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United Nations Human Rights Committee

The United Nations Human Rights Committee is a treaty body composed of 18 experts, established by a 1966 human rights treaty, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The Committee meets for three four-week sessions per year to consider the periodic reports submitted by the 173 States parties to the ICCPR on their compliance with the treaty, and any individual petitions concerning the 116 States parties to the ICCPR's First Optional Protocol. The Committee is one of ten UN human rights treaty bodies, each responsible for overseeing the implementation of a particular treaty.

The UN Human Rights Committee should not be confused with the more high-profile UN Human Rights Council (HRC), or the predecessor of the HRC, the UN Commission on Human Rights. Whereas the Human Rights Council (since June 2006) and the Commission on Human Rights (before that date) are UN political bodies: composed of states, established by a UN General Assembly resolution and the UN Charter, and discussing the entire range of human rights concerns; the Human Rights Committee is a UN expert body: composed of persons, established by the ICCPR, and discussing matters pertaining only to that treaty. The Human Rights Committee is often referred to as CCPR (Committee on Civil and Political Rights) in order to avoid that confusion.

Members
The ICCPR states the basic rules for the membership of the Human Rights Committee. Article 28 of the ICCPR states that the Committee is composed of 18 members from states parties to the ICCPR, "who shall be persons of high moral character and recognized competence in the field of human rights", with consideration "to the usefulness of the participation of some persons having legal experience." Also according to Article 28, the members serve in their individual capacity, rather than as representatives of their countries. As stated in Articles 29 and 30 of the ICCPR, they are elected by a meeting of the states parties to the ICCPR held at UN Headquarters. Based on Article 32, they serve four-year terms, with one-half of their number elected every second year.

The current membership is as follows:

Recent elections
On June 17, 2022, the States parties to the ICCPR met in New York and elected nine members of the Committee, to replace those whose terms would expire at the end of 2022. There were seventeen candidates for the nine positions, including one whose nomination was late. Those elected were Yvonne Donders (The Netherlands), Hélène Tigroudja* (France), Bacre Waly Ndiaye (Senegal), Tijana Šurlan (Serbia), Koji Teraya (Japan), Farid Ahmadov (Azerbaijan), Laurence R. Helfer (United States), Rodrigo A. Carazo (Costa Rica), and Hernán Quezada Cabrera* (Chile). Asterisks denote sitting members who were re-elected.

On September 17, 2020 (postponed from June 15, 2020), the States parties to the ICCPR met and elected nine members of the Committee, to replace those whose terms would expire at the end of 2020. There were fourteen candidates for the nine positions, not counting two who were withdrawn shortly before the election but counting one whose nomination was late (and who was elected). Those elected were Carlos Gómez Martínez (Spain), Changrok Soh (Republic of Korea), Imeru Tamerat Yigezu (Ethiopia), Mahjoub El Haiba (Morocco), José Manuel Santos Pais* (Portugal), Tania María Abdo Rocholl* (Paraguay), Wafaa Ashraf Moharram Bassim (Egypt), Kobauyah Tchamdja Kpatcha (Togo), and Marcia V.J. Kran* (Canada). Asterisks denote sitting members who were re-elected. David H. Moorre (United States) won an additional, contested "by-election" held on the same date, to elect a member to complete the term ending December 31, 2020, of Ilze Brands Kehris (Latvia), who had resigned effective December 31, 2019, upon her appointment as UN Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights.

On August 28, 2018, Andreas B. Zimmermann (Germany) won an uncontested by-election to complete the term ending December 31, 2020, of Anja Seibert-Fohr (Germany), who had resigned effective March 1, 2018.

On June 14, 2018, the States parties to the ICCPR met and elected nine members of the Committee, to replace those whose terms would expire at the end of 2018. There were sixteen candidates for the nine positions, not counting two who were withdrawn shortly before the election and one whose nomination was late. Those elected were Yadh Ben Achour* (Tunisia), Christopher Bulkan (Guyana), Photini Pazartzis* (Greece), Hélène Tigroudja (France), Hernán Quezada Cabrera (Chile), Gentian Zyberi (Albania), Vasilka Sancin (Slovenia), Shuichi Furuya (Japan), and Duncan Muhumuza Laki* (Uganda). Asterisks denote sitting members who were re-elected. Pierre-Richard Prosper of the United States was not elected, in reportedly "a first-ever defeat of a US candidate for the UN Human Rights Committee."

Meetings and activities
The Committee meets three times a year for four-week sessions (spring session at UN headquarters in New York, summer and fall sessions at the UN Office in Geneva). The categories of its work, outlined below, include state reporting, individual complaints, general comments, and inter-state communications.

State reporting under the ICCPR
All states parties to the ICCPR have an obligation "to submit reports on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the rights recognized [in the ICCPR] and on the progress made in the enjoyment of those rights." The Human Rights Committee is responsible for "study[ing]" and responding to those reports submitted by states. States parties must submit an initial report within one year of the ICCPR's entry into force, and subsequent periodic reports as requested by the Committee. This reporting system is mandated by Article 40 of the ICCPR. The frequency of the periodic reports was formerly about every five years, but starting in 2020 is every eight years. The UN has published guidance for states on reporting to the Committee and other human rights treaty bodies. The principal purpose of the report is to promote state compliance with the treaty principles and it should be an "honest appraisal of their conformity to the treaty obligations".

Procedure, and recent procedural changes
Following the submission of a state's report, representatives of the state appear before the Committee in Geneva or New York to discuss the report, in an in-person constructive dialogue which is generally webcast live on UN Web TV. Following this dialogue, the Committee drafts and adopts its concluding observations, a document including positive aspects, subjects of concern, and suggestions and recommendations. Subsequently, under its follow-up procedure, the Committee assesses whether certain recommendations have been fulfilled within one year.

In July 2010, the Committee proposed a new optional reporting procedure called the "List of Issues Prior to Reporting" (LOIPR) or "Simplified Reporting Procedure". Under this system, instead of the state submitting a full report on its implementation of each article of the ICCPR, the Committee sends the state a list of issues to address, and the state's report must only answer the questions raised in that list of issues. The Committee subsequently adopted the simplified reporting procedure on a pilot basis, although it remains an optional alternative to the "regular" procedure, i.e., submission of a full report. At its 124th session in 2018, the Committee decided to adopt the simplified reporting procedure on a permanent basis, and to encourage all states to switch to simplified reporting. It also decided to strive to limit the number of questions in each list of issues to 25. In 2019, the Committee decided to make the simplified reporting procedure the default, changing a state's selection of it from an opt-in to an opt-out model.

In July 2019 the Committee decided to move, beginning in 2020, to an eight-year "Predictable Review Cycle" (PRC), under which it would schedule one review for each state party (including those states that failed to report). This cycle involves a five-year review process, and a three-year interval before the next review process begins. All states parties were divided into 8 groups of 21-22 states each, with the reporting process to start for each group on a different year.

NGO participation
NGOs and other civil society organizations play a crucial role in the reporting process. Any NGO, regardless of accreditation, may submit its own reports (sometimes called "shadow reports") to the Committee, comment on state reports, and attend all Committee sessions as observers. Furthermore, the Committee often holds a closed meeting with interested NGOs as part of its review of a state's report.

Limitations of the reporting system
One set of weaknesses is inherent to a system of self-reporting. Though in theory, reports should be an honest appraisal, constructive criticism of perceived failures to adhere to Covenant principles is unlikely. The Centre for Civil and Political Rights, an NGO, states that "State reports often . . . fail to describe the implementation of the Covenant in practice" and "frequently lack an honest evaluation of the difficulties the State faces in implementing the rights guaranteed under the Covenant."

Late reporting and non-reporting by states is another problem. The Committee's annual report through March 2019 stated that fifteen states' "initial reports are overdue, of which 7 are overdue by between 5 and 10 years and 8 are overdue by 10 years or more." The report's Annex IV listed them; Equatorial Guinea's initial report was 30 years overdue. That Annex also listed thirteen states whose periodic reports were ten years or more overdue, with Afghanistan's overdue by 22 years, and Nigeria's overdue by 19; ten states whose periodic reports were five to ten years overdue; and 28 states whose periodic reports were overdue by less than five years. CSW, a UK-based NGO, asserts that "there remains a relatively low level of engagement and implementation of recommendations" on the part of States, and that the level of States compliance with treaty body recommendations is only 19%.

Other widely noted problems include the backlog of the Committee and the heavy burden on states, particularly small states.

Individual complaints to the Committee
States that are party to the First Optional Protocol to the ICCPR (currently 116 countries) have agreed to allow persons within their jurisdiction to submit complaints ("individual communications") to the Committee claiming that their rights under the ICCPR have been violated. The ICCPR is one of eight UN human rights treaties with individual complaints procedures available; two other treaties state such procedures that are not yet in force.

Procedure
Before considering the merits (substance) of an individual communication, the Committee must be satisfied that it is admissible. The Committee may review many factors in determining admissibility and may conclude that, for an individual communication to be admissible, it must:

 * be submitted by an individual victim whose rights have been personally violated, or be submitted with sufficient authorization of such an individual, or otherwise justify the reasons for being submitted on behalf of another. The Communication cannot be anonymous;
 * relate to a right actually protected under the ICCPR;
 * relate to events that occurred after entry into force of the First Optional Protocol for the state in question (with some exceptions, developed by the Committee);
 * be sufficiently substantiated;
 * show that domestic remedies have been exhausted;
 * not be under consideration by another international investigation or settlement procedure;
 * not be precluded by a reservation to the ICCPR by the state in question; and
 * not be frivolous, vexatious, or otherwise an abuse of process.

Individual communications that contain the necessary prima facie elements are referred to the Committee’s Special Rapporteur on New Communications and Interim Measures, who decides whether the case should be registered. At that point, the case is transmitted to the State party, which is requested to submit its observations within six months, under Article 4 of the First Optional Protocol. Once the State replies to the complaint, the complainant is offered an opportunity to comment, within a set time frame. If the Committee concludes that a violation of the ICCPR has taken place, in its follow-up procedure the Committee invites the State to provide information within 180 days on its steps to implement the Committee's recommendations. The State’s response is transmitted to the complainant for comments. If the State party fails to take appropriate action, the Committee keeps the case under consideration. Thus, the Committee maintains a dialogue with the State party and the case remains open until satisfactory measures are taken.

The Committee considers individual communications in closed session, but its decisions ("Views") and any follow-up are public. Given the large number of complaints, several years may elapse between submission of a complaint and the Committee’s decision on it.

Information on the process and how to use it, including examples and guidelines for submitting complaints, is available from some NGOs and the United Nations.

Decisions
All Committee decisions on individual complaints are available in online compilations published by UN, NGO, and academic sources.

The Committee has received thousands of complaints since its inception. A few of its decisions that are notable are listed below, in reverse chronological order. Among more recent decisions that attracted press and academic attention, in two October 2018 decisions the Committee concluded that France's ban on the niqab, the full-face Islamic veil, violated human rights guaranteed under the ICCPR, in particular the rights to manifest one's religion or beliefs and to protection against discrimination.

General Comments
To date the Committee has issued 36 "General Comments", each of which provides detailed guidance on particular parts of the ICCPR.

The Committee has circulated a draft of its next, forthcoming General Comment, General Comment 37 on ICCPR Article 21, the right of peaceful assembly, seeking public comments on the draft by an extended deadline of February 21, 2020. The draft has been criticized for its reliance on decisions of regional, as opposed to global, human rights bodies.

The Committee's most recent General Comment (of October 30, 2018) was General Comment 36 on ICCPR Article 6, on the right to life (replacing General Comments 6 and 14, of 1982 and 1984, respectively). Of its seventy paragraphs, twenty address capital punishment, in a section headed "The death penalty." One commentator has stated that its description of how the right to life applies during situations of armed conflict and its statement of the relationship between international human rights law and international humanitarian law are noteworthy.

In December 2014 the Committee issued General Comment 35 on ICCPR Article 9, "liberty and security of person".

In July 2011, the UN Human Rights Committee adopted a 52-paragraph statement, General Comment 34 on ICCPR Article 19, concerning freedoms of opinion and expression. Paragraph 48 states:
 * Prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with the Covenant, except in the specific circumstances envisaged in article 20, paragraph 2, of the Covenant. Such prohibitions must also comply with the strict requirements of article 19, paragraph 3, as well as such articles as 2, 5, 17, 18 and 26. Thus, for instance, it would be impermissible for any such laws to discriminate in favor of or against one or certain religions or belief systems, or their adherents over another, or religious believers over non-believers. Nor would it be permissible for such prohibitions to be used to prevent or punish criticism of religious leaders or commentary on religious doctrine and tenets of faith.

Inter-State Communications
The Covenant provides for inter-State complaints "that enables one State Party to charge another with a violation to the treaty." "[N]o interstate complaint mechanism has yet been submitted" (up to 2009). This is still a matter of jurisdiction and it is optional to the committee of whether or not they will accept such complaint or not.

title: United Nations Human Rights Committee


text:
Acadian French

Acadian French (français acadien, acadjonne) is a variety of French spoken by Acadians, mostly in the region of Acadia, Canada. Acadian French has 7 regional accents, including Chiac and Brayon.

Phonology
Since there was relatively little linguistic contact with France from the late 18th century to the 20th century, Acadian French retained features that died out during the French standardization efforts of the 19th century such as these:

 * The phoneme, Acadian French has retained an alveolar trill or an alveolar flap, but modern speakers pronounce it as in Parisian French: rouge (red) can be pronounced,  or.
 * In nonstandard Acadian French, the third-person plural ending of verbs ‹-ont›, such as ils mangeont (they eat), is still pronounced, unlike standard French (France and Quebec) ils mangent ( (France)/ or (Quebec)/ ), the ‹e› can be pronounced or not, but ‹-nt› is always silent.

According to Wiesmath (2006), some characteristics of Acadian are: These features typically occur in the speech of older people.
 * The verbal ending -ont in the third person plural
 * Palatalization of and  to  and, respectively
 * A feature called l'ouisme where bonne is pronounced

Many aspects of Acadian French (vocabulary and "trill r", etc.) are still common in rural areas in the South West of France. Speakers of Metropolitan French and even of other Canadian varieties of French sometimes have difficulty understanding Acadian French. Within North America, its closest relative is Louisiana French spoken in Southern Louisiana since both were born out of the same population that were affected during the Expulsion of the Acadians.

See also Chiac, a variety with strong English influence, and St. Marys Bay French, a distinct variety of Acadian French spoken around Clare, Tusket, Nova Scotia and also Moncton, New Brunswick.

Palatalization
not to be confused with affrication typical of Quebec French.
 * and are commonly replaced by  before a front vowel. For example, quel, queue, cuillère and quelqu'un are usually pronounced tchel, tcheue, tchuillère and tchelqu'un. Tiens is pronounced tchin.
 * and often become  (sometimes ) before a front vowel. For example, bon dieu and gueule become  and  in informal Acadian French. Braguette becomes . (This pronunciation led to the word Cajun, from Acadien.)

Metathesis
Metathesis is quite common. For example, mercredi ('Wednesday') is mercordi, and pauvreté ('poverty') is pauveurté. Je (the pronoun 'I') is frequently pronounced euj and Le is frequently pronounced eul.

In words, "re" is often pronounced "er". For instance :
 * erçu for "reçu", ertourner for "retourner", erpas for "repas", ergret for "regret", s'entertenir for "s'entretenir".

Vowels

 * Acadian French has maintained phonemic distinctions between and,  and ,  and ,  and.
 * In informal speech, the vowel is realized as : pas ('step')  →  and bras (arm)  →, etc.
 * The short is realized as  and it is the same as Parisian French.
 * is open to or closed to, it depends on the region: fête ('party')  →  or  and caisse ('case')  →  or , etc.
 * The ⟨oi⟩ spelling has different pronunciations. Old speakers pronounce it, because the traditional Parisian pronunciation was like this: roi ('king') . But in modern standard Acadian French, it is pronounced . Even where there is no circumflex, there are some words which are phonemically pronounced and the phoneme is pronounced as  in formal speech but  in informal speech: trois ('three')  or  and noix ('nut')  or . The ⟨oî⟩ spelling is phonemically , but old speakers pronounce it , while modern speakers pronounce it  as in Quebec French: boîte ('box')  or  and croître ('grow')  or , etc.

Elision of final consonants

 * Consonant clusters finishing a word are reduced, often losing altogether the last or two last consonants in informal speech: table ('table') →  and livre ('book'/'pound')  →, etc.

Vocabulary and grammar
Yves Cormier's Dictionnaire du français acadien (ComiersAcad) includes the majority of Acadian regionalisms. From a syntactic point of view, a major feature is the use of je for the first-person singular and plural; the same phenomenon takes place with i for the third persons. Acadian still differentiates the vous form from the tu form.

The following words and expressions are most commonly restricted to Acadian French south of the Miramichi River, but some are also used north of the Miramichi River and in Quebec French (also known as Québécois) or Joual for the Montreal version of Quebec French. The Miramichi line is an isogloss separating South Acadian (archaic or "true" Acadian) from the Canadian French dialects to the north, North Acadian, Brayon (Madawaskan) and Quebec French (Laurentian French). South Acadian typically has morphosyntactic features such as [je [V [-on] … ]] (as in je parlons "we speak") that distinguishes it from dialects to the north or elsewhere in the Americas such as Cajun French, Saint-Barthélemy French or Métis French that have [nouzot [on- [V …]]] (as in nous-autres on parle). Geddes (1908), the oldest authority on any variety of French spoken in Northern Acadia, records of the morphosyntactic characteristics of "true" Acadian spoken in the South and adjacent islands to the West.

Some examples of "true" Acadian French are:

 * achaler: 'to bother' (Fr: ennuyer) (very common in Quebec French)
 * ajeuve: (variation of achever, literally 'to complete') 'a while ago' (Fr: récemment, tout juste)
 * amanchure: 'thing, thingy, also the way things join together: the joint or union of two things' (Fr: chose, truc, machin)
 * amarrer: (literally, 'to moor') 'to tie' (Fr: attacher)
 * amoureux: (lit. 'lover') 'burdock' (Fr: (capitule de la) bardane; Quebec: toque, grakia) (also very common in Quebec French)
 * asteur: (contraction of à cette heure) 'now' (Fr: maintenant, à cette heure, désormais) (very common in Quebec French)
 * attoquer: 'to lean' (Fr: appuyer)
 * atentot: 'earlier' (Fr: plus tôt)
 * avoir de la misère: 'to have difficulty' (Fr: avoir de la difficulté, avoir du mal) (very common in Quebec French)
 * bailler: 'to give' (Fr: donner) (Usually 'to yawn')
 * baratte: 'a piece of machinery or tool of sorts that no longer works properly', e.g. "My car is a lemon so it is a baratte" (very common in New Brunswick)
 * batterie: 'the central passage through a barn (granges acadiennes) flanked by two storage bays adjacent to the eaves'.
 * besson: 'twin' (Fr: jumeau/jumelle)
 * boloxer: 'to confuse, disrupt, unsettle' (Fr: causer une confusion, déranger l'ordre régulier et établi)
 * Bonhomme Sept-heures: 'a fearful character of fairy tales who would visit unpleasant deeds upon young children if they did not go to bed at the designated hour'.
 * bord: (literally 'the side of a ship') l'autre bord meaning 'the other side (of a street, river, etc.'); changer de bord meaning 'changing sides (in a team competition)'; virer de bord meaning 'turning back or retracing one's steps'.
 * boucane: 'smoke, steam' (Fr: fumée, vapeur) (very common in Quebec French)
 * bouchure: 'fence' (Fr: clôture)
 * brâiller: 'to cry, weep' (Fr: pleurer) (very common in Quebec French)
 * brogane: 'work shoe, old or used shoe' (Fr: chaussure de travail, chaussure d'occasion)
 * brosse: 'drinking binge' (Fr: beuverie) (common in Quebec French)
 * caler: 'to sink' (Fr: sombrer, couler) (also 'to drink fast in one shot', caler une bière) (very common in Quebec French)
 * char: 'car' (Fr: voiture) (very common in Quebec French)
 * chassis: 'window' (Fr: fenêtre)
 * chavirer: 'to go crazy' (Fr: devenir fou, folle)
 * chu: 'I am' (Fr: je suis, or, colloquially chui) (very common in Quebec French)
 * cosses: 'peas, green beans' (Fr: mangetout)
 * cossé: 'what, or asking for information specifying something'. (Fr: quoi)
 * cotchiner: 'to cheat' (Fr: tricher)
 * coude: 'ship's knees' that are a distinctive and unusual structural feature of early Acadian houses.
 * Djâbe: 'Devil' (Fr: Diable)
 * de service: 'proper, properly' (Fr: adéquat, comme il faut)
 * èchell: (literally 'a ship's ladder') 'stairway' (Fr: échelle)
 * ej: 'I' (Fr: je)
 * élan: 'moment, while' (Fr: instant, moment)
 * erj: 'and I' (Fr: et je suis)
 * espèrer: 'to wait; say welcome, to invite' (Fr: attendre, inviter)
 * faire zire: 'to gross out' (Fr: dégouter)
 * farlaque: 'loose, wild, of easy virtue' (Fr: dévergondée, au moeurs légères)
 * fournaise: (lit. 'furnace') 'a wood stove, oven'
 * frette: 'cold' (Fr: froid) (very common in Quebec French)
 * fricot: 'traditional Acadian stew prepared with chicken, potatoes, onions, carrots, dumplings (lumps of dough), and seasoned with savoury'
 * garrocher: 'to throw, chuck' (Fr: lancer) (very common in Quebec French)
 * le grand mènage: 'spring cleaning', often more comprehensive than in other cultures.
 * greer: (literally, 'rigging of a ship's masts') 'to describe a woman's attire or decoration of a youngster's bicycle'.
 * grenier: 'a sleeping loft'.
 * hardes: 'clothes, clothing' (Fr: vêtements)
 * harrer: 'to beat, maltreat' (Fr: battre ou traiter pauvrement, maltraîter)
 * hucher: 'to cry out, scream' (Fr: appeler (qqn) à haute voix)
 * icet: 'precisely here' (Fr: ici)
 * icitte: 'here; around here' (Fr: ici)
 * innocent: 'simple, foolish or stupid' (Fr: simple d'esprit, bête, qui manque de jugement) (very common in Quebec French)
 * itou: 'also, too' (Fr: aussi, de même, également) (common in Quebec French)
 * larguer: (literally 'loosening a ship's mooring lines') 'to let go of any object'
 * maganer: 'to overwork, wear out, tire, weaken' (Fr: traiter durement, malmener, fatiguer, affaiblir, endommager, détériorer) (very common in Quebec French)
 * mais que: 'when' + future tense (Fr: lorsque, quand (suivi d'un futur))
 * malin/maline: 'mean or angry' (lit. malignant)
 * marabout: 'to be irritated or angry'
 * mitan: 'middle, centre' (Fr: milieu, centre)
 * orignal: 'moose'
 * païen: (lit. 'pagan') 'hick, uneducated person, peasant' (Fr: )
 * palote: 'clumsy' (Fr: maladroit)
 * parker: 'park' (Fr: stationner)
 * pâté chinois: 'a shepherd's pie casserole of mashed potatoes, ground meat, and corn'.
 * peste: 'bad odor' (Fr: puenteur)
 * pire à yaller/au pire à yaller: 'at worst' (Fr: au pire)
 * plaise: 'plaice' (Fr: plie)
 * ploquer: 'having or showing determined courage' (lit. 'plucky')
 * ploye: 'buckwheat pancake', a tradition of Edmundston, New Brunswick, also common in Acadian communities in Maine (Fr: crêpe au sarrasin)
 * point, poinne: 'not', or a similar term of negation (Fr: pas)
 * pomme de pré: (lit. 'meadow apple') American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) (Fr: canneberge; Quebec: atoca)
 * pot-en-pot: 'a meat pie of venison, rabbits, and game birds'.
 * poutine râpée: 'a ball made of grated potato with pork in the centre', a traditional Acadian dish
 * quai: 'a portable wheeled boating pier pulled out of the water to avoid ice damage'.
 * qu'ri: (from quérir) 'to fetch, go get' (Fr: aller chercher)
 * rinque: 'just'
 * se haler: (lit. 'to haul oneself') 'to hurry' (Fr: se dépêcher)
 * se badjeuler: 'to argue' (Fr: se disputer)
 * soira: 'see you later' (Fr: au revoir)
 * j'étions: 'we were' (Fr: nous étions)
 * ils étiont: 'they were' (Fr: ils étaient)
 * taweille: 'Mikmaq woman, traditionally associated with medicine or Midewiwin' (Fr: Amérindienne)
 * tchequ'affaire, tchequ'chouse, quètchose, quotchose: 'something' (Fr: quelque chose) (quètchose and quechose are common in Quebec French)
 * tcheque, tcheques: 'a few' (Fr: quelque)
 * tête de violon: 'ostrich fern fiddlehead' (Matteuccia struthiopteris)
 * tétine-de-souris: (lit. 'mouse tit') 'slender glasswort, an edible green plant that grows in salt marshes' (Salicornia europaea) (Fr: salicorne d'Europe)
 * tintamarre: 'din' (also refers to an Acadian noisemaking tradition whereby people gather in the streets and parade through town)
 * tourtiéres: 'meat pies', sometimes with potatoes.
 * valdrague: 'in disorder or confusion'
 * vaillant, vaillante: 'active, hard-working, brave' (Fr: actif, laborieux, courageux) (common in Quebec French)

Numerals

 * In the Nova Scotian communities of Wedgeport and Pubnico the numbers soixante-dix ('seventy'), quatre-vingts ('eighty') and quatre-vingt-dix ('ninety') are instead called septante, huitante and nonante respectively, a phenomenon also observed in Swiss French and Belgian French.

Passé simple
St. Marys Bay French, a conservative dialect of Acadian French spoken in the St. Marys Bay, Nova Scotia region, is notable for maintaining use of the passé simple in spoken conversation. In most modern dialects of French, the tense is only used in formal writing and formal speech.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Acadian French


text:
User:Felix Wan/Draft/Penkyamp

''This draft only serves as a source for the brief mention of Penkyamp in a future article on Cantonese Romanization. Since the community found this article invalid and the consensus was to delete it, it should not be reinstated unless substantial evidence of its validity could be found later. No article in the main encyclopedia space should link here.''

'''The best way to learn Penkyamp is to keep copying Sample Hanzi-Penkyamp Texts by hand, which can be easily searched on Google using the keywords "penkyamp" "拼音范文". 学习广东话拼音最好的方法就是不断地手抄能用谷歌搜到的"penkyamp" "拼音范文". '''

Penkyamp (Chinese: 拼音; Yale: ping3 yam1, Jyutping: ping3 jam1) or Cantonese pinyin, is a romanization system for transliterating Cantonese Chinese. It is a joint effort of enthusiasts in Guangzhou with a goal of devicing an alternative script to write Cantonese, replacing the standard Chinese characters plus the Cantonese folk characters. It is an attempt to standardize the language spoken by large number of residents in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Sydney, Auckland, Vancouver and San Francisco, from the status of a vernacular to that of a literary language.

On the other hand, the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong adopts another Cantonese Romanization called Jyutping, which is not yet popularized among Cantonese-English or English-Cantonese dictionaries. The current most widely accepted system for Cantonese Romanization are Meyer-Wempe and Yale.

Both Penkyamp and Jyutping are attempts to improve from previous systems. The features of Penkyamp includes:
 * reflects the vowel system of Cantonese more systematically than Jyutping by recognizing all long-short vowel contrasts,
 * whereas Jyutping only recognizes short a and long a.
 * indicates long and short vowels using the unique orthographic feature of altering the ending consonant of the shengmu.
 * does not have the ambiguous distinction between "oe" and "eu" (as in Jyutping).
 * treats the two (not three) front-round vowels using the same silent vowel letter "e", placed before the substantial vowel
 * categorizes the other front-round vowel (an underdeveloped one) as a short "o".
 * does not use the consonant "j", which is used in traditional Cantonese anglicization as "z" instead of "y" (as in Jyutping).

The following descriptions applies to Penkyamp.

Alphabet
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P (q) S T U W Y Z

Shengmus (Consonants aided by International Phonetic Alphabets. In order to see proper display of IPA, you must download a Unicode font)

 * B [p] unaspirated
 * C [tsʰ] aspirated
 * D [t] unaspirated
 * F [f]
 * G [k] unaspirated
 * H [h]
 * K [kʰ] aspirated
 * L [l]
 * M [m]
 * N [n]
 * P [pʰ] aspirated
 * S [s]
 * T [tʰ] aspirated
 * W [w]
 * Y [j]
 * Z [ts] unaspirated

Special Attention

 * C is [tsʰ] as "tz" in Politzer.
 * Z [tz] is the unaspirated form of C.
 * q is a glottal stop [ʔ], Arabic "hamsa", as it appears in Cantonese interjection lâq, which is interchangeable with lâg.

Yunmus
Vowels:
 * long: A E I O U Eo Eu
 * short: Ah Eh Oh
 * diphthongs1: Ai Oi Ui Au Iu Ay Ey Oy Aw Ow
 * diphthongs2: single vowels and diphthongs1 preceded by semi-vowel u, such as uay as in guây (expensive)

Yunmus aided by International Phonetic Symbols

long

 * A [a] ("a" alone or followed by "g", "b", "d", "ng", "m", "n", "i", "u")
 * E [ɛ] open-mid front unrounded
 * I [i]
 * O [ɔ]open-mid back rounded
 * U [u]
 * Eo [ɶ] open-mid front rounded
 * Eu [y]

short

 * Ah [ɐ]open-mid back unrounded ("a" followed by "h", "k", "p", "t", "nk", "mp", "nt", "y", "w")
 * Eh [e] close-mid front unrounded ("e" followed by above)
 * Oh [o] close-mid back rounded ("o" followed by above)

diphthongs

 * Ai [ai]
 * Oi [ɔy]
 * Ui [uy]
 * Au [au]
 * Iu [iw]
 * Ay [ɐj]
 * Ey [ej]
 * Oy [øy] (ø is mid-close front rounded)
 * Aw [ɐu]
 * Ow [ow]

Short vowels are those in short yunmus, and long vowels in long yunmus. All short vowels are pronounced with tighter, smaller enclosure of lips than are their long counterparts.

Orthography
Long yunmus followed by consonants:
 * Ru:
 * Ab Ad Ag
 * Ping/shang/qu:
 * Am An Ang
 * Eg Eng
 * Ib Id Im In
 * Od Og On Ong
 * Ud Un

Short yunmus followed by consonants:
 * Ru:
 * Ap At Ak
 * P/S/Q:
 * Amp Ant Ank
 * Ek Enk
 * Ot Ok Ont Onk

Tones

 * 1) Yin1Ping2 or high Yin1Ru4 (Yamp1Penk4 cum high Yamp1Yap6): a1, ä (umlaut)
 * 2) Yin1Shang3(Yamp1Seong5): a2, ã (tilde)
 * 3) Yin1Qu4 or low Yin1Ru4 (Yamp1Hoy3 cum low Yamp1Yap6): a3, â (circumflex)
 * 4) Yang2Ping2(Yeong4Penk4): a4, a (plain)
 * 5) Yang2Shang3(Yeong4Seong5): a5, á (acute)
 * 6) Yang2Qu4(Yeong4Hoy3): a6, à (grave)

6 tones represented by numerical scales of pitch, "1" being the lowest, "6" the highest"

 * First: "Zäw" tone, scale= 66
 * Second: "Hãw" tone, scale= 35
 * Third: "Dîm" tone, scale= 44
 * Fourth: "Ho" tone, scale= 11
 * Fifth: "Mów", scale=24
 * Sixth: "Dòw", scale=22

Either the tone numbers 1-6 or the diacritic marks may be used

 * note: a shortcut for memorizing all 6 of them is a couplet:
 * Zaw1 Haw2 Dim3, Ho4 Mow2 Dow6
 * Zhou1 Kou3 Dian4, He2 Mu3 Du4 (Mandarin)
 * (周口店, 河姆渡)

Zhoukoudian is an archeological site near Beijing containing a 500,000 year old Homo Erectus habitat; Hemudu is a Zhejiang archeological site of Neolithic human activities

Sample
Text sample in the Standard Cantonese Penk3yamp1 (simplified Chinese text are place holders for now):

Fonts
Cantonese font:
 * ÀÁAÂÃÄ, ÈÉEÊẼË, ÌÍIÎĨÏ, ÒÓOÔÕÖ, ÙÚUÛŨÜ;
 * àáaâãä, èéeêẽë, ìíiîĩï, òóoôõö, ùúuûũü;

http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/ti/guide_test_unicode_utf8_B.html

Missing from common Western fonts:
 * E-tilde Ẽ ẽ
 * I-tilde Ĩ ĩ
 * U-tilde Ũ ũ

They are obtainable from Vietnamese font.

http://www.xuquang.com/trungdao/unicode.htm

Example of Penkyamp
"Nanhai Chao" (pinyin for 南海潮, penkyamp Nam4 Hoi2 Ciu4), or "Southern Sea Tides", is a song of the overseas Cantonese. Its melody is based on the folk songs of the boat people in the Pearl River Delta and its adjacent coasts.

 * 紅霞满洒粤天東破曉
 * 蒸蒸日上序華章
 * 紅棉紫荆又添千百朶
 * 欣欣萬世象

 * 我見江潮依然推起那舢板
 * 卻是穿過玉宇瓊樓新靚景
 * 我叫海潮波淘不要這洶涌
 * 隔住一片萬里大洋帰心切

Translation:

 * Red clouds are overtaking the Cantonese sky at daybreak,
 * The rising sun preludes an elegant prose;
 * The silk trees (symbolizing Guangzhou) and redbuds (symbolizing Hong Kong) adds hundreds and thousands of blooms again,
 * What a prosperous picture to last forever!

 * I see river tides still pushing that "sampan" (an Asian boat),
 * But it rafts through a refreshing scene of edifaces of jade.
 * I tell the ocean not to be so turbulant,
 * Across from thousands of miles of ocean I am home sick.

Penkyamp transliteration:

 * Honkha mún sã Yeùd tïn dönk pôhiũ
 * Zënkzënkyàtseóng zòy wazeöng
 * Honkmin zĩgënk yàw tïm cïnbâg dõ
 * Yäntyänt mànsây zeòng

 * Ngó gîn göngciu yïyin töy hẽy ná sänbãn
 * Keôgsì ceün guô yôkyeúkenklaw sänt lêng gẽnk
 * Ngó gîu hõiciu bötow bätyîu zé hönkyõnk
 * Gâg zeù yät pîn mànléy dàiyeong guäysämpcîd

Variant
There were complaints that using final consonants to determine vowel length was counter-intuitive and that "eu" and "eo" were unconventional. So a variant called "Gwohngdongwaa pengyam" was created. These were the changes:

Initial "z" was replaced by "j".

Vowels:
 * long: aa(ah) eh(ee) i oh(oo) u oe ue
 * short: a e o
 * diphthongs1: aay(ai) ooy(oi) uy aaw(au) iw ay ey oy aw ow
 * diphthongs2: single vowels and diphthongs were preceded by semi-vowel w, such as way as in gwây (expensive)

Consonant endings were made consistent: m n ng p t k

Romanisation cantonaise &

title: User:Felix Wan/Draft/Penkyamp


text:
Battle of Legnica

The Battle of Legnica (bitwa pod Legnicą), also known as the Battle of Liegnitz (Schlacht von Liegnitz) or Battle of Wahlstatt (Schlacht bei Wahlstatt), was fought between the Mongol Empire and combined European forces that took place at the village of Legnickie Pole (Wahlstatt), approximately 10 km southeast of the city of Legnica in the Duchy of Silesia on 9 April 1241.

A combined force of Poles and Moravians under the command of Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia, supported by feudal nobility and a few knights from military orders sent by Pope Gregory IX, attempted to halt the Mongol invasion of Poland. The battle took place two days before the Mongol victory over the Hungarians at the much larger Battle of Mohi.

Historical disputations
As with many historical battles, the exact details of force composition, tactics, and the actual course of the battle are lacking and sometimes contradictory.

The general historical view is that it was a crushing defeat for the Polish and Moravian forces where they suffered heavy casualties.

One of the Mongol leaders, Kadan, was frequently confused with Ögedei's grandson Kaidu by medieval chroniclers, and thus Kaidu has often been mistakenly listed as leading the Mongol forces at Legnica.

Background
The Mongols considered the Cumans to have submitted to their authority, but the Cumans fled westward and sought asylum within the Kingdom of Hungary. After King Béla IV of Hungary rejected Batu Khan's ultimatum to surrender the Cumans, Subutai began planning the Mongol invasion of Europe. Batu and Subutai were to lead two armies to attack Hungary itself, while a third under Baidar, Orda Khan and Kadan would attack Poland as a diversion to occupy northern European forces which might come to Hungary's aid.

Orda's forces devastated northern Poland and the southwestern border of Lithuania. Baidar and Kadan ravaged the southern part of Poland: first they sacked Sandomierz in order to draw the Northern European armies away from Hungary; then on 3 March they defeated a Polish army in the battle of Tursko; then on 18 March they defeated another Polish army at Chmielnik; on 24 March they seized and burned Kraków, and a few days later they tried unsuccessfully to capture the Silesian capital of Wrocław (Breslau). While deciding whether or not to besiege Wrocław, Baidar and Kadan received reports that King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia was two days away with an army over twice the size of Henry's. The Mongols turned from Wrocław to intercept Henry's forces before the European armies could meet. The Mongols caught up with Henry near Legnica at Legnickie Pole (Polish for "Field of Legnica"), also known as Wahlstatt.

Mongols

The Mongol diversionary force, a detachment (no less than one and no more than two tumens) from the army of Subutai, demonstrated the advantages of the tactical mobility and speed of horse archers. The Mongol tactics were essentially a long series of feigned attacks and faked withdrawals from widely dispersed groups, which were designed to inflict a constant slow drain by ranged fire, disrupt the enemy formation and draw larger numbers away from the main body into ambush and flank attacks. These were standard Mongol tactics used in virtually all of their major battles; they were made possible by continual training and superb battlefield communication, which used a system of flags. The Mongol commander found the highest ground at the battle site, seized it and used it to communicate to his noyans and lesser commanders their orders for troop movement. The Mongol system was a stark contrast to the European systems, in which knights advanced with basically no communication with supporting forces.

The numbers involved are difficult to judge. European accounts vary as to Mongol numbers—some suggest more than 100,000 at Legnica alone. These are gross overestimates, given that this number is far larger than the entire Mongol force in all of Europe, as well as not taking into account the weaknesses of 13th-century Mongol logistical support in Western Eurasia. Current estimates suggest the Mongol force numbered, at most, 25,000 cavalry. The Historia Tatarorum by the Franciscan C. de Bridia Monachi suggests a Mongol force of 10,000 troops, which would have been reduced to around 8,000 after casualties suffered earlier in the campaign, at the Battle of Chmielnik, Battle of Tursko, and the Battle of Tarczek. A contemporary European account, the Ystoria Mongalorum, supports these numbers, placing the Mongol force that invaded Poland at 10,000 horsemen.

Polish states and allies
According to James Chambers, Henry's force numbered at most 25,000 troops, most likely less, and had a large number of untrained and poorly equipped men, sometimes with no weapons other than the tools of their trade. Lesser trained forces included an army from Opole under Duke Mieszko II the Fat; Moravians led by Boleslav, son of the Margrave of Moravia Děpolt III; conscripts from Greater Poland; and volunteer Bavarian miners from not long before established town of Goldberg (Złotoryja). Henry's better trained troops were his own gathered in his Silesian realm, mercenaries, and very small contingents of French Knights Templar and other foreign volunteers.

Historian Marek Cetwiński estimates the allied force to have been 2,000 strong, while Gerard Labuda estimates 7,000–8,000 soldiers in the Christian army.

A contingent of Teutonic Knights of indeterminate number is traditionally believed to have joined the allied army. However, recent analysis of the 15th-century Annals of Jan Długosz by Labuda suggests that the German crusaders may have been added to the text after chronicler Długosz had completed the work. A legend that the Prussian Landmeister of the Teutonic Knights, Poppo von Osterna, was killed during the battle is false, as he died at Legnica years later while visiting his wife's nunnery. The Hospitallers have also been said to have participated in this battle, but this too seems to be a fabrication added in later accounts; neither Jan Długosz's accounts nor the letter sent to the King of France from the Templar Master of France, Ponce d'Aubon, mention them. Peter Jackson further points out that the only military order that fought at Legnica was the Templars. The Templar contribution was very small, estimated around 68–88 well-trained, well-armed soldiers; their letter to the king of France gives their losses as three brother knights, two sergeants and 500 'men'—according to their use of the term, probably peasants working their estates and thus neither better armed or trained than the rest of the army's infantry.

The battle
Henry divided his forces into four sections: the Bavarian miners led by Boleslav of Moravia; the conscripts from Greater Poland along with some Cracovians led by Sulisław, the brother of the killed palatine of Kraków; the army of Opole under Mieszko; and, under Henry's personal command, the Silesians, Moravians, and Templars.

According to Chambers' description of the battle, the Silesian cavalry initiated combat with the vanguard (mangudai) of the Mongol army. After the Silesians were repelled, the cavalry of Greater Poland, led by Sulisław, and the cavalry of Opole then attacked the Mongols. The Mongol vanguard retreated, inducing the allied cavalry to pursue, thereby separating them from the Polish infantry. Although the mangudai fled, Mongol light cavalry flanked the Polish forces. A smokescreen was used to hide the Mongol movements and confuse the Europeans. While the Mongol light cavalry attacked from the flanks and the heavy cavalry attacked from the front, Mongol archers peppered the Polish forces with arrows.

Erik Hildinger indicates that the levies of Boleslav led the attack, instead of the Silesians. He adds that after the Polish cavalry began their pursuit during the Mongols' feigned retreat, a rider shouted "Run! Run!" (in Polish) to the Polish forces, confusing Mieszko, who ordered his Opole contingent to retreat from the battle. This withdrawal led Henry to order his own reserves and cavalry into the fight.

The Mongols had much success in the battle by feigning their retreat. After the Polish knights detached from the main body of allied forces in pursuit of the fleeing Mongols, the invaders were able to separate the knights from the infantry and defeat them one by one.

The Annals of Jan Długosz also describes the battle, although it was written in the 15th century, not when it actually occurred. The army of Henry II was almost destroyed—Henry and Boleslav of Moravia were killed and estimates of casualties range from 2,000 to 40,000, essentially the entire army. Ponce d'Aubon reported to King Louis IX of France that the military order lost 500 people, both in Legnica and subsequent raids on three Templar villages and two "towers" among them nine brothers, three knights, and two sergeants. This number likely included civilians of the villages. Mongol casualties are unknown; a perfect execution of their standard tactics would have minimized losses, but the Mongols endured sufficient casualties to dissuade them from attacking the Bohemian army.

The Mongols cut the right ear off each fallen European in order to count the dead; supposedly they filled nine sackfuls, though this has as much validity as European accounts of the numbers of Mongols. Henry was struck down and beheaded while attempting to flee the battlefield with three bodyguards, and the Mongols paraded his head on a spear before the town of Legnica.

Conclusion

Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, who had been a day's march away, fell back to gather reinforcements from Thuringia and Saxony upon learning of the defeat. He was overtaken by the Mongol vanguard at Kłodzko. However, his force was far larger and more powerful than the host at Legnica, and the Mongol detachment was routed by the Bohemian cavalry. As Baidar and Kadan's orders had been to serve as a diversion, they stayed to keep the Bohemian forces tied up, avoiding confrontation with the larger army while splitting up into bands and sacking minor towns and villages. Eventually, they turned away from Bohemia and Poland and headed southward to join Batu and Subutai, who had defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohi.

Larger invasions of Poland, devoted primarily to looting, would be launched later. Led by Burundai, the Mongols successfully raided Poland in 1259–1260. They raided again under the leadership of Tulabuga and Nogai Khan, accompanied by vassal troops from Ruthenia, but were unsuccessful in 1287. Although the Mongols repeatedly expressed a desire to conquer central Europe in ultimatums up to the 1270s, Poland and Hungary stayed outside of the Golden Horde's sphere of influence. The Russian lands to their east remained under the rule of the Golden Horde for the next two centuries. The Battle of Legnica is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "LEGNICA 9 IV 1241".

title: Battle of Legnica


text:
Mount Allison University

Mount Allison University (also Mount A or MtA) is a Canadian primarily undergraduate liberal arts university located in Sackville, New Brunswick, founded in 1839.

Mount Allison was the first university in the British Empire to award a baccalaureate to a woman (Grace Annie Lockhart, B.Sc., 1875). It was also the first university in Canada to grant a bachelor of arts to a woman (Harriet Starr Stewart in 1882). Graduates of Mount Allison have been awarded a total of 56 Rhodes Scholarships, the highest per capita of any university in the Commonwealth of Nations.

History
Mount Allison traces its roots to 1839 when a Sackville merchant proposed the creation of a school of elementary and higher learning. The university is a secular (but United Church-affiliated) primarily undergraduate liberal arts university, with classes beginning in Sackville, New Brunswick, on January 19, 1843. Mount Allison was named after Charles Frederick Allison, in honour of his gift of land and money. Its origins were steeped in the Methodist faith and it was designed to prepare men for the ministry and to supply education for lay members. The university was chartered on April 14, 1849.

In June 1839, Charles Allison was encouraged by Wesleyan Methodist minister Rev. John Bass Strong that a school of elementary and higher learning be built. Allison offered to purchase a site in Sackville to erect a suitable building for an academy and to contribute operating funds of £100 a year for 10 years. This offer was accepted and the Wesleyan Academy for boys subsequently opened in 1843.

In 1854, a women's institution (later known as the "Ladies College") was opened to complement the boys' academy. In 1858 an Act of the New Brunswick Legislature authorized the trustees to establish a degree-conferring institution at Sackville, under the name of the Mount Allison Wesleyan College.

In July 1862, the degree-granting Mount Allison College was organized. The first two students, Howard Sprague and Josiah Wood, graduated in May 1863.

For nearly a century, Mount Allison functioned as three distinct, mutually enriching parts: the College proper, the Boys' Academy, and the Ladies College. The corporate name was changed to University of Mount Allison College in 1886.

The university's affiliation was transferred to the United Church of Canada following church union in 1925. Original components of the university included: the Mount Allison Wesleyan Academy for Boys (1840–1958), the Ladies' College (1854–1958), and Mount Allison College. Mount Allison College was established in 1862 with degree-granting powers on behalf of the other two.

The governance was modeled on the provincial University of Toronto Act of 1906 which established a bicameral system of university government consisting of a senate (faculty), responsible for academic policy, and a board of governors (citizens) exercising exclusive control over financial policy and having formal authority in all other matters. The president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and to perform institutional leadership.

American chemist James B. Sumner, who won the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, taught at Mount Allison as a teaching fellow from 1910 to 1911.

By 1920, Mount Allison University had three faculties: Arts, Theology, and Engineering. It awarded the degrees of Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Divinity (BD), and Master of Arts. It had 246 male students and 73 female students, as well as 28 academic staff, all male.

In 1941, Mount Allison was the first university in Canada to offer a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree in visual arts, however the teaching of art at Mount Allison can be traced back to the opening of the Women's Academy in 1854.

The closure of the School for Girls in 1946 and the Boy's Academy in 1953 coincided with a period of expansion and provided much-needed space for the growing university. In 1958, a period of construction and acquisition of buildings began, easing the strain of overcrowding at the institution. At this time the university board and administration decided to reaffirm the traditional aims of Mount Allison in providing a high-quality undergraduate liberal arts education, along with continuing to offer professional programs in already-established fields. As such, the university decided not to compete for new professional programs and generally avoided post-graduate course development.

The policy of university education initiated in the 1960s responded to population pressure and the belief that higher education was a key to social justice and economic productivity for individuals and for society. Mount Allison University was established by the Mount Allison University Act, 1993.

Mount Allison University's arms and badge were registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority on November 15, 2007.

Academics
The mission statement of Mount Allison University promotes "the creation and dissemination of knowledge in a community of higher learning, centred on the undergraduate student and delivered in an intimate and harmonious environment". Mount Allison currently offers bachelor's degrees in arts, science, commerce, fine arts, and music, as well as master's degrees in biology and chemistry and biochemistry, and certificates in bilingualism. A Bachelor's degree in Science, Arts or Commerce with a major in Aviation has been developed in conjunction with the Moncton Flight College.

The university's enrollment was 2,288 full-time students plus 91 part-time students in Fall 2021.

Architecture
Mount Allison’s campus is distinguished by its architecture, characterized by the distinctive red and olive sandstone that clads most of the buildings. The more prominent red sandstone was largely quarried in Sackville at the Pickard quarry, which was owned by the university from 1930 until it was sold to the Town of Sackville in 2022.

In most cases, the present campus is much newer than the age of the institution, which was founded in the mid-19th century. At that time, the original Mount Allison buildings were wooden clapboarded structures all painted white. Succumbing to fires or demolition, these earlier buildings have been replaced with brick or stone structures, although a unique and significant instance of early Mount Allison wooden architecture survives at the centre of campus: the President's Cottage of 1857. Noted architectural historian, John Leroux, who is working with visual artist Thaddeus Holownia on a book about the university's architecture, calls the campus "one of the finest in Canada" and says some of the most beautiful buildings built in New Brunswick in the last 100 years are located at Mount Allison.

In particular, Leroux names the Mount Allison chapel as one of the most significant buildings in the province, saying, "It is exquisite. It is nearly a perfect building." The chapel is a masterwork of the Ontario-based architecture firm of Brown, Brisley and Brown, who designed numerous new buildings and transformed the site configuration of Mount Allison in the mid- to late-1960s and early 1970s into the landscape it is today. Paramount of their scheme was the creation of the central courtyard with the chapel as a focus at one end, and the Library's gateway colonnade overlooking the town and Convocation Hall at the other. Among the other Brown, Brisley and Brown buildings completed at Mount Allison between 1964 and 1980 are: the Gairdner Fine Arts Building, the Marjorie Young Bell Conservatory of Music, the Barclay Chemistry Building, Edwards House, Thornton House, the Ralph Pickard Bell Library, and the Harold Crabtree Building.

Other significant buildings are the Owens Art Gallery, the oldest university art gallery in Canada, which opened in 1895, and Hammond House, the only registered National Historic Site in the Town of Sackville. Both were designed by noted Toronto architect Edmund Burke. The Queen Anne Revival-style Hammond House was originally built for Canadian artist and head of the Fine Arts department John Hammond in 1896. It now serves as the President's residence.

Several campus buildings were designed by architect Andrew R. Cobb, including the Memorial Library (1926–27; demol. 2011), Flemington Building (1930–31), and Centennial Hall (1883–84, but redesigned by Cobb in 1933 after the original was gutted by fire).

The Memorial Library (renamed University Centre in 1970) was constructed in the Tudor-inspired Gothic Revival style. The library also included a set of plaques, now located on the ground floor atrium of the Wallace McCain Student Centre, which are listed in the Canadian Forces' National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials – No. 13002-004. The plaques list the names of Allisonians who died at war. Every year since 1927, the names of each of the fallen are read aloud during the university's annual Remembrance Day service.

The Wallace McCain Student Centre, originally constructed as a men's residence (Trueman House) in 1945 and designed by Halifax architect C.A. Fowler, was gutted and repurposed in 2008, keeping the exterior form and stone walls intact.

The newest building on campus is the Purdy Crawford Centre for the Arts, which opened in 2014. Housing the Pierre Lassonde School of Fine Arts and the department of drama, the building features art studios, a large atrium, and the 100-seat Motyer-Fancy Theatre. Designed by the internationally honoured Canadian architecture firm Zeidler Partnership, it was featured in Canadian Architect magazine in March 2015.

Social life
Social life at Mount Allison tends to focus on extracurricular activities: there are 140 clubs and societies and over 30 varsity, club, and intramural sports teams.

Mount Allison students also socialize at places like Gracie's, The Pond (campus pub), Ducky's, Joey's, and the Bridge Street Café.

Mount Allison's campus paper, The Argosy, is an independent publication produced weekly. The publication dates from 1872, making it one of the oldest student publications in the country. The campus and community radio station, CHMA 106.9 FM, is owned and operated by the members of Attic Broadcasting Company Ltd., a non-profit organization with its offices on the university campus.

Tintamarre theatre company was founded at Mount Allison by Professor Alex Fancy and produces a bilingual collective show each year, staged at the Motyer-Fancy Theatre and later presented at junior and senior high schools throughout the Maritime provinces. A performing arts series is held at Convocation Hall (one of the largest concert halls east of Montreal) during the school year, and the annual President's Speakers Series brings nationally and internationally renowned speakers to campus each year.

Fine Art students run START Gallery within Struts Gallery, a CARFAC artist-run center.

Student government
The Mount Allison Students' Union (MASU) represents all full- and part-time students at Mount Allison. It operates as a membership-based non-profit corporation and was incorporated in 1980 under the New Brunswick Companies Act.

Administration
Mount Allison University 107726820RR0001 was registered as a charitable organization in Canada on January 1, 1967. The primary areas in which the charity is now carrying on programs to achieve its charitable purposes, ranked according to the percentage of time and resources devoted to each program area follow:

 * Universities and colleges 97%
 * Scholarships, bursaries, awards 3%

The charity carried on charitable programs to further its charitable purpose(s) (as defined in its governing documents) this fiscal period:

 * Provides rigorous liberal education primarily to undergraduate students in a co-educational intimate residential environment.
 * Provides scholarships, bursaries and awards to students.

Notable alumni
• Robert Barritt, Bermudian painter and politician

• Kate Beaton, Cartoonist

• Louise Belcourt, artist

• Marc Bell, cartoonist

• Winthrop Pickard Bell, historian and philosopher

• Rick Black, CFL football player, Grey Cup champion

• Tricia Black, actress, comedian

• Harold Lothrop Borden, military officer

• John Bragg, O.C., industrialist

• Kate Braid, poet

• John Buchanan, Premier of Nova Scotia, senator

• Henry Burr, entertainer

• Catherine Callbeck, Premier of Prince Edward Island and businesswoman

• David W. Chappell, professor of Chinese religion, University of Hawaii

• Herménégilde Chiasson, Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick

• Erminie Cohen, Senator

• Suzanne Cowan, president of the Liberal Party of Canada

• Alex Colville, P.C., C.C., artist

• Marilyn Trenholme Counsell, physician, Senator, Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick

• Purdy Crawford,, lawyer, business executive, philanthropist

• Frank Parker Day (RS), author, educator, president of Union College (NY), 1929–1933

• Michael de Adder, cartoonist

• James M. Dickson, Q.C., jurist and business leader

• Muriel McQueen Fergusson, senator

• Aida McAnn Flemming, educator, animal welfare advocate

• Daniel Gaudet, Olympic gymnast

• Heward Grafftey, politician and businessman

• John James Grant, Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia

• John Gray, playwright

• Anna Greenwood-Lee, Anglican bishop

• Don Hannah, playwright and novelist

• Ian Hanomansing, journalist

• Brent Hawkes, LGBT rights activist and minister

• Sheila A. Hellstrom, first woman Regular Force member to achieve the rank of Brigadier-General

• Bonnie Henry, first female Provincial Health Officer for British Columbia (2018-)

• John Peters Humphrey, jurist

• Jimmy Kempe, Bermudian Olympic sailor (1923-2018)

• Greg Kerr, former Member of Parliament for West Nova

• Eric Lapointe, CFL football player, Hec Crighton Trophy winner

• Leslie M. Little, justice of the federal Tax Court of Canada

• Max Liboiron, environmental artist and scientist, professor of geography, Memorial University of Newfoundland

• Kevin G. Lynch, Vice-Chair, BMO Financial Group

• Mary Florence MacDonald, curator

• Angus MacLean, Premier of Prince Edward Island

• J. Michael MacDonald, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia

• Margaret McCain, O.C., Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick

• Wallace McCain, C.C., industrialist

• Abner Reid McClelan, 10th Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick

• Mary Mellish, educator

• Moses Morgan (RS), academic

• Arthur Motyer, (RS) playwright, novelist, professor emeritus

• David Myles, singer-songwriter

• Christopher Pratt, C.C., artist

• Mary Pratt, C.C., artist

• Watson Elkinah Reid, architect Hotel del Coronado

• Ivan Rand, jurist

• John Henry Reardon, actor

• Edgar Ritchie (RS), Canadian Ambassador to the United States (1966–1970) and Ireland (1976–1980)

• Brenda Mary Robertson, first female in the New Brunswick Legislature; Order of Canada

• Alison Sealy-Smith, actor and founding director of Obsidian Theatre

• Sir Cuthbert Sebastian, Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis

• Scott Simms, former Member of Parliament for Bonavista—Gander—Grand Falls—Windsor

• John Clarence Webster, physician and historian

• Robert Winters, politician

Athletics
The school's team name in Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) is the Mount Allison Mounties. The football team has appeared in the Vanier Cup national college football championship game twice (1984 & 1991). The Mount Allison football team also made playoff appearances in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2013, and 2014. The team won the 2013 AUS championship, but lost to the Laval Rouge et Or in the Uteck Bowl (the national college football semi final) and in 2014, losing to McMaster in the Mitchell Bowl.

Mount Allison is also home to a CIS-level women's hockey team, as well as swim, badminton, and soccer teams. Basketball and volleyball teams compete against colleges and other smaller universities.

Mount Allison is the winner of the first ever ACAA men's rugby championship in 2007 and remained undefeated through 2010, resulting in four consecutive championships. In both 2008 and 2009, the men's and women's Mounties remained undefeated throughout the regular season and became ACAA champions. The university women's hockey team plays at the Tantramar Civic Centre.

Labour relations
Mount Allison faculty are represented by the Mount Allison Faculty Association, and the staff by CUPE 3433 and CUPE 2338. Mount Allison had a three-week long faculty strike in early 2014. Students sought a refund for tuition following the strike, a request that was denied by the Board of Regents. Mount Allison had another week long faculty strike in early 2020, lasting from 03/02/2020 until 08/02/2020.

title: Mount Allison University


text:
Nacht und Nebel

Nacht und Nebel (German: ), meaning Night and Fog, also known as the Night and Fog Decree, was a directive issued by Adolf Hitler on 7 December 1941 targeting political activists and resistance "helpers" in the territories occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II, who were to be imprisoned, murdered, or made to disappear, while the family and the population remained uncertain as to the fate or whereabouts of the alleged offender against the Nazi occupation power. Victims who disappeared in these clandestine actions were often never heard from again.

Name
The alliterative hendiadys Nacht und Nebel (German for "Night and Fog") is documented in German since the beginning of the 17th century. It was used by Wagner in Das Rheingold (1869) and has since been adopted into everyday German (e.g., it appears in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain). It is not clear whether the term Nacht-und-Nebel-Erlass ("Night and Fog directive") had been in wide circulation or used publicly before 1945. The designation "NN" was sometimes used, however, to refer to prisoners and deportees ("NN-Gefangener", "NN-Häftling", "NN-Sache") at the time.

Background
Even before the Holocaust gained momentum c. 1941, the Nazis had begun rounding up political prisoners - both within Germany and in occupied Europe. Most of the early prisoners were of two sorts: they were either political prisoners of personal conviction or belief whom the Nazis deemed in need of "re-education" to Nazi ideals, or resistance leaders in occupied western Europe.

Up until the issuing of the Nacht und Nebel decree in December 1941, prisoners from Western Europe were handled by German soldiers in approximately the same way as by other countries: according to international agreements and procedures such as the Geneva Conventions. However, the AB-Aktion (Außerordentliche Befriedungsaktion) in German-occupied Poland (carried out from 1940 onwards) presaged and paralleled the activities of Nacht und Nebel, operating with similar methods.

Hitler and his upper-level staff made a critical decision not to conform to what they considered unnecessary rules, and in the process abandoned "all chivalry towards the opponent" and removed "every traditional restraint on warfare". During the Nuremberg trial of the High Command of the Wehrmacht (OKW) in 1945-1946, the head of the legal department in the OKW, Ministerial Director and General Dr. Rudolf Lehmann, testified that Hitler had literally demanded that opponents of the regime who could not be immediately given a short trial should be brought across the border to Germany in the "Night and Fog" and remain isolated there.

On 7 December 1941, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler issued the following instructions to the Gestapo:

"After lengthy consideration, it is the will of the Führer that the measures taken against those who are guilty of offenses against the Reich or against the occupation forces in occupied areas should be altered. The Führer is of the opinion that, in such cases, penal servitude or even a hard labor sentence for life will be regarded as a sign of weakness. An effective and lasting deterrent can be achieved only by the death penalty or by taking measures which will leave the family and the population uncertain as to the fate of the offender. Deportation to Germany serves this purpose."

At the Armed Forces High Command, Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel had also received a so-called "Führer's decree" from Hitler on 7 December 1941, and while this order was not documented in writing, Keitel immediately passed it on to the appropriate authorities in the form of "guidelines" and likewise issued a secret decree containing more detailed instructions for its implementation. Essentially, the decree was about how to more effectively combat the increasing resistance actions in the territories occupied by Germany in Western Europe after the June 1941 beginning of the Axis war against the Soviet Union. The "Night and Fog" decree originally concerned only nationals of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Norway. However, eventually some of those imprisoned under the Nacht und Nebel Erlass came from Poland, Hungary, Greece, Yugoslavia, Slovakia, and Italy.

On 12 December, Keitel issued a directive explaining Hitler's orders:

"Efficient and enduring intimidation can only be achieved either by capital punishment or by measures by which the relatives of the criminals do not know the fate of the criminal."

Three months later Keitel further expanded on this principle in a February 1942 letter stating that any prisoners not executed within eight days were to be handed over to the Gestapo and:

"to be transported to Germany secretly, and further treatment of the offenders will take place here; these measures will have a deterrent effect because - A. The prisoners will vanish without a trace. B. No information may be given as to their whereabouts or their fate."

Reinhard Heydrich's Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service; SD) was given responsibility for overseeing and carrying out the Nacht und Nebel decree. The SD was mainly an information-gathering agency, while the Gestapo operated as the main executive agency of the political police system. The decree aimed to intimidate local populations into submission, by denying friends and families of seized persons any knowledge of their whereabouts or their fate. The prisoners were secretly transported to Germany and vanished without a trace. In 1945, abandoned SD records were found to include merely names and the initials "NN" (Nacht und Nebel); even the sites of graves were unrecorded. The Nazis even coined a new term for those who "vanished" in accordance with this decree; they were vernebelt—"transformed into mist". To this day, it is not known how many people disappeared as a result of this decree. The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg held that the disappearances committed as part of the Nacht und Nebel program were war crimes which violated both the Hague Conventions and customary international law.

Himmler immediately communicated Keitel's directive to various SS stations, and within six months, Richard Glücks sent the decree to the commanders of concentration camps. The Nacht und Nebel prisoners were mostly from France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway. They were usually arrested in the middle of the night and quickly taken to prisons hundreds of kilometres away for questioning, eventually arriving at concentration camps such as Natzweiler, Esterwegen, or Gross-Rosen, if they survived.

Natzweiler concentration camp, in particular, became an isolation camp for political prisoners from northern and western Europe under the decree's mandate. Natzweiler was the most prominent concentration camp with NN prisoners and probably also the one in which most of them spent the longest time. When the concentration camps in the east and west of German-occupied Europe were dissolved in the face of the advancing Allied armies and their inmates evacuated - often on cruel death-marches - centrally located camps such as Dachau and Mauthausen at the end of World War II filled with thousands of NN prisoners, whose special status was largely lost in the chaos of the last months before the liberation.

Up to 30 April 1944, at least 6,639 persons had been arrested under Nacht und Nebel orders. Some 340 of them may have been executed. The 1956 film Night and Fog, directed by Alain Resnais, uses the term to illustrate one aspect of the concentration-camp system as it morphed into a system of labour- and death-camps.

Text of the decrees
"Directives for the prosecution of offences committed within the occupied territories against the German State or the occupying power, of 7 December 1941. Within the occupied territories, communistic elements and other circles hostile to Germany have increased their efforts against the German State and the occupying powers since the Russian campaign started. The amount and the danger of these machinations oblige us to take severe measures as a deterrent. First of all the following directives are to be applied:

I. Within the occupied territories, the adequate punishment for offences committed against the German State or the occupying power which endanger their security or a state of readiness is on principle the death penalty.

II. The offences listed in paragraph I as a rule are to be dealt with in the occupied countries only if it is probable that sentence of death will be passed upon the offender, at least the principal offender, and if the trial and the execution can be completed in a very short time. Otherwise the offenders, at least the principal offenders, are to be taken to Germany.

III. Prisoners taken to Germany are subject to military procedure only if particular military interests require this. In case German or foreign authorities inquire about such prisoners, they are to be told that they have been arrested but that the proceedings do not allow any further information.

IV. The Commanders in the occupied territories and the Court authorities within the framework of their jurisdiction, are personally responsible for the observance of this decree.

V. The Chief of the High Command of the Armed Forces determines in which occupied territories this decree is to be applied. He is authorized to explain and to issue executive orders and supplements. The Reich Minister of Justice will issue executive orders within his own jurisdiction."

Rationale
The reasons for Nacht und Nebel were many. The policy, enforced in Nazi-occupied countries, meant that whenever someone was arrested, the family would learn nothing about the person's fate. The people arrested, sometimes only suspected resisters, were secretly sent to Germany and perhaps to a concentration camp. Whether they lived or died, the Germans would give out no information to the families involved. This was done to keep the population in occupied countries quiet by promoting an atmosphere of mystery, fear and terror.

The program made it far more difficult for other governments or humanitarian organisations to accuse the German government of specific misconduct because it obscured whether or not internment or death had even occurred, let alone the cause of the person's disappearance. It thereby kept the Nazis from being held accountable. It allowed across-the-board, silent defiance of international treaties and conventions – one cannot apply the requirements for humane treatment in war if one cannot locate a victim or discern that victim's fate. Additionally, the policy lessened German subjects' moral qualms about the Nazi regime, as well as their desire to speak out against it, by keeping the general public ignorant of the regime's malfeasance and by creating extreme pressure for service members to remain silent.

Treatment of prisoners
The Nacht und Nebel prisoners' hair was shaved, and the women were given a convict costume of a thin cotton dress, wooden sandals, and a triangular black headcloth. According to historian Wolfgang Sofsky:

"Prisoners of the Nacht und Nebel transports were marked by broad red bands; on their backs and both trouser legs was a cross, with the letters 'NN' to its right. From these emblems, it was possible to recognize immediately what class a prisoner belonged to and how he or she was pigeonholed and evaluated by the SS."

The prisoners were often moved apparently at random from prison to prison such as Fresnes Prison in Paris, Waldheim near Dresden, Leipzig, Potsdam, Lübeck, and Stettin. The deportees were sometimes herded 80 at a time with standing room only into slow-moving, dirty cattle wagons with little or no food or water on journeys lasting up to five days to their next unknown destination.

At the camps, the prisoners were forced to stand for hours in freezing and wet conditions at 5:00 a.m. every morning, standing strictly to attention, before being sent to work a twelve-hour day with only a twenty-minute break for a scant meal. They were confined in cold and starving conditions; many had dysentery or other illnesses, and the weakest were often beaten to death, shot, guillotined, or hanged, while the others were subjected to torture by the Germans.

When the inmates were totally exhausted or if they were too ill or too weak to work, they were then transferred to the Revier (Krankenrevier, sick barrack) or other places for extermination. If a camp did not have a gas chamber of its own, the so-called Muselmänner, or prisoners who were too sick to work, were often murdered or transferred to other concentration camps for extermination.

When the Allies liberated Paris and Brussels, the SS transported many of its remaining Nacht und Nebel prisoners to concentration camps deeper in Nazi-controlled territory, such as Ravensbrück concentration camp for women, Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp, Buchenwald concentration camp, Schloss Hartheim, or Flossenbürg concentration camp.

Results
Early in the war, the program caused the mass execution of political prisoners, especially Soviet POWs, who in early 1942 outnumbered the Jews in number of deaths even at Auschwitz. As the transports grew and Hitler's troops moved across Europe, that ratio changed dramatically. The Nacht und Nebel decree was carried out surreptitiously, but it set the background for orders that would follow and established a "new dimension of fear". As the war continued, so did the openness of such decrees and orders.

It can be surmised from various writings that in the beginning the German public knew only a little of the plans Hitler had to enforce a "New European Order". As the years passed, despite the best attempts of Joseph Goebbels and the Propaganda Ministry with its formidable domestic information control, diaries and periodicals of the time show that information about the harshness and cruelty of the program became progressively known to the German public.

Soldiers brought back information, families on rare occasion heard from or about loved ones and Allied news sources and the BBC were able to get past censorship sporadically. Although captured archives from the SD contain numerous orders stamped with "NN" (Nacht und Nebel), it has never been determined exactly how many people disappeared as a result of the decree.

Hesitant if not outright skeptical at first of reports coming in about the atrocities being committed by the Nazis, the Allies' doubts were pushed aside when the French entered the Natzweiler-Struthof camp (one of the Nacht und Nebel facilities) on 23 November 1944, and discovered a chamber where victims were hung by their wrists from hooks to accommodate the process of pumping poisonous Zyklon-B gas into the room. Keitel later testified at the Nuremberg Trials that of all the illegal orders he had carried out, the Nacht und Nebel decree was "the worst of all".

Former Supreme Court Justice and chief prosecutor at the international Nuremberg trial, Robert H. Jackson listed the "terrifying" Nacht und Nebel decree with the other crimes committed by the Nazis in his closing address. In part because of his role in carrying out this decree, Keitel was sentenced to death by hanging, despite his insistence on being shot instead due to his military service and rank. At 1:20 a.m. on 16 October 1946 Keitel defiantly shouted out, "Alles für Deutschland! Deutschland über alles!" just before the trapdoor opened beneath his feet.

Notable prisoners

 * Trygve Bratteli (Norwegian Resistance, later Prime Minister)
 * Virginia d'Albert-Lake (American)
 * Charles Delestraint (French Resistance)
 * Andrée de Jongh ("Dédée") (Belgian Resistance)
 * Noor Inayat Khan
 * Mary Lindell (Comtesse de Milleville)
 * Henriette Bie Lorentzen
 * Elsie Maréchal (Belgian Resistance)
 * Henriette Roosenburg

title: Nacht und Nebel


text:
Henriette Roosenburg

Henriette Roosenburg (26 May 1916 – 1972) was a Dutch Partisan, journalist and political prisoner. Her memoir The Walls Came Tumbling Down described her attempts to return to the Netherlands from Germany after being released from prison at the end of World War II. Born in the Netherlands to an upper-class family, she was a graduate student at the University of Leiden at the start of World War II and became a courier in the Dutch resistance, where she served under the code name Zip. During this time she also wrote for the Dutch newspaper Het Parool. In 1944 she was caught and sentenced to death, and became a Night and Fog prisoner in a German prison at Waldheim.

Start of resistance work
Born in The Hague to an upper-class family, Jet, as she was called by family and friends, was a graduate student at the University of Leiden at the start of World War II. During 1941, she became involved in the Dutch resistance. She started out by helping Jewish people flee or go into hiding. During 1942 and 1943, she collected information for the editors-in-chief of the influential Dutch resistance newspaper Het Parool (The Watchword). In 1943, she was recruited as a helper on an escape line running via Belgium, France and the Pyrenees to Spain, from where escapees could travel to London. It was set up at the instruction of the Dutch government in exile in London, with the aim to have people brought over to England to inform the government on the occupied homeland and the Dutch resistance. Dutch Secret agent Piet Gerbrands, trained in England, was dropped in the Netherlands in March 1943 to organize the line. He used the assistance of the resistance group Fiat Libertas, which already ran both an escape line for Allied air men shot down over the Netherlands and an intelligence line to Brussels. The escape line for the government was to be a separate line and was given the name St John, a codename of Gerbrands'. Jet, who spoke French fluently and could pass for a Belgian citizen, worked under the alias Gaby. She took her charges to Brussels, from where the Belgian guide ('passeur') Henri-Jean Nys assisted them to Toulouse. Secret agent Gerbrands was the first to return to London. However, the line St John only functioned briefly. The nazi counterintelligence agencies were able to disrupt the line by arresting various Dutch and Belgian helpers between the end of September and November 1943. Practically all of the members of resistance group Fiat Libertas were also arrested.

Military espionage
Jet, however, escaped arrest various times. When the government escape line was abandoned, she helped several allied airmen escape to Brussels. Her ability to rapidly cross the Dutch-Belgian border gained her the nickname Zip: she seemed to 'zip' to and fro. The Dutch Bureau of Intelligence in London, working for the Dutch government and responsible for sending secret agents such as Gerbrands, by now knew of Jets feats and capacities. The Bureau had for some time been eager to establish a line for military intelligence. The Allied High Command was preparing an invasion on the West coast of continental Europe and needed information about the military situation in various countries. Jet was traced in Brussels by a guide who asked her to travel to Bern, Switzerland, where a group of Dutch citizens worked to collect information and send it to the Dutch government. Jet set off for Switzerland at the end of December 1943. In Bern, she received instructions to organize a new resistance group in the Netherlands to collect military information and to set up a line via Paris, France, to Switzerland. But when she returned in January 1944, the nazi's were closing in on her. She had barely organised the intelligence line when she was caught on 1 March 1944, in Brussels, where she had traveled with intelligence for Switzerland. She was betrayed by a Belgian infiltrator who was later executed by the Belgian resistance.

Trial and death sentence
Jet was transferred to The Hague and interrogated severely and exhaustingly, but she managed to protect the new intelligence line and her coworkers. In July 1944, she and 19 other members of the former resistance group Fiat Libertas were moved to Utrecht, the Netherlands, for their trial. Here, Jet again met up with Nel Lind, whom she had known previously as the organizer of the escape line for Allied pilots. She also met Joke Folmer for the first time. Joke (pronounced "Yo-kuh") had proven to be a competent and successful guide, who until her arrest in April 1944 had helped 320 people escape to Belgium. Half of them were Allied air men and many of them managed to return to England. Both women would become her companions until the end of the war and during their subsequent journey home. They figure prominently in "The Walls came tumbling down".

The group were court-martialled by the German army on the charge of 'Feindbegünstigung', aiding and abetting the enemy, because their espionage activities and assistance to Allied pilots had undermined the interests of the German army, and had favoured enemy forces. Joke, Nel and Jet were sentenced to death; Jet even thrice, with the advice to absolutely carry out the sentence, since she was considered very dangerous.

Escape from execution
While their sentences were being considered for pardon, the Allied forces reached the Dutch border town of Breda at the beginning of September 1944. Many Nazis and Nazi sympathisers fled to Germany overnight; the military director of the prison in Utrecht was among them. He took the women who had been sentenced to death with him. The women were loaded into cattle wagons at the train station in Utrecht, but the procedural documents were left with the person who decided on pardons. It made them 'Häftlinge ohne Papiere', undocumented prisoners, which saved their lives. After several transfers they ended up in the German prison at Waldheim. By then they were Night and Fog prisoners, destined to disappear without a trace. They were oblivious to the fact that, in the growing chaos, confirmation of their death sentences was slowly catching up with them. They were liberated just in time. The American army was advancing from the West, but on 6 May 1945 the Soviet Army reached Waldheim and released the prisoners. Months after the end of the war, a large envelope surfaced in the Netherlands bearing the stamps of all their prisons, with dates just days after they had left.

Waldheim prison
At Waldheim, Henriette and the other prisoners were severely undernourished, and spent most of their free time embroidering bits of cloth with terse iconography about their experience. For instance, one section of Roosenburg's embroidery shows a crude drawing of a gun to indicate that the prisoners had heard what they thought was Allied gunfire, as well as the names "Nel" and "Joke" in Morse code to indicate that she was in solitary confinement, that Nell and Joke were in the two adjacent cells, and that they communicated by tapping Morse code on the walls.

After their release, Henriette and four other Dutch NN prisoners (Dries, Nell, Joke, and Fafa, a Dutch NN prisoner with severe arthritis) had a chance to return to the Netherlands a few days later when the U.S. Army arrived with trucks to carry people through the Russian lines. However, Fafa's arthritis was so severe that she could not walk; and the surrounding roads were largely unpaved and rough. The other four did not believe that Fafa would survive the trip even if there were room for her cot—and there was not room for her cot; the truck was densely packed and offered standing room only. The group had heard that the Russians intended to send displaced persons back home via Odessa, a port in Ukraine on the Black Sea; considering that too far of a side trip, Dries, Nell, Joke, and Henriette stayed behind to take Fafa to a local civilian hospital instead, and then set out on their own for the Netherlands.

The Russians had established sentries along major routes, including bridges, and were disallowing all unauthorized travel for fear German soldiers would escape along with former German POWs. Henriette and her friends, through bartering and guile, came to travel along Elbe River in a small boat from Waldheim to Coswig, where they were accosted by Russian soldiers and taken to a displaced persons camp populated by Belgians, Dutch, and Italians. On 6 June 1945 Roosenburg and a group of Dutch people were exchanged for a group of Russian POWs; they made their way to a Red Cross camp where they found that only the French and Belgians would be flying home; the rest would have to wait several weeks until a truck came. Roosenburg convinced a Dutch captain to give her group documentation stating that they were political prisoners and should have priority in transportation home; the paperwork she suggested did not mention their nationality, and so left them free to impersonate French or Belgian political prisoners. The next day Roosenburg and 15 other Dutch set out for Halle airfield, where they convinced an American soldier to allow them flight on the next plane to Belgium. Once in Belgium, the group set about calling friends and friends' friends to tell them they were alive and on their way home, and on 12 June they arrived at a monastery in the southern Netherlands where she and her friends were housed with between 1500 and 2000 others. The Netherlands had just been recently liberated and was suffering famine; as a result, trains to the north of the Netherlands only ran every three or four weeks. But Roosenburg happened to meet her cousin, Dirk Roosenburg, who had become a first lieutenant in the Dutch Army; he arranged for Henriette and her friends to be driven north the next day, where they reunited with their families.

After the war, Henriette became a correspondent for Time Inc., serving in Paris and The Hague, and then New York City for a decade. At the beginning of her stay in New York, she wrote the book The Walls Came Tumbling Down about her experience traveling from Waldheim to the Netherlands, and was later awarded the Bronze Lion of the Netherlands. She died in 1972 at the age of 56.

title: Henriette Roosenburg


text:
Pugilism

Pugilism may refer to:

 * Boxing, a combat sport
 * Bare-knuckle boxing, a combat sport without any boxing gloves
 * Ancient Greek boxing
 * Russian boxing, traditional bare-knuckle boxing of Russia

title: Pugilism