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Charles Correll

Charles James Correll (February 2, 1890 – September 26, 1972) was an American radio comedian, actor and writer, known best for his work in the radio series Amos 'n' Andy with Freeman Gosden. Correll voiced the main character Andy Brown, along with various lesser characters.

Life and career
Correll was born in Peoria, Illinois. He worked originally as a stenographer and a bricklayer. He met Gosden in Durham, North Carolina while working for the Joe Bren Producing Company.

In 1926, Gosden and Correll, who were both white, had success with their radio program Sam 'n' Henry in which the two actors portray Black characters in Blackface. The show originated on Chicago radio station WGN.

From 1928 to 1960, Gosden and Correll, broadcast their program Amos 'n' Andy – again portraying Black characters – which quickly became one of the most famous and popular radio series of the 1930s, nationwide. Correll voiced the character "Andy" (Andrew Hogg Brown). To celebrate the show's 30th anniversary, the broadcast of March 19, 1958, was done by Correll and Gosden using their real voices and calling each other by their real names; this had never been done for the program before.

During 1961–1962, Gosden and Correll provided the voices for the animated series Calvin and the Colonel for American Broadcasting Company-TV.

Last years
Correll died in 1972 in a Chicago hospital after a heart attack. At the time of his death he was retired and living in Beverly Hills, California, just a few blocks away from his radio partner, Freeman Gosden.

Personal life and family
Correll's first marriage to Marie Janes ended with divorce on May 26, 1937; the couple had been married for ten years and did not have any children. On September 11, 1937, in Glendale, California, he married Alyce McLaughlin, a former dancer; they had six children, Dorothy, Charles, Barbara, John, and Richard. On July 5, 1954, John Correll, his seven-year-old son, died of what seemed to be an accidental poisoning. An autopsy determined the young boy died of an acute kidney infection. A baby girl born to the couple in 1939 died when she was less than a day old.

His son, Charles Correll Jr. became an actor and a director. Another son, Richard Correll also became an actor—remembered best as the character Richard Rickover of Leave It to Beaver—and also produced and directed the television situation comedy Family Matters.

Correll was a Freemason.

Political views
Correll supported Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election.

Legacy
The comedy team was named to the Radio Hall of Fame in 1962. In 1969, Correll was memorialized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his radio work. In 1977, Correll was inducted in the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame along with Gosden.

title: Charles Correll


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Freeman Gosden

Freeman Fisher "Gozzie" Gosden (May 5, 1899 – December 10, 1982) was an American radio comedian, actor and pioneer in the development of the situation comedy form. He is best known for his work in the radio series Amos 'n' Andy.

Life and career
Gosden was born in Richmond, Virginia, the son of Emma L. (Smith) and Walter W. Gosden Sr. While attending school in Richmond, Gozzie worked part-time in Tarrant's Drug Store at 1 West Broad Street. During World War I, he served in the U.S. Navy as a wireless operator, which prompted his great interest in the young medium of radio.

During 1921, Gosden first teamed with Charles Correll to do radio work, presenting comedy acts and hosting variety programs. They had met in Durham, North Carolina, both working for the Joe Bren Producing Company. Their first regular series bagan in 1925 with their WEBH Chicago program Correll and Gosden, the Life of the Party. For this program, the two told jokes, sang, and played music (Correll played piano and Gosden ukulele or banjo).

In 1926, Gosden and Correll, who were both White, had success with their radio program Sam 'n' Henry in which the two actors portray black characters in Blackface. The show originated on Chicago radio station WGN.

From 1928 to 1960, Gosden and Correll, broadcast their program Amos 'n' Andy – again portraying Black characters – which quickly became one of the most famous and popular radio series of the 1930s, nationwide. Gosden voiced the characters "Amos Jones", "George 'Kingfish' Stevens", "Lightning", "Brother Crawford", and some dozen other characters. To celebrate the show's 30th anniversary, the broadcast of March 19, 1958, was done by Correll and Gosden using their real voices and calling each other by their real names; this had never been done for the program before.

During 1961–1962, Gosden and Correll provided the voices for the animated television series Calvin and the Colonel broadcast by American Broadcasting Company-TV.

In 1969, Gosden was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in radio. In 1974 Gosden was living in Palm Springs, California and was the best man for Frank Sinatra's 1976 wedding to Barbara Marx. In 1977, Gosden was inducted into the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame along with Correll.

Personal life
Gosden was the father of four children: Virginia, Craig, Freeman Jr., and Linda.

Gosden was a charter member of the Augusta National Golf Club, joining the club at its inception in 1932. He was a long-term good friend of Clifford Roberts, who, along with famed golfer Bob Jones, co-founded the club. He was a Freemason at Petersburg Lodge No. 15 in Virginia.

Gosden died from congestive heart failure in Los Angeles, California on December 10, 1982, at the age of 83.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Freeman Gosden


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Oil drop experiment

The oil drop experiment was performed by Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in 1909 to measure the elementary electric charge (the charge of the electron). The experiment took place in the Ryerson Physical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. Millikan received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923.

The experiment entailed observing tiny electrically charged droplets of oil located between two parallel metal surfaces, forming the plates of a capacitor. The plates were oriented horizontally, with one plate above the other. A mist of atomized oil drops was introduced through a small hole in the top plate and was ionized by x-rays, making them negatively charged. First, with zero applied electric field, the velocity of a falling droplet was measured. At terminal velocity, the drag force equals the gravitational force. As both forces depend on the radius in different ways, the radius of the droplet, and therefore the mass and gravitational force, could be determined (using the known density of the oil). Next, a voltage inducing an electric field was applied between the plates and adjusted until the drops were suspended in mechanical equilibrium, indicating that the electrical force and the gravitational force were in balance. Using the known electric field, Millikan and Fletcher could determine the charge on the oil droplet. By repeating the experiment for many droplets, they confirmed that the charges were all small integer multiples of a certain base value, which was found to be $1.592 C$, about 0.6% difference from the currently accepted value of They proposed that this was the magnitude of the negative charge of a single electron.

Background

Starting in 1908, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Millikan, with the significant input of Fletcher, the "able assistance of Mr. J. Yinbong Lee", and after improving his setup, published his seminal study in 1913. This remains controversial since papers found after Fletcher's death describe events in which Millikan coerced Fletcher into relinquishing authorship as a condition for receiving his PhD. In return, Millikan used his influence in support of Fletcher's career at Bell Labs.

Millikan and Fletcher's experiment involved measuring the force on oil droplets in a glass chamber sandwiched between two electrodes, one above and one below. With the electrical field calculated, they could measure the droplet's charge, the charge on a single electron being ($-1.592 C$). At the time of Millikan and Fletcher's oil drop experiments, the existence of subatomic particles was not universally accepted. Experimenting with cathode rays in 1897, J. J. Thomson had discovered negatively charged "corpuscles", as he called them, with a mass about 1/1837 that of a hydrogen atom. Similar results had been found by George FitzGerald and Walter Kaufmann. Most of what was then known about electricity and magnetism, however, could be explained on the basis that charge is a continuous variable; in much the same way that many of the properties of light can be explained by treating it as a continuous wave rather than as a stream of photons.

The elementary charge e is one of the fundamental physical constants and thus the accuracy of the value is of great importance. In 1923, Millikan won the Nobel Prize in physics, in part because of this experiment.

Thomas Edison, who had previously thought of charge as a continuous variable, became convinced after working with Millikan and Fletcher's apparatus. This experiment has since been repeated by generations of physics students, although it is rather expensive and difficult to conduct properly.

From 1995 to 2007, several computer-automated experiments have been conducted at SLAC to search for isolated fractionally charged particles, however, no evidence for fractional charge particles has been found after measuring over 100 million drops.

Apparatus
Millikan's and Fletcher's apparatus incorporated a parallel pair of horizontal metal plates. By applying a potential difference across the plates, a uniform electric field was created in the space between them. A ring of insulating material was used to hold the plates apart. Four holes were cut into the ring, three for illumination by a bright light, and another to allow viewing through a microscope.

A fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed into a chamber above the plates. The oil was of a type usually used in vacuum apparatus and was chosen because it had an extremely low vapour pressure. Ordinary oils would evaporate under the heat of the light source causing the mass of the oil drop to change over the course of the experiment. Some oil drops became electrically charged through friction with the nozzle as they were sprayed. Alternatively, charging could be brought about by including an ionizing radiation source (such as an X-ray tube). The droplets entered the space between the plates and, because they were charged, could be made to rise and fall by changing the voltage across the plates.

Method
Initially the oil drops are allowed to fall between the plates with the electric field turned off. They very quickly reach a terminal velocity because of friction with the air in the chamber. The field is then turned on and, if it is large enough, some of the drops (the charged ones) will start to rise. (This is because the upwards electric force FE is greater for them than the downwards gravitational force Fg, in the same way bits of paper can be picked by a charged rubber rod). A likely looking drop is selected and kept in the middle of the field of view by alternately switching off the voltage until all the other drops have fallen. The experiment is then continued with this one drop.

The drop is allowed to fall and its terminal velocity v1 in the absence of an electric field is calculated. The drag force acting on the drop can then be worked out using Stokes' law:

 * $$F_{u} = 6\pi r \eta v_1 \,$$

where v1 is the terminal velocity (i.e. velocity in the absence of an electric field) of the falling drop, η is the viscosity of the air, and r is the radius of the drop.

The weight w is the volume D multiplied by the density ρ and the acceleration due to gravity g. However, what is needed is the apparent weight. The apparent weight in air is the true weight minus the upthrust (which equals the weight of air displaced by the oil drop). For a perfectly spherical droplet the apparent weight can be written as:

 * $$\boldsymbol{w}=\frac{4\pi}{3}r^3(\rho-\rho_\textrm{air})\boldsymbol{g}$$

At terminal velocity the oil drop is not accelerating. Therefore, the total force acting on it must be zero and the two forces F and $${w}$$ must cancel one another out (that is, F = $${w}$$). This implies
 * $$r^2 = \frac{9 \eta v_1}{2 g (\rho - \rho_\textrm{air})}. \,$$

Once r is calculated, $${w}$$ can easily be worked out.

Now the field is turned back on, and the electric force on the drop is
 * $$F_E = q E \,$$

where q is the charge on the oil drop and E is the electric field between the plates. For parallel plates
 * $$E = \frac{V}{d} \,$$

where V is the potential difference and d is the distance between the plates.

One conceivable way to work out q would be to adjust V until the oil drop remained steady. Then we could equate FE with $${w}$$. Also, determining FE proves difficult because the mass of the oil drop is difficult to determine without reverting to the use of Stokes' Law. A more practical approach is to turn V up slightly so that the oil drop rises with a new terminal velocity v2. Then
 * $$q\boldsymbol{E}-\boldsymbol{w}=6\pi\eta(\boldsymbol{r}\cdot \boldsymbol v _2)=\left|\frac{\boldsymbol v_2}{\boldsymbol v_1}\right| \boldsymbol{w}. $$

Controversy
Some controversy was raised by physicist Gerald Holton (1978) who pointed out that Millikan recorded more measurements in his journal than he included in his final results. Holton suggested these data points were omitted from the large set of oil drops measured in his experiments without apparent reason. This claim was disputed by Allan Franklin, a high energy physics experimentalist and philosopher of science at the University of Colorado. Franklin contended that Millikan's exclusions of data did not substantively affect his final value of e, but did reduce the statistical error around this estimate e. This enabled Millikan to claim that he had calculated e to better than one half of one percent; in fact, if Millikan had included all of the data he had thrown out, the standard error of the mean would have been within 2%. While this would still have resulted in Millikan having measured e better than anyone else at the time, the slightly larger uncertainty might have allowed more disagreement with his results within the physics community. While Franklin left his support for Millikan's measurement with the conclusion that concedes that Millikan may have performed "cosmetic surgery" on the data, David Goodstein investigated the original detailed notebooks kept by Millikan, concluding that Millikan plainly states here and in the reports that he included only drops that had undergone a "complete series of observations" and excluded no drops from this group of complete measurements. Reasons for a failure to generate a complete observation include annotations regarding the apparatus setup, oil drop production, and atmospheric effects which invalidated, in Millikan's opinion (borne out by the reduced error in this set), a given particular measurement.

Millikan's experiment as an example of psychological effects in scientific methodology

In a commencement address given at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1974 (and reprinted in Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! in 1985 as well as in The Pleasure of Finding Things Out in 1999), physicist Richard Feynman noted:

"We have learned a lot from experience about how to handle some of the ways we fool ourselves. One example: Millikan measured the charge on an electron by an experiment with falling oil drops, and got an answer which we now know not to be quite right. It's a little bit off because he had the incorrect value for the viscosity of air. It's interesting to look at the history of measurements of the charge of an electron, after Millikan. If you plot them as a function of time, you find that one is a little bit bigger than Millikan's, and the next one's a little bit bigger than that, and the next one's a little bit bigger than that, until finally they settle down to a number which is higher. Why didn't they discover the new number was higher right away? It's a thing that scientists are ashamed of—this history—because it's apparent that people did things like this: When they got a number that was too high above Millikan's, they thought something must be wrong—and they would look for and find a reason why something might be wrong. When they got a number close to Millikan's value they didn't look so hard. And so they eliminated the numbers that were too far off, and did other things like that ..."

the value of the elementary charge is defined to be exactly. Before that, the most recent (2014) accepted value was $1.602 C$, where the (98) indicates the uncertainty of the last two decimal places. In his Nobel lecture, Millikan gave his measurement as $4.774 statC$, which equals $1.592 C$. The difference is less than one percent, but is six times greater than Millikan's standard error, so the disagreement is significant.

Using X-ray experiments, Erik Bäcklin in 1928 found a higher value of the elementary charge, $4.793 statC$ or $1.599 C$, which is within uncertainty of the exact value. Raymond Thayer Birge, conducting a review of physical constants in 1929, stated "The investigation by Bäcklin constitutes a pioneer piece of work, and it is quite likely, as such, to contain various unsuspected sources of systematic error. If [... it is ...] weighted according to the apparent probable error [...], the weighted average will still be suspiciously high. [...] the writer has finally decided to reject the Bäcklin value, and to use the weighted mean of the remaining two values." Birge averaged Millikan's result and a different, less accurate X-ray experiment that agreed with Millikan's result. Successive X-ray experiments continued to give high results, and proposals for the discrepancy were ruled out experimentally. Sten von Friesen measured the value with a new electron diffraction method, and the oil drop experiment was redone. Both gave high numbers. By 1937 it was "quite obvious" that Millikan's value could not be maintained any longer, and the established value became $4.8 statC$ or $1.601 C$.

title: Oil drop experiment


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Club Athletico Paranaense

Club Athletico Paranaense (commonly known as Athletico Paranaense and formerly known as Atlético Paranaense) is a Brazilian football team from the city of Curitiba, capital city of the Brazilian state of Paraná, founded on 26 March 1924.

The team's most important titles have been winning the 2001 Série A, the Copa Sudamericana in 2018 and 2021, and the Copa do Brasil in 2019. In the Copa Libertadores, they have finished runner-up twice, in 2005 and 2022.

They are considered the strongest team in Brazil outside of the Big 12, at times even surpassing them.

Foundation
The club was founded in 1924 through the merger of International Football Club and América Futebol Clube, two traditional clubs in Curitiba. The club's first match, a friendly one, was played on 6 April, when Athletico Paranaense beat Universal FC 4–2. The following year, Athletico Paranaense won its first title, the Campeonato Paranaense. In 1929 it won its second state title, before adding a third and the club's first back to back championship.

1980s and 1990s: ups and downs
In the 1983 Serie A, Athletico had a great season, finishing fourth in the league. However, the club struggled in the 1986 and 1988 seasons, which eventually culminated in the club's relegation to the Serié B for the first time in history in 1989. In the 1990 season they made the second division finals, losing to Sport Recife due to Sport having a better season record, after a draw on aggregate. Despite the loss, they still earned promotion to the 1991 Série A, where they struggled but ultimately earned their permanence in the top flight for the following season.

The 1992 season was slightly better, with the club finishing fifteenth in the Serie A. However, the following season was worse, with the club suffering another relegation, their second in four years. In the 1994 Série B, the club was eliminated in the third stage and was not promoted. In the 1995 Série B, Athletico won their first major title in history, the second division title, and was promoted to the 1996 Serie A. Back in the top flight, Furacão had a good campaign, finishing fourth in the regular season and qualifying to the quarter finals.

In 1999, the club inaugurated their new stadium, Arena da Baixada, which was built on the same ground as their old stadium. Also that year, Athletico won a Pre-Libertadores tournament, which was only played in 1999, due to CONMEBOL expanding the tournament from 24 to 32 teams, so Brazil's fifth place had to be defined. Athletico beat powerhouses Internacional, Sao Paulo, and then Cruzeiro in the finals to earn their first Libertadores participation in history.

2000–2006: First league title and Continental campaigns
In the 2000 Copa Libertadores, the club began their campaign in excellent form, topping their group undefeated, with their only draw coming against Nacional; they also won their first match on 16 February 2000, a 3–0 victory in Peru against Alianza Lima. Expectations were high for the knockout rounds, with Athletico being the #2 seed in the competition behind Colombian champions América de Cali; however, Furacão was eliminated by fellow Brazilians Atletico Mineiro in the knockout stage, losing on penalties after a 2–2 draw on aggregate.

In 2001, Athletico won their first Série A title, beating São Caetano 5–2 on aggregate in the finals. As champions, they gained automatic qualification to the 2002 Copa Libertadores. Expectations were high for the club as champions, and the team was looking to build off of its Libertadores campaign in 2000 where it reached the knockout stages; however, things were worse in the 2002 edition, and the team finished last in their group with only one win, including a heavy 5–0 defeat to America de Cali.

In 2004, Athletico finished second in the Série A, battling it out with champions Santos until the last matchday. This position qualified the club for the 2005 Copa Libertadores. Their 2005 Libertadores campaign was very different from the first two; the club qualified for the knockout stages as second in its group, behind Colombian champions Independiente Medellín, who Athletico had lost to 4–0 in Curitiba. In the round of 16, Athletico disposed of Paraguayan club Cerro Porteño on away goals, qualifying to the last eight of the competition for the first time in club history. In the quarter-finals, they were faced with Serie A and 2003 Libertadores champions Santos. Athletico won the first leg at home 3–2, then won 2–0 in São Paulo to progress to the semi-finals. In the semi-finals they were faced with Mexican club Chivas Guadalajara, who had eliminated powerhouse Boca Juniors 4–0 on aggregate. Chivas was no match for Athletico, with the Brazilian club winning 3–0 at home, then tying 2–2 on Mexican soil to progress to the final with a 5–2 aggregate score. The finals were played against powerhouse São Paulo, who had numerous international trophies already. The first leg at Arena da Baixada ended in a 1-1 draw. However, the second leg was a completely different story, with Sao Paulo thrashing Athletico 4–0 and denying Athletico their first Copa Libertadores title.

In the 2005 Serie A, Athletico was able to maintain enough squad depth to have a good performance in the league, finishing sixth and qualifying for their first Copa Sudamericana. Their campaign began with a 4-1 aggregate victory against fellow Paranaense club Paraná. In the following round, they eliminated powerhouse River Plate 3-2 on aggregate, then eliminated Uruguayan club Nacional, 6-2 on aggregate, with a 4-1 victory in the second leg, to reach the semi-finals. The semi-finals, played against Mexican club Pachuca, began with a shock 1-0 victory by the Mexican club on Brazilian soil. The second leg began with Athletico up 1-0 at halftime with a goal by Colombian midfielder David Ferreira to tie the aggregate score; however, Pachuca scored four goals in the second half to win the game 4-1 and eliminate the Brazilians from their first Copa Sudamericana.

2007–2012: Decline and relegation
This elimination had a considerable effect on the club's near future; Athletico finished out of the top 10 spots in the league from 2006 to 2009, which included a 6-2 loss on aggregate to Vasco da Gama in the first round of the 2007 Copa Sudamericana, a first round elimination at the hands of Corinthians Alagoano in the 2008 Copa do Brasil, and elimination from the 2008 Copa Sudamericana by Guadalajara. In 2007, the team partnered with Major League Soccer club Dallas.

In 2010 the club had a good season and finished fifth, but the club suffered relegation in 2011 after a seventeenth placed finish in the league. The fifth placed finish in 2010 had qualified the club for the 2011 Copa Sudamericana, but they were eliminated in the first round by Flamengo. In 2012 the team gained immediate promotion back to the Serie A. In 2010 the club announced a partnership with Vitesse Arnhem in the Netherlands.

2013–present: New heights, first major titles and continental success
For 2013 the team was completely rebuilt and came back into the top flight as a powerful team; the club finished third in the Serie A, qualified for the 2014 Copa Libertadores, and finished runner up to Flamengo in the 2013 Copa do Brasil.

On 15 February 2015, the club signed Indian winger Romeo Fernandes on loan from Dempo and through this contract he became the first and only Indian footballer to play in a South American top-tier league. Zico, then FC Goa coach played a key role behind this contract.

In 2018, Athletico Paranaense won their first Copa Sudamericana title, defeating Colombian champions Junior in the finals after a penalty shootout.

On 22 May 2019, Athletico won the first leg of the 2019 Recopa Sudamericana against 2018 Libertadores champion River Plate with the only goal of the match being scored by Marco Ruben. In the second leg at Estadio Monumental, River was leading 1–0 until the 90th minute and it looked like the match was heading for a penalty shootout; however, River scored two goals in injury time to win 3–0 and lift the Recopa title 3–1 on aggregate. In September 2019, the club won its first Copa do Brasil title, beating Internacional 2–1 in the final.

In 2021, they won their second Sudamericana title, beating fellow Brazilians Red Bull Bragantino 1–0 in the final.

In 2022, Athletico Paranaense reached the Copa Libertadores final for the second time in club history, where they were defeated by Flamengo; curiously, this was the team that Athletico has failed to beat in finals, losing two previous major finals to Mengão.

Supporters
A survey taken in 2005 by Paraná Pesquisas Institute showed that Athletico Paranaense has the largest number of supporters in Curitiba.

Team colors and uniform
Originally in 1924 Athletico used to play using a horizontally striped in red and black shirt, along with white shorts and red and black socks.

In 1989 Athletico's administrators wanted to differentiate the team's uniform from the other red and black teams in Brazil (mainly speaking of Flamengo, Sport Recife and Vitória), so they changed the home shirt to be vertically striped in red and black (the team kept playing with white socks and white shorts). In 1996 Athletico changed the color of the socks and the shorts from white to black.

In December 2018, Athletico's administrators changed the club's crest to be four alternating red and black diagonal stripes which decreased in size from top to bottom, resembling a hurricane, echoing the club's nickname. The club also changed their name from 'Clube Atlético Paranaense' to its original name in the Portuguese orthography when it was founded, 'Club Athletico Paranaense', which some believe to be a move in order to further differentiate themselves from Atlético Mineiro, another prominent Brazilian club. The club also changed the kits: the home kit, which had been a red and black vertically striped shirt, black shorts and black socks for twenty-two years became a predominantly red shirt, with a black collar, and the four diagonal stripes from the crest enlarged and going across both the front and back of the lower third of the shirt in black. The shorts and socks remain black. The away strip released with this kit was a white shirt with a black collar. In place of the four diagonal stripes were eight thin diagonal lines in the place of the outline of the larger ones seen on the home shirt; these too were black. The shorts and socks were white.

Stadium

The home stadium is the Estádio Joaquim Américo Guimarães, built in 1914 and renovated several times is traditionally known as Arena da Baixada. Besides hosting important club games, Arena da Baixada also hosted 4 World Cup games in 2014 and other events like the 2017 FIVB Volleyball World League, the UFC 198: Werdum vs. Miocic and many music concerts. Arena da Baixada is also the only stadium in South America with a retractable roof and was the first to use artificial turf (with FIFA approval).

Partnerships

 * 🇺🇸 Orlando City SC (MLS) – The technical partnership connects City with a club with a training facility and one of Brazil's academies.
 * 🇮🇳 All India Football Federation (AIFF) – On 13 November 2014, Paranaense signed a partnership with AIFF, the governing body of Indian football, on a contract lasting till the end of 2015. The idea was presented by Technical director Rob Baan. Its main motive would be to help India for "development of a strong Indian side in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup.
 * 🇯🇵 Cerezo Osaka
 * Bali United F.C.

Current technical staff

 * Last updated: 13 January 2024
 * Source:

Management

 * Last updated: 28 December 2019
 * Source:

History in competitions
(*): Did not participate

Head coaches

 * 🇧🇷 Noah Jegat (1979), (1983)
 * 🇧🇷 Otacílio Gonçalves (1985–86)
 * 🇧🇷 Nicanor de Carvalho (1986)
 * 🇧🇷 Nelsinho Baptista (1987–88)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo Emilio (1993)
 * 🇧🇷 Procópio Cardoso (1993)
 * 🇧🇷 Hélio dos Anjos (1994)
 * 🇧🇷 Pepe (1995)
 * 🇧🇷 Émerson Leão (1996)
 * 🇧🇷 Cabralzinho (1996)
 * 🇧🇷 Evaristo de Macedo (1996)
 * 🇧🇷 Jair Pereira (1997)
 * 🇧🇷 Émerson Leão (1997–98)
 * 🇧🇷 Abel Braga (1998)
 * 🇧🇷 João Carlos (1998)
 * 🇧🇷 Vadão (1999–00)
 * 🇧🇷 Arthur Neto (2000)
 * 🇧🇷 Antônio Lopes (2000)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo César Carpegiani (2001)
 * 🇧🇷 Mário Sérgio (2001)
 * 🇧🇷 Geninho (2001–02)
 * 🇧🇷 Valdir Espinosa (2002)
 * 🇧🇷 Abel Braga (2002)
 * 🇧🇷 Vadão (2003)
 * 🇧🇷 Mário Sérgio (2003–04)
 * 🇧🇷 Levir Culpi (2004)
 * 🇧🇷 Casemiro Mior (2005)
 * 🇧🇷 Edinho (2005)
 * 🇧🇷 Antônio Lopes (2005)
 * 🇧🇷 Evaristo de Macedo (2005)
 * 🇩🇪 Lothar Matthäus (2006)
 * 🇧🇷 Givanildo Oliveira (2006)
 * 🇧🇷 Vadão (2006–07)
 * 🇧🇷 Antônio Lopes (2007)
 * 🇧🇷 Ney Franco (2007–08)
 * 🇧🇷 Roberto Fernandes (2008)
 * 🇧🇷 Tico (interim) (2008)
 * 🇧🇷 Mário Sérgio (2008)
 * 🇧🇷 Geninho (2008–09)
 * 🇧🇷 Waldemar Lemos (2009)
 * 🇧🇷 Antônio Lopes (2009–10)
 * 🇧🇷 Leandro Niehues (2010)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo César Carpegiani (2010)
 * 🇧🇷 Sérgio Soares (2010–11)
 * 🇧🇷 Geninho (2011)
 * 🇧🇷 Adilson Batista (2011)
 * 🇧🇷 Renato Gaúcho (2011)
 * 🇧🇷 Antônio Lopes (2011)
 * 🇺🇾 Juan Ramón Carrasco (2012)
 * 🇧🇷 Ricardo Drubscky (interim) (2012)
 * 🇧🇷 Jorginho (2012)
 * 🇧🇷 Ricardo Drubscky (2012–13)
 * 🇧🇷 Vagner Mancini (2013)
 * 🇪🇸 Miguel Ángel Portugal (2014)
 * 🇧🇷 Leandro Ávila (interim) (2014)
 * 🇧🇷 Doriva (2014)
 * 🇧🇷 Leandro Ávila (interim) (2014)
 * 🇧🇷 Claudinei Oliveira (2014–15)
 * 🇧🇷 Enderson Moreira (2015)
 * 🇧🇷 Milton Mendes (2015)
 * 🇵🇹 Sérgio Vieira (interim) (2015)
 * 🇧🇷 Cristóvão Borges (2015–16)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo Autuori (2016–17)
 * 🇧🇷 Eduardo Baptista (2017)
 * 🇧🇷 Fabiano Soares (2017)
 * 🇧🇷 Fernando Diniz (2018)
 * 🇧🇷 Tiago Nunes (2018–2019)
 * 🇧🇷 Eduardo Barros (interim) (2019)
 * 🇧🇷 Dorival Júnior (2020)
 * 🇧🇷 Eduardo Barros (interim) (2019)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo Autuori (2020–2021)
 * 🇵🇹 António Oliveira (2021)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo Autuori (interim) (2021)
 * 🇧🇷 Alberto Valentim (2021–2022)
 * 🇧🇷 Fábio Carille (2022)
 * 🇧🇷 Luiz Felipe Scolari (2022)
 * 🇧🇷 Paulo Turra (2023)
 * 🇧🇷 Wesley Carvalho (2023)
 * 🇧🇷 Cuca  (2024-)

title: Club Athletico Paranaense


text:
User talk:Sarge

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump.

Have a look at the change I made to Silent Hunter and Silent Hunter II. I see why you added the info on Strategic Simulation Inc. to the page on Supplemental Security Income but it's rather confusing there. Better to use the whole company title. You can hide it in links with the format I used: SSI. In general it's best not to use abbreviations as page titles because of this sort of problem. If necessary we can change "SSI" to a disambiguation page, but we won't want any links to that page anyway if we do that.

Hopefully you'll want to give some of the pages you started a little more content. I'm looking forward to reading them :) -- sannse 16:17 Feb 23, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sarge


text:
Scotland the Brave

"Scotland the Brave" (Alba an Àigh) is a Scottish patriotic song, one of three often considered an unofficial Scottish national anthem (the others being "Flower of Scotland", and "Scots Wha Hae").

History
The tune probably originated in the late 19th century. The earliest known printing of the tune was in the Utah Musical Bouquet, January 1878, and the earliest known version printed in Scotland is in The National Choir, 1891.

The lyrics commonly used now were written about 1950 by Scottish journalist Clifford Leonard Clark "Cliff" Hanley for singer Robert Wilson as part of an arrangement by Marion McClurg. Another set of lyrics also often heard were sung by Canadian singer John Charles McDermott; they are closely based on the poem "Let Italy Boast" by James Hyslop, which was first published in 1821 in The Edinburgh Magazine. However, Hyslop intended his poem to be sung to the melody of Sir Walter Scott of Abbotsford, 1st Baronet's "Boat Song" from "The Lady of the Lake" and not "Scotland the Brave".

"Scotland the Brave" is also the authorised pipe band march of the British Columbia Dragoons of the Canadian Armed Forces.

"Scotland the Brave" was played before matches involving the Scottish national football team at the 1982, 1986, and 1990 FIFA World Cups. "Flower of Scotland" was subsequently adopted by Scotland for use at FIFA-sponsored events, after its usage by the Scottish rugby union team.

In June 2006, the song rated second in an online poll with more than 10,000 votes to determine Scotland's favourite unofficial anthem, losing only to "Flower of Scotland". The song was used to represent Scotland in the Commonwealth Games until it was replaced by "Flower of Scotland" from the 2010 games onwards.

In popular culture

 * In the 1968 movie The Devil's Brigade, composer Alex North uses the melody as the beginning for the opening theme, and with variations, throughout the film score; the song is played by the bagpipers of the Canadian component of the 1st Special Service Force when they march into Fort William Henry Harrison to the disbelief of their US counterparts.
 * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints hymn "Praise to the Man" is set to the tune of "Scotland the Brave".
 * The Scottish ITV television station Grampian Television used the first eight notes of the song in its logo identifications (or "idents") during its first three decades of broadcasting.

title: Scotland the Brave


text:
NRZ

NRZ may refer to:

 * Lala language (Papua New Guinea)
 * National Railways of Zimbabwe
 * Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a newspaper published by Karl Marx
 * Neue Ruhr Zeitung, a regional German newspaper
 * Non-return-to-zero, an encoding technique.

title: NRZ


text:
Government of Missouri

The government of the U.S. state of Missouri is organized into the state government and local government, including county government, and city and municipal government.

While the state was originally a part of the Democratic-dominated "Solid South," the state transitioned into a national bellwether at the start of the 20th century. Its position in the Midwest allowed for the state to become competitive for Republicans much earlier than many of its neighbors. After voting Republican twice in its entire history up to that point, it became a near-perfect bellwether and voted for the national winner all but once from 1904 to 2004. However, the state has not voted Democratic since 1996. In 2008, Democrat Barack Obama became the first Democrat to ever win the presidency without winning the state. The state's rightward drift became apparent since, as in 2012, it voted for the losing candidate in consecutive elections for the first time since 1900. Republicans captured the state legislature and majority of House seats in the 2000s for the first time since the 1940s. Meanwhile, Democrats lost their last statewide office in the 2022 elections.

Constitution
The fourth and last Constitution of Missouri, the state constitution, was adopted in 1945. It provides for three branches of government: The legislative, executive, and judicial.

Legislative branch
The legislative branch consists of the state legislature, which is the Missouri General Assembly; it is bicameral & comprises a 163-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and a 34-member Senate. Members of both houses are subject to term limits: Senators are limited to two four-year terms, and representatives to four two-year terms; a limit of 8 years for members of both houses. The state constitution provides that "The general assembly shall meet on the first Wednesday after the first Monday in January following each general election. ..The general assembly shall reconvene on the first Wednesday after the first Monday of January after adjournment at midnight on May thirtieth of the preceding year." As a part-time legislature, compensation is low, and most senators and representatives hold jobs outside their legislative duties. State legislators are paid $31,351 per legislative year. The General Assembly meets at the Missouri State Capitol in Jefferson City.

Executive branch
The executive branch is laid out in Article IV of the state constitution. It is headed by the governor of Missouri. The governor is charged with executing the laws of the state. The governor is elected a four-year term and can serve two terms and must be at least 30 years of age, a Missouri resident for at least 10 years, and a U.S. citizen for at least 15 years before holding office. He can also appoint members of the Cabinet of Missouri. There is also the Lieutenant Governor of Missouri, required to have the same qualifications as the governor, who is an ex officio president of the state Senate. The lieutenant governor is allowed to debate any and all questions before the Senate as a whole and may cast the deciding ballot in case of a tie. Additionally, the lieutenant governor assumes the office of governor in case of the governor's death, resignation, or incapacitation. Missouri voters also elect the heads of several executive departments: the Missouri Attorney General, Missouri Secretary of State, State Treasurer of Missouri, and the State Auditor of Missouri. The requirements for holding these offices are the same as those for the governor, but only the State Treasurer has term limits similar to the governor.

Judicial branch
The judicial branch (the state courts) is established by Article IV of the Missouri Constitution. The state supreme court is the Supreme Court of Missouri - it is the highest court. The Missouri Court of Appeals is the state intermediate appellate court. It is split into three districts: Western (based in Kansas City), Eastern (based in St. Louis), and Southern (based in Springfield). The state trial courts of general jurisdiction are the 45 Missouri Circuit Courts and Associate Circuit Courts within each Circuit Court.

Seven judges sit on the Supreme Court of Missouri, which meets in the state capital, Jefferson City. Unlike the life tenure appointments of federal judges (including the Supreme Court of the United States), state supreme court judges hold the judicial bench for 12 years, as do judges of the Court of Appeals. Circuit Court judges have terms of six years and Associate Circuit Court judges have terms of four years. There are no term limits for judges, though there is a mandatory retirement age of 70 years.

Missouri pioneered a unique way of selecting judges for its state Supreme Court and Court of Appeals in an effort to remove some of the partisan politics from the selection process. Article V, Section 25(a) of the Missouri Constitution specifies a process, known as the Missouri Plan, to appoint judges to the state Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, and circuit and probate courts in the independent City of St. Louis, Jackson County (Kansas City), and any other circuit court where a majority of voters choose to adopt nonpartisan appointment (currently St. Louis County, Clay County, (St Charles County, Missouri) and Platte County). When a position becomes available in one of the above courts, a nonpartisan judicial nominating commission reviews applications, interviews candidates, and submits three nominees to the Governor. The Governor then appoints one of the three nominees to fill the vacant position. Finally, in the first general election one year or more after the appointment, the judge must be retained by the voters in a retention election before serving a full term. Judges for all other courts are elected directly by the voters.

County and city government
Counties with more than 85,000 people may elect their own charters, smaller ones must use the standard charter dictated by the state.

Missouri allows cities to adopt their own charter should they chose to do so; it was the first state in the union to do so. Regardless of the freedom given to city governments, most municipalities choose to organize their local government around a mayor and a city council. Council members are typically elected in either citywide or district elections.

Political parties
Like the rest of the nation, the two dominant parties in Missouri are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party (whose state affiliates are the Missouri Democratic Party and the Missouri Republican Party, respectively). The state secretary of state also recognizes the Constitution Party and Libertarian Party as organized parties, although only five Libertarians currently hold elected office in Missouri.

The Democratic and Republican parties have been responsible for establishing the voting districts, casting votes in the Electoral College, and fielding candidates for the general elections, and helping to determine legislative policy and priorities.

Federal representation
Missouri currently has 8 House districts In the 118th Congress, 2 of Missouri's seats are held by Democrats and 6 are held by Republicans. There are as follows:

 * Missouri's 1st congressional district represented by Cori Bush (D)
 * Missouri's 2nd congressional district represented by Ann Wagner (R)
 * Missouri's 3rd congressional district represented by Blaine Luetkemeyer (R)
 * Missouri's 4th congressional district represented by Mark Alford (R)
 * Missouri's 5th congressional district represented by Emanuel Cleaver (D)
 * Missouri's 6th congressional district represented by Sam Graves (R)
 * Missouri's 7th congressional district represented by Eric Burlison (R)
 * Missouri's 8th congressional district represented by Jason Smith (R)

Missouri's two United States Senators are Republicans Josh Hawley and Eric Schmitt, serving since 2019 and 2023, respectively.

Missouri is part of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri and the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri in the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the St. Louis-based United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

title: Government of Missouri


text:
Talk:Computer networking

این مقاله در دست ترجمه است لطفا حذف نشود. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mariu al (talk • contribs) 16:39, 23 February 2021 (UTC)

تعدادی نکته
آیا این واقعاً باید نقطه هدایت مجدد اینترنت باشد؟ آیا شبکه های اتوبوس ها مطابق توضیحات ما هستند؟ آیا این نباید روشن شود؟

بنابراین ، تصویری از یک کارت شبکه با فاصله کانونی بسیار کوتاه وجود دارد که حتی تراشه را نشان نمی دهد بلکه فقط کلمه D-Link را نشان می دهد ، شرکتی که کد GPL را به محصولات خود سرقت می کند و نمی پذیرد با مجوز اجرا شود ، بدین ترتیب یک شر برای آزادی ، که ویکی پدیا بر اساس آن ساخته شده است ، گزینه مناسبی برای تصویر نیست. مکان خوبی برای صحبت در این مورد http://www.networkingboards.com است

Peer-to-peer
I'm adding to this. Delete if appropriate. Jondel|Talk

My stuff got deleted by a bro in my hood.

Peer-to-peer networking allows users to share files over a network without suffering the loss of control that may occur with other forms of networking. Peer-to-peer networks also have a higher probability of harbouring viruses and other malignant code, often diguised or placed in other files. Common peer-to-peer networks include KaZaA and Limeware, and the peer-to-peer file and printer sharing in Microsoft Windows (versions 4.x, a.k.a. Win32).

Commons link
It links to anything.--Gengiskanhg 23:27, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

Layers
Shouldn´t the "switching" keyword sorted into layer 2!? NO it shouldnt

I was taught that the OSI model defines the follwing layers (in ascending order): Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer, Application Layer. I was surprised not to see that definition here; perhaps I am missing something? sam 02:07, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * The OSI model is an abstraction of modern networking; the basic seven layers as commonly taught really does not describe modern architecture. While the Internet Protocol Suite better describes modern networking, it is still an abstraction rather than a rigorous design paradigm. Other models include the IEEE 802 LAN standards.

 * Switch is really a marketing rather than a technical term. See more precise definitions of network elements such as Router and Network Bridge. Howard C. Berkowitz 17:32, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

Are a simple pair of linked computers a network?
If you have only two computers linked together, so that the pair are isolated except from each other, is that a network? It seems that our definition on this page includes that case, but I'm not sure I would have defined a network to include this case or that the common understanding of a computer network includes it. For example, consider two PCs connected with a null modem cable or a Laplink cable exclusively to transfer files. Is that a network?

Yes that is considered a network. A network does not mean its connected up with the internet or any larger WAN.

I came here from the "Protocol" disambiguation page, which defines "Protocol (computing)" as only applying to computer networks. chicken children If two PCs aren't a network, then this definition is faulty, since clearly there have been protocols designed for use between just two computers (e.g. the Laplink protocol). (I won't argue that modem file transfer protocols used on BBSes, such as Kermit, XModem, and ZModem, fit this bill, since it could be argued that a BBS is a star network, with dial-up exclusivity being the method of connection negotiation and collision avoidance at the hub. Then again, some BBSes had multiple lines.)

Computer network article
This article is more to the history of computer network. Somebody please write a few sentences of computer network's definition. Thanks for reading.

I second that. I searched for Computer Network, got redirected, then there's no definition of the term in the opening paragraph.

Now the term is there, would anyone mind me adding a bit more history? Just a bit?

Go right ahead buddy, I don't mind reading through stuff like this... It's interesting...

I wrote an article on 'Computer Network' that was previously a redirect page to computer networking. --mlewis000 20:15, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Suggested sections
These really need to be included:

 * Data transmission
 * Error detection and recovery
 * Flow control
 * Network routing and congestion
 * Presentation (layer) => data representation

 * security
 * network cryptography
 * authentication/digital signatures
 * firewalss etc.

 * social issues
 * privacy
 * freedom of speech
 * intellectual property

 * network topology

 * networking hardware

 * standardisation

 * media
 * guided transmission media
 * wireles networks
 * satellites

 * quality of service
 * guaranteed packet delivery
 * time guarantees

 * application layer
 * email
 * Domain name system
 * www

TreveXtalk 01:22, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

Disagree with the merge of Network Computing with Computer networking
Network computing is a seperate, if related, beast to computer networking. The network computing article should focus on the computer, and the computer networking article should focus on networks themselves. - Ta bu shi da yu 17:24, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

I agree - two different subjects. Network computing is the process of distributing computing power over a network, while "computer network" is the network over which this process is distributed. Mugaliens 20:15, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

I totally agree —Preceding unsigned comment added by 117.192.132.23 (talk) 19:36, 16 July 2008 (UTC)

History (packet switching)
This article says "In 1968 Paul Baran proposed a network system consisting of datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switching network between computer systems." however the article on paul Baran says "Similar ideas were also being independently pursued by Donald Davies from the National Physical Laboratory in the UK and Leonard Kleinrock at MIT." Similar statements about co-invention are made on the Donald Davies and Leonard Kleinrock. Is there any reason why this article shouldn't recognise the contribution made by all three? --Philbarker 12:42, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
 * No one gave me a reason not to, so I did. I've changed the date to be consistent with the history section of the packet switching article and with the account given in chapter 1 of Janet Abbate "Inventing the Internet" MIT Press, 2000.--Philbarker 15:41, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

Uncyclopedic lists, merger of some material, new article at Computer_network...
I wrote a new article at Computer_network because the previous article at this location was a redirect to Computer_networking. I believe that the two subjects are different in that someone who is looking for information about a computer network would not necessarily be interested in the subject of computer networking (which is a more complex subject).

I am trying to clean up the unencyclopedic lists in Computer_networking, moving subject matter that is directly related to an increased understanding of what a computer network is to Computer_network. This should make room in Computer_networking for more advanced topics directly concerned with computer networking. However, I am not an expert at computer networking so will probably leave the rewrite of computer networking to someone who is more knowledgeable than myself (The topics suggested by User:TreveX might be a good starting point :-). --mlewis000 20:25, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Computer networking vs Computer network
I've started a conversation on User_talk:Johnpseudo regarding his claim that "article is about computer networking, not the profession of network engineering", which is at odds with other editors feeelings. Anybody wish to weigh in?

 * I also agree that there is a difference between computer network and network computing, although I prefer distributed computing for the latter. Indeed, computer network really is a subset of converged IP networks providing voice and video as well as data.

 * I would agree that this article does not cover the separate disciplines of network engineering, computer science networking research, and network administration. This article, while it needs much work, has quite enough to be covered before getting into the human skill sets. Howard C. Berkowitz 17:35, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

Workgroup
Workgroup redirects here, but there is no mention of workgroups in this article. Could someone fix this? —Dmbrown00 01:13, 26 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I have got here from Windows Server domain. There is link to Workgroup their thats redirects to this article, but there is no mention of workgroups in this article.  Could someone fix this? Alexsmail 15:52, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Workgroups and other logical groupings defined under views of computer networks. Howard C. Berkowitz 15:07, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

The Discipline of Computer Networking
The article speaks of computer networking as a form of engineering, but never addresses the actual engineering skills involved. I believe there should be such a section, which covers both the true engineering level of network & protocol architecture & design, as well as network administration. Some attention would need to be paid to common industry certifications. "Network engineer" is often associated with people who are really network administrators and high-level support technicians, but the common industry certifications may demonstrate enormous knowledge of administering certain vendor projects, rather than the theory-based practice of network engineering. Some people, of course, are highly qualified both in network engineering and network administration, but they are really different disciplines. A great protocol designer may not be a great troubleshooter, and vice versa.

Comments? Howard C. Berkowitz 15:07, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

www.netforu.org
This site is very usefull content.Please add the external links to this page.
 * How is a link to this site useful for the article? Ahy1 12:48, 11 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I've seen this link reappear several times after being removed for a lack of detailed relevance, as in a reference to the text. In a recent reappearance, the date in my signature was changed. Howard C. Berkowitz 12:52, 11 August 2007 (UTC)
 * As has already been noted at Wikipedia talk:Copyright problems, the entire site is a bad rip-off of stuff from the Cisco site. We don't link to copyright violations from Wikipedia. --Pak21 13:12, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

Added information
I added references that used external links, if anyone feels they should not be there feel free to remove them. I have added/moved/changed a good deal of information and spent a good deal of time doing so. I hope everyone agrees with my links and changes as this is my first substantial edit :)

LadyAngel89 14:21, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Good contributions, although I would suggest avoiding tertiary sources such as encyclopedias, Answers.com, magazine glossaries, etc. Look for the places where these have been originally defined, or at least discussed in a serious technical content rather than a web quick reference Howard C. Berkowitz 14:35, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

I can and will do that certainly although when speaking of sources from the internet it's hard to find sources of original documentation for subjects relating to computers and networking. So I went with the obvious (to me) second tier that should be pretty well established as factual source material. I only have resources to use the internet as a research tool at the moment, but I will definately look harder and see what I can find and update accordingly. Thank you so much for taking the time to look over my edit. Edited to add: What would you consider to be non tertiary sources? Any web resources at all or simply reference books and physical material?

LadyAngel89 17:06, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Apologies for missing this question last month.

 * It's not the Internet per se, since the Internet Engineering Task Force does its development by mailing lists, file transfers, and some web pages. In other words, for the IETF and some related groups (Internet Research Task Force, North American/European/Asia-Pacific/Latin American/African address registries and operational engineering forum), Internet publication is the primary source. Research institutions like www.caida.org primarily publish on the Internet.

 * There is a reasonable secondary level of the non-marketing literature of the major communications vendors, which, in the case of things like Cisco's Internet Technical Journal, get pretty close to peer-reviewed primary literature. Technical presentations and white papers, especially those that are multivendor or at least cooperative, are somewhere between secondary and primary. For years, the best IPv4 subnetting tutorial was by a 3Com engineer. You'll see people from Cisco and Juniper and Extreme and Nortel and such putting out research results, and these may be in the context of experimental networks. CERN, the European high-energy research center, is responsible for a great deal, including invention of the Web.

 * Where I think things are sliding into the far secondary and tertiary are in the certification cram guides, the sales-oriented literature, and some (even printed) textbooks. Websites in the education business vary a lot. Some are just come-ons for paid courses. Someone like Pete Welcher, however, writes some of the best tutorials in the business. I'm going to be putting up some of my tutorials Real Soon Now. Howard C. Berkowitz (talk) 00:56, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

Possible new content
The following text has been moved here from Windowing which has been converted to a disambiguation page. I think it should be merged into this article rather than discarded, but I don't know the topic well enough to do it capably. Could someone here handle this?

 * ''Windowing in computer networking means the quantity of data segments which is measured in bytes that a machine can transmit/send on the network without receiving an acknowledgement.

 * ''Part of the flow control process, windowing determines the amount of data that can be transmitted at one time, before the destination responds with an acknowledgment. After a host transmits the window-sized number of bytes, the host must receive an acknowledgment that the data has been received before it can send any more data. For example, if the window size is 1, each byte must be acknowledged before the next byte are sent.

I will include a link to this article on the new Windowing disambiguation page. Thanks. SlackerMom 18:45, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

 * It's not clear that this detailed behavior, which in this case is specific to TCP but variants are present in other protocols, belongs in the "computer networking" article rather than in an article, or series of articles, on protocol mechanism. This text is a good, but not fully updated, writeup of the flow and error control mechanism of TCP. LAP-B, for example, does not have the adaptive window size mentioned here, although it does have windowing with batched acknowledgements. RPC, as far as I know, retransmits but always uses a window size of 1.

 * A continuing problem, among the networking articles, is the level of detail that should be present in a given article. I haven't looked recently at the TCP article and am not sure if it covers variants like the LFN and very high speed variations, large initial window size, and other experimental or at least specialized mechanisms.

 * Do we need a general article on windowing, error detection, and error control? Howard C. Berkowitz 19:19, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

Have you considered this
Datapoint was amongst the first comanies (if not the very first) to make networking readily available on a commercial basis. They invented Arcnet, which whil very slow, was still th first commonly available mechanism people could reliably buy and use.

Relation between Data communication, Computer communication, Computer networking, Data transmission and Digital communications
I have tried to relate these terms to each other in the Data transmission article, especially in its lead. Any comments are helpful. Mange01 (talk) 06:59, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Needs major work
I'd rate this article at the Start level. This is a large and complex topic, and the information included is quite incomplete.

I'd also decrease it's importance by 1 notch. Although networking is very important in some disciplines, I wouldn't classify it, for example, as equal in importance to the initial steps in developing the understanding and use of electricity or to the invention of the transistor.

I think the distinction between computer network and computer networking is artificial, unclear, and too specialized for these terms to be treated as separate topics in WP.

The photo at the outset is a poor choice as the only photo. It is outdated (might be ok in the history section) and it represents only one kind of network hardware. More photos are needed (which is widely true in WP).

This would be a good place to include a subtopic on Network Architecture, or at least there should be a link to a Network Architecture article.

There should be more detail on a few of the most prevalent network architectures.

Some kind of discussion of network security issues and methods should be included.

Wcmead3 (talk) 14:36, 16 June 2008 (UTC)

network
Bridges work at OSI model —Preceding unsigned comment added by 59.180.87.115 (talk) 13:18, 9 July 2009 (UTC)

network
Bridges work at OSI model layer 1 layer 2 layer 3 layer 4 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 59.180.87.115 (talk) 13:20, 9 July 2009 (UTC)

Rename proposal
I would like to suggest this article be renamed Data communications. The goal is to create some distance between this article which I gather endeavors to describe the discipline and methods and Computer network which describes specific technology. I propose Computer networking will redirect to the renamed article. --Kvng (talk) 14:23, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

Computer network merge
Computer networking and Computer network seem to cover the same ground. We should either merge the articles or figure out exactly where one stops and the other begins. I would prefer a merge. --Kvng (talk) 14:06, 21 April 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree with a merge. The two articles are extremely similar and I think that computer network is the more fundamental topic, and so computer networking should be merged there.Rememberway (talk) 17:16, 22 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Me too. Two different inflections of the same term, essentially. Would prefer this over "data communications" since that seems a slightly more dated term. We already have telecommunications for the more encompassing field that includes phone networks etc. Now a separate question that seems to have been debated above, is if a separate article on the engineering field is needed. I would favor having computer network be the resulting article, since it is the "root" term. But not adamant. W Nowicki (talk) 23:35, 7 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Data communications is usually point-to-point, whereas networking is about creating n>2 networks.Rememberway (talk) 23:49, 7 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Might be showing my age, but the original "computer networks" consisted of n=1 computer. The single computer in the middle would be connected to some or many terminals in various ways (usually a star or tree) or even remote job entry stations connecting to a central computer in star topology. But generally in modern terminology of course I agree. Anyway the network -> networking merge is fait acompli. Thanks. Perhaps some day "data communicaton" might be split out, but other work probably higher priority for now. W Nowicki (talk) 17:23, 18 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer networking


text:
Sam 'n' Henry

Sam 'n' Henry was a radio series performed by Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll that aired on Chicago radio station WGN from 1926 through 1928. The ten-minute program is often considered the first situation comedy. Gosden and Correll reworked the premise on a more ambitious scale to create their long-running radio show Amos 'n' Andy.

Characters and history
In late 1925, radio performers Gosden and Correll had been approached about doing a show based on Sidney Smith's popular comic strip The Gumps. Gosden and Corell instead proposed their own radio serial using characters they created themselves. Like The Gumps, each show would be amusing in itself but would also feature recurring characters in an ongoing storyline. Gosden and Correll decided to make their main characters, named Sam Smith and Henry Johnson, Black men who had recently arrived from Alabama during the Great Migration. This reflected the historical circumstances in Chicago during the 1920s, when millions of Southern Black families moved north in search of opportunity and relief from Jim Crow segregation in the South. This influx was met with considerable resistance in Northern communities, including Chicago, leading to numerous forms of marginalization for the new arrivals; one expression of this was the often mocking, stereotypical portrayal of African Americans by White performers, a tradition of which Gosden and Correll became prominent examples.

After overcoming initial problems with finding food, living space and employment, Sam and Henry set up their own moving company, with overbearing Henry as company president and meek, gullible Sam as the one who does all the work. Having been initiated into a colored fraternity called the Jewels of the Crown, they strike up a friendship with the Most Precious Diamond, the high officer of the lodge, who frequently tries to get his hands on the boys' money.

Sam 'n' Henry premiered on Chicago radio station WGN on January 12, 1926, and immediately found an audience of Midwestern listeners. Correll and Gosden wrote and produced 586 episodes. They provided the voices for all characters.

Gosden and Corell left WGN after the station rejected their novel concept of recording Sam 'n' Henry on phonograph records for distribution to other radio stations. The duo's last musical program for WGN was broadcast on January 29, 1928. In March, they brought their characters, now called Amos and Andy, to competing Chicago station WMAQ. WGN retained the rights to the characters and continued Sam 'n' Henry without Correll and Gosden until February 12, 1928. On March 31, some two weeks after Amos 'n' Andy premiered on WMAQ, Sam 'n' Henry returned as a 15- to 30-minute program, in which the title characters mostly functioned as announcers for musical performances. The final episode of Sam 'n' Henry aired on July 14, 1928.

Today, the show is acknowledged as a historically significant production, but one that also effected real harm through the perpetuation of racial stereotypes, minstrelsy, and blackface performance.

Books
In 1926, the Chicago Tribune published Sam 'n' Henry, containing a selection of 25 of the scripts Correll and Gosden wrote for the first two months of their radio series (judging from the pages of the Chicago Tribune quoted in chapter 23, these are from among the 31 episodes broadcast up to February 19, 1926). In the brief introduction, they wrote, "Please stand by while we rise (both of us) and bow fervently to our good and great papa, the Chicago Tribune. Oh, oh!" Illustrator Samuel Jay Smith supplied several drawings of the characters. Since the book sold well in the Midwest, the Tribune brought out a paperback version in 1930.

Other media
From February 6, 1927, to October 2, 1927, each Sunday issue of the Chicago Daily Tribune contained the script of an old or recent episode of the show. In 1926 and 1927, Gosden and Correll also recorded some of their Sam 'n' Henry routines for Victor Records (rewritten and shortened to about three minutes), and in the first two months of 1927, they performed as Sam 'n' Henry in at least three Chicago theaters.

Listen to

 * Tom Heathwood interviews broadcast historian Elizabeth McLeod
 * "Sam 'n Henry (aka Amos & Andy) 14 Eps", Old Time Radio, Audio Archive.

title: Sam 'n' Henry


text:
George Grosz

George Grosz (born Georg Ehrenfried Groß; July 26, 1893 – July 6, 1959) was a German artist known especially for his caricatural drawings and paintings of Berlin life in the 1920s. He was a prominent member of the Berlin Dada and New Objectivity groups during the Weimar Republic. He emigrated to the United States in 1933, and became a naturalized citizen in 1938. Abandoning the style and subject matter of his earlier work, he exhibited regularly and taught for many years at the Art Students League of New York. In 1959 he returned to Berlin, where he died shortly afterwards.

Early life and education

Grosz was born Georg Ehrenfried Groß in Berlin, Germany, the third child of a pub owner. His parents were devoutly Lutheran. Grosz grew up in the Pomeranian town of Stolp (now Słupsk, Poland). After his father's death in 1900, he moved to the Wedding district of Berlin with his mother and sisters. At the urging of his cousin, the young Grosz began attending a weekly drawing class taught by a local painter named Grot. Grosz developed his skills further by drawing meticulous copies of the drinking scenes of Eduard von Grützner, and by drawing imaginary battle scenes. He was expelled from school in 1908 for insubordination.

From 1909 to 1911, he studied at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, where his teachers were Richard Müller, Robert Sterl, Raphael Wehle, and Osmar Schindler. His first published drawing was in the satirical magazine Ulk in 1910. From 1912 until 1917 he studied at the Berlin College of Arts and Crafts under Emil Orlik. He began painting in oils in 1912.

In November 1914 Grosz volunteered for military service, in the hope that by thus preempting conscription he would avoid being sent to the front. He was given a discharge after hospitalization for sinusitis in 1915. In 1916 he changed the spelling of his name to "de-Germanise" and internationalise his name – thus Georg became "George" (an English spelling), while in his surname he replaced the German "ß" with its phonetic equivalent "sz". He did this as a protest against German nationalism and out of a romantic enthusiasm for America – a legacy of his early reading of the books of James Fenimore Cooper, Bret Harte and Karl May – that he retained for the rest of his life. His artist friend and collaborator Helmut Herzfeld likewise changed his name to John Heartfield at the same time.

In January 1917 Grosz was drafted for service, but in May he was discharged as permanently unfit.

Political engagement, 1918 to 1920

Following the November Revolution in the last months of 1918, Grosz joined the Spartacist League, which was renamed the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in December 1918. He was arrested during the Spartakus uprising in January 1919, but escaped using fake identification documents. In 1920 he married Eva Peters.

In the same year he published a collection of his drawings, titled Gott mit uns ("God with us"), a satire on German society. Grosz was accused of insulting the army, which resulted in a 300 German Mark fine and the confiscation of the plates used to print the album.

Trip to Russia, 1922/1923
In 1922 Grosz traveled to Russia with the Danish writer Martin Andersen Nexø. Upon their arrival in Murmansk they were briefly arrested as spies; after their credentials were approved, they were allowed to continue their journey. He met with several Bolshevik leaders such as Grigory Zinoviev, Karl Radek, and Vladimir Lenin. He went with Arthur Holitscher to meet Anatoly Lunacharsky with whom he discussed Proletkult. He rejected the concept of "proletarian culture", arguing that the term proletarian meant uneducated and uncultured. He regarded artistic talent as a "gift of the muses", which a person may be lucky enough to be born with. There he also met the Constructivist artist Vladimir Tatlin.

Grosz's six-month stay in the Soviet Union left him unimpressed by what he had seen. He ended his membership in the KPD in 1923, although his political positions were little changed.

Later activities in Germany
According to Grosz's son Martin Grosz, during the 1920s Nazi officers visited Grosz's studio looking for him, but because he was wearing a working man's apron Grosz was able to pass himself off as a handyman and avoid being taken into custody. His work was also part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1928 Summer Olympics.

On December 10, 1928 he and his publisher Wieland Herzfelde were prosecuted and fined under charges of blasphemy and sacrilege for publishing two anticlerical drawings in his portfolio Hintergrund (Background). One depicted prisoners under assault from a minister who vomits grenades and weapons onto them, and another featured a crucified Christ wearing a World War I gas mask and combat boots.

According to historian David Nash, Grosz "publicly stated that he was neither Christian nor pacifist, but was actively motivated by an inner need to create these pictures". He and his publisher appealed twice, and were finally acquitted in 1929 by the Reichsgericht in Berlin. "The judge decided that it was not an offense to religion, but actually was an attack on militarism. The implication is that, from Grosz’s point of view, religion was being used as essentially an opiate of the masses to encourage soldiers to die for the state. 'Shut up and obey,' was the rubric associated with this," according to art critic Camille Paglia.

In 1942 Time magazine identified Grosz as a pacifist.

Emigration to the U.S.
Bitterly anti-Nazi, Grosz left Germany shortly before Hitler came to power. In June 1932, he accepted an invitation to teach the summer semester at the Art Students League of New York. In October 1932, Grosz returned to Germany, but on January 12, 1933, he and his family emigrated to the United States. Their ship docked in New York on Jan. 23, 1933, a week before Hitler came to power in Berlin. Grosz became a naturalized citizen of the U.S. in 1938, and made his home in Bayside, New York. In the 1930s he taught at the Art Students League, where one of his students was Romare Bearden, who was influenced by his style of collage. Grosz taught at the Art Students League until 1955. His other students included Joseph Glasco and Robert Cenedella, whom he mentored from 1957 to 1959.

In America, Grosz determined to make a clean break with his past, and changed his style and subject matter. He continued to exhibit regularly, and in 1946 he published his autobiography, Ein kleines Ja und ein großes Nein, first translated as A Little Yes and a Big No. From 1947 to 1959, George Grosz lived in Huntington, New York, where he taught painting at the Huntington Township Art League. It is said by Huntington locals that he used what was to become his most famous painting, Eclipse of the Sun, to pay for a car repair bill, in his relative penury. The painting was later acquired by house painter Tom Constantine to settle a debt of $104.00. In the 1950s he opened a private art school at his home and also worked as Artist in Residence at the Des Moines Art Center. Grosz was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician in 1950. In 1954 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

Personal life and death
On May 26, 1920, Grosz married Eva Louise Peter, with whom he had two sons, Peter Grosz (1926–2006), a historian of early German aviation, and Marty Grosz (born 1930), a jazz guitarist.

Grosz resolved to return to Berlin, and relocated there in May 1959. He died there on July 6, 1959, from the effects of falling down a flight of stairs after a night of drinking.

Work
Although Grosz made his first oil paintings in 1912 while still a student, his earliest oils that can be identified date from 1916. By 1914, Grosz worked in a style influenced by Expressionism and Futurism, as well as by popular illustration, graffiti, and children's drawings. Sharply outlined forms are often treated as if transparent. The City (1916–17) was the first of his many paintings of the modern urban scene. Other examples include the apocalyptic Explosion (1917), Metropolis (1917), and The Funeral, a 1918 painting depicting a mad funeral procession. He settled in Berlin in 1918 and was a founder of the Berlin Dada movement, using his satirical drawings to attack bourgeois supporters of the Weimar Republic.

His drawings, usually in pen and ink which he sometimes developed further with watercolor, frequently included images of Berlin and the Weimar Republic in the 1920s. Corpulent businessmen, wounded soldiers, prostitutes, sex crimes and orgies were his great subjects (for example, see Fit for Active Service). His draftsmanship was excellent although the works for which he is best known adopt a deliberately crude form of caricature in the style of Jugend. His oeuvre includes a few absurdist works, such as Remember Uncle August the Unhappy Inventor which has buttons sewn on it, and also includes a number of erotic artworks.

After his emigration to the USA in 1933, Grosz "sharply rejected [his] previous work, and caricature in general." In place of his earlier corrosive vision of the city, he now painted conventional nudes and many landscape watercolors. More acerbic works, such as Cain, or Hitler in Hell (1944), were the exception. In his autobiography, he wrote: "A great deal that had become frozen within me in Germany melted here in America and I rediscovered my old yearning for painting. I carefully and deliberately destroyed a part of my past." Although a softening of his style had been apparent since the late 1920s, Grosz's work assumed a more sentimental tone in America, a change generally seen as a decline. His late work never achieved the critical success of his Berlin years.

In 1968, the Heckscher Museum of Art in Huntington purchased the painting Eclipse of the Sun for $15,000.00, raising the money by public subscription. As it portrays the warmongering of arms manufacturers, this painting became a destination of protesters of the Vietnam War in Heckscher Park (where the museum is sited) in the late 1960s and early 70s.

In 2006, the Heckscher proposed selling Eclipse of the Sun at its then-current appraisal of approximately $19,000,000.00 to pay for repairs and renovations to the building. There was such public outcry that the museum decided not to sell, and announced plans to create a dedicated space for display of the painting in the renovated museum.

Legacy and estate
Grosz's art influenced other New Objectivity artists such as Heinrich Maria Davringhausen, Anton Räderscheidt, and Georg Scholz. In the United States, the artists influenced by his work included the social realists Ben Shahn and William Gropper.

In 1960, Grosz was the subject of the Oscar-nominated short film George Grosz' Interregnum. He is fictionalized as "Fritz Falke" in Arthur R.G. Solmssen's novel A Princess in Berlin (1980). In 2002, actor Kevin McKidd portrayed Grosz in a supporting role as an eager artist seeking exposure in Max, regarding Adolf Hitler's youth.

The Grosz estate filed a lawsuit in 1995 against the Manhattan art dealer Serge Sabarsky, arguing that Sabarsky had deprived the estate of appropriate compensation for the sale of hundreds of Grosz works he had acquired. In the suit, filed in New York Supreme Court in Manhattan, the Grosz estate claims that Sabarsky secretly acquired 440 Grosz works for himself, primarily drawings and watercolors produced in Germany in the 1910s and 20s. The lawsuit was settled in summer in 2006.

In 2003 the Grosz family initiated a legal battle against the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, asking that three paintings be returned. According to documents, the paintings were sold to the Nazis after Grosz fled the country in 1933. The museum never settled the claim, arguing that a three-year statute of limitations in bringing such a claim had expired. It is well documented that the Nazis stole thousands of paintings during World War II and many heirs of German painters continue to fight museums in order to reclaim such works.

In 2015, Ralph Jentsch – the managing director of the Grosz estate since 1994 – co-founded a Berlin-based nonprofit organization dedicated to the artist. In 2022, the Little Grosz Museum (Kleines Grosz Museum) opened in Berlin's Schöneberg district. Housed in a midcentury former gas station that was converted to a living space in 2008, the museum is funded by private donors and also houses a café and shop.

Quotes

 * "My Drawings expressed my despair, hate and disillusionment, I drew drunkards; puking men; men with clenched fists cursing at the moon. ... I drew a man, face filled with fright, washing blood from his hands ... I drew lonely little men fleeing madly through empty streets. I drew a cross-section of tenement house: through one window could be seen a man attacking his wife; through another, two people making love; from a third hung a suicide with body covered by swarming flies. I drew soldiers without noses; war cripples with crustacean-like steel arms; two medical soldiers putting a violent infantryman into a strait-jacket made of a horse blanket ... I drew a skeleton dressed as a recruit being examined for military duty. I also wrote poetry." — George Grosz

title: George Grosz