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List of Chinese writers

This is a list of Chinese writers.

Qin dynasty and before

 * Gan De (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Gongsun Long (c. 325–250 BC)
 * Kong Qiu (551–479 BC)
 * Li Kui (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Lu Jia (d. 170 BC)
 * Han Fei (280–233 BC)
 * Mengzi (372–289 BC)
 * Mozi (c. 470–391 BC)
 * Qu Yuan (343–278 BC)
 * Shang Yang (390–338 BC)
 * Shen Dao (c. 395–315 BC)
 * Shen Buhai (d. 337 BC)
 * Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Song Yu (fl. 3rd century BC)
 * Sunzi (544–496 BC)
 * Sun Bin (d. 316 BC)
 * Wu Qi (440–381 BC)
 * Xunzi (c. 310–238 BC)
 * Zisi (c. 481–402 BC)
 * Zengzi (505–436 BC)
 * Zhuangzi (369–286 BC)

Han dynasty and following

 * Ban Biao (3–54)
 * Ban Gu (32–92)
 * Ban Zhao (fl. 1st century)
 * Cao Cao (155–220)
 * Cao Pi (187–226)
 * Cao Zhi (192–232)
 * Cai Yan (fl. 2nd century)
 * Cai Yong (132–192)
 * Chen Shou (233–297)
 * Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BC)
 * Fan Ye (398–445)
 * Ge Hong (284–364)
 * Guo Pu (276–324)
 * Han Lanying (d. 493)
 * Jing Fang (78–37 BC)
 * Li Delin (531–591)
 * Lu Ji (261–303)
 * Liu Hui (fl. 3rd century)
 * Liu Xie (fl. 5th century)
 * Liu Xin (d. 23)
 * Liu Xiang (77–6 BC)
 * Ma Rong (79–166)
 * Ruan Ji (210–263)
 * Shen Yue (441–513)
 * Sima Qian (c. 145–90 BC)
 * Sima Xiangru (179–117 BC)
 * Su Hui (fl. 4th century)
 * Su Xiaoxiao (fl. 4th century)
 * Sunzi (fl. 3rd century)
 * Tao Yuanming (365–427)
 * Wang Bi (226–249)
 * Wang Chong (27–97)
 * Wang Xizhi (303–361)
 * Wang Xianzhi (344–386)
 * Wei Shou (506–572)
 * Wei Shuo (272–349)
 * Wei Boyang (fl. 2nd century)
 * Wei Huacun (252–334)
 * Xi Kang (223–262)
 * Xie Daoyun (fl. 4th century)
 * Xie Lingyun (385–433)
 * Xie He (fl. 5th century)
 * Yan Zhitui (531–591)
 * Yu Huan (fl. 3rd century)
 * Yang Xiong (53 BC–18)
 * Zu Chongzhi (429–500)
 * Zu Geng (fl. 5th century)
 * Zhong Yao (151–230)
 * Zhong Hui (225–264)
 * Zheng Xuan (127–200)
 * Zhang Zhi (fl. 2nd century)
 * Zhang Heng (78–139)

Tang dynasty and following

 * Bai Juyi (772–846)
 * Bianji (fl. 7th century)
 * Chu Suiliang (597–658)
 * Chen Zi'ang (661–702)
 * Cui Hao (704–754)
 * Du Fu (712–770)
 * Du Huan (fl. 8th century)
 * Du Mu (803–852)
 * Du You (735–812)
 * Duan Chengshi (d. 863)
 * Fang Xuanling (579–648)
 * Fenggan (fl. 8th century)
 * He Zhizhang (659–744)
 * Han Yu (768–824)
 * Hanshan (fl. 9th century)
 * Huaisu (737–799)
 * Jia Dao (779–843)
 * Mo Xuanqing (d. 834)
 * Meng Haoran (691–740)
 * Li Ao (772–841)
 * Li He (791–817)
 * Li Yu (937–978)
 * Li Bai (701–762)
 * Li Qiao (644–713)
 * Li Jing (571–649)
 * Li Baiyao (564–647)
 * Li Dashi (570–628)
 * Li Shangyin (812–858)
 * Li Shizhi (d. 747)
 * Li Chunfeng (602–670)
 * Liu Zhiji (661–721)
 * Liu Zhi (fl. 8th century)
 * Liu Yuxi (772–842)
 * Liu Zongyuan (773–819)
 * Liu Gongquan (778–865)
 * Lu Guimeng (d. 881)
 * Lu Tong (790–835)
 * Luo Yin (833–909)
 * Luo Binwang (c. 640–684)
 * Ouyang Xun (557–641)
 * Pi Rixiu (c. 834–883)
 * Shide (fl. 9th century)
 * Sun Simiao (581–682)
 * Sun Guoting (646–691)
 * Sima Zhen (fl. 8th century)
 * Wang Bo (c. 649–676)
 * Wang Wei (701–761)
 * Wang Changling (698–765)
 * Wang Fanzhi (fl. 7th century)
 * Wei Zheng (580–643)
 * Wei Zhuang (836–910)
 * Xue Juzheng (912–981)
 * Xue Tao (768–831)
 * Yu Xuanji (844–869)
 * Yu Shinan (558–638)
 * Yi Xing (683–727)
 * Yan Shigu (581–645)
 * Yan Zhenqing (709–785)
 * Yuan Zhen (779–831)
 * Zhang Ji (fl. 8th century)
 * Zhang Yanyuan (fl. 9th century)
 * Zhang Yaotiao (fl. 9th century)
 * Zhang Xu (fl. 8th century)

Song dynasty and following

 * Bai Renfu (1226–1306)
 * Cai Xiang (1012–1067)
 * Cheng Yi (1033–1107)
 * Fan Chengda (1126–1193)
 * Guan Hanqing (fl. 13th century)
 * Guo Shoujing (1231–1316)
 * Hu Sanxing (1230–1302)
 * Huang Tingjian (1045–1105)
 * Li Fang (925–996)
 * Li Qingzhao (c. 1084 – 1151)
 * Liu Bowen (1311–1375)
 * Liu Yong (fl. 11th century)
 * Luo Guanzhong (fl. 14th century)
 * Lu You (1125–1210)
 * Lu Zhi (c. 1243 – 1315)
 * Ma Zhiyuan (c. 1270 – 1330)
 * Ma Duanlin (1245–1322)
 * Mi Fu (1051–1107)
 * Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072)
 * Qiao Ji (died 1345)
 * Qu You (1341–1427)
 * Qin Jiushao (c. 1202 – 1261)
 * Su Shi (1037–1101)
 * Su Song (1020–1101)
 * Shi Naian (c. 1296 – 1372)
 * Shao Yong (1011–1077)
 * Shen Kuo (1031–1095)
 * Sima Guang (1019–1086)
 * Wen Tianxiang (1236–1282)
 * Wang Shifu (fl. 14th century)
 * Wang Anshi (1021–1086)
 * Wang Chongyang (1113–1170)
 * Wuzhun Shifan (1178–1249)
 * Xu Zaisi (fl. 14th century)
 * Xin Qiji (1140–1207)
 * Ye Shi (1150–1223)
 * Yu Hao (fl. 10th century)
 * Yang Hui (c. 1238 – 1298)
 * Zhao Luanluan (fl. 13th century)
 * Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322)
 * Zhu Yu (fl. 12th century)
 * Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073)
 * Zeng Gong (1019–1083)
 * Zhu Shijie (fl. 13th century)
 * Zhu Xi (1130–1200)
 * Zhang Sixun (fl. 10th century)
 * Zhang Zai (1020–1077)

Ming dynasty

 * Dong Qichang (1555–1636)
 * Feng Menglong (1574–1645)
 * Gao Lian (fl. 16th century)
 * Hong Zicheng (1593–1665)
 * Huang Ruheng (1558–1626)
 * Jin Shengtan (1608–1661)
 * Jiao Yu (fl. 14th century)
 * Li Zhi (1527–1602)
 * Li Shizhen (1518–1593)
 * Liu Tong (c. 1593 – 1636)
 * Ling Mengchu (1580–1644)
 * Shi Kefa (1601–1645)
 * Shen Zhou (1427–1509)
 * Song Yingxing (1587–1666)
 * Tang Xianzu (1550–1616)
 * Wu Cheng'en (c. 1500 – 1582)
 * Wen Zhengming (1470–1559)
 * Wen Zhenheng (1585–1645)
 * Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692)
 * Wang Yangming (1472–1529)
 * Wang Zhen (fl. 14th century)
 * Xu Wei (1521–1593)
 * Xu Guangqi (1562–1633)
 * Xu Xiake (1587–1641)
 * Xu Yihua (1362–1407)
 * Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610)
 * Zhan Ruoshui (1466–1560)
 * Zhang Tingyu (1672–1755)

Qing dynasty

 * Bada Shanren (c. 1626 – 1705)
 * Chen Hongmou (1696–1771)
 * Cao Xueqin (c. 1715 – 1764)
 * Dai Xi (1801–1860)
 * Dai Zhen (1724–1777)
 * Fu Shanxiang (1830–1864)
 * He Changling (1785–1848)
 * Hong Liangji (1746–1809)
 * Huang Zongxi (1610–1695)
 * Huang Zunxian (1848–1905)
 * Jiang Tingxi (1669–1732)
 * Kang Youwei (1858–1927)
 * Li Yu (1610–1680)
 * Li Shanlan (1810–1882)
 * Lu Haodong (1868–1895)
 * Lin Shu (1852–1924)
 * Liu E (1857–1909)
 * Liang Qichao (1873–1929)
 * Pu Songling (1640–1715)
 * Sha Menghai (1900–1992)
 * Tan Sitong (1865–1898)
 * Tang Zhen (1630–1704)
 * Wu Jiaji (1618–1684)
 * Wu Jingzi (1701–1754)
 * Wei Yuan (1794–1856)
 * Wang Zhen (1867–1938)
 * Wang Guowei (1877–1927)
 * Yan Fu (1853–1921)
 * Yun Zhu (1771–1833)
 * Yang Borun (1837–1911)
 * Yu Zhengxie (1775–1840)
 * Yuan Mei (1716–1797)
 * Zhou Lianggong (1612–1672)
 * Zhang Binglin (1868–1936)

Modern period

 * Amy Tan (born 1952)
 * Anthony
 * Bai Shouyi (1909–2000)
 * Ba Jin (1904–2005)
 * Bei Dao (born 1949)
 * Cai Chongda (born 1982)
 * Cao Yu (1910–1996)
 * Chen Dayu (1912–2001)
 * Chen Maiping (born 1952)
 * Chen Ran (born 1962)
 * Chen Xuezhao (1906–1991)
 * Chu Anping (1909–1966)
 * C. C. Li (1911–2003)
 * Ding Ling (1904–1986)
 * Dai Wangshu (1905–1950)
 * Eileen Chang (1920–1995)
 * Eric Liu (born 1968)
 * Fan Chung (born 1949)
 * Feng Jicai (born 1942)
 * Feng Yidai (1913–2005)
 * Feng Youlan (1895–1990)
 * Gang Tian (born 1958)
 * Gao Xingjian (born 1940)
 * Gu Jiegang (1893–1980)
 * Guo Moruo (1892–1978)
 * Han Shaogong (born 1953)
 * Hao Jingfang
 * Ho Fuk Yan
 * Hong Ying (born 1962)
 * Ganggang Hu Guidice (born 1984)
 * Hu Shih (1891–1962)
 * Huang Yuanyong (1885–1915)
 * Iris Chang (1968–2004) – Chinese-American author of The Rape of Nanking
 * Jao Tsung-I (1917–2018)
 * Jia Rongqing
 * Jiang Fangzhou
 * Jin Yong (1924–2018)
 * Jin Yuelin (1895–1984)
 * Jung Chang (born 1952) – author of Wild Swans
 * Ke Yan (1929–2011)
 * Ke Zhao (1910–2002)
 * Lao She (1899–1966)
 * Leung Long Chau (1911–1998)
 * Li Ao (1935–2018)
 * Liu Binyan (1925–2005)
 * Li Shicen (1892–1934)
 * Lin Haiyin (1918–2001)
 * Lin Huiyin (1904–1955)
 * Lin Yutang (1895–1976)
 * Liang Shuming (1893–1988)
 * Lu Xun (1881–1936)
 * Mao Dun (1896–1981)
 * Timothy Mo (born 1950)
 * Ma Jian (born 1953)
 * Mian Mian (born 1970)
 * Mo Yan (born 1955)
 * Mou Zongsan (1909–1995)
 * Mu Shiying (1912–1940)
 * Murong Xuecun (born 1974)
 * Öser (born 1966)
 * Pai Hsien-yung (born 1937)
 * Qian Xuantong (1887–1939)
 * Qian Zhongshu (1910–1998)
 * Qin Hui (born 1953)
 * Qu Bo (1923–2002)
 * Ru Zhijuan (1925–1998)
 * Su Manshu (1884–1918)
 * Su Qing (1914–1982) author of 10 Years of Marriage
 * Su Tong (born 1963)
 * Sun Guangyuan (1900–1979)
 * Shen Congwen (1902–1988)
 * Shen Rong (b. 1936)
 * Shi Zhecun (1905–2003)
 * Shing-Tung Yau (born 1949)
 * Tang Junyi (1909–1978)
 * Tian Han (1898–1968)
 * Tie Ning (born 1957)
 * Wang Hao (1921–1995)
 * Wang Lixiong (born 1953)
 * Wang Ruowang (1918–2001)
 * Wang Ruoshui (1926–2002)
 * Wang Shuo (born 1958)
 * Wen Yiduo (1899–1946)
 * Woo Tsin-hang (1865–1953)
 * Xie Bingying (1906–2000)
 * Xiao Hong (1911–1942)
 * Xiong Shili (1885–1968)
 * Xiong Qinglai (1893–1969)
 * Xu Dishan (1893–1941)
 * Xu Youyu (born 1947)
 * Xu Zhimo (1897–1931)
 * Xue Zongzheng (born 1935)
 * Yan Huiqing (1877–1950)
 * Yang Jianli (born 1963)
 * Yan Lianke (born 1958)
 * Yang Rongguo (1907–1978)
 * Yang Shuo (1913–1968)
 * Ye Shengtao (1894–1988)
 * Yu Dafu (1896–1945)
 * Yu Hua (born 1960)
 * Yuan Hongbing (born 1953)
 * Yum-Tong Siu (born 1943)
 * Zhan Tao (born 1963)
 * Zhang Jie (born 1937)
 * Zhang Kangkang (born 1950)
 * Zeng Jiongzhi (1898–1940)
 * Zhong Xiaoyang (born 1962)
 * Zhou Weihui (born 1973)
 * Zhou Weiliang (1911–1995)
 * Zhou Zuoren (1885–1967)
 * Zhu Qianzhi (1899–1972)
 * Zhu Ziqing (1898–1948)
 * Zhu Xiao Di (born 1958)
 * Zhu Xueqin (born 1952)
 * Zong Pu (born 1928)

A

 * Ah Cheng (born 1949)
 * Ai Qing (1910–1996)
 * Anni Baobei (born 1974)
 * Anthony (1984–)

B

 * Ba Jin (1904–2005)
 * Bai Juyi (772–846)
 * Bai Renfu (1226–1306)
 * Bai Shouyi (1909–2000)
 * Ban Biao (3–54)
 * Ban Gu (32–92)
 * Ban Zhao (fl. 1st century)
 * Bianji (fl. 7th century)
 * Bada Shanren (c. 1626 – 1705)
 * Bei Dao (born 1949)
 * Bi Feiyu (born 1964)
 * Bianji (fl. 7th century)
 * Bo Yang (1920–2008)

C

 * Cao Cao (155–220)
 * Cao Pi (187–226)
 * Cao Xueqin (1724–1764)
 * Cao Yu (1910–1996)
 * Cao Zhi (192–232)
 * Cai Yan (fl. 2nd century)
 * Cai Yong (132–192)
 * Cai Xiang (1012–1067)
 * Chang Hsüeh-ch'eng (1738–1801)
 * Eileen Chang (1920–1995)
 * Iris Chang (1968–2004) American Chinese author of The Rape of Nanking
 * Jung Chang (born 1952) author of Wild Swans
 * Leung Long Chau (1911–1998)
 * Chen Dayu (1912–2001)
 * Chang Hsin-hai (1898–1972)
 * Chen Hongmou (1696–1771)
 * Chen Maiping (born 1952)
 * Chen Qiufan (born 1981)
 * Chen Ran (born 1962)
 * Chen Shou (233–297)
 * Chen Zi'ang (661–702)
 * Cheng Yi (1033–1107)
 * Chi Li (born 1957)
 * Chi Zijian (born 1964)
 * Chu Anping (1909–1966)
 * Chu Suiliang (597–658)
 * Cui Hao (704–754)

D

 * Dai Xi (1801–1860)
 * Dai Zhen (1724–1777)
 * Dai Wangshu (1905–1950)
 * Di An (b. 1983)
 * Ding Ling (1904–1986)
 * Du Fu (712–770)
 * Du Guangting (850–933)
 * Du Mu (803–852)
 * Du You (735–812)
 * Du Huan (fl. 8th century)
 * Duan Chengshi (d. 863)
 * Duanmu Hongliang (1912–1996)
 * Dong Xi (born 1966)
 * Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BC)
 * Dong Qichang (1555–1636)

E

 * Eileen Chang (1920–1995)
 * Eric Liu (born 1968)

F

 * Feng Menglong (1574–1645)
 * Feng Youlan (1895–1990)
 * Feng Jicai (born 1942)
 * Fan Chengda (1126–1193)
 * Fan Chung (born 1949)
 * Fan Ye (398–445)
 * Fang Fang (born 1955)
 * Fang Xuanling (579–648)
 * Fenggan (fl. 8th century)
 * Fu Baoshi (1904–1965)
 * Fu Shanxiang (1830–1864)
 * Feng Yidai (1913–2005)

G

 * Gan De (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Gang Tian (born 1958)
 * Gao Xingjian (born 1940)
 * Gao Lian (fl. 16th century)
 * Ge Fei (born 1964)
 * Ge Hong (284–364)
 * Gongsun Long (c. 325–250 BC)
 * Gu Cheng (1956–1993)
 * Gu Hua (born 1942)
 * Gu Jiegang (1893–1980)
 * Guan Hanqing (1241–1320)
 * Guo Jingming (born 1983)
 * Guo Moruo (1892–1978)
 * Guo Pu (276–324)
 * Guo Shoujing (1231–1316)

H

 * Han Dong (born 1961)
 * Han Fei (c. 280–233 BC)
 * Han Han (born 1982)
 * Hanshan (fl. 9th century)
 * Han Shaogong (born 1953)
 * Han Suyin (1917–2012)
 * Han Yu (768–824)
 * Hao Jingfang (born 1984)
 * He Changling (1785–1848)
 * He Qinglian (born 1956)
 * He Zhizhang (659–744)
 * Ho Fuk Yan
 * Hong Ying (born 1962)
 * Hong Liangji (1746–1809)
 * Hong Zicheng (1593–1665)
 * Ganggang Hu Guidice (born 1984)
 * Hu Sanxing (1230–1302)
 * Hu Shih (1891–1962)
 * Huaisu (737–799)
 * Huang Zongxi (1610–1695)
 * Huang Tingjian (1045–1105)
 * Huang Yuanyong (1885–1915)
 * Huang Zunxian (1848–1905)
 * Huang Ruheng (1558–1626)

J

 * Jao Tsung-I (1917–2018)
 * Ji Xianlin (1911–2009)
 * Ji Yun (1724–1805)
 * Jia Dao (779–843)
 * Jia Pingwa (born 1952)
 * Jia Rongqing
 * Jia Yinghua (born 1952)
 * Jiang Fangzhou (born 1989)
 * Jiang Rong (born 1946)
 * Jiang Tingxi (1669–1732)
 * Jiao Yu (fl. 14th century)
 * Jin Shengtan (1608–1661)
 * Jin Yuelin (1895–1984)
 * Jin Yong (1924–2018)
 * Jing Fang (78–37 BC)
 * Jung Chang (born 1952)

K

 * Kang Youwei (1858–1927)
 * Ke Yan (1929–2011)
 * Ke Zhao (1910–2002)
 * Maxine Hong Kingston (born 1940)

L

 * Lao She (1899–1966)
 * Li Ao (1935–2018)
 * Li Ao (772–841)
 * Li Bai (701–762)
 * Li Baiyao (564–647)
 * Li Baojia (1867–1906)
 * C. C. Li (1911–2003)
 * Li Chunfeng (602–670)
 * Li Delin (531–591)
 * Li Dashi (570–628)
 * Li Fang (925–996)
 * Li He (790–816)
 * Li Jing (571–649)
 * Li Kui (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Li Qiao (644–713)
 * Li Qingzhao (1084–1151)
 * Li Rui (born 1949)
 * Li Shangyin (813–858)
 * Li Shicen (1892–1934)
 * Li Shizhi (d. 747)
 * Li Shizhen (1518–1593)
 * Li Yu (1610–1680)
 * Li Yaotang (1904–2005)
 * Li Yu (937–978)
 * Zhenyu Li (born 1981)
 * Li Zhi (1527–1602)
 * Li Shanlan (1810–1882)
 * Liang Qichao (1873–1929)
 * Liang Shuming (1893–1988)
 * Liao Yiwu (born 1958)
 * Lin Haiyin (1918–2001)
 * Lin Huiyin (1904–1955)
 * Lin Shu (1852–1924)
 * Lin Yutang (1895–1976)
 * Ling Li (1942–2018)
 * Ling Mengchu (1580–1644)
 * Liu Cixin (born 1963)
 * Liu E (1857–1909)
 * Liu Gongquan (778–865)
 * Liu Heng (born 1954)
 * Liu Hui (fl. 3rd century)
 * Liu Bowen (1311–1375)
 * Liu Tong (c. 1593 – 1636)
 * Liu Xiang (77–6 BC)
 * Liu Xiaobo (1955–2017)
 * Liu Xie (465–522)
 * Liu Xin (d. 23)
 * Liu Xinwu (born 1942)
 * Liu Xinglong (born 1956)
 * Liu Yong (987–1053)
 * Liu Yong (born 1949)
 * Liu Yuxi (772–842)
 * Liu Zhenyun (born 1958)
 * Liu Zhi (fl. 8th century)
 * Liu Zhiji (661–721)
 * Liu Zongyuan (773–819)
 * Lu Guimeng (d. 881)
 * Lu Haodong (1868–1895)
 * Lu Ji (261–303)
 * Lu Tong (790–835)
 * Lu Xun (1881–1936)
 * Lu You (1125–1210)
 * Lu Zhi (c. 1243 – 1315)
 * Luo Binwang (c. 640–684)
 * Luo Guanzhong (1330–1400)
 * Luo Yin (833–909)

M

 * Ma Duanlin (1245–1322)
 * Ma Jian (born 1953)
 * Ma Rong (79–166)
 * Ma Zhiyuan (c. 1270 – 1330)
 * Mao Dun (1896–1981)
 * Meng Haoran (691–740)
 * Mengzi (c. 372–289 BC)
 * Mi Fu (1051–1107)
 * Mian Mian (born 1970)
 * Mozi (fl. 5th century BC)
 * Timothy Mo (born 1950)
 * Mo Xuanqing (d. 834)
 * Mo Yan (born 1955)
 * Mou Zongsan (1909–1995)
 * Mu Shiying (1912–1940)
 * Murong Xuecun (born 1974)

O

 * Öser (born 1966)
 * Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072)
 * Ouyang Xun (557–641)

P

 * Pai Hsien-yung (born 1937)
 * Pu Songling (1640–1715)
 * Pi Rixiu (c. 834–883)

Q

 * Qian Xuantong (1887–1939)
 * Qian Zhongshu (1910–1998)
 * Qiao Ji (died 1345)
 * Qin Hui (born 1953)
 * Qin Jiushao (c. 1202 – 1261)
 * Qu Bo (1923–2002)
 * Qu Yuan (c. 340 BC–278 BC)
 * Qu You (1341–1427)

R

 * Ru Zhijuan (1925–1998)

S

 * Sha Menghai (1900–1992)
 * Shang Yang (d. 338 BC)
 * Shao Yong (1011–1077)
 * Shen Buhai (d. 337 BC)
 * Shen Congwen (1902–1988)
 * Shen Dao (c. 395–315 BC)
 * Shen Quanqi (c. 650-729)
 * Shen Rong (born 1936)
 * Shen Shixi (born 1952)
 * Shen Yin-mo (1883–1971) poet and calligrapher
 * Shen Yue (441–513)
 * Shen Zhou (1427–1509)
 * Shi Naian (c. 1296 – 1372)
 * Shi Kefa (1601–1645)
 * Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Shi Zhecun (1905–2003)
 * Shide (fl. 9th century)
 * Shiing-Shen Chern (1911–2004)
 * Shing-Tung Yau (born 1949)
 * Sima Guang (1019–1086)
 * Sima Qian (145 BC–90 BC)
 * Sima Xiangru (179–117 BC)
 * Sima Zhen (fl. 8th century)
 * Yum-Tong Siu (born 1943)
 * Song Yingxing (1587–1666)
 * Song Ci (1186–1249)
 * Song Yu (fl. 3rd century BC)
 * Song Zhiwen (660–712)
 * Su Buqing (1902–2003)
 * Su Hui (fl. 4th century)
 * Su Manshu (1884–1918)
 * Su Qing (1914–1982)
 * Su Shi (1037–1101)
 * Su Tong (born 1963)
 * Su Xiaoxiao (fl. 4th century)
 * Sunzi (fl. 6th century BC)
 * Sunzi (fl. 3rd century)
 * Sun Bin (d. 316 BC)
 * Sun Simiao (581–682)
 * Sun Guoting (646–691)
 * Sun Guangyuan (1900–1979)

T

 * Amy Tan (born 1952)
 * Tan Sitong (1865–1898)
 * Tang Xianzu (1550–1616)
 * Tang Junyi (1909–1978)
 * Tang Zhen (1630–1704)
 * Tao Yuanming (365–427)
 * Tian Han (1898–1968)
 * Tie Ning (born 1957)

W

 * Wang Anshi (1021–1086)
 * Wang Anyi (born 1954)
 * Wang Bi (226–249)
 * Wang Bo (c. 649–676)
 * Wang Changling (698–765)
 * Wang Chong (27–97)
 * Wang Chongyang (1113–1170)
 * Wang Fanzhi (fl. 7th century)
 * Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692)
 * Wang Guowei (1877–1927)
 * Wang Hao (1921–1995)
 * Wang Huo (born 1924)
 * Wang Lixiong (born 1953)
 * Wang Ruoshui (1926–2002)
 * Wang Shifu (fl. 14th century)
 * Wang Shuo (born 1958)
 * Wang Wei (701–761)
 * Wang Xizhi (303–361)
 * Wang Xianzhi (344–386)
 * Wang Xiaobo (1952–1997)
 * Wang Yangming (1472–1529)
 * Wang Zhen (fl. 14th century)
 * Wang Zhen (1867–1938)
 * Wei Zhuang (836–910)
 * Wei Shuo (272–349)
 * Wei Shou (506–572)
 * Wei Zheng (580–643)
 * Wei Boyang (fl. 2nd century)
 * Wei Huacun (252–334)
 * Wei Hui (born 1973)
 * Wei Yuan (1794–1856)
 * Wen Tianxiang (1236–1283)
 * Wen Zhenheng (1585–1645)
 * Wen Zhengming (1470–1559)
 * Wen Yiduo (1899–1946)
 * Woo Tsin-hang (1865–1953)
 * Wu Cheng'en (c. 1500 – 1582)
 * Wu Jiaji (1618–1684)
 * Wu Jingzi (1701–1754)
 * Wu Wenjun (1919–2017)
 * Wu Qi (d. 381 BC)
 * Wuzhun Shifan (1178–1249)

X

 * Xi Kang (223–262)
 * Xiao Hong (1911–1942)
 * Xiao Jun (1907–1988)
 * Xie Daoyun (fl. 4th century)
 * Xie Lingyun (385–433)
 * Xie He (fl. 5th century)
 * Xin Qiji (1140–1207)
 * Xiong Shili (1885–1968)
 * Xiong Qinglai (1893–1969)
 * Xu Youyu (born 1947)
 * Xu Dishan (1893–1941)
 * Xu Zhimo (1897–1931)
 * Xu Xiake (1587–1641)
 * Xue Zongzheng (born 1935)
 * Xue Juzheng (912–981)
 * Xue Tao (768–831)
 * Xu Zaisi (fl. 14th century)
 * Xu Guangqi (1562–1633)
 * Xu Wei (1521–1593)
 * Xu Yihua (1362–1407)
 * Xunzi (c. 310–238 BC)

Y

 * Yan Ge (born 1984)
 * Geling Yan (born 1958)
 * Yan Huiqing (1877–1950)
 * Yan Lianke (born 1958)
 * Yan Shigu (581–645)
 * Yan Zhenqing (709–785)
 * Yan Zhitui (531–591)
 * Yang Borun (1837–1911)
 * Yang Hui (c. 1238 – 1298)
 * Yang Jianli (born 1963)
 * Yang Jiang (1911–2016)
 * Yang Rongguo (1907–1978)
 * Yang Shuo (1913–1968)
 * Yang Xiong (53 BC–18)
 * Ye Shengtao (1894–1988)
 * Ye Shi (1150–1223)
 * Yi Xing (683–727)
 * Yu Hao (fl. 10th century)
 * Yu Dafu (1896–1945)
 * Yu Hua (born 1960)
 * Yu Huan (fl. 3rd century)
 * Yu Shinan (558–638)
 * Yu Xuanji (844–869)
 * Yu Zhengxie (1775–1840)
 * Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610)
 * Yuan Mei (1716–1797)
 * Yuan Zhen (779–831)

Z

 * Zeng Jiongzhi (1898–1940)
 * Zeng Gong (1019–1083)
 * Zengzi (505–436 BC)
 * Zhan Ruoshui (1466–1560)
 * Zhan Tao (born 1963)
 * Zhang Binglin (1868–1936)
 * Zhang Chengzhi (born 1948)
 * Zhang Henshui (1895–1967)
 * Zhang Heng (78–139)
 * Zhang Jie (born 1937)
 * Zhang Ji (fl. 8th century)
 * Zhang Kangkang (born 1950)
 * Zhang Ling (born 1957)
 * Zhang Ping (born 1953)
 * Zhang Sixun (fl. 10th century)
 * Zhang Tingyu (1672–1755)
 * Zhang Wei (born 1955)
 * Zhang Xianliang (1936–2014)
 * Zhang Xu (fl. 8th century)
 * Zhang Yanyuan (fl. 9th century)
 * Zhang Yaotiao (fl. 9th century)
 * Zhang Zhi (fl. 2nd century)
 * Zhang Zai (1020–1077)
 * Zhao Jingshen (1902–1985)
 * Zhao Luanluan (fl. 13th century)
 * Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322)
 * Zhao Shuli (1906–1970)
 * Zheng Xuan (127–200)
 * Zheng Yuanjie (1955- ) fairy tales
 * Zhong Hui (225–264)
 * Zhong Xiaoyang (born 1962)
 * Zhong Yao (151–230)
 * Zhou Weihui (born 1973)
 * Zhu Qianzhi (1899–1972)
 * Zhu Shijie (fl. 13th century)
 * Zhu Xueqin (born 1952)
 * Zhu Xiao Di (born 1958)
 * Zhu Yu (fl. 12th century)
 * Zhu Ziqing (1898–1948)
 * Zhuangzi (fl. 4th century BC)
 * Zisi (c. 481–402 BC)
 * Zhu Xi (1130–1200)
 * Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073)
 * Zhou Lianggong (1612–1672)
 * Zhou Shoujuan (1895–1968)
 * Zhou Weiliang (1911–1995)
 * Zhou Zuoren (1885–1967)
 * Zong Pu (born 1928)
 * Zu Chongzhi (429–500)
 * Zu Geng (fl. 5th century)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of Chinese writers


text:
Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)

The Symphony No. 1 in D major by Gustav Mahler was mainly composed between late 1887 and March 1888, though it incorporates music Mahler had composed for previous works. It was composed while Mahler was second conductor at the Leipzig Opera in Germany. Although in his letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the first two performances described it as a symphonic poem and as a tone poem in symphonic form, respectively. The work was premièred at the Vigadó Concert Hall in Budapest, Hungary, in 1889, but was not well-received. Mahler made some major revisions for the second performance, given at Hamburg, Germany, in October 1893; further alterations were made in the years prior to the first publication, in late 1898. Some modern performances and recordings give the work the title Titan, despite the fact that Mahler only used this label for the second and third performances, and never after the work had reached its definitive four-movement form in 1896.

Mahler conducted more performances of this symphony than of any of his later works.

Composition
The symphony's movements are arranged in a fairly typical four-movement setup. Conventionally, the minuet and trio would be the third movement and the slow movement the second, but Mahler has them switched, which was also sometimes done by Ludwig van Beethoven. The keys are D major for the first movement, A major for the second, D minor for the third, and F minor for the last, with a grand finale at the end in D major. The usage of F minor for the last movement was a dramatic break from conventional usage.

For the first three performances (Budapest, Hamburg and Weimar), an additional movement, Blumine (flower piece), was played between the first and second movements of the piece as it now stands. This movement was originally written in June 1884 as the opening piece – "Ein Ständchen am Rhein" – of Mahler's incidental music for a series of seven tableaux vivants based on Joseph Victor von Scheffel's poem Der Trompeter von Säckingen, which, Blumine aside, has since been lost. The addition of this movement appears to have been an afterthought, and Mahler discarded it after the Weimar performance in 1894; it was rediscovered in 1966 by Donald Mitchell. The following year, Benjamin Britten conducted the first performance of it since Mahler's time at the Aldeburgh Festival. The symphony is almost never played with this movement included today, although it is sometimes heard separately. In the 1970s, Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra made the first recording of the symphony by a major orchestra to include Blumine. Some 20 recordings exist that include Blumine; however, most of them combine it with the revised edition of the other movements, thus making a "blended" version of the symphony that was at no time authorised by Mahler.

Nevertheless, Mahler quotes the main theme from the Blumine movement in two subsequent movements. It appears early in the second movement; he also quotes it in the final movement, as well as other themes from the other movements, which is in keeping with Beethoven's own practice in his Symphony No. 9 of quoting themes from the first, second, and third movements early in the final movement. Beethoven gave the impression of rejecting the earlier themes, after he quotes them, and then introduces the famous "Ode to Joy" theme. The five-movement version generally runs around an hour, just as Mahler's later symphonies (except for Symphony No. 4) are an hour or longer in length. Mahler followed a precedent, established by Beethoven in his ninth symphony and by Anton Bruckner in many of his symphonies, of lengthier, more detailed development of the themes, usually resulting in a performance time of an hour or more.

Under this early five-movement scheme, the work was envisioned by Mahler as a large symphonic poem in two parts, and he wrote a programme to describe the piece, but without adding any further title for the 1889 Budapest premiere. The first part consisted of the first two movements of the symphony as it is now known plus Blumine, and the second consisted of the funeral-march and finale. For the 1893 Hamburg and 1894 Weimar performances, Mahler gave the piece the title Titan after the novel by Jean Paul, although Mahler specified that the piece was not in any way "about" the book; the nickname is often used today, but properly only applies to those two versions.

The opening of the third movement features a double bass soloist performing a variation on the theme of "Frère Jacques", distinguishing it as one of the few symphonic pieces to use the instrument in such a manner. Mahler uses the song, which he cites as "Bruder Martin", changed from major to minor, thus giving the piece the character of a funeral march. The mode change to minor is not an invention by Mahler, as is often believed, but rather the way this round was sung in the 19th and early 20th century in Austria. A similar use of this technique is present throughout the second movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 7.

Versions
There are several manuscripts that document the revisions to which Mahler subjected the work:
 * 1) 1888, Leipzig – The original autograph score, in Mahler's handwriting (location unknown, may no longer exist)
 * 2) 1889, Budapest – The base layer in a copyist's handwriting is probably identical to the original autograph score. Over this, there are many revisions in Mahler's hand, and some whole sections deleted with new replacements added, in preparation for the 1889 Budapest premiere on 20 November. Bound into two volumes, vol. 1 containing the first movement and Scherzo, vol. 2 containing the last movement; the Blumine and funeral march movements are missing—in fact, conflicting numbering of the Scherzo, and the smaller size of the paper on which Blumine is written, seems to indicate that the Blumine was not originally part of Mahler's conception, and that it was lifted whole from the 1884 Der Trompeter von Säckingen score at some point between the symphony's completion in early 1888 and the Budapest premiere in late 1889. The entire symphony is scored for the standard symphonic orchestra of the time, with 2 each of all the woodwinds and 4 horns. In this version the piece was called "Symphonic-Poem in 2 Parts". (University of Western Ontario, Rose collection)
 * 3) 1893, Hamburg – The base layer in Mahler's hand corresponds to the final version of the Budapest manuscript, and probably was the manuscript sent by Mahler to Schott as a Stichvorlage (engraver's copy) in 1891 in hopes of publication, and for the first time given a title: Aus dem Leben eines Einsamen (From the Life of a Lonely-one). Over this base layer, there are many revisions and new sections (including to Blumine) added in 1893, in preparation for the second performance, in Hamburg on 27 October. Contains all 5 movements; the funeral march was apparently lifted whole out of the 1889 manuscript. Orchestra has 3 each of the woodwinds. Just before the Hamburg performance, Mahler added the titles from Titan. (Yale University, Osborn collection)
 * 4) 1894?, Hamburg – The base layer in a copyist's handwriting corresponds to the final version of the 1893 manuscript, with further revisions by Mahler. Probably prepared for the third performance, in Weimar on 3 June. Pages containing the Blumine have been folded over, indicating deletion. Orchestra has 4 each of the woodwinds, and 3 additional horns. Still includes the titles from Titan. (New York Public Library, Bruno Walter collection)
 * 5) 1896?, Hamburg – The base layer in a copyist's handwriting, with revisions by Mahler. Probably prepared for 4th performance, in Berlin on 16 March. Contains 4 movements (Blumine not included). Known from this point on as "Symphony No. 1". (Sold at auction by Sotheby's in 1984, currently inaccessible).
 * 6) 1898?, Vienna – In a copyist's handwriting, based on the final version of the 1894? manuscript. This is the Stichvorlage [engraver's copy], used as a basis for the first score published by Weinberger in February 1899. Probably prepared for the 5th performance, in Prague.

An arrangement by Bruno Walter for piano four hands (two players at one piano) was published in 1906.

Instrumentation
The symphony is scored for large orchestra, consisting of the following:

 * Woodwinds:
 * 4 flutes (3rd and 4th doubling piccolos, 2nd doubling piccolo in movements 1 and 4 briefly)
 * 4 oboes (3rd doubling cor anglais, 4th used only in movement 4)
 * 3 B♭, A, C clarinets (3rd doubling bass clarinet and E♭ clarinet)
 * E♭ clarinet (doubling 4th B♭ clarinet in movement 3 briefly, "doubled at least" in movement 4)
 * 3 bassoons (3rd doubling contrabassoon)

 * Brass:
 * 7 horns
 * 5 trumpets (5th used only in movement 4)
 * 4 trombones (4th used only in movement 4)
 * tuba

 * Percussion
 * 6 timpani (two players, 2nd player appears only in movement 4)
 * bass drum (with a cymbal attached to be struck by the same player in movement 3)
 * cymbals
 * triangle
 * tam-tam

 * Strings
 * harp
 * 1st violins
 * 2nd violins
 * violas
 * cellos
 * double basses

Form
Mahler's symphony as ultimately published exists in the traditional four-movement form: 1. Langsam, schleppend (Slowly, dragging) Immer sehr gemächlich (very restrained throughout) D major

2. Kräftig bewegt, doch nicht zu schnell (Moving strongly, but not too quickly), Recht gemächlich (restrained), a Trio—a Ländler A major

3. Feierlich und gemessen, ohne zu schleppen (Solemnly and measured, without dragging), Sehr einfach und schlicht wie eine Volksweise (very simple, like a folk-tune), and Wieder etwas bewegter, wie im Anfang (once again somewhat more agitated, as at the start)—a funeral march based on the children's song "Frère Jacques" (or "Bruder Jacob") D minor

4. Stürmisch bewegt – Energisch (Stormily agitated – Energetic) F minor → D major The first movement is in modified sonata form. The second is a scherzo and trio based on a Ländler, a traditional Austrian waltz. The third is a slower funeral march with a lyrical central section, and the fourth serves as an expansive finale. Initially, there existed an additional second movement, entitled Blumine, but it was removed by Mahler for the final publication in 1899.

In the first performances, the following program notes were attributed to the symphony:

Part I: From the days of youth, "youth, fruit, and thorn pieces". Part II: Commedia umana (Human Comedy)
 * 1) Spring and no end. This introduction describes the awakening of nature at the earliest dawn.
 * 2) Flowerine Chapter (Andante).
 * 3) Set with full sails (Scherzo).

These programmatic notes were dropped starting with the 1896 performance in Berlin, because Mahler did not want the audience to be misled by such notes and their inherent ambiguities.
 * 1) Stranded. A funeral march in the manner of Callot.
 * 2) Dall'inferno al Paradiso (From Hell to Heaven), as the sudden expression of a deeply wounded heart.

First movement
The first movement is in a modified sonata form, with a substantially slow introduction in A minor (Phrygian). The introduction begins eerily with a seven-octave drone in the strings on A, with the upper octaves being played on harmonics in the violins. A descending two-note motif is then presented by the woodwinds, and eventually establishes itself into the following repeated pattern: This opening quotes the fourth movement of Johannes Brahms's Symphony No. 2 in D major, where the first half of this motif repeats several times beginning at bar 234. It also alludes to the first movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 4 in B♭ major in its descending pattern and minimalist nature. This theme is then interrupted by a fanfare-like material first presented in the clarinets, and later by offstage trumpets, indicated in the score as "In sehr weiter Entfernung aufgestellt" ("placed at a very far distance"). A slow melody is also played by the horns, and the descending two-note motif is sped up in the clarinet, imitating the sound of a cuckoo. This opening is very true to Mahler's style, putting the emphasis on the winds, and not more traditionally on the strings.

The mood then lightens to mark the beginning of the exposition, and the descending fourth motif becomes the first theme. This melodic material is recycled from the second of Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, entitled "Ging heut' Morgen über's Feld" ("I Went This Morning over the Field").

The melody is first presented in the cellos in D major, and passed throughout the orchestra. This melody builds in dynamic, as the music modulates to A major, and a brief second theme, based on a new E–F#–C#–F#–E motif, is presented on the higher woodwinds. A slower development ensues, bringing back material from the introduction, including the drone on A, the cuckoo calls in the clarinet, and the original motif, but modulates through various keys. A new French horn fanfare is issued,

and "development" materials from the first and second themes are heard. The music modulates through A major, then through D-flat major. A-flat major is to be the next, then C major, and finally F major. The retransition of the development section starts in F minor, causing a terrifying darkness. The tension gradually builds up in this section which foreshadows the theme of the fourth movement, ultimately reaching a triumphant cadence in D major. Then the recapitulation begins with a return of the French horn fanfare. Ultimately, the two-note motive takes over the final measures of the recapitulation, and a coda brings the movement to a fiery and humorous close.

Second movement

The second movement is a modified minuet and trio. Mahler replaces the minuet with a ländler, a dance-form that was a precursor to the Viennese waltz. This is a frequently-used structure in Mahler's other symphonies, as well as Franz Schubert's. One main theme repeats throughout the Ländler, and it gathers energy towards a hectic finish. The main melody outlines an A major chord: with a secondary subject based on the Blumine melody, but phrased in time as opposed to.

The trio contains contrasting lyrical material. However, as it comes to a close, Mahler alludes again to the Ländler by interjecting brief rising material from the first section. Finally, the Ländler makes a formal return, shortened and orchestrated more heavily to close the movement.

Third movement
The third movement, in A–B–A structure, acts as the slow movement in the four-movement plan. The extra-musical idea behind it is that of a hunter's funeral and a procession of animals that follows.

The initial 1st subject of the A section is based on the popular round "Bruder Jakob" (although Mahler calls it "Bruder Martin") more commonly known as "Frère Jacques"; however, Mahler places the melody in a minor mode.

The movement opens with the same falling fourth motif heard in the first movement, presented with the timpani. The subject is first presented by a solo double bass, followed by bassoon, tuba and, eventually, the entire orchestra. A counter-melody is played over top of the canon in the oboe.

The mood changes, and the 2nd subject, one of the most distinctive portions of this symphony follows. Mahler uses cymbal, bass drum, oboes, clarinets and a trumpet duo to produce the sound of a small folk band. Although this melody is often said to be inspired by Klezmer, it is actually inspired by Czech folk music, since what is commonly known as Klezmer was not played in the region in which Mahler lived. Despite this, Mahler's use of klezmer is sometimes credited to his Jewish roots.

After a brief return to the 1st subject, a more contemplative B section, in G major ensues, featuring material from the fourth of Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, "Die zwei blauen Augen von meinem Schatz" ("The Two Blue Eyes of my Beloved").

After the B section ends, the A section is repeated in a varied form. The 1st subject returns in E-flat minor. Then the 2nd subject is heard again, and after a while, the music modulates back to D minor, and Mahler incorporates all three thematic elements on top of each other. The final few bars of the 2nd subject is heard next, and once again, the 1st subject appears briefly for one last time in D minor, and the movement ends with simple alternating fourth in the lower strings, notably the key motif from the first movement.

Fourth movement
The fourth movement, in sonata-allegro form with a very long and extended development section and a shortened recapitulation, is by far the most involved, and expansive. It brings back several elements from the first movement, unifying the symphony as a whole. The movement's introduction begins with an abrupt cymbal crash, a loud chord in the upper woodwinds, string and brass, and a timpani roll, all in succession. This contrasts greatly with the end of the third movement. As the strings continue in a frenzy of notes, fragments of the first theme of the exposition, in F minor, appear, presented forcefully in the brass, before being played in entirety by the majority of winds:

The movement continues frantically, until a bridge passage on the strings leads to an expansive and lyrical second theme in D-flat major, which is presented in the strings.

Eventually, the closing section of the exposition, over a tonic bass pedal, is heard in D-flat major, and then opening fragments in the brass emerge from the beginning of the development section, and the energy picks up once more. The fast-paced and loud development is only interrupted by a brief quiet section in which a brass fanfare based on the theme appears in C major. After further development of both themes in C minor, a climax is reached in C major, upon which the aforementioned brass fanfare is loudly reintroduced, unexpectedly modulating to D major. The horns then play a full-forced altered version of the descending fourth pattern from the beginning of the symphony: However, this ultimately leads to a decrescendo, and the momentum sinks to the retransition, bringing back other quotes from the first movement, including fanfares, and "Ging heut' Morgen übers Feld" (see Lieder section). The recapitulation begins with the second theme in F major, with the first theme following it in F minor, heavily featuring the violas. This leads into a restatement of the retransition from the first movement in which the fourth-movement theme was initially foreshadowed, followed by a restatement of the brass fanfare in the development (the start of the coda section), this time starting in D major rather than C major. The above theme is repeated, and this time it does not decrescendo, instead leading to the triumphant "outro" section. The symphony concludes with fanfare material from the beginning, ultimately ending humorously with a quick octave drop.

Incorporation of German Lied
One of the most important marks that Mahler left on the symphony as a genre is the incorporation of another important genre of the 19th century; the German lied. In his first symphony, Mahler borrowed material from his song cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, thus innovating the symphonic form and potentially answering questions about programmatic and personal elements in the music.

Although some of Mahler's symphonic predecessors experimented with lyricism in the symphony, Mahler's approach was much more far-reaching. Through the use of the second of his Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen cycle, "Ging heut' Morgen übers Feld", we can see how the composer manipulates the song's form to accommodate the symphonic form. Within the symphonic movement, the "Ging heut' Morgen" melody is a bright exposition in contrast with the slower and darker introduction. Although the song plays a similar role in the song cycle, being surrounded by darker-themed songs, Mahler changes the order of the strophes as originally found in the song. Of the three verses, the more relaxed third verse is used at the beginning of the exposition, whereas the more chromatic and rhythmically active first and second verses are found in the closing section, helping build the energy to the end of the exposition.

In the third movement of the symphony, the quotation of the lied "Die zwei blauen Augen" demonstrates the subtlety with which Mahler combined the two genres. Within this funeral march, we can see the composer's union of form and meaning, and also elements of a programme. In the last verse of the song cycle, the speaker acknowledges the painlessness of death, saying, "[under the linden tree] I knew not how life fared, [there] all was good again!" This melody is employed as a countermelody to the "Frère Jacques" theme in the minor mode, but the counterpoint that Mahler uses is unconventional, and the two melodies are never properly consolidated. This unresolved counterpoint has been interpreted as a conflict between the "Frère Jacques" theme's Catholic implications and the Jewish klezmer qualities of the "Die zwei blauen Augen" theme, thus alluding to a social conflict of which Mahler was very aware.

The subtlety and implications of Mahler's incorporation of the Gesellen song into the funeral march bring us to the issue of programme. The composer's ideas about programmatic content are not concrete. The matter of subjectivity comes up when discussing what meanings Mahler intended the lieder to bring to the orchestral work. Looking at the programmes that he provided, one can see many connections between the song cycle and the symphony's programmatic elements, but then it must also be taken into consideration that Mahler later removed the programmes. Among this uncertainty though, it is clear that some narrative elements that are associated with the poet and composer of a lied were transferred from the song cycle to the symphony. The lack of words, makes it much more difficult for the composer to be subjective in the symphony, so a more universal message must be found. The composer's comments about the "world" that a symphony creates seems to reinforce this idea.

Blumine
Blumine is the title of the rejected andante second movement of the symphony. It was first named Blumine in 1893. However it was not discarded until after the first three performances, where it remained the second movement. After the 1894 performance (where it was called Bluminenkapitel), the piece received harsh criticism, especially regarding the second movement. In the Berlin premiere in 1896, Blumine was cut out, along with the title Titan and the programme of the symphony. Shortly after this, the symphony was published without the Blumine movement and in the subsequent versions of the symphony it was gone.

Blumine originates from some incidental music Mahler wrote for Joseph Victor von Scheffel's dramatic poem Der Trompeter von Säckingen. The trumpet serenade was used for Blumine with little change. It was originally scored for a small orchestra and this is how it appears in Blumine, which is in contrast to the large orchestra used in the rest of the symphony. The movement is a short lyrical piece with a gentle trumpet solo, similar to the posthorn solos in Symphony No. 3. Even though it was cut from the symphony, there are still traces of its influence in the rest of the movements.

Blumine translates to "floral", or "flower", and some believe this movement was written for Johanna Richter, with whom Mahler was infatuated at the time. The style of this movement has much in common with Mahler's earlier works but also shows the techniques and distinct style of his later compositions. It was rediscovered by Donald Mitchell in 1966, while doing research for his biography on Mahler in the Osborn Collection at Yale University, in a copy of the Hamburg version of the symphony. Apparently, Mahler had given it to a woman he tutored at the Vienna Conservatory. It was passed on to her son, who then sold it to James Osborn, who then donated it to Yale University.

Benjamin Britten gave the first performance of the reconstructed Hamburg version in 1967, after it had been lost for over seventy years. After this discovery, other people performed this movement, some simply inserting the Blumine into the 1906 version. However, many people did not agree about playing this music as part of the symphony. Mahler had rejected it from his symphony, they reasoned, so it should not be played as part of it. Furthermore, the Blumine movement does not share the other movements' focus on the perfect fourth interval, making it incongruous within the symphony. Famous Mahler conductors such as Leonard Bernstein, Georg Solti and Bernard Haitink never performed it. Others perform Blumine before or after the symphony, while still others have performed it on its own or alongside Mahler's other works.

Premières

 * 1889 – 20 November, World première: Budapest, Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by the composer
 * 1893 – 27 October, German première: Hamburg, conducted by the composer
 * 1894 – 3 June, Weimar, conducted by the composer
 * 1896 – 16 March, Berlin, conducted by the composer
 * 1899 – 8 March, Frankfurt, conducted by the composer
 * 1898 – 3 March, Czech première: Prague, conducted by the composer
 * 1900 – 18 November, Austrian première: Vienna, conducted by the composer
 * 1903 – 21 October, English première: London as part of a Proms concert, conducted by Henry Wood
 * 1903 – 25 October, Dutch première: Amsterdam, with the composer conducting the Concertgebouw Orchestra.
 * 1909 – 16 December, American première: New York City, the New York Philharmonic conducted by the composer

In popular culture
The second movement of the symphony was played in the episode "Counterpoint" of the fifth season of Star Trek: Voyager to relax the crew of the starship during alien inspections.

Published editions

 * 1899 February, Vienna, Josef Weinberger
 * 1906 May, Vienna, Universal Edition
 * 1967 Vienna, Universal Edition (1884-1888/1896, critical edition)
 * 1992 Vienna, Universal Edition (version 1884-1888/1896, critical edition, revised by Sander Wilkens, UE13820)
 * 2019 Wiesbaden, Breitkopf (final version 1910, critical edition by Christian Rudolf Riedel)
 * 2019 Vienna, Universal Edition (Titan 1888-1889/1894, critical edition by Reinhold Kubik and Stephen E. Hefling

title: Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)


text:
Consumer electronics

Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic (analog or digital) equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications and recreation. These products are usually referred to as black goods due to many products being housed in black or dark casings. This term is used to distinguish them from "white goods" which are meant for housekeeping tasks, such as washing machines and refrigerators, although nowadays, these would be considered black goods, some of these being connected to the Internet. In British English, they are often called brown goods by producers and sellers. In the 2010s, this distinction is absent in large big box consumer electronics stores, which sell entertainment, communication and home office devices, light fixtures and appliances, including the bathroom type.

Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, the broadcast receiver. Later products included telephones, televisions, and calculators, then audio and video recorders and players, game consoles, mobile phones, personal computers and MP3 players. In the 2010s, consumer electronics stores often sell GPS, automotive electronics (car stereos), video game consoles, electronic musical instruments (e.g., synthesizer keyboards), karaoke machines, digital cameras, and video players (VCRs in the 1980s and 1990s, followed by DVD players and Blu-ray players). Stores also sell smart light fixtures and appliances, digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, and smartphones. Some of the newer products sold include virtual reality head-mounted display goggles, smart home devices that connect home devices to the Internet, streaming devices, and wearable technology.

In the 2010s, most consumer electronics have become based on digital technologies. They have essentially merged with the computer industry in what is increasingly referred to as the consumerization of information technology. Some consumer electronics stores have also begun selling office and baby furniture. Consumer electronics stores may be "brick and mortar" physical retail stores, online stores, or combinations of both. Annual consumer electronics sales are expected to reach US$2.9 trillion by 2020. It is part of the wider electronics industry. In turn, the driving force behind the electronics industry is the semiconductor industry.

History
For its first fifty years, the phonograph turntable did not use electronics; the needle and sound horn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s, radio broadcasting became the basis of mass production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, to amplify the sound so that it could be played through a loudspeaker. Television was soon invented but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s.

The first working transistor, a point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Laboratories in 1947, which led to significant research in the field of solid-state semiconductors in the early 1950s. The invention and development of the earliest transistors at Bell led to transistor radios. This led to the emergence of the home entertainment consumer electronics industry starting in the 1950s, largely due to the efforts of Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (now Sony) in successfully commercializing transistor technology for a mass market, with affordable transistor radios and then transistorized television sets.

Integrated circuits (ICs) followed when manufacturers built circuits (usually for military purposes) on a single substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. IC technology led to more advanced and cheaper consumer electronics, such as transistorized televisions, pocket calculators, and by the 1980s, affordable video game consoles and personal computers that regular middle-class families could buy.

In 2004, the consumer electronics industry was worth US$240 billion annually worldwide comprising visual equipment, audio equipment, and games consoles. It was truly global with Asia Pacific having 35% market share, Europe having 31.5%, the US having 23%, and the rest of the world having the rest. Major players in this industry are household names like Sony, Samsung, Philips, Sanyo, and Sharp. Samsung Electronics is part of the Samsung Group. In 2003, combined revenues for Samsung Electronics were $55 billion. Samsung Electronics UK is a subsidiary of Samsung Electronics contributing $1.2 billion in revenues. Samsung Electronics has one of the highest R&D expenditure as a proportion of revenues in the industry and spent about $2.9 billion in 2003. Along with its competitors, Samsung Electronics is global and employs 88,000 people in 89 offices in 46 countries. Not including facilities in Korea, it has 24 manufacturing complexes, 40 distribution bases and 15 branches spread over all continents except Antarctica. Countries with manufacturing facilities include the US, Malaysia, China, India, and Hungary.

White Goods
The increase in popularity of such domestic appliances as 'white goods' is a characteristic element of consumption patterns during the golden age of the Western economy. Europe's White Goods industry has evolved over the past 40 years, first by changing tariff barriers, and later by technical and demand shifts. The spending on domestic appliances has claimed only a tiny fraction of disposable income, rising from 0.5 percent in the US in 1920, to about 2 percent in 1980. Yet the sequence of electrical and mechanical durables have altered the activities and experiences of households in America and Britain in the twentieth century. With the expansion of cookers, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, washing machines, radios, televisions, air conditioning, and microwave ovens, households have gained an escalating number of appliances. Despite the ubiquity of these goods, their diffusion is not well understood. Some types of appliances diffuse more frequently than others. In particular, home entertainment appliances such as radio and television have diffused much faster than household and kitchen machines."

Products
Consumer electronics devices include those used for
 * entertainment (flatscreen TVs, television sets, MP3 players, video recorders, DVD players, radio receivers, etc.)
 * communications (telephones, cell phones, e-mail-capable personal computers, desktop computers, laptops, printers, paper shredders, etc.)
 * recreation (digital cameras, camcorders, video game consoles, ROM cartridges, remote control cars, Robot kits, etc.).

Increasingly consumer electronics products such as Digital distribution of video games have become based on the internet and digital technologies. The consumer electronics industry has primarily merged with the software industry in what is increasingly referred to as the consumerization of information technology.

Trends

One overriding characteristic of consumer electronic products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower labor costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries, and improvements in semiconductor design. Semiconductor components benefit from Moore's law, an observed principle which states that, for a given price, semiconductor functionality doubles every two years.

While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, consumers face different purchasing decisions. There is an ever-increasing need to keep product information updated and comparable for the consumer to make an informed choice. Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant. There are a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts.

Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, EDGE, or Ethernet. Products not traditionally associated with computer use (such as TVs or hi-fi equipment) now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content. The desire for high-definition (HD) content has led the industry to develop a number of technologies, such as WirelessHD or ITU-T G.hn, which are optimized for distribution of HD content between consumer electronic devices in a home.

Business competition
The consumer electronics industry faces consumers with unpredictable tastes on the demand side, supplier-related delays or disruptions on the supply side, and production challenges occurring in the process. The high rate of technology evolution or revolution requires large investments without any guarantee of profitable returns. As a result, the big players rely on global markets to achieve economies of scale. Even these companies sometimes have to cooperate with each other, for instance on standards, to reduce the risk of their investments. In supply chain management, there is much discussion on risks related to such aspects of supply chains as short product life cycles, high competition combined with cooperation, and globalization. The consumer electronics industry is the very embodiment of these aspects of supply chain management and related risks. While some of the supply and demand related risks are similar to such industries as the toy industry, the consumer electronics industry faces additional risks due to its vertically integrated supply chains. There are also numerous supply-chain-wide contextual risks that cut across the supply chain especially impacting companies with global supply chains. These include cultural differences in multinational operations, environmental risk, regulations risk, and exchange rate risk across multiple countries. Whether or not demand is comparable across countries affects the extent of the gains from international integration. In addition, consumer preferences change over time to disturb existing patterns of behavior. A feature of some industries is that demand for variety increases as the market moves from first-time buying to replacement demand. A resource to further understand this idea of consumer preferences can be observed through Lizabeth Cohen's book titled, "A Consumers' Republic", "Only if we have large demands can we expect large production".

Industries
The electronics industry, especially consumer electronics, emerged in the 20th century and has become a global industry worth billions of dollars. Contemporary society uses all manner of electronic devices built-in automated or semi-automated factories operated by the industry.

Manufacturing
Most consumer electronics are built in China, due to maintenance cost, availability of materials, quality, and speed as opposed to other countries such as the United States. Cities such as Shenzhen have become important production centres for the industry, attracting many consumer electronics companies such as Apple Inc.

Electronic component
An electronic component is any essential discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affect electrons or their associated fields. Electronic components are mostly industrial products, available in a singular form, and are not to be confused with electrical elements, conceptual abstractions representing idealized electronic components.

Software development
Consumer electronics such as personal computers use various types of software. Embedded software is used within some consumer electronics, such as mobile phones. This type of software may be embedded within the hardware of electronic devices. Some consumer electronics include software that is used on a personal computer in conjunction with electronic devices, such as camcorders and digital cameras, and third-party software for such devices also exists.

Standardization
Some consumer electronics adhere to protocols, such as connection protocols "to high speed bi-directional signals". In telecommunications, a communications protocol is a system of digital rules for data exchange within or between computers.

Trade shows
The Consumer Electronics Show (CES) trade show has taken place yearly in Las Vegas, Nevada since its foundation in 1973. The event, which grew from having 100 exhibitors in its inaugural year to more than 4,500 exhibiting companies in its 2020 edition, features the latest in consumer electronics, speeches by industry experts and innovation awards.

The Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin (IFA) trade show has taken place Berlin, Germany since its foundation in 1924. The event features new consumer electronics and speeches by industry pioneers.

IEEE initiatives
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the world's largest professional society, has many initiatives to advance the state of the art of consumer electronics. IEEE has a dedicated society of thousands of professionals to promote CE, called the Consumer Electronics Society (CESoc). IEEE has multiple periodicals and international conferences to promote CE and encourage collaborative research and development in CE. The flagship conference of CESoc, called IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE), is in its 35th year.
 * IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics
 * IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine
 * IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society also have initiated a conference to research on next generation consumer electronics as Smart Electronics. The conference named IEEE Symposium on Smart Electronics Systems (IEEE-iSES) is on its 9th year.

Retailing
Electronics retailing is a significant part of the retail industry in many countries. In the United States, dedicated consumer electronics stores have mostly given way to big-box retailers such as Best Buy, the largest consumer electronics retailer in the country, although smaller dedicated stores include Apple Stores, and specialist stores that serve, for example, audiophiles and exceptions, such as the single-branch B&H Photo store in New York City. Broad-based retailers, such as Walmart and Target, also sell consumer electronics in many of their stores. In April 2014, retail e-commerce sales were the highest in the consumer electronic and computer categories as well. Some consumer electronics retailers offer extended warranties on products with programs such as SquareTrade.

An electronics district is an area of commerce with a high density of retail stores that sell consumer electronics.

Service and repair
Consumer electronic service can refer to the maintenance of said products. When consumer electronics have malfunctions, they may sometimes be repaired.

In 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the increased popularity in listening to sound from analog audio devices, such as record players, as opposed to digital sound, has sparked a noticeable increase of business for the electronic repair industry there.

Mobile phone industry
A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, or hand phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.

A smartphone is a portable device that combines mobile telephone and computing functions into one unit. They are distinguished from feature phones by their stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems, which facilitate wider software, internet (including web browsing over mobile broadband), and multimedia functionality (including music, video, cameras, and gaming), alongside core phone functions such as voice calls and text messaging. Smartphones typically contain a number of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chips, include various sensors that can be leveraged by pre-included and third-party software (such as a magnetometer, proximity sensors, barometer, gyroscope, accelerometer and more), and support wireless communications protocols (such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or satellite navigation).

Environmental impact
In 2017, the Greenpeace USA published a study of 17 of the world's leading consumer electronics companies about their energy and resource consumption and the use of chemicals.

Rare metals and rare earth elements
Electronic devices use thousands rare metals and rare earth elements (40 on average for a smartphone), these material are extracted and refined using water and energy-intensive processes. These metals are also used in the renewable energy industry meaning that consumer electronics are directly competing for the raw materials.

Energy consumption
The energy consumption of consumer electronics and their environmental impact, either from their production processes or the disposal of the devices, is increasing steadily. EIA estimates that electronic devices and gadgets account for about 10%–15% of the energy use in American homes – largely because of their number; the average house has dozens of electronic devices. The energy consumption of consumer electronics increases – in America and Europe – to about 50% of household consumption if the term is redefined to include home appliances such as refrigerators, dryers, clothes washers and dishwashers.

Standby power
Standby power – used by consumer electronics and appliances while they are turned off – accounts for 5–10% of total household energy consumption, costing $100 annually to the average household in the United States. A study by United States Department of Energy's Berkeley Lab found that a videocassette recorders (VCRs) consume more electricity during the course of a year in standby mode than when they are used to record or playback videos. Similar findings were obtained concerning satellite boxes, which consume almost the same amount of energy in "on" and "off" modes.

A 2012 study in the United Kingdom, carried out by the Energy Saving Trust, found that the devices using the most power on standby mode included televisions, satellite boxes, and other video and audio equipment. The study concluded that UK households could save up to £86 per year by switching devices off instead of using standby mode. A report from the International Energy Agency in 2014 found that $80 billion of power is wasted globally per year due to inefficiency of electronic devices. Consumers can reduce unwanted use of standby power by unplugging their devices, using power strips with switches, or by buying devices that are standardized for better energy management, particularly Energy Star marked products.

Electronic waste

A high number of different metals and low concentration rates in electronics means that recycling is limited and energy intensive. Electronic waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Many consumer electronics may contain toxic minerals and elements, and many electronic scrap components, such as CRTs, may contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, mercury, dioxins, or brominated flame retardants. Electronic waste recycling may involve significant risk to workers and communities and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes. However, large amounts of the produced electronic waste from developed countries is exported, and handled by the informal sector in countries like India, despite the fact that exporting electronic waste to them is illegal. Strong informal sector can be a problem for the safe and clean recycling.

Reuse and repair

E-waste policy has gone through various incarnations since the 1970s, with emphases changing as the decades passed. More weight was gradually placed on the need to dispose of e-waste more carefully due to the toxic materials it may contain. There has also been recognition that various valuable metals and plastics from waste electrical equipment can be recycled for other uses. More recently, the desirability of reusing whole appliances has been foregrounded in the 'preparation for reuse' guidelines. The policy focus is slowly moving towards a potential shift in attitudes to reuse and repair.

With turnover of small household appliances high and costs relatively low, many consumers will throw unwanted electric goods in the normal dustbin, meaning that items of potentially high reuse or recycling value go to landfills. While more oversized items such as washing machines are usually collected, it has been estimated that the 160,000 tonnes of EEE in regular waste collections were worth £220 million. And 23% of EEE taken to Household Waste Recycling Centres was immediately resaleable – or would be with minor repairs or refurbishment. This indicates a lack of awareness among consumers about where and how to dispose of EEE and the potential value of things that are going in the bin.

For the reuse and repair of electrical goods to increase substantially in the UK, some barriers must be overcome. These include people's mistrust of used equipment in terms of whether it will be functional, safe and the stigma for some of owning second-hand goods. But the benefits of reuse could allow lower-income households access to previously unaffordable technology while helping the environment at the same time.

Health impact
Desktop monitors and laptops produce major physical health concerns for humans when bodies are forced into unhealthy and uncomfortable positions to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, hurting human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also "increase rates of obesity and diabetes", which are "long-term health consequences". Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. "People who frequently use their thumbs to type text messages on cell phones can develop a painful affliction called De Quervain syndrome that affects their tendons on their hands. The best-known disease in this category is called carpal tunnel syndrome, which results from pressure on the median nerve in the wrist".

title: Consumer electronics