text:
M60 motorway (Great Britain)

The M60 motorway, Manchester Ring Motorway or Manchester Outer Ring Road is an orbital motorway in North West England. Built over a 40-year period, it passes through most of Greater Manchester's metropolitan boroughs except for Wigan and Bolton. Most of Manchester is encompassed within the motorway, except for the southernmost part of the city (Wythenshawe and Manchester Airport) which is served by the M56.

The M60 is 36.1 mi long and was renamed the M60 in 1998, with parts of the M62, M66 and all of the M63 being amalgamated into the new route, and the circle completed in 2000. The road forms part of the unsigned Euroroutes E20 and E22 from junctions 12 to 18.

In 2008, the M60 was proposed as a cordon for congestion charging in Greater Manchester, although this was rejected in a referendum relating to the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund.

History
The M60 was developed by connecting and consolidating the existing motorway sections of the M63, M62, and an extended M66. It came into existence as the M60 in 1998, followed by the completion of the eastern side (junctions 19–23) opening in October 2000.

The original plan called for a completely new motorway, but policy change led to the plan which created the current motorway. As soon as it opened, the motorway came close to its projected maximum volume on significant sections.

It is an orbital motorway, and in 2004, a section of the northern M60 was the UK's busiest stretch of road, with an average of 181,000 vehicles per day using the stretch between junctions 16 and 17. Usually, the western side of the M25 motorway holds that distinction, but the M25's figures at the time were lower than normal due to roadworks starting.

In 2006, the section between junctions 5 and 6 was widened from three to four lanes each way and the section between junctions 6 and 8 was widened from two to three lanes each way with an additional two-lane collector/distributor road on either side of the main carriageways. Access for junctions 6 to 8 is only from the collector/distributor road. Some of the junctions were extensively re-modelled. As part of the project, the A6144(M) motorway, which connected to the M60 at junction 8, was downgraded and lost its motorway status.

The Greater Manchester congestion charge which would have affected drivers only during peak times coming off the M60 towards Manchester was rejected by a referendum on 12 December 2008.

Work to upgrade two sections of the M60 to a managed motorway system had been planned to commence in 2013. This would have included a new lane from junction 12 to 15 and a new lane from junction 8 to 12 near the Trafford Centre. Both these projects were subsequently cancelled in favour of a new project that includes speed cameras on this section but no additional lane or hard-shoulder running. An 'environmental assessment' was cited as the reason an additional lane was not provided. A combined approach was initiated in 2014, comprising managed motorway system and lane gain scheme. Work commenced in July 2014, and the full stretch of smart motorway became fully operational on 31 July 2018.

There are no motorway service areas on the M60. The closest service area is at Birch Services on the M62 heading eastwards.

Legislation
Each motorway in England requires that a statutory instrument be published, detailing the route of the road, before it can be built. The dates given on these statutory instruments relate to when the document was published, and not when the road was built. Provided below is an incomplete list of statutory instruments relating to the route of the M60.
 * Statutory Instrument 1988 No. 1708: M66 Motorway (Manchester Ring Road, Denton to Middleton Section) and Connecting Roads Scheme 1988 S.I. 1988/1708
 * Statutory Instrument 1988 No. 1728: M66 Motorway (Middleton to the Lancashire/Yorkshire Motorway (M62) Section) and Connecting Roads Scheme 1988 S.I. 1988/1728
 * Statutory Instrument 1993 No. 363: M66 Motorway (Manchester Outer Ring Road, Denton to Middleton Section) A663 Broadway All-Purpose Connecting Road Order 1993 S.I. 1993/363
 * Statutory Instrument 1993 No. 364: M66 Motorway (Manchester Outer Ring Road, Denton to Middleton Section) and Connecting Roads Scheme 1988 Amendment Scheme 1993 S.I. 1993/364
 * Statutory Instrument 1999 No. 2724: The M60 Motorway (Improvement Between Junctions 5 and 8) Connecting Roads Scheme 1999 S.I. 1999/2724
 * Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 2403: The M60 Motorway (Junction 25) (Speed Limit) Regulations 2002 S.I. 2002/2403

Junctions
The junctions on the M60 are very closely spaced together, with an average distance of 1.3 mi between junctions. The recommended junction spacing for motorways is every 10 to 12 mi. By comparison, the M6 motorway has an average distance of 5.3 mi between junctions.

The entire length of the M60 lies within the ceremonial county of Greater Manchester.

{| class="plainrowheaders wikitable" !scope=col|Location !scope=col|mi !scope=col|km !scope=col|Junction !scope=col|Destinations !scope=col|Notes
 * Stockport
 * 0
 * 0
 * 1
 * - Stockport
 * rowspan="2"|Cheadle
 * 1.5
 * 2.4
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |2
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Cheadle
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No Eastbound entrance or Westbound exit
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |3
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Cheadle, Wilmslow
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exits going Northbound or entrances from North
 * Gatley
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |4
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Chester, Warrington, Manchester Airport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exit Eastbound or entrance Westbound
 * Wythenshawe
 * 4.5
 * 7.3
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |5
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Central Manchester, Didsbury, Chester, Warrington, Manchester Airport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exits North or entrances from South going East
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |4
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Chester, Warrington, Manchester Airport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exit Eastbound or entrance Westbound
 * Wythenshawe
 * 4.5
 * 7.3
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |5
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Central Manchester, Didsbury, Chester, Warrington, Manchester Airport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exits North or entrances from South going East
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No exits North or entrances from South going East

No exits South or entrances from North going West B5158 - Urmston - Central Manchester, Salford - Worsley, Leigh - Bury, Burnley, Blackburn - Ashton under Lyne - Central Manchester, Denton
 * rowspan="3"|Sale
 * 6.0
 * 9.7
 * 6
 * - Sale
 * 6.8
 * 10.9
 * 7
 * - Central Manchester, Stretford, Altrincham
 * 7.5
 * 12.0
 * 8
 * - Carrington
 * rowspan="2"|Urmston
 * 9.3
 * 15.0
 * 9
 * - Trafford Park, Trafford Centre
 * rowspan="2"|Urmston
 * 9.3
 * 15.0
 * 9
 * - Trafford Park, Trafford Centre
 * 9
 * - Trafford Park, Trafford Centre
 * 10.3
 * 16.5
 * 10
 * B5158 - Trafford Park, Urmston
 * rowspan="2"|Eccles
 * 11.4
 * 18.4
 * 11
 * - Eccles, Irlam
 * 12.2
 * 19.7
 * 12
 * - Liverpool, Warrington
 * 12.2
 * 19.7
 * 12
 * - Liverpool, Warrington
 * 12
 * - Liverpool, Warrington
 * rowspan="3"|Worsley
 * 13.0
 * 21.0
 * 13
 * - Swinton
 * 13
 * - Swinton
 * 14.1
 * 22.7
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |14
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - St. Helens, Leigh
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |Northbound entrance from East and Southbound exit going West only
 * 15
 * - Preston, Wigan, Bolton
 * Clifton
 * 16.3
 * 26.2
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |16
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Salford, Kearsley
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrance Eastbound or exit Westbound
 * rowspan="2"|Whitefield
 * 18.5
 * 29.7
 * 17
 * - Central Manchester, Prestwich, Whitefield
 * 19.8
 * 31.8
 * 18
 * - Leeds, Huddersfield
 * 18.5
 * 29.7
 * 17
 * - Central Manchester, Prestwich, Whitefield
 * 19.8
 * 31.8
 * 18
 * - Leeds, Huddersfield
 * 18
 * - Leeds, Huddersfield
 * rowspan="2"|Middleton
 * 21.0
 * 33.8
 * 19
 * - Central Manchester, Middleton
 * 22.6
 * 36.4
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |20
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Middleton, Blackley
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No Westbound exit or Eastbound entrance
 * Whitegate
 * 24.7
 * 39.8
 * 21
 * - Central Manchester, Rochdale, Chadderton
 * Failsworth
 * 26.3
 * 42.3
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |22
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Central Manchester, Oldham
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrance North-Eastbound
 * Ashton under Lyne
 * 28.6
 * 46.0
 * 23
 * - Ashton under Lyne
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Central Manchester, Oldham
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrance North-Eastbound
 * Ashton under Lyne
 * 28.6
 * 46.0
 * 23
 * - Ashton under Lyne
 * - Ashton under Lyne
 * Denton
 * 30.6
 * 49.3
 * 24
 * - Hyde, Sheffield
 * 24
 * - Hyde, Sheffield
 * rowspan="4"|Stockport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |25
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Bredbury
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |no entrances to M60 South-Westbound
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |26
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Stockport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrances or exits going East
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |no entrances to M60 South-Westbound
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |26
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Stockport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrances or exits going East
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |26
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Stockport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No entrances or exits going East

No exits to A560 going east or exits from A560 going west
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |27
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" | - Stockport
 * bgcolor="ffdddd" |No South-Westbound exit or North-Eastbound entrance
 * 36.1
 * 58.1
 * colspan="3" align="center"|Motorway continues to junction 1
 * 36.1
 * 58.1
 * colspan="3" align="center"|Motorway continues to junction 1
 * colspan="3" align="center"|Motorway continues to junction 1

 * Coordinate list

{| border=1 cellpadding=2 style="margin-left:1em; margin-bottom: 1em; color: black; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 100%;" class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" (M6), Liverpool M62 Manchester (C), Salford M602 TOTSO Leeds, Huddersfield M62 Bury, Burnley, Blackburn M66 Manchester City Centre A57
 * - align="center" bgcolor="0080d0" style="color: white;font-size:120%;"
 * colspan="5" | M60 motorway junctions
 * - align="center" bgcolor="000000" style="color: white"
 * mile
 * km
 * Anti-clockwise exits (B Carriageway)
 * Junction
 * Clockwise exits (A Carriageway)
 * - align="center"
 * 0.0
 * 0.0
 * Stockport (West & Centre) A5145
 * J1
 * Stockport (West) A5145
 * - align="center"
 * 1.5
 * 2.4
 * Cheadle A560
 * J2
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * - align="center"
 * Cheadle, Wilmslow A34
 * J3
 * Cheadle, Wilmslow A34
 * - align="center"
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * J4
 * Chester, Warrington, Manchester, Birmingham (M6)   M56
 * - align="center"
 * 4.5
 * 7.3
 * Chester, Manchester, Birmingham (M6)   A5103   (M56)
 * J5
 * Manchester (C), Didsbury A5103
 * - align="center"
 * 6.0
 * 9.7
 * Sale A6144
 * J6
 * Sale A6144
 * - align="center"
 * 6.8
 * 10.9
 * Manchester (C), Stretford, Altrincham A56
 * J7
 * Altrincham, Manchester (C), Stretford A56
 * - align="center"
 * rowspan=2| 7.5
 * rowspan=2| 12.0
 * End of variable speed limit UK traffic sign 671.svg
 * rowspan=2| J8
 * Carrington A6144
 * - align="center"
 * Carrington A6144
 * Start of variable speed limit UK traffic sign 879.svg
 * - align="center"
 * 9.3
 * 15.0
 * Trafford Park, Trafford Centre   A5081
 * J9
 * Urmston B5158, Trafford Park  A5081
 * - align="center"
 * 10.3
 * 16.5
 * Trafford Park, Urmston B5214
 * J10
 * Trafford Park B5214
 * - align="center"
 * 11.4
 * 18.4
 * Eccles, Irlam A57
 * J11
 * Irlam, Eccles A57
 * - align="center"
 * 12.2
 * 19.7
 * Manchester (C), Salford M602
 * Irlam, Eccles A57
 * - align="center"
 * 12.2
 * 19.7
 * Manchester (C), Salford M602
 * J12
 * Liverpool, Warrington M62
 * - align="center"
 * 13.0
 * 21.0
 * Swinton A572, Worsley  A575
 * J13
 * Worsley, Leigh A575, Swinton  A572
 * - align="center"
 * 14.1
 * 22.7
 * St. Helens, Leigh A580
 * J14
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * - align="center"
 * (M6 North), Preston, Wigan, Bolton M61
 * J15
 * Preston, Wigan, Bolton M61
 * - align="center"
 * 16.3
 * 26.2
 * Salford, Kearsley A666
 * J16
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * - align="center"
 * 18.5
 * 29.7
 * Manchester City Centre, Prestwich, Whitefield A56
 * J17
 * Whitefield, Prestwich A56
 * - align="center"
 * rowspan=2| 19.8
 * rowspan=2| 31.8
 * Start of variable speed limit UK traffic sign 879.svg
 * rowspan=2| J18
 * Start of variable speed limit UK traffic sign 879.svg
 * rowspan=2| J18
 * Burnley, Bury M66
 * - align="center"
 * Leeds M62
 * End of variable speed limit UK traffic sign 671.svg
 * - align="center"
 * 21.0
 * 33.8
 * Middleton A576
 * J19
 * Manchester City Centre, Middleton A576
 * - align="center"
 * 22.6
 * 36.4
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * J20
 * Middleton, Blackley A664
 * - align="center"
 * 24.7
 * 39.8
 * Rochdale, (A627(M)), Chadderton  (A663)
 * J21
 * Manchester City Centre, Chadderton (A663)
 * - align="center"
 * 26.3
 * 42.3
 * Manchester City Centre, Oldham A62
 * J22
 * Oldham A62
 * - align="center"
 * 28.6
 * 46.0
 * Ashton-under-Lyne A6140
 * J23
 * Ashton-under-Lyne A635
 * - align="center"
 * 30.6
 * 49.3
 * Manchester City Centre, Denton A57, Hyde, Sheffield  (M67)
 * J24
 * Denton A57, Hyde, Sheffield  (M67)
 * - align="center"
 * Bredbury A560
 * J25
 * Bredbury A560
 * - align="center"
 * No access
 * J26
 * Stockport (E&C) A560
 * - align="center"
 * Stockport (East) A560
 * J27
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * - align="center"
 * 36.1
 * 58.1
 * colspan="3"|Motorway continues to J1
 * J27
 * No access (on-slip only)
 * - align="center"
 * 36.1
 * 58.1
 * colspan="3"|Motorway continues to J1

Data from driver location signs is used to provide distance and carriageway identifier information.

Incidents

 * On 27 May 2021 a car being chased by Greater Manchester Police deliberately drove the wrong direction on the motorway, colliding head-on with another car. Both drivers died. The accident triggered an investigation by the Independent Office of Police Conduct.

title: M60 motorway (Great Britain)


text:
X-ray binary

X-ray binaries are a class of binary stars that are luminous in X-rays. The X-rays are produced by matter falling from one component, called the donor (usually a relatively common main sequence star), to the other component, called the accretor, which is either a neutron star or black hole. The infalling matter releases gravitational potential energy, up to 30 percent of its rest mass, as X-rays. (Hydrogen fusion releases only about 0.7 percent of rest mass.) The lifetime and the mass-transfer rate in an X-ray binary depends on the evolutionary status of the donor star, the mass ratio between the stellar components, and their orbital separation.

An estimated 1041 positrons escape per second from a typical low-mass X-ray binary.

Classification

X-ray binaries are further subdivided into several (sometimes overlapping) subclasses, that perhaps reflect the underlying physics better. Note that the classification by mass (high, intermediate, low) refers to the optically visible donor, not to the compact X-ray emitting accretor.

 * Low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs)
 * Soft X-ray transients (SXTs)
 * Symbiotic X-ray binaries
 * Super soft X-ray sources or Super soft sources (SSXs), (SSXB)
 * Accreting millisecond X-ray pulsars (AMXPs)
 * Intermediate-mass X-ray binaries (IMXBs)
 * Ultracompact X-ray binaries (UCXBs)
 * High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs)
 * Be/X-ray binaries (BeXRBs)
 * Supergiant X-ray binaries (SGXBs)
 * Supergiant Fast X-ray Transients (SFXTs)
 * Others
 * X-ray bursters
 * X-ray pulsars
 * Microquasars (radio-jet X-ray binaries that can house either a neutron star or a black hole)

Low-mass X-ray binary
A low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is either a black hole or neutron star. The other component, a donor, usually fills its Roche lobe and therefore transfers mass to the compact star. In LMXB systems the donor is less massive than the compact object, and can be on the main sequence, a degenerate dwarf (white dwarf), or an evolved star (red giant). Approximately two hundred LMXBs have been detected in the Milky Way, and of these, thirteen LMXBs have been discovered in globular clusters. The Chandra X-ray Observatory has revealed LMXBs in many distant galaxies.

A typical low-mass X-ray binary emits almost all of its radiation in X-rays, and typically less than one percent in visible light, so they are among the brightest objects in the X-ray sky, but relatively faint in visible light. The apparent magnitude is typically around 15 to 20. The brightest part of the system is the accretion disk around the compact object. The orbital periods of LMXBs range from ten minutes to hundreds of days.

The variability of LMXBs are most commonly observed as X-ray bursters, but can sometimes be seen in the form of X-ray pulsars. The X-ray bursters are created by thermonuclear explosions created by the accretion of Hydrogen and Helium.

Intermediate-mass X-ray binary
An intermediate-mass X-ray binary (IMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is a neutron star or a black hole. The other component is an intermediate-mass star. An intermediate-mass X-ray binary is the origin for Low-mass X-ray binary systems.

High-mass X-ray binary
A high-mass X-ray binary (HMXB) is a binary star system that is strong in X rays, and in which the normal stellar component is a massive star: usually an O or B star, a blue supergiant, or in some cases, a red supergiant or a Wolf–Rayet star. The compact, X-ray emitting, component is a neutron star or black hole. A fraction of the stellar wind of the massive normal star is captured by the compact object, and produces X-rays as it falls onto the compact object.

In a high-mass X-ray binary, the massive star dominates the emission of optical light, while the compact object is the dominant source of X-rays. The massive stars are very luminous and therefore easily detected. One of the most famous high-mass X-ray binaries is Cygnus X-1, which was the first identified black hole candidate. Other HMXBs include Vela X-1 (not to be confused with Vela X), and 4U 1700-37.

The variability of HMXBs are observed in the form of X-ray pulsars and not X-ray bursters. These X-ray pulsars are due to the accretion of matter magnetically funneled into the poles of the compact companion. The stellar wind and Roche lobe overflow of the massive normal star accretes in such large quantities, the transfer is very unstable and creates a short lived mass transfer.

Once a HMXB has reached its end, if the periodicity of the binary was less than a year, it can become a single red giant with a neutron core or a single neutron star. With a longer periodicity, a year and beyond, the HMXB can become a double neutron star binary if uninterrupted by a supernova.

Microquasar
A microquasar (or radio emitting X-ray binary) is the smaller cousin of a quasar. Microquasars are named after quasars, as they have some common characteristics: strong and variable radio emission, often resolvable as a pair of radio jets, and an accretion disk surrounding a compact object which is either a black hole or a neutron star. In quasars, the black hole is supermassive (millions of solar masses); in microquasars, the mass of the compact object is only a few solar masses. In microquasars, the accreted mass comes from a normal star, and the accretion disk is very luminous in the optical and X-ray regions. Microquasars are sometimes called radio-jet X-ray binaries to distinguish them from other X-ray binaries. A part of the radio emission comes from relativistic jets, often showing apparent superluminal motion.

Microquasars are very important for the study of relativistic jets. The jets are formed close to the compact object, and timescales near the compact object are proportional to the mass of the compact object. Therefore, ordinary quasars take centuries to go through variations a microquasar experiences in one day.

Noteworthy microquasars include SS 433, in which atomic emission lines are visible from both jets; GRS 1915+105, with an especially high jet velocity and the very bright Cygnus X-1, detected up to the High Energy gamma rays (E > 60 MeV). Extremely high energies of particles emitting in the VHE band might be explained by several mechanisms of particle acceleration (see Fermi acceleration and Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: X-ray binary


text:
John Joly

John Joly FRS   MRDS  (1 November 1857 – 8 December 1933) was an Irish physicist and professor of geology at the University of Dublin, known for his development of radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer. He is also known for developing techniques to more accurately estimate the age of a geological period, based on radioactive elements present in minerals, the uranium–thorium dating.

Early life
Joly was born in Holywood House (the Church of Ireland Rectory), Bracknagh, County Offaly, Ireland. He was a second cousin of Charles Jasper Joly, the astronomer. He entered Trinity College, Dublin in 1876, graduating in Engineering in 1882 in first place with several special certificates in branches of engineering, at the same time obtaining a First Class Honours in modern literature. He worked as a demonstrator in Trinity's Engineering and Physics departments before succeeding William Johnson Sollas in the Chair of Geology and Mineralogy in 1897, a position which he held until his death in 1933 in Dublin. A keen yachtsman, he served as a Commissioner for Irish Lights.

Scientific career
Joly joined the Royal Dublin Society in 1881 while still a student, and was a frequent contributor of papers. His first scientific paper was published in 1883, on the use of meteorological instruments at a distance. He published over 270 scientific papers.

In 1886, Joly proposed a theory on the slipperiness of ice. According to Joly, when the ice is forced to contract by the pressure applied, a film of liquid water is formed, upon which actual slipping occurs. Although this theory has recently been superseded, it was the first time someone tried to explain the mechanism behind ice low friction.

On 17 May 1899 Joly read his paper, "An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth", to the Royal Dublin Society. In it, he proposed to calculate the age of the Earth from the accumulation of sodium in the waters of the oceans. He calculated the rate at which the oceans should have accumulated sodium from erosion processes, and determined that the oceans were about 80 to 100 million years old. The paper was quickly published, appearing 4 months later in the Society's Scientific Transactions. Although this method was later considered inaccurate and was consequently superseded, it radically modified the results of other methods in use at the time.

In 1903 he published an article in Nature in which he discussed the possibility of using radium to date the Earth and went on to study the radioactive content of the Earth's crust to formulate a theory of thermal cycles, and examined the radioactive constituents of certain rocks as a means of calculating their age. Working in collaboration with Sir Ernest Rutherford, he used radioactive decay in minerals to estimate, in 1913, that the beginning of the Devonian period could not be less than 400 million years ago, an estimate which is in line with modern calculations.

Joly served as President of Section C (Geology) when the British Association for the Advancement of Science which met in Dublin in 1908, during which he presented his paper "Uranium and Geology" an address to the society. This work described radioactive materials in rocks and their part in the generation of the Earth's internal heat.

Along with his friend Henry Horatio Dixon, Joly also put forward the cohesion-tension theory which is now thought to be the main mechanism for the upward movement of water in plants.

In 1914 he developed a method of extracting radium and applied it in the treatment of cancer. As a Governor of Dr Steevens' Hospital in Dublin, in collaboration with Walter Stevenson he devised radiotherapy methods and promoted the establishment by the Royal Dublin Society of the Irish Radium Institute where they pioneered the "Dublin method" of using a hollow needle for deep radiotherapy, a technique that later entered worldwide use. The Radium Institute also supplied capillary tubes containing radon to hospitals for some years for use in the treatment of tumours.

Inventions
Joly invented a photometer for measuring light intensity, a meldometer for measuring the melting points of minerals, a differential steam calorimeter for measuring specific heats and a constant-volume gas thermometer, all of which bear his name, together with one of the first color photographic processes, the Joly colour screen. It was the first successful process for producing color images from a single photographic plate.

Awards and honours

 * 1892: Elected a fellow of the Royal Society
 * 1910: Awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society.
 * 1911: Awarded the Boyle Medal of the Royal Dublin Society.
 * 1923: Awarded the Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London.

He was also conferred honorary degrees by the National University of Ireland, the University of Cambridge, and the University of Michigan. After his death, his friends subscribed the sum of £1,700 to set up a memorial fund which is still used to promote the annual Joly Memorial Lectures at the University of Dublin, which were inaugurated by Sir Ernest Rutherford in 1935. He is also remembered by the Joly Geological Society, a student geological association established in 1960.

In 1930, Oliver Sheppard was commissioned by Trinity College Dublin and the Royal Dublin Society to make them copies of a bust of Joly.

In 1973, Joly, an impact crater on Mars, was named in his honour.

title: John Joly


text:
Talk:SimCity 4

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Is this a scrubbed article?
This article doesn't list anything about the public outcry during the botched release. It doesn't mention the game being played online-only. This was quite a big deal. John Moser (talk) 19:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC)

Bluefoxicy I believe you are thinking of Sim City 2013, not Sim City 4; this game never had an online component and essentially predated most "online gaming". With that said, attention does need to be paid to the controversy surrounding EA's use of modded content (NAM mod, various BATs and lots) to advertise their game - even though their official position is not being supportive of modding: https://web.archive.org/web/20221222180229/https://www.ea.com/games/simcity/simcity-4 99.242.204.153 (talk) 18:06, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:SimCity 4


text:
Ripple tank

In physics, a ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used to demonstrate the basic properties of waves. It is a specialized form of a wave tank. The ripple tank is usually illuminated from above, so that the light shines through the water. Some small ripple tanks fit onto the top of an overhead projector, i.e. they are illuminated from below. The ripples on the water show up as shadows on the screen underneath the tank. All the basic properties of waves, including reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction, can be demonstrated.

Ripples may be generated by a piece of wood that is suspended above the tank on elastic bands so that it is just touching the surface. Screwed to wood is a motor that has an off center weight attached to the axle. As the axle rotates the motor wobbles, shaking the wood and generating ripples.

Demonstrating wave properties
A number of wave properties can be demonstrated with a ripple tank. These include plane waves, reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction.

Plane waves

When the rippler is lowered so that it just touches the surface of the water, plane waves will be produced.

Circular waves

When the rippler is attached with a point spherical ball and lowered so that it just touches the surface of the water, circular waves will be produced.

Demonstrating reflection and focusing of mirrors
By placing a metal bar in the tank and tapping the wooden bar a pulse of three or four ripples can be sent towards the metal bar. The ripples reflect from the bar. If the bar is placed at an angle to the wavefront the reflected waves can be seen to obey the law of reflection. The angle of incidence and angle of reflection will be the same.

If a concave parabolic obstacle is used, a plane wave pulse will converge on a point after reflection. This point is the focal point of the mirror. Circular waves can be produced by dropping a single drop of water into the ripple tank. If this is done at the focal point of the "mirror" plane waves will be reflected back.

Refraction
If a sheet of glass is placed in the tank, the depth of water in the tank will be shallower over the glass than elsewhere. The speed of a wave in water depends on the depth, so the ripples slow down as they pass over the glass. This causes the wavelength to decrease. If the junction between the deep and shallow water is at an angle to the wavefront, the waves will refract. In the diagram above, the waves can be seen to bend towards the normal. The normal is shown as a dotted line. The dashed line is the direction that the waves would travel if they had not met the angled piece of glass.

In practice, showing refraction with a ripple tank is quite tricky to do.
 * The sheet of glass needs to be quite thick, with the water over it as shallow as possible. This maximizes the depth difference and so causes a greater velocity difference and therefore greater angle.
 * If the water is too shallow, viscous drag effects cause the ripples to disappear very quickly.
 * The glass should have smooth edges to minimize reflections at the edge.

Diffraction
If a small obstacle is placed in the path of the ripples, and a slow frequency is used, there is no shadow area as the ripples refract around it, as shown below on the right. A faster frequency may result in a shadow, as shown below on the right. If a large obstacle is placed in the tank, a shadow area will probably be observed.

If an obstacle with a small gap is placed in the tank the ripples emerge in an almost semicircular pattern. If the gap is large however, the diffraction is much more limited. Small, in this context, means that the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the ripples.

Diffraction from a grid
A phenomenon identical to the x-ray diffraction of x-rays from an atomic crystal lattice can also be seen, thus demonstrating the principles of crystallography. If one lowers a grid of obstacles into the water, with the spacing between the obstacles roughly corresponding to the wavelength of the water waves, one will see diffraction from the grid. At certain angles between the grid and the oncoming waves, the waves will appear to reflect off the grid; at other angles, the waves will pass through. Similarly, if the frequency (wavelength) of the waves is altered, the waves will also alternately pass through or be reflected, depending on the precise relationship between spacing, orientation and wavelength.

Interference
Interference can be produced by the use of two dippers that are attached to the main ripple bar. In the diagrams below on the left the light areas represent crests of waves, the black areas represent troughs. Notice the grey areas: they are areas of destructive interference where the waves from the two sources cancel one another out. To the right is a photograph of two-point interference generated in a circular ripple tank.

title: Ripple tank


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Steven Norris

Steven John Norris (born 24 May 1945) is a British Conservative Party politician and businessman. Norris served as Member of Parliament for Oxford East from 1983 to 1987. After narrowly losing that marginal seat in 1987 he re-entered the House of Commons at a by-election for Epping Forest in 1988, which he held until stepping down to focus on his business career in 1997. He was subsequently chosen by Conservative Party members to be the Conservative candidate for Mayor of London in 2000 and 2004 in which he secured 42% and 45% respectively, coming second to Ken Livingstone but ahead of the Conservative Party's vote share for the London Assembly.

Early life and career
Norris attended the Liverpool Institute for Boys, a grammar school, from 1956 to 1963 where he was Head Boy. He earned an open Exhibition in Social Studies and graduated from Worcester College, Oxford, where he was President of the University Law Society. After graduating, he pursued a career in the engineering and motor industries and entered politics upon election to Berkshire County Council in 1977, where he became Deputy Leader.

Parliamentary and ministerial career
In 13 years as Member of Parliament, Norris was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to William Waldegrave, at the Department of the Environment; to Nicholas Ridley at the Department of Trade and Industry; and to Kenneth Baker at the Home Office. He was then promoted to Minister for Transport in London by John Major in 1992, where he was responsible for the Jubilee line Extension, the largest extension of the London Underground network to date, as well as the privatisation of London bus services.

Public transport roles
Norris’ expertise on public transport issues led him to roles as Chairman of the National Cycling Strategy Board, Director General of the Road Haulage Association and President of the Motor Cycle Industry Association, and a Commissioner with the Independent Transport Commission. He also served as patron of the cyclists charity, Sustrans, and of the Campaign for Better Transport (UK) Trust.

Equality issues
Norris was a pioneer for equality for gays and lesbians before the law as a Member of Parliament and later as a Mayoral candidate. In particular, Norris took the step of writing to the Conservative Party Chairman Chris Patten to suggest that the party include an equal age of consent in its next election manifesto. This change in the law was eventually achieved in 2001 under the Blair government.

Additionally, Norris registered the Conservative Parliamentary Group for Homosexual Law Reform with the party's whips office and the 1922 Committee. Realising that the party would not make a manifesto commitment to age of consent equality, the group decided to lobby individual ministers and departments with an agenda for change. This included a review of the 1967 Sexual Offences Act to allow for an equal age of consent, as well as allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the armed forces; supporting a more liberal prosecution policy in Scotland; enforcement of existing Home Office advice against police entrapment and a more positive image for the Conservative Party on equality issues. Norris also was one of a handful of prominent Tories who lobbied against the discriminatory Section 28, ostensibly intended by its supporters to outlaw the teaching of homosexuality in schools, later was repealed by the Blair government and renounced by the Conservative Party under David Cameron. At the time of repeal, Norris opposed then leader William Hague’s support of the measure.

2000
In September 1999, Norris contested Jeffrey Archer for the Conservative Party nomination for Mayor of London. Archer was initially selected as the candidate by party members, but was forced to withdraw later that year after it was revealed that he had committed perjury in a libel case. Archer was subsequently convicted of the crime and imprisoned. Norris was then selected as the Conservative Party candidate in a ballot of members in December of that year, going on to earn 42% of the vote against duly-elected London Mayor Ken Livingstone.

2004
In November 2002, Norris formally announced his intention to run again for the London mayoralty. In February 2003, he was again selected as the party's candidate in a ballot of London party members. His platform included plans for after-hours London Underground services and an approach to crime based on the 'broken windows' theory that had been championed by New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani. Norris had met Giuliani during the campaign, and proposed an agreement with Giuliani Partners to advise him as mayor, should Norris be successful.

2008
Following speculation that he might run again for the mayoralty in 2008, and the extension of the party's deadline for nominations in the hope of attracting a heavyweight candidate, Norris said in an interview that "If I run, I'll win", but ultimately chose not to apply. Subsequently, Boris Johnson became the party's candidate.

Business career
He is one of Property Week's Property Power 100 and is chairman of Soho Estates, which controls around 60 acres of London's Soho district. He is also chairman of London Resort Company Holdings, developers of the £3.5 billion entertainment resort project in Kent. He was Independent Non-Executive Chairman of This Land Limited, Cambridgeshire County Council's arms- length property company from 2019 – 2022. He is Chairman of Future-Built Limited, a construction company, and of EVO.PM, a proptech maintenance company. He is also a partner with Craig Calder in Sanctuary Investments Limited.

In the infrastructure sector, he is chair of the Council of the National Infrastructure Planning Association and chairman of Driver Group plc. In the field of transportation, he was a member of the board of Transport for London under Mayor Boris Johnson. He is deputy chairman of bus manufacturer Optare. He was a main board member of Cubic Corporation of San Diego, California, a defence and transportation technology specialist, serving from 2014 until 2021, when the company was sold to Elliott and Veritas Capital. He remains an advisor to the UK business. He is Chairman of Evtec Automotive Limited, a Tier 1 supplier principally to Jaguar Landrover. He was appointed chairman of Jarvis in 2003.

Current voluntary roles
Norris is a former Chairman of the Prince Michael International Road Safety Awards, currently a vice-president of both the Royal National Institute for the Deaf and the Institute of Advanced Motorists a Patron of The Urology Foundation and Chairman of the Surrey Canal Sports Foundation. He is an Eminent Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Highways and Transportation, a Fellow of the Institution of Civil Engineers and an Honorary Fellow of the Association for Project Management. He is also President of Intelligent Transport Systems UK (ITS UK), the national industry association for transport technology. He holds an Honorary Doctorate of Laws from the University of East London.

title: Steven Norris


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Amberg

Amberg is a town in Bavaria, Germany. It is located in the Upper Palatinate, roughly halfway between Regensburg and Bayreuth. In 2020, over 42,000 people lived in the town.

History
The town was first mentioned in 1034, at that time under the name Ammenberg. It became an important trading centre in the Middle Ages, exporting mainly iron ore and iron products. In 1269, together with Bamberg, the town became subordinate to the Wittelsbach dynasty that ruled Bavaria.

In 1329 the town and the entire region fell to the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach family. The region adopted the name Upper Palatinate. It was no longer part of the duchy of Bavaria politically, though in geographic terms it was regarded as Bavarian and the region was part of the Bavarian circle in the organization of the Imperial Circles. In the 16th century, the rulers of Upper Palatinate turned to Protestantism. The town turned to Lutheranism. Later attempts of the ruling family to introduce the more radical Calvinism failed due to the reluctance of its citizens. In 1628 Amberg and Upper Palatinate became part of the electorate of Bavaria. The inhabitants were given the choice to return to Catholicism or emigrate. Many families left the town and moved to the Free Imperial Cities of Regensburg and Nuremberg.

On 24 August 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the city and its environs were the locale of a major battle at which 35,000 French, under the command of Jean Baptiste Jourdan fought with 40,000 Austrians under the command of Archduke Charles; the French suffered significantly more losses in this Austrian victory. Amberg was the regional capital of Upper Palatinate until 1810 when power was transferred to the larger city of Regensburg.

After World War II, when Bavaria fell into the American Sector, Amberg was home to Pond Barracks, a United States Army post. I.F.Stone writes about it in his book Underground to Palestine (pp. 31ff). The post was closed in 1992 and the facility turned over to the local community for housing, most of it for social housing.

In late 2018, the town was the site of the Amberg attacks, resulting in Rainer Wendt asking the Federal government to take a stand on the case. The city was said to be "in a state of emergency." Joachim Herrmann, Bavarian Minister of the Interior, visited Amberg for consultations. Horst Seehofer, Federal Minister of the Interior, said "the violent attacks are worrisome."

Jewish history
Jews had settled in Amberg before 1294, when the first documentation can be found. Shortly after, in 1298, thirteen of the town Jews died during the Rindfleisch massacres. Nevertheless, in 1347 six families received permission to settle in Amberg and twenty years after, in 1367, a Yeshivah was opened in it, though the Jewish community was expelled from Amberg in 1403. Upon the expulsion, the synagogue was annexed to the nearby church. Twelve Jews remained in town in 1942. The few survivors returned to the town after 1945, and a displaced persons camp named Amberg - located nearby the town - housed mostly Jewish refugees and survivors. As a result of immigration from the former USSR to Germany, the Jewish population in town grew to about 275 in 2003. A synagogue exists in town nowadays.

Subdistricts
Amberg has 25 sub-districts, which include its surrounding villages:

 * Amberg
 * Atzlricht
 * Bergsteig
 * Bernricht
 * Eglsee
 * Fiederhof
 * Fuchsstein
 * Gailoh
 * Gewerbegebiet-Gailoh
 * Gewerbegebiet-West
 * Gärbershof
 * Karmensölden
 * Kemnathermühl
 * Kleinraigering
 * Krumbach
 * Lengenloh
 * Luitpoldhöhe
 * Neubernricht
 * Neumühle
 * Neuricht
 * Oberammersricht
 * Raigering
 * Schäflohe
 * Schweighof
 * Speckmannshof
 * Unterammersricht

Lord mayors

 * 1866–1892: Vincent König
 * 1892–1907: Josef Heldmann
 * 1907–1913: Georg Schön
 * 1913–1933: Eduard Klug, BVP
 * 1933: Otto Saugel (temporary)
 * 1933–1945: Josef Filbig, NSDAP
 * 1945–1946: Christian Endemann, SPD
 * 1946: Eduard Klug
 * 1946: Christian Endemann, SPD
 * 1946–1952: Michael Lotter, CSU
 * 1952–1958: Josef Filbig, Deutsche Gemeinschaft (Deutschland)
 * 1958–1970: Wolf Steininger, CSU
 * 1970–1990: Franz Prechtl, CSU
 * 1990–2014: Wolfgang Dandorfer, CSU
 * since 2014: Michael Cerny, CSU

Sights
A defining feature of the town is the Stadtbrille (literally: town spectacles) – a bridge, originally a part of the town fortifications, whose arches reflected on the river waters resemble a pair of spectacles.

Other tourist attractions in Amberg include:

 * Market Square, which contains the Gothic town hall (built in 1358) and the late-Gothic parish church of St. Martin
 * The New Palace, the former residence of the counts of the Rhenish Palatinate, built at the beginning of the 15th century and renovated in 1603
 * A well-preserved section of the medieval walls and gates
 * The baroque Franciscan monastery on the Hill of Our Lady Help of Christians (Germ. Mariahilfberg) above the town. This hill was given its name during the bubonic plague in the Thirty Years' War in 1633/4 when the locals beseeched the Virgin Mary to rid them of the plague.
 * The 'Little Wedding House' (local German dialect Eh’häusl), claimed by town authorities to be the world's smallest hotel. Built in 1728, the 2 metre wide hotel was 'sold' to young couples for one night to circumvent laws prohibiting marriages between poor people.
 * The town museum (Stadtmuseum Amberg) includes exhibits on life and industry in Amberg, the history of clothing and works of Michael Mathias Prechtl and houses travelling exhibitions.
 * Air Museum (Luftmuseum), opened in 2006.

Twin towns – sister cities
Amberg is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Bad Bergzabern, Germany
 * 🇵🇱 Bystrzyca Kłodzka, Poland
 * 🇮🇹 Desenzano del Garda, Italy
 * 🇫🇷 Périgueux, France
 * 🇬🇷 Trikala, Greece
 * 🇨🇿 Ústí nad Orlicí, Czech Republic

Notable people

 * Karl Addicks (born 1950), politician (FDP), Member of Bundestag 2004-2009
 * Hans Aumeier (1906–1948), Nazi SS officer in a leading position in several concentration camps executed for war crimes
 * Hans Baumann (1914–1988), elementary school teacher, poet, song composer, Children's Book Author, Nazi official
 * Alexander Bugera (born 1978), football player
 * Sara Däbritz (born 1995), German football player (Bayern Munich, Germany national team)
 * Daniel Ernemann (born 1976), football player
 * Heiner Fleischmann (1914–1963), motorcycle racer (mainly on NSU)
 * Fritz Hilpert (born 1956), musician (Kraftwerk)
 * Theodor Kaes (1852–1913), German neurologist, was a native of Amberg
 * Barbara Meier (born 1986), German fashion model
 * Franz Stigler (1915–2008), German World War II Luftwaffe fighter ace, 45 aerial victories, member of Jagdgeschwader 27, and Jagdverband 44. Known best for Charlie Brown and Franz Stigler incident.
 * Kathrine Switzer (born 1947), first woman to run the Boston Marathon, was born to American parents in Amberg

Sport

 * FC Amberg, football team

title: Amberg


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Skagerrak

The Skagerrak is a strait running between the Jutland peninsula of Denmark, the east coast of Norway and the west coast of Sweden, connecting the North Sea and the Kattegat sea.

The Skagerrak contains some of the busiest shipping routes in the world, with vessels from every corner of the globe. It also supports an intensive fishing industry. The ecosystem is strained and negatively affected by direct human activities. Oslo and Gothenburg are the only large cities in the Skagerrak region.

The strait is likely named after Skagen, a town near the northern cape of Denmark, with 'Rak' meaning 'straight waterway'. The Skagerrak is 240 km long and 80–140 km wide, deepening towards the Norwegian coast. It has an average salinity comparable to other coastal waters, housing a variety of habitats.

Historically, the Skagerrak was the only access to the Baltic Sea until the construction of the Eider Canal in 1784. During both World Wars, the strait held strategic importance for Germany. Presently, it remains one of the busiest straits worldwide.

The Skagerrak serves as a habitat for approximately 2,000 marine species, including a unique variety of Atlantic cod. It also contains sandy and stony reefs and cold-water coral reefs. Environmental institutions have expressed concern about increasing pressure on the ecosystem due to human activities and climate change. Protections are in place, with several marine protected areas in Skagerrak, including Ytre Hvaler National Park in Norway and Kosterhavet National Park in Sweden.

Name
The meaning of Skagerrak is most likely the Skagen Channel/Strait. Skagen is a town near the northern cape of Denmark (The Skaw). In Dutch, means 'straight waterway', as seen in Dutch hydronyms such as Damrak, Gouderak, Langerak, Tuikwerderrak, and Volkerak), cognate with . The ultimate source of this syllable is the Proto-Indo-European root *reg-, 'straight'. Rak means 'straight' as in 'straight ahead' in modern Norwegian and Swedish. Råk in both modern Norwegian and Swedish refers to a channel or opening of water in an otherwise ice-covered body of water. There is no evidence to suggest a connection with the modern Danish word rak (meaning rabble or riff-raff). It is therefore likely that the Skagerrak was named by Dutch seafarers, as was the adjacent Kattegat.

Geography

The Skagerrak is 240 km long and between 80 and 140 km wide. It deepens toward the Norwegian coast, reaching over 700 m at the Norwegian Trench. Some ports along the Skagerrak are Oslo, Larvik and Kristiansand in Norway, Skagen, Hirtshals and Hanstholm in Denmark and Uddevalla, Lysekil and Strömstad in Sweden.

The Skagerrak has an average salinity of 80 practical salinity units, which is very low, close to that of brackish water, but comparable to most other coastal waters. The area available to biomass is about 3600 km2 and includes a wide variety of habitats, from shallow sandy and stony reefs in Sweden and Denmark to the depths of the Norwegian trench.

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Skagerrak as follows:

On the West. A line joining Hanstholm (57.11667°N, 8.6°W) and the Naze (Lindesnes, 58°N, 7°W).

On the Southeast. The Northern limit of the Kattegat [A line joining Skagen (The Skaw, North Point of Denmark) and Paternosterskären (57.9°N, 11.45°W) and thence Northeastward through the shoals to Tjörn Island ].

History

Older names for the combined Skagerrak and Kattegat were the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea; the latter appears in the Knýtlinga saga.

Until the construction of the Eider Canal in 1784 (a predecessor to the Kiel Canal), Skagerrak was the only way in and out of the Baltic Sea. For this reason, the strait has had busy international traffic for centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, the traffic increased and today Skagerrak is among the busiest straits in the world. In 1862, a short cut, the Thyborøn Channel at the Limfjord was constructed in Denmark through Skagerrak from the North Sea by going directly to the Kattegat. The Limfjord supports only minor transports though.

In both world wars, the Skagerrak was strategically very important for Germany. The biggest sea battle of the First World War, the Battle of Jutland, also known as the Battle of the Skagerrak, took place here May 31 to June 1, 1916. In the Second World War, the importance of controlling this waterway, the only sea access to the Baltic, was the motive for the German invasions of Denmark and Norway as well as the construction of the northern parts of the Atlantic Wall. Both of these naval engagements have contributed to the large number of shipwrecks in the Skagerrak.

Traffic and industry

Skagerrak is a busy shipping lane, with c. 7,500 individual vessels (excluding fishing vessels) from all over the world visiting in 2013 alone. Cargo ships are by far the most common vessel in Skagerrak at c. 4,000 individual ships in 2013, followed by tankers, which are nearly half as frequent. When viewed in combination with the Baltic Sea area, ships from 122 different nationalities visited in 2013, with most of these carrying cargo or passengers within Europe, regardless of their flag state.

Nearly all commercial vessels in Skagerrak are tracked by the Automatic Identification System (AIS).

Recreation
Skagerrak is popular for recreational activities in all three countries. There are many summer house residences and several marinas along the coasts.

Biology
The Skagerrak is habitat for approximately 2,000 marine species, many of them adapted to its waters. For example, a variety of Atlantic cod called the Skagerrak cod spawns off the Norwegian coast. The eggs are buoyant and the hatchlings feed on zooplankton. Juveniles sink to the bottom where they have a shorter maturity cycle (2 years). They do not migrate but remain local to Norwegian fjords.

The variety of habitats and the large volume of plankton on the surface support prolific marine life. Energy moves from the top to the bottom according to Vinogradov's ladder of migrations; that is, some species are benthic and others pelagic, but there are graded marine layers within which species move vertically for short distances. In addition, some species are benthopelagic, moving between surface and bottom. The benthic species include Coryphaenoides rupestris, Argentina silus, Etmopterus spinax, Chimaera monstrosa and Glyptocephalus cynoglossus. On the top are Clupea harengus, Scomber scombrus, Sprattus sprattus. Some species that move between are Pandalus borealis, Sabinea sarsi, Etmopterus spinax.

Reefs

Apart from sandy and stony reefs, extensive cold water coral reefs, mostly of Lophelia, are growing in Skagerrak. The Säcken Reef in the Swedish marine protection of Koster Fjord is an ancient cold water coral reef and the only known coral reef in the country. The Tisler Reef in the Norwegian marine protection of Ytre Hvaler National Park is the largest known coral reef in Europe. Lophelia reefs are also present in the Norwegian trench and they are known from the shallow waters of many Norwegian fjords.

Skagerrak also holds a number of rare bubble reefs; biological reefs formed around cold seeps of geological carbohydrate outgassings, usually methane. These rare habitats are mostly known from the Danish waters of Skagerrak west of Hirtshals, but more might be discovered in future surveys. Bubbly reefs are very rare in Europe and supports a very varied ecosystem.

With the centuries-long heavy international seatraffic of Skagerrak, the seabed also holds an abundance of shipwrecks. Wrecks on shallow waters, provides a firm anchoring for several corals and polyps and explored wrecks have been revealed to support Dead Man's Fingers corals, Brittle stars and large wolffish. A 2020 seafloor mapping project around Jammerbugten in Skaggerak, ran by Danish explorer Klaus Thymann, found evidence of much greater biodiversity in a range seafloor habitats previously thought to be sandy with a low density of wildlife. Dead Man’s Fingers corals were again among the species documented for the first time in these coastal habitats.

Environmental concerns
Scientists and environmental institutions have expressed concern about the increasing pressure on the ecosystem in Skagerrak. The pressure has already had negative impacts and is caused by cumulative environmental effects, of which direct human activities are only one piece of the puzzle. Climate change and ocean acidification are expected to have increasing impacts on the Skagerrak ecosystem in the future.

Skagerrak and the North Sea receives considerable inputs of hazardous material and radioactive substances. Most is ascribed to long-range transport from other countries, but not all. Marine litter is also a growing problem. Until recently, waste water and sewage pouring into Skagerrak from settlements and industries was not treated at all. In combination with wash out of excessive nutrients from conventional farming, this has often led to large algae blooms.

Protections
There are several marine protections in Skagerrak, including:

 * Norway
 * Ytre Hvaler National Park, established on 26 June 2009
 * Raet National Park, established on 16 December 2016

 * Sweden
 * Kosterhavet National Park
 * Bratten, a newly designated 120,878.4 ha Natura 2000 sea area beyond Kosterhavet. Pockmarks and biogenic reefs at depths of 200 - 500 m.
 * Gullmarsfjorden, Sweden's first marine conservation area from 1983.

 * Denmark
 * Grenen and a 270,295 ha sea area immediately north.

In popular culture
Skaagerak is the setting of the popular television show Badehotellet from Denmark.

title: Skagerrak


text:
Talk:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories

Title of this article
Please check: Man-made origin of AIDS Last Bullet Point is "Toodle-Doo.". Check for Vandalism. h.mansour Jan 5th 2009

The current title is "AIDS origins opposed to scientific consensus". I find this title confusing and lacking on grammatical grounds.

I support the inclusion of all non-mainstream verifiable ideas/hypotheseses/theories here. I just want to find a clearer name - a shorter version of "AIDS origin beliefs that are outside the scientific consensus". "AIDS' origins outside scientific consensus"? "Origins of AIDS outside the scientific consensus"? "Origins of AIDS opposed to the scientific consensus" Others? SmithBlue (talk) 10:46, 19 December 2008 (UTC) The current title may be interpretted correctly but it requires too much of the naive reader. It assumes:
 * Although I agree the title is slightly cumbersome it surely is accurate as those theories not only are "outside the scientific consensus" but most definitely are "opposed to scientific consensus." Finding a succinct yet accurate title might be difficult. Nomen Nescio Gnothi seauton 10:59, 19 December 2008 (UTC)
 * That the reader can understand that the grammatically incorrect title means "Proposed origins of AIDS that are rejected by the scientific consensus around this topic".
 * That the reader understands that the beliefs in the article are not opposed to a generalised conception of "scientific consensus" but are rather rejected by the scientific consensus on this topic.

"Origins of AIDS rejected by the scientific consensus"? If we can say "opposed" without sources then "rejected" seems OK too? SmithBlue (talk) 11:50, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

Well, it was recently renamed to AIDS origins conspiracy theories by this edit. If its name stays like that then the coverage about the OPV hypothesis, Smallpox vaccine, African National Congress, and Duesberg hypothesis should be moved elsewhere, as they are merely wrong - not conspiracy theories. Open4D (talk) 15:49, 24 July 2010 (UTC)
 * But in terms of constructive suggestions for how to proceed, mine would actually be that the article content should be left the same, but that its name be changed (again) - this time to Non-consensus AIDS origin theories. Open4D (talk) 16:21, 24 July 2010 (UTC)

 * But they are conspiracy theories: the OPV'ers maintain that the government(s)/big pharma/whoever has/have covered up the true origin of AIDS; same with the smallpox people; Thabo Mbeki and his hangers-on stated variously that AIDS (or HIV, or AIDS medications or poverty mislabelled as AIDS) is a plot of racial extermination by whites/foreign governments/business interests; Duesberg implicates a vast international/scientific conspiracy (led, presumably by his former friend Gallo) in promoting purportedly shoddy science and suppressing his (non-research-based) findings. At their very core or somewhere near it, each of these is a conspiracy theory. Keepcalmandcarryon (talk) 22:09, 24 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Not according to our descriptions of them. The OPV hypothesis is described as a result of poor techniques in vaccine production, and I don't see any mention of a cover-up.  The smallpox stuff, I added; it seems to have been a genuinely held belief of some sensible people in its day and again does not describe any conspiracy.  If some people claim the polio/smallpox theories are true and also that there is now a coverup, perhaps their beliefs in the coverups count as conspiracy theories, but I don't see how that means that the actual underlying AIDS-origin theories themselves are conspiracy theories.
 * Thabo Mbeki "has argued that AIDS is the result of poverty, chronic disease, malnutrition and other environmental factors", according to the article. Later on there is talk about "the CIA and Western drug companies [trying to] increase sales", but that would be an AIDS commercial exploitation conspiracy theory, not an AIDS origin conspiracy theory.  I've never seen anything linking ANC/Mbeki with the kinds of things that Wangari Maathai now denies saying (genocide against Africans).
 * Duesberg blames recreational and anti-HIV drug use for AIDS. The closest I can find on his website to a conspiracy allegation is his claim that his "findings have been a thorn in the side of the medical establishment and drug companies since 1987. Instead of engaging in scientific debate, however, the only response has been to cut-off funding to further test Professor's Duesberg's hypothesis."  That doesn't sound like a conspiracy allegation to me.
 * Is there no grey area between the opposite extremes of the current scientific consesus vs. the conspiracy theories? Open4D (talk) 21:40, 25 July 2010 (UTC)

Has Hooper ever said that contamination of OPV vaccine was made intentionaly ? He never said that nor let it be understood that way : so, either his name should be erased from that article or the title of the article should be changed !Hooper's work has nothing to do with any sort of conspiracy ( even if some may have understood it so...may they be opponents or defendents ). If the choice would be to delete his name from this article, another place should have to be found to present - correctly- the hypothesis he is still defending ( and was not the only one to do so : late Pr Hamilton - for example - did help this hypothesis to be examined ) Trente7cinq (talk) 07:51, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Having found that Wikipedia(en) had a specific article dedicated to OPV AIDS hypothesis I am of opinion that Hooper's work should be erased from this page, which could thus still be named AIDS origins conspiracy theories. Consequently the introduction should be changed : for example "was the inadvertent result of experiments in the development of vaccines" would be useless. ( again if the title conspiracy is choosen, then why mention inadvertent actions ? Ever heard of inadvertent conspiracy ?Trente7cinq (talk) 15:36, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Disclaimer on non-scientific nature of the article
hey wikipedians

I note that the subheading "This article contains hypotheses not supported by scientific evidence. For current scientifically based hypotheses, see AIDS origin." seems rather unneccessary given both the title of the article and the first paragraph (both of which clearly delineate that position). This overemphasization smacks to me of bias against anything deemed 'non-scientific'. I think this warrants deletion of the aforementioned subheading. 206.223.190.7 (talk) 21:15, 30 January 2009 (UTC)
 * The sentences in question simply remind the reader that the hypotheses reviewed may not be scientifically accurate and then provide a link to an article with accurate information. As for bias, Wikipedia indeed has a bias in favor of verifiable information from reliable sources. Please review WP:V, WP:RS and WP:FRINGE for details. Keepcalmandcarryon (talk) 19:36, 31 January 2009 (UTC)

That is not my point. Obviously, Wikipedia strives to reflect the consensus position in its articles. I am saying that restating the same thing three times before the reader has finished reading 50 words is excessive (not to mention it reads poorly). 206.223.190.7 (talk) 23:08, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

Biological warfare hypothesis
Why isn't the US PATENT# 5,676,977 for the cure included in this portion? This is documented public information; and why was it deleted after I added it? The same was done with the US PATENT# 4,647,773, which is the US patent on the virus itself by Dr. Robert Gallo. I see no good reason why this information should be left out nor deleted. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Truthdotcom (talk • contribs) 10:53, 4 March 2012 (UTC)

Today, I have added this subsection under "Man-made or iatrogenic origins of AIDS". I found and photocopied the reference at the reference library of the State Capitol in Phoenix, AZ, about 14 years ago; I still have it. The chief witness before the subcommittee was Dr. Donald M. MacArthur, then Deputy Director Research and Technology, (DDR&E), in the office of the Secretary of Defense. To my knowledge, this material is not available online, so I shall provide a few short quotes:

At page 129, from written information provided to the committee by Dr. MacArthur:

“3. A research program to explore the feasibility of this could be completed in approximately 5 years at a total cost of $10 million. “4.      *    *    *
 * “2. Within the next 5 to 10 years, it would probably be possible to make a new infective microorganism which could differ in certain important aspects from any known disease-causing organisms. Most important of these is that it might be refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease.
 * “It is a highly controversial issue, and there are many who believe such research should not be undertaken lest it lead to yet another method of massive killing of large populations. On the other hand, without the sure scientific knowledge that such a weapon is possible, and an understanding of the ways it could be done, there is little that can be done to devise defensive measures. Should an enemy develop it there is little doubt that this is an important area of potential military technological inferiority in which there is no adequate research program.”

At page 121, Dr. MacArthur says, “…that there will be a worldwide scourge, or black death type disease that will envelop the world or major geographical areas if some of these materials were to accidentally escape. That could not possibly happen….”

I have not personally seen documentary proof that Congress approved the funding. My unfounded speculation is that, the pilot program proceeded and death-row inmates were used as test subjects. With no long-term follow up of test subjects, one or more of them were exonerated and released before they became symptomatic. All this might have even occurred before DOD went to Congress, giving them an opportunity to unwittingly take the blame for what had already been accidentally unleashed on the public. This hypothesis is compatible with some of the more synister plots which could have occurred later. The Strecker hypothesis is a reasonable descriptioGovernment programs whose funding ran out after a specified period have been known to shut down completely. n of how DOD's pilot project may have been undertaken. Onerock (talk) 23:54, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

My original post and reference were deleted anonymously; I regard this as vandalism, and I have restored them. Would the culprit please identifying yourself so we can discuss and resolve your objections. If you doubt my source, I suggest that you go to the nearest large repository of federal documents and verify it for yourself. Your state capital's library should have a copy. Onerock (talk) 21:53, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

 * What you are proposing is original research, which probably explains its deletion. You describe this as "unfounded speculation", which is putting it mildly. Does the document you photocopied make any reference to HIV or AIDS? Has any reliable source ever Government programs whose funding ran out after a specified period have been known to shut down completely. linked MacArthur's testimony to HIV/AIDS? If the answer to both questions is no, then I don't see how this belongs in an encyclopedia with our content policies. MastCell Talk 21:57, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

Citing and paraphrasing an unimpeachable public record is not "original research". Are you suggesting that an official government document is invalid without a link to a third party's citation of it? I seriously doubt that crediting that UFO magazine in which I originally heard of this document can add credence after I personally photocopied the original document at the State Capitol Research Library in Phoenix, AZ. If you doubt me, you can do the same. Unfortunately, I don't believe the minutes of congressional subcommittees are available online.

"Does the document you photocopied make any reference to HIV or AIDS?" If it did, that would prove it is a fake. In 1969, DOD announced to congress that it wanted to create HIV-AIDS, except they didn't call it that because those terms were not yet invented. The term HIV-AIDS accurately describes what DOD intended to create, despite the fact that they wanted it to be quick and non-contagious, and Dr. MacArthur did not specify that the agent was to be a virus.

My "unfounded speculation" in the talk section never appeared in the wiki article, so you cannot offer that as a reason to delete my addition to the article. It is not speculation to say DOD could not have known what they would get from the new science of molecular biology; they hadn't even invented the terms genetic engineering and recombinant DNA, yet. Nor am I speculating that the proposal to Congress made no mention of long-term follow up of test subjects. Government programs whose funding ran out after a specified period have been known to shut down completely. It is common sense that, without long-term follow up, a contagious disease with an incubation period of several years could have escaped. I am only speculating when I suggest that the inevitable may have actually happened.Onerock (talk) 23:34, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

 * OK. The material you seek to insert does not deal directly with HIV or AIDS. No reliable source links MacArthur's testimony to HIV/AIDS. The link between the testimony and HIV/AIDS appears in your posts, but not in reliable sources (at least, not in any that have been presented here). The edit therefore falls afoul of Wikipedia's prohibitions on original research and synthesis. MastCell Talk 23:43, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

No intelligent reader needs to be told by a “reliable source” that “… a new infective microorganism …. refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease” is related to HIV-AIDS. This quote from Dr. MacArthur is as good a description of HIV as could be expected at a time when neither the virus nor its name had been invented. Since my cite has been repeatedly removed along with the article, I repeat it here for the benefit of anyone who might want to enter the fray. Sudoc # Y4.Ap6/1:D36/5/970/part 6/ pp. 104-144Onerock (talk) 00:28, 15 September 2009 (UTC)

I combined this material with the Cantwell section, because he quotes it in his chapter on Biological Warfare as can be seen here This should suffice as a 'reliable source'! 119.92.125.233 (talk) 13:02, 15 September 2009 (UTC)

 * A self-published book does not suffice as a reliable source. I'm not sure that Cantwell should be mentioned in this article at all, but I will check to see if there are reliable sources describing his theories. Keepcalmandcarryon (talk) 22:02, 16 September 2009 (UTC)

AIDS developed by modern biology?
Should the passage below be added to the "Man-made or iatrogenic origins of AIDS" section?

Dr. John Seale of the Royal Society of Medicine had his memorandum quoted at length in the "Third Report from the Social Services Committee, Problems Associated with AIDS, Minutes of Evidence and Memoranda" which was an important investigation into AIDS, carried out in 1988 by the Social Services Committee of the House of Commons in the British Parliament.

Dr. Seale stated "Every biological scientist who has dispassionately studied the virus and the epidemic knows that the origins of the virus could lie in the development of modern biology, just as the origins of the nuclear bomb with modern physics." —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nmollo (talk • contribs) 12:30, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

timeline
i think this page would be much better and provide a much more thorough overview of what 'non-consentual' research has been done, when the different theory's would be in ordre of first publication, first anouncement. that way the ridiculous anti-african simian theory would more obviously show as a distraction to go with the "offical" racist explanation for aids etnoselectivity.24.132.171.225 (talk) 13:15, 5 October 2009 (UTC)
 * Do you mean "non-consensus", perhaps? Keepcalmandcarryon (talk) 20:02, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

goudsmit
as you probably all know the to-be consensual theory is : jaap goudsmit's. this is a synopsis for his "further" significance in viral research.:"" Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses or (offspring) that have unique characteristics. This is called reassortment or viral sex.[76]""

(from virusses wikipedia),the relevance for this page is that this is eaxctly the odd kind of theory that was needed to explain such a(n obviously) recombinant virus as aids. i really never have heard of research confirming this(76), except when it concerned other suspect recombinants. so yes for sars(is birdflue), aids, and h1n1, but no for every other virus that exists. that is most improbable and perhaps a thing people know of is disproven.24.132.171.225 (talk) 14:03, 5 October 2009 (UTC)
 * There is quite a bit of molecular research on retroviral recombination; how it's relevant to this article isn't clear. Keepcalmandcarryon (talk) 20:06, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

New report
AIDS is not anywhere from the 1930s, according to a new report. –  Ker αun oςc op ia◁ galaxies  15:13, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

Keraunoscopia|galaxies, the information you mention is most interresting Trente7cinq (talk) 07:39, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Hooper
I decided to delete the paragraph on Hooper according to what I wrote a few days ago ( cf section Title of this article)Trente7cinq (talk) 20:07, 15 October 2010 (UTC)

Article title
I see that this article has been renamed. Just about anything would be better than the old name, but I'm also not too sure about the new one. Firstly, I don't see why we need the words "overview of". All encyclopedia articles give an overview of their subject, so those words seem to be redundant. It also seems to use pretty tortuous English, even if not as tortuous as the previous name. Another issue is the capitalisation. How about the more fluent and correctly capitalised Discredited theories of the origin of AIDS? Phil Bridger (talk) 19:08, 1 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes, good point(s). I really like your suggestion, too. So I'll just go ahead and fix that, as well as the wikilink at Origin of AIDS... Sebastian Garth (talk) 20:03, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Late to the party, but "Discredited AIDS origins theories" would probably be best. No redundant "of" and "the" needed in title. Yobol (talk) 20:20, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I still think think that that seems like rather clumsy language. We are not newspaper headline writers with limited space, so we don't have to worry about making the title as short as possible.Phil Bridger (talk) 21:35, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Agreed that we don't have to have it short; but the current version seems clunkier to me than my suggestion. Either way, this is clearly a better title than the previous one. Yobol (talk) 21:50, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Bah - you're right; it's just too wordy. Phil, would you be opposed to changing it to "Discredited AIDS origins theories"? Or I'll just go ahead and change it - revert, if you care to... Sebastian Garth (talk) 22:05, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * It's not NPOV. Its true that Wikipedia gives more weight to mainstream than fringe views,but Wikipedia shouldn't pass judgement in its own voice.169.231.43.139 (talk) 01:45, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

Biased Title
This article contains hypotheses not supported by scientific evidence.

This leader is biased and I suggest that it be deleted. It imposes an opinion on the reader without allowing the reader to dispassionately and independently arrive at his or her own conclusion. It's almost like a desperate appeal to the reader to be "careful not to believe the contents of the article". The origin of Aids, contrary to "western scientific consensus", is a controversial issue.

Another suggestion is to change the title to "Alternative Theories of the Origin of Aids". The current title flagrantly violates the NPOV policy and imposes a bias in favour of "western scientific consensus" over what is still, in essence, a controversial topic. Many African scientists, for example, reject the "Monkey Origin" thesis and even go as far as describing it as racism disguised as scientific knowledge.

Scientific theorizing is not static. New bodies of evidence continuously emerge; old bodies of evidence are subject to constant scrutiny or reinterpretation as technology advances and new discoveries are made. Scientific evolution and improvement in knowledge, therefore, make it possible to validate a theory that was once ridiculed and dumped in the dustbin of history. Once upon a time, people were ridiculed and even persecuted for daring to suggest that the earth was round. Gregor Mendel's work in Genetics received recognition only many years after his death; he was ridiculed by the so-called mainstream scientific consensus of his day. In science, therefore, a theory is either validated or invalidated when confronted with evidence. A theory is only as good as the current evidence that supports it; evidence, that itself, is often subject to change. In scientific deduction, therefore, there is usually no room for definitive statements such as a theory being "true", "false", or "discredited". Hence, the title as it stands is not only biased, but also unscientific and unprofessional.--Campingtrip (talk) 09:29, 13 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes the statement is ridiculous when applied to some of the theories presented.
 * Of course there is scientific evidence for some of the theories. Many science journal published, peer reviewed articles.
 * The statement seems to be a misleading and poorly expressed attempt to state that "there is much stronger scientific evidence :showing that these hypotheses are incorrect than there is evidence showing that they are correct".
 * This dumbs down the readers of this article and reflects poorly on WP as an encyclopedia. :203.214.39.173 (talk) 02:11, 23 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Actually no, for most (all?) of those theories there is little to no evidence. Yes they have been published (some times even peer reviewed), but were mainly speculative and their evidence did not hold up under closer inspection and hence they were disregarded by the scientific community at large. Note while "peer reviewed" is an important quality criteria for sources and helps to restrict inaccurate information, but it not fail safe. There is plenty of completely false and subsequent disregarded material, that was peer reviewed published at some time. That why journals publish errata and why one needs to consider published reviews and follow up articles on the subject rather than only looking at peer reviwed status of the original publication. Having said that, i have no objection against a title change, to a version sounding somewhat neutral. May argument/objection concerns the actual description within the article and we cannot create the misleading impression, that those theories are "equally valid" alternatives, which are still seriously considered by the scientific community, because they are not.--Kmhkmh (talk) 03:11, 25 November 2012 (UTC)

There is very little evidence to back up ANY of the theories regarding the origins of AIDS. By your immaculate logic, we shuold dump every theory under this category. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.14.169.30 (talk) 12:02, 16 October 2013 (UTC)

Scientific "consensus"??
That's an oxymoron, if I ever heard one. Who writes this crap? Science isn't done by "consensus", as any high school student learns — or should have learned. It's done by hypothesis --> experiment --> theory, and then the theory is published and tested, tested, tested by others to try to find flaws in it. There is no "consensus". "Consensus" only applies to politics, not science. — QuicksilverT @ 23:22, 24 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Well, apparently scientists write this "crap". Yobol (talk) 23:36, 24 August 2012 (UTC)
 * "Scientific consensus" is not a description of how science is done, but a description of result which are overwhelmingly agreed upon in the scientific community at a certain point of time. Such a classification is an important important context information an encyclopedia often needs to provide to readers to avoid conveying a misleading impression that a description of a dissenting minority or even some total fringe represents a widely accepted theory.--Kmhkmh (talk) 03:00, 25 November 2012 (UTC)
 * P.S.: In this context the recent edits were somewhat problematic. First of all they are somewhat unsourced editorializing, but more important the editorializing seems to appear like an attempt to discredit the widely accepted theory of the Aids origin and misrepresent the various theories as "equally likely" alternatives.--Kmhkmh (talk) 03:00, 25 November 2012 (UTC)

What does that even mean in this context? Scientific consensus is linked. The whole issue of what the word "fact" means in a scientific context is a battle for the philosophers of science. What's it doing here, in the lead of the article? And how does it connect with any of the content? Guettarda (talk) 15:24, 18 December 2012 (UTC)
 * This is not really the article to be discussing the nature of "scientific consensus". Furthermore, Wikipedia has several guidelines for articles such as this. We use reliable sources (see: also WP:Identifying reliable sources (medicine))and do not add our own commentary or opinions. We must maintain a neutral point of view, without giving equal validity to fringe sources or claims. --Harizotoh9 (talk) 18:53, 20 December 2012 (UTC)

Enzyme damage origin theory
I came across a purported cause of AIDS from the following article:
 * MN Republican bases economic agenda on theory that sperm enzymes in anus causes AIDS by David Edwards published 10 July 2014 by RawStory.com

This article alleges that Bob Frey (a Republican candidate for the Minnesota House of Representatives) stated that:
 * AIDS was caused by sperm enzymes entering the anus of another male

In addition to this paraphrasing it attributes a direct quote to him:
 * “When you have egg and sperm that meet in conception, there’s an enzyme in the front that burns through the egg. The enzyme burns through so the DNA can enter the egg.”

Although it lists "an" enzyme (singular) I am aware of two mentioned on Wikipedia that could be candidates for the topic that Frey is allegedly referring to. These being:
 * Hyaluronidase that digests hyaluronan on the radiata (outer layer)
 * Acrosin that breaks down the glycoproteins composing the zona pellucida (inner layer)

Our acrosome reaction article mentions that the acrosome includes:
 * "surface antigens and numerous enzymes which are responsible for breaking through the egg's tough coating"

The term "numerous" confuses me, a term like this implies more than two. Does anyone know any enzymes besides acrosin and hyaluronidase which are contained within the acrosome and used to burn through the egg coating?

Anyway, I am wondering if anyone knows any other cases of this sperm-enzyme-cause of AIDS. I don't see a section on it here. Is it possible that enough notable people have advocated such a theory that it would be considered notable enough to cover on this page? Does additional information exist such as who gave the idea to Frey, and if the enzyme(s) alleged to cause AIDS have been specifically named?

I found an additional reference, which was linked to in the one above, from the day prior:
 * Minnesota House candidate makes AIDS, 'Gay Agenda' campaign issues by Cyndy Brucato published 9 July 2014 by MinnPost.com

It elaborates with a longer quote attributed to Frey:
 * “If the sperm is deposited anally, it's the enzyme that causes the immune system to fail. That’s why the term is AIDS – acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.”

The problem of non-specificity still exists. It says "the enzyme" but since there is more than one enzyme responsible for breaking down the egg's outer wall, it's not clear which enzyme this cause is being attributed to. If there was consistency about that, a section on the page could be named after the enzyme.

Brucato of MinnPost goes on to say that this is linked to an earlier discussion:
 * This explanation of AIDS .. is essentially the same one given by Bob's son, Mike Frey, in testimony given before the House Civil Law Committee last year during the debate over gay marriage.

A YouTube video (uploaded 12 March 2013, also the date appearing on the video) is linked in association with this which is 2 minutes 43 seconds long. I will link to the relevant part where he makes the claim, at the 53 second point. Here is roughly what he says (he mumbles a bit and skips around):

 * When ejaculation occurs inside of a colon, it's highly aborbant material, the cells do not have a barrier for the sperm, and those enzymes enter the bloodflow.
 * When the enzymes enter the bloodflow and continue along. the environment, if that happens, these enzymes in the bloodflow causes what we know as AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
 * AIDS of course brings common diseases, colds, and things, and it magnifies them to the point where it's unhealthy.
 * Not only does it strengthen the disease within the carrier of AIDS, the person with the destroyed immune system, but it also strengthens the disease that can be spread to society at large.
 * There's an example in Los Angeles country in California where among the gay community, a rash, almost like boils, very raw skin, broke out on the hands, feet, mouth, butt of these gay communities, and they couldn't find a cure for it for a long time.
 * These doctors called the Center for Disease Control and they couldn't find this cure for it. The cure they found, a very strenuous antibiotic, was Zybox, it cost 2400 dollars for one course of use.
 * I urge you to vote against the changes inside this bill because it's going to put a health risk to society at large...

I did Mike a few favors in making this sound a bit more legible since when he pauses to collect his thoughts he often repeats a term or conjugates a verb properly and so forth, but that's the gist of it.

So controversy has been generated from this theory spanning from March 2013 with Mike Frey to July 2014 with Bob Frey, that is a year and 3 months of this theory being propogated by the Freys, so it seems notable enough to me to cover to some level on this page.

Would any other burdens of notability need to be fulfilled here? Does anyone know if anyone else (particularly prior to 2013, as I haven't backtraced it past Mike's speech) promoting this cause theory?

I'm interested in example, in which enzyme is alleged by proponents to do this, and how specifically that enzyme in the bloodstream is supposed to hamper immune function. Do they think the enzyme would damage white blood cells or something? Ranze (talk) 09:11, 29 July 2014 (UTC)

 * Welcome! First off, the help you provided Frey & Frey is unfortunately not usable, per WP:NOR. The rest doesn't really qualify as a "theory" in any meaningful sense, and the adherents are not independently notable (the Bob Frey you linked is a different person) at this time. That leaves this guy's viewpoint as little more than "shit some unelected candidate said about AIDS," which IMHO does not merit inclusion. VQuakr (talk) 04:02, 30 July 2014 (UTC)

One possibility left out - A created theory with no real content
One possibility seems left out from the article and it is the fact that the theory itself is without underlying reality, i.e., that one has come to describe a phenomenon beyond reality and failed to see it for real such as describing leukemia as HIV/AIDS instead. As such this constitutes a created theory with no real content. What say you, should we include this aspect, one out of Philosophy of Science or the science lesson itself. Bye. 85.165.44.101 (talk) 15:18, 19 August 2014 (UTC)
 * This is covered in the second sentence of the article: "Alternative theories regarding the hidden origin—accidental or intentional—of HIV/AIDS must be distinguished from AIDS denialism, which is the view of those who deny that HIV is the cause of AIDS." The sentence links to the relevant article on denialism. VQuakr (talk) 05:00, 22 August 2014 (UTC)

Hooper
The article does not accurately state his theory, and references alleged contrary evidence that is plainly irrelevant. I know that it is common to cite to this evidence in addressing Hooper's theory, but that does not give it any weight.

Hooper did not argue that the original vaccines were contaminated. Those were used in the Congo to manufacture at the facility in the Congo the hundreds of thousands of doses then distributed locally for the trials. It would not have been feasible to make all the vaccines in the US or Europe from the initial samples, and then ship them all to Africa for use. What is known is thay kidney tissue from wild African chimps was used as the substrate to grow many doses from the samples sent to Africa. That is when the SIV contamination occurred, and it is highly probable such contamination did occur.

The referenced samples that still exist and were found free of such contamination were from the original vaccines that were delivered to the Congo. There are no surviving samples of the vaccines subsequently produced in the Congo. It is irrelevant and false to point to preserved initial vaccines that were contaminate free when the theory is that the contamination occurred later when those vaccine samples were mass produced in the Congo.

The theory also explains the simultaneous occurrence of HIV2 in West Africa since the tissues of the sooty mangabey were also used as a substrate for local manufacture of vaccine trials conducted there.

Hooper has never claimed that his theory was proven, nor that it was the sole possible cause for HIV. But do not cite bogus evidence as allegedly disproving it. Dmbeaster (talk) 21:33, 11 January 2016 (UTC)
 * This theory can not be true by many reasons. Among them: HIV appeared well before the OPV was invented, and HIV is not transmitted orally. Ruslik_ Zero 20:45, 12 January 2016 (UTC)

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