text:
Protected mode

In computing, protected mode, also called protected virtual address mode, is an operational mode of x86-compatible central processing units (CPUs). It allows system software to use features such as segmentation, virtual memory, paging and safe multi-tasking designed to increase an operating system's control over application software.

When a processor that supports x86 protected mode is powered on, it begins executing instructions in real mode, in order to maintain backward compatibility with earlier x86 processors. Protected mode may only be entered after the system software sets up one descriptor table and enables the Protection Enable (PE) bit in the control register 0 (CR0).

Protected mode was first added to the x86 architecture in 1982, with the release of Intel's 80286 (286) processor, and later extended with the release of the 80386 (386) in 1985. Due to the enhancements added by protected mode, it has become widely adopted and has become the foundation for all subsequent enhancements to the x86 (IA-32) architecture, although many of those enhancements, such as added instructions and new registers, also brought benefits to the real mode.

History
The Intel 8086, the predecessor to the 286, was originally designed with a 20-bit address bus for its memory. This allowed the processor to access 220 bytes of memory, equivalent to 1 megabyte. At the time, 1 megabyte was considered a relatively large amount of memory, so the designers of the IBM Personal Computer reserved the first 640 kilobytes for use by applications and the operating system and the remaining 384 kilobytes for the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) and memory for add-on devices.

As the cost of memory decreased and memory use increased, the 1 MB limitation became a significant problem. Intel intended to solve this limitation along with others with the release of the 286.

The 286
The initial protected mode, released with the 286, was not widely used; for example, it was used by Coherent (from 1982), Microsoft Xenix (around 1984) and Minix. Several shortcomings such as the inability to access the BIOS or DOS calls due to inability to switch back to real mode without resetting the processor prevented widespread usage. Acceptance was additionally hampered by the fact that the 286 only allowed memory access in 16-bit segments via each of four segment registers, meaning that only 4 × 216 bytes, equivalent to 256 kilobytes, could be accessed at a time. Because changing a segment register in protected mode caused a 6-byte segment descriptor to be loaded into the CPU from memory, the segment register load instruction took many tens of processor cycles, making it much slower than on the 8086; therefore, the strategy of computing segment addresses on-the-fly in order to access data structures larger than 128 kilobytes (the combined size of the two data segments) became impractical, even for those few programmers who had mastered it on the 8086/8088.

The 286 maintained backward compatibility with its precursor the 8086 by initially entering real mode on power up. Real mode functioned virtually identically to the 8086, allowing the vast majority of existing 8086 software to run unmodified on the newer 286. Real mode also served as a more basic mode in which protected mode could be set up, solving a sort of chicken-and-egg problem. To access the extended functionality of the 286, the operating system would set up some tables in memory that controlled memory access in protected mode, set the addresses of those tables into some special registers of the processor, and then set the processor into protected mode. This enabled 24-bit addressing, which allowed the processor to access 224 bytes of memory, equivalent to 16 megabytes.

The 386

With the release of the 386 in 1985, many of the issues preventing widespread adoption of the previous protected mode were addressed. The 386 was released with an address bus size of 32 bits, which allows for 232 bytes of memory accessing, equivalent to 4 gigabytes. The segment sizes were also increased to 32 bits, meaning that the full address space of 4 gigabytes could be accessed without the need to switch between multiple segments. In addition to the increased size of the address bus and segment registers, many other new features were added with the intention of increasing operational security and stability. Protected mode is now used in virtually all modern operating systems which run on the x86 architecture, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, and many others.

Furthermore, learning from the failures of the 286 protected mode to satisfy the needs for multiuser DOS, Intel added a separate virtual 8086 mode, which allowed multiple virtualized 8086 processors to be emulated on the 386. Hardware x86 virtualization required for virtualizing the protected mode itself, however, had to wait for another 20 years.

386 additions to protected mode
With the release of the 386, the following additional features were added to protected mode:

 * Paging
 * 32-bit physical and virtual address space (The 32-bit physical address space is not present on the 80386SX, and other 386 processor variants which use the older 286 bus. )
 * 32-bit segment offsets
 * Ability to switch back to real mode without resetting
 * Virtual 8086 mode

Entering and exiting protected mode
Until the release of the 386, protected mode did not offer a direct method to switch back into real mode once protected mode was entered. IBM devised a workaround (implemented in the IBM AT) which involved resetting the CPU via the keyboard controller and saving the system registers, stack pointer and often the interrupt mask in the real-time clock chip's RAM. This allowed the BIOS to restore the CPU to a similar state and begin executing code before the reset. Later, a triple fault was used to reset the 286 CPU, which was a lot faster and cleaner than the keyboard controller method (and does not depend on IBM AT-compatible hardware, but will work on any 80286 CPU in any system).

To enter protected mode, the Global Descriptor Table (GDT) must first be created with a minimum of three entries: a null descriptor, a code segment descriptor and data segment descriptor. In an IBM-compatible machine, the A20 line (21st address line) also must be enabled to allow the use of all the address lines so that the CPU can access beyond 1 megabyte of memory (Only the first 20 are allowed to be used after power-up, to guarantee compatibility with older software written for the Intel 8088-based IBM PC and PC/XT models). After performing those two steps, the PE bit must be set in the CR0 register and a far jump must be made to clear the prefetch input queue.

With the release of the 386, protected mode could be exited by loading the segment registers with real mode values, disabling the A20 line and clearing the PE bit in the CR0 register, without the need to perform the initial setup steps required with the 286.

Features
Protected mode has a number of features designed to enhance an operating system's control over application software, in order to increase security and system stability. These additions allow the operating system to function in a way that would be significantly more difficult or even impossible without proper hardware support.

Privilege levels

In protected mode, there are four privilege levels or rings, numbered from 0 to 3, with ring 0 being the most privileged and 3 being the least. The use of rings allows for system software to restrict tasks from accessing data, call gates or executing privileged instructions. In most environments, the operating system and some device drivers run in ring 0 and applications run in ring 3.

Real mode application compatibility
According to the Intel 80286 Programmer's Reference Manual,

"the 80286 remains upwardly compatible with most 8086 and 80186 application programs. Most 8086 application programs can be re-compiled or re-assembled and executed on the 80286 in Protected Mode."

For the most part, the binary compatibility with real-mode code, the ability to access up to 16 MB of physical memory, and 1 GB of virtual memory, were the most apparent changes to application programmers. This was not without its limitations. If an application utilized or relied on any of the techniques below, it would not run:

 * Segment arithmetic
 * Privileged instructions
 * Direct hardware access
 * Writing to a code segment
 * Executing data
 * Overlapping segments
 * Use of BIOS functions, due to the BIOS interrupts being reserved by Intel

In reality, almost all DOS application programs violated these rules. Due to these limitations, virtual 8086 mode was introduced with the 386. Despite such potential setbacks, Windows 3.0 and its successors can take advantage of the binary compatibility with real mode to run many Windows 2.x (Windows 2.0 and Windows 2.1x) applications in protected mode, which ran in real mode in Windows 2.x.

Virtual 8086 mode
With the release of the 386, protected mode offers what the Intel manuals call virtual 8086 mode. Virtual 8086 mode is designed to allow code previously written for the 8086 to run unmodified and concurrently with other tasks, without compromising security or system stability.

Virtual 8086 mode, however, is not completely backward compatible with all programs. Programs that require segment manipulation, privileged instructions, direct hardware access, or use self-modifying code will generate an exception that must be served by the operating system. In addition, applications running in virtual 8086 mode generate a trap with the use of instructions that involve input/output (I/O), which can negatively impact performance.

Due to these limitations, some programs originally designed to run on the 8086 cannot be run in virtual 8086 mode. As a result, system software is forced to either compromise system security or backward compatibility when dealing with legacy software. An example of such a compromise can be seen with the release of Windows NT, which dropped backward compatibility for "ill-behaved" DOS applications.

Real mode
In real mode each logical address points directly into a physical memory location, every logical address consists of two 16-bit parts: The segment part of the logical address contains the base address of a segment with a granularity of 16 bytes, i.e. a segment may start at physical address 0, 16, 32, ..., 220 − 16. The offset part of the logical address contains an offset inside the segment, i.e. the physical address can be calculated as physical_address = segment_part × 16 + offset, if the address line A20 is enabled, or (segment_part × 16 + offset) mod 220, if A20 is off. Every segment has a size of 216 bytes.

Protected mode
In protected mode, the segment_part is replaced by a 16-bit selector, in which the 13 upper bits (bit 3 to bit 15) contain the index of an entry inside a descriptor table. The next bit (bit 2) specifies whether the operation is used with the GDT or the LDT. The lowest two bits (bit 1 and bit 0) of the selector are combined to define the privilege of the request, where the values of 0 and 3 represent the highest and the lowest privilege, respectively. This means that the byte offset of descriptors in the descriptor table is the same as the 16-bit selector, provided the lower three bits are zeroed.

The descriptor table entry defines the real linear address of the segment, a limit value for the segment size, and some attribute bits (flags).

286
The segment address inside the descriptor table entry has a length of 24 bits so every byte of the physical memory can be defined as bound of the segment. The limit value inside the descriptor table entry has a length of 16 bits so segment length can be between 1 byte and 216 byte. The calculated linear address equals the physical memory address.

386
The segment address inside the descriptor table entry is expanded to 32 bits so every byte of the physical memory can be defined as bound of the segment. The limit value inside the descriptor table entry is expanded to 20 bits and completed with a granularity flag (G-bit, for short):

 * If G-bit is zero limit has a granularity of 1 byte, i.e. segment size may be 1, 2, ..., 220 bytes.
 * If G-bit is one limit has a granularity of 212 bytes, i.e. segment size may be 1 × 212, 2 × 212, ..., 220 × 212 bytes. If paging is off, the calculated linear address equals the physical memory address. If paging is on, the calculated linear address is used as input of paging.

The 386 processor also uses 32 bit values for the address offset.

For maintaining compatibility with 286 protected mode a new default flag (D-bit, for short) was added. If the D-bit of a code segment is off (0) all commands inside this segment will be interpreted as 16-bit commands by default; if it is on (1), they will be interpreted as 32-bit commands.

Structure of segment descriptor entry
Where:
 * A is the Accessed bit;
 * R is the Readable bit;
 * C (Bit 42) depends on X:
 * if X = 1 then C is the Conforming bit, and determines which privilege levels can far-jump to this segment (without changing privilege level):
 * if C = 0 then only code with the same privilege level as DPL may jump here;
 * if C = 1 then code with the same or a lower privilege level relative to DPL may jump here.
 * if X = 0 then C is the direction bit:
 * if C = 0 then the segment grows up;
 * if C = 1 then the segment grows down.
 * X is the Executable bit:
 * if X = 1 then the segment is a code segment;
 * if X = 0 then the segment is a data segment.
 * S is the Segment type bit, which should generally be cleared for system segments;
 * DPL is the Descriptor Privilege Level;
 * P is the Present bit;
 * D is the Default operand size;
 * G is the Granularity bit;
 * Bit 52 of the 80386 descriptor is not used by the hardware.

Paging

In addition to adding virtual 8086 mode, the 386 also added paging to protected mode. Through paging, system software can restrict and control a task's access to pages, which are sections of memory. In many operating systems, paging is used to create an independent virtual address space for each task, preventing one task from manipulating the memory of another. Paging also allows for pages to be moved out of primary storage and onto a slower and larger secondary storage, such as a hard disk drive. This allows for more memory to be used than physically available in primary storage.

The x86 architecture allows control of pages through two arrays: page directories and page tables. Originally, a page directory was the size of one page, four kilobytes, and contained 1,024 page directory entries (PDE), although subsequent enhancements to the x86 architecture have added the ability to use larger page sizes. Each PDE contained a pointer to a page table. A page table was also originally four kilobytes in size and contained 1,024 page table entries (PTE). Each PTE contained a pointer to the actual page's physical address and are only used when the four-kilobyte pages are used. At any given time, only one page directory may be in active use.

Multitasking
Through the use of the rings, privileged call gates, and the Task State Segment (TSS), introduced with the 286, preemptive multitasking was made possible on the x86 architecture. The TSS allows general-purpose registers, segment selector fields, and stacks to all be modified without affecting those of another task. The TSS also allows a task's privilege level, and I/O port permissions to be independent of another task's.

In many operating systems, the full features of the TSS are not used. This is commonly due to portability concerns or due to the performance issues created with hardware task switches. As a result, many operating systems use both hardware and software to create a multitasking system.

Operating systems
Operating systems like OS/2 1.x try to switch the processor between protected and real modes. This is both slow and unsafe, because a real mode program can easily crash a computer. OS/2 1.x defines restrictive programming rules allowing a Family API or bound program to run in either real or protected mode. Some early Unix operating systems, OS/2 1.x, and Windows used this mode.

Windows 3.0 was able to run real mode programs in 16-bit protected mode; when switching to protected mode, it decided to preserve the single privilege level model that was used in real mode, which is why Windows applications and DLLs can hook interrupts and do direct hardware access. That lasted through the Windows 9x series. If a Windows 1.x or 2.x program is written properly and avoids segment arithmetic, it will run the same way in both real and protected modes. Windows programs generally avoid segment arithmetic because Windows implements a software virtual memory scheme, moving program code and data in memory when programs are not running, so manipulating absolute addresses is dangerous; programs should only keep handles to memory blocks when not running. Starting an old program while Windows 3.0 is running in protected mode triggers a warning dialog, suggesting to either run Windows in real mode or to obtain an updated version of the application. Updating well-behaved programs using the MARK utility with the MEMORY parameter avoids this dialog. It is not possible to have some GUI programs running in 16-bit protected mode and other GUI programs running in real mode. In Windows 3.1, real mode was no longer supported and could not be accessed.

In modern 32-bit operating systems, virtual 8086 mode is still used for running applications, e.g. DPMI compatible DOS extender programs (through virtual DOS machines) or Windows 3.x applications (through the Windows on Windows subsystem) and certain classes of device drivers (e.g. for changing the screen-resolution using BIOS functionality) in OS/2 2.0 (and later OS/2) and 32-bit Windows NT, all under control of a 32-bit kernel. However, 64-bit operating systems (which run in long mode) no longer use this, since virtual 8086 mode has been removed from long mode.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Protected mode


text:
Arxel Tribe

Arxel Tribe is a video game and multimedia company, founded by Slovene architects Matjaž Požlep and Diego Zanco in 1990.

Games
The games developed or published by Arxel Tribe include:

 * Faust (also released as Seven Games of the Soul), 1999, (Adventure game) -- (Cryo)
 * Jerusalem: The Three Roads to the Holy Land, 2002, (Adventure game, Educational) -- (Cryo)
 * The Paulo Coelho trilogy:
 * Pilgrim: Faith as a Weapon, 1997, (Adventure game) -- (Infogrames Entertainment)
 * The Legend of the Prophet and the Assassin, 2000, (Adventure game) -- AT
 * The Secrets of Alamut, 2001, (Adventure game) -- AT
 * The Ring: The Legend of the Nibelungen, 1998, (Adventure game) -- (Cryo)
 * Ring II: Twilight of the Gods, 2002, (TPS, Adventure game) -- AT
 * Casanova: The Duel of the Black Rose, 2001 (TPS, Adventure game) -- AT
 * Hannibal - the Game, 2003, (TPS, Adventure game) -- AT / (NEVER PUBLISHED)
 * Mistmare, 2003, (RPG) -- AT
 * The Gladiators: Galactic Circus Games, 2002, (TPS, Strategy) -- AT
 * Trainz, 2002, (Simulation) -- AT
 * Disciples 2, 2002, -- AT
 * Hitchcock: The Final Cut, 2001, (Adventure game) -- AT/Ubisoft
 * Louvre: The Final Curse, 2000, -- (Index+)
 * Pompei, 2000, -- (RMN)
 * Nounours / Big Teddy, 2000, -- AT
 * Adada, 2001, -- AT
 * Paddington Bear, 2001, -- (TLC)
 * Primitive Wars, 2001, -- AT
 * Dreamstreet, 2002, -- (Mindscape)

title: Arxel Tribe


text:
Men in Black (1997 film)

Men in Black is a 1997 American science fiction action comedy film starring Tommy Lee Jones and Will Smith as "men in black"—government agents who monitor and police extraterrestrials. The film is directed by Barry Sonnenfeld based on a script by Ed Solomon that adapts the comic book series The Men in Black by Lowell Cunningham. In the film, Agent K (Jones) and Agent J (Smith) investigate a series of seemingly unrelated criminal incidents related to the extraterrestrials who live in secret on Earth. Linda Fiorentino, Vincent D'Onofrio, and Rip Torn also appear in supporting roles.

Development for the film began in 1992, after producers Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald optioned the rights to the comic book series. Solomon was soon hired to write the screenplay; Sonnenfeld was the preferred directorial choice, which resulted in delays due to his commitments to other film projects and failure to secure any alternative directors. Principal photography began in March 1996 and lasted until that June, with filming primarily taking place in New York City. The film's visual effects were helmed by Industrial Light & Magic. The film's soundtrack contains the theme song of the same name, performed by Smith, as well as the score, composed by Danny Elfman.

Men in Black premiered at Pacific's Cinerama Dome in Hollywood on June 25, 1997, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 2. It received critical acclaim for its screenplay, action sequences, and the performances and chemistry between Jones and Smith. The film grossed over $589.4 million worldwide, becoming the third-highest-grossing film of 1997 and the ninth-highest-grossing film of the decade. It won for Best Makeup and was also nominated for Best Art Direction and Best Original Score at the 70th Academy Awards, among numerous other accolades. A sequel was released in 2002, a third film was released in 2012, and a stand-alone spin-off was released in 2019, with Jones and Smith absent.

Plot
At the Mexico–United States border, two men in black suits, Agent K and Agent D, interrupt a border patrol sting. They take one of the men attempting to cross the border, who is an extraterrestrial in disguise named Mikey. When he tries to attack one of the patrol officers, K is forced to shoot him and erase the memories of everyone in the group, creating a cover story of an explosion in an underground gas pipeline. Deciding that he is too old to continue working, D chooses to retire and has K erase his memory.

NYPD officer James Darrell Edwards III catches an unnaturally agile fleeing criminal and sees his eyes blink unusually before he leaps from the roof of the Guggenheim Museum. During his interrogation, K arrives and scouts James as a potential new agent, impressed by his ability to chase down an alien. K explains to James that their organization, the Men in Black, was founded after first contact was made with aliens in 1961; at this time Earth was established as a politically neutral zone for alien refugees.

The MIB is a secret organization that monitors and polices these aliens and uses neuralyzers to erase the memories of anyone who witnesses alien activities. James agrees to join, taking a new identity as Agent J, and his civilian identity is erased from government records.

Meanwhile, an alien crash-lands in upstate New York, kills a farmer named Edgar, and begins wearing his skin as a disguise. J and K investigate the crash site and discover this alien is a "Bug", an extremely dangerous, cockroach-like species. The Bug kills two disguised aliens, who are sent to a city morgue overseen by coroner Laurel Weaver. J and K inspect the bodies, and J and Laurel accidentally opens the head of one, revealing a small, injured alien in a control cockpit. The alien tells them "To prevent war, the galaxy is on Orion's belt", before dying.

K neuralyzes Laurel and tells J that the alien was Rosenberg, a member of the Arquillian royal family. They question an informant, Frank the Pug, who explains that Rosenberg was the guardian of a miniature galaxy that is a precious source of sub-atomic energy; the Bug killed Rosenberg to acquire it so the Bugs may destroy the Arquillians. Frank also tells them that the galaxy is on Earth. An Arquillian warship enters Earth's orbit, issuing an ultimatum to MIB to give them the galaxy.

J deduces the galaxy is in a jewel on the collar of Rosenberg's cat, Orion, which is in Laurel's care. The Bug reaches the same conclusion and arrives at the morgue first; it seizes and swallows the galaxy and flees with Laurel. The Arquillians, who are willing to destroy the galaxy rather than let the Bugs have it, warn MIB that they will destroy Earth in one hour unless the galaxy is returned.

With all other transports locked down, J realizes the Bug's only escape is the observation towers of the New York State Pavilion at Flushing Meadows, which was built for the 1964 New York World's Fair to disguise two real flying saucers. The Bug attempts to take off, but J and K shoot down the ship, and the Bug sheds Edgar's skin to reveal its true, much larger form. It swallows J and K's guns, and K goads it to swallow him as well. The Bug begins to board the second ship, but J steps on cockroaches from a dumpster to antagonize it, stalling it until K finds his gun in its stomach and shoots it from inside. The Bug is blown in half but attacks the two again, until Laurel destroys it with J's gun.

After recovering the galaxy from the Bug's remains, K admits to J that he is ready to retire from MIB and has been training J as a replacement. After bidding each other farewell, J neuralyzes K, creating a cover story that he was in a coma for 35 years. Laurel joins MIB as J's new partner, Agent L.

In the closing scene, perspective pulls back across billions of light years, revealing our Milky Way galaxy to be contained within a marble that an alien is using to play a game.

Cast

 * Tommy Lee Jones as Kevin Brown / Agent K: J's grizzled and humorless mentor. The studio wanted Clint Eastwood for the part, while Jones only accepted the role after Steven Spielberg promised the script would improve, based on his respect for Spielberg's track record. He had been disappointed with the first draft, which he reportedly said "stank", feeling it did not capture the tone of the comic.
 * Will Smith as James Darrell Edwards III / Agent J: A former NYPD detective, newly recruited to the MIB. Smith was cast because Barry Sonnenfeld's wife was a fan of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. Sonnenfeld also liked his performance in Six Degrees of Separation. The studio preferred Chris O'Donnell for the role, fresh off his portrayal of Dick Grayson, whom he played in Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, and Spielberg told Sonnenfeld to take him to dinner to convince him to do it. However, Sonnenfeld got him to not accept the role by saying that he was not a good director and that the script was one O'Donnell should skip.  David Schwimmer also turned down the part. Like Jones, Smith said he accepted the role after meeting with Spielberg and cited his success as a producer.
 * Linda Fiorentino as Dr. Laurel Weaver / Agent L: A deputy medical examiner, and later J's partner.
 * Vincent D'Onofrio as Edgar / The Bug: A farmer who is killed and eaten by a giant alien insect, which then wears his skin in order to search for the Galaxy and incite a war from the Arquillians. John Turturro and Bruce Campbell were both offered the role, but they turned it down due to scheduling conflicts.
 * Rip Torn as Chief Zed: The head of the MIB.
 * Tony Shalhoub as Jack Jeebs: An alien arms dealer who runs a pawn shop as a front.
 * Siobhan Fallon Hogan as Beatrice: Edgar's abused wife.
 * Mike Nussbaum as Gentle Rosenberg: An Arquillian royal family member, posing as a jeweler, who is the guardian of "the Galaxy".
 * Jon Gries as Nick the van driver: the American smuggler who unknowingly carries a literal alien among his posse.
 * Sergio Calderón as Jose
 * John Alexander as Mikey: An alien who poses as a Mexican being smuggled across the border.
 * Patrick Breen as Mr. Redgick
 * Becky Ann Baker as Mrs. Redgick
 * Carel Struycken as Arquillian
 * Fredric Lehne as Agent Janus
 * Kent Faulcon as 2nd Lieutenant Jake Jensen
 * Richard Hamilton as Agent D: K's former partner who retires after deciding he is too old for the job.
 * David Cross as Newton, Morgue Attendant
 * Sean Whalen as Passport Officer
 * Verne Troyer as the Alien son
 * Harsh Nayyar as News Vendor

Voices/Puppeteers

 * Tim Blaney as Frank the Pug: A smart-talking pug-like alien.
 * Mark Setrakian as Rosenberg Alien
 * Brad Abrell, Thom Fountain, Carl J. Johnson, and Drew Massey as the Worm Guys: A quartet of worm-like aliens that work for Men in Black.

Development
The film is loosely based on Lowell Cunningham and Sandy Carruthers's comic book The Men in Black. Producers Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald optioned the rights to The Men in Black in 1992, and hired Ed Solomon to write a very faithful script. Parkes and MacDonald wanted Barry Sonnenfeld as director because he had helmed the darkly humorous The Addams Family and its sequel Addams Family Values. However, Sonnenfeld was attached to Get Shorty (1995), so they instead approached Les Mayfield (best known for his remake of Miracle on 34th Street). Mayfield was briefly attached before it fell through. John Landis and Quentin Tarantino were asked to direct but each declined. As a result, Men in Black was delayed, allowing Sonnenfeld to make it his next project after Get Shorty.

Much of the initial script drafts were set underground, with locations ranging from Kansas to Washington, D.C., and Nevada. Sonnenfeld decided to change the location to New York City, because the director felt New Yorkers would be tolerant of aliens who behaved oddly while disguised, terming the movie as "The French Connection with aliens". He also felt much of the city's structures resembled flying saucers and rocket ships. One of the locations Sonnenfeld thought perfect for the movie was a giant ventilation structure for the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, which became the outside of the MIB headquarters.

Filming
Principal photography began in March 1996. Many last-minute changes ensued during production. First, the scene where James Edwards was chasing a disguised alien was to be filmed at Lincoln Center, but the New York Philharmonic decided to charge the filmmakers for using their buildings, prompting Sonnenfeld to film the scene at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum instead. Then, five months into the shoot, Sonnenfeld decided that the original ending, with a humorous existential debate between Agent J and the Bug, was unexciting and lacking the action that the rest of the film had. Five potential replacements were discussed. One of these had Laurel Weaver being neuralyzed and K remaining an agent. Eventually it boiled down to the Bug eating K and fighting J, replacing the animatronic Bug Rick Baker's crew had developed with a computer-generated Bug with an appearance closer to a cockroach. The whole action sequence cost an extra $4.5 million to the filmmakers.

Further changes were made during post-production to simplify the plotline involving the possession of the tiny galaxy. The Arquillians would hand over the galaxy to the Baltians, ending a long war. The Bugs need to feed on the casualties and steal the galaxy in order to continue the war. Through changing of subtitles, the images on M.I.B.'s main computer and Frank the Pug's dialogue, the Baltians were eliminated from the plot. Earth goes from being potentially destroyed in the crossfire between the two races into being possibly destroyed by the Arquillians themselves to prevent the Bugs from getting the galaxy. These changes to the plot were carried out when only two weeks remained in the film's post-production, but the film's novelization still contains the Baltians.

Design and visual effects
Production designer Bo Welch designed the MIB headquarters with a 1960s tone in mind, because that was when their organization was formed. He cited influences from Finnish architect Eero Saarinen, who designed a terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport. As the arrival point of aliens on Earth, Welch felt the headquarters had to resemble an airport.

Rick Baker was approached to provide the prosthetic and animatronic aliens, many of whom would have more otherworldly designs instead of looking humanoid. For example, the reveal of Gentle Rosenberg's Arquillian nature went from a man with a light under his neck's skin to a small alien hidden inside a human head. Baker would describe Men in Black as the most complex production in his career, "requiring more sketches than all my previous movies together". Baker had to have approval from both Sonnenfeld and Spielberg: "It was like, 'Steven likes the head on this one and Barry really likes the body on this one, so why don't you do a mix and match?' And I'd say, because it wouldn't make any sense." Sonnenfeld also changed a lot of the film's aesthetic during pre-production: "I started out saying aliens shouldn't be what humans perceive them to be. Why do they need eyes? So Rick did these great designs, and I'd say, 'That's great — but how do we know where he's looking?' I ended up where everyone else did, only I took three months." The maquettes built by Baker's team were later digitized by Industrial Light & Magic, which was responsible for the visual effects and computer-generated imagery, for more mobile digital versions of the aliens.

Music
Two different soundtracks for the film were released: a score soundtrack featuring music composed by Danny Elfman and an album of songs used in and inspired by the film, featuring Will Smith's original song "Men in Black" based on the film's plot.

Elfman's music was called "rousing" by the Los Angeles Times. Variety called the film a technical marvel, giving special credit to "Elfman's always lively score." Elfman was nominated for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score at the 70th Academy Awards for his score, but lost to The Full Monty.

Elfman recalled in 2017 how he was chosen to compose the soundtrack as "strange." He was on the set of The Frighteners with Peter Jackson when D'Onofrio, who was shooting Men In Black on the other set, walked in and invited both men to watch him perform the final scene. Then on the way home, Elfman got a call from his agent saying that he was hired to compose the soundtrack, even though there was no discussion about it prior.

Elvis Presley's song "Promised Land" is featured in the scene where the MIB's car runs on the ceiling of Queens–Midtown Tunnel.

Marketing
In advance of the film's theatrical release, its marketing campaign included more than 30 licensees. Galoob was the first to license, in which they released various action figures of the film's characters and aliens. Ray-Ban also partnered the film with a $5–10 million television campaign. Other promotional items included Hamilton Watches and Procter & Gamble's Head & Shoulders with the tagline "Keeping the Men in Black in black".

An official comic adaptation was released by Marvel Comics. The film also received a third-person shooter Men in Black game developed by Gigawatt Studios and published by Gremlin Interactive, which was released to lackluster reviews in October 1997 for the PC and the following year for the PlayStation. Also, a very rare promotional PlayStation video game system was released in 1997 with the Men in Black logo on the CD lid. Three months after the film's release, an animated series based on Men in Black, produced by Columbia TriStar Television alongside Adelaide Productions and Amblin Television, began airing on The WB's Kids' WB programming block, and also inspired several games. A Men in Black role-playing game was also released in 1997 by West End Games.

Home media
Men in Black was first released on VHS and LaserDisc on November 25, 1997. The home video release was attached to a rebate offer on a pair of Ray-Ban Predator-model sunglasses. The film was re-released in a collector's series on VHS and DVD on September 5, 2000, with the DVD containing several bonus features including an interactive editing workshop for three different scenes from the film, extended storyboards, conceptual art, and a visual commentary track with Tommy Lee Jones and director Barry Sonnenfeld; an alternate two-disc Deluxe Edition was released in 2002, adding a fullscreen version and a preview for Men In Black II. A Blu-ray edition was released on June 17, 2008. The entire Men in Black trilogy was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on December 5, 2017, in conjunction with the film's 20th anniversary.

Box office
Men in Black earned $4.8 million from Tuesday night previews and went on to gross $14 million on its opening day, bringing the total gross to $18.8 million. During its opening weekend, it generated $51.1 million, making it the third-highest opening weekend of all time, behind Batman Forever and The Lost World: Jurassic Park. The film then grossed $84.1 million during its five-day Wednesday opening. It surpassed Independence Day for having three records. These were the biggest three-day Fourth of July opening weekend, the largest July opening weekend and the highest opening weekend for a non-sequel film. The film would hold the latter two records for three years until 2000 when X-Men took them. Two years later, its successor Men in Black II broke the record for having the highest three-day Fourth of July opening weekend. Moreover, Men in Black held the record for having the highest opening weekend for an action-packed comedy film until Rush Hour 2 surpassed it in 2001. It would remain in the number one spot at the box office for three weeks until it was beaten by Air Force One. The film also competed against Hercules and Batman & Robin during its theatrical run.

Men in Black grossed $250.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $338.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $589.3 million. It would hold the record for being the highest-grossing Sony film until it was surpassed by Spider-Man five years later in 2002. The film grossed a record $10.7 million in its opening weekend in Germany, beating the record held by Independence Day.

Despite its grosses, writer Ed Solomon has said that Sony claims the film has never turned a profit, which is attributed to Hollywood accounting.

Critical response
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Men in Black holds an approval rating of 91% based on 93 reviews, and an average score of 7.50/10. The site's critical consensus reads "Thanks to a smart script, spectacular set pieces, and charismatic performances from its leads, Men in Black is an entirely satisfying summer blockbuster hit." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, praising the film as "a smart, funny and hip adventure film in a summer of car wrecks and explosions." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, giving particular praise to the film's self-reflective humor and Rick Baker's alien creature designs. Janet Maslin, reviewing for The New York Times, wrote the film "is actually a shade more deadpan and peculiar than such across-the-board marketing makes it sound. It's also extraordinarily ambitious, with all-star design and special-effects talent and a genuinely artful visual style. As with his Addams Family films and Get Shorty, which were more overtly funny than the sneakily subtle Men in Black, Mr. Sonnenfeld takes offbeat genre material and makes it boldly mainstream."

Writing for Variety, Todd McCarthy acknowledged the film was "witty and sometimes surreal sci-fi comedy" in which he praised the visual effects, Baker's creature designs and Elfman's musical score. However, he felt the film "doesn't manage to sustain this level of inventiveness, delight and surprise throughout the remaining two-thirds of the picture." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly graded the film a C+, writing "Men in Black celebrates the triumph of attitude over everything else – plausibility, passion, any sense that what we're watching actually matters. The aliens, for all their slimy visual zest, aren't particularly scary or funny (they aren't allowed to become characters), and so the joke of watching Smith and Jones crack wise in their faces quickly wears thin."

John Hartl of The Seattle Times, claimed the film "is moderately amusing, well-constructed and mercifully short, but it fails to deliver on the zaniness of its first half." While he was complimentary of the film's first half, he concluded "somewhere around the midpoint they run out of energy and invention. Even the aliens, once they stop their shape-shifting ways and settle down to appear as themselves, begin to look familiar."

Accolades
Men in Black won Best Makeup at the 70th Academy Awards and was also nominated for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score and Best Art Direction, losing the latter two to The Full Monty and Titanic, respectively. The film was also nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy at the 55th Golden Globe Awards, losing to As Good as It Gets.

On Empire magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, "Men in Black" placed 409th. Following the film's release, Ray-Ban stated sales of their Predator 2 sunglasses (worn by the organization to deflect neuralyzers) tripled to $5 million.

Year-end lists
American Film Institute Lists
 * AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs - Nominated
 * AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:
 * Agent J & Agent K - Nominated Heroes
 * AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
 * "Men in Black" - Nominated
 * AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
 * "You know the difference between you and me? I make this look good." - Nominated
 * AFI's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Science Fiction Film

title: Men in Black (1997 film)


text:
Talk:Duke Kahanamoku

The name "Duke"
"Duke Kahanamoku has big private part The name "Duke" is not a title; his father was named "Duke" in honor of the Duke of Edinburgh, who was visiting Hawaii at the time of the elder man's birth in 1865dddddddddddd."

Clearly, it was not the present Duke of Edinburgh (to whom there is a link!). Who held that title in 1865? Or is it a mere mist S.

 * Good catch, thank you! I hadn't followed the attendant link.  I'll dig up info on who was Duke of Edinburgh in 1865 and fix it.  Hephaestos

Do we even need that mentioned? Is there really confusion out there that Duke was a title? I can't imagine someone assuming that. Surfbruddah (talk) 17:15, 7 January 2010 (UTC)
 * People were confused. Some people thought he was Hawaiian royalty and that duke was his title.--KAVEBEAR (talk) 18:19, 26 July 2011 (UTC)
 * There was a definite confusion. One that continues to this day. Check Rare Footage of Duke in the 1912 Stockholm Olympiad

Seems there should be some mention of the continuing popularity of the name "Duke" in Hawai'i ... --FOo 23:05, 6 October 2007 (UTC) —————————————— — Preceding unsigned comment added by 115.117.11.140 (talk) 04:23, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

Yards or meters?
You talk about "yards" for the swimming distance, Duke Kahanamoku is stupid but at the olympics, the yards are not used. meter only... Clio64B 84.99.239.95 14:15, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

I have changed the distances to meters, as used in the Olympics. Centuriono 21:34, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

Kahuna
should there be a link to kahuna somewhere, as i at least didnt know what kahuna actually meant till i looked it up!

 * I checked with Duke's biographer, Sandra Hall, and she confirms that he was not called the Big Kahuna. As a Hawaiian aware of his cultural heritage, he would have been dismayed to be called that. That term came into use as a result of the movies. The article needs to be corrected. Makana Chai 01:03, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I eliminated the term "big kahuna" because I can find no evidence he was called that, also omitted the claim that he was the "inventor" of modern surfing - he popularized it Makana Chai 08:05, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

only in Hawaii?
"the sport of surfing, previously known only in Hawaii" here vs. "The art of surfing was first observed by Europeans in 1767, by the crewmembers of the Dolphin at Tahiti" for the Wik entry on the history of surfing. Is one wrong, or is there a subtle difference between "sport" and "art"? Kdammers (talk) 06:53, 19 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I believe that what they observed in Tahiti was belly boarding, whereas in Hawaii they saw surfers standing up on longer boards. Sorry I can't give you a cite for it. As I recall there was quite a bit of astonishment at Hawaiian surfing from people who had been in Tahiti, William Ellis for sure, though obviously he was later (1823), and I believe Captain James King, with Cook, also commented enthusiastically, indicating he hadn't seen anything like it in all his voyages in the South Pacific. Makana Chai (talk) 07:52, 19 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Check this out, the Encyclopedia of Surfing states Cook observed canoe surfing in Tahiti and that stand-up surfing is Hawaiian Makana Chai (talk) 06:52, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

Replacement of Deleted Image Above
On the Waikiki page is an image of the statue of Duke at Waikiki Beach. If this picture is freely licensed, it should be inserted here into the Duke Kahanamoku article.Weyandt (talk) 15:31, 10 Apr 2014 (UTC)

Paoa-Piikoi-Kahanamoku
Joe Brennan calls his family the "Paoa-Piikoi-Kahanamoku" family, but who are the Piikoi's? Are they related to Jonah Piikoi and David Piikoi? His brother was named David Piikoi Kahanamoku. Apparently there was an uncle who was named David Piikoi.--KAVEBEAR (talk) 07:25, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

There seems to be some significance in the "Paoa family" as a notable family during the kingdom.--KAVEBEAR (talk) 07:47, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

Royal Birth?
What does that mean? I changed that because the subject is related to the Royal family but not directly as the article actually states.--Mark Miller (talk) 01:11, 14 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Kahanamoku was neither of royal birth or of the Hawaiian Royal Family. He was a citizen of the Kingdom of Hawaii (until annexation occurred) born to parents who had ancestors who were chiefs. So either edit conveys the fact. --KAVEBEAR (talk) 01:20, 14 June 2015 (UTC)
 * That was kinda of my thought but, the Wiki link made it a little clearer. At least I hope so. Royal birth is a matter of perspective. In many ways, Hawaiians do see his genealogy as truly royal.--Mark Miller (talk) 02:12, 14 June 2015 (UTC)

Improve phrasing in first paragraph
"American of ethnic Hawaiian background competition swimmer" seems like it could be worded much more succinctly as: "ethnic Hawaiian American competitive swimmer"

"competition swimmer" isn't grammatically correct 184.99.147.110 (talk) 05:04, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Is he notable because of his 'Hawaiian background'? If he's notable because of his achievements as a swimmer, his 'Hawaiian background' should not be mentioned in the opening paragraph at all as per WP:OPENPARA: 'Ethnicity or sexuality should not generally be emphasized in the opening unless it is relevant to the subject's notability. Similarly, previous nationalities or the country of birth should not be mentioned in the opening sentence unless they are relevant to the subject's notability.' 5.104.184.62 (talk) 12:08, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 August 2015
ASDF — Preceding unsigned comment added by 112.196.1.19 (talk) 10:06, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 August 2015
Put my name in it.

173.242.79.120 (talk) 16:01, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Why? And what's your name; be an editor. -- AstroU (talk) 16:45, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

More importantly, you have not cited reliable sources to back up your request, without which no information should be added to, or changed in, any article. - Arjayay (talk) 18:01, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: as you have not requested a specific change in the form "Please replace XXX with YYY" or "Please add ZZZ between PPP and QQQ".

Google-doodle
Great article here. Made the Google-search main page, Google-Doodle today. FYI -- AstroU (talk) 16:47, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

Statue?
There is a statue of an early surfing legend at Waikiki Beach as I remember from visits there in the mid-1990's; isn't the statue of Duke? Shocking Blue (talk) 20:41, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
 * I believe so. I believe there are several statues.--Mark Miller (talk) 00:05, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Duke Kahanamoku. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20140719090809/http://books.google.com/books?id=BfTR8QtYHj8C to http://books.google.com/books?id=BfTR8QtYHj8C

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 09:08, 10 March 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 one external links on Duke Kahanamoku. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090207184520/http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com:80/duke6.html to http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com/duke6.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.usps.com/news/2002/philatelic/sr02_048.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20151230105307/http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com:80/duke.html to http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com/duke.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101224154408/http://hawaii.aloha-hawaii.com/hawaii/duke+kahanamoku/ to http://hawaii.aloha-hawaii.com/hawaii/duke+kahanamoku

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 14:04, 17 December 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Duke Kahanamoku. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110928063018/http://www.calodges.org/ncrl/duke-k.html to http://www.calodges.org/ncrl/duke-k.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com/duke6.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20121018044422/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ka/duke-kahanamoku-1.html to http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ka/duke-kahanamoku-1.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:13, 14 September 2017 (UTC)

Rudjrjrurhfjgjtjtj ittttttt
Uujjjjjnnnnnnnnnnnnnj 2600:1700:84A3:1300:C540:85E7:27AB:5131 (talk) 22:39, 11 February 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:50, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Flag of Australasian team for Olympic games.svg

To add to article
To add to this article: an English-language Hawaiian song about Duke Kahanamoku was composed by Sol Hoʻopiʻi. 173.88.246.138 (talk) 23:23, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

Sorry, that song appears actually to have been composed by Sol K. Bright Sr.. 173.88.246.138 (talk) 23:33, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

May 2022 documentary
A documentary about Duke Kahanamoku, which premiered on PBS in the United States on May 10, 2022: https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/waterman-duke-ambassador-of-aloha-stream-documentary/21022/

173.88.246.138 (talk) 23:24, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

Project Asian American pacific islander month
Project 2603:7000:CA03:BD81:4969:274B:D326:995F (talk) 00:51, 6 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Duke Kahanamoku


text:
Geinoh Yamashirogumi

Geinoh Yamashirogumi (芸能山城組) is a Japanese musical collective founded on January 19, 1974 by Tsutomu Ōhashi, consisting of hundreds of people with different occupations.

They are known for both their re-creations of globally-known folk music, along with music combining traditional and modern elements. Some fusions include an electronic recreation of traditional Indonesian gamelan music, due to MIDI digital synthesizers not being able to handle such tuning systems. Their 1986 album, Ecophony Rinne, introduced these computer-generated sounds. The success of this album brought them to the attention of Katsuhiro Ōtomo, who commissioned them to create the soundtrack of Akira. The soundtrack is built on the concept of recurrent themes or "modules". The soundtrack is a mix of digital synthesizers (Roland D-50 and Yamaha DX7-II, both of which could, by then, be tuned to the Pure-Minor, slendro, and pelog tuning scales), Indonesian bamboo percussion (jegog, etc.), traditional Japanese theatrical and spiritual music (Noh), European classical, and progressive rock.

The group's name uses Ōhashi's pseudonym, Shoji Yamashiro, and translates roughly to "Yamashiro Performing Arts Collective". Ōhashi took his inspiration from a postwar 1950s group of similar characters that lived as a commune.

Studio albums

 * Osorezan / Do No Kenbai (1976)
 * Chi no Hibiki: Geinoh Yamashirogumi Tō-Yōroppa wo Utau (Echo of the Earth) (1976)
 * Yamato Gensho (1977)
 * Ougonrin Sanyo (Exultant Pisces in Cantics Nostris) (1978)
 * Shonentachi Eno Chikyu Sanka (In Praise Of Earth‚ To Boys) (1979)
 * Selections From Folk Music On Silkroad (1981)
 * Selections From African Folk Music (1982)
 * Ecophony Rinne (Samsara Ecophony) (1986)
 * Ecophony Gaia (1990)

Soundtracks

 * Akira: Original Soundtrack (1988)

Live albums

 * Geinoh Yamashirogumi Live (1978)

Videos

 * Akira Sound Clip (1991) Laserdisc/DVD Reissue (Making of the soundtrack of the anime)

Compilations

 * Nyumon (1994)

title: Geinoh Yamashirogumi


text:
Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Alfred (Alfred Ernest Albert; 6 August 1844 – 30 July 1900) was sovereign Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 1893 to 1900. He was the second son and fourth child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. He was known as the Duke of Edinburgh from 1866 until he succeeded his paternal uncle Ernest II as the reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in the German Empire.

Early life
Prince Alfred was born on 6 August 1844 at Windsor Castle to the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria, and her husband, Prince Albert, the second son of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Nicknamed Affie, he was second in the line of succession to the British throne behind his elder brother, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.

Alfred was baptised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley, at the Private Chapel in Windsor Castle on 6 September 1844. His godparents were his mother's first cousin, Prince George of Cambridge (represented by his father, the Duke of Cambridge); his paternal aunt, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (represented by Alfred's maternal grandmother, the Duchess of Kent); and his maternal uncle, the Prince of Leiningen (represented by the Duke of Wellington, Conservative Leader in the Lords).

Alfred remained second in line to the British throne from his birth until January 1864, when his older brother Albert Edward and sister-in-law Alexandra had their first child, Prince Albert Victor. Alfred became third in line to the throne and, as Albert Edward and Alexandra continued to have children, Alfred was further demoted in the order of succession.

Entering the Royal Navy
In 1856, when he reached age 12, it was decided that Prince Alfred, in accordance with his own wishes, should enter the Royal Navy. A separate establishment was assigned to him, with Lieutenant J.C. Cowell, RE, as governor. He passed a special entrance examination in July 1858, and was appointed as a naval cadet in HMS Euryalus (1853) at the age of 14.

In July 1860, while on this ship, he paid an official visit to the Cape Colony, and made a very favourable impression both on the colonials and on the native chiefs. He took part in a hunt at Hartebeeste-Hoek, resulting in the slaughter of large numbers of game animals.

On the abdication of King Otto of Greece, in 1862, Prince Alfred was chosen to succeed him, but the British government blocked plans for him to ascend the Greek throne, largely because of the Queen's opposition to the idea. She and her late husband had made plans for him to succeed to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg.

Prince Alfred remained in the navy, and was promoted to lieutenant on 24 February 1863, serving under his half-cousin Count Gleichen on the corvette HMS Racoon (1857). Gleichen's son recalled his father as saying that "the Prince, although shaping well as a sailor, was of a somewhat wayward disposition at that period, and his high spirits more than once led him into minor troubles with the authorities." He was promoted to captain on 23 February 1866 and was appointed to the command of the frigate HMS Galatea (1859) in January 1867. Lord Charles Beresford described him as having "a great natural ability for handling a fleet" and noted that he "would have made a first-class fighting admiral."

Duke of Edinburgh
In the Queen's Birthday Honours on 24 May 1866, the Prince was created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Ulster, and Earl of Kent with an annuity of £15,000 granted by Parliament. He took his seat in the House of Lords on 8 June.

While still in command of the Galatea, the Duke of Edinburgh started from Plymouth on 24 January 1867 for his voyage around the world. On 7 June 1867, he left Gibraltar, reached the Cape of Good Hope on 24 July, on 5 August 1867 the island of Tristan da Cunha, and paid a royal visit to Cape Town on 24 August 1867 after landing at Simon's Town a while earlier. He landed at Glenelg, South Australia, on 31 October 1867.

Being the first member of the royal family to visit Australia, he was received with great enthusiasm. During his stay of nearly five months he visited Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Tasmania. Several institutions, including Prince Alfred College, The Alfred Hospital, and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital were named in his honour.

On 12 March 1868, on his second visit to Sydney, he was invited by Sir William Manning, President of the Sydney Sailors' Home, to picnic at the beachfront suburb of Clontarf to raise funds for the home. At the function, he was wounded in the back by a revolver fired by Henry James O'Farrell. The shot, fired at point-blank range, ricocheted off one of the metal clips on Alfred's trouser braces, narrowly missing his spine. He was tended to for the next two weeks by six nurses, trained by Florence Nightingale and led by Matron Lucy Osburn, who had just arrived in Australia in February 1868.

In the violent struggle during which Alfred was shot, William Vial had managed to wrest the gun away from O'Farrell until bystanders assisted. Vial, a master of a Masonic Lodge, had helped to organise the picnic in honour of the Duke's visit and was presented with a gold watch for securing Alfred's life. Another bystander, George Thorne, was wounded in the foot by O'Farrell's second shot. O'Farrell was arrested at the scene, quickly tried, convicted and hanged on 21 April 1868.

On the evening of 23 March 1868, the most influential people of Sydney voted for a memorial building to be erected, "to raise a permanent and substantial monument in testimony of the heartfelt gratitude of the community at the recovery of HRH". This led to a public subscription which paid for the construction of Royal Prince Alfred Hospital.

Alfred soon recovered from his injury and was able to resume command of his ship and return home in early April 1868. He reached Spithead on 26 June 1868, after an absence of seventeen months.

He visited Hawaii in 1869 and spent time with the royal family there, where he was presented with leis upon his arrival. He was also the first member of the royal family to visit New Zealand, arriving in 1869 on HMS Galatea (1859), where he spent a month living in Pakuranga. He also became the first European prince to visit Japan and on 4 September 1869, he was received at an audience by the teenaged Emperor Meiji in Tokyo.

The Duke's next voyage was to India, where he arrived in December 1869, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), which he visited the following year. In both countries and at Hong Kong, which he visited on the way, he was the first British prince to set foot in the country. The native rulers of India vied with one another in the magnificence of their entertainments during the stay of three months. In Ceylon a reception was given for him, by the request of the British, by Charles Henry de Soysa, the richest man in Ceylon, at his private residence which was consequently renamed, by permission, Alfred House. Alfred reportedly ate off gold plates with gold cutlery inlaid with jewels.

Potential matches
In 1862, Queen Victoria wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal that she wanted Alfred to marry Princess Dagmar of Denmark. She wrote: "I hear that the Emperor of Russia has not given up his intention of asking for Alix or Dagmar for his son. I should be very sorry if any thing were decided for Dagmar before you had seen her, as it would be one chance less for Affie." However, she decided against the match because of Germany's anger towards Denmark over the disputed territories of Schleswig-Holstein, especially since Alfred was the heir to Coburg. She wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal: "Respecting Dagmar, I do not wish her to be kept for Affie. Let the Emperor have her."

Dagmar was initially engaged to Tsarevich Nicholas; however, he died on 22 April 1865 in the presence of his parents, brothers, and Dagmar. His last wish was that Dagmar would marry his younger brother, the future Alexander III. Alexander and Dagmar did marry; therefore, she became Empress of Russia.

Queen Victoria considered Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia as a potential wife for Alfred. She wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal, "It is a great pity that Sanny's charming daughter is a Greek [Orthodox]– she would do so well". In 1867, Queen Victoria told Victoria, Princess Royal that "I had thought and hoped at one time for dear little Olga, who is now to marry King George".

Marriage
During a visit to his sister Princess Alice, in August 1868 he met Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, then fourteen years old. Princess Alice was married to Maria Alexandrovna's first cousin. The Grand Duchess was visiting her maternal relatives, the Princes of Battenberg, at Jugenheim.

On 23 January 1874, the Duke of Edinburgh married the Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the second (and only surviving) daughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia and his first wife Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine, daughter of Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Wilhelmine of Baden, at the Winter Palace, St Petersburg. To commemorate the occasion, the English bakery Peek Freans made the now internationally popular Marie biscuit, with the Duchess' name imprinted on its top.

The Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh made their public entry into London on 12 March. The marriage, however, was not a happy one, and the bride was thought haughty by London Society. She was surprised to discover that she had to yield precedence to the Princess of Wales and all of Queen Victoria's daughters and demanded that she take precedence before the Princess of Wales (the future Queen Alexandra) because she considered the Princess of Wales's family (the Danish royal family) to be inferior to her own. Queen Victoria refused this demand, yet granted her precedence immediately after the Princess of Wales. Her father gave her the then-staggering sum of £100,000 as a dowry, plus an annual allowance of £32,000.

Flag rank
Alfred was stationed in Malta for several years and his third child, Victoria Melita, was born there in 1876. Alfred's last command prior to promotion to flag rank would be as captain of HMS Black Prince (1861) in 1878, when he represented the Crown during the installation of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, as Governor General of Canada. Alfred was subsequently promoted rear-admiral upon his return to London and relief on 30 December 1878, becoming admiral superintendent of naval reserves, raising his flag aboard the corvette HMS Penelope (1867) in November 1879. Promoted to vice-admiral on 10 November 1882, he was given command of the Channel Squadron, with his flag aboard the armoured ship HMS Minotaur (1863), in December 1883. He became Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet, with his flag aboard the armoured ship HMS Alexandra (1875), in March 1886, and having been promoted to admiral on 18 October 1887, he went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth in August 1890. He was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 3 June 1893.

Percy Scott wrote in his memoirs that "as a Commander-in-Chief, the Duke of Edinburgh had, in my humble opinion, no equal. He handled a fleet magnificently, and introduced many improvement in signals and manoeuvring." He "took a great interest in gunnery." "The prettiest ship I have ever seen was the [Duke of Edinburgh's flagship] HMS Alexandra. I was informed that £2,000 had been spent by the officers on her decoration."

Alfred was very fond of music and took a prominent part in establishing the Royal College of Music, created in 1882. He was a keen violinist, but had little skill. At a dinner party given by one of his brothers, he was persuaded to play. Sir Henry Ponsonby wrote: 'Fiddle out of tune and noise abominable.'

Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
On the death of his uncle, Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, on 22 August 1893, the duchy fell to the Duke of Edinburgh since his elder brother, the Prince of Wales, had renounced his right to the succession before he married. Alfred thereupon surrendered his British allowance of £15,000 a year and his seats in the House of Lords and the Privy Council, but he retained the £10,000 granted on his marriage to maintain Clarence House as his London residence. At first regarded with some coldness in the Duchy as a "foreigner", he gradually gained popularity. By the time of his death in 1900, he had generally won the good opinion of his subjects.

Alfred and Maria's only son, Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, became involved in a scandal involving his mistress and apparently shot himself in January 1899, in the midst of his parents' twenty-fifth wedding anniversary celebrations at the Schloss Friedenstein in Gotha. He survived, and his embarrassed mother sent him off to Meran to recover. However, he died there two weeks later, on 6 February. His father was devastated.

Death
Alfred died of throat cancer on 30 July 1900 in a lodge adjacent to Schloss Rosenau, the ducal summer residence just north of Coburg. He was buried at the ducal family's mausoleum in the  in Coburg. As his younger brother, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and nephew Prince Arthur, had renounced their succession rights to the ducal throne, Alfred was succeeded by his nephew, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany (1884–1954), the posthumous son of his youngest brother, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany.

He was survived by his mother, Victoria, who had already outlived two of her children, Alice and Leopold. She died six months later. Victoria dedicated a memorial in the form of a Celtic cross to Alfred in the grounds of Balmoral Castle which was erected shortly before her death.

Alfred was a keen collector of glass and ceramic ware, and after his death his widow gave his collection, valued at half a million marks, to the Veste Coburg, the enormous fortress on a hill top above Coburg.

Australia
Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Sydney, The Alfred Hospital in Melbourne, Prince Alfred College in Adelaide, Prince Alfred Park in Sydney, Prince Alfred Square in Parramatta, and the Royal Prince Alfred Yacht Club, now in the Sydney suburb of Newport, are named in his honour.

The Alfred Hall in Ballarat was built in 1867 for his visit, and one of the city's suburbs was renamed Alfredton. Many streets, avenues, roads, halls, parks and schools bear his name in other parts of Australia. He laid the corner stones of new town halls in the two biggest cities, Sydney and Melbourne, and those buildings continue in use today.

Barbados
Prince Alfred Street in Bridgetown, the capital of Barbados, was named in his honour. It begins at the junction with Chapel Street and proceeds southward until reaching a car park along the Constitution river in the vicinity of the former James Fort.

Canada
Prince Alfred Bay, Nunavut, was named in his honour, as was Cape Prince Alfred in the North West Territories. Two islands in Ontario are named for Prince Alfred, one in the St Lawrence River near Brockville, and the other in Lake Nipigon north of Thunder Bay. The Prince Alfred Arch, a monument in Tangier, Nova Scotia, marks the spot Prince Alfred visited in 1861.

New Zealand
The name of the small township of Alfredton (near Eketāhuna in the lower North Island of New Zealand) honours the Prince. Alfred Street in central Auckland was named in his honour. The Bay of Plenty settlement of Galatea is named after his ship. Mt Alfred in Wellington - adjacent to Mount Victoria named after his mother and Mt Albert after his father - is named after him.

South Africa
Prince Alfred sailed into Port Elizabeth on 6 August 1860 as a midshipman on HMS Euryalus and celebrated his 16th birthday among its citizens. Seven years later he sailed into Simon's Town as the Captain of HMS Galatea. In Port Elizabeth there is a Prince Alfred's Terrace. The Alfred Rowing Club was established in 1864 and was housed under the pier at Table Bay. It was named after Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who visited the Cape in 1860. It is the oldest organised sporting club in South Africa. The opening ceremony of the South African Library was performed by Prince Alfred in 1860. An impressive portrait of the Prince hangs in the main reading room.

Port Alfred, on the Kowie River in the Eastern Cape, was originally known as Port Frances after the daughter-in-law of the Governor of Cape Colony, Lord Charles Somerset. Of all the passes built in South Africa by the famous Andrew Geddes Bain and his son, Thomas, Prince Alfred's Pass remains, for many people, a favourite because of its lavish variety winding through some of the world's most unspoiled scenery.

In Simon's Town, the Prince Alfred Hotel was built in 1802 and renamed after the prince visited Cape Province in 1868. For more than two centuries Simon's Town has been an important naval base and harbour (first for the Royal Navy and now the South African Navy). The former hotel now houses the Backpackers' Hostel, opposite the harbour in the main street. In Cape Town during his visit in 1868, Prince Alfred ceremonially tipped the first load of rock to commence the building of the Breakwater. This was built by convict labour and formed the protective seawall for the new Cape Town Harbour, now redeveloped as the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront and a popular tourist and shopping destination.

A Prince Alfred Street can be found in Pietermaritzburg, Queenstown, Grahamstown and Caledon. The Port Elizabeth Chapter of the Memorable Order of Tin Hats, a veterans association, is known as the Prince Alfred Shellhole. Prince Alfred Hamlet, a small town in the Western Cape province, is named after Alfred.

United Kingdom
One of the stamp collectors in the British royal family, Prince Alfred won election as honorary president of The Philatelic Society, London in 1890. He may have inspired his nephew George V, who benefited after the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) bought his brother Prince Alfred's collection. The merging of Alfred's and George's collections gave birth to the Royal Philatelic Collection.

Edinburgh of the Seven Seas, the settlement on Tristan da Cunha, a British Overseas territory, was named after Alfred after he visited the remote islands in 1867 while Duke of Edinburgh.

Manta alfredi is commonly known as Prince Alfred's manta ray.

Honours

 * British honours
 * KG: Royal Knight Companion of the Garter, 10 June 1863
 * KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 15 October 1864
 * KP: Knight of St. Patrick, 14 May 1880
 * GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 25 May 1889
 * GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 7 February 1870
 * GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 29 June 1869
 * GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 21 June 1887
 * GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 24 May 1899
 * PC: Privy Counsellor, 1866–1893
 * KStJ: Knight of Justice of St. John, 27 March 1896
 * ADC: Personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, 9 December 1882

• Kingdom of Portugal:
 * Foreign honours

• * Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, 25 November 1858

• * Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 7 November 1889; Three Orders, 28 February 1894

•  Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, June 1863; Joint Grand Master, 22 August 1893

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (military), 15 August 1863

• Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 4 May 1864

• Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, 7 May 1864; with Collar, 1883

• * Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, 5 December 1878

• * Knight of Justice of the Johanniter Order, 1883

• Grand Duchy of Hesse:

• * Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 15 May 1864

• * Grand Cross of the Merit Order of Philip the Magnanimous, with Swords, 6 June 1865

• * Knight of the Golden Lion, with Collar, 12 January 1894

• Russian Empire:

• *Knight of St. Andrew, May 1865

• *Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, May 1865

• *Knight of the White Eagle, May 1865

• *Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, May 1865

• *Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class, May 1865

• Nassau: Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau, July 1865

• Kingdom of Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, 1865

• Baden:

• * Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1865

• * Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1865

• French Empire: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, June 1867

• Empire of Brazil: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross, 15 July 1867

• Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 15 July 1867

• Mecklenburg: Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Crown in Ore and Diamonds, 28 June 1868

•  Austria-Hungary: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1874

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 4 July 1875

•  Principality of Serbia: Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo

• 🇸🇪 🇳🇴 Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 24 May 1881

• 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion, 1 May 1882

• Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1883

• Ottoman Empire: Order of Osmanieh, Special Class in Diamonds, 1886

• Kingdom of Italy:

• * Knight of the Annunciation, 8 June 1887

• * Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 8 June 1887

• 🇪🇸 Spain:

• * Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 9 July 1887

• * Knight of the Golden Fleece, 17 June 1888

Arms
Prince Alfred gained use of the royal arms of the United Kingdom, charged with an inescutcheon of the shield of the Duchy of Saxony, representing his paternal arms, the whole differenced by a label argent of three points, the outer points bearing anchors azure, and the inner a cross gules. When he became the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, his Saxon arms were his British arms inverted, as follows: the ducal arms of Saxony charged with an inescutcheon of the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label argent of three points, the outer points bearing anchors azure, and the inner a cross gules.

Archives
Alfred's letters to his third daughter, Alexandra, (as well as her sisters) are preserved in the Hohenlohe Central Archive (Hohenlohe-Zentralarchiv Neuenstein) in Neuenstein Castle in the town of Neuenstein, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

title: Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha