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Messerschmitt Bf 109

The Messerschmitt Bf 109 is a German World War II fighter aircraft that was, along with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the backbone of the Luftwaffe's fighter force. The Bf 109 first saw operational service in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War. It was still in service at the end of World War II in 1945. It was one of the most advanced fighters when it first appeared, with an all-metal monocoque construction, a closed canopy, and retractable landing gear. A liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine powered it. It was called the Me 109 by Allied aircrew and some German aces, even though this was not the official German designation.

The plane was designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser, who worked at Bayerische Flugzeugwerke during the early to mid-1930s. It was conceived as an interceptor. However, later models were developed to fulfill multiple tasks, serving as bomber escort, fighter-bomber, day-, night-, all-weather fighter, ground-attack aircraft, and aerial reconnaissance aircraft. It was supplied to several states during World War II and served with several countries for many years after the war. The Bf 109 is the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 34,248 airframes produced from 1936 to April 1945. Some of the Bf 109 production took place in Nazi concentration camps through slave labor.

The Bf 109 was flown by the three top-scoring fighter aces of all time, who claimed 928 victories among them while flying with Jagdgeschwader 52, mainly on the Eastern Front. The highest-scoring, Erich Hartmann, was credited with 352 victories. The aircraft was also flown by Hans-Joachim Marseille, the highest-scoring ace in the North African campaign, who shot down 158 enemy aircraft (in about a third of the time). It was also flown by many aces from other countries fighting with Germany, notably the Finn Ilmari Juutilainen, the highest-scoring non-German ace. He scored 58 of his 94 confirmed victories with the Bf 109. Pilots from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, and Italy also flew the fighter. Through constant development, the Bf 109 remained competitive with the latest Allied fighter aircraft until the end of the war.

Origins
During 1933, the Technisches Amt (C-Amt), the technical department of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) ("Reich Aviation Ministry"), concluded a series of research projects into the future of air combat. The result of the studies was four broad outlines for future aircraft:
 * Rüstungsflugzeug I for a multi-seat medium bomber
 * Rüstungsflugzeug II for a tactical bomber
 * Rüstungsflugzeug III for a single-seat fighter
 * Rüstungsflugzeug IV for a two-seat heavy fighter

Rüstungsflugzeug III was intended to be a short range interceptor, replacing the Arado Ar 64 and Heinkel He 51 biplanes then in service. In late March 1933, the RLM published the tactical requirements for a single-seat fighter in the document L.A. 1432/33.

The projected fighter needed to have a top speed of 400 km/h at 6000 m, to be maintained for 20 minutes, while having a total flight duration of 90 minutes. The critical altitude of 6,000 metres was to be reached in no more than 17 minutes, and the fighter was to have an operational ceiling of 10000 m. Power was to be provided by the new Junkers Jumo 210 engine of about 522 kW. It was to be armed with either a single 20 mm MG C/30 engine-mounted cannon firing through the propeller hub as a Motorkanone, or two synchronized, engine cowl-mounted 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns, or one lightweight engine-mounted 20 mm MG FF cannon with two 7.92 mm MG 17s. The MG C/30 was an airborne adaption of the 2 cm FlaK 30 anti-aircraft gun, which fired very powerful "Long Solothurn" ammunition, but was very heavy and had a low rate of fire. It was also specified that the wing loading should be kept below 100 kg/m2. The performance was to be evaluated based on the fighter's level speed, rate of climb, and maneuverability, in that order.

It has been suggested that Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW) was originally not invited to participate in the competition due to personal animosity between Willy Messerschmitt and RLM director Erhard Milch; however, recent research by Willy Radinger and Walter Shick indicates that this may not have been the case, as all three competing companies—Arado, Heinkel and BFW—received the development contract for the L.A. 1432/33 requirements at the same time in February 1934. A fourth company, Focke-Wulf, received a copy of the development contract only in September 1934. The powerplant was to be the new Junkers Jumo 210, but the proviso was made that it would be interchangeable with the more powerful, but less developed Daimler-Benz DB 600 powerplant. Each was asked to deliver three prototypes for head-to-head testing in late 1934.

Prototypes
Design work on Messerschmitt Project Number P.1034 began in March 1934, just three weeks after the development contract was awarded. The basic mock-up was completed by May, and a more detailed design mock-up was ready by January 1935. The RLM designated the design as type "Bf 109", the next available from a block of numbers assigned to BFW.

The first prototype (Versuchsflugzeug 1 or V1), with civilian registration D-IABI, was completed by May 1935, but the new German engines were not yet ready. To get the "R III" designs into the air, the RLM acquired four Rolls-Royce Kestrel VI engines by trading Rolls-Royce a Heinkel He 70 Blitz for use as an engine test-bed. Messerschmitt received two of these engines and adapted the engine mounts of V1 to take the V-12 engine upright. V1 made its maiden flight at the end of May 1935 at the airfield located in the southernmost Augsburg neighborhood of Haunstetten, piloted by Hans-Dietrich "Bubi" Knoetzsch. After four months of flight testing, the aircraft was delivered in September to the Luftwaffe's central test centre at the Erprobungsstelle Rechlin to take part in the design competition.

In 1935, the first Jumo engines became available, so V2 was completed in October using the 449 kW Jumo 210A engine. V3 followed, the first to be mounted with guns, but it did not fly until May 1936 due to a delay in procuring another Jumo 210 engine.

Design competition
After Luftwaffe acceptance trials were completed at their headquarters Erprobungsstelle (E-Stelle) military aviation test and development facility at Rechlin, the prototypes were moved to the subordinate E-Stelle Baltic seacoast facility at Travemünde for the head-to-head portion of the competition. The aircraft participating in the trials were the Arado Ar 80 V3, the Focke-Wulf Fw 159 V3, the Heinkel He 112 V4 and the Bf 109 V2. The He 112 arrived first, in early February 1936, followed by the rest of the prototypes by the end of the month.

Because most fighter pilots of the Luftwaffe were used to biplanes with open cockpits, low wing loading, light g-forces and easy handling like the Heinkel He 51, they were very critical of the Bf 109 at first. However, it soon became one of the frontrunners in the contest, as the Arado and Focke-Wulf entries, which were intended as "backup" programmes to safeguard against failure of the two favourites, proved to be completely outclassed. The Arado Ar 80, with its gull wing (replaced with a straight, tapered wing on the V3) and fixed, spatted undercarriage was overweight and underpowered, and the design was abandoned after three prototypes had been built. The parasol winged Fw 159, potentially inspired by the same firm's earlier Focke-Wulf Fw 56, was always considered by the E-Stelle Travemünde facility's staff to be a compromise between a biplane and an aerodynamically more efficient, low-wing monoplane. Although it had some advanced features, it used a novel, complex retractable main undercarriage which proved to be unreliable.

Initially, the Bf 109 was regarded with disfavour by E-Stelle test pilots because of its steep ground angle, which resulted in poor forward visibility when taxiing; the sideways-hinged cockpit canopy, which could not be opened in flight (but could be dropped by the emergency arm). They were also concerned about the high wing loading.

The Heinkel He 112, based on a scaled-down Blitz, was the favourite of the Luftwaffe leaders. Compared with the Bf 109, it was also cheaper. Positive aspects of the He 112 included the wide track and robustness of the undercarriage (this opened outwards from mid wing, as opposed to the 109s which opened from the wing root), considerably better visibility from the cockpit and a lower wing loading that made for easier landings. In addition, the V4 had a single-piece, clear-view, sliding cockpit canopy and a more powerful Jumo 210Da engine with a modified exhaust system. However, the He 112 was also structurally complicated, being 18% heavier than the Bf 109, and it soon became clear that the thick wing, which spanned 12.6 m (41 ft 4 in) with an area of 23.2 m2 (249.7 ft2) on the first prototype (V1), was a disadvantage for a light fighter, decreasing the aircraft's rate of roll and manoeuvrability. As a result, the He 112 V4 which was used for the trials had new wings, spanning 11.5 m (37 ft 8.75 in) with an area of 21.6 m2 (232.5 ft2). However, the improvements had not been fully tested and the He 112 V4 could not be demonstrated in accordance with the rules laid down by the Acceptance Commission, placing it at a distinct disadvantage.

Because of its smaller, lighter airframe, the Bf 109 was 30 km/h (20 mph) faster than the He 112 in level flight, and superior in climbing and diving. The Commission ultimately ruled in favour of the Bf 109 because of the Messerschmitt test pilot's demonstration of the 109's capabilities during a series of spins, dives, flick rolls and tight turns, throughout which the pilot was in complete control of the aircraft.

In March, the RLM received news that the British Supermarine Spitfire had been ordered into production. It was felt that a quick decision was needed to get the winning design into production as soon as possible, so on 12 March, the RLM announced the results of the competition in a document entitled Bf 109 Priority Procurement, which ordered the Bf 109 into production. At the same time, Heinkel was instructed to radically redesign the He 112. The Messerschmitt 109 made its public debut during the 1936 Berlin Olympics when the V1 prototype was flown.

Design features
As with the earlier Bf 108, the new design was based on Messerschmitt's "lightweight construction" principle, which aimed to minimise the number of separate parts in the aircraft. Examples of this could be found in the use of two large, complex brackets which were fitted to the firewall. These brackets incorporated the lower engine mounts and landing gear pivot point into one unit. A large forging attached to the firewall housed the main spar pick-up points and carried most of the wing loads. Contemporary design practice was usually to have these main load-bearing structures mounted on different parts of the airframe, with the loads being distributed through the structure via a series of strong-points. By concentrating the loads in the firewall, the structure of the Bf 109 could be made relatively light and uncomplicated.

An advantage of this design was that the main landing gear, which retracted through an 85-degree angle, was attached to the fuselage, making it possible to completely remove the wings for servicing without additional equipment to support the fuselage. It also allowed simplification of the wing structure, since it did not have to bear the loads imposed during takeoff or landing. The one major drawback of this landing gear arrangement was its narrow wheel track, making the aircraft unstable while on the ground. To increase stability, the legs were splayed outward somewhat, creating another problem in that the loads imposed during takeoff and landing were transferred up through the legs at an angle.

The small rudder of the Bf 109 was relatively ineffective at controlling the strong swing created by the powerful slipstream of the propeller during the early portion of the takeoff roll, and this sideways drift created disproportionate loads on the wheel opposite to the swing. If the forces imposed were large enough, the pivot point broke and the landing gear leg would collapse outward into its bay. Experienced pilots reported that the swing was easy to control, but some of the less-experienced pilots lost fighters on takeoff.

Because of the large ground angle caused by the long legs, forward visibility while on the ground was very poor, a problem exacerbated by the sideways-opening canopy. This meant that pilots had to taxi in a sinuous fashion which also imposed stresses on the splayed undercarriage legs. Ground accidents were a problem with inexperienced pilots, especially during the later stages of the war when pilots received less training before being sent to operational units. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. The installation of a fixed "tall" tailwheel on some of the late G-10s and −14s and the K-series helped alleviate the problem to a large extent.

From the inception of the design, priority was given to easy access to the powerplant, fuselage weapons and other systems while the aircraft was operating from forward airfields. To this end, the entire engine cowling was made up of large, easily removable panels which were secured by large toggle latches. A large panel under the wing centre section could be removed to gain access to the L-shaped main fuel tank, which was sited partly under the cockpit floor and partly behind the rear cockpit bulkhead. Other, smaller panels gave easy access to the cooling system and electrical equipment. The engine was held in two large, forged, Elektron magnesium alloy Y-shaped legs, one per side straddling the engine block, which were cantilevered from the firewall. Each of the legs was secured by two quick-release screw fittings on the firewall. All of the main pipe connections were colour-coded and grouped in one place, where possible, and electrical equipment plugged into junction boxes mounted on the firewall. The entire powerplant could be removed or replaced as a unit in a matter of minutes, a potential step to the eventual adoption of the unitized-powerplant Kraftei engine mounting concept used by many German combat aircraft designs, later in the war years.

Another example of the Bf 109's advanced design was the use of a single, I-beam main spar in the wing, positioned more aft than usual (to give enough room for the retracted wheel), thus forming a stiff D-shaped torsion box. Most aircraft of the era used two spars, near the front and rear edges of the wings, but the D-box was much stiffer torsionally, and eliminated the need for the rear spar. The wing profile was the NACA 2R1 14.2 at the root and NACA 2R1 11.35 at the tip, with a thickness to chord ratio of 14.2% at the root and 11.35% at the tip.

Another major difference from competing designs was the higher wing-loading. While the R-IV contract called for a wing-loading of less than 100 kg/m2, Messerschmitt felt this was unreasonable. With a low wing-loading and the engines available, a fighter would end up being slower than the bombers it was tasked with catching.

A fighter was designed primarily for high-speed flight. A smaller wing area was optimal for achieving high speed, but low-speed flight would suffer, as the smaller wing would require more airflow to generate enough lift to maintain flight. To compensate for this, the Bf 109 included advanced high-lift devices on the wings, including automatically opening leading edge slats, and fairly large camber-changing flaps on the trailing edge. The slats increased the lift of the wing considerably when deployed, greatly improving the horizontal maneuverability of the aircraft, as several Luftwaffe veterans, such as Erwin Leykauf, attest. Messerschmitt also included ailerons that "drooped" when the flaps were lowered (F series and later the lower radiator flap operated as part of the flap system), thereby increasing the effective flap area. When deployed, these devices effectively increased the wings' coefficient of lift.

Fighters with liquid-cooled engines were vulnerable to hits in the cooling system. For this reason, on later Bf 109 F, G and K models, the two coolant radiators were equipped with a cut-off system. If one radiator leaked, it was possible to fly on the second or to fly for at least five minutes with both closed. In 1943, Oberfeldwebel Edmund Roßmann got lost and landed behind Soviet lines. He agreed to show the Soviets how to service the plane. Soviet machine gun technician Viktor M. Sinaisky recalled: "The Messer was a very well designed plane. First, it had an engine of an inverted type, so it could not be knocked out from below. It also had two water radiators with a cut-off system: if one radiator leaked you could fly on the second or close both down and fly at least five minutes more. The pilot was protected by armour-plate from the back, and the fuel tank was also behind armour. Our planes had fuel tanks in the centre of their wings: that's why our pilot got burnt. What else did I like about the Messer? It was highly automatic and thus easy to fly. It also employed an electrical pitch regulator, which our planes didn't have. Our propeller system, with variable pitch was hydraulic, making it impossible to change pitch without engine running. If, God forbid, you turned off the engine at high pitch, it was impossible to turn the propeller and was very hard to start the engine again. Finally, the German ammo counter was also a great thing."

Armament and gondola cannons

Reflecting Messerschmitt's belief in low-weight, low-drag, simple monoplanes, the armament was placed in the fuselage. This kept the wings very thin and light. Two synchronized machine guns were mounted in the cowling, firing over the top of the engine and through the propeller arc. An alternative arrangement was also designed, consisting of a single autocannon firing through a blast tube between the cylinder banks of the engine, known as a Motorkanone mount in German. This was also the choice of armament layout on some contemporary monoplane fighters, such as the French Dewoitine D.520, or the American Bell P-39 Airacobra, and dated back to World War I's small run of SPAD S.XII moteur-canon, 37 mm cannon-armed fighters in France.

When it was discovered in 1937 that the RAF was planning eight-gun batteries for its new Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters, it was decided that the Bf 109 should be more heavily armed. The problem was that the only place available to mount additional guns was in the wings. Only one spot was available in each wing, between the wheel well and slats, with room for only one gun, either a 7.92 mm MG 17 machine gun, a 20 mm MG FF or a 20 mm MG FF/M cannon.

The first version of the Bf 109 to have wing guns was the C-1, which had one MG 17 in each wing. To avoid redesigning the wing to accommodate large ammunition boxes and access hatches, an unusual ammunition feed was devised whereby a continuous belt holding 500 rounds was fed along chutes out to the wing tip, around a roller, and then back along the wing, forward and beneath the gun breech, to the wing root, where it coursed around another roller and back to the weapon.

The gun barrel was placed in a long, large-diameter tube located between the spar and the leading edge. The tube channeled cooling air around the barrel and breech, exhausting from a slot at the rear of the wing. The installation was so cramped that parts of the MG 17's breech mechanism extended into an opening created in the flap structure.

The much longer and heavier MG FF had to be mounted farther along the wing in an outer bay. A large hole was cut through the spar allowing the cannon to be fitted with the ammunition feed forward of the spar, while the breech block projected rearward through the spar. A 60-round ammunition drum was placed in a space closer to the wing root causing a bulge in the underside. A small hatch was incorporated in the bulge to allow access for changing the drum. The entire weapon could be removed for servicing by removing a leading edge panel.

From the 109F-series onwards, guns were no longer carried inside the wings. Instead, the Bf 109F had a 20 mm gun firing through the propeller shaft. The change was disliked by leading fighter pilots such as Adolf Galland and Walter Oesau, but others such as Werner Mölders considered the single nose-mounted gun to compensate well for the loss of the two wing guns. Galland had his Bf 109F-2 field-modified with a 20 mm MG FF/M autocannon, the "/M" suffix indicating the capability of firing thin-walled 20mm mine shells, installed internally in each wing.

In place of internal wing armament, additional firepower was provided through a pair of 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons installed in conformal gun pods under the wings. The conformal gun pods, exclusive of ammunition, weighed 135 kg (298 lb); and 135 to 145 rounds were provided per gun. The total weight, including ammunition, was 215 kg. Installation of the under-wing gun pods was a simple task that could be quickly performed by the unit's armourers, and the gun pods imposed a reduction of speed of only 8 km/h. By comparison, the installed weight of a similar armament of two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon inside the wings of the Fw 190A-4/U8 was 130 kg (287 lb), without ammunition.

Although the additional armament increased the fighter's potency as a bomber destroyer, it had an adverse effect on the handling qualities, reducing its performance in fighter-versus-fighter combat and accentuating the tendency of the fighter to swing pendulum-fashion in flight.

Some of the projected 109K-series models, such as the K-6, were designed to carry 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons in the wings.

Designation and nicknames
Originally the aircraft was designated as Bf 109 by the RLM, since the design was submitted by the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (literally "Bavarian Aircraft Works", meaning "Bavarian Aircraft Factory"; sometimes abbreviated B.F.W., akin to BMW) during 1935. The company was renamed Messerschmitt AG after 11 July 1938 when Erhard Milch finally allowed Willy Messerschmitt to acquire the company. All Messerschmitt aircraft that originated after that date, such as the Me 210, were to carry the "Me" designation. Despite regulations by the RLM, wartime documents from Messerschmitt AG, RLM and Luftwaffe loss and strength reports continued to use both designations, sometimes even on the same page.

All extant airframes bear the official "Bf 109" designation on their identification plates, including the final K-4 models. The aircraft was often referred to by the folk-designation, 'Me 109', particularly by the Allies.

The aircraft was often nicknamed Messer by its operators and opponents alike; the name was not only an abbreviation of the manufacturer but also the German word for "knife". In Finland, the Bf 109 was known as Mersu, although this was originally (and still is) the Finnish nickname for Mercedes-Benz cars.

Soviet aviators nicknamed the Bf 109 "the skinny one" (худо́й, khudoy), for its sleek appearance compared, for example, to the more robust Fw 190.

The names "Anton", "Berta", "Caesar", "Dora", "Emil", "Friedrich", "Gustav", and "Kurfürst" were derived from the variant's official letter designation (e.g. Bf 109G – "Gustav"), based on the German spelling alphabet of World War II, a practice that was also used for other German aircraft designs. The G-6 variant was nicknamed by Luftwaffe personnel as Die Beule ("the bump/bulge") because of the cowling's characteristic, bulging covers for the breeches of the 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns, with the separate Beule covers eliminated by the time of the G-10 model's introduction of a subtly reshaped upper cowling.

Record-setting flights
In July 1937, not long after the public debut of the new fighter, three Bf 109Bs took part in the Flugmeeting airshow in Zürich under the command of Major Seidemann. They won in several categories: First prize in a speed race over a 202 km course, first prize in the class A category in the international Alpenrundflug for military aircraft, and victory in the international Patrouillenflug category.

On 11 November 1937, the Bf 109 V13, D-IPKY flown by Messerschmitt's chief pilot Dr. Hermann Wurster, powered by a 1230 kW DB 601R racing engine, set a new world air speed record for landplanes with piston engines of 610.95 km/h, winning the title for Germany for the first time. Converted from a Bf 109D, the V13 had been fitted with a special racing DB 601R engine that could deliver 1230 kW for short periods.

Heinkel, having had the He 112 rejected in the design competition of 1936, designed and built the He 100. On 6 June 1938, the He 100 V3, flown by Ernst Udet, captured the record with a speed of 634.7 km/h. On 30 March 1939, test pilot Hans Dieterle surpassed that record, reaching 746.61 km/h with the He 100 V8. Messerschmitt, however, soon regained the lead when, on 26 April 1939, Flugkapitän Fritz Wendel, flying the Me 209 V1, set a new record of 755.14 km/h. For propaganda purposes, the Me 209 V1 aircraft (possibly from its post-July 1938 first flight date) was given the designation Me 109R, with the later prefix, never used for wartime Bf 109 fighters. The Me 209 V1 was powered by the DB 601ARJ, producing 1,156 kW (1,550 hp), but capable of reaching 1,715 kW (2,300 hp). This world record for a piston-engined aircraft was to stand until 1969, when Darryl Greenamyer's modified Grumman F8F Bearcat, Conquest I, broke it with a 777 km/h record speed.

Variants

When the Bf 109 was designed in 1934, by a team led by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser, its primary role was that of a high-speed, short-range interceptor. It used the most advanced aerodynamics of the time and embodied advanced structural design which was ahead of its contemporaries. In the early years of the war, the Bf 109 was the only single-engined fighter operated by the Luftwaffe, until the appearance of the Fw 190. The Bf 109 remained in production from 1937 through 1945 in many different variants and sub-variants. The primary engines used were the Daimler-Benz DB 601 and DB 605, though the Junkers Jumo 210 powered most of the pre-war variants. The most-produced Bf 109 model was the Bf 109G series (more than a third of all 109s built were the G-6 series, 12,000 units being manufactured from March 1943 until the end of the war). The initial production models of the A, B, C and D series were powered by the relatively low-powered, 670 - 700 PS Junkers Jumo 210 series engines. A few prototypes of these early aircraft were converted to use the more powerful DB 600.

The first redesign came with the E series, including the naval variant, the Bf 109T (T standing for Träger, carrier). The Bf 109E (Emil) introduced structural changes to accommodate the heavier and more powerful 1100 PS Daimler-Benz DB 601 engine, heavier armament and increased fuel capacity. Partly due to its limited 300 km combat radius on internal fuel alone, resulting from its 660 km range limit, later variants of the E series had a fuselage ordnance rack for fighter-bomber operations or provision for a long-range, standardized 300 L drop-tank and used the DB 601N engine of higher power output. The Bf 109E first saw service with the "Condor Legion" during the last phase of the Spanish Civil War and was the main variant from the beginning of World War II until mid-1941 when the Bf 109F replaced it in the pure fighter role. (Eight Bf 109Es were assembled in Switzerland in 1946 by the Dornier-Werke, using licence-built airframes; a ninth airframe was assembled using spare parts.)

The second big redesign during 1939–40 gave birth to the F series. The Friedrich had new wings, cooling system and fuselage aerodynamics, with the 1175 PS DB 601N (F-1, F-2) or the 1350 PS DB 601E (F-3, F-4). Considered by many as the high-water mark of Bf 109 development, the F series abandoned the wing cannon and concentrated all armament in the forward fuselage with a pair of synchronized machine guns above and a single 15 or 20 mm Motorkanone-mount cannon behind the engine, the latter firing between the cylinder banks and through the propeller hub, itself covered by a more streamlined, half-elliptical shaped spinner that better matched the streamlining of the reshaped cowling, abandoning the smaller, conical spinner of the Emil subtype. The F-type also omitted the earlier stabilizer lift strut on either side of the tail. The improved aerodynamics were used by all later variants. Some Bf 109Fs were used late in the Battle of Britain in 1940 but the variant came into common use only in the first half of 1941.

The G series, or Gustav, was introduced in mid-1942. Its initial variants (G-1 through G-4) differed only in minor details from the Bf 109F, most notably in the more powerful 1475 PS DB 605 engine. Odd-numbered variants were built as high-altitude fighters with a pressurized cockpit and GM-1 boost, while even-numbered variants were un-pressurized, air superiority fighters and fighter-bombers. Long-range photo-reconnaissance variants also existed. The later G series (G-5 through G-14) was produced in a multitude of variants, with uprated armament and provision for kits of packaged, generally factory-installed parts known as Umrüst-Bausätze (usually contracted to Umbau) and adding a "/U" suffix to the aircraft designation when installed. Field kits known as Rüstsätze were also available for the G-series but those did not change the aircraft title. By early 1944, tactical requirements resulted in the addition of MW-50 water injection boost and high-performance superchargers, boosting engine output to 1800 - 2000 PS. From early 1944, some G-2s, G-3s, G-4s and G-6s were converted to two-seat trainers, known as G-12s. An instructor's cockpit was added behind the original cockpit and both were covered by an elongated, glazed canopy.

The final production version of the Bf 109 was the K series or Kurfürst, introduced in late 1944, powered by the DB 605D engine with up to 2000 PS. Though externally akin to the late production Bf 109G series, a large number of internal changes and aerodynamic improvements were incorporated that improved its effectiveness and remedied flaws, keeping it competitive with the latest Allied and Soviet fighters. The Bf 109's outstanding rate of climb was superior to many Allied adversaries including the P-51D Mustang, Spitfire Mk. XIV and Hawker Tempest Mk. V.

After the war, the 109 was built in Czechoslovakia, as the Avia S-99 and Avia S-199 (with twenty-five S-199s serving with Israel in 1948) and in Spain as the Hispano Aviación Ha 1109 and Ha 1112.

Production
Total Bf 109 production was 33,984 units; wartime production (September 1939 to May 1945) was 30,573 units. Fighter production totalled 47% of all German aircraft production, and the Bf 109 accounted for 57% of all German fighter types produced. A total of 2,193 Bf 109 A–E was built prewar, from 1936 to August 1939.

In January 1943, as part of an effort to increase fighter production, Messerschmitt licensed an SS-owned company, DEST, to manufacture Bf 109 parts at Flossenbürg concentration camp. Messerschmitt provided skilled technicians, raw materials, and tools and the SS provided prisoners, in a deal that proved highly profitable for both parties. Production at Flossenbürg started in February. The number of prisoners working for Messerschmitt increased greatly after the bombing of Messerschmitt's Regensburg plant on 17 August 1943. Erla, a subcontractor of Messerschmitt, established Flossenbürg subcamps to support its production: a subcamp at Johanngeorgenstadt, established in December 1943, to produce tailplanes for the Bf 109, and another subcamp at Mülsen-St. Micheln which produced Bf 109 wings, in January 1944. The Flossenbürg camp system had become a key supplier of Bf 109 parts by February 1944, when Messerschmitt's Regensburg plant was bombed again during "Big Week". Increased production at Flossenbürg was essential to restoring production in the aftermath of the attacks.

The Austrian resistance group, led by Heinrich Maier, very successfully passed on plans and production facilities in the Austrian area for Messerschmitt Bf 109 to the Allies from 1943. With the location of the production sites, the Allied bombers were able to attempt "precise" air strikes.

After the August 1943 Regensburg raid, some Bf 109 production was relocated to Gusen concentration camp in Austria, where the average prisoner's life expectancy was six months. In order to make the new production facilities bomb-proof, other prisoners were forced to build tunnels so that production could be relocated underground. Many died while performing this hazardous duty. By mid-1944, more than a third of the production at the Regensburg factory originated in Flossenbürg and Gusen alone; only the final assembly was done in Regensburg. Separately, Erla employed thousands of concentration camp prisoners at Buchenwald on 109 production. Forced labor at Buchenwald produced approximately 300 Bf 109 fuselages, tail sections, and wings before the end of the war.

Some 865 Bf 109G derivatives were manufactured postwar under licence as Czechoslovak-built Avia S-99 and S-199s, with the production ending in 1948. Production of the Spanish-built Hispano Aviación HA-1109 and HA-1112 Buchons ended in 1958.

* Production up to end of March 1945 only.

Operational history

The first Bf 109As served in the Spanish Civil War. By September 1939, the Bf 109 had become the main fighter of the Luftwaffe, replacing the biplane fighters, and was instrumental in gaining air superiority for the Wehrmacht during the early stages of the war. During the Battle of Britain, it was pressed into the role of escort fighter, a role for which it was not originally designed, and it was widely employed as a fighter-bomber, as well as a photo-reconnaissance platform. Despite mixed results over Britain, with the introduction of the improved Bf 109F in early 1941, the type again proved to be an effective fighter during the Invasion of Yugoslavia (where it was used by both sides), the Battle of Crete, Operation Barbarossa (the invasion of the USSR) and the Siege of Malta.

In 1942, it began to be partially replaced in Western Europe by a new German fighter, the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, but it continued to serve in a multitude of roles on the Eastern Front and in the Defense of the Reich, as well as in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations and with Erwin Rommel's Afrikakorps. It was also supplied to several of Germany's allies, including Italy, Finland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia and Slovakia.

More aerial kills were made with the Bf 109 than any other aircraft of World War II. Many of the aerial victories were accomplished against poorly trained and badly organized Soviet forces in 1941 during Barbarossa. The Soviets lost 21,200 aircraft, about half to combat. If shot down, the Luftwaffe pilots might land or parachute to friendly territory and return to fight again. Later in the war, when Allied victories began to bring the fight closer, and then in German territory, bombing raids supplied plenty of targets for the Luftwaffe. This unique combination of events — until American long-range fighters appeared very early in 1944, that steadily gave the Allies daylight air supremacy over the Reich — led to the highest-ever individual pilot victory scores. One hundred and five Bf 109 pilots were each credited with the destruction of 100 or more enemy aircraft. Thirteen of these men scored more than 200 kills, while two scored more than 300. Altogether, this group of pilots was credited with a total of nearly 15,000 kills. Though no official "ace" status existed in the Luftwaffe - the term Experte (expert) was used for an experienced pilot irrespective of his number of kills - using the Allied definition of pilots who scored five or more kills, more than 2,500 Luftwaffe fighter pilots were considered aces in World War II. Against the Soviets, Finnish-flown Bf 109Gs claimed a victory ratio of 25:1.

Bf 109s remained in foreign service for many years after the war. The Bf109 was the first aircraft deployed at the beginning of the Israeli Air Force. The Swiss used their Bf 109Gs well into the 1950s. The Finnish Air Force did not retire their Bf 109Gs until March 1954. Romania used its Bf 109s until 1955. The Spanish Hispanos flew even longer, some still in service in the late 1960s. They appeared in films (notably Battle of Britain) playing the role of Bf 109Es; some Hispano airframes were sold to museums, which rebuilt them as Bf 109s.

Operators
Note, this list includes operators who used Bf 109s for active service or combat. It does not include France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, which all operated small numbers of captured aircraft for testing and evaluation (see: Messerschmitt Bf 109 operational history).

 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria
 * The Bulgarian Air Force operated 19 E-3s and 145 G-2/-6/-10s.
 * undefined
 * Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske operated over 50 Bf 109s, including E-4, F-2, G-2/-6/-10 and Ks.
 * Czechoslovakia – (captured)
 * Czechoslovak Air Force operated captured aircraft and continued building Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs after the war under the Avia S-99 name, but soon ran out of the 109's Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine after many were destroyed during an explosion at a warehouse in Krásné Březno.
 * Finnish Air Force ordered 162 aircraft (48 G-2s, 111 G-6s and three G-8s) from Germany, but 3 were destroyed during transit, leaving the FAF with 159 Bf 109s. FAF pilots had 663 air victories during 1943–44 with Bf 109 G's and lost 34 in combat (20 shot down by enemy aircraft). 23 were non-combat losses and other write-offs. 102 Bf 109 G survived the war.
 * 🇬🇷 Greece – (captured)
 * Royal Hellenic Air Force operated a number of captured G-6 109s which had been left during the German withdrawal in October 1944
 * Nazi Germany
 * Luftwaffe was the main operator of the Bf 109.
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary
 * Royal Hungarian Air Force operated 3 D-1s, 50 E-3/-4s, 66 F-4s and ~490 G-2/-4/-6/-8/-10/-14s.
 * 🇮🇱 Israel
 * Israeli Air Force operated the Avia S-199 derivative, bought from Czechoslovakia. Despite the type's shortcomings the Israelis scored 8 victories. Egypt and Syria claimed 4 S-199 kills, and 1 probable.
 * undefined
 * Regia Aeronautica operated several tens of Bf 109s in the first half of 1943.
 * Italian Social Republic
 * Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana operated 300 G-6/-10/-14s and two G-12s; three K-4s were also received.
 * Imperial Japanese Army Air Force purchased 5 E-7s in 1941. The aircraft were used for tests and trials.
 * undefined
 * Royal Romanian Air Force operated 50 E-3/4s, 19 E-7s, 2 F-2s, 5 F-4s and at least 200+ G-2/G-4/G-6/-8s plus 124 IAR assembled Ga-2/Ga-4/Ga-6.
 * Romanian Air Force – Postwar.
 * Slovak Republic (1939–1945)
 * Slovak Air Force operated 16 E-3s, 14 E-7s and 30 G-6s.
 * Slovak Insurgent Air Force operated 3 G-6s during the Slovak National Uprising.
 * Spanish State
 * Spanish Air Force operated some D-1s, E-3s and 15 F-4s, and may have received several older B-types. Volunteers of Escuadrilla Azul on the Eastern Front operated E-4, E-7, E-7/B, F-2, F-4 (belonged in JG-27 under the command of Luftflotte 2, until April 1943) among G-4 and G-6 (detached in JG-51 under the command Luftflotte 4, until June 1944). A variant under license by the name Hispano Aviación HA-1112 was produced until 1958.
 * Swiss Air Force operated 10 D-1s, 89 E-3a variants, 2 F-4s and 14 G-6s.
 * undefined
 * Royal Yugoslav Air Force operated 73 E-3a variants.
 * SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated several ex-NDH and Bulgarian Bf 109Gs.
 * undefined
 * Royal Yugoslav Air Force operated 73 E-3a variants.
 * SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated several ex-NDH and Bulgarian Bf 109Gs.

title: Messerschmitt Bf 109


text:
Henschel & Son

Henschel & Son (Henschel und Sohn) was a German company, located in Kassel, best known during the 20th century as a maker of transportation equipment, including locomotives, trucks, buses and trolleybuses, and armoured fighting vehicles and weapons.

Georg Christian Carl Henschel founded the factory in 1810 at Kassel. His son Carl Anton Henschel founded another factory in 1837. In 1848, the company began manufacturing locomotives. The factory became the largest locomotive manufacturer in Germany by the 20th century. Henschel built 10 articulated steam trucks, using Doble steam designs, for Deutsche Reichsbahn railways as delivery trucks. Several cars were built as well, one of which became Hermann Göring's staff car. In 1935 Henschel was able to upgrade its various steam locomotives to a high-speed Streamliner type with a maximum speeds of up to 140 km/h by the addition of a removable shell over the old steam locomotive. In 1918, Henschel began the production of gearboxes at the Kassel plant. In January 1925, Henschel & Son began building trucks and buses.

World War II
Early in 1935, Henschel began manufacturing Panzer I tanks. During World War II, the firm was responsible for license production of the Dornier Do 17Z medium bomber, and in 1939–1940 it began large-scale production of the Panzer III. Henschel was the sole manufacturer of the Tiger I, and alongside Porsche the Tiger II. In 1945, the company had 8,000 workers working in two shifts each of 12 hours, and forced labour was used extensively. The company's factories, which also manufactured narrow-gauge locomotives, were among the most important Allied bomber targets and were nearly completely destroyed.

Aviation
Henschel Flugzeugwerke aircraft and missiles included:
 * Henschel Hs 117 Schmetterling (Butterfly), rocket-engined surface-to-air missile
 * Henschel Hs 121, fighter and trainer (prototype)
 * Henschel Hs 122, army co-operation/reconnaissance
 * Henschel Hs 123, ground-attack (biplane)
 * Henschel Hs 124, heavy fighter and bomber (prototype)
 * Henschel Hs 125, fighter and trainer (prototype)
 * Henschel Hs 126, reconnaissance
 * Henschel Hs 127, fast medium bomber (Schnellbomber prototype)
 * Henschel Hs 128, high-altitude reconnaissance and bomber (prototypes)
 * Henschel Hs 129, ground-attack
 * Henschel Hs 130, high altitude reconnaissance and bomber (prototypes)
 * Henschel Hs 132, jet-engined dive bomber (prototype)
 * Henschel Hs 135, delta wing
 * Henschel Hs 293, rocket-boosted glide bomb
 * Henschel Hs 294, rocket-powered anti-shipping glide bomb
 * Henschel Hs 295
 * Henschel Hs 296
 * Henschel Hs 297 Föhn, 73mm anti-aircraft rocket-launcher
 * Henschel Hs 298, rocket-powered air-to-air missile
 * Henschel Projekt P.75, a 1941 design with slightly swept-back wings placed at the rear, swept-back canards at the front, and double pusher propellers at the rear.
 * Henschel Projekt P.87, a Schnellbomber design similar to the Hs P.75, except that the canards in the front are straight and the wing is curved.
 * Henschel 'Zitterrochen' (Torpedofish), air-to-surface missile (pre-production only)

Post-war business
Manufacturing began again in 1948. In 1964, the company took over Rheinische Stahlwerke and became Rheinstahl Henschel AG (Hanomag). The truck production of Henschel was merged with that of Hanomag that spun off to form Hanomag-Henschel in 1969, this later went to Daimler-Benz, which discontinued the brand name Hanomag-Henschel in 1974. The production was switched to commercial vehicle axles, in this area it is the largest factory in Europe. In 1976 Thyssen-Henschel, and 1990 ABB Henschel AG. In 1996, the company became ABB Daimler Benz Transportation Adtranz. The company was subsequently acquired by Bombardier (Canada) around 2002. The Kassel facility still exists and is one of the world's largest manufacturers of locomotives (Henschel Antriebstechnik).

Locomotives
Private, mining and industry railways

 * Generation 1
 * Henschel DH 110
 * Henschel DH 200
 * Henschel DH 360
 * Henschel DH 550

 * Generation 2
 * Henschel DH 240
 * Henschel DH 360
 * Henschel DH 390
 * Henschel DH 440
 * Henschel DH 630
 * Henschel DH 875
 * Henschel DHG 630
 * Henschel DH 500
 * Henschel DH 500

 * Generation 3
 * Henschel DH 120 B
 * Henschel DH 180 B
 * Henschel DH 240 B
 * Henschel DH 360 B
 * Henschel DH 500 B
 * Henschel DH 120 B
 * Henschel DH 120 B
 * Henschel DH 120 B
 * Henschel DH 120 B
 * Henschel DH 360 Ca
 * Henschel DH 440 Ca
 * Henschel DH 500 Ca
 * Henschel DH 600 Ca
 * Henschel DH 700 Ci
 * Henschel DH 360 D
 * Henschel DH 700 D
 * Henschel DH 850 D

 * Generation 4
 * Henschel DHG 500 C
 * Henschel DHG 700 C
 * Henschel DHG 1000 BB
 * Henschel DHG 1200 BB

 * Generation 5
 * Henschel DHG 300 B
 * Henschel DHG 700 C
 * Henschel DHG 700 C-F
 * Henschel DHG 800 BB
 * Henschel DHG 1200 BB

 * Generation 6
 * Henschel DHG 300 B
 * Henschel DE 500 C

 * Esslinger
 * Henschel DHG 160 B
 * Henschel DHG 200 B
 * Henschel DHG 240 B
 * Henschel DHG 275 B
 * Henschel DHG 330 C

 * Bundesbahn
 * Henschel-BBC DE2500

 * Export
 * Henschel DHG 625 C as SJ-Series V 4 und SJ-Series V 5
 * Henschel DH 600 C for Export to Ghana and Sudan
 * Henschel NY5 for the Chinese Railways
 * Henschel NY6 for the Chinese Railways
 * Henschel NY7 for the Chinese Railways
 * Henschel DHG 2500 BB for Indian Railways as WDM-3 - 8 built 1970
 * Henschel DHG 900 BB for the Indonesian Railways as BB302 01–BB302 06 (built 1970).
 * Henschel DHG 1000 BB for the Indonesian Railways as BB303 01–BB303 57 (built 1973, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1980 and 1984).
 * Henschel DHG 800 BB for the Indonesian Railways as BB306 01–BB306 22 (built 1984 to 1986).
 * Henschel AA221 for ENR (built 1978 to 1988).
 * DSB Class ME for The Danish State Railways from 1981 to 1985.
 * DSB Class EA for The Danish State Railways (The First Two units in 1984)
 * Série 070 a 097 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 0181 a 0190 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 0201 a 0224 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 281 a 286 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 291 a 296 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 351 a 365 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 501 a 508 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 551 a 560 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série 801 a 803 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série E1 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série E141 a E144 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série E161 a E170 for the Portuguese Railways
 * Série E201 a E216 for the Portuguese Railways

Notable employees

 * Chief Designer Erwin Aders
 * Dr. Herbert A. Wagner (see Henschel Hs 117, Henschel Hs 293, Henschel Hs 294, Supercavitation, Operation Paperclip)
 * Konrad Zuse

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Henschel & Son


text:
Erwin Aders

Erwin Aders (1881, Düsseldorf – 1974) was the chief designer for Germany's Henschel & Son during World War II. He led the design for the heavy tanks Tiger I and Tiger II.

title: Erwin Aders


text:
User:Marquee K

Hello! I'm a 2nd generation Japanese Canadian currently living in Tokyo, Japan. Before this I have lived in Bangalore, India and of course my country, Canada. I remember stumbling into Wikipedia in late 2002 from a search engine, though I can't recall what exactly I was looking for.  I hope I can contribute lots to Wikipedia and the Wikipedia community. I'm a fluent speaker of Japanese so I might be doing some editting in Wikipedia Japan as well.

title: User:Marquee K


text:
User:Emperor

I have been known by many names over the years but The Emperor has been the main one for the last 25 years so with the dawn of the Internet it seemed the most appropriate monicker to use (if for no other than reason to avoid confusion). This shouldn't be taken as evidence for any kind of insanity or megalomania - you'll have to work harder to pin those on me.

You can find my personal site at The Emperor dot org (although I haven't updated it in ages and can most often be found here).

Conflicts of interest. I've written for the Fortean Times and help out on their site, this does mean I have signed a contract with Dennis Publishing but am not au fait with all their catalogue so it might be possible that I infringe something by accident (just let me know and I'll fix it). Also my uncle is John Ash, my work on that article has been to provide sources and make sure the details are right (sometimes consulting with the family, although as far as I'm aware he doesn't even know about the page's existence) - again if there is a problem (or you have a question) let me know and I'll sort it out. Just in case it comes up I'm now a guest author on Neatorama and you can see my posts here.

Contributions
My interest lie in strange phenomena and some of the media it spins off into (although due to conflicts of issues I have tended to be more hands off - working on comics, films and books and crossovers and spin-offs). Some of these are still stubs so the list also works as a little reminder list in case I need to go back and add more things (note this hasn't been updated in a while):

Forteana

 * UnCon
 * Skinwalker Ranch
 * Skin-walker
 * Lionel Fanthorpe
 * Bob Rickard
 * David Sutton
 * Paul Sieveking
 * National Institute for Discovery Science
 * Colm Kelleher
 * Chupa (anomaly)
 * Colin Bennett both the writer and TV chap.
 * Ong's Hat and Ong's Hat, New Jersey
 * Montauk Project

Films

 * The Bunker (film)
 * Hellboy (film)
 * Hellboy 2
 * Bigfoot - mainly the list of films
 * Yokai - again the film section
 * Kibakichi

Books

 * David Barnett
 * List of steampunk works
 * Steampunk

Magazines

 * List of magazines of anomalous phenomena
 * The End Is Nigh
 * Animals & Men
 * Magonia
 * Steamshovel Press
 * Northern Earth
 * 3rd Stone

Comics
Mainly related to British comics (and their creators) and 2000 AD in particular and also where it crosses over into the world of the strange.

 * Necronauts
 * Fort: Prophet of the Unexplained
 * Vector 13
 * The Red Seas
 * Vimanarama
 * The Spider (comic)
 * FutureQuake
 * Leviathan (comic)
 * ''The Five Fists of Science
 * Blackhawk (UK comic)
 * Fiends of the Eastern Front
 * Bec & Kawl
 * Grant Morrison - redid bibliography
 * Garth Ennis - ditto
 * List of published material by Alan Moore
 * Bryan Talbot - rewrite
 * Michael Molcher
 * Frazer Irving
 * Ian Edginton
 * Future Shocks
 * Simon Spurrier
 * Boo Cook
 * Bad Company
 * John Tomlinson (comics)
 * Steve Pugh
 * Steve White (comics)
 * John Higgins
 * Jamie Delano - cleanup
 * G.I. (comics)
 * Tor Cyan
 * Mercy Heights
 * Friday (comics)
 * Venus Bluegenes
 * The 86ers
 * Harry Kipling
 * Pony School
 * Edward Berridge
 * John Reppion
 * Leah Moore
 * Matt Fraction
 * Titan Books
 * IDW Publishing
 * Commercial Suicide (comic)
 * Arthur Wyatt (writer)
 * Matt Timson
 * CSI (comic)
 * 24 (comic)
 * Planet of the Apes (comic)
 * Dogbreath
 * Stickleback (comics)
 * Really & Truly
 * Norts and Southers - I made the main graphics for both
 * Road to Perdition (comics)
 * Warhammer 40,000 comics
 * Springheeled Jack
 * List of television programs based on comics
 * List of comics based on fiction
 * List of video games based on comics
 * List of films based on comics
 * List of films based on English-language comics
 * List of films based on French-language comics
 * List of films based on manga
 * Matthew Dow Smith
 * Elric (comics)
 * Archaia Studios Press
 * Laurence Campbell
 * Comics Britannia
 * Jonathan Ross in Search of Steve Ditko
 * John Stokes (artist)
 * Self Made Hero
 * Classical Comics

Other Editors
Just a few people doing covering similar areas and tracking it on their personal pages:

 * Mike Dash - long time Fortean Times writer working on some interesting entries
 * Forteana Jones
 * Jon-Erik Beckjord - always good value (just read that page and his talk page)

Separated at birth
Editors with a scary similar set of interests to me:

 * ntnon - so close we could take it in turns living this life, freeing up loads of free time to start a cult or something

Recognition
Some people have been nice enough to stop by and give me nice things which I will display here:

WikiProjects
I have found myself getting involved with the following projects (I even made the CSI Project graphic - not that it is a stunning work of art but still):

title: User:Emperor


text:
Omen

An omen (also called portent) is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. It was commonly believed in ancient times, and still believed by some today, that omens bring divine messages from the gods.

These omens include natural phenomena, for example an eclipse, abnormal births of animals (especially humans) and behaviour of the sacrificial lamb on its way to the slaughter. Specialists, known as diviners, variously existed to interpret these omens. They would also use an artificial method, for example, a clay model of a sheep liver, to communicate with their gods in times of crisis. They would expect a binary answer, either yes or no, favourable or unfavourable. They did these to predict what would happen in the future and to take action to avoid disaster.

Though the word omen is usually devoid of reference to the change's nature, hence being possibly either "good" or "bad", the term is more often used in a foreboding sense, as with the word ominous. The word comes from its Latin equivalent omen, of otherwise uncertain origin.

Ancient Near East
The oldest source for this practice in the Ancient Near East came from Mesopotamian practice attested at the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. It was vigorously pursued by the Assyrian kings, Esarhaddon and his son, Ashurbanipal in the 7th century BC. Omens were interpreted by several methods—e.g., liver divination, lecanomancy, and libanomancy. Hepatoscopy—observing irregularities and abnormalities of the entrails of a sacrificial sheep—was used in many royal services.

Astrological omens were popular in Assyria in the 7th century BC. Diviners gained influence by interpreting omens and advising the king, Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), how to avoid some terrible fate. Sometimes the Assyrian king hid for a while after he put a substitute king on the throne. The court expected that the substitute king would take the evil consequences of an omen. When they believed the danger was over, they executed the substitute king and the true king resumed the throne.

The observations of omens were recorded into series. Some of them dated back to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, and these were arranged as conditional statement later (if such and such is the case, then such and such is the result).

This belief of omens later spread out around the Near East and beyond when clay models of sheep livers used for the diviners to learn the craft was found in Boghazkoi, Ugarit, Megiddo, and Hazor.

Letters from the city Mari dated at the latest from the 18th century showed that these divinatory practices were not limited to the royal court, but also played an important role in everyday life of the people.

Ancient Greece
An (omen) was defined in antiquity as the carnivorous vulture, especially a prophetic bird. By careful observation of the bird's cries and the way or direction it flew, the augurs attempted to predict the future. They also saw lightning or thunder as omens, sent from Zeus, and observed the direction in which they saw or heard them. Omens represented the divine will and the decisions of the gods, their positioning opposite human endeavors, and were aimed at being understood by sensitive receivers of the time, who brought the divine charisma to become intermediaries, channels between the world of gods and humans. Even since Homeric times, the Greeks paid special attention to these signs: when they saw vultures from the left, another symbol of Zeus, they considered it a bad omen. The cry of a heron or lightning to the right marked positive and promising omen. In the Greek territory, seers also judged good and bad omens from the unwillingness or willingness of a victim to approach the altar and by the state of its offal when slaughtered.

Ancient Rome
In ancient Roman religion, augurs interpreted the flights of birds to ascertain the will of the gods, in response to specific questions. Their system was complex; for example, while a bird-sign on the left was usually favourable (auspicious) and one on the right unfavourable (inauspicious), the combination of a raven on the right and a crow on the left was favourable. Augurs also studied the behaviour of domesticated, sacred chickens before embarking on important enterprises, such as a senatorial meeting, the passage of a new law, or a battle. These formal "divine consultations" by augurs are known as "taking the auspices". Haruspices examined the liver, lungs and entrails of animals sacrifice to interpret the will of the gods, again in response to clear and specific proposals. Some omens came in the form of prodigies – unnatural, aberrant or unusual phenomena such as meteor showers, hermaphrodite births, or "blood rain", any of which could signify that the gods had somehow been angered. The meaning and import of reported prodigies were officially debated and decided by the Roman senate, with advice from religious experts. Threatening signs could then be officially expiated and the gods placated with the appropriate sacrifice and rituals. The interpretation and expiation of omens that suggested a threat to the State was a serious business. In 217 BC the consul Gaius Flaminius "disregarded his horse's collapse, the chickens, and yet other omens, before his disaster at Lake Trasimene". Certain natural events, particularly lightning strikes and thunder, could be ominous for the public or state, or only for the individual who saw or heard them. When a thunderclap interrupted his election as consul, Marcellus gave up his candidacy. Thereafter he travelled in an enclosed litter when on important business, to avoid sight of any bad omens that might affect his plans.

Many Romans believed that particular words, phrases or incidents might carry prophetic content aimed at particular individuals who witnessed or heard them. Such "private" omens could be accepted, and their benefits secured (or their threat averted) by use of countersigns, or verbal formulas such as accepit omen, arripuit omen ("I accept the omen, I hold to it"); the consul L Aemilius Paullus, when about to embark on his campaign against King Perseus, heard his daughter say that her dog Persa had died; given the similarity of the names and the death of the dog, he took this as a sign that Perseus would be defeated – which he was. The orator and statesman Cicero, though an augur himself, and apparently convinced that in capable hands, it offered a reliable means of foretelling the future, was skeptical of unsolicited, personal omens. He reports the story that Licinius Crassus took ship for Syria despite the ominous call of a fig-seller – "Cauneas!" ("Caunean figs!"), which might be heard as "Cave ne eas!" ("Beware, don't go!") – and was killed on campaign. Cicero saw these events as merely coincidental; only the credulous could think them ominous. In Suetonius's "Lives of the Caesars", the deaths of various emperors are presaged by omens and dreams; the emperor Caligula, for example, dreamt that he stood before the throne of Jupiter, king of the gods, and Jupiter kicked him down from heaven to earth; Caligula ignored the premonition and was assassinated the next day.

Astrology

In the field of astrology, solar and lunar eclipses (along with the appearance of comets and to some extent the full moon) have often been considered omens of notable births, deaths, or other significant events throughout history in many societies. One Biblical example is the Magi in the Gospel of Matthew; in the Nativity narrative of the Gospel of Matthew, the Magi are depicted as predicting the birth of Jesus after seeing the Star of Bethlehem.

title: Omen


text:
Rail transport in Germany

, Germany had a railway network of 33,399 km, of which 20,540 km were electrified and 18,556 km were double track. Germany is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The UIC Country Code for Germany is 80.

Germany was ranked fourth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety. Germany had a very good rating for intensity of use, by both passengers and freight, and good ratings for quality of service and safety. Germany also captured relatively high value in return for public investment with cost to performance ratios that outperform the average ratio for all European countries.

Germany's rail freight of 117 billion tons/kilometer meant it carried 17.6% of all inland German cargo in 2015.

Overview
In 2018, railways in Germany transported the following amount of passengers and freight.

In 2014 (local passenger) and 2015 (other), there were the following amount of railway cars in Germany. Deutsche Bahn (state-owned private company) is the main provider of railway service. In recent years a number of competitors have started business. They mostly offer state funded regional services, but some companies offer long-distance services as well. In 2016, Deutsche Bahn had a share of 67% in the regional railway market and 68.6% in the inland freight market. As of October 2016, there were 452 railway operators registered in Germany, among them 124 regional passenger operators, 20 long-distance operators, and 163 freight operators.

In 2018, public sector funding accounted for 25.6% of the cost of short-distance passenger transport including all rail and bus services. The long-distance market generally does not require government funding.

Special scheme
In June, July and August 2022, there was a special ticket called the 9-Euro-Ticket, which was a ticket with which passengers could travel for 9 Euros per month on local and regional transport throughout Germany. The initiative aimed to reduce energy consumption during the global energy crisis in 2021–2022 and alleviate the costs of living for people. Some criticized the enterprise, saying it led to overcrowding of trains at some points.

Long distance Deutsche Bahn services
InterRegio services, introduced in 1988 to replace the former Schnellzug and InterCity, were abolished in 2003. UrlaubsExpress, national night trains to the Alps and the Baltic Sea during vacation times, were abolished in 2007.
 * InterCity-Express – high speed train, largely national but some routes to the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, France, and Denmark
 * EuroCity – international long-distance trains
 * InterCity – national long-distance trains
 * EuroNight – international night trains

Deutsche Bahn is gradually increasing the percentage of InterCity-Express services and downgrading the remaining InterCity services to the role formerly played by InterRegio.

Other long distance services

 * Thalys – high-speed services to Belgium and France, using modified French TGV trains
 * Veolia Verkehr (Now merged into Transdev) – offered services on certain former InterRegio routes until 2014
 * Harz-Berlin-Express
 * Ostseeland Express
 * Cisalpino – to Italy, service discontinued mid-December 2006
 * Flixtrain operates a handful of long distance trains; Flixtrain is a subsidiary of Flixbus, mostly an operator of Long Distance buses

Regional and local services
Regional and local rail traffic is organised and funded (as the fares usually do not cover the running costs) by the federal states. The usual procedure under EU legislation is to award the contract to the lowest bid by means of a tender procedure. The respective states are free to announce short- or long-term contracts as well as to stipulate further conditions such as on rolling stock. In recent years, many bids have been won by private rail companies like NordWestBahn or Arriva, although some states have awarded long-term contracts to local DB Regio subsidiaries. The train types for regional and local traffic are as follows.
 * Regional-Express and InterRegio-Express – medium-distance semi-fast trains for regional services
 * Regionalbahn – basic local service, usually calling at all stations
 * S-Bahn – suburban rail services mostly provided by Deutsche Bahn
 * U-Bahn – underground train services provided by the various cities' transport bodies (not Deutsche Bahn)
 * Tram/light rail services – in a few major cities these run underground in the city centre (often called Stadtbahn, especially if they have been upgraded to railway standards)

History
The earliest form of railways, wagonways, were developed in Germany in the 16th century. A wagonway operation was illustrated in Germany in 1556 by Georgius Agricola (image right) in his work De re metallica. This line used "Hund" carts with unflanged wheels running on wooden planks and a vertical pin on the cart fitting into the gap between the planks to keep it going the right way. The miners called the wagons Hunde ("dogs") from the noise they made on the tracks. Such wagonways soon became very popular in Europe.

Modern German rail history officially began with the opening of the steam-hauled Bavarian Ludwig Railway between Nuremberg and Fürth on 7 December 1835. The first long distance railway was the Leipzig-Dresden railway, completed on 7 April 1839. The following years saw a rapid growth: By the year 1845, there were already more than 2000 km of railroads in Germany, and ten years later that number was above 8,000.

German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalization into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialization, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and forged ahead of France. 1915 Leipzig Hauptbahnhof had become one of the largest stations worldwide.

Under the Weimar Republic, the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen (later Deutsche Reichsbahn) was created on 1 April 1920.

During the Second World War, austere versions of the standard locomotives were produced to speed up construction times and minimise the use of imported materials. These were the so-called war locomotives (Kriegslokomotiven and Übergangskriegslokomotiven). Absent a good highway network and trucks, the Germans relied heavily on the railways, supplemented by slower river and canal transport for bulk goods.

After the war, the German railway system was split into the Deutsche Bundesbahn of West Germany and the Deutsche Reichsbahn of East Germany.

In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell. Train frequency rapidly increased on the existing East/West corridors; closed links which had formerly crossed the border were re-opened. On 3 October 1990, Germany was reunified; however, this was not immediately the case with the railways. Administrative and organisational problems led to the decision to completely re-organise and reconnect Germany's railways. The so-called Bahnreform (Railway Reform) came into effect on 1 January 1994, when the two state railways were formally reunited to form the current German Railway Corporation (Deutsche Bahn). At the time the Bahnreform was seen as a "first step" towards future railway privatization and Deutsche Bahn operates as a joint stock company (AG) even though the federal government owns all stocks. However, plans for privatization were delayed by the Great Recession and ultimately cancelled altogether. The railway sector was however liberalized insofar as Deutsche Bahn lost its railway monopoly status in 1996; regional services are now subject to open bidding ("Regionalisierung" or "regionalization", as the responsibility for local rail services was transferred from the federal government to the 16 state governments) whereas long distance services are subject to open access operation. However, while the share of DB in the market of regional rail has declined since 1994 - in the context of an overall expanding market of regional rail service - the vast majority of long distance trains are still operated by or in cooperation with Deutsche Bahn AG.

The German railways were long protected from competition from intercity buses on journeys over 50 km. However, in 2013, this protection was removed, leading to a significant shift from rail to bus for long journeys.

Platform height

The European Union Commission issued a TSI (Technical Specifications for Interoperability) on 30 May 2002, (2002/735/EC) that sets out standard platform heights for passenger steps on high-speed rail. These standard heights are 550 mm and 760 mm.

In Germany new builds are 550 mm and 760 mm. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern has new builds with 550 mm. Hesse, NRW, Berlin had new builds with 760 mm.

Rail links to adjacent countries
Germany has rail links with the following countries. All are to countries of the same gauge (1435 mm), although electrification (15 kV AC 16.7 Hz) and other systems such as signalling may differ.
 * Denmark — voltage change to 25 kV AC 50 Hz
 * Poland — voltage change to 3 kV DC
 * Czech Republic — voltage change to 3 kV DC
 * Austria — same voltage
 * Switzerland — same voltage, but different pantographs
 * France — voltage change to 25 kV AC 50 Hz (no direct connection to France's 1500 V DC network)
 * Luxembourg— voltage change to 25 kV AC 50 Hz
 * Belgium — voltage change to 3 kV DC
 * The Netherlands — voltage change to 1500 V DC or 25 kV AC 50 Hz (at Emmerich/Zevenaar; for trains to Arnhem, a further change to 1500 V DC follows)

International passenger trains
Local border services are not listed.
 * (Westerland/Kiel —) Hamburg — Berlin — Prague (— Budapest)
 * ICE 12: Berlin — Frankfurt am Main — Basel — Interlaken/Zürich
 * ICE 20: Kiel — Fulda — Basel — Chur
 * IC 30: (Westerland/Flensburg/Greifswald —) Hamburg — Cologne — Mannheim — Basel — Zürich
 * IC 32: Münster/Dortmund — Stuttgart — Salzburg — Klagenfurt
 * ICE 43: Amsterdam/Dortmund — Cologne — Basel
 * IC 60/RJ 90: (Basel —) Karlsruhe — Munich (— Salzburg)
 * EC 62: Saarbrücken/Frankfurt — Stuttgart — Salzburg — Klagenfurt/Graz
 * Frankfurt am Main — Strasbourg/Basel
 * IC 76: Aarhus/Copenhagen Central Station — Hamburg Hbf
 * IC 77: Amsterdam Centraal — Berlin Ostbahnhof
 * ICE 78: Amsterdam Centraal — Frankfurt
 * ICE 79: Brussels — Frankfurt am Main
 * ICE/TGV 82: Paris — Saarbrücken/Frankfurt am Main
 * ICE/TGV 83: Paris — Munich
 * TGV 84: Marseille — Frankfurt am Main
 * ECE 85: Frankfurt am Main — Basel — Milan
 * IC 87: Stuttgart — Zürich
 * EC 88: Munich - Zürich
 * EC 89: Munich — Verona (— Bologna/Venice)
 * ICE 91: (Dortmund —) Frankfurt — Vienna
 * EC 95: Berlin — Warsaw/Gdynia
 * ALX: Munich — Prague
 * Berlin — Malmö (night train)
 * Berlin/Hamburg — Zürich (night train)
 * Hamburg/Düsseldorf — Vienna/Innsbruck (night train)
 * Vienna — Berlin (night train)
 * Budapest — Munich (night train)
 * Munich — Venice/Milan/Rome (night train)
 * Munich — Zagreb/Rijeka (night train)
 * Berlin — Moscow (night train) (discontinued)
 * Berlin-Amsterdam-Brussels (European Sleeper)

title: Rail transport in Germany