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Persecution

Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms. The inflicting of suffering, harassment, imprisonment, internment, fear or pain are all factors that may establish persecution, but not all suffering will necessarily establish persecution. The threshold of severity has been a source of much debate.

International law
As part of the Nuremberg Principles, crimes against humanity are part of international law. Principle VI of the Nuremberg Principles states that "The crimes hereinafter set out are punishable as crimes under international law:...

(c) Crimes against humanity:
 * Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts done against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds, when such acts are done or such persecutions are carried on in execution of or in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime."

Telford Taylor, who was Counsel for the Prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials wrote "[at] the Nuremberg war crimes trials, the tribunals rebuffed several efforts by the prosecution to bring such 'domestic' atrocities within the scope of international law as 'crimes against humanity". Several subsequent international treaties incorporate this principle, but some have dropped the restriction "in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime" that is in Nuremberg Principles.

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which is binding on 111 states, defines crimes against humanity in Article 7.1. The article criminalizes certain acts "committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack". These include:

"(h) Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender. ..or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph [e.g. murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, torture, sexual violence, apartheid, and other inhumane acts] or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court"

Religious
Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their religious affiliation. Not only theorists of secularization (who presume a decline of religiosity in general) would willingly assume that religious persecution is a thing of the past. However, with the rise of fundamentalism and religiously related terrorism, this assumption has become even more controversial. Indeed, in many countries of the world today, religious persecution is a Human Rights problem.

Atheists
Atheists have experienced persecution throughout their history. Persecution may refer to unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beating, torture, or execution. It also may refer to the confiscation or destruction of property.

Baháʼís
The persecution of Baháʼís refers to the religious persecution of Baháʼís in various countries, especially in Iran, which has the seventh largest Baháʼí population in the world, with just over 251,100 as of 2010. The Baháʼí Faith originated in Iran, and it represents the largest religious minority in that country.

Buddhists
The persecution of Buddhists has been a widespread phenomenon throughout the history of Buddhism, a phenomenon which is continuing today. As early as the 3rd century AD, Buddhists were persecuted by Kirder, the Zoroastrian high priest of the Sasanian Empire.

Anti-Buddhist sentiment in Imperial China between the 5th and 10th century led to the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China of which the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of 845 was probably the most severe. However, Buddhism managed to survive in China, but it was greatly weakened. During the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, the Kuomintang Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops on a campaign to destroy Buddhist temples and smash idols, they turned the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. During the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai, the Muslim General Ma Bufang and his army wiped out many Tibetan Buddhists in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist temples.

The Muslim invasion of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion of the Indian subcontinent. According to William Johnston, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed, Buddhist texts were burnt by the Muslim armies, monks and nuns were killed on the Indo-Gangetic Plain during the 12th and 13th centuries. The Buddhist university of Nalanda was mistaken for a fort because of its walled campus. The Buddhist monks who had been slaughtered were mistaken for Brahmins according to Minhaj-i-Siraj. The walled town, the Odantapuri monastery, was also destroyed by his forces. Sumpa based his account on that of Śākyaśrībhadra who was at Magadha in 1200, states that the Buddhist university complexes of Odantapuri and Vikramshila were also destroyed and the monks were massacred. Muslim forces attacked the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example, Odantapuri's monasteries were destroyed in 1197 by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji and the town was renamed. Likewise, Vikramashila was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. The sacred Mahabodhi Temple was almost completely destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Many Buddhist monks fled to Nepal, Tibet, and South India to avoid the consequences of war. Tibetan pilgrim Chöjepal (1179-1264), who arrived in India in 1234, had to flee advancing Muslim troops multiple times, as they were sacking Buddhist sites.

In Japan, the haibutsu kishaku during the Meiji Restoration (starting in 1868) was an event which was triggered by the official policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism (or shinbutsu bunri). This policy caused great destruction to Buddhism in Japan, the destruction of Buddhist temples, images and texts took place on a large scale all over the country and Buddhist monks were forced to return to secular life.

During the 2012 Ramu violence in Bangladesh, a 25,000-strong Muslim mob set fire to at least five Buddhist temples and dozens of homes throughout the town and throughout the surrounding villages after they saw a picture of an allegedly desecrated Quran, which they claimed had been posted on Facebook by Uttam Barua, a local Buddhist man.

Christians
The persecution of Christians is religious persecution that Christians may be subjected to as a consequence of professing their faith, both historically and in the modern era. Early Christians were persecuted for their faith at the hands of both Jews from whose religion Christianity arose and the Roman Empire which controlled much of the land across which early Christianity was distributed. Early in the fourth century, the religion was legalized by the Edict of Milan, and it eventually became the State church of the Roman Empire.

Christian missionaries, as well as the people that they converted to Christianity, have been the target of persecution, many times to the point of being martyred for their faith.

There is also a history of individual Christian denominations suffering persecution at the hands of other Christians under the charge of heresy, particularly during the 16th century Protestant Reformation as well as throughout the Middle Ages when various Christian groups deemed heretical were persecuted by the Papacy.

In the 20th century, Christians have been persecuted by various groups, and by atheistic states such as the USSR and North Korea. During the Second World War members of many Christian churches were persecuted in Germany for resisting the Nazi ideology.

In more recent times the Christian missionary organization Open Doors (UK) estimates 100 million Christians face persecution, particularly in Muslim-dominated countries such as Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. According to the International Society for Human Rights, up to 80% of all acts of persecution are directed against people of the Christian faith.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism)
The Missouri extermination order forced Mormons to move to Illinois. This was after Sidney Rigdon gave his July 4th Oration which meant to state that Mormons would defend their lives and property. This speech was taken critically by the state government. Missouri state militia troops slaughtered Mormons in what is now known as the Haun's Mill massacre. Their forcible expulsion from the state caused the death of over a hundred due to exposure, starvation, and resulting illnesses. The founder of the church, Joseph Smith, was killed in Carthage, Illinois by a mob of about 200 men, almost all of whom were members of the Illinois state militia including some members of the militia who were assigned to guard him. The Mormons suffered through tarring and feathering, their lands and possessions being repeatedly taken from them, mob attacks, false imprisonments, and the US sending an army to Utah to deal with the "Mormon problem" in the Utah War which resulted in a group of Mormons led by John D. Lee massacring settlers at the Mountain Meadows Massacre.

Jehovah's Witnesses
Throughout the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have engendered controversy and opposition from local governments, communities, and mainstream Christian groups.

Copts
The persecution of Copts is a historical and ongoing issue in Egypt against Coptic Orthodox Christianity and its followers. It is also a prominent example of the poor status of Christians in the Middle East despite the religion being native to the region. Copts are the Christ followers in Egypt, usually Oriental Orthodox, who currently make up around 10% of the population of Egypt — the largest religious minority of that country. Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history and Human Rights Watch has noted "growing religious intolerance" and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, as well as a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible.

The Muslim conquest of Egypt took place in AD 639, during the Byzantine empire. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained a mainly Christian, but Copts lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there, accompanied by heavy taxes for those who refused to convert. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslims regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate,   Fatimid Caliphate,   Mamluk Sultanate,  and Ottoman Empire; the persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches and forced conversion to Islam.

Since 2011 hundreds of Egyptian Copts have been killed in sectarian clashes, and many homes, Churches and businesses have been destroyed. In just one province (Minya), 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 have been documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights. The abduction and disappearance of Coptic Christian women and girls also remains a serious ongoing problem.

Dogons
For almost 1000 years, the Dogon people, an ancient tribe of Mali had faced religious and ethnic persecution—through jihads by dominant Muslim communities. These jihadic expeditions were to forced the Dogon to abandon their traditional religious beliefs for Islam. Such jihads caused the Dogon to abandon their original villages and moved up to the cliffs of Bandiagara for better defense and to escape persecution—often building their dwellings in little nooks and crannies. In the early era of French colonialism in Mali, the French authorities appointed Muslim relatives of El Hadj Umar Tall as chiefs of the Bandiagara—despite the fact that the area has been a Dogon area for centuries.

In 1864, Tidiani Tall, nephew and successor of the 19th century Senegambian jihadist and Muslim leader—El Hadj Umar Tall, chose Bandiagara as the capital of the Toucouleur Empire thereby exacerbating the inter-religious and inter-ethnic conflict. In recent years, the Dogon accused the Fulanis of supporting and sheltering Islamic terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda in Dogon country, leading to the creation of the Dogon militia Dan Na Ambassagou in 2016—whose aim is to defend the Dogon from systematic attacks. That resulted in the Ogossagou massacre of Fulanis in March 2019, and a Fula retaliation with the Sobane Da massacre in June of that year. In the wake of the Ogossagou massacre, the President of Mali, Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and his government ordered the dissolution of Dan Na Ambassagou—whom they hold partly responsible for the attacks. The Dogon militia group denied any involvement in the massacre and rejected calls to disband.

Druze
Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution. The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili. Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims,  and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam. The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk, Sunni Ottoman Empire, and Egypt Eyalet. The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. Most recently, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists.

Ibn Taymiyya a prominent Muslim scholar muhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims, and his fatwa cited that Druzes: "Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin (polytheists). Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ... It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others", which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them as apostates. Ottomans have often relied on Ibn Taymiyya religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze.

Falun Gong
Falun Gong was introduced to the general public by Li Hongzhi in Changchun, China, in 1992. For the next few years, Falun Gong was the fastest growing qigong practice in Chinese history and, by 1999, there were millions of practitioners. Following the seven years of widespread popularity, on July 20, 1999, the government of the People's Republic of China began a nationwide persecution campaign against Falun Gong practitioners, except in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau. In late 1999, legislation was created to outlaw "heterodox religions" and retroactively applied to Falun Gong. Amnesty International states that the persecution is "politically motivated" with "legislation being used retroactively to convict people on politically- [sic]driven charges, and new regulations introduced to further restrict fundamental freedoms".

Hindus
Persecution of Hindus refers to the religious persecution inflicted upon Hindus that may undergo as a consequence of professing their faith, both historically and in the current era. Hindus have been brutally persecuted during the historical Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent  and during Portuguese rule of Goa.

Even in modern times, Hindus in Pakistan and Bangladesh have suffered persecution. Most recently, thousands of Hindus from Sindh province in Pakistan have been fleeing to India voicing fear for their safety. After the Partition of India in 1947, there were 8.8 million Hindus in Pakistan (excluding Bangladesh) in 1951. In 1951, Hindus constituted 1.58% of the Pakistani population. Today, the Hindu minority amounts to 1.7 percent of Pakistan's population. The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties was 3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. An article in Time magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred." Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, mass rape and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 80% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization the number of East Pakistani refugees at their peak in India was close to 10 million. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Muslim army" (by "Muslim army", meaning the Pakistan Army, which had targeted Bengali Muslims as well), (Newsday, 29 April 1994). In Bangladesh, on 28 February 2013, the International Crimes Tribunal sentenced Delwar Hossain Sayeedi, the Vice President of the Jamaat-e-Islami to death for the war crimes committed during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. Following the sentence, activists of Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing Islami Chhatra Shibir attacked the Hindus in different parts of the country. Hindu properties were looted, Hindu houses were burnt into ashes and Hindu temples were desecrated and set on fire. The violence included the looting of Hindu properties and businesses, the burning of Hindu homes, the rape of Hindu women, and the desecration and destruction of, according to community leaders, more than 50 Hindu temples; 1,500 Hindu homes were destroyed in 20 districts. While the government has held the Jamaat-e-Islami responsible for the attacks on the minorities, the Jamaat-e-Islami leadership has denied any involvement. The minority leaders have protested the attacks and appealed for justice. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh has directed the law enforcement to start suo motu investigation into the attacks. US Ambassador to Bangladesh express concern about attack of Jamaat on Bengali Hindu community.

Jews
The persecution of Jews is a recurring phenomenon throughout Jewish history. It has occurred on numerous occasions in widely different geographic locations. It may include pogroms, looting and the demolition of private and public Jewish property (e.g., Kristallnacht), unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, torture, killing, or even mass execution (in World War II alone, approximately six million people were deliberately killed because they were Jewish). They have been expelled from their hometowns/countries, hoping to find safe havens in other polities. In recent times anti-Semitism has often been manifested as Anti-Zionism, where Anti-Zionism is a prejudice against the Jewish movement for self-determination and the right of the Jewish people to a homeland in the State of Israel. Anti-Zionism can include threats to destroy the State of Israel (or otherwise eliminate its Jewish character), unfounded and inaccurate characterizations of Israel's power in the world, and language or actions that hold Israel to a different standard than other countries.

Muslims
The persecution of Muslims has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of Islam. Persecution may refer to unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, or execution. It may also refer to the confiscation or destruction of property, or incitement to hate Muslims.

Persecution can extend beyond those who perceive themselves to be Muslims and include those who are perceived by others as Muslims, or it can include Muslims who are considered non-Muslims by fellow Muslims. The Ahmadiyya regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and "heretics". In 1984, the Government of Pakistan, under General Zia-ul-Haq, passed Ordinance XX, which banned proselytizing by Ahmadis and also banned Ahmadis from referring to themselves as Muslims. According to this ordinance, any Ahmadi who refers to oneself as a Muslim by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, directly or indirectly, or makes the call for prayer as other Muslims do, is punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years. Because of these difficulties, Mirza Tahir Ahmad migrated to London.

Pagans
Persecution of Pagans refers to the historical and ongoing acts of religious intolerance, violence, and oppression against followers of pagan or polytheistic religions. This persecution has been carried out by various religious and political groups, including Christians, Muslims, and governments throughout history. The rise of Christianity as a state religion in the Late Roman Empire led to the persecution of Pagans, who were seen as a threat to the new faith and persecution of pagans have continued in Post-Roman Europe, Arabia, and North Africa. The destruction and conversion of pagan temples into churches, mosques, or other structures were common practices during the Christianization of the Roman Empire and later the Spread of Islam in Middle East and North Africa. This was done to eradicate paganism and assert the dominance of Christianity and Islam. During the Age of Discovery, Many Europeans consider aspects of Native American, African Tribes, Polynesian, and Aboriginal Australian religion as pagans, which attributed to their genocide and forced conversions. Some notable examples are the Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire, Christianisation of the Germanic peoples, Islamization of the Sudan region, Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I, Persecution of pagans under Constantius II, Scramble for Africa, Colonization of Australia, and Colonization of the Americas. Modern Pagans, who practice various forms of paganism, are a religious minority in every country where they exist. They have been subject to religious discrimination and/or religious persecution. The largest modern Pagan communities are in North America and the United Kingdom, and the issue of discrimination receives most attention in those locations. Although the persecution of Pagans has decreased in recent centuries, it still exists in some parts of the world. The community of Pagans and Wiccans continues to face Christian persecution, particularly in the United States, where they are frequently subjected to negative stereotypes and misconceptions, such as those perpetuated during the Satanic Panic.

Philosophers
Philosophers throughout the history of philosophy have been held in courts and tribunals for various offenses, often as a result of their philosophical activity, and some have even been put to death. The most famous example of a philosopher being put on trial is the case of Socrates, who was tried for, amongst other charges, corrupting the youth and impiety. Others include:

 * Giordano Bruno - pantheist philosopher who was burned at the stake by the Roman Inquisition for his heretical religious views, his cosmological views, or both;
 * Tommaso Campanella - confined to a convent for his heretical views, namely, an opposition to the authority of Aristotle, and later imprisoned in a castle for 27 years during which he wrote his most famous works, including The City of the Sun;
 * Baruch Spinoza - Jewish philosopher who, at age 23, was put in cherem (similar to excommunication) by Jewish religious authorities for heresies such as his controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible, which formed the foundations of modern biblical criticism, and the pantheistic nature of the Divine. Prior to that, he had been attacked on the steps of the community synagogue by a knife-wielding assailant shouting "Heretic!", and later his books were added to the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.

Serers
The persecution of the Serer people of Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania is multifaceted, and it includes both religious and ethnic elements. Religious and ethnic persecution of the Serer people dates back to the 11th century when King War Jabi usurped the throne of Tekrur (part of present-day Senegal) in 1030, and by 1035, introduced Sharia law and forced his subjects to submit to Islam. With the assistance of his son (Leb), their Almoravid allies and other African ethnic groups who have embraced Islam, the Muslim coalition army launched jihads against the Serer people of Tekrur who refused to abandon Serer religion in favour of Islam. The number of Serer deaths are unknown, but it triggered the exodus of the Serers of Tekrur to the south following their defeat, where they were granted asylum by the lamanes. Persecution of the Serer people continued from the medieval era to the 19th century, resulting in the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune. From the 20th to the 21st centuries, persecution of the Serers is less obvious, nevertheless, they are the object of scorn and prejudice.

Sikhs
The 1984 anti-Sikh riots or the 1984 Sikh Massacre was a series of pogroms  directed against Sikhs in India, by anti-Sikh mobs, in response to the assassination of Indira Gandhi, on 31 October 1984, by two of her Sikh bodyguards in response to her actions authorising the military operation Operation Blue Star. There were more than 8,000 deaths, including 3,000 in Delhi. In June 1984, during Operation Blue Star, Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to attack the Golden Temple and eliminate any insurgents, as it had been occupied by Sikh separatists who were stockpiling weapons. Later operations by Indian paramilitary forces were initiated to clear the separatists from the countryside of Punjab state. The Indian government reported 2,700 deaths in the ensuing chaos. In the aftermath of the riots, the Indian government reported 20,000 had fled the city, however the People's Union for Civil Liberties reported "at least" 1,000 displaced persons. The most affected regions were the Sikh neighbourhoods in Delhi. The Central Bureau of Investigation, the main Indian investigating agency, is of the opinion that the acts of violence were organized with the support from the then Delhi police officials and the central government headed by Indira Gandhi's son, Rajiv Gandhi. Rajiv Gandhi was sworn in as Prime Minister after his mother's death and, when asked about the riots, said "when a big tree falls, the earth shakes" thus trying to justify the communal strife. There are allegations that the government destroyed evidence and shielded the guilty. The Asian Age front-page story called the government actions "the Mother of all Cover-ups" There are allegations that the violence was led and often perpetrated by Indian National Congress activists and sympathisers during the riots. The chief weapon used by the mobs, kerosene, was supplied by a group of Indian National Congress Party leaders who owned filling stations.

Yazidis
The Persecution of Yazidis has been ongoing since at least the 10th century. The Yazidi religion is regarded as devil worship by Islamists. Yazidis have been persecuted by Muslim Kurdish tribes since the 10th century, and by the Ottoman Empire from the 17th to the 20th centuries. After the 2014 Sinjar massacre of thousands of Yazidis by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Yazidis still face violence from the Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army, as well as discrimination from the Kurdistan Regional Government. According to Yazidi tradition (based on oral traditions and folk songs), estimated that 74 genocides against the Yazidis have been carried out in the past 800 years.

Zoroastrians
Persecution of Zoroastrians is the religious persecution inflicted upon the followers of the Zoroastrian faith. The persecution of Zoroastrians occurred throughout the religion's history. The discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence and forced conversions. Muslims are recorded to have destroyed fire temples. Zoroastrians living under Muslim rule were required to pay a tax called jizya. Zoroastrian places of worship were desecrated, fire temples were destroyed and mosques were built in their place. Many libraries were burned and much of their cultural heritage was lost. Gradually an increasing number of laws were passed which regulated Zoroastrian behavior and limited their ability to participate in society. Over time, the persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread, and the number of believers decreased by force significantly.

Most were forced to convert due to the systematic abuse and discrimination inflicted upon them by followers of Islam. Once a Zoroastrian family was forced to convert to Islam, the children were sent to an Islamic school to learn Arabic and study the teachings of Islam, as a result some of these people lost their Zoroastrian faith. However, under the Samanids, who were Zoroastrian converts to Islam, the Persian language flourished. On occasion, the Zoroastrian clergy assisted Muslims in attacks against those whom they deemed Zoroastrian heretics.

A Zoroastrian astrologer named Mulla Gushtasp predicted the fall of the Zand dynasty to the Qajar army in Kerman. Because of Gushtasp's forecast, the Zoroastrians of Kerman were spared by the conquering army of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar. Despite the aforementioned favorable incident, the Zoroastrians during the Qajar dynasty remained in agony and their population continued to decline. Even during the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the dynasty, many Zoroastrians were killed and some were taken as captives to Azerbaijan. Zoroastrians regard the Qajar period as one of their worst. During the Qajar dynasty, religious persecution of the Zoroastrians was rampant. Due to the increasing contacts with influential Parsi philanthropists such as Maneckji Limji Hataria, many Zoroastrians left Iran for India. There, they formed the second major Indian Zoroastrian community known as the Iranis.

Ethnic
Ethnic persecution refers to perceived persecution based on ethnicity. Its meaning is parallel to that of racism, (based on race). The Rwandan genocide remains an atrocity that the indigenous Hutu and Tutsi peoples still believe is unforgivable. The Japanese occupation of China caused the death of millions of people, mostly peasants who were murdered after the Doolittle Raid in early-World War II.

Assyrians
Due to their Christian faith and ethnicity, the Assyrians have been persecuted since their adoption of Christianity. During the reign of Yazdegerd I, Christians in Persia were viewed with suspicion as potential Roman subversives, resulting in persecutions while at the same time, they promoted Nestorian Christianity as a buffer between the Churches of Rome and Persia. Persecutions and attempts to impose Zoroastrianism continued during the reign of Yazdegerd II.

During the eras of Mongol rule under Genghis Khan and Timur, there was indiscriminate slaughter of tens of thousands of Assyrians and destruction of the Assyrian population of northwestern Iran and central and northern Iran.

More recent persecutions since the 19th century include the Massacres of Badr Khan, the Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895), the Adana massacre, the Assyrian genocide, the Simele massacre, and the al-Anfal campaign.

Hazara people
The Hazara people of central Afghanistan have been persecuted by Afghan rulers at various times in the history. Since the tragedy of 9/11, Sunni Muslim terrorists have been attacking the Hazara community in southwestern Pakistani town of Quetta, home to some 500,000 Hazara who fled persecution in neighbouring Afghanistan. Some 2,400 men, women and children have been killed or wounded with Lashkar-e-Jhangvi claiming responsibility for most of the attacks against the community. Consequently, many thousands have fled the country seeking asylum in Australia.

Roma
Antiziganism is hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed against the Romani people as an ethnic group, or people who are perceived as being of Romani heritage.

The Porajmos was the planned and attempted effort, often described as a genocide, during World War II by the government of Nazi Germany and its allies to exterminate the Romani (Gypsy) people of Europe. Under the rule of Adolf Hitler, a supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws was issued on 26 November 1935, defining Gypsies as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews. Thus, the fate of Roma in Europe in some ways paralleled that of the Jews. Historians estimate that 220,000 to 500,000 Romani were killed by the Nazis and their collaborators, or more than 25% of the slightly less than 1 million Roma in Europe at the time. Ian Hancock puts the death toll as high as 1.5 million.

Rohingyas
The UN human rights chief slammed Myanmar's apparent "systematic attack" on the Rohingya minority, warning that "ethnic cleansing" seemed to be underway. Ethnic Rohingya Muslims who fled from security forces in Myanmar's Rakhine State have described killings, shelling, and arson in their villages that have all the hallmarks of a campaign of “ethnic cleansing,” Human Rights Watch said. “Rohingya refugees have harrowing accounts of fleeing Burmese army attacks and watching their villages be destroyed,” said Meenakshi Ganguly, South Asia director. “Lawful operations against armed groups do not involve burning the local population out of their homes.”

Sri Lankan Tamils
Widespread attacks on Sri Lankan Tamils came in the form of island wide ethnic riots, including The 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and the Black July riots. Further persecution through murders, targeted rape and kidnapping occurred. Whilst previously, the majority of Tamils demanded instead for a separate state, by 1983 armed struggles against Sinhalese extremists began to rise, culminating in the formation of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

Uyghurs
Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in modern-day Xinjiang (called East Turkestan by independence activists) declared two short-lived independent East Turkestan Republics in the 20th century. In late 1949, the region and the rest of China came under the control of the People's Republic of China.

Uyghur activist groups have said that anger towards the Chinese government has been fueled by years of state-sponsored oppression and discrimination. In 2017, the China began a large-scale crackdown on the Xinjiang region, which it justifies as a counterterrorism campaign following sporadic terrorist attacks in Xinjiang. Scholars estimate that the Chinese government detained over one million Uyghurs in internment camps (also called re-education camps) in order to indoctrinate them away from religion and Sinicize them (assimilate them into Chinese culture). Critics of the policy have described it as the Sinicization of Xinjiang and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide, while some governments, activists, independent NGOs, human rights organizations, academics, government officials, and the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile have called it a genocide.

People with albinism
Persecution on the basis of albinism is frequently based on the belief that albinos are inferior to persons with higher concentration of melanin in their skin. As a result, albinos have been persecuted, killed and dismembered, and graves of albinistic people dug up and desecrated. Such people have also been ostracized and even killed because they are presumed to bring bad luck in some areas. Haiti also has a long history of treating albinistic people as accursed, with the highest incidence under the influence of François "Papa Doc" Duvalier.

People with autism
People with autism spectrum disorders have commonly been victims of persecution, both throughout history and in the present era. In Cameroon children with autism are commonly accused of witchcraft and singled out for torture and even death.

Additionally, it is speculated that many of the disabled children murdered during Action T4 in Nazi Germany may have been autistic, making autistic people among the first victims of The Holocaust.

LGBT
A number of countries, especially those countries in the Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some countries have also legalized same-sex marriages or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as those which are granted to opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution which recognizes LGBT rights and, in 2015, same-sex marriages were legalized in all states of the United States.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Persecution


text:
George Herriman

George Joseph Herriman III (August 22, 1880 – April 25, 1944) was an American cartoonist best known for the comic strip Krazy Kat (1913–1944). More influential than popular, Krazy Kat had an appreciative audience among those in the arts. Gilbert Seldes' article "The Krazy Kat Who Walks by Himself" was the earliest example of a critic from the high arts giving serious attention to a comic strip. The Comics Journal placed the strip first on its list of the greatest comics of the 20th century. Herriman's work has been a primary influence on cartoonists such as Elzie C. Segar, Will Eisner, Charles M. Schulz, Robert Crumb, Art Spiegelman, Bill Watterson, and Chris Ware.

Herriman was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to mixed-race Creole parents, and grew up in Los Angeles. After he graduated from high school in 1897, he worked in the newspaper industry as an illustrator and engraver. He moved on to cartooning and comic strips—a medium then in its infancy—and drew a variety of strips until he introduced his most famous character, Krazy Kat, in his strip The Dingbat Family in 1910. A Krazy Kat daily strip began in 1913, and from 1916 the strip also appeared on Sundays. It was noted for its poetic, dialect-heavy dialogue; its fantastic, shifting backgrounds; and its bold, experimental page layouts.

In the strip's main motif and dynamic, Ignatz Mouse pelted Krazy with bricks, which the naïve, androgynous Kat interpreted as symbols of love. As the strip progressed, a love triangle developed between Krazy, Ignatz, and Offisa Pupp. Pupp made it his mission to prevent Ignatz from throwing bricks at Krazy, or to jail him for having done so, but his efforts were perpetually impeded because Krazy wished to be struck by Ignatz's bricks.

Herriman lived most of his life in Los Angeles, but made frequent trips to the Navajo deserts in the Southwestern United States. He was drawn to the landscapes of Monument Valley and the Enchanted Mesa, and made Coconino County the location of his Krazy Kat strips. His artwork made much use of Navajo and Mexican themes and motifs against shifting desert backgrounds. He was a prolific cartoonist who produced a large number of strips and illustrated Don Marquis's books of poetry about Archy and Mehitabel, an alley cat and a cockroach. Newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst was a proponent of Herriman and gave him a lifetime contract with King Features Syndicate, which guaranteed Herriman a comfortable living and an outlet for his work despite its lack of popularity.

1880–1900: Early life

George Joseph Herriman was born at 348 Villere Street in New Orleans on August 22, 1880. He was born into a mixed-race family and came from a line of French-speaking Louisiana Creole mulattoes who were considered free people of color, and were reportedly active in the early abolitionist movement. His paternal great-grandfather, Stephen Herriman, was a white New Yorker who had children with Justine Olivier, a free woman of color, and owned a tailor shop on Royal Street in New Orleans. His paternal grandmother was born in Havana, Cuba. His parents were George Herriman, Jr. (1850–1923), born in New Orleans, and Clara Morel Herriman (1857–1911), born in Iberville. The family attended St. Augustine Catholic Church in New Orleans' Tremé neighborhood.

When he was ten, Herriman and his family moved to Los Angeles, where he grew up south of downtown near Main Street and Washington Boulevard. His father worked there as a tailor. Herriman attended the Catholic boys' school St. Vincent's College (now Loyola High School). Soon after graduating in 1897, he sold a sketch of the Hotel Petrolia in Santa Paula to the Los Angeles Herald. This landed him a $2-per-week job there as an assistant in the engraving department, where he occasionally did drawings for advertisements and political cartoons.

1900–1905: Early career in New York

When he was 20, Herriman clandestinely boarded a freight train bound for New York City, hoping his chances as an artist would be better there. He was unsuccessful at first, and survived by working as a barker and billboard painter at Coney Island, until one of the leading humor magazines of the day, Judge, accepted some of his cartoons. Between June 15 and October 26, 1901, eleven of his cartoons appeared in that magazine's pages, in the heavily crosshatched style of the day. He often used sequential images in his cartoons, as in the emerging comic strip medium. On September 29 that year, his first real comic strips were published, one in the Pulitzer chain of newspapers on a non-contractual, one-shot basis and another on a continuing basis in the Philadelphia North American Syndicate's first comic strip supplement. His first color comic strips appeared in the T. C. McClure Syndicate beginning October 20.

His success with these syndicated strips convinced Herriman to give up on magazine submissions. For the Pulitzer papers on February 16, 1902, he began his first strip that had a continuing character, Musical Mose. The strip featured an African-American musician who impersonated other ethnicities, only to suffer the consequences when discovered by his audience. Professor Otto and his Auto, about a terrifyingly dangerous driver, followed in March, and Acrobatic Archie, a "kid strip" with a child protagonist, first appeared in April. With his future as a cartoonist seemingly assured, Herriman traveled back to Los Angeles to marry his childhood sweetheart and returned with her to New York.

In the November 1902 issue of the literary magazine The Bookman, Herriman wrote of his profession self-deprecatingly, while poet La Touche Hancock, in an article in that issue titled "The American Comic and Caricature Art", wrote, "Art and poetry is the characteristic of George Herriman. Were his drawings not so well known one would think he had mistaken his vocation." Herriman's work was increasing in popularity, and he occasionally had front-page, full-color strips for the Pulitzer supplements, such as Two Jolly Jackies about two unemployed sailors, which began in January 1903. He began drawing the cowboy strip Lariat Pete in September for the McClure syndicate after Two Jolly Jackies was ended.

In June, Herriman was employed by the New York World. There, he illustrated Roy McCardell's commentaries on local events, beginning June 28 and running to the year's end. Herriman still produced syndicate work, such as Major Ozone's Fresh Air Crusade for the World Color Printing Company beginning January 2, 1904. Another of Herriman's obsessive characters, the Major traveled the world in an unsuccessful search for the purest air and spouted poetic dialogue. Major Ozone was so popular that it soon was given the supplement's front page. The same month, Herriman moved from the World to the New York Daily News, where he was given a larger quantity and variety of work, including cartoon reporting on sports and politics. In February and March, he had a short-lived continuing character comic strip about domestic life called Home Sweet Home. That spring, he began illustrating a series of articles written by Walter Murphy called Bubblespikers.

Rudolph Block hired Herriman for the Hearst papers with "a salary commensurate with his talents", starting April 22 at the New York American, which ran no daily comic strips at the time. Herriman drew sports cartoons in an office alongside Frederick Burr Opper, James Swinnerton, and Tad Dorgan, who was popularly known as "Tad" and was considered a star at another Hearst paper, the New York Evening Journal. Tad and Herriman were often assigned to cover the same sporting events and became close friends. In 1924, Tad called Herriman "one of the best sporting artists in the world" and regretted that Herriman no longer did that kind of work. Herriman continued with Hearst until June 1905, when he left the paper, possibly because of the new sports editor's unsympathetic attitude to cartoonists. He returned to Los Angeles in the latter half of 1905.

1905–1910: Return to California
In California, Herriman continued to mail in work to the World Color Printing Company. He revived Major Ozone and produced Grandma's Girl—Likewise Bud Smith, which he combined from two earlier strips, and a two-tiered children's strip, Rosy Posy—Mama's Girl. He began to work with the Los Angeles Times on January 8, 1906, before returning to Hearst that summer. Accompanying a front-page illustration in Hearst's Los Angeles Examiner, Herriman was announced as "the Examiner's cartoonist" on August 21. His artwork began to appear on nearly every page, resulting in greatly increased sales for the newspaper. In October, he stopped working for World Color.

Following the success of Bud Fisher's daily strip A. Mutt, which debuted in late 1907, Herriman began a similarly sports-themed daily strip starting December 10 called Mr. Proones the Plunger. The strip was not as successful as Fisher's, and it ceased to appear after December 26.

Mary's Home from College, a precursor to the popular "girl strips" such as Cliff Sterrett's Polly and Her Pals and John Held Jr.'s Merely Margie, ran from February 19, 1909 until January 4, 1910. His next comic strip, Baron Mooch, starring the titular freeloader, debuted in the Examiner on October 12, 1909. Herriman began two more strips in November 1909 with the World Color Printing Company—Alexander the Cat and Daniel and Pansy, which both appeared in color. Daniel and Pansy was Herriman's first strip to feature an all-animal cast. This was followed in the Examiner on December 23 by Gooseberry Sprig, about an aristocratic, cigar-smoking duck who had previously and popularly appeared in Herriman's sports cartoons. The bird-populated fantasy was a precursor to Krazy Kat, and many of its characters reappeared in the later strip.

1910–1922: New York again, and Krazy Kat
In 1910, the sports editor of the New York Evening Journal called Herriman back to New York to cover for Tad Dorgan who was in San Francisco covering the "Fight of the Century" between Jack Johnson and Jim Jeffries. Six days after arriving in New York, Herriman began The Dingbat Family, starring E. Pluribus Dingbat and his family. Herriman used typed lettering on the strip on July 26, 1910, but quickly went back to hand-lettering. On August 10, 1910, Herriman retitled the strip The Family Upstairs. The original title returned after the strip of November 15, 1911, when the Dingbats' building was demolished to make room for a department store and they and their upstairs nemeses parted paths.

Critics do not regard the strip highly, but it provided the vehicle for a fruitful situation: in the July 26 episode, a mouse threw a brick at the family cat—called "Kat"—which hit the cat on the head. The antics of this mouse and "Kat" continued to appear in the bottom portion of The Dingbat Family. Herriman said he did this "to fill up the waste space". About a month after its first appearance, the "Kat" crept up on the sleeping mouse and kissed it loudly. The mouse awoke saying, "I dreamed an angel kissed me", while the "Kat" crept away and said, "Sweet thing".

The gender of "Kat" was unclear from the start. Herriman experimented with a decision about the character's gender, but it remained ambiguous and he would refer to "Kat" as "he" or "she" as he saw fit. Herriman incorporated unusual details into the mini-strip's backgrounds such as cacti, pagodas, fanciful vegetation, or anything else that struck his fancy; this became a signature of the later Krazy Kat strip. The cast grew and soon included the mainstay character Bull Pupp and characters from the Gooseberry Sprigg strip. The strip's characters, relations and situations grew organically during its lifetime, encouraged by Herriman's colleagues.

The cat-and-mouse substrip was gaining in popularity; instead of filling up space in the bottom of The Dingbat Family's panels, it began to occupy a tier of panels of its own. In July 1912, while Herriman had the Dingbats on vacation, Krazy Kat and Ignatz Mouse took over the strip, which was retitled Krazy Kat and I. Mouse for the duration. On October 28, 1913, Krazy Kat debuted as an independent strip on the daily comics page.

Only Hearst's personal support allowed the strip to continue, as the reception from the readers showed zero interest or enthusiasm according to comics historian Bill Blackbeard. But it was liked by famous artists and writers such as Willem de Kooning, Picasso and Edwin Denby, and later by E. E. Cummings, Jack Kerouac and Umberto Eco.

During the first few years of publication, Krazy Kat's humor changed from slapstick to a more vaudevillian kind. The shifting backgrounds became increasingly bizarre, presaging things to come. The strip expanded to a full-page black-and-white Sunday strip on April 23, 1916. Herriman made full use of his imagination and used the whole page in the strip's layout. The strips were unlike anything else on the comics page; spontaneous, formally daring, yet impeccably composed.

Herriman visited Monument Valley in Arizona and similar places in New Mexico and southern Utah, and incorporated the distinct forms of the desert landscape into his strips. The Enchanted Mesa of New Mexico first appeared in Krazy Kat in the summer of 1916. Herriman may have visited after reading an article by Theodore Roosevelt in 1913, but he may have gone earlier—the desert Coconino County, Arizona, that became the backdrop to Krazy Kat was first mentioned in a 1911 The Dingbat Family strip, though the real Coconino County was located further southwest than Herriman's fanciful version.

The Dingbat Family finished in 1916 and was replaced by Baron Bean's debut the next day. The strip's title character, The Baron, was an impoverished English nobleman, a tramp inspired by Charles Dickens and Charlie Chaplin. He and his valet Grimes would plot ways to get by. Herriman later introduced the main characters' wives, and after a run as a domestic strip, with occasional appearances of characters from Krazy Kat's world, it ended in January 1919. It was replaced the next day by Now Listen Mabel, which was about a young man courting a young woman; he would be caught in a compromising situation, which he would try to explain away with "Now listen Mabel ..." The strip lasted until that December.

Krazy Kat gained an appreciative audience in the world of the arts. The character debuted in film in 1916. The first animated films starring a cat were produced by Hearst's International Film Service, though without Herriman's direct involvement. In 1922, Adolph Bolm choreographed a jazz-pantomime Krazy Kat ballet written by John Alden Carpenter. It was first performed in New York in 1922 by Ballet Intime, and Herriman illustrated the libretto and designed the costumes and scenario. While it was not a great success, the critics Deems Taylor, Stark Young and Henrietta Straus wrote favorably about it. The strip itself was the subject of an article by literary critic Gilbert Seldes called "Golla, Golla the Comic Strip's Art", which appeared in the May 1922 issue of Vanity Fair. Seldes expanded this article as part of his book on the popular arts, The Seven Lively Arts (1924), in which Seldes argued against conservative tendencies that excluded artists in the popular arts, such as Herriman and Chaplin, from being considered alongside traditional artists. Krazy Kat was the subject of a chapter entitled "The Krazy Kat That Walks by Himself", which is the most famous piece of writing about the strip and the earliest example of a critic from the world of high art giving legitimacy to the comic strip medium. Vanity Fair inducted Herriman into its Hall of Fame in the April 1923 issue.

1922–1944: California again, later career and death
Hearst, an admirer of Krazy Kat, had given Herriman a lifetime contract with his company King Features Syndicate, which gave Herriman the security to live anywhere he wanted. In 1922, he moved back to Hollywood, into a two-story Spanish-style home at 1617 North Sierra Bonita, from where he made frequent visits to the Arizona desert. Herriman developed ties with members of the film industry; he knew Hal Roach Studio members Tom McNamara and "Beanie" Walker from their newspaper days. Walker, Herriman's best friend, was the head writer on the Our Gang shorts. In the early 1920s, Herriman occasionally drew his strips at the Roach Studio. He met celebrities, including Will Rogers and Frank Capra, and presented them with hand-colored drawings. He loved Charlie Chaplin's films, and reviewed The Gold Rush in the magazine Motion Picture Classics in October 1925.

Autumn 1922 saw the first daily installment of Stumble Inn, the first non-Krazy Kat strip Herriman had drawn since 1919. A verbose strip whose Sundays were often overrun with prose, its lead characters were Uriah and Ida Stumble, who rented rooms to an assortment of strange characters. The daily strip was short-lived, but the Sundays edition lasted three years.

From August 1925 until September 1929, King Features required that Herriman design the Krazy Kat Sundays so that they could be run either as a full Sunday page or as two four-panel dailies. Herriman lamented intrusion on his page designs, and the artwork of the period took on a rushed look. He was made to focus on the strip's characterization, and during this period, the Krazy—Ignatz—Offisa Pupp love triangle for which the strip is remembered became fully developed. Pupp pined for Krazy, Krazy loved Ignatz, and Ignatz hated Krazy and pelted the annoying "Kat" with a brick, and Pupp imprisoned Ignatz.

Throughout the late 1920s, Herriman made frequent trips to Kayenta, Arizona, in Navajo country about 25 mi from Monument Valley. He also made winter trips to Mexico. The desert, Navajo artwork, and Mexican pottery and architecture became more prominent in Herriman's strips, and he sometimes used Spanish vocabulary in the dialogue. Herriman did little work on these excursions, and it is likely that he drew his strips in hurried bursts when in Hollywood.

Stumble Inn finished in late 1925, and it was replaced with the domestic strip Us Husbands (with Mistakes Will Happen as a "topper" strip), which ran until the end of that year. In 1928, Herriman took over the strip Embarrassing Moments, which had begun in 1922 and had been drawn by several cartoonists. The strip eventually became Bernie Burns, in which embarrassing moments would happen to the title character. The strip appeared in few papers, and after it ended in 1932, Herriman worked only on Krazy Kat, although he provided illustrations for Don Marquis' popular Archy and Mehitabel, a series of books of poetry about a cat and a cockroach.

In 1930, Herriman sold his first Hollywood home to a friend and moved his family to 2217 Maravilla Drive, a Spanish-style mansion atop a hill. It was adorned with paintings of Southwest and Native themes, and had a Mexican-style garden paved with flagstones and decorated with painted pots and tropical plants. Herriman later bought the lot across the street and turned it into a public park.

The 1930s were a period of tragedy for Herriman. On September 29, 1931, his wife Mabel died after an automobile accident, and in 1939, his youngest daughter Bobbie died unexpectedly at 31.

After his wife's death, Herriman never remarried and lived in Los Angeles with his cats and dogs. He developed a close relationship with cartoonist James Swinnerton's first wife Louise, with whom he frequently exchanged letters. Herriman underwent a kidney operation in spring 1938, and during his ten-week convalescence King Features reran old Krazy Kat strips.

Krazy Kat's popularity fell considerably over the years, and by the 1930s it was running in only thirty-five newspapers, while its contemporaries such as Bringing Up Father were reportedly running in up to a thousand. By some accounts, Herriman's salary from Hearst's King Features Syndicate was $750 a week, and, realizing that this was far more than the revenue the strip could be generating, Herriman once offered to take a pay cut, which Hearst refused; however, according to Michael Tisserand's biography on Herriman from 2016, there exists no evidence of the story that Herriman ever suggested to take a pay cut, or that his salary was $750 a week.

From 1935, Krazy Kat appeared in color, of which Herriman made bold use. He reduced the amount of hatchwork and used larger, more open panels.

Herriman died in his sleep in his home near Hollywood on April 25, 1944, after a long illness. An incompletely inked penciling of a week's worth of daily strips was found on his drawing board. On his death certificate, the cause of death was listed as "non-alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver", and despite his mixed-race heritage, he was listed as "caucasian". The New York Journal-American ran a front-page obituary. His funeral at Little Church of Flowers at Forest Lawn Memorial Park was attended by few. Cartoonist Harry Hershfield spoke at the funeral, saying, "If ever there was a saint on earth, it was George Herriman". According to his request, his body was cremated and his remains were scattered over Monument Valley.

On June 25, 1944, two months after Herriman's death, the last of his completed Krazy Kat strips, a full-page Sunday, was printed. At the time, Hearst usually engaged new cartoonists when the artists of popular strips quit or died, but he made an exception for Herriman, as he felt that no one could take his place.

Personal life
Herriman was described as self-deprecatingly modest, and he disliked being photographed. The New York Journal-American's obituary described him as a devoted husband and father, of slight build, mild-mannered and an anonymous contributor to charities. He was generous to his friends, and sold his first Hollywood house, which he had bought for $50,000, to a friend for $40,000. Though a private person, he was said to be an entertaining host to his friends. He would sometimes stay silent during social occasions and would often leave the room to wash dishes, which he said he enjoyed as it gave him the opportunity to think. His favorite game was poker, which he particularly enjoyed playing with his fellow cartoonists.

Herriman had a great love of animals, and had a large number of dogs and cats; he had five dogs and thirteen cats in 1934. He usually kept to a vegetarian diet, except when it made him feel too weak, and he refused to ride horses. He so admired Henry Ford's pacifist stance that he would only buy Ford automobiles. He purchased a new model annually.

Herriman married his childhood sweetheart Mabel Lillian Bridge in Los Angeles on July 7, 1902. They had two daughters: Mabel (1903-1962), nicknamed "Toodles" (later "Toots") and Barbara (1908-1939), nicknamed "Bobbie", who had epilepsy and died unexpectedly in 1939 at the age of 31.

Race and identity

Herriman was born to mixed-race parents, and his birth certificate lists Herriman as "colored". In the post–Plessy v. Ferguson U.S., in which "separate but equal" racial segregation was enshrined, people of mixed race had to choose to identify themselves as either black or white. Herriman seems to have identified himself as white. According to comics academic Jeet Heer, his early work is "replete with black caricatures", such as Musical Mose, in which the lead character, an African-American musician, wishes his "color would fade". Racial ambivalence crept into Krazy Kat, such as on two occasions where Krazy's black fur was dyed white. Ignatz falls in love with the whitened Krazy, only to return to hatred and brick-throwing when the truth is revealed. Similarly, in an oft-repeated joke, Ignatz would accidentally become covered with coal dust and would be spurned by the normally love-struck Krazy. In one such episode, a brick thrown by the blackened Ignatz hits Krazy, who declares, "A lil Eetiopium Mice, black like a month from midnights. Fuwi!" Once Ignatz reverts to his white self, Krazy loves him again.

Herriman's ethnic heritage was unknown to his colleagues. Fellow cartoonist Tad Dorgan nicknamed him "the Greek", a label which stuck and was taken up by his biographers and the press, who called him the son of a Greek baker. At other times, he was identified as French, Irish, and Turkish. He told a friend that he was Creole, and speculated that he may have "Negro blood" in him, as he had "kinky hair". The friend said that Herriman wore a hat to hide his hair, which may have been an attempt to pass as white. Herriman said that he dreamed of being reborn a Navajo. On his death certificate, he was listed as "Caucasian", and his daughter Mabel had his father's birthplace listed as Paris and his mother's as Alsace-Lorraine.

Sociologist Arthur Asa Berger made Herriman's mixed-race heritage known in 1971. While researching for Herriman's entry for the Dictionary of American Biography, Berger discovered the cartoonist's race was listed as "colored" on his birth certificate obtained from the New Orleans Board of Health. The 1880 census for New Orleans listed his parents as "mulatto". On reading this, African-American poet Ishmael Reed dedicated his 1972 novel Mumbo Jumbo to "George Herriman, Afro-American, who created Krazy Kat". Herriman came to be identified as Black or Creole in comics literature, including his first book-length biography, Krazy Kat: The Comic Art of George Herriman (1986), while the "Greek" label stuck with some biographers, and was used by Bill Blackbeard in his introductions to the Krazy and Ignatz volumes in the early 2000s. Later research at the New Orleans Public Library by cartoonist Brian Nelson showed that Herriman's maternal grandmother was born in Havana, Cuba, that all his relatives were listed as "mulatto" on the 1890 census, and that Herriman may also have had Spanish or Native American ancestry.

Reception and legacy

Krazy Kat was popular with intellectuals, artists and critics, and in the 1920s Herriman's modernist touches received praise. In 1921, composer John Alden Carpenter, who had long been an admirer of Herriman's work, approached him to collaborate on a Krazy Kat ballet. President Woodrow Wilson refused to miss any installment of Krazy Kat, and would take it into cabinet meetings.

Writer E. B. White praised Herriman's illustrations for Archy and Mehitabel. Cartoonist Edward Sorel wrote that Krazy Kat's lack of popularity later in its run was largely due to Hearst's editorial policies, in that the "lowbrow" readership at whom he aimed his papers was unlikely to appreciate Herriman's style of work, though Hearst personally championed the strip. Following Herriman's death, the strip was discontinued, unlike most popular strips which were continued by other cartoonists after their creators' deaths. His stature was such that decades after his death, his work was displayed in art galleries.

Critics found Herriman's work difficult to classify and contextualize; Seldes, E. E. Cummings, and writers Adam Gopnik and Robert Warshow were among critics who tempered their enthusiasm for the strip with qualifications about its perceived naïveté and its "lowbrow" origins on the comic strip page.

The strip has had a lasting influence on a large number of cartoonists. Mutts creator Patrick McDonnell calls Krazy Kat one of his foremost influences, and is co-author of Krazy Kat: The Comic Art of George Herriman (1986). Will Eisner discovered Herriman's comics when he was selling newspapers in the 1930s and called Krazy Kat "the big strong influence" on his own work. Art Spiegelman called Herriman one of his "conscious influences". Herriman's widespread influence on American underground comix, particularly his shape-shifting, psychedelic backgrounds, lack of respect for convention and his irreverence, is evident in the work of Robert Crumb, Denis Kitchen, and Bobby London. Journalist Paul Krassner called Crumb "the illegitimate offspring of Krazy Kat". Cartoonist Chris Ware was so taken with Herriman's work he made a pilgrimage to Monument Valley to see the desert landscapes that inspired much of Herriman's art.

Krazy Kat was a primary influence on other cartoonists such as Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts, Bill Watterson of Calvin and Hobbes, and the Italian Massimo Mattioli. Walt Kelly paid homage to Herriman in some of his Pogo strips. Dr. Seuss expressed fondness for Krazy Kat, and children's literature scholar Philip Nel has detected Herriman's influence in Seuss's works, especially in his zig-zagging, Coconino County-like backgrounds. Multimedia artist Öyvind Fahlström appropriated Krazy Kat in a series of works from 1963 to 1965. Jay Cantor published a postmodern novel in 1987 called Krazy Kat: A Novel in Five Panels, in which the retired Krazy and Ignatz contemplate a comeback in a post-atomic world.

Since 1997, the Small Press Expo has held the annual Ignatz Awards in honor of Herriman's mouse from Krazy Kat. It recognizes talent in independent comics publishing. Krazy Kat was ranked first on The Comics Journal's list of the greatest comics of the twentieth century. The Society of Illustrators inducted Herriman into its Hall of Fame in 2013.

Style
Within the seeming strictures of the strip—the recurring characters, the Krazy–Ignatz–Offisa Pupp love triangle—Herriman improvised freely with the story, the shifting backgrounds, and the sex of the Krazy Kat's title character. Among the multicultural influences Herriman mixed in his work were those of the Navajo and Mexican. He made creative use of language with a poetical sense, employing multilingual puns in a fanciful mix of dialects from different ethnic backgrounds. Herriman used metafictional techniques associated with postmodernism; his characters were self-aware, he frequently drew attention to himself and his drawings as drawings in his strips, and he emphasized the subjectivity of language and experience.

Herriman drew with what cartoonist Edward Sorel called a "liberated, spontaneous-looking style ...  a cartoon counterpart of expressionism". It was organic, and his pen strokes had a dynamic, thick-and-thin range which Sorel describes as instantly recognizable and difficult to imitate. The Krazy Kat Sunday pages showed Herriman experimenting most freely—each had a unique panel layout and logo, and the jumbled panels could be circles, irregular shapes, or borderless. In his last few years, Herriman's arthritis led to an ever-scratchier style of art; he used a knife to scratch out whites from inked surfaces, giving the artwork the look of a woodcut.

Collections

Krazy Kat has been collected in a variety of formats over the years, though Herriman's other strips have been less frequently reprinted. George Herriman's Krazy Kat (1946) was the first Krazy Kat collection; it featured an introduction by poet E. E. Cummings. Comics historian Bill Blackbeard began compiling a complete collection of Krazy Kat Sundays beginning in 1988, but the publisher Eclipse Comics went bankrupt in 1992, before the series was complete. Blackbeard's thirteen-volume Krazy and Ignatz series was published by Fantagraphics Books beginning in 2002, and was designed by Chris Ware. In 2010, Sunday Press Books released Krazy Kat: A Celebration of Sundays, which reprinted a selection of Krazy Kat Sundays and some of Herriman's pre-Krazy Kat work in a 14 × format, which approximated the original printed size of the strips. In 2012, IDW began issuing a three-volume Baron Bean reprinting, and Fantagraphics will release George Herriman's Stumble Inn. Fantagraphics has also announced plans to collect the complete Krazy Kat dailies at an unspecified time.

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title: George Herriman


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Talk:Religious persecution

Edits and Continuing Issues
I made a numebr of edits to improve the (terrible) prose throughout this article, as well as to eliminate some stuff that was clearly OR and/or POV. Much can be done to continue to improve this article: I might come back to this soon, but anyone who wants to pitch in is very welcome... DigitalHoodoo (talk) 19:14, 15 August 2011 (UTC)
 * More examples of modern persecution. An obviously POV blurb about the Ba'hai is the only example given post-18th Century? That is absurd.
 * Antisemitism ought to be mentioned somewhere. I get the argument that the holocaust was constructed as a racial persecution and not a religious one, but this is fundamentally BS... so much so that is tilts toward a denier/Nazi-apologist standpoint by accepting the Nazi's "racialization" of an ethnically diverse Jewish population living in Germany and occupied countries as biological or ethnographic fact, rather than as an invention of antisemitic/Nazi ideology and propaganda (e.g., many Jews who were killed were, for example, ethnic Germans; characterizing Jews as a homogeneous 'race' is an invention of antisemitic rhetoric).
 * What about the suppression of African religion during the slave trade? There are numerous RSs that describe forcible conversion and persecution of traditional African religion on plantations and in the colonies.
 * What about the active persecution of Native American religion at the hands of the US Government (e.g. as manifest through the boarding school system)? This is also well-documented, and RSs should be available in tons.
 * Many, many more...

 * Just curious- what about the suppression of African religion during the Arablic Slave Trade, a few hundred years before the Europeans even entered the trade? 2600:8805:A985:4300:2A53:D050:31FF:B0AE (talk) 15:43, 9 October 2023 (UTC)

 * The complete absence of even mentioning the oppression and persecutions of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) in the 19th century is egregious. It is one of the only examples of state-sanctioned persecution in United States history. I would argue it was one of the most oppressed religions in US history. --Moroni713 (talk) 21:42, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Well, complete absence from the text. And, yes, it definitely belongs either under Christianity or as a separate section. -- Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 13:06, 8 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Religious persecution


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Marjolein Bastin

Marjolein Bastin (née uit den Bogaard) (born 1943) is a Dutch nature artist, writer, children's author and illustrator. She is the creator of the character "Vera the Mouse".

Biography
Bastin was born in Loenen (aan de Vecht) and studied at the Academy of Arts in Arnhem, where she met her husband and manager Gaston Bastin. Her father was educator and photographer John Henri uit den Bogaard (1911-1993). They have a daughter, Sanna (born in 1973), and a son, Mischa (born in 1974). Sanna runs the "Marjolein Bastin Kadowinkel" (The Marjolein Bastin Giftshop) while Mischa is a lawyer in Kansas City, USA. Marjolein and Gaston divide their time between country homes in the Netherlands and Missouri, and a tropical retreat in the Cayman Islands.

From 1960 to 1965, Bastin worked for different advertising agencies and publishers. Shortly after completing her studies at the Academy of Arts, she was asked to illustrate a one-page feature for the popular Dutch women's weekly Libelle. A Hallmark Cards designer discovered Bastin's artwork while on a trip to the Netherlands in the early 1990s. Stationery, greeting cards, home décor items and gifts in Hallmark's Nature's Sketchbook by Marjolein Bastin line are among the company's best-selling offerings. Many of her drawings are available as cross-stitch patterns, through Lanarte. Heye Puzzles offer Bastin's work as jigsaw puzzles.

In Good Housekeeping in 2003 she is quoted as saying, "I love the familiar and ordinary" and, "[t]he world that lies before us every day is just as beautiful as what's exotic and rare. Nature makes us all rich."

In Country Living in 2004 her garden was described as combining both formal manicured lines (e.g. topiary) along with "wild and woolly habitats" to encourage visits from a variety of different animals.

Works

 * 1985 – My Name Is Vera (Vera the Mouse Series)
 * 1985 – Vera's Special Hobbies
 * 1985 – Vera Dresses Up
 * 1985 – Vera and her Friends
 * 1986 – Vera the Mouse
 * 1988 – Games With Vera
 * 1988 – Vera in the Garden
 * 1988 – Vera in the Kitchen
 * 1988 – Vera in the Washtub
 * 1991 – Nature Diary
 * 1991 – A Little Dog for Vera
 * 1994 – Flowers A to Z
 * 1994 – From My Window
 * 1994 – Nature's Sketchbook
 * 1995 – Gardener's Companion
 * 1995 – A Walk in the Woods
 * 1996 – Seasons of Friendship
 * 1998 – Butterflies - Winged Miracles of Nature
 * 2004 – View From a Sketchbook: Nature Through the Eyes of Marjolein Bastin (with Tovah Martin)

In 2000 Vera starred in a 30-minute animated movie called "Vera the Mouse: Mr. Mole's Surprise".

title: Marjolein Bastin


text:
Walter Knott

Walter Marvin Knott (December 11, 1889 – December 3, 1981) was an American farmer who founded the Knott's Berry Farm amusement park in California, introduced the Boysenberry, and made Knott's Berry Farm boysenberry preserves.

Early life
On December 11, 1889, Knott was born in San Bernardino, California. Knott's father was Elgin Charles Knott, a reverend originally from Tennessee. Knott's mother was Margaret Virginia Daugherty. Knott grew up in Pomona, California.

Career
In the 1920s, Knott was a somewhat unsuccessful farmer whose fortunes changed when he nursed several abandoned berry plants back to health. The hybrid boysenberry, named after its creator, Rudolph Boysen, was a cross between a blackberry, red raspberry and loganberry. The huge berries were a hit, and the Knott family sold berries, preserves and pies from a Buena Park, California roadside stand. In 1934, Knott's wife Cordelia (née Hornaday, January 23, 1890 – April 12, 1974) began serving fried chicken dinners, and within a few years, lines outside the restaurant were often several hours long.

To entertain the waiting crowds, Walter built a Ghost Town in 1940, using buildings relocated from Old West towns. In 1940 Walter sent his son Russel to Twentynine Palms, California. Russel was helped by a local resident Daniel F. Leahy who took Russel to the Old Calico Ghost Town in the hills 3 mi from Barstow, California. "Very soon after this visit Walter purchased a number of Calico's buildings. They were carefully disassembled, trucked, and reassembled in Buena Park." (see pages 160–161 in For Those Who Served by Michael H. Pazeian). Even after Disneyland opened in 1955 only 8 mi away, Knott's Berry Farm continued to thrive. Walt Disney and Walter Knott are rumored to have had a cordial relationship; it is known that they each visited the other's park, and they were both members of the original planning council for Children's Hospital of Orange County. Early additions to the farm included the Ghost Town & Calico Railroad, a narrow gauge railroad in the Ghost Town area, a San Francisco cable car, a Pan-for-Gold attraction, the Calico Mine Train dark ride and the Timber Mountain Log Ride log flume ride. In 1968, the Knott family fenced the farm, charged admission for the first time, and Knott's Berry Farm officially became an amusement park.

Because of his interest in American pioneer history, Knott purchased and restored the real silver mining ghost town of Calico, California in 1951. As a child, Walter spent a lot of time in Calico living with his uncle. During World War I he helped to build a silver mill in Calico. This period in his life influenced his decision to buy the town and restore it. In 1966, he deeded Calico to San Bernardino County, California.

Walter remained active in the operation of Knott's Berry Farm until Cordelia's death in 1974, at which point he turned his attention toward political causes, leaving day-to-day park operations to his children. He supported conservative Republican causes. He was also a member of the John Birch Society and sponsored its Orange County chapter.

Although Knott was a struggling farmer and businessman during the 1920s and the 1930s Great Depression, he sternly believed in rugged individualism, that anyone could be successful through hard work, and any form of government intervention was wrong. Some say this 'Old West' theme of his amusement park was a romantic and one-sided reflection of his beliefs. Knott was active in a variety of conservative causes, including founding the California Free Enterprise Assistance and endowed various private schools and colleges. Knott ultimately developed a friendship with Ronald Reagan.

Knott appeared on the December 23, 1954, episode of You Bet Your Life, hosted by Groucho Marx.

The Knott family no longer owns the theme park; it was sold to the Cedar Fair Entertainment Company. Additionally, The J.M. Smucker Co. now owns the "Knott's Berry Farm" brand of jam and jelly (purchased from ConAgra Foods in 2008).

Personal life
Knott's wife was Cordelia Knott. They had four children, Virginia, Russell, Rachel, and Marion. On April 12, 1974, Knott's wife died in Buena Park, California.

On December 3, 1981, just 8 days shy of his 92nd birthday, Knott died from Parkinson's disease in his home in Buena Park, California. Knott is buried at Loma Vista Memorial Park in Fullerton, California.

title: Walter Knott


text:
Talk:Father Ted

Joan
Wasn't the scene with Mrs. Doyle's first name in it cut because the episode ran too long? I don't think it was ever meant to be a secret, it was just an accident that it was never mentioned on screen (of course, by the time The Mainland appeared, the "mystery" was sufficiently entrenched for them to make a rather poor in-joke about it.) --Bonalaw 07:49, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

That's right, the only mention of Joan as Mrs. Doyle's name is in the script. I'm going to edit this, if anyone wants to put it back in can they provide a citation of the reference? Cheers, Dave 22:59, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I've edited this discussion section to remove Ms. Doyle's first name - not everyone WANTS to know her first name. It counts as spoiler; having it laying around in the discussion may spoil things for others.  I will add a link to the article to a fan site where her name is given. Toby Douglass 09:50, 25 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Before I begin I would like to remind readers that Wikipedia is intended to be an exhaustive knowledge source so it would have spoilers. In the published draft script of the episode Competition Time Mrs. Doyle's first name is given as Joan. However Graham Linehan stated in the DVD commentary with Arthur Matthews that Mrs. Doyle's first name was "going to be Joan" and in a transmission at the 2007 Tedfest he was going to reveal the first name of Mrs. Doyle but his voice was obscured by the sound of breaking china which implies that it is considered canon that the real forename of Mrs. Doyle is never revealed.Tk420 (talk) 20:14, 23 February 2017 (UTC)

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Trivia
Can we create a Trivia section please? For example, Tommy Tiernan explains that when filming the scene in (episode Going to America) where Father Ted is dancing to Shaft, Tommy made several mistakes which meant Dermot had to keep reenacting the scene, even though his heart and chest were hurting. He died the day after this scene was shot--Irish factoids (talk) 12:56, 12 July 2017 (UTC)  (talk • contribs) 12:40, 12 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Trivia sections are discouraged under Wikipedia guidelines as I noticed when they were more common when I first used Wikipedia in 2007 (see Manual of Style/Trivia sections for more information). Tk420 (talk) 15:39, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

Shouldn't Father Ted be referred to as a British-Irish series?
Yes Father Ted was made by Hat Trick Productions for Channel 4 (both British), but it was written by Irish writers Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan and had a predominantly Irish cast. It seems a bit unfair to refer to it as just "British-made" when the writers were Irish. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.147.5.206 (talk) 05:39, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
 * This has already been discussed with the Rfc now archived (see Talk:Father_Ted/Archive 1 for more information). Maybe the consensus on the nationality of the show should be included in this talk page (as opposed to being archived) if it continues to be controversial. Tk420 (talk) 15:39, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

Yes this needs further discussion, other series in a similar situation are said to be Irish. Not UK/Irish but solely Irish. Father Ted should be, if any logic should be applied, both Irish and United Kingdom for country of origin. Please see my message in the the talk page for reasoning. HaussmannHouse (talk) 16:32, 23 August 2020 (UTC)

 * The nationality of a show is strictly determined by the production company that made it, and in this case, that company was strictly British. They may have hired Irish writers/etc. and shot it in Ireland, but the nationality of the production company remained British, so it cannot be called "British-Irish". We can refer to the show being based on an Irish parish house and that the lead creatives were Irish, but that's it. --M asem (t) 16:41, 23 August 2020 (UTC)

But the didn't "hire" Irish writers to write the show, it was already written and pitched to multiple production studios for funding. Hat Trick productions happened to be the ones who went ahead with it. It could have been an Irish production company, British company or another company from elsewhere. HaussmannHouse (talk) 10:40, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

Edit to last message it was pitched directly to Hat Trick Studios. However my point remains, they could have not decided to fund it and instead another country's company could have instead. I don't believe it makes a difference to the fact that it is an Irish show. HaussmannHouse (talk) 10:48, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

It was done by The BBC in Southern Ireland which is part of Great Britain which is the United Kingdom! So its 100% British! You can also say its Irish as in actors, theme.Femanistfantastic (talk) 22:51, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

Just to clarify a point, "Southern Ireland" as you refer to it, or "The Republic of Ireland", as is the proper name, is an independent nation and in no way part of either Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 170.232.227.242 (talk) 23:19, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

Country of Origin
Father Ted is a show that was written by Irish writers, starring Irish actors, directed by an Irish director (seriea 1,2 and Christmas special) and filmed in Ireland. I think this warrants atleast recognition of origin from both the United Kingdom and Ireland instead of solely the UK.

HaussmannHouse (talk) 08:32, 20 June 2020 (UTC)

Can someone please engage in this discussion? I want to have a discussion on this before editing it. HaussmannHouse (talk) 16:29, 23 August 2020 (UTC)
 * See above, the country of origin is based solely on the production company, which was British. This show would never have happened without British backing, Dermot Morgan got little support from RTE for his earlier satirical work. Credit where credit is due, there are plenty of cases where the British have taken underserved credit but this absolutely is not one of them, and they very much deserve all the credit they get for backing this crazy little piece of satirical comedy. It really was a big deal at the time that this got made at all. -- 109.76.139.121 (talk) 15:16, 16 March 2022 (UTC)

Country of Origin
Third attempt to instigate a conversation that extends beyond "TV shows nationality is solely that of the producers". Hoping for reasoning relating to Father Ted which was created by Irish writers, directed by Irish directors and acted by an Irish cast in Ireland and only bought by a British company being not even British/Irish. HaussmannHouse (talk) 11:04, 26 August 2020 (UTC)
 * There was Talk:Father_Ted/Archive 1. A consensus was reached by due process. This is ridiculous -- as soon as I saw this page in my Watchlist, I knew what had been changed.  The JPS talk to me 11:54, 27 August 2020 (UTC)

Dermot Morgan Death
Was this the reason there show didnt have a 4th season?--Femanistfantastic (talk) 22:52, 6 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Correct. That is not just my opinion, I double checked to make sure reliable sources also say that too, and it is clear that Graham Linehan does not want to revive the show. -- 109.76.139.121 (talk) 15:16, 16 March 2022 (UTC)

As I recall, back when the 3rd season was being made there was already a fair bit of talk of it being the last one. Dermot Morgan pretty much says so at the end of this interview from late 1997. Crisso (talk) 20:12, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Father Ted