text:
Piers Plowman

Piers Plowman (written c. 1370–86; possibly c. 1377) or Visio Willelmi de Petro Ploughman (William's Vision of Piers Plowman) is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem by William Langland. It is written in un-rhymed, alliterative verse divided into sections called (Latin for "step").

Like the Pearl Poet's Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Piers Plowman is considered by many critics to be one of the greatest works of English literature of the Middle Ages, preceding and even influencing Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Piers Plowman contains the first known reference to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales.

There exist three distinct versions of the poem, which scholars refer to as the A-, B-, and C-texts. The B-text is the most widely edited and translated version; it revises and extends the A-text by over four thousand lines.

Summary
The poem, a mix of theological allegory and social satire, concerns the narrator/dreamer's quest for the true Christian life in the context of medieval Catholicism. This journey takes place within a series of dream visions; the dreamer seeks, among other things, the allegorical characters Dowel ("Do-Well"), Dobet ("Do-Better"), and Dobest ("Do-Best"). The poem is divided into passus ('steps'), the divisions between which vary by version.

The following summary is based on the B-version of the poem.

Vision 1
Prologue: The poem begins in the Malvern Hills between Worcestershire and Herefordshire. A man named Will (which can be understood either simply as a personal name or as an allegory for a person's will, in the sense of 'desire, intention') falls asleep and has a vision of a tower set upon a hill and a fortress (donjon) in a deep valley; between these symbols of heaven and hell is a 'fair field full of folk', representing the world of humankind. A satirical account of different sections of society follows, along with a dream-like fable representing the King as a cat and his people as rodents who consider whether to bell the cat.

Passus 1: Holy Church visits Will and explains the tower of Truth, and discusses Truth more generally.

Passus 2: Will sees Lady Mede ('payment') and finds out about her planned marriage to False.

Passus 3: Lady Mede travels to the royal court; the King proposes she marry Conscience; but Conscience denounces her.

Passus 4: Conscience and Reason convince the King not to marry Mede to False. Will wakes up.

Vision 2
Passus 5: Will falls back to sleep. Reason gives a sermon to the Field of Folk and the people decide to repent. The Seven Deadly Sins make confession and in penance attempt to go on pilgrimage to St Truth. They get lost, and Piers Plowman makes his first appearance: he will help the penitents if they help him plough his half-acre.

Passus 6: Piers and the penitents plough the half-acre. Some people refuse to work, and Hunger punishes them until they work. But once Hunger has been sated, the people return to idleness.

Passus 7: Eventually, Truth sends Piers a pardon for the penitents' sins; its main content is 'Do well and have well and God shall have your soul' and 'Do evil and have evil, and expect nothing other than that after your death, the Devil shall have your soul'. When challenged on the pardon's validity by a priest, Piers angrily tears it in two. Will is awakened by their arguing and, musing on his dreams, decides to seek ‘Do-wel’.

Vision 3
Passus 8: Will's search for Dowel begins. He enters into a disputation with Friars. He then falls asleep once more and meets Thought. Thought instructs Will in 'Do well, do better, do best'. Practical interpretation of what these concepts mean is to be provided by Wit.

Passus 9: There is an extended allegory featuring Dowel and the Castle of Flesh, exposing the need for people to be governed by their 'Inwit'. The text discusses poverty and marriage. Wit makes further inroads to understanding Dowel, as active virtue.

Passus 10: Will meets Wit's wife, Dame Study. She complains to Will about his ignorance. Will then proceeds to Clergy and Scripture to learn more about Dowel. He considers what use scholarship might have in helping him achieve salvation.

Passus 11: Scripture complains about Will's lack of self-knowledge. Angered, Will (who is already dreaming) goes to sleep and has a dream-within-a-dream in which he meets Fortune. He serves her into old age, but she abandons him. Will learns about the salvation of the Emperor Trajan and the power of love. Kynde ('character, natural disposition, nature', here understood as an aspect of God) shows Will the world. Will has an argument with Reason: Reason, Will concludes, does not do enough to keep people from sin; but Reason disagrees. Will awakes from the dream-within-a-dream. He now meets Imaginatif, who advises Will to be patient.

Passus 12: Imaginatif teaches Will, bringing together and improving his understanding of earlier discussions in the poem. Imaginatif emphasises the need for humility and the importance of Grace.

Vision 4
Passus 13: Will awakens and then falls back to sleep; he dreams of sharing a feast with Conscience, Scripture, Clergy and Patience; he encounters a greedy Doctor of Divinity (who later shows disdain for love) and as well as eating actual food also dines on spiritual food. Piers the Plowman offers a definition of Do Well, Do Better and Do Best. Then Conscience and Patience meet Haukyn the Active Man, who wears a coat of Christian faith which is, however, soiled with the Seven Deadly Sins.

Passus 14: Conscience teaches Haukyn to seek forgiveness and do penance; Patience teaches Haukyn about the merits of embracing poverty. Haukyn cries out for God's mercy, which awakens Will.

Vision 5
Passus 15: Will finds himself alienated from the waking world, but Reason helps him to go back to sleep, whereupon Will meets Anima ('spirit'). Anima tells Will off for his pride in wanting to know too much, but goes on to talk about charity, in particular how the Church should care for its flock, but how its priests and monks do not always fulfil this duty. Talking to Anima, Will starts to conclude that Piers the Plowman is Christ. Will realises that he needs to switch from searching for Dowel to searching for Charity.

Passus 16: Will falls into another dream-within-a-dream, this time about the Tree of Charity, whose gardener is Piers the Plowman. Will participates in a re-enactment of the Fall of Man and then has a vision of the life of Christ; when this reaches the point where the Devil is defeated, Will wakes up from the dream-within-a-dream. Will goes looking for Piers and meets Faith/Abraham, who is himself searching for Christ.

Passus 17: Next, Will meets Hope/Moses, characterised by the tablets of law, who is also in search of Christ. Will learns about the Good Samaritan, the prospect of salvation, and the importance of Love. He wakes up.

Vision 6
Passus 18: Will sleeps again, and experiences the climactic section of Piers Plowman. He experiences Love and the intersection of human and divine time. Will witnesses Christ/the Good Samaritan/Piers Plowman riding into Jerusalem and Christ's crucifixion. He then witnesses the Four Daughters of God (Truth, Justice, Mercy, Peace) in debate; the Harrowing of Hell; and Redemption.

Will wakes again, and now exhorts his family to hear Mass.

Vision 7
Passus 19: During the mass, Will falls back to sleep and meets Conscience once more. Conscience recounts the life and Passion of Christ and how Piers/Peter was given his power by Grace/Christ. Will finds out about Pentecost; once more sees Piers as a ploughman, and witnesses Pride attacking Unity/Holy Church. He wakes up and records his dream.

Vision 8
Passus 20: While awake, Will meets Need. He falls asleep again and now dreams of the Antichrist. Kynde sends Old Age, Death, and Pestilence, to chastise people: Will is attacked by Old Age. He witnesses Holy Church undermined by a hypocritical Friar. Conscience goes on pilgrimage to seek Piers the Plowman, and calls on Grace for help—whereupon Will wakes up.

Title and authorship
It is now commonly accepted that Piers Plowman was written by William Langland, about whom little is known. This attribution rests principally on the evidence of an early-fifteenth-century manuscript of the C-text (see below) of Piers held at Trinity College, Dublin (MS 212), which ascribes the work to one man, called 'Willielmus de Langlond':

"Memorandum quod Stacy de Rokayle pater willielmi de Langlond qui stacius fuit generosus & morabatur in Schiptoun vnder whicwode tenens domini le Spenser in comitatu Oxoniensi qui predictus willielmus fecit librum qui vocatur Perys ploughman."

Translation:

"It should be noted that Stacy de Rokayle was the father of William de Langlond; this Stacy was born and dwelt in Shipton-under-Wychwood, a tenant of the Lord Spenser in the county of Oxfordshire. The aforesaid William made the book which is called Piers Plowman."

Other manuscripts also name the author as "Robert or William Langland", or "Wilhelmus W." (which could be shorthand for "William of Wychwood").

The attribution to William Langland is also based on internal evidence, primarily a seemingly autobiographical section in Passus 5 of the C-text of the poem. The main narrator of the poem in all the versions is named Will, with allegorical resonances clearly intended, and Langland (or Longland) is thought to be indicated as a surname through apparent puns; e.g., at one point the narrator remarks: "I have lyved in londe... my name is longe wille" (B.XV.152). This could be a coded reference to the poet's name, in the style of much late-medieval literature. New evidence suggests that this reverse cryptogram was read as "Will Long Will" by contemporary scribes and that the rebels of 1381 used this name as a pseudonym alongside the name "Piers Plowman". Langland's authorship, however, is not entirely beyond dispute, as recent work by Stella Pates and C. David Benson has demonstrated. In their work, "The Langland Myth", they claim there is not enough evidence to suggest that Langland is, in fact, the author, but instead that it is the work of a man by the name of William de la Rokele.

In the sixteenth century, when Piers was first printed, authorship was attributed by various antiquarians (such as John Bale) and poets to John Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer, amongst others. Some sixteenth- and seventeenth-century persons regarded the poem as anonymous, and/or associated it with texts in the plowman tradition of social complaint, particularly the Chaucerian pseudepigrapha The Ploughman's Tale and Pierce the Ploughman's Crede. (The latter was appended to Owen Rogers' 1560 edition of Piers Plowman, a degraded version of Robert Crowley's 1550 editions.) The character of Piers himself had come to be considered by many readers to be in some sense the author.

The first printed editions by Crowley named the author as "Robert Langland" in a prefatory note. Langland is described as a probable protégé of Wycliffe. With Crowley's editions, the poem followed an existing and subsequently repeated convention of titling the poem The Vision of Piers [or Pierce] Plowman, which is in fact the conventional name of just one section of the poem.

Some medievalists and text critics, beginning with John Matthews Manly, have posited multiple authorship theories for Piers, an idea which continues to have a periodic resurgence in the scholarly literature. Between two and five authors are suggested, depending on how authorship is defined. Also, scholars like Charlotte Brewer suggest that scribes and their supervisors be regarded as editors with semi-authorial roles in the production of early modern texts like Piers Ploughman.

The text
Piers Plowman is considered to be one of the most analytically challenging texts in Middle English textual criticism. There are 50–56 surviving manuscripts, some of which are fragmentary. None of the texts is known to be in the author's own hand, and none of them derive directly from any of the others.

All modern discussion of the text revolves around the classifications of W. W. Skeat. Skeat argued that there are as many as ten forms of the poem, but only three are to be considered authoritative—the A, B, and C-texts—although the definition of "authoritative" in this context is problematic. According to the three-versions hypothesis, each version represents different manuscript traditions deriving from three distinct and successive stages of authorial revision. Although precise dating is debated, the A, B, and C texts are now commonly thought of as the progressive (20–25 years) work of a single author.

According to the three-versions hypothesis, the A-text was written c. 1367–70 and is the earliest. It breaks off, apparently unfinished, at Book 11, and Book 12 is written by another author or interpolator. The poem runs to about 2,500 lines. The B-text (Warner's ur-B text) was written c. 1377–79; it revises A, adds new material, and is three times the length of A. It runs to about 7,300 lines. The C-text was written in the 1380s as a major revision of B except for the final sections.

There is some debate over whether the poem can be regarded as finished or not. It entails additions, omissions, and transpositions; it is not significantly different in size from B. Some scholars see it as a conservative revision of B that aims at disassociating the poem from Lollardy and the religious and political radicalism of John Ball during the Great Rising of 1381. (Ball appropriated Piers and other characters in the poem for his own verses, speeches, and letters during the Rising.) There is little actual evidence for this proposal, and much against it.

Skeat believed that the A-text was incomplete and based his editions on a B-text manuscript (Oxford, MS. Laud Misc. 581) that he wrongly thought was probably a holograph. Modern editors following Skeat, such as George Kane and E. Talbot Donaldson, have maintained the basic tenets of Skeat's work: there were three final authorial texts, now lost, that can be reconstructed, albeit imperfectly and without certainty, by rooting out the "corruption" and "damage" done by scribes.

The Kane, Kane-Donaldson, and Russell-Kane editions of the three versions, published by the Athlone Press, have been controversial, but are considered among the most important accomplishments in modern editorial work and theory in Middle English. A. V. C. Schmidt has also published a parallel edition of A, B, C and Z; the second volume containing a full critical apparatus indicating his editorial decisions was finally published in 2008, long after the first volume fell out of print.

A. G. Rigg and Charlotte Brewer hypothesized the existence of a Z-text predecessor to A which contains elements of both A and C. The Z-text is based on Oxford MS. Bodley 851, which Rigg and Brewer edited and published. It is the shortest version, and its authenticity is disputed. Ralph Hanna III has disputed the Rigg/Brewer approach based on codicological evidence and internal literary evidence; consequently, the Z-text is now more commonly viewed as a scribal corruption of A with C elements. More recently, Lawrence Warner has shown that what was thought of as B in fact incorporates matter produced as part of the C-revision: if B circulated before C, it looked nothing like what previous editors had assumed.

14th–15th centuries
John Ball, a priest involved as a leader in the Great Rising of 1381 (also known as the Peasants' Revolt), included Piers and other characters in his writings. If Piers Plowman already had perceived associations with Lollardy, Ball's appropriations from it (assuming he was not referring to a folk character also appropriated by Langland) enhanced his and its association with the Lollards as well. The real beliefs and sympathies at work in Langland's poem and the revolt remain, for this reason, mysterious and debatable. New evidence suggests that in Norfolk the rebels of 1381 had access to the B version of the text and that they used the author-persona's name - Will Long Will - as a pseudonym.

No doubt because of Ball's writings, the Dieulacres Abbey Chronicle account of the revolt refers to Piers, seemingly as a real person who was a leader with Ball in the revolt. Similarly, early in the history of the poem's dissemination in manuscript form, Piers is often treated as the author of the poem. Since it is hard to see how this is credible to those who read the poem, perhaps the idea was that Piers was a mask for the author. Or, as the ideal character of the poem, Piers might be seen as a kind of alter-ego for the poet that was more important to his early readers than the obviously authorial narrator and his apparent self-disclosures as Will. Ironically, Will's name and identity were substantially lost.

In some contemporary chronicles of the Rising, Ball and the Lollards were blamed for the revolt, and Piers began to be associated with heresy and rebellion. The earliest literary works comprising the Piers Plowman tradition follow in the wake of these events, although they and their sixteenth-century successors are not anti-monarchical or supportive of rebellion. Like William Langland, who may have written the C-text version of Piers Plowman to disassociate himself from the Rising, they look for the reform of the English church and society by the removal of abuses in what the authors deem a restorative rather than an innovative project.

The first recorded owner of a copy of Piers Plowman was the Irish judge Walter de Brugge, who died in 1396.

16th–18th centuries
The most conspicuous omissions from William Caxton's press were the Bible and Piers Plowman. Robert Crowley's 1550 editions of Piers Plowman present the poem as a proto-Protestant goad to the reformation of religion and society. In the passus summaries in the second and third editions, Crowley emphasizes material in the poem warning of political instability and widespread corruption when the king is a child (as was then the case). Crowley may have made small attempts to remove or soften single references to transubstantiation, the Mass, purgatory, and the Virgin Mary as a mediator and object of devotion (although almost a dozen references to purgatory remain, as well as three significant references to Mary). He actually added a line to his second and third editions that clearly refers to Marian intercession (F1r).

After 1550, it was not printed again until 1813 except for Owen Rogers' 1561 edition—a cheap knock-off of Crowley's text. The few people who mention Piers Plowman before 1700 usually attribute it to someone other than Langland, and often it is unclear whether they are referring to Langland's poem or one of the many other texts circulating in print as part of the Piers Plowman tradition, particularly The Ploughman's Tale. Since Piers was conflated with the author and dreamer-narrator of the poem at an early date, "Piers Plowman" or a Latin equivalent is often given as the name of the author, which indicates unfamiliarity with, or disbelief of, Crowley's preface.

When Langland's poem is mentioned, it is often disparaged for its barbarous language. Similar charges were made against Chaucer, but he had more defenders and was already well established as a historical figure and "authority." Despite the work of Bale and Crowley, Langland's name appears to have remained unknown or unaccepted since other authors were suggested after Crowley's editions. Sometimes "Piers Plowman" was referred to as the author of the poem, and when writers refer to a list of medieval authors, they will often mention "Piers Plowman" as an author's name or a substitute for one. One gets the overall impression that Langland and Piers Plowman had less existence as author and text than did the fictional figure of Piers, whose relationship to a definite authorial and textual origin had been obscured much earlier.

Samuel Pepys owned a copy of Piers Plowman. Milton cites "Chaucer's Ploughman" in "Of Reformation" (1641) when he is discussing poems that have described Constantine as a major contributor to the corruption of the church. The end of Piers Plowman, Passus 15, makes this point at length—but it is also made briefly in one stanza in The Ploughman's Tale (ll. 693–700). In "An Apology for a Pamphlet ..." Milton refers to The Vision and Crede of Pierce Ploughman, which might mean one or both of these texts. Perhaps it refers to Rogers' 1561 edition which put them together. Henry Selden (1622) appears to have read the poem closely enough to admire it for its criticism of the church as well as its judgment and invention. John Weever (1631) also names Robert Langland, as does David Buchanan (1652). Buchanan, however, makes Langland a Scot and attributes other works to him aside from Piers Plowman.

Thomas Fuller (1662) bases his remarks about Langland on Selden and Bale, emphasizing Langland's putative proto-Protestant status. Fuller also notes that The Praier and Complaynte of the Ploweman unto Christe was "first set forth by Tindal, since, exemplified by Mr. Fox." Since the language of this text is similar to that of Piers Plowman, Fuller attributes it to Langland as well. Thomas Dudley, father of Anne Dudley Bradstreet (1612–72), brought a copy of Crowley's Piers Plowman to America. Alexander Pope (1688–1744) owned a copy of Rogers' reprint of Crowley's edition of Piers Plowman with the Crede appended, and Isaac D'Israeli (1766–1848) wrote in his Amenities of Literature that Pope had "very carefully analyzed the whole" of the latter text. D'Israeli also mentions Lord Byron's (1788–1824) praise for Piers Plowman.

19th–20th-21st centuries
With its old language and alien worldview, Piers Plowman fell into obscurity until the nineteenth century. Barring Rogers, after Crowley, the poem was not published in its entirety until Thomas Whitaker's 1813 edition. It emerged at a time when amateur philologists began the groundwork of what would later become a recognized scholarly discipline. Whitaker's edition was based on a C-text, whereas Crowley used a B-text for his base.

With Whitaker, a modern editorial tradition began, with each new editor striving to present the "authentic" Piers Plowman and challenging the accuracy and authenticity of preceding editors and editions. Then, as before in the English Reformation, this project was driven by a need for a national identity and history that addressed present concerns, hence analysis and commentary typically reflected the critic's political views. In the hands of Frederick Furnivall and W. W. Skeat, Piers Plowman could be, respectively, a consciousness-raising text in the Working Man's College or a patriotic text for grammar school pupils. Piers Plowman has often been read primarily as a political document. In an 1894 study, J. J. Jusserand was primarily concerned with what he saw as the poem's psychological and sociopolitical content—as distinct from the aesthetic or literary—in a dichotomy common to all modern humanistic studies.

In "Le temps des laboureurs. Travail, ordre social et croissance en Europe (XIe-XIVe siècle)" (Albin Michel 2012) historian of medieval labour Mathieu Arnoux devotes particular attention to "Piers Plowman" in a breakthrough attempt to identify theological causes for the growth of agricultural production from the 11th century to the 14th century.

According to the historian Christopher Dawson, the poem represents “a precious and almost unique record” of medieval religious culture in the minds of the masses as opposed to that of the courts or of the schools and universities. Langland’s poem “is a voice from the underworld of the common people, speaking their language, using their imagery and sharing their ideals”.

Related texts
Many subsequent texts – at least 14 – use characters from Piers Plowman, most often Piers himself. Many more texts were written with similar themes and characters, though not directly borrowing from Piers Plowman, until around the end of the 16th century. Conversely, Piers Plowman was preceded by and contemporary with a number of similar works in the 14th and 15th centuries. Together, these are referred to as the "Piers Plowman tradition".

Editions

 * Kane, George, gen. ed. Piers Plowman: The A Version (Kane, ed.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The B Version (Kane and Donaldson, eds.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The C Version (George Russell and Kane, eds.; London: Athlone, 1997).
 * Pearsall, Derek, ed. William Langland. Piers Plowman: A New Annotated Edition of the C-Text (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2008) (Exeter Medieval Texts and Studies).
 * Schmidt, A. V. C., Piers Plowman: A Parallel-Text Edition of the A, B, C, and Z Versions (3 vols.; Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 2011).
 * Vaughan, Míċeál F., Piers Plowman: The A Version (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011).

Modernizations

 * Donaldson, E. Talbot, Piers Plowman: the Donaldson translation (Norton Critical Editions, new ed. 2006).
 * Economou, George, William Langland's Piers Plowman: The C version (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996).
 * Peter Sutton, Piers Plowman: A Modern Verse Translation (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014) ISBN 978-0786495030

Adaptations
In 2017, a UK theatre production of the poem was developed by Tom Chivers, under the moniker 'Fair Field'. It included an exhibition at the National Poetry Library and a series of podcasts published by the Guardian.

title: Piers Plowman


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Dynamic recompilation

In computer science, dynamic recompilation is a feature of some emulators and virtual machines, where the system may recompile some part of a program during execution. By compiling during execution, the system can tailor the generated code to reflect the program's run-time environment, and potentially produce more efficient code by exploiting information that is not available to a traditional static compiler.

Uses
Most dynamic recompilers are used to convert machine code between architectures at runtime. This is a task often needed in the emulation of legacy gaming platforms. In other cases, a system may employ dynamic recompilation as part of an adaptive optimization strategy to execute a portable program representation such as Java or .NET Common Language Runtime bytecodes. Full-speed debuggers also utilize dynamic recompilation to reduce the space overhead incurred in most deoptimization techniques, and other features such as dynamic thread migration.

Tasks
The main tasks a dynamic recompiler has to perform are:
 * Reading in machine code from the source platform
 * Emitting machine code for the target platform

A dynamic recompiler may also perform some auxiliary tasks:
 * Managing a cache of recompiled code
 * Updating of elapsed cycle counts on platforms with cycle count registers
 * Management of interrupt checking
 * Providing an interface to virtualized support hardware, for example a GPU
 * Optimizing higher-level code structures to run efficiently on the target hardware (see below)

Applications

 * Many Java virtual machines feature dynamic recompilation.
 * Apple's Rosetta for Mac OS X on x86, allows PowerPC code to be run on the x86 architecture.
 * Later versions of the Mac 68K emulator used in classic Mac OS to run 680x0 code on the PowerPC hardware.
 * Psyco, a specializing compiler for Python.
 * The HP Dynamo project, an example of a transparent binary dynamic optimizer.
 * DynamoRIO, an open-source successor to Dynamo that works with the ARM, x86-64 and IA-64 (Itanium) instruction sets.
 * The Vx32 virtual machine employs dynamic recompilation to create OS-independent x86 architecture sandboxes for safe application plugins.
 * Microsoft Virtual PC for Mac, used to run x86 code on PowerPC.
 * FreeKEYB, an international DOS keyboard and console driver with many usability enhancements utilized self-modifying code and dynamic dead code elimination to minimize its in-memory image based on its user configuration (selected features, languages, layouts) and actual runtime environment (OS variant and version, loaded drivers, underlying hardware), automatically resolving dependencies, dynamically relocating and recombining code sections on byte-level granularity and optimizing opstrings based on semantic information provided in the source code, relocation information generated by special tools during assembly and profile information obtained at load time.
 * The backwards compatibility functionality of the Xbox 360 (i.e. running games written for the original Xbox) is widely assumed to use dynamic recompilation.
 * Apple's Rosetta 2 for Apple silicon, permits many applications compiled for x86-64-based processors to be translated for execution on Apple silicon.
 * QEMU
 * PCem
 * 86Box

Emulators

 * PCSX2, a PlayStation 2 emulator, has a recompiler called "microVU", the successor of "SuperVU".
 * GCemu, a GameCube emulator.
 * GEM, a Game Boy emulator for MSX uses an optimizing dynamic recompiler.
 * DeSmuME, a Nintendo DS emulator, has a dynarec option.
 * Soywiz's Psp, a PlayStation Portable emulator, has a dynarec option.
 * Mupen64Plus, a multi-platform Nintendo 64 emulator.
 * Yabause, a multi-platform Saturn emulator.
 * PPSSPP, a multi-platform PlayStation Portable emulator, uses a JIT dynamic recompiler by default.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dynamic recompilation


text:
Talk:American Quarter Horse

Sourcing for article improvement
Good article on the genetic diseases affecting Quarter Horses: http://www.thehorse.com/articles/24421/genetic-diseases-in-horses-reviewed-for-world-equine-vets   Montanabw (talk) 18:07, 26 June 2013 (UTC)

Better pictures
Here are some better pictures to possibly replace some that are currently in the article. This one could be put in the section on the stock-type Quarters: thumb Maybe also move the photo of the halter horse from the top of the article and put it at the halter section, putting either of these in its place at the head of the article: Maybe remove the head-on shot of a 'halter horse' at the top of Breed Characteristics altogether? White Arabian mare (Neigh) 15:00, 22 September 2015 (UTC)

The two here aren't an improvement. The head-on shot does show the "bulldog" build... Montanabw (talk) 23:49, 24 September 2015 (UTC)

I do believe that these pictures are an improvement. Spitfire&Me (talk) 00:33, 29 July 2017 (UTC)

American Quarter Horse vs. Quarter Horse
The title of the article is American Quarter Horse, but some paragraphs refer simply to Quarter Horses, including the one that says that next to the ACHA the largest number of Quarter Horses are registered in Brazil followed by Australia. Quarter Horse itself redirects here. It is not clear to me from the article whether the Brazilian and Australian registries involve substantially different breed characteristics from the American, or whether the relationship is like that of the "Appendix" horses, or whether perhaps they are closer to the "Foundation" type. --Haruo (talk) 12:48, 2 November 2015 (UTC)

 * The American Quarter Horse is abbreviated or shortened to Quarter Horse. It is the same breed worldwide, of American origins.   Montanabw (talk)  03:27, 3 November 2015 (UTC) IDK

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080414125741/http://www.aqha.com/bin/q/z/annualreport_horsestats.pdf to http://www.aqha.com/bin/q/z/annualreport_horsestats.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110707154313/http://siteexec.aqha.com/association/registration/pdf/registrationrules_07.pdf to http://siteexec.aqha.com/association/registration/pdf/registrationrules_07.pdf
 * Added tag to http://services2.aqha.com/iphonedev/www/sections/sectionIV/rules/448.html

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55 mph
The source given for the 55 mph claim is very weak and has a vested interest. Is there any better source, such as one that describes a particular horse being scientifically measured at that speed? Zerotalk 12:44, 24 August 2017 (UTC)
 * , I will look through my horse breed books and see if I can find a better source. I don't know about science, but they have some kind of speed recording devices on racetracks, at least the bigger ones. White Arabian Filly  Neigh 22:42, 24 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Better still, I found an animal science book on GB.  White Arabian Filly  Neigh 22:47, 24 August 2017 (UTC)
 * It is better, but not great. They could easily be just repeating a common belief. Zerotalk 23:59, 24 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Racehorses were traditionally clocked by the trainer telling the jockey to gallop the horse from one pole to another on the racetrack, while the trainer recorded how long it took to travel the quarter mile with a stopwatch. Then they'd figure the mph based off that. Now they still do that, but for actual races they have some kind of scanner or technology that records the speed. On most televised races they'll have it in a little window in the corner of the screen. There are also listed speed records for most major tracks. I'll do some more looking, but I think it's a fact, not a false belief. White Arabian Filly  Neigh 15:46, 25 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Winning times for races are posted, generally with fractional breaks. That said, Cengage Learning is a reputable source for animal science textbooks, and as such is RS for the claim. I also found a source at Science Daily Montanabw (talk) 22:05, 25 August 2017 (UTC)
 * All official race tracks have devices to measure the total time, so average speeds over a measured distance are well documented. Usually they also measure the time when a horse reaches some key distances in the race. That's what you will get from race track records. My impression is the that 55 mph is not supposed to be an average speed but an instantaneous burst speed, which is harder to measure and not a standard measurement. The fact that the sources found so far fail to tell us exactly what is being measured and are clearly just quoting some unknown single source or each other is a reason to wish for better sources. There is a table of world records for AQHs here but I didn't manage to understand it. Can you figure it out? Zerotalk 10:53, 26 August 2017 (UTC)
 * I see some AQH world records for various distances listed at here. The greatest average speed for the stated distance is 42.98 mph. This confirms my suspicion that 55 mph can only be meaningful as the speed for a short burst. Zerotalk 11:07, 26 August 2017 (UTC)
 * I agree with the short burst assessment. I suspect it was clocked shortly after coming out of the starting gate. We probably should add these world records with calculations.  Montanabw (talk) 03:41, 28 September 2017 (UTC)

OK...
This page has good content, (info) but its not encouraging me to sit down and read it. Could it be made more interesting to the reader?

Shadowblade08 (talk) 14:57, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * It is a B-class article. Do you have specific suggestions? David notMD (talk) 16:02, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

In the 1600s ... English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted native horses?
I happened to notice this: we read in the Colonial era section: "In the 1600s on the Eastern seaboard of what today is the United States, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted native horses". That is unlikely for a number of reasons, most notably that there were no Thoroughbreds in the seventeenth century – it is an entirely eighteenth-century concept. Nor, if we are to believe our page on the Darley Arabian, were there any Thoroughbreds in the USA before Bulle Rock in 1730. There were also no native horses in the USA in 1600 – any horses that were there had been brought from Europe in the preceding 107 (approximately) years. Courtesy ping to. Justlettersandnumbers (talk) 22:02, 14 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Well... 1600s covers 1600-1699 - and it is likely that there were horses in the eastern part of North America by 1600 - remember Hernando de Soto tramped all over the area looking for gold during the 1540s. Quite likely that he lost horses in the process and that they spread over the area also. It is known that the pigs that De Soto lost became the ancestors of the razorback, for example. "Native" here means "they were here when we arrived, us stupid English". Quite frankly, the various "claims" of the folks investigating the early horses in the eastern part of North America are all ... suspect, because they all had an axe to grind - QH folks tend to push the "short horses were always here" while the TB folks tend to push the "the horses were crap until Bulle Rock arrived" with a lovely side dish of Morgan enthusists chiming in with "Morgans are the only American breed" ... you get the picture. It's sourced - to Denhardt, but still sourced, and it's not something I'm going to worry about. My main concern nowadays is to keep utter idiocy out (The bit I reverted about Andalusian mares was even more insane that what's there now...). Ealdgyth (talk) 22:14, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:American Quarter Horse


text:
Guillaume Thomas François Raynal

Guillaume Thomas François Raynal (12 April 1713 – 6 March 1796), also known as Abbé Raynal, was a French writer, former Catholic priest, and man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment.

Early life
He was born at Lapanouse in Rouergue. He was educated at the Jesuit school of Pézenas, and received priest's orders, but he was dismissed for unexplained reasons from the parish of Saint-Sulpice, Paris. He became a writer and journalist, leaving the religious life. The Abbé Raynal wrote for the Mercure de France, and compiled a series of popular but superficial works, which he published and sold himself. These—L'Histoire du stathoudérat (The Hague, 1748), L'Histoire du parlement d'Angleterre (London, 1748), Anecdotes historiques (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753)—gained for him access to the salons of Mme. Geoffrin, Helvétius, and the Baron d'Holbach.

In May 1754, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1775, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.

The Histoire philosophique des deux Indes

He had the assistance of various members of the coterie philosophique in his most important work, L'Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes (Philosophical and Political History of the Two Indies Amsterdam, 4 vols., 1770 ). Diderot is credited with a third of this work, which was characterized by Voltaire as "du réchauffé avec de la déclamation." The other chief collaborators were Jean Pechméja, Baron d'Holbach, Jacques Paulze, the farmer-general of taxes, the Abbé Martin, and Alexandre Deleyre. To this piecemeal method of composition, in which narrative alternated with tirades on political and social questions, was added the further disadvantage of the lack of exact information, which, owing to the dearth of documents, could only have been gained by personal investigation. He released an expanded edition in 1774 and another in 1780.

The "philosophic" declamations perhaps constituted the work's chief interest for the general public, and its significance as a contribution to democratic propaganda. The Histoire went through many editions, being revised and augmented from time to time by Raynal; it was translated into the principal European languages, and appeared in various abridgments. Its introduction into France was forbidden in 1779; the book was burned by the public executioner, and an order was given for the arrest of the author, whose name had not appeared in the first edition, but was printed on the title page of the Geneva edition of 1780. Seven new maps for the 1798 English edition were engraved by Thomas Kitchin, Jr.

The book examines the East Indies, South America, the West Indies, and North America. The final chapter comprises theory around the future of Europe as a whole. Raynal also examines commerce, religion, slavery, and other popular subjects, all from the perspective of the French Enlightenment. Additional versions of the book included maps of the discussed regions.

On the subject of slavery, Raynal was excoriating, writing "I shall...prove that there is no reason of state which can authorize slavery. I shall not be afraid to denounce to the tribunal of reason and justice those governments which tolerate this cruelty. Whoever justifies such an odious system deserves mocking silence from the philosopher…and a stab with a dagger from the back."

Later life

Raynal went into exile, to Spa, and then to Berlin, where he was coolly received by Frederick the Great, in spite of his connection with the philosophe party.

At Saint Petersburg he met with a more cordial reception from Catherine II, and in 1787 he was permitted to return to France, though not to Paris. He showed generosity in assigning a considerable income to be divided annually among the peasant proprietors of upper Guienne. He was elected by Marseilles to the States-General, but refused to sit on the score of age. Raynal now realized the impossibility of a peaceful revolution, and, in terror of the proceedings for which the writings of himself and his friends had prepared the way, he sent to the Constituent Assembly an address, which was read on 31 May 1791, deprecating the violence of its reforms.

This address is said by Sainte-Beuve (Nouveaux lundis, xi.) to have been composed chiefly by de Clermont-Tonnerre and Pierre V. Malouet, and it was regarded, even by moderate men, as ill-timed. The published Lettre de l'abbé Raynal a l'Assemblee nationale (10 December 1790) was really the work of the comte de Guibert. During the Terror Raynal lived in retirement at Passy and at Montlhery. On the establishment of the Directory in 1795 he became a member of the newly organized Institute of France.

Raynal died 6 March 1796 at Chaillot.

Address to America
Published on 3 November 1800, after his death, Raynal addressed the people of the young United States of America with the following words, printed in the National Intelligencer and Washington Advertiser.

PEOPLE of North America! Let the example of all nations which have preceded you, and especially that of the mother country, instruct you. Be afraid of the influence of gold, which brings with luxury the corruption of manners and contempt of laws; be afraid of too unequal a distribution of riches, which shews a small number of citizens in wealth, and a great number in miser; whence arises the insolence of one, and the disgrace of the other, Guard against the spirit of conquest; the tranquility of the empire decreases as it is extended; have arms to defend yourselves, and have none to attack.

Seek ease and health in labour; prosperity, in agriculture and manufactures; strength, in good manners and virtue. Make the sciences and arts prosper, which distinguish the civilized man from the savage. Especially watch over the education of your children.

It is from public schools, be assured, that skillful magistrates, disciplined and courageous soldiers, good fathers, good husbands, good brothers, good friends, and honest men come forth. Wherever we see the youth depraved, that nation is on the decline. Let liberty have an immovable foundation in the wisdom of your contributions and let it be the cement which unites your states, which cannot be destroyed. Establish no legal preference in your different modes of worship. Superstition is every where innocent when it is neither protected nor persecuted; and let your duration be, if possible, equal to that of the world.

title: Guillaume Thomas François Raynal


text:
AES3

AES3 is a standard for the exchange of digital audio signals between professional audio devices. An AES3 signal can carry two channels of pulse-code-modulated digital audio over several transmission media including balanced lines, unbalanced lines, and optical fiber.

AES3 was jointly developed by the Audio Engineering Society (AES) and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and so is also known as AES/EBU. The standard was first published in 1985 and was revised in 1992 and 2003. AES3 has been incorporated into the International Electrotechnical Commission's standard IEC 60958, and is available in a consumer-grade variant known as S/PDIF.

History and development
The development of standards for digital audio interconnect for both professional and domestic audio equipment, began in the late 1970s in a joint effort between the Audio Engineering Society and the European Broadcasting Union, and culminated in the publishing of AES3 in 1985. The AES3 standard has been revised in 1992 and 2003 and is published in AES and EBU versions. Early on, the standard was frequently known as AES/EBU.

Variants using different physical connections are specified in IEC 60958. These are essentially consumer versions of AES3 for use within the domestic high fidelity environment using connectors more commonly found in the consumer market. These variants are commonly known as S/PDIF.

IEC 60958
IEC 60958 (formerly IEC 958) is the International Electrotechnical Commission's standard on digital audio interfaces. It reproduces the AES3 professional digital audio interconnect standard and the consumer version of the same, S/PDIF.

The standard consists of several parts:
 * IEC 60958-1: General
 * IEC 60958-2: Software Information Delivery Mode
 * IEC 60958-3: Consumer applications
 * IEC 60958-4: Professional applications
 * IEC 60958-5: Consumer application enhancement

AES-2id
AES-2id is an AES information document published by the Audio Engineering Society for digital audio engineering—Guidelines for the use of the AES3 interface. This document provides guidelines for the use of AES3, AES Recommended Practice for Digital Audio Engineering, Serial transmission format for two-channel linearly represented digital audio data. This document also covers the description of related standards used in conjunction with AES3 such as AES11. The full details of AES-2id can be studied in the standards section of the Audio Engineering Society web site by downloading copies of the AES-2id document as a PDF file.

Hardware connections
The AES3 standard parallels part 4 of the international standard IEC 60958. Of the physical interconnection types defined by IEC 60958, two are in common use.

IEC 60958 type I

Type I connections use balanced, three-conductor, 110-ohm twisted pair cabling with XLR connectors. Type I connections are most often used in professional installations and are considered the standard connector for AES3. The hardware interface is usually implemented using RS-422 line drivers and receivers.

IEC 60958 type II
IEC 60958 Type II defines an unbalanced electrical or optical interface for consumer electronics applications. The precursor of the IEC 60958 Type II specification was the Sony/Philips Digital Interface, or S/PDIF. Both were based on the original AES/EBU work. S/PDIF and AES3 are interchangeable at the protocol level, but at the physical level, they specify different electrical signalling levels and impedances, which may be significant in some applications.

BNC connector

AES/EBU signals can also be run using unbalanced BNC connectors a with a 75-ohm coaxial cable. The unbalanced version has a very long transmission distance as opposed to the 150 meters maximum for the balanced version. The AES-3id standard defines a 75-ohm BNC electrical variant of AES3. This uses the same cabling, patching and infrastructure as analogue or digital video, and is thus common in the broadcast industry.

Protocol

 * The low-level protocol for data transmission in AES3 and S/PDIF is largely identical, and the following discussion applies for S/PDIF, except as noted.

AES3 was designed primarily to support stereo PCM encoded audio in either DAT format at 48 kHz or CD format at 44.1 kHz. No attempt was made to use a carrier able to support both rates; instead, AES3 allows the data to be run at any rate, and encoding the clock and the data together using biphase mark code (BMC).

Each bit occupies one time slot. Each audio sample (of up to 24 bits) is combined with four flag bits and a synchronisation preamble which is four time slots long to make a subframe of 32 time slots. The 32 time slots of each subframe are assigned as follows:

Two subframes (A and B, normally used for left and right audio channels) make a frame. Frames contain 64 bit periods and are produced once per audio sample period. At the highest level, each 192 consecutive frames are grouped into an audio block. While samples repeat each frame time, metadata is only transmitted once per audio block. At 48 kHz sample rate, there are 250 audio blocks per second, and 3,072,000 time slots per second supported by a 6.144 MHz biphase clock.

Synchronisation preamble
The synchronisation preamble is a specially coded preamble that identifies the subframe and its position within the audio block. Preambles are not normal BMC-encoded data bits, although they do still have zero DC bias.

Three preambles are possible:
 * X (or M) : 11100010$2$ if previous time slot was 0, 00011101$2$ if it was 1. (Equivalently, 10010011$2$ NRZI encoded.) Marks a word for channel A (left), other than at the start of an audio block.
 * Y (or W) : 11100100$2$ if previous time slot was 0, 00011011$2$ if it was 1. (Equivalently, 10010110$2$ NRZI encoded.) Marks a word for channel B (right).
 * Z (or B) : 11101000$2$ if previous time slot was 0, 00010111$2$ if it was 1. (Equivalently, 10011100$2$ NRZI encoded.) Marks a word for channel A (left) at the start of an audio block.

The three preambles are called X, Y, Z in the AES3 standard; and M, W, B in IEC 958 (an AES extension).

The 8-bit preambles are transmitted in the time allocated to the first four time slots of each subframe (time slots 0 to 3). Any of the three marks the beginning of a subframe. X or Z marks the beginning of a frame, and Z marks the beginning of an audio block. | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Time slots _____      _            _____   _ /     \_____/ \_/  \_____/     \_/ \ Preamble X  _____     _              ___   ___ /    \___/ \___/  \_____/   \_/   \ Preamble Y  _____   _                _   _____ /    \_/ \_____/  \_____/ \_/     \ Preamble Z  ___     ___            ___     ___ /  \___/   \___/  \___/   \___/   \ All 0 bits BMC encoded _  _   _   _        _   _   _   _ / \_/ \_/ \_/ \_/  \_/ \_/ \_/ \_/ \ All 1 bits BMC encoded | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Time slots

In two-channel AES3, the preambles form a pattern of ZYXYXYXY..., but it is straightforward to extend this structure to additional channels (more subframes per frame), each with a Y preamble, as is done in the MADI protocol.

Channel status word
There is one channel status bit in each subframe, a total of 192 bits or 24 bytes for each channel in each block. Between the AES3 and S/PDIF standards, the contents of the 192-bit channel status word differ significantly, although they agree that the first channel status bit distinguishes between the two. In the case of AES3, the standard describes, in detail, the function of each bit.

 * Byte 0: Basic control data: sample rate, compression, emphasis
 * bit 0: A value of 1 indicates this is AES3 channel status data. 0 indicates this is S/PDIF data.
 * bit 1: A value of 0 indicates this is linear audio PCM data. A value of 1 indicates other (usually non-audio) data.
 * bits 2–4: Indicates the type of signal preemphasis applied to the data. Generally set to 100$2$ (none).
 * bit 5: A value of 0 indicates that the source is locked to some (unspecified) external time sync. A value of 1 indicates an unlocked source.
 * bits 6–7: Sample rate. These bits are redundant when real-time audio is transmitted (the receiver can observe the sample rate directly), but are useful if AES3 data is recorded or otherwise stored.  Options are unspecified, 48 kHz (the default),  44.1 kHz, and 32 kHz. Additional sample rate options may be indicated in the extended sample rate field (see below).
 * Byte 1: indicates if the audio stream is stereo, mono or some other combination.
 * bits 0–3: Indicates the relationship of the two channels; they might be unrelated audio data, a stereo pair, duplicated mono data, music and voice commentary, a stereo sum/difference code.
 * bits 4–7: Used to indicate the format of the user channel word
 * Byte 2: Audio word length
 * bits 0–2: Aux bits usage. This indicates how the aux bits (time slots 4–7) are used.  Generally set to 000$2$ (unused) or 001$2$ (used for 24-bit audio data).
 * bits 3–5: Word length. Specifies the sample size, relative to the 20- or 24-bit maximum.  Can specify 0, 1, 2 or 4 missing bits.  Unused bits are filled with 0, but audio processing functions such as mixing will generally fill them in with valid data without changing the effective word length.
 * bits 6–7: Unused
 * Byte 3: Used only for multichannel applications
 * Byte 4: Additional sample rate information
 * bits 0–1: Indicates the grade of the sample rate reference, per AES11
 * bit 2: Reserved
 * bits 3–6: Extended sample rate. This indicates other sample rates, not representable in byte 0 bits 6–7.  Values are assigned for 24, 96, and 192 kHz, as well as 22.05, 88.2, and 176.4 kHz.
 * bit 7: Sampling frequency scaling flag. If set, indicates that the sample rate is multiplied by 1/1.001 to match NTSC video frame rates.
 * Byte 5: Reserved
 * Bytes 6–9: Four ASCII characters for indicating channel origin. Widely used in large studios.
 * Bytes 10–13: Four ASCII characters indicating channel destination, to control automatic switchers. Less often used.
 * Bytes 14–17: 32-bit sample address, incrementing block-to-block by 192 (because there are 192 frames per block). At 48 kHz, this wraps approximately every day.
 * Bytes 18–21: 32-bit sample address offset to indicate samples since midnight.
 * Byte 22: Channel status word reliability indication
 * bits 0–3: Reserved
 * bit 4: If set, bytes 0–5 (signal format) are unreliable.
 * bit 5: If set, bytes 6–13 (channel labels) are unreliable.
 * bit 6: If set, bytes 14–17 (sample address) are unreliable.
 * bit 7: If set, bytes 18–21 (timestamp) are unreliable.
 * Byte 23: CRC. This byte is used to detect corruption of the channel status word, as might be caused by switching mid-block.

Embedded timecode
SMPTE timecode data can be embedded within AES3 signals. It can be used for synchronization and for logging and identifying audio content. It is embedded as a 32-bit binary word in bytes 18 to 21 of the channel status data.

The AES11 standard provides information on the synchronization of digital audio structures.

the AES52 standard describes how to insert unique identifiers into an AES3 bit stream.

SMPTE 2110
SMPTE 2110-31 defines how to encapsulate an AES3 data stream in Real-time Transport Protocol packets for transmission over an IP network using the SMPTE 2110 IP based multicast framework.

SMPTE 302M
SMPTE 302M-2007 defines how to encapsulate an AES3 data stream in an MPEG transport stream for television applications.

Other formats
AES3 digital audio format can also be carried over an Asynchronous Transfer Mode network. The standard for packing AES3 frames into ATM cells is AES47.

title: AES3


text:
John Malkovich

John Gavin Malkovich (born December 9, 1953) is an American actor. He is the recipient of several accolades, including a Primetime Emmy Award, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards.

Malkovich started his career as a charter member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago in 1976. He moved to New York City acting in a Steppenwolf production of the Sam Shepard play True West (1980). He made his Broadway debut as Biff in the revival of the Arthur Miller play Death of a Salesman (1984). He directed the Harold Pinter play The Caretaker (1986), and acted in Lanford Wilson's Burn This (1987).

Malkovich has received two Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nominations for Places in the Heart (1984), and In the Line of Fire (1993). Other notable film roles include in The Killing Fields (1984), Empire of the Sun (1987), Dangerous Liaisons (1988), Of Mice and Men (1992), Con Air (1997), Rounders (1998), Being John Malkovich (1999), Shadow of the Vampire (2000), Ripley's Game (2002), Johnny English (2003), Burn After Reading (2008), and Red (2010). He has also produced films such as Ghost World (2001), Juno (2007), and The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012).

For his work on television he received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie for Death of a Salesman (1985). His other Emmy-nominated roles were for portraying Herman J. Mankiewicz in RKO 281 (1999) and Charles Talleyrand in Napoléon (2002). Other television roles include in Crossbones (2014), Billions (2018–19), The New Pope (2020), and Space Force (2020–2022).

Early life and education
Malkovich was born in Christopher, Illinois, on December 9, 1953. He grew up in Benton, Illinois. His father, Daniel Leon Malkovich, was a state conservation director, who published the conservation magazine Outdoor Illinois. His mother, Joe Anne (née Choisser), owned the Benton Evening News daily newspaper and Outdoor Illinois. He grew up with an older brother, Danny, and three younger sisters, Amanda, Rebecca, and Melissa. In a May 2020 interview, he revealed that Melissa is his only surviving sibling. His paternal grandparents were Croatian immigrants from the vicinity of Ozalj;  his other ancestry includes English, Scottish, French, and German descent. Malkovich attended Logan Grade School, Webster Junior High School, and Benton Consolidated High School. During his high-school years, he appeared in various plays and the musical Carousel. He was also active in a folk gospel group, with whom he sang at churches and community events. As a member of a local summer theater project, he co-starred in Jean-Claude van Itallie's America Hurrah in 1972.

After graduating from high school in 1972, Malkovich enrolled at Eastern Illinois University. He then transferred to Illinois State University, where he majored in theater, but dropped out. He studied acting at the William Esper Studio.

Career
In 1976, Malkovich, along with Joan Allen, Gary Sinise, and Glenne Headly, became a charter member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago. He moved to New York City in 1980 to appear in a Steppenwolf production of the Sam Shepard play True West directed by Sinise, for which he won an Obie Award. One of his first film roles was as an extra alongside Allen, Terry Kinney, George Wendt, and Laurie Metcalf in Robert Altman's film A Wedding (1978). In early 1982, he appeared in A Streetcar Named Desire with Chicago's Wisdom Bridge Theatre. Malkovich then directed a Steppenwolf co-production, the 1984 revival of Lanford Wilson's Balm in Gilead, for which he received a second Obie Award and a Drama Desk Award. Other Steppenwolf productions in which Malkovich has appeared include: The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams, directed by H. E. Baccus (1979); Burn This by Lanford Wilson, directed by Marshall W. Mason (1987); and The Libertine by Stephen Jeffreys, directed by Terry Johnson (1996). He made his feature-film debut as Sally Field's blind boarder Mr. Will in Places in the Heart (1984). For his portrayal of Mr. Will, Malkovich received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. He also portrayed Al Rockoff in Roland Joffe's epic film The Killing Fields (1984).

His Broadway debut that year was as Biff in Death of a Salesman alongside Dustin Hoffman as Willy. Malkovich won an Emmy Award for this role when the play was adapted for television by CBS in 1985. He continued to have steady work in films such as Empire of the Sun, directed by Steven Spielberg, and the film adaptation of Tennessee Williams's The Glass Menagerie (both 1987) directed by Paul Newman (who appeared in the film) and Joanne Woodward. He then starred in Making Mr. Right (also 1987), directed by Susan Seidelman.

Malkovich gained significant critical and popular acclaim when he portrayed the sinister and sensual Valmont in the film Dangerous Liaisons (1988), a film adaptation of the stage play Les Liaisons Dangereuses by Christopher Hampton, who had adapted it from the 1782 novel of the same title by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos. He later reprised this role for the music video of "Walking on Broken Glass" by Annie Lennox. He played Port Moresby in The Sheltering Sky (1990), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and appeared in Shadows and Fog (1991), directed by Woody Allen. In 1990, he recited, in Croatian, verses of the Croatian national anthem Lijepa naša domovino (Our Beautiful Homeland) in Nenad Bach's song "Can We Go Higher?"

Malkovich starred in the 1992 film adaptation of John Steinbeck's novella Of Mice and Men as Lennie alongside Gary Sinise as George. He was nominated for another Oscar, again in the Best Supporting Actor category, for In the Line of Fire (1993). He was the narrator for the film Alive (1993) and starred in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998). Malkovich has hosted three episodes of the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live. The first occasion was in January 1989 with musical guest Anita Baker, the second in October 1993 with musical guest Billy Joel (and special appearance by former cast member Jan Hooks), and the third in December 2008 with musical guest T.I. with Swizz Beatz (and special appearances by Justin Timberlake, Molly Sims and Jamie-Lynn Sigler).

Malkovich was directed for the second time (after Dangerous Liaisons) by Stephen Frears in Mary Reilly (1996), a new adaptation of the Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde tale, co-starring Julia Roberts. Malkovich also appeared in The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999), directed by Luc Besson, playing the French king-to-be Charles VII. Though he played the title role in the Charlie Kaufman-penned Being John Malkovich (1999), he played a slight variation of himself, as indicated by the character's middle name of "Horatio".

Malkovich's directorial film debut, The Dancer Upstairs, was released in 2002. That same year Malkovich made a cameo appearance in Adaptation. He played Patricia Highsmith's antihero Tom Ripley in Ripley's Game (also 2002), the second film adaptation of Highsmith's 1974 novel, the first being Wim Wenders' 1977 film The American Friend.

Malkovich's other film roles include The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005), Eragon (2006), Beowulf, Colour Me Kubrick (both 2007), Changeling (2008), Red, Secretariat (both 2010), Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011), and Red 2 (2013). In 2000, Malkovich was approached to play Green Goblin in Spider-Man (2002), but he passed due to scheduling conflicts and Willem Dafoe was cast in the role. In 2001, film director Michael Cimino had also approached Malkovich to star in his never filmed 3-hour long epic of André Malraux's Man's Fate, alongside Johnny Depp, Uma Thurman, Daniel Day-Lewis and Alain Delon. In 2009, Malkovich was approached and then cast for the role of the Marvel Comics villain Vulture in the unproduced Spider-Man 4.

Malkovich played the title role in the film The Great Buck Howard (2008), a role inspired by mentalist the "Amazing Kreskin". Colin Hanks co-starred and his father, Tom Hanks, appeared as his on-screen father. In November 2009, Malkovich appeared in an advertisement for Nespresso with fellow actor George Clooney. He portrayed Quentin Turnbull in the film adaptation of Jonah Hex (2010). Malkovich in 2014 was the voice actor of Dave the Octopus in Penguins of Madagascar.

In 2008, Malkovich directed in French a theater production of Good Canary written by Zach Helm, with Cristiana Realli and Vincent Elbaz in the leading roles, at the Comédia théâtre in Paris. Malkovich won the Molière Award for best director for it. He wrote and acted in The Infernal Comedy – Confessions of a Serial Killer, directed by Michael Sturminger, that toured many countries and venues between 2010 and 2013, including at the Deutsches Schauspielhaus in Hamburg, Germany, in May 2010. This was an operatic production, about the life of the Austrian serial killer Jack Unterweger. In 2011, he directed Julian Sands in A Celebration of Harold Pinter in the Pleasance Courtyard, Edinburgh, for the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. In 2012, he directed a production of a newly adapted French-language version of Les Liaisons Dangereuses for the Théâtre de l'Atelier in Paris. The production had a limited engagement in July 2013 at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City.

He returned to theatre, directing Good Canary in Spanish in Mexico, then in English at the Rose Theater in London in 2016. Ilan Goodman, Harry Lloyd, and Freya Mavor were in the cast. Malkovich won the Milton Schulman Award for the best director at the Evening Standard Theater Awards in 2016. He appeared in Just Call Me God in Hamburg in March 2017. Malkovich wrote and starred in a movie called 100 Years (2016), directed by Robert Rodriguez. The movie is locked in a vault in the south of France, not to be seen before 2115.

In 2018, Malkovich appeared in a three-part adaptation of Agatha Christie's The A.B.C. Murders co-starring Rupert Grint for BBC television, playing the role of fictional Belgian detective Hercule Poirot. In 2019, Malkovich performed in London's West End at the Garrick Theatre, starring in David Mamet's new play Bitter Wheat. He also starred as the title character in the HBO drama series The New Pope (2020). On September 26, 2019, it was announced that Malkovich had been cast as Dr. Adrian Mallory in the Netflix comedy series Space Force.

Malkovich has collaborated with Lithuanian actress Ingeborga Dapkūnaitė on many productions; by April 2023, there had been nine, and he has called her his "oldest, closest, colleague". In 1992 they both appeared in the Steppenwolf production of A Slip of the Tongue, which later played in Shaftesbury Avenue in London, directed by Simon Stokes. She also appeared in Libra, a play directed and adapted by Malkovich about Lee Harvey Oswald, and, in January 2011, she appeared with him in The Giacomo Variations at the Sydney Opera House, as part of the Sydney Festival. In April 2023, Dapkūnaitė acted alongside Malkovich in In the Solitude of Cotton Fields in Tallinn, Estonia.

Fashion design
Malkovich created his own fashion company, Mrs. Mudd, in 2002. The company released its John Malkovich menswear collection, "Uncle Kimono", in 2003, which was subsequently covered in the international press, and its second clothing line, "Technobohemian", in 2011. Malkovich designed the outfits himself.

Frequent collaborators
Malkovich was directed many times by Chilean director Raúl Ruiz — Le Temps retrouvé (Time Regained, 1999), Les Ames Fortes (Savage Souls, 2001), Klimt (2006) and Lines of Wellington (2012).

In 2008, directed by Austrian director Michael Sturminger, he portrayed the story of Jack Unterweger in a performance for one actor, two sopranos, and period orchestra entitled Seduction and Despair, which premiered at Barnum Hall in Santa Monica, California. A fully staged version of the production, entitled The Infernal Comedy premiered in Vienna in July 2009. The show has since been performed in 2009 through 2012 throughout Europe, North America and South America.

Malkovich was also directed by Sturminger in Casanova's Variations and its movie adaptation in 2014 (co-starring Fanny Ardant). For their third collaboration, in 2017, Michael Stürminger directed Malkovich in Just Call me God – the final speech, in which he played a Third World dictator called Satur Dinam Cha, who is about to be overthrown.

He frequently worked with Julian Sands.

In the media
In 2014, the photographer Sandro Miller recreated 35 iconic portraits of John Malkovich as the subject, in a project called Malkovich, Malkovich, Malkovich: Homage to Photographer Master.

Malkovich starred in his first video-game role in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare in the "Exo Zombies" mode. In 1992, he appeared in period costume along with Hugh Laurie in the music video for "Walking on Broken Glass" by Annie Lennox. In 2015, he appeared in the music video for Eminem's single "Phenomenal". In 2017, he appeared in some humorous Super Bowl commercials portraying himself attempting to gain control of the johnmalkovich.com domain.

Personal life

Malkovich married actress Glenne Headly in 1982. In 1988, the couple divorced following his affair with Michelle Pfeiffer. He began dating Nicoletta Peyran in 1989 after meeting her on the set of The Sheltering Sky, on which she was the second assistant director. The couple have two children, Amandine and Loewy.

Malkovich has a distinctive voice quality, which The Guardian has described as "wafting, whispery, and reedy". He does not consider himself a method actor. Malkovich is fluent in French, having lived and worked in theater in southern France for nearly 10 years. He and his family left France in a dispute over taxes in 2003 and have since lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Malkovich is the co-owner of the restaurant Bica do Sapato and Lux nightclub in Lisbon. He lost millions of dollars in the Madoff investment scandal in 2008. In the 1990s, Malkovich and Peyran bought a farm near Lacoste, Vaucluse, which they have turned into a wine label named Les Quelles de la Coste. The couple started planting grapevines there in 2008 and produced their first vintage in 2011. Malkovich has raised funds for the Steppenwolf Theatre Company, his sole charity.

Malkovich stated in a 2011 interview that he is not a "political person" and that he does not have "an ideology", revealing that he had not voted since George McGovern lost his presidential run in 1972. At the Cambridge Union Society in 2002, when asked whom he would most like to fight to the death, Malkovich replied that he would "rather just shoot" journalist Robert Fisk and politician George Galloway, stating that Galloway was not honest. Journalists speculated that the comment was related to criticism of Israel and the war in Iraq.

When asked in an interview with the Toronto Star in 2008 whether having spiritual beliefs was necessary to portray a spiritual character, he said, "No, I'd say not... I'm an atheist. I wouldn't say I'm without spiritual belief particularly, or rather, specifically. Maybe I'm agnostic, but I'm not quite sure there's some great creator somehow controlling everything and giving us free will. I don't know; it doesn't seem to make a lot of sense to me."

On June 6, 2013, Malkovich was walking in Toronto when a 77-year-old man named Jim Walpole tripped and accidentally cut his throat on a piece of scaffolding. Malkovich applied pressure to Walpole's neck to reduce bleeding before Walpole was rushed to a hospital, where he received stitches and later credited Malkovich with saving his life.

Awards and nominations

 * Order of Danica Hrvatska (Croatia), with the face of Marko Marulić (Zagreb, 2003)
 * Order of Merit (Ukraine), 3rd class (Kyiv, 2018)

title: John Malkovich


text:
Talk:Vieques, Puerto Rico

Proposed Literary Section
Perhaps someone more knowledgeable than I in 20th century literature set in the Caribbean could add a few interesting lines about the role Vieques had in various authors' novels. For example, Hunter Thompson's the Rum Diary includes a few chapters describing Vieques in the late 1950's and the author's time spent on the island. Interesting perspective on the Navy's presence and the indigenous locals take on things. It would make the article more interesting at the very least.

Neutrality
The POV of the History section is questionable, as tenuous facts and assertions abound in what seems an attempt to vilify the U.S. Navy's presence on the island. Better, more-neutral sources (as opposed to an anti-Navy site and a socialist worker's website would help. - Mustang dvs 02:20, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

Congressional Research Service Report RS20458

The Congressional Research Service (CRS), known as "Congress's think tank", is the public policy research arm of the United States Congress. As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress, CRS works exclusively and directly for Members of Congress, their Committees and staff on a confidential, nonpartisan basis.

Reports by the Congressional Research Service, usually referred to as CRS Reports, are the encyclopedic, public domain research reports written to clearly define issues in a legislative context. Over 700 new CRS reports are produced each year; almost 4,000 are currently in existence.

CRS reports are highly regarded as in-depth, accurate, objective and timely, and topped the list of "10 Most-Wanted Government Documents" in a 1996 survey by the Center for Democracy and Technology.

As you can see on the following CRS Report for Congress on the Report RS20458 of August 20, 2004, title "Vieques, Puerto Rico Naval Training Range: Background and Issues for Congress " adressed the Vieques, Puerto Rico Naval Training Range controversy.

You can find this Report on the following WikiLeaks Document Release Web Address http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Vieques%2C_Puerto_Rico_Naval_Training_Range:_Background_and_Issues_for_Congress%2C_August_20%2C_2004 of February 2, 2009.

--Seablade (talk) 07:02, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Neutral? That report seems to ignore the main problem caused by the US Navy's exercises, Vieques' ridiculous cancer rate. -  Ca ri bb e a  n ~ H. Q.  07:24, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

Please refer to the Congressional Research Service Report RL32533 below On the Abstract of the report indicate the following:

This report provides information on the listing of Vieques on the NPL, examines the implications of the site listing for environmental cleanup, indicates the status and estimated costs of cleaning up munitions and other environmental contamination on Vieques, and discusses cleanup actions and costs at nearby Culebra Island.

--Seablade (talk) 08:26, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

Cleanup
The history section needs sub-categories, improved accuracy and less editorializing, as noted by other users below. - Mustang dvs 02:20, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

What is inaccurate? are you a Puerto Rican Historian ?, many of the comments added were very present in most tabloids at the time of this event, I lived it, I read most of what this person has posted here and even if it's questionable it is what was said and argued during the time of the protests, many of these numbers were not denied by many even in the United States Government. If being neutral is saying that Vieques hosted the navy for 60 something years and then they left, without mentioning this event, that was international news, would be inappropriate.--zetback 10:18, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

Discussion
I question the 33% have had cancer statistic. Why, that's one out of three! Here's an anti-Navy site:

 * "the School of Medicine at the University of Puerto Rico announced in 1997 that the cancer rate on Vieques was twenty-seven percent higher than on Puerto Rico."

Twenty-seven percent higher would mean, for example, an increase from 100 cases per million to 127 cases per million. It would not mean in increase from 6% to 33%!! --Uncle Ed

Here's another site:

 * "The data shows that the island of 9,300 people has an average of 30 to 40 cases of cancer a year."

That percentage is approximately 0.5% -- a far cry from 33%. Do the math, people... --Uncle Ed

You must have misread the article the person did not say 33% he said 31% higher than the rest of the Island, he did add that the socialist web site had 33%, but then mentioned the statistical number of 31%. Or maybe it was corrected.--zetback 10:06, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Do you have the url for that statistic? — Mustang dvs 02:23, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

How about adding links for how to get there?

I am inexperienced at wiki-talk but notice details, so I thought I would mention a descriptive ellipse between two photos on the page. The exact same picture is labeled both as Playa del Corcho (Corcho Beach) in the middle of the article and at the end of the page with the names Playa del Caracas (Red Beach). I realize that all three names are used for the same place; however, nowhere in the article or in the photo descriptions are the three names linked together logically or verbally as the same beach. Hope this helps clarify your work. -Analogy4U 12:39, 03 April 2008 --- this topic is addressed further down in the discussion under the heading "picture question"

20131127 Wed 1246pm The Race Statistics are really flawed. There are only a few "white" people on Vieques. You can't really call the Puerto Ricans White. I suggest you add Puerto Rican as a race category and you will get 80% Puerto Rican, 12% White and 8% Black. This is just a guess. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.50.102.205 (talk) 16:49, 27 November 2013 (UTC)

Worldwide view
Primarily, under the content titled "Administration", the words "here" and "county" assumes that everyone who consults Wikipedia is from The United States and nowhere else. This does not represent a worldview of the subject; therefore a note of such has been added along this discussion entry. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Flurry (talk • contribs) 15:14, 11 May 2007 (UTC).

 * "Here" means "in this context", not "in the US". (Even if it didn't the whole article should not be damned on account of this tiny point!) I will change it to make that clearer, and remove the banner. If you perfceive any other significant US-centric biases then please explain what they are. Bear in mind that due to the history and situation of the island numerous references to the US are inevitable. Matt 01:29, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

picture question
why is the same picture used in the article and in the gallery with two different names? one should be removed but i don't know which (if either) is correct SoyseñorsnibblesDígame 23:41, 31 May 2008 (UTC)
 * The place on the picture has multiple names:
 * Bahía del Corcho - (Cork Bay)
 * Playa Caracas - (Caracas Beach)
 * Red Beach - name given to the beach by U.S. NAVY and used mostly by English speakers
 * --Hlucho (talk) 03:08, 17 June 2008 (UTC)

Name?
I thought Vieques / Bieke came from a native word meaning "crab", hence the British naming it Crab Island? The article header currently states that the name came from a native word meaning "small island", which I've never heard before despite being there several times and talking to the historical folks both at El Fortín and over in Esperanza... -- Erik Anderson, 17:57, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

I'm not too sure about the Vieques meaning "crab" thing, but "small island" comes from the term "Isla Nena". Isla Nena is a euphemism that locals use, but it does not address the term "Vieques". So, whether or not Vieques means crab; it definitely does not mean small island.

Congressional Research Service Report RL32533
Congressional Research Service Report RL32533

The Congressional Research Service (CRS), known as "Congress's think tank", is the public policy research arm of the United States Congress. As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress, CRS works exclusively and directly for Members of Congress, their Committees and staff on a confidential, nonpartisan basis.

Reports by the Congressional Research Service, usually referred to as CRS Reports, are the encyclopedic, public domain research reports written to clearly define issues in a legislative context. Over 700 new CRS reports are produced each year; almost 4,000 are currently in existence.

CRS reports are highly regarded as in-depth, accurate, objective and timely, and topped the list of "10 Most-Wanted Government Documents" in a 1996 survey by the Center for Democracy and Technology.

As you can see on the following CRS Report for Congress on the Report RL32533 of July 7, 2005, title "Vieques and Culebra Islands: An Analysis of Environmental Cleanup Issues " examines the implications of the site listing for environmental cleanup You can find this Report on the following WikiLeaks Document Release Web Address http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Vieques_and_Culebra_Islands:_An_Analysis_of_Environmental_Cleanup_Issues%2C_July_7%2C_2005 of February 2, 2009.

On the Abstract of the report indicate the following:

This report provides information on the listing of Vieques on the NPL, examines the implications of the site listing for environmental cleanup, indicates the status and estimated costs of cleaning up munitions and other environmental contamination on Vieques, and discusses cleanup actions and costs at nearby Culebra Island.

Summary

For decades, the U.S. Navy conducted ship-to-shore bombing exercises and other live-fire training activities on Vieques Island and Culebra Island, located off the coast of Puerto Rico. In response to concerns about risks to public safety, human health, and the environment, Congress directed the Navy to close its training facilities on Vieques Island in 2003 and to relocate them elsewhere. The Navy has begun to investigate the presence of munitions and related contamination on Vieques to determine the cleanup actions that will be necessary to protect human health and the environment, and has begun the surface removal of munitions in some areas. In 1974, Congress had enacted legislation that required the Navy to cease its training operations on Culebra Island, in response to similar public concerns. The Army Corps of Engineers has removed some munitions on Culebra to address safety hazards in publicly accessible areas, but has not begun a comprehensive cleanup of the island. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board are responsible for overseeing these actions. There has been rising public interest in the degree to which the Department of Defense (DOD) will be required to clean up both islands. The scope of the cleanup will depend on the type and extent of contamination found, and whether a pathway of human exposure exists. The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2002 (P.L. 107-107) prohibits public access within the Live Impact Area of the former bombing range on Vieques. Public access also may be limited in other areas due to the presence of munitions hazards. Since denying public access is intended to reduce safety threats, DOD may be allowed to remove fewer munitions than would be required otherwise. However, if contamination has leached from munitions and migrated to present a pathway of exposure, removal of more munitions may be required to protect human health. Possible pathways include the consumption of contaminated groundwater and contaminated fish or shellfish. At the request of the Governor of Puerto Rico, Sila M. Calderon, EPA listed Vieques on the National Priorities List (NPL) of the nation’s most hazardous waste sites on February 11, 2005. Listing a site on the NPL does not affect the stringency of the cleanup that is required or increase the availability of funding for the Navy to perform the cleanup. Rather, it identifies Vieques as a site that warrants further investigation to determine actions that are necessary to protect human health and the environment. The Governor also requested that EPA list Culebra on the NPL along with Vieques. However, EPA “elected to take no action” on its final listing decision for Culebra at that time, and reports that the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Army are negotiating a Memorandum of Agreement to govern the cleanup. Regardless of the site listing decision, the degree of cleanup on either island will depend on threats to human health and the environment and the types of remediation that will be deemed necessary to address these threats. Whatever actions are required, the progress of cleanup will depend on the availability of federal funding to pay for the remediation. This report will be updated annually to track the status of cleanup on both islands.

The information provided in this report was originally prepared at the request of Representative Jose Serrano. It has been released in this format for general distribution to interested Members and Committees of Congress and their staff.

--Seablade (talk) 07:37, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

Used in movies
Lord of the Flies (1963) identifies Puerto Rico as its exclusive setting and names Vieques specifically.... a visual comparison confirms (to me) that majority of the Island shots were from Vieques.

being that the book was considered great literature (at the time at least) and the movie appears to ape the book quite accurately it occurs to me that some mention of the island being used as a movie location might be in order --Qazwiz (talk) 03:48, 23 November 2014 (UTC)

Lord of the Flies was indeed filmed on Vieques Island. They even made an artistic photographic book by Ken Heyman about the filming of the movie called "The Boy: A photographic essay" which featured the cast both on and off the set. A video of outtakes from the film also show the boys filming on the beaches of Vieques. .

Minor merger with Milivi Adams
Merged 1 paragraph content from Milivi Adams to here per consensus to merge the content into the article Vieques#Public health from 2014 (which I wasnt involved in). I found it had not been done so I simply assited in the merger. --Wuerzele (talk) 21:46, 4 March 2015 (UTC)

Naval Station didn't exist in 1941
The article currently reads: "In 1941 ... the United States Navy purchased or seized about two thirds of Vieques as an extension to the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station nearby on the Puerto Rican mainland."

This is misleading; the article on the Naval Station makes it clear that the Station was intended BUT DIDN'T EXIST until 1943. This totally changes the meaning of the Navy's "purchase or seizure" (a question which needs resolving) to being part of a process. Twang (talk) 03:05, 9 April 2019 (UTC)

Chart of Barrios
The areas are listed in square meters, which makes no sense. I'm not sure how to change this so can somebody please fix this? Commander0034 (talk) 16:16, 13 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Vieques, Puerto Rico