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Volkswagen Golf

The Volkswagen Golf is a compact car/small family car (C-segment) produced by the German automotive manufacturer Volkswagen since 1974, marketed worldwide across eight generations, in various body configurations and under various nameplates – including as the Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada (Mk1 and Mk5), and as the Volkswagen Caribe in Mexico (Mk1).

The original Golf Mk1 was a front-engined, front-wheel drive replacement for the air-cooled, rear-engined, rear-wheel drive Volkswagen Beetle. Historically, the Golf is Volkswagen's best-selling model and is among the world's top three best-selling models, with more than 35 million units sold as of 2019.

Initially, most Golfs were 3-door hatchbacks. Other variants include a 5-door hatchback, estate (Variant, from 1993), convertible (Cabriolet and Cabrio, 1979–2002, Cabriolet, 2011–present), and a Golf-based saloon, called the Jetta, Vento (from 1992) or Bora (from 1999). The Golf covers economy to high-performance market segments.

The Golf has won awards, including the World Car of the Year in 2009, with the Mk6 and in 2013 with the Mk7. Along with the Renault Clio and the Vauxhall Astra, the Golf is one of only three cars to have won European Car of the Year twice, in 1992 and 2013. The Golf has made the annual Car and Driver 10Best list multiple times. The Mk7 won the Motor Trend Car of the Year award in 2015, and the Mk1 GTI also won the award in 1985. The Mk4 won for the best-selling car in Europe in 2001.

First generation (Mk1/A1, Typ 17; 1974)

In May 1974, Volkswagen presented the first-generation Golf as a modern front-wheel-drive, long-range replacement for the Volkswagen Beetle. Later Golf variations included the Golf GTI (introduced in June 1976 with a fuel-injected 1.6-litre engine capable of 180 km/h), a diesel-powered version (from September 1976), the Jetta notchback saloon version (from October 1979), the Volkswagen Golf Cabriolet (from January 1980 through 1994) and a Golf-based van and pickup, the Volkswagen Caddy.

The Golf Mk1 was sold as the Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada and as the Volkswagen Caribe in Mexico.

A facelifted version of the Golf Mk1 was produced in South Africa as the Citi Golf from 1984 to 2009.

Second generation (Mk2/A2, Typ 19E/1G; 1983)

September 1983 saw the introduction of the second-generation Golf (Mk2) which grew slightly in terms of wheelbase, and exterior, and interior dimensions, while retaining, in a more rounded form, the Mk1's overall look. Although it was available on the home market and indeed most other left-hand drive markets by the end of 1983, it was not launched in the UK until March 1984.

The Mk2 GTI featured a 1.8-litre 8-valve fuel-injected engine from its launch, with a 16-valve version capable of more than 220 km/h being introduced in 1985.

In 1985, the first Golfs with four-wheel-drive (Golf Syncro) went on sale with the same Syncro four-wheel-drive system being employed on the supercharged G60 models, exclusively released in continental Europe in 1989 with 120 kW and anti-lock brakes (ABS).

An Mk2-based second-generation Jetta was unveiled in January 1984. There was no Mk2-based cabriolet model; instead, the Mk1 Cabriolet was continued over the Mk2's entire production run.

Third generation (Mk3/A3, Typ 1H/1E/1V; 1991)

The third-generation Golf (Mk3) made its home-market debut in August 1991 and again grew slightly in comparison with its immediate predecessor, while its wheelbase remained unchanged.

New engines included the first Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine in a Golf, and a narrow-angle 2.8-litre VR6 engine. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fuel consumption estimates are 9.0 L/100 km (city) and 7.4 L/100 km (highway), with 261 mi per tank (city) and 363 mi per tank (highway). For the first time ever, a Golf estate (Golf Variant) joined the line-up in September 1993 (although most markets did not receive this model until early 1994). At the same time, a completely new Mk3-derived Cabriolet was introduced, replacing the 13-year-old Mk1-based version with one based on the Mk3 Golf platform from 1995 to early 1999. The Mk3 Golf Cabrio received an Mk4-style facelift in late 1999 and was continued until 2002.

The notchback version, called VW Vento (or Jetta in North America), was presented in January 1992.

It was European Car of the Year for 1992, ahead of the new Citroën ZX and General Motors' new Opel Astra model.

The Mk3 continued to be sold until 1999 in the United States, Canada, and parts of South America, also in Mexico as a special edition called "Mi" (basically a Golf CL 4-door with added air conditioning, special interior, original equipment (OEM) black-tinted rear brake lights, and anti-lock brakes (ABS), but without a factory-fitted radio). The "i" in "Mi" is coloured red, which designates that multi-point fuel injection was equipped and the 1.8-litre engine was upgraded to 2.0-litre. Heated seats were offered on all trims.

Fourth generation (Mk4/A4, Typ 1J; 1998)

The Golf Mk4 was first introduced in August 1997 and later released in October of that same year as the 1998 model, followed by a notchback version (VW Bora or, in North America, again VW Jetta) in August 1998 and a new Golf Variant (estate) in March 1999. There was no Mk4-derived Cabriolet, although the Mk3 Cabriolet received a facelift in late 1999 that consisted of bumpers, grille, and headlights similar to those of the Mark IV models.

As with the earlier three versions of the Golf, the UK market received each version several months later than the rest of Europe. The hatchback version was launched there in the spring of 1998 and the estate some 12 months later (around the same time as the Bora).

New high-performance models included the 3.2-litre VR6-engined four-wheel-drive Golf "R32" introduced in 2002, its predecessor, the 2.8-litre VR6-engined "Golf V6 4Motion" (succeeding the 2.9-litre Mk3 "Golf VR6 Syncro"), as well as the famous 1.8T (turbo) 4-cylinder used in various Volkswagen Group models.

Extended production (Mk4.5)
Since 2008, certain variants of the Golf/Bora Mk4 (nicknamed the Mk4.5) were still in production in Brazil, China, and Mexico. Revised versions of the Mk4.5 were sold in Canada and marketed as the City Golf and Jetta City from 2007 to 2010. The two models were VW Canada's entry-level offerings. They received a significant refresh for the 2008 model year, including revised headlamps, taillamps, front and rear fascias, sound systems, and wheels. Both models were offered only with the 2.0-litre, 8-valve single overhead cam (SOHC) four-cylinder gasoline engine, rated at 86 kW. They were the only entry-level offerings with an optional six-speed automatic transmission. Production of the European variant of the Golf Mk4 ceased at the end of the 2006 model year. Production of the U.S. version ended in 2006.

When the Chinese market Bora received a July 2006 facelift, the Golf did too, becoming the "Bora HS" in the process.

The Mk4.5 facelift was produced in Brazil until 2013.

Fifth generation (Mk5/A5, Typ 1K; 2003)

The Golf Mk5 was introduced in Europe in the autumn of 2003, reaching the UK market in early 2004. In North America, Volkswagen brought back the Rabbit nameplate when it introduced the vehicle in 2006. In Canada, the Golf is still the prevalent nameplate of the fifth generation (though both Rabbit and Golf have been used historically). The North American base model is powered by a 2.5-litre five-cylinder engine, which produced 112 kW in 2006 and 2007, but was upped to 127 kW in the later models. A GTI version is powered by a turbocharged version of the 2.0-litre FSI engine, producing 147 kW.

Volkswagen also introduced the "Fast" marketing campaign for the US, "dedicated to the 'fast' that lives inside every driver," with a spirit totem character illustrating the concept and purchasers of the GTI Mk5 receiving a plastic figurine of the Fast. The GTI version is the only version on sale in Mexico.

The saloon/sedan version, again widely marketed by Volkswagen as the Jetta, is assembled in Germany, South Africa, as well as Mexico. It is marketed in certain markets, including European markets and Mexico as Bora. It was followed in 2007 by a new Golf Variant. The front ends of the car are the same, with the only difference being that the GLI is a sedan, while the GTI is a hatchback.

Later models of the Mk5 introduced the 1.4-litre TSI turbocharged petrol engine with front-wheel drive.

In a comparison test conducted by Car and Driver Magazine, the Rabbit won vs eight small cars. It was praised for its driving position, instruments, and engine; and was criticized for road noise, seating, and poor fuel economy. The Rabbit also placed first in their final comparison in December 2006.

Sixth generation (Mk6/A6, Typ 5K; 2008)

Volkswagen based the Golf Mk6 on the existing PQ35 platform from the Golf Mk5. This vehicle was debuted at the 2008 Paris Motor Show.

The Mk6 Golf was designed by Volkswagen's chief designer Walter de'Silva. The design is said to be more aerodynamic, helping fuel efficiency, and is quieter than its predecessor. Following criticism of the downgraded interior trim quality of the Mk5 Golf in comparison to the Mk4, Volkswagen opted to overhaul the interior to match the quality of the Mk4 Golf, while maintaining the same user friendliness from the Mk5. The car is also cheaper to build than its predecessor; Volkswagen claims it consequently will be able to pass these savings on to the customer.

The Mk6 Jetta was released in Mexico in mid-2010, and by late 2011 it was available in all markets. Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engines which uses common rail injection technology replaced the longstanding Pumpe Düse (PD) Unit Injector system. New on the Golf is the optional Volkswagen Adaptive Chassis Control (not available in the North American market), which allows the driver to select between 'normal', 'comfort', and 'sports' modes, which will vary the suspension, steering, and accelerator behavior accordingly.

The Mk6 Golf is available with both 5- and 6-speed manual transmission, and 6- or 7-speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG)(with Dual Clutch) transmission options. In North America, the Mk5 version was originally sold as the Rabbit from 2006 to 2009. In 2010, Volkswagen brought back the Golf nameplate with the mid-cycle refresh. With it came a 130 kW, 2.5-litre inline five-cylinder with 240 N·m (177 lb·ft) of torque and a 2.0-litre, 100 kW turbocharged inline four-cylinder diesel engine that generates 320 N·m (236 lb·ft) of torque. The GTI version is equipped with a 157 kW turbocharged inline four-cylinder TSI gasoline engine while the Golf R has a 191 kW turbocharged TFSI inline-four engine. All three engines can be paired with a DSG dual-clutch 6-speed automatic or 6-speed manual transmission in either a 3- or 5-door configuration.

The car was introduced for sale in the UK in January 2009, and in North America in October 2009 as the 2010 Golf, rather than Rabbit. The Mk6 also reintroduced a diesel engine option to the North American market.

The Volkswagen Golf Mk6 was a 2012 Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) Top Safety Pick.

Seventh generation (Mk7, Typ 5G; 2012)
The seventh-generation Golf had its debut in September 2012 at the Paris Motor Show.

The Golf VII, Typ 5G used the new MQB platform, shared with the third-generation Audi A3, SEAT León and Škoda Octavia. It was slightly larger than the Mk6 while managing to be approximately 100 kg lighter, depending on engine choice. The GTI offered a 154 kW turbocharged 2.0-litre four-cylinder with an available performance pack to raise the output to 162 kW. The Golf R had a 220 kW turbocharged 2.0-litre four-cylinder with Haldex Traction all-wheel-drive.

A version of the GTI dubbed the GTI Clubsport making 195 kW was released in 2016. A variant of the Clubsport called the Clubsport S held the record for the fastest front-wheel-drive car around the Nürburgring until the 2017 Honda Civic Type-R took the record once again.

The Golf line was available in all the relevant drive systems: the Golf TSI, including GTI, was petrol-powered; Golf TDI diesel (Turbo Direct Injection), including GTD, was diesel-powered; the Golf TGI was powered by compressed natural gas (CNG); the e-Golf was powered by electricity, and the Golf GTE was a plug-in hybrid. The use of a modular transverse matrix assembly kit enabled the manufacturing of Golf models with gasoline, diesel, natural gas, electric, and hybrid drives from bumper to bumper at Volkswagen factories.

In November 2016, Volkswagen revealed a facelifted version (Golf 7.5) to the 3-door hatchback, 5-door hatchback, 5-door estate, GTI, and GTE, in addition to a new "R-Line" Golf. With those models, came a new economical engine: 1.5-litre TSI EVO which produced 97 kW or 110 kW and replaced the 1.4-litre TSI. The updated GTI version featured a 230 hp as standard (220 hp previously) or 247 hp in the optional performance pack (230 hp previously). In terms of interior technology, the Golf featured a 12.3" TFT display as an option similar to Audi models and known as "Virtual Cockpit", full LED lights, animated tail indicators as an option (also used in Audi models), etc.

The most powerful Golf in the range was the Golf R. Built as a 3 or 5 door hatchback, it was powered by a newly developed version of the 1984 cc turbocharged EA888 petrol FSI Inline-four engine used in the latest Golf GTI (and Audi S3), but in this application producing 300 PS (206 kW for "hot climate" markets such as Australia, Japan, USA) from 5,500 to 6,200 rpm and 380 Nm from 1,800 to 5,500 rpm of torque. 0-62 mph (100 km/h) takes 5.1 seconds (versus 5.7 seconds for previous Golf R), or 4.9 seconds with optional DSG gearbox. In 3rd-party testing, it has been recorded at 4.5 seconds using Launch Control. The top speed is electronically limited to 155 mph.

Volkswagen produced a "Rabbit Edition" GTI for the 2019 model year. Only 3,000 were produced for the US market: 1000 in Cornflower Blue, 1000 in Urano Gray, 500 in Black, and 500 in White, all split evenly between DSG automatic and 6-speed manual transmissions. The Rabbit Edition featured a LED lighting package, a "Vmax" spoiler, 18-inch "Pretoria" alloy wheels painted in gloss black, no sunroof, and Clark plaid seats with red tags embroidered with the VW Rabbit logo. Canada also received a Rabbit Edition in 2019. Only 900 were produced: 272 in Cornflower Blue, 272 in Urano Grey, 178 in Pure White and 178 in Pure Black Pearl. The Canadian variant came with all the Rabbit specific cosmetic upgrades, but also included all the same features as the top level Autobahn package with the exception of the sunroof, satnav and leather seats.

In Mexico, the production of the Volkswagen Golf VII finished in 2021.

Eighth generation (Mk8, CD1; 2020 EU, 2021 US)

The Mk8 Golf was revealed on 24 October 2019 in Wolfsburg. It rides on an updated version of the MQB platform, with engine options consisting of compact petrol, diesel, and hybrid powertrains. At launch, the five-door hatchback was the only model available, with the three-door hatchback having been discontinued due to poor sales. The Golf VIII's interior receives a major overhaul with an entirely digital driver's display and digital control panel. All Mk8s have advanced safety features available such as travel assist, Car2X, and an oncoming vehicle while braking function, the latter two of which are the first to be used on a production Volkswagen model.

Powertrain options now have three ETSI mild-hybrid and two hybrids plug-in hybrid engines in addition to existing TSI petrol, TDI diesel, and TGI compressed natural gas (CNG) options. All TSI engines with an output up to 130 PS feature the efficient TSI Miller combustion process and a turbocharger with variable turbocharger geometry, and the 1.5-litre engines have temporary Active Cylinder Management. ETSI models use a 12 V vehicle electrical system and 48 V belt starter generator driven by the 48 V lithium-ion battery, whereas hybrid models have a 13 kWh lithium-ion battery capable of running in EV mode. TDI models utilize a new twin dosing SCR system featuring dual AdBlue selective catalytic reduction, which lowers nitrogen oxide emissions (NOx) up to 80% compared to the Mk7. Performance models consist of the GTE, GTI, GTD, and Golf R. The GTE and GTI produce 180 kW, the GTD produces 147 kW, while the R produces 235 kW The e-Golf previously offered on the Mk7 has been replaced by the ID.3.

Electric versions

The VW Golf has had several generations made into electric CityStromer models. The first of these was in the 1970s when VW took a standard Golf Mk1 and converted it to electric power. By the time the Golf Mk2 came into production a limited number of electric Golfs were made, using lead–acid battery packs and a custom-made motor and controller. VW continued with the production of limited numbers of CityStromer electric cars with the introduction of the Golf Mk3. The electric CityStromer Mk3 included a Siemens-based AC drive system, and lead–acid battery packs. They had a maximum speed of 60 mph and a range of approximately 50 mi. With a few exceptions, only left-hand drive Golfs were converted by VW into Citystromer models. These vehicles are still used today and have popularity in mainland Europe with only a few present in Great Britain. Only two right-hand drive Mk2 CityStromers were built for the UK market and it is believed only one remains today. It is owned by EV advocate and broadcaster Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield, host of Transport Evolved.

Golf Variant Twin Drive
As part of the "Fleet study in electric mobility" project that began in 2008, VW developed the Golf Variant twinDRIVE plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, and built twenty examples for research. These vehicles have an all-electric range of 57 km and the internal combustion engine provides for a total range of 900 km. The plug-in hybrid drive of the Golf Variant twinDRIVE is equipped with either an 11.2 kWh or a 13.2 kWh lithium-ion battery pack, as Volkswagen is testing packs from two vendors. Ten vehicles are equipped with batteries from the American-German manufacturer GAIA with cathode type nickel cobalt aluminium dioxide (NCA). The other ten is powered by lithium-ion batteries with nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) cathodes from the Korean-German joint venture SB LiMotive (Samsung and Bosch). These 10 vehicles have been in use since early 2011. Both battery systems offer high power and energy density. They each weigh about 150 kg. The gasoline engine is used to support the electric heating system when outdoor temperatures are low.

Using guidelines for determining the fuel consumption of plug-in hybrids, VW estimated a fuel consumption of 2.1 L/100 km (112 mpg US), which is equivalent to 49 g/km CO2. When the battery is fully charged, the Golf Variant twinDRIVE is designed to maximize the share of pure electrical energy used for driving, and only when longer distances are driven does the share of supplemental gasoline fuel increase. Top speed of the car is 170 km/h and it accelerates to 100 km/h (62 mph) in under 12 seconds. When operated in pure electric mode, the Golf Variant twinDRIVE can reach a top speed of 120 km/h.

The production version was expected to be based on Mk6 Golf featuring a 1.5 L turbodiesel engine and electric motor, with estimated arrival date of 2015. A SEAT León prototype with the Twin Drive system was also under development.

Concept version
Based on the Golf Mk6, the Golf blue-e-motion concept has a range of 150 km. Volkswagen scheduled a field testing program with 500 units to begin in 2011. The first 10 units began field testing in Wolfsburg in May 2011. A second batch of 80 test cars began testing in June 2011 in Berlin, Hannover and Wolfsburg. In February 2012, the first e-Golf, as the production version was renamed, was delivered in Belmont, California. A total of 20 e-Golfs were allocated to the U.S. field testing program.

The Golf blue-emotion concept has a 26.5 kWh lithium-ion battery pack and is powered by an 85 kW electric motor which drives the front wheels through a single-speed transmission. It will accelerate to 62 mph in 11.8 seconds and has a top speed of 86 mph. Paddle shifters are used to adjust the amount of regenerative braking. The vehicle's PRNDL stick has an additional 'B' mode as found on some other electric vehicles to set the regenerative braking effort to the maximum for sustained downhill travelling.

 * Production version

The production version of the 2015 Volkswagen e-Golf was unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show. According to VW the e-Golf has a practical all-electric range of 130 to 190 km, with an official NEDC cycle of 190 km, and the winter range is expected to be 80 to 120 km. The 2015 e-Golf has an official EPA rated all-electric range of 83 mi, and a combined fuel economy of 116 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for an energy consumption of 29 kW-hrs/100 mi. The EPA rating for city driving is 126 MPGe and 105 MPGe for the highway. Production of vehicles destined for retail customers began in March 2014.

For the 2017 model year, the e-Golf received an update, which included an improved range, better fuel economy, and more power than the outgoing model. With a new 35.8 kWh lithium-ion battery, the upgraded car is said to achieve an EPA-estimated range of 144 to 201 km, and have a combined 119 MPGe. The 2017 e-Golf also provides a faster charging time; SE and SEL Premium trim levels have a 7.2 kW unit that allows the battery to be fully charged in under six hours at a 240 V charging station. There is an optional (standard on SEL Premium) DC Fast Charging feature that allows the car to be charged to 80% in only an hour at a DC fast charging station.

 * Markets and sales

On 14 February 2014, Volkswagen launched sales of the e-Golf in Germany. On 11 March 2014, Volkswagen opened ordering for the e-Golf in the UK, with deliveries began at the end of June.

In Norway, the e-Golf became available for pre-order on 25 February 2014 for delivery in June 2014. European sales totaled 3,328 units in 2014, and 1,214 units in 2015.

The 2015 e-Golf did not have a liquid-cooled battery pack because strict testing showed high ambient temperatures did not affect battery performance. U.S. sales were slated to start on selected states in November 2014. In January 2015, the e-Golf started to show up at dealerships throughout the Northeast.

Production of the e-Golf ended in December 2020.

Volkswagen Golf GTE
The Golf GTE is a plug-in hybrid version of the Golf hatchback unveiled at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show. The Golf GTE shares the basic powertrain hardware with the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron but the software controls are different. The Golf GTE also shares the same plug-in hybrid powertrain with the Volkswagen Passat GTE, but the Passat has a larger 9.9 kWh Li-ion battery pack.

The GTE Mark 7 generation was powered by a 1.4-litre 110 kW TSI direct-injection gasoline engine combined with a 75 kW (101 hp) electric motor, powered by a 400 V 8.8 kWh lithium-ion battery, for a total hybrid system power of around 153 kW (204 hp). The electric motor delivered a theoretical all-electric range of 50 km and the hybrid system a total theoretical range of 933 km (measured using NEDC). The all-electric mode can be activated at the push of a button. Under the New European Driving Cycle, combined fuel economy is 157 mpgUS equivalent (176.6 mpgUS in generation 8). The Golf GTE has a top speed of 130 mph in the all-electric mode and accelerates from 0 to 62 mph in under 7.6 seconds.

In the Mark 8 generation, available from model year 2021, the electric motor power was increased to 81 kW, the total system power to 180 kW, the battery capacity to 13 kWh, and the all-electric range to 60 kilometers (measured using WLTP). The fuel tank was diminished from 50 litres (10.6 gallons) to 40 litres (8.8 gallons).

The vehicle can be recharged from a Type 2 charging point in about 2 hours, or from a standard 230 V wall outlet in approximately 4 hours (6 hours for generation 8). In common with other plug-in hybrid vehicles, the vehicle may be used in pure electric mode, parallel-hybrid (petrol + electric), and range-extender mode (petrol engine recharging the high-voltage battery).

The GTE release to retail customers was scheduled for the fourth quarter of 2014. The first units were registered in Germany in August 2014. The Golf GTE, with 1,695 units sold, was the best-selling plug-in hybrid in France in 2015, representing 30.3% of the segment sales. With 17,300 units sold in Europe in 2015, the Golf GTE ranked as the second top selling plug-in hybrid after the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (31,214). According to JATO Dynamics, a total of 18,397 units have been registered in Europe through December 2015. The Golf GTE was temporarily discontinued in 2018, due to high demand leading to long lead times, according to Volkswagen.

Motorsport

In auto racing, APR Motorsport has led two MKV VW GTIs to victory in the Grand-Am KONI Sports Car Challenge Street Tuner (ST) class.

Golf GTI
The Golf GTI competed in the British GT Championship in 2003 with Steve Wood and Stuart Scott at the wheel.

Golf TCR and Golf GTI TCR
Volkswagen Motorsport, the motorsport division of the brand, built the Golf TCR touring car in 2015 for use in various international and national competitions which use TCR regulations. In 2016 the car was updated and renamed Golf GTI TCR.

Volkswagen emissions scandal
Volkswagen Golfs are among the models included in the September 2015 Volkswagen emissions scandal in which Volkswagen manufactured and installed in their diesel vehicles a software program that manipulated the cars' vehicle emissions control during testing, thereby violating numerous countries' regulations. The program caused the vehicles' nitrogen oxide output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more  in real-world driving.

Awards and recognition

 * The Golf Mk3 won the 1992 European Car of the Year award.
 * In April 2010 Kelley Blue Book included the VW Golf TDI (clean diesel) among its Top 10 Green Cars for 2010.
 * The Golf Mk7 was named "The All The Car You'll Ever Need Car of the Year 2012" by Top Gear (magazine).
 * The Golf Mk7 won the 2013 European Car of the Year award for the second time.
 * The Golf Mk7 won the 2013 World Car of the Year award.
 * Volkswagen Golf has been selected as the Car of the Year Japan 2013–2014, becoming the first imported car to win the award created in 1980.
 * The entire Volkswagen Golf Mk7 line-up, including the 1.8T, Golf TDI Clean Diesel, Golf GTI, and e-Golf models, was named 2015 Motor Trend Car of the Year.
 * The Golf GTI Mk7 won the 2015 Yahoo! Car of the Year award.
 * South African Car of the Year 2010
 * The Volkswagen GTI has received the Car and Driver 10Best award for the 12th consecutive year in 2018.

title: Volkswagen Golf


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Archives New Zealand

Archives New Zealand (Māori: Te Rua Mahara o te Kāwanatanga) is New Zealand's national archive and the official guardian of its public archives. As the government's recordkeeping authority, it administers the Public Records Act 2005 and promotes good information management throughout government.

Establishment
In 1954, the First National Government's cabinet approved the establishment of a national archive and the office of a chief archivist, and the drafting of enabling legislation. The Archives Act 1957 established the National Archives within the Department of Internal Affairs (DIA). It also gave the chief archivist the power to approve the disposal of official records and to require the transfer of records to the National Archives after 25 years. The Archives Act also affirmed public access to the National Archives. While the National Archives were established in 1957, they were preceded by the Dominion Archives and the former war archives at the Hope Gibbons building in Wellington.

Expansion and legislative entrenchment
In 1977, an amendment to the Local Government Act 1974 extended limited protection to local government archives. For the first twenty years, the National Archives had to contend with inadequate storage and staffing. Following Wilfred I. Smith's report, the Government took steps to address those issues, the headquarters moving into the 1966 4-storey building of the former Government Printing Office on Thorndon Quay in 1990. The National Archives' legal position was further entrenched by the passage of legislation such as the Ombudsmen Act 1975, the Official Information Act 1982, and the State Sector Act 1988.

In 2000, the National Archives was separated from the Department of Internal Affairs and renamed as Archives New Zealand.

In 2005, the Fifth Labour Government passed the Public Records Act 2005 to deal with digital archives and the creation of state-owned enterprises. The Act also greatly expanded the role of Archives New Zealand and the powers of the Chief Archivist, and established the Archives Council to advise the Minister responsible for Archives New Zealand. The organisation now has a leadership role for recordkeeping throughout central and local government.

Reintegration under Internal Affairs, 2011–present
In 2011, Archives New Zealand and the National Library of New Zealand were merged back into the Department of Internal Affairs. Before 1 February 2011 Archives New Zealand was a separate government department.

In 2018, the Christchurch office moved to a new location in Wigram near the Air Force Museum of New Zealand.

The New Zealand Archivist Vol 3 No 1 pages 5–10 includes a more comprehensive history of archives in New Zealand.

In December 2020, the DIA confirmed that Archives NZ along with the National Library and Ngā Taonga Sound & Vision would move to a proposed purpose-built business park called the Horowhenua Business Park in Levin at an unspecified future date.

In February 2022 Internal Affairs Minister Jan Tinetti, Archives NZ chief archivist Stephen Clarke and Mãori iwi (tribe) Taranaki Whānui Te Āti Awa confirmed that the Government would build a new archives building on the site of the former Defence House on Wellington's Aitken Street between the present Archives NZ and National Library buildings. The new NZ$290 million building will have 19,300sqm of lettable area and is expected to open in 2026. It will host archives repository and specialist facilities for Archives NZ, the National Library and Ngā Taonga Sound & Vision.

On 9 May 2024, Archives NZ halted its digitisation programme which had commenced seven years ago, citing the programme's time-limited funding. The disestablishment of the digitisation programme is expected to cause the loss of three permanent jobs and some fixed time positions. Historian Vincent O'Malley described the termination of the digitisation programme as "a devastating blow."

Facilities
The national office for Archives New Zealand is in Wellington. It also has offices in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Planned Facilities
A new $290 million national archives facility is set to be completed in Wellington by 2026. The new facility, which began construction in 2022, will have a greater capacity to house the country’s rapidly growing archival collections and boast state of the art infrastructure to maintain and protect collections during incidents such as power outages and earthquakes. Its design has been created with te ao Māori worldview in mind, with design agency Tīhei and renowned Māori sculptural artist Rangi Kipa working alongside architects Warren & Mahoney to “connect the building to the land it sits on and acknowledge the tūpuna who lived there before”.

The Department of Internal Affairs is working alongside Fund Managers AMP Capital Ltd. to build the new Archives facility with construction partners, LT McGuiness.

List of Chief Archivists
Sources
 * Secretary of Internal Affairs exercised Chief Archivist powers (1957–1962)
 * Michael Standish (1962)
 * John Pascoe (1963–1972)
 * Judith S. Hornabrook (1972–1982)
 * Ray F. Grover (1981–1991)
 * Kathryn Patterson (1991–1998)
 * Chris Hurley (Acting) (1998–2000)
 * Lyn Provost (Acting) (2000–2001)
 * Dianne Macaskill (2001–2009)
 * Greg Goulding (Acting) (2009–2011)
 * Greg Goulding (2011–2014)
 * Marilyn Little (2014–2017)
 * Richard Foy (Acting) (2017–2018)
 * Richard Foy (2018–2020)
 * Stephen Clarke (2020–2022)
 * Anahera Morehu (Acting) (2022–2023)
 * Anahera Morehu (2023– )

The position of Director of National Archives and Chief Archivist were held simultaneously since late 1982.

Organisation
Archives New Zealand has four units:

 * Regional & Access Services;
 * Archives Management;
 * Government Recordkeeping; and
 * Māori & Community Archives.

Functions
Archives New Zealand:

 * manages the Public Records Act 2005 and works with government agencies to administer the Act;
 * makes sure records of government decision making are created and those of long-term value, including digital, are transferred into its care;
 * provides recordkeeping advice and information to government agencies;
 * makes public archives accessible to government departments, other organisations and the public;
 * manages the public archives in a protected and secure environment; and
 * provides leadership and support for archival activities across New Zealand.

Information and Records Management Standard

Archive information and records management standards are of the utmost importance as it ensures consistency of delivery for organisations utilising Archive NZ's services. For Archives New Zealand, they act as underpinning principles for their purpose of collecting, preserving, and providing access to records which hold historical, legal and cultural significance. Under section 27 of the Public Records Act 2005, the Chief Archivist of Archives New Zealand holds this responsibility and has issued such standards. To issue a standard, the Chief Archivist must make a copy of the draft available and have a process in place to communicate with every public office, approved repository, local authority and any other person considered to be impacted by or interested in the proposed standard.

These standards support and establish how Archive NZ can manage their information and records systematically and efficiently. It outlines the obligations of Archives NZ and other regulated organisations under the Public Records Act and sets out the minimum level of compliance that these organisations must meet. ‘Records are considered to be any information, regardless of form and format, from documents through to data’. Alongside this, they are also used as evidence of business activity and information assets. They also include metadata which is managed as a record.

The standard also supports the rights of Māori, under the Treaty of Waitangi/Te Tiriti o Waitangi to access, use and reuse any information and records that are taonga.

Information and records are key strategic assets for the public sector. Therefore, managing information and records appropriately is important in various different ways for Archives NZ including enabling the public to hold the government accountable; helps any organisations plan for and achieve their objectives; gives information to support informed decision making; outlines individual responsibilities; documents individuals and different groups entitlements; encourages collaboration and communication; facilities groups to be creative and also ensures that important public knowledge is available for research, discovery and reuse.

With these important factors to consider, all information and records should be:

 * trustworthy and managed accountably
 * readily accessible, understandable and usable
 * valued as critical to business operations
 * part of an organisation’s approach to risk management
 * maintained to meet business, government and community purposes

Regulatory role and powers
Archives New Zealand are the regulators of all information created by the public sector in New Zealand. Their regulatory role is to ensure information is created and managed to a high standard, to ensure transparency and accountability and support the rights and entitlements of New Zealand citizens.

In order to execute this role, Archives New Zealand are granted several directive powers. Their regulatory tools include:

 * Direction to report: A report back order issued by the Chief Archivist to organisations with record keeping practices that arise concern.
 * Inspection: The inspection of public records, local authority records and local authority archives by the Chief Archivist if information management issues have arisen within public offices or local authorities.
 * Audit: Audits are regularly carried out by independent auditors in order to determine the health of information management in the public sector.
 * Issuing of penalties: It is an offence under the Public Records Act to willfully or negligently damage, dispose of, or destroy any public record, unless it is authorised under by the Chief Archivist. Archives New Zealand can impose penalties on individuals or organisations that do not comply with the PRA. Persons convicted of an offence may also be trespassed from Archives offices and services.

Archives Council Te Rua Wānanga
The Archives Council Te Rua Wānanga is an unincorporated body established under the Public Records Act 2005. It provides independent advice to the Minister responsible for Archives New Zealand on recordkeeping and archives matters, including those for which tikanga Māori is relevant.

The Archives Council meets four times a year to discuss archival and record keeping matters. The Council reports directly to the Minister on its functions during the preceding year. The Minister, as soon as practicable, presents the report to the House of Representatives.

The Archives Council's reports to the Minister are available on Archives New Zealand's website.

Holdings
Archives New Zealand holds more than 7 million New Zealand government records dating from the early 19th to the early 21st century. Records held include the originals of the Treaty of Waitangi, government documents, maps, paintings, photographs and film.

Significant holdings include:

 * the archives of the New Zealand Company;
 * the New Zealand Parliament's archives;
 * commissions of inquiry documents;
 * most higher court records;
 * archives of government agencies;
 * New Zealand Defence Force archives.

Archives New Zealand does not solely collect government records. In fact, the institution also collects a wide range of materials that document New Zealand's social, cultural, and economic history. This includes personal papers, community archives, and business records, as well as photographs, audiovisual materials, maps, and other types of records. Personal papers are one example of the non-government records held by Archives New Zealand. These papers may include diaries, letters, and photographs that provide a glimpse into the everyday lives of New Zealanders in different periods of history.

Community archives are another type of non-government record held by Archives New Zealand. These archives may include records of local organisations and events, such as sports clubs, churches, and community groups, that reflect the social and cultural diversity of New Zealand.

Business records are also held by Archives New Zealand, and these documents provide insight into the development of key industries and sectors in New Zealand, such as agriculture, forestry, and manufacturing.

Archives New Zealand's collection of non-government records is an important resource for researchers, historians, and the wider public, and it contributes to the preservation and promotion of New Zealand's cultural heritage.

Finding records held
Researchers can search descriptions of the records using Archway, an online database of records held at Archives New Zealand. Archives New Zealand has developed preservation programs and facilities to ensure that records are protected from damage and degradation. The organisation collaborates with the National Library of New Zealand and other cultural heritage institutions to digitize and provide access to a wide range of digital content.

Physical records access
Access to holdings is available through four reading rooms in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, and through a remote reference service. 110,205 linear metres of physical archives were held in storage as at June 2018.

While most records held by Archives New Zealand are open to the public, some access restrictions may apply based on factors such as the sensitivity of the information and the privacy of individuals.

In addition to preserving and providing access to historical records, Archives New Zealand also works with government agencies to manage their records. This includes providing guidance on record-keeping practices, developing standards for records management, and overseeing the transfer of records to Archives New Zealand for preservation and access.

Digitised records
In 2019 Archives New Zealand forged a new partnership with Swedish firm Axiell Collections who will be managing their digital collection. This is a key partnership, as Axiell are known as a leading software supplier in the archives sector. A mantra of theirs is that culture should be preserved, shared and accessible through high quality systems. This was a key reason for Archives New Zealand moving from their previous system (Archway) to Axiell Collections: so that employees can become more efficient, as well as New Zealanders having enhanced access to New Zealand’s archives and taonga.

Unfortunately, in late 2022, there were security breaches of which Axiell has formally apologised for. This was due to technology failings, in conjunction with data entry errors, leading to a shutdown of the system for multiple days on multiple occasions. The security breach entailed public members being able to access restricted files through the new system, with 9000 files opened to being exposed. The files were related to the Royal Commission Inquiry into State Care Abuse. In particular they were three sets of health records in a 21-year period from 1952, from a mental health facility in Canterbury. As stated, Axiell has issued a formal apology and are pouring significant resources into fixing the situation.

Digital records are also available via DigitalNZ. A selection of records are also available on Archives New Zealand's social media channels, including YouTube and Flickr.

Examples of digitised records available:

 * New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) Personnel Files from the First World War – over 141,000 service files digitised.
 * New Zealand Official War Art Collection.
 * Crown Purchase Deeds.
 * Māori (native) school records and,
 * Samoan Land Deeds – Series 18962.

For a details of what is digitised by topic see Archives New Zealand's website.

He Tohu exhibition
In May 2017, a new permanent archive exhibition He Tohu, opened at the National Library of New Zealand building on Molesworth Street, Wellington.

He Tohu is an exhibition of three of New Zealand's most significant constitutional documents:

 * 1835 He Whakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni – the Declaration of Independence of the Chiefs of New Zealand (the Declaration);
 * 1840 Te Tiriti o Waitangi – the Treaty of Waitangi; and
 * 1893 Women's Suffrage Petition – Te Petihana Whakamana Pōti Wahine.

The development of the exhibition began in 2014. It provides an award-winning document room containing the latest exhibition technology and a surrounding interactive space for visitors to learn about the documents and the people who signed them. He Tohu is accompanied by an education and outreach programme including an online component to make it accessible for those not Wellington-based. He Tohu is presented by Archives New Zealand and the National Library of New Zealand, both of which are part of the Department of Internal Affairs. The documents remain in the care of the Chief Archivist under the Public Records Act 2005.

Archives and Records Association of New Zealand (ARANZ) – Te Huinga Mahara
Prior to its establishment in 1976, ARANZ was a part of the New Zealand Library Association (NZLA). At this point in time, the NZLA contained a mix of historians, genealogists, librarians and archivists, however, there was a need voiced by archivists to become more focused on their speciality. This was the catalyst for the creation of this organisation. The original thought was that it should be open to public, serving as more of an interest group rather than limiting membership to archive professionals only. This is the form that remains to this day.

ARANZ are an incorporated society that are a key stakeholder in the archive sector. Members include professional organisations, historians and of course: archivists. There are a variety of reasons why ARANZ are a significant partner for Archives New Zealand (as well as similar organisations). Namely, ARANZ serves as a leader regarding best industry practice for care, preservation, and administration of historical records; they hold an advocacy role for the sector which includes submissions to government regarding enhancements to existing legislation; a further role includes facilitating employee upskilling through shared knowledge as well advisory duties to appropriate educational facilities; and they produce regular publications and reports to facilitate these functions.

Overall, due to ARANZ and their role as a key stakeholder in the sector, Archives New Zealand is supported in achieving their objectives outlined in the Public Records Act 2005. Amongst other roles, these are: maintaining stewardship of public records; ensuring records of government decision making are stored appropriately with the intention of long-term sustainability at the forefront of this function; ensuring records with long term value are transferred into its service; providing recordkeeping advice and information to government departments; making sure public archives are accessible to government, other organisations as well as the public; managing public archives in a protected and secure environment; and the provision of leadership and advocacy within the sector.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Archives New Zealand


text:
Vézelay Abbey

Vézelay Abbey (Abbaye Sainte-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay) is a Benedictine and Cluniac monastery in Vézelay in the east-central French department of Yonne. It was constructed between 1120 and 1150. The Benedictine abbey church, now the Basilica of Sainte-Marie-Madeleine (Saint Mary Magdalene), with its complex program of imagery in sculpted capitals and portals, is one of the great masterpieces of Burgundian Romanesque art and architecture. Sacked by the Huguenots in 1569, the building suffered neglect in the 17th and the 18th centuries  and some further damage during the period of the French Revolution.

The church and hill at Vézelay were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1979 because of their importance in medieval Christianity and outstanding architecture.

Relics of Mary Magdalene can be seen inside the Basilica.

History
The Benedictine abbey of Vézelay was founded, as many abbeys were, on land that had been a late Roman villa, of Vercellus (Vercelle becoming Vézelay). The villa had passed into the hands of the Carolingians and devolved to a Carolingian count, Girart, of Roussillon. The two convents he founded there were looted and dispersed by Moorish raiding parties in the 8th century, and a hilltop convent was burnt by Norman raiders. In the 9th century, the abbey was refounded under the guidance of Badilo, who became an affiliate of the reformed Benedictine order of Cluny. Vézelay also stood at the beginning of one of the four major routes through France for pilgrims going to Santiago de Compostela in Galicia, in the north-western corner of Spain.

About 1050 the monks of Vézelay began to claim to hold the relics of Mary Magdalene, brought, they said, from the Holy Land either by their 9th-century founder-saint, Badilo, or by envoys despatched by him. A little later a monk of Vézelay declared that he had detected in a crypt at St-Maximin in Provence, carved on an empty sarcophagus, a representation of the Unction at Bethany, when Jesus' head was anointed by Mary of Bethany, who was assumed in the Middle Ages to be Mary Magdalene. The monks of Vézelay pronounced this to be Mary Magdalene's tomb, from which her relics had been translated to their abbey. Freed captives then brought their chains as votive objects to the abbey, and it was the newly elected Abbot Geoffroy in 1037 who had the ironwork melted down and reforged as wrought iron railings surrounding the Magdalene's altar. Thus the erection of one of the finest examples of Romanesque architecture which followed was made possible by pilgrims to the declared relics and these tactile examples demonstrating the efficacy of prayers. Mary Magdalene is the prototype of the penitent, and Vézelay has remained an important place of pilgrimage for the Catholic faithful, though the actual claimed relics were torched by Huguenots in the 16th century. To accommodate the influx of pilgrims a new abbey church was begun, dedicated on April 21, 1104, but the expense of building so increased the tax burden on the abbey's lands that the peasants rose up and killed the abbot. The crush of pilgrims was such that an extended narthex (an enclosed porch) was built, inaugurated by Pope Innocent II in 1132, to help accommodate the pilgrim throng.

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux preached at Vézelay in favor of a second crusade at Easter 1146, in front of King Louis VII. Richard I of England and Philip II of France met there and spent three months at the Abbey in 1190 before leaving for the Third Crusade. Thomas Becket, in exile, chose Vézelay for his Whitsunday sermon in 1166, announcing the excommunication of the main supporters of his English King, Henry II, and threatening the King with excommunication too. The nave, which had been burnt once, with great loss of life, burned again in 1165, after which it was rebuilt in its present form.

The abbey's self-assured monastic community was prepared to defend its liberties and privileges against all comers: the bishops of Autun, who challenged its claims to exemption; the counts of Nevers, who claimed jurisdiction in their court and rights of hospitality at Vézelay; the abbey of Cluny, which had reformed its rule and sought to maintain control of the abbot within its hierarchy; the townsmen of Vézelay, who demanded a modicum of communal self-government.

The beginning of Vézelay's decline coincided with the well-publicized discovery in 1279 of the body of Mary Magdalene at Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume in Provence, given regal patronage by Charles II, the Angevin king of Sicily. When Charles erected a Dominican convent at La Sainte-Baume, the shrine was found intact, with an explanatory inscription stating why the relics had been hidden. The local Dominican friars compiled an account of miracles that these relics had wrought. This discovery undermined Vézelay's position as the principal shrine of the Magdalene in Europe.

After the Revolution, Vézelay stood in danger of collapse. In 1834 the newly appointed French inspector of historical monuments, Prosper Mérimée (more familiar as the author of Carmen), warned that it was about to collapse, and on his recommendation the young architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc was appointed to supervise a massive and successful restoration, undertaken in several stages between 1840 and 1861, during which his team replaced a great deal of the weathered and vandalized sculpture. The flying buttresses that support the nave are his.

Interpretation of the tympanum
The tympanum of the central portal of the Madeleine de Vézelay is different from its counterparts across Europe. From the beginning, its tympanum was specifically designed to function as a spiritual defense of the Crusades and to portray a Christian allegory to the Crusaders' mission. When compared to contemporary churches such as St. Lazare d'Autun and St. Pierre de Moissac, the distinctiveness of Vézelay becomes apparent.

The art historian George Zarnecki wrote, "To most people the term Romanesque sculpture brings to mind a large church portal, dominated by a tympanum carved with an apocalyptic vision, usually the Last Judgment." This is true in most cases, but Vézelay is an exception. In a 1944 article, Adolf Katzenellenbogen interpreted Vézelay's tympanum as referring to the First Crusade and depicting the Pentecostal mission of the Apostles.

Thirty years before the Vézelay tympanum was carved, Pope Urban II planned on announcing his call for a crusade at La Madeleine. In 1095, Urban altered his plans and preached for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont, but Vézelay remained a central figure in the history of the crusades. The tympanum was completed in 1130. Fifteen years after its completion, Bernard of Clairvaux chose Vézelay as the place from which he would call for a Second Crusade. Vézelay was even the staging point for the Third Crusade. It is there that King Richard the Lionheart of England and King Philip Augustus of France met and joined their armies for a combined western invasion of the holy land. It is appropriate, therefore, that Vézelay's portal reflect its place in the history of the crusades.

The art historian Peter Low argues for the central tympanum as a visualization of both the Pentecost and a passage from book of Ephesians chapter 2—proclaiming to the visiting laity the tenets of Benedictine monasticism and to visiting pilgrims the extent and reach of a universalizing church that welcomes "the full, even monstrous range of the globe's inhabitants."

Lintel

The lintel of the Vézelay portal portrays the "ungodly" people of the world. It is a depiction of the first Pentecostal Mission to spread the word of God to all the people of the world. The figures in the tympanum who have not received the Word of God are depicted as not fully human. Some are shown with pig snouts, others are misshapen, and several are depicted as dwarves. One pygmy in particular is depicted as mounting a horse with the assistance of a ladder. On the far right, there is a man with elephantine ears, while in the center we see a man covered in feathers. The architects and artisans depicted the unbelievers as physically grotesque in order to provide a visual image of what they saw as the non-believers' moral turpitude. This is a direct reflection of Western perceptions of foreigners such as the Moors, who were being specifically targeted by the Crusaders. Even Pope Urban II, in his call for a crusade, helped promote this ethnocentric perception of the Turks by calling on westerners to, "exterminate this vile race." Most Westerners had absolutely no idea what the Turks and Muslims looked like, and they assumed that an absence of Christianity must coincide with repulsive physical attributes. It has also been argued that the disbelievers were carved as deformed monsters in an effort to dehumanize them. By dehumanizing their enemies in art, the Crusaders' mission to capture the holy land and convert or kill the Muslims was glorified and sanctified. The Vézelay lintel is, therefore, a political statement as well as a religious one.

Comparison with other contemporary portals
Vézelay's political motivation becomes all the more apparent when compared with contemporary portal designs from other churches around France. The Vézelay lintel is distinct, but some comparisons can be made between it and other Romanesque portal sculptures of the time. Vézelay's lintel is comparable to the St. Lazare lintel in Autun in that both show humans who have sinned. While the Vézelay lintel is devoted to the depiction of "heathens," the Autun lintel shows the damned souls on Judgment Day. The similarity between both lintels is due in large part to the fact that the same master artisan, Master Gislebertus, was the primary architect on both sites. "Gislebertus ... began his career at Cluny, then worked on the original west facade at Vézelay, and c. 1120 moved to Autun." In addition, the two tympana are similar in that they follow the tradition of placing the exaggerated Christ in the center of the image. Here is where the similarity stops, however. Autun is more traditional and typical of the Romanesque portal carvings. It depicts the Second Coming, which is a popular and typical depiction in Romanesque art. Frightful images of demons abound. The goals of the two different tympana are reflected in their design; Autun is designed to frighten people back to church while Vézelay is designed as a political statement to support the crusades.

Lower compartments

The lower four compartments of the Vézelay tympanum show the nations that had already received the Gospels. They include the Byzantines, Armenians, and Ethiopians. The inclusion of the Byzantines is particularly important because it was the Byzantines who initially requested a Crusade to the holy land. The Byzantines had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuk Turks through warfare, and they were eager to seek western military support to reclaim that territory.

The characters in the lower Vézelay compartments are regal and well proportioned. They are a direct contrast to their "heathen" counterparts in the lintel. They are human as opposed to monstrous. In the eyes of the designers, they had received God's grace and are thus pictured as fully human in every detail. These compartments can, therefore, can be seen as an allegory for the crusading nations. The Crusader armies were made up of many different nationalities bound only by faith in the same God. Nations that had previously warred with one another were suddenly united for a common goal. The lower tympanum compartments are an expression of this newfound solidarity.

Upper compartments
While the lower four compartments represent the Christian nations, the upper four compartments are a representation of the second mission of the Apostles. According to the Bible, "many wonders and signs were done by the apostles." These wonders included the healing of the sick and the casting out of demons and devils. These acts are represented in the upper four compartments of the Vézelay tympanum. In one compartment, a pair of lepers is shown with looks of astonishment as they compare limbs that have been miraculously healed. The demons are analogous to the non-Christians inhabiting the holy land. In reference to the Turkish take-over of the holy lands, Pope Urban said, "What a disgrace that a race so despicable, degenerate, and enslaved by demons should thus overcome a people endowed with faith in Almighty God!" It is not difficult to see the parallel between the Apostles' mission of casting out demons, and the designer's view of the crusaders' mission of casting out "a race ... enslaved by demons." It is further evidence of the Vézelay portal's peculiar political motives.

Central portal
The central portion of the Vézelay tympanum continues this process of politicizing religion. The central tympanum shows a benevolent Christ conveying his message to the Apostles, who flank him on either side. This Christ is distinct in Romanesque architecture. He is a stark contrast to the angry Christ of the St. Pierre de Moissac tympanum. The Moissac Christ is a forbidding figure that sits upon the throne of judgment. It is another example of the typical Romanesque Christ. His face is without caring or emotion. He holds the scrolls containing the deeds of mankind, and he stands ready to execute punishment on the damned. The Vézelay Christ, however, is pictured contraposto with arms wide. He is delivering a message, not exacting punishment. The Vézelay tympanum is remarkable because it is so different. The Vézelay Christ is sending the Crusaders out—he is not judging them. Indeed, the Crusaders were guaranteed remission of all sins if they participated in the Crusades. A forbidding Christ placed upon the throne of judgment would have been out of place at Vézelay. That is why the traditional Romanesque Christ, with its angry stare, was replaced at Vézelay by a kind and welcoming Christ with arms wide open.

Astronomical alignment

In 1976, Hugues Delautre, one of the Franciscan fathers charged with stewardship of the Vézelay sanctuary, discovered that beyond the customary east-west orientation of the structure, the architecture of La Madeleine incorporates the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun into its design. Every June, just before the feast day of Saint John the Baptist, the astronomical dimensions of the church are revealed as the sun reaches its highest point of the year, at local noon on the summer solstice, when the sunlight coming through the southern clerestory windows casts a series of illuminated spots precisely along the longitudinal center of the nave floor.

title: Vézelay Abbey


text:
User:Mics-solar

Hi, I'm Mic.

Contributions to Wikipedia My website

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User talk:Jjbowks~enwiki

Glidis, o Volapükaflen Jjbowks! Oh wow! You mean the Volapük Wikipedia is really going to go somewhere? I found it four days ago, and messed about a bit there, but I didn't think there was any chance that it would ever be written properly. I hope I'm proven wrong. Good luck! :) -- Oliver P. 05:45 Feb 12, 2003 (UTC)

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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jjbowks. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jjbowks~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Differential heat treatment

Differential heat treatment (also called selective heat treatment or local heat treatment) is a technique used during heat treating of steel to harden or soften certain areas of an object, creating a difference in hardness between these areas. There are many techniques for creating a difference in properties, but most can be defined as either differential hardening or differential tempering. These were common heat treatment techniques used historically in Europe and Asia, with possibly the most widely known example being from Japanese swordsmithing. Some modern varieties were developed in the twentieth century as metallurgical knowledge and technology rapidly increased.

Differential hardening is done by either of two methods. One of them is heating the steel evenly to a red-hot temperature and then cooling part of it quickly, turning that part into very hard martensite while the rest cools more slowly and becomes softer pearlite. The other is heating only part of the steel very quickly to red-hot and then rapidly cooling it by quenching, again turning that part into martensite, but leaving the rest unchanged. Conversely, one may selectively harden steel by differential tempering, that is, by heating it evenly to red-hot and then quenching it, turning it into martensite, and then tempering part of it by heating it to a much lower temperature, softening only that part.

Introduction
Differential heat treatment is a method used to alter the properties of various parts of a steel object differently, producing areas that are harder or softer than others. This creates greater toughness in the parts of the object where it is needed, such as the tang or spine of a sword, but produces greater hardness at the edge or other areas where greater impact resistance, wear resistance, and strength is needed. Differential heat treatment can often make certain areas harder than could be allowed if the steel was uniformly treated, or "through treated". There are several techniques used to differentially heat treat steel, but they can usually be divided into differential hardening and differential tempering methods.

During heat treating, when red-hot steel (usually between 1500 F and 1600 F) is quenched, it becomes very hard. However, it will be too hard, becoming very brittle like glass. Quenched-steel is usually heated again, slowly and evenly (usually between 400 F and 650 F) in a process called tempering, to soften the metal, thereby increasing the toughness. However, although this softening of the metal makes the blade less prone to breaking, it makes the edge more susceptible to deformation such as dulling, peening, or curling.

Differential hardening is a method used in heat treating swords and knives to increase the hardness of the edge without making the whole blade brittle. To achieve this, the edge is cooled faster than the spine by adding a heat insulator to the spine before quenching. Clay or another material is used for insulation. To prevent cracking and loss of surface carbon, quenching is usually performed before beveling, shaping, and sharpening the edge. It can also be achieved by carefully pouring water (perhaps already heated) onto the edge of a blade as is the case with the manufacture of some kukri. Differential hardening technology originated in China and later spread to Korea and Japan. This technique is mainly used in later Chinese jian, Chinese dao, and the katana, the traditional Japanese sword, and the khukuri, the traditional Nepalese knife. Most blades made with this technique have visible temper lines. Earlier Chinese jian from the ancient era (eg. Warring States to Han dynasty) used tempering rather than differential heat treatment. This method is sometimes called differential tempering, but this term more accurately refers to a different technique, which originated with the broadswords of Europe.

Modern versions of differential hardening were developed when sources of rapidly heating the metal were devised, such as an oxy-acetylene torch or induction heating. With flame hardening and induction hardening techniques, the steel is quickly heated to red-hot in a localized area and then quenched. This hardens only part of the object, but leaves the rest unaltered.

Differential tempering was more commonly used to make cutting tools, although it was sometimes used on knives and swords as well. Differential tempering is obtained by quenching the sword uniformly, then tempering one part of it, such as the spine or the center portion of double edged blades. This is usually done with a torch or some other directed heat source. The heated portion of the metal is softened by this process, leaving the edge at the higher hardness.

Bladesmithing
Differential hardening (also called differential quenching, selective quenching, selective hardening, or local hardening) is most commonly used in bladesmithing to increase the toughness of a blade while keeping very high hardness and strength at the edge. This helps to make the blade very resistant to breaking, by making the spine very soft and bendable, but allows greater hardness at the edge than would be possible if the blade was uniformly quenched and tempered. This helps to create a tough blade that will maintain a very sharp, wear-resistant edge, even during rough use such as found in combat.

Insulation coatings
A differentially hardened blade will usually be coated with an insulating layer, like clay, but leaving the edge exposed. When it is heated to red-hot and quenched, the edge cools quickly, becoming very hard, but the rest cools slowly, becoming much softer. The insulation layer is quite often a mixture of clays, ashes, polishing stone powder, and salts, which protects the back of the blade from cooling very quickly when quenched. The clay is often applied by painting it on, coating the blade very thickly around the center and spine, but leaving the edge exposed. This allows the edge to cool very quickly, turning it into a very hard microstructure called martensite, but causes the rest of the blade to cool slowly, turning it into a soft microstructure called pearlite. This produces an edge that is exceptionally hard and brittle, but is backed-up by softer, tougher metal. The edge, however, will usually be too hard, so after quenching the entire blade is usually tempered to around 400 F for a short time, to bring the hardness of the edge down to around HRc60 on the Rockwell hardness scale.

The exact composition of the clay mixture, the thickness of the coating, and even the temperature of the water were often closely guarded secrets of the various bladesmithing schools. With the clay mixture, the main goal was to find a mixture that would withstand high temperatures and adhere to the blade without shrinking, cracking, or peeling as it dried. Sometimes the back of the blade was coated with clay, leaving the edge exposed. Other times the entire blade was coated and then the clay was cut away from the edge. Another method was to apply the clay thickly at the back but thinly at the edge, providing a lesser amount of insulation. By controlling the thickness of the edge-coating along with the temperature of the water, the cooling rate of each part of the blade can be controlled to produce the proper hardness upon quenching without the need for further tempering.

Quenching
Once the coating has dried, the blade is heated slowly and evenly, to prevent the coating from cracking or falling off. After the blade is heated to the proper temperature, which is usually judged by the cherry-red glow (blackbody radiation) of the blade, it will change into a phase called austenite. Both to help prevent cracking and to produce uniformity in the hardness of each area, the smith will need to ensure that the temperature is even, lacking any hot spots from sitting next to the coals. To prevent this, the blade is usually kept in motion while heating, to distribute the heat more evenly. Quenching is often done in low-light conditions, to help accurately judge the color of the glow. Typically, the smith will also try to avoid overheating the blade to prevent the metallic crystals from growing too large. At this time the blade will usually be plunged into a vat of water or oil, to quickly remove the heat from the edge. The clay, in turn, insulates the back of the blade, causing it to cool slower than the edge.

When the edge cools fast a diffusionless transformation occurs, turning the austenite into very hard martensite. This requires a temperature drop from around 750 °C (cherry-red) to 450 °C (at which point the transformation is complete) in less than a second to prevent the formation of soft pearlite. Because the rest of the blade cools slowly, the carbon in the austenite has time to precipitate, becoming pearlite. The diffusionless transformation causes the edge to "freeze" suddenly in a thermally expanded state, but allows the back to contract as it cools slower. This typically causes the blade to bend or curve during quenching, as the back contracts more than the edge. This gives swords like katana and wakizashi their characteristic curved shapes. The blade is usually straight when heated but then bows as it cools; first curving toward the edge as it contracts, and then away from the edge as the spine contracts more. With slashing-type swords, this curvature helps to facilitate cutting, but increases the chances of cracking during the procedure. Up to one third of all swords are ruined during the quenching process. However, when the sword does not crack, the internal stresses created help increase the toughness of the blade, similar to the increased toughness in tempered glass. The sword may need further shaping after quenching and tempering, to achieve the desired curvature.

Care must be taken to plunge the sword quickly and vertically (edge first), for if one side enters the quenching fluid before the other the cooling may be asymmetric and cause the blade to bend sideways (warp). Because quenching in water tends to cause a sudden loss of surface carbon, the sword will usually be quenched before the edge is beveled and sharpened. After quenching and tempering, the blade was traditionally given a rough shape with a metal-cutting draw knife (sen) before sending to a polisher for sharpening, although in modern times an electric belt sander is often used instead.

Metallography
Differential hardening will produce two different zones of hardness, which respond differently to grinding, sharpening, and polishing. The back and center of the blade will grind away much quicker than the edge, so the polisher will need to carefully control the angle of the edge, which will affect the geometry of the blade. An inexperienced polisher can quickly ruin a blade by applying too much pressure to the softened areas, rapidly altering the blade's shape without much change to the hardened zone.

Although both the pearlite and martensite can be polished to a mirror-like shine, only the back and spine are usually polished to such an extent. The hardened portion of the blade (yakiba) and the center portion (hira) are often given a matte finish instead, to make the differences in the hardness stand out. This causes the various microstructures to reflect light differently when viewed from different angles. The pearlite takes on longer, deeper scratches, and either appears shiny and bright, or sometimes dark depending on the viewing angle. The martensite is harder to scratch, so the microscopic abrasions are smaller. The martensite usually appears brighter yet flatter than the pearlite, and this is less dependent on the viewing angle. When polished or etched with acid to reveal these features, a distinct boundary is observed between the martensite portion of the blade and the pearlite. This boundary is often called the "temper line", or the commonly used Japanese term, the "hamon". Between the hardened edge and the hamon lies an intermediate zone, called the '"nioi" in Japanese, which is usually only visible at long angles. The nioi is about a millimeter or two wide, following the hamon, which is made up of individual martensite grains (niye) surrounded by pearlite. The nioi provides a very tough boundary between the yakiba and the hira.

Decorative hardening
In Japan, from the legendary time of the famous smith Amakuni, hamons were originally straight and parallel to the edge, but by the twelfth century AD, smiths such as Shintogo Kunimitsu began producing hamons with very irregular shapes, which provided both mechanical and decorative benefits. By the sixteenth century AD, the Japanese smiths often overheated their swords slightly before quenching, to produce rather large niye for aesthetic purposes, even though a larger grain size tended to weaken the sword a bit. During this time, great attention began to be paid in Japan to making decorative hamons, by carefully shaping the clay. It became very common during this era to find swords with wavy hamons, flowers or clovers depicted in the temper line, rat's feet, trees, or other shapes. By the eighteenth century, decorative hamons were often being combined with decorative folding techniques to produce entire landscapes, complete with specific islands, crashing waves, hills, mountains, rivers, and sometimes low spots were cut in the clay to produce niye far away from the hamon, creating effects such as birds in the sky.

Benefits and drawbacks
Although differential hardening produces a very hard edge, it also leaves the rest of the sword rather soft, which can make it prone to bending under heavy loads, such as parrying a hard blow. It can also make the edge more susceptible to chipping or cracking. Swords of this type can usually only be resharpened a few times before reaching the softer metal underneath the edge. However, if properly protected and maintained, these blades can usually hold an edge for long periods of time, even after slicing through bone and flesh, or heavily matted bamboo to simulate cutting through body parts, as is in iaido.

Flame hardening

Flame hardening is often used to harden only a portion of an object, by quickly heating it with a very hot flame in a localized area, and then quenching the steel. This turns the heated portion into very hard martensite, but leaves the rest unchanged. Usually, an oxy-gas torch is used to provide such high temperatures. Flame hardening is a very common surface hardening technique, which is often used to provide a very wear-resistant surface. A common use is for hardening the surface of gears, making the teeth more resistant to erosion. The gear will usually be quenched and tempered to a specific hardness first, making a majority of the gear tough, and then the teeth are quickly heated and immediately quenched, hardening only the surface. Afterward, it may or may not be tempered again to achieve the final differential hardness.

This process is often used for knife making, by heating only the edge of a previously quenched and tempered blade. When edge turns the proper color temperature, it is quenched, hardening only the edge, but leaving most of the rest of the blade at the lower hardness. The knife is then tempered again to produce the final differential hardness. However, unlike a blade that has been evenly heated and differentially quenched, flame hardening creates a heat-affected zone. Unlike the nioi, the boundary between the hot and cold metal formed by this heat-affected zone causes extremely rapid cooling when quenched. When combined with the stresses formed, this creates a very brittle zone between the hard and softer metal, which usually makes this method unsuitable for swords or tools that may be subjected to shear and impact stresses.

Induction hardening
Induction hardening is a surface hardening technique which uses induction coils to provide a very rapid means of heating the metal. With induction heating, the steel can be heated very quickly to red-hot at the surface, before the heat can penetrate any distance into the metal. The surface is then quenched, hardening it, and is often used without further tempering. This makes the surface very resistant to wear, but provides tougher metal directly underneath it, leaving the majority of the object unchanged. A common use for induction hardening is for hardening the bearing surfaces, or "journals", on automotive crankshafts or the rods of hydraulic cylinders.

Differential tempering
Differential tempering (also called graded tempering, selective tempering or local tempering) is the inverse of differential hardening, to ultimately produce similar results. Differential tempering begins by taking steel that has been uniformly quenched and hardened, and then heating it in localized areas to reduce the hardness. The process is often used in blacksmithing for tempering cutting instruments, softening the back, shaft, or spine, but simultaneously tempering the edge to a very high hardness. The process was very common in ancient Europe, for making tools, but soon was applied to knives and swords as well.

Blacksmithing
The most common use for differential tempering was for heat treating cutting tools, such as axes and chisels, where an extremely hard edge is desired, but some malleability and springiness is needed in the rest of the tool. A chisel with a very hard edge can maintain that edge longer and cut harder materials, but, if the entire chisel was too hard, it would shatter under the hammer blows. Differential tempering was often used to provide a very hard cutting edge, but to soften parts of the tool that are subject to impact and shock loading.

Before a tool is differentially tempered, it is first heated to red-hot and then quenched, hardening the entire tool. This makes the tool much too hard for normal use, so the tool is tempered to reduce the hardness to a more suitable point. However, unlike normal tempering, the tool is not heated evenly. Instead, the heat is applied to only a part of the tool, allowing the heat to thermally conduct toward the cooler cutting edge. The quenched-steel is first sanded or polished, to remove any residual oxidation, revealing the bare metal underneath. The steel is then heated in a localized area, such as the hammering-end of a chisel or the handle-end of an axe. The smith then carefully gauges the temperature by watching the tempering colors of the steel. As the steel is heated, these colors will form, ranging from yellow to brown, purple, and blue, and many shades in between, and will indicate the temperature of the steel. As heat is applied, the colors will form near the heat source, and then slowly move across the tool, following the heat as it conducts toward the edge.

Before the yellow or "light-straw" color reaches the edge, the smith removes the heat. The heat will continue to conduct, moving the colors toward the edge for a short time after the heat is removed. When the light-straw color reaches the edge, the smith will usually dip the steel in water, to stop the process. This will generally produce a very hard edge, around HRc58-60 on the Rockwell scale, but will leave the opposite end of the tool much softer. The hardness of the cutting edge is generally controlled by the chosen color, but will also be affected primarily by the carbon content in the steel, plus a variety of other factors. The exact hardness of the soft end depends on many factors, but the main one is the speed at which the steel was heated, or how far the colors spread out. The light-straw color is very hard, brittle steel, but the light-blue is softer and very springy. Beyond the blue color, when the steel turns grey, it is more likely to be very malleable, which is usually undesirable in a chisel. If the steel is too soft it can bend or mushroom, plastically deforming under the force of the hammer.

Grade of temper
Unlike with differential hardening, in differential tempering there is no distinct boundary between the harder and softer metals, but the change from hard to soft is very gradual, forming a continuum, or "grade" (gradient), of hardness. However, higher heating temperatures cause the colors to spread less, creating a much steeper grade, while lower temperatures can make the change more gradual, using a smaller portion of the entire continuum. The tempering colors only represent a fraction of the entire grade, because the metal turns grey above 650 F, making it difficult to judge the temperature, but the hardness will continue to decrease as the temperature rises.

Guiding the heat
Heating in just one area, like the flat end of a center punch, will cause the grade to spread evenly down the length of the tool. Because having a continuous grade along the length of the entire tool is not always desired, methods of concentrating the change have been devised. A tool like a chisel may be heated quickly but evenly along the entire shaft, tempering it to a purple or blue color, but allowing the residual heat to quickly conduct a short distance to the edge. Another method is to hold the edge in water, keeping it cool as the rest of the tool is tempered. When the proper color is reached, the edge is removed from the water and allowed to temper from the residual heat, and the entire tool is plunged in the water when the edge turns the proper color. However, heating in localized areas with such low temperatures may be difficult with larger items, like an axe or a splitting maul, because the steel may lose too much heat before it can conduct to the edge. Sometimes the steel is heated evenly to just below the desired temperature, and then differentially tempered, making it easier to control the temperature change. Another way is to partially embed the steel in an insulator, like sand or lime, preventing too much heat loss during tempering.

Bladesmithing

Eventually, this process was applied to swords and knives, to produce mechanical effects that were similar to differential hardening, but with some important differences. To differentially temper a blade, it is first quenched to harden the entire blade evenly. The blade is then heated in a localized area, allowing the heat to flow toward the edge. With single-edged blades, the blade may be tempered with fire or a torch. The blade is heated along the spine and tang only, allowing the heat to conduct to the edge. The heat will need to be applied evenly, allowing the colors to spread evenly across the blade. However, with double-edged blades, the heat source will usually need to be more precisely localized because the heat must be applied evenly along the center of the blade, allowing it to conduct to both edges. Often, a red or yellow-hot bar is used to supply the heat, placing it along the center of the blade, typically fitted into a fuller. Modern gas torches often have the ability to produce very precise flames. To prevent too much heat loss in the blade, it may be preheated, partially insulated, or sandwiched between two red-hot bars. When the proper color reaches the edge, it is immersed in water to stop the process.

Guiding the heat
Differential tempering can be made more difficult by the shape of the blade. When tempering a double-edged sword with a taper along its length, the tip may reach the proper temperature before the shank does. The smith may need to control the temperature by using methods like pouring water along certain parts of the edge, or cooling it with ice, causing the proper temperature to reach the entire edge at the same time. In this way, although it is less time-consuming than differential hardening with clay, once the process starts the smith must be vigilant, carefully guiding the heat. This leaves little room for error, and mistakes in shaping the hardened zone cannot easily be corrected. This is made even more difficult if the knife or sword has a curve, an odd shape, or a sharply tapered tip. Swords tempered in this manner, especially double-edged swords, will generally need to be rather wide, allowing room for a gradient to form. However differential tempering does not alter the blade's shape.

Metallurgy
When a sword, knife or tool is evenly quenched, the entire object turns into martensite, which is extremely hard, without the formation of soft pearlite. Tempering reduces the hardness in the steel by gradually changing the martensite into a microstructure of various carbides, such as cementite, and softer ferrite (iron), forming a microstructure called "tempered martensite". When tempering high-carbon steel in the blacksmith method, the color provides a general indication of the final hardness, although some trial-and-error is usually required to match the right color to the type of steel to achieve the exact hardness, because the carbon content, the heating speed, and even the type of heat source will affect the outcome. Without the formation of pearlite, the steel can be incrementally tempered to achieve the proper hardness in each area, ensuring that no area is too soft. In arming swords, for instance, because the blade is typically rather wide and thin, a blade can be prone to bending during combat. If the center of the blade is too soft, this bending may likely be permanent. However, if the sword is tempered to a springy hardness, it will be more likely to return to its original shape.

Benefits and drawbacks
A sword tempered this way cannot usually have an edge as hard as a differentially-hardened sword, like a katana, because there is no softer metal directly underneath the edge to back-up the harder metal. This makes the edge more likely to chip away in larger pieces. Therefore, such an extremely hard edge is not always desirable, as greater hardness makes the edge more brittle and less resistant to impacts, such as cutting through bones, shafts of pole-arms, hitting shields or blocking and parrying. The sword will often be tempered to slightly higher temperatures to increase the impact resistance at a cost in the ability to hold a sharp edge when cutting. The edge may need to be tempered to dark-straw or brown to achieve this, and the center tempered to a blue or purple color. This may leave very little difference between the edge and the center, and the benefits of this method, over tempering the sword evenly at a point somewhere in the middle, may not be very substantial. When a sword tempered in this way is resharpened the hardness will decrease with each sharpening, although the reduction in hardness will usually not be noticeable until a large amount of steel has been removed.

title: Differential heat treatment