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Avgas

Avgas (aviation gasoline, also known as aviation spirit in the UK) is an aviation fuel used in aircraft with spark-ignited internal combustion engines. Avgas is distinguished from conventional gasoline (petrol) used in motor vehicles, which is termed mogas (motor gasoline) in an aviation context. Unlike motor gasoline, which has been formulated without lead since the 1970s to allow the use of catalytic converters for pollution reduction, the most commonly used grades of avgas still contain tetraethyl lead, a toxic lead containing additive used to increase octane rating and prevent engine knocking (premature detonation). There are ongoing efforts to reduce or eliminate the use of lead in aviation gasoline.

Kerosene-based jet fuel is formulated to suit the requirements of turbine engines which have no octane requirement and operate over a much wider flight envelope than piston engines. Kerosene is also used by most diesel piston engines developed for aviation use, such as those by SMA Engines, Austro Engine, and Thielert.

Properties
The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is a mixture of various isooctanes. Some refineries also use reformate. All grades of avgas that meet CAN 2–3, 25-M82 have a density of 6.01 lb/USgal at 15 C. (6 lb/U.S. gal is commonly used in America for weight and balance computation.) Density increases to 6.41 lb/USgal at −40 C, and decreases by about 0.1% per 1 C-change increase in temperature. Avgas has an emission coefficient (or factor) of 18.355 lb/USgal of CO2 or about 3.07 units of weight  produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas is less volatile, with a Reid vapor pressure range of 5.5 to 7 psi, than automotive gasoline, with a range of 8 to 14 psi. A minimum limit ensures adequate volatility for engine starting. The upper limits are related to atmospheric pressure at sea level, 14.7 psi, for motor vehicles and ambient pressure at 22,000 ft, 6.25 psi, for aircraft. The lower avgas volatility reduces the chance of vapor lock in fuel lines at altitudes up to 22,000 ft.

The particular mixtures in use today are the same as when they were first developed in the 1940s, and were used in airline and military aero engines with high levels of supercharging; notably the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine used in the Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, Mosquito fighter-bomber and Lancaster heavy bomber (the Merlin II and later versions required 100-octane fuel), as well as the liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engine, and air-cooled radial engines from Pratt & Whitney, Wright, and other manufacturers on both sides of the Atlantic. The high octane ratings were traditionally achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, a highly toxic substance that was phased out of automotive use in most countries in the late 20th century.

Leaded avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. (Unleaded avgas is also available.) Because tetraethyllead is a toxic additive,  the minimum amount needed to bring the fuel to the required octane rating is used; actual concentrations are often lower than the permissible maximum. Historically, many post-WWII developed, low-powered 4- and 6-cylinder piston aircraft engines were designed to use leaded fuels; an unleaded replacement fuel is being developed and certified for these engines. Some reciprocating-engine aircraft still require leaded fuels, but some do not, and some can burn unleaded gasoline if a special oil additive is used.

Consumption
The annual US usage of avgas was 186 e6USgal in 2008, and was approximately 0.14% of the motor gasoline consumption. From 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately 7.5 e6USgal each year. As of 2024, the annual US usage of avgas was 180 e6USgal, most of which contained lead, and 170,000 aircraft in the US used leaded avgas.

In Europe, avgas remains the most common piston-engine fuel. High prices have encouraged efforts to convert to diesel fuel, which is more readily available, less expensive, and has advantages for aviation use.

Grades
Grades of avgas are identified by two numbers associated with its Motor Octane Number (MON). The first number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to "aviation lean" standards, which is similar to the anti-knock index or "pump rating" given to automotive gasoline in the US. The second number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to the "aviation rich" standard, which tries to simulate a supercharged condition with a rich mixture, elevated temperatures, and a high manifold pressure. For example, 100/130 avgas has an octane rating of 100 at the lean settings usually used for cruising and 130 at the rich settings used for take-off and other full-power conditions.

Antiknock agents such as tetraethyl lead (TEL) help to control detonation and provide lubrication. One gram of TEL contains 640.6 milligrams of lead.

100LL (blue)

100LL (pronounced "one hundred low lead") may contain a maximum of one-half the tetraethyllead allowed in 100/130 (green) avgas.

Some of the lower-powered (100 - 150 hp) aviation engines that were developed in the late 1990s are designed to run on unleaded fuel and on 100LL, an example being the Rotax 912.

Automotive gasoline
Automotive gasoline – known as mogas or autogas among aviators – that does not contain ethanol may be used in certified aircraft that have a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) for automotive gasoline, as well as in experimental aircraft and ultralight aircraft. Some oxygenates other than ethanol are approved, but these STC's prohibit ethanol-laced gasolines. Ethanol-treated gasoline is susceptible to phase-separation which is very possible due to the altitude/temperature changes light airplanes undergo in ordinary flight. This ethanol-treated fuel can flood the fuel system with water which can cause in-flight engine failure. Additionally, the phase-separated fuel can leave remaining portions that do not meet octane requirements due to the loss of the ethanol in the water-absorption process. Further, the ethanol can attack materials in aircraft construction which pre-date "gasahol" fuels. Most of these applicable aircraft have low-compression engines which were originally certified to run on 80/87 avgas and require only "regular" 87 anti-knock index automotive gasoline. Examples include the popular Cessna 172 Skyhawk or Piper Cherokee with the 150 hp variant of the Lycoming O-320.

Some aircraft engines were originally certified using a 91/96 avgas and have STCs available to run "premium" 91 anti-knock index (AKI) automotive gasoline. Examples include some Cherokees with the 160 hp Lycoming O-320 or 180 hp O-360, or the Cessna 152 with the O-235. The AKI rating of typical automotive fuel might not directly correspond to the 91/96 avgas used to certify engines, as motor vehicle pumps in the US use the so-called "(R + M)/2" averaged motor vehicle octane rating system as posted on gas station pumps. Sensitivity is roughly 8–10 points, meaning that a 91 AKI fuel might have a MON of as low as 86. The extensive testing process required to obtain an STC for the engine/airframe combination helps ensure that, for those eligible aircraft, 91 AKI fuel provides sufficient detonation margin under normal conditions.

Automotive gasoline is not a fully viable replacement for avgas in many aircraft, because many high-performance and/or turbocharged airplane engines require 100 octane fuel and modifications are necessary in order to use lower-octane fuel.

Many general aviation aircraft engines were designed to run on 80/87 octane, roughly the standard (as unleaded fuel only, with the "{R+M}/2" 87 octane rating) for North American automobiles today. Direct conversions to run on automotive fuel are fairly common, by supplemental type certificate (STC). However, the alloys used in aviation engine construction are chosen for their durability and synergistic relationship with the protective features of lead, and engine wear in the valves is a potential problem on automotive gasoline conversions.

Fortunately, significant history of engines converted to mogas has shown that very few engine problems are caused by automotive gasoline. A larger problem stems from the higher and wider range of allowable vapor pressures found in automotive gasoline; this can pose some risk to aviation users if fuel system design considerations are not taken into account. Automotive gasoline can vaporize in fuel lines, causing a vapor lock (a bubble in the line) or fuel pump cavitation, thereby starving the engine of fuel. This does not constitute an insurmountable obstacle, but merely requires examination of the fuel system, ensuring adequate shielding from high temperatures and maintaining sufficient pressure in the fuel lines. This is the main reason why both the specific engine model as well as the aircraft in which it is installed must be supplementally certified for the conversion. A good example of this is the Piper Cherokee with high-compression 160 or engines. Only later versions of the airframe with different engine cowling and exhaust arrangements are applicable for the automotive fuel STC, and even then require fuel-system modifications.

Vapor lock typically occurs in fuel systems where a mechanically-driven fuel pump mounted on the engine draws fuel from a tank mounted lower than the pump. The reduced pressure in the line can cause the more volatile components in automotive gasoline to flash into vapor, forming bubbles in the fuel line and interrupting fuel flow. If an electric boost pump is mounted in the fuel tank to push fuel toward the engine, as is common practice in fuel-injected automobiles, the fuel pressure in the lines is maintained above ambient pressure, preventing bubble formation. Likewise, if the fuel tank is mounted above the engine and fuel flows primarily due to gravity, as in a high-wing airplane, vapor lock cannot occur, using either aviation or automotive fuels. Fuel-injected engines in automobiles also usually have a "fuel return" line to send unused fuel back to the tank, which has the benefit of equalizing the fuel's temperature throughout the system, further reducing the chance of vapor lock developing.

In addition to vapor locking potential, automotive gasoline does not have the same quality tracking as aviation gasoline. To help solve this problem, the specification for an aviation fuel known as 82UL was developed as essentially automotive gasoline with additional quality tracking and restrictions on permissible additives. This fuel is not currently in production and no refiners have committed to producing it.

Gasohol
Rotax allows up to 10% ethanol (similar to E10 fuel for cars) in the fuel for Rotax 912 engines. Light sport aircraft that are specified by the manufacturer to tolerate alcohol in the fuel system can use up to 10% ethanol.

Fuel dyes
Fuel dyes aid ground crew and pilots in identifying and distinguishing the fuel grades and most are specified by ASTM D910 or other standards. Dyes for the fuel are required in some countries.

Phase-out of leaded aviation gasoline
The 100LL phase-out has been called "one of modern GA's most pressing problems", because 70% of 100LL aviation fuel is used by the 30% of the aircraft in the general aviation fleet that cannot use any of the existing alternatives.

There are three fundamental issues in using unleaded fuels without serious modification of the airframe/engine:
 * 1) The fuel must have a high enough octane rating (and meet other specifications) to replace leaded fuels,
 * 2) The engine must be certified to use the fuel, and
 * 3) The airframe must also be certified to use the fuel.

In February 2008, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced that the company is very concerned about future availability of 100LL, and as a result, they would develop a line of diesel engines. In a February 2008 interview, TCM president Rhett Ross indicated belief that the aviation industry will be "forced out" of using 100LL in the near future, leaving automotive fuel and jet fuel as the only alternatives. In May 2010, TCM announced that they had licensed development of the SMA SR305 diesel engine.

In November 2008, National Air Transportation Association president Jim Coyne indicated that the environmental impact of aviation is expected to be a big issue over the next few years and will result in the phasing out of 100LL because of its lead content.

By May 2012, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA Unleaded Avgas Transition rulemaking committee) had put together a plan in conjunction with industry to replace leaded avgas with an unleaded alternative within 11 years. Given the progress already made on 100SF and G100UL, the replacement time might be shorter than that 2023 estimate. Each candidate fuel must meet a checklist of 12 fuel specification parameters and 4 distribution and storage parameters. The FAA has requested a maximum of US$60M to fund the administration of the changeover. In July 2014, nine companies and consortiums submitted proposals to the Piston Aviation Fuels Initiative (PAFI) to assess fuels without tetraethyl lead. Phase one testing is performed at the William J. Hughes Technical Center for a FAA approved industry replacement by 2018.

In July 2021, the first commercially-produced unleaded avgas, GAMI's G100UL, was approved by the Federal Aviation Administration through a Supplemental Type Certificate.

Lycoming Engines provides a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with unleaded fuel. However, all of their engines require that an oil additive be used when unleaded fuel is used: "When using the unleaded fuels identified in Table 1, Lycoming oil additive P/N LW-16702, or an equivalent finished product such as Aeroshell 15W-50, must be used." Lycoming also notes that the octane rating of the fuel used must also meet the requirements stated in the fuel specification, otherwise engine damage may occur due to detonation. Prior to 2021, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) indicated that leaded avgas is required in their engines, and not unleaded auto fuels: "Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the lead acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours."

In 2021, TCM changed its policy. They have announced a formal application to the FAA to approve the use of UL91 and UL94 in selected engines, stating that "Continental considers 91UL and 94UL fuel as a transitional step in a long-term strategy to reach a more sustainable aviation".

91UL (or UL91)
Hjelmco Oil first introduced unleaded Avgas grades in Europe in 2003, after its success with 80UL. This grade of Avgas is manufactured to meet ASTM D7547. Many common Lycoming engines are certified to run on this particular grade of Avgas, and Cessna has approved the use of this fuel in a large number of their piston fleet. This fuel is also usable in any aircraft in Europe or the United Kingdom where the engine is certified to use it, whether or not the airframe is certified to do so, too.

93UL (Ethanol-free 93AKI automotive gasoline)
The firm Airworthy AutoGas tested an ethanol-free 93 anti-knock index (AKI) premium auto gas on a Lycoming O-360-A4M in 2013. The fuel is certified under Lycoming Service Instruction 1070 and ASTM D4814.

UL94 (formerly 94UL)
Unleaded 94 Motor octane fuel (UL94) is essentially 100LL without the lead. In March 2009, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced they had tested a 94UL fuel that might be the best replacement for 100LL. This 94UL meets the avgas specification including vapor pressure but has not been completely tested for detonation qualities in all Continental engines or under all conditions. Flight testing has been conducted in an IO-550-B powering a Beechcraft Bonanza and ground testing in Continental O-200, 240, O-470, and O-520 engines. In May 2010, TCM indicated that despite industry skepticism, they are proceeding with 94UL and that certification was expected in mid-2013.

In June 2010, Lycoming Engines indicated their opposition to 94UL. Company general manager Michael Kraft stated that aircraft owners do not realize how much performance would be lost with 94UL and characterized the decision to pursue 94UL as a mistake that could cost the aviation industry billions in lost business. Lycoming believes the industry should be pursuing 100UL instead. The Lycoming position is supported by aircraft type clubs representing owners of aircraft that would be unable to run on lower octane fuel. In June 2010, clubs such as the American Bonanza Society, the Malibu Mirage Owners and Pilots Association, and the Cirrus Owners and Pilots Association collectively formed the Clean 100 Octane Coalition to represent them on this issue and push for unleaded 100 octane avgas.

In November 2015, UL94 was added as a secondary grade of unleaded aviation gasoline to ASTM D7547, which is the specification that governs UL91 unleaded avgas. UL91 is currently being sold in Europe. UL94 meets all of the same specification property limits as 100LL with the exception of a lower motor octane number (94.0 minimum for UL94 vs. 99.6 minimum for 100LL) and a decreased maximum lead content. UL94 is an unleaded fuel, but as with all ASTM International unleaded gasoline specifications, a de minimis amount of unintentionally added lead is permitted.

Since May 2016, UL94, now a product of Swift Fuels, is available for sale at dozens of airports in the United States. Swift Fuels has an agreement for distribution in Europe.

UL94 is not intended to be a full replacement for 100LL, but rather is designed to be a drop-in replacement for aircraft with lower-octane-rated engines, such as those that are approved for operation on Grade 80 avgas (or lower), UL91, or mogas. It is estimated that up to 65% of the fleet of current general aviation piston-engine-powered aircraft can operate on UL94 with no modifications to either the engine or airframe. Some aircraft, however, do require a FAA-approved Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) to be purchased to allow for operation on UL94.

UL94 has a minimum Motor octane number (MON, which is the octane rating employed for grading aviation gasoline) of 94.0. 100LL has a minimum MON of 99.6.

AKI is the octane rating used to grade all U.S. automotive gasoline (typical values at the pump can include 87, 89, 91, and 93), and also the 93UL fuel from Airworthy AutoGas.

The minimum AKI of UL94, as sold by Swift Fuels, is 98.0.

Concurrent with the addition of UL94 to ASTM D7547, the FAA published Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) HQ-16-05, which states that "UL94 meets the operating limitations or aircraft and engines approved to operate with grade UL91 avgas," meaning that "Grade UL94 avgas that meets specification D7547 is acceptable to use on those aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with ... grade UL91 avgas that meets specification D7547." In August 2016, the FAA revised SAIB HQ-16-05 to include similar wording regarding the acceptability of using UL94 in aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with avgas that has a minimum Motor octane rating of 80 or lower, including Grade 80/87.

The publication of the SAIB, especially the August 2016 revision, eliminated the need for many of the UL94 STCs being sold by Swift Fuels, as the majority of the aircraft on the STC's Approved Model List are type-certified to use 80-octane or lower avgas.

On April 6, 2017, Lycoming Engines published Service Instruction 1070V, which adds UL94 as an approved grade of fuel for dozens of engine models, 60% of which are carbureted engines. Engines with displacements of 235, 320, 360, and 540 cubic inches make up almost 90% of the models approved for UL94.

UL102 (formerly 100SF Swift Fuel)
Swift Fuels, LLC, has attained approval to produce fuel for testing at its pilot plant in Indiana. Composed of approximately 85% mesitylene and 15% isopentane, the fuel is reportedly scheduled for extensive testing by the FAA to receive certification under the new ASTM D7719 guideline for unleaded 100LL replacement fuels. The company eventually intends to produce the fuel from renewable biomass feedstocks, and aims to produce something competitive in price with 100LL and currently available alternative fuels. Swift Fuels has suggested that the fuel, formerly referred to as 100SF, will be available for "high performance piston-powered aircraft" before 2020.

John and Mary-Louise Rusek founded Swift Enterprises in 2001 to develop renewable fuels and hydrogen fuel cells. They began testing "Swift 142" in 2006 and patented several alternatives for non-alcohol based fuels which can be derived from biomass fermentation. Over the next several years, the company sought to build a pilot plant to produce enough fuel for larger-scale testing and submitted fuel to the FAA for testing.

In 2008, an article by technology writer and aviation enthusiast Robert X. Cringely attracted popular attention to the fuel, as also did a cross-country Swift-Fueled flight by the AOPA's Dave Hirschman. Swift Enterprises' claims that the fuel could eventually be manufactured much more cheaply than 100LL have been debated in the aviation press.

The FAA found Swift Fuel to have a motor octane number of 104.4, 96.3% of the energy per unit of mass, and 113% of the energy per unit of volume as 100LL, and to meet most of the ASTM D910 standard for leaded aviation fuel. Following tests in two Lycoming engines, the FAA concluded it performs better than 100LL in detonation testing and will provide a fuel saving of 8% per unit of volume, though it weighs 1 lb/USgal more than 100LL. GC–FID testing showed the fuel to be made primarily of two components — one about 85% by weight and the other about 14% by weight. Soon afterward, AVweb reported that Continental had begun the process of certifying several of its engines to use the new fuel.

From 2009 through 2011, 100SF was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International, allowing the company to pursue certification testing. satisfactorily tested by the FAA, tested by Purdue University, and approved under ASTM specification D7719 for high-octane Grade UL102, allowing the company to test more economically in non-experimental aircraft.

In 2012, Swift Fuels LLC was formed to bring in oil and gas industry experience, scale up production and bring the fuel to market. By November 2013, the company had built its pilot plant and received approval to produce fuel in it. Its most recent patent, approved in 2013, describes methods by which the fuel can be produced from fermentable biomass.

The FAA scheduled UL102 for 2 years of phase 2 testing in its PAFI initiative beginning in the summer of 2016.

G100UL
In February 2010, General Aviation Modifications Inc. (GAMI) announced that it was in the process of developing a 100LL replacement to be called G100UL ("unleaded"). This fuel is made by blending existing refinery products and yields detonation margins comparable to 100LL. The new fuel is slightly more dense than 100LL, but has a 3.5% higher thermodynamic output. G100UL is compatible with 100LL and can be mixed with it in aircraft tanks for use.

In demonstrations held in July 2010, G100UL performed better than 100LL that just meets the minimum specification and performed as well as average production 100LL.

G100UL was approved by the Federal Aviation Administration by the issuance of a Supplemental Type Certificate at AirVenture in July 2021. The STC was initially only applicable to Lycoming-powered models of the Cessna 172. The company indicated that the retail cost was expected to be 0.60–0.85 US dollars per US gallon higher than 100LL. This was later revised to 1.00 US dollar per US gallon.

In 2022, Paul Bertorelli of AVweb reported that the FAA was dragging its feet on broadly certifying G100UL, delaying approval of the fuel for more engines and spending over $80 million on EAGLE to re-start a search for an unleaded fuel when G100UL had been under evaluation for over 10 years.

In September 2022, in a surprise announcement, the FAA approved an STC for the use of the fuel for all piston-engined aircraft and engine combinations. In February 2023, GAMI began selling supplemental type certificates to allow aircraft owners to use the fuel when it becomes available. In April 2024, GAMI announced that 1 million gallons of G100UL had been produced. Fuel availability in the US was forecast for airports in California, Washington and Oregon by the middle of 2024 and the rest of the country by 2026.

Shell Unleaded 100-Octane Fuel
In December 2013, Shell Oil announced that they had developed an unleaded 100 octane fuel and will submit it for FAA testing with certification expected within two to three years. The fuel is alkylate-based with an additive package of aromatics. No information has yet been published with regard to its performance, producibility or price. Industry analysts have indicated that it will likely cost as much as or more than existing 100LL.

Environmental regulation
TEL found in leaded avgas and its combustion products are potent neurotoxins that have been shown in scientific research to interfere with brain development in children. Children in residences or childcare facilities in close proximity to airports with moderate to high piston engine aircraft traffic are at especially high risk of high blood lead levels. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has noted that exposure to even very low levels of lead contamination has been conclusively linked to loss of IQ in children's brain function tests, thus providing a high degree of motivation to eliminate lead and its compounds from the environment.

While lead concentrations in the air have declined, scientific studies have demonstrated that children's neurological development is harmed by much lower levels of lead exposure than previously understood. Low level lead exposure has been clearly linked to loss of IQ in performance testing. Even an average IQ loss of 1–2 points in children has a meaningful impact for the nation as a whole, as it would result in an increase in children classified as mentally challenged, as well as a proportional decrease in the number of children considered "gifted".

On November 16, 2007, the environmental group Friends of the Earth formally petitioned the EPA, asking them to regulate leaded avgas. The EPA responded with a notice of petition for rulemaking.

The notice of petition stated:

Friends of the Earth has filed a petition with EPA, requesting that EPA find pursuant to section 231 of the Clean Air Act that lead emissions from general aviation aircraft cause or contribute to air pollution that may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare and that EPA propose emissions standards for lead from general aviation aircraft. Alternatively, Friends of the Earth requests that EPA commence a study and investigation of the health and environmental impacts of lead emissions from general aviation aircraft, if EPA believes that insufficient information exists to make such a finding. The petition submitted by Friends of the Earth explains their view that lead emissions from general aviation aircraft endanger the public health and welfare, creating a duty for the EPA to propose emission standards.

The public comment period on this petition closed on March 17, 2008.

Under a federal court order to set a new standard by October 15, 2008, the EPA cut the acceptable limits for atmospheric lead from the previous standard of 1.5 μg/m3 to 0.15 μg/m3. This was the first change to the standard since 1978 and represents an order of magnitude reduction over previous levels. The new standard requires the 16,000 remaining USA sources of lead, which include lead smelting, airplane fuels, military installations, mining and metal smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, industrial boilers and process heaters, hazardous waste incineration, and production of batteries, to reduce their emissions by October 2011.

The EPA's own studies have shown that to prevent a measurable decrease in IQ for children deemed most vulnerable, the standard needs to be set much lower, to 0.02 μg/m3. The EPA identified avgas as one of the most "significant sources of lead".

At an EPA public consultation held in June 2008 on the new standards, Andy Cebula, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association's executive vice president of government affairs, stated that general aviation plays a valuable role in the USA economy and any changes in lead standards that would change the current composition of avgas would have a "direct impact on the safety of flight and the very future of light aircraft in this country".

In December 2008, AOPA filed formal comments to the new EPA regulations. AOPA has asked the EPA to account for the cost and the safety issues involved with removing lead from avgas. They cited that the aviation sector employs more than 1.3 million people in the US and has an economic direct and indirect effect that "exceeds $150 billion annually". AOPA interprets the new regulations as not affecting general aviation as they are currently written.

Publication in the USA Federal Register of an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking by the USA EPA occurred in April 2010. The EPA indicated: "This action will describe the lead inventory related to use of leaded avgas, air quality and exposure information, additional information the Agency is collecting related to the impact of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft on air quality and will request comments on this information."

Despite assertions in the media that leaded avgas will be eliminated in the US by 2017 at the latest date, the EPA confirmed in July 2010 that there is no phase-out date and that setting one would be an FAA responsibility as the EPA has no authority over avgas. The FAA administrator stated that regulating lead in avgas is an EPA responsibility, resulting in widespread criticism of both organizations for causing confusion and delaying solutions.

In April 2011 at Sun 'n Fun, Pete Bunce, head of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and Craig Fuller, president and CEO of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, indicated that they both are confident that leaded avgas will not be eliminated until a suitable replacement is in place. "There is no reason to believe 100 low-lead will become unavailable in the foreseeable future," Fuller stated.

Final results from EPA's lead modeling study at the Santa Monica Airport shows off-airport levels below current 150 ng/m3 and possible future 20 ng/m3 levels. Fifteen of 17 airports monitored during a year-long study in the US by the EPA have lead emissions well below the current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead.

Other uses
Avgas is occasionally used in amateur auto racing cars as its octane rating is higher than automotive gasoline thus allowing the engines to run at higher compression ratios.

title: Avgas


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USS New York (BB-34)

USS New York (BB-34) was a United States Navy battleship, the lead ship of her class. Named for New York State, she was designed as the first ship to carry the 14 in/45-caliber gun.

Entering service in 1914, she was part of the U.S. Navy force which was sent to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea near the end of World War I. During that time, she was involved in at least two incidents with German U-boats, and is believed to have been the only US ship to have sunk one in the war, during an accidental collision in October 1918. Following the war, she was sent on a series of training exercises and cruises in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, and saw several overhauls to increase her armament, aircraft handling and armor.

She entered the Neutrality Patrol at the beginning of World War II, and served as a convoy escort for ships to Iceland and Great Britain in the early phase of the war. She saw her first combat against coastal artillery during Operation Torch around Casablanca in North Africa, and later became a training ship. Late in the war, she moved to the Pacific, and provided naval gunfire support for the invasion of Iwo Jima and later the invasion of Okinawa. Returning to Pearl Harbor for repairs until the end of the war, she was classified obsolete and was chosen to take part in the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946. She survived both explosions, and the effects of radiation on the ship were studied for two years. She was eventually sunk as a target in 1948. She received three battle stars for her service.

Design and construction
New York was the first of two planned New York-class battleships, though construction on her began after her sister, USS Texas (BB-35). She was ordered in fiscal year 1911 as the first class of battleship in the United States Navy to carry the 14-inch/45-caliber gun.

She had a standard displacement of 27000 LT and a full-load displacement of 28367 LT. She was 573 ft in length overall, 565 ft at the waterline, and had a beam of 95 ft and a draft of 28 ft.

She was powered by 14 Babcock & Wilcox boilers driving two dual-acting vertical triple expansion reciprocating steam engines, with 28000 shp, with a maximum speed of 21 kn. She had a range of 7,060 nmi at 10 kn.

Armor on New York consisted of a belt from 10 to 12 in thick. Her lower casemate had between 9 and 11 in of armor, and her upper casemate had 6 in of armor. Deck armor was 2 in thick, and turret armor was 14 in on the face, 4 in on the top, 2 inches on the sides, and 8 in on the rear. Armor on her barbettes was between 10 and 12 inches. Her conning tower was protected by 12 inches of armor, with 4 inches of armor on its top.

Her armament consisted of ten 14-inch/45-caliber guns which could be elevated to 15 degrees, and arrayed in five double mounts designated, from bow to stern, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The class was the last to feature a turret mounted amidships. As built, she also carried twenty-one 5 in/51-caliber guns, primarily for defense against destroyers and torpedo boats. The 5-inch guns were poor in accuracy in rough seas due to the open casemates mounted in the hull, so the 5-inch armament was reduced to 16 guns in 1918 by removal of the least useful positions near the ends of the ship. The ship was not designed with anti-aircraft (AA) defense in mind, but two 3 in/50 caliber AA guns were added in 1918. She also had four 21 in torpedo tubes, 1 each on the port side bow and stern and starboard bow and stern, for the Bliss-Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo. The torpedo rooms held 12 torpedoes total, plus 12 naval defense mines. Her crew consisted of 1,042 officers and enlisted men.

New York was laid down on 11 September 1911, in New York Navy Yard in Brooklyn. The New York class was constructed under new labor laws that limited the working hours of her construction crews. It was also stipulated that each ship cost less than $6,000,000, excluding cost of armor and armament. She was launched on 30 October 1912, and commissioned on 15 May 1914. The fifth ship to be named for New York State, she was sponsored by Elsie Calder, the daughter of New York politician William M. Calder. The fourth USS New York (ACR-2), an armored cruiser, was renamed Rochester, to free the name for this battleship, and was later scuttled in Subic Bay in 1941. However, the wreck site for that ship, which has become a popular recreational dive site, is still commonly referred to as USS New York.

Service history
Under the command of Captain Thomas S. Rodgers, New York headed straight for Veracruz following its commissioning. She was designated flagship for Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher in July 1914, commanding the fleet occupying and blockading Veracruz to prevent arms shipments from arriving there to support the government of Victoriano Huerta. The United States occupation of Veracruz ultimately ended and New York resumed her shakedown cruise along the East Coast of the United States. She also undertook several goodwill duties, and in December 1915 she held a high-profile Christmas party and dinner for several hundred orphans from New York City, at the suggestion of her crew. It later became a tradition on the ship to help the underprivileged when possible, earning it the nickname "Christmas Ship." Following this duty, she undertook a number of training exercises off the Atlantic coast.

World War I
Following the United States' entry into World War I, New York, under the command of Captain Edward L. Beach, Sr., became flagship of Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9), commanded by Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman. She was sent to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea, arriving at Scapa Flow on 7 December 1917. The ships of the U.S. fleet were assigned to the 6th Battle Squadron in the Grand Fleet, the American ships joined in blockade and escort. In December 1917, New York and the other U.S. battleships took part in several gunnery exercises. New York scored the highest score of the ships for her main battery, with an accuracy of 93.3 percent. Ultimately the New York was the best performer in these exercises, the only ship rated as "excellent" while many of her sisters received mediocre performance reviews.

She did not fire any shots in anger during the war, but does get credit for sinking an enemy vessel. During one of her escort missions, the convoy she was escorting came under two different attacks by German U-boats. On the evening of 14 October 1918, as New York led a group of battleships into the Pentland Firth, she was rocked by a violent underwater collision on her starboard side, followed shortly after by another to the stern that broke off two blades on one of her propellers, reducing the ship to one engine and a speed of 12 kn. It was immediately clear to the men on board that she had struck an underwater object, but the depth of the channel meant it could not have been a shipwreck. Commanders concluded that New York must have accidentally collided with a submerged U-boat. They agreed that the submarine had rammed its bow into the ship's side, then been struck moments later by the ship's propeller. In their opinion, the damage would have been fatal to the German craft. This strange—and accidental—encounter marked the only time in all of Battleship Division Nine's service with the Grand Fleet that one of its ships sank a German vessel. Postwar examination of German records revealed that the submarine lost may have been SMU UB-113 or SMU UB-123, however, neither of these seem possible, as UB-113 had been sunk by a French gunboat in the Gulf of Gascony weeks prior, and UB-123 sank in the North Sea Mine Barrage five days after the New York suffered the collision.

Badly damaged by the loss of a propeller, the ship sailed to Rosyth under heavy escort for repairs on 15 October. At 01:00 the next morning, a U-boat launched three torpedoes at the damaged vessel, all of which passed ahead of her. Unlike in previous cases, sufficient evidence existed to suppose that this torpedo attack was not a false alarm—a number of officers and men aboard New York clearly saw the wakes of the torpedoes in the full moonlight, and a submarine was spotted in the immediate vicinity by a patrol shortly after the attack. Ironically, the battleship's wounded condition is possibly what saved her: although standard procedure was to steam at 16 kn, New York could make only 12 kn on her one operable propeller. Due to this, historian Jerry Jones believes that the U-boat captain misjudged the ship's speed. With no further damage, however, the battleship arrived safely at a drydock in Rosyth. As she was lifted clear of the water, a large dent commensurate with a submarine bow was found in her hull.

New York was also frequently host to foreign dignitaries, including King George V of the United Kingdom and the future Edward VIII, as well as then-prince Hirohito of the Empire of Japan. The ship was of great interest to other European powers, as it was in many cases a first chance to see an American dreadnought up close. She was on hand for the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet on 21 November 1918 in the Firth of Forth, several days after the signing of the Armistice, after which she returned to the United States briefly. She then served as an escort for SS George Washington, carrying President Woodrow Wilson, on his trip from the United States to Brest, France en route to the Versailles Peace Conference.

Interwar period
Arriving back in the United States in 1919, she began to undertake training and patrol duties, including at one point to the Caribbean with a number of other U.S. ships. During this year, she also saw a refit in Norfolk Navy Yard where five 5-inch guns were removed and three additional 3-inch/50 caliber AA guns were added, bringing the total to five. The secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5-inch/51 caliber guns. In late 1919, she sailed to the Pacific Ocean and joined the newly formed United States Pacific Fleet. She continued to conduct training and patrol duties in the Pacific until the mid-1930s when she was transferred again to the Atlantic, and began operating out of the North Atlantic, with the exception of several occasional trips to the West Coast of the United States.

In 1926 New York was considered obsolete compared with other battleships in service, so she steamed to Norfolk Navy Yard for a complete refit. While several other battleships in service, including USS Utah (BB-31) and USS Florida (BB-30) were converted to training ships or scrapped, New York and Texas were chosen to be overhauled to increase their speed, armor, armament, and propulsion systems as allowed by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. An additional 3000 LT were added to her for defense against aerial targets and submarines. The number of 3-inch AA guns was increased to 8, and six of the 5-inch guns were relocated to new casemates on the main deck. The torpedo tubes were removed at this time. Her 14 Babcock & Wilcox coal-fired boilers were replaced with six Bureau Express oil-fired boilers and the twin funnels were trunked into one, aft of the forward superstructure. Tripods were fitted in place of lattice masts, and atop the forward tripod a control tower was installed. A tower was built amidships that contained additional fire control to backup the system on the foremast. A new aircraft catapult was installed atop turret Number 3, and cranes were installed on either side of the funnel for boat and aircraft handling. Additional deck protection was added, and her beam was widened to 106 ft. She was fitted with anti-torpedo bulges. However, these bulges made maneuvering harder at low speeds, she rolled badly, and her gunfire accuracy was reduced in rough seas. On 4 September 1928, she left for short-range battle drills with USS Arizona (BB-39), and from 7 to 10 November the ships traveled to San Francisco together with USS Pennsylvania (BB-38). On 3 April 1929 she undertook anti-aircraft practice with Arizona, and then the two ships and Pennsylvania steamed for Cuba, where they stayed until steaming for Hampton Roads on 1 May.

She remained with the Pacific Fleet training as part of the series of Fleet Problems until 1937. That year she was selected to carry now-Admiral Rodman, the President's personal representative for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, and New York took part in the Grand Naval Review of 20 May 1937 as sole U.S. Navy representative. In 1937, eight 1.1 in/75 caliber AA guns in two quadruple mounts were added to improve the light AA armament. New York was fitted with XAF radar in February 1938, including the first United States duplexer so a single antenna could both send and receive. This made her the second ship to be outfitted with radar after the destroyer USS Leary (DD-158). The tests conducted on New York led to similar radars being installed on the Brooklyn-class cruiser and St. Louis-class cruiser (1938) cruisers as well as newer battleship USS West Virginia (BB-48). For several years, she served primarily as a training ship for midshipmen and newly enlisted sailors.

In September 1939, New York joined the Neutrality Patrol, safeguarding sea lanes in the North Atlantic, and served as flagship with the Atlantic Squadron, later redesignated the United States Atlantic Fleet, for the next 27 months. In July 1941, she protected a convoy of U.S. troops moving to garrison Iceland. She was in the midst of a refit on 7 December 1941, when the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor, sinking many of the battleships in the U.S. Pacific Fleet and bringing the United States into World War II.

World War II
With the outbreak of war, New York's overhaul was sped up and completed four weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. She returned to duty escorting cargo and troop ships to Iceland and Scotland. She continued on patrol duty for the next year. In her first series of escorts, she left Norfolk 15 February, arrived in New York 16 February, Nova Scotia 21 February, and Iceland 2 March, returning to Norfolk on 27 March. She left there on her second patrol 24 April and arrived at New York the next day, Nova Scotia 2 May, Newfoundland 5 May, and Iceland 10 May, returning to New York on 20 May. The next day she left for a third escort, arriving again at Nova Scotia on 2 June and Scotland on 10 June, returning to Norfolk on 30 June. Following these three escort missions, she put in for overhaul in Norfolk. The secondary battery was reduced to six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and the anti-aircraft armament was increased to ten 3-inch/50 caliber guns, 24 40 mm Bofors guns in quadruple mounts, and 42 20 mm Oerlikon cannons. She departed Norfolk on 12 August and arrived the next day at New York. From there, she escorted a convoy to Nova Scotia where she remained until 22 August, then departed for Scotland where she was from 31 August to 5 September. She returned to Norfolk on 15 September.

New York saw her first major action during Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942. She left Norfolk on 23 October in order to join the Allied fleet. Attached to the Southern Attack Group, on 8 November, New York and the cruiser USS Philadelphia (CL-41), screened by six destroyers, attacked Safi harbor in Morocco, supporting landings by the U.S. 9th Infantry Division's 47th Infantry Regiment, and defended the transports USS Cole (DD-155) and USS Bernadou (DD-153) which came under attack by 130 mm shore batteries at Point De La Tour. New York fired several salvoes with her 14 in guns, with one of them striking the base of the battery and ricocheting into a bunker, destroying the range finder and killing the battery commander and neutralizing the battery. Other shore batteries were destroyed by Philadelphia's guns and aircraft from escort carrier USS Santee (CVE-29). New York remained on station until the port was secure, then steamed north to support the Center Group off Fedhala and Casablanca, specifically to deal with the threat of the Vichy French battleship Jean Bart, but by the time she arrived, that battleship had been disabled by USS Massachusetts (BB-59) and other Vichy French ships had been driven off by USS Brooklyn (CL-40) and USS Augusta (CA-31). New York remained on off the coast of North Africa until the beaches were secure, then retired on 14 November. She had expended a total of sixty 14 in rounds. She returned to Norfolk on 23 November.

New York next returned to convoy patrol. She escorted two convoys to Casablanca from the United States during late 1942, leaving Norfolk on 24 November and in New York from 25 November to 12 December, Casablanca from 24 to 29 December, and back in Norfolk on 12 January 1943. She left Norfolk on the second escort on 26 February, in New York from 27 February to 5 March, in Casablanca from 18 to 25 March, and back to New York from 5 April to 1 May. In 1943 she was selected for a refit to become a main battery and escort training center. She arrived in Portland, Maine on 2 May, where she remained until 27 July. During her fourth and final refit in early 1943 her anti-aircraft battery was increased to ten 3-inch/50 caliber guns, forty 40 mm and thirty-six 20 mm guns. Improved fire control was added as well, and this ultimately increased her displacement to 29340 LT standard and 34000 LT full-load. She returned to Norfolk on 2 August 1943. She was used to train crews from the US Navy, US Coast Guard, and Allied navies on the 14-inch/45 caliber gun, the 3-inch/50 caliber gun, and the 20 mm and 40 mm guns, primarily because many newer ships used these weapons. Between July 1943 and June 1944 about 11,000 enlisted men and 750 officers trained on her in this capacity. However, the duty lowered morale among the crew and a large number of requests for transfer were put in. Following this duty, she was sent to the US Naval Academy and undertook three consecutive midshipmen cruises ferrying a total of 1,800 midshipmen from Annapolis to Trinidad between June and August 1944.

Pacific theater
Selected to return to action in the Pacific Theater in late 1944, she transited the Panama Canal on 27 November, and arrived in Long Beach, California on 9 December, breaking down at least once along the way and losing an observation plane in bad weather. She conducted refresher training off Southern California in December 1944 and January 1945. New York departed 12 January and rendezvoused with USS Idaho (BB-42), USS Tennessee (BB-43), USS Nevada (BB-36), Texas, and USS Arkansas (BB-33), forming a support force for the invasion of Iwo Jima. New York lost a blade off her port screw just before the invasion began and briefly put in for temporary repairs at Eniwetok from 5 to 7 February. She returned to the group, which was near Saipan, on 11 February. Together, they arrived at Iwo Jima on 16 February and began the pre-invasion bombardment. During the three days of shore bombardment that followed, New York expended 6,417 rounds, including 1,037 14-inch rounds. One of her salvoes struck the primary ammunition dump on the island, causing "the most spectacular secondary explosion in the campaign." She retired from the area on 19 February and arrived at Ulithi on 21 February.

After a permanent repair to her port propeller at Manus from 28 February to 19 March, she rejoined Task Force 54 at Ulithi on 22 March in preparation for the invasion of Okinawa. Joined by USS Maryland (BB-46), USS Colorado (BB-45), and West Virginia, the fleet of battleships began its bombardment of Okinawa on 27 March. Providing shore bombardment, and later naval artillery support for ground forces, New York was on station for 76 consecutive days, during which she expended 4,159 rounds of 14-inch ammunition and 7,001 rounds of 5-inch ammunition. She was subjected to a kamikaze attack on 14 April which destroyed one spotting plane on its catapult, but the Japanese aircraft crashed 50 yd from the ship and New York received only superficial damage, suffering two men injured. She was detached on 11 June, her gun barrels having been worn out by fire, and proceeded to Pearl Harbor to have her guns relined in preparation for the invasion of mainland Japan. She stopped by Leyte on 14 June and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 1 July. She was in the harbor on 15 August, the end of the war.

During World War II, New York spent 1,088 days with the Atlantic Fleet from December 1941 to November 1944, and 276 days with the Pacific Fleet. She expended a total of 53,094 rounds of all types totaling 3548.9 ST, traveled 123867 mi, spent 414 days underway, and consumed 22367996 gal of fuel oil.

Post-war
Following the end of the war, New York entered the Operation Magic Carpet fleet, leaving Pearl Harbor on 2 September and arriving at San Pedro on 9 September with a load of veterans embarked. She then proceeded to New York City to take part in Navy Day celebrations.

Selected as a test ship for Operation Crossroads, she was used in nuclear bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 with about 70 other ships, surviving both the Able and Baker tests. Following these tests, she was towed to Pearl Harbor to study the effects of the bomb blasts on her. On 6 July 1948, she was towed out to sea and used as target practice, and was sunk by several naval aircraft and ships.

Her stern plate is displayed onboard her successor, USS New York (LPD-21).

Honors and awards

 * Mexican Service Medal ribbon.svg Mexican Service Medal
 * World War I Victory Medal with GRAND FLEET Clasp
 * American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg American Defense Service Medal
 * European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with one battle star
 * Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars
 * World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg World War II Victory Medal

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS New York (BB-34)


text:
Talk:James Thornhill

Untitled
Who was Kneller? -- Zoe

What is a history painter? -- Zoe

 * It's somebody who paints historical subjects. I'll change it for clarity. --Camembert

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title: Talk:James Thornhill


text:
Talk:Cold dark matter

Untitled
Rather than move this article to Dark_matter, I believe it and Hot_dark_matter should be there...unless I'm missing something. BF

cold/slow
Does "cold" just mean "slow compared to the speed of light"? 124.168.192.129 (talk) 05:55, 23 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, and also not blackbody hot above the background, e.g. less than about 25 Kelvin. And it also covers black holes, which don't really have a classical temperature or any meaningful outside temperature in the thermodynamic sense, but are considered blackbody cold by their radiation. Dualus (talk) 02:54, 22 May 2011 (UTC)

MACHOs
Machos are not in this group, but in barionic dark matter.-Mazarin07 (talk) 13:11, 5 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Why not? I think they can be, if they are slow and cold. So I guess that does rule out some of them, like white dwarfs. Dualus (talk) 07:12, 22 May 2011 (UTC)

Thanks, and merci beaucoup
Thanks to you all, contributors to this article. It has now been translated into FR. Hop ! Kikuyu3 (talk) 20:23, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

intermediate mass black holes
I deleted that paragraph for two reasons:

(1) it was very unclear. It never said that the BHs are a dark matter candidate. As such, its meaning was quite obscure to a non-expert. Since the source it referenced does claim that, any such paragraph should mention the numerous major problems with the proposal.

(2) Due weight. This is a fringe idea that's accepted by very, very few cosmologists. It can't be discussed until the more mainstream ideas are.  Waleswatcher  ( talk ) 03:38, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

 * Certainly (1) can be corrected. What do you see as the major problems with the proposal? What are your sources for (2)? 67.6.170.33 (talk) 04:08, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

 * It's not my responsibility to demonstrate due weight - it's the responsibility of anyone that wants that material in the article. Considering that none of the other possibilities for CDM get more than a line or so, to give a paragraph to this you'd need to show that it's by far the most commonly accepted theory for CDM.  To even mention it you'd need to argue that it's as widely accepted as (say) WIMPS.

 * From Jimbo Wales, paraphrased from this post from September 2003 on the mailing list:
 * If a viewpoint is in the majority, then it should be easy to substantiate it with reference to commonly accepted reference texts;
 * If a viewpoint is held by a significant minority, then it should be easy to name prominent adherents;
 * If a viewpoint is held by an extremely small (or vastly limited) minority, it does not belong in Wikipedia (except perhaps in some ancillary article) :::: regardless of whether it is true or not; and regardless of whether you can prove it or not.

 * Find a reference text, or a list of prominent adherents, and you'll have an argument for inclusion.  Waleswatcher  ( talk ) 06:09, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

 * I am not asking you to demonstrate anything other than the reasons you say the proposal has "major problems" and the reasons you say the idea is accepted by "very, very few cosmologists." Also, please correct me if I am wrong, but I believe there is no observational evidence for WIMPs, while there were nearly a dozen IMBHs either detected or confirmed in the past year alone. Is that not true? 67.6.170.33 (talk) 07:52, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

 * There are all sorts of problems with the idea that IMBHs are dark matter, but this talk page is not the place to discuss them, and our opinions of them are irrelevant. Every idea in the article must be given an amount of space in the article that's roughly commensurate to its acceptance in the scientific community.  So if you want to put it back, you'll need to demonstrate that it is widely accepted (see my previous post).  Thanks.   Waleswatcher  ( talk ) 14:26, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

 * I've added two references to the dark matter wiki that comment on this. Here's what I wrote on the talk page there:  "I've now checked two sources - a 2010 paper on black holes as dark matter, that says that they are ruled out over a huge range of masses, and one 2012 dark matter review, that says that particles are the only really plausible DM candidate (and also that black holes would require "funky physics" even to exist in the correct abundance).  I've added both references."  Waleswatcher  ( talk ) 15:06, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

(Let's continue and try to resolve this discussion in one place at Talk:Dark matter.) 67.6.175.184 (talk) 03:57, 7 February 2012 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 12:00, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Collisionless cold dark matter
There is a link from the DAB page CCDM to this article, claiming the acronym is used for collisionless cold dark matter. Having seen this in a number of published papers, I believe it correct, but there is no mention of the acronym in the article which could confuse visitors. Can it be shoe-horned in somewhere? Lithopsian (talk) 15:19, 12 March 2018 (UTC)

Please update with: "An excess of small-scale gravitational lenses observed in galaxy clusters"
Please add short info on this paper to the article – probably to section #Challenges. It's currently featured in 2020 in science like so (you could also edit the item there):

Scientists report that results of cold dark matter simulations – probability of strong gravitational lensing events due to dark-matter distributions in 11 galaxy clusters – based on current theories are substantially inconsistent with observational data.

--Prototyperspective (talk) 21:54, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

the particle cold dark matter paradigm in the Challenges §
This is the only occurrence of 'particle' in the article as an adjective connoting a type of 'cold dark matter paradigm'. Suggest it be deleted. Humanengr (talk) 14:55, 14 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cold dark matter


text:
Experience economy

An experience economy is the sale of memorable experiences to customers. The term was first used in a 1998 article by B. Joseph Pine II and James H. Gilmore describing the next economy following the agrarian economy, the industrial economy, and the most recent service economy.

Business theory
Joseph Pine II and James H. Gilmore argue that businesses must orchestrate memorable events for their customers, and that memory itself becomes the product: the "experience". More advanced experience businesses can begin charging for the value of the "transformation" that an experience offers, e.g. as education offerings might do if they were able to participate in the value that is created by the educated individual. This, they argue, is a natural progression in the value added by the business over and above its inputs.

Although the concept of the experience economy was initially focused on business, observations and theories have crossed into tourism, and architecture. The experience economy can be quantified as the economic value of an experience, which is a psychological process people can go through. The experience economy is often consumed as product or service, or as pure experience product such as sports, and online dating.

The experience economy is also considered the main underpinning for customer experience management.

History
This kind of behavior in a society has been observed and analysed much earlier by various authors and researchers. A good example can be found in the pioneering book of futurists Alvin and Heidi Toffler, Future Shock, first published in 1970, which Pine and Gilmore quote in their work. The Tofflers discuss rapid change in American society and explore ways for humans to adapt. In Chapter 10, The Experience Makers, they say that an economy is being created geared to the provision of psychic gratification, that a process of "psychologization" finds place and humans will strive for a better "quality of life". Manufacturers of goods will add a "psychic load" to basic products, the psychic component of services will expand and we will witness the rise of experience industries whose sole output consists of pre-programmed experiences, including simulated environments that offer customers a taste of adventure, danger, or other pleasure.

In the early 1980s, consumer behavior researchers had begun to question the hegemony of the information processing perspective on the ground that it may neglect important consumption phenomena like daydreams and emotional responses. Morris Holbrook and Elizabeth Hirschman argue in their paper "The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun" for the recognition of experiential aspects of consumption.

In 1992, German sociologist Gerhard Schulze researched inhabitants of the city of Nürnberg and did observe a new way of living where basic needs were covered and people merely were striving for a "nice living ("schönes Leben"), experiencing life ("er-leben"). Schulze summarised his findings using the words "Experience Society" in his book Die Erlebnisgesellschaft, translated into English as "The Experience Society" in 1995. In the experience society people behave differently as consumers. A transformation finds place from the need for goods that are generally useful or functional, to a need for goods that deliver an individual experience. Demand and offerings for these experiences meet at the "Experience Market" ("Erlebnismarkt").

In 1996, Danish researcher Rolf Jensen of the Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies writes in his article The Dream Society for The Futurist that American society is yielding to a society focused on dreams, adventure, spirituality, and feelings where the story that shapes feelings about a product will become a large part of what people buy when they buy the product. Jensen framed this trend as the commercialization of emotions. "In 25 years, what people buy will be mostly stories, legends, emotion, and lifestyle."

Stages of marketing a good or service
A core argument is that because of technology, increasing competition, and the increasing expectations of consumers, services today are starting to look like commodities. Products can be placed on a continuum from undifferentiated (referred to as commodities) to highly differentiated. Just as service markets build on goods markets which in turn build on commodity markets, so transformation and experience markets build on these newly commoditized services, e.g. Internet bandwidth, consulting help.

The classification for each stage in the evolution of products is:
 * A commodity business charges for undifferentiated products.
 * A goods business charges for distinctive, tangible things.
 * A service business charges for the activities you perform.
 * An experience business charges for the feeling customers get by engaging it.
 * A transformation business charges for the benefit customers (or "guests") receive by spending time there.

Proceeding to the next stage more or less requires giving away products at the more commodified level. For instance, to charge for a service such as new car warranties, one must be prepared to give away new cars to replace "lemons". And to charge for transformations, one must be prepared to risk not being paid for the time one spends working with customers who do not "transform".

Pine and Gilmore draw on Walt Disney, AOL, Nordstrom, Starbucks, Saturn, Kanye West, IBM and many others as examples.

Criticisms
Pine and Gilmore's thesis has been criticized as an example of an overhyped business philosophy that emerged from the dot-com bubble during a period in which a rising U.S. economy was tolerant of high prices and inflated claims and imposed no limitations of supply or investment. Detractors contrast it with other service-economy theses, such as that laid out in Natural Capitalism, which places a clear focus on making measurably better use of scarce resources, usually considered to be the basis of economics. They claim that service management should stress efficiency over effectiveness.

The thesis has also been criticized from within the fields of tourism, leisure, and hospitality management studies, wherein well-established theories on the role of experiences in the economy went unacknowledged by Pine and Gilmore. Although continuing to influence business thinking, the Experience Economy has been superseded within the service marketing and management literature, whereby the economic value of all goods and business services is co-created or co-produced through the interaction between consumers and producers.

title: Experience economy


text:
Enterococcus

Enterococcus is a large genus of lactic acid bacteria of the phylum Bacillota. Enterococci are gram-positive cocci that often occur in pairs (diplococci) or short chains, and are difficult to distinguish from streptococci on physical characteristics alone. Two species are common commensal organisms in the intestines of humans: E. faecalis (90–95%) and E. faecium (5–10%). Rare clusters of infections occur with other species, including E. casseliflavus, E. gallinarum, and E. raffinosus.

Physiology and classification
Enterococci are facultative anaerobic organisms, i.e., they are capable of cellular respiration in both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments. Though they are not capable of forming spores, enterococci are tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions: extreme temperature (10–45 °C), pH (4.6–9.9), and high sodium chloride concentrations.

Enterococci exhibit variable hemolysis on blood agar. Differences occur between species, and between strains of species. More virulent organisms are more likely to exhibit alpha (partial) or beta (complete) hemolysis than less virulent specimens of Enterococcus, which frequently exhibit gamma (absent) hemolysis.

History
Members of the genus Enterococcus (from Greek έντερο, éntero 'intestine' and κοκκος, coccos 'granule') were classified as group D Streptococcus until 1984, when genomic DNA analysis indicated a separate genus classification would be appropriate.

Evolution
This genus appears to have evolved to.

Pathology
Important clinical infections caused by Enterococcus include urinary tract infections (see Enterococcus faecalis), bacteremia, bacterial endocarditis, diverticulitis, meningitis, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Sensitive strains of these bacteria can be treated with ampicillin, penicillin and vancomycin. Urinary tract infections can be treated specifically with nitrofurantoin, even in cases of vancomycin resistance.

Meningitis
Enterococcal meningitis is a rare complication of neurosurgery. It often requires treatment with intravenous or intrathecal vancomycin, yet it is debatable as to whether its use has any impact on outcome: the removal of any neurological devices is a crucial part of the management of these infections. New epidemiological evidence has shown that enterococci are major infectious agent in chronic bacterial prostatitis. Enterococci are able to form biofilm in the prostate gland, making their eradication difficult. Cases of enterococcal meningitis, in the absence of trauma or surgery, should raise suspicion of an underlying intestinal pathology (e.g., strongyloidiasis).

Antibacterial resistance
From a medical standpoint, an important feature of this genus is the high level of intrinsic antibiotic resistance. Some enterococci are intrinsically resistant to β-lactam-based antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems), as well as many aminoglycosides. In the last two decades, particularly virulent strains of Enterococcus that are resistant to vancomycin (vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, or VRE) have emerged in nosocomial infections of hospitalized patients, especially in the US. Other developed countries, such as the UK, have been spared this epidemic, and, in 2005, Singapore managed to halt an epidemic of VRE. Although quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid) was previously indicated for treatment of VRE in the USA, the FDA approval for this indication has since been retracted. The rationale for the retraction of Synercid's indication for VRE was based upon poor efficacy in E. faecalis, which is implicated in the vast majority of VRE cases. Tigecycline has also been shown to have antienterococcal activity, as has rifampicin.

Bacillus haynesii CD223 and Advenella mimigardefordensis SM421 can inhibit the growth of Enterococcus spp.

Water quality
In bodies of water, the acceptable level of contamination is very low; for example in the state of Hawaii, and most of the United States, the limit for water off its beaches is a five-week geometric mean of 35 colony-forming units per 100 ml of water, above which the state may post warnings to stay out of the ocean. In 2004, measurement of enterococci took the place of fecal coliforms as the new American federal standard for water quality at public saltwater beaches and alongside Escherichia coli at freshwater beaches. It is believed to provide a higher correlation than fecal coliform with many of the human pathogens often found in city sewage.

title: Enterococcus


text:
609 BC

The year 609 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 145 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 609 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events

 * The Medes and the Babylonians defeat the Assyrians under Ashur-uballit II and capture Harran. Ashur-uballit II, the last king of Assyria, disappears from history.
 * Battle of Megiddo—King Josiah is killed fighting against Necho II, who was on his way to aid the Assyrian state.
 * King Jehoahaz succeeds his father Josiah as king of Judah, though he is killed by Necho II, who instead installs Jehoahaz's brother Jehoiakim.
 * The Persian Gulf recedes by a large portion, extending the Tigris and Euphrates rivers by 187mi (300km).

Deaths

 * Ashur-uballit II (probably), last king of Assyria
 * Josiah, king of Judah
 * Jehoahaz, king of Judah
 * Duke Kang of Qin, ruler of the state of Qin
 * Duke Yi of Qi, ruler of the state of Qi

title: 609 BC


text:
Stephen

Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen (Στέφανος Stéphanos), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; he is widely regarded as the first martyr (or "protomartyr") of the Christian Church.

The name, in both the forms Stephen and Steven, is often shortened to Steve or Stevie. In English, the female version of the name is Stephanie.

Many surnames are derived from the first name, including Stephens, Stevens, Stephenson, and Stevenson, all of which mean "Stephen's (son)". In modern times the name has sometimes been given with intentionally non-standard spelling, such as Stevan or Stevon. A common variant of the name used in English is Stephan ; related names that have found some currency or significance in English include Stefan (pronounced  or   in English), Esteban (often pronounced  ), and the Shakespearean Stephano.

Origins
The name "Stephen" (and its common variant "Steven") is derived from Greek Στέφανος (Stéphanos), a first name from the Greek word στέφανος (stéphanos), meaning 'wreath, crown' and by extension 'reward, honor, renown, fame', from the verb στέφειν (stéphein), 'to encircle, to wreathe'. In Ancient Greece, crowning wreaths (such as laurel wreaths) were given to the winners of contests. Originally, as the verb suggests, the noun had a more general meaning of any "circle"—including a circle of people, a circling wall around a city, and, in its earliest recorded use, the circle of a fight, which is found in the Iliad of Homer.

In other languages
Like all biblical names, Stephen has forms in other world languages. Among them are:

 * Esteban — Spanish, Filipino, Basque
 * Estebão  — Old Portuguese
 * Estepan, Estebe, Extiban, Estevan — Old Spanish
 * Estêvão — Portuguese
 * Esteve — Catalan
 * Estevo — Galician
 * Étienne ("Estienne" is an archaic spelling), Stéphan, Stéphane, Stéphen, Stéfane, Stéphanne — French
 * İstefanos, Stefan — Turkish
 * İstfan, Stepan — Azeri
 * István, Stefán, Csépán — Hungarian
 * Ixtebe — Basque
 * Sitiveni — Fijian
 * Steabhán, Stíofán, Stiofán — Irish
 * Štefan — Slovak, Slovene
 * Stefan, Shtjefën, Fan — Albanian
 * Stefan, Stefaan, Stefans, Steven, Stephan — Afrikaans, Dutch
 * Stefan, Stephan, Steffen — German
 * Stefan, Stevan — Cornish, as in Eglosstefan, Lannstevan
 * Stefan, Steven — Breton, as in Sant-Stefan-ar-Roudouz, Gwion Steven
 * Ștefan, with the diminutives Ștefănel, Ștefăniță, Ștefănuț — Romanian
 * Stefan, Szczepan — Polish
 * Stefano — Esperanto
 * Stefano — Italian
 * Stefans, Stepans, Stepons, Stīvens — Latvian
 * Stefanus, Stephanus — Latin
 * Stefán — Icelandic
 * Steven, Stephen, Stefanus, Stefan — Indonesian
 * Staffan, Stefan — Swedish
 * Steffan, Stifyn, Stîfyn — Welsh
 * Steffen — Norwegian
 * Steffen, Stephen, Stefan, Stephan — Danish
 * Steffeni, Stefani, Stiifaat — Greenlandic
 * Štěpán — Czech
 * Steponas, Stepas — Lithuanian
 * Stiefnu — Maltese
 * Stìobhan, Stìophan, Stèaphan — Scottish Gaelic
 * Stjepan, Stijepo, Stepan, Stipan, Stipe, Stipo, Stipa, Šćepan, Šćepo, Štef, Stevko, Stevo, Stefan, Stevan, Stevica — Serbo-Croatian as in Stefan the First-Crowned
 * Tapani, Teppana, Teppo — Finnish
 * Tehvan — Estonian
 * Tipene — Māori
 * Στέφανος (Stephanos, Stefanos, Stephanas, Stepfan, Stephano, Stephanus — Greek
 * Степан (Stepan, the most common; Ukrainian), Стефан (Stefan)
 * Степан/Stepan, Stepa, Stepka, Stepanya, Stepashka — Russian
 * Стефан (Stefan), diminutive: Чефо (Chefo), Стефчо (Stefcho), Стефо (Stefo) — Bulgarian
 * Стефан/Stefan, Стеван/Stevan, Стево/Stevo, Стефо/Stefo, Стефче/Stefche — Macedonian
 * ⲥⲧⲉⲫⲁⲛⲟⲥ (Step(h)anos), ⲥⲧⲉⲫⲁⲛⲉ (Step(h)ana), ⲥⲉⲧⲉⲡⲫⲉⲛ (Sedephen) — Coptic
 * Сцяпан/Sciapan — Belarusian
 * Ычтапан/Içtapan — Tatar
 * სტეფანე (Stepane) — Georgian
 * Ստեփանոս (Stepanos), diminutive: Փանոս (Panos) — Armenian
 * סטיבן (Stiven), סטפן (Stefan) — Hebrew
 * እስጢፋኖስ (Estefanos) — Amharic
 * እስቲፋኖስ (Estifanos) — Tigrinya

People with the name

 * List of people with given name Stephen
 * Stephen (surname), including a list of people with the surname

Popularity
In the United Kingdom, it peaked during the 1950s and 1960s as one of the top ten male first names (ranking third in 1954) but had fallen to twentieth by 1984 and had fallen out of the top one hundred by 2002. The name was ranked 201 in the United States in 2009, according to the Social Security Administration. The name reached its peak popularity in 1951 but remained very common through the mid-1990s, when popularity started to decrease in the United States.

In England and Wales, neither "Stephen" nor "Steven" was among the top 100 names for newborn boys in 2003–2007. In Scotland, "Steven" and "Stephen" were the eighth and tenth most popular names for newborn boys in 1975, but were not in the top ten in 1900, 1950 or 2000. "Stephen" was 68th in 1900, and 46th in 1950, while "Steven" was not in the top 100 either year. Neither spelling was in the top 100 names for newborn boys in Scotland in 2008.

In the United States, the spelling "Stephen" reached its peak of popularity between 1949 and 1951, when it was the 19th most popular name for newborn boys. It stayed in the top 100 boys' names from 1936 through 2000, and for most years between 1897 and 1921. In 2008 it was the 192nd most common name for boys. The spelling "Steven" reached its peak during 1955–1961, when it was the tenth most popular name for newborn boys. It stayed in the top 100 boys' names from 1941 through 2007. In 2008 it was the 104th most popular name for boys. Before the 20th century, the "Steven" spelling was heavily outweighed by "Stephen", never reaching above 391st.

title: Stephen


text:
Talk:Saint Stephen

untitled
St.Steven is in fact celebrated in the Orthdox Church on Dec.27,the third day of Christmas but since several of the Orthodox churches including the Serbian Orthodox Church use the Julian calendar, the date turns out to be January 9th. The saint’s day is very important in the Serbian Orthodox and is a “red letter day”on the church calendar. Futhermore many families celebrate St. Steven’s holy feast day as their family patron saint feast day. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rfl0216 (talk • contribs) 17:12, 30 August 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
''This article has combined histories from moves made before the "Move this article" feature. The history may be a little mixed up around December 7, 2001 (as well as February 25, 2002, like many other articles), but every saved version is in the history. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Toby Bartels (talk • contribs) 04:16, 3 March 2003 (UTC)

 * I have removed the junk edits from the page history. Graham 87 06:20, 21 October 2011 (UTC)

Votes for deletion
On June 11, 2005, an anonymous user nominated this page for deletion citing, "Christian equivalent of fan-cruft. Non-notable figure who is barely mentioned in the gospels." The VFD process was terminated due to the lack of substantial grounds for the nomination and chiefly because the nomination came from an anonymous source. The following comments were made on the now-defunct VFD page for Saint Stephen:

Keep. What? You are kidding are you not? There is more to Christian tradition than the gospels. gren 20:50, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9069601&query=St.%20Stephen&ct= -- just to show that Britannica has him. gren 20:54, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Keep. To consider deleting this article is ridiculous! --Gerald Farinas 20:55, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm terminating the nomination for votes for deletion because of the nominator's anonymity and the absence of substantial grounds for nomination. Such anonymous nominations should be taken as vandalism.  --Gerald Farinas 20:58, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

keepBecause of this site I found out something a bit werid. My name is stephen and I was born on dec. 26. For the first time this year st. Stephen's day was on my calender. I now find out that this st. Stephen is the same Stephen I was named after. The Stephen from the Bible. Just thought i'd share. I thought it was pretty werid. I feel a little special. =)

 * What's so weird about this? Did your parents name you Stephen, because you were born on Dec. 26? Or didn't they know that Dec. 26 is St. Stephen's day, but named you after the Stephen from the Bible nevertheless and that is the weird thing you're talking about?--BobaFett 01:04, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

Problem
Why is the Acts account of Saint Stephen presented as if it is historical?

The section on St Stephen's Day is almost identical to the substantive article of that name, so I think it's unnecessary. Both that article and the section here do not mention that it's a Bank Holiday in the UK.

Is it known if St Stephen actually had a different name and was only called Stephen when he attained the crown of martyrdom?

 * The work of Eisenman suggests that Stephen was in fact James 'the Just'. In this case the NT tale is a bitter joke, using the name Stephen for 'crown' - James, the leader of the Essenes and therefore enemy of the Herodian Saul/Paul. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 86.29.82.139 (talk) 03:21, 9 December 2006 (UTC).

Cult of Saint Stephen
As a reader I found the 'Cult of Saint Stephen' section incredibly difficult to understand. In particular,

Gregory of Tours reports that the intercession of Stephen preserved an oratory dedicated to him at Metz, in which his relics were preserved, when the Huns burned the entire city, leaving only the oratory standing, Easter eve, 451. (Historia Francorum ii.6). and is celebrated amoung the Altar servering community

I'm not sure I understand this sentence well enough to made any credible suggestions to improve its readability. First off, however, I'd suggest breaking it into several smaller sentences. It seems like the story line of the sentence is bouncing between at least two different occasions. Perhaps the order of events could be made more clear as well. I reworded the first part of the section. Many churches are named in honor of Saint Stephen but there was no official "Tomb of St Stephen" until 415. When Christian pilgrims were traveling in large numbers to Jerusalem a priest named Lucian said he had learned by hallucination that the tomb was in Caphar Gamala, some distance to the north of Jerusalem. I made an effort to preserve the meaning while improving readability. If I have misinterpreted the intended meaning, my appologies. The section was quite difficult to decipher for me. - Rockthing 22:07, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

I don't quite understand the title of this section. As far as I can tell, it does not talk about a cult at all. It just talks about finding his tomb (and some thing about an oral tradition of some sort that I could not understand.).67.158.47.104 (talk) 15:31, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

Patronage
Under the "St. Stephen's Day" header, is the following patronage attribution: December 26 is also a holiday in Ligao City, Philippines, which celebrates fiesta in honor of St. Stephen Protomartyr, its patron saint.

In the sidebar on the right, it lists patronage as Acoma Indian Pueblo; casket makers; Cetona, Italy; deacons; headaches; horses; Kessel, Germany; masons; diocese of Owensboro, Kentucky; Passau, Germany; Prato, Italy [1]

These two are not in agreement. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Thistledowne (talk • contribs) 22:05, 18 December 2006 (UTC).

 * If all that's missing is to add Ligao City, Philippines to the "patronage" list, then do it. --Alekjds 22:42, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

Theophany
I propose that Stephen's theophany at the moment of his death in Acts 7:56 is significant enough to be added to this article. Rwf5 21:15, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with you. I say go ahead and either add that to the section on "Martyrdom" or make a new subsection that you could label "Theophany". Alekjds 22:36, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I've added a subsection labeled "Theophany". If you feel there could be alterations, I am open to suggestions. Rwf5 20:22, 10 January 2007 (UTC)

great article probably needs more info!! sincerily yours an anonomious person

In popular culture
The Grateful Dead wrote a song titled Saint Stephen, more or less about the saint. I'll add a sentence to that effect if no one objects.165.127.8.254 (talk) 21:21, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

horrendous article
who writes an article about a saint and doesn't mention why he was killed?! 79.176.119.121 (talk) 04:36, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
 * There is a section in | this revision about his trial. Any good reason for its removal, or just an accident when cleaning up vandalism? Geira (talk) 13:55, 16 June 2008 (UTC)

Necessity of adding Semi-Double and Simple feasts
It was necessary to add that Traditional Roman Catholics continue to celebrate the feast day of "The Finding of the Body of St Stephen, The First Martyr" either as a Semi-Double or a Simple feast on August 3 in order to show that much of the liturgical richness of the Roman Catholic Church prior to 1969-1970 is still very much alive amongst a good portion of the world's Roman Catholics. Even Traditional Roman Catholics who use the General Roman Calendar of 1962 in accordance with Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio, Summorum Pontificum, observe this feast as well. This is a very strong preference by the world's Catholics who are attached to a Traditional, stable, Catholic ethos, as opposed to the roller-coaster, modernistic, de-sacralised, barely-Catholic variety found in most Western European and North American parishes. AMC0712 (talk) 02:48, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

Christian Perspective
This article is written from a purely Christian perspective. It makes it seem as though Stephen was stoned barbarically for speaking out against Moses and G-d. Blasphemy at the time was a death penalty. The Sanhedrin is a court with 71 judges all learned in religious practice. This article villifies Jews in an unneccassary fashion, and its Vatican propoganda like this (and like Judas) that layed the foundations for many early anti-semetic feelings and actions from Christians. Colt .55 (talk) 18:05, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

Allegations against Saint Paul
I have read allegations that the apostle Paul, while still a pharisaic Jew known as Saul, took part in the assault and martyrdon of Stephen. It would be very difficult to prove such an allegation, but it would nevertheless be noteworthy to include it in this entry if a sufficient number of sources could be found which recount this claim. ADM (talk) 08:07, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

St Stephen's Birth
There's a painting: St Stephen is Born and Replaced by Another Child by Fra Filippo Lippi but this aspect of his life isn't memtioned. Anyone know anything about this?194.72.120.131 (talk) 09:44, 15 June 2011 (UTC)

Saint in Lutheranism? Wait, what??
As far as I remember, Lutherans don't deal with saints at all.

What's for sure, that appointing saints is solely the Lord's right, and we don't deal about listing wonders and so on: practical Lutheranism is mostly dealing with the gospels, as the basis of the New Testament is that there's a direct link between the Holy Trinity and man, so anyone can call and talk to God her/himself, no need for messengers, like saints.

Therefore, even if Lutherans acknowledge that the story of Stephen is part of the Bible, even Apostels don't get the name "Saint" to them in everyday practice; we say Apostel Paul, or Paulus, but never "St. Paul" - such concept does not exist, it's treated as like someone having a decision and statement on matters outside man's permissions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.115.9.27 (talk) 19:10, 26 June 2011 (UTC)

 * There are many liturgical Lutheran churches that venerate saints. I'll add a cite. carl bunderson (talk) (contributions) 17:21, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

 * The reference was malformed and did not seem to add much to the article other than address the ignorance of the above unsigned comment. Do we need to add a citation for each of the christian denominations? I removed the citation instead of trying to repair it. Happy St. Stephen's Day, 2011!MilpitasGraham (talk) 19:31, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

 * I reversed the deletion of the reference to the Lutheran calendar and repaired it only because some people are so picky about references that it seems best to leave it. Daniel the Monk (talk) 23:18, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

St. Stephan
Would this be the same person as St. Stephan? I assume so, since it is from the Greek "Stephanos" -- Per WP:BOLD, I added: sometimes spelled "Stephan". If objections, feel free to revert. (That spelling happens to be family name related to me; and is also the name of a town in Switzerland, among other things.) ~Eric F 184.76.225.106 (talk) 15:05, 26 March 2012 (UTC) This spelling is usually used primarily as the Heartland continental European use as "STeFan with a ph" is the spellings official name tag, However it has also been used as a variant of Gender Proper "STEVen" as pronouncing the E-PH rib differently then that of the feminine form "Stephanie" Bearers of either spelling are oriented for the fact it's not spelled with a phonetical "V" are Hybridized or may reserve the right to go by a pronunciation.

I did not think the terrible articles I have seen on WP could get any worse until I saw this one
Wow, oh wow, what a disgrace this article is. And to think it got more than 20,000 viewers in the last 30 days!

First off, the article should make clear from the very beginning that nothing is known about St Stephen apart from what is stated in Acts.

At the end of the "martyrdom" section, we find the truly shocking statement and reference " After his own conversion to Christianity, Paul makes reference to witnessing Stephen's martyrdom in his writings. - which leads to a website which brings up Acts 22: 20!! Ummm - Paul did not write Acts.

I don't think a re-telling of the parts of the Golden Legend belong in this article and I am certain a long and absurd tale about a vision a priest supposedly had(section "Stephen's tomb revealed, AD 415") does not. What a load of rubbish, this yarn is referred to briefly in the section "tomb" near the end, which is quite enough. This article is not about a particular church,section "St Stephen at Bet Gemal" should not be in this article beyond the briefest of mentions, start a whole new article about it if someone want to, that all needs to come out. And this article is not about a holiday either, none of that stuff about Saint Stephen's Day in various countries and traditions should be in here, it should all be deleted. This article should be about what is known and believed about the person or possible person now known as "St Stephen" only and all that other stuff should be deleted.

 * The narrative from the Golden Legend has already gone at the time I write. If anything in that account was uncritically presented as truth, then that was certainly an abuse. Personally I'm an atheist, so I don't believe the literal truth of any of this material. However, I can't agree that any account of a saint should be limited to 'what is known and believed about the person'. The legends ('things that deserve to be read' in the eyes of those compiling them) are of often vital significance to art historians, cultural historians and social studies of all kinds. The same goes for the cultural phenomena surrounding the cult of the saint, be they antique or modern. Certainly this information needs to be in self-contained sections, so people like you who see it as extraneous can avoid it. But please don't just chuck it out wholesale. Fergus Wilde (talk) 17:43, 21 June 2014 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Fergus Wilde (talk • contribs) 15:03, 20 June 2014 (UTC)

I know WP:BRD says just go ahead and do what you think needs to be done and see if anyone objects but since what I am proposing would remove a lot of this (total rubbish) content, I will wait a couple of days.Smeat75 (talk) 01:37, 2 April 2013 (UTC)

 * Smeat - I completely agree. There is alot of garbage here. However, I do disagree with your stance that this is one of the worst - just checkout John the Baptist. I've had a request in Talk for concurrence on a major haircut and, similar to you, would rather not perform the hack job and people raise major objections, but it appears that that is what's going to happen. Ckruschke (talk) 17:22, 2 April 2013 (UTC)Ckruschke

 * So I have re-written the article along the lines above, we'll see if anyone objects.I came across this [] which seems to be from Princeton University, just the opening paragraphs of this article and a re-direct to the full one, and could not stand to think of the idea of people all over the internet, not just WP users, getting the information that Paul wrote Acts so I did not tarry in carrying out the changes I had indicated.Smeat75 (talk) 12:19, 4 April 2013 (UTC)

 * The Princeton site appears to take its information from Wikipedia. Mannanan51 (talk) 22:09, 26 December 2013 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Saint Timothy which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 09:29, 15 November 2013 (UTC)

"Commemorative places" mostly redundant, we have two dedicated extra articles!
The whole paragraph/list is rather USELESS since REDUNDANT, see the two other pages mentioned in the hatnote! Jerusalem & Rome, maybe Beit Jimal, do have merit (martyrdom, burial), but not the other places. Suggest moving the additional information contained here to those pages and cutting the paragraph here to a minimum. Not every St Stephen's church or institution in the world deserves mention on this page. ArmindenArminden (talk) 20:15, 31 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes, and I would say the same about "St Stephen's Day", there is an article about that too. It wouldn't hurt imo to move all of that stuff to the relevant articles and just have a "See also" section about places and holidays, but I don't have time to do that right now, go ahead Arminden if you want to.Smeat75 (talk) 00:23, 1 September 2016 (UTC)

Stoning section
Something weird is going on in the stoning section. For instance: "According to Orthodox belief, the "Jews shouted and covered their ears, and rushed at him. They dragged him out of the city and stoned him, but the holy martyr prayed for his murderers." " Is this different then general Christian belief? Why does it appear so early in the paragraph?

Also, this section looks like full on original research and WP:SYNTH:

"'The people from the crowd, who threw the first stones, laid their coats down so as to be able to do this, at the feet of a 'young man named Saul'. However, according to the 'Aramaic Bible in Plain English' and the 'Weymouth New Testament' Acts 22:20, St. Paul, earlier known as Saul admits he was not only standing by, he was holding the garments of those stoning St. Stephen. This has significance. The possible reason for this may be that many of the members of the Sanhedrin were wealthy. (See Luke 18:9-14) Some, who may have been wearing expensive garments may have been hesitant to throw or place them on the ground. Saul's willingness to hold the garments of those stoning Stephen might signify that he considered it an honor to do so at the time. Having held the garments, rather than just watching over them, would have made Saul much more of an accomplice. This could have added greatly to St. Paul's sense of guilt later on and illuminate why he considered himself to be the worst sinner of all. 'Here is a trustworthy saying that deserves full acceptance: Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners--of whom I am the worst.' 1 Timothy 1:15 (New International Version) Approving of, and assisting in, the killing of a disciple that Christ himself had chosen, was an unforgettable act, which St. Paul regretted for the rest of his life. 'But for that very reason I was shown mercy so that in me, the worst of sinners, Christ Jesus might display his immense patience as an example for those who would believe in him and receive eternal life.' 1 Timothy 1:16 (New International Version)'"

The section on the stoning should not be full of intepretations, and should definitely not be about Paul (beyond mentioning he was there).--Ermenrich (talk) 20:43, 9 February 2019 (UTC)

 * I think 'Orthodox' was likely meant to be with a lowercase o; that is, as a general description rather than the denomination. I will change that if it's still there. Also, the paragraph you quoted is OR/SYNTH of the most blatant kind .if i find that still in the article I shall axe it. Firejuggler86 (talk) 02:50, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

His holy work
He contributed so much to the Catholic Church in different ways. 41.113.225.197 (talk) 11:43, 18 June 2022 (UTC)

"often given as a title rather than as a name"
This sentence appears in rackets at the start of the article. What's the source for it? Is this specifically a Christian thing? I don't think I've seen "stephanos" used as a title in Ancient Greek texts or inscriptions... (one does sometimes find people called stephanomenos, "crowned", but that's quite different from calling someone "crown") Furius (talk) 17:33, 1 December 2022 (UTC)

chronology
33–36 AD (aged 28–32) source ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pilot Pirx (talk • contribs) 16:54, 28 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saint Stephen