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Jesus in Islam

In Islam, Jesus (عِيسَى ٱبْنُ مَرْيَمَ) is believed to be the penultimate prophet and messenger of God and the Messiah sent to guide the Children of Israel with a book called the  (Evangel or Gospel).

In the Quran, Jesus is described as the Messiah, miraculously born of a virgin, performing miracles, accompanied by his disciples, rejected by the Jewish religious establishment, but not as crucified or dying on the cross (nor resurrected); rather, He is depicted as miraculously saved by God and ascending into heaven. The Quran places Jesus among the greatest prophets and mentions him with various titles. The prophethood of Jesus is preceded by that of Yahya (John) and succeeded by Muhammad, the latter of whom Jesus is reported to have prophesied by using the name Ahmad.

There are a variety of interpretations in Islam about Jesus Christ. Mainstream interpretations of the Quran lack the Christian philosophical concept of divine hypostasis, so to many it appears the Quran rejects Christ. Christians view Jesus Christ as God incarnate, the Son of God in human flesh, but the Quran denies the divinity of Jesus as God in several verses, and also insinuates that Jesus Christ did not claim to be personally God (God the Son). Islam teaches that Jesus' original message was altered after his being raised alive. The monotheism of Jesus is emphasized in the Quran. Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is also called a Muslim, as he preached that his followers should adopt the 'straight path'. Jesus is attributed with a vast number of miracles in Islamic tradition.

In their views of Islamic eschatology, mainstream Muslims believe Jesus will return in the Second Coming to kill the ('The False Messiah'), after which with the ancient tribes Gog and Magog  would disperse. After these creatures miraculously perish, Jesus would rule the entire world, establish peace and justice, die a natural death and then be buried alongside Muhammad at the fourth reserved tomb of the Green Dome in Medina.

The place where Jesus is believed to return, the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, is highly esteemed by Muslims as the fourth holiest site of Islam. Jesus Christ is widely venerated in Sufism, with numerous ascetic and mystic literature written and recited about the most important historical Jewish Christian-Islamic prophet-messenger to these Abrahamic faiths.

Birth
Islam's account of Jesus begins with a prologue narrated several times in the Quran which first describes the birth of his mother, Mary, and her service in the Jerusalem temple while under the care of the prophet Zechariah, who would become the father of Yahya (John the Baptist). The Quran's birth narrative of Jesus begins at and. This birth narrative has been recounted with certain variations and detailed additions by Islamic historians over the centuries. In the matter of the virgin birth of Jesus, while Islamic theology affirms Mary as a pure vessel, it does not follow the concept of Immaculate Conception as related to Mary's birth in some Christian traditions.

Annunciation
Islamic exegesis affirms the virginal birth of Jesus – similarly to the Gospel account and occurring in Bethlehem. The narrative of the virgin birth opens with an announcement to Mary by the angel Gabriel while Mary is being raised in the Temple after having been pledged to God by her mother. Gabriel states she is honored over all women of all nations and has brought her glad tidings of a pure son.

Gabriel declares the son is to be named Jesus, the Messiah, proclaiming he will be called a great prophet. Mary, asking how she could conceive and have a child when no man had touched her, was answered by the angel that God can decree what he wills, and that it shall come to pass.

The narrative from the Quran continues with Mary, overcome by the pains of childbirth, being provided with a stream of water under her feet from which she could drink, and with a palm tree which she could shake so ripe dates would fall and be enjoyed. After giving birth, Mary carries the baby Jesus back to the temple and is asked by the temple elders about the child. Having been commanded by Gabriel to a vow of silence, she points to the infant Jesus and the infant proclaims:

"˹Jesus˺ declared, “I am truly a servant of Allah. He has destined me to be given the Scripture and to be a prophet. He has made me a blessing wherever I go, and bid me to establish prayer and give alms-tax as long as I live, and to be kind to my mother. He has not made me arrogant or defiant. Peace be upon me the day I was born, the day I die, and the day I will be raised back to life!”"

Jesus speaking from the cradle is one of six miracles attributed to him in the Quran, an account which is also found in the Syriac Infancy Gospel, a sixth-century work. According to various hadiths, Jesus and Mary did not cry at birth.

Birth narratives
The Islamic faith echoed some strands within the Christian tradition that Mary (or Maryam) was a literal virgin when Jesus was conceived. The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Surah 3 (Al Imran) and 19 (Maryam) of the Quran, where the story is narrated that God (Allah) sent an angel to announce that Maryam could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin.

Some academics have noted that the account in Surah 19 is particularly close to that in the Christian Gospel of Luke. The Annunciation to Mary is mentioned twice in the Quran, and in both instances Mary/Maryam is told that she was chosen by God to deliver a son. In the first instance, the bearer of the news (who is believed by most Muslims to be the archangel Gabriel), delivered the news in as he takes the form of a man. The details of the conception according to and, Mary conceives Jesus by being blown into her womb through the spirit (i.e. archangel Gabriel), Mary asks how she can bear a son in view of her chastity, she is told that God creates what he wills and that these things are easy for God.

The 8th-century Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq (704–767), wrote the account entitled ('In the Beginning'), reporting that Zechariah is Mary's guardian briefly, and after being incapable of maintaining her, he entrusts her to a carpenter named George. Secluded in a church, she is joined by a young man named Joseph, and they help one another fetching water and other tasks. The account of the birth of Jesus follows the Quran's narrative, adding that the birth occurred in Bethlehem beside a palm tree with a manger.

The 10th-century Persian scholar al-Tabari (839–923) mentions envoys arriving from the king of Persia with gifts (similar to the Magi from the east) for the Messiah; the command to a man called Joseph (not specifically Mary's husband) to take her and the child to Egypt and later return to Nazareth.

The Fatimid Ismaili jurist Qadi al-Nu'man also contributed to the narrative, explaining that the virgin birth of Jesus is meant to be interpreted symbolically. In his interpretation, Mary was the follower, of the Imam Joachim ('Imran). However, when Joachim realized that she was not suited for the, he passed it to Zechariah, who then passed it to John the Baptist. Meanwhile, Mary received spiritual inspiration from God, revealing that he would invite a man (to the faith) who would become an exalted Speaker  of a revealed religion. According to al-Nu'man, the verses "She said: Lord! How can I have a child when no man has touched me?" and "neither have I been unchaste" are symbolic of Mary's saying, "How can I conduct the invitation  when the Imam of the Time has not given me permission to do so?" and "Nor shall I be unfaithful by acting against his command", respectively. To this, a celestial hierarch replies "Such is God. He creates [i.e., causes to pass] what he wills".

Childhood
The Quran does not include the tradition of the Flight into Egypt, though 23:50 could conceivably allude to it: "And we made the son of Maryam and his mother a sign; and we made them abide in an elevated place, full of quiet and watered with springs." However, narratives similar to the narrative found in the Gospels and non-canonical sources circulated in later Islamic tradition, with some details and elaborations added over the centuries by Islamic writers and historians. Some narratives have Jesus and family staying in Egypt up to 12 years. Many moral stories and miraculous events of Jesus' youth are mentioned in ('Stories of the Prophets'), books composed over the centuries about pre-Islamic prophets and heroes.

Al-Masudi wrote that Jesus as a boy studied the Jewish religion reading from the Psalms and found "traced in characters of light":

"You are my son and my beloved; I have chosen you for myself"

with Jesus then claiming:

"Today the word of God is fulfilled in the son of man."

In Egypt
Several narratives show some disparity and similarity in Islamic writings about Jesus' early childhood, specifically his time in Egypt with regard to duration and events. Most of the narratives are found in non-canonical Christian sources like, for example, the pre-Islamic Gospel of Thomas. One such disparity is from al-Athir in his The Perfection of History which contains a birth narrative stating Jesus was born in Egypt instead of Bethlehem.

Some other narratives of Jesus' childhood are popular Middle Eastern lore as highlighted by professor of interfaith studies Mahmoud M. Ayoub. Many miracles are attributed to a young Jesus while in Egypt (see the sections Miracles and Other miracles).

Mission
It is generally agreed that Jesus spoke Galilean Aramaic, a dialect of the common language of Judea in the first century and the region at-large.

The first and earliest view of Jesus formulated in Islamic thought is that of a prophet – a human being chosen by God to present both a judgment upon humanity and challenge to turn to the one true God. From this basis, reflected upon all previous prophets through the lens of Muslim identity, Jesus is considered no more than a messenger repeating a repetitive message of the ages. The miracles of Jesus and the Quranic titles attributed to him demonstrate the power of God rather than the divinity of Jesus – the same power behind the message of all prophets. Some Islamic traditions believe Jesus' mission was only to the children of Israel and his status as a prophet being confirmed by numerous miracles.

A second early high image of Jesus is an end-time figure. This concept arises mostly from the Hadith. Muslim tradition constructs a narrative similarly found in Christian theology, seeing Jesus arriving at the end of time and descending upon earth to fight the Antichrist. This narrative is understood to champion the cause of Islam, with some traditions narrating Jesus pointing to the primacy of Muhammad. Most traditions state Jesus will then die a natural death.

A third and distinctive image is of Jesus representing an ascetic figure – a prophet of the heart. Although the Quran refers to the 'gospel' of Jesus, those specific teachings of his are not mentioned in the Quran or later religious texts. They are largely absent. The Sufi tradition is where Jesus became revered, acknowledged as a spiritual teacher with a distinctive voice from other prophets, including Muhammad. Sufism tends to explore the dimensions of union with God through many approaches, including asceticism, poetry, philosophy, speculative suggestion, and mystical methods. Although Sufism to the Western mind may seem to share similar origins or elements of Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, and Buddhism, the ideology is distinctly Islamic since they adhere to the words of the Quran and pursue imitation of Muhammad as the perfect man.

Preaching
The Islamic concepts of Jesus' preaching is believed to have originated in Kufa, Iraq, under the Rashidun Caliphate where the earliest writers of Muslim tradition and scholarship was formulated. The concepts of Jesus and his preaching ministry developed in Kufa was adopted from the early ascetic Christians of Egypt who opposed official church bishopric appointments from Rome.

The earliest stories, numbering about 85, are found in two major collections of ascetic literature entitled ('The Book of the Asceticism and Tender Mercies') by Abd Allah ibn al-Mubarak (d. 797), and  ('The Book of Asceticism') by Ibn Hanbal (d. 855). These sayings fall into four basic groups:

 * 1) eschatological sayings;
 * 2) quasi-Gospel sayings;
 * 3) ascetic sayings and stories;
 * 4) sayings echoing intra-Muslim polemics.

The first group of sayings expands Jesus' archetype as portrayed in the Quran. The second group of stories, although containing a Gospel core, are expanded with a "distinctly Islamic stamp". The third group, being the largest of the four, portrays Jesus as a patron saint of Muslim asceticism. The last group builds upon the Islamic archetype and Muslim-centric definition of Jesus and his attributes, furthering esoteric ideas regarding terms such as "Spirit of God" and "Word of God" describing Jesus Christ, attributes given to the Islamic view of Jesus Christ as a holy angelic messenger divinely sent from heaven by God to his fleshly incarnation, like an Angel of the Lord in some other Messianic Christian traditions.

Miracles
The Quran attributes at least six miracles to Jesus, with many more being added over the centuries by writers and historians. Miracles were attributed to Jesus as signs of his prophethood and his authority, according to educator and professor Ishaq Musa Al-Husayni (d. 1990), an author most known for ('Memoirs of a Hen') (Cairo: Dar al-Maarif, 1943; 2nd ed. 1967). In Christ in the Quran and Modern Arabic Literature (1960), Al-Husayni said it is noteworthy Muhammad attributes no miracles to himself.

These six miracles in the Quran are without detail unlike the Gospel and their non-canonical Gnostic sources, which include details and mention other attributed miracles. Over the centuries, these six miracle narratives have been elaborated through Hadith and poetry, with religious writings including some of the other miracles mentioned in the Gospel, non-canonical sources, and from lore.

Speaking from the cradle
Speaking from the cradle is mentioned in three places in the Quran:, and. Part of the narrative has the infant Jesus defending his mother Mary from the accusation of having given birth without a known husband. Early Islam was unclear about Joseph and his role. Jesus speaks as the angel Gabriel had mentioned at the annunciation: Jesus proclaims he is a servant of God, has been given a book, is a prophet, is blessed wherever he will go, blesses the day he was born, the day he will die, and the day he is raised alive.

Although this particular narrative is not found in the Bible, the theme of speaking from the cradle is found in the non-canonical pre-Islamic Syriac Infancy Gospel. The Syriac Infancy Gospel has Jesus declaring himself the Son of God, the Word, and affirming what the angel Gabriel had previously announced to Mary as detailed in the Gospel.

Creating birds from clay
The miracle story of creating birds from clay and breathing life into them when a child is mentioned in,. Although this miracle is also not mentioned in the canonical Gospel, the same narrative is found in at least two pre-Islamic sources: the Infancy Gospel of Thomas and the Jewish Toledot Yeshu, with few variant details between the Quran and these two sources.

Healing the blind and the lepers
Similar to the New Testament, the Quran mentions Jesus healing the blind and the lepers in. Muslim scholar and judge al-Baydawi (d. 1286) wrote how it was recorded that many thousands of people came to Jesus to be healed and that Jesus healed these diseases through prayer only. Medieval scholar al-Tha'labi wrote about how these two particular diseases were beyond medical help, and Jesus' miracles were meant to be witnessed by others as clear signs of his message.

Raising the dead
Jesus is believed to have raised people from the dead, as mentioned in al-Imran. Although no detail is given as to who was raised or the circumstance, at least three people are mentioned in detail in the Christian Gospel (a daughter of Jairus, a widow's son at Nain, and Lazarus).

Prescience
Jesus was able to predict, or had foreknowledge, of what was hidden or unknown to others. One example is Jesus would answer correctly any and every question anyone asked him. Another example is Jesus knew what people had just eaten, as well as what they had stored in their homes.

Table of food from heaven
In the fifth chapter of the Quran,, a narration mentions the disciples of Jesus requesting a table laden with food, and for it to be a special day of commemoration for them in the future. This may be a possible reference to the Eucharist according to professor of Islamic and Arabic studies W. Montgomery Watt (d. 2006). According to professor of comparative religions Geoffrey Parrinder (d. 2005), it is unclear if this story parallels the Gospel's Last Supper or the feeding the multitude, but may be tied to the Arabic word (Muslim festival):

"5:112 ˹Remember˺ when the disciples asked, “O Jesus, son of Mary! Would your Lord be willing to send down to us a table spread with food from heaven?” Jesus answered, “Fear Allah if you are ˹truly˺ believers.” 5:113 They said, “We ˹only˺ wish to eat from it to reassure our hearts, to verify you are indeed truthful to us, and to become its witnesses.” 5:114 Jesus, son of Mary, prayed, “O Allah, our Lord! Send us from heaven a table spread with food as a feast for us—the first and last of us—and as a sign from You. Provide for us! You are indeed the Best Provider.” 5:115 Allah answered, “I am sending it down to you. But whoever among you denies afterwards will be subjected to a torment I have never inflicted on anyone of My creation.”"

In a record by the Sunni exegete Tabari, before the last supper, the threat of death made him anxious. Therefore, Jesus invited his disciples for the last supper. After the meal, he washed their hands and performed their ablutions to wipe their hands on his clothing. Afterwards Jesus replied to them: "As for that I have done to you tonight, in that I served you the meal and washed your hands in person, let it be an example for you. Since you indeed consider me to be better than you, do not be haughty in relation to each other but rather expand yourselves for each other as I have expanded myself for you." After instructing the disciples in his teachings, Jesus foretells that one of them would deny him and another betray him. However, in accordance with Islamic views on Jesus' death, just a corpse in semblance of Jesus was crucified and Jesus himself was raised to God.

Other miracles
Many stories and narratives have been developed over the years about Jesus, containing certain inherent lessons or providing meaning due to the lack of detail in the Quran regarding Jesus. Some of these narratives are similar in nature to the New Testament, while some portray Jesus in a very human manner.

Besides some detailed summaries of miracles of Jesus mentioned by Muslim writers over the centuries, from adulthood (like walking on water – also found in the Gospel – and causing loaves of bread to come from the ground), some other miracles from childhood include: explaining the Muslim creed fundamentals to a schoolmaster, revealing who the thieves were to a wealthy chief, filling empty jars of something to drink, providing food and wine for a tyrannical king while also proving to this king his power in raising a dead man from the dead, raising a child accidentally killed, and causing the garments from a single-colored vat to come out with various colors.

Healing a royal official's son
Al-Tabari (d. 923) reports a story of an adult Jesus' encounter with a certain king in the region and the healing of his son. The identity of the king is not mentioned while legend suggests Philip the Tetrarch. The corresponding Bible reference is "the royal official's son".

Greed and truth-telling
A legendary story of a miracle by a young Jesus, used as a hard-learned lesson popularly found in Middle Eastern lore according to professor Ayoub, has to do with a Jewish man and loaves of bread. Although carrying a polemic tone, the lesson centers on greed with truth-telling woven into the narration. It is a story found often in children's books.

Inherent wisdom
Another legendary miracle story is one regarding Jesus' childhood wisdom. This legend, reported through al-Tabari from ibn Ishaq, talks about Mary sending Jesus to a religious school and the teacher being astonished to find Jesus already knowing the information being taught / discussed.

Food in children's homes
Another story from al-Tabari tells of a young Jesus playing with the youths of his village and telling them what food their parents were preparing for them at home.

According to the details of the narrative, some parents became annoyed and forbade their children to play with Jesus, suspecting he was a magician. As a result, the parents kept their children away from Jesus and gathered their children into a single house. One day, feeling lonely, Jesus went out looking for his friends, and coming upon this house he asked the parents where their children were. The parents lied, responding that the children were not there. After Jesus asks who, then, is in the house, the parents replied that there were swine inside. Jesus then says "Let them be swine!", with the parents then discovering that all the children had turned into swine.

Over the centuries, Muslim writers have also referenced other miracles like casting out demons, having borrowed from some heretical pre-Islamic sources, and from canonical sources as legends about Jesus were expanded.

Revelation
Muslims believe that God revealed a new scripture to Jesus, called the (the Gospel), while also declaring the truth of the previous revelations:  (the Torah) and  (the Psalms). The Quran speaks favorably of, which it describes as a scripture that fills the hearts of its followers with meekness and piety. Traditional Islamic exegesis claims the biblical message to have been distorted, is termed ("resolution of ambiguity"). This polemic effort has its origins in the medieval period with Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad's writings. Regarding the Law of Moses, the Quran indicates that Jesus never abolished Jewish laws but rather confirmed them, while making partial abrogations only.

Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted the original teachings of Jesus. The 9th-century historian Sayf ibn Umar asserted that certain rabbis persuaded Paul to deliberately misguide early Christians by introducing what Ibn Hazm viewed as objectionable doctrines into Christianity.

According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi in his book The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, the legal restrictions Jesus abrogated for Jews were those initially legislated by God as a punishment. Classical commentaries such as specify they pertained to the consumption of fish and bird meat without spikes, or in general.

Disciples
The Quran states that Jesus was aided by a group of disciples who believed in his message. While not naming the disciples, the Quran does give a few instances of Jesus preaching the message to them. Muslims view the disciples of Jesus as identical to the companions of Muhammad. According to Christianity, the names of the twelve disciples were Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James, Jude, Simon, and Judas.

The Quran mentions in chapter 3, verses 52–53, that the disciples submitted to the faith of Islam: "When Jesus sensed disbelief from his people, he asked, “Who will stand up with me for Allah?” The disciples replied, “We will stand up for Allah. We believe in Allah, so bear witness that we have submitted.” ˹They prayed to Allah,˺ “Our Lord! We believe in Your revelations and follow the messenger, so count us among those who bear witness.”"

The longest narrative involving Jesus' disciples is when Jesus performs the miracle of bringing a table of food from heaven at their request, for further proof that his preaching is the true message.

Ascension
is the primary verse of the Quran to refer to the event of Jesus' crucifixion. It says that Jesus was not killed and neither crucified, but "it was made to appear to them":

Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died on the cross or otherwise.

According to the Quran, he was not crucified, but was rather saved by God. (Although the earliest Islamic traditions and exegesis quote somewhat conflicting reports regarding a death and its length, Muslims believe that Jesus did not die on the cross, but believe that he was saved by being raised alive to heaven).

Substitution
It is unclear exactly where the substitution interpretation originated, but some scholars consider the theory originating among certain Gnostic groups of the second century. Leirvik finds the Quran and Hadith to have been clearly influenced by the non-canonical ('heretical') Christianity that prevailed in the Arab peninsula and further in Abyssinia.

While most scholars, Jews, and Christians believe Jesus died, orthodox Muslim theology teaches he ascended to Heaven without being put on the cross and God transformed another person, Simon of Cyrene, to appear exactly like Jesus who was crucified instead of Jesus (cf. Irenaeus' description of the heresy of Basilides, Book I, ch. XXIV, 4.).

Some disagreement and discord can be seen beginning with Ibn Ishaq's (d. 761) report of a brief accounting of events leading up to the crucifixion, firstly stating that Jesus was replaced by someone named Sergius, while secondly reporting an account of Jesus' tomb being located at Medina, and thirdly citing the places in the Quran that God took Jesus up to himself.

Michael Cook notes that denial that Jesus died follows the Christian heresy of docetism, who were "disturbed by that God should have died", but that this concern conflicts with another Islamic doctrine, that Jesus was a man, not God. According to Todd Lawson, Quranic commentators seem to have concluded the denial of the crucifixion of Jesus by following material interpreted in Tafsir that relied upon extra-biblical Judeo-Christian sources, with the earliest textual evidence having originated from a non-Muslim source – a misreading of the Christian writings of John of Damascus regarding the literal understandings of docetism (exegetical doctrine describing spiritual and physical realities of Jesus as understood by men in logical terms) as opposed to their figurative explanations. John of Damascus highlighted the Quran's assertion that the Jews did not crucify Jesus being very different from saying that Jesus was not crucified, explaining that it is the varied Quranic exegetes in Tafsir, and not the Quran itself, that denies the crucifixion, further stating that the message in the verse simply affirms the historicity of the event.

Symbolic interpretations
Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (d. 958), Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi (d. 935), Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani (d. 971), Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1078) and the group Ikhwan al-Safa also affirm the historicity of the Crucifixion, reporting Jesus was crucified and not substituted by another man as maintained by many other popular Quranic commentators and Tafsir. More recently, Mahmoud M. Ayoub, a professor and scholar, provided a more symbolic interpretation for Surah 4 Verse 157: "The Quran, as we have already argued, does not deny the death of Christ. Rather, it challenges human beings who in their folly have deluded themselves into believing that they would vanquish the divine Word, Jesus Christ the Messenger of God. The death of Jesus is asserted several times and in various contexts."

Ayoub, instead of interpreting the passage as a denial of the death of Jesus, instead believes the passage is about God denying men the power to vanquish and destroy God's message. The words "but they killed him not, nor crucified him" are meant to show that any power humans believe that they have against God is illusory.

Some Sunni Islamic exegesists, such as the anti-Christian polemicist Muhammad Rashid Rida, held an ambiguous stance on the matter, namely that the crucifixion and ascension of Jesus were allegorical, but with extreme precaution, in order to rebut Christian doctrines on crucifixion and salvation. Comprehensively denouncing Christian doctrines on salvation, atonement and crucifixion as irrational and (disbelief) in his, Rida also denounced the Jews for their killings of the Prophets of God, writing:

"The actual fact of the crucifixion is not itself a matter which the Book of God seeks to affirm or deny, except for the purpose of asserting the killing of prophets by the Jews unjustly, and reproaching them for that act;... that the Creator of the universe could be incarnated in the womb of a woman in this earth which, in comparison to the rest of His creation, is like an atom, and then be a human being eating and drinking, experiencing fatigue and suffering other hardships like the rest of mankind. Then His enemies would level at Him insults and pain, and finally crucify Him with thieves and declare Him cursed according to the Book He revealed to one of His apostles, exalted be He over all this! ... We say rather no one believes it because belief is the affirmation by reason of something that it can apprehend;... The claim of the people of the Cross, therefore, that clemency and forgiveness are opposed to justice, is unacceptable."

An early interpretation of verse 3:55 (specifically "I will cause you to die and raise you to myself"), Al-Tabari (d. 923), records an interpretation attributed to Ibn 'Abbas, who used the literal "I will cause you to die" in place of the metaphorical  ('Jesus died'), while Wahb ibn Munabbih, an early Jewish convert, is reported to have said "God caused Jesus, son of Mary, to die for three hours during the day, then took him up to himself." Tabari further transmits from Ibn Ishaq: "God caused Jesus to die for seven hours", while at another place reported that a person called Sergius was crucified in place of Jesus. Ibn-al-Athir forwarded the report that it was Judas, the betrayer, while also mentioning the possibility it was a man named Natlianus.

In reference to the Quranic quote "We have surely killed Jesus the Christ, son of Mary, the apostle of God", Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub asserts this boast not as the repeating of a historical lie or the perpetuating of a false report, but an example of human arrogance and folly with an attitude of contempt towards God and his messenger(s). Ayoub furthers what modern scholars of Islam interpret regarding the historical death of Jesus, the man, as man's inability to kill off God's Word and the Spirit of God, which the Quran testifies were embodied in Jesus Christ. Ayoub continues highlighting the denial of the killing of Jesus as God denying men such power to vanquish and destroy the divine Word. The words, "they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him" speaks to the profound events of ephemeral human history, exposing mankind's heart and conscience towards God's will. The claim of humanity to have this power against God is illusory. "They did not slay him... but it seemed so to them" speaks to the imaginations of mankind, not the denial of the actual event of Jesus dying physically on the cross.

Another report from Ibn Kathir quotes Ishaq Ibn Bishr, on authority of Idris, on authority of Wahb ibn Munabbih, that "God caused him to die for three days, then resurrected him, then raised him."

Al-Masudi (d. 956) reported the death of Christ under Tiberius.

Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) follows traditions which suggest that a crucifixion did occur, but not with Jesus. After the event, Ibn Kathir reports the people were divided into three groups following three different narratives; The Jacobites believing "God remained with us as long as He willed and then He ascended to Heaven"; the Nestorians believing "The son of God was with us as long as he willed until God raised him to heaven"; and the Muslims believing "The servant and messenger of God, Jesus, remained with us as long as God willed until God raised him to Himself."

Islamic reformer Muhammad Rashid Rida agrees with contemporary commentators interpreting the physical killing of Christ's apostleship as a metaphorical interpretation.

Modern Islamic scholars like Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i interpret the ascension of Jesus as spiritual, not physical. This interpretation is in accord with Muʿtazila and Shia metaphorical explanations regarding anthropomorphic references to God in the Quran. Although not popular with traditional Sunni interpretations of the depiction of crucifixion, there has been much speculation and discussion in the effort of logically reconciling this topic.

In ascetic Shia writings, Jesus is depicted having "ascended to heaven wearing a woolen shirt, spun and sewed by Mary, his mother. As he reached the heavenly regions, he was addressed, 'O Jesus, cast away from you the adornment of the world. After his ascension, his word is believed to have been altered.

Second Coming
According to Islamic tradition, having ascended to heaven and dwelled there for 2000+ years, Jesus will descend to earth shortly before Judgement Day, in the midst of wars fought against al-Masih ad-Dajjal ('The False Messiah") and his followers, to come to the aid of the Mahdi and his Muslim followers. Dressed in saffron robes with his head anointed, Jesus will descend at the point of a white minaret, in eastern Damascus, which is believed to be the Minaret of Isa in the Umayyad Mosque. He will then greet the Mahdi and (being a Muslim) pray beside him. Eventually, Jesus will slay the Dajjal at Lod.

Afterwards, he will "break the cross, kill the pigs, and abolish the Jizya tax", according to a well-known Sahih al-Bukhari hadith. "The usual interpretation" of this prophecy is that, being a Muslim, Jesus will put a stop to Christian worship of himself and in belief in his divinity, "symbolized by the cross". He will re-establish the Kosher/Halal dietary laws abandoned by Christianity; and because Jews and Christians will now all reject their former faith and accept Islam, there will be no more need for the tax on unbelievers. (According to one hadith, Jesus will "destroy the churches and temples and kill the Christians unless they believe in him.")

Islamic texts also allude to the reappearance of the ancient menace Gog and Magog, which will break out of its underground confinement and cause havoc around the world. God, in response to Jesus' prayers, will kill them by sending a type of worm in the napes of their necks, and send large birds to carry and clear their corpses from the land. After the death of the Mahdi, Jesus will assume world leadership and peace and justice will be universal.

Also according to tradition, Jesus will then marry, have children, and rule the world for forty years (traditions give many different time periods) after which he will die. Some Muslims believe that the Muslims will then perform the funeral prayer for him and then bury him at the Green Dome in the city of Medina in a grave left vacant beside Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Umar respectively. According to Ibn Khaldun's legend, the two caliphs will rise from the dead between the two prophets.

Islamic theology
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Jesus is described by various means in the Quran. The most common reference to Jesus occurs in the form of ('son of Mary'), sometimes preceded with another title. Jesus is also recognized as a ('prophet') and  ('messenger') of God. The terms ('servant of God'),  ('worthy of esteem in this world and the next') and  ('blessed', or 'a source of benefit for others') are all used in reference to him. According to Islam, Jesus never claimed to be divine.

Islam sees Jesus as human, sent as the last prophet of Israel to Jews with the Gospel scripture, affirming but modifying the Mosaic Law. Mainstream Islamic traditions have rejected any divine notions of Jesus being God, or begotten Son of God, or the Trinity. Popular theology teaches such beliefs constitute (the "association" of partners with God) and thereby a rejection of his divine oneness  as the sole unpardonable sin.

A widespread polemic directed to these doctrinal origins are ascribed to Paul the Apostle, regarded by some Muslims as a heretic, as well as an evolution across the Greco-Roman world causing pagan influences to corrupt God's revelation. The theological absence of original sin in Islam renders the Christian concepts of atonement and redemption as redundant. Jesus simply conforms to the prophetic mission of his predecessors.

Jesus is understood to have preached salvation through submission to God's will and worshipping God alone. The Quran states that Jesus will ultimately deny claiming divinity in. Thus, he is considered to have been a Muslim by the religious definition of the term (i.e., one who submits to God's will), as understood in Islam regarding all other prophets that preceded him. A frequent title of Jesus mentioned is, which translates to 'the Messiah', as well as 'Christ'. Although the Quran is silent on its significance, scholars disagree with the Christian concepts of the term, and lean towards a Jewish understanding. Muslim exegetes explain the use of the word in the Quran as referring to Jesus' status as the one anointed by means of blessings and honors; or as the one who helped cure the sick, by anointing the eyes of the blind, for example.

Jesus also holds a description as both a word from God and a soul. The interpretation behind Jesus as a spirit from God, is seen as his human soul. Some Muslim scholars occasionally see the spirit as the archangel Gabriel, but majority consider the spirit to be Jesus himself.

Jesus is mentioned about 187 times in the Quran, directly and indirectly, and also referred to by many titles, the most common being ('the Messiah'). Jesus is referred to 25 times by the name Isa, 48 times in the third-person, 35 times in the first-person, and is mentioned the remaining times by various titles in the Quran.

Muhammad described himself as the "nearest of all people to Jesus".

Similitude with Adam
The Quran emphasizes the creationism of Jesus, through his similitude with Adam in regards to the absence of human origin. Muhammad often used to compare the births of Adam and Jesus.

Islamic exegesis extrapolates a logical inconsistency behind the Christian argument of divine intervention, as such implications would have ascribed divinity to Adam who is understood only as creation.

Precursor to Muhammad
In Islam, Jesus is believed to have been the precursor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to the Quran, the coming of Muhammad was predicted by Jesus in. Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus. Muslims believe that Jesus was a precursor to Muhammad, and that he prophesied the latter's coming. This perspective is based on a verse of the Quran wherein Jesus speaks of a messenger to appear after him named "Ahmad". Islam associates Ahmad with Muhammad, both words deriving from the h-m-d triconsonantal root which refers to praiseworthiness. Muslims assert that evidence of Jesus' pronouncement is present in the New Testament, citing the mention of the Paraclete whose coming is foretold in the Gospel of John.

Muslim commentators claim that the original Greek word used was, meaning 'famed', 'illustrious', or 'praiseworthy'—rendered in Arabic as ; and that this was replaced by Christians with. This idea is debated, asking if the traditional understanding is supported by the text of the Quran.

Islamic theology claims Jesus had foretold another prophet succeeding him according to Sura 61:6, with the mention of the name 'Ahmad'. (Ahmad is an Arabic name from the same triconsonantal root Ḥ-M-D = [ح – م – د].) In responding to Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad, the Sirat Rasul Allah, Islamic scholar Alfred Guillaume wrote:

"Coming back to the term 'Ahmad', Muslims have suggested that Ahmad is the translation of periklutos, celebrated or the Praised One, which is a corruption of parakletos, the Paraclete of John XIV, XV and XVI."

Messianism
An alternative, more esoteric, interpretation is expounded by Messianic Muslims in the Sufi and Isma'ili traditions so as to unite Islam, Christianity and Judaism into a single religious continuum. Other Messianic Muslims hold a similar theological view regarding Jesus, without attempting to unite the religions. Making use of the New Testament's distinguishing between Jesus, Son of Man (being the physical human Jesus), and Christ, Son of God (being the Holy Spirit of God residing in the body of Jesus), the Holy Spirit, being immortal and immaterial, is not subject to crucifixion – for it can never die, nor can it be touched by the earthly nails of the crucifixion, for it is a being of pure spirit. Thus, while the spirit of Christ avoided crucifixion by ascending unto God, the body that was Jesus was sacrificed on the cross, thereby bringing the Old Testament to final fulfillment. Thus Quranic passages on the death of Jesus affirm that while the Pharisees intended to destroy Jesus completely, they, in fact, succeeded only in killing the Son of Man, being his ('material being'). Meanwhile, the Son of God, being his ('spiritual being') remained alive and undying – because it is the Holy Spirit.

Islamic literature
The Quran does not convey the specific teachings of Jesus. What has developed over the years was authored by later followers of Islam. What is found in the Quran about Jesus is that his teaching conformed to the prophetic model: a human sent by God to present both a judgment upon humanity for worshipping idols and a challenge to turn to the one true God. In the case of Jesus, Muslims believe that his mission was to the people of Israel and that his status as a prophet was confirmed by numerous miracles. The Quran's description of specific events at the end of Jesus' life have continued to be controversial between Christians and Muslims, while the classical commentaries have been interpreted differently to accommodate new information. Jesus is written about by some Muslim scholars as the perfect man.

Hadith
The Hadiths are reported sayings of Muhammad that developed a canonical status in the third Muslim century as a source of authority for the Muslim community. The Muslim perception of Jesus emerging from the Hadiths is of a miraculous, sinless, and eschatological figure, pointing people, again according to the Muslim's perspective of prophethood, to the Muslim faith (Muslim; one who submits to the will of God).

Jesus is featured as a major figure in two categories of hadiths which can be described as apocalyptic and biblical. The eschatological role of Jesus in the hadiths may have been influenced by ideas of the Second coming held by the Eastern Churches, as well as the Quranic Jesus mentioned in. Many of the hadiths which feature Jesus's sayings were not included in the canonical hadith collections, which became more focused on the sayings of Muhammad, but were instead included in a separate genre known as ('Stories of the Prophets').

Sunni Islam
In, al-Shahrastani (d. 1153), an influential Persian historian, historiographer, scholar, philosopher and theologian, records a portrayal of Jesus very close to the orthodox tenets while continuing the Islamic narrative:

"The Christians. (They are) the community of the Christ, Jesus, son of Mary (peace upon him). He is who was truly sent (as prophet; ) after Moses (peace upon him), and who was announced in the Torah. To him were (granted) manifest signs and notable evidences, such as the reviving of the dead and the curing of the blind and the leper. His very nature and innate disposition are a perfect sign of his truthfulness; that is, his coming without previous seed and his speaking without prior teaching. For all the (other) prophets the arrival of their revelation was at (the age of) forty years, but revelation came to him when he was made to speak in the cradle, and revelation came to him when he conveyed (the divine message) at (the age of) thirty. The duration of his (prophetic) mission  was three years and three months and three days."

Shia Islam
In the Nahj al-Balagha, the fourth caliph Ali ((r. 656 – 661)) is reported to have talked about the simplicity of Jesus. Ali says that "Jesus used a stone for his pillow, put on coarse clothes and ate rough food. His condiment was hunger. His lamp at night was the moon. He had no wife to allure him, nor any son to give grief, neither wealth to deviate. His two feet were his conveyance and his two hands were his servant". According to Ja'far al-Sadiq, a great-great-grandson of Ali, the time between David and Jesus was four hundred years. Ja'far further says that the religion of Jesus was monotheism and purity. The (Gospel) was sent down to him and the pledge that other prophets took was also taken from Jesus: to establish prayer with religion, enjoin the good and forbid the evil, allowing what is allowed and forbidding what has been forbidden. Admonitions and parables were sent down to him in the, but there was no law of retribution in it nor precepts of retribution , and no obligations for inheritance. He was sent what was an alleviation of what was sent down to Moses in the Torah. Jesus commanded of his followers that they believe in the law of the Torah and the.

According to Qadi al-Nu'man, a famous Muslim jurist of the Fatimid period, Jesus is referred to as the Messiah in the Quran because he was sent to the people who responded to him in order to remove  their impurities, the ailments of their faith; whether apparent  or hidden. Qadi al- Nu'man, in his work Foundation of Symbolic Interpretation, talks about the spiritual birth of Jesus, as an interpretation of his story of physical birth  mentioned in the Quran. He says that Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a metaphor for someone who nurtured and instructed Jesus, rather than physically giving birth to him. Qadi al-Nu'man explains that Jesus was from the pure progeny of Abraham, just as Ali and his sons were from the pure progeny of Muhammad, through Fatima.

Sufism
Early Sufis adopted the sayings of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount and an ascetic dimension. The submission and sacrifice Jesus exemplified shows the Muslim is to be set apart from worldly compromises. In poetry and mysticism, Jesus was celebrated as a prophet close to the heart of God achieving an uncommon degree of self-denial.

Although the writings developed over the centuries embellished Jesus' miracles, the lessons of Jesus can be seen as metaphors of the inner life. These rich and diverse presentations of Jesus in Sufi traditions are the largest body of Jesus-texts in any non-Christian tradition.

"A key issue arises for Muslims with the Sufi picture of Jesus: how universally should the ascetic/esoteric approach be applied? For many Muslim poets and scholars the answer is clear: every Muslim is invited to the path of asceticism and inner realization embodied by Jesus. However, whilst all Muslims revere Jesus, most have reservations about the application of his way of life to society. For Muslims the highest pinnacle of human achievement is, after all, Muhammad. Muhammad is revered in part because he promoted the right blend of justice and mercy. In other words, Muslims need both a path that addresses individual spirituality as well as a path that will address the complex issues of community life, law, justice, etc. Jesus is viewed by many Muslims as having lived out only one side of this equation. As a figure of the heart or individual conscience, Jesus is viewed by some to be a limited figure. In more critical Muslim perspectives the Sermon on the Mount is admired but seen as impractical for human society. Perhaps the greatest division amongst Muslims has to do with the relevance of ascetic and esoteric beliefs in the context of strengthening an Islamic society."

The miraculous birth and life of Jesus becomes a metaphor for Rumi of the spiritual rebirth that is possible within each human soul. This rebirth is not achieved without effort; one needs to practice silence, poverty, and fasting—themes that were prominent in Jesus' life according to Islamic traditions.

Ibn Arabi stated Jesus was Al-Insān al-Kāmil, the spirit and simultaneously a servant of God. Jesus is held to be "one with God" in whole coincidence of will, not as a being. Due to the spirit of God dwelling in Jesus, God spoke and acted through him. Yet Jesus is not considered to be God, but a person within God's word and spirit and a manifestation of God's attributes, like a mirror, a view resembling Nestorian traditions.

The conception of Jesus as described by Ibn Arabi (d. 1240), an Andalusian scholar, Sufi mystic, poet and philosopher, in the Bezels of Wisdom:

Ascetic literature
Jesus is widely venerated in Muslim ascetic and mystic literature, such as in Muslim mystic Al-Ghazali's ('The revival of the religious sciences'). These works lay stress upon Jesus' poverty, his preoccupation with worship, his detachment from worldly life and his miracles. Such depictions also include advice and sermons which are attributed to him. Later Sufic commentaries adapted material from Christian gospels which were consistent with their ascetic portrayal. Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi described Jesus as "the seal of universal holiness" due to the quality of his faith and "because he holds in his hands the keys of living breath and because he is at present in a state of deprivation and journeying".

Ahmadiyya literature
The Ahmadiyya movement considers Jesus was a prophet and a mortal man, who was crucified and remained on the cross for six hours, until darkness fell. Jesus was taken down from the cross alive and unconscious. He was treated for three days and nights by saint physician Necdemus in a cave like tomb (especially built for Joseph of Arimathea). Thereafter, Jesus recuperated from his wounds, met his trusted disciples on the Mount of Olives, and left Judea towards the sea of Galilee on his way to Damascus. After his dramatic escape from crucifixion, Jesus traveled to the eastern lands in search of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Finally, he died a natural death in Kashmir, India, as opposed to having been raised up alive to Heaven.

Appearance
Based upon several Hadith narrations of Muhammad, Jesus can be physically described thus (with any differences in Jesus' physical description being due to Muhammad describing him when seeing him at different occasions, such as during his ascension to Heaven, or when describing Jesus during Jesus' second coming):
 * A well-built man of medium/moderate/average height and stature with a broad chest.
 * Straight, lank, and long hair that fell between his shoulders. It seems as though water is dribbling from his head, though it is not wet.

title: Jesus in Islam


text:
Hawking radiation

Hawking radiation is the theoretical thermal black-body radiation released outside a black hole's event horizon. This is counterintuitive because once ordinary electromagnetic radiation is inside the event horizon, it cannot escape. It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking, who developed a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974. Hawking radiation is predicted to be extremely faint and is many orders of magnitude below the current best telescopes' detecting ability.

Hawking radiation reduces the mass and rotational energy of black holes and is therefore also theorized to cause black hole evaporation. Because of this, black holes that do not gain mass through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish.

For all except the smallest black holes, this happens extremely slowly. The radiation temperature is inversely proportional to the black hole's mass, so micro black holes are predicted to be larger emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should dissipate faster per their mass. As such, if small black holes exist such as permitted by the hypothesis of primordial black holes, they ought to die the fastest the smaller they shrink, leading to a final cataclysm of high energy radiation alone. Such radiation bursts have not yet been detected.

Overview
Modern black holes were first predicted by Einstein's 1915 theory of general relativity. Evidence for the astrophysical objects termed black holes began to mount half a century later, and these objects are of current interest primarily because of their compact size and immense gravitational attraction. Early research into black holes were done by individuals such as Karl Schwarzschild and John Wheeler who modeled black holes as having zero entropy.

A black hole can form when enough matter or energy is compressed into a volume small enough that the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. Nothing can travel that fast, so nothing within a certain distance, proportional to the mass of the black hole, can escape beyond that distance. The region beyond which not even light can escape is the event horizon; an observer outside it cannot observe, become aware of, or be affected by events within the event horizon.

Alternatively, using a set of infalling coordinates in general relativity, one can conceptualize the event horizon as the region beyond which space is infalling faster than the speed of light. (Although nothing can travel through space faster than light, space itself can infall at any speed.) Once matter is inside the event horizon, all of the matter inside falls inevitably into a gravitational singularity, a place of infinite curvature and zero size, leaving behind a warped spacetime devoid of any matter; a classical black hole is pure empty spacetime, and the simplest (nonrotating and uncharged) is characterized just by its mass and event horizon.

Our current understanding of quantum physics can be used to investigate what may happen in the region around the event horizon. In 1974, British physicist Stephen Hawking used quantum field theory in curved spacetime to show that in theory, instead of cancelling each other out normally, the antimatter and matter fields were disrupted by the black hole, causing antimatter and matter particles to "blip" into existence as a result of the imbalanced matter fields, and drawing energy from the disruptor itself: the black holes (to escape), effectively draining energy from the black hole. In addition, not all of the particles were close to the event horizon, and the ones that were could not escape. In effect, this energy acted as if the black hole itself was slowly evaporating (although it actually came from outside it).

However, according to the conjectured gauge-gravity duality (also known as the AdS/CFT correspondence), black holes in certain cases (and perhaps in general) are equivalent to solutions of quantum field theory at a non-zero temperature. This means that no information loss is expected in black holes (since the theory permits no such loss) and the radiation emitted by a black hole is probably the usual thermal radiation. If this is correct, then Hawking's original calculation should be corrected, though it is not known how (see below).

A black hole of one solar mass has a temperature of only 60 nanokelvins (60 billionths of a kelvin); in fact, such a black hole would absorb far more cosmic microwave background radiation than it emits. A black hole of $4.5 kg$ (about the mass of the Moon, or about $133 um$ across) would be in equilibrium at 2.7 K, absorbing as much radiation as it emits.

Formulation
In 1972, Jacob Bekenstein developed a theory and reported that the black holes should have an entropy. Bekenstein's theory and report came to Stephen Hawking's attention, leading him to think about radiation due to this formalism. Hawking's subsequent theory and report followed a visit to Moscow in 1973, where Soviet scientists Yakov Zeldovich and Alexei Starobinsky convinced him that rotating black holes ought to create and emit particles. Hawking would find aspects of both of these arguments true once he did the calculation himself. Due to Bekenstein's contribution to black hole entropy, it is also known as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation.

Emission process
Hawking radiation is dependent on the Unruh effect and the equivalence principle applied to black-hole horizons. Close to the event horizon of a black hole, a local observer must accelerate to keep from falling in. An accelerating observer sees a thermal bath of particles that pop out of the local acceleration horizon, turn around, and free-fall back in. The condition of local thermal equilibrium implies that the consistent extension of this local thermal bath has a finite temperature at infinity, which implies that some of these particles emitted by the horizon are not reabsorbed and become outgoing Hawking radiation.

A Schwarzschild black hole has a metric
 * $$(\mathrm{d}s)^2 = -\left(1 - \frac{2M}{r}\right)\,(\mathrm{d}t)^2 + \frac{1}{\left(1 - \frac{2M}{r}\right)} \,(\mathrm{d}r)^2 + r^2\,(\mathrm{d}\Omega)^2.$$

The black hole is the background spacetime for a quantum field theory.

The field theory is defined by a local path integral, so if the boundary conditions at the horizon are determined, the state of the field outside will be specified. To find the appropriate boundary conditions, consider a stationary observer just outside the horizon at position
 * $$r = 2M + \frac{\rho^2}{8M}.$$

The local metric to lowest order is
 * $$(\mathrm{d}s)^2 = -\left(\frac{\rho}{4M}\right)^2 \,(\mathrm{d}t)^2 + (\mathrm{d}\rho)^2 + (\mathrm{d}X_\perp)^2 = -\rho^2 \,(\mathrm{d}\tau)^2 + (\mathrm{d}\rho)^2 + (\mathrm{d}X_\perp)^2,$$

which is Rindler in terms of $τ = t⁄4M$. The metric describes a frame that is accelerating to keep from falling into the black hole. The local acceleration, $α = 1⁄ρ$, diverges as $ρ → 0$.

The horizon is not a special boundary, and objects can fall in. So the local observer should feel accelerated in ordinary Minkowski space by the principle of equivalence. The near-horizon observer must see the field excited at a local temperature
 * $$T = \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} = \frac{1}{2\pi\rho} = \frac{1}{4\pi\sqrt{2Mr\left(1 - \frac{2M}{r}\right)}},$$

which is the Unruh effect.

The gravitational redshift is given by the square root of the time component of the metric. So for the field theory state to consistently extend, there must be a thermal background everywhere with the local temperature redshift-matched to the near horizon temperature:

 * $$T(r') = \frac{1}{4\pi\sqrt{2Mr\left(1 - \frac{2M}{r}\right)}} \sqrt\frac{1 - \frac{2M}{r}}{1 - \frac{2M}{r'}} = \frac{1}{4\pi\sqrt{2Mr\left(1 - \frac{2M}{r'}\right)}}.$$

The inverse temperature redshifted to $r′$ at infinity is

 * $$T(\infty) = \frac{1}{4 \pi \sqrt{2 M r}},$$

and $r$ is the near-horizon position, near $2M$, so this is really

 * $$T(\infty) = \frac{1}{8 \pi M}.$$

Thus a field theory defined on a black-hole background is in a thermal state whose temperature at infinity is

 * $$T_\text{H} = \frac{1}{8 \pi M}.$$

From the black-hole temperature, it is straightforward to calculate the black-hole entropy $S$. The change in entropy when a quantity of heat $dQ$ is added is

 * $$\mathrm{d}S = \frac{\mathrm{d}Q}{T} = 8 \pi M \,\mathrm{d}Q.$$

The heat energy that enters serves to increase the total mass, so

 * $$\mathrm{d}S = 8 \pi M \,\mathrm{d}M = \mathrm{d}(4 \pi M^2).$$

The radius of a black hole is twice its mass in Planck units, so the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface area:

 * $$S = \pi R^2 = \frac{A}{4}.$$

Assuming that a small black hole has zero entropy, the integration constant is zero. Forming a black hole is the most efficient way to compress mass into a region, and this entropy is also a bound on the information content of any sphere in space time. The form of the result strongly suggests that the physical description of a gravitating theory can be somehow encoded onto a bounding surface.

Black hole evaporation
When particles escape, the black hole loses a small amount of its energy and therefore some of its mass (mass and energy are related by Einstein's equation $E = mc^{2}$). Consequently, an evaporating black hole will have a finite lifespan. By dimensional analysis, the life span of a black hole can be shown to scale as the cube of its initial mass, and Hawking estimated that any black hole formed in the early universe with a mass of less than approximately 1012 kg would have evaporated completely by the present day.

In 1976, Don Page refined this estimate by calculating the power produced, and the time to evaporation, for a non-rotating, non-charged Schwarzschild black hole of mass $M$. The time for the event horizon or entropy of a black hole to halve is known as the Page time. The calculations are complicated by the fact that a black hole, being of finite size, is not a perfect black body; the absorption cross section goes down in a complicated, spin-dependent manner as frequency decreases, especially when the wavelength becomes comparable to the size of the event horizon. Page concluded that primordial black holes could survive to the present day only if their initial mass were roughly $4 kg$ or larger. Writing in 1976, Page using the understanding of neutrinos at the time erroneously worked on the assumption that neutrinos have no mass and that only two neutrino flavors exist, and therefore his results of black hole lifetimes do not match the modern results which take into account 3 flavors of neutrinos with nonzero masses. A 2008 calculation using the particle content of the Standard Model and the WMAP figure for the age of the universe yielded a mass bound of $5 kg$.

Some pre-1998 calculations, using outdated assumptions about neutrinos, were as follows: If black holes evaporate under Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate over 1064 years which is vastly longer than the age of the universe. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 1011 (100 billion) will evaporate in around $2 years$. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 1014 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 2 × 10106 years. Post-1998 science modifies these results slightly; for example, the modern estimate of a solar-mass black hole lifetime is 1067 years.

The power emitted by a black hole in the form of Hawking radiation can be estimated for the simplest case of a nonrotating, non-charged Schwarzschild black hole of mass $M$. Combining the formulas for the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole, the Stefan–Boltzmann law of blackbody radiation, the above formula for the temperature of the radiation, and the formula for the surface area of a sphere (the black hole's event horizon), several equations can be derived.

The Hawking radiation temperature is:

 * $$T_\mathrm{H} = \frac{\hbar c^3}{8 \pi G M k_\mathrm{B}} $$

The Bekenstein–Hawking luminosity of a black hole, under the assumption of pure photon emission (i.e. that no other particles are emitted) and under the assumption that the horizon is the radiating surface is:

 * $$P = \frac{\hbar c^6}{15360 \pi G^2 M^2} $$

where $P$ is the luminosity, i.e., the radiated power, $ħ$ is the reduced Planck constant, $c$ is the speed of light, $G$ is the gravitational constant and $M$ is the mass of the black hole. It is worth mentioning that the above formula has not yet been derived in the framework of semiclassical gravity.

The time that the black hole takes to dissipate is:

 * $$t_\mathrm{ev} = \frac{5120 \pi G^2 M^3}{\hbar c^4} = \frac{480 c^2 V}{\hbar G} \approx 3.396 \times 10^{-16} \, \mathrm{s} \ \left( {M \over \mathrm{kg}} \right)^3 \approx 2.140\times10^{67}\,\text{years} \ \left(\frac{M}{M_\odot}\right)^3,$$

where $M$ and $V$ are the mass and (Schwarzschild) volume of the black hole. A black hole of one solar mass ($$ = $2 kg$) takes more than $years$ to evaporate—much longer than the current age of the universe at $1.4 years$. But for a black hole of $kg$, the evaporation time is $2.6 years$. This is why some astronomers are searching for signs of exploding primordial black holes.

However, since the universe contains the cosmic microwave background radiation, in order for the black hole to dissipate, the black hole must have a temperature greater than that of the present-day blackbody radiation of the universe of 2.7 K. A study suggests that $M$ must be less than 0.8% of the mass of the Earth – approximately the mass of the Moon.

Black hole evaporation has several significant consequences:
 * Black hole evaporation produces a more consistent view of black hole thermodynamics by showing how black holes interact thermally with the rest of the universe.
 * Unlike most objects, a black hole's temperature increases as it radiates away mass. The rate of temperature increase is exponential, with the most likely endpoint being the dissolution of the black hole in a violent burst of gamma rays. A complete description of this dissolution requires a model of quantum gravity, however, as it occurs when the black hole's mass approaches 1 Planck mass, its radius will also approach two Planck lengths.
 * The simplest models of black hole evaporation lead to the black hole information paradox. The information content of a black hole appears to be lost when it dissipates, as under these models the Hawking radiation is random (it has no relation to the original information). A number of solutions to this problem have been proposed, including suggestions that Hawking radiation is perturbed to contain the missing information, that the Hawking evaporation leaves some form of remnant particle containing the missing information, and that information is allowed to be lost under these conditions.

Trans-Planckian problem
The trans-Planckian problem is the issue that Hawking's original calculation includes quantum particles where the wavelength becomes shorter than the Planck length near the black hole's horizon. This is due to the peculiar behavior there, where time stops as measured from far away. A particle emitted from a black hole with a finite frequency, if traced back to the horizon, must have had an infinite frequency, and therefore a trans-Planckian wavelength.

The Unruh effect and the Hawking effect both talk about field modes in the superficially stationary spacetime that change frequency relative to other coordinates that are regular across the horizon. This is necessarily so, since to stay outside a horizon requires acceleration that constantly Doppler shifts the modes.

An outgoing photon of Hawking radiation, if the mode is traced back in time, has a frequency that diverges from that which it has at great distance, as it gets closer to the horizon, which requires the wavelength of the photon to "scrunch up" infinitely at the horizon of the black hole. In a maximally extended external Schwarzschild solution, that photon's frequency stays regular only if the mode is extended back into the past region where no observer can go. That region seems to be unobservable and is physically suspect, so Hawking used a black hole solution without a past region that forms at a finite time in the past. In that case, the source of all the outgoing photons can be identified: a microscopic point right at the moment that the black hole first formed.

The quantum fluctuations at that tiny point, in Hawking's original calculation, contain all the outgoing radiation. The modes that eventually contain the outgoing radiation at long times are redshifted by such a huge amount by their long sojourn next to the event horizon that they start off as modes with a wavelength much shorter than the Planck length. Since the laws of physics at such short distances are unknown, some find Hawking's original calculation unconvincing.

The trans-Planckian problem is nowadays mostly considered a mathematical artifact of horizon calculations. The same effect occurs for regular matter falling onto a white hole solution. Matter that falls on the white hole accumulates on it, but has no future region into which it can go. Tracing the future of this matter, it is compressed onto the final singular endpoint of the white hole evolution, into a trans-Planckian region. The reason for these types of divergences is that modes that end at the horizon from the point of view of outside coordinates are singular in frequency there. The only way to determine what happens classically is to extend in some other coordinates that cross the horizon.

There exist alternative physical pictures that give the Hawking radiation in which the trans-Planckian problem is addressed. The key point is that similar trans-Planckian problems occur when the modes occupied with Unruh radiation are traced back in time. In the Unruh effect, the magnitude of the temperature can be calculated from ordinary Minkowski field theory, and is not controversial.

Large extra dimensions
The formulas from the previous section are applicable only if the laws of gravity are approximately valid all the way down to the Planck scale. In particular, for black holes with masses below the Planck mass (~$kg$), they result in impossible lifetimes below the Planck time (~$s$). This is normally seen as an indication that the Planck mass is the lower limit on the mass of a black hole.

In a model with large extra dimensions (10 or 11), the values of Planck constants can be radically different, and the formulas for Hawking radiation have to be modified as well. In particular, the lifetime of a micro black hole with a radius below the scale of the extra dimensions is given by equation 9 in Cheung (2002) and equations 25 and 26 in Carr (2005).

 * $$\tau \sim \frac{1}{M_*} \left( \frac{M_\text{BH}}{M_*} \right)^\frac{n+3}{n+1}, $$

where $M_{∗}$ is the low-energy scale, which could be as low as a few TeV, and $n$ is the number of large extra dimensions. This formula is now consistent with black holes as light as a few TeV, with lifetimes on the order of the "new Planck time" ~$s$.

In loop quantum gravity
A detailed study of the quantum geometry of a black hole event horizon has been made using loop quantum gravity. Loop-quantization does not reproduce the result for black hole entropy originally discovered by Bekenstein and Hawking, unless the value of a free parameter is set to cancel out various constants such that the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy formula is reproduced. However, quantum gravitational corrections to the entropy and radiation of black holes have been computed based on the theory.

Based on the fluctuations of the horizon area, a quantum black hole exhibits deviations from the Hawking radiation spectrum that would be observable were X-rays from Hawking radiation of evaporating primordial black holes to be observed. The quantum effects are centered at a set of discrete and unblended frequencies highly pronounced on top of the Hawking spectrum.

Astronomical search
In June 2008, NASA launched the Fermi space telescope, which is searching for the terminal gamma-ray flashes expected from evaporating primordial black holes. As of Jan 1st, 2023, none have been detected.

Heavy-ion collider physics
If speculative large extra dimension theories are correct, then CERN's Large Hadron Collider may be able to create micro black holes and observe their evaporation. No such micro black hole has been observed at CERN.

Experimental
Under experimentally achievable conditions for gravitational systems, this effect is too small to be observed directly. It was predicted that Hawking radiation could be studied by analogy using sonic black holes, in which sound perturbations are analogous to light in a gravitational black hole and the flow of an approximately perfect fluid is analogous to gravity (see Analog models of gravity). Observations of Hawking radiation were reported, in sonic black holes employing Bose–Einstein condensates.

In September 2010 an experimental set-up created a laboratory "white hole event horizon" that the experimenters claimed was shown to radiate an optical analog to Hawking radiation. However, the results remain unverified and debatable, and its status as a genuine confirmation remains in doubt.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hawking radiation


text:
Talk:Bard College at Simon's Rock

School Name
There has recently been a renaming of the school by the administration, and it was announced by the Provost Mary Marcy. The school is now, apparently, named Bard College at Simon's Rock. However, this has not yet been made public to the... well... public. Should this be noted on wikipedia before any publice announcement, or just left as is for the time being even though it has been mentioned by the provost of the school? Retinarow 01:08, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Please do not move the page until an official announcement is made. I would also prefer that we not mention the change until it is officially announced and can be cited to something other than "Mary Marcy said so." Reporting it here would be a violation of several wikipedia policies (e.g. WP:V, WP:OR - the name change is not, at present, verifiable by reliable sources and constitutes original research. Furthermore is no need to cause confusion or to prempt the schools own PR operation. GabrielF 01:13, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

This is Wikipedia, not Rumorpedia. Before making a change like this, you need written sources that you can cite. That could be a newspaper article -- has the Eagle covered it yet? -- or an online source such as the college Web site. --FOo 05:06, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

Here's a reliable source (the school's own blog). I don't feel like editing the page now, but it's clearly confirmed at this point, for anyone who wants to edit the page. --Adam Atlas 14:58, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Simon's Rock will be transitioning to the new name throughout 2007, primarly during the summer between two academic years. As it stands, the college's name on all official correspondence has not changed; there is no reason for the wikipedia article to have moved yet. Further, I suggest that the article be named simply "Simon's Rock" (which is more historically accurate, represented by the official seal, etc) and all other past, present, and future names should redirect there. --Gruepig 07:28, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

 * "Simon's Rock" is probably the best name, considering that this article is about the entire history of the college and not just the possible future of the college. Currently, the "Bard College at Simon's Rock" name is vaporware -- it has been announced but not yet actually used. --FOo 03:53, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Origin of name "Simon's Rock" -- I'd like to see a footnote for the "neighborhood child" story. (Incidentally, when I was a student, I was told that the name was biblical in origin (Simon = St. Peter, Rock of St. Peter = the Church); I know there are a few other places in the Great Barrington area that have similar names with biblical resonances-- though I'm afraid I don't have a footnote for this myself. Mfulvio 14:49, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

 * That's from the Course Catalog, and I believe the story appears in some promotional material as well. Jesuschex 16:25, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

 * This makes some sense, since the facilities on upper campus (including Kellogg) belonged to the former seminary on that site (Rose Cottage?) (Incidentally historical records show that a Nancy Kellogg ran the seminary, which could explain why the former chapel is now named Kellogg Music Center) Cowbert 21:43, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

I was the one who moved the page to Bard College at Simon's Rock and made similar changes within the page itself. The official school site had been totally revamped as of 11:00 AM EST today to be BC@SR, and I changed the wiki it so that it would be in congruence with the independent school website. As of right now it seems that the school has gone back on the website change for the time being. What to do? 70.18.100.82 21:20, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Official rollover to the new name (i.e. "Bard College at Simon's Rock") is currently planned for August 1, 2007. 69.205.43.124 02:49, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

As of right now, the heading on the page at http://www.simons-rock.edu says "Simon's Rock College of Bard", but the street address at the bottom says "Simon's Rock of Bard College" and the copyright notice says "Bard College at Simon's Rock".

I think someone is playing silly buggers with the college Web site. :) --FOo 03:11, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

 * And today, the copyright notice says "Simon's Rock of Bard College". Still no sign of "Bard College at Simon's Rock".

 * As much as some folks may like the proposed new name, it is evidently not adopted yet, and it is inappropriate to move this article in advance of the adoption. Be patient. --FOo 17:25, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

I am pretty durn sure the name of the college when I got my B.A. in 1992 was Simon's Rock College, and therefore I am re-adding that as one of the names. —Preceding unsigned comment added by JoshNarins (talk • contribs) 21:58, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I am pretty sure that it was never "Simon's Rock College," but please provide a source if I'm wrong. This, in 1991, has it as "Simon's Rock College of Bard": Jesuschex (talk) 05:59, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I know it was SRC of B in 1990, when I got my AA, and that it had a different name in 1992, when I got my BA. My diplomas are in storage, however. JoshNarins (talk) 17:55, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

Expansion
I expanded the page a little, adding sections about the name and the history of the school. I'd ultimately like to make a section about the academics of the school, one about student life (no, not the office of student life, just what students do, clubs, the town, etc.), and clean up the "trivia" section (ultimately I'd like to remove that section in favor of incorporating it into other sections, like I did a little of). Of course, change things as you wish, 'cause that's what Wikipedia's about, eh? Jesuschex 01:01, 17 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Oh, and can anyone get photos on the page? I'd put some in, but I'm by no means a photographer. Jesuschex 01:03, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

If you check the SRC livejournal there is a post of canpus pictures72.166.213.81 04:39, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

SRC Userboxes
Dear Fellow Rockers,

I have revamped the userbox for SRC. You can view it at:. If you add this to your user page, your user page will be placed in Category:Wikipedians by alma mater: Simon's Rock College of Bard. For instructions on how to add this userbox to your user page and more information see WP:Userboxes.

Share and enjoy, GabrielF 23:50, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

Bulding construction
Umm, i'm not quite sure of the actual dates, but i know for a fact that the science center was not completed until at least 1998, as opposed to 1996 as the article currently states. I entered SRC as a student in the Fall of 1997 and construction had just begun on the Fisher Science Center. Likewise, the athletic center was also completed at a later date,but i am unsure as to exactly when. If someone who feelsa little more motivated to maintain the accuracy of Wikipedia, they may want to go back and re-check their research. Thanks.

 * Construction of the Fisher Science Center began in March 1997 and it opened for classes in January of 1998. --FOo 20:19, 30 September 2006 (UTC)

Name change non-starter
Although the supposed name change was announced several months ago, it has not happened yet. The college continues to send out mailings in the names "Simon's Rock College of Bard", "Simon's Rock College", and "Simon's Rock", still uses these names on its Web site, and is still commonly known by these names.

I suggest that the page move was substantially premature. What was announced was not that the college has changed its name, but that it plans to change its name in the future. The name change has not happened yet, as evidenced by the continuing use of the "Simon's Rock College".

In other words, by moving the article to "Bard College at Simon's Rock", we have mistaken an engagement for a marriage. --FOo 06:04, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I disagree. When the change was announced, it was, in fact, announced that the change would technically go into full effect during the summer of 2007. However, it was added that it would be a slow process, and that various things would start changing as soon as the announcement went out. So, the name of the Wikipedia article could have changed this summer, yes. But it could also have changed at any time between the announcement of the change and this summer. It's much more like we've taken an engagement to mean that from now on, the two people involved will spend the rest of their lives together, which is implied in an engagement. Just, the marriage itself hasn't technically happened yet. Jesuschex 18:08, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

 * The marriage hasn't technically happened yet. Precisely. So it is incorrect for an encyclopedia article to refer to the college as Mr. and Mrs. Bard College At Simon's Rock.

 * To be quite honest, there is a general conflict or tension in many Wikipedia articles between representation of this year's version of something, and representing the history of it. However, in this case, naming the article as it is means taking next year's version as more credible than the current usage. --FOo 08:23, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

 * If you really want to be pedantic, you might say that the marriage analogy is technically incorrect, as according to legal documentation, there hasn't been a legal entity called Simon's Rock anything since 1984. The school is registered in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as a foreign corporation of Bard College, and has been, since 1984. I'm not sure what analogy would be used to represent commercial tradenames (since basically, that is what the phrase "Simon's Rock" is currently). Cowbert 22:48, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

"Notable" Alumni and Faculty
Please be sure that persons you list in this section satisfy the WP Notability guidelines. Cowbert 22:53, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Bill Scannell
I'd like to understand why GabrielF finds Bill Scannell not to be notable. A quick Google search reveals several links that I would contend establish notability: Wired: Privacy Activist Takes on Delta, Wired: The Man Who Helped Kill CAPPS II, NPR: High-Tech Passports Stir Privacy Concerns. Does this make him less notable than some guy who was in a bad "reality-TV" show? Does GabrielF have some personal agenda for excluding Scannell? -- DaveSeidel 15:26, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't like it when people use wikipedia for self-promotion. That's not what we're about. Having helped draft the policy in question, I'm not convinced that Scannell actually is notable as far as wikipedia is concerned, although I think its probably a judgment call. I'm honestly not sure if an article about him would survive an attempt at deletion. I'm not convinced that the Real World guy is notable either and I seriously considered removing him awhile ago but, at least in that case, the entry cites a specific event to tie his notability to. A reader will actually have a sense of who he is and could click on a link to learn more information. Its pretty trivial, but at least its informative. What does it mean to a reader that "civil rights activist" Bill Scannell went to SR? Nothing. If they haven't heard his name, and they probably haven't, than they aren't going to learn anything about him on wikipedia except his name and a nebulous description of his profession. I think Scannell is fighting the good fight, but I don't see any encyclopedic value to his listing himself on this page. GabrielF 17:46, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I understand your point about self-promotion, but how does that justify that fact that you reverted my restoration of the link? I'm not, and in fact don't even know him.  And how about the references I cited, are they just chopped liver? They certainly seem to establish notability to me. -- DaveSeidel 21:17, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I think the best thing to do is to list him as an alumni, but rather than just say that he's a civil rights activist, give a more precise one-sentence description of why he's notable and cite the Wired piece. GabrielF 22:47, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I think it is appropriate to mention Bill Scannell on this article However, the addition (or re-addition) of Bill should not be done by Bill, or someone acting on his behalf.  (For those unfamiliar with wikipedia policies,  WP:NOT would not be a bad place to start learning). -- Gruepig 01:03, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

GabrielF, please do not risk damaging your Wikipedia reputation by continuing this farce of removing Bill Scannel as a Notable. Do a search for "Bill Scannell" on Google. Either you are uninformed and are willfully remaining so, or you have an axe to grind. Either condition can be harmful to your future on Wikipedia after you are defeated while trying to defend such a weak position in a mediated argument. I don't care if purple primates from the planet pluto put Bill on the list, he belongs there, if it doesn't stay there, the issue will get mediated. Matt Burch 19:08, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * For what it is worth, Bill Scannell is one of the alumni the college officially lists as "notable" in the current admission literature. (SRC Fact Book, page 29). Like the original listing some time ago here on Wikipedia, that was not done at Mr. Scannell's request or prompting. In fact, I suspect Mr. Scannell is unaware that he is currently listed in the college's official literature in this regard. There are several other alumni listed as "notable" in the college's literature who wouldn't match Wikipedia's definition of that word; however, I would argue that there is enough to include Mr. Scannell here not only under Wikipedia's guidelines but also in the efforts of making a more complete entry for the college and to be more in line with the college's usual, published listings on which alumni are considered notable. -- rwf

 * I think we're getting a bit ahead of ourselves Matt. For a little perspective, I've been involved in disputes on wikipedia with neo-Nazis, conspiracy theorists of more varieties than I knew existed, and editors with axes to grnd about issues involving Iran, the Holocaust, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 9/11, etc. By comparison this is a triviality. Disagreements and reverts are a normal part of the process of building articles. If you don't like a change, the solution is to talk about it civilly on this page, assuming good faith, and talking about the merits of the edit, not the editor. Formal mediation never happens this early in a dispute and threatening it before even attempting to resolve it reasonable, especially when the conflict is over something so minor, is pointless. GabrielF 23:14, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * No, I was merely indicating that you had made an error, and were apparently not recognizing the error, even after DaveSiedel provided several links indicating Bill Scannell's activities in privacy politics. Errors aren't bad.  Everyone makes them. I have edited Bill Scannel's entry to include a link to a very short list of his accomplishments published when Bill was invited to speak at the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School.  Please indicate if this is in any way an unacceptable link to demonstrate Bill's noteworthiness, and indicate the reason why.  If the mentioned link is not wiki-acceptable, I will search through the 12100 Google links featuring Bill's name and select another, more wiki-friendly link.Matt Burch 08:54, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Note: User:Matt_Burch is a brand-new Wikipedia contributor, and as such probably doesn't know very much about how things are done here. He was probably attracted here by an off-wiki discussion of this article, seeing has he has not contributed to any other articles. Don't bite the newbies, even if they show up with teeth bared. --FOo 23:55, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I am in no way concerned about being "bitten". It's part of the learning process.Matt Burch 08:54, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

It isn't clear that this is self-promotion, although I did a whois on the IP address and got a location of Alaska, which I think is where Bill lives. Could be a fan of his. Can't say. In any event, it's not pleasant that that individual started violating WP:NPA in edit summaries, rather than citing sources -- such as the admissions literature .... --FOo 22:20, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

Bill Scannell is absolutely a notable figure, as the numerous citations above demonstrate. There's no doubt in my mind that he belongs on the list. -- User:RyanFreisling @ 12:59, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

I have returned Bill Scannel to the notables list. Matt Burch (talk) 00:48, 20 May 2009 (UTC)

Several Updates
I've added an Academics and Athletics section and MIGHT (but probably won't) add a facilities section soon. I have removed the trivia section and incorporated it into the two new sections already mentioned. I am still looking for a good place to put this tidbit: *In 2000, Simon's Rock was rated as the second most gay-friendly college in the United States by gay.com. A survey around that time showed that a full third of the students were not heterosexual. Bigo494 02:25, 9 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Maybe a "student life" sort of section, about what it's like to be a student at Simon's Rock. Perhaps the Events section could be incorporated into that, since it really shouldn't have its own section. Maybe Athletics could go in there too. Nice updated though. Jesuschex 05:09, 9 August 2007 (UTC)

Founding date
Massachusetts corporate filings show that Simon's Rock was founded Sept. 15, 1964. Yes, the first class didn't enter until 1966, but do you really think a school could be founded and have its first classes in the same year? I'd imagine those first two years were taken to build the campus and get it ready for students. But the founding was definitely in 1964. http://corp.sec.state.ma.us/corp/corpsearch/CorpSearchSummary.asp?ReadFromDB=True&UpdateAllowed=&FEIN=042326584 (If that link doesn't work, go to http://corp.sec.state.ma.us/corp/corpsearch/corpsearchinput.asp and search for it.)

The point is, don't change the founding year to 1966! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jesuschex (talk • contribs) 04:40, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

Environmental group
I have no personal knowledge of the school at all, but it seems unlikely to me that there is a group there called "Environmentally Conscience Students" as the article now states. Perhaps someone with better information could check that out. Tim Ross ·talk 20:15, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Shooting
I don't think "1992 Shooting" should need more lines than "Academics". Any other opinions? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.38.77.112 (talk) 07:11, 26 February 2008 (UTC)

Copyvio concern
I am concerned that a large part of the lede may have been copied from here, which has a copyright date of 1999. Might anyone be willing to help me sleuth this? Basket of Puppies 05:55, 2 November 2009 (UTC)
 * It is currently indeterminable whether or not the user from 64.63.222.137 at 15:49, 25 March 2003 that created the lead entry is the same or different from the person on e2 who wrote the text there. Cowbert (talk) 04:32, 13 November 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 one external links on Bard College at Simon's Rock. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added tag to http://www.simons-rock.edu/index.html/utilities/news-publications/challenges-of-success
 * Added tag to https://www.simons-rock.edu/inside/accreditation/inside/faculty/accreditation/Self-Study-07-Ch5-Sustain.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080830003706/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com:80/college/items/9645 to http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/items/9645
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070710142234/http://www.simons-rock.edu:80/academics/fields-of-study to http://simons-rock.edu/academics/fields-of-study

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Please check for promotional content
This article has excessive promotional content, starting from the very beginning. Out-of-date rankings are used and are very different from today's reality. Many claims do not appear to have any source at all. I would recommend taking a fresh look at this article so it is grounded in evidence instead of misleading readers into thinking that a tier 2 (bordering tier 3) school is one of the best in the nation. 2600:6C5E:1680:23C5:0:832C:7318:6966 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 04:31, 20 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bard College at Simon's Rock


text:
Salvador Sánchez vs. Wilfredo Gómez

The Battle of the Little Giants was a 1981 boxing event with a deep social impact.

Fought on August 21, 1981, at the Caesars Palace hotel on the Las Vegas Strip, it pitted Wilfredo Gómez, a Puerto Rican who had a record of 32 wins, 0 losses, 1 draw, and all his wins by knockout, and who was the world's Jr. Featherweight champion, against the lesser known Salvador Sánchez, who hailed from Mexico with a record of 40 wins, 1 loss, 1 draw, and 30 wins by knockout. Salvador Sanchez was defending his WBC world Featherweight crown.

Gómez was the strong favorite at the betting windows due to his knockout win streak of 32 fights in a row and Sánchez's relative obscurity. During the build-up to the fight, Gomez talked often of his intention to score an early knockout over Sanchez and the betting public seemed to be in agreement.

The fight was broadcast on closed-circuit television to all of the United States and through many Latin American countries. Sánchez began by surprising most fans and dropping Gómez 40 seconds into round one. Gómez got up but was battered around the ring by Sanchez for the remainder of the round, nearly going down again from an overhand right in Wilfredo's own corner. Gomez began to recover in round three and had his moments over the next three rounds, continually going forward and throwing combinations in an effort to turn the fight. However, Gómez's right eye started to swell by the third round and was nearly closed by the seventh. Sánchez started zeroing into that area and landed a number of hard punches that repeatedly rocked Gomez. In the seventh round, Gomez finally landed the combination he wanted, a right-left to the chin that partially lifted Sanchez off his feet; however, he was able to shake off the effects and move away from the corner without further trouble.

Round eight proved to be the final round. With Gómez almost blinded by his swollen eyes and the Mexican partisans shouting "Ole!" with every volley of punches, Sánchez landed a straight right hand that had Gomez teetering and badly hurt on the ropes, followed by a series of punches that almost sent Gómez off the ring. Although Gómez was able to beat the count, referee Carlos Padilla stepped in and stopped the fight, giving Sánchez an eighth-round technical knockout (TKO) win.

In Mexico, a new legend was born. Sánchez had, in their eyes, avenged the loss that Gómez had inflicted to Carlos Zarate some years before. He became recognized by many Mexicans and international fans as Mexico's greatest world champion ever, but that moment of glory was short lived, because almost a year after his fight with Gómez, on August 12, 1982, Sánchez was killed in a car accident. Soon, Julio César Chávez would replace him in the hearts of many Mexican boxing fans as their greatest fighter ever.

In Puerto Rico, it was a moment to mourn for most boxing fans. Many businesses and stores were closed the day after, as Gómez was a national hero to most Puerto Ricans, and he was seen by many as invincible. It took, in the eyes of Puerto Rican boxing fans, 18 years to really avenge Gómez's defeat against Sánchez, and that was when Félix Trinidad beat Oscar De La Hoya in 1999. Gómez went into a depression, but he roared back the next year and posted world title wins against many other boxers from there on until he retired in 1989. Among the fighters he would beat later were Lupe Pintor (who also is Mexican) at the Carnival of Champions, and Juan Laporte. Gómez joined the exclusive group of fighters to win titles in three different boxing divisions.

It could be said that Sánchez, in between the moment he beat Gómez and the moment he died almost a year later, warmed himself to the hearts of many Puerto Ricans. He granted interviews to many Puerto Rican television news shows, and was known for speaking well about Puerto Rico and its people. When Sánchez died, news of his death were heard across Latin America, and many people both in Mexico and Puerto Rico were saddened by his passing. His funeral was shown live in Mexico, and in Puerto Rico, a tribute show to him was aired by WAPA-TV five days after his death, featuring his past interviews with that network's sportscasters, his story, and clips of his fights.

Gómez himself also became a dear person to the people of Mexico after this fight. Although they knew him as the Mexican beater because of the many other fights he won against Mexican boxers, Gómez showed no ill feelings towards the people of Mexico by offering Sánchez flowers after Sánchez died, and becoming a frequent visitor to the Sánchez family thereafter. On Sánchez's small town, there is always a festival to commemorate Sánchez's memory every year, around the week of August 12. Gómez has been named Grand Marischal of that festival three times already, and has been a guest of honor many of the times it has been celebrated after Sánchez's passing.

There had always been talks of a rematch between the two before Sánchez died. What would have happened in a rematch will never be known, but the fact is that both Gómez and Sánchez are now together in a place far different from a boxing ring: They are both in the International Boxing Hall Of Fame.

title: Salvador Sánchez vs. Wilfredo Gómez