text:
Holyhead

Holyhead ( Caergybi, "Cybi's fort") is the largest town and a community in the county of Isle of Anglesey, Wales, with a population of 13,659 at the 2011 census. (including all of Holy Island). Holyhead is on Holy Island, bounded by the Irish Sea to the north, and is separated from Anglesey island by the narrow Cymyran Strait and was originally connected to Anglesey via the Four Mile Bridge.

In the mid-19th century, Lord Stanley, a local philanthropist, funded the building of a larger causeway, known locally as "The Cobb", it now carries the A5 and the railway line. The A55 dual carriageway runs parallel to the Cobb on a modern causeway.

The town houses the Port of Holyhead, a major Irish Sea port for connections towards Ireland. The population as of the 2021 census was 12,084, an increase on the 2011 census.

Etymology
The town's English name, Holyhead, has existed since at least the 14th century. As is the case with many coastal parts of Wales, the name in English is significantly different from its name in Welsh. It refers to the holiness of the locality and has taken the form Haliheved, Holiheved, Le Holyhede and Holy Head in the past. The Welsh name, Caergybi, derives from the fortification around which the town developed. The locality was known by such names as Karkeby ('seat of Cybi'), Castro Kyby ('the fortified military camp of Cybi'), and Kaer Gybi (Cybi's resting place).

Prior to the influence of the fort on the name, the hamlets which came before it were likely known as Llan y Gwyddel ('church/parish of the Irish') and Eglwys y Beddi ('church of the graves').

Prehistoric and Roman history
Holyhead Old Town is built around St. Cybi's Church, which is built inside one of Europe's few three-walled Roman forts (the fourth boundary being the sea, which used to come up to the fort). The Romans also built a watchtower on the top of Holyhead Mountain inside Mynydd y Twr, a prehistoric hillfort.

Settlements in the area date from prehistoric times, with circular huts, burial chambers and standing stones featuring in the highest concentration in Britain. The current lighthouse is on South Stack on the other side of Holyhead Mountain.

Soldiers Point Hotel, located near the breakwater park in Holyhead, was first established in 1848. The residence of an engineer was in charge of the government-sponsored alterations to Holyhead Harbour being carried out. It was badly damaged in a fire in 2011.

Port

In the early nineteenth century, it was still undecided which port would be chosen as the primary sea link along the route from London to Dublin: Porthdinllaen, on the Llŷn Peninsula, or Holyhead in Anglesey. In May 1806, a parliamentary bill approved new buildings in Porthdinllaen when it seemed that the town would be chosen. Porthdinllaen was almost as far west as Holyhead, but Holyhead was more accessible because of Thomas Telford's road developments. Porthdinllaen Harbour Company was formed in 1808 in preparation, but the bill before Parliament to constitute Porthdinllaen as a harbour for Irish trade was rejected in 1810.

Holyhead's maritime importance was at its height in the 19th century with a 1+3/4 mi sea breakwater. Holyhead Breakwater, built to create a safe harbour for vessels caught in stormy waters on their way to Liverpool and the industrial ports of Lancashire, is the longest breakwater in the UK.

Road
The post road built by Thomas Telford from London strengthened Holyhead's position as the port from which the Royal Mail was dispatched to and from Dublin on the Mail coach. The A5 terminates at Admiralty Arch (1822–24), which was designed by Thomas Harrison to commemorate a visit by King George IV in 1821 en route to Ireland and marked the zenith of Irish Mail coach operations. Holy Island and Anglesey are separated by the Cymyran Strait which used to be crossed on the Four Mile Bridge; so called, because the bridge was 4 mi from Holyhead on the old turnpike.

Railway
With the opening of the railway from London to Liverpool, Holyhead lost the London-Dublin mail contract in 1839 to the Port of Liverpool. Only after the completion of the Chester & Holyhead Railway in 1850, and the building of Holyhead railway station, did the Irish Mail return to Holyhead, operated from London Euston by the London & North Western Railway.

Transport
The Port of Holyhead is a busy ferry port. Stena Line, Northern Europe's biggest ferry company, operates from the port, as do Irish Ferries. Ferries sail to Dublin.

Holyhead railway station is the terminus of the North Wales Coast Line and is currently served by Avanti West Coast and Transport for Wales services. Avanti West Coast runs direct trains to London Euston via Crewe and Transport for Wales operate direct trains to Cardiff and Birmingham International, via Wrexham and Shrewsbury; they also operate on the route to Manchester Piccadilly, via Warrington.

The rail and ferry terminals are connected (for pedestrians and cyclists) to the town centre by The Celtic Gateway bridge.

The Stanley Embankment, or The Cob, connects Anglesey and Holy Island. It carries the North Wales Coast Line railway and the A5 road. The embankment was designed and built by Thomas Telford. When the A5 was being constructed between London and the Port of Holyhead, a more direct route was needed. Construction started in 1822 and was completed a year later. It gets its formal name after John Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley, a significant local benefactor.

In 2001, work was completed on the extension of the A55 North Wales Expressway from the Britannia Bridge to Holyhead, giving the town a dual carriageway connection to North Wales and the main British motorway network. The A55 forms part of Euroroute E22. The Anglesey section was financed through a Private Finance Initiative scheme.

Local bus services are provided primarily by Arriva Buses Wales, who operate services around Anglesey and to Bangor.

Industry
Until September 2009, Holyhead's main industry was the massive aluminium smelter on the outskirts of the town, operated by Anglesey Aluminium, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto. A large jetty in the harbour received ships from Jamaica and Australia, and their cargoes of alumina were transported on a rope-driven conveyor belt running underneath the town to the plant. The jetty is now available to dock visiting cruise ships.

The plant relied for its electricity supply on Wylfa nuclear power station, near Cemaes Bay. However, Wylfa was reaching the end of its life and had permission to generate only until 2012. On 18 October 2010, the British government announced that Wylfa was one of the eight sites it considered suitable for future nuclear power stations.

Holyhead Port is a major employer, most of the jobs linked to ferry services to the Republic of Ireland operated by Stena and Irish Ferries. Other significant industrial/transport sector employers in Holyhead include Holyhead Boatyard, Gwynedd Shipping and Eaton Electrical, with the last of these having seen many job losses in 2009.

Until the end of 2020 the port, which employs 250 (in 2021), was the second busiest roll-on roll-off port in the UK after Dover with around 450,000 lorries taking ferries to Dublin. Following the Brexit withdrawal agreement, freight traffic from Ireland fell by 50% in January 2021.

Climate
Like the rest of Wales and the British Isles, Holyhead has a maritime climate (Cfb according to the Köppen climate classification) with cool summers and mild winters, and often high winds exacerbated by its location by the Irish Sea. The nearest official weather observation station is at RAF Valley, about 5 mi southeast of the town centre.

On 23 November 1981, Holyhead was struck by two tornadoes during the record-breaking 1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak. One of the tornadoes, rated as an F2/T4 tornado, was the strongest recorded out of 104 tornadoes in the entire outbreak, causing damage to around 20 properties in Holyhead and destroying a mobile home.

Governance

Holyhead Town Council, which is based at Holyhead Town Hall, is the town's community council, comprising sixteen councillors elected from the seven community electoral wards. For elections to the Isle of Anglesey County Council, the Caergybi electoral ward covers the majority of Holyhead and elects three county councillors every four years. In May 2017 the ward elected a Labour Party candidate and two Independents.

Notable people

 * Captain John Macgregor Skinner (1761–1832) moved to Holyhead from the US in 1793. Master on packet ships between Holyhead and Dublin but was washed overboard. The town erected an obelisk in his honour and his house is an exhibit at the Holyhead Maritime Museum.
 * John Walpole Willis (1793–1877), a Welsh-born judge, and a judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales
 * Sir Ralph Champneys Williams (1848–1927) colonial governor of the Windward Islands & Newfoundland.
 * Lillie Goodisson (1860–1947), a Welsh Australian nurse and a pioneer of family planning in New South Wales
 * Francis Dodd (1874–1949), a British portrait painter, landscape artist and printmaker
 * John Russell (1893–1917) winner of the Victoria Cross, was born in the town
 * Ceinwen Rowlands (1905–1983), a Welsh concert soprano and recording artist
 * R. S. Thomas (1913–2000), a Welsh poet and Anglican priest poet, grew up in Holyhead
 * Cledwyn Hughes, Baron Cledwyn of Penrhos (1916–2001) MP & politician; attended Ysgol Uwchradd Caergybi
 * Barbara Margaret Trimble (1921–1995) a British writer of over 20 crime, thriller and romance novels
 * David Crystal (born 1941) linguist and chair of the charity behind Holyhead's Ucheldre Centre, lives in Holyhead
 * Glenys Kinnock (born 1944) a politician, MEP, educated at Holyhead High School
 * Dawn French (born 1957) comedian and actress, co-star in French and Saunders
 * Albert Owen (born 1959) politician, MP for Ynys Môn from 2001 to 2019.
 * Kevin Johnson (born 1960) is a managing partner at Medicxi Ventures, a venture capital firm
 * Jason Evans (born 1968), a Welsh photographer and lecturer on photography
 * Ben Crystal (born 1977), an English actor, author, and producer brought up in the town
 * Gareth Williams (1978–2010) worked for GCHQ and SIS died in suspicious circumstances

Sport

 * Donough O'Brien (1879–1953), was a Welsh-born Irish cricketer.
 * Ray Williams (born 1959), is a weightlifting Commonwealth Games gold medallist.
 * Tony Roberts (born 1969), is Welsh international footballer with 614 club caps
 * Gareth Evans (born 1986), weightlifter, Commonwealth gold medalist and 2012 Summer Olympics, lives in the town.
 * Alex Lynch (born in 1995), a footballer with over 100 club caps, educated in Ysgol Uwchradd Caergybi.

Culture and sport
Holyhead's arts centre, the Ucheldre Centre, is located in the chapel of an old convent belonging to the order of the Bon Sauveur. It holds regular art exhibitions, performances, workshops and film screenings. Holyhead Library is located in the old market hall. The Holyhead Maritime Museum is housed in what is claimed to be Wales's oldest lifeboat house. The lifeboat station was established in 1828. The 1927 National Eisteddfod was held in the town. Holyhead High School (previously County Secondary school) was the first comprehensive school in the UK.

According to the United Kingdom Census 2001, 47% of the residents in the town can speak Welsh. The highest percentage of speakers is in the 15-year-old age group, of whom 66% can speak the language. According to the 2011 Census, of those in the community who were born in Wales, 52.2% of the population could speak Welsh.

The town's main football team is called Holyhead Hotspur, and they play in the Cymru North, the second tier of Welsh football, with their reserves playing in the Gwynedd League. Caergybi F.C. plays in the sixth tier Anglesey League. Holyhead Sailing Club provides members with facilities for sailing and kayaking with swinging moorings, a dinghy park and a clubhouse with a restaurant and bar. It is on Newry Beach in the historic port of Holyhead. Holyhead & Anglesey Amateur Boxing Club was founded on 1 April 2012, located in Vicarage Lane, Holyhead. The club is open to anyone over the age of 10, having a class for male and female trainees. Holyhead's cliffs are used for coasteering, a water sport which involves jumping off cliffs at different heights. Holyhead is the start and finish point of the Anglesey Coastal Path.

Holyhead was officially twinned with Greystones, County Wicklow on 20 January 2012, and this is celebrated on a new road sign.

title: Holyhead


text:
Songhua River

The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, Сунгари Sungari) is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about 1,897 km from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeastern Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces.

The river drains 557,180 km2 of land, and has an annual discharge of 76.2 km3/year to 81.77 km3/year.

The extreme flatness of the Northeast China Plain has caused the river to meander over time, filling the wide plain with oxbow lakes, as remnants of the previous paths of the river.

Geography
The Songhua rises south of Heaven Lake, near the China-North Korea border.

From there it flows north, to be interrupted by the Baishan, Hongshi and Fengman hydroelectric dams. The Fengman Dam forms a lake that stretches for 62 km. Below the dam, the Second Songhua flows north through Jilin, then northwest until it is joined by its largest tributary, the Nen River, near Da'an, to create the Songhua proper.

The Songhua turns east through Harbin, and after the city, it is joined from the south by the Ashi River, and then by the Hulan River from the north.

A new dam was constructed in 2007 near Bayan (50 km northeast of Harbin), creating the Dadingshan Reservoir, which is named after the scenic area on the south bank.

The river flows onward through Jiamusi and south of the Lesser Xing'an Range, to eventually join the Amur at Tongjiang, Heilongjiang.

The river freezes from late November until March. It has its highest flows when the mountain snow melts during the spring thaw. The river is navigable up to Harbin by medium-sized ships. Smaller craft can navigate the Songhua up to Jilin and the Nen River up to Qiqihar.

Cities along the river include:
 * Jilin
 * Harbin
 * Jiamusi

History
In November 2005, the river was contaminated with benzene, leading to a shutdown of Harbin's water supply. The spill stretched 80 km and eventually reached the Amur (Heilong) River on the China–Russia border. On July 28, 2010, several thousand barrels from two chemical plants in China's Jilin City were washed away by floods. Some of them contained 170 kg of explosive material like trimethylsilyl chloride and hexamethyldisiloxane. In 2016, the part near the city of Jilin was affected by a minor flood.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Songhua River


text:
Talk:London Borough of Enfield

Disambiguation
Is this Enfield the same as Enfield, Middlesex? --Una Smith (talk) 05:12, 3 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, although it should be noted that this article is obviously about the borough (the area including all of these places), rather than just Enfield Town (after which the borough is named). Dark-Fire (talk) 07:30, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * That helps, thanks. I have been disambiguating links to Enfield (a disambiguation page).  Most relate to London Borough of Enfield but there are many others.  --Una Smith (talk) 15:47, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

This page states that strongholds were built by people loyal to King Alfred in the 790s. Alfred was born in 848; the strongholds were built in the 890s.

81.111.91.183 (talk) 09:12, 11 February 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:London Borough of Enfield


text:
Talk:André-Marie Ampère

Defender of Ampère
It seems discussion board has been erased many times, after my attempts to rever vandals over here about this french scientist, i urge to wikipedians to keep an eye on this article. HappyApple 03:16, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

Sulphric vadiliumoxide?
What on earth is "sulphric vadiliumoxide"?? Even Google doesn't know. I also tried several alternatives in case it was a typo. Tommix 22:16, 02 October 2005 (CET)

 * Some anon added that a while ago. I removed it.  Pfalstad 17:35, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

Birth date
Ampère's birth date according to this article is January 20, 1775. However, it appears on the January 22 page and not the January 20 page. (It also says it's the 22nd on the 1775 page.) I Googled it, and results were mixed. If anybody knows which date is correct, they should fix this. - PollyClaire 23:07, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I added a reference for January 20, but I note that Ampère's gravestone says January 21! This needs further investigation. There may be a simple explanation.  Maybe not. - Astrochemist (talk) 01:09, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

 * A. was BORN on January, 20, and BAPTIZED on January 22. Just have a look at his certificate :  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.199.143.55 (talk) 11:54, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

According to Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia the date is 22 the of Jan. (also the article 1775) Nedim Ardoğa (talk) 18:55, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

SI unit?
The introduction says:

"The SI unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere, is named after him."

What does "SI" mean? This may be a term widely known in physics but to it's unlikely to be known to the general reader. - 82.40.178.167 10:11, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I linked the reference to the SI article, which claims that it is "the world's most widely used system of units,". I hope that helps. --Pdpinch 06:17, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

Content change
I removed the final fragment of a sentence at the very end. It has been there for 5 years, but it makes no sense. Was it something taken only in part from the original article, in the 1911 Encyclopedia Brittanica? -- Astrochemist 20:03, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Which "Academy"? The Royal Academy?
The article contains the following text:

"Only a week later, on 18 September, Ampère presented a paper to the Academy containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. On the same day, Ampère also demonstrated before the Academy that parallel wires carrying currents attract or repel each other (depending on whether currents are in the same (attraction) or in opposite directions (repulsion))."

However, nowhere in the article is a reference revealing WHAT "academy" the article is talking about. I presume (but have not verified) that it is The French Academy of Sciences, but this should be spelled out at least once in the article before referring to it as "the Academy". —Preceding unsigned comment added by Gomez Addams (talk • contribs) 16:29, 28 March 2009 (UTC)

Better picture?
I was looking at Portraits_from_the_Dibner_Library_of_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology and saw that there were better images of André-Marie Ampère linked from there. Here's the two I like, I think the first is nicer. Someone want to double-check on the copyright and add one to the André-Marie Ampère page? (or replace the existing picture with it?) They should be public domain.

http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-A4-05a.jpg

http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-A4-04a.jpg

Best, JasonWoof (talk) 00:11, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I uploaded a new one to Wikimedia (with lots of sources) and changed the picture on this page just now. - Astrochemist (talk) 15:53, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

Ampère or Ampèretti ?
Just wondering about the signature, it says "A.Ampèretti".

Johan Burati (talk) 11:00, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

 * It doesn't look like that to me. It looks more like he has appended "H:" or "++:" to the signature, but I can't explain it.  Spinning  Spark  08:30, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

Mental Calculator ?
He is listed as a mental calculator is this accurate from fully verified sources?--Iamnofool6 (talk) 00:15, 12 February 2014 (UTC)
 * yes  Spinning Spark  08:16, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

Trivia
Is there any evidence for the asserted death bed request? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jhofmann3104 (talk • contribs) 02:04, 8 June 2014 (UTC)
 * There are plenty of book sources saying that he chose the epitaph. Don't know about on his deathbed.   The photographs at Find a Grave don't seem to show that wording, but the plaque looks like a modern replacement or it might just not be visible.  Spinning  Spark  08:14, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

Can you give an example of these sources for the request? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jhofmann3104 (talk • contribs) 19:20, 9 June 2014 (UTC)
 * Is there some reason you can't follow the link and see them for yourself.  Spinning Spark  21:29, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

What did he do re galvanometer development.
Galvanometer says " André-Marie Ampère also contributed to its development." but not explained in this article. - Rod57 (talk) 14:37, 25 November 2015 (UTC)

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this article needs more references
There are numerous paragraphs in the article that do not have any citations at all. Specifically, in the following sections: Please do not remove the maintenance tag until these have been addressed. Thanks. — howcheng  {chat} 23:16, 7 June 2017 (UTC)
 * Early life (entire section)
 * French Revolution (only one footnote in section)
 * Teaching career (1st and 3rd paras)
 * Work in electromagnetism (1st and 2nd paras)

his fathers execution date in 1793
The article says Nov 24, 1793.

But

https://books.google.at/books?id=1YDrMFug17cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=Jean-Jacques+Ampère+executed+in+Lyon+1793&source=bl&ots=-tIzMmmgO_&sig=bbTKjdH64u3GkugN_9QTyzfer7M&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiig_vltsPVAhXBbFAKHcMcAZwQ6AEIRDAE#v=onepage&q=Jean-Jacques%20Ampère%20executed%20in%20Lyon%201793&f=false

says Nov 23, 1793. --Helium4 (talk) 20:30, 6 August 2017 (UTC)

Possible plagiarism
The section concerning his work on electromagnetism reads a lot like the corresponding article from the Encyclopedia Britannica. Nerd271 (talk) 18:43, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

I agree, and also, the electromagnetism section seems to be relying on only a single source. SwampedEssayist (talk) 15:19, 20 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:André-Marie Ampère


text:
Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet

A Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed on 11 January 1913 (corresponding to 29 December 1912 of the Julian calendar), at Urga (now Ulaanbaatar).

This treaty's text in Mongolian was published by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 1982, and in 2007 an original copy in Tibetan language and script surfaced from Mongolian archives. There have been questions about the authority of a Tibetan negotiator, Dorjiev, to conclude such a treaty, being he was both a Russian subject and ethnically Buryat.

Treaty's signing and validity
During the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty, both Tibet and Outer Mongolia declared their formal independence from China under theocratic heads of states, and both had had no success in gaining official recognition from the Republic of China. In the treaty signed on 11 January 1913, Mongolia and Tibet declared mutual recognition and allegiance. Both sides declared mutual relationships based on the "Yellow religion" (Gelug sect of Buddhism), obliged to provide aid each other against "internal and external enemies", declared free trade etc.(see for facsimile of Mongolian and Tibetan originals and for comments to text). The Mongolian representatives signing the treaty were foreign minister Da Lama Ravdan and commander-in-chief Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren. The Tibetan representatives who signed this document were Dalai Lama's representative Agvan Dorjiev, a Buryat, i.e. subject of Russia, and Tibetan officials in Mongolia: Ngawang Choizin, Yeshe Gyatso and Gendun Kalsang. There existed some doubts to the validity of this treaty: the 13th Dalai Lama denied that he had authorized Dorjiev to negotiate political issues. It was supposed more important that neither the cleric nor the Tibetan government appeared to have ever ratified the treaty. Nevertheless, such ratification in that time monarchic Mongolia and Tibet was not necessary.

The Russian government maintained that, as a Russian subject, Dorjiev could not possibly act in a diplomatic capacity on behalf of the Dalai Lama. Nevertheless, before signing the treaty, Dorjiev met in Mongolia I. Ya. Korostovets, Russian plenipotentiary in Urga, and told him that Tibet wants to come in treaties with Mongolia and Russia. Korostovets, having mentioned that "Khlakha (Outer Mongolia) had just declared its independence, recognized by Russia", had no objections against conclusion of treaty between Mongolia and Tibet, but he was against a treaty of Tibet with Russia

According to the 14th Dalai Lama, this treaty was signed under the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama.

There are data that the treaty signed by Russia with Mongolia in 1912 (i.e. before signing the treaty with Tibet) meant international recognition of Mongolia as a state which was not required a sanction from a third side; as a result, the treaty between Tibet and Mongolia is considered as de jure recognition of Tibet as a state.

In any case, the independence of both Tibet and Mongolia continued being unrecognized in international law although Russia and the United Kingdom continued to recognize at least the suzerainty of the Republic of China over these areas. Russia and the UK were more comfortable with formally recognizing China's suzerainty and keeping an ambivalent position towards Mongolia and Tibet's independence. In addition, there was also a concern among Russia and UK that recognizing Tibetan or Mongolian independence would allow those areas to come under the other power's influence, respectively, a situation which all concerned believed to be worse than a situation in which those areas were nominally under the control of a weak China.

Aftermath
News of the treaty aroused considerable suspicion amongst the British negotiators at the Simla Convention, who feared that Russia might use the treaty to gain influence on Tibetan matters. While China ultimately did not sign the Simla Convention, a similar treaty, the tripartite Treaty of Kyakhta, was signed by Mongolia, the Republic of China and Russia on 25 May 1915. The agreement affirmed Mongolia's complete autonomy in internal matters and Russian privileges in Mongolia, and at the same time formally recognized China's suzerainty over the country.


text:
Flamingo, Monroe County, Florida

Flamingo is the southernmost headquarters of Everglades National Park, in Monroe County, Florida, United States. Flamingo is one of the two end points of the 99-mile (159-km) Wilderness Waterway (with another end point at Gulf Coast Visitor Center in the Everglades City), and the southern end of the only road (running 39.3 mi ) through the park from Florida City. It began as a small coastal settlement on the eastern end of Cape Sable on the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, facing Florida Bay. The actual town of Flamingo was located approximately $4 1/2$ miles west of the current Flamingo campground area. All that remains of the former town are a few remnants of building foundations, and it is considered a ghost town.

Early years
Flamingo was first settled circa 1892, although Tequesta Indians had lived in the area prior to that. The settlers made a living by providing fish, fresh vegetables and charcoal to Key West.

The settlement received its name in 1893 when the settlers had to choose a name for their new post office. They chose the flamingo as it was the most distinctive bird seen in the area. While the flamingo did not breed in Florida, birds from Cuba and the Bahamas once traveled in large numbers to the area. Flamingos were last seen in large numbers in the area in 1902. The post office closed in 1909.

Leverett White Brownell, a naturalist, visited Flamingo in 1893. He described the village of 38 "shacks" on stilts as infested with fleas and mosquitoes. He claimed to have seen an oil lamp extinguished by a cloud of mosquitoes. He also stated that flea powder was the "staff of life" and that the cabins were thickly sooted from the use of smudge pots. He added that tomatoes, asparagus and eggplant were the principal crops.

Flamingo had a small boom in the early 20th century when speculators thought that Henry Flagler would choose a route for his Florida East Coast Railway across Florida Bay to Key West. By 1900, about 50 families lived in Flamingo, and it had a Monroe County school. Nearby rookeries, such as the famed Cuthbert Rookery, became popular with poachers who sought to kill the nesting birds for their plumage, which was used for fashionable women's hats. Resident and early game warden Guy Bradley was shot and killed in Flamingo after confronting plume hunters. Public rage over the murder directly led to federal legislation outlawing the practice.

A fish house was built in Flamingo in 1908 and fishing became the primary occupation of the town, but by 1910, only three homes remained occupied in Flamingo. The Ingraham Highway from Homestead reached Flamingo in 1922 but was poorly maintained and virtually impassable in wet weather until the National Park Service gave it a gravel top in the late 1940s. During Prohibition, moonshining became a major occupation in Flamingo but was eventually suppressed by government agents.

The Snake Bight Trail provides an alternate pedestrian access to the sea to the east of Flamingo but its two-mile length is notorious for the number and ferocity of the mosquitoes. The Christian Point Trail is less daunting and leads through open saltwater marl prairie to Christian Point. The area reportedly got its name when the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 washed numerous dead bodies from the Keys ashore.

Climate
Flamingo experiences a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw) in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 °C (64 °F). Summers are hot and humid and high temperatures average between 89° and 91 °F (31° to 33 °C). Winters are warm and dry.

Flamingo today
The residents of Flamingo were relocated shortly after the creation of Everglades National Park. Through the second half of the 20th century Flamingo consisted of a restaurant and cafe, a gas station, a marina, a store, a gift shop, a campground, and a few houses for park rangers. In 1959, the two-story Flamingo lodge opened, with 103 rooms. There were 24 cabins built as well.

Most of these facilities, however, were severely damaged or destroyed in 2005 by storm surges up to 9 feet during Hurricane Wilma. The marina and store have reopened. As of March 29, 2009 the lodge and cabins had been razed. The gas station remains closed to this day.

There are three new plans to increase ecotourism with improvements to Flamingo, two of which include rebuilding the destroyed facilities. All plans include keeping the historic gas station and Mission 66 visitor center facility. Handicap access will also be added and employee housing and backwater chickees will be replaced in all three plans. Unlike the previous cabins which had been built on the ground, there is a plan for 24 elevated cabins. They would have earth-friendly technology, such as solar hot water and water-harvesting systems.

During the winter of 2013–14, Everglades National Park tested a new structure that is a cross between a tent and a cabin. Called an eco-tent, it is a prototype for a new type of lodging. The tent structure is elevated, so one does not have to sleep on the ground. The tent sits on a 14-foot square wooden platform, and is designed to take advantage of the breezes coming off of Florida Bay and efficiently move warm air out of the tent. It is currently furnished with bed frames, a table, and chairs. The eco-tent was first used in December 2013 and was available until April 2014. Newly designed eco-tents and platform walkways were built as of 2019.

The Flamingo Lodge & Restaurant opened in October 2023.

Guy Bradley Visitor Center
The Guy Bradley Visitor Center is a pink building located at the end of Florida State Road 9336 overlooking Florida Bay. The visitor center offers many services, which includes backcountry camping permits, trip planning for Wilderness Waterway as well as trail maps, educational displays and informational brochures.

There was a restaurant & bar located inside the visitor center building, named Buttonwood Café. It was the only place to eat inside the Everglades National Park, which offered dining services only during the winter season. The facility was severely damaged by Hurricane Wilma in 2005 and by Hurricane Irma in 2017, after which it was closed for reconstruction. It reopened, newly renamed to the Guy Bradley Visitor Center, in 2023.

Attractions and activities
Flamingo is one of the interpretive centers of the Everglades National Park. The hiking trails such as the Snake Bight Trail, Christian Point Trail, Rowdy Bend Trail and Coastal Prairie Trail allow visitors to experience the buttonwood, mangrove and coastal prairie ecosystems. The Coastal Prairie trail leads to the former town of Flamingo.

In addition to hiking, the national park offers many paddling opportunities to travelers to explore the wilderness through the mangrove mazes, sawgrass prairies and open waters of Florida Bay. A guided boat tour, narrated by the boat captains, is also available at the Flamingo. Canoe and kayak rentals are available near the marina store. Flamingo's Canoe trails range from half mile short distance to 99 mile long Wilderness Waterway trail and most of them can be accessed from launch areas in Flamingo. Boats, tours and house boat rentals are available from the marina.

Dark skies location
The Flamingo area of the Everglades National Park is a quality dark skies site suitable for stargazing, astro-photography and Milky Way photography. Though more light-polluted than Big Cypress National Preserve nearby due to its close proximity to Miami, Upper Florida Keys, Homestead and Florida City, Flamingo offers very detailed views of the Milky Way structure during both the winter and summer seasons. It is one of a few remaining dark skies sites in South Florida.

title: Flamingo, Monroe County, Florida


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Roč

Roč (Rozzo, Rotz) is a village in Istria County, north-west Croatia. Administratively it belongs to the town of Buzet. Roč is considered a historic town rather than a village due to its rich cultural heritage.

Geography
It is situated in the northwest of the Istrian peninsula, southwest of the Ćićarija plateau. The village is located about 50 km south-east of Trieste on the road via Koper and the Učka Tunnel (B8) to Rijeka. Roč station is also a stop on the Istrian Railway (Istarske pruge) line from Divača via Podgorje to Pula.

History
The name Roč or Rozzo derive from the Celtic Roz. The related name Roc is very common in wide areas under Celts influence. The present-day settlement was first mentioned as Rus in a document of 1064. The area was settled in protohistoric times. Romans called it Castrum Rotium or Rocium. The town was founded in prehistory, as an Illyrian settlement. After the Roman Empire incorporation of Istria, it became a Roman castrum, becoming an important settlement for the Romans since the second century BC. Numerous findings from the Roman period were discovered in the area or Roč (Rozzo) and Buzet (Pinguente).

While the former March of Istria was gradually incorporated into the Venetian Stato da Màr, Roč from the 12th century onwards developed to a fortified town and a centre of Slavic literature. The local Church of St. Anthony holds the precious Roč Glagolitic Abecedarium from the 13th century. The first Croatian printed book, the 1483 Missale Romanum Glagolitice, was prepared in Roč by one Juri Žakan. By the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio, Istria fell to the Habsburg monarchy and later became part of the Austrian Littoral. After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, Istria including Rozzo was partitioned to Italy in the Treaty of Rapallo (1920). After the end of World War II, Istria including Rozzo was ceded to Yugoslavia. After the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, most of Istria (including Roč) became part of present-day Republic of Croatia.

Demographics
According to the 2021 census, its population was 187. It was 153 in 2011.

Sights
The town of Roč is declared by the authorities as an important cultural monument, as it has a well-preserved medieval town walls with two entrances, a Roman lapidarium, a Venetian bombarda cannon and a functional watchtower. Furthermore, it has the Romanesque church of St Anthony dating from the 11th century, the small St Roch Church with several notable 14th-century frescoes representing St Paul and the Apostles, as well as the St Bartholomew parish church built from the 14th century onward with its prominent 26 m high steeple erected in 1676. Numerous other smaller artifacts are preserved in the ancient buildings.

Seven kilometers from Roč is Hum, with a population of only 22 people often called the smallest town in the world. Along the road from Roč to Hum is Glagolitic Alley (Aleja glagoljaša), a scenic route of ten monuments constructed in 1977-81 representing the history of the Glagolitic alphabet.

title: Roč


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Mikimoto

Mikimoto (written: 幹本, 美樹本 or 御木本) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Kokichi Mikimoto (御木本 幸吉), Japanese businessman and creator of the first cultured pearl
 * Haruhiko Mikimoto (美樹本 晴彦), Japanese manga artist, character designer and illustrator
 * Shinsuke Mikimoto (御木本 伸介), Japanese actor
 * Yūji Mikimoto (幹本 雄之), Japanese voice actor

title: Mikimoto


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Sammy Gravano

Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano (born March 12, 1945) is an American former mobster who rose to the position of underboss in the Gambino crime family. As the underboss, Gravano played a major role in prosecuting John Gotti, the crime family's boss, by agreeing to testify as a government witness against him and other mobsters in a deal in which he confessed to involvement in 19 murders.

Originally an associate for the Colombo crime family, and later for the Brooklyn faction of the Gambino family, Gravano was part of the group that conspired to murder Gambino boss Paul Castellano in 1985. Gravano played a key role in planning and executing Castellano's murder, along with John Gotti, Angelo Ruggiero, Frank DeCicco, and Joseph Armone.

Soon after Castellano's murder, Gotti elevated Gravano to become an official captain after Salvatore "Toddo" Aurelio stepped down, a position Gravano held until 1987 when he became consigliere. In 1988 he became underboss, a position he held at the time he became a government witness. In 1991, Gravano agreed to turn state's evidence and testify for the prosecution against Gotti after hearing the boss making several disparaging and untrue remarks about Gravano on a wiretap that implicated them both in several murders. At the time, Gravano was the highest-ranking member of the Five Families, but broke his blood oath and cooperated with the government. As a result of his testimonies, Gotti and Frank LoCascio were sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole in 1992. In 1994, a federal judge sentenced Gravano to five years in prison; however, since Gravano had already served four years, the sentence amounted to less than one year. He was released early and entered the U.S. federal Witness Protection Program in Colorado, but left the program in 1995 after 8 months and went to Arizona with family.

In 1997, Gravano was consulted several times for the biographical book about his life, Underboss by author Peter Maas. In February 2000, Gravano and nearly 40 other ring members—including his ex-wife Debra, daughter Karen and son Gerard—were arrested on federal and state drug charges. In 2001, Gravano and his son, Gerard, were indicted on mirror charges with the federal government. In 2002 Gravano was sentenced in New York to twenty years in prison. A month later, he was also sentenced in Arizona to nineteen years in prison to run concurrently. Additionally, Gravano was sentenced to lifetime supervised release and a $100,000 fine. He was released in September 2017.

Childhood and early life
Salvatore Gravano was born on March 12, 1945, in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, to Giorlando "Gerry" and Caterina "Kay" Gravano. He was the youngest of five children, having two older sisters and two siblings who died before he was born. Both of Gravano's parents hailed from Sicily. Sammy's mother, Caterina, born in 1906, arrived in the United States as a young girl from Puglia, Italy. While his father, Giorlando, born in 1901, arrived in the US after jumping ship in Canada and, with help from his older brother Alphonsio Gravano, was smuggled into the US illegally. Alphonsio was already an established bootlegger and made member of the Sicilian mafia. During Prohibition, Alphonsio was a successful bootlegger and transported booze into the US on both North East and North West coasts. As part of the Sunset Fleet, Alphonsio ran booze through the Hudson River and other New York waterways. His booze made its way into the city to the Fulton Fish Market and then sold to the NY speakeasies. On the West coast his operation ran the booze from Canada to Oregon, near the Bull River. Gerry worked as a skilled fisherman in Sicily. In the US, he became a painter, working on houses and buildings as New York grew at a staggering rate. Later, Gravano's parents ran a small dress factory, his mother being a talented seamstress. They maintained a good standard of living for the family. Early on, one of Gravano's relatives remarked that he looked like his uncle Sammy. From that point on, everyone called Gravano "Little Sammy" instead of "Salvatore" or "Sal".

At age 13, Gravano joined the Rampers, a prominent street gang in Bensonhurst. He had found that some older children had stolen his bicycle and went to fight the thieves. Made men who were watching from a café saw him take on a few of the older boys at once and they gave Gravano back his bike. As he was leaving, one of the made men remarked on how little Sammy fought "like a bull", hence his nickname "The Bull".

Gravano had dyslexia, was bullied, and did poorly in school. Teachers classified him as being "a slow learner". He was held back from grade advancement on two occasions, the 4th and 7th grades, and also punched school officials on two occasions. Gravano was eventually sent to a school for "incorrigibles" (600 school); however, just before he reached the age of 16, the school refused to keep him any longer and his parents signed him out of school. Gravano's father tried to redirect and discipline his son, including forcing him to attend Mass, but had little success.

In 1964, Gravano was drafted into the United States Army and served in Fort Jackson, South Carolina. While an enlisted man, Gravano mainly worked as a mess hall cook. He rose to the rank of corporal and was granted an honorable discharge after two years.

In 1971, Gravano married Debra Scibetta; they had two children. His daughter Karen Gravano appeared on the VH1 reality series Mob Wives beginning in 2011, and released a book in 2013 titled Mob Daughter: The Mafia, Sammy "The Bull" Gravano, and Me!

Later in his mob career, Gravano was ordered to help arrange the murder of his brother-in-law, Nicholas Scibetta. Gravano is also the brother-in-law of Gambino soldier Eddie Garafola. Gravano was a childhood friend of Colombo crime family associate Gerard Pappa, who was also the leader of The Rampers.

Colombo associate
The Mafia had a longstanding presence in Bensonhurst via the Profaci family, which evolved into the Colombo family. Despite his father's attempts to dissuade him, Gravano, like many of his Ramper colleagues, drifted into the Cosa Nostra. He first became associated with the Cosa Nostra in 1968 through his friend Tommy Spero, whose Uncle Shorty (also named Tommy) Spero was an associate of the Colombo family under future boss, Carmine "The Snake" Persico. Gravano was initially involved in crimes such as larceny, hijacking, and armed robbery. He quickly moved into racketeering, loansharking, and running a lucrative poker game in the back room of an after-hours club, of which he was part owner.

Gravano became a particular favorite of family boss Carmine Persico, who used Gravano to picket the FBI Manhattan headquarters as part of Joe Columbo Italian-American Civil Rights League initiative. Gravano's rise was so sudden that it was generally understood that he would be among the first to become made when the Cosa Nostra's membership books were reopened (they had been closed since 1957).

In 1970, Gravano committed his first murder—that of Joseph Colucci, a fellow Spero associate with whose wife Tommy Spero was having an affair. Gravano described the experience thus:

As that Beatles song played, I became a killer. Joe Colucci was going to die. I was going to kill him because he was plotting to kill me and Shorty Spero. I felt the rage inside me. ... Everything went in slow motion. I could almost feel the bullet leaving the gun and entering his skull. It was strange and deafening. I didn't hear the first shot. I didn't see any blood. His head didn't seem to move. I then shot him a second time ... I felt like I was a million miles away, like this was all a dream.

The Colucci murder won respect and approval from Persico for Gravano. Later in life, Gravano became a mentor to Colucci's son Jack, who became involved in the construction industry as a Gambino associate.

Made man
In the early 1970s, Colombo soldier Ralph Spero, brother of Shorty, became envious of Gravano's success, fearing that he would become a made man before his son, Tommy. This rivalry culminated with the death of Ralph Ronga, another Colombo family soldier in Ralph Spero's crew. After Ronga's death, a rumor had spread that Gravano had attempted to pick up Ronga's widow Sybil Davies at a bar, though Gravano maintained that Davies was the one hitting on him. Ralph Spero used this rumor in an attempt to gain support to have Gravano killed, or as an excuse to kill Gravano himself. While Shorty Spero believed Gravano rather than Ralph, he and the Colombo hierarchy decided that to avoid conflict, it was best for Gravano to be transferred to the Gambino crime family.

Now with the Gambinos, Gravano became an associate of capo Salvatore "Toddo" Aurello. Aurello quickly took a liking to Gravano and became his mob mentor. Around this time, Gravano took a construction job (he later claimed to have considered leaving the criminal life). A former associate, however, falsely claimed to the New York District Attorney's Office that Gravano and another associate were responsible for a double murder of the Dunn Brothers from 1969. After Gravano was indicted, he desperately needed money to pay his legal bills. He quit his construction job and went on a self-described "robbing rampage" for a year and a half alongside his Goombata Alexander "Allie Boy" Cuomo. A couple weeks into the trial, Gravano's lawyers moved to dismiss the charges due to the witness being declared legally insane. Gravano later said of this legal problem:

"That pinch [arrest] changed my whole life. I never, ever stopped a second from there on in. I was like a madman. Never stopped stealing. Never stopped robbing. I was obsessed."

Gravano's robbery spree impressed Aurello, who proposed him for membership in the Gambino family soon after the membership books were reopened. In 1976, Gravano was formally initiated into the Gambino family as a made man, along with Toddo's son, Charlie Boy Aurello. Sammy and Charlie Boy had been friends since they were kids.

Gambino soldier
In 1978, boss Paul Castellano allegedly ordered the murder of Gambino associate Nicholas Scibetta. A cocaine and alcohol user, Scibetta participated in several public fights and insulted the daughter of George DeCicco. Since Scibetta was Gravano's brother-in-law, Castellano asked Frank DeCicco to first notify Gravano of the impending hit. When advised of Scibetta's fate, Gravano was furious. However, Gravano was eventually calmed by DeCicco and accepted Scibetta's death as the punishment earned by his behavior. Gravano later said, "I chose against Nicky. I took an oath that Cosa Nostra came before everything." Scibetta was dismembered and his body was never found, other than a hand.

Gravano later opened an afterhours club in Bensonhurst, called The Bus Stop. The bar was the scene of a violent altercation one night, involving a rowdy biker gang intent on ransacking the establishment. A melee ensued, in which Gravano broke his ankle and the bikers were chased off. Gravano then went to Castellano and received permission to "kill them all". Along with Liborio "Louie" Milito, Gravano hunted down the leader, wounding him and killing another member of the gang. Castellano was flabbergasted when he learned the crutch-ridden Gravano personally took part in the hit.

Construction magnate
Like his predecessor Carlo Gambino, Castellano favored emphasizing more sophisticated schemes involving construction, trucking, and garbage disposal over traditional street-level activities such as loansharking, gambling, and hijackings. Castellano had a particular interest in the construction business. Gravano entered into the plumbing and drywall business with his brother-in-law, Edward Garafola. Gravano's construction and other business interests soon earned him a reputation as a "big earner" within the Gambino organization and made him a multi-millionaire, enabling him to build a large estate for his family in rural Cream Ridge, New Jersey. He invested in trotting horses to race at the Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Gravano became the operator of a popular discotheque, The Plaza Suite in the Gravesend section of Brooklyn. He reportedly made $4,000 a week from the Plaza Suite. Gravano owned the building and used the bottom level as his business headquarters.

Simone murder
Gravano further proved himself to Castellano when he interceded in a civil war that had erupted within the Philadelphia crime family. In March 1980, longtime Philadelphia boss Angelo Bruno was assassinated by his consigliere, Antonio Caponigro, and his brother-in-law Anthony Salerno, without authorization from The Commission. The Commission summoned Caponigro to New York, where it sentenced him to death for his transgression. After Caponigro was tortured and killed, Philip Testa was installed as the new Philadelphia boss and Nicky Scarfo as consigliere. The Commission subsequently placed contracts on Caponigro's co-conspirators, including John "Johnny Keys" Simone, who also happened to be Bruno's cousin. The Simone contract was given to Gravano.

After befriending Simone through a series of meetings, Gravano, with the assistance of Milito and D'Angelo, abducted Simone from Yardley Golf Club in Yardley, Pennsylvania (part of suburban Trenton, New Jersey), and drove him to a wooded area on Staten Island.

Gravano then granted Simone's requests to die with his shoes off, in fulfillment of a promise he had made to his wife, and at the hands of a made man. After Gravano removed Simone's shoes, Milito shot Simone in the back of the head, killing him. Gravano later expressed admiration for Simone as a so-called "man's man", remarking favorably on the calmness with which he accepted his fate.

Fiala murder
By the early 1980s, the Plaza Suite was a thriving establishment. Patrons often had to wait an hour to get in and the club featured high-profile live acts such as singer Chubby Checker.

In 1982, Frank Fiala, a wealthy businessman and drug trafficker, paid Gravano $40,000 to rent the Plaza Suite for a birthday party he was throwing himself. Two days after the party, Gravano accepted a $1,000,000 offer from Fiala to buy the establishment, which was much higher than the property value. The deal was structured to include $50,000 cash as a down payment, $650,000 in gold bullion under the table, and a $300,000 payment at the real estate closing.

Before the transaction was completed, Fiala began acting like he already owned the club. Later, after leaving the Plaza Suite, Gravano called Garafola and set up an ambush outside the club, involving Garafola, Milito, D'Angelo, Nicholas Mormando, Michael DeBatt, Thomas Carbonara and Johnny Holmes in the plan. Later that same night, Gravano confronted Fiala on the street as he exited the Plaza Suite among a group of people, asking, "Hey, Frank, how you doing?" As Fiala turned around, surprised to see Gravano, Milito came up behind him and shot him in the head. Milito stood over the body and fired a shot into each of Fiala's eyes as Fiala's entourage and the crowd of people on the street dispersed, screaming. Gravano walked up to Fiala's body and spat on him.

Gravano was never charged for the crime; he had made a $5,000 payoff to the later discredited and disgraced New York Police Department homicide detective Louis Eppolito to ensure the investigation yielded no leads.

Although Gravano evaded criminal charges, he incurred Castellano's wrath over the unsanctioned killing. Gravano attempted to lie low for nearly three weeks afterwards, during which time he called his crew together and made the decision to kill Castellano if necessary. Gravano and Milito were then summoned to a meeting with Castellano at a Manhattan restaurant. Castellano had been given the details of what Fiala had done, but he was still livid that Gravano had not come to him for permission to kill Fiala first. Gravano was spared execution when he convinced Castellano that the reason he had kept him in the dark was to protect the boss in case something went wrong with the hit.

Fiala's murder posed one final problem for Gravano in the form of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The high publicity generated by the incident triggered an IRS investigation into Gravano and Fiala's deal for the sale of the Plaza Suite and Gravano was subsequently charged with tax evasion. Gravano was represented by Gerald Shargel and acquitted at trial.

D'Angelo was later killed by a Colombo family associate celebrating his having been proposed for membership. The killer was then murdered, himself, on orders from the Colombo family.

Aligning with Gotti
In the aftermath of the Fiala murder, Gravano continued to focus on his construction business, branching out into the lucrative drywall industry. New York City's cement industry was controlled by four of the Five Families, which made millions of dollars by manipulating bids and steering contracts. Gravano said in 1998, "I literally controlled Manhattan, literally. You want concrete poured in Manhattan? That was me. Tishman, Donald Trump, all these guys—they couldn't build a building without me."

Gravano eventually became embroiled in a dispute with business partner Louie DiBono, a member of another Gambino crew. Gravano, and his brother-in-law Eddie, had a meeting with DiBono, (along with an attorney and an accountant DiBono brought) at which DiBono said only $50,000 was due. Gravano excused the attorney and accountant and, once alone with DiBono, banged him around the room because of the scam. Putting hands on another made man is a death penalty in Cosa Nostra. DiBono told his captain, Patsy Conti, Conti then told Castellano and a sit-down was called. Toddo spoke on Gravano and Gambino underboss Neil Dellacroce intervened on Gravano's behalf and Castellano told DiBono to pay Gravano $200,000 and the two men end their business partnership. Gravano's standing with his boss slipped as a result of the incident. Dellacroce, however, was rising star John Gotti's mentor, and when word got back to him that Dellacroce had supported Gravano, Gotti and other Gambino members were impressed.

During this time, the FBI had intensified its efforts against the Gambino family and in August 1983, three members of Gotti's crew – Angelo Ruggiero, John Carneglia, and Gene Gotti – were indicted for heroin trafficking. Castellano was against anyone in the family dealing narcotics. Castellano planned to kill Gene Gotti and Ruggiero if he believed they were drug traffickers. Castellano asked Ruggiero for a copy of the government surveillance tapes that had Ruggiero's conversations. To save Gene Gotti and Ruggiero, Dellacroce stalled the demand. Eventually, one of the reasons for Gotti's killing Castellano was to save himself, his brother and Ruggiero. The Ruggiero tapes not only had them talking about drugs, but also the bosses and commission. The FBI had bugged Ruggiero's house and telephone, and Castellano decided he needed copies of the tapes to justify his impending move to Dellacroce and the family's other capos.

When Castellano was indicted for both his connection to Roy DeMeo's stolen car ring and as part of the Mafia Commission Trial, he learned his own house had been bugged on the basis of evidence from the Ruggiero tapes and he became livid. In June 1985, he again demanded that Dellacroce get him the tapes. Dellacroce tried to convince Gotti and Ruggiero to comply if Castellano explained beforehand how he intended to use the tapes, but Ruggiero refused, fearing he would endanger good friends.

Prior to Castellano's indictment, Gravano was approached by Robert DiBernardo, a fellow Gambino member acting as an intermediary for Gotti. DiBernardo informed him that Gotti and Ruggiero wanted to meet with him in Queens. Gravano arrived to find only Ruggiero was present. Ruggiero informed Gravano that he and Gotti were planning to murder Castellano and asked for Gravano's support.

Gravano was initially noncommittal, wanting to confer first with Frank DeCicco. In conversation with DeCicco, both men voiced concern that Castellano would designate his nephew, Thomas Gambino, acting boss and his driver, Thomas Bilotti, underboss in the event he was convicted and sent to prison. Neither man appealed to Gravano or DeCicco as leadership material, and they ultimately decided to support the hit on Castellano.

Castellano murder
Gravano's first choice to become boss after Castellano's murder was Frank DeCicco, but DeCicco felt John Gotti's ego was too big to take a subservient role. DeCicco argued that Gotti's boldness, intelligence, and charisma made him well-suited to be "a good boss" and he convinced Gravano to give Gotti a chance. DeCicco and Gravano made a secret pact to kill Gotti and take over the family as boss and underboss, respectively, if they were unhappy with Gotti's leadership after one year. The conspirators' first order of business was meeting with other Gambino members, most of whom were disaffected under Castellano, and gaining their support for the hit. They also recruited longtime capo Joseph "Piney" Armone into the conspiracy. Armone's support was critical; he was a respected old-timer in the family, and it was believed he could help win over Castellano supporters to the new regime.

The next step was smoothing over the planned hit with the other families. It has long been a hard and fast rule in the Mafia that killing a boss is forbidden without the support of a majority of the Commission. Indeed, Gotti's planned hit would have been the first off-the-record hit on a boss since Frank Costello was nearly killed in 1957. Knowing it would be too risky to approach the other four bosses directly, the conspirators got the support of several important mobsters of their generation in the Lucchese, Colombo and Bonanno families. Gotti and Ruggiero then sought and obtained the approval of key figures from the Colombos and Bonannos, while DeCicco secured the backing of top mobsters aligned with the Luccheses. They did not even consider approaching the Genoveses; Castellano had especially close ties with Genovese boss Vincent "Chin" Gigante, and approaching any major Genovese figure, even one of their generation, could have been a tipoff. Gotti could thus claim he had the support of "off-the-record contacts" from three out of five families. With Neil Dellacroce's death on December 2, 1985, the final constraint on a move by Gotti or Castellano against the other was removed. Gotti, enraged that Castellano chose not to attend his mentor's wake, wasted little time in striking.

Not suspecting the plot against him, Castellano invited DeCicco to a meeting on December 16, 1985, with fellow capos Thomas Gambino, James Failla, Johnny Gamorana and Danny Marino at Sparks Steak House in Manhattan. The conspirators considered the restaurant a prime location for the hit because the area would be packed with bustling crowds of holiday shoppers, making it easier for the assassins to blend in and escape. The plans for the assassination were finalized on December 15, and the next afternoon, the conspirators met for a final time on the Lower East Side. At Gotti's suggestion, the shooters wore long white trench coats and black fur Russian hats, which Gravano considered a "brilliant" idea.

Gotti and Gravano arrived at the restaurant shortly before 5 o'clock and, after circling the block, parked their car across the intersection and within view of the entrance. Around 5:30, Gravano spotted Castellano's Lincoln Town Car stopped at a nearby intersection and, via walkie talkie, alerted the team of hitmen stationed outside the restaurant of Castellano's approach. Castellano's driver, Thomas Bilotti, pulled the car up directly in front of the entrance. As Castellano and Bilotti exited the Lincoln, they were ambushed and killed in a barrage of bullets. As the hat-and-trench-coat-adorned men slipped away into the night, Gotti calmly drove the car past the front of the restaurant to get a look at the scene. Looking down at Bilotti's body from the passenger window, Gravano remarked, "He's gone."

The new regime
After Castellano's death, Gallo–the only surviving member of the hierarchy–convened a three-man committee to temporarily run the family, comprising himself, Gotti and DeCicco. However, it was an open secret that Gotti was acting boss in all but name, and nearly all of the family's capos knew he had been the one behind the hit. Gotti was formally acclaimed as the new boss of the Gambino family at a meeting of 20 capos held on January 15, 1986. Gotti, in turn, selected DeCicco as his underboss and elevated Gravano to capo after Toddo Aurello announced his desire to step down.

On April 13, 1986, DeCicco was killed when his car was bombed following a visit to Castellano loyalist James Failla. The bombing was carried out by Victor Amuso and Anthony Casso of the Lucchese family, under orders of Vincent Gigante and Lucchese boss Anthony Corallo, to avenge Castellano and Bilotti by killing their successors; Gotti also planned to visit Failla that day, but canceled. The bomb was detonated after a soldier, Frankie Hearts asked DeCicco for a lawyers business card. DeCicco went to his car to retrieve the card and when he sat in the passenger seat, the bomb exploded.

Bombs had long been banned by the Mafia out of concern that it would put innocent people in harm's way, leading the Gambinos to initially suspect that "zips" — Sicilian mafiosi working in the U.S. — were behind it; zips were well known for using bombs.

"Nicky Cowboy" murder
The first person on Gravano's hit list after Castellano's murder was Nicholas "Nicky Cowboy" Mormando, a former member of his crew. Mormando had become addicted to crack cocaine and was suspected by Gravano of getting friend and fellow crew member Michael DeBatt addicted to the drug. Gravano decided because of Nicky's reckless behavior, including getting DeBatt addicted to crack, he would get permission from Gotti to kill Mormando.

Gravano arranged to have Mormando murdered on his way to a meeting at Gravano's Bensonhurst restaurant, Tali's. After assuring Mormando of his safety, Gravano told him to pick up Joseph Paruta on his way. Paruta got in the backseat of the car and shot Mormando twice in the back of the head. Mormando's corpse was then disposed of in a vacant lot, where it was discovered the next day.

Consigliere and underboss
Gotti was imprisoned in May 1986 at the Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York, while awaiting trial on Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) charges. He relied heavily on Gravano, Angelo Ruggiero, and Joseph "Piney" Armone to manage the family's day-to-day affairs while he called the major shots from his jail cell.

In June, Gravano was approached by Ruggiero and, supposedly at Gotti's behest, given orders to murder capo Robert DiBernardo for making negative remarks about Gotti's leadership. Gravano was friendly with DiBernardo and tried to get the murder called off until he had a chance to speak with Gotti after his trial. Gravano met with Joseph Piney where Piney explained Gotti wanted DiBernardo dead. Ruggiero claimed to have met again with Gotti and told Gravano that the boss wanted DiBernardo killed right away.

Gravano arranged a meeting with DiBernardo where Joe Paruta, a member of Gravano's crew, shot DiBernardo twice in the back of the head as Gravano watched. Gravano later learned that Ruggiero was $250,000 in debt to DiBernardo and realized Ruggiero may have fabricated the orders from Gotti or simply lied to Gotti about what DiBernardo was accused of saying in order to erase the debt and improve his own standing in the family. In any event, DiBernardo's death proved profitable for Gravano, as he took over the deceased man's control of Teamsters Local 282.

Gotti's trial ultimately ended in a mistrial due to a hung jury and the boss was freed from jail. Gravano's specific position within the family varied during 1986 and 1987. With Gotti's permission, Gravano set up several murders with other Gambino associates. In 1986, Gotti underwent a racketeering trial. Jury selection for the racketeering case began again in August 1986, with Gotti standing trial alongside Gene "Willie Boy" Johnson (who, despite being exposed as an informant, refused to turn state's evidence ), Leonard DiMaria, Tony Rampino, Nicholas Corozzo and John Carneglia.

At this point, the Gambinos were able to compromise the case when George Pape hid his friendship with Boško Radonjić and was empaneled as juror No. 11. Through Radonjić, Pape contacted Gravano and agreed to sell his vote on the jury for $60,000. On March 13, 1987, they acquitted Gotti and his codefendants of all charges. In the face of previous Mafia convictions, particularly the success of the Mafia Commission Trial, Gotti's acquittal was a major upset that further added to his reputation. The American media dubbed Gotti "The Teflon Don" in reference to the failure of any charges to "stick".

With DeCicco dead, the Gambinos were left without an underboss. Gotti chose to fill the vacancy with Joseph Armone.

In 1987, Joseph N. Gallo was replaced with Gravano as consigliere, and by 1990, Gravano was promoted to underboss to replace the acting underboss Frank LoCascio. By this time, Gravano was regarded as a "rising force" in the construction industry and often mingled with executives from major construction firms and union officials at his popular Bensonhurst restaurant, Tali's.

Gravano's success was not without a downside. First, his quick rise up the Gambino hierarchy attracted the attention of the FBI, and he was soon placed under surveillance. Second, he started to sense some jealousy from Gotti over the profitability of his legitimate business interests. Nevertheless, Gravano claimed to be kicking up over $2 million each year to Gotti out of his union activities alone. Beginning in January 1988, Gotti, against Gravano's advice, required his capos to meet with him at the Ravenite Social Club once a week.

Turning government witness
Gotti, Gravano and LoCascio were often recorded by the bugs placed throughout the Ravenite (concealed in the main room, the first-floor hallway and the upstairs apartment of the building) discussing incriminating events. On December 11, 1990, FBI agents and NYPD detectives raided the Ravenite, arresting Gravano, Gotti and LoCascio. Gravano pleaded guilty to a superseding racketeering charge, and Gotti was charged with five murders (Castellano, Bilotti, DiBernardo, Liborio Milito and Louis Dibono), conspiracy to murder Gaetano Vastola, loansharking, illegal gambling, obstruction of justice, bribery and tax evasion.

Based on tapes from FBI bugs played at pretrial hearings, the Gambino administration was denied bail. At the same time, attorneys Bruce Cutler and Gerald Shargel were disqualified from defending Gotti and Gravano after prosecutors successfully contended they were "part of the evidence" and thus liable to be called as witnesses. Prosecutors argued that Cutler and Shargel not only knew about potential criminal activity, but had worked as "in-house counsel" for the Gambino family. Gotti subsequently hired Albert Krieger, a Miami attorney who had worked with Joseph Bonanno, to replace Cutler.

The tapes also created a rift between Gotti and Gravano, as they contained recordings of the Gambino boss describing his newly appointed underboss as too greedy and included discussions of Gotti's intent to frame Gravano as the main force behind the murders of DiBernardo, Milito and Dibono. Gotti's attempt at reconciliation with Gravano failed, leaving Gravano disillusioned with the mob and doubtful on his chances of winning his case without Shargel, his former attorney. Gravano ultimately opted to turn state's evidence, formally agreeing to testify on November 13, 1991. He was the first member of the hierarchy of a New York crime family to turn informer, and the second confessed underboss in the history of the American Mafia to do so after the Philadelphia crime family's Phil Leonetti.

Gotti and LoCascio were tried in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York before District Judge I. Leo Glasser. Jury selection began in January 1992 with an anonymous jury and, for the first time in a Brooklyn federal case, fully sequestered during the trial due to Gotti's reputation for jury tampering. The trial commenced with the prosecution's opening statements on February 12; prosecutors Andrew Maloney and John Gleeson began their case by playing tapes showing Gotti discussing Gambino family business, including murders he approved, and confirming the animosity between Gotti and Castellano to establish the former's motive to kill his boss. After calling an eyewitness of the Sparks hit who identified Carneglia as one of the men who shot Bilotti, they then brought Gravano to testify on March 2. On the stand, Gravano confirmed Gotti's place in the structure of the Gambino family and described in detail the conspiracy to assassinate Castellano, giving a full description of the hit and its aftermath. Gravano confessed to 19 murders, implicating Gotti in four of them. Krieger, and LoCascio's attorney, Anthony Cardinale, proved unable to shake Gravano during cross-examination. After additional testimony and tapes, the government rested its case on March 24. Among other outbursts, Gotti called Gravano a junkie while his attorneys sought to discuss his past steroid use.

On June 23, 1992, Glasser sentenced Gotti and LoCascio to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole and a $250,000 fine. Gotti surrendered to federal authorities to serve his prison time on December 14, 1992. On September 26, 1994, a federal judge sentenced Gravano to five years in prison. However, since Gravano had already served four years, the sentence amounted to less than one year. In total, Gravano implicated 29 mobsters to the law; Gambino mobsters, former boss John Gotti, former Gambino family consigliere Frank LoCascio, current and former captains Robert Bisaccia, Thomas Gambino, Pasquale Conte, Joseph Corrao, James Failla, Daniel Marino, John Gambino, Ralph Mosca; current and former soldier's, Paul Graziano, Anthony Vinciullo, Domenico Cefalu (current Gambino family boss), Francesco Versaglio, Orazio Stantini, Louis Astuto, Dominic Borghese , Joseph Gambino, Peter Mosca, Virgil Alessi; current and former associates, Lorenzo Mannino (current Gambino family acting boss), Joseph Passanante, George Helbig, Peter Mavis, Barry Nichilo. Apart from the Gambino family, Gravano also testified against Colombo crime family acting boss Vic Orena and consigliere Benedetto Aloi, Genovese crime family underboss Venero Mangano and the New Jersey DeCavalcante crime family boss John Riggi.

Book and interviews
Later in 1994, Gravano was released early and entered the U.S. federal Witness Protection Program. The government moved him to various locations until Gravano left the program in 1995 after only 8 months and moved to Phoenix, AZ, where he assumed the name Jimmy Moran and started a swimming pool installation company.

A federal prosecutor later said that Gravano did not like the constraints of the program. Gravano began living very openly, giving interviews to magazines, and appearing in a nationally televised interview with television journalist Diane Sawyer. It was reported that he had undergone plastic surgery to his face. In 1991, his wife Debra divorced him.

In 1997, Gravano was consulted several times for the 1997 biographical book about his life, Underboss, by author Peter Maas. In it, Gravano said he became a government witness after Gotti attempted to defame him at their trial. Gravano finally realized that the Cosa Nostra code of honor was a sham. At this time, Gravano also hired a publicist, despite the fact Gravano complained often about the publicity-seeking Gotti. After the publication of Underboss, several families of Gravano's victims filed a $25 million lawsuit against him, however the families lost that case. In 1997, New York State indicted Gravano on an old RICO case and seized Gravano's profits from the book.

During an interview Gravano had with the newspaper The Arizona Republic, he said federal agents he had met after becoming a government witness had become his personal friends and even visited him in Arizona while on vacation. Gravano later said that he did not want The Republic to publish the story, but relented after the paper allegedly threatened to reveal that his family was living with him in Phoenix. The story so incensed his former mob compatriots that they forced the Gambinos to put a murder contract on him. The FBI alleged that Peter Gotti ordered two Gambino soldiers, Thomas "Huck" Carbonaro and Eddie Garafola, to murder Gravano in Arizona in 1999.

Drug conviction
By the late 1990s, Gravano had re-engaged in criminal activity. His son, Gerard, became friends with 23-year-old Michael Papa, a Devil Dogs gang leader. Gravano started a major ecstasy trafficking organization, selling over 30,000 tablets and reportedly grossing $500,000 a week.

In February 2000, Gravano and nearly 40 other ring members — including his ex-wife Debra, daughter Karen, and Gerard — were arrested on federal and state drug charges. Gravano was implicated by informants in his own drug ring, as well as by recorded conversations in which he discussed drug profits with Debra and Karen.

On May 25, 2001, Gravano pleaded guilty in a New York federal court to drug trafficking charges. On June 29, 2001, Gravano pleaded guilty in Phoenix to the state charges.

In 2002, Gravano was diagnosed with Graves' disease, a thyroid disorder that can cause fatigue, weight loss with increased appetite, and hair loss.

On September 7, 2002, after numerous delays, Gravano was sentenced in New York to 20 years in prison. A month later, he was also sentenced in Arizona to 19 years in prison, to run concurrently, but was also granted lifetime supervised release and a $100,000 fine. Gravano served his sentence at ADX Florence, part of it being in solitary confinement. Gerard Gravano received nine years in prison in October 2002. Debra and Karen Gravano also pleaded guilty and received several years on probation. In November 2003, Sammy and Karen were ordered to pay $805,713.41 as reimbursement for court costs and investigative expenses relating to an earlier drug ring judgment.

On February 24, 2003, New Jersey state prosecutors announced Gravano's indictment for ordering the 1980 killing of NYPD detective Peter Calabro by murderer Richard Kuklinski. Gravano denied any involvement in Calabro's death and rejected a plea deal, under which he would have received no additional jail time if he confessed to the crime and implicated all his accomplices. The charges against Gravano were dropped after Kuklinski's death in 2006.

In August 2015, Gravano's request to leave prison early was denied for reasons citing his "long-standing reputation for extreme violence".

Gravano was listed as being in the Arizona state prison system, at a CO Special Services unit. He was initially scheduled for release in March 2019; however, he was released on September 18, 2017.

Media appearances
In 2013, National Geographic Channel dramatized Gravano's ecstasy ring in a scene in the Banged Up Abroad episode "Raving Arizona", televised worldwide. The episode told the story of ecstasy dealer "English" Shaun Attwood, who was Gravano's main competitor in the Arizona ecstasy market.

In December 2020, Gravano started a YouTube channel and a podcast titled Our Thing.

title: Sammy Gravano


text:
Talk:Windpump

Untitled
Can someone make a thumbnail for the image? It's too big for my PC...
 * Done.

The visible size of Image:Windpump8414.JPG is fine, but the size in kilobytes is excessive -- 173 KB for an illustration only is too much. --Joy [shallot]   18:05, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Alternative images
This artile already has more images than text, but some alternative images are

Why don't they still use them?
With all the pressure to be more eco-friendly, why are wind pumps not still used? Surely using a wind pump is a lot cheaper and easier than paying to use an electric pump. You would think with modern technology, that extremely efficient pumps might be developed, and then once they are in place, you wouldn't have to pay to use them, other than occasional maintainence.

 * In Australia they are still used where

 * It is a permenant need
 * being reliant on the wind, is not a problem
 * technical issues such as the amount of lift needed

 * Sorry to say but a lot of the time they need more than occasional mantainence. That's like saying a sailboat doesn't need as much maintainence as a motorboat - it's just different maintainence. And it's easier to get a small motor fixed (that you can unbolt and take into town) then it is to get a licenced rigger to go up a windmill tower and sort out your problem with a rather large fan. Garrie 23:49, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

Windpumps in Cornwall
Where I live in Cornwall, England, there were and still are a number of American style windpumps. Cornwall was one of the last places to recieve a full water supply, and as a result many remote farmsteads had their own windpump, because using a well or hand pump did not provide water in the kind of quantities required for farming. I have a friend who used to live in a cottage that had a windpump "out back", which drew water from a well a short way underground. They installed it themselves, and the current owners of the house are still using it. The Pentewan Railway used a water pump at Pentewan, which was primarily used for lifting water from the reservoir and pumping it into the harbour to flush out the silt, but was also used to lift water up into the water tower for the steam engines to use. Providing small hamlets and villages with a fresh water supply was another use, until the water company came along and somehow convinced villagers to pay for their water rather than get it free. At any rate, this might be worth mentioning in the article - I'll come back to it one day and see what I can do. In the meantime, if anyone feels like adding any of this themselves, feel free. -- ▫Bad▫ harlick♠ 00:43, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Merge to windmill
In my opinion the windpump is that similar to a windmill that it should be merged into that article, after all the pump is just a windmill with another tool attached. The windmill article also mentions its use as pump. Arnoutf 18:35, 8 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I don't agree, windpumps is a distinctive subset of windmills (he said 4 years later). BTW the tjasker is hardly a popular windmill in the Netherlands, a few years ago there was only one left, and I don't think it really belongs in this article. There are other small windpump-like mills (Bosman molentjes) which are popular. Reboelje (talk) 20:37, 2 April 2011 (UTC)
 * Windpumps are not a subset of windmills. The are distinctive.  A windmill is a grinder.  A windpump is a mover of water.  Both of subcategories of wind turbines.  Calling a windpump by the term windmill is a bit like referring to a taxi cab as a type of food truck.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.190.18.116 (talk) 13:41, 4 September 2016 (UTC)

Known in the United States as windmills
The title of this article is a misnomer. Further, "windpump" is a term that is relatively unknown and/or unused in the United States. (Batavia, Illinois, is known as the "Windmill City" and the "Windmill Capital of the World" for its six windmill companies.) Even the American Society of Mechanical Engineers refers to such structures as windmills. Such windmills (as they are commonly known) or American-style windmills (to distinguish them from European- or Dutch-style windmills) not only pump water, they were widely used to power feed mills, saw mills, and a wide variety of agricultural equipment—thus the term "mill." As water pumps, they were used on farms, by municipal water works, and in particular by railroads during the age of steam-powered locomotives. PlaysInPeoria (talk) 19:28, 14 August 2013 (UTC)

Proposed New Title
A better title for this article is "American-style windmills." PlaysInPeoria (talk) 19:29, 14 August 2013 (UTC)
 * No it isn't. Most of what is characteristic of them can be traced to European precedents, and they aren't windmills. The historically correct term for all wind-powered machines of this type (pumping and other uses) would be wind engines. Ghughesarch (talk) 19:53, 14 August 2013 (UTC)

 * I don't agree. The term 'windpump' is is a good descriptive title and a more generic term - the term 'American style windmill' would only cover part of what this article describes. If you wanted to know about the ones used historically to drain The Fens or The Broads in England or the polders in Holland you wouldn't search for 'American style windmill' as that isn't what they are. In fact, the United Nations use the generic term 'windpump' in the excellent article here However, anyone searching for the term windmill will find a general article on windmills which has a section on windpumps that points to this page. I will create a redirect page for American-style windmill and then there won't be a problem. Richerman ''   (talk) 07:01, 16 August 2013 (UTC)

Wikidata
Currently the interwiki links on Wikidata for this article mix up two different things: These are not the same. The latter does not necessarily have to be used as a pump, it may also be used to power an electric generator or other machinery. Therefore, I'm going to split up the links on Wikidata. --Tetris L (talk) 10:21, 4 March 2014 (UTC)
 * 1) the links on en, ca, es, wa refer to wind-powered pumps
 * 2) the links on cs, da, de, eo, fy, nl, refer to multi-bladed wind turbines, a.k.a "American" windmills, wind wheels or wind motors
 * Done. We now have
 * Q1730505 for wind-powered pumps
 * Q15854792 for american-style windmills
 * --Tetris L (talk) 11:45, 4 March 2014 (UTC)

source about U.S. windpump manufacturers
This NRHP document for Canon Ranch Railroad Eclipse Windmill in Texas contains some good history about windpump manufacturers in the U.S.: . --Doncram (talk) 02:06, 30 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Windpump


text:
Columbian

Columbian is the adjective form of Columbia. It may refer to:

Buildings

 * The Columbian Theatre, a music hall in northeastern Kansas
 * The Columbian (Chicago), a building in Illinois

Published works

 * The Columbian, a daily newspaper published in Vancouver, Washington, U.S.
 * Olympia Pioneer and Democrat, the first newspaper published in what is now the state of Washington, was known in its first two years (1852-53) as The Columbian.
 * The Columbian Orator, a collection of political essays, poems, and dialogues first published in 1797
 * Columbian Magazine, a monthly magazine published from 1786 to 1792

Transportation

 * Columbian (B&O train), a passenger train operated by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad until 1971
 * Columbian (MILW train), a passenger train which operated from 1911 to 1955
 * Sternwheeler Columbian disaster, a sternwheeler lost in the worst accident in the Yukon River's history in 1906
 * 2-4-2, a type of steam locomotives, also called Columbian type

Other uses

 * Columbian (typography), a name for 16-point type
 * Columbian Period, the geological period 2060–1780 MYA named after the supercontinent Columbia
 * An early alternative name for inhabitants of the United States
 * Columbian Issue, a set of U.S. postage stamps marking the 1893 World Columbian Exposition
 * World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago, Illinois, in 1893
 * Columbian High School, Tiffin, Ohio
 * Columbian School (disambiguation)
 * Anything pertaining to the Knights of Columbus, (i.e. Columbian values)

title: Columbian


text:
Frede

Frede can be a given or surname.

Mononym

 * Frede (cabaret manager), French lesbian and cabaret manager (1914–1976)

Given name

 * Frede Blaabjerg, Danish professor (1940–)
 * Frede Castberg, Norwegian jurist (1893–1977)
 * Frede Hansen, Danish gymnast (1897–1979)
 * Frede Jensen, Danish footballer (1919–1970)
 * Frede Jensen (philologist) (1926–2008)
 * Frede Johansen, Danish professional darts player (1969–)
 * Frede Schött, Danish speedway rider (1970–)

Surname

 * Adele Frede, birth name of Danish silent film actress Valda Valkyrien (1895–1956)
 * Eric Frede, American sportscaster
 * Michael Frede, scholar of ancient philosophy (1940–2007)

Other

 * Frede, a demonym for the United States
 * Slå først Frede! (Strike First Freddie), a 1965 film
 * Slap af, Frede! (Relax Freddie), a 1966 film

title: Frede


text:
Unisan

Unisan may refer to:

 * Unisan, Quezon
 * Unisan Island, Guimaras, Philippines

title: Unisan