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Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia

Alexei Nikolaevich (Алексе́й Никола́евич) (12 August [O.S. 30 July] 1904 – 17 July 1918) was the last Tsesarevich (heir apparent to the throne of the Russian Empire). He was the youngest child and only son of Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. He was born with haemophilia, which his parents tried treating with the methods of peasant faith healer Grigori Rasputin.

After the February Revolution of 1917, the Romanovs were sent into internal exile in Tobolsk, Siberia. After the October Revolution, the family was initially to be tried in a court of law, before the intensification of the Russian Civil War made execution increasingly favorable in the eyes of the Soviet government. With White Army soldiers rapidly approaching, the Ural Regional Soviet ordered the murder of Alexei, the rest of his family, and four remaining retainers on 17 July 1918. Rumors persisted for decades that Alexei had escaped his execution, with multiple impostors claiming his identity. Alexei's remains, along with those of his sister Maria (or Anastasia), were ultimately discovered in a secondary grave near the rest of the Romanov family in 2007. On 17 July 1998, the 80th anniversary of their execution, Alexei's parents, three of his sisters, and the four retainers, were formally interred in the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul, while Alexei's and Maria's (or Anastasia's) bones remain in Russian state archives. The Romanov family was canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church in 2000.

Alexei is sometimes known to Russian legitimists as Alexei II after his ancestor Alexis of Russia, as until his death they do not recognize the abdication of his father in favor of his uncle Grand Duke Michael as lawful.

Appearance and personality
Alexei was a handsome boy, and he bore a striking resemblance to his mother. His tutor Pierre Gilliard described the 18-month-old Alexei as "one of the handsomest babies one could imagine, with his lovely fair curls and his great blue-grey eyes under their fringe of long curling lashes". A few years later, Gilliard described Alexei as tall for his age, with "a long, finely chiseled face, delicate features, auburn hair with a coppery glint, and large grey-blue eyes like his mother". Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, his mother's lady-in-waiting, reflected that "he was a pretty child, tall for his age, with regular features, splendid dark blue eyes with a spark of mischief in them, brown hair, and an upright figure".

Alexei was proud of and enjoyed his position as Tsarevich. Buxhoeveden reflected that "he knew and felt that he was the Tsarevich, and from babyhood mechanically took his place in front of his elder sisters". He liked being kissed on the hand by the officers and "didn't miss his chance to boast about it and give himself airs in front of his sisters". He enjoyed jumping in front of the guards at the front of the Alexander Palace, who would immediately salute him as he walked past. Nicholas forbade the guards to salute Alexei unless another member of the family accompanied him. Alexei was embarrassed "when the salute failed him", which "marked his first taste of discipline". On one occasion, he ordered all of the Finnish officers on various ships to stand before him on the deck of the Standart. He began commanding them, but the Finnish officers did not understand Russian and stood in confusion until an aide informed them that Alexei wanted to hear them say, "We wish you health, your Imperial Highness." When he was told that a group of officers had arrived to call on him, the 6-year-old Alexei told his sisters, "Now girls, run away. I am busy. Someone has just called to see me on business." Also at 6, he walked into his father's study and saw the Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky waiting to see Nicholas. Izvolsky remained sitting, and Alexei screamed, "When the heir to the Russian Throne enters a room, people must get up!"

Alexei's parents indulged his tantrums and mischievous behavior, and they rarely punished him. In 1906, Alexei and his family went on a cruise to Finland. In the middle of the night, the 2-year-old Alexei commanded the ship's band to wake up and play for him. Instead of punishing Alexei, Nicholas joked "that's the way to bring up an autocrat!" Nicholas called Alexei "Alexei the Terrible."

Alexei loved to attend army inspections with his father. When he was 3, he wore a miniature army uniform and played with a toy wooden rifle. From birth, he had the title of "Hetman of all the Cossacks." He wore a miniature uniform of a sailor of the Russian navy, and he had his own Cossack uniform with a fur cap, boots, and dagger. He ended his daily prayers with "Hurrah!" instead of "amen". When asked why, he replied that the soldiers on parade always said "Hurrah!" when his father finished speaking, so he should greet his Heavenly Father in the same way. Before he understood the nature of his disease, he said that he wanted to be a warrior-tsar and lead armies as his ancestors had.

Alexei resented that he was forbidden from doing what other boys could do because of his hemophilia. When his mother forbade him to ride a bike and play tennis, he asked angrily, "Why can other boys have everything and I nothing?" All four of his sisters were accomplished horsewomen, but he was forbidden from horseriding.

Alexei had few friends his age and was often lonely. Alexandra did not allow Alexei to play with his Romanov cousins because she was worried that they would knock him down when playing and he might bleed. Alexei's companions were his sailor-nanny Derevenko's two young sons. Derevenko watched them as they played, and he chastised his children if they played too roughly with Alexei.

Alexei was close with his sisters. Gilliard wrote that they "brought into his life an element of youthful merriment that otherwise would have been sorely missed".

Despite the hemophilia, Alexei was adventurous and restless. Doctor Eugene Botkin's children noticed Alexei's inability to "stay in any place or at any game for any length of time". When he was 7, he stole a bicycle and rode it around the palace. Shocked, Nicholas ordered every guard to pursue and capture Alexei. At a children's party, Alexei began jumping from table to table. When Derevenko tried to stop him, Alexei shouted, "All grown-ups have to go!" Recognizing Alexei's energetic nature, Nicholas ordered that Alexei be allowed "to do everything that other children of his age were wont to do, and not to restrain him unless it was absolutely necessary".

Alexei was disobedient and difficult to control. Olga could not manage Alexei's "peevish temper". The only person he obeyed was his father. Sydney Gibbes noted that "one word [from Nicholas] was always enough to exact implicit obedience from [Alexei]". Buxhoeveden remembered that Alexei had once thrown her parasol in the river, and Nicholas had chastised Alexei: "That is not the way for a gentleman to behave to a lady. I am ashamed of you, Alexei." After his father scolded him, Alexei was "scarlet in the face" and apologized to Sophie.

As a small child, Alexei occasionally played pranks on guests. At a formal dinner party, Alexei removed the shoe of a female guest from under the table, and showed it to his father. Nicholas sternly told the boy to return the "trophy", which Alexei did after placing a large ripe strawberry into the toe of the shoe.

As he grew up, Alexei became more thoughtful and considerate. When he was 9, he sent a collection of his favorite jingles to Gleb Botkin, Eugene Botkin's son. He asked Gleb, who was talented at drawing, to illustrate the jingles. He attached a note: "To illustrate and write the jingles under the drawings. Alexei." Before handing the note to Eugene Botkin, he crossed out his signature and explained, "If I send that paper to Gleb with my signature on it, then it would be an order which Gleb would have to obey. But I mean it only as a request and he doesn't have to do it if he doesn't want to."

Alexei enjoyed playing the balalaika.

Alexei's favorite pet was a spaniel named Joy. Nicholas gave Alexei an old performing donkey named Vanka. Alexei gave sugar cubes to Vanka, and Vanka pulled Alexei around the park in a sled during the winter.

According to Gilliard, Alexei was a simple, affectionate child, but the court spoiled him by the "servile flattery" of the servants and "silly adulations" of the people around him. Once, a deputation of peasants came to bring presents to Alexei. Derevenko required that they kneel before Alexei. Gilliard remarked that the Tsarevich was "embarrassed and blushed violently", and when asked if he liked seeing people on their knees before him, he said, "Oh no, but Derevenko says it must be so!". When Gilliard encouraged Alexei to "stop Derevenko insisting on it", he said that he "dare not". When Gilliard took the matter up with Derevenko, he said that Alexei was "delighted to be freed from this irksome formality".

"Alexei was the center of this united family, the focus of all its hopes and affections", wrote Gilliard. "His sisters worshipped him. He was his parents' pride and joy. When he was well, the palace was transformed. Everyone and everything in it seemed bathed in sunshine."

Gilliard eventually convinced Alexei's parents that granting the boy greater autonomy would help him develop better self-control. Alexei took advantage of his unaccustomed freedom, and began to outgrow some of his earlier foibles. Courtiers reported that his illness made him sensitive to the hurts of others.

Due to his disease, Alexei understood that he might not live to adulthood. When he was ten, his older sister Olga found him lying on his back looking at the clouds and asked him what he was doing. "I like to think and wonder", Alexei replied. Olga asked him what he liked to think about. "Oh, so many things", the boy responded. "I enjoy the sun and the beauty of summer as long as I can. Who knows whether one of these days I shall not be prevented from doing it?"

Nicholas' Colonel Mordinov remembered Alexei: "He had what we Russians usually call 'a golden heart'. He easily felt an attachment to people, he liked them and tried to do his best to help them, especially when it seemed to him that someone was unjustly hurt. His love, like that of his parents, was based mainly on pity. Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich was an awfully lazy, but very capable boy (I think, he was lazy precisely because he was capable), he easily grasped everything, he was thoughtful and keen beyond his years ... Despite his good nature and compassion, he undoubtedly promised to possess a firm and independent character in the future."

Early years

Alexei was born on 12 August 1904 in Peterhof Palace, St. Petersburg Governorate, Russian Empire. He was the youngest of five children of Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. His father was the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Princess Dagmar of Denmark, and his mother was the sixth child of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom. His paternal great-grandparents were Alexander II of Russia, Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Kassel, while his maternal great-grandparents were Queen Victoria and her husband Albert, Prince Consort. His older sisters were the Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia.

Alexei's birth was greeted with widespread joy, because he was the first son Nicholas had had after four daughters. When she woke up from the chloroform, Alexandra saw the happy faces around her and exclaimed, "Oh, it cannot be true. It cannot be true. Is it really a boy?" Nicholas wrote in his diary that today was "a great and "unforgettable day for us. . . there are no words to thank God enough for sending us this comfort in a time of sore trials." According to Grand Duke Constantine Constantinovich of Russia, Nicholas' younger brother Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich "was radiant with happiness at no longer being heir." Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden remembered that "we were nearly deafened by the church bells ringing all day". St. Petersburg "was ablaze with flags" and "the people gave themselves over to public rejoicing." Nicholas granted political amnesty to prisoners and set up a fund for military and naval scholarships.

Nicholas named Alexei after Alexis of Russia, his favorite emperor. His doting family called him "Baby." He was later also affectionately referred to as Alyosha (Алёша).

As soon as he was born, Alexei was granted the title of tsarevich and heir apparent to the Imperial Throne of Russia. An official announcement read, "From now on, in accordance with the Fundamental Laws of the Empire, the Imperial title of Heir Tsarevich, and all the rights pertaining to it, belong to Our Son Alexei.".

Alexei was christened on 3 September 1904 in the chapel in Peterhof Palace. His principal godparents were his paternal grandmother and his great-uncle, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich. His other godparents included his oldest sister, Olga; his great-grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark; King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, the Prince of Wales and Wilhelm II, German Emperor. As Russia was at war with Japan, all active soldiers and officers of the Russian Army and Navy were named honorary godfathers.

The christening marked the first time that some of the younger members of the Imperial Family, including some of the younger sons of Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich; the Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana; and their cousin Princess Irina Alexandrovna, attended an official ceremony. For the occasion, the boys wore miniature military uniforms, and the girls wore smaller versions of the court dress and little kokoshniks. The sermon was delivered by John of Kronstadt. The baby was carried to the font by the elderly Princess Maria Mikhailovna Galitzine, Mistress of the Robes. As a precaution, she had rubber soles put on her shoes to prevent her slipping and dropping him.

Countess Sophie Buxhoeveden recalled: "The baby lay on a pillow of cloth of gold, slung to the Princess's shoulders by a broad gold band. He was covered with the heavy cloth-of-gold mantle, lined with ermine, worn by the heir to the crown. The mantle was supported on one side by Prince Alexander Sergeiovich Dolgorouky, the Grand Marshal of the Court, and on the other by Count [Paul] Benckendorff, as decreed by custom and wise precaution. The baby wept loudly, as might any ordinary baby when old Father Yanishev dipped him in the font. His four small sisters, in short Court dresses, gazed open-eyed at the ceremony, Olga Nicholaevna, then nine years old, being in the important position of one of the godmothers. According to Russian custom, the Emperor and Empress were not present at the baptism, but directly after the ceremony, the Emperor went to the church. Both he and the Empress always confessed to feeling very nervous on these occasions, for fear that the Princess might slip, or that Father Yanishev, who was very old, might drop the baby in the font."

Hemophilia

Alexei inherited hemophilia from his mother Alexandra, an X chromosome hereditary condition that typically affects males, which she had acquired through the line of her maternal grandmother Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. It was known as the "Royal Disease" because so many descendants of the intermarried European royal families had it (or carried it, in the case of females). In 2009, genetic analysis determined that Alexei had hemophilia B.

At first, Alexei seemed like a healthy, ordinary baby. He weighed 11 pounds at birth. His paternal aunt Xenia wrote that "he's an amazingly hefty baby with a chest like a barrel and generally has the air of a warrior knight." After his umbilical cord was cut, his navel continued to bleed for hours and his blood did not clot. Nicholas wrote that Alexei lost "1/8 to 1/9 of the total quantity" of his blood in 48 hours. Nicholas reflected in his diary that "Alix and I were very alarmed by the bleeding of young Alexei that came at intervals from his umbilical cord until evening. How painful it is to experience such anxieties!"

Nicholas and Alexandra decided not to reveal what Alexei's disease was to the Russian public or even to family members. After Alexei's first bleeding attack, Alexandra wrote, "Oh, what anguish it was... not to let others see the knife digging in one." According to his French tutor, Pierre Gilliard, the nature of his illness was kept a state secret.

There were rumors about what Alexei's disease was, because of the secrecy around it. Guesses ranged from a "certain form of infantile tuberculosis which gives rise to acute alarm" to "one of the layers of his skin was missing." An American magazine ascribed Alexei's "ill health" to "the misfortune that so many residences of the Tzars leave much to be desired from the point of view of sanitary science." After Alexei's life-threatening hemorrhage at Spala, the American press speculated that Alexei had been stabbed "during an unguarded moment" by a "nihilist." The Times observed that the "incomprehensible silence of the Court bulletins" gave "free scope to the sensation-mongers."

When he was 5, Alexei was assigned two navy sailors who monitored him at all times to ensure that he wouldn't injure himself. His parents appointed two sailors from the Imperial Navy: Petty Officer Andrei Derevenko and his assistant Seaman Klementy Nagorny. Anna Vyrubova, Alexandra's friend, remembered that "Derevenko was so patient and resourceful, that he often did wonders in alleviating the pain. I can still hear the plaintive voice of Alexis begging the big sailor, 'Lift my arm,' 'Put up my leg,' 'Warm my hands,' and I can see the patient, calm-eyed man working for hours to give comfort to the little pain-wracked limbs."

His hemophilia was so severe that trivial injuries such as a bruise, a nosebleed or a cut were potentially life-threatening. His parents constantly worried about him. In addition, the recurring episodes of illness and long recoveries interfered greatly with Alexei's childhood and education.

Nicholas and Alexandra believed that Grigori Rasputin, a peasant monk, had the power to heal Alexei. Due to the secrecy around Alexei's condition, there are few records about Alexei's attacks and how often Rasputin treated him.

In the autumn of 1907, Alexei fell and hurt his leg when he was playing in the Alexander Park. The fall triggered an internal hemorrhage. His paternal aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia reflected that "the poor child lay in such pain, dark patches under his eyes and his little body all distorted, and the leg terribly swollen." The doctors could do nothing. Alexandra telegraphed Princess Anastasia of Montenegro and asked her to find Rasputin. Rasputin prayed over Alexei and told Alexei "Your pain is going away. You will soon be well. You must thank God for healing you. And now, go to sleep." Soon after Rasputin left, the swelling in Alexei's leg went down. Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia was amazed by Alexei's swift recovery, and she wrote that the next morning Alexei "was not just alive – but well. He was sitting up in bed, the fever gone, the eyes clear and bright, not a sign of any swelling on his leg."

In September 1912, Alexei and his family visited their hunting retreat in the Białowieża Forest. On 5 September Alexei jumped into a rowboat and hit his groin on the oarlocks. A large bruise appeared within minutes but in a week reduced in size. In mid-September, the family moved to Spała (then in Russian Poland). On 2 October, Alexei accompanied his mother on a drive in the woods. The "juddering of the carriage had caused still healing hematoma in his upper thigh to rupture and start bleeding again." He had to be carried out of the carriage in an almost unconscious state. His temperature rose, his heartbeat dropped, and he hemorrhaged in his upper thigh and abdomen. For 11 days, he screamed "O Lord have mercy on me!" and begged Alexandra, "Mama, help me!" He asked Alexandra to "build me a little monument of stones in the woods" and asked "When I'm dead, it won't hurt any more, will it?" Alexandra never left his bedside, and she refused to rest or eat. Nicholas "took turns with Alix to sit with Alexei," but he "rushed weeping bitterly to his study" when he saw Alexei scream. On 6 October, Alexei's fever rose to 39 degrees and he hemorrhaged into his stomach. On 8 October, Alexei received the last sacrament. Alexei's tutor, Pierre Gilliard, wrote to his children, "Pray, my children, pray daily and fervently for our precious heir." On 10 October, a medical bulletin announcing Alexei's impending death was published in the newspapers.

On 9 October, Alexandra asked her lady-in-waiting and best friend, Anna Vyrubova, to secure the help of Rasputin. According to his daughter, Rasputin received the telegram on 12 October. On 9 October, Alexandra received a short telegram from Rasputin: "The little one will not die. Do not allow the doctors [c.q. Eugene Botkin and Vladimir Derevenko] to bother him too much." Alexei's temperature dropped, and he began to improve. According to General Mosolov, the doctors "seemed in utter consternation" at Alexei's sudden recovery. On 10 October, Doctor Eugene Botkin wrote to his children that "our priceless patient" was "undoubtedly significantly better." The positive trend continued throughout the next day. On 19 October Alexei's condition was much better and the hematoma disappeared. The boy had to undergo orthopedic therapy to straighten his left leg. Feodorov confirmed that Alexei's recovery was "wholly inexplicable, from a medical point of view."

According to Pierre Gilliard's 1921 memoir, "The Tsar had resisted the influence of Rasputin for a long time. At the beginning he had tolerated him because he dare not weaken the Tsarina's faith in him – a faith which kept her alive. He did not like to send him away for, if Alexei Nicolaievich had died, in the eyes of the mother he would have been the murderer of his own son."

Observers and scholars have offered suggestions for Rasputin's apparent positive effect on Alexei: he used hypnotism, administered herbs to the boy, or his advice to prevent too much action by the doctors aided the boy's healing. Others speculated that, with the information he got from his confidante at the court, lady-in-waiting Anna Vyrubova, Rasputin timed his "interventions" for times when Alexei was already recovering, and claimed all the credit. Court physician Botkin believed that Rasputin was a charlatan and that his apparent healing powers were based on the use of hypnosis but Rasputin did not become interested in this practice before 1913 and his teacher Gerasim Papandato was expelled from St. Petersburg. Felix Yusupov, one of Rasputin's enemies, suggested that he secretly gave Alexei Tibetan herbs which he got from quack doctor Peter Badmayev, but these drugs were rejected by the court. Maria Rasputin believed her father exercised magnetism.

Writers from the 1920s had a variety of explanations for the apparent effects of Rasputin. Greg King thinks such explanations fail to take into account those times when Rasputin apparently healed the boy, despite being 2600 km (1650 miles) away. For historian Fuhrmann, these ideas on hypnosis and drugs flourished because the Imperial Family lived in such isolation from the wider world. ("They lived almost as much apart from Russian society as if they were settlers in Canada." ) Moynahan says, "There is no evidence that Rasputin ever summoned up spirits, or felt the need to; he won his admirers through force of personality, not by tricks." Shelley said that the secret of Rasputin's power lay in the sense of calm, gentle strength, and shining warmth of conviction. Radzinsky wrote in 2000 that Rasputin believed he truly possessed a supernatural healing ability or that his prayers to God saved the boy.

Gilliard, the French historian Hélène Carrère d'Encausse and Diarmuid Jeffreys, a journalist, speculated that Rasputin may have halted the administration of aspirin. This pain-relieving analgesic had been available since 1899 but would have worsened Alexei's condition. Because aspirin is an antiaggregant and has blood-thinning properties; it prevents clotting, and promotes bleeding which could have caused the hemarthrosis. The "anti-inflammatory drug" would have worsened Alexei's joints' swelling and pain. According to historian M. Nelipa, Robert K. Massie was correct to suggest that psychological factors play a part in the course of the disease.

Childhood

During World War I, he lived with his father at army headquarters in Mogilev for long stretches of time and observed military life. Alexei became one of the first Boy Scouts in Russia.

In December 1916, Major-General Sir John Hanbury-Williams, head of the British military at Stavka, received word of the death of his son in action with the British Expeditionary Force in France. Tsar Nicholas sent twelve-year-old Alexei to sit with the grieving father. "Papa told me to come sit with you as he thought you might feel lonely tonight," Alexei told the general. Alexei, like all the Romanov men, grew up wearing sailor uniforms and playing at war from the time he was a toddler. His father began to prepare him for his future role as Tsar by inviting Alexei to sit in on long meetings with government ministers.

Stavka

During World War I, Alexei joined his father at Stavka, when his father became the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in 1915. Alexei seemed to like military life very much and became very playful and energetic. In one of his father's notes to his mother, he said "[I] have come in from the garden with wet sleeves and boots as Alexei sprayed us at the fountain. It is his favorite game [...] peals of laughter ring out. I keep an eye, in order to see that things do not go too far." Alexei even ate the soldiers' black bread, and refused when he was offered a meal that he would eat in his palace, saying "It's not what soldiers eat". In December 1915, Rasputin was invited to see Alexei when the 11-year-old boy was accidentally thrown against the window of a train and his nose began to bleed.

In 1916, he was given the title of Lance Corporal, of which he was very proud. Alexei's favorites were the foreigners of Belgium, Britain, France, Japan, Italy, and Serbia, and in favor, adopted him as their mascot. Hanbury-Williams, whom Alexei liked, wrote: "As time went on and his shyness wore off he treated us like old friends and [...] had always some bit fun with us. With me it was to make sure that each button on my coat was properly fastened, a habit which naturally made me take great care to have one or two unbuttoned, in which case he used to at once to stop and tell me that I was 'untidy again,' give a sigh at my lack of attention to these details and stop and carefully button me up again."

Imprisonment of the Imperial family

The imperial family was arrested following the February Revolution of 1917, which resulted in the abdication of Nicholas II. When he was in captivity at Tobolsk, Alexei complained in his diary that he was "bored" and begged God to have "mercy" on him. He was permitted to play occasionally with Kolya, the son of one of his doctors, and with a kitchen boy named Leonid Sednev. As he became older, Alexei seemed to tempt fate and injure himself on purpose. While in Siberia, he rode a sled down the stairs of the prison house and injured himself in the groin. The hemorrhage was very bad, and he was so ill that he could not be moved immediately when the Bolsheviks relocated his parents and older sister Maria to Yekaterinburg in April 1918. However, neither Nicholas II nor Empress Alexandra mention anything about a sledding accident in their diaries, and in fact primary resources such as letters of Empress Alexandra and the diaries of both Nicholas II and Alexandra state that the haemorrhage was caused by a coughing fit. On 30 March (12 April) 1918, Empress Alexandra recorded in her diary: 'Baby stays in bed as fr[om] coughing so hard has a slight haemorrhage in the abdom[en]. Every day from then onwards until her removal to Yekaterinburg, Alexandra recorded Alexei's condition in her diary. Alexei and his three remaining sisters joined the rest of the family weeks later. He was reliant on a wheelchair for the remaining weeks of his life.

Death
The Tsesarevich was murdered on 17 July 1918 aged 13 in the cellar room of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg. The killings were carried out by forces of the Bolshevik secret police under Yakov Yurovsky. According to one account of the execution, the family was told to get up and get dressed in the middle of the night because they were going to be moved. Nicholas II carried Alexei to the cellar room. His mother asked for chairs to be brought so that she and Alexei could sit down. When the family and their servants were settled, Yurovsky announced that they were to be executed. The firing squad first killed Nicholas, the Tsarina, and the two male servants. Alexei remained sitting in the chair, "terrified," before the assassins turned on him and shot at him repeatedly. The boy remained alive and the killers tried to stab him multiple times with bayonets. "Nothing seemed to work," wrote Yurovsky later. "Though injured, he continued to live." Unbeknownst to the killing squad, the Tsarevich's torso was protected by a shirt wrapped in precious gems that he wore beneath his tunic. Finally Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy's head, and he fell silent.

For decades (until all the bodies were found and identified, see below) conspiracy theorists suggested that one or more of the family somehow survived the slaughter. Several people claimed to be surviving members of the Romanov family following the assassinations. People who have pretended to be the Tsarevich include: Alexei Poutziato, Joseph Veres, Heino Tammet, Michael Goleniewski and Vassili Filatov. However, scientists considered it extremely unlikely that he escaped death, due to his lifelong hemophilia.

Discovery and identification of remains

On 23 August 2007, a Russian archaeologist announced the discovery of two burned, partial skeletons at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky's memoirs. The archaeologists said the bones are from a boy who was roughly between the ages of twelve and fifteen years at the time of his death and of a young woman who was roughly between the ages of fifteen and nineteen years old. Anastasia was seventeen years, one month old at the time of the assassination, while Maria was nineteen years, one month old. Alexei was two weeks shy of his fourteenth birthday. Alexei's elder sisters, Olga and Tatiana, were twenty-two and twenty-one years old, respectively, at the time of the assassination. Along with the remains of the two bodies, archaeologists found "shards of a container of sulfuric acid, nails, metal strips from a wooden box, and bullets of various caliber." The bones were found using metal detectors and metal rods as probes. Also, striped material was found that appeared to have been from a blue-and-white striped cloth; Alexei commonly wore a blue-and-white striped undershirt.

On 30 April 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing had proven that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and the Grand Duchess Maria. DNA information, made public in July 2008, that was obtained from the Yekaterinburg site and repeated independent testing by laboratories such as the University of Massachusetts Medical School revealed that the final two missing Romanov remains were indeed authentic and that the entire Romanov family lived in the Ipatiev House. In March 2009, results of the DNA testing were published, confirming that the two bodies discovered in 2007 were those of Tsarevich Alexei and Grand Duchess Maria.

Sainthood
The Romanov family had been canonized as holy martyrs in 1981 by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, which had developed among emigres after the Russian Revolution and the World Wars. After the decline of the Soviet Union, the government of Russia agreed with the Russian Orthodox Church to have the bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters (which were found at the execution site) interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 17 July 1998, eighty years after they were executed. In 2000, Alexei and his family were canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church.

As noted, the remains of Alexei and Maria's (or Anastasia's) bodies were found in 2008. As of 2015, Alexei's remains had not yet been interred with the rest of his family, as the Russian Orthodox Church has requested more DNA testing to ensure that his identity was confirmed.

Historical significance
Alexei was the heir apparent to the Romanov Throne. Paul I had passed laws forbidding women to succeed to the throne (unless there were no legitimate male dynasts left, in which case, the throne would pass to the closest female relative of the last Tsar). He had established this rule in revenge for what he perceived to have been the illegal behavior of his mother, Catherine II ("the Great"), in deposing his father Peter III.

Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on 15 March 1917. He did this in favour of his twelve-year-old son Alexei, who ascended the throne under a regency. Nicholas later decided to alter his original abdication. Whether that act had any legal validity is open to speculation. Nicholas consulted with doctors and others and realised that he would have to be separated from Alexei if he abdicated in favour of his son. Not wanting Alexei to be parted from the family in this crisis, Nicholas altered the abdication document in favour of his younger brother Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia. After receiving advice about whether his personal security could be guaranteed, Michael declined to accept the throne without the people's approval through an election held by the proposed Constituent Assembly. No such referendum was ever held.

Grigori Rasputin rose in political power because the Tsarina believed that he could heal Alexei's hemophilia, or his attacks. Rasputin advised the Tsar that the Great War would be won once he (Tsar Nicholas II) took command of the Russian Army. Following this advice was a serious mistake, as the Tsar had no military experience. The Tsarina, Empress Alexandra, a deeply religious woman, came to rely upon Rasputin and believe in his ability to help Alexei where conventional doctors had failed. Historian Robert K. Massie explored this theme in his book, Nicholas and Alexandra.

Massie contends that caring for Alexei seriously diverted the attention of his father, Nicholas II, and the rest of the Romanovs from the business of war and government.

Tsarevich Alexei Island (Остров Цесаревича Алексея), later renamed Maly Taymyr, was named in honour of Alexei by the 1913 Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition led by Boris Vilkitsky on behalf of the Russian Hydrographic Service.

Honours

 * Russian Empire:
 * Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle the First-called, 11 August 1904
 * Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky, 11 August 1904
 * Knight of the Imperial Order of the White Eagle, 11 August 1904
 * Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Anna, 1st Class, 11 August 1904
 * Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st Class, 11 August 1904
 * Saint George Medal, 4th Class, 17 October 1915
 * undefined: Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour, 8 July 1914
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 27 June 1909
 * Kingdom of Italy: Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, 25 October 1909
 * Qing dynasty: Imperial Order of the Double Dragon

Archives
Alexei's diary, which was presumably kept by his tutors and relates his daily activities for January and February 1917, is written in both French and English and is preserved in the "Grand Duchess Kseniia Aleksandrovna Papers" collection in the Hoover Institution Archives (Stanford, California, USA).

title: Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia


text:
Talk:Papal Infallibility

General questions and issues
"Papal Infallibility" is a proper noun? I'm grammatically confused then. FWIW, the Catholic Encyclopedia doesn't capitalize "papal infallibility" (except where it would capitalize common nouns, as in titles). , nor is it capitalized in the body of this article (nor do I think it should be - actually at present it's inconsistently capitalized there). I don't doubt that you've seen it somewhere consistently capitalized, but this is probably the result of specialists tending to overcapitalize words within their fields of expertise). -- Someone else 07:07 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * It is both a formal term and a description. It depends on the context as to whether it is capitalised. Where it is used in the context that we have it here, it is generally capitalised, though there are exceptions, often due to someone hitting the wrong key and the copy-editor never spotting the error and uttering a string of expletives when it is finally printed! (I had this sort of stuff hammered into me by a lecturer once when studying how to write history. And by my editor at my publishers.) It can in different contexts be written as 'papal infallibility' or 'Papal Infallibility' but using 'Papal infallibility' which it was in here as, makes no sense (I know, I know we are supposed to capitalise first letters of first words). It looks alkward, is grammatically problematical and doesn't clarify whether we are using it in its proper noun or descriptive sense. Treating it as a proper noun is the logical solution. After all, it is used in a very very strict manner by the RC Church, who take the term in its most formal meaning, a fact not always understood by people who comment on papal infallibility in general, and don't grasp its strict formal application and definition. Because it is a formal term for a strict definition applied with strict rigidity (or actually not applied; you could count on the fingers of one hand the occasions when it has been used since the First Vatican Council (oh God, there I go adding in JTD 07:31 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC) (I can't believe I am writing about papal infallibility at 7.32am! I must be mad!!!)

Cool, as long as it's a matter for a copy-editor and I don't have to dramatically rearrange my mental/grammatical furniture! -- Someone else 07:38 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * This discussion is continued below.... Lawrence King 07:19, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Hi, I added this page to current disputes. I was involved with it, so I'm not protecting it myself. Pakaran 21:15, 5 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Good move. FearÉIREANN 21:39, 5 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Good article.

Interesting that the Pope cannot be infallible if he promulgates something at odds with previous teachings. In this case, since the dogma of the Assumption was not accepted by the earlier church, does it not fall outside the requirements for infallibility - and in fact does not this definition (must be in line with former teaching) make infallibility impossible in practice? Exile

 * If the pope, or an ecumenical council, dogmatically defines something that contradicts previous non-infallible teaching, then there is no problem. It just means the previous teaching was wrong.
 * If a pope -- or any Catholic -- were to contradict previously-defined dogmas, he would be a heretic. Many theologians (including many great medieval and Renaissance theologians) believed that if a pope became a heretic he would cease to be Catholic, and thus cease to be pope.  This is not a unanimous view.  In any event, it has never happened.
 * Since the Assumption was not ever defined as false, there is no contradiction. It should be noted, however, that many in the early church did believe in the Assumption.
 * Also, note that most famous early Christians, including the apostles, have famous graves. Even if you don't believe that Andrew is buried in the grave of Andrew, this still proves that the early church felt it was important to venerate the graves of great saints.  Yet no one in the early Church claimed to know where Mary's body was buried, and no city ever claimed that Mary's grave was in their city!  Interesting, eh?  Lawrence King 07:19, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Title of article
I might start the article with "The Catholic dogma of Papal Infallibility" to get in the adjective Catholic, which I think is appropriate :)

Contraception
Re this recurring nonsense about contraception. The RC Church has not had a consistent teaching on the issue. The Church since Pius XII has endorsed natural methods of contraception that time sexual intercourse for periods of low fertility. That runs absolutely counter to earlier teachings up as far as Pius XI, which argued that any use of sexual intercourse with the deliberate intention of avoiding pregnancy, whether through artificial or natural means was interfering with the god-given role of generating a child, and so a mortal sin. John Paul II's teaching on the use of natural methods of contraception is diametrically opposed to those of Pius X, Leo III, Pope Pius X and Pius XI and in tune with the teachings of Pius XII, John XXIII, Paul VI and John Paul I. And neither is fully in tune with St. Ambrose, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine. So the argument that RC teaching on contraception has been consistent is laughably wrong and balderdash. ''FearÉIREANN 17:29, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * The Church has taught consistently on the issue of artificial contraception, i.e., that artificial contraception is wrong. There is nothing inherently wrong with mutually agreed-upon periodic abstinence, though (and nothing wrong with mutually agreed upon total continence, for that matter) -- and never has been -- and that is the only "contraception" allowed. However, even periodic abstinence is not to be practiced with a "contraceptive mentality" or with the view that the primary reason for the marital act is not the begetting of children. It is in this last point -- and this last point only -- that the human element of the postconciliar Church contradicts former Magisterium insofar as the ends of marriage are now wrongly (i.e., in contradiction with past teaching) described as the unity of the couple/mutual help, etc., and THEN the raising of children.

 * The ends of marriage aside, at no time has any Pope or Council or Father okayed artificial contraception, and at no time have any of these said that a married couple must have sex every night. So get real here. This is the consistent teaching of the Church and, therefore, an expression of the Universal (Constant) Magisterium; it is infallible teaching.

 * The infallibility of the teaching on contraception is disputed. Almost everyone agrees that Papal Infallibility has never been used for it.  Certainly Humanae Vitae was not intended as an ex cathedra definition.  However, some theologians argue that the unbroken teaching of the bishops -- the "ordinary and universal magisterium" -- has taught this infallibly.   Lawrence King 06:58, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

female priests
IIRC, JPII used Papal Infallibility to rule that women cannot be priest. --Ann O'nyme 09:07, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm rather sure that that is not the case. I seem to recall his saying that his ban on ordination of women was NOT infallible, and a priest at my parish told us that only the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception were infallible doctrines. --User:Jenmoa 05:30, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * John Paul II's letter regarding women's ordination did not use papal infallibility. However, both Pope John Paul II and Cardinal Ratzinger believed that the church's inability to change the ancient tradition against ordaining women is infallible because of the "ordinary and universal magisterium".  See Infallibility of the Church for this distinction.

 * Jen, the priest at your parish was listing only those doctrines which have been declared infallibly by popes. There are many doctrines that have been taught infallibly by ecumenical councils (e.g., that Jesus is God) or by the universal belief of the church (e.g., that God loves us).  Moreover, not everyone would agree that the list of papal definitions includes only those two items.  (See later on this page.) Lawrence King 07:02, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Edit regarding pope's "inerrancy" and "infallibility"
I had to remove this because it was awkwardly placed at the front of the article and also removed the summary of the topic:

 * The Catholic Church has never held as doctrine or taught that the person of the pope is inerrant or infallable. In particular, these terms are only used to connotate issues of moral faith or Church dogma as they are intended to be applied to the entire body of christianity

Unfortunately, I'm not sure what the person who added this means or I would put it somewhere else. To the author: are you saying that the Roman Catholic Church says that the person of the Pope is not infallible but the office of the Pope is? Or are you saying that the Pope isn't infallible period? If it's the former, I guess a case could be made for that. If it's the latter, then we have a problem. Pmadrid 23:38, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

List of ex cathedra declarations
Suggestion: Can someone add a link to a list of ex cathedra declarations? If they're rare, such a list should be short. Or maybe a link to an external site that lists them all. I'm having trouble finding a definitive list. Thanks. --Sue D. Nymme 19 Apr 2005

 * Unfortunately, there is no definitive list. I have seen lists put together by different theologians.  The lists can be as short as two items or as long as a dozen.  No official statement by any church leader has ever listed them, although the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith did put out what was effectively a partial list in 1998 -- but even this is disputed, because it was released in the names of Cardinal Ratzinger and Cardinal Bertone, rather than as a formal CDF document.  So even this document may just be Ratzinger and Bertone stating their opinions as private theologians.
 * Would a summary of these lists be worth Wikipedia-ing? Recall that the list of things defined by papal infallibility is short compared to those defined or established by other forms of the Infallibility of the Church. Lawrence King 07:07, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Capital I-nfallibility
Why is the article redirected from Papal infallibility? If the term is used as "papal infallibility" in the text, shouldn't it be lowercase in the article name as well? --Malyctenar 13:40, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Agreed. Who wants to volunteer to make this edit and change all the links?   I'll do it in two weeks if no one else does.... Lawrence King 07:10, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * I also agree. Very inconsistent. Also, your two weeks are up. It's been six months. :) -Silence 21:35, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

Rock-Stone
Peter does not mean rock. It means stone. Paul states that women should only teach other women and children. There is not one shred of evidence inside or outside the Holy Bible of Peter ever setting foot in Rome. Furthermore Paul often preached against heirarchy in the church. I am not trying to convert any Catholics, but the facts should be entered. "Peter, you are a stone and upon this "rock" (Peter's blind belief that Jesus was the Christ) I will build my Church."

 * Actually πέτρος had probably come to mean (among other things) a rock or large boulder by then (as several examples from the 'Anthologia Palatina' show). The word used for the second occurrence of "rock", a more common and less poetic form that certainly meant roack rather than stone, is the feminine πέτρα. It's far more likely that this was a perfectly acceptable change from a feminine to a masculine ending to form a proper noun. Also, I get the "Peter's blind belief that Jesus was the Christ" thing but if the word were understood to mean stone I'm not actually sure what that would be a metaphor for.

Other churches
As far as I know, no churches other than the RC and the few that are very closely linked with it accept Papal infallibility. Isn't it therefore redundant to list the attitudes of other churches towards it? Won't they all say the same? DJ Clayworth 14:00, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Good point. KHM03 14:44, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * These are now subsections of a larger section, which fits them together more comfortably, IMHO. Lawrence King 07:50, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

"Vandalism" of page
This wasn't vandalism. Obviously all non-Catholics disgree with the doctrine of papal infallibility. I think a distinction needs to be made between an objection and a disgreement. The claim may be that most regard it as wrong or harmful for Catholics to accept papal infallibility (and not simply that most people aren't Catholics and don't accept Catholic beliefs in general). One example of such an objection might be popular opinions about papal attitudes to contraception. If this claim is being made about infallibility it needs to be backed up. If it's a statement of the obvious it's best left out because objections are dealt with in detail elsewhere. It's a poorly written and fairly ambiguous attempt to introduce something where no introduction is necessary.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Papal Infallibility


text:
James Bond Jr.

James Bond Jr. is an American animated television series based on Ian Fleming's James Bond franchise. It follows the adventures of James Bond's nephew, James Bond Jr.

The series debuted in September 1991 and ran for 65 episodes before ending in December of that year. It was the first television series ever produced based on the Bond franchise, and is the only animated adaptation.

Background
This was the second attempt to create an animated series based on the Bond franchise. Bond screenwriter Kevin McClory announced in a 10 February 1988 issue of Variety, that he was working to produce an animated James Bond series called James Bond vs. S.P.E.C.T.R.E., to be produced by an unnamed Dutch company. This series never came to fruition.

In the meantime, Eon Productions began developing what would become James Bond Jr. The show was produced by Murakami-Wolf-Swenson and MGM Television, and debuted on 16 September 1991, with a total of 65 half-hour episodes produced. James Bond Jr was voiced by Corey Burton.

James Bond Jr. was fully sanctioned by (and produced in association with) Danjaq and United Artists, who held the rights to the James Bond property. It was the first attempt to bring the Bond franchise to television since the 1954 live adaptation of Casino Royale. Only a single season was produced.

Plot
While attending prep school at Warfield Academy, James Bond Jr, with the help of his friends IQ (the grandson of Q), Gordo Leiter (the son of Felix Leiter) and Tracy Milbanks, fight against the evil terrorist organization S.C.U.M. (Saboteurs and Criminals United in Mayhem), a SPECTRE-like organization. Expanding on his uncle's famous line, James Bond Jr's catchphrase was "Bond, James Bond... Junior."

The show regularly surpasses the Bond movies in terms of fantastical gadgets, while the violence of the Bond series is nowhere in evidence. Jaws, a recurring villain from the films The Spy Who Loved Me and Moonraker, made regular appearances, usually partnered with Nick Nack, a villain from The Man with the Golden Gun, forming a bickering comical duo. Auric Goldfinger also appears, alongside his assistant, Oddjob, from the Goldfinger film. It is revealed Goldfinger has a teenage daughter named Goldie Finger with equally expensive tastes. The only other villain from the films to appear in the show, though one that is very loosely based on his film counterpart is Dr. No, who is depicted as being Asian and having green skin, a common practice at the time in children's media whenever Asian villains are showcased such as Ming the Merciless in Defenders of the Earth and The Mandarin in the 90's Iron Man TV series. Several episode titles parodied the titles of Bond films such as Live and Let’s Dance and Rubies Aren't Forever.

Characters
The main characters consist of James Bond Jr., his friends, several featured members of the Warfield Academy staff, and Trevor Noseworthy IV. They appear in almost every episode of the series. Sometimes only two or three of Jr.'s friends will accompany him on an adventure, leaving the others behind at Warfield to create a B-plot. These plots normally revolve around Trevor's misguided attempts to get James into trouble.

Main characters

 * James Bond Jr. (voiced by Corey Burton) — The thrill-seeking teenage nephew of MI6 agent James Bond 007, who shares his uncle's penchant for quips and puns. He attends Warfield Academy with friends who aid him in his missions. Romance is occasionally hinted at between Bond and Tracy Milbanks.
 * Horace 'I.Q.' Boothroyd III (voiced by Jeff Bennett) — The grandson of Q (007's gadget inventor), he is a scientific genius and one of James's best friends. Quick-witted and highly logical, he is responsible for developing and building the gadgets that help James defeat agents of S.C.U.M. He is mistakenly called "Ike" in the Italian dub of the series.
 * Tracy Milbanks (voiced by Mona Marshall) — The daughter of Bradford Milbanks and one of James's closest friends, regularly accompanying him on his missions. Bossy and quick-tempered, Tracy sometimes betrays her feelings for James. Her first name is a reference to 007's late wife, Tracy Bond.
 * Gordon "Gordo" Leiter (voiced by Jan Rabson) — The tanned, blonde, athletic "strong fist" among James's friends, Californian Gordo is also kindly and amiable. The son of 007's CIA associate and friend Felix Leiter, he never backs down when his comrades need force to solve their problems.
 * Phoebe Farragut (voiced by Susan Silo) — Tracy's best friend and the daughter of a rich businessman. She makes no secret of her crush on James, although the feelings are never reciprocated, paralleling Bond's relationship with Miss Moneypenny in the films.
 * Trevor Noseworthy IV (voiced by Simon Templeman) — He comes from a wealthy family, and has an inflated sense of superiority and self-importance. Arrogant, egocentric and spiteful, as well as cowardly and fearful, he constantly plans to get James into trouble, hoping for him to be expelled from Warfield, which inevitably backfires.
 * Bradford Milbanks (voiced by Julian Holloway) — An ex-RAF officer and Tracy's father, who now presides over Warfield Academy as the headmaster. Although serious and rigid, he is a fair and accommodating disciplinarian and parent.
 * Burton "Buddy" Mitchell (voiced by Brian Stokes Mitchell) — A former FBI agent and associate of 007, now working as Warfield's gym teacher. Strong and intelligent, he serves as James's mentor. Burton knows more about James's adventures than he lets on to the rest of the school's staff, frequently risking his own job by allowing the youngster and his friends to get into danger.

Villains
There were numerous villains in the series, most of whom worked for S.C.U.M. and made recurring appearances throughout the 65-episode run. Many characters looked nothing like their movie counterparts. All recurring villains in the show are listed here:

 * S.C.U.M. – Short for Saboteurs and Criminals United in Mayhem, S.C.U.M. is the evil organization that is the main antagonist of the series.
 * Scumlord (voiced by Jeff Bennett) — The mysterious leader of S.C.U.M., never seen outside the shadows. Believed by some to be none other than Ernst Stavro Blofeld. He often relays commands to other S.C.U.M. villains via telescreen. Scumlord has a dog named Scuzzball. Key appearances include The Beginning, Location: Danger, Avalanche Run, Barbella's Big Attraction and The Thing in the Ice, although he made many cameo appearances. Scumlord is never seen outside of his surveillance room. He is always sitting in the dark wearing a trench coat, a fedora hat and sunglasses.
 * Jaws (voiced by Jan Rabson) — A dim-witted villain whose trademark steel teeth destroy almost anything he chews. His clothing not only serves as a small source of comedy for the series but also complements his lack of intelligence. He usually acts as a henchman for higher-ranking S.C.U.M. agents and is often paired with Nick Nack. Unlike his movie counterpart, his lower jaw is also metallic, and he is able to talk clearly. In the novelization "A View to a Thrill", it is explained that he was shot in the mouth during a bank robbery and "to save his life, the doctors had given him a set of metal teeth, and motors for jaw muscles". Appearances include The Beginning, Plunder Down Under, Valley of the Hungry Dunes, Never Give a Villain a Fair Shake, No Such Loch, The Inhuman Race, Fountain of Terror, Ship of Terror, Queen's Ransom, Avalanche Run, Barbella's Big Attraction, Invaders from S.C.U.M., Ol' Man River, Catching the Wave, Between a Rock and a Hard Place, Sherlock IQ, Quantum Diamonds, Rubies Aren't Forever, The Thing in the Ice, Monument to S.C.U.M. and Northern Lights.
 * Nick Nack (voiced by Jeff Bennett) — A small henchman with a huge chin, Nick Nack is often the butt of "short jokes" from both James Bond Jr. and his villainous "other half", Jaws. Appearances include Valley of the Hungry Dunes, Cruise to Oblivion, The Inhuman Race, Queen's Ransom, Avalanche Run, Barbella's Big Attraction, Invaders from S.C.U.M., Ol' Man River, Catching the Wave, Sherlock IQ, The Thing in the Ice, Goldie Finger at the End of the Rainbow, Monument to S.C.U.M. and Northern Lights.
 * Dr. Derange (voiced by Julian Holloway) — This mad scientist with long black hair speaks with a French accent and has an insane passion for all kinds of radioactive materials, mainly plutonium. According to the novelization "The Eiffel Target", Derange is part man and part machine making him a cyborg. He is by far the most frequently appearing villain in the series, appearing in at least sixteen episodes. He is also featured in most of the spin-off material. Appearances include The Eiffel Missile, A Race Against Disaster, The Inhuman Race, It's All in the Timing, Fountain of Terror, Deadly Recall, Red Star One, Invaders from S.C.U.M., A Deranged Mind, The Last of the Tooboos, The Emerald Key, Canine Caper, Weather or Not, Between a Rock and a Hard Place, Quantum Diamonds and Monument to S.C.U.M.
 * Skullcap (voiced by Jan Rabson) — A top-ranking S.C.U.M. assassin who is almost always found working for Dr. Derange. His name is derived from the steel headgear encasing the top part of his head. Skullcap is extremely cold and insidious though not particularly cunning. According to the novelization The Eiffel Target, he is Number 17 on Interpol's Most Wanted list and it was Dr. Derange who crafted his metallic dome after being seriously injured in a robbery. The dome also conducts static electricity. Whenever Skullcap scratches his head, it triggers little sparks. Appearances include The Eiffel Missile, The Inhuman Race, It's All in the Timing, The Last of the Tooboos, The Emerald Key, Weather or Not, Canine Caper and Thor's Thunder.
 * Auric Goldfinger (voiced by Jan Rabson) — One of 007's cleverest and most manipulative villains. Whenever there is gold, there is Goldfinger. His schemes are motivated entirely by greed, and he is most often assisted by henchman Odd Job. He was arguably the SCUM villain who was the least altered from his movie counterpart. Appearances include Earth Cracker, Cruise to Oblivion, Goldie's Gold Scam and Killer Asteroid.
 * Goldie Finger (voiced by Kath Soucie) — Goldfinger's spoiled and equally crooked daughter, who shares her father's love of gold and his ruthlessness. She often teamed up with Barbella, although she would sometimes aid her father. Appearances include City of Gold, Going for the Gold, Goldie's Gold Scam and Goldie Finger at the End of the Rainbow.
 * Oddjob (voiced by Jeff Bennett) — Much like Jaws and Nick Nack, he is seen working for the other villains, especially Goldfinger. He wears an odd-looking purple jumpsuit with red-orange stripes, red and white sneakers, pale green half gloves, a gold necklace bearing the initials OJ, a pale green winter scarf and flying goggles. His trademark razor-sharp hat is also present, although now it is a miniature top hat instead of a bowler hat. Appearances include Earth Cracker, Cruise to Oblivion, Far Out West, A Deranged Mind, Goldie's Gold Scam, Between a Rock and a Hard Place, Killer Asteroid and Garden of Evil.
 * Barbella (voiced by Mona Marshall) — A hot-tempered female bodybuilder, Barbella often exhibits superhuman strength. Cunning and cold, she has loyalty for no-one, least of all S.C.U.M., whom she betrays in one episode by attempting to destroy their international headquarters. Barbella often works with Goldie Finger. Appearances include City of Gold, Barbella's Big Attraction, Going for the Gold, A Deranged Mind and Goldie Finger at the End of the Rainbow.
 * Dr. No (voiced by Julian Holloway) — One of 007's most fiendish opponents. The animated version differs a lot from the film Dr. No, as he has green skin, likely as a result of his defeat at the hands of 007 in the original movie. His accent, costume and mustache have Asiatic themes and many of his schemes involve ninjas, samurai swords, and the like. Appearances include A Chilling Affair, Valley of the Hungry Dunes, Appointment in Macau, The Sword of Power, Far Out West, Garden of Evil and No Time to Lose.
 * Spoiler (voiced by Michael Gough) — A gravel-voiced S.C.U.M. agent who leads a savage, chain-wielding biker gang. He has worked for various agents including Baron von Skarin, Dr. Derange, and Dr. No. Appearances include Scottish Mist, No Time to Lose and Monument to S.C.U.M.
 * Baron Von Skarin (voiced by Julian Holloway) — This wealthy Bavarian baron is also an international terrorist and firearms smuggler. Von Skarin is cold and cruel but never neglects his elegant appearance. He is often seen reporting directly to Scumlord and is apparently one of his more favored agents. Appearances include Live and Let's Dance, Dance of the Toreadors, Scottish Mist, Catching the Wave, Sherlock IQ, Rubies Aren't Forever and Northern Lights.
 * Walker D. Plank (voiced by Ed Gilbert) — A pirate with a hook hand, eye-patch, a peg leg, and a talking parrot that also has an eye-patch and a peg-leg. His schemes are invariably nautical and involve pillage, plunder, and domination of all the oceans in the world. He seemed to be inspired by Karl Stromberg; with one episode showing his plot foiled in a manner akin to The Spy Who Loved Me. Appearances include Plunder Down Under, Nothing to Play With, Never Give a Villain a Fair Shake, No Such Loch, Ship of Terror, Queen's Ransom, S.C.U.M. on the Water, Ol' Man River, Danger Train and Thor's Thunder.
 * Bilge and Pump — A pair of sinister seafaring sidekicks, often found instigating criminality on behalf of Captain Plank. Appearances include No Such Loch and S.C.U.M. on the Water.
 * Ms. Fortune (voiced by Susan Silo) — A wealthy criminal aristocrat, Ms. Fortune's wealth never prevents her from attempting to acquire more, through highly illegitimate means. She was an original villainess for the series, though her conspiracies to gain financial domination suggest she was a feminine version of Goldfinger. Appearances include Fountain of Terror, Mindfield, The Heartbreak Caper, There But For Ms. Fortune and Danger Train.
 * Snuffer (voiced by Jan Rabson) — Ms. Fortune's crooked and deeply unpleasant butler and accomplice. He ends every sentence with 'ma'am', unless he is ordered by Ms. Fortune to wait on her male SCUM allies, in which case he will end a sentence with "sir". Appearances include Fountain of Terror, Mindfield, The Heartbreak Caper, There But For Ms. Fortune and Danger Train.
 * The Chameleon (voiced by Alan Oppenheimer) — This dangerous criminal is a facial shapeshifter due to nano-technologic mechanisms implanted under the skin on his face. Cunning and sly, he is a villain to be feared. Appearances include The Chameleon, Red Star One and The Art of Evil.
 * Tiara Hotstones (voiced by Mona Marshall) — This jewel-loving mercenary shares a rapport with James Bond Jr. Despite being ruthless, she is inclined to pursue only jewels and money rather than power or world domination. Appearances include Dance of the Toreadors, Rubies Aren't Forever and Dutch Treat.
 * Maximillion Cortex — A diminutive villain with a very large brain. Cortex is very wealthy but is always looking for ways to increase that wealth. Appearances include Lamp of Darkness and Leonardo da Vinci's Vault.
 * Leftbrain and Rightbrain — Cortex's assistants, they are a pair of overweight halfwits whose size and intelligence counter those of their boss. While similar in appearance and completely inseparable, they are not related. Appearances include Lamp of Darkness and Leonardo da Vinci's Vault.
 * The Worm (voiced by Jan Rabson) — The only recurring villain in the series not to be associated with S.C.U.M., The Worm is a first-rate terrorist and hypochondriac with an intense dislike of sunlight, making most of his plans taking place deep underground. Appearances include A Worm in the Apple and Pompeii and Circumstance.

Bond girls
In most episodes James Bond Jr. encounters guest women, whom he is often forced to rescue. Following in the 007 tradition, many of their names are based on puns or double entendres, although they are less salacious than the parent series. Some of the more notable include:

 * Lotta Dinaro — Daughter of an archaeologist in search of El Dorado. They are both kidnapped by Oddjob and Goldfinger in the episode Earthcracker.
 * Lt. Shelley Kaysing — A US Army lieutenant whom the Chameleon attempts to assassinate to further his plan to steal a secret army device in the episode The Chameleon.
 * Marcie Beaucoup (voiced by Kath Soucie) — A French spy who encounters James Bond Jr. on a hovercraft. She and Bond are captured by Dr. Derange and Skullcap and must escape from the Eiffel Tower before a missile is launched killing them both in the episode The Eiffel Missile.
 * Terri Firma — The daughter of a leading seismologist, she is forced to work for Walker D. Plank and Jaws when her father is kidnapped in the episode Never Give a Villain a Fair Shake.
 * Hayley Comet — A student at Warfield whose professor father is kidnapped by agents of S.C.U.M. disguised as aliens from outer space in the episode Invaders from S.C.U.M.
 * Wendy Day — A weather forecaster who assists James in preventing Doctor Derange from carrying out his plot to take control of the weather in the episode Weather or Not.
 * Sgt. Victoria Province — A mountie whom James befriends in Toronto. She assists him in foiling Baron von Skarin's plan to cut electrical power to the city in the episode Northern Lights.
 * Princess Yasmine (voiced by Sheryl Bernstein) — Daughter of the sheikh of Al-Khaline who is taken captive by Dr. No along with her father's water for ransom. She is freed by James Bond Jr. and they both flood the facility, sabotaging Dr. No's operation in the episode Valley of the Hungry Dunes.

Board game
A board game, James Bond Jr. The Game, was released by Crown and Andrews, the plot of which was to try to prevent the launch of nuclear missile. Players collected computer disks, in order to deactivate the missile, while watching out for SCUM agents.

Diecast vehicles
Three diecast toy vehicles was produced by ERTL in 1992: James' Sports Car, Warfield Van and the SCUM Helicopter.

Toy line
The James Bond Jr. toy line was manufactured by Hasbro.

Principal voice actors

 * Corey Burton — James Bond Jr.
 * Jeff Bennett — Horace "IQ" Boothroyd III, Scumlord, Nick Nack, Oddjob
 * Julian Holloway — Bradford Milbanks, Dr. Derange, Dr. No, Baron Von Skarin
 * Mona Marshall — Tracy Milbanks, Barbella, Tiara Hotstones
 * Brian Stokes Mitchell — Coach Burton "Buddy" Mitchell
 * Jan Rabson — Gordon "Gordo" Leiter, Auric Goldfinger, Jaws, Snuffer, Worm, Skullcap
 * Susan Silo — Phoebe Farragut, Miss Fortune
 * Simon Templeman — Trevor Noseworthy IV

Additional voices

 * Eddie Barth —
 * Sheryl Bernstein — Princess Yasmine
 * Susan Blu —
 * Susan Boyd —
 * Hamilton Camp —
 * Jennifer Darling —
 * Mari Devon —
 * Jane Downs —
 * Paul Eiding —
 * Jeannie Elias —
 * Lea Floden —
 * Pat Fraley —
 * Linda Gary —
 * Ellen Gerstell —
 * Ed Gilbert — Captain Walker D. Plank

 * Rebecca Gilchrist —
 * Michael Gough — Dr. Veerd, Ian Watt, Spoiler
 * Gaille Heidemann — Matron
 * Vicki Juditz —
 * Matt K. Miller —
 * Pat Musick —
 * Alan Oppenheimer — The Chameleon, Lex Illusion
 * Samantha Paris —
 * Tony Pope —
 * Robert Ridgely —
 * Maggie Roswell —
 * Kath Soucie — Goldie Finger, Barbella, Mercie Beaucoup
 * B.J. Ward —
 * Jill Wayne —

Crew

 * Susan Blu — Dialogue Director
 * Cindy Akers — Assistant Dialogue Director

Home media releases
As with most animated series, a large number of episodes were only broadcast and never commercially released. Some episodes were only commercially released in the US, and some episodes were only commercially released in the UK.

Novelisations by John Peel
In 1992, Puffin Books published six novels based on the James Bond Jr. animated television show. The books were written by John Peel under the pseudonym John Vincent, and were based on episodes from the television run.

Buzz Books adaptations by Caryn Jenner
In the UK, four of the TV episodes were adapted into a young children's series by Buzz Books. Although the plots were basically the same, the books were much shorter and sometimes featured different characters from the TV show. The only villains never to appear in these books were Dr. No and Walker D. Plank.

Other books
These books are not part of a series.

Marvel Comics books
James Bond Jr. had a limited 12 issue run with Marvel Comics spanning from January 1992 to December 1992. The first five stories were lifted directly from the TV series, but the other seven were original stories. The writers were Cal Hamilton and Dan Abnett, and the artists were Mario Capaldi, Colin Fawcett, Adolfo Buylla, and Bambos Georgioli.

Video game
James Bond Jr. had two video games based on the series, published by THQ in 1992 for the NES and the Super NES (the former developed by Eurocom and the latter developed by Gray Matter).

title: James Bond Jr.


text:
Dark-throated thrush

Dark-throated thrush can refer to one of two bird species, formerly regarded as conspecific:

 * Black-throated thrush Turdus atrogularis
 * Red-throated thrush Turdus ruficollis

title: Dark-throated thrush


text:
Mistle thrush

The mistle thrush (Turdus viscivorus), also spelled missel thrush, is a bird common to much of Europe, temperate Asia and North Africa. It is a year-round resident in a large part of its range, but northern and eastern populations migrate south for the winter, often in small flocks. It is a large thrush with pale grey-brown upper parts, a greyish-white chin and throat, and black spots on its pale yellow and off-white under parts. The sexes are similar in plumage, and its three subspecies show only minimal differences. The male has a loud, far-carrying song which is delivered even in wet and windy weather, earning the bird the old name of stormcock.

Found in open woods, parks, hedges and cultivated land, the mistle thrush feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, seeds and berries. Its preferred fruits include those of the mistletoe, holly and yew. Mistletoe is favoured where it is available, and this is reflected in the thrush's English and scientific names; the plant, a parasitic species, benefits from its seeds being excreted by the thrush onto branches where they can germinate. In winter, a mistle thrush will vigorously defend mistletoe clumps or a holly tree as a food reserve for when times are hard.

The open cup nest is built against a trunk or in a forked branch, and is fearlessly defended against potential predators, sometimes including humans or cats. The clutch, typically of three to five eggs, is incubated for 12–15 days, mainly by the female. The chicks fledge about 14–16 days after hatching. There are normally two broods. There was a range expansion in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and a small decline in recent decades, perhaps due to changes in agricultural practices. Given its high numbers and very large range, this thrush is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern.

Taxonomy
The mistle thrush was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under its current scientific name. Turdus is the Latin for "thrush", and viscivorus, "mistletoe eater", comes from viscum "mistletoe" and vorare, "to devour". The bird's liking for mistletoe berries is also indicated by its English name, "mistle" being an old name for the plant.

There are more than 60 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus Turdus, characterised by rounded heads, longish pointed wings, and usually melodious songs. A mitochondrial DNA study identified the mistle thrush's closest relatives as the similarly plumaged song and Chinese thrushes; these three species are early offshoots from the Eurasian lineage of Turdus thrushes after they spread north from Africa. They are less closely related to other European thrush species such as the blackbird (T. merula) which are descended from ancestors that had colonised the Canary islands from Africa and subsequently reached Europe from there.

At least eight subspecies have been proposed, but the differences between them are mainly clinal, with birds being paler and less densely spotted in the east of the range. The accepted subspecies as of 2000 are: An isolated population in Crimea has sometimes been separated as T. v. tauricus, but this is not considered to be a valid form. Mistle thrush fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits from Poland and Sicily.
 * Turdus viscivorus viscivorus, named by Linnaeus, 1758, the nominate subspecies.
 * T. v. bonapartei, Cabanis, 1860.
 * T. v. deichleri, Erlanger, 1897.

Description
The mistle thrush is the largest thrush native to Europe. The nominate subspecies measures 27 – in length, with a 45 cm wingspan. It weighs 93 to 167 g, with an average of around 130 g. It has a stocky upright posture when on the ground. It has pale grey-brown upperparts, the chin and throat are greyish-white, and the yellowish-buff breast and off-white belly are marked with round black spots. The spotting becomes denser on the lower chest, giving the appearance of a breast-band. The long tail has white tips on the outer feathers, and the underwing coverts are white. The eyes are dark brown and the bill is blackish with a yellowish base to the lower mandible. The legs and feet are yellowish-brown. There are no plumage differences between the sexes. Juveniles are similar to adults, but they have paler upperparts with creamy centres to many of the feathers and smaller spots on the yellowish underparts. By their first winter they are very similar to adults, but the underparts are usually more buff-toned.

The eastern subspecies T. v. bonapartei is 30 cm in length, and therefore slightly larger than the nominate form. It is paler grey above and whiter below, with fewer black spots. Birds of intermediate appearance are seen west of the Ob River where the range overlaps with viscivorus. The southern race T. v. deichleri resembles bonapartei in appearance, but is closer in size to the nominate viscivorus, although it has a more slender bill.

Adults have a full moult after breeding, beginning between late May and the end of June, and completed by early October. Juvenile birds have a partial moult, replacing their head, body, and covert feathers; this is completed by October, although the start of the moult depends on when the chicks hatched.

The mistle thrush is much larger, paler and longer-tailed than the sympatric song thrush. In the western Himalayas it could be confused with both the plain-backed and the long-tailed thrushes. These are similar to the mistle thrush, but the plain–backed thrush lacks obvious wing bars, is more rufous above than its relative, and is barred rather than spotted below. The long-tailed thrush has olive-toned upperparts, bars on its breast and two wing bars. Juvenile mistle thrushes are superficially similar to White's thrush, but that species has golden-yellow plumage, scalloped underparts and a distinctive underwing pattern.

Voice
The male mistle thrush has a loud melodious song with fluted whistles, sounding like chewee-trewuu ... trureetruuruu or similar, repeated three to six times, and used to advertise his territory, attract a mate and maintain the pair bond. The tone resembles that of the song thrush or blackbird, but compared to its relatives the mistle thrush's repertoire is less varied and the delivery is slower. The song is, however, much louder, often audible up to 2 km (2,000 yd) away. The song is given from a treetop or other elevated position mainly from November to early June. The male is most vocal in the early morning, and its tendency to sing after, and sometimes during, wet and windy weather led to the old name "stormcock". The song may be heard in any month, although it is uncommon from July to August while the thrush is moulting. The main call, given by both sexes, is a dry chattering krrrr, louder when it is alarmed or excited. It is often likened to the sound of a football rattle, a form of musical ratchet. There is also a squeaky tuk contact call.

Distribution and habitat
The mistle thrush breeds in much of Europe and temperate Asia, although it is absent from the treeless far north, and its range becomes discontinuous in southeast Europe, Turkey and the Middle East. In these warmer southern areas, it tends to be found in the milder uplands and coastal regions. Nominate T. v. viscivorus breeds in Europe and in Asia east to the Ob, beyond which it is replaced by T. v. bonapartei. The southern form T. v. deichleri is resident in North Africa, Corsica and Sardinia.

The mistle thrush is a partial migrant: birds from the north and east of the range wintering in the milder areas of Europe and North Africa. Scandinavian and Russian birds start moving south from mid-September onwards, most birds wintering in Europe, western Turkey and the Middle East. Between mid-October and November, large numbers cross the Strait of Gibraltar and others pass through Cyprus, but there is hardly any migration across the North Sea. Breeding birds in the British Isles and north-west Europe are resident or move only short distances. In the Himalayas, the breeding population moves to nearby lower-altitude sites in winter. Return migration starts mainly from late March, although it can be a month earlier in the Middle East, and northern breeders may not arrive back on their territories until late April or early May. Migration may be by day or night, and typically involves individuals or small groups. Vagrant birds have occurred in the Azores, China, Crete, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Japan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Sikkim and the United Arab Emirates. In the winter 2017/2018 the first record of a mistle thrush for North America was at Miramichi in New Brunswick.

The mistle thrush is found in a wide range of habitats containing trees, including forests, plantations, hedges and town parks. In the south and east of its range, it inhabits upland coniferous woodland and the range extends above the main tree line where dwarf juniper is present. Breeding occurs at up to 600 m in the mountains of North Africa, and occasionally much higher, to 1,700 m. In the highlands of Europe, its preferred altitude is from 800 –. More open habitats, such as agricultural land, moors and grassy hills, are extensively used in winter or on migration.

There is evidence that this species has changed its natural habitat in at least parts of its range. In Germany and elsewhere in central Europe, it was found only in coniferous forest until the mid-1920s when its range rapidly expanded, first into farmland, and then to suburbs and urban parks. The reasons for this expansion are unclear. In areas of intensive farming, such as eastern England, arable land has in turn largely been abandoned in favour of built-up areas with their greater variety of green habitats.

Perhaps the most notable find of the 118th Christmas Bird Count in Canada was a single vagrant mistle thrush found in Miramichi, New Brunswick. This was the first record for this species in North America. The discovery attracted many birders from Canada and the United States; sightings continued from early December 2017 through late March 2018.

Behaviour
Mistle thrushes are found as individuals or pairs for much of the year, although families forage together in late summer, and groups may merge to form large flocks when food sources are plentiful. It is not uncommon for up to 50 thrushes to feed together at that time of year. They roost at night in trees or bushes, again typically as individuals or pairs, except in late summer or autumn when families may roost together.

The mistle thrush is quite terrestrial, hopping with its head held up and body erect; when excited, it will flick its wings and tail. The flight consists of undulating bounds interspersed with glides.

Breeding
Mistle thrushes breed in the year subsequent to their hatching; they are monogamous and stay as a pair throughout the year in areas where they are not migratory. Their territories are much larger than those of blackbirds or song thrushes; although the nest territory is only about 0.6 ha, around 15 – is used for feeding. Territories are normally reoccupied in subsequent years. Territories are larger in woods than in farmland. The male will attack intruders into its breeding area, including birds of prey and corvids, and sometimes cats or humans. Courtship feeding of the female by her partner has sometimes been observed. Breeding typically commences in mid-March in the south and west of Europe (late February in Britain), but not till early May in Finland. The nest is usually built in a tree in the fork of a branch or against the trunk, although hedges, ledges on buildings and cliff faces may also be used. The nest site may be up to 20 m above the ground, although 2 – is more typical. The common chaffinch often nests close to a mistle thrush, the vigilance of the chaffinch and the aggressive behaviour of the thrush benefiting both species. The thrush's nest is a large cup of sticks, dry grass, roots and moss, coated on the inside with a layer of mud and lined with fine grass and leaves. The nest is built by the female, although the male may help. Nests built early in the breeding season may be destroyed by bad weather.

The clutch is typically three to five eggs (range two to six), which are usually whitish-buff or greenish-blue and are spotted with red, purple or brown. The average size of the egg is 30 x, and weighs 7.8 g, of which 6% is shell. The eggs are incubated for 12–15 days, mainly by the female. The chicks are altricial and downy, and are fed by both parents. They fledge about 14–16 days after hatching. There are normally two broods, except in Siberia, where there is only one, the male feeding the fledglings from the first brood while the female sits on the second clutch. Sometimes the same nest is reused for both broods. The young are dependent on their parents for 15–20 days after fledging.

In a study carried out in Britain, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year is 57 per cent, and the adult annual survival rate is 62 per cent. Life expectancy is typically three years, but the maximum age recorded from bird ringing recoveries is 21 years and 3 months for a bird shot in Switzerland.

Feeding

Mistle thrushes feed mainly on invertebrates, fruit and berries. Animal prey include earthworms, insects and other arthropods, slugs and snails. Snails are sometimes smashed on a stone "anvil", a technique also used by the song thrush. The mistle thrush has been known to kill slowworms and the young of the song thrush, blackbird and dunnock.

Plant food includes the fruits and seeds of bushes and trees, mainly holly, yew, ivy and mistletoe, but also, for example, blackberry, cherry, elder, hawthorn, olive and rose. It may eat the flowers and shoots of grasses and other plants, and will take fallen apples and plums. It forages within its breeding habitat and in open fields, sometimes sharing these feeding areas with redwings or fieldfares.

Young birds are initially mainly fed on invertebrates, often collected from low foliage or under bushes rather than in the grassland preferred by the adults. Adults will roam up to 1 km (approximately 1,100 yards) from the nest on pasture or ploughed land. After fledging the young may accompany their parents until the onset of winter. Individuals or pairs will defend one or more fruit-bearing trees throughout the winter, with preference shown for trees which host mistletoe, the parasitic plant from which the bird derives its name. Where mistletoe is not present, holly is the most common tree chosen. Although the thrush normally feeds on the ground and from low bushes, the defence of this resource conserves fruit for later in the season when other food items become scarce. The trees are defended against other thrushes as well as birds such as the bullfinch and great spotted woodpecker. In milder winters with an abundance of fruit, however, this strategy is less used and thrushes can be observed foraging in flocks. Conversely, in hard winters, the defender may be overwhelmed by large flocks of fieldfares, redwings or Bohemian waxwings.

As its name implies, the mistle thrush is important in propagating the mistletoe, an aerial parasite, which needs its seeds to be deposited on the branches of suitable trees. The highly nutritious fruits are favoured by the thrush, which digests the flesh leaving the sticky seeds to be excreted, possibly in a suitable location for germination.

Predators and parasites
The mistle thrush is predated upon by a wide variety of birds of prey, including the boreal owl, short-eared owl, tawny owl, Ural owl, Eurasian eagle-owl, golden eagle, kestrel, common buzzard, red kite, northern goshawk, peregrine falcon, and sparrowhawk. The eggs and chicks may be targeted by cats and corvids. Parent birds exhibit fearlessness in defence of their nests, occasionally even attacking humans. The mistle thrush is not normally a host of the common cuckoo, a brood parasite.

External parasites of the mistle thrush include the hen flea, the moorhen flea, the castor bean tick and the brightly coloured harvest mite. Internally, they can suffer from parasites including tapeworm, nematodes,  and Syngamus merulae (a species of Gapeworm). Blood parasites can include Trypanosoma and Plasmodium species.

Status
The mistle thrush has an extensive distribution in Europe and western Asia, and its European breeding population is estimated at 9–22.2 million birds. When Asian breeders are added, this gives a global total of 12.2–44.4 million. The species was formerly more restricted in range, and rarely bred even in northern England in the 1700s. It expanded rapidly into lowland and coastal areas of Europe during the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, colonising areas where it was formerly rare or absent, such as Ireland (where it first bred in 1807), Scotland and the Netherlands. The range also increased in Denmark, Norway, Hungary and Austria.

Although the population now appears to be declining, the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria. Given its high numbers and very large range, this thrush is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern. The perceived decline may be due to the loss of invertebrate-rich pastures and mixed farms through conversion to arable agriculture or more intensively managed grassland. Adult survival, clutch size and fledging success are all lower in arable landscapes than in areas with extensive pasture. In Finland, the loss of ancient forests is thought to have led to a local decline.

In culture
Desiderius Erasmus's early sixteenth-century collection of Latin proverbs included Turdus malum sibi ipse cacat, (the thrush himself excretes his own trouble), which refers to the use of the sticky mistletoe berries favoured by this species as an ingredient in birdlime, used to trap birds. The thrush was seen to be thus spreading the seeds of his own destruction.

 Mistle Thrush and Alpine Chough, by Giovanni da Udine, an artist who worked in Raphael's studio in the 16th century, was a sketch for his Bird with Garland and Fruit, and this in turn was the basis for a Raphael fresco in the Apostolic Palace.

The early Renaissance poem "The Harmony of Birds" features a thrusshe (mistle thrush) singing the phrase "sanctus, sanctus", distinguishing the bird from the song thrush, the mauys or throstle. The song of the mistle thrush is also described in Thomas Hardy's "Darkling Thrush" and Edward Thomas's "The Thrush". The loud call of this common and conspicuous bird also led to many old or local names, including "screech", "shrite" and "gawthrush". Other names, including "stormcock" referred to its willingness to sing in wind and rain. "Holm thrush", "hollin cock" and "holm cock" are based on obsolete names for the holly tree, which may be defended by the thrush in winter for its berries.

In Frances Hodgson Burnett's The Secret Garden, Dickon reassures Mary Lennox that he will keep his knowledge of the garden secret by comparing her to a mistle thrush in defence of its nest, recognising his privilege in sharing her secret: "If tha' was a missel thrush an' showed me where thy nest was, does tha' think I'd tell any one? Not me," he said. "Tha' art as safe as a missel thrush."

Roy Harper's 1971 album Stormcock, featuring Jimmy Page, is titled after the species.

The final verse of the Jethro Tull song "Jack-in-the-Green" from their 1977 album Songs from the Wood mentions the bird in the lines "Oh, the mistlethrush is coming. Jack, put out the light." The bird also features in the lyrics of The Decemberists' song "Won't Want for Love (Margaret in the Taiga)" from their 2009 album The Hazards of Love: "Mistlethrush, Mistlethrush, Lay me down in the underbrush, My naked feet grow weary with the dusk".

General bibliography

 * (Catalogue for the Exhibition "Raphael to Renoir: Drawings from the Collection of Jean Bonna", held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from 21 January to 26 April 2009, and at the National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, from 5 June to 6 September 2009)

title: Mistle thrush