text:
Talk:Sautéing

Consider removing the telegraph article as a source
To my layman's eyes the telegraph article, currently cited as source [7], obviously confuses extra virgin olive oil with refined olive oil.

Quoting the telegraph article:

[While discussing Avocado oil] "Produced in New Zealand and pressed from the fleshy pulp surrounding the avocado pip, this has a high enough smoke point (255°C) to be used like extra virgin olive oil. "

[While discussing cold pressed rapeseed oil] "While the French use rapeseed oil for dressings and dips only, Weijers argues it can be used in the same way as extra virgin olive oil. "Because it's got a high flash point, it's good for roasting potatoes, vegetables, and as a butter replacement in crumble mixes, Yorkshire puddings and mashed potato.""

Actually, I find the assertion that cold pressed rapeseed oil has a high flash point quite dubious. However, I do not actually know much about this, and would ask someone more knowledgable to chime in regarding this.

In conclusion, I suspect that the telegraph article is a bad source. For now, I have therefore taken the liberty to edit out extra virgin olive oil from the following sentence in the article:

"Olive oil should not be used to sauté due to its low smoke point.[5][6] Clarified butter, rapeseed oil, extra virgin olive oil and sunflower oil are commonly used for sautéing,[7] but most fats will do." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.206.205.74 (talk) 00:10, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

Moving Rapidly?
Quote: "To facilitate this, the ingredients are rapidly moved around in the pan,"

This article seems to be confusing saute with stir-fry. In saute, the food is allowed to brown, so it should not be moved around too much. Instead it should be allowed to move around only enough to even out the cooking. In stir-fry the food should not brown, hence it needs to be moved around constantly. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 14.140.69.164 (talk) 12:28, 14 November 2013 (UTC)

Sauté Pan vs. Frying Pan
I believe an entire section of this article confuses a frying pan with a Sauté pan and incorrectly labels a Sauté pan a "saucepan with shallow sides." The cookware manufacturers are not labeling their pans wrong, this article is wrong. A Sauté pan has a flat bottom and short, straight sides. A frying pan, also known as a skillet, has a flat bottom and shallow, sloping sides that facilitate tossing food in the pan. Mattvellom (talk) 23:54, 14 October 2008 (UTC)

You are correct, the article is wrong. Although these days some sauté pans do have flared sides like a frying pan, but are called a sautéuse (literally the female version). They're also sometimes called a chefs pan. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Surmanspeaks (talk • contribs) 01:27, 26 October 2008 (UTC)

In agreement with these comments, I was just coming here to say that the article linked to in this section, "cookware and bakeware," actually describes a saute pan as a "short-sided" sauce pan, which this article spuriously disavows. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.180.20.53 (talk) 03:35, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

I must add to the comments that this article has the incorrect information (and picture) about the description of a sauté pan. I cite below the definition of sauté pan according to Epicurean's food dictionary.

"sauté pan: A wide pan with straight or slightly curved sides that are generally a little higher than those of a frying pan. It has a long handle on one side; heavy sauté pans usually have a loop handle on the other side so the pan can be easily lifted. Sauté pans are most often made of stainless steel, enameled cast iron, aluminum, anodized aluminum or copper. As the name suggests, a sauté pan efficiently browns and cooks meats and a variety of other foods.

© Copyright Barron's Educational Services, Inc. 1995 based on THE FOOD LOVER'S COMPANION, 2nd edition, by Sharon Tyler Herbst."

In addition, I would like to suggest the photo accompanying the article shows two inaccuracies: The most glaring is that the pan is not a sauté pan, but a skillet (AKA frying pan); secondly, the vegetables are piled into the pan too high to correctly portray a sauté process. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.133.74.137 (talk) 02:23, 31 January 2009 (UTC)

I agree with the above definition and the article, a saute pan must have curved/flared sides, how the heck are you going to flip the food (to saute, aka "to jump" the food) with straight edges? (yes you could use a implement, but that feels more like Pan frying) That said they seem to cover both sauce and fry pan categories nicely in terms of potential usage; which is why we use them at my workplace (I'm a saucier professionally).Requen (talk) 11:14, 19 May 2009 (UTC)

 * Pictures being worth a thousand words, I just added one. And fixed up a lot of language. FiveRings (talk) 19:39, 22 May 2009 (UTC)
 * followup - I looked at Fanny Farmer, Escoffier, and the New and Original Joy of cooking. Fanny Farmer wasn't useful - no description. Escoffier notes how to prepare a chicken for saute (much larger pieces than I would have expected), and notes it should be finished with another heat source. He's mostly concerned about the sauce (as would be expected). JOC is pretty much consistent with the article as it is now. New JOC cribs shamelessly from Escoffier. The saute pan shape issue is clearly arising from restaurant technique (downjerk and flip) vs. home technique (spatula, or shake-on-the-hod). The former works better for things like medallions, the latter is a whole lot easier. Problem is, that's personal experience. So, until I can find a cite, not sure how to proceed. FiveRings (talk) 21:03, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

It's more than 2 years after this discussion seems to have ended, but for what it's worth: my cooking school, and the textbook they issue, define a "sauteuse" as "the basic saute pan with sloping sides and a single long handle". A "sautoir" is a saute pan with *straight* sides and a single long handle. Perhaps that's part of the confusion. We were taught that the sloping sides are for tossing and flipping, while the straight sides of the sautoir are more suited to cooking in liquid and/or reducing liquids, as the liquid being reduced might collect and cook onto the sloped sides of a sauteuse more than onto the straight side of a sautoir. (The textbook is "On Cooking", 5th ed., by Labensky, Hause, & Martel) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.111.17.151 (talk) 20:25, 10 October 2011 (UTC)

Two "E"s?
Is "sauteeing" with two "e"s an accepted spelling? Websters online (http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary) gives "sauteing" only.

153.9.35.74 18:35 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)
 * Saute (or sauté) would be a better article title, but Webster's III Unabridged does give sauteeing and not sauteing. Ortolan88

 * Thanks. I'll go with sauteeing then. All the other cooking technique article titles, though, seem to be in the gerund verbal noun (???ing) form (boiling, grilling, etc.), so I suppose this one should probably too. Arthur 21:22 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * I know I'm taking up an old one here, but as anonymous points out above, MW's 11th Collegiate only gives sautéing or sauteing, no double-e version. The OED also gives only sautéing.  Note however, that both give sautéed (with two e's) as the past participle.  Comparing with the only other comparable word I could think of—flambé—one finds the same treatment.  Moreover, popular use (as gaged by Google) backs the distinction up: sautéed beats sautéd, but sautéing beats sautéeing; flambéed beats flambéd, but flambéing beats flambéeing (with or without the accent on all accounts).

 * There appears to be some grammatical reasoning going on, and tho it doesn't really make sense to me, the consensus seems to be that the gerund takes one e, the past participle two. So I'm with anonymous guy and think this article should be changed to sautéing, perhaps with a note like "(also sautéeing, past tense sautéd or sautéed, and often without the accent)".  -- Severinus 05:01, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm gonna go ahead and make the move-- Iosef U T C  19:13, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

 * In the original French, sauté is masculine and sautée is feminine, depending on the corresponding noun or direct object. English speakers tend to use ée in most such words (settée), but not in sauté. The e in sautéed is not from ée but is part of the English suffix ed. Sluggoster (talk) 03:33, 16 May 2013 (UTC)

Technique of sauteeing
I thought that the classical french culinary technique of the sauté involves these stages:

1. Browning of vegetables and meat on high heat 2. Removal of vegetables and meat 3. Deglazing of pan with alcohol and/or stock 4. Adding the meats/vegetables and covering with a lid 5. Allowing the meats/vegetables to simmer on a medium to low heat

The technique of sauteeing is french in origin, and therefor one should refer to the french, classical technique. ---Qwerty qwerty 13:56, 1 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Interesting; I've never heard of such a technique being called a sauté. Do you have a cite for that? — Wwagner 14:23, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

I don't yet have a cite from the Internet, I will check my library though, and I will also get Larousse Gastronomique, which is the ultimate culinary reference book.

Contradiction
Food that is sautéed is usually cooked for a relatively short period of time over high heat in order to brown the food, while preserving its color it is browned, but doesn't change color? -Iopq 08:45, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Hmmm. Does the sauté preserve texture, instead of color?  That would make sense to me, but then I don't have any fancy book-learning about cooking. :) — Wwagner 13:53, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

Nonsense
This article is contradictory and is generally nonsense. Sauteing is not the same as pan frying. You only have to look at the etymology to realize this; if you are not making your food jump, you are not sauteing. Half of the article acknowledges this (recommending a pan with sloped sides, talking about tossing technique, etc.) and half of the article contradicts this (recommending a pan with straight sides, recommending letting food sit and then turning it with utensils, etc.). None of it has references. --71.235.102.239 02:19, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

 * There's another complication in that it's also an (old) name for making chips (Br)/ fries (US), qv the first definition in the Shorter OED :

Of meat, vegetables etc.:Fried in a pan with a little butter over a quick fire, while being tossed from time to time; (of potatoes) cut into finger-shaped pieces and fried in deep fat; 'chipped' 1869. Now back in the real world this Briton would always regard sautéed potatoes as being shallow fried, and either ~1cm cubes or at least quartered (but never sliced), but it's probably worth mentioning this definition somehow. And it could do with more on the potato angle in general. Plus references of course.... FlagSteward 01:23, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Other languages
The links to other languages seem to be missing on this page, but they are present in the source of the page. I couldn't discover why, though. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.250.234.174 (talk) 12:49, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Original research?
Why on earth is there a template warning against original research and unverified claims? This is a cooking article for goodness' sake, not biochemical engineering. Denihilonihil (talk) 12:35, 27 October 2008 (UTC)

Because cooking deserves the same quality of articles as biochemical engineering. The contradictions noted above describe explicitly why references are needed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.234.229.126 (talk) 21:30, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

I totally agree with Denihilonihil. In cookery written references may not be available. Most work is based on practice and should be accepted in good faith. Again the opinions given here are not final say as the opinions can vary as per the cook. Only a cook can understand what I write here and not a hard boiled theorist editor who has never done cooking. Work based on practice may be dubbed as original research and removed. That will only reduce usefulness of this wikipedia to students of this subject. Not all rules led down in wiki rule book are applicable everywhere. Pathare Prabhu (talk) 12:38, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

Etymology section
The Etymology section starts with etymology, but then somehow morphs into a kind of how-to section. And, the information there is unsourced and seems questionable such as "True Sauté can be performed without even moving the pan at all." I don't know the true answer; my culinary school textbook ("On Cooking", by Labensky, Hause, and Martel) does not mention any movement of the pan in the glossary definition, but in a specific recipe for sautéing vegetables, it does instruct to "toss the vegetables using the sloped sides of the saute pan or wok". Also, our chef-instructor definitely described the tossing motion as integral to saute technique. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.111.17.151 (talk) 20:18, 10 October 2011 (UTC)

Stir Fry
Having read the articles on Sauté and on Stir Fry, I'm left none the wiser on how they differ. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.73.145.84 (talk) 10:38, 2 December 2011 (UTC)

temperature
"...to about 250°C (482°F) or higher."

Tin melts at 450F - saute is done BELOW 450F.

Many, many copper cooking pans are tin lined, including my saute pan. Cooking, including saute, at 482F would result in molten tin in the food.

350-375F is sufficient to "BROWN", 482F or more would be used to "SEAR" (not in tin lined).

We are cautioned to be careful of the temperature with tin lined cookware on the fire, under the broiler or in the oven.

For reference refer to the physical characteristics of tin (Sn) in any reference book or Wikipedia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.20.4.19 (talk) 02:08, 9 April 2012 (UTC)

poêlé sauteing variation
According to a side bar in ''Food Wars! Volume 2'', poêlé is a French cooking technique that is a sauteing variation. I don't have a secondary source - but I hope that someone else does.Penelope Gordon (talk) 00:35, 15 December 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sautéing


text:
Talk:Hand of Omega

I've linked non-ambiguous Doctor Who terms as Doctor Who: xxx. Let me know if there is a better way of doing this.

 * My understanding is that in the case of non-ambiguous terms, one is supposed to leave the title alone. It's not as if there's any non-Doctor Who Daleks, for instance.
 * --Paul A 03:44 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * the Daleks were in that Looney Tunes: Back in Action movie... but what I really wanted to say: there are other mentions of the Hand of Omega somewhere, aren't there? Isn't there some mention in The Infinity Doctors? --Travlr23 10:47, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * None that have a central role, afaik. --khaosworks 12:50, Apr 30, 2005 (UTC)

Merger Proposal
I propose to merge Hand of Omega into Remembrance of the Daleks and re-direct his page to the relevant section of that article. This article is entirely related to a plot-device mentioned in that episode and no-where else, and with no notability separate to it. As such this is duplication. FOARP (talk) 15:56, 14 November 2019 (UTC)
 * No response so redirecting as a WP:bold merger. FOARP (talk) 12:36, 26 November 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Hand of Omega


text:
Talk:Skaro

Non-ambiguous terms
I've linked non-ambiguous Doctor Who terms as Doctor Who: xxx. Let me know if there is a better way of doing this. Chrishorrocks 18:38 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * My understanding is that in the case of non-ambiguous terms, one is supposed to leave the title alone. It's not as if there's any non-Doctor Who Daleks, for instance.
 * --Paul A 03:54 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

Retcon (Davros et al)
Someone with more time than me (and more knowledge of pre-Genesis Dalek history) should write up an explanation of how the Dalek origin story and the history of Skaro changed over time. And one should not forget that Daleks were originally stated to run on static electricity (quite a feat of electrical engineering).Gwimpey 07:13, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually, I think a mention that the continuity has changed is enough, and what you added in the main Doctor Who entry explains it in a less anal retentive way than any minute recounting of continuity errors would. It's a slippery slope towards anorak-dom, as far as I'm concerned - where do you draw the line? An essay on how the Daleks have mucked up their timeline so much it's collapsed on itself? Better to simply point to an external article of one exists, if at all. --khaosworks 14:44, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * You say that like there's something wrong with anoraks. :) I think it's quite reasonable, and indeed probably the NPOV thing to do, to discuss things about the Daleks that were true in old episodes but which have been retconned away. Trying to come up with speculative "in-show" reasons for these changes edges on original research, though, unless we're reporting "theories that are widespread among the fan community." Bryan 15:28, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * (Puts on his anorak) :-) ... Okay, I wrote up some details tracing the development of the Dalek backstory over the course of all the serials in the main Dalek entry. Check it out and tell me what you think. --khaosworks 18:02, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Great work. I consider myself a Whovian, but my knowledge of the early era of Doctor Who (first two Doctors) is tragically sparse. This fills in nicely. :) Bryan 15:21, 10 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Time War.JPG
The image Image:Time War.JPG is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --13:56, 2 November 2008 (UTC)

War of the Daleks
From what I gather, the general reaction to War of the Daleks was very mixed, with much of the negative critcism focusing on the revelation that Skaro was not destroyed. The website http://www.whoniverse.org/ proposed a theory that the Dalek Prime, who revealed the plot to save Skaro in War of the Daleks, was lying. Should we include a note in the article that, in addition to War's questionable canonicity, it is also uncertain as to whether the Dalek Prime was telling the truth? I realise this may count as original research (is the Whoniverse website a reliable source for speculation? (is there such a thing?)), but seeing as War of the Daleks seems to be so controversial, it would let people who like to count the novels as canon know that in the novel, the reader has to take the Dalek Prime's word for it. Granted, there is the issue that a part of the novel is set on Skaro, and a group of Thals who think that Skaro has survived also appear. I'm just making a suggestion, but it may be too crufty. Thoughts?--Codenamecuckoo (talk) 23:06, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Possible vandalism
Editors knowledgeable in this subject may want to check this edit, which was done by an IP address from which all other edits in the last 12 months were just vandalism. — Sebastian 23:13, 4 March 2013 (UTC)

Potential edit war?
Is there something grammatically wrong with this use of commas I'm missing even though they're hardly the only part of the page which has this sentence pattern? An anon user has changed these sections:

 * In The Daleks, two sentient, humanoid species are described as having existed on Skaro; the Dals, teachers and philosophers, and the Thals, a race of warriors.
 * For Genesis of the Daleks, exterior scenes supposedly taking place on Skaro were shot at Betchworth Quarry, Surrey

to these twice now in the last 24 hours. TardisTybort (talk) 07:39, 14 April 2015 (UTC)

 * In The Daleks two sentient, humanoid species are described as having existed on Skaro; the Dals, teachers and philosophers, and the Thals, a race of warriors.
 * For Genesis of the Daleks exterior scenes supposedly taking place on Skaro were shot at Betchworth Quarry, Surrey

 * These commas appear to be redundant. What rules of grammar and punctuation are you attempting to meet by inserting them at these points in the text? If the placement is only a stylistic preference, then adopting WP:RETAIN should be considered. A little more care with the use of citations might also be beneficial. Changing a citation name, breaking subsequent short-form references to it in the article and then correcting this by removing the short-form and replacing it with a ' citation needed ' tag as you did is perverse and hardly constitutes an improvement. It just makes work fixing something which wasn't broken in the first place. Oh, and if you could avoid the drama-queen approach to framing your queries it would be appreciated. 'Potential edit war'; seriously? Over two commas? So you really see this as an issue worth going to the mat over. Strewth, anybody would think you had never been reverted before. 86.160.234.6 (talk) 17:34, 14 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Except doing this has raised inconsistencies in the article, regardless of how I'm not sure if I've even heard of the version without a comma because of how badly it seems to make sentences flow. If the entire article had the pattern "In/for [such and such] this happens", rather than "In/for such and such, this happens", I'd get what you mean. However, numerous points on this page uses the first style, including the lead and the geography, flora and fictional history sections. TardisTybort (talk) 18:00, 14 April 2015 (UTC)
 * If I'm not misinterpreting the "When an English variety's consistent usage has been established in an article" bit on WP:RETAIN, then the usage of English with the comma seems to be settling into use as early as 2004. TardisTybort (talk) 18:17, 14 April 2015 (UTC)

Because there are currently other versions of comma usage in the article doesn't mean that they are necessarily correct, of course, and the period they have remained unaltered shouldn't prevent change if it's required. You make a good point about consistency, however. Maybe the examples to which you refer require revision/removal as well? I will take look when I get a minute. I would still return to the key question; even if, in your opinion, comma absence seems to adversely affect sentence flow, what rules of grammar and punctuation are you attempting to meet by inserting them at these points in the text? 86.160.234.6 (talk) 06:22, 17 April 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Bowdenford (talk) 08:58, 2 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Skaro


text:
Spring Hill Cemetery (Nashville, Tennessee)

Spring Hill Cemetery is a cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee located at 5110 Gallatin Pike South in the neighborhood of Madison. It holds over 40,000 graves.

Prior to the establishment of the cemetery, the Davidson Academy (a precursor to the University of Nashville) was located in a stone house at this location.

In addition to two British Royal Air Force veterans of World War II, circus performer Ella Harper, US Congressman Richard Merrill Atkinson, animator Suzan Pitt, and MLB player Red Lucas, the cemetery is the final resting place for numerous notable music performers including the following:

 * Roy Acuff: singer, songwriter, music publisher

 * Floyd Cramer: piano legend

 * Pete Drake: steel guitar player
 * Howard "Howdy" Forrester: fiddle player
 * John Hartford: singer, fiddler
 * Bobby Hebb: soul singer, songwriter, musician, recording artist, performer
 * Jan Howard: singer and songwriter

 * Jimmy Martin: bluegrass singer
 * George Morgan: singer
 * Speck Rhodes: country music comedian and entertainer
 * Earl Scruggs: bluegrass musician
 * Hank Snow: singer
 * Billy Marvin Walker: singer
 * Kitty Wells: singer
 * Keith Whitley: singer
 * Beth Slater Whitson: songwriter
 * Johnnie Wright: singer and songwriter


text:
Lady Jane (1986 film)

Lady Jane is a 1986 British costume-historical drama romance film, directed by Trevor Nunn, written by David Edgar, and starring Helena Bonham Carter as the title character. It tells the story of Lady Jane Grey, her marriage to Lord Guildford Dudley, and her reign as the "Nine Days' Queen" following the death of Edward VI of England.

The story had previously been turned into a 1936 film, Tudor Rose, and a 1923 silent film, Lady Jane Grey; Or, The Court of Intrigue.

Plot
The death of Henry VIII of England throws his kingdom into chaos as his successor, Edward VI of England, is both under-age and in poor health. Anticipating the young king's imminent death from tuberculosis and anxious to keep England true to the Protestant Reformation by keeping the Catholic Princess Mary from the throne, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, Lord President of the Council and second only to the king in power, hatches a plan to marry his second son, Lord Guildford, to Lady Jane Grey, and have the royal physician keep the young king Edward VI alive—albeit in excruciating pain—long enough to get him to name Jane his heir.

Jane is unhappy with the proposed marriage, and is forced into it through corporal punishment by her parents. At first, Jane and Guildford treat their union as a marriage of convenience, but later fall deeply in love.

After King Edward VI dies, Jane is placed on the throne. She is troubled by the questionable legality of her accession, but after consulting with Guildford, turns the tables on John Dudley and the others who thought to use her as a puppet.

After only nine days, however, Queen Jane's council abandon her because of her designs for reforming the country. The council then supports Mary, who at first imprisons Jane and Guildford.

Consumed with guilt, Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, raises a rebellion to restore her to the throne, presumably in concert with Thomas Wyatt's rebellion. When the rebellion fails, Queen Mary I offers to spare Jane's life if she renounces her Protestant faith. When she refuses, Jane, her father and Guildford are executed.

Cast

 * Helena Bonham Carter as Lady Jane Grey
 * Cary Elwes as Lord Guildford Dudley, Jane's husband
 * Jane Lapotaire as Queen Mary I of England
 * Patrick Stewart as Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, Jane's father
 * Sara Kestelman as Lady Frances Brandon, Jane's mother
 * Michael Hordern as Doctor Feckenham
 * John Wood as John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland
 * Jill Bennett as Mrs. Ellen, Lady-in-Waiting
 * Joss Ackland as Sir John Bridges
 * Ian Hogg as Sir John Gates
 * Richard Johnson as the Earl of Arundel
 * Warren Saire as King Edward VI of England
 * Lee Montague as Renard, Spanish Ambassador
 * Richard Vernon as The Marquess of Winchester
 * Adele Anderson as Lady Warwick
 * Pip Torrens as Thomas
 * Matthew Guinness as Doctor Owen
 * Guy Henry as Lord Robert Dudley
 * W. Morgan Sheppard as Executioner

Locations
Dover Castle was used to represent the Tower of London in the film. Interior scenes of Hever Castle in Kent were used. The Long Gallery was used in the scene where Jane visits Queen Mary. The moat around Leeds Castle, also in Kent, was used in the scene where Dudley first visits Lady Jane. Several scenes were filmed at Haddon Hall in Derbyshire. The castle and moat of Herstmonceux Castle in East Sussex was also used, when the Royal Greenwich Observatory was located there.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 56% based on reviews from 9 critics.

title: Lady Jane (1986 film)


text:
List of Surrealist poets

This is a list of Surrealist poets, known for writing material within the Surrealist cultural movement that began in the early 1920s.

Surrealist poets

 * Will Alexander (born 1948) - American Surrealist poet, novelist, essayist, playwright
 * Louis Aragon (1897–1982) - French poet who co-founded the surrealist review Littérature
 * Braulio Arenas (1913–1988) - Chilean poet and writer, founder of the surrealist Mandrágora group
 * Antonin Artaud (1896–1948) - French poet, essayist, and dramatist who created the "Theatre of Cruelty"
 * André Breton (1896–1966) - French poet and writer known as the leader and principal theorist of surrealism
 * Jorge Cáceres (1923–1949) - Chilean poet and artist, a member of La Mandrágora, a Chilean Surrealist group
 * Jibanananda Das (1899–1954) - Indian poet, writer, novelist and essayist in the Bengali language
 * Aimé Césaire (1913–2008) - French and Martinican Surrealist poet and a founder of the Negritude movement
 * Andrei Codrescu (born 1946) - Romanian-American poet, novelist, screenwriter, NPR commentator
 * Garrett Caples (born 1972) - American poet and former music and arts journalist
 * Teofilo Cid (1914–1964) - Chilean poet, member of La Mandrágora surrealist group
 * René Crevel (1900–1935) - French writer
 * René Daumal (1908–1944) - French spiritual para-surrealist writer and poet
 * Robert Desnos (1900–1945) - French poet and member of the French resistance against the Nazis
 * Paul Éluard (1895–1952) - French poet
 * Andreas Embirikos (1901–1975) - Greek poet and psychoanalyst
 * Nikos Engonopoulos (1907–1985) - Greek poet and painter
 * David Gascoyne (1916–2001) - English poet and translator
 * Enrique Gómez Correa (1915–1995) - Chilean poet, lawyer and diplomat
 * Janet Hamill (born 1945) - American poet and novelist
 * Helen Ivory (born 1969) - English poet, artist and editor
 * Andrew Joron – American poet, three-time winner of the Rhysling Award
 * George Kalamaras - American poet and professor, former poet laureate of Indiana
 * Noelle Kocot (born 1969) - American poet
 * Philip Lamantia (1927–2005) - American poet and educator
 * Michel Leiris (1901–1990) - French writer
 * Joyce Mansour (1928–1986) - Egyptian-French author and poet
 * Ciaran O'Driscoll (born 1943) - Irish surrealist poet
 * John Olson (born 1947) - American Surrealist poet and novelist
 * Valentine Penrose (1898–1978) - French surrealist poet, author, and collagist
 * Benjamin Péret (1899–1959) - French poet and a founder of the French Surrealist movement
 * Gisèle Prassinos (1920–2015) - French writer
 * Franklin Rosemont (1943–2009) - American poet, artist, historian, street speaker, and co-founder of the Chicago Surrealist Group
 * Penelope Rosemont (born 1942) - American visual artists, writer, publisher, and social activist
 * Stuart Ross (born 1959) - Canadian surrealist poet and publisher
 * Tomaž Šalamun (1941–2014) - Slovenian surrealist poet
 * Philippe Soupault (1897–1990) - French writer and poet, novelist, critic, and political activist
 * James Tate (1943–2015) - American Surrealist poet and Pulitzer Prize winner
 * Tristan Tzara (1896–1963) - Romanian French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist
 * César Vallejo (1892–1938) - Peruvian poet, writer, playwright, and journalist
 * Ocean Vuong (born 1988) - Vietnamese-American poet, novelist, and educator
 * John Yau (born 1950) - American poet and critic
 * Dean Young (1955–2022) - American poet and poet-laureate for Texas in 2014

title: List of Surrealist poets


text: Talk:List of islands of Sweden

title: Talk:List of islands of Sweden


text:
Gummo Marx

Milton "Gummo" Marx (October 23, 1892 – April 21, 1977) was an American vaudevillian performer, actor, comedian, and theatrical agent. He was the second youngest of the five Marx Brothers. Born in Manhattan, he worked with his brothers on the vaudeville circuit, leaving the act when he was drafted into the US Army in 1918 during World War I and replaced by his brother Zeppo. He had no taste for the theatre and became a successful businessman.

Early life
Marx was born in Manhattan, New York City, on October 23, 1892. His parents were Sam Marx (called "Frenchie" throughout his life), and Minnie Schoenberg Marx. Marx's family was Jewish. His mother was from Dornum in East Frisia, and his father was a native of Alsace and worked as a tailor.

Career
Gummo was the first of his brothers to make his debut on stage, pretending to be a dummy in an act with his uncle Henry Shean (né Heinemann Schoenberg), the brother of Al Shean, in 1899. Milton was put into a costume with a papier-mâché head and pretended to be a dummy while Henry pretended to work him. The act may have only been performed once and was not helped by Shean's deafness or Milton's stammer.

Gummo, who in an interview said he never liked being on stage, left the group and joined the military during World War I. He was not sent overseas because the armistice was signed shortly afterward. Gummo's younger brother Zeppo took his place in the group. After his Army career, Gummo went into the raincoat business. He later joined with Zeppo and operated a theatrical agency. After that collaboration ended, Gummo represented his brother Groucho and worked on the television show The Life of Riley, which he helped develop.

Gummo represented other on-screen talent and a number of writers, and was well-respected as a businessman. He rarely required contracts, believing that if the people he represented liked his work, they would stay with him. Around the time he left his brothers' Vaudeville act, Marx applied for a patent for a clothes-packing rack. On October 28, 1919, Marx was granted patent US1320335A.

Gummo may have received his nickname because he had a tendency to sneak around backstage, creeping up on others like a "gumshoe" private detective. Another explanation cited by biographers and family members is that Milton, the sickliest of the brothers, often wore rubber overshoes, also called "gumshoes", to protect himself in inclement weather. According to Zeppo in a much later BBC TV interview, Gummo may have received his nickname because he was usually chewing gum.

Personal life and death
Marx married Helen von Tilzer née Theaman (who had a two-year-old daughter, Karlyn "Kay" von Tilzer, from her previous marriage), on May 3, 1929.; they remained married until her death in January 1976. Their son, Robert Stuart, was born on August 19, 1930. Gummo's grandson Gregg Marx is an actor.

Gummo died on April 21, 1977, at his home in Palm Springs, California, aged 84, from a cerebral hemorrhage. His death was never reported to Groucho, who by that time had become so ill and weak that it was thought the news would be a further detriment to his health. Groucho died four months later on August 19, at age 86.

Gummo and his wife Helen are interred next to each other in the Freedom Mausoleum at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. Gummo's brother Chico is in a crypt across the hall from them. Gummo's only biological child, Robert, served in the United States Coast Guard for two years and later worked as an Architect. He died on May 21, 2023, aged 92.

title: Gummo Marx


text:
Tecklenburg

Tecklenburg is a town in the district of Steinfurt, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Its name comes from the ruined castle around which it was built. The town is situated on the Hermannsweg hiking trail.

The coat of arms shows an anchor and three seeblatts.

Geography
It is located in the foothills of the Teutoburg Forest, southwest of Osnabrück.

Division of the town
Tecklenburg consists of 4 districts (with farming communities):

Neighbouring municipalities

 * Ibbenbüren
 * Westerkappeln
 * Lotte
 * Hagen
 * Lengerich
 * Ladbergen
 * Saerbeck

History
In the 12th century the county of Tecklenburg emerged in the region that is now called the "Tecklenburger Land" in the western foothills of the Teutoburg Forest. From 1263, when the county of Tecklenburg was merged with the neighbouring county of Bentheim, Tecklenburg was ruled by the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. In 1701, Tecklenburg was conquered by the Kingdom of Prussia and subsequently incorporated.

Sights
Today, the town of Tecklenburg is a tourist destination, because of its largely intact medieval townscape. Main sites include the ruined castle (now serving as open-air theatre during the summer) and the Stadtkirche (the main, old church) including tombs of the counts and princes of Tecklenburg-Bentheim, as well as others prominent in the history of the county and city.

Tecklenburg Castle
Tecklenburg Castle is a ruined fortification in Tecklenburg, used today as an outdoor theatre.

The castle was built around 1250. Anna of Tecklenburg-Schwerin made a lot of structural changes. Around 1700, the castle was dilapidated and its brick and stone was used for other buildings in Tecklenburg, leaving nothing but a ruin.

International relations
Tecklenburg is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 France Chalonnes-sur-Loire (France) since 1982

Notable people

 * Adolf von Tecklenburg (c. 1185–1224), Bishop of Osnabrück
 * Friedrich Adolf Krummacher (1767–1845), theologian
 * Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, Senior (1831–1910), theologian
 * Hermann Beitzke (1875–1953), physician and tuberculosis researcher
 * Erwin Vierow (1890–1982), General of the Infantry

title: Tecklenburg


text:
John Phillips

John Phillips or Philips may refer to:

Academics

 * John Edward Philips (born 1952), American historian
 * John Phillips (educator) (1719–1795), American educator and founder of Phillips Exeter Academy
 * John Phillips (lawyer), English law professor and head of King's College School of Law

Arts and entertainment

 * John Phillips (fl. 1570–1591), English writer and poet
 * John Phillips (author) (1631–1706), English author and secretary to John Milton
 * John Philips (1676–1709), British poet
 * John Phillips (artist) (1808–after 1842), English illustrator and portraitist
 * John Sanborn Phillips (1861–1949), American writer and founder of McClure's Magazine
 * John Phillips (actor) (1914–1995), British actor
 * John Phillips (photographer) (1914–1996), Algerian-American photographer for Life magazine
 * John P. Marquand (a.k.a. John Phillips, 1924–1995), American novelist
 * John Phillips (musician) (1935–2001), American singer, songwriter and guitarist, member of The Mamas and the Papas

Business and industry

 * John Phillips (c. 1709–1775), English master carpenter
 * John Leigh Philips (1761–1814), English textile manufacturer and collector of art
 * John George Phillips (businessman) (1888–1964), American businessman, president of IBM
 * Sir J. G. Phillips (1911–1986), Australian economist, Governor of the Reserve Bank of Australia

U.S.

 * John Phillips (mayor) (1770–1823), American politician, first mayor of Boston
 * John Phillips (Pennsylvania politician) (fl. 1821–1823), American congressman from Pennsylvania
 * John Phillips (Wisconsin politician) (1823–1903), American physician and politician
 * John Finis Philips (1834–1919), U.S. Representative from Missouri
 * John Calhoun Phillips (1870–1943), American politician, Governor of Arizona
 * John R. Phillips (American politician) (1887–1983), American congressman from California
 * John R. Phillips (attorney) (born 1942), American diplomat and public interest attorney
 * John Michael Phillips (born 1975), American lawyer, consumer and civil rights advocate and legal commentator
 * John Alton Phillips, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives

Elsewhere

 * Sir John Philipps, 1st Baronet (died 1629), Welsh landowner and politician
 * John Phillips (Canadian politician) (1810–?), Canadian politician in New Brunswick
 * John Phillips (Irish politician) (1839/40–1917), Irish Member of Parliament for South Longford
 * John Harber Phillips (1933–2009), Australian barrister and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria
 * John David Phillips (born 1936), Australian lawyer and judge

Religion

 * John Phillips (bishop of Sodor and Man) (1555–1633), Welsh Anglican bishop
 * John Phillips (priest) (1879–1947), Welsh schoolmaster, Dean of Monmouth
 * John Phillips (Puritan), English minister in England and Massachusetts
 * John Bertram Phillips (1906–1982), British Bible translator, writer and clergyman
 * John Phillips (bishop of Portsmouth) (1910–1985), British anglican bishop

Science and medicine

 * John Phillips (geologist) (1800–1874), English geologist
 * John Arthur Phillips (1822–1887), British geologist, metallurgist and mining engineer
 * John Phillips (physician) (1855–1928), British physician
 * John Charles Phillips (1876–1938), American hunter, zoologist, ornithologist and environmentalist
 * J. F. V. Phillips (1899–1987), South African botanist and ecologist
 * John Phillips (zoologist) (1933–1987), British zoologist, vice-chancellor of Loughborough University
 * John L. Phillips (born 1951), American astronaut

Cricket

 * John Phillips (Guyanese cricketer) (1902-1967), Guyanese cricketer
 * John Phillips (South African cricketer) (1910–1985), South African cricketer
 * John Phillips (English cricketer) (1933–2017), English cricketer
 * John Phillips (New Zealand cricketer) (1949-2017), New Zealand cricketer

Other sports

 * John Phillips (snooker player) (1935-2008), Scottish snooker player
 * John Phillips (basketball coach) (born 1947), American college basketball coach
 * John Phillips (footballer) (1951–2017), English-born Welsh international goalkeeper
 * John Phillips (sport scientist) (born 1981), English football coach, mountainbiker and kickboxer
 * John Phillips (fighter) (born 1985), Welsh mixed martial artist
 * John Phillips (American football) (born 1987), American football tight end

Others

 * John Phillips (pirate) (died 1724), English captain of the pirate ship Revenge
 * John Phillips (surveyor) (died 1897), British engineer and surveyor
 * John Vassall (a.k.a. John Phillips, 1924–1996), British convicted spy
 * John Aristotle Phillips (born 1955), American entrepreneur known as the "A-Bomb Kid"

Other uses

 * John Phillips (John, the Wolf King of L.A.), musical album by John Phillips of The Mamas and the Papas

title: John Phillips


text:
Plautdietsch

Plautdietsch or Mennonite Low German is a Low Prussian dialect of East Low German with Dutch influence that developed in the 16th and 17th centuries in the Vistula delta area of Royal Prussia. The word Plautdietsch translates to "flat (or low) German" (referring to the plains of northern Germany or the simplicity of the language). In other Low German dialects, the word for Low German is usually realised as Plattdütsch/Plattdüütsch or Plattdüütsk, but the spelling Plautdietsch is used to refer specifically to the Vistula variant of the language.

Plautdietsch was a Low German dialect like others until it was taken by Mennonite settlers to the southwest of the Russian Empire starting in 1789. From there it evolved and subsequent waves of migration brought it to North America, starting in 1873. In Latin America the first settlement occurred in Argentina in 1877 coming from Russia.

Plautdietsch is spoken by about 400,000 Russian Mennonites, most notably in the Latin American countries of Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Belize, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, along with the United States and Canada (notably Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Ontario).

Today, Plautdietsch is spoken in two major dialects that trace their division to what is now Ukraine. These two dialects are split between Chortitza Colony and Molotschna. Today, many younger Russian Mennonites in Canada and the United States speak only English. For example, Homer Groening—the father of Matt Groening (creator of The Simpsons)—spoke Plautdietsch as a child in a Mennonite community in Saskatchewan in the 1920s, but Matt never learned the language.

In 2007, Mexican filmmaker Carlos Reygadas directed the film Stellet Licht (Silent Light), set in a Mennonite community in Chihuahua, Mexico. Most of the film's dialogue is in Plautdietsch, which some of the actors had to learn phonetically. Other parts were played by people of the local community.

Migration history
Plautdietsch speakers today are mostly the descendants of Mennonites who fled in the 16th century to escape persecution and resettled in the Vistula delta. These refugees were Frisians and Saxons from East Frisia, people from Flanders (Belgium) and central Europeans. They settled in West Prussia mostly in the three local areas of Nehrung (on the Baltic Sea), Werder (islands in the Vistula delta) and Niederung (south of the Werder), where they adopted the respective local Low German dialect as their everyday language. As Mennonites they kept their own (primarily Dutch and Low German) identity, using Standard Dutch as the language of the church well into the 18th century. As a written language, they took up High German. At the time of their migration to the Russian Empire, their spoken language resembled the dialects of the region with only some few Dutch elements. Their East Low German dialect is still classified as Low Prussian. Russian Mennonites trace their genealogical roots mostly to the Low Countries. Beginning in the late 18th century, the expanding Russian Empire invited Germans and many from the Kingdom of Prussia, including many Mennonites, to create new colonies north of the Black Sea in an area that Russia had recently acquired in one of the Russo-Turkish Wars. This is now part of Ukraine as well as other countries. Beginning in 1873, many Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites migrated from the Russian Empire to the United States and Canada.

In 1922, Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites from Canada started to settle in Mexico, and in 1927 in Paraguay. In the 1930s, Mennonites emigrated mainly from Soviet Ukraine directly to Brazil. The first Mennonite settlement in Bolivia was founded in 1957 by Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites from Paraguay. Soon, conservative Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites from Canada, Mexico, and Belize also relocated to Bolivia, settling together. In 1986/7, a settlement was founded in Argentina by Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites from other Latin American countries. Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites have also recently begun colonies in the jungle of Peru.

Speaker population and language maintenance
Plautdietsch-speaking communities in Latin America have mostly maintained their language, while also learning Standard German and local languages. In North America, many Mennonites have adopted English as their common language. In Germany, many Mennonites have shifted to Standard German, with only the most conservative fraction maintaining use of the Plautdietsch dialect.

Status
Plautdietsch is primarily a spoken language, and does not have an official orthography. However, there have been attempts to create a written form of the language. One of the main issues facing the development of an official orthography is the variation in pronunciation among various speech communities. Another hindrance to the unification of the language is the fact that most Plautdietsch speaking people are not found in one geographical region, being spread across North America (Canada, the United States, Mexico), Central America and South America. Noteworthy attempts at an orthography include those done by Fast (1982), Reimer (1982), Reimer et al. (1983), Epp (1996), Loewen (1996, 1998), and Heinrichs et al. (2001). Despite the absence of an official orthography, there are quite a few written texts in the Plautdietsch language. A significant example is the Bible, whose New Testament was published in 1987 and the complete version subsequently published in 2005. It shares grammatical and lexical similarities with other varieties of Low German, and in general it is intelligible to other Low German speakers after some acquaintance. On the other hand, it has several developments and sound shifts not found in any other Low German dialect.

Varieties
Regional differences of the language have developed. This is common in spoken languages that have historically lacked a consistent writing system, and have been carried to territories where other languages prevail. Major differences seem to have originated in the beginning of the 19th century in the two major Mennonite settlements in Ekaterinoslav, also known as Novorossiya, or New Russia, which lies in modern-day Ukraine. The colonies were Chortitza (Old Colony) and Molotschna (New Colony), as noted above.

There was a third variety spoken by Groningen Old Flemish Mennonites in Waldheim, Bohdanivka, Berdiansk Raion, Zaporizhzhia Oblast, and Alexanderwohl, which traced its origin from Przechovka. From Przechovka some moved to Brenkenhoffswalde and Franztal, in what is today Poland, where they used to live until 1945. Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church is a Low German Mennonite Church, in Goessel, Kansas, US.

Some of the major differences between the two (major) varieties are: A few other differences sometimes related to this issue are the exact pronunciation of the IPA c sound and words as jenau/jeneiw. According to some studies, those might be due to the level of education of the speaker, as well as the influence of Russian and standard German.

The distinctive features of Chortitza-Plautdietsch as opposed to Molotschna-Plautdietsch include:

Some Plautdietsch speakers might speak a mixture of both dialects. For instance, those who trace their origin to the Bergthal Colony in New Russia—a daughter colony of the Old Colony—show all the phonetic distinction of the Old Colony version, but drop the final -n as the Molotschna speakers do.

Comparison with related languages
Plautdietsch has a Low German base, and as such, it does not show the effects of the High German consonant shift. This distinguished the High German dialects from the Low German dialects and all other Germanic languages. The basic distinctions between High German and Low German are:

Effects of the High German consonant shift
Like Dutch, Frisian and Low German, Plautdietsch only shows the mutation of $⟨th⟩$ into $⟨th⟩$.

Vowel shifts in various Germanic languages
As shown, while Dutch, English and German have experienced similar vowel shifts, Plautdietsch has only merged the old Germanic sound with, while long  is retained in the Molotschna dialect. The Old Colony variety has fronted it to the now vacant.

Unique developments
Not only has Plautdietsch undergone vowel shift, various dialects of Plautdietsch have also had their own shifts.

Vowel lowering

 * 1) This shift is still active, as some speakers {including a few from Hague} still retain the older pronunciation.

Diphthongization before g, k, ch [IPA x] and r, with possible loss of r
The deletion of r has been completed in most final positions, after front vowels and before alveolar consonants, but is still retained in the infinitive of verbs, after short vowels, and sometimes after back vowels as seen in the example Huarn, Hieena.

Various other vowel equivalences

 * 1)  shifted to  before voiced consonants.

Palatalization
All words with a or  preceding or following a front vowel ( or, not counting schwa) have been shifted to  and  (the latter has been written as kj or tj), even if there is another consonant between the vowel and the consonant. An intervocalic is palatalized as the voiced palatal stop, written gj or dj. (A similar event occurred with English, but not as generalized). Where an or  has been sunken to, the palatalized sound is retained. Also where German has a palatalization (of the shifted consonant), Plautdietsch retains the palatalization (of ) even after lowering a front vowel.

German
Most Anabaptists that settled in the Vistula Delta were of Dutch or northern German origins, and were joined by refugees from different parts of Germany and Switzerland, who influenced their developing language. After almost two centuries in West Prussia, German replaced Dutch as church, school and written language and has become a source from where words are borrowed extensively, especially for religious terms. Many of these words show the effects of the High German consonant shift, even though they are otherwise adapted into Plautdietsch phonetics. Compare:

This is the case particularly on nouns made out of verbs. The verb normally shows the unshifted consonant, whereas the noun has a shifted Germanized consonant: schluten, Schluss; bräakjen, Bruch (to close, closure; to break, a break)

Dutch
The first half of the 16th century was the onset of the rule of terror by the Duke of Alba in the Spanish Low Countries during the Dutch Revolt (a.k.a. Eighty Years' War), that was centered on religious freedom for the Protestants. As a result, many Mennonites and Reformed left the country. This continued in the 17th century, when the Dutch Reformed Church became the official religion, being less than indulgent to other types of Protestantism, let alone the types perceived as radical (non-violent, no bearing of arms, no recognition of worldly authorities). In Low German area, they left their language traces in particular at the lower Vistula, around Danzig and Elbing, and up the river towards Toruń.

Russian or Ukrainian
Wherever Mennonites settled, they found new foods and other items with which they were not familiar with. When that happened, they took the name that local people used for those items. The following words are of Russian or Ukrainian origin:

English
As Mennonites came into contact with new technology, they often adopted and adapted the names for those technologies. For Mennonites who had settled in North America in the 1870s, all new words were borrowed from English. Even though many of those settlers left for South America only 50 years after their arrival, they kept and sometimes adapted these words into the Mennonite Low German Phonetics:

In particular, words for auto parts are taken from English: hood, fender, brakes (along with the more Low German form Brams), spark plugs (pluralized Ploggen), but also words like peanuts, belt, tax.

Spanish
Plautdietsch speakers living in Spanish-speaking countries use many Spanish words in daily speech, especially in business and communication (telephone, for instance) vocabulary. Two examples of words that are completely adapted into Mennonite Low German are Burra (Mexican Spanish burro, donkey) and Wratsch (Mexican Spanish huarache, sandal). Both have a Low German plural: Burrasch, Wratschen. The pure Low German words Äsel and Schlorr are seldom used in Mexico.

Spelling
The spelling of Plautdietsch has also been controversial. The main criteria for spelling systems have been:
 * 1) Spelling should be as phonetic as possible.
 * 2) German spelling rules should be applied whenever possible.

One problem has been what letters to use for sounds that do not exist in German, such as the palatal and  sounds, which are both pronounced and spelled differently in various dialects of Plautdietsch. Old Colony speakers pronounce these sounds by striking the middle of the tongue against the palate. Others, especially speakers of the Molotschna dialect, instead strike the tongue against the alveolar ridge and spell them $⟨d⟩$ and $\langletj\rangle$. Most Plautdietsch speakers' ears are not accustomed to realize these subtle, if not trivial, differences, and will often confuse one with the other.

Other problematic areas: use or non-use of $\langledj\rangle$ for some words with sound, use or non-use of Dehnungs-h, when to double consonants and when not to.

When comparing different writers, one must take into account the dialect of that writer. The most famous Plautdietsch writer, Arnold Dyck, wrote in the Molotschna dialect, though his origins were from the Old Colony. During his life, he made many changes in his spelling system. His developments are a basis for the various spellings used today. In the following table, only his final system is taken into account, as used in his famous Koop enn Bua series, along with Herman Rempel (Kjenn Jie noch Plautdietsch?), Reuben Epp (Plautdietsche Schreftsteckja), Jack Thiessen (Mennonite Low German Dictionary), J. J. Neufeld (Daut niehe Tastament) and Ed Zacharias (De Bibel). The latter two claim to write in the Old Colony dialect, as seen in their verb endings, while the other three use the Plautdietsch as spoken by the descendants of the Bergthal Colony, i. e. the Old Colony dialect with a loss of -n endings.

Phonetics
Mennonite Low German has many sounds, including a few not found in other varieties of Low German.

Consonants
Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents the voiceless consonant and the right represents the voiced consonant. Observations: According to the spelling system of De Bibel these sounds are spelled as follows:
 * 1)  – $\langlev\rangle$ as in Kjinja ("children")
 * 2)  – $\langlenj\rangle$ as in Hunga ("hunger")
 * 3)  – $\langleng\rangle$ and $\langlekj\rangle$ as in Kjoakj ("church") and Brigj ("bridge")
 * 4)  – no letter, but has to be used if a word that begins with a vowel or a prefix is added to a word which by itself starts with a vowel: ve'achten (to despise)
 * 5)  –  can be written as $\langlegj\rangle$ or $\langlef\rangle$: Fada ("male cousin"), Voda ("father"). The only criterion is the spelling of these words in German.  is spelled $\langlev\rangle$ as in German: Wota ("water")
 * 6)  – at the beginning of a word and between vowels  is written $\langlew\rangle$: sajen ("to say"), läsen ("to read"). The  sound is written $\langles\rangle$ at the beginning of a word (where some speakers pronounce it ), $\langlez\rangle$ between vowels and final after a short vowel: Zocka ("sugar"), waussen ("to grow"), Oss ("ox"). At the end of a word after a long vowel or consonant both are written $\langless\rangle$, the reader has to know the word to pronounce the correct sound: Hos  ("rabbit"), Os  ("carrion").
 * 7)  – $\langles\rangle$ and $\langlesch\rangle$ as in School ("school") and ruzhen ("rush"). $\langlezh\rangle$ and $\langlesp\rangle$ represent  and  at the beginning of a word and if a prefix is attached to a word starting with $\langlest\rangle$ or $\langlesp\rangle$: spälen ("to play") bestalen ("to order").
 * 8)  – $\langlest\rangle$ as in Joa ("year"). The  sound is written $\langlej\rangle$ after consonants, $\langlech\rangle$, $\langlee\rangle$ and $\langlei\rangle$: Erfolch ("success"), Jesecht ("face"), Jewicht ("weight"), läach ("low"). After $\langleäa\rangle$, it is written $\langlea\rangle$ to differentiate it from : rajcht ("right")
 * 9)  –  is written $\langlejch\rangle$, only occurs after back vowels: Dach ("day"), Loch ("hole").  (an allophone of ) is rendered $\langlech\rangle$ between vowels and final: froagen ("to ask"), vondoag ("today"). At the beginning of a word and before consonants, g has the  sound.
 * 10)  – $\langleg\rangle$ is a flap (like the Spanish r), or depending on the person, even a trill (like Spanish $\langler\rangle$), before vowels: root ("red"), groot ("big"), Liera ("teacher");  pronounced as an approximant (English r) before a consonant, at the end and in the -ren endings of Old Colony speakers: kort ("short"), ar ("her"), hieren ("to hear"). The uvular German r  is not heard in Plautdietsch.
 * 11)  –  is an allophone of  that occurs after vowels in words like Baul and well.

Vowels

The vowel inventory of Plautdietsch is large, with 13 simple vowels, 10 diphthongs and one triphthong.

 * is rounded and is heard only in the Old Colony and Bergthal groups.
 * This table gives only a very general idea of Plautdietsch vowels, as their exact phonetic realizations vary considerably from dialect to dialect, although these differences are poorly documented. For instance, in the Canadian Old Colony dialect, are strongly lowered to,  is mid-centralized to , whereas there is hardly any difference between  and  (there is no  in that variety), with both being pronounced  or , although they are probably still distinguished by length and F3 values. Traditionally, Plautdietsch has been said to not have phonemic vowel length.

The sound has been shifted to  in the Old Colony dialect, leaving the sound only as part of the ua diphthong. However, in certain areas and age groups, there is a heavy tendency to shift sound up to.

Pronunciation of certain vowels and diphthongs varies from some speakers to others; the diphthong represented by ee for instances is pronounced or even  by some. Likewise the long vowels represented by au and ei might have a diphthong glide into and, respectively.
 * English sound equivalents are approximate. Long vowels ä and o do not have a diphthong glide.

Grammar
Low German grammar resembles High German, as the syntax and morphology is nearly the same as High German's. Over the years, Plautdietsch has lost some inflection. It is, however, still moderately inflectional, having two numbers, three genders, two cases, two tenses, three persons, two moods, two voices, and two degrees of comparison.

Articles
Even though Plautdietsch has three genders, in the nominative case it has only two definite articles (like Dutch and Low German); masculine and feminine articles are homophonous. However, masculine and feminine indefinite articles are still different (like German) and thus, the three genders can still be perfectly established. In the oblique case, the masculine has a special definite article, making it once more different from the feminine, which, like the neuter, does not change. In the plural number, all gender identification is lost (as in German, Dutch and Low German); all plural determiners and adjective endings are homophonous with the feminine singular.

 * In colloquial speech the indefinite article is reduced practically to a "n", or "ne" if feminine. If used so, there is no case distinction. However, when used as a numeral, meaning "one", the diphthong "ee" is heavily stressed and the oblique form of the masculine gender is used. There is no indefinite plural article; een has no plural.

Some Plautdietsch writers try to use a three case system with the definite articles, without much consistency. The system looks somewhat like this, some might use the dative neuter articles, others might not:

Determiners
All possessives (see under pronouns) are declined like in this way. With the form äa (her/their) an r has to be reinserted before adding endings (äaren, äare).

Nouns
Mennonite Low German nouns inflect into two numbers: singular and plural, three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter, but only two cases, nominative and oblique. The historical dative and accusative have merged, even though some writers try to maintain a three cases distinction, which has been lost for most speakers, perhaps centuries ago. The oblique case is distinct from the nominative only in 1) personal pronouns: ekj froag am, hee auntwuat mie (I ask him, he answers me) 2) articles and demonstrative and possessive adjectives in the singular masculine gender: de Voda halpt dän Sän (the father helps the son) (observe: nouns are not inflected themselves) and 3) proper names, i. e. traditional Mennonite names: Peeta frajcht Marie-en, Marie auntwuat Peetren (Peter asks Mary, Mary answers Peter)

Plurals
Plural formation is comparatively complex. Three major procedures can be established: 1) through an ending, -a, -en, -s, -sch or none at all; 2) voicing the final devoiced consonant and 3) fronting (and maybe lowering) a back vowel, which might require palatalization of a velar consonant. A given word could have one or two, all or none of these characteristics.

Examples
No ending, no voicing, no vowel fronting: de Fesch de Fesch, daut Schop, de Schop, daut Been, de Been (fish, fishes; sheep, sheep; leg, legs)

Voicing, no ending, no vowel fronting: Frint, Friend; Boajch, Boaj (friend/s, mountain/s)

No ending, no voicing, vowel fronting: Foot, Feet (foot, feet)

Voicing and vowel fronting, no ending: Hoot, Heed (hat/s)

-a ending:

only: Licht, Lichta (light/s)

with voicing: Bilt, Bilda (picture/s)

with vowel fronting: Maun, Mana (man, men)

with voicing, vowel fronting and palatalization: Kaulf, Kjalwa (calf, calves)

-en ending (the -en, -s and -sch endings have no vowel fronting)

only: Näs Näsen, (nose/s)

with voicing: de Tiet, de Tieden, de Erfoarunk, de Erfoarungen (time/s, experience/s)

Words where a historical r is dropped require it to be reinserted: Däa, Däaren (door/s) Polysyllabic words with a vocalized r drop the final a: Sesta, Sestren (sister/s)

An unstressed schwa also is dropped: Gaufel, Gauflen (fork/s)

-s ending

This class consists mainly of 1) short masculine and neuter nouns: Baul -s, Oarm -s (ball/s, arm/s)

2) words related with family members: Sän -s, Fru -es, (son/s, woman, women)

and 3) masculine and neuter nouns ending in -el and -en (the latter may drop the n): Läpel, Läpels; Goaden, Goades (spoon/s; garden/s)

-sch ending

This class consists of masculine and neuter polysyllabic nouns ending with -a: de Voda, de Vodasch; daut Massa, de Massasch (father/s, knife, knives)

For someone knowing (High) German, pluralizing is a fairly predictable process, with some exceptions: the -en ending covers pretty much the same words in both languages; the -a ending is the equivalent for the German -er plural, where German has Umlaut, Plautdietsch will have vowel fronting in most cases. The -s and -sch groups are made almost entirely of polysyllabic nouns which in German have no plural ending.

The most problematic words are those with an -e plural ending in German. Although the entire class with no ending is made out of them, many other words are treated differently. For example, the plurals for Stool and Stock (chair and stick) are Steela and Stakja (compare German Stuhl, Stühle; Stock, Stöcke). Since they have their vowels fronted there seems to be no reason for the -a ending. Many others have been moved into the -en class: Jeboot, Jebooten (commandment/s, German: Gebot, Gebote). With some not so common words, there is no certainty about the correct plural, different speakers create them in different ways: the plural of Jesaz (law) could be Jesaza or Jesazen (German: Gesetz, Gesetze).

Possession
The classical genitive is no longer used except in a few relic expressions. Instead, possession is expressed as in many German dialects with the his genitive, i.e. naming the possessor in the oblique case with the possessive adjective and the possessed object: Dän Maun sien Hus (the man's house). With proper nouns, and when the possessor is determined by a possessive adjective, the possessor is in the nominative case instead: Peeta sien Hus (Peter's house); mien Voda sien Hus (my father's house). Very long possessive clauses can be created: Mien Voda seine Mutta äare Mutta es miene Uagrootmutta (my father's mother's mother is my great grandmother).

For inanimate or generalized constructions, the preposition von or a composition are used instead: De Lichta von de Staut/ de Stautslichta (the lights of the city).

Diminutive
The diminutive is formed adding by -kje to the noun: de Jung, daut Jungkje; de Mejal, daut Mejalkje (the boy, the little boy; the girl, the little girl). All diminutive nouns take the neuter gender, with two exceptions: de Oomkje, de Mumkje, two forms used very commonly for mister/man/husband and mistress/woman/wife. These seem to have been created originally as diminutive forms of, respectively, Oom and Mumm (uncle and aunt; cf. German: Oheim/Ohm, Öhmchen/Öhmlein and Muhme, Mühmchen/Mühmlein). Today, they are no longer seen as diminutives and therefore retain their respective masculine and feminine genders.

With nouns ending in t or k, only -je is added; a few nouns ending in kj, an additional s is inserted: de Staut, daut Stautje, daut Buak, daut Buakje; daut Stekj, daut Stekjsje (the (little) city, the (little) book, the (little) piece).

Plural diminished nouns take -s ending: Jungkjes, Mejalkjes; however, if the original plural requires fronting of a back vowel or has an -a ending, these features are retained before adding the diminutive suffix: de Stool, de Steela → daut Stoolkje, de Steelakjes (chair/s, little chair/s)

Adjectives
Mennonite Low German also shows a rich inflectional system in its adjectives. Although once even richer, simplification has done its work here too, leaving Mennonite Low German with three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter, and two comparison degrees: Comparative and Superlative. The plural of all genders is identical to the feminine singular.

Strong and weak neuter declension: after the definite article daut or the demonstratives daut and dit (neuter form of that, this) the t is dropped and a form identical to the feminine and plural is used. In other situations, as with indefinite articles, possessive adjectives or without article, the strong form is used.

The oblique is used only in the masculine singular. However, if a preposition-article compound is used with a neuter noun, then the oblique would be used. Example: em grooten Hus, but: en daut groote Hus, en een grootet Hus.

There is no predicate form for the superlative, a preposition-article compound with the oblique or weak neuter is used: aum woamsten, or: oppet woamste, or newly just the neuter form without preposition: daut woamste: Zemorjes es et woam, opp Meddach woat et woama, no Meddach es et aum woamsten/ oppet woamste/ daut woamste (in the morning it is warm, at noon it is getting warmer, after noon it is the warmest).

The predicate form is used in predicate sentences for all genders: De Maun es oolt, de Fru es oolt, daut Hus es oolt (the man is old, the woman is old, the house is old).

Numerals
Observation: the numeral eent (one) is declined like the indefinite article (masculine een [oblique eenen], feminine eene, neuter een) or a demonstrative or possessive pronoun (eena [oblique eenen], eene, eent for the respective genders); when counting, the neuter form eent is used.

The ordinal for 11th and 12th are: alfta, twalfta; from 13 to 19 use the ordinal + da: drettieenda (13th) ; from 20 to 99 use the ordinal + sta: fiew un twintichsta (25th). All ordinal numbers are declined like an adjective, the forms given here are masculine nominative.

The partitive numbers for 1/10, 1/11, 1/12 are een Tieedel, een Alftel, een Twalftel, for 13–19 add -del to the ordinal number, for 20–99 add -stel.

Personal pronouns
Some pronouns have two forms, different persons may use one or other form, or even alternate between them. Daut is used at the beginning of a sentence, but may be replaced by et in other positions.

Possessive adjectives are of the masculine (nominative case) or neuter gender. Otherwise, they are declined like the indefinite article and determiners (see under article section).

Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are frequently used instead of the personal pronouns. When used so, some people use special oblique forms for feminine and plural. When used strictly demonstrative, only the singular masculine has a special oblique form.

Verbs
Mennonite Low German verbs have six tenses. The present and first past tenses are inflected, while the second and third past and both future tenses are different words marked by auxiliary verbs. Verbs can have two moods: Declarative and Imperative, two voices: active and passive, and three persons:1st pers. sing., 2nd pers. sing., 3rd pers. sing., and plural.

Weak verbs
The basic conjugation pattern is as follows:

To determine the stem, take the infinitive and drop the -en ending. There are a few modifications to this basic pattern: 1) If the stem ends with a plosive or fricative voiced consonant (d, g, j, soft s, w, zh), that consonant is devoiced in the 2nd and 3d persons of the present, since voiceless t and st automatically force the preceding consonant (compare the sound of the letter d in English lived and liked). 2) If the stem ends with a voiceless consonant (ch, f, jch, k, kj, p, hard s, sch, t) that consonant devoices the d, sd, d, den endings of the past tense (into t, st, t, ten) for the same reason. 3) If the stem ends with two consonants, the second one being a nasal or lateral, a schwa e is inserted to ease pronunciation. 4) Verbs with a diphthong and r have a special treatment; the r is dropped before endings are attached, and the st/sd of the second person is replaced by scht/zhd.

Examples of a regular verbs: spälen (to play), lachen (to laugh), läwen (to live), odmen (to breathe) and roaren (to cry). The first one follows strictly the basic pattern, the others show the various adjustments needed as described above.

If the inverted word order is used, the -en ending of the plural wie, jie (but not see) form is dropped, and a root-only form, identical to the 1st person singular, is used.

Strong verbs
As in English and Dutch, some verbs have a vowel change in past tense and past participle. As in German, some verbs might have a vowel change in second and third person of the singular in present tense as well. A few verbs that are strong in German are weak in Plautdietsch, but many German weak verbs are strong in Plautdietsch. However, when compared with Dutch and English, those are strong, too.

GENERALITIES: Vowel changes in present tense are somewhat predictable: long ie and u change into short i; long ä/o change into e or a; diphthongs äa and oa are simplified to a.

The first and third person of the past tense are identical (as in weak verbs).

With only a few exceptions (like the verb sajen), all voiced consonants are devoiced in the three persons of the singular past, the nasal ng and nj are retained in second person, but devoiced in first and third person.

The past tense has the same vowel through all persons.

If there is a vowel change from ä to e or a in the present tense, that feature is retained in the singular imperative.

The plural form for wie/jie in the inverted word order keep the final consonant voiced.

Auxiliary, modal and anomalous verbs
A small groups of verbs are more irregular: the auxiliaries sennen and haben, the modal verbs, and a few verbs that originally were monosyllabic and with time have evolved a -nen ending:

Participles
The present participle, formed of the infinitive plus a -t ending, is not often used. It appears in idiomatic expressions like aunhoolent bliewen (to persist), and in a few adjective forms, which have to be inflected for number, gender and case, the -t is voiced into -d: koaken, koakendet Wota (to boil, boiling water).

The past participle of weak verbs is formed with je- plus the stem of the verb plus -t. A voiced consonant is devoiced to go along with t, the inserted e between double consonant is retained, the r after a long vowel is dropped. For the weak verbs given above the past participles are: jespält, jelacht, jejäft, jeodemt, jeroat.

The past participle for strong and anomalous verbs is hard to predict, they could be formed in five or six different ways:
 * 1) some are like the weak verbs: jejäft, jesajcht (given, said);
 * 2) others are formed of je- plus infinitive: jestonen (stood);
 * 3) some, including modal verbs, of je- plus first person past tense: jehaut; jesocht, jekunt (had, sought, been able);
 * 4) others of je- plus plural past: jefungen (found);
 * 5) Those with an ee or oo in past tense are simplified to ä/o: jeschräwen, jedonen (written, done)
 * 6) the past participle of sennen is jewast (been)

Adjectives are frequently made from the past participle by attaching an adjective inflection ending and voicing the final t; if the preceding consonant is voiced, with -en participles the e is dropped:

molen, jemolt, een jemoldet Bilt (to draw, drawn, a drawn picture)

koaken, jekoakt, eene jekoakte Ieedschock (to boil, boiled, a boiled potato)

stälen, jestolen, een jestolna Hunt (to steal, stolen, a stolen dog)

Compound tenses
Except for the present and simple past, all other tenses are constructed with the aid of the auxiliary verbs sennen, haben, woaren:

Some intransitive verbs take sennen instead of haben as auxiliary verbs if they: 1) indicate a motion from one place to another, or 2) indicate a change of condition, or 3) the verbs sennen (to be) and bliewen (to keep being, to remain). Example: ekj sie jekomen, ekj sie oolt jeworden, ekj sie jewast (I have come, I have become old, I was).

Expressions relating to future plans
In some communities of Plautdietsch speakers, the religious prohibition of James 4:13-14 is interpreted to proscribe the simple use of the first person in talking about future plans or efforts. In such communities it is considered proper to use a softening introductory phrase such as "Ekj proove," (I try, or will try, or alternately I will want to) to avoid giving offense.

Prepositions
Plautdietsch preposition inventory is rich. Some of the most common:
 * aun, on, in: de Klock henjt aun de Waunt (the clock is hanging on the wall)
 * äwa, over, about
 * besied, beside, next to
 * bie, by, at
 * bowa, over
 * buta, except, besides
 * derch, through
 * en, in
 * fa, for
 * hinja, behind
 * hinjaraun, following something else
 * jäajen, against
 * mank, among
 * met, with
 * no, to, after
 * onen, without
 * opp, on
 * to, to
 * tweschen, between (twixt)
 * unja, under
 * ver, in front of
 * von, of (relative to)

Syntax
Mennonite Low German shows similarity with High German in the word order. The basic word order is subject–verb–object as in English. Indirect objects precede direct objects as in English John gives Mary a present, but that is where similarities end. A dependent verb, i.e. an infinitive or past participle, comes at the end of the sentence where in English it would be placed immediately after the main verb, as shown in the following examples:

Mennonite Low German word order: Jehaun haft dän Desch jemoakt (John has the table made). English word order: John has made the table.

Mennonite Low German, like High German, has been referred to as verb-second (V2) word order. In embedded clauses, words relating to time or space can be placed at the beginning of the sentence, but then the subject has to move after the main verb to keep that verb in second position. This pattern is demonstrated here:

Mennonite Low German word order: Nu sie ekj schaftich. More Examples: Dan jeef de Kjennich seine Deena eenen Befäl. (Then the king gave his servants an order)

Also, effects tend to be placed last in the sentence. Example: En daut Kuffel wia soo väl Wota, daut et äwarand (In the cup, there was so much water, that it overflowed).

Mennonite Low German has syntactic patterns not found in High German, or at least not as often, such as the repetition of a subject, by a pronoun. Example: Mien Hoot dee haft dree Akjen. My hat it has three corners.

Questions, orders and exclamations have a verb first word order: Hast du daut oole Hus aun de fefte Gauss jeseenen? (Have you seen the old house on fifth street?). All questions are arranged like this. There is no auxiliary verb to form questions. If there is a question word, that word precedes the verb: Wua es dien Voda jebuaren (Where is your father born?). As in English, when using verbs in the imperative mood, it is not necessary to specify the person addressed, but it can be added for emphasis: Brinj (du) mie emol dän Homa (Please, (you,) bring the hammer to me). The word emol is frequently asked to soften the order as a word for please. Example of an exclamation: Es daut vondoag oba kolt! (Is it cold today!).

As in High German, in dependent clauses, the verb goes at the end:
 * Dependent clauses

Ekj well morjen miene Mutta besieekjen, wan ekj Tiet hab. (I want to visit my mother tomorrow if I have time). Observe the construction of: if I have time.

However, when a dependent clause has an infinitive or past participle, this rule is no longer strictly applied; there is a strong tendency to move the finite (main) verb before the infinitive or participle, the direct object (or even a long circumstantial complement):

Example: German word order requires a sentence structure like: Hee fruach mie, auf ekj miene Mutta jistren daut Jelt jejäft haud. (Translation: He asked me if I had given the money yesterday to my mother.) Even though this sounds right and perfectly understandable, most speakers would rearrange these same words as follows: Hee fruach mie, auf ekj miene Mutta jistren haud daut Jelt jejäft. Another example: Hee sajcht, daut sien Brooda jrod no de Staut jefoaren es/ Hee sajcht, daut sien Brooda jrod es no de Staut jefoaren (He says that his brother has just gone to the city). Observe: the verb precedes a prepositional phrase, but an adverb is still placed before it.

Text sample
The Lord's Prayer in Plautdietsch, another form of Low German and Dutch.

Dictionaries

 * Neufeld, Eldo: Plautdietsch-English, English-Plaudietsch, Munich 2005.
 * Rempel, Herman: Kjenn Jie Noch Plautdietsch? A Mennonite Low German Dictionary, PrairieView Press, 1995. ISBN 1-896199-13-5.
 * Thiessen, Jack: Mennonite Low German Dictionary / Mennonitisch-Plattdeutsches Wörterbuch, University of Wisconsin, 2003. ISBN 0-924119-09-8.
 * Zacharias, Ed Ons Ieeschtet Wieedabuak, 2009. ISBN 978-1-55383-223-2.

Grammars

 * Neufeld, Eldo: Plautdietsch Grammar, 72 pages, Munich 2010.
 * Siemens, Heinrich: Plautdietsch — Grammatik, Geschichte, Perspektiven, Bonn 2012.

title: Plautdietsch