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Frank Auerbach

Frank Helmut Auerbach (born 29 April 1931) is a German-British painter. Born in Germany, he has been a naturalised British subject since 1947. He is considered one of the leading names in the School of London, with fellow artists Francis Bacon and Lucian Freud.

Life and career
Auerbach was born in Berlin, the son of Max Auerbach, a patent lawyer, and Charlotte Nora Borchardt, who had trained as an artist. Under the influence of the British writer Iris Origo, his parents sent him to Britain in 1939 under the Kindertransport scheme (although he has stated it was by private arrangement), which brought almost 10,000 mainly Jewish children to Britain to escape from Nazi persecution. Aged seven, Auerbach left Germany via Hamburg on 4 April 1939 and arrived at Southampton on 7 April. His parents stayed behind in Germany, and were killed in the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942.

In Britain, Auerbach became a pupil at Bunce Court School, near Faversham in Kent, where he excelled in not only art but also drama classes. Indeed, he almost became an actor, even taking a small role in Peter Ustinov's play House of Regrets at the Unity Theatre in St Pancras, at the age of 17. But his interest in art proved a stronger draw and he began studying in London, first at St Martin's School of Art from 1948 to 1952, and at the Royal College of Art from 1952 to 1955. Yet, perhaps the clearest influence on his art training came from a series of additional art classes he took at London's Borough Polytechnic, where he and fellow St Martin's student Leon Kossoff were taught by David Bomberg from 1947 until 1953.

From 1955, he began teaching in secondary schools, but quickly moved into the visiting tutor circuit at numerous art schools, including Bromley, Sidcup and the Slade School. In particular, he taught one day a week from 1958 to 1965 at Camberwell School of Art. He was the teacher, influence and sponsor of many artists, including Tom Philips, Jenny Saville, Cecily Brown, Peter Saunders and Ray Atkins. For instance, he wrote to Andrew Forge, senior lecturer at the Slade to say that there were some remarkable students that he might consider, particularly Ray Atkins and Jo Keys, obtaining a place for them there.

Auerbach's first solo exhibition was at the Beaux Arts Gallery in London in 1956, followed by further solo shows at the Beaux Arts Gallery in 1959, 1961, 1962 and 1963, and then at Marlborough Fine Art in London at regular intervals after 1965; at Marlborough Gallery, New York, in 1969, 1982, 1994, 1998 and 2006; and at Marlborough Graphics in 1990.

In 1978, he was the subject of a major retrospective exhibition at the Hayward Gallery, London, and in 1986 he represented Britain in the Venice Biennale, sharing the biennale's main prize, the Golden Lion, with Sigmar Polke. Further exhibitions have included Eight Figurative Painters, held at the Yale Center for British Art in New Haven, USA, in 1981, alongside Michael Andrews, Francis Bacon, William Coldstream, Lucian Freud, Patrick George, Leon Kossoff and Euan Uglow; and a retrospective at the Kunstverein, Hamburg, in 1986, comprising paintings and drawings made between 1977 and 1985 originally shown at the 42nd Venice Biennale, also in 1986. This show then toured, with some additional works, to the Museum Folkwang, Essen, and the Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, in 1987. Exhibitions were also held at the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, in 1989; the Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, in 1991; and the National Gallery, London, in 1995. He was included in the exhibition A New Spirit in Painting at the Royal Academy of Arts, London, in 1981 and a solo exhibition of his paintings and drawings 1954 to 2001 was held there in 2001; and held a solo show entitled Frank Auerbach Etchings and Drypoints 1954–2006 at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, which toured to the Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal, during 2007–08; and another solo show at the Courtauld Institute of Art, London, in 2009.

Auerbach was the subject of a television film entitled Frank Auerbach: To the Studio (2001), directed by Hannah Rothschild and produced by Jake Auerbach (Jake Auerbach Films Ltd). This was first broadcast on the arts programme Omnibus on 10 November 2001.

David Bowie bought and owned Auerbach's "Head of Gerda Boehm" as part of his private collection. After Bowie's death in 2016, this piece was among many put up for auction in November 2016, where it was sold for £3.8 million (US$4.7 million).

London's Tate Britain, in association with the Kunstmuseum Bonn, organized a major retrospective of Auerbach's work in 2015 and 2016. The exhibit was curated by Catherine Lampert together with the artist.

Style and influences
Auerbach is a figurative painter, who focuses on portraits and city scenes in and around the area of London in which he lives, Camden Town. Although sometimes described as expressionistic, Auerbach is not an expressionist painter. His work is not concerned with finding a visual equivalent to an emotional or spiritual state that characterised the expressionist movement, rather it deals with the attempt to resolve the experience of being in the world in paint. In this the experience of the world is seen as essentially chaotic with the role of the artist being to impose an order upon that chaos and record that order in the painting. This ambition with the paintings results in Auerbach developing intense relationships with particular subjects, particularly the people he paints, but also the location of his cityscape subjects. Speaking on this in 2001 he stated: "If you pass something every day and it has a little character, it begins to intrigue you." This simple statement belies the intensity of the relationship that develops between Auerbach and his subjects, which results in an astonishing desire to produce an image the artist considers 'right'. This leads Auerbach to paint an image and then scrape it off the canvas at the end of each day, repeating this process time and again, not primarily to create a layering of images but because of a sense of dissatisfaction with the image leading him to try to paint it again.

This also indicates that the thick paint in Auerbach's work, which led to some of Auerbach's paintings in the 1950s being considered difficult to hang, partly due to their weight and according to some newspaper reports in case the paint fell off, is not primarily the result of building up a lot of paint over time. It is in fact applied in a very short space of time, and may well be scraped off very soon after application. This technique has not always been considered positively, with the Manchester Guardian newspaper commenting in 1956 that: "The technique is so fantastically obtrusive that it is some time before one penetrates to the intentions that should justify this grotesque method."

This intensity of approach and handling has also not always sat well with the art world that developed in Britain from the late 1980s onwards, with one critic at that time, Stuart Morgan, denouncing Auerbach for espousing "conservatism as if it were a religion" on the basis that he applies paint without a sense of irony.

As well as painting street scenes close to his London home, Auerbach tends to paint a small number of people repeatedly, including Estella Olive West (indicated in painting titles as EOW), Juliet Yardley Mills (or JYM) and Auerbach's wife Julia Auerbach (née Wolstenholme). He has been painting art historian and curator Catherine Lampert regularly since 1978 when she organized his retrospective at the Hayward Gallery. Again, a similar obsession with specific subjects, and a desire to return to them to "try again" is discernable in this use of the same models.

A strong emphasis in Auerbach's work is its relationship to the history of art. Showing at the National Gallery in London in 1994, he made direct reference to the gallery's collection of paintings by Rembrandt, Titian and Rubens. Unlike the National Gallery's Associate Artist Scheme, however, Auerbach's work after historic artists was not the result of a short residency at the National Gallery, it has a long history, and in this exhibition he showed paintings made after Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne, from the 1970s, to Rubens' Samson and Delilah, made in 1993.

Auerbach's personal history, and his painting style, are the basis for the character "Max Ferber" in W. G. Sebald's award-winning collection of narratives The Emigrants (1992 in Germany, 1996 in Britain).

title: Frank Auerbach


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Countercurrent exchange

Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some chemical, between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging both heat and mass.

The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential. For example, in the adjacent diagram, the fluid being heated (exiting top) has a higher exiting temperature than the cooled fluid (exiting bottom) that was used for heating. With cocurrent or parallel exchange the heated and cooled fluids can only approach one another. The result is that countercurrent exchange can achieve a greater amount of heat or mass transfer than parallel under otherwise similar conditions.

See: flow arrangement.

Countercurrent exchange when set up in a circuit or loop can be used for building up concentrations, heat, or other properties of flowing liquids. Specifically when set up in a loop with a buffering liquid between the incoming and outgoing fluid running in a circuit, and with active transport pumps on the outgoing fluid's tubes, the system is called a countercurrent multiplier, enabling a multiplied effect of many small pumps to gradually build up a large concentration in the buffer liquid.

Other countercurrent exchange circuits where the incoming and outgoing fluids touch each other are used for retaining a high concentration of a dissolved substance or for retaining heat, or for allowing the external buildup of the heat or concentration at one point in the system.

Countercurrent exchange circuits or loops are found extensively in nature, specifically in biologic systems. In vertebrates, they are called a rete mirabile, originally the name of an organ in fish gills for absorbing oxygen from the water. It is mimicked in industrial systems. Countercurrent exchange is a key concept in chemical engineering thermodynamics and manufacturing processes, for example in extracting sucrose from sugar beet roots.

Countercurrent multiplication is a similar but different concept where liquid moves in a loop followed by a long length of movement in opposite directions with an intermediate zone. The tube leading to the loop passively building up a gradient of heat (or cooling) or solvent concentration while the returning tube has a constant small pumping action all along it, so that a gradual intensification of the heat or concentration is created towards the loop. Countercurrent multiplication has been found in the kidneys as well as in many other biological organs.

Three current exchange systems
Countercurrent exchange and cocurrent exchange are two mechanisms used to transfer some property of a fluid from one flowing current of fluid to another across a barrier allowing one way flow of the property between them. The property transferred could be heat, concentration of a chemical substance, or other properties of the flow.

When heat is transferred, a thermally-conductive membrane is used between the two tubes, and when the concentration of a chemical substance is transferred a semipermeable membrane is used.

Cocurrent flow—half transfer
In the cocurrent flow exchange mechanism, the two fluids flow in the same direction.

As the cocurrent and countercurrent exchange mechanisms diagram showed, a cocurrent exchange system has a variable gradient over the length of the exchanger. With equal flows in the two tubes, this method of exchange is only capable of moving half of the property from one flow to the other, no matter how long the exchanger is.

If each stream changes its property to be 50% closer to that of the opposite stream's inlet condition, exchange will stop when the point of equilibrium is reached, and the gradient has declined to zero. In the case of unequal flows, the equilibrium condition will occur somewhat closer to the conditions of the stream with the higher flow.

Cocurrent flow examples
A cocurrent heat exchanger is an example of a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism.

Two tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.

The hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end, there is a very small temperature difference (both are at the same temperature of 40 °C or close to it), and very little heat transfer if any at all. If the equilibrium—where both tubes are at the same temperature—is reached before the exit of the liquid from the tubes, no further heat transfer will be achieved along the remaining length of the tubes.

A similar example is the cocurrent concentration exchange. The system consists of two tubes, one with brine (concentrated saltwater), the other with freshwater (which has a low concentration of salt in it), and a semi permeable membrane which allows only water to pass between the two, in an osmotic process. Many of the water molecules pass from the freshwater flow in order to dilute the brine, while the concentration of salt in the freshwater constantly grows (since the salt is not leaving this flow, while water is). This will continue, until both flows reach a similar dilution, with a concentration somewhere close to midway between the two original dilutions. Once that happens, there will be no more flow between the two tubes, since both are at a similar dilution and there is no more osmotic pressure.

Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer
In countercurrent flow, the two flows move in opposite directions.

Two tubes have a liquid flowing in opposite directions, transferring a property from one tube to the other. For example, this could be transferring heat from a hot flow of liquid to a cold one, or transferring the concentration of a dissolved solute from a high concentration flow of liquid to a low concentration flow.

The counter-current exchange system can maintain a nearly constant gradient between the two flows over their entire length of contact. With a sufficiently long length and a sufficiently low flow rate this can result in almost all of the property transferred. So, for example, in the case of heat exchange, the exiting liquid will be almost as hot as the original incoming liquid's heat.

Countercurrent flow examples
In a countercurrent heat exchanger, the hot fluid becomes cold, and the cold fluid becomes hot.

In this example, hot water at 60 °C enters the top pipe. It warms water in the bottom pipe which has been warmed up along the way, to almost 60 °C. A minute but existing heat difference still exists, and a small amount of heat is transferred, so that the water leaving the bottom pipe is at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the cold input fluid (21 °C).

The result is that the top pipe which received hot water, now has cold water leaving it at 20 °C, while the bottom pipe which received cold water, is now emitting hot water at close to 60 °C. In effect, most of the heat was transferred.

Conditions for higher transfer results
Nearly complete transfer in systems implementing countercurrent exchange, is only possible if the two flows are, in some sense, "equal".

For a maximum transfer of substance concentration, an equal flowrate of solvents and solutions is required. For maximum heat transfer, the average specific heat capacity and the mass flow rate must be the same for each stream. If the two flows are not equal, for example if heat is being transferred from water to air or vice versa, then, similar to cocurrent exchange systems, a variation in the gradient is expected because of a buildup of the property not being transferred properly.

Countercurrent exchange in biological systems

Countercurrent exchange is used extensively in biological systems for a wide variety of purposes. For example, fish use it in their gills to transfer oxygen from the surrounding water into their blood, and birds use a countercurrent heat exchanger between blood vessels in their legs to keep heat concentrated within their bodies. In vertebrates, this type of organ is referred to as a rete mirabile (originally the name of the organ in the fish gills). Mammalian kidneys use countercurrent exchange to remove water from urine so the body can retain water used to move the nitrogenous waste products (see countercurrent multiplier).

Countercurrent multiplication loop
A countercurrent multiplication loop is a system where fluid flows in a loop so that the entrance and exit are at similar low concentration of a dissolved substance but at the far end of the loop there is a high concentration of that substance. A buffer liquid between the incoming and outgoing tubes receives the concentrated substance. The incoming and outgoing tubes do not touch each other.

The system allows the buildup of a high concentration gradually, by allowing a natural buildup of concentration towards the tip inside the in-going tube, (for example using osmosis of water out of the input pipe and into the buffer fluid), and the use of many active transport pumps each pumping only against a very small gradient, during the exit from the loop, returning the concentration inside the output pipe to its original concentration.

The incoming flow starting at a low concentration has a semipermeable membrane with water passing to the buffer liquid via osmosis at a small gradient. There is a gradual buildup of concentration inside the loop until the loop tip where it reaches its maximum.

Theoretically a similar system could exist or be constructed for heat exchange.

In the example shown in the image, water enters at 299 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Water passes because of a small osmotic pressure to the buffer liquid in this example at 300 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Further up the loop there is a continued flow of water out of the tube and into the buffer, gradually raising the concentration of NaCl in the tube until it reaches 1199 mg/L at the tip. The buffer liquid between the two tubes is at a gradually rising concentration, always a bit over the incoming fluid, in this example reaching 1200 mg/L. This is regulated by the pumping action on the returning tube as will be explained immediately.

The tip of the loop has the highest concentration of salt (NaCl) in the incoming tube—in the example 1199 mg/L, and in the buffer 1200 mg/L. The returning tube has active transport pumps, pumping salt out to the buffer liquid at a low difference of concentrations of up to 200 mg/L more than in the tube. Thus when opposite the 1000 mg/L in the buffer liquid, the concentration in the tube is 800 and only 200 mg/L are needed to be pumped out. But the same is true anywhere along the line, so that at exit of the loop also only 200 mg/L need to be pumped.

In effect, this can be seen as a gradually multiplying effect—hence the name of the phenomena: a 'countercurrent multiplier' or the mechanism: Countercurrent multiplication, but in current engineering terms, countercurrent multiplication is any process where only slight pumping is needed, due to the constant small difference of concentration or heat along the process, gradually raising to its maximum. There is no need for a buffer liquid, if the desired effect is receiving a high concentration at the output pipe.

In the kidney
A circuit of fluid in the loop of Henle—an important part of the kidneys—allows for gradual buildup of the concentration of urine in the kidneys, by using active transport on the exiting nephrons (tubules carrying liquid in the process of gradually concentrating the urea). The active transport pumps need only to overcome a constant and low gradient of concentration, because of the countercurrent multiplier mechanism.

Various substances are passed from the liquid entering the nephrons until exiting the loop (See the nephron flow diagram). The sequence of flow is as follows:
 * Renal corpuscle: Liquid enters the nephron system at the Bowman's capsule.
 * Proximal convoluted tubule: It then may reabsorb urea in the thick descending limb. Water is removed from the nephrons by osmosis (and glucose and other ions are pumped out with active transport), gradually raising the concentration in the nephrons.
 * Loop of Henle Descending: The liquid passes from the thin descending limb to the thick ascending limb. Water is constantly released via osmosis. Gradually there is a buildup of osmotic concentration, until 1200 mOsm is reached at the loop tip, but the difference across the membrane is kept small and constant.
 * For example, the liquid at one section inside the thin descending limb is at 400 mOsm while outside it is 401. Further down the descending limb, the inside concentration is 500 while outside it is 501, so a constant difference of 1 mOsm is kept all across the membrane, although the concentration inside and outside are gradually increasing.

 * Loop of Henle Ascending: after the tip (or 'bend') of the loop, the liquid flows in the thin ascending limb. Salt–sodium Na+ and chloride Cl− ions are pumped out of the liquid  gradually lowering the concentration in the exiting liquid, but, using the countercurrent multiplier mechanism, always pumping against a constant and small osmotic difference.
 * For example, the pumps at a section close to the bend, pump out from 1000 mOsm inside the ascending limb to 1200 mOsm outside it, with a 200 mOsm across. Pumps further up the thin ascending limb, pump out from 400 mOsm into liquid at 600 mOsm, so again the difference is retained at 200 mOsm from the inside to the outside, while the concentration both inside and outside are gradually decreasing as the liquid flow advances.

 * The liquid finally reaches a low concentration of 100 mOsm when leaving the thin ascending limb and passing through the thick one

 * Distal convoluted tubule: Once leaving the loop of Henle the thick ascending limb can optionally reabsorb and re increase the concentration in the nephrons.
 * Collecting duct: The collecting duct receives liquid between 100 mOsm if no re-absorption is done, to 300 or above if re-absorption was used. The collecting duct may continue raising the concentration if required, by gradually pumping out the same ions as the Distal convoluted tubule, using the same gradient as the ascending limbs in the loop of Henle, and reaching the same concentration.
 * Ureter: The liquid urine leaves to the ureter.
 * Same principle is used in hemodialysis within artificial kidney machines.

History
Initially the countercurrent exchange mechanism and its properties were proposed in 1951 by professor Werner Kuhn and two of his former students who called the mechanism found in the loop of Henle in mammalian kidneys a Countercurrent multiplier and confirmed by laboratory findings in 1958 by Professor Carl W. Gottschalk. The theory was acknowledged a year later after a meticulous study showed that there is almost no osmotic difference between liquids on both sides of nephrons. Homer Smith, a considerable contemporary authority on renal physiology, opposed the model countercurrent concentration for 8 years, until conceding ground in 1959. Ever since, many similar mechanisms have been found in biologic systems, the most notable of these: the rete mirabile in fish.

Countercurrent exchange of heat in organisms

In cold weather the blood flow to the limbs of birds and mammals is reduced on exposure to cold environmental conditions, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes). This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather. The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, thereby reducing heat loss via this route, and forcing the blood returning from the extremities into the counter-current blood flow systems in the centers of the limbs. Birds and mammals that regularly immerse their limbs in cold or icy water have particularly well developed counter-current blood flow systems to their limbs, allowing prolonged exposure of the extremities to the cold without significant loss of body heat, even when the limbs are as thin as the lower legs, or tarsi, of a bird, for instance.

When animals like the leatherback turtle and dolphins are in colder water to which they are not acclimatized, they use this CCHE mechanism to prevent heat loss from their flippers, tail flukes, and dorsal fins. Such CCHE systems are made up of a complex network of peri-arterial venous plexuses, or venae comitantes, that run through the blubber from their minimally insulated limbs and thin streamlined protuberances. Each plexus consists of a central artery containing warm blood from the heart surrounded by a bundle of veins containing cool blood from the body surface. As these fluids flow past each other, they create a heat gradient in which heat is transferred and retained inside the body. The warm arterial blood transfers most of its heat to the cool venous blood now coming in from the outside. This conserves heat by recirculating it back to the body core. Since the arteries give up a good deal of their heat in this exchange, there is less heat lost through convection at the periphery surface.

Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and does not lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to -70 °C.

Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water
Sea and desert birds have been found to have a salt gland near the nostrils which concentrates brine, later to be "sneezed" out to the sea, in effect allowing these birds to drink seawater without the need to find freshwater resources. It also enables the seabirds to remove the excess salt entering the body when eating, swimming or diving in the sea for food. The kidney cannot remove these quantities and concentrations of salt.

The salt secreting gland has been found in seabirds like pelicans, petrels, albatrosses, gulls, and terns. It has also been found in Namibian ostriches and other desert birds, where a buildup of salt concentration is due to dehydration and scarcity of drinking water.

In seabirds the salt gland is above the beak, leading to a main canal above the beak, and water is blown from two small nostrils on the beak, to empty it. The salt gland has two countercurrent mechanisms working in it:

a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'venules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with active transport powered by ATP.

b. The blood supply system to the gland is set in countercurrent exchange loop mechanism for keeping the high concentration of salt in the gland's blood, so that it does not leave back to the blood system.

The glands remove the salt efficiently and thus allow the birds to drink the salty water from their environment while they are hundreds of miles away from land.

Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research
Countercurrent Chromatography is a method of separation, that is based on the differential partitioning of analytes between two immiscible liquids using countercurrent or cocurrent flow. Evolving from Craig's Countercurrent Distribution (CCD), the most widely used term and abbreviation is CounterCurrent Chromatography (CCC), in particular when using hydrodynamic CCC instruments. The term partition chromatography is largely a synonymous and predominantly used for hydrostatic CCC instruments.
 * Distillation of chemicals such as in petroleum refining is done in towers or columns with perforated trays. Vapor from the low boiling fractions bubbles upward through the holes in the trays in contact with the down flowing high boiling fractions. The concentration of low boiling fraction increases in each tray up the tower as it is "stripped". The low boiling fraction is drawn off the top of the tower and the high boiling fraction drawn from the bottom. The process in the trays is a combination of heat transfer and mass transfer. Heat is supplied at the bottom, known as a "reboiler" and cooling is done with a condenser at the top.
 * Liquid–liquid extraction (also called 'solvent extraction' or 'partitioning') is a common method for extracting a substance from one liquid into another liquid at a different 'phase' (such as "slurry"). This method, which implements a countercurrent mechanism, is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fine organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, the production of vegetable oils and biodiesel, and other industries.
 * Gold can be separated from a cyanide solution with the Merrill–Crowe process using Counter Current Decantation (CCD). In some mines, nickel and cobalt are treated with CCD, after the original ore was treated with concentrated sulfuric acid and steam in titanium covered autoclaves, producing nickel cobalt slurry. The nickel and cobalt in the slurry are removed from it almost completely using a CCD system exchanging the cobalt and nickel with flash steam heated water.

 * Lime can be manufactured in countercurrent furnaces allowing the heat to reach high temperatures using low cost, low temperature burning fuel. Historically this was developed by the Japanese in certain types of the Anagama kiln. The kiln is built in stages, where fresh air coming to the fuel is passed downwards while the smoke and heat is pushed up and out. The heat does not leave the kiln, but is transferred back to the incoming air, and thus slowly builds up to 3000 °C and more.

 * Cement may be created using a countercurrent kiln where the heat is passed in the cement and the exhaust combined, while the incoming air draft is passed along the two, absorbing the heat and retaining it inside the furnace, finally reaching high temperatures.
 * Gasification: the process of creating methane and carbon monoxide from organic or fossil matter, can be done using a counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier which is built in a similar way to the Anagama kiln, and must therefore withstand more harsh conditions, but reaches better efficiency.
 * In nuclear power plants, water leaving the plant must not contain even trace particles of Uranium. Counter Current Decantation (CCD) is used in some facilities to extract water, totally clear of Uranium.
 * Zippe-type centrifuges use countercurrent multiplication between rising and falling convection currents to reduce the number of stages needed in a cascade.
 * Some Centrifugal extractors use counter current exchange mechanisms for extracting high rates of the desired material.
 * Some protein skimmers (devices used to clean saltwater pools and fish ponds of organic matter) use counter current technologies.
 * Countercurrent processes have also been used to study the behavior of small animals and isolate individuals with altered behaviors due to genetic mutations.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Countercurrent exchange


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Warren Abstract Machine

In 1983, David H. D. Warren designed an abstract machine for the execution of Prolog consisting of a memory architecture and an instruction set. This design became known as the Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) and has become the de facto standard target for Prolog compilers.

Purpose
The purpose of compiling Prolog code to the more low-level WAM code is to make subsequent interpretation of the Prolog program more efficient. Prolog code is reasonably easy to translate to WAM instructions, which can be more efficiently interpreted. Also, subsequent code improvements and compilations to native code are often easier to perform on the more low-level representation.

In order to write efficient Prolog programs, a basic understanding of how the WAM works can be advantageous. Some of the most important WAM concepts are first argument indexing and its relation to choice-points, tail call optimization, and memory reclamation on failure.

Memory areas
The WAM has the following memory areas:

 * The global stack or heap, used to store compound terms
 * The local stack for environment frames and choice-points
 * The trail to record which variables bindings ought to be undone on backtracking

Example
Here is a piece of Prolog code: A WAM-based Prolog compiler will compile this into WAM instructions similar to the following: An important characteristic of this code is its ability to cope with the various modes in which the predicates can be evoked: any argument might be a variable, a ground term, or a partly instantiated term. The "switch" instructions handle the different cases.

title: Warren Abstract Machine


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Melrose Place

Melrose Place is an American prime time television soap opera that aired on Fox from July 8, 1992, to May 24, 1999, for seven seasons. The show follows the lives of a group of young adults living in an apartment complex on Melrose Place, in West Hollywood, California. The show was created by Darren Star for Fox and executive produced by Aaron Spelling for his company, Spelling Television. It was the second series in the Beverly Hills, 90210 franchise. Season one and season two were broadcast on Wednesday at 9 pm, after Beverly Hills, 90210. In 1994, for its third-season and for the rest of its run, the show moved to Monday at 8 p.m.

The show had many cast changes during the run. Thomas Calabro and Heather Locklear were the only cast members to remain on the series for all seven seasons, with Calabro being the only cast member to remain on the series throughout its entire run from the pilot episode to the series finale.

The show earned several Golden Globe nominations and placed No. 51 on Entertainment Weekly "New TV Classics" list.

Overview
Melrose Place premiered on Fox on July 8, 1992. The series follows the lives of a group of young adults living in an apartment complex at 4616 Melrose Place, in West Hollywood, California.

Melrose Place ran for seven seasons, and its final episode aired on May 24, 1999.

Cast and characters
The first season featured eight main characters: Dr. Michael Mancini (Thomas Calabro), a physician who works at Wilshire Memorial Hospital and changes from a kind, devoted husband in season 1 to a mean, adulterous villain from season 2 on; Jane Mancini (Josie Bissett), his budding fashion designer wife; Billy Campbell (Andrew Shue), a struggling writer adapting to life out of his parents' control; Alison Parker (Courtney Thorne-Smith), a receptionist at D&D Advertising; Jake Hanson (Grant Show), a struggling manual laborer and motorcycle enthusiast; Matt Fielding (Doug Savant), a gay social worker; Rhonda Blair (Vanessa A. Williams), an aerobics instructor; and Sandy Harling (Amy Locane), a Southern belle and struggling actress who moonlights as a waitress at a local bar called Shooters, the group's main hangout. Locane was written off after 13 episodes and replaced by Daphne Zuniga as Jo Reynolds, a photographer running away from her abusive husband. Williams was not brought back for the second season, her character having become engaged to a wealthy restaurant entrepreneur.

Actress Heather Locklear, who in season one had guest starred as Alison's ambitious and merciless boss Amanda Woodward, was promoted to series regular status in the second season after her character bought and moved into the Melrose Place apartment building. Although she was always billed as a "special guest star", Locklear remained with the show for the rest of its run. Guest Laura Leighton, recurring as Jane's trouble-making younger sister Sydney Andrews in the first two seasons, was upgraded to series regular for season three. Marcia Cross, recurring as Dr. Kimberly Shaw in season 1 and early season 2, became a series regular by the end of the second season (though she was not credited in the opening until the start of season four). Janet Carroll appeared in several episodes as Marion Shaw, Kimberly's domineering mother. Beata Pozniak was featured in the second season in 7 episodes as Dr. Katya Petrova Fielding, a doctor with a daughter from a previous marriage who befriends and ultimately marries Matt (for a green card), who becomes an endearing father figure for her child.

Season four saw two new regular characters: Peter Burns (Jack Wagner), the ruthless hospital Chief of Staff introduced in season three; and Brooke Armstrong (Kristin Davis), a young, conniving intern at D&D Advertising also recurring the previous season. Davis's character was subsequently killed off in the middle of the fourth season, while Zuniga left the series at the end of the season. Patrick Muldoon also arrived in the third season as the villainous Richard Hart. Although Muldoon was not billed with the main cast (though he appeared in numerous promotional photos with them), he appeared in most of the fourth season's episodes and is also Melrose Place's longest recurring character (i.e. not in the opening credits) in terms of number of episodes.

The fifth season saw the addition of Rob Estes as restaurateur Kyle McBride, Lisa Rinna as his opportunistic wife Taylor, and Brooke Langton as Samantha Reilly, an artist and a new tenant in the apartment complex. Bissett and Cross left the series towards the end of the fifth season; Kelly Rutherford was brought in as Megan Lewis, a prostitute hired by Kimberly Shaw to have an affair with Michael Mancini, and David Charvet played Craig Field, Amanda's new co-worker and later Sydney's boyfriend. The season finale featured the exits of series regulars Thorne-Smith, Show, and Leighton.

The season premiere of season six featured the departure of original cast member Doug Savant while Alyssa Milano (recurring as Michael's sister Jennifer Mancini since season five) was bumped to series regular, with Linden Ashby joining the cast as Dr. Brett Cooper and Jamie Luner as his seductive and rich ex-wife, Lexi Sterling.

Charvet was written out in the middle of season 6, and the beginning of season seven saw the departure of Shue, Langton, Rinna, Milano, and Ashby. The show's seventh season introduced John Haymes Newton as Ryan McBride, Kyle's younger brother, and Rena Sofer as Eve Cleary, a woman from Amanda's past who marries Peter. Sofer was not billed with the main cast. Bissett reprised her role as Jane for the seventh season.

Cast timeline

 * Cast notes

Main cast members

 * Josie Bissett as Jane Andrews Mancini (seasons 1–5, 7), fashion designer, originally from Chicago, married to Michael Mancini, later involved with Sam Towler, Robert Wilson, Chris Marchette, Richard Hart, Jake Hanson and Kyle McBride
 * Thomas Calabro as Dr. Michael Mancini, cardiology surgeon at Wilshire Memorial Hospital, originally from New Jersey, married to Jane, and later marries Sydney Andrews, Kimberly Shaw and Megan Lewis, also involved with Amanda Woodward, Brandi Carson, Taylor McBride and Lexi Sterling
 * Amy Locane as Sandy Harling (season 1), aspiring actress and waitress at the bar Shooters, originally from South Carolina, involved with Jake
 * Doug Savant as Matt Fielding (seasons 1–6), openly gay social worker and physician at Wilshire Memorial, marries Katya Petrova, involved with Jeffrey Lindley, Dr. Paul Graham, Alan Ross and Dan Hathaway
 * Grant Show as Jake Hanson (seasons 1–5), mechanic and carpenter, owner of Jake's Bikes and Shooters, involved with Colleen Patterson, Perry Morgan, Kelly Taylor, Sandy Harling, Jo Reynolds, Amanda, Sydney, Shelley Hanson and Jane, later marries Alison Parker
 * Andrew Shue as Billy Campbell (seasons 1–7), taxi driver, later copywriter for D&D Advertising, engaged to Alison Parker and later marries Brooke Armstrong and Samantha Reilly, also involved with Amanda, Susan Madsen and Jennifer Mancini
 * Courtney Thorne-Smith as Alison Parker Armstrong Hanson (seasons 1–5), advertising executive at D&D Advertising and later waitress at Shooters, originally from Wisconsin, involved with Keith Gray, Steve McMillan, Zack Phillips and Terry Parsons, engaged to Billy and later marries Hayley Armstrong and Jake Hanson
 * Vanessa Williams as Rhonda Blair (season 1), aerobics instructor, engaged to Terrence Haggard
 * Daphne Zuniga as Jo Reynolds (seasons 1–4), photographer, originally from New York City, previously married to Charles Reynolds, involved with Jake Hanson, Steve McMillan, Reed Carter, Jess Hansen, Richard Hart and Dr. Dominick O'Malley
 * Heather Locklear as Amanda Woodward Parezi Burns McBride Blake (seasons 2–7, recurring season 1), vice-president then president at D&D Advertising and Amanda Woodward Advertising, owner of the Melrose Place complex, previously married to Jack Parezi and later marries Dr. Peter Burns, Kyle McBride and Rory Blake, also involved with Billy, Jake, Michael, Bobby Parezi and Craig Field
 * Laura Leighton as Sydney Andrews Mancini Field (seasons 3–5, recurring season 1–2), Jane's younger sister, waitress at Shooters, then prostitute, stripper and receptionist at Burns & Mancini, marries Michael and Craig, also involved with Jake, Chris Marchette, Bobby Parezi, Kyle McBride and Carter Gallavan
 * Marcia Cross as Dr. Kimberly Shaw Mancini (seasons 4–5, recurring season 1–3), resident doctor at Wilshire Memorial, originally from Cleveland, marries Michael, also involved with Peter and Dr. Brett Cooper
 * Kristin Davis as Brooke Armstrong Campbell (season 4, recurring season 3), employee at D&D Advertising, marries Billy
 * Jack Wagner as Dr. Peter Howell Burns (seasons 4–7, recurring season 3), chief of staff at Wilshire Memorial, originally from Texas, previously married to Beth Davis and later Amanda and Eve Cleary, also involved with Caitlin Mills, Alycia Barnett, Kimberly, Taylor and Lexi
 * Rob Estes as Kyle McBride (seasons 5–7), chef and restaurant owner, former marine, originally from Boston, married to Taylor and later Amanda, also involved with Christine Denton, Jennifer, Sydney and Jane
 * Brooke Langton as Samantha Reilly Campbell (seasons 5–7, recurring season 4), artist and salesperson at Jane's (later Sydney's), originally from Maryland, marries Billy, also involved with Craig and Jeff Baylor
 * Lisa Rinna as Victoria Taylor Davis McBride (seasons 5–7), restaurant co-owner, originally from Boston, married to Kyle, also involved with Peter, Michael and Nick Reardon
 * Kelly Rutherford as Megan Lewis Mancini McBride (seasons 5–7), prostitute, later receptionist at Burns, Mancini & Cooper and Amanda Woodward Advertising, marries Michael and Ryan McBride, also involved with Coop
 * David Charvet as Craig Field (seasons 5–6), son of the chairman of D&D Advertising, marries Sydney, also involved with Amanda and Jennifer
 * Linden Ashby as Dr. Brett "Coop" Cooper (seasons 6–7), surgeon and partner at Burns, Mancini & Cooper, originally from Cleveland, married to Lexi, also involved with Kimberly and Megan
 * Alyssa Milano as Jennifer Mancini (seasons 6–7, recurring season 5), Michael's younger sister, originally from New Jersey, bartender at Upstairs, involved with Kyle, Craig and Billy
 * Jamie Luner as Lexi Sterling Cooper (seasons 6–7), interior designer, later owner of Sterling Conway Enterprises, married to Coop, also involved with Peter, Ryan and Michael
 * John Haymes Newton as Ryan McBride (season 7), Kyle's younger brother, executive at Amanda Woodward Advertising, married to Callie McBride and later Megan, also involved with Lexi

Production
Filming for the series took place at a studio in Santa Clarita, California. Stages were located 30 miles outside of Los Angeles. The scenes filmed outside reveal the original facade of the building at 4616 Greenwood Place in Los Angeles serving as the main backdrop for Melrose Place. The D&D Advertising building is the same complex where the offices of Spelling Entertainment are located on Wilshire Boulevard in Los Angeles.

The production filmed episodes back-to-back, according to Rolling Stone in 1994. A dozen directors were employed during each season to direct the thirty episodes. Charles Correll is by far the main director of the series with 47 episodes to his credit over the entire production period, far ahead of the 27 episodes directed by Chip Chalmers.

In 1997, the filming of the sixth season was brought forward by two weeks because of Heather Locklear's pregnancy, which was not included in the story. A body liner was used for around ten shots. The actress also doubled her filming time and her screen time was reduced to finish filming in mid-September 1997. Lisa Rinna (Taylor) was also pregnant during filming at the end of the sixth season. However, her pregnancy was integrated into the plot. This was also the case for the pregnancy of Josie Bissett (Jane) during the seventh season. Estes and Bissett welcomed their first child, son Mason True, on July 21, 1999.

Nielsen ratings
Melrose Place debuted on July 8, 1992, at No. 19 on the Nielsen ratings with a 10.3/19 share and 16 million viewers. In December 1993, Meredith Berkman of Entertainment Weekly called the show "arguably the hottest one-hour drama on television." Though ratings dropped slightly over the first season, the addition of Heather Locklear as Amanda is credited for improving ratings and bringing the show from No. 94 to No. 50 in the second season.

The series finale was watched by 10.38 million viewers.

Critical reception
Melrose Place received mixed reviews from critics. As of September 2014, season 1 has a critics' rating of 4.7/10 at Metacritic. One of the critics, Time Richard Zoglin, who gave the season a 2.0/10 score, wrote that the soap is "tapping into nothing more than worn plot lines from The Young and the Restless". Conversely, Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly, gave the first season a B− rating, writing: "Hey, I make fun of Melrose Place — but I'm hypnotized by it. As warm-weather escapism, it takes all the issues facing this country, from unemployment to sexual harassment, and turns them into crises that can be solved in an hour." During the second season, David Wild of Rolling Stone wrote: "After debuting in 1992 with a troubled first season that at times rivaled that of the 1962 New York Mets, Melrose Place made a few key trades. The show acquired a journeywoman heavy hitter in the lovely form of Locklear and wisely swapped bothersome Issues and Morals for infinitely more palatable Sex and Villains, emerging as a big winner, particularly with that attractive twentysomething demographic." The third season received positive reviews from critics: "After a couple lukewarm yet entertaining seasons, Melrose Place exploded in season three with the over-the-top, addictive storylines. Remember the crazy Kimberly-Michael-Sydney drama? And then Kimberly tried to keep Jo's baby! Really, this is daytime-soap-drama, heated up for primetime." In 1997, Mark Harris, who gave the soap's sixth season a D rating, stated: "Although the ever-game, deserves-better Heather Locklear still spits out even the worst lines with snappish authority, and the diabolical-doctor duo of Jack Wagner and Thomas Calabro at least try to look interested, they can't sustain a show that has lost its best asset — a twisted joy in its own trashiness."

Accolades
The series won the People's Choice Award in 1993 for 'Favorite New TV Dramatic Series'.

Heather Locklear was nominated for four Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress in a Television Series – Drama for her role as Amanda Woodward on Melrose Place, in 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996. Laura Leighton was nominated in 1995 for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series for her role as Sydney Andrews.

In May 1994, at the height of the show's popularity, the female stars, Heather Locklear, Laura Leighton, Courtney Thorne-Smith, Daphne Zuniga and Josie Bissett, were featured on the cover of Rolling Stone.

TV Guide ranked Amanda Woodward at No. 2 in the short list of "The Biggest TV Bitches", only behind Joan Collins' iconic Alexis Carrington Colby, with whom Locklear co-starred on Dynasty. In Entertainment Weekly, Heather Locklear said about playing her: "Not trying to be a bitch. Just trying to be strong and do what you are supposed to do".

In 2012, Entertainment Weekly reunited Melrose favorites Heather Locklear, Marcia Cross, Laura Leighton, Courtney Thorne-Smith, Josie Bissett, Daphne Zuniga, Andrew Shue, Grant Show and Doug Savant, and they appeared on the cover.

Spin-offs and other media
The original series produced a spin-off series, Models Inc., which ran for one season in 1994–95. That series focused on a Los Angeles modeling agency run by Hillary Michaels (played by Linda Gray), the mother of Melrose's Amanda Woodward; the show was cancelled after a single season due to low ratings.

A continuation of the series, also called Melrose Place, premiered on September 8, 2009, on The CW Television Network. The new series featured primarily a new cast, although five actors from the original series made appearances: Thomas Calabro, Laura Leighton, Josie Bissett, Daphne Zuniga and Heather Locklear. The revival series suffered from low ratings and negative reviews, and was cancelled in 2010 after one season.

In April 2024, another revival of the series was announced to be in development at CBS Studios, to be written by Lauren Gussis and with Locklear, Leighton and Zuniga attached to reprise their roles from the original series.

Unauthorized story
On October 10, 2015, a television movie called The Unauthorized Melrose Place Story was released. It tells the behind-the-scenes making-of story of the show, finishing with the filming of the season three finale.

Lawsuit
In 1996, actress Hunter Tylo was cast in Melrose Place and opted to leave daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful to take the role. However, she was fired by Melrose Place producer Aaron Spelling prior to filming any episodes for the series, when she announced she was pregnant. The character she was to play, Taylor McBride, was recast, Lisa Rinna taking the role. Tylo quickly returned to The Bold and the Beautiful. Tylo sued Spelling on grounds of discrimination for being pregnant and won $4.8 million from a Los Angeles jury. Spelling argued that Tylo's pregnancy rendered her unable to play the character, who was supposed to be a sexy seductress. During the trial, Tylo published pictures of herself while pregnant which showed that she retained a slim figure. Prior to trial, during the discovery phase of the litigation, Tylo's lawyers won a partial victory in an interlocutory appeal challenging a lower court's order compelling her to answer a broad range of personal questions. The Court of Appeal established Tylo's right to refuse to answer questions in her deposition about marital problems and psychological treatment, although the Court sustained the portion of the order which compelled her to answer questions about her efforts to become pregnant, her husband's ability or inability to impregnate her, and communications with her agent with respect to her efforts and ability to become pregnant. The case is widely recognized as an important one in establishing the right of privacy in deposition and the right of female actors to continue to work while pregnant.

Home media
CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) have released all seasons of Melrose Place on DVD in Region 1.

The series has also been released on DVD in Region 2 and 4 by Paramount Home Entertainment.

Due to music licensing issues, most of the original music has been replaced on these DVD releases, and some episodes are edited from their original broadcast versions.

The soundtrack "Melrose Place" containing 11 tracks was released in 1994 on Giant records; in 1998 "Melrose Place Jazz" containing 16 tracks was released by Windham Hill Jazz.

The series is rated in Australia and  in New Zealand for its sex scenes and offensive language.

GALA Committee
A group of artists and Melrose Place producers formed the GALA Committee, headed by artist Mel Chin, to bring artworks out of galleries and into primetime television. GALA artists designed artworks that were used as props by Melrose Place characters in the fourth and fifth seasons, often with hidden political messages:
 * When Alison is pregnant, her quilt is decorated with the molecular structure of RU-486.
 * A bag of Chinese take-out food is emblazoned with two opposing ideograms translated from Chinese as "Human Rights" and "Turmoil"; both terms were used by the Chinese government to justify a restriction on student protesters of June 4, 1989.
 * Bottles behind the counter at Shooters bar are decorated with ads and documents chronicling the history of alcohol.
 * As Alison quits D&D Advertising, a framed ad in the background features a bombed-out building (the result of the Oklahoma City bombing). The damage to the structure is in the shape of a liquor bottle, and the words "Total Proof" appear on the poster.

Chin compared the works to viruses, symbiotic and invisible. The project was called In the Name of the Place, as part of the "Uncommon Sense" art show at the Geffen Contemporary at MOCA, Los Angeles, California in 1997. A portion of the fifth season was filmed at the Geffen Contemporary where the project was displayed. The artwork was also shown at the 1997 Kwangju Biennale in Kwangju, Korea and at Grand Arts in Kansas City, Missouri in 1998. Sotheby's Auction house auctioned almost fifty of these artworks for charity.

title: Melrose Place


text:
Talk:Sam Shepard

Comment
Thanks for the heads up, Tarquin. I wrote that text for a bookstore website, but I thought it had been removed. I'll rewrite the article to avoid any conflict. --BarkingDoc

States of Shock
Is this the same Sam Shepard who wrote the anti war play States of Shock. It's a fairly recent play, no earlier than 2003 i'd imagine. The only reason i'm uncertain is that the list of his plays seems fairly extensive, and i didn't think that whoever compiled it originally would miss what i understood to be a fairly well known play. If it is him, I'll do up an article about the play.

According to the author of this site, who claims to be an expert on Mr Shepard, it is the same one. Hope that helps.

http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/theatre_dance/shepard/shepard.html

ELH50

Wrong Right Stuff
"However, he allowed the real Chuck Yeager to take him up in a jet plane in 1984, when he was preparing for his role as Yeager in The Right Stuff." doesn't seem quite right, given that the movie was released in 1983. Does anyone have a proper reference for this? In addition, Sam Shapard did not write "The Right Stuff" ( bibliography error ) Tom Wolfe wrote this book. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.252.191.212 (talk) 00:00, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

Would be interesting to know how, as a college dropout, he avoided military service and why. With a father in the military, and movies about having the "right stuff" on his resume, this would be an important addition to his biographical material. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.152.216.213 (talk) 15:12, 3 August 2017 (UTC)

holy modal rounder
the Wikipedia article on the band the Holy Modal Rounders states "After leaving the Fugs, the Rounders reformed with Sam Shepard and Lee Crabtree to record their third album (Indian War Whoop . . . " Band and recording has a significant cult following and many firsts suggest this be cross referencedZeke Canidae (talk) 21:58, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

unsourced statement
The following sentences from the "Early life" section are unsourced:

He avoided the draft during the Vietnam era by claiming to be a heroin addict. The year 1963 found him working as a busboy in Manhattan's Greenwich Village in New York City, New York. During this time Shepard was using illicit drugs.

I haven't found any mention of draft-dodging in the sources appearing in footnotes 1–3; one source might be interpreted as obliquely referring to "illicit drug use," in that he's said to have left New York and its drug scene (oblique because the source never says Shephard used drugs). I usually write biographies of people who've been dead for hundreds of years, but I'm thinking these are the kind of statements that need to be especially well-sourced for a living subject. Cynwolfe (talk) 04:52, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

Needs clean up
The filmographies and bibliographies and all other tables need clean up. Lady Lotus (talk) 16:32, 7 May 2013 (UTC)

Relationship with Joni Mitchell
She wrote the song Coyote about him:

http://songmeanings.com/songs/view/70440/ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.84.37.165 (talk) 17:15, 22 December 2016 (UTC)

Age
Someone keeps messing up his age and death info and I'm not sure how to fix it. JohnCKey (talk) 15:32, 31 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia relies on reliable sources for information. The current birth and death dates (November 5, 1943 – July 27, 2017) come from reliable sources which are viewable at the references provided. If you have conflicting information from a reliable source, you can correct the information, and add the reliable source as a reference. However, since it would conflict with what's currently in the article, it may be better to discuss on this page specifically what's wrong before changing the article.Ponydepression (talk) 18:13, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

Date of death!
There has been an inordinate amount of activity today on the above subject. So, could we all please note - the respected New York Times states that Sam Shepard died on "Thursday", meaning 27th July 2017, and not the 30th, 31st, or whichever other date you may have overheard as his day of expiry. Given this irrefutable source link, it's foolish to deny the proven fact. Thanks in anticipation of your cooperation. Ref (chew) (do) 23:00, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

Cause of death
Please state that he passed from ALS. Writing out the actual medical terminology doesn’t help people to recognize that ALS is affecting more people and there is little being done about it. My partner died last May and so many people say “ What is that or that’s Lou Gehrig disease”. ALS needs to be recongnized. Please help by adding to to his cause of death. Thank you — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:645:8000:7a:fd9a:79bf:5a1:ad54 (talk • contribs) 12:46, 11 February 2018 (UTC)

He played drums that appeared in "Easy Rider".
How could that not be in his bio? That's him on drums to the song "So you want to be a bird" by the Rounders.

title: Talk:Sam Shepard


text:
Bandwagon effect

The bandwagon effect is a psychological phenomenon where people adopt certain behaviors, styles, or attitudes simply because others are doing so. More specifically, it is a cognitive bias by which public opinion or behaviours can alter due to particular actions and beliefs rallying amongst the public. It is a psychological phenomenon whereby the rate of uptake of beliefs, ideas, fads and trends increases with respect to the proportion of others who have already done so. As more people come to believe in something, others also "hop on the bandwagon" regardless of the underlying evidence.

Following others' actions or beliefs can occur because of conformism or deriving information from others. Much of the influence of the bandwagon effect comes from the desire to 'fit in' with peers; by making similar selections as other people, this is seen as a way to gain access to a particular social group. An example of this is fashion trends wherein the increasing popularity of a certain garment or style encourages more acceptance. When individuals make rational choices based on the information they receive from others, economists have proposed that information cascades can quickly form in which people ignore their personal information signals and follow the behaviour of others. Cascades explain why behaviour is fragile as people understand that their behaviour is based on a very limited amount of information. As a result, fads form easily but are also easily dislodged. The phenomenon is observed in various fields, such as economics, political science, medicine, and psychology. In social psychology, people's tendency to align their beliefs and behaviors with a group is known as 'herd mentality' or 'groupthink'. The reverse bandwagon effect (also known as the snob effect in certain contexts) is a cognitive bias that causes people to avoid doing something, because they believe that other people are doing it.

Origin
The phenomenon where ideas become adopted as a result of their popularity has been apparent for some time. However, the metaphorical use of the term bandwagon in reference to this phenomenon began in 1848. A literal "bandwagon" is a wagon that carries a musical ensemble, or band, during a parade, circus, or other entertainment event.

The phrase "jump on the bandwagon" first appeared in American politics in 1848 during the presidential campaign of Zachary Taylor. Dan Rice, a famous and popular circus clown of the time, invited Taylor to join his circus bandwagon. As Taylor gained more recognition and his campaign became more successful, people began saying that Taylor's political opponents ought to "jump on the bandwagon" themselves if they wanted to be associated with such success.

Later, during the time of William Jennings Bryan's 1900 presidential campaign, bandwagons had become standard in campaigns, and the phrase "jump on the bandwagon" was used as a derogatory term, implying that people were associating themselves with success without considering that with which they associated themselves.

Despite its emergence in the late 19th century, it was only rather recently that the theoretical background of bandwagon effects has been understood. One of the best-known experiments on the topic is the 1950s' Asch conformity experiment, which illustrates the individual variation in the bandwagon effect. Academic study of the bandwagon effect especially gained interest in the 1980s, as scholars studied the effect of public opinion polls on voter opinions.

Causes and factors
Individuals are highly influenced by the pressure and norms exerted by groups. As an idea or belief increases in popularity, people are more likely to adopt it; when seemingly everyone is doing something, there is an incredible pressure to conform. Individuals' impressions of public opinion or preference can originate from several sources.

Some individual reasons behind the bandwagon effect include:

 * Efficiency — Bandwagoning serves as a mental shortcut, or heuristic, allowing for decisions to be made quickly. It takes time for an individual to evaluate a behaviour or thought and decide upon it.
 * Normative social influence (belonging) — People have the tendency to conform with others out of a desire to fit in with the crowd and gain approval from others. As conformity ensures some level of social inclusion and acceptance, many people go along with the behaviours and/or ideas of their group in order to avoid being the odd one out. The 'spiral of silence' exemplifies this factor.
 * Informational social influence — People tend to conform with others out of a desire to be right, under the assumption that others may know something or may understand the situation better. In other words, people will support popular beliefs because they are seen as correct by the larger social group (the 'majority'). Moreover, when it seems as though the majority is doing a certain thing, not doing that thing becomes increasingly difficult. When individuals make rational choices based on the information they receive from others, economists have proposed that information cascades can quickly form in which people decide to ignore their personal information signals and follow the behaviour of others.
 * Fear of missing out — People who are anxious about 'missing out' on things that others are doing may be susceptible to the bandwagon effect.
 * Being on the 'winning side' — The desire to support a "winner" (or avoid supporting a "loser") can be what makes some susceptible to the bandwagon effect, such as in the case of voting for a candidate because they're in the lead.

In politics, bandwagon effects can also come as result of indirect processes that are mediated by political actors. Perceptions of popular support may affect the choice of activists about which parties or candidates to support by donations or voluntary work in campaigns.

Spread
The bandwagon effect works through a self-reinforcing mechanism, and can spread quickly and on a large-scale through a positive feedback loop, whereby the more who are affected by it, the more likely other people are to be affected by it too.

A new concept that is originally promoted by only a single advocate or a minimal group of advocates can quickly grow and become widely popular, even when sufficient supporting evidence is lacking. What happens is that a new concept gains a small following, which grows until it reaches a critical mass, until for example it begins being covered by mainstream media, at which point a large-scale bandwagon effect begins, which causes more people to support this concept, in increasingly large numbers. This can be seen as a result of the availability cascade, a self-reinforcing process through which a certain belief gains increasing prominence in public discourse.

In politics
The bandwagon effect can take place in voting: it occurs on an individual scale where a voters opinion on vote preference can be altered due to the rising popularity of a candidate or a policy position. The aim for the change in preference is for the voter to end up picking the "winner's side" in the end. Voters are more so persuaded to do so in elections that are non-private or when the vote is highly publicised.

The bandwagon effect has been applied to situations involving majority opinion, such as political outcomes, where people alter their opinions to the majority view. Such a shift in opinion can occur because individuals from the decisions of others, as in an informational cascade.

Perceptions of popular support may affect the choice of activists about which parties or candidates to support by donations or voluntary work in campaigns. They may strategically funnel these resources to contenders perceived as well supported and thus electorally viable, thereby enabling them to run more powerful, and thus more influential campaigns.

In economics
American economist Gary Becker has argued that the bandwagon effect is powerful enough to flip the demand curve to be upward sloping. A typical demand curve is downward sloping—as prices rise, demand falls. However, according to Becker, an upward sloping would imply that even as prices rise, the demand rises.

Financial markets
The bandwagon effect comes about in two ways in financial markets.

First, through price bubbles: these bubbles often happen in financial markets in which the price for a particularly popular security keeps on rising. This occurs when many investors line up to buy a security bidding up the price, which in return attracts more investors. The price can rise beyond a certain point, causing the security to be highly overvalued.

Second is liquidity holes: when unexpected news or events occur, market participants will typically stop trading activity until the situation becomes clear. This reduces the number of buyers and sellers in the market, causing liquidity to decrease significantly. The lack of liquidity leaves price discovery distorted and causes massive shifts in asset prices, which can lead to increased panic, which further increases uncertainty, and the cycle continues.

Microeconomics
In microeconomics, bandwagon effects may play out in interactions of demand and preference. The bandwagon effect arises when people's preference for a commodity increases as the number of people buying it increases. Consumers may choose their product based on others' preferences believing that it is the superior product. This selection choice can be a result of directly observing the purchase choice of others or by observing the scarcity of a product compared to its competition as a result of the choice previous consumers have made. This scenario can also be seen in restaurants where the number of customers in a restaurant can persuade potential diners to eat there based on the perception that the food must be better than the competition due to its popularity. This interaction potentially disturbs the normal results of the theory of supply and demand, which assumes that consumers make buying decisions exclusively based on price and their own personal preference.

In medicine
Decisions made by medical professionals can also be influenced by the bandwagon effect. Particularly, the widespread use and support of now-disproven medical procedures throughout history can be attributed to their popularity at the time. Layton F. Rikkers (2002), professor emeritus of surgery at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, calls these prevailing practices medical bandwagons, which he defines as "the overwhelming acceptance of unproved but popular [medical] ideas."

Medical bandwagons have led to inappropriate therapies for numerous patients, and have impeded the development of more appropriate treatment.

One paper from 1979 on the topic of bandwagons of medicine describes how a new medical concept or treatment can gain momentum and become mainstream, as a result of a large-scale bandwagon effect:

 * The news media finds out about a new treatment and publicizes it, often by publishing pieces.
 * Various organizations, such as government agencies, research foundations, and private companies also promote the new treatment, typically because they have some vested interest in seeing it succeed.
 * The public picks up on the now-publicized treatment, and pressures medical practitioners to adopt it, especially when that treatment is perceived as being novel.
 * Doctors often want to accept the new treatment, because it offers a compelling solution to a difficult issue.
 * Since doctors have to consume large amounts of medical information in order to stay aware of the latest trends in their field, it is sometimes difficult for them to read new material in a sufficiently critical manner.

In sports
One who supports a particular sports team, despite having shown no interest in that team until it started gaining success, can be considered a "bandwagon fan".

In social networking
As an increasing number of people begin to use a specific social networking site or application, people are more likely to begin using those sites or applications. The bandwagon effect also

This research used bandwagon effects to examine the comparative impact of two separate bandwagon heuristic indicators (quantitative vs. qualitative) on changes in news readers' attitudes in an online comments section. Furthermore, Study 1 demonstrated that qualitative signals had a higher influence on news readers' judgments than quantitative clues. Additionally, Study 2 confirmed the results of Study 1 and showed that people's attitudes are influenced by apparent public opinion, offering concrete proof of the influence that digital bandwagons.

In fashion
The bandwagon effect can also affect the way the masses dress and can be responsible for clothing trends. People tend to want to dress in a manner that suits the current trend and will be influenced by those who they see often – normally celebrities. Such publicised figures will normally act as the catalyst for the style of the current period. Once a small group of consumers attempt to emulate a particular celebrity's dress choice more people tend to copy the style due to the pressure or want to fit in and be liked by their peers.

title: Bandwagon effect


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Rockingham

Rockingham may refer to:

People

 * Marquess of Rockingham, a British title of nobility whose holders included:
 * Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham (1730–1782), Prime Minister of Great Britain

Australia

 * City of Rockingham
 * Rockingham, Western Australia
 * East Rockingham, Western Australia
 * Electoral district of Rockingham, a State Electoral District in Western Australia
 * Rockingham Bay, Queensland

Canada

 * Rockingham, Nova Scotia
 * École Rockingham School, an elementary school in Halifax, Nova Scotia
 * Rockingham, community in Brudenell, Lyndoch and Raglan Township, Ontario

Ireland

 * Rockingham House, Boyle, a large country house in Boyle, County Roscommon, Ireland

United Kingdom

 * Rockingham, Northamptonshire, England
 * Rockingham Castle
 * Rockingham Forest
 * Rockingham Motor Speedway

United States

 * Rockingham, Georgia
 * Rockingham, Missouri
 * Rockingham, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
 * Rockingham (house), an historic house in Rockingham, NJ
 * Rockingham, North Carolina, in Richmond County
 * Rockingham Speedway ("The Rock"), a former NASCAR track located outside of Rockingham, NC
 * Rockingham, Vermont
 * Rockingham Avenue, Brentwood, Los Angeles, CA; the location of O.J. Simpson's former estate
 * Rockingham County, New Hampshire
 * Rockingham Park, horse racing and former motor racing track in Salem, New Hampshire
 * Rockingham County, North Carolina
 * Rockingham County, Virginia
 * Rockingham Township, Iowa

Other uses

 * Rockingham (album), an album by the band Nerf Herder
 * Rockingham (horse), a British Thoroughbred racehorse
 * Rockingham ministry (disambiguation), British governments led by Lord Rockingham
 * Operation Rockingham, a British government codename relating to operations with regard to Iraq
 * Rockingham Pottery, a 19th-century Yorkshire manufacturer of porcelain that benefitted from the patronage of the descendants of the Marquesses of Rockingham
 * USS Rockingham (APA-229), United States' navy ship

title: Rockingham