text:
Wabi-sabi

In traditional Japanese aesthetics, wabi-sabi (侘び寂び) is a world view centered on the acceptance of transience and imperfection. The aesthetic is sometimes described as one of appreciating beauty that is "imperfect, impermanent, and incomplete" in nature. It is prevalent in many forms of Japanese art.

is a composite of two interrelated aesthetic concepts, wabi (侘) and sabi (寂). According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, may be translated as "subdued, austere beauty," while  means "rustic patina." is derived from the Buddhist teaching of the three marks of existence (三法印), specifically impermanence (無常), suffering (苦) and emptiness or absence of self-nature (空).

Characteristics of aesthetics and principles include asymmetry, roughness, simplicity, economy, austerity, modesty, intimacy, and the appreciation of both natural objects and the forces of nature.

Description
can be described as "the most conspicuous and characteristic feature of what we think of as traditional Japanese beauty. It occupies roughly the same position in the Japanese pantheon of aesthetic values as do the Greek ideals of beauty and perfection in the West." Another description of by Andrew Juniper notes that, "If an object or expression can bring about, within us, a sense of serene melancholy and a spiritual longing, then that object could be said to be ." For Richard Powell, " nurtures all that is authentic by acknowledging three simple realities: nothing lasts, nothing is finished, and nothing is perfect."

When it comes to thinking about an English definition or translation of the words wabi and sabi Andrew Juniper explains that, "They have been used to express a vast range of ideas and emotions, and so their meanings are more open to personal interpretation than almost any other word in the Japanese vocabulary." Therefore, an attempt to directly translate wabi-sabi may take away from the ambiguity that is so important to understanding how the Japanese view it.

After centuries of incorporating artistic and Buddhist influences from China, eventually evolved into a distinctly Japanese ideal. Over time, the meanings of and  changed to be more lighthearted and hopeful. Around 700 years ago, particularly among the Japanese nobility, understanding emptiness and imperfection was honored as tantamount to the first step to or enlightenment. In today's Japan, the meaning of is often condensed to "wisdom in natural simplicity". In art books, it is typically defined as "flawed beauty". artworks often emphasize the process of making the piece and that it is ultimately incomplete.

From an engineering or design point of view, may be interpreted as the imperfect quality of any object, due to inevitable limitations in design and construction/manufacture especially with respect to unpredictable or changing usage conditions; in this instance,  could be interpreted as the aspect of imperfect reliability, or the limited mortality of any object, hence the phonological and etymological connection with the Japanese word lit. 'to rust' (錆). Although the kanji characters for "rust" are not the same as sabi (寂) in, the original spoken word (pre-kanji, ) are believed to be one and the same. and both suggest sentiments of desolation and solitude. In the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe, these may be viewed as positive characteristics, representing liberation from a material world and transcendence to a simpler life. Since Mahayana philosophy predicates that genuine understanding is reached through experience rather than words, may best be appreciated non-verbally.

Although the and  concepts are religious in origin, actual usage of the words in Japanese is often quite casual, in keeping with the syncretic nature of Japanese belief.

Education
In one sense is a training whereby the student of  learns to find the most basic, natural objects interesting, fascinating and beautiful. Fading autumn leaves would be an example. can change the student's perception of the world to the extent that a chip or crack in a vase makes it more interesting and gives the object greater meditative value. Similarly materials that age such as bare wood, paper and fabric become more interesting as they exhibit changes that can be observed over time.

History
Wabi-sabi has roots in ancient Chinese Taoism and Zen Buddhism. It started to shape Japanese culture when the Zen priest Murata Jukō (村田珠光, 1423–1502) modified the tea ceremony. He introduced simple, rough, wooden and clay instruments to replace the gold, jade, and porcelain of the Chinese style tea service that was popular at the time. About one hundred years later, the tea master Sen no Rikyū (千利休, 1522 – April 21, 1591) introduced wabi-sabi to the royalty with his design of the teahouse. "He constructed a teahouse with a door so low that even the emperor would have to bow in order to enter, reminding everyone of the importance of humility before tradition, mystery, and spirit."

In Japanese arts
At first, something that exhibited wabi-sabi qualities could only be discovered; it could be "found in the simple dwellings of the farmers that dotted the landscape, epitomized in neglected stone lanterns overgrown with moss or in simple bowls and other household utensils used by the common folk." However, towards the end of the late medieval period, the ruling class began using these aesthetic values to intentionally create "tea ceremony utensils, handicrafts, tea ceremony rooms and cottages, homes, gardens, even food and sweets, and above all manners and etiquette."

Many forms of Japanese art have been influenced by Zen and Mahayana philosophy over the past thousand years, with the concepts of the acceptance and contemplation of imperfection, and constant flux and impermanence of all things being particularly important to Japanese arts and culture. Accordingly, many Japanese art forms can be seen to encapsulate and exemplify the ideals of wabi-sabi.

Garden design
Japanese gardens started out as very simple open spaces that were meant to encourage kami, or spirits, to visit. During the Kamakura period Zen ideals began to influence the art of garden design in Japan. Temple gardens were decorated with large rocks and other raw materials to build Karesansui or Zen rock gardens. "Their designs imbued the gardens with a sense of the surreal and beckoned viewers to forget themselves and become immersed in the seas of gravel and the forests of moss. By loosening the rigid sense of perception, the actual scales of the garden became irrelevant and the viewers were able to then perceive the huge landscapes deep within themselves."

Tea gardens
Due to the tea garden’s close relationship with the tea ceremony, "the tea garden became one of the richest expressions of wabi sabi." These small gardens would usually include many elements of wabi-sabi style design. They were designed in a way that set the scene for the visitor to make their own interpretations and put them in the state of mind in order to participate in the tea ceremony.

Poetry
Japanese poetry such as tanka and haiku are very short and focus on the defining attributes of a scene. "By withholding verbose descriptions the poem entices the reader to actively participate in the fulfillment of its meaning and, as with the Zen gardens, to become an active participant in the creative process." One of the most famous Japanese poets, Basho, was credited with establishing sabi as definitive emotive force in haiku. Many of his works, as with other wabi-sabi expressions, make no use of sentimentality or superfluous adjectives, only the "devastating imagery of solitude."

Ceramics
As the preference for the more simplistic and modest was on the rise, Zen masters found the ornate ceramics from China less and less attractive and too ostentatious. Potters began to experiment with a more free expression of beauty and strayed away from uniformity and symmetry. New kilns gave potters new colors, forms, and textures, allowing them to create pieces that were very unique and nonuniform. These potters used a specific kind of firing which was thought to produce the best ceramics due to the part played by nature and the organic ash glazes, a clear embodiment of wabi-sabi.

For example: Hon'ami Kōetsu's (本阿弥 光悦; 1558 – 27 February 1637) white raku bowl called "Mount Fuji" (Shiroraku-Chawan, Fujisan) listed as a national treasure by the Japanese government.

Kintsugi, a specific technique that uses gold lacquer to repair broken pottery, is considered a wabi-sabi expression.

Flower arrangement
Sen no Rikyu saw the rikka style that was popular at the time and disliked its adherence to formal rules. He did away with the formalism and the opulent vases from China, using only the simplest vases for the flower displays (chabana) in his tea ceremonies. Instead of using more impressive flowers, he insisted on the use of wildflowers. "Ikebana, like the gardens, uses a living medium in the creative process, and it is this ingredient of life that brings a unique feel to flower arrangements."

Ikebana then became a very important part of the tea ceremony, and the flowers were treated with the utmost respect. "When a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he will place it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a Japanese room. It rests there like an enthroned prince, and the guests or disciples on entering the room will salute it with a profound bow before making their addresses to the host."

Other examples
(the traditional (bamboo flute) music of wandering Zen monks)

A contemporary Japanese exploration of the concept of can be found in the influential essay In Praise of Shadows by Jun'ichirō Tanizaki.

Other examples include:
 * The cultivation of bonsai (miniature trees) – a typical bonsai design features wood with a rough texture, pieces of deadwood, and trees with hollow trunks, all intended to highlight the passage of time and nature. Bonsai are often displayed in the autumn or after they have shed leaves for the winter, in order to admire their bare branches.
 * Tea ceremony.

Influence upon the West
has been employed in the Western world in a variety of contexts, including in the arts, technology, media, and mental health, among others.

The arts
Many Western designers, writers, poets and artists have utilised ideals within their work to varying degrees, with some considering the concept a key component of their art, and others using it only minimally.

 * Designer Leonard Koren (born 1948) published for Artists, Designers, Poets & Philosophers (1994) as an examination of, contrasting it with Western ideals of beauty. According to Penelope Green, Koren's book subsequently "became a talking point for a wasteful culture intent on penitence and a touchstone for designers of all stripes." This is the book that first introduced the term "wabi-sabi" into Western aesthetic discourse.
 * concepts historically had extreme importance in the development of Western studio pottery; Bernard Leach (1887–1979) was deeply influenced by Japanese aesthetics and techniques, which is evident in his foundational book A Potter's Book.
 * The work of American artist John Connell (1940–2009) is also considered to be centered on the idea of ; other artists who have employed the idea include former Stuckist artist and remodernist filmmaker Jesse Richards (born 1975), who employs it in nearly all of his work, along with the concept of.
 * Some haiku in English also adopt the aesthetic in written style, creating spare, minimalist poems that evoke loneliness and transience, such as Nick Virgilio's "autumn twilight:/ the wreath on the door/ lifts in the wind".

Technology
During the 1990s, the concept was borrowed by computer software developers and employed in agile programming and wiki, used to describe acceptance of the ongoing imperfection of computer programming produced through these methods.

Mental health
Wabi-sabi has been evoked in a mental health context as a helpful concept for reducing perfectionist thinking.

In media
In 2009, Marcel Theroux presented "In Search of Wabi Sabi" on BBC Four, as part of the channel's Hidden Japan season of programming, travelling throughout Japan trying to understand the aesthetic tastes of its people. Theroux began by comically enacting a challenge from the book Living by Taro Gold, asking members of the public on a street in Tokyo to describe  – the results of which showed that, just as Gold predicted, "they will likely give you a polite shrug and explain that Wabi Sabi is simply unexplainable."

title: Wabi-sabi


text:
Northern lapwing

The northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), also known as the peewit or pewit, tuit or tewit, green plover, or (in Ireland and Great Britain) pyewipe or just lapwing, is a bird in the lapwing subfamily. It is common through temperate Eurosiberia.

Taxonomy
The northern lapwing was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa vanellus. The species is now placed with the other lapwings in the genus Vanellus that was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The scientific name Vanellus is Medieval Latin for the northern lapwing and derives from vannus, a winnowing fan. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.

The name lapwing has been variously attributed to the "lapping" sound its wings make in flight, from the irregular progress in flight due to its large wings (the Oxford English Dictionary derives this from an Old English word meaning "to totter"), or from its habit of drawing potential predators away from its nest by trailing a wing as if broken. The names peewit, pewit, tuit or tew-it are onomatopoeic and refer to the bird's characteristic call.

Description
The northern lapwing is a 28 – long bird with a 67 – wingspan and a body mass of 128 - 330 g. It has rounded wings and a crest. It is also the shortest-legged of the lapwings. It is mainly black and white, but the back is tinted green. The male has a long crest and a black crown, throat and breast contrasting with an otherwise white face. Females and young birds have shorter crests, and have less strongly marked heads, but plumages are otherwise quite similar.

This is a vocal bird in the breeding season, with constant calling as the crazed tumbling display flight is performed by the male. The typical contact call is a loud, shrill "pee-wit" from which they get their other name of peewit. Displaying males usually make a wheezy "pee-wit, wit wit, eeze wit" during their display flight; these birds also make squeaking or mewing sounds.

Behaviour
It is highly migratory over most of its extensive range, wintering further south as far as North Africa, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China. It migrates mainly by day, often in large flocks. Lowland breeders in westernmost areas of Europe are resident. It occasionally is a vagrant to North America, especially after storms, as in the Canadian sightings after storms in December 1927 and in January 1966.

It is a wader that breeds on cultivated land and other short vegetation habitats. 3–4 eggs are laid in a ground scrape. The nest and young are defended noisily and aggressively against all intruders, up to and including horses and cattle.

In winter, it forms huge flocks on open land, particularly arable land and mud-flats.

It feeds primarily on insects and other small invertebrates. This species often feeds in mixed flocks with golden plovers and black-headed gulls, the latter often robbing the two plovers, but providing a degree of protection against predators.

Like the golden plovers, this species prefers to feed at night when there is moonlight.

The northern lapwing is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

Population decline
National surveys of England and Wales have shown a population decline between 1987 and 1998, and since 2009 the northern lapwing has had red list conservation status in the United Kingdom. The numbers of this species have been adversely affected by intensive agricultural techniques. In the lowlands this includes the loss of rough grassland, conversion to arable or improved grassland, loss of mixed farms, and switch from spring- to autumn-sown crops. In the uplands, the losses may have been due to increases in grazing density. Natural England gives grant aid to help restore lapwing habitat within its Environmental Stewardship Scheme. The organisation suggests an option within this scheme called 'Fallow plots for ground-nesting birds'. Uncropped plots at least 2 ha in size provide nesting habitat and are located in suitable arable fields, which provide additional foraging habitat. Locating the plots within 2 km of extensively grazed grassland will provide additional foraging habitat. The plots are cultivated in the spring to produce a rough fallow, which is retained without the input of fertiliser or pesticides. In addition to agricultural intensification and land-use change, predation of nests and chicks contributes to wader declines, including of lapwing. By radio-tagging lapwing chicks, and using automatic radio tracking systems, the timing of chick predation can be revealed, which provides additional insights into the importance of different predators. Lapwing chicks are predated both in the day and at night, with mammalian predators having the greatest impact.

In Armenia, the population decline and loss of breeding habitats was also documented; the threats are thought to be intensification of land use and hunting, but further investigations for threat clarification are required. In the Middle East, the northern lapwing is threatened by overhunting as it is shot in large quantities along its winter migration routes. Several photos surfacing from the region show many Northern lapwings, alongside other migratory birds including the threatened European turtle dove and European golden-plover, killed for sport in unsustainable and unnecessary numbers.

Harvesting eggs
"Plover's eggs" were an expensive delicacy in Victorian Europe, mentioned in Evelyn Waugh's Brideshead Revisited, about aristocratic British society in 1920–40. In the Netherlands, there is a cultural-historical competition to find the first peewit egg of the year (het eerste kievietsei). It is especially popular in the province Friesland, but there are also regional competitions. Gathering peewit eggs is prohibited by the European Union, but Friesland was granted an exception for cultural-historical reasons. The Frisian exception was removed in 2005 by a court, which determined that the Frisian executive councillors had not properly followed procedure. As of 2006 looking for peewit eggs is permitted between 1 March and 9 April, though harvesting the eggs is now forbidden. In 2008 the first egg was found on 3 March, in Eemnes, Utrecht, and the first egg of 2009 was found on 8 March in Krabbendijke. Over the last century, the first peewit egg has been found earlier and earlier in the year. This is ascribed to both increased use of fertiliser and climate change, causing the growth of grass needed for egg laying to occur earlier.

In Ireland

The northern lapwing was declared the Republic of Ireland's national bird by a committee of the Irish Wildlife Conservancy in 1990. In the Irish language it is called pilibín, "little Philip", supposedly a reference to Philip II of Spain (King of Ireland 1554–58), who often wore a feather in his cap.

Mythology
The bird referred to in English translations of Ovid's Metamorphoses, book 6, as lapwing is probably the northern lapwing. Tereus is turned into an epops (6.674); Ovid presumably had the hoopoe in mind, whose crest indicates his royal status and whose long, sharp beak is a symbol of his violent nature.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Northern lapwing


text:
Arrest

An arrest is the act of apprehending and taking a person into custody (legal protection or control), usually because the person has been suspected of or observed committing a crime. After being taken into custody, the person can be questioned further and/or charged. An arrest is a procedure in a criminal justice system, sometimes it is also done after a court warrant for the arrest.

Police and various other officers have powers of arrest. In some places, a citizen's arrest is permitted; for example in England and Wales, any person can arrest "anyone whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be committing, have committed or be guilty of committing an indictable offence", although certain conditions must be met before taking such action. Similar powers exist in France, Italy, Germany, Austria and Switzerland if a person is caught in an act of crime and not willing or able to produce valid ID.

As a safeguard against the abuse of power, many countries require that an arrest must be made for a thoroughly justified reason, such as the requirement of probable cause in the United States. Furthermore, in most democracies, the time that a person can be detained in custody is relatively short (in most cases 24 hours in the United Kingdom and 24 or 48 hours in the United States and France) before the detained person must be either charged or released.

Etymology

The word "arrest" is Anglo-Norman in origin, derived from the French word arrêt meaning 'to stop or stay' and signifies a restraint of a person. Lexicologically, the meaning of the word arrest is given in various dictionaries depending upon the circumstances in which the word is used. There are numerous slang terms for being arrested throughout the world. In British slang terminology, the term "nicked" is often synonymous with being arrested, and "nick" can also refer to a police station, and the term "pinched" is also common. In the United States and France the term "collared" is sometimes used. The terms "lifted" or "picked up" are also heard on occasion.

India
According to Indian law, no formality is needed during the procedure of arrest. The arrest can be made by a citizen, a police officer or a Magistrate. The police officer needs to inform the person being arrested the full particulars of the person's offence and that they are entitled to be released on bail if the offence fits the criteria for being bailable. There is no general rule of eligibility or requirement that a police officer must handcuff a person who is being arrested. When there is a question regarding handcuffing a person, case law has stated that the choice to handcuff a person is dependent on the surrounding circumstances, and that officers should always take the proper precautions to ensure the safety of themselves, and the public.

Distinction between arrest and detention
In the United States, there exists a distinction between an investigatory stop or detention, and an arrest. The distinction tends to be whether or not the stop is "brief and cursory" in nature, and whether or not a reasonable individual would feel free to leave.

Minor crimes and infractions
When there exists probable cause to believe that a person has committed a minor crime, such as petty theft, driving on a suspended license, or disturbing the peace, law enforcement agents typically issue the individual a citation but do not otherwise detain them. The person must then appear in court on the date provided on the citation. Prior to the court date, the prosecution will decide whether to file formal criminal charges against the individual. When the accused appears in court, they will be advised if formal criminal charges have been filed. If charges are filed, they will be asked to plead guilty or not guilty at the initial court hearing, which is referred to as the arraignment.

Arrests for serious crimes
When a person is arrested for a serious crime, the defendant will have their picture taken and be held in pre-trial detention. Under certain circumstances (that is where the public won't be endangered by one's release from custody), the defendant may be entitled to release on bail. If the accused cannot post a monetary bail, they will appear at their arraignment where the judge will determine if the bail set by the schedule should be lowered.

Also, in certain states, the prosecution has 48 hours to decide whether or not to file formal charges against the accused. For example, in California, if no formal charges are filed within the 48-hour period, the accused must be released from the arresting host's custody. If formal charges are filed, the accused will be asked to appear at their arraignment. At the arraignment, the accused will be asked to plead guilty or not guilty, and the judge will set a bail amount (or refuse to set bail) for the accused.

England and Wales
Arrests under English law fall into two general categories—with and without a warrant—and then into more specific subcategories. Regardless of what power a person is arrested under, they must be informed that they are under arrest and of the grounds for their arrest at the time or as soon after the arrest as is practicable, otherwise the arrest is unlawful.

Northern Ireland
Arrest powers in Northern Ireland are informed by the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989. This order legislates operational standards during arrest, questioning and charging a person suspected of committing a crime. Breach of this order may affect the investigation. Arrestees in Northern Ireland have the right to contact a person to inform them of an arrest, and legal representation.

Arrest with a warrant
A justice of the peace can issue warrants to arrest suspects and witnesses.

Arrest without a warrant
There are four subcategories of arrest without warrant:
 * under the provisions of section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE), which only applies to constables,
 * under the provisions of section 24A of PACE, applies to those who are not constables,
 * the power to arrest for a breach of the peace at common law, which applies to everyone (constable or not and includes a power of entry), and
 * the powers to arrest otherwise than for an offence, which apply to constables only.

United States
United States law recognizes the common law arrest under various jurisdictions.

Hong Kong
The police may arrest a person according to a warrant issued by a Magistrate under sections 31, 72, 73 or 74 of the Magistrates Ordinance. For example, an arrest warrant may be issued if an accused person does not appear in Court when he is due to answer a charge.

However, an arrest warrant is not always necessary. Under section 50(1) of the Police Force Ordinance, a police officer can "apprehend" (i.e. arrest) a person if he reasonably suspects the person being arrested is guilty of an offence. Whether there is such a reasonable suspicion in a particular case is to be determined objectively by reference to facts and information which the arresting officer has at the time of the arrest. It is not necessary that the officer knows the exact statutory provision that the suspect has violated, so long as the officer reasonably suspects that the suspect has done something amounting to an offence.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a person must be told that they are under arrest in simple, non-technical language, the essential legal and factual grounds for his arrest. A person must be 'cautioned' when being arrested or subject to a criminal prosecution procedure, unless this is impractical due to the behaviour of the arrested person.

The caution required in England and Wales states, "'You are under arrest on suspicion of (offence). You do not have to say anything, but it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.'"

Minor deviations from the words of any caution given do not constitute a breach of the Code of Practise, provided the sense of the caution is preserved.

The caution required in Scotland states:

"You are not obliged to say anything, but anything you do say will be noted and may be used in evidence."

United States
Based on the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Miranda v. Arizona, after making an arrest, the police must inform the detainee of the Fifth Amendment and Sixth Amendment rights for statements made during questioning to be admissible as evidence against the detainee in court. A Miranda warning is required only when a person is in custody (i.e., is not free to leave) and is being interrogated, and the results of this interrogation are to be used in court An officer is not required to inform a person of the Miranda rights if the officer will not be questioning the detainee any further after the arrest. An officer is also not necessarily required to provide a Miranda warning if the person being questioned has not been arrested or if an arrested person speaks spontaneously without being questioned. There is also an exception that permits questioning without providing the warning under circumstances involving urgent matters of public safety.

One common formulation of the warning is "'You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can be used against you in court. You have the right to talk to a lawyer for advice before we ask you any questions. You have the right to have a lawyer with you during questioning. If you cannot afford a lawyer, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish. If you decide to answer questions now without a lawyer present, you have the right to stop answering at any time.'"

The warning must inform the detainee that they have the right to be silent, the right to legal counsel (and the availability of pro bono legal assistance), and that what the detainee says can be used against them. The failure to provide a detainee with an adequate warning could make information obtained from an interrogation inadmissible in court, but does not prevent other evidence from being used to obtain a conviction. As in the British system, the exact phrasing of the warning is not explicitly mandated under federal law. There are also additional requirements about the warning that vary from state to state and may depend on the circumstances (such as when the arrestee is a non-citizen or juvenile). Since the exact wording used in an arrest is legally important, police officers often carry a printed copy of the rights, and read from it when providing the warning to ensure accuracy.

Hong Kong
Immediately after the arrest, the police must inform the arrested of their right to remain silent. They may choose whether or not to answer any questions posed by the police (except that they may need to provide their name and address to the police). The police officer will caution them by saying,

"You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say will be put into writing and may be given in evidence."

United States
Breach of a court order can be considered civil contempt of court, and a warrant for the person's arrest may be issued. Some court orders contain authority for a police officer to make an arrest without further order.

If a legislature lacks a quorum, many jurisdictions allow the members present the power to order a call of the house, which orders the arrest of the members who are not present. A member arrested is brought to the body's chamber to achieve a quorum. The member arrested does not face prosecution, but may be required to pay a fine to the legislative body.

Following arrest
While an arrest will not necessarily lead to a criminal conviction, it may nonetheless in some jurisdictions have serious ramifications such as absence from work, social stigma, and in some cases, the legal obligation to disclose a conviction when a person applies for a job, a loan or a professional license. In the United States a person who was not found guilty after an arrest can remove their arrest record through an expungement or (in California) a finding of factual innocence. A cleared person has the choice to file a complaint or a lawsuit if they choose to. Legal action is sometimes filed against the government after a wrongful arrest.

For convictions, the collateral consequences are more severe in the United States than in the UK, where arrests without conviction do not appear in standard criminal record checks and need not be disclosed, whereas in the United States, people have to expunge or (if the case goes to court) seal arrest without convictions, or if the charges are dropped. However, in the UK, Enhanced Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) disclosures permit a Chief Constable to disclose this data if they believe it relevant to the post for which the DBS disclosure was applied.

title: Arrest


text:
Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction

Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction is a book written by Frank Schmalleger. It is intended to serve as an introductory text in the study of the American criminal justice system. There have been eight editions with the latest written in 2010. The text is printed by Prentice Hall and Pearson Education. The publisher is Jeff Johnston.

Schmalleger states, "Criminal justice is a dynamic and fluid field of study. As accelerated change engulfs American society, it is appropriate that a streamlined and up-to-date book be in the hands of students. The information age and all that it has wrought is here..."

Schmalleger adds, "It is my hope that the technological and publishing revolutions will combine with growing social awareness to facilitate needed changes in our system; and will supplant self-serving system-perpetuated injustices with new standards of equity, compassion, understanding, fairness, and justice for all."

title: Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction


text:
Provinces of Indonesia

Provinces are the first-level administrative divisions of Indonesia. It is formerly called the first-level provincial region (provinsi daerah tingkat I) before the Reform era. Provinces have a local government, consisting of a governor (Gubernur) and a regional legislative body (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Provinsi). The governor and members of local representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms, but governors can only serve for two terms. Provincial governments have the authority to regulate and manage their own government affairs, subject to the limits of the central government. The average land area of all 38 provinces in Indonesia is about 50,120.23 km2, and an average population of about 7,345,233 people.

Currently, Indonesia is divided into 38 provinces, nine of which have special autonomous status. The terminology for special status are "Istimewa" and "Khusus", which translates to 'special' or 'designated' in English. Provinces are further divided into regencies and cities (formerly called second-level region regencies and cities or kabupaten/kotamadya daerah tingkat II), which are in turn subdivided into districts (kecamatan).

Background
Article 18 paragraph 1 of the 1945 Constitution states that "the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia is divided into provincial regions and those provincial regions are divided into regencies and city, whereby every one of those provinces, regencies, and municipalities has its regional government, which shall be regulated by laws."

According to the Law on Regional Government (UU 23/2014) the authority of the Provincial Government includes:

 * 1) Development planning and control;
 * 2) Planning, utilization, and community peace;
 * 3) Implementation of public order and public peace;
 * 4) Provision of public facilities and infrastructure;
 * 5) Handling the health sector;
 * 6) Education and allocation of potential human resources;
 * 7) Handling social problems across regencies/cities;
 * 8) Services in the field of manpower across regencies/cities;
 * 9) Facilitating the development of cooperatives, small and medium enterprises, including across districts/cities;
 * 10) Environmental control;
 * 11) Defense services, including across regencies/cities;
 * 12) Population and civil registration services;
 * 13) Government general administration services;
 * 14) Investment administration services, including across regencies/cities;
 * 15) The implementation of other basic services that cannot be carried out by regencies/cities; and
 * 16) Other mandatory affairs mandated by laws and regulations.

The authority of the provincial government are government affairs which are located across regencies/municipalities, government affairs whose users are across regencies/municipalities, government affairs whose benefits or negative impacts lie across regencies/municipalities, government affairs which use more resources. efficient if carried out by the province.

Each province has a local government, headed by a governor and a legislative body (DPRD). The governor and members of local representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms, but governors can only serve for two terms. The general election to elect members of the DPRDs is conducted simultaneously with the national general election. Previously, the general elections for Governor and Vice Governor were not held simultaneously. However, since 2015 regional head elections have been held simultaneously. Under the plan, simultaneous partial local elections will be held in February 2017, June 2018, December 2020, culminating in simultaneous elections for all local executive posts on November 2024 and then every five years.

Current provinces
Click on a province name to go to its main article

Special autonomy
The decentralization of some power and autonomy to provinces is called for by Article 18 of the Constitution of Indonesia, and this article was expanded through amendments in October 1999 in the period following the fall of Suharto. Some provinces have been granted additional autonomy beyond this. The form this special autonomy takes is not standardized, with provinces gaining different formulations of specific autonomy based on particular political imperatives.
 * The Special Region of Yogyakarta, which was autonomous under Dutch rule, was (along with Surakarta) given consideration for autonomy as part of Law no. 1 of 1945. Autonomy for Yogyakarta was confirmed directly through Law no. 3 of 1950, the first granting of special autonomy to a province. This status has been maintained until the present, with some tweaks from additional laws. Sultan Hamengkubuwono serves as a hereditary governor and Adipati Paku Alam as a hereditary vice-governor.
 * Rebellion in Aceh due to demands for a stricter implementation of Islamic law has led to several shifts in political status. Specific autonomy was initially granted to the province through Law no. 24 of 1956. Further autonomy was given through the declaration that Aceh was a "special region" on 23 May 1959, later formalized through Law no. 18 of 1965. Following the fall of Suharto, Law no. 44 of 1999 and Law no. 18 of 2001 created a new framework that was adopted by both parties through Law no. 11 of 2006. This law provides privileged status regarding implementation of Islamic law in religious life, customary life, and education. Aceh also received its own development fund for a period of 20 years.
 * The province of Papua was granted special autonomy through Law no. 21 of 2001. This was a response to independence movements that had been present in the province since it became part of Indonesia, and occurred alongside the renaming of the province from Irian Jaya to Papua. This gave Papua a greater portion of revenue, autonomy outside reserved areas maintained by the central government, and 20 years of a special development fund. Before special autonomy was implemented, West Papua was split from Papua in 2003, although both kept special autonomy. The special autonomy for both provinces was renewed in 2021, including a renewal and increase of the special autonomy fund. Included in this new legislation was the provision to create new provinces, and in July 2022 new national legislation split South Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua from Papua through Law Number 14 of 2022, Law Number 15 of 2022, and Law Number 16 of 2022 respectively. Law No. 29 of 2022 was enacted in December 2022 splitting Southwest Papua from West Papua.
 * The Special Capital Region of Jakarta has its own status, due to it being the country's capital city.

Geographical units
The provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units for statistical and national planning purposes, but without administrative function.

Former provinces

Upon the independence of Indonesia, eight provinces were established. West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Maluku still exist as of today despite later divisions, while Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Nusa Tenggara, formerly Lesser Sunda (Sunda Kecil) were fully liquidated by dividing them into new provinces. The province of Central Sumatra existed from 1948 to 1957, while East Timor was annexed as a province from 1976 until its power transfer to UNTAET in 1999 prior to its independence as a country in 2002.

Former provincial capitals

 * Tanjungpinang to Pekanbaru, Riau (until 1959)
 * Jakarta to Bandung, West Java (until 1960)
 * Singaraja to Denpasar, Bali (until 1960)
 * Soasio, Tidore to Sukarnopura, West Irian (1956–1963)
 * Dili, East Timor (1975–1999), later became the capital of Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
 * Ternate to Sofifi, North Maluku (until 2010)
 * Banjarmasin to Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan (until 2022)

title: Provinces of Indonesia


text:
Newsreel

A newsreel is a form of short documentary film, containing news stories and items of topical interest, that was prevalent between the 1910s and the mid 1970s. Typically presented in a cinema, newsreels were a source of current affairs, information, and entertainment for millions of moviegoers. Newsreels were typically exhibited preceding a feature film, but there were also dedicated newsreel theaters in many major cities in the 1930s and ’40s, and some large city cinemas also included a smaller theaterette where newsreels were screened continuously throughout the day.

By the end of the 1960s television news broadcasts had supplanted the format. Newsreels are considered significant historical documents, since they are often the only audiovisual record of certain cultural events.

History

Silent news films were shown in cinemas from the late 19th century. In 1909 Pathé started producing weekly newsreels in Europe. Pathé began producing newsreels for the UK in 1910 and the US in 1911.

Newsreels were a staple of the typical North American, British, and Commonwealth countries (especially Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), and throughout European cinema programming schedule from the silent era until the 1960s when television news broadcasting completely supplanted its role. The National Film and Sound Archive in Australia holds the Cinesound Movietone Australian Newsreel Collection, a comprehensive collection of 4,000 newsreel films and documentaries representing news stories covering all major events.

The first official British news cinema that only showed newsreels was the Daily Bioscope that opened in London on May 23, 1909. In 1929, William Fox purchased a former cinema called the Embassy. He changed the format from a $2 show twice a day to a continuous 25-cent programme, establishing the first newsreel theater in the United States; the idea was such a success that Fox and his backers announced they would start a chain of newsreel theaters across the country. The newsreels were often accompanied by cartoons or short subjects.

The First World War saw the major countries using the newest technologies to develop propaganda for home audiences. Each used carefully edited newsreels to combine straight news reports and propaganda. During the Second World War, the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, a state organization in Nazi Germany for disseminating stories favorable to the administration's goals, created Die Deutsche Wochenschau (1940–1945). There were no other newsreels disseminated within the country during the war.

In some countries, newsreels generally used music as a background for usually silent on-site film footage. In some countries, the narrator used humorous remarks for light-hearted or non-tragic stories. In the U.S., newsreel series included The March of Time (1935–1951), Pathé News (1910–1956), Paramount News (1927–1957), Fox Movietone News (1928–1963), Hearst Metrotone News (1914–1967), and Universal Newsreel (1929–1967). Pathé News was distributed by RKO Radio Pictures from 1931 to 1947, and then by Warner Brothers from 1947 to 1956.

An example of a newsreel story can be found in the film Citizen Kane (1941), which was prepared by RKO's actual newsreel staff. Citizen Kane includes a fictional newsreel called "News on the March" that summarizes the life of title character Charles Foster Kane while parodying The March of Time.

On August 12, 1949, one hundred twenty cinema technicians employed by Associated British Pathé in London went on strike to protest the dismissal of fifteen men on the grounds of redundancy while conciliation under trade union agreements was pending. Their strike lasted through to at least Tuesday August 16, the Tuesday being the last day for production on new newsreels shown on the Thursday. Events of the strike resulted in over three hundred cinemas across Britain having to go without newsreels that week.

Television news
In 1936, when the BBC Television Service was launched in the United Kingdom, it was airing the British Movietone and Gaumont British newsreels for several years (except for a hiatus during World War II), until 1948, when the service launched their own newsreel programme, titled Television Newsreel, that would last until July 1954, when it was replaced by News and Newsreel. On February 16, 1948, NBC launched a ten-minute television program called Camel Newsreel Theatre with John Cameron Swayze that featured newsreels with Swayze doing voiceovers. Also in 1948, the DuMont Television Network launched two short-lived newsreel series, Camera Headlines and I.N.S. Telenews, the latter in cooperation with Hearst's International News Service.

On August 15, 1948, CBS started their evening television news program Douglas Edwards and the News. Later the NBC, CBS, and ABC(USA) news shows all produced their own news film.

In New Zealand, the Weekly Review was "the principal film series produced in the 1940s". The first television news broadcasts in the country, incorporating newsreel footage, began in 1960.

Demise
Newsreel-producing companies excluded television companies from their distribution, but the television companies countered by sending their own camera crews to film news events.

Newsreels died out because of the nightly television news broadcast, and technological advances such as electronic news-gathering for television news, introduced in the 1970s, rendered them obsolete.

Newsreel cinemas either closed or went to showing continuous programmes of cartoons and short subjects, such as the London Victoria Station News Cinema, later Cartoon Cinema that opened in 1933 and closed in 1981.

The last American newsreel was released on December 26, 1967, the day after Christmas. Nonetheless, some countries such as Cuba, Japan, Spain, and Italy continued producing newsreels into the 1980s and 1990s.

Retrospectives
A 1978 Australian film titled Newsfront is a drama about the newsreel business.

A 2016 Irish documentary, Éire na Nuachtscannán ("Ireland in the Newsreels") looked at the newsreel age in Ireland, mostly focusing on Pathé News and how the (British) company altered its newsreels for an Irish audience.

title: Newsreel


text:
User:Mjolnir 1 2001

Heard About Wikipedia on NPR's "Science Friday" recently and just had to come "check it out". Not much input on my part as of yet, but give me a chance...the year is still young.

title: User:Mjolnir 1 2001


text:
Outline of criminal justice

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to criminal justice:

Criminal justice – system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts.

Parts of the criminal justice system

 * 1) Legislative system – network of legislatures that create laws.
 * 2) Judiciary system – network of courts that interpret the law in the name of the state, and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in accordance with the rule of law.
 * 3) Corrections system – network of governmental agencies that administer a jurisdiction's prisons, probation, and parole systems.

In the 17th century, William Penn began to promote reform in the criminal justice system and helped to see these changes implemented. After the American Revolution, the U.S. Constitution was created which guaranteed freedoms and rights that were never in place in colonial days. This was the starting point to setting guidelines for crimes, punishment and procedures that need to be followed to protect the rights of the innocent. Our modern system of criminal justice is the result of several evolutionary changes that society has undergone since the inception of the United States. Over the years, Americans have developed mechanisms that institute and enforce the rules of society as well as assign responsibility and punish offenders. Today, those functions are carried out by the police, the courts, and corrections. The early beginnings of the criminal justice system in the United States lacked this structure.

In fact, before formal rules, laws, and institutions were established in the United States, Americans relied on religion and sin as a means of shaping society and its behaviors. Many colonial crime codes were defined in biblical terms, making offenses such as profanity, blasphemy, and sacrileges of the Sabbath highly punishable. Punishments such as dunking, stoning, and whipping were designed to humiliate the offender and ultimately lead towards their repentance. Ironically, we still see this desire to make offenders remorseful for their criminal acts but more so for the victims of crime than to a higher power.

Crime
Crime – "ongoing conspiratorial enterprise engaged in illicit activities as a means of generating income (as black money). Structured like a business into a pyramid shaped hierarchy, it freely employs violence and bribery to maintain its operations, threats of grievous retribution (including murder) to maintain internal and external control, and thuggery and contribution to election campaigns to buy political patronage for immunity from exposure and prosecution. Its activities include credit card fraud, gun running, illegal gambling, insurance fraud, kidnapping for ransom, narcotics trade, pornography, prostitution, racketeering, smuggling, vehicle theft, etc." a hierarchically structured secret organization allegedly engaged in smuggling, racketeering, trafficking in narcotics, and other criminal activities in the U.S., Italy, and elsewhere. the use of physical force to harm someone, to damage property, etc.
 * Organized crime –
 * Mafia –
 * Violence –
 * great destructive force or energy

Crimes
the wrongful taking and carrying away of the personal goods of another from his or her possession with intent to convert them to the taker's own use. larceny. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved February 14, 2016 from Dictionary.com website http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/larceny an unlawful act causing injury to the person, property, or rights of another, committed with force or violence, actual or implied. a wrongful entry upon the lands of another. the action to recover damages for such an injury. trespass. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved February 13, 2016 from Dictionary.com website http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/trespass
 * Larceny –
 * Trespass –

Misdemeanors
Misdemeanor – a criminal offense defined as less serious than a felony. an instance of misbehavior; misdeed. misdemeanor. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved February 13, 2016 from Dictionary.com website http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/misdemeanor

Felonies
Felony –
 * Arson –
 * Assault –
 * Burglary –
 * Elder abuse –
 * Embezzlement –
 * Entrapment –
 * Espionage –
 * Forgery –
 * Hate crime –(also called Bias Crime)
 * Kidnapping –
 * Murder –
 * Perjury –
 * Prostitution –
 * Rape –
 * Robbery –
 * Shoplifting –
 * Terrorism –
 * Theft –
 * Treason –
 * War crime –

General concepts in criminal justice

 * Abuse defense –
 * Actus reus –
 * Administrative law –
 * Affray –
 * Arraignment –
 * Arrest warrant –
 * Attendant circumstances –
 * Bail –
 * Booking –
 * Case law –
 * Causation –
 * Chain of custody –
 * Citizen's arrest –
 * civil law –
 * Clearance rate –
 * Common law –
 * Concurrence –
 * Concurrent sentence –
 * Conflict model –
 * Consecutive sentence –
 * Command responsibility –
 * Consensus model –
 * Corpus delicti –
 * Corrections –
 * Creative lawyering –
 * Crime –
 * Crime control –
 * Crime index –
 * Criminal justice –
 * Criminology –
 * Death penalty –
 * Defense (legal) –
 * Defense of property –
 * Denial of a speedy trial –
 * Deterrence –
 * Diminished responsibility –
 * Diminished responsibility in English law –
 * Double jeopardy –
 * Due process –
 * Evidentiary hearing –
 * Excuse –
 * Execution warrant –
 * Grand jury –
 * Ignorance of the law –
 * Inchoate offense –
 * Indictable offence –
 * Indictment –
 * Individual rights –
 * Infraction –
 * Innovative defense –
 * Insanity defense –
 * Islamic law –
 * Jurisprudence –
 * Jury instructions –
 * Jury nullification –
 * Jury trial –
 * Justice –
 * Justification –
 * Kangaroo court –
 * Law –
 * Liability –
 * Manslaughter –
 * Manslaughter in English law –
 * M'Naghten Rules –
 * * Mens rea –
 * Miranda Warning –
 * Mistake –
 * Motive –
 * Motor vehicle theft –
 * Murder in English law –
 * Negligence –
 * Obscenity –
 * Offense –
 * Pardon –
 * Penal law –
 * Peremptory pleas –
 * Plea bargain –
 * Precedent –
 * Predator –
 * Preliminary hearing –
 * Prescription –
 * Prison reform –
 * Probable cause –
 * Probation –
 * Procedural defense –
 * Prosecutorial misconduct –
 * Provocation –
 * Provocation in English law –
 * Public order –
 * Recidivism –
 * Resisting unlawful arrest –
 * Restorative justice –
 * Selective prosecution –
 * Self defense and defense of others –
 * Sentence –
 * Sharia –
 * Social control –
 * * Stare decisis –
 * Star Chamber –
 * Statutory law –
 * Suicide –
 * Summary offence –
 * Trial –
 * Trial by jury –
 * Trial de novo –
 * Warrant –
 * Writ –
 * Writ of Habeas Corpus –

title: Outline of criminal justice


text:
Booking

Booking may refer to:
 * Making an appointment for a meeting or gathering, as part of event planning/scheduling
 * The intake or admission process into a prison or psychiatric facility.
 * Booking (manhwa), a Korean comics anthology magazine published by Haksan
 * Booking (professional wrestling), the laying out of the plot before a professional wrestling match
 * An accounting system a.k.a. double-entry bookkeeping system
 * Booking (clubbing), the practise of forced socialisation in South Korean clubs
 * Booking Holdings, American company
 * Booking.com, a website for arranging hotel reservations
 * Booking, scheduling services performed by a talent agent
 * The noting of an offending player in professional sports, when they are shown a Penalty card

title: Booking


text:
Bail

Bail is a set of pre-trial restrictions that are imposed on a suspect to ensure that they will not hamper the judicial process. Court bail may be offered to secure the conditional release of a defendant with the promise to appear in court when required. In some countries, especially the United States, bail usually implies a bail bond, a deposit of money or some form of property to the court by the suspect in return for the release from pre-trial detention. If the suspect does not return to court, the bail is forfeited and the suspect may be charged with the crime of failure to appear. If the suspect returns to make all their required appearances, bail is returned after the trial is concluded.

In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, bail is more likely to consist of a set of restrictions that the suspect will have to abide by for a set period of time. Under this usage, bail can be given both before and after charge. Bail offered before charge is known as pre-charge or police bail, to secure the suspect's release under investigation.

For minor crimes, a defendant may be summoned to court without the need for bail, or may be released on recognizance (promising to appear in court, with no bail required) following arraignment. For serious crimes, or for suspects who are deemed likely to fail to turn up in court, they may be remanded (detained) while awaiting trial. A suspect is given bail in cases where remand is not justified but there is a need to provide an incentive for the suspect to appear in court. Bail amounts may vary depending on the type and severity of crime the suspect is accused of; practices for determining bail amounts vary.

Bail bond
In the United States, it is common for bail to be a cash (or other property) deposit. Cash bail in other countries is more limited. Known as a bail bond or cash bail, an amount of money is posted so that the suspect can be released from pre-trial detention. This deposit is refunded if the suspect makes all of their required court appearances.

In 46 US states, a commercial bail bondsman can be paid to deposit bail money on behalf of a detained individual. This practice is mostly illegal in the rest of the world. In Germany, the use of bail bondsmen is legal if the court allows it in its decision to grant cash bail. Illinois, Kentucky, Oregon, and Wisconsin have outlawed commercial bail bonds, while New Jersey and Alaska rarely permit money bail.

Australia
Bail laws in Australia are similar to the laws of New Zealand and Canada, but are different in each state. Each state holds that there is a prima facie entitlement to bail for most charges upon application by a defendant. However, there is an exception when the charges are especially serious, such as drug trafficking, family violence or murder. In such cases, there is no entitlement to bail, and it must be argued as to what circumstances exist that justify a grant of bail.

In Victoria, bail may be refused to a defendant who faces a more serious charge unless the defendant demonstrates compelling reasons why bail should be granted. Compelling reasons may generally be established by demonstrating that jail is an unlikely outcome for the charge, or that bail conditions can be imposed that make re-offending unlikely. In cases where a defendant is charged with murder, terrorism or offending with a moderately serious charge while on bail, to become eligible for bail the defendant must prove exceptional circumstances. Exceptional circumstances are difficult to demonstrate, but may arise as a consequence of significant delay in a criminal prosecution.

Canada
As in other Commonwealth nations, people charged with a criminal offence in Canada have a prima facie right to reasonable bail (known in Canada as 'judicial interim release') unless there is some compelling reason to deny it. These reasons can be related to the accused's likelihood to skip bail, or to public danger resulting from the accused being at large. Unlike many other jurisdictions granting a constitutional right to bail, in Canada the accused may be denied bail because the public confidence in the administration of justice may be disturbed by letting the individual go free pending the completion of the trial or passing of sentence (Criminal Code, s. 515 (10)(c)). Sureties and deposits can be imposed, but are optional.

Czech Republic
 Notable Czech bail cases
 * Radovan Krejčíř
 * charged with fraud (2004)
 * bail denied, following Krejčíř's complaint bail set at CZK 40 million (~€1.6 million), then denied by appellate court following state prosecutor's complaint
 * David Rath
 * charged with accepting bribe (2012)
 * bail set at CZK 14 million (~€560,000)

 * Michal Hala
 * charged with accepting bribe (2012)
 * bail set at CZK 4 million (~€160,000), but denied and returned by appellate court following prosecutor's complaint
 * Randy Blythe
 * charged with intentionally inflicting bodily harm which resulted in death (i.e. manslaughter) (2012)
 * bail set at CZK 4 million, then doubled by appellate court following prosecutor's complaint
 * Robert Rosenberg
 * charged with procuring prostitution, trafficking (2008)
 * bail set at CZK 600,000 (~€24,000)

Instead of remand, a court in the Czech Republic may decide to accept:

 * a guaranty from a trustworthy person or association
 * a written word of honor from the person charged
 * surveillance by a probation officer
 * bail

Bail can be considered when a charged person is held because of concern of possible escape or of a continuation of criminal activity. Bail cannot be considered where there is a concern of influencing witnesses or otherwise frustrating of the proceedings. Bail is also excluded in case of 31 specified serious crimes (e.g. murder, grievous bodily harm, rape, robbery, public endangerment, etc.) when the person is held due to concern of continuation of criminal activity. Bail may be posted either by the charged person, or with his or her consent, by a third party, but this only after this third party has received a thorough briefing regarding the charges and reasons for custody and possible grounds for the forfeiture of the bail.

After the bail has been posted, the court must again review the grounds for bail, and must decide either to accept or refuse the bail. When accepting the bail, the court may also require the charged person to stay in the country.

The court may decide to rescind the bail if the charged person
 * escapes, is in hiding or fails to report a change of address and thus frustrates the possibility of delivery of summons or other documents from the court, the prosecution or the police, or
 * is at fault for failing to appear for a proceeding, which may not take part without him or her, or
 * continues criminal activity, or attempts to finish the crime which they had attempted or threatened previously, or
 * is evading execution of imprisonment sentence, court ordered fine or other court ordered punishment.

The court holds out on bail as long as the reasons for custody remain (which includes pending of the charges), and in case of conviction until the convict starts serving prison sentence, reimburses the criminal proceedings and/or pays court ordered fine. In case that the court decided also on damages and the aggrieved party asks for it within three months, the bail or its part may be used also to reimburse the damages. Otherwise, the court returns the bail.

Both the prosecutor and the person in custody may challenge any decision on custody (including bail) by filing a complaint which leads to review by an appellate court.

Denmark
The possibility of posting bail is mentioned in passing in § 71, part 3, of the constitution of Denmark.

"Anyone who is arrested must be put before a judge within 24 hours. If the arrestee cannot immediately be released, the judge must issue a decision, accompanied by grounds, as soon as possible and at the latest within three days, as to whether he is to be jailed, and, if he may be released against guaranty, determine the kind and size hereof. In the case of Greenland, this decision may be deviated from by law, insofar as it must be seen as required by spatial circumstances."

The possibility is further established in Retsplejeloven (the law relating to the administration of justice) § 765:

"If the requirements for the use of pre-trial detention are present, but the purpose of the detention may be achieved by less invasive measures, the court, with the consent of the charged, makes a decision about a substitute for pre-trial detention. Part 2. The court may thus decide, that the charged must (...) supply an economic guaranty for his presence at the court meeting and the carrying-out of any sentencing."

However, the practise is rarely used. For example, there were seven instances during the period 1973–1987.

France
In France, bail may be ordered by the examining magistrate or the judge of freedoms and detention within the framework of judicial control in French law (before the trial). It guarantees:
 * The representation of the indicted person, the accuser or the accused in all the acts of the procedure and for the execution of the judgment, as well as, if necessary, the execution of the other obligations which were imposed on them. This part is restored if the person under examination has presented themselves to all the acts of the procedure, satisfied the obligations of the judicial control and submitted to the execution of the judgment;
 * A payment in the order defined below. This part is returned in the event of dismissal in French criminal proceedings.

India
Indian law stresses the principles of presumption of innocence. The principle embodies freedom from arbitrary detention and serves as a bulwark against punishment before conviction. More importantly, it prevents the State from successfully employing its vast resources to cause greater damage to an un-convicted accused than he/she can inflict on society. While considering bail applications of the accused, courts are required to balance considerations of personal liberty with public interest. Accordingly, the granting of bail should be the rule rather than the exception. The Supreme Court has laid down in its judgements,

"Personal liberty, deprived when bail is refused, is too precious a value of our constitutional system recognized under Article 21 that the crucial power to negate it is a great trust exercisable, not casually but judicially, with lively concern for the cost to the individual and community. To glamorize impressionistic orders as discretionary may, on occasions, make a litigation gamble decisive of a fundamental right. After all, the personal liberty of an accused or convict is fundamental, suffering lawful eclipse only in terms of procedure established by law."

The courts have also held that foreign nationals cannot be deprived of the right to seek bail. The Delhi High Court observed,

"Law does not permit any differentiation between Indian Nationals and Foreign citizens in the matter of granting bail. What is permissible is that, considering the facts and circumstances of each case, the court can impose different conditions which are necessary to ensure that the accused will be available for facing the trial. It cannot be said that an accused will not be granted bail because he is a foreign national."

The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 does not define bail, although the terms bailable offence and non-bailable offence have been defined in section 2(a) of the Code. A Bailable offence is defined as an offence which is shown as bailable in the First Schedule of the Code or which is made bailable by any other law, and non-bailable offence means any other offence. A person who is arrested for a 'bailable' offence may secure bail at the police station, while those who fail to secure police bail and those arrested for non-bailable offences have to secure bail in court.

Sections 436 to 450 set out the provisions for the grant of bail and bonds in criminal cases. The amount of security that is to be paid by the accused to secure his release has not been mentioned in the code. Thus, it is left to the discretion of the court to put a monetary cap on the bond. The Supreme Court of India has delivered several cases wherein it has reiterated that the basic rule is – bail and not jail. One such instance came in State of Rajasthan, Jaipur v. Balchand alias Baliay which the Supreme Court decided on 20 September 1977, and held that the basic rule is bail, not jail, except where there are circumstances suggestive of fleeing from justice or thwarting the course of justice or creating other troubles in the shape of repeating offences or intimidating witnesses and the like by the petitioner who seeks enlargement on bail from the court. The bench of Krishnaiyer, V.R. had observed that when considering the question of bail, the gravity of the offence involved and the heinousness of the crime which are likely to induce the petitioner to avoid the course of justice must weigh with the court. Taking into consideration the facts of the case the apex court held that the circumstances and the social milieu do not militate against the petitioner being granted bail.

When a person accused of a crime is arrested, his statement is recorded and information such as the name, residence address, birthplace, charges filed are noted. The police officer may also check back the criminal record if any in the police station and ask for fingerprints to file a case against the accused. Under the Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 (First Schedule), offences have been classified as "bailable" and "non-bailable" offences. In the case of bailable offences, if the accused produces proper surety, and fulfils other conditions, it is binding upon the Investigating officer to grant bail. However, in case of a non-bailable offence, the police cannot grant bail; it can only be granted by a judicial magistrate/judge. The Investigating Officer must produce the accused before the judicial magistrate/judge concerned within 24 hours of his arrest. At that time, the accused has a right to apply for bail. Depending upon the facts of the case, the judge decides whether bail should be granted. If bail is granted the accused must deposit money with the court. Generally, for lesser crimes, a standard amount is asked to be deposited for awarding the bail.

There are some conditions put under section 437 of the Cr.P.C. wherein bail can be requested even for a non-bailable offence. In non-bailable cases, bail is not the right of the accused, but the discretion of the judge if regards the case as fit for the grant of bail, it regards imposition of certain conditions as necessary in the circumstances. Section 437(3) elaborates the conditions set by the law to get bail in non-bailable offences. The sub-section says that when a person accused or suspected of the commission of an offense punishable with imprisonment which may extend to seven years or more or of an offense under Chapter VI, Chapter XVI or Chapter XVII of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) or abatement of, or conspiracy or attempt to commit, any such offense, is released on bail under sub-section (1). However, for that, the Court has the power to impose any condition which it considers necessary. Some conditions that the court may place while granting bail are to ensure that such person shall attend in accordance with the conditions of the bond executed under this Chapter, or to ensure that such person shall not commit an offence similar to the offence of which they are accused or of the commission of which they are suspected, or otherwise in the interests of justice.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, those charged with a criminal offence have a right to be released on bail with reasonable terms and conditions, unless there is a good reason for continuing to be held in custody.

When one is arrested the police decide whether to grant the person bail until their court date. After that the courts will have discretion whether to grant bail again, if the case is not resolved at the first court appearance.

When considering granting bail, the police and courts take into consideration factors such as: the persons likelihood of showing up to court, the nature of the offence, the persons past conduct, whether the person will offend again while out on bail, and the risk of evidence/witnesses being tampered with. Certain offences (such as violence, drug-dealing, or repeat offenders) automatically disqualify persons from being granted bail. People who have previously breached their bail or the conditions associated with it are less likely to be granted bail again.

Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, bail (bannaí, from Old Norse band, "binding") is when a person enters a written bond (recognisance), committing to appear before the court to answer the charges made against them. A person may be required to lodge money as part of their bail. A surety is a person who makes themselves responsible for a prisoner coming to court. They promise to pay a sum of money to the court if the prisoner does not appear as agreed; however, commercial bail bonding as in the U.S. is illegal.

There are three kinds of bail:
 * Station bail: set by a Garda Síochána. A common condition is that the prisoner must report to his/her local Garda station once or several times a day.
 * Court bail: set by the judge in the District Court. The prisoner (or his/her surety) must pay the court at least one-third of the amount of money promised in the bail bond.
 * High Court bail: if the prisoner is charged with a very serious crime, only the High Court can grant bail.

In People (AG) v O'Callaghan (1966), the Irish Supreme Court had ruled that the provisions of Article 40.4 of the Irish Constitution, which guarantees personal liberty and the principle of habeas corpus, meant that an individual charged with a crime could only be refused bail if they were likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence. The Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, approved by referendum in 1996, provided that a court could refuse bail to a suspect where it feared that while at liberty they would commit a serious criminal offence. The Bail Act 1997 was passed by the Oireachtas the following year, and it governs bail in the Republic.

England and Wales
In the modern English bail system, monetary payments play a very small role. Securities and sureties can be taken as conditions for being granted bail, but these amounts are not excessive. Wider restrictions such as curfews, electronic monitoring, presenting at a police station, and limits on meeting specific people or going to specific places are more common conditions.

Bail is regulated primarily by the Bail Act 1976 and the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, both of which have been heavily amended by later legislation such as the Policing and Crime Act 2017.

The Bail Act 1976 was enacted with the aims of creating more conditions by which defendants could be denied bail and also redefining the parameters of fulfilling bail. The Bail Act also nullified the recognizance system, removing the requirement of paying a specific amount of money and instead arresting defendants for failing to surrender. The Bail Act created a qualified right to be granted bail before conviction, except for when certain factors applied. This does not guarantee a person will get bail, but it places the onus on the prosecution to demonstrate why bail should be refused in preference to custody.

In England and Wales there are three types of bail that can be given:
 * Police bail. A suspect is released without being charged but must return to the police station at a stated time.
 * Police to court. After being charged, a suspect is given bail but must attend their first court hearing at the date and Court stated.
 * Court bail. After a court hearing, a suspect is granted bail pending further investigation or while the case continues.

Scotland
Bail can be granted by any of the courts of Scotland, with the final decision in solemn proceedings being with the High Court of Justiciary. All crimes are bailable, and bail should be granted to any accused person "except where there is good reason for refusing bail". The Bail, Judicial Appointments etc. (Scotland) Act 2000, an Act of the Scottish Parliament, had removed the previous restrictions on bail that meant that murder and treason were not ordinarily bailable. However, a person could be bailed when accused of these crimes on application of the Lord Advocate or by a decision of the High Court itself. The Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 reintroduced restrictions on the granting of bail by requiring exceptional circumstances to be shown when a person is accused of a violent, sexual or drugs offence, and they have a prior conviction for a similar offence.

In Scotland, the focus is normally for those who are opposed to bail to convince the courts that bail should not be granted, with the procurator fiscal given guidance to use the nature and gravity of an offence as grounds to oppose bail.

A person who is refused bail can appeal against the refusal to either the Sheriff Appeal Court for summary proceedings in the Sheriff Courts and Justice of the Peace Courts and solemn proceedings in the Sheriff Courts, or to the High Court of Justiciary when a case is on trial there. The High Court of Justiciary has final authority to decide all bail decisions, and will decide on bail appeals for cases before the High Court on first instance. A Procurator Fiscal or Advocate Depute can request the High Court to review any bail decision where they believe that bail should not have been granted.

United States
The 8th Amendment to the United States Constitution states, "Excessive bail shall not be required", thus establishing bail as a constitutionally-protected right. What constitutes "excessive" is a matter of judicial discretion, and bail can be denied if the judge feels that it will not aid in forcing the accused back to trial. Money bail is the most common form of bail in the United States and the term "bail" often specifically refers to such a deposit, but other forms of pre-trial release are permitted; this varies by state.

Many states have a "bail schedule" that lists the recommended bail amount for a given criminal charge. At the first court appearance (the arraignment), the judge can set the bail at the amount listed on the schedule or at a different amount based on the specific facts of the crime and the person accused.

A common criticism of bail in the United States is that a suspect's likelihood of being released is significantly affected by their economic status and systemic racial bias. Once detained pretrial, these economically disadvantaged people have been shown to experience conditions in jails that improperly induce guilty pleas (whether or not they are factually or legally guilty). In response, in 2014 New Jersey and Alaska have abolished cash bail for all but a limited number of court cases. Though the California legislature attempted to eliminate cash bail in 2018, this change was vetoed by California Proposition 25 in November 2020. In 2019, New York passed bail reform legislation that took effect on January 1, 2020, eliminating cash bail for many misdemeanor and non-violent felony charges. However, this law was later narrowed by the governor due to public pushback led by prosecutors and law enforcement officials.

title: Bail


text:
Authority

Authority is commonly understood as the legitimate power of a person or group over other people. In a civil state, authority is practiced by the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. The term authority has many nuances and distinctions within various academic fields ranging from sociology to political science.

In the exercise of governance, the terms authority and power are inaccurate synonyms. The term authority identifies the political legitimacy, which grants and justifies the ruler's right to exercise the power of government; and the term power identifies the ability to accomplish an authorized goal, either by compliance or by obedience; hence, authority is the power to make decisions and the legitimacy to make such legal decisions and order their execution.

History
Ancient understandings of authority trace back to Rome and draw later from Catholic (Thomistic) thought and other traditional understandings. In more modern terms, forms of authority include transitional authority (exhibited in, for example, Cambodia), public authority in the form of popular power, and, in more administrative terms, bureaucratic or managerial techniques. In terms of bureaucratic governance, one limitation of the governmental agents of the executive branch, as outlined by George A. Krause, is that they are not as close to the popular will as elected representatives are. The claims of authority can extend to national or individual sovereignty, which is broadly or provisionally understood as a claim to political authority that is legitimated.

Historical applications of authority in political terms include the formation of the city-state of Geneva, and experimental treatises involving the topic of authority in relation to education include Emile, or On Education by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. As David Laitin defines, authority is a key concept to be defined in determining the range and role of political theory, science and inquiry. The relevance of a grounded understanding of authority includes the basic foundation and formation of political, civil and/or ecclesiastical institutions or representatives. In recent years, however, authority in political contexts has been challenged or questioned.

Political philosophy
There have been several contributions to the debate of political authority. Among others, Hannah Arendt, Carl Joachim Friedrich, Thomas Hobbes, Alexandre Kojève and Carl Schmitt have provided some of the most influential texts.

In European political philosophy, the jurisdiction of political authority, the location of sovereignty, the balancing of notions of freedom and authority, and the requirements of political obligations have been core questions from the time of Plato and Aristotle to the present. Most democratic societies are engaged in an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent of the exercise of governmental authority. In the United States, for instance, there is a prevailing belief that the political system as instituted by the Founding Fathers should accord the populace as much freedom as reasonable; that government should limit its authority accordingly, known as limited government.

Political anarchism is a philosophy which rejects the legitimacy of political authority and adherence to any form of sovereign rule or autonomy of a nation-state. An argument for political anarchy is made by Michael Huemer in his book The Problem of Political Authority. On the other side, one of the main arguments for the legitimacy of the state is some form of the social contract theory developed by Thomas Hobbes in his 1668 book, Leviathan, or by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his political writings on the social contract.

Sociology
Since the emergence of the social sciences, authority has become a subject of research in a variety of empirical settings: the family (parental authority), small groups (informal authority of leadership), intermediate organizations such as schools, churches, armies, industries and bureaucracies (organizational and bureaucratic authority), and society-wide or inclusive organizations, ranging from the most primitive tribal society to the modern nation-state and intermediate organization (political authority).

The definition of authority in contemporary social science remains a matter of debate. Max Weber in his essay "Politics as a Vocation" (1919) divided legitimate authority into three types. Others, like Howard Bloom, suggest a parallel between authority and respect/reverence for ancestors.

United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms
The political authority in the British context can be traced to James VI and I of Scotland who wrote two political treatises called Basilikon Doron and The True Law of Free Monarchies: Or, The Reciprocal and Mutual Duty Between a Free King and His Natural Subjects which advocated his right to rule on the basis of the concept of the divine right of kings, a theological concept that has a basis in multiple religions, but in this case, Christianity, tracing this right to the apostolic succession.

Sovereign kings and queens in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms are considered the foundations of judicial, legislative and executive authority.

United States
The understanding of political authority and the exercise of political powers in the American context traces back to the writings of the Founding Fathers, including the arguments put forward in The Federalist Papers by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and the first chief justice of the United States John Jay, and later speeches by the 16th president of the United States Abraham Lincoln. "Our government rests in public opinion," Lincoln said in 1856. In his 1854 speech at Peoria, Illinois, Lincoln espoused the proposition “that each man should do precisely as he pleases with all which is exclusively his own," a principle existing "at the foundation of the sense of justice." This sense of personal ownership and stewardship was integral to the practice of self-government as Lincoln saw it by a Republican nation and its people. This was because, as Lincoln also declared, "No man is good enough to govern another man, without that other's consent."

The U.S. president is called to give account to the legislature for the conduct of the whole government, including that of regulatory agencies. The president influences the appointments, the budgeting process and has the right and capacity to review regulatory rules on a case-by-case basis. Since the time of the Reagan administration the president was informed with a cost–benefit analysis of the regulation. The creation of a regulatory agency requires an Act of Congress which specifies its jurisdiction, the related authority and delegated powers. Regulatory authorities can be qualified as independent agencies or executive branch agencies, a choice which is the reason of struggle between congress and the president as well as with the American courts. The latter's role is limited by the authorities' power to regulate property rights without the due process rights mandatorily applied by the courts.

title: Authority


text:
Royalist

A royalist supports a particular monarch as head of state for a particular kingdom, or of a particular dynastic claim. In the abstract, this position is royalism. It is distinct from monarchism, which advocates a monarchical system of government, but not necessarily a particular monarch. Most often, the term royalist is applied to a supporter of a current regime or one that has been recently overthrown to form a republic.

In the United Kingdom, today the term is almost indistinguishable from "monarchist" because there are no significant rival claimants to the throne. Conversely, in 19th-century France, a royalist might be either a Legitimist, Bonapartist, or an Orléanist, all being monarchists.

United Kingdom

 * The Wars of the Roses were fought between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians
 * During the English Civil War the Royalists or Cavaliers supported King Charles I and, in the aftermath, his son King Charles II
 * Following the Glorious Revolution, the Jacobites supported the deposed James II and his Stuart successors to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland
 * Following the Glorious Revolution, the Loyalists supported the Williamite dynasty, and after the ascension of George I to the British throne in 1714, the Hanoverian dynasty to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland

Russia

 * During the Russian Civil War, the Royalists constituted a part of the White Army.

Yugoslavia

 * During and especially towards at the end of World War II in Yugoslavia, the royalist Chetniks supported the exiled king of Yugoslavia.

France

 * Legitimists, French royalists upholding Salic Law
 * Chouannerie, a royalist group during the French Revolution
 * Ultra-royalists, a 19th-century reactionary faction of the French parliament
 * Orléanists, who, in late 18th and 19th century France, supported the Orléans branch of the House of Orléans, which came to power in the French monarch July Revolution
 * Bonapartists, supporters of the Bonaparte imperial line.

Japan

 * Nanboku-cho Seijunron (南北朝正閏論) – The debate on legitimacy in the Nanboku-cho period. The Southern and Northern dynasties are in conflict; the present emperor is part of the Northern dynasty.
 * Tenno Kikan Setsu (天皇機関説, Emperor Organ Theory) – Based on the theory of state juridical person represented by the German public law scholar Georg Jelinek, the constitutional scholar Minobe Tatsukichi and others advocated this theory.
 * Tenno Shuken Setsu (天皇主権説, Imperial Sovereignty Theory) – Hozumi Yatsuka, Uesugi Shinkichi and others opposed the Tenno Kikan Setsu and argued that the sovereignty was with the emperor.
 * Tennosei (天皇制) or kokutai (国体) – In modern Japan, all political parties, with the exception of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP), recognise the Emperor System. In recent years, even the JCP has weakened its opposition to the emperor system to accommodate the majority of the population who recognise him.
 * Anti-monarchism – Some far-left extremists call for the abolition of the emperor system, but most of the Japanese people recognise the emperor and support for this is infinitesimal.

Low countries

 * Union of Arras, states of the Netherlands loyal to Philip II
 * Orangism in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg
 * Supporters of the return of Leopold III as King of the Belgians after the Second World War, also called Leopoldists

Portugal

 * Miguelist, a supporter of King Miguel

Spain

 * Alfonsism
 * Carlist, a Spanish legitimist
 * Royalist (Spanish American Revolution), a supporter of continued Spanish rule during the Latin American wars of independence

Italy

 * During World War II the royalists were Italians who supported Victor Emmanuel III and the government of Pietro Badoglio after the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini was overthrown.

China

 * Chinese Empire Reform Association (Royalist Society) in the late Qing dynasty, an organisation that supported the pro-reform Guangxu Emperor and advocated constitutional monarchy as a peaceful political reform, against both the conservative rulers (such as the Empress Dowager Cixi) who opposed any reform and the Tongmenghui which sought to overthrow the Chinese monarchy and establish the Republic of China)
 * Royalist Party: This militant party was established during the Xinhai Revolution, and was vehemently opposed to the new Republic of China. It tried to use politics and later violence in order to restore the Qing dynasty or at least some form of monarchy, but failed.

Cambodia
The FUNCINPEC Party (ហ្វ៊ុនស៊ិនប៉ិច; Front uni national pour un Cambodge indépendant, neutre, pacifique et coopératif), National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia is a royalist political party in Cambodia founded in 1981. The party draws its inspiration from the political legacy of the former King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk.

Iran
The Constitutionalist Party of Iran (CPI) is a liberal democratic party founded in 1994 (originally as the Constitutional Movement of Iran) and is based in exile. The party favors a constitutional monarchy in Iran but isn't opposed to a republic based on referendum. It also supports returning of Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi as the next shah of Iran.

United States

 * Loyalists during the American Revolution (and the ensuing American Revolutionary War) were American colonists opposed to seceding from the Kingdom of Great Britain and instead remained loyal to the British Crown. After the war ended in independence for the Thirteen Colonies, many loyalists emigrated north to British North America (Present-day Canada), referring to themselves as the United Empire Loyalists.

Malaysia

 * Johor Royalists Club is a non-governmental organization which was founded in the State of Johor, within the Federation of Malaysia, on 23 March 2015. Its mission is to restore the "Order", and its objectives are to support the monarchy of Johor; to create awareness of the heritage of the monarchy of Johor; and to close up racial relations through the monarchy of Johor. Its membership is open to pure Johoreans (Anak Jati Johor) who, and both of whose parents, were born in Johor, and are loyal (and only loyal) to the Sultan of Johor. It operates in the form of a people's congress, and has a standing committee to manage the day-to-day affairs.

Nepal
The Rastriya Prajatantra Party was founded on the principles of democracy, constitutional monarchy, nationalism and economic liberalization. When the monarchy was abolished in 2008 and Nepal was declared a secular state, the Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal changed its constitution to support monarchy and the re-establishment of the Hindu state.

title: Royalist


text:
Angora goat

The Angora or Ankara is a Turkish breed of domesticated goat. It produces the lustrous fibre known as mohair. It is widespread in many countries of the world. Many breeds derive from it, among them the Indian Mohair, the Soviet Mohair, the Angora-Don of the Russian Federation and the Pygora in the United States.

History
The origin of the Angora is not known. The earliest Western description may be that published in 1555 by Pierre Belon, who while travelling from Heraclea to Konya in southern Turkey had seen goats with snow-white "... wool so delicate that one would judge it finer than silk ...".

Angora goats were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote from 1938 to 1952.

In 1960 there were over 6 million Angora goats in Turkey; the population subsequently dropped sharply. In 2004 the total goat population of the country was approximately 7.2 million; of these, just over 5% were of Angora stock, while the remainder were hair goats. A conservation programme for the Angora was established in 2003.

Characteristics
The Angora is a moderately small goat, standing about $50 cm$ at the withers. It is slender, elegant and light-framed; the head is small, with semi-lop ears. It is usually horned; in billies the horns are commonly long, twisted and strong. With the exception of the face and legs, the animal is entirely covered in a coat of long ringlets of fine and lustrous mohair. This is not goat hair as seen on other breeds, but the down or undercoat which, in this breed only, grows much longer than the outer hair coat. The face and coat are normally white, but – particularly in southern Turkey – black, brown and grey animals also occur.

Use
The goats are reared either for mohair or for their goat's meat. Mohair is not as fine as cashmere, but yields are much higher. Unlike cashmere, which is obtained by combing the coat of the goat, mohair is obtained by shearing; this is commonly done twice per year. In 2010 approximately half of all mohair production was in South Africa; Argentina and Lesotho were also major producers, followed by the United States, Turkey, Australia and New Zealand.

In some other countries the Angora is reared for its meat, which is succulent and tender, and which in the early twentieth century was described as the best of its kind in the world.

title: Angora goat