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Newcomen atmospheric engine

The atmospheric engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, and is often referred to as the Newcomen fire engine (see below) or simply as a Newcomen engine. The engine was operated by condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum which allowed the atmospheric pressure to push the piston into the cylinder. It was historically significant as the first practical device to harness steam to produce mechanical work. Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump water out of mines. Hundreds were constructed throughout the 18th century.

James Watt's later engine design was an improved version of the Newcomen engine that roughly doubled fuel efficiency. Many atmospheric engines were converted to the Watt design, for a price which was based on a fraction of the fuel-savings. As a result, Watt is today better known than Newcomen in relation to the origin of the steam engine.

Precursors
Prior to Newcomen a number of small steam devices of various sorts had been made, but most were essentially novelties. Around 1600 a number of experimenters used steam to power small fountains working like a coffee percolator. First a container was filled with water via a pipe, which extended through the top of the container to nearly the bottom. The bottom of the pipe would be submerged in the water, making the container airtight. The container was then heated to make the water boil. The steam generated pressurized the container, but the inner pipe, immersed at the bottom by liquid, and lacking an airtight seal at top, remained at a lower pressure; expanding steam forced the water at the bottom of the container into and up the pipe to spurt out of a nozzle on top. These devices had limited effectiveness but illustrated the principle's viability.

In 1606, the Spaniard, Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont demonstrated and was granted a patent for a steam powered water pump. The pump was successfully used to drain the inundated mines of Guadalcanal, Spain.

In 1662 Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester, published a book containing several ideas he had been working on. One was for a steam-powered pump to supply water to fountains; the device alternately used a partial vacuum and steam pressure. Two containers were alternately filled with steam, then sprayed with cold water making the steam within condense; this produced a partial vacuum that would draw water through a pipe up from a well to the container. A fresh charge of steam under pressure then drove the water from the container up another pipe to a higher-level header before that steam condensed and the cycle repeated. By working the two containers alternately, the delivery rate to the header tank could be increased.

Savery's "Miner's Friend"
In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam-powered pump he called the "Miner's Friend", essentially identical to Somerset's design and almost certainly a direct copy. The process of cooling and creating the vacuum was fairly slow, so Savery later added an external cold water spray to quickly cool the steam.

Savery's invention cannot be strictly regarded as the first steam "engine" since it had no moving parts and could not transmit its power to any external device. There were evidently high hopes for the Miner's Friend, which led Parliament to extend the life of the patent by 21 years, so that the 1699 patent would not expire until 1733. Unfortunately, Savery's device proved much less successful than had been hoped.

A theoretical problem with Savery's device stemmed from the fact that a vacuum could only raise water to a maximum height of about 30 ft; to this could be added another 40 ft, or so, raised by steam pressure. This was insufficient to pump water out of a mine. In Savery's pamphlet, he suggests setting the boiler and containers on a ledge in the mineshaft and even a series of two or more pumps for deeper levels. Obviously these were inconvenient solutions and some sort of mechanical pump working at surface level – one that lifted the water directly instead of "sucking" it up – was desirable. Such pumps were common already, powered by horses, but required a vertical reciprocating drive that Savery's system did not provide. The more practical problem concerned having a boiler operating under pressure, as demonstrated when the boiler of an engine at Wednesbury exploded, perhaps in 1705.

Denis Papin's experimental steam cylinder and piston
Louis Figuier in his monumental work gives a full quotation of Denis Papin's paper published in 1690 in Acta eruditorum at Leipzig, entitled "Nouvelle méthode pour obtenir à bas prix des forces considérables" (A new method for cheaply obtaining considerable forces). It seems that the idea came to Papin whilst working with Robert Boyle at the Royal Society in London. Papin describes first pouring a small quantity of water into the bottom of a vertical cylinder, inserting a piston on a rod and after first evacuating the air below the piston, placing a fire beneath the cylinder to boil the water away and create enough steam pressure to raise the piston to the top end of the cylinder. The piston was then temporarily locked in the upper position by a spring catch engaging a notch in the rod. The fire was then removed, allowing the cylinder to cool, which condensed steam back into water, thus creating a vacuum beneath the piston. To the end of the piston rod was attached a cord passing over two pulleys and a weight hung down from the cord's end. Upon releasing the catch, the piston was sharply drawn down to the bottom of the cylinder by the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the created vacuum; enough force was thus generated to raise a 60 lb weight. "Several of his papers were put before the Royal Society between 1707 and 1712 [including] a description of his 1690 atmospheric steam engine, similar to that built and [subsequently] put into use by Thomas Newcomen in 1712."

Introduction and spread
Newcomen took forward Papin's experiment and made it workable, although little information exists as to exactly how this came about. The main problem to which Papin had given no solution was how to make the action repeatable at regular intervals. The way forward was to provide, as Savery had, a boiler capable of ensuring the continuity of the supply of steam to the cylinder, providing the vacuum power stroke by condensing the steam, and disposing of the water once it had been condensed. The power piston was hung by chains from the end of a rocking beam. Unlike Savery's device, pumping was entirely mechanical, the work of the steam engine being to lift a weighted rod slung from the opposite extremity of the rocking beam. The rod descended the mine shaft by gravity and drove a force pump, or pole pump (or most often a gang of two) inside the mineshaft. The suction stroke of the pump was only for the length of the upward (priming) stroke, there consequently was no longer the 30-foot restriction of a vacuum pump and water could be forced up a column from far greater depths. The boiler supplied the steam at extremely low pressure and was at first located immediately beneath the power cylinder but could also be placed behind a separating wall with a connecting steam pipe. Making all this work needed the skill of a practical engineer; Newcomen's trade as an "ironmonger" or metal merchant would have given him significant practical knowledge of what materials would be suitable for such an engine and brought him into contact with people having even more detailed knowledge.

The earliest examples for which reliable records exist were two engines in the Black Country, of which the more famous was that erected in 1712 at the Conygree Coalworks in Bloomfield Road Tipton now the site of "The Angle Ring Company Limited", Tipton. This is generally accepted as the first successful Newcomen engine and followed by one built a mile and a half east of Wolverhampton. Both these were used by Newcomen and his partner John Calley to pump out water-filled coal mines. A working replica can today be seen at the nearby Black Country Living Museum, which stands on another part of what was Lord Dudley's Conygree Park. Another Newcomen engine was in Cornwall. Its location is uncertain, but it is known that one was in operation at Wheal Vor mine in 1715. Soon orders from wet mines all over England were coming in, and some have suggested that word of his achievement was spread through his Baptist connections. Since Savery's patent had not yet run out, Newcomen was forced to come to an arrangement with Savery and operate under the latter's patent, as its term was much longer than any Newcomen could have easily obtained. During the latter years of its currency, the patent belonged to an unincorporated company, The Proprietors of the Invention for raising water by fire.

Although its first use was in coal-mining areas, Newcomen's engine was also used for pumping water out of the metal mines in his native West Country, such as the tin mines of Cornwall. By the time of his death, Newcomen and others had installed over a hundred of his engines, not only in the West Country and the Midlands but also in north Wales, near Newcastle and in Cumbria. Small numbers were built in other European countries, including in France, Belgium, Spain, and Hungary, also at Dannemora, Sweden. Evidence of the use of a Newcomen Steam Engine associated with early coal mines was found in 2010 in Midlothian, VA (site of some of the first coal mines in the US). (Dutton and Associates survey dated 24 November 2009).

Components
Although based on simple principles, Newcomen's engine was rather complex and showed signs of incremental development, problems being empirically addressed as they arose. It consisted of a boiler A, usually a haystack boiler, situated directly below the cylinder. This produced large quantities of very low pressure steam, no more than 1 – 2 psi (0.07 – 0.14 bar) – the maximum allowable pressure for a boiler that in earlier versions was made of copper with a domed top of lead and later entirely assembled from small riveted iron plates. The action of the engine was transmitted through a rocking "Great balanced Beam", the fulcrum E of which rested on the very solid end-gable wall of the purpose-built engine house with the pump side projecting outside of the building, the engine being located in-house. The pump rods were slung by a chain from the arch-head F of the great beam. From the in-house arch-head D was suspended a piston P working in a cylinder B, the top end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston and the bottom end closed, apart from the short admission pipe connecting the cylinder to the boiler; early cylinders were made of cast brass, but cast iron was soon found more effective and much cheaper to produce. The piston was surrounded by a seal in the form of a leather ring, but as the cylinder bore was finished by hand and not absolutely true, a layer of water had to be constantly maintained on top of the piston. Installed high up in the engine house was a water tank C (or header tank) fed by a small in-house pump slung from a smaller arch-head. The header tank supplied cold water under pressure via a stand-pipe for condensing the steam in the cylinder with a small branch supplying the cylinder-sealing water; at each top stroke of the piston excess warm sealing water overflowed down two pipes, one to the in-house well and the other to feed the boiler by gravity.

Operation
The pump equipment was heavier than the steam piston, so that the position of the beam at rest was pump-side down/engine-side up, which was called "out of the house".

To start the engine, the regulator valve V was opened and steam admitted into the cylinder from the boiler, filling the space beneath the piston. The regulator valve was then closed and the water injection valve V' briefly snapped open and shut, sending a spray of cold water into the cylinder. This condensed the steam and created a partial vacuum under the piston. Pressure differential between the atmosphere above the piston and the partial vacuum below then drove the piston down making the power stroke, bringing the beam "into the house" and raising the pump gear.

Steam was then readmitted to the cylinder, destroying the vacuum and driving the condensate down the sinking or "eduction" pipe. As the low pressure steam from the boiler flowed into the cylinder, the weight of the pump and gear returned the beam to its initial position whilst at the same time driving the water up from the mine.

This cycle was repeated around 12 times per minute.

Snifting valve
Newcomen found that his first engine would stop working after a while, and eventually discovered that this was due to small amounts of air being admitted to the cylinder with the steam. Water usually contains some dissolved air, and boiling the water released this with the steam. This air could not be condensed by the water spray and gradually accumulated until the engine became "wind logged". To prevent this, a release valve called a "snifting clack" or snifter valve was included near the bottom of the cylinder. This opened briefly when steam was first introduced, and non-condensable gas was driven from the cylinder. Its name was derived from the noise it made when it operated to release the air and steam "like a Man snifting with a Cold".

Automation
In early versions, the valves or plugs as they were then called, were operated manually by the plug man but the repetitive action demanded precise timing, making automatic action desirable. This was obtained by means of a plug tree which was a beam suspended vertically alongside the cylinder from a small arch head by crossed chains, its function being to open and close the valves automatically when the beam reached certain positions, by means of tappets and escapement mechanisms using weights. On the 1712 engine, the water feed pump was attached to the bottom of the plug tree, but later engines had the pump outside suspended from a separate small arch-head. There is a common legend that in 1713 a cock boy named Humphrey Potter, whose duty it was to open and shut the valves of an engine he attended, made the engine self-acting by causing the beam itself to open and close the valves by suitable cords and catches (known as the "potter cord"); however the plug tree device (the first form of valve gear) was very likely established practice before 1715, and is clearly depicted in the earliest known images of Newcomen engines by Henry Beighton (1717) (believed by Hulse to depict the 1714 Griff colliery engine) and by Thomas Barney (1719) (depicting the 1712 Dudley Castle engine). Because of the very heavy steam demands, the engine had to be periodically stopped and restarted, but even this process was automated by means of a buoy rising and falling in a vertical stand pipe fixed to the boiler. The buoy was attached to the scoggen, a weighted lever that worked a stop blocking the water injection valve shut until more steam had been raised.

Pumps
Most images show only the engine side, giving no information on the pumps. Current opinion is that at least on the early engines, dead-weight force pumps were used, the work of the engine being solely to lift the pump side ready for the next downwards pump stroke. This is the arrangement used for the Dudley Castle replica which effectively works at the original stated rate of 12 strokes per minute/10 impgal lifted per stroke. The later Watt engines used lift pumps powered by the engine stroke and it may be that later versions of the Newcomen engine did so too.

Development and application
Towards the close of its career, the atmospheric engine was much improved in its mechanical details and its proportions by John Smeaton, who built many large engines of this type during the 1770s. The urgent need for an engine to give rotary motion was making itself felt and this was done with limited success by Wasborough and Pickard using a Newcomen engine to drive a flywheel through a crank. Although the principle of the crank had long been known, Pickard managed to obtain a 12-year patent in 1780 for the specific application of the crank to steam engines; this was a setback to Boulton and Watt who bypassed the patent by applying the sun and planet motion to their advanced double-acting rotative engine of 1782.

By 1725 the Newcomen engine was in common use in mining, particularly collieries. It held its place with little material change for the rest of the century. Use of the Newcomen engine was extended in some places to pump municipal water supply; for instance the first Newcomen engine in France was built at Passy in 1726 to pump water from the Seine to the city of Paris. It was also used to power machinery indirectly, by returning water from below a water wheel to a reservoir above it, so that the same water could again turn the wheel. Among the earliest examples of this was at Coalbrookdale. A horse-powered pump had been installed in 1735 to return water to the pool above the Old Blast Furnace. This was replaced by a Newcomen engine in 1742–3. Several new furnaces built in Shropshire in the 1750s were powered in a similar way, including Horsehay and Ketley Furnaces and Madeley Wood or Bedlam Furnaces. The latter does not seem to have had a pool above the furnace, merely a tank into which the water was pumped. In other industries, engine-pumping was less common, but Richard Arkwright used an engine to provide additional power for his cotton mill.

Attempts were made to drive machinery by Newcomen engines, but these were unsuccessful, as the single power stroke produced a very jerky motion.

Successor
The main problem with the Newcomen design was that it used energy inefficiently, and was therefore expensive to operate. After the water vapor within was cooled enough to create the vacuum, the cylinder walls were cold enough to condense some of the steam as it was admitted during the next intake stroke. This meant that a considerable amount of fuel was being used just to heat the cylinder back to the point where the steam would start to fill it again. As the heat losses were related to the surfaces, while useful work related to the volume, increases in the size of the engine increased efficiency, and Newcomen engines became larger in time. However, efficiency did not matter very much within the context of a colliery, where coal was freely available.

Newcomen's engine was only replaced when James Watt improved it in 1769 to avoid this problem (Watt had been asked to repair a model of a Newcomen engine by Glasgow University; a small model that exaggerated the problem). In the Watt steam engine, condensation took place in an exterior condenser unit, attached to the steam cylinder via a pipe. When a valve on the pipe was opened, the vacuum in the condenser would, in turn, evacuate that part of the cylinder below the piston. This eliminated the cooling of the main cylinder walls and such, and dramatically reduced fuel use. It also enabled the development of a double-acting cylinder, with both upwards and downwards power strokes, increasing amount of power from the engine without a great increase in the size of the engine.

Watt's design, introduced in 1769, did not eliminate Newcomen engines immediately. Watt's vigorous defence of his patents resulted in the continued use of the Newcomen engine in an effort to avoid royalty payments. When his patents expired in 1800, there was a rush to install Watt engines, and Newcomen engines were eclipsed, even in collieries.

Surviving examples
The Newcomen Memorial Engine can be seen operating in Newcomen's home town of Dartmouth, where it was moved in 1963 by the Newcomen Society. This is believed to date from 1725, when it was initially installed at the Griff Colliery near Coventry.

An engine was installed at a colliery in Ashton-under-Lyne in about 1760. Known locally as Fairbottom Bobs it is now preserved at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.

The only Newcomen-style engine still extant in its original location is at what is now the Elsecar Heritage Centre, near Barnsley in South Yorkshire. This was probably the last commercially used Newcomen-style engine, as it ran from 1795 until 1923. The engine underwent extensive conservation works, together with its original shaft and engine-house, which were completed in autumn 2014.

A static example of a Newcomen Engine is in the Science Museum, London.

A static example of a Newcomen Engine is in the National Museum of Scotland. Formerly at Caprington Colliery at Kilmarnock.

An example, originally used at Farme Colliery is on display at Summerlee, Museum of Scottish Industrial Life; unusually it was used for winding rather than water pumping, and had been in operation for almost a century when examined in situ in 1902.

In 1986, a full-scale operational replica of the 1712 Newcomen Steam Engine was completed at the Black Country Living Museum in Dudley. It is the only full-size working replica of the engine in existence and is believed to be a couple of miles away from the site of the first completed engine, erected in 1712. The 'fire engine' as it was known, is an impressive brick building from which a wooden beam projects through one wall. Rods hang from the outer end of the beam and operate pumps at the bottom of the mine shaft which raise the water to the surface. The engine itself is simple, with only a boiler, a cylinder and piston and operating valves. A coal fire heats the water in the boiler which is little more than a covered pan and the steam generated then passes through a valve into the brass cylinder above the boiler. The cylinder is more than 2 metres long and 52 centimetres in diameter. The steam in the cylinder is condensed by injecting cold water and the vacuum beneath the piston pulls the inner end of the beam down and causes the pump to move.

title: Newcomen atmospheric engine


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Talk:Albert Ghiorso

Assessment
Looks like Start Class, Low priority. NerdyNSK 02:04, 16 October 2006 (UTC) 12 years later, I am here to verify that this article is now at c-class. UtopianPoyzin (talk) 02:29, 4 October 2018 (UTC)

Removed sentence
I removed the following sentence:

"Glenn Seaborg became Chancellor at Berkeley that led him away from, but not removed him from, the lab (so is considered a co-discoverer along with Darleane Hoffmann and Greg Choppin, etc.)"

I have no idea what the sentence is trying to communicate. The pronoun "him" is ambiguous in the sentence in "led him away from"? Seaborg or Ghiorso? If Seaborg, who cares (this is an article on Ghiorso).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Albert Ghiorso


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Watt steam engine

The Watt steam engine design was an invention of James Watt that became synonymous with steam engines during the Industrial Revolution, and it was many years before significantly new designs began to replace the basic Watt design.

The first steam engines, introduced by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, were of the "atmospheric" design. At the end of the power stroke, the weight of the object being moved by the engine pulled the piston to the top of the cylinder as steam was introduced. Then the cylinder was cooled by a spray of water, which caused the steam to condense, forming a partial vacuum in the cylinder. Atmospheric pressure on the top of the piston pushed it down, lifting the work object. James Watt noticed that it required significant amounts of heat to warm the cylinder back up to the point where steam could enter the cylinder without immediately condensing. When the cylinder was warm enough that it became filled with steam the next power stroke could commence.

Watt realised that the heat needed to warm the cylinder could be saved by adding a separate condensing cylinder. After the power cylinder was filled with steam, a valve was opened to the secondary cylinder, allowing the steam to flow into it and be condensed, which drew the steam from the main cylinder causing the power stroke. The condensing cylinder was water cooled to keep the steam condensing. At the end of the power stroke, the valve was closed so the power cylinder could be filled with steam as the piston moved to the top. The result was the same cycle as Newcomen's design, but without any cooling of the power cylinder which was immediately ready for another stroke.

Watt worked on the design over a period of several years, introducing the condenser, and introducing improvements to practically every part of the design. Notably, Watt performed a lengthy series of trials on ways to seal the piston in the cylinder, which considerably reduced leakage during the power stroke, preventing power loss. All of these changes produced a more reliable design which used half as much coal to produce the same amount of power.

The new design was introduced commercially in 1776, with the first example sold to the Carron Company ironworks. Watt continued working to improve the engine, and in 1781 introduced a system using a sun and planet gear to turn the linear motion of the engines into rotary motion. This made it useful not only in the original pumping role, but also as a direct replacement in roles where a water wheel would have been used previously. This was a key moment in the industrial revolution, since power sources could now be located anywhere instead of, as previously, needing a suitable water source and topography. Watt's partner Matthew Boulton began developing a multitude of machines that made use of this rotary power, developing the first modern industrialized factory, the Soho Foundry, which in turn produced new steam engine designs. Watt's early engines were like the original Newcomen designs in that they used low-pressure steam, and all of the power was produced by atmospheric pressure. When, in the early 1800s, other companies introduced high-pressure steam engines, Watt was reluctant to follow suit due to safety concerns. Wanting to improve on the performance of his engines, Watt began considering the use of higher-pressure steam, as well as designs using multiple cylinders in both the double-acting concept and the multiple-expansion concept. These double-acting engines required the invention of the parallel motion, which allowed the piston rods of the individual cylinders to move in straight lines, keeping the piston true in the cylinder, while the walking beam end moved through an arc, somewhat analogous to a crosshead in later steam engines.

Introduction
In 1698, the English mechanical designer Thomas Savery invented a pumping appliance that used steam to draw water directly from a well by means of a vacuum created by condensing steam. The appliance was also proposed for draining mines, but it could only draw fluid up approximately 25 feet, meaning it had to be located within this distance of the mine floor being drained. As mines became deeper, this was often impractical. It also consumed a large amount of fuel compared with later engines.

The solution to draining deep mines was found by Thomas Newcomen who developed an "atmospheric" engine that also worked on the vacuum principle. It employed a cylinder containing a movable piston connected by a chain to one end of a rocking beam that worked a mechanical lift pump from its opposite end. At the bottom of each stroke, steam was allowed to enter the cylinder below the piston. As the piston rose within the cylinder, drawn upward by a counterbalance, it drew in steam at atmospheric pressure. At the top of the stroke the steam valve was closed, and cold water was briefly injected into the cylinder as a means of cooling the steam. This water condensed the steam and created a partial vacuum below the piston. The atmospheric pressure outside the engine was then greater than the pressure within the cylinder, thereby pushing the piston into the cylinder. The piston, attached to a chain and in turn attached to one end of the "rocking beam", pulled down the end of the beam, lifting the opposite end of the beam. Hence, the pump deep in the mine attached to opposite end of the beam via ropes and chains was driven. The pump pushed, rather than pulled the column of water upward, hence it could lift water any distance. Once the piston was at the bottom, the cycle repeated.

The Newcomen engine was more powerful than the Savery engine. For the first time water could be raised from a depth of over 300 feet. The first example from 1712 was able to replace a team of 500 horses that had been used to pump out the mine. Seventy-five Newcomen pumping engines were installed at mines in Britain, France, Holland, Sweden and Russia. In the next fifty years only a few small changes were made to the engine design.

While Newcomen engines brought practical benefits, they were inefficient in terms of the use of energy to power them. The system of alternately sending jets of steam, then cold water into the cylinder meant that the walls of the cylinder were alternately heated, then cooled with each stroke. Each charge of steam introduced would continue condensing until the cylinder approached working temperature once again. So at each stroke part of the potential of the steam was lost.

Separate condenser
In 1763, James Watt was working as instrument maker at the University of Glasgow when he was assigned the job of repairing a model Newcomen engine and noted how inefficient it was.

In 1765, Watt conceived the idea of equipping the engine with a separate condensation chamber, which he called a "condenser". Because the condenser and the working cylinder were separate, condensation occurred without significant loss of heat from the cylinder. The condenser remained cold and below atmospheric pressure at all times, while the cylinder remained hot at all times.

Steam was drawn from the boiler to the cylinder under the piston. When the piston reached the top of the cylinder, the steam inlet valve closed and the valve controlling the passage to the condenser opened. The condenser being at a lower pressure, drew the steam from the cylinder into the condenser where it cooled and condensed from water vapour to liquid water, maintaining a partial vacuum in the condenser that was communicated to the space of the cylinder by the connecting passage. External atmospheric pressure then pushed the piston down the cylinder.

The separation of the cylinder and condenser eliminated the loss of heat that occurred when steam was condensed in the working cylinder of a Newcomen engine. This gave the Watt engine greater efficiency than the Newcomen engine, reducing the amount of coal consumed while doing the same amount of work as a Newcomen engine.

In Watt's design, the cold water was injected only into the condensation chamber. This type of condenser is known as a jet condenser. The condenser is located in a cold water bath below the cylinder. The volume of water entering the condenser as spray absorbed the latent heat of the steam, and was determined as seven times the volume of the condensed steam. The condensate and the injected water was then removed by the air pump, and the surrounding cold water served to absorb the remaining thermal energy to retain a condenser temperature of 30 °C to 45 °C and the equivalent pressure of 0.04 to 0.1 bar

At each stroke the warm condensate was drawn off from the condenser and sent to a hot well by a vacuum pump, which also helped to evacuate the steam from under the power cylinder. The still-warm condensate was recycled as feedwater for the boiler.

Watt's next improvement to the Newcomen design was to seal the top of the cylinder and surround the cylinder with a jacket. Steam was passed through the jacket before being admitted below the piston, keeping the piston and cylinder warm to prevent condensation within it. The second improvement was the utilisation of steam expansion against the vacuum on the other side of the piston. The steam supply was cut during the stroke, and the steam expanded against the vacuum on the other side. This increased the efficiency of the engine, but also created a variable torque on the shaft which was undesirable for many applications, in particular pumping. Watt therefore limited the expansion to a ratio of 1:2 (i.e. the steam supply was cut at half stroke). This increased the theoretical efficiency from 6.4% to 10.6%, with only a small variation in piston pressure. Watt did not use high pressure steam because of safety concerns.

These improvements led to the fully developed version of 1776 that actually went into production.

The partnership of Matthew Boulton and James Watt
The separate condenser showed dramatic potential for improvements on the Newcomen engine but Watt was still discouraged by seemingly insurmountable problems before a marketable engine could be perfected. It was only after entering into partnership with Matthew Boulton that such became reality. Watt told Boulton about his ideas on improving the engine, and Boulton, an avid entrepreneur, agreed to fund development of a test engine at Soho, near Birmingham. At last Watt had access to facilities and the practical experience of craftsmen who were soon able to get the first engine working. As fully developed, it used about 75% less fuel than a similar Newcomen one.

In 1775, Watt designed two large engines: one for the Bloomfield Colliery at Tipton, completed in March 1776, and one for John Wilkinson's ironworks at Broseley in Shropshire, which was at work the following month. A third engine, at Stratford-le-Bow in east London, was also working that summer.

Watt had tried unsuccessfully for several years to obtain an accurately bored cylinder for his steam engines, and was forced to use hammered iron, which was out of round and caused leakage past the piston. Joseph Wickham Roe stated in 1916: "When [John] Smeaton saw the first engine he reported to the Society of Engineers that 'Neither the tools nor the workmen existed who could manufacture such a complex machine with sufficient precision.

In 1774, John Wilkinson invented a boring machine in which the shaft that held the cutting tool was supported on both ends and extended through the cylinder, unlike the cantilevered borers then in use. Boulton wrote in 1776 that "Mr. Wilkinson has bored us several cylinders almost without error; that of 50 inches diameter, which we have put up at Tipton, does not err on the thickness of an old shilling in any part".

Boulton and Watt's practice was to help mine-owners and other customers to build engines, supplying men to erect them and some specialised parts. However, their main profit from their patent was derived from charging a licence fee to the engine owners, based on the cost of the fuel they saved. The greater fuel efficiency of their engines meant that they were most attractive in areas where fuel was expensive, particularly Cornwall, for which three engines were ordered in 1777, for the Wheal Busy, Ting Tang, and Chacewater mines.

Later improvements
The first Watt engines were atmospheric pressure engines, like the Newcomen engine but with the condensation taking place separate from the cylinder. Driving the engines using both low pressure steam and a partial vacuum raised the possibility of reciprocating engine development. An arrangement of valves could alternately admit low pressure steam to the cylinder and then connect with the condenser. Consequently, the direction of the power stroke might be reversed, making it easier to obtain rotary motion. Additional benefits of the double acting engine were increased efficiency, higher speed (greater power) and more regular motion.

Before the development of the double acting piston, the linkage to the beam and the piston rod had been by means of a chain, which meant that power could only be applied in one direction, by pulling. This was effective in engines that were used for pumping water, but the double action of the piston meant that it could push as well as pull. This was not possible as long as the beam and the rod were connected by a chain. Furthermore, it was not possible to connect the piston rod of the sealed cylinder directly to the beam, because while the rod moved vertically in a straight line, the beam was pivoted at its centre, with each side inscribing an arc. To bridge the conflicting actions of the beam and the piston, Watt developed his parallel motion. This device used a four bar linkage coupled with a pantograph to produce the required straight line motion much more cheaply than if he had used a slider type of linkage. He was very proud of his solution. Having the beam connected to the piston shaft by a means that applied force alternately in both directions also meant that it was possible to use the motion of the beam to turn a wheel. The simplest solution to transforming the action of the beam into a rotating motion was to connect the beam to a wheel by a crank, but because another party had patent rights on the use of the crank, Watt was obliged to come up with another solution. He adopted the epicyclic sun and planet gear system suggested by an employee William Murdoch, only later reverting, once the patent rights had expired, to the more familiar crank seen on most engines today. The main wheel attached to the crank was large and heavy, serving as a flywheel which, once set in motion, by its momentum maintained a constant power and smoothed the action of the alternating strokes. To its rotating central shaft, belts and gears could be attached to drive a great variety of machinery.

Because factory machinery needed to operate at a constant speed, Watt linked a steam regulator valve to a centrifugal governor which he adapted from those used to automatically control the speed of windmills. The centrifugal was not a true speed controller because it could not hold a set speed in response to a change in load.

These improvements allowed the steam engine to replace the water wheel and horses as the main sources of power for British industry, thereby freeing it from geographical constraints and becoming one of the main drivers in the Industrial Revolution.

Watt was also concerned with fundamental research on the functioning of the steam engine. His most notable measuring device, still in use today, is the Watt indicator incorporating a manometer to measure steam pressure within the cylinder according to the position of the piston, enabling a diagram to be produced representing the pressure of the steam as a function of its volume throughout the cycle.

Preserved Watt engines
The oldest surviving Watt engine is Old Bess of 1777, now in the Science Museum, London. The oldest working engine in the world is the Smethwick Engine, brought into service in May 1779 and now at Thinktank in Birmingham (formerly at the now defunct Museum of Science and Industry, Birmingham). The oldest still in its original engine house and still capable of doing the job for which it was installed is the 1812 Boulton and Watt engine at the Crofton Pumping Station in Wiltshire. This was used to pump water for the Kennet and Avon Canal; on certain weekends throughout the year the modern pumps are switched off and the two steam engines at Crofton still perform this function. The oldest extant rotative steam engine, the Whitbread Engine (from 1785, the third rotative engine ever built), is located in the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia. A Boulton-Watt engine of 1788 may be found in the Science Museum, London, while an 1817 blowing engine, formerly used at the Netherton ironworks of M W Grazebrook now decorates Dartmouth Circus, a traffic island at the start of the A38(M) motorway in Birmingham.

The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan houses a replica of a 1788 Watt rotative engine. It is a full-scale working model of a Boulton-Watt engine. The American industrialist Henry Ford commissioned the replica engine from the English manufacturer Charles Summerfield in 1932. The museum also holds an original Boulton and Watt atmospheric pump engine, originally used for canal pumping in Birmingham, illustrated below, and in use in situ at the Bowyer Street pumping station, from 1796 until 1854, and afterwards removed to Dearborn in 1929.

An other one is preserved at Fumel factory, France.

Watt engine produced by Hathorn, Davey and Co
In the 1880s, Hathorn Davey and Co / Leeds produced a 1 hp / 125 rpm atmospheric engine with external condenser but without steam expansion. It has been argued that this was probably the last commercial atmospheric engine to be manufactured. As an atmospheric engine, it did not have a pressurized boiler. It was intended for small businesses.

Recent developments
Watt's Expansion Engine is generally considered as of historic interest only. There are however some recent developments which may lead to a renaissance of the technology. Today, there is an enormous amount of waste steam and waste heat with temperatures between 100 and 150 °C generated by industry. In addition, solarthermal collectors, geothermal energy sources and biomass reactors produce heat in this temperature range. There are technologies to utilise this energy, in particular the Organic Rankine Cycle. In principle, these are steam turbines which do not use water but a fluid (a refrigerant) which evaporates at temperatures below 100 °C. Such systems are however fairly complex. They work with pressures of 6 to 20 bars, so that the whole system has to be completely sealed.

The Expansion Engine can offer significant advantages here, in particular for lower power ratings of 2 to 100 kW: with expansion ratios of 1:5, the theoretical efficiency reaches 15%, which is in the range of ORC systems. The Expansion Engine uses water as working fluid which is simple, cheap, non-toxic, non-flammable and non-corrosive. It works at pressure near and below atmospheric, so that sealing is not a problem. And it is a simple machine, implying cost effectiveness. Researchers from the University of Southampton / UK are currently developing a modern version of Watt's engine in order to generate energy from waste steam and waste heat. They improved the theory, demonstrating that theoretical efficiencies of up to 17.4% (and actual efficiencies of 11%) are possible.

In order to demonstrate the principle, a 25 watt experimental model engine was built and tested. The engine incorporates steam expansion as well as new features such as electronic control. The picture shows the model built and tested in 2016. Currently, a project to build and test a scaled-up 2 kW engine is under preparation.

title: Watt steam engine


text:
Talk:Uruk-hai

Untitled
This page has great detail of Uruk hai but not enough about what they did.

It's also based entirely around the movie - in the book, there was only one elf at Helm's deep. Unfortunately it's been long enough since I read the book that I'm not sure what other relevant differences might exist.

Grishnakh a Uruk-hai?
It says in moria that there are "Black Uruks of Mordor", but that does not mean that Grishnakh and his men are said Uruks. The Isengarders were the only ones to my knowledge who refered to themselves are Uruk-hai. Is there any evidence to suggest that the orcs of the red eye were Uruk-hai?- Purple Pikmin

Origins of Uruk-hai
There are actually suggestions that Uruk-hai was just a general name for all large orcs, including a new breed of black orcs bred by Sauron, and Saruman orc-men, which have nothing in common except being larger, stronger etc. Ausir 12:16, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Quite correct. Uruk-hai simply means 'Orc folk', and the Uruks referred to the more traditional Orcs (goblins) as snaga (slave). Compare Olog-hai -- the "new and improved" trolls. Anárion 12:22, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I still feel that clarification is needed on this in terms of the movie's representation: "crossing Orcs and Goblin-men" is an oxymoron. "Goblin" is just an alternative name for "Orc" (essentially "Goblin" is a slang-term for the race properly termed Orcs, from the Quenya "Yrch"). Goblins and Orcs are the exact same race: they are all "Orcs". Thus this line from the movie is essentially saying "crossing Orcs and Orc-men". However, "Orc-men" is often used as another name of the Uruk-hai. So the entire movie-line suggests that "Saruman has created Orc-men by crossing Orcs with Orc-men", which is impossible. Indeed, there is no such thing as "Goblin-men" as a distinct race before Saruman (and Sauron) made the hybrids.

I would like to say that in the LotR games (endorsed, I might add) specifically list Goblins, Orcs, AND Uruk'Hai as enemies. User: Cpettijohn93 —Preceding comment was added at 17:49, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Quibble: yrch – uttered by a wood-elf – is clearly not Quenya which did not use the vowel /y/. —Tamfang (talk) 00:37, 8 December 2019 (UTC)

From a purely book-centered viewpoint, I fully acknowledge and accept the points made above that they are "Uruks", "Orc-folk", etc. The "squint-eyed southerner" in Bree was probably the result of some of these experiments, as were the "half-orcs" among the Ruffians in the Scouring of the Shire. Truthfully, the book is pretty vague on the exact nature of this; case-in-point, Treebeard ponders what exactly these servants of Saruman are, "are they Men he has ruined, or has he somehow *blended the races of Men and Orcs*? That would be a black evil!".

But sticking to the (admitedly simplified) "rules" of semantics within the movies, I feel that the quote by Gandalf at Rivendell in the movie was confusing to movie-goers how haven't read the books. More or less, Uruk-hai are a Human-Orc hybrid. Again, how could he have "crossed Orcs with Orc-men to create Orc-men"?. I think they didn't want to imply that Saruman was having Orcs rape Dunlending women (possible source) in order to breed Uruk-hai. I personally don't believe that's what the books implied either. I personally feel that the Uruk-hai are Orcs "magicially", or alchemy-aided into being crossed with human-characteristics; they're "test-tube creations" (this could be what happens in the scene in the movie; I made the early-Tolkien theory reference). However, on the whole I share Treebeard's confusing and haven't settled on the matter in my mind.

The reason I say all of this is because on the cast commentary on the Extended Edition DVD they all seem to believe that Uruk-hai are a hybrid of "Orcs and Goblin-men" when in truth they are a hybrid of Orcs and Men. Should the article be amended? Ricimer 15:11, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Uruks as a crossbreed of Orcs and Goblin-men (err... Orc-men?) are just Jackson's interpretation of the origin of Uruks. In the books Saruman did not "invent" them, but Uruks appear much earlier in the Tale of Years, conquering Ithilien. Personally I believe that the very fact Tolkien described some men as "goblin-men" is enough evidence that the Uruk-hai cannot have been simply Orc-human crossbreeds: Tolkien always equated the two terms goblins and Orcs. Consider the aftermath of the raid of the Rohirrim of Éomer on Saruman's troupe of Uruks that had captured Merry and Pippin: I believe the one point "goblin" is used in LotR (aside from Hobbittalk) occurs, when the Three Companions see a "goblin-head" on a spear. This was certainly an Uruk of Saruman, and yet called a goblin — therefore Uruks are Goblins, and Goblin-men already described "orkish men" or possible "mannish orcs". No matter how this comment is further interpreted, fact is that the only evidence we have about Uruks is that they were far more powerful than the "classic" Orcs, and did not mind the Sun much. Anárion 19:30, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * On the same DVD they consistently refer to the Rohirrim as the Rohan… so even though evidently very passionate about the subject, they did not have their facts quite right. Consider also the Jackson claim that Sauron had no phyiscal form during the War of the Ring despite evidence that he did.Anárion 19:32, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

"No matter how this comment is further interpreted, fact is that the only evidence we have about Uruks is that they were far more powerful than the "classic" Orcs, and did not mind the Sun much." I agree fully. I am aware that the Uruks of Sauron aided the attack on Ithillien ~100 years ago (thus they showed up earlier).

And I also agree that the uninformed usage of Rohan and not Rohirrim gets annoying (although they are careful in the film itself) but more annoying is the "he can't take physical form yet" line: the Great Eye *is* his physical form. However, the production and design team commentaries show that Richard Taylor, etc. had it right. I still feel that "Goblin-men" is a poor name though. I feel all would have been better if they put in that Treebeard quote. Ricimer 19:57, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Actually, the Great Eye is not his physical form. See: Eye of Sauron. Ausir 10:16, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Yes, yes, I know: Gollum's comment that "the Black Hand has four fingers...", etc. and Tolkien's statements all saying that he has a body of some sort. But the exact line "he isn't powerful enough to take physical form yet" is blatantly incorrect. Ricimer 23:30, 15 Aug 2004 {UTC)

I recently bought a strategy game based on The Lord of the Rings called War of the Ring. One of the missions has the player breed the Uruk-Hai. This is done by corrupting the barrows of the wild men of the Druidan forest (excuse any misspelling). Evil spirits are drawn from the corrupted barrows, which Saruman then binds to his orc warriors. Is there any merit to this?

Uruk-Hai doesn't mean Orc Folk
I disagree with the translation of Uruk-Hai as meaning Orc Folk. Here are my reasons:

The word uruk means Orc, while uruk-hai is only used to refer to the larger breed of orcs. If Uruk-hai ment Orc folk it would refer to all orcs and not just the larger breeds.

This fits much better with the other -Hai ending word we have, Olog-Hai. Olog-Hai refers to a new and improved breed of Olog, Trolls.

This leads me to believe that the -Hai suffix actually has an augmentative meaning that means "better" or "improved".

 * No, etymolygists have quite a bit of evidence on this. It's closer to "Orc-breed" as in "Orc-thoroughbred". Plus they were often called Uruk for short as opposed to normal Orcs. Regardless, it doesn't mean just "improved".---Ricimer

 * Sorry, but the translation of Uruk-hai as "Orc-folk" has been confirmed with the publication of Tolkien's linguistic commentary on the Lord of the Rings in Parma Eldalamberon 17. 96.228.21.56 07:58, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Uruks and Uruk-Hai
Actually, there is probably a difference between Uruks and Uruk-Hai.

When the Uruks first attacked Ithilien, they came from Mordor. This may mean that Uruks were just some breed of Orcs that Sauron bred or stumbled upon and found more useful in combat ,because of the harsheness of Mordor, than other breeds. In later passages, Orcs in the service of Mordor are referred to as Uruks sometimes. Though it translates to "Orcs", the Annals said that this term was generally applied to the great fighters and soldiers of Mordor.

Uruk-hai seems to generally refer to "the Isengarders". This implies that they are different from one-another, if only slightly. Pippen noticed that the Orcs from Mordor had long arms that dropped to their crooked legs. The description of the Uruk-Hai doesnt mention extremely long arms. Secondly, as mentioned before, Olog-hai were "improved" trolls, so Uruk-Hai may just be improved Uruks.

On the other hand, when Frodo and Sam eavesdrop on the two Orcs tracking them in Mordor, one mentions that the cause of all the trouble could be a "pack of rebel Uruk-hai". It is highly unlikely that the Uruk-Hai travelled to Mordor. Saruman may have sent them to show off to Sauron, but that is improbable because the Uruks are so similar. This suggests that Uruk may be just short for Uruk-Hai, which in turn refers to the larger, stronger Orcs used as close-combat soldiers.

Dispute: Uruk-Hai and Half-orcs
There's been some dispute over wither or not if the Uruk-Hai are jsut simply better bred orcs or Half-Man, Half-Orc. The Tolkien Encyclopedia seperates Uruk-Hai and Half-orcs, and may be of different orgins. Encyclopedia of Arda does not nmake any reference to the urk-hai being the same as the Half-Orcs. I believe it is time to clarify this issue. --User:Eldarone 05:57, 4 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I now removed the part about all Uruks being hybrids, added by 222.126.76.205 on March 26. What s/he wrote was:
 * It is not clear in The Lord of the Rings itself, but Tolkien later intended all Uruk-hai to be orc-human hybrids.
 * There is no doubt that long afterwards, in the Third Age, Saruman rediscovered this, or learned of it in lore, and in his lust for mastery committed this, his wickedest deed: the interbreeding of Orcs and Men, producing both Men-orcs large and cunning, and Orc-men treacherous and vile. (Morgoth's Ring, "Myths Transformed" - Text X)

 * The Men-orcs are the Uruks while the Orc-men are the "goblin-men" in the Shire, or so it seems.
 * There is nothing in the given quote from Morgoth's Ring that states that "Men-orcs" applies to Uruks. (The poster also admits that s/he only thinks it seems that way.) There simply isn't any support in Tolkien's writing for this kind of assumption, at least any such quote would need to be presented. --193.71.196.238 07:29, 27 April 2006 (UTC) (Nick Knutsen)

Uruks are the same as Uruk-hai
Uruks are the same as Uruk-hai, and Uruks are not Half-Orcs bread by Saruman. Some of this has been mentioned before, but I thought I would present it all here. This all relates to the works of Tolkien, not the interpretation from Peter Jackson.

 * Tolkien wrote the following in Appendix F to TLotR ('Orcs and the Black Speech'): "Related [to the word 'Orc'], no doubt, was the word uruk of the Black Speech, though this was applied as a rule only to the great soldier-orcs that at this time issued from Mordor and Isengard. The lesser kind were called, especially by the Uruk-hai, snaga 'slave'." Why would Tolkien first talk about the soldier-orcs (named as uruks) in contrast to the lesser orcs, and then suddenly relate what a third kind of orc (the Uruk-hai) would call the lesser kind? It seems clear that the two terms mean the same.

 * This confusion has probably arisen because all of the times when Uruks are mentioned they are refered to as coming from Mordor (probably by chance), while the Uruk-hai is mentioned mostly in Book III Chapter 3 'The Uruk-hai', where of course they come from Isengard. In actuality the word 'Uruk(s)' (as opposed to 'Uruk-hai') is only mentioned in the narrative of TLotR three times! But in Appendix F to TLotR (quoted above), it says that Uruks issued from Mordor and Isengard.

 * The word 'Uruk-hai', when not refering to the specific band of Orcs of the White Hand that captured Merry and Pippin, appear only one place! In Book VI Chapter 2 a soldier orc is talking about what raided the Tower of Cirith Ungol, according to rumour, and he mentions "a pack of rebel Uruk-hai"! This is of course in Mordor, so he must be talking about a pack of Mordor orcs.

 * The fourth proof of my point can be found in the Index to Unfinished Tales. There is stated: "Uruks: Anglecized form of Uruk-hai of the Black Speech; a race of Orcs of great size and strength" Related to this, it's clear that all through the narrative of TLofR, the only time the term Uruk-hai is used, is when the Orcs are talking.

As for the commom notion that the Uruk-hai were bred by Saruman, this is purely based on the presumption that the Uruk-hai where different from the Uruks. As mentioned above, Tolkien wrote that the Uruks "issued from Mordor and Isengard." Whether this means that Saruman bred Uruks or just employed Mordor Uruks, isn't clear. Treebeard's statement was that Saruman "has been doing something" to the Orcs, and that Saruman's Orcs can endure the Sun. The only thing we can deduce from Treebeard's account, is that Saruman was changing his Orcs, probably by breeding, possibly creating a new 'strain' of Uruks from Mordor Uruks. But it's clear that the Uruks came originally from Mordor. In Unfinished Tales, note 7 to 'The Palantíri', Tolkien (J.R.R.) writes this about Saruman in Isengard: "The use, and possibly special breeding, of Orcs was kept secret, and cannot have begun much before 2990 at earliest."

So the conclusion is that, while 'Uruk-hai' and 'Uruk' has the same meaning, there might have been differences in Saruman's Uruks as compared to the Mordor Uruks. It's not clear what these differences are. (Treebeard's deduction that Saruman is purely responsible for the new kind of Orcs needn't be correct; quite probably he had never seen an Uruk before Saruman's Uruks.)

 * The Tolkien Encyclopedia refers to the Uruks from Mordor as Uruk-hai. In its entry on Half-Orcs, it states that Saruman bread these as mixes between Dunlendings and Orcs, and between Dunlendings and Uruk-hai. Quoted here: http://forums.lotro.turbine.com/archive/index.php/t-1519.html. I'm not sure about the reputability of this source.

 * The Encyclopedia of Arda also refers to 'Uruk' as a short form of 'Uruk-hai'.

I think the main article in Wikipedia should be updated to reflect this. It's true there is some debate over this topic, and the article should probably mention that there is, but it's clear what is the case from the text in TLotR and Unfinished Tales. It should also be mentioned that Uruk-hai means Orc-folk. See the Wikipedia entry on Olog-hai.

193.71.196.238 21:43, 12 February 2006 (UTC) (Nick Knutsen)

–Djamshid Nersi That is correct. The name URUK was taken by Tolkien from the Sumerian mythology. URUK was a city in Sumer. It was located in the north of city UR. Acording to recent excavatins, the Archaic Sumerian, or, the early civilizations of the early third millennium, witch soreads in the big cities was faced with the notable floods time to time,Shurrupak, KISH and URUK among them. So the king GILGAMESH decided to make a wall around his Capital City URUK. you may read more about the EPIC in the Penguin Classics " The Epic of Gilgamesh".
 * Without concrete references we can't say for sure that he took "uruk" from the Sumerian language/mythology (though it's likely, but you never know). It's speculation and original research without references. Uthanc 05:48, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

Sumer
I understand a lot of the names Tolkien had used were based off of Norse mythology, but is it a possibility that Uruk(-hai) was a name borrowed from the ancient Sumerian city? I have not been able to find an answer to this. If this is true, I think it should be mentioned. JanderVK
 * So whole Sumerian civilization is very orcish as it is. 88.190.223.227 (talk) 17:22, 26 February 2011 (UTC)
 * No evidence for a Sumerian connection. Resemblance of words does not by itself imply influence. -- Elphion (talk) 20:48, 26 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Unless you will check this. 88.190.223.227 (talk) 10:06, 27 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I searched that page for 'uruk', 'Erech', 'orc', and 'Sumer' and came up with no evidence. 'Uruk' is not even mentioned, and for the rest, well, random unsupported speculation on fan threads does not constitute evidence. -- Elphion (talk) 02:25, 28 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Search for 'Sumerian' instead. 88.190.223.227 (talk) 16:08, 28 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes, that would be included in a search for 'Sumer'. -- Elphion (talk) 18:08, 28 February 2011 (UTC)

Berserkers
Is it worth making an article about the Berserkers out of the film?--Andy mci 22:03, 9 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Not unless this was a Tolkien-centred wiki. Uthanc 09:45, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

The Truth of the Uruk-hai
The Uruk-hai are simple crossbreeds of human and orc, equivalent to a corrupted version of half-elves. There are two subspecies:
 * Morgul Uruk-hai, bred by Morgoth and Sauron, similar to orcs but much larger and stronger.
 * White Hand Uruk-hai, bred by Saruman, largely identical to the former, save with an added resistance to sunlight. --Zenoseiya 22:53, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

Any relation to...
...the ancient Sumerian city Uruk? 71.113.38.68 03:01, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Uruk was build by GORKAMORKA WAAAGH! power, which used human slaves, so Sumerian civilization is hybrid of orcish and human cultures. See http://www.enworld.org/forum/general-rpg-discussion/143131-neandertals-dem-deres-orcs.html 88.190.223.227 (talk) 17:49, 26 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Could Tolkien have lent the word Uruk-hai from the Uriankhai, an ethnic Mongolian group wherefrom also the Tuvans originate? --Rides (talk) 18:57, 27 July 2012 (UTC)

 * As far as I can tell there is no evidence anywhere about where Tolkien got the name from. I've seen this etymology proposed even in academic papers, but nowhere does a citation lead back to Tolkien himself. It makes no more sense to say that the Uruk-hai were inspired by the Sumerian city of Uruk than to say Batman got his name from the eponymous city in the East of Turkey. The internal etymology, however, is obvious: Uruk is Black Speech for Sindarin Yrch. Solri (talk) 17:09, 2 December 2012 (UTC)

Tortured elves as Uruk-hai
I think it is inappropriate to say that the movies implied that Saruman created Uruk-hai from tortured elves because in the scene where he is instructing Lurtz on their history, he was simply describing how orcs in general first came into being, while the Uruk-hai obviously evolved later through much cross-breeding with humans and through other dark arts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.4.90.225 (talk) 22:37, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

Picture
I like the Ultramarine symbol on the shoulder in the bottomright corner of File:Uruk-hai statue.jpg, it's nice. But in all seriousness, is there another picture that can be used, one without a Warhammer 40k shoulder in it? Or at least can the image be cropped? - SudoGhost™ 01:47, 10 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Not sure if I have the right term for the image caption, is it an Uruk-hai, or should it be an Uruk singular? Carl Sixsmith (talk) 06:20, 10 July 2011 (UTC)

Orc is not the right term, it is goblin.
I personally think that if we are trying to keep to Tolkein lore we should use his note in the beginning of the hobbit and refer to Orcs as Goblins. Goblin is the English name for Orc.

"Orc is not an English word. It occurs in one or two places but is usually translated goblin (or hobgoblin for the larger kinds). Orc is the hobbits form of the name given at that time to these creatures, and it is not connected at all with our orc" (From the author's note at the beginning of The Hobbit) 68.146.214.34 (talk) 06:30, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Uruk-hai are not in The Hobbit though, and throughout The Lord of the Rings they are referred to as Orcs. 06:49, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Uruk-hai do not change a thing about Goblins. And throughout lord of the rings it is referred to as either. 68.146.214.34 (talk) 07:24, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * No, there are a couple of references to 'goblin-men' but the vast majority of the work refer to them as Orcs. This article is about Uruk-hai, and I can't think of one reference in the books where that breed is referred to as Goblins. Carl Sixsmith (talk) 07:28, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * found some it seems goblin is reserved for the Hobbit's talk/view points..

 * There were four goblin-soldiers of greater stature, swart, slant-eyed, with thick legs and large hands. They were armed with short broad-bladed swords, not with the curved scimitars usual with Orcs and they had bows of yew, in length and shape like the bows of Men.

 * and

 * Upon a stake in the middle was set a great goblin head; upon its shattered helm the white badge could still be seen.

 * Goblin is actually the English translation in the Hobbit, while Orc is the Hobbit name. the last part of the quote that I left out is the part about sea creatures, which it means by "our orc" 68.146.214.34 (talk) 07:38, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

(outdent) Orc does actually come from OE orkneas -- see Orc (Middle-earth). Tolkien clearly appropriated the word as Sindarin (plural yrch). Although he used "goblin" almost exclusively in The Hobbit, he wanted something less redolent of nursery tales for the darker sequel. Both I think are fair game, though for LOTR I think "orc" is usually more appropriate. -- Elphion (talk) 14:29, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Hmm maybe Orc is used more often since it does mainly have to do with hobbits, and Tolkien just changed his writing style and viewpoint since The Hobbit. Maybe having a note beside Orc and saying it is actually "Goblin" in English but for the purposes of the article we will stick with Orc, since it is in the viewpoint of Hobbits. 68.146.214.34 (talk) 02:57, 1 August 2011 (UTC)

 * No, everyone in The Hobbit uses goblin, and most of time everyone in LOTR uses orc. It's not a vocabulary difference peculiar to  hobbits or their viewpoint.  I think Tolkien avoided orc in The Hobbit since he felt people would be confused by the modern English meaning of orc (which of course has now changed since the advent of LOTR), while in LOTR he decided the older word was more appropriate and felt that we could handle it. -- Elphion (talk) 14:30, 1 August 2011 (UTC)

Okay guys. This has gone on long enough. I don't know why people don't realize that Uruk's are from Mordor and Uruk Hai are from Isengard. The "Hai" in Uruk Hai means a different and more upgraded form of Uruk.It says that Uruk's from Mordor were black in color, while the Uruk Hai from Orthanc were "ashy, and red in some parts". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.91.188.40 (talk) 09:18, 9 December 2011 (UTC)
 * That's cool. Alls you need to do is provide a reliable source that agrees with you and we can edit the article. GimliDotNet (talk) 10:02, 9 December 2011 (UTC)

Sunlight
So, Saruman's orcs can definitely abide the sunlight. But I don't think there is any primary-source evidence to support the idea that Sauron's orcs could do so. This absence of evidence (i.e. 89.243.26.239's admission that "the two sets of Uruks are not stated to be different") doesn't give us the freedom to assume that they are similar in that regard. The new stuff that has been added (e.g. "...features possibly shared with Sauron's Uruks." [emphasis mine]) is WP:OR, IMHO. Braincricket (talk) 06:58, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Agreed. The ability to withstand the sun surprises both Gimli and Aragorn, with the later 'knowing more of orcs and their ways than any other man' according to the author. GimliDotNet ( Speak to me,  Stuff I've done )  07:36, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Where is your evidence for that? Any quotes? The only other Uruks that Aragorn is said to have encountered are the "Black Uruks of Mordor" in Moria, which was probably in the darkness, so the sun light theory cannot be tested. There is simply NO evidence that Saruman was "making further changes" to his Uruks at all. They are simply shown to run under the sunlight and be larger than the normal Mordor Orcs, NOT super powered Uruks! This "making further changes" is original research and should be removed from this article untill evidence can be provided. Thus the logical thing to say is that the sunlight resistance of Saruman's Uruks was POSSIBLY shared with those of Sauron. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Transcendent28 (talk • contribs) 07:49, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Your entire argument is based on 'probably' and 'possibly' the text of the Lord of the Rings makes clear that the lack of fear of the sun surprises everyone. This is the only evidence we have, therefore to claim the Uruks of Sauron are also unafraid of the sun (based on Aragorn 'probably' only having met them in the dark) is Original Research. The text supports that Saruman has enhanced Uruks and cross-bred orcs too. It is up to you to provide evidence that the Uruks of Mordor are the same and have the same traits. GimliDotNet ( Speak to me,  Stuff I've done )  07:56, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Rubbish mate. I think it is perfectly logical to say that the sunlight resistance was possibly shared with the Sauron Uruks. Where is your evidence that the Uruks of Saruman were enhanced? There isn't any. The description of the Isengarders only says they were of greater stature…this is open to interpretation, Greater stature than what? I would say it means the surrounding normal orcs of Mordor, NOT other Mordor Uruks which are not on the scene at the time. You jump to conclusions in saying that Saruman was making improvements to the Uruk breed using no evidence at all. Also “the lack of fear of the sun surprises everyone”? Where do you get this idea from? It is not clear at all that anyone finds this surprising, only that it is of a greater threat than standard orcs who can operate only at night. Please provide some hard evidence and stop your disruptive editing of my edits. Thankyou. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Transcendent28 (talk • contribs) 08:18, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Here's one from Treebeard

"For these Isengarders are more like wicked Men. It is a mark of evil things that came in the Great Darkness that they cannot abide the Sun, but Saruman's Orcs can endure it, even if they hate it. I wonder what he has done?  Are they Men he has ruined, or has he blended the races of Orcs and Men?  That would be a black evil!" GimliDotNet ( Speak to me, Stuff I've done )  08:29, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Treebeard may simply be ignorant of the Mordor Uruks' existence. After all the previous Uruks were not known to go about attacking the Ents. Treebeard is not some all knowing Orc expert. Tolkien has made it clear that he is not all wise. This shows no evidence at all to counter my point that it is an open question as to weather or not the Mordor Uruks could resist the sunlight as well. It is only Treebeard's speculation as to how the Uruks he has seen were made. — Preceding unsigned comment added by User talk:Transcendent28 (talk • contribs)
 * The problem you've got is you are speculating on text that does not exist. The treebeard quote is text in the book, it shows the surprise characters have at Saruman's uruks being able to withstand the sun. YOU are interpreting that Treebeard doesn't have knowledge about Mordor uruks, YOU are interpreting that Treebeard's comments are only speculation. That is the very definition of WP:OR GimliDotNet ( Speak to me,  Stuff I've done )  08:55, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * (ec) So, from the article: "These original Uruks were of Sauron's breeding; but Saruman bred his own, making further changes such as resistance to sunlight and more upright stature. " It may be reasonable to assume that Sauron's orcs were resistant to sunlight, but as far as I know the text isn't clear on that. You said "I think it is perfectly logical to say that the sunlight resistance was possibly shared with the Sauron Uruks." Maybe I agree with you. But until it can be directly attributed to a reliable source, it's just another fan theory. Suitable for lotr.wikia.com but not here. It's all the first paragraph of WP:SYN. Braincricket (talk) 08:58, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Well ok I see your point, I have toned down the language I used and left it open to question as to weather or not these traits are shared with Sauron's Uruks. But I think the bit about Saruman "making further changes" to his specific Uruks has to be seen as a fan theory as well. Leaving it open to question is a good compromise on this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Transcendent28 (talk • contribs) 09:05, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Uruk-hai


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Colin Baker

Colin Charles Baker (born 8 June 1943) is an English actor. He played Paul Merroney in the BBC television drama series The Brothers from 1974 to 1976 and the sixth incarnation of the Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series Doctor Who from 1984 to 1986. Baker's tenure as the Doctor proved to be a controversial era for the series, which included a hiatus in production and his subsequent replacement on the orders of BBC executive Michael Grade.

Early life
Colin Charles Baker was born in Waterloo, London, England. He moved north to Rochdale with his family when he was three years old. He was educated at St Bede's College, Manchester, where he passed A' Levels in French, Latin and Greek. Particularly strong in Latin and Greek, Baker achieved 2 A grades. He studied law at a London college and subsequently trained to become a solicitor. At the age of 23, Baker enrolled at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA).

Early work in television
Baker's numerous television roles in the early 1970s included a supporting role in a 1970 BBC adaptation of Jean-Paul Sartre's trilogy The Roads to Freedom, a leading role as Count Steinbock in their adaptation of Cousin Bette the following year, playing opposite Margaret Tyzack and Helen Mirren. In 1972 he played Anatole Kuragin, opposite Anthony Hopkins in the BBC adaptation of War and Peace. His regular television work continued and in Fall of Eagles, Baker appeared as Crown Prince Wilhelm of the German Empire.

By far his most prominent role to date came in 1974, playing the ruthless banker Paul Merroney in the BBC Sunday evening series The Brothers. Baker joined the series half-way through its run, as Merroney became one of the leading characters over three and a half series from 1974–76.

After The Brothers, he worked regularly in theatre and his television work became less frequent, although he guest-starred as Bayban the Butcher in a 1980 episode of Blake's 7, "City at the Edge of the World". He had further guest roles on television and in 1983 featured in a BBC production of A.J. Cronin's The Citadel.

Doctor Who (1984–1986)
Baker made his first appearance in Doctor Who as Commander Maxil in the Peter Davison-era story Arc of Infinity (1983). He then became the second of three actors to be cast as the Doctor by producer John Nathan-Turner. Baker's first appearance in the starring role occurred in the final moments of The Caves of Androzani (1984), where he delivered his first few lines. He then made his full story debut the following week in The Twin Dilemma. The serial, and Baker's portrayal of the Doctor, caused immediate controversy, with one scene in which the Doctor attempts to strangle his companion, Peri Brown. According to PopMatters, "Colin Baker's first appearance was just out-and-out dislikable, showcasing a hubris and harshness that was heretofore unseen in the Doctor's emotional canon."

Baker's era was interrupted by an 18-month hiatus which was announced in February 1985, midway through transmission of Season 22, his first full season. The Controller of BBC1 at the time, Michael Grade, criticised Doctor Who, saying that the programme had become overly violent in 1985. Grade later admitted that he "hated" the series, which he described as a "very clunky studio show". One new Doctor Who story, Slipback, was produced for radio during the hiatus, which starred Baker and his regular television companion Nicola Bryant.

Doctor Who returned to television for its 23rd season in September 1986. The season featured a reduction in episodes, was made entirely on video for location scenes and was produced as a 14-episode-long serial called The Trial of a Time Lord. This serial was a meta-textual reference to the fact that the series itself was "on trial" at this time. In 1986 Baker told an interviewer: "Tom Baker did it for seven years. ... There's a part of me which likes to have a tilt at records. I would like to think that maybe I'd still be doing it in eight years' time." Later that year Grade agreed to commission another series on the condition that Baker was replaced. The BBC's Head of Series, Jonathan Powell, later said that the BBC was looking for "one last chance saloon, for an actor who would take off with the public." Peter Davison argued in 2018 that the decision was more to do with the executives wanting to get rid of Nathan-Turner, saying: "I was upset about what happened, really – because, first of all, it wasn't to do with Colin, I know that. It was to do with other issues. The power structure in the BBC had changed and they didn't want John Nathan-Turner around is the truth of it."

Baker was removed from the part after starring in only eleven stories and just short of three years in the series, including the hiatus, making his tenure as the Doctor the shortest at that point. After his sacking, Baker was offered a single four-part story that would end in his character's regeneration, but he refused the offer. Baker offered to do the entirety of the following season and regenerate at its conclusion, but the BBC never responded to his letter. Instead, his replacement, Sylvester McCoy, played the injured Sixth Doctor in a blonde wig as he regenerates in the opening minutes of Time and the Rani, his face hidden by video effects as the regeneration process occurs. In an interview in 2019, Baker expressed regret for not returning for the scene, stating that he was "brutally selfish at the time" and that he was not thinking about the fans.

On 4 September 2011 at Riverside Studios, Hammersmith, London, Baker accepted the presidency of the Doctor Who Appreciation Society, which had previously been held by Jon Pertwee and Nicholas Courtney. He was elected following an online poll of the society's members where he won more votes than all the other candidates combined.

Doctor Who appearances in other media
From 5 June to 19 August 1989, Baker agreed to appear as the Doctor once more, in the stage play Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure, taking over from original lead Jon Pertwee who had fallen ill.

In 1992, Baker became the first Doctor to write a published Doctor Who story, The Deal, as part of Doctor Who Magazine's Brief Encounters series. He wrote a second Brief Encounter the following year. Both featured the Sixth Doctor and Mel. In 1994 Baker wrote a comic strip, The Age of Chaos featuring the Sixth Doctor and Frobisher, and in 2001 contributed a story entitled "The Wings of A Butterfly" to a charity short story anthology based on Doctor Who, "Missing Pieces". He also presented special Doctor Who videotape releases Cybermen – The Early Years in 1992 and The Colin Baker Years in 1994, with the latter a look back at his tenure on the series highlighted by clips and his memories.

Baker has reprised the role on television only twice after his official run ended, in the 1993 Children in Need charity special Dimensions in Time alongside Pertwee, Tom Baker, Peter Davison and Sylvester McCoy, and in the 2022 special "The Power of the Doctor" alongside David Bradley, Davison, Paul McGann, McCoy and Jodie Whittaker. He reprised the role again in Tales of the TARDIS.

In 1997, Baker provided audio dialogue for the BBC video game Doctor Who: Destiny of the Doctors.

1999 saw Baker voice his first Doctor Who audio adventure for Big Finish Productions, The Sirens of Time. As of, Baker has appeared as the Sixth Doctor in 166 releases, with more planned for the future. These audio plays are generally well received by fans and in a poll conducted by Doctor Who Magazine, Baker was voted the "greatest" of the Doctors in this format. He also reprised the role of Commander Maxil in the Gallifrey audio series story "Appropriation" in 2006; in 2022, he played alternate versions of the Fifth Doctor (known as the Doctor of War) in the Doctor Who Unbound series and the Curator in The Eighth Doctor Adventures.

In recent years, Baker has appeared on a number of DVD releases of his episodes, featuring in either "making-of" documentaries or commentaries. The documentary Trials and Tribulations, included in the 2008 DVD release of The Trial of a Time Lord examines his turbulent three years on the show.

In November 2013, Baker co-starred in the one-off 50th anniversary comedy homage The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot.

In the final episode of Jodie Whittaker’s tenure as the Doctor, Baker returned for a cameo appearance alongside Davison, McCoy and Paul McGann as a manifestation of the Doctor’s subconscious.

After Doctor Who
Since leaving Doctor Who Baker has spent much of his time on the stage with appearances throughout the country in plays as diverse as Peter Nichols' Privates on Parade, Ira Levin's 'Deathtrap', Ray Cooney's Run for Your Wife and Ariel Dorfman's Death and the Maiden. For many years he has been a pantomime stalwart. In 2000 he appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs alongside actress Louise Jameson who had previously played the Fourth Doctor's companion Leela. In 2003 he starred in the Carl Rosa Opera Company's production of operetta H.M.S. Pinafore, directed by Timothy West. In 2008, he toured with ex-wife Liza Goddard in She Stoops To Conquer. Other theatre appearances have seen Baker tackle the role of Inspector Morse in House of Ghosts and a UK tour of The Woman in White.

In 1991, Baker played a Doctor-like character in the BBV video series The Stranger. This character appeared in six video adventures as well four audio stories. Another standalone BBV drama entitled The Airzone Solution appeared in 1993 and featured former Doctor Who actors Jon Pertwee, Peter Davison and Sylvester McCoy.

Television work through the 1990s included guest appearances in the BBC's medical drama Casualty, The Knock, Dangerfield, the first episode of Jonathan Creek, Channel 4's adaptation of A Dance to the Music of Time and as himself as the resident celebrity in 'Dictionary Corner' on the daytime quiz show Countdown, also on Channel 4.

In 2003, Baker appeared on Top Gear, participating on a one-lap run on the Top Gear track in a Honda Civic hatchback. Baker competed against a Klingon, a Cyberman, a Dalek, Darth Vader and Ming the Merciless. Baker came in 4th position, with the Cyberman coming 1st.

A 2005 guest appearance in comedy sketch show Little Britain was never transmitted but can be seen in the deleted scenes special feature on the Little Britain series 3 DVD. Other television appearances have seen Baker appear in Kingdom, Hustle and Doctors.

Away from his Doctor Who work for Big Finish Productions (see above), Baker appeared in the audio dramas Sapphire and Steel: The Mystery of the Missing Hour and the 3 part Earthsearch Mindwarp. The latter, based on a James Follett novel, was broadcast on the digital radio station BBC 7 in 2006.

In 2010, Baker narrated and provided additional voices for the audiobook version of the sci-fi/comedy novel, ''Kangazang! Remote Possibilities''. Written by Terry Cooper, and published by Candy Jar Books.

Baker's film work over the years includes The Harpist (1999), The Asylum (2000) and D'Artagnan et les trois mousquetaires (2005). In 2010 he filmed scenes for an independent feature film, Shadows of a Stranger. Since 1995 Baker has written a regular weekly column for local newspaper Bucks Free Press. A compilation of his articles from 1995 to 2009 were published in the book, Look Who's Talking.

Baker participated in the 12th series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, finishing in 8th place out of 12 celebrities.

Personal life
Baker's first wife was actress Liza Goddard who had appeared with him in the TV series The Brothers. Their marriage lasted 18 months and ended in divorce. With his second wife, Marion Wyatt, an actress, whom he married in 1982, Baker has four daughters: Lucy, Bindy, Lalla and Rosie. They also had a son, Jack, who died of sudden infant death syndrome. His wife and daughters appeared in The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot as themselves. Baker is a friend of American writer Stephen R. Donaldson, who dedicated his 1991 novel Forbidden Knowledge to him.

Baker is a critic of fox hunting and was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to members of parliament in 2015 to oppose Conservative prime minister David Cameron's plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.

Comics

 * Doctor Who: The Age of Chaos (1994, Marvel UK)

Short stories

 * "A Wee Deoch an ...?" (1991, in Doctor Who Magazine Winter Special of 1991)
 * "The Deal" (1991, in Doctor Who Yearbook 1992)
 * "A Tourist Invasion" (1992, in Doctor Who Yearbook 1993)
 * "The Wings of a Butterfly" (2010, in Short Trips – Volume 1)
 * "Interstitial Insecurity" (2019, in The Target Storybook)

title: Colin Baker


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Sumner

Sumner may refer to:

Antarctica

 * Mount Sumner, a mountain in the Rare Range, Antarctica
 * Sumner Glacier, southern Graham Land, Antarctica

Australia

 * Sumner, Queensland, suburb of Brisbane

New Zealand

 * Sumner, New Zealand, seaside suburb of Christchurch, New Zealand
 * Lake Sumner

Inhabited places

 * Sumner, California, former name of Kern, California
 * Sumner, Florida
 * Sumner, Georgia
 * Sumner, Illinois
 * Sumner, Iowa
 * Sumner, Maine
 * Sumner, Michigan
 * Sumner, Mississippi
 * Sumner, Missouri
 * Sumner, Nebraska
 * Sumner, Oklahoma
 * Sumner, Oregon
 * Sumner, Portland, Oregon
 * Sumner, Texas
 * Sumner, Washington
 * Sumner station, a train station in Sumner, Washington
 * Sumner, Barron County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Sumner (community), Barron County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Sumner, Jefferson County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Sumner, Trempealeau County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Sumner County, Kansas
 * Sumner County, Tennessee
 * Sumner Township, Michigan
 * Sumner Township, Minnesota
 * Fort Sumner, New Mexico
 * Lake Sumner, New Mexico

Other places in the United States

 * Sumner College, Oregon
 * Sumner Elementary School, in Topeka, Kansas
 * Sumner Strait, Alaska
 * Sumner Tunnel, a vehicular tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts

People

 * Sumner (given name)
 * Sumner (surname)

In music

 * Sumner (band), An Australian R&B-inspired electronic duo

Ships

 * SS Charles Sumner, a World War II Liberty ship
 * USS Sumner, multiple ships

Other uses

 * Archdeacon of Sumner, Anglican Diocese of Christchurch, Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia
 * Bank of Sumner, a historic building in Sumner, Iowa, United States
 * Sumner (crater), a crater on the Moon
 * Sumner method, a way of finding a ship's location at sea
 * Viscount Sumner, a title in the British peerage

title: Sumner


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Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers

Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers are a British novelty pop music act from Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. The face of the group was Jive Bunny, a cartoon rabbit who appeared in their music videos. Costumed actors also made promotional appearances as the character.

Doncaster DJ and producer Les Hemstock created the original "Swing the Mood" mix for the Music Factory owned Mastermix DJ service. It was then taken from there and developed as a single release by father and son team John and Andrew Pickles. The name Jive Bunny was devised by Andy Pickles. Ian Morgan, a fellow DJ and co-producer, also engineered and mixed some of the early releases along with Andy Pickles. Morgan was replaced in the early 1990s by DJ and producer Mark "The Hitman" Smith.

Jive Bunny's three number ones during 1989 were "Swing the Mood", "That's What I Like" and "Let's Party". All three songs used sampling and synthesisers to combine pop music from the early rock 'n' roll era together into a medley.

Musical career
The act had 11 entries in the UK singles chart between July 1989 and November 1991. Each track used a sampled instrumental theme to join the old songs together, in much the same way as dance music megamixes. "Swing the Mood" began with Glenn Miller's "In the Mood" (a recording from 1939), followed immediately by rhythmic re-editing of Bill Haley and His Comets' "Rock Around the Clock", Little Richard's "Tutti Frutti" and the Everly Brothers' "Wake Up, Little Susie". The recording also had a short extract from The Glenn Miller Story (1954) with James Stewart as Glenn Miller. "Swing the Mood" was No. 1 for five weeks on the UK Singles Chart in 1989, and quickly caught on in the United States, where it reached No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.

"That's What I Like" featured the theme music from the television police drama Hawaii Five-O, with overlaid excerpts from rock hits like Chubby Checker's "The Twist" and Ernie Maresca's "Shout! Shout! (Knock Yourself Out)". "Let's Party" (released originally in the U.S. as "March of the Mods") used "March of the Mods" (also known as the Finnjenka Dance), interpolating Del Shannon's "Runaway" and The Wrens' "Come Back My Love" among others. In the UK "Let's Party" was a Christmas hit with samples of Wizzard's "I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday", Slade's "Merry Xmas Everybody" and Gary Glitter's "Another Rock 'N' Roll Christmas". Recently this has been remixed to remove the Gary Glitter track to avoid controversy over his subsequent criminal convictions and, somewhat anachronistically, replace it with Mariah Carey's "All I Want for Christmas Is You", should any radio stations wish to play it over the Christmas period. They did not have permission to use the original Wizzard recording so Roy Wood re-recorded the part of the track for them.

With "Let's Party" reaching Number One in the UK Singles Chart a couple of weeks before the Christmas chart of 1989, the act became the third group after Gerry and the Pacemakers and Frankie Goes to Hollywood to 'top the chart' with their first three releases. However as Jive Bunny was credited on a Children In Need charity single ("It Takes Two, Baby", also featuring Liz Kershaw, Bruno Brookes and Londonbeat) that charted a couple of weeks before "Let's Party", it could be said that this honour only applies to the Mastermixers. As of 2020, the Official Charts Company website does not include "It Takes Two, Baby" in its list of Jive Bunny hits, even though the cartoon rabbit is clearly visible on the single cover used on the site and even though many British Hit Singles books of the early 2000s added the record to their discography.

The original European medleys featured the original recordings by the original artists. Legalities prevented certain of the original recordings to be reused in America, so the American Jive Bunny releases substituted later re-recordings of the same tunes by Bill Haley, Del Shannon and others. Later reissues further replaced some of these artists, such as Bill Haley and Elvis, with impersonator-singers.

The original idea for the project came from Les Hemstock on the DJ-only Mastermix DJ service. The original "Swing the Mood" mix appeared on Issue 22 of Mastermix's monthly album release. John Pickles (father of Andy Pickles) was never in the band, but was the owner of the label and effectively the manager.

As featured artist

 * "It Takes Two, Baby" by Liz Kershaw, Bruno Brookes, Jive Bunny and Londonbeat (number 53 on the UK Singles Chart, December 1989)

title: Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers


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Order of battle

In modern use, the order of battle of an armed force participating in a military operation or campaign shows the hierarchical organization, command structure, strength, disposition of personnel, and equipment of units and formations of the armed force. Various abbreviations are in use, including OOB, O/B, or OB, while ORBAT remains the most common in the United Kingdom. An order of battle is distinct from a table of organisation, which is the intended composition of a given unit or formation according to the military doctrine of its armed force. Historically, an order of battle was the order in which troops were positioned relative to the position of the army commander or the chronological order in which ships were deployed in naval situations.

As combat operations develop during a campaign, orders of battle may be revised and altered in response to the military needs and challenges. Also the known details of an order of battle may change during the course of executing the commanders' after action reports and/or other accounting methods (e.g. despatches) as combat assessment is conducted.

Historical approaches
In its original form during the Medieval period of European warfare, an order of battle was the order in which troops were positioned relative to the position of the army commander. The term was also applied to the disposition of ships in the line of battle during the age of sail. In the later transformation of its meaning during the European period of Early Modern warfare the order of battle came to mean the order in which the units manoeuvered or deployed onto the battlefield to form battle-lines, with the positioning on the right considered the place of greatest honour. This need to reflect the unit seniority led to the keeping of military staff records, in tabular form reflecting the compilation of units an army, their commanders, equipment, and locations on the battlefield.

During the Napoleonic wars the meaning of the order of battle changed yet again to reflect the changes in the composition of opposing forces during the battle owing to use of larger formations than in the previous century. Napoleon also instituted the staff procedure of maintaining accurate information about the composition of the enemy order of battle, and tables of organisation, and this later evolved into an important function and an organisational tool used by military intelligence to analyse enemy capability for combat.

British historical approach
British military history is the source of some of the earliest orders of battle in the English language, and due to the British Empire's involvement in global conflicts over several centuries the records of historical orders of battle provide a valuable source of study for understanding not only of the composition, but also of tactics and doctrines of the forces through their depiction in the orders of battle. The British Army and UK forces use the acronym ORBAT to describe the structure of both friendly and enemy forces.

Operation Quicksilver, part of the British deception plan for the Invasion of Normandy in World War II, fed German intelligence a combination of true and false information about troop deployments in Britain, causing the Germans to deduce an order of battle which suggested an invasion at the Pas-de-Calais instead of Normandy.

Clausewitz
Clausewitz defined the 'order of battle' as "that division and formation of the different arms into separate parts, or sections, of the whole Army, and that form of general position or disposition of those parts which is to be the norm throughout the whole campaign or war."

 * Division comes from the permanent peacetime organization of the Army, with certain parts such as battalions, squadrons, and batteries being formed into units of higher order up to the highest of all, the whole Army.
 * Disposition comes from the tactics and how these troops are to be drawn up for the battle.

Normally these tactics are exercised in peace and cannot be essentially modified when war breaks out. Order of battle belongs more to tactics than strategy. Clausewitz also noted that the order of battle depends on the effective span of control by a commander. Too few subunits makes an army unwieldy; too many subunits makes the 'power of the superior will' weak; and in addition every step by which an order has to pass weakens its effect by loss of force and longer time of transmission. Clausewitz recommended that armies have no more than eight to ten subunits and subordinate corps four to six subunits.

United States Army
In United States Army standing operating procedures, an order of battle to be used for operations planning should relate what an Army unit might be expected to encounter while deployed in the field. The templating of the OoB during maneuvers is typically the responsibility of a battalion or brigade commander, conducted through their Headquarters S-2 (intelligence) sections. Observations about enemy troop movements may be gathered by various military intelligence resources from all echelons, including the employment of any attached special forces units (such as Rangers or LRS teams) as well as Cavalry RSTA squadrons.

From such intelligence data, the OOB section staff compiles a likely order of battle for a planning document or operations order by assessing the following factors:

Enemy's Composition, Disposition, Strength (often mnemonicized with SALUTE: Size, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, Equipment):
 * Composition: the command structure and organisation of headquarters and subunits
 * Disposition: geographical locations of unit headquarters and subunits
 * Strength expressed in units and weight of fire delivered by its weapon systems

Enemy capabilities and limitations (often mnemonicized with DRAWD: Defend, Reinforce, Attack, Withdraw, Delay):
 * Personnel training
 * Logistics: how the enemy unit obtains its supplies and lines of communication
 * Combat Effectiveness using complex algorithms and combat modelling applications
 * Electronic Technical Data used to provide data for the combat modelling applications

Enemy's Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA):
 * Tactics used by the enemy unit
 * Miscellaneous data related to specific task, mission or operations
 * Personalities (known enemy personnel and their behaviour, often based on communications intelligence analysis)
 * Unit history used to judge expected performance based on its past performance
 * Uniforms and insignia to enable confirmation of the above data

A general rule in American military doctrine is that each unit should keep track of enemy subunits two echelons below its own: that is, a division should monitor enemy units confronting it down to the battalion, a brigade should monitor enemy units down to companies, and a battalion should monitor enemy forces down to platoons.

The United States military's intelligence capabilities in the 21st century have allowed for monitoring even further than two echelons down the chain of command. This situational awareness provides a more complete picture of the battlespace for both combatant commanders and tactical commanders.

Up until the end of the Cold War, determining realistic orders of battle was generally an orderly but extremely frustrating process for NATO. The intelligence situation for Western militaries has since been exacerbated as they continue to become engaged in operations against non-traditional enemies (insurgents, guerrillas, etc.) and compiling orders of battle for irregular forces becomes very difficult; the equivalent military intelligence output requiring an increase in acquired data and analysis effort to provide an accurate and timely picture to the commander.

Examples
An example of ORBATs in modern warfare can be found for German forces and Allied forces during the Normandy landings. Other examples include the Battle of Bình Giã during the Vietnam War and the Battle of Al Faw during the Iraq War.

title: Order of battle