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High-performance liquid chromatography

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography, is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify specific components in mixtures. The mixtures can originate from food, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biological, environmental and agriculture, etc., which have been dissolved into liquid solutions.

It relies on high pressure pumps, which deliver mixtures of various solvents, called the mobile phase, which flows through the system, collecting the sample mixture on the way, delivering it into a cylinder, called the column, filled with solid particles, made of adsorbent material, called the stationary phase.

Each component in the sample interacts differently with the adsorbent material, causing different migration rates for each component. These different rates lead to separation as the species flow out of the column into a specific detector such as UV detectors. The output of the detector is a graph, called a chromatogram. Chromatograms are graphical representations of the signal intensity versus time or volume, showing peaks, which represent components of the sample. Each sample appears in its respective time, called its retention time, having area proportional to its amount.

HPLC is widely used for manufacturing (e.g., during the production process of pharmaceutical and biological products), legal (e.g., detecting performance enhancement drugs in urine), research (e.g., separating the components of a complex biological sample, or of similar synthetic chemicals from each other), and medical (e.g., detecting vitamin D levels in blood serum) purposes.

Chromatography can be described as a mass transfer process involving adsorption and/or partition. As mentioned, HPLC relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid and a sample mixture through a column filled with adsorbent, leading to the separation of the sample components. The active component of the column, the adsorbent, is typically a granular material made of solid particles (e.g., silica, polymers, etc.), 1.5–50 μm in size, on which various reagents can be bonded. The components of the sample mixture are separated from each other due to their different degrees of interaction with the adsorbent particles. The pressurized liquid is typically a mixture of solvents (e.g., water, buffers, acetonitrile and/or methanol) and is referred to as a "mobile phase". Its composition and temperature play a major role in the separation process by influencing the interactions taking place between sample components and adsorbent. These interactions are physical in nature, such as hydrophobic (dispersive), dipole–dipole and ionic, most often a combination.

Operation
The liquid chromatograph is complex and has sophisticated and delicate technology. In order to properly operate the system, there should be a minimum basis for understanding of how the device performs the data processing to avoid incorrect data and distorted results.

HPLC is distinguished from traditional ("low pressure") liquid chromatography because operational pressures are significantly higher (around 50–1400 bar), while ordinary liquid chromatography typically relies on the force of gravity to pass the mobile phase through the packed column. Due to the small sample amount separated in analytical HPLC, typical column dimensions are 2.1–4.6 mm diameter, and 30–250 mm length. Also HPLC columns are made with smaller adsorbent particles (1.5–50 μm in average particle size). This gives HPLC superior resolving power (the ability to distinguish between compounds) when separating mixtures, which makes it a popular chromatographic technique.

The schematic of an HPLC instrument typically includes solvents' reservoirs, one or more pumps, a solvent-degasser, a sampler, a column, and a detector. The solvents are prepared in advance according to the needs of the separation, they pass through the degasser to remove dissolved gasses, mixed to become the mobile phase, then flow through the sampler, which brings the sample mixture into the mobile phase stream, which then carries it into the column. The pumps deliver the desired flow and composition of the mobile phase through the stationary phase inside the column, then directly into a flow-cell inside the detector. The detector generates a signal proportional to the amount of sample component emerging from the column, hence allowing for quantitative analysis of the sample components. The detector also marks the time of emergence, the retention time, which serves for initial identification of the component. More advanced detectors, provide also additional information, specific to the analyte's characteristics, such as UV-VIS spectrum or mass spectrum, which can provide insight on its structural features. These detectors are in common use, such as UV/Vis, photodiode array (PDA) / diode array detector and mass spectrometry detector.

A digital microprocessor and user software control the HPLC instrument and provide data analysis. Some models of mechanical pumps in an HPLC instrument can mix multiple solvents together at a ratios changing in time, generating a composition gradient in the mobile phase. Most HPLC instruments also have a column oven that allows for adjusting the temperature at which the separation is performed.

The sample mixture to be separated and analyzed is introduced, in a discrete small volume (typically microliters), into the stream of mobile phase percolating through the column. The components of the sample move through the column, each at a different velocity, which are a function of specific physical interactions with the adsorbent, the stationary phase. The velocity of each component depends on its chemical nature, on the nature of the stationary phase (inside the column) and on the composition of the mobile phase. The time at which a specific analyte elutes (emerges from the column) is called its retention time. The retention time, measured under particular conditions, is an identifying characteristic of a given analyte.

Many different types of columns are available, filled with adsorbents varying in particle size, porosity, and surface chemistry. The use of smaller particle size packing materials requires the use of higher operational pressure ("backpressure") and typically improves chromatographic resolution (the degree of peak separation between consecutive analytes emerging from the column). Sorbent particles may be ionic, hydrophobic or polar in nature.

The most common mode of liquid chromatography is reversed phase, whereby the mobile phases used, include any miscible combination of water or buffers with various organic solvents (the most common are acetonitrile and methanol). Some HPLC techniques use water-free mobile phases (see normal-phase chromatography below). The aqueous component of the mobile phase may contain acids (such as formic, phosphoric or trifluoroacetic acid) or salts to assist in the separation of the sample components. The composition of the mobile phase may be kept constant ("isocratic elution mode") or varied ("gradient elution mode") during the chromatographic analysis. Isocratic elution is typically effective in the separation of simple mixtures. Gradient elution is required for complex mixtures, with varying interactions with the stationary and mobile phases. This is the reason why in gradient elution the composition of the mobile phase is varied typically from low to high eluting strength. The eluting strength of the mobile phase is reflected by analyte retention times, as the high eluting strength speeds up the elution (resulting in shortening of retention times). For example, a typical gradient profile in reversed phase chromatography for might start at 5% acetonitrile (in water or aqueous buffer) and progress linearly to 95% acetonitrile over 5–25 minutes. Periods of constant mobile phase composition (plateau) may be also part of a gradient profile. For example, the mobile phase composition may be kept constant at 5% acetonitrile for 1–3 min, followed by a linear change up to 95% acetonitrile.

The chosen composition of the mobile phase depends on the intensity of interactions between various sample components ("analytes") and stationary phase (e.g., hydrophobic interactions in reversed-phase HPLC). Depending on their affinity for the stationary and mobile phases, analytes partition between the two during the separation process taking place in the column. This partitioning process is similar to that which occurs during a liquid–liquid extraction but is continuous, not step-wise.

In the example using a water/acetonitrile gradient, the more hydrophobic components will elute (come off the column) later, then, once the mobile phase gets richer in acetonitrile (i.e., in a mobile phase becomes higher eluting solution), their elution speeds up.

The choice of mobile phase components, additives (such as salts or acids) and gradient conditions depends on the nature of the column and sample components. Often a series of trial runs is performed with the sample in order to find the HPLC method which gives adequate separation.

History and development
Prior to HPLC, scientists used benchtop column liquid chromatographic techniques. Liquid chromatographic systems were largely inefficient due to the flow rate of solvents being dependent on gravity. Separations took many hours, and sometimes days to complete. Gas chromatography (GC) at the time was more powerful than liquid chromatography (LC), however, it was obvious that gas phase separation and analysis of very polar high molecular weight biopolymers was impossible. GC was ineffective for many life science and health applications for biomolecules, because they are mostly non-volatile and thermally unstable at the high temperatures of GC. As a result, alternative methods were hypothesized which would soon result in the development of HPLC.

Following on the seminal work of Martin and Synge in 1941, it was predicted by Calvin Giddings, Josef Huber, and others in the 1960s that LC could be operated in the high-efficiency mode by reducing the packing-particle diameter substantially below the typical LC (and GC) level of 150 μm and using pressure to increase the mobile phase velocity. These predictions underwent extensive experimentation and refinement throughout the 60s into the 70s until these very days. Early developmental research began to improve LC particles, for example the historic Zipax, a superficially porous particle.

The 1970s brought about many developments in hardware and instrumentation. Researchers began using pumps and injectors to make a rudimentary design of an HPLC system. Gas amplifier pumps were ideal because they operated at constant pressure and did not require leak-free seals or check valves for steady flow and good quantitation. Hardware milestones were made at Dupont IPD (Industrial Polymers Division) such as a low-dwell-volume gradient device being utilized as well as replacing the septum injector with a loop injection valve.

While instrumentation developments were important, the history of HPLC is primarily about the history and evolution of particle technology. After the introduction of porous layer particles, there has been a steady trend to reduced particle size to improve efficiency. However, by decreasing particle size, new problems arose. The practical disadvantages stem from the excessive pressure drop needed to force mobile fluid through the column and the difficulty of preparing a uniform packing of extremely fine materials. Every time particle size is reduced significantly, another round of instrument development usually must occur to handle the pressure.

Partition chromatography
Partition chromatography was one of the first kinds of chromatography that chemists developed, and is barely used these days. The partition coefficient principle has been applied in paper chromatography, thin layer chromatography, gas phase and liquid–liquid separation applications. The 1952 Nobel Prize in chemistry was earned by Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge for their development of the technique, which was used for their separation of amino acids. Partition chromatography uses a retained solvent, on the surface or within the grains or fibers of an "inert" solid supporting matrix as with paper chromatography; or takes advantage of some coulombic and/or hydrogen donor interaction with the stationary phase. Analyte molecules partition between a liquid stationary phase and the eluent. Just as in hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC; a sub-technique within HPLC), this method separates analytes based on differences in their polarity. HILIC most often uses a bonded polar stationary phase and a mobile phase made primarily of acetonitrile with water as the strong component. Partition HPLC has been used historically on unbonded silica or alumina supports. Each works effectively for separating analytes by relative polar differences. HILIC bonded phases have the advantage of separating acidic, basic and neutral solutes in a single chromatographic run.

The polar analytes diffuse into a stationary water layer associated with the polar stationary phase and are thus retained. The stronger the interactions between the polar analyte and the polar stationary phase (relative to the mobile phase) the longer the elution time. The interaction strength depends on the functional groups part of the analyte molecular structure, with more polarized groups (e.g., hydroxyl-) and groups capable of hydrogen bonding inducing more retention. Coulombic (electrostatic) interactions can also increase retention. Use of more polar solvents in the mobile phase will decrease the retention time of the analytes, whereas more hydrophobic solvents tend to increase retention times.

Normal–phase chromatography
Normal–phase chromatography was one of the first kinds of HPLC that chemists developed, but has decreased in use over the last decades. Also known as normal-phase HPLC (NP-HPLC), this method separates analytes based on their affinity for a polar stationary surface such as silica; hence it is based on analyte ability to engage in polar interactions (such as hydrogen-bonding or dipole-dipole type of interactions) with the sorbent surface. NP-HPLC uses a non-polar, non-aqueous mobile phase (e.g., chloroform), and works effectively for separating analytes readily soluble in non-polar solvents. The analyte associates with and is retained by the polar stationary phase. Adsorption strengths increase with increased analyte polarity. The interaction strength depends not only on the functional groups present in the structure of the analyte molecule, but also on steric factors. The effect of steric hindrance on interaction strength allows this method to resolve (separate) structural isomers.

The use of more polar solvents in the mobile phase will decrease the retention time of analytes, whereas more hydrophobic solvents tend to induce slower elution (increased retention times). Very polar solvents such as traces of water in the mobile phase tend to adsorb to the solid surface of the stationary phase forming a stationary bound (water) layer which is considered to play an active role in retention. This behavior is somewhat peculiar to normal phase chromatography because it is governed almost exclusively by an adsorptive mechanism (i.e., analytes interact with a solid surface rather than with the solvated layer of a ligand attached to the sorbent surface; see also reversed-phase HPLC below). Adsorption chromatography is still somewhat used for structural isomer separations in both column and thin-layer chromatography formats on activated (dried) silica or alumina supports.

Partition- and NP-HPLC fell out of favor in the 1970s with the development of reversed-phase HPLC because of poor reproducibility of retention times due to the presence of a water or protic organic solvent layer on the surface of the silica or alumina chromatographic media. This layer changes with any changes in the composition of the mobile phase (e.g., moisture level) causing drifting retention times.

Recently, partition chromatography has become popular again with the development of Hilic bonded phases which demonstrate improved reproducibility, and due to a better understanding of the range of usefulness of the technique.

Displacement chromatography
The use of displacement chromatography is rather limited, and is mostly used for preparative chromatography. The basic principle is based on a molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) which is used to compete effectively for binding sites, and thus displace all molecules with lesser affinities. There are distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. In elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks. Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired in order to achieve maximum purification. The speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. But for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix. Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference. In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings. Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than "peaks". Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentration.

Reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RP-LC)

Reversed phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) is the most widespread mode of chromatography. It has a non-polar stationary phase and an aqueous, moderately polar mobile phase. In the reversed phase methods, the substances are retained in the system the more hydrophobic they are. For the retention of organic materials, the stationary phases, packed inside the columns, are consisted mainly of porous granules of silica gel in various shapes, mainly spherical, at different  diameters (1.5, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10 um), with varying pore diameters (60, 100, 150, 300, A), on whose surface are chemically bound various hydrocarbon ligands such as C3, C4, C8,C18. There are also polymeric hydrophobic particles that serve as stationary phases, when solutions at extreme pH are needed, or hybrid silica, polymerized with organic substances. The longer the hydrocarbon ligand on the stationary phase, the longer the sample components can be retained. Most of the current methods of separation of biomedical materials use C-18 type of columns, sometimes called by a trade names such as ODS (octadecylsilane) or RP-18 (Reversed Phase 18).

The most common RP stationary phases are based on a silica support, which is surface-modified by bonding RMe2SiCl, where R is a straight chain alkyl group such as C18H37 or C8H17.

With such stationary phases, retention time is longer for lipophylic molecules, whereas polar molecules elute more readily (emerge early in the analysis). A chromatographer can increase retention times by adding more water to the mobile phase, thereby making the interactions of the hydrophobic analyte with the hydrophobic stationary phase relatively stronger. Similarly, an investigator can decrease retention time by adding more organic solvent to the mobile phase. RP-HPLC is so commonly used among the biologists and life science users, therefore it is often incorrectly referred to as just "HPLC" without further specification. The pharmaceutical industry also regularly employs RP-HPLC to qualify drugs before their release.

RP-HPLC operates on the principle of hydrophobic interactions, which originates from the high symmetry in the dipolar water structure and plays the most important role in all processes in life science. RP-HPLC allows the measurement of these interactive forces. The binding of the analyte to the stationary phase is proportional to the contact surface area around the non-polar segment of the analyte molecule upon association with the ligand on the stationary phase. This solvophobic effect is dominated by the force of water for "cavity-reduction" around the analyte and the C18-chain versus the complex of both. The energy released in this process is proportional to the surface tension of the eluent (water: 7.3 J/cm2, methanol: 2.2 J/cm2) and to the hydrophobic surface of the analyte and the ligand respectively. The retention can be decreased by adding a less polar solvent (methanol, acetonitrile) into the mobile phase to reduce the surface tension of water. Gradient elution uses this effect by automatically reducing the polarity and the surface tension of the aqueous mobile phase during the course of the analysis.

Structural properties of the analyte molecule can play an important role in its retention characteristics. In theory, an analyte with a larger hydrophobic surface area (C–H, C–C, and generally non-polar atomic bonds, such as S-S and others) can be retained longer as it does not interact with the water structure. On the other hand, analytes with higher polar surface area (as a result of the presence of polar groups, such as -OH, -NH2, COO− or -NH3+ in their structure) are less retained, as they are better integrated into water. The interactions with the stationary phase can also affected by steric effects, or exclusion effects, whereby a component of very large molecule may have only restricted access to the pores of the stationary phase, where the interactions with surface ligands (alkyl chains) take place. Such surface hindrance typically results in less retention.

Retention time increases with more hydrophobic (non-polar) surface area of the molecules. For example, branched chain compounds can elute more rapidly than their corresponding linear isomers because their overall surface area is lower. Similarly organic compounds with single C–C bonds frequently elute later than those with a C=C or even triple bond, as the double or triple bond makes the molecule more compact than a single C–C bond.

Another important factor is the mobile phase pH since it can change the hydrophobic character of the ionizable analyte. For this reason most methods use a buffering agent, such as sodium phosphate, to control the pH. Buffers serve multiple purposes: control of pH which affects the ionization state of the ionizable analytes, affect the charge upon the ionizable silica surface of the stationary phase in between the bonded phase linands, and in some cases even act as ion pairing agents to neutralize analyte charge. Ammonium formate is commonly added in mass spectrometry to improve detection of certain analytes by the formation of analyte-ammonium adducts. A volatile organic acid such as acetic acid, or most commonly formic acid, is often added to the mobile phase if mass spectrometry is used to analyze the column effluents.

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as additive to the mobile phase is widely used for complex mixtures of biomedical samples, mostly peptides and proteins, using mostly UV based detectors. They are rarely used in mass spectrometry methods, due to residues it can leave in the detector and solvent delivery system, which interfere with the analysis and detection. However, TFA can be highly effective in improving retention of analytes such as carboxylic acids, in applications utilizing other detectors such as UV-VIS, as it is a fairly strong organic acid. The effects of acids and buffers vary by application but generally improve chromatographic resolution when dealing with ionizable components.

Reversed phase columns are quite difficult to damage compared to normal silica columns, thanks to the shielding effect of the bonded hydrophobic ligands; however, most reversed phase columns consist of alkyl derivatized silica particles, and are prone to hydrolysis of the silica at extreme pH conditions in the mobile phase. Most types of RP columns should not be used with aqueous bases as these will hydrolyze the underlying silica particle and dissolve it. There are selected brands of hybrid or enforced silica based particles of RP columns which can be used at extreme pH conditions. The use of extreme acidic conditions is also not recommended, as they also might hydrolyzed as well as corrode the inside walls of the metallic parts of the HPLC equipment.

As a rule, in most cases RP-HPLC columns should be flushed with clean solvent after use to remove residual acids or buffers, and stored in an appropriate composition of solvent. Some biomedical applications require non metallic environment for the optimal separation. For such sensitive cases there is a test for the metal content of a column is to inject a sample which is a mixture of 2,2'- and 4,4'-bipyridine. Because the 2,2'-bipy can chelate the metal, the shape of the peak for the 2,2'-bipy will be distorted (tailed) when metal ions are present on the surface of the silica...

Size-exclusion chromatography
Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) separates polymer molecules and biomolecules based on differences in their molecular size (actually by a particle's Stokes radius). The separation process is based on the ability of sample molecules to permeate through the pores of gel spheres, packed inside the column, and is dependent on the relative size of analyte molecules and the respective pore size of the absorbent. The process also relies on the absence of any interactions with the packing material surface.

Two types of SEC are usually termed:

 * 1) Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)—separation of synthetic polymers (aqueous or organic soluble). GPC is a powerful technique for polymer characterization using primarily organic solvents.
 * 2) Gel filtration chromatography (GFC)—separation of water-soluble biopolymers. GFC uses primarily aqueous solvents (typically for aqueous soluble biopolymers, such as proteins, etc.).

The separation principle in SEC is based on the fully, or partially penetrating of the high molecular weight substances of the sample into the porous stationary-phase particles during their transport through column. The mobile-phase eluent is selected in such a way that it totally prevents interactions with the stationary phase's surface. Under these conditions, the smaller the size of the molecule, the more it is able to penetrate inside the pore space and the movement through the column takes longer. On the other hand, the bigger the molecular size, the higher the probability the molecule will not fully penetrate the pores of the stationary phase, and even travel around them, thus, will be eluted earlier. The molecules are separated in order of decreasing molecular weight, with the largest molecules eluting from the column first and smaller molecules eluting later. Molecules larger than the pore size do not enter the pores at all, and elute together as the first peak in the chromatogram and this is called total exclusion volume which defines the exclusion limit for a particular column. Small molecules will permeate fully through the pores of the stationary phase particles and will be eluted last, marking the end of the chromatogram, and may appear as a total penetration marker.

In biomedical sciences it is generally considered as a low resolution chromatography and thus it is often reserved for the final, "polishing" step of the purification. It is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins. SEC is used primarily for the analysis of large molecules such as proteins or polymers. SEC works also in a preparative way by trapping the smaller molecules in the pores of a particles. The larger molecules simply pass by the pores as they are too large to enter the pores. Larger molecules therefore flow through the column quicker than smaller molecules: that is, the smaller the molecule, the longer the retention time.

This technique is widely used for the molecular weight determination of polysaccharides. SEC is the official technique (suggested by European pharmacopeia) for the molecular weight comparison of different commercially available low-molecular weight heparins.

Ion-exchange chromatography
Ion-exchange chromatography (IEC) or ion chromatography (IC) is an analytical technique for the separation and determination of ionic solutes in aqueous samples from environmental and industrial origins such as metal industry, industrial waste water, in biological systems, pharmaceutical samples, food, etc. Retention is based on the attraction between solute ions and charged sites bound to the stationary phase. Solute ions charged the same as the ions on the column are repulsed and elute without retention, while solute ions charged oppositely to the charged sites of the column are retained on it. Solute ions that are retained on the column can be eluted from it by changing the mobile phase composition, such as increasing its salt concentration and pH or increasing the column temperature, etc.

Types of ion exchangers include polystyrene resins, cellulose and dextran ion exchangers (gels), and controlled-pore glass or porous silica gel. Polystyrene resins allow cross linkage, which increases the stability of the chain. Higher cross linkage reduces swerving, which increases the equilibration time and ultimately improves selectivity. Cellulose and dextran ion exchangers possess larger pore sizes and low charge densities making them suitable for protein separation.

In general, ion exchangers favor the binding of ions of higher charge and smaller radius.

An increase in counter ion (with respect to the functional groups in resins) concentration reduces the retention time, as it creates a strong competition with the solute ions. A decrease in pH reduces the retention time in cation exchange while an increase in pH reduces the retention time in anion exchange. By lowering the pH of the solvent in a cation exchange column, for instance, more hydrogen ions are available to compete for positions on the anionic stationary phase, thereby eluting weakly bound cations.

This form of chromatography is widely used in the following applications: water purification, preconcentration of trace components, ligand-exchange chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography of proteins, high-pH anion-exchange chromatography of carbohydrates and oligosaccharides, and others.

Bioaffinity chromatography
High performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) works by passing a sample solution through a column packed with a stationary phase that contains an immobilized biologically active ligand. The ligand is in fact a substrate that has a specific binding affinity for the target molecule in the sample solution. The target molecule binds to the ligand, while the other molecules in the sample solution pass through the column, having little or no retention. The target molecule is then eluted from the column using a suitable elution buffer.

This chromatographic process relies on the capability of the bonded active substances to form stable, specific, and reversible complexes thanks to their biological recognition of certain specific sample components. The formation of these complexes involves the participation of common molecular forces such as the Van der Waals interaction, electrostatic interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, hydrophobic interaction, and the hydrogen bond. An efficient, biospecific bond is formed by a simultaneous and concerted action of several of these forces in the complementary binding sites.

Aqueous normal-phase chromatography
Aqueous normal-phase chromatography (ANP) is also called hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC). This is a chromatographic technique which encompasses the mobile phase region between reversed-phase chromatography (RP) and organic normal phase chromatography (ONP). HILIC is used to achieve unique selectivity for hydrophilic compounds, showing normal phase elution order, using "reversed-phase solvents", i.e., relatively polar mostly non-aqueous solvents in the mobile phase. Many biological molecules, especially those found in biological fluids, are small polar compounds that do not retain well by reversed phase-HPLC. This has made hydrophilic interaction LC (HILIC) an attractive alternative and useful approach for analysis of polar molecules. Additionally, because HILIC is routinely used with traditional aqueous mixtures with polar organic solvents such as ACN and methanol, it can be easily coupled to MS.

Isocratic and gradient elution
A separation in which the mobile phase composition remains constant throughout the procedure is termed isocratic (meaning constant composition). The word was coined by Csaba Horvath who was one of the pioneers of HPLC.

The mobile phase composition does not have to remain constant. A separation in which the mobile phase composition is changed during the separation process is described as a gradient elution. For example, a gradient can start at 10% methanol in water, and end at 90% methanol in water after 20 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are typically termed "A" and "B"; A is the "weak" solvent which allows the solute to elute only slowly, while B is the "strong" solvent which rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. In reversed-phase chromatography, solvent A is often water or an aqueous buffer, while B is an organic solvent miscible with water, such as acetonitrile, methanol, THF, or isopropanol.

In isocratic elution, peak width increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the number of theoretical plates. This can be a major disadvantage when analyzing a sample that contains analytes with a wide range of retention factors. Using a weaker mobile phase, the runtime is lengthened and results in slowly eluting peaks to be broad, leading to reduced sensitivity. A stronger mobile phase would improve issues of runtime and broadening of later peaks but results in diminished peak separation, especially for quickly eluting analytes which may have insufficient time to fully resolve. This issue is addressed through the changing mobile phase composition of gradient elution. By starting from a weaker mobile phase and strengthening it during the runtime, gradient elution decreases the retention of the later-eluting components so that they elute faster, giving narrower (and taller) peaks for most components, while also allowing for the adequate separation of earlier-eluting components. This also improves the peak shape for tailed peaks, as the increasing concentration of the organic eluent pushes the tailing part of a peak forward. This also increases the peak height (the peak looks "sharper"), which is important in trace analysis. The gradient program may include sudden "step" increases in the percentage of the organic component, or different slopes at different times – all according to the desire for optimum separation in minimum time.

In isocratic elution, the retention order does not change if the column dimensions (length and inner diameter) change – that is, the peaks elute in the same order. In gradient elution, however, the elution order may change as the dimensions or flow rate change. if they are no scaled down or up according to the change

The driving force in reversed phase chromatography originates in the high order of the water structure. The role of the organic component of the mobile phase is to reduce this high order and thus reduce the retarding strength of the aqueous component.

Theoretical
The theory of high performance liquid chromatography-HPLC is, at its core, the same as general chromatography theory. This theory has been used as the basis for system-suitability tests, as can be seen in the USP Pharmacopaeia, which are a set of quantitative criteria, which test the suitability of the HPLC system to the required analysis at any step of it.

This relation is also represented as a normalized unit-less factor known as the retention factor, or retention parameter, which is the experimental measurement of the capacity ratio, as shown in the Figure of Performance Criteria as well. tR is the retention time of the specific component and t0 is the time it takes for a non-retained substance to elute through the system without any retention, thus it is called the Void Time.

The ratio between the retention factors, k', of every two adjacent peaks in the chromatogram is used in the evaluation of the degree of separation between them, and is called selectivity factor, α, as shown in the Performance Criteria graph.

The plate count N as a criterion for system efficiency was developed for isocratic conditions, i.e., a constant mobile phase composition throughout the run. In gradient conditions, where the mobile phase changes with time during the chromatographic run, it is more appropriate to use the parameter peak capacity Pc as a measure for the system efficiency. The definition of peak capacity in chromatography is the number of peaks that can be separated within a retention window for a specific pre-defined resolution factor, usually ~1. It could also be envisioned as the runtime measured in number of peaks' average widths. The equation is shown in the Figure of the performance criteria. In this equation tg is the gradient time and w(ave) is the average peaks width at the base.

The parameters are largely derived from two sets of chromatographic theory: plate theory (as part of partition chromatography), and the rate theory of chromatography / Van Deemter equation. Of course, they can be put in practice through analysis of HPLC chromatograms, although rate theory is considered the more accurate theory.

They are analogous to the calculation of retention factor for a paper chromatography separation, but describes how well HPLC separates a mixture into two or more components that are detected as peaks (bands) on a chromatogram. The HPLC parameters are the: efficiency factor(N), the retention factor (kappa prime), and the separation factor (alpha). Together the factors are variables in a resolution equation, which describes how well two components' peaks separated or overlapped each other. These parameters are mostly only used for describing HPLC reversed phase and HPLC normal phase separations, since those separations tend to be more subtle than other HPLC modes (e.g., ion exchange and size exclusion).

Void volume is the amount of space in a column that is occupied by solvent. It is the space within the column that is outside of the column's internal packing material. Void volume is measured on a chromatogram as the first component peak detected, which is usually the solvent that was present in the sample mixture; ideally the sample solvent flows through the column without interacting with the column, but is still detectable as distinct from the HPLC solvent. The void volume is used as a correction factor.

Efficiency factor (N) practically measures how sharp component peaks on the chromatogram are, as ratio of the component peak's area ("retention time") relative to the width of the peaks at their widest point (at the baseline). Peaks that are tall, sharp, and relatively narrow indicate that separation method efficiently removed a component from a mixture; high efficiency. Efficiency is very dependent upon the HPLC column and the HPLC method used. Efficiency factor is synonymous with plate number, and the 'number of theoretical plates'.

Retention factor (kappa prime) measures how long a component of the mixture stuck to the column, measured by the area under the curve of its peak in a chromatogram (since HPLC chromatograms are a function of time). Each chromatogram peak will have its own retention factor (e.g., kappa 1 for the retention factor of the first peak). This factor may be corrected for by the void volume of the column.

Separation factor (alpha) is a relative comparison on how well two neighboring components of the mixture were separated (i.e., two neighboring bands on a chromatogram). This factor is defined in terms of a ratio of the retention factors of a pair of neighboring chromatogram peaks, and may also be corrected for by the void volume of the column. The greater the separation factor value is over 1.0, the better the separation, until about 2.0 beyond which an HPLC method is probably not needed for separation. Resolution equations relate the three factors such that high efficiency and separation factors improve the resolution of component peaks in an HPLC separation.

Internal diameter
The internal diameter (ID) of an HPLC column is an important parameter. It can influence the detection response when reduced due to the reduced lateral diffusion of the solute band. It can also affect the separation selectivity, when flow rate and injection volumes are not scaled down or up proportionally to the smaller or larger diameter used, both in the isocratic and in gradient modes. It determines the quantity of analyte that can be loaded onto the column. Larger diameter columns are usually seen in preparative applications, such as the purification of a drug product for later use. Low-ID columns have improved sensitivity and lower solvent consumption in the recent ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC).

Larger ID columns (over 10 mm) are used to purify usable amounts of material because of their large loading capacity.

Analytical scale columns (4.6 mm) have been the most common type of columns, though narrower columns are rapidly gaining in popularity. They are used in traditional quantitative analysis of samples and often use a UV-Vis absorbance detector.

Narrow-bore columns (1–2 mm) are used for applications when more sensitivity is desired either with special UV-vis detectors, fluorescence detection or with other detection methods like liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Capillary columns (under 0.3 mm) are used almost exclusively with alternative detection means such as mass spectrometry. They are usually made from fused silica capillaries, rather than the stainless steel tubing that larger columns employ.

Particle size
Most traditional HPLC is performed with the stationary phase attached to the outside of small spherical silica particles (very small beads). These particles come in a variety of sizes with 5 μm beads being the most common. Smaller particles generally provide more surface area and better separations, but the pressure required for optimum linear velocity increases by the inverse of the particle diameter squared.

According to the equations of the column velocity, efficiency and backpressure, reducing the particle diameter by half and keeping the size of the column the same, will double the column velocity and efficiency; but four times increase the backpressure. And the small particles HPLC also can decrease the width broadening. Larger particles are used in preparative HPLC (column diameters 5 cm up to >30 cm) and for non-HPLC applications such as solid-phase extraction.

Pore size
Many stationary phases are porous to provide greater surface area. Small pores provide greater surface area while larger pore size has better kinetics, especially for larger analytes. For example, a protein which is only slightly smaller than a pore might enter the pore but does not easily leave once inside.

Pump pressure
Pumps vary in pressure capacity, but their performance is measured on their ability to yield a consistent and reproducible volumetric flow rate. Pressure may reach as high as 60 MPa (6000 lbf/in2), or about 600 atmospheres. Modern HPLC systems have been improved to work at much higher pressures, and therefore are able to use much smaller particle sizes in the columns (<2 μm). These "ultra high performance liquid chromatography" systems or UHPLCs, which could also be known as ultra high pressure chromatography systems, can work at up to 120 MPa (17,405 lbf/in2), or about 1200 atmospheres. The term "UPLC" is a trademark of the Waters Corporation, but is sometimes used to refer to the more general technique of UHPLC.

Detectors
HPLC detectors fall into two main categories: universal or selective. Universal detectors typically measure a bulk property (e.g., refractive index) by measuring a difference of a physical property between the mobile phase and mobile phase with solute while selective detectors measure a solute property (e.g., UV-Vis absorbance) by simply responding to the physical or chemical property of the solute. HPLC most commonly uses a UV-Vis absorbance detector; however, a wide range of other chromatography detectors can be used. A universal detector that complements UV-Vis absorbance detection is the charged aerosol detector (CAD). A kind of commonly utilized detector includes refractive index detectors, which provide readings by measuring the changes in the refractive index of the eluant as it moves through the flow cell. In certain cases, it is possible to use multiple detectors, for example LCMS normally combines UV-Vis with a mass spectrometer.

When used with an electrochemical detector (ECD) the HPLC-ECD selectively detects neurotransmitters such as: norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine and others in neurochemical analysis research applications. The HPLC-ECD detects neurotransmitters to the femtomolar range. Other methods to detect neurotransmitters include liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, ELISA, or radioimmunoassays.

Autosamplers
Large numbers of samples can be automatically injected onto an HPLC system, by the use of HPLC autosamplers. In addition, HPLC autosamplers have an injection volume and technique which is exactly the same for each injection, consequently they provide a high degree of injection volume precision. It is possible to enable sample stirring within the sampling-chamber, thus promoting homogeneity.

Manufacturing
HPLC has many applications in both laboratory and clinical science. It is a common technique used in pharmaceutical development, as it is a dependable way to obtain and ensure product purity. While HPLC can produce extremely high quality (pure) products, it is not always the primary method used in the production of bulk drug materials. According to the European pharmacopoeia, HPLC is used in only 15.5% of syntheses. However, it plays a role in 44% of syntheses in the United States pharmacopoeia. This could possibly be due to differences in monetary and time constraints, as HPLC on a large scale can be an expensive technique. An increase in specificity, precision, and accuracy that occurs with HPLC unfortunately corresponds to an increase in cost.

Legal
This technique is also used for detection of illicit drugs in various samples. The most common method of drug detection has been an immunoassay. This method is much more convenient. However, convenience comes at the cost of specificity and coverage of a wide range of drugs, therefore, HPLC has been used as well as an alternative method. As HPLC is a method of determining (and possibly increasing) purity, using HPLC alone in evaluating concentrations of drugs was somewhat insufficient. Therefore, HPLC in this context is often performed in conjunction with mass spectrometry. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) instead of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) circumvents the necessity for derivitizing with acetylating or alkylation agents, which can be a burdensome extra step. LC-MS has been used to detect a variety of agents like doping agents, drug metabolites, glucuronide conjugates, amphetamines, opioids, cocaine, BZDs, ketamine, LSD, cannabis, and pesticides. Performing HPLC in conjunction with mass spectrometry reduces the absolute need for standardizing HPLC experimental runs.

Research
Similar assays can be performed for research purposes, detecting concentrations of potential clinical candidates like anti-fungal and asthma drugs. This technique is obviously useful in observing multiple species in collected samples, as well, but requires the use of standard solutions when information about species identity is sought out. It is used as a method to confirm results of synthesis reactions, as purity is essential in this type of research. However, mass spectrometry is still the more reliable way to identify species.

Medical and health sciences
Medical use of HPLC typically use mass spectrometer (MS) as the detector, so the technique is called LC-MS or LC-MS/MS for tandem MS, where two types of MS are operated sequentially. When the HPLC instrument is connected to more than one detector, it is called a hyphenated LC system. Pharmaceutical applications are the major users of HPLC, LC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This includes drug development and pharmacology, which is the scientific study of the effects of drugs and chemicals on living organisms, personalized medicine, public health and diagnostics. While urine is the most common medium for analyzing drug concentrations, blood serum is the sample collected for most medical analyses with HPLC. One of the most important roles of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS in the clinical lab is the Newborn Screening (NBS) for metabolic disorders and follow-up diagnostics. The infants' samples come in the shape of dried blood spot (DBS), which is simple to prepare and transport, enabling safe and accessible diagnostics, both locally and globally.

Other methods of detection of molecules that are useful for clinical studies have been tested against HPLC, namely immunoassays. In one example of this, competitive protein binding assays (CPBA) and HPLC were compared for sensitivity in detection of vitamin D. Useful for diagnosing vitamin D deficiencies in children, it was found that sensitivity and specificity of this CPBA reached only 40% and 60%, respectively, of the capacity of HPLC. While an expensive tool, the accuracy of HPLC is nearly unparalleled.

title: High-performance liquid chromatography


text:
Véhicule Automatique Léger

Véhicule Automatique Léger (lit. 'automatic light vehicle') or VAL is a type of driverless (automated), rubber-tyred, medium-capacity rail transport system (people mover). The technology was developed at the Lille University of Science and Technology, was marketed by Matra, and first used in the early 1980s for the Lille Metro system, one of the world's first fully automated mass-transit rail networks, preceded only by the Port Island Line in Kobe, Japan. The VAL technology is now marketed by Siemens, which acquired Matra in the late 1990s.

A total of 11 lines in 8 systems based on the VAL technology are currently in operation worldwide. The current version of the VAL product is marketed as NeoVal (with a distinction between AirVal for airport environments and CityVal for more conventional transit environments).

The name is a backronym, with the first project to use the technology nicknamed VAL after the routing of the line: Villeneuve d'Ascq à Lille (lit. 'Villeneuve d'Ascq to Lille').

Original VAL
The VAL system uses a fully automated elevated guideway, which may be metal or concrete depending on prevailing weather conditions. Primary suspension is by rubber tires, with pairs of horizontal tires to provide lateral guidance. Electrical power at 750 V DC is collected by shoes from the guidebars.

The vehicles are lightweight 2-car sets (VAL 206 or VAL 208) with 124 total capacity, or twin sets (VAL 256) with 80 seated and 160 standing capacity. All axles on these vehicles are motored with 150 kW electrical motors. The system detects the location of trains on the guideway by the use of ultrasonic sensors. VAL uses fixed-block signalling.

VAL can cope with unanticipated demand by inserting additional trains into the network as required by remote command from the control center. The control center computer system automatically speeds up or slows down trains in order to maintain a timetable. The VAL system can handle headways as small as 60 seconds, and the Lille VAL system rapidly proved itself with a 99.8% availability.

In contrast to another early driverless metro system, the Vancouver SkyTrain, the VAL design uses platforms that are separated from the rollways by a glass partition, to prevent waiting passengers from straying or falling onto the rollways. Platform screen doors – produced by Swiss glass door manufacturer Kaba Gilgen AG – are embedded in these partitions and open in synchrony with the train doors when a train stops at the platform. The original platform-edge doors were manufactured and installed by PLC Peters in Hayes, Middlesex and were used on the first line.

In addition to the trains being driverless, the station platforms are unstaffed in normal operation. In the original Lille metro system, they are monitored by a large closed-circuit television system with 330 cameras and 24 television monitors in a remote control room.

NeoVal
In 2006 the NeoVal project, successor of the VAL, was announced. It features regenerative braking. 40% of the 62 million Euros set aside for the programme will come from the Agence de l'innovation industrielle (the technology-supporting project agency formerly known as the AII). The program is managed by Siemens Mobility, in association with Lohr Industrie. The NeoVal will be guided by a single central rail, similar to that of the Translohr, and will be able to operate without any electrical supply between the stations (no third rail or overhead lines), making the cost of infrastructure much lower.

The NeoVal is offered in two versions:
 * the CityVal version designed for conventional transit environments (car width 2.65 m) with the first implementation on Line B of the Rennes Metro;
 * the AirVal version designed for airport environments (car width 2.80 m) with the first implementation on the Suvarnabhumi Airport Automated People Mover at Suvarnabhumi Airport, Thailand.

Active systems
there are a total of 12 lines in 8 systems operating with VAL technology:
 * Lille Metro (two lines), since 1983, VAL 206 and VAL 208 cars
 * Paris Orlyval, since 1991, VAL 206 cars
 * Toulouse Metro (two lines), since 1993, VAL 206 and VAL 208 cars
 * Taipei Metro Wenhu (Brown) line, since 1996, larger VAL 256 cars using the MAGGALY technology from Lyon Metro Line D and Bombardier signaling
 * Rennes Metro (two lines), since 2002, VAL 208 and CityVal cars
 * Turin Metro, since 2006, VAL 208 cars
 * Paris CDGVAL (two lines), since 2007, VAL 208 cars
 * Uijeongbu U Line, since 2012, VAL 208 cars with air conditioning, locally designated the U100
 * Bangkok Suvarnabhumi Airport, since 2023 - 6 2-car AirVal trains

Future systems

 * Frankfurt Airport SkyLine (rehabilitation of existing people mover system) - 24 2-car AirVal trains

Defunct systems

 * Airport Transit System at Chicago's O'Hare International Airport (opened in 1993 and replaced by a Bombardier system in 2019 and reopened in 2021)
 * Jacksonville, Florida, had a VAL line inaugurated in 1989; it was shut down in December 1996 and replaced by a monorail, the Jacksonville Skyway. The rolling stock was sold to O'Hare.

Medium-Capacity Transport System
When VAL was introduced to Taipei, the term medium-capacity rail transport system was coined by railway planners to differentiate VAL from heavy rail (metro). Since then, this term has begun to be applied on similar capacity transit systems–mainly in Asian cities–even when the systems are not based on VAL's technology. On Siemens' official website, VAL was during a certain time advertised as the "first fully automated light metro", in which the term "light metro" can be traced back to the Moscow Metro's Butovskaya Line. Siemens now rather uses the terms "medium-capacity metro" or simply refers to VAL as a "people mover".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Véhicule Automatique Léger


text:
Talk:Enhanced CD

what do the terms "yellow book/red book" mean? -- Tarquin 10:41 Jan 13, 2003 (UTC)

 * It seems that the respective pages linked to by this page do a pretty good job at explaining those standards. -- Jrdioko 19:00, Mar 28, 2004 (UTC)

About Iron Maiden being mentioned as one of the first to release an enhanced CD in 1998:

There already were enhanced CDs available in 1996, e.g. some versions of Mobb Deep's "Hell On Earth". - 2012 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.241.112.31 (talk) 18:30, 25 June 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Enhanced CD. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100310064009/http://www.musicfan.com:80/what.php to http://www.musicfan.com/what.php

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 18:32, 4 January 2016 (UTC)

Ubuntu Linux mount point
There is a Taylor Swift album on CD. When you put that CD in the optical disc drive, two things show up in Ubuntu:
 * "Audio CD", and
 * "/media/ubuntu/Enhanced Content" ("Enhanced Content" is a folder and a mountpoint)

With mixed mode CDs, cdrdao detects "AUDIO" tracks and "DATA" tracks. Oddly, IIRC (I am pretty sure I do), cdrdao detected only audio tracks with said CD. I think the directory name "Enhanced Content" indicates that that CD is an Enhanced CD. Also, that folder contained .mov files, or other types of files in various different folders. CD audio does not have a filesystem, but regular files and directories in a CD are part of a filesystem.

I think this fact about the mount point name should be added to the article, but it may need a reference. --User123o987name (talk) 06:40, 7 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Enhanced CD


text:
Phil Gramm

William Philip Gramm (born July 8, 1942) is an American economist and politician who represented Texas in both chambers of Congress. Though he began his political career as a Democrat, Gramm switched to the Republican Party in 1983. Gramm was an unsuccessful candidate in the 1996 Republican Party presidential primaries against eventual nominee Bob Dole.

Early life education
Gramm was born on July 8, 1942, in Fort Benning, Georgia, and grew up in nearby Columbus. Soon after his birth, Gramm's father, Kenneth Marsh Gramm, a career Army sergeant, suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed. He died when Gramm was 14. Gramm's mother, Florence (née Scroggins), worked double shifts as a nurse to supplement the veterans disability pension.

Gramm attended public schools, graduated in 1961 from Georgia Military Academy (now Woodward Academy), and graduated in 1964 from the University of Georgia. He received a doctorate in economics from the University of Georgia's Terry College of Business in 1967.

Career
Gramm taught economics at Texas A&M University from 1967 to 1978. In addition to teaching, Gramm founded the economic consulting firm Gramm and Associates (1971–1978).

United States House of Representatives
In 1976, Gramm unsuccessfully challenged Texas Democratic Senator Lloyd Bentsen, in the party's senatorial primary. Then in 1978 Gramm successfully ran as a Democrat for Representative from Texas's 6th congressional district, which stretched from the Fort Worth suburbs to College Station. He was reelected to his House seat as a Democrat in 1980.

Gramm's voting record was very conservative, even by Texas Democratic standards of the time. During his first four terms, he tallied an average rating of 89 from the American Conservative Union, and from 1980 to 1982 he garnered the highest rating from that body of any Democrat in the Texas delegation. In 1981, he co-sponsored the Gramm-Latta Budget which implemented President Ronald Reagan's economic program, increased military spending, cut other spending, and mandated the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (the Kemp-Roth Tax Cut).

Just days after being reelected in 1982, Gramm was thrown off the House Budget Committee. In response, Gramm resigned his House seat on January 5, 1983. He then ran as a Republican for his own vacancy in a February 12, 1983 special election, and won easily. One of his many special election opponents was the second-place finisher by only 115 votes in his 1978 Democratic Party primary, the then newly elected State Senator Chet Edwards of Waco, and later U.S. Representative for the 11th and the 17th congressional districts of Texas (January 3, 1991 – January 3, 2011). Another special election opponent was Texas State Representative Dan Kubiak of Rockdale, Texas. Gramm became the first Republican to represent the district since its creation in 1846.

After he left the House, the seat was retained for the Republican Party by Joe Barton.

United States Senate
In 1984, Gramm was elected as a Republican to represent Texas in the U.S. Senate. He defeated Congressman Ron Paul, former gubernatorial nominee Henry Grover, Robert Mosbacher, Jr., of Houston, and several of other contenders in the primary. He then faced the Democratic nominee, State Senator Lloyd Doggett of Austin in the general election for the right to succeed retiring Republican Senator John G. Tower. Gramm polled 3,116,348 votes (58.5 percent) to Doggett's 2,207,557 (41.5 percent). Gramm was the first U.S. Senate candidate in the history of Texas to receive more than three million votes.

In October 1985, Gramm, Fritz Hollings, and Warren Rudman sponsored an amendment to establish a budget deficits ceiling that would decline to zero by 1991 that was attached to a bill raising the debt limit of the federal government by more than $250 billion. The amendment was approved by a vote of 75 to 24 and was stated as a possible prelude to a balanced budget in five years without a tax increase by United States Secretary of the Treasury James Baker: "I think it's important that we recognize the Gramm-Rudman amendment is basically a process designed to give the legislative branch and in some degree the executive branch, the political will to deal with the deficit. It means it's going to force some action. Given the political will to make the hard choices you can reach balance without having to raise taxes."

Gramm served on the Senate Budget Committee from 1989 until leaving office in 2002. Gramm and Senators Fritz Hollings and Warren Rudman devised a means of cutting the budget through across-the-board spending cuts if deficit-reduction targets were not met. They were successful in making the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act law, although portions were ruled unconstitutional. In the years following the passage of the Act, other sections were largely superseded by other budget-controlling mechanisms.

In 1990, Gramm failed in an effort to amend the Iraq International Law Compliance Act of 1990. An earlier amendment to the act, the D'Amato Amendment, prohibited the US from selling arms or extending any sort of financial assistance to Iraq unless the President could prove Iraq was in "substantial compliance" with the provisions of a number of human rights conventions, including the Genocide Convention. After reading the D'Amato Amendment, Gramm introduced his own amendment to counter the human rights sanctions in the D'Amato Amendment. Gramm's amendment would have allowed the George Bush administration to waive the terms of the D'Amato Amendment if it found that sanctions against Iraq hurt US businesses and farms more than they hurt Iraq. In the end, the bill passed the Senate without Gramm's amendment only a week before Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait.

Gramm won his second Senate term in 1990 with a victory over Democratic State Senator and former Fort Worth Mayor Hugh Parmer. Gramm polled 3,027,680 votes (60.2 percent) to Parmer's 1,429,986 (37.4 percent), again receiving more than three million votes.

Between 1999 and 2001, Gramm was the chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. During that time he spearheaded efforts to pass banking deregulation laws, including the landmark Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act in 1999, which removed Depression-era laws separating banking, insurance, and brokerage activities. As a senator, Gramm often called for reductions in taxes and fraud in government spending. He employed his "Dickey Flatt Test" ("Is it worth taking it out of Dickey's pocket?") to determine if federal programs were worthwhile. Richard "Dickey" Flatt owns a family-run printing business started by his father and mother in Mexia, Texas, and is a longtime Gramm supporter". In Gramm's eyes, Flatt embodied the burdens that a typical Texas independent small businessman faced in the realm of taxation and government spending.

In spite of his self-proclaimed opposition to Federal spending, Gramm voted to have the Federal Government build the Superconducting Super Collider in his state, which would have cost billions of dollars of taxpayer money.

Gramm ran unsuccessfully for the Republican Party nomination in the 1996 presidential election, for which he had raised $8 million as early as July 1994. Although he began the race with a full war-chest and tied for first place with Dole in the 1995 Iowa Straw Poll, his campaign was fatally wounded In 1995 when the scandal broke out that he had previously invested in the porn movies industry, which led the New York Post to nickname him "Porno-Gramm". Consequently, he lost the Louisiana Caucus on February 7, 1996, to Pat Buchanan (the final delegate count was 13–8). New Orleans Times Picayune political columnist Otis Pike noted the loss could be traced to the passion of the supporters for Buchanan compared to those for Gramm. "Gramm should have won the Louisiana caucuses – but didn't, because the religious right turned out to vote in larger numbers." At least part of this was because James Dobson infamously said, "I walked into that meeting fully expecting to support Phil Gramm for President. Now I don't think I'd vote for him if he was the last man standing." This poor showing in a state adjacent to Texas plus placing 5th in Iowa's caucuses resulted in Gramm's withdrawal from the contest on the Sunday before the New Hampshire primary. He threw his support to a senatorial colleague Robert J. Dole of Kansas. Gramm, a proponent of free trade, also lashed out at Buchanan, arguing that Buchanan was a "protectionist".

After abandoning his presidential bid, Gramm refocused on his bid for a third Senate term. He defeated Victor Morales of Dallas in November 1996 to win what would be his final term in the Senate.

Gramm was one of five co-sponsors of the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000. One provision of the bill is often referred to as the "Enron loophole" because some critics blame the provision for permitting the Enron scandal to occur. Wendy Gramm was an Enron Board member and her husband was the second-largest recipient of campaign contributions from Enron, succeeded in legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation. Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed in December 2000.

In 2002, Gramm left his Senate seat (effective November 30) a few weeks before the expiration of his term in hopes that his successor, fellow Republican John Cornyn, could gain seniority over other newly elected senators. However, Cornyn did not gain additional seniority due to a 1980 Rules Committee policy.

2007 mortgage and 2008 financial and economic crises
Some economists state that the 1999 legislation spearheaded by Gramm and signed into law by President Clinton—the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act—was significantly to blame for the 2007 subprime mortgage crisis and 2008 global economic crisis. The Act is most widely known for repealing portions of the Glass–Steagall Act, which had regulated the financial services industry. The Act passed the House and Senate by an overwhelming majority on November 4, 1999.

Gramm responded in March 2008 to criticism of the act by stating that he saw "no evidence whatsoever" that the sub-prime mortgage crisis was caused in any way "by allowing banks and securities companies and insurance companies to compete against each other".

Gramm's support was later critical in the passage of the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000, which kept derivatives transactions, including those involving credit default swaps, free of government regulation.

In its 2008 coverage of the financial crisis, The Washington Post named Gramm one of seven "Key Players In the Battle Over Regulating Derivatives", for having "pushed through several major bills to deregulate the banking and investment industries, including the 1999 Gramm–Leach–Bliley act that brought down the walls separating the commercial banking, investment and insurance industries".

2008 Nobel Laureate in Economics Paul Krugman, a supporter of Barack Obama and former President Bill Clinton, described Gramm during the 2008 presidential race as "the high priest of deregulation," and has listed him as the number two person responsible for the economic crisis of 2008 behind only Alan Greenspan. On October 14, 2008, CNN ranked Gramm number seven in its list of the 10 individuals most responsible for the current economic crisis.

In January 2009 Guardian City editor Julia Finch identified Gramm as one of twenty-five people who were at the heart of the financial meltdown. Time included Gramm in its list of the top 25 people to blame for the economic crisis.

Career with UBS
As of 2009, Gramm is employed by UBS AG as a vice chairman of the Investment Bank division. UBS.com states that a vice chairman of a UBS division is "...appointed to support the business in their relationships with key clients." He joined UBS in 2002 immediately after retiring from the Senate.

John McCain 2008 presidential campaign
Gramm was co-chair of John McCain's presidential campaign and his most senior economic adviser from the summer of 2007 until July 18, 2008. In a July 9, 2008 interview on McCain's economic plans, Gramm explained the nation was not in a recession, stating, "You've heard of mental depression; this is a mental recession." He added, "We have sort of become a nation of whiners, you just hear this constant whining, complaining about a loss of competitiveness, America in decline." Gramm's comments immediately became a campaign issue. McCain's opponent, Senator Barack Obama, stated, "America already has one Dr. Phil. We don't need another one when it comes to the economy. ... This economic downturn is not in your head." McCain strongly denounced Gramm's comments. On July 18, 2008, Gramm stepped down from his position with the McCain campaign. Explaining his remarks, Gramm stated that he had used the word "whiners" to describe the nation's politicians rather than the public, stating "the whiners are the leaders." In the same interview, Gramm said, "I'm not going to retract any of it. Every word I said was true."

2016 Republican presidential primary
After the Iowa Caucus, Gramm referred to the 2016 presidential election cycle as "scary". He said of Donald Trump, "I'll have to admit I don't find Trump much more reassuring" than Hillary Clinton or Bernie Sanders "in terms of economic policy", but did not believe Trump would be the nominee. Gramm endorsed U.S. Senator Marco Rubio in the 2016 Republican presidential primary stating: "He's the best prepared on national security. He can win the general election." Upon Rubio's withdrawal from the race, Gramm endorsed fellow Texan Ted Cruz, calling him "a fearless leader and fighter for conservatives all over the country".

Personal life
Gramm lives in Helotes, Texas. He is married to Wendy Lee Gramm, a native of Hawaii, who is associated with George Mason University's Mercatus Center in Virginia. They have two sons: Marshall Gramm, a professor of economics at Rhodes College in Memphis, Tennessee, and Jeff Gramm, a money manager, author, and previously a musician in the indie pop band Aden.

After the 1999 Aggie Bonfire collapse, Gramm offered the F-16 flyover reserved for his future funeral as a U.S. senator to be given instead to the Texas A&M community. The offer was accepted and a memorial flyover for the 12 killed was flown at a Texas A&M football game on November 26, 1999.

Works

 * Ekelund, R.B., Jr., E.G. Furubotn, and W.P. Gramm, eds. "The Evolution of Modern Demand Theory: A Collection of Essays." Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1972.
 * Anders, Gerhard, Phillip Gramm, and Charles W. Smithson. "The Economics of Mineral Extraction." New York: Praeger, 1980.
 * Gramm, Phil. "The Role of Government in a Free Society: A Collection of Speeches and Articles." Dallas: Fisher Institute, 1982.
 * Gramm, Phil, Robert Ekelund, John Early. “The Myth of American Inequality: How Government Biases Policy Debate.” Rowman & Littlefield, 2022.
 * Gramm, Phil, Robert Ekelund, John Early. “The Myth of American Inequality: How Government Biases Policy Debate.” Rowman & Littlefield, 2022.

title: Phil Gramm


text:
Ripper

Ripper or The Ripper may refer to:

People

 * Ripper (surname)
 * Paul Burchill, ring name "The Ripper", a professional wrestler based on Jack the Ripper
 * Kirk Hammett, nicknamed "The Ripper", the lead guitarist in the heavy metal band Metallica
 * Jack the Ripper, a pseudonym for an unidentified serial killer (or killers) active in London in the latter half of 1888
 * Ripper Jayanandan (born 1968), Indian serial killer
 * Tim "Ripper" Owens, a heavy metal singer
 * Psicosis II, a Mexican Luchador enmascarado who was renamed Psyco Ripper and then Ripper
 * Terry "The Ripper" Rivera, a professional wrestler from All-Star Wrestling
 * Danny Rolling, serial killer known as the "Gainesville Ripper"
 * Peter Sutcliffe, known as the Yorkshire Ripper, a serial killer active in Yorkshire from 1975–1980
 * Brandon Vedas, nicknamed "Ripper", a man who died of a drug overdose on IRC

Fictional characters

 * Ripper (G.I. Joe), in the G.I. Joe universe
 * "Ripper", the villain in the Arnold Schwarzenegger film Last Action Hero
 * Rupert Giles, a major character from the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer also known as "Ripper"
 * General Jack D. Ripper, in the movie Dr. Strangelove, played by Sterling Hayden
 * Rippers, horizontally flying bug-like creatures belonging to the Metroid series
 * Rippers, a race of mutant kangaroo–human hybrids in the graphic novel and film Tank Girl
 * Stefan Salvatore, from The Vampire Diaries also known as "Ripper"

Film and television

 * Ripper (film), a 2001 Canadian-British slasher film
 * Ripper (Buffy the Vampire Slayer spinoff), a proposed TV series featuring the character Rupert Giles
 * The Ripper (TV series), a 2020 British docuseries about Peter Sutcliffe, the Yorkshire Ripper
 * "Ripper" (The Outer Limits), a television episode

Games

 * Ripper (video game), a computer game released in 1996
 * The Ripper (video game), a video game cancelled in 2009

Literature

 * Ripper (El juego de Ripper), a novel by Isabel Allende
 * Ripper, the fourth novel in Michael Slade's long-running Special X series

Music

 * Ripper, a Houston heavy metal band, and recording artists for Black Widow Records
 * "The Ripper", a song by Judas Priest, from the album Sad Wings of Destiny

Devices

 * Ripper, slater's tool with a blade and a hook, used for removing broken slate
 * Ripper, a moveable hard steel hook on the back of a bulldozer used to break up hard soil or pavement
 * CD ripper, a piece of software that reads compact discs and extracts audio data and stores it in an audio format computer file
 * DVD ripper, a computer application that copies the contents of a DVD to a hard disk
 * A type of small cordless chainsaw, used by the Enclave and Brotherhood of Steel in the Fallout series.

Sports

 * Grand Rapids (baseball team), known as the Rippers in 1894 and 1896
 * London Rippers, a former professional baseball team based in London, Ontario, Canada

Other uses

 * Ripper (food), a variety of hot dog served in New Jersey
 * Ripper (racquet), a racquetball racquet from Wilson Sporting Goods
 * Ripper, a colloquialism for flatulence
 * Gibson Ripper, a model of electric bass guitar
 * Operation Ripper, a United Nations Korean War operation
 * Repeated Incremental Pruning to Produce Error Reduction (RIPPER), a propositional rule learner
 * A type of bulldozer for breaking a ground surface

title: Ripper


text:
Talk:Véhicule Automatique Léger

Paris-style lines
Paris does NOT use VAL system (except Orly and Roissy airport lines)! It uses a different system, older than VAL.

I have corrected the page another time. Paris line 14 is  NOT a VAL, even if it uses a similar system. Somebody must correct the language, as English is not my language.

Coccodrillo 17:29, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I had called the section Other uses of VAL technology which made clear that this was not a VAL system, but another system using some of the VAL technologies.Hektor 19:31, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * As can clearly be seen through the Rubber-tyred metro article, rubber-tyred metros including the RATP stuff in Paris has been developed much earlier than the VAL. Stating that rubber-tyred metros like Paris Line 1 or 14 use VAL technology looks very odd. I will remove this section. --Fmjwiki (talk) 09:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

abcde
link (in french):http://www.trains-fr.org/facs/40tram.htm

has info on the Aérotrain, about which an article could be written one day... -- Tarquin 11:16 Jan 13, 2003 (UTC)

and some tech specs on the VAL, in fr: http://fr.encyclopedia.yahoo.com/articles/kh/kh_2607_p0.html

Jacksonville
Does anyone know when the VAL of Jacksonville was shut down ?Hektor 18:34, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

 * 15 December 1996 . Ldemery 03:05, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

VAL or Val?
Hi, I'm the wikier who is responsible to the Chinese version of rubber-tyred metro article. As I checked the Siemens official site about VAL. I find that they address the system rather than the all-upper-case abbreviation VAL but written as one proper noun 'Val. Should we pick the official one? -- Sameboat - 同舟 08:42, 9 November 2006 (UTC)
 * VAL is clearly the way the abbreviation has always been used and is still used here in France, the VAL's home country. Strongly suggest to stick with VAL. Val seems to be the result of some marketing and communications folks at Siemens.--Fmjwiki (talk) 23:35, 25 November 2020 (UTC)

Invention?
What exactly is the "invention" by Professor Robert Gabillard that produced the VAL? It looks like a pretty standard rubber-wheeled AGT to me. Maury Markowitz (talk) 21:00, 29 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Well it was the first one, wasn't it? --Fmjwiki (talk) 23:37, 25 November 2020 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Véhicule Automatique Léger


text:
Polly Klaas Foundation

The Polly Klaas Foundation is a 501(c)(3) public charity organization devoted to preventing crimes against children, assisting in the recovery of missing children, and lobbying for legislative assistance. The foundation was formed October 23, 1993, to search for Polly Klaas. Its executive director is Robert De Leo. It has expanded its mission and now searches for many missing children.

The Polly Klaas Foundation also provides kits for parents to teach abduction prevention in a way that they state is not frightening for children. It distributes over 100,000 of these kits per year.

The Polly Klaas Foundation worked with Convio to send targeted letters to state and federal officials to implement Amber Alerts in all 50 states.

Polly's father, Marc, is not associated with this foundation. However, her mother, Eve Nichol, serves on the board.

History
The Polly Klaas Foundation was created initially to search for Polly Klaas. After two years, the executive director, Gary Kinley, resigned with no explanation, and there was an analysis of financial problems in 1996. The Polly Klaas Foundation has since recovered and has drastically increased its operating budget.

The Polly Klaas Foundation receives the majority of its donations via donated cars, through a partnership with Harvard Palmer Jr.'s Vehicle Donation Processing Center.

Children
The missing children featured by the Polly Klaas Foundation include:
 * Jacob Wetterling
 * Kiplyn Davis
 * Jessica Cain
 * Erica Fraysure
 * Jennipher Gingery
 * Kasey Shepard

Other people

 * Michelle Le, nursing student. Search efforts were supported by the foundation.

title: Polly Klaas Foundation


text:
Susan Smith

Susan Leigh Smith (née Vaughan; born September 26, 1971) is an American woman who was convicted of murdering her two sons, three-year-old Michael and 14-month-old Alexander, in 1994 by drowning them in a South Carolina lake.

The case gained international attention because of Smith's false claim that a black man had kidnapped her sons during a carjacking. Her defense attorneys, David Bruck and Judy Clarke, called expert witnesses to testify that she had mental health issues that impaired her judgment when she committed the crimes.

Smith was sentenced to life in prison with the possibility of parole after 30 years. According to the South Carolina Department of Corrections, she will be eligible for parole on November 4, 2024. She is incarcerated at the Leath Correctional Institution near Greenwood, South Carolina.

Family background
Smith's father died by suicide when she was six years old, and Smith herself attempted suicide at age 13. Her mother then married Beverly C. Russell Jr. who later was revealed to have molested Smith when she was a teenager. Russell was a local businessman who later gained prominence in South Carolina's Republican Party and the Christian Coalition. Both Smith and Russell have stated that sexual relations between them continued until six months before the murders.

After graduating from high school in 1989, Smith made a second suicide attempt after a married man she was in a relationship with ended their affair. She married David Smith, and they had two sons. The relationship was rocky due to mutual allegations of infidelity, and they separated several times.

Crimes
On October 25, 1994, Smith reported to police that her vehicle had been carjacked by a black man who drove away with her sons still inside. For nine days, she made dramatic pleas on national television for their safe return. However, following an intensive investigation and a nationwide search for them, she confessed on November 3, 1994, to letting her car roll into nearby John D. Long Lake, drowning them inside. Her motivation was reportedly to facilitate a relationship with a local wealthy man named Tom Findlay. Prior to the murders he sent Smith a letter ending their relationship and expressing that he did not want children. She said that there was no motive nor did she plan the murders, stating that she was not in a right state of mind.

Later revelations indicated that detectives doubted Smith's story from the start and believed that she murdered her sons. By the second day of the investigation, the police suspected that she knew their location and hoped that they were still alive. Investigators started to search the nearby lakes and ponds, including John D. Long Lake, where their bodies were eventually found. Initial water searches did not locate the car because the police believed it would be within 30 feet of the shore, and did not search farther; it turned out to be 122 feet from the shore. After the boys had been missing for two days, the Smiths were subjected to a polygraph test. The biggest breakthrough of the case was her description of the carjacking location. She had claimed that a traffic light had turned red, causing her to stop at an otherwise empty intersection. However, it was determined that the light would not have turned red for her unless another vehicle was present on the intersecting road. This conflicted with her statement that she did not see any other cars there when the carjacking took place.

Trial
In 1995, David Bruck and Judy Clarke served as co-counsel for Smith. In their opening statement, Clarke argued Smith was deeply troubled and experienced severe depression. Clarke told the jury: "This is not a case about evil. This is a case about despair and sadness." The defense's theory of the case was that Smith drove to the edge of the lake to kill herself and her two sons, but her body willed itself out of the car. The prosecution, on the other hand, believed she murdered her sons in order to start a new life with a former lover. It took the jury only two and a half hours to convict her of murdering them. During the penalty phase, Tommy Pope, the lead prosecutor in the Smith case, argued passionately in favor of sentencing Smith to death. The jury ultimately voted against imposing the death penalty. Smith was sentenced to life in prison in 1995 for the murders of her two sons. Smith's defense psychiatrist diagnosed her with dependent personality disorder and major depression.

Incarceration
Smith was incarcerated in the Administrative Segregation Unit in the Camille Griffin Graham Correctional Institution in Columbia, South Carolina.

During Smith's incarceration at the Camille Griffin Graham Correctional Institution, two correctional officers, Lieutenant Houston Cagle and Captain Alfred R. Rowe Jr., were charged after having sex with her. Consequently, she was moved to the Leath Correctional Institution in Greenwood.

She will be eligible for parole in November 2024.

In popular culture
The season three premiere of Arrested Development ("The Cabin Show") features a flashback scene in which Lucille Bluth (Jessica Walter), having recently gone off her postpartum medication, is watching a news story about Smith, and says, "Good for her!"— much to the concern of her son Buster (Tony Hale). The end of the episode features Lucille walking away from her car, with Buster asleep in the back seat as it rolls into a nearby body of water.

Season 6, Episode 8 ("Angel") of Law and Order was based on her case.

In the HBO American prison drama television series Oz, a charachter called Shirley Bellinger was played by Kathryn Erbe, Bellinger drowned her daught by driving a car into a lake similar to Susan Smith

Blind Melon's song "Car Seat (God's Presents)," from their 1995 album Soup, was inspired by the Susan Smith murders, as was the Tom House song "I'm in Love with Susan Smith." The song "When This is Over," on Hayden's 1995 album Everything I Long For, is written from the point of view of one of Smith's sons as the car sinks into the lake. The first song released by Red Star Belgrade, "Union, S.C.", is written from Smith's perspective.

Smith appears briefly in archival footage in the 2002 film Bowling for Columbine in a scene about "dangerous black guys."

title: Susan Smith


text:
Talk:Shoghi Effendi

Reliable sources
Hi,, thanks for contributing to the article and for your concern about source quality. That said, it seems the sources you are using don't meet Wikipedia's standards. First, make sure to read WP:RS to see which types of sources are considered reliable sources for Wikipedia. Basically, we want academic sources, articles from mainstream publishers (so not Baha'i publishers), or articles from mainstream news outlets. We also need to be very cautious using primary sources (see WP:PSTS), which generally includes any religious scriptures or in this case texts by Shoghi Effendi. Lastly, we should use independent sources (see WP:IS), which definitely means not using books by the article subject, and generally means not using sources from anyone involved.

I know it can feel like there are a lot of rules about sources on Wikipedia, but basically the goal is that we aren't doing our own analysis, just reporting what reputable sources have already argued. In general, if you stick with academic sources you won't go wrong. The academic can be a Baha'i (for example Moojan Momen), a non-Baha'i (for example Margit Warburg), or an ex-Baha'i (for example Denis MacEoin) - all are acceptable. It seems you are trying to emphasize quotes from Shoghi Effendi that suggest he should have had a line of successors. If reliable sources emphasize this, go ahead. But if reliable sources don't emphasize it or don't bother to mention it at all, neither should we. Wikipedia is not here to push any viewpoint, just to describe the viewpoints given in reliable sources.

With that said, a ton of the sources in this article don't meet Wikipedia's standards for good sources. They need to be replaced with better ones and you're welcome to help with that. In the mean time, I'm adding a template at the top of the page to alert other editors to the issue. If you have any questions let me know. Gazelle55 (talk) 19:04, 23 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Dear User:Gazelle55,
 * I understand that The World Order of Bahaullah can be considered as a original research and the second reference I have put of Baha'i world can be considered as a Baha'i source. However the third reference I have put of 'Flow of Divine Authority' by Brent Poirier is neither a original research nor Baha'i source. It is a secondary reliable source. On the Basis of that the quote can certainly be put on Wikipedia. Asad29591 (talk) 15:32, 26 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Please review the Core content policies. The World Order of Baha'u'llah is a primary source, not original research. A source might be primary or secondary when discussing different subjects. Brent Poirier is a Baha'i author. Besides that, you're entirely missing the point. You are trying to jam in a quote from a primary source that might support your disputed interpretation of the Guardianship. If you want to contribute, you should start from the point of view of, "what do reliable sources say about Shoghi Effendi" and write the article accordingly. Nobody is disputing that the quote is real, it's your narrowly focused POV pushing, combined with an incredibly poor understanding of how to use sources that is the problem. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  17:13, 26 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi,, thanks again for trying to follow the policies and guidelines of Wikipedia and thanks also for your polite response. As you say, The World Order of Baha'u'llah is not a good source (not secondary, not independent). I would say The Baha'i World is a secondary source, but again it is definitely non-independent. As for the article by Brent Poirier: it is a secondary source and probably we could say it is independent, but I still don't think it is reliable based on WP:RS. It is not from the Baha'i writings or written by the Baha'i administration, but it is written in a Baha'i journal. Here is a quote from WP:RS:

 * "Care should be taken with journals that exist mainly to promote a particular point of view. A claim of peer review is not an indication that the journal is respected, or that any meaningful peer review occurs. Journals that are not peer reviewed by the wider academic community should not be considered reliable, except to show the views of the groups represented by those journals."

 * From that quote, you can see that these Baha'i journals, which are run by Baha'is only, are not reliable sources by Wikipedia's standards. A similar guideline says we shouldn't use publishers that aren't mainstream. Therefore, we also can't generally use books by Baha'i publishers like George Ronald.

 * Furthermore, the bigger point is what Cuñado is saying. Not every piece of information that can be found in a reliable source (assuming you do find one eventually) should be in the article. We are summarizing the most important points about Shoghi Effendi. He wrote about all kinds of topics, not just the guardianship, and we've already included one quote about his views on the guardianship. Why not have a quote on his views on the importance of an auxiliary language? Or a quote on his views on sexuality? Or a quote on his views on Hinduism? Since Shoghi Effendi wrote so much in total and we obviously can't put it all in the article, what we do is summarize material from secondary sources. See WP:DUE for the relevant policy. Gazelle55 (talk) 20:51, 28 May 2022 (UTC)

 * , the material I removed was from a primary non-independent source (see WP:PRIMARY and WP:IS). Please explain why you are re-introducing the material and why you are adding further material from a primary non-independent source. I have no doubt that you are adding an authentic quote and I see the point you are trying to make, but you need to follow Wikipedia guidelines and policies. If you want to improve the article, maybe help find better sources for all the parts sourced to Shoghi Effendi's widow. As is, it seems you are just trying to push a point of view (and I would not say that if the pattern was not repeated again and again). Gazelle55 (talk) 14:38, 15 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Hello Gazelle55,
 * "The Guardian of the Cause of God is its sacred Head and a distinguished member for life of that body (UHJ)." This statement is quite clear and does not need any other source or reference. If you speak about going against the policy of Wikepedia then Cunado has been doing so on regular basis. Asad29591 (talk) 10:55, 18 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi, yes I have clashed with Cuñado sometimes too, but in general I've found he follows Wikipedia's policies and guidelines and he has always been willing to discuss with me in good faith when we disagree. Are there some of his edits in particular you are objecting to? I'd be happy to try to mediate. I agree that there is a general problem with a pro-Baha'i bias on Baha'i articles and I have been working over time to fix that.
 * Regarding the quote from 'Abdu'l-Baha, you say the quote "does not need any other source or reference". But actually, yes it does, it needs a source that meets WP:RS. This is not just me and Cuñado making up an arbitrary rule, the same point has been raised recently by a senior editor at the page Baha'i Faith. You can't just cite whichever part you like from a religious text, you need a secondary source that discusses the text and you follow the secondary source's judgment about which part is important. It may simply be the case that no reliable secondary source has considered that quote particularly important. Gazelle55 (talk) 21:54, 18 July 2022 (UTC)

Marriage
Regarding this deletion that has been reverted several times. This deletion is obviously motivated by animus towards his wife, as Asad mentioned in the edit summary "Rúhíyyih Khánum broke the covenant". The reference is to David Hofman quoting the statement in an introduction to a book about Shoghi Effendi. Another example of the same quote used in a brief overview of Shoghi Effendi is The Life of Shoghi Effendi. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  17:43, 24 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Hello Cunado,
 * Firstly you should understand why something is deleted. You must have certainly read rules of Wikipedia. The reference which is used is original source and goes against the rules of Wikipedia. Also when I deleted you were reverting several times without a valid reason, hence I also reverted the same since it it your common practice to delete or revert stuff that does not match with your personal belief which you assume to be true. Put a correct source and let that be there or else just remove it. Asad29591 (talk) 12:59, 5 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Shoghi Effendi


text:
Talk:Grey area (concept)

Is it rather grAy area in american english? Not really certain.

Is there a definition for Grey area that makes mention of or reference to the time of it's origin or to the fact that it depicts neither black nor white?

title: Talk:Grey area (concept)


text:
Fasi

Fasi may refer to :

People

 * Frank Fasi (1920–2010), United States politician
 * ʻUhilamoelangi Fasi, Tongan politician and academic
 * Fasi Zaka (born 1976), Pakistani journalist

Places

 * Phasis (town) (now Poti), a former archbishopric in Lazica, Georgia, now a Latin titular see

title: Fasi