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USS Alabama (BB-60)

USS Alabama (BB-60) is a retired battleship. She was the fourth and final member of the South Dakota-class battleship (1939) of fast battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1940s. The first American battleships designed after the Washington treaty system began to break down in the mid-1930s, they took advantage of an escalator clause that allowed increasing the main battery to 16 in guns, but Congressional refusal to authorize larger battleships kept their displacement close to the Washington limit of 35000 LT. A requirement to be armored against the same caliber of guns as they carried, combined with the displacement restriction, resulted in cramped ships. Overcrowding was exacerbated by wartime modifications that considerably strengthened their anti-aircraft batteries and significantly increased their crews.

After entering service, Alabama was briefly deployed to strengthen the British Home Fleet, tasked with protecting convoys to the Soviet Union. In 1943, she was transferred to the Pacific for operations against Japan; the first of these was the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign that began in November that year. While operating in the Pacific, she served primarily as an escort for the fast carrier task force to protect the aircraft carriers from surface and air attacks. She also frequently bombarded Japanese positions in support of amphibious assaults. She took part in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in June–September and the Philippines campaign in October–December. After a refit in early 1945, she returned to the fleet for operations during the Battle of Okinawa and the series of attacks on the Japanese mainland in July and August, including several bombardments of coastal industrial targets.

Alabama assisted in Operation Magic Carpet after the war, carrying some 700 men home from the former war zone. She was decommissioned in 1947 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet, where she remained until 1962 when she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register. A campaign to save the ship from the breakers' yard succeeded in raising the necessary funds, and Alabama was preserved as a museum ship in Mobile Bay, Alabama.

Design

The South Dakota-class battleship was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleships construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of 35000 LT and a main battery of 14 in guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the Second London treaty that allowed displacements to rise to 45000 LT and armament to increase to 16 in guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.

Alabama is 680 ft long overall and has a beam of 108 ft and a draft of 35 ft. She displaced 37970 LT as designed and up to 44519 LT at full combat load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at 130000 shp, the turbines were intended to give a top speed of 27.5 kn. The ship had a cruising range of 15000 nmi at a speed of 15 kn. She carried three Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of aircraft catapults on her fantail. Her peace time crew numbered 1,793 officers and enlisted men, but during the war the crew swelled to 2,500.

The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 16"/45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three triple-gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward, with the third aft. The secondary battery consisted of twenty 5-inch /38 caliber dual-purpose guns mounted in twin turrets clustered amidships, five turrets on either side. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of twelve 1.1 in guns and twelve .50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, but she was completed with a battery of six quadruple 40 mm Bofors guns in place of the 1.1 in guns and thirty-five 20 mm Oerlikon autocannon in single mounts instead of the .50-cal. guns.

The main armored belt is 12.2 in thick, while the main armored deck is up to 6 in thick. The main battery gun turrets have 18 in thick faces, and they are mounted atop barbettes that are 17.3 in thick. The conning tower has 16 in thick sides.

Modifications
Alabama received a series of modifications through her wartime career, consisting primarily of additions to anti-aircraft battery and various types of radar sets. The first addition was the installation of SC air search radar in 1941, fitted in the foremast, which was later replaced with an SK type set. At the same time, an SG surface search radar was installed on the forward superstructure; a second SG set was added to the main mast after experiences during the Guadalcanal campaign in 1942. In 1943, she received a Mark 3 fire-control radar, mounted on her conning tower to assist in the direction of her main battery guns. The Mark 3 was quickly replaced with more modern Mark 8 fire-control radar, and Mark 4 radars for the secondary battery guns. She later received Mark 12/22 sets in place of the Mark 4s. Alabama also received a TDY jammer. In 1945, her traditional spotting scopes were replaced with Mark 27 microwave radar sets.

The ship's light anti-aircraft battery was gradually expanded. Four more 40 mm quadruple mounts were allocated to the ship in late 1942, but by the time she underwent her refit in November 1943, the allotted armament had been increased to twelve quadruple mounts. Two more were to be added to the forecastle in 1945, but experience with other ships demonstrated these to be excessively wet in most sea conditions and thus unusable, so they were never installed aboard Alabama. In May 1943, she had another eight 20 mm guns installed, bringing the total to fifty-three of the guns. By 1945, the ship's 20 mm battery had grown to fifty-six guns, all in single mounts. She was slated to have these exchanged for forty twin mounts, but the work was not done before the war ended and she was removed from service.

Construction and Atlantic operations

The keel for Alabama was laid down on 1 February 1940 at the Norfolk Navy Yard. She was launched on 16 February 1942; Crane Ship No. 1 (ex-USS Kearsarge (BB-5)) assisted with the installation of the ship's heavy armor and armament. She was commissioned just six months later on 16 August. Fitting-out work then commenced, and on 11 November she began her shakedown cruise in the Chesapeake Bay. She then began initial training to prepare the ship's crew for wartime service, first out of Casco Bay, Maine. On 11 January 1943, Alabama returned to Chesapeake Bay for further training before moving to Norfolk. She was then assigned to Task Group (TG) 22.2 and sent back to Casco Bay on 13 February for tactical training.

Alabama's first deployment came in April with the temporary assignment to the British Home Fleet to reinforce the Allied naval forces available to escort the Arctic convoys to the Soviet Union. At the time, the British had sent several capital ships to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Allied invasion of Sicily, stripping away forces necessary to counter German naval strength in Norway, most significantly the battleship GERMAN BATTLESHIP Tirpitz. Accordingly, Alabama and her sister ship USS South Dakota (BB-57) got underway on 2 April as part of Task Force (TF) 22. Screened by five destroyers, the two battleships steamed to the Orkney Islands by way of Little Placentia Sound and Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland, arriving in the main British naval base at Scapa Flow on 19 May. There, they were organized as TF 61, Home Fleet, and the ships began thorough training to familiarize the American ships with their British counterparts for joint operations. TF 61 was commanded by Rear Admiral Olaf M. Hustvedt; over the course of the next three months, they frequently operated with the battleships HMS Anson (79) and HMS Duke of York (17).

Alabama, South Dakota, and several British units covered an operation to reinforce the island of Spitzbergen in the Arctic Ocean in early June. The following month, Alabama took part in Operation Governor, a demonstration to distract German attention during the Sicily invasion. The Allies also hoped to lure out Tirpitz to sink her, but the Germans took no notice of the ships and remained in port. On 1 August, Alabama and South Dakota were detached to return to the United States; they departed immediately and arrived in Norfolk on 9 August, where Alabama underwent an overhaul in preparation for operations against Japanese forces in the Pacific Theater. Alabama emerged from the shipyard on 20 August and began the voyage to the Pacific by way of the Panama Canal, which she transited on 25 August. She reached Efate in the New Hebrides on 14 September.

Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
On arriving in the south Pacific, Alabama embarked on an extensive training program that lasted for a month and a half to prepare the battleship to operate with the fast carrier task force. She then steamed to Fiji on 7 November before departing four days later to support the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, which began with the invasion of Tarawa on 20 November. Alabama escorted the aircraft carriers while they struck Japanese airfields on nearby islands in the Marshalls to neutralize their ability to interfere with the landing. She then supported the landing on Betio in the Tarawa Atoll on 20 November, followed by the landing at Makin. Alabama twice engaged Japanese aircraft that approached the fleet on the night of 26 November.

Alabama and five other fast battleships bombarded Nauru on 8 December, which the Japanese used as a source of phosphate. The destroyer USS Boyd (DD-544), which had been hit by Japanese artillery fire, came alongside Alabama and transferred three wounded men to the battleship. The ships then escorted the carriers USS Bunker Hill (CV-17) and USS Monterey (CVL-26) back to Efate, which they reached on 12 December. Alabama got underway on 5 January 1944 for Pearl Harbor, arriving on 12 January for maintenance that included replacing one of her propellers. She arrived in Funafuti in the Ellice Islands on 21 January, where she joined the fleet for the next operation in the campaign. She was assigned to Task Group (TG) 58.2, which sortied on 25 January to begin Operation Flintlock, the invasion of Kwajalein. Alabama, South Dakota, and the battleship USS North Carolina (BB-55) shelled the island of Roi-Namur over the course of 29 and 30 January, targeting defensive positions, airfields, and other facilities. For the remainder of the campaign, she patrolled to the north of Kwajalein to guard against a possible Japanese counterattack that did not materialize.

Over the next two months, the fast carrier task force embarked on a series of raids on Japanese-held islands in the central Pacific to prepare for the next major offensive. The ships of TG 58.2 sortied on 12 February to participate in Operation Hailstone, a major raid on the island of Truk, which had been the primary staging area for the Japanese fleet in the central Pacific. Alabama escorted the carriers that struck the island over the course of 16–17 February, inflicting heavy damage to the Japanese forces and infrastructure there. The fleet then continued on to raid Japanese bases on Saipan, Tinian, and Guam. During a Japanese air attack on the fleet on 21 February, Alabama's No. 9 5-inch turret accidentally fired into the No. 5 mount, killing five and wounding eleven men. That day, Alabama took part in a sweep to the southeast of Saipan to search for Japanese vessels that might be in the area. Having found none, the fleet steamed to Majuro to replenish fuel and ammunition. While there, she served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher, the commander of the fast carrier task force, from 3 to 8 March.

Alabama and the rest of the fleet departed Majuro on 22 March to attack the next set of targets: Palau, Yap, Ulithi, and Woleai in the Caroline Islands. By this time, Alabama had been transferred to TG 58.3 as part of the screen for the carrier USS Yorktown (CV-10). While en route to the Carolines, the ships came under attack from a group of Japanese aircraft on the night of 29 March and Alabama shot one of them down and assisted with another. The next day, the carriers began their raids and Alabama stood by, engaging Japanese aircraft as they attacked the fleet. She helped to drive off a lone Japanese aircraft late that day before it could close to attack. The fleet then returned to Majuro for replenishment before departing on 13 April; Alabama now escorted the veteran carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) for a series of strikes along the coast of western New Guinea in support of Army operations in the New Guinea campaign. The final action in the series of raids saw the fleet return to the Carolines to strike Pohnpei, which Alabama and five other battleships bombarded on 1 May. The group then returned once again to Eniwetok on 4 May to begin preparations for the invasion of the Marianas.

Mariana and Palau Islands campaign

Alabama sortied with the rest of TF 58 in early June, now as part of TG 58.7; the fleet had arrived off the initial target, Saipan, by 12 June. The next day, Alabama took part in a preparatory bombardment of the island intended to weaken Japanese defenses so that minesweepers could begin to clear approaches to the landing beach. Alabama's gunners were not as experienced with shore bombardment as other dedicated bombardment ships, and her shooting was not particularly effective. She thereafter screened the carriers as they struck Japanese positions around the island, and ground troops landed on the island on 15 June. The landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter-thrust with the 1st Mobile Fleet, the main carrier strike force.

The Japanese fleet arrived on 19 June, leading to the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Alabama was the first vessel to pick up the incoming Japanese aircraft on her radar, 141 nmi away, at 10:06. The battleship USS Iowa (BB-61) quickly corroborated the report, and 40 minutes later the Japanese aircraft arrived over the fleet. A total of seven waves hit the American fleet, though only three of them hit TG 58.7. Of those, Alabama was able to engage Japanese aircraft in two of the attacks. During one of the attacks, a pair of aircraft penetrated the Combat Air Patrols and attacked South Dakota, and Alabama was among the vessels that fired on them. About an hour after that attack, two torpedo bombers attempted to attack South Dakota again, but Alabama helped to drive them off with a barrage of anti-aircraft fire. During this latter attack, a single dive bomber was able to use the gunners' distraction with the torpedo bombers to approach Alabama, but the pilot nevertheless missed with his bombs and caused no damage. Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee, the TG 58.7 commander, commended Alabama's radar operators for their prompt detection of the Japanese aircraft, which allowed the American carriers to launch their fighters with enough time to intercept the attackers away from the fleet.

Alabama remained on station, escorting the carriers while they raided Saipan, Guam, Tinian, and Rota throughout the campaign. She was then detached from the fleet to Eniwetok in the Marshalls for periodic maintenance. The ship then became the flagship of Rear Admiral Edward Hanson, the commander of Battleship Division (BatDiv) 9, and left the island on 14 July in company with Bunker Hill. The next stage in the campaign, the invasion of Guam, began on 21 July and Alabama performed her role of carrier escort during operations there for the next three weeks. On 11 August, she left to return to Eniwetok before embarking on the next assault on 30 August, code-named Operation Stalemate II; this consisted of a series of landings on Pelelieu, Ulithi, and Yap. By this time, the fast carrier task force had been transferred from Fifth Fleet to Third Fleet and accordingly renumbered as TF 38, so Alabama was now part of TG 38.3. She escorted the carriers while they launched a series of strikes on the islands from 6 to 8 September to prepare for the amphibious assaults.

Philippines campaign

After the strikes in the Carolines, the fast carrier task force left the area to begin initial raids in the Philippines, with the first strikes occurring from 12 to 14 September. Aircraft from the carriers hit Japanese bases on the islands of Cebu, Leyte, Bohol, and Negros. Another series of strikes, concentrated around the capital of Manila, followed on 21 and 22 September, and in the central Philippines on the 24th. Alabama returned to Saipan on 28 September before proceeding to Ulithi, which was by now a major staging area for the US fleet, on 1 October. Five days later, the fast carrier task force sortied to begin a major raid on the island of Formosa (Taiwan) and other islands to neutralize the airfields there in advance of the invasion of the Philippines. Alabama continued to escort the carriers as part of TG 38.3, providing heavy anti-aircraft support. On 14 October, the fleet turned south to begin raids on Luzon in the Philippines and Alabama engaged aircraft that attempted to attack the fleet. The ship's gunners claimed to have destroyed three Japanese aircraft and damaged another.

Battle of Leyte Gulf
Alabama supported the landing at Leyte on 15 October before returning to the carrier screen to escort them for another series of air strikes on islands throughout the Philippines on 21 October, by now having been transferred to TG 38.4. The landings on Leyte led to the activation of Operation Shō-Gō 1, the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: the 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, the Center Force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, and the Southern Force under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura. Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly.

Kurita's ships were detected in the San Bernardino Strait on 24 October, and in the ensuing Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Musashi, causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral William F. Halsey, the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. Alabama steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, consisting of Alabama and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Willis Lee. TF 34 was arrayed ahead of the carriers, serving as their screen. On the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the Battle off Cape Engaño; over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into Leyte Gulf the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the Battle off Samar, he was held off by a group of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts, TU 77.4.3, known as Taffy 3. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.

However, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before Alabama and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached Iowa and USS New Jersey (BB-62) as TG 34.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.

Later operations
Having failed to intercept the retiring Japanese fleet, Alabama and the rest of TF 34 returned to their positions screening the carriers. On 30 October, the fleet withdrew to Ulithi to replenish ammunition and fuel. On 3 November, the fleet departed for another series of raids on Japanese airfields and other facilities on Luzon as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of Mindoro in the western Philippines. Over the next few weeks, Alabama cruised with the carriers, protecting them from Japanese aircraft, while the carriers struck targets on Luzon and the Visayas in the central Philippines. The fleet returned to Ulithi once again on 24 November and through early December Alabama was occupied with routine maintenance and training exercises with other vessels in the fleet. During this period, the fleet was reorganized and Alabama was assigned to TG 38.1. The fleet sortied again on 10 December for more strikes on Luzon that lasted from 14 to 16 December; the carriers massed so many aircraft that they could keep Japanese airfields constantly suppressed to prevent them from interfering with the passage of the Mindoro invasion fleet.

On 17 December, the fleet withdrew to refuel at sea, but late in the day, Typhoon Cobra swept through the area, battering the fleet. The storm conditions—Alabama recorded wind gusts as high as 83 kn and heavy seas that caused her to roll up to thirty degrees—sank three destroyers and inflicted serious damage to several other vessels, though Alabama emerged with only minor damage to her superstructure, and both of her Kingfishers were wrecked. The fleet returned to Ulithi on 24 December and Alabama was detached for an overhaul at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. She entered the dry-dock there on 18 January 1945 for work that lasted until 25 February, at which point she was floated out of the dry-dock for further repairs, which were completed on 17 March. The ship then began a series of sea trials and training exercises along the coast of California before departing on 4 April for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 10 April, spent a week on additional training exercises, and then proceeded on to Ulithi, arriving there on 28 April.

Operations off Japan and the end of the war

At Ulithi, Alabama re-joined the fast carrier task force, which had by this point reverted to Fifth Fleet. The fast carrier task force got underway on 9 May to support the forces fighting in the Battle of Okinawa, who had gone ashore on 1 April. The Japanese had massed significant reserves of aircraft for kamikaze strikes against the invasion fleet. During one such attack on 14 May, while approximately 120 miles southeast of the Japanese home island of Kyushu, Alabama shot down two Japanese aircraft and helped to destroy two others, but one kamikaze nevertheless penetrated the fleet's anti-aircraft defenses and struck Enterprise. The operations off Okinawa continued for the next two weeks and on 4–5 June, the fleet was hit by another typhoon and Alabama—part of TG 38.1 at this time—again suffered only superficial damage, though many other vessels in the group were badly damaged. The fleet resumed its normal operations in support of the Okinawa fight on 7 June, including air strikes on Japanese airfields on Kyushu the next day that Alabama supported. With an escort of five destroyers on 9 June, Alabama, USS Indiana (BB-58), and USS Massachusetts (BB-59) steamed to shell Japanese facilities on the island of Minami Daito Jima; they repeated the attack the next day. The fleet thereafter returned to Leyte Gulf to begin preparations for a series of attacks on the Japanese Home Islands.

Third Fleet resumed control of the carrier fleet for these operations, which began on 1 July when the fleet sortied from Leyte Gulf. The carriers conducted wide-ranging attacks on various military and industrial targets throughout Japan, particularly concentrating on the area around Tokyo. On the night of 17–18 July, Alabama, four other American battleships, the British battleship HMS King George V (1939), and a pair of cruisers bombarded six industrial facilities northeast of Tokyo. On 9 August, Alabama shelled targets at Kamaishi in company with two battleships and six American and British cruisers. The same day, Alabama transferred a medical party to the destroyer USS Ault, which took them to the destroyer USS Borie (DD-704), which had been hit by a kamikaze and needed medical assistance. When she received word of the Japanese surrender on 15 August, Alabama was still at sea off the coast of Japan. She contributed sailors and marines to the initial occupation force, and she cruised with the carriers while they used their aircraft to search for prisoner of war camps.

On 5 September, Alabama steamed into Tokyo Bay, where she re-embarked crew-members who had gone ashore. She remained there until 20 September, when she got underway for Okinawa, where she took on 700 men, most of whom were Seabees, to carry them back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet. The ship arrived in San Francisco on 15 October and remained there for the Navy Day celebrations held there on 27 October, where she hosted some 9,000 visitors. Two days later, she steamed to San Pedro, California, where she lay until 27 February 1946, when she got underway for an overhaul at Puget Sound to prepare her for deactivation.

Reserve and museum ship
She was decommissioned on 9 January 1947 at the Naval Station in Seattle and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet, stationed in Bremerton, Washington. Plans were drawn up during the period she was in reserve to modernize Alabama and the other ships of her class should they be needed for future active service. In March 1954, a program to equip the four ships with secondary batteries consisting of ten twin 3 in guns were proposed, but the plan came to nothing. Another plan to convert the ship into a guided missile battleship arose in 1956–1957, but the cost of the conversion proved to be prohibitive. She would have had all three main battery turrets removed and replaced with a twin RIM-8 Talos missile launcher forward, two RIM-24 Tartar launchers aft, anti-submarine weapons, and equipment to handle helicopters. The cost of the project amounted to $120 million.

On 1 June 1962, Alabama was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register for disposal; with the ship slated to be broken up, the state of Alabama passed a bill to establish the "USS Alabama Battleship Commission" with a view toward preserving the battleship as a museum ship. Governor George Wallace signed the law on 12 September 1963, and the commission set about raising funds to acquire the ship; ultimately around $800,000 was raised, of which an eighth came from children in the state, the rest coming primarily from corporate donations.

On 16 June 1964, the Navy awarded the ship to her namesake state, with a provision that the Navy would retain the ability to recall the ship to service in the event of an emergency. Alabama was formally handed over on 7 July during a ceremony in Seattle, and she was then towed to Mobile, Alabama to be restored as a museum, by way of the Panama Canal. On the way to the canal, one of the tugboats accidentally sank. The ship's screws were removed for the voyage to avoid any damage. The carrier USS Lexington (CV-16), a veteran of the fast carrier task force and still in service, escorted the ship while she was towed through the Gulf of Mexico. Alabama arrived in Mobile on 14 September having traveled some 5600 nmi, the longest tow of a vessel that was not an active warship. The channel in Mobile Bay to her permanent berth had not yet been completed, and she had to wait until the end of the month before dredging work was finished. Once the ship was moored in her berth, work began to prepare the ship for visitors, including sandblasting painted surfaces, applying primer, and then re-painting the entire ship. The museum was opened on 9 January 1965.

In the early 1980s, when the Navy reactivated the four Iowa-class battleships, parts were cannibalized from Alabama and the other preserved battleships, including Massachusetts and North Carolina, to restore the Iowas to service. Engine room components that were no longer available in the Navy's inventory accounted for most of the material removed from the ships. The ship was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986. During her career as a museum ship, Alabama has been used as a set for several movies including Under Siege in 1992 and USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage in 2016.

In the early 2000s, the museum raised funds to complete major repairs to Alabama, including removing 2.7 million gallons of water contaminated with fuel oil from the ship. This involved erecting a cofferdam around the ship and pumping it dry, which also allowed workers to repair the ship's hull. At the same time, the submarine USS Drum (SS-228), another component of the museum, was moved from the water to a display on land so her hull could be repaired. Alabama was damaged by Hurricane Katrina in September 2005, taking on water and a list to port; repairs were effected by Volkert, Inc.

title: USS Alabama (BB-60)


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USS Nebraska (BB-14)

USS Nebraska (BB-14) was a Virginia-class battleship pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy, the second of five members of the class, and the first ship to carry her name. She was built by the Moran Brothers shipyard in Seattle, Washington, with her keel-laying in July 1902 and her launching in October 1904. The completed ship was commissioned into the US Navy in July 1907. The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12 in guns and eight 8 in guns, and she was capable of a top speed of 19 kn.

Nebraska joined the Great White Fleet after it reached the west coast of the United States in 1908 and continued with it during its circumnavigation of the globe. From 1909 to 1914, the ship conducted normal training and ceremonial duties with the Atlantic Fleet. She was deployed twice to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution, in mid-1914 and mid-1916, before being decommissioned briefly in 1916. She was reactivated shortly before the United States entered World War I in April 1917, and was thereafter used as a training ship and later as a convoy escort. After the war, she transported American soldiers back from France, and in 1919 she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet, though she remained in service for less than a year, being decommissioned in July 1920. The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty mandated her disposal, which was effected in November 1923, when she was broken up for scrap.

Design
Design work on the Virginia-class battleship began in 1899, after the United States' victory in the Spanish–American War, which had demonstrated the need for sea-going battleships suitable for operations abroad, finally resolving the debate between proponents of that type and those who favored low-freeboard types useful for coastal defense. The designers included a superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns, which proved to be a significant disappointment in service, as firing either set of guns interfered with the others, slowing the rate of fire.

Nebraska was 441 ft long overall and had a beam of 76 ft and a draft of 23 ft. She displaced 14948 LT as designed and up to 16094 LT at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 19000 ihp, with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 19 kn. As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909. She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men.

The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 in /40 caliber Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 in /45 caliber guns and twelve 6 in /50 caliber Mark 6 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets, with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel. The 6-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twelve 3 in/50 caliber guns, mounted in casemates along the side of the hull, and twelve 3-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Nebraska carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.

Nebraska's main armored belt was 11 in thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in elsewhere. The faces of the main battery gun turrets (and the secondary turrets on top of them) were 12 in thick. Each turret rested on a supporting barbettes that had 10 in of armor plating. The conning tower had 9 in thick sides.

Pre-World War I
The keel for Nebraska was laid down at the Moran Brother's Shipyard in Seattle, Washington on 4 July 1902. She was launched on 7 October 1904 and was commissioned into the fleet on 1 July 1907, the last member of the class to enter service. Her first commander was Captain Reginald F. Nicholson. After entering service, she conducted shakedown cruises and had minor alterations made. In May 1908, she steamed to San Francisco, arriving on the 6th. There, she joined the Great White Fleet, which had departed Hampton Roads, Virginia, the previous year on the first leg of its global cruise. Nebraska replaced the battleship USS Alabama (BB-8), and the fleet departed San Francisco on 7 July. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression.

The Great White Fleet then began its crossing of the Pacific, with a visit to Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland. After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46729 nmi. There, they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt.

After the conclusion of the ceremonies, Nebraska remained in service with the Atlantic Fleet. In late 1909 she took part in the Hudson–Fulton Celebration in New York. The celebration saw an international fleet of warships from Germany, Britain, France, Italy, and other countries join the Atlantic Fleet to commemorate Henry Hudson's discovery of the Hudson River. In 1912, Nebraska took part in a ceremony for the centennial anniversary of Louisiana's entrance into the United States. The ship was deployed to Mexico twice to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution, the first from 1 May to 21 June 1914, and the second from 1 June to 13 October 1916. For these actions, the ship was awarded the Mexican Service Medal. The ship was briefly decommissioned in 1916, but returned to service on 3 April 1917.

World War I
Three days after Nebraska was recommissioned, the United States declared war on Germany over the latter's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign, thereby joining World War I. The ship was assigned to the 3rd Division, Battleship Force of the Atlantic Fleet, and on 13 April, she joined the rest of the fleet for battle training in the Chesapeake Bay. She remained on the eastern coast of the United States and was tasked with training guard crews for transport ships. On 15 April 1918, she entered the Norfolk Navy Yard for periodic maintenance. On 16 May, Nebraska embarked the remains of the recently deceased Uruguayan ambassador, Carlos DePena, at Hampton Roads. She departed that day with the armored cruiser USS Pittsburgh (ACR-4)—the flagship of the Pacific Fleet—and arrived in Montevideo, Uruguay on 10 June. The commander of the Pacific Fleet came aboard Nebraska for the transfer ceremonies. The two ships left Montevideo on 15 June and reached Hampton Roads on 26 July.

Starting in September, Nebraska began to be employed as an escort for convoys to Europe. On the 17th, she departed New York with convoy HX 49, a group of eighteen ships; the rest of the escort included the destroyer USS Dent and the armed merchant cruiser (AMC) Rochester, and the British AMC HMS Arlanza. At a rendezvous point in the eastern Atlantic, she handed the convoy off to other escorts that would take the ships to France. Nebraska arrived back in Hampton Roads on 3 October. She escorted another two convoys before the war ended in November 1918. In December, she was equipped to carry American soldiers back from France. She made four such trips to Brest, France, and carried some 4,540 men back to the United States. The first trip began on 30 December; she reached Brest on 11 January 1919 and after embarking a contingent of soldiers, departed for Newport News, Virginia, where they arrived on 28 January. The fourth trip concluded on 21 June 1919, also in Newport News.

On 22 June 1919, Nebraska was transferred from the Cruiser and Transport Force to the Pacific Fleet. She departed the east coast shortly thereafter, bound for the Pacific. On 2 July 1920, the ship was decommissioned, and on the 15th she was reclassified as BB-14. She remained out of service until 12 July 1922 when she was stricken from the naval register in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty signed earlier that year. The terms of the treaty mandated significant reductions in naval strength, and on 9 November 1923, Nebraska was declared to have been rendered unfit for further warlike service in accordance with the treaty. She was then sold to ship breakers.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Nebraska (BB-14)


text:
Talk:List of Canadian Cities, Towns & Villages

I suggest this page be merged with List of Canadian cities. -Montréalais


text:
High-level programming language

In computer science, a high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In contrast to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or may automate (or even hide entirely) significant areas of computing systems (e.g. memory management), making the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable than when using a lower-level language. The amount of abstraction provided defines how "high-level" a programming language is.

In the 1960s, a high-level programming language using a compiler was commonly called an autocode. Examples of autocodes are COBOL and Fortran.

The first high-level programming language designed for computers was Plankalkül, created by Konrad Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time, and his original contributions were largely isolated from other developments due to World War II, aside from the language's influence on the "Superplan" language by Heinz Rutishauser and also to some degree ALGOL. The first significantly widespread high-level language was Fortran, a machine-independent development of IBM's earlier Autocode systems. The ALGOL family, with ALGOL 58 defined in 1958 and ALGOL 60 defined in 1960 by committees of European and American computer scientists, introduced recursion as well as nested functions under lexical scope. ALGOL 60 was also the first language with a clear distinction between value and name-parameters and their corresponding semantics. ALGOL also introduced several structured programming concepts, such as the  and   constructs and its syntax was the first to be described in formal notation – Backus–Naur form (BNF). During roughly the same period, COBOL introduced records (also called structs) and Lisp introduced a fully general lambda abstraction in a programming language for the first time.

Features
"High-level language" refers to the higher level of abstraction from machine language. Rather than dealing with registers, memory addresses, and call stacks, high-level languages deal with variables, arrays, objects, complex arithmetic or Boolean expressions, subroutines and functions, loops, threads, locks, and other abstract computer science concepts, with a focus on usability over optimal program efficiency. Unlike low-level assembly languages, high-level languages have few, if any, language elements that translate directly into a machine's native opcodes. Other features, such as string handling routines, object-oriented language features, and file input/output, may also be present. One thing to note about high-level programming languages is that these languages allow the programmer to be detached and separated from the machine. That is, unlike low-level languages like assembly or machine language, high-level programming can amplify the programmer's instructions and trigger a lot of data movements in the background without their knowledge. The responsibility and power of executing instructions have been handed over to the machine from the programmer.

Abstraction penalty
High-level languages intend to provide features that standardize common tasks, permit rich debugging, and maintain architectural agnosticism; while low-level languages often produce more efficient code through optimization for a specific system architecture. Abstraction penalty is the cost that high-level programming techniques pay for being unable to optimize performance or use certain hardware because they don't take advantage of certain low-level architectural resources. High-level programming exhibits features like more generic data structures and operations, run-time interpretation, and intermediate code files; which often result in execution of far more operations than necessary, higher memory consumption, and larger binary program size. For this reason, code which needs to run particularly quickly and efficiently may require the use of a lower-level language, even if a higher-level language would make the coding easier. In many cases, critical portions of a program mostly in a high-level language can be hand-coded in assembly language, leading to a much faster, more efficient, or simply reliably functioning optimised program.

However, with the growing complexity of modern microprocessor architectures, well-designed compilers for high-level languages frequently produce code comparable in efficiency to what most low-level programmers can produce by hand, and the higher abstraction may allow for more powerful techniques providing better overall results than their low-level counterparts in particular settings. High-level languages are designed independent of a specific computing system architecture. This facilitates executing a program written in such a language on any computing system with compatible support for the Interpreted or JIT program. High-level languages can be improved as their designers develop improvements. In other cases, new high-level languages evolve from one or more others with the goal of aggregating the most popular constructs with new or improved features. An example of this is Scala which maintains backward compatibility with Java, meaning that programs and libraries written in Java will continue to be usable even if a programming shop switches to Scala; this makes the transition easier and the lifespan of such high-level coding indefinite. In contrast, low-level programs rarely survive beyond the system architecture which they were written for without major revision. This is the engineering 'trade-off' for the 'Abstraction Penalty'.

Relative meaning
Examples of high-level programming languages in active use today include Python, JavaScript, Visual Basic, Delphi, Perl, PHP, ECMAScript, Ruby, C#, Java and many others.

The terms high-level and low-level are inherently relative. Some decades ago, the C language, and similar languages, were most often considered "high-level", as it supported concepts such as expression evaluation, parameterised recursive functions, and data types and structures, while assembly language was considered "low-level". Today, many programmers might refer to C as low-level, as it lacks a large runtime-system (no garbage collection, etc.), basically supports only scalar operations, and provides direct memory addressing; it therefore, readily blends with assembly language and the machine level of CPUs and microcontrollers. Also, in the introduction chapter of The C Programming Language (second edition) by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, C is described as "not a very high level" language.

Assembly language may itself be regarded as a higher level (but often still one-to-one if used without macros) representation of machine code, as it supports concepts such as constants and (limited) expressions, sometimes even variables, procedures, and data structures. Machine code, in turn, is inherently at a slightly higher level than the microcode or micro-operations used internally in many processors.

Execution modes
There are three general modes of execution for modern high-level languages:
 * Interpreted: When code written in a language is interpreted, its syntax is read and then executed directly, with no compilation stage. A program called an interpreter reads each program statement, following the program flow, then decides what to do, and does it. A hybrid of an interpreter and a compiler will compile the statement into machine code and execute that; the machine code is then discarded, to be interpreted anew if the line is executed again. Interpreters are commonly the simplest implementations of the behavior of a language, compared to the other two variants listed here.
 * Compiled: When code written in a language is compiled, its syntax is transformed into an executable form before running. There are two types of compilation:
 * Machine code generation: Some compilers compile source code directly into machine code. This is the original mode of compilation, and languages that are directly and completely transformed to machine-native code in this way may be called truly compiled languages. See assembly language.
 * Intermediate representations: When code written in a language is compiled to an intermediate representation, that representation can be optimized or saved for later execution without the need to re-read the source file. When the intermediate representation is saved, it may be in a form such as bytecode. The intermediate representation must then be interpreted or further compiled to execute it. Virtual machines that execute bytecode directly or transform it further into machine code have blurred the once clear distinction between intermediate representations and truly compiled languages.

 * Source-to-source translated or transcompiled: Code written in a language may be translated into terms of a lower-level language for which native code compilers are already common. JavaScript and the language C are common targets for such translators. See CoffeeScript, Chicken Scheme, and Eiffel as examples. Specifically, the generated C and C++ code can be seen (as generated from the Eiffel language when using the EiffelStudio IDE) in the EIFGENs directory of any compiled Eiffel project. In Eiffel, the translated process is referred to as transcompiling or transcompiled, and the Eiffel compiler as a transcompiler or source-to-source compiler.

Note that languages are not strictly interpreted languages or compiled languages. Rather, implementations of language behavior use interpreting or compiling. For example, ALGOL 60 and Fortran have both been interpreted (even though they were more typically compiled). Similarly, Java shows the difficulty of trying to apply these labels to languages, rather than to implementations; Java is compiled to bytecode which is then executed by either interpreting (in a Java virtual machine (JVM)) or compiling (typically with a just-in-time compiler such as HotSpot, again in a JVM). Moreover, compiling, transcompiling, and interpreting is not strictly limited to only a description of the compiler artifact (binary executable or IL assembly).

High-level language computer architecture
Alternatively, it is possible for a high-level language to be directly implemented by a computer – the computer directly executes the HLL code. This is known as a high-level language computer architecture – the computer architecture itself is designed to be targeted by a specific high-level language. The Burroughs large systems were target machines for ALGOL 60, for example.

title: High-level programming language


text:
Low-level programming language

A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture; commands or functions in the language are structurally similar to a processor's instructions. Generally, this refers to either machine code or assembly language. Because of the low (hence the word) abstraction between the language and machine language, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to the hardware". Programs written in low-level languages tend to be relatively non-portable, due to being optimized for a certain type of system architecture.

Low-level languages can convert to machine code without a compiler or interpreter—second-generation programming languages use a simpler processor called an assembler—and the resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a low-level language can be made to run very quickly, with a small memory footprint. An equivalent program in a high-level language can be less efficient and use more memory. Low-level languages are simple, but considered difficult to use, due to numerous technical details that the programmer must remember. By comparison, a high-level programming language isolates execution semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, which simplifies development.

Machine code

Machine code is the form in which code that can be directly executed is stored on a computer. It consists of machine language instructions, stored in memory, that perform operations such as moving values in and out of memory locations, arithmetic and boolean logic, and testing values and, based on the test, either executing the next instruction in memory or executing an instruction at another location.

Machine code is usually stored in memory as binary data. Programmers almost never write programs directly in machine code; instead, they write code in assembly language or higher-level programming languages.

Although few programs are written in machine languages, programmers often become adept at reading it through working with core dumps or debugging from the front panel.

Example of a function in hexadecimal representation of x86-64 machine code to calculate the nth Fibonacci number, with each line corresponding to one instruction: 89 f8 85 ff 74 26 83 ff 02 76 1c 89 f9 ba 01 00 00 00 be 01 00 00 00 8d 04 16 83 f9 02 74 0d 89 d6 ff c9 89 c2 eb f0 b8 01 00 00 c3

Assembly language
Second-generation languages provide one abstraction level on top of the machine code. In the early days of coding on computers like TX-0 and PDP-1, the first thing MIT hackers did was to write assemblers. Assembly language has little semantics or formal specification, being only a mapping of human-readable symbols, including symbolic addresses, to opcodes, addresses, numeric constants, strings and so on. Typically, one machine instruction is represented as one line of assembly code, commonly called mnemonics. Assemblers produce object files that can link with other object files or be loaded on their own.

Most assemblers provide macros to generate common sequences of instructions.

Example: The same Fibonacci number calculator as above, but in x86-64 assembly language using AT&T syntax:

In this code example, the registers of the x86-64 processor are named and manipulated directly. The function loads its 32-bit argument from %edi in accordance to the System V application binary interface for x86-64 and performs its calculation by manipulating values in the %eax, %ecx, %esi, and %edi registers until it has finished and returns. Note that in this assembly language, there is no concept of returning a value. The result having been stored in the %eax register, again in accordance with System V application binary interface, the ret instruction simply removes the top 64-bit element on the stack and causes the next instruction to be fetched from that location (that instruction is usually the instruction immediately after the one that called this function), with the result of the function being stored in %eax. x86-64 assembly language imposes no standard for passing values to a function or returning values from a function (and in fact, has no concept of a function); those are defined by an application binary interface, such as the System V ABI for a particular instruction set.

Compare this with the same function in C:

This code is similar in structure to the assembly language example but there are significant differences in terms of abstraction:

 * The input (parameter n) is an abstraction that does not specify any storage location on the hardware. In practice, the C compiler follows one of many possible calling conventions to determine a storage location for the input.
 * The local variables f_nminus2, f_nminus1, and f_n are abstractions that do not specify any specific storage location on the hardware. The C compiler decides how to actually store them for the target architecture.
 * The return function specifies the value to return, but does not dictate how it is returned. The C compiler for any specific architecture implements a standard mechanism for returning the value. Compilers for the x86 architecture typically (but not always) use the %eax register to return a value, as in the assembly language example (the author of the assembly language example has chosen to use the System V application binary interface for x86-64 convention but assembly language does not require this).

These abstractions make the C code compilable without modification on any architecture for which a C compiler has been written. The x86 assembly language code is specific to the x86-64 architecture and the System V application binary interface for that architecture.

Low-level programming in high-level languages
During the late 1960s and 1970s, high-level languages that included some degree of access to low-level programming functions, such as PL/S, BLISS, BCPL, extended ALGOL and ESPOL (for Burroughs large systems), and C, were introduced. One method for this is inline assembly, in which assembly code is embedded in a high-level language that supports this feature. Some of these languages also allow architecture-dependent compiler optimization directives to adjust the way a compiler uses the target processor architecture.

Although a language like C is high-level, it does not fully abstract away the ability to manage memory like other languages. In a high-level language like Python the programmer cannot directly access memory due to the abstractions between the interpreter and the machine. Thus C can allow more control by exposing memory management tools through tools like memory allocate (malloc).

Furthermore, as referenced above, the following block of C is from the GNU Compiler and shows the inline assembly ability of C. Per the GCC documentation this is a simple copy and addition code. This code displays the interaction between a generally high level language like C and its middle/low level counter part Assembly. Although this may not make C a natively low level language these facilities express the interactions in a more direct way.

title: Low-level programming language


text:
USS Nevada

USS Nevada may refer to:

 * Neshaminy, built in 1865 but never commissioned, renamed Nevada in August 1869
 * USS Nevada (BM-8) a monitor commissioned in 1902, renamed Tonopah in 1909, and sold in 1922
 * USS Nevada (BB-36) a battleship, commissioned in 1916, served during World War II, and finally sunk for practice in 1948
 * USS Nevada (SSBN-733) an Ohio-class ballistic missile submarine commissioned in 1986

title: USS Nevada


text:
Talk:WGN-TV

New logo for WGN-TV on September 1, 2016
Do you guys have any idea what the new logo for WGN-TV will look like after The CW takes over WPWR-TV on September 1, 2016? AdamDeanHall (talk) 20:38, 24 May 2016 (UTC)

Chicago's Very Own
The news article about Sinclair Broadcast Group striking a deal to purchase Tribune Media can mean only one thing: The WGN-TV slogan "Chicago's Very Own" will be gone...forever. AdamDeanHall (talk) 19:13, 8 May 2017 (UTC)

Article reported as a claimed copyvio
The article WGN-TV has been listed at Copyright problems/2019 March 20. --AnhDucYang (talk) 22:12, 20 March 2019 (UTC)

An editor added content back in last March in this edit, claiming this article was a copyvio. The linked source in the content contains the mirror of an item listing on eBay, where content in an older version of this article was pasted into an item description of the item listing. The name of the item listed on eBay was 1961 WGN A Pictorial History CHICAGO RADIO & TELEVISION Broadcasting illustrated, but its listing is no longer available because it stayed for a limited time after the item was sold in December 2018.

https://picclick.com/1961-WGN-A-Pictorial-History-CHICAGO-RADIO-163422735751.html

I later realized that the content originated from Wikipedia. I was notified in June when an admin mentioned my username at Copyright problems/2019 March 20. I apologize for not logging in Wikipedia for months. --AnhDucYang (talk) 00:41, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

MGM/UA Premiere Network
Read this news article (https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/23/movies/film-studio-s-new-approach-to-tv.html), and highlight WGN for proof. RevinCBHatol (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 05:11, 14 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:WGN-TV


text:
Saúl Lisazo

Saúl Gustavo Lisazo Oscoidi (born June 1, 1956, in Los Toldos, province of Buenos Aires in Argentina) is an Argentine actor and ex-footballer.

Biography
Saúl Gustavo Lisazo Oscoidi is one of 6 siblings: Maria, Fernanda, Araceli, Alejandro, Mauricio, and Vanina. One event in his childhood that marked him was the death of his father when he only was 12 years old. Football is one of his passions; he started playing football with his father when he was a little boy and it grew to be his favorite sport and one that would take him to other countries around the world. In Spain, he met who would become the woman of his life, former model Mónica Viedma, whom he married. The pair has two kids, Paula, who was born on June 4, 1999, and Martin, born on November 11, 2003.

He played in Sarmiento for 10 years. He also played in Atlanta in Argentina, SK Beveren, where he won the Belgian League in 1979, and KV Mechelen in Belgium; and in Juventus from Brazil. Saúl had to leave the sport but he tried to play in Barcelona until an injury in his knee forced him to leave it completely. In 1983, he decided to become a model.

In 1988, he started studying dramatic arts in Spain, at the academy of the Argentine actress Cristina Rotta. After two and a half years of preparation he had his first opportunity, in the movie "El Regreso a la Isla del Tesoro". During the early 1990s, Saúl flew to Mexico City, where he was the image of a very important liquor company which brought him international fame. Meanwhile, he acted in theater shows like "La Fierecilla Domada", "Tartufo," and others.

His first telenovela break came in 1990, when Mexican actress Lucía Méndez insisted that he be her partner in her new novela, "Amor de Nadie", which became a major hit across Latin America. After that he started in other telenovelas, such as "Acapulco, Cuerpo y Alma", and "La Jaula de Oro", among others. He also was in productions such as Tenias que ser Tu, Prisionera de Amor.

title: Saúl Lisazo


text:
Talk:WTTW

Untitled
Why is it when a correction is made, someone with no knowledge undo's the correction? The intention of the FCC is to make channel sharing arrangements un-noticeable to casual viewers. That is why most likely the original WYCC channel number 20-1, will continue to be used. When WTTW buys the license of WYCC, the new owner gets a separate TV station with it's own call letters and channel number. WYCC's must carry rights and channel assignment on cable and satellite will also continue. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.26.30.5 (talk) 20:07, 27 December 2017 (UTC)

When WTTW purchases the license of WYCC in the near future, MHz WorldView will appear as Channel 20-1 under the WYCC call letters, although transmitting from WTTW's signal. MHz will not appear as Channel 11-5 as currently described on Wiki. Under channel sharing arrangements, which is this case here, both channels involved get to keep their original channel numbers and call letters. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.26.30.5 (talk) 03:30, 24 December 2017 (UTC)

Is this level of disambiguation necessary? -- Zoe

FWIW the programme the hacker interrupted was a broadcast of the 1977 Doctor Who story "The Horror of Fang Rock". Ironically enough when the normal signal was restored, it was at the part of the story where the Doctor finds the body of a victim electrocuted by the alien monster and his lines are "the shock must have killed him instantly"!

PMelvilleAustin 08:07 Mar 14, 2003 (UTC)

hijacking incident
It seems to me that the hijacking incident doesn't really belong in detail either here or under WGN but rather as a historical incident should have its own article and just be mentioned on these two sites. I'd love to know more about it (having witnessed it when I was living alone --- I thought he was saying something about watching me and such but then decided nobody could be and went to the kitchen until it got fixed.) but don't think it deserves more of the WTTW article's real estate. --Jaibe 19:23, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Separate Article for Soundstage
There should be a separate article for Soundstage, along with a list of performers who have appeared on the show. Mr. WTTW 01:21 Nov 23, 2006 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:New d logo.jpg
Image:New d logo.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 16:56, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:New create.jpg
Image:New create.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 16:56, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Wttw small.jpg
Image:Wttw small.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 11:31, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

CRITICISMS
Local and national media watchdogs have found that WTTW has several key challenges. Block quote  This in turn effects the quality of programming. There are few progressive television programs like Bill Moyers Journal or Now. Also a lack of non-white racial representation on shows such as Chicago Tonight, which itself rarely covers local, national, or international news perferring to cover mostly sports and entertainment. In general WTTW fails to  . [ ]  P3avery (talk) 08:18, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

Museum?
Did WTTW, at one time, have a studio at the Museum of Science and Industry (in Chicago)? I have a long-ago youthful memory of such, from a Museum visit in perhaps 1963 or 1964. It may have been an exhibit, intended to illustrate how TV broadcasting is implemented. WHPratt (talk) 13:02, 1 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100326033808/http://blogs.suntimes.com/ebert/2010/03/see_you_at_the_movies.html to http://blogs.suntimes.com/ebert/2010/03/see_you_at_the_movies.html

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1080i to 720p on 11.1 and 11.2
I remember in early 2020 these channels were both broadcasting in 1080i. I just checked and they are now both 720p, does anyone know why this happened? EDIT: It appears I was not the only one to notice this. Here is someone's tweet from November 5th 2020 https://twitter.com/scharlesb/status/1324441208630947842 73.110.210.136 (talk) 01:39, 4 December 2020 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.110.210.136 (talk) 01:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC) 73.110.210.136 (talk) 01:39, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:07, 29 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Wttw-logo-svg1.svg

Mr Beast edit
Thanks for reverting the Mr. Beast edit to the WTTW page! 2601:246:C200:3990:7442:D8F7:4B18:F5F7 (talk) 02:12, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Anyone know why the citation 8 on Max Headroom redirects to Google, or is it just my computer? 35.134.104.128 (talk) 04:48, 16 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Anyone know why the citation 8 on Max Headroom redirects to Google, or is it just my computer? nevermind that previous message TCK2009 (talk) 04:48, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

FNX on 11.6
There is no FNX on 11.6. I should know, I live in Chicagoland, with an antenna that has WTTW. I've never seen FNX on 11.6... only on channel 22 I think.

Louis Campfield (talk) 00:52, 11 December 2023 (UTC)

 * I removed the 11.6 channel from the page. Techy95 (talk) 20:22, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

WTTW Logo
Hi everyone! Can people update the WTTW Logo? The PBS Logo on it here is outdated, and I can’t update it myself.

Techy95 (talk) 20:14, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

Well now it's even more outdated, even though it wasn't outdated in the first place. What they were using previously was the 2020 logo, using 2019 PBS graphics. Louis Campfield (talk) 00:17, 2 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Yeah! I have a distinct memory of the PBS logo being the flat one about a month ago, but now we have the skewmorphised version of the logo. That’s why I posted that! Techy95 (talk) 13:14, 2 February 2024 (UTC)

But it's still the flat one... Louis Campfield (talk) 23:00, 7 February 2024 (UTC)

WTTW and WYCC (formerly WXXW)
Copied over information from the WYCC page to the history section and trimmed it. WTTW had founded it as sister station WXXW, sold it to City Colleges, reacquired it 40 years later, and ultimately relinquished the license. Also removed the topic down from the lead segment for flow as it is no longer an active issue. I tried to pull the right amount over, but a second set of eyes would help, especially clean up on the references copied over. JKPrivett (talk) 19:01, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Paging Mvcg66b3r (talk) 19:03, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

Layoff History
Wanted a second opinion before I went BE BOLD, but do others agree we can whittle down the three 2010-2014 layoff paragraphs to take out the names of most or all of the former employees? It feels more like an attempt to honor them than to focus on the actual history.

Draft edit:

On June 4, 2010, Window to the World Communications announced that it would lay off around 12% of WTTW and WFMT's employee base and extend a salary freeze instituted in 2009 for one additional year, in an effort to cut $3 million in operating costs due to declining revenue, effects from the economic downturn and the loss of $1.25 million in grant money from the Illinois General Assembly. Over the next four years, two high-level employees in communications and partnerships also saw their positions eliminated. JKPrivett (talk) 19:09, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Yes, came to the talk page to ask why those people’s names were in there! 68.113.145.140 (talk) 15:24, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:WTTW


text:
River Tweed

The River Tweed, or Tweed Water, Watter o Tweid, Tuedd), is a river 97 mi long that flows east across the Border region in Scotland and northern England. Tweed cloth derives its name from its association with the River Tweed. The Tweed is one of the great salmon rivers of Britain and the only river in England where an Environment Agency rod licence is not required for angling. The river generates a large income for the local borders region, attracting anglers from all around the world.

Etymology
Tweed may represent an Old Brittonic name meaning "border". A doubtful proposal is that the name is derived from a non-Celtic form of the Indo-European root *teuha- meaning "swell, grow powerful".

Course
The River Tweed flows primarily through the scenic Borders region of Scotland. Eastwards from the settlements on opposing banks of Birgham and Carham it forms the historic boundary between Scotland and England.

It rises in the Lowther Hills at Tweed's Well near to where the Clyde, draining northwest (10 km from the Tweed's Well), and the Annan draining south (1.9 km from the Tweed's Well) also rise. "Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise oot the ae hillside" is a saying from the Border region. East of Kelso, it becomes a section of the eastern part of the border. Entering England, its lower reaches are in Northumberland, where it enters the North Sea at Berwick-upon-Tweed.

Catchment
The river east of St Boswells runs through a drumlin field. It is the relic of a paleo-ice stream that flowed through the area during the last glaciation. Major towns through which the Tweed flows include Innerleithen, Peebles, Galashiels, Melrose, Kelso, Coldstream and Berwick-upon-Tweed, where it flows into the North Sea. Tweed tributaries include:
 * Whiteadder Water
 * Blackadder Water
 * River Till
 * Eden Water
 * Teviot Water
 * Leader Water
 * Ettrick Water
 * Yarrow Water
 * Tima Water
 * Gala Water
 * Leithen Water
 * Quair Water
 * Eddleston Water
 * Manor Water
 * Lyne Water
 * Holms Water

The upper parts of the catchment of the Tweed in Scotland form the area known as Tweeddale, part of which is protected as the Upper Tweeddale National Scenic Area, one of 40 such areas in Scotland which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development.

==Management==

Despite that the catchment straddles the border between Scotland and England, management of it – in terms of water quality, bio-security, and ultimately protection of the salmon of the River Tweed – is overseen by a single body, the River Tweed Commission.

title: River Tweed


text:
List of Japanese writers: Y

The following is a list of Japanese writers whose family name begins with the letter Y

List by Family Name: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - M - N - O - R - S - T - U - W - Y - Z

 * Yagi Jukichi (February 9, 1898 – October 26, 1927)
 * Yamabe no Akahito (700–730)
 * Yamada Bimyo (July 8, 1868 – October 24, 1910)
 * Yamada Amy (born 1959)
 * Yamada Futaro (January 4, 1922 – July 28, 2001)
 * Yamagata Hiroo (born 1964)
 * Yamaguchi Hitomi (November 3, 1923 – August 30, 1995)
 * Yamamoto Shugoro (June 22, 1903 – February 14, 1967)
 * Yamamura Bocho (1884–1924)
 * Yamanoue no Okura (660–733)
 * Yamazaki Hodai (1914 - August 19, 1985)
 * Yamazaki Nao-Cola (September 15, 1978)
 * Yamazaki Sokan (1465–1553)
 * Yamasaki Toyoko (November 3, 1924 – September 29, 2013)
 * Yano Tetsu (December 10, 1923 – October 13, 2004)
 * Yokomitsu Riichi (March 17, 1898 – December 30, 1947)
 * Yokomizo Seishi (May 24, 1902 – December 28, 1981)
 * Yokota Jun'ya (November 11, 1945 - January 4, 2019)
 * Yosa Buson (1716–1783)
 * Yosano Akiko (December 7, 1878 – May 29, 1942)
 * Yosano Tekkan (February 26, 1873 – March 26, 1935)
 * Yoshida Kenko (1283 – c. 1350)
 * Yoshida Ken'ichi (1912–1977)
 * Yoshida Hidekazu (1913–2012)
 * Yoshida Sunao (1969 – July 15, 2004)
 * Yoshida Takuro (born 1946)
 * Yoshikawa Eiji (August 11, 1892 – September 7, 1962)
 * Yoshii Isamu (October 8, 1886 – November 9, 1960)
 * Yoshimoto Banana (born 1964)
 * Yoshimoto Takaaki (1924–2016)
 * Yoshino Hideo(July 3, 1902 – July 13, 1967)
 * Yoshiya Nobuko January 12, 1896 – July 11, 1973
 * Yoshiyuki Junnosuke (April 1, 1923 – July 26, 1994)
 * Yoshiyuki Tomino (born 1941)
 * Yuasa Yoshiko (1896–1990)
 * Yujiro (born 1974)
 * Yumeno Kyusaku (January 4, 1889 – March 11, 1936)
 * Yumemakura Baku (born 1951)
 * Yumiko Kurahashi (October 10, 1935 – June 10, 2005)
 * Yu Miri (born June 22, 1968)
 * Yusuke Kishi (born 1959)

title: List of Japanese writers: Y


text:
Emperor Ninkō

Ayahito (恵仁), posthumously honored as Emperor Ninkō (仁孝天皇), was the 120th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Ninkō's reign spanned the years from 1817 until his death in 1846, and saw further deterioration of the power of the ruling Shōgun. Disasters, which included famine, combined with corruption and increasing Western interference, helped to erode public trust in the bakufu government. Emperor Ninkō revived certain court rituals and practices upon the wishes of his father. However, it is unknown what role, if any, the Emperor had in the turmoil which occurred during his reign.

His family included fifteen children from various concubines, but only three of them lived to adulthood. His fourth son, Imperial Prince Osahito became the next Emperor upon Ninkō's death in 1846. While political power at the time still resided with the Shōgun, the beginnings of the Bakumatsu (end of military government) were at hand.

Early life
Before Ninkō's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Ayahito (恵仁). He was born on 16 March 1800 and was the fourth son of Emperor Kōkaku. He was the only child of sixteen others to survive into adulthood. Ayahito was named as crown prince in 1809, having been adopted by his father's chief wife Imperial Princess Yoshiko (欣子内親王), also known as Shin-Seiwa-in (新清和院). His birth mother was one of his father's concubines named Kajyūji Tadako (勧修寺婧子).

Reign
Prince Ayahito was enthroned as Emperor on 31 October 1817, after his father retired from the throne. Following his father the Retired Emperor's wishes, he attempted to revive certain court rituals and practices. These included, among other things, restoring the title tennō, which identified the Emperor. Among Ninkō's innovations was the establishment of the Gakushūsho (the predecessor of the Gakushūin) for the Court Nobility just outside the Imperial Palace. One major event during his reign was the Tenpō famine which lasted from 1833 to 1837. The famine was most severe in northern Honshū and was caused by flooding and cold weather. Ninkō's reign also saw some deterioration of the Shōgun's power. The Tenpō famine and other concurring natural disasters hit hard, and shook the faith of the people in the ruling Shōgun. In 1837, Ōshio Heihachirō led a revolt in Osaka against corrupt officials who refused to help feed the impoverished residents of the city. That same year also had an incident take place where an American merchant vessel was driven away by coastal artillery. While order was eventually restored, long term resentment resonated with the commoners against the ruling government. It is unclear though what role, if any, the Emperor played during this period of unrest.

Emperor Ninkō died on 21 February 1846 and was enshrined in the Imperial mausoleum, Nochi no Tsukinowa no Higashiyama no misasagi (後月輪東山陵), which is at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji are this Emperor's immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai, Reigen, Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi, Go-Momozono and Kōkaku. The shrine complex also encompasses the misasagi of Ninkō's immediate successor – Kōmei. Empress Dowager Yoshikō is also entombed at this Imperial mausoleum complex.

Eras and Kugyō
The years of Ninkō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. While Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.

The following eras occurred during Ninkō's reign:

 * Bunka (1804–1818)
 * Bunsei (1818–1830)
 * Tenpō (1830–1844)
 * Kōka (1844–1848)

During Ninkō's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:

 * Kampaku, Ichijō Tadayoshi, 1814–1823
 * Kampaku, Takatsukasa Masamichi, 1823–1856
 * Sadaijin
 * Udaijin
 * Naidaijin
 * Dainagon

Genealogy
Emperor Ninkō's family included 7 sons and 8 daughters from various concubines, but only the future Emperor Komei (Komei-tennō), Princess Sumiko (Sumiko-naishinnō) and Princess Chikako (Chikako-naishinnō) survived beyond childhood.

title: Emperor Ninkō


text:
Emperor Kōkaku

Morohito (師仁), posthumously honored as Emperor Kōkaku (光格天皇), was the 119th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kōkaku reigned from 1779 until his abdication in 1817 in favor of his son, Emperor Ninkō. After his abdication, he ruled as Daijō Tennō (太上天皇) also known as a Jōkō (上皇) until his death in 1840. The next emperor to abdicate of his own accord was Akihito, 202 years later.

Major events in Kōkaku's life included an ongoing famine that affected Japan early into his rule. The response he gave during the time was welcomed by the people, and helped to undermine the shōgun's authority. The Kansei Reforms came afterwards as a way for the shōgun to cure a range of perceived problems which had developed in the mid-18th century but was met with partial success.

A member of a cadet branch of the Imperial Family, Kōkaku is the founder of the dynastic imperial branch which currently sits on the throne. Kōkaku had one spouse during his lifetime, and six concubines who gave birth to 16 children. Only one son, Prince Ayahito, survived into adulthood and eventually became the next Emperor. Genealogically, Kōkaku is the lineal ancestor of all the succeeding Emperors up to the current Emperor, Naruhito.

Early life
Before Kōkaku's accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Morohito (師仁). He was the sixth son of Imperial Prince Kan'in Sukehito (閑院宮典仁, 1733–1794) the second Prince Kan'in of the Kan'in-no-miya imperial collateral branch. As a younger son of a cadet branch, the Kan'in house, it was originally expected that Morohito would go into the priesthood at the Shugoin Temple. The situation changed in 1779 in the form of a problem as Emperor Go-Momozono was dying without an heir to the throne. In order to avoid a dynastic interregnum, the now-retired Empress Go-Sakuramachi and the Emperor's chief adviser encouraged Go-Momozono to hastily adopt Prince Morohito. The adopted prince was the Emperor's second cousin once removed in the biological male line. Go-Momozono died on 16 December 1779, and a year later Morohito acceded to the throne at age eight.

As Emperor
During his reign, Kōkaku attempted to re-assert some of the Imperial authority over the Shōgun (or bakufu). He undertook this by first implementing a relief program during the Great Tenmei famine, which not only highlighted the ineffectiveness of the bakufu in looking after its subjects, but also focused the subjects' attention back to the Imperial household. He also took an active interest in foreign affairs; keeping himself informed about the border dispute with Russia to the north, as well as keeping himself abreast of knowledge regarding foreign currency, both Chinese and European. The new era name of Tenmei ("Dawn") was created to mark the enthronement of new Emperor. The previous era ended and the new one commenced in An'ei 11, on the 2nd day of the 4th month. In his first year of reign, Kōkaku was instrumental in reviving old ceremonies involving the old Imperial Court, as well as those performed at the Iwashimizu and Kamono shrines.

An analysis of silver currency in China and Japan "Sin sen sen pou (Sin tchuan phou)" was presented to the Emperor in 1782 by Kutsuki Masatsuna (1750–1802), also known as Kutsuki Oki-no kami Minamoto-no Masatsuna, hereditary daimyōs of Oki and Ōmi with holdings in Tanba and Fukuchiyama. Masatsuna published Seiyō senpu (Notes on Western Coinage) five years later, with plates showing European and colonial currency. Countrywide currency reforms later came after the Meiji Restoration when a new system was adopted around the Japanese yen. In 1786, former Empress Go-Sakuramachi engaged Go-Momozono's only child (Princess Yoshiko) to the new Emperor. Yoshiko formally became Empress consort to Emperor Kōkaku at age 15.

The Emperor and his court were forced to flee from a fire that consumed the city of Kyoto in 1788, the Imperial Palace was destroyed as a result. No other re-construction was permitted until a new palace was completed. The Dutch VOC Opperhoofd in Dejima noted in his official record book that "people are considering it to be a great and extraordinary heavenly portent." The new era name of Kansei (meaning "Tolerant Government" or "Broad-minded Government") was created in 1789 to mark a number of calamities including the devastating fire at the Imperial Palace. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Tenmei 9, on the 25th day of the 1st month. During the same year, the Emperor came into dispute with the Tokugawa shogunate about his intention to give the title of Abdicated Emperor (Daijō Tennō, 太上天皇) to his father, Prince Sukehito. This dispute was later called the "Songo incident" (the "respectful title incident"), and was resolved when the Bakufu gave his father the honorary title of "Retired Emperor".

Two more eras would follow during Kōkaku's reign, on 5 February 1801 a new era name (Kyōwa) was created because of the belief that the 58th year of every cycle of the Chinese zodiac brings great changes. Three years later the new era name of Bunka (meaning "Culture" or "Civilization") was created to mark the start of a new 60-year cycle of the Heavenly Stem and Earthly Branch system of the Chinese calendar which was on New Year's Day. During this year, Daigaku-no-kami Hayashi Jussai (1768–1841) explained the shogunate foreign policy to Emperor Kōkaku in Kyoto. The rest of Kōkaku's reign was quiet aside from two 6.6m earthquakes which struck Honshū in the years 1810 and 1812. The effects on the population from these earthquakes (if any) is unknown.

Kansei Reforms
The Kansei Reforms (寛政の改革) were a series of reactionary policy changes and edicts which were intended to cure a range of perceived problems which had developed in mid-18th-century Tokugawa Japan. Kansei refers to the nengō (or Japanese era name) that spanned the years from 1789 through 1801 (after "Tenmei" and before "Kyōwa"); with the reforms occurring during the Kansei period but between the years 1787–1793. In the end, the shogunate's interventions were only partly successful. Intervening factors like famine, floods and other disasters exacerbated some of the conditions which the shōgun intended to ameliorate.

Matsudaira Sadanobu (1759–1829) was named the shōgun's chief councilor (rōjū) in the summer of 1787; and early in the next year, he became the regent for the 11th shōgun, Tokugawa Ienari. As the chief administrative decision-maker in the bakufu hierarchy, he was in a position to effect radical change; and his initial actions represented an aggressive break with the recent past. Sadanobu's efforts were focused on strengthening the government by reversing many of the policies and practices which had become commonplace under the regime of the previous shōgun, Tokugawa Ieharu. Sadanobu increased the bakufu's rice reserves and required daimyos to do the same. He reduced expenditures in cities, set aside reserves for future famines, and encouraged peasants in cities to go back to the countryside. He tried to institute policies that promoted morality and frugality, such as prohibiting extravagant activities in the countryside and curbing unlicensed prostitution in the cities. Sadanobu also cancelled some debts owed by daimyos to the merchants.

These reform policies could be interpreted as a reactionary response to the excesses of his rōjū predecessor, Tanuma Okitsugu (1719–1788). The result was that the Tanuma-initiated, liberalizing reforms within the bakufu and the relaxation of sakoku (Japan's "closed-door" policy of strict control of foreign merchants) were reversed or blocked. Education policy was changed through the Kansei Edict (寛政異学の禁 kansei igaku no kin) of 1790 which enforced teaching of the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi as the official Confucian philosophy of Japan. The decree banned certain publications and enjoined strict observance of Neo-Confucian doctrine, especially with regard to the curriculum of the official Hayashi school.

This reform movement was related to three others during the Edo period: the Kyōhō reforms (1722–1730), the Tenpō reforms (1841–1843) and the Keiō reforms (1864–1867).

Abdication and death

In 1817, Kōkaku abdicated in favor of his son, Emperor Ninkō. In the two centuries before Kōkaku's reign most Emperors died young or were forced to abdicate. Kōkaku was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 40 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586. Until the abdication of Emperor Akihito in 2019, he was the last Emperor to rule as a Jōkō (上皇), an Emperor who abdicated in favor of a successor. Kōkaku travelled in procession to Sento Imperial Palace, a palace of an abdicated Emperor. The Sento Palace at that time was called Sakura Machi Palace. It had been built by the Tokugawa shogunate for former-Emperor Go-Mizunoo.

After Kōkaku's death in 1840, he was enshrined in the Imperial mausoleum, Nochi no Tsukinowa no Higashiyama no misasagi (後月輪東山陵), which is at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji are this Emperor's immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai, Reigen, Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono. This mausoleum complex also includes misasagi for Kōkaku's immediate successors – Ninkō and Kōmei. Empress Dowager Yoshikō is also entombed at this Imperial mausoleum complex.

Eras and Kugyō
The following years of Kōkaku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
 * An'ei (1772–1781)
 * Tenmei (1781–1789)
 * Kansei (1789–1801)
 * Kyōwa (1801–1804)
 * Bunka (1804–1818)

Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Kōkaku's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:

 * Sesshō, Kujō Naozane, 1779–1785
 * Kampaku, Kujō Naozane, 1785–1787
 * Kampaku, Takatsukasa Sukehira, 1787–1791
 * Kampaku, Ichijō Teruyoshi, 1791–1795
 * Kampaku, Takatsukasa Masahiro, 1795–1814
 * Kampaku, Ichijō Tadayoshi, 1814–1823

Spouse
Yoshiko was the only child of former Emperor Go-Momozono. She formally became Empress consort (chūgū) to Emperor Kōkaku at age 15 after she was engaged to the new Emperor by former empress Go-Sakuramachi. The couple had two sons but both died before reaching adulthood. Yoshiko eventually functioned as an official mother to the heir who would become Emperor Ninkō. In 1816, Emperor Ninkō granted Empress Yoshiko the title of Empress Dowager after Emperor Kōkaku abdicated. She later became a Buddhist nun after her husband died, and changed her name to Shin-Seiwa-In (新清和院) in 1841.

Issue
Emperor Kōkaku fathered a total of 16 children (8 sons and 8 daughters) but only one of them survived into adulthood. The sole surviving child (Prince Ayahito) later became Emperor Ninkō when Kōkaku abdicated the throne.

title: Emperor Kōkaku


text:
Talk:Florence La Badie

Home for Incurables
I am researching Florence LaBadie's birth family. I have learned alot, but I haven't found good enough evidence about who they were to present here yet. But I have located the woman who "said" she was Florence's birth mother, Marie C Russ, living as reported in the "Home for Incurables" located in Bronx. (1900 & 1920 US Federal Census)

The history available online for this institution would indicate that is was NOT an institution for the mentally ill, contrary to this article and all articles online about Florence LaBadie. The reliability of Marie Russ is always called into doubt because she was a patient at this institution when she gave her statement that she was Florence's birth mom, so I think it is important that that misunderstanding be cleared up.

The last paragraph on page 127 explained that as of the date of this book (1921) the Home for Incureables did NOT accept insane patients. http://books.google.com/books?id=9QwUAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA127&ots=AssO-B5DKZ&dq=home%20for%20incurables%20bronx%20no%20insane&pg=PA127#v=onepage&q=incurables%20bronx%20no%20insane&f=false

— Preceding unsigned comment added by Songbird1973 (talk • contribs) 08:53, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Florence La Badie