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Optometry

Optometry is a specialized health care profession that involves examining the eyes and related structures for defects or abnormalities. Optometrists are health care professionals who typically provide comprehensive eye care.

In the United States and Canada, optometrists are those that hold a Doctor of Optometry degree. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions, in addition to providing refractive (optical) eye care. Within their scope of practice, optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance(s) (example: Medicare) accordingly. In the United Kingdom, optometrists may also provide some medical care (e.g. prescribe some medications) for eye related conditions in addition to providing refractive care. The Doctor of Optometry title can also be used in the UK for those that hold the postgraduate O.D. degree.

Many optometrists participate in academic research for eye-related conditions and diseases. Optometrists receive training in refraction and monitoring of common uncomplicated eye conditions. They are not trained in any forms of surgery or laser procedures. Ophthalmologists are medical doctors and surgeons who typically hold a four-year college degree, a four-year medical degree, and at least four years of residency training after medical school.

Etymology
The term "optometry" comes from the Greek words ὄψις (opsis; "view") and μέτρον (metron; "something used to measure", "measure", "rule"). The word entered the language when the instrument for measuring vision was called an optometer, (before the terms phoropter or refractor were used). The root word opto is a shortened form derived from the Greek word ophthalmos meaning, "eye." Like most healthcare professions, the education and certification of optometrists are regulated in most countries. Optometric professionals and optometry-related organizations interact with governmental agencies, other healthcare professionals, and the community to deliver eye and vision care.

Definition of optometry and optometrist
The World Council of Optometry, World Health Organization and about 75 optometry organizations from over 40 countries have adopted the following definition, to be used to describe optometry and optometrist. "Optometry is a healthcare profession that is autonomous, educated, and regulated (licensed/registered), and optometrists are the primary healthcare practitioners of the eye and visual system who provide comprehensive eye and vision care, which includes refraction and dispensing, detection/diagnosis and management of disease in the eye, and the rehabilitation of conditions of the visual system."

History

Optometric history is tied to the development of
 * vision science (related areas of medicine, microbiology, neurology, physiology, psychology, etc.)
 * optics, optical aids
 * optical instruments, imaging techniques
 * other eye care professions

The history of optometry can be traced back to the early studies on optics and image formation by the eye. The origins of optical science (optics, as taught in a basic physics class) date back a few thousand years as evidence of the existence of lenses for decoration has been found in Greece and the Netherlands.

It is unknown when the first spectacles were made. The British scientist and historian Sir Joseph Needham, in his Science and Civilization in China, reported the earliest mention of spectacles was in Venetian guild regulations c. 1300. He suggested that the occasional claim that spectacles were invented in China may have come from a paper by German-American anthropologist Berthold Laufer. Per Needham, the paper by Laufer had many inconsistencies, and that the references in the document used by Laufer were not in the original copies but added during the Ming dynasty. Early Chinese sources mention the eyeglasses were imported.

Research by David A. Goss in the United States shows they may have originated in the late 13th century in Italy as stated in a manuscript from 1305 where a monk from Pisa named Rivalto stated "It is not yet 20 years since there was discovered the art of making eyeglasses". Spectacles were manufactured in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands by 1300. Needham stated spectacles were first made shortly after 1286.

In 1907, Laufer stated in his history of spectacles 'the opinion that spectacles originated in India is of the greatest probability and that spectacles must have been known in India earlier than in Europe'. However, as already mentioned, Joseph Needham showed that the references Laufer cited were not in the older and best versions of the document Laufer used, leaving his claims unsupported.

In Sri Lanka, it is well-documented that during the reign of King Bhuvanekabahu the IV (AD 1346 – 1353) of the Gampola period the ancient tradition of optical lens making with a natural stone called Diyatarippu was given royal patronage. A few of the craftsmen still live and practice in the original hamlet given to the exponents of the craft by royal decree. But the date of King Bhuvanekabahu is decades after the mention of spectacles in the Venetian guild regulations and after the 1306 sermon by Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa, where da Pisa said the invention of spectacles was both recent and that he had personally met the inventor

The German word brille (eyeglasses) is derived from Sanskrit vaidurya. Etymologically, brille is derived from beryl, Latin beryllus, from Greek beryllos, from Prakrit verulia, veluriya, from Sanskrit vaidurya, of Dravidian origin from the city of Velur (modern Belur). Medieval Latin berillus was also applied to eyeglasses, hence German brille, from Middle High German berille, and French besicles (plural) spectacles, altered from old French bericle.

Benito Daza de Valdes published the first full book on opticians in 1623, where he mentioned the use and fitting of eyeglasses. In 1692, William Molyneux wrote a book on optics and lenses where he stated his ideas on myopia and problems related to close-up vision. The scientists Claudius Ptolemy and Johannes Kepler also contributed to the creation of optometry. Kepler discovered how the retina in the eye creates vision. From 1773 until around 1829, Thomas Young discovered the disability of astigmatism and it was George Biddell Airy who designed glasses to correct that problem that included sphero-cylindrical lens.

Although the term optometer appeared in the 1759 book A Treatise on the Eye: The Manner and Phenomena of Vision by Scottish physician William Porterfield, it was not until the early twentieth century in the United States and Australia that "optometry" began to be used to describe the profession. By the early twenty-first century, however, marking the distinction with dispensing opticians, it had become the internationally accepted term.

Diseases
A partial list of the common diseases optometrists diagnose/manage:
 * Cataracts
 * Dry Eye Syndrome
 * Eye tumors
 * Glaucoma
 * Diabetic retinopathy
 * Hypertensive retinopathy
 * Macular degeneration
 * Refractive errors
 * Corneal disease
 * Strabismus
 * Amblyopia
 * Uveitis

Eye examination
Following are examples of examination methods performed during an eye examination that enables diagnosis
 * Ocular tonometry to determine intraocular pressure
 * Refraction assessment
 * Retina examination
 * Slit lamp examination
 * Visual acuity
 * Color vision test
 * Visual field test
 * Dry eye test
 * Corneal Topography

Specialized tests
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by eye doctors to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma

Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice
Optometry is officially recognized in many jurisdictions. Most have regulations concerning education and practice. Optometrists, like many other healthcare professionals, are required to participate in ongoing continuing education courses to stay current on the latest standards of care.

Africa
In 1993 there were five countries in Africa with optometric teaching institutes: Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania. Ethiopia started in 2002 at UoG. There are currently two universities (MMUST & Kaimosi Friends University) offering Bachelor of Science in Optometry and Vision Sciences in Kenya.

Sudan
Sudan's major institution for the training of optometrists is the Faculty of Optometry and Visual Sciences (FOVS), originally established in 1954 as the Institute of Optometry in Khartoum; the Institute joined with the Ministry of Higher Education in 1986 as the High Institute of Optometry, and ultimately was annexed into Alneelain University in 1997 when it was renamed to the FOVS. Currently, the FOVS has the following programs: 1) BSc optometry in 5 years with sub-specialization in either orthoptics, contact lenses, ocular photography or ocular neurology; 2) BCs in ophthalmic technology, requiring 4 years of training; and BCs in the optical dispensary, achieved in 4 years. The FOVS also offers MSc and PhD degrees in optometry. The FOVS is the only institute of its kind in Sudan and was the first institution of higher education in Optometry in the Middle East and Africa. In 2010, Alneelain University Eye Hospital was established as part of the FOVS to expand training capacity and to serve broader Sudanese community.

Ghana
The Ghana Optometric Association (GOA) regulates the practice of Optometry in Ghana. After the six-year training at any of the two universities offering the course, the O.D degree is awarded. The new optometrist must write a qualifying exam, after which the optometrist is admitted as a member of the GOA, leading to the award of the title MGOA.

Mozambique
The first optometry course in Mozambique was started in 2009 at Universidade Lurio, Nampula. The course is part of the Mozambique Eyecare Project. University of Ulster, Dublin Institute of Technology and Brien Holden Vision Institute are supporting partners. As of 2019, 61 Mozambican students had graduated with optometry degrees from UniLúrio (34 male and 27 female).

Nigeria
In Nigeria, optometry is regulated by the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria established under the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians (Registration etc.) Act of 1989 (Cap O9 Laws of Federation of Nigeria 2004). The Board publishes from time to time lists of approved qualifications and training institutions in the federal government gazette. The Doctor of Optometry degree is awarded after a six-year training at one of the accredited universities in Imo, Edo, Kano, Kwara and Abia states.

Bangladesh
From 2010 Optometry was first introduced in Bangladesh in Institute of Community Ophthalmology Under Medicine Faculty of University of Chittagong http://icoedu.org. This institute offers a four years Bachelor of Science in optometry (B.Optom) course. Currently, there are 120 Graduated Optometrists in Bangladesh. The association which controls the quality of Optometry practice all over the country is named as 'Optometrists Association of Bangladesh' which is also a country member of World Council of Optometry(WCO).

In the year 2018, Chittagong Medical University formed and the Bsc. in Optometry course shifted to this university.

In Bangladesh, Optometrists perform primary eye care like Diagnosis and primary management of some ocular diseases, Prescribe Eye Glasses, Low vision rehabilitation, provide vision therapy, contact lens practice and all type of Orthoptic evaluations and management.

The Bangladesh Association of Optometrists-BAO is a professional organization dedicated to enhancing the skills and advancing the optometry sector in Bangladesh. With a membership of 3,000 optometrists nationwide, BAO focuses on improving eye care services and aligning with global standards to benefit the vision health of the Bangladeshi population. BAO President, Mohammad Salah Uddin and General Secretary, Md. Rajikul Hasan.

China
In China, optometric education only began in 1988 at the Wenzhou Medical University. Since that time, the discipline and the profession have emerged as a five-year, medically based program within the medical education system of China. Students in the program receive the highest level of training in Optometry and are provided with the credentials needed to assume positions of leadership in China's medical education and health care systems. In 2000, the Ministry of Health formally accepted Optometry as a subspecialty of medicine.

Hong Kong
The Optometrists Board of the Supplementary Medical Professions Council regulates the profession in Hong Kong. Optometrists are listed in separate parts of the register based on their training and ability. Registrants are subject to restrictions depending on the part they are listed in. Those who pass the examination on refraction conducted by the Board may be registered to Part III, thereby restricted to practice only work related to refraction. Those who have a Higher Certificate in Optometry or have passed the Board's optometry examination may be registered to Part II, thereby restricted in their use of diagnostic agents, but may otherwise practice freely. Part I optometrists may practice without restrictions and generally hold a bachelor's degree or a Professional Diploma.

There are around 2000 optometrists registered in Hong Kong, 1000 of which are Part I. There is one Part I optometrist to about 8000 members of the public. The Polytechnic University runs the only optometry school. It produces around 35 Part I optometrists a year.

India
In 2010, it was estimated that India needed 115,000 optometrists. In contrast, India has approximately 15,000 optometrists Bachelor of Optometry (4-year trained as per University Grant Commission Notification 5th July 2014 ) and 50,000 Diploma in Optometry (2-year trained diploma conferred By State Medical Faculty). In order to prevent blindness or visual impairment more well-trained optometrists are required in India. The definition of optometry differs considerably in different countries. India needs more optometry schools offering four-year degree courses with a syllabus similar to that in force in those countries where to practice of optometry is statutorily regulated and well established with an internationally accepted definition.

In 2013, it was reported in the Indian Journal of Ophthalmology that poor spectacle compliance amongst school children in rural Pune resulted in significant vision loss.

In 2015, it was reported that optometrists need to be more involved in providing core optometry services like binocular vision and low vision.

History of Optometry Education in India
1. In the beginning optometry education started in India during British rule in 1927, the first college was established in West Bengal with the name The Indian College of Optics and the certification was diploma in optometry.

After the independence of India then ,The Directorate General Of Health Services (DGHS) Govt of India in 1958, Introduced the first (by the Central Govt of india) Optometry education in the form of a Diploma in Optometry with the collaboration of UP State Medical Faculty Govt Of Utter Pradesh under the 2nd 5-year plan the government offered diplomas in optometry courses of two years duration conferred by State Medical Faculties which is empowered under the INDIAN MEDICAL DEGREE ACT,1916 (as per Government of India Notification Department of Education, Health and Lands No,1964 dated 16th December 1926 with effect from 15th November 1929) and first two schools of optometry were established, one at Gandhi Eye Hospital (The first Schcool of Optometry Started By Prof.(Dr) Mohan Lal), Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh, and another one at Sarojini Devi Eye Hospital, Hyderabad in Telangana,

2. Subsequently, four more schools were opened across India situated at Sitapur Eye Hospital, Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh, Chennai (formerly Madras) in Tamil Nadu, Bengalooru (formerly Bangalore) in Karnataka and Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Thiruvananthapuram (formerly Trivandrum) in Kerala.

3. The Elite School of Optometry (ESO) was established in 1985 in Chennai (The first Schcool of Optometry/college Started By Prof.(Dr) S. Badrinath ) and was the first to offer a four-year degree course Baccularrte of Science in Optometry B.S. Optometry degree was conferred  only by the Shanker Netraliya (Elite of school of Optometry and first Principal was Dr. E. Vaithilingam) instead of any University or state Government Authority etc after that B.S. in Optometry (under off- cumpus mode)  was affiliated with Bitis Pilani University -Rajasthan and now  the same course re-affiliate with new University of State of Tamilnadu-India.

4. The School of Optometry, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune (https://optometry.bharatividyapeeth.edu/) established in 1998 was the first to offer a degree four-year course and conferring Bachelor of Clinical Optometry and University offered a pathroot for diploma holders to upgrade their Diploma education to Degree of Optometry through a lateral entry program. Also, the first 2 years of the Masters of Optometry course were started here in the year 2003.

5. AIIMS -Delhi introduced a two-year Diploma in Clinical Technology -Optometry (D.C.T in Optometry) in the year 1973 and then upgraded the Diploma course to a 3year B.sc (H) in Ophthalmic Technique) in 1975 after that now the Nomenclature to Degree and course of duration changed from B, Sc(H) to Bachelor of Optometry four year duration as per UGC Notification 2014 in the year new first batch of student passed out in the year 2019

6. Now at present, there are more than fifty schools of optometry and colleges existing in India and more than 100 Universities conferring Bachelor Of Optometry (B.Optom) and Master of Optometry (M.Optom) professional degrees and Doctor of Philosophy in Optometry are awarded in India by the universities recognized by University Grants Commission (India), a statutory body responsible for the maintenance of standards of higher education in India.

Optometrists across India are encouraged to register their names in the NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR ALLIED AND HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONS ACT, 2021 which has been enforced by the Parliament of India in the year 2021 and

DOA (Delhi Optometrists Association) endorsed all updates about optometry education in India.

Malaysia
It takes four years to complete a degree in optometry. Today, optometry courses are well received by citizens. More universities and higher education studies are about to implement the courses, e.g., National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences in Petaling Jaya whereby it is the academic arm of The Tun Hussein Onn National Eye Hospital. Other public universities that provide this course are University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), and International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). There is also a private university that provides this course such as Management and Science University (MSU) and SeGi University. After completing the study in Degree in Optometry, the optometrist who practices in Malaysia must register under the Malaysian Optical Council (MOC) which is the organization under the Ministry of Health.

The Association of Malaysian Optometrist (AMO) is the only body that represents the Malaysian optometrist profession. All of the members are either local or overseas graduates in the field of Optometry.

Pakistan
Optometry is taught as a five/four-year Doctor/ Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors course at many institutions notable among which are Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore, Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology (PICO) Peshawar, Pakistan institute of Rehabilitation science Isra University campus Islamabad (PIRS), College of Ophthalmology & Allied Vision Sciences (COAVS) Lahore and Al-Shifa Institute of Ophthalmology Islamabad. After graduation, the optometrists can join a four-tiered service delivery level (Centre of Excellence, Tertiary/Teaching, District headquarter and sub-district /Tehsil headquarters). M.Phil. in Optometry is also available at select institutions such as King Edward Medical University, Lahore Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore started bridging programmes for Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors to become Doctor of Optometry OD, Post Professional Doctor of Optometry(PP-OD), Transitional Doctor of Optometry(t-OD). Optometry is not yet a regulated field in Pakistan as there is no professional licensing board or authority responsible for issuing practise licenses to qualified optometrists. This creates difficulty for Pakistani optometrists who wish to register abroad. The University of Lahore has recently launched Doctor of optometry (OD). Imam Hussain Medical University also has launched Doctor of Optometry Program. Chairman Imam Hussain Medical University Sabir Hussain Babachan has vowed to regulate OD curriculum according to international standard.

Philippines
Optometry is regulated by the Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippines. To be eligible for licensing, each candidate must have satisfactorily completed a doctor of optometry course at an accredited institution and demonstrate good moral character with no previous record of professional misconduct. Professional organizations of optometry in the Philippines include Optometric Association of the Philippines and Integrated Philippine Association of Optometrists, Inc. (IPAO).

Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, optometrists must complete a five-year doctor of optometry degree from Qassim University and King Saud University also they must complete a one-year residency.

Singapore
Tertiary education for optometrists takes 3 years at the following institutions.

Singapore Polytechnic - Diploma in Optometry Singapore Polytechnic

Ngee Ann Polytechnic - Diploma in Optometry Ngee Ann Polytechnic

Taiwan
The education of Optometry in Taiwan commenced in 1982 at Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management. Currently, Bcahelor degrees in Optometry can be obtained from seven universities (North to South): University of Kang Ning, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Asia University, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Chung Shan Medical University, Dayeh University, and Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology; where as associate degrees in Optometry can be obtained from Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Hsin Sheng College of Medical Care and Management, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing, and Management, and Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management.

The Law of Optometrists was established in Taiwan in 2015, since then, Optometry students after obtaining Optometry degrees need to pass the National Optometry Examination of Taiwan to be registered as Optometrists. Currently, there are approximately 4,000 Optometrists in Taiwan (2020), and around 400 new Optometrists register annunally (2018-2020).

Thailand
Since late 1990, Thailand has set a goal to provide more than 600 optometrists to meet the minimal public demands and international standards in vision care. There are more than three university degree programs in Thailand. Each program accepts students that have completed grade 12th or the third year in high school (following US education model). These programs offer "Doctor of Optometry" degree to graduates from the program that will take six years to complete the courses. Practising optometrists will also be required to pass licensing examination (three parts examinations) that is administrated through a committee under the Ministry of Public Health.

Nowadays, the number of practising optometrists in Thailand is still less than one hundred (2015). However, it has projected that the number of practising optometrists in Thailand will greatly increase within the next ten years. In the theoretical scenario, the number of optometrists should be able to meet minimal public demands around 2030 or earlier.

Europe
Since the formation of the European Union, "there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry" and presumably also standardized practice and education guidelines within EU countries. The first examinations of the new European Diploma in Optometry were held in 1998 and this was a landmark event for optometry in continental Europe.

France
As of July 2003, there was no regulatory framework and optometrists were sometimes trained by completing an apprenticeship at an ophthalmologists' private office.

Germany
Optometric tasks are performed by ophthalmologists and professionally trained and certified opticians.

Greece
Hellenic Ministry of Education founded the first department of Optometry at Technological Educational Institute of Patras in 2007. After protests from the department of Optics at Technological Educational Institute of Athens (the only department of Optics in Greece, until 2006), the Government changed the names of the departments to "Optics and Optometry" and included lessons in both optics and optometry. Optometrists-Opticians have to complete a 4-year undergraduate honours degree. Then the graduates can be admitted to postgraduate courses in Optometry at universities around the world.

Since 2015, a Master of Science (MSc) course in Optometry is offered by the Technological Educational Institute of Athens.

The Institute of Vision and Optics (IVO) of the University of Crete focuses on the sciences of vision and is active in the fields of research, training, technology development and provision of medical services. Professor Ioannis Pallikaris has received numerous awards and recognitions for the institute's contribution to ophthalmology. In 1989 he performed the first LASIK procedure on a human eye.

Hungary
Optometrist education takes 4 years in the medical universities in Hungary, and they will get a Bachelor of Science degree. They work in networks and retail stores and private optics, very few are located in the Health Care care system as ophthalmologists as an assistant.

Ireland
The profession of Optometry has been represented for over a century by the Association of Optometrists, Ireland [AOI]. In Ireland an optometrist must first complete a four-year degree in optometry at Dublin Institute of Technology. Following successful completion of the degree, an optometrist must then complete professional qualifying examinations to enter the register of the Opticians Board [Bord na Radharcmhaistoiri]. Optometrists must be registered with the Board to practice in the Republic of Ireland.

The A.O.I. runs a comprehensive continuing education and professional development program on behalf of Irish optometrists. The legislation governing optometry was drafted in 1956. Some feel that the legislation restricts optometrists from using their full range of skills, training and equipment for the benefit of the Irish public. The amendment to the Act in 2003 addressed one of the most significant restrictions: the use of cycloplegic drugs to examine children.

Italy
In Italy Optometry is an unregulated profession. It is taught at seven universities: Padua, Turin, Milan, Salento, Florence, Naples and Rome, as three years course (like a BSc) of "Scienze e tecnologie fisiche" as a sector of the Physics Department. Additionally, courses are available at some private institutions (as at Vinci Institute near Firenze) that offer advanced professional education for already qualified opticians (most of the Italian optometrists are also qualified opticians, i.e. "ottico abilitato"). In the last thirty years several verdicts from High Court (Cassazione) proof that optometry is a free practice and has truly education path.

Norway
In Norway, the optometric profession has been regulated as a healthcare profession since 1988. After a three-year bachelor program, one can practice basic optometry. At least one year in clinical practice qualify for a post-degree half-year sandwich course in contact lens fitting, which is regulated as a healthcare speciality. A separate regulation for the use of diagnostic drugs in optometric practice was introduced in 2004.

Russia
In Russia, optometry education has been accredited by the Federal Agency of Health and Social Development. There are only two educational institutions that teach optometry in Russia: Saint Petersburg Medical Technical College, formerly known as St. Petersburg College of Medical Electronics and Optics, and The Helmholtz Research Institute for Eye Diseases. They both belong and are regulated by the Ministry of Health. The optometry program is a four-year program. It includes one to two science foundation years, one yer focused on clinical and proficiency skills, and one year of clinical rotations in hospitals. Graduates take college/state examinations and then receive a specialist diploma. This diploma is valid for only five years and must be renewed every five years after receiving additional training at state-accredited programs.

The scope of practice for optometrists in Russia includes refraction, contact lens fitting, spectacles construction and lens fitting (dispensing), low vision aids, foreign body removal, referrals to other specialists after clinical condition diagnoses (management of diseases in the eye).

Licensing
Optometrists in the United Kingdom are regulated by the General Optical Council under the Opticians Act 1989 and distinguished from medical practitioners. Registration with the GOC is mandatory to practice optometry in the UK. Members of the College of Optometrists (incorporated by a Royal Charter granted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II) may use the suffix MCOptom.

The National Health Service provides free sight tests and spectacle vouchers for children and those on very low incomes. The elderly and those with some chronic conditions like diabetes get free periodic tests. Treatment for eye conditions such as glaucoma and cataracts is free and checked for during normal eye examinations.

Training
In the United Kingdom, optometrists have to complete a 4 year undergraduate honours degree followed by a minimum of a one-year "pre-registration period", (internship), where they complete clinical practice under the supervision of a qualified and experienced practitioner. During this year the pre-registration candidate is given a number of quarterly assessments, often including temporary posting at a hospital, and on successfully passing all of these assessments, a final one-day set of examinations (details correct for candidates from 2006 onwards). Following successful completion of these assessments and having completed one year's supervised practice, the candidate is eligible to register as an optometrist with the General Optical Council (GOC) and, should they so wish, are entitled to membership of the College of Optometrists. Twelve universities offer Optometry in the UK: Anglia Ruskin, Aston, Bradford, Cardiff, City, Glasgow Caledonian, Hertfordshire, Manchester, University of Plymouth, Ulster University at Coleraine, University of Portsmouth and University of the West of England.

In 2008 the UK moved forward to offer the Doctor of Optometry postgraduate program. This became available at the Institute of Optometry in London in partnership with London South Bank University. The Doctor of Optometry postgraduate degree is also offered at one other UK institution.Aston University

Scope of Practice
In 1990, a survey of the opinions of British medical practitioners regarding the services provided by British optometrists was carried out by Agarwal at City, University of London. A majority of respondents were in favour of optometrists extending their professional role by treating external eye conditions and prescribing broad-spectrum topical antibiotics through additional training and certification.

Since 2009, optometrists in the UK have been able to undertake additional postgraduate training and qualifications that allow them to prescribe medications to treat and manage eye conditions. There are currently three registerable specialities:
 * Additional supply speciality - to write orders for, and supply in an emergency, a range of drugs in addition to those ordered or supplied by a normal optometrist.
 * Supplementary prescribing speciality -  to manage a patient's clinical condition and prescribe medicines according to a clinical management plan set up in conjunction with an independent prescriber, such as a GP or ophthalmologist or qualified optometrist.
 * Independent prescribing specialty - to take responsibility for the clinical assessment of a patient, establish a diagnosis and determine the clinical management required, including prescribing where necessary.

Optometrists in the United Kingdom are able to diagnose and manage most ocular diseases, and may also undertake further training to perform certain surgical procedures.

Training
In Canada, Doctors of Optometry typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four to five years of optometry studies, accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education. There are two such schools of optometry located in Canada — the University of Waterloo and the Université de Montreal. Canada also recognizes degrees from the twenty US schools.

Licensing
In Canada, Doctors of Optometry must write national written and practical board exams. Additionally, optometrists are required to become licensed in the province in which they wish to practice. Regulation of professions is within provincial jurisdiction. Therefore, regulation of optometry is unique to individual provinces and territories. In Ontario, optometrists are licensed by the College of Optometrists of Ontario.

Representation
In Canada, the profession is represented by the Canadian Association of Optometrists. In the province of Ontario, the Ontario Association of Optometrists is the designated representative of optometrists to the provincial government.

Scope of Practice
Optometrists in Canada are trained and licensed to be primary eye care providers. They provide optical and medical eye care. They are able to diagnose and treat most eye diseases and can prescribe both topical and oral medications. They can also undertake further qualifications in order to perform some surgical procedures.

United States
Optometrists or Optometry Doctors usually function as primary eye care providers - they have a degree in eye care. They provide comprehensive optical and medical eye care, but usually not surgery. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions - prescribe topical medications (prescription eye drops), oral medications as well as administer diagnostic agents. In some states, optometrists may also be licensed to perform certain types of eye surgery.

Scope of practice
Optometrists provide optical and medical eye care. They prescribe corrective lenses to aid refractive errors (e.g. myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, double vision). They manage vision development in children including amblyopia diagnosis/treatment. Some perform vision therapy. They are trained to diagnose and manage any eye disease and their associations with systemic health. Optometrists are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye-related conditions (including bacterial/viral infections, inflammation, glaucoma, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy). They can prescribe all topical medications (eye drops) and most oral medications (taken by mouth), including scheduled controlled substances. They may also remove ocular foreign bodies and order blood panels or imaging studies such as CT or MRI. Optometrists do not perform invasive surgery, however In Oklahoma and Louisiana, Optometrists may perform superficial surgeries within the anterior segment of the eye. Legislation permits Optometrists in Oklahoma and Kentucky to perform certain laser procedures.

Within their scope of practice optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance plans accordingly.

Optometrists in the United States are regulated by state boards, which vary from state to state.

The Association of Regulatory Boards of Optometry (ARBO) assists these state board licensing agencies in regulating the practice of optometry.

Licensing
Optometrists must complete all course work and graduate from an accredited College of Optometry. This includes passage of all parts of the national board examinations as well as local jurisprudence examinations, which vary by state.

Education and Training
Optometrists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four years of Optometry school. Some complete a 5th year of training. Their program is highly specific to the eyes and related structures. Optometrists receive their medical eye training while enrolled in Optometry school and during internships. Training may take place in colleges of Optometry, hospitals, clinics and private practices. In many instances Optometry students and Ophthalmology residents will co-manage medical cases. Instructors may be Optometrists, professors or physicians. The program includes extensive classroom and clinical training in geometric, physical, physiological and ophthalmic optics, specialty contact lens evaluation, general anatomy, ocular anatomy, ocular disease, pharmacology, ocular pharmacology, neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the visual system, pediatric visual development, gerontology, binocular vision, color vision, form, space, movement and vision perception, systemic disease, histology, microbiology, sensory and perceptual psychology, biochemistry, statistics and epidemiology.

Optometrists are required to obtain continuing education credit hours to maintain licensure - number of hours varies by state.

Optometrists prescribing schedule controlled substances are required to renew their DEA license every few years.

Australia
Australia currently has six recognized courses in optometry, and one course seeking to obtain accreditation with the Optometry council of Australia and New Zealand:
 * Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry (BVisSci MOptom), Deakin University
 * Bachelor of Medical Science (Vision Science) and Master of Optometry, Flinders University
 * Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Clinical Optometry (BVisSc MClinOptom), University of New South Wales
 * Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry, Queensland University of Technology
 * Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry, University of Canberra
 * Doctor of Optometry, Melbourne University (post-graduate)
 * Doctor of Optometry, University of Western Australia (post-graduate)

To support these courses the Australian College of Optometry provides clinical placements to undergraduate students from Australian Universities and abroad.

in 2016, almost 5000 optometrists in general practice were licensed with their regulatory body, the Optometry Board of Australia. Of these, approximately 2300 were registered with the scheduled medicines endorsement, which enables them to prescribe some medicines for the treatment of conditions of the eye. The Optometrists Association of Australia works to protect the interests of optometrists in Australia.

New Zealand
New Zealand currently has one recognised course in optometry:
 * Bachelor of Optometry (BOptom), The University of Auckland

In July 2014, the Medicines Amendment Act 2013 and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2014 came into effect. Among other things, the changes to the Act name optometrists as authorised prescribers. This change enables optometrists with a therapeutic pharmaceutical agent (TPA) endorsement to prescribe all medicines appropriate to their scope of practice, rather than limiting them to a list of medicines specified in the regulation; this recognises the safe and appropriate prescribing practice of optometrists over the previous nine years.

Brazil
The CBOO (Brazilian Council of Optics and Optometry), which is affiliated to the WCO (World Council of Optometry), represents Brazilian optometrists. In conjunction with organizations representative weight of Brazilian companies, including the National Commerce Confederation for goods, services and tourism (CNC), through the CBÓptica/CNC, its defence arm of the optometric and optical industry, are defending the right of free and independent practice of optometrists, even if it is against the interests of ophthalmologists.

The Federal Supreme Court (STF), the Brazilian Court of Justice and the Superior Court of Justice (STJ), another important National Court, ruled several processes granting inquestionable victories to ophthalmologists.

In Brazilian law, however, there is an explicit recommendation that the one prescribing corrective lenses are prohibited to sell them. This restricting rule to the ophthalmologists has to keep the optic shops away from Hospitals and Eye Care Clinics since 1930, and it has to be reviewed before any further regulation for the optometrists.

Colombia
In Colombia, optometry education has been accredited by the Ministry of Health. The last official revision to the laws regarding healthcare standards in the country was issued in 1992 through the Law 30. Currently there are eight official universities that are entitled by ICFES to grant the optometrist certification. The first optometrists arrived in the country from North America and Europe c. 1914. These professionals specialized in optics and refraction. In 1933, under Decrees 449 and 1291, the Colombian Government officially set the rules for the formation of professionals in the field of optometry. In 1966 La Salle University opened its first Faculty of Optometry after a recommendation from a group of professionals. At present optometrists are encouraged to keep up with new technologies through congresses and scholarships granted by the government or the private sector (such as Bausch & Lomb).

title: Optometry


text:
Beverly Cleary

Beverly Atlee Cleary (née Bunn; April 12, 1916 –March 25, 2021) was an American writer of children's and young adult fiction. One of America's most successful authors, 91 million copies of her books have been sold worldwide since her first book was published in 1950. Some of her best known characters are Ramona Quimby and Beezus Quimby, Henry Huggins and his dog Ribsy, and Ralph S. Mouse.

The majority of Cleary's books are set in the Grant Park neighborhood of northeast Portland, Oregon, where she was raised, and she has been credited as one of the first authors of children's literature to figure emotional realism in the narratives of her characters, often children in middle-class families. Her first children's book was Henry Huggins after a question from a kid when Cleary was a librarian. Cleary won the 1981 National Book Award for Ramona and Her Mother and the 1984 Newbery Medal for Dear Mr. Henshaw. For her lifetime contributions to American literature, she received the National Medal of Arts, recognition as a Library of Congress Living Legend, and the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the Association for Library Service to Children. The Beverly Cleary School, a public school in Portland, was named after her, and several statues of her most famous characters were erected in Grant Park in 1995. Cleary died on March 25, 2021, at the age of 104.

Early life
Beverly Atlee Bunn was born on April 12, 1916, in McMinnville, Oregon, to Chester Lloyd Bunn, a farmer, and Mable Atlee Bunn, a schoolteacher. Cleary was an only child and lived on a farm in rural Yamhill, Oregon, in her early childhood. She was raised Presbyterian. When she was six years old, her family moved to Portland, Oregon, where her father had secured a job as a bank security officer.

The adjustment from living in the country to the city was difficult for Cleary, and she struggled in school; in first grade, her teacher placed her in a group for struggling readers. Cleary said, "The first grade was sorted into three reading groups—Bluebirds, Redbirds and Blackbirds. I was a Blackbird. To be a Blackbird was to be disgraced. I wanted to read, but somehow could not."

With some work, Cleary's reading skills improved, but she eventually found reading boring, complaining that many stories were simple and unsurprising, and wondering why authors often did not write with humor or about ordinary people. However, on a rainy afternoon at home during Cleary's third-grade year, she found herself enjoying reading The Dutch Twins, a book by Lucy Fitch Perkins about the adventures of ordinary children. The book was an epiphany for her, and afterward, she started to spend a lot of time reading and at the library. By sixth grade, a teacher suggested that Cleary should become a children's writer based on essays she had written for class assignments.

After graduating from Portland's Grant High School in 1934, Cleary entered Chaffey Junior College in Ontario, California, which offered lower tuition fees than four-year universities, something many students needed during the Great Depression, with aspirations of becoming a children's librarian. After two years at Chaffey, she was accepted to the University of California, Berkeley, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1938. While in college, Cleary worked odd jobs to pay her tuition, including working as a seamstress and a chambermaid. During what Cleary described as "two of the most interesting years of my life", she was one of the first residents of women's cooperative Stebbins Hall, and met her future husband, Clarence Cleary, at a school dance. In 1939, she graduated from the School of Librarianship at the University of Washington with a second bachelor's degree in library science and accepted a year-long position as a children's librarian in Yakima, Washington. Her parents disapproved of her relationship with Cleary, a Roman Catholic, so the couple eloped and were married in 1940. After World War II, they settled in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California. In 1955, Cleary gave birth to twins, Malcolm and Marianne. She lived in Carmel Valley Village in California from the 1960s onwards.

Career
After her graduation from the University of Washington in 1939, she served as a children's librarian in Yakima, Washington, until 1940, and then as the post librarian at the U.S. Army Hospital on Camp John T. Knight in Oakland, California, from 1942 to 1945. She also worked at Sather Gate Book Shop in Berkeley before becoming a full-time writer for children.

As a children's librarian, Cleary empathized with her young patrons, who had difficulty finding books with characters they could identify with, and she struggled to find enough books to suggest that would appeal to them. After a few years of making recommendations and performing live storytelling in her role as librarian, Cleary decided to start writing children's books about characters that young readers could relate to. Cleary has said, "I believe in that 'missionary spirit' among children's librarians. Kids deserve books of literary quality, and librarians are so important in encouraging them to read and selecting books that are appropriate."

Cleary's first book, Henry Huggins (1950), was the first in a series of fictional chapter books about Henry, his dog Ribsy, his neighborhood friend Beezus and her little sister Ramona. When writing the book, Cleary took inspiration from the times she composed stories for children during Saturday afternoon story hours when she worked as a librarian in Yakima. Like many of her later works, Henry Huggins is a novel about people living ordinary lives and is based on Cleary's own childhood experiences, the kids in her neighborhood growing up, as well as children she met while working as a librarian. Although her book was accepted by Morrow, the first publisher she sent it to, it had been initially rejected, and Cleary had added the characters of Beezus and Ramona while revising it.

Cleary's first book to center a story on the Quimby sisters, Beezus and Ramona, was published in 1955. A publisher asked her to write a book about a kindergarten student. Cleary resisted, because she had not attended kindergarten, but later changed her mind after the birth of her twins.

Cleary also wrote two memoirs, one about her childhood, entitled A Girl from Yamhill (1988), and one about her years in college and as an adult up to writing her first book, entitled My Own Two Feet (1995). During a 2011 interview for the Los Angeles Times, at age 95, Cleary stated, "I've had an exceptionally happy career."

Critical significance
Cleary's books have been historically noted for their attention to the daily minutiae of childhood, specifically the experience of children growing up in middle-class families. Leonard S. Marcus, a children's literature historian, said of Cleary's work: "When you're the right age to read Cleary's books you're likely at your most impressionable time in life as a reader. [Her books] both entertain children and give them courage and insight into what to expect from their lives." Cleary's employment of humor has also been noted by critics; William Grimes of The New York Times wrote that Cleary used a "humorous, lively style" while "ma[king] compelling drama out of the everyday problems, small injustices and perplexing mysteries – adults chief among them – that define middle-class American childhood", while Roger Sutton of The Horn Book Magazine noted that "Cleary is funny in a very sophisticated way. She gets very close to satire, which I think is why adults like her, but she's still deeply respectful of her characters—nobody gets a laugh at the expense of another. I think kids appreciate that they're on a level playing field with adults."

Pat Pflieger, professor of children's literature at West Chester University, commented: "Cleary's books have lasted because she understands her audience. She knows they're sometimes confused or frightened by the world around them, and that they feel deeply about things that adults can dismiss." Eliza Dresang, professor in children and youth services at the University of Washington Information School, Cleary's alma mater, said, "Those books don't seem so radical now, but they were when she was writing them". Dresang added that Cleary's writing, "in terms of the topics [covered], the honesty, the accuracy, [and] the ability to portray real-life children", was decades ahead of her time. Twentieth-Century Children's Writers said, "Beverly Cleary's impact as a children's writer cannot be overestimated... her extraordinary talent in creating memorable young characters whose exuberant spirit and zest for life attract young and old readers alike."

Later life
Cleary’s husband, Clarence, died in 2004. She celebrated her 100th birthday on April 12, 2016. On March 25, 2021, Cleary died at her retirement home in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, aged 104.

Honors and legacy
In 1975, Cleary won the Laura Ingalls Wilder Award from the American Library Association for "substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature". She was the U.S. nominee for the biennial international Hans Christian Andersen Award in 1984. In April 2000, she was named Library of Congress Living Legend in the writers and artists category for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States. She received the National Medal of Arts in 2003.

Cleary's books have been published in over 25 different languages and have been recognized by many awards and honors. Dear Mr. Henshaw won the Newbery Medal in 1984, and Newbery Honors were conferred on Ramona and Her Father in 1978 and Ramona Quimby, Age 8 in 1982. She won the 1981 National Book Award in category children's fiction (paperback) for Ramona and Her Mother, a William Allen White Children's Book award for Socks (1973), the Catholic Library Association's Regina Medal (1980), and the Children's Book Council's Every Child Award (1985).

In 2012, Ramona the Pest was ranked number 24 among all children's novels in a survey published by the School Library Journal, a monthly with a primarily U.S. audience. The Mouse and the Motorcycle (89) and Ramona and Her Father (94) were also among the top 100.

Cleary has been mentioned as a major influence by other authors, including Laurie Halse Anderson, Judy Blume, Lauren Myracle, and Jon Scieszka.

Publisher HarperCollins recognizes Cleary's birthday, April 12, as National Drop Everything and Read (DEAR) Day, in promotion of sustained silent reading.

In Portland, Oregon, the Hollywood branch of the Multnomah County Library, near where she lived as a child, commissioned a map of Henry Huggins's Klickitat Street neighborhood for its lobby wall. Statues of her characters Henry Huggins, the Hugginses' dog Ribsy, and Ramona Quimby can be found in The Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children, which is part of Portland's Grant Park in the Hollywood-Fernwood neighborhood. In June 2008, the neighborhood's K-8 school, formerly named Fernwood Grammar School and once attended by Cleary, was officially renamed Beverly Cleary School.

In 1997, the Central Library in downtown Portland, Oregon, which serves as the main branch of the Multnomah County Library system, dedicated its children's room as the Beverly Cleary Children's Library.

In 2004, the University of Washington Information School completed fund-raising for the Beverly Cleary Endowed Chair for Children and Youth Services to honor her work and commitment to librarianship. In 2008, the school announced that she had been selected as the next recipient of the university's Alumna Summa Laude Dignatus Award, the highest honor the University of Washington can bestow on a graduate.

Cleary has a 220-student residential hall named after her, Beverly Cleary Hall, at her alma mater, the University of California, Berkeley.

In April 2016, on the occasion of her 100th birthday, Oregon Public Broadcasting produced an original half-hour program, Discovering Beverly Cleary, which included an extensive interview with Cleary at age 99 at her home in Carmel, California, and photographs and stories from her life. It was broadcast in the spring of 2016 on PBS stations across the country.

On April 22, 2021, after her death, the United States Senate passed a resolution "honoring the life and legacy of award-winning children's author Beverly Cleary." It was sponsored by Senator Ron Wyden of Oregon, Cleary's home state.

Works
Key: † Henry Huggins series (1950–1964), ‡ Ramona series (1955–1999)

• Henry Huggins, Morrow, 1950 †

• Ellen Tebbits, Morrow, 1951

• Henry and Beezus, Morrow, 1952 †

• Otis Spofford, Morrow, 1953

• Henry and Ribsy, Morrow, 1954 †

• Beezus and Ramona, Morrow, 1955 ‡

• Fifteen, Morrow, 1956

• Henry and the Paper Route, Morrow, 1957 †

• The Luckiest Girl, Morrow, 1958

• Jean and Johnny, Morrow, 1959

• The Hullabaloo ABC, Parnassus, 1960

• The Real Hole, Morrow, 1960

• Leave It to Beaver, Berkley, 1960

• Beaver and Wally, Berkley, 1961

• Here's Beaver!, Berkley, 1961

• Two Dog Biscuits, Morrow, 1961

• Emily's Runaway Imagination, Morrow, 1961

• Henry and the Clubhouse, Morrow, 1962 †

• Sister of the Bride, Morrow, 1963

• Ribsy, Morrow, 1964 †

• The Mouse and the Motorcycle, Morrow, 1965

• The Growing-Up Feet, Morrow, 1967

• Mitch and Amy, Morrow, 1967

• Ramona the Pest, Morrow, 1968 ‡

• Runaway Ralph, Morrow, 1970

• Socks, Morrow, 1973

• Ramona the Brave, Morrow, 1975 ‡

• Ramona and Her Father, Morrow, 1977 ‡

• Ramona and Her Mother, Morrow, 1979 ‡

• Ramona Quimby, Age 8, Morrow, 1981 ‡

• Ralph S. Mouse, Morrow, 1982

• Dear Mr. Henshaw, Morrow, 1983

• Ramona Forever, Morrow, 1984 ‡

• The Ramona Quimby Diary, Morrow, 1984

• Lucky Chuck, Morrow, 1984

• Janet's Thingamajigs, Morrow, 1987

• A Girl from Yamhill, Morrow, 1988

• Muggie Maggie, Morrow, 1990

• Strider, Morrow, 1991

• Petey's Bedtime Story, Morrow, 1993

• My Own Two Feet, Morrow, 1995

• Ramona's World, Morrow, 1999 ‡

• Two Times the Fun (omnibus containing The Real Hole, Two Dog Biscuits, The Growing-Up Feet, and Janet's Thingamajigs), Morrow, 2005

Adaptations

 * Ramona (1988): Ten-part Canadian TV series starring Sarah Polley as eight year old Ramona Quimby.
 * Ramona and Beezus (2010): Movie starring Joey King as Ramona and Selena Gomez as Beezus.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Beverly Cleary


text:
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü

Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (December 5, 1890 – June 28, 1966), also known as Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, was a highly influential Turkish sociologist, Turkologist, scholar, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey. A descendant of the prominent Köprülü family, Fuat Köprülü was a key figure in the intersection of scholarship and politics in early 20th century Turkey.

Early life
Fuat Köprülü was born in the city of Istanbul in 1890 as Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad. His father was Faiz Efendi, an Islamic judge. His mother Hatice Hanim was the daughter of an Islamic scholar.

His paternal grandfather, Ahmet Ziya Bey, was the former ambassador to Bucharest, and Ahmet Ziya Bey was son of the former head of the Imperial Chancery of State (Divan-i Humayun Beylikcisi), Köprülüzade Arif Bey. Köprülüzade Arif Bey descended from the Köprülüs of the 17th century, an exceptional dynasty of Grand Viziers whose reforms and conquests delayed the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Fuat Köprülü was named after the first Grand Vizier of the Köprülü Era, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha.

Fuat Köprülü received his formal education at the Ayasofya Middle and Mercan High schools, both products of the Ottoman educational reforms of the 19th century. In 1905, while a student at Mercan High School and only 15 years old, the magazine Musavver Terakki published three poems by Fuat Köprülü. By the time he entered the Istanbul University School of Law at the age of 17, Fuat Köprülü already had an excellent command of French, Persian and Arabic. His first book, Hayat-i Fikriyye (The Intellectual Life), was published when he was 19 years old. After three years of study, Fuat Köprülü abandoned the School of Law because of the poor quality of instruction, saying that diploma was not worth the loss of time it would entail.

The Making of a Nationalist Intellectual
From 1910 to 1913, Fuat Köprülü taught Ottoman language and literature at various high schools in Istanbul, including the prestigious Galatasaray High School. Fuat Köprülü initially opposed the literary movement known as New Language, which sought to simplify the Turkish language, and wrote articles for the Servet-i Fünun magazine using a literary style comprehensible only to the most learned of Ottoman intellectuals. Fuat Köprülü changed his writing style and politics during the Balkan Wars. On February 6, 1913, the day after the Bulgarian army attacked the Ottoman lines in the outskirts of Istanbul, Türk Yurdu magazine, a bastion of simplified Turkish prose and Turkish nationalism, published the first of many popular and patriotic essays by the 23-year-old Fuat Köprülü: “Hope and Determination" (Umit ve Azim), “Mourning Migration (Hicret Matemleri), "A Turk's Prayer (Türk’ün Duasi), and “Turkishness, Islamness, Ottomanness" (Türklük, İslamlık, Osmanlılık). He published articles in İslam Mecmuası, one of the publications of the Committee of Union and Progress, between 1914 and 1918. From 1919 to 1920 he contributed to Büyük Mecmua, a supporter of the Turkish War of Independence.

Toward the end of 1913, Fuat Köprülü published his seminal and widely lauded academic article, “The Method in Turkish Literary History (Türk Edebiyati Tarihinde Usul), in Bilgi Mecmuasi. He argued that historians should not only research kings, viziers, commanders and scholars, but ordinary people as well. Fuat Köprülü believed that in addition to public and official records, historians should also study art, archeology, literature, language, folklore and oral traditions. His plea for historians to study social history was so unique and ahead of its time that the Annales school in France, famous for embracing a similar approach in the journal Annales d’histoire economique et sociale, did not emerge until 1929, a full 16 years after the publication of "Turk Edebiyati Tarihinde Usul". One month after the publication of the article, Fuat Köprülü was appointed Professor of the history of Turkish literature at Darülfunün. He was only 23 years old.

Fuat Köprülü continued his scholarly research and academic publications through the years, eventually culminating in his magnum opus, The First Mystics in Turkish Literature (Turk Edebiyatinda İlk Mutasavviflar), in 1918, a book that focused on two Turkish mystics and folk poets, Ahmet Yesevi and Yunus Emre. His Turk Edebiyati Tarihi (History of Turkish Literature), published in 1920, was another seminal book that traced the history of Turkish literature through millennia. In 1923, at the age of 33, Fuat Köprülü was appointed Dean of the Faculty of Literature at Istanbul University. In a short book entitled The History of Turkey (Türkiye Tarihi) published that same year, he reviewed the history of the Turks from ancient Central Asia to the modern Ottoman Empire, continuing the approach he pioneered in his study of Turkish literature.

Relationship with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Fuat Köprülü was appointed undersecretary to the minister of education at the request of President Atatürk and remained in this post for eight months. In addition, Fuat Köprülü was appointed the director of the Turcology Institute, established on the orders of President Atatürk, and began publishing Turkiyat Mecmuasi (The Turcology Journal).

In 1936 Köprülü was appointed editor-in-chief of Ülkü, an official periodical of the Ankara People House, one of the cultural institutions established by Atatürk in 1932, which he held until 1941.

International Recognition
Fuat Köprülü won numerous international accolades for his scholarship as well. The Soviet Academy of Sciences granted him a corresponding membership in 1925. The University of Heidelberg honored him with an honorary degree in 1927. The University of Athens and the University of Paris (Sorbonne) granted him honorary doctorates in 1937 and 1939, respectively. In fact, most European Oriental societies made him a corresponding or honorary member, as did the American Oriental Society in 1947.

In 1933, Fuat Köprülü became a professor ordinarius, a title denoting a professor of the highest rank in Turkey. In 1935, he delivered a series of influential lectures at the University of Paris (Sorbonne) on the origins of the Ottoman Empire. Fuat Köprülü argued that ethnic Turks formed the Ottoman Empire using Seljuk and Ilhanid administrative traditions, and he discredited the prevailing view among Western scholars that the Ottoman Empire was formed by a race of predominantly Albanian, Eastern Roman and Slavic converts to Islam.

Later Political Life
In 1935, at the request of President Atatürk, Fuat Köprülü joined the single party regime in the Turkish Parliament as a Kars deputy, and was elected again in 1939 and 1943. In 1945, as calls to establish a multiparty democracy increased after World War II, Fuat Köprülü joined the opposition and was dismissed from the ruling party along with Adnan Menderes and Refik Koraltan. In 1946, Menderes, Koraltan and Köprülü, together with Celal Bayar, formed the Democratic Party. Fuat Köprülü became the Minister of Foreign Affairs when the Democratic Party came to power in the 1950 elections, and he served in this post until 1955. In 1953, an agreement was reached between Yugoslav President Tito and Fuat Köprülü that promoted the emigration of Albanians from Yugoslavia to Anatolia. Concerning Cyprus, he had a tolerant view of the dispute and supported the line of the Turkish government, that the status quo of a British government on the island was favorable. Fuat Köprülü also briefly served as Deputy Prime Minister in 1955. On September 6, 1957, Fuat Köprülü resigned from the Democratic Party after disagreeing with the authoritarian tendencies displayed by the party leadership; same year he joined Liberty Party. Following the coup d'état in 1960 he was tried at the Yassıada trials but found not guilty.

Death
Fuat Köprülü died on 28 June 1966.

Works
A prolific scholar and public intellectual, Fuat Köprülü wrote over 1500 poems, essays, articles and books. A Mehmet Fuat Koprulu Scholarship Programme was recently established to provide funds for Turkish students to undertake PhD study at the University of Cambridge. His works include the following:

 * Yeni Osmanlı Tarih-i Edebiyatı (1916)
 * Türk Edebiyatında İlk Mutasavvıflar (1918)
 * Nasrettin Hoca (1918)
 * Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi (1920)
 * Türkiye Tarihi (1923)
 * Bugünkü Edebiyat (1924)
 * Azeri Edebiyatına Ait Tetkikler (1926)
 * Milli Edebiyat Cereyanının İlk Mübeşşirleri ve Divan-ı Türk-i Basit (1928)
 * Türk Saz Şairleri Antolojisi (1930–1940, üç cilt)
 * Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Hakkında Araştırmalar (1934)
 * Anadolu’da Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı’nın Tekamülüne Bir Bakış (1934)
 * Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kuruluşu (1959)
 * Edebiyat Araştırmaları Külliyatı (1966)
 * İslam ve Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları ve Vakıf Müessesesi (1983)

Translations

 * The Origins of the Ottoman Empire, trans. Gary Leiser. SUNY Press, 1992.
 * The Seljuks of Anatolia: their history and culture according to local Muslim sources, trans. Gary Leiser. University of Utah Press, 1992.
 * Islam in Anatolia after the Turkish Invasion (Prolegomena), trans. Gary Leiser. University of Utah Press, 1993.
 * Some Observations on the Influence of Byzantine Institutions on Ottoman Institutions, trans. Gary Leiser. Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1999.
 * Early Mystics in Turkish Literature, trans. by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff. Routledge, 2006.

title: Mehmet Fuat Köprülü


text:
The Great Escape (film)

The Great Escape is a 1963 American epic war suspense adventure film starring Steve McQueen, James Garner and Richard Attenborough and featuring James Donald, Charles Bronson, Donald Pleasence, James Coburn, Hannes Messemer, David McCallum, Gordon Jackson, John Leyton and Angus Lennie. It was filmed in Panavision, and its musical score was composed by Elmer Bernstein.

Based on Paul Brickhill's 1950 non-fiction book of the same name, the film depicts a heavily fictionalized version of the mass escape by British Commonwealth prisoners of war from German POW camp Stalag Luft III during the Second World War. The film made numerous compromises for its commercial appeal, including its portrayal of American prisoners' involvement in the escape.

The Great Escape was made by The Mirisch Company, released by United Artists, and produced and directed by John Sturges. The film had its Royal World Premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London's West End on 20 June 1963. The Great Escape received critical acclaim and emerged as one of the highest-grossing films of the year, winning McQueen the award for Best Actor at the Moscow International Film Festival, and is considered a classic. The film is also noted for its motorcycle chase and jump scene, which is considered one of the best stunts ever performed.

Plot
In 1943, a group of Allied POWs who have repeatedly escaped from camps across the Third Reich are moved to a new camp under the command of Luftwaffe Colonel von Luger. He warns British Group Captain Ramsey—the highest-ranked POW officer and their de facto leader—that any man who escapes will be shot. Privately von Luger opposes such measures, but the Gestapo, tired of the disruption caused by breakouts elsewhere, has threatened to intervene if the Luftwaffe cannot stop them for good.

Several prisoners ignore the threat and attempt to escape on the first day, but none succeed. Hilts, a notoriously prolific escapee, notices a blind spot at the fence and purposefully gets caught before the guards can realize his discovery. Sentenced to "the cooler”, he is placed in a cell next to Ives, and the two become friends.

RAF Squadron Leader Roger Bartlett re-establishes "the X Organisation", the escape-planning committee at their former camp, with Ramsey's tacit approval. He argues that they can help the Allied war effort by breaking out an unprecedented 250 men simultaneously, forcing the Germans to divert significant manpower away from the front.

The POWs begin working on three tunnels: "Tom", "Dick", and "Harry". Hendley secures vital objects on the black market and forms a bond with expert forger Blythe. Sedgwick makes picks and air bellows, Welinski and Dickes oversee the digging, MacDonald gathers intelligence, Griffith sews civilian disguises, and Ashley-Pitt devises a method of hiding the excavated dirt. Digging and manufacturing noise is masked by a choir, led by Cavendish, who also surveys the tunnels' routes. Aware that Hilts is planning to jump the fence, Bartlett asks him to scout out the surrounding area and then allow himself to be recaptured so he can draw maps for the X Organisation. Hilts refuses out of pride.

When "Tom" nears completion first, Bartlett orders "Dick" and "Harry" sealed off. Hilts, Hendley, and Goff brew potato moonshine with a homemade still and celebrate the Fourth of July with the camp, but the guards accidentally find "Tom" mid-party. A despondent Ives snaps, frantically climbs the fence, and is shot dead. Hilts, shaken, agrees to Bartlett's proposal.

Bartlett orders "Harry" reopened. When the tunnel partially collapses, Welinski breaks down and confides to Dickes that he is claustrophobic. He tries to climb the fence like Ives, but Dickes manages to calm him down and prevent him being shot. Blythe finds he is going blind due to progressive myopia, and Hendley takes it upon himself to be his eyes during the escape.

The prisoners complete "Harry", but on the night of the escape they break to the surface and find themselves 20 feet short of the forest, and still within sight of the guards. Guided by Hilts tugging on a rope as a signal—and aided by a fortuitous air raid blackout—dozens of men flee before Cavendish slips and makes a noise. An impatient Griffith surfaces while a guard investigates and is captured, ending the breakout.

The 76 escapees flee throughout Europe. Welinski and Dickes row to a port and board a ship for Sweden, while Sedgwick cycles to France, where the Resistance smuggles him to Spain. The rest are unsuccessful: Cavendish hitches a ride on a truck, but is turned in by the driver. Hilts steals a motorcycle and heads for the German-Swiss border, chased by soldiers, but after jumping one line of tank barriers his bike is shot and he is recaptured. Hendley and Blythe steal a Luftwaffe training plane to fly to Switzerland, but crash when the engine fails; Blythe is shot and Hendley recaptured. At a railway station, Kuhn, a Gestapo guard from the camp, helps search among the disembarking passengers for escapees; Ashley-Pitt kills him to prevent him recognizing Bartlett, and is then also shot dead. However, Bartlett and MacDonald are still caught when another Gestapo officer tricks MacDonald into speaking English while boarding a bus.

Fifty of the men, including Bartlett and MacDonald, are loaded into trucks, taken to a field, and shot dead on Hitler's direct orders. Hendley, hearing the news on his return to the camp with the survivors, asks Ramsey if the escape was worth it. Von Luger, ashamed by the murders, is relieved of command by the Gestapo and driven away to an uncertain fate, but as he leaves he tells a returning Hilts that it looks like the American will be the one who gets to see Berlin first. Hilts is sent to the cooler, where he begins planning his next escape.

Cast

 * Steve McQueen as Captain Virgil Hilts ('The Cooler King'): one of three Americans in the camp, a particularly persistent escapee with an irreverent attitude.
 * James Garner as Flight Lieutenant Bob Hendley ('The Scrounger'): American RAF officer, responsible for finding materials on the black market for the escape attempt; forms a close friendship with Blythe.
 * Richard Attenborough as Squadron Leader Roger Bartlett ('Big X'): RAF officer and ringleader of the escape committee.
 * James Donald as Group Captain Ramsey ('The SBO'): most senior British & Allied officer in the camp, serves as an intermediary between the Germans and the POWs as their de facto leader.
 * Charles Bronson as Flight Lieutenant Danny Welinski ('Tunnel King'): Polish RAF officer; despite having dug 17 escape tunnels in other camps, is severely claustrophobic.
 * Donald Pleasence as Flight Lieutenant Colin Blythe ('The Forger'): mild-mannered English forger; forms close friendship with Hendley.
 * James Coburn as Flying Officer Sedgwick ('The Manufacturer'): an Australian officer who constructs tools for the escape.
 * Hannes Messemer as Oberst von Luger ('The Kommandant'): Commandant of the camp and a senior Luftwaffe officer.
 * David McCallum as Lieutenant-Commander Eric Ashley-Pitt ('Dispersal'): a Fleet Air Arm officer; devises a way to get rid of the tunnel dirt.
 * Gordon Jackson as Flight Lieutenant Andy MacDonald ('Intelligence'): Bartlett's second-in-command.
 * John Leyton as Flight Lieutenant Willie Dickes ('Tunnel King'): Welinski's best friend and co-lead on tunnel design and construction.
 * Angus Lennie as Flying Officer Archie Ives ('The Mole'): anxious Scottish airman who befriends Hilts in the cooler.
 * Nigel Stock as Flight Lieutenant Dennis Cavendish ('The Surveyor'): surveys the tunnel routes.
 * Robert Graf as Werner ('The Ferret'): young, naive guard whom Hendley befriends and exploits for black market contraband.
 * Jud Taylor as Second Lieutenant Goff: the camp's third American.
 * Hans Reiser as Kuhn: Gestapo officer and ardent Nazi.
 * Harry Riebauer as Stabsfeldwebel Strachwitz: the senior NCO amongst the German guards.
 * William Russell as Sorren ('Security'): British officer.
 * Robert Freitag as Hauptmann Posen: von Luger's adjutant.
 * Ulrich Beiger as Preissen: Gestapo officer.
 * George Mikell as SD Hauptsturmführer Dietrich: SS officer.
 * Lawrence Montaigne as Haynes ('Diversions'): Canadian officer.
 * Robert Desmond as Griffith ('Tailor'): British officer; provides civilian clothes and military uniforms to disguise the escapees.
 * Til Kiwe as Frick
 * Heinz Weiss as Kramer
 * Tom Adams as Dai Nimmo ('Diversions'): Welsh officer.
 * Karl-Otto Alberty as SD Untersturmführer Steinach: SS officer.
 * Arthur Atkinson as British Officer Charlie (uncredited)

Writing
In 1963, the Mirisch brothers worked with United Artists to adapt Paul Brickhill's 1950 book The Great Escape. Brickhill had been a very minor member of the X Organisation at Stalag Luft III, who acted as one of the "stooges" who monitored German movements in the camp. The story had been adapted as a live TV production, screened by NBC as an episode of The Philco Television Playhouse on January 27, 1951. The live broadcast was praised for engineering an ingenious set design for the live broadcast, including creating the illusion of tunnels. The film's screenplay was adapted by James Clavell, W. R. Burnett and Walter Newman.

Casting

Steve McQueen, Charles Bronson and James Coburn all had recently worked with director John Sturges on his 1960 motion picture, The Magnificent Seven.

Steve McQueen has been credited with the most significant performance. Critic Leonard Maltin wrote that "the large, international cast is superb, but the standout is McQueen; it's easy to see why this cemented his status as a superstar". This film established his box-office clout. Hilts was based on at least three pilots, David M. Jones, John Dortch Lewis and Bill Ash.

Richard Attenborough's Sqn Ldr Roger Bartlett RAF, "Big X", was based on Roger Bushell, the South African-born British POW who was the mastermind of the real Great Escape. This was the film that first brought Attenborough to common notice in the United States. During World War II, Attenborough served in the Royal Air Force. He volunteered to fly with the Film Unit, and after further training (where he sustained permanent ear damage), he qualified as a sergeant. He flew on several missions over Europe, filming from the rear gunner's position to record the outcome of Bomber Command sorties. (Richard Harris was originally announced for the role.)

Group Captain Ramsey RAF, "the SBO" (Senior British Officer), was based on Group Captain Herbert Massey, a World War I veteran who had volunteered in World War II. Massey walked with a limp, and in the movie Ramsey walks with a cane. Massey had suffered severe wounds to the same leg in both wars. There would be no escape for him, but as SBO he had to know what was going on. Group Captain Massey was a veteran escaper himself and had been in trouble with the Gestapo. His experience allowed him to offer sound advice to the X-Organisation. Another officer who is likely to have inspired the character of Ramsey was Wing Commander Harry Day.

Flt Lt Colin Blythe RAF, "The Forger", was based on Tim Walenn and played by Donald Pleasence. Pleasence had served in the Royal Air Force during World War II. He was shot down and spent a year in German prisoner-of-war camp Stalag Luft I. Charles Bronson had been a gunner in the USAAF and had been wounded, but never shot down. Like his character, Danny Welinski, he suffered from claustrophobia because of his childhood work in a mine. James Garner had been a soldier in the Korean War and was twice wounded. He was a scrounger during that time, as is his character.

Hannes Messemer's Commandant, "Colonel von Luger", was based on Oberst Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner-Wildau. Messemer had been a POW in Russia during World War II and had escaped by walking hundreds of miles to the German border. He was wounded by Russian fire, but was not captured by the Russians. He surrendered to British forces and then spent two years in a POW facility in London known as the London Cage.

Angus Lennie's Flying Officer Archibald Ives, "The Mole", was based on Jimmy Kiddel, who was shot dead while trying to scale the fence.

The film is accurate in showing that only three escapees made home runs, although the people who made them differed from those in the film. The escape of Danny and Willie in the film is based on two Norwegians who escaped to Sweden, Per Bergsland and Jens Müller, while the escape of Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Flying Officer Sedgwick, "the Manufacturer", to Spain, was based on Dutchman Bram van der Stok. James Coburn, an American, was cast in the role of Sedgwick who was an amalgamation of Flt Lt Albert Hake, an Australian serving in the RAF, the camp's compass maker, and Johnny Travis, the real manufacturer.

Tilman 'Til Kiwe' Kiver played the German guard "Frick", who discovers the escape. Kiwe had been a German paratrooper officer who was captured and held prisoner at a POW camp in Colorado. He made several escape attempts, dyeing his uniform and carrying forged papers. He was captured in the St. Louis train station during one escape attempt. He won the Knight's Cross before his capture and was the cast member who had actually performed many of the exploits shown in the film.

Filming
The film was made on location in Germany at the Bavaria Film Studio in the Munich suburb of Geiselgasteig in rural Bavaria, where sets for the barrack interiors and tunnels were constructed. The camp was built in a clearing of the Perlacher Forst (Perlacher Forest) near the studio. The German town near the real camp was Sagan (now Żagań, Poland); it was renamed Neustadt in the film. Many scenes were filmed in and around the town of Füssen in Bavaria, including its railway station. The nearby district of Pfronten, with its distinctive St. Nikolaus Church and scenic background, also appears often in the film. The first scenes involving the railway were filmed on the Munich–Holzkirchen line at Großhesselohe station ("Neustadt" station in the movie) and near Deisenhofen. Hendley and Blythe's escape from the train was shot on the Munich–Mühldorf railway east of Markt Schwaben. The station where Bartlett, MacDonald and Ashley-Pitt arrive is Füssen station, whereas the scene of Sedgwick (whose theft of a bike was shot in Markt Schwaben) boarding a train was created in Pfronten-Ried station on the Ausserfern Railway. The castle Hendley and Blythe fly by while attempting to escape is Neuschwanstein Castle.

The motorcycle chase scenes with the barbed wire fences were shot on meadows outside Füssen, and the "barbed wire" that Hilts crashes into before being recaptured was simulated by strips of rubber tied around barbless wire, constructed by the cast and crew in their spare time. Insurance concerns prevented McQueen from performing the film's notable motorcycle leap, which was done by his friend and fellow cycle enthusiast Bud Ekins, who resembled McQueen from a distance. When Johnny Carson later tried to congratulate McQueen for the jump during a broadcast of The Tonight Show, McQueen said, "It wasn't me. That was Bud Ekins." However, McQueen and Australian Motocross champion Tim Gibbes both performed the stunt on camera for fun, and according to second unit director Robert Relyea, the stunt in the final cut of the movie could have been performed by any of the three men. Other parts of the chase were done by McQueen, playing both Hilts and the soldiers chasing him, because of his skill on a motorcycle. The motorcycle was a Triumph TR6 Trophy which was painted to look like a German machine. The restored machine is currently on display at Triumph's factory at Hinckley, England. Filming started on June 4, 1962 and ended on October 1962.

Historical accuracy
The film was largely fictional, with changes made to increase its drama and appeal to an American audience, and to serve as vehicle for its box-office stars. Many details of the actual escape attempt were changed for the film, including the roles of American personnel in both the planning and the escape. While the characters are fictitious, they are based on real men, in most cases being composites of several people. The screenwriters significantly increased the involvement of American POWs; a few American officers in the camp initially helped dig the tunnels and worked on the early plans. However, they were moved away seven months before the escape, which ended their involvement. The real escape was by largely British and other Allied personnel, with the exception of American Johnnie Dodge, who was a British officer. The film omits the crucial role that Canadians played in building the tunnels and in the escape itself. Of the 1,800 or so POWs, 600 were involved in preparations: 150 of those were Canadian. Wally Floody, an RCAF pilot and former miner who was the real-life "tunnel king", was engaged as a technical advisor for the film.

Ramsey tells Von Luger that it is the sworn duty of every officer to attempt escape. In reality, there was no requirement in the King's Regulations, or in any form of international convention.

The film shows the tunnel codenamed Tom with its entrance under a stove and Harry's in a drain sump in a washroom. In reality, Dick's entrance was the drain sump, Harry's was under the stove, and Tom's was in a darkened corner next to a stove chimney.

Former POWs asked the filmmakers to exclude details about the help they received from their home countries, such as maps, papers, and tools hidden in gift packages, lest it jeopardise future POW escapes. The filmmakers complied.

The film omits any mention that many Germans willingly helped in the escape itself. The film suggests that the forgers were able to make near-exact replicas of just about any pass that was used in Nazi Germany. In reality, the forgers received a great deal of assistance from Germans who lived many hundreds of miles away on the other side of the country. Several German guards, who were openly anti-Nazi, also willingly gave the prisoners items and assistance of any kind to aid their escape. The need for such accuracy produced much eyestrain, but unlike in the film, there were no cases of blindness. Some, such as Frank Knight, gave up forging because of the strain, but he certainly did not suffer the same ocular fate as the character of Colin Blythe in the film. In fact, no one in the film says that Colin Blythe's blindness is the result of eyestrain. He identifies his problem as "progressive myopia", suggesting that he has not only heard of the condition but has also been diagnosed.

The film depicts the escape taking place in ideal weather conditions, whereas at the time much was done in freezing temperatures, and snow lay thick on the ground. In reality there were no escapes by aircraft or motorcycle: McQueen requested the motorcycle sequence, which shows off his skills as a keen motorcyclist. He did the stunt riding himself (except for the final jump, done by Bud Ekins).

In the film, Hilts incapacitates a German soldier for his motorcycle, Ashley-Pitt kills Kuhn, a Gestapo officer, when he recognizes Bartlett waiting to pass through a Gestapo checkpoint at a railway station and Hendley knocks out a German guard at the airfield. Sedgwick witnesses the killing of German officers at a French Cafe by the French resistance. No German personnel were killed or injured by the real escapees.

In the film Blythe is shown being killed by German Border gaurds after the training aircraft that Hendley stole crashes just short of the border; this incident never happened. Three truckloads of recaptured POWs drive in three directions. One truck contains 20 prisoners who are invited to stretch their legs in a field, whereupon they are all machine gunned in a single massacre, with the implication that the other two have the same manner; in reality, the POWs were shot individually or in pairs. The majority of the POWs were killed by pistol shots taken by Gestapo officers; however, at least ten of them were killed in a manner like that portrayed in the film: Dutchy Swain, Chaz Hall, Brian Evans, Wally Valenta, George McGill, Pat Langford, Edgar Humphreys, Adam Kolanowski, Bob Stewart and Henry "Hank" Birkland. The film depicts the three prisoners who escape to freedom as British, Polish, and Australian; in reality, they were Norwegian (Jens Müller and Per Bergsland) and Dutch (Bram van der Stok).

In 2009, seven POWs returned to Stalag Luft III for the 65th anniversary of the escape and watched the film. According to the veterans, many details of the first half depicting life in the camp were authentic, e.g. the death of Ives, who tries to scale the fence, and the actual digging of the tunnels. The film has kept the memory of the 50 executed airmen alive for decades and has made their story known worldwide, if in a distorted form. British author Guy Walters notes that a pivotal scene in the film where MacDonald blunders by replying in English to a suspicious Gestapo officer saying, "Good luck", is now so strongly imprinted that historians have accepted it as a real event, and that it was Bushell's partner Bernard Scheidhauer who made the error. However, Walters points out that an historical account says that one of the two men said "yes" in English in response to a Kripo man's questions without any mention of "good luck" and notes that as Scheidhauser was French, and Bushell's first language was English, it seems likely that if a slip did take place, it was made by Bushell himself, and says the "good luck" scene should be regarded as fiction.

Music
The film's iconic music was composed by Elmer Bernstein, who gave each major character their own musical motif based on the Great Escape's main theme. Its enduring popularity helped Bernstein live off the score's royalties for the rest of his life. Critics have said the film score succeeds because it uses rousing militaristic motifs with interludes of warmer softer themes that humanizes the prisoners and endears them to audiences; the music also captures the bravery and defiance of the POWs. The main title's patriotic march has since become popular in Britain, particularly with sports such as fans of the England national football team. However, in 2016, the sons of Elmer Bernstein openly criticized the use of the Great Escape theme by the Vote Leave campaign in the UK Brexit referendum, saying "Our father would never have allowed UKIP to use his music" because he would have strongly opposed the party.

In 2011 Intrada, a company specializing in film soundtracks, released a digitized re-mastered version of the full film score based on the original 1/4" two-track stereo sessions and original 1/2" three-channel stereo masters.
 * Intrada Records (release)

Box office
The Great Escape grossed $11.7 million at the box office, after a budget of $4 million. It became one of the highest-grossing films of 1963, despite heavy competition. In the years since its release, its audience has broadened, cementing its status as a cinema classic. It was entered into the 3rd Moscow International Film Festival, where McQueen won the Silver Prize for Best Actor.

Critical response
Contemporary reviews for the film were mostly positive. In 1963, The New York Times critic Bosley Crowther wrote: "But for much longer than is artful or essential, The Great Escape grinds out its tormenting story without a peek beneath the surface of any man, without a real sense of human involvement. It's a strictly mechanical adventure with make-believe men." British film critic Leslie Halliwell described it as "pretty good but overlong POW adventure with a tragic ending". The Time magazine reviewer wrote in 1963: "The use of color photography is unnecessary and jarring, but little else is wrong with this film. With accurate casting, a swift screenplay, and authentic German settings, Producer-Director John Sturges has created classic cinema of action. There is no sermonizing, no soul probing, no sex. The Great Escape is simply great escapism".

Modern appraisals
The Great Escape continues to receive acclaim from modern critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 94% based on 53 reviews. The site's critics consensus reads, "With its impeccably slow-building story and a cast for the ages, The Great Escape is an all-time action classic."

In a 2006 poll in the United Kingdom, regarding the family film that television viewers would most want to see on Christmas Day, The Great Escape came in third, and was first among the choices of male viewers. In an article for the British Film Institute, "10 great prisoner of war films", updated in August 2018, Samuel Wigley wrote that watching films like The Great Escape and the 1955 British film The Colditz Story, "for all their moments of terror and tragedy, is to delight in captivity in times of war as a wonderful game for boys, an endless Houdini challenge to slip through the enemy's fingers. Often based on true stories of escape, they have the viewer marvelling at the ingenuity and seemingly unbreakable spirit of imprisoned soldiers." He described The Great Escape as "the epitome of the war-is-fun action film", which became "a fixture of family TV viewing".

Accolades

 * Nominated Academy Award for Film Editing (Ferris Webster)
 * Nominated Golden Globe Award for Best Picture
 * Winner Moscow International Film Festival Best Actor (Steve McQueen)
 * Nominated Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prix (John Sturges)
 * Selected National Board of Review Top Ten Films of Year
 * Nominated Writers Guild of America Best Written American Drama (James Clavell, W. R. Burnett) (Screenplay Adaptation)
 * 19th place in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills

Legacy
On 24 March 2014, the 70th anniversary of the escape, the RAF staged a commemoration of the escape attempt, with 50 serving personnel each carrying a photograph of one of the shot men.

On 24 March 2019, the RAF held another event for the 75th anniversary of the escape. There was a screening of the film at London's Eventim Hammersmith Apollo, hosted by Dan Snow. The film was simulcast with other cinemas throughout the UK.

Sequel
A fictional, made-for-television sequel, The Great Escape II: The Untold Story, was released in 1988, with Christopher Reeve, and directed by Jud Taylor (who played 2nd Lt. Goff in the 1963 film). The film is not a true sequel, as it dramatizes the escape itself just as the original film does, although mostly using the real names of the individuals involved (whereas the original film fictionalized them and used composite characters). It depicts the search for the culprits responsible for the murder of the 50 Allied officers. Donald Pleasence appears in a supporting role as a member of the SS.

In popular culture

 * The Great Escape (1986) was released for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and DOS platforms, and shares a title and similar plot to the movie. The game follows an unnamed prisoner of war who has been interned in a POW camp somewhere in northern Germany in 1942.
 * The Great Escape (2003) was released for Microsoft Windows, Xbox and PlayStation 2. The plotline follows that of the film, except there are also levels featuring some of the characters' first captures and early escape attempts, as well as a changed ending.
 * The film is mentioned and heavily referenced in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.
 * The films Chicken Run, Reservoir Dogs, the 1998 remake of The Parent Trap, Top Secret!, Charlie's Angels, The Tao of Steve, and Naked Gun 33 1/3: The Final Insult, Inglorious Basterds all contain references or homages to the film.
 * Monty Python's Flying Circus, The Simpsons, Hogan's Heroes, Nash Bridges, Seinfeld, Get Smart, Fugget About It, Archer, Goodness Gracious Me, Shaun the Sheep, and Red Dwarf have all parodied or paid homage to the film.
 * The BritBox show, Sister Boniface Mysteries referenced the film in Season 2, Episode 5 ‘St. George’s Defence’.
 * Bernstein's Great Escape theme tune has been taken up by the Pukka Pies England Band, a small brass band who have played in the crowd at England football team matches since 1996. They released an arrangement of the theme as a single for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and a newer version for UEFA Euro 2000.
 * Both the movie and prison camp were portrayed in the show titled “The Grand Tour”, on Amazon Prime.
 * The advertising agency Tom, Dick & Harry Creative Co. takes its name from the three tunnels in the film.

title: The Great Escape (film)