text:
Théophile Delcassé

Théophile Delcassé (1 March 1852 – 22 February 1923) was a French politician who served as foreign minister from 1898 to 1905. He is best known for his hatred of Germany and efforts to secure alliances with Russia and Great Britain that became the Entente Cordiale. He belonged to the Radical Party and was a protege of Léon Gambetta.

Biography
Delcassé was born on 1 March 1852, at Pamiers, in the Ariège département. He wrote articles on foreign affairs for the République Française and Le Temps, and in 1888 was elected conseiller général of his native département, standing as "un disciple fidèle de Léon Gambetta." In the following year he entered the chamber as deputy for Foix.

Colonial affairs
Delcassé was appointed under-secretary for the colonies in the second Ribot cabinet (January to April 1893), and retained his post in the Dupuy cabinet till its fall in December 1893. It was largely owing to his efforts that the French colonial office was made a separate department with a minister at its head, and to this office he was appointed in the second Dupuy cabinet (May 1894 to January 1895). He gave a great impetus to French colonial enterprise, especially in West Africa, where he organized the newly acquired colony of Dahomey, and despatched the Liotard mission to the upper Ubangi. While in opposition, Delcassé devoted special attention to naval affairs, and in noted speeches he declared that the function of the French navy was to secure and develop colonial enterprise, deprecated all attempts to rival the British fleet, and advocated the construction of commerce destroyers as France's best reply to England.

Foreign minister
On the formation of the second Brisson cabinet in June 1898 he succeeded Gabriel Hanotaux as Foreign Minister, and retained that post under the subsequent premierships of Dupuy, Waldeck-Rousseau, Combes and Rouvier. In 1898 Delcassé had to deal with the delicate situation caused by Captain Marchand's occupation of the town of Fashoda in the Sudan (the Fashoda Incident) for which, as he admitted in a speech in the chamber on 23 January 1899, he accepted full responsibility, since it arose directly out of the Liotard expedition; and in March 1899 he concluded an agreement with Britain by which the difficulty was finally adjusted, and France consolidated her vast colonial empire in North-West Africa. In the same year he acted as mediator (the main mediator being Jules Cambon, French ambassador in Washington) between the United States of America and Spain, and brought the peace negotiations to a successful conclusion.

Delcassé was originally a moderate willing to find a compromise with Germany, but Berlin ignored his overtures. He then became very anti-German, to the point that Kaiser Wilhelm called him "The most dangerous man for Germany in France." Delcassé improved relations between France and Italy: at the same time, he adhered firmly to the alliance with Russia, and in August 1899 made a visit to Saint Petersburg, which he repeated in April 1901. In June 1900 he made an arrangement with Spain, fixing the long-disputed boundaries of the French and Spanish possessions in West Africa. Finally, in his greatest achievement, he concluded the Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, covering colonial and other questions which had long been a matter of dispute, especially concerning Egypt, Newfoundland and Morocco. Suspicion of the growing entente between France and England soon arose in Germany, and in 1905 German assertiveness was shown in a crisis which was forced on in the matter of French policy by Delcassé personally, a sore point with Germany. The situation became acute, and Germany forced Delcassé's resignation in June 1906. He retired into private life, but in 1908 was warmly welcomed on a visit to England.

Naval affairs
In 1909 Delcassé was appointed chairman of a commission appointed to investigate the French navy. The report was drawn up on 24 May 1909 and concluded that the French navy was unprepared and the naval administration and organization were in disarray. Delcassé was appointed Minister of Marine on 2 March 1911 in the cabinet of Ernest Monis. Delcassé promulgated closer cooperation between the British and French fleets. This arrangement was an important factor in leading Britain to side with France against Germany when World War I started.

On 25 September 1911, as the battleship Liberté was moored in Toulon harbor, an accidental explosion in one of her forward ammunition magazines for the secondary guns destroyed the ship. 210 men died and 136 were seriously injured. The captain, Louis Jaurès, was on leave at the time. After the explosion there was a debate in the Chamber of Deputies in which the honour of Jaurès and the responsibility for the use of unstable powder by the navy was questioned. Jaurès had to face a court martial, but was acquitted unanimously on 21 December 1911. Paul Painlevé, president of the navy committee, appointed a commission of inquiry after the explosion, which followed that of the battleship Iéna. Captain Antoine Schwerer was a member of the commission of inquiry and wrote a scathing "Report on Naval Powders" (1912). Delcassé ordered that all ammunition made before 1907 be replaced. The older ammunition was removed from the ships, and the remainder was steadily replaced with a new explosive containing diphenylamine as a stabilizer. Continued efforts were made to improve the powders, and there were no more major disasters. It was not until 1914 that the "powder crisis" was fully resolved.

Delcassé retained his position in the cabinet of Joseph Caillaux until its fall on 14 January 1912. Raymond Poincaré then urged Delcassé to become prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, but Delcassé declined; however, he would later agree to remain in Poincaré's cabinet as Minister of the Navy.

Later career
President Armand Fallières' term in office expired in January 1913, and Delcassé decided to leave the Ministry of Marine and run for the presidency. He did not succeed. After the election, which was won by Poincaré, a new cabinet was formed by Aristide Briand. Briand offered Delcassé the post of minister of marine or minister of war in the new cabinet, but Delcassé declined. He would soon be appointed ambassador to Russia, and then minister of war. On 26 August 1914 after the Germans announced successes in the north and east, René Viviani announced the resignation of the cabinet. In the new cabinet, announced within an hour, Viviani retained his post. Delcassé was minister of foreign affairs, Aristide Briand was minister of justice and Alexandre Millerand was Minister of War.

Delcassé resigned from the Cabinet on 14 October 1915, partly on the grounds of differing opinions and partly because of ill health.

Honours

 * 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of Leopold, 1900
 * Principality of Bulgaria: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Alexander, 1902
 * undefined: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 9 July 1900
 * undefined: Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 4 May 1903

Portrayal in media

 * Portrayed by Harald Paulsen (Delcassé is credited as the "French Foreign Minister") in the 1941 German film Ohm Krüger.
 * Portrayed by Oliver Borlen in the 2012 Filipino film, El Presidente.

title: Théophile Delcassé


text:
Gabriel Hanotaux

Albert Auguste Gabriel Hanotaux, known as Gabriel Hanotaux (19 November 1853 – 11 April 1944) was a French statesman and historian who was France's Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1894 to 1895 and 1896 to 1898.

Biography
He was born at Beaurevoir in the département of Aisne. He studied history at the École des Chartes, and became maître de conférence in the École des Hautes Études. His political career was that of a civil servant rather than a party politician. In 1879 he entered the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose gradually through the diplomatic service.

In 1886, he was elected deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic career, and on 31 May 1894 accepted the offer of Charles Dupuy to be minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption (from 28 October 1895 to 29 April 1896, during the ministry of Leon Bourgeois) he held this portfolio until 14 June 1898. During his ministry he developed the rapprochement of France with Russia—visiting Saint Petersburg with the president, Félix Faure—and sought to delimit the French colonies in Africa through agreements with the British. The Fashoda Incident of July 1898 was the most notable result of this policy. This seems to have intensified Hanotaux's distrust of England, which is apparent in his literary works (though most of these were written after he had left the Quai d'Orsay).

Hanotaux was elected a member of the Académie française on 1 April 1897. He served as a delegate for France with the League of Nations and participated in the 1st (15 November – 18 December 1920), 2nd (5 September – 5 October 1921), 3rd (4–30 September 1922) and 4th Assemblies (3–29 September 1923). In the early 1920s, there were proposals for the League of Nations to accept Esperanto as a working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposals with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. The French employed their veto as a member of the League Council on all such votes, starting with the vote on 18 December 1920. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language of diplomacy and saw Esperanto as a threat.

Gabriel Hanotaux died in Paris in 1944 and was interred in the Passy Cemetery. His home in Orchaise now serves as a botanical garden, the Parc botanique du Prieuré d'Orchaise.

Works

 * Les Villes retrouvées (1881)
 * Origines de l'institution des intendants des provinces, d'après les documents inédits (1884)
 * Henri Martin, sa vie, ses œuvres, son temps, 1810-1883, Librairie Léopold Cerf, Paris, 1885, VII-340 p., . Consultable en ligne et téléchargeable sur Internet Archive.
 * Études historiques sur le XVIe et le XVIIe en France (1886)
 * Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France : depuis les traités de Westphalie jusqu'à la Révolution française (1888-1913)
 * Essai sur les libertés de l'Église gallicane depuis les origines jusqu'au règne de Louis XIV (1888)
 * Note sur la famille maternelle de Jean de La Fontaine (les Pidoux du Poitou et de l'Île-de-France) (1889)
 * Paris en 1614 (1890)
 * Histoire du cardinal de Richelieu (1893-1903)
 * Les Hommes de 1889 (1893)
 * L'Affaire de Madagascar (1896)
 * Tableau de la France en 1614, la France et la royauté avant Richelieu (1898)
 * La Seine et les quais, promenades d'un bibliophile (1901)
 * Du Choix d'une carrière (1902)
 * L'Énergie française (1902)
 * Histoire de la France contemporaine, 1871-1900 (1903-1908) Vol. I : Le gouvernement de M. Thiers, Vol. II : La Présidence du Maréchal de Mac Mahon - L'échec de la Monarchie, Vol. III : La Présidence du Maréchal de Mac Mahon - La constitution de 1875 et Vol. IV : La République Parlementaire disponibles sur Internet Archive
 * La Paix latine (1903)
 * '' La jeunesse de Balzac. Balzac imprimeur 1825-1828, with Georges Vicaire Paris, A. Ferroud, 1903, 1re édition. Librairie des Amateurs, A. Ferroud, F. Ferroud, 1921. La partie « Balzac imprimeur » recense et décrit tous les livres imprimés par Balzac dans son imprimerie.
 * Le Partage de l'Afrique : Fachoda (1909)
 * La Démocratie et le Travail (Flammarion, Bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique, 1910)
 * La Fleur des histoires françaises (1911)
 * Jeanne d'Arc (1911)
 * Une commémoration franco-américaine. Pour un grand français, Champlain (1912)
 * Études diplomatiques. La Politique de l'équilibre, 1907-1911 (1912)
 * Histoire de la nation française (1913)
 * La France vivante. En Amérique du Nord (1913)
 * Études diplomatiques. 2e série. La guerre des Balkans et l'Europe, 1912-1913 (1914)
 * Les Villes martyres. Les falaises de l'Aisne (1915)
 * Pendant la grande guerre, I (août-décembre 1914) : études diplomatiques et historiques (1916)
 * L'Énigme de Charleroi (1917), l'Édition Française Illustrée, Paris
 * L'Aisne pendant la Grande guerre (1919)
 * Circuits des champs de bataille de France, histoire et itinéraires de la Grande guerre (1919)
 * De l'histoire et des historiens (1919)
 * Le Traité de Versailles du 28 juin 1919. L'Allemagne et l'Europe (1919)
 * Joffre (avec le lieutenant-colonel Fabry) (1921)
 * La Bataille de la Marne (1922)
 * Georges Vicaire. 1853-1921 (1922)
 * Histoire illustrée de la guerre de 1914, with illustrations by Auguste-Louis Lepère - Texte intégral (1924)
 * Bibliophiles (1924)
 * Le Général Mangin (1925)
 * La Renaissance provençale. La Provence niçoise (1928)
 * Préface des Mémoires of, Plon, Paris (1928)
 * Histoire des colonies françaises et de l'expansion de la France dans le monde (1929-1934), with Alfred Martineau (Volume II Algérie available online)
 * Le Maréchal Foch ou l'homme de guerre (1929)
 * Regards sur l'Égypte et la Palestine (1929)
 * En Belgique par les pays dévastés (1931)
 * Histoire de la nation égyptienne (1931-1940)
 * L'Art religieux ancien dans le comté de Nice et en Provence (1932)
 * À propos de l'histoire (with Paul Valéry) (1933)
 * Mon temps (1935-1947)
 * Pour l'Empire colonial français (1935)
 * Raymond Poincaré (1935)

Four volumes of his memoir, Mon Temps were published between 1933 and 1947.

He edited the Instructions des ambassadeurs de France à Rome, depuis les traités de Westphalie (1888).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gabriel Hanotaux


text:
Vicia sativa

Vicia sativa, known as the common vetch, garden vetch, tare or simply vetch, is a nitrogen-fixing leguminous plant in the family Fabaceae. It is now naturalised throughout the world occurring on every continent, except Antarctica and the Arctic. The centre of diversity is thought to be the Fertile Crescent, although gold standard molecular confirmation is currently not available.

Global common vetch cultivation is limited due to anti-nutritional compounds in the seed although it is grown in dryland agricultural zones in Australia, China and Ethiopia due to its drought tolerance and very low nutrient requirements compared to other legumes. In these agricultural zones common vetch is grown as a green manure, livestock fodder or rotation crop. In cultivated grainfields, like lentils, it is often considered a weed due to downgrading of harvested mixed grain, resulting in farmers receiving less financial returns.

Global estimates of vetch production area varies considerably due to no formal assessment system. However, current cultivation estimates in Australia vary between 400,00 to 600000 ha per year.

Description
Vicia sativa is a sprawling annual herb, with hollow, four-sided, hairless to sparsely hairy stems which can reach two meters in maximum length.

The leaves are stipulate, alternate and compound, each made up of 3–8 opposite pairs of linear, lance-shaped, oblong, or wedge-shaped, needle-tipped leaflets up to 35 mm long. Each compound leaf ends in a branched tendril.

The pea-like flowers occur in the leaf axils, solitary or in pairs. The flower corolla is 1 - 3 cm long and bright pink-purple in colour, more rarely whitish or yellow. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees.

The fruit is a legume pod up to 6 or long, which is hairy when new, smooth later, then brown or black when ripe. It contains 4–12 seeds.

Cultivation
Sown for fodder, the seed is sown densely, up to 250 kg/ha. However, when grown for seed, less seed should be used; otherwise the crop will be too thick, reducing flower and seed production. When meant for seed, sowing is done early in the planting season for good returns; but, when for green manure, any time in spring is suitable. Sometimes, a full crop can be obtained even when sown as late as summer, though sowing so late is not recommended.

After the seed is sown and the land carefully harrowed, a light roller ought to be drawn across, to smooth the surface and permit the scythe to work without interruption. Also, the field should be watched for several days to prevent pigeons from eating too much of the sown seed.

Horses thrive very well on common vetch, even better than on clover and rye grass; the same applies to fattening cattle, which feed faster on vetch than on most grasses or other edible plants. Danger often arises from livestock eating too much vetch, especially when podded; colics and other stomach disorders are apt to be produced by the excessive amounts devoured.

Cereal grains can be sown with vetch so it can use their stronger stems for support, attaching via tendrils. When grown with oats or other grasses, the vetch can grow upright; otherwise its weak stems may sprawl along the ground. Several cultivars are available for agricultural use, and as for some other legume crops, rhizobia can be added to the seed.

Pests that attack this crop include the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe pisi, the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, the corn earworm (Heliothis zea), the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), and spider mites of genus Tetranychus.

During the early 20th century, a mutant of the common vetch arose with lens-shaped seeds resembling those of the lentil, leading to vetch invasions of lentil fields. D. G. Rowlands showed in 1959 that this was due to a single recessive mutation. The transition from traditional winnowing to mechanised farming practices largely solved this problem.

Improved varieties of Vicia sativa developed by the National Vetch Breeding Program for Australian farmers include; Timok, Volga, Rasina and more recently Studenica. These varieties are mostly cultivated in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria. More than 500000 ha per year of Vicia sativa was grown in Australia in 2019.

History
Common vetch has long been part of the human diet, as attested by carbonised remains found at early Neolithic sites in Syria, Turkey, Bulgaria, Hungary and Slovakia. It has also been reported from Predynastic sites of ancient Egypt, and several Bronze Age sites in Turkmenia and Slovakia. However, definite evidence for later vetch cultivation is available only for Roman times.

Although V. sativa is sometimes known as tare, the "tare" referred to in some English translations of the Bible (as in the "Parable of the Tares") is thought to be darnel ryegrass, Lolium temulentum.

Taxonomy
Vicia sativa was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum. Since that time, a number of synonyms have published:

 * Vicia abyssinica Alef.
 * Vicia alba Moench
 * Vicia amphicarpa Dorthes
 * Vicia amphicarpa L.
 * Vicia angustifolia L.
 * Vicia angustifolia Reichard
 * Vicia bacla Moench
 * Vicia bobartii E. Forster
 * Vicia bobartii E.Forst.
 * Vicia bobartii Koch
 * Vicia canadensis Zuccagni
 * Vicia communis Rouy
 * Vicia consobrina Pomel
 * Vicia cordata Hoppe
 * Vicia cornigera Chaub.
 * Vicia cornigera St.-Amans
 * Vicia cosentini Guss.
 * Vicia cuneata Gren. & Godr.
 * Vicia cuneata Guss.
 * Vicia debilis Perez Lara
 * Vicia erythosperma Rchb.
 * Vicia glabra Schleich.
 * Vicia globosa Retz.
 * Vicia heterophylla C.Presl
 * Vicia incisa M.Bieb.
 * Vicia incisaeformis Stef.
 * Vicia intermedia Viv.
 * Vicia lanciformis Lange
 * Vicia lentisperma auctor ign.
 * Vicia leucosperma Moench
 * Vicia macrocarpa Bertol.
 * Vicia maculata C.Presl
 * Vicia maculata Rouy
 * Vicia melanosperma Rchb.
 * Vicia morisiana Boreau
 * Vicia nemoralis Boreau
 * Vicia nemoralis Ten.
 * Vicia notota Gilib.
 * Vicia pallida Baker
 * Vicia pilosa M.Bieb.
 * Vicia pimpinelloides Mauri
 * Vicia segetalis Thuill.
 * Vicia subterranea Dorthes
 * Vicia terana Losa
 * Vicia vulgaris Uspensky

There are at least four generally accepted subspecies:
 * Vicia sativa subsp. cordata (Hoppe) Asch. & Graebn.
 * Vicia sativa subsp. nigra (L.) Ehrh. – narrow-leaved vetch (= subsp. / var. angustifolia, subsp. consobrina, subsp. cordata (Hoppe) Batt., subsp. cuneata, subsp. heterophylla, var. minor, var. nigra)
 * Vicia sativa subsp. sativa (= var. linearis, ssp. notata)
 * Vicia sativa subsp. segetalis (Thuill.) Arcang. (sometimes included in subsp. nigra)

Genome
The Vicia sativa karyotype consists of 5, 6 or 7 chromosomes, with six (n=6) being the most common and best described. Given the Vicia sativa's genome is relatively large genome size (1.75Gb) due to large amounts of repetitive DNA, sequencing the genome was challenging compared to other legumes such as Medicago truncatula or soybeans.

A high-quality chromosome level genome assembly was published in 2021 of variety Studencia (n=6), following a draft genome assembly of line KSR5 (n=7). Variety Studencia, is predicted to have 53,318 protein coding genes. Whole genome sequence comparisons showed that Vicia sativa is most closely related to pea.

A high-quality genome sequence facilitates the application of genome editing and genomic selection for healthy, higher yielding varieties.

title: Vicia sativa


text:
Talk:Gamelan

Xylophones and glockenspiels
I've changed a couple of references to genders and gambangs being "like" xylophones and glockenspiels, because they're laid out differently - the glockenspiel has two rows of bars (one for "white" notes and one for "black" - like on a piano), while the gamelan instruments only have one row of bars. It was me that compared them to xylophones and glockenspiels in the first place, but I thought I'd explain it here in case anyone was curious, or thought I'd gone mad, or something. --Camembert

The number of rows in the keyboard layout is irrelevant: xylophone and metallophone are "neutral" organological terms. Even in the narrow European-american context, there are sets of of keyed percussion with single (pentatonic, diatonic, chromatic), double, and even triple rows (the Alpine xylophone is laid out in three rows); if the keys are wooden (or some ersatz for woood) the instrument is a xylophone, if the keys are metal, it is a metallophone. (Glockenspiel, on the other hand is a proper name for several instruments, including metallophones and sets of bells).

 * OK, then put it this way - I changed it in the way I described because for most readers, saying these instruments are "like xylophones" would strongly imply that they have two rows of bars. --Camembert

Pseudo-octave
I think the comment about inexact octave tuning applies to Balinese gamelan (giving it that “shimmering” quality), but not to Javanese. -- Richard Horsley

 * You may well be right - it's possible I read something specifically about Balinese gamelan and mistakenly thought it also applied to Javanese (my memory is telling me it really does apply to both, but my memory has been proven to be faulty on many occasions...). I don't have anything to hand I can conclusively check this in right now, but I'll try to remember to look it up somewhere (unless you or somebody else does so first, of course). --Camembert

Philippines gamelans
Is the gamelan primarily Indonesian? I'm curious because some Filipino-native-instrument bands here in the Philippines are also called gamelans (e.g., a student organization in my university is called Kontra-Gapi short for Kontemporaryong Gamelang Pilipino (Contemporary Philippine Gamelan)). --seav 08:00, Sep 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * Primarily Indonesian, yes. Exclusively Indonesian, evidently not :) I've fiddled with the article a bit. --Camembert

 * Gamelans are Indonesian, Filipino, and Malaysian. We have shared the gamelan traditions, and different styles evolved.

Octaves
Based on Jaap Kunst's book I've corrected an assertion of Camembert that the octaves are not perfect. The intervals vary from one gamelan to the next, but the sum of the intervals remains just one octave for each gamelan. Some specifis based on Kunst's careful measurements are now given. Michael Hardy 22:03, 28 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Michael Tenzer's book Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music describes the tuning near octaves in Balinese gamelans. Specifically he suggests a spiral model of pitch to account for both octave equivalency, which the Balinese hear, and the slight non-equivalency of each octave. Hyacinth 22:19, 28 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * A recent edit was summarized by saying Kunst fudged his data to get perfect octaves. Could someone tell us the story behind that?  Who demonstrated his guilt and how?  What are the details?  Specifically where were they published?  (Give book titles, article titles, authors' names.) Michael Hardy 03:03, 30 Jan 2004 (UTC)

See Surjodiningrat et al. "Tone Measurements..."

Kunst measured and compared one octave (the demung range) of many gamelans, and was able to show the wide variety within the slendro and pelog tunings. He did not publish anything about the octave relationships within any one gamelan.

Comparing the data collected by Surjodiningrat et al., mentioned above, and the measurements we took of every key, pot and gong in three gamelans in Toronto (two Javanese, one Balinese) one sees a general tendancy. The notes are generally sharper in the upper register and somewhat flat in the lower register. Some of this can be attributed to the way pitch changes in bronze as the metal stabilizes after forging (a sixty-some year process). But most gamelans also have at least one note that is sharper in the upper register, flatter in the middle, and sharp again in the lower register. And some have one note (#2, #5 or #6) which is all exact octaves in all pitch levels. One can but assume that these octave warps are intentional. David P.

Confusing passage
This is confusing: "...pairs which are tuned slightly apart so as to produce beat(?) which are(?) ideally at a consistent speed for all pairs of notes in all registers. It is thought that this contributes to the very "busy" and "shimmering" sound of gamelan ensembles." that "beat" is linked ambiguously. Is this supposed to refer to "beat tones" (if that's the term?) As with the pulses heard when say a pair of guitar strings are just off unison?

 * Yes. Hyacinth 21:31, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I believe the writer was trying to describe the phenomenon of sympathetic vibration which occurs when two tones that are close but not identical are struck simultaneously and result in a undulating effect. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.115.234.21 (talk) 13:30, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

Descendents
Although kecapi suling and tembang sunda in a way derive from gamelan they certainly are not gamelan, but Tembang Sunda (Cianjuran) (Kacapi Suling being the instrumental variety), see Van Zanten: 1989. Maybe a new Tembang Sunda-entry is needed...? [Martijn]

Madenda
Where did you find that Debussy heard a gamelan tuned in the madenda scale?

 * I had never heard that, and replaced it with a referenced explanation that he heard the slendro scale. Rigadoun (talk) 19:13, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Use
Just added a sentence at the beginning about how the term "gamelan" is used by people in the trade - if it's unclear, feel free to remove it or ask me to try rephrasing/expanding. Rabican 18:34, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Gamelans around the world
Australia seems to have a lot of gamelan groups - I maintain an Australian gamelan directory - and I have the impression the Netherlands also has more than its "fair share" of groups (again, for obvious reasons).

spiritual/religious/mystical links of gamelan
It would be good to have some discusson of the links between gamelan and broader culture. I don't know much about Balinese gamelan, but central Javanese gamelan has had strong links to kejawen mysticism/religion, tantrism, and so forth. A good source is Judith Becker, Gamelan Stories: Tantrism, Islam, and Aesthetics in Central Java, ISBN 1-881044-06-8

Danny Yee

no wayang?
I'm surprised there's no mention at all of the wayang in the article! I'm not sure where I'd put it, though. --jpgordon∇∆∇∆ 05:32, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Image organization
I've organized the images that Fir0002 added the other day, following the guidelines at Wikipedia:Images. I removed the gallery, because the images did not add any useful information to the article, and were of the same subjects that the photos I left in were of. If a reader is interested in more pictures, there is already a link to the Commons.

Putting images in a column like they were is not a perferable way of organizing the images. When they are in a column, they do not support the content of the article, because there is no way to tell what part of the article they are related to. They become a distraction, and they overwhelm the text! ~ MDD4696 (talk • contribs) 01:44, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

gamelan "ensembles"
At the moment we have a section with subsections listing
 * 1) Balinese gamelan ensembles
 * 2) Javanese gamelan ensembles
 * 3) Other Indonesian gamelan ensembles

But these aren't lists of specific ensembles, but rather *kinds* of gamelans. This risks being confused with lists of gamelan groups. Can we make that clearer? -- Danny Yee 22:49, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

Cultural context
I've started a new section to discuss links to dance, wayang, etc. It's just a one sentence placeholder at the moment, but I plan to expand it. We really need separate articles on Javanese dance and Balinese dance, or possibly one Javanese and Balinese dance article. -- Danny Yee 06:28, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Instruments
I've started to create/improve individual articles on the instruments of the gamelan, but I play in a Gamelan Surakarta and my knowledge is mostly limited to that. I wonder if some of you (especially those who play Balinese/Sundanese gamelan) could review the articles and make them more general to other kinds of gamelan. So far I did saron (instrument), bonang, gong ageng, kempyang and ketuk, and kendang. (There is already gendér and some of the elaborating instruments.) I should get around to the others soon. I was also thinking of making a template to navigate between the instruments easily. Rigadoun 20:46, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Traditionally

 * Traditionally, "gamelan" comes from the Javanese word "gamel", meaning hammer.

Does it come from something else non-traditionally? Is "etymologically" meant here? --Ptcamn 05:36, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

Guitar tab for bastardized version of pelog
I think Image:GamelanScale.jpg is totally inappropriate, because for one thing, the pelog scale is not found in 12-tone equal temperament, and more importantly, I've never heard of a gamelan using guitar tab. If notation for the scale should be included at all, it should use standard music notation. —Keenan Pepper 00:12, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Okay, I just realized it's in the "Influence on Western music" section, so using 12-equal is excusable, but I still don't like the image. Far better would be a score, in standard notation, of a piece that contains elements reminiscent of gamelan. —Keenan Pepper 00:16, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I also found it quite odd. -- Samuel Wantman 01:50, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * It was me. Apologies if I offended anyone with me putting in my bit(s) into the 'Gamelan: Influence on Western Music' section. I'm new here so please hear me out. My main aims were 2-fold. First was to put in a couple of links to some sound samples of a gamelan scale and/or part of a non-copyright-dependent piece of gamelan music.  Now that I hear your disapprovals, I will go back there to see if there were already links there to be heard/accessed that I'd missed.  Secondly, having been born in South East Asia, and having affection for gamelan music and the gamelan music scale(s) in particular, I wanted to present the gamelan scale in a form that many guitarists who do not read the standard music notation can understand and use.  If your disapproval is based on image-quality, do say so and I'll redo it. If your objection is that the scale is not correct, I really want you to correct me (or put one in yourself if you feel like it).  As for the tablature form however, I beg to disagree.  It is because I too have not heard (seen) gamelan in guitar tab, that I believe there is a need for it. Guitar tablature is what many guitarists, especially young guitarists, amateurs and hobbyists know.  I wouldn't mind the standard notation there too before the tablature, because it is better and more informative, but I'm one of them who does not know standard notation.  So yes please, how about someone writing it in standard notation and placing the image there with/instead of one written in guitar tablature. Finally, if you think it could have fit in better somewhere else in wikipedia, please let me know.  I don't think so, but you never know. If you think that some of my input was valid and useful but not there in that section but maybe in a section I could create somewhere, please let me know too.  I'd appreciate it.
 * Thank you for your feedback and time.  —Jamal Ibrahim (UTC)
 * I don't think a "standard music notation" representation of a gamelan scale would be any better. It's not possible to represent gamelan scales using 12-tone notation (unless one starts on microtones) and attempting to do so seems more misleading than helpful. What would be nice is an interactive (Flash? Java?) webpage that shows the frequencies of a particular gamelan and demonstrates how they can't be fitted into a Western scale. -- Danny Yee 09:32, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

And then he kissed me?
This seems like a big stretch to use the song "And then he kissed me" as an example of Gamelan influence. If there is no citation for this it seems that discussion of the song should go. Lots of pop tunes are written in pentatonic scales. While studying in Bali, I found I could play practically every Rod Stewart song I heard. The Hustle fits in slendro. Auld Lang Sein fits nicely in slendro as well. When my teacher in Bali heard me trying it out on an a Balinese instrument he recognised it and said "That's a very old Balinese tune!" -- Samuel Wantman 09:12, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * At an FSU concert a while ago the gamelan played together with the dixieland jazz group. Turns out When the Saints Go Marching In kinda fits into pelog. I'll be on the lookout for any documented examples of gamelan influence on Western music, so we can replace the bogus ones. —Keenan Pepper 21:53, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. There must be a lot of pieces that "kinda fit" into gamelan scales...  For something to warrant a mention here it needs to have a more substantial connection, and it must be notable. -- Danny Yee 00:02, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

 * The Crystals' 'Then He Kissed me' : I would put a link there for a music sample from the song, except that's probably full of copyright issues. I did reference it to other wikipedia articles on Tamla Motown/The Crystals/Phil Spector where the song was mentioned. No mention of gamelan there though, of course. I don't mind this Crystals song section being removed. I'm convinced, but doesn't mean others need to be at all. However, do look up the tune and give it a listen if you don't already know it.Good point about 'notable' Danny. Unless you've already done it, look out for it at your city library, borrow it and give it a listen.  Or nowadays, with many music stores having easy computer non-intrusive listening facilities via headphones, it's very possible there.  Look for The Crystals CDs and then the song. Thanks for your comments and please do confirm if you actually know the song or have now got to hear it. --Jamal Ibrahim 1 August 2006 (UTC)

gamelan outside indonesia
I propose we move this material to a separate article gamelan outside Indonesia. What do people think? -- Danny Yee 02:51, 29 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree. It is the longest section of this article, which seems to imply it is more important than the Indonesian kind. Systemic bias, I'm afraid. Rigadoun  (talk) 15:48, 29 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Does "Gamelan outside Indonesia" seem right, or can you think of a better name for the new article? -- Danny Yee 12:55, 30 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I can't think of anything better, that would be inclusive of Australia, Europe, and North America. It can be renamed later if we think of something better. Rigadoun (talk) 18:23, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

Ok, I've created the new article and moved the obvious material. I'm sure there's more stuff that need's tidying up, though! -- Danny Yee 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Notation
The article includes links to web pages with notations for gamelan music. The articel on musical notation (which is curretly very eurocentric) does not contain any hint on this. It would be great if maybe one of you experts on gamelan music could change that and also elaborate on the notation system(s?) used either in the Gamelan article or in the musical notation article or in an extra article referenced by both). Nannus 18:53, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
 * There's a bit on gamelan notation at Kepatihan, but there could be much more. I've been meaning to add a discussion of this to the article. Rigadoun (talk) 23:46, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
 * OK, I added that, as well as a history section, and added text to the section on different styles. I propose moving the list to its own article, so it doesn't break up the flow of the article, and just mention some of the principal styles or what makes them distinctive in a prose overview. Without such context, the list is a bit bewildering to a novice. Rigadoun (talk) 20:44, 10 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Good work. And yes, moving the list of varieties to a separate article seems sensible to me. -- Danny Yee 03:21, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

History section
Is it just me, or does this bit of the history section strike anyone as odd:

 * ''The gamelan has an old and mysterious origin. Apparently it predates the Hindu-Buddhist culture that dominated Indonesia in its earliest records, and instead represents a native art form. The instruments developed into their current form during the Majapahit Empire.[1] In contrast to the heavy Indian influence in other art forms, the only obvious Indian influence in gamelan music is in the Javanese style of singing.[2]

Hindu-Buddhist culture dominated Indonesia in its earliest records? Which records were these? More importantly, the comments about Indian influence are bizarre, properly cited or not. The kendhang (tuned biconical drums) are clearly of South Asian origin, the metrical patterns have a similar relationship to poetic meters as one finds in South Asian music, and of course much of the imagery, related theatrical narrative, and terminology is clearly Indianized. The singing style, on the other hand--how exactly is that a marker of Indian influence? Why would that persist, of all things?Rikyu 22:26, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * The earliest written records (inscriptions, mostly) are from Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, as writing was part of a cultural package that included religion that came ultimately from India. I don't think gamelan is mentioned in any of these, but the source I was using inferred (from musical clues, I think) that elements of the gamelan predated that. Perhaps that needs rephrasing. The poetry, narratives, etc., are of course Indianized, and that is what is meant by "the heavy Indian influence in other art forms." The music per se (scales, rhtyhmic structures, melodic motives, use of harmony) do not show Indian influence (I believe the source specifically mentioned that Indonesian colotomic structures in bear only superficial resemblance to tala). I'm not exactly sure about how the singing style reflected Indian influence and the other things didn't; that was basically asserted in the source (it may give more details, I don't remember). As far as instruments, the bronze instruments for the most part don't resemble anything in India, and I think that was the main point the author was making. The kendhang does look like the mridangam...I don't believe kendhangs were mentioned in the source, and I don't know anything about their history. Perhaps they are a later addition? Suling would be another instrument I'm not sure about. (Rebab and siter are from historical times.) Rigadoun (talk) 19:59, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Got it--the source seems to be the cause of the lack of clarity here. A better source is Sumarsam's Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Development in Central Java (University of Chicago Press, 1992), especially the first two chapters, which cite early Javanese manuscripts that describe gamelan instruments and performance. One of these does indeed describe the kendhang (using a variation on the word "mridangam"). The rebab is of Central Asia origin, brought with or after Islam, and the siter is clearly Dutch. The overall form of the ensemble (slendro-pelog, full set of instruments, much of the repertoire) is significantly more recent. Check out Sumarsam's book if you get the chance--it's a good read.

 * I have read parts of Sumarsam's book, but haven't read the whole thing and didn't have it on hand when I was trying to add a few comments on the history. It would indeed be a clearer and more reliable source. I'll try to fix this up someday, or you can if you like. Rigadoun (talk) 16:52, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I'll see what I can do. I'm only fitfully free to work on Wikipedia, I'm afraid, which I realize does not make me unique. I have Sumarsam's book, though, as well as some other useful sources (Kunst's books, etc.), so I'll try to flesh out the history part a bit. Thanks for getting things going!Rikyu 16:10, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

How to tune a gong
The section on tuning is interesting but how exactly does one tune a gong, or xylophone for that matter? Thanks. Astrophil 22:38, 3 August 2007 (UTC)
 * A xylophone or other similarly-shaped idiophone is tuned by shaving material (wood or metal) from the ends (to make it sharper) or from the middle (to make it flatter)--or do I have those backwards? Gongs are similarly tuned by shaving from certain parts, or wax can be added to parts that are too thin. I'll see if I can find a description of it somewhere and add a referenced mention of it in the article. Rigadoun (talk) 17:26, 7 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Ah, yes, that is backwards, Rigadoun. The fundamental pitch of a vibrating body is largely determined by the ratio of the masses on either side of the nodes. On a bar instrument such as a xylophone key, the nodes are the two points by which the bar is suspended (if you've done it right...). So shaving material from the middle (between the nodes) raises the pitch, while shaving material from the ends (outside the nodes) lowers the pitch. Or you can add material to the middle to lower the pitch, or add material to the ends to raise it. For a gong, which is a vibrating plate, the situation is a bit more complicated. The nodes are circular, distributed concentrically across the face of the gong like a bull's eye. The equivalent of shaving the middle of the key is thinning the material on the boss (the knob), whereas the equivalent of shaving the ends is thinning the material on the shoulder. However, the acoustics of gongs are significantly more complicated that those of bar instruments. What the ear hears as a fundamental pitch with a gong is actually a standing wave created by a steady sweep through a specific range of frequencies. That is to say, the ear (in a sense) hears the slope of the curve, and not the curve itself. This makes it very difficult to tune a gong without horribly screwing things up--it's easy to make the sweep unstable, or split it into multiple simultaneous bands. The main purpose of the wax additions to gongs, especially big ones, is to dampen the unwanted bands and stabilize the sweep. In short: any old fool can tune a xylophone. It takes a special fool to tune a gong.Rikyu 19:39, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

Actually, Astrophil had it right and Rikyu had it backwards. True, removing material from the center of a bar reduces its mass, but it reduces its flexural strength even more. The result is a drop in pitch. At the ends of the bar, flexural strength is irrelevant, so reducing mass there has the expected effect of raising the pitch. See http://www.lafavre.us/tuning-marimba.htm for an exhaustive discussion. Jmkelly (talk) 20:18, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

jjggkguutgiui
Bold text —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.50.187.92 (talk) 09:14, 18 January 2009 (UTC)

The word Gamelan comes from the word'gamel' which means to srike or hammer. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.134.149.161 (talk) 10:12, 8 February 2009 (UTC)

Removal of gamelan references
Please see Talk:List of gamelan ensembles in the United States, and comment, if you wish. Badagnani (talk) 02:17, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Prodigy's song Hot Ride
That high-pitched alternation in Hot Ride may or may not be gamelan, but even if a citation proved it to be, it can hardly be said that Prodigy have used that sample for the gamelan sound, or even that it gives an impression of the sound. I think the example should go. 78.94.3.221 (talk) 17:43, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I proceeded to replace that with a better example.95.222.120.117 (talk) 10:57, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

Articles for deletion/List of gamelan ensembles in the United States (2nd nomination)
See Articles for deletion/List of gamelan ensembles in the United States (2nd nomination). Badagnani (talk) 00:19, 21 April 2009 (UTC)

Merge: Template:Gamelan with Template:Gamelan instruments & Template:Gendhing
It has been suggested that Template:Gamelan instruments and Template:Gendhing be merged into Template:Gamelan. Discuss. Hyacinth (talk) 20:15, 3 June 2012 (UTC)
 * I find the gamelan instruments template useful where it is in this article. What, exactly, would "merging" it mean?  Would the list of instruments and their grouping still be available with the Gamlean article?  I would, in fact, find a similar chart of Balinese gamelan instruments useful, as well.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.92.174.105 (talk) 20:00, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

 * See Templates for discussion. Also see WP:MERGE. Hyacinth (talk) 00:03, 27 July 2012 (UTC)

Articles for deletion/Gamelan gong gede
See Articles for deletion/Gamelan gong gede. Kiefer .Wolfowitz  18:04, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

Pronunciation
Can someone please add the pronunciation of the word gamelan to the article? Thank you. Ceaseless (talk) 00:43, 31 March 2013 (UTC)

Gamelan in Sri Lanka
Was intrigued by this sentence "Gamelan has also become quite widespread along the South East of Sri Lanka" but no citations are given. Added cn. Tried a google search and it turned up many web pages that quote Wikipedia (or its source whatever that is) verbatim but they don't give sources either.

Anyone know if it is true, and what the source is? Robert Walker (talk) 20:05, 21 December 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Gamelan. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111026180438/http://www.progressiveears.com:80/frippbook/ch10.htm to http://www.progressiveears.com/frippbook/ch10.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:56, 7 January 2017 (UTC)

Please add a recording, but a fine one
Please add a recording, but a fine one! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.84.219.141 (talk) 02:40, 2 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Gamelan. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140307082145/http://www.coastonline.org/mml/topic/topicsSearch_detail.php?id=312 to http://www.coastonline.org/mml/topic/topicsSearch_detail.php?id=312
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.progressiveears.com/frippbook/ch10.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:11, 10 October 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Gamelan. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130115102945/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/commentary/indonesia-needs-the-harmony-of-the-gamelan/423530 to http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/commentary/indonesia-needs-the-harmony-of-the-gamelan/423530
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131112041202/http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~jjordan/gamelan/instruments.html to http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~jjordan/gamelan/instruments.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 01:07, 6 December 2017 (UTC)

Two intermingled sections
The current revision of the article has sections "Influence on Western music" and "Influence on contemporary music". But the former contains contemporary examples and the latter contains Western examples. I could simply tweak both sections, but maybe we should instead ask: What is the proper division of labor? Should we just have one section? Should we have a section on Indonesian music and one on non-Indonesian music? Mgnbar (talk) 18:47, 13 February 2018 (UTC)

Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:43, 23 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Balinese Dance in Puri Saren, Ubud.jpg
 * Gamelan Jawa - Menempa Gamelan Kempul.jpg
 * Gamelan Jawa - Saron Barung.jpg
 * Gamelan Jawa - Saron Demung.jpg
 * Gong ageng 04.jpg
 * Kempul Gamelan.jpg
 * Sentra Gamelan Wirun.jpg
 * Sentra Produksi Gamelan Wirun.jpg

Gamelan outside Indonesia
Gamelan Hanuman in Finland since 1986. 80.220.69.72 (talk) 14:05, 7 March 2022 (UTC)

Music
Following instruments of gamelan 112.198.72.22 (talk) 02:09, 8 June 2022 (UTC)

Split: gamelan music genre and gamelan music ensemble
There are two different concepts included on the same Wikipedia page and on Wikidata side they are separated as they belong to different hierarchies. Now mapping between wikipedia and wikidata is complicated because of this. gamelan (ensemble) and gamelan (genre) The Wikipedia content should be split to two pages accordingly. Saarik (talk) 07:25, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

Gamelan compositions and composers?
How come no mention of famous Gamelan compositions and composers? Would be a great resource for beginners. The only compositions and composers listed so far are mostly at the bottom section relating to international influence, which is a shame. Dinda Damarati (talk) 08:24, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

Too Many Pictures
can we put them somewhere else?

title: Talk:Gamelan


text:
Valdemar II of Denmark

Valdemar II Valdemarsen (28 June 1170 – 28 March 1241), later remembered as Valdemar the Victorious (Valdemar Sejr), was King of Denmark from 1202 until his death in 1241.

In 1207, Valdemar invaded and conquered Lybeck and Holstein, expanding the Danish territories. His involvement in the Norwegian succession led to the second Bagler War, temporarily settling the issue and making the Norwegian king owe allegiance to Denmark. He faced disputes with the papacy over the appointment of the Prince-Archbishop of Bremen and the Bishop of Schleswig. Valdemar's military campaigns included conflicts in northern Germany and the establishment of Danish rule in Estonia in 1219. His reign saw the adoption of a feudal system in Denmark and the creation of the Code of Jutland, which served as Denmark's legal code until 1683.

Background
He was the second son of King Valdemar I of Denmark and Sophia of Polotsk. When his father died, young Valdemar was only twelve years old. He was named duke of Southern Jutland (dux slesvicensis. ) His regent was Bishop Valdemar Knudsen, the illegitimate son of King Canute V of Denmark. Bishop Valdemar was an ambitious man and disguised his own ambitions as young Valdemar's. When Bishop Valdemar was named archbishop of Bremen in 1192, his plot to overthrow King Canute VI of Denmark (elder brother of Duke Valdemar) with the help of the German nobility and place himself on Denmark's throne, was revealed.

Duke Valdemar realized the threat Bishop Valdemar represented. He thus invited him to Aabenraa in 1192. The bishop then fled to Norway to avoid arrest. The following year, Bishop Valdemar organised – supported by the Hohenstaufens – a fleet of 35 ships and harried the coasts of Denmark, claiming the Danish throne for himself based on the fact that he was the son of King Canute V. In 1193, King Canute VI captured him. Bishop Valdemar stayed in captivity in Nordborg (1193–1198) and then in the tower at Søborg Castle on Zealand until 1206. He was later released upon the initiative of Dagmar of Bohemia (the wife of Duke Valdemar) and Pope Innocent III, after swearing to never interfere again in Danish affairs. Young Valdemar faced another threat from Count Adolf III of Holstein. Adolf tried to stir up other German counts to take southern Jutland from Denmark, and to assist Bishop Valdemar's plot to take the Danish throne. With the bishop again in prison, Duke Valdemar went after Count Adolph, and with his own troop levies, he marched south and captured Adolph's new fortress at Rendsburg. He defeated and captured the count at the Battle of Stellau in 1201, and imprisoned him in a cell next to Bishop Valdemar. Two years later, due to an illness, Count Adolph was able to buy his way out of prison by ceding all of Schleswig, north of the Elbe, to Duke Valdemar. In November 1202, Duke Valdemar's elder brother, King Canute VI, unexpectedly died childless.

Reign
Duke Valdemar was subsequently proclaimed king at the Jutland Assembly (landsting). The nearby Holy Roman Empire was torn by civil war due to having two rivals contesting for its throne, Otto IV, House of Guelf, and King Philip, House of Hohenstaufen. Valdemar II allied himself with Otto IV against Phillip.

In 1203 Valdemar invaded and conquered Lybeck and Holstein, adding them to the territories controlled by Denmark. In 1204 he attempted to influence the outcome of the Norwegian succession by leading a Danish fleet and army to Viken in Norway in support of Erling Steinvegg, the pretender to the Norwegian throne. This resulted in the second Bagler War which lasted until 1208. The question of the Norwegian succession was temporarily settled and the Norwegian king owed allegiance to the king of Denmark.

In 1207, a majority of Bremian capitulars again elected Bishop Valdemar as prince-archbishop, while a minority, led by the capitular provost Burkhard, Count of Stumpenhausen fled for Hamburg, being the seat of a Bremian subchapter with regional competence and delegating for episcopal elections two participants to the main Bremian chapter. The German King Philip recognised Valdemar as the legitimate prince-archbishop of Bremen, because thus the prince-archbishopric would become his ally against Valdemar II.

Valdemar II and the fled capitulars protested to Pope Innocent III, who first wanted to research the case. When Bishop Valdemar left Rome for Bremen against Pope Innocent's order to wait his decision, he banished Valdemar by an anathema and in 1208 finally dismissed him as Bishop of Schleswig. In 1208, Burkhard, Count of Stumpenhausen, was elected by the fled capitulars in Hamburg as rival prince-archbishop and Valdemar II, usurping imperial power, invested Burkhard with the regalia – with effect only in the prince-archiepiscopal and diocesan territory north of the Elbe. In 1209 Innocent III finally consented the consecration of Bishop Nicholas I of Schleswig, a close confidant and consultant of King Valdemar, as successor of the deposed Bishop Valdemar. In 1214 King Valdemar appointed Bishop Nicholas I as Chancellor of Denmark, succeeding the late, Bishop of Roskilde.

In the same year Valdemar II invaded with Danish troops the prince-archiepiscopal territory south of the Elbe and conquered Stade. In August Prince-Archbishop Valdemar reconquered the city only to lose it soon after again to Valdemar II, who now built a bridge of the Elbe and fortified a forward post in Harburg upon Elbe. In 1209 Otto IV persuaded Valdemar II to withdraw into the north of the Elbe, urged Burkhard to resign and expelled Prince-Archbishop Valdemar.

In 1210, Innocent III made Gerhard I, Count of Oldenburg-Wildeshausen Bremen's new Prince-Archbishop. In 1211 Duke Bernard III of the younger Duchy of Saxony escorted his brother-in-law Valdemar, the papally dismissed Prince-Archbishop, into the city of Bremen, de facto regaining the See and enjoying the sudden support of Otto IV, who meanwhile fell out with Innocent over Sicily. As a reaction Valdemar II recaptured Stade, while in 1213 Henry V, Count Palatine of the Rhine, conquered it for Prince-Archbishop Valdemar.

In 1213 Valdemar instituted a war tax in Norway, and the peasants murdered Valdemar's tax collector at the Trøndelag Assembly and revolted. The uprising spread over several regions in Norway.

In 1216, Valdemar II and his Danish troops ravaged the County of Stade and conquered Hamburg. Two years later Valdemar II and Gerhard I allied to expel Henry V and Otto IV from the Prince-Archbishopric. Prince-Archbishop Valdemar finally resigned and entered into a monastery. Valdemar supported Emperor Frederick II and was rewarded with the emperor acknowledging Denmark rule of Schleswig and Holstein, all of the Wendish lands and Pomerania.

Battle of Lindanise
The Livonian Knights, who had been attempting to Christianize the peoples of the eastern Baltic, were (by 1219) being hard pressed and turned to Valdemar for help. Pope Honorius III elevated Valdemar's invasion of Estonia into a crusade. Valdemar raised an army and called all of Denmark's ships to gather to transport the army eastward. Once assembled, the fleet numbered 1500 ships.

When the army landed in Estonia, near modern-day Tallinn, the chiefs of the Estonians sat down with the Danes and agreed to acknowledge the Danish king as their overlord. A few of them allowed themselves to be baptized which seemed to be a good sign. Three days later on 15 June 1219 while the Danes were attending mass, thousands of Estonians broke into the Danish camp from all sides. Confusion reigned and things looked bad for Valdemar's crusade. Luckily for him, Vitslav of Rügen gathered his men in a second camp and attacked the Estonians from the rear. During the Battle of Lindanise, the legend says that whenever Bishop Sunesen raised his arms the Danes surged forward and when his arms grew tired and he let them fall the Estonians turned the Danes back. Attendants rushed forward to raise his arms once again and the Danes surged forward again. At the height of the battle Bishop Sunsen prayed for a sign and it came in the form of a red cloth with a white cross which drifted down from the sky just as the Danes began to fall back. A voice was heard to say "When this banner is raised on high, you shall be victorious!" The Danes surged forward and won the battle. At the end of the day thousands of Estonians lay dead on the field, and Estonia was added to the Danish realm. Estonians were forcibly baptised as Christians, but according to an in depth study of the Liber Census Daniæ by the historian Edgar Sachs, the Estonians quite voluntarily converted to the Christian faith.

Valdemar ordered the construction of a great fortress at Reval, near the site of the battle. Eventually a city grew around the hilltop castle which is still called Tallinn, "Danish-castle/town" in the Estonian language. The red banner with a white cross (Dannebrog) has been the national flag of the Danes since 1219. Dannebrog is Europe's oldest flag design still in modern use.

Battle of Bornhöved
In 1223, King Valdemar and his eldest son, prince Valdemar, were abducted by Count Henry I of Schwerin (Heinrich der Schwarze), while hunting on the island of Lyø near Funen. Count Henry demanded that Denmark surrender the land conquered in Holstein 20 years ago and become a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor. Danish envoys refused these terms and Denmark declared war. While Valdemar sat in prison, most of the German territories tore themselves away from Denmark. Danish armies were dispatched to hold them in line. The war ended in defeat of the Danish troops under the command of Albert II of Orlamünde at Mölln in 1225. To secure his release Valdemar had to acknowledge the break away territories in Germany, pay 44,000 silver marks, and sign a promise not to seek revenge on Count Henry.

Valdemar immediately appealed to Pope Honorius III to have his oath declared void, a request granted by the Pope. Honorius III excused Valdemar from his forced oath, and he immediately set about trying to restore the German territories. Valdemar concluded a treaty with his nephew Otto I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and headed south to take back what he thought were his lands by right, but his luck deserted him. A series of Danish defeats culminating in the Battle of Bornhöved on 22 July 1227 cemented the loss of Denmark's north German territories. Valdemar himself was saved only by the chivalrous acts of a German knight who carried Valdemar to safety on his horse.

Code of Jutland

From that time on, King Valdemar II focused his efforts on domestic affairs. One of the changes he instituted was the feudal system, where he gave properties to men with the understanding that they owed him service in return. This increased the power of the noble families (højadelen) and gave rise to the lesser nobles (lavadelen'), who controlled most of Denmark. Free peasants lost the traditional rights and privileges they had enjoyed since the Viking era.

King Valdemar II spent the remainder of his life putting together a code of laws for Jutland, Zealand, and Skåne. These codes were used as Denmark's legal code until 1683. This was a significant change from the local law-making at the regional assemblies (landting), which had been a long-standing tradition. Several methods of determining guilt or innocence were outlawed, including trial by ordeal and trial by combat. The Code of Jutland (Jyske Lov) was approved at the meeting of the nobility at Vordingborg Castle in 1241, just prior to Valdemar's death there. Valdemar was buried next to his first wife, Queen Dagmar, at Ringsted in Zealand.

Marriages
Before his first marriage, Valdemar had been betrothed to Rixa of Bavaria, daughter of the Duke of Saxony. When that arrangement failed, he married first Dagmar of Bohemia, also known as Margaret of Bohemia, in 1205. She was the daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia by his first wife, Adelaide of Meissen, and soon became popular with the Danes. By this marriage, Valdemar had a son, Valdemar the Young, whom he elevated as co-king at Schleswig in 1218. Valdemar the Young was accidentally shot while hunting at Refsnæs in North Jutland in 1231. Queen Dagmar died in childbirth in 1212. Old folk ballads say that on her death bed, she begged Valdemar to marry Kirsten, the daughter of Karl von Rise, and not the "beautiful flower", Berengaria of Portugal (Bengerd). In other words, she predicted Berengaria's sons' fight over the throne would bring trouble to Denmark.

After Dagmar's death, in order to build good relations with Flanders, Valdemar married Berengária of Portugal in 1214. She was the orphan daughter of King Sancho I of Portugal and Dulce of Aragon, and a sister of Ferdinand, Count of Flanders, with whom she stayed until her marriage. Queen Berengária was beautiful, but so hard-hearted that she was generally hated by the Danes until her early death, in childbirth, in 1221. Valdemar's two wives played a prominent role in Danish ballads and myths – Dagmar as the soft, pious, and popular ideal wife, and Berengária as the beautiful and haughty woman.

Issue
With his first wife, Dagmar of Bohemia, whom he wed in 1205, Valdamar had the following children:
 * Valdemar the Young of Denmark (1209 – 28 November 1231), married Eleanor of Portugal.
 * Stillborn son (1212)

With his second wife, Berengaria of Portugal, whom he wed in 1214, he had the following children:
 * Eric IV, King of Denmark (1216 – 10 August 1250)
 * Sophie of Denmark (1217–1247), married in 1230 to John I, Margrave of Brandenburg
 * Abel, King of Denmark (1218 – 29 June 1252)
 * Christopher I, King of Denmark (1219 – 29 May 1259)
 * Stillborn child (1221)

In memoriam
Valdemar enjoys a central position in Danish history because of his position as "the king of Dannebrog" and as a legislator. To posterity, the civil wars and dissolution that followed his death made him appear to be the last king of a golden age. Since 1912, June 15 has officially been called Valdemarsdag (Valdemar's Day). The date now belongs to the group of 33 Danish annual Flag Days where Dannebrog is raised in celebration.

The 1997 film Eye of the Eagle was about a fictional story about Valdemar the Young. His father Valdemar was played by Lars Lohmann.

The Estonian capital Tallinn has a park at Toompea called the Danish King's Garden where the Danish flag Dannebrog was born according to prevailing legends. Every year on 15 June, the Day of the Danish Flag is celebrated in the garden.

title: Valdemar II of Denmark


text:
Aralia elata

Aralia elata, also known as the Japanese angelica tree, Chinese angelica-tree, or Korean angelica-tree, is a species of woody plant in the family Araliaceae.

Description
It is an upright deciduous small tree or shrub growing up to 10 m in height, native to eastern Russia, China, Korea, and Japan.

The bark is rough and gray with prickles. The leaves are alternate, large, 60–120 cm long, and double pinnate. The flowers are produced in large umbels in late summer, each flower small and white. The fruit is a small black drupe.

Aralia elata is closely related to the American species Aralia spinosa, with which it is easily confused.

Cultivation
Aralia elata is cultivated, often in a variegated form, for its exotic appearance. It prefers deep loamy soils in partial shade, but will grow in poorer soils and in full sun. The cultivars 'Variegata' and 'Aureovariegata' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Japan
In Japan, the shoots are eaten in the spring. They are picked from the end of the branches and are commonly fried in a tempura batter. They can also be blanched or stir fried, among other methods.

Korea
In Korea, young shoots are harvested during a month, from early April to early May, when they are soft and fragrant. In Korean cuisine, the shoots are commonly eaten blanched, pickled, pan-fried, or deep-fried.

Invasive species
The tree was introduced into the United States in 1830. Birds like to eat the fruits, and are spreading its seeds, allowing the tree to expand its range as an invasive species in the northeastern United States.

title: Aralia elata


text:
Chiltern Railways

Chiltern Railways (legal name The Chiltern Railway Company Limited) is a British train operating company that has operated the Chiltern Railways franchise since July 1996. Since 2009, it has been a subsidiary of Arriva UK Trains.

Chiltern Railways was founded as M40 Trains by a group of ex-British Rail managers backed by John Laing and 3i; in June 1996, it was announced that M40 Trains had been awarded the Chiltern Railways franchise. On 21 July 1996, it took over operations from British Rail. The company promptly commenced the redoubling of the Chiltern Main Line under the Evergreen initiative and ordered the Class 168 Clubman diesel multiple units (DMUs) to supplement its ex-British Rail fleet. Following the awarding of a 20-year franchise to Chiltern Railways in August 2000, Evergreen phase 2 works begun to raise line speeds around Beaconsfield, built two new platforms at its London Marylebone terminus. In January 2010, a £250 million upgrade package was agreed for Evergreen phase 3, remodelling the line and permitting 100 mph operations, thus greatly reducing journey times.

In August 2002, the John Laing Group became the sole owner of Chiltern Railways after buying out all other shareholders; shortly after John Laing's purchase by Henderson Equity Partners, the company was sold to the German publicly owned railway company Deutsche Bahn in January 2008. Chiltern Railways became a subsidiary of Arriva UK Trains as a result of restructuring during early 2011. Around this time, Chiltern was considered one of the best railway operators in Britain, with Public performance measure (PPM) regularly over 90%. However, the introduction of new timetables during the 2010s was repeatedly received negatively by the travelling public. Severe disruption to Chiltern's services occurred following the collapse of Gerrards Cross Tunnel on 30 June 2005; an unplanned six week closure of the main line was forced, resulting in compensation being paid by Tesco (which planned to build a supermarket over the tunnel) to both Chiltern Railways and Network Rail.

Chiltern Railways operates commuter/regional rail passenger services from its central London terminus at Marylebone along the M40 corridor to destinations in Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire and Warwickshire, as well as long-distance services to the West Midlands along two routes. Services on the Chiltern Main Line run from London to Birmingham Moor Street, Stratford-upon-Avon and Oxford, with some peak-hour services extended to Stourbridge Junction. Chiltern Railways also runs trains on the London–Aylesbury line to Aylesbury (some of which continue on to Aylesbury Vale Parkway), and on the Princes Risborough to Aylesbury and Oxford to Bicester branch lines. From December 2010, Chiltern began operating the Chiltern Mainline service of two peak-hour locomotive-hauled services consisting of a hauling a rake of modernised Mark 3 coaches and a Driving Van Trailer.

History
Chiltern Railways originated with a number of former British Rail managers who sought to conduct a management buyout on one of the soon-to-be-created rail franchises that would be produced as a part of the privatisation of British Rail. In April 1995, they were granted a licence by the railway regulator. However, the team recognised that they lacked the resources to successfully pursue a bid, thus they secured the backing of the infrastructure investment group John Laing and the venture capital specialist 3i.

In October 1995, M40 Trains Limited was established; the various railway managers held a combined 51% shareholding in the business, while the John Laing Group and 3i held 26% and 23% stakes respectively. The company reportedly spent £38 million in its bid for the Chiltern Railways franchise. In June 1996, the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising awarded the franchise to M40 Trains for an initial period of seven years. It was the only franchise operator to have as many as 51% of its shares controlled by its directors.

On 21 July 1996, the company commenced operations, taking over from the publicly owned British Rail. Chiltern Railways was the first railway franchise to order new rolling stock in the post-privatisation era in the form of the Class 168 Clubman diesel multiple units (DMUs). However, their introduction was marred by unreliability, in part due to their rushed entry into service in response to booming passenger demand. By April 1999, the company claimed to employ 50% more staff than it had at the start of the franchise, and to be running 25% more services than had been operated by British Rail. Meanwhile, under the terms of the franchise agreement, the annual subsidy provided by the British government was gradually reduced.

During early 1999, the ownership of M40 Trains underwent substantial changes; the John Laing Group opted to increase its shareholding in the venture to 84% via the purchase of shares from their previous holders; the outstanding 16% of shares were owned by several members of the former British Rail management team.

In March 2000, the Shadow Strategic Rail Authority announced that both M40 Trains and the British transport group Go-Ahead had been shortlisted to bid for the next Chiltern franchise. In August 2000, M40 Trains was awarded the new franchise, which was set to run for 20 years, conditional on various investments being made across that period. On 3 March 2002, the new franchise period began.

In August 2002, John Laing acquired the remaining 16% of shares in M40 Trains that it did not already own. In September 2006, John Laing was purchased by the global investment firm Henderson Equity Partners in exchange for £887 million.

During December 2004, Chiltern Railways took over operation of passenger services on the Leamington Spa to Stratford-upon-Avon branch line from First Great Western Link. In June 2006, M40 Trains was invited by the Department for Transport to lodge a bid to operate the Snow Hill Lines, then operated by Central Trains, as part of the letting of the West Midlands franchise. However, this bid was not successful.

During mid-2005, Chiltern Railways' services were heavily disrupted by the collapse of Gerrards Cross Tunnel. In 1996, the British retailer Tesco sought to build a supermarket near Gerrards Cross railway station; despite the local council's initial objection to the scheme, it was approved by the Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott in July 1998. Due to a lack of available space, Tesco started building a tunnel over the active railway line to provide suitable land for the development. On 30 June 2005, the partially-constructed tunnel collapsed; nobody was injured, but a complete closure of the line was enacted for over six weeks before being permitted to reopen on 20 August 2005. Tesco paid an estimated £200million of compensation to both Chiltern Railways and Network Rail for the disruption; the retailer also pledged to fund a media campaign to win back passengers lost by the route's unplanned closure. The tunnel's construction resumed in January 2009. In late November 2010, the completed store was opened.

In July 2007, Henderson Equity Partners announced its intention to sell on Laing Rail along with the Chiltern Railways franchise. Amongst the parties to express interest in acquiring the company were the transport groups Arriva and Go-Ahead. However, by December 2007, only the German publicly owned railway company Deutsche Bahn and the Dutch transport company NedRail reportedly remained in the bidding contest. In January 2008, Laing Rail was purchased by Deutsche Bahn; accordingly Chiltern Railways became a part of the DB Regio group. During early 2011, the company was restructured, with DB Regio becoming a subsidiary of Arriva UK Trains.

During May 2011, Chiltern took over operating services on the Oxford–Bicester line from First Great Western. On 26 October 2015, the company opened two new stations, Oxford Parkway and Bicester Village, providing services between north Oxford and London Marylebone. In December 2016, Chiltern Railways started running train services from Oxford to London Marylebone.

In 2021, following the COVID-19 emergency measures, Chiltern was awarded a new direct contract by the Department for Transport, replacing its franchise agreement, with a core term until 1 April 2025 and expiring on 12 December 2027.

Chiltern Railways is one of several train operators impacted by the 2022–2024 United Kingdom railway strikes, the first national rail strike in the UK for three decades. Its workers were amongst those are participating in industrial action due to a dispute over pay and working conditions.

Services
Chiltern Railways operates regular services on five routes.

The Chiltern Main Line is the core route for the majority of Chiltern Railways services and is one of two "mainline routes" operated by the company. The route links the major cities of London and Birmingham (Marylebone and Snow Hill stations respectively), passing through the towns of High Wycombe, Banbury, Royal Leamington Spa, Warwick and Solihull. Chiltern Railways operates trains along the entire line, services ranging from stopping suburban trains (e.g. London Marylebone – Gerrards Cross) to express trains running the full length of the line between London and Birmingham. The fastest timetabled journey from Birmingham to London by this route is 99minutes (compared with 82minutes using Avanti West Coast services between Birmingham New Street and London Euston via the West Coast Main Line). In addition to the Chiltern Railways services, CrossCountry also operates regular services on the line north of Banbury, and West Midlands Trains operates regular services north of Dorridge.

The London–Aylesbury line is the second "mainline route" operated by the company. The route links London (Marylebone) with Aylesbury via Amersham. All Chiltern Railways services on this route run the full length of the line between Marylebone and Aylesbury stations and call at all stations north of Amersham; most trains are extended one station further to Aylesbury Vale Parkway. The line runs alongside London Underground's Metropolitan line between (just north of Marylebone station) and Harrow-on-the-Hill, each operator running on separate tracks. Beyond Harrow-on-the-Hill, the tracks are shared between Chiltern Railways and Metropolitan line services. This is an example of National Rail services using non-Network Rail tracks, and it uses a unique unregulated track-access agreement with London Underground. Beyond Amersham (where the Metropolitan line terminates), all services are operated by Chiltern Railways only.

The other three routes regularly served by the company are all branch lines. The Aylesbury–Princes Risborough line links Princes Risborough, on the Chiltern Main Line, with Aylesbury, on the London to Aylesbury Line. Most trains on the line continue beyond Princes Risborough to London Marylebone, which gives Aylesbury an alternative route to reach central London; however, a few services terminate at Princes Risborough. The Oxford–Bicester line branches off the Chiltern Main Line just south of Bicester and links the town with Oxford. The line is mostly served by express services to and from Marylebone. Until December 2016, the line terminated a few miles northeast of Oxford, at the nearby Oxford Parkway station; the line was then extended to the main Oxford station. The Leamington–Stratford line branches off the Chiltern Main Line at Hatton (a few miles west of Leamington Spa) and runs to Stratford-upon-Avon. The branch line is also operated by regular West Midlands Trains services.

As of May 2023, a simplified description of the routes served off-peak Monday to Friday are as follows:

Parliamentary trains
Chiltern Railways operates two parliamentary train services:
 * Cherwell Valley line: there is a single daily parliamentary service operating on the Cherwell Valley line from Oxford to Banbury, operated by Chiltern Railways. This service runs on Tuesdays to Saturdays just after midnight and calls at Tackley, Heyford and Kings Sutton - the three intermediate stations on the line. There is no corresponding return service heading towards Oxford. This service exists to maintain route knowledge for Chiltern Railways' drivers. Regular services on the line are operated by Great Western Railway and CrossCountry.
 * New North Main line/Greenford branch line: the company also operated a weekday parliamentary service to and from West Ealing in the late morning. Until December 2018, these services ran to and from London Paddington.  They were then diverted to West Ealing following closure of the easternmost section of the New North Main line for High Speed 2 construction. The parliamentary service used to run a return service, with the returning service terminating at High Wycombe. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the service was suspended until December 2021., the service no longer runs and has been replaced by a bus service.

Buckinghamshire Railway Centre
On certain Bank Holiday Mondays, services are extended from Aylesbury to the Buckinghamshire Railway Heritage Centre facilities at Quainton Road, a short way north of Aylesbury Vale Parkway. However, this did not happen in 2019 and their future is uncertain. The link will continue to be used by freight services to Calvert.

Tickets
Since winning the franchise, Chiltern has introduced "Route: High Wycombe" tickets for the Chiltern route between Birmingham and London that are considerably cheaper than "Route: Any Permitted" tickets, valid on the faster Avanti West Coast service to London Euston as well a number of other operators and routes. Chiltern offers only standard class, not standard and First Class as on Avanti services.

Until January 2022, Chiltern offered a premium economy "Business Zone" carriage on their Class 68 loco-hauled services between Birmingham or Oxford and London. Passengers would pay an upgrade fee to sit in a larger first-class-style seat; and formerly, this upgrade came with complimentary refreshments but, since May 2017, refreshment services have been cut on all Chiltern Railways services, meaning the "Business Zone" no longer comes with complimentary refreshments.

From January 2022, Business Zone is no longer offered, and the former Business Zone carriage can be used by any customers holding a valid ticket to travel at no extra cost.

Performance
Chiltern Railways' early operations were subject to considerable criticism. During 1998, its poor performance figures in criteria such as reliability, punctuality, and customer approval has led to financial penalties being incurred by the company, some of which was in the form of refunds to its passengers.

By the mid-2010s, Chiltern was considered one of the best railway operators in Britain, with Public Performance Measure (PPM) regularly over 90%, until the introduction of changes in November 2015, and infrastructure issues saw punctuality fall to 86% in December 2015. Chiltern's PPM is measured on stricter conditions than its long-distance rivals, such as Avanti West Coast, as Chiltern has a five-minute window for performance while others have a ten-minute window.

Performance figures published by Network Rail rate Chiltern Railways sixth in train operating companies in the UK at 89.4% (PPM – period 9) and 94.3% (MAA) for the year to 12 December 2015.

A new timetable introduced in September 2011, combined with significant disruption caused by engineering work, caused a negative reaction from customers. A petition to have the service reviewed was started, and articles describing the disrupted journeys of commuters appeared in the local press.

A new timetable introduced in December 2012 also met with frustration and opposition from some customers, particularly those using Saunderton and Princes Risborough stations.

Project Evergreen
Evergreen is the name given by Chiltern to the major infrastructure works that the company has committed to over the 20-year duration of its franchise to improve routes and services. This has been divided into three distinct phases.

Evergreen 1
The main focus of phase 1 was the redoubling of the Chiltern Main Line between Princes Risborough and Bicester North, with work taking place during 1998, as well as between Bicester North and Aynho Junction during 2001. Furthermore, several stations were subject to reconstruction works. Haddenham and Thame Parkway was rebuilt to have two operational platforms instead of a single platform; a new platform was also installed at Princes Risborough. Finally, the line speed limit was raised following appropriate infrastructure improvements.

Evergreen 2
Phase 2 commenced shortly following the award of Chiltern's 20-year franchise period in August 2000. The most extensive works undertaken was the realignment of the route through Beaconsfield, which permitted line speeds to be increased to 75 mph. Further improvements in this phase included the enactment of signalling improvements between High Wycombe and Bicester, as well as between Princes Risborough and Aylesbury, two new platforms were constructed at London Marylebone on land formerly occupied by the carriage sidings, while a new depot was constructed at Wembley.

Evergreen 3
The Department for Transport, Chiltern Railways and Network Rail agreed in January 2010 to a £250million upgrade of the Chiltern Main Line.

Phase 1
Phase 1 of the project, now complete, involved upgrading the Marylebone – Birmingham Chiltern Main Line to permit 100 mph running on an additional 50 mi of route. Junctions at Neasden, Northolt and Aynho were remodelled to permit higher speeds. The 'up' through track has been restored at Princes Risborough, the existing 'up' line becoming a platform loop, a new turnback siding has been provided at Gerrards Cross, and a new, straighter 'down' through track built from Northolt Junction (where the original layout favoured the now little-used Paddington route) to Ruislip Gardens. The existing 'down' track continues to serve South Ruislip station. The former speed restrictions through Bicester North have been removed to permit 100mph running. Two additional terminating platforms at Birmingham Moor Street were reopened in December 2010. Accelerated services were initially planned to start in May 2011, but there were delays and it was not until 5 September 2011 that Chiltern was able to introduce a new timetable to take advantage of the improvements.

As a result of the speed increases, journey times have been reduced significantly. From Marylebone, the fastest peak-hour journey time to Birmingham Moor Street is now 90minutes, instead of 117minutes previously. Chiltern Railways former chairman Adrian Shooter stated: "This is the biggest passenger rail project for several generations not to call on the taxpayer for support. Working closely with Network Rail, we are going to create a new main-line railway for the people of Oxfordshire and the Midlands. This deal demonstrates that real improvements to rail services can be paid for without public subsidy by attracting people out of their cars and on to trains."

The table below outlines the peak timetable improvements.

Phase 2
During October 2012, the Secretary of State for Transport granted permission for work to begin on Phase 2 of the Evergreen 3 project, with services between London Marylebone and Oxford. Under Phase 2, a quarter-of-a-mile double track has been constructed joining the Oxford–Bicester line at Bicester Village to the Chiltern Main Line, allowing a new Oxford to London Marylebone service to operate. A new station, Oxford Parkway, has been constructed at Water Eaton; the service between Oxford Parkway and London started on 26 October 2015, with the link from Oxford Parkway to Oxford becoming operational on 12 December 2016. All signalling on the route (including the new platforms at Oxford) is controlled by the Marylebone Signalling Centre.

As part of Phase 2, the Oxford to Bicester Village service transferred from First Great Western to Chiltern in May 2011. Part of the line between Wolvercote Tunnel (on the outskirts of Oxford) and Bicester Village was restored to double track, and the scheme included additional platforms at Oxford, Islip and Bicester Village.

Network Rail provided the capital for the upgrade and will recover this through a facility charge over the subsequent 30 years, initially payable by Chiltern until its franchise expires, and then by the next franchisee. The infrastructure upgrade was carried out by main contractor BAM Nuttall, in partnership with Jarvis and WS Atkins.

Oxfordshire County Council supported the scheme, but required convincing of the benefits of the new Oxford Parkway station at Water Eaton, which is in the Green Belt. In November 2011, there was a further setback to the project when a planning inspector withheld approval due to the discovery of bats roosting in Wolvercote Tunnel. Great crested newts also had a breeding habitat close to the route. In early 2012, the "bat problem" was apparently resolved.

Rolling stock
Chiltern Railways inherited a fleet of 34 Class 165 Turbos diesel multiple units (DMUs) from British Rail. From the franchise's onset in July 1996, the company publicly promised to introduce new rolling stock. During December 2004, a further five Class 165s were transferred from First Great Western Link. Between 2003 and 2005, all 39 Class 165s were overhauled by Bombardier at Ilford EMU Depot; during this work, air conditioning units were installed throughout the fleet, while the hopper opening windows were removed; a first-class seating area was also implemented. As the fleet had been designed for suburban use, rather than InterCity travel, the Class 165s tend to be concentrated on services to Aylesbury and Banbury, although this stock can also be found operating the service between Birmingham and Leamington Spa.

Chiltern ordered several batches of Class 168 Clubman DMUs. Between 1998 and 2004, these entered revenue service, the company eventually operated nine three-car and ten four-car sets. These operate across the network.

During April 2003, Chiltern restored a single Class 121 Bubble Car for use on the Aylesbury to Princes Risborough shuttles. In May 2011, a second Class 121 followed after being overhauled at Tyseley TMD. During March 2013, a third Class 121 (121032) was acquired from Arriva Trains Wales for use as a spare parts donor. On 19 May 2017, the Chiltern Bubble cars ran for the last time, as their age made spare parts increasingly difficult to obtain.

In January 2008, Chiltern ordered four two-coach Class 172 Turbostars; these entered service during June 2011. Because they cannot be fitted with the tripcock safety equipment necessary to operate on London Underground lines, none of the Class 172s can operate via Amersham unless attached to a Class 165 or Class 168 DMU. Although initially intended for use on all-stations services out of London, they frequently operated as far afield as Birmingham. During mid-2021, all of Chiltern's Class 172s were leased to West Midlands Trains for use with their existing Class 172 fleet pending the delivery of British Rail Class 196 DMUs. In December 2021, it was later announced that the Class 172/1 fleet would not be returning to Chiltern once the Class 196s enter service with WMT.

Starting in December 2010, Chiltern began operating two peak-hour loco-hauled services consisting of a Class 67 diesel locomotive hauling a rake of Mark 3 coaches and a Driving Van Trailer. A single set was initially hired from fellow DB Regio subsidiary Wrexham & Shropshire to operate a Birmingham Moor Street to London Marylebone service while another was made up of some DB-Regio-owned Mark 3s painted in British Rail blue/grey and Virgin Trains livery and operated from Banbury to London Marylebone.

After Wrexham & Shropshire ceased operations in January 2011, Chiltern started using a second ex-Wrexham & Shropshire set from May 2011. For the introduction of Chiltern's new timetable in September 2011, these sets had a Mainline logo and blue stripes added to their silver livery. Motive power continued to be provided by several Class 67s, including 67010, 67012-015 and 67018, all of which had been modified to operate with Driving Van Trailers.

During 2012, the ex-Wrexham & Shropshire Mark 3 coaches were overhauled and fitted with sliding plug doors (similar to those fitted to South West Trains' Class 444 Desiros) and toilet retention tanks by Wabtec's Doncaster Works. Once this work was completed, a further ten Mark 3s were overhauled by Wabtec to create a fifth set and to extend the existing sets up to six coaches. In 2012, the DB-Regio-owned Mark 3s used on the peak-hour Banbury service were given a light overhaul at LNWR, Bristol, and the Virgin-liveried examples repainted into British Rail blue/grey. To allow Class 168s to be cascaded to the new Oxford services as part of Evergreen 3, more Mark 3s are to be returned to service in the future.

Between 2015 and 2016, Class 170 Turbostars with First TransPennine Express transferred to Chiltern Railways. Chiltern took five of the First TransPennine Class 170s from May 2015 and the remaining four in July 2016. Upon delivery, the Class 170s were modified to allow them to be used with Chiltern's existing Class 168s, and reclassified as Class 168/3s.

In early 2014, Chiltern Railways agreed a sub-lease from Direct Rail Services (DRS) for six Class 68 locomotives for use on its London Marylebone to Birmingham service to replace the existing fleet of Class 67s. Maintenance and commissioning for the new fleet is assisted by DRS.

During 2017, Chiltern Railways entered into an agreement with Artemis Intelligent Power and the Rail Safety and Standards Board to provide one of its redundant DVTs as a donor vehicle for conversion into a new type of diesel locomotive.

In July 2021, Chiltern Railways converted a single Class 168 unit (168329) into a Battery Hybrid train, referred to as "HybridFlex"; during February 2022, it was first run on services between London and Aylesbury. The company promoted the HybridFlex as increasing acceleration while reducing fuel consumption, vibration, and noise emissions, along with lessening the environmental impact of rail travel.

In August 2023, Chiltern Railways issued a tender for new trains.

Past fleet
Former train types operated by Chiltern Railways include:

Plans
In addition to the completed Evergreen initiatives, other potential enhancements for Chiltern's route have been discussed, but had not progressed as at the end of 2017. These include:
 * Upgrading the Acton–Northolt line (formerly the "New North Main Line") to new platforms at Old Oak Common. This upgrade will also extend to London Paddington to increase capacity on the Chiltern Main Line as there is no room to expand the station at Marylebone.
 * Restoration of fast through lines at Beaconsfield as part of a longer-term aspiration for a 90-minute journey time between London and Birmingham.
 * Remodelling Banbury Station and tracks.
 * Building of the West Hampstead interchange to allow easy interchange with the London Overground - North London Line, Jubilee line, Metropolitan line and Thameslink services.
 * New Chiltern Metro Service that would operate more than four trains per hour for Wembley Stadium, Sudbury & Harrow Road, Sudbury Hill Harrow, Northolt Park, South Ruislip and West Ruislip. This would require a reversing facility at West Ruislip, passing loops at Sudbury Hill Harrow, and a passing loop at Wembley Stadium (part of the old down fast line is in use as a central reversing siding, for stock movements and additionally for eight-car football shuttles to convey passengers to the stadium for events). This 'Chiltern Metro' service was not programmed into the last round of franchising agreements.
 * Re-opening the passenger line between Oxford and Bedford as part of the East West Rail project, and from Aylesbury to East West Rail at Claydon LNE Junction to provide a route to Milton Keynes and the West Coast Main Line via Bletchley. Two miles of the line north of Aylesbury re-opened on 14 December 2008, terminating at a new station, Aylesbury Vale Parkway. However, during late 2017, the Government announced that the private company, East West Rail Company, had been formed to build and operate the line exclusively.
 * Opening a rail line from Aylesbury to an M6-M1 Parkway Station near Rugby.
 * Extending Oyster Pay-as-you-go to High Wycombe and Aylesbury.

Since successful completion of Project Evergreen 3 has fulfilled Chiltern Railways' obligation to invest in infrastructure, there is no clear road to completion for these projects.

title: Chiltern Railways