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Baedeker Blitz

The Baedeker Blitz or Baedeker raids was a series of bombing raids in April and May 1942 by the German Luftwaffe on English cities during World War II. The name derives from Baedeker, a series of German tourist guide books, including detailed maps, which were used to select targets for bombing.

Luftwaffe commanders planned the raids in response to the increasing effectiveness of the Royal Air Force's (RAF) area bombing offensive against German targets as a result of the area bombing directive, starting with the bombing of Lübeck in March 1942. The aim was to begin a tit-for-tat exchange with the hope of forcing the RAF to reduce their attacks. To increase the effect on British civilian morale, bombing targets were chosen by the Germans for their cultural and historical significance rather than for any military value.

The majority of the raids took place in late April and May of 1942, but British towns and cities continued to be targeted for their cultural value over the following two years. By any measure, the raids were a failure. In the year following the Blitz of 1940 and 1941, the RAF had dramatically improved its night fighter capability and introduced the AMES Type 7 radar specifically for night-fighting operations. The raids resulted in unsustainable bomber losses for the Luftwaffe, and for a variety of reasons the damage to the targeted cities was minimal compared to the Blitz or to the contemporaneous RAF bombing campaign against Germany. Nevertheless, the raids resulted in over 1,600 civilian deaths and tens of thousands of damaged homes.

Background
By the winter of 1941, both the British and German strategic bombing campaigns had reached a low ebb. The German offensive, a nine-month period of night bombing known as the Blitz, which had left London and many other British cities heavily damaged, had come to an end in May 1941 when the Luftwaffe had switched its resources to the invasion of the Soviet Union. Thereafter it had confined itself to hit-and-run raids on British coastal towns. Meanwhile, the Royal Air Force's (RAF) night bombing offensive had been shown to be largely ineffective, as revealed by the Butt Report in August 1941, and by Christmas 1941 such attacks had largely petered out.

When the RAF offensive resumed in March 1942 with the bombing of Lübeck, there was a marked change in effectiveness. New heavy bombers (the Stirling and Halifax, followed by the unreliable Manchester from which was developed the excellent Lancaster), improved navigation systems (Gee and Oboe), new leadership (with the appointment of Air Vice-Marshal Harris) and new tactics (the bomber stream, use of incendiary bombs, and particularly area bombardment) all contributed.

Prior to this the RAF had attempted to conduct precision bombing, aiming at individual factories, power stations, even post offices, in multiple strikes across the country; this had been costly and ineffective. Following the example of the Luftwaffe's November 1940 attack on Coventry, the RAF began concentrating a single blow against an area where several worthwhile targets existed, including the homes and morale of the civilian population living there.

Planning
The destruction of Lübeck, and of Rostock the following month, shocked both the German leadership and population. Up to this point they had been mostly unaffected by the RAF's bombing campaign. Now, Joseph Goebbels reported "the damage was really enormous" and "it is horrible ... the English air raids have increased in scope and importance; if they can be continued for weeks on these lines, they might conceivably have a demoralising effect on the population." After the bombing of Rostock he reported "the air raid ... was more devastating than those before. Community life there is practically at an end ... the situation is in some sections catastrophic ... seven-tenths of the city have been destroyed ... more than 100,000 people had to be evacuated ... there was, in fact, panic".

Adolf Hitler was enraged, and demanded that the Luftwaffe retaliate. On 14 April 1942 he ordered "that the air war against England be given a more aggressive stamp. Accordingly when targets are being selected, preference is to be given to those where attacks are likely to have the greatest possible effect on civilian life. Besides raids on ports and industry, terror attacks of a retaliatory nature [Vergeltungsangriffe] are to be carried out on towns other than London".

After the raid on Bath, Goebbels reported that Hitler intended to "repeat these raids night after night until the English are sick and tired of terror attacks" and that he "shared [Goebbels'] opinion absolutely that cultural centres, health resorts and civilian centres must be attacked ... there is no other way of bringing the English to their senses. They belong to a class of human beings with whom you can only talk after you have first knocked out their teeth."

Name
The raids were referred to on both sides as "Baedeker raids", derived from a comment by a German propagandist. , a spokesman for the German Foreign Office, is reported to have said on 24 April 1942, "We shall go out and bomb every building in Britain marked with three stars in the Baedeker Guide", a reference to the popular travel guides of that name. Goebbels was furious. Keen to brand British attacks as "terror bombing", he was equally keen to designate German efforts as "retaliatory measures". Stumm's off-the-cuff remark "effectively admitted the Germans were targetting cultural and historic targets, just what the German leadership did not want to do, and Goebbels took steps to make sure it did not happen again".

Raids
The task of carrying out the attacks was given to bomber groups of Luftflotte 3. These were KG 2 and KG 6, formed from the earlier Küstenfliegergruppe 106 maritime aviation group, to be led by the pathfinders of I./KG 100. Each raid involved 30 to 40 aircraft, and to increase their effectiveness it was planned each would fly two sorties per night. Each raid involved two periods of 60 to 90 minutes, separated by two or three hours.

The first raid of the Baedeker Blitz was directed against Exeter, the ancient county town of Devon with its immense heritage of historic buildings, on the night of Saint George's Day, 23/24 April 1942. While this raid caused little damage, a second raid the following night was more severe, with over 80 fatalities. On the nights of 25/26 and 26/27 April, the bomber force attacked Bath, causing widespread damage and some 400 casualties. These raids came a month after the Lübeck raid and coincided with the RAF's four-night offensive against Rostock. On 27/28 April, the Luftwaffe attacked Norwich, dropping more than 90 tons of bombs and causing 67 deaths. On 28/29 April, they attacked York, causing limited damage but 79 deaths.

On the night of 3/4 May the Luftwaffe returned to Exeter, causing heavy damage to the city centre, considerable damage to the south side of the Cathedral and 164 deaths. The following night they attacked Cowes, a target of both cultural and military value, being the home of the J. Samuel White shipyard. On 8/9 May Norwich was attacked again, though the raid was ineffective despite more than 70 aircraft taking part. During May the Luftwaffe also bombed Hull, a major port, and thus a military target, Poole, Grimsby and, at the end of May, Canterbury. This raid, which coincided with the RAF's first thousand-bomber raid on Cologne, involved 77 bombers, dropping 40 tons of bombs, which resulted in 43 deaths.

Across all the raids in this period a total of 1,637 civilians were killed and 1,760 injured, and over 50,000 houses were destroyed. Some notable buildings were destroyed or damaged, including York's Guildhall and the Bath Assembly Rooms, but on the whole most escaped – the cathedrals of Norwich, and Canterbury and the minster at York included.

Exeter Cathedral was hit in the early hours of 4 May with the complete destruction of St James Chapel on the south side and considerable damage to the South Quire Aisle. The German bombers suffered heavy losses for minimal damage inflicted, and the Axis's need for reinforcements in North Africa and on the Eastern Front meant further operations could only continue at a reduced scale. Intermittent hit-and-run raids on coastal towns by Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighter-bombers continued.

On 27 April, Winston Churchill told the War Cabinet that the government should do all it could to "ensure that disproportionate publicity was not given to these raids" and "avoid giving the impression that the Germans were making full reprisal" for British raids.

Aftermath
Whilst the term "Baedeker Blitz" is sometimes limited to the raids on those five cities (Exeter, Bath, Canterbury, Norwich and York) in April and May 1942, the Luftwaffe continued to target cities for their cultural value for the next two years. In June 1942 they attacked Ipswich, Poole and Canterbury again, Southampton (a port target), Norwich again and Weston-super-Mare. In July there were three raids on Birmingham, another three on Middlesbrough and one on Hull, all industrial cities of military and strategic value. In August the Germans returned to "Baedeker" targets: Norwich, Swansea, Colchester and Ipswich.

In September they attacked Sunderland, a port and industrial centre, and King's Lynn, a market town of no military value. All these raids were less intense than those of April and May, involving some 20 aircraft apiece. This reflected the steady and increasing losses suffered by the Germans as Britain's night-fighter defences improved and German casualties mounted. By the autumn KG 2 had lost 65 of its 88 crews and the offensive had come to a halt.

To find new ways to continue the pressure, the Luftwaffe experimented with both low-level and very high-level attacks. In August 1942 two modified Ju 86P bombers were employed making high-altitude runs over southern England. These operated with impunity for several weeks, and one raid on Bristol on 28 August resulted in 48 fatalities. These flights were halted when the RAF fielded a similarly modified flight of Spitfires and caught one of these bombers in the highest air battle of the war.

On 31 October 1942, thirty German fighter-bombers escorted by sixty fighters made a low-level attack on Canterbury, dropping 28 bombs on the city and causing 30 deaths. Three of the attacking aircraft were shot down.

By the end of 1942, 3,236 people had been killed and 4,148 injured in these raids. However, the strength of the Luftwaffe in the west had drained away while the RAF had gone from strength to strength, regularly mounting raids of 200 or more aircraft on Germany.

In 1943, the Luftwaffe in the west was revitalised and Luftflotte 3 brought back up to strength. In January KG 2 had 60 bombers (Do217s) and KG 6 the same number (Ju 88s). These were reinforced with a fast bomber wing, SKG 10 of Fw 190 fighter-bombers. These renewed the offensive. On 17/18 January 1943 they raided London, followed by a low-level attack on the city on 20 January. After a lull in February they returned in March leading to the Bethnal Green Tube disaster, where 178 people died.

Throughout the year raids were made on a variety of targets; some of strategic value (Southampton, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Hull, Sunderland, Newcastle) and others with little or none (Eastbourne, Hastings, Maidstone, Cheltenham, Chelmsford, Bournemouth, Lincoln). Again, new tactics were tried. In June 1943 a raid on Grimsby saw the use of delayed-action anti-personnel "butterfly bombs", which resulted in 163 civilian casualties, most of them from these devices as people returned to their homes after the all clear was sounded.

In November 1943, following the RAF and USAAF bombing of Hamburg and the first use of the "Window" radar countermeasure, the Luftwaffe were able to respond with a raid on Norwich, using Duppel, their equivalent. While British radar was negated, the raid caused little damage. With the continuing losses of experienced personnel, the German crews were increasingly made up of inexperienced replacements, with a corresponding drop in effectiveness. By the end of 1943 the Luftwaffe had mounted some 20 raids, in which more than 10 tonnes of bombs had been dropped, a total of 2,320 tons for the whole year.

These caused 2,372 deaths and 3,450 injuries, according to a report by Lord Cherwell. The report contrasted this with the RAF's achievement of a total of 136,000 tons dropped during the year, and pointed out that a single raid on Berlin made in the same week that the report was published had dropped 2,480 tons, more than the entire German effort. The report pointed out that these raids were confined to towns on or near the coast, and that fires caused by bombing only accounted for one-thirtieth of all the incidents dealt with by the National Fire Service.

The Baedeker-type raids ended in 1944, as the Germans realised they were ineffective; unsustainable losses were being suffered for no material gain. January 1944 saw a switch to London as the principal target for retaliation. On 21 January the Luftwaffe mounted Operation Steinbock, an all-out attack on London employing all of its available bomber force in the west. This too was largely a failure, with heavy losses for little gain. Henceforth, efforts were re-directed toward the ports that the Germans suspected were going to be used for the allied invasion of France, while the assault on London became the domain of Germany's V-weapons.

title: Baedeker Blitz


text:
1888 in music

This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1888.

Specific locations

 * 1888 in Norwegian music

Events

 * January 5 – The Neues deutsches Theater, Prague, is inaugurated with a performance of Wagner's opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg.
 * April 11 – The Concertgebouw in Amsterdam is inaugurated.
 * June 29 – G. F. Handel's Israel in Egypt is recorded onto wax cylinder at The Crystal Palace in London, the earliest known recording of classical music.
 * August 14 – A recording of Arthur Sullivan's "The Lost Chord" is played during a press conference introducing Thomas Edison's phonograph in London.
 * October 5 – At the age of seven, George Enescu becomes the youngest student ever admitted to the Vienna Conservatory
 * Gustav Mahler completes a projected symphonic poem, Totenfeier (Funeral Rites). It will eventually become the opening movement of his Symphony No. 2.

Published popular music

 * "Drill, Ye Tarriers, Drill"    anonymous possibly Thomas F. Casey
 * "Over The Waves" ("Sobre las Olas")    w.m. Juventino Rosas
 * "Where Did You Get That Hat?"    w.m. Joseph J. Sullivan
 * "The Whistling Coon"    w.m. Sam Devere

Classical music

 * Johannes Brahms – Violin Sonata in D Minor (opus 108)
 * Cécile Chaminade – Scarf Dance, Callirhoe (ballet)
 * Claude Debussy - Arabesque No. 1, L. 66 for piano
 * Frederick Delius – Hiawatha (tone poem)
 * Gabriel Fauré – Requiem in D minor, Op. 48
 * César Franck
 * Symphony in D Minor
 * Psyché, a symphonic poem with choir (based on the Greek myth), premiere March 10 1888
 * Edvard Grieg
 * Lyric Pieces for Piano, Book IV
 * Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 Op. 46
 * Augusta Holmes – La Nuit et l'amour
 * Edwin Lemare
 * Andantino in D-flat, also known as Moonlight and Roses, Op. 83 No. 2
 * Gustav Mahler –
 * Symphony No. 1
 * Lieder aus "Des Knaben Wunderhorn" (song collection)
 * Carl Nielsen – Suite for String Orchestra
 * Ignacy Jan Paderewski – Piano Concerto in A minor
 * Max Reger – String Quartet in D minor (with double bass obbligato; without op.) (1888–9)
 * Joseph Rheinberger – Organ Sonata No. 12 in D-flat, Op. 154
 * Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov –
 * Sheherazade
 * Russian Easter Festival Overture
 * Erik Satie – Gymnopédie for piano
 * Richard Strauss
 * Don Juan, Macbeth and Death and Transfiguration (first version)
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
 * Symphony No. 5
 * Hugo Wolf
 * Goethe-Lieder
 * Mörike-Lieder

Opera

 * Karel Miry – La Napolitaine (opera in 1 act, libretto by J. de Bruyne), premiered on February 25 in Antwerp
 * Emile Pessard – Tartarin sur les Alpes premiered on November 17 at the Théâtre de la Gaîté, Paris
 * Camille Saint-Saëns – Ascanio
 * Carl Maria von Weber, completed by Gustav Mahler – Die Drei Pintos

Musical theater

 * The Yeomen of the Guard by W. S. Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan, premiered on October 3 at the Savoy Theatre, London and on October 17 at the Casino Theatre (Broadway), New York

Births

 * January 20 – Huddie William Ledbetter (Lead Belly), American folk and blues singer (d. 1949)
 * January 26 – Lisa Steier, Swedish ballerina (d. 1928)
 * February 9 – Ernst Mehlich, German-Brazilian conductor and composer (d. 1977)
 * February 27 – Lotte Lehmann, singer (d. 1976)
 * May 10 – Max Steiner, composer (d. 1971)
 * May 11 – Irving Berlin, composer (d. 1989)
 * May 27 – Louis Durey, composer, member of Les Six (d. 1979)
 * June 3 – Tom Brown, jazz trombonist (d. 1958)
 * June 6 – Pete Wendling, American composer, pianist, and piano roll recording artist (d. 1974)
 * June 16 – Bobby Clark, American comedian and singer (d. 1960)
 * June 17 – Bernhard van den Sigtenhorst Meyer, Dutch composer (d. 1953)
 * June 25 – Rosalie Housman, American composer (d. 1949)
 * August 16 – Armand J. Piron, jazz musician (d. 1943)
 * September 12 – Maurice Chevalier, French singer and actor (d. 1972)
 * October 7 – Cecil Coles, composer (d. 1918)
 * November 16 – Luis Cluzeau Mortet, Uruguayan composer (d. 1957)
 * November 23 – Harpo Marx, American comedian, film star, mime artist and musician (d. 1964)
 * November 26 – Francisco Canaro, Uruguayan-born Argentine violinist, composer (d. 1964)
 * December 28 – Gabriel von Wayditch, American composer of operas (d. 1969)

Deaths

 * January 5 – Henri Herz, pianist and composer, 84
 * January 14 – Stephen Heller, pianist and composer, 74
 * February 7 – Aurore von Haxthausen, pianist and composer
 * February 22 – Jean-Delphin Alard, violinist and music teacher, 72
 * March 10 – Ciro Pinsuti, pianist and composer, 58
 * March 21 – Thomas German Reed, composer and theatre manager, 72
 * March 29 – Charles-Valentin Alkan, French pianist and composer, 74 (killed in freak accident, trapped beneath a falling coat-rack)
 * April 21 – Julius Weissenborn, bassoonist, 51
 * June 13 – Timoteo Pasini, Italian composer, conductor, and pianist, 59
 * August 8 – Friedrich Wilhelm Jähns, composer, music teacher and cataloguer, 79
 * August 31 – Blanche Cole, operatic soprano, 37 (dropsy)
 * November 17 – Jakob Dont, violinist and composer, 73
 * December 2 – Franz Xaver Witt, church musician and composer, 54
 * December 26 – Alfred Vance, English music hall singer and comedian, 49 (died on stage)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1888 in music


text:
1889 in music

Events in the year 1889 in music.

Specific locations

 * 1889 in Norwegian music

Events

 * January 4 – Anton Seidl conducts Das Rheingold at the Metropolitan Opera, commencing the first performance of the Ring Cycle in the United States.
 * February 17 – César Franck's Symphony in D minor is premièred at the Paris Conservatory under the direction of Jules Garcin.
 * May 28 – The first ever pre-recorded wax cylinders of songs, instrumental music, and humorous monologues were introduced by Edison Records. Among them is Johannes Brahms speaking and playing his Hungarian Dance No. 1 and an extract from Josef Strauss's Polka-Mazurka 'Die Libelle' ('The Dragonfly') Op. 204 on the piano.
 * November 20 – Gustav Mahler premieres his Symphony No. 1 in Budapest at the Vigadó Concert Hall, at this time described as a "Symphonic-Poem in 2 Parts"; it is not favourably received in this form.
 * Emile Berliner markets the first commercial gramophone records.
 * Joseph Kekuku is credited with inventing the Hawaiian steel guitar.

Published popular music

 * "Ask A Policeman" w. E. W. Rogers m. A. E. Duran Deau
 * "Down Went McGinty" w.m. Joseph Flynn
 * "Four Little Curly Headed Coons" by James W. Wheeler
 * "Little Annie Rooney (Is My Sweetheart)" w.m. Michael Nolan
 * "Oh, Promise Me" w. Clement Scott m. Reginald de Koven
 * "Playmates" w.m. Harry Dacre
 * "Slide Kelly Slide" w.m. John W. Kelly
 * "Take a Pair of Sparkling Eyes" w. W. S. Gilbert m. Arthur Sullivan
 * "The Thunderer" m. John Philip Sousa
 * "The Washington Post (march)" m. John Philip Sousa

Recorded popular music

 * "22nd Regiment March" – Frank Goede
 * "Ain't Going to Rain No More" – Will Lyle (banjo)
 * "Amusement Polka" – John Mitthauer
 * "And the Phonograph is Listening" – Will Lyle (banjo)
 * "Anniversary March" – Max Franlin
 * "Arbucklenian Polka" – David B. Dana (cornet) & Edward Issler (piano)
 * "The Beggar Student" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "Colonel Wellington's March" – Voss' First Regiment Band
 * "Comin' Thro' the Rye" – George Schweinfest (flute) & Edward Issler (piano)
 * "Cujus Animam" – David B. Dana (cornet) & Edward Issler (piano)
 * "Dream After the Ball" – George Schweinfest (flute) & Edward Issler (piano)
 * "Dream of Love" – William Tuson (clarinet) & Edward Issler (piano)
 * "Down Went McGinty" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "For Right & Liberty" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "Hoboken Pioneers" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "Honeymoon Waltz" – Frank Goede
 * "Hornpipe Polka" – United States Marine Band
 * "Kentucky Jubilee" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "Jingle Bells" – Will Lyle (banjo)
 * "Jubilee March" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "The Men of Wall Street" – George Schweinfest (flute)
 * "The Minstrel Boy" – Theodore Hoch
 * "The Night Alarm" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "The Pattison Waltz" – Effie Stewart (1863 - 1904) (vocal) & Theo Wangemann (piano)
 * "Pearl of Pekin" – Henry Giese
 * "The Phonograph Serenade" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "Rattle on a Banjo" – Will Lyle (banjo)
 * "Right & Liberty March" – George Schweinfest (flute)
 * "Section from 'The Mikado'" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "Song of the Roses" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "Semper Fidelis" – Issler's Orchestra
 * "The Warbler" – Frank Goede
 * "Washington Centennial Parade" – Duffy & Imgrund's Fifth Regiment Band
 * "The Wren Polka" – George Schweinfest (flute) & Edward Issler (piano)

Classical music

 * Antonín Dvořák
 * Piano Quartet No. 2, Op. 87 (B. 162)
 * Symphony No. 8, Op. 88 (B. 163)
 * Edward Elgar – "Queen Mary's Song"
 * César Franck – "Symphony in D minor" premiers on 2.17.1889 in Paris
 * Enrique Granados – Danzas españolas
 * Augusta Holmès – Ode triomphale
 * Hubert Parry
 * Ode on Saint Cecilia's Day
 * Symphony No. 3, in C major, "The English" (first performance)
 * Symphony No. 4, in E minor (first performance, original version)
 * Guy Ropartz
 * Cinq pièces brèves, for orchestra
 * Carnaval, for orchestra
 * Johan Wagenaar – De Schipbreuk (cantata)
 * Valentin Zubiaurre – Ecos de Oiz

Opera

 * Francesco Cilea – Gina
 * Antonín Dvořák – Jakobín (premieres February 12,1889 at National Theatre in Prague)
 * Robert Fuchs – Die Königsbraut
 * Miguel Marqués – El plato del día (libretto by Andrés Ruesga, Manuel Lastra and Enrique Prieto, premiered in Madrid)
 * Louisa Melvin Delos Mars – Leoni, the Gypsy Queen (premiered in Providence, Rhode Island)
 * Giacomo Puccini – Edgar

Musical theater

 * The Gondoliers (Music: Sir Arthur Sullivan Book & Lyrics: W. S. Gilbert) London production opened at the Savoy Theatre on December 7 and ran for 554 performances
 * Love's Trickery London production

Births

 * January 31 – Michael Coleman, fiddler (d. 1945)
 * February 7 – Claudia Muzio, operatic soprano (d. 1936)
 * March 8 – Ina Boyle, Irish composer (d. 1967)
 * March 15 – Billy Jones, singer (d. 1940)
 * March 16 – Elsie Janis, musical comedy star and songwriter (d. 1956)
 * April 3 – Grigoraș Dinicu, Romanian composer and violinist (d. 1948)
 * April 8 – Adrian Boult, conductor (d. 1983)
 * April 11 – Nick LaRocca – jazz-band leader (d. 1961)
 * April 30 – Rudolph Simonsen – composer (d. 1947)
 * May 15 – Graziella Pareto, operatic soprano (d. 1973)
 * May 16 – Alfred Kalmus, music publisher (d. 1972)
 * May 20 – Felix Arndt, pianist & composer (d. 1918)
 * May 25 – Gilardo Gilardi, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1962)
 * May 29 – Aksel Agerby, Danish composer, organist, and music administrator (d. 1942)
 * July 4 – Joe Young, US lyricist and singer (d. 1939)
 * July 10 – Noble Sissle, bandleader and singer (d. 1975)
 * August 10 – Cecil Armstrong Gibbs, composer (d. 1960)
 * September 10 – Vilém Petrželka, conductor and composer (d. 1967)
 * September 26 – Frank Crumit, singer (d. 1943)
 * October 3 – Manuel Manetta, jazz musician & teacher (d. 1969)
 * October 28 – Juliette Béliveau, actress and singer (d. 1975)
 * November 30 – Norman Cocker, organist and composer (d. 1953)
 * December 11 – Ben Black, composer and impresario (d. 1950)
 * December 25 – Nathaniel Shilkret, composer and musician (d. 1982)
 * December 28 – Vaslav Nijinsky, Ballet dancer (d. 1950)
 * date unknown – Nellie Briercliffe, singer and actress (d. 1966)

Deaths

 * January 23 – Selina Dolaro, actress and singer (b. 1849) (stroke)
 * January 31 – Joseph Gungl, composer and conductor (b. 1810)
 * March 3 – Sydney Smith, English composer and pianist (b. 1839)
 * March 13 – Felice Varesi, operatic baritone (b. 1813)
 * April 6 – Frederick Ouseley, organist, composer and musicologist (b. 1825)
 * April 9 – Jean-Baptiste Arban, cornet virtuoso (b. 1825)
 * April 30 – Carl Rosa, opera impresario (b. 1842)
 * May 30 – Silverio Franconetti, flamenco singer (b. 1831)
 * July 7 – Giovanni Bottesini, double bass player and composer (b. 1821)
 * July 14 – Elma Ström, Swedish opera singer (b. 1822)
 * July 20 – Gustav Lange, German composer (b. 1830)
 * October 5 – Karel Miry, Belgian composer (b. 1823)
 * October 10 – Adolf von Henselt, pianist and composer (b. 1814)
 * November 24 – Frederic Clay, composer (b. 1838) (stroke)
 * November 25 – Alojzy Gonzaga Jazon Żółkowski, actor and singer (b. 1814)
 * December 13 – Catherine Chislova, ballerina (b. 1846)
 * December 31 – Giuseppe Apolloni, composer (b. 1822)
 * date unknown
 * Jovo Ivanišević, composer (b. 1861)
 * Gustaw Lewita, pianist (b. 1855)
 * Jeanne-Catherine Pauwels, Belgian pianist (b. 1795)
 * Kurmangazy Sagyrbaev, Kazakh folk musician and composer (b. 1818)

title: 1889 in music


text:
Causeway Bay

Causeway Bay is an area and a bay on Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong, straddling the border of the Eastern and the Wan Chai districts. It is a major shopping, leisure and cultural centre in Hong Kong, with a number of major shopping centres. The rents in the shopping areas of Causeway Bay were ranked as the world's most expensive for the second year in a row in 2013, after overtaking New York City's Fifth Avenue in 2012. When referring to the area, the Cantonese name is never written in English as "Tung Lo Wan".

Location

Causeway Bay is located at the eastern end of the Wanchai District and the western end of the Eastern District. Causeway Bay includes Tsing Fung Street, Causeway Bay Market, the Victoria Park, the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club, Oil Street, Jardine's Noonday Gun, the Police Officers Club, the Queen's College and the Hong Kong Central Library. Traditionally, Causeway Bay refers to the area near today's Tin Hau Station, but Causeway Bay now comprises the area south of Victoria Harbour, with Oil Street as the eastern boundary, Tung Lo Wan Road and Leighton Road as the southern border, and Canal Road Flyover as the western boundary. However, Causeway Bay including the area surrounding Causeway Bay Station, the area traditionally known as East Point.

Since 1982, two electoral constituencies of Causeway Bay (Causeway Bay North and Causeway Bay South) had been grouped into the Eastern District of district board elections, whilst Causeway Bay Central was grouped with the Wan Chai District to the west. However, local government decisions—other than electoral demarcations—still affect the region as a whole. Since 1994, the area has further been subdivided in Hong Kong district board elections into smaller constituencies. The northern sector consists of the area around Victoria Park, the middle sector coincides with the central business district, and the southern sector forms the area around Tin Hau.

To cope with population change, the constituency boundary between Wan Chai District and Eastern District was changed on the new year's day of 2016 (effective on voting in 2015 Hong Kong local elections). As a result, the Victoria Park and Tin Hau constituencies became a part of Wan Chai District starting from that day. As a consequence, a larger proportion of Causeway Bay is now part of Wan Chai District; whereas the easternmost parts of the area, such as Oil Street, and the western side of Tin Hau Temple Road, remain in the Eastern District.

Town planning is managed by the Causeway Bay Outline Zoning Plan, which is not related to the electoral boundaries as drawn by the Electoral Affairs Commission. The OZP also covers the other neighbourhoods of Tai Hang and So Kon Po. The OZP, however, does not manage Victoria Park, which was reclaimed from the Causeway Bay/Tung Lo Wan body of water, nor Tin Hau, which is historically part of Tung Lo Wan. Tung Lo Wan is the Cantonese name that collectively refers to the waters and lands around the bay.

Causeway Bay Market and Causeway Bay Fire Station are in fact located in Tin Hau, and are outside the jurisdiction of the OZP, but in terms of the electoral constituency, the market, the fire station, and Victoria Park are located within the Victoria Park constituency. Added to this confusion, Wan Chai Fire Station is located in the Canal Road constituency but some non-government sources consider it as part of the Causeway Bay area. The Wan Chai Fire Station is not part of Causeway Bay OZP.

History
The typhoon shelter of Causeway Bay and the Tin Hau Temple reveal that the area was once a fishing town. Before urban development and massive land reclamation, Causeway Bay was a heavily silted bay. Its former shape can be found on maps by tracing Tung Lo Wan Road, which goes along the former bay. In the early stage of development, a causeway was built, which is the present-day Causeway Road. In the 1950s, the coastline was further pushed forward when the remains of the bay were reclaimed for the Victoria Park, when the statue of Queen Victoria was brought back from Japan. The statue had been taken away during the Second World War from Statue Square at Chater Road, Central. Kellett Island off the coast of Causeway Bay has been connected to the Hong Kong Island by a breakwater as a result of the land reclamation.

Causeway Bay's history as a shopping district dates back to 1960, when Daimaru, a Japanese style department store opened in Great George Street. By the 1970s, Causeway Bay has developed into Hong Kong's main shopping district. A number of other Japanese style department stores, including Matsuzakaya, Mitsukoshi and Sogo, opened in the 1970s and 1980s, giving Causeway Bay the nickname of "little Ginza". In the 1990s, several major shopping centres were constructed, strengthening Causeway Bay's status as one of the major shopping districts in Hong Kong.

The original Causeway Bay proper around the bay is actually the area now known as Tin Hau, near the present-day Tin Hau MTR station and the Causeway Bay Tin Hau Temple, whereas the Causeway Bay MTR station is at the area historically called East Point.

The present-day usage of the name Causeway Bay is usually confused with East Point, an area named after a spit on the coastline, eastern end of formerly Victoria City. The names of Yee Wo Street, Jardine's Bazaar, and Jardine's Crescent reveal that the land in this area was sold by the British colonial government to Jardines in the early 19th century.

Another area often mistaken as Causeway Bay is Bowrington area or in Cantonese Ngo Keng (鵝頸) (now part of Canal Road electoral constituency), literally "goose's neck", where is known for villain hitting activity, a voodoo-like tradition of Hong Kong.

Features
Causeway Bay or East Point is one of Hong Kong's major shopping districts. It includes the 13-storey Japanese-style department store Sogo, as well as shopping centres such as Times Square and Hysan Place. There are also smaller malls such as World Trade Centre, Windsor House, Hang Lung Centre, Fashion Island (formerly Daimaru), Fashion Walk, Lee Garden One and Lee Garden Two. Causeway Bay is one of the most crowded and central areas in Hong Kong. The area contains many trendy shops carrying both locally made and imported fashion and products from around the world. As such, it is a popular social spot for young people. Many shops are open until after midnight.

Notable hotels in Causeway Bay include Park Lane Hotel and Regal Hong Kong Hotel. Several boutique hotels have opened recently, including Mira Moon Hotel on Jaffe Road.

For years, Jardine Matheson has fired a cannon shot at noon every day in Causeway Bay, by Victoria Harbour, slightly eastward of the former Kellett Island. The gunshots have served as time signals for many generations of old inhabitants of Hong Kong. This tradition still continues today. This is the "Noonday Gun" mentioned in the Noël Coward song "Mad Dogs and Englishmen".

Although the names of certain landmarks in the western part of Causeway Bay start with "Wan Chai" (e.g. Wan Chai Fire Station), the landmarks are across the local customary limit of Wan Chai on Canal Road.

Leisure and cultural

 * Hong Kong Central Library
 * Noonday Gun
 * Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club
 * Victoria Park
 * South China Athletic Association clubhouse

Shopping

 * Sogo
 * Times Square
 * World Trade Centre
 * Hysan Place
 * Windsor House
 * Lee Gardens
 * Fashion Walk
 * Russell Street

Main roads and notable steeets

 * King's Road
 * Causeway Road
 * Gloucester Road
 * Canal Road
 * Hennessy Road
 * Yee Wo Street
 * Paterson Street
 * Great George Street
 * Cross Harbour Tunnel
 * Aberdeen Tunnel
 * Russell Street
 * Electric Road
 * Tung Lo Wan Road
 * Hing Fat Street
 * Tin Hau Temple Road
 * Wun Sha Street

Public transport
For the MTR, it is connected by the Island line: Tin Hau and Causeway Bay stations. Both Tram and bus services serve Causeway Bay, connecting it to most other major parts of Hong Kong. Causeway Bay is located at the entrance of Cross-Harbour Tunnel and Aberdeen Tunnel, providing convenient access to Kowloon and Southern District.

Education
Causeway Bay is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 12. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and the following government schools: Hennessy Road Government Primary School and Sir Ellis Kadoorie (Sookunpo) Primary School.

title: Causeway Bay


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Cracker Jack

Cracker Jack is an American brand of snack food that consists of molasses-flavored, caramel-coated popcorn and peanuts, well known for being packaged with a prize of trivial value inside. The Cracker Jack name and slogan, "The More You Eat, The More You Want," were registered in 1896. Food author Andrew F. Smith has called it the first junk food.

Cracker Jack is famous for its connection to baseball lore. The Cracker Jack brand has been owned and marketed by Frito-Lay since 1997. Frito-Lay announced in 2016 that the toy gift would no longer be provided and had been replaced with a QR code which can be used to download a baseball-themed game.

Background
The origin of sugar-coated popcorn with a mixture of peanuts is unknown, but periodicals document its manufacture and sale in North America as far back as the early 19th century. The Freeport, Illinois Daily Journal newspaper published on January 29, 1857, for example, contains an advertisement by a local merchant selling sugar-coated popcorn.

Recipes for popcorn and peanut mixtures were mentioned in North American literature and expressions of speech:

 * Page 4 of the Friday, August 23, 1867, edition of the Evening Star newspaper published in Washington, D. C., contains the notice: The Nantucket Inquirer and Mirror says, "Peanuts and pop-corn were not mixed up with piety when we first knew camp meetings, nor cigar smoking and psalm singing. But the times are changed and we with them."
 * An inquiry was published on page 362 of the December 5, 1885 issue of Scientific American, asking how the sugar coating was prepared after the popcorn had popped.
 * Page 222 of the 1886 edition of the Pennsylvania Historical Review, Gazetteer, Post-Office, Express and Telegraph Guide lists Goodwin Brothers, 105 North Front Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as manufacturers of Sugar Coated Popcorn, Prize Balls, Corn Balls, Corn Cakes, etc.

In Chicago, there are two legends of how Cracker Jack originated: The older attributes it to Charles Frederick Gunther (1837–1920), also known as "The Candy Man" and "Cracker-Jacks King"; the other attributes it to Frederick William Rueckheim, a German immigrant known informally as "Fritz", who sold popcorn at 113 Fourth Avenue (now known as Federal Street), in Chicago beginning in 1871. The Rueckheim popcorn was made by hand, using steam equipment. In 1873, Fritz bought out his partner William Brinkmeyer and brought his brother, Louis from Germany to join in his venture, forming the company F. W. Rueckheim & Bro.

The Rueckheim brothers produced a new recipe, including popcorn, peanuts, and molasses, and first presented it to the public at the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago's first World's Fair) in 1893. The molasses of this early version was too sticky.

In 1896, Louis discovered a method to separate the kernels of molasses-coated popcorn during the manufacturing process. As each batch was mixed in a cement-mixer-like drum, a small quantity of oil was added—a closely guarded trade secret. Before this change, the mixture had been difficult to handle, as it stuck together in chunks.

Naming and packaging
In 1896, the first lot of Cracker Jack was produced, the same year the product's name and tagline "The More You Eat, the More You Want" were registered. It was named as if someone tasted it and remarked: "That's a crackerjack!" (Crackerjack is a colloquialism meaning "of excellent quality").

In 1899, Henry Gottlieb Eckstein developed the "waxed sealed package" for freshness, which was then known as the "Eckstein Triple Proof Package," a dust-, germ-, and moisture-proof paper package.

In 1902, the company was reorganized as Rueckheim Bros. & Eckstein. In 1907, the release of the song, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game," written by the lyricist Jack Norworth and composer Albert Von Tilzer, gave Cracker Jack free publicity, with its line: "Buy me some peanuts and Cracker Jack!"

In 1922, the name of the Chicago company was changed to The Cracker Jack Company.

Mascots

Cracker Jack's mascots Sailor Jack and his dog Bingo were introduced as early as 1916 and registered as a trademark in 1919. Sailor Jack was modeled after Frederick’s grandson Robert Rueckheim. He was the son of Edward, the eldest of the Rueckheim brothers. Robert died of pneumonia shortly after his image appeared at the age of 7. The sailor boy image acquired such meaning for the founder of Cracker Jack that he had it carved on his tombstone at St. Henry Catholic Cemetery in Chicago.

Ownership
The Cracker Jack Company was purchased by Borden in 1964 after a bidding war with Frito-Lay and was manufactured for years in Northbrook, Illinois. Borden sold the brand to Frito-Lay parent PepsiCo in 1997, and Cracker Jack was quickly incorporated into the Frito-Lay portfolio. Frito-Lay transferred production of Cracker Jack from Northbrook to Wyandot Snacks in Marion, Ohio soon after that.

In 2013, Frito-Lay announced that Cracker Jack would undergo a slight reformulation, adding more peanuts and updating the prizes to make them more relevant to the times.

Cracker Jack'D
On April 30, 2013, Frito-Lay expanded the Cracker Jack product line to include other salty snacks in the spirit of the original Cracker Jack. Called Cracker Jack'D, it is distinct from the original Cracker Jack by using black packaging instead of the traditional red and white and showing a close-up version of Sailor Jack & Bingo. In addition, unlike the original Cracker Jack, Cracker Jack'D has not featured prizes in its packages. One of the products available under the Cracker Jack'D line, the Power Bites, gained some criticism before its official launch due to concern over caffeine being added to more foods, and potential harm to children or pregnant women.

Baseball connection
Cracker Jack is known for being commonly sold at baseball games and is mentioned in the American standard "Take Me Out to the Ball Game."

Each July from 1982 to 1985, Cracker Jack sponsored an Old-Timers Classic game featuring former MLB players, held at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C.

On June 16, 1993, the 100th anniversary of Cracker Jack was celebrated at Wrigley Field during the game between the Cubs and the expansion Florida Marlins. Before the game, Sailor Jack, the company's mascot, threw out the ceremonial first pitch.

In 2004, the New York Yankees baseball team replaced Cracker Jack with the milder, sweet butter toffee-flavored Crunch 'n Munch at home games. After public outcry, the club switched back to Cracker Jack.

Advertising
The Cracker Jack Company began advertising on television in 1955. Cracker Jack sponsored CBS Television's On Your Account, which was televised on 130 stations nationally.

Actor Jack Gilford appeared in many television commercials for Cracker Jack from 1960 until 1972, and was most recognized as the "rubber-faced guy on the Cracker Jack commercials" for 12 years.

Puppeteer Shari Lewis and her puppet Lamb Chop appeared in Cracker Jack commercials in 1961.

A new television ad for Cracker Jack ran during Super Bowl XXXIII on January 31, 1999. It was the first television advertising for the Cracker Jack brand in 15 years. It introduced the company's new bag packaging, the first time Cracker Jack was made available in something other than the classic Cracker Jack box.

Toys and prizes
Cracker Jack originally included a small "mystery" novelty item referred to as a "Toy Surprise" in each box. The tagline for Cracker Jack was originally "Candy-coated popcorn, peanuts and a prize" but has since become "Caramel-coated popcorn & peanuts" under Frito-Lay.

Prizes were included in every box of Cracker Jack beginning in 1912. One of the first prizes was in 1914 when the company produced the first of two Cracker Jack baseball card issues, which featured players from both major leagues as well as players from the short-lived Federal League. Early "toy surprises" included rings, plastic figurines, booklets, stickers, temporary tattoos, and decoder rings. Books have been written cataloging the prizes, and a substantial collector's market exists.

Until 1937, Cracker Jack toy prizes were made in Japan. They were designed by Carey Cloud from 1938. Many metal toys were also made by TootsieToy, who also made Monopoly game markers. During World War II, the prizes were made of paper.

In the 1961 movie Breakfast at Tiffany's, the lead couple goes to Tiffany & Co. where they have a ring from a box of Cracker Jack engraved.

The prizes attained pop-culture status with the phrase "came in a Cracker Jack box" or metaphorical comparisons to a "Cracker Jack prize," particularly when applied sarcastically to engagement and wedding rings of dubious investment value. The Jim Steinman song "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad" (best known as a 1978 recording by Meat Loaf) includes the lyric "there ain't no Coupe de Ville hiding at the bottom of a Cracker Jack box."

Under Frito-Lay, toy and trinket prizes were replaced with paper prizes displaying riddles and jokes, then temporary tattoos. In 2013, some prizes became codes for people to play "nostalgic" games on the Cracker Jack app through Google Play for Android-powered devices. The announcement was made in 2016 that these gameplays would replace tangible prizes.

title: Cracker Jack


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1884 in music

Specific locations

 * 1884 in Norwegian music

Events

 * September 27 – The Hungarian Royal Opera House in Budapest opens.
 * late December – Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 of is premiered in Leipzig, bringing the composer his first great success.

Bands formed

 * Cory Band

Published popular music

 * "Oh My Darling, Clementine"    w.m. Percy Montrose
 * "The Coon's Salvation Army" by Sam Lucas
 * "The Fountain in the Park" aka "While Strolling Through the Park One Day" w.m. Ed Haley
 * "The Golden Wedding"    m. Gabriel-Marie
 * "Love's Old Sweet Song"    w. George Clifton Bingham m. James Lynam Molloy
 * "March of the Plumed Knight" by Charles B. Morrell & William Howard Doane
 * "My Thoughts Are of Thee" by Sam Lucas
 * "Otchi Tchorniya" by Y. P. Grebyonka & F. Hermann
 * "Rest, Comrades, Rest (Memorial Hymn)" by O. B. Ormsby
 * "Rock-a-bye Baby"    w.m. Effie I. Canning
 * "When the Heather Blooms Again" by Frances Jane Crosby & William Howard Doane

Classical music

 * Anton Bruckner – Te Deum (begun 1881)
 * Henri Duparc – La Vie Antérieure
 * Antonín Dvořák – Ballade in D minor
 * César Franck – Prelude, Chorale, and Fugue
 * Robert Fuchs – Symphony No. 1 in C
 * Alexander Glazunov – String Quartet No. 2 Opus 10 in F major
 * Charles Gounod – Mors et Vita (oratorio)
 * Richard Strauss – Symphony No. 2
 * Hugo Wolf – String Quartet in D minor (begun 1878)

Opera

 * Eduard Caudella – Hatmanul Baltag
 * Luigi Mancinelli – Isora di Provenza
 * Miguel Marqués – El reloj de Lucerna
 * Jules Massenet – Manon
 * Karl Millöcker – Gasparone
 * Viktor Nessler – Der Trompeter von Säkkingen
 * Giacomo Puccini – Le Villi
 * Charles Villiers Stanford – The Canterbury Pilgrims
 * Felix Weingartner – Sakuntala

Musical theater

 * Adonis Broadway production opened at the Bijou Theatre on September 4 and ran for 603 performances
 * The Beggar Student London production opened at the Alhambra Theatre on April 12 and ran for 112 performances
 * The Grand Mogul London production
 * Princess Ida London production opened at the Savoy Theatre on January 5 and ran for 246 performances
 * Princess Ida Broadway production opened at the Fifth Avenue Theatre on February 11 and ran for 48 performances

Births

 * January 13 – Sophie Tucker, singer
 * February 22 – York Bowen, pianist and composer (died 1961)
 * March 14 – Wintter Watts, composer of art songs (died 1962)
 * March 17 – Alcide Nunez, clarinetist
 * March 18 – Joe Burke, pianist, composer and actor (died 1950)
 * March 26 – Wilhelm Backhaus, German pianist (died 1969)
 * April 22 – Armas Launis, Finnish composer and ethnomusicologist (died 1959)
 * April 23 – Jurgis Karnavičius, Lithuanian composer (died 1941)
 * May 19 – Arthur Meulemans, composer (died 1966)
 * May 27 – Max Brod, author, composer and journalist (died 1968)
 * August 7 – Billie Burke, American actress and singer (d. 1970)
 * August 13 – Edwin Grasse, composer and violinist (died 1954)
 * September 6 – Emerson Whithorne (birth name Emerson Whittern), composer and historian (died 1958)
 * September 17 – Charles Tomlinson Griffes, composer (died 1920)
 * September 24 – Jonny Heykens, composer and orchestra leader (died 1945)
 * October 6 – Oliphant Chuckerbutty, organist and composer (died 1960)
 * November 1 – David Roitman, hazzan and composer (died 1943)
 * November 6
 * May Brahe, composer and songwriter (died 1956)
 * Ludomir Rozycki, composer (d. 1953)
 * November 19 – Norman Allin, English singer (d. 1973)
 * November 23 – Guy Bolton, English librettist
 * November 30 – Ture Rangström, composer (died 1947)
 * December 29 – Foster Adolph Reynolds, brass instrument maker (died 1960 at work)
 * date unknown – Alfred Reynolds, English composer (d. 1969)

Deaths

 * January 21 – Auguste Franchomme, cellist (dedicatee of works by Chopin)
 * January 25 – Johann Gottfried Piefke, conductor and composer
 * February 14 – Franz Wohlfahrt, violin teacher
 * February 21 – John Pyke Hullah, composer and music teacher (b. 1812)
 * March 14 – Franz Wohlfahrt, German violin teacher and composer (b. 1833)
 * April 24 – Marie Taglioni, ballerina
 * April 29 – Michael Costa, conductor and composer
 * May 12 – Bedřich Smetana, composer (b. 1824)
 * June 25 – Hans Rott, composer (b. 1858)
 * June 8 – Henry Clay Work, US composer
 * July 5 – Victor Massé, composer
 * August 18 – Franz Seraphin Hölzl, composer (b. 1808)
 * November 27 – Fanny Elssler, dancer
 * December 4 – Alice Mary Smith, composer (b. 1839)
 * date unknown – Velvel Zbarjer, Brody singer

title: 1884 in music


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User:OneEauNine

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title: User:OneEauNine


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User talk:OneEauNine

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Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

title: User talk:OneEauNine


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1871 in music

This article is about music-related events in 1871.

Events

 * March 29 – The Royal Albert Hall is opened in London incorporating a grand organ by Henry Willis & Sons, the world's largest at this time, on which Anton Bruckner gives a series of recitals.
 * Autumn – Charles Gounod begins a stay with soprano Georgina Weldon and her husband in London.
 * December 24 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida premières at the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.
 * December 26 – The Victorian burlesque Thespis, first of the Gilbert and Sullivan light opera collaborations, premières at the Gaiety Theatre, London. It does modestly well, but the two composers will not again work together until 1875.
 * Asger Hamerik becomes musical director of the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, Maryland.

Published popular music

 * "The Blue and the Gray" by James W. Long
 * "Good Bye, Liza Jane" (anon)
 * "The Little Church Around The Corner"    w.m. Charles A. White
 * "The Little Old Log Cabin In The Lane" w.m. William S. Hays
 * "Mollie Darling" w.m. William S. Hays
 * "Oh aint I got the Blues!" by A.A. Chapman
 * "Onward, Christian Soldiers"     w. Rev. Sabine Baring-Gould m. Sir Arthur Sullivan
 * "Reuben and Rachel" w. Harry Birch m. William Gooch
 * "Susan Jane" w.m. William S. Hays
 * "The angels are calling me, Mother," words by Samuel N. Mitchell, music by William A. Huntley

Classical music

 * Georges Bizet – Jeux d'enfants
 * Dudley Buck – Variations on a Scotch Air, Op.51
 * Hans von Bülow – Il Carnevale di Milano, Op.21
 * Peter Cornelius – Chorgesänge
 * Charles Gounod – Boléro, CG 354
 * Stephen Heller – Freischütz Studien, Op.127
 * Adolf Jensen – 12 Lieder aus Joseph Victor Scheffels Gaudeamus, Op.40
 * Jules Massenet
 * Dialogue nocturne
 * Le roman d'Arlequin
 * Rêvons, c'est l'heure
 * Scènes hongroises, premiered November 26 in Paris
 * Karl Matys – 4 Solostücke, Op.15
 * Olivier Metra
 * Espérance Waltz
 * La vague
 * Johann Rufinatscha
 * 6 Charakterstücke, Op.14
 * Fantasie in B major for piano, Op.15
 * Camille Saint-Saëns – Romance, Op. 37
 * Eduard Strauss – Fesche Geister, Op.75
 * Johann Strauss, Jr.
 * Indigo-Quadrille, Op.344
 * Tausend und eine Nacht, Op.346
 * Arthur Sullivan – The Merchant of Venice, premiered November 19 in Manchester
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky – String Quartet No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)
 * Robert Volkmann – Overture to Shakespeare's Richard III, Op.68

Opera

 * Giovanni Bottesini – Ali Baba premiered 18 January at the Lyceum in London
 * Johann Strauss Jr. – Indigo und die vierzig Räuber, premiered February 10 in Vienna
 * Jacques Offenbach – Boule-de-Neige premiered December 14 in Paris
 * Giuseppe Verdi – Aida 24 December 1871 in Cairo

Musical theatre

 * Geneviève de Brabant, London production
 * The Mascot, London production
 * La Mascotte, Vienna production
 * Le Roi Carotte, London production
 * Thespis, London production

Births

 * March 1 – Ben Harney, American composer and ragtime pianist (d. 1938)
 * March 4 – Henri Delépine, composer (died 1956)
 * March 8 – Gaston Borch, composer (died 1926)
 * March 12 – Helene Wiet, Austrian opera singer (d. 1939)
 * April 21 – Leo Blech, German conductor and composer (d. 1958)
 * May 7 – Paolo Litta, Italian composer (d. 1931)
 * May 30 – Harry Macdonough, Canadian-American singer and music executive (d. 1931)
 * June 17 – James Weldon Johnson, African American songwriter, author, diplomat and educator (d. 1938)
 * June 29 – Luisa Tetrazzini, Italian soprano (d. 1940)
 * July 10 – Franz Evers, lyricist and music publisher (died 1947)
 * August 1 – Oskar Fried, composer (died 1941)
 * August 16 – Zacharia Paliashvili, Georgian composer (d. 1933)
 * December 20 – Henry Kimball Hadley, American composer (d. 1937)

Deaths

 * January 4 – Vincent Adler, pianist and composer (b. 1826)
 * February 1 – Alexander Serov, composer and music critic (b. 1820)
 * February 7 – Henry E. Steinway, German-American piano manufacturer (b. 1797)
 * February 11 – Filippo Taglioni, dancer and choreographer (b. 1777)
 * March 26 – François-Joseph Fétis, composer and musicologist (b. 1784)
 * April 27 – Sigismond Thalberg, pianist and composer (b. 1812)
 * May 12 – Daniel Auber, composer (born 1782)
 * May 26 – Aimé Maillart, composer (b. 1817)
 * July 17 – Karl Tausig, pianist and composer (b. 1841) (typhoid)
 * July 20 – François Delsarte, singer and music teacher (b. 1811)
 * August 12 – Tiyo Soga, composer of hymns (b. 1829)
 * September 3 – Václav Emanuel Horák, church musician and composer (b. 1800)
 * September 26 – Cipriani Potter, pianist and composer (b. 1792)
 * December 12 – Henrik Rung, composer (b. 1807)
 * date unknown
 * John Edward Pigot, music collector (b. 1822)
 * Fernando Quijano, songwriter, composer of the Uruguayan national anthem (b. 1805)

title: 1871 in music


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User talk:Metameric mollusc

Hi, thanks for your additions to Bad Religion. You provided some excellent information about their early years, which was sorely lacking. You may be interested in WikiProject Albums or WikiProject Music standards. If you have any questions about how NPOV (or any other policies) applies to music-related articles, feel free to ask me for guidance. Tuf-Kat (to respond, click on my name and then "discuss this page", add your comments to the bottom and a conversation will have begun!)

title: User talk:Metameric mollusc


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Talk:SS X-1

Should this page be USS X-1? I expected it to be about the Bell X-1 supersonic research aircraft of Chuck Yeager fame. Tannin 08:10 Feb 20, 2003 (UTC)

 * Indeed it should. Sorry, I don't know why I left that off. --the Epopt

USS X-1
Actually the USS X-1 is improper the USS is only used to commissioned ships with the US Military. The X-1 was never commissioned as as such shouldn't be USS. Instead it should be "X-1 Submarine" or something similar. PPGMD

Wreacks
i know the locations of 2 wreacked X-1s (in my old village bay)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.152.96.186 (talk) 20:04, 14 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I believe you're thinking of WW2 X-craft? - The Bushranger One ping only 22:37, 14 January 2012 (UTC)

The Movie
There was a crappy movie from the 60's or 70's with James Caan that featured this submarine heavily (infact I believe the movie title was Submarine X-1). Also highly inaccurate as I recall, taking place during WWII which is before the X-1 came out I read in this article and the crew is British (except James Caan I think). Should it be mentioned or at least linked to (and a stub like article on the movie made, no account so I can't do it myself)? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.137.207.191 (talk) 19:57, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

What's My Line?
The December 18, 1955 episode of the CBS game show What's My Line? featured the 5-man crew of the X-1. They signed in as "Kevin Hanlon + Friends" and the audience was shown their occupation as "THE ENTIRE CREW OF U.S.SUBMARINE X-1". Panelist Dorothy Kilgallen correctly guessed that they were a submarine crew. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.233.183.17 (talk) 07:40, 23 August 2008 (UTC)

Fairchild X-1 Midget Sub Built in East Farmingdale, NY
The Fairchild X-1 midget submarine was actually built in the Fairchild Engine hangar in 1954 on New Highway in East Farmingdale, not in Deer Park, NY. Fairchild Engine (Ranger Aircraft Engine division of Fairchild: 1934-1946) was sold to Republic Aviation in mid-1954 but it took over a year for Fairchild Engine to relocate Deer Park. The 1942 Ranger Aircraft Engine hangar where the X-1 was built was demolished in the late 1990's when the Fairchild Republic industrial complex was razed to make way for a shopping center. The property that the Ranger hanger stood on is now part of the Republic Airport safety zone north of runway 1-19.

Leroy Douglas, president: LI-Republic Airport Historical Society

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Stadium

A stadium (: stadiums or stadia) is a place or venue for (mostly) outdoor sports, concerts, or other events and consists of a field or stage completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event.

Pausanias noted that for about half a century the only event at the ancient Greek Olympic festival was the race that comprised one length of the stadion at Olympia, where the word "stadium" originated.

Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for association football. Other popular stadium sports include gridiron football, baseball, cricket, the various codes of rugby, field lacrosse, bandy, and bullfighting. Many large sports venues are also used for concerts.

Etymology
"Stadium" is the Latin form of the Greek word "stadion" (στάδιον), a measure of length equalling the length of 600 human feet. As feet are of variable length the exact length of a stadion depends on the exact length adopted for 1 foot at a given place and time. Although in modern terms 1 stadion = 600 ft, in a given historical context it may actually signify a length up to 15% larger or smaller.

The equivalent Roman measure, the stadium, had a similar length – about 185 m – but instead of being defined in feet was defined using the Roman standard passus to be a distance of 125 passūs (double-paces).

The English use of stadium comes from the tiered infrastructure surrounding a Roman track of such length.

Most dictionaries provide for both stadiums and stadia as valid English plurals.

History
The oldest known stadium is the Stadium at Olympia in Greece, where the ancient Olympic Games were held from 776 BC. Initially the Games consisted of a single event, a sprint along the length of the stadium.

Greek and Roman stadiums have been found in numerous ancient cities, perhaps the most famous being the Stadium of Domitian, in Rome.

The excavated and refurbished ancient Panathenaic Stadium hosted attempted revivals of the Olympic Games in 1870 and 1875 before hosting the first modern Olympics in 1896, the 1906 Intercalated Games, and some events of the 2004 Summer Olympics. The excavation and refurbishment of the stadium was part of the legacy of the Greek national benefactor Evangelos Zappas, and it was the first ancient stadium to be used in modern times.

Antiquity
Stadiums in ancient Greece and Rome were built for different purposes, and at first only the Greeks built structures called "stadium"; Romans built structures called "circus". Greek stadia were for foot races, whereas the Roman circus was for horse races. Both had similar shapes and bowl-like areas around them for spectators. The Greeks also developed the theatre, with its seating arrangements foreshadowing those of modern stadiums. The Romans copied the theatre, then expanded it to accommodate larger crowds and more elaborate settings. The Romans also developed the double-sized round theatre called amphitheatre, seating crowds in the tens of thousands for gladiatorial combats and beast shows. The Greek stadium and theatre and the Roman circus and amphitheatre are all ancestral to the modern stadium.

Modernity

The first stadiums to be built in the modern era were basic facilities, designed for the single purpose of fitting as many spectators in as possible. With tremendous growth in the popularity of organised sport in the late Victorian era, especially association football in the United Kingdom and baseball in the United States, the first such structures were built. One such early stadium was the Lansdowne Road Stadium, the brainchild of Henry Dunlop, who organised the first All Ireland Athletics Championships. Banned from locating sporting events at Trinity College, Dunlop built the stadium in 1872. "I laid down a cinder running path of a quarter-mile, laid down the present Lansdowne Tennis Club ground with my own theodolite, started a Lansdowne archery club, a Lansdowne cricket club, and last, but not least, the Lansdowne Rugby Football Club – colours red, black and yellow." Some 300 cartloads of soil from a trench beneath the railway were used to raise the ground, allowing Dunlop to use his engineering expertise to create a pitch envied around Ireland.

Other early stadiums from this period in the UK include the Stamford Bridge stadium (opened in 1877 for the London Athletic Club) and Anfield stadium (1884 as a venue for Everton F.C.).

In the U.S., many professional baseball teams built large stadiums mainly out of wood, with the first such venue being the South End Grounds in Boston, opened in 1871 for the team then known as the Boston Beaneaters (now the Atlanta Braves). Many of these parks caught fire, and those that did not proved inadequate for a growing game. All of the 19th-century wooden parks were replaced, some after a few years, and none survive today.

Goodison Park was the first purpose-built association football stadium in the world. Walton-based building firm Kelly brothers were instructed to erect two uncovered stands that could each accommodate 4,000 spectators. A third covered stand accommodating 3,000 spectators was also requested. Everton officials were impressed with the builder's workmanship and agreed two further contracts: exterior hoardings were constructed at a cost of £150 and 12 turnstiles were installed at a cost of £7 each. The stadium was officially opened on 24 August 1892 by Lord Kinnaird and Frederick Wall of the Football Association. No football was played; instead the 12,000 crowd watched a short track and field event followed by music and a fireworks display. Upon its completion the stadium was the first joint purpose-built football stadium in the world.

The architect Archibald Leitch brought his experience with the construction of industrial buildings to bear on the design of functional stadiums up and down the country. His work encompassed the first 40 years of the 20th century. One of his most notable designs was Old Trafford in Manchester. The ground was originally designed with a capacity of 100,000 spectators and featured seating in the south stand under cover, while the remaining three stands were left as terraces and uncovered. It was the first stadium to feature continuous seating along the contours of the stadium.

These early venues, originally designed to host football matches, were adopted for use by the Olympic Games, the first one being held in 1896 in Athens, Greece. The White City Stadium, built for the 1908 Summer Olympics in London is often cited as the first modern seater stadium, at least in the UK. Designed by the engineer J.J. Webster and completed in 10 months by George Wimpey, on the site of the Franco-British Exhibition, this stadium with a seating capacity of 68,000 was opened by King Edward VII on 27 April 1908. Upon completion, the stadium had a running track 24 ft and three laps to the mile (536 m); outside there was a 35 ft, 660 yd cycle track. The infield included a swimming and diving pool. The London Highbury Stadium, built in 1913, was the first stadium in the UK to feature a two-tiered seating arrangement when it was redesigned in the Art Deco style in 1936.

During these decades, parallel stadium developments were taking place in the U.S. The Baker Bowl, a baseball park in Philadelphia that opened in its original form in 1887 but was completely rebuilt in 1895, broke new ground in stadium construction in two major ways. The stadium's second incarnation featured the world's first cantilevered second deck (tier) in a sports venue, and was the first baseball park to use steel and brick for the majority of its construction. Another influential venue was Boston's Harvard Stadium, built in 1903 by Harvard University for its American football team and track and field program. It was the world's first stadium to use concrete-and-steel construction. In 1909, concrete-and-steel construction came to baseball with the opening of Shibe Park in Philadelphia and, a few months later, Forbes Field in Pittsburgh. The latter was the world's first three-tiered sporting venue. The opening of these parks marked the start of the "jewel box" era of park construction. The largest stadium crowd ever was 199,854 people watching the final match of the 1950 World Cup at Rio de Janeiro's Maracanã on 16 July 1950.

Types
Domed stadiums are distinguished from conventional stadiums by their enclosing roofs. Many of these are not actually domes in the pure architectural sense, some being better described as vaults, some having truss-supported roofs and others having more exotic designs such as a tensegrity structure. But, in the context of sports stadiums, the term "dome" has become standard for all covered stadiums, particularly because the first such enclosed stadium, the Houston Astrodome, was built with an actual dome-shaped roof. Some stadiums have partial roofs, and a few have even been designed to have moveable fields as part of the infrastructure. The Caesars Superdome in New Orleans is a true dome structure made of a lamellar multi-ringed frame and has a diameter of 680 feet (210 m). It is the largest fixed domed structure in the world.

Even though enclosed, dome stadiums are called stadiums because they are large enough for, and designed for, what are generally considered to be outdoor sports such as athletics, American football, association football, rugby, and baseball. Those designed for what are usually indoor sports like basketball, ice hockey and volleyball are generally called arenas. Exceptions include:

 * Cameron Indoor Stadium, home to Duke University's Blue Devils men's and women's basketball programs.
 * Red Bull Arena, an open-air venue that is home to Major League Soccer's New York Red Bulls and NJ/NY Gotham FC of the National Women's Soccer League.
 * Paris La Défense Arena, a domed stadium that is home to the rugby union club Racing 92. It has a movable seating block that allows a configuration appropriate for indoor court sports.
 * Chicago Stadium (demolished), former home to the National Hockey League's Chicago Blackhawks and the National Basketball Association's Chicago Bulls.

Design issues
Different sports require different playing surfaces of various size and shape. Some stadiums are designed primarily for a single sport while others can accommodate different events, particularly ones with retractable seating. Stadiums built specifically for association football are common in Europe; Gaelic games stadiums, such as Croke Park, are common in Ireland, while stadiums built specifically for baseball or American football are common in the United States. The most common multiple use design combines a football pitch with a running track, although certain compromises must be made. The major drawback is that the stands are necessarily set back a good distance from the pitch, especially at the ends of the pitch. In the case of some smaller stadiums, there are not stands at the ends. When there are stands all the way around, the stadium takes on an oval shape. When one end is open, the stadium has a horseshoe shape. All three configurations (open, oval and horseshoe) are common, especially in the case of American college football stadiums. Rectangular stadiums are more common in Europe, especially for football where many stadiums have four often distinct and very different stands on the four sides of the stadium. These are often all of different sizes and designs and have been erected at different periods in the stadium's history. The vastly differing character of European football stadiums has led to the growing hobby of ground hopping where spectators make a journey to visit the stadium for itself rather than for the event held there. In recent years the trend of building completely new oval stadiums in Europe has led to traditionalists criticising the designs as bland and lacking in the character of the old stadiums they replace.

In North America, where baseball and American football are the two most popular outdoor spectator sports, a number of football/baseball multi-use stadiums were built, especially during the 1960s, and some of them were successful.

Since the requirements for baseball and football are significantly different, the trend has been toward the construction of single-purpose stadiums, beginning with Kansas City in 1972–1973 and accelerating in the 1990s. In several cases, an American football stadium has been constructed adjacent to a baseball park, to allow for the sharing of mutual parking lots and other amenities. With the rise of MLS, the construction of soccer-specific stadiums has also increased since the late 1990s to better fit the needs of that sport. In many cases, earlier baseball stadiums were constructed to fit into a particular land area or city block. This resulted in asymmetrical dimensions for many baseball fields. Yankee Stadium, for example, was built on a triangular city block in The Bronx, New York City. This resulted in a large left field dimension but a small right field dimension.

Before more modern football stadiums were built in the United States, many baseball parks, including Fenway Park, the Polo Grounds, Wrigley Field, Comiskey Park, Tiger Stadium, Griffith Stadium, Milwaukee County Stadium, Shibe Park, Forbes Field, Yankee Stadium, and Sportsman's Park were used by the National Football League or the American Football League. (To a certain extent, this continues in lower football leagues as well, with the venue now known as Charles Schwab Field Omaha being used as the home stadium of the United Football League's Omaha Nighthawks.) Along with today's single use stadiums is the trend for retro-style ballparks closer to downtown areas. Oriole Park at Camden Yards was the first such ballpark for Major League Baseball to be built, using early-20th-century styling with 21st-century amenities.

There is a solar-powered stadium in Taiwan that produces as much energy as it needs to function.

Stadium designers often study acoustics to increase noise caused by fans' voices, aiming to create a lively atmosphere.

Lighting
Until the advent of floodlights, most games played on large areas had to rely on natural lighting.

Bramall Lane was reportedly the first floodlit stadium. Floodlighting in association football dates as far back as 1878, when there were floodlit experimental matches at Bramall Lane, Sheffield during the dark winter afternoons. With no national grid, lights were powered by batteries and dynamoes, and were unreliable.

Since the development of electrical grids, lighting has been an important element in stadium design, allowing games to be played after sundown, and in covered, or partly covered stadiums that allow less natural light, but provide more shelter for the public.

Spectator areas and seating
An "all-seater" stadium has seats for all spectators. Other stadiums are designed so that all or some spectators stand to view the event. The term "all-seater" is not common in the U.S., as very few American stadiums have sizeable standing-only sections. Poor stadium design has contributed to disasters, such as the Hillsborough disaster and the Heysel Stadium disaster. Since these, all Premier League, UEFA European Championship and FIFA World Cup qualifying matches require all spectators to be seated.

Seating areas may be known as terraces, tiers, or decks. Originally set out for standing room only, they are now usually equipped with seating. Another term used in the US is bleachers, which is mostly used for seating areas with bench seats as opposed to individual seats, and which often are uncovered; the name refers to the bleaching effect direct, unshaded sunlight has on the benches and patrons in those sections.

Many stadiums make luxury suites or boxes available to patrons at high prices. These suites can accommodate ten to thirty people, depending on the venue. Luxury suites at events such as the Super Bowl can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Safety and security

Due to the number of people congregating in stadiums and the frequency of events, many notable accidents have occurred in the past, some causing injury and death. For example, the Hillsborough disaster was a human crush at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, England on 15 April 1989. The resulting 97 deaths and 765 injuries makes this the worst disaster in British sporting history.

Much effort has been spent to avoid the recurrence of such events, both in design and legislation. Especially where there is a perceived risk of terrorism or violence attention remains high to prevent human death and keep stadiums as places where families can enjoy a public event together.

In Europe and South America, during the twentieth century, it was common for violent bands of supporters to fight inside or close to association football stadiums. In the United Kingdom they are known as hooligans.

Structural features that increase safety include separate entry and exit accesses for each spectator area, especially separating accesses for home and visitor supporters, dividing walls, glass parapets, vibration attenuation and sprinkler systems.

Security features that have been adopted include armed surveillance, Identity document checks, video surveillance, metal detectors and security searches to enforce rules that forbid spectators to carry dangerous or potentially dangerous items.

Political and economic issues
Modern stadiums, especially the largest among them, are megaprojects that can only be afforded by the largest corporations, wealthiest individuals, or government. Sports fans have a deep emotional attachment to their teams. In North America, with its closed-league "franchise" system, there are fewer teams than cities which would like them. This creates tremendous bargaining power for the owners of teams, whereby owners can threaten to relocate teams to other cities unless governments subsidize the construction of new facilities. In Europe and Latin America, where there are multiple association football clubs in any given city, and several leagues in each country, no such monopoly power exists, and stadiums are built primarily with private money. Outside professional sports, governments are also involved through the intense competition for the right to host major sporting events, primarily the Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup (of association football), during which cities often pledge to build new stadiums in order to satisfy the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or FIFA.

Corporate naming

In recent decades, to help take the burden of the massive expense of building and maintaining a stadium, many American and European sports teams have sold the rights to the name of the facility. This trend, which began in the 1970s, but accelerated greatly in the 1990s, has led to sponsors' names being affixed to both established stadiums and new ones. In some cases, the corporate name replaces (with varying degrees of success) the name by which the venue has been known for many years. But many of the more recently built stadiums, like the Volkswagen Arena in Wolfsburg, Germany, have never been known by a non-corporate name. The sponsorship phenomenon has since spread worldwide. There remain a few municipally owned stadiums, which are often known by a name that is significant to their area (for example, Boston's Fenway Park). In recent years, some government-owned stadiums have also been subject to naming-rights agreements, with some or all of the revenue often going to the team(s) that play there.

One consequence of corporate naming has been an increase in stadium name changes, when the namesake corporation changes its name, or if it is the naming agreement simply expires. Phoenix's Chase Field, for example, was previously known as Bank One Ballpark, but was renamed to reflect the takeover of the latter corporation. San Francisco's historic Candlestick Park was renamed as 3Com Park for several years, but the name was dropped when the sponsorship agreement expired, and it was another two years before the new name of Monster Cable Products' Monster Park was applied. Local opposition to the corporate naming of that particular stadium led San Francisco's city council to permanently restore the Candlestick Park name once the Monster contract expired. More recently, in Ireland, there has been huge opposition to the renaming of Dublin's historic Lansdowne Road as the Aviva Stadium. Lansdowne was redeveloped as the Aviva, opening in May 2010.

On the other hand, Los Angeles' Great Western Forum, one of the earliest examples of corporate renaming, retained its name for many years, even after the namesake bank no longer existed, the corporate name being dropped only after the building later changed ownership. This practice has typically been less common in countries outside the United States. A notable exception is the Nippon Professional Baseball league of Japan, in which many of the teams are themselves named after their parent corporations. Also, many newer European football stadiums, such as the University of Bolton and Emirates Stadiums in England and Signal Iduna Park and Allianz Arena in Germany have been corporately named.

This new trend in corporate naming (or renaming) is distinguishable from names of some older venues, such as Crosley Field, Wrigley Field, and the first and second Busch Stadiums, in that the parks were named by and for the club's owner, which also happened to be the name of the company owned by those clubowners. (The current Busch Stadium received its name via a modern naming rights agreement.)

During the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, some stadiums were temporarily renamed because FIFA prohibits sponsorship of stadiums. For example, the Allianz Arena in Munich was called the FIFA World Cup Stadium, Munich during the tournament. Likewise, the same stadium will be known as the "München Arena" during the European Competitions. Similar rules affect the Imtech Arena and Veltins-Arena. This rule applies even if the stadium sponsor is an official FIFA sponsor—the Johannesburg stadium then commercially known as "Coca-Cola Park", bearing the name of one of FIFA's major sponsors, was known by its historic name of Ellis Park Stadium during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Corporate names are also temporarily replaced during the Olympics.

Environmental issues
Modern stadiums bring several negative environmental issues with their construction. They require thousands of tons of materials to build, they greatly increase traffic in the area around the stadium, as well as maintaining the stadium. The increased traffic around modern stadiums has led to create exposure zones says the Health Effect Institute, exposing 30–40% of people living around the stadium to potential health issues. Many stadiums are attempting to counteract these issues by implementing solar panels, and high efficiency lighting, to reduce their own carbon footprint.

Music venues
Although concerts, such as classical music, had been presented in them for decades, beginning in the 1960s stadiums began to be used as live venues for popular music, giving rise to the term "stadium rock", particularly for forms of hard rock and progressive rock. The origins of stadium rock are sometimes dated to when the Beatles played Shea Stadium in New York in 1965. Also important was the use of large stadiums for American tours by bands in the later 1960s, such as the Rolling Stones, Grand Funk Railroad and Led Zeppelin. The tendency developed in the mid-1970s as the increased power of amplification and sound systems allowed the use of larger and larger venues. Smoke, fireworks and sophisticated lighting shows became staples of arena rock performances. Key acts from this era included Journey, REO Speedwagon, Boston, Foreigner, Styx, Kiss, Peter Frampton and Queen. In the 1980s arena rock became dominated by glam metal bands, following the lead of Aerosmith and including Mötley Crüe, Quiet Riot, W.A.S.P. and Ratt. Since the 1980s, rock, pop and folk stars, including the Grateful Dead, Madonna, Michael Jackson, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga and Taylor Swift, have undertaken large-scale stadium based concert tours.

title: Stadium


text:
Talk:Stadium

Photos
I have added several photos of different types of Stadiums. All of the photos I have included have been of particually large or impressive stadium. Please go ahead and add more. As there are so many variations on stadiums too many pics isnt enough. Ronan.evans 12:01, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

Skydome
Is the Skydome (Rogers), a retractable-domed, astroturfed stadium really a "typical example" of a baseball stadium? Troymccluresf 21:32, 21 June 2006 (UTC)Troymccluresf

I'll edit that out and call it something like a ultra modern stadium. Ronan.evans 09:32, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

Units
Has anyone else heard of "stadia" being used as a unit of length? For example the Geography by Strabo he often describes distance in this manner, probably the same way people nowadays use "football fields" from what I can tell.

Does anyone else agree that this page seems to be too US orientated?

Also a little part on music played at stadiums?

 * Re units, you're inferring the etymology in the wrong direction. It is not analogous to modern use of "football fields" for distance.  The unit of measure is the original word. The word later came to refer to a race track which was one stadium long. It then came to refer to the circular track with spectators where a stadium race was held, and then from that came to be any sporting arena. Iglew (talk) 06:39, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

Stadiums in America
Is this article firstly about stadiums in America? Drogo 20:25, 9 January 2007 (UTC)
 * No its ment to be about around the world(Gnevin 23:45, 9 January 2007 (UTC))
 * Hence the picture of a Sydney stadium. Wahkeenah 00:11, 10 January 2007 (UTC)

Stadium vs. Stadia
I have sometimes seen "stadia" in print, more often "stadiums", and I've never heard anyone say "stadia" out loud. It's always "stadiums". But I'm only listening to sports shows, and what do they know about this subject? So I did a quick search on Google for the words "stadiums" and "stadia", and it's about a 3.5 to 1 ratio. Oh, and by the way, wiktionary gives "stadiums" as the preferred. And I didn't write that entry. Wahkeenah 00:35, 29 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Stadia would be in common enough spoken usage in Ireland but not the preferred the article is fine as is (Gnevin 00:37, 29 January 2007 (UTC))

Unfortunately, has unilaterally decided to change "stadiums" to "stadia" without discussion or concensus. →Wordbuilder (talk) 22:22, 2 November 2009 (UTC)

I don't want to start an edit war by changing it back, but it's worth noting that the dictionary.com page cited by footnote does NOT support the contention that both plurals are accepted. It only shows that each plural is used for at least one of the definitions listed. "Stadia" is the preferred plural for the unit of distance (and probably for the bug one, too, but I'm not familiar with that usage), and that's why it's listed above. It does not follow that it is an accepted plural for the sports arena definition. In fact, using "stadia" in that context is a modern affectation. Iglew (talk) 06:36, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Using "stadia" sounds rather contrived to me and appears to be at odds with how we actually name articles and lists, so I've changed the usage to "stadiums". Dictionary.com does not list "stadia" first, and trying to claim that "stadium" is still a Latin word will obviously not hold up to scrutiny. If anyone wants to insist on this, I would really like to see some support for the notion. Anglicized plural forms of Latin loan words are common enough to to require us to use the original, "correct" plural forms.
 * Peter Isotalo 10:24, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Concur. - BilCat (talk) 15:39, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

 * undid the changes made by . I restored it to the latest version by Peter Isotalo. Hopefully Stephen MUFC will take part in the discussion rather than edit warring. →Wordbuilder (talk) 17:42, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

 * The entry for "stadium" Oxford English Dictionary appears to consider "stadiums" to be the common plural for the arena definition.
 * Peter Isotalo 11:57, 23 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I noticed that "stadia" seems to be occuring in the various World Cup articles. See for example 1994 World Cup (has both spellings), 1998 World Cup and 2002 World Cup. I'm assuming there are a lot more examples in other sports and stadium articles. Is this a matter of WP:ENGVAR or is it just a matter of some users preferring the "correct" Latin plural form over what seems (at least to me) to be the generally more common plural form? Is there any reason to use "stadia" in any articles on sports whatsoever?
 * Peter Isotalo 11:44, 28 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't think the subject is technical enough to make it important to adhere to the correct Latin usage. It is a matter of WP:ENGVAR and, as such, should follow this guideline:
 * ""When an article has evolved sufficiently for it to be clear which variety it employs, the whole article should continue to conform to that variety, unless there are reasons for changing it based on strong national ties to the topic. When an article has not yet evolved to that point, the variety chosen by the first major contributor should be adopted. Where an article that is not a stub shows no signs of which variety it is written in, the first person to make an edit that disambiguates the variety is equivalent to the first major contributor.""

 * The first major contribution uses "stadiums" for the plural. Unless there is compelling reason to change it, "stadiums" should continue to be used as the plural form of the word in this article. →Wordbuilder (talk) 16:34, 28 June 2010 (UTC)

 * If its a matter of WP:ENGVAR, where would "stadia" be more common than "stadiums"?
 * Peter Isotalo 06:16, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm unsure where "stadia" is preferred to "stadiums", if anywhere. But, if that is the case, articles with strong national ties to that country should use "stadia" as the plural. Whichever is chosen, it should be used consistently throughout the article. →Wordbuilder (talk) 14:53, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm familiar with how WP:ENGVAR works and I agree that this is how it should be determined wherever it might be applicable. However, going by some sample googlings and some of the major dictionaries, I get the feeling that "stadiums" is actually the most common plural form in both American and British English. At least I've not been able to find any references to either plural form as particular to any national or regional English.
 * Peter Isotalo 20:01, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

The Wiktionary also makes clear that stadia is used in 'high-register contexts' as it is in most official documents, as such it would be simply inaccurate to use the corrupted plural 'stadiums', thus I have edited the page accordingly though I accept that some may disagree and that a revert may take effect. Grand High Most Ultimate Supreme Hochmeister of Wikipedia, the Universe and all parallel Universes (including Ireland and Wales) (talk) 16:51, 23 May 2011 (UTC)
 * For example http://legacy.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=24505. Grand High Most Ultimate Supreme Hochmeister of Wikipedia, the Universe and all parallel Universes (including Ireland and Wales) (talk) 17:15, 23 May 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) Wikitonary is not a reliable source, 2) borrowing language plural applies, 3) the clear consensus of editors is for stadiums and 4) British Government documents do not decide what plurals are on wikipedia. Please also be aware of WP:3RR. Snappy (talk) 18:27, 23 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Stadiums is indeed more commonly used colloquially, but this is clearly a corruption that should not be continued. I give up, I've been trying to improve Wikipedia for five years but the nonsense of some can still prove a burden. Grand High Most Ultimate Supreme Hochmeister of Wikipedia, the Universe and all parallel Universes (including Ireland and Wales) (talk) 18:35, 23 May 2011 (UTC)
 * If you admit that Stadiums is indeed more commonly used then per common usage, that should be reflected in the article. It is not a corruption, its a reflection of the living changing language. P.S. I'd suggest you contact Jimbo Wales about your struggle against "nonsense". Snappy (talk) 18:55, 23 May 2011 (UTC)
 * If anything Stadia would be a courruption of the latin because it does not change with the Case it is being used in. The plural of stadium in Latin could be stadia, stadiōrum, or stadiīs depending on its grammatical function. Hitglenwithmycar (talk) 16:53, 27 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Are you being serious? Of course the Latin plural wouldn't be a corruption of the Latin word. It's "stadia". Besides, common usage shouldn't dictate what is written in an encyclopaedia; it's supposed to be the other way around. An encyclopaedia is meant to tell people what's right, not to repeat the mistake that they've been making and tell them it's ok because other people do it too. The word is "stadia", not "stadiums". (WP Editor 2011 (talk) 07:31, 7 May 2012 (UTC))

Hillborough/Heysel
"Poor stadium design has contributed to disasters such as the Hillsborough disaster and the Heysel Stadium disaster."

That hardly tells the whole story. Perhaps this needs to be clarified.--Hack 03:59, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Let owners pay to build
Could something be said about the way taxpayers are "forced" to pay for building stadiums for rich owners & players? "If Steinbrenner and the owners of the Mets want new ballparks, they shouldn't pay for half, or whatever they are going to pay under the voodoo economics of these plans. They should do exactly what Peter Magowan did in San Francisco when he wanted to build Pac Bell Park: They should go to the bank and find a way to pay for all of it themselves." http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/sports/2001/12/07/2001-12-07_let_them_pay__let_them_pay__.html Stars4change (talk) 16:53, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

Bleachers
In the US, the term "bleachers" currently refers only to bench type seats, usually the lowest priced seats. No one would use the term to refer to chair back seats, or to seating in general (unless the only seating is bleachers).Wschart (talk) 21:15, 12 May 2011 (UTC)

Paragraph on ancient history of stadia
Hi folks, I just erased a very misleading paragraph. The paragraph stated as follows

The Greek hippodrome was the basic model for both the Roman stadium and the Roman circus. A hippodrome and a stadium may be of similar size, while the largest circus structures can have seating capacities up to ten times greater. In practice, however, the association of one of these three words with a given structure may be more the result of some naming convention than a reflection of any characteristic of its physical size or structure. Indeed, from one epoch to another the same structure many be known by different names. For example, the Stadium of Domitian was also known as the Circus Agonalis. In another example a structure at Aphrodisias can be found referred to as a stadium, or a hippodrome, while it has the size and structure of a small circus.

Objections. The Greeks had no hippodromes prior to being conquered by the Romans, and even then had fewer than the Romans. The hippodrome (a Greek word) originated in the Roman circus. Latin circus and Greek hippodrome are the same structures. The Romans had three types of stadium-like structures: circus (for horse races), amphitheatre (for gladiatorial combat), theatre (for drama and pantomime). No stadia. On the other hand, Greeks had theatres and stadia. No hippodromes or amphitheatres.

When the Romans conquered the East, they spread their horse races to the Greek areas, and their gladiatorial combats. Stadia were refurbished for horse races and theatres refurbished for gladiatorial combats.

All in all, we cannot have a Wikipedia page claiming that "The Greek hippodrome was the basic model for the Roman stadium and the Roman circus." Not only did the Romans have no stadia as such; it is the Roman circus that influenced and originated those few Greek and Byzantine structures that can be considered true hippodromes. You will find that ALL Greek/Byzantine hippodromes are from after the Roman conquest. Chariot racing in ancient Greece was a minor sport compared to human races, discus, javelin, boxing and wrestling.

I won't go on and on. The claim that the Greek hippodrome is prior to the Roman circus is false and opposite to the truth. A reference must be provided for such an astounding claim. Jroo222 (talk) 14:18, 11 May 2016 (UTC)

pre greek stadiums
wikipedia is very eurocentric and biased, but still it shouldn't be so biased as to take credit for the stadiums

phoenician stadium at Amrita from 15th century BC

there is also a stadium at dholavira, i think that Greek models were based on phoenician models because of the oblong plan of the Amrita stadium.

Amrit Stadium 60.54.13.118 (talk) 07:31, 24 January 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 14:39, 31 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Moses Mabhida Stadion durban aerial view 1.jpg

The article falsely states that Fenway Park is municipally owned in naming section
This is wrong 2600:1016:B03E:9E8:F912:4200:A840:EC7B (talk) 12:46, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stadium


text:
Sambyeolcho Rebellion

The Sambyeolcho Rebellion (1270–1273) was a Korean rebellion against the Goryeo dynasty that happened near the end of the Mongol invasions of Korea. It was suppressed by Goryeo and the Yuan dynasty. After the rebellion, Goryeo became a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty.

Background
From 1231, Goryeo was intermittently invaded by the Mongol Empire. During this time, Goryeo was controlled by a military regime led by the Ch'oe family. In 1232 the government under the nominal king fled to Ganghwa Island, which Mongol horse riders were unable to land on, and resisted the Mongol invasion. Unfortunately because of its fragile foundation, Goryeo faced frequent rebellions. The 1258 rebellion resulted in the establishment of Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures by the Mongols.

Unlike these rebels, the Sambyeolcho (Three Elite Patrols) were an organ of the military government. They were organized by the Ch'oe family to maintain security. However, unlike the Ch'oe private guards unit (which was to personally protect the family), the Sambyeolcho assumed public functions performed by police and combat forces, effectively replacing the Six Divisions of the military.

In 1258, Ch'oe Ŭi, the fourth dictator of the Ch'oe family, was overthrown by Kim Chun (also known as Kim In-jun) using the Sambyeolcho. Kim Chun took a pro-Mongol policy and sent Crown Prince Wang Chŏng to the Mongol Empire. At the same time, King Gojong and the crown prince approached the Mongols to restore power from Kim Chun.

In 1268, however, Kim Chun was annihilated by the Sambyeolcho under the order of Im Yŏn. The next year, Im Yŏn's attempt to replace King Wonjong was reversed by the crown prince (Chungnyeol) with the help from the Mongol force. In 1270, Im Yŏn's successor Im Yu-mu was killed by the pro-Mongol faction using the Sambyeolcho. It marked the end of the military regime.

Anti-Mongol struggle
By the order of the Mongol court, Wonjong moved the capital from Ganghwa Island to Kaesŏng. Regaining power from military officials with the support of the Mongols, the king decided to abolish the Sambyeolcho. Resentful of the peace terms worked out with the Mongols, the Sambyeolcho, led by Pae Chung-son, revolted against the government. Systematically blocking passage between Gangwha and the mainland, they brought nearby islands and coastal regions under their domain. Wang On, a royal kinsman was proclaimed king of the maritime kingdom. They gave up Ganghwa Island and fled to Jindo Island in the southwest.

Although the Sambyeolcho raided the coastlines of Jeolla Province, the southwestern province, Jindo Island started to face food shortages in January 1271. In February the court of Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty called for the Sambyeolcho's surrender. In response, its leader, Pae Chung-son, asked Kublai Khan to secure Jeolla Province and put it under the direct rule of the empire, just as preceding rebels had. But his request was never fulfilled.

In April, the Yuan court decided to crush the rebels. It only took a month for Jindo Island to fall to a combined Goryeo and Yuan army. The puppet king was killed and the survivors, led by Kim T'ong-jŏng, fled to Jeju Island. The rebels captured the island and banished the king of Tamna in November 1270.

The Sambyeolcho laid low until the end of 1271. During that time, they sought help from Japanese Kamakura Shogunate. They regained their strength to some degree the following year. They repeatedly looted the Korean coast. A combined Goryeo-Yuan assault began in February 1272, and crushed the rebels in April. Thereafter, the Yuan dynasty directly controlled Tamna until 1294.

title: Sambyeolcho Rebellion