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Glycogen

Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. It is the main storage form of glucose in the human body.

Glycogen functions as one of three regularly used forms of energy reserves, creatine phosphate being for very short-term, glycogen being for short-term and the triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) being for long-term storage. Protein, broken down into amino acids, is seldom used as a main energy source except during starvation and glycolytic crisis (see bioenergetic systems).

In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. In the liver, glycogen can make up 5–6% of the organ's fresh weight: the liver of an adult, weighing 1.5 kg, can store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass): the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells,  white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.

The amount of glycogen stored in the body mostly depends on oxidative type 1 fibres, physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Different levels of resting muscle glycogen are reached by changing the number of glycogen particles, rather than increasing the size of existing particles though most glycogen particles at rest are smaller than their theoretical maximum. Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times; in fasting individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores, primarily from the liver (glycogen in skeletal muscle is mainly used as an immediate source of energy for that muscle rather than being used to maintain physiological blood glucose levels). Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself; however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle glucose uptake from the blood, thereby increasing the amount of blood glucose available for use in other tissues. Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system. The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.

Glycogen is an analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids). As such it is also found as storage reserve in many parasitic protozoa.

Structure
Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 8–12 glucose units and 2,000-60,000 residues per one molecule of glycogen.

Like amylopectin, glucose units are linked together linearly by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α(1→6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain.

Each glycogen is essentially a ball of glucose trees, with around 12 layers, centered on a glycogenin protein, with three kinds of glucose chains: A, B, and C. There is only one C-chain, attached to the glycogenin. This C-chain is formed by the self-glucosylation of the glycogenin, forming a short primer chain. From the C-chain grows out B-chains, and from B-chains branch out B- and A-chains. The B-chains have on average 2 branch points, while the A-chains are terminal, thus unbranched. On average, each chain has length 12, tightly constrained to be between 11 and 15. All A-chains reach the spherical surface of the glycogen.

Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles (18 mg) of potassium per gram of glycogen.

Glucose is an osmotic molecule, and can have profound effects on osmotic pressure in high concentrations possibly leading to cell damage or death if stored in the cell without being modified. Glycogen is a non-osmotic molecule, so it can be used as a solution to storing glucose in the cell without disrupting osmotic pressure.

Liver
As a meal containing carbohydrates or protein is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Blood glucose from the portal vein enters liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.

After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. When it is needed for energy, glycogen is broken down and converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8–12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the rest of the body for fuel.

Glucagon, another hormone produced by the pancreas, in many respects serves as a countersignal to insulin. In response to insulin levels being below normal (when blood levels of glucose begin to fall below the normal range), glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts and stimulates both glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from other sources).

Muscle
Muscle glycogen appears to function as a reserve of quickly available phosphorylated glucose, in the form of glucose-1-phosphate, for muscle cells. Glycogen contained within skeletal muscle cells are primarily in the form of β particles. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally as well. As muscle cells lack glucose-6-phosphatase, which is required to pass glucose into the blood, the glycogen they store is available solely for internal use and is not shared with other cells. This is in contrast to liver cells, which, on demand, readily do break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.

Skeletal muscle needs ATP (provides energy) for muscle contraction and relaxation, in what is known as the sliding filament theory. Skeletal muscle relies predominantly on glycogenolysis for the first few minutes as it transitions from rest to activity, as well as throughout high-intensity aerobic activity and all anaerobic activity. During anaerobic activity, such as weightlifting and isometric exercise, the phosphagen system (ATP-PCr) and muscle glycogen are the only substrates used as they do not require oxygen nor blood flow.

Different bioenergetic systems produce ATP at different speeds, with ATP produced from muscle glycogen being much faster than fatty acid oxidation. The level of exercise intensity determines how much of which substrate (fuel) is used for ATP synthesis also. Muscle glycogen can supply a much higher rate of substrate for ATP synthesis than blood glucose. During maximum intensity exercise, muscle glycogen can supply 40 mmol glucose/kg wet weight/minute, whereas blood glucose can supply 4 - 5 mmol. Due to its high supply rate and quick ATP synthesis, during high-intensity aerobic activity (such as brisk walking, jogging, or running), the higher the exercise intensity, the more the muscle cell produces ATP from muscle glycogen. This reliance on muscle glycogen is not only to provide the muscle with enough ATP during high-intensity exercise, but also to maintain blood glucose homeostasis (that is, to not become hypoglycaemic by the muscles needing to extract far more glucose from the blood than the liver can provide). A deficit of muscle glycogen leads to muscle fatigue known as "hitting the wall" or "the bonk" (see below under glycogen depletion).

Structure Type
In 1999, Meléndez et al claimed that the structure of glycogen is optimal under a particular metabolic constraint model, where the structure was suggested to be "fractal" in nature. However, research by Besford et al used small angle X-ray scattering experiments accompanied by branching theory models to show that glycogen is a randomly hyperbranched polymer nanoparticle. Glycogen is not fractal in nature. This has been subsequently verified by others who have performed Monte Carlo simulations of glycogen particle growth, and shown that the molecular density reaches a maximum near the centre of the nanoparticle structure, not at the periphery (contradicting a fractal structure that would have greater density at the periphery).

History
Glycogen was discovered by Claude Bernard. His experiments showed that the liver contained a substance that could give rise to reducing sugar by the action of a "ferment" in the liver. By 1857, he described the isolation of a substance he called "la matière glycogène", or "sugar-forming substance". Soon after the discovery of glycogen in the liver, M.A. Sanson found that muscular tissue also contains glycogen. The empirical formula for glycogen of n was established by August Kekulé in 1858.

Sanson, M. A. "Note sur la formation physiologique du sucre dans l’economie animale." Comptes rendus des seances de l’Academie des Sciences 44 (1857): 1323-5.

Synthesis
Glycogen synthesis is, unlike its breakdown, endergonic—it requires the input of energy. Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate (UTP), which reacts with glucose-1-phosphate, forming UDP-glucose, in a reaction catalysed by UTP—glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP-glucose initially by the protein glycogenin, which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen, since glycogenin is a homodimer. After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue, the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP-glucose, adding α(1→4)-bonded glucose to the nonreducing end of the glycogen chain.

The glycogen branching enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from a nonreducing end to the C-6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue deeper into the interior of the glycogen molecule. The branching enzyme can act upon only a branch having at least 11 residues, and the enzyme may transfer to the same glucose chain or adjacent glucose chains.

Breakdown
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose-1-phosphate:

In vivo, phosphorolysis proceeds in the direction of glycogen breakdown because the ratio of phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate is usually greater than 100. Glucose-1-phosphate is then converted to glucose 6 phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase. A special debranching enzyme is needed to remove the α(1→6) branches in branched glycogen and reshape the chain into a linear polymer. The G6P monomers produced have three possible fates:
 * G6P can continue on the glycolysis pathway and be used as fuel.
 * G6P can enter the pentose phosphate pathway via the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase to produce NADPH and 5 carbon sugars.
 * In the liver and kidney, G6P can be dephosphorylated back to glucose by the enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. This is the final step in the gluconeogenesis pathway.

Disorders of glycogen metabolism
The most common disease in which glycogen metabolism becomes abnormal is diabetes, in which, because of abnormal amounts of insulin, liver glycogen can be abnormally accumulated or depleted. Restoration of normal glucose metabolism usually normalizes glycogen metabolism, as well.

In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high insulin levels prevent the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Glucagon is a common treatment for this type of hypoglycemia.

Various inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes or transport proteins necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown. These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.

Glycogen depletion and endurance exercise
Long-distance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers, and cyclists, often experience glycogen depletion, where almost all of the athlete's glycogen stores are depleted after long periods of exertion without sufficient carbohydrate consumption. This phenomenon is referred to as "hitting the wall" in running and "bonking" in cycling.

Glycogen depletion can be forestalled in three possible ways:
 * First, during exercise, carbohydrates with the highest possible rate of conversion to blood glucose (high glycemic index) are ingested continuously. The best possible outcome of this strategy replaces about 35% of glucose consumed at heart rates above about 80% of maximum.
 * Second, through endurance training adaptations and specialized regimens (e.g. fasting, low-intensity endurance training), the body can condition type I muscle fibers to improve both fuel use efficiency and workload capacity to increase the percentage of fatty acids used as fuel, sparing carbohydrate use from all sources.
 * Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores. This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion.

When athletes ingest both carbohydrate and caffeine following exhaustive exercise, their glycogen stores tend to be replenished more rapidly; however, the minimum dose of caffeine at which there is a clinically significant effect on glycogen repletion has not been established.

Nanomedicine
Recently, Glycogen Nanoparticles have been investigated as potential drug delivery systems.

title: Glycogen


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Ford Anglia

The Ford Anglia is a small family car that was designed and manufactured by Ford UK. It is related to the Ford Prefect and the later Ford Popular. The Anglia name was applied to various models between 1939 and 1967. In total, 1,594,486 Anglias were produced. It was replaced by the Ford Escort.

Unique variants of the Anglia were produced by Ford Australia and by the Italian subsidiary of Ford.

Anglia E04A (1939–1948)
The first Ford Anglia model, the E04A, was released on 31 October 1939 as the smallest model in the UK Ford range. It replaced the Ford 7Y and was a facelift of that model. The Anglia was a simple vehicle aimed at the affordable end of the market, with few features. Most were painted Ford black. Styling was typically late-1930s, with an upright radiator. Standard and deluxe models were available, with the latter having better instrumentation, and on prewar models, running boards. Both front and rear suspensions used transverse leaf springs, and the brakes were mechanical.

The two-door Anglia is similar to the longer, four-door, E93A Ford Prefect. A bulge at the back enabled a spare wheel to be removed from its vertical outside stowage on the back of the car and stowed flat on the boot floor, which usefully increased luggage space. Some back-seat leg room was sacrificed to the luggage space, being reduced from 43+3/4 in in the Ford 7Y to 38+1/2 in in the Anglia. The Anglia replaced the 7Y saloon, but the van version of the earlier model continued to be built until 1946, after which some very minor changes sufficed to rename the van the "E04C".

The domestic market engine was the 933 cc straight-four side-valve engine familiar to drivers of predecessor models since 1933. The 1172 cc straight-four engine from the Ford Ten was fitted for some export markets, including North America, where imports began for model year 1948; these cars used the slightly more aerodynamic "three-hole" grille from the 1937–38 Ford Ten 7W, prefacing the 1949 E494A facelift. They also had sealed-beam headlights and small, separate parking lights mounted underneath, as well as dual taillights, into which flashing turn signals could be added without adding additional lights. A minor styling change was made in December 1947, with the name "Anglia" now incorporated in the top of the grille surround.

The car retained a vacuum-powered wiper with its tendency to slow down or stop above about 40 mph, the point at which the suction effect from the induction manifold disappeared; however, the Anglia's wipers were supported by a vacuum reservoir, which partially addressed the propensity to stop entirely when the car was accelerated.

A contemporary road test commended the Anglia's ability to pull away from 5 or in top gear. Compulsory driving tests had only recently been introduced in the UK. Most potential buyers would approach the vehicle without the benefit of formal driving tuition. The cars did have synchromesh between second and top gears, but not between first and second, so many would have sought, wherever possible, to avoid moving changes down to first.

Production, hindered by the diversion of Ford's factory to military production during the Second World War, ceased in 1948 after 55,807 had been built. Initial sales in Britain actually began in early 1940. Production was suspended in early 1942, and resumed in mid-1945.

The E04A was also built in Australia from 1940 to 1945 and was produced in tourer and roadster body styles. The former had a rear seat and the latter was a two-seater convertible.

Anglia A54A (Australia: 1946–1948)
The Australian-built Anglia A54A used the chassis and front panels of the British E04A and was offered in four-door saloon, tourer, coupe utility, and panel van body styles. The 8 hp, 933 cc engine was used, and all models featured running boards.

Three different types of radiator grilles were fitted to A54A models. Both the original and the revised E04A grilles were used and a third style, unique to the A54A, was introduced in 1948. This featured a centrally placed vertical chrome strip.

Anglia E494A (1949–1953)
The 1949 model, code E494A, was a makeover of the previous model with a rather more 1940s-style front end, including the sloped, twin-lobed radiator grille. Again, it was a very spartan vehicle and in 1948, it was Britain's lowest-priced four-wheel car. The 10 hp, 1172 cc engine was again available in export markets; this model is called the E493OA.

An Anglia tested by the British magazine The Motor in 1948 had a top speed of 57 mph and could accelerate from 0–50 mph in 38.3 seconds. A fuel consumption of 36.2 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £309 including taxes.

Including all production, 108,878 were built. When production as an Anglia ceased in October 1953, it continued as the extremely basic Ford Popular until 1959.

Anglia A494A (Australia: 1949–1953)
The Australian-built A494A Anglias of the 1949 to 1953 period shared the frontal styling and 90 in wheelbase chassis of their British E494A counterparts, but differed in many other ways, notably in the range of body styles offered. A494As were produced in four-door saloon, two-door tourer, two-door coupe utility, and two-door roadster utility models. All body styles had running boards, and the boot of the Australian saloon was less prominent than that of the British saloon. The 933 cc, 8 hp unit was initially the only engine offered, but the 1172 cc, 10 hp engine became available from 1950.

At the time of its introduction, the A494A Tourer was the cheapest new car on the Australian market.

Anglia 100E (1953–1959)
In 1953, Ford released the 100E, designed by Lacuesta Automotive. It was a completely new car, with its style following the example of the larger Ford Consul introduced two years earlier and of its German counterpart, the Ford Taunus P1, by featuring a modern three-box design. The 100E was available as a two-door Anglia and a four-door Prefect. During this period, the old Anglia was available as the 103E Popular, touted as the cheapest car in the world.

Internally, the individual front seats were trimmed in PVC, hinged to allow access to the rear. The instruments (speedometer, fuel gauge, and ammeter) were placed in a cluster around the steering column, and the gear change was floor-mounted. A heater and radio were optional extras. The dashboard was revised twice; the binnacle surrounding the steering column was replaced by a central panel with twin dials towards the driver's side in 1956; the last from 1959 had twin dials in a binnacle in front of the driver and 'magic ribbon' AC speedo similar to the 1957 E-series Vauxhall Velox/Cresta and '58/'59 PA models, and included a glovebox.

Under the bonnet, the 100E still housed an antiquated, but actually new, 36 bhp side-valve engine sharing the bore and stroke of the old unit, but now with larger bearings and inlet valves and pump-assisted cooling. The three-speed gearbox was retained. Some models were fitted with a semiautomatic "Manumatic" gearbox. A second wind-screen wiper was now included at no extra cost, although the wipers' vacuum-powered operation was also retained; by now, this was seen as seriously old-fashioned and the wipers were notorious for slowing down when driving up steep hills, or coming to a complete rest when trying to overtake. The separate chassis construction of the previous models was replaced by unitary construction and the front suspension used "hydraulic telescopic dampers and coil springs" – now called MacPherson struts, a term that had not yet entered the public lexicon – with antiroll bar and semielliptic leaf springs at the rear. The car's 87 in wheelbase was the shortest of any Anglia, but the front and rear tracks were increased to 48 in, and cornering on dry roads involved a degree of understeer; the steering took just two turns between locks, making the car responsive and easy to place on the road, although on wet roads, it was easy to make the tail slide out. A rare option for 1957 and 1958 was Newtondrive clutchless gearchange. The electrical system became 12-volt.

A facelift of the Anglia 100E was announced in October 1957. This included a new mesh radiator grille, new front lamp surrounds, a larger rear window, larger taillights, and chrome bumpers.

The 100E sold well; by the time production ceased in 1959, 345,841 had rolled off the production line. From 1955, two estate car versions were built, similar to the Thames 300E vans, but fitted with side windows, folding rear seats, and a horizontally split tailgate. This necessitated moving the fuel tank. These were the basic Escort and better appointed Squire, which sported wood trim down the sides. This feature has become a common feature of some Ford estates/station wagons ever since. The basic van variant was badged as a Thames product, as were all Ford commercials following the dropping of the Fordson badge.

An Anglia saloon tested by the British Motor magazine in 1954 had a top speed of 70.2 mph and could accelerate from 0–60 mph in 29.4 seconds. A fuel consumption of 30.3 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £511 including taxes.

Anglia 105E (1959–1968)
The fourth Anglia model, the 105E, was introduced in 1959. Its American-influenced styling included a sweeping nose line, muted tailfins, and on deluxe versions, a full-width slanted chrome grille in between prominent "eye" headlamps. Basic Anglias featured a narrower, painted grille. Its smoothly sloped line there looked more like a 1950s Studebaker (or even early Ford Thunderbird) than the more aggressive-looking late-'50s American Fords, possibly because its British designers used wind-tunnel testing and streamlining. Like late-'50s Lincolns and Mercurys (and later the Citroën Ami of France and the Consul Classic), the car sported a backward-slanted rear window (so that it would remain clear in rain, according to contemporary marketing claims). In fact, this look was imported from the 1958 Lincoln Continental, where it had been the accidental result of a design specification for an electrically opening (breezeway) rear window. An estate car joined the saloon in the line-up in September 1961. The instrument panel had a red light for the generator and a green one for the oil pressure.

The new styling was joined by something the smaller Fords had been needing for some time – a new engine – a 997 cc overhead valve (OHV) straight four with an oversquare cylinder bore that became known as the Kent. Acceleration from rest was still sluggish, but it was much improved from earlier cars. Also new for British Fords was a four-speed manual gearbox with synchromesh on the top three forward gears; this was replaced by an all-synchromesh box in September 1962 (on 1198 cc powered cars). The notoriously feeble vacuum-powered windscreen wipers of earlier Anglias were replaced with more conventional electrically powered ones. The Macpherson-strut independent front suspension used on the 100E was retained.

In October 1962, 24-year-old twins Tony and Michael Brookes and a group of friends took an Anglia 105E fitted with the £13 Ford Performance Kit to Montlhéry Autodrome near Paris and captured six International Class G World Records averaging 83.47 mi/h. These were 4, 5, 6 and 7 days and nights and 15000 and 20000 km. The Anglia's strength and durability meant only tyre changes were required.

The car's commercial success has subsequently been overshadowed by the even greater sales achieved by the Ford Cortina. In 1960, when 191,752 Anglias left Ford's Dagenham plant in the 105E's first full production year, it set a new production-volume record for Ford of Britain. From October 1963, production continued at Ford's new Halewood plant at Merseyside alongside the newly introduced Corsair models. The Anglia Super introduced in September 1962 for the 1963 model year shared the longer-stroke 1198 cc version of the Ford Kent 997 cc engine of the newly introduced Ford Cortina. The Anglia Super was distinguished by its painted contrasting-coloured side stripe.

A new Anglia saloon tested by the British Motor magazine in 1959 had a top speed of 73.8 mph and could accelerate from 0–60 mph in 26.9 seconds. A fuel consumption of 41.2 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £610 including taxes of £180.

The old 100E Anglia became the new 100E Popular and the four-door Prefect bodyshell remained available as the new Ford Prefect (107E), which had all 105E running gear, including engine, gearbox and axle whilst retaining the 100E wheels, while the 100E Escort and Squire remained available, unchanged. In 1961, the Escort and Squire were replaced by the 105E Anglia estate. The 100E delivery van also gave way to a new vehicle based on the 105E.

In South Africa, the Anglia's popularity came late. Sales really took off in early 1966, with the local introduction of the Anglia Super, and 1967 was the car's best year, with a ninth place in overall automobile registrations. Production actually continued longer in South Africa than anywhere else; it was built alongside the Escort from remaining stock until at least the end of 1968.

105E-based Thames and Anglia Vans

Anglia 105E-based Thames 307E 5- and 7-cwt vans released in 1961 were fitted with the 997 cc engine from the Anglia 105E. Although they shared front body panels with the Anglia saloon, the vans were structurally quite different, with a taller windscreen and differently shaped passenger doors, which curved up to the rear along their bottom edges to avoid damage from kerbing. Left-hand drive export versions were designated Thames 308E. The Anglia name was used for certain export markets.

From October 1962, the 5- and 7-cwt vans were also offered with the 1198 cc engine from the Ford Anglia Super and these were designated Thames 309E. Left hand drive export versions were designated Thames 310E.

In March 1965, the use of the Thames name was discontinued, and from that time, all Anglia-based vans were marketed as Ford Anglias. Production ended in November 1967 with a total of 205,001 vans having been produced.

Anglia Torino 105E (1965–1967)
The Anglia Torino 105E was developed by the Italian subsidiary of Ford, using the chassis and mechanical components of the 105E Saloon, with new body panels. The Torino was styled by Giovanni Michelotti and built in Turin by Officine Stampaggi Industriali; 10,007 examples were sold in Italy. The model was also marketed in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

Anglia Super 123E (1962–1967)
From 1962, the 123E Anglia Super was available alongside the 105E, replacing the last of the line of Prefects, with a larger 1198 cc engine and other refinements.

The same car was also sold in continental Europe. One mainland Europe-only variant was the Anglia Sportsman, which carried its spare tyre on the back, somewhat similar to the continental kit often seen in the United States. Chrome bumper overriders, broad whitewall tyres and optionally a side stripe kicking up at the end into the taillights/fin were also fitted. The Super only arrived in South Africa in 1966, although it did boost sales considerably. Towards the end of the run, Ford experimented with two colours of metallic paint on the Anglia, "Blue Mink" and "Venetian Gold"; 250 were made in the blue and 500 were made in the gold.

Anglia saloons were provided with various levels of trim. The base model was the Standard, and this sported no chromework, painted rear light surrounds, steel-slatted grille, and limited interior trim. The Deluxe had a chrome side strip, chrome rear lights, glovebox lid, sun visor, and full-width chrome radiator grille. The top of the range was the Super, which had twin chrome side strips, contrasting coloured roof and side flash, plusher interior trim, together with the 1198 cc engine and a gearbox with synchromesh on first gear.

Optional extras were the mechanical upgrade of a Deluxe to a Super, retaining the Deluxe trim, or the upgrade of a Deluxe to a Super trim, but retaining the 997 cc engine, an option rarely taken up.

Scale models

 * Meccano Dinky Toys; No. 155 (production 1961–1964), Anglia 105E deluxe with mostly red interior although a few have appeared with a blue interior, approximately O scale (1:43).
 * Lesney Products "Matchbox" Series; No. 7b, (production 1961–1966), Anglia 105E with grey or black wheels, windows but no interior, approximately 00 scale.
 * Lledo Vanguard series; No. unknown (production unknown 1996 - date (later production under Corgi Vanguards 1/43), Anglia 105E, approximately O scale (1:43)
 * VV model no.1622
 * Numerous models of a circa 1960 Anglia as portrayed in the Harry Potter series exist. One is the Lego set 4 Privet Drive (#75968).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ford Anglia


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Talk:Lake Geneva

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 23 August 2021 and 10 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Sophie Bazan. Peer reviewers: Snw19, LoganLW2.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:07, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Nomenclature
In French, the lake is sometimes, perhaps most frequently, called Lac Léman. (And in German, Genfersee). S. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.168.172.213 (talk) January 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, That is true even for the population of Geneva. It is very rare to hear lac de Genève in Geneva. /Popup 12:47, 2004 Feb 5 (UTC)

 * Completely agree! Moved from Lake Geneva to Leman Lake (according to the original Roman name of the lake). -- Quattrop ~16:00, 03 Aug 2005 (SGT)
 * Not sure where that comes from. I live in geneva and rarely ever hear "léman". Calling the Lake "Léman" is generally a way to show you are French or Vaudois here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:120B:2C6D:6AC0:3864:8492:B2E8:F2DC (talk) 18:10, 9 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Why "Leman Lake"? "Lake Leman" would be more natural.
 * In French "Le Lac Léman" means the whole lake. All of it, all the way to Montreux. "Le Lac de Genève" technically refers only to the end bit that twists round towards Geneva. I have lived here for nearly 40 years, and mostly hear "Le Léman". I rarely hear "Lac de Genève".
 * --Carusus (talk) 10:29, 5 April 2019 (UTC)
 * I am from Geneva and nobody calls the big lake, "lac de Genève", even in Geneva, despite what some people dispute to the inhabitants of Geneva. However it is true the tiny, narrower bit on the western side of the lake, is sometimes called "lac de Genève". — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cyclistefou (talk • contribs) 12:11, 26 March 2021 (UTC)

Recent move from "Lake Geneva" to "Leman Lake"
This move should be undone. The lake is indeed usually called "lac Léman" in French, but the overwhelming majority of English usage is "Lake Geneva". Google supports that assertion: "Leman Lake" 5550 vs. "Lake Geneva" 648,000 or 884 vs. 187,000 if you add "Switzerland" to the query. Rl 10:39, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Done. -- User:docu 12:26, August 6, 2005 (UTC)

 * Except Lake Geneva also refers to a lake in wiskonsin, "lake geneva" has more hits because of that. In fact, the first results to come up on google.com, both text and image, are about lake geneva, WI, which is both a town and a lake. 85.1.123.216 (talk) 22:43, 9 December 2008 (UTC) Dekox

Geneva citizen
Lac Léman is used only by French people (to remember us that a small corner belong to France) and frustrated minor towns around Lake Geneva, they can't stand this name "Lac de Genève". I'm a Geneva citizen, you can belive me, we call it Lac de Genève or simply "le Lac". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.76.132.114 (talk) 00:12, August 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * Wow, this is nicely POV. It would be more correct to say that Lac Léman is the official name in French (and therfore used by every French speaker, excpet ---as the above comment seems to demonstrate--- by a some inhabitants from Geneva who think they are the center of the world). However, it is true, that in english the name Lake Geneva is much more common. As this is the English Wikipedia, the article should be named Lake Geneva — Preceding unsigned comment added by Glaurung (talk • contribs) 11:44, October 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * This is factually plain wrong. Lac Léman is the official name, not just in France (rather half of the lake, not a small corner, belongs to France), but also the entire Swiss area surrounding the lake which is francophone (this means french-speaking). Calling the cities of Lausanne, Montreux, Evian, Thonon, etc, "frustrated" is childish. As a citizen of Geneva, I call the lake "Lac Léman", and it is the official name on all the maps and signs in Geneva. Informally, we call it "Lac DE Genève", which means Lake OF Geneva, but certainly never Lac Genève. Calling it Lake Geneva is therefore wrong and lazy. Just because more people on Google are wrong and lazy does not make it true. — Preceding unsigned comment added by AntonioGramsci2011 (talk • contribs) 05:36, April 17, 2020 (UTC)

Resident of Montreux syas: Actually Lac Leman is not used by frustrated 'French' on the south shore. The rest of the lake is surrounded by French speaking Swiss who prefer use 'Lac Leman'. The Swiss of the region do not like the term Lake Geneva since it suggests the lake is an extension of Geneva, when actually Geneva is at the very end of the lake as it runs into the Rhone river. Swiss in Lausanne, Vevey, Montreux and all towns feel offended when thelake is assigned as the property of Geneva. Lac Leman is the correct name. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.118.6.229 (talk) 10:02, November 15, 2005 (UTC)

 * I am a Geneva citizen too. I usually call the lake Leman "Lake geneva". However, I and every one knows it is in fact called lake Leman. Only people from Geneva call it the lake Geneva. As a Scuba diver I see many people from around the lake (of whom people from Geneva is just a minority), and it is true they feel ofended when people from Geneva call it Lake Geneva. I suppose english people erroneously believe it is called lake Geneva because of the international status of Geneva: thus english speaking people mostly meet people from Geneva which are the only people using the unofficial name "lake Geneva". Do what you want with this, but it is a fact that 1) The official name is Lake Leman 2) Only in Geneva is it called lake Geneva (and every one knows it is not the official name) 3) I would say in Geneva people call it lake Geneva and lake Leman 50% of the time... In views of these facts, the page needs to mention this naming ambiguity. --Powo 00:16, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

I live in a small minor town around the lake, I use 50% each "lac de Geneve" and "lac leman". So what's the problem? :) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.62.36.98 (talk) 01:56, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

What? Nobody that I know in Geneva calls the lake "lac de Genève", except maybe when speaking English or German. This is a common accusation that we Geneva citizen call the lake "lac de Genève" when speaking French but that's simply untrue. Except maybe during a derby with Lausanne in soccer or hockey game to annoy the rivals, and even then I don't think that's true (but I don't go to games). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cyclistefou (talk • contribs) 12:15, 26 March 2021 (UTC)

French TV
On french TV the name of lake Geneva is as well used. But "lac léman" is more right. I live in Geneva as well and my friend and me say lac léman... --195.65.51.14 18:48, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

Swiss map
I think you will find that the official (Swiss) name in French is "Le Léman". That name is used as the title for sheet #40 of the Swiss National Map (1:100.000 series: http://www.swisstopo.ch/en/products/analog/maps/tk100), and many other references can be found here: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9man_%28homonymie%29. I agree with others below that the lake is popularly referred to by the Swiss as "Lac Léman". I've lived in Geneva for 30 years and never heard "Lac de Genève", although there are so many new arrivals, foreigners and tourists that anything goes... You will also hear local English speakers say "the Léman" 62.203.65.11 17:37, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

Official documents in Geneva
Though "Lac Léman is more common in French and also used in Geneva parralel to "Lac de Genève", le Former (lac de Genève) is used in Genevan official documents and law. Saying the "Lac de Genève" is not in use in French is therefore demonstratibly incorrect (http://www.ge.ch/legislation/rsg/main.html). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:120B:2C6D:6AC0:B045:2C8B:1F17:9E62 (talk) 19:00, 9 June 2013 (UTC)

Original name
As a true local, born and educated in Geneva, i can affirm that "Lake Geneva" or "Lac de Genève" is considered and *error*; this name is mostly used if you want to piss off people from Lausanne (call it "le petit village de pêcheurs au bord du lac de Genève") ;P otherwise, the correct name is Leman Lake (or Lake Léman, whichever..) and it is the name that has been used looooong before the erroneous "Lake Geneva" was introduced (if I recall correctly, originally to describe the lower, thin portion of the lake near Geneva). Even though a vast amount of people uses the incorrect name "Lake Geneva", the correct and official name is "Leman Lake" and the article should be moved to "Leman Lake". Konrad-EN (talk) 08:39, 18 April 2008 (UTC)

English-language name
As pointed out earlier, the issue is not what French-speaking people call it, but what English-speaking people call it. I agree that in French is is "Lac Leman", whether you are French, Swiss, or any other nationality. But in English, it is "Lake Geneva", as far as I know (and I live there). And in German it is "Genfersee".--Gautier lebon (talk) 10:30, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

This discussion seems to have been restarted by a recent edit. If anybody can document that the English-language name of the lake is something other than "Lake Geneva", then please provide the citation to that effect. Otherwise the name should remain as "Lake Geneva".--Gautier lebon (talk) 11:34, 22 November 2010 (UTC)

 * I've removed Lake Léman as an alternate English name from the lede based on the Ngram data here. Doremo (talk) 17:34, 26 October 2014 (UTC)

Google Maps
The most common English-Language map search engine, Google Maps, accurately names it Leman, it should be Leman. Calling it Lake Geneva is incorrect and ignorant. There is a lake Geneva in Wisconsin, USA. Someone mentioned the German language, which is irrelevant, as it is neither the language of this article, nor a local language. German is not the language spoken in this Canton of Switzerland. Italian is also an official language of another area of Switzerland, and it's called Lago Lemano in Italian. — Preceding unsigned comment added by AntonioGramsci2011 (talk • contribs) 07:25, April 20, 2020 (UTC)

Mary Shelley, the famous English writer, referred to it as lake Leman. So did Lord Byron, so did Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, etc. — Preceding unsigned comment added by AntonioGramsci2011 (talk • contribs) 20:27, 26 April 2020 (UTC)

fish?
Are thre fish in it again? are they safe to eat? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 209.206.165.20 (talk) 01:29, 29 January 2007 (UTC).

Yes there are, and yes they are. 83.228.206.76 (talk) 21:56, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 04:36, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

Surface Area Comparison to Lake Balaton
It seems that there are contradicting assertions for both Lake Leman and Lake Balaton in Hungary. Both claim to be the largest lake in Central Europe, but the surface area clearly indicates Balaton is the largest (making Leman the second largest). A quick survey of several sites seem to confirm this, although the surface areas for Balaton seem to differ slightly. Any reason why the comment on the largest lake in C.E. should remain for lake Leman? --mexicatl 16:41, 21 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Ignore above comment, I was looking at an older version of the page. --mexicatl 16:44, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

Yes, in surface, but it is the largest in volume 83.228.206.76 (talk) 22:05, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

In volume the largest of continental Europe, in area the largest of western Europe. MadGeographer (talk) 11:06, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

Largest in Western Europe?
The assertion that the lake is the largest in Western Europe requires that one consider (as the UN Statistics Division) Scandinavia + Finland (which both have larger lakes) to be outside Western Europe. This is OK, although UNESCO has another definition (see article about Western Europe).

It is however more problematic to exclude the Netherlands from Western Europe. Although we are talking about lakes that have been created, Markermeer and Lake Yssel are both larger. See: List of largest lakes of Europe. Changes should hence be made in at least one of the three mentioned articles.

ErikHWiki (talk) 13:17, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

I would also question the statement about the lake being the "largest body of freshwater in continental Europe in term of volume", as Lake Ladoga is far bigger (water volume 837 km3). The referred source may have been based on "Germanic studies" as referred to in the Continental Europe page and could therefore have excluded Karelia from "Kontinentaleuropa". This isn't consistent with the modern use of the term and thus the statement is quite misleading. JukkaZitting (talk) 14:43, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, this should be corrected, please see Talk:Lake Geneva.--Gautier lebon (talk) 11:34, 17 June 2010 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was withdrawn. JPG-GR (talk) 02:54, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

This idea has been kicking around for a long time, but to my knowledge has never been subjected to formal review (if I am wrong, please let me know). Please give your opinions below. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 16:24, 18 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Move. The accepted name in both France and Switzerland is Léman. One source is at http://www.unil.ch/bcu/page40975.html. There are others. It should be Lake Léman, and not Léman Lake, in the style of Lake Louise or Lake Champlain. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 16:24, 18 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Withdraw. Based on the references below from the Encylopedia Britannica and Encarta, I agree that the title should remain Lake Geneva. Yours, GeorgeLouis (talk) 01:27, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Weak Oppose I personally call it Lac Léman, but I have to acknowledge that its common name appears to be Lake Geneva in English language (Search results are overwhelming infavour of "Lake Geneva" over "Lake Léman", even if you add in "Léman Lake" results.) Narson (talk) 17:45, 18 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose. English sources use Geneva: Lake Geneva at Britannica, Lake Geneva at Encarta, and our own naming convention in this is Use English. "Accepted name in France and Switzerland" is irrelevant. French Wikipedians have not anglicised all the "Lacs" in Catégorie:Grands Lacs (Amérique du Nord), and nor should they. 14days (talk) 19:06, 18 April 2008 (UTC)
 * That first reference goes to a different Lake Geneva. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 19:35, 18 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Found the correct article on Britannica. They still use Lake Geneva though. Narson (talk) 19:42, 18 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose per the arguments at WP:Official names. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 00:54, 19 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose It's overwhelmingly called Lake Geneva in English-language publications. Some people might think that it should be called Lake Léman - but it's not up to Wikipedia to change scholarship. Noel S McFerran (talk) 01:29, 19 April 2008 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

"Lake Geneva is considered offensive outside Geneva": reverted per BRD
I removed the anon-added "It is useful to know for visitors that in places around the lake other than Geneva, the use of the name Lac de Genève might be considered offensive, while Lac Léman is a mark of respect" as an over-the-top unsourced POV addition. As we would say in those places around the lake other than Geneva, "faut quand même pas déconner non plus".

You'll have to bring serious references, preferably also in French, to support the notion that a foreigner referring to it as "Lake Geneva" in Lausanne is being offensive. MLauba (talk) 18:15, 9 March 2010 (UTC)

No objections on my side to the deletion. I live here, and have never heard anybody express offense or respect. Also, the many germanophones around here call it Genfersee, no matter where they live. I guess that I was being too lenient when I edited the remark and added the requestion for citation: deleting does seem more appropriate.--Gautier lebon (talk) 13:30, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

This discussion seems to have been restarted by a recent edit. If anybody can document that the English-language name of the lake is something other than "Lake Geneva", then please provide the citation to that effect. Otherwise the name should remain as "Lake Geneva".--Gautier lebon (talk) 11:35, 22 November 2010 (UTC)

Strange claims removed
I removed the claims about the lake being the largest in Western Europe and the largest freshwater lake in Continental Europe, as neither is correct. Look at lakes like Lake Vänern or Lake Saimaa, not to mention Lake Ladoga. There are a lot of other lakes, all larger that Lake Geneva, in Russia, Sweden and Finland, all of which are part of Continental Europe.Jeppiz (talk) 12:32, 15 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I see your point. Lake Lagoda is not in Western Europe, and apparently the citation  used a definition of "Western Europe" which excluded Finland and Sweden (and also excluded Estonia).  There is a good list at List_of_largest_lakes_of_Europe.  On that basis, I support your deletion.  But I've added a link to that list, so that people can see for themselves how big it is in relative terms.--Gautier lebon (talk) 11:32, 17 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Perfect, thanks! :-) Jeppiz (talk) 12:51, 17 June 2010 (UTC)

Origin of name
The current english version of the page says "Lemannus comes from Ancient greek Limanos, Limènos Limne Λιμένος Λίμνη meaning port's lake;" The german version says the name comes from the celtic "lem" and "an" which means "big" and "water". The french version says it likely comes from that (but origin is unknown). So which of all these is true? Signof (talk) 12:22, 30 July 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100208154714/http://www.alinghi.com/en/news/news/index.php?idIndex=200 to http://www.alinghi.com/en/news/news/index.php?idIndex=200&idContent=21208
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120616030525/http://boldor.ch/boldor/ch/FR-CH/index.cfm to http://www.boldor.ch/boldor/ch/FR-CH/index.cfm

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Name of article
I've just moved the article back from Lake Leman to Lake Geneva, reverting the most recent of attempted moves by user AntonioGramsci2011. (It has been at Lake Geneva for the last decade or so.)

The title of Lake Geneva lines up with the official Wikipedia policy of WP:COMMONNAME. Usage of Lake Leman in English is extremely rare. As user Doremo mentioned below, this is obvious from a quick look at Google results or a search of books from Ngram data here.

Furthermore, the lake is referred to as Lake Geneva by not only the overwhelming majority of sources in English, but also the English-language versions of Swiss government and tourist websites, including geneve.com, papers by the Geneva local government in English and Swiss railway maps published in English.

What locals call the lake does not matter for the title of the English-language page. Residents of the capital of Algeria refer to their city as الجزائر or approximately Al-Jazāʾir, yet the page is titled Algiers. It is Wikipedia policy (again, WP:COMMONNAME) to use the common English name.

I hope this can conclusively resolve the matter. OwenVersteeg (talk) 04:03, 25 April 2020 (UTC)

 * (I have moved this entry to the bottom of the page to retain the usual oldest-first date order; and linked for reference. Please revert if you wish.) To support this further: Londres is the French Wikipedia article for the capital of the United Kingdom, titled using the French common name for the city, rather than the name by which it is known in its native English. In the same way as the English Lake Geneva article lists the names used in French (and German), the French article for London lists the city's name in English. Bazza (talk) 09:16, 25 April 2020 (UTC)

The great brainwashing...
I thought this place was a space for knowledge. You are wiping the history and the knowledge itself by naming this fabulous lake with a wrong name just because "most foreign people call it this way". There's no doubt of it as people now take wikipedia as the reference and it has been showing a wrong name for too long. It is indeed easier to remember the lake with a such name when you're a foreigner as the current biggest city around is Geneva, but that doesn't mean it is correct and it should be called like that. It has already been proven by many people here that the true and official name is «Lac Léman», «Leman Lake» in English, and the fact that so many people know the name wrong is a major argument to call this article back by the official and historical name of the lake: «Leman Lake», as they would learn something. It is even more important as today everything leads to wikipedia/wikidata, even web mapping are linked to it and use its content. So naming things by wrong names just because most people knows it a certain way is for sure disrespectful but it is also a big issue as it will be shown and used with the wrong name on other things like maps. Plus, as you seem to take Google as a reference, I first suggest you to search on it «Geneva Lake», you'll se that it shows the lake in Wisconsin, not Leman Lake. Then you should go on Google Maps and have a look on how the lake is named on the map. 92.132.227.136 (talk) 06:42, 30 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lake Geneva


text:
Talk:International Council for Science

Merger with ISSC to form ISC
The International Council for Science and the International Social Science Council have fully merged to become the International Science Council as of July 2018. (From ISSC website worldsocialscience.org and ISC website council.science) Edits to both pages, a merge, or a new page should be made to accommodate this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.254.232.223 (talk) 07:28, 9 July 2018 (UTC)

Name
As far as I know, the name of this organization should be "International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)" OR "International Council for Science", but not "International Council of Science". A search on google return 648 results for "Internaitonal Council of Science", 5640 results for "International Council for Science, and 10200 results for "International Council of Scientific Unions". --Lorenzarius

"In 1998, Members agreed that the Council’s current composition and activities would be better reflected by modifying the name from the International Council of Scientific Unions to the International Council for Science, while its rich history and strong identity would be well served by retaining the existing acronym, ICSU." About ICSU: A Brief History, updated on 8/03/2010. --Paulscrawl (talk) 20:12, 24 November 2010 (UTC)

Pluto a planet or just anouther celestrial body?
A definition of a planet, Pluto does orbit the sun and has moons but shares the space with another so by show of hands voted the 9th planet out. Put Mercury in Pluto's position and it to would fail to clear the space of objects around it and does not have a moon so science may as well kick Mercury out as well. There are more bodies some larger and close to the size of Pluto that also have moons and orbit the sun but have the same problem as Pluto, stuck in a asteroid field. What about large bodies orbiting smaller bodies? The definition of a planet or should I say scientific argument is just a coin toss. Pluto is more of a planet than Mercury. Mercury has the fortune of a close orbit to the sun and its gravity to clear the path for it. Put your coins away and rethink the definition so that it is clear and excepted by all.

 * This discussion does not belong here, please to to the Pluto talk page or the Planet talk page to discuss this issue. 76.66.197.30 (talk) 14:06, 7 October 2009 (UTC)

History
Unless there is meant to be a separate article on the predecessor (the International Research Council or IRC, briefly mentioned in the article) that morphed into the ICSU, the section on "history" requires an expansion to cover its early years from 1919/1922, too. This would make sense as several of the members are said to have joined in 1922, which makes no sense if the article indeed restricts itself to the pretence that the organisation came into existence in 1931. Of course covering the early years would necessitate revising the lofty statement on "Mission and principles" to "Facilitate interaction amongst scientists across all disciplines and from all countries", as the IRC was set up with the explicit provision (on France's insistence) of excluding academies and scientists from Germany and Austria, with structures carefully shoehorned to ensure this provision could not be revised for 12 years (i.e. until 1931, the "formation year" given for the ICSU in the article) and giving the colonial powers (France, Britain) majority voting rights by virtue of calculating their colonial subjects (who were otherwise deprived of basic political rights) as part of the total national population. For starters, sections of the German version of the article might be translated. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 134.95.144.134 (talk) 07:23, 8 June 2017 (UTC)

Wikidata list
Members of the International Council for Science in Wikidata: < https://w.wiki/5q8f >. -- Oa01 (talk) 13:09, 18 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:International Council for Science


text:
User:Paddu

I'm Padmanabhan V. Karthic (b.1982). I finished my Masters in Computer science and Engineering from IIT Madras. I am currently working at Qualcomm India Private Limited.

My Supposed To-dos/Interests
Articles related to: (? = most of what I know seems to already be there)
 * India
 * Carnatic music
 * Hindu mythology
 * cricket (sport)
 * Physics??
 * Computers????
 * Other things to be added later

 * I seem to like contributing to articles related to current events at times.
 * At times I nominate stuff for deletion (mostly images to WP:CP, but at times I've been to WP:IFD and WP:RFD) but I am opposed to being oblivious of Wikipedia policy changes while deleting stuff. For example, one has to consider that until the midst of 2004 image tagging wasn't strictly enforced, so images uploaded earlier must only be deleted on proven copyvios.

Yeah, that's right. I'm user ta-N but far less than user ta-1. Also, I learnt enough Hindi to become user hi-3 but I'm not confident I'm still so. I also learnt enough German and Sanskrit to become user de-1 and user sa-1 but again I remember nearly nothing.

I feel what's important for the English Wikipedia is the ability to translate "xx2en", not "en2xx". For that I can be considered: user en-4 user hi-3 and with the help of dictionaries and online translation tools and in my copious free time, user de-1 user sa-1.

Drawbacks :-)

 * My grammar/spelling/vocab seem to have degraded a lot since 1999.
 * I've been alleged to say things are OBVIOUS though they are not.
 * Mozilla at times doesn't shift the "keyboard focus" to the tab currently being viewed. "Minor graffiti" by me (e.g. ) used to be due to this. Nowadays they (e.g., , , ) are usually because I haven't got fully accustomed to the recent defects in my keyboard at home.
 * I forget to sign comments quite frequently.
 * I'm tooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo lazy (which's why I haven't filed or bothered to find if already filed, the above moz bug & which's why I've contributed almost nothing to the 'pedia).
 * I suffer from copyright paranoia w.r.t. contributions from myself (which's why I've contributed almost nothing to the 'pedia).

Milestones in spite of laziness
All namespaces (all times in IST):
 * Wow! My pickup is 1 to 1000 in 58436400 s, or 676 days 8 hours and 20 minutes (02:04, 21 Nov 2004 - 17:44, 14 Jan 2003). Anyone lazier than that?
 * From 1000 I reached 2000 in 36462300 s, or 422 days and 25 minutes (02:29, 17 Jan 2006 - 02:04, 21 Nov 2004) -- I have become less lazy.
 * From 2000 I reached 3000 in 11750160 s, or and 135 days 23 hours and 56 minutes (02:25, 2 June 2006 - 02:29, 17 Jan 2006) -- have I got disconnected with real life?
 * From 3000 I reached 4000 by shamelessly editing this page at 03:55, 20 May 2007 -- in 30418200 s, or 352 days 1 hour and 30 minutes (03:55, 20 May 2007 - 02:25, 2 June 2006).

Main namespace:
 * I went from 1 to 1000 in 98928300 s, or 1145 days and 5 minutes (17:49, 4 March 2006 - 17:44, 14 January 2003). Anyone lazier than that?
 * I reached 2000 in 39299220 s, or 454 days 20 hours and 27 minutes (14:16, 2 June 2007 - 17:49, 4 March 2006) -- I have become less lazy.

History of dubious behaviour

 * Found by myself:
 * ta:பேச்சு:முதற் பக்கம் (Feb. 2004)
 * Talk:Avatar (Feb. 2004)
 * b:Talk:Programming:C plus plus, b:Talk:Programming: C -/- -/-, b:User talk:Panic2k4, b:Wikibooks:Staff lounge, etc. (Nov. 2004)
 * 955, 971 and m:Template:H:interwiki linking (Nov.-Dec. 2004)
 * WikiProject Turkey and User talk:Metb82  (May 2006) (ranting without trying to understand)
 * Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bridges and Category:Bridge disasters
 * Found by others:
 * Wikipedia talk:Images and media for deletion and User talk:Quadell (Mar. 2005) (too much criticism)
 * Talk:Calgary, Alberta/Archive 1 (Apr. 2005) (page move without discussion)
 * Economy of Turkey and Talk:Economy of Turkey  (May 2006) (removal of table)
 * Any more? Feel free to report in my talk page and I'll add here.Couldn't be bothered right now to search history and link exactly the versions that I've "invaded", might (or might not) create proper links here in future.

Inappropriate image uploads

 * 1) [ Image:Main-Page-netscape4.79-redhat-linux-7.3-paddu.png] -- (image links, text links)
 * 2) Any more? Please report in my talk page and I'll add here.

Other Wikimedia Contributions (However Negligible)

 * Some of User:202.141.24.2 & other proxies in IIT Madras
 * en:User:Paddu
 * m:User:Paddu
 * Some of 210.214.*
 * Some of wikt:User:202.141.24.2 & (other proxies in IIT Madras)?
 * b:User:Paddu
 * Some of ta:User:202.141.24.2 & (other proxies in IIT Madras)?
 * Some of hi:User:202.141.24.2 & (other proxies in IIT Madras)?
 * Some of User:203.195.246.162
 * Some of m:User:203.195.246.162
 * Some of hi:User:203.195.246.162
 * hi:User:&
 * Various anonymous contributions from 210.214.*/203.195.246.162/210.18.189.95 to other Indian languages
 * Some of m:User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of test:User:210.18.189.95
 * Various anonymous contributions from 203.195.246.162 to test:?
 * 817
 * test:User:Paddu
 * Some of de:User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of b:de:User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of commons:User:210.18.189.95
 * commons:User:Paddu
 * Some of n:User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of tr:User:210.18.189.95
 * Some of d:User:123.201.138.145

Note that I'm not en:User:Paddy or de:Benutzer:Paddy or commons:User:Paddy.

Subpages

 * /sandbox
 * /chess image — See User:Arvindn/Chess.
 * /wowturkey.com photo — See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Turkey and User talk:A.Garnet.

Geek Code
-BEGIN Paddu's GEEK CODE BLOCK- Version: 3.12 G* d+(?) s:++ a-- C++(+++) UL++(++++) P+>++++ L+++(++)>++++ E- W+(++) N(+) !o K? w--(---) !O M@ V? PS+ PE+ Y+ PGP- t? 5? X? R tv-(+) b+@ DI+ D+@ G>++ e+++ h!(*) !r y? --END Paddu's GEEK CODE BLOCK--

* My occupation is not CS as such but CS&E. But  makes it look like I'm talented in multiple fields. So it should actually be  with a very little bit of   and   thrown in. Also I'm not a gamer, just happened to play a few long ago, but this isn't apparent from the code.

title: User:Paddu


text:
Lake Winnipeg

Lake Winnipeg (Lac Winnipeg) is a very large, relatively shallow 24514 km2 lake in North America, in the province of Manitoba, Canada. Its southern end is about 55 km north of the city of Winnipeg. Lake Winnipeg is Canada's sixth-largest freshwater lake and the third-largest freshwater lake contained entirely within Canada, but it is relatively shallow (mean depth of 12 m) excluding a narrow 36 m deep channel between the northern and southern basins. It is the eleventh-largest freshwater lake on Earth. The lake's east side has pristine boreal forests and rivers that were in 2018 inscribed as Pimachiowin Aki, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The lake is 416 km from north to south, with remote sandy beaches, large limestone cliffs, and many bat caves in some areas. Manitoba Hydro uses the lake as one of the largest reservoirs in the world. There are many islands, most of them undeveloped.

Hydrography
Lake Winnipeg has the largest watershed of any lake in Canada, receiving water from four provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Manitoba) and four U.S. states: (North Dakota and Minnesota via tributaries of the Red River, South Dakota via rivers draining into Lake Traverse, and Montana via tributaries of the Oldman River). The lake's watershed measures about 982900 km2.

Lake Winnipeg drains northward into the Nelson River at an average annual rate of 2,066 cubic metres per second (72,960 cu ft/s) and forms part of the Hudson Bay watershed, which is one of the largest drainage basins in the world. This watershed area was known as Rupert's Land when the Hudson's Bay Company was chartered in 1670.

Tributaries
The Saskatchewan River flows in from the west through Cedar Lake, the Red River (including Assiniboine River) flows in from the south, and the Winnipeg River (draining Lake of the Woods, Rainy River and Rainy Lake) enters from the southeast. The Dauphin River enters from the west, draining Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipegosis. The Bloodvein River, Berens River, Poplar River and the Manigotagan River flow in from the eastern side of the lake which is within the Canadian Shield.

Other tributaries of Lake Winnipeg (clockwise from the south end) include; Meleb Drain (drainage canal), Drunken River, Icelandic River, Washow Bay Creek, Sugar Creek, Beaver Creek, Mill Creek, Moose Creek, Fisher River, Jackhead River, Kinwow Bay Creek, Jackpine Creek, Mantagao River, Solomons Creek, Jumping Creek, Warpath River, South Two Rivers, North Two Rivers, South Twin Creek, North Twin Creek, Saskachaywiak Creek, Eating Point Creek, Woody Point Creeks, Muskwa Creek, Buffalo Creek, Fiddler Creek, Sturgeon Creek, Hungry River, Cypress Creek, William River, Bélanger River, Mukutawa River, Crane Creek, Kapawekapuk Creek, Marchand Creek, Leaf River, Pigeon River, Taskapekawe Creek, Bradbury River, Petopeko Creek, Loon Creek, Sanders Creek, Rice River, Wanipigow River, Barrie Creek, Mutch Creek, Sandy River, Black River, Sandy Creek, Catfish Creek, Jackfish Creek, Marais Creek, Brokenhead River and Devils Creek.

Geology
Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba are remnants of prehistoric Glacial Lake Agassiz, although there is evidence of a desiccated south basin of Lake Winnipeg approximately 4,000 years ago. The area between the lakes is called the Interlake Region, and the whole region is called the Manitoba Lowlands.

Fish
The varying habitats found within the lake support a large number of fish species, more than any other lake in Canada west of the Great Lakes. Sixty of seventy-nine native species found in Manitoba are present in the lake. Families represented include lampreys (Petromyzontidae), sturgeon (Acipenseridae), mooneyes (Hiodontidae), minnows (Cyprinidae), suckers (Catostomidae), catfish (Ictaluridae), pike (Esocidae), trout and whitefish (Salmonidae), troutperch (Percopsidae), codfish (Gadidae), sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), sculpins (Cottidae), sunfish (Centrarchidae), perch (Percidae), and drum (Sciaenidae).

Two fish species present in the lake are considered to be at risk, the shortjaw cisco and the bigmouth buffalo.

Rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked in Manitoba waters by provincial fisheries as part of a put and take program to support angling opportunities. Neither species is able to sustain itself independently in Manitoba. Smallmouth bass was first recorded from the lake in 2002, indicating populations introduced elsewhere in the watershed are now present in the lake. White bass were first recorded from the lake in 1963, ten years after being introduced into Lake Ashtabula in North Dakota. Common carp were introduced to the lake through the Red River of the North and are firmly established.

Birds
Lake Winnipeg provides feeding and nesting sites for a wide variety of birds associated with water during the summer months. Isolated, uninhabited islands provide nesting sites for colonial nesting birds including pelicans, gulls and terns. Large marshes, shores and shallows allow these birds to successfully feed themselves and their young. Pipestone Rocks are considered a globally significant site for American white pelicans. In 1998, an estimated 3.7% of the world's population of this bird at the time were counted nesting on the rocky outcrops. The same site is significant within North America for the numbers of colonial waterbirds using the area, especially common terns. Other globally significant nesting areas are found at Gull Island and Sandhill Island, Little George Island and Louis Island. Birds nesting at these sites include common and Caspian terns, herring gulls, ring-billed gulls, double-crested cormorants and greater scaups.

Lake Winnipeg has two sites considered globally important in the fall migration. Large populations of waterfowl and shorebirds use the sand bars east of Riverton as a staging area for fall migration. The Netley-Libau Marsh, where the Red River enters Lake Winnipeg, is used by geese, ducks and swallows to gather for the southward migration.

Piping plovers, an endangered species of shorebird, are found in several locations around the lake. The Gull Bay Spits, south of the town of Grand Rapids, are considered nationally significant nesting sites for this species.

Protected areas

 * Beaver Creek Provincial Park
 * Camp Morton Provincial Park
 * Elk Island Provincial Park
 * Fisher Bay Provincial Park
 * Grand Beach Provincial Park
 * Hecla-Grindstone Provincial Park
 * Hnausa Beach Provincial Park
 * Kinwow Provincial Park
 * Patricia Beach Provincial Park
 * Sturgeon Bay Provincial Park
 * Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park

Environmental issues
Lake Winnipeg is suffering from many environmental issues such as an explosion in the population of cyanobacteria, caused by excessive amounts of phosphorus seeping into the lake. The phosphorus levels are approaching a point that could be dangerous for human health.

The Global Nature Fund declared Lake Winnipeg as the "threatened lake of the year" in 2013.

In 2015, there was a major uptick of zebra mussels in Lake Winnipeg, the reduction of which is next to impossible because of a lack of natural predators in the lake. The mussels are devastating to the ecological opportunities of the lake.

History
It is believed Henry Kelsey was the first European to see the lake, in 1690. He adopted the Cree language name for the lake: wīnipēk (ᐐᓂᐯᐠ), meaning "muddy waters". La Vérendrye referred to the lake as Ouinipigon when he built the first forts in the area in the 1730s. Later, the Red River Colony to its south took the lake's name for Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba.

Lake Winnipeg lies along one of the oldest trading routes in North America to have flown the British flag. For several centuries, furs were traded along this route between York Factory on Hudson Bay (which was the long-time headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company) over Lake Winnipeg and the Red River Trails to the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers at Saint Paul, Minnesota. This was a strategic trading route for the First British Empire. With the establishment of the Second British Empire after Britain's loss of the Thirteen Colonies, a significant increase in trade occurred over Lake Winnipeg between Rupert's Land and the United States.

In 2016 the Indigenous place name Weenipagamiksaguygun was approved by the Geographical Names Board of Canada. It is an Anishinaabe name for the lake as used by the Poplar River First Nation.

Transportation
Because of its length, the Lake Winnipeg water system and the lake was an important transportation route in the province before the railways reached Manitoba. It continued to be a major transportation route even after the railways reached the province. In addition to aboriginal canoes and York boats, several steamboats plied the lake, including Anson Northup, City of Selkirk, Colvile, Keenora, Premier, Princess, Winnitoba, Wolverine and most recently the diesel-powered MS Lord Selkirk II passenger cruise ship.

Communities
Communities on the lake include Grand Marais, Lester Beach, Riverton, Gimli, Winnipeg Beach, Victoria Beach, Hillside Beach, Pine Falls, Manigotagan, Berens River, Bloodvein, Sandy Hook, Albert Beach, Hecla Village and Grand Rapids. A number of pleasure beaches are found on the southern end of the lake, which are popular in the summer, attracting many visitors from Winnipeg, approximately 80 km south.

Recreational Angling
Lake Winnipeg is widely recognized as a premier angling destination, attracting anglers from around the globe "targeting it's abundant walleye, sauger and channel catfish populations" along with northern pike, yellow perch, gold eye, mooneye. Angling efforts vary from casting lines from shore, trolling its depths or dropping a line through the ice in search of a Master Angler Walleye, considered to be a Walleye caught in Manitoba by hook and line measuring over 71cm (28").

As of 2010 "over 50,000 anglers fished more than 389,000 days on the Red River and Lake Winnipeg combined" and "contribute an estimated $20,000,000 to $32,000,000 annually. and as of 2018 that had grown to nearly 100,000 adult anglers fishing Lake Winnipeg and its southern tributaries, adding $102,000,000 to the provincial GDP supporting some 1,500 jobs.

Many licensed outfitters offer a wide array of services from guided fishing trips to equipment rentals and accommodations in service of recreational anglers.

Recent introduction of new angling regulations aim to ensure the sustainability of the fishery, with an extended season closure during the spring walleye spawn, reduced possession limits, and an end to the retention of trophy sized fish.

Commercial fisheries
Lake Winnipeg has important commercial fisheries. It contributes 57% of the province's total production and 75% of the landed value of the harvest in Manitoba. Average annual landings from Lake Winnipeg from 2009 to 2015 were 6,539,739 kg, with an average value of $15,357,975. The lake was once the main source of goldeye in Canada, which is why the fish is sometimes called Winnipeg goldeye. Walleye and whitefish together account for over 90 percent of its commercial fishing.

General and cited references

 * Canadian Action Party (2006). Canadian action party release Devils Lake ruling
 * Casey, A. (November/December 2006). "Forgotten lake", Canadian Geographic, Vol. 126, Issue 6, pp. 62–78
 * Chliboyko, J. (November/December 2003). "Trouble flows north", Canadian Geographic, Vol. 123, Issue 6, p. 23
 * "Devil down south" (16 July 2005), The Economist, Vol. 376, Issue 8435,. p. 34
 * GreenPeace, "Algae bloom on Lake Winnipeg" (26 May 2008). Retrieved 2 February 2009
 * Daily Commercial News and Construction Record, "Ottawa asked to help block water diversion project: Devils Lake outlet recommended by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers" (20 October 2003), Vol. 76, Issue 198,. p. 3
 * Sexton, B. (2006) "Wastes control: Manitoba demands more scrutiny of North Dakota's water diversion scheme", Outdoor Canada, Vol. 34, Issue 1, p. 32
 * Warrington, Dr. P. (6 November 2001) "Aquatic pathogens: cyanophytes "
 * Welch, M. A. (19 August 2008) "Winnipeg's algae invasion was forewarned more than 30 years ago", The Canadian Press
 * Macleans (14 June 2004) "What ails Lake Winnipeg" Vol. 117, Issue 24, p. 38.
 * Wilderness Committee (2008) "Turning the tide on Lake Winnipeg and our health"
 * Canadian Geographical Names Database (2016) "Place names - Weenipagamiksaguygun"

title: Lake Winnipeg


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Lake Manitoba

Lake Manitoba (Lac Manitoba ) is the 14th largest lake in Canada and the 33rd largest lake in the world with a total area of 4624 km2. It is located within the Canadian province of Manitoba about 75 km northwest of the province's capital, Winnipeg, at 50.98333°N, -98.8°W.

History
The lake, its shores populated by the Assiniboine and Cree, was made known to Europeans by La Vérendrye in the mid-1730s. He and his sons travelled from Fort La Reine through this lake to explore the Saskatchewan River and its environs. Forts were established on both the Saskatchewan and Cedar Lake. It also was part of the fur trade route to Hudson Bay.

The name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning "straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit", a toponym referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of the lake. These narrows were an area that the spirit could be heard. What exactly was heard, and in what exact location, seems to be a mystery. The lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies.

The short-lived Republic of Manitobah and its successor the province of Manitoba both take their name from this lake.

Manipogo
For many years there have been claims that a monster similar to Scotland's Loch Ness Monster and British Columbia's Ogopogo lives in the lake. It has been named Manipogo. Sightings of this serpent like sea monster have been going on since roughly 1908.

Geography
The irregularly shaped lake, about 200 km long, is the smallest of a group of three large lakes, the other two being Lake Winnipeg (the largest) and Lake Winnipegosis, which are found on the floor of the prehistoric Glacial Lake Agassiz. The lake is subdivided into two connected but distinctly different basins: a small, irregular-shaped north basin and a much larger south basin. It is part of the watershed of the Nelson River and Hudson Bay.

The southern tip of the lake, 24 km north of Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, ends in the Delta Marsh, an important staging ground for migrating birds.

Communities on the lake include Fairford, Steep Rock, St. Laurent, and Sandy Bay.

Tributaries and outflows
The lake is primarily fed by Lake Winnipegosis to its northwest via the Waterhen River, with an average annual contribution of 1900000 acre.ft. The Whitemud River and local overland flow average about 257,000 acre.ft. Precipitation contributes about 1800000 acre.ft. From 1970 to 2003 the Portage Diversion has contributed an average annual volume of 246800 acre.ft from the Assiniboine River. Lake Manitoba drains northeast into Lake Winnipeg through the Fairford River to Lake St. Martin and then to the Dauphin River. The average annual river outflow is 2030000 acre.ft. Average evaporation is 2020000 acre.ft per year. Most of the water inflow is from the Waterhen River (42% of the inflow) and from precipitation directly on the lake's surface (40%), while nearly 50% of the outflow is by evaporation. This explains its hyposaline nature.

Water control dam
Severe flooding around the lake led to the excavation of an improved outlet channel between 1899 and 1901. In 1933 following dry years in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Province constructed a concrete control dam across the Fairford River immediately downstream of the channel. A new dam was constructed in 1961. The new structure is operated to try to control levels between 810.5 and 812.5 ft above sea level.

Flood in 2011
Due to above average snowfall over the winter of 2010–2011, and above average precipitation in the spring over the Lake Manitoba watershed, forecasted water levels on Lake Manitoba called for levels above the regulated upper range of 812.5 ft above sea level and around the flood stage of 814 ft above sea level. With the added inflows of the Portage Diversion due to high water levels on the Assiniboine River and its tributaries, of up to 34,000 cuft/s of water the lake peaked at 817.2 ft above sea level on July 21. On May 31, 2011, when the lake was already very high, 815.13 ft, strong winds from the north and the north-west of 70 km/h gusting to 90 km/h caused major damage to beaches and communities on the south basin of the lake including Twin Lakes Beach, St. Laurent, St. Ambroise, Delta Beach, Lynch Point, Big Point, and large areas of farmland.

Historical floods
Unlike a river which can rise and recede relatively quickly, large lakes like Lake Manitoba require months or even years for lake levels to rise and fall. Below are the flood years on record in which Lake Manitoba was above flood stage, as defined by Manitoba Infrastructure and Transportation (MIT), of 814 ft ASL. However, beginning around a level of 813 ft ASL, localized flooding of agricultural land around the lake can occur.

 * In 1881-82 lake levels were not recorded. However, given the topography around Lake Manitoba, a level of 817 ft ASL would be required to cause the lake to drain back into the Assiniboine River, which occurred in both 1881 and 1882. Also, a flow of 14,835 cuft/s was recorded on the Fairford River in 1881, long before significant channel improvements were made. Based on a rating curve for flows on the Fairford River during this period, the flows correlate with a lake level as high as 817.5 ft ASL. Furthermore, in his 1890 study entitled "Report of Exploration of the Glacial Lake Agassiz in Manitoba", Warren Upham states that Lake Manitoba rose approximately 8 ft above its lowest level, which records show to be around 810 ft ASL, suggesting a peak of 818 ft ASL.
 * Lake Levels did not begin to be recorded until 1914. However, in 1913 a flow rate of 11,500 cuft/s on the Fairford River was recorded, which based on a rating curve for flows during this period would correspond with a lake level of greater than 816 ft ASL.
 * On May 31, 2011, during a major wind event, Lake Manitoba was measured at 820.37 ft ASL at Twin Lakes Beach. As a result of the high water level with wind set-up and wave action, significant damage occurred along the south basin of Lake Manitoba. The 2011 peak flood level is the wind-eliminated peak lake level.

Fishing
Lake Manitoba is one of the three main lakes in Manitoba's $30-million annual commercial fishing industry.

The main marketable fish species caught on Lake Manitoba has changed from whitefish in the late 19th century to walleye, sauger and yellow perch today. There has been a large increase in rough fish like carp. Tullibee catch remains high, although it is not considered a commercial species.

The total recorded catch of the commercial winter fishery on the lake has declined from 15 e6lb annually in the late 1940s to less than 4.5 e6lb in 2002.

title: Lake Manitoba