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Talk:Full English breakfast

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 * The bacon is traditionally fried and the eggs are served "sunny side up". The American custom of asking "how would you like your eggs?" is relatively uncommon in Britain, but poached or scrambled eggs and perhaps grilled bacon may be offered as alternatives.

I'm changing the above because it assumes the reader is Usian. How many other countries use the phrase "sunny side up"? I've made a link further up to fried egg, so we can mention the various ways of frying eggs there. -- Tarquin 15:27 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * Fair enough, I'm usually the first one to say "Don't assume an American audience", but I thought I'd make it clear that most of the time your eggs come "sunny side up" and there's no argument (particularly in cafe or in someone's home). Mintguy

 * Yup, but non-US audiences don't know what "sunny side up" means. We need some way of explaining how they are cooked that doesn't use that expression -- Tarquin

Wouldn't you say that a "continental breakfast" usually includes toast rather than croissants? --KF 15:30 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * I originally had "oast and or crossants" but didn't like the phrase. In my experience hotels usually offer croissants these days. Mintguy

 * Just for info, in Italy the "continental breakfast" usually includes a horrible sort of dried spongecake, with no option for toast or croissants. -- Chris Q 15:53 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

Duplicate information at Irish breakfast needs to be incorporated into this entry. The traditional Irish breakfast, usually consists of pork sausages (fried), bacon rashers (fried), egg(s) (also fried) and black & white pudding (fried). (Blood sausage).

This breakfast is usually eaten with toast and tea. Other items can be included, such as hash browns (fried chopped potato cakes), mushrooms (fried), fried tomato. Essentially if you can fry it - it's a candidate!

The Irish breakfast is distinguished from the English breakfast by its inclusion of puddings, and omission of baked beans. Breakfasts with these ingredients are however, common in both countries.

The traditional Ulster fry is a further distinction from an Irish breakfast. It will always include potato farls (potato bread) and fried soda farls (flat bread with baking soda not yeast). Generally puddings are not as common, but mushrooms and tomatoes possibly more so.

Any self-respecting Irish hotel is guaranteed to serve an Irish breakfast fit for a king. For a hefty sum, one can also procure a fine culinary delight aboard many trains in Ireland.

Full English breakfast is not an appropriate place for Irish breakfast entry. But possibly merging the two under traditional fry-up will work.

Zoney 23:21, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Full English breakfast is what appears on menus throughout the world. Common usage. Jooler

English breakfast is not a particularly neutral title, especially considering that Irish breakfast is quite well known also. Throughout the world are Irish pubs, Irish food outlets and Irish people.

Traditional fry-up fits both.

Zoney 23:54, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Surely though, a fry-up is any fried meal? If I cooked a big plate of chips and eggs, I could call that a fry-up.  I feel a bit like we're creating a term which doesn't exist here. Couldn't they eaqch have their own articles which link to each other for the sake of completeness?  fabiform | talk 00:03, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * There were originally two articles! An Irish breakfast is a seperate entity altogether! Zoney 00:19, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Calling an English breafast an Irish breakfast is like calling French fries Belgian fries. Irish breakfasts were already diiscussed under English breafast. Jooler

 * One sentence in an article about kippers and kidneys and beans and what-have-you. An Irish breakfast is not the same thing at all at all.Zoney 00:19, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

If I had bacon sausage and egg with a cup of tea in Ireland, would you call it an Irrish breakfast? I would say you would. So expand on the details of what you might expect in Ireland that are unexpected elsewhere. Personally I don't think baked beans belong in an English breakfast. Jooler

Irish Breakfast
I've been to Ireland (as well as england) And I've had breakfast. Irish breakfast involves at least 5 types of pork, as well as generally an egg, and a scrap of toast. How they can live past the age of 40 is beyond me, maybe it's the guiness. ;) Sam Spade 03:18, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * P.s. Irish breakfast contains no kippers, the Irish despise fish. Sam Spade 03:21, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * the Irish despise fish - idiot. Have you never heard of Guinness and Oysters, or Irish Smoked Salmon? You think the Irish don't eat fish and chips? Or indeed kippers? Jooler
 * Shut up and drink.
 * P.s. Sign your posts, you rascal Sam Spade 02:47, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Dammit 'Joolers' I am not trying to usurp the term 'English breakfast'. Keep it. Just don't claim that an Irish breakfast falls solely under that category. It SURE doesn't in Ireland, and is as much a tradition as Guinness. READ the article to see how it differs. Most of English breakfast article is IRRELEVANT to an Irish breakfast. Yeah, the pork produce is about the only common thing, and even that differs in the 'mandatory' items in both countries. I am not trying to CLAIM Irish breakfast is the commonly served fried breakfast around the world! I'm simply writing about an important part of Irish culture, one that despite your protests IS well known! Zoney 22:33, 21 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * And chips are important to both British and Irish culture, but we have an article and French fries. What's the difference? Jooler 14:36, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The difference is that chips and french fries are mostly just 'names' and both are used either side of the Atlantic. Zoney
 * Exactly the same for this breakfast. Chips differ from french fries because they are thicker and cooked slightly different. Irish breakfast has soda bread and that's it. Everything else is optional and can be found in both breakfasts, even baked beans as that link I put up showed. Jooler

There needs to be seperate articles, just like their needed to be seperate nations, anyone with a lick of sense knows that. ;) Sam Spade 02:47, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * There are not enough differences to distinguish these two items. The only problem Zoney has is that he doesn't like the word 'English' in the title, that's why he was prepared to have one article which didn't have the word 'English' in it. But we have a policy of common usage, and english breakfast is by far the most common term. If you disagree then you should create a detailed page on Welsh and Scottish and Cornish breakfasts. Jooler

(Copied from VfD)

Maybe the breakfast is as important as chips are to the British and Irish. But on Wikipedia chips are under french fries. You think breakfast rolls are only served in Ireland? You say baked beans are not part of an Irish breakfast, but this guy (http://www.littleireland.ie/damians/BreakfastMenu.htm, and many others) seems to think different. Jooler

 * Note that the article did not mention breakfast rolls are being solely Irish (constrasting to the previous version of English breakfast) They are merely included as a social commentary on Ireland!

 * The exact composition of an Irish breakfast is something for contributors (presumably Irish or have eaten a true Irish breakfast) to come to a consensus to by editing.

 * Zoney 10:40, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Perhaps the protagonist would like to show good manners by SIGNING their comments, here and on VfD (which is not where the discussion should be!) Zoney

 * Done.

Manners
Sam Spade, if you are SURE the others are taking your personal remarks as light-hearted humor, go ahead. But be careful: sarcasm and humor can easily be misunderstood even with smileys :-O --Uncle Ed 20:51, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * My apologies to you sir, I might have forgotten me manners, perhaps the lateness of the day, and the emptiness of me stomach... a good Irish breakfast in the mornin' 'ill have me right as rain! A good day to you until then sir. 8-D+ Sam Spade 05:03, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The Full English as 'Mythic'
I've edited the entry to remove the 'does it really exist' emphasis. It certainly does and I have tried to put it in a more correct and a more contempory social context.

I agree that the page should be renamed "Traditional 'fry-up'". To anybody who is familiar with common parlence, a 'fry-up' is never just going to be food: fried, as the connotations are unequivocally aligned with a specific type of breakfast fare. Importantly, the definition of a fry-up subsumes the definition of a full-english, which, as the article states, requires a fair number of ingredients. So, a fry-up may be a full English, but mostly on cafe menus and when people at home are feeling particularly idulgent. As a breakfast, the term 'fry-up' has a far more concrete meaning to far more regular people eating at home than 'full english' does. And what people use at home carries more significance than what is sold in restaurants. No English person uses 'full English' more than 'fry-up', which makes it as bizarre as the term 'French Toast' to a Frenchman.

The article could continue to differentiate between Irish, Welsh, Scotish and English fry-ups. Jamescole1980

 * In my part of England, the term 'fry up' means Bubble and squeak 80.229.14.246 19:57, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

"Gourmet Tips" section
Although I like the Gourmet Tips section, it really is proscriptive, and doesn't belong in Wikipedia. Can someone take a crack at revising it (for example, sourcing the advice?")

I've removed the 'Gourmet Tips' section. Most of the 'tips' are both proscriptive and fairly obvious notions. The best place for these might be in the Wikibooks Cookbook, if anyone has created an entry there for the full English, but if anyone considers the tips important, some of them might be placed individually throughout the article if written more formally.

Hash browns
...aren't English, but a relatively recent American import. I'd give baked beans a place in it, but not hash browns.

--MacRusgail 19:05, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

p.s. the Celtic countries aren't English, or maybe the article writer wasn't aware of that.

 * I've recently read that Hash browns were actually an American copy of a Scotish tradition.. I don't know how much truth there is behind that, though... Helzagood 16:39, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

 * That's possible, but I don't recall coming across them much in the UK, except as an exoticism, pre-1980s. --MacRusgail 18:00, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

Bubble
A recent contributor keeps persisting in making out that bubble 'n squeak is not a southern thing, (I presume that they mean just northern). But it's been a southern breakfast staple ever since I was a kid, both inside and outside London. And I've never known know a caf in London that does not offer bubble - that's London bubble in my pic, right there. Just though I'd try and alert people to these gratuitous changes, should they recur. Tarquin Binary 22:30, 2 February 2006 (UTC) Far from saying it is not a southern thing, I am saying it is no longer present in southern breakfasts. I have lived on the south coast all of my life, and have never known any cafe, restaurant or person to have bubble and squeak with a breakfast, except in london and in the north. The only time we have bubble, is around christmas, to use up leftovers. Helzagood 02:00, 3 February 2006 (UTC) Recently edit - compromise? Helzagood 02:08, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Still unconvinced. But you did originally say 'the north'. London is in the south. Compromise on south coast if it makes you happy (though I am therefrom originally too, and remember bubble in cafs), whatever, I feel a bit silly getting steamed over a minor point really. Tarquin Binary 15:21, 3 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Lol. it is a bit silly really - all this over such a little thing! Helzagood 16:35, 3 February 2006 (UTC)
 * That's WP for you, more common than not. I'm usually calmer about trivia, but had a bad week. Hey, but it's Friday now, yippee... Tarquin Binary 17:15, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Soldiers
Soldiers eat a full english breakfast when they aren't opperational (sometimes they do when they're operational to). Infact the bigger than usual breakfast is how they eat about 3000-3500 calories a day to keep up with their hard physical regieme. The other meals remain similar in size, only breakfast is made bigger by eating a full english.

Beverages
"Whether the fry-up is accompanied by orange juice and usually an abundant supply of tea or coffee". Coffee? COFFEE? The notion that a fry can be enjoyed with anything other than a fine cup of tea is completely barbaric :-) Bedesboy 18:31, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I beg to differ. When being applied medicinally as a hangover cure, the required accompaniment is strong black coffee, to enhance the anti-hangover effect :-)  -- AJR | Talk 16:21, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

More differing...tea comes in large volumes, sorts out the dehydration and introduces the caffeine gradually without irritating an already upset stomach.

Generally I find a very large Bloody Mary to start followed by Kippers, poached eggs and tea, followed by a Gin and Tonic is the best Hangover cure I've found to date. It always helps when you add rum to your tea :) Brendandh 21:09, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

Hmmm? a bit of blatant Anglocentrism
Further to the Irish chat above- It is not particularly correct to redirect to this article from Scottish breakfast. Bacon originated in Italy or Spain, and fried eggs are multicultural. I have yet to hear of anywhere south of Carlisle/Berwick that one can experience the pleasures of Square sausage, Fried Dumpling, Red pudding and all the rest of the greasy scenario north of the Tweed. This will be rectified at some point soon, unless there are any objections? Brendandh 18:42, 24 December 2006 (UTC)

Origin
Do we have a reference to support that this type of breakfast originated in England? It sound dubious (at the very least) to me. The claim was inserted by an editor opposed to merging the English and Irish breakfast articles into one article using a common title (at time of writing this was Full breakfast). I suspect it was a POV edit to lend weight to merging the two under the title of "English breakfast", as the editor in question wants. Maybe I'm wrong. (Edit: actually it appear to be quite old, I just hadn't paid attention to it before.) Is there evidience for the claim? --sony-youth talk 07:39, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Is there any evidence that it wasn't? MarkThomas 07:51, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Ummmm ... so that's a "no", then? --sony-youth talk 07:56, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I think you are asking for a citation on ridiculous grounds. Clearly the "English" breakfast is "English". Where else could it be from - Lithuania? Why should the onus to prove something so obvious be on the obvious rather than the negative? Logic suggests that if you have a problem with it, you should prove it originates somewhere else. MarkThomas 08:09, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * See the references I just added. The same meal is known as "Irish breakfast", "Scottish breakfast" and "Welsh breakfast". Suffice it to say that it originated somewhere somewhere, but basing a claim of origin solely on a local name for a dish that is known by local names is dubious. --sony-youth talk 08:22, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Surely the point is that the Irish breakfast originates in Ireland, the Scottish in Scotland and so on. What on earth makes you think they are the same thing? RV. Also, did you do a 4RR on the dubious tag? MarkThomas 08:27, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * What on earth makes me think they are the same thing? Because reputable chefs and cooks say that they are:

 * "The great English breakfast (any combination of fried bacon, eggs, sausages, tomatoes, bread, black pudding, baked beans, grilled kidneys and kedgeree) ..."

 * "A full Scottish breakfast is made up of egg, black pudding, lorne slice which a kind of flat sausage, Ayrshire bacon and sometimes potato ..."

 * "A Full Irish Breakfast (very similar an English breakfast) consists of bacon rashers, eggs, sausages, baked tomatoes, mushrooms, white pudding, black pudding, fresh fruit, toast or scones with butter and marmalade. In Northern Ireland (still part of the UK) they add fried potatoes or Potato Farl to it and call it an 'Ulster Fry'."

 * Note the references to and Irish breakfast being "very similar an English breakfast". How, if you want to make an Ulster Fry, you simple "add fried potatoes or Potato Farl to it and call it an 'Ulster Fry'." See how an English breakfast is "any combination of" the ingredients to a Scottish breakfast. etc. etc. etc. Why don't you try a flickr search for picture of the dish by its varying names and see if what is called a "Scottish breakfast" in Scotland, an "English breakfast", an "Irish breakfast" in Ireland or a "Welsh breakfast" in Wales.

 * As for 'origin', currently the earlest refernce I have is for 1898 as a "Scotch breakfast."

 * Regarding the 3RR (4RR). Hardly, see the edit history. My first "revert" was when you removed the tag because there was no post here specifically about questing it (pedantic, really Mark). The second was when you did not give me enough chance to make a specific post here before you removed the tag again. And the third was when I warned TarkunColl about removing the tag without discussing it as another editor had warned him earlier. --sony-youth talk 09:05, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * They all sound very, very different to my untrained ear. I believe these are unique and separate ethnic breakfasts within the overall framework of the islands formerly known as the British Isles. MarkThomas 09:12, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * In that case let me paraphrase for the benefit of your ear: "English breakfast ... bacon, eggs, sausages, ... black pudding ... Scottish breakfast ... egg, black pudding, ... sausage, ... bacon ... Irish Breakfast ... bacon ... eggs ... sausages, black pudding ... In Northern Ireland they ... call it an 'Ulster fry'." --sony-youth talk 09:48, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I believe in each case you will find that they are using Irish bacon, Scottish eggs and so forth. Also, probably the arrangement of overcooked items on the plate is subtly different as between nations and "contiguously defined non-statutory national zones of a primarily ethnic character" (I kid you not - that is how one EU agency defines the countries of "Britain"!), not to mention the oils used. In Scotland for example, Mars bars are generally added. MarkThomas 10:58, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * "contiguously defined non-statutory national zones of a primarily ethnic character" - !? Thank goodness I don't live in one of those. Sounds like they should be under a UN mandate. Yes, the order does seem to have some consequence. The English breakfast would appear to be "bacon, eggs, sausages, black pudding", whereas a Scottish preference is for "egg, black pudding, sausage, bacon." The Irish recipe, while to the eye looks deceptively like the English one, in fact uses rashers, which, I will have you know, is a wholly different food stuff to mere bacon. Follow any of the above recipe, but making sure to add some fried animal feed and voila! ... you've got an Ulster fry! --sony-youth talk 11:24, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * No you don't have an Ulster Fry, you still need Soda Bread and Potato Bread to have an Ulster Fry. Not the same. Oh and the full English breakfast can use both streaky (rashers) bacon or back (more common). Ben W Bell   talk  12:05, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Only joking about the Ulster fry! Christ, I learnt my lesson last night! Never called streaky bacon rashers, except possibly in reference "those the horrible skinny rashers", always thought of a "real rasher" as back bacon - but warring over what consitites a rasher would really would be going that bit too far.
 * Anyway, local perferences for various cuts of bacon and types of bread aside, my point is that these are essentially the same thing (as breakfasts go). Essential ingredients: shallow fry sliced bacon, egg, sausages, and black pudding. Served with bread of some kind or another and, sticking my head out here, a good mug of tea (some orgage juice would be nice too). Probably a generous dollop of baked beans and various local perferences for potato-based cakes, white pudding, fried tomatoes etc. Drop on a dollop of tomato ketchup or Yorkshire Relish (preferably referred to as red and brown sauce repectively) and bang! you've got the breakfast we're all talking about here.
 * This is a unique and notable morning meal, one which we can all be proud of. We won't decide on a name. We don't have to. We all call it a FULL breakfast. --sony-youth talk 12:43, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Merge
I made a merge of the Irish breakfast and the Full English breakfast pages at Full breakfast. Is it okay to blank the Full English breakfast and Irish breakfast pages and redirect them (and Scottish breakfast and Welsh breakfast) there? I included references to Ulster fry in the merged article but as discussed that page will not be merged. --sony-youth talk 21:19, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Full English breakfast


text:
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport

Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is a public airport located in Crystal City, in Arlington County, Virginia, United States, 5 mi from Washington, D.C. It is the closest airport to Washington, D.C., the nation's capital, the 24th-busiest airport in the nation, the busiest airport in the Washington metropolitan area, and the second busiest in the Washington–Baltimore combined statistical area.

The airport opened in 1941 and was originally named Washington National Airport. Part of the original terminal is still in use as Terminal 1. A larger second terminal, now known as Terminal 2, opened in 1997. In 1998, Congress passed and President Bill Clinton signed a bill renaming the airport in honor of the 40th president of the United States Ronald Reagan, who was in office from 1981 to 1989.

Reagan National serves 98 nonstop destinations. It is a hub for American Airlines. It is an international airport, but has no immigration and customs facilities and international flights are restricted to those with U.S. Customs and Border Protection preclearance facilities, including major airports in Canada and some destinations in the Caribbean. Reagan National is also home to Coast Guard Air Station Washington.

The airport served over 25.4 million passengers in 2023, the second most of any of the three airports serving the region, and a new passenger record for the airport. The airport's main runway is the busiest in the nation.

The airport is owned by the federal government and is one of two operated by the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) that serve the Washington metropolitan area; the other, also located in Northern Virginia is Dulles International Airport, located about 25 mi to the west in Fairfax and Loudoun counties.

20th century
The first airport in the area was Arlington's Hoover Field, which opened in 1926. Near the present site of The Pentagon, its single runway was crossed by a street; guards had to stop automobile traffic during takeoffs and landings. The following year, in 1927, Washington Airport, another privately operated field, began service next door. In 1930, the Great Depression led the two terminals to merge to form Washington-Hoover Airport. Bordered on the east by U.S. Route 1, with its accompanying high-tension electrical wires, and obstructed by a high smokestack on one approach and a dump nearby, the field was inadequate. The need for a better airport was acknowledged in 37 studies conducted between 1926 and 1938, but a statute prohibited federal development of airports. When Congress lifted the prohibition in 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a recess appropriation of $15 million to build National Airport by reallocating funds from other purposes. Construction of Washington National Airport began in 1940–1941 by a company led by John McShain. Congress challenged the legality of FDR's recess appropriation, but construction of the new airport continued.

The airport is located southwest of Washington, D.C., in the Crystal City section of Arlington County, Virginia, adjacent to National Landing. The western part of the airport was once within a large Virginia plantation, a remnant of which is now inside a historic site near the airport's Metrorail station. The eastern part of the airport was built in the District of Columbia on and near mudflats in the tidal Potomac River near Gravelly Point, about 4 smi from the United States Capitol, using landfill dredged from the Potomac River.

The airport opened June 16, 1941, just before U.S. entry into World War II. The public was entertained by displays of wartime equipment including a captured Japanese Zero war prize flown in with U.S. Navy colors. In 1945 Congress passed a law that established the airport was legally within Virginia, mainly for liquor sales taxation purposes, but under the jurisdiction of the federal government. On July 1 of that year the airport's weather station became the official point for D.C. weather observations and records by the National Weather Service, in Washington, D.C.

Until 1946, nonstop airline flights did not reach beyond New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Memphis, Atlanta, and Jacksonville. In 1946, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, and Miami were added; nonstops reached Denver in 1951 and Los Angeles in 1954. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 316 weekday departures: 95 Eastern (plus six per week to/from South America), 77 American, 61 Capital, 23 National, 17 TWA, 10 United, 10 Delta, 6 Allegheny, 6 Braniff, 5 Piedmont, 3 Northeast and 3 Northwest. Jet flights began in April 1966 (727-200s were not allowed until 1970). In 1974 the airport's key carriers were Eastern (20 destinations), United (14 destinations after subsuming Capital) and Allegheny (11 destinations).

The grooving of runway 18–36 to improve traction when wet, in March 1967, was the first at a civil airport in the United States.

Service to the airport's Metro station began in 1977.

The Washington National Airport Terminal and South Hangar Line were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.

Expansion and restrictions
The runway layout has changed little since the 1956 closure of the east–west runway at the south end of the field. Changes to the terminal complex over the years include:
 * Extension of the original Main Terminal (today's Terminal 1) to the south in 1950
 * The construction of a North Terminal supplemented the original terminal in 1958; construction connected the two terminals in 1961.
 * A United Airlines holdroom complex was built in 1965, a facility for American Airlines was completed in 1968, and a facility for Northwest Airlines and TWA (still in use today as the Terminal A concourse), along with a commuter terminal in 1970.
 * The Metrorail station serving the Airport opened in 1977.
 * A major terminal expansion including a new air traffic control tower, officially called Terminals B/C, opened in 1997 giving the terminal its current configuration.
 * Runways 18/36 and 3/21 were renumbered as 1/19 and 4/22 in 1999 as Earth's magnetic field drifted.
 * In March 2012 the main 1/19 runway was lengthened 300 ft to add Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) compliant runway safety runoff areas.

Despite the expansions, efforts have been made to restrict the growth of the airport. The advent of jets and traffic growth led Congress to pass the Washington Airport Act of 1950, which led to the opening of Dulles International Airport in 1962. To reduce congestion and drive traffic to alternative airports, the FAA imposed perimeter restrictions on National when jets arrived in 1966, and landing slot at DCA and four other high-density airports in 1969.

The airport originally had no perimeter rule; from 1954 to 1960, piston-engine airliners flew nonstop to California. Scheduled jet airliners were not allowed until April 1966, and concerns about aviation noise led to noise restrictions even before jet service began in 1966.

The perimeter rule was implemented in January 1966 as a voluntary agreement by airlines, to get permission to use short-haul jets at National. Dulles was to continue to serve the long haul markets, limiting traffic and noise at National; the FAA assumed that ground level noise would be reduced because planes would take off light on fuel and be up and away quickly. The agreement limited jet flights to 650 smi, with 7 grandfathered exceptions under 1000 smi. The spirit of the agreement was regularly violated as flights left National to an airport within the perimeter and then immediately took off for a destination beyond it. Within a year there was a proposal to reduce the perimeter to 500 smi, but it was widely opposed and never implemented. Overcrowding at National was later managed by the 1969 High Density Rule, thereby removing one of the justifications for the perimeter agreement.

In the 1960s and 1970s, several attempts were made to codify the perimeter rule, but it was not until Dulles was endangered that it actually become a strict rule. In 1970 the FAA lifted the ban at National of the stretched Boeing 727-200, which resulted in a lawsuit by Virginians for Dulles who argued that the airport's jet traffic was a nuisance. That suit resulted in a Court of Appeals order to create an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). In addition to the court order, there were economic problems at Dulles. Following the extension of Metrorail to National in 1977, and airline deregulation in 1978, traffic at Dulles began to plummet while it increased at National. As part of a slate of efforts to protect Dulles, including removing landing fees and mobile lounge user charges, the FAA proposed regulations as part of the EIS to limit traffic at National and maintain Dulles's role as the area's airport for long-haul destinations. In 1980, the FAA proposed codifying the perimeter rule as part of a larger rulemaking effort. When the rule was announced, airlines challenged it in court; the Metropolitan Washington Airports Policy of 1981 codified the perimeter rule on an interim basis "to maintain the long-haul nonstop service at Dulles and BWI which otherwise would preempt shorter haul service at National." At the same time, the perimeter was extended to 1000 smi miles to remove the unfairness of having seven grandfathered cities. The perimeter rule was upheld by the Court of Appeals in 1982. In 1986, as part of the Metropolitan Washington Airports Act, which handed control of National over to the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, the perimeter was extended to 1250 smi to allow nonstop flights to Houston with Dallas also being permitted to be served nonstop.

Slots at the airport have been traded in several instances. In 2011 US Airways acquired a number of Delta's slots at Reagan National in exchange for Delta receiving a number of US Airways slots at LaGuardia Airport in New York. JetBlue paid $40 million to acquire eight slot pairs at auction in the same year. JetBlue and Southwest acquired 12 and 27 US Airways slot pairs, respectively, in 2014 as part of a government-mandated divestiture following the merger of US Airways and American.

The airport has three intersecting runways - 1/19 (7169' x 150' / 2185m x 46m), 15/33 (5204' x 150' / 1586m x 46m) and 4/22 (5000' x 150' / 1524m x 46m). All aircraft typically use Runway 1/19, although Commuter and General Aviation aircraft sometimes use Runway 15/33, when requested by ATC due to traffic volume or when winds favor that runway. Runway 4 is sometimes used for departures.

Transfer of control and renaming
In 1984, the Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole appointed a commission to study transferring National and Dulles Airports from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to a local entity, which could use airport revenues to finance improvements. The commission recommended that one multi-state agency administer both Dulles and National, over the alternative of having Virginia control Dulles and the District of Columbia control National. In 1987 Congress, through legislation, transferred control of the airport from the FAA to the new Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority with the Authority's decisions being subject to a Congressional review panel. The constitutionality of the review panel was later challenged in the Supreme Court and the Court has twice declared the oversight panel unconstitutional. Even after this decision, however, Congress has continued to intervene in the management of the airports.

On February 6, 1998, President Bill Clinton signed legislation changing the airport's name from Washington National Airport to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, to honor the former president on his 87th birthday. The legislation was drafted against the wishes of MWAA officials and political leaders in Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. Opponents of the renaming argued that a large federal office building had already been named for Reagan, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center, and that the airport was already named for George Washington, the first United States president.

The bill stated that it did not require the expenditure of any funds to accomplish the name change; however, state, regional, and federal authorities were later required to change highway and transit signs at their own additional expense as new signs were made.

21st century
In 2015, The Express conducted an online survey asking people what they call “the airport in Northern Virginia that’s not Dulles." The results found that only 31% of people referred to the airport as "Reagan" and only 12% as "Reagan National", compared to 57% dropping the former president from the name. Political preference was shown to have a direct correlation with how people called the airport, with 72% of Republicans referring to the airport using "Reagan," while 64% of Democrats call it "National" or "DCA."

Given that Washington, D.C., is one of the most Democratic cities in the United States, the dominant name does not feature the name "Reagan".

Construction of current terminal buildings
With the addition of more flights and limited space in the aging main terminal, the airport began an extensive renovation and expansion in the 1990s. Hangar 11 on the northern end of the airport was converted into The USAir Interim Terminal, designed by Joseph C. Giuliani, FAIA. Soon after an addition for Delta Air Lines was added in 1989 and was later converted to Authority offices. These projects allowed for the relocation of several gates in the main terminal until the new $450 million terminal complex became operational. On July 27, 1997, the new terminal complex, Terminal 2, and two parking garages, opened. Argentine architect César Pelli designed the new terminals of the airport. The Interim Terminal closed immediately after its opening and was converted back into a hangar. One pier of the main terminal (now widely known as Terminal A), which mainly housed American Airlines and Pan Am, was demolished; the other pier, originally designed by Giuliani Associates Architects for Northwest and TWA remains operational today as gates A1–A9.

A land bridge is planned which would connect the airport with National Landing directly to Amazon HQ2.

Perimeter restrictions
Washington National Airport is subject to a federally mandated perimeter limitation to keep it a short-haul airport and to keep most long-haul air traffic to Dulles International Airport. The rule was implemented in 1966 and originally limited nonstop service to 650 smi, with some exceptions for previously existing service. Congress extended the limit in the 1980s to 1000 mi and then again to 1250 mi. Congress and the United States Department of Transportation have created many "beyond-perimeter" exceptions that have weakened the rule.

Members of Congress repeatedly have sought to extend the limit and permit exceptions in order to allow nonstop service from National Airport to their home states and districts. In 1999, Senator John McCain of Arizona introduced legislation to remove the 1250 smi restriction. In the end the restriction was not lifted, but in 2000 the FAA was permitted to add 24 exemptions, which went to Alaska Airlines for flights to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. America West later obtained exemptions for non-stop flights to Phoenix in 2004. In May 2012, the DOT granted new exemptions for Alaska to serve Portland, JetBlue to serve San Juan, Southwest to serve Austin and Virgin America to serve San Francisco. American, Delta, United and US Airways were also each allowed to exchange a pair of in-perimeter slots for an equal number of beyond-perimeter slots.

In 2023, members of Congress from Texas, including Senators Ted Cruz and John Cornyn, along with Representatives Chip Roy and Greg Casar, proposed softening the perimeter rules in an FAA reauthorization bill. The efforts were opposed by senators from Virginia and Maryland, along with American Airlines (which has a hub at Reagan) and United Airlines (which has a hub at Dulles), citing an FAA memo and statistics showing that Reagan has a high rate of delays and that additional flights may exceed its capacity. Controversy over the proposal held up the bill for a year. In 2024, a deal was reached to add five additional perimeter-exempt roundtrip slots to Reagan to the FAA authorization bill, which ultimately passed Congress and was signed by President Joe Biden. After the bill was signed, airlines began announcing which routes they would apply to receive a slot for: American Airlines (which initially opposed the bill) applied for a route to San Antonio; Alaska Airlines applied for a route to San Diego; and Southwest Airlines applied for a route to Las Vegas.

Approach patterns
Reagan National Airport has some of the strictest noise restrictions in the country. In addition, due to security concerns, the areas surrounding the National Mall and U.S. Naval Observatory in central Washington are prohibited airspace up to 18000 ft. Due to these restrictions, pilots approaching from the north are generally required to follow the path of the Potomac River and turn just before landing. This approach is known as the River Visual. Similarly, flights taking off to the north are required to climb quickly and turn left.

The River Visual airport approach is only possible with a ceiling of at least 3500 ft and visibility of 3 smi or more. There are lights on the Key Bridge, Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, Arlington Memorial Bridge and the George Mason Memorial Bridge to aid pilots following the river. Aircraft using the approach can be observed from various parks on the river's west bank. Passengers on the left side of an airplane can see the Capitol, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, the World War II Memorial, Georgetown University, the National Mall, portions of Downtown Washington, D.C. (including the roof of Capital One Arena), and the White House. Passengers on the right side can see Central Intelligence Agency headquarters, Arlington National Cemetery, the Pentagon, eastern Arlington, including portions of Rosslyn, Clarendon, Ballston, Crystal City, and the United States Air Force Memorial.

When the River Visual is not available due to visibility or winds, aircraft may fly an offset localizer or GPS approach to Runway 19 along a similar course (flying a direct approach course on instruments as far as Rosslyn, and then turning to align with the runway visually moments before touchdown). Most airliners are also capable of performing a VOR or GPS approach to the shorter Runway 15/33. Northbound visual and ILS approaches to Runway 1 are also sometimes used; these approaches follow the Potomac River from the south and overfly the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.

Special security measures
In 1938, Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order No. 7910, creating the first restricted airspace around the District of Columbia. This would be superseded by a number of executive orders clarifying the boundaries of the airspace until 1966, when it was codified into Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, part 73. Title 14 created Prohibited Airspace 56 A and B (P-56A and P-56B). P-56A restricted flight around the National Mall, White House, and United States Capitol Building, while P-56B restricted flight in a half-mile radius from the center of the U.S. Naval Observatory. Only aircraft supporting the United States Secret Service, Office of the President, or some government agencies are permitted within the prohibited airspace.

In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a Flight-Restricted Zone (FRZ) was put into effect. Extending approximately 15 nautical miles (or roughly 17 miles) around the airport, only scheduled commercial flights and governmental flights are allowed into the zone without a waiver from the Federal Aviation Administration. Charter flights for the U.S. government are permitted to land at the airport and Joint Base Andrews under certain conditions.

After the September 11 attacks, the airport was closed for several weeks, and security was tightened when it reopened. Increased security measures included: On October 18, 2005, National Airport was reopened to general aviation on a limited basis (48 operations per day) and under restrictions: passenger and crew manifests must be submitted to the Transportation Security Administration 24 hours in advance, and all planes must pass through one of roughly 70 "gateway airports" where re-inspections of aircraft, passengers, and baggage take place. An armed security officer must be on board before departing a gateway airport. On March 23, 2011, the air traffic control supervisor on duty reportedly fell asleep during the night shift. Two aircraft on approach to the airport were unable to contact anyone in the control tower and landed unassisted.
 * A ban on aircraft with more than 156 seats (lifted in April 2002)
 * A ban on the "River Visual" approach (lifted in April 2002)
 * A requirement that, 30 minutes prior to landing or following takeoff, passengers were required to remain seated; if anyone stood up, the aircraft was to be diverted to Washington Dulles International Airport under military escort and the person standing would be detained and questioned by federal law enforcement officials (lifted in July 2005)
 * A ban on general aviation (lifted in October 2005, subject to the restrictions below)

Terminals and facilities
DCA has 59 gates with jetways: 9 gates in Terminal 1 and 50 gates in Terminal 2 (13 gates in Concourse B, 12 in Concourse C, 11 in Concourse D and 14 in the new Concourse E). The two terminals are not connected to each other post-security. A new terminal and gate numbering scheme was implemented in 2022. Previously Terminal 1 was Terminal A, and Terminal 2 was Terminal B/C, as it is one building. All gates also now have a letter, A through E for each of the five concourses. Therefore, Gate 33 became Gate C33. Other changes include B Parking and C Parking, becoming Parking 2 South and Parking 2 North.

Terminal 1
Designed by architect Charles M. Goodman, terminal 1 opened in 1941 and was expanded in 1955 to accommodate more passengers and airlines. The exterior of this terminal has had its original architecture restored, with the airside façade restored in 2004 and the landside façade restored in 2008. The terminal underwent a $37 million renovation that modernized the airport's look by bringing in brighter lighting, more windows, and new flooring. The project was completed in 2014 along with a new expanded TSA security checkpoint. In 2014, additional renovations were announced including new upgraded concessions and further structural improvements, the project was completed in 2015. Terminal 1 contains gates A1–A9 and houses operations from Air Canada Express, Frontier, and Southwest, with Southwest having the largest presence in Terminal 1.

Terminal 2
Terminal 2 is the airport's newest and largest terminal; the terminal opened in 1997 and replaced a collection of airline-specific terminals built during the 1960s. The new terminal (Concourses B-D) was designed by architect Cesar Pelli and houses 35 gates. The terminal is directly connected to the WMATA airport station via indoor pedestrian bridges. Concourse E, which expanded Terminal 2, opened in 2021 as a replacement for Gate 35X, which was a bus gate.

Terminal 2 has four concourses. Concourse B (Gates B10–B22) houses Alaska Airlines, Delta, and United. Concourse C (Gates C23–C34) houses American and JetBlue. Concourse D (Gates D35–D45) is exclusive to American for their hub at DCA along with Concourse E (Gates E46–E59) that houses American Eagle  and American. The corridor/hall connecting the four concourses of Terminal 2 is known as National Hall. Concourse B houses a Delta Sky Club and United Club, and there are three American Admirals Clubs in Terminal 2. The Delta Sky Club was renovated in summer 2018.

Lounges
There are currently six airport lounges at the airport in all the Terminals. There are three American Airlines Admirals Clubs: one near gate C24 in concourse C, one in concourse D near gate D36, and one in Concourse E near gate E47. In concourse B there is a Delta Sky Club near gate B15, and a United Club near gate B10. In Terminal 1 there is a USO lounge for retired and active military members pre-security. Originally scheduled for 2022, an American Express Centurion Lounge is in National Hall by the B Gates. Which opened on July 17, 2024. A Capital One lounge was also scheduled to open in 2024 this has yet to happen though.

Project Journey
MWAA began construction of a new concourse north of Terminal 2 in February 2018 to accommodate 14 new regional jet gates with jetways, bringing the total number of gates at DCA to 60. This replaced "Gate 35X," a bus gate formerly used to bring passengers to and from American Eagle flights that used parking spots on the ramp. Officially called Project Journey, construction was completed on April 20, 2021.

In addition, the individual security checkpoints for the four concourses in Terminal 2 were replaced with higher-capacity security checkpoints in two new buildings to the west of National Hall, located next to the two Metro station pedestrian bridges, and in between the two existing arrivals and departures roadways, placing all of National Hall within the secured area of the airport and allowing passengers to walk between concourses without re-clearing security. The new checkpoints were opened on November 9, 2021.

Ground transportation
The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station on the Washington Metro, served by the Yellow and Blue lines, is located on an elevated outdoor platform station adjacent to Terminal 2. Two elevated pedestrian walkways connect the station directly to the concourse levels of Terminal 2. An underground pedestrian walkway and shuttle services provide access to Terminal 1.

Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is located on the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and connected to U.S. Route 1 by the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233). Interstate 395 is just north of the airport, and is also accessible by the G.W. Parkway and U.S. Route 1. Airport-operated parking garage facilities as well as economy lots are available adjacent to or near the various airport terminals.

The airport is accessible by bicycle and foot from the Mount Vernon Trail, as well as the sidewalk along the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233), which connects the airport grounds to U.S. Route 1. A total of 48 bike parking spots are available across six separate bike racks. The airport has a Capital Bikeshare station, making this the first major airport in the United States to have a dock-based bikeshare station.

Abingdon plantation historical site
A part of the airport is located on the former site of the 18th and 19th century Abingdon plantation, which was associated with the prominent Alexander, Custis, Stuart, and Hunter families. In 1998, MWAA opened a historical display around the restored remnants of two Abingdon buildings and placed artifacts collected from the site in an exhibit hall in Terminal A. The Abingdon site is located on a knoll between parking Garage A and Garage B/C, near the south end of the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Metrorail station.

Page Airways
On April 27, 1945, a Page Airways Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar on a charter flight crashed into a deep ditch at the end of runway 33 after aborting a takeoff due to engine failure. There were strong gusts and ground turbulence at the time. Out of the 13 passengers and crew on board, six passengers were killed. Although a contemporary newspaper report indicated that the flight's intended destination had been Rochester, New York, the Civil Aeronautics Board's accident investigation report stated that the destination had been New York, N.Y.

Eastern Air Lines Flight 537
On November 1, 1949, a mid-air collision between an Eastern Air Lines passenger aircraft and a P-38 Lightning military plane took the lives of 55 passengers. The sole survivor was the Bolivian pilot of the fighter plane, Erick Rios Bridoux.

Bridoux's plane had taken off from National just 10 minutes earlier and was in contact with the tower during a brief test flight. The Eastern Air Lines DC-4 was on approach from the south when the nimble and much faster P-38 banked and plunged right into the passenger plane. Both aircraft dropped into the Potomac River.

Capital Airlines Flight 500
On December 12, 1949, Capital Airlines Flight 500, a Douglas DC-3, stalled and crashed into the Potomac River while on approach to Washington National. Six of the 23 passengers and crew on board were killed.

Air Florida Flight 90
On the afternoon of January 13, 1982, following a period of exceptionally cold weather and a morning of blizzard conditions, Air Florida Flight 90 crashed after waiting 49 minutes on a taxiway and taking off with ice and snow on the wings. The Boeing 737 aircraft failed to gain altitude. Less than 1 smi from the end of the runway, the airplane struck the 14th Street Bridge complex, shearing the tops off vehicles stuck in traffic before plunging through the 1 in ice covering the Potomac River. Rescue responses were greatly hampered by the weather and traffic. Due to action on the part of motorists, a United States Park Service police helicopter crew, and one of the plane's passengers who later died, five occupants of the downed plane survived. The other 74 people who were aboard and four occupants of vehicles on the bridge were killed. President Ronald Reagan praised motorist Lenny Skutnik in his State of the Union Address a few weeks later.

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Patrician (ancient Rome)

The patricians (from patricius) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after the Conflict of the Orders (494 BC to 287 BC). By the time of the late Republic and Empire, membership in the patriciate was of only nominal significance. The social structure of ancient Rome revolved around the distinction between the patricians and the plebeians. The status of patricians gave them more political power than the plebeians, but the relationship between the groups eventually caused the Conflict of the Orders. This time period resulted in changing of the social structure of ancient Rome.

After the Western Empire fell, the term "patrician" continued as a high honorary title in the Eastern Empire. In many medieval Italian republics, especially in Venice and Genoa, medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of leading families. In the Holy Roman Empire, the Grand Burgher families had a similar meaning. Subsequently, "patrician" became a vague term used to refer to aristocrats and the higher bourgeoisie in many countries.

Origin
According to Livy, the first 100 men appointed as senators by Romulus were referred to as "fathers" (Latin patres), and the descendants of those men became the patrician class. This account is also described by Cicero. The appointment of these one hundred men into the Senate gave them a noble status. That status is what separated the patricians from the plebeians. Some accounts detail that the one hundred men were chosen because of their wisdom. This would coincide with the idea that ancient Rome was founded on a merit-based ideal. According to other opinions, the patricians (patricii) were those who could point to fathers, i.e., those who were members of the clans (gentes) whose members originally comprised the whole citizen body.

Other noble families which came to Rome during the time of the kings were also admitted to the patriciate, including several who emigrated from Alba Longa, after that city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius. The last-known instance of a gens being admitted to the patriciate prior to the 1st century BC was when the Claudii were added to the ranks of the patricians after coming to Rome in 504 BC, five years after the establishment of the Republic.

The criteria for why Romulus chose certain men for this class remains contested by academics and historians, but the importance of the patrician/plebeian distinction is accounted by all as paramount to ancient Roman society. The distinction between the noble class, the patricians, and the Roman populace, the plebeians, existed from the beginning of ancient Rome. This distinction became increasingly important in the society until the period of the late republic.

The patricians were given noble status when named to the Senate, giving them wider political influence than the plebeians, at least in the times of the early Republic. The patricians in ancient Rome were of the same status as aristocrats in Greek society. Being of the noble class meant that patricians were able to participate in government and politics, while the plebeians could not. This privilege was important in ancient Roman history and eventually caused a large divide between the two classes.

During the middle and late Republic, as this influence gradually eroded, plebeians were granted equal rights in most areas, and even greater in some. For example, only plebeians could serve as the tribune of the plebs. There were quotas for official offices. One of the two consulships was reserved for plebeians. Although being a patrician remained prestigious, it was of minimal practical importance. With the exception of some religious offices which were devoid of political power, plebeians were able to stand for all of the offices that were open to patricians. Plebeians of the senatorial class were no less wealthy than patricians at the height of the republic. Originally patrician, Publius Clodius Pulcher willingly arranged to be adopted by a plebeian family in order to qualify to be appointed as the tribune of the plebs.

Status
Patricians historically had more privileges and rights than plebeians. This status difference was marked at the beginning of the Republic: patricians were better represented in the Roman assemblies, and only patricians could hold high political offices, such as dictator, consul, and censor, and all priesthoods (such as pontifex maximus) were closed to non-patricians. There was a belief that patricians communicated better with the Roman gods, so they alone could perform the sacred rites and take the auspices.

Additionally, not only were the patricians of higher status in political offices but they also had the best land in ancient Rome. Having the best land allowed the patrician class to have more opportunities, such as being able to produce better agriculture. This view had political consequences, since in the beginning of the year or before a military campaign, Roman magistrates used to consult the gods. Livy reports that the first admission of plebeians into a priestly college happened in 300 BC with the passage of the Lex Ogulnia when the College of Augurs raised their number from four to nine. After that, plebeians were accepted into the other religious colleges. By the end of the Republic, only priesthoods with limited political importance, such as the Salii, the Flamines, and the Rex Sacrorum, were filled exclusively by patricians.

While it was not illegal for a plebeian to run for political office, a plebeian would not have had the backing needed to win a seat. Since society was organized in this way, the patrician class was essentially in control of ancient Rome's government. In Cassius' accounts of ancient Rome, he details how important and advantaged the patrician class was over the plebeian class. He indicates the status difference between patricians and plebeians by detailing the specific shoes the patricians wore. Cassius states, "For the shoes worn by the patricians in the city were ornamented with laced straps and the design of the letter, to signify that they were descended from the original hundred men that had been senators." It is clear through Cassius' account that these details mattered and represented the differentiation between classes.

Few plebeian names appear in lists of Roman magistrates during the early Republic. Two laws passed during the fourth century BC began the gradual opening of magistrates to the plebeians: the Lex Licinia Sextia of 367 BC, which established the right of plebeians to hold the consulship; and the Genucian Law of 342 BC, which required that at least one of the consuls be a plebeian (although this law was frequently violated for several decades).

Many of the ancient patrician gentes whose members appear in the founding legends of Rome disappeared as Rome acquired its empire, and new plebeian families rose to prominence. A number of patrician families such as the Horatii, Lucretii, Verginii and Menenii rarely appear in positions of importance during the later republic. Many old families had patrician and plebeian branches, of which the patrician lines frequently faded into obscurity, and were eclipsed by their plebeian namesakes.

The decline accelerated toward the end of the Republic, principally because of the civil wars, from the Social War to the proscriptions of the Triumvirs, which took a heavy toll on them. As a result, several illustrious patrician houses were on the verge of extinction during the 1st century BC, sometimes only surviving through adoptions, such as:

 * Julii Caesares
 * Manlii Torquatii
 * Papirii Masones
 * Postumii Albini
 * Servilii Caepiones

However, large gentes with multiple stirpes seem to have coped better; the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Sulpicii, and Valerii all continued to thrive under the Principate.

Patricians vs. plebeians
The distinction between patricians and plebeians in ancient Rome was based purely on birth. Although modern writers often portray patricians as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, plebeians and patricians among the senatorial class were equally wealthy. As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic, many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity. However, no amount of wealth could change one's class.

Marriage
A marriage between a patrician and a plebeian was the only way to legally integrate the two classes. However, once the Twelve Tables were written down, a law was enacted which made the marriage between the two classes illegal. If a marriage was to occur between a patrician and a plebeian, the children of that marriage would then be given patrician status. This law was created to prevent the classes from mixing. In ancient Rome women did not have power in the household. However, according to Mathisen, having a recognized marriage, so not illegally marrying into the other class, was important. Having a legally recognized marriage ensured that the children born from the marriage were given Roman citizenship and any property they might inherit.

Conflict of the Orders
Eventually, the plebeians became unsatisfied with being the lower class and not having the same rights and privileges as the patricians. This time in Roman history is called the Conflict of the Orders, which took place between 500 and 287 BC. Due to the patricians having the political status, the plebeian class had no representation in the government to advocate for their interests. By not having anyone advocating for their interests, this also meant that the plebeians did not always know the laws by which they had to abide. Since the patricians were of high social status, they did not want to lose this status; they were not in agreement with changing the structure of society by giving plebeians more status. Eventually, the plebeian class created their own governing body, the Council of the Plebs.

Another advancement that came from the Conflict of the Orders was the Twelve Tables. At this time in ancient Rome, the monarchy had been overthrown. The plebeians wanted to know the laws, which resulted in the written form of laws: the Twelve Tables. Even once these laws were written down, and the new Centuriate Assembly was created, the patrician class remained in power. The assembly separated citizens into classes, however, the top two classes, Equites and Patricians, controlled the majority of the vote. This meant, that while the plebeians were able to vote, if the patrician classes voted together, they could control the vote. Ancient Rome, according to Ralph Mathisen, author of Ancient Roman Civilization: History and Sources, made political reforms, such as the introduction of the Council of the Plebs and the tribunes of the plebs. These two political bodies were created to give the plebeians a voice. After the Conflict of the Orders, according to Mathisen, Plebeians were able to rise in politics and become members of the Senate, which previously had been exclusively for patricians.

Fading of distinction
A series of laws diminished the distinction between the two classes, including Lex Canuleia (445 BC; which allowed the marriage—ius connubii—between patricians and plebeians), Leges Liciniae Sextiae (367 BC; which made restrictions on possession of public lands—ager publicus—and also made sure that one of the consuls was plebeian), Lex Ogulnia (300 BC; plebeians received access to priest posts), and Lex Hortensia (287 BC; verdicts of plebeian assemblies—plebiscita—now bind all people). Gradually, by the late Republic, most distinctions between patricians and plebeians had faded away.

By Julius Caesar's time so few of the patriciate were left that a special law was made, the Lex Cassia, for the enrollment of new patricians. This was followed by Augustus under the Lex Saenia, and continued by later emperors such as Claudius. The last patrician families of the Republic went extinct in the Imperial period, and the latest known members of the "original" patrician houses are Servius Cornelius Dolabella Metilianus Pompeius Marcellus or possibly the Cornelii Scipiones Salvidieni Orfiti.

Modern day
"Patrician" and "plebeian" are still used today to refer to groups of people of high and lower classes.

Patrician families
The following gentes were regarded as patrician, although they may have had plebeian members or branches.

 * Aebutia
 * Aemilia
 * Aquillia
 * Aternia
 * Atilia
 * Claudia
 * Cloelia
 * Cornelia
 * Curtia
 * Fabia
 * Foslia
 * Furia
 * Gegania
 * Genucia
 * Herminia
 * Horatia
 * Julia
 * Lartia
 * Lucretia
 * Manlia
 * Menenia
 * Metilia
 * Minucia
 * Mucia
 * Nautia
 * Numicia
 * Papiria
 * Pinaria
 * Pollia
 * Postumia
 * Potitia
 * Quinctia
 * Quinctilia
 * Romilia
 * Sempronia
 * Sergia
 * Servilia
 * Sestia
 * Siccia
 * Sulpicia
 * Tarpeia
 * Tarquinia
 * Tarquitia
 * Tullia
 * Valeria
 * Verginia
 * Veturia
 * Vitellia
 * Volumnia

A number of other gentes originally belonged to the patricians but were known chiefly for their plebeian branches.

 * Antonia
 * Cassia
 * Cominia
 * Curiatia
 * Hostilia
 * Junia
 * Marcia

Gentes maiores et minores
Among the patricians, certain families were known as the gentes maiores, the greatest or perhaps the most noble houses. The other patrician families were called the gentes minores. Whether this distinction had any legal significance is not known, but it has been suggested that the princeps senatus, or Speaker of the Senate, was traditionally chosen from the gentes maiores.

No list of the gentes maiores has been discovered, and even their number is unknown. It has been suggested that the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Manlii, and Valerii were amongst them. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology suggests that the gentes maiores consisted of families that settled at Rome in the time of Romulus, or at least before the destruction of Alba Longa. The noble Alban families that settled in Rome in the time of Tullus Hostilius then formed the nucleus of the gentes minores. These included the Julii, Tulii, Servilii, Quinctii, Geganii, Curtii, and Cloelii.

However, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities suggests that the Alban families were also included among the gentes maiores, and that the gentes minores consisted of the families admitted to the patriciate under the Tarquins and in the early years of the Republic. In any case, the distinction cannot have been based entirely on priority, because the Claudii did not arrive at Rome until after the expulsion of the kings.

Late Roman and Byzantine period
Patrician status still carried a degree of prestige at the time of the early Roman Empire, and Roman emperors routinely elevated their supporters to the patrician caste en masse. This prestige gradually declined further, and by the end of the 3rd-century crisis patrician status, as it had been known in the Republic, ceased to have meaning in everyday life. The emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) reintroduced the term as the empire's senior honorific title, not tied to any specific administrative position, and from the first limited to a very small number of holders. The historian Zosimus states that in Constantine's time, the holders of the title ranked even above the praetorian prefects.

In the late Western Roman Empire, the title was sparingly used and retained its high prestige, being awarded, especially in the 5th century, to the powerful magistri militum who dominated the state, such as Stilicho, Constantius III, Flavius Aetius, Comes Bonifacius, and Ricimer. The patrician title was occasionally used in Western Europe after the end of the Roman Empire; for instance, Pope Stephen II granted the title "Patricius of the Romans" to the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short. The revival of patrician classes in medieval Italian city-states, and also north of the Alps, is covered in patricianship.

The eastern emperor Zeno (r. 474–491) granted it to Odoacer to legitimize the latter's rule in Italy after his overthrow of the rebellious magister militum Orestes and his son Romulus Augustulus in 476. In the Eastern Empire, Theodosius II (r. 408–450) barred eunuchs from holding it, although this restriction had been overturned by the 6th century. Under Justinian I (r. 527–565), the title proliferated and was consequently somewhat devalued, as the emperor opened it to all those above illustris rank, i.e. the majority of the Senate.

In the 8th century, in the Eastern Roman Empire, the title was further lowered in the court order of precedence, coming after the magistros and the anthypatos. However it remained one of the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the 11th century, being awarded to the most important strategoi (provincial governors and generals, allies) of the Empire. In the court hierarchy, the eunuch patrikioi enjoyed higher precedence, coming before even the anthypatoi-Latn. The title was also granted to important allied foreign rulers, as the early Bulgarian ruler Kubrat, whose ring A was inscribed in Greek XOBPATOY and ring C was inscribed XOBPATOY ПATPIKIOY, indicating the dignity of Patrikios (Patrician) that he had achieved in the Byzantine world.

According to the late 9th-century Kletorologion, the insignia of the dignity were ivory inscribed tablets. During the 11th century, the dignity of patrikios followed the fate of other titles: extensively awarded, it lost in status, and disappeared during the Komnenian period in the early 12th century. The title of prōtopatrikios (πρωτοπατρίκιος, "first patrician") is also evidenced in the East from 367 to 711, possibly referring to the senior-most holder of the office and leader of the patrician order (taxis). The feminine variant patrikia (πατρικία) denoted the spouses of patrikioi; it is not to be confused with the title of zostē patrikia ("girded patrikia"), which was a unique dignity conferred on the ladies-in-waiting of the empress.

title: Patrician (ancient Rome)


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Minden-Lübbecke

Minden-Lübbecke is a Kreis (district) in the northeastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Neighboring districts are Diepholz, Nienburg, Schaumburg, Lippe, Herford, Osnabrück.

Geography
This is the northernmost district of North Rhine-Westphalia. It protrudes into Lower Saxon territory. The Weser River enters the district in the southeast and leaves to the north. In the south of the district the river runs through a narrow gorge, which is formed by two mountain chains, the Wiehen Hills in the west and the Wesergebirge in the east. This gorge is called Porta Westfalica, since it marks the ancient border of Westphalia.

History
Minden-Lübbecke is roughly identical with the medieval Bishopric of Minden. At its biggest extent in the 13th century, it later lost territory until it came finally to be around the size of today's district. In the 17th century the principality came into the possession of Brandenburg and thus Prussia. Lost for a time to Napoleonic France, it came back to Prussia in 1813, and was then part of the Province of Westphalia. In 1816 the districts of Minden and Rahden were created, but in 1832 the Rahden district was merged with parts of the abolished Bünde district, and the administrative seat of the new district was Lübbecke. The district within today's borders was created in 1973 when the two districts of Minden and Lübbecke were merged.

Miscellaneous
The district is also known as Mühlenkreis, as it has many reconstructed historic mills, many linked by the Westphalian Mill Route.

Coat of arms
In the right half of the coat of arms are the chevrons from the arms of the counts of Ravensberg, who owned part of the district's land. The keys are the sign of the Prince-Bishops of Minden after their patron Saint Peter. After the district was merged with Lübbecke a second key was added, to symbolize the two historic parts. This new arms were granted in 1973.

Nature reserves
There are over 60 nature reserves in Minden-Lübbecke district, covering a total of around 7,100 ha, i.e. 6.2% of the district's area. The largest are:
 * Bastau meadows with 1,778 ha
 * Weseraue with 774 ha
 * Mindener Wald with 515 ha
 * Großes Torfmoor with 511 ha
 * Heisterholz with 402 ha
 * Staustufe Schlüsselburg with 268 ha
 * Am Oppenweher Moor with 255 ha
 * Oppenweher Moor with 215 ha

title: Minden-Lübbecke


text:
Moira, Leicestershire

Moira is a former mining village about 2.5 mi south-west of Ashby-de-la-Zouch in North West Leicestershire, England. The village is about 3 mi south of Swadlincote and is close to the boundary with Derbyshire. The population is included in the civil parish of Ashby Woulds.

For centuries North West Leicestershire has been quarried and mined for coal, limestone, granite and brick clay, and its environmental damage was one of the reasons that it was chosen in the 1990s as the site for the National Forest, which is part of a Government-funded programme to create more woodland. Proximate villages include Donisthorpe, Overseal, Oakthorpe and Spring Cottage.

Etymology
Moira's toponym is derived from the Irish earldom of Moira, one of the titles of the Hastings family, which held Ashby de la Zouch Castle. The former local coal pit, Rawdon Colliery, also bore a Hastings family name.

In 2022, residents were amused when a road sign spelled the name 'Moria', suggesting a link with Tolkien's fictional Middle-earth.

History
The Midland Railway opened its Leicester to Burton upon Trent Line through Moira in 1845. Moira station served the village until British Railways closed it in 1964. The building survives and the line remains open as a freight route.

Rawdon Colliery was worked for about 150 years. Its seams extended 6 mi from the shaft, and some had been worked twice, recovering lower grade coal. The pit survived Britain's pit closure programme in the mid-1980s that followed the miners' strike, but ran out of viable coal seams. Gases were rarely a hazard, but spontaneous combustion of coal dust was a potential problem.

Amenities
The 120 acre National Forest Millennium Discovery Centre, now called 'Conkers', is on the site of Rawdon Colliery. Its visitor centre features a borehole-based heating and cooling system. Moira Junction Local Nature Reserve occupies 8.5 acre of former railway sidings nearby. Moira Furnace is a restored 19th-century blast furnace. A 1.5 mi section of the Ashby-de-la-Zouch Canal adjacent to the furnace has also been restored and rewatered, although it lacks a navigable link to the rest of the system due to the A42 road having been built across its line. The furnace site also has craft workshops and a small nature reserve.

Both the Youth Hostels Association's National Forest youth hostel and the Camping and Caravanning Club's National Forest campsite are in Moira and opened in 2008.

There is a Co-Operative supermarket on Shortheath Road, which was given a new frontage in 2016.

The Hicks Lodge nature reserve lies approximately 1 mile east of the village.

title: Moira, Leicestershire


text:
Talk:Prepuce

Female prepuce
I was checking in my dictionary for whether the spelling is prepuce or praepuce (it doesn't have the latter), and found that the covering of the clitoris is also called the prepuce. We should therefore mention the female prepuce on this page too -- Tarquin 18:10 Feb 15, 2003 (UTC)

---

Why Prepuce shouldn't be the main article
Ok folks. People have shuffled this article every which way. Currently Prepuce is a disambig article that points to Foreskin and Clitoral hood.

You may not feel that this is an ideal solution. However, after several attempts to build an article that dealt with the fact that "prepuce" refers to two wildly different pieces of anatomy that happen to share a name and some basic anatomical origins, I gave up. To a doctor they may essentially be the same thing, but in the eyes of yours truly they are not. Furthermore, given the voluminous amounts of info people have gathered on the male prepuce alone, I think that any attempt to ram these together would be detrimental to both subjects.

I realize that currently there isn't much material at Clitoral hood. There will be, sooner or later, I imagine, so let's keep things organized on the assumption that someone, somewhere has lots to say about Clitoral hoods. Feel free to try and construct an article at Prepuce that combines the two subjects, but don't just paste in the material from Foreskin as people have been doing; that's not an accurate definition. -Dachshund

 * Amen. Tannin

¿Why do some people want to remove all facts about normal anatamy and function of the præpuce from the Encyclopædia? ¿Why do people divide præpuce, clitoral hood, foreskin, prepuce, and praepuce into separate articles when all of these words are just synomyms for the same thing? We need not fear the truth:

"And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.." -- (John 8:32)

If anyone wishes to write, this is my email-address:

"?alabio"

?alabio 07:28 Feb 25, 2003 (UTC)

 * Nobody was removing anything, Alabio. There was a detailed article on the male foreskin at foreskin, a short stub of the female equivalent at clitoral hood, and a short, generalised entry at prepuce which disabiguated between the two.

 * Then someone came along and started copying all the same information that was already here and already easy to find and already in its proper place all over the place, so that we had duplicates everywhere, even under impossible-to-type archaic names that no-one uses, and deleting text and adding it back in, and generally making vast confusion out of what had been simple, clear and effective in the first place.

 * Now, finally, we seem to have achieved a sensible arrangement again, which is more-or-less exactly ot was before whoever it was started messing everything up.

 * If, in amongst all that chaos, you added something that doesn't now appear in its proper place - i.e., under "foreskin" for males. "clitoral hood" for females, or "prepuce" for things that pertain equally to both - please feel very welcome to add it back in again. (Just be sure to add it to the correct entry - there is no need to put stuff in "prepuce" that is already covered in "foreskin", for example.)

 * Or, if you are aware of any other information that got lost during the stupidities of the last day or two, then please add that too, or else just note it here in talk and someone will take care of it. Tannin 08:33 Feb 25, 2003 (UTC)

I contemplated the stupidites. I come to the conclusion that it is stupid to have five separate articles for clitoral hood, foreskin, prepuce, praepuce, and præpuce when all of these are the same thing. The stupid ones were the ones breaking the redirects to the consolidated article. It is all the same thing. I have a theory:

Everyone knows that it is wrong to mutilate the genitals of girls. Some believe fore religious or cultural resons that it is okay to mutilate the genitals of boys. The last thing these boy mutilators want to admit is that the præpuce exists on both boys and girls. They want to call the præpuce one thing on boys and another thing on girls. Let me use an example:

It becomes fashionable to depilate all of the hair on girls beneath the hairline of tha scalp at birth. We justify this by stating that hair beneath hairline of the scalp of men is a normal secondary sexual characteristic while such hair on women is redundant. We just sexistly split the vocabulary for suiting our purposes.

The separation of foreskin and clitoral hood is a sexist separation. Since the foreskin and clitoral hood are separate things (¡Anatomy be damned!), it is okay to mutilate boys because it is nothing like mutilating girls.

Since clitoral hood and foreskin are the same thing, I shall redirect all entries to the same article --  but not right away:

I do not want to start an edit war. I wish to be civil. I shall give any and all until the end of the month to post anatomical reasons why I should not merge the articles. If someone finds an anatomical reason not to merge the articles, I shall not do so. I shall not listen to sexist arguments such as, "Foreskins and clitoral hoods are different because we cut forestins off of boy while we leave the clitoral hoods of girls intact."

?alabio 06:45 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * By all means let's add to the prepuce article: we can say how it is anatomically the same thing, how cultures view its removal (and why bl**dy stupid humans seem to have a barbaric fixation for its removal all over the dang planet). But any attempt to merge will be, for now at least, unbalanced, with far more on the male foreskin. Feminists wouldn't like that...
 * Testicles and ovaries are technically the same, but we wouldn't merge those. I expect we have a general overview at gonad however. and on the subject of body hair on women... there's an article on that somewhere, can't rememebr the name, which last time I saw it was stubbish. go check it out -- Tarquin 11:40 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * Please do not start an edit war, especially as this seems to be more of an issue of politics than encyclopedic clarity. I am not for separating the clitoral hood and the foreskin because I'm trying to be sexist or promote genital mutilation.  If you have issues with circumcision, take them up in the circumcision article, and its sub-categories.  Tarquin is absolutely right with his gonad example.  The primary goal of a Wiki article should be to convey information clearly to the readers; as long as all three articles (prepuce, foreskin and clitoral hood) indicate a linkage, we're doing it better with three specific articles than with one kitchen-sink mess jammed together by an abstruse anatomical notion.

 * PS to Tarquin: lack of balance is actually the least of my concerns. I'm more concerned with what a merged article would look like if we had lots of information on both types of prepuce.  Not too easy to read, I imagine. Dachshund 14:29 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * I think the balance is pretty good - or it was last time I checked the entries. Two other points to make: (a) it ain't an "abstruse notion", it's a simple, basic fact of anatomy. And (b), that notwithstanding, it's much more practical to deal with this single subject in two (or possibly three) separate entries. Alabio, what is there in the articles as they stand (apart from the fact that there are three of them, I mean) that you feel needs to be changed? Tannin 15:04 Mar 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * Just because something is anatomically simple, does not mean it's intuitive to the average, non-medically educated reader. Examples of this being the ovaries and the male testicles (medically similar, physically very different), or to a greater extent, the penis and the clitors (anatomically formed from the same process, but developmentally different.)

Dachshund

I have analyzed the arguments. My analysis indicates that separating the articles by gender makes as much sense as having a stub for eyelid linking to two larger articles, one for female eyelids, one for male eyelids. An eyelid is an eyelid, whether it belongs to a man or woman. A præpuce is a præpuce whether it belongs to a man or woman. We should remove the stubs and redirect prepuce, præpuce, foreskin, and clitoral hood to one article. The information at foreskin applies equally to all. Unless I find a reason not to do so, I shall redirect all of the articles for the purpose of conslidation at the end of the month.

?alabio 15:42 Mar 15, 2003 (UTC)

I'm not a doctor, so if alabio has more medical knowledge than the other people who disagree with him, perhaps he can explain the following points BEFORE such a move. I've quickly read the foreskin article. Could you tell us, alabio, do the following points apply to both types of prepuce:

 * frenulum
 * attaches at the crested end of the glans at the suculas
 * reduces friction, abrasion and loss of lubricating fluid during intercourse
 * specialised nerve endings called the "Ridged Band"
 * highly innervated tissue contains about 20,000 Messier corpuscles and Van Der Patter bodies
 * The ridged band contains about 80% of the erogenous tissue
 * smooth muscle, called Dartos muscle?, of the ridged band and frenulum return the prepuce over the glans when the penis is flaccid
 * The muscle fibres are intertwined like a tiny rope to close off the preputal opening to keep out contamination
 * phimosis

If all the above are present in the clitoral hood, then let's merge. Please give references. -- Tarquin 17:48 Mar 15, 2003 (UTC)

 * yes - frenulum
 * yes - attaches at the crested end of the glans at the suculas
 * yes - reduces friction, abrasion and loss of lubricating fluid during intercourse (but the mechanics are, of course, a little different
 * yes - specialised nerve endings called the "Ridged Band" - at least the nerve endings are coded long before the hormone balance decides on the amount and type of growth the organ will have, though I doubt that anyone has bothered researching them too much yet - we only got to the bigger, easier to investigate male foresin in the last few years. The term "Ridged Band", of course, is not used, and it's doubtful that it would be appropriate.
 * yes - highly innervated tissue contains about 20,000 Messier corpuscles and Van Der Patter bodies
 * depends on definitions - The ridged band contains about 80% of the erogenous tissue - the tissue is there, but the description of it will no doubt vary.
 * Not sure = probably not - smooth muscle, called Dartos muscle?, of the ridged band and frenulum return the prepuce over the glans when the penis is flaccid
 * Not sure - The muscle fibres are intertwined like a tiny rope to close off the preputal opening to keep out contamination
 * YES - phimosis - at least I've heard of it, but it's not common, AFAIK.

 * It still doesn't mean that the articles should be merged, of course. Tannin

My understanding is that the male foreskin is the anatomical equivalent of the clitoral hood plus the labia minors. Also, the labia majors are the sexually differentiated version of the scrotum. We don't plan on integrating those two articles, do we? Dachshund

Maybe, given Tannin's list, we should mention similarities here, and equivalences. But keep two separate hood / foreskin articles too. -- Tarquin 10:26 Mar 16, 2003 (UTC)

 * Sounds like a good idea to me. Dachshund's equivalalences sound pretty much as I remember it, though the penile shaft skin has to fit in there somewhere too. I forget where. My memory ain't what it used to be. :( Tannin

Excised material
The following text was amputated (get it?) from the article:

Note: For historical and cultural reasons, there are two articles on the male and female human prepuce, respectively. Please see the talk page for a discussion of this topic.

This article should only contain material about the prepuce which is common to both sexes.

When I clicked on the female prepuce article, there was only the vestige of a stub there. Ironic, eh? --Uncle Ed 19:14, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Merge in Preputial sheath
Agree with this Oct 2014 suggestion. Klbrain (talk) 14:58, 9 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Klbrain, I agree as well. I don't think there is a need to ask for input from WP:Anatomy in this case, but you can. Flyer22 Reborn (talk) 15:02, 9 March 2016 (UTC)
 * Great. I have also modified the Prepuce descriptions slightly to distinguish Foreskin and Penile sheath, based on the header sections of each page. Klbrain (talk) 15:06, 9 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Klbrain, okay. And I removed the merge tag. Flyer22 Reborn (talk) 15:46, 9 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prepuce


text:
Daphne Oram

Daphne Blake Oram (31 December 1925 – 5 January 2003) was a British composer and electronic musician. She was one of the first British composers to produce electronic sound, and was an early practitioner of musique concrète in the UK. As a co-founder of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, she was central to the development of British electronic music. Her uncredited scoring work on the 1961 film The Innocents helped to pioneer the electronic soundtrack.

Oram was the creator of the Oramics technique for graphical sound. She was the first woman to independently direct and set up a personal electronic music studio, and the first woman to design and construct an electronic musical instrument. In her book An Individual Note of Music, Sound and Electronics (1971) she explored philosophical themes related to acoustics and electronic composition.

Early life and education
Oram was born to James and Ida Oram on 31 December 1925 in Devizes, Wiltshire, England. Her childhood home was within 10 miles of the stone circles of Avebury and 20 miles from Stonehenge. Her father was the President of the Wiltshire Archeological Society in the 1950s. Educated at Sherborne School for Girls in Dorset, she was taught piano, organ and musical composition from an early age.

Work at the BBC
In 1942, Oram was offered a place at the Royal College of Music, but instead took up a position as a Junior Studio Engineer and "music balancer" at the BBC. One of her job responsibilities was "shadowing" live concerts with a pre-recorded version so the broadcast would go on if interrupted by "enemy action". Other job duties included creating sound effects for radio shows and mixing broadcast levels. During this period she became aware of developments in electronic sound and began experimenting with tape recorders, often staying after hours to work late into the night. She recorded sounds on to tape, and then cut, spliced and looped, slowed them down, sped up, and played them backwards.

Oram also dedicated time in the 1940s to composing music, including an electroacoustic work entitled Still Point. This was an innovative piece for turntables, "double orchestra" and five microphones. Many consider Still Point the first composition that combined acoustic orchestration with live electronic manipulation. Rejected by the BBC and never performed during Oram's lifetime, Still Point remained unheard for 70 years; on 24 June 2016 composer Shiva Feshareki and the London Contemporary Orchestra performed it for the first time. Following the discovery of the finalised score, the premiere of the revised version of Still Point was performed at the BBC Proms in London on 23 July 2018 by Feshareki and James Bulley with the LCO.

In the 1950s, Oram was promoted to a music studio manager at the BBC. Following a trip to the RTF studios in Paris, she began to campaign for the BBC to provide electronic music facilities, utilizing electronic music and musique concrète techniques, for use in its programming. In 1957 she was commissioned to compose music for a production of the play Amphitryon 38. She created this piece using a sine wave oscillator, a tape recorder and self-designed filters, thereby producing the first wholly electronic score in BBC history. Along with fellow electronic musician and BBC colleague Desmond Briscoe, she began to receive commissions for many other works, including a production of Samuel Beckett's All That Fall (1957). As demand grew for these electronic sounds, the BBC gave Oram and Briscoe a budget to establish the BBC Radiophonic Workshop in early 1958, where she was the first Studio Manager. The workshop was focused on creating sound effects and theme music for all of the BBC's output, including the science fiction TV serial Quatermass and the Pit (1958–59) and the sounds of "Major Bloodnok's Stomach" for the radio comedy series The Goon Show.

In October 1958, Oram was sent by the BBC to the "Journées Internationales de Musique Expérimentale" at Expo 58 in Brussels, where Edgard Varèse presented his electroacoustic work Poème électronique in the Philips Pavilion (alongside Pavilion architect Iannis Xenakis' piece Concret PH). After hearing some of the work produced by her contemporaries, and unhappy with the BBC's continued refusal to push electronic composition into the foreground of their activities, she decided to resign from the Radiophonic Workshop less than one year after it had opened, hoping to develop her techniques further on her own.

In 1965, Oram produced the piece Pulse Persephone for the "Treasures of the Commonwealth" exhibition at the Royal Academy of the Arts.

Film
Oram provided the prominent electronic sounds for the soundtrack of Dr. No (1962) from her six-minute work Atoms in Space, but she was not credited in the film. These sounds were also used in the following two James Bond films. Oram also manipulated Johnny Hawksworth's soundtrack for Snow (1963), a short documentary by Geoffrey Jones; after the success of Snow, she worked with Jones again on Rail (1967).

Oramics

Immediately after leaving the BBC in 1959, Oram established the Oramics Studios for Electronic Composition in Tower Folly, a converted oast house at Fairseat, Kent, near Wrotham.

Oramics, which Oram devised along with engineer Graham Wrench, is a graphical sound technique that involves drawing directly onto 35mm film. Shapes and designs for various parameters of sound etched into the film strips are read by photo-electric cells and transformed into sounds. According to Oram, "Every nuance, every subtlety of phrasing, every tone gradation or pitch inflection must be possible just by a change in the written form."

Financial pressures meant it was necessary to maintain her work as a commercial composer, and her work covered a wider range than the Radiophonic Workshop. She produced music for not only radio and television but also theatre, short commercial films, sound installations and exhibitions, including electronic sounds for Jack Clayton's horror film The Innocents (1961), concert works such as Four Aspects (1960), and collaborations with composers Thea Musgrave and Ivor Walsworth.

In February 1962, Oram was awarded a grant of £3,550 from the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation to support the development of the Oramics system; a second Gulbenkian grant of £1,000 was awarded in 1965. Oram's first composition using the Oramics machine, entitled "Contrasts Essonic", was recorded in 1963. As the Oramics project evolved, Oram's focus turned to the subtle nuances and interactions between sonic parameters, and she applied her research to the nonlinear behavior of the human ear and to perception of the brain's apprehension of the world. She used Oramics to study vibrational phenomena, divided into "commercial Oramics" and "mystical Oramics", and the Oramics machine became used more for research than composition. In her notes, Oram defined Oramics as "the study of sound and its relationship to life."

In the mid-1980s Oram worked on a software version of Oramics for the Acorn Archimedes computer using grant money received from the Ralph Vaughan Williams Trust. She wished to continue her "mystical Oramics" research, but a lack of funding prevented this project from being fully realized.

Written works
Throughout her career, Oram lectured on electronic music and studio techniques. Her book An Individual Note of Music, Sound and Electronics (1971) investigates acoustics and the history and techniques of electronic music in a philosophical manner. A new edition of the book was published by Anomie Publishing in December 2016.

In the late 1970s Oram began a second book, which survives in manuscript, titled The Sound of the Past - A Resonating Speculation. In this manuscript she speculates on archaeological acoustics, and presents a theory suggesting that Neolithic chambered cairns and ancient sites such as Stonehenge and the Great Pyramid of Giza were used as acoustic resonators. She said that her research suggested that the people of these eras may have possessed acute knowledge about the properties of sound in long-distance communication.

Death
In the 1990s Oram suffered two strokes and was forced to stop working, later moving to a nursing home. She died in Maidstone, Kent on 5 January 2003, aged 77.

Archive
After Oram's death a large archive relating to her life's work passed to composer Hugh Davies. When Davies died two years later, this material passed to the Sonic Arts Network, and in 2008 the archive went to Goldsmiths, University of London. It is now held within Goldsmiths Special Collections & Archives, where it is open for public access and ongoing research. The launch of the archive was celebrated with a symposium and a series of concerts at the Southbank Centre. This included a concert of newly reworked versions of material from the collection by People Like Us.

In 2007, a two-CD compilation of her music, entitled Oramics, was released.

In 2008, a BBC Radio 3 documentary on Oram's life was broadcast as part of the Sunday Feature strand, entitled Wee Have Also Sound-Houses.

Legacy
Oram's work at the Radiophonic Workshop also helped pave the way for Delia Derbyshire, who arrived at the BBC in 1960 and co-composed the original Doctor Who theme music in 1963.

Oram furthered music philosophy in her writings, and dedicated time to considering the human element in connection to acoustics. In her unfinished manuscript, The Sound of the Past, a Resonating Speculation, she postulated that ancient civilizations might have done this to a highly evolved degree. In a letter to Sir George Trevelyan, Oram expressed hope that her work on Oramics would plant seeds that would mature in the 21st century.

The Daphne Oram Creative Arts Building at Canterbury Christ Church University was opened in 2019.

Click tribute
In its first show of 2012, the BBC television technology programme Click featured a piece about Daphne Oram, mainly prompted by the three-part Oramics Machine being on display at the Science Museum, London during a year-long exhibition on the history of electronic music. The programme showed the machine being installed in a large display cabinet, and described how it was no longer possible to play due to its fragile state. However, an interactive, virtual version of the machine has been created, which allows visitors to create their own compositions. The programme showed archive footage of Oram describing the process of what became Oramics, also showing her 'drawing' the music, then playing her machine. The piece described Oram as an 'unsung hero' of electronic music.

Daphne Oram's Wonderful World of Sound
Daphne Oram's Wonderful World of Sound is a play that detailed Oram's life and career. It was presented by Blood of the Young and Tron Theatre. The play premiered in Glasgow on 9 May 2017 and toured around Scotland from May 2017 to June 2017. The play was written by Isobel McArthur and directed by Paul Brotherston. It was live-scored by Anneke Kampman, a Scottish electronic sound artist.

The Oram Awards
The annual Oram Awards was launched by the PRS Foundation and the New BBC Radiophonic Workshop to celebrate "emerging artists in the fields of music, sound and related technologies in honour of Daphne Oram, and other pioneering women in music and sound." The inaugural Oram Awards took place on 3 July 2017 at the Turner Contemporary in Margate, as a part of the Oscillate Festival of Experimental Music and Sound. Two female innovators received a prize of £1,000, while six others received £500.

Discography

 * "Electronic Sound Patterns" (1962), single, also included on Listen, Move and Dance Volume 1 from same year with work from Vera Gray
 * Oramics (2007), compilation on Paradigm Discs
 * "Spaceship UK: The Untold Story of the British Space Programme" (2010), promotional 7" split single with Belbury Poly
 * Private Dreams and Public Nightmares (2011), remix album by Andrea Parker and Daz Quayle on Aperture
 * The Oram Tapes: Volume 1 (2011), compilation on Young Americans
 * Sound Houses (2014), remix album by Walls
 * Pop Tryouts (2015), mini album on cassette and download on Was Ist Das?

Publication

 * Second edition, 2016, Anomie Publishing ISBN 978-1910221112
 * Third edition, 2020, The Daphne Oram Trust and Anomie Publishing
 * Third edition, 2020, The Daphne Oram Trust and Anomie Publishing

title: Daphne Oram