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Archon

Archon (, plural: ἄρχοντες, árchontes) is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, meaning "to be first, to rule", derived from the same root as words such as monarch and hierarchy.

Ancient Greece
In the early literary period of ancient Greece, the chief magistrates of various Greek city states were called archontes. The term was also used throughout Greek history in a more general sense, ranging from "club leader" to "master of the tables" at syssitia to "Roman governor".

In Athens, a system of three concurrent archons evolved, the three office holders being known as  archon eponymos (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος), the polemarch (πολέμαρχος), and the archon basileus (ἄρχων βασιλεύς). According to Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians, the power of the king first devolved to the archons, and these offices were filled from the aristocracy by elections every ten years. During this period, the archon eponymos was the chief magistrate, the polemarch was the head of the armed forces, and the archon basileus was responsible for the civic religious arrangements. After 683 BC, the offices were held for only a single year, and the year was named after the archon eponymos. (Many ancient calendar systems did not number their years consecutively.) Although the process of the next transition is unclear, after 487 BC the archonships were assigned by lot to any citizen and the polemarch's military duties were taken over by a new class of generals known as strategoi. The polemarch thereafter had only minor religious duties. The archon eponymos remained the titular head of state under democracy, though of much reduced political importance. The archons were assisted by "junior archons", called thesmothetai (pl. of thesmothetēs). After 487 BC, ex-archons were automatically enrolled as life members of the Areopagus, though that assembly was no longer extremely important politically at that time.

Under the Athenian constitution, archons were also in charge of organizing festivals by bringing together poets, playwrights, actors, and city-appointed choregoi (wealthy citizen patrons). The archon would begin this process months in advance of a festival by selecting a chorus of three playwrights based on descriptions of the projected plays. Each playwright would be assigned a choregos, also selected by the archon, from among the wealthy citizens who would pay all the expenses of costumes, masks, and training the chorus. The archon also assigned each playwright a principal actor (the protagonist), as well as a second and third actor. The City Dionysia, an ancient dramatic festival held in March in which tragedy, comedy, and satyric drama originated, was under the direction of one of the principal magistrates, the archon eponymos.

Byzantine Empire
Byzantine historians usually described foreign rulers as archontes. The rulers of the Bulgars themselves, along with their own titles, often bear the title archon placed by God in inscriptions in Greek.

Inside Byzantium, the term could be used to refer to any powerful noble or magnate, but in a technical sense, it was applied to a class of provincial governors. In the 8th and 9th centuries, these were the governors of some of the more peripheral provinces, inferior in status to the themata: Dalmatia, Cephalonia, Crete and Cyprus. Archontes were also placed in charge of various naval bases and trade stations, as well as semi-autonomous Slavic-inhabited areas (sclaviniae) under Byzantine sovereignty. In the 10th–12th centuries, archontes are also mentioned as the governors of specific cities. The area of an archon's jurisdiction was called an archontia (ἀρχοντία). The title was also used for the holders of several financial posts, such as the head of the mint (ἄρχων τῆς χαραγῆς), as well as directors of the imperial workshops, arsenals, etc.

The title of megas archon ("grand archon") is also attested, as a translation of foreign titles such as "grand prince". In the mid-13th century, it was established as a special court rank, held by the highest-ranking official of the emperor's company. It existed throughout the Palaiologan period, but did not have any specific functions.

Ottoman Empire
During the centuries of Ottoman rule in Greece, archons remained a part of urban administration. In Athens during this period, there were four archons appointed every two years by the citizens to serve in the city government as representatives of the Greeks. These archons served alongside the Cadi (Islamic judge) in the court of the Voivode. The archons of Ottoman Athens were chosen from the most powerful and wealthy families in the city.

Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
From time to time, laity of the Orthodox Church in communion with the Patriarch of Constantinople have been granted the title of archon to honor their service to Church administration. In 1963, archons in the United States were organized into a service society, the Order of St. Andrew. This archon status is not part of the Church hierarchy and is purely honorary.

An archon is an honoree by His All Holiness the Ecumenical Patriarch, for his outstanding service to the Church, and a well-known, distinguished, and well-respected leader of the Orthodox Church (at large).

It is the sworn oath of the archon to defend and promote the Orthodox Church faith and tradition. His main concern is to protect and promote the Holy Patriarchate and its mission. He is also concerned with human rights and the well-being and general welfare of the Church.

As it is a significant religious position, the faith and dedication of a candidate for the role are extensively reviewed during consideration; the candidate should have demonstrated commitment for the betterment of the Church, Parish-Diocese, Archdiocese and the community as a whole.

Other uses
"Archon" is used in Modern Greek colloquially, as άρχοντας (archontas), for someone that holds a form of status or power, and the Arab-speaking Copts use it in church parlance in the form أرخن  as a title for a leading member of the laity. Archon was the title of Great Officers of Sicily. It can also be used as a title in fraternities and sororities.

In Gnostic religious traditions, the term archon generally refers to a group of seven supernatural beings, associated with the seven classical planets and considered to be responsible for the creation of the physical world.

In the Software Engineering space, Archon can be used to refer to a group of architects.

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Semaphore (programming)

In computer science, a semaphore is a variable or abstract data type used to control access to a common resource by multiple threads and avoid critical section problems in a concurrent system such as a multitasking operating system. Semaphores are a type of synchronization primitive. A trivial semaphore is a plain variable that is changed (for example, incremented or decremented, or toggled) depending on programmer-defined conditions.

A useful way to think of a semaphore as used in a real-world system is as a record of how many units of a particular resource are available, coupled with operations to adjust that record safely (i.e., to avoid race conditions) as units are acquired or become free, and, if necessary, wait until a unit of the resource becomes available.

Though semaphores are useful for preventing race conditions, they do not guarantee their absence. Semaphores that allow an arbitrary resource count are called counting semaphores, while semaphores that are restricted to the values 0 and 1 (or locked/unlocked, unavailable/available) are called binary semaphores and are used to implement locks.

The semaphore concept was invented by Dutch computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra in 1962 or 1963, when Dijkstra and his team were developing an operating system for the Electrologica X8. That system eventually became known as the THE multiprogramming system.

Library analogy
Suppose a physical library has ten identical study rooms, to be used by one student at a time. Students must request a room from the front desk. If no rooms are free, students wait at the desk until someone relinquishes a room. When a student has finished using a room, the student must return to the desk and indicate that the room is free.

In the simplest implementation, the clerk at the front desk knows only the number of free rooms available. This requires that all of the students use their room while they have signed up for it and return it when they are done. When a student requests a room, the clerk decreases this number. When a student releases a room, the clerk increases this number. The room can be used for as long as desired, and so it is not possible to book rooms ahead of time.

In this scenario, the front desk count-holder represents a counting semaphore, the rooms are the resource, and the students represent processes/threads. The value of the semaphore in this scenario is initially 10, with all rooms empty. When a student requests a room, they are granted access, and the value of the semaphore is changed to 9. After the next student comes, it drops to 8, then 7, and so on. If someone requests a room and the current value of the semaphore is 0, they are forced to wait until a room is freed (when the count is increased from 0). If one of the rooms was released, but there are several students waiting, then any method can be used to select the one who will occupy the room (like FIFO or randomly picking one). And of course, a student must inform the clerk about releasing their room only after really leaving it.

Important observations
When used to control access to a pool of resources, a semaphore tracks only how many resources are free. It does not keep track of which of the resources are free. Some other mechanism (possibly involving more semaphores) may be required to select a particular free resource.

The paradigm is especially powerful because the semaphore count may serve as a useful trigger for a number of different actions. The librarian above may turn the lights off in the study hall when there are no students remaining, or may place a sign that says the rooms are very busy when most of the rooms are occupied.

The success of the protocol requires applications to follow it correctly. Fairness and safety are likely to be compromised (which practically means a program may behave slowly, act erratically, hang, or crash) if even a single process acts incorrectly. This includes:
 * requesting a resource and forgetting to release it;
 * releasing a resource that was never requested;
 * holding a resource for a long time without needing it;
 * using a resource without requesting it first (or after releasing it).

Even if all processes follow these rules, multi-resource deadlock may still occur when there are different resources managed by different semaphores and when processes need to use more than one resource at a time, as illustrated by the dining philosophers problem.

Semantics and implementation
Counting semaphores are equipped with two operations, historically denoted as P and V (see for alternative names). Operation V increments the semaphore S, and operation P decrements it.

The value of the semaphore S is the number of units of the resource that are currently available. The P operation wastes time or sleeps until a resource protected by the semaphore becomes available, at which time the resource is immediately claimed. The V operation is the inverse: it makes a resource available again after the process has finished using it. One important property of semaphore S is that its value cannot be changed except by using the V and P operations.

A simple way to understand wait (P) and signal (V) operations is:
 * wait: Decrements the value of the semaphore variable by 1. If the new value of the semaphore variable is negative, the process executing wait is blocked (i.e., added to the semaphore's queue). Otherwise, the process continues execution, having used a unit of the resource.
 * signal: Increments the value of the semaphore variable by 1. After the increment, if the pre-increment value was negative (meaning there are processes waiting for a resource), it transfers a blocked process from the semaphore's waiting queue to the ready queue.

Many operating systems provide efficient semaphore primitives that unblock a waiting process when the semaphore is incremented. This means that processes do not waste time checking the semaphore value unnecessarily.

The counting semaphore concept can be extended with the ability to claim or return more than one "unit" from the semaphore, a technique implemented in Unix. The modified V and P operations are as follows, using square brackets to indicate atomic operations, i.e., operations that appear indivisible to other processes:

function V(semaphore S, integer I): [S ← S + I] function P(semaphore S, integer I): repeat: [if S ≥ I:        S ← S − I         break]

However, the rest of this section refers to semaphores with unary V and P operations, unless otherwise specified.

To avoid starvation, a semaphore has an associated queue of processes (usually with FIFO semantics). If a process performs a P operation on a semaphore that has the value zero, the process is added to the semaphore's queue and its execution is suspended. When another process increments the semaphore by performing a V operation, and there are processes on the queue, one of them is removed from the queue and resumes execution. When processes have different priorities the queue may be ordered thereby, such that the highest priority process is taken from the queue first.

If the implementation does not ensure atomicity of the increment, decrement, and comparison operations, there is a risk of increments or decrements being forgotten, or of the semaphore value becoming negative. Atomicity may be achieved by using a machine instruction that can read, modify, and write the semaphore in a single operation. Without such a hardware instruction, an atomic operation may be synthesized by using a software mutual exclusion algorithm. On uniprocessor systems, atomic operations can be ensured by temporarily suspending preemption or disabling hardware interrupts. This approach does not work on multiprocessor systems where it is possible for two programs sharing a semaphore to run on different processors at the same time. To solve this problem in a multiprocessor system, a locking variable can be used to control access to the semaphore. The locking variable is manipulated using a test-and-set-lock command.

Trivial example
Consider a variable A and a boolean variable S. A is only accessed when S is marked true. Thus, S is a semaphore for A.

One can imagine a stoplight signal (S) just before a train station (A). In this case, if the signal is green, then one can enter the train station. If it is yellow or red (or any other color), the train station cannot be accessed.

Login queue
Consider a system that can only support ten users (S=10). Whenever a user logs in, P is called, decrementing the semaphore S by 1. Whenever a user logs out, V is called, incrementing S by 1 representing a login slot that has become available. When S is 0, any users wishing to log in must wait until S increases. The login request is enqueued onto a FIFO queue until a slot is freed. Mutual exclusion is used to ensure that requests are enqueued in order. Whenever S increases (login slots available), a login request is dequeued, and the user owning the request is allowed to log in. If S is already greater than 0, then login requests are immediately dequeued.

Producer–consumer problem
In the producer–consumer problem, one process (the producer) generates data items and another process (the consumer) receives and uses them. They communicate using a queue of maximum size N and are subject to the following conditions:
 * the consumer must wait for the producer to produce something if the queue is empty;
 * the producer must wait for the consumer to consume something if the queue is full.

The semaphore solution to the producer–consumer problem tracks the state of the queue with two semaphores:, the number of empty places in the queue, and  , the number of elements in the queue. To maintain integrity,  may be lower (but never higher) than the actual number of empty places in the queue, and   may be lower (but never higher) than the actual number of items in the queue. Empty places and items represent two kinds of resources, empty boxes and full boxes, and the semaphores  and   maintain control over these resources.

The binary semaphore  ensures that the integrity of the state of the queue itself is not compromised, for example, by two producers attempting to add items to an empty queue simultaneously, thereby corrupting its internal state. Alternatively a mutex could be used in place of the binary semaphore.

The  is initially N,   is initially 0, and   is initially 1.

The producer does the following repeatedly:

produce: P(emptyCount) P(useQueue) putItemIntoQueue(item) V(useQueue) V(fullCount)

The consumer does the following repeatedly

consume: P(fullCount) P(useQueue) item ← getItemFromQueue V(useQueue) V(emptyCount)

Below is a substantive example:
 * 1) A single consumer enters its critical section. Since   is 0, the consumer blocks.
 * 2) Several producers enter the producer critical section. No more than N producers may enter their critical section due to   constraining their entry.
 * 3) The producers, one at a time, gain access to the queue through   and deposit items in the queue.
 * 4) Once the first producer exits its critical section,   is incremented, allowing one consumer to enter its critical section.

Note that  may be much lower than the actual number of empty places in the queue, for example, where many producers have decremented it but are waiting their turn on   before filling empty places. Note that  always holds, with equality if and only if no producers or consumers are executing their critical sections.

Passing the baton pattern
The "Passing the baton" pattern  proposed by Gregory R. Andrews is a generic scheme to solve many complex concurrent programming problems in which multiple processes compete for the same resource with complex access conditions (such as satisfying specific priority criteria or avoiding starvation). Given a shared resource, the pattern requires a private "priv" semaphore (initialized to zero) for each process (or class of processes) involved and a single mutual exclusion "mutex" semaphore (initialized to one). The pseudo-code for each process is:

The pseudo-code of the resource acquisition and release primitives are:

Both primitives in turn use the "pass_the_baton" method, whose pseudo-code is:

Remarks

The pattern is called "passing the baton" because a process that releases the resource as well as a freshly reactivated process will activate at most one suspended process, that is, shall "pass the baton to it". The mutex is released only when a process is going to suspend itself (resource_acquire), or when pass_the_baton is unable to reactivate another suspended process.

Operation names
The canonical names V and P come from the initials of Dutch words. V is generally explained as verhogen ("increase"). Several explanations have been offered for P, including proberen ("to test" or "to try"), passeren ("pass"), and pakken ("grab"). Dijkstra's earliest paper on the subject gives passering ("passing") as the meaning for P, and vrijgave ("release") as the meaning for V. It also mentions that the terminology is taken from that used in railroad signals. Dijkstra subsequently wrote that he intended P to stand for prolaag, short for probeer te verlagen, literally "try to reduce", or to parallel the terms used in the other case, "try to decrease".

In ALGOL 68, the Linux kernel, and in some English textbooks, the V and P operations are called, respectively, up and down. In software engineering practice, they are often called signal and wait, release and acquire (standard Java library), or post and pend. Some texts call them vacate and procure to match the original Dutch initials.

Semaphores vs. mutexes
A mutex is a locking mechanism that sometimes uses the same basic implementation as the binary semaphore. However, they differ in how they are used. While a binary semaphore may be colloquially referred to as a mutex, a true mutex has a more specific use-case and definition, in that only the task that locked the mutex is supposed to unlock it. This constraint aims to handle some potential problems of using semaphores:
 * 1) Priority inversion: If the mutex knows who locked it and is supposed to unlock it, it is possible to promote the priority of that task whenever a higher-priority task starts waiting on the mutex.
 * 2) Premature task termination: Mutexes may also provide deletion safety, where the task holding the mutex cannot be accidentally deleted.
 * 3) Termination deadlock: If a mutex-holding task terminates for any reason, the OS can release the mutex and signal waiting tasks of this condition.
 * 4) Recursion deadlock: a task is allowed to lock a reentrant mutex multiple times as it unlocks it an equal number of times.
 * 5) Accidental release: An error is raised on the release of the mutex if the releasing task is not its owner.

Introductions

 * Hilsheimer, Volker (2004). "Implementing a Read/Write Mutex" (Web page). Qt Quarterly, Issue 11 - Q3 2004

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Semaphore (programming)


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Talk:Monday

WikiProject Time assessment rating comment
Want to help write or improve articles about Time? Join WikiProject Time or visit the Time Portal for a list of articles that need improving.

—Yamara ✉  05:13, 27 April 2008 (UTC)

Discussion
We shouldn't have bias in describing the position of the day in the week. Saying "Traditionally, yadayada, but some modern Europeans like to think of it as yadayada" has bias. Saying "Some think this, and some think that" doesn't have bias. - Khendon 14:44 Jan 3, 2003 (UTC)

Saxon moon deity?
I've checked in a couple of dictionaries for the etymology of the word "Monday", and they say that it just comes from words meaning "day of the moon". No mention of a Saxon deity named "Mona". The only references to Mona that I can find in books about mythology relate to a place associated with druids, which I gather has been idenified with the island of Anglesey. So was there really a Saxon moon deity named "Mona", or not? -- Oliver P. 03:37, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

"the normal 24-hour working week" Blimey. I'd like to work where you do! My normal working week is nearer 37 hours. Or have I misunderstood? TimR 22:09, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I don't like Mondays
Can we put in the boomtown rats song or is it too trivial? Might fit with Mondayitis? --BozMo|talk 15:40, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Wasn't that song about a girl who freaked out on a Monday and shot several people, and later gave the excuse for her deed "I don't like mondays."?
 * Yes, Brenda Ann Spencer. The event itself might be material for the article, but hardly the song. -- Jao (talk) 15:20, 30 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I've never heard of the Boomtown Rats or the song. The song "Monday, Monday" by The Mamas and the Papas is far more popular, but I fail to see how either belongs in the article. There's a quote in the Gilmore Girls episode, "Partings," where Lorelai says, "I don't like Mondays, but unfortunately they come around eventually." Do we really need to list instances of Monday in popular culture? -- 67.42.107.14 (talk) 20:43, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

About the portuguese name
Don't know in other languages, but the portuguese name for Monday is not "second day", but "second fair" ("Segunda feira"). More info in the portuguese wikipedia --SugarKane 12:46, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Circadian Rythms
"A possible reason for Mondayitis is that human circadian rhythms are incompatible with the normal 35 to 40-hour working week." Does anybody have a source for this? Judzillah 18:57, 2005 August 8 (UTC)

Australia
I've never noticed that Australians regard Monday as the first day of the week. People I speak to regard it as the second day (albeit the first day of the "working week"). Avalon 22:49, 4 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Really? Not in my experience. After all, why start the week in the middle of the weekend? --Angry mob mulls options 11:26, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I've never heard it referred to as the first day, in any of the places I've lived here. I'm removing the reference since I don't think it's held as such by the majority. That's only my experience, but I'd like to see a source indicating the contrary if the mention is to be made. Radix 12:28, 15 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Oh well, Sunday has always been at the weekend to me --Angry mob mulls options 12:20, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

I'm an Australian, I work in education and I have never, ever, not once seen or heard of anything except Sunday, in all my 28 years of life, referred to as the beginning of the week.

I too am an Australian and in school we were taught that Sunday was the first day of the week. When someone says 'next week' it means from Sunday onwards. In Australia though Monday is often referred to as the 'first day of the working week', but not the calendar week.

 * Sunday indeed is regarded as the first day of the week in Australia, not Monday. GizzaDiscuss  © 10:13, 2 August 2007 (UTC)

Current Event Tag
What is it doing here? -- Lord Snoeckx 01:06, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Revamped Monday thru Thursday
I sincerely hope I haven't treaded on anyone's toes by restructuring these pages, but there really wasn't any consistency among them, and some pages looked awful messy. Of course feel free to revert or edit what I've changed. Unfortunately I never haver had time to do Friday to Sunday. Annatto (talk) 19:15, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

As all the other days of the week show pictured of antique artwork, I figured the Galileo picture was more in keeping with the style than the previous moon photograph, hence why I changed it. Annatto (talk) 19:20, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

Russian word meaning?
It says that the Russian word понедельник means "After Sunday", but doesn't it come from the word неделя, for week, so it would mean "Beginning of the week" or something like that? In any case, if the section is called "Origins of the name", shouldn't it be talking about origins of the English word "Monday" rather than just random information about the word in other languages? I guess the fact that it is moon-related in all the other mentioned languages is relevant, maybe the entire piece about Russian is unnecessary. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.74.155.201 (talk) 20:00, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Typo

New to wikipedia just learning by going around and correcting small typos Christopher ohio (talk) 02:02, 9 May 2008 (UTC)

Unity Issue
"The Russian word...is понедельник (poniediélnik)...The Japanese word for Monday is getsuyōbi (月曜日)...Monday is xingqi yi (星期一) in Chinese..."

In Russian we have the Cyrillic followed by the romanization in parentheses, whereas for the other two the romanization comes first followed by the native writing style in parantheses. I would change it, but I'm wondering if there's some guideline as to which format is correct. Brett (talk) 06:08, 2 October 2008 (UTC) bye

Claim of "original research" re proleptic Gregorian 0001-01-01 = Monday
I was told that my statement that proleptic Gregorian 0001-01-01 was a Monday was original research. I claim that this was, for the most part, calculation rather than "research", and the little "research" was simple use of common and publicly-available knowledge. Let me explain:

Pick up almost literally any reference work with a section on calendars, and it will give the Gregorian leap year rule. I have seen this rule repeated in many places since I was a child. I have even read transcribed and/or translated source texts on this rule. Asking for a reference of this rule is like asking for a reference that the Earth is round. Using this rule, and knowledge which is if anything even more common (such as the number of days in a year and in a week), and simple calculation, I can tell that 400 years makes a whole number of weeks with no days left over, a fact which I have seen in print as well as in Wikipedia.

We are now halfway there. The other half is to correlate this 400-year cycle with a known weekday. Our date 0001-01-01 would (we now know) fall on the same weekday as its anniversary at 400-year intervals. Five such intervals carry us to 2001-01-01. Look this date up on any calendar -- I used the JavaScript Date function in the browser I was using at the time -- and you will see that it was a Monday. QED. (P.S. I just checked my cell phone calendar and this date was indeed a Monday.)

If a computer program claims that 0001-01-01 was not a Monday, then either (a) its calendar was not proleptic Gregorian (Julian, perhaps?) or (b) it contains a bug (does it use the correct leap year rule? is its year 01 = AD 1 or AD 1901 or AD 2001? is its month 1 = January or February?).

As for claims that this information is perhaps not as useful as I had claimed: for one, the programming language REXX uses proleptic Gregorian 0001-01-01 for its day 0, perhaps because it seems a very natural, easy-to-remember starting point. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.35.187.148 (talk • contribs) 01:46, 28 March 2009

 * All of this either constitutes Original Research, or constitutes improper synthesis. Just please give the sources that verify the claim. It shouldn't be that difficult.—Jerome Kohl (talk) 06:03, 28 March 2009 (UTC)

 * This is absurd. But even if I am to do it this way... if I remember correctly, the relevant 16th-century papal bull (text at []) mentions explicitly that immediately after the Gregorian calendar change in 1582, the dominical letter will change to C. This agrees with the table given in the dominical letter article. From the text of this bull and calculation (along with the definition of dominical letter), one can by a similar but different path verify my claim. If you want more details regarding dominical letters (a not unreasonable request), I refer you to the calendar attached to the bull, which I am having trouble finding online. And while we're at it: I believe that mere calculation constitutes neither original research nor synthesis, according to Wikipedia guidelines. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.35.187.148 (talk • contribs) 02:47, 28 March 2009

 * This may well be absurd, but it is the way Wikipedia works. The purpose is to avoid the kind of hoaxes and self-promotion that caused embarrassment a few years ago. The kind of circuitous article-hopping you suggest for verification is not acceptable for two reasons: first, it improperly invokes other Wikipedia articles a sources and, second, direct citations need to present on any claim that is subject to doubt. FWIW, the calculation is beyond my capabilities, and I suspect that may be true for many other readers of Wikipedia, as well. That is why I resorted to online calendar calculators, one of which told me that 1 January 01 (Gregorian) was a Saturday; another told me that 1 January 00 was a Saturday and, since this was (proleptically) a leap-year, 01 January 01 would indeed be a Monday. Neither one would tell me why it is "convenient" for either year 00 (i.e., 1 BC) or 01 to begin with any particular day of the week (I personally favor Wednesday, for absolutely no good reason at all, it's just a gut feeling), so this statement remains POV until corroborated by a reliable source. Thank you for mentioning dominical letters. I have never heard of them before, and their relevance to calendars and the convenience of starting year 0 or 01 on a particular weekday sounds intriguing.—Jerome Kohl (talk) 22:17, 28 March 2009 (UTC)

 * The reason I mentioned dominical letters was because they were part of the calculation. The papal bull confirmed that the Wikipedia dominical letter table was correct (at least for that one example). Knowing the dominical letter for one year, you can count forward and backward to determine it for other years -- that is how the table was constructed. This table can also be (and should perhaps also be) spot-checked by means of whatever calendar you have handy, such as a wall calendar, pocket planner, or cell phone calendar. I know because I constructed the table myself (although using a different base year) and performed a number of spot checks on it -- I believe I used the JavaScript date function for at least some of these spot checks.
 * Also, I had a sould reason for using calculation to pull the date to check from 0001-01-01 to 2001-01-01. The former date is hard to verify and can only be accessed by extrapolation from an existing calendar. The latter date is much easier to verify as is it (with good reason) available on more calendars: it is within our lifetime, whereas 0001-01-01 is not. We also have enough newspapers and records from recent times to confirm beyond any shadow of a doubt what day of the week 2001-01-01 was: we can't say the same for 0001-01-01. That is the real reason I pulled the calculation to 2001-01-01. If there is any shadow of a doubt in your mind that 2001-01-01 was a Monday, look at newspapers, bulletins, calendars, etc., from then. Then using the 400-year rule, go back to 0001-01-01. If you doubt the 400-year rule, then calculate this: (365*400)+(400/4)-(400/100)+(400/400) and then divide by 7 and verify that it comes out even with no fraction left over. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.208.249.18 (talk • contribs) 20:25, 28 March 2009

 * Calendrica is the online calendar conversion program described in Calendrical Calculations by Reingold and Derschowitz, which is considered a reliable source. It confirms that 1 January 1 in the proleptic Gregorian calendar was a Monday. It also confirms that 1 January 1 in the Julian calendar was a Saturday. The Time and Date calendar is wrong. According to the REXX/400 Reference manual page 87, the DATE(Base) function returns the number of complete days since and including the local date 1 January 1 in the Gregorian calendar. For REXX, this was day 0 because the modulo function DATE(Base)//7 returns 0 for Monday. For the calendar and other documents such as the dominical letter attached to the papal bull Inter gravissimas, see Les textes fondateurs du calendrier grégorien in French and Latin. Both Vettius Valens (c. 160) and Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 360) used two overlaping weeks, one beginning on Sunday, the other beginning on Wednesday. Athanasius called the day of the week in his Wednesday week the "day of the Gods" because it was the principal week described by the astrologer Vettius Valens and Anthanasius explicitly numbered it 1–7, 1 being Wednesday. See Week-day names.

 * Despite this, Anon's statement "For purposes of calculation, it may prove helpful, even necessary, to treat the week as beginning on Monday, because in the proleptic Gregorian calendar, January 1 of the year 1 was a Monday." is patently false due to the words "helpful" and "necessary". By its very nature, any computer calculation hides whatever day of the week it treats as first from the user (though not from the programmer). So it does not matter what day of the week is first as far as the program is concerned. Furthermore, REXX treats 1 January 1 Gregorian as the zeroth day of the week as Anon states, not the first day of the week. Many other programming languages determine the day of the week by taking the Julian day number modulo 7, which, like REXX, starts its count of days with 0 (but at 1 January 4713 BC Julian, not Gregorian), so its day of the week is also numbered 0–6, 0 being Monday. Adding 1 to convert this into 1–7 is an extra step which is neither helpful nor necessary. Totally different is the Lilian day number which starts with 1 at Friday. Removing the false helpful/necessary phrase leaves the trivial fact that 1 January 1 Gregorian is a Monday, which does not improve the article in my opinion. — Joe Kress (talk) 03:20, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

 * By "first", I did not mean "given an array index of 1", but rather simply "first" in the ordinary sense of the word. And anyway, where do you suppose the Julian day number or its equivalent comes from? Calculation. And where do you start your calculations? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.27.151.55 (talk) 03:38, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

Why only moon?
Looking at the list of translations, I was surprised to notice that only names referring to moon or first day of the week have been listed. I find it unlikely that it could really be so, that all languages have it that way. In Finnish the day is called "maanantai", which _to my ear_ sounds like a transcription of the Swedish word måndag, meaning Monday. Most other weekdays have names similar to their Swedish counterparts, as well. However, since Finnish comes from a different language family than Swedish, the words don't actually mean anything at all in Finnish - and have never meant. If it was called "moon day" in Finnish, it would be "kuun päivä", which is kinda different from "monday". I'd guess the names must have been brought by the Swedes when they took over Finland, transforming it from the last European wilderness into the system of all land area divided into states with fancy flags.

First day of the week
Various anonymous IPs (probably the same person) keep trying to insert a claim, in this article and all the other days-of-week articles, that the Gregorian calendar specifies that Sunday is the first day of the week. I see nothing in the Gregorian calendar article to support this, indeed quite the opposite: the current article states that opinions vary over this matter. As far as I understand it, the Gregorian calendar specifies that today is Tuesday 11 September 2012 rather than some other date; it doesn't specify whether today is the second or third day of the week. If someone can provide a reliable source to prove I'm wrong then of course I'll change my position. --  Dr Greg   talk  12:51, 11 September 2012 (UTC)

 * The order of the days of the week are not mentioned in the original 1582 Gregorian calendar documents in Latin (bull, canons, and two calendars) because the Gregorian calendar is only a modification of the Julian calendar used by the Roman Catholic Church before 1582. So anything in the calendar that was not changed continued in use unchanged. However, the principal day of the week, called dies dominicus (Lord's Day, equivalent to Sunday) is mentioned repeatedly, but without its order relative to the other days of the week. The best source for the days of the week in the Julian/Gregorian calendar is De temporum ratione (On the reckoning of time) by Bede (725). Specifically, in Latin (Giles 1863 edtion): "Caput VIII: De hebdomada" or in English (Wallis 1999 edition): "Chapter 8: The week". Bede clearly stated that the Gentiles dedicated the first day of the week to the Sun, and he named the days of the ecclesiastical week (which had weekdays numbered from Sunday) as dies dominica (Lord's Day or Sunday), feria secunda (second weekday or Monday), feria tertia (third weekday or Tuesday), feria quarta (fourth weekday or Wednesday), feria quinta (fifth weekday or Thursday), feria sexta (sixth weekday or Friday), and sabbatum (Sabbath or Saturday) in Ecclesiastical Latin (See Names of the days of the week). Bede stated that this usage orginated with Sylvester I, pope 314–335, but Wallis notes that other Church Fathers used it earlier.

 * Modern calendars are almost always displayed as grids of four or five weeks for each month, each week beginning with either Sunday or Monday. This is a recent technique that began in the mid-19th century as a result of the Industrial Revolution. All earlier calendars, including the calendars in the Latin Gregorian calendar documents, were displayed as 12 monthly columns of 28 to 31 days applicable to any year. The only indication of any weekday was the Dominical letter (A–G) beside each day of the month. The user had to consult a table to determine the Dominical letter for a specific year before he could determine the weekday of any date. — Joe Kress (talk) 23:09, 18 September 2012 (UTC)

The name of Monday since late Antiquity has been feria secunda. It can be safely left as an exercise for the reader to figure out if this suggests if this means that it was considered the "first" or the "second" day. The tradition of considering Monday the first day of the week is related to the notion of a "week-end", a term that first appears in the 17th century. --dab (𒁳) 13:54, 11 November 2016 (UTC)

Museums and restaurants closed on Mondays
I was hoping to find an explanation of how old the practice is of closing on Mondays. Greg (talk) 07:42, 11 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Monday


text:
Tete Montoliu

Vicenç Montoliu i Massana, better known as Tete Montoliu (28 March 1933 – 24 August 1997) was a Spanish jazz pianist from Catalonia, Spain. Born blind, he learnt braille music at age seven. His styles varied from hard bop, through afro-Cuban, world fusion, to post bop. He recorded with Lionel Hampton in 1956 and played with saxophonist Roland Kirk in 1963. He also worked with leading American jazz musicians who toured in, or relocated to Europe including Kenny Dorham, Dexter Gordon, Ben Webster, Lucky Thompson, and Anthony Braxton. Tete Montoliu recorded two albums in the US, and recorded for Enja, SteepleChase Records, and Soul Note in Europe.

Biography
Montoliu was born blind, in the Eixample district of Barcelona, Spain, and died in the same city. He was the only son of Vicenç Montoliu (a professional musician) and Àngela Massana, a jazz enthusiast, who encouraged her son to study piano. Montoliu's earliest piano teaching took place under the tutelage of Enric Mas at the private school for blind children he attended from 1939 to 1944. In 1944, Montoliu's mother arranged for Petri Palou to provide him with formal piano lessons.

From 1946 to 1953, Montoliu studied music at the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu in Barcelona, where he also met jazz musicians and became familiar with the idiom in jam sessions. During the early stages of his career, Montoliu was particularly influenced by the music of U.S. jazz pianist Art Tatum, although he soon developed his own style. (Coincidentally, Tatum was also impaired with extremely limited vision). Montoliu began playing professionally at pubs in Barcelona, where he was noticed by Lionel Hampton on 13 March 1956. Montoliu toured with Hampton through Spain and France and recorded Jazz Flamenco.

In 1967, Montoliu performed in New York City with bassist Richard Davis and drummer Elvin Jones. Two concerts at the Village Gate in April were recorded for the Impulse! label, but an album was never released. He frequently appeared in Madrid during the 1960s at the Whiskey Jazz Club with musicians Pedro Iturralde and singer Donna Hightower. During the 1970s, Montoliu travelled extensively throughout Europe. During the 1980s, he performed in concerts with musicians such as Dexter Gordon, Johnny Griffin, George Coleman, Joe Henderson, Dizzy Gillespie, Chick Corea, Hank Jones, Roy Hargrove, Idris Muhammad, Herbie Lewis and Jesse Davis, among others.

In 1996, shortly before his death a year later, Spain paid public tribute to Montoliu for his 50-year career in jazz.

He died in August 1997 from lung cancer, at the age of 64.

Discography

 * 1965: A Tot Jazz (Concentric)
 * 1965: A Tot Jazz/2 (Concentric)
 * 1966: Tete Montoliu Presenta Elia Fleta (Concentric) with Elia Fleta
 * 1968: Piano for Nuria (SABA)
 * 1969: Tete Montoliu Interpreta a Serrat (Discophon)
 * 1970: Lliure Jazz (Discophon)
 * 1971: Body & Soul (Enja)
 * 1971: That's All (SteepleChase) released 1985
 * 1971: Lush Life (SteepleChase) released 1986
 * 1971: Songs for Love (Enja) released 1974
 * 1971: Recordando a Line (Discophon)
 * 1973: Temas Hispanoamericanos (Ensayo)
 * 1973: Temas Brasilenos (Ensayo)
 * 1974: Catalonian Fire (SteepleChase)
 * 1974: Music for Perla (SteepleChase)
 * 1974: Tete! (SteepleChase)
 * 1974: Vampyria (BASF) with Jordi Sabatés
 * 1976: Tête à Tete (SteepleChase)
 * 1976: Tootie's Tempo (SteepleChase, released 1979)
 * 1976: Words of Love (SteepleChase, [1978])
 * 1977: Blues for Myself (Ensayo)
 * 1977: Meditation (Timeless) with George Coleman
 * 1977: Yellow Dolphin Street (Timeless)
 * 1977: Secret Love (Timeless)
 * 1977: Boleros (Ensayo)
 * 1978: Catalonian Folksongs (Timeless)
 * 1979: Al Palau (Zeleste-Edigsa)
 * 1979: Live at the Keystone Corner (Timeless, released 1981)
 * 1979: Lunch in L.A. (Contemporary)
 * 1980: Boston Concert (SteepleChase)
 * 1980: I Wanna Talk About You (SteepleChase)
 * 1980: Catalonian Nights Vol. 1 (SteepleChase, released 1981)
 * 1980: Catalonian Nights Vol. 2 (SteepleChase, released 1985)
 * 1980: Catalonian Nights Vol. 3 (SteepleChase, released 1998)
 * 1982: Face to Face (SteepleChase, [1984]) with Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen
 * 1984: Carmina (Jazzizz)
 * 1986: The Music I Like to Play Vol. 1 (Soul Note)
 * 1986: The Music I Like to Play Vol. 2 (Soul Note, released 1989)
 * 1988: Orquestra Taller de Músics de Barcelona amb Tete Montoliu (Justine)
 * 1989: New Year's Morning '89 (Fresh Sound) with Peter King
 * 1989: Sweet 'n Lovely 1 (Fresh Sound, released 1991) with Mundell Lowe
 * 1989: Sweet 'n Lovely 2 (Fresh Sound, released 1991) with Mundell Lowe
 * 1990: The Music I Like to Play Vol. 3 (Soul Note)
 * 1990: The Music I Like to Play Vol. 4 (Soul Note, released 1992)
 * 1990: The Man from Barcelona (Timeless)
 * 1991: A Spanish Treasure (Concord Jazz)
 * 1992: Catalonian Rhapsody (Alfa)
 * 1992: Music for Anna (Mas i Mas)
 * 1995: Per Sempre, Tete (DiscMedi)
 * 1995: Tete en la Trompetilla: En Vivo (SRP Discos)
 * 1995: Tete Montoliu en El San Juan (Nuevos Medios)
 * 1996: Montoliu Plays Tete (DiscMedi)
 * 1996: T'Estimo Tant (DiscMedi)
 * 1997: Palau de la Musica Catalana (DiscMedi)
 * 1997: Momentos Inolvidables de una Vida (Fresh Sound)
 * 2005: Jazz en Espana (Rtve)

As sideman
With Anthony Braxton With Núria Feliu With Dexter Gordon With Eddie Harris With Rahsaan Roland Kirk With Charlie Mariano With Jordi Sabatés With Archie Shepp and Lars Gullin With Buddy Tate With Ben Webster With Barney Wilen With Jerome Richardson
 * In the Tradition (SteepleChase, 1974)
 * In the Tradition Volume 2 (SteepleChase, 1974 [1977])
 * Núria Feliu with Booker Ervin (Edigsa, 1965) with Booker Ervin
 * Cheese Cake (SteepleChase, 1964 [1979])
 * King Neptune (SteepleChase, 1964 [1979])
 * I Want More (SteepleChase, 1964 [1980])
 * Love for Sale (SteepleChase, 1964 [1981])
 * It's You or No One (SteepleChase, 1964 [1983])
 * Billie's Bounce (SteepleChase, 1964 [1983])
 * Bouncin' with Dex (SteepleChase, 1976)
 * Steps Up (SteepleChase, 1981)
 * Kirk in Copenhagen (Mercury, 1963)
 * Dog Years in the Fourth Ring (32 Jazz, 1997) – appears on one track only
 * It's Standard Time Volume 1 (Fresh Sound)
 * It's Standard Time Volume 2 (Fresh Sound)
 * Tot l'Enyor de Dema (Edigsa, 1976)
 * The House I Live In (SteepleChase, 1963 [1980])
 * Tate a Tete (Storyville, 1975)
 * With Lucky Thompson
 * Soul's Nite Out (Ensayo, 1969)
 * Ben Webster Meets Don Byas (MPS, 1968) with Don Byas
 * Live at The Haarlemse Jazz Clib (Timeless, 1972)
 * Ben Webster in Hot House (Hot House, 1972 [1979])
 * Gentle Ben (Ensayo, 1972)
 * Barney Wilen Quartet - Live in Grenoble 1988
 * Groovin' High In Barcelona (Fresh Sound, 1988)

title: Tete Montoliu


text:
Talk:Tete Montoliu

Source
Most info taken from http://www.tvcatalunya.com/elmeuavi/montoliu/capitulo.htm Axeloide 14:50 Jan 3, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tete Montoliu


text:
The Mamas & the Papas

The Mamas & the Papas (stylized as The Mama's and the Papa's [sic]) was a folk-rock vocal-group which recorded and performed from 1965 to 1968. The group was a defining force in the music scene of the counterculture of the 1960s. Formed in New York City, the group consisted of the Americans John Phillips, Cass Elliot and Michelle Phillips and Canadian Denny Doherty. Their sound was based on vocal harmonies arranged by John Phillips – the songwriter and leader of the group – who adapted folk to the new beat style of the early 1960s.

The Mamas & the Papas released five studio albums and 17 singles over four years, six of which made the Billboard top 10, and has sold close to 40 million records worldwide. The band reunited briefly to record the album People Like Us in 1971 but had ceased touring and performing by that time. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998 for their contributions to the music industry, and they reunited for the second and final time to perform at the induction ceremony that year. Some of their most popular singles include "California Dreamin', "Monday, Monday", and "Dedicated to the One I Love".

Background and formation
The Mamas & the Papas was formed by the husband and wife John Phillips (formerly of the Journeymen) and Michelle Phillips, along with Denny Doherty (formerly of the Mugwumps). Both of these earlier acts were folk groups active in 1964 and 1965. The last member to join was Cass Elliot, Doherty's bandmate in the Mugwumps, who had to overcome John Phillips's concerns that her voice was too low for his arrangements, that her obesity would be an obstacle to the band's success, and that her temperament was incompatible with his (Elliot struggled with obesity all her life and felt deeply insecure about her physical appearance). The group considered calling itself the Magic Cyrcle before switching to the Mamas & the Papas, inspired by the Hells Angels, whose female associates were called "mamas".

The quartet spent the period from early spring to midsummer 1965 in the Virgin Islands "to rehearse and just put everything together", as John Phillips later recalled. Phillips acknowledged that he was reluctant to abandon folk music. Others, including Doherty and guitarist Eric Hord, have said he hung on to it "like death". Roger McGuinn's view is that "[i]t was hard for John to break out of folk music because I think he was really good at it, conservative, and successful, too." Phillips also acknowledged that it was Doherty and Elliot who awakened him to the potential of contemporary pop, as epitomized by the Beatles. Previously the New Journeymen had played acoustic folk with banjo, and the Mugwumps played something closer to folk rock, with bass and drums. The rehearsals in the Virgin Islands were "the first time that we tried playing electric".

The band then traveled from New York to Los Angeles for an audition with Lou Adler, co-owner of Dunhill Records. The audition was arranged by Barry McGuire, who had befriended Cass Elliot and John Phillips independently during the previous two years and who had recently signed with Dunhill. The audition led to "a deal in which they would record two albums a year for the next five years", with a royalty of 5% on 90% of retail sales. Dunhill Records also tied the band to management and publishing deals, commonly known as a "triple hat" relationship. Cass Elliot's membership was not formalized until the paperwork was signed, with Adler, Michelle Phillips and Doherty overruling John Phillips.

1965: Beginning and debut
The Mamas & the Papas made their first recording singing background vocals on McGuire's album This Precious Time, although they had already released a single of their own by the time the album appeared in December 1965. The single "Go Where You Wanna Go", which was given a limited release in November, failed to chart. The follow-up, "California Dreamin, has the same B-side, suggesting that "Go Where You Wanna Go" had been withdrawn. "California Dreamin was released in December, touted by a full-page advertisement in Billboard on December 18. It peaked at No. 4 in the United States and No. 23 in the United Kingdom. "Go Where You Wanna Go" was covered by the 5th Dimension on its album Up, Up and Away and became a Top 10 hit.

The quartet's debut album, If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears, followed in February 1966 and became its only No. 1 on the Billboard 200. The third and final single from the album, "Monday, Monday", was released in March 1966. It became the band's only No. 1 hit in the US, reached No. 3 in the UK, and was the first No. 1 on Spain's Los 40 Principales. "Monday, Monday" won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals in 1967. It was also nominated for Best Performance by a Vocal Group, Best Contemporary Song and Record of the Year.

1966: The Mamas & the Papas
The band's second album, The Mamas & the Papas, is sometimes referred to as Cass, John, Michelle, Dennie, whose names appear above the band's name on the cover, including the unexplained misspelling of Doherty's first name. The recording was interrupted when Michelle Phillips became indiscreet about her affair with Gene Clark of the Byrds. A liaison between Michelle and Denny Doherty had already been forgiven by her husband, John Phillips; Doherty and John Phillips co-wrote "I Saw Her Again" about the affair. They later disagreed about how much Doherty contributed to the song. Following Michelle's affair with Clark, John Phillips was determined to fire her. After consulting their attorney and record label, John, Elliot, and Doherty served Michelle with a letter expelling her from the group on June 28, 1966.

Jill Gibson was hired to replace Michelle. Gibson was a visual artist and singer-songwriter who had recorded with Jan and Dean. After being introduced to the band by its producer, Lou Adler, Gibson soon took part in concerts in Forest Hills (New York City), Denver, Colorado, and Phoenix, Arizona; television appearances including The Hollywood Palace on ABC; and recording sessions. While Gibson was a quick study and well-regarded, the three original members concluded she lacked her predecessor's "stage charisma and grittier edge", and Michelle Phillips was reinstated on August 23, 1966. Jill Gibson left the band and was paid a lump sum from the group's funds.

The Mamas & the Papas peaked at No. 4 in the US and No. 24 in the UK, continuing the band's success. "I Saw Her Again" was released as a single in June 1966 and reached No. 5 in the US and No. 11 in the UK. There is a false start to the final chorus of the song at 2'42". While mixing the record, Bones Howe inadvertently punched in the coda vocals too early. He then rewound the tape and inserted the vocals in their proper position. On playback, the mistaken early entry could still be heard, making it sound as though Doherty repeated the first three words, singing "I saw her ... I saw her again last night". Lou Adler liked the effect, and told Howe to leave it in the final mix. "That has to be a mistake: nobody's that clever", Paul McCartney told the group. The device was imitated by John Sebastian in the Lovin' Spoonful song, "Darling Be Home Soon" (1966), and by Kenny Loggins in the song "I'm Alright" (1980). "Words of Love" was the second single from the album, released in November 1966 as a double A-side with "Dancing in the Street". The record reached No. 5 in the US. "Dancing in the Street", which had been a hit two years earlier for Martha and the Vandellas, struggled to No. 73. In the UK it was backed with "I Can't Wait" and peaked at No. 47.

With Michelle Phillips reinstated, the group embarked on a small tour on the East Coast to promote the record in the fall of 1966. At a September 1966 concert at Fordham University in New York City, the band was noted by Gus Duffy and Jim Mason of their co-headlining band, Webster's New Word, as being clearly "high, drunk, or tripping. When they got on stage, it was clear that these people shouldn't be on stage ... They tumbled onto the stage, shambled around, and just got nowhere".

1967: The Mamas & the Papas Deliver
After completing their East Coast tour, the group started work immediately on its third album, The Mamas & The Papas Deliver, which was recorded in the autumn of 1966. The first single from the album, "Look Through My Window", was released in September 1966 before the last single from The Mamas & the Papas. It reached No. 24 in the US. The second single, "Dedicated to the One I Love", released in February 1967, did better, peaking at No. 2 in both the US and the UK. The success of "Dedicated to the One I Love" helped the album, which was also released in February 1967, reach No. 2. The third single, "Creeque Alley", released April 1967, chronicled the band's early history and reached No. 5 in the US.

By June 1967, the strain on the group was apparent when it performed indifferently at the Monterey International Pop Festival. The band was under-rehearsed, partly because John and Michelle Phillips and Lou Adler were preoccupied with organizing the festival, partly because Doherty arrived at the last minute from another sojourn in the Virgin Islands, and partly because he was drinking heavily in the aftermath of his affair with Michelle Phillips. The Mamas & the Papas rallied for its performance before 18,000 people at the Hollywood Bowl in August with Jimi Hendrix as the opener, which John and Michelle Phillips remembered as the apex of the band's career, saying, "There would never be anything quite like it again".

The Mamas & the Papas Deliver was followed in October 1967 by the non-album single "Glad to Be Unhappy", which reached No. 26 in the US. "Dancing Bear" from the group's second album was released as a single in November. It peaked at No. 51 in the US. Neither "Glad to Be Unhappy" nor "Dancing Bear" charted in the UK.

1968: The Papas & the Mamas
The Mamas & the Papas cut their first three albums at United Western Recorders in Hollywood, while the group's subsequent releases were recorded at the eight-track studio that John and Michelle Phillips had built at their home in Bel Air, at a time when four-track recording was still the norm. John Phillips said, "I got the idea to transform the attic into my own recording studio, so I could stay high all the time and never have to worry about studio time. I began assembling the state-of-the-art equipment and ran the cost up to about a hundred grand".

While having his own studio gave John Phillips the autonomy he craved, it also removed the external discipline that may have been beneficial to a man who described himself as an "obsessive perfectionist". Doherty, Elliot and Adler found the arrangement uncongenial. Elliot complained to Rolling Stone on October 26, 1968, "We spent one whole month on one song; just the vocals for 'The Love of Ivy' took one whole month. I did my [debut solo] album in three weeks, a total of ten days in the studio. Live with the band, not prerecorded tracks sitting there with earphones." The recording sessions for the fourth album stalled, and in September 1967 John Phillips called a press conference to announce that the Mamas & the Papas were taking a break, which the band confirmed on The Ed Sullivan Show that aired on September 24.

The Mamas & the Papas planned to give concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London and the Olympia in Paris before taking time out on Majorca to "get the muse going again". When the group docked at Southampton on October 5, Elliot was arrested for stealing two blankets and a hotel key worth 10 guineas ($28) when in England the previous February. Elliot was transferred to London, where she spent a night in custody after being strip-searched, before the case was dismissed in the West London Magistrates' Court the next day. The hotel was less interested in the blankets than in an unpaid bill. Elliot had entrusted the money to her companion, Harris Pickens "Pic" Dawson III, who neglected to settle the account. The police were less interested in the blankets or the bill than in Dawson, who was suspected of international drug trafficking and was the sole subject of their questioning.

Later, at a party hosted by the band to celebrate Elliot's acquittal, John Phillips interrupted Elliot as she was telling the Rolling Stones' Mick Jagger about her arrest and trial and said, "Mick, she's got it all wrong, that's not how it was at all." Elliot screamed at Phillips and stormed out of the room. Elliot was ready to quit, the Royal Albert Hall and Olympia dates were canceled, and the four went their separate ways. John and Michelle Phillips went to Morocco, Doherty returned to the United States, and Elliot went either to the United States (according to John Phillips) or to a rendezvous in Paris with Pic Dawson (according to Michelle Phillips). In an interview with Melody Maker, Elliot unilaterally announced that the Mamas & the Papas had disbanded, saying "We thought this trip would give the group some stimulation, but this has not been so."

John Phillips and Elliot reconciled to complete The Papas & The Mamas, which was released in May 1968. The album was the band's first album not to go gold or reach the top 10 in America. "Twelve Thirty (Young Girls Are Coming to the Canyon)" was released as a single in August 1967 and peaked at No. 20 in the US. After the second single, "Safe in My Garden" (May 1968), made it only to No. 53, Dunhill Records released Elliot's solo from the album, a remake of "Dream a Little Dream of Me", as a single credited to "Mama Cass with the Mamas & the Papas" in June 1968, against John Phillips' wishes. The song reached No. 12 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, making "Dream a Little Dream of Me" the only single by the Mamas & Papas to chart higher in the UK than in the US. The fourth and final single from The Papas & The Mamas, "For the Love of Ivy" (July 1968), peaked at No. 81 in the US. For the second time, Dunhill Records returned to the band's earlier work for a single, releasing "Do You Wanna Dance" from the debut album in October 1968. The song reached No. 76 in the US.

1968–1969: Break-up and People Like Us
The success of "Dream a Little Dream of Me" confirmed Elliot's desire to embark on a solo career, and by the end of 1968 it appeared that the group had split. John Phillips recalled, "Times had changed. The Beatles showed the way. Music itself was heading toward a technological and compositional complexity that would leave many of us behind. It was tough to keep up." The group met its demise officially in early 1969, as John Phillips recalled, saying "Dunhill released us from our contracts and we were history, though we still owed the label another album." Elliot, billed as Mama Cass, had released her solo debut Dream a Little Dream in 1968, Phillips released John Phillips (John, the Wolf King of L.A.) in 1970, and Denny Doherty followed with Watcha Gonna Do? in 1971.

Dunhill Records maintained momentum by releasing The Best of the Mamas & the Papas: Farewell to the First Golden Era in 1967, Golden Era Vol. 2 in 1968, 16 of Their Greatest Hits in 1969 and the Monterey live album in 1970. The record company was determined to get the band's contractually obligated last album, for which it had given the band an extension until September 1971. The label warned the band that each member would be sued for $250,000 if the band did not deliver the album. A lawsuit and countersuit between the band and label were settled out of court, and it was determined that the band would record under John Phillips's label, Warlock Records, distributed by Dunhill Records. John Phillips wrote a collection of songs, which was arranged, rehearsed, and recorded throughout the year, depending on the availability of the other group members. Band members were rarely together at one time and most tracks were dubbed, one vocal at a time.

The Mamas & the Papas' last album of new material, People Like Us, was released in November 1971. The only single, "Step Out", reached No. 81 in the US. The album peaked at No. 84 on the Billboard 200, making it the only album by the Mamas & Papas not to reach the top 20 in the US. Neither single nor album charted in the UK. Contractual obligations fulfilled, the band's split was final.

Cass Elliot
Cass Elliot had a successful solo career, touring the US and Europe. She appeared frequently on television, including in two specials, The Mama Cass Television Program on ABC in January 1969 and Don't Call Me Mama Anymore on CBS in September 1973. She recorded hits such as "Make Your Own Kind of Music" and "It's Getting Better" but never surpassed her two Dunhill Records albums, Dream a Little Dream (1968) and Bubblegum, Lemonade, and ... Something for Mama (1969). Elliot signed with RCA Records, but none of the three albums she recorded for the label, Cass Elliot, The Road Is No Place for a Lady (both 1972), and Don't Call Me Mama Anymore (1973), produced a charting single.

Elliot died of heart failure in London on July 29, 1974, after completing a two-week engagement at the Palladium. The shows were mostly sold out, and prompted standing ovations. Her former bandmates and Lou Adler attended her funeral in Los Angeles. Elliot was survived by her only child, Owen Vanessa Elliot, who was born in 1967.

John Phillips
John Phillips's country-influenced solo album, John Phillips (John, the Wolf King of L.A.), enjoyed critical favor but was not a commercial success, despite featuring the single "Mississippi", which reached No. 32 in the US. Rolling Stone gave the album four stars when it was reissued in 2006, calling it "a genuine lost treasure". Denny Doherty said that if the Mamas & the Papas had recorded the album, it might have been their best. John Phillips wrote songs for the soundtrack to Brewster McCloud (Robert Altman, 1970) and original music for the soundtracks to Myra Breckinridge (Michael Sarne, 1970) and The Man Who Fell to Earth (Nicolas Roeg, 1976). He also wrote the ill-fated stage musical Man on the Moon (1975). John Phillips wrote most of the tracks on the album Romance Is on the Rise (1974) by his then wife Geneviève Waïte, which he also produced, and he co-wrote "Kokomo" (1988), which was a No. 1 hit for the Beach Boys.

Phillips was lost in a heroin addiction through much of the 1970s, a period that included his arrest and conviction in 1980 on a charge of conspiring to distribute narcotics for which he spent a month in jail in 1981. In later years, he performed with the New Mamas and the Papas and appeared in revival shows and television specials. He told his side of the Mamas & Papas story in the memoir Papa John (1986), and in the PBS television documentary, Straight Shooter: The True Story of John Phillips and the Mamas and the Papas (1988). Phillips died of heart failure in Los Angeles on March 18, 2001.

Two albums were released immediately after his death, Pay Pack & Follow (April 2001), which included material recorded in London and New York with members of the Rolling Stones in 1976 and 1977, and Phillips 66 (August 2001), an album of new material and reworkings that took its title from the age Phillips would have been when the album was originally slated for its release. A later archival series on Varèse Sarabande included a reissue of John Phillips (John, the Wolf King of L.A.) with bonus tracks (2006), sessions he recorded for Columbia with the Crusaders in 1972 and 1973 released as Jack of Diamonds (2007), his preferred mix of the Rolling Stones sessions released with other material as Pussycat (2008), and his demos for Man on the Moon released as Andy Warhol Presents Man on the Moon: The John Phillips Space Musical (2009).

Denny Doherty
Denny Doherty's solo career faltered after the appearance of Whatcha Gonna Do? in 1971. The follow-up, Waiting for a Song (1974), was not released in the US, although a 2001 reissue by Varèse Sarabande gained wider distribution and is now available as a digital download. The album features Michelle Phillips and Cass Elliot as background vocalists in what was to be Elliot's last recorded performance. A single from the album, "You'll Never Know", made the adult contemporary charts. Doherty turned to the stage, making a disastrous start in John Phillips's Man on the Moon (1975). In 1977, he returned to his birthplace, Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he played Shakespeare at the Neptune Theatre under the tutelage of John Neville. This led to television work, including a variety program, Denny's Sho*, which ran for one season in 1978. Doherty hosted and voiced parts in the children's program Theodore Tugboat, and acted in various series, including 22 episodes of the drama Pit Pony. He also performed with the New Mamas and the Papas (see below). An alcoholic through the 1960s and 1970s, he recovered in the early 1980s and stayed sober for the remainder of his life. In 1996, he was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame.

Doherty answered John Phillips's PBS documentary with the autobiographical stage musical Dream a Little Dream (the Nearly True Story of the Mamas & the Papas) which he wrote with Paul Ledoux and performed in Halifax in 1997 and the off-Broadway Village Theater in New York in 2003. The original cast recording, featuring Doherty and supporting band, was released by Lewlacow in 1999. Doherty died on January 19, 2007, at his home in Mississauga, Ontario, from kidney failure, following surgery for an abdominal aortic aneurysm.

Michelle Phillips
While Michelle Phillips's only solo album, Victim of Romance (1977), made little impact, she went on to build a successful career as an actress. Her film credits include The Last Movie (1971), Dillinger (1973), Valentino (1977), Bloodline (1979), The Man with Bogart's Face (1980), American Anthem (1986), Let It Ride (1989) and Joshua Tree (1993). Her television credits include Star Trek: The Next Generation, Hotel, Knots Landing, and Beverly Hills, 90210.

Michelle Phillips published a memoir, California Dreamin', in 1986, the same year John Phillips published his. Reading the two books together was, according to one reviewer, "like reading the transcripts in a divorce trial". As the co-writer and owner of the copyright to "California Dreamin'", Michelle Phillips was an important contributor to the 2005 PBS television documentary California Dreamin': The Songs of the Mamas & the Papas. As of 2024, she is the last surviving member of the band's original lineup.

The New Mamas & the Papas
The New Mamas & the Papas was a by-product of John Phillips's desire to "round out the picture of reform" as he awaited sentencing on narcotics charges in 1980. He invited his children Jeffrey and Mackenzie, and Denny Doherty, to join him at the Fair Oaks Hospital in Summit, New Jersey, where he was undergoing rehabilitation. The idea of reviving the Mamas & the Papas was born at this time, with John Phillips and Doherty in their original roles, Mackenzie Phillips taking Michelle Phillips's part and Elaine "Spanky" McFarlane of Spanky and Our Gang taking the part of Cass Elliot. Little progress was made until after Phillips served his time in jail. The quartet began rehearsing in earnest and recording demos in the summer of 1981. The band's first performance was in March 1982, when it was praised for its verve and expertise, the impressive precision of the harmonies, and the "feeling ... of genuine celebration" on stage.

The group toured the United States, including residencies in Las Vegas and Atlantic City, but lost $150,000 in its first 18 months. John Phillips called a halt in August 1983 and the New Mamas & the Papas did not perform again until February 1985. The band resumed touring, with concerts in Europe, East Asia, South America, Canada and the United States. At the height of the New Mamas & the Papas, the group was playing up to 280 nights a year. John Phillips stayed off heroin, but he and his daughter remained addicted to alcohol, cocaine and pills. The addictions affected the group's performance, as it was occasionally booed off stage.

Doherty quit the band in 1987 and was replaced by Scott McKenzie (1939–2012). In 1991 Mackenzie Phillips was formally replaced by Laurie Beebe Lewis, a former vocalist with the Buckinghams. Lewis, who sang with the band from October 1986 through April 1987, replaced MacKenzie Phillips intermittently between 1987 and 1991 while she was pregnant, in drug rehab and dealing with personal issues. John Phillips dropped out of the band after a liver transplant in 1992 and Doherty returned. Lewis and McFarlane left in 1993 and were replaced by Lisa Brescia and Deb Lyons. The band continued to perform with varying lineups, including Barry McGuire and the recovering John Phillips, until 1998, by which time "the jingle singers who sang those fabulous Cass, Michelle, John, and Denny parts were an aural cartoon". In 1998 the lineup was John Phillips, Scott McKenzie, Chrissy Faith, David Baker and Janelle Sadler. After John Phillips and McKenzie retired permanently from touring, Mark Williamson was brought in.

John Phillips wanted the New Mamas & the Papas to make an album, but could not commit to it. Varèse Sarabande released the 1981 demos with other material as Many Mamas, Many Papas in 2010. After 2010, the band is represented on record by live albums including The Mamas & the Papas Reunion Live (1987) featuring the Phillips-Doherty-Phillips-McFarlane lineup and released by Teichiku in Japan, and Dreamin' Live (2005) on Legacy (not the Columbia-Sony imprint) which features John and Mackenzie Phillips, Spanky McFarlane and (probably) Scott McKenzie.

Members of the New Mamas & the Papas

 * John Phillips – vocals, guitar (1982–1992, 1995–1998; died 2001)
 * Denny Doherty – vocals (1982–1988, 1991–1995; died 2007)
 * Mackenzie Phillips – vocals (1982–1986, 1987–1991)
 * Spanky McFarlane – vocals (1982–1993)
 * Laurie Beebe Lewis – vocals (1986–1987, interim 1988–1990, 1990–1993)
 * Scott McKenzie – vocals, guitar (1986–1998; died 2012)
 * Lisa Brescia – vocals (1993–1998)
 * Deb Lyons – vocals (1993–1998)
 * Barry McGuire – vocals (1997–1998)
 * Chrissy Faith – vocals (1998–2000)
 * David Baker – vocals (1998–2000)
 * Janelle Sadler – vocals (1998–2000)
 * Mark Williamson – vocals (1998–2000)

Later recognition
In 1986, John and Michelle Phillips were featured in the music video for the Beach Boys' second recording of "California Dreamin, which appeared on the album Made in U.S. Denny Doherty was unavailable to participate. The Mamas & the Papas' own version of "California Dreamin was reissued in the UK and peaked at No. 9 in 1997. The song received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 2001.

The Mamas & the Papas was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998, the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2000, and the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2009. Cass Elliot and Michelle Phillips, as "the Mamas", were ranked No. 21 on the VH1 network's list of the 100 Greatest Women of Rock.

The band received a box set when the four-CD Complete Anthology was released in the UK in September 2004 and in the US in January 2005. It contains the five studio albums, the live album from Monterey, selections from their solo work and rarities including their first sessions with Barry McGuire.

The Mamas & the Papas is the subject of several documentaries, including Straight Shooter, California Dreamin and Here I Am, Doherty's musical, Doug Hall's The Mamas & the Papas: California Dreamin (2000) and Matthew Greenwald's Go Where You Wanna Go: The Oral History of the Mamas & the Papas (2002). Cass Elliot is the subject of Jon Johnson's Make Your Own Kind of Music: A Career Retrospective of Cass Elliot (1987) and Eddi Fiegel's Dream a Little Dream of Me: The Life of Mama Cass Elliot (2005). Chris Campion authored Wolfking, a biography of John Phillips that was authorized by the John Phillips Estate.

Fox acquired the rights to make a film about the Mamas & the Papas in 2000. It was reported in 2007 that "The right script is in the process of being written." Peter Fitzpatrick's stage musical, Flowerchildren: The Mamas & Papas Story, was produced by Magnormos in Melbourne, Australia, in 2011 and revived in 2013.

Their song "California Dreamin features prominently in the 1994 Hong Kong comedy-drama movie Chungking Express.

On March 20, 2019, "Straight Shooter" by the Mamas & the Papas was featured on the soundtrack and trailer for Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (stylized as Once Upon a Time in... Hollywood), a black comedy feature film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino. Michelle Phillips and Cass Elliot are both minor characters in the film. "Twelve Thirty", another song by the group, was used in the film but not featured on the soundtrack.

Discography
Studio albums
 * If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears (1966)
 * The Mamas & the Papas (1966)
 * The Mamas & the Papas Deliver (1967)
 * The Papas & the Mamas (1968)
 * People Like Us (1971)

Grammy Awards
The Grammy Awards is an accolade by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) of the United States to recognize outstanding achievement in the music industry. It shares recognition of the music industry as that of the other performance arts: Emmy Awards (television), the Tony Awards (stage performance), and the Academy Awards (motion pictures).

title: The Mamas & the Papas


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Value-added reseller

A value-added reseller (VAR) is a company that adds features or services to an existing product, then resells it (usually to end-users) as an integrated or complete "turn-key" product. This practice occurs commonly in the electronics or IT industry, where, for example, a VAR might bundle a software application with supplied hardware.

The added value can come from professional services such as integrating, customizing, consulting, training and implementation. The value can also be added by developing a specific application for the product designed for the customer's needs which is then resold as a new package. VARs incorporate platform software into their own software product packages.

The term is often used in the computer industry, where a company purchases computer components and builds (for example) a fully operational personal computer system usually customized for a specific task (such as non-linear video editing). By doing this, the company has added value above the cost of the individual computer components. Customers would purchase the system from the reseller if they lacked the time or experience to assemble the system themselves. Tandy Corporation was an example of a company that sold products through VARs, using relabeled versions of its computers.

title: Value-added reseller


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Wavenumber

In the physical sciences, the wavenumber (or wave number), also known as repetency, is the spatial frequency of a wave, measured in cycles per unit distance (ordinary wavenumber) or radians per unit distance (angular wavenumber). It is analogous to temporal frequency, which is defined as the number of wave cycles per unit time (ordinary frequency) or radians per unit time (angular frequency).

In multidimensional systems, the wavenumber is the magnitude of the wave vector. The space of wave vectors is called reciprocal space. Wave numbers and wave vectors play an essential role in optics and the physics of wave scattering, such as X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, electron diffraction, and elementary particle physics. For quantum mechanical waves, the wavenumber multiplied by the reduced Planck constant is the canonical momentum.

Wavenumber can be used to specify quantities other than spatial frequency. For example, in optical spectroscopy, it is often used as a unit of temporal frequency assuming a certain speed of light.

Definition
Wavenumber, as used in spectroscopy and most chemistry fields, is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit distance, typically centimeters (cm−1):
 * $$\tilde{\nu} \;=\; \frac{1}{\lambda},$$

where λ is the wavelength. It is sometimes called the "spectroscopic wavenumber". It equals the spatial frequency.

For example, a wavenumber in inverse centimeters can be converted to a frequency expressed in the unit gigahertz by multiplying by $29.979 cm/ns$ (the speed of light, in centimeters per nanosecond); conversely, an electromagnetic wave at 29.9792458 GHz has a wavelength of 1 cm in free space.

In theoretical physics, a wave number, defined as the number of radians per unit distance, sometimes called "angular wavenumber", is more often used:
 * $$k \;=\; \frac{2\pi}{\lambda}$$

When wavenumber is represented by the symbol $ν$, a frequency is still being represented, albeit indirectly. As described in the spectroscopy section, this is done through the relationship $\frac{\nu_\text{s}}{c} \;=\; \frac{1}{\lambda} \;\equiv\; \tilde{\nu} ,$ where $ν$s is a frequency expressed in the unit hertz. This is done for convenience as frequencies tend to be very large.

Wavenumber has dimensions of reciprocal length, so its SI unit is the reciprocal of meters (m−1). In spectroscopy it is usual to give wavenumbers in cgs unit (i.e., reciprocal centimeters; cm−1); in this context, the wavenumber was formerly called the kayser, after Heinrich Kayser (some older scientific papers used this unit, abbreviated as K, where 1K = 1cm−1). The angular wavenumber may be expressed in the unit radian per meter (rad⋅m−1), or as above, since the radian is dimensionless.

For electromagnetic radiation in vacuum, wavenumber is directly proportional to frequency and to photon energy. Because of this, wavenumbers are used as a convenient unit of energy in spectroscopy.

Complex
A complex-valued wavenumber can be defined for a medium with complex-valued relative permittivity $$\varepsilon_r$$, relative permeability $$\mu_r$$ and refraction index n as:
 * $$k = k_0 \sqrt{\varepsilon_r\mu_r} = k_0 n$$

where k0 is the free-space wavenumber, as above. The imaginary part of the wavenumber expresses attenuation per unit distance and is useful in the study of exponentially decaying evanescent fields.

Plane waves in linear media
The propagation factor of a sinusoidal plane wave propagating in the positive x direction in a linear material is given by
 * $$ P = e^{-jkx}  $$

where
 * $$k = k' - jk = \sqrt{-\left(\omega \mu  + j \omega \mu' \right) \left(\sigma + \omega \varepsilon '' + j \omega \varepsilon ' \right) }\;$$
 * $$k' =$$ phase constant in the units of radians/meter
 * $$k'' =$$ attenuation constant in the units of nepers/meter
 * $$\omega =$$ angular frequency
 * $$x =$$ distance traveled in the x direction
 * $$\sigma =$$ conductivity in Siemens/meter
 * $$\varepsilon = \varepsilon' - j\varepsilon'' =$$ complex permittivity
 * $$\mu = \mu' - j\mu'' =$$ complex permeability
 * $$j=\sqrt{-1}$$

The sign convention is chosen for consistency with propagation in lossy media. If the attenuation constant is positive, then the wave amplitude decreases as the wave propagates in the x-direction.

Wavelength, phase velocity, and skin depth have simple relationships to the components of the wavenumber:
 * $$ \lambda = \frac {2 \pi} {k'} \qquad v_p = \frac {\omega} {k'}   \qquad  \delta = \frac 1 {k''}  $$

In wave equations
Here we assume that the wave is regular in the sense that the different quantities describing the wave such as the wavelength, frequency and thus the wavenumber are constants. See wavepacket for discussion of the case when these quantities are not constant.

In general, the angular wavenumber k (i.e. the magnitude of the wave vector) is given by
 * $$k = \frac{2\pi}{\lambda} = \frac{2\pi\nu}{v_\mathrm{p}}=\frac{\omega}{v_\mathrm{p}}$$

where ν is the frequency of the wave, λ is the wavelength, ω = 2πν is the angular frequency of the wave, and vp is the phase velocity of the wave. The dependence of the wavenumber on the frequency (or more commonly the frequency on the wavenumber) is known as a dispersion relation.

For the special case of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum, in which the wave propagates at the speed of light, k is given by:
 * $$k = \frac{E}{\hbar c} = \frac{\omega}{c}$$

where E is the energy of the wave, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum.

For the special case of a matter wave, for example an electron wave, in the non-relativistic approximation (in the case of a free particle, that is, the particle has no potential energy):
 * $$k \equiv \frac{2\pi}{\lambda} = \frac{p}{\hbar}= \frac{\sqrt{2 m E }}{\hbar} $$

Here p is the momentum of the particle, m is the mass of the particle, E is the kinetic energy of the particle, and ħ is the reduced Planck constant.

Wavenumber is also used to define the group velocity.

In spectroscopy
In spectroscopy, "wavenumber" $$\tilde{\nu}$$ (in reciprocal centimeters, cm−1) refers to a temporal frequency (in hertz) which has been divided by the speed of light in vacuum (usually in centimeters per second, cm⋅s−1):
 * $$ \tilde{\nu} = \frac{\nu}{c} = \frac{\omega}{2\pi c}. $$

The historical reason for using this spectroscopic wavenumber rather than frequency is that it is a convenient unit when studying atomic spectra by counting fringes per cm with an interferometer : the spectroscopic wavenumber is the reciprocal of the wavelength of light in vacuum:
 * $$\lambda_{\rm vac} = \frac{1}{\tilde \nu},$$

which remains essentially the same in air, and so the spectroscopic wavenumber is directly related to the angles of light scattered from diffraction gratings and the distance between fringes in interferometers, when those instruments are operated in air or vacuum. Such wavenumbers were first used in the calculations of Johannes Rydberg in the 1880s. The Rydberg–Ritz combination principle of 1908 was also formulated in terms of wavenumbers. A few years later spectral lines could be understood in quantum theory as differences between energy levels, energy being proportional to wavenumber, or frequency. However, spectroscopic data kept being tabulated in terms of spectroscopic wavenumber rather than frequency or energy.

For example, the spectroscopic wavenumbers of the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen are given by the Rydberg formula:
 * $$ \tilde{\nu} = R\left(\frac{1}{{n_\text{f}}^2} - \frac{1}{{n_\text{i}}^2}\right), $$

where R is the Rydberg constant, and ni and nf are the principal quantum numbers of the initial and final levels respectively (ni is greater than nf for emission).

A spectroscopic wavenumber can be converted into energy per photon E by Planck's relation:
 * $$E = hc\tilde{\nu}.$$

It can also be converted into wavelength of light:
 * $$\lambda = \frac{1}{n \tilde \nu},$$

where n is the refractive index of the medium. Note that the wavelength of light changes as it passes through different media, however, the spectroscopic wavenumber (i.e., frequency) remains constant.

Often spatial frequencies are stated by some authors "in wavenumbers", incorrectly transferring the name of the quantity to the CGS unit cm−1 itself.

title: Wavenumber


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Atmospheric waveguide

An atmospheric waveguide is an atmospheric flow feature that improves the propagation of certain atmospheric waves.

The effect arises because wave parameters such as group velocity or vertical wavenumber depend on mean flow direction and strength. Thus, for instance, westerlies might be a good waveguide for eastward-traveling waves, but might strongly dissipate westward-traveling waves, by increasing or decreasing their vertical wavenumber, respectively. Modification of the waves' group velocity will change their meridional propagation speed, directing them more polewards or more equatorwards.

title: Atmospheric waveguide


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Dissipation

In thermodynamics, dissipation is the result of an irreversible process that affects a thermodynamic system. In a dissipative process, energy (internal, bulk flow kinetic, or system potential) transforms from an initial form to a final form, where the capacity of the final form to do thermodynamic work is less than that of the initial form. For example, transfer of energy as heat is dissipative because it is a transfer of energy other than by thermodynamic work or by transfer of matter, and spreads previously concentrated energy. Following the second law of thermodynamics, in conduction and radiation from one body to another, the entropy varies with temperature (reduces the capacity of the combination of the two bodies to do work), but never decreases in an isolated system.

In mechanical engineering, dissipation is the irreversible conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy with an associated increase in entropy.

Processes with defined local temperature produce entropy at a certain rate. The entropy production rate times local temperature gives the dissipated power. Important examples of irreversible processes are: heat flow through a thermal resistance, fluid flow through a flow resistance, diffusion (mixing), chemical reactions, and electric current flow through an electrical resistance (Joule heating).

Definition
Dissipative thermodynamic processes are essentially irreversible because they produce entropy. Planck regarded friction as the prime example of an irreversible thermodynamic process. In a process in which the temperature is locally continuously defined, the local density of rate of entropy production times local temperature gives the local density of dissipated power.

A particular occurrence of a dissipative process cannot be described by a single individual Hamiltonian formalism. A dissipative process requires a collection of admissible individual Hamiltonian descriptions, exactly which one describes the actual particular occurrence of the process of interest being unknown. This includes friction and hammering, and all similar forces that result in decoherency of energy—that is, conversion of coherent or directed energy flow into an indirected or more isotropic distribution of energy.

Energy
"The conversion of mechanical energy into heat is called energy dissipation." – François Roddier The term is also applied to the loss of energy due to generation of unwanted heat in electric and electronic circuits.

Computational physics
In computational physics, numerical dissipation (also known as "Numerical diffusion") refers to certain side-effects that may occur as a result of a numerical solution to a differential equation. When the pure advection equation, which is free of dissipation, is solved by a numerical approximation method, the energy of the initial wave may be reduced in a way analogous to a diffusional process. Such a method is said to contain 'dissipation'. In some cases, "artificial dissipation" is intentionally added to improve the numerical stability characteristics of the solution.

Mathematics
A formal, mathematical definition of dissipation, as commonly used in the mathematical study of measure-preserving dynamical systems, is given in the article wandering set.

In hydraulic engineering
Dissipation is the process of converting mechanical energy of downward-flowing water into thermal and acoustical energy. Various devices are designed in stream beds to reduce the kinetic energy of flowing waters to reduce their erosive potential on banks and river bottoms. Very often, these devices look like small waterfalls or cascades, where water flows vertically or over riprap to lose some of its kinetic energy.

Irreversible processes
Important examples of irreversible processes are:
 * 1) Heat flow through a thermal resistance
 * 2) Fluid flow through a flow resistance
 * 3) Diffusion (mixing)
 * 4) Chemical reactions
 * 5) Electrical current flow through an electrical resistance (Joule heating).

Waves or oscillations
Waves or oscillations, lose energy over time, typically from friction or turbulence. In many cases, the "lost" energy raises the temperature of the system. For example, a wave that loses amplitude is said to dissipate. The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave: an atmospheric wave, for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to friction with the land mass, and at higher levels due to radiative cooling.

History
The concept of dissipation was introduced in the field of thermodynamics by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1852. Lord Kelvin deduced that a subset of the above-mentioned irreversible dissipative processes will occur unless a process is governed by a "perfect thermodynamic engine". The processes that Lord Kelvin identified were friction, diffusion, conduction of heat and the absorption of light.

title: Dissipation


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Orography

Orography is the study of the topographic relief of mountains, and can more broadly include hills, and any part of a region's elevated terrain. Orography (also known as oreography, orology, or oreology) falls within the broader discipline of geomorphology. The term orography comes from the Greek: όρος, hill, γραφία, to write.

Uses
Mountain ranges and elevated land masses have a major impact on global climate. For instance, the elevated areas of East Africa substantially determine the strength of the Indian monsoon. In scientific models, such as general circulation models, orography defines the lower boundary of the model over land.

When a river's tributaries or settlements by the river are listed in 'orographic sequence', they are in order from the highest (nearest the source of the river) to the lowest or mainstem (nearest the mouth). This method of listing tributaries is similar to the Strahler Stream Order, where the headwater tributaries are listed as category 1.

Orographic precipitation
Orographic precipitation, also known as relief precipitation, is precipitation generated by a forced upward movement of air upon encountering a physiographic upland (see anabatic wind). This lifting can be caused by:

 * 1) Upward deflection of large-scale horizontal flow by the orography.
 * 2) Anabatic or upward vertical propagation of moist air up an orographic slope, caused by daytime heating of the mountain barrier surface.

Upon ascent, the air that is being lifted expands and cools adiabatically. This adiabatic cooling of a rising moist air parcel may lower its temperature to its dew point, thus allowing for condensation of the water vapor contained within it, and hence the formation of a cloud. If enough water vapor condenses into cloud droplets, these droplets may become large enough to fall to the ground as precipitation.

Terrain-induced precipitation is a major factor for meteorologists to consider when they forecast the local weather. Orography can play a major role in determining the type, amount, intensity, and duration of precipitation events. Researchers have discovered that barrier width, slope steepness, and updraft speed are major contributors when it comes to achieving the optimal amount and intensity of orographic precipitation. Computer models simulating these factors have shown that narrow barriers and steeper slopes produce stronger updraft speeds, which in turn increase orographic precipitation.

Orographic precipitation is known to occur on oceanic islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand; much of the rainfall received on such islands is on the windward side, and the leeward side tends to be quite dry, almost desert-like. This phenomenon results in substantial local gradients in the amount of average rainfall, with coastal areas receiving on the order of 20 to 30 in per year, and interior uplands receiving over 100 in per year. Leeward coastal areas are especially dry—less than 20 in per year at Waikiki—and the tops of moderately high uplands are especially wet—about 475 in per year at Wai'ale'ale on Kaua'i.

Another area in which orographic precipitation is known to occur is the Pennines in the north of England: the west side of the Pennines receives more rain than the east because the clouds are forced up and over the hills and cause the rain to tend to fall on the western slopes. This is particularly noticeable between Manchester (to the west) and Leeds (to the east); Leeds receives less rain due to a rain shadow of 12 mi from the Pennines.

title: Orography