text:
Talk:AppleScript

Programming language reference
Even as a confirmed Macophile, I think it's a bit much to describe AppleScript as a "programming language," especially since the same description isn't applied here to JavaScript or Perl. - Hephaestos 04:45 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * I've moved it back to where it belongs. Some time ago, someone decided for mysterious reasons to rename all the articles about programming languages in the form "X programming language", even though the only sensible reason to use such names was as a disambiguator for things like "C" or "Pascal" whose names are not unambiguous by themselves. As you come across any that have not yet been put back, please rename them or, if there are problems with split page histories, give a shout out at the pump. --Brion 04:49 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * Um, the above discussion seems to imply that the form 'X programming language' was corrected in March of 2003, but in fact it is now August of 2004, and the article's name is 'AppleScript programming language.' I would like to correct this myself to simply 'AppleScript,' but I don't know how, (I understand about the 'move' tab, but I'm uncertain because of all the warnings about links changing). AdmN 16:37, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I think I am now in favor of "AppleScript programming language", based on discussions at Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (languages). AdmN 23:03, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Editors and IDEs
Just typing out loud: I think we need a section on script editors and IDEs, with seperate articles as well:

 * Apple Script Editor, (or something like Script Editor (Apple computer)???)
 * AppleScript Studio, surely, this deserves its own article, with ASS as a redirect ;-)
 * FaceSpan
 * Script Debugger
 * Scripter
 * ScriptWizard, (the first third-party AppleScript editor)
 * Smile (software)

And while we're at it, people and places:
 * People:
 * Jon Pugh
 * Cal Simone
 * Sal Soghoian
 * you get the idea...
 * Companies:
 * Main Event Software
 * Satimage
 * etc...

I recently created Late Night Software, check one off the list. :) func (talk) 21:48, 21 May 2005 (UTC)

Can we really call the script menu, and the Apple script utility "Development tools"? There should be at least some requirement that you have to be able to, well, develop with a tool for it to be a development tool. The Script Menu is a tool for running, not creating scripts, and the AppleScript utility is there to control some user-level interactions with scripts. Neither let you create scripts. Perhaps an "Other tools" section?Johncwelch (talk) 22:34, 27 December 2008 (UTC)

 * There is now a stub: Script Editor. I guess a disambig was not felt nessesary. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.20.209.146 (talk • contribs) 07:10, 14 February 2006

Refined the Automator section a bit to include more correct verbage, (actions), and OS Versions for Automator (10.4 and later).Johncwelch (talk) 22:42, 27 December 2008 (UTC)

Added in sections for Script Debugger, FaceSpan, and Smile. Johncwelch (talk) 23:01, 27 December 2008 (UTC)

Possible confusions

 * 1) "In Mac OS X AppleScript is simpler for developers to implement, particularly for those applications being developed in Cocoa." Simpler than what? Cocoa? I'm confused. If it's simpler than Cocoa, then why then does the rest of the paragraph address how versatile and good Cocoa is?  (I'm going to read about what "Cocoa" is in a moment, but I know it is some kind of Mac-based Obj-C variant.)
 * 2) "Unlike the Mac OS where events are handled by the applications, under Cocoa, events are decoded into a 'high level' command by the NSApplication object, and the messages dispatched directly to the correct object. That is, all Cocoa applications are 'factored' by default; the developer doesn't write any of the event handling code (normally) and writes only the 'work methods' that those events will call. Another major advantage is that Cocoa objects are presented to the outside world (other applications and even machines) in a standardized format that anyone can examine directly." Shouldn't this be in the wiki article on Cocoa? Does writting an application in Cocoa make it easier to then write a script in AppleScript that "hooks into" that application? That is not quite clear to me.
 * 3) "Under Cocoa AppleScript is much 'thinner'; the script engine decodes the script, translates object names from human-readable to their internal format, and then calls those methods on the target application directly." Is "Cocoa AppleScript" the name of some kind of hybrid language, or is there a comma missing? And is this saying that when I use AppleScript to address applications written in Cocoa (as opposed to... Java or C++ ?) then my script will run faster? What does "thinner" mean?

I'm just starting out, and I'm sure when I hunt deeper I will find the answers to all of these questions, but it might be confusing to other neophytes. --128.237.234.9 15:37, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Presumably means simpler than in OS9. It's still misleading though. What it should really say is that scripting support is easier to implement in Cocoa-based applications than Carbon/Classic ones: a lot of the code for processing Apple events is built into the AppKit framework, so developers have to provide less code themselves.
 * a) Quite possibly. b) No, the only advantage to users is that Cocoa-based apps tend to be a bit more consistent in how they behave compared to Carbon apps since more of the underlying mechanisms are the same from app to app.
 * Missing comma. And it's wrongly confusing AppleScript, which is a client language, with Cocoa Scripting, which is the part of AppKit that provides its scripting support. The way AppleScript works hasn't changed since OS9, and it certainly doesn't "call methods on the target application directly"; it sends Apple events to the target application just as before. What's new in OS X is the way that AEs are interpreted in Cocoa apps. Carbon developers have to write quite a bit of glue code to connect their Apple event handlers to their application's Model layer. Thanks to ObjC's highly dynamic nature, Cocoa Scripting can use advanced features like key-value coding to look up a lot of stuff automatically; all the developer has to do is annotate the application's scripting definition (dictionary) with the names of the accessor methods/attributes to use, no coding required. I assume that's what the original author was getting confused about.
 * I wouldn't feel too bad about confusing folk: a lot of the article is very ropey and some parts are just outright wrong, so addressing the problems you've found so far can only improve it even if more work is needed later. It would make sense to eventually move most/all of the discussion on how application scripting support is actually implemented to Apple event, Apple Event Object Model, Cocoa Scripting and/or Cocoa articles, and focus this article on just the AppleScript language and the general principles involved in application scripting. That'd help eliminate at least some of the current confusion by reducing the number of different topics being discussed here.--Hhas 15:57, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

Links
Three of the links at the bottom (http://macscripter.net/, http://scriptbuilders.net/, http://bbs.applescript.net/) are all part of the same site grouping, so to speak. They should probably be consolidated somehow. 71.240.242.39 14:44, 15 June 2006 (UTC)

"Arguable that"
"It is arguable that the main reason that the Mac remained a powerhouse in the publishing market after Quark (and other applications) were ported to Microsoft Windows, was that Mac users could automate complex workflows." How about getting rid of the weasel words? ("It is arguable that...") --Aughtandzero 02:24, 27 June 2006 (UTC)

Article Problems
This article contains multiple errors, omissions, misconceptions, etc. It'd take some time to go through them all, so for now here's one example of the sort of fundamental inaccuracy that needs to be dealt with:

 * "Note the similarities between the AEOM model and the considerably more recent DOM system used in XML. Both decompose a document into a hierarchy of objects, and offer the programmer a standardized iterative method to access the contents. Differences between the systems lie primarily in the user-level syntax"

This is both misleading and wrong. There are major differences between AEOM and DOM. AEOM operates at a much higher level of abstraction: DOM is a simple object-oriented API; AEOM is a query-driven View-Controller layer that sits above an application's object-oriented Model layer, rather like how XPath sits atop DOM. "User-level syntax" is irrelevant, since the Apple Event Manager is a programmatic API; whatever user-level syntax AppleScript, Mac::Glue, etc. want to spread on top of that is entirely up to them. (Current high-level bridges all happen to use an OO-like syntax, which is probably one of the reasons a lot of observers mistakenly think AEOM is 'just another DOM'.)

The following comparative example from the article reinforces this basic misunderstanding of how the AEOM works:

The concept of an object hierarchy can also be expressed using nested prepositional phrases:

pixel 7 of row 3 of TIFF image "my bitmap"

which in another programming language might be expressed as sequential function calls:

getTIFF("my bitmap").getRow(3).getPixel(7);

Object specifiers (the 'pixel 7', 'row 3', etc.) are not comparable to accessor methods. On the client side, what you're doing is constructing a single, first-class query object that will eventually be packed into an Apple event and sent to the application to interpret, not invoking a bunch of accessor methods as the second code segment implies. AppleScript may use an OO-like syntax for constructing these queries, but it's completely wrong (if a very common mistake) to assume, based on appearance, that it must also follow OO rules and behaviour.

In another language, the above 'reference' (i.e. query) would be expressed, sans syntactic sugar, as something like:

q = Query.elementByName('TIFF image', 'my bitmap').elementByIndex('row', 3).elementByIndex('pixel', 7) print q
 * 1)

To actually get the referenced object/value, you'd then need to construct and send a 'get' event containing that query as its direct parameter:

q = Query.elementByName('TIFF image', 'my bitmap').elementByIndex('row', 3).elementByIndex('pixel', 7) result = Application('My Graphics App').send('get', q)

For usability's sake, properly designed high-level bridges like to hide a lot of this pedantry beneath a more concise, easier-to-read syntax, e.g.:

q = app('My Graphics App').TIFF_images['my bitmap'].rows[3].elements[7] result = q.get

but underneath this surface everything is being translated to queries as before. It's a bit like how object-relational mappers provide an OO-like interface to relational databases.

Anyone planning to work on this article should read the following paper by two of the original Apple engineers first: The Open Scripting Architecture: Automating, Integrating, and Customizing Applications (Cook & Harris, 1993; PDF). While it predates newer additions like Cocoa Scripting, it's the best explanation the underlying concepts and principles, as well as the original technologies involved, that I'm aware of. --Hhas 15:57, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

AppleScript Studio link
As far as I can tell, the "AppleScript Studio" link doesn't go anywhere. It would be nice if there really were a section (or better yet, a page) on this environment, but I'm not qualified to write it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.243.10.93 (talk) 19:27, 5 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I removed the link. Maybe it linked to something in the past that got trimmed or moved around.  At the moment I don't see anything to link to. Fletcher (talk) 20:01, 5 December 2008 (UTC)

There really isn't an "AppleScript Studio" to begin with. It's always been a marketing name for Xcode's ability to create apps/scripts with AppleScript, so any links should just go to Xcode. Johncwelch (talk) 16:46, 29 December 2008 (UTC)

Is Apple dropping support for Applescript Studio? In Xcode 3.2.1, the dictionary is no longer available in the file menu. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.109.195.126 (talk) 07:00, 8 June 2009 (UTC)

Aliases

 * alias - a reference to a file system object (file or folder). The alias will maintain its link to the object if the object is moved or renamed.

Removed this sentence for several reasons: "The object must exist in the file system, or the script will throw an error."

First, before Snow Leopard, if the alias file did not exist when the script was compiled, the compiler would display an error message.

In SL, that is no longer the case.

alias "Foo:"

compiles.

At runtime, if the object does not exist in the file system, an apple Event error would be generated. But any apple Event error can be trapped by a script so the script does not "throw an error".

try get alias "Foo:" end try

"Throw an error" is very imprecise term. It suggests to me that it would halt script operation, but it simply generates an Apple Event error that can be easily resolved without interrupting the operation. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 144.142.12.110 (talk) 01:32, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

 * The operative point here is that the file has to exist for an alias to work. do you disagree with that?  and what language would would you suggest instead of 'throw an error', which is pretty standard computer programmer terminology, mind you.  -- Ludwigs 2  01:27, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

No, I don't agree with that. The alias class can be used to test if a file exists and that "works"

In the past the alias class required the item to exist at the time the script was compiled, but that is no longer the case. Because of that, when I read "throw an error" I thought of a compiler error, as opposed to a runtime error, that could be trapped in a try block. That context makes the term imprecise.

If a complier error is what is meant here, then that no longer applies. If a runtime error is what is meant, then why single out the alias class for this comment? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 144.142.12.110 (talk) 01:45, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Please remember to sign your posts with four tildes - you're giving SineBot a migraine.

 * The purpose of the alias class is to point to existing file system elements - it says so in the AppleScript documentation. The alias class was intended to leverage the ability of alias files to maintain a connection with their target even as the target is moved around in the file system; it makes no sense conceptually for an alias file to point to a non-existent file.  The fact that Apple has fixed things so that it throws a runtime error rather than a compile-time error is nice, but doesn't change the fact that it throws an error.  The fact that you can use it as a file system test is also nice, but Apple has the 'exists' verb in the Finder and System Events that tests for file system objects without throwing errors.  we should be documenting the intentions of the language, not the hacks that work, if you follow me...  -- Ludwigs 2  03:21, 13 October 2010 (UTC)

There are many ways to generate an apple event error in appleScript. There is no reason to single out this behavior of alias as if it were a weakness or a flaw. If this were a tutorial then a more indepth description would be appropriate. But this is simply an overview of the language and technology.

Yes the finder has an exists command, but this discussion is not delving into application scripting. Also using alias to test is more reliable, faster and uses less overhead than using the finder command.144.142.12.110 (talk) 18:57, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Fair enough. or at least it's not a big enough issue to argue over.    we'll leave it as you like it.  -- Ludwigs 2  19:16, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

gone baby gone
I've been looking for the Apple scripts for folder actions and, under 10.8, they're all gone, or they are deeply buried. This is a total PO because I used to use a couple of them all the time as folder and file organizational tools. And there are no clues in Apple's documentation for Lion as to where the hell they've gone. Why get rid of a couple hundred KB of program when all machines measure their capacity in Gigs? Smooth move Apple, and (of course, the Apple plan, always) no warning.

Here's the point: this article needs to be rewritten to reflect the loss of those pre-written scripts that were so useful.Theonemacduff (talk) 02:06, 19 October 2012 (UTC)

AppleScript Wikibook
Should some of this content be migrated to or duplicated in the AppleScript Wikibook? Poetcsw (talk) 20:33, 22 April 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * It worked, but saying what the MacRuby roadmap said back in 2009 isn't very interesting any more; they don't say anything about OSA now, so perhaps those plans were dropped and are no longer of any interest. Guy Harris (talk) 18:10, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

Inter application scripting language
One thing this page is missing is the entire point of the AppleScript language and technology. The purpose of appleScript is to provide one scripting language that can control multiple applications from a wide range of developers. As of now the page mentions Quark, Microsoft and Finder (With BBEdit as a link).

I understand why the list of scriptable applications was removed, but I believe it's appropriate to include such a comprehensive list.

AppleScript is nothing without scriptable applications. CarbShark (talk) 17:49, 4 October 2022 (UTC)

 * One thing this page is missing is the entire point of the AppleScript language and technology. No, it's not missing. First sentence of the article: "AppleScript is a scripting language created by Apple Inc. that facilitates automated control over scriptable Mac applications." First sentence of the overview section: "AppleScript is primarily a scripting language developed by Apple to do inter-application communication (IAC) using Apple events." And the word "primarily" in that statement looks right to me: it's not true that AppleScript is nothing without scriptable applications, since you can do other things with AppleScript, but for many purposes other languages are better.
 * This article does not need a comprehensive list of scriptable applications now, no more than this article needed such a list in its previous 20 years of existence. Wikipedia is not a directory of software applications. Biogeographist (talk) 21:12, 4 October 2022 (UTC)
 * A list of scriptable applications is not a directory.
 * The reason appleScript exists is for interapplication communication and scripting, and just one or two mentions with no detail is not sufficient.
 * There is very little useful things that can be done with appleScript without scripting applications (including Finder and system utilities) and there is nothing useful it can do without scripting applications that numerous programming and scripting languages can't do better. 2600:1700:4DB0:AAC0:D0D2:9A39:2AD7:938 (talk) 18:28, 5 October 2022 (UTC)
 * A list of scriptable applications is not a directory. In Wikipedia's definition, a directory is a list—an inappropriate kind of list. One use that I make of AppleScript all the time is to create droplets that run a shell script using whatever files are dropped onto them. That doesn't involve scriptable applications. But anyway the importance of scriptable applications to AppleScript in general doesn't justify a huge directory of scriptable applications in this article, no more than the importance of applications to a general-purpose personal computer operating system justifies a huge directory of applications specific to that operating system in the article about that operating system: there is no comprehensive list of applications in the article on macOS. It's the same here. Wikipedia is not a directory of software applications.
 * If you want to do something useful about scriptable applications on Wikipedia, why don't you create Category:macOS scriptable applications and put into it all the Wikipedia articles on scriptable applications. Then a link to that category can be put in this article. That would be a better use of your enthusiasm for scriptable applications. Biogeographist (talk) 19:17, 5 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:AppleScript


text:
USS Florida

Several United States Navy ships have borne the name Florida, in honor of the state of Florida:

 * Florida (1824) was a sloop that served on survey duty between 1824 and 1831. Her final cruise, between 1 June 1830 and 31 May 1831, was under the command of Lieutenant T. R. Gedney.
 * Florida (1834) was a steamboat built in Savannah, Georgia, and operated on the St. Johns River during the Second Seminole War. It was 104 ft long with a beam of 7 ft and displaced near 144 tons.
 * USS Florida (1850) was a side-wheel steamboat purchased in 1861 and sold after 1867.
 * USS Florida (1869) was originally the screw frigate USS Wampanoag, renamed in 1869, and sold in 1885.
 * USS Florida (BM-9) was an Arkansas-class monitor monitor commissioned in 1903, renamed to USS Tallahassee in 1908, redesignated as IX-16 in 1921 and decommissioned and sold in 1922.
 * USS Florida (BB-30) was the lead ship of her class of battleship, commissioned 1911 and scrapped in 1932.
 * USS Florida (SSGN-728) is an Ohio-class submarine cruise missile submarine, originally commissioned in 1983 as a ballistic missile submarine designated SSBN-728.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Florida


text:
Carl Auer von Welsbach

Carl Auer von Welsbach (1 September 1858 – 4 August 1929), who received the Austrian noble title of Freiherr Auer von Welsbach in 1901, was an Austrian scientist and inventor, who separated didymium into the elements neodymium and praseodymium in 1885. He was also one of three scientists to independently discover the element lutetium (which he named cassiopeium), separating it from ytterbium in 1907, setting off the longest priority dispute in the history of chemistry.

He had a talent not only for making scientific advances, but also for turning them into commercially successful products. His work on rare-earth elements led to the development of the ferrocerium "flints" used in modern lighters, the gas mantle that brought light to the streets of Europe in the late 19th century, and the metal-filament light bulb. He took the phrase plus lucis, meaning "more light", as his motto.

Early life
Carl Auer was born in Vienna on 1 September 1858 to Alois Auer and his wife, Therese Neuditschka. He was the youngest of four children, his elder siblings being Leopoldine, Alois and Amalie. His father, ennobled in 1860 (as Alois Ritter Auer von Welsbach), was director of the Imperial printing office (K.-k. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei) in the days of the Austrian Empire.

Carl went to high schools in Mariahilf and Josefstadt. He attended the Realschule Josefstadt from 1873 to 1877, matriculating on July 16, 1877.

Next, he joined the Austro-Hungarian Army for one year of voluntary military service. He was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant. He joined on October 1, 1877, and received his patent as a lieutenant on December 15, 1878.

In 1878, Auer entered the University of Vienna, studying mathematics, general chemistry, engineering physics, and thermodynamics. He then moved to the University of Heidelberg in 1880, where he continued his studies in spectroscopy under the direction of Robert Bunsen, (inventor of the Bunsen burner). In 1882, he received his Ph.D. degree and returned to Vienna to work as an unpaid assistant in Professor Adolf Lieben's laboratory, working with chemical separation methods for investigations on rare-earth elements.

Neodymium and praseodymium
In 1885, Auer von Welsbach used a method of fractional crystallization that he had developed himself to separate the alloy didymium into its two parts, for the first time. It had previously been believed to be an element. After 167 crystallizations, Auer von Welsbach differentiated it into two colored salts: he named the green colored salt "praseodymium" and the pink one "neodidymium". He announced his achievement to the Vienna Academy of Sciences on 18 June 1885. His achievement was approved by Bunsen, but met with considerable skepticism from others.

The name "neodidymium" is derived from the Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos (διδύμος), twin. The name praseodymium comes from the Greek prasinos (πράσινος), meaning "green". In naming both elements, and not leaving the original name didymium to the more-abundant component, Auer von Welsbach diverged from established practice, which was to give a new name only to the less-abundant component. Nonetheless, his name for the major fraction, neodidymium, after some modification, became the name of the element neodymium. Praseodymium was also accepted as the name of the minor fraction.

Lutetium and ytterbium
The rare earth element lutetium was independently discovered by three scientists at around the same time in 1907: French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian Auer von Welsbach, and American Charles James. All three were successful in separating the substance then known as ytterbium into two new fractions. To name the newly discovered fraction, Urbain suggested the name "lutecium", for the Roman city of Lutetia that preceded Paris. Auer von Welsbach suggested the name "cassiopeium". James' work was not yet published when the other's work appeared, and he did not involve himself in subsequent disputes. Lutetium, a slight modification of Urbain's name, was eventually accepted after a long battle between Urbain and Welsbach.

Gas mantle
On 23 September 1885, Auer von Welsbach received a patent on his development of the gas mantle, which he called Auerlicht, using a chemical mixture of 60% magnesium oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide and 20% yttrium oxide, which he called Actinophor. To produce a mantle, guncotton is impregnated with a mixture of Actinophor and then heated, the cotton eventually burns away, leaving a solid (albeit fragile) ash, which glows brightly when heated. These original mantles gave off a green-tinted light and were not very successful, and his first company formed to sell them failed in 1889.

In 1890 he introduced a new form of the mantle based on a mixture of 99% thorium dioxide and 1% cerium(IV) oxide, which he developed in collaboration with his colleague Ludwig Haitinger. These proved both more robust and having a much "whiter" light. Another company founded to produce the newer design was formed in 1891, working with fellow student from the university Ignaz Kreidl, and the device quickly spread throughout Europe.

In the United States this technique was adopted by The Coleman Company and became their logo for the company. In the 1980s it was reported that Thorium's radio-daughters (Decay products) could be volatilized and released into the air upon incandescence of the mantle. A lawsuit (Wagner v. Coleman) was brought against Coleman. The company changed its formulation to use non-radioactive materials, which apparently cost less and last longer.

Metal-filament light bulb
Auer von Welsbach then started work on development of metal-filament mantles, first with platinum wiring, and then osmium. Osmium is very difficult to work with, but he developed a new method, which mixed osmium oxide powder with rubber or sugar into a paste, which is then squeezed through a nozzle and fired. The paste burns away, leaving a fine wire of osmium.

Although originally intended to be a new mantle, it was during this period that electricity was being introduced into the market, and he started experimenting with ways to use the filaments as a replacement for the electric arc light. He worked on this until finally developing a workable technique in 1898 and started a new factory to produce his Auer-Oslight, which he introduced commercially in 1902. The metal-filament light bulb was a huge improvement on the existing carbon-filament designs, lasting much longer, using about half the electricity for the same amount of light, and being much more robust.

Lighting flint
In 1903 Auer von Welsbach won another patent for a fire striker ("flint") composition named ferrocerium. It takes its name from its two primary components: iron (from ferrum), and the rare-earth element cerium. It is also known in Europe as "Auermetall" after its inventor. Three different Auermetalls were developed: the first was iron and cerium, the second also included lanthanum to produce brighter sparks, and the third added other heavy metals. In Auer von Welsbach's first alloy, 30% iron (ferrum) was added to purified cerium, hence the name "ferro-cerium".

Welsbach's flints consisted of pyrophoric alloys, 70% cerium and 30% iron, which when scratched or struck would give off sparks. This system remains in wide use in cigarette lighters today. In 1907 he formed Treibacher Chemische Werke GesmbH to build and market the devices.

Radium research
For the rest of his life Auer von Welsbach turned again to "pure" chemistry. He worked largely on his estate at Welsbach Castle (Schloß Welsbach) near Treibach near Althofen. In addition to his work on elements and minerals, he made advances in the development of photographic techniques. He was also a devoted gardener, carefully supporting rare and difficult-to-grow plants in his garden, and breeding new varieties of roses and apple trees.

He published a number of papers on chemical separation and spectroscopy, working on radioactive elements as early as 1904. In 1910, one of his companies helped to establish Vienna as a center of radiation research by producing the first major quantity of radium chloride (3-4 grams) in Europe.

In 1910, Auer von Welsbach reported a "mysterious observation", the induction of radioactivity in an inactive substance when exposed to a radioactive substance. Based on his report, it is possible that he may have been the first to observe neutron activation.

Between 1907 and 1918, Auer von Welsbach focused on isolating preparations of actinium and  thorium as by-products of radium extraction. He kept up an active correspondence with physicist Stefan Meyer, managing director of the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, to discuss the extraction of actinium. Meyer and his staff do not appear to have had the chemical knowledge to understand Auer von Welsbach's methods, and Auer von Welsbach resigned around 1917.

During World War I, he had difficulty finding staff to carry out research. After the war, he was active in supporting the work of the institute, and other scientists. He presented a major paper on his spectroscopic work and the separation of radioactive elements in 1922. The following photographs show scientific equipment from Auer von Welsbach's laboratory, from "Spektroskopische Methoden der analytischen Chemie" (1922).

Commemoration
In 2008 (150 years after his birth), Auer von Welsbach was selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the Austrian €25 Fascination Light. The reverse has a partial portrait of Auer on the left-hand side. The sun shines in the middle of the green niobium pill, while several methods of illumination from the gas light from incandescent light bulbs and neon lamps to modern light-emitting diodes spread out around the silver ring.

He was also depicted on postage stamps of 1936, 1954 and 2012.

Awards and honors

 * 1900, Elliott Cresson Medal, The Franklin Institute Awards, Philadelphia, PA, USA
 * 1901, raised to the hereditary nobility by Franz Joseph I of Austria, with the title of Freiherr Auer von Welsbach
 * 1920, Werner von Siemens Ring
 * 1921, Wilhelm Exner Medal, inaugural awardee, Austrian Industry Association, Austria
 * 1988, the Welsbach Museum at Althofen was opened in April, 1998
 * 2011, National Inventors Hall of Fame, North Canton, Ohio, USA

title: Carl Auer von Welsbach


text:
USS Florida (BB-30)

USS Florida (BB-30) was the lead ship of the Florida-class battleship of dreadnought battleships of the United States Navy. She had one sister ship, USS Utah (BB-31). Florida was laid down at the New York Navy Yard in March 1909, launched in May 1910, and commissioned into the US Navy in September 1911. She was armed with a main battery of ten 12 in guns and was very similar in design to the preceding Delaware-class battleships.

Florida was one of the first ships to arrive during the United States occupation of Veracruz in early 1914, and part of her crew joined the landing party that occupied the city. She was assigned to United States Battleship Division 9 after the American entrance into World War I in April 1917; the division was sent to Europe to reinforce the British Grand Fleet. During the war, Florida and the rest of her unit, reassigned as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet, conducted patrols in the North Sea and escorted convoys to Norway. She saw no action against the German High Seas Fleet, however.

Florida returned to normal peacetime duties in 1919. She was heavily modernized in 1924–1926, including a complete overhaul of her propulsion system. She remained in service until 1930, when the London Naval Treaty was signed. Under the terms of the treaty, Florida and Utah were removed from active service. Therefore, Florida was decommissioned in 1931 and scrapped the next year in Philadelphia.

Design

Florida was 521 ft long overall and had a beam of 88 ft and a draft of 28 ft. She displaced 21825 LT as designed and up to 23033 LT at full load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28000 shp and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of 20.75 kn. The ship had a cruising range of 5776 nmi at a speed of 10 kn. She had a crew of 1,001 officers and men.

The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12 in/45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 8 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5 in/51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21 in torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.

Florida's main armored belt was 11 in thick, while the armored deck was 1.5 in thick. The gun turrets had 12 in thick faces and the conning tower had 11.5 in thick sides.

Service history
Florida was laid down at the New York Navy Yard on 9 March 1909. She was launched on 12 May 1910, and commissioned into the US Navy on 15 September 1911. She spent the next several months on training cruises in the Caribbean and off Maine, after which she moved to Hampton Roads to join the Atlantic Fleet. She arrived on 29 March 1912, and was made the flagship of the 1st Battleship Division (BatDiv). For the next two years, she participated in the normal routine of peacetime exercises with her division and squadron and with the entire Atlantic Fleet. She also conducted extensive gunnery training and took midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on midshipman training cruises.

In early 1914 during the Mexican Revolution, the United States intervened in the fighting and occupied Veracruz. Florida and her sister USS Utah (BB-31) were the first capital ships to arrive in Veracruz, on 16 February. These two ships and USS Prairie (AD-5) landed a total contingent of over a thousand marines and bluejackets to begin the occupation of the city on 21 April. Over the next three days, the marines battled Mexican defenders in the city and suffered ninety-four casualties (19 dead), while killing hundreds of Mexicans in return. Twenty-five men from Florida's crew received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle. In July, Florida departed Mexican waters to return to normal fleet operations, and in October, she was reassigned to the 2nd Battleship Division.

World War I
On 6 April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany over its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. Florida participated in wartime readiness exercises in 1917, before steaming across the Atlantic with Battleship Division 9. The division, which consisted of Florida, USS New York (BB-34), USS Wyoming (BB-32), and USS Delaware (BB-28), left the United States on 25 November. The division was sent to European waters to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea. After arriving in Scapa Flow, Battleship Division 9 became the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet.

Starting in late 1917, the Germans had begun to use surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia; this forced the British to send squadrons from the Grand Fleet to escort the convoys. On 6 February 1918, the 6th Battle Squadron and eight British destroyers escorted a convoy of merchant ships to Norway. While on the operation, Florida's lookouts reported spotting a U-boat, though the commander of Wyoming later argued that this and others issued by the rest of the squadron were false reports. The squadron was back in Scapa Flow on 10 February; Delaware escorted two more such convoys in March and April. During the March convoy, Florida, Wyoming, USS Texas (BB-35), and four destroyers became separated from the convoy in heavy fog, and only relocated it the following morning when the fog had lifted. The squadron returned to Scapa Flow on 13 March.

On 22–24 April, the German High Seas Fleet sortied to intercept one of the convoys in the hope of cutting off and destroying the escorting battleship squadron. Florida and the rest of the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow on 24 April in an attempt to intercept the Germans, but the High Seas Fleet had already broken off the operation and was on its way back to port. On 30 June, the 6th Squadron was cruising in the North Sea in support of a mine-laying operation; while on patrol, Florida and several other ships fired on what they incorrectly believed to be U-boat wakes. By early November, the Spanish Flu pandemic had spread to the Grand Fleet; Florida was the only ship of the American contingent not to be quarantined for the virus. On 20 November, Florida and the rest of the Grand Fleet rendezvoused with the High Seas Fleet, which was then interned in Scapa Flow, following the Armistice with Germany that ended the war. Shortly thereafter, Florida was replaced with the newly commissioned USS Nevada (BB-36).

Florida then joined the passenger ship SS George Washington on 12 December, which was carrying President Woodrow Wilson on his way to France to participate in the peace negotiations. The ships arrived in Brest, France on 13 December, after which Florida returned to the United States. She was present during the Victory Naval Review in the North River in New York City at the end of December.

Inter-War Period
Florida returned to normal peacetime duties in January 1919, when she arrived in Norfolk on the 4th. She steamed to the Azores to take weather observations for Navy seaplanes that were to make the first aerial crossing the Atlantic. In August 1920, Florida was present during the 300th anniversary of the Pilgrims' landing at Provincetown, Massachusetts. In December 1920, she made a good-will cruise to South America with US Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby aboard and over the next three years conducted amphibious operation training with the Marine Corps in the Caribbean. Florida also participated in the normal routine of exercises and midshipman cruises. During this period, she was made the flagship of the Commander, Control Force, US Fleet.

In early 1924, Florida took part in the Fleet Problem III maneuvers, where she and her sister Utah acted as stand-ins for the new Colorado-class battleships. In June 1924, Florida was taken out of service for a modernization at the Boston Navy Yard, which lasted from 1 April 1925 to 1 November 1926. During the reconstruction, her deck armor was strengthened and anti-torpedo blisters were installed to increase her resistance to underwater damage. Her secondary battery was rearranged to improve its efficiency, and four of her 5-inch guns, which were mounted in sponsons, were removed. She was also reboilered with four White-Forster oil-fired models that had been removed from the battleships and battlecruisers scrapped as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty. Her Parsons turbines were replaced with new Curtis geared turbines and her two funnels were trunked into one stack. The rear lattice mast was replaced with a pole mast, which was moved further aft. Her two submerged torpedo tubes were also removed.

Florida remained in service for a few years in her modernized form, and participated in joint Army-Navy coast defense exercises in June 1928. Under the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, however, which reduced the battle fleets of the signatory countries, she was to be disposed of. She was decommissioned accordingly on 16 February 1931 at the Philadelphia Naval Yard, struck from the naval register on 6 April, and was broken up in Philadelphia later that year. Demolition work was completed by 30 September 1932. The one-ton ship's bell was saved and transported to the University of Florida in Gainesville, where it was first installed in a clock atop a classroom building. The clock was removed in the early 1950s and the bell was put in storage. In 1960, it was installed atop the stands in the north end zone at Florida Field, where it was traditionally rung by either cheerleaders or fans at the conclusion of a victory by the Florida Gator football team. As the stadium underwent successive expansions and renovations, the bell was moved to a location under the north end zone concourse and then was removed from the stadium in 1992. It has been restored and is now housed in the lobby of the Museum of Florida History.

title: USS Florida (BB-30)


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Papal coronation

A papal coronation is the formal ceremony of the placing of the papal tiara on a newly elected pope. The first recorded papal coronation was of Pope Nicholas I in 858. The most recent was the 1963 coronation of Paul VI, who soon afterwards abandoned the practice of wearing the tiara. To date, none of his successors have used the tiara, and their papal inauguration celebrations have included no coronation ceremony, although any future pope may elect to restore the use of the tiara at any point during his pontificate.

The papal inauguration celebration, with or without a coronation, has only symbolic significance, as a pope assumes office immediately on giving his consent to a valid election.

In Spanish, the term La Coronación Pontificia (English: "Pontifical Coronation") is sometimes used for the canonical coronation of religious images through a formal, expressed Pontifical decree by a reigning pope.

Ritual
When a conclave elects a new pope, he assumes all of the rights and authority of the papacy immediately upon his acceptance of election; however, popes traditionally numbered their regnal years from the date of their coronation. If a newly elected pope is not a bishop, he is consecrated at once. In accordance with tradition, the right of consecration belongs to the dean of the College of Cardinals, in his absence to the subdean, and in the absence of both of these to the senior cardinal bishop. If the new pope is already a bishop, as is normally the case, his election is announced immediately to the people gathered in Saint Peter's Square and he gives them his blessing.

The episcopal enthronement of the pope takes place in his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. This ceremony was once combined with the coronation. During the Avignon papacy, the pope, being in France, could not be enthroned in his cathedral in Rome. The coronations continued, while enthronements had to await a return to Rome. When Gregory XI did return to Rome, the Lateran Palace was badly in need of repair, so the popes made the Vatican their residence and transferred coronations to Saint Peter's Basilica. The Lateran Basilica remains the cathedral of Rome, and the enthronement occurs there. During the "prisoner in the Vatican" period, the enthronement did not take place.

Coronation Mass
The coronation took place on the first Sunday or Holy Day following the election. It began with a solemn Papal Mass. During the chanting of Terce, he sat on a throne and all of the cardinals made what was called their "first obeisance" to him, approaching one by one and kissing his hand. Then the archbishops and bishops approached and kissed his feet.

Following this, at least from the beginning of the 16th century, the newly elected pope was carried in state through St. Peter's Basilica on the sedia gestatoria under a white canopy, with the papal flabella (ceremonial fans) to either side. Instead of the papal tiara, he wore a jewelled mitre (the episcopal mitra pretiosa). Three times, the procession was stopped, and a bundle of flax lashed to a gilded staff was burnt before the newly elected pontiff, while a master of ceremonies said: Pater Sancte, sic transit gloria mundi (Holy Father, thus passes the glory of the world) as a symbolic reminder to set aside materialism and vanity. Once at the high altar, he would begin to celebrate Solemn High Mass with full papal ceremonial.

After the Confiteor, the pope was seated on the sedia gestatoria, which was resting on the ground, and the three senior cardinal bishops approached him wearing mitres. Each in turn placed his hands above him and said the prayer, Super electum Pontificem (over the elected pope). First the Cardinal Bishop of Albano said:"God, who are present without distinction whenever the devout mind invokes you, be present, we ask you, we and this your servant, __, who to the summit of the apostolic community has been chosen as the judge of your people, infuse with the highest blessings that he experience your gift who has reached this point."

Then the Cardinal Bishop of Porto said:"We supplicate you, Almighty God, effect your customary devotion and pour out on this your servant, __, the grace of the Holy Spirit that he who is constituted at the head of our church as the servant of the mystery, you would strengthen with the fullness of virtue."

Finally the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia said:"God, who willed your Apostle Peter to hold first place in the inner fellowship of the apostles, that universal Christianity overcome evil, look propitiously we ask on this your servant, __, who from a humble position has suddenly been enthroned with the apostles on this same principal sublimity, that just as he has been raised to this exalted dignity, so may he likewise merit to accumulate virtue; in bearing the burden of the universal church, help him, make him worthy and for thee who are blessed may merits replace vices."

Then, the senior cardinal deacon placed the pallium on his shoulders saying: "Accept the pallium, representing the plenitude of the Pontifical office, to the honour of Almighty God, and the most glorious Virgin Mary, his Mother, and the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and the Holy Roman Church."

In the 11th and 12th centuries, the immantatio, or bestowal of the mantum (a papal vestment consisting of a very long red cope fastened with an elaborate morse) on the newly elected pope was regarded as especially symbolic of investiture with papal authority, and was conferred with the words: "I invest thee with the Roman papacy, that thou rule over the city and the world."

After the investiture with the pallium, the pope incensed the high altar and then went to the throne, placed on the choir side, between the Altar of the Confession and the Altar of the Chair, and there, during the singing of the Kyrie, he received again the obeisance of the cardinals, archbishops and bishops. Then the Mass continued. After the Gloria in excelsis and the Pax vobis, the pope said the Collect for the day and then secretly a prayer for himself. After the pope had returned again to his seat the Papal Laudes were chanted:

As with all Papal High Masses, the Epistle and the Gospel were read in both Greek and Latin and the pope communicated at his throne.

Coronation
After the Mass, the new pope was crowned with the papal tiara. This frequently took place on the balcony of St. Peter's Basilica, overlooking the crowds gathered in St. Peter's Square. The pope was seated on a throne with the flabella to either side of him. After the Dean of the College of Cardinals recited a few prayers, including the Lord's Prayer and a collect, the senior cardinal deacon, the protodeacon, removed the pope's mitre and placed the tiara on his head with the words:

"Accipe tiaram tribus coronis ornatam, et scias te esse patrem principum et regum, rectorem orbis in terra vicarium Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, cui est honor et gloria in saecula saeculorum. Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns, and know that you are the father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world, the vicar of our Savior Jesus Christ on earth, to whom be all honor and glory, world without end."

Following his coronation, the pope imparted the solemn papal blessing Urbi et Orbi. Following 1929, the new pope would have received a salute by a guard of honour of the Italian Armed Forces and the Swiss Guards together with the Noble Guard, as military bands play the Pontifical Anthem and Il Canto degli Italiani (until 1946 the Marcia Reale and S'hymnu sardu nationale).

Taking possession of the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome
The last act of the inauguration of a new pope is still the formal taking possession (possessio) of his cathedra as Bishop of Rome in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. This is the final ceremony mentioned in Pope John Paul II's Apostolic Constitution on the vacancy of the Apostolic See and the election of the Roman pontiff. The pope is enthroned in the same manner as other bishops. He is solemnly conducted to the episcopal throne, and takes possession by seating himself on it. He receives the kiss of peace and listens to the reading of a passage of Holy Scripture, whereupon he pronounces an address that used to be called the sermo inthronisticus.

In ancient times, the letters that the pope sent to the patriarchs in token of being in communion with them in the same faith were called litterae inthronisticae or syllabai enthronistikai.

Location of the ceremony
The earliest papal coronations took place in St. John Lateran, the pope's cathedral. However, for hundreds of years papal coronations have traditionally taken place in the environs of St. Peter's Basilica, though a number of coronations took place in Avignon, during the Avignon papacy. Earlier, Pope Celestine V was twice crowned in L'Aquila. In 1800 Pope Pius VII was crowned in the crowded church of the Benedictine island monastery of San Giorgio, Venice, after his late predecessor, Pope Pius VI, had been forced into temporary exile during Napoleon Bonaparte's capture of Rome. Since the French seized the tiara along with the previous pope, he was crowned with a papier-mâché tiara, for which the ladies of Venice gave up their jewels.

All coronations after 1800 took place in Rome. Leo XIII was crowned in the Sistine Chapel, due to fears that anti-clerical mobs, inspired by Italian unification, might attack the Basilica and disrupt the ceremony. Benedict XV was also crowned in the chapel in 1914. Pius XI was crowned at the dais in front of the High Altar in St. Peter's Basilica. Popes Pius IX, Pius XII, and John XXIII all were crowned in public on the balcony of the basilica, facing crowds assembled below in St. Peter's Square. Paul VI was crowned in front of St Peter's on a special dais with the entire coronation ceremony outdoors, as St Peter's was filled with special seating for the Vatican Council sessions.

Pius XII's 1939 coronation broke new ground by being the first to be filmed and the first to be broadcast live on radio. The ceremony, which lasted for six hours, was attended by leading dignitaries; these included the heir to the Italian throne, the Prince of Piedmont, former kings Ferdinand I of Bulgaria and Alfonso XIII of Spain, the 16th Duke of Norfolk (representing King George VI of the United Kingdom), and the Irish Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, the last two being in evening dress (white tie and tails).

Paul VI and the coronation
The last pope to be crowned was Pope Paul VI. He decided to cease wearing a papal tiara and laid his own on the altar of St. Peter's Basilica in a gesture of "humility." His 1975 apostolic constitution, Romano Pontifici Eligendo prescribed that "the new pontiff is to be crowned by the senior cardinal deacon".

His successor, Pope John Paul I, opted not to be crowned and to have instead a less elaborate "solemn Mass to mark the start of his ministry as Supreme Pastor" in September 1978.

John Paul II and the coronation
After John Paul I's sudden death following a thirty-three-day reign, the new pope, John Paul II, opted to copy his predecessor's ceremony without coronation. In his homily at his inauguration Mass, he said that Paul VI had "left his successors free to decide" whether to wear the papal tiara. He went on: "Pope John Paul I, whose memory is so vivid in our hearts, did not wish to have the tiara; nor does his Successor wish it today. This is not the time to return to a ceremony and an object considered, wrongly, to be a symbol of the temporal power of the Popes."

John Paul II's 1996 Apostolic Constitution, Universi Dominici gregis, now in force, does not specify the form that the "solemn ceremony of the inauguration of the pontificate" of a new pope should take, whether with or without a coronation.

A number of papal tiaras are available for a future pope to use.

title: Papal coronation


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USS Louisiana (BB-19)

USS Louisiana (BB-19) was a Connecticut-class battleship of the United States Navy. She was the second member of the class of six pre-dreadnought battleships, and the third ship to carry her name. Louisiana was laid down in February 1903, launched in August 1904, and commissioned in June 1906. She was a 16000 LT battleship capable of 19 kn. Her main armament consisted of four 12 in guns supported by a mixed secondary battery of 7 in and 8 in guns.

Louisiana primarily operated along the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean during her career. In 1908–1909, she took part in the world cruise of the Great White Fleet. A pair of trips to European waters took place in 1910 and 1911. From 1913, she began to become involved in the Mexican Revolution, as the US Navy began to send ships to protect American interests in the country. This activity culminated in the US occupation of Veracruz in April 1914. During World War I, Louisiana was employed as a training ship before serving as a convoy escort in late 1918. After the war ended that year, she was used to ferry American soldiers back from France. With this work completed, she was decommissioned in October 1920 and broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1923.

Design
The Connecticut-class battleship followed the Virginia-class battleships, but corrected some of the most significant deficiencies in the earlier design, most notably the superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns. A heavier tertiary battery of 7 in guns replaced the 6 in guns that had been used on all previous US designs. Despite the improvements, the ships were rendered obsolescent by the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought (1906), completed before most of the members of the Connecticut class.

Louisiana was 456.3 ft long overall and had a beam of 76.9 ft and a draft of 24.5 ft. She displaced 16000 LT as designed and up to 17666 LT at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16500 ihp, with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers ducted into three funnels. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 18 kn. As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909. She had a crew of 827 officers and enlisted men, though this increased to 881 and later to 896.

The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch /45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 inch /45 guns and twelve 7 in /45 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty 3 in /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried four 37 mm 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Louisiana carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.

Louisiana's main armored belt was 11 in thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 6 in elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 12 in thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had 10 in of armor plating. The secondary turrets had 7 in of frontal armor. The conning tower had 9 in thick sides.

Early career and the Great White Fleet

The keel for Louisiana was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in Newport News, Virginia on 7 February 1903. Her completed hull was launched on 27 August 1904, and she was commissioned into the fleet on 2 June 1906. The ship then conducted a shakedown cruise off the coast of New England before being ordered to Cuba. She left the United States on 15 September with Secretary of War William Howard Taft and Assistant Secretary of State Robert Bacon aboard; they were requested as a peace commission by Cuban President Tomás Estrada Palma to suppress an insurrection in the country. Taft and Bacon helped to create a provisional government, during which time Louisiana remained in Cuba. After their work was completed, Taft and Bacon returned to the ship, which took them back to Fortress Monroe, Virginia.

On 8 November, Louisiana carried President Theodore Roosevelt from Piney Point, Maryland to Panama, where the Panama Canal was being built. After inspecting the progress of construction, Roosevelt boarded Louisiana and made a visit to Puerto Rico to examine the new government building there before continuing on to Piney Point, arriving on 26 November. Over the course of the following year, the ship made a series of cruises to American ports, including New Orleans and Norfolk, and visits to Havana and Guantánamo Bay in Cuba. During this period, she also took part in training exercises off New England.

Louisiana joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907, when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland.

After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46729 nmi. There, they conducted a naval review for Theodore Roosevelt.

1910–1923

Louisiana underwent an extensive overhaul after returning from the voyage, after which she conducted training maneuvers in the Atlantic. Captain Washington Irving Chambers took command of the ship on 1 June. On 1 November 1910, she was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Atlantic Fleet, which crossed the Atlantic to visit British and French cities. A second trip to Europe followed in 1911, this time to the Baltic Sea. There, the ships stopped in Copenhagen, Denmark, Trälhavet, Sweden, Kronstadt, Russia, and Kiel, Germany. They were inspected by the monarchs of each country. The worsening unrest of the Mexican Revolution led the United States to begin intervening in the conflict to protect American interests; in support of these interventions, Louisiana made three trips to Mexico between July 1913 and September 1915. The first lasted from 6 July to 29 December 1913. The second, from 14 April to 8 August 1914, supported the United States occupation of Veracruz. The third deployment lasted from 17 August to 24 September 1915.

After returning from the last operation, Louisiana was reduced to reserve status at Norfolk and employed as a training ship for midshipmen and naval militia units. Following the United States' declaration of war on Germany on 6 April 1917, Louisiana was used to train gunners and engine room personnel. During this period, she was involved in a gunnery accident. During training on 1 June 1918, the crews for three of the 7-inch guns aboard the battleship USS New Hampshire (BB-25) accidentally began firing at one of the submarine chasers present; they fired several salvos before they received the order to cease fire. One of the shells struck Louisiana, killing one man and wounding several more. The ship was thereafter used to examine one of Arthur Pollen's Argo Clocks, a fire control system that incorporated the first mechanical analog computer. The system was installed starting on 19 June, with work being completed by 1 July.

In September 1918, she was reassigned as a convoy escort; her first operation covered a convoy to Halifax on the 25th of the month. This duty did not last long, as the Germans signed the Armistice that ended the war on 11 November. Louisiana was then used to transport American soldiers back from France, starting on 24 December. The first trip was made in company with New Hampshire, and arrived in Brest, France on 5 January 1919. Between the two of them, they carried 2,169 men back to the United States. She made three additional trips to Brest in this role. After this task ended, she was transferred to the Philadelphia Navy Yard, where she was decommissioned on 20 October 1920. The ship was eventually sold for scrap on 1 November 1923.

title: USS Louisiana (BB-19)


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Volkswagen Scirocco

The Volkswagen Scirocco is a three-door, front-engine, front-wheel-drive, sport compact hatchback manufactured and marketed by Volkswagen in two generations from 1974 to 1992 and a third generation from 2008 until 2017. Production ended without a successor.

The Scirocco derives its name from the Mediterranean wind.

First generation (1974)
Volkswagen began work on the car during the early 1970s as the replacement for the aging Karmann Ghia coupe, and designated it the Typ 53 internally. Although the platform of the Golf was used to underpin the new Scirocco, almost every part of the car was re-engineered in favour of a new styling (penned by Giorgetto Giugiaro) which was sleeker and sportier than that of the Golf. The Scirocco debuted at the 1973 Geneva Motor Show.

Launched six months before the Golf, in order to resolve any teething troubles before production of the high volume hatchback started, the Scirocco went on sale in Europe in 1974 and in North America in 1975. Type 1 models featured a range of four-cylinder engines with displacements from 1.1 to 1.6 litres, with a 1.7 also offered in North America, all featuring a single-overhead camshaft and two valves per cylinder.

The design of the vehicle combined with the lack of D.O.T.-approved rectangular headlights, made it necessary to have four round headlights, two for low beam use all four for high beam use for all the cars imported to the US. Many European owners of Scirocco with smaller engines replaced the two rectangular headlights with four round headlights as to eliminate the differentiation between smaller and less powerful engines and larger and more powerful ones. However, the European "TS" version, for which maximum power was listed as 85 PS, was easily distinguishable from the less powerful "L" and "S" (50 and 70 PS) versions which came with just two rectangular headlights. An automatic transmission option was added in January 1975. Automatic transmission-equipped Sciroccos were generally rare outside of North America. The Scirocco GTi entered production in the summer of 1976, while the later cult Golf GTI wasn't unveiled until the autumn of the same year. Its high-revving, 81 kW / 110 horsepower 1.6-litre engine featured mechanical fuel injection, 175/70HR13 tires on 5.5Jx13 wheels, a larger duckbill style front spoiler, a red frame for the grille, and the standard car's solid front brake discs were replaced with 9.4 in (239 mm) ventilated discs. Anti-roll bars were also fitted front and rear. During the production of the "Type 53", there were subtle changes to the body and trim. On cars produced after the summer break in August 1975 (for the 1976 model year), the conventional two wiper system changed to a single wiper which parks on the passenger side of the windscreen, while the driver also benefited from improved, lighter, steering linkage. However, air conditioning became available as an option on the domestic market in August 1975. The possibility to retrofit the installation, together with a larger battery, was offered to existing owners. In August 1977 (for model year 1978) the separate front side marker and turn signal, changed to a combination wrap-around orange lens. At the same time, behind the doors the B-pillar colour changed from body colour to black, which was thought to give the car a more pleasing profile. Other mid-life changes include the move from chrome bumpers with rubberised end caps to a plastic-coated one-piece wrap around bumper. In 1979, the one-piece "flag" style outside mirrors transitioned to a two-piece shrouded mirror. The car changed little before being replaced by the second generation in March 1981 (Europe).

There were also special variants throughout the Type 1 production. Most distinguishable by paint schemes and trim, there were special versions called "Sidewinder", "Sidewinder II", "Champagne Edition", "Champagne Edition II" and the "S". The Champagne Edition II only came in white with black accents and a Zender front spoiler. On the NA models the 1980 "S" versions came in only three colours, Alpine White, Black and Mars Red with unique colour accents. This "S" model differed from the base model by having blacked out chrome trim, day glow additions to the exterior trim, Recaro designed sports seats, white letter tires, sport strips and a standard five-speed transmission. This was followed by the 1981 "S" versions which only came in Cosmos Silver Metallic, Cirrus Gray Metallic and Mars Red without the colour accents. Steel sunroofs were an available option on both the "S" non-"S" vehicles. Unlike the sunroofs on the second-generation Sciroccos introduced in 1982, these earlier versions only tilted open. They did not slide back but could be removed and stored in a special fabric folder and placed in the trunk hatch. Not forgetting the addition of the "Storm" models, available in two colours with a run of 250 cars in each colour.

Japan
The Scirocco was sold in Japan at Yanase dealerships that specialize in North American and European vehicles with right hand drive starting in 1976, initially offering the TS trim package with the 1.5-liter engine and a 4-speed manual transmission. In 1977, the GTE and LS were offered with the 1.5-liter engine and the fuel injection technology from Bosch. The GTE was available with either the 4-speed manual transmission or the 3-speed automatic, while the LS offered the automatic only.

North America
The 1975-1978 model year USA vehicles had four-speed manual transmissions; for the 1979-1980 model years, USA vehicles were offered a five-speed manual transmissions as an option. In 1981 the five-speed became standard. The engine option was mostly limited to one, although it changed frequently over the years. The 1975 models are 1.5 L (1471 cc), followed by a larger 1.6 with 76 hp in 1976 and 1977. For 1978 Volkswagen reverted to a short-stroke 1.5 (now of 1457 cc), stating that this made meeting emissions requirements easier. Power dropped accordingly, down to 71 hp but with some fuel economy improvements. Buyers demanded otherwise and for 1979 the 1.6 (1588 cc) was reinstated, now with power up somewhat to 78 hp. 1981 USA models had a standard 1.7 (1,715 cc), all featuring a single-overhead camshaft and two valves per cylinder.

Second generation (1981)
A heavily redesigned "Type 2" variant (internally designated Typ 53B) went on sale in 1981, although it remained on the A1 platform. The second generation Scirocco, still assembled on behalf of Volkswagen by Karmann of Osnabrück (in the same factory as the first generation Scirocco), was first shown at the 1981 Geneva Motor Show in March that year. Designed by Volkswagen's own internal design team, the new car featured increased front and rear headroom, increased luggage space and a reduction in the coefficient of drag. One feature of the Type 2 was the location of the rear spoiler midway up the glass on the rear hatch. A mid-cycle update occurred in 1984, which included minor changes over the 1982 model: removal of the outlined " SCIROCCO " script from the rear hatch (below the spoiler), a redesigned air conditioning compressor, and a different brake master cylinder with in-line proportioning valves and a brake light switch mounted to the pedal instead of on the master cylinder.

Halfway through the 1984 model year, a new space-saver spare wheel was added, that provided room for a larger fuel tank (with a second "transfer" fuel pump). Leather interior, power windows and mirrors, air conditioning, and a manual sunroof were options for all years. The 1984 model year saw the return of two windshield wipers (vs the large single wiper), absent since the 1976 models.

Eleven different engines were offered in the Type 2 Scirocco over the production run, although not all engines were available in all markets. These engines included both carburetor and fuel injection engines. Initially all models had eight-valve engines. A 16-valve head was developed by tuner Oettinger in 1981, with the modification adopted by Volkswagen when they showed a multi-valve Scirocco at the 1983 Frankfurt Motor Show. It went on sale in Germany and a few other markets in July 1985, with a catalyzed model arriving in 1986. Displacements ranged from 1.3 liters up to 1.8 liters. Power ranged from 44 kW (60 PS) to 82 kW (112 PS) for the 8-valve engines and either 95 kW (129 PS) or 102 kW (139 PS) for the 16-valve engines.

Numerous trim levels existed, depending on the model year and market, and included the L, CL, GL, LS, GLS, GLI, GT, GTI, GTL, GTS, GTX, GT II, Scala, GT 16V and GTX 16V. Special limited edition models including the California Edition (1983, USA), Storm (1984, UK), White Cat (1985, Europe), Tropic (1986, Europe), Wolfsburg Edition (1983–1985, USA and Canada) and Slegato (1988, Canada) were also produced. These special models typically featured unique interior/exterior color combinations, special alloy wheels and had special combinations of options such as leather, multifunction trip computer and/or power windows as standard.

Scirocco sales continued until 1992 in Germany, the UK, and some other European markets. The Scirocco was briefly joined but effectively replaced by the Corrado in the VW line-up, although this had been on sale since 1988 and was aimed further upmarket.

The Scirocco continued to be offered to Japanese buyers, but only the GTi with the 1.8 L engine in either manual or automatic transmissions, but starting with 1986 only the automatic transmission was offered. It did continue to comply with Japanese Government dimension regulations.

North America
Specifications in North America are somewhat different from those of cars sold in the rest of the world, due to the differing safety and emissions regulations in place there. In North America, 1982 and 1983 models produce 74 hp and 90 ft.lbf of torque. The engine code was EN. The 1984 models produce 90 hp and 100 ft.lbf of torque, the engine code was JH. In mid-1986, a 16-valve model was released in the United States and Canada, which included a full body skirt, larger rear spoiler, and tear-drop shaped wheel slots to distinguish it from Type 2 8-valve models. Sales continued until 1988 in the United States, 1989 in Canada, being effectively replaced in both markets by the more expensive Corrado.

Third generation (2008)
Volkswagen officially announced in June 2006 production of a new Scirocco model at the Autoeuropa assembly plant in Palmela, Portugal.

The new model, identified by the internal type numbers 137 or 1K8, is based on the PQ35 platform of the Golf V and was unveiled at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. It went on sale in summer 2008 in Europe, with sales in other countries beginning early 2009. The Type 3 Scirocco won "Car of the Year 2008" from Top Gear Magazine.

The 2008 model of the Scirocco received a five star safety rating from Euro NCAP even after the driver test dummy's head hit the steering wheel when the airbag bottomed out. The model tested was a left-hand-drive three-door hatchback and scored in four areas:
 * Adult Occupant, 31 points.
 * Child Occupant, 36 points.
 * Pedestrian, 19 points.
 * Safety Assist, 5 points.

Scirocco R-line (2011–2017)
In 2011, Volkswagen added the R-line trim for all engine versions of the car. It included new front and back bumpers, side skirts on the exterior, and seats with grey Alcantara, R-line badges on the backs of the seats, driving wheel and on the doorsteps inside the car.

Scirocco R (2009–2017)
The Scirocco R is a production model based on the GT24. Its 1984 cc TSI inline-four engine is rated at 265 PS at 6,000 rpm and 350 Nm of torque at 2,500 rpm, large air intake openings in the front bumper, an integrated front spoiler, bi-xenon headlights, larger rear roof edge spoiler, black diffuser, dual exhaust with chrome tailpipes, Talladega 19-inch alloy wheels. In September 2014 the R model had a face lift on the styling of the car and a power increase taking it to 276 hp.

UK models went on sale in 2009.

Facelift
Six years after its launch in 2008, Volkswagen revealed the 2014 Scirocco facelift at the Geneva Motor Show. On the outside the changes weren't obvious as Volkswagen installed only a slightly re-profiled bumper, new bi-xenon headlights with LED daytime running lights and they also tweaked the grille. At the back there were restyled LED taillights, along with a reworked bumper and boot lid. The changes carried over onto the range-topping Scirocco R as well.

Scirocco GTS (2015–2017)
Volkswagen unveiled the Scirocco GTS, featuring the same engine found in the Mk7 Golf GTI.

Engines
All models include standard six-speed manual transmission. The 1.4 TSI (162 PS) can optionally be fitted with a seven-speed DSG transmission, while the 2.0 TSI 200, 2.0 TSI 210, R 2.0 TSI 265 and 2.0 TDI are available with a six-speed DSG transmission. The EA888 2.0 TSI uses an IHI K03 water-cooled turbocharger incorporated in exhaust manifold, while a BorgWarner turbocharger is used in EA113 2.0 TSI versions.

The 140 bhp 2.0 TDI engine is also provided with the BlueMotion Technology package. This package features stop start technology and regenerative braking to reduce emissions to 118 g/km.

Motorsports
In the 24 Hours Nürburgring in May 2008, three new Volkswagen Sciroccos competed, finishing 11th and 15th out of a field of over 200 cars, with veteran Hans-Joachim Stuck driving both cars (and Carlos Sainz the slower one). The direct competitors, two Opel Astra H GTC driven by drivers selected from 18,000 hopefuls in a year-long TV covered process, were beaten decisively. In the 2012 edition of the Scandinavian Touring Car Championship Johan Kristoffersson won the championship for Volkswagen Team Biogas in a Scirocco.

Absence of a North American version
In April 2007, Volkswagen America vice president Adrian Hallmark claimed that Volkswagen preferred not to bring the Scirocco to North America since it could negatively affect Golf GTI sales. It was later stated that the final decision would be made in 2008 by Martin Winterkorn (Volkswagen's CEO), not Volkswagen of America.

In early March 2008, MotorAuthority reported that, due to the increasing gap between the United States dollar and the euro, the Scirocco would not be made available for American consumers. "This car would fit the U.S. market but at the current exchange rate we wouldn't make any money," Volkswagen sales and marketing chief Detlef Wittig told Bloomberg reporters.

IROC concept (2006)
A concept car previewing the then upcoming Scirocco III was unveiled at the 2006 Paris Motor Show. Named IROC, from the middle four letters of "Scirocco", it used a 200 hp TSI engine.

Scirocco GT24 (2008–)
The Scirocco GT24 is a race car for the 24-hour race at the Nürburgring. It has a 2.0 L TSI engine rated at 325 PS and 340 Nm at 2,100 rpm as well as a DSG transmission.

The GT24 was unveiled at the GTI Meet 2008 in Wörthersee.

Scirocco Studie R (2008)
The Studie R is a concept car based on the Scirocco GT24, after Volkswagen had cancelled the production of the Scirocco R32. It has a 2.0 L TSI engine rated at 270 PS, six-speed dual clutch transmission, four-piston brake calipers and a sound-optimized exhaust system with oval tailpipes.

The Studie R was unveiled at the Bologna Motor Show.

Future
In 2017, Volkswagen's Chief Development Officer Dr. Frank Welsch stated that Volkswagen was contemplating options for a new small coupé, and wasn't clear on how they would approach a new Scirocco, and the possibility of a MEB-based concept. Welsch said that if the Scirocco name was to be used again, it would only be for a sporty 2-door coupe, and would not have a drastically different design from previous Sciroccos. In 2020, when asked if a new Scirocco was planned, board member Thomas Ulbrich answered "I don't think so", and that they were in no rush to release a new coupé.

title: Volkswagen Scirocco


text:
USS Alabama (BB-8)

USS Alabama (BB-8) was an Illinois-class battleship pre-dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy. She was the second ship of her class, and the second to carry her name. Her keel was laid down in December 1896 at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard, and she was launched in May 1898. She was commissioned into the fleet in October 1900. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in guns and she had a top speed of 16 kn.

Alabama spent the first seven years of her career in the North Atlantic Fleet conducting peacetime training. In 1904, she made a visit to Europe and toured the Mediterranean. She took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet until damage to her machinery forced her to leave the cruise in San Francisco. She instead completed a shorter circumnavigation in company with the battleship USS Maine (BB-10). The ship received an extensive modernization from 1909 to 1912, after which she was used as a training ship in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She continued in this role during World War I. After the war, Alabama was stricken from the naval register and allocated to bombing tests that were conducted in September 1921. She was sunk in the tests by US Army Air Service bombers and later sold for scrap in March 1924.

Description
Design work on the Illinois-class battleship of pre-dreadnought battleships began in 1896, at which time the United States Navy had few modern battleships in service. Initial debate over whether to build a new low-freeboard design like the Indiana-class battleships in service or a higher-freeboard vessel like USS Iowa (BB-4) (then under construction) led to a decision to adopt the latter type. The mixed secondary armament of 6 and 8 in guns of previous classes was standardized to just 6-inch weapons to save weight and simplify ammunition supplies. Another major change was the introduction of modern, balanced turrets with sloped faces instead of the older "Monitor"-style turrets of earlier American battleships.

Alabama was 374 ft long overall and had a beam of 72 ft and a draft of 23 ft. She displaced 11565 LT as designed and up to 12250 LT at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 10000 ihp, driving two screw propellers. Steam was provided by eight coal-fired fire-tube boilers, which were ducted into a pair of funnels placed side by side. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 16 kn. As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909. She had a crew of 536 officers and enlisted men, which increased to 690–713.

The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in/35 caliber guns in two twin-gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in/40 caliber Mark IV guns, which were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried sixteen 6-pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Alabama carried four 18 in torpedo tubes in deck mounted launchers.

Alabama's main armored belt was 16.5 in thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 4 in elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 14 in thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had 15 in of armor plating on their exposed sides. Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery. The conning tower had 10 in thick sides.

Construction – 1911
Alabama was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 2 December 1896 and was launched on 18 May 1898. She was commissioned on 16 October 1900, the first member of her class to enter service. The ship's first commander was Captain Willard H. Brownson. Alabama was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron, though she remained at Philadelphia until 13 December, when she made a visit to New York, where she remained through January 1901. On the 27th, Alabama steamed south for the Gulf of Mexico, where she joined the rest of the North Atlantic Squadron for training exercises off Pensacola, Florida. In August 1901, while the North Atlantic Squadron conducted target practice off of Nantucket Island, Alabama experienced an outbreak of mumps and was placed in quarantine, unable to participate.

For the next six years, she followed a pattern of fleet training in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean during the winter, followed by repairs and then operations off the east coast of the United States from the middle of the year onward. The only interruption came in 1904, when she, the battleships USS Kearsarge (BB-5), USS Maine (BB-10), and Iowa, and the protected cruisers USS Olympia (C-6), USS Baltimore (C-3), and USS Cleveland (C-19) made a visit to southern Europe. During the trip, they stopped in Lisbon, Portugal, before touring the Mediterranean until mid-August. They then recrossed the Atlantic, stopping in the Azores while en route, and arrived in Newport, Rhode Island on 29 August. Toward the end of September, Alabama went into dry dock at the League Island Navy Yard for repairs, which were completed by early December. On 31 July 1906, the ship was involved in a collision with her sister USS Illinois (BB-7).

Alabama's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world, which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression.

On 17 December, the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco, where Alabama was detached from the rest of the fleet. The ship could not keep up with the fleet due to a cracked cylinder head, which necessitated repairs at the Mare Island Navy Yard. The battleship Maine also left the fleet, as her boilers had proved to be badly inefficient, requiring excessive amounts of coal.

On 8 June, Alabama and Maine began their crossing of the Pacific independently, via Honolulu, Hawaii, Guam, and Manila in the Philippines. They then cruised south to Singapore in August and crossed the Indian Ocean, stopping in Colombo, Ceylon, and Aden on the Arabian peninsula on the way. The ships then steamed through the Mediterranean, stopping only in Naples, Italy, before calling at Gibraltar and then proceeding across the Atlantic in early October. They stopped in the Azores before arriving off the east coast of the United States on 19 October; the two ships then parted company, with Alabama steaming to New York, while Maine went to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Both ships arrived the following day. Following her arrival, Alabama was reduced to reserve status on 3 November. She remained in New York, and on 17 August 1909, she was decommissioned for a major overhaul that lasted until early 1912.

1912–1919
Alabama returned to service on 17 April 1912 in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, under Commander Charles F. Preston. The ships of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet—which included eight other battleships and three cruisers—were kept in service with reduced crews that could be fleshed out with naval militiamen and volunteers in the event of an emergency. There were enough officers and men in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to fully man two or three ships, which allowed them to take them to sea in rotating groups to ensure that the ships were in good condition. On 25 July, Alabama was temporarily placed in full commission for service with the Atlantic Fleet during the summer training exercises, before returning to reserve status on 10 September. In mid-1913, the Navy began to use the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to train naval militia units. Alabama operated off the east coast of the United States and made two training cruises to Bermuda that summer to train men from the naval militias of several states. These operations ended on 2 September, and on 31 October she was again laid up.

The ship remained largely inactive in Philadelphia for the next three years. On 22 January 1917, she became a receiving ship for naval recruits. Alabama was transferred to the southern Chesapeake to begin training recruits in the middle of March. Shortly thereafter, on 6 April, the United States declared war on Germany. Two days later, Alabama became the flagship of the 1st Division, Atlantic Fleet, and for the rest of the war she continued her training mission of the east coast of the United States. During this period, she made one cruise to the Gulf of Mexico from late June to early July 1918. On 11 November, Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe; Alabama continued training naval recruits, though at a reduced level of intensity. She took part in fleet maneuvers in February and March 1919 in the West Indies before returning to Philadelphia in April for repairs. A summer training cruise for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy followed; Alabama departed Philadelphia on 28 May bound for Annapolis, where she arrived the next day. After taking on a contingent of 184 midshipmen, she steamed out of Annapolis on 9 June. The cruise went to the West Indies and passed through the Panama Canal and back. By mid-July, the ship was cruising off the coast of New England. She returned south in August for maneuvers, and at the end of the month she returned the midshipmen to Annapolis before docking in Philadelphia.

Bombing tests
Alabama was decommissioned for the final time on 7 May 1920, having spent the previous nine months inactive at Philadelphia. The ship was transferred to the War Department for use as a target ship on 15 September 1921, and she was stricken from the naval register. She was allocated to bombing tests conducted by the US Army Air Service on 27 September 1921, under the supervision of General Billy Mitchell. In addition to Alabama, the old battleships USS New Jersey (BB-16) and USS Virginia (BB-13) were to be sunk in the tests. The first phase of the testing began on 23 September, and included tests with chemical bombs, including tear gas and white phosphorus, to demonstrate how such weapons could be used to disable command and control systems and kill exposed personnel. That night, another test with 300 lb (136 kg) demolition bombs took place, the purpose of which was to determine whether flares could sufficiently illuminate a target for precise bombing. The second phase took place the next morning, and it was a much larger operation. The 1st Provisional Air Brigade took part in the tests, which were to simulate a combat scenario. A group of eight Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s, armed with 25 lb (11 kg) bombs attacked first; their bombs and machine gun fire were intended to simulate clearing the decks of anti-aircraft gunners in preparation for the heavy bombers. Four Martin NBS-1 bombers attacked next, with 300 lb (136 kg) bombs at an altitude of 1500 ft (457 m). Two of the bombs hit the deck toward the bow. Three more NBS-1s followed with 1100 lb (499 kg) armor-piercing bombs, though none of these hit.

On 25 September 1921, the last round of tests took place. Seven more NBS-1s attacked the ship; three carried 1,100 lb (499 kg) bombs, while the other four carried one 2000 lb bomb each. One of the 2,000 lb (907 kg) bombs landed close to the ship on the port side; the mining effect caused considerable damage, and Alabama began listing to port. The bombers scored two more near-misses with the 2,000 lb (907 kg) bombs, followed by a direct hit and two near misses with the 1,100 lb (499 kg) bombs. The last bomb, a 2,000 lb (907 kg) weapon, struck the ship at her stern. The blast broke her anchor chains, and the battered ship began to drift toward the wrecks of San Marcos and USS Indiana (BB-1), the latter having been sunk in bombing tests earlier that year. The ship remained afloat for another two days before finally sinking in shallow water on 27 September 1921. Mitchell attempted to use the sinking as evidence of the predominance of the bomber in his efforts to secure an independent air force, though the Navy pointed out that the ship was stationary, undefended, unmanned, and was not protected with the latest "all or nothing" armor scheme. The sunken wreck was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924.

Salvage
The wreck of ex-Alabama contained tons of steel which were valuable as scrap metal. The Navy sold the salvage rights to the wrecks of ex-Alabama, ex-Indiana, and ex-San Marcos to Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation of New York for $10,600. In July 1925 officials of Union Shipbuilding Company of Baltimore Maryland made an inspection cruise of ex-Alabama to consider the feasibility of salvage. It bought the right to salvage ex-Alabama from Merritt-Chapman & Scott. Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis approved the transaction and granted permission for Union Shipbuilding to raise and remove ex-Alabama on 23 April 1926. The company's effort to raise the ship began in May 1926. It dispatched one of its steamers, Arbutus, to examine the wreck. Ex-Alabama was resting on the bottom in about 30 ft of water. She had a 13 degree list to port. Two divers were sent down to examine the sunken hull. They found the ship deeply embedded in the sand. Once the sand was cleared away, two enormous holes were discovered below the waterline. The Navy had not reported these holes, likely because the sand hid them. Their discovery both changed the assessment of the bombing trials and substantially lengthened the salvage effort. In mid-December 1926 Union Shipbuilding paused the salvage effort due to winter weather. The War Department's original license to salvage the ship had a term of one year. Due to the newly discovered holes, it extended its permission for five months, giving the company until 30 September 1927 to complete the removal. Two steel patches, one 72 ft long and 36 ft wide, the other 50 ft long and 40 ft wide, covered the large holes, and crude cement plugs filled smaller holes. After the holes were patched, the ship was pumped out and refloated four times between 19 June and 10 September 1927. Weather and safety issues caused her to sink back to the bottom on the first three attempts. The hulk was surveyed prior to being granted permission to enter Baltimore Harbor, lest the wreck sink and block the channel. Towed by three tugs, the wreck of ex-Alabama left the spot where she sank on 10 September 1927 and was anchored at Baltimore the next day. A skeleton crew was aboard throughout, to keep electric pumps running lest the ship sink again.

The hulk was pulled on shore on Union Shipbuilding's marine railway to begin the scrapping process.

title: USS Alabama (BB-8)