text:
Talk:Bra–ket notation

Pronunciation/reading?
How do you read ? "Bracket a b", "a times b", something else? --Sigmundur (talk) 08:39, 8 March 2018 (UTC)

When the symbol inside the ket is not the name of a vector per se
The lead says "A ket looks like " | v ⟩ ". Mathematically it denotes a vector, v, "

... from which one would expect that the symbol found inside a ket would be the name of a vector. That is, take that symbol outside the ket, stick an arrow on top (or style it bold), and you have a vector in conventional notation.

However, evidently there are additional ket conventions. One is apparently to place an integer inside the ket. This is obviously not the name of a vector per se. Apparently it indicates one of the orthonormal basis vectors. So |2> indicates the second basis vector, perhaps j-hat (or ey).

An example; https://quantum.phys.cmu.edu/CQT/chaps/cqt03.pdf page 32

Taking this further, some authors apparently may place a variable inside the ket, such as | n >, to indicate the nth basis vector, perhaps useful in a summation. But that is indistinguishable syntactically from the normal ket usage, and mistakenly suggests that n might be a vector.

At any rate, because a reader may well be visiting the page to try to interpret the bra-ket notation they've newly encountered written somewhere, it would be helpful if variants such as the one I just described could be discussed in the article in an orderly fashion. Gwideman (talk) 15:54, 22 February 2021 (UTC)

 * I strongly believe this would be overkill, but, of course, if somebody proposed redress here, on this page, before editing the page, its adequacy or defects could be vetted. IMO, a sensible, perceptive, well-meaning reader could not be confused, and could adapt the notation as circumstances dictated. This article is not a tutorial, and is meant to summarize/refresh basic facts one has already been taught at some level, e.g. in a course that then bears the onus of miscommunication. There is an extreme and present danger of burdening the article with lots of fussing distractions making it unreadable to all but the dedicated pedant reader, thereby furthering the degradation process...   Cuzkatzimhut (talk)

 * Thanks for responding, but I am very puzzled by your remarks. I do not understand how, in an article titled "Bra-ket notation", the subject of common variations in the syntax of the notation could possibly be overkill. Your second sentence ("IMO...") I do not understand at all -- are you referring to the page as currently, or as potentially revised? And what does "well meaning" have to do with the current discussion?   Sure, articles on Wikipedia are not tutorials. They are pages in an encyclopedia. But then you go on to say it's meant to review facts that the reader is presumed to have learned previously. No, it's a page in an encyclopedia. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia You conjure up some previous course in which there was miscommunication -- apropos of what? I might concur that there's a risk of articles becoming cluttered with distractions. Right now it's chock full of applications and examples in which Bra-ket notation is used, related only secondarily to the notation per se (but not unwelcome), yet somehow you are resistant to the idea of bolstering the description of the notation itself, which would actually improve the signal-to-noise ratio.  Gwideman (talk) 23:19, 25 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm never resistant to the idea of improving the article! How could I be? I would like to be resistant to its routine abuses: of course, I've been watching with horror  its  runaway descent into mush, by "bold" hit-or-miss "improvers".  Notation like $$|n\rangle$$ is self-explanatory, since what goes in the ket, most of the time, is the eigenvalue of the operator specifying the basis, like position, momentum, etc, as clarified in section 3.1, just about the only meaningful section in the article; in this case, the number operator N, s.t. $$ N|n\rangle = n|n\rangle$$.   If you wished to think of it as the cardinal index of a basis vector,  of course it would tag the n+1-th  vector since the counting starts from n = 0.  In any case, the power of kets is maintaining flexibility and abstraction, and not merely rewriting vectors, for which there exist excellent notations. Dirac introduced them precisely so detailed pedantic questions about them could be bypassed,  once their formal properties are completely specified. Physics has never looked back. Cuzkatzimhut (talk) 01:34, 26 February 2021 (UTC)

 * Well, this discussion is related to the heading explaining that "the mathematicians" do it all so differently. It is true that mathematicians rather redefine the scope of existing notation, so that it retains its familiar meaning vis a vis the basic stuff (e.g. linear algebra 101) but also works in the more advanced stuff (linear functional analysis 101), depending on the spaces specified. But most mathematicians who do functional analysis (and adjacent such as integral eqns, PDEs etc) are quite conversant with Dirac notation as well and may even use it when the mood strikes. A distinct drawback of conventional notation is that sometimes the index is the salient part and the variable glyph itself an unimportant dummy - Dirac allows you, effectively, to insert the index inside the | > moreover, Dirac notation has the Riesz-Frechet theorem and the notion of an observation as being an operator baked right into it. One can see why physicists like this very much and wax (somewhat too) lyrically about its "power". Others may prefer to establish everything in conventional notation - just to make sure there is no sleight of hand! 2A01:CB0C:CD:D800:C5C0:901B:9EDE:87D8 (talk) 12:44, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

Outer product
Interesting the way |ψ><ψ|  has a crossing X like ⊗ in the middle. Starple (talk) 23:10, 26 March 2021 (UTC)

Removed Request For Simplified Lead In
Removed request after providing the information.

Hopefully the simplification is acceptable because the topic loses something important if any further condensing is done. Astrojed (talk) 03:07, 5 February 2023 (UTC)

Provided a lead section and removed the notice of it missing.

This is a highly technical topic used in some quantum mechanics. A general practitioner of science may understand it if somewhat knowledgeable about quantum mechanics, complex numbers, vector products, and matrix algebra. A well qualified editor might make the improvements that are requested. Astrojed (talk) 08:46, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

Article issues and classification

 * The article has a "may be in need of reorganization" tag but also has unsourced sentences, paragraphs, subsections, and sections.
 * The B-class criteria #1 states; The article is suitably referenced, with inline citations. It has reliable sources, and any important or controversial material which is likely to be challenged is cited. The article needs a reassessment.
 * The article is reasonably well-written. (#4). The issues are not indicative of "well-written". -- Otr500 (talk) 08:43, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bra–ket notation


text:
John Evelyn

John Evelyn (31 October 1620 – 27 February 1706) was an English writer, landowner, gardener, courtier and minor government official, who is now best known as a diarist. He was a founding Fellow of the Royal Society.

John Evelyn's diary, or memoir, spanned the period of his adult life from 1640, when he was a student, to 1706, the year he died. He did not write daily at all times. The many volumes provide insight into life and events at a time before regular magazines or newspapers were published, making diaries of greater interest to modern historians than such works might have been at later periods. Evelyn's work covers art, culture and politics, including the execution of Charles I, Oliver Cromwell's rise and eventual natural death, the last Great Plague of London, and the Great Fire of London in 1666.

John Evelyn's Diary was first published posthumously in 1818, but over the years was overshadowed by that of Samuel Pepys. Pepys wrote a different kind of diary, in the same era but covering a much shorter period, 1660–1669, and in much greater depth.

Among the many subjects Evelyn wrote about, gardening was an increasing obsession, and he left a huge manuscript on the subject that was not printed until 2001. He published several translations of French gardening books, and his Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees (1664) was highly influential in its plea to landowners to plant trees, of which he believed the country to be dangerously short. Sections from his main manuscript were added to editions of this, and also published separately.

Biography
Born into a family whose wealth was largely founded on gunpowder production, John Evelyn was born in Wotton, Surrey, and grew up living with his grandparents in Lewes, Sussex. While living in Lewes, in Southover Grange, he was educated at Lewes Old Grammar School, refusing to be sent to Eton College. After this he was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and at the Middle Temple. In London, he witnessed important events such as the trials and executions of William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford, and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford.

In 1640 his father died, and in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He was enrolled as a volunteer, and then encamped before Genep, on the Waal river, but his military experience was limited to six days of camp life, during which, however, he took his turn at "trailing a pike". He returned in the autumn to find England on the verge of civil war. Having briefly joined the Royalist army and arrived too late for the Royalist victory at the Battle of Brentford in 1642, he spent some time improving his brother's property at Wotton, but then went abroad to avoid further involvement in the English Civil War.

In October 1644 Evelyn visited the Roman ruins in Fréjus, Provence, before travelling on to Italy. He attended anatomy lectures in Padua in 1646 and sent the Evelyn Tables back to London. These are thought to be the oldest surviving anatomical preparations in Europe; Evelyn later gave them to the Royal Society, and they are now in the Hunterian Museum. In 1644, Evelyn visited the English College at Rome, where Catholic priests were trained for service in England. In the Veneto he renewed his acquaintance with the famous art collector Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, and toured the art collections of Venice with Arundel's grandson and heir, later Duke of Norfolk. He acquired an ancient Egyptian stela and sent a sketch back to Rome, which was published by Father Kircher, SJ, in Kircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1650), albeit without acknowledgement to Evelyn.

In Florence, he commissioned the John Evelyn Cabinet (1644–46), an elaborate ebony cabinet with pietra dura and gilt-bronze panels, which is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was in his London house at his death, then returned to Wotton, and is very likely the "ebony cabinet" in which his diaries were later found.

In 1647 Evelyn married Mary Browne, daughter of Sir Richard Browne, the English ambassador in Paris. During the next few years he travelled back and forth between France and England, corresponding with Browne in the royalist interest, including a meeting with Charles I in 1647.

During the Commonwealth of England period, Evelyn desired to maintain using the Church of England's Anglican practices. Among these was worship according to the Book of Common Prayer. Though prayer book had been outlawed and replaced by the Directory for Public Worship, Evelyn was able to find and worship at prayer book services, including in London. At one such service–held on Christmas Day, 1657–Evelyn reported that Parliamentarians "held their muskets against us as we came up to receive the Sacred Elements". Evelyn would also recount regular usage of the prayer book's offices and its calendar with his family inside their home.

In 1651 he became convinced that the royalist cause was hopeless, and decided to return to England. The following year, the couple settled in Deptford (present-day south-east London). Their house, Sayes Court (adjacent to the naval dockyard), was purchased by Evelyn from his father-in-law in 1653; Evelyn soon began to transform the gardens. In 1671, he encountered master wood-worker Grinling Gibbons (who was renting a cottage on the Sayes Court estate) and introduced him to Sir Christopher Wren. There is now an electoral ward called Evelyn in Deptford, London Borough of Lewisham. He remained a royalist, had refused employment from the government of the Commonwealth, and had maintained a cipher correspondence with Charles II; in 1659 he published an Apology for the Royal Party.

After the Restoration
It was after the Restoration that Evelyn's career really took off, and he enjoyed unbroken court favour until his death. He never held any important political office, although he filled many useful and minor posts. In 1660, he was a member of the group that founded the Royal Society. The following year, he wrote the Fumifugium (or The Inconveniencie of the Aer and Smoak of London Dissipated), a pamphlet on the growing air pollution problem in London. He was commissioner for improving the streets and buildings of London, for examining into the affairs of charitable foundations, commissioner of the Royal Mint, and of foreign plantations. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, beginning 28 October 1664, Evelyn served as one of four commissioners on the Sick and Hurt Board (others included Sir William D'Oyly and Sir Thomas Clifford), staying at his post during the Great Plague in 1665. He found it impossible to secure sufficient money for the proper discharge of his functions, and in 1688 he was still petitioning for payment of his accounts in this business. He briefly acted as one of the commissioners of the privy seal. In 1695 he was entrusted with the office of treasurer of Greenwich hospital for retired sailors, and laid the first stone of the new building on 30 June 1696.

He was known for his knowledge of trees, and had a friend and correspondent, Philip Dumaresq, who "devoted most of his time to gardening, fruit, and tree culture." Evelyn's treatise, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees (1664), was written as an encouragement to landowners to plant trees to provide timber for England's burgeoning navy. Further editions appeared in his lifetime (1670 and 1679), with the fourth edition (1706) appearing just after his death and featuring the engraving of Evelyn shown on this page (below) even though it had been made more than 50 years prior by Robert Nanteuil in 1651 in Paris. Various other editions appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries and feature an inaccurate portrait of Evelyn made by Francesco Bartolozzi.

Evelyn had some training as a draftsman and artist, and created several etchings. Most of his published work, produced in the form of drawings to be engraved by others, was to illustrate his own work.

Following the Great Fire in 1666, closely described in his diaries, Evelyn presented the first of several plans (Christopher Wren produced another) for the rebuilding of London, all of which were rejected by Charles II largely due to the complexities of land ownership in the city. He took an interest in the rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral by Wren (with Gibbons' artistry a notable addition). Evelyn's interest in gardens even led him to design pleasure gardens, such as those at Euston Hall.

Evelyn was a prolific author and produced books on subjects as diverse as theology, numismatics, politics, horticulture, architecture and vegetarianism, and he cultivated links with contemporaries across the spectrum of Stuart political and cultural life. In September 1671 he travelled with the Royal court of Charles II to Norwich where he called upon Sir Thomas Browne. Like Browne and Pepys, Evelyn was a lifelong bibliophile, and by his death his library is known to have comprised 3,859 books and 822 pamphlets, his personal manuscripts, and correspondence with noble figures among England and France. It would be called the John Evelyn Archives and placed in the British Library. Included in this would be his diaries broken down into four volumes with over half a million words. Many were uniformly bound in a French taste and bear his motto Omnia explorate; meliora retinete ("explore everything; keep the better") from I Thessalonians 5, 21.

His daughter, Mary Evelyn (1665–1685), has been acknowledged as the pseudonymous author of the book Mundus Muliebris of 1690. ''Mundus Muliebris: or, The Ladies Dressing Room Unlock'd and Her Toilette Spread. In Burlesque. Together with the Fop-Dictionary, Compiled for the Use of the Fair Sex'' is a satirical guide in verse to Francophile fashion and terminology, and its authorship is often jointly credited to John Evelyn, who seems to have edited the work for press after his daughter's death.

In 1694 Evelyn moved back to Wotton, Surrey, as his elder brother, George, had no living sons available to inherit the estate. Evelyn inherited the estate and the family seat Wotton House on the death of his brother in 1699. Sayes Court was made available for rent. Its most notable tenant was Russian Tsar Peter the Great, who lived there for three months in 1698 (and did great damage to both house and grounds). The house no longer exists, but a public park of the same name can be found off Evelyn Street. Evelyn died in 1706 at his house in Dover Street, London. Wotton House and estate were inherited by his grandson John (1682–1763) later Sir John Evelyn, Bt.

Family
John and Mary Evelyn had eight children:
 * Richard (1652–1658)
 * John Standsfield (1653–1654)
 * John (the younger) (1655–1699)
 * George (1657–1658)
 * Richard II (1664)
 * Mary (1665–1685)
 * Elizabeth (1667–1685)
 * Susanna (1669–1754). Only Susanna outlived her parents.

Mary Evelyn died in 1709, three years after her husband. Both are buried in the Evelyn Chapel in St John's Church, Wotton.

Evelyn's epitaph (original spelling) reads:

Here lies the Body of JOHN EVELYN Esq of this place, second son of RICHARD EVELYN Esq who having served the Publick in several employments of which that Commissioner of the Privy Seal in the reign of King James the 2nd was most Honourable: and perpetuated his fame by far more lasting Monuments than those of Stone, or Brass: his Learned and useful works, fell asleep the 27th day of February 1705/6 being the 86th Year of his age in full hope of a glorious resurrection thro faith in Jesus Christ. Living in an age of extraordinary events, and revolutions he learnt (as himself asserted) this truth which pursuant to his intention is here declared. That all is vanity which is not honest and that there's no solid Wisdom but in real piety.

Of five Sons and three Daughters borne to him from his most vertuous and excellent Wife MARY sole daughter, and heiress of Sir RICHARD BROWNE of Sayes Court near Deptford in Kent onely one Daughter SUSANNA married to WILLIAM DRAPER Esq of Adscomb in this County survived him – the two others dying in the flower of their age, and all the sons very young except one nam'd John who deceased 24 March 1698/9 in the 45th year of his age, leaving one son JOHN and one daughter ELIZABETH.

Wotton House and estate passed down to Evelyn's great-great-grandson Sir Frederick Evelyn, 3rd Bt (1733–1812). The baronetcy next passed to Frederick Evelyn's cousins, Sir John Evelyn, 4th Bt (1757–1833), and Sir Hugh Evelyn, 5th Bt (1769–1848). Both these two were of unsound mind and the estate was therefore left to a remote cousin descended from the diarist's grandfather's first marriage, in whose family it remains to this day though they no longer occupy the house. The title died out in 1848. However, there are many living descendants of John Evelyn through his daughter Susanna, Mrs William Draper, and his granddaughter Elizabeth, Mrs Simon Harcourt. There are many descendants of John Evelyn's great-great-grandson, Charles Evelyn Jnr, through his daughter Susanna Prideaux (Evelyn) Wright living in New Zealand. Charles Evelyn Jnr was also the father of Sir John Evelyn, 4th Bt, and the last baronet, Sir Hugh Evelyn, 5th Bt.

In 1992 the skulls of John and Mary were stolen by persons unknown who hacked into the stone sarcophagi on the chapel floor and tore open the coffins. They have not been recovered.

Works

John Evelyn's Diary remained unpublished as a manuscript until 1818. It is in a quarto volume containing 700 pages, covering the years between 1641 and 1697, and is continued in a smaller book – which brings the narrative down to within three weeks of its author's death. Despite entries going back to 1641, Evelyn only actually started writing his diary much later, relying on almanacs and accounts of other people for many of the previous events. A selection from this was edited by William Bray, with the permission of the Evelyn family, in 1818, under the title of Memoirs illustrative of the Life and Writings of John Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to 1705/6, and a Selection of his Familiar Letters. Other editions followed, including those of H. B. Wheatley (1879) and Austin Dobson (3 vols, 1906). The modern edition is by Guy de la Bédoyère, who has also edited Evelyn's correspondence with Samuel Pepys.

Evelyn's active mind produced many other works, and although many of these have been overshadowed by the famous Diary they are of considerable interest. They include:

 * Of Liberty and Servitude ... (1649), a translation from the French of François de la Mothe le Vayer, Evelyn's own copy of which contains a note that he was "like to be call'd in question by the Rebells for this booke";
 * The State of France, as it stood in the IXth year of ... Louis XIII (1652), a pamphlet drawn up from personal observations about the royal family, the court, the officials, the military forces, the institutions and customs of France;
 * An Essay on the First Book of T. Lucretius Carus de Rerum Natura. Interpreted and made English verse by J. Evelyn (1656); to his translation, Evelyn attached a commentary based on the writings of Gassendi and other philosophical atomists ;
 * The Golden Book of St John Chrysostom, concerning the Education of Children. Translated out of the Greek by J. E. (printed 1658, dated 1659);
 * The French Gardener: Instructing How to Cultivate all sorts of Fruit-Trees, and Herbs for the Garden (1658), translated from the French of Nicolas de Bonnefons;
 * A Character of England, As it was lately presented in a Letter to a Nobleman of France (1659), a satire describing the customs of the country as they would appear to a foreign observer, reprinted in Somers' Tracts (ed. Scott, 1812), and in the Harleian Miscellany (ed. Park, 1813);
 * The Late Newes, or Message from Bruxels Unmasked, and his Majesty Vindicated ... (1660), in answer to a libellous pamphlet on Charles I by Marchamont Nedham;
 * Fumifugium: or The Inconvenience of the Aer and Smoak of London Dissipated (1661), in which he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in London to purify the air;
 * Instructions Concerning Erecting of a Library ... (1661), from the French of Gabriel Naudé;
 * Tyrannus or the Mode, in a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws (1661);
 * Sculptura: or the History, and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper... (1662); this contains the first account of "A new manner of Engraving, or Mezzo Tinto, communicated by his Highnesse Prince Rupert to the Author of this Treatise". In fact many think Rupert, who had played a part in the invention or perfecting of mezzotint, wrote or co-wrote this part. The frontispiece "invented" (designed) by Evelyn demonstrates his limitations as an artist of the figure, unless he was badly let down by his engraver.
 * Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesties Dominions to which is annexed Pomona ... Also Kalendarium Hortense ... (1664); the best known of his books; a plea for reafforestation aimed at landowners;A Parallel of the Antient Architecture with the Modern Image110.jpg
 * A Parallel of the Antient Architecture with the Modern (1664), from the French of Roland Fréart, to which was added an Account of Architects and Architecture from Evelyn's own pen ;
 * An Idea of the Perfection of Painting: Demonstrated From the Principles of Art, and by Examples (1668), a translation of another work by Roland Fréart;
 * The History of the three late famous Imposters, viz. Padre Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Sevi ... (1669);
 * Navigation and Commerce, in which his Majesties title to the Dominion of the Sea is asserted against the Novel and later Pretenders (1674), which is a preface to a projected history of the Dutch wars undertaken at the request of Charles II., but countermanded on the conclusion of peace;
 * A Philosophical Discourse of Earth ... (1676), a treatise on horticulture, better known by its later title of Terra
 * The Compleat Gardener (1693), from the French of J. de la Quintinie;
 * Numismata. A Discourse of Medals, Antient and Modern... To which is added a Disgression concerning Physiognomy (1697);
 * Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallets... (1699), the first recorded book on salads.

Some of these were reprinted in The Miscellaneous Writings of John Evelyn, edited (1825) by William Upcott.

Evelyn's friendship with Margaret Blagge, afterwards Mrs Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when he says he designed "to consecrate her worthy life to posterity". This he effectually did in a little masterpiece of religious biography which remained in manuscript in the possession of the Harcourt family until it was edited by Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the Life of Mrs Godolphin (1847), reprinted in the "King's Classics" (1904). The picture of Mistress Blagge's saintly life at court is heightened in interest when read in connexion with the scandalous memoirs of the comte de Gramont, or contemporary political satires on the court.

Numerous other papers and letters of Evelyn on scientific subjects and matters of public interest are preserved, including a collection of private and official letters and papers (1642–1712) by, or addressed to, Sir Richard Browne and his son-in-law, now held by the British Library (Add MSS 15857 and 15858).

The most influential of his books in his lifetime, long before the Diary was known, was Sylva. Evelyn believed that the country was being rapidly depleted of wood by industries such as glass factories and iron furnaces, while no attempt was being made to replace the damage by planting. In "Sylva", Evelyn pleaded for afforestation and asserted in his preface to the king that he had induced landowners to plant millions of trees. It was a valuable work on arboriculture containing many engravings of trees and their foliage to assist with identification.

He spent much of his later life working on the enormous Elysium Britannicum, covering all aspects of gardening. This was never completed, and was finally published in 2001, from his 1,000-page manuscript now in the British Library (Add MS 78432). Parts of it were published as he began to realize the main task would never be completed. These included Kalendarium Hortense, or The Gardener's Almanac – a monthly list of tasks for the gardener, Pomona on apples, and Acetaria on "sallets" (salad plants).

Legacy
In 1977 and 1978 in eight auctions at Christie's, a major surviving portion of Evelyn's library was sold and dispersed. The British Library holds a large archive of Evelyn's personal papers including the manuscript of his Diary. The Victoria and Albert Museum has in its collection a cabinet owned by Evelyn which is thought to have housed his diaries. In 2006, a new biography by Gillian Darley, based on full access to the archive, was published. In 2011 a campaign was started to restore John Evelyn's garden in Deptford. William Arthur Evelyn was a descendant.

Things named for Evelyn include:
 * Evelyn, London, an electoral ward of the London Borough of Lewisham covering Deptford where John Evelyn lived.
 * Evelyn College for Women, the short-lived co-ordinate college of Princeton University, USA
 * A house at Addey and Stanhope School in London, England
 * Crabtree & Evelyn, the skincare company
 * Evelyn, the gossip column of Oxford student newspaper Cherwell
 * Evelyn Street, a road in Deptford
 * John Evelyn Primary School on the corner of Rolt Street, Deptford.
 * The John Evelyn public house on Evelyn Street in Deptford (as featured in the BBC Television's The Tower)
 * The Evelyn community garden, Windlass Place, Deptford
 * The Evelyn Street Baths, also known as the Clyde Street baths and Library, the baths opened in 1928 and served the Deptford community until around 1988.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Evelyn


text:
Thai National Anthem

The Thai National Anthem (เพลงชาติไทย ) is the title of Thailand's national anthem, which was adopted in its current form on 10 December 1939. It replaced "Sansoen Phra Barami" in 1932, which remains as the royal anthem of Thailand. The melody was composed by Phra Chenduriyang (Peter Feit), and the words were made by Luang Saranupraphan. Phleng chāt (เพลงชาติ), literally meaning "national anthem", is a general term for a national anthem. The term is also used to refer to this specific song.

National anthem before 1932
Before 1932, Sansoen Phra Barami (the Royal Anthem) was used as the national anthem of Siam.

National anthem after 1932

The anthem was composed a few days after the revolution of 1932 in the tune vaguely similar to the national anthem of Poland, Poland Is Not Yet Lost, and was first broadcast in July 1932. The original lyrics were by Khun Wichitmatra.

First national anthem competition (1934)
In 1934, Thai government launched competitions for the official national anthem, for both melody and lyrics. Changwang Tua Phathayakoson (จางวางทั่ว พัทยโกศล) composed a tune in a traditional style called Phleng Maha Nimit, but Phra Chenduriyang's melody was selected because it sounded more modern.

Second national anthem competition
After that, in the competition for the lyrics with Phra Chenduriyang's music, the original words by Khun Wichitmatra took first prize. They were in use until 1939, with a minor edit and an additional version written by second prize winner Chan Khamvilai (ฉันท์ ขำวิไล) adopted in 1934.

Thai Cultural Revolution
In 1939, when the name of the country was changed from Siam to Thailand, a competition was launched to create new lyrics, with those by Luang Saranupraphan winning. Thai prime minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram ordered the anthem to be played every day at 08:00 and 18:00 (8 AM and 6 PM), and ordered the populace to stand up to show respect for the nation. Nowadays, the morning and evening anthems correspond to the hoisting and lowering of the national flags in public areas (e.g. schools, workplaces, public buildings), respectively; hence, the anthem is broadcast by both radio and television channels twice per day from 1980's.

Current usages
According to the practice dates from 1939s during the Plaek Phibunsongkhram era and The Flag Act of 1979, Thais must stop what they are doing and stand at attention to pay homage to the anthem played by all Thai media outlets, twice a day, at 08:00 and again at 18:00. Students in school stand in front of the raised flag and sing the national anthem at 08:00 every school day, while those who do not observe the custom by standing in silence during the anthem are subject to a fine of up to 2,000 baht and not more than one year in prison.

title: Thai National Anthem


text:
Adam Pulchrae Mulieris

Adam Pulchrae Mulieris, also called Adam de Puteorumvilla, was a Paris master who studied under Peter of Lamballe, who flourished in the first half of the 13th century. Little is known of his life. He has been described as one of the “metaphysicians of light” (Robert Grosseteste was another). He was a contemporary of William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris, and his works are cited by Richard de Fournival, Gerard of Abbeville and Thomas Aquinas. The origin of his name is unknown.

The only book seriously attributed to him is Memoriale Rerum Difficilium, also known as De Intelligentiis. This was originally attributed to Witelo. It was published as Adam's in 1908 but in the 1930s the question of this attribution was re-opened.

title: Adam Pulchrae Mulieris


text:
London Inner Ring Road

The London Inner Ring Road, or Ring Road as signposted, is a 12 mi route with an average diameter of 2.75 – formed from a number of major roads that encircle Central London. The ring road forms the boundary of the London congestion charge zone, although the ring road itself is not part of the zone.

Starting at the northernmost point and moving clockwise, the roads defining the boundary are Pentonville Road, City Road, Old Street, Great Eastern Street, Commercial Street, Mansell Street, Tower Bridge, Tower Bridge Road, New Kent Road, the Elephant & Castle, Kennington Lane, the roads that constitute the Vauxhall Cross one-way system and Vauxhall Bridge, Vauxhall Bridge Road, the roads that constitute the Victoria one-way system, Grosvenor Place, Park Lane, Edgware Road, Old Marylebone Road, Marylebone Road and Euston Road.

The route is described as the "Inner" Ring Road because there are two further sets of roads that have been described as London ring roads. The North and South Circular Roads together form the second ring road around London, averaging 10 - 15 mi in diameter. The M25 motorway is the outermost road encircling the metropolis, at an average diameter of 40 –.

History
Plans for an Inner Ring Road were put forward by Patrick Abercrombie in the 1940s, in the County of London Plan.

Constituent roads
The route is signed as "Ring Road" and is made up of the following:

Historic New Road
Construction of the New Road from Paddington to Islington began in 1756 to relieve congestion in the built-up area of London. At that time the districts of Marylebone, Fitzrovia and Bloomsbury were on the northern edge of the city, and only the southern parts of them had been built up. The New Road ran through the fields to the north of these three neighbourhoods.

The road is now one of the busiest main roads in the city. It runs from Edgware Road in the west to Angel, in the east. After being renamed in 1857, the western section between Edgware Road and Great Portland Street is known as Marylebone Road, the central section between Great Portland Street and King's Cross is known as Euston Road, and the eastern section from King's Cross to The Angel is called Pentonville Road.

City Road was constructed in 1761 to continue the route eastwards to the northern edge of the City of London.

Pentonville Road
Pentonville Road runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road. By far the greater portion of the road is in the London Borough of Islington but a small part near Kings Cross is in the London Borough of Camden, including an entrance to King's Cross St Pancras Underground station at the former King's Cross Thameslink station. It acquired its present name in 1857.

There are several halls of residence located on Pentonville Road, these being Dinwiddy House (SOAS), Paul Robeson House and Nido Student Living. There are two green spaces along the road – Joseph Grimaldi Park and Claremont Square, the latter however is not open to the public.

This street is distinguished by the "set back" housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare. It is one of the locations on the UK version of the Monopoly board game, which features areas native to London.

Pentonville Road is one of the many London place names mentioned in the song "Transmetropolitan" by The Pogues.

Mansell Street
Mansell Street is a short road, part of the A1210 route (though sometimes shown as being the A1211), which for most of its length marks the boundary between the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, though the southernmost part is entirely in Tower Hamlets. It runs from Aldgate southwards to the Tower of London. The northern part, north of the junction with Goodmans Yard and Prescot Street, has one way northbound traffic, while the southern part has one way southbound traffic.

Tower Bridge Road

Tower Bridge Road is a road in Bermondsey in the London Borough of Southwark, UK, that runs north to south, and connects the Bricklayers Arms roundabout and flyover at its southern end (New Kent Road and Old Kent Road) to Tower Bridge and across the River Thames at its northern end. It also links to Long Lane.

The road has an abundance of antique (or junk) shops along part of its length. There is also Bermondsey Square which holds an 'antique' market every Friday morning, usually known as Bermondsey Market, though officially as New Caledonian Market.

Towards its southern end are a collection of shops, pubs and takeaways.

Kennington Lane
Kennington Lane is an A-road (classified A3204) running between the Elephant & Castle to the east and Vauxhall to the west.

Starting at the Elephant, Kennington Lane splits off from the A3 by means of a Y-junction, where Newington Butts becomes Kennington Park Road. Heading in a southwesterly direction, the road then crosses the A23 Kennington Road, before reaching the Vauxhall one-way system, where the A3036 Albert Embankment and Wandsworth Road, A202 Vauxhall Bridge, Durham Street and Harleyford Road, A203 South Lambeth Road, and A3205 Nine Elms Lane all converge.

Vauxhall Bridge Road
Vauxhall Bridge Road runs south-east to north-west from Vauxhall Cross, over the River Thames to Victoria station. At the southernmost point the road runs past the headquarters of MI6. The section immediately after Vauxhall Bridge north of the Thames is called Bessborough Gardens and is home to the Embassy of Lithuania. Further along is the Embassy of Mauritania.

Victoria one-way system
Victoria one-way system lies in front of Victoria Station. Clockwise, it includes Lower Grosvenor Place, Bressenden Place, and west end of Victoria Street.

title: London Inner Ring Road


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Genesis Nomad

The Genesis Nomad, also known as Sega Nomad, is a handheld game console manufactured by Sega and released in North America in October 1995. The Nomad is a portable variation of the Sega Genesis home video game console (known as the Mega Drive outside North America). It could also be used with a television set via a video port. It was based on the Mega Jet, a portable version of the home console designed for use on airline flights in Japan.

The Nomad was the last handheld console released by Sega. Released late in the Genesis era, it had a short lifespan. It was sold exclusively in North America, and uses regional lockout. Sega's focus on the Sega Saturn left the Nomad under-supported, and it was incompatible with several Genesis peripherals, including the Power Base Converter, the Sega CD, and the 32X. About 1 million units of the Nomad were sold, and it is considered a commercial failure.

History
The Sega Genesis was Sega's entry into the 16-bit era of video game consoles. In Japan, Sega released the Mega Jet, a portable version of the Mega Drive for use on Japan Airlines flights. The Mega Jet requires a connection to a television screen and a power source, and so outside of airline flights can only be used in cars equipped with a television set and cigarette lighter receptacle. On planes, the Mega Jet was connected into armrest monitors. It had a limited consumer release in Japanese department stores in 1994, but did not see success.

Planning to release a new handheld console to succeed the Game Gear, Sega originally intended to produce a system with a touchscreen interface two years before the Game.com handheld by Tiger Electronics. However, touchscreen technology was expensive at the time, so Sega instead released the Genesis Nomad, a handheld version of the Genesis. The development codename was "Project Venus". Sega hoped to capitalize on the Genesis's popularity in North America. At the time, the Genesis Nomad was the only handheld console that could connect to a television.

The Nomad was released in October 1995 in North America only. The release was five years into the market span of the Genesis, with an existing library of more than 500 Genesis games. While Sega Technical Institute's The Ooze was originally planned as a launch game, it was not included. According to former Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller, the Nomad was not intended to replace the Game Gear, and Sega had few plans for the new handheld. Sega was supporting five different consoles: Saturn, Genesis, Game Gear, Pico, and the Master System, as well as the Sega CD and 32X add-ons. In Japan, the Mega Drive had never been successful and the Saturn was more successful than Sony's PlayStation, so Sega Enterprises CEO Hayao Nakayama decided to focus on the Saturn, resulting in the end of support for the Genesis and Genesis-based products. Additionally, the Game Boy, Nintendo's handheld console that had been dominant in the market, became even more dominant with the release of Pokémon Red and Blue. This meant the Nomad was not successful. By 1999, the Nomad was being sold at less than a third of its original price.

Technical specifications
Similar to the Genesis and the Mega Jet, the Nomad's main CPU is a Motorola 68000. Possessing similar memory, graphics, and sound capabilities, the Nomad is nearly identical to the full-size console; the only variation is that it is completely self-sufficient. The Nomad has a 3.25 inch diagonal backlit color LC display and an A/V output that allows the Nomad to be played on a television screen. Design elements of the handheld were made similar to the Game Gear, but included six buttons for full compatibility with later Genesis releases. Also included were a red power switch, headphone jack, volume dial, and separate controller input for multiplayer games. The controller port functions as player 2, so single-player games cannot be played with a Genesis controller. The Nomad can be powered by an AC adapter, a battery recharger known as the Genesis Nomad PowerBack, or six AA batteries, which provide a battery life of two to three hours.

The Nomad is fully compatible with several Genesis peripherals, including the Sega Activator, Team Play Adaptor, Mega Mouse, and the Sega Channel and XBAND network add-ons. However, the Nomad is not compatible with the Power Base Converter, Sega CD, or 32X. This means the Nomad can only play Genesis games, whereas the standard Genesis can also play Master System, Sega CD, and 32X games with the respective add-ons.

Game library
The Nomad does not have its own game library, but instead plays Genesis games. At the time of its launch, the Nomad had over 500 games available for play. However, no pack-in game was included. The Nomad can boot unlicensed, homebrew, and bootleg games made for the Genesis. Some earlier third-party games have compatibility issues when played on the Nomad, but can be successfully played through the use of a Game Genie. Likewise, due to its lack of compatibility with any of the Genesis' add-ons, it is unable to play any games for the Master System, Sega CD, or 32X. The Nomad employs two different regional lockout methods, physical and software, but methods have been found to bypass these.

Reception and legacy
Reviewing the Nomad shortly after launch, Game Players considered the price of $179 "a bit steep", but said it was the best portable system on the market, and recommended it over the stock Genesis since it could play all the same games in a portable format. In a 1997 year-end review, a team of four Electronic Gaming Monthly editors gave the Nomad scores of 8.0, 6.5, 7.0, and 7.5. They praised its support for the entire Genesis library, but criticized its hefty battery usage and noted that despite a recent price drop, it was still expensive enough to discourage interested consumers. While they generally complimented the screen display, they remarked that its small size makes it difficult to play certain games. Sushi-X declared the Nomad the best portable gaming system then on the market, while his three co-reviewers had more misgivings, saying it has merits but might not be a worthwhile buy. However, in their first 1996 review, reviewers from Electronics Gaming Monthly noted that the screen suffers from display motion blur, particularly during fast scrolling.

Blake Snow of GamePro listed the Nomad as fifth on his list of the "10 Worst-Selling Handhelds of All Time", criticizing its poor timing into the market, inadequate advertising, and poor battery life. Scott Alan Marriott of Allgame placed more than simply timing into reasons for the Nomad's lack of sales, stating, "The reason for the Nomad's failure may have very well been a combination of poor timing, company mistrust and the relatively high cost of the machine (without a pack-in). Genesis owners were too skittish to invest in another 16-bit system." Stuart Hunt of Retro Gamer, however, praised the Nomad, saying in a retrospective that Nomad was "the first true 16-bit handheld" and declared it the best variant of the Genesis. He noted the collectability of the Nomad, due to its low production, and stated, "Had Sega cottoned on to the concept of the Nomad before the Mega Drive 2, and rolled it out as a true successor to the Mega Drive ... then perhaps Sega may have succeeded in its original goal to prolong the life of the Mega Drive in the U.S." In 2017 a mod was developed to allow the Nomad to receiver power using USB devices.

title: Genesis Nomad


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Horst Buchholz

Horst Werner Buchholz (4 December 1933 – 3 March 2003) was a German actor who appeared in more than 60 feature films from 1951 to 2002. During his youth, he was sometimes called "the German James Dean". He is perhaps best known in English-speaking countries for his roles as Chico in The Magnificent Seven (1960), as a communist in Billy Wilder's One, Two, Three (1961), and as Dr. Lessing in Life Is Beautiful (1997).

Early life
Horst Buchholz was born in Berlin, the son of Maria Hasenkamp. He never knew his biological father, but took the surname of his stepfather Hugo Buchholz, a shoemaker, whom his mother married in 1938. His half-sister Heidi, born in 1941, gave him the nickname Hotte, which he kept for the rest of his life.

During World War II, he was evacuated to Silesia, and at the end of the war, he found himself in a foster home in Czechoslovakia. He returned to Berlin as soon as he could.

Buchholz barely finished his schooling before seeking theater work, first appearing on stage in 1949. He soon left his childhood home in East Berlin to work in West Berlin. He established himself in the theater, notably the Schiller Theater, and on radio.

Early film career
Buchholz expanded into film work by doing foreign-language voice dubbing, for example Lampwick in Pinocchio and Ben Cooper in Johnny Guitar.

In 1951 he started getting small, uncredited on-screen parts in films like Warum? (1951) and Adventure in Berlin (1952).

He had a larger role in Marianne of My Youth (1954), directed by Julien Duvivier and was in a TV movie Die Schule der Väter. He was in Sky Without Stars (1955) from Helmut Käutner and Regine (1956).

Stardom
His youthful good looks next brought him a part in Die Halbstarken (1956), which made him a teen favorite in Germany; an English-dubbed version was released in the US as Teenage Wolfpack, with Buchholz billed as Henry Bookholt and promoted as a new James Dean.

He was in King in Shadow (1957) then The Girl and the Legend (1957) with Romy Schneider. Full-fledged stardom resulted from Confessions of Felix Krull (1957), in which he played the lead of a narcissistic high-class conman; it was directed by Kurt Hoffmann and based on the novel by Thomas Mann. He made another with Schneider, Monpti (1957), aka Love from Paris.

That year he starred in Two Worlds (1958), Wet Asphalt (1958), and Auferstehung (1958) aka Resurrection.

English-language films
Buchholz began appearing in English-language films in 1959, when he co-starred in the British production Tiger Bay with Hayley Mills. It was a notable success. In her autobiography, Mills revealed she had a schoolgirl crush on Buchholz during the filming of Tiger Bay and was saddened when the cast threw him an engagement party.

He returned to Germany for Ship of the Dead (1959), then accepted an offer from Hollywood to play a young aspiring gunslinger in The Magnificent Seven (1960), a remake of Akira Kurosawa's Seven Samurai (1954) in which he would play the role originally portrayed by Toshiro Mifune in the Japanese version. Arriving in the U.S. with time to spare before filming began, Buchholz lingered in New York and appeared on Broadway in a short-lived adaptation of Cheri (1959) and then continued westward.

After The Magnificent Seven, which went on to become a classic, Buchholz played in the romantic drama Fanny (1961) with Leslie Caron and Maurice Chevalier, and the Berlin-set comedy One, Two, Three (1961), directed by Billy Wilder and starring James Cagney. Though filmed in Mexico, France and Germany respectively, these were Hollywood productions and Buchholz had begun a period of residence in Los Angeles. He proved to be popular with American audiences, but several missed opportunities thwarted the upward trajectory of his career and it began to stall. Filming schedule conflicts prevented him from accepting the offered roles of Tony in West Side Story (1961) and Sherif Ali in Lawrence of Arabia (1962), a part that eventually went to Omar Sharif.

Instead he played the lead in Nine Hours to Rama (1963) for Twentieth Century Fox and The Empty Canvas (1963), shot in Italy with Bette Davis. He returned to Broadway to appear in Andorra (1963), which had a short run.

International star
On the advice of his agent, like many other actors who were asked, he turned down the starring role in A Fistful of Dollars (1964). He was in Marco the Magnificent (1965) with Anthony Quinn; That Man in Istanbul (1965), a Eurospy film; Johnny Banco (1967), a comedy with Yves Allégret; and Young Rebel (1967), a biopic of Miguel de Cervantes with Gina Lollobrigida. He guest starred on The Danny Thomas Hour (1968).

Buchholz starred in Astragal (1969), How, When and with Whom (1969), The Dove Must Not Fly (1970), and The Saviour (1971). He returned to Hollywood lead roles briefly with The Great Waltz (1971) playing Johann Strauss.

Buchholz starred in ...But Johnny! (1973), and The Catamount Killing (1974). He appeared on German television in shows like Die Klempner kommen (1976).

Supporting actor
Buchholz moved to supporting roles in films like The Savage Bees (1976), Raid on Entebbe (1976), Dead of Night (1977), and The Amazing Captain Nemo (1978). He guest starred on episodes of Logan's Run, Fantasy Island, Charlie's Angels, and How the West Was Won and had the lead in Women in Hospital (1977) and a role in The French Atlantic Affair  (1979).

Buchholz was in From Hell to Victory (1979), and Avalanche Express (1979). He had the co lead in Berlin Tunnel 21 (1981) and was top billed in Aphrodite (1981). He guest starred on Derrick and had a supporting part in Sahara (1983).

Later career
Buchholz focused on Germany: Funkeln im Auge (1984), and Fear of Falling (1984 film) (1984). He went to Hollywood for parts in Code Name: Emerald (1985) and Crossings (1986).

Buchholz's credits include Affari di famiglia (1986), Die Fräulein von damals (1986), and Der Schatz im Niemandsland (1987). He had the lead in And the Violins Stopped Playing (1989) and supporting role in Escape from Paradise (1990).

Buchholz turned up in Aces: Iron Eagle III (1992), Touch and Die  (1992), Faraway, So Close! (1993), The Cave of the Golden Rose 4 (1995), Tödliches Erbe (1995), Der Clan der Anna Voss (1995), Maître Da Costa, and The Firebird (1997). He portrayed Dr. Lessing in Roberto Benigni's Life Is Beautiful (1997).

He was in Geisterstunde – Fahrstuhl ins Jenseits (1997), Der kleine Unterschied (1997), Dunckel (1998) and Der kleine Unterschied (1998), and voiced Fa Zhou in the German dub of Mulan. He returned to America for Voyage of Terror (1998).

Buchholz's last performances include Kinderraub in Rio – Eine Mutter schlägt zurück (1998), Heller als der Mond (2000), The Enemy (2001), Der Club der grünen Witwen (2001), Traumfrau mit Verspätung (2001), Detective Lovelorn and the Revenge of the Pharaoh (2001), Abschnitt 40 (2001), Atlantic Affairs (2002) and In der Mitte eines Lebens (2003).

Personal life and death
In 1958, Buchholz married French actress Myriam Bru and they had two children: son Christopher, an actor, and daughter Beatrice.

Buchholz explained in a 2000 interview that he and Myriam had a stable and enduring arrangement, with her life centered in Paris and his in Berlin, the city that he loved. In the same interview Buchholz discussed his bisexuality. Their son Christopher Buchholz, also an actor, produced a feature-length documentary Horst Buchholz ... Mein Papa (2005) which considered Buchholz's sexuality, as part of a wider exploration of his life. His sexuality had not been publicly known in the 1960s when he had played lead roles in English-language movies.

Buchholz died unexpectedly at the age of 69 on March 3, 2003 at Charité from pneumonia that developed after an operation for a hip fracture. Berlin was the city to which his loyalty was consistent, and he was buried there in the Friedhof Heerstraße.

Selected filmography

 * All Clues Lead to Berlin (1952), as Young Man at the Radio Tower (uncredited)
 * Marianne of My Youth (1955), as Vincent Loringer (German version only)
 * Sky Without Stars (1955), as Mischa Bjelkin
 * Regine (1956), as Karl Winter
 * Teenage Wolfpack (1956), as Freddy Borchert
 * King in Shadow (1957), as King Christian
 * The Girl and the Legend (1957), as Tom
 * Confessions of Felix Krull (1957), as Felix Krull
 * Love From Paris (1957), as Monpti (as a young man)
 * A Piece of Heaven (1957), as Cabriolet-Driver (uncredited)
 *  (1958), as Mecky Berger
 * Nasser Asphalt (1958), as Greg Bachmann
 * Resurrection (1958), as Nechljudoff
 * Tiger Bay (1959), as Korchinsky
 * The Death Ship (1959), as Philip Gale
 * The Magnificent Seven (1960), as Chico
 * Fanny (1961), as Marius
 * One, Two, Three (1961), as Otto Ludwig Piffl
 * Nine Hours to Rama (1963), as Nathuram Godse
 * The Empty Canvas (1963), as Dino
 * Marco the Magnificent (1965), as Marco Polo
 * That Man in Istanbul (1965), as Tony Mecenas
 * Johnny Banco (1967), as Johnny Banco
 * Cervantes (1967, in the title role), as Miguel De Cervantes
 * L'Astragale (1968), as Julien
 * Come, quando, perché (1969), as Alberto
 * The Dove Must Not Fly (1970), as Pablo Vallajo
 * Le Sauveur (1971), as Claude
 * The Great Waltz (1972), as Johann Strauss Jr.
 *  (1973), as Jonny
 * Welcome Stranger (1973)
 * The Catamount Killing (1974), as Mark Kalvin
 * Derrick
 * Season 3, Episode 11: "Das Superding" (1976), as Gerke
 * Season 5, Episode 8: "Solo für Margarete" (1978), as Alexis
 * Season 7, Episode 8: "Auf einem Gutshof" (1980), as Richard Schulte
 * Season 10, Episode 2: "Die Tote in der Isar" (1983), as Arthur Dissmann
 * Raid on Entebbe (1976, TV Movie), as Wilfried Böse
 * Dead of Night (1977, TV Movie), as Michael
 * Women in Hospital (1977), as Dr. Schumann
 * Logan's Run Season 1, Episode 3: "Capture" (1977), as James Borden
 * The Return of Captain Nemo (1978), as King Tibor
 * Charlie's Angels Season 3, Episode 3: Angel Come Home (1978), as Paul Ferrino
 * The French Atlantic Affair (1979), as Dr. Chabot
 * From Hell to Victory (1979), as Jürgen Dietrich
 * Avalanche Express (1979), as Julian Scholten
 * Berlin Tunnel 21 (1981), as Emerich Weber
 * Aphrodite (1982), as Harry Laird
 * Sahara (1983), as Von Glessing
 * Fear of Falling (1984 film) (1984), as Robert Feldmann
 * Code Name: Emerald (1985), as Walter Hoffman
 * And the Violins Stopped Playing (1988), as Dymitr Mirga
 * Réquiem por Granada (1990), as Muley Hacén
 * Aces: Iron Eagle III (1992), as Ernst Leichmann
 * Faraway, So Close! (1993), as Tony Baker
 * Fantaghirò 4 (1994), as Darken
 * Ptak ohnivak (1997), as King Jorgen
 * Life Is Beautiful (1997), as Dottor Lessing
 * Mulan (1998) (German Dub)
 * Heller als der Mond (2000), as First Guest
 * The Enemy (2001), as Dr. George Ashton
 * Detective Lovelorn and the Revenge of the Pharaoh (2002), as Professor Svedenborg

Dubbing roles

 * Lampwick – Pinocchio (1951 dub)

title: Horst Buchholz


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Gediminas' Tower

Gediminas' Tower (Gedimino pilies bokštas) is the remaining part of the Upper Castle on top of the Gediminas Hill in Vilnius, Lithuania. It has a viewing platform that offers scenic views of Vilnius Old Town and Vilnius Central Business District.

History
The first wooden fortifications were built by Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania (c. 1275–1341). The first brick castle was completed in 1409 by Grand Duke Vytautas. The three-floor tower was rebuilt in 1933 by Polish architect Jan Borowski. Some remnants of the old castle have been restored, guided by archaeological research.

The hilltop can be reached on foot or by lift. The tower houses a museum exhibiting archaeological findings from the hill and the surrounding areas. This building is three stories tall and is made of decades-old bricks. The museum has models of Vilnius castles from the 14th to the 17th centuries, armament, and iconographic material of the Old Vilnius.

Gediminas' Tower is an important state and historic symbol of the city of Vilnius and of Lithuania itself. It was depicted on the former national currency, the litas, and is mentioned in numerous Lithuanian patriotic poems and folk songs. The flag of Lithuania was re-hoisted atop the tower on 7 October 1988, during the independence restoration movement.

A reconstruction of the Royal Palace of Lithuania was completed in 2009, and is located near the base of the hill upon which the tower stands.

Legend

Long ago, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas was hunting in the woods of Šventaragis Valley. The hunt was successful, and Duke Gediminas brought down a wild bull on a hilltop; but he grew weary in his limbs, and so the duke retired and spent the night there. Now Gediminas had a dream that, up on top of the same hill where he had been hunting that day, stood a great wolf made of iron, and it was howling as loudly as if it were a hundred wolves.

The Duke asked the court magician Lizdeika to explain his dream to him. He interpreted it thus: this was an omen indicating that he should build a city in this place, which would later become known around the world and would become the magnificent capital city of Lithuania.

Gediminas, obeying the will of the gods, began to build the future capital city, and a castle in the centre of it. The city was named Vilnius after the nearby river Vilnia. Gediminas' Tower is the only surviving part of that castle built by Gediminas.

title: Gediminas' Tower


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Talk:Brisbane

Relatively dry winters
I think we have to highlight somehow the difference between Sydney’s true Cfa climate, to the dry warm winters Brisbane. דולב חולב (talk) 15:01, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Brisbane


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Index of accounting articles

This page is an index of accounting topics.

A
Accounting ethics - Accounting information system - Accounting research - Activity-Based Costing - Assets

B
Balance sheet - Big Four auditors - Bond - Bookkeeping - Book value

C
Cash-basis accounting - Cash-basis versus accrual-basis accounting - Cash flow statement - Certified General Accountant - Certified Management Accountants - Certified Public Accountant - Chartered accountant - Chart of accounts - Common stock - Comprehensive income - Construction accounting - Convention of conservatism - Convention of disclosure - Cost accounting - Cost of capital - Cost of goods sold - Creative accounting - Credit - Credit note - Current asset - Current liability

D
Debitcapital reserve - Debit note - Debt - Deficit (disambiguation) - Depreciation - Diluted earnings per share - Dividend - Double-entry bookkeeping system - Dual aspect

E
E-accounting - EBIT - EBITDA - Earnings per share - Engagement Letter - Entity concept - Environmental accounting - Expense - Equity - Equivalent Annual Cost

F
Financial Accounting Standards Board - Financial accountancy - Financial audit - Financial reports - Financial statements - Fixed assets - Fixed assets management - Forensic accounting - Fraud deterrence - Free cash flow - Fund accounting

G
Gain - General ledger - Generally Accepted Accounting Principles - Going concern - Goodwill - Governmental Accounting Standards Board

H
Historical cost - History of accounting

I
Income - Income statement - Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales - Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland - Institute of Management Accountants - Intangible asset - Interest - Internal audit - International Accounting Standards Board - International Accounting Standards Committee - International Accounting Standards - International Federation of Accountants - International Financial Reporting Standards - Inventory - Investment - Invoices - Indian Accounting Standards

J
Job costing - Journal

L
Lean accounting - Ledger - Liability - Long-term asset - Long-term liabilities - Loss on sale of residential property

M
Maker-checker - Management accounting - Management Assertions - Mark-to-market accounting - Matching principle - Materiality - Money measurement concept - Mortgage loan

N
Negative assurance - Net income - Notes to the Financial Statements

O
OBERAC - One-for-one checking - Online Accounting - Operating expense - Ownership equity

P
Payroll - Petty cash - Philosophy of Accounting - Preferred stock - P/E ratio - Positive accounting - Positive assurance - PricewaterhouseCoopers - Profit and loss account - Pro-forma amount - Production accounting - Project accounting

R
Retained earnings - Revenue - Revenue recognition

S
Sales journal - Security - Social accounting - Spreadsheet - Statement of changes in equity - Statutory accounting principles - Stock option - Stock split - Stock - Shareholder - Shareholders' equity - South African Institute of Chartered Accountants - Sunk cost

T
Three lines of defence - Throughput accounting - Trade credit - Treasury stock - Trial balance

U
UK generally accepted accounting principles - Unified Ledger Accounting - U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission - US generally accepted accounting principles - Work sheet - Write off

title: Index of accounting articles


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Postmodern art

Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. In general, movements such as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art and multimedia, particularly involving video are described as postmodern.

There are several characteristics which lend art to being postmodern; these include bricolage, the use of text prominently as the central artistic element, collage, simplification, appropriation, performance art, the recycling of past styles and themes in a modern-day context, as well as the break-up of the barrier between fine and high arts and low art and popular culture.

Use of the term
The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is "contemporary art". Not all art labeled as contemporary art is postmodern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modernist and late modernist traditions, as well as artists who reject postmodernism for other reasons. Arthur Danto argues "contemporary" is the broader term, and postmodern objects represent a "subsector" of the contemporary movement. Some postmodern artists have made more distinctive breaks from the ideas of modern art and there is no consensus as to what is "late-modern" and what is "post-modern." Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have been re-established. In painting, postmodernism reintroduced representation. Some critics argue much of the current "postmodern" art, the latest avant-gardism, should still classify as modern art.

As well as describing certain tendencies of contemporary art, postmodern has also been used to denote a phase of modern art. Defenders of modernism, such as Clement Greenberg, as well as radical opponents of modernism, such as Félix Guattari, who calls it modernism's "last gasp, " have adopted this position. The neo-conservative Hilton Kramer describes postmodernism as "a creation of modernism at the end of its tether." Jean-François Lyotard, in Fredric Jameson's analysis, does not hold there is a postmodern stage radically different from the period of high modernism; instead, postmodern discontent with this or that high modernist style is part of the experimentation of high modernism, giving birth to new modernisms. In the context of aesthetics and art, Jean-François Lyotard is a major philosopher of postmodernism.

Many critics hold postmodern art emerges from modern art. Suggested dates for the shift from modern to postmodern include 1914 in Europe, and 1962 or 1968 in America. James Elkins, commenting on discussions about the exact date of the transition from modernism to postmodernism, compares it to the discussion in the 1960s about the exact span of mannerism and whether it should begin directly after the High Renaissance or later in the century. He makes the point these debates go on all the time with respect to art movements and periods, which is not to say they are not important. The close of the period of postmodern art has been dated to the end of the 1980s, when the word postmodernism lost much of its critical resonance, and art practices began to address the impact of globalization and new media.

Jean Baudrillard has had a significant influence on postmodern-inspired art and emphasised the possibilities of new forms of creativity. The artist Peter Halley describes his day-glo colours as "hyperrealization of real color", and acknowledges Baudrillard as an influence. Baudrillard himself, since 1984, was fairly consistent in his view that contemporary art, and postmodern art in particular, was inferior to the modernist art of the post World War II period, while Jean-François Lyotard praised Contemporary painting and remarked on its evolution from Modern art. Major women artists in the Twentieth Century are associated with postmodern art since much theoretical articulation of their work emerged from French psychoanalysis and feminist theory that is strongly related to post modern philosophy.

American Marxist philosopher Fredric Jameson argues the condition of life and production will be reflected in all activity, including the making of art. As with all uses of the term postmodern, there are critics of its application. Kirk Varnedoe, for instance, stated that there is no such thing as postmodernism, and that the possibilities of modernism have not yet been exhausted. Though the usage of the term as a kind of shorthand to designate the work of certain Post-war "schools" employing relatively specific material and generic techniques has become conventional since the early to mid-1980s, the theoretical underpinnings of Postmodernism as an epochal or epistemic division are still very much in controversy.

Characteristics
Postmodernism describes movements which both arise from, and react against or reject, trends in modernism. General citations for specific trends of modernism are formal purity, medium specificity, art for art's sake, authenticity, universality, originality and revolutionary or reactionary tendency, i.e. the avant-garde. However, paradox is probably the most important modernist idea against which postmodernism reacts. Paradox was central to the modernist enterprise, which Manet introduced. Manet's various violations of representational art brought to prominence the supposed mutual exclusiveness of reality and representation, design and representation, abstraction and reality, and so on. The incorporation of paradox was highly stimulating from Manet to the conceptualists.

The status of the avant-garde is controversial: many institutions argue being visionary, forward-looking, cutting-edge, and progressive are crucial to the mission of art in the present, and therefore postmodern art contradicts the value of "art of our times". Postmodernism rejects the notion of advancement or progress in art per se, and thus aims to overturn the "myth of the avant-garde". Rosalind Krauss was one of the important enunciators of the view that avant-gardism was over, and the new artistic era is post-liberal and post-progress. Griselda Pollock studied and confronted the avant-garde and modern art in a series of groundbreaking books, reviewing modern art at the same time as redefining postmodern art.

One characteristic of postmodern art is its conflation of high and low culture through the use of industrial materials and pop culture imagery. The use of low forms of art were a part of modernist experimentation as well, as documented in Kirk Varnedoe and Adam Gopnik's 1990–91 show High and Low: Popular Culture and Modern Art at New York's Museum of Modern Art, an exhibition that was universally panned at the time as the only event that could bring Douglas Crimp and Hilton Kramer together in a chorus of scorn. Postmodern art is noted for the way in which it blurs the distinctions between what is perceived as fine or high art and what is generally seen as low or kitsch art. While this concept of "blurring" or "fusing" high art with low art had been experimented during modernism, it only ever became fully endorsed after the advent of the postmodern era. Postmodernism introduced elements of commercialism, kitsch and a general camp aesthetic within its artistic context; postmodernism takes styles from past periods, such as Gothicism, the Renaissance and the Baroque, and mixes them so as to ignore their original use in their corresponding artistic movement. Such elements are common characteristics of what defines postmodern art. Art Spiegelman, when discussing his selection of a specific style for Maus, described a postmodernist's ability to develop a wide "palette" of varying styles that they can draw from at will, where their predecessors would instead focus on improving and maintaining a single "trademark" style.

Fredric Jameson suggests postmodern works abjure any claim to spontaneity and directness of expression, making use instead of pastiche and discontinuity. Against this definition, Art and Language's Charles Harrison and Paul Wood maintained pastiche and discontinuity are endemic to modernist art, and are deployed effectively by modern artists such as Manet and Picasso.

One compact definition is postmodernism rejects modernism's grand narratives of artistic direction, eradicating the boundaries between high and low forms of art, and disrupting genre's conventions with collision, collage, and fragmentation. Postmodern art holds all stances are unstable and insincere, and therefore irony, parody, and humor are the only positions critique or revision cannot overturn. "Pluralism and diversity" are other defining features.

Avant-garde precursors
Radical movements and trends regarded as influential and potentially as precursors to postmodernism emerged around World War I and particularly in its aftermath. With the introduction of the use of industrial artifacts in art and techniques such as collage, avant-garde movements such as Cubism, Dada and Surrealism questioned the nature and value of art. New artforms, such as cinema and the rise of reproduction, influenced these movements as a means of creating artworks. The ignition point for the definition of modernism, Clement Greenberg's essay, Avant-Garde and Kitsch, first published in Partisan Review in 1939, defends the avant-garde in the face of popular culture. Later, Peter Bürger would make a distinction between the historical avant-garde and modernism, and critics such as Krauss, Huyssen, and Douglas Crimp, following Bürger, identified the historical avant-garde as a precursor to postmodernism. Krauss, for example, describes Pablo Picasso's use of collage as an avant-garde practice anticipating postmodern art with its emphasis on language at the expense of autobiography. Another point of view is avant-garde and modernist artists used similar strategies and postmodernism repudiates both.

Dada
In the early 20th century, Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art just because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "Readymades". The Fountain was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, which shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art. Some critics question calling Duchamp—whose obsession with paradox is well known—postmodernist on the grounds he eschews any specific medium, since paradox is not medium-specific, although it arose first in Manet's paintings.

Dadaism can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms, along with Surrealism, Futurism and Abstract Expressionism. From a chronological point of view, Dada is located solidly within modernism, however a number of critics hold it anticipates postmodernism, while others, such as Ihab Hassan and Steven Connor, consider it a possible changeover point between modernism and postmodernism. For example, according to McEvilly, postmodernism begins with realizing one no longer believes in the myth of progress, and Duchamp sensed this in 1914 when he changed from a modernist practice to a postmodernist one, "abjuring aesthetic delectation, transcendent ambition, and tour de force demonstrations of formal agility in favor of aesthetic indifference, acknowledgement of the ordinary world, and the found object or readymade."

Radical movements in modern art
In general, Pop Art and Minimalism began as modernist movements: a paradigm shift and philosophical split between formalism and anti-formalism in the early 1970s caused those movements to be viewed by some as precursors or transitional postmodern art. Other modern movements cited as influential to postmodern art are conceptual art and the use of techniques such as assemblage, montage, bricolage, and appropriation.

Jackson Pollock and abstract expressionism
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all Contemporary art following him. Pollock realized the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined artmaking during the mid-century. Pollock's move from easel painting and conventionality liberated his contemporaneous artists and following artists. They realized Pollock's process — working on the floor, unstretched raw canvas, from all four sides, using artist materials, industrial materials, imagery, non-imagery, throwing linear skeins of paint, dripping, drawing, staining, brushing - blasted artmaking beyond prior boundaries. Abstract expressionism expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities artists had available for the creation of new works of art. In a sense, the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt and others, opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of following artworks.

After abstract expressionism
In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like Hard-edge painting and other forms of Geometric abstraction like the work of Frank Stella popped up, as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract expressionism began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles. Clement Greenberg became the voice of Post-painterly abstraction; by curating an influential exhibition of new painting touring important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction emerged as radical new directions.

By the late 1960s, Postminimalism, Process Art and Arte Povera also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements encompassing painting and sculpture, via Lyrical Abstraction and the Postminimalist movement, and in early Conceptual Art. Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz, Peter Reginato, Lee Lozano, were some of the younger artists emerging during the era of late modernism spawning the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.

Performance art and happenings
During the late 1950s and 1960s, artists with a wide range of interests began pushing the boundaries of Contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, and Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman, and Yoko Ono in New York City were pioneers of performance based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece Paradise Now. The Judson Dance Theater located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York, and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The reductive philosophies of minimalism, spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity of Abstract expressionism characterized the works.

During the same period — the late 1950s through the mid-1960s - various avant-garde artists created Happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous nudity, and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. Allan Kaprow, Joseph Beuys, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman among others were notable creators of Happenings.

Assemblage art
Related to Abstract expressionism was the emergence of combined manufactured items — with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography, exemplified this art trend.

Leo Steinberg uses the term postmodernism in 1969 to describe Rauschenberg's "flatbed" picture plane, containing a range of cultural images and artifacts that had not been compatible with the pictorial field of premodernist and modernist painting. Craig Owens goes further, identifying the significance of Rauschenberg's work not as a representation of, in Steinberg's view, "the shift from nature to culture", but as a demonstration of the impossibility of accepting their opposition.

Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Marcel Duchamp, between modernism and postmodernism. These artists used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.

Anselm Kiefer also uses elements of assemblage in his works, and on one occasion, featured the bow of a fishing boat in a painting.

Pop art
Lawrence Alloway used the term "Pop art" to describe paintings celebrating consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected Abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated, material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton, John McHale, and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement. While later American examples include the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a clear connection between the radical works of Duchamp, the rebellious Dadaist — with a sense of humor; and Pop Artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and the others.

Thomas McEvilly, agreeing with Dave Hickey, says U.S postmodernism in the visual arts began with the first exhibitions of Pop art in 1962, "though it took about twenty years before postmodernism became a dominant attitude in the visual arts." Fredric Jameson, too, considers pop art to be postmodern.

One way Pop art is postmodern is it breaks down what Andreas Huyssen calls the "Great Divide" between high art and popular culture. Postmodernism emerges from a "generational refusal of the categorical certainties of high modernism."

Fluxus
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins. In 1962 in Germany Fluxus started with the: FLUXUS Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik in Wiesbaden with, George Maciunas, Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell, Nam June Paik and others. And in 1963 with the: Festum Fluxorum Fluxus in Düsseldorf with George Maciunas, Wolf Vostell, Joseph Beuys, Dick Higgins, Nam June Paik, Ben Patterson, Emmett Williams and others.

Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.

Fluxus can be viewed as part of the first phase of postmodernism, along with Rauschenberg, Johns, Warhol and the Situationist International. Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as, "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime." Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War."

Minimalism
By the early 1960s, Minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in geometric abstraction via Malevich, the Bauhaus and Mondrian) which rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity of Abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of Action painting. Minimalism argued extreme simplicity could capture the sublime representation art requires. Associated with painters such as Frank Stella, minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement and depending on the context can be construed as a precursor to the postmodern movement.

Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism, examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism. He argues minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."

Postminimalism
Robert Pincus-Witten coined the term Post-minimalism in 1977 to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones minimalism rejected. His use of the term covered the period 1966 – 1976 and applied to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and others. Process art and anti-form art are other terms describing this work, which the space it occupies and the process by which it is made determines.

Rosalind Krauss argues by 1968 artists such as Morris, LeWitt, Smithson and Serra had "entered a situation the logical conditions of which can no longer be described as modernist." The expansion of the category of sculpture to include land art and architecture, "brought about the shift into postmodernism."

Minimalists like Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce their late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.

Conceptual art
Conceptual art is sometimes labelled as postmodern because it is expressly involved in deconstruction of what makes a work of art, "art". Conceptual art, because it is often designed to confront, offend or attack notions held by many of the people who view it, is regarded with particular controversy.

Precursors to conceptual art include the work of Duchamp, John Cage's 4' 33", in which the music is said to be "the sounds of the environment that the listeners hear while it is performed," and Rauschenberg's Erased De Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is created by the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. Thus, because Fountain was exhibited, it was a sculpture.

Figurative painting
Some currents of post-war figurative painting have been analyzed as postmodern. The Italian painter Carlo Maria Mariani was described as a postmodernist by American critics. According to Charles Jencks, Mariani's group portrait The Constellation of Leo (1980–1981), which depicts people from Italy's art world with references to mythology and art history, came to define a trope of postmodern art: "an ironic comment on a comment on a comment which signals the distance; a new myth thrice removed from its originating ritual".

Installation art
An important series of movements in art which have consistently been described as postmodern involved installation art and creation of artifacts that are conceptual in nature. One example being the signs of Jenny Holzer which use the devices of art to convey specific messages, such as "Protect Me From What I Want". Installation Art has been important in determining the spaces selected for museums of contemporary art in order to be able to hold the large works which are composed of vast collages of manufactured and found objects. These installations and collages are often electrified, with moving parts and lights.

They are often designed to create environmental effects, as Christo and Jeanne-Claude's Iron Curtain, Wall of 240 Oil Barrels, Blocking Rue Visconti, Paris, June 1962 which was a poetic response to the Berlin Wall built in 1961.

Lowbrow art
Lowbrow is a widespread populist art movement with origins in the underground comix world, punk music, hot-rod street culture, and other California subcultures. It is also often known by the name pop surrealism. Lowbrow art highlights a central theme in postmodernism in that the distinction between "high" and "low" art are no longer recognized.

Digital art
Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the creative and/or presentation process. The impact of digital technology has transformed activities such as painting, drawing, sculpture and music/sound art, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality, have become recognized artistic practices.

Leading art theorists and historians in this field include Christiane Paul, Frank Popper, Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Dominique Moulon, Robert C. Morgan, Roy Ascott, Catherine Perret, Margot Lovejoy, Edmond Couchot, Fred Forest and Edward A. Shanken.

Intermedia and multi-media
Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new artforms along the lines of Fluxus, Concrete Poetry, Found objects, Performance art, and Computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a Concrete poet, married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art. One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed Video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action. Higgin's conception of Intermedia is connected to the growth of multimedia digital practice such as immersive virtual reality, digital art and computer art.

Telematic Art
Telematic art is a descriptive of art projects using computer mediated telecommunications networks as their medium. Telematic art challenges the traditional relationship between active viewing subjects and passive art objects by creating interactive, behavioural contexts for remote aesthetic encounters. Roy Ascott sees the telematic art form as the transformation of the viewer into an active participator of creating the artwork which remains in process throughout its duration. Ascott has been at the forefront of the theory and practice of telematic art since 1978 when he went online for the first time, organizing different collaborative online projects.

Appropriation art and neo-conceptual art
In his 1980 essay The Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism, Craig Owens identifies the re-emergence of an allegorical impulse as characteristic of postmodern art. This impulse can be seen in the appropriation art of artists such as Sherrie Levine and Robert Longo because, "Allegorical imagery is appropriated imagery." Appropriation art debunks modernist notions of artistic genius and originality and is more ambivalent and contradictory than modern art, simultaneously installing and subverting ideologies, "being both critical and complicit."

Neo-expressionism and painting
The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in the work of Neo-expressionist artists such as Georg Baselitz and Julian Schnabel has been described as a postmodern tendency, and one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era. Its strong links with the commercial art market has raised questions, however, both about its status as a postmodern movement and the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster states that neo-expressionism was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the Reagan-Bush era in the U.S. Félix Guattari disregards the "large promotional operations dubbed 'neo-expressionism' in Germany," (an example of a "fad that maintains itself by means of publicity") as a too easy way for him "to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism." These critiques of neo-expressionism reveal that money and public relations really sustained contemporary art world credibility in America during the same period that conceptual artists, and practices of women artists including painters and feminist theorists like Griselda Pollock, were systematically reevaluating modern art. Brian Massumi claims that Deleuze and Guattari open the horizon of new definitions of Beauty in postmodern art. For Jean-François Lyotard, it was painting of the artists Valerio Adami, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Bracha Ettinger, and Barnett Newman that, after the avant-garde's time and the painting of Paul Cézanne and Wassily Kandinsky, was the vehicle for new ideas of the sublime in contemporary art.

Institutional critique
Critiques on the institutions of art (principally museums and galleries) are made in the work of Michael Asher, Marcel Broodthaers, Daniel Buren and Hans Haacke.

title: Postmodern art