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Arcesilaus

Arcesilaus (Ἀρκεσίλαος; 316/5–241/0 BC) was a Greek Hellenistic philosopher. He was the founder of Academic Skepticism and what is variously called the Second or Middle or New Academy – the phase of the Platonic Academy in which it embraced philosophical skepticism.

Arcesilaus succeeded Crates of Athens as the sixth scholarch of the academy around 264 BC. He did not preserve his thoughts in writing, so his opinions can only be gleaned second-hand from what is preserved by later writers.

In Athens Arcesilaus interacted with the Pyrrhonist philosopher, Timon of Phlius, whose philosophy appears to have influenced Arcesilaus to become the first Academic to adopt a position of philosophical skepticism, that is, he doubted the ability of the senses to discover truth about the world, although he may have continued to believe in the existence of truth itself. This brought in the skeptical phase of the academy. His chief opponent was his contemporary, Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, whose dogma of katalepsis (i.e., that reality could be comprehended with certainty) Arcesilaus denied.

Life
Arcesilaus was born in Pitane in Aeolis. His early education was provided by Autolycus the mathematician, with whom he migrated to Sardis. Afterwards, he studied rhetoric in Athens. He then studied philosophy, becoming a disciple first of Theophrastus and afterwards of Crantor. He also attended the school of Pyrrho, whose philosophy he maintained, except in name. He subsequently became intimate with Polemo and Crates of Athens, who made Arcesilaus his successor as scholarch (head) of the Platonic Academy.

Diogenes Laërtius says that, like his successor Lacydes, Arcesilaus died of excessive drinking, but the testimony of others (e.g. Cleanthes, who said that he lived a dutiful life) and his own precepts discredit the story. He is known to have been much respected by the Athenians.

Philosophy
Arcesilaus committed nothing to writing. His opinions were imperfectly known to his contemporaries, and can now only be gathered from the statements of later writers. This makes his philosophy difficult to evaluate and partly inconsistent. This led scholars to see his skepticism in several ways. Some see his philosophy as completely negative or destructive of all philosophical views. Others regard him as taking the position that nothing can be known on the basis of his philosophical arguments. Others claimed he held no positive views on any philosophical topic, including the possibility of knowledge.

Arcesilaus' contemporary, Aristo of Chios, described Arcesilaus as being: "Plato the head of him, Pyrrho the tail, midway Diodorus" meaning that Arcesilaus presented himself as a Platonist, the substance of what he taught was the dialectics of Diodorus, but his actual philosophy was that of Pyrrhonism. Eusebius, probably quoting Aristocles of Messene, reported that Arcesilaus studied in Pyrrho's school and adhered, except in name, to Pyrrhonism. Numenius of Apamea said "Arcesilaus accompanied Pyrrho. He remained Pyrrhonist in his rejection of everything, except in name. At least the Pyrrhonists Mnaseas, Philomelos and Timon call him a Pyrrhonist, just as they were themselves, because he too rejected the true, the false, and the persuasive." Sextus Empiricus said that Arcesilaus' philosophy appeared essentially the same as Pyrrhonism, but granted that this might have been superficial.

On the one hand, Arcesilaus professed to be no innovator, but a reviver of the dogma-free dialectic that had characterized the academy under Plato. Thus he is said to have restored the doctrines of Plato in an uncorrupted form. On the other hand, according to Cicero, he summed up his opinions in the formula, "that he knew nothing, not even his own ignorance." There are two ways of reconciling the difficulty: either we may suppose him to have thrown out such aphorisms as an exercise for his pupils, as Sextus Empiricus, who calls him a "skeptic", would have us believe; or he may have really doubted the esoteric meaning of Plato, and have supposed himself to have been stripping his works of the figments of the Dogmatists, while he was in fact taking from them all certain principles.

Cicero attributes the following argument to Arcesilaus:

(i) it is rash and shameful to assent to something false or unknown, but since (ii) nothing can be known (and obviously we shouldn't do what is rash and shameful), (iii) we should suspend judgment about everything

Zeno of Citium and the other Stoics were the chief opponents of Arcesilaus. He attacked their dogma of katalêptikê phantasia (i.e., a convincing conception) as understood to be a mean between episteme (knowledge) and doxa (opinion). He argued that this mean could not exist. It involved a contradiction in terms, as the very idea of phantasia implied the possibility of false as well as true conceptions of the same object. As such, it was merely the interpolation of a name.

Commentary on Arcesilaus
The Pyrrhonist philosopher and contemporary of Arcesilaus, Timon of Phlius ridiculed Arcesilaus in his Silloi, but also praised him in Funeral Banquet of Arcesilaus. Fragments from Timon about Arcesilaus include:
 * "Having the lead of Menedemus at his heart, he will run either to that mass of flesh, Pyrrho, or to Diodorus."
 * "I shall swim to Pyrrho and to crooked Diodorus."
 * "And mixing sound sense with wily cavils."

Blaise Pascal wrote of Arcesilaus in his Pensées (1669, para. 375): I have seen changes in all nations and men, and thus after many changes of judgement regarding true justice, I have recognized that our nature was but in continual change, and I have not changed since; and if I changed, I would confirm my opinion. The skeptic Arcesilaus, who became a dogmatist.

title: Arcesilaus


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PNP

PNP may refer to:

Government

 * Provincial Nomination Program, an immigration scheme by the Government of Canada

Organizations

 * New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)
 * Partido Nashonal di Pueblo, a Curaçaoan political party
 * National Popular Party (Romania)
 * Parti national populaire, a 1970s political party in Quebec, Canada
 * People's New Party, Japan
 * Peoples National Party (disambiguation)
 * Peruvian National Police Policía Nacional del Perú)
 * Peruvian Nationalist Party
 * Philippine National Police
 * Princess Naoko Planning, Naoko Takeuchi's studio
 * Progressive National Party (disambiguation)
 * Princeton Newport Partners, a hedge fund

Science and technology

 * Purine nucleoside phosphorylase, an enzyme
 * 4-Nitrophenol or p-nitrophenol
 * PNP transistor

 * P versus NP problem

 * Plug and play, not requiring configuration
 * Legacy Plug and Play or Legacy PnP
 * Perspective-n-Point in computer vision
 * Print-and-play, board games with parts designed to be printed by players

Other uses

 * Party and play (PnP), sex with drug use

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: PNP


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1989 in film

The year 1989 involved many significant films.

Highest-grossing films
The top 10 films released in 1989 by worldwide gross are as follows:

Events

 * Actress Kim Basinger and her brother Mick purchase Braselton, Georgia, for $20 million. Basinger would lose the town to her partner in the deal, the pension fund of Chicago-based Ameritech Corp., in 1993 after being forced to file for bankruptcy when a California judge ordered her to pay $7.4 million for refusing to honor a verbal contract to star in the film Boxing Helena.
 * A director's cut of Lawrence of Arabia is released with a 227-minute length. The restoration was undertaken by Robert A. Harris under the supervision of director David Lean.
 * April 23 – Field of Dreams, starring Kevin Costner, James Earl Jones, and Burt Lancaster, is released.
 * May 24 – Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is released. It is the third installment of the Indiana Jones series.
 * June 13 – The James Bond film Licence to Kill is released. It would be followed by years of legal wrangling over the future of the popular series. The next Bond film, GoldenEye, is not released until 1995.
 * June 16 - Ghostbusters II is released.
 * June 23
 * Batman is released, going on to gross more than $410 million worldwide, and establishing the public and critical attention of director Tim Burton.
 * Honey, I Shrunk the Kids is released and marks the directorial debut of visual effects supervisor Joe Johnston, who later went on to direct The Rocketeer, Jumanji, October Sky, Jurassic Park III, and Captain America: The First Avenger.
 * June 30 - Do the Right Thing released. It was added to the National Film Registry in 1999.
 * July 7 – Lethal Weapon 2 is released and becomes the highest-grossing film in the franchise. As well as the highest grossing R-rated film of the year at the domestic box office.
 * July 11 – Screen, stage, and Shakespearian legend Laurence Olivier died peacefully in his home in England, after appearing in his last filmed role as an old soldier in War Requiem.
 * August 2 – Ron Howard's family comedy Parenthood, starring Steve Martin, Tom Hulce, and Rick Moranis, is released.
 * September 28 – Sony announce its intention to buy Columbia Pictures and Tri-Star Pictures. The deal is completed in November for a total cost of nearly $5 billion.  They appoint Peter Guber and Jon Peters as co-chairman, in a further deal that cost up to $1 billion, after settling a lawsuit with Warner Bros.
 * November 7 - Andrew G. Vajna agrees to sell his stake in Carolco Pictures to his co-chairman and co-founder Mario Kassar for $106 million.
 * November 17 – The Little Mermaid becomes a critical and commercial success and brings new life to Walt Disney Feature Animation. The Little Mermaid also reinvigorated public and critical interest in The Walt Disney Company, which would become one of the most prestigious corporations of the 1990s.
 * November 22 – Back to the Future Part II is released.

By country/region

 * List of American films of 1989
 * List of Argentine films of 1989
 * List of Australian films of 1989
 * List of Bangladeshi films of 1989
 * List of British films of 1989
 * List of Canadian films of 1989
 * List of French films of 1989
 * List of Hong Kong films of 1989
 * List of Indian films of 1989
 * List of Hindi films of 1989
 * List of Kannada films of 1989
 * List of Malayalam films of 1989
 * List of Marathi films of 1989
 * List of Tamil films of 1989
 * List of Telugu films of 1989
 * List of Japanese films of 1989
 * List of Mexican films of 1989
 * List of Pakistani films of 1989
 * List of South Korean films of 1989
 * List of Soviet films of 1989
 * List of Spanish films of 1989

By genre/medium

 * List of action films of 1989
 * List of animated feature films of 1989
 * List of avant-garde films of 1989
 * List of comedy films of 1989
 * List of drama films of 1989
 * List of horror films of 1989
 * List of science fiction films of 1989
 * List of thriller films of 1989
 * List of western films of 1989

Births

 * January 1 – Adele Haenel, French actress
 * January 3 – Alex D. Linz, American actor
 * January 8 - Karan Soni, Indian-American actor
 * January 9 – Nina Dobrev, Bulgarian-Canadian actress and model
 * January 13 - Andy Allo, Cameroonian-American singer-songwriter and actress
 * January 14 - Emma Greenwell, American-born English actress
 * January 16
 * Rila Fukushima, Japanese actress and model
 * Yvonne Zima, American actress
 * January 17 – Kelly Marie Tran, American actress
 * January 23 – April Pearson, English actress
 * January 20 – Piret Krumm, Estonian actress
 * January 26 – Hannah Arterton, American actress
 * January 29 – Kaspar Velberg, Estonian actor
 * January 30
 * Kylie Bunbury, Canadian-American actress
 * Khleo Thomas, American actor
 * February 1 - Marco Pigossi, Brazilian actor
 * February 3 - Ryne Sanborn, American former actor
 * February 4
 * Märt Pius, Estonian actor
 * Priit Pius, Estonian actor
 * February 5 – Jeremy Sumpter, American actor
 * February 10 – Olga Korsak, Latvian actress
 * February 12 - Odelya Halevi, Israeli actress
 * February 13
 * Carly McKillip, Canadian actress and singer
 * Katie Volding, American actress
 * February 16 – Elizabeth Olsen, American actress
 * February 21
 * Corbin Bleu, American actor and singer
 * Scout Taylor-Compton, American actress and singer
 * February 24 – Daniel Kaluuya, English actor
 * February 29 - Angelababy, Hong Kong actress and singer
 * March 1 – Daniella Monet, American actress and singer
 * March 2 - Nathalie Emmanuel, English actress and model
 * March 3 - Andrea Brooks, Canadian actress and model
 * March 5
 * Jake Lloyd, American actor
 * Sterling Knight, American actor and musician
 * March 11
 * Rainey Qualley, American actress and singer
 * Anton Yelchin, Russian-American actor (died 2016)
 * March 15
 * Tom Bateman, British actor
 * Caitlin Wachs, American actress
 * March 17
 * Morfydd Clark, Welsh actress
 * Harry Melling, English actor
 * March 18 – Lily Collins, English-American actress
 * March 20 – Xavier Dolan, Canadian actor and director
 * March 21 – Takeru Sato, Japanese actor
 * March 23 - Ayesha Curry, Canadian-American actress
 * March 25
 * Matthew Beard, English actor and model
 * Aly Michalka, American actress and singer
 * April 2 – Liis Lass, Estonian actress
 * April 5
 * Freddie Fox, English actor, director and voice artist
 * Lily James, English actress
 * April 8 - Gabriella Wilde, English model and actress
 * April 12 - Yoshi Sudarso, Indonesian-born American actor
 * April 18 – Alia Shawkat, American actress
 * April 19 – Simu Liu, Canadian actor, writer, producer and stuntman
 * April 26 - Luke Bracey, Australian actor
 * April 29
 * Sophie Charlotte, Brazilian actress
 * Gabriel Chavarria, American-Hispanic actor
 * May 5 – Larissa Wilson, English actress
 * May 10 – Lindsey Shaw, American actress
 * May 12 - Mimi Gianopulos, American actress
 * May 16 – Pääru Oja, Estonian actor
 * May 18 - Jona Xiao, American actress
 * May 23 – Alberto Frezza, Italian–American actor
 * May 24
 * Tara Correa-McMullen, American actress (died 2005)
 * Brianne Howey, American actress
 * May 29
 * Riley Keough, American actress
 * Mathew Waters, Australian actor
 * May 30 - Kevin Covais, American actor and singer-songwriter
 * June 3
 * Megumi Han, Japanese voice actress
 * Imogen Poots, English actress
 * Daniela Vega, Chilean actress
 * June 12 - Jade Anouka, English actress
 * June 14
 * Lucy Hale, American actress and singer
 * Courtney Halverson, American actress
 * June 18 - Renee Olstead, American actress and singer
 * June 19 - Giacomo Gianniotti, Italian-Canadian actor
 * June 20 – Christopher Mintz-Plasse, American actor
 * June 21 - Jascha Washington, American actor
 * June 23 - Marielle Jaffe, American actress, singer and model
 * June 25
 * Edgar Morais, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
 * Rafael Morais, Portuguese actor, director, and screenwriter
 * June 26 - Carlos Lopez, American stunt performer (died 2014)
 * June 27
 * Kimiko Glenn, American actress
 * Kelley Jakle, American actress and singer-songwriter
 * Matthew Lewis, English actor
 * July 1
 * Mitch Hewer, English actor
 * Hannah Murray, English actress
 * July 3 - Kento Kaku, Japanese actor
 * July 4 - T. J. Graham, American Football Player
 * July 11
 * David Henrie, American actor
 * Shareeka Epps, American actress
 * July 12 - Phoebe Tonkin, Australian actress and model
 * July 14 - Alisha Wainwright, American actress
 * July 16 - Kim Woo-bin, South Korean actor
 * July 19 - James Austin Johnson, American comedian and actor
 * July 21
 * Rory Culkin, American actor
 * Jasmine Cephas Jones, American actress, singer and producer
 * Juno Temple, English actress
 * Jing Tian, Chinese actress
 * Jamie Waylett, British former actor
 * July 23 - Daniel Radcliffe, English actor
 * July 25 - Andrew Caldwell, American actor
 * July 27 - Charlotte Arnold, Canadian actress
 * July 31
 * Alexis Knapp, American actress
 * Jessica Williams, American actress and comedian
 * Zelda Williams, American actress, director, producer and writer
 * August 1 - Landry Allbright, American actress, writer and editor
 * August 2 – Priscilla Betti, French actress
 * August 10 – Brenton Thwaites, Australian actor
 * August 14 – Artyom Bogucharsky, Russian actor
 * August 15
 * Joe Jonas, American singer and actor (Jonas Brothers)
 * Carlos PenaVega, actor (Big Time Rush)
 * Masaki Okada, Japanese actor
 * August 18 - Anna Akana, American filmmaker, actress, comedian, musician and YouTuber
 * August 21
 * Rob Knox, English actor (died 2008)
 * Hayden Panettiere, American actress and singer
 * September 5
 * Thomas Cocquerel, Australian actor
 * Kat Graham, American actress, model, singer and dancer
 * Olivier Richters, Dutch bodybuilder, actor and model
 * September 7
 * Loren Allred, American singer, songwriter and actress
 * Hannah John-Kamen, English actress
 * Jonathan Majors, American actor
 * Hugh Mitchell, English actor
 * September 8 - Domee Shi, Canadian filmmaker
 * September 14
 * Logan Henderson, actor (Big Time Rush)
 * Jesse James, American actor
 * September 17 - Danielle Brooks, American actress and singer
 * September 19 - Lorenza Izzo, Chilean actress and model
 * September 22 - Sofía Espinosa, Mexican actress, writer and director
 * September 26 - Emma Rigby, English actress
 * October 1 – Brie Larson, American actress
 * October 4 – Dakota Johnson, American actress
 * October 10 - Aimee Teegarden, American actress, model and producer
 * October 14 – Mia Wasikowska, Australian actress
 * October 24 - Shenae Grimes, Canadian actress
 * October 30 - Dustin Ybarra, American stand-up comedian and actor
 * November 3 - Elliott Tittensor, English actor
 * November 8 - Nia DaCosta, American filmmaker
 * November 10
 * Sherry Cola, American comedian and actress
 * Taron Egerton, Welsh actor
 * November 18 - Stephanie Nogueras, American actress
 * November 20 - Cody Linley, American actor and singer
 * November 22 - Alden Ehrenreich, American actor
 * November 26 - Katie Sagona, American former child actress
 * December 2 – Cassie Steele, Canadian actress and singer
 * December 4 - Nafessa Williams, American actress
 * December 7
 * Nicholas Hoult, English actor
 * Caleb Landry Jones, American actor and musician
 * December 13 – Taylor Swift, American singer-songwriter, actress, and musician
 * December 15 - Nichole Sakura, American actress
 * December 18 – Ashley Benson, American actress and model
 * December 24 - Daniel Durant, American actor
 * December 28 - Jessie Buckley, Irish actress and singer
 * December 29
 * Jane Levy, American actress
 * Left Brain, American rapper
 * December 30 – Letícia Colin, Brazilian actress

title: 1989 in film


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Chalcis

Chalcis (Ancient Greek & Katharevousa: Χαλκίς, romanized: Chalkís), also called Chalkida or Halkida (Modern Greek: Χαλκίδα, ), is the chief city of the island of Euboea or Evia in Greece, situated on the Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the Greek χαλκός (copper, bronze), though there is no trace of any mines in the area. In the Late Middle Ages, it was known as Negropont(e), an Italian name that has also been applied to the entire island of Euboea.

Ancient Greece
The earliest recorded mention of Chalcis is in the Iliad, where it is mentioned in the same line as its rival Eretria. It is also documented that the ships set for the Trojan War gathered at Aulis, the south bank of the strait near the city. Chamber tombs at Trypa and Vromousa dated to the Mycenaean period were excavated by Papavasiliou in 1910. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, colonists from Chalcis founded thirty townships on the peninsula of Chalcidice and several important cities in Magna Graecia and Sicily, such as Naxos, Rhegion, Zankle and Cumae. Its mineral produces, metal-work, purple, and pottery not only found markets among these settlements but were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and Samos. The development of the city leads consequently to the increase of the population and finally to the colonization with the establishment of many important cities in the West, but also in the Greek area. The first recorded settlement in the West, which paved the way for the 2nd Greek colonization, is Pithecusae on the island of Ischia, in front of Naples, from Chalcidians and Eretrians around 770 BC. The etymology of the toponym "Pithikousa" comes from the pithos (pitharia) that the first settlers had with them to transport their products. Because of the first Chalcidian settlers, the Romans initially called all Greeks "Chalcidians", as they were the first Greeks they came into contact with.A few years later, the Chalcidian Antimnestos founds Rigio in 730-720 BC. and Crataimenis' fellow-citizen Zagli (later Messina) in 730 BC, thus wanting to control the sea strait between Sicily and Italy, just as the Metropolis of Chalkida controlled the Euboean gulfs. In the 8th century BC the increase in trade between the Chalkidian colonies in lower Italy and Sicily with the local populations resulted in the spread of the Chalkidic alphabet among the most ancient inhabitants of the peninsula. The Etruscans took this alphabet and appropriated it so that they too could express themselves in writing. Over the centuries the Romans renamed it 'Latin'.So today, at least eight letters of all Latin-derived languages are the same as their ancient Euboic counterparts. They are C, D, F, P, R, S and X (pronounced ks). The transmission of the Chalkidic alphabet to the west is the most important cultural contribution of ancient Chalkida to the world culture.

The Lelantine War was a war fought in the late 8th century BC. between the two powerful ancient states of Evia, Chalkida and Eretria, which at that time were at the height of their prosperity. This war was one of the first known major wars between ancient Greek cities and took pan-Hellenic dimensions as the warring Chalcidians and Eretrians allied themselves with other Greek cities. As Herodotus mentions, the Samians allied with the Chalcidians, while the Milesians allied with the Eretrians. The Thessalians also allied with the Chalcidians, a fact mentioned by Plutarch. The historical sources provide evidence for only one battle of the war, undoubtedly the last, with the reference point being the death of the Thessalian Amphidamandas, who was praised by Hesiod. In this battle the help from the Thessalian cavalry resulted in victory for Chalkida, by which it acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Late in the 6th century BC, its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the Delian Leagues.

Chalkis has had a Greco-Jewish presence since antiquity, which is sometimes claimed to have been continuous and to thus form Europe's oldest Jewish community, although there is no evidence of it through the early Middle Ages.

In the Hellenistic period, it gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III of Syria (192 BC) and Mithradates VI of Pontus (88 BC) as a base for invading Greece. Characteristic is the fact that in 323 BC the Stagerite philosopher Aristotle comes to Chalkida to die the following year at his mother's house. Then during the Hellenistic era, settlers from Chalkida founded Chalkida in Syria, by order of Seleucus I, from which settlers founded another Chalkida in the Lebanon Valley, as well as another Chalkida in Arabia.

Under Roman rule, Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity within the province of Achaea (southern Greece).

Middle Ages and early Modern period
It is recorded as a city in the 6th-century Synecdemus and mentioned by the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea, who recorded that a movable bridge linked the two shores of the strait. In Byzantine times, Chalcis was usually called Euripos, a name also applied to the entire island of Euboea, although the ancient name survived in administrative and ecclesiastical usage until the 9th century; alternatively, it is possible that the name was given anew to a settlement that was founded in the 9th century in the location of the ancient city, after the latter had been abandoned in the early Middle Ages. The town survived an Arab naval raid in the 880s and its bishop is attested in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople.

By the 12th century, the town featured a Venetian trading station, being attacked by the Venetian fleet in 1171 and eventually seized by Venice in 1209, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade.

For Westerners, its common name was Negropont or Negroponte. This name comes indirectly from the Greek name of the Euripus Strait: the phrase στὸν Εὔριπον 'to Evripos', was rebracketed as στὸ Νεὔριπον 'to Nevripos', and became Negroponte in Italian by folk etymology, the ponte 'bridge' being interpreted as the bridge of Chalcis to Boeotia.

The town was a condominium between Venice and the Veronese barons of the rest of Euboea, known as the "triarchs", who resided there. Chalcis or Negroponte became a Latin Church diocese, see below. A large hoard of late medieval jewellery dating from Venetian times was found in Chalcis Castle in the nineteenth century and is now in the British Museum. The synagogue dated to around 1400.

Negroponte played a significant role in the history of Frankish Greece, and was attacked by the Principality of Achaea in the War of the Euboeote Succession (1257/8), the Catalan Company in 1317, the Turks in 1350/1, until it was finally captured by the Ottoman Empire after a long siege in 1470. That siege is the subject of the Rossini opera Maometto II. The Ottomans made it the seat of the Admiral of the Archipelago (the Aegean Islands). In 1688, it was successfully held by the Ottomans against a strong Venetian attack.

The modern town

Chalkida became part of the newborn Greek state after the Greek War of Independence. The modern town received an impetus in its export trade from the establishment of railway connection with Athens and its port Piraeus in 1904. In the early 20th century it was composed of two parts—the old walled town at the bridge over the Euripus, where a number of Turkish families continued to live until the late 19th century, and a sizeable Jewish community lived until World War II, and the more modern suburb that lies outside it, chiefly occupied by Greeks.

The old town, called the Castro (citadel), was surrounded by a full circuit of defense walls until they were completely razed for urban development around the start of the 20th century.

The city is served by a railway station and is the terminus for the Athens Suburban Railway to Athens.

There is a Holocaust memorial honoring the Jewish lives lost during World War II outside of the Chalkis Jewish cemetery.

Greek bishopric

The Byzantine diocese of Chalkis was initially a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Corinth, but in the 9th century was transferred to the Metropolitan of Athens, remaining in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. It was also known as Euripo, like it is mentioned in the Byzantine imperial Notitia Episcopatuum since emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912).

Several of its Greek bishops are recorded, but some are disputed :
 * Constantinus, signed in 458 a letter by the bishops of Greece to Byzantine emperor Leo I the Thracian after the murder by Coptic mobs of patriarch Proterius of Alexandria.
 * Lequien list before him Anatolius (in 363), but he was probably bishop of Beroea in Syria Prima (now Aleppo).
 * next Lequien inserts, by benefit of doubt, Iohannes Damasceno, whom he also lists as bishop of Euroea (in Phoenicia) alias Evaria, in Phoenicia.
 * Teodorus and Teofilattus, successive (?) bishops of Euripus, participated in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople. viz. the Council of Constantinople of 879–880, both treating the fate of Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople.

Latin crusader bishopric
At the establishment of the crusader state Lordship of Negroponte, Chalcis or Negroponte (seat of the central one of its three 'triarchies' constituent baronies) became a Latin Church diocese, the first bishop being Theodorus, the Greek bishop of the see, who entered communion with the see of Rome, installed by papal legate. On 8 February 1314, the Latin see was united in commendam (as an 'additional benefice') with the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople, so that the exiled Patriarch, excluded from Constantinople itself since the Byzantine reconquest of the city, could have actual jurisdiction on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece.

Main sights
The church of Saint Paraskevi (the patron saint of the island) was the church of the Dominican Priory of Negroponte, one of the first two houses authorized for the Order of Preachers' Province of Greece in 1249. Started about 1250, this is among the oldest examples of early Dominican architecture surviving, and is one of the only early Dominican churches to retain its original form until the present. The central arch over the iconostasis and the ceiling and walls of the south chapel are the best examples of Italian Gothic stone-carving in Greece. Images of the Dominican saints, Dominic and Peter Martyr, stand at the base of the central arch. The north chapel holds the tomb of the founder of the senatorial Lippamano family of Venice. Some of the column capitals are Byzantine.

The bridges

The town is now connected to mainland Greece by two bridges, the "Sliding Bridge" in the west at the narrowest point of the Euripus Strait and a suspension bridge.

The Euripus Strait which separates the city and the island from the mainland was bridged in 411 BC with a wooden bridge. In the time of Justinian the fixed bridge was replaced with a movable structure. The Turks replaced this once again with a fixed bridge. In 1856, a wooden swing bridge was built; in 1896, an iron swing bridge, and in 1962, the existing "sliding bridge"; the construction works of the 19th century destroyed the most part of the medieval castle built across the bridge. The Euripus Bridge or Chalcis Bridge, a cable-stayed suspension bridge opened in 1993, joins Chalcis to the mainland to the south.

A special tidal phenomenon takes place in the strait, as strong tidal currents reverse direction once every six hours, creating strong currents and maelstroms.

Municipality
The municipality Chalcis was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of Chalcis city itself with four former municipalities, which also became municipal units:
 * Anthidona
 * Avlida
 * Lilantia
 * Nea Artaki

The municipality has an area of 424.766 km2, the municipal unit 30.804 km2.

Transportation

 * GR-44
 * GR-77
 * GR-1/E75 is south and west about 10 km from Chalcis in Boeotia.

In 2003, a bypass of Chalcis was opened from the southern part of the bridge to connect with GR-77, also with access to GR-44.

Chalcis station is the northern terminus of the Oinoi–Chalcis railway, and is served by Line 3 of the Athens Suburban Railway.

Notable residents

 * Aristotle (384–322 BC, ancient philosopher, lived in Chalcis the last year of his life (323–322 BC))
 * Giovanni Maria Angiolello from Vicenza, Italy, 15th century.
 * Yiannis Anastasopoulos (1931–present), author
 * Eva Asderaki Professional Tennis Umpire, first woman to umpire the US Open tennis final
 * Sotiria Bellou (1921–1997), singer
 * Angelos Basinas (1976–present), professional footballer
 * Nikolaos Christodoulou, military officer
 * Mordehai Frizis (1893–1940), military officer
 * Dimitrios Katheniotis, military officer
 * Nikolaos Kalogeropoulos, PM of Greece
 * Konstantinos Kallias (1901–2004), politician
 * Orestis Makris (1898–1975), actor and tenor
 * Dimitris Mytaras (1934–2017), painter
 * Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), physician, Pap smear test founder
 * Nikos Skalkottas (1901–1949), composer
 * Giannis Skarimpas (Agia Efthymia, 1893–1984), author
 * Georgios Papachatzis (1905–1991), jurist

Sports teams
Chalcis also has a water polo team named NC Chalkida, a football (soccer) team named Chalkida F.C., as well as a junior football team named Evoikos Chalkida.

The Chalkida football team merged with Lilas Vasilikou for a period of two years (2004–2006). The team was finally dissolved because of financial difficulties. Although there was a team created with the same name (AOX) it does not represent the glorious team of the past.

Chalcis also has a basketball team (AGEX), which previously played in the Greek A2 Basketball League. For a while, Chalkida hosts the basketball team Ikaros Chalkidas that played in the top Greek Basket League.

Twin towns
Chalcis is twinned with:

 * Wuhan

Climate
Chalcis has a mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), closely bordering a semi-arid climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Sources and external links

 * GCatholic - (former and titular) Latin see
 * Photos from Chalcis, Evoia
 * Herodotus Project: B+W photo essay of ancient Chalcis
 * Bibliography - ecclesiastical history
 * Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae, Leipzig 1931, pp. 430–431
 * Michel Lequien, Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus, Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 212-215
 * Gaetano Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica, vol. 47, pp. 262–263
 * Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi, vol. 1, p. 367; vol. 2, p. 203; vol. 3, p. 259
 * Raymond Janin, v. 2. 'Chalcis', in Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques, vol. XII, Paris 1953, coll. 278-279
 * Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi, vol. 1, p. 367; vol. 2, p. 203; vol. 3, p. 259
 * Raymond Janin, v. 2. 'Chalcis', in Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques, vol. XII, Paris 1953, coll. 278-279

title: Chalcis


text:
Talk:1989 in film

Untitled
64.x.x.x, please use the preview feature instead of saving after every change. Long histories make maintenance difficulting. Zocky 19:42 Jan 19, 2003 (UTC)

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.screenrush.co.uk/article/fichearticle_gen_carticle=18478129&page=2&maxpages=5.html
 * In 1989 in film on 2011-05-25 05:48:56, 404 Not Found
 * In 1989 in film on 2011-06-24 08:15:00, 404 Not Found

--JeffGBot (talk) 08:15, 24 June 2011 (UTC)

Reflect Wide-release films
Could you want to change the Wide-release films section to a new one that looks like the one from 1990 in film? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:C8:C001:8A3A:EC32:F4A8:944:19DD (talk) 22:14, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

 * ta 2.98.131.84 (talk) 23:51, 12 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:1989 in film


text:
West Coast hip hop

West Coast hip hop is a regional genre of hip hop music that encompasses any artists or music that originated in the West Coast of the United States. West Coast hip hop began to dominate from a radio play and sales standpoint during the early to-mid 1990s with the birth of G-funk and the emergence of record labels such as Suge Knight and Dr. Dre's Death Row Records, Ice Cube's Lench Mob Records, the continued success of Eazy-E's Ruthless Records, Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment, and others.

History
African American and Hispanic communities of the Bay Area and southern California emerged as new bases of hip hop culture in the 1980s. Hispanics in the Los Angeles area have played a significant role in West Coast hip hop culture.

Bay Area Hip-Hop
The Bay Area has vastly contributed to the hip-hop genre seen in today's modern music industry. While its significance may be lesser known to the general public, since the establishment of hip-hop, the Bay solidified itself as an instrumental building block in the genre’s development. Throughout the 1960s and 70s, political and social justice movements put in place a potential blueprint of what local artists could rap about, and showcased how the counter-hegemonic culture of hip-hop was already embedded into the roots of the Bay Area. Coming out of the Bay was a unique style of break dancing that was exhibited at local shows, and a representation of graffiti sprayed along city streets and buildings, similar to what was expressed in The Bronx on subway cars and abandoned structures. From the inspiration of funk music, to the political and social movements that were energized by the Black Panther Party, Hip-Hop in the Bay was a newfound outlet, and proved to be ingrained in the region's identity. Founded in Oakland in 1966, the Black Panthers surge for change and alterations of the systemic racism entangled in society resonated with the residents of the blue collar city. Many of the organization’s ideologies became well represented in the area’s rap scene, and triggered an explosion of black identity and frustration with the SFPD.

Despite artists like E-40 claiming that the Bay rap scene doesn’t receive the respect it deserves, this hasn’t prevented its artists and style from influencing hip-hop’s sound and dance. Laid out in the 1960s and 70s through activism and the hybridity of funk music, the Bay Area was able to gain serious traction from the 1980s to mid 90s, which saw local artists popularize Pimp rap. Artists across the region began harnessing the sound of the Bay and slowly saw their rhythmic funky beats slowed down and reused in later hits that would intersect genres. Freestyle samples of electro funky beats provided listeners with a sound that they didn’t know the genre needed. The Bay Area isn’t often viewed as one of the prominent hip-hop hubs in the U.S., but its rich history and extensive range of diverse artists prove that many of the original characteristics of early hip-hop can be traced back to the major metropolitan areas and cities of San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose.

Early years
Several events laid the foundations for West Coast hip hop, long before the emergence of West Coast rappers such as Mellow Man Ace, Too Short, Kid Frost, Ice-T and Eazy-E—or even before the emergence of rap itself. According to Syd Caesar, "a cataclysmic event helped give rise to it out West: the Watts riots of 1965." In 1967, Budd Schulberg founded a creative space in Los Angeles entitled Watts Writers Workshop, intended to help the people of the Watts neighborhood and provide a place for them to express themselves freely; one group to emerge from the workshop was the proto-rap group Watts Prophets.

In the late 1970s in Los Angeles, Alonzo Williams, a young disc jockey from Compton, California formed a partnership with another DJ named Rodger Clayton from Los Angeles, California who created a promotion company called Unique Dreams that would hire Williams to DJ at local events. The two eventually went their separate ways: Williams started a group called the World Class Wreckin' Cru and became the house DJs at a local nightclub called Eve's After Dark while Clayton launched what would perhaps be the foremost successful mobile DJ crew in the region by the name of Uncle Jamm's Army that would host parties by top DJs for thousands of people at large venues. Other smaller DJ and party crews emerged around this time, hoping to establish themselves in the area. Unlike their East Coast counterparts, the Hip-Hop sound emerging from Southern California was more fast-paced and influenced by electronic music. This could be largely credited to the fact that the local West Coast hip-hop scene revolved more around DJing than rapping. A localized dance sub-culture later came out of this party scene, which was highlighted on a national scale on such motion pictures as Breakin'. Breakdancing, popping and locking gave the Los Angeles music scene some of its earliest credibility outside the region. Further attention came to the West Coast as Uncle Jamm's Army began inviting such well-known East Coast Hip-Hop acts such as Whodini and Run-DMC to their functions.

Another early landmark occurred in 1981, when Duffy Hooks launched the first West Coast rap label, Rappers Rapp Records, inspired by Sugar Hill Records in New York. Its first act was the duo of Disco Daddy and Captain Rapp, whose debut single was "The Gigolo Rapp" which was also released in 1981. The song became a minor success but failed to gain much radio play. Many other Hip-Hop songs recorded in California were released during the early 1980s, but many of them received little or no radio play. Captain Rapp created the classic West Coast song released in 1983 called, "Bad Times (I Can't Stand It)", which is a politically conscious response to Grandmaster Flash's "The Message" arranged by the legendary production duo of Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis and Rich Cason. Clayton's group, Uncle Jamm's Army, released their first single, "Dial-a-Freak", and in 1984 Egyptian Lover released his On the Nile album, which includes the popular 12" single "Egypt Egypt". Members of Uncle Jamm's Army and the World Class Wreckin' Cru, including Dr. Dre, The Unknown DJ, Egyptian Lover, Ice-T and Kid Frost would later go on to help define the early West Coast hip hop sound throughout the 1980s.

During this period, one of the most significant factors in the spread of West Coast hip-hop was the radio station 1580 KDAY AM, which was the first radio station in the world to play rap/hip-hop music 24 hours a day because of Assistant Program Director/Music Director and Radio Personality Greg "Mack Attack" Mack.

Late 1980s and 1990s
Ice-T is known as one of the pioneers of West Coast Hip Hop and gangsta rap, with songs such as "6 in the Mornin", released in 1986, demonstrating the unique style of the west coast. In 1988, Ice-T released the R&B hit I'm Your Pusher, and Too Short released album Life is... Too Short. In 1988, N.W.A's landmark album Straight Outta Compton was released. Focusing on life and adversities in Compton, California, a notoriously rough area which had gained a reputation for gang violence, it was released by group member Eazy-E's record label Ruthless Records. As well as establishing a basis for the popularity of gangsta rap, the album drew much attention to West Coast hip hop, especially the Los Angeles scene. In particular, the controversial "Fuck tha Police" and the ensuing censorship attracted substantial media coverage and public attention. Following the dissolution of N.W.A due to in-fighting, the group's members Eazy-E, Dr. Dre, Ice Cube and MC Ren would later become platinum-selling solo artists in the 1990s. Ice Cube released some of the West Coast's most critically acclaimed albums, such as 1990's AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted and 1991's Death Certificate, as well as making film and television appearances such as in John Singleton's Boyz n the Hood in 1991.

The early 1990s was a period in which Hip-Hop went from strength to strength. Tupac Shakur's debut album 2Pacalypse Now was released in 1991, demonstrating a social awareness, with attacks on social injustice such as racism, police brutality, poverty, crime, drug and teenage pregnancy. This album featured 3 singles: "Brenda's Got a Baby", "Trapped" and "If My Homie Calls". 2Pacalypse Now was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on April 19, 1995. Shakur's music and philosophy was rooted in various philosophies and approaches, including the Black Panther Party, Black nationalism, egalitarianism and liberty. Tupac sold over 75 million records, being regarded as one of the greatest rappers of all time and a pioneer of West Coast rap. Also in 1991, Suge Knight founded Death Row Records which became a record label powerhouse throughout the 1990s. In 1992, Dr. Dre released his solo debut, The Chronic; this marked the birth of the G-funk sound that became a hallmark of the West Coast sound in the 1990s, with the album's lead single "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" peaking at #2 on the US Billboard Hot 100.

The city of Long Beach arrived to the hip-hop scene in the early 1990s with artists such as Snoop Doggy Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound, both signed to Death Row, with releases such as Doggystyle (1993) and Dogg Food (1995). Both albums becoming huge sellers and being critically acclaimed and helped make a mark in establishing Long Beach in the hip hop scene. Another artist who helped establish Long Beach was Warren G with his release Regulate... G Funk Era (1994). He founded his record label G-Funk Entertainment in 1995 and helped promote artists also from Long Beach such as the Twinz and The Dove Shack.

As for Death Row, success kept coming throughout the 1990s with 2Pac's All Eyez on Me (1996) also becoming a huge seller and becoming critically acclaimed. 2Pac gained hits California Love" and "Live and Die in LA". Also in the early-to-mid 1990s, the group Cypress Hill made a big impact on the scene with their albums such as their debut studio album of the same name and Black Sunday. They are considered to be among the main progenitors of West Coast rap and hip-hop. Other popular artists and groups from this period include The Pharcyde (known for their albums Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde and Labcabincalifornia), Souls of Mischief (known for their album 93 'til Infinity), Ahmad (known for his song Back in the Day), Xzibit (known for his album At the Speed of Life) and Ras Kass (known for his album Soul on Ice).

2000s and 2010s

West Coast hip hop's position in the mainstream dwindled greatly in the late 1990s and 2000s, with a few notable exceptions such as Dr. Dre's 2001, Xzibit's Restless, Snoop Dogg's No Limit Top Dogg and Tha Last Meal albums. However, the trend soon changed. Although gangsta rap was still popular on the West Coast in the 2000s, the West Coast sound became more designed for nightclubs with the rise of the Bay Area's hyphy scene, featuring flamboyant raps and explicit references to sex and drugs. A key artist in the genre was E-40, who found a substantial audience with his 1995 album In a Major Way; he found even greater success with the song "Tell Me When to Go" in 2006, featuring Oakland rapper Keak da Sneak.

Bay area rapper Too Short, already well known for his collaborations with artists such as Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G, found a new lease on life with the hyphy scene, his 16th studio album Blow the Whistle in 2006 debuting at number 14 on the Billboard 200. The Game also brought attention back to the West Coast with his double platinum album, The Documentary, as did Xzibit's platinum certified Restless album, and gold certified albums Man vs. Machine and Weapons of Mass Destruction. Artists from the 1990s such as Snoop Dogg and Ice Cube and groups such as the Tha Dogg Pound and Westside Connection continued to release albums throughout the 2000s and had success but did not garner the same level of fame as they had experienced in the 1990s. Throughout the 2000s, a number of peripheral West Coast hip hop artists such as Ya Boy, Glasses Malone, Juice, SKG (Suge Knight Girl) Helecia Choyce, Crooked I, 40 Glocc, Slim the Mobster, Bishop Lamont and Mistah F.A.B. collaborated with big-name artists such as Dr. Dre, Kurupt, Daz Dillinger, The Game, E-40 and Snoop Dogg.

In the early to mid-2010s, the West Coast had also seen a resurgence with hyphy as well as a transition to an uptempo and club-oriented type of Pop Rap.

Producer DJ Mustard had pioneered the "ratchet" music movement, a production style that has snowballed into the mainstream. DJ Mustard played a role in bringing West Coast hip hop back to national attention through the 2010s. He gained huge popularity throughout 2011 to 2014, producing a number of popular artists' singles, including Tyga's "Rack City", 2 Chainz's "I'm Different", Young Jeezy's "R.I.P.", B.o.B's "HeadBand", YG's "My Nigga" and "Who Do You Love?", Ty Dolla Sign's "Paranoid", Kid Ink's "Show Me" and Trey Songz's "Na Na". Mustard also released his debut mixtape, Ketchup, in 2013, further solidifying his ratchet sound, which follows its G-funk and hyphy predecessors.

Other more peripheral acts that achieved moderate, cult following success in the mainstream include Lil B, who built a strong fan base via social media outlets such as Twitter, YouTube, and MySpace, and has recorded both solo and with The Pack.

That same year, Black Hippy's own Kendrick Lamar 2012 release, Good Kid, M.A.A.D City, was met with rave reviews and was featured on many critics' end-of-year lists. The album was nominated Album of the Year at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, marking the first time any West Coast hip hop was nominated for award. In 2014, Schoolboy Q debuted at no.1 on the Billboard 200 with 139,000 copies sold. YG's My Krazy Life debuted at #2 on the US Billboard 200 with 61,000 copies sold.

In 2017 and 2018, Long Beach's Vince Staples released Big Fish Theory and FM! with both albums being critically acclaimed.

On June 19, 2024, Juneteenth, Kendrick Lamar hosted the impromptu The Pop Out: Ken & Friends concert following his highly publicized feud with Drake, noted as a celebration of the west coast.

Hyphy style
Hyphy, a revolutionary subgenre deeply embedded in the vibrant tapestry of Bay Area rap, emerged during the early 2000s as a cultural force that redefined the sound and ethos of Northern California's hip-hop scene. This energetic movement, characterized by its pulsating beats, infectious energy, and distinctive sonic elements, reflects the exuberance and unapologetic spirit of the Bay Area's youth. Rooted in a fusion of influences, hyphy incorporates elements of funk, West Coast hip-hop, and electronic music, creating a genre that stands as a testament to the region's musical innovation. Notable Bay Area rap artists who have contributed to this style include E-40, Keak da Sneak, Mac Dre, and Too Short. According to music critic Chris Macias, Hyphy "represents the Bay Area's energy, diversity, and irrepressible spirit."

The musical signatures of hyphy are unmistakable — characterized by thunderous basslines, synthesizer-driven melodies, and frenetic drum patterns that contribute to its high-tempo and danceable nature. This unique sound found its champions in influential artists such as E-40 and Keak da Sneak. E-40's album "My Ghetto Report Card," released in 2006, is a seminal work that not only exemplifies hyphy's sonic innovations but also showcases its integration into mainstream hip-hop. Keak da Sneak's "Super Hyphy," released in 2005, became an anthem for the movement, amplifying the genre's reach and impact beyond regional boundaries.

Beyond its sonic innovations, hyphy became a cultural movement, influencing not only music but also dance and fashion. The movement birthed the "Thizzle Dance," a frenetic and expressive dance style that became synonymous with hyphy and added a visual dimension to the genre's cultural impact. Additionally, hyphy fashion, characterized by flamboyant and attention-grabbing styles, contributed to the visual identity of the movement, solidifying its place as a holistic cultural phenomenon.

Hyphy's rise was facilitated by the Bay Area's unique ecosystem of independent labels, self-produced mixtapes, and a thriving local music scene. The genre gained further traction through social media platforms, which provided a platform for local artists to reach a global audience and contributed to the democratization of hip-hop in the digital age. The hyphy movement, thus, represents not only a musical genre but a cultural phenomenon that captured the essence of the Bay Area's urban experience.

In the years following its emergence, hyphy has had a lasting impact on hip-hop, influencing subsequent generations of artists and contributing to the genre's ongoing evolution. It remains an enduring symbol of the Bay Area's ability to shape and redefine the landscape of contemporary music.

Mobb music
Mobb music, an influential subgenre within the diverse soundscape of Bay Area rap, emerged as a visceral and unapologetic sonic expression, encapsulating the realities of urban life in Northern California. Originating in the mid-1990s, this distinctive style gained prominence for its gritty narratives, hard-hitting beats, and a raw authenticity that spoke directly to the struggles and experiences of the streets. Anchored in the rap tradition of storytelling, Mobb Music became a powerful vehicle for artists to articulate the challenges, triumphs, and complexities of life in the Bay Area, particularly in neighborhoods marked by social and economic adversity.

The sonic characteristics of Mobb Music are marked by ominous, bass-heavy beats, often accompanied by haunting melodies and evocative samples that contribute to the genre's cinematic quality. Artists like C-Bo, with albums like "Gas Chamber" released in 1993, and Brotha Lynch Hung, known for his album "Season of da Siccness" in 1995, played instrumental roles in shaping the Mobb Music style, creating a blueprint for subsequent generations of Bay Area rap artists. These artists delved into themes of street life, crime, and the harsh realities of survival, creating a musical landscape that provided an unfiltered glimpse into the struggles faced by many in the Bay Area's urban communities.

Mobb Music's impact extended beyond the confines of the local rap scene, influencing artists nationwide and contributing to the evolution of gangsta rap. The genre's emphasis on authenticity and storytelling resonated with listeners who sought narratives that reflected their own experiences, leading to its recognition as a cornerstone of West Coast hip-hop. Mobb Music's storytelling prowess, coupled with its evocative production, distinguishes it as a powerful and enduring force within the broader hip-hop narrative.

This subgenre also played a significant role in highlighting social issues such as systemic injustice, police brutality, and economic inequality. The lyrics of Mobb Music often served as a social commentary, shedding light on the harsh realities faced by marginalized communities and providing a platform for artists to voice their perspectives on these pressing issues. This fusion of storytelling and social consciousness solidified Mobb Music as not only a musical style but also a form of cultural expression and resistance.

In the evolving landscape of Bay Area rap, Mobb Music remains a testament to the genre's ability to serve as a mirror reflecting the diverse facets of urban life. Its enduring legacy continues to influence artists who navigate the complexities of their environments, ensuring that the raw and authentic narratives embedded in Mobb Music persist in the ongoing conversation of hip-hop evolution.

Impact
West Coast hip-hop has made its mark in the music industry as well as society by shaping cultural, social and political landscapes. Through aspects such as musical innovation, social commentary, economic empowerment and regional identity, West Coast hip-hop has a prevalent influence in hip-hop music today.

Through the unmistakable sounds of Hyphy, Mobb and Thizz Music, West Coast hip hop carried a unique range of sounds incorporating everything from conscious rap to laid back samples from older records. These sounds distinguished the West Coast and paved the way to what West Coast hip-hop is today. Samples of this can be seen in the trademark ‘bounce' of DJ Mustard and lyricism of Mozzy.

Hip-hop music has been an outlet for black struggles for decades now originating from the societal, mental and economic struggles Black American’s face living in the US. The West Coast became a powerful vehicle for social commentary addressing numerous issues such as racism, gang violence and police brutality, all of which are still talked about today. Artists such as N.W.A and their hit 1988 record “F*** Tha Police” to a modern-day Kendrick Lamar and his hit 2015 record “Alright”, West Coast rappers have been painting story lines of the issues that affect the communities they rose from.

The music industry has always been a gateway to countless opportunities for those who were dedicated to their craft. With numerous artists such as Snoop Dogg and Ice Cube who rose to fame with their individual touches in g-funk and gangsta rap respectively, they both went on to achieve commercial success and entrepreneurship. This sampled the economic empowerment potential within the hip-hop industry.

Establishing an unmistakable regional identity is an important factor for a rapper’s success. West Coast rappers have been able to successfully execute this, creating a closer relationship with their fans. Being able to relate to icons in the industry is a big factor to creating loyal fans. Many big artists such as 2Pac and Too Short celebrate their west coast origins through not only their music but their language and fashion as well.

title: West Coast hip hop


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Crantor

Crantor of Soli (Κράντωρ, gen.: Κράντορος; died 276/5 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and member of the Old Academy who was the first philosopher to write commentaries on the works of Plato.

Life
Crantor was probably born around the middle of the 4th century BC, at Soli in Cilicia (modern-day Turkey). He moved from Cilicia to Athens in order to study philosophy, where he became a pupil of Xenocrates and a friend of Polemon, and one of the most distinguished supporters of the philosophy of the older Academy. As Xenocrates died 314/3 BC, Crantor must have come to Athens prior to that year, although the date of his birth is not known. He died before both Polemon and Crates, who succeeded Polemon as scholarch. Dropsy was the cause of his death. He left his fortune, which amounted to twelve talents, to Arcesilaus, who had been his pupil and who later succeeded Crates as scholarch of the Academy.

Writings
His works were very numerous; but of these, only fragments have been preserved. They appear to have related principally to moral subjects, and, accordingly, Horace classes him with Chrysippus as a moral philosopher, and speaks of him in a manner which proves that the writings of Crantor were much read and generally known in Rome at that time.

He also made some attempts at poetry; and Diogenes Laërtius relates, that, after sealing up a collection of his poems, he deposited them in the temple of Athena in his native city, Soli. He is accordingly called by the poet Theaetetus, in an epitaph which he composed upon him, the friend of the Muses; and that his chief favorites among the poets were Homer and Euripides.

On Grief
The most popular of Crantor's works in Rome seems to have been that "On Grief" (De Luctu, Περὶ Πένθους), which was addressed to his friend Hippocles on the death of his son, and from which Cicero seems to have heavily relied upon in his Tusculan Disputations. According to Cicero, the Stoic philosopher Panaetius called it a "golden" work, which deserved to be learnt by heart word for word. Cicero also made great use of it while writing his celebrated Consolatio on the death of his daughter, Tullia. Several extracts from it are preserved in Pseudo-Plutarch's treatise on Consolation addressed to Apollonius, which has come down to us. Crantor paid special attention to ethics, and arranged "good" things in the following order - virtue, health, pleasure, riches.

Commentaries on Plato
Diogenes Laërtius says that Crantor left behind 30,000 lines of Commentaries (ύπομνήματα), but of these only fragments have been preserved. Crantor seems to have been the first member of the Platonic academy to write commentaries on the works of Plato; Proclus credits Crantor with the first commentary on the Timaeus, and Eudorus of Alexandria makes use of Crantor's work in his own commentary, which is in turn preserved by Plutarch.

Ancient testimony

 * Cicero, Academica
 * Pseudo-Plutarch, Consolation to Apollonius
 * Pseudo-Plutarch, Consolation to Apollonius
 * Pseudo-Plutarch, Consolation to Apollonius

title: Crantor


text:
1988 in film

The following is an overview of events in 1988 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths.

Highest-grossing films
The top 10 films released in 1988 by worldwide gross are as follows:

Events

 * May 25 – Rambo III is released as the most expensive film ever made with a production budget between $58 and $63 million. The film fails to match the box office earnings from Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985).
 * July 15 – Die Hard defies low commercial expectations to gross $141.5 million worldwide. Hailed as an influential landmark in the action film genre, it influences a common formula for many action films in the 1990s, featuring a lone everyman against a colorful terrorist character who is usually holding hostages in an isolated setting.
 * September 19 – English character actor Roy Kinnear suffers a fall from a horse which will prove fatal while filming The Return of the Musketeers in Toledo, Spain.
 * October 10 – Batman officially commences filming at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England.
 * October 27 – E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial is released on VHS and laserdisc; to combat piracy, the tapeguards and tape hubs on the videocassettes are colored green, and the tape itself is affixed with a small, holographic sticker of the 1963 Universal logo (much like the holograms on a credit card), and encoded with Macrovision. In North America alone, VHS sales come to $75million.
 * December 16 – Rain Man is released to critical and commercial success and becomes the highest grossing film of 1988 worldwide with a gross of $355 million. Winning four Academy Awards including Best Picture, it is the last MGM title to be nominated for Best Picture until Licorice Pizza (2021) 33 years later.

Awards
Palme d'Or (Cannes Film Festival)
 * Pelle the Conqueror (Pelle erobreren), directed by Bille August, Denmark

Golden Lion (Venice Film Festival)
 * La leggenda del santo bevitore (The Legend of the Holy Drinker), directed by Ermanno Olmi, Italy / France

Golden Bear (Berlin International Film Festival)
 * Red Sorghum (Hong gao liang), directed by Zhang Yimou, China

By country/region

 * List of American films of 1988
 * List of Argentine films of 1988
 * List of Australian films of 1988
 * List of Bangladeshi films of 1988
 * List of British films of 1988
 * List of Canadian films of 1988
 * List of French films of 1988
 * List of Hong Kong films of 1988
 * List of Indian films of 1988
 * List of Hindi films of 1988
 * List of Kannada films of 1988
 * List of Malayalam films of 1988
 * List of Marathi films of 1988
 * List of Tamil films of 1988
 * List of Telugu films of 1988
 * List of Japanese films of 1988
 * List of Mexican films of 1988
 * List of Pakistani films of 1988
 * List of South Korean films of 1988
 * List of Soviet films of 1988
 * List of Spanish films of 1988

By genre/medium

 * List of action films of 1988
 * List of animated feature films of 1988
 * List of avant-garde films of 1988
 * List of comedy films of 1988
 * List of drama films of 1988
 * List of horror films of 1988
 * List of science fiction films of 1988
 * List of thriller films of 1988
 * List of western films of 1988

Births

 * January 3 - Karl Glusman, American actor
 * January 6 - Mehwish Hayat, Pakistani actress
 * January 7 – Haley Bennett, American actress and singer
 * January 12 – Andrew Lawrence, American actor
 * January 14 - Tom Rosenthal, English actor, comedian and writer
 * January 21 - John Early, American comedian and actor
 * February 2
 * Amadou Ly, Senegalese-born actor, writer and producer
 * Zosia Mamet, American actress and musician
 * February 6 – Anna Diop, Senegalese-born American actress
 * February 8 - Ryan Pinkston, American actor
 * February 11 - Jazz Raycole, American actress
 * February 12
 * Afshan Azad, British actress, model and media personality
 * Nana Eikura, Japanese actress
 * February 13
 * Ferdinand Kingsley, British actor
 * Erica Mendez, American voice actress
 * February 16 - Steven Caple Jr., American director, producer and screenwriter
 * February 17 – Nagita Slavina, Indonesian actress, television host, film producer, and singer
 * February 18 - Sarah Sutherland, Canadian-American actress
 * February 20 – Rihanna, Barbadian singer, songwriter and actress
 * February 29
 * Reilly Dolman, Canadian actor
 * Langston Fishburne, American actor
 * March 4
 * Josh Bowman, English actor
 * Cody Longo, American actor (died 2023)
 * March 14 – Stephen Curry, American basketball player
 * March 21 - Kevin Guthrie, Scottish actor
 * March 22 - Tania Raymonde, American actress
 * March 24 - Finn Jones, English actor
 * March 25 - Erik Knudsen, Canadian actor
 * March 27 – Brenda Song, American actress, singer and model
 * March 27 – Holliday Grainger, English actress
 * April 2 - Jesse Plemons, American actor
 * April 3 - Ruby Bentall, English actress
 * April 4 - Maggie Geha, American actress and model
 * April 6 – Mike Bailey, English actor
 * April 10 – Haley Joel Osment, American actor
 * April 13
 * Allison Williams, American actress
 * Katie Lucas, American actress and writer
 * April 14
 * Ben Lloyd-Hughes, British actor
 * Chris Wood, American actor
 * April 18 – Allison Williams, American actress
 * April 18 – Vanessa Kirby, English actress
 * April 21 - Robbie Amell, Canadian actor and producer
 * April 23 – Carla Quevedo, Argentine actress
 * April 25
 * Jonathan Bailey, English actor
 * Sara Paxton, American singer and actress
 * April 27
 * Lizzo, American singer, actress, and flautist
 * Regé-Jean Page, British actor
 * April 30 – Ana de Armas, Cuban actress
 * May 1
 * Nicholas Braun, American actor
 * Anushka Sharma, Indian actress
 * May 2 - Laura Brent, Australian actress
 * May 7 - Brandon Jones, American actor, producer and musician
 * May 16 - Jermaine Fowler, American actor, comedian, producer and writer
 * May 17 – Nikki Reed, American actress and writer
 * June 2 – Awkwafina, American actress, comedian, writer, producer and rapper
 * June 4 – Li Man, Chinese actress
 * June 5 – Nuh Omar, Pakistani writer and director
 * June 7 – Michael Cera, Canadian actor
 * June 9
 * Lauren Landa, American voice actress
 * Mae Whitman, American actress
 * June 13 - Cody Walker, American actor
 * June 14 - Dayo Okeniyi, Nigerian-American actor
 * June 16 - Jonny Weston, American actor
 * June 22 - Shefali Chowdhury, British actress
 * June 23
 * Pippa Bennett-Warner, British actress
 * Isabella Leong, Hong Kong singer, actress and model
 * June 25 - Daniel Webber, Australian actor
 * July 2 - Edward Randell, English musician and actor
 * July 7 - Jack Whitehall, English actor, comedian, presenter and writer
 * July 10 - Pavlo Lee, Ukrainian actor (died 2022)
 * July 12 – Christine Marie Cabanos, American voice actress
 * July 13 - Chris Sheffield, American actor
 * July 14 - Elise Gatien, Canadian actress
 * July 15 - Aimee Carrero, Dominican-born American actress
 * July 18 - Chen Tang, Chinese-American actor
 * July 19 – Cherami Leigh, American voice actress
 * July 20 - Julianne Hough, American dancer, actress, singer and songwriter
 * July 24 - Joe Pera, American comedian, writer and actor
 * July 25 - Mamoudou Athie, Mauritanian-American actor and producer
 * July 26 - Francia Raisa, American actress
 * July 30 - Nico Tortorella, American actor and model
 * July 31 - Charlie Carver, American actor
 * August 1 - Max Carver, American actor
 * August 16
 * Kevin Schmidt, American actor
 * Rumer Willis, American actress
 * August 17 - Joyner Lucas, American rapper and actor
 * August 24 – Rupert Grint, English actor
 * August 26
 * Evan Ross, American actor and musician
 * Danielle Savre, American actress
 * August 27 – Alexa PenaVega, American actress and singer
 * September 6 – Jovan Adepo, English actor
 * September 12
 * Matt Martians, American record producer
 * Clara Paget, British actress
 * September 17 - Ritu Arya, English actress
 * September 22 – Sana Saeed, Indian actress
 * September 26 - Lilly Singh, Canadian comedian, former talk show host and YouTuber
 * September 28
 * Olivia Jordan, American actress and model, Miss USA 2015
 * Hana Mae Lee, American actress, model and comedian
 * October 1 - Nick Whitaker, American actor
 * October 3 – Alicia Vikander, Swedish actress
 * October 4 – Melissa Benoist, American actress, singer and dancer
 * October 5 - Bobby Edner, American actor and singer
 * October 6 - Everlyn Sampi, Australian actress
 * October 17 - Dee Jay Daniels, American former actor
 * October 18 – Tessa Schram, Dutch actress and director
 * October 21
 * Glen Powell, American actor, writer and producer
 * Mark Rendall, Canadian actor
 * October 22
 * Corey Hawkins, American actor
 * Sharon Rooney, Scottish actress
 * October 23 - Ritesh Rajan, American actor
 * October 28 - Edd Gould, British animator, artist, writer, director and voice actor (died 2012)
 * October 29 – Devon Murray, Irish actor
 * November 6 – Emma Stone, American actress
 * November 9
 * Nikki Blonsky, American singer and actress
 * Alexandrea Owens-Sarno, American actress
 * Lio Tipton (credited as Analeigh Tipton up to 2021), American model and actress
 * November 17 - Justin Cooper, American producer and former child actor
 * November 20 - Demetrius Shipp Jr., American actor
 * November 22
 * Jamie Campbell Bower, English actor and singer
 * Reece Thompson, Canadian actor
 * November 26 - Tamsin Egerton, English actress
 * November 30 - Rebecca Rittenhouse, American actress
 * December 1
 * Nadia Hilker, German actress and model
 * Im Si-wan, Korean actor and singer
 * Zoe Kravitz, American actress
 * December 2 – Alfred Enoch, English actor
 * December 7
 * Emily Browning, Australian actress
 * Benjamin Clementine, British composer, musician and actor
 * December 14 – Vanessa Hudgens, American actress and singer
 * December 15 - Gregg Chillin, English actor and writer
 * December 16
 * Anna Popplewell, English actress
 * Park Seo-joon, South Korean actor
 * December 17 – Rin Takanashi, Japanese actress and model
 * December 21 - Shelley Regner, American actress and singer
 * December 27 - Hera Hilmar, Icelandic actress
 * unknown - Celine Song,Korean-Canadian director, playwright, and screenwriter

title: 1988 in film


text:
1987 in film

The following is an overview of events in 1987 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths. Paramount Pictures celebrated its 75th anniversary in 1987.

Highest-grossing films (U.S.)
The top ten 1987 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows:

Events

 * January 31 – The Cure for Insomnia premieres at The School of the Art Institute in Chicago, Illinois, to officially become the world's longest film according to Guinness World Records.
 * February - Blue Sky Studios is founded by Chris Wedge.
 * May 23 – Starlog Salutes Star Wars is held in Los Angeles, California, the first officially sponsored Star Wars convention to commemorate the franchise's 10th anniversary.
 * June 29 – The James Bond franchise celebrates its 25th anniversary and premieres its 15th film, The Living Daylights
 * July 17 – Walt Disney's classic masterpiece Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is re-released worldwide for its 50th anniversary.
 * 1987 – Paramount Pictures launches a new on-screen logo to celebrate its 75th anniversary, a variant used until 1989, and the standard variant of this logo was used from 1989 to 2002.

Awards
Academy Awards:
 * Best Picture: The Last Emperor - Hemdale, Columbia
 * Best Director: Bernardo Bertolucci - The Last Emperor
 * Best Actor: Michael Douglas - Wall Street
 * Best Actress: Cher - Moonstruck
 * Best Supporting Actor: Sean Connery - The Untouchables
 * Best Supporting Actress: Olympia Dukakis - Moonstruck
 * Best Foreign Language Film: Babette's Feast (Babettes Gæstebud), directed by Gabriel Axel, Denmark

Golden Globe Awards:

 * Drama:
 * Best Picture: The Last Emperor
 * Best Actor: Michael Douglas – Wall Street
 * Best Actress: Sally Kirkland – Anna

 * Musical or comedy:
 * Best Picture: Hope and Glory
 * Best Actor: Robin Williams – Good Morning, Vietnam
 * Best Actress: Cher – Moonstruck

 * Other
 * Best Director: Bernardo Bertolucci – The Last Emperor
 * Best Foreign Language Film: My Life as a Dog, Sweden

Palme d'Or (Cannes Film Festival):
 * Under the Sun of Satan (Sous le soleil de Satan), directed by Maurice Pialat, France

Golden Lion (Venice Film Festival):
 * Au revoir les enfants (Goodbye, Children), directed by Louis Malle, France / W. Germany

Golden Bear (Berlin Film Festival):
 * Tema (1979) (The Theme), directed by Gleb Panfilov, USSR

By country/region

 * List of American films of 1987
 * List of Argentine films of 1987
 * List of Australian films of 1987
 * List of Bangladeshi films of 1987
 * List of British films of 1987
 * List of Canadian films of 1987
 * List of French films of 1987
 * List of Hong Kong films of 1987
 * List of Indian films of 1987
 * List of Hindi films of 1987
 * List of Kannada films of 1987
 * List of Malayalam films of 1987
 * List of Marathi films of 1987
 * List of Tamil films of 1987
 * List of Telugu films of 1987
 * List of Japanese films of 1987
 * List of Mexican films of 1987
 * List of Pakistani films of 1987
 * List of South Korean films of 1987
 * List of Soviet films of 1987
 * List of Spanish films of 1987

By genre/medium

 * List of action films of 1987
 * List of animated feature films of 1987
 * List of avant-garde films of 1987
 * List of comedy films of 1987
 * List of drama films of 1987
 * List of horror films of 1987
 * List of science fiction films of 1987
 * List of thriller films of 1987
 * List of western films of 1987

Births

 * January 1 – Gia Coppola, American director and screenwriter
 * January 2 – Shelley Hennig, American actress and model
 * January 5
 * Fabiola Guajardo, Mexican actress and model
 * Jason Mitchell, American actor
 * January 7 – Lyndsy Fonseca, American actress
 * January 8
 * Cynthia Erivo, British actress
 * Freddie Stroma, British actor and model
 * January 9 - Nicola Coughlan, Irish actress
 * January 12 – Naya Rivera, American actress, singer, and model (died 2020)
 * January 13 – Max Van Ville, American DJ, producer, and actor
 * January 16 – Carrie Keranen, voice actress, production manager, producer, and voice director
 * January 18
 * Ingvild Deila, Norwegian actress
 * Zane Holtz, Canadian actor and model
 * January 20 – Evan Peters, American actor and producer
 * February 1
 * Heather Morris, American actress, dancer, singer, and model
 * Ronda Rousey, American professional wrestler and actress
 * February 4 – Lewis Tan, English actor and martial artist
 * February 5
 * Adassa, American singer-songwriter and voice actress
 * Darren Criss, American actor, singer, and songwriter
 * Henry Golding, Malaysian-British actor and television host
 * Raymond Lee, American actor
 * February 6 - Natalia Reyes, Colombian actress
 * February 7 – Doua Moua, American actor
 * February 9 – Michael B. Jordan, American actor and film producer
 * February 11 – Julio Torres, Salvadoran writer, comedian, and actor
 * February 17 – Ísis Valverde, Brazilian actress
 * February 20
 * Cortney Palm, American actress
 * Daniella Pineda, American actress
 * Miles Teller, American actor
 * February 21
 * Ashley Greene, actress
 * Elliot Page, Canadian actor
 * February 28 – Michelle Horn, American actress
 * March 4 – Tamzin Merchant, English actress and author
 * March 8
 * Tobe Nwigwe, American rapper, singer and actor
 * Milana Vayntrub, American actress and comedian
 * March 9 - Bow Wow, American rapper and actor
 * March 10 – Ser'Darius Blain, Haitian-American actor
 * March 20 – Rollo Weeks, British former actor
 * March 22 – Billy Kametz, American voice actor (died 2022)
 * March 26 – Josh Herdman, English actor and mixed martial artist
 * March 28 – Jimmy Wong, American actor and musician
 * April 1 – Mackenzie Davis, Canadian actress, producer and model
 * April 3 – Rachel Bloom, American actress, comedian, writer, singer-songwriter, and producer
 * April 4 – Sarah Gadon, actress
 * April 6 - Jerrod Carmichael, American stand-up comedian, actor, writer and filmmaker
 * April 7 - Richard Pyros, British-Australian actor
 * April 9 – Jesse McCartney, actor, singer-songwriter and voice actor
 * April 10 – Shay Mitchell, Canadian actress and model
 * April 12
 * Brooklyn Decker, American actress and model
 * Ilana Glazer, American stand-up comedian, actress, writer, producer and director
 * April 16 - Jack Cutmore-Scott, English actor
 * April 18 - Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, British actress and model
 * April 19
 * Oksana Akinshina, Russian actress
 * Courtland Mead, American actor
 * April 20 – John Patrick Amedori, American actor and musician
 * April 21 - Meng'er Zhang, Chinese actress
 * April 27 – William Moseley, English actor
 * April 28 – Tonia Sotiropoulou, Greek actress
 * May 5 – Jessie Cave, English actress and comedian
 * May 7 - Maya Erskine, American actress
 * May 8 – Aneurin Barnard, Welsh actor
 * May 13 – Hunter Parrish, American actor and singer
 * May 27 – Bella Heathcote, Australian actress and model
 * May 28 – Jessica Rothe, American actress
 * May 31 – Meredith Hagner, American actress
 * June 3 - Lalaine, American actress and singer-songwriter
 * June 6 – Daniel Logan, New Zealand-born American actor
 * June 11 – Jimmy O. Yang, Hong Kong-American actor, stand-up comedian and writer
 * June 12 - Abbey Lee, Australian actress and musician
 * June 19 - Beattie Edmondson, English actress
 * June 22 – Joe Dempsie, English actor
 * June 23 - Edward Holcroft, English actor
 * June 25
 * Scott Terra, American former actor
 * Mary Tsoni, Greek actress and singer (d. 2017)
 * June 26 – Valerie Pachner, Austrian actress
 * June 27 – Ed Westwick, English film and television actor
 * July 6 – Matt O'Leary, American actor
 * July 7 – Julianna Guill, American actress
 * July 11 – Cristina Vee, American voice actress
 * July 15 – Jimmy Rees, Australian entertainer
 * July 25 – Michael Welch, American actor
 * July 26
 * Miriam McDonald, Canadian actress
 * Hallie Meyers-Shyer, American actress and filmmaker
 * July 27 – Mara Wilson, actress and writer
 * July 29 – Genesis Rodriguez, American actress and model
 * July 31 – Brittany Byrnes, Australian actress
 * August 2 - Hannah Hoekstra, Dutch actress
 * August 8 – Katie Leung, Scottish film, television, and stage actress
 * August 18
 * Mika Boorem, American actress and filmmaker
 * Óscar Catacora, Peruvian director, screenwriter and cinematographer (died 2021)
 * August 19 – Manny Jacinto, Canadian actor
 * August 21 – Cody Kasch, American actor
 * August 25
 * Stacey Farber, Canadian actress
 * Blake Lively, American actress, model, and director
 * Chloe Pirrie, Scottish actress
 * Liu Yifei, Chinese-American actress, singer, and model
 * August 30 - Johanna Braddy, American actress
 * September 7 – Evan Rachel Wood, American actress, model, and musician
 * September 8
 * Ray Fisher, American actor
 * Domee Shi, Chinese-Canadian animator, storyboard artist and director
 * September 11
 * Tyler Hoechlin, American actor
 * Elizabeth Henstridge, English actress
 * September 14
 * Jessica Brown Findlay, English actress
 * Davide Tucci, Maltese-Italian actor
 * September 17 – Augustus Prew, English actor
 * September 19 – Danielle Panabaker, American actress
 * September 20 – Sarah Natochenny, American voice actress
 * September 21 – Ryan Guzman, American actor
 * September 22
 * Tom Felton, English actor
 * Teyonah Parris, American actress
 * September 23 – Skylar Astin, American actor and singer
 * September 24
 * Spencer Treat Clark, American actor
 * Grey Damon, American actor
 * September 28 – Hilary Duff, actress, singer, songwriter, and businesswoman
 * September 29
 * David Del Rio, American actor, director and producer
 * Anaïs Demoustier, French actress
 * September 30 - Mahaley Patel, American actress
 * October 1 – Michaela Coel, British actress and screenwriter
 * October 9 - Melissa Villaseñor, American stand-up comedian, actress, writer and musician
 * October 14 – Jay Pharoah, American actor and stand-up comedian
 * October 16 – Zhao Liying, Chinese actress
 * October 18 – Zac Efron, actor and singer
 * October 24 – Lincoln Lewis, Australian actor
 * November 1 - Jamie Demetriou, English comedian, actor and screenwriter
 * November 5 – Kevin Jonas, American singer-songwriter and actor (Jonas Brothers)
 * November 9 – Jennifer Holland, American actress
 * November 10 - Andrew Koji, British actor and martial artist
 * November 11
 * Melanie Liburd, British actress
 * Ludi Lin, Chinese-born Canadian actor and model
 * November 12 – Kengo Kora, Japanese actor
 * November 14 – Brian Gleeson, Irish actor
 * November 18 – Jake Abel, American actor and singer
 * November 23 – Vallo Kirs, Estonian actor
 * November 27 – Lashana Lynch, Jamaican-British actress
 * November 28 – Karen Gillan, Scottish actress and filmmaker
 * December 1 - Sarah Snook, Australian actress
 * December 3 – Michael Angarano, American actor
 * December 8 – Aria Curzon, American actress
 * December 11 – Moe Dunford, Irish actor
 * December 21 – Khris Davis, American actor
 * December 28 – Adam Gregory, American actor

title: 1987 in film


text:
Talk:Cumulative voting

Market system critics

 * Critics argue that this simply reduces a voting system to a market system, a criticism applicable to cumulative voting as a whole.

Specifically, which critics? Before putting this back in, please elaborate on the theory. It seems to me budget allocation via cumulative voting, let alone candidate selection, is very different from a market system. DanKeshet 19:55 Jan 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * Seems very straightforward, and if you want to meet the critics, suggest using a cumulative voting system in an election! In any room of ten people someone will compare it to a market system and tell you they don't want to spend multiple votes like they spend dollars.  There may be critics in academia who say the same thing, and it's quite clear that a market of some sort is being created, but most academics who study market systems claim that voting systems are market systems anyway.  Read work of Robin Hanson in this regard.  Problem with article as it now stands is that it seems to say 'this is a real nice flexible system' without pointing out that it's on the edge of a quite different paradigm of decision making - with its own problems, and some, e.g. Jane Jacobs, would say, it's own ethics.  I believe both Jacobs (on the nay side) and Hanson (on the yea side) have compared cumulative voting to market systems, and Hanson is active in prediction market reserach, which is essentially cumulative voting of mock-money on what futures to consider real.  It's hard to explain all this complex stuff in the article, so make up your own mind about what to quote.  Article on Jacobs particularly recommended - I've heard her say in talks that some voting systems confuse spending with voting, and that this is confusing the Trader Ethic and Guardian Ethic.  Not sure if she published that.  Also read tolerances versus preferences if you haven't already, this is a very general debate, and thus worth noting here. --142

 * On the one hand, you say it's straightforward, but on the other hand, you say it's too complicated to explain. You mention both Hanson and Jacobs, but it is unclear from your text whether either of them has ever specifically addressed cumulative voting, or whether they have merely talked about the relationship between markets and voting.  I have done a moderate amount of chasing down papers by Hanson, and a little of chasing down papers by Jacobs and have not found anything by either of them specifically addressing cumulative voting.  We cannot put this in the article unless we have at least one reproducible reference to one person specifically addressing cumulative voting.  DanKeshet

Why CumV abolished in English School Boards?
Why was Cummulative Voting abolished in English School Boards. Since FPTP is a cruder system, that in name of "strong majority" kicks the weak opposition off, how did CumV get replaced? Remember that according to the principles of good governance, a strong opposition is needed to keep the overstrong government accountable. Syd1435 03:44, 2004 Nov 23 (UTC)

The article does not say that the voting was abolished. Perhaps it was the school boards which were abolished (and replaced by county councils). --Henrygb 10:35, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Link between number of points and number of seats
"In typical cumulative elections using the points system, the number of points allotted to a voter is equal to the number of winning candidates." I have ven come across the assertion that this is a necessary condition for a cumulative voting system. Yet consider that some integers can be parcelled out more conveniently than others, e.g. giving voters six points when three seats must be filled allows individual voters to aim for balance between two candidates whereas three points forces an unsought asymmetry (the "donkey vote"). What are the considerations here? P.M.Lawrence

Removal of Corporate Example
In the course of investigating some edits by User:Donreed, I noticed that the story of the Apple board meeting appears to have come solely from him, and it is not sourced in any of the articles. In a quick search, I was not able to verify this story online anywhere. I think it should remain out until it is sourced. Brianyoumans 03:47, 24 October 2007 (UTC)

Addition of Multi-voting
I hope people are supportive of the addition of "Multi-voting" which is a published facilitation technique but is not documented anywhere else in wikipedia, and it fits the cumulative voting model. Maybe this should be pulled into a separate sub-section of the article? I realize as a facilitation technique it is not really for elections, but it is still voting. I don't think it needs a separate article. Thoughts? --Jasondiceman (talk) 03:24, 5 November 2009 (UTC)

First Citation in History
The first sentence in history says it is mandatory but this is not true, it is simply the default rule (in the statute cited). It may be altered by articles of incorporation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.197.119.50 (talk) 18:37, 5 March 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Cumulative voting is a cardinal voting system, right?
A sentence in the article says "Unlike choice voting where the numbers represent the order of a voter's ranking of candidates (i.e. they are ordinal numbers), in cumulative votes the numbers represent quantities (i.e. they are cardinal numbers)", so I'm not sure why this article isn't in Category:Cardinal electoral systems... -- AnonMoos (talk) 00:44, 7 June 2019 (UTC)

 * I notice a conflict of definition in calling Cumulative voting a type of cardinal voting, since the very first sentence of Cardinal voting reads:

 * "Cardinal voting refers to any electoral system which allows the voter to give each candidate an independent rating or grade

 * --which cumulative voting does not. As such, either cumulative voting is not a type of cardinal voting, or the definition of cardinal voting is incorrect. Sadly, my understanding of cardinality/ordinality is not super strong, so I am unsure how to proceed! @User:AnonMoos Douginamug (talk) 08:46, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Douginamug -- sorry for my delay in following the discussion from my user talk page to your user talk page to this article talk page. I don't know exactly what "independent" means on the Cardinal voting article, but I suspect that it mainly constrasts Cardinal voting with preference voting -- in preference voting, only one candidate can be ranked as your third-favorite, and so on.  That doesn't apply to Cumulative voting -- if you cast a vote for candidate X, that doesn't preclude you from also casting an equal-weighted vote for candidate Y.  The constraint with cumulative voting is that you can only cast a certain number of votes overall, or your total fractional votes have to sum to 100% etc... AnonMoos (talk) 21:50, 5 August 2020 (UTC)
 * @AnonMoos Hello again! I understand 'independent' to mean that for every single option, I have the full range with which to score. Cumulative voting can be thought of more as allocating points: indeed, you can give some options the same number of point, but every allocated point reduces the number of point possible to give to other options.
 * As such, Ordinal voting (preference/ranked), Cardinal (score/range) and Cumulative ('points', arguably including Quadratic voting and Majority voting) seem to represent distinct classes. I'll try and read some literature on this. DougInAMug talk 12:25, 17 May 2022 (UTC)
 * The article does not give a source for this claim that cumulative voting is a cardinal system. Ergo, as per WP:V, we should remove the claim, at least until such time as a source is provided. Bondegezou (talk) 06:00, 23 May 2022 (UTC)
 * @Bondegezou I have just removed the claim that cumulative voting is a type of cardinal voting from the cumulative voting and quadratic voting pages, with a link to this talk page section in both edits. DougInAMug talk 15:38, 26 May 2022 (UTC)

Bloc Voting
The link to bloc voting under the Voting section of the article goes to an internal article that is not titled as Bloc Voting. While it mentions it is some fashion, it is not clear. Therefore, the link is a bad reference. We need discussion on this issue. - --KitchM (talk) 20:55, 12 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cumulative voting


text:
Cleanthes

Cleanthes (Κλεάνθης; c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), of Assos, was a Greek Stoic philosopher and boxer who was the successor to Zeno of Citium as the second head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens. Originally a boxer, he came to Athens where he took up philosophy, listening to Zeno's lectures. He supported himself by working as a water-carrier at night. After the death of Zeno, c. 262 BC, he became the head of the school, a post he held for the next 32 years. Cleanthes successfully preserved and developed Zeno's doctrines. He originated new ideas in Stoic physics, and developed Stoicism in accordance with the principles of materialism and pantheism. Among the fragments of Cleanthes' writings which have come down to us, the largest is a Hymn to Zeus. His pupil was Chrysippus who became one of the most important Stoic thinkers.

Life
Cleanthes was born in Assos in the Troad, about 330 BC. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was the son of Phanias, and early in life he was a successful boxer. With but four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he took up philosophy, listening first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic. In order to support himself, he worked all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his nickname the Well-Water-Collector, Φρεάντλης). As he spent the whole day in studying philosophy with no visible means of support, he was summoned before the Areopagus to account for his way of living. The judges were so delighted by the evidence of work which he produced, that they voted him ten minae, though Zeno would not permit him to accept them. His power of patient endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the Ass" from his fellow students, a name which he was said to have rejoiced in, as it implied that his back was strong enough to bear whatever Zeno put upon it.

Such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on the death of Zeno in 262 BC, he became the leader of the school. He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus II Gonatas, from whom he accepted 3000 minae. He died at the age of 99, c. 230 BC. We are told that a dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his steps.

Simplicius, writing in the 6th century AD, mentions that a statue of Cleanthes was still visible at Assos, which had been erected by the Roman Senate.

Philosophy
Cleanthes was an important figure in the development of Stoicism, and stamped his personality on the physical speculations of the school, and by his materialism gave a unity to the Stoic system. He wrote some fifty works, of which only fragments have survived preserved by writers such as Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, Cicero, Seneca and Plutarch.

Physics
Cleanthes revolutionized Stoic physics by the theory of tension (tonos) which distinguished Stoic materialism from all conception of matter as dead and inert. He developed Stoic pantheism, and applied his materialistic views to logic and ethics. Thus he argued that the soul was a material substance, and that this was proved (a) by the circumstance that not only bodily qualities, but also mental capacity, are transmitted by ordinary generation from parent to child; and (b) by the sympathy of the soul with the body seen in the fact that, when the body is struck or cut, the soul is pained; and when the soul is torn by anxiety or depressed by care, the body is correspondingly affected. Cleanthes also taught that souls live on after death, but that the intensity of its existence would vary according to the strength or weakness of the particular soul.

Cleanthes regarded the Sun as being divine; because the Sun sustains all living things, it resembled the divine fire which (in Stoic physics) animated all living beings, hence it too must be part of the vivifying fire or aether of the universe. Some maintain that he accused Aristarchus of impiety for daring to put into motion "the hearth of the universe" (i.e. the Earth); this interpretation depends on an emendation of the received text, since in the manuscripts it is Aristarchus that did the accusing. The largest surviving fragment of Cleanthes is the portion of the Hymn to Zeus, which has been preserved in Stobaeus, in which he declares praise and honour of Zeus to be the highest privilege of all rational beings.

Ethics
Cleanthes maintained that pleasure is not only not a good, but is "contrary to nature" and "worthless." It was his opinion that the passions (love, fear, grief) are weaknesses: they lack the strain or tension which he persistently emphasized, and on which the strength of the soul, no less than that of the body, depends, and which constitutes in human beings self-control, and moral strength, and also conditions every virtue. He said in a striking passage: "People walk in wickedness all their lives or, at any rate, for the greater part of it. If they ever attain to virtue, it is late and at the very sunset of their days."

Zeno had said that the goal of life was "to live consistently," the implication being that no life but the passionless life of reason could ultimately be consistent with itself. Cleanthes is credited with having added the words "with nature," thus completing the well-known Stoic formula that the goal is "to live consistently with nature." For Cleanthes, this meant, in the first place, living conformably to the course of the universe; for the universe is under the governance of reason, and everyone has it as their privilege to know or become acquainted with the world-course, to recognize it as rational and cheerfully to conform to it. This, according to him, is true freedom of will not acting without motive, or apart from set purpose, or capriciously, but humbly acquiescing in the universal order, and, therefore, in everything that befalls one. The direction to follow Universal Nature can be traced in his famous prayer:

Modern influence
Most notably, a fictionalized version of Cleanthes appears as one of the three main interlocutors in David Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, where he defends the view that a posteriori knowledge of the existence and nature of God is possible for us.

Cleanthes also appears in José Enrique Rodó's essay Ariel, in which he is depicted as meditating on the teachings of Zeno as he carried water all through the night.

title: Cleanthes