf) were God's reward for them being faithful followers and blamed contemporary decline of Muslims on four major factors: i) European imperialism ii) Western philosophy iii) neglect of the correct practice of Islam iv) Raafidi doctrines

Criticism of the term
The term "Islamic fundamentalism" has been criticized by Bernard Lewis, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Eli Berman, and John Esposito, among others. Many have proposed replacing it with another term, such as "puritanical", "Islamic revivalism" or "activism", and "radical Islam".

Lewis, a leading historian of Islam, believes that although "the use of this term is established and must be accepted":

"It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. 'Fundamentalist' is a Christian term. It seems to have come into use in the early years of the last century, and it denotes certain Protestant churches and organizations, more particularly, those that maintain the literal divine origin and inerrancy of the Bible. In this, they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to have a more critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians, there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Qur'an, and all Muslims, in their attitude to the text of the Qur'an, are in principle at least fundamentalists. Where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists is in their scholasticism and their legalism. They base themselves not only on the Qur'an, but also on the Traditions of the Prophet, and on the corpus of transmitted theological and legal learning."

John Esposito has attacked the term for its association "with political activism, extremism, fanaticism, terrorism, and anti-Americanism", saying "I prefer to speak of Islamic revivalism and Islamic activism."

Khaled Abou El Fadl of UCLA, a critic of those who are called Islamic fundamentalists, also finds fault with the term because:

"[M]any liberal, progressive, or moderate Muslims would describe themselves as usulis, or fundamentalist, without thinking that this carries a negative connotation. In the Islamic context, it makes much more sense to describe the fanatical reductionism and narrow-minded literalism of some groups as puritanical (a term that in the West invokes a particular historical experience)"

Eli Berman argues that "radical Islam" is a better term for many post-1920s movements starting with the Muslim Brotherhood, because these movements are seen as practicing "unprecedented extremism", thus, they do not qualify as movements which are returning to the practice of historic fundamentals.

Defense
In contrast, American author Anthony J. Dennis accepts the widespread usage and relevance of the term and calls Islamic fundamentalism "more than a religion today, it is a worldwide movement." He notes the intertwining of social, religious and political goals found within the movement and states that Islamic fundamentalism "deserves to be seriously studied and debated from a secular perspective as a revolutionary ideology."

At least two Muslim academics, Syrian philosopher Sadiq Jalal al-Azm and Egyptian philosopher Hassan Hanafi, have defended the use of the phrase. Surveying the doctrines of the new Islamic movements, Al-Azm found them to consist of "an immediate return to Islamic 'basics' and 'fundamentals'. ... It seems to me quite reasonable that calling these Islamic movements 'Fundamentalist' (and in the strong sense of the term) is adequate, accurate, and correct."

Hassan Hanafi reached the same conclusion: "It is difficult to find a more appropriate term than the one recently used in the West, 'fundamentalism,' to cover the meaning of what we name Islamic awakening or revival."

Study
In 1988, the University of Chicago, backed by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, launched The Fundamentalism Project, devoted to researching fundamentalism in the worlds major religions, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. It defined fundamentalism as "approach, or set of strategies, by which beleaguered believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity as a people or group ... by a selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs, and practices from a sacred past." A 2013 study by Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung finds that Islamic fundamentalism is widespread among European Muslims with the majority saying religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam. A recent study shows that some European Muslims perceive Western governments as inherently hostile towards Islam as a source of identity. This perception, however, declined significantly after the emergence of ISIS, especially among young and educated European Muslims.

Origins
The modern Islamic fundamentalist movements have their origins in the late 19th century. According to the Arab poet Adunis, the Islamic World experienced an influx of European ideas, values and thoughts during the late nineteenth century. The thinkers in the Muslim world reacted to modernity in three major ways. Secularists like Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, etc. considered Islam to be responsible for the backwardness of Muslims; gradually abandoning religion and adopted Western ideas. Meanwhile, Modernists like Muhammad Abduh in Egypt advocated reforms to reconcile with modernity; while emphasizing adherence to basic Islamic ideals. A third current; widely known as Islamic fundamentalism, pioneered by Rashid Rida across the Arab world and Abul A'ala Mawdudi (1903–1979 CE) in South Asia, asserted that Islam is relevant for all times and must reign supreme. They idealised the era of Muhammad and his companions, and sought to revive its "purity" and early Islamic power. For them, the economic, political and military problems of the Islamic World are due to Muslim negligence in strictly adhering to the tenets of sharia.

The trajectory of Islamic fundamentalism was marked by four phases. The first phase of proto-fundamentalism emerged during the late 19th century in wake of backlash against the Western colonial onslaught. Its main representatives were the ulema of Ahl-i Hadith movement in South Asia and religious revivalists of the Arab Salafiyya and various anti-colonial trends. The anti-colonial religious activists consisted of two factions: the reformists who kept to scriptural religious discourse, and modernists who campaigned to adopt Western ideals and institutions. The religious endeavours of the Syrian-Egyptian Salafi scholar Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE) marks the transition from proto-fundamentalism to the second phase of Islamic fundamentalism. Rida became the first major theologian to comprehensively elucidate the foundational principles of an Islamic state in its modern iteration, and these doctrines would be readily adopted by later Islamic fundamentalists. The Wahhabi movement, an Arabian fundamentalist movement that began in the 18th century, had also gained traction and spread during the 19th and 20th centuries.

After the First World War, Rashid Rida would be highly influenced by the Hanbali puritanical and revivalist doctrines of the 13th century Hanbalite theologian Ibn Taymiyya and the Wahhabi movement; and began to ardently campaign against Western influence and modernist ideas. The ideas of Rashid Rida, who is widely regarded as the spiritual father of the Salafiyya movement, marks the rise of Islamic fundamentalist movements. He advocated fundamentalist causes through the early Islamic journal Al-Manar that operated for about thirty-five years and popularised his political theory of Islamic state after the First World War; as an alternative model against rising currents of secularism and nationalism. Influenced by Rida's ideals that campaigned for the establishment of an Islamic state in the aftermath of the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate, popular Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e Islami carried the banner of fundamentalism during the interwar period. The Brothers incorporated the Salafiyya message into a comprehensive political programme, while the Jamaʿat envisioned an all-out battle against Western influence and culture. The combination of religion and politics offered by these movements established contemporary Islamic fundamentalism.

The emergence of the next phase occurred in the context of the de-colonialisation era following the Second World War, during which Islamic fundamentalists were persecuted by authoritarian regimes and became radicalized. The radical new teachings were epitomized in the treatises of Egyptian Islamist scholar Sayyid Qutb, which elucidated notions such as the return of the Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic barbarity). Influenced by Qutb, a number of vanguard groups sprang up which turned to violence and terror in their struggle against "apostate" regimes. In Iran, a radical Shiʿa combination of Khomeini's doctrine of wilayat-i faqih (guardianship of the jurist) and ʿAli Shariʿati's modernist social reinterpretations of the Qur’an would form the ideological basis of the 1979 Iranian revolution.

During the Cold War following World War II, some NATO governments, particularly those of the United States and the United Kingdom, launched covert and overt campaigns to encourage and strengthen fundamentalist groups in the Middle East and southern Asia. These groups were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union, and as a means to prevent the growth of nationalistic movements that were not necessarily favorable toward the interests of the Western nations. By the 1970s, the Islamists had become important allies in supporting governments, such as Egypt, which were friendly to U.S. interests. By the late 1970s, however, some fundamentalist groups had become militaristic leading to threats and changes to existing regimes. The overthrow of the Shah in Iran and rise of the Ayatollah Khomeini was one of the most significant signs of this shift. Subsequently, fundamentalist forces in Algeria caused a civil war, caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan.

In the contemporary era, the term "fundamentalism" is usually applied to denote these militant Islamist vanguards; although historians like Itzchak Weismann argue that it is more accurate to describe them as its radical offshoots. Osama b. Ladin and Al-Qaʾida belong to a fourth phase of Islamic fundamentalism, known as Salafi-jihadism, a movement that strives to move the battle against "infidelity" on an international scale; since the turn of the twenty-first century.

Muslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century Khawarij sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death.

Interpretation of texts
Islamic fundamentalists, or at least "reformist" fundamentalists, believe that Islam is based on the Qur'an, Hadith and Sunnah and "criticize the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices (maraboutism, the cult of saints), deviations, and superstitions. They aim to return to the founding texts." Examples of individuals who adhere to this tendency are the 18th-century Shah Waliullah in India and Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab in the Arabian Peninsula. This view is commonly associated with Salafism today.

Social and political
Along with adherents of other fundamentalist movements, Islamic fundamentalists hold the view that the problems of the world stem from secular influences.

Some scholars of Islam, such as Bassam Tibi, believe that, contrary to their own message, Islamic fundamentalists are not actually traditionalists. He refers to fatwahs which have been issued by fundamentalists such as the fatwa which states that "every Muslim who pleads for the suspension of the shari'a is an apostate and can be killed. The killing of those apostates cannot be prosecuted under Islamic law because this killing is justified" as going beyond, and unsupported by, the Qur'an. Tibi asserts, "The command to slay reasoning Muslims is un-Islamic, an invention of Islamic fundamentalists".

Conflicts with the secular state
Islamic fundamentalism's push for sharia and an Islamic state has come into conflict with conceptions of the secular, democratic state, such as the internationally supported Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Anthony J. Dennis notes that "Western and Islamic visions of the state, the individual and society are not only divergent, they are often totally at odds." Among human rights fundamentalist Muslims oppose are:
 * Freedom from religious police
 * Equality issues between men and women (And thus fundamentalist muslims are not feminists)
 * Separation of religion and state
 * Freedom of speech
 * Freedom of religion

Islamic fundamentalist states
The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran is seen by some scholars as a success of Islamic fundamentalism. Some scholars argue that Saudi Arabia is also largely governed by fundamentalist principles (see Wahhabi movement) but Johannes J.G. Jansen disagrees, arguing that it is more akin to a traditional Muslim state, where a power separation exists between "princes" (umarā) and "scholars" (ulama). In contrast, Jansen argues that Khomeini came to power by advocating the formation of a system of Islamic government where the highest level of authority is in the hands of the ulamā (see Wilayat al Faqih).

Islamic fundamentalist groups
Islamic fundamentalist groups include Al-Qaeda, the Taliban, Abu Sayyaf, Ansar al-Islam, Armed Islamic Group of Algeria, Army of Islam, Boko Haram, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Jemaah Islamiyah, Hamas, Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami, Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, Indian Mujahideen, Islamic State, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Tahrir al-Sham, Hizb-ut Tahrir among many others.

Caucasus Emirate
Caucasus Emirate is a fundamentalist Islamic terrorist group residing primarily in the North Caucasus of Russia. Created from the remnants of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI) in October 2007, it adheres to an ideology of Salafist-takfiri jihad that seeks to establish an Islamic caliphate within the North Caucasus and Volga region (primarily the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan). Many of their fighters are also present in jihadist battlegrounds such as Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and throughout Central Asia. Many plots involving Chechen and other indigenous ethnic groups of the North Caucasus have also been thwarted in Europe over the recent years.

Al-Shabaab
Al-Shabaab, meaning "the Youth", is a Somalia-based cell of the militant Islamist group al-Qaeda, formally recognized in 2012. Al-Shabaab is designated as a terrorist group by countries including Australia, Canada, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Boko Haram
Congregation of the People of Tradition for Proselytism and Jihad (Arabic: جماعة اهل السنة للدعوة والجهاد Jamā'a Ahl al-sunnah li-da'wa wa al-jihād), better known by its Hausa name Boko Haram (pronounced [bōːkòː hàrâm], "Western education is sinful"), is a jihadist militant organization based in the northeast of Nigeria. It is an Islamist movement which strongly opposes man-made laws and westernization. Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2001, the organization seeks to establish sharia law in the country. The group is also known for attacking Christians and bombing Mosques and churches.

The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram was responsible for at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for over 620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have been responsible for between 3,000 and 10,000 deaths.

The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in Nigeria in July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have a clear structure or evident chain of command. Moreover, it is still a matter of debate whether Boko Haram has links to terror outfits outside Nigeria and its fighters have frequently clashed with Nigeria's central government. A US commander stated that Boko Haram is likely linked to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), although professor Paul Lubeck points out that no evidence is presented for any claims of material international support.

Ansar Deen
Ansar Deen is an Islamist militant group in the country of Mali that wants Shariah law in Mali. It opposes Sufi shrines. Its main support comes from the Ifora tribe of Tuaregs. The group is connected to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb.

It took part in the 2012 Tuareg Rebellion. They destroyed the tomb of a Sufi saint which was a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It managed to take control of Northern Mali, and they formed a pact with the MNLA forming the Islamic Republic of Azawad.

It is designated a terrorist group by the United States Department of State and the United Nations Security Council.

Ansar al-Sharia
Ansar al-Sharia or Ansar al-Shariah is a name used by a collection of radical or militant Islamist groups or militias, in at least eight countries. While they share names and ideology, they lack a unified command structure. The eight countries in which the groups have operated are Pakistan, Yemen, Libya, Tunisia, Mali, Egypt, Mauritania, and Syria.

Human rights controversy
Some states and movements that are perceived or claimed to be Islamic fundamentalists have been criticized for their human rights record by international organizations. The acceptance of international law on human rights has been somewhat limited even in Muslim countries that are not seen as fundamentalist. Ann Elizabeth Mayer writes that states with a predominantly Muslim population, even when they adopt laws along European lines, are influenced by Islamic rules and precepts of sharia, which cause conflict with international law on human rights. According to Mayer, features found in conflict include severe deficiencies in criminal procedure, harsh criminal penalties causing great suffering, discrimination against women and non-Muslims, and prohibition against abandoning the Islamic religion. In 1990, under Saudi leadership, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, which substantially diverges from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The Cairo declaration lacks provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Further it stipulates that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic shari'a".

The Cairo declaration followed years of limited acceptance of the Universal declaration by predominantly Muslim states. As an example, in 1984, Iran's UN representative, Said Raja'i Khorasani, said the following amid allegations of human rights violations, "[Iran] recognized no authority ... apart from Islamic law.... Conventions, declarations and resolutions or decisions of international organizations, which were contrary to Islam, had no validity in the Islamic Republic of Iran.... The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which represented secular understanding of the Judaeo-Christian tradition, could not be implemented by Muslims and did not accord with the system of values recognized by the Islamic Republic of Iran; this country would therefore not hesitate to violate its provisions." These departures, both theoretical and practical, have resulted in a multitude of practices and cases criticized by international human rights groups. See human rights in Iran, human rights in Saudi Arabia, and Taliban treatment of women for specific examples.

Opinion polling
In a 2005 Lowy Institute for International Policy Poll 57% of Australians indicated they are worried about the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. Amos N. Guiora noted that this is equivalent to the number of Australians who perceived American Foreign Policy as a threat, he further noted that not just Muslim countries have an unfavourable opinion of the United States but a large number of western countries such as: France, Germany, Great Britain and Spain and concluded that Australia was not an outlier on this regard. The Lowy Institute claimed that the result "raised eyebrows".

 * A New York Times poll found that 33% of Americans think that Muslim Americans were more "sympathetic to terrorists than other Citizens" Rik Coolsaet analysed this as indicating a high level of distrust directed at the American Muslim community. The Times did this survey during the Park51 Ground Zero Mosque incident. The Times called the findings "appalling" and also analysed the data as showing a very high level of distrust of Muslim Americans and robust disapproval of the Park51 Mosque proposal. The New Republic stated that it does not trust the poll carried out by the New York Times and that the figures would be higher than 33%. They further claimed that New York residents are tolerant and if the figures were 33% in New York then "non-New Yorker fellow citizens are far more deeply biased and warped than the Gotham locals".

title: Islamic fundamentalism


text:
Talk:Air New Zealand

Zeal320 merged
Zeal320 article merged: See old talk-page here

I've removed the link on Zeal320. Apparently this subsidiary's own article has been "merged" (see above), but the link simply redirects to AirNZ. This isn't too helpful... As of the time of writing, the old talk page for Zeal320 contains only a brief discussion on the use of that logo - no info on the airline itself.

"Needs attention." Best regards, Pufferfyshe (talk) 11:04, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

Today I moved several things into a new heading "Onwards into the future". The changes that I've put under this heading, show what's happening now in the evolutionary process of the airline.

Perhaps the section on Airpoints should be split off into it's own page ?

Best Regards

--Ntddevsys --Ntddevsys 08:16, 12 May 2006 (UTC)11:01, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

//
I should now add more detail to the pre-Ansett and post-Ansett sections, so as to balance the entry up. TEAL/Air New Zealand has a long history after all, and did a great deal more than just try to buy an airline bigger than itself and run out of money. Unfortunately, while I have good sources here on the Ansett disaster, and also on the Mount Erebus disaster, I don't have much on the early years.

-- You might want to check out the book Flightpath South Pacific by Ian H Driscoll, published 1972 by Whitcombe and Tombs. --

The current write-up of the Mt Erebus crash, by the way, is good so far as it goes, but misses a crucial point: the Royal Commission was careful and exhaustive, but failed to properly understand that the primary rule of safety in aviation is the same primary rule that applies to ships at sea: the captain is at all times responsible for the safety of his vessel, no matter what other factors may intrude. This is why, for example, if a ship runs aground in a harbour entrance, it is regarded as the captain's fault, even though a marine pilot was in control at the time. It is a very harsh rule, but a very good rule. Essentially, it means that the aircraft captain is not just entitled to, but required to excercise his judgement, and take whatever action is needed to preserve his command - such as choosing not to fly into cloud at 2000 feet when not certain of the aircraft's exact position and knowing that there is a 12,000 foot mountain somewhere in the vicinity.

 * I disagree. The Airline's Navigation planning staff changed the programming for the guidance computer waypoints to take the aircraft directly over Mt. Erebus the immediately before the flight and after Captain Collins had plotted hs route on a map. The Captain was not alerted to the change in the computer flight plan by staff on the ground before takeoff.  Also, the Captain had not previously been given an opportunity to travel on an orientation flight as an observer as was required by Civil Aviation regulations.  Royal Commissioner Justice Peter Mahon, at the end of his book Verdict on Erebus, makes it clear that the Captain Collins' decision to continue to fly at 2000 feet under visual flying rules - apparently in clear air below the overcast and not in cloud - towards a mountain - was probably because the mountain was in white out conditions and could not be seen.  The Captain can not be held responsible for things he is not advised of or trained for - such as changed flight plans and poor training.  The coverup by the company afterwards made understanding what went wrong all the more difficult.  Captain Collins, an apparently careful pilot, exercised his judgement to the best of his abilities.  The plane crashed because the Captain based his judgement on navigation information that was changed without his knowledge and a polar whiteout condition that he was unfamiliar with and had not been trained to recognise, caused a 12,000 foot mountain to appear to be flat land that could be safely flown over.  Yes the Captain flew the plane towards the mountain, he did so because he could not see it, was not expecting it there and was not trained to recognise conditions that would make mountains disappear from view.  I think the Royal Commission understood the Captain's responsibility very well and identified that under these circumstances he was not responsible for the crash, as the crash was not due to decisions the Captain made.

None of this invalidates the other findings of the inquiry, of course. Nevertheless, there was considerable concern expressed in aviation safety circles that the Erebus Royal Commission finding placed at risk the longstanding doctrine of command responsibility.

 * Wikipedia should not present misleading information and omit pertinent fact. The current entry is misleading where it says the Privy Council "overturned his findings". It most certainly did not overturn his findings, only some of them. Justice Mahon's finding that the crew was blameless was not overturned, a fact which is important in the context of the enquiry, I am amending the page accordingly to give an accurate, NPOV, account. Moriori 23:52, Nov 16, 2003 (UTC)

 * Why doesnt all this argument go into the talk page in the article about the crash itself? Antonio Hard as a Pole Martin 3:02, Jun 10, 2004 (MST)

I agree with Antonio's question! Robin Patterson 00:03, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Now after some addition of headings etc to the "early" history I hope some of you younsters can
 * move the koru paragraph out of the history
 * similarly tidy up the later history; possibly blending it with the last part of the pre-koru section

Robin Patterson 00:03, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Current Fleet?
Should the current fleet include types on order, and not yet operated? Shouldn't that be in a separate, 'on order' section? Bombardier Q300, Boeing 777, Boeing 7E7 are the ones affected by this...

Advertising and safety videos
The list of videos in the advertising and promotion section seem arbitrarily chosen. Why not include the "Safety in Paradise" video, or "Fantastical Journey" or the current Antarctica one? What about Pete or Drake? If the criterion for inclusion is that it was widely reported outside NZ or generated controversy, the Safety in Paradise video would certainly count. Is there a point to such a section anyway? With videos being changed every few months, the list would soon grow unmanageably long.Mirza Ahmed (talk) 18:40, 31 March 2018 (UTC)

 * Best is just to delete the "Advertising and promotion" section, none of them appear to be particularly noteworthy or unusual. MilborneOne (talk) 19:25, 31 March 2018 (UTC)

 * Thanks, I removed it.Mirza Ahmed (talk) 19:30, 31 March 2018 (UTC)

number of international destination countries
Australia, Samoa, Argentina, USA, Hong Kong, UK, Fiji, Niue, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Tonga, Tahiti, Cook Islands, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, Canada, Indonesia, Korea (not yet started)

equals 20 - Not including New Zealand Itself. The definition of country does get in the way here so the figure is not undebatable - New Caledonia and Tahiti are both technically France, Hong Kong and China! and China Taiwan? are both problematic and Norfolk and Australia has some questions as does Cook Is and NZ for that matter. But if you define a country as seperate government structures and /or border controls this is a good list. It is not however the current figure in the article. I would be content just leaving the figure out as not being particularly useful and clear. Andrewgprout (talk) 21:25, 30 June 2019 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your clarification Andrew. I not realized about Norfolk as a separate territory served. Will update the destination page also.CHCBOY (talk) 00:48, 1 July 2019 (UTC)

TEAL merge
There is a degree of content forking between the Tasman Empire Airways Limited and Air New Zealand articles, both covering the same airline from 1940 to 1965. Air New Zealand is a rebranding of Tasman Empire Airways Limited, rather than a new airline, its website stating it was incorporated in 1940. This is backed up by its Companies Office record. Therefore propose the articles be merged under Air New Zealand. By way of precedents, Ansett New Zealand that was rebranded Qantas New Zealand and Pacific Blue Airlines that was rebranded Virgin Australia Airlines (NZ), both have one merged article. Blueeluc (talk) 03:41, 22 July 2022 (UTC)
 * mildly oppose. Precedents quoted were less significant endeavours. Sufficient content exists for the two separate articles, plus NAC one (not mentioned). Duplicate content should be reviewed, but does not appear excessive. DMBanks1 (talk) 17:21, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
 * I think the merger should be History of Air New Zealand into Air New Zealand, which were inexplicably separated in 2007. A good précis should reduce the combined word count by at least 40%. On further reflection, the references to TEAL, NAC, Ansett Aus fiasco, and the combined minor subsidiaries, should be no more than a few lines each, to minimize duplication. DMBanks1 (talk) 22:32, 25 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Oppose There's plenty enough content for TEAL to be its own article. Any overlap with AirNZ should be addressed by summarising what’s at AirNZ and referring to TEAL as the main article via the standard link.  Schwede  66  20:04, 23 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. Likewise DMBanks1's suggestion re merging History of Air New Zealand.Zoltyge (talk) 03:50, 27 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose The difference between this case and that of Ansett becoming Qantas is that Ansett became a franchise of Qantas while TEAL and NAC joined to make one company so even if they used TEAL's company registration they are thought of as a new entity. Plus there is enough content for two separate articles. As per Schwede just a summary on TEAL is enough in this article. Paulpat99 (talk) 08:28, 27 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose These easily have enough distinction that they're worthy of their own articles - I don't think any overlap is enough to merit merging, since there's always going to be some in cases like this. At worst, it can be resolved with some copy editing and pointing more to the respective articles where needed. Turnagra (talk) 09:11, 3 November 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Air New Zealand


text:
User:Tres~enwiki

Tres' Information
Hi, I'm a big Free Software fan and by extension a big fan of what Professor Lawrence Lessig calls The Public Commons. This Wikipedia thing seems to be an awesome way to get information into the public commons so that everyone can benefiet from it. I just started making entries into the database in January of 2003 and am still trying to figure out how it all works and the accepted way of doing things.

Entries That I have Started:
Enantiomer A mirror image of a stereochemical molecule. The Golden Hour A term referring to the first hour after a traumatic experience. Talk:The Golden Hour Discussion. Emergency room A hospital room that treats emergencies. Talk:Emergency room Discussion. ER (television) NBC's TV show: ER. Myocardial infarction Redirect to Acute myocardial infarction. MI Redirect to Acute myocardial infarction. IV A medical treatment.

Entries That I Have Added To:
Optical isomerism A stereochemical molecule that has special optical properties. Talk:Optical isomerism Discussion. ER redirect to emergency room. Emergency medical technician A first responder to a medical or traumatic emergency. Acute myocardial infarction A heart attack.

Questions That I Have (and would like answered)
1.  Where do I go to comment and ask questions about Wikipedia in general? I'd like to add a spell checker and an automatic link creator (when someone writes an article it would be nice if a link creator went through and created links to all of the topics that are mentioned in the article).

2.  What is the policy of adding other information that is copyright under the same license as Wikipedia's content: The GNU Free Document License? (The entries in Gdict, an online dictionary, come to mind.)

3.  Can Wikipedia entries be to Wiktionary entries?

$$ Normally this is used as your personal home page. Comments are found in your personal talk page. User talk:Tres -- clarka

$$ See below for FAQs answering your questions. Be very careful with copyright issues; research FAQs thoroughly and solicit advice from experts (I am not one!) before proceeding. Wikipedia is not a dictionary. Linking across from Wikipedia to Wiktionary makes the two interdependent, which the people who make those decisions is trying to avoid. Discuss it with them. $$

Final Thoughts
If I make mistakes or you just want to chat about something then please don't hesitate to email me. I would actually appreciate it.

Tres (class5@pacbell.net)

Other People's Comments
You can be the first! :-)

Normally this is used as your personal home page. Comments are found in your personal talk page. User talk:Tres -- clarka

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy wiki-ing!

title: User:Tres~enwiki


text:
Jupiter Cantab

Jupiter Cantab Limited was a Cambridge based home computer company. Its main product was the 1983 Forth-based Jupiter Ace.

The company was founded in 1982 by two ex-Sinclair Research staffers, Richard Altwasser and Steven Vickers. Their machine was, externally, remarkably similar to the ZX Spectrum, with a copycat rubber keyboard. It also used the same Z80 processor. The Ace's video output was limited to monochrome like the ZX-81.

The £90 Ace was a flop in both the UK and US markets. In the US it was intended to be sold as the Ace 4000, although only 800 were ever made. The Forth language, although considered powerful, was not as popular or accessible as the already well-established BASIC language featured in competing microcomputers. Although the Ace's price at £89.95 when the successor to Sinclair's ZX80, the ZX81, was £39.95 was more likely the primary reason for slow sales.

The company went bankrupt in November 1983 and its assets were sold to Boldfield Computing Ltd in 1984. The remaining hardware was sold-off into 1985. Boldfield Computing Ltd also commissioned some software for it, including various games, database, and spread sheet software. Documentation to this exists and is held by the current owners of the brand.

The sale of Boldfield’s IT solution business in 2006, excluded the rights to the Jupiter Ace IP and brand, but this was later sold to Andrews UK Limited in 2015.

title: Jupiter Cantab


text:
Transfusion medicine

Transfusion medicine (or transfusiology) is the branch of medicine that encompasses all aspects of the transfusion of blood and blood components including aspects related to hemovigilance. It includes issues of blood donation, immunohematology and other laboratory testing for transfusion-transmitted diseases, management and monitoring of clinical transfusion practices, patient blood management, therapeutic apheresis, stem cell collections, cellular therapy, and coagulation. Laboratory management and understanding of state and federal regulations related to blood products are also a large part of the field.

Overview
In most countries, immunohematology and transfusion medicine specialists provide expert opinion on massive transfusions, difficult/incompatible transfusions and rational use of specialised blood product therapy like irradiated blood/leukodepleted/washed blood products.

The blood donor center is the facility that collects blood components from screened blood donors, either whole blood or separate components such as plasma or platelets only via apheresis. These blood components are then transported to a central location for processing such as fractionation, testing and redistribution. The testing includes determining blood type and testing for infectious diseases. Whole blood is fractionated into red blood cells, platelets and plasma whilst plasma can be further refined into separate components such as albumin, clotting factor concentrates and immunoglobulin.

The blood bank is the section of the clinical laboratory where laboratory scientists store and distribute blood components. Both areas are typically overseen by a specialist in transfusion medicine. Transfusion medicine was earlier a branch of clinical pathology, however the field has now expanded into a clinical, hospital-based specialty. The practice of transfusion medicine involves both laboratory and clinical aspects of transfusion as communication between blood bank and patients, treating specialists and other medical staff is vital in situations such as massive transfusions or transfusion reactions.

To ensure the safety of blood components, regimented procedures and quality assurance systems must be in place covering all aspects of the transfusion chain, from donation to transfusion outcomes. Within hospitals, transfusion committees are established to ensure safe hospital transfusion practice such as compliance with standards and guidelines, reviewing transfusion reactions and management of blood supply. These multidisciplinary committees are composed of transfusion medicine specialists, transfusion nurses, laboratory scientists, clinicians and staff from hospital management and the quality team.

History
In 1628, English physician William Harvey discovered that blood circulates around the body. Soon thereafter, the first blood transfusion was attempted. In 1665 another English doctor Richard Lower successfully used blood transfusion between dogs to keep them alive.

Karl Landsteiner is recognized as the father of transfusion medicine. Landsteiner is credited with the first classification of human blood into the four types (A, B, AB, O) of the ABO blood group system.

National differences and how to specialise
Australia

In Australia, transfusion medicine is a sub-specialty of haematology. Training in transfusion medicine is covered by the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia (RCPA).

Australia has national blood services operated by the Australian Red Cross Blood Service. There are a series of guidelines and standards relevant to the laboratory released by the National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia (NATA), Australian and New Zealand Society of Blood Transfusion (ANZSBT) and RCPA. Similarly, there are a series of clinical practice, patient blood management guidelines by the National Blood Authority.

In Australia, the Serious Transfusion Incident Reporting (STIR) system is in place to capture serious transfusion incidents and near-miss incidents.

 * Denmark

In Denmark, the subject is covered by the specialty, "Clinical Immunology".

In Germany, transfusion medicine is an independent specialty. Physicians complete a three-year residency in transfusion medicine and two years in another relevant clinical settings like internal medicine or surgery.
 * Germany

 * India

In India, Immunohematology and Transfusion Medicine is a medical post graduate specialty (MD) recognized by Medical Council of India since 2009.

 * Malaysia

Physicians completing their internship may pursue a four-year Master of Medicine (Transfusion Medicine) programme to specialize in transfusion medicine in Malaysia. They are eligible for registration with National Specialist Registry as transfusion medicine specialists after completion of gazettement upon graduation. Transfusion medicine specialists in Malaysia may further their sub-specialty training in the field of immunohaematology, cord blood, patient blood management, cellular therapy, and regenerative medicine.

 * Norway

In Norway, the subject is covered by the specialty, "Immunology and Transfusion medicine"

 * United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, transfusion medicine is a sub-speciality of hematology.

Serious Hazards of Transfusion (SHOT) collects and analyses reports of adverse events related to transfusion, aiming to improve patient safety. Its reports have led to wider training for medical staff in the UK and a central reporting scheme to allow errors to be reported.

There is the Better Blood Continuing Education Programme, which is organised by the EUB which is part of the SNBTS. The EUB consists of many specialist healthcare professionals. The programme's aim is to improve transfusion medicine practise. The programme is reviewed each annually in January.

In the UK, there are restrictions in place to decrease the risk of the transmission of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.

 * United States

Physicians from a wide range of backgrounds, including pathology, internal medicine, anesthesiology and pediatrics, are eligible for board certification in Transfusion Medicine following a 1–2 year fellowship. It is a board-certified sub-specialty recognized by the American Board of Pathology. These specialists are often considered consultants for physicians who require expert advice on the subjects listed above. Transfusiology is not a recognized term in the US.

title: Transfusion medicine


text:
Experimental Aircraft Association

The Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) is an international organization of aviation enthusiasts based in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Since its inception, it has grown internationally with over 200,000 members and nearly 1,000 chapters worldwide. It hosts the largest aviation gathering of its kind in the world, EAA AirVenture Oshkosh.

History
The EAA was founded in 1953 by veteran aviator Paul Poberezny along with other aviation enthusiasts. The organization began as more or less a flying club. Poberezny explains the nature of the organization's name, "Because the planes we flew were modified or built from scratch, they were required to display an EXPERIMENTAL placard where it could be seen on the door or cockpit, so it was quite natural that we call ourselves the "Experimental Aircraft Association". The EAA was incorporated in Wisconsin on 22 March 1955. Homebuilding is still a large part of EAA, but the organization has grown over the years to include almost every aspect of aviation and aeronautics.

EAA's first location was in the basement of Poberezny's Hales Corners, Wisconsin home. In the early 1960s, the association's first headquarters was built in the Milwaukee suburb of Franklin. That was the headquarters for the organization until 1983, when EAA combined its headquarters and fly-in site in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. The EAA Aviation Center also includes the EAA Aviation Museum, with more than 200 aircraft, approximately 130 of which are on display at any given time.

In 1953, the Experimental Aircraft Association released a two-page newsletter named The Experimenter. The newsletter was written and published by founding members Paul and Audrey Poberezny along with other volunteers. The newsletter transitioned to a magazine format and was renamed Sport Aviation and became a membership benefit. The Experimenter name lives on, however, in an online magazine specifically for amateur-built and light plane enthusiasts that debuted in 2012. It was folded into the monthly Sport Aviation print magazine in 2015.

In 2010, the United States' national aeromodeling organization, the Academy of Model Aeronautics, was involved in negotiations with the EAA homebuilt aviation organization, that resulted in a "memorandum of understanding" that is intended to encourage collaboration between the two American-based sport aviation organizations, in developing, in the words of the AMA's then-President Dave Mathewson, "the creation of new concepts that will promote aviation, both full-scale and modeling, as a perfect family recreational and educational activity". This link with the AMA has further strengthened in the face of unprecedented FAA concern of aeromodeling as a form of UAS activity they now have a reason to regulate, and are now tasked with regulating - the EAA, in late November 2019, stated that "We see model aviation as an important pathway to manned flight," adding that "Our goal in this risk assessment process is to represent the safety concerns of our members while allowing the highest degree of freedom for legacy model aircraft, which have flown alongside us in the airspace for decades."

In 2015, the EAA and EAA Young Eagles were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

Museum

First opened in 1983 and located adjacent to EAA's headquarters in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, the EAA Aviation Museum is an extensive collection of aircraft and aviation displays. The Museum is home to EAA's collection of more than 200 aircraft, of which more than 90 are on display inside the museum at any time. The museum's Pioneer Airport is a re-creation of a vintage aerodrome, with more than 40 additional airplanes on display. From May through mid-October (daily Memorial Day through Labor Day), flights are offered in vintage aircraft.

Technical Counselor program
To help ensure that all amateur-built aircraft are well-constructed, safe aircraft, the EAA organizes a group of volunteers, known as Technical Counselors, who will visit the construction project to identify any areas of concern. Technical Counselors are EAA members who volunteer their time and who have met at least one of the following criteria:

 * Have built an experimental category aircraft
 * Have restored an antique/classic aircraft
 * Hold an A&P, IA, DAR, DER or Aerospace Engineer rating in the United States, an equivalent international rating or have the qualifications for those ratings.

There is no charge for this on-site review. The program is strictly voluntary. The recommendations of the Technical Counselor are advisory only. The EAA recommends a minimum of three Technical Counselor visits over the course of construction.

Flight Advisor program
The Flight Advisor Program is designed to increase homebuilt aircraft safety by developing a corps of volunteers who have demonstrated expertise in specific areas of flying and making them available to EAA members who may be preparing to fly an unfamiliar aircraft. A Flight Advisor helps the pilot conduct a self-evaluation as well as evaluate the flying characteristics of the aircraft. Pilots use that evaluation to decide whether they are capable of flying that airplane. If not capable, the Flight Advisor explains where and how the pilot can get the proper instruction, or alternatively find someone to make the initial flights.

Under the EAA Flight Advisor Program, the Advisor does not fly or decide whether or not the pilot is capable of flying the airplane to be tested. The Advisor provides the pilot with the pros and cons as they relate to this specific combination of pilot and airplane. The pilot makes the final decision on how to proceed with the flight testing program.

EAA AirVenture Oshkosh

Each summer EAA presents the largest annual general aviation event in the world, EAA AirVenture Oshkosh, also commonly known as the "Oshkosh Airshow". During the event, the city's airport, Wittman Regional Airport, named after Steve Wittman, is the busiest airport in the world (in terms of traffic movements). The week-long event annually attracts around 10,000-12,000 planes and a total attendance of more than 500,000. The event also attracts more than 800 exhibitors, hosts nearly 1,000 forums, seminars and workshops, and welcomes more than 700 journalists each year.

The annual fly-in was first held in 1953 at what is now Timmerman Field in Milwaukee. In 1959, the growing event moved to the Rockford, Illinois airport. Attendance at the fly-in continued to grow until the Rockford airport (now Chicago Rockford International Airport) was too small to accommodate the crowds, and so it was moved to Oshkosh in 1970. A study conducted in 2008 by the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh determined that the 500,000 annual fly-in attendance generates $110 million of tourist income for the three counties surrounding the airport. In 2017, that economic impact was estimated at over $170 million and a total attendance of nearly 600,000 people.

Young Eagles

The EAA also sponsors the Young Eagles program, which was started in 1992 by Tom Poberezny and others, with the aim of giving one million children an airplane ride by 17 December 2003, the Centennial of Flight (see Wright brothers and Wright Flyer). The program reached that goal, and has continued, with more than 2 million young people flown as of July 2016 and more introduced to and educated around the benefits of general aviation.

The Young Eagles program has been overseen by a series of nationally famous chairmen:
 * Cliff Robertson - founding chairman, film and stage actor (1992–1994)
 * Chuck Yeager - USAF General and first man to fly faster than the speed of sound (1994–2004)
 * Harrison Ford - film and stage actor (2004–2009)
 * Chesley Sullenberger and Jeffrey B. Skiles - pilots of US Airways Flight 1549 (2009–2013)
 * Sean D. Tucker - aerobatic pilot (2013–present)
 * Jimmy Graham - NFL tight end (2018–present)

Sun 'N Fun Airshow
The other major yearly airshow attended by EAA members and staff is Sun 'n Fun, held every April in Lakeland, Florida. Sun 'n Fun has been an independent organization from the EAA since its first show in 1975, although the event has always involved significant EAA participation. The two organizations signed an agreement in January 1989 recognizing their independence. On 30 March 2005 Sun 'n Fun issued a press release affirming the independence of the two organizations but assuring the aviation public that they would continue to work together. As such Sun 'n Fun remains a show with participation from EAA chapters and a presence from the national EAA staff, but it is not an EAA event.

Organizational structure
The organization is overseen by a chairman, a president, a CEO and a board of directors. Paul Poberezny assumed the duties of president and CEO at the 1953 founding. In 1989 he assumed the (newly created) position of chairman of the board, and his son, aerobatic pilot Tom Poberezny, became president and CEO. In March 2009, Paul Poberezny resigned, and the board voted to elevate Tom Poberezny to chairman of the board. At AirVenture 2010, it was announced that businessman Rod Hightower would succeed Tom Poberezny as president of the organization, effective September 2010.

Hightower resigned on 22 October 2012 "effective immediately", directly after a board of directors meeting during which former Cessna chairman, president and CEO Jack J. Pelton was elected chairman. Hightower indicated he was resigning to spend more time with his family and would not relocate from St. Louis to Oshkosh. Pelton was named acting CEO and will oversee the hiring process for Hightower's permanent replacement. In response to questions about Hightower's resignation, Mac McClellan, EAA vice president of publications, stated that it was due to Hightower failing to relocate himself from his home in St. Louis to EAA headquarters in Oshkosh, as the board had expected him to. McClellan said, "I know there's all kinds of complaints, but that's not it. [The residency] was the unsolvable requirement. The board sees the president/CEO living in the Fox Valley as essential to the mission."

Dec 2022 The EAA Board of Directors welcomed Shelly deZevallos, Ed. D., as a Class III Director.

Local chapters may be formed whenever ten or more EAA members reside in a given area.

Chapters are encouraged to meet monthly. The first chapter meeting occurred at Flabob Airport in California, with noted aircraft designer and builder Ray Stits presiding.

EAA Freedom of Flight Award
In addition to the Dr. August Raspet Memorial Award, EAA also presents the Freedom of Flight Award, which the organization considers its highest honor. The award is "bestowed annually to recognize contributions to aviation who closely mirror the integrity, entrepreneurship, and innovativeness of EAA members."

List of Recipients

 * 2023 – Jim Irwin and Aircraft Spruce
 * 2022 – James Inhofe
 * 2021 – Jerry Gregoire
 * 2020 – (no recipient, AirVenture canceled)
 * 2019 – the Brown family and Hartzell Propeller
 * 2018 – Andrew Barker and Robert Hamilton
 * 2017 – Sebastien Heintz
 * 2016 – Mark Van Tine
 * 2015 – Chesley “Sully” Sullenberger and Jeff Skiles
 * 2014 – Audrey Poberezny
 * 2013 – John Monnett
 * 2012 – Charles McGee
 * 2011 – Bob Hoover
 * 2010 – Sean D. Tucker
 * 2009 – Harrison Ford
 * 2008 – Jack J. Pelton
 * 2007 – Dale and Alan Klapmeier
 * 2006 – Scott Crossfield
 * 2005 – Mike Melvill
 * 2004 – Dick VanGrunsven
 * 2003 – Jeanie MacPherson
 * 2002 – Steven J. Brown
 * 2001 – Dick Rutan
 * 2000 – Dick Hansen
 * 1999 – Dan Goldin
 * 1998 – Ed Stimpson
 * 1997 – Sam Johnson
 * 1996 – Burt Rutan
 * 1995 – (no recipient)
 * 1994 – Barron Hilton
 * 1993 – John Denver
 * 1992 – James C. Ray
 * 1991 – Ray Scholler
 * 1990 – Paul Poberezny
 * 1989 – Robert "Hoot" Gibson
 * 1988 – Neil Armstrong
 * 1987 – Cliff Robertson
 * 1986 – Steve Wittman

Aircraft

 * EAA Biplane
 * EAA Spirit of St. Louis replica
 * EAA Wright Flyer Model B replica

title: Experimental Aircraft Association


text:
Arqa

Arqa (عرقا; 𒅕𒋡𒋫) is a Lebanese village near Miniara in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon, 22 km northeast of Tripoli, near the coast. The town was a notable city-state during the Iron Age. The city of Irqata sent 10,000 soldiers to the coalition against the Assyrian king in the Battle of Qarqar. The former bishopric became a double Catholic titular see (Latin and Maronite). The Roman Emperor Alexander Severus was born there. It is significant for the Tell Arqa, an archaeological site that goes back to Neolithic times, and during the Crusades there was a strategically significant castle.

Names
It is mentioned in Antiquity in the Amarna letters of Egypt-(as Irqata), as well as in Assyrian documents.

The Roman town was named Caesarea (of Lebanon/Phoenicia) or Arca Caesarea.

Early Bronze
In the Early Bronze IV, the Akkar Plain had three major sites in Tell Arqa, Tell Kazel, and Tell Jamous. The cultural focus had been towards the south and southern Levant, but now changed with more influence from Inner Syria and the use of copper.

Middle Bronze
In the MB I the Akkar Plain still saw smaller settlements being added near Tell Arqa and the region reach its highest population density in MB II.

Amarna Period Irqata (c. 1350 BC)
Arqa has the distinction of being a city-state that wrote one of the 382 Amarna letters to the Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.

The city-state Irqata was the 3rd city of the Rib-Hadda letters, (68 letters), that were the last hold-outs against the (H)Apiru invasion. Sumur(u)-(Zemar) was the 2nd hold-out city besides Rib-Hadda's Byblos, (named Gubla). Eventually, the king of Irqata, Aduna was killed along with other city kings, and also the 'mayor' of Gubla, Rib-Hadda. Rib-Hadda's brother, Ili-Rapih, became the successor mayor of Gubla, and Gubla never fell to the Hapiru.

During Rib-Hadda's lengthy opposition to the Habiru, even the city-state of Irqata and its elders, wrote to the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten for assistance. (EA 100, EA for el Amarna).

The letter is entitled: "The city of Irqata to the king".

 * This tablet-(i.e. tablet letter) is a tablet from Irqata. To the King, our Lord: Message from Irqata and its el[d]ers. We fall at the feet of the king, our lord, 7 times and 7 times. To our lord, the Sun: Message from Irqata. May the heart of the king, (our) lord, know that we guard Irqata for him.
 * When the [ki]ng, our lord, sent D[UMU]-Bi-ha-a, he said to [u]s, "Message of the king: "Guard Irqata"! " The sons of the traitor to the king seek our harm; Irqata see[ks] loyalty to the king. As to [ silver ] having been given to S[u]baru al[ong with] horses and cha[riots], may you know the mind of Irqata. When a tablet from the king arrived (saying) to ra[id] the land that the 'A[piru] had taken [from] the king,'they wa[ged] war with us against the enemy of our lord, the man whom you pla[ced] over us. Truly—we are guarding the l[and]. May the king, our lord, heed the words of his loyal servants.
 * May he grant a gift to his servant(s) so our enemies will see this and eat dirt. May the breath of the king not depart from us. We shall keep the city gate barred until the breath of the king reaches us. Severe is the war against us—terribly! terribly! -EA 100, lines 1-44 (complete)

Hellenistic and Roman period
After the death of Alexander the Great Arca came under the control first of the Lagids then of the Seleucids. When the Romans gained control over this part of western Asia, they entrusted Arca as a client tetrarchy or vassal principality to a certain Sohaimos, who died in AD 48 or 49. It was then incorporated in the Roman province of Syria, but was soon entrusted to Herod Agrippa II. Pliny the Elder counts it among the tetrarchies of Syria. It was at this time that its name was changed to Caesarea, distinguished from other cities of that name by being called Caesarea ad Libanum or Arca Caesarea. Under Septimius Severus (193–211) it was made part of the province of Syria Phoenicia and so became known as Arca in Phoenicia. Under his son Caracalla (198–217) it became a colonia and in 208 Alexander Severus was born at Arca during a stay of his parents there.

Crusades period
At the time of the First Crusade, Arca became an important strategic point of control over the roads from Tripoli to Tartus and Homs. Raymond of Toulouse unsuccessfully besieged it for three months in 1099. In 1108, his nephew William II Jordan conquered it and it became part of the County of Tripoli. It resisted an attack by Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo, in 1167 and another in 1171. It finally fell to Muslim forces of the Sultan Baibars in 1265 or 1266. When Tripoli itself fell in 1289 to the army of Sultan Qalawun and was razed to the ground, Arca lost its strategic importance and thereafter is mentioned only in ecclesiastical chronicles.

Later period
In 1838, Eli Smith noted the village,  whose inhabitants were Greek Orthodox, located west of esh-Sheikh Mohammed.

Ecclesiastical history
Arca in Phoenicia became the seat of a Christian bishop in the Roman province of Phoenicia Prima, a suffragan of the capital's metropolitan see of Tyre. Of its bishops, Lucianus professed the faith of the First Council of Nicaea at a synod held in Antioch in 363, Alexander was at the First Council of Constantinople in 381, Reverentius became archbishop of Tyre, Marcellinus was a participant at the Council of Ephesus in 431, Epiphanius took part in a synod at Antioch in 448, and Heraclitus participated in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the province of Syria Phoenicia sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian to protest about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria.

No longer a residential bishopric, Arca in Phoenicia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see, in two traditions: Latin and Maronite (Eastern Catholic, Antiochian Rite in Syriac).

Latin titular see
The nominally restored diocese has had non-consecutive titular bishops as a Latin Catholic titular bishopric since the 18th century.

It is vacant, having had the following incumbents, all of the lowest (episcopal) rank :
 * Pedro del Cañizo Losa y Valera (1726.09.21 – ?)
 * Józef Krystofowicz (1809.03.28 – 1816.02.26)
 * Francisco de Sales Crespo y Bautista (1861.12.23 – 1875.07.05)
 * Pierre-Marie Le Berre, Holy Ghost Fathers (C.S.Sp.) (1877.09.07 – 1891.07.16)
 * Claude Marie Dubuis (1892.12.16 – 1895.05.22)
 * Alfredo Peri-Morosini (1904.03.28 – 1931.07.27)
 * Jean-Édouard-Lucien Rupp (1954.10.28 – 1962.06.09) as Auxiliary Bishop of France of the Eastern Rite (France) (1954.10.28 – 1962.06.09), later Exempt Bishop of the then diocese of Monaco (Monaco) (1962.06.09 – 1971.05.08), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio (papal diplomatic envoy) to Iraq (1971.05.08 – 1978); later Titular Archbishop of Dionysiopolis (1971.05.08 – 1983.01.28), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Kuwait (1975 – 1978), Permanent Observer to Office of the United Nations and Specialized Institutions in Geneva (UNOG) (1978 – 1980)
 * Hugo Aufderbeck (1962.06.19 – 1981.01.17)

Maronite titular see
Established as Titular Episcopal See of Arca (Arca dei Maroniti in Curiate Italian); promoted in 1933 as Titular Archiepiscopal See of Arca in Armenia, in 1941 suppressed, but restored in 1950 as Titular Episcopal See of Arca in Phoenicia.

It has had the following incumbents, all of the lowest (episcopal) rank :
 * Abdallah Nujaim (1950.07.25 – 1954.04.04)
 * Bishop-elect João Chedid, Mariamite Maronite Order (O.M.M., Aleppians) (1956.05.04 – 1956.05.04), as Auxiliary Bishop of Brazil of the Eastern Rite (Brazil) ([1956.04.21] 1956.05.04 – 1971.11.29), later Bishop of Nossa Senhora do Líbano em São Paulo of the Maronites (Brazil) (1971.11.29 – 1988.02.27), Archbishop-Bishop of Nossa Senhora do Líbano em São Paulo of the Maronites (1988.02.27 – 1990.06.09)
 * Roland Aboujaoudé (1975.07.12 – ...), Auxiliary Bishop emeritus of Antioch of the Maronites (Lebanon)

Sources and external links

 * Aarqa, Localiban
 * Pictures of excavations of the city
 * GCatholic Latin titular see with incumbent biography links
 * GCatholic Maronite titular see with incumbent biography links

title: Arqa


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Sarah Blaffer Hrdy

Sarah Hrdy (née Blaffer; born July 11, 1946) is an American anthropologist and primatologist who has made major contributions to evolutionary psychology and sociobiology. She is considered "a highly recognized pioneer in modernizing our understanding of the evolutionary basis of female behavior in both nonhuman and human primates". In 2013, Hrdy received a Lifetime Career Award for Distinguished Scientific Contribution from the Human Behavior and Evolution Society.

Hrdy is a Professor Emerita of the Department of Anthropology at the University of California, Davis. She has also been an Associate at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University. She has been selected as one of the 21 Leaders in Animal Behavior (2009). In acknowledgment of her achievements, Discover magazine recognized her in 2002 as one of the 50 most important women in science.

Early life
Sarah Blaffer was born on July 11, 1946, in Dallas, Texas. She was a granddaughter of Sarah Campbell Blaffer and Robert Lee Blaffer, a co-founder of Humble Oil. She was raised in Houston and attended St. John's School before enrolling in St. Timothy's School in Stevenson, Maryland, graduating in 1964.

Education
At age 18, Blaffer enrolled in her mother's alma mater, Wellesley College in Massachusetts. At the end of her sophomore year, she transferred to Radcliffe College, then the women's part of Harvard, in order to study under the great Mayanist Evon Vogt.

Majoring in anthropology there her undergraduate honors thesis was on the Maya demon H'ik'al published as her first book,. The Black-man of Zinacantan, published in 1972. She was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, and graduated summa cum laude from Radcliffe in 1969 with a BA.

Interested in making public health films for people in developing countries, Hrdy took film-making courses at Stanford, but was disappointed with them. Instead she was inspired by a Stanford lecture of Paul Ehrlich's about overpopulation. His lecture reminded her of something a Harvard professor, Irven DeVore, had said about a species of Indian monkey called langurs among whom males, supposedly because they were crowded, killed infants.

Hrdy changed course in mid-year and entered Harvard as a graduate student in 1970 to study primate behavior so she could go to India and find out why these male Hanuman langurs were killing infants. She worked under the supervision of anthropology professor Irven DeVore and evolutionary biologist Robert L. Trivers and E. O. Wilson earning a Ph.D. in Anthropology in 1975.

Family
Sarah Blaffer met Daniel Hrdy at Harvard. He accompanied her on early visits to Mount Abu, and they married in 1972 in Kathmandu. They have three children: Katrinka (born 1977); Sasha (born 1982), a week before Hrdy was scheduled to present a paper at Cornell University; and Niko (born 1986). Sarah Blaffer Hrdy now lives with her husband in northern California, where they are engaged in walnut farming and habitat restoration at Citrona Farms.

Career
Hrdy alternated research work in India with time at Harvard until 1979. Between 1974 and 1984, she taught for brief periods at University of Massachusetts, Boston; Harvard and Rice University, and worked as a volunteer at her daughter's daycare center until 1984 when she joined the University of California at Davis as a professor of anthropology. Hrdy retired in 1996, becoming a professor emerita of anthropology at UC Davis, where she continues to be involved with the Animal Behavior Graduate Group.

The Langurs of Abu
Sarah Hrdy first heard of langurs during an undergraduate primate behavior class taught by anthropologist Irven DeVore in 1968. DeVore commented on the relationship between crowding and the killing of infants in langur colonies. After graduation, Hrdy returned to Harvard for graduate studies, with the goal of better understanding the phenomenon of infanticide in primates. Working under the supervision of DeVore, Trivers and Wilson provided Hrdy with an introduction to the emerging science of sociobiology—which crystallized at Harvard in the early 1970s. Sociobiology's comparative evolutionary perspective would shape Hrdy's work for years to come.

Although Hrdy had initially gone to Mount Abu to explore the hypothesis that crowding was responsible for infanticide, soon she realized her starting hypothesis was wrong. Infants were only attacked when males entered the breeding system from outside it. This led her to what she termed the sexual selection hypothesis for explaining infanticide. Males are eliminating unweaned infants sired by rival males and in doing so inducing the mother to resume cycling and ovulate again sooner than had she continued to lactate. Turnover in her langur troupes occurred roughly on average every 27 months leaving the usurping male only a brief window of opportunity to breed and pass on his genes. If the females are nursing infants, it is likely that they will not ovulate for another year. Killing their dependent infants rendered females fertile again sooner than they otherwise would be.

Female choice is subverted, as females are put under pressure to ovulate and are forced to breed with the infanticidal males. This is where the idea of sexual counter-strategies comes into play. Hrdy hypothesized that by mating with a male who might take over her troupe ahead of time, they protect their infants subsequently born since males were unlikely to kill an infant if there was a chance that it might be their own, a behavior that would be rapidly selected against.

While infanticide by males has since been reported across the primate order in prosimians, New and Old World monkeys, and ape, Hrdy found no evidence to suggest a 'genetic imperative' for infanticide in humans.

In 1975, Hrdy was awarded her PhD for her research on langurs. In 1977 it was published in her second book, The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction. However her proposal that infanticide might be an evolved reproductive strategy in primates proved highly controversial, running counter to the then current conviction that primates act for the good of the group rather than to promote the reproductive interests of any individual. Nevertheless, her findings have since been replicated in many animals and her explanations are widely accepted. Even Trivers, who once dismissed her ideas about female sexual solicitations of multiple males, admits that her theory regarding female counter strategies to infanticide have "worn well."

The Woman That Never Evolved
Hrdy's third book came out in 1981: The Woman That Never Evolved. She begins chapter one with a sentence indicating that the results of her work suggest female agency should be given a lot more credit than previously assumed. "Biology, it is sometimes thought, has worked against women." Here, Hrdy expands upon female reproductive strategies. The book was selected as one of The New York Times' Notable Books of 1981.

In 1984, Hrdy co-edited Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. It was selected as a 1984–1985 "Outstanding Academic Book" by Choice, the journal of the Association of College and Research Libraries.

Mother Nature
In 1999, Hrdy published Mother Nature: A history of mothers, infants, and natural selection. She examines "human mothers and infants in a broader comparative and evolutionary framework," informing and forming views of mother-infant interdependence from a sociobiological viewpoint.

In it she described the trade-offs between subsistence and reproduction that mothers have to juggle, sometimes leading to difficult maternal investment "decisions". Rather than assuming automatic maternal responses, Hrdy views "maternal instinct" as a process unfolding in line with local conditions and cues from the infant. She stresses that an ape producing such costly offspring as humans could not have evolved unless mothers had had help from others, and had been what sociobiologists term cooperative breeders.

Humans evolved to rely on assistance from group members other than the mother, using the term "allomother" she first used in her 1975 PhD thesis describing infant-sharing in langurs (from the Greek "allo" for "other than") to refer to any female or male other than the mother who helps to care for an infant. In the human case allomothers are often a father, grandparents, or older siblings, as well as genetically unrelated helpers, including nannies, and child care groups, who help care for and provision infants, freeing the mother to meet her own needs and in the case of early humans, breed again sooner.

Mothers and Others: The evolutionary origins of mutual understanding
In Mother Nature Hrdy argued that apes with the life history attributes of Homo sapiens could not have evolved unless alloparents in addition to parents had helped to care for and provision offspring, "the Cooperative Breeding Hypothesis".

In 2009 in Mothers and Others, Hrdy explored cognitive and emotional implications for infants growing up in what was (for an ape) a novel developmental context. Instead of relying on the single-minded dedication of their mothers, youngsters had to monitor and engage multiple caretakers as well. Other apes possess cognitive wiring for rudimentary Theory of Mind, but with cooperative rearing, relevant potentials for mentalizing would have become more fully expressed, and thus rendered more visible to natural selection. Over generations, those youngsters better at inter-subjective engagement would have been best cared for and fed, leading to directional Darwinian selection favoring peculiarly human capacities for intersubjective engagement.

In 2014, Mothers and Others, together with earlier work, earned Hrdy the National Academy's Award for Scientific Reviewing in honor of her "insightful and visionary synthesis of a broad range of data and concepts from across the social and biological sciences to illuminate the importance of biosocial processes among mothers, infants, and other social actors in forming the evolutionary crucible of human societies."

Because of her research on parenting, Hrdy is a strong advocate for making affordable child care a priority.

 Father Time: A natural History of Men and Babies

Philanthropy
Together with Daniel Hrdy, Sarah Hrdy has endowed fellowships at the Radcliffe Institute as well as The Sarah and Daniel Hrdy Visiting Fellowship in Conservation Biology in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, followed in 2021 by endowment of the Daniel and Sarah Hrdy Fund for University of California Cooperative Extension research in sustainable agriculture and habitat restoration.

Books

 * 1972: The Black-man of Zinacantan: A Central American Legend. The Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70701-0.
 * 1977: The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51058-5.
 * 1981: The Woman that Never Evolved. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (Chosen by the New York Times Book Review as one of Notable Books of the Year in Science and Social Science.) 1982, Japanese edition, Tokyo: Shisaku-sha Publishing; 1984, 5th printing of paperback edition, Cambridge; 1984, 1st French edition, Des guenons et des femmes. Paris: Editions Tierce, in press, 2nd French edition, Paris: Payot et Rivage; 1985, Italian edition, La Donna Che Non si E'evoluta, Franco Angeli Editore. ISBN 0-674-95539-0.
 * 1984: Hausfater, G. and S. Hrdy, eds. Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. New York: Aldine Publishing Co. (Selected as one of the 1984-85 "Outstanding Academic Books" by Choice, the Journal of the Association of College and Research Libraries.) ISBN 0-202-36221-3.
 * 1999: Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants and Natural Selection. New York: Pantheon. A BOMC Alternative Selection; selected by Publishers Weekly and by the Library Journal as one of Best Books of 1999 and a finalist for PEN USA West 2000 Literary Award for Research Nonfiction. Won the Howells Prize for Outstanding Contribution to Biological Anthropology. (Published in UK as Mother Nature: Natural selection and the female of the species. London: Chatto and Windus); also translated into Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese, Korean and Polish. ISBN 0-679-44265-0.
 * 2005: The 92nd Dahlem Workshop Report, "Attachment and Bonding: A New Synthesis." Edited by C. S. Carter, L. Ahnert, K. E. Grossmann, S. B. Hrdy, M. E. Lamb, S. W. Porges, and N. Sachser. ©MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03348-8.
 * 2009: Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03299-3.

Awards

 * 1981, NYT Notable Books of 1981, The Woman That Never Evolved
 * 1985, Elected, California Academy of Sciences
 * 1987–88, Guggenheim Fellow
 * 1988, Radcliffe Graduate Society Medal
 * 1990, Elected, National Academy of Sciences
 * 1992, Elected, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1999, Publishers Weekly, "Best Books of 1999", Mother Nature
 * 1999, Library Journal, "Best Books of 1999", Mother Nature
 * 2001, Howells Prize for Outstanding Contributions to Biological Anthropology, Mother Nature
 * 2003, University of California Panunzio award
 * 2007, Centennial Medal, Harvard GSAS
 * 2011, Elected American Philosophical Society
 * 2012, Staley Prize from School of Advanced Research for Mothers and Others
 * 2012, Howells Prize for Mothers and Others
 * 2013, HBES Lifetime Career Award for Distinguished Scientific Contribution, from Human Behavior and Evolution Society
 * 2014, NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing for "For her insightful and visionary synthesis of a broad range of data and concepts from across the social and biological sciences to illuminate the importance of biosocial processes among mothers, infants, and other social actors in forming the evolutionary crucible of human societies."
 * 2022, Elected fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science
 * 2023, Bowlby-Ainsworth Award from the Center for Mental Health Promotion and the New York Attachment Consortium

title: Sarah Blaffer Hrdy