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Shipworm

The shipworms, also called Teredo worms or simply Teredo (, via Latin ), are marine bivalve molluscs in the family Teredinidae, a group of saltwater clams with long, soft, naked bodies. They are notorious for boring into (and commonly eventually destroying) wood that is immersed in seawater, including such structures as wooden piers, docks, and ships; they drill passages by means of a pair of very small shells ("valves") borne at one end, with which they rasp their way through. They are sometimes called "termites of the sea". Carl Linnaeus assigned the common name Teredo to the best-known genus of shipworms in the 10th edition of his taxonomic magnum opus, Systema Naturæ (1758).

Characteristics

Removed from its burrow, the fully grown teredo ranges from several centimeters to about a meter in length, depending on the species. An average adult shipworm measures 4 to 6 in in length and less than 1/4 in in diameter, but some species grow to considerable size. The body is cylindrical, slender, naked, and superficially vermiform (worm-shaped). In spite of their slender, worm-like forms, shipworms possess the characteristic morphology of bivalves. The ctinidia lie mainly within the branchial siphon, through which the animal pumps the water that passes over the gills.

The two siphons are very long and protrude from the posterior end of the animal. Where they leave the end of the main part of the body, the siphons pass between a pair of calcareous plates called pallets. If the animal is alarmed, it withdraws the siphons and the pallets protectively block the opening of the tunnel.

The pallets are not to be confused with the two valves of the main shell, which are at the anterior end of the animal. Because they are the organs that the animal applies to boring its tunnel, they generally are located at the tunnel's end. They are borne on the slightly thickened, muscular anterior end of the cylindrical body and they are roughly triangular in shape and markedly concave on their interior surfaces. The outer surfaces are convex and in most species are deeply sculpted into sharp grinding surfaces with which the animals bore their way through the wood or similar medium in which they live and feed. The valves of shipworms are separated and the aperture of the mantle lies between them. The small "foot" (corresponding to the foot of a clam) can protrude through the aperture.

When shipworms bore into submerged wood, bacterial symbionts embedded within a sub-organ called the typhlosole in the shipworm gut, aid in the digestion of the wood particles ingested The Alteromonas or Alteromonas-sub-group of bacteria identified as the symbiont species in the typhlosole, are known to digest lignin, and wood material in general. The tough molecular layers of lignin surround the cellulose elementary fibrils in the wood particles, and the lignin must be digested initially to allow access by other enzymes into the cellulose for digestion. Another bacterial species (Teredinibacter turnerae), in the gills secrete a variety of cellulose-digesting enzymes which may be secreted into the shipworm gut via a special organ called the gland of Deshayes. These secretions aid the shipworm's own carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) in digesting the wood particles in combination with the enzymes and potentially other metabolites secreted by the symbiont bacterial in the typhlosole

The excavated burrow is usually lined with a calcareous tube. The valves of the shell of shipworms are small separate parts located at the anterior end of the worm, used for excavating the burrow. The protective role of the shells is lost because the animal spends all its life surrounded by wood.

Teredo navalis develops from eggs to metamorphosing larvae in about five weeks. They spend half of this time in the mother's gill chamber before being discharged as free-swimming larvae into the sea. Their sexes alternate, young are hermaphrodites while adults can be either male or female. Typically, organisms are male at first and female subsequently. A second male to female phase may occur, however shipworms rarely live long enough to complete the second phase. They have a lifespan of 1 to 3 years.

Anatomy

Shipworm anatomy reveals the typical organs of a bivalve mollusk, although with dimensional or positional peculiarities due to the thinness and length of the occupied space. Furthermore, some structures find no equivalent in other bivalve groups.

Normally, the shipworm's body fills the entire length of the gallery, but the anterior region can retract itself slightly with respect to the latter's extremity. Without the gills, the viscera only cover one-fourth of the total length and only their anterior part is partially covered by the shell.
 * Gills are divided in two halves, the anterior one of small size, the posterior one much more developed. They are linked by the alimentary tract running on the side of the visceral mass.
 * The heart-kidney system is tilted, bringing the kidneys in a dorsal position relative to the heart, whose atria find themselves behind the ventricle. Furthermore, the anterior and posterior aorta become respectively posterior and anterior.
 * The anus opens at the end of a long anal tube.
 * The digestive gland is divided into several parts, with separate orifices in the stomach.
 * A vast caecum is linked to the stomach.
 * The digestive tube bears a very peculiar structure, the gland of Deshayes, probably homologous to salivary glands, which link to the oesophagus and stretch to the dorsal side of the posterior part of the gills.
 * The orifice of the gallery bears pallets with their own musculature.
 * The siphon retractor muscles are inserted on the calcareous covering of the gallery, and not on the shell's valves which are much further out.
 * The anterior and posterior anterior muscles have an antagonistic action.

Taxonomy
Shipworms are marine animals in the phylum Mollusca, order Bivalvia, family Teredinidae. They were included in the now obsolete order Eulamellibranchiata, in which many documents still place them.

Ruth Turner of Harvard University was the leading 20th century expert on the Teredinidae; she published a detailed monograph on the family, the 1966 volume A Survey and Illustrated Catalogue of the Teredinidae published by the Museum of Comparative Zoology. More recently, the endosymbionts that are found in the gills have been subject to study the bioconversion of cellulose for fuel energy research.

Shipworm species comprise several genera, of which Teredo is the most commonly mentioned. The best known species is Teredo navalis. Historically, Teredo concentrations in the Caribbean Sea have been substantially higher than in most other salt water bodies.

Genera within the family Teridinidae include:

 * Bactronophorus Tapparone-Canefri, 1877
 * Bankia Gray, 1842
 * Dicyathifer Iredale, 1932
 * Kuphus Guettard, 1770
 * Lithoredo Shipway, Distel & Rosenberg, 2019
 * Lyrodus Binney, 1870
 * Nausitoria Wright, 1884
 * Neoteredo Bartsch, 1920
 * Nototeredo Bartsch, 1923
 * Psiloteredo Bartsch, 1922
 * Spathoteredo Moll, 1928
 * Teredo Linnaeus, 1758
 * Teredora Bartsch, 1921
 * Teredothyra Bartsch, 1921
 * Uperotus Guettard, 1770
 * Zachsia Bulatoff & Rjabtschikoff, 1933

Species
The Teredo genus has approximately 20 species that live in wooden materials such as logs, pilings, ship, and practically any other submerged wooden construction from temperate to tropical ocean zones. The species is thought to be native to the Atlantic Ocean and was once known as the Atlantic shipworm, although its exact origin is unknown. The longest marine bivalve, Kuphus polythalamia, was found from a lagoon near Mindanao island in the southeastern part of the Philippines, which belongs to the same group of mussels and clams. The existence of huge mollusks was established for centuries and studied by the scientists, based on the shells they left behind that were the size of baseball bats (length 1.5 meters (5 ft.), diameter 6 cm (2.3 in.)). The bivalve is a rare creature that spends its life inside an elephant tusk-like hard shell made of calcium carbonate. It has a protective cap over its head which it reabsorbs to burrow into the mud for food. The case of the shipworm is not just the home of the black slimy worm. Instead, it acts as the primary source of nourishment in a non-traditional way. K. polythalamia sifts mud and sediment with its gills. Most shipworms are relatively smaller and feed on rotten wood. This shipworm instead relies on a beneficial symbiotic bacteria living in its gills. The bacteria use the hydrogen sulfide for energy to produce organic compounds that in turn feed the shipworms, similar to the process of photosynthesis used by green plants to convert the carbon dioxide in the air into simple carbon compounds. Scientists found that K. polythalamia cooperates with different bacteria than other shipworms, which could be the reason why it evolved from consuming rotten wood to living on hydrogen sulfide in the mud. The internal organs of the shipworm have shrunk from lack of use over the course of its evolution The scientists are planning to study the microbes found in the single gill of K. polythalamia to find a new possible antimicrobial substance

Habitat
Teredo navalis are a cosmopolitan species that can be found both in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Since they occupy wooden flotsam and natural driftwood such as dead tree trunks, they are spread as the woods are carried by currents. They also travel inside the wooden-hulled vessels that help increase their spread worldwide. However, the origin of T. navalis remains uncertain due to the widespread usage of ships in global trade and the resulting spreading of shipworms.

During the free-living larva stage, the species colonizes new habitats and spreads. Larvae are extremely sensitive to the presence of wood and will take advantage of any opportunity to attach to and penetrate wooden structures. In the Baltic Sea, free-floating piles carved by shipworms can be observed floating hundreds of kilometers away from the original wooden structures. The limiting element for propagation is salinity, which must be greater than 8% for successful reproduction. Reproduction occurs during warm summer months, and the larvae mature for production in just eight weeks. Each year, several generations can be produced. Consequently, freshwater is deadly to these invertebrates. Their ideal temperature range is 15 to 25 degree C and therefore T. navalis can be found in temperate and tropical zones.

The shipworm lives in waters with oceanic salinity. Accordingly, it is rare in the brackish Baltic Sea, where wooden shipwrecks are preserved for much longer than in the oceans.

The range of various species has changed over time based on human activity. Many waters in developed countries that had been plagued by shipworms were cleared of them by pollution from the Industrial Revolution and the modern era; as environmental regulation led to cleaner waters, shipworms have returned. Climate change has also changed the range of species; some once found only in warmer and more salty waters like the Caribbean have established habitats in the Mediterranean.

Cultural impact
Shipworms greatly damage wooden hulls and marine piling, and have been the subject of much study to find methods to avoid their attacks. Copper sheathing was used on wooden ships in the latter 18th century and afterwards, as a method of preventing damage by "teredo worms". The first historically documented use of copper sheathing was experiments held by the British Royal Navy with HMS Alarm (1758), which was coppered in 1761 and thoroughly inspected after a two-year cruise. In a letter from the Navy Board to the Admiralty dated 31 August 1763 it was written "that so long as copper plates can be kept upon the bottom, the planks will be thereby entirely secured from the effects of the worm."

In the Netherlands the shipworm caused a crisis in the 18th century by attacking the timber that faced the sea dikes. After that the dikes had to be faced with stones. In 2009, Teredo have caused several minor collapses along the Hudson River waterfront in Hoboken, New Jersey, due to damage to underwater pilings.

In the early 19th century, engineer Marc Brunel observed that the shipworm's valves simultaneously enabled it to tunnel through wood and protected it from being crushed by the swelling timber. With that idea, he designed the first tunnelling shield, a modular iron tunnelling framework which enabled workers to tunnel through the unstable riverbed beneath the Thames. The Thames Tunnel was the first successful large tunnel built under a navigable river.

Henry David Thoreau's poem "Though All the Fates" pays homage to "New England's worm" which, in the poem, infests the hull of "[t]he vessel, though her masts be firm". In time, no matter what the ship carries or where she sails, the shipworm "her hulk shall bore, / [a]nd sink her in the Indian seas". The hull of the ship wrecked by a whale, inspiring Moby Dick, had been weakened by shipworms. In the Norse Saga of Erik the Red, Bjarni Herjólfsson, said to be the first European to discover the Americas, had his ship drift into the Irish Sea where it was eaten up by shipworms. He allowed half the crew to escape in a smaller boat covered in seal tar, while he stayed behind to drown with his men.

Cuisine

Today shipworms are primarily eaten in parts of Southeast Asia. In Palawan and Aklan in the Philippines, the shipworm is called tamilok and is eaten as a delicacy. It is prepared as kinilaw—that is, raw (cleaned) but marinated with vinegar or lime juice, chopped chili peppers and onions, a process very similar to shrimp ceviche. Similarly, T. navalis can be found inside the dead and rotten trunk of mangroves in West Papua, Indonesia. To the locals, the Kamoro tribe, it is referred to as tambelo and is considered as a delicacy in daily meals. It can be eaten fresh and raw (cleaned) or cooked (cleaned and boiled) as well and usually marinated with lime juice and chili peppers. Since T. navalis are related to clams, mussels, and oysters, the taste of the flesh has been compared to a wide variety of foods, from milk to oysters. Similarly, the delicacy is harvested, sold, and eaten from those taken by local natives in the mangrove forests of West Papua and some part of Borneo Island, Indonesia, and the central coastal peninsular regions of Thailand near Ko Phra Thong.

T. navalis grow faster than any other bivalve because it does not require much energy to create its small shell. They can grow to be about 30 cm long in just six months. Mussels and oysters, on the other hand, with their much bigger shells, can take up to two years to reach harvestable size.

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Uneconomic growth

Uneconomic growth is economic growth that reflects or creates a decline in the quality of life. The concept is used in human development theory, welfare theory, and ecological economics. It is usually attributed to ecological economist Herman Daly, though other theorists may also be credited for the incipient idea, According to Daly, "uneconomic growth occurs when increases in production come at an expense in resources and well-being that is worth more than the items made." The cost, or decline in well-being, associated with extended economic growth is argued to arise as a result of "the social and environmental sacrifices made necessary by that growing encroachment on the eco-system."

Types of growth
The rate or type of economic growth may have important consequences for the environment (the climate and natural capital of ecologies). Concerns about possible negative effects of growth on the environment and society have led some to advocate lower levels of growth, from which comes the idea of uneconomic growth and Green parties which argue that economies are part of a global society and a global ecology and cannot outstrip their natural growth without damaging them.

Canadian scientist David Suzuki argued in the 1990s that ecologies can only sustain typically about 1.5–3% new growth per year, and thus any requirement for greater returns from agriculture or forestry will necessarily cannibalize the natural capital of soil or forest. Some think this argument can be applied even to more developed economies.

The role of technology, and Jevons paradox
Mainstream economists would argue that economies are driven by new technology—for instance, we have faster computers today than a year ago, but not necessarily physically more computers. Growth that relies entirely on exploiting increased knowledge rather than exploiting increased resource consumption may thus not qualify as uneconomic growth. In some cases, this may be true where technology enables lower amounts of input to be used in producing the same unit of product (and/or it reduces the amount or hazardousness of the waste generated per unit product produced) (e.g., the increased availability of movies through the Internet or cable television electronically may reduce the demand for physical video tapes or DVDs for films). Nonetheless, it is crucial to also recognise that innovation- or knowledge-driven growth still may not entirely resolve the problem of scale, or increasing resource consumption. For instance, there might likely be more computers due to greater demand and replacements for slower computers.

The Jevons Paradox is the proposition that technological progress that increases the efficiency with which a resource is used, tends to increase (rather than decrease) the rate of consumption of that resource. For example, given that expenditure on necessities and taxes remain the same, (i) the availability of energy-saving lightbulbs may mean lower electricity usage and fees for a household but this frees up more discretionary, disposable income for additional consumption elsewhere (an example of the "rebound effect") and (ii) technology (or globalisation) that leads to the availability of cheaper goods for consumers also frees up discretionary income for increased consumptive spending.

On the other hand, new renewable energy and climate change mitigation technology (such as artificial photosynthesis) has been argued to promote a prolonged era of human stewardship over ecosystems known as the Sustainocene. In the Sustainocene, "instead of the cargo-cult ideology of perpetual economic growth through corporate pillage of nature, globalised artificial photosynthesis will facilitate a steady state economy and further technological revolutions such as domestic nano-factories and e-democratic input to local communal and global governance structures. In such a world, humans will no longer feel economically threatened, but rather proud, that their moral growth has allowed them to uphold Rights of Nature."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Uneconomic growth


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Paula Yates

Paula Elizabeth Yates (24 April 1959 – 17 September 2000) was a British television presenter and writer. Yates is best known for her work on two television programmes, The Tube and The Big Breakfast. She was subjected to intense media attention and scrutiny, owing to her popularity and her relationships with musicians Bob Geldof and Michael Hutchence.

Early life
Born on 24 April 1959 in Colwyn Bay, Wales, to English parents, Yates was brought up in a show business family. Her mother was Elaine Smith (whose stage name was Heller Toren, and who later wrote under the pseudonym Helene Thornton). Up until 1997, Yates believed her biological father to be Jess Yates, who hosted the ITV religious programme Stars on Sunday. A DNA test in that year revealed that her biological father was game show host Hughie Green. Jess Yates and Elaine Smith were married from 1958 to 1975. Jess Yates was 19 years older than his wife, and their marriage was unconventional.

Yates described her childhood as lonely and isolated; her mother, she claimed, was absent for much of her upbringing. She attended a village primary school, Penrhos College, and Ysgol Aberconwy. The Yates family ran the Deganwy Castle Hotel for a time, before moving to a house near Conwy. After the break-up of her parents' marriage in 1975, Yates lived mostly with her mother despite having a closer relationship with her father, and also had periods in Malta and Mallorca where she was a pupil at Bellver International College, before returning to Britain.

Career
In 1979, Yates began her career as a music journalist with a column called "Natural Blonde" in the Record Mirror, shortly after posing for Penthouse magazine. She first came to prominence in the 1980s, as co-presenter (with Jools Holland) of the Channel 4 pop music programme The Tube, having been a minor co-host of BBC TV chat shows with presenter Terry Wogan. She also appeared alongside her friend Jennifer Saunders in 1987 for a spoof documentary on pop group Bananarama.

In 1982, she released a version of the Nancy Sinatra hit song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" from the Music of Quality and Distinction Volume One album by B.E.F. (British Electric Foundation).

After the birth of her daughters, Yates wrote two books on motherhood. She continued with her rock journalism, in addition to being presenter of the cutting-edge music show The Tube.

Yates became known for her "on the bed" interviews on the show The Big Breakfast, produced by her husband, Bob Geldof. She casually asked the questions she felt people really wanted the answers to: "Is it true you had an affair with Prince?" (to Kylie Minogue) — and persuaded Sting to take his trousers off live on air.

At the time of her death in 2000, Yates was working on a book titled Sex and Death, writing about her life from the moment she visited Hutchence's body in the morgue.

Personal life
Yates met Geldof in the early days of the Boomtown Rats. They began a romantic relationship in 1976 when she flew to Paris to surprise him while the band was playing there. Their first daughter, Fifi, was born in 1983. After ten years together, Yates and Geldof married on 31 August 1986 in Las Vegas, with Simon Le Bon of Duran Duran acting as best man. The couple then had two more daughters, Peaches on 13 March 1989, and Pixie on 17 September 1990.

Whilst married to Geldof, Yates had a year-long affair with American singer Terence Trent D'Arby. She had a six-year long affair with actor Rupert Everett.

In 1985, Yates met INXS lead singer Michael Hutchence while interviewing him for Channel 4's rock magazine programme The Tube. During this appearance on The Tube, Yates was reportedly asked to leave Hutchence alone by the road manager of INXS when she walked up to him and said, "I'm going to have that boy [Hutchence]". Yates was unmoved by the manager's request and began to show up at INXS gigs everywhere for the next few years, even taking her young daughter Fifi along. Yates maintained irregular contact with Hutchence during the intervening nine years and their affair had been under way for some months before their Big Breakfast interview in October 1994.

Geldof and Yates divorced in May 1996. On 22 July 1996, Yates gave birth to a daughter, Tiger Lily.

On 22 November 1997, Hutchence was found dead in a hotel room in Sydney. The official verdict into his death said that he killed himself by hanging. Yates wrote in her police statement that Hutchence was "frightened and couldn't stand a minute more without his baby". During their phone conversations on the morning of his suicide, he had said, "I don't know how I'll live without Tiger". Yates also wrote that Geldof had threatened them repeatedly, saying: "Don't forget, I am above the law." Yates became distraught, refusing to accept the coroner's verdict of suicide and insisting that it was a case of auto-erotic asphyxiation. She eventually sought psychiatric treatment.

In December 1997, a few weeks after Hutchence's death and while Yates was fighting for custody of her daughter with Hutchence, Yates suffered another blow when a DNA test result confirmed tabloid media reports that Jess Yates, who had died in April 1993, was not her biological father. A paternity test proved that the talent show host Hughie Green, who had died six months before Hutchence, was her biological father.

In June 1998, Geldof won full custody of the couple's three daughters after Yates attempted suicide. She met Kingsley O'Keke during her stay in treatment, but the pair broke up after a six-week romance. O'Keke later sold his story to a tabloid newspaper.

Death
On 17 September 2000, on Pixie's 10th birthday, Yates died at her home in Notting Hill at the age of 41 of a heroin overdose. The coroner ruled that it was not a suicide, but a result of "foolish and incautious" behaviour. Yates was discovered in the presence of her then-four-year-old daughter, Tiger Lily. A friend disclosed during the inquest that Yates had not taken illegal drugs for nearly two years, and the coroner, Paul Knapman, concluded that although the amount Yates had taken would not have killed an addict, "an unsophisticated taker of heroin" like Yates had no tolerance to the drug.

Soon after Yates's death, Geldof assumed foster custody of Tiger Lily so that she could be brought up with her three older half-sisters, Fifi, Peaches and Pixie. Her aunt, Tina Hutchence, the sister of Michael Hutchence, was denied permission by the judge to apply for Tiger Lily to live with her in California. In 2007, Geldof adopted Tiger Lily and changed her surname to Geldof; as of 2019, Tiger's legal name was Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily Hutchence Geldof.

On 7 April 2014, Yates's second-oldest daughter, Peaches, also died of a heroin overdose, aged 25. One day before her death, she uploaded a picture to her Instagram of herself as a young girl and her mother under the caption "Me and my Mum."

Legacy
On 14 March 2023, Yates was the subject of a two-part Channel 4 documentary, entitled Paula, which looked at her life and career. The documentary highlighted the intense media surrounding Yates and the often negative coverage in the British press. Paula included interviews with her friends and social commentators including best friend Belinda Brewin, Nicky Clarke, Robbie Williams, Vanessa Feltz and Grace Dent, and used archive footage of Yates and previously unheard recorded interviews, conducted shortly after the death of Hutchence. Brewin revealed that she and Yates had been shopping on the Fulham Road in London, when they met Diana, Princess of Wales, who told Yates: "I love it when you're on the front page of the papers, because it means I got the day off".

In a review for Paula, Lucy Mangan, writing for The Guardian, hailed the documentary as "a glorious celebration of the most witty, flirty woman to ever grace our TVs" and gave the show 4/5 stars. Carol Midgeley, writing for The Times, also gave the documentary 4/5 stars, opining that Yates was a "fizzling force of nature". Gerard Gilbert, writing for the newspaper I, rated the documentary 3/5 stars, adding that he "was left with a tragic sense that Yates’s untimely death robbed us of an intriguing second act".

The first episode of the documentary garnered 970,000 viewers, beating that night's BBC2 and Channel 5 offerings.

title: Paula Yates


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Shock absorber

A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most shock absorbers are a form of dashpot (a damper which resists motion via viscous friction).

Description
Pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers are used in conjunction with cushions and springs. An automobile shock absorber contains spring-loaded check valves and orifices to control the flow of oil through an internal piston (see below).

One design consideration, when designing or choosing a shock absorber, is where that energy will go. In most shock absorbers, energy is converted to heat inside the viscous fluid. In hydraulic cylinders, the hydraulic fluid heats up, while in air cylinders, the hot air is usually exhausted to the atmosphere. In other types of shock absorbers, such as electromagnetic types, the dissipated energy can be stored and used later. In general terms, shock absorbers help cushion vehicles on uneven roads and keep wheels in contact with the ground.

Vehicle suspension
In a vehicle, shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground, leading to improved ride quality and vehicle handling. While shock absorbers serve the purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their intended main purpose is to damp spring oscillations. Shock absorbers use valving of oil and gasses to absorb excess energy from the springs. Spring rates are chosen by the manufacturer based on the weight of the vehicle, loaded and unloaded. Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use. Along with hysteresis in the tire itself, they damp the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up and down. Effective wheel bounce damping may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance.

Spring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well. Ideal springs alone, however, are not shock absorbers, as springs only store and do not dissipate or absorb energy. Vehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs or torsion bars. In this combination, "shock absorber" refers specifically to the hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration. Now, composite suspension systems are used mainly in 2 wheelers and also leaf springs are made up of composite material in 4 wheelers.

Construction
Shock absorbers are an important part of car suspension designed to increase comfort, stability and overall safety. The shock absorber, produced with precision and engineering skills, has many important features. The most common type is a hydraulic shock absorber, which usually includes a piston, a cylinder, and an oil-filled chamber. The piston is connected to the piston rod, which extends into the cylinder and divides the cylinder into two parts. One chamber is filled with hydraulic oil, while the other chamber contains or air. When there is an accident or vibration in the vehicle, the piston moves into the cylinder, forcing the hydraulic fluid through small holes, creating resistance and dissipating energy in the form of heat. This dampens oscillations, reducing further bouncing or wobble of the car. Shock construction requires a balance of features such as piston design, fluid viscosity, and overall size of the unit to ensure performance. As technology developed, other types of shock absorbers emerged, including gas and electric shock absorbers, that provided improved control and flexibility. The design and manufacture of shock absorbers is constantly evolving due to the continuous improvement of vehicle dynamics and passenger comfort.

Early history
In common with carriages and railway locomotives, most early motor vehicles used leaf springs. One of the features of these springs was that the friction between the leaves offered a degree of damping, and in a 1912 review of vehicle suspension, the lack of this characteristic in helical springs was the reason it was "impossible" to use them as main springs. However the amount of damping provided by leaf spring friction was limited and variable according to the conditions of the springs, and whether wet or dry. It also operated in both directions. Motorcycle front suspension adopted coil sprung Druid forks from about 1906, and similar designs later added Friction disk shock absorber rotary friction dampers, which damped both ways - but they were adjustable (e.g. 1924 Webb forks). These friction disk shock absorber s was also fitted to many cars.

One of the problems with motor cars was the large variation in sprung weight between lightly loaded and fully loaded, especially for the rear springs. When heavily loaded the springs could bottom out, and apart from fitting rubber 'bump stops', there were attempts to use heavy main springs with auxiliary springs to smooth the ride when lightly loaded, which were often called 'shock absorbers'. Realizing that the spring and vehicle combination bounced with a characteristic frequency, these auxiliary springs were designed with a different period, but were not a solution to the problem that the spring rebound after striking a bump could throw you out of your seat. What was called for was damping that operated on the rebound.

Although C.L. Horock came up with a design in 1901 that had hydraulic damping, it worked in one direction only. It does not seem to have gone into production right away, whereas mechanical dampers such as the Gabriel Snubber started being fitted in the late 1900s (also the similar Stromberg Anti-Shox). These used a belt coiled inside a device such that it freely wound in under the action of a coiled spring but met friction when drawn out. Gabriel Snubbers were fitted to an 11.9HP Arrol-Johnston car which broke the 6 hour Class B record at Brooklands in late 1912, and the Automator journal noted that this snubber might have a great future for racing due to its light weight and easy fitment.

One of the earliest hydraulic dampers to go into production was the Telesco Shock Absorber, exhibited at the 1912 Olympia Motor Show and marketed by Polyrhoe Carburettors Ltd. This contained a spring inside the telescopic unit like the pure spring type 'shock absorbers' mentioned above, but also oil and an internal valve so that the oil damped in the rebound direction. The Telesco unit was fitted at the rear end of the leaf spring, in place of the rear spring to chassis mount, so that it formed part of the springing system, albeit a hydraulically damped part. This layout was presumably selected as it was easy to apply to existing vehicles, but it meant the hydraulic damping was not applied to the action of the main leaf spring, but only to the action of the auxiliary spring in the unit itself.

The first production hydraulic dampers to act on the main leaf spring movement were probably those based on an original concept by Maurice Houdaille patented in 1908 and 1909. These used a lever arm which moved hydraulically damped vanes inside the unit. The main advantage over the friction disk dampers was that it would resist sudden movement but allow slow movement, whereas the rotary friction dampers tended to stick and then offer the same resistance regardless of speed of movement. There appears to have been little progress on commercialising the lever arm shock absorbers until after World War I, after which they came into widespread use, for example as standard equipment on the 1927 Ford Model A and manufactured by Houde Engineering Corporation of Buffalo, NY.

Types of vehicle shock absorbers
Most vehicular shock absorbers are either twin-tube or mono-tube types with some variations on these themes.

Basic twin-tube
Also known as a "two-tube" shock absorber, this device consists of two nested cylindrical tubes, an inner tube that is called the "working tube" or the "pressure tube", and an outer tube called the "reserve tube". At the bottom of the device on the inside is a compression valve or base valve. When the piston is forced up or down by bumps in the road, hydraulic fluid moves between different chambers via small holes or "orifices" in the piston and via the valve, converting the "shock" energy into heat which must then be dissipated.

Twin-tube gas charged
Variously known as a "gas cell two-tube" or similarly-named design, this variation represented a significant advancement over the basic twin-tube form. Its overall structure is very similar to the twin-tube, but a low-pressure charge of nitrogen gas is added to the reserve tube. The result of this alteration is a dramatic reduction in "foaming" or "aeration", the undesirable outcome of a twin-tube overheating and failing which presents as foaming hydraulic fluid dripping out of the assembly. Twin-tube gas charged shock absorbers represent the vast majority of original modern vehicle suspension installations.

Position sensitive damping
Often abbreviated simply as "PSD", this design is another evolution of the twin-tube shock. In a PSD shock absorber, which still consists of two nested tubes and still contains nitrogen gas, a set of grooves has been added to the pressure tube. These grooves allow the piston to move relatively freely in the middle range of travel (i.e., the most common street or highway use, called by engineers the "comfort zone") and to move with significantly less freedom in response to shifts to more irregular surfaces when upward and downward movement of the piston starts to occur with greater intensity (i.e., on bumpy sections of roads— the stiffening gives the driver greater control of movement over the vehicle so its range on either side of the comfort zone is called the "control zone"). This advance allowed car designers to make a shock absorber tailored to specific makes and models of vehicles and to take into account a given vehicle's size and weight, its maneuverability, its horsepower, etc. in creating a correspondingly effective shock.

Acceleration sensitive damping
The next phase in shock absorber evolution was the development of a shock absorber that could sense and respond to not just situational changes from "bumpy" to "smooth" but to individual bumps in the road in a near instantaneous reaction. This was achieved through a change in the design of the compression valve, and has been termed "acceleration sensitive damping" or "ASD". Not only does this result in a complete disappearance of the "comfort vs. control" tradeoff, it also reduced pitch during vehicle braking and roll during turns. However, ASD shocks are usually only available as aftermarket changes to a vehicle and are only available from a limited number of manufacturers.

Coilover
Coilover shock absorbers are usually a kind of twin-tube gas charged shock absorber inside the helical road spring. They are common on motorcycles and scooter rear suspensions, and widely used on front and rear suspensions in cars.

Mono-tube

The principal design alternative to the twin-tube form has been the mono-tube shock absorber which was considered a revolutionary advancement when it appeared in the 1950s. As its name implies, the mono-tube shock, which is also a gas-pressurized shock and also comes in a coilover format, consists of only one tube, the pressure tube, though it has two pistons. These pistons are called the working piston and the dividing or floating piston, and they move in relative synchrony inside the pressure tube in response to changes in road smoothness. The two pistons also completely separate the shock's fluid and gas components. The mono-tube shock absorber is consistently a much longer overall design than the twin-tubes, making it difficult to mount in passenger cars designed for twin-tube shocks. However, unlike the twin-tubes, the mono-tube shock can be mounted either way— it does not have any directionality. It also does not have a compression valve, whose role has been taken up by the dividing piston, and although it contains nitrogen gas, the gas in a mono-tube shock is under high pressure (260-360 p.s.i. or so) which can actually help it to support some of the vehicle's weight, something which no other shock absorber is designed to do.

Mercedes became the first auto manufacturer to install mono-tube shocks as standard equipment on some of their cars starting in 1958. They were manufactured by Bilstein, patented the design and first appeared in 1954s. Because the design was patented, no other manufacturer could use it until 1971 when the patent expired.

Spool valve
Spool valve dampers are characterized by the use of hollow cylindrical sleeves with machined-in oil passages as opposed to traditional conventional flexible discs or shims. Spool valving can be applied with monotube, twin-tube, and/or position-sensitive packaging, and is compatible with electronic control.

Primary among benefits cited in Multimatic’s 2010 patent filing is the elimination of performance ambiguity associated with flexible shims, resulting in mathematically predictable, repeatable, and robust pressure-flow characteristics.

Remote reservoir/piggy-back
An extra tube or container of oil connected to the oil compartment of the (main) shock via a flexible pipe (remote reservoir) or inflexible pipe (piggy-back shock). Increases the amount of oil a shock can carry without increasing its length or thickness.

Bypass shock
Allows each section of suspension travel to have an independent suspension tune. Bypass shock, double bypass shock, triple bypass shock etc. Triple bypass would have a separate set of suspension tuning controls for each of it's three sections of suspension travel: initial travel, mid-travel, full-travel.

Theoretical approaches
There are several commonly used principles behind shock absorption:
 * Hysteresis of structural material, for example the compression of rubber disks, stretching of rubber bands and cords, bending of steel springs, or twisting of torsion bars. Hysteresis is the tendency for otherwise elastic materials to rebound with less force than was required to deform them.  Simple vehicles with no separate shock absorbers are damped, to some extent, by the hysteresis of their springs and frames.
 * Dry friction as used in wheel brakes, by using disks (classically made of leather) at the pivot of a lever, with friction forced by springs. Used in early automobiles such as the Ford Model T, up through some British cars of the 1940s and on the French Citroën 2CV in the 1950s. Although now considered obsolete, an advantage of this system is its mechanical simplicity; the degree of damping can be easily adjusted by tightening or loosening the screw clamping the disks, and it can be easily rebuilt with simple hand tools. A disadvantage is that the damping force tends not to increase with the speed of the vertical motion.

 * Solid state, tapered chain shock absorbers, using one or more tapered, axial alignment(s) of granular spheres, typically made of metals such as nitinol, in a casing. ,
 * Fluid friction, for example the flow of fluid through a narrow orifice (hydraulics), constitutes the vast majority of automotive shock absorbers. This design first appeared on Mors racing cars in 1902. One advantage of this type is, by using special internal valving, the absorber may be made relatively soft to compression (allowing a soft response to a bump) and relatively stiff to extension, controlling "rebound", which is the vehicle response to energy stored in the springs; similarly, a series of valves controlled by springs can change the degree of stiffness according to the velocity of the impact or rebound. Specialized shock absorbers for racing purposes may allow the front end of a dragster to rise with minimal resistance under acceleration, then strongly resist letting it settle, thereby maintaining a desirable rearward weight distribution for enhanced traction.

 * Compression of a gas, for example pneumatic shock absorbers, which can act like springs as the air pressure is building to resist the force on it. Enclosed gas is compressible, so equipment is less subject to shock damage. This concept was first applied in series production on Citroën cars in 1954. Today, many shock absorbers are pressurized with compressed nitrogen, to reduce the tendency for the oil to cavitate under heavy use. This causes foaming which temporarily reduces the damping ability of the unit. In very heavy duty units used for racing or off-road use, there may even be a secondary cylinder connected to the shock absorber to act as a reservoir for the oil and pressurized gas. In aircraft landing gear, air shock absorbers may be combined with hydraulic damping to reduce bounce. Such struts are called oleo struts (combining oil and air).
 * Inertial resistance to acceleration, the Citroën 2CV had shock absorbers that damp wheel bounce with no external moving parts. These consisted of a spring-mounted 3.5 kg (7.75 lb) iron weight inside a vertical cylinder  and are similar to, yet much smaller than versions of the tuned mass dampers used on tall buildings.
 * Composite hydropneumatic suspension combines many suspension elements in a single device: spring action, shock absorption, ride-height control, and self leveling suspension. This combines the advantages of gas compressibility and the ability of hydraulic machinery to apply force multiplication.
 * Conventional shock absorbers can be combined with air suspension springs - an alternate way to achieve ride-height control, and self leveling suspension.
 * In an electrorheological fluid damper, an electric field changes the viscosity of the oil. This principle allows semi-active damper applications in automotive and various industries.
 * Magnetic field variation: a magnetorheological damper changes its fluid characteristics through an electromagnet.
 * The effect of a shock absorber at high (sound) frequencies is usually limited by using a compressible gas as the working fluid or mounting it with rubber bushings.

Special features

 * Some shock absorbers allow tuning of the ride via control of the valve by a manual adjustment provided at the shock absorber.
 * In more expensive vehicles the valves may be remotely adjustable, offering the driver control of the ride at will while the vehicle is operated.
 * Additional control can be provided by dynamic valve control via computer in response to sensors, giving both a smooth ride and a firm suspension when needed, allowing ride height adjustment or even ride height control.
 * Ride height control is especially desirable in highway vehicles intended for occasional rough road use, as a means of improving handling and reducing aerodynamic drag by lowering the vehicle when operating on improved high speed roads.
 * Heatsinks, fans and/or liquid cooling to prevent or delay shock fade and failure (oil leak) due to overheating

Shock absorber and strut comparison

 * A strut is a structural component that combines the shock absorber with other suspension parts like the coil spring and steering knuckle into one compact unit
 * Unlike a shock absorber, a strut has a reinforced body and stem.
 * Struts are subjected to multidirectional loads, while a shock absorber only damps vibration, only receiving a load along its axis.
 * Struts and shock absorbers have a different way of attachment. Shock absorbers are mounted through rubber or urethane bushings to the frame and suspension. A strut is hard mounted to the suspension and is mounted to the frame through a rotating plate providing the upper pivot point of the steering.

title: Shock absorber


text:
List of premiers of Nova Scotia

The Canadian province of Nova Scotia was a British colony with a system of responsible government since 1848, before it joined Canadian Confederation in 1867. Since Confederation, the province has been a part of the Canadian federation and has kept its own legislature to deal with provincial matters.

Nova Scotia has a unicameral Westminster-style parliamentary government, in which the premier is the leader of the party that controls the most seats in the House of Assembly. The premier is Nova Scotia's head of government, and the king in right of Nova Scotia is its head of state and is represented by the lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia. The premier picks a cabinet from the elected members to form the Executive Council of Nova Scotia, and presides over that body.

Members are first elected to the House during general elections. General elections must be conducted every five years from the date of the last election, but the premier may ask for early dissolution of the Legislative Assembly. An election may also occur if the governing party loses the confidence of the legislature by the defeat of a supply bill or tabling of a confidence motion. Nova Scotia has had 27 individuals serve as premier since Confederation, of which 12 were Conservatives, 14 were Liberals, and one New Democrat.

Premiers of Nova Scotia
Premiers of the pre-Confederation period
 * colspan=11|
 * colspan=11|

Premiers of the post-Confederation period
 * colspan=11|
 * colspan=11|

title: List of premiers of Nova Scotia


text:
1966 in television

The year 1966 in television involved some significant events. Below is a list of television-related events in that year.

Events

 * January 3 – Hullabaloo on NBC in the United States shows promotional videos of The Beatles songs "Day Tripper" and "We Can Work It Out".
 * January 8 – Shindig! airs for the last time on ABC in the United States, with musical guests the Kinks and the Who.
 * January 11 – Dorothy Malone resumes the role of Constance Carson on Peyton Place (she had been temporarily replaced by Lola Albright).
 * January 12 – The first episode of the live-action Batman television series ("Hi Diddle Riddle") is aired on ABC in the United States starring Adam West and Burt Ward
 * January 13 – Tabitha is born on the Bewitched episode titled "And Then There Were Three."
 * February 1 – KFBB-TV in Great Falls, Montana becomes the first station in that state to affiliate primarily with ABC.
 * February 5 – ABC Scope begins to devote itself exclusively to coverage of the Vietnam war.
 * February 13 – The Rolling Stones make another appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show in the United States.
 * February 15 – Citing circumstances beyond his control, Fred Friendly resigns from CBS News in the United States.
 * February 18 – An Evening with Carol Channing airs on CBS in the United States.
 * February 23 – Television comes to Greece with the launch of ERT.
 * February 27 – Perry Mason airs its only color episode, "The Case of the Twice-Told Twist."
 * February – THVN (Vietnamese National Television Network) first launched.
 * March 30 – The special Color Me Barbra, with Barbra Streisand, airs on CBS in the United States.
 * April 18 – The Academy Awards air in color for the first time, on ABC.
 * May 15 – The first Japanese popular Owarai variety show program, Shoten, debuts on Nippon Television Network, and will be watched by more than 25 million Japanese every week.
 * June 5 – The Beatles make a taped appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show in the United States, debuting their music videos for "Rain" and "Paperback Writer."
 * June – ABS-CBN introduces color television to the Philippines, using NTSC.
 * July 1 – As part of the kickoff of Canada's centennial celebrations, color television broadcasts using NTSC are launched on state owned CBC and SRC, as well as on CTV.
 * July 10 – Ultraman debuts on TBS in Japan. The character would spawn over 16 television adaptions over the next 40 years.
 * July 16 – The Miss Universe pageant goes color.
 * July 30 – An all-time record United Kingdom television audience of more than 32,000,000 watches the England national football team beat West Germany 4–2 to win the FIFA World Cup at Wembley.
 * August 6 – In a post-fight interview, Howard Cosell honors Muhammad Ali's wishes to no longer be referred to as Cassius Clay, contrasting with the approach of most other sports reporters of the time.
 * September – ABC, CBS, and NBC complete the color transition from the previous season for their prime-time programming by the start of the fall season, with all network programs being telecast in color.
 * September 8 – The first episode of Star Trek ("The Man Trap") is aired.
 * September 9 – The first episode of The Green Hornet ("The Silent Gun") is aired on ABC in the United States starring Van Williams and Bruce Lee.
 * September 10 – A night of firsts for the Miss America Pageant—its first color TV broadcast and its first airing on NBC.
 * September 11 – The Rolling Stones make another appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.
 * September 19 – Color television comes to Alaska as KENI-TV airs the premiere episode of That Girl ("Don't Just Do Something, Stand There", which had aired in the "lower 48" on September 8).
 * October 2 – The four-part serial Talking to a Stranger, acclaimed as one of the finest British television dramas of the 1960s, begins transmission in the Theatre 625 strand on BBC2.
 * October 6 – After quickly cancelling The Tammy Grimes Show, ABC fills the void by launching a prime-time edition of The Dating Game. The show's success leads to The Newlywed Game's own prime-time edition in January 1967.
 * October 15 – A TV version of the musical Brigadoon is telecast on ABC in the United States as a special, using an updated script and story line and re-introducing some of the songs cut from the 1954 movie. The production stars Robert Goulet, Peter Falk and Sally Ann Howes, also featuring Edward Villella and Marlyn Mason. The special airs only one other time, in 1967, before disappearing completely.
 * October 17 – All of NBC's news programming begins airing in full-color.
 * October 27 – It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown airs for the first time on CBS.
 * October 29 – Actor William Hartnell makes his last regular appearance as the First Doctor in the concluding moments of Episode 4 of the Doctor Who serial The Tenth Planet. Patrick Troughton briefly appears as the Second Doctor at the conclusion of the serial.
 * November 5 – Actor Patrick Troughton appears in his first full Doctor Who serial The Power of the Daleks as the Second Doctor.
 * November 7 – Concentration switches to color, establishing NBC as the first full color network with 100% color broadcasts.
 * November 16 – Cathy Come Home, one of the best-known plays ever to be televised in the UK, is presented in BBC1's The Wednesday Play anthology strand.
 * November 19 – First live 2-way satellite telecasts between Hawaii (KHVH-TV, now KITV) and the Mainland (ABC), via the Lani Bird satellite.
 * December 18 – CBS in the United States airs the How the Grinch Stole Christmas! animated TV special for the first time.
 * December 21 – A Christmas Memory, a recounting of Truman Capote's childhood experiences as captured in his 1956 memoir, is adapted for television on ABC Stage 67. Frank Perry directs, Capote himself narrates, and Geraldine Page (in an Emmy-winning performance) stars.
 * December 24 – WPIX in New York City premieres the Yule Log Christmas special which runs every year until 1989 and returns in 2001.
 * Also in 1966
 * The 1951–53 CBS sitcom Amos & Andy is pulled from syndication broadcast due to complaints from civil rights organizations.
 * Construction is completed on the KXJB-TV mast (now KRDK) in rural Traill County, North Dakota. At 2,060 ft. (630m) tall and supported by multiple bundles of guy-wires, it becomes the tallest structure in the world. Today, though it has collapsed twice since its first construction in 1966, it is the tallest structure in the United States, the second-tallest in the Western Hemisphere behind the Petronius oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, and the seventh-tallest structure in the world.
 * Macdonald Carey starts reciting the epigram "Like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives" at the beginning of his soap opera, Days of Our Lives, a tradition that continues over a decade after his death.

Programs/programmes

 * American Bandstand (1952–1989)
 * Another World (1964–1999)
 * Armchair Theatre (UK) (1956–1968)
 * As the World Turns (1956–2010)
 * Bewitched (1964–1972)
 * Blue Peter (UK) (1958–present)
 * Bonanza (1959–1973)
 * Bozo the Clown (1949–present)
 * Candid Camera (1948–present)
 * Captain Kangaroo (1955–1984)
 * Combat! (1962–1967)
 * Come Dancing (UK) (1949–1995)
 * Daniel Boone (1964–1970)
 * Days of Our Lives (1965–present)
 * Dixon of Dock Green (UK) (1955–1976)
 * Doctor Who (1963–present)
 * F Troop (1965–1967)
 * Face the Nation (1954–present)
 * Flipper (1964–1967)
 * Four Corners (Australia) (1961–present)
 * General Hospital (1963–present)
 * Get Smart (1965–1970)
 * Gilligan's Island (1964–1967)
 * Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. (1964–1969)
 * Grandstand (UK) (1958–2007)
 * Green Acres (1965–1971)
 * Gunsmoke (1955–1975)
 * Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951–present)
 * Hogan's Heroes (1965–1971)
 * I Dream of Jeannie (1965–1970)
 * I Spy (1965–1968)
 * Jeopardy! (1964–1975, 1984–present)
 * Juke Box Jury (1959–1967, 1979, 1989–1990)
 * Lost in Space (1965–1968)
 * Love of Life (1951–1980)
 * Match Game (1962–1969, 1973–1984, 1990–1991, 1998–1999)
 * Meet the Press (1947–present)
 * Mission: Impossible (1966–1973)
 * My Three Sons (1960–1972)
 * Opportunity Knocks (UK) (1956–1978)
 * Panorama (UK) (1953–present)
 * Perry Mason (1957–1966)
 * Petticoat Junction (1963–1970)
 * Peyton Place (1964–1969)
 * Run for Your Life (1965–1968)
 * Search for Tomorrow (1951–1986)
 * The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968)
 * The Bell Telephone Hour (1959–1968)
 * The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–1971)
 * The Dean Martin Show (1965–1974)
 * The Doctors (1963–1982)
 * The Ed Sullivan Show (1948–1971)
 * The Edge of Night (1956–1984)
 * The Fugitive (1963–1967)
 * The Good Old Days (UK) (1953–1983)
 * The Guiding Light (1952–2009)
 * The Hollywood Palace (1964–1970)
 * The Late Late Show (Ireland) (1962–present)
 * The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–1982)
 * The Lucy Show (1962–1968)
 * The Marvel Super Heroes (1966)
 * The Mike Douglas Show (1961–1981)
 * The Milton Berle Show (1954–1967)
 * The Secret Storm (1954–1974)
 * The Sky at Night (UK) (1957–present)
 * The Today Show (1952–present)
 * The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992)
 * This Is Your Life (UK) (1955–2003)
 * Tom and Jerry (1965–1972, 1975–1977, 1980–1982)
 * Top of the Pops (1964–2006)
 * Truth or Consequences (1950–1988)
 * Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1964–1968)
 * Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color(1961–1969)
 * What the Papers Say (UK) (1956–2008)
 * What's My Line (1950–1967)

Debuts

 * January – Father Brown on West Germany's ARD (1966–1972)
 * January 2 – Ultra Q on TBS in Japan (1966)
 * January 3 – Eye Guess on NBC-TV Daytime (1966–1969)
 * January 11 – Daktari on CBS (1966–1969)
 * January 12 – Batman on ABC (1966–1968)
 * April 5 – The Money Programme on BBC2 (1966–present)
 * June 6 – Till Death Us Do Part on BBC1
 * June 27 – Dark Shadows on ABC (1966–1971)
 * July 4 – Showdown & Chain Letter both on NBC daytime (canceled on October 14)
 * July 11 – The Newlywed Game on ABC (1966–1974)
 * July 17 – Ultraman on TBS in Japan (1966–1967)
 * July 18 –
 * The Australian version of Play School on that country's ABC (1966–present)
 * The 700 Club (1966–present)
 * W-FIVE (1966–present)
 * Wojeck (1966–1968)
 * September 1 –
 * The Marvel Super Heroes (1966)
 * September 8 –
 * Star Trek on NBC (1966–1969)
 * That Girl on ABC (1966–1971)
 * Tarzan on NBC (1966–1968)
 * September 9 –
 * The Green Hornet on ABC (1966–1967)
 * The Time Tunnel on ABC (1966–1967)
 * September 10 –
 * The New Adventures of Superman (1966–1970)
 * September 12 –
 * The Monkees on NBC (1966–1968)
 * Family Affair on CBS (1966–1971)
 * The Iron Horse
 * The Rat Patrol premiere on ABC (both 1966–1968)
 * September 13 – The Girl from U.N.C.L.E. on NBC (1966–1967)
 * September 17 – Mission: Impossible on CBS (1966–1973)
 * September 20 – Rue des Pignons on SRC (1966–1977)
 * October 3 – Joe on BBC1
 * October 9 – Rocket Robin Hood (1966–1969)
 * October 11 – SRC launches its first made-in-Quebec sitcom, Moi et l'autre (1966–1971)
 * October 17 – The Hollywood Squares on NBC daytime (1966–1980)
 * October 19 – Cliff Dexter on West Germany's ZDF (1966–1968)
 * October 29 – The Mighty Heroes on CBS (1966–1967)
 * December 23 – Hoolihan & Big Chuck on WJW-TV, Cleveland, Ohio, United States (1966–1979)

Television debuts

 * René Auberjonois – NET Playhouse
 * Matt Clark – Ben Casey
 * John Cleese – The Frost Report
 * Hector Elizondo – The Edge of Night
 * Giancarlo Giannini – David Copperfield
 * Paul Gleason – Petticoat Junction
 * Bill Hunter – Doctor Who
 * John Huston – ABC Stage 67
 * Harvey Keitel – Hogan's Heroes
 * Richard Pryor – The Wild Wild West
 * Charlotte Rampling – Five More
 * Ron Rifkin – Gidget
 * John P. Ryan – Hawk
 * Rade Serbedzija – Prikupljanje hrabrosti
 * Lyle Waggoner – Gunsmoke
 * Ralph Waite – Hawk
 * Fred Willard – Hey, Landlord
 * Clarence Williams III – Directions

title: 1966 in television


text:
1965 in television

The year 1965 in television involved some significant events. Below is a list of television-related events in 1965.

Events

 * January 1 – Comedian Soupy Sales, who hosted the "Lunch With Soupy Sales" children's program on New York City's WNEW-TV, encourages his young viewers to send him money from their parents' pants and pocketbooks and send them to him, and in return he would "send you a postcard from Puerto Rico!" Days later, when he actually got response, he declared that he was joking and that cash contributions would be donated to charity, but WNEW suspended Sales for two weeks over the incident.
 * February 22 – A new, videotaped production of the 1957 special Cinderella, by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, airs on CBS with young Lesley Ann Warren (in the title role) starring alongside Ginger Rogers, Walter Pidgeon, and Celeste Holm.
 * March 11 – After months of speculation, Vivian Vance announces she is departing The Lucy Show following the conclusion of its third season. She would return to the series for guest appearances a few years later, a tradition that continued into Lucille Ball's following series, Here's Lucy.
 * March 24 – Live TV pictures from the US uncrewed moon probe Ranger 9 are transmitted prior to its impact.
 * April 5 – TEN10 opens in Sydney, Australia, with the highlight of the opening night being the variety special TV Spells Magic.
 * April 15 – Paul Bryan (Ben Gazzara) gets bad news from his doctor and sets out to do all the things he never had time for, in the Kraft Suspense Theatre episode entitled "Rapture at Two-Forty." This will serve as the pilot for the series Run for Your Life, which will premiere on September 13 and run until 1968.
 * April 21 – The Beach Boys appear on Shindig! performing their most recent hit, "Do You Wanna Dance?"
 * April 26 – Brazil's largest TV network, Rede Globo, begins broadcasting.
 * April 28 – My Name Is Barbra, Barbra Streisand's first TV special, airs on CBS.
 * May 2 – The Rolling Stones make their second appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.
 * June 4 – The launch of the Gemini 4 space mission is broadcast in color by NBC. All three networks would carry the launch of Gemini 5 in color that August and all subsequent crewed space launches.
 * July 31 - GTV (Ghana) begins as GBC TV, making it the first television station in Ghana.
 * August 1 – Cigarette adverts are banned from UK television, though pipe tobacco and cigar adverts continue until 1992.
 * August 6 – BBC withdraws a planned airing of The War Game on BBC1's Wednesday Play anthology series; the network, officially, deems the film's depiction of a fictional nuclear attack on the United Kingdom and its aftermath as "too horrifying" to air on television, though it was widely believed that government pressure led to the banning. The film would win the 1966 Academy Award for Documentary Feature, and BBC would not screen the film on-air until 1985.
 * September – ABC, CBS, and NBC, begin transitioning a majority of their prime-time programming towards color, with NBC virtually all their programming in color, and ABC and CBS over half of their programs, while keeping some of them in black-and-white due to production costs.
 * September 10 – The first National Geographic Special, a chronicle of a 1963 U.S. expedition to Mount Everest, airs on CBS.
 * September 12
 * NBC takes over telecasts of the American Football League, with most of the games being broadcast in color.
 * The Beatles appear on The Ed Sullivan Show for the fourth and final time, performing songs from their new album Help!. This appearance was videotaped on August 14 before the group launched their U.S. tour the following night at Shea Stadium (Sunday, August 15, 1965).
 * September 13 – Today on NBC goes color.
 * September 25 - The Beatles cartoons debut on ABC for 39 episodes through October 21, 1967.
 * October 4 – Pope Paul VI's visit to New York receives saturation television coverage on all three major American television networks. The Papal Mass at Yankee Stadium is broadcast in color.
 * October 17 – WBMG-TV in Birmingham, Alabama launches on channel 42, sharing dual CBS/NBC affiliation with crosstown WAPI-TV—and allowing viewers in the Birmingham market to watch more programming from those networks that WAPI did not have room for (including The Ed Sullivan Show, The CBS Evening News, and The Tonight Show). The setup lasts until 1970, when WAPI takes sole affiliation with NBC and WBMG does the same with CBS.  At the same time, WCFT-33 in Tuscaloosa and WHMA-40 in Anniston become exclusive affiliates of CBS.  Like WBMG, Channels 33 and 40 were dual affiliates of NBC and CBS.
 * November 5 – Katie Holstrum (Inger Stevens) and Congressman Glen Morley (William Windom) are married in The Farmer's Daughter episode entitled "To Have and To Hold".
 * November 15 – The Huntley-Brinkley Report on NBC goes color on a regular basis, the first network evening newscast to be colorcast nightly.
 * November 25 – CBS airs the first color broadcast of an NFL football game, a Thanksgiving Day matchup between the Baltimore Colts and Detroit Lions.
 * November 28 – Julie Andrews' first TV special airs on NBC.
 * December 4 – TV Guide launches its Montana edition and now covers all of the contiguous U.S. (A Hawaii edition will be launched in 1968.)
 * December 9 – A Charlie Brown Christmas premieres on CBS.
 * December 21 – A production of The Nutcracker by the New York City Ballet airs on CBS.
 * Also in 1965
 * Sistema Nacional de Televisión (as TV Cerro Cora) begins the first television broadcasts in Paraguay.
 * Three independently affiliated stations in the Philadelphia market—The "Other Big 3 in Philly"—start operations: WIBF (channel 29) opens on May 16; WKBS-TV (channel 48) opens on September 1 (and operates until 1983); and WPHL-TV (channel 17) opens on September 17.
 * Motorola introduces the first successful rectangular tube color TV to the mass market.
 * Jeopardy! moves to 12:00 noon on NBC, which would make the show a hit on the network for many years.

Programs/programmes

 * American Bandstand (1952–1989)
 * Another World (1964–1999)
 * Armchair Theatre (UK) (1956–1968)
 * As the World Turns (1956–2010)
 * Ben Casey (1961–1966)
 * Bewitched (1964–1972)
 * Blue Peter (UK) (1958–present)
 * Bonanza (1959–1973)
 * Bozo the Clown (1949–present)
 * Candid Camera (1948–present)
 * Captain Kangaroo (1955–1984)
 * Combat! (1962–1967)
 * Come Dancing (UK) (1949–1995)
 * Coronation Street (UK) (1960–present)
 * Crossroads (UK) (1964–1988, 2001–2003)
 * Danger Man (UK) (1960–1961, 1964–1966)
 * Daniel Boone (1964–1970)
 * Days of Our Lives (soap opera) (1965–present)
 * Dixon of Dock Green (UK) (1955–1976)
 * Doctor Who (UK) (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–present)
 * Face the Nation (1954–present)
 * Flipper (1964–1967)
 * Four Corners (Australia) (1961–present)
 * General Hospital (1963–present)
 * Get Smart (1965–1970)
 * Gidget (1965–1966)
 * Gilligan's Island (1964–1967)
 * Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. (1964–1970)
 * Grandstand (UK) (1958–2007)
 * Gunsmoke (1955–1975)
 * Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951–present)
 * Hogan's Heroes (1965-1971)
 * I Dream Of Jeannie (1965–1970)
 * I Spy (1965-1968)
 * It's Academic (1961–present)
 * Jeopardy! (1964–1975, 1984–present)
 * Jonny Quest (1964–1965)
 * Juke Box Jury (1959–1967, 1979, 1989–1990)
 * Love of Life (1951–1980)
 * Match Game (1962–1969, 1973–1984, 1990–1991, 1998–1999)
 * Meet the Press (1947–present)
 * Mister Ed (1961–1966)
 * My Three Sons (1960–1972)
 * Opportunity Knocks (UK) (1956–1978)
 * Panorama (UK) (1953–present)
 * Petticoat Junction (1963–1970)
 * Peyton Place (1964–1969)
 * Ready Steady Go! (1963–1966)
 * Run for Your Life (1965-1968)
 * Search for Tomorrow (1951–1986)
 * Shindig! (1964–1966)
 * The Addams Family (1964–1966)
 * The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (1952–1966)
 * The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968)
 * The Avengers (UK) (1961–1969)
 * The Bell Telephone Hour (1959–1968)
 * The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–1971)
 * The Dean Martin Show (1965-1974)
 * The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961–1966)
 * The Doctors (1963–1982)
 * The Donna Reed Show (1958–1966)
 * The Ed Sullivan Show (1948–1971)
 * The Edge of Night (1956–1984)
 * The Flintstones (1960–1966)
 * The Fulton Sheen Program (1961–1968)
 * The Fugitive (1963–67)
 * The Good Old Days (UK) (1953–1983)
 * The Guiding Light (1952–2009)
 * The Hollywood Palace (1964–1970)
 * The Late Late Show (Ireland) (1962–present)
 * The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–1982)
 * The Lucy Show (1962–1968)
 * The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964–1968)
 * The Mavis Bramston Show (Australia) (1964–1968)
 * The Mike Douglas Show (1961–1981)
 * The Munsters (1964–1966)
 * The Patty Duke Show (1963–1966)
 * The Saint (UK) (1962–1969)
 * The Secret Storm (1954–1974)
 * The Sky at Night (UK) (1957–present)
 * The Today Show (1952–present)
 * The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992)
 * The Wednesday Play (UK) (1964–1970)
 * This Hour Has Seven Days (1964–1966)
 * This Is Your Life (UK) (1955–2003)
 * Tom and Jerry (1965–1972, 1975–1977, 1980–1982)
 * Top of the Pops (UK) (1964–2006)
 * Truth or Consequences (1950–1988)
 * Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1961–1969)
 * What the Papers Say (UK) (1956–2008)
 * What's My Line (1950–1967)
 * Z-Cars (UK) (1962–1978)

Debuts

 * January 2 – World of Sport on ITV in the UK with Eamonn Andrews as its first host (1965–1985)
 * January 2- Večerníček (Czechoslovakia)
 * June 28 – Dick Clark's Where the Action Is (1965-1967) on ABC daytime
 * September 12 – Hereward the Wake (1965) on BBC1
 * September 13 – Run for Your Life (1965-1968) on NBC
 * September 14
 * My Mother the Car (1965–1966) on NBC
 * Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1965–1967) on NBC
 * September 15
 * Lost in Space (1965–1968) on CBS
 * Green Acres (1965–1971) on CBS
 * The Big Valley (1965–1969) on ABC
 * Gidget (1965–1966) on ABC
 * I Spy (1965–1968) on NBC
 * September 16 – The Dean Martin Show (1965–1974) on NBC
 * September 17 – The Wild Wild West (1965–1969) and Hogan's Heroes (1965–1971) on CBS
 * September 18 – I Dream of Jeannie and Get Smart on NBC (both 1965–1970)
 * September 19 – The F.B.I. (1965–1974) on ABC
 * September 27
 * Morning Star (1965-1966) on NBC
 * Paradise Bay (1965-1966) on NBC
 * September 30 – Thunderbirds on the ITV channel (1965–1966)
 * November 8 – The soap opera Days of Our Lives on NBC (1965–present)
 * December 20 – game shows Supermarket Sweep (1965–1967) and The Dating Game (1965–1973) on ABC daytime
 * Quentin Durgens, M.P. (1965–1969)
 * United! on BBC1 in the UK (1965–1967)
 * The White Horses as Počitnice v Lipici on RTV Ljubljana in Yugoslavia and as Ferien in Lipizza on Südwestfunk in West Germany (c.1965–1967)

Television debuts

 * Jenny Agutter – Alexander Graham Bell
 * Joe Don Baker – Honey West
 * Jane Birkin – Armchair Mystery Theatre
 * Jim Brown – Valentine's Day
 * Faye Dunaway – Seaway
 * Sally Field – Gidget
 * Fionnula Flanagan – Knock on Any Door
 * Ted Gehring – The Big Valley
 * Barbara Hershey – Gidget
 * Sally Kirkland – New York Television Theatre
 * Jeroen Krabbé – Vrouwtje Bezemsteel
 * Frank Langella – The Trials of O'Brien
 * Lee Majors – Gunsmoke
 * Miriam Margolyes – Theatre 625
 * Lynn Redgrave – Sunday Out of Season
 * Bo Svenson – Flipper
 * Sam Waterston – Dr. Kildare
 * Paul Winfield – Perry Mason

title: 1965 in television


text:
Spoke

A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel (the hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log that had been riven (split lengthwise) into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwright's work than to the materials they used.

History
The spoked wheel was invented to allow the construction of lighter and swifter vehicles. The earliest physical evidence for spoked wheels were found in the Sintashta culture, dating to c.  2000 BCE. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the greater part of three centuries. They moved deep into the Greek peninsula, where they joined with the existing Mediterranean peoples to give rise, eventually, to classical Greece after the breaking of Minoan dominance and consolidations led by pre-classical Sparta and Athens.

Neo-Chalcolithic/proto-historic period (1800-1200 BCE) paintings in various regions of India such as Chibbar Nulla, Chhatur Bhoj Nath Nulla, Kathotia, etc. depict the usage of chariots with spoked wheels.

Celtic chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BCE. The spoked wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire wheels and rubber tires were invented.

Construction
Spokes can be made of wood, metal, or synthetic fiber depending on whether they will be in tension or compression.

Compression spokes
The original type of spoked wheel with wooden spokes was used for horse-drawn carriages and wagons. In early motor cars, wooden spoked wheels of the artillery type were normally used.

In a simple wooden wheel, a load on the hub causes the wheel rim to flatten slightly against the ground as the lowermost wooden spoke shortens and compresses. The other wooden spokes show no significant change.

Wooden spokes are mounted radially. They are also dished, usually to the outside of the vehicle, to prevent wobbling. Also, the dishing allows the wheel to compensate for expansion of the spokes due to absorbed moisture by dishing more.

Tension spokes
For use in bicycles, heavy wooden-spoked wheels were replaced by lighter wheels with spokes made of tensioned, adjustable metal wires, called wire wheels. These are also used in wheelchairs, motorcycles, automobiles, and early aircraft.

Types
Some types of wheels have removable spokes that can be replaced individually if they break or bend. These include bicycle and wheelchair wheels. High quality bicycles with conventional wheels use spokes of stainless steel, while cheaper bicycles may use galvanized (also called "rustless") or chrome plated spokes. While a good quality spoke is capable of supporting about 225 kgf (c. 500 pounds-force or 2,200 newtons) of tension, they are used at a fraction of this load to avoid suffering fatigue failures. Since bicycle and wheelchair wheel spokes are only in tension, flexible and strong materials such as synthetic fibers, are also occasionally used. Metal spokes can also be ovalized or bladed to reduce aerodynamic drag, and butted (double or even triple) to reduce weight while maintaining strength.

A variation on the wire-spoked wheel was Tioga's "Tension Disk", which appeared superficially to be a solid disk but was in fact constructed using the same principles as a normal tension-spoked wheel. Instead of individual wire spokes, a continuous thread of Kevlar (aramid) was used to lace the hub to the rim under high tension. The threads were encased in a translucent disk for protection and some aerodynamic benefit, but this was not a structural component.

Tangential lacing
Wire spokes can be radial to the hub but are more often mounted tangentially to the hub. Tangential spoking allows for the transfer of torque between the rim and the hub. Tangential spokes are thus necessary for the drive wheel, which has torque at the hub from pedalling, and any wheels using hub-mounted brakes such as disk or band brakes, which transfer torque from the rim to the brake in the opposite direction—(via the hub) when braking.

Wheelbuilding
Constructing a tension-spoked wheel from its constituent parts is called wheelbuilding and requires the correct building procedure for a strong and long-lasting end product. Tensioned spokes are usually attached to the rim or sometimes the hub with a spoke nipple. The other end is commonly peened into a disk or uncommonly bent into a "Z" to keep it from pulling through its hole in the hub. The bent version has the advantage of replacing a broken spoke in a rear bicycle wheel without having to remove the rear gears.

Wire wheels, with their excellent weight-to-strength ratio, soon became popular for light vehicles. For everyday cars, wire wheels were soon replaced by the less expensive metal disc wheel, but wire wheels remained popular for sports cars up to the 1960s. Spoked wheels are still popular on motorcycles and bicycles.

Spoke length
When building a bicycle wheel, the spokes must have the correct length, otherwise there may not be enough threads engaged, producing a weaker wheel, or they may protrude through the rim and possibly puncture the inner tube.

Calculation
For bicycle spokes, the spoke length is defined from the flange seat to the thread tip. For spokes with bent ends, the nominal spoke length does not include the width of the spoke at the bent end.

For wheels with crossed spokes (which are the norm), the desired spoke length is
 * $$l = \sqrt{ d^2 + {r_1}^2 + {r_2}^2 - 2 \, r_1 r_2 \cos(a)} - r_3$$

where
 * d = distance from the center of hub (along the axis) to flange, for example 30 mm,
 * r1 = spoke hole circle radius of the hub, for example 19.5 mm,
 * r2 = half of effective Rim Diameter (ERD), or the diameter the ends of the spokes make in a built wheel (see 'Discussion' attached to this article for explanation) of the rim, for example 301 mm,
 * r3 = radius of spoke holes in the flange, for example 1.1 mm,
 * m = number of spokes to be used for one side of the wheel, for example $36⁄2$=18,
 * k = number of crossings per spoke, for example 3 and
 * a = 360° k/m, for example $360° ⋅ 3⁄18$ = 60°.

Regarding d: For a symmetric wheel such as a front wheel with no disc brake, this is half the distance between the flanges. For an asymmetric wheel such as a front wheel with disc brake or a rear wheel with chain derailleur, the value of d is different for the left and right sides.

a is the angle between (1) the radius to a nipple hole in the rim to which a spoke is attached, and, (2) the radius to the flange hole holding the spoke. The spoke crosses either 1, 2, or 3 oppositely pointing spokes depending on the lacing design. On the flange, the angle between the radii of adjacent holes is 360°/m (for equally spaced holes). For each spoke crossed, the hub is rotated with reference to the rim one "angle between adjacent flange holes". Thus, multiplying the "angle between adjacent flange holes" by k gives the angle a. For example, a 32 spoke wheel has 16 spokes per side, 360° divided by 16 equals 22.5°. Multiply 22.5° ("angle between adjacent flange holes") by the number of crossings to get the angle a—if 3-crosses, the 32 spoke wheel has an angle a of 67.5°. Regarding r3: The size of the spoke holes in the flange does not matter for the needed spoke length. This term removes the effect of the hole size. Since the holes are usually small (just over 2 mm in diameter), the effect is small and in practice matters little.

For radially spoked wheels (zero crossings), the formula simplifies to the Pythagorean theorem, with spoke length l plus r3 being the slope, r2 minus r1 being the base, and d being the rise:
 * $$(l + r_3)^2 = (r_2 - r_1)^2 + d^2$$; or solving for the length
 * $$l = \sqrt{d^2 + (r_2 - r_1)^2} - r_3.$$

Derivation
The spoke length formula computes the length of the space diagonal of an imaginary rectangular box. Imagine holding a wheel in front of you such that a nipple is at the top. Look at the wheel from along the axis. The spoke through the top hole is now a diagonal of the imaginary box. The box has a depth of d, a height of r2-r1cos(α) and a width of r1sin(a).

Equivalently, the law of cosines may be used to first compute the length of the spoke as projected on the wheel's plane (as illustrated in the diagram), followed by an application of the Pythagorean theorem.

title: Spoke


text:
1964 in television

The year 1964 in television involved some significant events. Below is a list of television-related events which occurred in that year.

Events

 * Most of NBC's programs are now broadcast in color.
 * January 1 – The first Top of the Pops airs on BBC Television in the UK.
 * January 3 – Footage of The Beatles performing a concert in Bournemouth, England is shown on The Jack Paar Show in the United States.
 * January 4
 * TV Tokyo launched in Japan.
 * The Hollywood Palace variety series debuts on ABC in the United States, with first guest host Bing Crosby.
 * February 9-23 – The Beatles appear on The Ed Sullivan Show in the United States, breaking television ratings records.
 * April 20 – BBC2 starts broadcasting in the UK; the existing BBC channel is renamed BBC1.
 * April 30 – Television sets manufactured as of this date are required to receive UHF channels.
 * May 5 – The documentary film Seven Up! is broadcast on ITV in the UK, showing the lives of fourteen school children. Subsequent films in the series have seen them interviewed every seven years since.
 * June 4 - Sylvania in the United States unveils a revolutionary color TV picture tube in which europium-bearing phosphor allows a much brighter display.
 * June 6 – The Rolling Stones make their American TV debut on The Hollywood Palace, hosted by Dean Martin.
 * July – The British Associated Television's series Emergency – Ward 10 shows one of the first kisses on television between black and white actors, Joan Hooley playing surgeon Louise Mahler and John White playing Dr. Giles Farmer.
 * August 1 – The official launch of Melbourne's third commercial television station ATV-0, signaling the beginning of what is now Network Ten.
 * September 7 – "Daisy" advertisement airs on network television in the United States as part of Lyndon B. Johnson 1964 presidential campaign.
 * September 17 – The new sitcom Bewitched pilot airs on ABC in the United States starring Elizabeth Montgomery, Dick York and Agnes Moorehead.
 * October 10 – NBC in the United States airs the 1964 Summer Olympics opening ceremony at Tokyo, Japan, with first time of live Olympic telecast program by geostationary communication satellite Syncom 3. This telecast marks NBC's first Olympic broadcasting stint.
 * October 18 – Jackie Mason appears on The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS in the United States and is subsequently banned after he seemingly gives Ed "the finger" on the air.
 * October 25 – The Rolling Stones make their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show; the next day, Sullivan insists that he'll never have them back.
 * November 26 – Pakistan Television Corporation airs the first television broadcasts in Pakistan.
 * December 6 – NBC in the United States debuts the Christmas special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. It will become a holiday tradition, moving to CBS in 1972.

Programs/programmes

 * American Bandstand (1952–1989)
 * Armchair Theatre (UK) (1956–1968)
 * As the World Turns (1956–2010)
 * Ben Casey (1961–1966)
 * Blue Peter (UK) (1958–present)
 * Bonanza (1959–1973)
 * Bozo the Clown (1949–present)
 * Candid Camera (1948–2004)
 * Captain Kangaroo (1955–1984)
 * Combat! (1962–1967)
 * Come Dancing (UK) (1949–1995)
 * Coronation Street, UK (1960–present)
 * Death Valley Days (1952–1975)
 * Dixon of Dock Green (UK) (1955–1976)
 * Doctor Who, UK (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–present)
 * Face the Nation (1954–present)
 * Four Corners, Australia (1961–present)
 * General Hospital (1963–present)
 * Grandstand (UK) (1958–2007)
 * Gunsmoke (1955–1975)
 * Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951–present)
 * Hockey Night in Canada (1952–present)
 * It's Academic (1961–present)
 * Juke Box Jury (1959–1967, 1979, 1989–1990)
 * Love of Life (1951–1980)
 * Match Game (1962–1969, 1973–1984, 1990–1991, 1998–1999)
 * Meet the Press (1947–present)
 * Mister Ed (1961–1966)
 * Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom (1963–1988, 2002–present)
 * My Three Sons (1960–1972)
 * Opportunity Knocks (UK) (1956–1978)
 * Panorama (UK) (1953–present)
 * Petticoat Junction (1963–1970)
 * Ready Steady Go! (1963–1966)
 * Search for Tomorrow (1951–1986)
 * The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (1952–1966)
 * The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968)
 * The Avengers, UK (1961–1969)
 * The Bell Telephone Hour (1959–1968)
 * The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–1971)
 * The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961–1966)
 * The Doctors (1963–1982)
 * The Donna Reed Show (1958–1966)
 * The Ed Sullivan Show (1948–1971)
 * The Edge of Night (1956–1984)
 * The Flintstones (1960–1966)
 * The Fulton Sheen Program (1961–1968)
 * The Fugitive (1963–67)
 * The Good Old Days (UK) (1953–1983)
 * The Guiding Light (1952–2009)
 * The Hollywood Palace (1964-1970)
 * The Jack Benny Program (1950–1965)
 * The Late Late Show, Ireland (1962–present)
 * The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–1982)
 * The Lucy Show (1962–1968)
 * The Mike Douglas Show (1961–1981)
 * The Milton Berle Show (1954–1967)
 * The Patty Duke Show (1963–1966)
 * The Price Is Right (1956–1965)
 * The Saint, UK (1962–1969)
 * The Secret Storm (1954–1974)
 * The Sky at Night (UK) (1957–present)
 * The Today Show (1952–present)
 * The Tonight Show (1954–present)
 * The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992)
 * This Is Your Life (UK) (1955–2003)
 * Truth or Consequences (1950–1988)
 * Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1961–69 with this title)
 * What the Papers Say (UK) (1956–2008)
 * What's My Line (1950–1967)
 * Wide World of Sports (1961–1997)
 * Z-Cars, UK (1962–1978)

Debuts

 * January 1 – Top of the Pops on BBC television (1964–2006)
 * January 4 – The Hollywood Palace on ABC (1964–1970)
 * January 10 – That Was The Week That Was (TW3) on NBC-TV as a half-hour satirical revue broadcast live from New York after a successful hour-long special on November 10, 1963. The show, based on the BBC program of the same name, ran through May 4, 1965. It was revived as a one-time ABC special in 1985, and as a segment on ABC's Primetime Live ca. 2004–05.
 * January 14 – The Magilla Gorilla Show in syndication (1964–67)
 * March 30 – The game show Jeopardy! on NBC daytime TV (1964–75, 1978–79, 1984–)
 * May 4 – The American soap opera Another World on NBC at 3:00 p.m. ET, as a half-hour show (1964–99)
 * September 14 – Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea on ABC (1964–1968)
 * September 15 – Peyton Place on ABC (1964–1969)
 * September 16 – Shindig! on ABC (1964–1966) and The Peter Potamus Show on Syndication (1964-65)
 * September 17 – Bewitched on ABC (1964–1972)
 * September 18
 * The Addams Family on ABC (1964–1966)
 * Jonny Quest on ABC (1964–1965)
 * September 19
 * Flipper on NBC (1964–1967)
 * Kentucky Jones on NBC (1964–1965)
 * September 22 – The Man from U.N.C.L.E. on NBC (1964–1968)
 * September 23 – The Cara Williams Show on CBS (1964–1965)
 * September 24
 * Daniel Boone on NBC (1964–1970)
 * The Munsters on CBS (1964–1966)
 * September 25 – Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. on CBS (1964–1969)
 * September 26
 * Gilligan's Island on CBS (1964–1967)
 * Linus the Lionhearted on CBS (1964-65)
 * October 3 –
 * The Sullavan Brothers on ITV (1964–1965)
 * Underdog on NBC (1964–1967)
 * October 4 – This Hour Has Seven Days on CBC (1964–66)
 * October 5
 * 90 Bristol Court on NBC (1964–1965)
 * Harris Against the World on NBC (1964–1965)
 * Karen on NBC (1964–1965)
 * Tom, Dick and Mary on NBC (1964–1965)
 * October 13 – Danger Man returns to ITV after being cancelled in 1961; It would later air on CBS as Secret Agent (1960–61, 1964–66)
 * October 28 – The Wednesday Play on BBC1 (1964–1970)
 * November 2 – Crossroads on ITV (1964–1988, 2001–2003)
 * November 9 - The Les Crane Show, later renamed ABC's Nightlife, on ABC (1964-1965)
 * The Mavis Bramston Show on ATN-7 in Australia (1964–1968)
 * Spokoynoy nochi, malyshi! (Спокойной ночи, малыши!, "Good Night, Little Ones!") in the Soviet Union (1964–present)
 * The Porky Pig Show on ABC (1964-67)

Television debuts

 * Alan Arkin – East Side West Side
 * Dominic Chianese – East Side West Side
 * Richard Dreyfuss – Karen
 * Brenda Fricker – Tolka Row
 * Teri Garr – Mr. Novak
 * Elliott Gould – Once Upon a Mattress
 * Stacy Keach – Channing
 * Malcolm McDowell – Crossroads
 * Ian McKellen – The Indian Tales of Rudyard Kipling
 * Robert Pine – Broadside
 * John Rhys-Davies – Crossroads
 * Patrick Stewart – Story Parade
 * Susan Tyrrell – The Patty Duke Show
 * Concha Velasco – Sábado 64
 * Raquel Welch – The Virginian

title: 1964 in television


text:
1963 in television

The year 1963 involved some significant events in television. Below are lists of notable TV-related events.

Events

 * January 1 – Osamu Tezuka's Tetsuwan Atomu (Astro Boy), Japan's first serialized animated series based on the popular manga, is broadcast for the first time, on the Japanese television station Fuji Television.
 * January 13 – BBC Television broadcasts the play Madhouse on Castle Street in the Sunday-Night Theatre series. The play co-stars a young American folk music singer named Bob Dylan.
 * April 1 – German terrestrial channel ZDF (pronounced tseht-day-ehf) begins broadcasting.
 * April 15 - Three months after the first test broadcast, Television Singapura Channel 5 (now Mediacorp Channel 5) signs on as Singapore's first TV station.
 * May 15 – First television pictures transmitted from a US manned space capsule ("Faith 7"). Due to the poor picture quality, only NBC carries the transmission, and on tape-delay, not live.
 * July 8 – The English comedy sketch Dinner for One with Freddie Frinton, having been shown live on Peter Frankenfeld's show GutenAbend in 1962, is recorded in English by Norddeutscher Rundfunk before an audience at the Theater am Besenbinderhof, Hamburg, West Germany. Regularly repeated on New Year's Eve in Germany and elsewhere, it is not seen in its entirety on British television until 2018.
 * July 22 – Bob Crane quits his DJ job at radio station KNX to become a regular on The Donna Reed Show after dividing time between the Screen Gems TV show and the CBS Radio affiliate. Crane had been a top five morning drive radio DJ since the mid-1950s in the Los Angeles market.
 * August 28 – Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his I Have a Dream speech which is covered by major American networks.
 * September 2 – CBS Evening News becomes network television's first half-hour weeknight news broadcast, when the show is lengthened from 15 to 30 minutes.
 * September 9 – One week later, NBC also expands its evening network news program, The Huntley-Brinkley Report, to 30 minutes.
 * September 27 – The Littlest Hobo makes its debut on TV across North America with the first episode entitled "Blue Water Sailor".
 * September 29 – The Judy Garland Show makes its debut on CBS, which later got cancelled in 1964 after one season (due to competition with the ever popular NBC western Bonanza airing in the same time slot).
 * September 30 – BBC Television begins using a globe as its symbol. They will continue to use it in varying forms until 2002.
 * October 1 – ABC News at last drops its dependence on outside sources of news film and begins to rely on its own camera crews.
 * October 14 − ABC affiliate WGHP in High Point, North Carolina signs on the air.
 * November 22 – All three major U.S. networks start pre-emptions for a week following the news of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. The pre-emptions unofficially begin a few minutes after President Kennedy is shot: on the top-rated American soap opera As the World Turns, Nancy Hughes (Helen Wagner) is in the middle of a discussion with Grandpa (Santos Ortega) about Bob's (Don Hastings) decision to invite Lisa (Eileen Fulton) to Thanksgiving dinner when Walter Cronkite interrupts Wagner mid-speech to deliver the bulletin. As the World Turns continues for one more scene (at this time, the show is transmitted live) before Cronkite cuts in permanently. News of the assassination, and later the funeral procession, are the first television broadcasts across the Pacific Ocean (via Relay 1 satellite).
 * November 23 – On BBC Television in the United Kingdom:
 * William Hartnell stars as the First Doctor in the very first episode of science fiction series Doctor Who (first of the 4-part serial An Unearthly Child). So many people complain of having missed it (because of the disruption to schedules caused by the assassination of John F. Kennedy) that the following Saturday episode 1 is repeated before the broadcast of episode 2. Doctor Who runs until 1989 and is revived from 2005.
 * That Was the Week That Was broadcasts a serious Kennedy tribute episode.
 * November 24 – Jack Ruby murders John F. Kennedy's suspected assassin Lee Harvey Oswald live on television.
 * November 28 - CBS' Huntsville television station WHNT begins on the air.
 * December 7 – Instant Replay is used for the first time during the live transmission of the Army Navy Game by its inventor, director, Tony Verna.
 * December 28 – The launch of television broadcasting service in Malaysia, TV Malaysia, as predecessor of RTM TV1, member of Radio Televisyen Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur, presided by government leaders from studios in Ampang Road in the capital.
 * In Blanchard, North Dakota, construction on the KTHI TV transmitter mast (now KVLY-TV) was completed. Upon completion, its height of 2,063 ft (629m) made it the tallest structure in the world until 1966, when the nearby KXJB-TV mast (now KRDK) was completed. It still stands today, but at 1,987 ft tall due to an FCC spectrum repack.
 * For the first time, most Americans say that they get more of their news from television than newspapers.
 * The television remote control is authorized by the FCC.

Programs/programmes

 * ABC's Wide World of Sports (1961–98)
 * American Bandstand (1952–89)
 * Armchair Theatre (1956–68)
 * As the World Turns (1956–2010)
 * Ben Casey (1961–66)
 * Blue Peter (UK) (1958–present)
 * Bonanza (1959–73)
 * Bozo the Clown (1949–present)
 * Candid Camera (1948–2004)
 * Captain Kangaroo (1955–1984)
 * Combat! (1962–67)
 * Come Dancing (UK) (1949–95)
 * Coronation Street, UK (1960–present)
 * Death Valley Days (1952–75)
 * Dixon of Dock Green (UK) (1955–76)
 * Doctor Who, UK (1963–89, 1996, 2005–present)
 * Face the Nation (1954–present)
 * Four Corners, Australia (1961–present)
 * Grandstand (UK) (1958–2007)
 * Gunsmoke (1955–75)
 * Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951–present)
 * Have Gun Will Travel (1957–63)
 * Hockey Night in Canada (1952–present)
 * It's Academic (1961–present)
 * Juke Box Jury (1959–67, 1979, 1989–90)
 * Lassie (1954–74)
 * Love of Life (1951–80)
 * Mack & Myer for Hire (1963–64)
 * Match Game (1962–1969, 1973–84, 1990–91, 1998–99, 2016–present)
 * Meet the Press (1947–present)
 * Mister Ed (1961–66)
 * My Three Sons (1960–72)
 * Opportunity Knocks (UK) (1956–78)
 * Panorama (UK) (1953–present)
 * Petticoat Junction, (1963–70)
 * Professional Bowlers Tour (1962–97)
 * Search for Tomorrow (1951–86)
 * The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (1952–66)
 * The Amos 'n Andy Show (1951–53)
 * The Andy Griffith Show (1960–68)
 * The Avengers, UK (1961–69)
 * The Bell Telephone Hour (1959–68)
 * The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–71)
 * The Danny Kaye Show (1963-1967)
 * The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961–66)
 * The Donna Reed Show (1958–66)
 * The Ed Sullivan Show (1948–71)
 * The Edge of Night (1956–84)
 * The Flintstones (1960–66)
 * The Fulton Sheen Program (1961–1968)
 * The Good Old Days (UK) (1953–83)
 * The Greatest Show on Earth (1963–64)
 * The Guiding Light (1952–2009)
 * The Jack Benny Program (1950–65)
 * The Jetsons (1962–63, 1984–85, 1987)
 * The Judy Garland Show (1963–64)
 * The Late Late Show, Ireland (1962–present)
 * The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–82)
 * The Lucy Show (1962–68)
 * The Mike Douglas Show (1961–81)
 * The Milton Berle Show (1954–67)
 * The Patty Duke Show, (1963–66)
 * The Price Is Right (1956–65)
 * The Saint, UK (1962–69)
 * The Secret Storm (1954–74)
 * The Sky at Night (UK) (1957–present)
 * The Today Show (1952–present)
 * The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992)
 * The Tonight Show (Steve Allen, 1954–57; Jack Paar, 1957–62)
 * The Twilight Zone (1959–64)
 * The World Tonight, Philippines (1962–present)
 * This Is Your Life (UK) (1955–2003)
 * Truth or Consequences (1950–88)
 * Twelve O'Clock High (1964–67)
 * Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1961–69)
 * What the Papers Say (UK) (1956–2008)
 * What's My Line (1950–67)
 * Z-Cars, UK (1962–78)
 * Zoo Quest (UK) (1954–1964)

Debuts

 * January 1 – Astro Boy (known as Mighty Atom in Japanese), on Fuji TV
 * January 6 – Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom on NBC (1963–88, 2002–2011)
 * January 7 – World in Action, investigative current affairs series, on Granada Television (UK) (1963–98)
 * January 14 –
 * April 1 – General Hospital (created by Frank and Doris Hursley) and The Doctors ABC (1963–) and NBC (1963–82) respectively
 * August 9 – Ready Steady Go! on ITV (1963–66)
 * September 16 – The Outer Limits on ABC (1963–65)
 * September 17 – The Fugitive on ABC (1963–67)
 * September 18 – The Patty Duke Show on ABC (1963–66)
 * September 20 – Burke's Law on ABC (1963–65)
 * September 24
 * The Littlest Hobo in Canada (1963–65; 1979–85)
 * Petticoat Junction on CBS (1963–70)
 * September 25 - The Danny Kaye Show on CBS (1963–1967)
 * September 28 - The New Phil Silvers Show (1963–64) and Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales on CBS (1963–66)
 * September 29 – The Judy Garland Show (1963–64) and My Favorite Martian (1963–66), both on CBS
 * October 5 – Le Manège enchanté on la Première chaîne de la RTF (1963–1971, 1989)
 * October 7 – Hafenpolizei on Deutsches Fernsehen (1963–66)
 * October 20 – Ritorna il tenente Sheridan on Programma Nazionale
 * October 27 – Memorandum van een dokter (1963–65)
 * November 23 – Doctor Who on BBC Television (1963–89, 1996, 2005–); with William Hartnell as the Doctor (1963–66)
 * December 1 – Den tänkande brevbäraren on SVT
 * December 30 – Let's Make a Deal on NBC (1963-1977, 1980–81, 1984–1986, 1990–1991, 2003, 2009–present)
 * Mack & Myer for Hire this year in syndication (1963–64)

Television debuts

 * Ian Abercrombie – General Hospital
 * Alun Armstrong – Compact
 * Tom Atkins – The Doctors
 * Erick Avari – General Hospital
 * Henry Gibson – 77 Sunset Strip
 * Michael Lerner – Dr. Kildare
 * Ian McShane – First Night
 * Michael Murphy – Combat!
 * Jerry Orbach – The Doctors and the Nurses
 * Ian Richardson – As You Like It
 * Jon Voight – Naked City
 * David Warner – BBC Sunday-Night Play
 * Lesley Ann Warren – The Doctors
 * Jacki Weaver – Hansel and Gretel
 * Johnny Whitaker – General Hospital
 * Anthony Zerbe – Naked City

title: 1963 in television