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Bernice Johnson Reagon

Bernice Johnson Reagon (October 4, 1942 – July 16, 2024) was an American song leader, composer, scholar, and social activist who, in the early 1960s, was a founding member of the Freedom Singers, organized by the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in the Albany Movement in Georgia. In 1973, she founded the all-black female a cappella ensemble Sweet Honey in the Rock, based in Washington, D.C. Reagon, along with other members of the SNCC Freedom Singers, realized the power of collective singing to unify the disparate groups who began to work together in the 1964 Freedom Summer protests in the South.

"'After a song', Reagon recalled, 'the differences between us were not so great. Somehow, making a song required an expression of that which was common to us all.... This music was like an instrument, like holding a tool in your hand.'"The Albany Singing Movement became a vital catalyst for change through music in the early 1960s protests of the Civil Rights era. Reagon devoted her life to social justice through music via recordings, activism, community singing, and scholarship.

She earned her Ph.D. from Howard University, becoming a cultural historian, centered on the role of music, and she was an emeritus faculty member in the History Department at The American University. She had also been a scholar-in-residence at Stanford and received an honorary doctorate of music from Berklee College of Music.

Early life and education
Bernice Johnson was born in 1942 in Dougherty County, Georgia, United States. She was the daughter of Beatrice and J.J. Johnson, a Baptist minister. She was born and raised in southwest Georgia, where church and school were an integrated part of her life, with music heavily intertwined in both of those settings. Reagon began school at the age of three when she was asked by her teacher to attend early, and she passed that first year. By the time she was in the 4th, 5th, and 6th grade, she was requested to tutor students in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, and she claimed it was because there had only been one teacher.

In 1959, she entered Albany State College (since July 1996 called Albany State University), where she began her study of music. She also became active in the local NAACP chapter and then the SNCC. After being expelled from Albany State because of an arrest as an activist, she briefly attended Spelman College.

Later, she returned to Spelman to complete her undergraduate degree in 1970. She received a Ford Foundation fellowship to do graduate study at Howard University, where she was awarded the Ph.D. degree in 1975.

Activism
Reagon's first demonstration had been in protest against the arrest of Bertha Gober, and Blanton Hall, organized by SNCC along with the initial arrest of the two individuals, for they planned to be arrested in a discussion during a SNCC meeting. Reagon was an active participant in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. She was a member of The Freedom Singers, organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), for which she also served as a field secretary. Reagon explains her first encounter with SNCC as a confusion, for she did not understand the name, or its organization, but she claims that she understood that they were for freedom and full-time. The Freedom Singers were organized by Cordell Reagon in 1962. The group was the first of the civil rights singers to travel nationally. The singers realized that singing helped provide an outlet and unifier for protestors struggling with mob behavior and police brutality. Thanks to her roles with SNCC and the Freedom Singers, Reagon became a highly respected song leader during the Civil Rights Movement.

Activist James Forman later said: "I remember seeing you lift your beautiful black head, stand squarely on your feet, your lips trembling as the melodious words 'Over my head, I see freedom in the air' came forth with an urgency and a pain that brought out a sense of intense renewal and commitment of liberation. And when the call came to protest the jailings, you were up front. You led the line. Your feet hit the dirty pavement with a sureness of direction. You walked proudly onward singing 'this little light of mine, 'and the people echoed, 'shine, shine, shine.

Academic
In 1974, Reagon was appointed as a cultural historian in music history at the Smithsonian Institution, where she directed a program called Black American Culture in 1976, and was later a curator of music history for the National Museum of American History. Ida Jones from the Smithsonian Institution had stated, "Dr. Reagon collected photographs,sheet music, and other primary and secondary sources chronicling the development of African American sacred music tradition from its birth during the period of slavery through the creation of concert spiritual, gospel music, jazz, and the performance of protest song in the century following Emancipation," with relation to Reagon's initial job at the museum.

In 1989, she was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship. After Reagon retired in 1993, she continued to work in African American Songs of Protest as a Curator Emeritus.

She held an appointment as Distinguished Professor of history at American University (AU) in Washington DC from 1993 to 2003. Reagon was later named professor emerita of history at AU, and held the title of Curator Emeritus at the Smithsonian.

Music
Reagon claimed that she grew up in a church without a piano, so her early music was a cappella, and her first instruments were her hands and feet, and she explained, "that's the only way I can deal comfortably with creating music." When Reagon spoke about her upbringing in the musical culture, she explained that even her early schooling was heavily involved with music, not just the church. Reagon said that her teacher would lead the students outside to play games that entailed singing with their hands and feet, as well as their voices. There was also competitions among the students, and Reagon won first place as a child when running against the older students reciting Langston Hughes' poem "I've Known Rivers".

Reagon was a specialist in African-American oral history, performance and protest traditions. She served as music consultant, producer, composer, and performer on several award-winning film projects, notably PBS television productions such as Eyes on the Prize (1987) (in which she also appeared) and Ken Burns' The Civil War (1990). Reagon was also featured in a film, We Shall Overcome, which was about the song and its placement in the movement, being produced by Ginger Records and made by Henry Hampton, the creator of Eyes on The Prize. She was the conceptual producer and narrator of the Peabody Award-winning radio series, Wade in the Water, African American Sacred Music Traditions. Reagon claimed: "These days, I come as a 'songtalker', one who balances talk and song in the creation of a live performance conversation with those who gather within the sound of my voice."

Reagon joined her first and only gospel choir when she was 11 years old, which was organized by her sister at the Mt. Early Baptist Church. She and the choir would listen to the local radio station WGPC to learn black gospel for the choir to recite. As a child, the Five Blind Guys was her favorite quartet. Reagon stated that her role models in terms of music are Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, and Bessie Jones, because they assisted her understanding of traditional singing and the fight for justice. Reagon also saw as important to her work Deacon Reardon, a historian studying African-American sacred worship traditions, and she stated that he impacted both her spiritual and musical development.

Reagon's work as a scholar and composer was reflected in her publications on African-American culture and history, including: a collection of essays entitled If You Don't Go, Don't Hinder Me: The African American Sacred Song Tradition (University of Nebraska Press, 2001); We Who Believe In Freedom: Sweet Honey In The Rock: Still on the Journey (Anchor Books, 1993); and We'll Understand It Better By And By: Pioneering African American Gospel Composers (Smithsonian Press, 1992).

Reagon recorded several albums on Folkways Records, including Folk Songs: The South, Wade in the Water, and Lest We Forget, Vol. 3: Sing for Freedom.

In 1973, Reagon founded a six-member, all-female a cappella group called Sweet Honey in the Rock. In addition to Reagon, the women in the original group were: Ysaye Maria Barnwell, Nitanju Bolade Casle, Shirley Childress Johnson, Aisha Kahil, and Carol Maillard. The only instrument they used was their voices, along with shekere and tambourine. They have toured internationally, including to Europe, Japan, Mexico, and Australia. The group's fan base is of different ethnic backgrounds, religions, and sexual orientations. Reagon's musical roots came from the rural South Baptist Church. She advocated "music's informational and transformative power to ask" and the strong effects that music has had on the Civil Rights Movement.

Personal life and death
In 1963, she married Cordell Reagon, another member of The Freedom Singers. Two children were born to this union: a daughter (Toshi), and a son (Kwan). Toshi is also a singer-songwriter.

Reagon died on July 16, 2024, at the age of 81 in Washington, D.C. Her death was confirmed by Courtland Cox, chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's Legacy Project.

Honors

 * In 1991, Reagon received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women.
 * In 1995, she received a Charles Frankel Prize for her contributions to the public understanding of the humanities. The award was presented at the White House by President Bill Clinton.
 * Other notable awards include the 9th Annual Heinz Award in the Arts and Humanities given in 2003. In April 2009, Reagon received an honorary doctoral degree from the Berklee College of Music. In 2000, she won the First National Leeway Laurel Award at the Leeway Foundation in Philadelphia.
 * In 1996, Reagon won the Isadora Duncan Award.

title: Bernice Johnson Reagon


text:
Edwin Catmull

Edwin Earl Catmull (born March 31, 1945) is an American computer scientist and animator who served as the co-founder of Pixar and the President of Walt Disney Animation Studios. He has been honored for his contributions to 3D computer graphics, including the 2019 ACM Turing Award.

Early life
Edwin Catmull was born on March 31, 1945, in Parkersburg, West Virginia. His family later moved to Salt Lake City, Utah, where his father first served as principal of Granite High School and then of Taylorsville High School. Born in a Mormon family, Catmull was the eldest of five brothers and, as a young man, served as a missionary in the New York City area of the 1960s.

Early in his life, Catmull found inspiration in Disney movies, including Peter Pan and Pinocchio, and wanted to be an animator; however, after finishing high school, he had no idea how to get there as there were no animation schools around that time. Because he also liked math and physics, he chose a scientific career instead. He also made animation using flip-books. Catmull graduated in 1969, with a B.S. in physics and computer science from the University of Utah. Initially interested in designing programming languages, Catmull encountered Ivan Sutherland, who had designed the computer drawing program Sketchpad, and changed his interest to digital imaging. As a student of Sutherland, he was part of the university's DARPA program, sharing classes with James H. Clark, John Warnock and Alan Kay.

From that point, his main goal and ambition were to make digitally realistic films. During his time at the university, he made two new fundamental computer-graphics discoveries: texture mapping and bicubic patches; and invented algorithms for spatial anti-aliasing and refining subdivision surfaces. Catmull says the idea for subdivision surfaces came from mathematical structures in his mind when he applied B-splines to non-four sided objects. He also independently discovered Z-buffering, which had been described eight months before by Wolfgang Straßer in his PhD thesis.

In 1972, Catmull made his earliest contribution to the film industry: a one-minute animated version of his left hand, titled A Computer Animated Hand, created with Fred Parke at the University of Utah. This short sequence was eventually picked up by a Hollywood producer and incorporated in the 1976 film Futureworld, which was the first film to use 3D computer graphics and a science-fiction sequel to the 1973 film Westworld, itself being the first to use a pixelated image generated by a computer. A Computer Animated Hand was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in December 2011.

Early career
In 1974, Catmull earned his doctorate in computer science, and was hired by a company called Applicon. By November of that year, he had been contacted by Alexander Schure, the founder of the New York Institute of Technology, who offered him the position as the director of the institute's new Computer Graphics Lab. In that position, in 1977, he invented Tween, software for 2D animation that automatically produced frames of motion in between two frames.

However, Catmull's team lacked the ability to tell a story effectively via film, harming the effort to produce a motion picture via a computer. Catmull and his partner, Alvy Ray Smith, attempted to reach out to studios to alleviate this issue, but were generally unsuccessful until they attracted the attention of George Lucas at Lucasfilm.

Lucasfilm
Lucas approached Catmull in 1979 and asked him to lead a group to bring computer graphics, video editing, and digital audio into the entertainment field. Lucas had already made a deal with a computer company called Triple-I, and asked them to create a digital model of an X-wing fighter from Star Wars, which they did. In 1979, Catmull became the Vice President at Industrial Light & Magic computer graphics division at Lucasfilm.

Pixar
In 1986, Steve Jobs bought Lucasfilm's digital division and founded Pixar, where Catmull would work. Pixar would be acquired by Disney in 2006. In June 2007, Catmull and long-time Pixar digital animator and director John Lasseter were given control of Disneytoon Studios, a division of Disney Animation housed in a separate facility in Glendale. As president and chief creative officer, respectively, they have supervised three separate studios for Disney, each with its own production pipeline: Pixar, Disney Animation, and Disneytoon. While Disney Animation and Disneytoon are located in the Los Angeles area, Pixar is located over 350 miles (563 kilometers) northwest in the San Francisco Bay Area, where Catmull and Lasseter both live. Accordingly, they appointed a general manager for each studio to handle day-to-day affairs on their behalf, then began regularly commuting each week to both Pixar and Disney Animation and spending at least two days per week (usually Tuesdays and Wednesdays) at Disney Animation.

While at Pixar, Catmull was implicated in the High-Tech Employee Antitrust scandal, in which Bay Area technology companies allegedly agreed, among other things, not to cold-call recruit from one another. Catmull defended his actions in a deposition, saying: "While I have responsibility for the payroll, I have responsibility for the long term also." Disney and its subsidiaries, including Pixar, ultimately paid $100 million in settlement compensation.

In November 2014, the general managers of Disney Animation and Pixar were both promoted to president, but both continued to report to Catmull, who retained the title of president of Walt Disney and Pixar. On October 23, 2018, Catmull announced his plans to retire from Pixar and Disney Animation, staying on as an adviser through July 2019.

Thatgamecompany
In March 2022, Thatgamecompany announced the addition of Catmull as principal adviser on creative culture and strategic growth.

Personal life
As of 2006, Catmull lives in Marin County, California, with his wife, Susan Anderson, and their three children.

Catmull has an inability to form mental imagery within his head, a condition known as aphantasia.

Awards and honors
In 1993, Catmull received his first Academy Scientific and Technical Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences "for the development of PhotoRealistic RenderMan software which produces images used in motion pictures from 3D computer descriptions of shape and appearance". He shared this award with Tom Porter. In 1995, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Again in 1996, he received an Academy Scientific and Technical Award "for pioneering inventions in Digital Image Compositing".

In 2000, Catmull was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for leadership in the creation of digital imagery, leading to the introduction of fully synthetic visual effects and motion pictures.

In 2001, he received an Oscar "for significant advancements to the field of motion picture rendering as exemplified in Pixar's RenderMan". In 2006, he was awarded the IEEE John von Neumann All-Medal Crown Of Trophies for pioneering contributions to the field of computer graphics in modeling, animation and rendering. At the 81st Academy Awards (2008, presented in February 2009), Catmull was awarded the Gordon E. Sawyer Award, which honors "an individual in the motion picture industry whose technological contributions have brought credit to the industry".

In 2013, the Computer History Museum named him a Museum Fellow "for his pioneering work in computer graphics, animation and filmmaking".

His book Creativity, Inc. was shortlisted for the Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award (2014), and was a selection for Mark Zuckerberg book club in March 2015.

Catmull shared the 2019 Turing Award with Pat Hanrahan for their pioneering work on computer-generated imagery.

Publications

 * Catmull, Ed (2016). "Part 2: Wealthy § Ed Catmull." Pp. 309–13 in Tools of Titans: The Tactics, Routines, and Habits of Billionaires, Icons, and World-Class Performers, edited by Tim Ferriss. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9781328683786.
 * Catmull, Ed (2016). "Part 2: Wealthy § Ed Catmull." Pp. 309–13 in Tools of Titans: The Tactics, Routines, and Habits of Billionaires, Icons, and World-Class Performers, edited by Tim Ferriss. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9781328683786.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edwin Catmull


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James Mill

James Mill (born James Milne; 6 April 1773 – 23 June 1836) was a Scottish historian, economist, political theorist and philosopher. He is counted among the founders of the Ricardian school of economics. He also wrote The History of British India (1817) and was one of the prominent historians to take a colonial approach. He was the first writer to divide Indian history into three parts: Hindu, Muslim and British, a classification which has proved surpassingly influential in the field of Indian historical studies.

Mill was the father of John Stuart Mill, a noted philosopher of liberalism and utilitarianism, and a colonial administrator at the East India Company.

Biography
James Milne, later known as James Mill, was born in Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie Pert, Angus, Scotland, the son of James Milne, a shoemaker and small farmer. His mother, Isabel Fenton, of a family that had suffered from connection with the Stuart rising, resolved that he should receive a first-rate education, and after the parish school they sent him on to the Montrose Academy, where he remained until the unusual age of seventeen and a half. He then entered the University of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself as a Greek scholar.

In October 1789, he was ordained as a minister of the Church of Scotland, but met with little further success. According to John Stuart Mill's Autobiography, his father, though "educated in the creed of Scotch Presbyterianism, had, by his own studies and reflections, been early led to reject not only the belief in Revelation, but the foundations of what is commonly called Natural Religion." From 1790 to 1802, while supporting himself by various tutorships, he also pursued various historical and philosophical studies. With little prospect of a career in Scotland, in 1802, he went to London in company with Sir John Stuart of Fettercairn, then member of parliament for Kincardineshire, and devoted himself to his literary work. From 1803 to 1806, he was editor of an ambitious periodical called the Literary Journal, which tried to give a summary view of all the leading departments of human knowledge. During this time, he also edited the St James's Chronicle, published by the same proprietor. In 1804, he wrote a pamphlet on the corn trade, arguing against a tariff (or 'bounty') on the export of grain. In 1805, he published a translation (with notes and quotations) of An Essay on the Spirit and Influence of the Reformation of Luther by Charles de Villers on the Reformation, and an attack on the alleged vices of the papal system. About the end of this year, he began work on The History of British India, which was to occupy him for twelve years, rather than the three or four that he had expected.

In that year, too, he married Harriet Burrow, whose mother, a widow, kept what was then known as an establishment for lunatics in Hoxton. They took a house in Pentonville where their eldest son John Stuart Mill was born in 1806.

In 1808, he became acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, who was twenty-five years his senior and, for many years, his chief companion and ally. He adopted Bentham's principles in their entirety, and determined to devote all his energies to bringing them before the world. Between 1806 and 1818, he wrote for the Anti-Jacobin Review, the British Review and The Eclectic Review; but there is no means of tracing his contributions. In 1808, he began to write for the more prominent Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed steadily till 1813, his first known article being "Money and Exchange". He also wrote on Spanish America, China, Francisco de Miranda, the East India Company, and freedom of the press. In the Annual Review for 1808, two articles of his are traced – a "Review of Fox's History", and an article on "Bentham's Law Reforms", probably his first published notice of Bentham. In 1811, he co-operated with William Allen (1770–1843), a Quaker and chemist, in a periodical called the Philanthropist. He contributed largely to every issue – his principal topics being Education, Freedom of the Press, and Prison Discipline (under which he expounded Bentham's Panopticon). He made powerful onslaughts on the Church in connection with the Bell and Lancaster controversy, and took a part in the discussions that led to the foundation of the University of London in 1825. In 1814, he wrote a number of articles, containing an exposition of utilitarianism, for the supplement to the fifth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, the most important being those on "Jurisprudence", "Prisons", "Government" and "Law of Nations".

The History of British India was published in 1818, and obtained a great immediate and enduring success. It brought about a matching change in the author's fortunes, and in the year following, he was appointed an official in India House in the important department of the Examiner of Indian Correspondence. He gradually rose through the ranks until, in 1830, he was appointed head of the office, with a salary of £1900, raised in 1836 to £2000. His great work on economics, the Elements of Political Economy, appeared in 1821 (3rd and revised ed. 1825).

From 1824 to 1826, Mill contributed a number of articles to The Westminster Review, the organ of the Radical party, in which he attacked the Edinburgh and the Quarterly Reviews, and the ecclesiastical establishment. In 1829, appeared the Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. From 1831 to 1833, Mill was largely occupied in the defence of the East India Company, during the controversy attending the renewal of its charter, he being in virtue of his office the spokesman of its Court of Directors. For the London Review, founded by Sir William Molesworth in 1834, he wrote a notable article entitled "The Church and its Reform", which was much too sceptical for the time and injured The Westminster Review. Mill himself was an atheist. His last published book was the Fragment on Mackintosh (1835).

The History of British India
Mill was a proponent of British imperialism, justifying it on utilitarian grounds. He considered it part of a civilising mission for Britain to impose its rule on India. Mill saw his own work for the East India Company as important for the improvement of Indian society. Mill portrayed Indian society as morally degraded and argued that Hindus had never possessed "a high state of civilisation".

Mill preferred to take a more theoretical approach to social subjects than the empirical one common at the time. His best known literary work is his History of British India, in which he describes the acquisition of the Indian Empire by England and later the United Kingdom. In the work, he characterises Indian society as barbaric and Indians as incapable of self-government. He also brings political theory to bear on the delineation of the Hindu civilization, and subjects the conduct of the actors in the successive stages of the conquest and administration of India to severe criticism. The work itself, and the author's official connection with India for the last seventeen years of his life, effected a complete change in the whole system of governance in the country. Mill never visited the Indian colony, relying solely on documentary material and archival records in compiling his work. This fact has led to severe criticism of Mill's History of India by notable economist Amartya Sen.

According to Thomas Trautmann, "James Mill's highly influential History of British India (1817) – most particularly the long essay "Of the Hindus" comprising ten chapters – is the single most important source of British Indophobia and hostility to Orientalism". In the chapter titled General Reflections in "Of the Hindus", Mill wrote "under the glosing exterior of the Hindu, lies a general disposition to deceit and perfidy". According to Mill, "the same insincerity, mendacity, and perfidy; the same indifference to the feelings of others; the same prostitution and venality" were the conspicuous characteristics of both the Hindoos and the Muslims. The Muslims, however, were perfuse, when possessed of wealth, and devoted to pleasure; the Hindoos almost always penurious and ascetic; and "in truth, the Hindoo like the eunuch, excels in the qualities of a slave". Furthermore, similar to the Chinese, the Hindoos were "dissembling, treacherous, mendacious, to an excess which surpasses even the usual measure of uncultivated society". Both the Chinese and the Hindoos were "disposed to excessive exaggeration with regard to everything relating to themselves". Both were "cowardly and unfeeling". Both were "in the highest degree conceited of themselves, and full of affected contempt for others". And both were "in physical sense, disgustingly unclean in their persons and houses".

Max Müller argued against the opinion that Indians were an 'inferior race', not only because such a view was wrong but because it made an Englishman's life there a 'moral exile'. One source of such mistaken notions and 'poison' had been, and still was, Mill's History of British India, which in his view was 'responsible for some of the greatest misfortunes' that had happened to India. Those who were going out to rule India 'should shake off national prejudices, which are apt to degenerate into a kind of madness'.

British politics
Mill also played a great part in British politics, and was a dominant figure in the establishment of what was called "philosophic radicalism". His writings on government and his personal influence among the Liberal politicians of his time determined the change of view from the French Revolution theories of the rights of man and the absolute equality of men to the claiming of securities for good government through a wide extension of the franchise. It was under this banner that the Reform Bill was fought and won. His Elements of Political Economy followed up the views of his friend David Ricardo. By 1911, the Encyclopædia Britannica described it as being of mainly historical interest, "an accurate summary of views that are now largely discarded". Among the more important of its theses are:
 * 1) that the chief problem of practical reformers is to limit the increase of population, on the assumption that capital does not naturally increase at the same rate as population (ii. § 2, art. 3)
 * 2) that the value of a thing depends entirely on the quantity of labour put into it; and
 * 3) that what is now known as the "unearned increment" of land is a proper object for taxation.

Other areas
By his Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind and his Fragment on Mackintosh Mill acquired a position in the history of psychology and ethics. He took up the problems of mind very much after the fashion of the Scottish Enlightenment, as then represented by Thomas Reid, Dugald Stewart and Thomas Brown, but made a new start, due in part to David Hartley, and still more to his own independent thinking. He carried out the principle of association into the analysis of the complex emotional states, as the affections, the aesthetic emotions and the moral sentiment, all which he endeavoured to resolve into pleasurable and painful sensations. But the salient merit of the Analysis is the constant endeavour after precise definition of terms and clear statement of doctrines. He had a great effect on Franz Brentano who discussed his work in his own empirical psychology. The Fragment on Mackintosh severely criticizes the alleged flimsiness and misrepresentations of Sir James Mackintosh's Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (1830), and discusses the foundations of ethics from the author's utilitarian point of view.

Major works

 * An essay of the impolicy of a bounty on the exportation of grain, 1804.
 * "Lord Lauderdale on Public Wealth", 1804, Literary Journal Vol. IV, No. 1
 * Commerce Defended, 1808.
 * "Thomas Smith on Money and Exchange", 1808, Edinburgh Review no. XXV, pp. 35–68
 * The History of British India, 3 vols., 1817 (and many later editions)
 * "Government", 1820, Encyclopædia Britannica
 * Elements of Political Economy, 1821
 * "Liberty of the Press", 1825, Encyclopædia Britannica
 * Essays on Government, Jurisprudence, Liberty of the Press, Education, and Prisons and Prison Discipline, 1823.
 * Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, 2 vols., 1829. Revised edn, 2 vols, 1869.
 * Essay on the Ballot and Fragment on Mackintosh , 1830.
 * "Whether Political Economy is Useful", 1836, London Review, vol. II, pp. 553–572.
 * The Principles of Toleration, 1837.

title: James Mill


text:
Skew-symmetric matrix

In mathematics, particularly in linear algebra, a skew-symmetric (or antisymmetric or antimetric ) matrix is a square matrix whose transpose equals its negative. That is, it satisfies the condition

In terms of the entries of the matrix, if $a_{ij}$ denotes the entry in the $i$ -th row and $j$ -th column, then the skew-symmetric condition is equivalent to

Example
The matrix
 * $$A =

\begin{bmatrix} 0 & 2 & -45 \\   -2 & 0 & -4 \\     45 & 4 &  0  \end{bmatrix} $$ is skew-symmetric because
 * $$-A =

\begin{bmatrix} 0 & -2 & 45 \\    2 &  0 & 4 \\    -45 & -4 & 0  \end{bmatrix} = A^\textsf{T} .$$

Properties
Throughout, we assume that all matrix entries belong to a field $\mathbb{F}$ whose characteristic is not equal to 2. That is, we assume that 1 + 1 ≠ 0, where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity and 0 the additive identity of the given field. If the characteristic of the field is 2, then a skew-symmetric matrix is the same thing as a symmetric matrix.

 * The sum of two skew-symmetric matrices is skew-symmetric.
 * A scalar multiple of a skew-symmetric matrix is skew-symmetric.
 * The elements on the diagonal of a skew-symmetric matrix are zero, and therefore its trace equals zero.
 * If $A$ is a real skew-symmetric matrix and $\lambda$  is a real eigenvalue, then $\lambda = 0$, i.e. the nonzero eigenvalues of a skew-symmetric matrix are non-real.
 * If $A$ is a real skew-symmetric matrix, then $I + A$  is invertible, where $I$  is the identity matrix.
 * If $A$ is a skew-symmetric matrix then $A^2$  is a symmetric negative semi-definite matrix.

Vector space structure
As a result of the first two properties above, the set of all skew-symmetric matrices of a fixed size forms a vector space. The space of $n \times n$ skew-symmetric matrices has dimension $\frac{1}{2}n(n - 1).$

Let $$\mbox{Mat}_n$$ denote the space of $n \times n$ matrices. A skew-symmetric matrix is determined by $\frac{1}{2}n(n - 1)$ scalars (the number of entries above the main diagonal); a symmetric matrix is determined by  $\frac{1}{2}n(n + 1)$  scalars (the number of entries on or above the main diagonal). Let $\mbox{Skew}_n$ denote the space of $n \times n$  skew-symmetric matrices and $\mbox{Sym}_n$  denote the space of $n \times n$  symmetric matrices. If $A \in \mbox{Mat}_n$ then $$A = \frac{1}{2}\left(A - A^\mathsf{T}\right) + \frac{1}{2}\left(A + A^\mathsf{T}\right).$$

Notice that $\frac{1}{2}\left(A - A^\textsf{T}\right) \in \mbox{Skew}_n$ and $\frac{1}{2}\left(A + A^\textsf{T}\right) \in \mbox{Sym}_n.$  This is true for every square matrix $A$  with entries from any field whose characteristic is different from 2. Then, since $\mbox{Mat}_n = \mbox{Skew}_n + \mbox{Sym}_n$ and $\mbox{Skew}_n \cap \mbox{Sym}_n = \{0\},$ $$\mbox{Mat}_n = \mbox{Skew}_n \oplus \mbox{Sym}_n,$$ where $$\oplus$$ denotes the direct sum.

Denote by $\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle$ the standard inner product on $$\R^n.$$ The real $$n \times n$$ matrix $A$  is skew-symmetric if and only if $$\langle Ax,y \rangle = - \langle x, Ay\rangle \quad \text{ for all } x, y \in \R^n.$$

This is also equivalent to $\langle x, Ax \rangle = 0$ for all $$x \in \R^n$$ (one implication being obvious, the other a plain consequence of $\langle x + y, A(x + y)\rangle = 0$  for all $$x$$ and $$y$$).

Since this definition is independent of the choice of basis, skew-symmetry is a property that depends only on the linear operator $$A$$ and a choice of inner product.

$$3 \times 3$$ skew symmetric matrices can be used to represent cross products as matrix multiplications.

Furthermore, if $$A$$ is a skew-symmetric (or skew-Hermitian) matrix, then $$x^T A x = 0$$ for all $$x \in \C^n$$.

Determinant
Let $$A$$ be a $$n \times n$$ skew-symmetric matrix. The determinant of $$A$$ satisfies

 * $$ \det\left(A^\textsf{T}\right) = \det(-A) = (-1)^n \det(A).$$

In particular, if $$n$$ is odd, and since the underlying field is not of characteristic 2, the determinant vanishes. Hence, all odd dimension skew symmetric matrices are singular as their determinants are always zero. This result is called Jacobi’s theorem, after Carl Gustav Jacobi (Eves, 1980).

The even-dimensional case is more interesting. It turns out that the determinant of $$A$$ for $$n$$ even can be written as the square of a polynomial in the entries of $$A$$, which was first proved by Cayley:

 * $$\det(A) = \operatorname{Pf}(A)^2.$$

This polynomial is called the Pfaffian of $$A$$ and is denoted $$\operatorname{Pf}(A)$$. Thus the determinant of a real skew-symmetric matrix is always non-negative. However this last fact can be proved in an elementary way as follows: the eigenvalues of a real skew-symmetric matrix are purely imaginary (see below) and to every eigenvalue there corresponds the conjugate eigenvalue with the same multiplicity; therefore, as the determinant is the product of the eigenvalues, each one repeated according to its multiplicity, it follows at once that the determinant, if it is not 0, is a positive real number.

The number of distinct terms $$s(n)$$ in the expansion of the determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of order $$n$$ was considered already by Cayley, Sylvester, and Pfaff. Due to cancellations, this number is quite small as compared the number of terms of the determinant of a generic matrix of order $$n$$, which is $$n!$$. The sequence $$s(n)$$ is
 * 1, 0, 1, 0, 6, 0, 120, 0, 5250, 0, 395010, 0, …

and it is encoded in the exponential generating function
 * $$\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{s(n)}{n!}x^n = \left(1 - x^2\right)^{-\frac{1}{4}}\exp\left(\frac{x^2}{4}\right).$$

The latter yields to the asymptotics (for $$n$$ even)
 * $$s(n) = \pi^{-\frac{1}{2}} 2^\frac{3}{4} \Gamma\left(\frac{3}{4}\right)\left(\frac{n}{e}\right)^{n - \frac{1}{4}} \left(1 + O\left(\frac{1}{n}\right)\right).$$

The number of positive and negative terms are approximatively a half of the total, although their difference takes larger and larger positive and negative values as $$n$$ increases.

Cross product
Three-by-three skew-symmetric matrices can be used to represent cross products as matrix multiplications. Consider vectors $\mathbf{a} = \left(a_1\ a_2\ a_3\right)^\textsf{T}$ and $\mathbf{b} = \left(b_1\ b_2\ b_3\right)^\textsf{T}.$  Then, defining the matrix

 * $$[\mathbf{a}]_{\times} = \begin{bmatrix}

\,\,0 & \!-a_3 & \,\,\,a_2 \\ \,\,\,a_3 &      0 &    \!-a_1 \\ \!-a_2 & \,\,a_1 &    \,\,0 \end{bmatrix},$$

the cross product can be written as
 * $$\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} = [\mathbf{a}]_{\times}\mathbf{b}.$$

This can be immediately verified by computing both sides of the previous equation and comparing each corresponding element of the results.

One actually has
 * $$[\mathbf{a \times b}]_{\times} =

[\mathbf{a}]_{\times}[\mathbf{b}]_{\times} - [\mathbf{b}]_{\times}[\mathbf{a}]_{\times}; $$

i.e., the commutator of skew-symmetric three-by-three matrices can be identified with the cross-product of three-vectors. Since the skew-symmetric three-by-three matrices are the Lie algebra of the rotation group $SO(3)$ this elucidates the relation between three-space $\mathbb{R}^3$, the cross product and three-dimensional rotations. More on infinitesimal rotations can be found below.

Spectral theory
Since a matrix is similar to its own transpose, they must have the same eigenvalues. It follows that the eigenvalues of a skew-symmetric matrix always come in pairs ±λ (except in the odd-dimensional case where there is an additional unpaired 0 eigenvalue). From the spectral theorem, for a real skew-symmetric matrix the nonzero eigenvalues are all pure imaginary and thus are of the form $$\lambda_1 i, -\lambda_1 i, \lambda_2 i, -\lambda_2 i, \ldots$$ where each of the $$\lambda_k$$ are real.

Real skew-symmetric matrices are normal matrices (they commute with their adjoints) and are thus subject to the spectral theorem, which states that any real skew-symmetric matrix can be diagonalized by a unitary matrix. Since the eigenvalues of a real skew-symmetric matrix are imaginary, it is not possible to diagonalize one by a real matrix. However, it is possible to bring every skew-symmetric matrix to a block diagonal form by a special orthogonal transformation. Specifically, every $$2n \times 2n$$ real skew-symmetric matrix can be written in the form $$A = Q\Sigma Q^\textsf{T}$$ where $$Q$$ is orthogonal and
 * $$\Sigma = \begin{bmatrix}

\begin{matrix}0 & \lambda_1 \\ -\lambda_1 & 0\end{matrix} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\ 0 & \begin{matrix}0 & \lambda_2 \\ -\lambda_2 & 0\end{matrix} & & 0 \\ \vdots & & \ddots & \vdots \\ 0 & 0 & \cdots & \begin{matrix}0 & \lambda_r\\ -\lambda_r & 0\end{matrix} \\ & & & & \begin{matrix}0 \\ & \ddots \\ & & 0 \end{matrix} \end{bmatrix}$$

for real positive-definite $$\lambda_k$$. The nonzero eigenvalues of this matrix are ±λk i. In the odd-dimensional case Σ always has at least one row and column of zeros.

More generally, every complex skew-symmetric matrix can be written in the form $$A = U \Sigma U^{\mathrm T}$$ where $$U$$ is unitary and $$\Sigma$$ has the block-diagonal form given above with $$\lambda_k$$ still real positive-definite. This is an example of the Youla decomposition of a complex square matrix.

Skew-symmetric and alternating forms
A skew-symmetric form $$\varphi$$ on a vector space $$V$$ over a field $$K$$ of arbitrary characteristic is defined to be a bilinear form

 * $$\varphi: V \times V \mapsto K$$

such that for all $$v, w$$ in $$V,$$

 * $$\varphi(v, w) = -\varphi(w, v).$$

This defines a form with desirable properties for vector spaces over fields of characteristic not equal to 2, but in a vector space over a field of characteristic 2, the definition is equivalent to that of a symmetric form, as every element is its own additive inverse.

Where the vector space $$V$$ is over a field of arbitrary characteristic including characteristic 2, we may define an alternating form as a bilinear form $$\varphi$$ such that for all vectors $$v$$ in $$V$$

 * $$\varphi(v, v) = 0.$$

This is equivalent to a skew-symmetric form when the field is not of characteristic 2, as seen from

 * $$0 = \varphi(v + w, v + w) = \varphi(v, v) + \varphi(v, w) + \varphi(w, v) + \varphi(w, w) = \varphi(v, w) + \varphi(w, v),$$

whence

 * $$\varphi(v, w) = -\varphi(w, v).$$

A bilinear form $$\varphi$$ will be represented by a matrix $$A$$ such that $$\varphi(v,w) = v^\textsf{T}Aw$$, once a basis of $$V$$ is chosen, and conversely an $$n \times n$$ matrix $$A$$ on $$K^n$$ gives rise to a form sending $$(v, w)$$ to $$v^\textsf{T}Aw.$$ For each of symmetric, skew-symmetric and alternating forms, the representing matrices are symmetric, skew-symmetric and alternating respectively.

Coordinate-free
More intrinsically (i.e., without using coordinates), skew-symmetric linear transformations on a vector space $$V$$ with an inner product may be defined as the bivectors on the space, which are sums of simple bivectors (2-blades) $v \wedge w.$ The correspondence is given by the map $v \wedge w \mapsto v^* \otimes w - w^* \otimes v,$  where $v^*$  is the covector dual to the vector $v$ ; in orthonormal coordinates these are exactly the elementary skew-symmetric matrices. This characterization is used in interpreting the curl of a vector field (naturally a 2-vector) as an infinitesimal rotation or "curl", hence the name.

Skew-symmetrizable matrix
An $$n \times n$$ matrix $$A$$ is said to be skew-symmetrizable if there exists an invertible diagonal matrix $$D$$ such that $$DA$$ is skew-symmetric. For real $$n \times n$$ matrices, sometimes the condition for $$D$$ to have positive entries is added.

title: Skew-symmetric matrix


text:
Franklin C. Crow

Franklin C. (Frank) Crow is a computer scientist who has made important contributions to computer graphics, including some of the first practical spatial anti-aliasing techniques. Crow also proposed the shadow volume technique for generating geometrically accurate shadows.

Education
Crow studied electrical engineering at the University of Utah College of Engineering under Ivan Sutherland, a pioneer in computer graphics.

Career
Crow taught at the University of Texas, NYIT and Ohio State University and was involved with research at Xerox PARC, Apple Computer's Advanced Technology Group, and Interval Research.

From 2001 to 2008, he worked for NVIDIA as a GPU architect designing rasterization algorithms.

Publications

 * "Parallel Computing for Graphics." Advances in Computer Graphics, 1990:113-140.
 * "Parallelism in rendering algorithms." in Graphics Interface 88, June 6–10, 1988, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. p. 87-96
 * "Advanced Image Synthesis - Anti-Aliasing." Advances in Computer Graphics, 1985:419-440.
 * "Advanced Image Synthesis - Surfaces." Advances in Computer Graphics, 1985:457-467.
 * "Computational Issues in Rendering Anti-Aliased Detail." COMPCON, 1982:238-244.
 * "Toward more complicated computer imagery." Computers & Graphics, 5(2-4):61-69 (1980).
 * "The Aliasing Problem in Computer-Generated Shaded Images." Commun. ACM, 20(11):799-805 (1977).
 * "Shadow Algorithms for Computer Graphics", Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH '77 Proceedings), vol. 11, no. 2, 242–248.

title: Franklin C. Crow


text:
Tron (disambiguation)

Tron is a 1982 science fiction film produced by Walt Disney Productions.

Tron may also refer to:

Tron franchise

 * Tron (franchise), an American science fiction media franchise begun with the 1982 film Tron
 * Tron (character), the titular character of the Tron franchise

Films

 * Tron: Legacy, a 2010 science fiction film sequel

Television

 * Tron: Uprising, a 2012 animated television series set between Tron and Tron: Legacy

Soundtracks

 * Tron (soundtrack), the soundtrack album for the 1982 film
 * Tron: Legacy (soundtrack), the soundtrack album for the 2010 film

Comics

 * Tron: The Ghost in the Machine (2006–2008), a six-issue series continuing the storyline of the film Tron and the video game Tron 2.0
 * Tron: Betrayal (2010), a two-issue series serving as the official prequel to the Tron: Legacy film

Games

 * Tron (video game), an arcade game based on the 1982 film
 * Discs of Tron, a second arcade game based on the 1982 film
 * Tron 2.0, a 2003 video game sequel
 * Tron Evolution: Battle Grids, a video game based on the 2010 Tron: Legacy film
 * Tron: Evolution, a 2010 video game that serves as a prequel to the Tron: Legacy film

Computing

 * TRON (encoding), a multi-byte character encoding
 * TRON command, a debugging command in the BASIC programming language, an abbreviation of TRace ON
 * TRON project, a real-time operating system kernel project by Ken Sakamura
 * Tron, a block cellular automaton rule
 * Tron (hacker), a German computer hacker (1972–1998)
 * Tron (cryptocurrency), a cryptocurrency founded in 2017

Other uses

 * Tron (Scotland), a public weighing balance and hence standard weights and measures in the Burghs of medieval Scotland
 * Tron Kirk, a church built at the tron in Edinburgh, Scotland
 * Trongate, a street in Glasgow, Scotland
 * Tron Theatre, a theatre, formerly kirk, in the Glasgow Trongate
 * St George's Tron Church, a Church of Scotland church in Glasgow
 * The Tron Church at Kelvingrove, an evangelical Presbyterian church in Glasgow
 * Tron-men, an organization of chimney-sweeps in Edinburgh, named after the Tron in front of the Tron Kirk
 * Tron family, a Venetian noble family
 * Studio TRON, a comic book and animation studio created by manga artist Kia Asamiya
 * "The Tron", a nickname of Hamilton, New Zealand
 * The Trons, a self-playing robotic musical group from Hamilton, New Zealand
 * Tron district, a district in Uttaradit province in northern Thailand

title: Tron (disambiguation)


text:
(29075) 1950 DA

' (provisional designation ') is a risk-listed asteroid, classified as a near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid of the Apollo group, approximately 1.3 km in diameter. It once had the highest known probability of impacting Earth. In 2002, it had the highest Palermo rating with a value of 0.17 and a probability of 1 in 306 (0.33%) for a possible collision in 2880. Since that time, the estimated risk has been updated several times. In December 2015, the odds of an Earth impact were revised to 1 in 8,300 (0.012%) with a Palermo rating of −1.42. , It is listed on the Sentry Risk Table with the highest cumulative Palermo rating of -0.93. is not assigned a Torino scale rating, because the 2880 date is over 100 years in the future. As of 24 April 2024, the odds of an Earth impact reached 1 in 2,600 (0.038%).

Discovery and nomenclature
was first discovered on 23 February 1950 by Carl A. Wirtanen at Lick Observatory. It was observed for seventeen days and then lost because this short observation arc resulted in large uncertainties in Wirtanen's orbital solution. On 31 December 2000, it was recovered at Lowell Observatory and was announced as on 4 January 2001. Just two hours later it was recognized as.

Observations
On 5 March 2001, made a close approach to Earth at a distance of 0.05207 AU. It was studied by radar at the Goldstone and Arecibo observatories from March 3 to 7, 2001.

The studies showed that the asteroid has a mean diameter of 1.1 km, assuming that is a retrograde rotator. Optical lightcurve analysis by Lenka Šarounová and Petr Pravec shows that its rotation period is $1.39 km$ hours. Due to its short rotation period and high radar albedo, is thought to be fairly dense (more than 3.5 g/cm3, assuming that it has no internal strength) and likely composed of nickel–iron. In August 2014, scientists from the University of Tennessee determined that  is a rubble pile rotating faster than the breakup limit for its density, implying the asteroid is held together by van der Waals forces rather than gravity.

made distant approaches to Earth on 20 May 2012, 5 February 2021 and 5 February 2023. However, at these times it was a quarter to half an AU away from Earth, preventing more useful astrometrics and timing that occurs when an object is closer to Earth. The next close approach that presents a good opportunity to observe the asteroid will be on 2 March 2032, when it will be 0.076 AU from Earth. The following table lists the next five approaches closer than 0.1 AU. By 2136 the close approach solutions are becoming notably more divergent.

Possible Earth impact
has one of the best-determined asteroid orbital solutions. This is due to a combination of:
 * an orbit moderately inclined (12 degrees) to the ecliptic plane (reducing in-plane perturbations);
 * high-precision radar astrometry, which provides its distance and is complementary to the measurements of angular positions;
 * a 74-year observation arc;
 * an uncertainty region controlled by resonance.

Main-belt asteroid 78 Diana (~125 km in diameter) will pass about 0.003 AU from on 5 August 2150. At that distance and size, Diana will perturb enough so that the change in trajectory is notable by 2880 (730 years later). In addition, over the intervening time, 's rotation will cause its orbit to slightly change as a result of the Yarkovsky effect. If continues on its present orbit, it may approach Earth on 16 March 2880, though the mean trajectory passes many millions of kilometres from Earth, so  does not have a significant chance of impacting Earth. , according to the latest solution dated 24 April 2024, the probability of an impact in 2880 is 1 in 2,600 (0.038%).

The energy released by a collision with an object the size of would cause major effects on the climate and biosphere, which would be devastating to human civilization. The discovery of the potential impact heightened interest in asteroid deflection strategies.

title: (29075) 1950 DA


text:
Herbert Freeman

Dr. Herbert Freeman (born Herbert Freinmann, December 13, 1925 – November 15, 2020) was an American computer scientist who made important contributions to the field of automatic label placement, computer graphics, including spatial anti-aliasing, and machine vision.

Personal life
Herbert Freeman was born Herbert Freimann in Frankfurt, Germany on December 13, 1925. Freeman's parents, Leo and Johanna, and his brother, Henry, emigrated to the United States in 1936. Herbert was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and was unable to join his family in the United States until 1938. He received his B.S.E.E. degree from Union College, NY, and his Master's and Eng.Sc.D. degree from Columbia University, NY. He married Joan Sleppin in 1955 and they had three children, Nancy, Susan, and Robert. Freeman died on November 15, 2020, in his home in New Jersey, USA.

Career in Computer Science
Freeman held many professorial posts such as in RPI (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), NYU, and Rutgers University. Freeman was the recipient of several awards, including the IEEE Computer Society's Computer Pioneer award (1999). Freeman was also a Fellow of the ACM, a Life Fellow of the IEEE, and a Guggenheim Fellow. Professor Freeman also founded MapText, Inc., in 1997.

title: Herbert Freeman


text:
Stormont

Stormont may refer to:

Peerages

 * Viscount of Stormont, a noble title in the Peerage of Scotland

People

 * Lord Stormont (1727–1796), British ambassador to France in the 18th century
 * Lady Stormont (1737–1766), German-British salonnière and wife of Lord Stormont
 * Robert Stormont (1872–1943), Scottish footballer, played for Preston North End, Dundee, Tottenham Hotspur and Brentford.
 * Bill Stormont (1898–1925), New Zealand rugby player
 * Mary Stormont (1871–1962), British painter

Structures

 * On the Stormont Estate in Belfast:
 * Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland), commonly known as Stormont, the seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly
 * Stormont Castle, the seat of the Northern Ireland Executive
 * Stormont House, the seat of the Northern Ireland Office
 * Stormont (cricket ground), a first-class cricket ground
 * Stormont Vail Health, a hospital center in Topeka, Kansas

Politics

 * Stormont, a metonym for:
 * Government of Northern Ireland (past and present)
 * Northern Ireland Assembly (current)
 * Northern Ireland Executive (current)
 * Parliament of Northern Ireland (former)

Canada

 * Stormont, Nova Scotia, a community in Guysborough County
 * Stormont II, a cable ferry operating in Nova Scotia, based in the community
 * Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry United Counties, a county in Ontario, Canada
 * Stormont County, Ontario, one of the former counties that merged to form Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry United Counties county
 * North Stormont, a township in the county
 * South Stormont, a township in the county
 * Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders, a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces

United States

 * Stormont, Virginia, a settlement south of Urbanna in Middlesex County, Virginia

Canada

 * Stormont (electoral district), a federal electoral district in Ontario
 * Cornwall and Stormont, a former federal electoral district from 1882 to 1904
 * Glengarry and Stormont, a former federal electoral district from 1917 to 1925

Other

 * HMCS Stormont (K327), a River-class frigate that served in the Royal Canadian Navy from 1943 to 1945

title: Stormont


text:
Nathan Zuckerman

Nathan Zuckerman is a fictional character created by the writer Philip Roth, who uses him as his protagonist and narrator, a type of alter ego, in many of his novels.

Character
Roth first created a character named Nathan Zuckerman in the novel My Life as a Man (1974), where he is the "product" of another fictional Roth figure, the writer Peter Tarnopol (making Zuckerman, in his original form, an "alter-alter-ego"). Discrepancies (including date of birth, details of his upbringing, and personal background) exist between the characters, leading most to consider this an early version, and not necessarily the Zuckerman around whom subsequent novels would revolve. In later books, Roth uses Zuckerman as a protagonist, starting with the 1979 novel The Ghost Writer, where he is a writing apprentice on a pilgrimage to cull the wisdom of the reclusive author E. I. Lonoff. In Zuckerman Unbound (1981), he has become established as a novelist and must deal with the fall-out from his ribald comedic novel Carnovsky. Though wildly successful, the novel has brought to Zuckerman unwanted attention from both readers and his family, who object to their portrayal in his work.

Exit Ghost (2007) is the ninth book in the Zuckerman series, and is the last Zuckerman novel. The book explores Zuckerman's life as an older man, returning to New York City after an extended period of seclusion in the Berkshires.

Analysis
By creating parallels between Zuckerman's life as a novelist (with the novel Carnovsky a stand-in for his Portnoy's Complaint) and his own, Roth expressed his interest in the relationship between an author and his work. Roth mined such meta-fictional concerns more deeply in his series of novels published in the 1980s, most radically in The Counterlife and Operation Shylock.

By the mid-1990s, though, Roth tamped down on the self-referentiality. He reintroduced Zuckerman as witness and narrator in a trilogy of historical novels: American Pastoral (1997), I Married a Communist (1998), and The Human Stain (2000), set in the period from the 1960s into the 1990s. The British Indian author Salman Rushdie used Zuckerman as a character in his novel The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999), where in an alternate universe, it is the literary alter-egos (and their novels) that are real.

Portrayals
Actors who have portrayed Nathan Zuckerman include Mark Linn-Baker (in the 1984 television adaptation of The Ghost Writer), Gary Sinise (in the 2003 film adaptation of The Human Stain) and David Strathairn (in the 2016 film adaptation of American Pastoral).

List of Zuckerman novels
(The above four books are collected as Zuckerman Bound)
 * The Ghost Writer (1979)
 * Zuckerman Unbound (1981)
 * The Anatomy Lesson (1983)
 * The Prague Orgy (1985)
 * The Counterlife (1986)
 * American Pastoral (1997)
 * I Married a Communist (1998)
 * The Human Stain (2000)
 * Exit Ghost (2007)

External resources

 * "Philip Roth: The Zuckerman books", Salon
 * Nathan Zuckerman on IMDb

title: Nathan Zuckerman