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Circumflex

The circumflex ( ◌̂ ) is a diacritic in the Latin and Greek scripts that is also used in the written forms of many languages and in various romanization and transcription schemes. It received its English name from circumflexus "bent around"—a translation of the περισπωμένη.

The circumflex in the Latin script is chevron-shaped ( ◌̂ ), while the Greek circumflex may be displayed either like a tilde ( ◌̃ ) or like an inverted breve ( ◌̑ ). For the most commonly encountered uses of the accent in the Latin alphabet, precomposed characters are available.

In English, the circumflex, like other diacritics, is sometimes retained on loanwords that used it in the original language (for example entrepôt, crème brûlée). In mathematics and statistics, the circumflex diacritic is sometimes used to denote a function and is called a hat operator.

A free-standing version of the circumflex symbol, ^, is encoded in ASCII and Unicode and has become known as caret and has acquired special uses, particularly in computing and mathematics. The original caret, ‸, is used in proofreading to indicate insertion.

Pitch
The circumflex has its origins in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek, where it marked long vowels that were pronounced with high and then falling pitch. In a similar vein, the circumflex is today used to mark tone contour in the International Phonetic Alphabet. This is also how it is used in Bamanankan (as opposed to a háček, which signifies a rising tone on a syllable).

The shape of the circumflex was originally a combination of the acute and grave accents (^), as it marked a syllable contracted from two vowels: an acute-accented vowel and a non-accented vowel (all non-accented syllables in Ancient Greek were once marked with a grave accent). Later a variant similar to the tilde (~) was also used.

The term "circumflex" is also used to describe similar tonal accents that result from combining two vowels in related languages such as Sanskrit and Latin.

Since Modern Greek has a stress accent instead of a pitch accent, the circumflex has been replaced with an acute accent in the modern monotonic orthography.

Length
The circumflex accent marks a long vowel in the orthography or transliteration of several languages.

 * In Afrikaans, the circumflex marks a vowel with a lengthened pronunciation, often arising from compensatory lengthening due to the loss of $⟨g⟩$ from the original Dutch form. Examples of circumflex use in Afrikaans are sê "to say", wêreld "world", môre "tomorrow", brûe "bridges".
 * Akkadian. In the transliteration of this language, the circumflex indicates a long vowel resulting from an aleph contraction.
 * In western Cree, Sauk, and Saulteaux, the Algonquianist Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) indicates long vowels either with a circumflex ⟨â ê î ô⟩ or with a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō⟩.
 * The PDA orthography for Domari uses circumflex-bearing vowels for length.
 * In Emilian, â î û are used to represent
 * French. In some varieties, such as in Belgian French, Swiss French and Acadian French, vowels with a circumflex are long: fête (party) is longer than faite . This length compensates for a deleted consonant, usually s.
 * Standard Friulian.
 * Japanese. In the Nihon-shiki system of romanization, the circumflex is used to indicate long vowels. The Kunrei-shiki system, which is based on Nihon-shiki system, also uses the circumflex. The Traditional and Modified forms of the Hepburn system use the macron for this purpose, though some users may use the circumflex as a substitute if there are difficulties inputting the macron, as the two diacritics are visually similar.
 * Jèrriais.
 * In UNGEGN romanization system for Khmer, â is used to represent, ê in first series and  in second series, and ô for . There are also additional vowels which are diphthongs such as aô , âu , âm , ŏâm  and aôh.
 * In Kurmanji Kurdish, ⟨ê î û⟩ are used to represent.
 * In Mikasuki, circumflexed vowels indicate a rising and falling pitch or tone.
 * In Adûnaic, the Black Speech, and Khuzdul, constructed languages of J. R. R. Tolkien, all long vowels are transcribed with the circumflex. In Sindarin, another of Tolkien's languages, long vowels in polysyllabic words take the acute, but a circumflex in monosyllables, to mark a non-phonemic extra lengthening.

Stress
The circumflex accent marks the stressed vowel of a word in some languages:
 * Portuguese â, ê, and ô are stressed close vowels, opposed to their open counterparts á, é, and ó (see below).
 * Welsh: the circumflex, due to its function as a disambiguating lengthening sign (see above), is used in polysyllabic words with word-final long vowels. The circumflex thus indicates the stressed syllable (which would normally be on the penultimate syllable), since in Welsh, non-stressed vowels may not normally be long. This happens notably where the singular ends in an a, to, e.g. singular camera, drama, opera, sinema → plural camerâu, dramâu, operâu, sinemâu; however, it also occurs in singular nominal forms, e.g. arwyddocâd; in verbal forms, e.g. deffrônt, cryffânt; etc.

Vowel quality

 * In Breton, it is used on an e to show that the letter is pronounced open instead of closed.
 * In Bulgarian, the sound represented in Bulgarian by the Cyrillic letter ъ (er goljam) is usually transliterated as â in systems used prior to 1989. Although called a schwa (misleadingly suggesting an unstressed lax sound), it is more accurately described as a mid back unrounded vowel . Unlike English or French, but similar to Romanian and Afrikaans, it can be stressed.
 * In Pinyin romanized Mandarin Chinese, ê is used to represent the sound in isolation, which occurs sometimes as an exclamation.
 * In French, the letter ê is normally pronounced open, like è. In the usual pronunciations of central and northern France, ô is pronounced close, like eau; in Southern France, no distinction is made between close and open o.
 * In Phuthi, î and û are used to mark superclose vowels and, respectively.
 * Portuguese â, ê , and ô are stressed high vowels, in opposition to á , é , and ó , which are stressed low vowels.
 * In Romanian, the circumflex is used on the vowels â and î to mark the vowel, similar to Russian yery. The names of these accented letters are â din a and î din i, respectively. (The letter â only appears in the middle of words; thus, its majuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions.)
 * In Slovak, the circumflex (vokáň) on ô indicates a diphthong.
 * In Swedish dialect and folklore literature the circumflex is used to indicate the phonemes or  (â),  or  (ô) and  (û) in dialects and regional accents where these are distinct from  (a),  (ö) or  (o or å) and  (u) respectively, unlike Standard Swedish where  and,  and  are short and long allophones of the phonemes  and  respectively, and where Old Swedish short  (ŏ) has merged with  from Old Swedish  (ā, Modern Swedish å) instead of centralizing to  or fronting to  and remaining a distinct phoneme (ô) as in the dialects in question. Different methods can be found in different literature, so some author may use æ instead of â, or use â where others use å̂ (å with a circumflex; for a sound between   and ).
 * Vietnamese â, ê , and ô are higher vowels than a , e , and o . The circumflex can appear together with a tone mark on the same vowel, as in the word Việt.  Vowels with circumflex are considered separate letters from the base vowels.

Nasality

 * In Luxembourgish m̂ n̂ can be used to indicate nasalisation of a vowel. Also, the circumflex can be over the vowel to indicate nasalisation. In either case, the circumflex is rare.
 * In several indigenous languages of New Caledonia, a circumflex indicates nasality on vowels: e.g. the orthography Xârâcùù contrasts its oral vowels a, e , i , u with its nasal vowels â , ê , î , ô , û  – with duplicated variants indicating length (e.g. êê , etc.). Due to typographical shortage of characters, some nasal vowels in Xârâcùù are encoded with an umlaut: e.g. ä , ü ).

Other articulatory features

 * In Emilian, ê ô denote both length and height.
 * In Tagalog and most Philippine languages, the circumflex accent (pakupyâ) is used to represent the simultaneous occurrence of a stress and a glottal stop on the last vowel of a word. Though not part of the official alphabet, possible combinations can include: â, ê, î, ô, and û. But in the case of T'boli, the circumflex accent is only used as a pure unstressed glottal stop. It works as a combination of acute and grave accent; with the case of letters é and ó which represents the sound of and  respectively and can be shown as ê and ô if it contains a glottal stop.
 * In Romagnol, they are used to represent the diphthongs, whose specific articulation varies between dialects, e.g. sêl "salt".
 * In Old Tupi, the circumflex changed a vowel into a semivowel: î, û , and ŷ.
 * In Rusyn, the letter ŷ is sometimes used to transliterate the Cyrillic ы.
 * In Turkish, the circumflex over a and u is sometimes used in words of Arabic or Persian derivation to indicate when a preceding consonant (k, g, l) is to be pronounced as a palatal plosive;, (kâğıt, gâvur, mahkûm, Gülgûn). The circumflex over i is used to indicate a nisba suffix (millî, dinî).
 * In Pe̍h-ōe-jī romanization of Hokkien, the circumflex over a vowel (a, e, i, o, o͘, u) or a syllabic nasal (m, ng) indicate the tone number 5, traditionally called Yang Level or Light Level (陽平). The tone contour is usually low rising. For example, ê, n̂g.

Visual discrimination between homographs

 * In Serbo-Croatian the circumflex can be used to distinguish homographs, and it is called the "genitive sign" or "length sign". Examples include sam "am" versus sâm "alone". For example, the phrase "I am alone" may be written Ja sam sâm to improve clarity. Another example: da "yes", dâ "gives".
 * Turkish. According to Turkish Language Association orthography, düzeltme işareti "correction mark" over a, i and u marks a long vowel to disambiguate similar words. For example, compare ama "but" and âmâ "blind", şura 'that place, there' and şûra "council". In general, circumflexes occur only in Arabic and Persian loanwords as vowel length in early Turkish was not phonemic. However, this standard was never applied entirely consistently and by the late 20th century many publications had stopped using circumflexes almost entirely.
 * Welsh. The circumflex is known as hirnod "long sign" or acen grom "crooked accent", but more usually and colloquially as to bach "little roof". It lengthens a stressed vowel (a, e, i, o, u, w, y), and is used particularly to differentiate between homographs; e.g. tan and tân, ffon and ffôn, gem and gêm, cyn and cŷn, or gwn and gŵn. However the circumflex is only required on elongated vowels if the same word exists without the circumflex - "nos" (night), for example, has an elongated "o" sound but a circumflex is not required as the same word with a shortened "o" doesn't exist.
 * The orthography of French has a few pairs of homophones that are only distinguished by the circumflex: e.g. du (partitive article) vs. dû  'due'.

Diacritic on consonants

 * In Pinyin, the romanized writing of Mandarin Chinese, ẑ, ĉ, and ŝ are, albeit rarely, used to represent zh, ch , and sh , respectively.
 * In Esperanto, the circumflex is used on ĉ, ĝ , ĥ , ĵ , ŝ . Each indicates a different consonant from the unaccented form, and is considered a separate letter for purposes of collation. (See Esperanto orthography.)
 * In Nsenga, ŵ denotes the labiodental approximant.
 * In Chichewa, ŵ (present for example in the name of the country Malaŵi) used to denote the voiced bilabial fricative ; nowadays, however, most Chichewa-speakers pronounce it as a regular.
 * In Nias, ŵ denotes the semivowel.
 * In the African language Venda, a circumflex below d, l, n, and t is used to represent dental consonants: ḓ, ḽ, ṋ, ṱ.
 * In the 18th century, the Real Academia Española introduced the circumflex accent in Spanish to mark that a ch or x were pronounced and  respectively (instead of  and, which were the default values): châracteres, exâcto (spelled today caracteres, exacto). This usage was quickly abandoned during the same century, once the RAE decided to use ch and x with one assigned pronunciation only:  and  respectively.
 * In Domari (according to the Pan-Domari Alphabet orthography), the circumflex is used on the letters <ĉ ĝ ĵ ŝ ẑ> to represent the sounds of . It is also used above vowels to indicate length.

English
In 18th century British English, before the cheap Penny Post and while paper was taxed, the combination ough was occasionally shortened to ô when the gh was not pronounced, to save space: thô for though, thorô for thorough, and brôt for brought.

French
In French, the circumflex generally marks the former presence of a consonant (usually s) that was deleted and is no longer pronounced. (The corresponding Norman French words, and consequently the words derived from them in English, frequently retain the lost consonant.) For example:
 * ancêtre "ancestor"
 * hôpital "hospital"
 * hôtel "hostel"
 * forêt "forest"
 * rôtir "to roast"
 * côte "rib, coast, slope"
 * pâté "paste"
 * août "August"
 * dépôt (from the Latin depositum 'deposit', but now referring to both a deposit or a storehouse of any kind)

Some homophones (or near-homophones in some varieties of French) are distinguished by the circumflex. However, â, ê and ô distinguish different sounds in most varieties of French, for instance cote "level, mark, code number" and côte  "rib, coast, hillside".

In handwritten French, for example in taking notes, an m with a circumflex (m̂) is an informal abbreviation for même "same".

In February 2016, the Académie française decided to remove the circumflex from about 2,000 words, a plan that had been outlined since 1990. However, usage of the circumflex would not be considered incorrect.

Italian
In Italian, î is occasionally used in the plural of nouns and adjectives ending with -io as a crasis mark. Other possible spellings are -ii and obsolete -j or -ij. For example, the plural of vario "various" can be spelt vari, varî, varii; the pronunciation will usually stay  with only one. The plural forms of principe "prince" and of principio  "principle, beginning" can be confusing. In pronunciation, they are distinguished by whether the stress is on the first or on the second syllable, but principi would be a correct spelling of both. When necessary to avoid ambiguity, it is advised to write the plural of principio as principî or as principii.

Latin
In Neo-Latin, circumflex was used most often to disambiguate between forms of the same word that used a long vowel, for example ablative of first declension and genitive of fourth declension, or between second and third conjugation verbs. It was also used for the interjection ô.

Norwegian
In Norwegian, the circumflex differentiates fôr "lining, fodder" from the preposition for. From a historical point of view, the circumflex also indicates that the word used to be spelled with the letter ð in Old Norse – for example, fôr is derived from fóðr, lêr 'leather' from leðr, and vêr "weather, ram" from veðr (both lêr and vêr only occur in the Nynorsk spelling; in Bokmål these words are spelled lær and vær). After the ð disappeared, it was replaced by a d (fodr, vedr).

Portuguese
Circumflexes are used in many common words of the language, such as the name of the language, português. Usually, â, ê and ô appear before nasals (m and n) in proparoxytone words, like higiênico but in many cases in European Portuguese e and o will be marked with an acute accent (e.g. higiénico) since the vowel quality is open (ɛ or ɔ) in this standard variety. In early literacy classes in school, it is commonly nicknamed chapéu (hat).

Welsh
The circumflex (ˆ) is mostly used to mark long vowels, so â, ê, î, ô, û, ŵ, ŷ are always long. However, not all long vowels are marked with a circumflex, so the letters a, e, i, o, u, w, y with no circumflex do not necessarily represent short vowels.

Mathematics
In mathematics, the circumflex is used to modify variable names; it is usually read "hat", e.g., $$\hat x$$ is "x hat". The Fourier transform of a function ƒ is often denoted by $$\hat f$$.

In geometry, a hat is sometimes used for an angle. For instance, the angles $$\hat{A}$$ or $$A\hat{B}C$$.

In vector notation, a hat above a letter indicates a unit vector (a dimensionless vector with a magnitude of 1). For instance, $$\hat{\mathbf{\imath}}$$, $$\hat{\mathbf{x}}$$, or $$\hat{\mathbf{e}}_1$$ stands for a unit vector in the direction of the x-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system.

In statistics, the hat is used to denote an estimator or an estimated value, as opposed to its theoretical counterpart. For example, in errors and residuals, the hat in $$\hat\varepsilon$$ indicates an observable estimate (the residual) of an unobservable quantity called $$\varepsilon$$ (the statistical error). It is read x-hat or x-roof, where x represents the character under the hat.

Music
In music theory and musicology, a circumflex above a numeral is used to make reference to a particular scale degree.

In music notation, a chevron-shaped symbol placed above a note indicates marcato, a special form of emphasis or accent. In music for string instruments, a narrow inverted chevron indicates that a note should be performed up-bow.

Unicode
Unicode encodes a number of cases of "letter with circumflex" as precomposed characters and these are displayed below. In addition, many more symbols may be composed using the combining character facility ( and ) that may be used with any letter or other diacritic to create a customised symbol but this does not mean that the result has any real-world application and thus are not shown in the table. Ââ · Ĉĉ · Êê · Ĝĝ · Ĥĥ · Îî · Ĵĵ · Ôô · Ốố · Ồồ · Ổổ · Ỗỗ · Ộộ · Ŝŝ · Ûû · Ŵŵ · X̂x̂ · Ŷŷ · Ẑẑ

The Greek diacritic περισπωμένη is encoded as. In distinction to the angled Latin circumflex, the Greek circumflex is printed in the form of either a tilde (◌̃) or an inverted breve (◌̑).

Freestanding circumflex
There is a similar but larger character,, which was originally intended to emulate the typewriter's dead key function using backspace and overtype. Nowadays, this glyph is more often called a caret instead (though the term has a long-standing meaning as a proofreader's mark, with its own codepoints in Unicode). It is, however, unsuitable for use as a diacritic on modern computer systems, as it is a spacing character. Two other spacing circumflex characters in Unicode are the smaller modifier letters and, mainly used in phonetic notations or as a sample of the diacritic in isolation.

Typing the circumflex accent
In countries where the local language(s) routinely include letters with a circumflex, local keyboards are typically engraved with those symbols.

For users with other keyboards, see QWERTY and Unicode input.

title: Circumflex


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List of heads of state of Albania

This is a list of heads of state of Albania who have served since the Declaration of Independence of 1912.

Since the collapse of the communist regime in 1991, the head of state of Albania is the president of the republic (Presidenti i Republikës). The president is indirectly elected to a five-year term and is limited to a maximum of two terms, as specified by the Constitution. As in most parliamentary systems, the president is now by-and-large a ceremonial office, with the prime minister de facto heading the executive branch.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of heads of state of Albania


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Joseph Thomson

Joseph or Joe Thomson is the name of:

 * J. J. Thomson (1856–1940), physicist
 * Joseph Thomson (cricketer) (1877-1953), Australian cricketer
 * Joseph Thomson (explorer) (1858–1895), African explorer
 * Joseph Angus Thomson (1856–1943), Australian politician
 * Joe Thomson (1948–2018), academic
 * Joe Thomson (footballer) (born 1997), Scottish footballer with Celtic

title: Joseph Thomson


text:
User:Oyd11

Hobbies: Demo coding, music, skateboarding.

- (some) contributions while not logged-in, see:
 * User_talk:80.178.218.250. I still like doing quick random fixes etc from public terminals.

&

title: User:Oyd11


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Lord Guildford Dudley

Lord Guildford Dudley (also spelt Guilford) (c. 1535 – 12 February 1554) was an English nobleman who was married to Lady Jane Grey. She occupied the English throne from 10 July until 19 July 1553, having been declared the heir of King Edward VI. Guildford Dudley had a humanist education and married Jane in a magnificent celebration about six weeks before the King's death. After Guildford's father, the Duke of Northumberland, had engineered Jane's accession, Jane and Guildford spent her brief rule residing in the Tower of London. They were still in the Tower when their regime collapsed and remained there in different quarters as prisoners. They were condemned to death for high treason in November 1553. Queen Mary I was inclined to spare their lives, but Thomas Wyatt's rebellion against Mary's plans to marry Philip of Spain led to the young couple's execution, a measure that was widely seen as unduly harsh.

Family and marriage
Lord Guildford Dudley was the second youngest surviving son of John Dudley, later Duke of Northumberland and his wife, Jane Guildford. The Dudley lineage goes back to a family called Sutton. In the early 14th century, they became the lords of Dudley Castle, from whom Guildford descended through his paternal grandfather. This was Edmund Dudley, a councillor of Henry VII, who, in 1510, after the accession of Henry VIII, was executed. Through his father's mother, Elizabeth Grey, 6th Baroness Lisle, Guildford descended from the Hundred Years War heroes, Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, and John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury.

The thirteen Dudley children grew up in a Protestant household and received a humanist education. Under the young King Edward VI, Guildford's father became Lord President of the Council and de facto ruled England from 1550 to 1553. The chronicler Richard Grafton, who knew him, described Guildford as "a comely, virtuous and goodly gentleman". In 1552 Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to arrange a marriage between Guildford and Margaret Clifford. Instead, in the spring of 1553, Guildford was engaged to the sixteen-year-old Jane Grey. Jane Grey and Margaret Clifford were both great-granddaughters of King Henry VII, but Jane figured higher in the line of succession. On 25 May 1553, three weddings were celebrated at Durham Place, the Duke of Northumberland's town mansion. Guildford married Jane; his sister Katherine married Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir; and Jane's sister Katherine married Lord Herbert, the heir of the Earl of Pembroke. It was a magnificent festival, with jousts, games, and masques. For the latter, two different companies had been booked, one male, one female. The Venetian and French ambassadors were guests, and there were "large numbers of the common people ... and of the most principal of the realm". Guildford and some others suffered an attack of food poisoning, because of "a mistake made by a cook, who plucked one leaf for another".

Claimed kingship
King Edward, in his "Devise of the Succession", settled the Crown on Jane Grey, his first cousin once removed, bypassing his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. After Edward's death on 6 July 1553, the Duke of Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King's will. The envoys of the Holy Roman Empire and France were sure of the plan's success. Jane was reluctant to accept the Crown: she gave in after remonstrances by an assembly of nobles, including her parents and in-laws, while Guildford chimed in with a lovelier approach, with "prayers and caresses". On 10 July Jane and Guildford made their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London. Residing in there, Guildford wanted to be made king; according to her own later account, Jane had a long discussion about this with Guildford, who "assented that if he were to be made king, he would be so by me, by Act of Parliament". However, Jane would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence; Guildford replied that he did not want to be a duke, but the king. When the Duchess of Northumberland heard of the argument, she became furious and forbade Guildford to sleep any longer with his wife. She also commanded him to leave the Tower and go home, but Jane insisted that he remain at court at her side.

According to later remarks by the Imperial ambassadors, the daily Council meetings were presided over by Guildford, who allegedly also dined in state alone and had himself addressed in regal style. Antoine de Noailles, the French ambassador, described Guildford as "the new King". The Imperial court in Brussels also believed in the existence of King Guildford.

Imprisonment
On 10 July, the same day as Jane's proclamation, a letter from Mary Tudor arrived in London, saying that she was now queen and demanding the obedience of the Council. Mary was assembling her supporters in East Anglia; it was decided to take the field against her after some discussion over who should go, in which Jane made sure that her father should not. The Duke of Northumberland marched to Cambridge with his troops and passed a week that saw no action until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary. Northumberland proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the marketplace and was arrested the next morning. On 19 July, a few hours before Queen Mary I's proclamation in London, the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners' children took place. Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child's name to be Guildford. The Bishop of Winchester, Stephen Gardiner, who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years, took great offence at this fact as he heard of it.

A majority of the Privy Council moved out of the Tower before switching their allegiance. Becoming aware of his colleagues' change of mind, Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, abandoned his command of the fortress and proclaimed Mary I on nearby Tower Hill. After he had left, his wife was told she could also go home, while Jane, Guildford, and the Duchess of Northumberland were not allowed to. Jane was later moved from the royal apartments to the Gentleman Gaoler's lodgings and Guildford was imprisoned in the Bell Tower. There he was soon joined by his brother, Robert. His remaining brothers were imprisoned in other towers, as was his father, who was for the moment the only prominent person to go to the scaffold; Mary was prepared to spare Jane's and Guildford's lives, concluding that they were mere pawns in Northumberland's scheme.

Jane and Guildford were indicted on 12 August, and Jane submitted a letter of explanation to the Queen, "asking forgiveness ... for the sin she was accused of, informing her majesty about the truth of events." In this account, she spoke of herself as "a wife who loves her husband". On 13 November 1553, Jane and Guildford were tried at Guildhall, together with Archbishop Cranmer and Guildford's brothers Ambrose and Henry. They were all convicted of high treason after pleading guilty. Guildford was convicted of compassing to depose Queen Mary I by sending troops to the Duke of Northumberland and by proclaiming and honouring Jane as queen.

In December, Jane was allowed to walk freely in the Queen's Garden. Lord Robert and Lord Guildford had to be content with taking the air on the leads of the Bell Tower. Jane and Guildford may have had some contact with each other, and at some point Guildford wrote a message to his father-in-law in Jane's prayer book: Your loving and obedient son wishes unto your grace long life in this world with as much joy and comfort as ever I wish to myself, and in the world to come joy everlasting. Your humble son to his death, G. Dudley

Execution
Queen Mary I's plan to marry King Philip of Naples and Sicily (the future Philip II of Spain) was greeted with widespread opposition, not just among the populace but also among Members of Parliament and privy councillors. Thomas Wyatt's rebellion in early 1554, in which the Duke of Suffolk took part, resulted from this dislike. It was not the intention of the conspirators to bring Jane Grey to the throne again. Nevertheless, at the height of the military crisis around 7 February, the government decided to execute Jane and her husband for high treason, of which they had both been found guilty. It was also an opportunity to remove possible inspirations for future unrest and unwelcome reminders of the past. It troubled Mary to let her cousin die, but she accepted the Privy Council's advice. Bishop Gardiner pressed for the young couple's execution in a court sermon, and the Imperial ambassador Simon Renard was happy to report that "Jane of Suffolk and her husband are to lose their heads."

The day before their executions, Guildford asked Jane for a last meeting, which she refused, explaining it "would only ... increase their misery and pain, it was better to put it off ... as they would meet shortly elsewhere, and live bound by indissoluble ties." Around ten o'clock in the morning of 12 February, Guildford was led towards Tower Hill, where "many ... gentlemen" waited to shake hands with him. Guildford made a short speech to the assembled crowd, as was customary. "Having no ghostly father with him", he knelt, prayed, and asked the people to pray for him, "holding up his eyes and hands to God many times". He was killed with one stroke of the axe, after which his body was conveyed on a cart to the Tower chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Watching the scene from her window, Jane exclaimed: "Oh, Guildford, Guildford!" He was buried in the chapel with Jane, who was dead within the hour.

The executions did not contribute to Mary's or the government's popularity. Five months after the couple's death, John Knox, the famous Scottish reformer, wrote of them as "innocents ... such as by just laws and faithful witnesses can never be proved to have offended by themselves." Of Guildford, the chronicler Grafton wrote ten years later: "even those that never before the time of his execution saw him, did with lamentable tears bewail his death."

In popular culture
Lord Guildford Dudley was portrayed by John Mills in the 1936 film Tudor Rose, Cary Elwes in the 1986 film Lady Jane, Jacob Avery in the 2022 drama series Becoming Elizabeth, and Edward Bluemel in the 2024 television series My Lady Jane.

title: Lord Guildford Dudley


text:
Omelette

An omelette (also spelled omelet) is a dish made from eggs, fried with butter or oil in a frying pan. It is a common practice for an omelette to include fillings such as chives, vegetables, mushrooms, meat (often ham or bacon), cheese, onions or some combination of the above. Whole eggs or egg whites are often beaten with a small amount of milk, cream, or water.

History
The earliest omelettes are believed to have originated in ancient Persia. According to Breakfast: A History, they were "nearly indistinguishable" from the Iranian dish kookoo sabzi.

According to Alan Davidson, the French word omelette came into use during the mid-16th century, but the versions alumelle and alumete are employed by the Ménagier de Paris (II, 4 and II, 5) in 1393. Rabelais (Gargantua and Pantagruel, IV, 9) mentions an homelaicte d'oeufs, Olivier de Serres an amelette, François Pierre La Varenne's Le cuisinier françois (1651) has aumelette, and the modern omelette appears in Cuisine bourgeoise (1784).

Alexandre Dumas discusses several variations of omelette in his Grand dictionnaire de cuisine. One is an omelette with fresh herbs (parsley, chives and tarragon), another is a variation with mushrooms that Dumas says may be adapted using green peas, asparagus, spinach, sorrel or varieties of truffles. The "kirsch omelette " (or rum omelette) is a sweet omelette made with sugar and liquor, either kirsh or rum. The omelette is rolled and sprinkled with powdered sugar. A hot poker is used to burn a design into the omelette and it is served with a sweet sauce made of liquor and apricot jam. Another sweet omelette, attributed to a royal cook of Prussia, is made with apples and brown sugar glaze. Of the Arabian omelette, Dumas writes "I have been concerned in this book to give the recipes of peoples who have no true cuisine. Here, for example, is a recipe the Bey's cook was good enough to give me." The omelette itself is made with an ostrich egg and served with a spicy tomato-pepper sauce.

China

 * Egg foo young, a Cantonese omelette made with beaten eggs and usually ham.
 * An oyster omelette, a dish of Hokkien and Teochew origin made with oysters, starch and egg batter

France

 * Depending on sources, a standard omelette is cooked in butter on medium (or sometimes high ) heat, is supposed to be golden brown or "unbrowned or very lightly browned" on the outside and soft in the inside (though variations are possible according to preferences ); according to some American cookbooks reflecting high-end restaurant practices, a "French Omelette" should be unbrowned, cooked slowly over medium-low to medium heat, with initial stirring to prevent curds and sticking. Seasoned with just salt and pepper, this omelette is often flavored with finely chopped herbs (often fines herbes or tarragon, chervil, parsley and chives) or chopped onions.
 * The omelette de la mère Poulard, a Norman specialty first developed in Mont-Saint-Michel, has been called the most famous omelette in the world. It is served without fillings but often served with heavy garnishes.
 * The Provençal omelette is more similar to a frittata than to a traditional rolled or folded French omelette. The eggs are cooked like a traditional French omelette until the time any fillings are added; instead of adding fillings in a strip or on half the omelette, they are scattered over the entire surface of the omelette, and then the entire omelette is flipped and slipped back into the pan to cook what had been the top and is now the bottom. A tourne omelette or vire omelette, a concave platter similar to a cake plate, is often used as an aid and can be used to serve the finished omelette. According to Bernard Duplessy the tourne omelette dates to "several centuries before Christ".
 * Crespéou, another Provençal dish (also called gateau d'omelettes or omelettes en sandwich), is made by stacking open-faced omelettes.

India

 * In Parsi cuisine, pora is an omelette made from eggs, onion, tomato, green chillies, and coriander leaves. It is usually served for breakfast with Indian/Irani tea and bread.

Indonesia

 * In Betawi cuisine, kerak telor is a traditional spicy omelette that made from glutinous rice cooked with egg and served with serundeng (fried shredded coconut), fried shallots and dried shrimp as topping.
 * Fuyunghai or puyonghai is a Chinese Indonesian omelette, usually made from the mixture of vegetables such as carrots, bean sprouts, and cabbages, mixed with meats such as crab, shrimp, or minced chicken.

Iran

 * Kuku is an omelette frequently containing large proportions of other ingredients, including herbs, folded in.
 * Nargesi or spinach omelette is an Iranian dish, made with fried onions and spinach, and is spiced with salt, garlic, and pepper.

Italy

 * A frittata is an open-faced Italian omelette that can contain cheese, vegetables, or even leftover pasta. Frittatas are cooked slowly. Except for the cooking oil, all ingredients are fully mixed with the eggs before cooking starts.

Japan

 * In Japan, tamagoyaki is a traditional omelette in which eggs are beaten with mirin, soy sauce, bonito flakes, sugar and water, and cooked in a special rectangular frying pan.
 * Omurice (from the French word "omelette" and English word "rice") is an omelette filled with fried rice and usually served with a large amount of tomato ketchup. Omu-soba is an omelette with yakisoba as its filling. There are several styles of this dish, including omelette cooked and filled with fried rice, a soft-cooked omelette served over the fried rice that is then sliced open, and a "tornado" style omelette over the rice.
 * Tenshindon is a Japanese-Chinese specialty, consisting of a crab meat omelette on rice.

Korea
In Korean cuisine, traditional omelettes are known as gyeran-mari (계란말이, "rolled-eggs") which is a type of savory banchan. Gyeran-mari is made with beaten eggs, mixed with finely diced vegetables, meats, and seafood. This side dish is often found in Korean banquet (janchi) meals, as well as Korean fast food (bunsik) restaurants.

Mexico and Central America
While the Spanish terms tortilla (in Spain) and torta (in the Philippines) are applied to an omelette dish, in Mexico & Central America tortilla is a term for a flatbread made of wheat or corn, while torta is used for a type of sandwich. An omelette in Mexico (& Central America) is sometimes termed as tortilla de huevos, still, the term omelette is widely used.

Philippines
In the Philippines, omelettes are known as torta, usually encountered with the enclitic -ng ("tortang") indicating it modifies the next word (the main ingredient); e.g. tortang hipon = torta ("omelette") + -ng and hipon ("shrimp"), meaning "shrimp omelette". There are many types of torta which are named based on their main ingredients. They include:

 * Tortang alamang or tortang hipon - an omelette with krill or small shrimp. Also known as shrimp fritters, although this term usually refers to okoy, a fritter made with shrimp and various vegetables (as well as other variations without shrimp).
 * Tortang carne norte - an omelette made from corned beef mixed with eggs. A common cheap breakfast dish.
 * Tortang dulong or maranay - an omelette, usually crispy, made with tiny fish from the family Salangidae known as dulong in Tagalog and ipon, libgao, or maranay in Visayan. It is sometimes called okoy, though traditional okoy is not an omelette, but rather a type of fritter made with glutinous rice.
 * Tortang giniling or tortang picadillo - an omelette with ground meat (usually beef or pork) and sautéed vegetables.
 * Tortang gulay - an omelette with peppers, mushrooms, onion, and garlic.
 * Tortang kalabasa - an omelette made with finely julienned calabaza, eggs, flour, and salt.
 * Tortang kamote - an omelette made with mashed sweet potato, eggs, flour, and salt.
 * Tortang sardinas - an omelette made with shredded canned smoked sardines (tinapa)
 * Tortang talong - an eggplant omelet with whole grilled eggplants. Versions stuffed with ground meat (giniling) and vegetables are called relyenong talong.

Pontic Greeks

 * Foustoron is an omelette made by the Pontic Greeks. Foustoron is made with eggs fried in butter or oil; the omelette can be served plain or seasoned. Some modern varieties include yogurt and cheese. The recipe varied widely by region: some recipes included onion and dried red peppers, while others did not.

Spain

 * The Spanish tortilla de patatas, or tortilla española in other Spanish-speaking countries, is a traditional and very popular thick omelette containing sliced potatoes sautéed in cooking oil. It often includes sliced onions (tortilla de patata con cebolla) and less commonly other additional fillings, such as cheese, bell peppers, or diced ham.

Thailand

 * In Thai cuisine, a traditional omelette is called khai chiao ไข่เจียว (khai meaning "egg", and chiao meaning oil-fried), in which the beaten egg mixture and a small quantity of fish sauce is deep fried in a wok filled with 1-2 cups of vegetable oil and served over steamed rice. The dish is usually served with Sriracha sauce and cilantro. A variation on this dish is khai chiao songkhrueang, where the plain egg omelette is served together with a stir-fry of meat and vegetables. Yet another type of Thai omelette is khai yat sai, literally "eggs filled with stuffing".

United Kingdom
An omelette Arnold Bennett incorporates smoked haddock, hard cheese (typically Cheddar), and cream. It was created by the chef Jean Baptiste Virlogeux at the Savoy Grill in London for the writer Arnold Bennett, who was a frequent customer. Cooks including Marcus Wareing to Delia Smith and Gordon Ramsay have published recipes for it.

United States

 * A Denver omelette, also known as a Southwest omelette or Western omelette, is an omelette filled with diced ham, onions, and green bell peppers, though there are many variations on fillings. Often served in the Southwestern United States, this omelette sometimes has a topping of cheese and a side dish of hash browns or fried potatoes.
 * A hangtown fry, containing bacon and breaded oysters, is an omelette that originated in Placerville, California, during the Gold Rush.
 * An egg white omelette is a variation which omits the yolks to remove fat and cholesterol, which reside exclusively in the yolk portion of an egg.

title: Omelette