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Ephedrine

Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in nasal congestion. It can be taken by mouth or by injection into a muscle, vein, or just under the skin. Onset with intravenous use is fast, while injection into a muscle can take 20 minutes, and by mouth can take an hour for effect. When given by injection it lasts about an hour and when taken by mouth it can last up to four hours.

Common side effects include trouble sleeping, anxiety, headache, hallucinations, high blood pressure, fast heart rate, loss of appetite, and urinary retention. Serious side effects include stroke and heart attack. While likely safe in pregnancy, its use in this population is poorly studied. Use during breastfeeding is not recommended. Ephedrine works by increasing the activity of the α and β adrenergic receptors.

Ephedrine was first isolated in 1885 and came into commercial use in 1926. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. It can normally be found in plants of the Ephedra genus. Over-the-counter dietary supplements containing ephedrine are illegal in the United States, with the exception of those used in traditional Chinese medicine, where its presence is noted by má huáng.

Medical use

Ephedrine is a non-catecholamine sympathomimetic with cardiovascular effects similar to those of adrenaline/epinephrine: increased blood pressure, heart rate and contractility. Like pseudoephedrine it is a bronchodilator, with pseudoephedrine having considerably less effect.

Ephedrine may decrease motion sickness, but it has mainly been used to decrease the sedating effects of other medications used for motion sickness.

Ephedrine is also found to have quick and long-lasting responsiveness in congenital myasthenic syndrome in early childhood and also even in the adults with a novel COLQ mutation.

Ephedrine is administered by intravenous boluses. Redosing usually requires increased doses to offset the development of tachyphylaxis, which is attributed to the depletion of catecholamine stores.

Weight loss
Ephedrine promotes modest short-term weight loss, specifically fat loss, but its long-term effects are unknown. In mice, ephedrine is known to stimulate thermogenesis in the brown adipose tissue, but because adult humans have only small amounts of brown fat, thermogenesis is assumed to take place mostly in the skeletal muscle. Ephedrine also decreases gastric emptying. Methylxanthines such as caffeine and theophylline have a synergistic effect with ephedrine with respect to weight loss. This led to creation and marketing of compound products. One of them, known as the ECA stack, contains ephedrine with caffeine and aspirin. It is a popular supplement taken by bodybuilders seeking to cut body fat before a competition. A 2021 systematic review found that ephedrine led to a 2 kg weight loss greater than placebo, raised heart rate, and reduced LDL and raised HDL, with no statistically significant difference in blood pressure.

Available forms
Ephedrine is available as a prescription-only pharmaceutical drug in the form of an intravenous solution, under brand names including Akovaz, Corphedra, Emerphed, and Rezipres as well as in generic forms, in the United States. It is also available over-the-counter in the form of 12.5 and 25mg oral tablets for use as a bronchodilator and as a 0.5% concentration nasal spray for use as a decongestant. The drug is additionally available in combination with guaifenesin in the form of oral tablets and liquids. Ephedrine is provided as the hydrochloride or sulfate salt in pharmaceutical formulations.

Recreational use

As a phenethylamine, ephedrine has a similar chemical structure to amphetamines and is a methamphetamine analog having the methamphetamine structure with a hydroxyl group at the β position. Because of ephedrine's structural similarity to methamphetamine, it can be used to create methamphetamine using chemical reduction in which ephedrine's hydroxyl group is removed; this has made ephedrine a highly sought-after chemical precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine.

The most popular method for reducing ephedrine to methamphetamine is similar to the Birch reduction, in that it uses anhydrous ammonia and lithium metal in the reaction. The second-most popular method uses red phosphorus and iodine in the reaction with ephedrine. Moreover, ephedrine can be synthesized into methcathinone via simple oxidation. As such, ephedrine is listed as a table-I precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

Detection of use
Ephedrine may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to monitor possible abuse by athletes, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Many commercial immunoassay screening tests directed at the amphetamines cross-react appreciably with ephedrine, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish ephedrine from other phenethylamine derivatives. Blood or plasma ephedrine concentrations are typically in the 20–200 μg/L range in persons taking the drug therapeutically, 300–3000 μg/L in abusers or poisoned patients and 3–20 mg/L in cases of acute fatal overdosage. The current World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) limit for ephedrine in an athlete's urine is 10 μg/mL.

Contraindications
Ephedrine should not be used in conjunction with certain antidepressants, namely norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), as this increases the risk of symptoms due to excessive serum levels of norepinephrine.

Bupropion is an example of an antidepressant with an amphetamine-like structure similar to ephedrine, and it is an NDRI. Its action bears more resemblance to amphetamine than to fluoxetine in that its primary mode of therapeutic action involves norepinephrine and to a lesser degree dopamine, but it also releases some serotonin from presynaptic clefts. It should not be used with ephedrine, as it may increase the likelihood of side effects.

Ephedrine should be used with caution in patients with inadequate fluid replacement, impaired adrenal function, hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, prostatic hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, during delivery if maternal blood pressure is >130/80 mmHg, and during lactation.

Contraindications for the use of ephedrine include: closed-angle glaucoma, phaeochromocytoma, asymmetric septal hypertrophy (idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis), concomitant or recent (previous 14 days) monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) therapy, general anaesthesia with halogenated hydrocarbons (particularly halothane), tachyarrhythmias or ventricular fibrillation, or hypersensitivity to ephedrine or other stimulants.

Ephedrine should not be used at any time during pregnancy unless specifically indicated by a qualified physician and only when other options are unavailable.

Adverse effects
Ephedrine is a potentially dangerous natural compound; the US Food and Drug Administration had received over 18,000 reports of adverse effects in people using it.

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are more common with systemic administration (e.g. injection or oral administration) compared to topical administration (e.g. nasal instillations). ADRs associated with ephedrine therapy include:

 * Cardiovascular: tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, angina pectoris, vasoconstriction with hypertension
 * Dermatological: flushing, sweating, acne vulgaris
 * Gastrointestinal: nausea
 * Genitourinary: decreased urination due to vasoconstriction of renal arteries, difficulty urinating is not uncommon, as alpha-agonists such as ephedrine constrict the internal urethral sphincter, mimicking the effects of sympathetic nervous system stimulation
 * Nervous system: restlessness, confusion, insomnia, mild euphoria, mania/hallucinations (rare except in previously existing psychiatric conditions), delusions, formication (may be possible, but lacks documented evidence) paranoia, hostility, panic, agitation
 * Respiratory: dyspnea, pulmonary edema
 * Miscellaneous: dizziness, headache, tremor, hyperglycemic reactions, dry mouth

Other uses
In chemical synthesis, ephedrine is used in bulk quantities as a chiral auxiliary group.

 * [[Image:EphedrineChiralAuxiliary.svg|600px|Ephedrine as chiral auxiliary]]

In saquinavir synthesis, the half-acid is resolved as its salt with l-ephedrine.

Chemistry and nomenclature
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine and substituted amphetamine. It is similar in molecular structure to phenylpropanolamine, methamphetamine, and epinephrine (adrenaline). Chemically, it is an alkaloid with a phenethylamine skeleton found in various plants in the genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It works mainly by increasing the activity of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic receptors. It is most usually marketed as the hydrochloride or sulfate salt.

Ephedrine exhibits optical isomerism and has two chiral centres, giving rise to four stereoisomers. By convention, the pair of enantiomers with the stereochemistry (1R,2S) and (1S,2R) is designated ephedrine, while the pair of enantiomers with the stereochemistry (1R,2R) and (1S,2S) is called pseudoephedrine.

Ephedrine is a substituted amphetamine and a structural methamphetamine analogue. It differs from methamphetamine only by the presence of a hydroxyl group (—OH).

The isomer which is marketed is (−)-(1R,2S)-ephedrine.

Ephedrine hydrochloride has a melting point of 187−188 °C.

In the outdated D / L system (+)-ephedrine is also referred to as D -ephedrine and (−)-ephedrine as L -ephedrine (in which case, in the Fisher projection, the phenyl ring is drawn at the bottom).

Often, the D / L system (with small caps) and the d/l system (with lower-case) are confused. The result is that the levorotary l-ephedrine is wrongly named L -ephedrine and the dextrorotary d-pseudoephedrine (the diastereomer) wrongly D -pseudoephedrine.

The IUPAC names of the two enantiomers are (1R,2S)- respectively (1S,2R)-2-methylamino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol. A synonym is erythro-ephedrine.

Agricultural
Ephedrine is obtained from the plant Ephedra sinica and other members of the genus Ephedra, from which the name of the substance is derived. Raw materials for the manufacture of ephedrine and traditional Chinese medicines are produced in China on a large scale. As of 2007, companies produced for export US$13 million worth of ephedrine from 30,000 tons of ephedra annually, or about ten times the amount used in traditional Chinese medicine.

Synthetic
Most of the l-ephedrine produced today for official medical use is made synthetically as the extraction and isolation process from E. sinica is tedious and no longer cost effective.

Biosynthetic
Ephedrine was long thought to come from modifying the amino acid L -phenylalanine. L -Phenylalanine would be decarboxylated and subsequently attacked with ω-aminoacetophenone. Methylation of this product would then produce ephedrine. This pathway has since been disproven. A new pathway proposed suggests that phenylalanine first forms cinnamoyl-CoA via the enzymes phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and acyl CoA ligase. The cinnamoyl-CoA is then reacted with a hydratase to attach the alcohol functional group. The product is then reacted with a retro-aldolase, forming benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde reacts with pyruvic acid to attach a 2 carbon unit. This product then undergoes transamination and methylation to form ephedrine and its stereoisomer, pseudoephedrine.

Mechanism of action
Ephedrine, a sympathomimetic amine, acts on part of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The principal mechanism of action relies on its indirect stimulation of the adrenergic receptor system by increasing the activity of norepinephrine at the postsynaptic α and β receptors. The presence of direct interactions with α receptors is unlikely, but still controversial. L -ephedrine, and particularly its stereoisomer norpseudoephedrine (which is also present in Catha edulis) has indirect sympathomimetic effects and due to its ability to cross the blood–brain barrier, it is a CNS stimulant similar to amphetamines, but less pronounced, as it releases noradrenaline and dopamine in the substantia nigra.

The presence of an N-methyl group decreases binding affinities at α receptors, compared with norephedrine. Ephedrine, though, binds better than N-methylephedrine, which has an additional methyl group at the nitrogen atom. Also the steric orientation of the hydroxyl group is important for receptor binding and functional activity.

 * Compounds with decreasing α-receptor affinity

Asia
Ephedrine in its natural form, known as máhuáng (麻黄) in traditional Chinese medicine, has been documented in China since the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) as an antiasthmatic and stimulant. In traditional Chinese medicine, máhuáng has been used as a treatment for asthma and bronchitis for centuries.

In 1885, the chemical synthesis of ephedrine was first accomplished by Japanese organic chemist Nagai Nagayoshi based on his research on traditional Japanese and Chinese herbal medicines.

The industrial manufacture of ephedrine in China began in the 1920s, when Merck began marketing and selling the drug as ephetonin. Ephedrine exports from China to the West grew from 4 to 216 tonnes between 1926 and 1928.

Western medicine
Ephedrine was first introduced for medical use in the United States in 1926.

It was introduced in 1948 in Vicks Vatronol nose drops (now discontinued) which contained ephedrine sulfate as the active ingredient for rapid nasal decongestion.

Canada
In January 2002, Health Canada issued a voluntary recall of all ephedrine products containing more than 8 mg per dose, all combinations of ephedrine with other stimulants such as caffeine, and all ephedrine products marketed for weight-loss or bodybuilding indications, citing a serious risk to health. Ephedrine is still sold as an oral nasal decongestant in 8 mg pills as a natural health product, with a limit of 0.4g (400mg) per package, the limit established by the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act as it is considered as Class A Precursor.

United States
In 1997, the FDA proposed a regulation on ephedra (the herb from which ephedrine is obtained), which limited an ephedra dose to 8 mg (of active ephedrine) with no more than 24 mg per day. This proposed rule was withdrawn, in part, in 2000 because of "concerns regarding the agency's basis for proposing a certain dietary ingredient level and a duration of use limit for these products." In 2004, the FDA created a ban on ephedrine alkaloids marketed for reasons other than asthma, colds, allergies, other disease, or traditional Asian use. On April 14, 2005, the U.S. District Court for the District of Utah ruled the FDA did not have proper evidence that low dosages of ephedrine alkaloids are actually unsafe, but on August 17, 2006, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit in Denver upheld the FDA's final rule declaring all dietary supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids adulterated, and therefore illegal for marketing in the United States. Furthermore, ephedrine is banned by the NCAA, MLB, NFL, and PGA. Ephedrine is, however, still legal in many applications outside of dietary supplements. Purchasing is currently limited and monitored, with specifics varying from state to state.

The House passed the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 as an amendment to the renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act. Signed into law by President George W. Bush on March 6, 2006, the act amended the US Code (21 USC 830) concerning the sale of products containing ephedrine and the closely related drug pseudoephedrine. Both substances are used as precursors in the illicit production of methamphetamine, and to discourage that use the federal statute included the following requirements for merchants who sell these products:
 * A retrievable record of all purchases identifying the name and address of each party to be kept for two years
 * Required verification of proof of identity of all purchasers
 * Required protection and disclosure methods in the collection of personal information
 * Reports to the Attorney General of any suspicious payments or disappearances of the regulated products
 * Non-liquid dose form of regulated product may only be sold in unit-dose blister packs
 * Regulated products are to be sold behind the counter or in a locked cabinet in such a way as to restrict access
 * Daily sales of regulated products not to exceed 3.6 g to a single purchaser, without regard to the number of transactions
 * Monthly sales to a single purchaser not to exceed 9 g of pseudoephedrine base in regulated products

The law gives similar regulations to mail-order purchases, except the monthly sales limit is 7.5 g.

As a pure herb or tea, má huáng, containing ephedrine, is still sold legally in the US. The law restricts/prohibits its being sold as a dietary supplement (pill) or as an ingredient/additive to other products, like diet pills.

Australia
Ephedrine and all Ephedra species which contain it are considered Schedule 4 substances under the Poisons Standard. A Schedule 4 drug is considered a Prescription Only Medicine, or Prescription Animal Remedy – Substances, the use or supply of which should be by or on the order of persons permitted by State or Territory legislation to prescribe and should be available from a pharmacist on prescription under the Poisons Standard.

South Africa
In South Africa, ephedrine was moved to schedule 6 on 27 May 2008, which makes pure ephedrine tablets prescription only. Pills containing ephedrine up to 30mg per tablet in combination with other medications are still available OTC, schedule 1 and 2, for sinus, head colds and influenza.

Germany
Ephedrine was freely available in pharmacies in Germany until 2001. Afterwards, access was restricted since it was mostly bought for unindicated uses. Similarly, ephedra can only be bought with a prescription. Since April 2006, all products, including plant parts, that contain ephedrine are only available with a prescription.

title: Ephedrine


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Random House

Random House is an American book publisher and the largest general-interest paperback publisher in the world. It has several independently managed subsidiaries around the world. It is part of Penguin Random House, which is owned by the Germany-based media conglomerate Bertelsmann.

20th century
Random House was founded in 1927 by Bennett Cerf and Donald Klopfer, two years after they acquired the Modern Library imprint from publisher Horace Liveright, which reprints classic works of literature. Cerf is quoted as saying, "We just said we were going to publish a few books on the side at random", which suggested the name Random House.

In 1934, they published the first authorized edition of James Joyce's novel Ulysses in the Anglophone world. Ulysses transformed Random House into a formidable publisher over the next two decades. In 1936, it acquired Smith and Haas, and Robert Haas became the third partner until retiring and selling his share back to Cerf and Klopfer in 1956. The acquisition of Smith and Haas added authors, including William Faulkner, Isak Dinesen, André Malraux, Robert Graves, and Jean de Brunhoff, who wrote the Babar children's books.

Random House also hired editors Harry Maule, Robert Linscott, and Saxe Commins, and they brought authors such as Sinclair Lewis and Robert Penn Warren with them. Random House entered reference publishing in 1947 with the American College Dictionary, which was followed in 1966 by its first unabridged dictionary.

In October 1959, Random House went public at $11.25 a share. This was a factor in decisions by other publishing companies, including Simon & Schuster, to later go public. American publishers Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. and Beginner Books were acquired by Random House in 1960, followed by Pantheon Books in 1961; works continue to be published under these imprints with editorial independence, such as Everyman's Library, a series of classical literature reprints.

In 1965, RCA bought Random House as part of a diversification strategy. Random House acquired the paperback book publisher Ballantine Books in 1973. RCA sold Random House to Advance Publications in 1980. Random House began publishing audiobooks in 1985.

In 1988, Random House acquired Crown Publishing Group. Also in 1988, McGraw-Hill acquired Random House's Schools and Colleges division. In 1998, Bertelsmann AG bought Random House and merged it with Bantam Doubleday Dell and it soon went global. In 1999, Random House acquired the children's audiobook publisher Listening Library.

In 1999, Random House sold its distribution division.

21st century
In 2001, Phyllis E. Grann joined Random House as vice chairman. Grann was the CEO for Putnam and had grown that house from $10 million in revenue in 1976, to more than $200 million by 1993 and without increasing their title output. A publishing insider commented that then CEO Peter Olson was, "I think maybe instead of buying a company he bought a person."

In 2003, Random House reentered the distribution business. Coinciding with the 2007–2008 financial crisis, the publishing industry was hit hard with weak retail sales.

In May 2008, Random House CEO Peter Olson stepped down and Bertelsmann replaced Olson with Markus Dohle.

In October of that year, Doubleday, a division of Random House, announced that they would lay off 16 people, representing approximately 10% of its workforce.

In early December 2008, which became known as Black Wednesday in publishing circles, many publishers including Random House took steps by restructuring their divisions and laying off employees.

The reorganization consolidated and created three divisions, including Random House Publishing Group, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, and Crown Publishing Group.

Susan Kamil was named editorial director for Dial Press and editor-in-chief of Random House imprints reporting to Gina Centrello, the president and publisher of the Random House Publishing Group. There were layoffs at Doubleday, now part of Knopf Publishing Group, and Dial Press, Bantam Dell. Spiegel & Grau was moved from Doubleday over to Random House. Random House also has an entertainment production arm for film and television, Random House Studio; one release in 2011 was One Day. The company also creates story content for media including video games, social networks on the web, and mobile platforms.

Random House is one of the largest English language publishers, and part of a group of publishers once known as the "Big 6" and now known as the "Big Five". In October 2012, Bertelsmann entered into talks with rival conglomerate Pearson plc, over the possibility of combining their respective publishing companies, Random House and Penguin Group.

On July 1, 2013, the merger was completed, and the new company emerged as Penguin Random House. When founded, Bertelsmann owned 53% of the joint venture while Pearson owned 47%.

Pearson sold 22% of its shares to Bertelsmann in July 2017, and since April 2020, it is a wholly owned subsidiary of Bertelsmann, making Random House division again wholly owned by German parent. At the time of the acquisition the combined companies controlled 25% of the book business with more than 10,000 employees and 250 independent publishing imprints and with about $3.9 billion in annual revenues. The move to consolidate was to provide leverage against Amazon.com and battle the shrinking state of bookstores.

In October 2018, Penguin Random House merged two of its most known publishing lines, Random House and the Crown Publishing Group. According to Madeline McIntosh, chief executive of Penguin Random House U.S., the two lines "will retain their distinct editorial identities." McIntosh explained some of the motivation behind the merger in a memo to employees, writing, "Book discovery and buying patterns continue to shift, resulting in growth opportunities in the nonfiction categories in which Crown in particular already has a strong foothold: food, lifestyle, health, wellness, business, and Christian." "We must invest even more aggressively in title-level and scaled marketing programs, capabilities and partnerships", she added.

McIntosh explained of the merger, saying, "We will need to do two things simultaneously. First, we must expand and strengthen the expert publishing teams who are specialized in and dedicated to each category. Second, we must invest even more aggressively in title-level and scaled marketing programs, capabilities, and partnerships. This will ensure that we not only maximize the sales for each individual book but also keep pace with consumer trends."

In 2019, Penguin Random House acquired British children's book publisher Little Tiger Group, including Tiger Tales Press, a U.S. subsidiary, and added it to Random House Children's Books. Penguin Random House announced an agreement to purchase Boom! Studios in July 2024, where Boom! would become part of Random House Worlds.

Headquarters
The publisher's main office in the United States is located in Penguin Random House Tower, which was constructed in 2009 at 1745 Broadway in Manhattan. The 684-foot (210 m) building spans the west side of the block between West 55th and West 56th Streets. The building's lobby showcases floor-to-ceiling glassed-in bookcases, which are filled with books published by the company and its subsidiaries.

Prior to moving to Penguin Random House Tower, the company was headquartered at 457 Madison Avenue, 20 East 57th Street, and 201 East 50th Street, all in Manhattan.

International branches
Random House, Inc. maintains several independently managed subsidiaries around the world.

The Random House Group is one of the largest general book publishing companies in the United Kingdom; it is based in London.

The group comprises nine publishing companies: Cornerstone Publishing, Vintage Publishing, Ebury Publishing, Transworld Publishers, Penguin Random House Children's, Penguin Random House UK Audio, Penguin Michael Joseph, Penguin Press, and Penguin General. Its distribution business services its own imprints, as well as 40 other UK publishers through Grantham Book Services.

The Random House archive and library is located in Rushden in Northamptonshire.

In 1989, Century Hutchinson was folded into the British Random House Group, briefly known as Random Century (1990–92), Century became an imprint of the group's Cornerstone Publishing.

The Random House Group also operates branches in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (as a joint venture under the name Random House Struik), and India as part of its overseas structure. In Australia offices are in Sydney and Melbourne. In New Zealand it is based in Glenfield, Auckland, while Random House's Indian headquarters are located in New Delhi.

Verlagsgruppe Random House was established after Bertelsmann's 1998 acquisition of Random House, grouping its German imprints (until then operating as Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann) under the new name; before April 2020, it has explicitly no legal part of the worldwide Penguin Random House company and a hundred percent subsidiary of Bertelsmann instead but de facto is led by the same management. It is the second largest book publisher in Germany with more than 40 imprints, including historic publishing houses Goldmann and Heyne Verlag, as well as C. Bertelsmann, the publishing house from which today's Bertelsmann SE & Co. KGaA would eventually evolve. Verlagsgruppe Random House is headquartered in Munich (with additional locations in Gütersloh (where Bertelsmann is headquartered), Cologne, and Aßlar), employs about 850 people, and publishes roughly 2,500 titles per year. Following the formation of Penguin Random House, a Penguin Verlag (with no legal connection to Penguin Books) was founded for the German market in 2015, as part of the Verlagsgruppe Random House. With Bertelsmann acquiring full ownership of Penguin Random House in April 2020, Verlagsgruppe Random House is being reintegrated with the main Penguin Random House company and now known as Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe.

Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial is Random House's Spanish-language division, targeting markets in Spain and Hispanic America. It is headquartered in Barcelona with locations in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, Uruguay, and the United States. From 2001 until November 2012, it was a joint venture with Italian publisher Mondadori (Random House Mondadori). Upon Bertelsmann's acquisition of Mondadori's stake in the JV, the name was kept temporarily four months. Some Spanish-language authors published by Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial include Roberto Bolaño, Javier Marías, Mario Vargas Llosa and Guillermo Arriaga.

Random House of Canada was established in 1944 as the Canadian distributor of Random House Books. In 1986, Random House of Canada established its own indigenous Canadian publishing program that has become one of the most successful in Canadian history. Until January 2012, it used to hold a 25% stake in McClelland & Stewart, with the remaining 75% being controlled by the University of Toronto. It is now the sole owner of McClelland & Stewart.

Takeda Random House Japan was founded in May 2003 as a joint venture between Kodansha and Random House. In 2009, Random House discontinued the joint venture. Takeda Random House Japan filed for bankruptcy on December 14, 2012.

In 2006, Random House invested in Random House Korea. In 2010, Random House divested their ownership.

In April 2010, Random House Australia managing director, Margie Seale, was assigned the responsibilities of exploring and evaluating potential business opportunities for the company in Asia.

Random House Home Video: The home video division
Random House Home Video was a home video unit established by Random House in 1983 as Random House Video until 1988, the publisher of Dr. Seuss's books. It was renamed in 1984. Random House's home video division was currently the distributor of some shows, such as Sesame Street (1986–1994), The Busy World of Richard Scarry (1993–2005), Arthur (1996–2006), and The Berenstain Bears, the original 1985–1987 animated television series (1989–2005, 2008–2009), and Golden Books (2001–2005). In 1994, they began distributing through Sony Wonder. Random House Home Video became dormant around 2005, but Sony Wonder still continued to use Random House Home Video's logo on Arthur VHS tapes and DVDs until 2006.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Random House


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Media proprietor

A media proprietor, also called a media executive, media mogul or media tycoon, is an entrepreneur who controls any means of public or commercial mass media, through the personal ownership or holding of a dominant position within a media conglomerate or enterprise. Those with significant control of a large media-based forum may also be called a business magnate. Since the advent of social media, influencers and entertainers who have garnered large followings on platforms have also been considered media proprietors.

History
In the United States, newspaper proprietors first became prominent in the 19th century with the development of mass circulation newspapers. In the 20th century, proprietorship expanded to include ownership of radio and television networks, as well as film studios, publishing houses, online platforms, and other forms of multimedia companies. Reflecting this, the term "press baron" was replaced by "media baron" and the term "media mogul" (or "Hollywood mogul" when applied to people specifically working in the American film industry) was popularized in colloquial English. Media proprietors are likely to claim that their publications are editorially independent and unbiased, but this is often questioned. Social networking services such as Facebook are sometimes considered media companies due to their widespread influence.

Notable media proprietors

 * Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook
 * Sally Aw
 * Andrej Babiš
 * Zdeněk Bakala
 * David and Frederick Barclay
 * Silvio Berlusconi
 * Jeff Bezos
 * Conrad Black
 * Michael Bloomberg
 * Lukas Bonnier
 * Scooter Braun
 * Subhash Chandra
 * Assis Chateaubriand
 * Gustavo Cisneros
 * Victor Civita
 * Sean Combs
 * Richard Desmond
 * Hans Dichand
 * Walt Disney
 * Aydın Doğan
 * Jack Dorsey
 * Iris Fontbona
 * Steve Forbes
 * Octávio Frias
 * Sheyene Gerardi
 * Lew Grade
 * Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe
 * Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere
 * Jonathan Harmsworth, 4th Viscount Rothermere
 * William Randolph Hearst
 * Robert Hersant
 * Alfred Hugenberg
 * Sir Edward Hulton, 1st Baronet
 * Jay-Z
 * Ekta Kapoor
 * Jeffrey Katzenberg
 * Tony Khan
 * Jean-Luc and Arnaud Lagardère
 * Jimmy Lai
 * Henry Luce
 * Edir Macedo
 * Roberto Marinho
 * Robert Maxwell
 * Vince McMahon
 * John de Mol Jr.
 * Javier Moll
 * Sun Myung Moon
 * Rupert Murdoch
 * Elon Musk
 * Samuel Newhouse
 * Roberto Noble
 * Denis O'Brien
 * Davíð Oddsson
 * Tony O'Reilly
 * Kerry Packer
 * David Portnoy
 * Shahrzad Rafati
 * Sumner Redstone
 * Mir Shakil ur Rehman
 * Pat Robertson
 * Jaume Roures
 * Haim Saban
 * Silvio Santos
 * Manmohan Shetty
 * Matsutaro Shoriki
 * Evan Spiegel
 * Axel Springer
 * A. G. Sulzberger
 * Al-Waleed bin Talal
 * Chairul Tanjung
 * Hary Tanoesoedibjo
 * David Thomson
 * Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet
 * Ted Turner
 * Tsuneo Watanabe
 * Jan Wejchert
 * Oprah Winfrey
 * Mark Zuckerberg

title: Media proprietor


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Richard Jordan Gatling

Richard Jordan Gatling (September 12, 1818 – February 26, 1903) was an American inventor best known for his invention of the Gatling gun, which is considered to be the first successful machine gun.

Life
Gatling was born in Hertford County, North Carolina in 1818 and raised Methodist. At the age of 21, Gatling created a screw propeller for steamboats, without realizing that one had been patented just months beforehand by John Ericsson. While living in North Carolina, he worked in the county clerk’s office, taught school briefly, and became a merchant. At the age of 36, Gatling moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he worked in a dry goods store and invented a rice-sowing machine and a wheat drill (a machine to aid planting wheat). The introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. After an attack of smallpox, Gatling became interested in medicine. He graduated from the Ohio Medical College in 1850 with an MD. Although he had his MD, he never practiced; he was more interested in a career as an inventor.

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Gatling was living in Indianapolis, Indiana. There he devoted himself to the perfection of firearms. In 1861, the same year the war started, he invented the Gatling gun. A year later, he founded the Gatling Gun Company.

By the early 1850s, Gatling was successful enough in business to offer marriage to Jemima Sanders, 19 years younger than Gatling and the daughter of a prominent Indianapolis physician. They married on October 25, 1854. Her older sister Zerelda was married to David Wallace, the governor of Indiana. An active member of his Masonic lodge, he was member of Center Lodge No. 23.

Later in his life, Gatling patented inventions to improve toilets, bicycles, steam-cleaning of raw wool, pneumatic power, and many other fields. He was elected as the first president of the American Association of Inventors and Manufacturers in 1891, serving for six years. Although still quite wealthy at the time of his death, he made and lost several fortunes by his investments.

In his final years, Gatling moved back to St. Louis, Missouri, to form a new company for manufacturing his steam plows, or tractors. While in New York City to visit his daughter and to talk with his patent agency, Gatling died at his daughter's home on February 26, 1903. He is interred at the Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana.

His contributions were commemorated by the U.S. Navy during World War II when the Fletcher Class Destroyer DD-671 was christened the USS Gatling.

Inventions
While being most known for inventing the Gatling gun, Gatling invented and patented a number of other inventions. His inventions include a screw propeller and a wheat drill (a planting device) in 1839, a hemp break machine in 1850, a steam plow (steam tractor) in 1857, the Gatling gun in 1861, a marine steam ram in 1862, and a motor-driven plow (tractor).

Gatling gun
Gatling invented the Gatling gun after he noticed that a majority of the soldiers fighting in the Civil War were lost to disease rather than gunshots. In 1877, he wrote, "It occurred to me that if I could invent a machine gun which could by its rapidity of fire, enable one man to do as much battle duty as a hundred, that it would, to a large extent supersede the necessity of large armies, and consequently, exposure to battle and disease would be greatly diminished."

The gun was based on Gatling's seed planter. A working prototype was developed in 1861. In 1862, he founded the Gatling Gun Company in Indianapolis, Indiana to market the gun. The first six production guns were destroyed during a fire in December 1862 at the factory. All six of them had been manufactured at Gatling's expense. Undaunted, Gatling arranged for another thirteen to be manufactured at the Cincinnati Type Factory. Although the gun was developed during the Civil War, it saw very little action. This is partly because Gatling was accused of being a copperhead because of his North Carolina roots, but this was never proven. Gatling was never affiliated with the Confederate States government or military, nor did he live in the South during the Civil War.

General Benjamin F. Butler bought 12 and Admiral David Dixon Porter bought one, it was not until 1866 that the US Government officially purchased Gatling guns. In 1870, he sold his patents for the Gatling gun to Colt. Gatling remained president of the Gatling Gun Company until it was fully absorbed by Colt in 1897. In 1893, Gatling patented a Gatling gun that replaced the hand cranked mechanism with an electric motor, a relatively new invention at the time, achieving a rate of fire of 3,000 rounds per minute. The hand-cranked Gatling gun was declared obsolete by the United States Army in 1911. Decades later, the mechanical concept was resurrected and wedded to electrically-driven cranking in the M61 Vulcan. That cannon has given rise to numerous variations scaled up to as high as 37 mm and down to 5.56 mm calibers offering versions that are gas-operated as well.

title: Richard Jordan Gatling


text:
Talk:List of programs broadcast by CBS

 * 1) Is the correct past tense broadcast or broadcasted?
 * 2) I'd hate to have to keep this up to date between current and canceled. Can we just lump them together? -- Zoe

The point?
What's the point of this page? 50.54.236.164 (talk) 13:35, 18 September 2014 (UTC)

The Saturday Early Show
I found this page orphaned and all alone. It wants to know, can it can have a link here to call its own? --Αλεξ Σ 17:47, July 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * Why couldn't it? CSI: NY and Miami have they're own links. --  user:zanimum

Rock Star
How to categorize the show Rock Star (TV series)? This show is similar to American Idol, and Idol is categorized as an interactive reality game show. I don't see a section that says that exactly. Can we put Rock Star in multiple sections? Thoughts? --Eric Jack Nash 12:16, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Beauty and the Beast
[] should be listed in the past dramas section, just making sure its not missed by mistake

LadySatine 06:40, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

Many mistakes in "Past Shows"
I don't know if it's vandalism or just plain old stupidity, but a quick glance found several shows listed that aired on other channels. The A-Team was a NBC show and Charley's Angels was ABC. Someone needs to go through and check each one, easily done by simply looking at the article for the show which will have links to outside sources not effected by either vandalism or fetal alcohol syndrome. RoyBatty42 01:46, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

CBS dramas ending/cancelled
CBS dramas canceled after four seasons: The Unit, The District, Early Edition, Picket Fences, Wiseguy, The Equalizer, Scarecrow & Mrs. King, Airwolf

CBS dramas canceled after five seasons: Ghost Whisperer, Jake & The Fatman, Lou Grant, The Incredible Hulk, Cannon, Kojak

CBS dramas canceled after six seasons: Numb3rs, Judging Amy, Nash Bridges, Chicago Hope, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Northern Exposure

CBS dramas canceled after seven seasons: Medium (5 seasons on NBC, 2 seasons on CBS), Cold Case, Without a Trace, Cagney & Lacey, Trapper John, MD, Dukes of Hazard, Mission: Impossible, Medical Center

CBS dramas canceled after eight seasons: Diagnosis Murder, Walker, Texas Ranger, In the Heat of the Night (5 on NBC, 3 on CBS), Simon & Simon, Magnum, P.I., Barnaby Jones, Mannix

CBS dramas canceled after nine seasons: Touched by an Angel, Falcon Crest, The Waltons

CBS dramas canceled after ten or more seasons: CSI: Miami (10), JAG (1 on NBC, 9 on CBS), Murder, She Wrote (12), Knots Landing (14), Dallas (14), Hawaii Five-0 (12), Gunsmoke (20) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.52.148.253 (talk) 22:15, 12 March 2013 (UTC)

Troubles on Mobile
Guys, the mobile version shows an empty article, with just the title left! Please, fix it. Thank u. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.252.105.120 (talk) 13:28, 26 October 2014 (UTC)

Undue weight
Promoting content that has not appeared on the station is WP:UNDUE weight as well as being non encyclopedic and purely promotional in nature and needs to be removed. -- TRPoD aka The Red Pen of Doom  13:59, 31 July 2015 (UTC)

Charts for Saturday morning and other
Could you have someone make the charts for Saturday morning and other for me? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.59.245.106 (talk) 22:39, 28 May 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 21:39, 17 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Allison Janney4crop.jpg

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:List of programs broadcast by FX which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 13:02, 22 June 2020 (UTC)

FBI shows I Love the fbi series however the background music is way too loud you hear the actors please change this
FBI background music is way too loud 108.4.139.192 (talk) 01:07, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

 * This a Wikipedia article listing programs broadcast by CBS. This is not a way to contact CBS Studios directly and has no connection with CBS. Nisf (talk) 13:15, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

Separate page for previously broadcast programs?
ABC and NBC have separate pages for current and previous programs, this page is incredibly long, can I create a separate page to move the previously broadcasted programs to? GbGkGl (talk) 16:53, 9 April 2024 (UTC)

 * I support this move. Nisf (talk) 17:18, 9 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Agreed. The page size is too long and former programming should have it's own separate page per WP:SIZESPLIT. Jackthewriterguy12 (talk) 06:05, 13 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of programs broadcast by CBS


text: Talk:Philip I

title: Talk:Philip I


text:
Talk:2003 in film

Untitled
I deleted the lists of movies. I hardly think Anger Management is one of the top-grossing movies of the year, and I don't like the idea of a list of "other movies" unless you plan on including all 200-plus films that get released this year. Another question. What does Phil Spector have to do with movies? -- Zoe

 * I can answer the Phil Spector Question... The woman that was found dead in his house was an actress. -Jazz77

 * True. Let me add that to the blurb to make it more relevant.  -- Zoe

 * Whoops. Somebody beat me to it.  ;-)  -- Zoe

 * Stop erasing my information. -- Michael

 * No. -- goatasaur

I've edited the 'top grossing' section to point to IMDB, where the info is kept up to date. A page like this is only relevant if it is kept up to date. This one was over a month out of date.

Can anyone think of a reason why there should be an entry in the Births section? Famous actors born in 2003?

I don't think an arbitrary selection of movies is worthwhile. Some of the movies it's hard to justify a selection, and there are many more worthy ones missing (Hulk? Bruce Almighty? Charlie's Angels II?). Many of the movies listed were shown in places other then the US before 2003. Some of them (Ken Park, Sweet Sixteen) were shown in the US before 2003.

With the possible exceptions of the deaths section, there is nothing here to be gained that couldn't be got much better from the IMDB.

If the list of movies stays, it should at least be consistent - should the director be listed, or the star(s)? If we're going to have release dates (I presume they are release dates) can we have them in a standard format, like 1 November rather than 11/1, which could mean 11th January.

Seriously, does anybody think the list of movies should stay?

DJ Clayworth 15:29, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes it should stay. If it did go would you also want it deleted from all the 100 or so other year in film pages? If there are films that you think are missing then just add them.  Also some of the films that are missing were listed on the Top Grossing Films of the Year section that was deleted. Although I do agree about the date.  I wonder if it is really necessary to have the date at all.

 * I think films should only be listed on the year they were first released. Just because a film has been released in another country is not enough to have it listed on two years in film pages. Films can often be released over several years in different countries and the pages will get clogged up with them. -- Popsracer 20:48, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Anger management is the No. 10-highest grossing movie of the year as off Dec. 18.

We should keep the movie list of all wide-released movies of the year and categorize them by month, studio and North American gross. Davodd 23:01, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

Why the hell is a porno film like one night in paris on this list? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.101.161.195 (talk) 19:49, 27 October 2008 (UTC)

Top grossing films
There is at least one fault in the current list, but I'm not sure what the correct one would be. Right now "85" is listed as the tenth highest grossest film in 2003, but I have not found a film by that name (could have missed it obviously). Anyway, "85" in the list directs to the article on the year 85, here. That should be fixed. Also, the list at "http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=2003&p=.htm" is quite different from the one on Wikipedia. Stefan Kruithof (talk) 21:46, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

A Series of Unfortunate Events: The Movie Released by 20th Century Fox
A Series of Unfortunate Events: The Movie is not released by 20th Century Fox and never released in theatres in November 2003, but one year later, A Series of Unfortunate Events: The Movie is released by Paramount Pictures and DreamWorks Pictures and produced by Nickelodeon Studios and released in theatres in Christmas 2004.

20th Century Fox released great feature-length films in America like FernGully: The Last Rainforest, Doctor Dolittle and Home Alone. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.77.79.15 (talk) 17:41, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:2003 in film


text:
Easley v. Cromartie

Easley v. Cromartie, 532 U.S. 234 (2001), is an appeal of the United States Supreme Court case Hunt v Cromartie. The case defendant is Mike Easley, who became North Carolina governor following Jim Hunt. The court's ruling on April 18, 2001, stated that redistricting for political reasons did not violate Federal Civil Rights Law banning race-based gerrymandering. (Case No. 99-1864).

The issue facing this Supreme Court case was Constitutional validity of the Congressional Districts in North Carolina. Specifically, the 12th district which cut through the southwestern portion of the state. The complaint of the plaintiff and North Carolina citizens was that the drawing of the district violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution as the district was drawn primarily amongst racial considerations.

The justification of the court stated that in North Carolina, race and politics are strongly correlated. The district may be majority African American, however, Southern Blacks have strong tendencies to vote Democrat. Voter registrations were used as evidence to prove to the court that the redistricting which drew the 12th district were arguably based on political reasons. In the majority opinion, Stephen G Breyer says "the party attacking the legislatively drawn boundaries must show at the least that the legislature could have achieved its legitimate political objectives in alternative ways that are comparably consistent with traditional districting principles", and in this case, the plaintiffs were not able to make this argument compelling.

Justice O'Connor previously sided with the district courts in Hunt v Cromartie, however, this instance ruled with the North Carolina legislature, acting as the all important swing vote to overturn the previous decision 5–4. The allegedly odd-shaped district was allowed to stand.

title: Easley v. Cromartie


text:
Talk:Gerrymandering

US Senate
The disputed text is A striking modern example of malapportionment is the U.S. senate, where states receive equal representation despite widely varying populations. By this logic, the UN General Assembly would seem to be malapportioned. India and Nauru get the same number of votes. I do not understand this sort of complaint. But since you found one RS that uses 'malapportionment', I've left it in (although whether it is relevant here is another matter). Srnec (talk) 20:46, 5 July 2023 (UTC)
 * I appreciate the discussion. The UN may or may not be considered malapportioned by some standards, but I do not believe it is a complaint or criticism, rather, it is a notable example that seems to have consensus among RS including academia. I'm confused as to why the Guardian source was removed. I checked Reliable sources/Perennial sources. Why do you consider it unreliable or otherwise not worthy of inclusion here? Cheers. DN (talk) 21:27, 5 July 2023 (UTC)
 * We already have a better source sufficient for the point. Srnec (talk) 00:31, 6 July 2023 (UTC)

Remedies
I was surprised that this article doesn't include any discussion of proposals to remedy gerrymandering. I found, and suggest something similar be added to this article. Daask (talk) 23:09, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Policy Analysis - Summer Session24
— Assignment last updated by Izaya Montejano (talk) 17:57, 8 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gerrymandering


text:
Tigranes the Great

Tigranes II, more commonly known as Tigranes the Great (Tigran Mets in Armenian; Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας, ; Tigranes Magnus; 140 – 55 BC), was a king of Armenia. A member of the Artaxiad dynasty, he ruled from 95 BC to 55 BC. Under his reign, the Armenian kingdom expanded beyond its traditional boundaries and reached its peak, allowing Tigranes to claim the title Great King or King of Kings. His empire for a short time was the most powerful state to the east of the Roman Republic. The appearance of Halley's comet during his reign, as depicted on the rare series of Tigranes's coins, was seen as an auspicious sign.

Either the son or nephew of Artavasdes I, Tigranes was given as a hostage to Mithridates II of Parthia after Armenia came under Parthian suzerainty. After ascending to the Armenian throne, he rapidly expanded his kingdom by invading or annexing Roman and Parthian client-kingdoms. Tigran decided to ally with Mithridates VI of Pontus by marrying his daughter Cleopatra. At its height, Tigranes' empire stretched from the Pontic Alps to Mesopotamia and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. With captured vassals, his lands even reached the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were forcibly relocated to his new capital, Tigranocerta. An admirer of the Greek culture, Tigranes invited many Greek rhetoricians and philosophers to his court, and his capital was noted for its Hellenistic architecture.

Armenia came into direct conflict with Rome after Mithridates VI was forced to seek refuge in Tigranes' court. In 69 BC, Tigranes was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tigranocerta by a Roman army under the command of Lucullus, and a year later he met another major defeat at Artaxata, the old Armenian capital. The recall of Lucullus gave Tigranes a brief respite, but in 66 BC Armenia faced another Roman invasion led by Pompey, aided by Tigranes' own son, Tigranes the Younger. Tigranes chose to surrender and was allowed to retain the heartland of his kingdom as a Roman buffer state, while all of his conquests were annexed. He continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome until his death around 55 BC at the age of 85.

Early years
In approximately 120 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates II ((r. 124 – 91)) invaded Armenia and made its king Artavasdes I acknowledge Parthian suzerainty. Artavasdes I was forced to give the Parthians Tigranes, who was either his son or nephew, as a hostage. Tigranes lived in the Parthian court at Ctesiphon, where he was schooled in Parthian culture. Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court until c. 96/95 BC, when Mithridates II released him and appointed him as the king of Armenia. Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in the Caspiane to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it. Tigranes' daughter Ariazate had also married a son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty. Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the late 80s BC.

When he came to power, the foundation upon which Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxias I, and subsequent kings. The mountains of Armenia, however, formed natural borders between the different regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic nakharars had significant influence over the regions or provinces in which they were based. This did not suit Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralist empire. He thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign.

He deposed Artanes, the last king of the Kingdom of Sophene and a descendant of Zariadres.

Alliance with Pontus
During the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Tigranes supported Mithridates VI of Pontus, but was careful not to become directly involved in the war.

He rapidly built up his power and established an alliance with Mithridates VI, marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes agreed to extend his influence in the East, while Mithridates set to conquer Roman land in Asia Minor and in Europe. By creating a stronger Hellenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well-established Roman foothold in Europe. Mithridates executed a planned general attack on Romans and Italians in Asia Minor, tapping into local discontent with the Romans and their taxes and urging the peoples of Asia Minor to raise against foreign influence. The slaughter of 80,000 people in the province of Asia Minor was known as the Asiatic Vespers. The two kings' attempts to control Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaranteed Roman intervention. The senate decided that Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was then one of the consuls, would command the army against Mithridates.

The French historian René Grousset remarked that in their alliance Mithridates was somewhat subservient to Tigranes.

Wars against Roman and Parthian client kingdoms

After the death of Mithridates II of Parthia his son Gotarzes I succeeded him. This was disputed by Sinatruces which caused a Parthian civil war. Tigranes, with Rome involved in a Social War and Parthia involved in a succession dispute, quickly invaded Cappadocia but was forced out by the Roman consul Sulla. Between 88-85 BC, he retook Adiabene, Gordyene, and Media Atropatene.

In 83 BC, after bloody strife for the throne of Syria, governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria. Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch. He then conquered Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire, though a few holdout cities appear to have recognized the shadowy boy-king Seleucus VII Philometor as the legitimate king during his reign. The southern border of his domain reached as far as Ptolemais (modern Akko). Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of Tigranocerta.

At its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps (in modern north-eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. A series of victories led him to assume the Achaemenid title of King of Kings, which even the Parthian kings did not assume, appearing on coins struck after 85 BC. He was called "Tigranes the Great" by many Western historians and writers, such as Plutarch. The "King of Kings" never appeared in public without having four kings attending him. Cicero, referring to his success in the east, said that he "made the Republic of Rome tremble before the prowess of his arms."

Tigranes' coins consist of tetradrachms and copper coins having on the obverse his portrait wearing a decorated Armenian tiara with ear-flaps. The reverse has a completely original design. There are the seated Tyche of Antioch and the river god Orontes at her feet.

Wars against Rome

Mithridates VI of Pontus had found refuge in Armenian land after confronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his ally and relative. The King of Kings eventually came into direct contact with Rome. The Roman commander, Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from Armenia – to comply with such a demand would be, in effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and thus Tigranes refused. Charles Rollin, in his Ancient History, says:

"Tigranes, to whom Lucullus had sent an ambassador, though of no great power in the beginning of his reign, had enlarged it so much by a series of successes, of which there are few examples, that he was commonly surnamed 'King of Kings.' After having overthrown and almost ruined the family of the kings, successors of the great Seleucus; after having very often humbled the pride of the Parthians, transported whole cities of Greeks into Media, conquered all Syria and Palestine, and given laws to the Arabians called Scenites, he reigned with an authority respected by all the princes of Asia. The people paid him honors after the manners of the East, even to adoration."

Lucullus' reaction was an attack that was so precipitate that he took Tigranes by surprise. According to Roman historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes' generals, told Tigranes of the Roman approach. Tigranes was, according to Keaveney, so impressed by Mithrobazanes' courage that he appointed Mithrobazanes to command an army against Lucullus – Tigranes sent Mithrobarzanes with 2,000 to 3,000 cavalry to expel the invader. Mithrobarzanes charged the Romans while they were setting up their camp, but was met by a 3,500-strong sentry force and his horsemen were routed. He perished in the attempt. After this defeat, Tigranes withdrew north to Armenia to regroup, leaving Lucullus free to besiege Tigranocerta.

When Tigranes had gathered a large army, he returned to confront Lucullus. On October 6, 69 BC, Tigranes' much larger force was decisively defeated by the Roman army under Lucullus in the Battle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes' treatment of the inhabitants (the majority of the population had been forced to move to the city) led disgruntled city guards to open the gates of the city to the Romans. Learning of this, Tigranes hurriedly sent 6000 cavalrymen to the city in order to rescue his wives and some of his assets. Tigranes escaped capture with a small escort.

On October 6, 68 BC, the Romans approached the old capital of Artaxata. Tigranes' and Mithridates' combined Armeno-Pontic army of 70,000 men formed up to face them but were resoundingly defeated. Once again, both Mithridates and Tigranes evaded capture by the victorious Romans. The Armenian-Roman wars are depicted in Alexandre Dumas' Voyage to the Caucasus. The long campaigning and hardships that Lucullus' troops had endured for years, combined with a perceived lack of reward in the form of plunder, led to successive mutinies among the legions in 68–67. Frustrated by the rough terrain of Northern Armenia and seeing the worsening morale of his troops, Lucullus moved back south and put Nisibis under siege. Tigranes concluded (wrongly) that Nisibis would hold out and sought to regain those parts of Armenia that the Romans had captured. Despite his continuous success in battle, Lucullus could still not capture either one of the monarchs. With Lucullus' troops now refusing to obey his commands, but agreeing to defend positions from attack, the Senate sent Pompey to recall Lucullus to Rome and take over his command.

Pompey and submission to Rome
In 67 BC Pompey was given the task of defeating Mithridates and Tigranes. Pompey first concentrated on attacking Mithridates while distracting Tigranes by engineering a Parthian attack on Gordyene. Phraates III, the Parthian king, was soon persuaded to take things a little further than an annexation of Gordyene when a son of Tigranes (also named Tigranes) went to join the Parthians and persuaded Phraates to invade Armenia in an attempt to replace the elder Tigranes with the Tigranes the Younger. Tigranes decided not to meet the invasion in the field but instead ensured that his capital, Artaxata, was well defended and withdrew to the hill country. Phraates soon realized that Artaxata would not fall without a protracted siege, the time for which he could not spare due to his fear of plots at home. Once Phraates left, Tigranes came back down from the hills and drove his son from Armenia. The son then fled to Pompey.

In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with Tigranes the Younger, and Tigranes, now almost 75 years old, surrendered. Pompey allowed him to retain his kingdom shorn of his conquests as he planned to have Armenia as a buffer state and he took 6,000 talents/180 tonnes of silver. His unfaithful son was sent back to Rome as a prisoner.

Tigranes continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome. He died in 55/54, at age 85.

Offspring
Tigranes had four sons and three daughters. The eldest son, Zariadres, according to Appian and Valerius Maximus rebelled against Tigranes and was killed during a battle (possibly late 90s BCE). Appian also mentions an unnamed younger son who was executed for conspiring against Tigranes: he disregarded his father's health and wore Tigranes's crown (Tigranes having been injured during a hunting accident). His third son, Tigranes the Younger, who showed great care for his injured father and was rewarded for his loyalty, has already been mentioned. He is also alleged to have led a military campaign in 82 BCE. Tigranes was succeeded by his fourth and youngest son, Artavasdes II.

One daughter of Tigranes according to Cassius Dio married Mithridates I of Atropatene. Another daughter married Parthian prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II. Parchments of Avroman also mention his third daughter, Ariazate "Automa", who married Gotarzes I of Parthia.

Although Cleopatra of Pontus is usually considered to be their mother (Appian writes that she gave birth to three sons), historian Gagik Sargsyan considered only Artavasdes II and one of the unnamed daughters to be her children. According to him, the rest had a different mother and were born before Tigranes became king. The reasoning behind it is that if Tigranes the Younger did indeed lead a campaign in 82 BCE, then he and hence his two older brothers (and possibly two sisters) would be too old to be Cleopatra's children. Another argument supporting this claim would be the situation with Ariazate. As she was probably the mother of Orodes I ((r. 80 – 75)), then Ariazate could not have been the daughter of Cleopatra who married Tigranes only in 94 BCE at the age of 15 or 16. Sargsyan also proposed a possible candidate as Tigranes's first wife and the children's mother: Artaxiad princess Zaruhi, a daughter of Tigranes's paternal uncle Zariadres and granddaughter of Artaxias I. He also considered likely that the reason for the rebellion of Tigranes's son Zariadres was the birth of Artavasdes who was declared the heir by virtue of being born to a king and not a prince.

Imperial ideology
Tigranes is a typical example of the mixed culture of his period. The ceremonial of his court was of Achaemenid origin, and also incorporated Parthian aspects. He had Greek rhetoricians and philosophers in his court, possibly as a result of the influence of his queen, Cleopatra. Greek was also possibly spoken in the court. Following the example of the Parthians, Tigranes adopted the title of Philhellene ("friend of the Greeks"). The layout of his capital Tigranocerta was a blend of Greek and Iranian architecture.

Like the majority Armenia's inhabitants, Tigranes was a follower of Zoroastrianism. On his crown, a star of divinity and two birds of prey are displayed, both Iranian aspects. The bird of prey was associated with the khvarenah, i.e. kingly glory. It was possibly also a symbol of the bird of the deity Verethragna.

Legacy and recognition

Over the course of his conquests, Tigranes founded four cities that bore his name, including the capital of Tigranocerta (Tigranakert).

Historical
Tigranes is mentioned in Macrobii, a Roman essay detailing the famous long livers of the day, which is attributed to Lucian.

In The Art of War (1521), Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli attributes Tigranes' military failure to his excessive reliance on his cavalry.

According to one count, 24 operas have been composed about Tigranes by European composers, including by prominent Italian and German composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (Tigrane, 1715), Antonio Vivaldi (La virtu trionfante dell'amore e dell'odio ovvero il Tigrane, 1724), Niccolò Piccinni (Tigrane, 1761), Tomaso Albinoni, Giovanni Bononcini, Francesco Gasparini, Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista Lampugnani, Vincenzo Righini, Antonio Tozzi, and others.

Modern
According to Razmik Panossian, Tigranes' short-lived empire has been a source of pride for modern Armenian nationalists. Nevertheless, his empire was a multi-ethnic one.

The phrase "sea to sea Armenia" (ծովից ծով Հայաստան, tsovits tsov Hayastan) is a popular expression used by Armenians to refer to the kingdom of Tigranes which extended from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.

title: Tigranes the Great


text:
Carl Schuricht

Carl Adolph Schuricht (3 July 1880 – 7 January 1967) was a German conductor.

Life and career
Schuricht was born in Danzig (Gdańsk), German Empire; his father's family had been respected organ-builders. His mother, Amanda Wusinowska, a widow soon after her marriage (Carl's father Carl Conrad Schuricht drowned in the Baltic Sea while trying to save a friend, three weeks before he was born), brought up her son alone. His childhood was surrounded by music: "Every Sunday in summer we used to hire three large open carriages and go out into the country. After the picnic we would join in singing choral works by Bach, Handel and Mendelssohn." He showed a talent for music at an early age, studying piano and violin from the age of six. By eleven he was composing, and continued his academic and musical studies when his mother moved to Berlin, then to Wiesbaden.

At 20 he obtained the post of Korrepetitor at the Stadttheater in Mainz, and two years later won the Kuczynski Foundation prize for composition and a Felix Mendelssohn scholarship. He then returned to Berlin to study piano under Ernst Rudorff and composition with Engelbert Humperdinck, later working under Max Reger in Leipzig, publishing chamber pieces, sonatas and lieder. Attracted by the profession of conductor he undertook tours in Germany conducting operettas, operas, choral societies and symphony concerts. During this time he had the chance to watch at rehearsal and in concert such legendary interpreters as Arthur Nikisch, Felix Weingartner, Ernst von Schuch, Felix Mottl, Hans Richter, Karl Muck and Gustav Mahler.

On 24 May 1906 he heard Frederick Delius's Sea Drift in Essen with the composer present, and promised to Delius that when he had his own orchestra he would conduct it himself, which he did in Frankfurt with Delius again in the audience. More important was perhaps that at the same Festival in 1906 he heard the premiere of Mahler's Sixth Symphony, conducted by the composer. In 1909 he succeeded Siegfried Ochs as director of the Rühlscher Oratorienverein in Frankfurt-am-Main and at 40 was appointed musical director of the municipal orchestra in Wiesbaden; festivals of modern music (Richard Strauss, Reger, Mahler, Delius and Arnold Schoenberg) made Wiesbaden an internationally renowned center for music. Schuricht said of this time, "The German public was no more avid than any other for the novelties I wanted to give it. I have to prepare it for them gently, convince without bludgeoning, cajole and seduce. I managed this by prefacing concerts of modern music by lectures, which I illustrated with extracts played by myself at the piano or by the orchestra."

His career was not exactly that of a star, but he was loved both by his orchestra players and audiences. As music director in Wiesbaden (1920-1944) he arranged the first German "Gustav Mahler-Festival" in April 1921, conducting Mahler's symphonies Nos. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and "Das Lied von der Erde" (cf. Signale für die musikalische Welt, No. 14, 6 April 1921, p. 384); and a week later the Berlin Philharmonic invited him to Berlin, where he conducted Mahler's Sixth symphony on May 2, 1921. Mahler's works were very popular in Germany, Holland and Austria during the 1920s, but were eventually banned under the Nazis between 1933 and 1945 owing to the composer's Jewish origin. Schuricht continued to conduct Mahler outside Germany. On October 5, 1939, during the so-called Phony War, his conducting with the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra of Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde was disrupted by a woman heckler who called out "Deutschland über alles, Herr Schuricht!" (This performance is available on a CD.) Schuricht was the first recipient of the Gold Medal of the Internationale Gustav Mahler-Gesellschaft in Vienna in 1958. Schuricht worked at the Hague/Scheveningen Festival from 1930 to 1939, and was guest conductor of the Dresden Philharmonic from 1942 to 1944. He was expected to take over as director of the orchestra on October 1, 1944, but escalation of the war ended the orchestra's activities. Schuricht himself received a warning that he was about to be arrested, and fled to Switzerland. He settled in Zürich, where he married Maria Martha Banz and conducted l'Orchestre de la Suisse Romande.

During the late 1940s and 1950s Schuricht conducted throughout Switzerland, at the re-opening of the Salzburg Festival in 1946, in Paris, and at the festivals of Holland, Lucerne, Aix-en-Provence and Montreux. He regularly conducted the South German Radio Symphony Orchestra from 1950 to 1966. When the Vienna Philharmonic first toured the US, in 1956, Schuricht replaced the recently deceased Erich Kleiber, sharing the conducting during the six weeks with André Cluytens.

He died at the age of 86 in his home at Corseaux-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, and was buried in Wiesbaden, as an honorary citizen of that city.

Recordings

 * Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 1-9, recorded 1957 & 1958 with the Paris Conservatory Orchestra (EMI)
 * Anton Bruckner: Symphony No. 5, with the Vienna Philharmonic (Deutsche Grammophon)
 * Anton Bruckner: Symphony No. 7, with the Berlin Philharmonic (Polydor)
 * Anton Bruckner: Symphony No. 8, with the Vienna Philharmonic (EMI)
 * Anton Bruckner: Symphony No. 9, with the Vienna Philharmonic (EMI)
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Requiem, recorded 1962 with the Vienna Philharmonic (Archiphon)
 * Gustav Mahler: Symphony No. 3, with the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra (Archiphon)
 * Johannes Brahms: Symphony No. 1, with the Frankfurt Radio Symphony (Melodram)
 * Johannes Brahms: Symphony No. 4, recorded 1963 with the Bavarian State Radio Orchestra (Concert Hall)
 * Robert Schumann: Symphonies 2 & 3, Overture, Scherzo and Finale, recorded 1953 & 1954 with the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, Paris (Decca)
 * Felix Mendelssohn: Overtures (The Hebrides, Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt, Die Schöne Melusine and Ruy Blas), with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, 1954 (Decca)
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Capriccio Italien, Suite No 3 'Theme and Variations', recorded 1952 with the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, Paris (Decca)
 * Richard Wagner: Orchestral excerpts, with the Paris Conservatoire Orchestra (1954, Decca), and SWR Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra

Awards and decorations

 * Order of the Phoenix (Greece, 1936)
 * Commander of the Order of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands, 1938)
 * War Merit Cross, 2nd class without Swords (1944)
 * Dutch Bruckner Medal 1948
 * Anton Bruckner Medal of the International Bruckner Society (1950)
 * Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1953)
 * Honorary Citizen of Wiesbaden (1953)
 * Goethe Medal of the State of Hessen (1955)
 * Nicolai Medal (Vienna Philharmonic, 1956)
 * Honorary Member of the Bruckner Society of America (1957)
 * Appointed Professor by the President of the Republic of Austria, Adolf Schärf (1957)
 * Honorary Member of the Vienna Philharmonic (1960)
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Alfonso X, the Wise (1965)

title: Carl Schuricht


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Immorality

Immorality is the violation of moral laws, norms or standards. It refers to an agent doing or thinking something they know or believe to be wrong. Immorality is normally applied to people or actions, or in a broader sense, it can be applied to groups or corporate bodies, and works of art.

Ancient Greece
Callicles and Thrasymachus are two characters of Plato's dialogues, Gorgias and Republic, respectively, who challenge conventional morality.

Aristotle saw many vices as excesses or deficits in relation to some virtue, as cowardice and rashness relate to courage. Some attitudes and actions – such as envy, murder, and theft – he saw as wrong in themselves, with no question of a deficit/excess in relation to the mean.

Religion
In Islam, Judaism and Christianity, sin is a central concept in understanding immorality.

Immorality is often closely linked with both religion and sexuality. Max Weber saw rational articulated religions as engaged in a long-term struggle with more physical forms of religious experience linked to dance, intoxication and sexual activity. Durkheim pointed out how many primitive rites culminated in abandoning the distinction between licit and immoral behavior.

Freud's dour conclusion was that "In every age immorality has found no less support in religion than morality has".

Sexual immorality
Coding of sexual behavior has historically been a feature of all human societies; as too has been the policing of breaches of its mores – sexual immorality – by means of formal and informal social control. Interdictions and taboos among primitive societies were arguably no less severe than in traditional agrarian societies. In the latter, the degree of control might vary from time to time and region to region, being least in urban settlements; however, only the last three centuries of intense urbanisation, commercialisation and modernisation have broken with the restrictions of the pre-modern world, in favor of a successor society of fractured and competing sexual codes and subcultures, where sexual expression is integrated into the workings of the commercial world.

Nevertheless, while the meaning of sexual immorality has been drastically redefined in recent times, arguably the boundaries of what is acceptable remain publicly policed and as highly charged as ever, as the decades-long debates in the US over reproductive rights after Roe v. Wade, or 21st-century controversy over child images on Wikipedia and Amazon would tend to suggest.

Defining sexual immorality across history is difficult as many different religions, cultures and societies have held contradictory views about sexuality.

But there is an almost universal disdain for two sexual practices throughout history.

These two behaviors include infidelity within a monogamous, romantic relationship and incest between immediate family members.

Other than these two things, some cultures throughout history have permitted sexual behaviors considered obscene by many cultures today, such as marriage between cousins, polygyny, underage sex, rape during war or forced assimilation, and even zoophilia.

Modernity
Michel Foucault considered that the modern world was unable to put forward a coherent morality – an inability underpinned philosophically by emotivism. Nevertheless, modernism has often been accompanied by a cult of immorality, as for example when John Ciardi acclaimed Naked Lunch as "a monumentally moral descent into the hell of narcotic addiction".

Immoral psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis received much early criticism for being the unsavory product of an immoral town – Vienna; psychoanalysts for being both unscrupulous and dirty-minded.

Freud himself however was of the opinion that "anyone who has succeeded in educating himself to truth about himself is permanently defended against the danger of immorality, even though his standard of morality may differ". Nietzsche referred to his ethical philosophy as Immoralism.

Literary references

 * When questioned by a proof-reader whether his description of Meleager as the immoral poet should be immortal poet, T. E. Lawrence replied: "Immorality I know. Immortality I cannot judge. As you please: Meleager will not sue us for libel".
 * De Quincey set out an (inverted) hierarchy of immorality in his study On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts: "if once a man indulges himself in murder, very soon he comes to think little of robbing; and from robbing he comes next to drinking and Sabbath-breaking, and from that to procrastination and incivility...this downward path".

title: Immorality


text: User:Raya~enwiki

title: User:Raya~enwiki


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William Davenant

Sir William Davenant (baptised 3 March 1606 – 7 April 1668), also spelled D'Avenant, was an English poet and playwright. Along with Thomas Killigrew, Davenant was one of the rare figures in English Renaissance theatre whose career spanned both the Caroline and Restoration eras and who was active both before and after the English Civil War and during the Interregnum.

Early life
Davenant is believed to have been born in late February, 1606 in Oxford, the son of Jane Shepherd Davenant and John Davenant, proprietor of the Crown Tavern (or Crown Inn) and Mayor of Oxford. He was baptised on 3 March, his godfather sometimes being said to have been William Shakespeare, who, according to John Aubrey, had stayed frequently at the Crown during his travels between London and Stratford-upon-Avon. It was even rumoured that he was the Bard's biological son as well. This story was recorded by Aubrey from a comment attributed to Davenant by Samuel Butler:

"Mr. William Shakespeare was wont to go into Warwickshire once a year, and did commonly in his journey lie at this house [the Crown] in Oxon, where he was exceedingly respected... Now Sir William [Davenant] would sometimes, when he was pleasant over a glass of wine with his most intimate friends--e.g. Sam Butler, author of Hudibras, etc., say, that it seemed to him that he writ with the very spirit that did Shakespeare, and seemed contented enough to be thought his Son. He would tell them the story as above, in which way his mother had a very light report, whereby she was called a Whore."

It has been suggested that Davenant simply meant that he saw himself as a literary son of Shakespeare, in the same way that followers of Ben Jonson called themselves the "Sons of Ben". However, according to Samuel Schoenbaum, since Aubrey's comment was unpublished, the existence of some other sources saying the same thing suggests that the story that "Sir William was more than Shakespeare's mere poetical offspring was common in Davenant's lifetime." In 1618, after Shakespeare's death, the 12-year-old Davenant wrote an ode "In Remembrance of Master Shakespeare".

He attended Lincoln College, Oxford, for a while in about 1620, but left before gaining any degree, becoming a page to the Duchess of Richmond. In London in 1630, he contracted a venereal disease, and was given a syphilis treatment by Thomas Cademan. As a convalescent, he left for the country in 1632 for a time. The syphilis severely disfigured his nose, resulting in damage that is discreetly depicted in John Greenhill's portrait. His ruined nose was the subject of much ribald comment by his enemies.

Poet laureate and Civil War
Following the death of Ben Jonson in 1637, Davenant was named Poet Laureate in 1638. He was a supporter of King Charles I in the English Civil War. In 1641, before the war began, he was declared guilty of high treason by parliament along with John Suckling, after he participated in the First Army Plot, a Royalist plan to use the army to occupy London. He fled to France. Returning to join the king's army when the war started, he was knighted two years later by king Charles following the siege of Gloucester.

In 1645, after the Royalist defeat at the Battle of Naseby, he retired to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic and worked on his epic poem Gondibert. That same year he was appointed Emissary to France, and in 1649 was given the symbolic post of treasurer of the colony of Virginia by the exiled Charles II. The following year, he was made lieutenant governor of Maryland, but was captured at sea, imprisoned, and sentenced to death. In July, 1650, he was put on trial for his life, along with others in front of the newly established High Court of Justice. He is said to have been saved by the intervention of John Milton. He spent all of 1651 in the Tower of London, where he continued writing Gondibert.

On his release in 1652, he immediately published Gondibert, but he was only pardoned in 1654. In order to avoid the strict laws of censorship in force in all public places at the time, he turned a room of his home, Rutland House, into a private theatre where his works, and those of other writers considered seditious, could be performed. A performance of his The Siege of Rhodes at Rutland House in 1656 is considered to be the first performance of an English opera, and also included England's first known professional actress, Mrs Coleman.

Restoration
Davenant once again found himself in legal trouble in 1659, when he was imprisoned for his part in Sir George Booth's uprising in Cheshire after the death of Cromwell. He was, however, released the same year, and left once more for France. When Charles II was restored to the throne, Davenant returned to England. The Restoration also led to the re-opening of theatres, which had been closed due to the influence of the puritans under Cromwell. In 1660, he is publicly recorded as being one of the two theatrical patentees, along with Thomas Killigrew, who obtained a monopoly of public theatre performances.

He headed the Duke of York's Men and produced highly successful theatrical seasons at Lincoln's Inn Fields from 1660 until his death in 1668. Among his more successful productions were some Shakespeare plays, including: Hamlet, Henry VIII, and Macbeth, as well as non-Shakespeare plays such as Sir Samuel Tuke's The Tragedy of Five Hours and John Dryden's comedy Sir Martin Marall. He had returned to England sometime before the initial production of his adaptation of Shakespeare's The Tempest, written with John Dryden, who would be named the next (and first officially by letters patent) Poet Laureate.

He died in London on 7 April 1668, shortly after his final play, The Man's the Master, was first performed. He is buried in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey where the inscription on his tablet reads "O rare Sir William Davenant." It has been noted that the original inscription on Ben Jonson's tablet, which was already removed by the time Davenant died, was "O Rare Ben," which was the name Shakespeare supposedly had for Jonson. "O Rare" is a play on the Latin "orare", to pray.

Nine of his works, though they were previously licensed or produced in London during his life as were all of his plays, were finally published in print posthumously. Several of these were included in The Works of Sr William D'avenant Kt., by Henry Herringman in 1673, which was copied from Davenant's own originals.

Epic poems and books of poetry

 * 1630: Ieffereidos
 * 1638: Madagascar, with other Poems
 * 1648: London, King Charles his Augusta, or, City Royal, of the founders, the names, and oldest honours of that City
 * 1650: A Discourse upon Gondibert, an heroick poem (or simply Gondibert), originally published unfinished, then published again in 1651 in its final form and included Davenant's "Preface to his most honour’d friend Mr. Hobs" and "The Answer of Mr. Hobbes to Sir William D’Avenant’s Preface before Gondibert" by Thomas Hobbes, to whom the book was dedicated; the official second edition in 1653 also contained "Certain Verses, written by severall of the author’s friends"
 * 1656: Wit and Drollery: Jovial Poems
 * 1657: Poems on Several Occasions

Panegyrics

 * 1660: "A Panegyric to his Excellency the Lord General Monck", to George Monck
 * 1660: "Poem, Upon His Sacred Majesties Most Happy Return to His Dominions", on the Restoration of Charles II
 * 1663: "Poem, to the King’s most sacred Majesty", to Charles II

Original plays, masques and operas
Listed in chronological order.
 * Albovine, King of the Lombards, tragedy (ca. 1626–9; printed 1629)
 * The Cruel Brother, tragedy (licensed 12 January 1627; printed 1630)
 * The Just Italian, comedy (licensed 2 October 1629; printed 1630)
 * The Wits, comedy (licensed 19 January 1634; printed 1636)
 * Love and Honour, tragicomedy, also previously performed as The Courage of Love; and The Nonpareilles, or The Matchless Maids (licensed 20 November 1634: printed 1649)
 * The Temple of Love, masque (licensed 10 February 1635; printed 1635)
 * News from Plymouth, comedy (licensed 1 August 1635; printed 1673)
 * The Platonick Lovers, comedy (licensed 16 November 1635; printed 1636)
 * The Triumphs of the Prince D'Amour, masque (performed 23 or 24 February 1636; printed 1636)
 * Britannia Triumphans, masque, with Inigo Jones (licensed 8 January 1638; printed 1638)
 * Luminalia or The Festival of Light, masque, with Inigo Jones (licensed 6 February 1638; printed 1638)
 * The Unfortunate Lovers, tragedy (licensed 16 April 1638; printed 1643)
 * The Fair Favourite, tragicomedy (licensed 17 November 1638; printed 1673)
 * The Spanish Lovers, or The Distresses, comedy (licensed 30 March 1639; printed 1673)
 * Salmacida Spolia, masque (performed 21 January 1640; printed 1640)
 * The Siege of Rhodes, Part I, tragicomedy (performed September 1656; printed 1656)
 * The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru, opera (performed and printed 1658)
 * The History of Sir Francis Drake, history (performed 1658–9; printed1659)
 * The Siege of Rhodes, Part II, tragicomedy (ca. 1657–9; printed 1663)
 * The Playhouse to Be Let, comedy (performed ca. August 1663; printed 1673); includes Sir Frances Drake and The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru
 * The Man's the Master, comedy (performed 26 March 1668; printed 1669)

Revisions, adaptations and other productions for the stage

 * The First Day's Entertainment at Rutland House, a "disputation" (performed 23 May 1656; printed 1657)
 * The Law Against Lovers (performed 10 February 1662, printed 1673), a version of Measure for Measure mixed with Much Ado About Nothing
 * Macbeth (performed 5 November 1664; printed 1674), an operatic adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth
 * Greene's Tu Quoque (performed 12 September 1667; lost), based upon the 1614 edition of John Cooke's Greene's Tu Quoque Or, the Cittie Gallant, which had been made famous by the actor Thomas Greene's 1611 performance
 * The Tempest, or The Enchanted Island (performed 7 November 1667, printed 1670), an adaptation with John Dryden of Shakespeare's The Tempest
 * The Rivals (c. 1664; printed 1668), a revision of The Two Noble Kinsmen
 * Hamlet
 * Julius Caesar with John Dryden

Biographical

 * Biography at TheatreDatabase.com
 * "Shakespeare and Mrs. Davenant"
 * Detailed biography at AllPoetry.com
 * Detailed biography at AllPoetry.com

Poems and texts

 * Four poems at the Poetry Archive
 * Five poems from Metaphysical Lyrics & Poems of the 17th century at Bartleby.com
 * Three poems from The Oxford Book of English Verse: 1250–1900 at Bartleby.com
 * The complete text of Davenant and Dryden's adaptation of The Tempest
 * Three poems from The Oxford Book of English Verse: 1250–1900 at Bartleby.com
 * The complete text of Davenant and Dryden's adaptation of The Tempest

title: William Davenant


text:
Brigantine

A brigantine is a two-masted sailing vessel with a fully square-rigged foremast and at least two sails on the main mast: a square topsail and a gaff sail mainsail (behind the mast). The main mast is the second and taller of the two masts.

Older usages are looser; in addition to the rigorous definition above (attested from 1695), the Oxford English Dictionary includes two c. 1525 definitions: "a small vessel equipped both for sailing and rowing, swifter and more easily manœuvred than larger ships" and "(loosely) various kinds of foreign sailing and rowing vessels, as the galleon, galliot, etc."

Modern American definitions include vessels without any square sail(s) on the main mast.

Mediterranean brigantines
In the Mediterranean Basin during the 13th century, a brigantine referred to a sail- and oar-driven war vessel. It was lateen rigged on two masts and had between eight and twelve oars on each side. Its speed, maneuverability, and ease of handling made it a favourite of Mediterranean pirates. Its name is derived from the Italian word brigantino, which in turn is derived from brigante "brigand". Other than in names, this vessel has no relation to the later brigantines developed in Northern Europe.

17th century and onwards
By the 17th century, the term was adopted by Atlantic maritime nations. The vessel had no lateen sails, but was instead square-rigged on the foremast and had a gaff-rigged mainsail with square rig above it on the mainmast. The mainmast of a brigantine is the aft one.

By the first half of the 18th century, the word had evolved to refer not to a kind of vessel, but rather to a particular type of rigging: two-masted, with her foremast fully square-rigged and her mainmast rigged with both a fore-and-aft mainsail (a gaff sail) and square topsails and possibly topgallant sails.

After the sloop the brigantine was the next-most popular rig for ships built in the British colonies in North America before 1775 The brigantine was swifter and more easily maneuvered than a sloop or schooner, hence was employed for  piracy, espionage, and reconnoitering, and as an outlying attendant upon large ships for protecting a ship, or for supply or landing purposes in a fleet.

The brigantine could be of various sizes, ranging from 30 to 150 tons burden. The brigantine was generally larger than a sloop or schooner, but smaller than a brig.

Modern terminology

The definition given above describes the international usage of the term brigantine. In modern American terminology, the term brigantine usually means a vessel with the foremast square rigged and the mainmast fore-and-aft rigged, without any square sails. Historically, this rig used was called a schooner brig' or hermaphrodite brig. In Europe, the distinction is typically still made. The training ship Zebu, which circumnavigated the Earth as part of Operation Raleigh, is an example of a schooner brig.

Differences from brig
The word brig is an 18th-century shortening of the word brigantine, but to mean a different type of rigging. The gaff-rigged mainsail on a brigantine distinguishes it from the brig, which is principally square-rigged on both masts. In addition to the different sail configuration, the brigantine's mainmast is made from two parts and equal to that of a schooner, a quite long mast and a top mast. The mainmast of a brig is made from three parts and equal to that of a fully rigged ship - a mast, topmast, and topgallant mast. With the advent of modern (metal) pole masts, this last difference typically no longer exists.

title: Brigantine