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Complex geometry

In mathematics, complex geometry is the study of geometric structures and constructions arising out of, or described by, the complex numbers. In particular, complex geometry is concerned with the study of spaces such as complex manifolds and complex algebraic varieties, functions of several complex variables, and holomorphic constructions such as holomorphic vector bundles and coherent sheaves. Application of transcendental methods to algebraic geometry falls in this category, together with more geometric aspects of complex analysis.

Complex geometry sits at the intersection of algebraic geometry, differential geometry, and complex analysis, and uses tools from all three areas. Because of the blend of techniques and ideas from various areas, problems in complex geometry are often more tractable or concrete than in general. For example, the classification of complex manifolds and complex algebraic varieties through the minimal model program and the construction of moduli spaces sets the field apart from differential geometry, where the classification of possible smooth manifolds is a significantly harder problem. Additionally, the extra structure of complex geometry allows, especially in the compact setting, for global analytic results to be proven with great success, including Shing-Tung Yau's proof of the Calabi conjecture, the Hitchin–Kobayashi correspondence, the nonabelian Hodge correspondence, and existence results for Kähler–Einstein metrics and constant scalar curvature Kähler metrics. These results often feed back into complex algebraic geometry, and for example recently the classification of Fano manifolds using K-stability has benefited tremendously both from techniques in analysis and in pure birational geometry.

Complex geometry has significant applications to theoretical physics, where it is essential in understanding conformal field theory, string theory, and mirror symmetry. It is often a source of examples in other areas of mathematics, including in representation theory where generalized flag varieties may be studied using complex geometry leading to the Borel–Weil–Bott theorem, or in symplectic geometry, where Kähler manifolds are symplectic, in Riemannian geometry where complex manifolds provide examples of exotic metric structures such as Calabi–Yau manifolds and hyperkähler manifolds, and in gauge theory, where holomorphic vector bundles often admit solutions to important differential equations arising out of physics such as the Yang–Mills equations. Complex geometry additionally is impactful in pure algebraic geometry, where analytic results in the complex setting such as Hodge theory of Kähler manifolds inspire understanding of Hodge structures for varieties and schemes as well as p-adic Hodge theory, deformation theory for complex manifolds inspires understanding of the deformation theory of schemes, and results about the cohomology of complex manifolds inspired the formulation of the Weil conjectures and Grothendieck's standard conjectures. On the other hand, results and techniques from many of these fields often feed back into complex geometry, and for example developments in the mathematics of string theory and mirror symmetry have revealed much about the nature of Calabi–Yau manifolds, which string theorists predict should have the structure of Lagrangian fibrations through the SYZ conjecture, and the development of Gromov–Witten theory of symplectic manifolds has led to advances in enumerative geometry of complex varieties.

The Hodge conjecture, one of the millennium prize problems, is a problem in complex geometry.

Idea

Broadly, complex geometry is concerned with spaces and geometric objects which are modelled, in some sense, on the complex plane. Features of the complex plane and complex analysis of a single variable, such as an intrinsic notion of orientability (that is, being able to consistently rotate 90 degrees counterclockwise at every point in the complex plane), and the rigidity of holomorphic functions (that is, the existence of a single complex derivative implies complex differentiability to all orders) are seen to manifest in all forms of the study of complex geometry. As an example, every complex manifold is canonically orientable, and a form of Liouville's theorem holds on compact complex manifolds or projective complex algebraic varieties.

Complex geometry is different in flavour to what might be called real geometry, the study of spaces based around the geometric and analytical properties of the real number line. For example, whereas smooth manifolds admit partitions of unity, collections of smooth functions which can be identically equal to one on some open set, and identically zero elsewhere, complex manifolds admit no such collections of holomorphic functions. Indeed, this is the manifestation of the identity theorem, a typical result in complex analysis of a single variable. In some sense, the novelty of complex geometry may be traced back to this fundamental observation.

It is true that every complex manifold is in particular a real smooth manifold. This is because the complex plane $$\mathbb{C}$$ is, after forgetting its complex structure, isomorphic to the real plane $$\mathbb{R}^2$$. However, complex geometry is not typically seen as a particular sub-field of differential geometry, the study of smooth manifolds. In particular, Serre's GAGA theorem says that every projective analytic variety is actually an algebraic variety, and the study of holomorphic data on an analytic variety is equivalent to the study of algebraic data.

This equivalence indicates that complex geometry is in some sense closer to algebraic geometry than to differential geometry. Another example of this which links back to the nature of the complex plane is that, in complex analysis of a single variable, singularities of meromorphic functions are readily describable. In contrast, the possible singular behaviour of a continuous real-valued function is much more difficult to characterise. As a result of this, one can readily study singular spaces in complex geometry, such as singular complex analytic varieties or singular complex algebraic varieties, whereas in differential geometry the study of singular spaces is often avoided.

In practice, complex geometry sits in the intersection of differential geometry, algebraic geometry, and analysis in several complex variables, and a complex geometer uses tools from all three fields to study complex spaces. Typical directions of interest in complex geometry involve classification of complex spaces, the study of holomorphic objects attached to them (such as holomorphic vector bundles and coherent sheaves), and the intimate relationships between complex geometric objects and other areas of mathematics and physics.

Definitions
Complex geometry is concerned with the study of complex manifolds, and complex algebraic and complex analytic varieties. In this section, these types of spaces are defined and the relationships between them presented.

A complex manifold is a topological space $$X$$ such that: Notice that since every biholomorphism is a diffeomorphism, and $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ is isomorphism as a real vector space to $$\mathbb{R}^{2n}$$, every complex manifold of dimension $$n$$ is in particular a smooth manifold of dimension $$2n$$, which is always an even number.
 * $$X$$ is Hausdorff and second countable.
 * $$X$$ is locally homeomorphic to an open subset of $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ for some $$n$$. That is, for every point $$p\in X$$, there is an open neighbourhood $$U$$ of $$p$$ and a homeomorphism $$\varphi: U \to V$$ to an open subset $$V\subseteq \mathbb{C}^n$$. Such open sets are called charts.
 * If $$(U_1,\varphi)$$ and $$(U_2,\psi)$$ are any two overlapping charts which map onto open sets $$V_1, V_2$$ of $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ respectively, then the transition function $$\psi \circ \varphi^{-1}:\varphi(U_1\cap U_2) \to \psi(U_1\cap U_2)$$ is a biholomorphism.

In contrast to complex manifolds which are always smooth, complex geometry is also concerned with possibly singular spaces. An affine complex analytic variety is a subset $$X\subseteq \mathbb{C}^n$$ such that about each point $$p\in X$$, there is an open neighbourhood $$U$$ of $$p$$ and a collection of finitely many holomorphic functions $$f_1, \dots, f_k: U \to \mathbb{C}$$ such that $$X\cap U = \{z\in U \mid f_1(z) = \cdots = f_k(z) = 0\} = Z(f_1,\dots,f_k)$$. By convention we also require the set $$X$$ to be irreducible. A point $$p\in X$$ is singular if the Jacobian matrix of the vector of holomorphic functions $$(f_1,\dots,f_k)$$ does not have full rank at $$p$$, and non-singular otherwise. A projective complex analytic variety is a subset $$X\subseteq \mathbb{CP}^n$$ of complex projective space that is, in the same way, locally given by the zeroes of a finite collection of holomorphic functions on open subsets of $$\mathbb{CP}^n$$.

One may similarly define an affine complex algebraic variety to be a subset $$X\subseteq \mathbb{C}^n$$ which is locally given as the zero set of finitely many polynomials in $$n$$ complex variables. To define a projective complex algebraic variety, one requires the subset $$X\subseteq \mathbb{CP}^n$$ to locally be given by the zero set of finitely many homogeneous polynomials.

In order to define a general complex algebraic or complex analytic variety, one requires the notion of a locally ringed space. A complex algebraic/analytic variety is a locally ringed space $$(X,\mathcal{O}_X)$$ which is locally isomorphic as a locally ringed space to an affine complex algebraic/analytic variety. In the analytic case, one typically allows $$X$$ to have a topology that is locally equivalent to the subspace topology due to the identification with open subsets of $$\mathbb{C}^n$$, whereas in the algebraic case $$X$$ is often equipped with a Zariski topology. Again we also by convention require this locally ringed space to be irreducible.

Since the definition of a singular point is local, the definition given for an affine analytic/algebraic variety applies to the points of any complex analytic or algebraic variety. The set of points of a variety $$X$$ which are singular is called the singular locus, denoted $$X^{sing}$$, and the complement is the non-singular or smooth locus, denoted $$X^{nonsing}$$. We say a complex variety is smooth or non-singular if it's singular locus is empty. That is, if it is equal to its non-singular locus.

By the implicit function theorem for holomorphic functions, every complex manifold is in particular a non-singular complex analytic variety, but is not in general affine or projective. By Serre's GAGA theorem, every projective complex analytic variety is actually a projective complex algebraic variety. When a complex variety is non-singular, it is a complex manifold. More generally, the non-singular locus of any complex variety is a complex manifold.

Kähler manifolds
Complex manifolds may be studied from the perspective of differential geometry, whereby they are equipped with extra geometric structures such as a Riemannian metric or symplectic form. In order for this extra structure to be relevant to complex geometry, one should ask for it to be compatible with the complex structure in a suitable sense. A Kähler manifold is a complex manifold with a Riemannian metric and symplectic structure compatible with the complex structure. Every complex submanifold of a Kähler manifold is Kähler, and so in particular every non-singular affine or projective complex variety is Kähler, after restricting the standard Hermitian metric on $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ or the Fubini-Study metric on $$\mathbb{CP}^n$$ respectively.

Other important examples of Kähler manifolds include Riemann surfaces, K3 surfaces, and Calabi–Yau manifolds.

Stein manifolds
Serre's GAGA theorem asserts that projective complex analytic varieties are actually algebraic. Whilst this is not strictly true for affine varieties, there is a class of complex manifolds that act very much like affine complex algebraic varieties, called Stein manifolds. A manifold $$X$$ is Stein if it is holomorphically convex and holomorphically separable (see the article on Stein manifolds for the technical definitions). It can be shown however that this is equivalent to $$X$$ being a complex submanifold of $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ for some $$n$$. Another way in which Stein manifolds are similar to affine complex algebraic varieties is that Cartan's theorems A and B hold for Stein manifolds.

Examples of Stein manifolds include non-compact Riemann surfaces and non-singular affine complex algebraic varieties.

Hyper-Kähler manifolds
A special class of complex manifolds is hyper-Kähler manifolds, which are Riemannian manifolds admitting three distinct compatible integrable almost complex structures $$I,J,K$$ which satisfy the quaternionic relations $$I^2 = J^2 = K^2 = IJK = -\operatorname{Id}$$. Thus, hyper-Kähler manifolds are Kähler manifolds in three different ways, and subsequently have a rich geometric structure.

Examples of hyper-Kähler manifolds include ALE spaces, K3 surfaces, Higgs bundle moduli spaces, quiver varieties, and many other moduli spaces arising out of gauge theory and representation theory.

Calabi–Yau manifolds
As mentioned, a particular class of Kähler manifolds is given by Calabi–Yau manifolds. These are given by Kähler manifolds with trivial canonical bundle $$K_X = \Lambda^n T_{1,0}^* X$$. Typically the definition of a Calabi–Yau manifold also requires $$X$$ to be compact. In this case Yau's proof of the Calabi conjecture implies that $$X$$ admits a Kähler metric with vanishing Ricci curvature, and this may be taken as an equivalent definition of Calabi–Yau.

Calabi–Yau manifolds have found use in string theory and mirror symmetry, where they are used to model the extra 6 dimensions of spacetime in 10-dimensional models of string theory. Examples of Calabi–Yau manifolds are given by elliptic curves, K3 surfaces, and complex Abelian varieties.

Complex Fano varieties
A complex Fano variety is a complex algebraic variety with ample anti-canonical line bundle (that is, $$K_X^*$$ is ample). Fano varieties are of considerable interest in complex algebraic geometry, and in particular birational geometry, where they often arise in the minimal model program. Fundamental examples of Fano varieties are given by projective space $$\mathbb{CP}^n$$ where $$K=\mathcal{O}(-n-1)$$, and smooth hypersurfaces of $$\mathbb{CP}^n$$ of degree less than $$n+1$$.

Toric varieties
Toric varieties are complex algebraic varieties of dimension $$n$$ containing an open dense subset biholomorphic to $$(\mathbb{C}^*)^n$$, equipped with an action of $$(\mathbb{C}^*)^n$$ which extends the action on the open dense subset. A toric variety may be described combinatorially by its toric fan, and at least when it is non-singular, by a moment polytope. This is a polygon in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ with the property that any vertex may be put into the standard form of the vertex of the positive orthant by the action of $$\operatorname{GL}(n,\mathbb{Z})$$. The toric variety can be obtained as a suitable space which fibres over the polytope.

Many constructions that are performed on toric varieties admit alternate descriptions in terms of the combinatorics and geometry of the moment polytope or its associated toric fan. This makes toric varieties a particularly attractive test case for many constructions in complex geometry. Examples of toric varieties include complex projective spaces, and bundles over them.

Techniques in complex geometry
Due to the rigidity of holomorphic functions and complex manifolds, the techniques typically used to study complex manifolds and complex varieties differ from those used in regular differential geometry, and are closer to techniques used in algebraic geometry. For example, in differential geometry, many problems are approached by taking local constructions and patching them together globally using partitions of unity. Partitions of unity do not exist in complex geometry, and so the problem of when local data may be glued into global data is more subtle. Precisely when local data may be patched together is measured by sheaf cohomology, and sheaves and their cohomology groups are major tools.

For example, famous problems in the analysis of several complex variables preceding the introduction of modern definitions are the Cousin problems, asking precisely when local meromorphic data may be glued to obtain a global meromorphic function. These old problems can be simply solved after the introduction of sheaves and cohomology groups.

Special examples of sheaves used in complex geometry include holomorphic line bundles (and the divisors associated to them), holomorphic vector bundles, and coherent sheaves. Since sheaf cohomology measures obstructions in complex geometry, one technique that is used is to prove vanishing theorems. Examples of vanishing theorems in complex geometry include the Kodaira vanishing theorem for the cohomology of line bundles on compact Kähler manifolds, and Cartan's theorems A and B for the cohomology of coherent sheaves on affine complex varieties.

Complex geometry also makes use of techniques arising out of differential geometry and analysis. For example, the Hirzebruch-Riemann-Roch theorem, a special case of the Atiyah-Singer index theorem, computes the holomorphic Euler characteristic of a holomorphic vector bundle in terms of characteristic classes of the underlying smooth complex vector bundle.

Classification in complex geometry
One major theme in complex geometry is classification. Due to the rigid nature of complex manifolds and varieties, the problem of classifying these spaces is often tractable. Classification in complex and algebraic geometry often occurs through the study of moduli spaces, which themselves are complex manifolds or varieties whose points classify other geometric objects arising in complex geometry.

Riemann surfaces
The term moduli was coined by Bernhard Riemann during his original work on Riemann surfaces. The classification theory is most well-known for compact Riemann surfaces. By the classification of closed oriented surfaces, compact Riemann surfaces come in a countable number of discrete types, measured by their genus $$g$$, which is a non-negative integer counting the number of holes in the given compact Riemann surface.

The classification essentially follows from the uniformization theorem, and is as follows:

 * g = 0: $$\mathbb{CP}^1$$
 * g = 1: There is a one-dimensional complex manifold classifying possible compact Riemann surfaces of genus 1, so-called elliptic curves, the modular curve. By the uniformization theorem any elliptic curve may be written as a quotient $$\mathbb{C}/(\mathbb{Z} + \tau \mathbb{Z})$$ where $$\tau$$ is a complex number with strictly positive imaginary part. The moduli space is given by the quotient of the group $$\operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb{Z})$$ acting on the upper half plane by Möbius transformations.
 * g > 1: For each genus greater than one, there is a moduli space $$\mathcal{M}_g$$ of genus g compact Riemann surfaces, of dimension $$\dim_{\mathbb{C}} \mathcal{M}_g = 3g-3$$. Similar to the case of elliptic curves, this space may be obtained by a suitable quotient of Siegel upper half-space by the action of the group $$\operatorname{Sp}(2g, \mathbb{Z})$$.

Holomorphic line bundles
Complex geometry is concerned not only with complex spaces, but other holomorphic objects attached to them. The classification of holomorphic line bundles on a complex variety $$X$$ is given by the Picard variety $$\operatorname{Pic}(X)$$ of $$X$$.

The picard variety can be easily described in the case where $$X$$ is a compact Riemann surface of genus g. Namely, in this case the Picard variety is a disjoint union of complex Abelian varieties, each of which is isomorphic to the Jacobian variety of the curve, classifying divisors of degree zero up to linear equivalence. In differential-geometric terms, these Abelian varieties are complex tori, complex manifolds diffeomorphic to $$(S^1)^{2g}$$, possibly with one of many different complex structures.

By the Torelli theorem, a compact Riemann surface is determined by its Jacobian variety, and this demonstrates one reason why the study of structures on complex spaces can be useful, in that it can allow one to solve classify the spaces themselves.

title: Complex geometry


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Color management

Color management is the process of ensuring consistent and accurate colors across various devices, such as monitors, printers, and cameras. It involves the use of color profiles, which are standardized descriptions of how colors should be displayed or reproduced.

Color management is necessary because different devices have different color capabilities and characteristics. For example, a monitor may display colors differently than a printer can reproduce them. Without color management, the same image may appear differently on different devices, leading to inconsistencies and inaccuracies.

To achieve color management, a color profile is created for each device involved in the color workflow. This profile describes the device's color capabilities and characteristics, such as its color gamut (range of colors it can display or reproduce) and color temperature. These profiles are then used to translate colors between devices, ensuring consistent and accurate color reproduction.

Color management is particularly important in industries such as graphic design, photography, and printing, where accurate color representation is crucial. It helps to maintain color consistency throughout the entire workflow, from capturing an image to displaying or printing it.

Parts of color management are implemented in the operating system (OS), helper libraries, the application, and devices. The type of color profile that is typically used is called an ICC profile. A cross-platform view of color management is the use of an ICC-compatible color management system. The International Color Consortium (ICC) is an industry consortium that has defined:

 * an open standard for a Color Matching Module (CMM) at the OS level
 * color profiles for:
 * devices, including DeviceLink profiles that transform one device profile (color space) to another device profile without passing through an intermediate color space, such as L*A*B*, more accurately preserving color
 * working spaces, the color spaces in which color data is meant to be manipulated

There are other approaches to color management besides using ICC profiles. This is partly due to history and partly because of other needs than the ICC standard covers. The film and broadcasting industries make use of some of the same concepts, but they frequently rely on more limited boutique solutions. The film industry, for instance, often uses 3D LUTs (lookup table) to represent a complete color transformation for a specific RGB encoding.

At the consumer level, system wide color management is available in most of Apple's products (macOS, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS). Microsoft Windows lacks system wide color management and virtually all applications do not employ color management. Windows' media player API is not color space aware, and if applications want to color manage videos manually, they have to incur significant performance and power consumption penalties. Android supports system wide color management, but most devices ship with color management disabled.

Overview

 * 1)  Characterize. Every color-managed device requires a personalized table, or "color profile," which characterizes the color response of that particular device.
 * 2)  Standardize. Each color profile describes these colors relative to a standardized set of reference colors (the "Profile Connection Space").
 * 3)  Translate. Color-managed software then uses these standardized profiles to translate color from one device to another. This is usually performed by a color management module (CMM).

Characterization
To describe the behavior of various output devices, they must be compared (measured) in relation to a standard color space. Often a step called linearization is performed first, to undo the effect of gamma correction that was done to get the most out of limited 8-bit color paths. Instruments used for measuring device colors include colorimeters and spectrophotometers. As an intermediate result, the device gamut is described in the form of scattered measurement data. The transformation of the scattered measurement data into a more regular form, usable by the application, is called profiling. Profiling is a complex process involving mathematics, intense computation, judgment, testing, and iteration. After the profiling is finished, an idealized color description of the device is created. This description is called a profile.

Calibration
Calibration is like characterization, except that it can include the adjustment of the device, as opposed to just the measurement of the device. Color management is sometimes sidestepped by calibrating devices to a common standard color space such as sRGB; when such calibration is done well enough, no color translations are needed to get all devices to handle colors consistently. This avoidance of the complexity of color management was one of the goals in the development of sRGB.

Embedding
Image formats themselves (such as TIFF, JPEG, PNG, EPS, PDF, and SVG) may contain embedded color profiles but are not required to do so by the image format. The International Color Consortium standard was created to bring various developers and manufacturers together. The ICC standard permits the exchange of output device characteristics and color spaces in the form of metadata. This allows the embedding of color profiles into images as well as storing them in a database or a profile directory.

Working spaces
Working spaces, such as sRGB, Adobe RGB or ProPhoto are color spaces that facilitate good results while editing. For instance, pixels with equal values of R,G,B should appear neutral. Using a large (gamut) working space will lead to posterization, while using a small working space will lead to clipping. This trade-off is a consideration for the critical image editor.

Color transformation
Color transformation, or color space conversion, is the transformation of the representation of a color from one color space to another. This calculation is required whenever data is exchanged inside a color-managed chain and carried out by a Color Matching Module. Transforming profiled color information to different output devices is achieved by referencing the profile data into a standard color space. It makes it easier to convert colors from one device to a selected standard color space and from that to the colors of another device. By ensuring that the reference color space covers the many possible colors that humans can see, this concept allows one to exchange colors between many different color output devices. Color transformations can be represented by two profiles (source profile and target profile) or by a devicelink profile. In this process there are approximations involved which make sure that the image keeps its important color qualities and also gives an opportunity to control on how the colors are being changed.

Profile connection space
In the terminology of the International Color Consortium, a translation between two color spaces can go through a profile connection space (PCS): Color Space 1 → PCS (CIELAB or CIEXYZ) → Color space 2; conversions into and out of the PCS are each specified by a profile.

Gamut mapping
In nearly every translation process, we have to deal with the fact that the color gamut of different devices vary in range which makes an accurate reproduction impossible. They therefore need some rearrangement near the borders of the gamut. Some colors must be shifted to the inside of the gamut, as they otherwise cannot be represented on the output device and would simply be clipped. This so-called gamut mismatch occurs for example, when we translate from the RGB color space with a wider gamut into the CMYK color space with a narrower gamut range. In this example, the dark highly saturated purplish-blue color of a typical computer monitor's "blue" primary is impossible to print on paper with a typical CMYK printer. The nearest approximation within the printer's gamut will be much less saturated. Conversely, an inkjet printer's "cyan" primary, a saturated mid-brightness blue, is outside the gamut of a typical computer monitor. The color management system can utilize various methods to achieve desired results and give experienced users control of the gamut mapping behavior.

Rendering intent
When the gamut of source color space exceeds that of the destination, saturated colors are liable to become clipped (inaccurately represented), or more formally burned. The color management module can deal with this problem in several ways. The ICC specification includes four different rendering intents, listed below. Before the actual rendering intent is carried out, one can temporarily simulate the rendering by soft proofing. It is a useful tool as it predicts the outcome of the colors and is available as an application in many color management systems:

Absolute colorimetric: Absolute colorimetry and relative colorimetry actually use the same table but differ in the adjustment for the white point media. If the output device has a much larger gamut than the source profile, i.e., all the colors in the source can be represented in the output, using the absolute colorimetry rendering intent would ideally (ignoring noise, precision, etc.) give an exact output of the specified CIELAB values. Perceptually, the colors may appear incorrect, but instrument measurements of the resulting output would match the source. Colors outside of the proof print system's possible color are mapped to the boundary of the color gamut.

Absolute colorimetry is useful to get an exact specified color (e.g., IBM blue), or to quantify the accuracy of mapping methods.

Relative colorimetric: The goal in relative colorimetry is to be truthful to the specified color, with only a correction for the media. Relative colorimetry is useful in proofing applications, since it can be used to get an idea of how a print on one device will appear on a different device. Media differences are the only thing that one really should adjust for, although some gamut mapping also needs to be applied. Usually this is done in a way where hue and lightness are maintained at the cost of reduced saturation. By default, in-gamut colors are unchanged, while out-of-gamut colors are clamped.

Relative colorimetric is the default rendering intent on many systems.

Perceptual: The perceptual intent smoothly moves out-of-gamut colors into gamut, preserving gradations, but distorts in-gamut colors in the process. Like the saturation intent, the results really depend upon the profile maker. This is even how some of the competitors in this market differentiate themselves. The profile maker tries to make results pleasing on this intent. Perceptual rendering is recommended for color separation.

Saturation: The saturation intent is designed to present eye-catching business graphics by preserving the saturation (colorfulness). It is most useful in charts and diagrams, where there is a discrete palette of colors that the designer wants saturated to make them intense, but where specific hue is less important.

In practice, photographers almost always use relative or perceptual intent, as for natural images, absolute causes color cast, while saturation produces unnatural colors. If an entire image is in-gamut, relative is perfect, but when there are out of gamut colors, which is preferable depends on a case-by-case basis. CMMs may offer options for BPC and partial chromatic adaptation.

A black point correction (BPC) is not applied for absolute colorimetric or devicelink profiles. For ICCv4, it is always applied to the perceptual intent. ICCv2 sRGB profiles differ among each other in a number of ways, one of which being whether BPC is applied.

Color management module
Color matching module (also -method or -system) is a software algorithm that adjusts the numerical values that get sent to or received from different devices so that the perceived color they produce remains consistent. The key issue here is how to deal with a color that cannot be reproduced on a certain device in order to show it through a different device as if it were visually the same color, just as when the reproducible color range between color transparencies and printed matters are different. There is no common method for this process, and the performance depends on the capability of each color matching method.

Some well known CMMs are ColorSync, Adobe CMM, Little CMS, and ArgyllCMS.

Apple
Apple's classic Mac OS and macOS operating systems have provided OS-level color management APIs since 1993, through ColorSync. macOS has added automatic color management (assuming sRGB for most things) automatically in the OS, but applications can explicitly target other color spaces if they wish to. System wide color management is used in iOS, iPadOS and watchOS as well.

Windows
Since 1997 color management in Windows is available through an ICC color management system: ICM (Image Color Management).

Beginning with Windows Vista, Microsoft introduced a new color architecture known as WCS (Windows Color System). WCS supplements the ICM system in Windows 2000 and Windows XP, originally written by Heidelberg.

Windows Photo Viewer from Windows 7 (also included in later Windows versions) performs proper color management, however, the newer Windows Photos app in Windows 8, 10, 11 does not perform color management  until version v2022.31070.26005.0.

Unfortunately, the vast majority of applications do not use the Windows Color System. For applications that do employ color management (typically web browsers), color management tend to apply for only images and UI, but not videos. This is because Windows' media player API is not color space aware. Thus, browsers (Chrome, Firefox, Edge) are only able to do color management for images but not video. For the same reason, virtually no video players on Windows support color management (including the default Movies & TV app and VLC), with Media Player Classic Home Cinema being a rare exception.

Android
On Android, system wide color management is introduced in Android Oreo 8.1. However, most Android phones are shipped with color management disabled (ex: 'adaptive' color profile on Google Pixel, 'vivid' color profile on Samsung Galaxy ). This oversaturates sRGB content to the native display gamut, typically DCI-P3. Users need to manually select the 'natural' color profile to enable color management, enabling accurate display of sRGB and P3 wide color content.

Others
Operating systems that use the X Window System for graphics can use ICC profiles, and support for color management on Linux, still less mature than on other platforms, is coordinated through OpenICC at freedesktop.org and makes use of LittleCMS.

File level
Certain image filetypes (TIFF and Photoshop) include the notion of color channels for specifying the color mode of the file. The most commonly used channels are RGB (mainly for display (monitors) but also for some desktop printing) and CMYK (for commercial printing). An additional alpha channel may specify a transparency mask value. Some image software (such as Photoshop) perform automatic color separation to maintain color information in CMYK mode using a specified ICC profile such as US Web Coated (SWOP) v2.

Application level
, most web browsers ignored color profiles. Notable exceptions were Safari, starting with version 2.0, and Firefox starting with version 3. Although disabled by default in Firefox 3.0, ICC v2 and ICC v4 color management could be enabled by using an add-on or setting a configuration option.

As of July 2019, Safari, Chrome and Firefox fully support color management. However, it is important to note that most browsers only do color management for images and CSS elements, but not video.
 * Firefox: version 3.5 (released in 2011) onwards supports ICC v2 tagged images, and version 8.0 (released in 2011) adds ICC v4 profiles support. Version 89 (released in 2021) and above apply color management to all untagged images and page elements by default.
 * Internet Explorer: support ICC profiles from version 9 onwards, but only converts non-sRGB images to the sRGB profile, regardless of the actual monitor colorspace.
 * Google Chrome: uses the system provided ICC v2 and v4 support on macOS, and from version 22 (released in 2012) supports ICC v2 profiles by default on other platforms. macOS versions of Chrome correctly render video.
 * Safari: has support starting with version 2.0 (released in 2005). Supports v2 and v4 ICC profiles, and correctly renders video.
 * Opera: has support since 12.10 (released in 2012) for ICC v4.
 * Pale Moon supported ICC v2 from its first release, and v4 since Pale Moon 20.2 (released in 2013).

Regarding mobile browsers, Safari 13.1 (on iOS 13.4.1) recognizes the device color profile and can displays images accordingly. Chrome 83 (on Android 9) ignores the display profile, simply converting all images to sRGB.

As of 2023, Chrome 114, Android Browser 114 and Firefox for Android 115 support multiple colorspaces. The same is valid for their desktop counterparts: Chrome 118, Edge 114, Safari 16.6, Firefox 117 and Opera 100.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Color management


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Badlands National Park

Badlands National Park is an American national park in southwestern South Dakota. The park protects 242756 acre of sharply eroded buttes and pinnacles, along with the largest undisturbed mixed grass prairie in the United States. The National Park Service manages the park, with the South Unit being co-managed with the Oglala Lakota tribe.

Located within the White River drainage, the Badlands Wilderness protects 64144 acre of the park's North Unit as a designated wilderness area, and is one site where the black-footed ferret, one of the most endangered mammals in the world, was reintroduced to the wild. The South Unit, or Stronghold District, includes sites of 1890s Ghost Dances, a former United States Air Force bomb and gunnery range, and Red Shirt Table, the park's highest point at 3340 ft.

Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4, 1929, it was not established until January 25, 1939. Badlands was redesignated a national park on November 10, 1978. Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58. The park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. The movies Dances with Wolves (1990) and Thunderheart (1992) were partially filmed in Badlands National Park.

This national park was originally a reservation of the Oglala Sioux Indians and spans the southern unit of the park. The area around Stronghold Table was originally Sioux territory, and is revered as a ceremonial sacred site rather than a place to live.

In 1868, at the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie, the United States assured the Sioux that the Badlands shall forever be the property of the Sioux. In 1889, however, the treaty was broken and the Badlands were confiscated by the United States.

At the end of the 19th century, the Sioux Indians used this area as the site of the Ghost Dance, a ceremony to revive the souls of buffalo and the dead. After the last ghost dance in 1890, the United States banned the ritual, but it was revived by the Red Power movement, a movement to restore Indian rights that began in the 1960s. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court awarded compensation to the Sioux for the abrogation of the 1868 treaty, but the Sioux did not accept the money.

Native Americans
For 11,000 years, Native Americans have used this area for their hunting grounds. Long before the Lakota were the paleo-Indians, followed by the Arikara people. Their descendants live today in North Dakota as a part of the Three Affiliated Tribes. Archaeological records combined with oral traditions indicate that these people camped in secluded valleys where fresh water and game were available year-round. Eroding out of the stream banks today are the rocks and charcoal of their campfires, as well as the arrowheads and tools they used to butcher bison, rabbits, and other game. From the top of the Badlands Wall, they could scan the area for enemies and wandering herds. If hunting was good, they might hang on into winter, before retracing their way to their villages along the Missouri River. The Lakota people were the first to call this place "mako sica", which translates to — literally — "badlands". Extreme temperatures, lack of water, and the exposed rugged terrain led to this name. French-Canadian fur trappers called it "les mauvaises terres pour traverser," or "bad lands to travel through." By one hundred and fifty years ago, the Great Sioux Nation consisting of seven bands including the Oglala Lakota, had displaced the other tribes from the northern prairie.

The next great change came toward the end of the 19th century as homesteaders moved into South Dakota. The U.S. government stripped Native Americans of much of their territory and forced them to live on reservations. In the fall and early winter of 1890, thousands of Native Americans, including many Oglala Sioux, became followers of the Indian prophet Wovoka. His vision called for the native people to dance the Ghost Dance and wear Ghost shirts, which would be impervious to bullets. Wovoka had predicted that the white man would vanish and their hunting grounds would be restored. One of the last known Ghost Dances was conducted on Stronghold Table in the South Unit of Badlands National Park. As winter closed in, the ghost dancers returned to Pine Ridge Agency. The climax of the struggle came in late December 1890. Headed south from the Cheyenne River, a band of Minneconjou Sioux crossed a pass in the Badlands Wall. Pursued by units of the U.S. Army, they were seeking refuge in the Pine Ridge Reservation. The band, led by Chief Spotted Elk, was finally overtaken by the soldiers near Wounded Knee Creek in the Reservation and ordered to camp there overnight. The troops attempted to disarm Big Foot's band the next morning. Gunfire erupted. Before it was over, nearly three hundred Indians and thirty soldiers lay dead. The Wounded Knee Massacre was the last major clash between Plains Indians and the U.S. military until the advent of the American Indian Movement in the 1970s, most notably in the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota.

Wounded Knee is located approximately 45 mi south of the park on Pine Ridge Reservation. The U.S. government and the Oglala Lakota Nation have agreed that this is a story to be told by the Oglala of Pine Ridge and Minneconjou of Standing Rock Reservation. The interpretation of the site and its tragic events are held as the primary responsibility of these survivors.

Fossil record
The history of the White River Badlands as a significant paleontological resource goes back to the traditional Native American knowledge of the area. The Lakota found large fossilized bones, fossilized seashells and turtle shells. They correctly assumed that the area had once been under water, and that the bones belonged to creatures which no longer existed. Paleontological interest in this area began in the 1840s. Trappers and traders regularly traveled the 300 mi from Fort Pierre to Fort Laramie along a path which skirted the edge of what is now Badlands National Park. Fossils were occasionally collected, and in 1843 a fossilized jaw fragment collected by Alexander Culbertson of the American Fur Company found its way to a physician in St. Louis by the name of Hiram A. Prout.

In 1846, Prout published a paper about the jaw in the American Journal of Science in which he stated that it had come from a creature he called a Paleotherium. Shortly after the publication, the White River Badlands became popular fossil hunting grounds and, within a couple of decades, numerous new fossil species had been discovered in the White River Badlands. In 1849, Dr. Joseph Leidy published a paper on an Oligocene camel and renamed Prout's Paleotherium, Titanotherium prouti. By 1854 when he published a series of papers about North American fossils, 84 distinct species had been discovered in North America – 77 of which were found in the White River Badlands. In 1870 a Yale professor, O. C. Marsh, visited the region and developed more refined methods of extracting and reassembling fossils into nearly complete skeletons. From 1899 to today, the South Dakota School of Mines has sent people almost every year and remains one of the most active research institutions working in the White River Badlands. Throughout the late 19th century and continuing today, scientists and institutions from all over the world have benefited from the fossil resources of the White River Badlands. The White River Badlands have developed an international reputation as a fossil-rich area. They contain the richest deposits of Oligocene mammals known, providing a glimpse of life in the area 33 million years ago.

List of fossil animals

Alligator (Crocodilian)

Archaeotherium (Entelodont)

Dinictis (Nimravid)

Eporeodon (Oreodont)

Eusmilus (Nimravid)

Hoplophoneus (Nimravid)

Hyaenodon (Creodont)

Hyracodon (Running Rhino)

Ischyromys (Ground Squirrel-like Rodent)

Leptomeryx (Tragulid)

Merycoidodon (Oreodont)

Mesohippus  (Horse)

Metamynodon (Aquatic Rhino)

Miniochoerus (Oreodont)

Poebrotherium (Camel)

Subhyracodon (Rhinoceros)

Homesteading
Aspects of American homesteading began before the end of the American Civil War; however, it did not affect the Badlands until the 20th century. Then, many hopeful farmers traveled to South Dakota from Europe or the eastern United States to try to seek out a living in the area. In 1929, the South Dakota Dept. of Agriculture published an advertisement to lure settlers to the state. On this map they called the Badlands, "The Wonderlands", promising "...marvelous scenic and recreational advantages". The standard size for a homestead was 160 acre. Being in a semi-arid, wind-swept environment, this proved far too little land to support a family. In 1916, in the western Dakotas, the size of a homestead was increased to 640 acre. Cattle grazed the land, and crops such as winter wheat and hay were cut annually. However, the Great Dust Bowl events of the 1930s, combined with waves of grasshoppers, proved too much for most of the settlers of the Badlands. Houses, built of sod blocks and heated with buffalo chips, were abandoned.

Military use of Stronghold District
As part of the World War II effort, the U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF) took possession of 341726 acre of land on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, home of the Oglala Sioux people, for a gunnery range. Included in this range was 337 acre from the Badlands National Monument. This land was used extensively from 1942 through 1945 as an air-to-air and air-to-ground gunnery range including both precision and demolition bombing exercises. After the war, portions of the bombing range were used as an artillery range by the South Dakota National Guard. In 1968, most of the range was declared excess property by the USAF. Although 2500 acre were retained by the USAF (but are no longer used) the majority of the land was turned over to the National Park Service.

Firing took place within most of the present-day Stronghold District. Land was bought or leased from individual landowners and the Tribe in order to clear the area of human occupation. Old car bodies and 55 gallon drums painted bright yellow were used as targets. Bulls-eyes 250 ft across were plowed into the ground and used as targets by bombardiers. Small automatic aircraft called "target drones" and 60 by screens dragged behind planes served as mobile targets. Today, the ground is littered with discarded bullet cases and unexploded ordnance.

In the 1940s, 125 families were forcibly relocated from their farms and ranches, including Dewey Beard, a survivor of the Wounded Knee Massacre. Those that remained nearby recall times when they had to dive under tractors while out cutting hay to avoid bombs dropped by planes miles outside of the boundary. In the town of Interior, both a church and the building housing the current post office were struck by six inch (152 mm) shells through the roof. Pilots operating out of Ellsworth Air Force Base near Rapid City found it a real challenge to determine the exact boundaries of the range. There were no civilian casualties. However, at least a dozen flight crew personnel lost their lives in plane crashes.

The Stronghold District also known as the South Unit of Badlands National Park, consists of lands on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation owned by the Oglala Sioux Tribe and managed by the National Park Service under an agreement with the Tribe. The land is a 133300 acre area. Deep draws, high tables and rolling prairie are characteristic of these lands occupied by the earliest plains hunters, the paleo-Indians, and the Lakota Nation.

Legislative and administrative history
On March 4, 1929, his final day in office, President Calvin Coolidge signed Public Law No. 1021. This bill authorized creation of the Badlands National Monument in South Dakota. The legislation's conditions for eventual proclamation included the acquisition of privately owned land within the proposed boundaries of the monument and the construction of a 30-mile highway through the park. The Badlands National Monument became the seventy-seventh monument within the National Park Service a decade after its original authorization, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the enacting proclamation on January 24. 1939. The 10-year period, 1929–1939, to create the park matched the period of time that Mount Rushmore National Memorial was being blasted and sculptured; the Badlands work was part of a comprehensive federal drive to develop western South Dakota for tourism. The monument was renamed "Badlands National Park" in 1978.

The Badlands National Monument was established in order to preserve the natural scenery and educational resources within its boundaries. The bill authorized specific scientific and educational institutions to excavate within the monument in the pursuit of educational, geological, and zoological observation. The bill includes a portion highlighting the potential for fossil excavation in the monument's geological formations.

Badlands National Park Superintendents

 * 1) John E. Suter (1949–1953)
 * 2) John A. Rutter (1953–1957)
 * 3) George H. Sholly (1958–1959)
 * 4) Frank E. Sylvester (1960–1960)
 * 5) John W. Jay (1960–1962)
 * 6) Frank A. Hjort (1963–1967)
 * 7) John R. Earnst (1967–1970)
 * 8) Cecil D. Lewis, JR (1970–1974)
 * 9) James E. Jones (1974–1979)
 * 10) Gilbert E. Blinn (1979–1985)
 * 11) James L. Monheiser (1985–1985)
 * 12) Donald A. Falvey (1985–1987)
 * 13) Lloyd P. Kortge (1987–1987)
 * 14) Irvin L. Mortenson (1987–1996)
 * 15) Bill Supernaugh (1997–2004)
 * 16) Paige Baker (2005–2010)
 * 17) Eric Brunnemann (2010–2015)
 * 18) Mike Pflaum (2015–2021)
 * 19) Eric Veach (2022–Present)

Wildlife
Animals that inhabit the park include: badger, bighorn sheep, bison, black-billed magpie, black-footed ferret, black-tailed prairie dog, bobcat, coyote, elk, mule deer, pronghorn, prairie rattlesnake, porcupine, whooping crane, swift fox, and white-tailed deer.

In 1963, 50 bison from Theodore Roosevelt National Park were released. The herd has grown to over 1,200 animals. The bison habitat was expanded in 2019 by 22,000 acres to a total of 80,193 acres with the construction of 43 miles of new fencing. The Bighorn sheep population has increased over the last couple years to a total of 233.

Endangered species
The black-footed ferret and whooping crane are on the endangered species list. The black-footed ferret population inside the Badlands National Park has recovered to a population of approximately 100 individuals. This whooping crane population in the Badlands National Park is considered a non-self-sustaining wild population.

Vegetation inventory
Twenty-three vegetation map classes and ten Anderson Level II land-use classes were used for interpretation of approximately 1.3 million acres encompassing the park (approximately 242,755 acres) and surrounding environs.

A prairie is a large, open expanse of grasslands. A mixed-grass prairie is a grassland where grasses of many different heights grow. Mixed-grass prairies are the transition between eastern tall-grass prairies, where more rainfall means that taller grasses can grow, and western short-grass prairies, where the dry environment favors shorter grasses. In mixed-grass prairies, such as the grasslands surrounding Badlands National Park, grasses can range in height from ankle-high to waist-high. Although trees, shrubs, and forbs grow in the Badlands, grasses dominate the landscape. The most common grass in the park is Western Wheatgrass, which grows one to three feet tall and is the state grass of South Dakota.

Visitor services
Badlands National Park has two campgrounds for overnight visits – Cedar Pass and Sage Creek Campgrounds. Cedar Pass lodge offers accommodations in modern cabins and full-service dining. The Ben Reifel Visitor Center within the park offers a bookstore, special programs, and museum exhibits. The White River Visitors center in the park's South Unit offers information about the region's Lakota heritage.

The Badlands Wilderness covers about one fourth of the park and was designated in 1976. There are no designated trails and camping is permitted anywhere in what is considered to be the largest undisturbed mixed-prairie rangeland remaining in the U.S. As this wilderness is managed by the National Park Service, hunting is not permitted. U.S. Wilderness Areas do not allow motorized or mechanized vehicles, including bicycles. Although camping and fishing are allowed with proper permit, no roads or buildings are constructed and there is also no logging or mining, in compliance with the 1964 Wilderness Act.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Badlands National Park has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa).

Current issues and challenges
Badlands National Park has been impacted by the rise of oil and gas pipelines and drilling, the debate over Native American land rights, fossil loss due to criminal activity, and climate change.

Oil pipelines/drilling
Badlands National Park faces growing encroachment from oil and gas companies hoping to transport fossil fuels throughout regions of South Dakota. Pipelines are associated with environmental risks; breaches and or breaks in the system have the potential to negatively impact the quality of life for surrounding ecosystems and wildlife.

Land rights claims
The Badlands National Park also faces debate over the federal claims to the land once inhabited by the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe. Supporters of Oglala Sioux reparations argue against the U.S. government's seizure and management over sacred Native American land. The Badlands National Park began taking steps to reserve part of the park's southern unit for management by the tribe's members, creating jobs and returning ownership to those re-located out during America's Manifest Destiny, however this creation of the "Tribal National Park" has yet to come to pass.

Fossil depletion
The Badlands National Park was first established as a national monument in order to protect the abundance of fossils within the land's natural stone structures. Since the park's founding, visitors and fossil poachers have been looting the park's fossils to keep for sentimental and scientific value or to sell for profit.

Climate change
By 2050, the NPS predicts that Badlands National Park will have different conditions than are currently felt in the park—including increasing or decreasing temperatures, changes in quantity of total spring precipitation, potential delays in the start of spring within the park, and various increasing frequencies of heavy precipitation events. Widespread summer drought is projected to be more likely in South Dakota within the same time frame (2050). On average, the counties of Oglala Lakota, Pennington, and Jackson (the three main counties that the park occupies) have seen a gradual shift of monthly and annual temperatures between 1901 and 2021, leading to a warmer, drier environment.

Current climate predictions developed by the NPS have allowed Badlands National Park to develop several management techniques preparing for different climate scenarios, categorized as "no-gainer", "no-regrets", or "no-brainer" management styles. According to the NPS Climate Scenarios brief for the park, a "no-gainer" is a current action that is not likely to achieve desired outcomes in any given future scenario. A "no-regrets" management style implements new actions that are likely to be successful in management of all potential future scenarios. "No-brainer" management involves maintaining current management practices that are likely to be beneficial, but aren't necessarily ideal. Climate Change management within the park primarily focuses on native vegetation, bison populations, species rehabilitation, archeological and paleontological preservation, and infrastructure and geohazards. Management plans for these values are primarily under the categories "no-regrets" and "no-brainer".

title: Badlands National Park


text:
Talk:Scientific progress

Removed (A general problem of defintion) section, rearranged other sections, clarification finished
There was a section present that stated "The problem of defining what scientific progress is, and where it stems from consists in the paradox that any such evaluation will have the current 	 scientific knowledge as a given reference point, and thus anything which can be shown to have led to it, even if circuitously, will be deemed "progress"." Given the written record of scientific progress, discussion of scientific progress should be independent of what is seen as modern scientific theory. So it is difficult to see how the current knowledge in science affects the definition of progress. The "circuitous route problem" still stands, but really belongs in the topic that was present in the page, but was empty: "Attitudes toward Scientific Progress".

Originally the order of the article was quotes->origins-> then everything else. Now it is models -> origins -> attitudes -> quotes. The origins section is moved farther down because it primarily discusses old societies that had no concept of scientific progress rather than provide information on what scientific progress is. The quotes section is last because wikipedia is not really a book of famous quotes.

The clarification notice has been removed, due to recent edits.Raazer 20:20, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

Does science represent a danger ?

 * by Alexandre Becker, FSA UCL, Group 111.3

Introduction

 * Above all, it is essential to understand well the concepts of science and danger. Science is a coherent whole of knowledge relative to a certain category of facts, of objects or phenomena obeying laws and confirmed by experimental methods. The danger is what constitutes a threat, a risk, which compromises the existence (of someone or something).
 * Before calling science in question, it is important to know its history somewhat. Until the 16 and the 17th centuries, the Church was in control of the knowledge. The breaking occurred when Copernic and Galileo suggested theories on the other side of the Church. Science developed then basing on a justified and convincing speech.
 * One can divide this text into 5 parts. First of all, we will present the main ideas from the interview of an expert (Mr. Bosseler, religion’s professor). Next, we will expound the arguments in favor of science, followed by a counter-argumentation. Finally, we will explain our position and the relationship between this question and our future profession.

Interview of the expert

 * A relation important to consider is the one which exists between science and philosophy. This relation is essential, because it allows to avoid an ill-considered scientific progress, without limits and purely technical. Philosophy helps science to go in the direction of general progress. Science and philosophy must work together. Each one must fill a well defined role. Philosophy, via ethics, must play a critical part. It is it which dictates what is good. It lays down the rules to be respected to avoid any drift such as the eugenics or scientism. It must preserve the dignity of the man. Science, as for it, brings knowledge (of the man, of the reality, of nature...) and opens new horizons.
 * So that this relation functions as well as possible, it is essential that science and philosophy do not deviate from their field. Science sticks to the facts and treats of “how” while philosophy is in charge of the values and of “why”. The ethics committees seem to be most effective to manage this delicate relation. Those are reliable and their utility is not any more to prove because they have made it possible to avoid many scientific errors. Their reliability is due to the fact that they are made people of different opinions, because of different origins and cultures. However, risk zero does not exist and errors will always occur.
 * The contribution of science to our happiness is not negligible but it cannot bring it if it is alone. It is rather on philosophy that this role is incumbent. Science gets material wellbeing (with richest) but also a spiritual, getting knowledge with any man. But let us not forget that it does not solve all our problems. It does not make the world perfect and to believe in it represents a danger. The technological progress constitutes only tools which can be well or badly used. An excessive scientific progress would do nothing but bring misfortune, crushing the man.
 * Like known as previously, science cannot solve all the problems, and certainly not the problems of values. Not thinking, being devoid of conscience, science cannot reach that point. The philosophy and the ethics committees must intervene in this case. In fact, the values give a direction to science. They define what the men must do. It is not the reverse which must occur.
 * Since the breaking of the 17th century, science wants to adapt the direction of the existence. Its exponential growth brought an unimaginable capacity to the men who are now able to create to destroy (atomic bombs). These capacities suppose a great responsibility which the man cannot support. The ethics committees were then created to determine what is true and good.

Argumentation

 * The advantages which science gets are undeniable. From the medical point of view, new technologies made it possible to increase our life expectancy and the number of saved lives multiplied. One can also take for example Internet. This one is a marvelous field of discoveries, knowledge but also of communications. The science permitted to the man to look at the world differently, thanks to a way of thinking more rational that it brought to him. Its progress, in particular at the time of the industrial revolutions, improved the wellbeing of the man. The interaction between science and philosophy is beneficial. It carries out towards a general progress of the society. Although generated by science, many threats are actually due to the unconsciousness of the men and their thirst for power

Counter argumentation

 * Formerly simple tool controlled with the service of the man, science evolved. It became technician and influences the man, handles it. This one must however remain in control of science in order to avoid any harmful consequence for the future of humanity. The relation between ethics and the technique constitutes the major problem. What can we make ? To drive the development to the extreme or to stop it ? None of these solutions is possible. The single solution is to lay down rules to be respected and take into account the fact that the man should never be the object of handling. The policy plays a considerable part. It is in relation to the technique. It must do all that is in its power to channel the technical evolution. Dangers such as a computerized society or the disappearance of any moral standards cannot materialize.
 * The current society is dependent on know-how technician. To consider that technology is the base of a better world, to think that the end justifies the means is utopian and involves certain risks. It is not the technological rise which is dangerous but the fact of regarding it as an entity which constitutes the future.
 * Science today has a power on the life. It claims to work for the good of the man. But what is well for the man ? Should it be improved genetically to eliminate any disease ? The threat which hovers over is that the human condition is completely modified, that the world is denatured. Let us not forget the disadvantages due to science (oil slicks, modification of the climate...). Unfortunately, bathing in a field without limits of action, the scientists do not seem to be conscious of the social consequences their discoveries.

Our opinion

 * According to us, science brings to the man some universal knowledge but also a material wellbeing, that philosophy could not offer to him. However, without the latter, the life of the man would be quite sad and would be devoid of sense. This is why a close cooperation between science and philosophy is necessary. This one will make it possible to the man to preserve one of the greatest values which it has: its freedom. Moreover, many threats will not concretize themselves if science is directed on the good way by philosophy. This interaction can be only advantageous. It will get essential balance so that the existence of the man is the best possible one.

Relationship to trade of engineer

 * It is important to understand well the difference between a scientist and an engineer. The scientist works in an abstract field which is theoretical research while the engineer applies this theory, with the service of the society. The scientist hardly worries about the well-founded of what it creates, invents. The engineer is obliged thus to adopt a critical mind to determine what will be or will not be concretized. He must take the ethical question related to these discoveries into account and make consequently decisions. Any creation put at the disposal of the society is able to generate problems. The engineer must anticipate them. Philosophy is thus an essential tool that the engineer must have and control.

Conclusion

 * It is obvious that science represents a danger. The catastrophes which it could generate if no limit were imposed on it are numerous. An uncontrolled evolution of science would crush all the morals values of the man, would destroy any ideology. The ethics committees allow coming not to that stage yet. To stop the technological development is unthinkable but to adapt it is necessary. Lastly, to use progress in an adequate way cannot be possible that if science and philosophy work hand in hand. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 130.104.21.27 (talk • contribs) 10:54, 21 February 2003  (UTC)

 * Since this discussion predates the article by a year or two, it isn't at all related to the topic, Scientific progress. --SteveMcCluskey 13:49, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

Alleged incompatibillity
''For example, consider Newtonian mechanics and relativistic mechanics. From a strict vantage point, in newtonian mechanics mass and energy are always conserved, where in relativistc mechanics energy and mass are always interchangeable. (...) Because the theories are completely incompatible, scientists using one paradigm will not be able to discuss meaningfully with scientists from the other paradigm.''

Mass and energy conservation theory isn't incompatible with a theory holding that mass and energy are interchangable.

Relativistic mechanics in this example are only an extension of "classic" ones. They employ the very same formulas of Newtonian physics, only to permitably transform them to describe recently "discovered" laws.

--Fungamespl (talk) 20:17, 13 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scientific progress


text:
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area

Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area is a national recreation area established by an act of Congress on October 15, 1966, following the construction of the Yellowtail Dam by the Bureau of Reclamation. It is one of over 420 sites managed by the U.S. National Park Service. The recreation area spans 120,296.22 acres, straddling the border between Wyoming and Montana. It is divided into two distinct areas, the North District accessed via Fort Smith, Montana and the South District accessed through Lovell, Wyoming. There is no thru road inside the recreation area connecting the two districts. The Yellowtail Dam is located in the North District. It is named after the famous Crow leader Robert Yellowtail, harnesses the waters of the Bighorn River by turning that variable watercourse into Bighorn Lake. The lake extends 71 mi through Wyoming and Montana, 55 mi of which lie within the national recreation area. The lake provides recreational boating, fishing, water skiing, kayaking, and birding opportunities to visitors. About one third of the park unit is located on the Crow Indian Reservation. Nearly one-quarter of the Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range lies within the Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area.

Early history
Archeologists have found evidence of people living in the vicinity of Bighorn Canyon for as far back as 12,000 years ago. The Bad Pass trail, along the west side of the canyon, provided passage for Indigenous peoples from Bighorn basin to the Grapevine Creek area. The Grapevine Creek area in present day Montana opened up to the plains, where buffalo could be found. Evidence suggests that people did not live along the trail but used it for seasonal passage or migration.

Recent history
The Crow peoples, also known as Apsáalooke or Absarokaa, migrated to the region of Bighorn Canyon sometime during the 16th Century. Other peoples migrated through the area as well, but by the 18th century the Crow had settled in the Bighorn country. There were clashes with tribes such as the Blackfeet, Sioux, Cheyenne, and several other tribes over the land. In the late 1800's the Crow aligned themselves with the U.S. Government and were enlisted as scouts. In 1851, the Fort Laramie Treaty (1851) identified 38 million acres of Crow territory. In the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, the Crow territory was diminished to eight million acres. Through the 19th century, as more and more land was ceded to the U.S. Government, Bighorn Canyon remained in the heart of Crow country.

By 1950 the federal government had decided to use the Pick-Sloan Flood Control Act of 1944 to dam the Bighorn River and fill the Bighorn Canyon with water. Members of the Crow Tribe were against the building of the dam because Bighorn Canyon is considered a sacred place. Robert Yellowtail, a leader in the Crow Nation and Superintendent from 1934-1945, fought against the building of the dam. The government wanted 7,000 acres of Crow land and offered $1.5 million to buy it. The Crow valued the land at $5 million. Negotiation ensued and ultimately the government decided to buy 12,000 acres for $5 million. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation then named the 525 foot structure "Yellowtail Dam" after Robert Yellowtail. By this point the Crow reservation was at the almost 2.3 million acres it is today. The Crow reservation surrounds the northern portion of Bighorn Canyon, but the canyon itself is now owned by the United States Government.

On October 29, 1975, the Bad Pass trail was added to the National Register of Historic Places.

Park management
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area received 217,660 visitors in 2022. It is managed as part of a group of parks referred to as the Powder River group. The group also includes Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Fort Laramie National Historic Site, and Devils Tower National Monument. This group of parks is in the Intermountain Region of the National Park Service.

Visitor centers
Yellowtail Dam Visitor Center is located in Fort Smith, Montana in close proximity to the top of Yellowtail Dam. The visitor center is open from Memorial Day to Labor Day. The access road to the Yellowtail Dam Visitor Center is only open during the operating hours of the visitor center. In the South District the Cal S. Taggart Visitor Center is located and Lovell, Wyoming and is open year round. It is closed on Sundays during the fall, winter, and spring.

Camping and hiking
There are seven designated campgrounds in the Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area. Four of the campgrounds are drive-in and open year round. The largest is Horseshoe Bend Campground in the South District near Lovell, Wyoming. It has 68 sites. Most of its sites are available on a first come, first serve basis, with the exception of five sites available by online reservation. The Trail Creek/Barry's Landing campground is also in the South District with thirty sites. In the North District, the largest campground is Afterbay Campground, consisting of 22 sites. The second drive-in campground in the North District is the Grapevine Campground with fourteen sites. One campground, Medicine Creek, is accessible by boating or hiking in. Medicine Creek Campground has five sites and is located in the South District. The two remaining campgrounds are only accessible by boat and are located in the North District. Black Canyon Campground, with seventeen sites, is located five miles from the Ok-A-Beh Marina. Dayboard 9 Campground has five sites and is approximately nine miles from the Ok-A-Beh Marina.

Backcountry camping is permitted along the reservoir below the high water of 3,640 feet or in undeveloped areas near Bighorn Lake. Fires are not permitted at backcountry campsites. There are two developed waterway campsites located in the canyon at Big Bull Elk Creek and Dry Head Creek.

There are fifteen hiking trails in Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area with a total of approximately seventeen miles of trails. The North District has 3 trails and the South District has twelve trails. The longest trail in the North District is the Beaver Pond Nature trail and is 2.6 miles long. The longest trail in the South District is the Sykes Trail at 4.6 miles long. There are two trails in the recreation area considered handicap accessible, both located in the South District. One handicap trail is the Visitor Center Pond path and is 0.26 miles long. The other is Two Eagles Interpretive Trail and is 0.25 miles long. Pets are permitted on trails in the recreation area but are required to be leashed.

Boating
Bighorn Lake offers 12,700 surface acres of water for recreation, with 191 miles of shoreline. There are two marinas in the recreation area. Ok-A-Beh Marina is in the North District and Horseshoe Bend Marina is in the South District. Visitors may use motorboats, kayaks, canoes, stand up paddle boards, or most personal watercraft, provided they have the required state inspections and Aquatic Invasive Species decals. Aquatic Invasive Species (AIS) inspection stations are intended to keep harmful invasive species such as the Quagga mussel or Zebra mussel out of Montana waters. Boats are also required to display a valid registration.

The National Park Service offers free guided kayaking tours on Bighorn Lake during the summer. Concessionaires offer canoe, kayak, and standup paddle board rentals in the South District. Pontoon rentals are available at Ok-A-Beh Marina.

Fishing
Prior to the construction of the Yellowtail Dam the Bighorn River was a warm water fishery. Following construction, the waters below the dam transformed into a cold tailwater fishery where rainbow and brown trout spawn. Meanwhile, the reservoir behind the dam supports spawning for smallmouth bass, channel catfish, and ling. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife & Parks stocks the reservoir with walleye and it is managed as a walleye fishery. Largemouth bass, sauger, shovelnose sturgeon, crappie, yellow perch, pumpkinseed, stonecat, and carp are among the fish that may be caught in the reservoir.

Fishing in the Afterbay reservoir is available both by shoreline and by boat. Rainbow trout is the main species of fish caught in Afterbay. For anglers interested in fishing the Bighorn River, there is a boat ramp immediately below Afterbay Dam. In the local town of Fort Smith there are several guiding companies, hunting and fishing lodges, or boat rental companies to service the needs of visiting anglers. Fishing licenses are required when fishing in the National Recreation Area but are issued by the respective states. Anglers are required to have a fishing license for the state they are fishing in.

Hunting
While hunting is usually not permitted in units managed by the National Park Service, it is permitted in certain areas of Bighorn National Recreation Area. Hunters are required to be knowledgeable of the hunting regulations and strongly encouraged to contact National Park Service rangers in the area prior to hunting. Hunting lodges in Fort Smith offer guides and equipment for hire.

Caving
The recreation area contains numerous caves. The Bighorn Cavern in particular is used by people interested in caving. Management of Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area requires cavers to obtain a permit at the Cal S. Taggart visitor center in Lovell, Wyoming. Two parties are permitted which must consist of between three and six people. Each party is required to have a member who is familiar with the cave.

Fauna
Bighorn Canyon provides habitat for at least 231 species of birds. Bighorn sheep, black bear, mule deer, mountain lions, pronghorn, coyotes, beavers, and marmots are among the species that live in the varied climates in the recreation area. The black-tailed prairie dog and the swift fox are both listed as Species of Concern by the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, & Parks and inhabit the North District of Bighorn Canyon. The gray wolf has been observed in the same region of Wyoming where the South District of Bighorn Canyon is located.

Climate
The North District of Bighorn Canyon is classified as semi-arid and receives an average of 18 inches of rain per year. The South District is a high desert with an annual rainfall of 6 to 10 inches.

Park features
Afterbay Lake, located below Yellowtail Dam, is a popular spot for trout fishing as well as for viewing ducks, geese and other animals. The Bighorn River below the Afterbay Dam is likewise a world-class trout fishing area. In addition, the area features many archeological and historical resources. Visitor centers and other developed facilities are located in Fort Smith, Montana, and near Lovell, Wyoming.

Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area has four historic ranches within its boundaries:
 * L Slash Heart Ranch was owned by Caroline Lockhart, a notable journalist and novelist in the early 1900s. Two of her books were made into silent films in the 1920s.
 * Mason-Lovell Ranch was operating during the open range days of the 1880s; the ranch once had 25,000 cattle roaming the entire Bighorn Basin.
 * Cedarvale Ranch, located in the ghost town of Hillsboro, Montana, was a dude ranch owned by native New Yorker Grosvener W. "Doc" Barry, and attracted people for vacations. Visitors included Doc Barry's friend President Teddy Roosevelt, but attracting other vacationers proved more difficult.
 * Ewing-Snell Ranch is a former family ranch started by Erastus Ewing. Ewing went west to get rich in gold mining, but he was not successful in the gold fields and turned to ranching.

North of Lovell along the Sullivan Knob's Trail is one of the national recreation area's more unusual claims to fame. There a visitor can stand in a certain spot on the canyon rim, shout across the canyon and then hear a "triple echo" in reply.

title: Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area


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James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde

James FitzJames Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, (1665–1745) was an Irish statesman and soldier. He was the third of the Kilcash branch of the family to inherit the earldom of Ormond. Like his grandfather, the 1st Duke, he was raised as a Protestant, unlike his extended family who held to Roman Catholicism. He served in the campaign to put down the Monmouth Rebellion, in the Williamite War in Ireland, in the Nine Years' War and in the War of the Spanish Succession but was accused of treason and went into exile after the Jacobite rising of 1715.

Birth and origins
James was born on 29 April 1665 at Dublin Castle. He was the second but eldest surviving son of Thomas Butler by his wife Emilia van Nassau-Beverweerd. His father was known as Lord Ossory. He was heir apparent of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond but predeceased him and so never became duke. His father's family, the Butler dynasty, was Old English and descended from Theobald Walter, who had been appointed Chief Butler of Ireland by King Henry II in 1177. James's mother was Dutch. She descended from a cadet branch of the House of Nassau. Both parents were Protestant. They married on 17 November 1659.

They had eleven children.

Early life
He was educated in France and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford. On the death of his father on 30 July 1680 he became Baron Butler in the English peerage and the 7th Earl of Ossory in the Irish Peerage.

Early military career
He obtained command of a cavalry regiment in Ireland in 1683, and having received an appointment at court on the accession of James II, he served against the Duke of Monmouth at the Battle of Sedgemoor in July 1685. Having succeeded his grandfather as 2nd Duke of Ormonde on 21 July 1688, he was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Garter on 28 September 1688. In 1688 he also became Chancellor of the University of Dublin and Chancellor of the University of Oxford.

In January and February 1689 he voted against the motion to put William of Orange and Mary on the throne and against the motion to declare that James II had abdicated it. Nevertheless, he subsequently joined the forces of William of Orange, by whom he was made colonel of the Queen's Troop of Horse Guards on 20 April 1689. He accompanied William in his Irish campaign, debarking with him in Carrickfergus on 14 June 1690 and commanded this troop at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690. In February 1691 he became Lord Lieutenant of Somerset.

He served on the continent under William of Orange during the Nine Years' War and, having been promoted to major-general, he fought at the Battle of Steenkerque in August 1692 and the Battle of Landen in July 1693, where he was taken prisoner by the French and then exchanged for the Duke of Berwick, James II's illegitimate son. He was promoted to lieutenant-general in 1694.

After the accession of Queen Anne in March 1702, he became commander of the land forces co-operating with Sir George Rooke in Spain, where he fought in the Battle of Cádiz in August 1702 and the Battle of Vigo Bay in October 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). Having been made a Privy Councillor, Ormonde succeeded Lord Rochester as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1703. In 1704 he leased and rebuilt a property that became known as Ormonde Lodge in Richmond outside London.

Following the dismissal of the Duke of Marlborough, Ormonde was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces and colonel of the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards on 4 January 1712 and Captain-General on 26 February 1712. In the Irish Parliament Ormonde and the majority of peers supported the Tory interest.

The Guiscard affair
He played a dramatic role at the notorious meeting of the Privy Council on 8 March 1711 when Antoine de Guiscard, a French double agent who was being questioned about his treasonable activities, attempted to assassinate Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford, against whom he had a personal grudge for drastically cutting his allowance, by stabbing him with a penknife (how he managed to get into the Council room with a weapon remains a mystery). Harley was wounded, but not seriously, due largely to the fact that he was wearing a heavy gold brocade waistcoat, in which the knife got stuck. Several Councillors, including Ormonde, stabbed Guiscard in return. Guiscard implored Ormonde to finish the deed, but Ormonde replied that it was not for him to play the hangman. In any case, he had the sense to see that Guiscard must be kept alive at least long enough to be questioned, although as it turned out Guiscard's wounds were fatal and he died a week later.

The last campaign
On 23 April 1712 he left Harwich for Rotterdam to lead the British troops taking part in the war. Once there he allowed himself to be made the tool of the Tory ministry, whose policy was to carry on the war in the Netherlands while giving secret orders to Ormonde to take no active part in supporting their allies under Prince Eugene. In July 1712 Ormonde advised Prince Eugene that he could no longer support the siege of Quesnoy and that he was withdrawing the British troops from the action and instead intended to take possession of Dunkirk. The Dutch were so exasperated at the withdrawal of the British troops that they closed the towns of Bouchain on Douai to British access, despite the fact that they had plenty of stores and medical facilities available. Ormonde took possession of Ghent and Bruges as well as Dunkirk, in order to ensure his troops were adequately provided for. On 15 April 1713 he became Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk.

Jacobite
Ormonde's position as Captain-General made him a personage of much importance in the crisis brought about by the death of Queen Anne and, during the last years of Queen Anne, Ormonde almost certainly had Jacobite leanings and corresponded with the Jacobite Court including his cousin, Piers Butler, 3rd Viscount Galmoye, who kept barrels of gunpowder at Kilkenny Castle. King George I on his accession to the throne in August 1714 instituted extensive changes and excluded the Tories from royal favour. Ormonde was stripped of his posts as Captain-General, as colonel of the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards and as Commander in Chief of the Forces with the first two posts going to the Duke of Marlborough and the role of Commander-in-Chief going to the Earl of Stair. On 19 November 1714 Ormonde was instead made a member of the reconstituted Privy Council of Ireland.

Accused of supporting the Jacobite rising of 1715, during which the rebels had shouted "High church and Ormond", he was impeached for high treason by Lord Stanhope on 21 June 1715. He might have avoided the impending storm of Parliamentary prosecution, if he had remained in England and stood trial but instead he chose to flee to France in August 1715 and initially stayed in Paris with Lord Bolingbroke. On 20 August 1715 he was attainted, his estate forfeited, and honours extinguished. The Earl Marshal was instructed to remove the names and armorial bearings of Ormonde and Bolingbroke from the list of peers and Ormonde's banner as Knight of the Garter was taken down in St George's Chapel.

On 20 June 1716, the Parliament of Ireland passed an act extinguishing the regalities and liberties of the county palatine of Tipperary; for vesting his estate in the crown and for giving a reward of £10,000 for his apprehension, should he attempt to land in Ireland. But the same parliament passed an act on 24 June 1721, to enable his brother Charles Butler, 1st Earl of Arran, to purchase his estate, which he accordingly did.

Ormonde subsequently moved to Spain where he held discussions with Cardinal Alberoni. He later took part in a Spanish and Jacobite plan to invade England and put James Francis Edward Stuart on the British throne in 1719, but his fleet was disbanded by a storm in the Bay of Biscay. In 1732 he moved to Avignon, where he was seen in 1733 by the writer, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Ormonde died at Avignon in exile on 16 November 1745, but his body was brought back to London and buried in Westminster Abbey on 22 May 1746.

Marriage and children
On 20 July 1682 he, then called Lord Ossory, married Lady Anne Hyde, daughter of Laurence Hyde, who was then Viscount Hyde of Kenilworth but became Earl of Rochester in November. The couple had a daughter, Mary, who died young in 1688.

Following the death of his first wife (which is known to have caused him intense grief) in 1685, Ossory planned to marry again, in order to secure a male heir. He gained permission from the House of Lords for the arranging of a jointure for another marriage in May 1685, and in August of that year, he married Lady Mary Somerset, daughter of the Duke of Beaufort and Mary Capel. The couple had a son, Thomas (1686–1689), and two daughters, Elizabeth (1689–1750) and Mary (1690–1713). Ormonde's second wife was a lady of the bedchamber to Queen Anne. Their younger daughter, Mary, married John Ashburnham, 1st Earl of Ashburnham.

Books

 * Barnard, Toby, and Jane Fenlon (eds.) (2000). The Dukes of Ormonde, 1610–1745. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-761-0
 * – Marriages, baptisms and burials from about 1660 to 1875
 * – N to R (for Ormonde)
 * (for his father)
 * – England (for his sister Elizabeth, cited in this edition because the corresponding page is missing in the 1828 edition.)
 * – Scotland and Ireland
 * (for him)
 * – Viscounts (for Ormond under Butler, Viscount Mountgarrett)
 * – From the revolution to the death of George II
 * – 1713 to 1748
 * – 1700 to 1713
 * (for him)
 * – Viscounts (for Ormond under Butler, Viscount Mountgarrett)
 * – From the revolution to the death of George II
 * – 1713 to 1748
 * – 1700 to 1713
 * – 1713 to 1748
 * – 1700 to 1713

title: James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde