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Paros

Paros (Πάρος; Venetian: Paro) is a Greek island in the central Aegean Sea. Part of the Cyclades island group, it lies to the west of Naxos, from which it is separated by a channel about 8 km wide. It lies approximately 150 km south-east of Piraeus. The Municipality of Paros includes numerous uninhabited offshore islets totaling 196.308 km2 of land. Its nearest neighbor is the municipality of Antiparos, which lies to its southwest. In ancient Greece, the city-state of Paros was located on the island.

Historically, Paros was known for its fine white marble, which gave rise to the term "Parian" to describe marble or china of similar qualities. Today, abandoned marble quarries and mines (with some still being in use) can be found on the island, but Paros is primarily known as a popular tourist spot.

Geography
Paros' geographic co-ordinates are 37° N. latitude, and 25° 10' E. longitude. The area is 165 km2. Its greatest length from N.E. to S.W. is 21 km, and its greatest breadth 16 km. The island is of a round, plump-pear shape, formed by a single mountain (724 m) sloping evenly down on all sides to a maritime plain, which is broadest on the north-east and south-west sides. The island is composed of marble, though gneiss and mica-schist are to be found in a few places. To the west of Paros lies its smaller sister island Antiparos. At its narrowest, the channel between the two islands is less than 2 km wide. A car-carrying shuttle-ferry operates all day (to and from Pounda, 5 km south of Parikia). In addition a dozen smaller islets surround Paros.

Paros has numerous beaches including Golden Beach (Chrissí Aktí) near Drios on the east coast, at Pounda, Logaras, Piso Livadi, Naousa Bay, Parikia and Agia Irini. The constant strong wind in the strait between Paros and Naxos makes it a favoured windsurfing location.

Islands

 * Gaiduronisi – north of Xifara
 * Portes Island – west of the town of Paros
 * Tigani Island – southwest of Paros
 * Drionisi – southeast of Paros

Antiquity

The story that Paros of Parrhasia colonized the island with Arcadians is an etymological fiction of the type that abounds in Greek legends. Ancient names of the island are said to have been Plateia (or Pactia), Demetrias, Strongyle (meaning round, due to the round shape of the island), Hyria, Hyleessa, Minoa and Cabarnis.

The island later received from Athens a colony of Ionians under whom it attained a high degree of prosperity. It sent out colonies to Thasos and Parium on the Hellespont. In the former colony, which was planned in the 15th or 18th Olympiad, the poet Archilochus, a native of Paros, is said to have taken part. As late as 385 BC the Parians, in conjunction with Dionysius of Syracuse, founded a colony on the Illyrian island of Pharos (Hvar).

Shortly before the Persian War, Paros seems to have been a dependency of Naxos. In the first Greco-Persian War (490 BC), Paros sided with the Persians and sent a trireme to Marathon to support them. In retaliation, the capital was besieged by an Athenian fleet under Miltiades, who demanded a fine of 100 talents. But the town offered a vigorous resistance, and the Athenians were obliged to sail away after a siege of 26 days, during which they had wasted the island. It was at a temple of Demeter Thesmophoros in Paros that Miltiades received the wound from which he died. By means of an inscription, Ludwig Ross was able to identify the site of the temple; it lies, as Herodotus suggests, on a low hill beyond the boundary of the town.

Paros also sided with shahanshah Xerxes I of Persia against Greece in the second Greco-Persian War (480–479 BC), but, after the battle of Artemisium, the Parian contingent remained inactive at Kythnos as they watched the progression of events. For their support of the Persians, the islanders were later punished by the Athenian war leader Themistocles, who exacted a heavy fine.

Under the Delian League, the Athenian-dominated naval confederacy (477–404 BC), Paros paid the highest tribute of the island members: 30 talents annually, according to the estimate of Olympiodorus (429 BC). This implies that Paros was one of the wealthiest islands in the Aegean. Little is known about the constitution of Paros, but inscriptions seem to show that it was modeled on the Athenian democracy, with a boule (senate) at the head of affairs. In 410 BC, Athenian general Theramenes discovered that Paros was governed by an oligarchy; he deposed the oligarchy and restored the democracy. Paros was included in the second Athenian confederacy (the Second Athenian League 378–355 BC). In c. 357 BC, along with Chios, it severed its connection with Athens.

From the inscription of Adule, it is understood that the Cyclades, which are presumed to include Paros, were subjected to the Ptolemies, the Hellenistic dynasty (305–30 BC) that ruled Egypt. Paros then became part of the Roman Empire and later of the Byzantine Empire, its Greek-speaking successor state.

Crusades
In 1204, the soldiers of the Fourth Crusade seized Constantinople and overthrew the Byzantine Empire. Although a residual Byzantine state known as the Empire of Nicaea survived the Crusader onslaught and eventually recovered Constantinople (1261), many of the original Byzantine territories, including Paros, were lost permanently to the crusading powers. Paros became subject to the Duchy of the Archipelago, a fiefdom made up of various Aegean islands ruled by a Venetian duke as nominal vassal of a succession of crusader states. In practice, however, the duchy was always a client state of the Republic of Venice.

Ottoman era and independence

In 1537, Paros was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under the Ottoman Empire until the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) in 1770–1775 Naoussa Bay was the home base for the Russian Archipelago Squadron of Count Alexey Orlov. Under the Treaty of Constantinople (1832), Paros became part of the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, the first time the Parians had been ruled by fellow Greeks for over six centuries. At this time, Paros became the home of a heroine of the nationalist movement, Manto Mavrogenous, who had both financed and fought in the war for independence. Her house, near Ekatontapiliani church, is today a historical monument.

On 26 September 2000 the ferry MS Express Samina collided with the Portes islets off the bay of Parikia, killing 82 of those on board.

Parikia
The capital, Parikia (Greek: παροικία), situated on a bay on the north-west side of the island, occupies the site of the ancient capital Paros. Parikía harbour is a major hub for Aegean islands ferries and catamarans, with several sailings each day for Piraeus, the port of Athens, Heraklion, the capital of Crete, and other islands such as Naxos, Ios, Mykonos, and Santorini.

In Parikia town, houses are built and decorated in the traditional Cycladic style, with flat roofs, whitewash walls and blue-painted doors and window frames and shutters. Shadowed by luxuriant vines, and surrounded by gardens of oranges and pomegranates, the houses give the town a picturesque aspect. Above the central stretch of the seafront road, are the remains of a medieval castle, built almost entirely of the marble remains of an ancient temple dedicated to Apollo. Similar traces of antiquity, in the shape of bas-reliefs, inscriptions, columns, and so on, are numerous. On a hillside in the southern outskirts of Parikia on the left of the Parikia – Alyki road are the remains of a temple dedicated to Asclepius. In addition, close to the modern harbour, the remains of an ancient cemetery are visible, having been discovered recently during non-archaeological excavations.

Back from the port, around 400 m left of Parikia's main square, is the town's principal church, the Panagia Ekatontapiliani, literally meaning "church of the hundred doors". Its oldest features almost certainly predate the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire in 391. It is said to have been founded by the mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (ruled 306–337), Saint Helen, during her pilgrimage to the Holy Land. There are two adjoining chapels, one of very early form, and also a baptistery with a cruciform font.

The Archaeological Museum of Paros is located in Parikia town,a small but interesting museum housing some of the many finds from sites in Paros. The best pieces, however, are in the Athens National Archaeological Museum. The Paros museum contains a fragment of the Parian Chronicle, a remarkable chronology of ancient Greece. Inscribed in marble, its entries give time elapsed between key events from the most distant past (1500 BC) down to 264 BC.

Other settlements

On the north side of the island is the bay of Naoussa (Naussa, formerly Agoussa or Ausa), which provides a natural spacious harbor for boat traffic. In ancient times it was closed by a chain or boom. In modern times it is experiencing great touristic development.

Another popular harbor is that of Drios on the south-east side, where the Turkish fleet used to anchor on its annual voyage through the Aegean during the period of Ottoman rule over Paros (1537–1832).

The three villages of Prodromos (formerly Dragoulas), Marmara, and Marpissa (formerly Tsipidos), situated on an open plain on the eastern side of the island, and rich in remains of antiquity, probably occupy the site of an ancient town. They are known together as the "villages of Kephalos" after the steep and lofty hill of Kephalos. On this hilltop stands the monastery of Agios Antonios (St. Anthony). Around it are the ruins of a medieval castle which belonged in the late Middle Ages to the Venetian noble family of the Venieri which fought a battle against the Turkish admiral Barbarossa in 1537.

Another settlement on the island Paros is Lefkes (Λεύκες). Lefkes is an inland mountain village 10 km away from Parikia. In the late 19th century, Lefkes was the center of the municipality of Iria which belonged to the Province of Naxos until 1912. The name of the municipality Iria was one of the ancient names of Paros. Lefkes was the capital of the municipality Iria which included the villages Angyria or Ageria, Aliki, Aneratzia, Vounia, Kamari, Campos, Langada, Maltes, and Marathi. Iria became Lefkes Community following the law enforcement DNZ/1912 "On Municipalities". At that time, the village managed to achieve great economic development. In the 1970s many residents moved to Athens due to urbanization. However, the last few years, tourism presented to be a new source of income for the locals that led to the reconstruction of homes and landscaping to make it appealing as a tourist destination. Lefkes became part of the municipality of Paros in the Kapodistrias local government reform. In the latest census (2011) the population numbered 545 inhabitants.

Marble quarries
Parian marble, which is white and translucent, with a coarse grain and a very beautiful texture, was the chief source of wealth for the island. The celebrated marble quarries lie on the northern side of the mountain anciently known as Marathi (afterwards Capresso), a little below a former convent of St Mina. The marble, which was exported from the 6th century BC onwards, was used by Praxiteles and other ancient Greek sculptors. It was obtained by means of subterranean quarries driven horizontally or at a descending angle into the rock. The marble thus quarried by lamplight was given the name of Lychnites, Lychneus (from lychnos, a lamp), or Lygdos. Several of these tunnels are still to be seen. At the entrance to one of them is a bas-relief dedicated to Pan and the nymphs. Several attempts to work the marble have been made in modern times, but it has not been exported in any great quantities. The major part of the remaining white marble is now state-owned and, like its Pentelic counterpart, is only used for archaeological restorations.

In December 1883 these quarries were visited by Theodore and Mabel Bent during their tour of the Cyclades.

Notable people

 * Ancient
 * Agoracritus (5th century BC), sculptor
 * Archilochus (c. 680 BC–c. 645 BC), lyric poet
 * Scopas (c. 395–350 BC), sculptor and architect
 * Theoctiste of Lesbos (9th century), hermit saint
 * Thrasymedes (4th century BC), sculptor
 * Thymaridas (c. 400 BC–350 BC), mathematician

 * Modern
 * Nurbanu Sultan (Cecilia Venier-Baffo) (1525–1583) mother of Ottoman Sultan Murad III
 * Vassilis Argyropoulos (1894–1953) actor
 * Nicholas Mavrogenes (1738–1790), prince of Wallachia
 * Athanasius Parios (1721/22–1813), theologian
 * Manto Mavrogenous (1796–1848), heroine in the Greek War of Independence
 * Joseph the Hesychast (1897-1959), monk
 * Augoustinos Kantiotes (1907-2010), bishop
 * Yiannis Parios (1946-), musician
 * Yiannis Ragousis (1965–), politician
 * Argyro Barbarigou (1967-), celebrity chef
 * Christos Perakis (1973-), entrepreneur, founder of Zoottle, former Apple country business manager of Greece and Cyprus
 * Stan (Stratos Antipariotis) (1987-), musician
 * Christos Arianoutsos (1993-), footballer

title: Paros


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Sex differences in medicine

Sex differences in medicine include sex-specific diseases or conditions which occur only in people of one sex due to underlying biological factors (for example, prostate cancer in males or uterine cancer in females); sex-related diseases, which are diseases that are more common to one sex (for example, breast cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus which occur predominantly in females); and diseases which occur at similar rates in males and females but manifest differently according to sex (for example, peripheral artery disease).

Sex differences should not be confused with gender differences. The US National Academy of Medicine recognizes sex differences as biological at the chromosomal and anatomical levels, whereas gender differences are based on self-representation and other factors including biology, environment and experience. That said, both biological and behavioural differences influence human health, and may do so differentially. Such factors can be inter-related and difficult to separate. Evidence-based approaches to sex and gender medicine try to examine the effects of both sex and gender as factors when dealing with medical conditions that may affect populations differently.

, over 10,000 articles had been published addressing sex and gender differences in clinical medicine and related literature. Sex and gender affect cardiovascular, pulmonary and autoimmune systems, gastroenterology, hepatology, nephrology, endocrinology, haematology, neurology, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics.

Sexually transmitted infections, which have a significant probability of transmission through sexual contact, can be contracted by either sex. Their occurrence may reflect economic and social as well as biological factors, leading to sex differences in the transmission, prevalence, and disease burden of STIs.

Historically, medical research has primarily been conducted using the male body as the basis for clinical studies. The findings of these studies have often been applied across the sexes, and healthcare providers have traditionally assumed a uniform approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to understand the importance of taking sex into account as evidence increases that the symptoms and responses to medical treatment may be very different between sexes.

Background
Females and males exhibit many differences in terms of risk of developing disease, receiving an accurate diagnosis, and responding to treatments. A patient's sex has been increasingly recognized as one of the most important modulators of clinical decision making. Sex differences have been found across a broad range of disease areas, including many diseases which are sex-specific. The sex chromosome complement and sex hormone environment are known to be the primary constitutive difference between females and males. The imbalance of gene expression between the X and Y chromosomes is present within virtually all cells in the human body. Sex hormones are crucial in body development and function and also thought to contribute to sex differences in some diseases. It is suspected that many differences between the sexes are also influenced by social, environmental, and psychological factors which are difficult to tease apart from biological ones.

Causes
Sex-related illnesses have various causes:
 * Genetic sex differences start at conception depending on whether an ovum fuses with a sperm cell carrying an X or a Y chromosome. This leads to sex-based differences at the molecular level for all male and female cells.
 * In males, the X chromosome carries only maternal imprints, while in females X chromosomes are present with both maternal and paternal imprints. In female cells, random processes of X-inactivation "turn off" the extra X chromosome. As a result, females, but not males, are mosaics. Female cells may express higher levels of some genes.
 * Sex differences at the chromosome and molecular level exist in all human cells, and persist life-long, independent of sex hormones in the body.
 * Sex-linked genetic conditions that differ in males and females may reflect the effects of genetic damage on an X chromosome. In some cases, the presence of an "extra" X chromosome in female cells may lessen the impact of such damage. In severe cases, males may die during development and females may survive but display a sex-linked illness.
 * The reproductive system develops differently for each sex. Sex-specific parts of the male and female reproductive systems affect the rest of the body and also can be affected differently by diseases.
 * Socially constructed norms relate to gender roles, relationships, positional power, and a wide variety of behaviours. Norms affect people differentially depending on their sex and gender.
 * Different levels of prevention, reporting, diagnosis, and treatment have been observed based on sex and gender.

Females
Examples of sex-related illnesses and disorders in human females:

 * 99% of breast cancer occurs in women.
 * Ovarian cancer, endometriosis and other diseases affect the female reproductive system.
 * Females are more likely to experience severe outcomes from viral respiratory tract infections during their reproductive years, compared to males of the same age. In response to treatment, females may develop greater immune responses but may also experience more adverse reactions than males.
 * Approximately four times more women have osteoporosis than men.
 * Autoimmune diseases, such as Sjögren's syndrome and scleroderma, are more prevalent in women. Roughly 70% of those living with autoimmune diseases are female. See Sex differences in autoimmunity.
 * While estimates vary widely, eating disorders are estimated to affect as high as 13% of women in some age groups   and 3% of men in Western cultures, with  anorexia nervosa affecting 10 women for each man and bulimia nervosa affecting 8 women for each man.
 * Alzheimer's disease has a higher incidence in females compared to males. There are also phenotypic differences, with females displaying more cognitive deficits. Females are also more likely to have neurofibrillary tangles present on autopsy.
 * Huntington's disease affects females and males differently. Females have faster disease progression, and display symptoms with fewer trinucleotide repeats.
 * About two times more women than men have unipolar clinical depression (although bipolar disorder appears to affect both sexes equally).
 * About three times more women than men are diagnosed with borderline or histrionic personality disorder.
 * Conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)/myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and idiopathic hypersomnia, which have unclear causes, are more common in women, with sex ratios ranging from 2:1 in IBS, fibromyalgia, and idiopathic hypersomnia to 4:1 in CFS, and 5:1 in POTS.
 * Most people with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) (75%) are female.
 * Ataxic cerebral palsy is more common in women and girls.
 * Turner Syndrome only occurs in females.

Males
Examples of sex-related illnesses and disorders in male humans:

 * Prostate cancer, testicular cancer and other diseases of the male reproductive system occur in males.
 * Diseases of X-linked recessive inheritance, such as colour blindness, occur more frequently in males, and haemophilia A and B occur almost exclusively in males.
 * The presence of a single X chromosome in males (rather than two in females) may explain why males are more susceptible to genetic diseases linked to the X chromosome,  including hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and Hunter syndrome.
 * Certain neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease (2:1 ratio) and Lewy body dementia (4:1 ratio)) are more prevalent in males. Parkinson's also displays phenotypic differences: males are more likely to present with sleep disturbances and deficits in verbal fluency and facial expression.
 * Abdominal aortic aneurysms are six times more common in males, and thus some countries have introduced screening for males at risk of developing the condition.
 * Autism is approximately four times more prevalent in males than females. Males also have distinct autism phenotypes compared to females, including a higher prevalence of restrictive and repetitive behaviors.
 * Males have increased risk of dyskinetic cerebral palsy and spastic diplegia, as well as lower limb deformities.
 * Schizophrenia is about 1.4 times as common in males, and on average starts two years earlier and has more severe symptoms.
 * More than two times more males than females are affected by antisocial personality disorder and substance use disorder.
 * Several cancers, including stomach cancer (2:1), oesophageal cancer (3:1), liver cancer (2:1 to 4:1) and oral cancer (2:1 to 3:1), which have mostly lifestyle-based risk factors, are more common in males.
 * Males are more likely to experience severe outcomes from viral respiratory tract infections than females, at younger and older ages.
 * Tuberculosis is more common in males.
 * In cases of preterm birth, being male is associated with higher mortality and morbidity in terms of respiratory distress, cardiovascular disorders (specifically hypotension), neurodevelopmental disorders, and immune disorders.
 * Although both males and females can have eating disorders, males are less likely to be diagnosed and receive treatment.
 * Klinefelter syndrome (karyotype XXY) is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy (occurring in ~152/100,000 births, only in males). It is often subclinical, but can cause infertility, tall stature, gynecomastia (enlargement of the breast tissue), limited facial and body hair, and small firm testicles.

Hypertension
Hypertension is a worldwide disease affecting the sexes. Women are less frequently affected by high blood pressure. Since blood pressure rises in women after menopause, this suggests that the cause of the sex-specific differences lies not only in possible external factors, such as lifestyle, but also in the sex hormones. It is likely due to sex hormones not external factors. One possible mechanism is the influence of the renin-angiotensin system (RAAS).

Angiotensinogen (liver) is converted into angiotensin I (Ang I) by renin (kidney). Ang I is converted to angiotensin II (Ang II) by the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). This binds to the Ang II type I receptor (A2T1), which causes vasoconstriction and water and sodium reabsorption in the kidneys, and in turn increases blood pressure.

Less well known is that Ang II can also bind to Ang II type II receptor (A2T2) or be converted by angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE II) into angiotensin III (Ang III), which binds to MAS receptors. Both A2T2 and MAS receptors trigger vasodilation. Animal experiments have shown that female ovariectomised mice treated chronically with testosterone have increased blood pressure (mean arterial pressure ~180mmHg) compared to female mice from the control group (~155mmHg). This difference was reduced by ACE inhibition (enalapril (250 mg/L)) in both groups to a similar level ( ~115mmHg). It can therefore be assumed that male androgens have an high increasing influence (up to 25mmHg in middle blood pressure) on angiotensinogen.

Autoimmune diseases (Sjögren's syndrome)
In autoimmune diseases, like Sjögren's syndrome (SS), the body produces hyperreactive autoantibodies against the salivary and lacrimal gland tissue. This results in symptoms like dry mouth and dry eyes.

The gender distribution in Sjögren's syndrome is heavily skewed towards women, with a ratio of 16:1 in the UK. Various reasons have been suggested, but the evidence is not strong. One common reason is the hormonal differences between women and men. In women, estrogen dominates, as does the hormone progesterone during pregnancy. Androgens (e.g. testosterone) are only present in small quantities. In men, testosterone, an androgen, dominates, and estrogen is only present to a small extent. Estrogen stimulates the immune system more than androgens. Accordingly, it stands to reason that an autoimmune reaction, which is based on a hyperreactive immune sensitivity to autoantigens, can manifest itself much more easily in women.

In Sjögren's syndrome, B cells and interferons are of particular importance. Generally, hormone receptors are expressed on immune cells (e.g., B cells), such as the estrogen receptor (ER-alpha/ß) or the androgen receptor. These receptors are steroid hormone receptors, i.e., they influence gene expression in the nucleus of the immune cells.

Pregnancy, including hormonal changes, appears to increase the risk of developing SS and also exacerbate the course of the disease if it is already present. During pregnancy, more hormones than just estrogen are secreted that also have an immune system-stimulating effect, such as prolactin. So, an overstimulated immune system seems to be the result.

On the other hand, estrogen protects glandular cells and prevents them from cell death. Menopause causes a decreased level of hormones like estrogen and thus reduces the protective effect on glandular cell health. Increased apoptosis (cell death) and inflammatory effects on damaged and aged cells are the result. As a result, there is an increased level of autoantibodies against the glandular cells. Estrogen is important, but only in the right amount. The study showed that the prevalence of women developing SS after menopause is quite higher than before menopause. This leads to the assumption that the protective effect of estrogen on glandular tissue is more important than the stimulation effect on B cells for the development of SS.

Another study investigated the hormonal influence on the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, including SS. Female mice had their ovaries removed to investigate the effect of missing estrogen on the pathogenesis of SS. In this study, low estrogen levels promoted apoptosis and the formation of apoptotic bodies and microparticles containing membrane antigens. These are recognized as pathogens via TLR (toll-like receptors) of the dendritic and B cells, which then secrete increased levels of INF alpha/ß and cytokines. These cytokines stimulate other immune cells (e.g., DC, T-cells), which can lead to autoreactivity and thus to an autoimmune reaction.

In men, the preliminary stage of testosterone, DHT (dihydrotestosterone), is synthesized from testosterone in one simple step. DHT has an anti-apoptotic effect on the glandular tissue. In women, DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) takes over this task. Synthesizing this product in women is much more complex and involves several steps that are difficult to ensure when estrogen levels are low (menopause, etc.). This might be another reason for increased apoptosis and the pathogenesis of SS in women compared to men.

Another key player in the pathogenesis of SS is INF1. It is stimulated by estrogen receptor interaction. INF1 ensures a higher level of autoantibodies and inflammatory cytokines. A study has shown that interferon type I and type II are more pronounced in women than in men. That might be a reason for the increased level of autoantibodies and prevalence of SS in women.

Androgens generally have stimulating effects on the production of the lipid layer in the tear film and oral mucosa. Androgens increase the level of integrins alpha1 and 2, which promote the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into acinar cells. In the absence of androgens, this differentiation and regulation are defective. In SS, the conversion of testosterone to DHT (in men) or DHEA (in women) in the lacrimal glands is defective. The enzymes are not functional. This means that the lipid layer, which is important for maintaining moisture in the mouth and on the eyes and providing protection against pathogens, is missing. This could be a leading reason for symptoms like dry mouth and dry eyes.

Another study investigated the effects of gene expression of the sex chromosomes. Normally, one X chromosome is inhibited in women (Barr body). However, not completely. Some of the genes of the inhibited X chromosome are still (single or double) expressed, including genes relevant to the immune system. This is supposed to ensure better immunity, among other things, but also results in a higher risk of autoimmunity.

The study has shown that the prevalence of SS in triple-X individuals is 2.9 times higher than in healthy women and 41 times higher than in healthy men, despite physiological hormone levels. This suggests an involvement of the double gene expression of the 2nd X chromosome in the pathogenesis of SS, which could also affect XX genotype women. An explanation how the double gene expression, which can also be normal, can be manifesting investigated another study.

Another study investigated the influence of a long non coding RNA protein, called XIST, which is a leading factor of the double X chromosome expression. XIST is only present in women where it is inactivating genes of the second “restoring” X chromosome. Dysfuncitonal XIST proteins seem to be a leading cause of higher prevalence of autoimmune diseases of women, so as in SS.

Furthermore, intestinal microbiome differences, elevated levels of certain miRNAs, and microchimerism during pregnancy are discussed and investigated as possible risk factors in the pathogenesis of SS.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sex differences in medicine


text:
Department of Internal Affairs

The Department of Internal Affairs (DIA) (Te Tari Taiwhenua) is the public service department of New Zealand charged with issuing passports; administering applications for citizenship and lottery grants; enforcing censorship and gambling laws; registering births, deaths, marriages and civil unions; supplying support services to ministers; and advising the government on a range of relevant policies and issues.

Other services provided by the department include a translation service, publication of the New Zealand Gazette (the official government newspaper), a flag hire service, management of VIP visits to New Zealand, running the Lake Taupō harbourmaster's office (under a special agreement with the local iwi) and the administration of offshore islands.

19th century
The Department of Internal Affairs traces its roots back to the Colonial Secretary's Office, which from the time New Zealand became a British colony, in 1840, was responsible for almost all central government duties. The department was the first government department to be established in New Zealand, and it became the home for a diverse range of government functions providing services to New Zealanders and advice to Ministers of the Crown. A former Minister of Internal Affairs, Michael Bassett, wrote a history of the department, The Mother of All Departments, the title of which reflects this status. The department's role has changed over time as new departments and ministries have been formed.

The Colonial Secretary was the chief aide of the governor of New Zealand. Until 1848 his office dealt with all correspondence between the governor and his employees, and between officials and the public. Other early functions included inspecting sheep, running prisons, supervising government printing, licensing auctioneers, registering births, deaths and marriages, collecting statistics, and responsibility for gambling, fire brigades, constitutional matters (including running elections) and citizenship. Some of these functions are still duties of the modern department, which gained its present name in 1907, but other functions eventually grew into standalone government agencies. As the department's functions have changed over time, there has become a growing acknowledgement that it carries responsibility for all government functions which are not substantial enough to justify a standalone organisation or do not fit well into any other existing departments.

From 1853 the Colonial Secretary's Office coordinated the relationship between central government and provincial government and, when the provinces were abolished in 1876, took on responsibility for the new system of local government.

20th century
Over the twentieth century the department's functions would include cultural affairs, civil defence, a translation service, conservation, tourism, sport and recreation, support for ethnic communities, and support services for government ministers. Several new government departments have been formed by establishing new agencies around former Internal Affairs services. The electoral office moved to the Department of Justice in 1950 before becoming an independent Electoral Commission in 2010. The Ministry of Industries and Commerce took over the statistics function in 1931; an independent Department of Statistics was created in 1957. The Department of Conservation was established in 1987 by merging the department's wildlife service with other smaller entities.

The National Library of New Zealand and Archives New Zealand were separated from the department in the late 1990s but merged back in 2011. A standalone Ministry of Cultural Affairs (now the Ministry for Culture and Heritage, which in the present day also has responsibility for the sport and recreation portfolio) was established in 1991. The department briefly held responsibility for tourism from 1998 until 2000, when this was combined with other former Ministry of Commerce functions in the new Ministry of Economic Development, now the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.

21st century
The National Emergency Management Agency, which had been a business unit within the department since before World War II, was transferred to the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet in 2009. The Office of Ethnic Communities, originally a single part-time position within the department, became the new Ministry for Ethnic Communities in 2021.

The department has also gained responsibilities that previously belonged to other agencies. In 2009 the department took responsibility for government technology services from the State Services Commission. The Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector was transferred to the department from the Ministry of Social Development in 2011.

In December 2021, Parliament passed the Births, Deaths, Marriages and Relationships Registration Act 2021 (BDMR). As a result of this bill, on June 15th 2023, the ability of people to change their sex on their birth certificate changed. Previously people were required to go through the Family Courts in order to do this, and provide information alongside their application with the Court that they had taken medical treatement that aligned with the sex they wished to change on their birth certificate. With the BDMR bill, the process moved under the Department of Internal Affairs. It now only requires a statutory declaration in front of a qualified individual, and either a photo ID or an identity referee declaration, which is then sent to the Registrar-General and given approval. Children 16-17 can also apply, with their guardians consent, or alternatively a letter from a third party. Those under 16 need a guardian or parent to apply on their behalf.

The Births, Deaths, Marriages and Relationship Registration Act 2021 also added the option of a 'non-binary' marker for birth certificates, so non-binary individuals do not have to identify themselves as male or female.

In mid-April 2024, the department experienced a backlog in processing New Zealand passport applications due to the installation of computer system upgrades in March 2024 and increased seasonal demand. Standard passport processing took eight weeks while urgent passport processing took three days. The number of passports processed dropped from 38,000 in February 2024 to half that number in March 2024. On 14 May 2024, the department apologised for delays in wait times for processing passport applications.

Structure
The head of the department holds concurrent roles as Chief Executive, Secretary for Internal Affairs, Secretary for Local Government and Government Chief Digital Officer.

Business groups
As at 7 July 2022:

 * Toi Hiranga – Regulation and Policy
 * Te Haumi – Enterprise Partnerships
 * Kāwai ki te Iwi – Service Delivery and Operations
 * Ue te Hīnatore – Local Government
 * Te Kōuti Whitiwhiti – Digital Public Service
 * He Pou Aronui – Organisational Capability and Services
 * Te Urungi – Organisational Strategy and Performance
 * Office of the Chief Executive

Related organisations
The department provides secretariat support for several entities including:

 * The Gambling Commission
 * The Local Government Commission
 * Commissions of Inquiry and ad hoc bodies such as the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Historic Abuse in State Care and in the Care of Faith-based Institutions
 * The Library and Information Advisory Commission, Ngā Kaiwhakamārama i ngā Kohikohinga Kōrero
 * The Public Lending Right Advisory Group
 * The Guardians Kaitiaki of the Alexander Turnbull Library
 * The Archives Council
 * The Film and Literature Board of Review
 * The Confidential Listening and Assistance Service

Ministers
The department serves 7 portfolios and 5 ministers. In addition, the department also has responsibilities to the Minister of Finance in relation to community trusts and to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in relation to the Peace and Disarmament Education Trust and the Pacific Development Conservation Trust.

title: Department of Internal Affairs


text:
Andros

Andros (Άνδρος, ) is the northernmost island of the Greek Cyclades archipelago, about 10 km southeast of Euboea, and about 3 km north of Tinos. It is nearly 40 km long, and its greatest breadth is 16 km. It is for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered valleys. The municipality, which includes the island Andros and several small, uninhabited islands, has an area of 380 km2. The largest towns are Andros (town), Gavrio, Batsi, and Ormos Korthiou.

Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, was built into a steep hillside, and the breakwater of its harbor can still be seen underwater. At the village of Apoikia, there is the notable spring of Sariza, where the water flows from a sculpted stone lion's head. Andros also offers hiking options with many new paths being added each year.

Strofilas
During the Final Neolithic, Andros had a fortified village on its west coast, which archaeologists have named Strofilas, after the plateau on which it was built. Final Neolithic in the Cycladic area is now dated around 4500–4000 BC. Strofilas was related to the "Attica-Kephala" culture, coinciding with the beginning of the Cycladic culture of the Bronze Age.

Strofilas is the largest organized settlement of the Neolithic Age of the Aegean in Cyclades islands. It was rather densely built, and stretches over 30 acres. The excavations were started in 1997 by a team of Greek archeologists headed by Christina Televantou.

The settlement was an important maritime centre and one of the earliest examples of fortification in Greece. Its fortifications feature a gate and bastions.

Strofilas is also notable for rock carvings on its walls, which include animals such as jackals, goats, deer, fish and dolphins, as well as a depiction of a flotilla of ships.

About 1km to the southeast along the coastline, also can be found the site of Zagora (Andros), another ancient settlement of a later Geometric period. The settlement dates back to the 10th-8th centuries BC. An impregnable wall, about 110 meters long, was constructed around it.

Antiquity

In ancient times, the island contained an Ionian population, perhaps with an admixture of Thracian ancestry. Though it has been proposed that Andros was originally dependent on Eretria, by the 7th century BC it had become sufficiently prosperous to send out several colonies, to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageira, Argilus, Sane). The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Dionysus. In 480 BC, it supplied ships to Xerxes and was subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian League, it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 477 had to be coerced by the establishment of a cleruchy on the island; nevertheless, in 411 Andros proclaimed its freedom, and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the second Delian League, it was again controlled by a garrison and an archon. In the Hellenistic period, Andros was contended for as a frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedon and Ptolemaic Egypt. In 333, it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308 it was freed by Ptolemy I of Egypt. In the Chremonidean War (266–263) it passed again to Macedon after a battle off its shores. The Ptolemaic empire was at its height, with a considerable fleet stationed at Andros.

In 200, it was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and remained a possession of the Attalid kingdom until its dissolution in 133 BC, when it was granted to Rome.

Middle Ages
During the long centuries of Byzantine rule, Andros was relatively obscure. First part of the Roman province of the Islands, it later became part of the theme (Byzantine district) of the Aegean Sea. Like other Aegean islands, it suffered Saracen raids, but during the Komnenian period the island flourished due to its silk production, exporting gossamer and velvet fabrics to Western Europe.

Andros was captured by the Fourth Crusade on its way to Constantinople in 1203. After the fall of Constantinople in 1204, the island was slated to come under control of the Republic of Venice according to the Partitio Romaniae; in 1207 it became part of the Duchy of the Archipelago under Marco I Sanudo, who in turn gave it to Marino Dandolo as a sub-fief. Probably sometime around 1239, Dandolo was expelled from the island by Geremia Ghisi, ruler of Skiathos, Skopelos, and Skyros. Dandolo died soon after and a case was brought before the Venetian courts against Ghisi by Dandolo's widow Felisa and his sister Maria Doro. Felisa was soon aided by the Venetian Jacopo Querini, who became her second husband. Although the Venetian court found in their favour in August 1243 and ordered the Ghisi brothers to give up Andros, this did not happen. The case dragged on until after Geremia's death, when Duke Angelo Sanudo took over the island. He eventually gave half of it, according to the feudal law current in Latin Greece, to Felisa. The case took on new life after Felisa died and no claimant made appearance. Duke Marco II Sanudo then reverted the entire island to the ducal domain, but just two days before the legal deadline of two years and two days had passed, Marino's grandson Nicholas Querini appeared in Naxos to claim his inheritance. The case was again brought before the courts of Venice, but Sanudo disputed the Republic's authority over his domain. The case was eventually settled through the mediation of Nicolò Giustinian, the Venetian bailo of Negroponte in 1291–93, whereby Querini renounced his claims in exchange for a cash payment of 5,000 pounds. Thus Andros remained in the hands of the Sanudo dukes, who henceforth styled themselves "Lords of the duchy of Naxos and Andros" and occasionally chose the castle of Andros as their residence. In 1292, Andros, along with other of the Cyclades, was raided by the Aragonese fleet under Roger de Lluria.

In December 1371, the island was granted as a fief to Maria Sanudo, half-sister of the last Sanudo duke, Nicholas III dalle Carceri. In 1383, Nicholas III was murdered and Francesco I Crispo became the new duke, giving Andros with Syros to his daughter and her husband, Pietro Zeno, the son of the Venetian bailo of Negroponte. Zeno was a very able diplomat, but even he found it difficult to manoeuvre among the various competing powers of the era. Unlike Syros, Paros, and other islands, which had been left destitute and almost depopulated by the Ottoman raids, Andros managed to escape relatively unscathed, but in return Zeno was forced to pay tribute and provide harbour and shelter for the Turkish ships. Nevertheless, in 1416, the island was raided and almost the entire population carried off by the Ottomans. At about the same time Albanians crossed from Euboea over into the island, settling in its northern part.

In 1431, when the Venetians ravaged the Genoese colony of Chios, the Genoese seized Andros and Naxos, both under Venetian protection, in retaliation, and only adroit diplomacy by the dukes of the Archipelago managed to prevent the islands' outright annexation by Genoa. In 1427, Pietro Zeno died, and was succeeded by his son Andrea, who was of poor health and only had a daughter. In 1437, Andrea too died, and the island was seized by Andrea's uncles, who aimed to wed Andrea's daughter to their son when she came of age, and thus legalize their control of Andros. Venice quickly reacted and took over the island, installing a governor there while her courts heard the cases of all the claimants. One of them was Maria Sanudo's son Crusino I Sommaripa, Lord of Paros and Triarch of Negroponte. Like his mother, he never abandoned his claims on the island, and eventually was vindicated by the Venetian courts. After compensating the Zeno family, he took possession of the island in 1440.

Andros suffered once again heavily from Turkish attacks during the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1463–1479. In 1468 four ships attacked the island, killing baron Giovanni Sommaripa and carrying off numerous prisoners and booty worth 15,000 ducats. Two years later the Ottomans raided the island again, carrying off so many of its population that the island was left with 2,000 inhabitants. Despite these disasters, the two Sommaripa possessions of Andros and Paros remained the most prosperous islands in the Cyclades in the period, and the Sommaripa rulers of Andros acted independently of their theoretical suzerain at Naxos, even to the point of claiming the title of duke for themselves. By the 1500s, however, the two Sommaripa branches of Andros and Paros were at war with each other, as a result of which many Andrians were carried off to Paros. In addition, the Andrians suffered from the cruelty of their own "duke", Francesco, to the point that they sent an embassy to Venice threatening to call in the Turks if nothing was done. The Venetians responded by removing Francesco to Venice in 1507, and installing a governor of their own for the next seven years.

In the event, Sommaripa rule was restored when Venice recognized Alberto Sommaripa as the rightful heir. The island was seized by the Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1537, but Crusino III Sommaripa managed to regain it through the intercession of the French ambassador, in exchange for an annual tribute of 35,000 akçes to the Ottoman governor at Negroponte.

Ottoman period
When the Ottomans annexed Naxos in 1566, at the behest of the local Greeks, the Andrians too decided to rise up against their ruler, Gianfrancesco Sommaripa. Although the latter managed to escape with his life, Andros too now came under Ottoman control. For the next thirteen years, the entirety of the former Duchy of the Archipelago was granted to the Sultan's favourite, Joseph Nasi, who ruled the islands via representatives and was mostly concerned with using them as a source of wealth. Upon Nasi's death, the Greeks of Andros and Naxos requested from the Sultan that the descendants of their old dynasties be restored as Turkish vassals, but in the end, the islands were directly annexed as a province; in 1580, however, the Cyclades were granted a charter of privileges that granted them considerable local autonomy, low taxes and religious freedom, a situation that remained throughout the period of Ottoman rule. In the early 1770s, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74, the island was occupied by the Russians and used as a base for their operations in the Aegean.

Modern period
On May 10, 1821, Theophilos Kairis, one of the leading Greek intellectuals, declared the island's participation in the Greek War of Independence by raising the Greek flag at the Church of St George. At this time, a famous heartfelt speech, or "ritoras" (ρήτορας), inspired shipowners and merchants to contribute funds to build a Greek Navy to combat the Ottomans. At the end of the war, the island became part of the independent Kingdom of Greece.

Following Independence, Andros became a major centre of Greek shipping. In this it was helped by the arrival of refugees from Psara, and the decline of other traditional shipping centres such as Galaxeidi and Hydra Island. Andrian merchants were particularly active in the grain trade from central and eastern Europe conducted from the Danube estuary. Initially locally constructed, Andrian ships were later built at Syros, especially as shipping began the transit to steam. By 1914, Andrian-registered shipping was second in Greece in terms of capacity. After World War I, the local registered ships rose from 25 (1921) to 80 before World War II. The losses suffered during the latter, as well as the internationalization of shipping and emigration of the ship-owning families to Piraeus and London, signalled the end of Andrian shipping.

Administration
Andros is a separate regional unit of the South Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional unit. As part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Andros was created out of part of the former Cyclades Prefecture. At the same reform, the current municipality Andros was created out of the 3 former municipalities:

 * Andros (town)
 * Korthio
 * Ydrousa

Province

The province of Andros (Επαρχία Άνδρου) was one of the provinces of the Cyclades Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current regional unit Andros. It was abolished in 2006.

Population
In 1900, Andros, the capital, had about 2,000 inhabitants, and the island as a whole had a population of about 18,000. The 1991 census showed that number had dropped to 8,781. According to the 2011 Greek census, the town of Andros still numbered 1,665 inhabitants, and the island's total was 9,221. The island is composed of the municipal units of Andros (town) (pop. 3,901), Korthio (pop. 1,948), and Ydrousa (pop. 3,372). The north of Andros has a small Arvanite community. The name of the island in Arvanitika is Ε̰νdρα, Ëndra.

Communities and settlements

 * Aladinon
 * Apoikia
 * Ammolochos
 * Andros (Chora)
 * Ano Aprovato
 * Ano Gavrio
 * Arnas
 * Batsi
 * Epano Fellos
 * Gavrio
 * Gides
 * Kalyvari
 * Kaparia
 * Katakilo
 * Kipri
 * Kochylos
 * Lamira
 * Livadia
 * Makrotantalo
 * Mermingies
 * Mesaria
 * Ormos Korthiou
 * Palaiokastro
 * Palaiopolis
 * Piso Meria
 * Pitrofos
 * Sineti
 * Stenies
 * Varidio
 * Vitalio
 * Vouni
 * Vourkoti
 * Ypsilou
 * Zaganiaris
 * Strapouries

Tourism
One notable beach in Andros is (Πήδημα της γριάς, Jump of the old woman). It is named after an old woman who, according to legend, betrayed a nearby town to Saracen pirates. She then jumped off a cliff to her death and was transformed into a distinctive vertical rock that is a striking feature of the beach.

Cinema

 * Girls in the Sun
 * Little England

Notable people

 * Amphis (4th century BC), comic poet
 * Matthew (fl.1746–1766), Patriarch of Alexandria
 * Theophilos Kairis (1784–1853), scholar, teacher, priest and revolutionary
 * Alexander Pantages (1875–1936), American vaudeville magnate
 * Demetrios I. Polemis (1932–2005), historian and writer, head of the foundation Kaïreios Library in Andros
 * Yiannis Tridimas (born 1945), established UK long-distance runner
 * Nikitas Kaklamanis (1946–present), doctor and politician, mayor of Athens

title: Andros


text:
Milos

Milos or Melos (Μήλος, ; Μῆλος) is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. Milos is the southwestern-most island in the Cyclades group.

The Venus de Milo (now in the Louvre), the Poseidon of Melos (now in the NAMA) and the Asclepius of Milos (now in the British Museum) were all found on the island, as was an archaic Apollo now in Athens. Milos is a popular tourist destination during the summer. The municipality of Milos also includes the uninhabited offshore islands of Antimilos and Akradies. The combined land area is 160.147 km² and at the 2021 census the population was 5,193 inhabitants.

History

Obsidian (a glass-like volcanic rock) from Milos was a commodity as early as 15,000 years ago. Natural glass from Milos was transported over long distances and used for razor-sharp "stone tools" well before farming began and later: "There is no early farming village in the Near East that doesn't get obsidian". The mining of obsidian did not lead to the development of permanent habitation or manufacturing on the island. Instead, those in search of obsidian arrived by boat, beaching it in a suitable cove and cutting pieces of the volcanic glass from the quarries.

The position of Milos, between mainland Greece and Crete, and its possession of obsidian, made it an important centre of early Aegean civilisation. Milos lost its arms-making importance when bronze became the preferred material for the manufacture of weapons.

The Bronze Age
The first settlement at Phylakopi (Greek Φυλακωπή) arose in the Bronze Age, flourishing as the extraction of obsidian was in the decline. The first settlers were tuna fishermen. Lying on the north-east coast, 1896 excavations by the British School at Athens and later in 1973 by the British archaeologist Colin Renfrew, revealed a town wall and a Minoan-inspired structure, dubbed the Pillar room, which contained fragments of vivid wall paintings. The famous fresco of the flying fish was found in the ruins of the Pillar room and was executed with delicate colouring and graphic observation of nature in the graceful movement of a fish. Stylistic similarities to Minoan frescoes are suggested, and it could perhaps have been the work of a Cretan artist. Part of the site has been washed away by the sea.

The antiquities found at the site covered three major periods, from the Early Cycladic period to the Mycenaean period. At the site much pottery was excavated, with several changing styles and influences over the site's long occupation. In the early occupation of the site, there are many similarities and imports from other Cycladic islands and the settlement was very small. During the Middle Bronze Age however, the site expanded significantly and the expansion of Minoan Crete saw an influx of Minoan pottery into the Cyclades, particularly at Akrotiri on Thera, though much found its way to Phylakopi. The quantities found at the Cycladic sites have been taken to suggest a Minoan control over the region, though it could also be the consumptive nature of the islanders adopting Cretan fashions. There is more than just pottery at Phylakopi however, the eruption of the Thera volcano saw a reduction in Minoan presence in the Cyclades and it is at this time that Mycenaean involvement on the islands increases. At Phylakopi (and unknown in the rest of the Cyclades) a megaron structure, which is typically associated with the Mycenaean palaces, such as those at Tiryns, Pylos and Mycenae has been discovered. This has been taken to suggest that the Mycenaeans conquered the settlement and installed a seat of power for a governor. The evidence is not clear, though again it could be a legacy of the islanders adopting foreign elements into their culture. Particularly unexpected was the discovery in the 1970s of a shrine at the site, which contained many examples of Aegean figurines, including the famous "Lady of Phylakopi". The shrine is unprecedented in the Bronze Age Cyclades and has provided a valuable insight into the beliefs and rituals of the inhabitants of Phylakopi. The site was eventually abandoned and was never reoccupied.

Dorian settlement
The first Dorian settlement on Melos was established no earlier than the 1st millennium BC. Dorians are the ethnic group to which the Spartans belonged, but the Dorian settlers of Melos made themselves independent. They eventually established a city whose site lies on the eastern shore of the bay, just south-west of the present-day community of Trypiti.

From the 6th century BC up to the siege of 416 BC, Melos issued its own coinage, struck according to the Milesian weight standard: the base coin was the stater which weighed just over 14 grams. Melos was the only island in the Aegean Sea to use this standard. Most coins bore the image of an apple, which is a pun because the ancient Greek word for "apple" (mêlon) sounded similar to the name of the island. The coins also often bore the name of its people: ΜΑΛΙΟΝ (Malion) or some abbreviation thereof.

By the 6th century BC, the Melians had also learned to write, and they used an archaic variant of the ancient Greek script that exhibited Cretan and Theraic influences. It was discarded after the siege of 416 BC. From at least as early as 470 BC and ending with the siege of 416 BC, the Melians exported terracotta reliefs, which were typically use as door or chest ornaments and depicted scenes from mythology.

During the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the Melians refused to submit to Persia and contributed two warships to the Greek war effort, which were used at the Battle of Salamis. After the battle, the Melians returned to their traditional isolationism.

Siege of 416 BC
During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, the Melians made some small donations to the Spartan war effort, but remained largely neutral despite sharing the Spartans' Dorian ethnicity. In 426 BC, the Athenians raided the Melian countryside, and the following year demanded tribute, but Melos refused. In the summer of 416 BC, Athens invaded again with 3,400 men, and demanded that Melos ally with them against Sparta, or be destroyed. The Melians rejected this, so the Athenian army laid siege to the city and eventually captured it in the winter. After the city's fall, the Athenians executed all the adult men, and sold the women and children into slavery. They then settled 500 of their own colonists on the island.

In 405 BC, with Athens losing the war, the Spartan general Lysander expelled the Athenian settlers from Melos and repatriated the survivors of the siege. Sparta annexed Melos, which would mean that like other liberated islands, it received a military governor (a harmost). The cultural distinctiveness of Melos faded away as it was absorbed into mainstream Greek culture. Their coinage switched to the Rhodian standard (tetradrachms weighing 15.3 g ) and ceased bearing the word ΜΑΛΙΟΝ. The production of its terracotta reliefs also ceased.

The Hellenistic period
In 338 BC, Philip II of Macedon defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeroneia and became the overlord of Greece and the Cyclades. During this time, Melos and the nearby island Kimolos disputed each other over the ownership of the islands of Polyaigos, Heterea, and Libea (the last two are probably today's uninhabited islands of Agios Efstathios and Agios Georgios). In the past, this dispute would have been settled by war, but the two communities took their dispute to Argos on the Greek mainland. The Argives decided the islands belonged to Kimolos.

The Roman and Byzantine period
In 197 BC, the Romans forced Philip V to withdraw from Greece, and Melos subsequently came under Roman influence.

During the early 9th century CE the Cyclades were harassed by Arab raiders, though how Milos fared at this time is unclear. Milos was mentioned in a Byzantine chrysobull of 1198, which shows it was still important to the Byzantines.

Medieval period
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade (1204), the Venetian Marco Sanudo seized control of Milos and a number of other islands in the Cyclades. Sanudo declared himself the Duke of Naxos, after the island where he established his capital. Sanudo did not make his duchy a vassal of Venice, but instead declared loyalty to the Latin Emperor. Sanudo's dynasty lasted nine generations, then was succeeded by the Crispos. Both families were Catholic. The majority of the population was (and still is) Greek Orthodox.

Up to this point, the population of Melos was overwhelmingly Greek Orthodox Christian, just like the rest of the archipelago. When the Venetians conquered the archipelago, they brought Catholicism with them. The first Catholic bishop of Milos was appointed in 1253.

Ottoman period
In 1566 the Venetians handed over the Duchy of Naxos to the Ottoman Empire, and its last Catholic duke fled to Venice. The Ottoman sultan Selim II appointed a Portuguese Jew named Joseph Nasi as its duke. Upon Nasi's death in 1579, the Ottomans formally annexed the territory.

In the early 18th century, the population surpassed 6,000 and was almost entirely Greek and Christian. It was ruled by Turkish judge or kadi, and a Turkish governor or voivode. The voivode was responsible for collecting taxes and enforcing the decisions of the kadi. The day-to-day affairs of the island were managed by three elected magistrates (epitropi), although any of their decisions could be appealed to the kadi. The island had two bishops: one Greek Orthodox and one Latin Catholic. The Greek bishop was wealthier than his Latin counterpart, as he had a larger revenue base. Although the islanders enjoyed a great degree of autonomy, they chafed under the heavy taxation of their Ottoman overlords.

In 1771 the island was occupied by the Russian Empire for three years, then retaken by the Ottomans.

In the late 18th century, the population declined considerably for uncertain reasons. By 1798, it had fallen below 500 people. Visitors reported that up to two thirds of the buildings had fallen into ruin. It began growing again in the early 19th century, reaching 5,000 people by 1821. Reliable figures are hard to find as the Ottoman Empire never performed a census before 1881.

Modern period
Milos was one of the first islands to join the Greek War of Independence of 1821. The first naval battle of the war took place off the coast of Milos on 11 April 1821. Milos became a refuge for refugees from numerous islands, particularly Crete. The port town of Adamantas was founded by Cretan refugees from the Cretan Revolt in 1841.

When Theodore Bent toured the island in December 1883, note-taking for his guide to the Cyclades, he found that “There is a lack of energy nowadays in Melos, for Syra monopolises all the trade that once came here, and the Cretan exiles refuse to cultivate as they ought the fertile centre of the island, for they are only awaiting a favourable turn in events to return to their own island…”

During the 19th century, Milos was a major rendezvous point for American and British ships fighting Muslim pirates in the Mediterranean.

In February 1943, 14 male civilians were executed for collecting material owned by the German occupation forces that was washed up after the sinking of a cargo ship by Allied aircraft.

The population peaked in 1928 at 6,562 people. In 2011 it was 4,977.

Geography
Milos is the southwestern-most island in the Cyclades, 120 km due east from the coast of Laconia. From east to west it measures about 23 km, from north to south 13 km, and its area is estimated at 151 km². The greater portion is rugged and hilly, culminating in Mount Profitis Elias 748 m in the west. Like the rest of the cluster, the island is of volcanic origin, with tuff, trachyte and obsidian among its ordinary rocks. Volcanic activity began 2 to 3 million years ago during the Pliocene, and last erupted 90,000 years ago during the Pleistocene, and is considered to still be a dormant volcano that could erupt again. The natural harbour is the hollow of the principal crater, which, with a depth diminishing from 70 to 30 fathoms (130–55 m), strikes in from the northwest so as to separate the island into two fairly equal portions (see photo), with an isthmus not more than 18 km broad. In one of the caves on the south coast, the heat from the volcano is still great, and on the eastern shore of the harbour, there are hot sulfurous springs.

Antimelos or Antimilos, 13 mi north-west of Milos, is an uninhabited mass of trachyte, often called Erimomilos (Desert Milos). Kimolos, or Argentiera, 1.6 km to the north-east, was famous in antiquity for its figs and fuller's earth, and contained a considerable city, the remains of which cover the cliff of St. Andrew's. Polyaigos (also called Polinos, Polybos or Polivo — alternative spelling Polyaegos) lies 2 km south-east of Kimolos. It was the subject of dispute between the Milians and Kimolians. It is now uninhabited.

The harbour town is Adamantas; from this there is an ascent to the plateau above the harbour, on which are situated Plaka, the chief town, and Kastro, rising on a hill above it, and other villages. The ancient town of Milos was nearer to the entrance of the harbour than Adamas, and occupied the slope between the village of Trypiti and the landing-place at Klima. Here is a theatre of Roman date and some remains of town walls and other buildings, one with a fine mosaic excavated by the British school at Athens in 1896. Numerous fine works of art have been found on this site, notably the Aphrodite in Paris, the Asclepius in London, and the Poseidon and the archaic Apollo in Athens. Other villages include Triovasalos, Peran Triovasalos, Pollonia and Zefyria (Kampos).

Climate
Milos has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with mild, rainy winters and warm to hot dry summers.

Volcanic minerals

Bentonite, perlite, pozzolana and small quantities of kaolin are actively collected via strip mine or open-pit mine techniques in Milos and sold all over the world. In the past, baryte, sulfur, millstones and gypsum were also mined; Pliny the Elder notes that Milos was the most abundant source of sulfur in the ancient world. In ancient times the alum of Milos was reckoned next to that of Egypt (Pliny xxxv. 15 [52]). The Melian earth was employed as a pigment by ancient artists. Milos was a source of obsidian during the Neolithic ages for the Aegean and Mediterranean.

Agricultural crops
Orange, olive, cypress, tamarisk, juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) and arbutus trees grow throughout the island, which, however, is too dry to have any profusion of vegetation. Vines, cotton, and barley are the main crops.

Medicinal plants
Almost all of the uninhabited western region of Milos is a Natura 2000 site and is home to over 800 different taxa, including 35 which are endemic to Greece. In an ethnobotanical survey of Milos, numerous native and cultivated species were described as being used to treat a variety of conditions and for other purposes such as insect repellents, disinfectants, and to protect against the evil eye. The most frequently reported species was Greek sage. Local historical records of medicinal plant use date back to the 16th century.

Sister island

 * 🇯🇵 Shōdoshima, Kagawa, Japan (1989)

Modern popularity
While a lesser-known island within the extremely popular Cyclades archipelago, Milos has grown in popularity as a vacation destination in the past several decades. With its traditional Greek architecture, slower pace compared to Santorini and Mykonos, and varied beaches.

Popular culture

 * The 2007 film To Fili Tis Zois was shot in Milos and specifically in Plaka and the port of Adamas. The name of the island is also referred to during the movie.

People

 * Antonio Millo (active 1557–1590), captain and cartographer
 * Antonio Vassilacchi (1556–1629), painter
 * Diagoras (5th century BC), philosopher
 * Melanippides (5th century BC), poet

title: Milos


text:
User talk:Ahkitj

Hi Ahkitj, welcome to Wikipedia! It's good to see another kiwi round the place - us Southern Hemisphere types have to stick together. Be warned, it is highly addictive. There are lots of resources around by way of help and guideline pages, but it can take a while before you find the one you want. Naming conventions and Manual of Style are handy, then there is Help and you can always ask at the Village pump. Don't be afraid of making the odd mistake, there are any number of others eagerly waiting for a chance to correct it! Need to know anything, just ask.

Cheers - Tannin 08:28 Feb 12, 2003 (UTC)

Here's this you might be interested in: Solomon Islands WiFi. Koyaanis Qatsi 23:17, 4 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Hi Jonathan-- Thanks for your note. Nice to hear from someone in New Zealand.Jose Ramos 09:37, 19 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Hey-- Thanks for your comment re East Timor. I perhaps could explain my reasons a little better: (1) The section in question was a short blurb (there is a separate, extensive Economy of East Timor article) and therefore should give only a brief summary of economics, not weird political commentary. (2) The "puppet state" claim I find absurd with respect to Texas, but at any rate it's certainly a POV. (3) If someone wanted to offer this claim (danger of being a puppet state, which I also find silly), it would require a lengthy discussion, which (by (1)) would be inappropriate here. Also, the proposed conspiracy theory is also out of place, also by dint of (1). VeryVerily 04:58, 5 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Niue
Thanks for your work on articles relating to Niue! I have a special interest in the island and its language. --pne 14:11, 3 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Maori
Greetings, JAK, fellow-Kiwi. I see we should integrate or better relate "my" Maori Television (the broadcaster) page with "your" Maori Television Service (originally the Govt entity) page. One day... Anyway, the reason I've been doing less for the English WP in the last 5 weeks is here: the fledgling Maori Wikipedia. I would be pleased if you had a look; it may inspire something! Kind regards - Robin Patterson 01:05, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

Territorial Authorities
Hi Johnathan, I see you've been adding the Territorial Authorities template to a number of articles on NZ regions and towns. I'm not that sure how appropriate that is, because surely that template should link to articles about the Authority (i.e. the council) in question, not about the region. For example, on the template I would say that the region link for Canterbury should link to Environment Canterbury (currently non-existent) not to Canterbury, New Zealand, and that the latter article should carry the template while the former should not.

dramatic 11:09, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Suburbia
Hi, sorry to be answering so late but I've just returned from a one-week off-line holiday. And unfortunately I have no idea where I got that image from. It happened in the old days before you were explicitly asked to provide information on the source, the copyright status etc. All the best to you,  21:40, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hi
Hey Jonny (or is it Johnny?), just found you on the list of Kiwi Wikipedians. How's it going? gracefool 01:29, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * P.S. I'm Chris Wood of HVHS! ··gracefool |☺ 04:34, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Category:Wikipedians in New Zealand
Hi, You might want to consider adding User NZ res to the top of your user page, which will add you to this category automatically and also add a nice graphic. Onco_p53 08:42, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Assuming good faith
Hi. I notice your edit summary for this edit, which seems to me to be rather sarcastic. Please assume good faith with respect to other's contributions: I saw an article which said "Pompallier Catholic College is a college located in the suburb of Maunu in Whangarei, New Zealand", with a request for that to be categorized. I don't think that putting it into Universities and colleges in New Zealand is entirely unreasonable. As you obviously know it's a school, can I ask why you didn't put it into Schools in New Zealand?

Hi. No intention to be sarcastic. I wasn't aware of that category, sorry. Had I known of it offhand, I would have moved it to that category.

I am of the impression that 'colleges' in 'universities and colleges' tends to refer to postsecondary colleges and similar tertiary institutions, and as virtually no secondary school I know in New Zealand still has a tertiary-level college attached (for example, the vocational college that was part of Wellington High School, which later became Wellington Polytechnic and is now the Wellington campus of Massey University), so I draw the distinction on that basis.

Please, I don't need a flame war, but I do appreciate some more constructive feedback if you'd like to provide it. I'm happy for you to restore my deletes if you still disagree. Cheers! --Jonathan Ah Kit 11:56, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

TUSC token 2c7e759c2e5a77167d7e963b4e6e201c
I am now proud owner of a TUSC account!

Proposed deletion of MSN (New Zealand)

The article MSN (New Zealand) has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * no content; "merge" with msn

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. mabdul 21:28, 25 January 2011 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
Hello there. This is an automated message to tell you about the gradual phasing out of the preference entitled "Mark all edits minor by default", which you currently have (or very recently had) enabled.

On 13 March 2011, this preference was hidden from the user preferences screen as part of efforts to prevent its accidental misuse (consensus discussion). This had the effect of locking users in to their existing preference, which, in your case, was. To complete the process, your preference will automatically be changed to  in the next few days. This does not require any intervention on your part and you will still be able to manually mark your edits as being minor in the usual way.

For established users such as yourself there is a workaround available involving custom JavaScript. With the script in place, you can continue with this functionality indefinitely (its use is governed by WP:MINOR). If you have any problems, feel free to drop me a note.

Thank you for your understanding and happy editing :) Editing on behalf of User:Jarry1250, LivingBot (talk) 19:47, 15 March 2011 (UTC)

Category:Territorial Authorities of New Zealand
Category:Territorial Authorities of New Zealand, which you created, has been nominated for discussion. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. -- Alan Liefting (talk) - 02:43, 11 February 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:52, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education moved to draftspace
An article you recently created, Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education, does not have enough sources and citations as written to remain published. It needs more citations from reliable, independent sources. (?) Information that can't be referenced should be removed (verifiability is of central importance on Wikipedia). I've moved your draft to draftspace (with a prefix of " " before the article title) where you can incubate the article with minimal disruption. When you feel the article meets Wikipedia's general notability guideline and thus is ready for mainspace, please follow the prompts on the Articles for Creation template atop the page. Steve Quinn (talk) 03:16, 13 September 2017 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Draft:Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education

A tag has been placed on Draft:Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done for the following reason:

"This page already exists as a redirect . I originally tagged that page for speedy but that was changed to a redirect. Probably the best option."

Under the criteria for speedy deletion, pages that meet certain criteria may be deleted at any time.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be removed without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the, or if you have already done so, you can place a request here. Steve Quinn (talk) 01:52, 14 September 2017 (UTC)

Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education moved to draftspace
An article you recently created, Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Education, does not have enough sources and citations as written to remain published. It needs more citations from reliable, independent sources. (?) Information that can't be referenced should be removed (verifiability is of central importance on Wikipedia). I've moved your draft to draftspace (with a prefix of " " before the article title) where you can incubate the article with minimal disruption. When you feel the article meets Wikipedia's general notability guideline and thus is ready for mainspace, please follow the prompts on the Articles for Creation template atop the page. Steve Quinn (talk) 23:18, 17 September 2017 (UTC)

Nomination of Faculty of Education of Victoria University of Wellington for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Faculty of Education of Victoria University of Wellington is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Faculty of Education of Victoria University of Wellington until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. GeoffreyT2000 (talk, contribs) 00:55, 21 September 2017 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of New Zealand College of Education

The article New Zealand College of Education has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Apparently fake of hoax educational institution. Not accredited, not in companies register, no independent sources. See also discussion at /Wikipedia:New_Zealand_Wikipedians%27_notice_board and the article talk page."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Stuartyeates (talk) 23:13, 1 October 2019 (UTC)

Nomination of New Zealand College of Education for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article New Zealand College of Education is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/New Zealand College of Education until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Stuartyeates (talk) 23:19, 1 October 2019 (UTC)

Invitation to an in-person meetup in Mohua / Golden Bay
Thinking about your summer break? Think about joining other Wikipedians and Wikimedians in Golden Bay / Mohua! Details are on the meetup page. There's heaps of interesting stuff to work on e.g. the oldest extant waka or New Zealand's oldest ongoing legal case. Or you may spend your time taking photos and then upload them.

Golden Bay is hard to get to and the airline flying into Tākaka uses small planes, so we are holding some seats from and to Wellington and we are offering attendees a $200 travel subsidy to help with costs.

Be in touch with Schwede66 if this event interests you and you'd like to discuss logistics.  Schwede 66  09:14, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ahkitj