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Hans Eysenck

Hans Jürgen Eysenck (4 March 1916 – 4 September 1997) was a German-born British psychologist. He is best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, although he worked on other issues in psychology. At the time of his death, Eysenck was the most frequently cited living psychologist in the peer-reviewed scientific journal literature.

Eysenck's research purported to show that certain personality types had an elevated risk of cancer and heart disease. Scholars have identified errors and suspected data manipulation in Eysenck's work, and large replications have failed to confirm the relationships that he purported to find. An enquiry on behalf of King's College London found the papers by Eysenck coauthored with Ronald Grossarth-Maticek to be "incompatible with modern clinical science", with 26 of the joint papers considered "unsafe". Fourteen papers were retracted in 2020, and over 60 statements of concern were issued by scientific journals in 2020 about publications by Eysenck. David Marks and Rod Buchanan, a biographer of Eysenck, have argued that 87 publications by Eysenck should be retracted.

During his life, Eysenck's claims about IQ scores and race, first published in 1971, were a significant source of controversy. Eysenck claimed that IQ scores were influenced by genetic differences between racial groups. Eysenck's beliefs on race have been discredited by subsequent research, and are no longer accepted as part of mainstream science.

Life

Eysenck was born in Berlin, Germany. His mother was Silesian-born film star Helga Molander, and his father, Eduard Anton Eysenck, was an actor and nightclub entertainer who was once voted "handsomest man on the Baltic coast". His mother was Lutheran and his father was Catholic. Eysenck was brought up by his maternal grandmother who was a Jewish convert to Catholicism. Subjected to the Nuremberg laws, she was deported and died in a concentration camp. An initial move to England in the 1930s became permanent because of his opposition to the Nazi party and its persecutions. "My hatred of Hitler and the Nazis, and all they stood for, was so overwhelming that no argument could counter it." Because of his German citizenship, he was initially unable to gain employment, and he came close to being interned during the war. He received his PhD in 1940 from University College London (UCL) working in the Department of Psychology under the supervision of Professor Sir Cyril Burt, with whom he had a tumultuous professional relationship throughout his working life.

Eysenck was Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, from 1955 to 1983. He was a major contributor to the modern scientific theory of personality and helped find treatment for mental illnesses. Eysenck also created and developed a distinctive dimensional model of personality structure based on empirical factor-analytic research, attempting to anchor these factors in biogenetic variation. In 1981, Eysenck became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. He was the founding editor of the international journal Personality and Individual Differences, and wrote about 80 books and more than 1,600 journal articles. With his first wife, Hans Eysenck had a son Michael Eysenck, who is also a psychology professor. He had four children with his second wife, Sybil Eysenck: Gary, Connie, Kevin, and Darrin. Hans and Sybil Eysenck collaborated as psychologists for many years at the Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, as co-authors and researchers. Sybil Eysenck died in December 2020, and Hans Eysenck died of a brain tumour in a London hospice in 1997. He was an atheist.

The Eysencks' home was at 10 Dorchester Drive, Herne Hill, London from 1960 until their respective deaths.

Views and their reception
Examples of publications in which Eysenck's views roused controversy include (chronologically):
 * A paper in the 1950s concluding that available data "fail to support the hypothesis that psychotherapy facilitates recovery from neurotic disorder".
 * A chapter in Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953) entitled "What is wrong with psychoanalysis".
 * The Psychology of Politics (1954)
 * Race, Intelligence and Education (1971) (in the US: The IQ Argument).
 * Sex, Violence and the Media (1978).
 * Astrology — Science or Superstition? (1982).
 * Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985).
 * Smoking, Personality and Stress (1991).

Eysenck's attitude was summarised in his autobiography Rebel with a Cause: "I always felt that a scientist owes the world only one thing, and that is the truth as he sees it. If the truth contradicts deeply held beliefs, that is too bad. Tact and diplomacy are fine in international relations, in politics, perhaps even in business; in science only one thing matters, and that is the facts." He was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.

The Psychology of Politics
In this book, Eysenck suggests that political behavior may be analysed in terms of two independent dimensions: the traditional left-right distinction, and how 'tenderminded' or 'toughminded' a person is. Eysenck suggests that the latter is a result of a person's introversion or extraversion respectively.

Colleagues critiqued the research that formed the basis of this book, on a number of grounds, including the following:
 * Eysenck claims that his findings can be applied to the British middle class as a whole, but the people in his sample were far younger and better educated than the British middle class as a whole.
 * Supporters of different parties were recruited in different ways: Communists were recruited through party branches, fascists in an unspecified manner, and supporters of other parties by giving copies of the questionnaire to his students and telling them to apply it to friends and acquaintances.
 * Scores were obtained by applying the same weight to groups of different sizes. For example, the responses of 250 middle-class supporters of the Liberal Party were given the same weight as those of 27 working-class Liberals.
 * Scores were rounded without explanation, in directions that supported Eysenck's theories.

Genetics, race and intelligence
Eysenck advocated a strong influence from genetics and race on IQ differences. Eysenck supported Arthur Jensen's questioning of whether variation in IQ between racial groups was entirely environmental. In opposition to this position, Eysenck was punched in the face by a protester during a talk at the London School of Economics. Eysenck also received bomb threats and threats to kill his young children.

Eysenck claimed that the media had given people the misleading impression that his views were outside the mainstream scientific consensus. Eysenck cited The IQ Controversy, the Media and Public Policy as showing that there was majority support for all of the main contentions he had put forward, and further claimed that there was no real debate about the matter among relevant scientists.

Regarding this controversy, in 1988 S. A. Barnett described Eysenck as a "prolific popularizer" and he exemplified Eysenck's writings on this topic with two passages from his early 1970s books: "All the evidence to date suggests the ... overwhelming importance of genetic factors in producing the great variety of intellectual differences which we observe in our culture, and much of the difference observed between certain racial groups."

"the whole course of development of a child's intellectual capabilities is largely laid down genetically, and even extreme environmental changes ... have little power to alter this development. H. J. Eysenck The Inequality of Man, 1973, London: Temple Smith, pp. 111–12"

Barnett quotes additional criticism of Race, Intelligence and Education from Sandra Scarr, who wrote in 1976 that Eysenck's book was "generally inflammatory" and that there "is something in this book to insult almost everyone except WASPs and Jews." Scarr was equally critical of Eysenck's hypotheses, one of which was the supposition that slavery on plantations had selected African Americans as a less intelligent sub-sample of Africans. Scarr also criticised another statement of Eysenck on the alleged significantly lower IQs of Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Greek immigrants in the US relative to the populations in their country of origin. "Although Eysenck is careful to say that these are not established facts (because no IQ tests were given to the immigrants or nonimmigrants in question?" ) Scarr writes that the careful reader would conclude that "Eysenck admits that scientific evidence to date does not permit a clear choice of the genetic-differences interpretation of black inferiority on intelligence tests," whereas a "quick reading of the book, however, is sure to leave the reader believing that scientific evidence today strongly supports the conclusion that US blacks are genetically inferior to whites in IQ."

Some of Eysenck's later work was funded by the Pioneer Fund, an organization which promoted scientific racism.

Cancer-prone personality
Eysenck also received funding for consultation research via the New York legal firm Jacob & Medinger, which was acting on behalf of the tobacco industry. In a talk given in 1994 he mentioned that he asked Reynolds for funding to continue research. Asked what he felt about tobacco industry lawyers being involved in selecting scientists for research projects, he said that research should be judged on its quality, not on who paid for it, adding that he had not personally profited from the funds. According to the UK newspaper The Independent, Eysenck received more than £800k in this way. Eysenck conducted many studies making claims about the role of personality in cigarette smoking and disease,  but he also said "I have no doubt, smoking is not a healthy habit."

His article "Cancer, personality and stress: Prediction and prevention" very clearly defines Cancer-prone (Type C) personality. The science behind this claim has now come under public scrutiny in the 2019 King's College London enquiry (see below).

Genetics of personality
In 1951, Eysenck's first empirical study into the genetics of personality was published. It was an investigation carried out with his student and associate Donald Prell, from 1948 to 1951, in which identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, ages 11 and 12, were tested for neuroticism. It is described in detail in an article published in the Journal of Mental Science. Eysenck and Prell concluded: "The factor of neuroticism is not a statistical artifact, but constitutes a biological unit which is inherited as a whole....neurotic predisposition is to a large extent hereditarily determined."

Model of personality
The two personality dimensions extraversion and neuroticism were described in his 1947 book Dimensions of Personality. It is common practice in personality psychology to refer to the dimensions by the first letters, E and N.

E and N provided a two-dimensional space to describe individual differences in behaviour. Eysenck noted how these two dimensions were similar to the four personality types first proposed by the Greek physician Galen.
 * High N and high E = Choleric type
 * High N and low E = Melancholic type
 * Low N and high E = Sanguine type
 * Low N and low E = Phlegmatic type

The third dimension, psychoticism, was added to the model in the late 1970s, based upon collaborations between Eysenck and his wife, Sybil B. G. Eysenck.

Eysenck's model attempted to provide detailed theory of the causes of personality. For example, Eysenck proposed that extraversion was caused by variability in cortical arousal: "introverts are characterized by higher levels of activity than extraverts and so are chronically more cortically aroused than extraverts". Similarly, Eysenck proposed that location within the neuroticism dimension was determined by individual differences in the limbic system. While it seems counterintuitive to suppose that introverts are more aroused than extraverts, the putative effect this has on behaviour is such that the introvert seeks lower levels of stimulation. Conversely, the extravert seeks to heighten his or her arousal to a more favourable level (as predicted by the Yerkes-Dodson Law) by increased activity, social engagement and other stimulation-seeking behaviours.

Comparison with other theories
Jeffrey Alan Gray, a former student of Eysenck's, developed a comprehensive alternative theoretical interpretation (called Gray's biopsychological theory of personality) of the biological and psychological data studied by Eysenck – leaning more heavily on animal and learning models. Currently, the most widely used model of personality is the Big Five model. The purported traits in the Big Five model are as follows:
 * 1) Conscientiousness
 * 2) Agreeableness
 * 3) Neuroticism
 * 4) Openness to experience
 * 5) Extraversion

Extraversion and neuroticism in the Big Five are very similar to Eysenck's traits of the same name. However, what he calls the trait of psychoticism corresponds to two traits in the Big Five model: conscientiousness and agreeableness (Goldberg & Rosalack 1994). Eysenck's personality system did not address openness to experience. He argued that his approach was a better description of personality.

Psychometric scales
Eysenck's theory of personality is closely linked with the psychometric scales that he and his co-workers constructed. These included the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI), the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), as well as the revised version (EPQ-R) and its corresponding short-form (EPQ-R-S). The Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP) breaks down different facets of each trait considered in the model. There has been some debate about whether these facets should include impulsivity as a facet of extraversion as Eysenck declared in his early work, or of psychoticism, as he declared in his later work.

Publication in far right-wing press
Eysenck was accused of being a supporter of political causes on the extreme right. Connecting arguments were that Eysenck had articles published in the German newspaper National-Zeitung, which called him a contributor, and in Nation und Europa, and that he wrote the preface to a book by a far-right French writer named Pierre Krebs, Das unvergängliche Erbe, that was published by Krebs' Thule Seminar. Linguist interpreted the preface to Krebs' book as having "railed against the equality of people, presenting it as an untenable ideological doctrine." In the National Zeitung Eysenck reproached Sigmund Freud for alleged trickiness and lack of frankness. Other incidents that fuelled Eysenck's critics like Michael Billig and Steven Rose include the appearance of Eysenck's books on the UK National Front's list of recommended readings and an interview with Eysenck published by National Front's Beacon (1977) and later republished in the US neo-fascist Steppingstones; a similar interview had been published a year before by Neue Anthropologie, described by Eysenck's biographer Roderick Buchanan as a "sister publication to Mankind Quarterly, having similar contributors and sometimes sharing the same articles." Eysenck also wrote an introduction for Roger Pearson's Race, Intelligence and Bias in Academe. In this introduction to Pearson's book, Eysenck retorts that his critics are "the scattered troops" of the New Left, who have adopted the "psychology of the fascists". Eysenck's book The Inequality of Man, translated in French as L'Inegalite de l'homme, was published by GRECE's publishing house, Éditions Corpernic. In 1974, Eysenck became a member of the academic advisory council of Mankind Quarterly, joining those associated with the journal in attempting to reinvent it as a more mainstream academic vehicle. Billig asserts that in the same year Eysenck also became a member of the comité de patronage of GRECE's Nouvelle École.

Remarking on Eysenck's alleged right-wing connections, Buchanan writes: "For those looking to thoroughly demonize Eysenck, his links with far right groups revealed his true political sympathies." According to Buchanan, these harsh critics interpreted Eysenck's writings as "overtly racist". Furthermore, Buchanan writes that Eysenck's fiercest critics were convinced that Eysenck was "willfully misrepresenting a dark political agenda". Buchanan argued that "There appeared to be no hidden agenda to Hans Eysenck. He was too self-absorbed, too preoccupied with his own aspirations as a great scientist to harbor specific political aims."

As Buchanan commented:

"Harder to brush off was the impression that Eysenck was insensitive, even willfully blind to the way his work played out in a wider political context. He did not want to believe, almost to the point of utter refusal, that his work gave succor to right-wing racialist groups. But there is little doubt that Jensen and Eysenck helped revive the confidence of these groups. [...] It was unexpected vindication from a respectable scientific quarter. The cautionary language of Eysenck's interpretation of the evidence made little difference. To the racialist right, a genetic basis for group differences in intelligence bore out racialist claims of inherent, immutable hierarchy."

According to Buchanan, Eysenck believed that the quality of his research would "help temper social wrongs and excesses". Eysenck's defence was that he did not shy away from publishing or being interviewed in controversial publications, and that he did not necessarily share their editorial viewpoint. As examples, Buchanan mentions contributions by Eysenck to pornographic magazines Mayfair and Penthouse.

Eysenck described his views in the introduction to Race, Education and Intelligence:

"My recognition of the importance of the racial problem, and my own attitudes of opposition to any kind of racial segregation, and hatred for those who suppress any sector of the community on grounds of race (or sex or religion) were determined in part by the fact that I grew up in Germany, at a time when Hitlerism was becoming the very widely held doctrine which finally prevailed and led to the deaths of several million Jews whose only crime was that they belonged to an imaginary 'race' which had been dreamed up by a group of men in whom insanity was mixed in equal parts with craftiness, paranoia with guile, and villainy with sadism."

Parapsychology and astrology
Eysenck believed that empirical evidence supported parapsychology and astrology. He was criticised by scientific skeptics for endorsing fringe science. Henry Gordon for example stated that Eysenck's viewpoint was "incredibly naive" because many of the parapsychology experiments he cited as evidence contained serious problems and were never replicated. Magician and skeptic James Randi noted that Eysenck had supported fraudulent psychics as genuine and had not mentioned their sleight of hand. According to Randi, he had given "a totally-one sided view of the subject". In 1983, Eysenck and Carl Sargent published their book Know Your Own Psi-IQ, which was designed to test readers' extrasensory perception abilities. According to Randi, "the authors instead gave users a highly biased procedure that would make experiments meaningless and certainly discourage further investigation by the amateur."

Later work
In 1994, he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence", an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in The Wall Street Journal, which described the consensus of the signing scholars on issues related to intelligence research following the publication of the book The Bell Curve. Eysenck included the entire editorial in his 1998 book Intelligence: A New Look.

Posthumous reevaluation
Eysenck's work has undergone reevaluation since his death.

Psychologist Donald R. Peterson noted in letters written in 1995 and published in 2005 that years earlier he had stopped trusting Eysenck's work after he tried to replicate a study done in Eysenck's lab and concluded that the results of the original study must have been "either concocted or cooked".

2019 King's College London enquiry
In 2019 the psychiatrist Anthony Pelosi, writing for the Journal of Health Psychology, described Eysenck's work as unsafe. Pelosi described some of Eysenck's work as leading to "one of the worst scientific scandals of all time", with "what must be the most astonishing series of findings ever published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature" and "effect sizes that have never otherwise been encountered in biomedical research." Pelosi cited 23 "serious criticisms" of Eysenck's work that had been published independently by multiple authors between 1991 and 1997, noting that these had never been investigated "by any appropriate authority" at that time. The reportedly fraudulent papers covered the links between personality and cancer. Grossarth and Eysenck claimed the existence of a "cancer prone personality" were supposed to have a risk of dying of cancer 121 times greater than controls, when exposed to the carcinogen physical factor tobacco smoking. Bosely (2019): The "heart disease-prone personality" exposed to physical risk factors is asserted to have 27 times the risk of dying of heart disease as controls. Pelosi concluded "I honestly believe, having read it so carefully and tried to find alternative interpretations, that this is fraudulent work."

Pelosi's writing prompted additional analysis from other academics and journalists. Citing Pelosi, psychologist David F. Marks wrote an open letter (also published in the Journal of Health Psychology) calling for the retraction or correction of 61 additional papers by Eysenck. In 2019, 26 of Eysenck's papers (all coauthored with Ronald Grossarth-Maticek) were "considered unsafe" by an enquiry on behalf of King's College London. It concluded that these publications describing experimental or observational studies were unsafe. It decided that the editors of the 11 journals in which these studies appeared should be informed of their decision. All of the 26 papers were cited in Marks' open letter.

The publications under discussion were criticized, among other things, for the reason that Eysenck's research work was partly financed by the tobacco industry and he therefore may have had an interest to show an association between personality and cancer (instead of an association of smoking and cancer). Eysenck said in 1990, "Note that I have never stated that cigarette smoking is not causally related to cancer and coronary heart disease; to deny such a relationship would be irresponsible and counter to the evidence. I have merely stated that the available evidence is insufficient to prove a causal relationship, and this I believe to be true." In his statement at the time, Eysenck failed to take into account the highly addictive effect of nicotine, which was only later clearly proven by neurophysiological studies.

Grossarth emphasized that the development of disease is often multicausal, whereby the factors reinforce each other in their effect, and he explicitly speaks of behavioral characteristics that may change due to psychological intervention. Grossarth emphasises their changeability through cognitive behavioral therapy in his intervention studies. Noting that Eysenck died many years ago and cannot defend himself, Grossarth-Maticek wrote a rebuttal and announced legal actions.

Following the King's College London enquiry the International Journal of Sport Psychology retracted a paper that was coauthored by Eysenck in 1990. Later, 13 additional papers were retracted. As of the end of 2020, there had been fourteen retractions and seventy-one expressions of concern on papers from as far back as 1946. Some of these are early papers having nothing to do with health and the King's College enquiry "did not specifically name the articles this expression of concern relates to as problematic".

Portraits
There are five portraits of Eysenck in the permanent collection of the National Portrait Gallery, London, including photographs by Anne-Katrin Purkiss and Elliott and Fry.

Biographies

 * , review in:

Books

 * Dimensions of Personality (1947)
 * The Scientific Study of Personality (1952)
 * The Structure of Human Personality (1952) and later editions
 * Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953)
 * The Psychology of Politics (1954)
 * Psychology and the Foundations of Psychiatry (1955)
 * Sense and Nonsense in Psychology (1956)
 * The Dynamics of Anxiety and Hysteria (1957)
 * Perceptual Processes and Mental Illnesses (1957) with G. Granger and J. C. Brengelmann
 * Manual of the Maudsley Personality Inventory (1959)
 * Know Your Own I.Q. (1962)
 * Crime and Personality (1964) and later editions
 * Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (1964) with S. B. G. Eysenck
 * The Causes and Cures of Neuroses (1965) with S. Rachman
 * Fact and Fiction in Psychology (1965)
 * Smoking, Health and Personality (1965)
 * Check Your Own I.Q. (1966)
 * The Effects of Psychotherapy (1966)
 * The Biological Basis of Personality (1967)
 * Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1969). Personality Structure and Measurement. London: Routledge.
 * Readings in Extraversion/Introversion (1971) three volumes
 * Race, Intelligence and Education (1971) in US as The IQ Argument
 * Psychology is about People (1972)
 * Lexicon de Psychologie (1972) three volumes, with W. Arnold and R. Meili
 * The Inequality of Man (1973). German translation Die Ungleichheit der Menschen. Munich: Goldman. 1978. With an introduction by Eysenck.
 * Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (1975) with S. B. G. Eysenck
 * Sex and Personality (1976)
 * Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1976). Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
 * Reminiscence, Motivation and Personality (1977) with C. D. Frith
 * You and Neurosis (1977)
 * Die Zukunft der Psychologie (1977)
 * The Structure and Measurement of Intelligence (1979)
 * The Causes and Effects of Smoking (1980)
 * Mindwatching (1981) with M. W. Eysenck, and later editions
 * The Battle for the Mind (1981) with L. J. Kamin, in US as The Intelligence Controversy
 * Personality, Genetics and Behaviour (1982)
 * Explaining the Unexplained (1982, 2nd edition 1993) with Carl Sargent
 * H. J. Eysenck & D. K. B. Nias, Astrology: Science or Superstition? Penguin Books (1982), ISBN 0-14-022397-5
 * Know Your Own Psi-Q (1983) with Carl Sargent
 * …'I Do'. Your Happy Guide to Marriage (1983) with B. N. Kelly.
 * Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach (1985) with M. W. Eysenck
 * Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985)
 * Rauchen und Gesundheit (1987)
 * The Causes and Cures of Criminality (1989) with G. H. Gudjonsson
 * Genes, Culture and Personality: An Empirical Approach (1989) with L. Eaves and N. Martin
 * Mindwatching (1989) with M. W. Eysenck. Prion, ISBN 1-85375-194-4
 * Genius: The natural history of creativity (1995). Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-48014-0
 * Intelligence: A New Look (1998)
 * The Causes and Cures of Criminality (1989) with G. H. Gudjonsson
 * Genes, Culture and Personality: An Empirical Approach (1989) with L. Eaves and N. Martin
 * Mindwatching (1989) with M. W. Eysenck. Prion, ISBN 1-85375-194-4
 * Genius: The natural history of creativity (1995). Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-48014-0
 * Intelligence: A New Look (1998)

Edited books

 * Handbook of Abnormal Psychology (1960), later editions
 * Experiments in Personality (1960) two volumes
 * Behaviour Therapy and Neuroses (1960)
 * Experiments with Drugs (1963)
 * Experiments in Motivation (1964)
 * Eysenck on Extraversion (1973)
 * The Measurement of Intelligence (1973)
 * Case Histories in Behaviour Therapy (1974)
 * The Measurement of Personality (1976)
 * A Model for Personality (1981)
 * A Model for Intelligence (1982)
 * Suggestion and Suggestibility (1989) with V. A. Gheorghiu, P. Netter, and R. Rosenthal
 * Personality Dimensions and Arousal (1987) with J. Strelau
 * Theoretical Foundations of Behaviour Therapy (1988) with I. Martin
 * Theoretical Foundations of Behaviour Therapy (1988) with I. Martin

Other

 * Preface to Pierre Krebs. Das Unverganglich Erbe

title: Hans Eysenck


text:
Talk:William C. McCool

Question
Why did Zoe remove the link to Texas?? Vera Cruz

Wow, Lir, back 5 minutes and already causing trouble? Why were you allowed back, anyway? -- Zoe

Im sorry but asking why you removed a link does not constitute causing trouble. Vera Cruz

Purple Heart
Since the Purple Heart is awarded for actions in a conflict, I was surprised to see it in Brown's bio. So I looked for an indication (other than the four other Columbia astronauts wikipedia biographies) that the Columbia crewmembers had been awarded the medal. I didn't find any, and since they don't actually meet the legal criteria for the award, I'm removing it from all five biographies.

External links modified (January 2018)
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Sean McCool
Should William's son Sean McCool be mentioned? He was a contestant on Naked and Afraid. 2605:A601:A838:E700:A02B:F95D:7DD3:E5B8 (talk) 21:58, 9 June 2023 (UTC)

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title: Talk:William C. McCool


text:
List of psychological research methods

A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the sources from which information is obtained, how that information is sampled, and the types of instruments that are used in data collection. Methods also vary by whether they collect qualitative data, quantitative data or both.

Qualitative psychological research findings are not arrived at by statistical or other quantitative procedures. Quantitative psychological research findings result from mathematical modeling and statistical estimation or statistical inference. The two types of research differ in the methods employed, rather than the topics they focus on.

There are three main types of psychological research:

 * Correlational research
 * Descriptive research
 * Experimental research

Common methods
Common research designs and data collection methods include:

 * Archival research
 * Case study uses different research methods (e.g. interview, observation, self-report questionnaire) with a single case or small number of cases.
 * Computer simulation (modeling)
 * Ethnography
 * Event sampling methodology, also referred to as experience sampling methodology, diary study, or ecological momentary assessment
 * Experiment, often with separate treatment and control groups (see scientific control and design of experiments). See Experimental psychology for many details.
 * Field experiment
 * Focus group
 * Interview, can be structured or unstructured.
 * Meta-analysis
 * Neuroimaging and other psychophysiological methods
 * Observational study, can be naturalistic (see natural experiment), participant or controlled.
 * Program evaluation
 * Quasi-experiment
 * Self-report inventory
 * Survey, often with a random sample (see survey sampling)
 * Twin study

Research designs vary according to the period(s) of time over which data are collected:

 * Retrospective cohort study: Participants are chosen, then data are collected about their past experiences.
 * Prospective cohort study: Participants are recruited prior to the proposed independent effects being administered or occurring.
 * Cross-sectional study: A population is sampled on all proposed measures at one point in time.
 * Longitudinal study: Participants are studied at multiple time points. May address the cohort effect and help to indicate causal directions of effects.
 * Cross-sequential study: Groups of different ages are studied at multiple time points; combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Research in psychology has been conducted with both animals and human subjects:

 * Animal study
 * Human subject research

title: List of psychological research methods


text:
Arthur, Prince of Wales

Arthur, Prince of Wales (19/20 September 1486 – 2 April 1502), was the eldest son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, and an older brother to the future King Henry VIII. He was Duke of Cornwall from birth, and he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in 1489. As the heir apparent of his father, Arthur was viewed by contemporaries as the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of the Yorkist king, Edward IV, and his birth cemented the union between the House of Lancaster and the House of York.

Plans for Arthur's marriage began before his third birthday. At the age of eleven, he was formally betrothed to Catherine of Aragon, a daughter of the powerful Catholic Monarchs in Spain, in an effort to forge an Anglo-Spanish alliance against France and Scotland. Arthur was well educated and was in good health for the majority of his life. Soon after his marriage to Catherine in 1501, the couple took up residence at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, where Arthur died six months later, possibly from the sweating sickness, which Catherine survived. Catherine later firmly stated that the marriage had not been consummated.

One year after Arthur's death, Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance with Spain by arranging for Catherine to marry Arthur's younger brother Henry, who would ascend to the throne in 1509 as King Henry VIII. The question over whether Arthur and Catherine had consummated their marriage was much later, and in a completely different political context, exploited by Henry VIII and his court. This strategy was employed in order to cast doubt upon the validity of Catherine's union with Henry VIII, eventually leading to the separation between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.

Infancy
Henry VII became King of England upon defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. In an effort to strengthen the Tudor claim to the throne, Henry decided on naming his firstborn son "Arthur" and having him born in Winchester – where the Legend of King Arthur originated – in order to emphasise the Welsh origin of the Tudors. On this occasion, Camelot was identified as present-day Winchester, and his wife, Elizabeth of York, was sent to Saint Swithun's Priory (today Winchester Cathedral Priory) in order to give birth there. Born at Saint Swithun's Priory on the night of 19/20 September 1486 at about 1 am, Arthur was Henry and Elizabeth's eldest child.

Arthur's birth was anticipated by French and Italian humanists eager for the start of a "Virgilian golden age". Sir Francis Bacon wrote that although the Prince was born one month premature, he was "strong and able". Young Arthur was viewed as "a living symbol" of not only the union between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, to which his mother belonged as the daughter of Edward IV, but also of the end of the Wars of the Roses. In the opinion of contemporaries, Arthur was the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor.

Arthur became Duke of Cornwall at birth. Four days after his birth, he was baptised at Winchester Cathedral by the Bishop of Worcester, John Alcock, which was immediately followed by his confirmation. His godparents were John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford; Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby; William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel; Arthur's grandmother, Queen Elizabeth Woodville; and his aunt Cecily of York. Elizabeth and Cecily carried the prince during the ceremony. Initially, Arthur's nursery in Farnham was headed by Elizabeth Darcy, who had served as chief nurse for Edward IV's children, including Arthur's own mother. After Arthur was created Prince of Wales in 1489, he was awarded a household structure at the behest of his father. Over the next thirteen years, his parents would have six more children, of whom only three – Margaret, Henry and Mary – would reach adulthood. Arthur was especially close to his sister Margaret (b. 1489) and his brother Henry (b. 1491), with whom he shared a nursery.

On 29 November 1489, after being made a Knight of the Bath, Arthur was appointed Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, and was invested as such at the Palace of Westminster on 27 February 1490. As part of his investiture ceremony, he progressed down the River Thames in the royal barge and was met at Chelsea by the Lord Mayor of London, John Mathewe, and at Lambeth by Spanish ambassadors. On 8 May 1491, he was made a Knight of the Garter at Saint George's Chapel at Windsor Palace. It was around this time that Arthur began his formal education under John Rede, a former headmaster of Winchester College. His education was subsequently taken over by Bernard André, a blind poet, and then by Thomas Linacre, formerly Henry VII's physician. Arthur's education covered grammar, poetry, rhetoric and ethics and focused on history.

Arthur was a very skilled pupil and André wrote that the Prince of Wales had either memorised or read a selection of Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Terence, a good deal of Cicero and a wide span of historical works, including those of Thucydides, Caesar, Livy and Tacitus. Arthur was also a "superb archer", and had learned to dance "right pleasant and honourably" by 1501.

Childhood
The popular belief that Arthur was sickly during his lifetime stems from a misunderstanding of a 1502 letter, but there are no reports of Arthur being ill during his lifetime. He grew up to be unusually tall for his age, and was considered handsome by the Spanish court: he had reddish hair, small eyes, and a high-bridged nose, resembling his brother Henry, who was said to be "extremely handsome" by contemporaries. As described by historians Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton, Arthur had an "amiable and gentle" personality and was, overall, a "delicate lad".

In May 1490, Arthur was created warden of all the marches towards Scotland and the Earl of Surrey was appointed as the Prince's deputy. From 1491, Arthur was named on peace commissions. In October 1492, when his father travelled to France, he was named Keeper of England and King's Lieutenant. Following the example of Edward IV, Henry VII set up the Council of Wales and the Marches for Arthur in Wales, in order to enforce royal authority there. Although the council had already been set up in 1490, it was headed by Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford. By 1493, Arthur had been sent with his household to Ludlow Castle, near Wales. In March 1493, Arthur was granted the power to appoint justices of oyer and terminer and inquire into franchises, thus strengthening the council's authority. In November of that year, the Prince also received an extensive land grant in Wales, including the County of March.

Arthur was served by sons of English, Irish and Welsh nobility, such as Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, who had been brought to the English court as a consequence of the involvement of his father, Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, in the crowning of pretender Lambert Simnel in Ireland during Henry VII's reign. Other servants were Anthony Willoughby, a son of Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke, Robert Radcliffe, the heir of the 9th Baron FitzWalter and Maurice St John, a favourite nephew of Arthur's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort. He was brought up with Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas, the son of powerful Welsh nobleman Rhys ap Thomas. Gruffydd grew quite close to Arthur and was buried in Worcester Cathedral upon his death in 1521, alongside the Prince's tomb.

Marriage
Henry VII planned to marry Arthur to a daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, in order to forge an Anglo-Spanish alliance against France. It was suggested that the choice of marrying Arthur to Ferdinand and Isabella's youngest daughter, Catherine (b. 1485), would be appropriate. Thanks to negotiations by the Spanish ambassador Rodrigo González de la Puebla, the Treaty of Medina del Campo (27 March 1489) provided that Arthur and Catherine would be married as soon as they reached canonical age; it also settled Catherine's dowry at 200,000 crowns (the equivalent of £5 million in 2007). Since Arthur, not yet 14, was below the age of consent, a papal dispensation (i.e., waiver) allowing the marriage was issued in February 1497, and the pair were betrothed by proxy on 25 August 1497.

To demonstrate his status as heir to the throne, Arthur made a Royal Entry to Coventry in October 1498. He was welcomed with pageants of the Nine Worthies, introduced by King Arthur, by Queen Fortune, and by Saint George defending a maiden from the dragon. In 1499, a marriage by proxy took place at Arthur's Tickenhill Manor in Bewdley, near Worcester; Arthur said to Roderigo de Puebla, who acted as proxy for Catherine, that "he much rejoiced to contract the marriage because of his deep and sincere love for the Princess". In October 1499, Arthur, referring to Catherine as "my dearest spouse", wrote: "'I cannot tell you what an earnest desire I feel to see your Highness, and how vexatious to me is this procrastination about your coming. Let [it] be hastened, [that] the love conceived between us and the wished-for joys may reap their proper fruit.'"

The young couple exchanged letters in Latin until 20 September 1501, when Arthur, having attained the age of 15, was deemed old enough to be married. Catherine landed in England about two weeks later, on 2 October 1501, at Plymouth. The next month, on 4 November 1501, the couple met for the first time at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Arthur wrote to Catherine's parents that he would be "a true and loving husband"; the couple soon discovered that they had mastered different pronunciations of Latin and so were unable to easily communicate. Five days later, on 9 November 1501, Catherine arrived in London.

On 14 November 1501, the marriage ceremony finally took place at Saint Paul's Cathedral; both Arthur and Catherine wore white satin. The ceremony was conducted by Henry Deane, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was assisted by William Warham, Bishop of London. Following the ceremony, Arthur and Catherine left the Cathedral and headed for Baynard's Castle, where they were entertained by "the best voiced children of the King's chapel, who sang right sweetly with quaint harmony".

What followed was a bedding ceremony laid down by Arthur's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort: the bed was sprinkled with holy water, after which Catherine was led away from the wedding feast by her ladies-in-waiting. She was undressed, veiled and "reverently" laid in bed, while Arthur, "in his shirt, with a gown cast about him," was escorted by his gentlemen into the bedchamber as viols and tabors played. The Bishop of London blessed the bed, and prayed for the marriage to be fruitful, after which the couple were left alone. This is the only public bedding of a royal couple recorded in Britain in the 16th century.

Death
After residing at Tickenhill Manor for a month, Arthur and Catherine headed for the Welsh Marches, where they established their household at Ludlow Castle. Arthur had been growing weaker since his wedding, and Henry VII thus seemed reluctant to allow Catherine to follow him, until ultimately ordering her to join her husband. Arthur found it easy to govern Wales, as the border had become quiet after many centuries of warfare. In March 1502, Arthur and Catherine were afflicted by an unknown illness, "a malign vapour which proceeded from the air." It has been suggested that this illness was the mysterious English sweating sickness, tuberculosis ("consumption"), plague or influenza. While Catherine recovered, Arthur died on 2 April 1502 at Ludlow, six months short of his sixteenth birthday.

News of Arthur's death reached Henry VII's court late on 4 April. The King was awoken from his sleep by his confessor, who quoted Job by asking Henry "If we receive good things at the hands of God, why may we not endure evil things?" He then told the king that "[his] dearest son hath departed to God," and Henry burst into tears. "Grief-stricken and emotional," he then had his wife, Elizabeth, brought into his chambers, so that they might "take the painful news together"; Elizabeth reminded Henry that God had helped him become king and "had ever preserved him," adding that they had been left with "yet a fair Prince and two fair princesses and that God is where he was, and [they were] both young enough." Soon after leaving Henry's bedchamber, Elizabeth collapsed and began to cry, while the ladies sent for the King, who hurriedly came and "relieved her."

On 8 April, a general procession took place for the salvation of Arthur's soul. That night, a dirge was sung in St Paul's Cathedral and every parish church in London. On 23 April, Arthur's body, which had previously been embalmed, sprinkled with holy water and sheltered with a canopy, was carried out of Ludlow Castle and into the Parish Church of Ludlow by various noblemen and gentlemen. On 25 April, Arthur's body was taken to Worcester Cathedral via the River Severn, in a "special wagon upholstered in black and drawn by six horses, also caparisoned in black." As was customary, Catherine did not attend the funeral. The Earl of Surrey acted as chief mourner. At the end of the ceremony, Sir William Uvedale, Sir Richard Croft and Arthur's household ushers broke their staves of office and threw them into the Prince's grave. During the funeral, Arthur's own arms were shown alongside those of Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd and Brutus of Troy. Two years later, a chantry was erected over Arthur's grave.

Legacy
Shortly after Arthur's death, the idea of betrothing the widowed Catherine to the new heir apparent, Henry, had arisen; Henry VII and Isabella I were keen on moving forward with the betrothal and the pope granted a dispensation towards that end. Henry VIII ascended the throne on 22 April 1509 and married Arthur's widow on 11 June. They had six children; three of their sons died before reaching three months of age, a daughter was stillborn, and another lived for only a week. The couple's surviving child was Mary I (b. 1516). In 1526, Henry started to pursue the affections of Anne Boleyn. At the same time, he became troubled by what became known as the King's "great matter", that is, finding an appropriate solution for his lack of male descendants. It soon became the King's wish to dissolve his marriage and marry Anne, who was more likely to bear children.

Henry believed that his marriage was cursed, and believed he found confirmation in the Bible, in. Although in the morning following his wedding, Arthur had claimed that he was thirsty "for I have been in the midst of Spain last night" and that "having a wife is a good pastime", these claims are generally dismissed by modern historians as mere boasts of a boy who did not want others to know of his failure. Until the day she died, Catherine maintained that she had married Henry while still a virgin. After Henry's constant support of the claim that Catherine's first marriage had been consummated, an annulment was issued on 23 May 1533, while the King had already married Anne on 25 January. Anne was beheaded for high treason in 1536, after which Henry proceeded to marry four more times. At the time of his death in 1547, Henry only had three living children; the only son, Edward VI, succeeded but died six years later. His successors were Henry's daughters by Catherine and Anne, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Upon Elizabeth's death in 1603, the House of Tudor came to an end.

In 2002, following the initiative of canon Ian MacKenzie, Arthur's funeral was reenacted with a requiem mass at Worcester Cathedral, on occasion of the quincentenary of his death. Despite his role in English history, Arthur has remained largely forgotten since his death.

Henry VIII owned a portrait of Arthur wearing a "red cap with a brooch upon it, and a collar of red and white roses". A portrait of Arthur was rediscovered by English art dealer Philip Mould.

The stained-glass image of Arthur Tudor praying is in the west window of the nave in St Laurence's Church in Ludlow, Shropshire where he died at the castle in 1502. Arthur's bowels (called euphemistically "the heart") had been buried in a lead box in the church's choir but were noted in 1723 as having been taken up not long since.

In popular culture
Arthur has been featured in several historical fiction novels, such as The King's Pleasure, by Norah Lofts, Three Sisters, Three Queens by Philippa Gregory and Katherine, The Virgin Widow, by Jean Plaidy. In The Constant Princess, by Philippa Gregory, Catherine promises Arthur to marry his brother, thus fulfilling not only her own destiny of becoming Queen of England but also the couple's plans for the future of the kingdom. The Alteration, by Kingsley Amis, is an alternate history novel centred on the "War of the English Succession" during which Henry VIII attempts to usurp the throne of his nephew, Stephen II, Arthur and Catherine's son.

The historical drama The Six Wives of Henry VIII was broadcast in 1970, with Martin Ratcliffe as "Prince Arthur". In 1972, BBC2 aired a historical miniseries titled The Shadow of the Tower, with "Lord Arthur, Prince of Wales" played by Jason Kemp. He is portrayed by Angus Imrie in 2019 period drama The Spanish Princess.

title: Arthur, Prince of Wales


text:
Talk:Laurel Clark

Untitled
why has Zoe removed the link to Wisconsin? -- Vera Cruz

 * I don't know. She once did the same thing to an article I edited, but I couldn't be bothered to fight it. In fact, " Racine, Wisconsin " and " Racine, Wisconsin " look almost identical in the displayed article, but the first arrangement of links is more helpful (especially to non-Americans like me!) in that one can find out in one click roughly where the place being talked about is, by clicking on the name of the state, instead of being bombarded with information about a city one might not much care about, and then having to go through Racine County, Wisconsin (a county one might not much care about) before finally being able to click on "Wisconsin" to find (at last!) that Laurel Clark actually came from somewhere around the Great Lakes sort of area - which is about as much as my brain can accommodate, I'm afraid. :) The second arrangement of links has no advantage that I can see. Perhaps Zoe can suggest one... -- Oliver P. 23:36 Feb 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * It just seems more resonable to me. And I'm only answering this because you asked, Oliver, not Lir.  I am on a new policy of ignoring Lir and his ilk.  Why do we have Racine, Wisconsin if we're going to change it always to Racine, Wisconsin ? -- Zoe

 * The longer way seems tedious and unneeded to me but it also seems mostly harmless. The only potential problem I see with that is that it may make some people think that the US town is at Racine instead of Racine, Wisconsin. --mav

 * We have Racine, Wisconsin because there are lots of places called Racine, and we need to disambiguate. The longer way of referring to the place is only more tedious to the person who puts it in, so I don't really see why other people should be bothered about it. I for one am grateful to people who go to the extra trouble. :) As for the other point, about people thinking the article might be at Racine - well, that's a general problem with all disambiguated names. We write " The Curse of the Gloop " if there is also (for example) a book called The Curse of the Gloop, and hope that people will be able to work out what's going on. There are similar examples all over the Wikipedia. So can we agree that Lir's way of doing it is okay...? -- Oliver P. 00:15 Feb 2, 2003 (UTC)

Such a Wonderful lady !!!!!!!!! By Srivatsav

Rank
Was she a Commander or a Captain? The lead and the info box differ. A-t 20:29, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

Deleted line
During the description of the videotaped exchange on board Columbia, the phrase "with flames already visible outside the Orbiter window" makes it appear as if the videotape captures the start of the shuttle's disintegration. According to NASA's website, which has the tape available for viewing, the actual break-up did not begin until about 4 minutes after the tape ended; the "flames" were in fact plasma flashes and other artifacts caused by normal reentry. I removed the sentence because it gives the wrong impression about the tape and would require some detailed explaination. Sufficient to say it was recorded during reentry. 23skidoo 19:55, 8 September 2006 (UTC)

Purple Heart
Since the Purple Heart is awarded for actions in a conflict, I was surprised to see it in Brown's bio. So I looked for an indication (other than the four other Columbia astronauts wikipedia biographies) that the Columbia crewmembers had been awarded the medal. I didn't find any, and since they don't actually meet the legal criteria for the award, I'm removing it from all five biographies.

Removed tag
Another "drive-by" tag without opening up a Talk Page section about what was needed for additional references. The article has many citations - there certainly is no problem with the article as a whole in that regard. 104.169.17.29 (talk) 02:35, 1 February 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Laurel Clark


text:
Talk:Michael P. Anderson

Untitled
Why has Zoe removed the link to Washington?
 * This guy was actually a Star Trek fan, but hardly anyone knew. He joined in the chats, before his adventure and talked to a fan or two there. He did an honorary thing, being happy and doing what he loved, before his departure of this plane. It's sad that things about his life, he kept secret and a lot didn't know. The show was his inspiration for joining Nasa, but the military was inspired by his own father. May he forever rest in peace and spiritually be able to travel the stars to infinity and beyond, to enjoy the unknown planes. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:1000:BF08:2BC6:91A1:D263:E66A:8AA (talk) 03:31, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

Philip vs. Phillip
I might be wrong, but wasn't his name Michael Philip Anderson? Regards, Tom --84.137.66.11 18:54, 2 October 2006 (UTC)
 * His second name was indeed Philip, see . I moved the page to the correct name. --myself488 (talk) 10:09, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject Military history/Assessment/Tag & Assess 2008
Article reassessed and graded as start class. --dashiellx (talk) 18:45, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

Purple Heart
Since the Purple Heart is awarded for actions in a conflict, I was surprised to see it in Brown's bio. So I looked for an indication (other than the four other Columbia astronauts wikipedia biographies) that the Columbia crewmembers had been awarded the medal. I didn't find any, and since they don't actually meet the legal criteria for the award, I'm removing it from all five biographies.

Style Editing
The section "Spaceflight experience" could use some refinement. I've found this page to be a useful source of guidance: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch 24.16.205.177 (talk) 01:06, 2 May 2015 (UTC)

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Family
In the “Early life and career” section, it states that Anderson is an only child, while the “Personal Life” section says he has 3 sisters. Which is correct? AshCat (talk) 01:24, 13 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Michael P. Anderson


text:
Hillous Butrum

Hillous Buel "Bew" Butrum (April 21, 1928 – April 27, 2002) was an American country music guitar player and a record and video producer best known as being a member of Hank Williams' Drifting Cowboys.

Hillous Butrum was born in Lafayette, Tennessee. Butrum found his way to Nashville and landed a job at WSM Radio. He eventually wound up a staff musician on the Grand Ole Opry, at age 16. From there, he played bass for Hank Williams' band "The Drifting Cowboys." He would play with the Drifting Cowboys from 1949 until 1950. After the passing of Williams, Butrum joined Hank Snow's band, the Rainbow Ranch Boys, and later played on many Marty Robbins recording sessions. He'd eventually start a music publishing company with Robbins.

He established "Butrum Enterprises Publishing Company" and owned Look Records. He produced many early country music documentaries including "Music City USA". Butrum would tour again, from 1977 to 1984, with the reformed Drifting Cowboys.

Later in life, Butrum became active in the "Reunion of Professional Entertainers," and distributed vintage country music videos through Nashville retail stores and his website.

Hillous Butrum died in his Nashville home about two weeks after the death of his wife Phyllis (Frost) Butrum. His funeral was held in Goodlettsville, Tennessee and was attended by notable music industry figures including Hal Bynum, Merle Kilgore, Bobby Tomberlin, Robbie Wittkowski, Tim Jones, and Don Helms. He was interred in the Underwood Cemetery in his hometown of Lafayette.

The day before Butrum's death, he agreed to an exclusive interview with Country Music Source magazine detailing his long and inspiring music career. The interview was scheduled for April 29, 2002. In lieu of the interview, Country Music Source printed a memoriam for Butrum.

title: Hillous Butrum


text:
Talk:John Zerzan

Articles for deletion/Little Eichmanns
This article needs to be deleted or comprehensively rewritten. There are 15 dead links in the reference section, and multiple citation needed flags. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pozzdonn (talk • contribs) 08:51, 21 October 2013 (UTC) Up for deletion, you are welcome to comment. Okip  05:45, 1 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Why ? What are the problems with the article ? Just rewrite the article if it is that bad, don't delete it. John Zerzan is one the authors having most contributed to anarcho-primitivism, he is certainly notable. Adressing anarchism philosophies without including anarcho-primitivism or its most important authors would be ridiculously unexhaustive.76.10.181.143 (talk) 20:24, 1 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Oups, I tought the "John Zerzan" article itself was up to deletion, rather than "Little Eichmanns".76.10.181.143 (talk) 20:27, 1 October 2010 (UTC)

Why here doesn't appear that he was marxist-leninist and the reference of the underground of his cousin, as in the Infoshop Openwiki? "As a Marxist-Leninist-Maoist in the late 1960s he worked as a social worker for the state of California." Bakunin was democratic nacionalist and Kropotkin a marxist before be antiautoritarian people, so what is the reason for hide this?

And then: " At this time, Zerzan's cousin, Kathan, was an active member of the Weather Underground, a militant group that had grown out of the radical Students for a Democratic Society. Throughout the 1970s, the underground group planted bombs in dozens of buildings including The Pentagon, the U.S. Capitol, and the California Department of Corrections. This is regarded as a major influence on John Zerzan's growing radicalism. " I think that must be add that to the original article. Accionapunk —Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.95.69.236 (talk) 22:42, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

The page says that Zerzan's criticisms have extended "as far" as subjects such as time
I find this language to be discriminatory...if Zerzan is right in his line of thinking then it's not so much that his criticisms are far-reaching but that other critics have failed to grasp the complete picture. There must be better language that could be used here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.28.162.78 (talk) 01:14, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

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Flag of Missouri

The flag of Missouri, often referred to as the Missouri flag, is the state flag of the U.S. state of Missouri. It consists of a triband of three equal horizontal stripes colored red, white, and blue, with the arms from the Great Seal of Missouri in the center. Designed by Mary Elizabeth Oliver, the red and white stripes represent valor and purity, respectively. The blue stripe represents the permanency, vigilance, and justice of the state. The three colors also highlight the French influence on the state in its early years. The Missouri flag was established on March 22, 1913, when governor Elliot Woolfolk Major signed the State flag act making it official.

History
The design of the state flag has been modified officially once since 1861. The current version is the longest-used and has been in use since March 22, 1913 (See infobox).

First flag
Missouri did not have an official flag until Major-General Sterling Price, commander of the Missouri State Guard, ordered on June 5, 1861:

"Each regiment will adopt the State flag, made of blue merino, 6 by 5 feet, with the Missouri coat-of-arms in gold gilt on each side."

Flag Act of 1913
The Missouri state flag was designed and stitched in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, by Marie Elizabeth Oliver, the wife of former state senator R. B. Oliver. She began his flag project in 1908 as part of her volunteer activities with the Daughters of the American Revolution when she was appointed chairperson of the Daughters of the American Revolution committee to research and design Missouri's flag. Oliver researched state flags extensively. She wrote each state's secretary of state for information about how their state's flags had been designed and officially adopted. Her original design incorporated Missouri's coat of arms and was rendered as a painted paper flag by her friend Mary Kochitzky.

The flag was brought to the Missouri State Capitol in 1908 and bills to adopt the flag as the official flag of Missouri were introduced by Senator Arthur L. Oliver, her nephew, in 1909 and 1911. Both bills failed to pass in the House. A competing flag design, by G. H. Holcomb and referred to as the "Holcomb flag", was opposed due to its resemblance to the flag of the United States and its lack of Missouri symbolism. Oliver's original paper flag was destroyed when the Missouri State Capitol burned in 1911. With Mrs. S. D. MacFarland, Oliver sewed a second flag out of silk. Her design was adopted on March 22, 1913, when governor Elliot Woolfolk Major signed the Oliver Flag Bill. The flag design remains unchanged to this day. The silk flag was kept by Marie Oliver until 1961 when her son Allen gave it to the state of Missouri. The flag was displayed until it began to deteriorate and was put into storage. In 1988, Secretary of State Roy D. Blunt issued a challenge to elementary students to raise money to restore the flag. The campaign was successful and the restored flag has been displayed in the James C. Kirkpatrick State Information Center in Jefferson City ever since.

The Oliver-Leming House, also known as the Home of the Missouri State Flag, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

Design
The flag is a tricolor consisting of three horizontal stripes of red, white and blue which resembles the flag of the Netherlands. These represent valor, purity, vigilance, and justice. The colors also reflect the state's historic status as part of French Louisiana. In the center white stripe is the seal of Missouri, circled by a blue band containing 24 stars, symbolizing Missouri's admission as the 24th U.S. state. The seal itself also contains 24 stars, and incorporates the Great Seal of the United States, which contains a further 13 stars, bringing the flag's grand total to 61 stars. The seal further includes the state motto, Salus Populi Suprema Lex Esto, which translates from Latin as "The health (welfare, good, salvation, felicity) of the people should be the supreme law." The flag is described in Section 010.020 of Missouri's Revised Statutes. There are no known examples of mass-produced Missouri state flags in compliance with the RSMo due to the 7:12 proportions.

It is one of two U.S. state flags to feature a bear, the other being the flag of California. It is also one of nine U.S. state flags to feature an eagle, alongside those of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania and Wyoming.

In 2001, the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members on the designs of the 72 U.S. state, U.S. territorial and Canadian provincial flags. The Missouri flag ranked in the bottom 25, 48th out of the 72.

title: Flag of Missouri


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Reserve currency

A reserve currency is a foreign currency that is held in significant quantities by central banks or other monetary authorities as part of their foreign exchange reserves. The reserve currency can be used in international transactions, international investments and all aspects of the global economy. It is often considered a hard currency or safe-haven currency.

The United Kingdom's pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. However, by the middle of the 20th century, the United States dollar had become the world's dominant reserve currency.

History
Reserve currencies have come and gone with the evolution of the world’s geopolitical order. International currencies in the past have (excluding those discussed below) included the Greek drachma, coined in the fifth century B.C.E., the Roman denarii, the Byzantine solidus and Islamic dinar of the middle-ages and the French franc.

The Venetian ducat and the Florentine florin became the gold-based currency of choice between Europe and the Arab world from the 13th to 16th centuries, since gold was easier than silver to mint in standard sizes and transport over long distances. It was the Spanish silver dollar, however, which created the first true global reserve currency recognized in Europe, Asia and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries due to abundant silver supplies from Spanish America.

While the Dutch guilder was a reserve currency of somewhat lesser scope, used between Europe and the territories of the Dutch colonial empire from the 17th to 18th centuries, it was also a silver standard currency fed with the output of Spanish-American mines flowing through the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch, through the Amsterdam Wisselbank (the Bank of Amsterdam), were also the first to establish a reserve currency whose monetary unit was stabilized using practices familiar to modern central banking (as opposed to the Spanish dollar stabilized through American mine output and Spanish fiat) and which can be considered as the precursor to modern-day monetary policy.

It was therefore the Dutch which served as the model for bank money and reserve currencies stabilized by central banks, with the establishment of Bank of England in 1694 and the Bank of France in the 19th century. The British pound sterling, in particular, was poised to dislodge the Spanish dollar's hegemony as the rest of the world transitioned to the gold standard in the last quarter of the 19th century. At that point, the UK was the primary exporter of manufactured goods and services, and over 60% of world trade was invoiced in pounds sterling. British banks were also expanding overseas; London was the world centre for insurance and commodity markets and British capital was the leading source of foreign investment around the world; sterling soon became the standard currency used for international commercial transactions.

Attempts were made in the interwar period to restore the gold standard. The British Gold Standard Act reintroduced the gold bullion standard in 1925, followed by many other countries. This led to relative stability, followed by deflation, but because the onset of the Great Depression and other factors, global trade greatly declined and the gold standard fell. Speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain entirely off the gold standard in 1931.

After World War II, the international financial system was governed by a formal agreement, the Bretton Woods system. Under this system, the United States dollar (USD) was placed deliberately as the anchor of the system, with the US government guaranteeing other central banks that they could sell their US dollar reserves at a fixed rate for gold.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the system suffered setbacks ostensibly due to problems pointed out by the Triffin dilemma—the conflict of economic interests that arises between short-term domestic objectives and long-term international objectives when a national currency also serves as a world reserve currency.

Additionally, in 1971 President Richard Nixon suspended the convertibility of the USD to gold, thus creating a fully fiat global reserve currency system. However, gold has persisted as a significant reserve asset since the collapse of the classical gold standard.

Following the 2020 economic recession, the IMF opined about the emergence of "A New Bretton Woods Moment" which could imply the need for a new global reserve currency system. (see below: § Calls for an alternative reserve currency)

Global currency reserves
The IMF publishes the aggregated Currency Composition of Foreign Exchange Reserves (COFER) each quarter. The reserves of the individual reporting countries and institutions are confidential. Thus the following table is a limited view about the global currency reserves that only deals with allocated (i.e. reported) reserves:

Theory
Economists debate whether a single reserve currency will always dominate the global economy. Many have recently argued that one currency will almost always dominate due to network externalities (sometimes called "the network effect"), especially in the field of invoicing trade and denominating foreign debt securities, meaning that there are strong incentives to conform to the choice that dominates the marketplace. The argument is that, in the absence of sufficiently large shocks, a currency that dominates the marketplace will not lose much ground to challengers.

However, some economists, such as Barry Eichengreen, argue that this is not as true when it comes to the denomination of official reserves because the network externalities are not strong. As long as the currency's market is sufficiently liquid, the benefits of reserve diversification are strong, as it insures against large capital losses. The implication is that the world may well soon begin to move away from a financial system dominated uniquely by the US dollar. In the first half of the 20th century, multiple currencies did share the status as primary reserve currencies. Although the British Sterling was the largest currency, both the French franc and the German mark shared large portions of the market until the First World War, after which the mark was replaced by the dollar. Since the Second World War, the dollar has dominated official reserves, but this is likely a reflection of the unusual domination of the American economy during this period, as well as official discouragement of reserve status from the potential rivals, Germany and Japan.

The top reserve currency is generally selected by the banking community for the strength and stability of the economy in which it is used. Thus, as a currency becomes less stable, or its economy becomes less dominant, bankers may over time abandon it for a currency issued by a larger or more stable economy. This can take a relatively long time, as recognition is important in determining a reserve currency. For example, it took many years after the United States overtook the United Kingdom as the world's largest economy before the dollar overtook the pound sterling as the dominant global reserve currency. In 1944, when the US dollar was chosen as the world reference currency at Bretton Woods, it was only the second currency in global reserves.

The G8 also frequently issues public statements as to exchange rates. In the past due to the Plaza Accord, its predecessor bodies could directly manipulate rates to reverse large trade deficits.

United States dollar
The United States dollar is the most widely held currency in the allocated reserves. As of the fourth quarter of 2022, the USD accounted for 58.36% of official foreign exchange reserves. This makes it somewhat easier for the United States to run higher trade deficits with greatly postponed economic ramifications or even postponing a currency crisis. Central bank US dollar reserves, however, are small compared to private holdings of such debt. If non-United States holders of dollar-denominated assets decided to shift holdings to assets denominated in other currencies, then there could be serious consequences for the US economy. The decline of the pound sterling took place gradually over time, and the markets involved adjusted accordingly.

However, the US dollar remains the preferred reserve currency because of its stability along with assets such as United States Treasury security that have both scale and liquidity.

The US dollar's position in global reserves is often questioned because of the growing share of unallocated reserves, and because of the doubt regarding dollar stability in the long term. However, in the aftermath of the 2008 to 2010 financial crisis, the dollar's share in the world's foreign-exchange trades rose slightly from 85% in 2010 to 87% in 2013.

The dollar's role as the undisputed reserve currency of the world allows the United States to impose unilateral sanctions against actions performed between other countries, for example the American fine against BNP Paribas for violations of U.S. sanctions that were not laws of France or the other countries involved in the transactions. In 2014, China and Russia signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement to get around European and American sanctions on their behaviors.

Euro
The euro is currently the second most commonly held reserve currency, representing about 20% of international foreign currency reserves. After World War II and the rebuilding of the German economy, the German mark gained the status of the second most important reserve currency after the US dollar. When the euro was introduced on 1 January 1999, replacing the mark, French franc and ten other European currencies, it inherited the status of a major reserve currency from the mark. Since then, its contribution to official reserves has risen continually as banks seek to diversify their reserves, and trade in the eurozone continues to expand.

After the euro's share of global official foreign exchange reserves approached 25% as of year-end 2006 (vs 65% for the U.S. dollar; see table above), some experts have predicted that the euro could replace the dollar as the world's primary reserve currency. See Alan Greenspan, 2007; and Frankel, Chinn (2006) who explained how it could happen by 2020. However, as of 2022 none of this has come to fruition due to the European debt crisis which engulfed the PIIGS countries from 2009 to 2014. Instead the euro's stability and future existence was put into doubt, and its share of global reserves was cut to 19% by year-end 2015 (vs 66% for the USD). As of year-end 2020 these figures stand at 21% for EUR and 59% for USD.

Pound sterling
The United Kingdom's pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. That status ended when the UK almost bankrupted itself fighting World War I and World War II and its place was taken by the United States dollar.

In the 1950s, 55% of global reserves were still held in sterling; but the share was 10% lower within 20 years.

The establishment of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913 and the economic vacuum following the World Wars facilitated the emergence of the United States as an economic superpower.

, the pound sterling represented the fourth largest proportion (by USD equivalent value) of foreign currency reserves and 4.78% of those reserves.

Japanese yen
Japan's yen is part of the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) special drawing rights (SDR) valuation. The SDR currency value is determined daily by the IMF, based on the exchange rates of the currencies making up the basket, as quoted at noon at the London market. The valuation basket is reviewed and adjusted every five years.

The SDR Values and yen conversion for government procurement are used by the Japan External Trade Organization for Japan's official procurement in international trade.

Chinese renminbi
The Chinese renminbi officially became a supplementary forex reserve asset on 1 October 2016. It represents 10.92% of the IMF's Special Drawing Rights (SDR) currency basket. The Chinese renmimbi is the third reserve currency after the U.S. dollar and euro within the basket of currencies in the SDR. (As shown in the table above, the renmimbi is the fifth largest component of international currency reserves.)

Canadian dollar
A number of central banks (and commercial banks) keep Canadian dollars as a reserve currency. In the economy of the Americas, the Canadian dollar plays a similar role to that played by the Australian dollar (AUD) in the Asia-Pacific region. The Canadian dollar (as a regional reserve currency for banking) has been an important part of the British, French and Dutch Caribbean states' economies and finance systems since the 1950s. The Canadian dollar is also held by many central banks in Central America and South America. It is held in Latin America because of remittances and international trade in the region.

Because Canada's primary foreign-trade relationship is with the United States, Canadian consumers, economists, and many businesses primarily define and value the Canadian dollar in terms of the United States dollar. Thus, by observing how the Canadian dollar floats in terms of the US dollar, foreign-exchange economists can indirectly observe internal behaviours and patterns in the US economy that could not be seen by direct observation. Also, because it is considered a petrodollar, the Canadian dollar has only fully evolved into a global reserve currency since the 1970s, when it was floated against all other world currencies.

The Canadian dollar, from 2013 to 2017, was ranked fifth among foreign currency reserves in the world, overtaking Australian Dollar, but is then being overtaken by Chinese Yuan.

Swiss franc
The Swiss franc, despite gaining ground among the world's foreign-currency reserves and being often used in denominating foreign loans, cannot be considered as a world reserve currency, since the share of all foreign exchange reserves held in Swiss francs has historically been well below 0.5%. The daily trading market turnover of the franc, however, ranked fifth, or about 3.4%, among all currencies in a 2007 survey by the Bank for International Settlements.

Calls for an alternative reserve currency
John Maynard Keynes proposed the bancor, a supranational currency to be used as unit of account in international trade, as reserve currency under the Bretton Woods Conference of 1945. The bancor was rejected in favor of the U.S. dollar.

A report released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in 2010, called for abandoning the U.S. dollar as the single major reserve currency. The report states that the new reserve system should not be based on a single currency or even multiple national currencies but instead permit the emission of international liquidity to create a more stable global financial system.

Countries such as Russia and China, central banks, and economic analysts and groups, such as the Gulf Cooperation Council, have expressed a desire to see an independent new currency replace the dollar as the reserve currency. However, it is recognized that the US dollar remains the strongest reserve currency.

On 10 July 2009, Russian President Medvedev proposed a new 'World currency' at the G8 meeting in London as an alternative reserve currency to replace the dollar.

At the beginning of the 21st century, gold and crude oil were still priced in dollars, which helps export inflation and has brought complaints about OPEC's policies of managing oil quotas to maintain dollar price stability.

Due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine and international sanctions, Russia has used the United Arab Emirates dirham as a neutral currency when selling oil to India.

Special drawing rights
Some have proposed the use of the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) special drawing rights (SDRs) as a reserve. The value of SDRs are calculated from a basket determined by the IMF of key international currencies, which as of 2016 consisted of the United States dollar, euro, renminbi, yen, and pound sterling.

Ahead of a G20 summit in 2009, China distributed a paper that proposed using SDRs for clearing international payments and eventually as a reserve currency to replace the U.S. dollar.

On 3 September 2009, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) issued a report calling for a new reserve currency based on the SDR, managed by a new global reserve bank. The IMF released a report in February 2011, stating that using SDRs "could help stabilize the global financial system." The SDR itself is only a minuscule fraction of global currency reserves.

Cryptocurrencies
According to some experts, digital cryptocurrencies could potentially replace fiat currencies as a possible global reserve currency.

title: Reserve currency