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User:HDRules

I was referred to this site by The Grimm Ripper, and liked what I saw. As I explore around a little more, I hope I will be able to contribute to this worthy endeavor.

People who look at my nickname have come up with all kinds of ideas in what the "HD" stands for, some printable, and others not! Actually, I have been an avid motorcycle rider for over 30 years, and in all that time, I have only owned the Harley brand, with the exception of between 1972 and 1974, when I was convinced by my friends that I needed to start with something small. So I learned to ride using a 500 cc Honda, which I outgrew long before I could afford to by my first Harley in 1974.

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title: User:HDRules


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Kwai Tsing District

Kwai Tsing is one of the 18 districts of Hong Kong. It consists of two parts - Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi Island. Kwai Tsing is part of the New Territories. It had a population of 520,572 in 2016. The district has the third least educated residents and their income is below average.

Kwai Tsing did not exist as a standalone district when Hong Kong's District Boards were formed in the early 1980s. It remained as a part of Tsuen Wan district until 1985. The newly created district was known as Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi District (葵涌及青衣區) until 1988, when its name was shortened to Kwai Tsing District.

The internationally famous container terminals can be found within the district, along the shores of Rambler Channel between Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi Island. The Tsing Ma Bridge, leading to the Hong Kong International Airport through the North Lantau Highway, starts at the northwestern end of Tsing Yi Island.

Over 75% of the district residents live in public housing.

History
In 1669, the Qing dynasty forced the people in Hong Kong and the coastal regions such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, etc., to move to the inland areas of mainland China. After this move inland policy ceased, a large number of Hakka people from the Huayang region of Guangdong province, as well as the Hakka districts of Fujian province, moved to what is now Shenzhen and Hong Kong. Traditionally, Kwai Tsing District has been a Hakka speaking region; the original inhabitants of the villages in this area were mainly of Hakka extraction.

Geography
Kwai Tsing District borders in the north and west with Tsuen Wan District, east with Sha Tin District, southeast with Sham Shui Po District and Yau Tsim Mong District (marine), south with Central and Western District (marine), and southwest with Islands District (marine liners and similar).

2003
By 2003 District Councils Election, the Kwai Tsing District Council is divided into 28 constituencies:

Kwai Chung
 * Cho Yiu
 * Kwai Chung Estate
 * Kwai Fong
 * Kwai Hing
 * Kwai Shing East Estate
 * Kwai Shing West Estate
 * Hing Fong
 * Lai King
 * Lai Wah
 * Lai Yiu
 * On Yam
 * Shek Lei
 * Shek Lei Extension
 * Shek Yam
 * Tai Pak Tin
 * Upper Tai Wo Hau
 * Lower Tai Wo Hau

Tsing Yi
 * Cheung Ching
 * Cheung Hang
 * Cheung Hong
 * Cheung On
 * Ching Fat
 * Greenfield
 * On Ho
 * Shing Hong
 * Tsing Yi Estate
 * Tsing Yi South
 * Wai Ying

2015
It has 29 constituencies in 2015 election.

 * S01 Kwai Hing
 * S02 Kwai Shing East Estate
 * S03 Upper Tai Wo Hau
 * S04 Lower Tai Wo Hau
 * S05 Kwai Chung Estate North
 * S06 Kwai Chung Estate South
 * S07 Shek Yam
 * S08 On Yam
 * S09 Shek Lei South
 * S10 Shek Lei North
 * S11 Tai Pak Tin
 * S12 Kwai Fong
 * S13 Wah Lai
 * S14 Lai Wah
 * S15 Cho Yiu
 * S16 Hing Fong
 * S17 Lai King
 * S18 Kwai Shing West Estate
 * S19 On Ho
 * S20 Wai Ying
 * S21 Tsing Yi Estate
 * S22 Greenfield
 * S23 Cheung Ching
 * S24 Cheung Hong
 * S25 Shing Hong
 * S26 Tsing Yi South
 * S27 Cheung Hang
 * S28 Ching Fat
 * S29 Cheung On

Town centre
The district is part of Tsuen Wan New Town. Unlike other new towns in Hong Kong, the district has no clear town core in the course of development. Cores emerge only after Metroplaza in Kwai Fong and Maritime Square in Tsing Yi was built, but they are still incomparable to their counterparts in other new towns in Hong Kong.

Industry
Industry is an integral part of the district. Both light and heavy industries share substantial land in the district.

Education
Like other early new towns of Hong Kong, the district was primary for settling the influx of Chinese population around the year of the change of sovereignty in China in 1949 and the baby boom afterwards. Public housing estates were built throughout the district. Many schools have been established by various charities and religious organisations. Some have provided vocational training for industries in Hong Kong while some have become liberal schools. As the community has aged, the number of school children declined after the 2000s, and schools are facing survival problems.

Secondary schools in 2006:

 * Buddhist Sin Tak College
 * Buddhist Yip Kei Nam Memorial College
 * Caritas St. Joseph Secondary School
 * Carmel Alison Lam Foundation Secondary School
 * CCC Chuen Yuen College
 * CCC Yenching College
 * CNEC Christian College
 * CNEC Lee I Yao Memorial Secondary School
 * Cotton Spinners Association Secondary School
 * Daughters of Mary Help of Christians Siu Ming Catholic Secondary School
 * Ha Kwai Chung Government Secondary School
 * HKSYC & IA Chan Nam Chong Memorial College
 * Hong Kong Taoist Association the Yuen Yuen Institute No.1 Secondary School
 * Ju Ching Chu Secondary School (Kwai Chung)
 * Kiangsu-Chekiang College (Kwai Chung)
 * Kwai Chung Methodist College
 * Lai King Catholic Secondary School
 * Lingnan Dr Chung Wing Kwong Memorial Secondary School
 * Lions College
 * Lok Sin Tong Ku Chiu Man Secondary School
 * Lok Sin Tong Leung Chik Wai Memorial School
 * Po Leung Kuk Lo Kit Sing (1983) College
 * Pope Paul VI College
 * Queen's College Old Boys' Association Secondary School
 * Salesians of Don Bosco Ng Siu Mui Secondary School
 * Shek Lei Catholic Secondary School
 * Sheung Kwai Chung Government Secondary School
 * Shun Tak Fraternal Association Lee Shau Kee College
 * Sheng Kung Hui Lam Woo Memorial Secondary School
 * The Methodist Lee Wai Lee College
 * Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Chen Zao Men College
 * Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Mrs Wu York Yu Memorial College
 * Tung Wah Group of Hospitals S. C. Gaw Memorial College

Leisure
There are several sports grounds in the district. Biu Chun Rangers are based in Tsing Yi. Kwai Tsing Theatre in Kwai Fong is gradually becoming an important performance venue in Hong Kong.

Transport
The usual forms of transportation in the district are buses, minibuses and metro.

The MTR (metro) Tsuen Wan line has four stations on three lines running through the district:
 * Lai King is the southernmost, and the interchange between Tsuen Wan and Tung Chung line.
 * The Tsuen Wan line then runs through two stations (Kwai Fong, Kwai Hing) before exiting the district for Tsuen Wan.
 * Tung Chung line diverges to the west to Tsing Yi Island and have a station, Tsing Yi, there.
 * Tsing Yi station is also served by Airport Express, which is the last station before reaching the Airport.
 * Bus
 * Kowloon Motor Bus: 6, 30, 31, 31A, 31B, 32, 32H, 32M, 33A, 34, 35A, 35X, 36A, 36B, 36M, 36X, 37, 37M, 38, 38A, 38B, 38P, 40, 40A, 40E, 40P, 40S, 40X, 41, 41A, 41M, 42, 42A, 42C, 42M, 43, 43A, 43B, 43C, 43D, 43M, 43S, 44, 44M, 45, 46, 46P, 46S, 46X, 47A, 47X, 48X, 49P, 49X, 57M, 58M, 58P, 59A, 60X, 61M, 67A, 67M, 68A, 68E, 69M, 69P, 73D, 73P, 73X, 234C, 234D, 235, 235M, 237A, 240X, 242X, 243M, 243P, 248M, 249M, 249X, 260C, 265B, 265M, 269A, 269M, 269P, 272P, 278A, 278P, 278X, 279A, 279B, 279X, 290, 290A, 290B, 290X, N41X, N237, N241, N252, N260, N269, N290, X42C, X42P
 * Long Win Bus: A31, A32, E31, E32, E32A, E42, E42P, N31, NA31, NA32
 * Citybus: 50, A20, E21, E21A, E21C, N21, N21A, NA20
 * Cross Harbour Tunnel: 171, 171A, 171P, 904, 905, 905A, 905P, 930, 930B, 935, 936, 936A, 948, 948A, 948B, 948E, 948P, 948X, N171, N930

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kwai Tsing District


text:
Wan Chai

Wan Chai is situated at the western part of Wan Chai District on the northern shore of Hong Kong Island, in Hong Kong. Its other boundaries are Canal Road to the east, Arsenal Street to the west and Bowen Road to the south. The area north of Gloucester Road is often referred to as Wan Chai North.

Wan Chai is one of the busiest commercial areas in Hong Kong with offices of many small and medium-sized companies. Wan Chai North features office towers, parks, hotels and an international conference and exhibition centre. Wan Chai is also well known for its famous night life. As one of the first areas developed in Hong Kong, the locale is densely populated yet with noticeable residential zones facing urban decay. Arousing considerable public concern, the government has undertaken several urban renewal projects in recent years. There are various landmarks and skyscrapers within the area, most notably the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre (HKCEC), Central Plaza and Hopewell Centre.

Names
Wan Chai originally began as Ha Wan, literally meaning "a bottom ring" or "lower circuit". As one of the earliest developed areas in Hong Kong along the Victoria Harbour, Central ("centre ring" in Chinese), Sheung Wan ("upper ring"), Sai Wan ("western ring") and Wan Chai are collectively known as the four rings by the locals. Wan Chai literally means "a cove" in Cantonese from the shape of its coastal line, however, due to drastic city development and continual land reclamation, the area is no longer a cove.

History
Wan Chai was the first home to the many Chinese villagers living along the undisturbed coastlines in proximity to Hung Shing Temple. Most of them were fishermen, who worked around the area near Hung Shing Temple overlooking the entire harbour. Hung Shing Ye, the God of the Sea, was one of the deities worshiped by the locals.

British Colony (from 1842)
With the growth of the British Hong Kong administration, centred in old Victoria (modern Central), Wan Chai attracted those on the fringes of society, such as "coolie" workers, who came to live on Queen's Road East. A focal point of development at that time was Spring Gardens, a red-light zone.

By the 1850s, the area was already becoming a Chinese residential area. There were dockyards on Ship Street and McGregor Street for building and repairing ships. The edge of Sun Street, Moon Street and Star Street was the original site of the first power station in Hong Kong, operated by the Hongkong Electric Company, which began supplying power in 1890.

One of the first water-front hospitals was the Seaman's Hospital, built in 1843, which was funded by the British merchant group Jardine's. It was then sold to the British Royal Navy in 1873 and subsequently redeveloped into the Royal Naval Hospital. After the Second World War, the hospital was revitalised as the Ruttonjee Hospital and became one of the main public hospitals in Hong Kong.

The district was home to several well-known schools. One of these schools was established by the famous traditional teacher, Mo Dunmei. Started as a shushu in 1919, the school was renamed Dunmei School  in 1934 after him. It taught classical Chinese writings and Confucian ethics.

In 1936, the Chinese Methodist Church moved its building from Caine Road, Mid-levels Central, to Hennessy Road, Wanchai, a thoroughfare of the district running from west to east. This church building became the landmark of the district. In 1998, this building was demolished and replaced by a 23-storey building.

Second World War and the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
During the Japanese occupation in the early 1940s, many bombardments took place in Wan Chai. There were abundant incidences of cannibalism, starvation, torture and abuses of the local population by the Japanese soldiers, including the illegal use of child labour. Senior residents could recall vividly how they survived the hardships: this oral history became an important, first-hand source of the harsh living conditions in Hong Kong under the Japanese period. The Dunmei school was closed during the Japanese occupation period. After the war, the school continued to provide Chinese education for children from families of higher income.

Post-war development (from 1945)
During the 1950s the pro-Communist underground cell network Hailiushe (海流社) established their headquarters at the rooftop of a multi-story house on Spring Garden Lane. This group was successfully raided by the Hong Kong police.

Prostitution has been one of the oldest occupations in Wan Chai. There are numerous historical accounts of women trading sex for western merchandise, especially with sailors from trading ships visiting this area. In the 1960s, Wan Chai became legendary for its exotic night life, especially for the US servicemen resting there during the Vietnam War. Despite rapid changes of Wan Chai's demography from reclamation and redevelopment, the presence of sex workers operating among ordinary residential areas has continued to be a distinctive feature. Some of the lifestyle was illustrated in past movies such as The World of Suzie Wong.

Transfer of sovereignty to China (PRC)
Wan Chai's HKCEC has been home to major political and economic events. It was the site of the Hong Kong handover ceremony in 1997, in which the last governor of Hong Kong, Chris Patten, formally concluded the British chapter and transferred Hong Kong to China. The WTO Ministerial Conference in 2005 was also one of the largest international events hosted in Hong Kong, with delegates from 148 countries participating.

In May 2009, 300 guests and staff members at the Metropark Hotel in Wan Chai were quarantined, suspected of being infected or in contact with the H1N1 virus during the global outbreak of swine flu. A 25-year-old Mexican man who had stayed at the hotel was later found to have caught the viral infection. He had traveled to Hong Kong from Mexico via Shanghai.

Reclamation
Wan Chai's coastline has been extended outwards after a series of land reclamation schemes. Early in 1841, the coastline was located at Queen's Road East (the area of Spring Gardens and Ship Street). The first reclamation took place and new land was sold to Minister of Foreign Affairs of the British Colony. The project was privately funded and the government did not take part. Soon after, in 1858, the Minister and his salesmen sold the land back to the Chinese after Sir Robert Brown Black

The next reclamation project in Wan Chai was the Praya East Reclamation Scheme. The coastline was extended to today's Gloucester Road. The reclamation after World War II from 1965 to 1972 pushed the coastline further out to the areas around Convention Avenue and the Wan Chai Pier. The 1990s Wan Chai Development project added additional land, on which the current HKCEC stands today.

Arts and culture
Wan Chai is a major hub of foreign and Chinese cultural institutions in Hong Kong. It is home to the French Alliance Francaise, German Goethe-Institut and the British Council (until 2001). Near the waterfront, there are the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts and Hong Kong Arts Centre, two of the most popular venues for theatrical and cultural performances in Hong Kong. The Academy for Performing Arts is a higher education institution that trains musicians, performers, actors and dancers, as well as a public venue for drama, concerts, dance, and musicals productions. Every year the academy produces a number of Broadway musicals, including Singin' in the Rain, Saturday Night Fever, and Annie. The Arts Centre, just opposite to the academy, houses a studio theatre, art galleries, rehearsal rooms, the Goethe-Institut and a restaurant overlooking the Victoria Harbour.

The Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre (HKCEC), a HK$4.8 billion convention centre with an extension completed in 1997, covers over 16 acres (65,000 m2) of newly reclaimed land that added an extra 38,000 m2 of functional space to the existing convention centre. It remains a venue for international trade fairs, some of which are among the biggest in the world: the annual Hong Kong Book Fair in July, food fair and festival, technology exhibitions, and cosplay competitions.

Dining

 * Cha chaan teng are local-styled fast-food restaurants, and Chinese pastry. Many of the restaurants can be found all along Jaffe Road. Numerous tea shops offer cheap Chinese herbal tea, like leong cha (lit. cool tea) and 24-mei.
 * Dai pai dong, open-air restaurants in a big tent, is another classic restaurant type that appeared in Wan Chai. Despite the often unclean and uncomfortable eating conditions, many people are attracted to the freshly made steamed rice roll, congee and chow mein early in the morning. Due to urban renewal projects in recent years, most of these restaurants are fading away.
 * Yum Cha, is the name associated with having dim sum, e.g. Fook Lam Moon restaurant. People usually have "one bowl with two pieces" (, meaning a cup of tea with two dim sums) for breakfast. There were three old-styled dims restaurants remaining in Wan Chai, namely Lung Mun, Lung To, and Lung Tuen. Lung Mun, the last of the trio, closed on 30 November 2009. A number of Buddhist cuisine restaurants are also available in the area.
 * The 1980s also saw an expansion of Western-cuisine restaurants in Wan Chai. Nowadays, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and Indian restaurants are all very common. There are also many fast food restaurants serving Cantonese and other Chinese dishes, including the franchised Maxim's and Café de Coral. Jaffe Road and Lockhart Road are famous for pubs.

Bar district
The area towards the western end of Lockhart Road, including a small part of the parallel Jaffe Road, is one of Hong Kong island's two main bar districts (the other being the more upmarket Lan Kwai Fong in Central). Once considered primarily as a red light district, this area is now more diverse with bars, pubs, restaurants and discos. A number of the raunchier bars still remain, however, their doorways festooned with women from Thailand and the Philippines. The famous novel and film The World of Suzie Wong sets many scenes in this area. The bar district has been popular with visiting sailors and navies, when Fenwick Pier, west of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, was in use as a military pier.

Recreational activities
Southorn Playground on Johnston Road (the tram line) is a meeting place for the locals in Wan Chai, particularly the senior residents. During the prime years of the British colonial administration, coolie workers would convene at the playground in the morning to await employment opportunities. In the evening, the playground became an open-air pitch where people sold food, performed magic and did kung fu.

Some of those trademark activities still exist through today: senior citizens socialise and play Chinese chess, young people at school play football and basketball, ad-hoc street basketball games that attract flocks of spectators and players. Occasionally, the entire playground is used for carnival fairs, three-player drill basketball contests and hip hop dance competitions.

Religious diversity
Wan Chai's places of worship represent Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism, Protestantism, Christianity, Mormonism, Sikhism, and Islam. Despite the wide variety, many religious structures are located in close proximity to each other. Hung Shing Temple, for example, is a typically Taoist temple. Inside, there are Buddhist Kwun Yum chapels next to the main altar. People coming to worship Hung Shing Ye could also burn joss sticks to Kwun Yum as well. Villain hitting is another blended ceremony, combining in different proportions Confucianism, Taoism, and folk religion. Some old female "psychics" perform this ancient ceremony under the Canal Road Flyover in particular days of a lunar month. The Wan Chai Khalsa Diwan Sikh Temple is the biggest Sikh temple in Hong Kong. The Asia Area Office of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, along with chapels where multiple congregations meet throughout the week, is on Gloucester Road.

Tourism and landmarks
Wan Chai offers historical conservation sites including Old Wan Chai Post Office, Hung Shing Temple and Pak Tai Temple. Many of the medium-sized shopping centres are named in numerals, such as Oriental 188, 328, and 298 Computer Centre. These numbers might have come from the earlier days when all prostitution houses were numbered, as they were referred to as "big numbers" (, dai lum bah).

There are many commercial complexes and office skyscrapers in Wan Chai. The HK$4.4 billion 78-storey skyscraper Central Plaza currently stands as the third tallest building in Hong Kong. Small but free art exhibitions used to be held on the second floor all year round, whereas the first floor connects Wan Chai's footbridge network: the Hong Kong Exhibition and Convention Centre at the network's extreme north, Wan Chai Pier, China Building, Harbour Centre, Central Plaza, Immigration Department Tower, Wan Chai Court, Wan Chai MTR station and Johnston Road (the tram line) at the network's extreme south.

More recent tourist attractions include the Golden Bauhinia Square, the site of a daily flag-rising ceremony. This ceremony is enhanced on 1 July (Handover of Hong Kong) and 1 October (National Day of China).

A 3-storey pergola exhibition is built opposite to Li Chit Garden. Tai Fat Hau footbridge also holds an art display of the fingerprints of 30,000 citizens slated for the ''Guinness Book of World Records’'. The sticker pictures on 50 poles of the bridge have been colloquially called the "50 landscapes of Wan Chai".

Lovers' Rock reclines on the hillside of Bowen Road near Shiu Fai Terrace, mid-levels Wan Chai. The rock received its name since it resembles a small, thin column sticking out of the rock base. This special-looking rock is said to have granted happy marriages to its devoted worshippers. Many people are attracted by its reputation.

Architecture
Throughout Wan Chai's history, construction styles have changed according to the architectural movement at the time.

In the 1950s and 1960s, an increasing number of girlie bars and nightclubs were opened in the red-light district by Jaffe and Lockhart Road. The establishments entertained visiting sailors landing at Fenwick Pier. Beyond Gloucester Road is the commercial area developed in the late 1970s and 1980s, a time at which Hong Kong underwent economic development at full speed. At the same time, buildings like the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, HKCEC, and Central Plaza were constructed on the newly reclaimed land.

Skyscrapers in Wan Chai include:
 * Central Plaza, 78 floors, offices, completed in 1992
 * Hopewell Centre, 64 floors, offices, completed in 1980
 * Sun Hung Kai Centre, 56 floors, offices, completed in 1981
 * May House, 47 floors, government offices, completed in 2004. Headquarters of the Hong Kong Police Force
 * China Online Centre, 52 floors, offices, completed in 2000
 * Three Pacific Place, 40 floors, offices, completed in 2004
 * Convention Plaza Office Tower, 50 floors, offices, completed in 1990
 * Immigration Tower, 49 floors, government offices, completed in 1990
 * Revenue Tower, 49 floors, government offices, completed in 1990
 * Wanchai Tower, 44 floors, government offices, completed in 1985
 * MLC Tower, 40 floors, offices, completed in 1998
 * Wu Chung House, 40 floors, offices and government offices, completed in 1992
 * Great Eagle Centre, 35 floors, offices, completed in 1983
 * Shui On Centre, 35 floors, offices, completed in 1987
 * QRE Plaza, 35 floors, offices and shops, completed in 2007
 * China Resources Building, 48 floors, offices, completed in 1983
 * Harbour Centre, 33 floors, offices, completed in 1983

Urban decay and renewal
Many of Wan Chai's older buildings now face a serious problem of urban decay. To tackle the problem, the government has launched a series of urban renewal projects to bring new life into the area. Many local residents have relocation worries such as whether the Urban Renewal Authority can compensate enough to put them in a new space of equal size. Other concerns involve the loss of building character that make up part of that Hong Kong cultural identity.

 * Demolition of Lee Tung St – Old buildings on Lee Tung Street are scheduled for demolition. Many businesses have shut down or moved out. Today, most stores have signs on their gate proclaiming "This is an Urban Renewal Authority Property".
 * Renovation of Tai Yuen St – Visitors may gain a distinctive experience of bustling local street-stall shopping in Tai Yuen Street. Many huckster stalls sell a wide variety of dried goods, garments, household products, dumplings, and Chinese herbal medicine. This predominantly tourist attraction area is a place where old houses and modern mansions mingle, creating an interesting disparity.

Central and Wan Chai reclamation (from 2007)
After the completion of the Central and Wan Chai Reclamation Feasibility Study in 1989, the Land Development Policy Committee endorsed the idea of an ongoing series of reclamation. The reclamation comprises three discrete development areas to be aligned by public parks, namely, Central, Tamar and Exhibition. The urban development of each cell would be further divided into five subsequent phases. As of 2014, reclamation for the Central area has been completed: the area is largely taken by the new government offices and the Legislative Council of Hong Kong (its old building in the heart of Central has been reverted to its original use as the Supreme Court).

Government
The Hong Kong Immigration Department has its headquarters at the Immigration Tower in Wan Chai. The Hong Kong Police Force operates from the Wan Chai District; their headquarters is located at the Wan Chai Police District Headquarters, 1 Arsenal Street. within the Hong Kong Police Headquarters Compound. Maggie Farley of the Los Angeles Times said in 1996, referring to the then Wan Chai Police Station, that the police headquarters was "a stolid, whitewashed building with square pillars and breezy verandas".

Economy
Esquel Group has its head office in Harbour Centre (Hong Kong) (海港中心), Wan Chai.

Jademan (now Culturecom) was formerly headquartered in Harbour Centre.

Transportation

Geographically, Wan Chai is the crossing point between the Central and Western District (West Point/Central), and the Eastern (Causeway Bay/North Point) district. Its thoroughfares connect the main developed areas along the northern coast of Hong Kong Island. The transport infrastructure is efficient, convenient and highly accessible.

 * Mass Transit Railway (MTR)
 * Wan Chai station on the Island line, trains run between Kennedy Town and Chai Wan (north-eastern part of Hong Kong Island)
 * Exhibition Centre station on the East Rail line, trains run between Admiralty and Lo Wu/Lok Ma Chau border crossings
 * Trams run between Kennedy Town and Shau Kei Wan (north-eastern part of Hong Kong Island)
 * Buses travel along thoroughfares such as Gloucester Road and Hennessy Road, with destinations as different parts of Hong Kong
 * Ferry services from Wan Chai Pier to Tsim Sha Tsui in Kowloon, across the Victoria Harbour

Ferries
The Star Ferry at Wan Chai Pier the sole ferry operator in the area. Frequent services cross the Victoria Harbour from HKCEC, Wan Chai to the Cultural Centre in Tsim Sha Tsui. In light of more convenient and competitive cross-harbour public transportation, the Star Ferry continues to provide an inexpensive option to local commuters. Numerous shipping companies, such as the Anglo-Eastern Group, also have their headquarters in Wan Chai.

Main roads and tunnels
Wan Chai's Gloucester Road, an east–west trunk route along the northern coast, is connected to Cross-Harbour Tunnel, the first undersea tunnel in Hong Kong. This tunnel is connected to the south by a direct viaduct from its landing point on Hong Kong Island to the Aberdeen Tunnel towards the southern coast. Connecting Hong Kong Island at Kellett Island (the site of the Royal Navy Club) to a reclaimed site at Hung Hom Bay in Kowloon, this tunnel provides a direct link by road. Prior to the tunnel's opening in 1972, local drivers and pedestrians depended solely upon the Star Ferry services to cross the Victoria Harbour. Linking the main financial districts on both sides of Victoria Harbour, the tunnel carries 123,000 vehicles daily. On the other hand, the thoroughfare Queen's Road East, an extension from Queen's Road West at Kennedy Town, through Queen's Road Central at Central, Queensway at Admiralty, takes a southerly route to provide an alternative east–west road link. Due to Wan Chai's early involvement in the British colonial administration, road names were often taken from previous Governors, such as Hennessy Road, and notable people (Gloucester Road, Jaffe Road, Lockhart Road, Johnston Road, Fleming Road, Luard Road, O'Brien Road, Marsh Road, Stewart Road, McGregor Street, etc.).

Thoroughfares, Roads and Streets:

 * Amoy Street
 * Anton Street
 * Arsenal Street
 * Convention Avenue
 * Cross Lane
 * Cross Street
 * Electric Street
 * Expo Drive
 * Expo Drive Central
 * Expo Drive East
 * Fenwick Pier Street
 * Fenwick Street
 * Fleming Road
 * Gresson Street
 * Harbour Road
 * Hennessy Road
 * Hill Side Terrace
 * Jaffe Road
 * Johnston Road
 * Landale Street
 * Lockhart Road
 * Lee Tung Avenue
 * Luard Road
 * Lun Fat Street
 * Marsh Road
 * Monmouth Path
 * Moon Street, Starstreet Precinct
 * O'Brien Road
 * Performing Arts Avenue
 * Queen's Road East
 * Salvation Army Street
 * Schooner Street
 * Ship Street
 * Spring Garden Lane
 * St. Francis Street
 * St. Francis Yard
 * Star Street, Starstreet Precinct
 * Stewart Road
 * Stone Nullah Lane
 * Sun Street, Starstreet Precinct
 * Swatow Street
 * Tai Wo Street
 * Tai Wong Street East
 * Tai Wong Street West
 * Tai Yuen Street
 * Thomson Road
 * Tonnochy Road
 * Triangle Street
 * Wan Chai Road
 * Wood Road

Mass Transit Railway

 * Island line – Wan Chai

The MTR Island line runs beneath Hennessy Road, a thoroughfare, in the locality. Due to the large size of Wan Chai, more than 50 entry/exit gates and 8 entrances/exits are set up. An extension project was carried out in the early 2000s; it created two additional entrances/exits, one of which connects to the footbridge network from the Hong Kong Exhibition and Convention Centre to the station. Then this footbridge is also interconnected with covered corridor of buildings along the Victoria Harbour, and ends up at Wan Chai Pier.

 * East Rail line - Exhibition Centre

The East Rail line was extended from Hung Hom to Admiralty in 2022 as part of the Shatin to Central Link project, with a newly built station near the Hong Kong Exhibition and Convention Centre. Its exits connect to the footbridge network in Wan Chai North which also leads back to Wan Chai station.

Trams
Tram services run between Shau Kei Wan on the northeastern part of the island and Kennedy Town on the west, with a circular branch serving Happy Valley and the Happy Valley Racecourse. The tram route runs across Johnston Road and Hennessy Road.

Buses
Most buses travel in Wan Chai from Admiralty to Causeway Bay via Hennessy Road or, in the opposite direction, Johnston Road and Gloucester Road.

Taxis
Red taxi (urban) services are available to hire in Wan Chai. These can be pre-booked by telephone; however, hailing on the street is a more common way of getting a taxicab. Vehicles that carry a green plate at the front of their cars are able to carry passengers across the Victoria Harbour to Kowloon. There are, however, areas with restricted kerbs and designated pick-up and drop-off points in the area.

Minibus
There are two types of minibuses in Wan Chai, the green minibus and the red minibus. In general, green minibuses operate on scheduled service with fixed routes and published fares. Red minibuses run with government licence but on non-scheduled services, casually connecting regular travellers and commuters to specific urban areas across Hong Kong Island. Drivers of red minibuses will display fares in the front of their minibus windshields.

 * Routes:
 * Green: 4A, 4B, 4C, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 14M, 21A, 21M, 24A, 24M, 25, 28, 30, 31, 35M, 36X, 39M, 40, 56, 69
 * Red:
 * West Point – Causeway Bay (Sogo) / Shau Kei Wan
 * Tsuen Wan – Wan Chai – Causeway Bay. The return to Tsuen Wan stop is in front of Wan Chai Computer Centre.
 * Sheung Shui – Wan Chai
 * Yuen Long – Wan Chai

Education
Wan Chai is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 12. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and the following government schools: Hennessy Road Government Primary School and Sir Ellis Kadoorie (Sookunpo) Primary School.

title: Wan Chai


text:
Eastern

Eastern or Easterns may refer to:

Airlines

 * China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai
 * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways
 * Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991
 * Eastern Air Lines (2015), an American airline that began operations in 2015
 * Eastern Airlines, LLC, previously Dynamic International Airways, a U.S. airline founded in 2010
 * Eastern Airways, an English/British regional airline
 * Eastern Provincial Airways, a defunct Canadian airline that operated from 1949 to 1986

Roads

 * Eastern Avenue (disambiguation), various roads
 * Eastern Parkway (disambiguation), various parkways
 * Eastern Freeway, Melbourne, Australia
 * Eastern Freeway Mumbai, Mumbai, India

Other

 * Eastern Railway (disambiguation), various railroads
 * SS Eastern, a cargo liner in service 1946-65

Education

 * Eastern University (disambiguation)
 * Eastern College (disambiguation)

Sports

 * Easterns (cricket team), South African cricket team
 * Easterns cricket team (Zimbabwe), Zimbabwean cricket team
 * Eastern Sports Club, a multi-sports club in Hong Kong, notable for its football and other section
 * Eastern Sports Club (basketball), their basketball section

Other uses

 * The Eastern, 2018 documentary film
 * Eastern Broadcasting Limited, former name of Maritime Broadcasting System, Canada
 * Eastern Daily Press, a regional newspaper published in Norwich, England
 * 12th (Eastern) Division, a division of the British Army during the First World War
 * 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division, a division of the British Army during the Second World War
 * Eastern Electricity, a defunct supply and distribution utility in England
 * Eastern Savings and Loans, a credit union, based in Ipswich, United Kingdom
 * Eastern Television, a cable TV network in Taiwan
 * Eastern Time, United States
 * Of or pertaining to the Eastern world
 * Eastern Circuit, a Hindi film distribution circuit, comprising East and Northeast India and also Nepal and Bhutan

title: Eastern


text:
Karl Renner

Karl Renner (14 December 1870 – 31 December 1950) was an Austrian politician and jurist of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria. He is often referred to as the "Father of the Republic" because he led the first government of the Republic of German-Austria and the First Austrian Republic in 1919 and 1920, and was once again decisive in establishing the present Second Republic after the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945, becoming its first President after World War II (and fourth overall).

Early life
Renner was born the 18th child of an ethnic German family of poor wine-growers in Unter-Tannowitz (present-day Dolní Dunajovice in the Czech Republic), then part of the Margraviate of Moravia, a crown land of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Because of his intelligence, he was allowed to attend a selective gymnasium in nearby Nikolsburg (Mikulov), where one of his teachers was Wilhelm Jerusalem. From 1890 to 1896 he studied law at the University of Vienna. In 1895 he was one of the founding members of the Friends of Nature (Naturfreunde) organisation and created their logo.

Political career
In 1896 he joined the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria (SDAP), representing the party in the National Council (Reichsrat) from the 1907 elections until its dissolution in November 1918. During this period he founded and edited the party's journal, Der Kampf, together with Otto Bauer and Adolf Braun. Renner's interest in politics also led him to become a librarian for the Reichsrat. During these early years, he developed new perspectives on law — all the while cloaking his innovative ideas under a variety of pseudonyms (for example, Synopticus and Rudolf Springer) lest he lose his coveted post as parliamentary librarian. He was especially interested in the problems of the Austrian state, whose existence he justified on geographical, economic and political grounds. On the nationality question, he upheld the so-called "personal autonomy" on the basis of which the super-national state should develop, and thereby influenced the agenda and tactics of the Social Democratic Party in dealing with it. As a theorist he was reckoned as one of the leaders of Austro-Marxism.

First Republic
In 1918, after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he was in the forefront of the Provisional and the Constitutional National Assemblies of those Cisleithanian "Lands Represented in the Reichsrat" (the formal description of the Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy) that predominantly spoke German and had decided to form a nation-state like the other nationalities had done. Renner became the first head of government ("State Chancellor") of that newly established small German-speaking republic which refused to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy and wished to be known as the Republic of German-Austria (Republik Deutsch-Österreich). This name, however, was prohibited by The Entente. They also vetoed a resolution of the Constituent National Assembly in Vienna that "German-Austria" was to be part of the German Weimar Republic. Even before the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Renner had proposed a future union of the German parts of Austria with Germany, even using the word "Anschluss". Like other Austrian socialists, Renner believed that the best course was to seek union with Germany. He was the leader of the delegation that represented this new German-Austria in the negotiations of St. Germain where the "Republic of Austria" was acknowledged but was declared to be the responsible successor to Imperial Austria. There Renner had to accept that this new Austria was prohibited any political association with Germany and he had to accept the loss of German-speaking South Tyrol and the German-speaking parts of Bohemia and Moravia where he himself was born; this forced him to give up his share in the parental farm if he, "the peasant proprietor who turned Marxist", wanted to remain an Austrian government officer.

Renner was Chancellor of Austria of the first three coalition cabinets from 1918 until 1920 and at the same time Minister of Foreign Affairs, backed by a grand coalition of Social Democrats and Christian Social Party. A wide range of social reforms were introduced by Renner's government, including unemployment insurance, paid holidays, the eight-hour workday, and regulations on the working conditions of miners, bakers, women, and children. State aid was also provided for the disabled, together with health insurance for public employees. In addition, a law was passed that provided for collective bargaining and the mediation of disputes.

From 1931 to 1933, Renner was President of Parliament, the National Council of Austria. After the dictatorial Austrofascism period from 1934, when his party was prohibited, he even welcomed the Anschluss in 1938. Having originally been a proponent of new German-Austria becoming a part of the democratic German Republic, he expected Nazism to be but a passing phenomenon not worse than the dictatorship of Dollfuss's and Schuschnigg's authoritarian one-party system. During World War II, however, he distanced himself from politics completely.

Relationship with Nazism and Communism
On 2 April 1938, Renner appealed to Austrians to vote yes in the 10 April plebiscite that legitimized the Anschluss; many Austrians followed his advice, and as a result, Austrians welcomed the Germans and Hitler himself. After the Anschluss, Renner offered to serve in the Nazi government during the occupation, but was declined. During the occupation, according to official Austrian figures, 51,500 Austrian Jews out of a total of 200,000 died in concentration camps, which, as documented during the Nuremberg war-crimes trials, had a disproportionately large number of Austrian guards.

On 29 March 1945, Soviet commander Fyodor Tolbukhin's troops crossed the former Austrian border at Klostermarienberg in Burgenland. On 3 April, at the beginning of the Vienna offensive, Renner, then living in southern Lower Austria, established contact with the Soviets. Joseph Stalin had already established a would-be future Austrian cabinet from the country's communists in exile, but Tolbukhin's telegram changed Stalin's mind in favor of Renner.

On 20 April 1945, the Soviets, without asking their Western allies, instructed Renner to form a provisional government. Seven days later Renner's cabinet took office, declared the independence of Austria from Nazi Germany and called for the creation of a democratic state along the lines of the First Austrian Republic. Soviet acceptance of Renner was not an isolated episode; their officers re-established district administrations and appointed local mayors, frequently following the advice of the locals, even before the battle was over.

Renner and his ministers were guarded and watched by NKVD bodyguards. One-third of State Chancellor Renner's cabinet, including the crucial seats of the Secretary of State of the Interior and the Secretary of State for Education, was staffed by Austrian Communists. The Western allies suspected the establishment of a puppet state and did not recognize Renner. The British were particularly hostile, and even American President Harry S. Truman, who believed that Renner was a trustworthy politician rather than a token front for the Kremlin, denied him recognition. However, Renner had secured multi-party control of the government by designating two Under-Secretaries of State in each of the ministries, appointed by the two parties not designating the Secretary of State.

Historian Harold Green commented: "But for Renner's having gained Soviet support for creating a Social Democratic Austrian Republic - and his establishing it at record speed after the Nazi collapse - Austria might have shared Germany's post-war fate and spent several decades divided into a Communist East Austria and a Democratic West Austria, with Vienna as a divided city like Berlin."

Post–World War II
Renner's government opted to restore the 1920 Constitution, as amended in 1929. However, following elections that November, the Federal Assembly temporarily suspended the provision calling for the president to be popularly elected, and elected Renner as president on 20 November. Karl Renner died in 1950 in Vienna and was buried in the Presidential Tomb at the Zentralfriedhof.

Antisemitism
Antisemitism in contemporary Austria was widespread after the First World War and even after the Second World War, even in the highest government offices. Karl Renner, whom Emperor Karl I rejected as prime minister, stood out before and after the war due to vehement anti-Semitism. This attitude persisted even after the Nazi terror against Jewish returnees and survivors of the concentration camps. Marko Feingold, survivor of the concentration camp and president of the Salzburg Jewish Community, said in 2013: "Karl Renner, after all the first Federal President of the Second Republic, had long been known in the party as an anti-Semite. He didn't want us concentration campers in Vienna after the war and he also frankly said that Austria would not give anything back to them."

Political beliefs and scholarly contributions
For most of his life, Renner alternated between the political commitment of a social democrat and the analytical distance of an academic scholar. Central to Renner's academic work is the problem of the relationship between private law and private property. With his Rechtsinstitute des Privatrechts und ihre soziale Funktion. Ein Beitrag zur Kritik des bürgerlichen Rechts [The Institutions of Private Law and their Social Functions] (1904), he became one of the founders of the discipline of the sociology of law. In this book, Renner developed a Marxist theory of the institution of private law. Renner argued that the separation of public and private law is a creation of capitalism, whereby the state enforces the interests of capital owners.

His and Otto Bauer's ideas about the legal protection of cultural minorities were taken up by the Jewish Bund, but fiercely denounced by Vladimir Lenin. Joseph Stalin devoted a whole chapter to criticising Cultural National Autonomy in Marxism and the National Question.

The 1977–1978 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honour.

Publications

 * Synopticus (pen name), Staat und Nation (Vienna, 1899). Reprinted as "State and Nation" in Ephraim Nimni (ed.), National Cultural Autonomy and Its Contemporary Critics,  London: Routledge, 2005 pp. 64 – 82 ISBN 0-415-24964-3
 * Rudolf Springer (pen name), Der Kampf der oesterreichischen Nationen um den Staat (1902)
 * Joseph Karner (pen name), "Die Soziale Funktion der Rechtsinstitute" (1904) in Marx-Studien, vol. 1.
 * Grundlagen und Entwicklungsziele der österreichischen-ungarischen Monarchie, die Krise des Dualismus, ("Foundations and development goals of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy: the crisis of dualism"; 1904)
 * Österreichs Erneuerung ("Austria's renewal"; 3 vols., 1916/17)
 * Marxismus, Krieg und Internationale (1918)
 * Die Wirtschaft als Gesamtprozess und die Sozialisierung ("The economy as an integrated process and the path to socialism"; 1924)
 * Staatswirtschaft, Weltwirtschaft und Sozialismus ("The national economy, the world economy and socialism"; 1929)
 * Die Rechtsinstitute des Privatrechts und ihre soziale Funktion (1929); translated into English by Agnes Schwarzschild as The Institutions of Private Law and their Social Function, with an introduction by Otto Kahn-Freund, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1949); reprinted in International Library of Sociology (1976; 1996)
 * Wege der Verwirklichung ("The way to realization", 1929)
 * An der Wende zweier Zeiten. Lebenserinnerungen ("At the turning points in two eras: life recollections"), 2 vols. Vienna: Braumüller 1946

Literary remains (unpublished works; Nachgelassene Werke):
 * ' Wandlungen der modernen Gesellschaft ("Transformations of modern society," 1947)
 * Hundert Jahre Karl Marx: Erbe und Auftrag ("100 years of Karl Marx: Heritage and Agenda"; 1947)
 * Arbeit und Kapital (1950) Vol. 3, Vienna: 1953, reprint European Sociology 1975
 * Porträt einer Evolution in Nachgelassene Werke, vol. 2, edited by Adolf Schärf, Vienna: Verlag der Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1953.

title: Karl Renner


text:
Julius Raab

Julius Raab (29 November 1891 – 8 January 1964) was a conservative Austrian politician, who served as Federal Chancellor of Austria from 1953 to 1961. Raab steered Allied-occupied Austria to independence, when he negotiated and signed the Austrian State Treaty in 1955. In internal politics Raab stood for a pragmatic "social partnership" and the "Grand coalition" of Austrian Conservatives and Social Democrats.

Biography
Raab was born into a middle-class Catholic family in Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria, the son of a master builder. He attended a Catholic high school and in 1911 enrolled at the Vienna University of Technology to study civil engineering. He was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army as a pioneer officer before graduation and fought on the Russian and Italian fronts of World War I. After the defeat of Central Powers Raab returned to the university and engaged in politics. On 14 January 1923, Raab married Harmine Haumer.

The death of his father and the beginning of his political career in the First Austrian Republic compelled Raab to drop out of the university in 1925. From 1927 to 1934 he was a member of the National Council parliament as a Lower Austrian deputy of the Christian Social Party. Backed by Chancellor Ignaz Seipel, he was also active in the Heimwehr paramilitary arm of right-wing political forces, and was appointed chief for Lower Austria in 1928. However, his attempts to bind the paramilitary forces to the Christian Social Party ultimately failed. In 1932 he joined the Catholic Ostmärkische Sturmscharen forces led by his party fellows Kurt Schuschnigg and Leopold Figl. In 1933 Raab joined the Fatherland's Front, the newly established right-wing coalition led by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. During the austrofascist period of 1934–1938 Raab progressed through the ranks of the Corporate State, and was appointed Minister of Commerce by Chancellor Schuschnigg just four weeks before the 1938 Anschluss to Nazi Germany.

Raab was ousted after the Anschluss but, unlike many other Austrian political leaders, escaped death or imprisonment through the help of the Lower Austrian Nazi Gauleiter Hugo Jury, whom he knew personally. He was never involved in the Austrian resistance but kept in touch with the old Christian Democrat elite and supported his fellow Leopold Figl after his release from imprisonment.

In April 1945, Raab was made a member of Karl Renner's provisional government, formed in the Soviet zone of occupation in Austria. Raab co-founded the conservative Austrian People's Party (ÖVP), which denounced the dark legacy of the 1930s, and assumed leadership of ÖVP parliamentary group after the legislative elections held in November 1945. However, he represented the austrofascist forces of the past that were unacceptable to the Soviets, and for a while was "relegated to the back seat". From 1947, he expanded his influence through presidency in the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber, the institution tasked with managing social partnership of the government, the political parties, the entrepreneurs and the employees' trade unions. He clearly favored a free market and minimal government regulation of the economy. On the other hand, Raab also held talks with former Austrian Nazi officials like Wilhelm Höttl and Taras Borodajkewycz on their support for ÖVP politics.

Raab succeeded Leopold Figl as ÖVP party chairman in 1951 and as Federal Chancellor in 1953. Despite clearly Western attitudes, Raab established excellent relations with post-Stalin Soviet Union. In February 1955 Vyacheslav Molotov proposed resuming the talks on Austrian independence. On 12 April 1955 Raab, Foreign Minister Leopold Figl and State Secretary Bruno Kreisky arrived in Moscow for the negotiations that paved the way to the Austrian State Treaty concluded in Vienna on 15 May. Austria declared neutrality, as did all individual Bundesländer. The success of 1955 marked the peak of ÖVP influence, accompanied by a strong economic revival (Wirtschaftswunder) and full employment. The party won 46% of the popular vote in the 1956 elections, Raab retained his seat as Federal Chancellor. Despite criticism within the party, Raab strongly favored a tight coalition with the Social Democratic Party under Adolf Schärf. In 1957 he and trade union chief Johann Bohm co-founded the Joint Commission on Wages and Prices, the social partnership institution that became a cornerstone of Austrian corporatism.

In 1957 Raab suffered a light stroke. By the end of the 1950s, his own career and his party's influence declined. In 1961 he passed ÖVP leadership to Alfons Gorbach, who also succeeded him as Federal Chancellor on 11 April. On 28 April 1963 Raab competed in the presidential elections but lost to incumbent Adolf Schärf. His health rapidly deteriorated, and he died, aged 72, in Vienna on 8 January 1964.

title: Julius Raab


text:
BitKeeper

BitKeeper is a discontinued software tool for distributed revision control of computer source code. Originally developed as proprietary software by BitMover Inc., a privately held company based in Los Gatos, California, it was released as open-source software under the Apache-2.0 license on 9 May 2016. BitKeeper is no longer being developed.

History
BitKeeper was originally developed by BitMover Inc., a privately held company from Los Gatos, California owned by Larry McVoy, who had previously designed TeamWare.

BitKeeper and the Linux Kernel
BitKeeper was first mentioned as a solution to some of the growing pains that Linux was having in September 1998. Early access betas were available in May 1999 and on May 4, 2000, the first public release of BitKeeper was made available. BitMover used to provide access to the system for certain open-source or free-software projects, one of which was the source code of the Linux kernel. The license for the "community" version of BitKeeper had allowed for developers to use the tool at no cost for open source or free software projects, provided those developers did not participate in the development of a competing tool (such as Concurrent Versions System, GNU arch, Subversion or ClearCase) for the duration of their usage of BitKeeper plus one year. This restriction applied regardless of whether the competing tool was free or proprietary. This version of BitKeeper also required that certain meta-information about changes be stored on computer servers operated by BitMover, an addition that made it impossible for community version users to run projects of which BitMover was unaware.

The decision made in 2002 to use BitKeeper for Linux kernel development was a controversial one. Some, including GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, expressed concern about proprietary tools being used on a flagship free project. While project leader Linus Torvalds and other core developers adopted BitKeeper, several key developers (including Linux veteran Alan Cox) refused to do so, citing the BitMover license, and voicing concern that the project was ceding some control to a proprietary developer. To mitigate these concerns, BitMover added gateways which allowed limited interoperation between the Linux BitKeeper servers (maintained by BitMover) and developers using CVS and Subversion. Even after this addition, flamewars occasionally broke out on the Linux kernel mailing list, often involving key kernel developers and BitMover's CEO Larry McVoy, who was also a Linux contributor.

In April 2005, BitMover announced that it would stop providing a version of BitKeeper free of charge to the community, giving as the reason the efforts of Andrew Tridgell, a developer employed by OSDL on an unrelated project, to develop a client which would show the metadata (data about revisions, possibly including differences between versions) instead of only the most recent version. Being able to see metadata and compare past versions is one of the core features of all version-control systems, but was not available to anyone without a commercial BitKeeper license, significantly inconveniencing most Linux kernel developers. Although BitMover decided to provide free commercial BitKeeper licenses to some kernel developers, it refused to give or sell licenses to anyone employed by OSDL, including Linus Torvalds and Andrew Morton, placing OSDL developers in the same position as other kernel developers. The Git project was launched with the intent of becoming the Linux kernel's source code management software, and was eventually adopted by Linux developers.

End of support for the "Free Use" version of BitKeeper was officially July 1, 2005, and users were required to switch to the commercial version or change version control system by then. Commercial users were also required not to produce any competing tools: In October 2005, McVoy contacted a customer using commercially licensed BitKeeper, demanding that an employee of the customer stop contributing to the Mercurial project, a GPL source management tool. Bryan O'Sullivan, the employee, responded, "To avoid any possible perception of conflict, I have volunteered to Larry that as long as I continue to use the commercial version of BitKeeper, I will not contribute to the development of Mercurial."

Move to open-source
During the release of version 7.2ce at May 9, 2016, BitKeeper announced that it is starting to move from proprietary to open-source license, eventually releasing the software under the Apache License version 2.

title: BitKeeper


text:
United States Pacific Fleet

The United States Pacific Fleet (USPACFLT) is a theater-level component command of the United States Navy, located in the Pacific Ocean. It provides naval forces to the Indo-Pacific Command. Fleet headquarters is at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, Hawaii, with large secondary facilities at Naval Air Station North Island, California.

Origins
A Pacific Fleet was created in 1907 when the Asiatic Squadron and the Pacific Squadron were combined. In 1910, the ships of the First Squadron were organized back into a separate Asiatic Fleet. The General Order 94 of 6 December 1922 organized the United States Fleet, with the Battle Force as the Pacific presence. Until May 1940, the Battle Force was stationed on the West Coast of the United States. Headquarters, battleships, aircraft carriers and heavy cruisers were stationed at San Pedro close to the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. Light cruisers, destroyers and submarines were stationed at San Diego.

During the summer of 1940, as part of the U.S. response to Japanese expansionism, the fleet was instructed to take an "advanced" position at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Admiral James O. Richardson, the fleet's commander, strongly opposed long-term basing at Pearl Harbor, feeling that it would leave the fleet vulnerable to Japanese attack, and personally protested the move in Washington, D.C. Political considerations were thought sufficiently important that he was relieved by Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, who was in command at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Pacific Fleet was formally recreated on 1 February 1941, when General Order 143 split the United States Fleet into separate Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets.

Composition of the Pacific Fleet in December 1941
On 7 December, the Fleet consisted of the Battle Force, Scouting Force, Base Force, Amphibious Force (ComPhibPac), Cruiser Force (COMCRUPAC), Destroyer Force (COMDESPAC), and the Submarine Force (COMSUBPAC). Also in Hawaii was the Fourteenth Naval District, commanded by Rear Admiral Claude C. Bloch.

 * United States Pacific Fleet – Commander: Admiral Husband E. Kimmel (Flagship: USS Pennsylvania)
 * Fourteenth Naval District – Commander: Rear Admiral Claude C. Bloch
 * Battle Force, Pacific Fleet – Commander: Vice Admiral William S. Pye (Flagship: USS California)
 * Battleships, Battle Force (made up of three Battleship Divisions) – Commander: Rear Admiral Walter S. Anderson (Flagship: USS West Virginia)
 * Aircraft, Battle Force (made up of two Carrier Divisions) – Commander: Vice Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. (Flagship: USS Enterprise)
 * Cruisers, Battle Force (made up of two Cruiser Divisions) – Commander: Rear Admiral Herbert F. Leary (Flagship: USS Honolulu)
 * Destroyers, Battle Force (made up of two Destroyer Flotillas) – Commander: Rear Admiral Milo F. Draemel (Flagship: USS Detroit (CL-8))
 * Scouting Force, Pacific Fleet – Commander: Vice Admiral Wilson Brown (Flagship: USS Indianapolis)
 * Cruisers, Scouting Force (made up of three Cruiser Divisions) – Commander: Rear Admiral John H. Newton (Flagship: USS Chicago)
 * Aircraft, Scouting Force (made up of three Patrol Wings) – Commander: Rear Admiral John S. McCain Sr. (Flagship: USS Wright (AV-1))
 * Submarines, Scouting Force (made up of five Submarine Squadrons) – Commander: Rear Admiral Thomas Withers (Flagship: N/A)

§ = Divisional flagship

Battleships, Battle Force

 * Battleship Division 1 (Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd)
 * USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)
 * USS Arizona (BB-39) §
 * USS Nevada (BB-36)
 * Battleship Division 2 (Rear Admiral David W. Bagley)
 * USS Tennessee (BB-43) §
 * USS California (BB-44)
 * USS Oklahoma (BB-37)
 * Battleship Division 4 (Rear Admiral Walter S. Anderson)
 * USS Colorado (BB-45)
 * USS Maryland (BB-46)
 * USS West Virginia (BB-48) §

These nine battleships were intended to counterbalance the ten battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, USS Pennsylvania (BB-38) was in dry dock undergoing maintenance, and USS Colorado (BB-45) was in the midst of a refit at Bremerton Navy Yard, Washington.

Aircraft, Battle Force

 * Carrier Division 1 (Rear Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch)
 * USS Saratoga (CV-3)
 * USS Lexington (CV-2) §
 * Carrier Division 2 (Vice Admiral William F. Halsey Jr.)
 * USS Enterprise (CV-6) §

When the attack took place, all three carriers were absent – Saratoga was in San Diego collecting her air group following a major refit, Enterprise was en route back to Hawaii following a mission to deliver aircraft to Wake Island, while Lexington had just departed on a similar mission to Midway.

Cruisers, Battle Force

 * Cruiser Division 3 (Rear Admiral Abel T. Bidwell)
 * USS Trenton (CL-11)
 * USS Richmond (CL-9)
 * USS Concord (CL-10) §
 * Cruiser Division 9 (Rear Admiral Herbert F. Leary)
 * USS Honolulu (CL-48) §
 * USS Boise (CL-47)
 * USS Phoenix (CL-46)
 * USS St. Louis (CL-49)
 * USS Helena (CL-50)

Cruisers, Scouting Force

 * Cruiser Division 4 (Rear Admiral John H. Newton)
 * USS Chicago (CA-29) §
 * USS Portland (CA-33)
 * USS Indianapolis (CA-35)
 * Cruiser Division 5 (Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance)
 * USS Salt Lake City (CA-25)
 * USS Northampton (CA-26) §
 * USS Chester (CA-27)
 * Cruiser Division 6 (Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher)
 * USS Astoria (CA-34) §
 * USS Minneapolis (CA-36)
 * USS New Orleans (CA-32)
 * USS San Francisco (CA-38)

Submarines, Scouting Force

 * Submarine Squadron 2
 * Submarine Division 21
 * Submarine Division 22
 * Submarine Squadron 4
 * Submarine Division 41
 * Submarine Division 42
 * Submarine Division 43
 * Submarine Squadron 6
 * Submarine Division 61
 * Submarine Division 62
 * Submarine Squadron 8
 * Submarine Division 81
 * Submarine Division 82
 * Submarine Squadron 10
 * Submarine Division 101
 * Submarine Division 102

Aircraft, Scouting Force

 * Patrol Wing 1
 * VP-11
 * VP-12
 * VP-14
 * Patrol Wing 2
 * VP-21
 * VP-22
 * VP-23
 * VP-24
 * Patrol Wing 4
 * VP-41
 * VP-42

Other elements of the Pacific Fleet
The Amphibious Force was formally known as Commander, Amphibious Forces, Pacific Fleet (ComPhibPac). On 7 December 1941 the Amphibious Force comprised the Army's 3rd Infantry Division at Fort Lewis, under Army operational control, the 2nd Marine Division, the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing, the 2nd Defense Battalion (see Marine defense battalions), and a depot. One of PhibPac's subordinate commands during World War II was Transports, Amphibious Force, Pacific Fleet, or TransPhibPac. The commander of TransPhibPac was known as ComTransPhibPac. In addition to the ships assigned directly to the Pacific Fleet, Destroyer Division 80, consisting of the destroyers USS Schley (DD-103), USS Chew (DD-106), USS Ward (DD-139) and USS Allen (DD-66), was assigned directly to the Fourteenth Naval District for the defence of the base and the fleet.

In December 1941, the fleet consisted of nine battleships, three aircraft carriers, 12 heavy cruisers, eight light cruisers, 50 destroyers, 33 submarines, and 100 patrol bombers. This was approximately the fleet's strength at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. That day, the Japanese Combined Fleet carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor, drawing the United States into World War II in the Pacific. The Pacific Fleet's Battle Line took the brunt of the attack, with two battleships destroyed, two salvageable but requiring lengthy reconstruction, and four more lightly to moderately damaged, forcing the U.S. Navy to rely primarily on aircraft carriers and submarines for many months afterward.

Subsequently, Pacific Fleet engagements during World War II included the Battle of Guam, the Marshalls-Gilberts raids, the Doolittle Raid, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and the Battle of Okinawa. More minor battles included the Battle of Dutch Harbor. The Submarine Force began a sustained campaign of commerce raiding against Japan's merchant marine, beginning the first day of the war, which ultimately claimed 1,314 ships totalling about 5.3 million tons (by the imperfect postwar reckoning of the Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee, JANAC). The West Loch disaster occurred at Pearl Harbor on 21 May 1944.

Post-1945
The Pacific Fleet took part in Operation Magic Carpet, the return of U.S. servicemen, after the end of the Second World War. The organization of the Pacific Fleet in January 1947 is shown in Hal M. Friedman's Arguing over the American Lake: Bureaucracy and Rivalry in the U.S. Pacific, 1945–1947.

Since 1950 the Pacific Fleet has been involved in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the two Taiwan Straits Crises, and a number of other operations including the Mayaguez Incident of 1975, as well as post-Vietnam related operations such as Operation New Arrivals. The RIMPAC exercise series began in 1971.

On 7 March 1984, the Secretaries of Transportation and Navy signed a Memorandum of Agreement which created the Maritime Defense Zones (MDZ). The Pacific MDZ is an echelon three Navy command under the Commander U.S. Pacific Fleet. The Pacific MDZ has responsibility for coastal defense up to 200 nmi around the U.S. West Coast, Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii during times of hostility. On 1 October 1990, Commander U.S. Naval Forces Alaska (COMUSNAVAK) was established as the Naval Component Commander to Commander, Alaskan Command (COMALCOM). Since its inception, COMUSNAVAK has grown to become responsible for coordinating all Navy activity in the Alaska and Aleutian area, for detailed planning and coordination for the Naval portion of the Joint and Combined Exercise Northern Edge, and coordinates high-visibility U.S. Navy ship visits throughout Alaska in support of public relations and recruiting initiatives.

The very large PACEX 89 in the North Pacific involved the USN, Canadian Navy, Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force, and ROK Navy. At the end of Exercise PACEX '89 a 54-ship formation was assembled for photos. It included the flagship, USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19), the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) Battle Group, the USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) Battle Group, two battleship surface action groups formed around USS New Jersey (BB-62) and USS Missouri (BB-63), and a Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force task force. Missouri and New Jersey performed a simultaneous gunfire demonstration for the aircraft carriers USS Enterprise (CVN-65) and USS Nimitz (CVN-68) during PACEX. The highlight of PacEx for Missouri was a port visit in Pusan, Republic of Korea.

Other operations undertaken since include participation in the Alaskan Oil Spill Joint Task Force, including participation of Commander, Amphibious Group Three, as deputy CJTF. This was the defence response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill of March 1989. Also, the Pacific Fleet was involved in Joint Task Force Philippines during the December 1989 coup attempt there, which involved two carrier battle groups, USS Midway and USS Enterprise-with their associated air wings operating in the Philippine Sea, chopped to JTF Philippines. During the operations, the carriers maintained deck alerts and 24-hour coverage of Manila with E-2C aircraft.

Around 10 September 1990, USS Princeton (CG-59) and USS Reuben James (FFG-57) visited Vladivostok. This marked the first United States Navy visit to the Soviet Union's Pacific port of Vladivostok since before World War II. Before the visit was completed, the crew received word that their Pacific cruise was canceled. They returned to Long Beach and joined the USS Ranger (CV-61) Battle Group preparing to deploy to the Persian Gulf.

During Operation Fiery Vigil in June 1991, the following vessels and groups participated in the sealift phase of the evacuation: the Abraham Lincoln battle group (COMCARGRU 3 embarked): USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72), USS Long Beach (CGN-9), USS Lake Champlain (CG-57), USS Merrill (DD-976), USS Gary (FFG-51), USS Ingraham (FFG-61), USS Roanoke (AOR-7), Amphibious Ready Group Alpha (COMPHIBRON 3 embarked): USS Peleliu (LHA-5), USS Cleveland (LPD-7), USS Comstock (LSD-45), USS Bristol County (LST-1198), and a large number of other vessels: USS Midway (CV-41), USS Curts (FFG-38), USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60), USS Thach (FFG-43), USS Arkansas (CGN-41), USS McClusky (FFG-41), USS St. Louis (LKA-116), USS San Bernardino (LST-1189), MV 1st Lt Lummus, MV American Condor, USS Niagara Falls (AFS-3), USNS Ponchatoula (T-AO-148), USNS Passumpsic, USNS Hassayampa, USS Haleakala (AE-25), USNS Spica (T-AFS-9), USS Cape Cod (AD-43). (CNA, 1994, 113) Further operations included JTF Marianas (August–September 1992) and JTF Hawaii (September–October 1992).

Other contingency operation after 1991 included Operation Sea Angel (Bangladesh relief) (led by Commander III Marine Expeditionary Force), Operation Eastern Exit, and involvement in the Somali Civil War – 'Restore Hope'. During 'Restore Hope,' Navy command arrangements underwent a number of changes during the operation. At the start, the principal naval forces were the Ranger battle group (with Commander, Carrier Group One embarked on USS Ranger (CV-61) as Commander, Naval Forces), the Kitty Hawk battle group, an amphibious task unit including USS Tripoli (LPH-10), USS Juneau (LPD-10), USS Rushmore (LSD-47), and MV Lummus, and three ships from MPSRON TWO (MV Anderson, MV Bonnyman, and MV Phillips). Other events led to the departure of the carriers and, as a result, Commander, Naval Forces responsibilities devolved first to Commander, Carrier Group Three, on Kitty Hawk, and thence to Commander, Amphibious Group Three. Finally Commander, Amphibious Squadron 3 became COMNAVFOR on 15 January with the departure of COMPHIGRU THREE after the completion of the MPF offload. (CNA, 1994, 168)

In 1995 Pacific Fleet surface ships were reshuffled. Effective 1 October 1995, the U.S. Pacific Fleet's surface ships were to be reorganized into six core battle groups and eight destroyer squadrons. Permanent core battle groups were to include a battle group commander, aircraft carrier, carrier air wing and at least two cruisers.
 * Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 1/USS Constellation Battle Group: USS Lake Erie (CG-70) and USS Chosin
 * ComCruDesGru 3/USS Carl Vinson Battle Group: USS Shiloh (CG-67), USS California (CGN-36) and USS Arkansas (CGN-41)
 * ComCruDesGru 5/USS Kitty Hawk Battle Group: USS Cowpens (CG-63) and USS Antietam (CG-54)
 * Commander Carrier Group 7 (ComCarGru 7)/USS Nimitz Battle Group: USS Port Royal (CG-73) and USS Lake Champlain (CG-57)
 * ComCar Gru 3/USS Abraham Lincoln Battle Group: USS Princeton (CG-59) and USS Chancellorsville (CG-62)
 * Commander Carrier Group Five/USS Independence Battle Group: USS Bunker Hill (CG-52) and USS Mobile Bay (CG-53)

Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific:
 * Destroyer Squadron 1: USS Copeland (FFG-25), USS George Philip (FFG-12), USS John A. Moore (FFG-19), USS Lewis B. Puller (FFG-23), USS Mahlon S. Tisdale (FFG-27), USS Sides (FFG-14), USS Wadsworth (FFG-9) and USS Reid (FFG-30)
 * Destroyer Squadron 5: USS Cushing (DD-985), USS John S. McCain (DDG-56), USS Ingersoll (DD-990), USS Crommelin (FFG-37), USS Reuben James (FFG-57)
 * Destroyer Squadron 7: USS Elliot (DD-967), USS Curtis Wilbur (DDG-54), USS Merrill (DD-976), USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53) and USS Harry W. Hill (DD-986)
 * Destroyer Squadron 9: USS Paul F. Foster (DD-964), USS David R. Ray (DD-971), USS Callaghan (DDG-994), USS Chandler (DDG-996), USS Ford (FFG-54) and USS Ingraham (FFG-61)
 * Destroyer Squadron 15: USS Fife (DD-991), USS Hewitt (DD-966), USS O'Brien (DD-975), USS Curts (FFG-38), USS McClusky (FFG-41), USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60) and USS Thach (FFG-43)
 * Destroyer Squadron 21: USS Kinkaid (DD-965), USS Stethem (DDG-63), USS Benfold (DDG-65), USS Valley Forge (CG-50), USS Jarrett (FFG-33) and USS Rentz (FFG-46)
 * Destroyer Squadron 23: USS Oldendorf (DD-972), USS John Young (DD-973), USS Fitzgerald (DDG-62), USS Vincennes (CG-49), USS Gary (FFG-51) and USS Vandegrift (FFG-48)
 * Destroyer Squadron 31: USS Fletcher (DD-992), USS Leftwich (DD-984), USS Halsey (DDG-97) and USS Paul Hamilton (DDG-60)

In 1996 two carrier battle groups were sent to the Taiwan area during the Third Taiwan Straits Crisis. Later ships of the Pacific Fleet, notably USS Mobile Bay (CG-53), a Ticonderoga-class cruiser, provided support to the entry of INTERFET in East Timor in 1999.

Between 25 and 27 March 2006, Carrier Strike Group Nine participated in a series of anti-submarine warfare exercises (ASW) in Hawaiian waters while en route to the U.S. Seventh Fleet's area of responsibility. In addition to the strike group, the exercise also included the nuclear-powered attack submarines USS Seawolf (SSN-21), USS Cheyenne (SSN-773), USS Greeneville (SSN-772), USS Tucson (SSN-770), and USS Pasadena (SSN-752), as well as land-based P-3 Orion aircraft from Commander Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 2 and associated patrol squadrons VP-4, VP-9, and VP-47.

As of 2011, the Pacific Fleet has authority over:
 * numbered Third and Seventh Fleets
 * Naval Air Force, Pacific
 * Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific;
 * Naval Submarine Force, Pacific
 * Fleet Marine Force, Pacific

Naval shore commands over which USPACFLT has authority:
 * Commander Naval Forces Korea
 * Commander Naval Forces Japan
 * Commander Naval Forces Marianas

title: United States Pacific Fleet


text:
Minnesang

Minnesang ("love song") was a tradition of lyric- and song-writing in Germany and Austria that flourished in the Middle High German period. This period of medieval German literature began in the 12th century and continued into the 14th. People who wrote and performed Minnesang were known as Minnesänger, and a single song was called a Minnelied.

The name derives from minne, the Middle High German word for love, as that was Minnesang 's main subject. The Minnesänger were similar to the Occitan troubadours and northern French trouvères in that they wrote love poetry in the tradition of courtly love in the High Middle Ages.

Social status
In the absence of reliable biographical information, there has been debate about the social status of the Minnesänger. Some clearly belonged to the higher nobility – the 14th-century Codex Manesse includes songs by dukes, counts, kings, and the Emperor Henry VI. Some Minnesänger, as indicated by the title Meister (master), were clearly educated commoners, such as Meister Konrad von Würzburg. It is thought that many were ministeriales, that is, members of a class of lower nobility, vassals of the great lords. Broadly speaking, the Minnesänger were writing and performing for their own social class at court, and should be thought of as courtiers rather than professional hired musicians. Friedrich von Hausen, for example, was part of the entourage of Friedrich Barbarossa, and died on crusade. As a reward for his service, Walther von der Vogelweide was given a fief by the Emperor Frederick II.

Several of the best-known Minnesänger are also noted for their epic poetry, among them Heinrich von Veldeke, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Hartmann von Aue.

History
The earliest texts date from perhaps 1150, and the earliest named Minnesänger are Der von Kürenberg and Dietmar von Aist, clearly writing in a native German tradition in the third quarter of the 12th century. This is referred to as the Danubian tradition.

From around 1170, German lyric poets came under the influence of the Provençal troubadours and the French trouvères. This is most obvious in the adoption of the strophic form of the canzone, at its most basic a seven-line strophe with the rhyme scheme AB AB CXC, and an AAB musical structure (denoting the repetition of large segments), but capable of many variations.

A number of songs from this period match trouvère originals exactly in form, indicating that the German text could have been sung to an originally French tune, which is especially likely where there are significant commonalities of content. Such songs are termed contrafacta. For example, Friedrich von Hausen's "Ich denke underwilen" is regarded as a contrafactum of Guiot de Provins's "Ma joie premeraine".

By around 1190, the German poets began to break free of Franco-Provençal influence. This period is regarded as the period of Classical Minnesang with Albrecht von Johansdorf, Heinrich von Morungen, Reinmar von Hagenau developing new themes and forms, reaching its culmination in Walther von der Vogelweide, regarded both in the Middle Ages and in the present day as the greatest of the Minnesänger.

The later Minnesang, from around 1230, is marked by a partial turning away from the refined ethos of classical Minnesang and by increasingly elaborate formal developments. The most notable of these later Minnesänger, Neidhart von Reuental introduces characters from lower social classes and often aims for humorous effects.

Melodies
Only a small number of Minnelied melodies have survived to the present day, mainly in manuscripts dating from the 15th century or later, which may present the songs in a form other than the original one. Additionally, it is often rather difficult to interpret the musical notation used to write them down. Although the contour of the melody can usually be made out, the rhythm of the song is frequently hard to fathom.

There are a number of recordings of Minnesang using the original melodies, as well as Rock groups such as Ougenweide performing songs with modern instruments.

Later developments
In the 15th century, Minnesang developed into and gave way to the tradition of the Meistersänger. The two traditions are quite different, however; Minnesänger were mainly aristocrats, while Meistersänger usually were commoners.

At least two operas have been written about the Minnesang tradition: Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser and Richard Strauss' Guntram.

List of Minnesänger

 * Danubian lyric
 * Burggraf von Regensburg
 * Burggraf von Rietenburg
 * Dietmar von Aist (fl. 1143)
 * Der von Kürenberg (fl. 1143)
 * Leuthold von Seven (fl. 1147–1182)
 * Meinloh von Sevelingen
 * Engelhardt von Adelnburg

 * Early courtly lyric
 * Friedrich von Hausen
 * Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1197)
 * Heinrich von Veldeke (fl. 1173–1184)
 * Reinmar der Fiedler (fl. 1182–1217)
 * Spervogel

 * Classical Minnesang
 * Albrecht von Johansdorf
 * Bernger von Horheim
 * Gottfried von Strassburg
 * Hartmann von Aue (1160/1170–1210/1220)
 * Heinrich von Morungen
 * Reinmar von Hagenau (c. 1210)
 * Walther von der Vogelweide
 * Wolfram von Eschenbach

 * Later Minnesang
 * Reinmar von Brennenberg
 * Regenbogen
 * Friedrich von Sonnenburg
 * Gottfried von Neifen
 * Heinrich von Meissen (Frauenlob) (1250/1260–1318)
 * Hugo von Montfort
 * Konrad von Würzburg (1220/1230–1287)
 * Neidhart (1st half of the 13th century)
 * Otto von Botenlauben (1177 – before 1245)
 * Reinmar von Zweter (1200 – after 1247)
 * Hawart
 * Süßkind von Trimberg
 * Der Tannhäuser
 * Ulrich von Liechtenstein (ca. 1200–1275)
 * Walther von Klingen (1240–1286)
 * Johannes Hadlaub (d. 1340)
 * Muskatblüt
 * Der von Wissenlo
 * Oswald von Wolkenstein

Example of a Minnelied
The following love poem, of unknown authorship, is found in a Latin codex of the 12th century from the Tegernsee Abbey.

Editions
The standard collections are

12th and early 13th century (up to Reinmar von Hagenau): 13th century (after Walther von der Vogelweide): 14th and 15th centuries
 * H. Moser, H. Tervooren, Des Minnesangs Frühling.
 * Vol. I: Texts, 38th edn (Hirzel, 1988) ISBN 3-7776-0448-8
 * Vol II: Editorial Principles, Melodies, Manuscripts, Notes, 36th edn (Hirzel, 1977) ISBN 3-7776-0331-7
 * Vol III: Commentaries (Hirzel, 2000) ISBN 3-7776-0368-6
 * Earlier edition:
 * . (=KLD)
 * (=SM)
 * Thomas Cramer, Die kleineren Liederdichter des 14. und 15. Jhs., 4 Vols (Fink 1979-1985)

There are many published selections with Modern German translation, such as
 * (German translation)
 * (With introduction, translation and commentary)
 * (German translation and commentary.)

Individual Minnesänger

The two Minnesänger with the largest repertoires, Walther and Neidhart, are not represented in the standard collections, but have editions devoted solely to their works, such as: For these and some other major Minnesänger (e.g. Morungen, Reinmar, Oswald von Wolkenstein) there are editions with parallel Modern German translation.

Introductory works for an English-speaking readership
 * (Selection of songs with English introduction and commentary.)
 * (Selection of songs with English introduction and translation.)

title: Minnesang