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Eindhoven Airport

Eindhoven Airport is an international airport located 7.6 km west of Eindhoven, Netherlands. In terms of the number of served passengers, it is the second largest airport in the Netherlands, with 6.8 million passengers in 2023. The airport is used by both civilian and military traffic.

Early years
The airport was founded in 1932 as a grass strip under the name Vliegveld Welschap (Welschap Airfield). In 1939 the airfield was acquired for use by the Air Force, as concerns over a military conflict with Germany increased. The airfield was quickly captured by German forces during the Battle of the Netherlands and re-used by them under the name Fliegerhorst Eindhoven. The airfield was expanded and improved by the Germans, with three paved runways and numerous hangars and support buildings being constructed.

The airfield was captured by American paratroopers during Operation Market Garden. Damage to the airfield was repaired and the airfield was re-used as an Advanced Landing Ground by both US and British forces under the designation B-78.

The airfield was returned to the Royal Netherlands Air Force in 1952. It was home to crews flying the Republic F-84G Thunderjet, Republic F-84F Thunderstreak, Northrop NF-5A/B, and finally the General Dynamics F-16A/B Fighting Falcon. 316 Squadron flew the F-16 and was inactivated in April 1994.

Development since the 1980s
In 1984, a terminal building for civilian air traffic was constructed, based on a Leo de Bever design. After the end of the Cold War, Eindhoven was transformed into a military transport base. Initially it was home to F27-300M Troopship aircraft. Over the years, Fokker 50, Fokker 60, McDonnell Douglas KDC-10, Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Gulfstream IV aircraft were stationed at the air base. The Fokker aircraft have been retired.

On 15 July 1996, a Belgian Air Force C-130H Hercules crashed at the airport – known as the Herculesramp (Hercules disaster). The plane caught fire and 34 people died in the intense heat. Communication problems within the emergency services meant that fire services were not aware that the C-130 carried many passengers, which likely caused more deaths.

On the civilian side, the airport has continued to grow and is now the second-largest airport in the Netherlands. To accommodate this, in early 2012 work to expand Eindhoven airport was started including the addition of a 120-room Tulip Inn Hotel.

On 27 May 2017, a parking garage collapsed during construction. The cause of the collapse was determined to be a construction error; the floors were made of prefabricated concrete slabs, and the connection between the slabs did not meet safety requirements. The reduced strength of the construction, in combination with the heat on that day, resulted in the partial collapse of the building. Nobody was injured or killed.

In October 2018, Ryanair announced it would be closing its base at the airport on 5 November 2018. Construction of a 4 star hotel by Holiday Inn was started in 2018; the hotel opened in 2019.

In 2021, the airport announced a terminal extension will be built from 2025 making the terminal grow from 27300 sqm to 35000 sqm.

Facilities
Passenger facilities include: exchange office, lost property office, luggage lockers, baby changing area, health centre, and various shops such as Rituals, AH to GO, Victoria's Secret, and tax free shops: Travel Plaza and Travel luxury; and also a new Business Lounge: Aspire by Swissport Eindhoven Airport also has a variety of restaurants, bars and cafes, such as: Upstairs (the Tulip Inn Hotel bar), La Place, The Bar (a flagship of Bavaria beer) and Starbucks (both before and after the security check).

The airport also has a business centre. There are 1,500 parking spaces for long and short term parking.

Military

 * 334 Squadron with Airbus A330-MRTT & Gulfstream IV
 * 336 Squadron with Lockheed C-130
 * 940 Maintenance Support Squadron
 * 941 Miscellaneous Support Squadron
 * Movement Coordination Centre Europe
 * European Air Transport Command

From 1 July 2007, Eindhoven has been the location of the Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), a merger of the former European Airlift Centre (EAC), established by the European Air Group, and the Sea-lift Coordination Centre (SCC). MCCE is a non-NATO/non-European military organization. MCCE is an organization open to all governments whose membership is accepted by all the other participant nations, regulated by a specific legal technical agreement. The mission of the MCCE is to coordinate the use of air transport, surface transport (sea and land) and air-to-air refuelling (AAR) capabilities between participating nations, and thereby improve the overall efficiency of the use of owned or leased assets of the national military organizations. The centre's main focus will be on strategic movements, but not exclude operational and tactical movements.

Since September 2010, Eindhoven Airport has hosted the European Air Transport Command, made up of seven European nations which share aerial military assets in a single operative command. EATC will play a leading role in the A400M standardization process.

Airlines and destinations
The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Eindhoven:

Ground transport
Eindhoven Airport is located just off the A2 motorway. The airport is also served by multiple bus services:
 * Bravo Line 400 is a shuttle bus service line that connects the airport to Eindhoven Centraal railway station.
 * Bravo Line 401 is a bus rapid transit line that connects the airport to Eindhoven's city centre and Eindhoven Centraal railway station.
 * Bravo Line 20 is a regional bus service that connects the airport to Best, Best railway station, Veldhoven and the High Tech Campus Eindhoven.
 * KLM Bus connects Eindhoven Airport to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol for KLM passengers
 * Flixbus connects the airport to Paris, Brussels, Antwerp and Amsterdam.
 * AmsEindShuttle connects the airport to Amsterdam city centre.

title: Eindhoven Airport


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Yellow brick road

The yellow brick road is a central element in the 1900 children's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by American author L. Frank Baum. The road also appears in the several sequel Oz books such as The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) and The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1913).

The road's most notable depiction is in the classic 1939 MGM musical film The Wizard of Oz, loosely based on Baum's first Oz book. In the novel's first edition, the road is mostly referred to as the "Road of Yellow Bricks". In the original story and in later films based on it such as The Wiz (1978), Dorothy Gale must find the road before embarking on her journey, as the tornado did not deposit her farmhouse directly in front of it as in the 1939 film.

Road's history
The following is an excerpt from the third chapter of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, in which Dorothy sets off to see the Wizard:"There were several roads nearby, but it did not take Dorothy long to find the one paved with yellow bricks. Within a short time, she was walking briskly toward the Emerald City; her Silver Shoes tinkling merrily on the hard, yellow roadbed."

The road is first introduced in the third chapter of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The road begins in the heart of the eastern quadrant called Munchkin Country in the Land of Oz. It functions as a guideline that leads all who follow it, to the road's ultimate destination—the imperial capital of Oz called Emerald City that is located in the exact center of the entire continent. In the book, the novel's main protagonist, Dorothy, is forced to search for the road before she can begin her quest to seek the Wizard. This is because the cyclone from Kansas did not release her farmhouse closely near it as it did in the various film adaptations. After the council with the native Munchkins and their dear friend the Good Witch of the North, Dorothy begins looking for it and sees many pathways and roads nearby, (all of which lead in various directions). Thankfully, it doesn't take her too long to spot the one paved with bright yellow bricks.

Later in the book, Dorothy and her companions, the Scarecrow, Tin Woodman and Cowardly Lion discover that the road has fallen into disrepair in some parts of the land, having several broken chasms ending at dangerous cliffs with deadly drops. In the end of the book, we learn the road's history; unlike in the Disney prequel film Oz the Great and Powerful (2013), the Emerald City and yellow brick road did not exist prior to Oz's arrival. When Oscar Diggs arrived in Oz via hot-air balloon that had been swept away in a storm, the people of the land were convinced he was a great "Wizard" who had finally come to fulfil Oz's long-awaited prophecy. Since the recent fall of Oz's mortal King Pastoria, and the mysterious disappearance of his baby daughter Princess Ozma, Oscar immediately proclaimed himself as Oz's new dominant ruler and had his people build the road as well as the city in his honor.

In the second Oz book, The Marvelous Land of Oz, Tip and his companion Jack Pumpkinhead, likewise follow a yellow brick road to reach Emerald City while traveling from Oz's northern quadrant, the Gillikin Country. In the book The Patchwork Girl of Oz, it is revealed that there are two yellow brick roads from Munchkin Country to the Emerald City: according to the Shaggy Man, Dorothy took the longer and more dangerous one in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

In the classic 1939 film, a red brick road can be seen starting at the same point as the yellow brick road and is entwined with it, despite seemingly going in a different direction. This version of the road does not exist in Baum's books. Also, at the cornfield where Dorothy meets and befriends the Scarecrow, there is a fork in the yellow brick road leading in different directions. Luckily, they choose the correct one of the three branches that leads to Emerald City.

In Disney's 1985 live action semi-sequel to the 1939 movie Return to Oz, Dorothy returns to Oz six months after being sent back home to Kansas from her first visit. Upon her second arrival she finds the yellow brick road in ruins by the hands of the evil Nome King who also conquered the Emerald City. In the end, it is presumed that after she defeats him and saves the city and its citizens, the road is restored as well.

Real yellow brick roads
There are various accounts of what inspired the yellow brick road. One account says it is a brick road in Peekskill, New York, where L. Frank Baum attended Peekskill Military Academy. Other accounts say it was inspired by a road paved with yellow bricks near Holland, Michigan, where Baum spent summers. Ithaca, New York, also makes a claim for being Frank Baum's inspiration. He opened a road tour of his musical, The Maid of Arran, in Ithaca, and he met his future wife Maud Gage Baum while she was attending Cornell University. At the time, yellow bricks paved local roads. Portions of U.S. Route 54 within the state of Kansas have been designated "the yellow brick road". Dallas, Texas makes a claim that Baum once stayed at a downtown hotel during his newspaper career (located near what is now the Triple Underpass) at a time when the streets were paved with wooden blocks of Bois D'Arc also known as Osage Orange. Supposedly, after a rainstorm the sun came out and he saw a bright yellow brick road from the window of his room.

Two direct, published references to the origin of the yellow brick road came from Baum's own descendants: his son Frank Joslyn Baum in To Please A Child and the other by Roger S. Baum, the great-grandson of L. Frank Baum who stated, "Most people don't realize that the Wizard of Oz was written in Chicago, and the Yellow Brick Road was named after winding cobblestone roads in Holland, Michigan, where great-grandfather spent vacations with his family."

The Vision Oz Fund was established in November 2009 to raise funds that will be used to help increase the awareness, enhancement, and further development of Oz-related attractions and assets in Wamego, Kansas. The first fundraiser is under way and includes selling personalized engraved yellow bricks, which will become part of the permanent walkway (aka "The Yellow Brick Road") in downtown Wamego.

In 2019, a commemorative yellow brick road was installed in Chicago's Humboldt Park at the site of L. Frank Baum's 1899 residence.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yellow brick road


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Cryopump

A cryopump or a "cryogenic pump" is a vacuum pump that traps gases and vapours by condensing them on a cold surface, but are only effective on some gases. The effectiveness depends on the freezing and boiling points of the gas relative to the cryopump's temperature. They are sometimes used to block particular contaminants, for example in front of a diffusion pump to trap backstreaming oil, or in front of a McLeod gauge to keep out water. In this function, they are called a cryotrap, waterpump or cold trap, even though the physical mechanism is the same as for a cryopump.

Cryotrapping can also refer to a somewhat different effect, where molecules will increase their residence time on a cold surface without actually freezing (supercooling). There is a delay between the molecule impinging on the surface and rebounding from it. Kinetic energy will have been lost as the molecules slow down. For example, hydrogen does not condense at 8 kelvins, but it can be cryotrapped. This effectively traps molecules for an extended period and thereby removes them from the vacuum environment just like cryopumping.

History
Early experiments into cryotrapping of gasses in activated charcoal were conducted as far back as 1874.

The first cryopumps mainly used liquid helium to cool the pump, either in a large liquid helium reservoir, or by continuous flow into the cryopump. However, over time most cryopumps were redesigned to use gaseous helium, enabled by the invention of better cryocoolers. The key refrigeration technology was discovered in the 1950s by two employees of the Massachusetts-based company Arthur D. Little Inc., William E. Gifford and Howard O. McMahon. This technology came to be known as the Gifford-McMahon cryocooler. In the 1970s, the Gifford-McMahon cryocooler was used to make a vacuum pump by Helix Technology Corporation and its subsidiary company Cryogenic Technology Inc. In 1976, cryopumps began to be used in IBM's manufacturing of integrated circuits. The use of cryopumps became common in semiconductor manufacturing worldwide, with expansions such as a cryogenics company founded jointly by Helix and ULVAC (jp:アルバック) in 1981.

Operation
Cryopumps are commonly cooled by compressed helium, though they may also use dry ice, liquid nitrogen, or stand-alone versions may include a built-in cryocooler. Baffles are often attached to the cold head to expand the surface area available for condensation, but these also increase the radiative heat uptake of the cryopump. Over time, the surface eventually saturates with condensate and thus the pumping speed gradually drops to zero. It will hold the trapped gases as long as it remains cold, but it will not condense fresh gases from leaks or backstreaming until it is regenerated. Saturation happens very quickly in low vacuums, so cryopumps are usually only used in high or ultrahigh vacuum systems.

The cryopump provides fast, clean pumping of all gases in the 10−3 to 10−9 Torr range. The cryopump operates on the principle that gases can be condensed and held at extremely low vapor pressures, achieving high speeds and throughputs. The cold head consists of a two-stage cold head cylinder (part of the vacuum vessel) and a drive unit displacer assembly. These together produce closed-cycle refrigeration at temperatures that range from 60 to 80K for the first-stage cold station to 10 to 20K for the second-stage cold station, typically.

Some cryopumps have multiple stages at various low temperatures, with the outer stages shielding the coldest inner stages. The outer stages condense high boiling point gases such as water and oil, thus saving the surface area and refrigeration capacity of the inner stages for lower boiling point gases such as nitrogen.

As cooling temperatures decrease when using dry ice, liquid nitrogen, then compressed helium, lower molecular-weight gases can be trapped. Trapping nitrogen, helium, and hydrogen requires extremely low temperatures (~10K) and large surface area as described below. Even at this temperature, the lighter gases helium and hydrogen have very low trapping efficiency and are the predominant molecules in ultra-high vacuum systems.

Cryopumps are often combined with sorption pumps by coating the cold head with highly adsorbing materials such as activated charcoal or a zeolite. As the sorbent saturates, the effectiveness of a sorption pump decreases, but can be recharged by heating the zeolite material (preferably under conditions of low pressure) to outgas it. The breakdown temperature of the zeolite material's porous structure may limit the maximum temperature that it may be heated to for regeneration.

Sorption pumps are a type of cryopump that is often used as roughing pumps to reduce pressures from the range of atmospheric to on the order of 0.1 Pa (10−3 Torr), while lower pressures are achieved using a finishing pump (see vacuum).

Regeneration
Regeneration of a cryopump is the process of evaporating the trapped gases. During a regeneration cycle, the cryopump is warmed to room temperature or higher, allowing trapped gases to change from a solid state to a gaseous state and thereby be released from the cryopump through a pressure relief valve into the atmosphere.

Most production equipment utilizing a cryopump have a means to isolate the cryopump from the vacuum chamber so regeneration takes place without exposing the vacuum system to released gasses such as water vapor. Water vapor is the hardest natural element to remove from vacuum chamber walls upon exposure to the atmosphere due to monolayer formation and hydrogen bonding. Adding heat to the dry nitrogen purge-gas will speed the warm-up and reduce the regeneration time.

When regeneration is complete, the cryopump will be roughed to 50μm (50 milliTorr or μmHg), isolated, and the rate-of-rise (ROR) will be monitored to test for complete regeneration. If the ROR exceeds 10μm/min the cryopump will require additional purge time.

title: Cryopump


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Talk:Orthography

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Constrained writing
I've removed the following:

 * Writing that blends meaning and orthography is called constrained writing.

Surely writing that belnds meaning and orthography is, um, meaningful writing. Constrained writing can be many things, but it tends to be a bit more constrained than "it must make sense". --Camembert

United Bible Society
Surely that should be United Bible Society? Can someone who has the book please check? -- mpt, 2003-06-04

Orthography vs. Writing system
What is the principled distinction between this article and writing system? Most of this article could be transplanted into the latter. --Ryguasu 00:16 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

History
A bit on the history of orthography wouldn't hurt if anybody has the required knowledge. -- 82.82.146.239 22:37, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Observation
The rule "i before e except after c" is wrong. "Feign" clearly is an exception. How can it be an orthagraphic rule if orthography means "how to write correctly"? Surely this is not an orthographic rule. Rintrah 13:09, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

It's not wrong; that's just a truncated version. "I before e except after c and when sounding like a as in neighbor or weigh..." I'm pretty sure that's not the end of the rhyme, either. Besides, English is famous for nothing if not exceptions. J.M. Archer (talk) 19:40, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

Perhaps, but that doesn't explain words such as "protein". 23:44, 5 May 2010 (UTC)~

 * As a rule of thumb, "i before e except after c" is quite good. An exception is weird. English has many irregular spellings; only a tiny percentage of "i,e" words do not conform. I haven't worked out the precise coefficient of determination, but its goodness of fit must be pretty high. Any one who fancies proposing a pithy generalisation with fewer inadequacies is welcome to have a go.  I could cite "Why Kids Can't Read" as a source (though it speaks American), if only I could recall the author.Memethuzla (talk) 13:06, 27 March 2011 (UTC)
 * The word protein, while apparently an exception to the "when sounding as ee" rule, is only spoken "proteen" because it originally was pro-tee-in and then got contracted.--2001:A61:260D:6E01:A865:1FCA:DA8A:D95E (talk) 19:04, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

 * According to Wells's Longman Pronunciation Dictionary it is correct to pronounce protein with either two or three syllables in RP. And according to my copy of Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary this is also the case in American English. Love —LiliCharlie (talk) 19:58, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

German "efficiency"
Quoting the spelling Tzschaetzsch as an example for German orthography is not very good. No German in their right mind would write the name in this way. Normally, it would be spelled Tschätsch. In normal German orthography "tz" on the beginning on a word isn't valid, as well as "tz" before "sch". Moreover, "ae" is never written vor umlaut-a, instead the letter "ä" is used. Such crazy spellings only occur in names derived from Slavic languages and also then they're very seldom. Furthermore, "Tschätsch" is not a personal name in German, but a (seldom) surname. 62.46.180.91

The link for multiple language spell checker is broken
When I click this link http://www.rechtschreibprüfung24.de/ I get a "Can not find server" error.

198.85.228.129 13:35, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

Defectiveness
I guess that English is defective because "th" doesn't differ between and, but how is Italian and Arabian orthography defective? Maybe the article would need a short explanation? 惑乱 分からん 10:39, 28 February 2007 (UTC)

 * There are many many other reasons why English spelling is defective (why, after all, do we write defective and not defektiv?). Arabic is defective inasmuch as short vowels are not normally represented—some sounds can also be represented in more than one way (like the /n/ at the end of shukran, which is not written with the normal sign for /n/). And that's just Modern Standard Arabic—the everyday colloquial forms are barely even represented in writing.  I'm less sure about Italian, though I'm sure an example will come to me.  Perfectly phonemic alphabets are very rare. garik 12:45, 28 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Maybe I misunderstood, but I thought that a defective orthography had sounds it couldn't mark in writing... 惑乱 分からん 13:09, 28 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't have said so: to me a defective orthography is one where either there are distinctions that can't be represented in writing or where there are obsolete or redundant letters (basically where the one-letter-per-phoneme system breaks down) I'm not an orthography experts, however, so I may be misusing a term that has a narrower scope among specialists. garik 13:21, 28 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, Arabic is the text-book case of a defective orthography, because of the lack of vowels. Even long vowels - since they are written by consonants, it's not apparent that a vowel is intended without a knowledge of the language. That Arabic doesn't need to be written with vowels in order to be understood is irrelevent to the question, as is the fact that vowels can be written, since they generally aren't (the Koran, dictionaries, and children's primars notwithstanding).
 * Italian is defective because the script doesn't distinguish /ts/ from /dz/, and only has five letters for seven vowels. I believe this info was originally in the article, but it looks like someone took it out as excess detail. kwami 21:00, 3 September 2007 (UTC)
 * What is the sixth and seventh vowel of Italian? There are just the five, which then can be long or not, stressed or not or part of a diphthong or not.--2001:A61:260D:6E01:A865:1FCA:DA8A:D95E (talk) 19:07, 9 December 2017 (UTC)
 * The seven Italian vowel phonemes in stressed syllables are . And Italian has neither phonemic vowel length not phonemic diphthongs. See Italian phonology. Love —LiliCharlie (talk) 19:46, 9 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Well, not being an Italian native speaker I don't know whether vowel length is phonemic, but I treated /e ɛ/ and /ɔ o/ as varieties (not to be freely choosen) of the same vowel, depending on the position and, possibly, also the length (not sure how exactly to give a rule), perhaps even in some words distinct without relation to position, but certainly not phonemically. But Italian obviously does have diphthongs, whether phonemic or not, such as /aʊ/ in ''Paolo.--2001:A61:260D:6E01:A865:1FCA:DA8A:D95E (talk) 20:35, 9 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Here are examples of vs.  and  vs. : (se) corresse (più velocemente)  "(if) he/she/it ran (faster)" vs. (lei) corresse (i compiti)  "(she) corrected (the homework)" and (se) fosse (vero)  "(if) it were (true)" vs. (le) fosse (scavate)  "(the dug) graves."
 * Paolo certainly doesn't have  but a sequence of  plus ; note that  is different from  in Laura . Similarly: trae  "he/she/it pulls" vs. trai  "you (sg.) pull." Love —LiliCharlie (talk) 21:07, 9 December 2017 (UTC)
 * To a German ear, neither of the sounds in Paolo and Laura sound any different from the sound au in Glückauf - or the ao in Kakao (though that's the one and only occasion this sound is written ao in German), customarily written as /aʊ/. (A fact that comes as a surprise to those who read the word Paolo before hearing it spoken and think it is spoken .) In any case, though, it's a diphtong, and since Laura and Lara (a name that is, I guess, foreign in Italy but not unthinkable) may well be two different women, it is phonemic. Thanks for the answer, especially for the interesting open vs. closed minimal pairs. The same, now writing as --138.245.1.1 (talk) 14:01, 10 December 2019 (UTC)

Hmm...
The statement "These are all considerations in the design of a writing system" is, for lack of a better word, misleading. It implies that writing systems were actually designed, rather than simply evolving over time through cultural/social means. I'm going to remove the sentence for now. If someone can rewrite it so that it's meaningful, give it a shot. Fuzzform (talk) 01:34, 1 October 2008 (UTC)
 * You have a point when it comes to orthographies of major languages, which are often in place for centuries, and they just keep growing, often wildly. There are, however, numerous smaller languages in the world which undergo language development. Usually, the first order of business in language development is orthography-design. Ideally, linguists will work together with the language community to come up with an orthography which serves the people best. This is a design process, and the abovementioned considerations are important for this. Landroving Linguist (talk) 16:48, 25 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Some writing systems were most definitely designed, often developed from earlier established scripts like Pali. An example that sprung to mind was Thai, which was established under the then King Amkhamhaeng the Great. Another example is the faintly ridiculous Katakana; allegedly, the Japanese realised that Western languages could not be adequately transcribed in Hiragana, so tasked some scholars with filling the gap. What they did was simply to copy Hiragana using different symbols, producing a system with exactly the same inadequacies. Very amusing, but a little stupid. See List_of_inventors_of_writing_systems.Memethuzla (talk) 14:41, 27 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Not true, katakana was not designed with Western languages in mind. Both katakana and hiragana were developed in the Heian period, the former for transcribing Buddhist sutras and the latter as a cursive shorthand for Man'yōgana. In fact before WWII katakana was preferred to hiragana in official documents. Only in 1946 were the usages of the two kana systems separated the way they are now. Not because katakana was somehow seen as better fitting to Western languages, just for better parsing: Japanese is written without spaces, so the three writing systems help delineate word boundaries (though not in all cases). Since Western loanwords usually cannot be written with kanji it was decided that they should be written in katakana to separate them from native and Chinese words.83.243.71.142 (talk) 10:13, 15 May 2011 (UTC)

Complex orthographies
The text currently says "Complex orthographies often combine different types of scripts and/or utilize many different complex punctuation rules." AFAIK, punctuation has nothing to do with it. There are several issues--combining different types of scripts is, I guess, one of them (someone who knows more about Japanese can perhaps confirm that). Other issues include the use of context-sensitive forms of letters (like Arabic), and complex rules for positioning when combining characters (Bengali and many other languages written with Indic scripts). But I am looking at this from the perspective of computer rendering of written forms, and maybe there are other considerations when it comes to hand-written texts (like the number of different characters in the writing system). Mcswell (talk) 03:55, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

Typology
Shouldn't etymological spelling be one of the kinds of spelling systems together with phonemic and morpho-phonemic? --Antonielly (talk) 21:48, 2 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Interesting, but why? What do you mean by "etymological spelling"? Supply some examples, please. Cheers Bjenks (talk) 00:31, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * For instance, in Portuguese, the word hospital (stress on the last syllable). The "h" is not pronounced in Portuguese, it is there only due to etymological reasons. If the Portuguese ortography were phonemic (one of the categories listed in the article), that word would be written ospital.
 * In English, I could mention the words colonel and kernel. If the ortography were phonemic rather than etymological in those cases, then those two words would be written the same. --Antonielly (talk) 11:00, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Good, but aren't these examples of the "defectiveness", ie, irregularity, accounted for in the article? I understand how etymology can cause irregularity in both pronunciation and semantics (cf shirt-skirt, brush-brake, and OE blac (black) vs blac (pale). But I also see that orthographic spelling and pronunciation are logically about morphemes, phonemes and an appreciation of "defective" examples. If we add an 'etymology' type, will we perhaps then have to include further types, eg, modern spelling reform, dialect and sociolect, etc? Or are all such 'types' best handled in the separate articles proper to them? Bjenks (talk) 12:39, 3 February 2009 (UTC)

This seems completely inadequate as a typology of orthographic systems. I know of no source (and the article cites none) that divides the world of orthographies into phonemic, morpho-phonemic, and defective, full-stop. These terms seem to be applicable only to alphabets, abjads, and syllabaries. Where are the logographic or mixed orthographies? Should transcription systems not commonly used by speakers (ASL comes to mind, as does IPA) be considered another type? I really don't know, but I would bet that scholars have considered such questions. If they have, cite them. If they have not, this section is original research and therefore inappropriate for Wikipedia.

This is not my area of expertise, but I'm fairly sure that the current typology misrepresents world orthographies, so I would be surprised if it does not misrepresent the state of accepted scholarship.

By the way, the typology section only mentions the terms "alphabet", "abjad", and "syllabary" in passing, and they are not defined anywhere on the page. These should be key terms in a typology, I think. At the very least they should be defined on a page about orthography. Cnilep (talk) 04:16, 24 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Each subject matter you can cut up according to different typologies. Orthographies are no exception. Whether an orthography is based on phonemes, syllables, morphemes - that is a typology according to the dimension on what is represented. The typology in this article rather asks how things are represented in orthographies based on sounds (phonemes or syllables). Of course both typologies feature in the literature. I agree with you that phonemic, morphophonemic or defective is not a very happy way to express things, and rather reflects the state of the discussion in the 1960s. A better idea you may get from Keith Snider's Linguistic factors in orthography design from 2001 (published in: Ngessimo M. Mutaka and Sammy B. Chumbow, Research mate in African linguistics: focus on Cameroon p. 323-332. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag). This article discusses the question of which level of linguistic representation should be used in orthography design, and argues for the lexical level, as opposed to the post-lexical level. As I say, it is just another dimension according to which to classify orthographies. Landroving Linguist (talk) 07:06, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Thank you for that very useful pointer. I will see whether my university's library has the book.

 * To the subject of this page as currently written, though, I take you comments to imply that independent sources do not advocate the particular typological system described here, is that right? Or were you suggesting that work in the 1960s did use such a system? As you say, it is possible to create any number of typologies. If that described here was created by WP editors for this page, though, it seems out of step with the policy WP:No original research.

 * Perhaps a workable stop-gap for the time being would be to simply remove the header "Typology" and leave the actual content untouched, pending better sourcing? Cnilep (talk) 06:36, 10 January 2011 (UTC)
 * The way you did it now appears to be a good solution for the time being. I agree with your point on original research. Landroving Linguist (talk) 09:30, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

Kurdic Orthography
Yesterday I reverted an edit setting a link to the Kurdic Academy of Language web site. When I checked the site, it was off-line, which is why I removed that link. Today I checked again, and the site is up and running, and immensely interesting. I would still think that the link is not appropriate for a page dealing with othography in general, but others might disagree with me on this. If so, then someone with a user name should put up the link once more. Landroving Linguist (talk) 13:32, 25 March 2009 (UTC)

Orthographies and dyslexia
Could anyone familiar with orthogaphy and Orthography drop by and have a look? I'm getting a strong feeling it's turning into a content fork. Gordonofcartoon (talk) 19:41, 14 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree. The duplication of orthography content is surely harmful and the article appears to be presenting a thesis or pov. If allowable, such a technique can open up a new world of comparative pov encyclopedics, e.g., General Motors and Ford :) Cheers Bjenks (talk) 13:42, 15 July 2009 (UTC)
 * So, in the absence of any disagreement, I've merged the content to Dyslexia research, complete with its shortcomings and tags. Cheers Bjenks (talk) 04:24, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

We need help to develop this artilce not have it moved around. This is part of the Dyslexia project series of articles, and the relevant discussions about this article are on Talk:Orthographies and dyslexia. The article was referred the article to be deleted, Articles for deletion/Orthographies and dyslexiaConsensus was to Keep the article and develop the content in a multi discipline way with contributions from all interested specialists, so all content contributions are welcome. dolfrog (talk) 08:07, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

Orthography [|Orthography, Revision 02:56, 26 July 2009]
Sorry, I agree my "content contribution" was too much close to a joke, so it was right to undo it. As an italian who (tries to) use english, I (childly) just couldn't resist when I read "citation needed" referred to "English is among the least phonemic [orthographies]" !

With respect and gratitude to the wiki comunity, bye, Michele. --84.220.224.242 (talk) 13:47, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

A new verb; To orthograph
Can I propose a new verb? If it doesn't already exist then it really should - to orthograph.

Orthograph vb. The act of transliterating words into a standard spelling. Thus Chaucer's 'Whan that Aprille with his shoures sote, the droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote...' can be orthographed as 'When that April with his showers sweet, the drought of March hath pierced to the root...' — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.5.1.107 (talk) 09:44, 19 October 2012 (UTC)

 * If serious: WP:OR. If not: WP:NOT. Mutt Lunker (talk) 22:50, 19 October 2012 (UTC)

Importance of Orthography
The importance of orthography is stressed in the studies of Linguistic. So the subject of it's important should be a main focus of the Wikipedia page for the overall topic of orthography. The information on orthography is already limited, new facts and connection to other topics can boost the overall length of the article.

Contingent variation
Sometimes there may be variation in a language's orthography, as between American and British spelling in the case of English orthography.

In the formal Canadian register, our orthography is predominantly British. In the informal register, our orthography is rife with Americanisms, almost to the point where anything goes (from either camp): even if the document on its own terms is inconsistent from one place to another.

At the semi-formal end—where the writer projects an educated persona, but might not be writing a formal piece as such—it's considered bad form to mix and match on an inconsistent basis (choose one or the other on each major decision point and stick with it), but only the most vigilant fussbudget reads carefully enough to notice this (Margaret Atwood?), so in practice this has little ultimate import (apart from, I suspect, some internal, rivalrous score-keeping).

It's not that different in Canada with measurement, either.

You can mix kg and °F in the same document (like a blog post), hardly anyone would bat an eyelash, though randomly switching between kg and lbs in the same document would attract some notice. You can also use °K for gas cylinders, °C for outdoor temperature, and then °F for your souffle recipe in the same post, and no Canadian would find this weird, either (living as a quasi-British culture as the cranial cumberbund of The Beast as we do, the "when in Rome" factor in Canada is unusually contextual). Canadian ovens are all in Fahrenheit, Canadian radio is all in Celsius, Canadian science is all in French (units), Canadian grocery pricing is half and half (until you get to the till, where receipts are recorded in kg only).

I'm not going to source any of this, but it's a thing, and if someone has a source, it wouldn't hurt the article to put the contingent dimension forward. — MaxEnt 21:19, 14 June 2018 (UTC)

 * The variation in units of measure is not an orthography issue, though fascinating! This article is about spelling. Pete unseth (talk) 17:41, 15 June 2018 (UTC)

Transnational languages
Why does the article mention transnational languages first? Why not just say that most languages with a writing system have an orthography? To me, it seems that could mislead someone who is skimming the article. Turist-n (talk) 14:51, 27 April 2020 (UTC)

Link to Nederlands (Dutch)
Hey guys, for some reason the link to the Dutch page of this article links to the Dutch Spelling page. There's no Dutch page for Ortography, only a translation on https://nl.wiktionary.org/wiki/orthografie.

I'll happily translate the page but the link should be removed or linked to another more similar article before that is done.

Regards. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.112.89.157 (talk) 08:32, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

Nevermind, I was wrong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.112.89.157 (talk) 08:35, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

Proposed template: Orthography notation
There is a proposed new template, Linguistics notation, which is intended as an entry point for readers unfamiliar with the specialist notation used in the subject. It would normally be placed after the lead of articles that use grapheme (and related) notations so that it sits beside the ToC. After a long discussion at template talk:Linguistics notation, the consensus is that the phoneme aspect is best handled by an addition to IPA key, leaving the orthography and typography aspects remaining. The proposal therefore is to rename the template as orthography notation and the opening sentence would read "This page uses orthography notation".

If there are any comments or reservations, please use template talk:Linguistics notation to express them. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 00:42, 5 March 2021 (UTC)

 * The new template is now live and called Orthography notation. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 16:31, 8 March 2021 (UTC)

Original research
A lot of this article reads like an essay based in large part on original research and lacks citations to relevant sources. For example in one section there is the sentence "This is discussed further at Phonemic orthography § Morphophonemic features." which sounds more like something from an academic paper than an encyclopedia! 95.150.59.152 (talk) 12:29, 13 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Linguistics in the Digital Age
— Assignment last updated by Fedfed2 (talk) 00:54, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Orthography


text:
Talk:Information hiding/Archive 1

I think this definition of encapsulation is wrong. Encapsulation is the ability to hide the internal workings of objects, so that the other objects don't need to care about them. Usually this is achieved by simply allowing objects to contain other objects. Data hiding, when objects are actually not allowed to access internals of other objects, is something different.
 * That seems very very wrong, since the normal meanings of 'hiding' are to stay out of sight so others don't notice or care, and 'capsule' is a hard object to protect things from others not allowed to contain them. By the way for novices a good way to distinguish the (correct meanings of) the two is that data hiding is an unadvertised URL, and encapsulation is putting a password on that same URL.

The important part is that encapsulation, in the way I described it, is usually considered a requirement for OO. Data hiding is not. -- Lament
 * other than having the words the other way around, I would agree with you... OO says nothing about hiding information without restricting access to those who know it's there. It says a lot about restricting the access in ways that will make the component ultimately more useful.

 * By this definition would Python, which doesn't have any data hiding (or as you call it, encapsulation), not be considered an OO language?

The theory of component software says much more about this though, and clears up the mess left behind by OO's often inexact conceptions.

title: Talk:Information hiding/Archive 1


text:
Joseph Nollekens

Joseph Nollekens R.A. (11 August 1737 – 23 April 1823) was a sculptor from London generally considered to be the finest British sculptor of the late 18th century.

Life
Nollekens was born on 11 August 1737 at 28 Dean Street, Soho, London, the son of the Flemish painter Josef Frans Nollekens (1702–1748) who had moved from Antwerp to London in 1733. He studied first under another Flemish immigrant in London, the sculptor Peter Scheemakers, before studying and working as an antiques dealer, restorer and copier in Rome from 1760 or 1762. The sculptures he made in Rome included a marble of Timocles Before Alexander, for which he was awarded fifty guineas by the Society of Arts, and busts of Laurence Sterne and David Garrick, who were visiting the city.

On his return to London in 1770 he set up as a maker of busts and monuments at 9, Mortimer Street, where he built up a large practice. Although he preferred working on mythological subjects, it was through his portrait busts that he became famous and one of the most fashionable portrait sculptors in Britain. In 1772 he married Mary, daughter of the judge and grocer Saunders Welch.

He enjoyed the patronage of King George III and went on to sculpt a number of British political figures, including George III himself, William Pitt the Younger, Charles James Fox, the Duke of Bedford and Charles Watson-Wentworth. He also made busts of figures from the arts such as Benjamin West. Most of his subjects were represented in classical costume.

Faith, a sculpture commissioned by Henry Howard following the death of his wife Maria in 1788 in childbirth at Corby Castle, is said to be Nollekens' finest work. The sculpture can be seen in the Howard Chapel at the Parish Church of Wetheral, Cumbria.

Although he took great care over the modelling of the details of his sculptures, the marble versions were normally made by assistants, such as Sebastian Gahagan who carved Nollekens' statue of William Pitt for the Senate House, Cambridge, and L. Alexander Goblet. Some subjects were produced in large numbers: more than 70 replicas of Nollekens' bust of Pitt are known.

Nollekens became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1771 and a full academician the following year.

Painted around that time, his portrait by the celebrated artist Mary Moser now hangs in the Yale Center for British Art.

Death
He died in London in 1823, having made a considerable fortune from his work; he left around £200,000 in his will. He is buried in St James's Church, Paddington with a monument by William Behnes.

A biography Nollekens and his Times by his executor John Thomas Smith was published in 1828, portraying him as a grotesque miser. It has been described as "perhaps the most candid biography ever published in the English language." It has been suggested he was the model for the miser Briggs in Cecilia. His collection of prints and drawings, including 'a matchless collection of the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds', was sold at auction by R. H. Evans on 4 December 1823. A copy of the catalogue, priced and with buyers' names, is at Cambridge University Library (shelfmark Munby.c.126(14)).

No. 44 Mortimer Street in Fitzrovia stands on the site of the house where Nollekens died and has a blue plaque commemorating him.

American poet Randall Jarrell commemorated Nollekens in his poem entitled "Nollekens", collected in his 1956 volume Selected Poems.

List of works

 * Bust of Samuel Johnson, Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, Connecticut
 * Faith, St. Constantine's Church, Wetheral, Cumbria
 * Castor and Pollux, Victoria and Albert Museum, Kensington, Greater London
 * Memorial to William Windham, St. Margaret's Church, Felbrigg, Norfolk
 * Bust of Charles James Fox, Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, marble 1796
 * Bust of Primate Robinson, St Patrick’s Cathedral, Armagh

title: Joseph Nollekens


text:
Consensus model (criminal justice)

The Consensus Model or Systems Perspective of criminal justice argues that the organizations of a criminal justice system either do, or should, work cooperatively to produce justice, as opposed to competitively. A criminal justice model in which the majority of citizens in a society share the same values and beliefs. Criminal acts conflict with these values and beliefs.

title: Consensus model (criminal justice)


text:
Clearance rate

In criminal justice, clearance rate is calculated by dividing the number of crimes that are "cleared" (a charge being laid) by the total number of crimes recorded. Various groups use clearance rates as a measure of crimes solved by the police.

Clearance rates can be problematic for measuring the performance of police services and for comparing various police services. This is because a police force may employ a different way of measuring clearance rates. For example, each police force may have a different method of recording when a "crime" has occurred and different criteria for determining when a crime has been "cleared." A given police force may appear to have a much better clearance rate because of its calculation methodology.

Some U.S. police forces have been criticized for overuse of "exceptional clearance", which is intended to classify as "cleared" cases where probable cause to arrest a suspect exists, but police are unable to do so for reasons outside their control (such as death or incarceration in a foreign country).

In system conflict theory, it is argued that clearance rates cause the police to focus on appearing to solve crimes (generating high clearance rate scores) rather than actually solving crimes. Further focus on clearance rates may result in effort being expended to attribute crimes (correctly or incorrectly) to a criminal, which may not result in retribution, compensation, rehabilitation or deterrence.

title: Clearance rate


text:
Typesetting

Typesetting is the composition of text for publication, display, or distribution by means of arranging physical type (or sort) in mechanical systems or glyphs in digital systems representing characters (letters and other symbols). Stored types are retrieved and ordered according to a language's orthography for visual display. Typesetting requires one or more fonts (which are widely but erroneously confused with and substituted for typefaces). One significant effect of typesetting was that authorship of works could be spotted more easily, making it difficult for copiers who have not gained permission.

Manual typesetting
During much of the letterpress era, movable type was composed by hand for each page by workers called compositors. A tray with many dividers, called a case, contained cast metal sorts, each with a single letter or symbol, but backwards (so they would print correctly). The compositor assembled these sorts into words, then lines, then pages of text, which were then bound tightly together by a frame, making up a form or page. If done correctly, all letters were of the same height, and a flat surface of type was created. The form was placed in a press and inked, and then printed (an impression made) on paper. Metal type read backwards, from right to left, and a key skill of the compositor was their ability to read this backwards text.

Before computers were invented, and thus becoming computerized (or digital) typesetting, font sizes were changed by replacing the characters with a different size of type. In letterpress printing, individual letters and punctuation marks were cast on small metal blocks, known as "sorts," and then arranged to form the text for a page. The size of the type was determined by the size of the character on the face of the sort. A compositor would need to physically swap out the sorts for a different size to change the font size.

During typesetting, individual sorts are picked from a type case with the right hand, and set from left to right into a composing stick held in the left hand, appearing to the typesetter as upside down. As seen in the photo of the composing stick, a lower case 'q' looks like a 'd', a lower case 'b' looks like a 'p', a lower case 'p' looks like a 'b' and a lower case 'd' looks like a 'q'. This is reputed to be the origin of the expression "mind your p's and q's". It might just as easily have been "mind your b's and d's".

A forgotten but important part of the process took place after the printing: after cleaning with a solvent the expensive sorts had to be redistributed into the typecase - called sorting or dissing - so they would be ready for reuse. Errors in sorting could later produce misprints if, say, a p was put into the b compartment.

The diagram at right illustrates a cast metal sort: a face, b body or shank, c point size, 1 shoulder, 2 nick, 3 groove, 4 foot. Wooden printing sorts were used for centuries in combination with metal type. Not shown, and more the concern of the casterman, is the "set", or width of each sort. Set width, like body size, is measured in points.

In order to extend the working life of type, and to account for the finite sorts in a case of type, copies of forms were cast when anticipating subsequent printings of a text, freeing the costly type for other work. This was particularly prevalent in book and newspaper work where rotary presses required type forms to wrap an impression cylinder rather than set in the bed of a press. In this process, called stereotyping, the entire form is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché to create a flong, from which a positive form is cast in type metal.

Advances such as the typewriter and computer would push the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing have not fallen completely out of use, and since the introduction of digital typesetting, it has seen a revival as an artisanal pursuit. However, it is a small niche within the larger typesetting market.

Hot metal typesetting
The time and effort required to manually compose the text led to several efforts in the 19th century to produce mechanical typesetting. While some, such as the Paige compositor, met with limited success, by the end of the 19th century, several methods had been devised whereby an operator working a keyboard or other devices could produce the desired text. Most of the successful systems involved the in-house casting of the type to be used, hence are termed "hot metal" typesetting. The Linotype machine, invented in 1884, used a keyboard to assemble the casting matrices, and cast an entire line of type at a time (hence its name). In the Monotype System, a keyboard was used to punch a paper tape, which was then fed to control a casting machine. The Ludlow Typograph involved hand-set matrices, but otherwise used hot metal. By the early 20th century, the various systems were nearly universal in large newspapers and publishing houses.

Phototypesetting
Phototypesetting or "cold type" systems first appeared in the early 1960s and rapidly displaced continuous casting machines. These devices consisted of glass or film disks or strips (one per font) that spun in front of a light source to selectively expose characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes. Later they were connected to computer front ends.

One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor. The typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display. To verify correct content of the line it was typed a second time. If the two lines were identical a bell rang and the machine produced a punched paper tape corresponding to the text. With the completion of a block of lines the typesetter fed the corresponding paper tapes into a phototypesetting device that mechanically set type outlines printed on glass sheets into place for exposure onto a negative film. Photosensitive paper was exposed to light through the negative film, resulting in a column of black type on white paper, or a galley. The galley was then cut up and used to create a mechanical drawing or paste up of a whole page. A large film negative of the page is shot and used to make plates for offset printing.

Digital era
The next generation of phototypesetting machines to emerge were those that generated characters on a cathode ray tube display. Typical of the type were the Alphanumeric APS2 (1963), IBM 2680 (1967), I.I.I. VideoComp (1973?), Autologic APS5 (1975), and Linotron 202 (1978). These machines were the mainstay of phototypesetting for much of the 1970s and 1980s. Such machines could be "driven online" by a computer front-end system or took their data from magnetic tape. Type fonts were stored digitally on conventional magnetic disk drives.

Computers excel at automatically typesetting and correcting documents. Character-by-character, computer-aided phototypesetting was, in turn, rapidly rendered obsolete in the 1980s by fully digital systems employing a raster image processor to render an entire page to a single high-resolution digital image, now known as imagesetting.

The first commercially successful laser imagesetter, able to make use of a raster image processor, was the Monotype Lasercomp. ECRM, Compugraphic (later purchased by Agfa) and others rapidly followed suit with machines of their own.

Early minicomputer-based typesetting software introduced in the 1970s and early 1980s, such as Datalogics Pager, Penta, Atex, Miles 33, Xyvision, troff from Bell Labs, and IBM's Script product with CRT terminals, were better able to drive these electromechanical devices, and used text markup languages to describe type and other page formatting information. The descendants of these text markup languages include SGML, XML and HTML.

The minicomputer systems output columns of text on film for paste-up and eventually produced entire pages and signatures of 4, 8, 16 or more pages using imposition software on devices such as the Israeli-made Scitex Dolev. The data stream used by these systems to drive page layout on printers and imagesetters, often proprietary or specific to a manufacturer or device, drove development of generalized printer control languages, such as Adobe Systems' PostScript and Hewlett-Packard's PCL.

Computerized typesetting was so rare that BYTE magazine (comparing itself to "the proverbial shoemaker's children who went barefoot") did not use any computers in production until its August 1979 issue used a Compugraphics system for typesetting and page layout. The magazine did not yet accept articles on floppy disks, but hoped to do so "as matters progress". Before the 1980s, practically all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was performed by specialist typesetting companies. These companies performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of the graphic arts industry. In the United States, these companies were located in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest, where labor was cheap and paper was produced nearby, but still within a few hours' travel time of the major publishing centers.

In 1985, with the new concept of WYSIWYG (for What You See Is What You Get) in text editing and word processing on personal computers, desktop publishing became available, starting with the Apple Macintosh, Aldus PageMaker (and later QuarkXPress) and PostScript and on the PC platform with Xerox Ventura Publisher under DOS as well as Pagemaker under Windows. Improvements in software and hardware, and rapidly lowering costs, popularized desktop publishing and enabled very fine control of typeset results much less expensively than the minicomputer dedicated systems. At the same time, word processing systems, such as Wang, WordPerfect and Microsoft Word, revolutionized office documents. They did not, however, have the typographic ability or flexibility required for complicated book layout, graphics, mathematics, or advanced hyphenation and justification rules (H and J).

By 2000, this industry segment had shrunk because publishers were now capable of integrating typesetting and graphic design on their own in-house computers. Many found the cost of maintaining high standards of typographic design and technical skill made it more economical to outsource to freelancers and graphic design specialists.

The availability of cheap or free fonts made the conversion to do-it-yourself easier, but also opened up a gap between skilled designers and amateurs. The advent of PostScript, supplemented by the PDF file format, provided a universal method of proofing designs and layouts, readable on major computers and operating systems.

QuarkXPress had enjoyed a market share of 95% in the 1990s, but lost its dominance to Adobe InDesign from the mid-2000s onward.

SCRIPT variants
IBM created and inspired a family of typesetting languages with names that were derivatives of the word "SCRIPT". Later versions of SCRIPT included advanced features, such as automatic generation of a table of contents and index, multicolumn page layout, footnotes, boxes, automatic hyphenation and spelling verification.

NSCRIPT was a port of SCRIPT to OS and TSO from CP-67/CMS SCRIPT.

Waterloo Script was created at the University of Waterloo (UW) later. One version of SCRIPT was created at MIT and the AA/CS at UW took over project development in 1974. The program was first used at UW in 1975. In the 1970s, SCRIPT was the only practical way to word process and format documents using a computer. By the late 1980s, the SCRIPT system had been extended to incorporate various upgrades.

The initial implementation of SCRIPT at UW was documented in the May 1975 issue of the Computing Centre Newsletter, which noted some the advantages of using SCRIPT:

1. It easily handles footnotes.

2. Page numbers can be in Arabic or Roman numerals, and can appear at the top or bottom of the page, in the centre, on the left or on the right, or on the left for even-numbered pages and on the right for odd-numbered pages.

3. Underscoring or overstriking can be made a function of SCRIPT, thus uncomplicating editor functions.

4. SCRIPT files are regular OS datasets or CMS files.

5. Output can be obtained on the printer, or at the terminal…

The article also pointed out SCRIPT had over 100 commands to assist in formatting documents, though 8 to 10 of these commands were sufficient to complete most formatting jobs. Thus, SCRIPT had many of the capabilities computer users generally associate with contemporary word processors.

SCRIPT/VS was a SCRIPT variant developed at IBM in the 1980s.

DWScript is a version of SCRIPT for MS-DOS, named after its author, D. D. Williams, but was never released to the public and only used internally by IBM.

Script is still available from IBM as part of the Document Composition Facility for the z/OS operating system.

SGML and XML systems
The standard generalized markup language (SGML) was based upon IBM Generalized Markup Language (GML). GML was a set of macros on top of IBM Script. DSSSL is an international standard developed to provide a stylesheets for SGML documents.

XML is a successor of SGML. XSL-FO is most often used to generate PDF files from XML files.

The arrival of SGML/XML as the document model made other typesetting engines popular. Such engines include Datalogics Pager, Penta, Miles 33's OASYS, Xyvision's XML Professional Publisher, FrameMaker, and Arbortext. XSL-FO compatible engines include Apache FOP, Antenna House Formatter, and RenderX's XEP. These products allow users to program their SGML/XML typesetting process with the help of scripting languages.

YesLogic's Prince is another one, which is based on CSS Paged Media.

Troff and successors
During the mid-1970s, Joe Ossanna, working at Bell Laboratories, wrote the troff typesetting program to drive a Wang C/A/T phototypesetter owned by the Labs; it was later enhanced by Brian Kernighan to support output to different equipment, such as laser printers. While its use has fallen off, it is still included with a number of Unix and Unix-like systems, and has been used to typeset a number of high-profile technical and computer books. Some versions, as well as a GNU work-alike called groff, are now open source.

TeX and LaTeX

The TeX system, developed by Donald E. Knuth at the end of the 1970s, is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system that has set high standards, especially for typesetting mathematics. LuaTeX and LuaLaTeX are variants of TeX and of LaTeX scriptable in Lua. TeX is considered fairly difficult to learn on its own, and deals more with appearance than structure. The LaTeX macro package, written by Leslie Lamport at the beginning of the 1980s, offered a simpler interface and an easier way to systematically encode the structure of a document. LaTeX markup is widely used in academic circles for published papers and books. Although standard TeX does not provide an interface of any sort, there are programs that do. These programs include Scientific Workplace and LyX, which are graphical/interactive editors; TeXmacs, while being an independent typesetting system, can also aid the preparation of TeX documents through its export capability.

Other text formatters
GNU TeXmacs (whose name is a combination of TeX and Emacs, although it is independent from both of these programs) is a typesetting system which is at the same time a WYSIWYG word processor.

SILE borrows some algorithms from TeX and relies on other libraries such as HarfBuzz and ICU, with an extensible core engine developed in Lua. By default, SILE's input documents can be composed in a custom LaTeX-inspired markup (SIL) or in XML. Via the adjunction of 3rd-party modules, composition in Markdown or Djot is also possible.

A new typesetting system Typst tries to combine a simple markup of the input and the possibility of using common programming constructs with a high typographical quality of the output. This system has been in beta testing since March 2023  and was presented in July 2023 at the Tex Users Group (TUG) 2023 conference.

Several other text-formatting software packages exist—notably Lout, Patoline, Pollen, and Ant—but are not widely used.

title: Typesetting


text:
Peter Scheemakers

Peter Scheemakers or Pieter Scheemaeckers II or the Younger (10 January 1691 – 12 September 1781) was a Flemish sculptor who worked for most of his life in London. His public and church sculptures in a classicist style had an important influence on the development of modern sculpture in England.

Scheemakers is perhaps best known for executing the William Kent-designed memorial to William Shakespeare which was erected in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey in 1740, as well as that to John Dryden in the same church.

Early life
Peter Scheemakers the Younger was born in Antwerp and baptised Pieter-Caspar Scheemaekers at the Sint-Jacobskerk or St. James' Church, Antwerp on 10 January 1691, son of sculptor Peter Scheemaekers aka Pieter Scheemaeckers and Catharina van der Hulst (d.1712). His eldest brother Hendrik (Henry) Scheemakers' baptism has not been found, but Peter's other siblings were: Catharina baptised 1 October 1688 (died young), Elisabeth baptised 6 July 1693 (still living when Peter wrote his Will in 1771), Jan-Frans baptised 2 February 1696 (ditto), and another Catharina baptised 20 March 1698 (died before 1771 leaving one daughter), all baptised at the St Jacobskerk in Antwerp.

Peter followed his father as a sculptor, and joined his elder brother Henry Scheemakers working in Copenhagen, Denmark, for the court sculptor Johann Adam Sturmberg (1683–1741), for two years 1718–1720. It is said that in 1715 Peter walked from Copenhagen to Rome (over 1500 km) where he studied both classical and baroque styles of sculpture.

London, 1720–1730
In about 1720 Scheemakers settled in London where he befriended fellow Flemish sculptor, Gent-born Laurent Delvaux (1696–1778), who had been in London since 1717 on the recommendation of his former Master, Antwerp-born Pierre-Denis Plumier. At the time, Pierre-Denis Plumier was still in Brussels, but he came to London in early 1721 with his family, intending to settle permanently. Plumier had started on a funerary monument to John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, when he died only a few months after his arrival. The monument was completed by Peter Scheemakers and Laurent Delvaux in partnership, and installed in Westminster Abbey in 1722. By 1726, his brother Henry Scheemakers had also settled in London, in Old Palace Yard in St Margaret's Westminster, staying here until he moved to Paris in the mid-1730s.

Scheemakers and Delvaux then entered into a formal partnership and set up a workshop in Millbank, south of Westminster in London, in 1723. Their workshop produced many sober classical monuments and garden statuary in the Antique style. However, in order to finance their long-planned trips to study both antique and recent masterpieces in Rome, the two partners sold their stock in April 1728, including 30 items Delvaux had inherited from Plumier on marrying his widow in 1726, and the two sculptors travelled to Rome in 1728. Delvaux stayed in Rome until 1733 when he was appointed Court Sculptor in Brussels, but Scheemakers stayed only two years before returning to England in 1730.

London, 1730–1771
Upon his return Scheemakers restarted the Millbank workshop in St Martin's Lane. His 'ideal' classical sculptures became very popular with the landowning class and the city merchants. He moved his workshop twice more: first to Old Palace Yard in St Margaret's Westminster in 1736 and then in 1740 to Vine Street in St James's where he stayed until he retired in 1771.

Scheemakers worked for a time with Francis Bird, and his brother Henry Scheemakers was in partnership with Henry Cheere for a few years. Peter taught Charles Cope Trubshaw and Thomas Banks. In 1750 he took as apprentice sculptor Joseph Nollekens (1737–1823), son of fellow Antwerp-born artist Josef Frans Nollekens (1702–1748), who stayed on as journeyman before leaving for Rome around 1762. Nollekens must have remained close to Peter's Vine Street successor, his nephew Thomas Scheemakers, as Thomas appointed Nollekens as one of his executors.

Peter Scheemakers had married Barbara La Fosse but they had no children. His brother, sculptor Henry Scheemakers (c.1686–1748), had moved to Paris in the mid-1730s and both Henry's sons had also become sculptors. The elder, Peter, known as Pierre Scheemackers (c.1728–1765), remained in Paris where he became a professor at the Académie de Saint-Luc, but died shortly afterwards in 1765. Henry's younger son Thomas-Henry known as Thomas Scheemakers (c.1740–1808) left Paris to join his uncle Peter in London, leasing the workshop in Vine Street after Peter retired in 1771, and referred to at his death in 1808 as "Thomas Scheemakers of Vine Street, Statuary".

Later years
Peter Scheemakers retired in 1771, aged 80, his wife Barbara having died in 1768, and returned to live with his siblings Elisabeth and Francis in their native town of Antwerp. He died there in September 1781 and was buried in the same church in which he had been baptised over 90 years earlier.

Peter Scheemakers "native of Antwerp but now of Vine Street in the parish of St James Westminster, Statuary" had signed his Will in London on 19 June 1771, witnessed by William Lister and Sarah Whip. Probate was granted on 24 September 1781. His bequests were 10 guineas to Peter's mason Christopher Finny; the same to Mr Vandermeulen, Statuary; and the same again to Mr Dennis Byrne. 20 guineas to his servant. £50 to his niece Anna-Maria Vandiepenbeeck; the same to Mr James Bucher [sic], haberdasher of Pall Mall, who was also appointed sole executor. All the rest of Peter's effects in England were to be divided equally into four parts and distributed between his 4 siblings or if deceased, their descendants: ¼ to sister Elisabeth Scheemaekers, ¼ to brother Frans (Jan-Frans) Scheemaekers, ¼ to niece Anna-Maria Vandiepenbeeck as sole child of deceased sister Catharina, ¼ to be shared equally between the surviving children of deceased brother Henry viz. nephew Thomas Scheemakers and Thomas's two sisters Marie-Louise and Genevieve-Catherine. These provisions confirm that Peter was childless and that Thomas Scheemakers, the London sculptor hitherto assumed to be his son and sole heir, was Peter's nephew and received just 1/12th of Peter's estate.

Westminster Abbey
Peter Scheemakers created 16 works – monuments, figures, busts and tombs – for Westminster Abbey alone, of which 15 are still in situ:
 * Monument to William Shakespeare (1740), Peter Scheemakers' most admired work. However, as this was designed by William Kent, the admiration for design and execution should rightly be shared.
 * Monument to John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby d.Feb 1721. Based on Plumier's design which he started, but completed by Peter Scheemakers and Laurent Delvaux after Plumier's unexpected death. Dedicated in 1722.
 * Monument to Dr Hugh Chamberlen d.June 1728, paid for by the widowed Duchess of Buckingham, and also executed in collaboration with Laurent Delvaux.
 * Monument to Admiral Sir Charles Wager
 * Monument to Vice-Admiral Watson
 * Monument to Lt. General Percy Kirke
 * Monument to George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe
 * Monument to General Monck, also designed by William Kent and executed by Peter Scheemakers
 * Monument to Sir Henry Belasyse
 * Bust of John Dryden (1720)
 * Bust of Dr Richard Mead (1754)
 * Memorial to Thomas Jordan (1736)
 * Memorial to Lord Aubrey Beauclerk (1741)
 * Memorial to Admiral Sir John Balchen (1744)
 * Memorial to William Horneck
 * Tomb of Dr John Woodward (d.1728)
 * Tomb of Magdalen Walsh (d.1747). The latter was relocated due to the placement of the Memorial to the Armed Forces in 2008.

Other works in England

 * Monument to Sir Michael Warton (c.1730) in Beverley Minster
 * Monument to Montague Garrard Drake (c.1730) in Amersham
 * Monument to Sir Thomas Hodgson (1732) in Barnby-upon-Don, Yorkshire
 * Monument to William Douglas (1732) in St Lawrence's Church in Reading, Berkshire
 * Monument to Sir John Potenger and his wife Philadelphia Ernle (1733) in Blunsdon, Wiltshire
 * Statue of Thomas Guy (1734) in the courtyard of Guy's Hospital, London
 * Equestrian Statue of William III (1734) in Kingston-upon-Hull
 * Statue of Sir John Barnard (1737) for Royal Exchange, London
 * Statue of King Edward VI (1737) in St Thomas's Hospital, London
 * Memorial (with busts) to Sir Thomas Reeve and his wife (1737) in John the Baptist Church in Windsor
 * Memorial to Lady Newton of Culverthorpe Hall (1737) in Heydour Parish Church, Lincolnshire
 * Memorial to Lord and Lady Curzon of Kedleston Hall (1737) in Kedleston Parish Church, Derbyshire
 * Memorial to Sir George Beaumont, 4th Baronet (1737) in Stoughton, Leicestershire
 * Memorial to Charles Fleetwood (1737) in Ely Cathedral
 * Memorial to Sir Justinian Isham, 5th Baronet (1737) in Lamport, Northamptonshire
 * Memorial to Dr Samuel Palmer FRS (1738) in Wandsworth Parish Church
 * Memorial to Mary daughter of John Hanger (1739) in St Michael's Church, Bray, Berkshire
 * Statue of Marwood Turner (1739) in Kirkleatham, Yorkshire
 * Bust of William Harvey (1739) in the Royal College of Physicians
 * Memorial to Lady Elizabeth Hastings (1739) in Ledston, West Yorkshire
 * Memorial to John Rudge (1740) in Wheatfield, Oxfordshire
 * Bust of Earl Temple of Stowe (1740) at Stowe House
 * Tomb of Admiral Salmon Morrice (1740) in St Mary's Church in Betteshanger, Kent
 * Tomb of Susanna Hare (1741) in Stow Bardolph, Norfolk
 * Tomb of Abraham Sharp (1742) in Bradford Cathedral
 * Tomb of Sir Christopher Powell, 4th Baronet (1742) in Boughton Monchelsea, Kent
 * Various statues (including the Dying Gladiator) (1743) at Rousham House, Oxfordshire
 * Grave of Sir Michael Newton of Culverthorpe Hall (1746) in Heydour, Lincolnshire
 * Tomb of Samuel Rolle (1746) in Chittlehampton Parish Church, Devon
 * Bust of King Edward (1747) at King Edward's School, Birmingham
 * Tomb of Thomas Lewis (1747) in Soberton, Hampshire
 * Tomb of Admiral John Norris (1750) in St George's Church in Benenden, Kent
 * Tomb of John Whitbread (grandfather of Samuel Whitbread) (1750) in Cardington, Bedfordshire
 * Tomb of Sir Brook Bridges (1752) in Goodnestone, Kent
 * Tomb of Robert Tothill and his wife (1753) in Urchfont, Wiltshire
 * Tomb of Sir Jemmet Raymond (1754) in Kintbury, Berkshire
 * Tomb of Margaret Verney, Lady Feversham (1755) in Downton, Wiltshire
 * Tomb of Lord Raymond (1756) at Abbots Langley, Hertfordshire
 * Bust of Roger Cotes (1758) in Trinity College, Cambridge
 * Bust of Dr Robert Smith (1758) in Trinity College, Cambridge
 * Grave of Sir Matthew Decker (1759) in St Mary Magdalene Church in Richmond, Surrey
 * Tomb of Sir George Petre (1759) in St Mary's Church in Studley, Warwickshire
 * Bust of Sir Paul Methuen (1764) at Corsham Court in Wiltshire
 * Statues of Admiral Sir George Pocock, Lord Clive and General Laurence (1764) in the India Office in London
 * Statuary group of Cain killing Abel (c.1760) at Chiswick House, London
 * Bust of James Jurin (1766) in Trinity College, Cambridge
 * Tom of Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke (1766) in Wimpole, Cambridgeshire
 * Bust of Edward Wortley Montagu (1766) in Trinity College, Cambridge
 * Busts of both the 3rd and 4th Earl of Shaftesbury (DNK) at St Giles House, Dorset
 * Tablet to Mary Gardiner (died 1748) in St George's Church, Tombland, Norwich (signature visible on monument)

Further works include memorials to the 1st and 2nd Dukes of Ancaster at Edenham, Lincolnshire; Lord Chancellor Hardwicke at Wimpole, Cambridgeshire; the Duke of Kent, his wives and daughters, at Flitton, Bedfordshire; the Earl of Shelburne, at Wycombe, Buckinghamshire; and the figure on the sarcophagus to Montague Sherrard Drake, at Amersham, Buckinghamshire. Another example of his work is the memorial to Topham Foote (or Foot) in the parish church of St John the Baptist Church, Windsor. This burial monument, which includes the young man's bust and the Foote family crest, greets visitors in the main High Street entrance, 300 ft from the Henry VIII gate to Windsor Castle. There is also a memorial to Sir Thomas Reeve, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, 1736–37 in the church.

Ireland
In 1743, Mary Coghill erected the parish church of Clonturk (now Drumcondra Church) in memory of her brother Marmaduke Coghill, and placed in it a statue of her brother by Scheemakers.

He also was the sculptor of fourteen of the busts in the Long Room of the Trinity College Library in Dublin, including James Ussher, William Shakespeare, John Milton, John Locke, Cicero, Homer, Aristotle and Socrates.

On banknotes
Between 1970 and 1993, an image of Scheemakers's Shakespeare statue appeared on the reverse of Series D £20 notes issued by the Bank of England. Alongside the statue was an engraving of the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet.

title: Peter Scheemakers


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Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham

Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, (13 May 1730 – 1 July 1782; styled The Hon. Charles Watson-Wentworth before 1739, Viscount Higham between 1733 and 1746, Earl of Malton between 1746 and 1750, and The Marquess of Rockingham from 1750) was a British Whig statesman and magnate, most notable for his two terms as prime minister of Great Britain. He became the patron of many Whigs, known as the Rockingham Whigs, and served as a leading Whig grandee. He served in only two high offices during his lifetime (prime minister and leader of the House of Lords) but was nonetheless very influential during his one and a half years of service.

Family and military career
A descendant of the 1st Earl of Strafford, Lord Rockingham was the second son of Thomas Watson-Wentworth, 1st Marquess of Rockingham and Lady Mary Finch, daughter of the 7th Earl of Winchilsea. He was brought up at the family lavish home of Wentworth Woodhouse near Rotherham in Yorkshire.

He was educated at Westminster School. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Rockingham's father made him a colonel and organised volunteers to defend the country against the "Young Pretender". Rockingham's sister Mary wrote to him from London, saying the King "did not doubt but that you was as good a colonel as he has in his army" and his other sister Charlotte wrote that "you have gained immortal honour and I have every day the satisfaction of hearing twenty handsome things said of the Blues and their Collonel".

The march of the Jacobite army into northern England caused the Wentworth household to flee to Doncaster and Rockingham rode from Wentworth to Carlisle to join the Duke of Cumberland in pursuit of the "Young Pretender". Rockingham did this without parental consent and Cumberland wrote to Rockingham's father, saying that his "zeal on this occasion shows the same principles fix't that you yourself have given such strong proofs of". Rockingham wrote to his father that Cumberland "blamed me for my disobedience, yet as I came with a design of saving my King and country...it greatly palliated my offence". Rockingham's mother wrote to his father: "Though I hope you won't tell it him, never any thing met with such general applause, in short he is the hero of these times, and his Majesty talks of this young Subject, in such terms, as must please you to hear...in the Drawing Room no two people talk together, but he makes part of the discourse".

Lordships and titles
In April 1746 Rockingham's father was made a marquess (remaining the only marquess in the British peerage for quite some time) and Rockingham himself assumed the courtesy title of Earl of Malton. These honours came about due to the patronage of Henry Pelham. At this time Rockingham was travelling across Europe under the tutorship of George Quarme, as his father had decided against sending him to Cambridge.

During his stay in Rome, Rockingham noted that amongst Englishmen, the Whigs outnumbered the Jacobites four-to-one and there were "no Persons of rank about the Pretender". He also noted that "the vile spirit of Jacobitism" was greatly declining. When in Herrenhausen, Hanover, Rockingham met George II of Great Britain and made an impression: the King told Rockingham's uncle Henry Finch that he had never seen a finer or a more promising youth. In September 1750, two months before his father's death, he was raised to the Peerage of Ireland in his own right as Baron Malton and Earl Malton.

Member of Parliament
On 13 May 1751 (his 21st birthday), Rockingham inherited his father's estates. The rents from the land in Yorkshire, Northamptonshire and Ireland gave him an annual income of £20,000. He also controlled both of the borough parliamentary seats of Malton and one seat for the single-member borough of Higham Ferrers (Northants), along with twenty-three livings and five chaplaincies in the church. In July he was appointed Lord Lieutenant and custos rotulorum of the West Riding in Yorkshire, Lord Lieutenant of York city, and custos rotulorum of York city and county. In 1751–52 Rockingham joined White's, the Jockey Club and the Royal Society.

Rockingham's maiden speech was on 17 March 1752 in support of the bill which disposed of Scottish lands confiscated in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising of 1745. He wanted the lands cultivated by people "employed in husbandry & handicrafts" who repudiated "plunder, rapine & rebellion". He said "the highlanders have remained in their ancient state, prolific, bold, idle, & consequently hives of rebellion". He compared his favoured policy with the policy which his ancestor Lord Strafford had used in Ireland. Rockingham's speech was not well received, with Horace Walpole criticising him for venturing into "a debate so much above his force". Rockingham's uncle William Murray, the Solicitor-General, believed him to be poorly educated, so he employed Quarme as Rockingham's tutor again. Rockingham was for four months to study Demosthenes for oratory, and to learn the histories of the Assyrian, Persian, Greek and Roman empires along with modern history. Murray wanted Rockingham to take after Sir Walter Raleigh.

Lord of the Bedchamber
In 1752, Rockingham was appointed Lord of the Bedchamber to George II and married Mary Bright (1735–1804). In 1753 the Rockingham Club was formed, containing the first Rockingham Whigs. Rockingham hired James Stuart, of whom he was a patron, to paint portraits of William III and George II for the club rooms. The club held monthly meetings and a list written in June 1754 showed it had 133 members. In 1755 the King appointed him to the honorary office of Vice Admiral of the North. During a French invasion scare in 1756 Rockingham raised a volunteer militia at his own expense and when rioting broke out against Army enlistments Rockingham restored order without the use of military force in Sheffield. The Secretary at War, Lord Barrington, wrote to him: "You are the only instance of a Lord lieutenant's exerting the civil authority upon these occasions". Rockingham asked in 1760 to be made a knight of the Order of the Garter and the King consented.

In 1760, George II died, and his grandson ascended the throne as George III. Rockingham was allied to the Duke of Newcastle and his supporters, whilst the new King had a favourite in Lord Bute. Rockingham believed that Bute and his supporters wanted to take "the whole Administration & Government of this country into their hands" and wanted Newcastle to resign now before he would be inevitably disposed of. Rockingham believed that the revolution in British politics since George III's accession was harmful to the country, since it removed the Whigs from their ascendancy which had settled the constitution and secured the House of Hanover on the British throne. Rockingham wrote to Newcastle:

"...without flattery to your Grace, I must look and ever shall upon you and your connections as the solid foundations on which every good which has happened to this country since the [Glorious] Revolution, have been erected. ... What a medley of government is probably soon to take place & when it does what an alarm will ensue!"

Rockingham resigned as Lord of the Bedchamber on 3 November 1762 in protest at the King's policies and other Whigs associated with the Duke of Newcastle did the same. The next month the King removed Rockingham from the office of Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding, Lord Lieutenant of the city and county of York, as custos rotulorum of the North and West Riding, as custos rotulorum of the city and county of York and as Vice Admiral of York and county.

Over the next several years, Rockingham gradually became the leader of those of Newcastle's supporters who were unwilling to reconcile themselves to the premierships of Bute and his successor, George Grenville.

Appointment
The king's dislike, as well as Grenville's general lack of parliamentary support, led to his dismissal in 1765, and, following negotiations conducted through the medium of the king's uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, Lord Rockingham was appointed prime minister. Rockingham recovered the honours of which he had been deprived in 1762. Rockingham appointed his allies Henry Seymour Conway and the Duke of Grafton as secretaries of state. Also at this time, Edmund Burke, the Irish statesman and philosopher, became his private secretary and would remain a lifelong friend, political ally and advisor until Rockingham's death from influenza in 1782.

Resignation
Rockingham's administration was dominated by the American issue. Rockingham wished for repeal of the Stamp Act 1765 and won a Commons vote on the repeal resolution by 275 to 167 in 1766. However Rockingham also passed the Declaratory Act, which asserted that the British Parliament had the right to legislate for the American colonies in all cases whatsoever.

However, internal dissent within the cabinet led to his resignation and the appointment of Lord Chatham as prime minister (the Duke of Grafton was appointed First Lord of the Treasury, one of the few cases in which those two offices were separate).

Opposition: 1766–1782
Rockingham spent the next sixteen years in opposition. He was a keen supporter of constitutional rights for colonists.

Rockingham wrote to Edmund Burke on 14 February 1771: "I fear indeed the future struggles of the people in defence of their Constitutional Rights will grow weaker and weaker. It is much too probable that the power and influence of the Crown will increase rapidly. We live at the period when for the first time since the Revolution, the power and influence of the Crown is held out, as the main and chief and only support of Government. If we...do not exert now, we may accelerate the abject state to which the Constitution may be reduced". On 24 May 1771 Benjamin Franklin arrived from the Rectory of Thornhill, where he had stayed with the Rev. John Michell, vicar to Rockingham's kinsman, fellow leading politician and keen advocate of colonists' rights Sir George Savile. Rockingham wrote to Augustus Keppel on 3 November 1779, saying that he believed the war against America could not be won, that the government was corrupt but not unpopular, and that the longer this continued the greater the danger to the liberties and the constitution of Britain: "Perhaps a total change of men and measures, & system in the Government: of this country might have effect on the councils of some foreign countries...who might think that it was no longer a Court system to combat, but that the whole nation would unite & make the utmost efforts".

Rockingham was recruited to hunt down the Cragg Vale Coiners. He had thirty Coiners arrested by Christmas Day 1769.

Prime Minister: 1782
In 1782 he was appointed prime minister for a second time (with Charles James Fox and Lord Shelburne as Secretaries of State) and, upon taking office, pushed for an acknowledgement of the independence of the United States, initiating an end to British involvement in the American War of Independence.

Due to rising unemployment, in this second premiership, Rockingham's administration saw the passage of Gilbert's Act, the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, after 17 years of opposing Thomas Gilbert's ideas, this saw the creation of unions of civil parishes, later officially called unions under Gilbert's Act, to provide outdoor relief and set up workhouses.

Paul Langford has asserted that the Rockingham administration "represented a landmark in constitutional history. The ministerial changes of 1782 involved a more extensive upheaval among office-holders than any since 1714, virtually replacing one administration with another drawn from opposition".

Death
Rockingham's second term was short-lived, for Lord Rockingham died fourteen weeks later at the beginning of July from an influenza epidemic. He was replaced as prime minister by Lord Shelburne, who was more reluctant to accept the total independence of America and proposed a form of Dominion status, but by April 1783 he succeeded in securing peace with America and this feat remains his legacy.

Rockingham was buried in the Strafford family vault in York Minster in Yorkshire.

Legacy
Rockingham's estates, but not his marquessate, passed to his nephew William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam. Burke wrote to Fitzwilliam on 3 July 1782: "You are Lord Rockingham in every thing. ... I have no doubt that you will take it in good part, that his old friends, who were attached to him by every tie of affection, and of principle, and among others myself, should look to you, and should not think it an act of forwardness and intrusion to offer you their services". On 7 July 150 supporters of Rockingham met at Fitzwilliam's house and decided to withdraw support for Lord Shelburne's administration. The old Rockingham party fragmented, with Fox and the Duke of Portland leading a coalition of Whigs. The Whig party further split over the French Revolution, with Burke writing to Fitzwilliam on 4 January 1797: "As to our old friends, they are so many individuals, not a jot more separated from your Lordship, than they are from one another. There is no mutual affection, communication, or concert between them".

The Whig historian Thomas Babington Macaulay was an admirer of Rockingham and his Whig faction:

"They were men worthy to have charged by the side of Hampden at Chalgrove, or to have exchanged the last embrace with Russell on the scaffold in Lincoln's Inn Fields. They carried into politics the same high principles of virtue which regulated their private dealings, nor would they stoop to promote even the noblest and most salutary ends by means which honour and probity condemn. Such men were Lord John Cavendish, Sir George Savile, and others whom we hold in honour as the second founders of the Whig party, as the restorers of its pristine health and energy after half a century of degeneracy. The chief of this respectable band was the Marquess of Rockingham, a man of splendid fortune, excellent sense, and stainless character. He was indeed nervous to such a degree that, to the very close of his life, he never rose without great reluctance and embarrassment to address the House of Lords. But, though not a great orator, he had in a high degree some of the qualities of a statesman. He chose his friends well; and he had, in an extraordinary degree, the art of attaching them to him by ties of the most honourable kind. The cheerful fidelity with which they adhered to him through many years of almost hopeless opposition was less admirable than the disinterestedness and delicacy which they showed when he rose to power."

Places named after Lord Rockingham
Canada
 * Rockingham, Nova Scotia

United States
 * Rockingham County, New Hampshire
 * Rockingham County, North Carolina
 * Rockingham County, Virginia
 * Rockingham, Vermont
 * Rockingham, North Carolina
 * Wentworth, North Carolina

Titles

 * The Hon. Charles Watson-Wentworth (1730–1733)
 * Viscount Higham (1733–1746)
 * Earl of Malton (1746–1750)
 * The Rt. Hon. The Earl Malton (1750–1750)
 * The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham (1750–1751)
 * The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham, FRS (1751–1761)
 * The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham, KG, FRS (1761–1765)
 * The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham, KG, PC, FRS (1765–1782)


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Onion skinning

In 2D computer graphics, onion skinning is a technique used in creating animated cartoons and editing movies to see several frames at once. This way, the animator or editor can make decisions on how to create or change an image based on the previous image in the sequence.

In traditional animation, the individual frames of a movie were initially drawn on thin onionskin paper over a light source. The animators (mostly inbetweeners) would put the previous and next drawings exactly beneath the working drawing, so that they could draw the 'in between' to give a smooth motion.

In computer software, this effect is achieved by making frames translucent and projecting them on top of each other.

This effect can also be used to create motion blurs, as seen in The Matrix when characters dodge bullets.

title: Onion skinning


text:
Chaeronea

Chaeronea (English: or ; Χαιρώνεια, ) is a village and a former municipality in Boeotia, Greece, located about 35 kilometers east of Delphi. The settlement was formerly known as Kópraina (Κόπραινα), and renamed to Chairóneia (Χαιρώνεια) in 1916. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Livadeia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 111.445 km2, the community is 26.995 km2. Population 993 (2021). It is located near Mount Thourion in the Cephissus river valley, NW of Thebes.

Antiquity
First settled in the Prehistoric period at the site now known as Magoula Balomenou (Μαγούλα Μπαλωμένου), its older name was Arne, and it was originally on the shore of Lake Copais (later drained). Chaeronea was subject to Orchomenus which was, beginning in 600 BC, a member of the Boeotian League. In the late 5th century BC, Chaironeia belonged to one of the 11 Boeotian districts along with Acraephnium and Copia.

Chaeronea's importance lay in its strategic position near the head of the defile which presents the last serious obstacle to an invader in central Greece, and it was the site of several historical battles. The best known is that of 338 BC, between Philip II of Macedon and a coalition of various Greek states, mainly Thebes and Athens. According to Plutarch (but disputed by modern historians), during the battle the elite unit of Theban soldiers known as the Sacred Band of Thebes was wiped out completely. In 1818, the so-called Lion of Chaeronea, a nearly 20 ft tall funerary monument erected in honor of the Sacred Band, was rediscovered by English travellers. The fragmentary monument was reassembled and installed in 1902 by an organisation called the Order of Chaeronea atop a pedestal at the site of its discovery. The site of the Theban mass grave was excavated in 1879–80 by Panagiotis Stamatakis, and the prehistoric site of Magoula Balamenou 23 years later by the archaeologist George Soteriadis.

The ancient biographer and essayist Plutarch was born in Chaeronea, and several times refers to these and other facts about his native place in his writings. Plutarch refers to many graves of Amazons near the by the stream of Haemon, and assumes that these were casualties during the Amazon journey back home after the conclusion of the Attic War. In his Parallel Lives, he mentions the Greek prophet Peripoltas.

Middle Ages
Chaeronea remained inhabited throughout Antiquity, and despite being devastated during the 551 Malian Gulf earthquake, probably remained in existence during the following centuries as well, as it is consistently attested among the cities of the Theme of Hellas. Remains of a three-aisled early Christian basilica, dedicated to Saint Paraskevi, survive.

After the Fourth Crusade and the foundation of the Crusader Duchy of Athens, a castle was built in the town, on the site of the ancient acropolis. This was part of an extensive defensive network along the Cephissus valley built by the Frankish Crusaders, and residence of its lord. In Frankish times, the town became known as Kapraina (Κάπραινα, la Cabrena), a name first attested in 1381 and used until early modern times. The town came under Ottoman rule probably in 1460.

Transport
The settlement is served by Chaeronea railway station, with local stopping services to Athens and Leianokladi.

title: Chaeronea