text:
Émile Nelligan

Émile Nelligan (December 24, 1879 – November 18, 1941) was a Canadian Symbolist poet from Montreal who wrote in French. Even though he stopped writing poetry after being institutionalized at the age of 19, Nelligan remains an iconic figure in Quebec culture and was considered by Edmund Wilson to be the greatest Canadian poet in any language.

Biography
Nelligan was born in Montreal on December 24, 1879, at 602, rue de La Gauchetière (Annuaire Lovell's de 1879). He was the first son of David Nelligan, who arrived in Quebec from Dublin, Ireland at the age of 12. His mother was Émilie Amanda Hudon, from Rimouski, Quebec. He had two sisters, Béatrice and Gertrude.

A follower of Symbolism, he produced poetry profoundly influenced by Octave Crémazie, Louis Fréchette, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Georges Rodenbach, Maurice Rollinat and Edgar Allan Poe. A precocious talent like Arthur Rimbaud, he published his first poems in Montreal at the age of 16.

In 1899, Nelligan began to exhibit odd behavior. He was said to have loudly recited poetry to passing strangers and slept in chapels. He was also experiencing hallucinations and he attempted suicide. He was committed to a mental hospital at the request of his parents. There he was diagnosed with dementia praecox (now more commonly referred to as schizophrenia). He did not write any poetry after being hospitalized.

At the time, rumor and speculation suggested that he went insane because of the vast cultural and language differences between his mother and father. In recent years, however, a number of literary critics have theorized that Nelligan may have been gay. Some of these sources allege that he became mentally ill due to inner conflict between his sexual orientation and his Catholic faith, while others suggest that he was never insane at all, but was dishonestly committed to the asylum by his family to escape the stigma of his alleged sexual orientation. No biographical sources published during Nelligan's lifetime contain any confirmed record of Nelligan having had any sexual or romantic relationships with either men or women, although some posthumous biographers have suggested that he may have been the lover of poet Arthur de Bussières. Within the École littéraire de Montréal circle with which both Nelligan and Bussières were associated, it was believed that Nelligan was confined to the asylum because his mother discovered him and Bussières in bed together, although this allegation was not widely publicized until the late 20th century and remains unproven. Conversely, the 1991 biographical film Nelligan depicts Nelligan as a celibate bisexual, portraying him as sexually ambivalent in the face of romantic attractions to both Bussières and feminist activist Idola Saint-Jean, and implying that his mother attempted to commit incest with him.

In 1903, his collected poems were published to great acclaim in Canada. He may not have been aware that he was counted among French Canada's greatest poets.

On his death in 1941, Nelligan was interred in the Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges in Montreal, Quebec. Following his death, the public became increasingly interested in Nelligan. His incomplete work spawned a kind of romantic legend. He was first translated into English in 1960 by P.F. Widdows. In 1983, Fred Cogswell translated all his poems in The Complete Poems of Émile Nelligan. In the fall of 2017, Montreal's Vehicle Press will be releasing Marc di Saverio's English translations of Nelligan, Ship of Gold: The Essential Poems of Emile Nelligan.

Nelligan is considered one of the greatest poets of French Canada. Several schools and libraries in Quebec are named after him, and Hotel Nelligan is a four-star hotel in Old Montreal at the corner of Rue St. Paul and Rue St. Sulpice.

In her 2013 book Le Naufragé du Vaisseau d'or, Yvette Francoli claimed that Louis Dantin, the publisher of Nelligan's poems, was in fact their real author. This claim was also previously advanced by Claude-Henri Grignon in his 1936 essay Les Pamphlets de Valdombre, although Dantin himself denied having had anything more than an editing role in the poems' creation. In 2016, the University of Ottawa's literary journal Analyses published an article by Annette Hayward and Christian Vandendorpe which rejected the claim, based on textual comparisons of the poetry credited to Nelligan with the writings of Dantin.

Le Vaisseau d'Or
Ce fut un grand Vaisseau taillé dans l'or massif: Ses mâts touchaient l'azur, sur des mers inconnues; La Cyprine d'amour, cheveux épars, chairs nues, S'étalait à sa proue, au soleil excessif.

Mais il vint une nuit frapper le grand écueil Dans l'Océan trompeur où chantait la Sirène, Et le naufrage horrible inclina sa carène Aux profondeurs du Gouffre, immuable cercueil.

Ce fut un Vaisseau d'Or, dont les flancs diaphanes Révélaient des trésors que les marins profanes, Dégoût, Haine et Névrose, entre eux ont disputés.

''Que reste-t-il de lui dans sa tempête brève? Qu'est devenu mon coeur, navire déserté? Hélas! Il a sombré dans l'abîme du Rêve!''

English-language translation/adaptation for "Nelligan, the Musical" by Michel Tremblay and Andre Gagnon

A vessel of great might / Was hewn of solid gold / Masts billowed in the air / On seas beyond compare

There Venus came in sight / Bare-skinned with tousled hair / Spread upon the prow for sunlight to behold

But then came fateful night / A great reef sealed her doom / In the deceiving ocean / Wherein sirens sing

Her hull was tilted forth / The wreck slipped tapering / Down to the chasm's depths / Toward a silent tomb

A vessel hewn of gold / Diaphanous as air / Revealed its treasure hold / To vulgar sailors, there

Disgust and Hate and Fear / Amongst themselves did rage /

The vessel's gone amiss / In sudden storm it seems / What's happened to my heart, lost on the thankless waves? /

Alas! It sank into the dark abyss... of dreams

Christ en Croix
Je remarquais toujours ce grand Jésus de plâtre Dressé comme un pardon au seuil du vieux couvent, Échafaud solennel à geste noir, devant Lequel je me courbais, saintement idolâtre. Or, l'autre soir, à l'heure où le cri-cri folâtre, Par les prés assombris, le regard bleu rêvant, Récitant Eloa, les cheveux dans le vent, Comme il sied à l'Éphèbe esthétique et bellâtre, J'aperçus, adjoignant des débris de parois, Un gigantesque amas de lourde vieille croix Et de plâtre écroulé parmi les primevères; Et je restai là, morne, avec les yeux pensifs, Et j'entendais en moi des marteaux convulsifs Renfoncer les clous noirs des intimes Calvaires! Translation by Konrad Bongard

The gypsum Jesus always stalled me in my steps Like a curse at the old convent door; Crouching meekly, I bend to exalt an idol Whose forgiveness I do not implore.

Not long ago, at the crickets' hour, I roamed dim Meadows in a restful reverie Reciting 'Eloa', with my hair worn by the wind And no audience save for the trees.

But now, as I lie with knees bent beneath Christ's scaffold, I see his crumbling mortar cross With its plaster buried in the roses, and am saddened -

For if I listen close enough, I can almost hear The sound of coal-black nails being wrung in To his wrists, the savage piercing of Longinus' spear.

Tribute
Several schools and libraries of Quebec bear the name of Émile Nelligan. Since 1979 the Prix Émile-Nelligan has rewarded the authors of a French-language poetry book written by a young poet in North America.

On June 7, 2005, the Fondation Émile-Nelligan and the City of Montreal inaugurated a bust to his memory in the Carré Saint-Louis. Another monument to his memory stands in Quebec City.

The poetry of Nelligan inspired numerous music composers:

 * André Gagnon. Nelligan, Toronto: Disques SRC, 2005, 2 discs (Concert recorded at the Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier of the Place des Arts in Montréal, on February 18 and 19 2005)
 * Gilbert Patenaude. Compagnons des Amériques : poètes québécois mis en musique, Montréal: Disques XXI, 2005, 1 disc
 * Jean Chatillon. Clair de lune sur les eaux du rêve, Bécancour: Éditions de l'Écureuil noir, 2001 (1 disc)
 * Jacques Hétu. Le tombeau de Nelligan : mouvement symphonique opus 52, Saint-Nicolas: Doberman-Yppan, 1995 (1 partition: 44 pages)
 * John Craton.  Jardin sentimental : Cinq poèmes d'Émile Nelligan, Bedford, Ind: Wolfhead Music, 2004, 18 pages.
 * André Gagnon and Claude Léveillée. Monique Leyrac chante Emile Nelligan, Verdun: Disques Mérite, 1991, 1 disc
 * André Gagnon. Nelligan : livret d'opéra, Montréal: Leméac, 1990, 90 pages (text by Michel Tremblay)
 * Jacques Hétu. Les abîmes du rêve : opus 36, Montréal: Sociéte nouvelle d'enregistrement, 1987, duration 30:21
 * Richard G. Boucher. Anges maudits, veuillez m'aider! : cantate dramatique sur des poèmes d'Émile Nelligan, Montréal: Radio Canada international, 1981, duration 38 min.
 * Omer Létourneau. Violon de villanelle : choeur pour voix de femmes, Québec: Procure générale de musique enr., 1940 (1 partition: 8 pages)

Collections

 * 1903 - Émile Nelligan et son œuvre, Montréal: Beauchemin (Louis Dantin) online
 * 1952 - Poésies complètes : 1896-1899, Montréal: Fides (Luc Lacourcière)
 * 1966 - Poèmes choisis, Montréal: Fides (Eloi de Grandmont)
 * 1980 - Poèmes choisis, Montréal: Fides (Roger Chamberland)
 * 1982 - 31 Poèmes autographes : 2 carnets d'hôpital, 1938, Trois-Rivières: Forges
 * 1991 - Le Récital des anges : 50 poèmes d'Émile Nelligan, Trois-Rivières: Forges (Claude Beausoleil)
 * 1991 - Oeuvres complètes, Montréal: Fides, 2 volumes (Réjean Robidoux and Paul Wyczynski)
 * 1991 - Poèmes autographes, Montréal: Fides, 1991, (Paul Wyczynski)
 * 1995 - Poésie en version originale, Montréal: Triptyque (André Marquis)
 * 1997 - Poèmes choisis : le récital de l'ange, Saint-Hippolyte: Noroît (Jocelyne Felx)
 * 1998 - Poésies complètes, La Table Ronde: Paris, 1998
 * 2004 - Poésies complètes, 1896-1941, Montréal: Fides (text established, annotated and presented by Réjean Robidoux and Paul Wyczynski)
 * 2006 - Oeuvres complètes, Montréal: Bibliothèque québécoise (critical edition by Jacques Michon, reviewed, corrected and augmented by André Gervais in collaboration with Jacques Michon)
 * 2020 – Émile Nelligan et son œuvre, Québec, Codicille éditeur (« Bibliothèque mobile de littérature québécoise »). (HTML)

In translation

 * Selected Poems - 1960 (translated by P. F. Widdows)
 * The Complete Poems of Emile Nelligan - 1982 (translated by Fred Cogswell)
 * Ship of Gold: The Essential Poems of Emile Nelligan - 2017 (translated by Marc di Saverio)
 * Selected Verse of Emile Nelligan - 2023 (translated by Ian Allaby)

In English

 * Nina Milner. "Émile Nelligan (1879-1941)", in Canadian Poetry Archive, November 28, 2003
 * Talbot, Emile (2002). Reading Nelligan, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 221 p. ISBN 0-7735-2318-9
 * Fred Cogswell (1983). The Complete Poems of Émile Nelligan, Montréal: Harvest House, 120 p. ISBN 0-88772-218-0
 * P.F. Widdows (1960). Selected Poems by Émile Nelligan, Toronto: Ryerson, 39 p.

In French
On his work and life

 * Sui Caedere, "Thrène" (2009). Music album is a tribute to Quebec's damned poet Émile Nelligan, a man who saw beyond the dream, beyond the paradox of life. Contains 9 haunting tracks.
 * Lemieux, Pierre Hervé (2004). Nelligan et Françoise : l'intrigue amoureuse la plus singulière de la fin du 19e siècle québécois : biographie reconstituée à l'occasion du centième anniversiare de la publication du recueil de poésie d'Émile Nelligan, 1904-2004, Lévis: Fondation littéraire Fleur de lys, 537 p. ISBN 2-89612-025-4
 * Wyczynski, Paul (2002). Album Nelligan : une biographie en images, Saint-Laurent: Fides, 2002, 435 pages ISBN 2-7621-2191-4
 * Wyczynski, Paul (1999). Émile Nelligan : biographie, Saint-Laurent: Bibliothèque Québécoise, 1999, 345 p. ISBN 2-89406-150-1 (édition originale : Nelligan, 1879-1941, Montréal: Fides, 1987)
 * Beausoleil, Claude. "Émile Nelligan et le temps", in Nuit blanche, numero 74, Spring 1999
 * Beaudoin, Réjean (1997). Une Étude des Poésies d'Émile Nelligan, Montréal: Boréal, 106 p.
 * Vanasse, André (1996). Émile Nelligan, le spasme de vivre, Montréal: XYZ, 201 p. ISBN 2-89261-179-2 (biographie romancée)
 * Lemieux, Pierre H. "La nouvelle édition critique de Nelligan", in Lettres québécoises, numero 66, Summer 1992
 * Whitfield, Agnès (1988). "Nelligan, de l'homme à l'œuvre", in Lettres québécoises, numéro 49, Spring 1988
 * Bertrand, Réal (1980). Émile Nelligan, Montréal: Lidec, 62 p. ISBN 2-7608-3249-X
 * Wyczynski, Paul (1973). Bibliographie descriptive et critique d'Emile Nelligan, Ottawa : Editions de l'Université d'Ottawa, 319 p. ISBN 0-7766-3951-X
 * Wyczynski, Paul (1965). Poésie et symbole : perspectives du symbolisme : Emile Nelligan, Saint-Denys Garneau, Anne Hébert : le langage des arbres, 	Montréal: Librairie Déom, 252 p.
 * Wyczynski, Paul (1960). Émile Nelligan : sources et originalité de son oeuvre, Ottawa: Éditions de l'Université d'Ottawa, 349 p.

title: Émile Nelligan


text:
Hagen

Hagen is a city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, on the southeastern edge of the Ruhr area, 15 km south of Dortmund, where the rivers Lenne and Volme meet the Ruhr. In 2010, the population was 188,529.

The city is home to the FernUniversität Hagen (University of Hagen), the only state-funded distance education university in Germany.

History
The Hagen region first appears in historical records in the Lorsch Annals (Annales Laureshamenses): In 775, Charlemagne's troops conquered the Saxon Hohensyburg (then called Sigiburg) castle located near the city limits of Dortmund above the Ruhr-Lenne estuary.

Hagen itself was first mentioned around the year 1200, and is presumed to have been the name of a farm at the confluence of the Volme and the Ennepe rivers. After the conquest of Burg Volmarstein in 1324, Hagen passed to the County of Mark. After the Treaty of Xanten in 1614, it was granted to the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which became part of the newly founded Kingdom of Prussia in 1701.

A major fire destroyed a significant part of Hagen's buildings in 1724. With the help of the Prussian state administration, Hagen was rebuilt within a short time.

Hagen was granted town privileges on 3 September 1746.

After the defeat of Prussia in the Fourth Coalition, Hagen was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Berg founded by France from 1807 to 1813. It became part of the new Prussian province of Westphalia after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

During the German Empire from 1871 to 1914, Hagen experienced a period of prosperity. Through urbanisation and industrialisation of the 19th century, the city developed into the main centre for the entire region south of the river Ruhr. In 1887, Hagen was administratively separated from the district of Hagen and became an independent city (urban district).

In the years following the turn of the century, the banker and patron Karl Ernst Osthaus brought many later important architects to the city, including Henry van de Velde, Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius. They established Hagen's reputation as a link between Art Nouveau and Modernism (Hagener Impul). The centrepiece of this initiative was the Folkwang Museum and the (only partially built) garden city of Hohenhagen (Gartenstadt Hohenhagen).

In reaction to the Kapp Putsch in March 1920, when rightists tried to overthrow the elected government and set up an authoritarian regime, tens of thousands of leftist workers in the Ruhr Valley, Germany's most important industrial area, rose up in protest. They were known as the Red Ruhr Army.

Thousands of workers went on strike and fought during the Ruhr Uprising, 13 March – 2 April 1920. Government and paramilitary forces were ordered against the workers, suppressing the uprising, and killing an estimated 1,000 workers. A memorial to the uprising was installed in Hagen.

By 1928, Hagen had developed into a city of more than 100,000 inhabitants.

During World War II, Hagen was bombed repeatedly, by both the Royal Air Force and the United States Eighth Air Force. On the night of 1 October 1943, 243 Lancasters and 8 Mosquitoes from the Royal Air Force's Bomber Command attacked the city. According to the Bomber Command Campaign Diary, "This raid was a complete success achieved on a completely cloud-covered target of small size, with only a moderate bomber effort and at trifling cost." Hagen sustained severe damage from that raid, and hundreds of civilians were killed. After the war, the city centre was almost completely destroyed, so that only the surrounding districts still partially reflect the city's Wilhelminian architectural character.

In April 1945, the US Army liberated the city, which was later part of the British occupation zone. In August 1948, Hagen was included in the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia and soon became part of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, also known as West Germany), founded in 1949.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Hagen experienced another stormy growth and mainly elted into the flatter, northern plain.

Recent discoveries
In August 2021, discovery of a cache of Nazi artifacts from a house was announced. A history teacher revealed a painted portrait of Adolf Hitler and medals decorated with eagles and swastikas, a newspaper from 1945, a pistol, gas masks, brass knuckles, and stacks of documents. It is also found out that the house once served as the headquarters of the Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt.

Economy
Owing to the extensive use of water power along the rivers Ruhr, Lenne, Volme and Ennepe, metal processing played an important role in the region of Hagen in and even before the 15th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries, textile and steel industries, as well as paper production were developed here.

In the early 21st century, Hagen is the home of the Suedwestfaelische Industrie- und Handelskammer, as well as Sparkasse Hagen, the local public savings bank. The bank's former headquarters, the Sparkasse Hagen Tower, was a regional landmark until its demolition in 2004.

The city is heavily indebted and in the process of cutting city services in order to balance its budget.

The city has capitalized on the export of a wide variety of breads, most notably Hagenschmagenbrot, a traditional dark bread.

Education
One of the five branches of South Westphalia University of Applied Sciences is located in the city (also: Fachhochschule Südwestfalen (FH SWF)), which offers various engineering programmes. This institution was founded in the city in 1824.

Attractions
Hagen is home to the LWL-Freilichtmuseum Hagen, or Hagen Westphalian Open-Air Museum, a collection of historic industrial facilities. Trades such as printing, brewing, smithing, milling, and many others are represented, not only with static displays, but as living, working operations that visitors may in some cases participate in. It is located near the Hagen community of Eilpe.

The Historisches Centrum Hagen includes the city museum and Werdringen castle. In the Blätterhöhle cave in Hagen, the oldest fossils of modern people in Westphalia and the Ruhr were found. Some date to the early Mesolithic, 10,700 years B.C.E. It seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people in this area maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies.

Boroughs

some localities of Hagen:
 * Hagen-Dahl
 * Hagen-Emst
 * Hagen-Priorei
 * Hagen-Rummenohl
 * Hagen-Halden

Demographics
The following table shows the largest foreign resident groups in the city of Hagen.

Bundestag
Part of the Hagen – Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis I constituency for elections to the Bundestag

Mayor
The current Mayor of Hagen is independent Erik O. Schulz, elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 60,884 ! 98.1 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 1,156 ! 1.9 ! colspan=3| Total ! 62,040 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 147,361 ! 42.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Erik O. Schulz
 * align=left| Independent (CDU/Green/FDP)
 * 31,086
 * 51.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Wolfgang Jörg
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 15,547
 * 25.5
 * align=left| Josef Bücker
 * align=left| Hagen Active
 * 5,214
 * 8.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Michael Eiche
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 5,197
 * 8.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Laura Knüppel
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * 1,704
 * 2.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ingo Hentschel
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,534
 * 2.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Thorsten Kiszkenow
 * align=left| Pirate Party Germany
 * 420
 * 0.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Franco Flebus
 * align=left| The Republicans
 * 182
 * 0.3
 * align=left| Pirate Party Germany
 * 420
 * 0.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Franco Flebus
 * align=left| The Republicans
 * 182
 * 0.3
 * 0.3
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

The following is a list of mayors since 1946:
 * 1946–1956: Fritz Steinhoff (SPD)
 * 1956–1963: Helmut Turck (SPD)
 * 1963–1964: Fritz Steinhoff (SPD)
 * 1964–1971: Lothar Wrede (SPD)
 * 1971–1989: Rudolf Loskand (SPD)
 * 1989:     Renate Löchter (SPD)
 * 1989–1999: Dietmar Thieser (SPD)
 * 1999–2004: Wilfried Horn (CDU)
 * 2004–2009: Peter Demnitz (SPD)
 * 2009–2014: Jörg Dehm (CDU)
 * since 2014: Erik O. Schulz (independent)

City council
The Hagen city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 61,116 ! 98.7 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 825 ! 1.3 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 61,941 ! 100.0 ! ! 52 ! 10 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 147,361 ! 42.0 ! 3.1 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 16,813
 * 27.5
 * 4.5
 * 14
 * 6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 15,573
 * 25.5
 * 7.3
 * 13
 * 8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 8,114
 * 13.3
 * 4.3
 * 7
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 5,692
 * 9.3
 * 5.6
 * 5
 * 3
 * align=left| Hagen Active (HA)
 * 4,186
 * 6.8
 * 1.3
 * 4
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 2,829
 * 4.6
 * 1.0
 * 2
 * ±0
 * align=left| Citizens for Hohenlimburg (BfHo)
 * 2,066
 * 3.4
 * 1.1
 * 2
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 1,762
 * 2.9
 * 1.4
 * 2
 * 1
 * align=left| Hagen Activist Circle (HAK)
 * 1,740
 * 2.8
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 1,692
 * 2.8
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Pirate Party Germany (Piraten)
 * 436
 * 0.7
 * 0.9
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Republicans (REP)
 * 194
 * 0.3
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 19
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 0.9
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Republicans (REP)
 * 194
 * 0.3
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 19
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Transport
The Autobahnen A1, A45 and A46 pass by Hagen.

Hagen has been an important rail junction for the southeastern Ruhr valley since the first rail line opened in 1848. The marshalling yard of Hagen-Vorhalle is among Germany's largest, and the central station offers connections to the ICE network of Deutsche Bahn as well as to local and S-Bahn services. Since December 2005, Hagen has also been the starting point for a service into Essen, the Ruhr-Lenne-Express, operated by Abellio Deutschland. Since 2022, it has been operated by DB Regio.

Local traffic is handled by Hagener Straßenbahn (Hagen Tramways), which, despite its name, offers only bus services, as the last tramway route in Hagen was abandoned in May 1976. All in all there is a large-scale network of 36 bus lines in Hagen. All local rail and bus services operate under the transport association VRR.

Sport
The German Basketball Federation (DBB) is based in Hagen.

Sport clubs in Hagen:
 * TSV Hagen 1860 - largest club (multiple fistball champions)
 * SSV Hagen (1974 basketball champions), later known as Brandt Hagen
 * SSV Hagen, a sport club for football, cycling, jiu-jitsu, weightlifting and jazzdance. The football team plays its home matches in the Ischelandstadion.
 * Phoenix Hagen, Basketball Bundesliga - ENERVIE Arena im Sportpark Ischeland
 * Hasper SV
 * Hohenlimburger SV (multiple women water polo champions)

Hagen is also famous of its annual equestrian show 'Horses & Dreams' in April at Hof Kasselmann. It is one of the greatest equestrian shows in Germany and abroad. In 2005 they were the host of the European Dressage Championships after Moscow withdrew. In 2021 Hagen is again host of the 2021 European Dressage Championships for seniors and U25.

Twin towns – sister cities
Hagen is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Liévin, France (1960)
 * 🇫🇷 Montluçon, France (1965)
 * 🇩🇪 Steglitz-Zehlendorf (Berlin), Germany (1967)
 * 🇦🇹 Bruck an der Mur, Austria (1974)
 * 🇷🇺 Smolensk, Russia (1985)
 * 🇮🇱 Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut, Israel (1997)

Notable people

 * Artur Axmann (1913–1996), politician (NSDAP) and Reichsjugendführer
 * Freddy Breck (1942–2008), percussionist
 * Heinrich Brocksieper (1898–1968), painter and photographer, experimental filmmaker and former Bauhaus student
 * Franz Bronstert (1895–1967), painter
 * Wilhelm Böing (born 1846), father of William E. Boeing, founder of the Boeing aviation company
 * Georg von Detten (1887–1934), Nazi Party politician and SA-Gruppenführer
 * Hansheinrich Dransmann (1894–1964), conductor, composer
 * René Eidams (born 1989), darts player
 * Liselotte Funcke (1918–2012), liberal politician, vice president of federal parliament, state Minister of Economy in North Rhine-Westphalia, Federal Commissioner for Foreigners
 * Jan-Ole Gerster (born 1978), film director and screenwriter
 * Mousse T. (Mustafa Gündogdu) (born 1966), DJ, musician, remixer and producer
 * Karl Halle (1819–1895), also known as Sir Charles Hallé, pianist, composer and orchestra conductor
 * Friedrich Harkort (1793–1880), railway and industrial pioneer and politician (German Progressive Party)
 * Bettina Hauert (born 1982), professional golfer
 * Annette Humpe (born 1950), music producer, singer of the bands Ideal and Ich + Ich
 * Claus Jacobi (politician) (born 1971), politician (SPD), mayor of Gevelsberg
 * Nena (Gabriele Susanne Kerner) (born 1960), pop singer
 * Mambo Kurt (born 1967), musician and solo entertainer
 * Will Lammert (1892–1957), sculptor
 * Ernst Meister (1911–1979), lyricist, radio playwright, narrator and theater author
 * Erwin Milzkott (1913–1986), violinist
 * Barbara Morgenstern (born 1971), musician
 * Hans Nieland (1900–1976), politician (NSDAP)
 * Karl Ernst Osthaus (1874–1921), banker and patron of avant-garde art and architecture
 * Hugo Paul (1905–1962), politician (KPD)
 * Hans Reichel (1949–2011), guitarist, violinist, instrument maker and typographer
 * Herbert Reinecker (1914–2007), writer and screenwriter
 * Nicholas Rescher (born 1928), philosopher
 * Eugen Richter (1838–1906), politician (German Progressive Party)
 * Jürgen Schläder (born 1948), musicologist
 * Emil Schumacher (1912–1999), painter (abstract art)
 * Hugo Siepmann (1868-1950), industrialist
 * Fritz Steinhoff (1897–1969), politician (SPD)
 * Georg von Vincke (1811–1875), politician
 * Antje Vowinckel (born 1964), sound artist, radio artist and musician.
 * Burkhart Waldecker (1902–1964), explorer
 * Henning Wehn (born 1974), comedian
 * Rotraut Wisskirchen (1936–2018), Biblical archaeologist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hagen


text:
William Kintner

William Roscoe Kintner (21 April 1915 – 1 February 1997) was an American soldier, foreign policy analyst, and diplomat.

Kintner was born in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania to Joseph and Florence Kintner, the eighth of nine children. He was appointed to the United States Military Academy in 1936, and was commissioned a second lieutenant upon graduating in 1940. A career Army officer, he landed at Omaha Beach for Operation Overlord during the invasion of Normandy in 1944. He served during the Korean War as an infantry battalion commander during the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. He retired from the U.S. Army as a colonel in 1961, having earned the Bronze Star Medal and Legion of Merit, both with oak leaf clusters.

While in the service, he earned an M.A. and Ph.D. from Georgetown University in 1948. His doctoral dissertation, a study of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, was published in 1950 as The Front is Everywhere. Upon retiring from the Army, he taught political science at the University of Pennsylvania, where he remained as professor until 1985. He was deputy director of the Foreign Policy Research Institute until 1969, when he became director. In 1973, President Gerald Ford appointed him U.S. Ambassador to Thailand, a post in which he served from 1973 to 1975. After his diplomatic stint, he returned to Philadelphia in 1975 to serve as president as FPRI and as editor of its journal, Orbis. In that capacity he initiated a joint project with Soviet Institute for the Study of the United States in Canada which permitted the yearly exchange of top non-governmental scholars despite strained Cold War diplomatic relations.

In 1986, President Ronald Reagan appointed him to the board of directors of the United States Institute of Peace.

Kintner was a prolific author, writing on foreign policy, arms control, and strategic planning until his death in 1997 of cancer at the age of 81. He is interred at Bryn Athyn Cemetery in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania.

Personal life
Kintner married Xandree Hyatt in 1940, and the couple had three daughters and a son. Widowed in 1986, he married Faith Child Halterman in 1987.

Works
Articles
 * "The Orchestration of Crisis." Esquire, May 1959, pp. 59–63.

Books
 * The Front Is Everywhere: Militant Communism in Action. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. ISBN 978-0819140111.
 * Atomic Weapons in Land Combat, with Colonel G.C. Reinhardt (1953)
 * Forging a New Sword, a Study of the Department of Defense with Joseph Coffey and Raymond Albright (1958)
 * Protracted Conflict: A Challenging Study of Communist Strategy, with James E. Dougherty, Alvin J. Cottrell, and Robert Strausz-Hupé (1959)
 * A Forward Strategy for America, sequel to Protracted Conflict, with Stefan T. Possony and Robert Strausz-Hupé (1961)
 * The New Frontier of War: Political Warfare, Present and Future (1962) ISBN 978-1258422158.
 * Building the Atlantic World (1963)
 * Peace and the Strategy Conflict (1967)
 * The Nuclear Revolution in Soviet Military Affairs (1968) ISBN 978-0806107721
 * Safeguard: Why the ABM Makes Sense (1969)
 * The Prudent Case for Safeguard (1969)
 * The Uncertain Strategic Balance in the 1970's (1969)
 * Eastern Europe and European Security (1971) ISBN 978-0842400121
 * Soviet Military Trends: Implications for U.S. Security, with Robert L. Pfaltzgraff (1971) ISBN 9780844710525
 * National Strategy in a Decade of Change: An Emerging United States Policy, with Richard Foster (1973) ISBN 9780669904802
 * SALT: Implications for Arms Control in the 1970s (1973) ISBN 978-0822984412
 * Technology and International Politics: the Crisis of Wishing (1975) ISBN 9780669942682
 * A Matter of Two Chinas: the China-Taiwan Issue in U.S. Foreign Policy, with John Franklin Copper (1979)
 * Soviet Global Strategy (1987) ISBN 9780915979202
 * Arms Control: the American Dilemma (1987) ISBN 0-88702-026-7
 * The Role of Ancient Israel "Written with the Finger of God": A Swedenborgian Perspective of the History of the Israelites From Abraham to Jesus (1996) ISBN 978-0533117406

title: William Kintner


text:
Jean Moréas

Jean Moréas (born Ioannis A. Papadiamantopoulos, Ιωάννης Α. Παπαδιαμαντόπουλος; 15 April 1856 – 31 March 1910 ), was a Greek poet, essayist, and art critic, who wrote mostly in the French language but also in Greek during his youth.

Biography
Moréas was born into a distinguished Athenian family on April 15, 1856. His ancestors included two well-known men of the Greek War of Independence, namely his paternal grandfather and namesake Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos, born in Corinth but of ultimately Epirote ancestry (he was executed after the fall of Missolonghi), and his maternal great uncle Iakovos Tombazis (c. 1782–1829), from Hydra, who became one of the first admirals of the Greek navy. Moreas's father was Adamantios Papadiamantopoulos from Patras; a judge, scholar, and poet. Moreas received a French education, and went to Paris in 1875 to study law at the University of Paris. While in France, he began associating with literary circles, and became acquainted with Les Hydropathes, a group of French writers that included Alphonse Allais, Charles Cros, Guy de Maupassant, and Léon Bloy. He was also an acquaintance of the Greek artist Demetrios Galanis and the Romanian poet Ion Minulescu.

Moréas died in Paris, France, on March 31, 1910.

Works
Moréas published poetry in his publications Lutèce and Le Chat noir, and collected his poems into two editions, Les Syrtes ("The Sandbanks") and Cantilènes, which were strongly influenced by Paul Verlaine.

He was initially a practitioner of the style of Symbolism, and wrote the Symbolist Manifesto (1886), which he published in the newspaper Le Figaro, partly to redeem the reputation of the new generation of young writers from the charge of "decadence" that the press had implied. He was considered one of the most important Symbolist poets until the early 1890s.

In 1891, as Symbolism became more openly associated with anarchism and as the French culture of the Belle Epoque became increasingly dominated by revanchism and anti-German sentiment, Moréas published Le Pèlerin passionné which rejected Northern European and Germanic influences, such as Romanticism (as well as some aspects of Symbolism), in favor of solely Classical, Ancient Roman and Ancient Greek, influences. This work helped initiate the École Romane, the aesthetic of which provided Charles Maurras with the ideology necessary for the far-right philosophy Action Française.

Moréas also wrote Les Demoiselles Goubert, a novel, in association with Paul Adam. His most important publications were:

 * Les Syrtes (1884)
 * Les Cantilènes (1886)
 * Le Pèlerin passionné (1891)
 * Stances (1893)
 * Contes de la vielle France (1904)

title: Jean Moréas


text:
Gottfried Christian Friedrich Lücke

Gottfried Christian Friedrich Lücke (24 August 1791 – 4 February 1855) was a German theologian.

Luecke was born at Egeln near Magdeburg, where his father was a merchant. He studied theology at Halle and Göttingen. In 1814 he received the degree of doctor in philosophy from Halle; in 1816 he moved to the Friedrich Wilhelm University, Berlin, where he became licentiate in theology, and qualified as Privatdozent.

He soon became friendly with Friedrich Schleiermacher and de Wette, and was associated with them in 1819 in the redaction of the Theologische Zeitschrift. Meanwhile, his lectures and publications (among the latter a Grundriss der Neutestamentlichen Hermeneutik, 1817) had brought him into considerable repute, and he was appointed professor extraordinarius at the new University of Bonn in the spring of 1818; in the following autumn he became professor ordinarius. From Bonn, where he had JCW Augusti (1772–1841), JKL Gieseler, and Karl Immanuel Nitzsch for colleagues, he was called in 1827 to Göttingen to succeed KF Staudlin (1761-1826). In that year he helped to found the Theologische Studien und Kritiken, the chief organ of the "mediation" theology (Vermittelungstheologie). At Göttingen he remained, declining all further calls elsewhere, as to Erlangen, Kiel, Halle, Tübingen, Jena and Leipzig, until his death.

Lücke, who was one of the most learned, multilateral and influential of the so-called "mediation" school of evangelical theologians (Vermittelungstheologie), is now chiefly known by his Commentar über die Schriften des Evangelisten Johannes (4 vols., 1820–1832). He is an intelligent maintainer of the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel; in connection with this thesis he was one of the first to argue for the early date and non-apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse. His Einleitung in die Offenbarung Johannes was published in 1832. He also published a Synopsis evangeliorum Matthaei, Marci et Lucae cum parallelis Joannis pericopis, jointly with W. M. L. de Wette (1818).

title: Gottfried Christian Friedrich Lücke


text:
Threshold pledge system

The threshold pledge or fund and release system is a way of making a fundraising pledge as a group of individuals, often involving charitable goals or financing the provision of a public good. An amount of money is set as the goal or threshold to reach for the specified purpose and interested individuals will pitch in, but the money at first either remains with the pledgers or is held in escrow.

When the threshold is reached, the pledges are called in (or transferred from the escrow fund) and a contract is formed so that the collective good is supplied; a variant is that the money is collected when the good is actually delivered. If the threshold is not reached by a certain date (or perhaps if no contract is ever signed, etc.), the pledges are either never collected or, if held in escrow, are simply returned to the pledgers. In economics, this type of model is known as an assurance contract.

This system is most often applied to creative works, both for financing new productions and for buying out existing works; in the latter cases, it is sometimes known as ransom publishing model or Street Performer Protocol (SPP).

History
The Street Performer Protocol is a natural extension of the much older idea of funding the production of written or creative works through agreements between groups of potential readers or users.

The first illustrated edition of John Milton's Paradise Lost was published under a subscription system; and Mozart and Beethoven, among other composers, used subscriptions to premiere concerts and first print editions of their works. Unlike today's meaning of subscription, this meant that a fixed number of people had to sign up and pay some amount before the concert could take place or the printing press started.

"These three (piano) concertos K413-415 ... formed an important milestone in his career, being the first in the series of great concertos that he wrote for Vienna, and the first to be published in a printed edition. Initially, however, he followed the usual practice of making them available in manuscript copies. Mozart advertised for subscribers in January 1783: 'These three concertos, which can be performed with full orchestra including wind instruments, or only a quattro, that is with 2 violins, 1 viola and violoncello, will be available at the beginning of April to those who have subscribed for them (beautifully copied, and supervised by the composer himself).' Six months later, Mozart complained that it was taking a long time to secure enough subscribers. This was despite the fact that he had meanwhile scored a great success on two fronts:..."

However, there are a number of differences between this traditional model and the SPP. The most important difference is that traditionally, the subscribers would be among the first to get access and would do so with the understanding that the work would likely always be a "rare" good; thus, there was some status in owning a copy, as well as the prestige of being among the patrons. Additionally, subscriptions were generally sold at a set price, but some wealthy subscribers may have given more in order to be a patron. In the modern Street Performer Protocol, each funder chooses the amount they want to pay, and the work is released to the public and freely reproduced.

In 1970, Stephen Breyer argued for the importance of this model in "The Uneasy Case for Copyright".

The Street Performer Protocol was successfully used to release the source code and brand name of the Blender 3D animation program. After NaN Technologies BV went bankrupt in 2002, the copyright and trademark rights to Blender went to the newly created NaN Holding BV. The newly created Blender Foundation campaigned for donations to obtain the right to release the software as free and open source under the GNU General Public License. NaN Holding BV set the price tag at 100,000 euros. More than 1,300 users became members and donated more than 50 euros each, in addition to anonymous users, non-membership individual donations and companies. On October 13, 2002, Blender was released on the Internet as free software.

Variations of the SPP include the Rational Street Performer Protocol and the Wall Street Performer Protocol.

Street Performer Protocol
Street Performer Protocol is an early description of a type of threshold pledge system. SPP is the threshold pledge system encouraging the creation of creative works in the public domain or copylefted, described by Steven Schear and separately by cryptographers John Kelsey and Bruce Schneier. This assumes that current forms of copyright and business models of the creative industries will become increasingly inefficient or unworkable in the future, because of the ease of copying and distribution of digital information.

Under the Street Performer Protocol, the artist announces that when a certain amount of money is received in escrow, the artist will release a work (book, music, software, etc.) into the public domain or under a free content license. Interested donors make their donations to a publisher, who contracts with the artist for the work's creation and keeps the donations in escrow, identified by their donors, until the work is released.

If the artist releases the work on time, the artist receives payment from the escrow fund. If not, the publisher repays the donors, possibly with interest. As detailed above, contributions may also be refunded if the threshold is not reached within a reasonable expiring date. The assessed threshold also includes a fee which compensates the publisher for costs and assumption of risks.

The publisher may act like a traditional publisher, by soliciting sample works and deciding which ones to support, or it may serve only as an escrow agent and not care about the quality of the works (like a vanity press).

Ransom model in software
In software, source code escrow is a publishing model that applies the SPP to source code (often involving existing proprietary software) which is eventually released under an open source or free software license.

List of threshold-pledge websites

 * Community Funded - A crowdfunding platform-oriented threshold-pledge website (threshold-pledge currently disabled)
 * GlobalGiving - A project-oriented threshold-pledge website
 * IndieGoGo - A project-oriented threshold-pledge website
 * Kickstarter - A project-oriented threshold-pledge website
 * PledgeBank - An honor system fund and release website
 * PledgeMusic - A direct-to-fan music funding website
 * RocketHub - An international project-oriented pledge website
 * Sellaband - A crowdfunding music funding website
 * Tides Center - A project-oriented threshold-pledge website
 * Patreon - A crowdfunding platform providing "recurring funding for artists and creators"

title: Threshold pledge system


text:
Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia

Hamm (, Latin: Hammona) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the northeastern part of the Ruhr area. As of 2016 its population was 179,397. The city is situated between the A1 motorway and A2 motorway. Hamm railway station is an important hub for rail transport and renowned for its distinctive station building.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms has been in use in its present form for about 750 years. It shows the markish chessboard ("märkischen Schachbalken") in red and silver on a golden field. Originally it was the founders' coat of arms, i. e. the Counts of Mark. The chessboard and the colours are often displayed in the coats of arms of further towns founded by that family line. Similarly, the colours of the city are red and white.

Overview
The name Ham means "corner" in the old Low German dialect spoken at that time. In the old times the name thom Hamme would be used, which evolved slowly into its modern form Hamm. The name derives from the description of the Hamm's location in the corner of the Lippe river and the narrow Ahse affluent, where it was founded on Ash Wednesday in March 1226 by Count Adolf I of the Mark.
 * 1350 The Black death killed nearly all of the citizens. Only seven families survived.
 * 1469 Hamm became a member of the Hanseatic League. It was one of the most powerful towns in the region, while the large cities of the today's Ruhr area still were only tiny villages.
 * 1614 The Treaty of Xanten ends the conflict about the heritage of Cleve-Mark, the Electorate Brandenburg (later Prussia) inherited the Ducal Cleve and the counties Ravensburg and Mark (with Hamm)
 * 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War, Hamm was taken several times by different armed forces and had to endure changing garrisons. Almost all buildings were destroyed, except for the main church St. Georg (today: Pauluskirche) and St. Agnes church.
 * 1657 Establishment of the Gymnasium illustre (later named Gymnasium Hammonense) with three faculties (theology, jurisprudence and philosophy).
 * 1753 Establishment of the regional court (Landgericht)
 * 1767 "Märkische Kammerdeputation" established
 * 1769 Brewery Isenbeck founded
 * 1787 Changing of the "Märkische Kammerdeputation" into the "Märkische Kriegs- und Domänenkammer" by the Prussian "Generaldirektorium".
 * 1818 Hamm has 4,688 inhabitants.
 * 1820 The regional appeal court moves from Cleve to Hamm.
 * 1847 First train stops at the main station Hamm
 * 1853 Westfälische Union (later Thyssen Draht AG) was founded
 * 1856 Westfälische Draht Industrie was founded (later Klöckner Draht GmbH, today Westfälische Draht Industrie (WDI))
 * 1901 30,000 inhabitants, the district Hamm is split up into the urban district of Hamm (City) and the district of Unna.
 * 1901 Coal-mine de Wendel in Herringen starts mining (later Heinrich-Robert, now Bergwerk Ost) (first coal output 1904)
 * 1902 Coal-mine Maximilian in Werries/Ostwennemar starts mining (first coal output 1907)
 * 1905 Coal-mine Radbod in Bockum-Hövel starts mining (first coal output 1905)
 * 1912 Coal-mine Sachsen in Heessen starts mining (first coal output 1914)
 * 1914 Datteln-Hamm-Canal is completed including the new city port
 * 1938 The A2 (motorway) reaches Hamm
 * 1939-1945 55 air raids destroy nearly 60% of the old city and leave only a few historical buildings.
 * 1944 Coal-mine Maximillian closes after several problems with water drainage of the hole mine (completely flooded in 1914).
 * 1945 First meeting of the city council after the war
 * 1946 Establishment of the industrial court and the industrial court of appeal by the Allied Control Council.
 * 1953 Windsor Boys' School opens for the children on British Service personnel
 * 1956 Sport airfield founded in the Lippe meadows.
 * 1965 A1 (motorway) reaches Hamm.
 * 1976 Coal-mine Sachsen closes
 * 1983 Windsor Boys' School closes - View the Virtual Tour of the Windsor School / Windsor Boys School Hamm, Germany
 * 1984 First Landesgartenschau (horticultural show of the federal state) of North Rhine-Westphalia is held in Hamm. The old area of the coal-mine Maximillian was used for this purpose. The world largest glass elephant (Glaselefant) is built as the main attraction and until today is one of the major landmarks of the city.
 * 1990 Coal-mine Radbod closes.
 * 2002 Consecration of the Sri Kamadchi Ampal-Temple
 * 2005 Establishment of the university of applied sciences "SRH Fachhochschule Hamm"

Population development
Until 1833 any population is an approximation, in later times the population was counted or updated by the local government or other institutions of the government. ¹ "Volkszählungsergebnis" counted population

Mayor
The current Lord Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) of Hamm is Marc Herter of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2020. The Mayor is directly elected for a five year term. Prior to the 1999 local administration reform in North Rhine-Westphalia, the Oberstadtdirektor was the chief executive of the city, and was chosen by the city council.

The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:

! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate ! rowspan=2| Party ! colspan=2| First round ! colspan=2| Second round ! Votes ! % ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 70,737 ! 99.0 ! 66,367 ! 99.3 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 729 ! 1.0 ! 491 ! 0.7 ! colspan=3| Total ! 71,466 ! 100.0 ! 66,858 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 136,561 ! 52.3 ! 136,467 ! 49.0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Marc Herter
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 28,775
 * 40.7
 * 42,190
 * 63.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Thomas Hunsteger-Petermann
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 26,464
 * 37.4
 * 24,177
 * 36.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Arnela Sačić
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
 * 5,086
 * 7.2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Pierre Jung
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 3,137
 * 4.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ingo Müller
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 2,476
 * 3.5
 * align=left| Cevdet Gürle
 * align=left| Pro Hamm
 * 1,829
 * 2.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Gerd Heistermann
 * align=left| Independent
 * 1,190
 * 1.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Sandra Riveiro Vega
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,111
 * 1.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Peter Kessler
 * align=left| Independent
 * 496
 * 0.7
 * bgcolor=#553A26|
 * align=left| Christian Worch
 * align=left| The Right
 * 173
 * 0.2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Peter Kessler
 * align=left| Independent
 * 496
 * 0.7
 * bgcolor=#553A26|
 * align=left| Christian Worch
 * align=left| The Right
 * 173
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Hamm city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 70,109 ! 98.4 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 1,163 ! 1.6 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 71,272 ! 100.0 ! ! 58 ! ±0 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 136,561 ! 52.2 ! 0.7 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 25,992
 * 37.1
 * 2.0
 * 22
 * 2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 23,385
 * 33.4
 * 9.2
 * 19
 * 6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 8,925
 * 12.7
 * 5.5
 * 7
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 3,575
 * 5.1
 * 1.0
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 3,274
 * 4.7
 * 4.0
 * 3
 * 3
 * align=left| Pro Hamm (WG Pro)
 * 2,555
 * 3.6
 * 0.8
 * 2
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 2,068
 * 2.9
 * 1.4
 * 2
 * 1
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=#553A26|
 * align=left| The Right (Die Rechte)
 * 213
 * 0.3
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Voters (FW)
 * 122
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * ±0
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Voters (FW)
 * 122
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * ±0
 * ±0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Incorporations
In 1939, 1968 and 1975 Hamm incorporated several towns and municipalities: in 1939 the village Mark (which the Counts and the county took the name of) and in 1968 the villages of Berge and Westtünnen. In the reorganisation of 1975, the following towns and municipalities were incorporated into the City of Hamm:

 * 1) The town of Bockum-Hövel, Lüdinghausen district
 * 2) The town of Heessen, Beckum district
 * 3) The municipality of Uentrop, Unna district, formed in 1968, including the municipalities of Braam-Ostwennemar, Frielinghausen, Haaren, Norddinker, Schmehausen, Uentrop, Vöckinghausen and Werries
 * 4) The municipality of Rhynern, (Unna district, without Hilbeck incorporated by Werl), formed in 1968, including the municipalities of Allen, Freiske, Hilbeck, Osterflierich, Osttünnen, Rhynern, Süddinker and Wambeln
 * 5) The municipality of Pelkum, (Unna district), formed in 1968, including the municipalities of Herringen, Lerche, Pelkum, Sandbochum, Weetfeld and parts of Wiescherhöfen.

The number of citizens more than doubles from 83.000 in 1974 to 173.000 in 1975.

City structure
Hamm has seven quarters (Stadtbezirk), each divided into residential areas like City, which actually means the center of the city around the Pauluschurch or like Hövel-Radbod near the former entrance to the coalmine Radbod in the quarter Bockum-Hövel. The following table shows the situation in 2006. Every quarter is named with the prefix Hamm, like Hamm-Bockum-Hövel or Hamm-Mitte.

The former town Bockum-Hövel today forms the quarter with the largest number of inhabitants, closely followed by the centre of the city Hamm-Mitte. The latter is the smallest quarter by metric size.

Twin towns – sister cities
Hamm is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Neufchâteau, France (1967)
 * 🇺🇸 Santa Monica, United States (1969)
 * 🏴 Bradford, England, UK (1976)
 * 🇺🇸 Chattanooga, United States (1977)
 * 🇲🇽 Mazatlán, Mexico (1978)
 * 🇫🇷 Toul, France (1987)
 * 🇩🇪 Oranienburg, Germany (1990)
 * 🇵🇱 Kalisz, Poland (1991)
 * 🇹🇷 Afyonkarahisar, Turkey (2006)

Miscellaneous
In 2006 Hamm was the first city to accomplish a "Ratsbürgerentscheid" (literally: "council's citizens decision"). Subject of the plebiscite was a plan to build a 43 ha city lake (2007–2010) near the city centre. 136,521 citizens were entitled to vote, 57,563 used that possibility and 56.9% refused their approbation for the project. As minimal vote 20% (of the total 136,521 voters) had to decide between one of the possibilities (20% for Yes or 20% for NO). The city council accepted the voting and stopped the plans. This procedure is planned for future projects in NRW. Also in Hamm established was the "Baugerichtstag e. V." a society organizing a congress about the German building law. The congress is held in a two years term.

Health
The largest health facility is the Marien Hospital with its two separate buildings, Marien Hospital I the old building within the centre of the city and Marien Hospital II together 587 beds. Then there is the (EVK Hamm) Evangelisches Krankenhaus Hamm (Protestant Hospital) combined with the children's hospital south of the centre together 493 beds, the St. Barbara Klinik (Clinic) in Heessen with 422 beds and the Malteser Krankenhaus (Hospital) St. Josef in Bockum-Hövel with 260 beds. Additional there are the Klinik für manuelle Therapie (Clinic for manual therapy) within the quarter Bad Hamm (138 beds), the spa district. The Westfälisches Institut Hamm für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und psychotherapie (Westphalian Institute Hamm for Children's- and Youth psychiatry and psychotherapy) as an Institute of the federal state (158 beds) and the private Klinik (clinic) am Bärenbrunnen. (All Hospitals together have 2058 beds.) Former Hospitals are:
 * The BWK Bundeswehrkrankenhaus Hamm (Hospital of the Federal Defence Forces) closed in 2007 after a reform of the German forces
 * Knappschaftskrankenhaus (Hospital operated by the health fund for miners (Bundesknappschaft) now Marien Hospital II)
 * Märkische Kinderklinik (Children's Hospital combined with the Elisabeth Kinderklinik and now part of the EVK Hamm as "Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin")
 * St. Elisabeth Kinderklinik (Children's Hospital combined with the Märkische Kinderklinik and now part of the EVK Hamm as "Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin")

Education
Hamm has six Gymnasien (grammar schools), two comprehensive schools and several Realschulen, Hauptschulen and Grundschulen (elementary schools). The oldest Gymnasium in Hamm is the Gymnasium Hammonense which was established as academic school (small university) with three faculties in 1657. The school declined in its importance and in 1781 merged with the local Latin school and got reformed by Prussia. The new combined school was humanist Gymnasium. In 1867 the "Märkisches Gymnasium" followed as the second Gymnasium of Hamm, in 1902 the "Freiherr vom Stein Gymnasium", in 1924 the "Beisenkamp Gymnasium" – first as "Oberlyceum" (Gymnasium for girls) – and in 1968 the "Galilei-Gymnasium" were established. Additionally in Schloss Heessen there is a private school including the Gymnasium. Both comprehensive schools in Hamm are younger foundations by the city during school reforms of NRW. Hamm is also well known for its many vocational schools: In 2005 a small private university of applied sciences was established, the "SRH Fachhoschule Hamm". The private university of applied sciences started with two study programs ending with degrees of Bachelor and Master of Science for logistic engineering. The "Klinik für Psychatrie und Psychotherapie of the Marienhospital" cooperates with the University Witten-Herdecke in education and science. During the summer 2009 another university of applied sciences was founded by the federal state NRW, named Hochschule Hamm-Lippstadt. The University is divided in two departments, each with its own small Campus area, one in Hamm and another in Lippstadt.
 * "Eduard Spranger Berufskolleg für Technik" a vocational school for techniques
 * "Elisabeth Lüders Berufskolleg für Sozialwesen, Gesundheit, Hauswirtschaft und Kinderpflege" a vocational school for social welfare, health, home economics and child care, and several other schools.
 * "Friederich List Berufskolleg für Wirtschaft" a trade school

Industry and economy
Major industrial branches are the coal-mining industry, steel industry, chemical industry and the car component supplier industry. In the last century there were four coal-mines within the urban district. Today the Bergwerk Ost in Herringen is the last operating coal mine with about 3,000 employees. Mannesmann Hoesch Präzisrohr, Westfälische Draht Industrie (WDI) and Böhler Thyssen Welding are the major representatives of the steel industry, the chemical industry is represented by DuPont in Uentrop and the car supplier industry by Hella KGaA Hueck & Co. factory 4 in Bockum-Hövel with about 1000 employees. The energy industry is represented by a RWE coal power plant and a further power plant (Trianel) in Uentrop. A new coal power plant is currently under construction. The THTR-300, also in Uentrop-Schmehhausen, was decommissioned in 1989. Alongside the A2, in the southern part of the urban district, a new business park inhabits the growing logistics business. Hamm is also known as "City of Law" (Stadt des Rechts) because of the greatest German regional appeal court (Oberlandesgericht), the local court (Amtsgericht), the industrial court (Arbeitgericht) and the industrial appeal court (Landesarbeitsgericht). The Chamber of Notaries and bar association of the regional appeal court Hamm and the courts are of greater influence on the appearance of the city. Several hospitals in the urban district are also important employers, for example the EVK Hamm has about 1000 employees.

Media
The only daily newspaper of Hamm printed there, is the Westfälischer Anzeiger. At first, a weekly newspaper in Hamm was the Kreis Hammsches Wochenblatt founded by Heinich Jakob Grote in 1822. Its name was changed in 1848 to Westfälischer Anzeiger. A second newspaper appeared, founded by the Thiemann family, the Westfälische Kurier. Both co-existed until the end of the Second World War. After the War both newspapers were combined and named Westfälischer Anzeiger und Kurier. In the 1960s another name-change made the Westfälischer Anzeiger. This newspaper is the mantle of several smaller regional newspapers; together, they had a total 153,428 copies in 2004. In the 1970s the Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung unsuccessfully tried to establish its own daily newspaper.

Two weekly newspapers appear in Hamm: the Stadtanzeiger from the Westfälischer Anzeiger with a total of 384.000 copies, and the Sonntags-Rundblick by a medium-sized local company.

Since 1990 the local radio station "Radio Lippewelle Hamm" is on air and number one radio station of the local radios in NRW. On 3 October 1993 the "Offener Kanal Hamm" started broadcasting; it is a small TV project by people for the people, started through the federal state.

Culture
The Waldbühne Hamm-Heessen is one of the most active open-air theatres in Germany. The Alfred Fischer Hall is a multi-purpose event location in Heessen in a former machinery hall built by Alfred Fischer in 1912. The Städtische Musikschule Hamm is one of the oldest music schools in Germany. Hamm also has several active choirs and a jazz club and has been the home of many bands.

Roads
Hamm is linked to three motorways. The Bundesautobahn 1 (BAB 1 or A1, Puttgarden-Saarbrücken) named Hansaline with two connections No.81 and 82., the (BAB 2 or A2, Oberhausen-Berlin) with three connections No.17,18 and 19 and the A445 (Hamm-Arnsberg) which is connected by the B63 until the planned construction between Hamm and Werl is completed. The Kamener Kreuz is situated in the southwest of Hamm. Two "federal roads" (Bundesstrassen) the B61 and B63 intersect in the city centre. Several state roads (Landesstrassen) are connecting Hamm with its neighbouring towns and municipalities.

Railways
Hamm has three stations, the main railway station Hamm (Westfalen) and two minor stations, one in Bockum-Hövel and the other one in Heessen. The main station is one of the biggest railway hubs in Germany, and connected with one of the largest marshalling yards in Europe, the latter now only partly operating. Notable is the railway station for its Art deco Gründerzeit inspired building styles. Hamm has been connected to the rail since 2 May 1847. Its huge railroad yard—Europe's biggest at the time —was bombed repeatedly during World War II, as was the city itself (in December 1944 it was hit by eleven raids on one day).

Buses
The city bus net Hamm is served by the "Stadtwerke Hamm", with 65 buses, and the "Verkehrsgesellschaft Breitenbach". A regional bus service is served by different companies and both nets serve the central bus station, which is situated in front of the main railway station in the centre of Hamm. Hamm is part of the Verkehrsgemeinschaft Ruhr-Lippe. About 12 million people are using the bus net every year, transported by 50 bus lines with 500 bus stops within the city.

Canal
Hamm is the end of the "Datteln-Hamm-Kanal", three ports are situated in the urban district. The city port, the canal end port Uentrop, and the port of "Gersteinwerk". The ports of Hamm are the second biggest canal port by freight transact, 1.4 million tons a year by ships and 0.5 million tons by train. The city port allows for ships up to 110 metres length 11.45 meters width and 2.7 metres draft. It is linked with the railway by a track to the near main railway station and the marshaling yard.

Airfield and Airports
Near city centre, in the meadows of the River Lippe, the sport airfield Hamm is situated. Its runway is 900 m long and 30 m wide. The airfield is operated by the Luftsportclub Hamm e. V.. Hamm is situated in the middle of a triangle of three smaller International Airports, in the north the Münster Osnabrück Airport (FMO) in the south-west Dortmund Airport and in the east Paderborn Lippstadt Airport. The nearest large International Airport is Düsseldorf Airport.

Notable people

 * Hendrik Willem Schweickhardt (1747–1797), painter.
 * Karl von Bodelschwingh-Velmede (1800–1873), a Prussian politician.
 * Fred. "Fritz" Schmitz (1820–1905), farmer, musician and member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
 * Friedrich Kapp (1824–1884), German-American attorney, author and politician
 * Karl Hopf (1832–1873), German historian and Byzantinist
 * Harro Magnussen (1861–1908), sculptor
 * Wilhelmine Lohmann (1872-?), teacher, social worker, and temperance leader
 * Hans Siemsen (1891–1969), journalist and author
 * Hubertus Strughold (1898–1986), physiologist, war criminal and prominent medical researcher
 * Gerd Bucerius (1906-1995), publisher of Die Zeit from 1959.
 * Ludwig Biermann (1907-1986), astronomer
 * Jean Berger (1909-2002), pianist and composer
 * Heinz Wallberg (1923-2004), conductor
 * Hanns Joachim Friedrichs (1927-1995), TV-Journalist and moderator
 * Friedrich Hirzebruch (1927-2012), mathematician, founder and first director of the Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in Bonn
 * Almuth Lütkenhaus (1930–1996), sculptor and visual artist
 * Werner Brinkmann (born 1946), jurist, director of Stiftung Warentest between 1995 - 2011
 * Klaus J. Behrendt (born in 1960), actor starred in "Tatort"
 * Ursula Neugebauer (born 1960), artist
 * Uwe Kröger (born 1964), musical actor
 * Richard Klophaus (born 1965), economist
 * İsmail YK (born 1978), musician and singer
 * Selma Ergeç (born 1978), Turkish-German actress and model
 * Giant Rooks, (founded 2014) a German indie rock band from Hamm.

Sport

 * Bernard Dietz (born 1948), footballer, captain of the West Germany national football team
 * Horst Hrubesch (born 1951), retired footballer
 * Josef Kaczor (born 1953), footballer, nicknamed „Jupp"
 * Jutta Weber (born 1954), swimmer, bronze and silver medallist at the 1972 & 1976 Summer Olympics
 * Michael Lusch (born 1964), footballer and football coach
 * Christian Vinck (born 1975), former tennis player
 * Anna Bornhoff (born 1981), footballer
 * Mike Hanke (born 1983), retired footballer who last played for Guizhou Renhe
 * Gina-Maria Adenauer (born 1985), racing driver
 * Kevin Mirocha (born 1991), Polish-German racing driver
 * Sjoeke Nüsken (born 2001), footballer for the Germany national team

Freemen
The city of Hamm has made since 1945 the following people freemen:

 * 1946: Josef Schlichter
 * 1953: Hugo Bröcker
 * 1954: Josef Weidekamp
 * 1959: Peter Röttgen
 * 1959: Ferdinand Poggel
 * 1965: Heinrich Luhmann
 * 1971: Gerhard Krampe
 * 1990: Werner Figgen
 * 1990: Günter Rinsche
 * 1994: Felix Ziethmann

title: Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia


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Johann Augustus Eberhard

Johann Augustus Eberhard (August 31, 1739 – January 6, 1809) was a German theologian and "popular philosopher".

Life and career
Eberhard was born at Halberstadt in the Principality of Halberstadt, where his father was a school teacher and the singing master at the church of St. Martin's. He studied theology at the University of Halle, and became tutor to the eldest son of Baron von der Horst, to whose family he was attached for several years. In 1763 he was appointed co-rector of the school of St. Martin's, and second preacher in the hospital church of the Holy Ghost, but he soon resigned these offices and followed his patron to Berlin. There he met C. F. Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn, with whom he formed a close friendship, and who were instrumental in his forming his own views. In 1768 he became chaplain to the workhouse at Berlin and the neighbouring fishing village of Stralow. Here he wrote his Neue Apologie des Socrates (1772), a work occasioned by an attack on the fifteenth chapter of Jean-François Marmontel's Belisarius by Peter Hofstede, a Rotterdam clergyman.

In 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg. A second volume of his Apologie appeared in 1778. In this he tried to meet some objections to the former part, and continued his inquiries into the doctrines of the Christian religion, religious toleration, and the proper rules for interpreting the Scriptures. In 1778 he accepted the professorship of philosophy at Halle, where his students included Friedrich Schleiermacher and the Serbian writer Dositej Obradović. In 1786 he was admitted as a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; in 1805 the King of Prussia conferred upon him the honorary title of privy-councillor. In 1808 he obtained the degree of Doctor in Divinity, which was awarded for his theological writings. He died in Berlin in 1809.

He was a master of the learned languages, spoke and wrote French fluently, and understood English, Italian and Dutch.

Theology
Eberhard argued in books such as Neue Apologie des Socrates that salvation did not depend upon revelation, that it was possible for a to go to heaven, and that the notion of eternal punishment contradicted its supposed aim of morally improving the sinner.

Philosophy
Eberhard argued in support of John Locke's position that all knowledge comes through the senses, but developed this into a full-blooded phenomenalism. In aesthetics he held a position that he called "subjective finalism", a label later adopted by Immanuel Kant: rather than being an objective property of objects, beauty is the relationship between the object and the representative power of the observer. For him, then, art should aim to awake and stimulate the pleasurable passions. According to Eberhard, aesthetic activity first appears in children's play.

In his position as editor of the Philosophisches Magazin (1788–1792) and the Philosophisches Archiv (1792–1795), Eberhard published many articles (most of which he wrote himself) critical of Kant. He argued that Kant's work was wholly derivative, simply adopting the work of Gottfried Leibniz, and a variety of dogmatism. Kant responded to Eberhard's criticism in his Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen Vernunft durch eine ältere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll (Königsberg, 1790).

Works

 * Neue Apologie des Socrates (two volumes, 1776–1778)
 * Allgemeine Theorie des Denkens und Empfindens (Berlin, 1776), won the Royal Society of Berlin prize for that year
 * Von dem Begriff der Philosophie und ihren Theilen (Berlin, 1778) — a short essay, in which he announced the plan of his lectures on being appointed to the professorship at Halle
 * Lobschrift auf Herrn Johann Thunmann Prof. der Weitweisheit und Beredsamkeit auf der Universität zu Halle (Halle, 1779)
 * Vorbereitung zur natürlichen Theologie (Halle, 1781), translated as Preparation for Natural Theology (Bloomsbury, 2016)
 * Amyntor, eine Geschichte in Briefen (Berlin, 1782)
 * Über die Zeichen der Aufklärung einer Nation (Halle, 1783)
 * Theorie der schönen Künste und Wissenschaften (Halle, 1783, third edition 1790)
 * Vermischte Schriften (Halle, 1784)
 * Neue vermischte Schriften (Halle, 1786)
 * Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie (Halle, 1788), second edition with a continuation and chronological tables (1796)
 * Versuch einer allgemeinen-deutschen Synonymik (Halle and Leipzig, 1795–1802, six volumes, fourth edition 1852–1853) — an abridgment was published by the author in one large volume (Halle, 1802)
 * Handbuch der Aesthetik (Halle, 1803–1805, second edition 1807–1820).

title: Johann Augustus Eberhard


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Talk:Transculturation

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 27 January 2020 and 12 May 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Kikimakesedits.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:37, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
There is a lot of good content here, but I wonder about the title. I research these phenomena professionally, and nowhere in the scholarly literature have I encountered this term, "ethnoconvergence." Moreover, the article does not provide any account of who introduced the term and who uses it. I raise this point not only as a suggestion for how to improve the article, but also because I wonder why the article is called "ethnoconvergence" when it seems to be describing transculturation. People have been calling this process transculturation ever since Ortiz introduced the term in the 1940s. I tried a google search of "ethnoconvergence" and found no hits; I tried "transculturation" and found 3,780.Slrubenstein

THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS ETHNOCONVERGENCE. What does this tell people about the article, and its intent? We are trying to write an encyclopedia here, not a personal thesis. -- RK

Im seeing things RK's way. Theres got to be some sorta sinister agenda behind this. No doubt financed by extremist fundamentalist Islamist terrorists. -Stevert
 * can you see things my way -- and explain why I can't find the term "ethnoconvergence" in any of my books or on google, but I do find it here? And can you explain why there is no discussion of Ortiz? Slrubenstein

Upon reflection, youre gonna have to lighten up on the neologisms thing, here. They seem like they come with the territory, and Im sure youre not just following me around in your quest to purge wikipedia of neologia. If the article is well enough written, then just buy it. Make it better. Express yourself. Alfred Einstein says on a popular poster - "Imagination is more important than gnawledge". Besides I dont have Lexis Nexis or any other real access other than the web to validate my "imaginary" insinuations. Im happy if they make sense at all - if in English, even better. A frank and turbiastic response is all I can muster right now. Be well..

Ha! I just tried to move this page and Danny beat me to it! I can't find "ethnoconvergence" on Google either and I'm damned if I'm going to sift through all my books looking for it. But the term seems familiar, and I knew what it meant straight away - where "transculturation" is clumsy. Yeah, yeah, I know we can't go coining our own terms. But sometimes that seems a pity. :) Tannin 01:33 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

Just a note that homogenization here links to an article about milk processing. I don't know what a good disambiguation would be for it. Tristanb 12:47, 23 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Essay?
I added the "personal essay" tag. Why no discussion here of Ortiz and Rama and others who actually used the term "transculturation"? --Jbmurray 20:40, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

Article is promoting, not neutral
The article is promoting "transculturation", rather than merely describing the concept. As has been said by others, an essay. Pete unseth (talk) 20:41, 25 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Transculturation


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Spacelab

Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

Spacelab components flew on a total of about 32 Shuttle missions, depending on how such hardware and missions are tabulated. Spacelab allowed scientists to perform experiments in microgravity in geocentric orbit. There was a variety of Spacelab-associated hardware, so a distinction can be made between the major Spacelab program missions with European scientists running missions in the Spacelab habitable module, missions running other Spacelab hardware experiments, and other Space Transportation System (STS) missions that used some component of Spacelab hardware. There is some variation in counts of Spacelab missions, in part because there were different types of Spacelab missions with a large range in the amount of Spacelab hardware flown and the nature of each mission. There were at least 22 major Spacelab missions between 1983 and 1998, and Spacelab hardware was used on a number other missions, with some of the Spacelab pallets being flown as late as 2008.

Background and history

In August 1973, NASA and European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), now European Space Agency or ESA, signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to build a science laboratory for use on Space Shuttle flights. Construction of Spacelab was started in 1974 by Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO), a subsidiary of VFW-Fokker GmbH, after merger with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) named MBB/ERNO, and merged into EADS SPACE Transportation in 2003. The first lab module, LM1, was donated to NASA in exchange for flight opportunities for European astronauts. A second module, LM2, was bought by NASA for its own use from ERNO.

Construction on the Spacelab modules began in 1974 by what was then the company ERNO-VFW-Fokker.

"Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."

In the early 1970s NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research. The Administrator of NASA at the time moved the focus from a new space station to a space laboratory for the planned Space Shuttle. This would allow technologies for future space stations to be researched and harness the capabilities of the Space Shuttle for research.

Spacelab was produced by European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), a consortium of ten European countries including:
 * 🇦🇹 Austria
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark
 * 🇫🇷 France
 * 🇩🇪 West Germany/Germany
 * 🇮🇹 Italy
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands
 * 🇪🇸 Spain
 * 🇨🇭 Switzerland
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom

Components

In addition to the laboratory module, the complete set also included five external pallets for experiments in vacuum built by British Aerospace (BAe) and a pressurized "Igloo" containing the subsystems needed for the pallet-only flight configuration operation. Eight flight configurations were qualified, though more could be assembled if needed.

The system had some unique features including an intended two-week turn-around time (for the original Space Shuttle launch turn-around time) and the roll-on-roll-off for loading in aircraft (Earth-transportation).

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in the Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth. However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research. The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment. When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.

Spacelab missions typically supported multiple experiments, and the Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation. The selection of appropriate modules was part of mission planning for Spacelab Shuttle missions, and for example, a mission might need less habitable space and more pallets, or vice versa.

Habitable module

The habitable Spacelab laboratory module comprised a cylindrical environment in the rear of the Space Shuttle orbiter payload bay, connected to the orbiter crew compartment by a tunnel. The laboratory had an outer diameter of 4.12 m, and each segment a length of 2.7 m. The laboratory module consisted at minimum of a core segment, which could be used alone in a short module configuration. The long module configuration included an additional experiment segment. It was also possible to operate Spacelab experiments from the orbiter's aft flight deck.

The pressurized tunnel had its connection point at the orbiter's mid-deck. There were two different length tunnels depending on the location of the habitable module in the payload bay. When the laboratory module was not used, but additional space was needed for support equipment, another structure called the Igloo could be used.

Two laboratory modules were built, identified as LM1 and LM2. LM1 is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum behind the Space Shuttle Discovery. LM2 was on display in the Bremenhalle exhibition in the Bremen Airport of Bremen, Germany from 2000 to 2010. It resides in building 4c at the nearby Airbus Defence and Space plant since 2010 and can only be viewed during guided tours.

Pallet

The Spacelab Pallet is a U-shaped platform for mounting instrumentation, large instruments, experiments requiring exposure to space, and instruments requiring a large field of view, such as telescopes. The pallet has several hard points for mounting heavy equipment. The pallet can be used in single configuration or stacked end to end in double or triple configurations. Up to five pallets can be configured in the Space Shuttle cargo bay by using a double pallet plus triple pallet configurations.

The Spacelab Pallet used to transport both Canadarm2 and Dextre to the International Space Station is currently at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, on loan from NASA through the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

A Spacelab Pallet was transferred to the Swiss Museum of Transport for permanent display on 5 March 2010. The Pallet, nicknamed Elvis, was used during the eight-day STS-46 mission, 31 July – 8 August 1992, when ESA astronaut Claude Nicollier was on board Space Shuttle Atlantis to deploy ESA's European Retrievable Carrier (Eureca) scientific mission and the joint NASA/ASI (Italian Space Agency) Tethered Satellite System (TSS-1). The Pallet carried TSS-1 in the Shuttle's cargo bay.

Another Spacelab Pallet is on display at the U.S. National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. There was a total of ten space-flown Spacelab pallets.

Igloo
On spaceflights where a habitable module was not flown, but pallets were flown, a pressurized cylinder known as the Igloo carried the subsystems needed to operate the Spacelab equipment. The Igloo was 3 m tall, had a diameter of 1.5 m, and weighed 1100 kg. Two Igloo units were manufactured, both by Belgium company SABCA, and both were used on spaceflights. An Igloo component was flown on Spacelab 2, ASTRO-1, ATLAS-1, ATLAS-2, ATLAS-3, and ASTRO-2.

A Spacelab Igloo is on display at the James S. McDonnell Space Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in the US.

Instrument Pointing System
The IPS was a gimbaled pointing device, capable of aiming telescopes, cameras, or other instruments. IPS was used on three different Space Shuttle missions between 1985 and 1995. IPS was manufactured by Dornier, and two units were made. The IPS was primarily constructed out of aluminum, steel, and multi-layer insulation.

IPS would be mounted inside the payload bay of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, and could provide gimbaled 3-axis pointing. It was designed for a pointing accuracy of less than 1 arcsecond (a unit of degree), and three pointing modes including Earth, Sun, and Stellar focused modes. The IPS was mounted on a pallet exposed to outer space in the payload bay.

IPS missions:
 * Spacelab 2, a.k.a. STS-51-F launched 1985
 * Astro-1, a.k.a. STS-35 launched in 1990
 * Astro-2, a.k.a. STS-67 launched in 1995

The Spacelab 2 mission flew the Infrared Telescope (IRT), which was a 15.2 cm aperture helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm. IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.

List of parts

Examples of Spacelab components or hardware:
 * EVA Airlock
 * Tunnel
 * Tunnel adapter
 * Igloo
 * Spacelab module
 * Forward end cone
 * Aft end cone
 * Core segment/module
 * Experiment racks
 * Experiment segment/module
 * Electrical Ground Support Equipment
 * Mechanical Ground Support Equipment
 * Electrical Power Distribution Subsystem
 * Command and Data Management Subsystem
 * Environmental Control Subsystem
 * Instrument Pointing System
 * Pallet Structure
 * Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)

The Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) assembly was not Spacelab hardware, strictly speaking. However, it was used most often on Spacelab flights. Also, NASA later used it with the SpaceHab modules.

Missions

Spacelab components flew on 22 Space Shuttle missions from November 1983 to April 1998. The Spacelab components were decommissioned in 1998, except the Pallets. Science work was moved to the International Space Station (ISS) and Spacehab module, a pressurized carrier similar to the Spacelab Module. A Spacelab Pallet was recommissioned in 2000 for flight on STS-99. The "Spacelab Pallet – Deployable 1 (SLP-D1) with Canadian Dextre (Purpose Dexterous Manipulator)" was launched on STS-123. The Spacelab components were used on 41 Shuttle missions in total.

The habitable modules were flown on 16 Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s and 1990s. Spacelab Pallet missions were flown 6 times and Spacelab Pallets were flown on other missions 19 times.

Mission name acronyms:
 * ATLAS: Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science
 * ASTRO: Not an acronym; abbreviation for "astronomy"
 * IML: International Microgravity Laboratory
 * LITE: Lidar In-space Technology Experiment
 * LMS: Life and Microgravity Sciences
 * MSL: Materials Science Laboratory
 * SLS: Spacelab Life Sciences
 * SRL: Space Radar Laboratory
 * TSS: Tethered Satellite System
 * USML: U.S. Microgravity Laboratory
 * USMP: U.S. Microgravity Payload

Besides contributing to ESA missions, Germany and Japan each funded their own Space Shuttle and Spacelab missions. Although superficially similar to other flights, they were actually the first and only non-U.S. and non-European human space missions with complete German and Japanese control.

The first West German mission Deutschland 1 (Spacelab-D1, DLR-1, NASA designation STS-61-A) took place in 1985. A second similar mission, Deutschland 2 (Spacelab-D2, DLR-2, NASA designation STS-55), was first planned for 1988, but due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, was delayed until 1993. It became the first German human space mission after German reunification.

The only Japan mission, Spacelab-J (NASA designation STS-47), took place in 1992.

Other missions

 * STS-92, October 2000, PMA-3,
 * STS-108, December 2001, Lightweight Mission Peculiar Support Structure Carrier (LMC)
 * STS-123, March 2008, Pallet, Dextre

Cancelled missions
Spacelab-4, Spacelab-5, and other planned Spacelab missions were cancelled due to the late development of the Shuttle and the Challenger disaster.

Legacy

The legacy of Spacelab lives on in the form of the MPLMs and the systems derived from it. These systems include the ATV and Cygnus spacecraft used to transfer payloads to the International Space Station, and the Columbus, Harmony and Tranquility modules of the International Space Station.

The Spacelab 2 mission surveyed 60% of the galactic plane in infrared in 1985.

Spacelab was an extremely large program, and this was enhanced by different experiments and multiple payloads and configurations over two decades. For example, in a subset of just one part of the Spacelab 1 (STS-9) mission, no less than eight different imaging systems were flown into space. Including those experiments, there was a total of 73 separate experiments across different disciplines on the Spacelab 1 flight alone. Spacelab missions conducted experiments in materials, life, solar, astrophysics, atmospheric, and Earth science.

"Spacelab represents a major investment on the order of one billion dollars from our European friends. But its completion marks something equally important: The commitment of a dogged, dedicated, and talented team drawn from ESA Governments, universities, and industries who stuck with it for a decade and saw the project through. We are proud of your perseverance and congratulate you on your success."

title: Spacelab


text:
User:Jeejee

Hi all. My real name is Jee Hyung Kim, and I was enthralled to discover Wikipedia -- it's wicked! I've been having fun contributing what little I know about this world.

I'm an INFJ and a Capricorn, my current reading is Krishnamurti's "Total Freedom".

My all time favorite writer, Italo Calvino touches on similar themes as my other favored writer, Salmon Rushdie, such as delocalization and the creation of meaning which transcends all racial, linguistic and cultural boundaries of our minds.

Hmm...I think I finally found my ultimate calling...become a Wikipedian! :p

title: User:Jeejee


text:
User talk:Jeejee

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

Image:Kepel3.jpg
Greetings,

What makes you think that Image:Kepel3.jpg is " in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government" ? The website where the photo was taken says no such thing. Please clarify.

Thank you. Rama 21:09, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

====

Hello, you can view USIP's photo policy at http://www.usip.org/newsmedia/photo_galleries/index.html. I was the staff photographer for this event and uploaded it to Wikipedia. Cheers, Jeejee —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.159.199.67 (talk) 23:50, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Jeejee


text:
User:TomK32

german wikipedian, formerly an admin, see there for more. de:Benutzer:TomK32

title: User:TomK32


text:
User talk:TomK32

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

I recieved a response from the people at Postel's site. I have update the image with a new one. As long as you keep the copyright notice, you can use it. →Raul654 23:28, Feb 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Great. -- TomK32 13:10, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

''Images of Athens is missing something... BTW, I'd like to start a WikiReader on Athens, mail me if you want to do the English version (I'll do the German translation). I've already asked on Greek WP. meta:WikiReader Athens is for international coordination. -- TomK32 17:45, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)''

 * I dont have much time these months but I am interested to help. and yes, I need to reupload the photos... but to do that I must re-create them from the originals etc. I have new photos too. I'll check the links when i have time and I will see how can I help thanks for informing me. Optim·.· |undefined 23:00, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Lage_von_Berchtesgaden.png

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you wish to release your own work to the public domain,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. Peter O. (Talk, automation script) 21:29, Dec 25, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

WikiReader
Hi, how is it going with the WikiReader "Free Software and Free Contents". I have some cuestions to the layout. The suggestion would be to use the template from the german wikipedia for wikireaders. I've uploaded a english copy and would be interested what people think about it. English Template for WikiReader regards --Cryptonit 11:25, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Wappen_von_Berchtesgaden.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Wappen_von_Berchtesgaden.gif. The image has been identified as not specifying the copyright status of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. If you don't indicate the copyright status of the image on the image's description page, using an appropriate copyright tag, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided copyright information for them as well.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. 13:41, 31 December 2006 (UTC)

File:WikiReader Free Software and Free Contents.pdf needs authorship information.
Dear uploader:

The media file you uploaded as File:WikiReader Free Software and Free Contents.pdf appears to be missing information as to its authorship (and or source), or if you did provide such information, it is confusing for others trying to make use of the image.

It would be appreciated if you would consider updating the file description page, to make the authorship of the media clearer.

Although some images may not need author information in obvious cases, (such where an applicable source is provided),authorship information aids users of the image, and helps ensure that appropriate credit is given (a requirement of some licenses).

 * If you created this media yourself, please consider explicitly including your user name, for which: will produce an appropriate expansion, or use the own template.

 * If this is an old image, for which the authorship is unknown or impossible to determine, please indicate this on the file description page.

If you have any questions please see Help:Image page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 14:13, 2 October 2011 (UTC)

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title: User talk:TomK32


text:
User:BevRowe

I am a retired computer person living in London. I am not an expert on anything much but follow interests in linguistics, history, science and philosophy (etc!).

My main projects in the last year or so have been to finish a translation of Queneau's Cent Mille MIlliards de Poemes and some local history relating to where I live (Camden Square)

If you are interested in futher information, my website will tell you more than than you want to know!

title: User:BevRowe