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West Norwood

West Norwood is a largely residential area of south London within the London Borough of Lambeth, located 5.4 miles (8.7 km) south south-east of Charing Cross. The centre of West Norwood sits in a bowl surrounded by hillsides on its east, west and south sides. From many parts of the area, distant views can be seen, of places such as the City of London, Canary Wharf and Crystal Palace.

West Norwood includes some or all of three Wards of the London Borough of Lambeth – Gipsy Hill, Knights Hill and West Dulwich. On Lambeth Council, Gipsy Hill and West Dulwich are represented by two councillors each, whilst Knights Hill is represented by three councillors.

History
"Norwood" recalls the "Great North Wood", a name that was formerly used for the hilly and wooded area to the north of Croydon. Before 1885 West Norwood station and the surrounding area was known as "Lower Norwood", reflecting its being at a lower altitude than Upper Norwood.

John Rocque's 1745 map of London and the surrounding area includes the Horns Tavern at Knight's Hill, opposite what is now the main entrance to West Norwood station, with a largely undeveloped valley stretching to 'Island Green' in the north, approximately where Herne Hill railway station stands now. The enclosure map of 50 years later shows that little of the original woodland remained by then, other than a few coppices.

The future development of West Norwood was assisted by the Lambeth Manor Enclosure Act of 1806. Much of the land covered by this Act was owned either by the Archbishop of Canterbury or by Lord Thurlow, who died in the same year.

Most of the current main roads were either ancient or laid out in accordance with the provisions of the enclosure award. The River Effra ran alongside the current Elder Road, in a northerly direction, and was prone to flooding.

The area was over a mile from the nearest parish church (at St Leonard, Streatham), so St. Luke's was provided under the Waterloo church scheme and completed in 1825. The houses in the parish at that period consisted largely of substantial villas along the main roads and more humble cottages mainly situated between Knights Hill and the High Street. The South Metropolitan Cemetery was laid out in 1837 to provide burial facilities largely for the population of crowded areas that were closer to the centre of London.

The railway line from London to the Crystal Palace was opened in 1856 with a station at Lower Norwood (since renamed West Norwood). These improved communications heralded major changes. Many of the larger houses and gardens were demolished and replaced with predominantly more modest housing over the next four decades.

Norwood High Street contained the earliest group of shops in the area but never developed into a major shopping centre, as the main shopping parades were built during the decades around 1900 along Norwood Road between York Hill and West Norwood station. Horse-drawn trams shuttled passengers along this road from the terminus in front of St Luke's Church towards the middle of London.

Extensive anecdotal and other historical material from the 19th and early 20th centuries has been written up by Mr J B Wilson, a local undertaker.

The two world wars witnessed fatalities and bomb damage to many buildings in the area, with York Hill and the areas around the railway suffering particularly badly. Chatsworth Baptist church had to be rebuilt after a direct hit. Many of the post-war estates were built on bomb sites or replaced areas which had experienced damage.

An Art Deco cinema, named The Regal, was built at 304 Norwood Road in the late 1920s. It was designed by architect F Edward Jones (who also designed Madame Tussaud's) and opened on 16 January 1930. The cinema sat 2,010 and was equipped with a Christie Manual organ. The cinema closed on 8 February 1964 with a double screening of Peter Sellers' I'm Alright Jack and Two Way Stretch. Following its closure, the building became a Top Rank Bingo Club a few months later and remained open until 1978. The building was demolished in November 1981 and a B&Q store can be seen today on the site.

After the Second World War, a considerable amount of council housing was constructed in West Norwood. The York Hill, Fern Lodge, Portobello and Holderness Estates arose during the late 1940s and the 1950s on the sites of houses with large gardens that had been destroyed by bombing or were simply demolished. Later houses and flats, such as in the Dunbar Street area, took the place of Victorian dwellings that were cleared away as slums or, alternatively, to achieve a higher density of development. The Woodvale Estate in Elder Road was erected on the site of the "Lambeth New Schools", which had been part of the local Workhouse and that had been renamed as "Wood Vale" before demolition.

Parts of West Norwood have been declared conservation areas including the area around the cemetery, Lancaster Avenue and Rosendale Road. Local landmarks such as St Luke's Church, the late Victorian fire station (now the South London Theatre) on Norwood High Street, by the architect Robert Pearsall., The early 20th-century former fire station at Norwood Road and the original public library at Knights Hill are Grade II listed buildings.

Knights Hill
Confusingly, there are two areas called Knight's Hill nearby; the names of both areas have similar origins, both belonging to Thomas Knyght in 1545, and in the south was known as Knight's Hill Common while the hill to the north was known as Knight's Hill Farm. The southern Knight's Hill Common originally formed part of Lambeth Manor and contained land called Julian's, which is remembered through the street name of St Julian's Farm Road. The hill formed the nucleus of the vast estate in Lambeth and Streatham that Lord Thurlow acquired during the 18th Century,
 * The better-known area is the residential area and electoral ward to the south west by the road called Knights Hill.
 * The second Knight's Hill is above the Tulse Hill railway tunnel, near West Dulwich railway station – which was originally called Lower Knights Hill station. It includes the hilly land between the western end of Thurlow Park Road (South Circular), Peabody Hill and Lovelace Road, and is now partly used by Rosendale Allotments in SE21. The green area is still marked as Knight's Hill on large scale maps but is normally not marked as such on modern street maps in order to avoid confusion. Originally, the northern Knight's Hill farm was part of the Manor of Levehurst, and later of the Manor of Leigham Court and the parish of Streatham.

The Jewish Orphanage
The main building of the Norwood Home for Jewish Children ("The Jewish Orphanage") was completed in 1862. It was a three-storey edifice, with the appearance of a Jacobean palace This structure was demolished in 1963, after the children had moved in groups to live in nine houses supervised by house parents in a less institutional environment, meeting for communal activities at a new synagogue built on the original site. In the 1970s, the charity moved out of the area and the main site was sold to Lambeth Council, which developed much of it for a housing estate, keeping only a small area beside the railway line as open space and converting the synagogue into a community facility known as the Norwood Hall. Some of this open space is now occupied by the West Norwood Health and Leisure Centre but the site of Norwood Hall has been landscaped. An account of a boy's experiences of living at the Orphanage between 1928 and 1933 can be found online.

Of the original buildings only the porter's lodge off Knights Hill now remains, its curving Dutch-gables, red brick with black diaperwork and mullioned windows echoing the design of the main 3-storey institution. The Arnold & Jane Gabriel Home was built on the Wolfington Road frontage of the orphanage in 1910; it was converted into Julians primary school in 2012, which now features a colourful modern extension to the original building.

The charity that operated the orphanage in West Norwood retains an echo of its previous location in its current name Norwood.

Transport
The area is well served by public transport with these National Rail stations at each end of the main shopping area in Norwood Road, providing the services shown to central London and beyond: Trains also run from both these stations to a variety of destinations further south of the centre of London.
 * West Norwood – services to Victoria, Clapham Junction and London Bridge.
 * Tulse Hill – services to London Bridge, London Blackfriars, City Thameslink, Farringdon, Luton Airport, Kings Cross, St Pancras and St Albans.

Other nearby railway stations are:
 * Gipsy Hill
 * Herne Hill
 * West Dulwich

The tube stations closest to West Norwood are at Brixton and Balham, both of which can be reached by bus and, in the case of Balham, also by train.

Eight daytime bus routes and two night-time routes serve the area. West Norwood bus garage is located at Ernest Avenue.

The South Circular (A205) passes close by at Tulse Hill and Streatham High Road (A23) is about one mile to the west of the centre of West Norwood.

Education
The primary and secondary schools listed below are in West Norwood.

Primary

 * Crown Lane primary school, Crown Lane, SW16 3HX
 * Elm Wood Primary School, Carnac Street, SE27 9RR
 * Julian's primary school, Gabriel House, 16 Wolfington Road, SE27 0JF
 * Kingswood primary school, Gipsy Road, SE27 9RD — this school has two sites; the Upper School at the south west corner of Gipsy Road and Salters Hill and the Lower School at 55 Gipsy Hill.
 * St Lukes Church of England primary school, Linton Grove, SE27 0DZ

Secondary

 * The Norwood School, Crown Dale, SE19 3NY
 * Elmgreen School, Elmcourt Road, SE27 9BZ
 * The Park Campus, Gipsy Road, SE27 9NP.

There are a large number of other publicly funded and also private schools within a short distance of West Norwood.

Landmarks
These include:
 * South London Theatre Centre. This building was constructed in 1881 as West Norwood's first fire station and has a prominent watch tower. It was subsequently used as a church hall by St Luke's church before its present use commenced. In August 2014 the theatre was awarded a grant of £1.6m by the Heritage Lottery Fund to enable restoration work, which was completed in April 2018.
 * West Norwood Health and Leisure Centre, a £14.2M million health and leisure centre opened in 2014.
 * St Luke's Church. One of four Lambeth Waterloo churches, the others are St Matthew, St Mark, and St John. Architect Francis Octavius Bedford designed this church and St John's in a similar neoclassical style. St Luke's was built between 1822 and 1825, and was reordered by G E Street in 1870–1872. Unusually for a church it is oriented north–south instead of east–west. This is due to a requirement when Lambeth Manor was enclosed that no building in the area that included the site should be erected within 100 feet of an existing building without the permission of the owner of the other building. An objection from the owner of the Horn's Tavern meant St Luke's had to be built in a north–south orientation to avoid falling within 100 feet of the tavern. The lower part of the churchyard at St Luke's has been laid out as gardens and are used as one of the venues of the West Norwood Feast.
 * West Norwood Library & Nettlefold Hall, Norwood High Street. Princess Margaret opened the building in April 1969. The complex is now the West Norwood Picturehouse and library.
 * West Norwood Cemetery, one of London's Magnificent Seven Victorian burial places, with 66 listed structures, many in the Gothic style. Opened 1837.
 * The Old Library. In 2004 this has been a cafe and venue for local meetings, activities, exhibitions and events. The building opened on 21 July 1888 as the first public library in Lambeth and was designed by Sidney Smith, architect of Tate Britain and several other Lambeth libraries, using red brick, terracotta and Ham Hill stone, with a balcony above the entrance loggia. It was commissioned by Sir Henry Tate on land donated by Frederick Nettlefold: both of these local philanthropists are buried in West Norwood Cemetery.
 * Mrs Woodford Fawcett Fountain – on a traffic island in front of St Luke's Church, where Norwood Road splits into Norwood High Street and Knights Hill. Mrs Fawcett was a local temperance campaigner and is buried in West Norwood Cemetery whose entrance faces the fountain.

Churches
During recent years, the number and variety of churches has increased, reflecting the diverse origins of many new residents. The following congregations meet in buildings that are readily identified as places of worship:
 * All Nations Christian Centre, 15 York Hill, SE27 0BU
 * Bethel Chapel, Dunbar Street, SE27 9JY
 * Cathedral of Revival Church, Beadman Street (r/o 42–44 Norwood High Street), SE27 9UR
 * Chatsworth Baptist Church, Chatsworth Way, SE27 9HN
 * Lansdowne Evangelical Free Church, Lansdowne Hill, SE27 0AR
 * Potter's House Christian Church Norwood, 58E Knights Hill, SE27 0JD
 * Salvation Army, 246 Norwood Road, SE27 9AW
 * St. Luke's Anglican church, Knights Hill, SE27 0HS
 * St Matthew's Catholic Church, 37 Norwood High Street, SE27 9JU
 * The Messiah Cherubim & Seraphim Church, 28 Ernest Avenue, SE27 0DJ
 * Trinity Baptist Church, 2 Thornlaw Road, SE27 0SA
 * West Norwood Spiritualist Church, Ullswater Road, SE27 0AL
 * Worldwide Mission Fellowship, 61–65 Elder Road, SE27 9NB

A former Congregational church stands on the south side of Chapel Road, SE27 0UR. It is a Grade II Listed Building and the only local purpose-built church in West Norwood that survives but no longer used for worship. The premises currently house a child care facility.

Open spaces
The main open space in West Norwood is Norwood Park.

West Norwood Cemetery has an area of 45 acres (18.2 hectares) and is close to the railway station. The Friends of West Norwood Cemetery aim to increase knowledge and appreciation of this facility.

Peabody Hill Wood is an area of outstanding importance recognised by English Nature.

Charities

 * Emmaus South Lambeth is based at Knights Hill and Beadman Street. This community for formerly homeless individuals runs a workshop and shops that renovate and sell second-hand furniture and other goods.
 * L'Arche Lambeth provides 5 residential care homes and 5 day provision workshops in the area for adults with learning disabilities. It is part of the International Federation of L'Arche.
 * Centre 70 is a charity specialising in free, confidential, impartial legal advice on Debt, Welfare Benefits, Housing, Utilities Debt and Student Finance. Also provides low cost Counselling

Clocks in West Norwood

 * St Luke's church tower clock was supplied by Vulliamy, the Royal Clockmaker, in 1825 for £357 and was retained when Street renovated the church in 1870, new tubular bells being added in 1892.
 * ‘The Clockworks’ at 6 Nettlefold Place houses a museum, workshop and library. It is run by The Clockworks Charitable Incorporated Organisation which was established in 2020, in place of the Clockworks Trust.

Nearest places

 * Crystal Palace
 * Dulwich
 * Gipsy Hill
 * Streatham
 * Tulse Hill
 * Upper Norwood

Notable former and current residents

 * Adele, singer
 * Joanna Byrne, actress
 * Bilinda Butcher, vocals and guitar in the band My Bloody Valentine
 * Joan Clarke, code-breaker at Bletchley Park and numismatist
 * Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell, zoologist and taxonomist
 * Sir Sidney Colvin, historian, literary and art critic
 * Maurice Cowling, historian
 * Des'ree, singer
 * Edmund de Waal, ceramicist
 * John Fraser, former Labour MP for Norwood 1966–1992
 * Georg Hackenschmidt, the first world wrestling champion
 * Euan Uglow, English artist
 * Sir Philip Holland, former Conservative MP for Gedling
 * Ken Livingstone, former Mayor of London
 * Liz Lloyd, former prime minister Tony Blair's deputy chief of staff
 * Maxi Jazz, vocalist in band Faithless
 * Hiram Maxim, who developed his machine gun in the garden of his house in Norwood Road (Serbia House, now demolished)
 * The Noisettes, rock band
 * Sandy Nuttgens, television composer
 * Michael Paraskos, novelist, anarchist writer on art and literary critic
 * Benedict Read, FSA, art historian, writer and art curator.
 * Sir John Scarlett, former Head of MI6
 * Andrew Turnbull, Baron Turnbull, former Cabinet Secretary
 * Tom Utley, Daily Telegraph and Daily Mail journalist
 * Thomas Wallis, art deco architect
 * Andy Zaltzman, comedian
 * Luke Aaron Moore, COO of Stak and The Football Ramble Podcast Host

title: West Norwood


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Åfjord

Åfjord is a municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Fosen region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Årnes. Other villages in the municipality include Revsnes, Roan, Bessaker, Harsvika, and By. Åfjord is located on the northwestern side of the Fosen peninsula, northwest of the city of Trondheim. It is located between the municipalities of Ørland and Osen and to the west of Steinkjer, with Indre Fosen to the south.

The 1329 km2 municipality is the 74th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Åfjord is the 196th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 4,252. The municipality's population density is 3.4 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 0.4% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality of Aafjord was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). On 26 March 1870, a royal resolution moved a small, unpopulated part to Aafjord to the neighboring municipality of Bjugn. On 1 January 1896, the southwestern coastal area of Aafjord (population: 1,529) was separated to form the new municipality of Jøssund. This left Aafjord with 2,419 residents. On the same date, the name of Aafjord municipality was changed to just Aa. The spelling was later changed to Å. On 13 July 1934, the name of the municipality was changed from "Å" to "Åfjord". After that, the administrative centre in the municipality was referred to as "Å" or "Å i Åfjord".

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the neighboring municipalities of Stoksund (population: 2,643) and Åfjord (population: 1,515) to form the new, larger municipality of Åfjord. On 1 November 1980, the postal service changed the name of the municipal center from "Å i Åfjord" to "Årnes".

On 1 January 2018, the municipality switched from the old Sør-Trøndelag county to the new Trøndelag county.

On 1 January 2020, the neighboring municipalities of Roan and Åfjord merged into one large municipality called Åfjord. The new municipality uses the coat of arms of the old Roan municipality.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Aa farm (Ár) since the first Åfjord Church was built there. The local fjord (Åfjorden) is also named after this farm. The first element of the current name is the plural form of which means "river", probably since there are two rivers, the Norddalselva and Stordalselva, that run together just south of the farm. The last element of the current name is which means "fjord".

The spelling of the name has varied over the years. Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Aafjorden. On 23 March 1895, a royal resolution approved the division of the municipality effective 1 January 1896. On that date, the southwestern part became the new municipality of Jøssund and the remaining portion of Aafjorden municipality would be renamed Aa (leaving off the "fjord" part of the old name). On 21 December 1917, a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Prior to this change, the name was spelled Aa with the digraph "Aa", and after this reform, the name was spelled Å, simply using the letter Å instead. On 13 July 1934, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Åfjord.

Coat of arms
The current coat of arms was approved for use starting on 1 January 2020 after a municipal merger with Åfjord and Roan municipalities. These arms had previously been used by Roan from 1987 until 2020. The official blazon is "Azure, three terns volant argent" (I blått tre oppflyvende sølv terner, 2-1). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is a group of three flying terns. The bird design has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. Terns, a very watchful and energetic bird, are intended to symbolize the local inhabitants and the coast with the vast bird life in the area. The arms were initially designed by Solfrid Krogfjord with the final design by Einar H. Skjervold. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

The previous coat of arms was granted on 18 April 1997 until 1 January 2020 when the municipality was enlarged and the arms were changed. The official blazon is "Azure, two boats argent issuant from sinister" (I blått to fremvoksende sølv båter). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is two boats coming out of the right side of the shield. The boats have a tincture of argent which means they are commonly colored white, but if the arms are made out of metal, then silver is used. The arms show two stems of a boat to represent the special boats Åfjordbåt that are built in the municipality. These boats had a long, shallow keel and straight masts. The arms were designed by Einar H. Skjervold. The municipal flag had the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has three parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Åfjord. It is part of the Fosen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nidaros.

History
There are archeological findings on many sites across the municipality. On Dragseid archaeologists have located grave mounds. On Dragseid it is said that the wooden boats were dragged over this thin peninsula to shorten the journey and to avoid risking them in bad weather. Up to the Middle Ages the Fosen peninsula was included as a part of the district of Nordmøre, immediately to the south.

Prior to 1950, there were no roads leading into and out of the municipality. In 1950, the road to the neighboring municipality of Bjugn to the south was finally finished. In 1955, the road to Stokksund in the northern part of the municipality was finished.

An old type of wooden boat, the Åfjord boat, comes from this area. The boat is a direct descendant form the old Norse Viking boats. It is still being produced, although in very small numbers. The boat is rounded at both ends. It is known to be a good coastal sailer. Different sizes exist. From the small "faering" to the largest of them all, the "fembøring".

Government
Åfjord Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Åfjord is made up of 27 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Åfjord:

 * 1838–1839: Thore Petter Berg
 * 1840–1847: Hans Günther Magelsen
 * 1848–1851: Thore Petter Berg
 * 1852–1853: Christopher Andreas Lassen
 * 1854–1857: Thore Petter Berg
 * 1858–1859: Christopher Andreas Lassen
 * 1860–1867: Ole Berg
 * 1868–1871: Bernt Graning
 * 1872–1877: Ole Berg
 * 1878–1879: Hans P. Dahl (V)
 * 1880–1885: Nils Berg
 * 1886–1890: Karl Seip (V)
 * 1890–1898: Hans P. Dahl (V)
 * 1899–1907: Ove Selnes (V)
 * 1908–1919: Ole Berdahl (V)
 * 1920–1928: Kristian Karlsaune (V)
 * 1929–1931: Johannes Bye (H)
 * 1932–1937: Ole O. Stjern (Bp)
 * 1938–1942: Einar Nordtømme (Bp)
 * 1942–1945: Magne Nilsen (NS)
 * 1945–1946: Einar Nordtømme (Bp)
 * 1947–1955: Petter M. Stavrum (Bp)
 * 1955-1955: Toralf Gilde (Sp)
 * 1956–1965: Einar Hole Moxnes (Sp)
 * 1966–1967: Erling Stjern (KrF)
 * 1968–1971: John Skaseth (Sp)
 * 1972–1975: Erling Stjern (KrF)
 * 1976–1989: Einar Aune (Sp)
 * 1990–1995: Michael Momyr (H)
 * 1995–1998: Kristian Flenstad (Sp)
 * 1998–1999: Vidar Daltveit (KrF)
 * 1999–2007: Oddbjørn Rømma (Sp)
 * 2007–2023: Vibeke Stjern (Ap)
 * 2023-present: Erling Iversen (Sp)

Economy
The people of Åfjord make their living from agriculture, forestry, fishing, transport (sea and land), aquaculture (fish and shellfish), construction, and services. The largest employer in the area is Stjern (forestry, sawmill, entrepreneur). The contractor, building, sector now employs about 19% of the working force, and is now larger than the agricultural sector.

Geography
The major centre of the municipality is Årnes (also called "Å in Åfjord"). All major services of the municipality are located there. Other populated areas are Monstad/Å, a couple of minutes by car from Årnes, and Stoksund/Revsnes. Åfjord covers an area of approximately 1000 km2, with about 3200 residents— about one third of which live in the Årnes urban area. During the last decades there has been a decrease of 100-150 people yearly. Many young people leave the municipality for school, university or work.

Åfjord consists of many small settlements—from the islands in the west to the highlands in the east. Traditionally, Åfjord has been an agricultural society, while Stoksund in the west has had a more of a fishing-based economy. There is an increasing amount of weekend houses and recreational cabins in the area. Åfjord has two big islands; Stokkøya (380 inhabitants) and Linesøya (80 inhabitants). Stokkøya is connected with the mainland through a bridge Stokkøy Bridge. The Linesøy Bridge connects the islands of Stokkøya and Linesøya. The other main island is Lauvøya near the south at the end of the Åfjorden.

The highest point in Åfjord is the 676 m tall Finnvollheia. There are over 1,000 lakes with fish. Åfjord also has two major salmon rivers—the Nordalselva and Stordalselva, which flow into Åfjorden. English Lords used to fish here in the late 19th century. The lake Stordalsvatnet lies just east of Årnes. The lake Straumsetervatnet lies in the east, along the border with Verran.

Notable people

 * Johan Strand Johansen (1903 in Åfjord - 1970 in Moscow), a politician who had a role in the Furubotn purge
 * Einar Hole Moxnes (1921–2006), a Norwegian politician and Mayor of Åfjord from 1955 to 1966
 * Hans B. Skaset (born 1935), a Norwegian civil servant and sports official
 * Michael Momyr (born 1956), a Norwegian politician and Mayor of Åfjord from 1990 to 1995
 * Alexander Lund Hansen (born 1982 in Åfjord), a Norwegian former football goalkeeper

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Åfjord


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Talk:Jesus movement

Afghanistan Reference
Hello. Anyone ever read these pages? I was curious why the Jesus Movement article stated the Jesus Movement spread throughout North America, Europe, and *Afghanistan*. I never knew there was an Afghanistan connection to the Jesus Movement. Can anyone elaborate on this? -- 17:17, 29 January 2003 User:134.84.35.250

 * REPLY:''I'm not the author of this article, but I do recall hearing that during the late '60s and early '70s many American and European hippies went to Afghanistan, primarily for the simple lifestyle, the clothes and fabrics and the plentiful drugs. I'm sure a few Christians went there as well, and possibly some hippies wound up being converted while spending time there. All that changed with the Soviet occupation and subsequent resistance by the mujaheddin, financed by the CIA. The Christian commune I grew up at in Chicago in the '70s was very fond of "Afghan" quilts, rugs, etc.

 * Afghanistan is still the number one producer in the world of heroin... could this have been encouraged by the CIA?'' -- 09:21, 24 June 2004 User:202.88.81.160

 * I'm the originator of the page, and I can state that the previous answer is indeed correct. Afghanistan was a big place on the hippie trail, and a church there originally wanting to relate to Afghanis ended up spending a lot more time relating to the hippies, with large numbers of them joining up in the Jesus Freak movement.  Remember, since there is no one leader for this movement, those in Afghanistan didn't have to subscribe to a leader somewhere else in the 1st world to be part of the movement; they just had to conform to the socio-history and practices of that people. -- 22:01, 15 November 2004 User:213.180.240.18

 * I was an NGO worker in Afghanistan for two years and knew several people who were there back in the sixties and seventies who were there specifically to meet the needs of/minister to the hippies who came through the area, so you are quite right in this.

Removal of Afghanistan Reference

 * Notwithstanding the dialogue above, I could not find much evidence on the internet to support this claim. I did a google advanced search looking for the word "Afghanistan" at http://one-way.org and http://www.jpusa.org/ and checked the book "Harvest" for the word too. No results. If there was a Jesus movement in Afghanistan it is not alluded to at all by at least these three references.

 * If someone could provide a relatively strong external link then I'm happy for it to be reinstated. One Salient Oversight 09:21, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * This came from a professor of mine at Fuller Seminary, Dr. Dudley Woodberry, who was there and observed it. However, I understand Wikipedia's listing of reliability would not allow for this.  Would the new edit be appropriate, being sufficiently vague? -- 10:05, 19 February 2006 User:81.192.172.76

 * Time magazine, Sept 24, 1973 in an article "The Jesus Evolution"
 * "The most remote Jesus outpost to date is run by Floyd McClung, who once worked with Youth with a Mission, a go-getting organization that fields some 10,000 part-time young evangelists round the world. McClung, a giant of 6 ft. 6 in., and a group of youths started Dilaram House in Kabul, Afghanistan, in 1971. He says: "We identify with the Jesus movement in belief but not in methodology." He means that his ministry−mostly to foreign students, many of them drug users−is easygoing, not lapel-grabbing. This is a wise policy, since Afghanistan has a fiercely Moslem regime that just tore down the only church in the nation."
 * Relevant, but probably not sufficient John Campbell 09:59, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Jesus People Movement
Between 1975-1981,I compiled a history of the local Jesus People movement in La Crosse,Wisconsin.The notes and memoranda are now at the area research center at Eugene Murphy Library -University of Wisconsin-La Crosse.The local Jesus People Movement evolved into some pentecostal,charismatic churches in the area.I thought this was important enough to submit.Thank you- Richard F. Dungar-La Crosse,Wisconsin RFD 13:40, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

Excluded Middle?
I have some familiarity with Jesus People and I don't know that the "Law of the Excluded middle" was/is a hot topic for them. Can anyone justify this reference?
 * If anything, their simplistic theology would imply they accepted the Law of the Excluded Middle (everything is either/or, there is no compromise or middle ground). I suggest this sentence needs to go unless someone can find a reliable source for it, or indeed for the opposite proposition that their theology was based on the Law of the Excluded Middle. John Campbell 09:59, 5 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Re-reading, I think this sentence was phrased unhelpfully. I now take it to mean: "Accepting the law of the excluded middle, they rejecting the middle ground" which is undoubtedly correct. John Campbell 10:00, 22 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I have since found what appears to be an entirely different meaning for Excluded Middle here: Flaw of the Excluded Middle. Put simply, this "Excluded Middle" separates the spiritual and the physical worlds; rejecting it means a belief system that allows the spiritual realm to interact with the physical. In which case, the original sentence makes sense, but is too obscure to stand. John Campbell (talk) 08:43, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

Jesus Music Industry?
"Jesus Music, began as an industry", from all that I have read and heard discusses, Jesus Music began not as an industry but as an extension of the faith and close tied to music that was held by some of the early hippie and counter-culture converts. The Jesus music article backs this latter view. I don't know the history of that phrase but will be chaging it soon unless there is strong objection. --Walter Görlitz 19:09, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Wikify to two seperat articles
This article needs to be split into two seperate articles. For right now I'm going to delete the scant information about early Christians--as it is poor style. A stub for the antiquarian Jesus Movement and a disambiguation needs to be done eventually. --Brentt 05:24, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

I agree completely. We need Disambiguation and a separate article on the first-century Jesus Movement (or Yeshua movement). Das Baz, 6 May 2006, 12:20 Noon.

Christian Awakening?
This 4th/5th Great Awakening was primarily non-Christian. To be an Awakening means that the society radically changes, in American history, not that it simply has a revival. These two are separate yet linked ideas. It simply has historically, until the 1960's, been a Christian event in America. See | Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform by William McLoughlin. --Abdul Muhib

Factual accuracy
I've removed a few sentences that I think may be factually inaccurate. I think they contradict this source: http://www.calvarychapel.com/assets/pdf/lastTimesFall1981.pdf and the second one doesn't seem to add up logically. Frisbee was only with Calvary from around 67/68 to 71, so it seems hard for him to have started the church as it began in 65. Additionally, they had already grow out of several buildings before Frisbee came, so it doesn't seem like he was the reason for its growth. Nor could he be the reason for the continued growth since he left in 71. The original author gave no source (nor for any of the article), so I have removed it all on the basis of WP:V. The sentences are the following:

Although there were some like the Calvary Chapel movement who did not, these remained more on the fringe of the movement.

''who along with Chuck Smith started the Calvary Chapel movement. Most churches in the United States rejected the Jesus Freaks. Frisbee was the primary evangelist and responsible for the growth of the Calvary churches; Smith was one of the few pastors who welcomed in the Jesus Freaks, and thus allowed for the dramatic future growth of his affiliate church network.''

--Basar 06:19, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Factual accuracy
Thank you for the link to that source. However, I'd say that source is heavily biased. When I started this article long ago I wasn't aware of Wikipedia's guidelines on sources, so here's one: http://www.lonniefrisbee.com/- which I believe has been added by another user to the bottom of this article. It must be stressed that, while that site confirms aspects of Lonnie's life, his contribution was well known by many before it appeared on that site, with the accompanying movie. It is not as if the creater of the website made up these facts- he found them out through first person research, including talking to my parents.

We seem to have two competing websites that state different information. It points out that any website can say anything they want, as can a wikipedia article. How can we know which is correct? I would suggest the one I have cited has more veracity. Why? Because it indicates the probable reason for bias on the Calvary website. Why would a primary contributer to the growth of your church be removed from the history of that church? If your an evangelical church, perhaps because he was gay and died of AIDS. See in particular http://www.lonniefrisbee.com/whowas.htm. It would be a sad thing indeed if the attempt by Calvary to erase his contributions were upheld by wikipedia because of anti-gay bias. (Not that I'm accusing Basar of such at all.)

Questions
The stuff on this page seems to end rather abruptly in 1973. I'd be curious as to what happened to various leaders and participants in this movement in the '80s and '90s and beyond. Did they get absorbed into the growing evangelical movement? What about their politics? Can the modern Christian Left trace its roots back to the Jesus movement?

 * I've split the section on Decline and Legacy and written a general section on Legacy, based largely on an article in Encyclopedia of Christianity and consequently removed the Original Research tag from the section. I think the answers to your questions are yes and yes, by the way. John Campbell (talk) 17:41, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

Also, surely Martin Luther did not say ""why should the devil have all the best tunes?"! --Jfruh 20:23, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

 * According to Glimpses #154, they have the entire quote from Luther which reads:

 * "I am not of the opinion that all arts are to be cast down and destroyed on account of the Gospel, as some fanatics protest. On the other hand, I would gladly see all arts, especially music, in the service of Him who has given and created them. Why should the devil have all the good music?"
 * Kulturvultur (talk) 17:00, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

Jesus Army
The material that UKamp attempted to add regarding the Jesus Army really belongs on the Jesus Army page if anywhere. But it needs to be stripped of POV and sourced according to Wiki principles first. John Campbell (talk) 18:22, 29 January 2008 (UTC)

Un-American?!?
Apparently someone who worked on this article has a bias against anything casting a positive light on the anti-Vietnam war protestors as personified by the Jesus Movement. If protest is "un-American", then anyone who has worked to make this nation a better place for all human beings (including slavery abolitionists, suffragettes and early labor union members) is "un-American."

Such a comment puts into dispute the objectivity of this article, and I respectfully ask for that term to be deleted immediately.

Kulturvultur (talk) 16:53, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The term used in the article is anti-American, which has a different meaning. However, I can't see its use as NPOV as the Jesus People referred to were presumably American themselves. "Against US government policies", may be acceptable. It is also unsourced and ought really to have a Reliable Source to back up the assertion. John Campbell (talk) 10:31, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Personal experience
I have recently reverted a series of edits by AngelinaR. For better or worse, we are co-operating on an encyclopedia, not writing personal history. Under Wikipedia rules, personal experience counts as original research and is not allowed. Equally, the article is not to represent one's own Point of View, but to be a digest of a range of views. John Campbell (talk) 10:47, 14 October 2008 (UTC)

Jesus Movement (Early Christianity)?
The term "Jesus Movement" is often used as term among historians to refer to the followers of Jesus prior to a schism with Judaism-- i.e. before Christianity began to be regarded as a separate religion. Any thoughts on creating an article just on the use of the term and why scholars use it, the history of the term, the train of thought that led to the use of the term?

I think Jesus Movement would certainly still go to this article on the 20th century movement, but if anyone wanted to take a stab at writing about the 1st century movement in the Jesus Movement (Early Christianity) article, I'd encourage it. --Alecmconroy (talk) 11:48, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Proposal: a map
I wrote a map, as a dynamically generated template, of Christian music festivals in the year 1975. I'm not necessarily sure that that map is relevant to this article, but it occurs to me that a similar map of Jesus movement era communes would be an excellent visual aid for this article. Unfortunately, while this topic is an area of interest for me, my research into it is quite surface. Can someone recommend how to build (or produce) a list of communes (with references)? I think a list should include city, organization, years active, and maybe others details. Dan, the CowMan (talk) 21:04, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

 * It would make a good addition to the Beliefs and practices section. The question is, does anyone have a complete and definitive list of Christian communes?--Walter Görlitz (talk) 22:22, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

Jesus Movement Map https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&oe=UTF8&msa=0&msid=117513876697673304166.00045b9ba696ed5e20e0e Robinrobin (talk) 04:53, 16 August 2013 (UTC)

Children Of God/Tony Alamo/The Way/The Local Church (Witness Lee)
I believe that these groups, while certainly spawned by the Jesus Movement, should be singled out as aberations/cults and not part of the norm. All these groups used various forms of physical and psycological intimidation, and the Children Of God practiced sexual immorallity as a form of evangelisim. Along with this, they all had a non-traditional, unbiblical, view of the person of Christ. As a person who was heavily involved in the Jesus Movement in northeast Ohio, we were constantly battling these groups' influence on new believers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.88.188.242 (talk • contribs)

Jesus Music
As a former "Jesus Freak", I cannot overstress how much the music drove the Jesus movement, at least between 1970 and 1976. It was not an "industry" as stated in the article, but a group of "music ministers" who would play at any church or school, coffeehouse,or park, no matter how big or small. Little money was generated from ticket sales; but records, and tapes were alway available on a table near the door. I still treasure my original copies of albums by Love Song, Honeytree, Larry Norman, Second Chapter of Acts, and others, bought at these concerts. I am suprised, that nothing was written about the large venue, outdoor, "Woodstock-like" festivals that were held all over the country. Hundreds of Jesus People camping out in the dirt, rain, and mud in order to hear a couple days of Jesus Music and buy food, records, books, and "Jesus Junk" from vendors in makeshift tents. The yearly festivals in Pennsylvania, (Jesus 73, 74, etc.) were amazing. For me, the Jesus Movement ended in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in July of 1976 at the "Greatest Bicenteniall, Premillenial, Jesus Concert Ever". An all day concert featuring some big names, and small, and MC'd by Mike Warnke; it was marred by open bickering between the people onstage, and low attendance and boredom from the audience. Honeytree tried desperately to save the day by leading worship songs at the end, accompanied by most of the other musicians, but everyone I talked to left very sad. In the next year, the leaders of the local Jesus People groups in our area seemed to wake up and realize they weren't hippie teenagers anymore. They either tried starting actual churches (sone successfully, some not), or just went on to secular jobs and raising families. Jesus Music became the CCM industry, and Calvary Chapel begat Vineyard, and all was "well" with Christianity in the USA. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.88.188.242 (talk) 16:03, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

Issues
Are there no writings on any issues this movement may have had with other christian lineages, or criticism from anyone, within or outside christendom? This is a very nice description, of a movement in part connected to Hippie culture, which if i remember was itself somewhat...controversial.(mercurywoodrose)76.254.36.185 (talk) 02:31, 7 September 2012 (UTC)

Cultural divide between Jesus people, YFC and CCC
Although this is personal experience, I am wondering if there are any objective sources or research that can verify this. I was in my late teens at the height of the Jesus People movement, and it had a positive impact on my life. That aside, I recall a clear divide between the Jesus People and Jesus Freaks with whom I associated, and those in Youth for Christ and Campus Crusade for Christ. Jesus People were fundamentally counter-culture, and viewed organized religion with suspicion, and considered their own faith "real" versus the "plastic" faith of anyone who took a more organized approach to things. YFC and CCC fell into that camp, from a Jesus People perspective. CCC's sponsorship and organization of Explo 72 was viewed by many Jesus People I knew as a sellout to organized religion, and they viewed Bill Bright and CCC as subverting the "pure" nature of the Jesus Movement. Many in the Jesus People Movement that I knew had come from conservative evangelical families and upbringing, and to have the "suits" take an interest in and try to become a part of the JP Movement was offensive for many of them. Again, this is personal experience. My question is, does anyone know of any objective sources or research to support my observations? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.77.19.206 (talk) 20:00, 6 September 2013 (UTC)
 * Di Sabatino's work might. I can't recall. You might want to check the bibliography section. Walter Görlitz (talk) 20:12, 6 September 2013 (UTC)

Shiloh Youth Revival Centers
No documentation exists to support the extravagant claim, made above, of a hundred thousand "people involved" in Shiloh Youth Revival Centers. Early in 1978, a group of Shiloh leaders who were in Oregon, who were called "elders," consulted with a lawyer regarding their discontent with John Higgins's leadership. They voted to dismiss Higgins from his position as leader. He was not expelled from Shiloh, but chose to leave Shiloh after learning of his dismissal. He was given three months' severance pay and allowed to keep a Saab, the car purchased by Shiloh which he had used as his personal car. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wegelinjacob (talk • contribs) 00:11 9 September 2014

Jesus movement also present in Catholicism
The article makes it appear that the "Jesus" movement was exclusively Protestant. But, in the wake of Vatican II, it can be detected in the Catholic church too: campus ministry, Charismatic Catholics, folk masses, Jesuits, etc. It could be said that Pope Francis is the ultimate fullfillment of this phenomenon within Catholicism. They even put his picture on the cover of Rolling Stone! Garagepunk66 (talk) 00:35, 16 April 2015 (UTC)
 * The Catholic charismatic movement was tangential to the Evangelical Protestant Jesus movement. While they happened at around the same time, they did not have the same results. The Catholic movement was as a result of the removal of Latin in the liturgy and this opened the way, through the "spirit of Vatican II", to the introduction of "folk music" and jazz into the liturgy. This did not see a mass conversion to Catholicism but a stemming of the tide of departures. Certainly not akin the mass conversions seen during the Jesus movement, including all-day, mass, ocean-water baptisms that was seen multiple times in the Southern California. Walter Görlitz (talk) 05:07, 16 April 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Jesus movement


text:
Metathesis (linguistics)

Metathesis (from Greek, from "I put in a different order"; Latin: transpositio) is the transposition of sounds or syllables in a word or of words in a sentence. Most commonly, it refers to the interchange of two or more contiguous segments or syllables, known as adjacent metathesis or local metathesis:

 * anemone > **anenome (onset consonants of adjacent syllables)
 * cavalry > **calvary (codas of adjacent syllables)

Metathesis may also involve interchanging non-contiguous sounds, known as nonadjacent metathesis, long-distance metathesis, or hyperthesis, as shown in these examples of metathesis sound change from Latin to Spanish:

Many languages have words that show this phenomenon, and some even use it as a regular part of their grammar, such as Hebrew and Fur. The process of metathesis has altered the shape of many familiar words in English as well.
 * Latin > Spanish  "word"
 * Latin > Spanish  "miracle"
 * Latin > Spanish  "danger, peril"
 * Latin > Spanish  "crocodile"

The original form before metathesis may be deduced from older forms of words in the language's lexicon or, if no forms are preserved, from phonological reconstruction. In some cases it is not possible to settle with certainty on the original version.

Rhetorical metathesis
Dionysius of Halicarnassus was a historian and scholar in rhetoric living in 1st century BC Greece. He analysed classical texts and applied several revisions to make them sound more eloquent. One of the methods he used was re-writing documents on a mainly grammatical level: changing word and sentence orders would make texts more fluent and "natural", he suggested. He called this way of re-writing metathesis.

American Sign Language
In ASL, several signs which have a pre-specified initial and final location (such as the signs RESTAURANT, PARENT, TWINS) can have the order of these two locations reversed in contexts which seem to be purely phonological. While not possible with all signs, this does happen with quite a few. For example, the sign DEAF, prototypically made with the "1" handshape making contact first with the cheek and then moving to contact the jaw (as in the sentence FATHER DEAF), can have these locations reversed if the preceding sign, when part of the same constituent, has a final location more proximal to the jaw (as in the sentence MOTHER DEAF). Both forms of the sign DEAF are acceptable to native signers. A proposed prerequisite for metathesis to apply in ASL is that both signs must be within the same region on the body. Constraints on the applications of metathesis in ASL has led to discussions that the phonology breaks down the body into regions distinct from settings.

Amharic
Amharic has a few minor patterns of metathesis, as shown by Wolf Leslau. For example, "matches" is sometimes pronounced as,  "nanny" is sometimes pronounced as. The word "Monday" is, which is the base for "Tuesday" , which is often metathesized as. All of these examples show a pair of consonants reversed so that the stop begins the next syllable.

Azerbaijani
Metathesis among neighbouring consonants happens very commonly in Azerbaijani:
 * köprü > körpü "bridge"
 * yapraq > yarpaq "leaf"
 * topraq > torpaq "soil"
 * tütsü > tüstü "smoke"

Danish
Some common nonstandard pronunciations of Danish words employ metathesis:

 * > bidler "pictures"
 * > gemmen "through"

But metathesis has also historically changed some words:

 * kros > " (Christian) cross"

Egyptian Arabic
A common example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic is when the order of the word's root consonants has changed.

 * Classical Arabic > Egyptian Arabic gōz "husband"
 * Classical Arabic > ma‘la’a "spoon"
 * Persian zanjabil > Egyptian Arabic ganzabīl ~ zanzabīl "ginger"

The following examples of metathesis have been identified in Egyptian Arabic texts, but are not necessarily more common than their etymological spellings:

The following loanwords are also sometimes found with metathesis: The likely cause for metathesis in the word "hospital" is that the result resembles a common word pattern familiar to Arabic speakers (namely a Form X verbal noun).
 * > "God curse!"
 * > "theatre troupe"
 * > "philosophy"
 * > "monologue"
 * > "hospital"
 * > "penalty" (in football)

Perhaps the clearest example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic is the modern name of the city of Alexandria: Iskandariya (الإسكندرية). In addition to the metathesis of x /ks/ to /sk/, the initial Al of Alexandria has been reanalyzed as the Arabic definite article.

English
Metathesis is responsible for some common speech errors, such as children acquiring spaghetti as pasketti. The word ask has the nonstandard variant ax pronounced ; the spelling ask is found in Shakespeare and in the King James Bible and ax in Chaucer, Caxton, and the Coverdale Bible. The word "ask" derives from Proto-Germanic *aiskōną.

Some other frequent English pronunciations that display metathesis are:

 * nuclear > nucular (re-analysed as nuke + -cular suffix in molecular, binocular)
 * prescription > perscription
 * introduce > interduce
 * asterisk > asterix
 * comfortable > comfturble
 * cavalry > calvary
 * iron > iorn
 * foliage > foilage
 * aforementioned > afrementioned
 * pretty > purty
 * jewelry > jewlery

The process has shaped many English words historically. Bird and horse came from Old English and hros; wasp and hasp were also written wæps and hæps.

The Old English "bright" underwent metathesis to bryht, which became Modern English.

The Old English "three" formed  "thrid" and þrēotene "thriteen". These underwent metathesis to forms which became Modern English and.

The Old English verb "to work" had the passive participle  "worked". This underwent metathesis to wroht, which became Modern English.

The Old English "hole" underwent metathesis to þryl. This gave rise to a verb þrylian "pierce", which became Modern English thrill, and formed the compound nosþryl "nose-hole" which became Modern English (May have occurred in the early Middle English Period: "nosþyrlu" (c. 1050); "nos-thirlys" (c. 1500). In 1565 "nosthrille" appears; "thirl"/"thurl" survived even longer, until 1878).

Metathesis is also a common feature of the West Country dialects.

Kurdish
In the Kurdish language, there are many examples of metathesis, as both forms are used until now, the pre-inverted form and the post-inverted form (depending on the regions).

Example:(Befr-Berf)this word means snow. The formula (Berf) was used in Afrin and many Kurdish regions in Syria, and the formula (Befr) was used in many Kurdish regions of Turkey.

Finnish
In western dialects of Finnish, historical stem-final /h/ has been subject to metathesis (it is lost in standard Finnish). That leads to variant word forms:

 * "stallion" (standard *orih > )
 * "smoke" (standard *savuh > )
 * "lie" (standard *valeh > )
 * "boat" (standard *veneh > )

Some words have been standardized in the metathetized form:

 * *mureh > "sorrow"
 * *pereh > "family"
 * *uroh > "hero"
 * *valehellinen > "untrue"

Sporadic examples include the word "green", which derives from older, and the vernacular change of the word  "jovial" to  (also a separate word meaning "bristly").

French
Etymological metathesis occurs in the following French words:

 * from popular Latin berbex meaning "sheep" (early 12th century).
 * from popular Latin formaticus, meaning "formed in a mold" (1135).
 * (1654) from French mousquitte (1603) by metathesis. From Spanish mosquito ("little fly").

Deliberate metathesis also occurs extensively in the informal French pattern of speech called verlan (itself an example: verlan < l'envers, meaning "the reverse" or "the inverse"). In verlan new words are created from existing words by reversing the order of syllables. Verlanization is applied mostly to two-syllable words and the new words that are created are typically considerably less formal than the originals, and/or take on a slightly different meaning. The process often involves considerably more changes than simple metathesis of two phonemes but this forms the basis for verlan as a linguistic phenomenon. Some of these words have become part of standard French.

A few well known examples are:

 * laisse > laisse
 * lourd >

Some Verlan words are metathesized more than once:

 * aa > ' > '

Greek
In Greek, the present stem often consists of the root with a suffix of y (ι˰ in Greek). If the root ends in the vowel a or o, and the consonant n or r, the y exchanges position with the consonant and is written i:

 * *cháryō > chaírō "I am glad" — echárē "he was glad"
 * *phányō > phaínō "I reveal" — ephánē "he appeared"

For metathesis of vowel length, which occurs frequently in Attic and Ionic Greek, see quantitative metathesis.

Hebrew
In Hebrew the verb conjugation (binyan) hitpaēl (התפעל) undergoes metathesis if the first consonant of the root is an alveolar or postalveolar fricative. Namely, the pattern hiṯ1a22ē3 (where the numbers signify the root consonants) becomes hi1ta22ē3. Examples:

 * No metathesis: root lbš לבש = hitlabbēš הִתְלַבֵּש ("he got dressed").
 * Voiceless alveolar fricative: root skl סכל = histakkēl הִסְתַּכֵּל ("he looked [at something]").
 * Voiceless postalveolar fricative: root šdl שׁדל = hištaddēl הִשְׁתַּדֵּל ("he made an effort").
 * Voiced alveolar fricative: root zqn זקן = hizdaqqēn הִזְדַּקֵּן ("he grew old"); with assimilation of the T of the conjugation.
 * Voiceless alveolar affricate: root t͡slm צלם = hit͡stallēm הִצְטַלֵּם ("he had a photograph of him taken"); with assimilation (no longer audible) of the T of the conjugation.

Hebrew also features isolated historical examples of metathesis. For example, the words כֶּֽבֶשׂ keves and כֶּֽשֶׂב kesev (meaning "lamb") both appear in the Torah.

Hungarian
In case of a narrow range of Hungarian nouns, metathesis of a h sound and a liquid consonant occurs in nominative case, but the original form is preserved in accusative and other suffixed forms:

 * "chalice", but kelyhet (accusative), kelyhem (possessive), kelyhek (plural)
 * "burden", but terhet (acc.), terhed (poss.), terhek (pl.)
 * "flake", but pelyhet (acc.), pelyhe (poss.), pelyhek (pl.)

The other instances are [intestinal] villus/fluff/fuzz/nap vs. bolyhok,  vs. molyhos down/pubescence [on plants], and the obsolete  animal's fetus (cf. vemhes "pregnant [animal]"). The first of them is often used in the regular form.

Japanese

 * for, meaning "atmosphere" or "mood"
 * Small children commonly refer to kusuri "medicine" as sukuri.
 * arata- "new" contrasts with atarashii "new".

The following are examples of argot used in the entertainment industry.

 * for, the former meaning "content [of news article]", "food ingredient", "material (for joke or artwork)", the latter "seed", "species","source"
 * for
 * The word for "sorry", gomen, is sometimes inverted to mengo (backslang).

Lakota

 * The words pȟaŋkéska and kȟaŋpéska are dialectal variants of the same word, meaning "abalone" or "porcelain".
 * The word čhuthúhu, meaning "rib," has its origins in čhuté "side of the body" and huhú "bone", but is more commonly metathesized as thučhúhu.

Malay (including Malaysian and Indonesian variants)
Metathesis from earlier protoform, though not so prevalent in Malay, can still be seen, as in the following:

 * Proto-Malayo-Polynesian: *uʀsa > "deer"
 * Proto-Malayo-Polynesian: *qudip > "alive"
 * Proto-Malayo-Polynesian: *dilaq > "tongue"
 * Proto-Malayo-Polynesian: *laqia > "ginger""

Loanwords can also be products of metathesis. The word tembikai "watermelon" is a metathesis of mendikai borrowed from கொம்மட்டிக்காய்.

Navajo
In Navajo, verbs have (often multiple) morphemes prefixed onto the verb stem. These prefixes are added to the verb stem in a set order in a prefix positional template. Although prefixes are generally found in a specific position, some prefixes change order by the process of metathesis.

For example, prefix (3i object pronoun) usually occurs before, as in

 * adisbąąs "I'm starting to drive some kind of wheeled vehicle along" [ < +  +  +  + ].

However, when occurs with the prefixes  and, the  metathesizes with , leading to an order of  +  + , as in

 * diʼnisbąąs "I'm in the act of driving some vehicle [into something] and getting stuck" [ < <  +  +  +  +  + ]

instead of the expected * ( is reduced to ).

Proto-Indo-European
Metathesis has been used to explain the development of thorn clusters in Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It is hypothesised in the non-Anatolian and non-Tocharian branch, a coronal followed by a dorsal *TK first assimilated to *TsK, and thereafter underwent metathesis to *KTs, so *TK > *TsK > *KTs.

 * PIE wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear" (cf. Hittite hartaggas) > ' > ' (cf. Sanskrit ऋक्ष, Ancient Greek ἄρκτος)
 * PIE wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dʰéǵʰōm "earth" (cf. Hittite tēkan) → zero-grade ' > ' >  (cf. Sanskrit क्षम्, Ancient Greek χθών)

Romanian
Similar to the French verlan is the Totoiana, a speech form spoken in the village of Totoi in Romania. It consists in the inversion of syllables of Romanian words in a way that results unintelligible for other Romanian speakers. Its origins or original purpose are unknown. Its current use is recreative.

Rotuman
The Rotuman language of Rotuman Island (a part of Fiji) uses metathesis as a part of normal grammatical structure by inverting the ultimate vowel with the immediately preceding consonant.

Slavic languages
Metathesis of liquid consonants is an important historical change during the development of the Slavic languages: a syllable-final liquid metathesized to become syllable-initial, therefore e.g. Polish or Czech  vs. English.

A number of Proto-Indo-European roots indicate metathesis in Slavic forms when compared with other Indo-European languages:

 * Proto-Indo-European > Latin, German , English ,  - c.f. Slavic cognates, e.g. Czech  "castle", Serbo-Croatian  "castle" or "town", Russian  (grad) and  (gorod) "city". The divergence in meaning is attributed to the fact that the PIE root designated an enclosed area.
 * Proto-Indo-European > Proto-Germanic  "arm", Proto-Slavic  "shoulder"; Proto-Germanic  > German, English  "arm"; Proto-Slavic  > Russian  (rámya), Serbo-Croatian , Czech , Polish  "shoulder"
 * Proto-Indo-European "to milk" > Proto-Germanic  "milk", Proto-Slavic ; Proto-Germanic  "milk" > German, Dutch , English ; Proto-Slavic  > Russian  (moloko), Serbo-Croatian  or  or , Czech , Polish  "milk"

Other roots have diverged within the Slavic family:

 * Proto-Indo-European > Proto-Slavic  > Russian  (mgla), Polish, Czech , Slovak , Ukrainian  (imla), "mist". The English word is also cognate, as is the Sanskrit  (megha), hence Meghalaya, "abode of clouds".
 * Proto-Slavic "bear" (literally "honey eater") > Russian  (medvéd), Czech, Serbo-Croatian  or , Polish . c.f. Ukrainian  (vedmíd)

Scots Gaelic
Dùn Breatann, the Gaelic name for Dumbarton meaning 'Fort of the Britons' sees 'Breatann' morphing into '-barton' in English.

Spanish
Old Spanish showed occasional metathesis when phonemes not conforming to the usual euphonic constraints were joined. This happened, for example, when a clitic pronoun was attached to a verb ending: it is attested that forms like dejadle "leave [plural] him" were often metathesized to dejalde (the phoneme cluster does not occur elsewhere in Spanish). The Spanish name for Algeria (Argelia) is likely a metathesis of the Arabic name for the territory.

Lunfardo, an argot of Spanish from Buenos Aires, is fond of vesre, metathesis of syllables. The word vesre itself is an example:

 * ' > ' "back, backwards"

Gacería, an argot of Castile, incorporates metathesized words:

 * criba > brica

Some frequently heard pronunciations in Spanish display metathesis:

 * > calcamonía
 * > dentrífico
 * > cocreta

Straits Salish languages
In the Salishan languages Northern Straits and Klallam, metathesis is used as a grammatical device to indicate "actual" aspect. The actual aspect is most often translated into English as a be ... -ing progressive. The actual aspect is derived from the "nonactual" verb form by a CV → VC metathetic process (i.e., consonant metathesizes with vowel). Examples from the Saanich (SENĆOŦEN) dialect of Northern Straits:

See Montler (1986, 1989, 2015 ) and Thompson & Thompson (1969) for more information.

Swahili
In Swahili, some foreign words can undergo metathesis during their importation. For instance, "American" becomes "mmarekani".

Telugu
From a comparative study of Dravidian vocabularies, one can observe that the retroflex consonants and the liquids of the alveolar series  do not occur initially in common Dravidian etyma, but Telugu has words with these consonants at the initial position. It was shown that the etyma underwent a metathesis in Telugu, when the root word originally consisted of an initial vowel followed by one of the above consonants. When this pattern is followed by a consonantal derivative, metathesis has occurred in the phonemes of the root-syllable with the doubling of the suffix consonant (if it had been single); when a vowel derivative follows, metathesis has occurred in the phonemes of the root syllable attended by a contraction of the vowels of root and (derivative) suffix syllables. These statements and the resulting sequences of vowel contraction may be summed up as follows:

Type 1: V1C1-C² > C1V1-C²C²

Type 2: V1C1-V²- > C1V1-

Examples:

 * lē = lēta "young, tender" < *eɭa
 * rē = rēyi "night" < *ira
 * rōlu "mortar" < oral < *ural

Turkish
Two types of metathesis are observed in Turkish. The examples given are from Anatolian Turkish, though the closely related Azerbaijani language is better known for its metathesis:

 * Close type:
 * = körpü "bridge"
 * = torpak "ground"
 * = kipri "hedgehog"
 * = kirbit "match"
 * = koşnu "neighbour"
 * = kisme "nobody"
 * = baryak "flag"
 * = eşki "sour"
 * = yanlız "alone"
 * Distant type:
 * = burgul "bulgur"
 * = öndüç "loan"
 * = nalet "curse"

Hindustani
Like many other natural languages Urdu and Hindi also have metathesis like in this diachronic example:

Sanskrit (جنمہ) janma  > Urdu جنم and Hindi  janam  "Birth"

More examples
 * Portuguese became Urdu  and Hindi  (girjā), meaning "church"

In popular culture

 * Metathesis is described by the character Data in the episode "Hollow Pursuits" in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation after Captain Picard accidentally addresses Lieutenant Barclay as "Mr. Broccoli".

General bibliography

 * Hume, E., & Seyfarth, S. (2019). "Metathesis". In M. Aronoff (ed.), Oxford Bibliographies in Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press..
 * Montler, Timothy. (1986). An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory. (Revised version of the author's PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii).
 * Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary, (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
 * Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary, (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
 * Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary, (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1

title: Metathesis (linguistics)


text:
Evoked potential

An evoked potential or evoked response is an electrical potential in a specific pattern recorded from a specific part of the nervous system, especially the brain, of a human or other animals following presentation of a stimulus such as a light flash or a pure tone. Different types of potentials result from stimuli of different modalities and types. Evoked potential is distinct from spontaneous potentials as detected by electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), or other electrophysiologic recording method. Such potentials are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring that include detections of disease and drug-related sensory dysfunction and intraoperative monitoring of sensory pathway integrity.

Evoked potential amplitudes tend to be low, ranging from less than a microvolt to several microvolts, compared to tens of microvolts for EEG, millivolts for EMG, and often close to 20 millivolts for ECG. To resolve these low-amplitude potentials against the background of ongoing EEG, ECG, EMG, and other biological signals and ambient noise, signal averaging is usually required. The signal is time-locked to the stimulus and most of the noise occurs randomly, allowing the noise to be averaged out with averaging of repeated responses.

Signals can be recorded from cerebral cortex, brain stem, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and muscles. Usually the term "evoked potential" is reserved for responses involving either recording from, or stimulation of, central nervous system structures. Thus evoked compound motor action potentials (CMAP) or sensory nerve action potentials (SNAP) as used in nerve conduction studies (NCS) are generally not thought of as evoked potentials, though they do meet the above definition.

Evoked potential is different from event-related potential (ERP), although the terms are sometimes used synonymously, because ERP has higher latency, and is associated with higher cognitive processing. Evoked potentials are mainly classified by the type of stimulus: somatosensory, auditory, visual. But they could also be classified according to stimulus frequency, wave latencies, potential origin, location, and derivation.

Steady-state evoked potential
An evoked potential is the electrical response of the brain to a sensory stimulus. Regan constructed an analogue Fourier series analyzer to record harmonics of the evoked potential of flickering (sinusoidally modulated) light. Rather than integrating the sine and cosine products, Regan fed the signals to a two-pen recorder via lowpass filters. This allowed him to demonstrate that the brain attained a steady-state regime in which the amplitude and phase of the harmonics (frequency components) of the response were approximately constant over time. By analogy with the steady-state response of a resonant circuit that follows the initial transient response he defined an idealized steady-state evoked potential (SSEP) as a form of response to repetitive sensory stimulation in which the constituent frequency components of the response remain constant with time in both amplitude and phase. Although this definition implies a series of identical temporal waveforms, it is more helpful to define the SSEP in terms of the frequency components that are an alternative description of the time-domain waveform, because different frequency components can have quite different properties. For example, the properties of the high-frequency flicker SSEP (whose peak amplitude is near 40–50 Hz) correspond to the properties of the subsequently discovered magnocellular neurons in the retina of the macaque monkey, while the properties of the medium-frequency flicker SSEP ( whose amplitude peak is near 15–20 Hz) correspond to the properties of parvocellular neurons. Since a SSEP can be completely described in terms of the amplitude and phase of each frequency component it can be quantified more unequivocally than an averaged transient evoked potential.

It is sometimes said that SSEPs are elicited only by stimuli of high repetition frequency, but this is not generally correct. In principle, a sinusoidally modulated stimulus can elicit a SSEP even when its repetition frequency is low. Because of the high-frequency rolloff of the SSEP, high frequency stimulation can produce a near-sinusoidal SSEP waveform, but this is not germane to the definition of a SSEP. By using zoom-FFT to record SSEPs at the theoretical limit of spectral resolution ΔF (where ΔF in Hz is the reciprocal of the recording duration in seconds) Regan and Regan discovered that the amplitude and phase variability of the SSEP can be sufficiently small that the bandwidth of the SSEP's constituent frequency components can be at the theoretical limit of spectral resolution up to at least a 500-second recording duration (0.002 Hz in this case). Repetitive sensory stimulation elicits a steady-state magnetic brain response that can be analysed in the same way as the SSEP.

The "simultaneous stimulation" technique
This technique allows several (e.g., four) SSEPs to be recorded simultaneously from any given location on the scalp. Different sites of stimulation or different stimuli can be tagged with slightly different frequencies that are virtually identical to the brain, but easily separated by Fourier series analyzers. For example, when two unpatterned lights are modulated at slightly different frequencies (F1 and F2) and superimposed, multiple nonlinear cross-modulation components of frequency (mF1 ± nF2) are created in the SSEP, where m and n are integers. These components allow nonlinear processing in the brain to be investigated. By frequency-tagging two superimposed gratings, spatial frequency and orientation tuning properties of the brain mechanisms that process spatial form can be isolated and studied. Stimuli of different sensory modalities can also be tagged. For example, a visual stimulus was flickered at Fv Hz and a simultaneously presented auditory tone was amplitude modulated at Fa Hz. The existence of a (2Fv + 2Fa) component in the evoked magnetic brain response demonstrated an audio-visual convergence area in the human brain, and the distribution of this response over the head allowed this brain area to be localized. More recently, frequency tagging has been extended from studies of sensory processing to studies of selective attention and of consciousness.

The "sweep" technique
The sweep technique is a hybrid frequency domain/time domain technique. A plot of, for example, response amplitude versus the check size of a stimulus checkerboard pattern plot can be obtained in 10 seconds, far faster than when time-domain averaging is used to record an evoked potential for each of several check sizes. In the original demonstration of the technique the sine and cosine products were fed through lowpass filters (as when recording a SSEP ) while viewing a pattern of fine checks whose black and white squares exchanged place six times per second. Then the size of the squares was progressively increased so as to give a plot of evoked potential amplitude versus check size (hence "sweep"). Subsequent authors have implemented the sweep technique by using computer software to increment the spatial frequency of a grating in a series of small steps and to compute a time-domain average for each discrete spatial frequency. A single sweep may be adequate or it may be necessary to average the graphs obtained in several sweeps with the averager triggered by the sweep cycle. Averaging 16 sweeps can improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the graph by a factor of four. The sweep technique has proved useful in measuring rapidly adapting visual processes and also for recording from babies, where recording duration is necessarily short. Norcia and Tyler have used the technique to document the development of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity through the first years of life. They have emphasized that, in diagnosing abnormal visual development, the more precise the developmental norms, the more sharply can the abnormal be distinguished from the normal, and to that end have documented normal visual development in a large group of infants. For many years the sweep technique has been used in paediatric ophthalmology (electrodiagnosis) clinics worldwide.

Evoked potential feedback
This technique allows the SSEP to directly control the stimulus that elicits the SSEP without the conscious intervention of the experimental subject. For example, the running average of the SSEP can be arranged to increase the luminance of a checkerboard stimulus if the amplitude of the SSEP falls below some predetermined value, and to decrease luminance if it rises above this value. The amplitude of the SSEP then hovers about this predetermined value. Now the wavelength (colour) of the stimulus is progressively changed. The resulting plot of stimulus luminance versus wavelength is a plot of the spectral sensitivity of the visual system.

Sensory evoked potentials
Sensory evoked potentials (SEP) are recorded from the central nervous system following stimulation of sense organs, for example, visual evoked potentials elicited by a flashing light or changing pattern on a monitor, auditory evoked potentials by a click or tone stimulus presented through earphones), or tactile or somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) elicited by tactile or electrical stimulation of a sensory or mixed nerve in the periphery. Sensory evoked potentials have been widely used in clinical diagnostic medicine since the 1970s, and also in intraoperative neurophysiology monitoring (IONM), also known as surgical neurophysiology.

There are three kinds of evoked potentials in widespread clinical use: auditory evoked potentials, usually recorded from the scalp but originating at brainstem level; visual evoked potentials, and somatosensory evoked potentials, which are elicited by electrical stimulation of peripheral nerve. Examples of SEP usage include:
 * SSEP can be used to locate lesions such as peripheral nerve or spinal cord.
 * VEP and BAEP can supplement neuroimaging as part of workups to diagnose diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
 * Short latency EPs such as SSEP, VEP, and BAEP can be used to indicate prognosis for traumatic and anoxic brain injury. Early after anoxic brain injury, no response indicates mortality accurately.  In traumatic brain injury, abnormal responses indicates failure to recover from coma.  In both types of injury, normal responses may indicate good outcome.  Moreover, recovery in responses often indicates clinical recovery.

Long and Allen were the first investigators to report the abnormal brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) in an alcoholic woman who recovered from acquired central hypoventilation syndrome. These investigators hypothesized that their patient's brainstem was poisoned, but not destroyed, by her chronic alcoholism.

Visual evoked potential
Visual evoked potential (VEP) is an evoked potential elicited by presenting light flash or pattern stimulus which can be used to confirm damage to visual pathway including retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic radiations, and occipital cortex. One application is in measuring infant's visual acuity. Electrodes are placed on infant's head over visual cortex and a gray field is presented alternately with a checkerboard or grating pattern. If the checker's boxes or stripes are large enough to be detected, VEP is generated; otherwise, none is generated. It's an objective way to measure infant's visual acuity.

VEP can be sensitive to visual dysfunctions that may not be found with just physical examinations or MRI, even if it cannot indicate etiologies. VEP may be abnormal in optic neuritis, optic neuropathy, demyelinating disease, multiple sclerosis, Friedreich’s ataxia, vitamin B12 deficiency, neurosyphilis, migraine, ischemic disease, tumor compressing the optic nerve, ocular hypertension, glaucoma, diabetes, toxic amblyopia, aluminum neurotoxicity, manganese intoxication, retrobulbar neuritis, and brain injury. It can be used to examine infant's visual impairment for abnormal visual pathways which may be due to delayed maturation.

The P100 component of VEP response, which is the positive peak with the delay about 100 ms, has a major clinical importance. The visual pathway dysfunction anterior to the optic chiasm maybe where VEPs are most useful. For example, patients with acute severe optic neuritis often lose the P100 response or have highly attenuated responses. Clinical recovery and visual improvement come with P100 restoration but with an abnormal increased latency that continues indefinitely, and hence, it maybe useful as an indicator of previous or subclinical optic neuritis.

In 1934, Adrian and Matthew noticed potential changes of the occipital EEG can be observed under stimulation of light. Ciganek developed the first nomenclature for occipital EEG components in 1961. During that same year, Hirsch and colleagues recorded a visual evoked potential (VEP) on the occipital lobe (externally and internally), and they discovered amplitudes recorded along the calcarine fissure were the largest. In 1965, Spehlmann used a checkerboard stimulation to describe human VEPs. An attempt to localize structures in the primary visual pathway was completed by Szikla and colleagues. Halliday and colleagues completed the first clinical investigations using VEP by recording delayed VEPs in a patient with retrobulbar neuritis in 1972. A wide variety of extensive research to improve procedures and theories has been conducted from the 1970s to today and the method has also been described in animals.

VEP Stimuli
The diffuse-light flash stimulus is rarely used nowadays due to the high variability within and across subjects. However, it is beneficial to use this type of stimulus when testing infants, animals or individuals with poor visual acuity. The checkerboard and grating patterns use light and dark squares and stripes, respectively. These squares and stripes are equal in size and are presented, one image at a time, via a computer screen.

VEP Electrode Placement
Electrode placement is extremely important to elicit a good VEP response free of artifact. In a typical (one channel) setup, one electrode is placed 2.5 cm above the inion and a reference electrode is placed at Fz. For a more detailed response, two additional electrodes can be placed 2.5 cm to the right and left of Oz.

VEP Waves

The VEP nomenclature is determined by using capital letters stating whether the peak is positive (P) or negative (N) followed by a number which indicates the average peak latency for that particular wave. For example, P100 is a wave with a positive peak at approximately 100 ms following stimulus onset. The average amplitude for VEP waves usually falls between 5 and 20 microvolts.

Normal values are depending on used stimulation hardware (flash stimulus vs. cathode ray tube or liquid crystal display, checkerboard field size, etc.).

Types of VEP
Some specific VEPs are:
 * Monocular pattern reversal (most common)
 * Sweep visual evoked potential
 * Binocular visual evoked potential
 * Chromatic visual evoked potential
 * Hemi-field visual evoked potential
 * Flash visual evoked potential
 * LED Goggle visual evoked potential
 * Motion visual evoked potential
 * Multifocal visual evoked potential
 * Multi-channel visual evoked potential
 * Multi-frequency visual evoked potential
 * Stereo-elicited visual evoked potential
 * Steady state visually evoked potential

Auditory evoked potential
Auditory evoked potentials (AEP) can be used to trace the signal generated by a sound through the ascending auditory pathway. The evoked potential is generated in the cochlea, goes through the cochlear nerve, through the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain, on to the medial geniculate body, and finally to the cortex.

Auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) are a subclass of event-related potentials (ERPs). ERPs are brain responses that are time-locked to some "event", such as a sensory stimulus, a mental event (such as recognition of a target stimulus), or the omission of a stimulus. For AEPs, the "event" is a sound. AEPs (and ERPs) are very small electrical voltage potentials originating from the brain recorded from the scalp in response to an auditory stimulus, such as different tones, speech sounds, etc.

Brainstem auditory evoked potentials are small AEPs that are recorded in response to an auditory stimulus from electrodes placed on the scalp.

AEPs serve for assessment of the functioning of the auditory system and neuroplasticity. They can be used to diagnose learning disabilities in children, aiding in the development of tailored educational programs for those with hearing and or cognition problems.

Somatosensory evoked potential
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) are EP recorded from the brain or spinal cord when stimulating peripheral nerve repeatedly. SSEPs are used in neuromonitoring to assess the function of a patient's spinal cord during surgery. They are recorded by stimulating peripheral nerves, most commonly the tibial nerve, median nerve or ulnar nerve, typically with an electrical stimulus. The response is then recorded from the patient's scalp.

Although stimuli such as touch, vibration, and pain can be used for SSEP, electrical stimuli are most common because of ease and reliability. SSEP can be used for prognosis in patients with severe traumatic head injury. Because SSEP with latency less than 50 ms is relatively independent of consciousness, if used early in comatose patient, it can predict outcome reliably and efficiently. For example, comatose patients with no responses bilaterally has 95% chance of not recovering from coma. But care should be taken analyzing the result. For example, increased sedation and other CNS injuries such as the spinal cord can affect SEP.

Because of the low amplitude of the signal once it reaches the patient's scalp and the relatively high amount of electrical noise caused by background EEG, scalp muscle EMG or electrical devices in the room, the signal must be averaged. The use of averaging improves the signal-to-noise ratio. Typically, in the operating room, over 100 and up to 1,000 averages must be used to adequately resolve the evoked potential.

The two most looked at aspects of an SSEP are the amplitude and latency of the peaks. The most predominant peaks have been studied and named in labs. Each peak is given a letter and a number in its name. For example, N20 refers to a negative peak (N) at 20ms. This peak is recorded from the cortex when the median nerve is stimulated. It most likely corresponds to the signal reaching the somatosensory cortex. When used in intraoperative monitoring, the latency and amplitude of the peak relative to the patient's post-intubation baseline is a crucial piece of information. Dramatic increases in latency or decreases in amplitude are indicators of neurological dysfunction.

During surgery, the large amounts of anesthetic gases used can affect the amplitude and latencies of SSEPs. Any of the halogenated agents or nitrous oxide will increase latencies and decrease amplitudes of responses, sometimes to the point where a response can no longer be detected. For this reason, an anesthetic utilizing less halogenated agent and more intravenous hypnotic and narcotic is typically used.

Clinical Uses
SEP findings do not by themselves lead to a specific diagnosis, and organic diseases cannot necessarily be excluded with normal SEP findings. Findings must be interpreted in the context of the patient’s clinical presentation. Evaluating the peripheral responses with SEPs could contribute to the diagnosis of peripheral nerve damage.

Furthermore, SEPs could be abnormal in different pathologies such as multiple sclerosis (MS), hereditary spinocerebellar degenerations, hereditary spastic paraplegia, AIDS and vitamin B12 or vitamin E deficiency. In patients with MS, evoked potential findings often complement findings on MRI.

In the acute stage after a traumatic spinal injury or brain trauma, the absence of SEP responses do not correlate with prognosis. However, an early return to normal or preserved cortical responses in the subacute stage correlate with a positive outcome.

SEPs can be helpful to evaluate subcortical and cortical function in comatose patients and are less sensitive to sedative drugs than EEG. SEP´s and BAEP´s together are the best tools to assist in the confirmation of brain death in comatose patients

Clinical consideration in children
As in the adult, SEP findings in combination with the clinical assessment and EEG findings can contribute to the determination of prognosis in comatose children. In high risk newborns, tracking SEP findings over time can be helpful for outcome prognostication. Several neurodegenerative disorders have abnormal findings in spinal and cortical SEP components. Moreover, compressive lesions on the spine (e.g. Arnold-Chiari malformation or mucopolysaccharidosis) are associated with abnormal SEPs, which may precede abnormalities on MRI.

Laser evoked potential
Conventional SSEPs monitor the functioning of the part of the somatosensory system involved in sensations such as touch and vibration. The part of the somatosensory system that transmits pain and temperature signals is monitored using laser evoked potentials (LEP). LEPs are evoked by applying finely focused, rapidly rising heat to bare skin using a laser. In the central nervous system they can detect damage to the spinothalamic tract, lateral brain stem, and fibers carrying pain and temperature signals from the thalamus to the cortex. In the peripheral nervous system pain and heat signals are carried along thin (C and A delta) fibers to the spinal cord, and LEPs can be used to determine whether a neuropathy is located in these small fibers as opposed to larger (touch, vibration) fibers.

Motor evoked potentials
Motor evoked potentials (MEP) are recorded from muscles following direct stimulation of exposed motor cortex, or transcranial stimulation of motor cortex, either magnetic or electrical. Transcranial magnetic MEP (TCmMEP) potentially offer clinical diagnostic applications. Transcranial electrical MEP (TCeMEP) has been in widespread use for several years for intraoperative monitoring of pyramidal tract functional integrity.

During the 1990s, there were attempts to monitor "motor evoked potentials", including "neurogenic motor evoked potentials" recorded from peripheral nerves, following direct electrical stimulation of the spinal cord. It has become clear that these "motor" potentials were almost entirely elicited by antidromic stimulation of sensory tracts—even when the recording was from muscles (antidromic sensory tract stimulation triggers myogenic responses through synapses at the root entry level). TCMEP, whether electrical or magnetic, is the most practical way to ensure pure motor responses, since stimulation of sensory cortex cannot result in descending impulses beyond the first synapse (synapses cannot be backfired).

TMS-induced MEPs have been used in many experiments in cognitive neuroscience. Because MEP amplitude is correlated with motor excitability, they offer a quantitative way to test the role of various types of intervention on the motor system (pharmacological, behavioral, lesion, etc.). TMS-induced MEPs may thus serve as an index of covert motor preparation or facilitation, e.g., induced by the mirror neuron system when seeing someone's else actions. In addition, MEPs are used as a reference to adjust the intensity of stimulation that needs to be delivered by TMS when targeting cortical regions whose response might not be as easily measurable, e.g., in the context of TMS-based therapy.

Intraoperative monitoring
Somatosensory evoked potentials provide monitoring for the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Sensory evoked potentials may also be used during surgeries which place brain structures at risk. They are effectively used to determine cortical ischemia during carotid endarterectomy surgeries and for mapping the sensory areas of the brain during brain surgery.

Electrical stimulation of the scalp can produce an electric current within the brain that activates the motor pathways of the pyramidal tracts. This technique is known as transcranial electrical motor potential (TcMEP) monitoring. This technique effectively evaluates the motor pathways in the central nervous system during surgeries which place these structures at risk. These motor pathways, including the lateral corticospinal tract, are located in the lateral and ventral funiculi of the spinal cord. Since the ventral and dorsal spinal cord have separate blood supply with very limited collateral flow, an anterior cord syndrome (paralysis or paresis with some preserved sensory function) is a possible surgical sequela, so it is important to have monitoring specific to the motor tracts as well as dorsal column monitoring.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electrical stimulation is generally regarded as unsuitable for intraoperative monitoring because it is more sensitive to anesthesia. Electrical stimulation is too painful for clinical use in awake patients. The two modalities are thus complementary, electrical stimulation being the choice for intraoperative monitoring, and magnetic for clinical applications.

title: Evoked potential