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Johann Gottfried Eichhorn

Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (16 October 1752, in Dörrenzimmern – 27 June 1827, in Göttingen) was a German Protestant theologian of the Enlightenment and an early orientalist. He was a member of the Göttingen school of history.

Education and early career
Born at Dörrenzimmern (now part of the city of Ingelfingen), in the Principality of Hohenlohe-Oehringen, Eichhorn was educated at the state school in Weikersheim, where his father was superintendent, at the gymnasium at Heilbronn and at the University of Göttingen (1770–1774), studying under Johann David Michaelis. In 1774 he received the rectorship of the gymnasium at Ohrdruf, in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha.

Professorship in Jena 1775–1788
In 1775 he was made professor of Oriental languages at the Faculty of Theology at Jena University. His published habilitation lecture was about "monetary matters of the early Arabs (De rei numariae apud Arabas initiis)" on the basis of the chronicle of Makin ibn al-'Amid. Later he edited the "Briefe über das arabische Münzwesen" by Johann Jacob Reiske. As a supplement to it he compiled the first commentated bibliography of Islamic numismatics in 1786 with more than 100 pages. It is still a reference tool for numismatic literature prior to this date. He also edited some historical works of the Reiske, who died 1774. Eichhorn was acquainted with him from time of his study in Göttingen.

During his professorship in Jena he wrote his seminal Introduction to the Old Testament (Einleitung in das Alte Testament) which was a breakthrough in the historical understanding of the Pentateuch. In 1776 he founded the first important journal for Oriental studies, the Repertorium für biblische und morgenländische Litteratur, which he edited until 1788.

Professorship in Göttingen 1788-1827
In 1788 he was elected professor ordinarius at Göttingen, where he lectured not only on Oriental languages and on the exegesis of the Old and New Testaments, but also on political history. Eichhorn was elected a corresponding member, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1815. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1825. His health was shattered in 1825, but he continued his lectures until attacked by fever on 14 June 1827. His son, Karl Friedrich, became a famous jurist.

Achievements in theology
Eichhorn has been called "the founder of modern Old Testament criticism." He recognized its scope and problems, and began many of its most important discussions. "My greatest trouble," he says in the preface to the second edition of his Einleitung, "I had to bestow on a hitherto unworked field--on the investigation of the inner nature of the Old Testament with the help of the Higher Criticism (not a new name to any humanist)." His investigations led him to the conclusion that "most of the writings of the Hebrews have passed through several hands." He took for granted that all the supernatural events related in the Old and New Testaments were explicable on natural principles. He sought to judge them from the standpoint of the ancient world, and to account for them by the superstitious beliefs which were then generally in vogue. He did not perceive in the biblical books any religious ideas of much importance for modern times; they interested him merely historically and for the light they cast upon antiquity.

He regarded many books of the Old Testament as spurious, questioned the genuineness of the First and Second letters of Peter and the Epistle of Jude, denied the Pauline authorship of the First and Second letters to Timothy and to Titus. He suggested that the canonical gospels were based upon various translations and editions of a primary Aramaic gospel, but did not appreciate as sufficiently as David Strauss and the Tübingen critics the difficulties which a natural theory has to surmount, nor did he support his conclusions by such elaborate discussions as they deemed necessary. He challenged the Augustinian hypothesis solution to the synoptic problem and proposed an original gospel hypothesis (1804) which argued that there was a lost Aramaic original gospel that each of the Synoptic evangelists had in a different form.

Selected bibliography

 * Geschichte des Ostindischen Handels vor Mohammed (Gotha, 1775)
 * De rei numariae apud arabas initiis (Jena 1776)
 * Allgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur (10 vols., Leipzig, 1787–1801)
 * Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5 vols., Leipzig, 1780–1783)
 * Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1804–1812)
 * Einleitung in die apokryphischen Bücher des Alten Testaments (Göttingen, 1795)
 * Commentarius in apocalypsin Joannis (2 vols., Göttingen, 1791)
 * Die Hebr. Propheten (3 vols., Göttingen, 1816–1819)
 * Allgemeine Geschichte der Cultur und Literatur des neuern Europa (2 vols., Göttingen, 1796–1799)
 * Literargeschichte (1st vol., Göttingen, 1799, 2nd ed. 1813, 2nd vol. 1814)
 * Geschichte der Literatur von ihrem Anfänge bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (5 vols., Göttingen, 1805–1812)
 * Übersicht der Französischer Revolution (2 vols., Göttingen, 1797)
 * Weltgeschichte (3rd ed., 5 vols., Göttingen, 1819–1820)
 * Geschichte der drei letzten Jahrhunderte (3rd ed., 6 vols., Hanover, 1817–1818)
 * Urgeschichte des erlauchten Hauses der Welfen (Hanover, 1817).

title: Johann Gottfried Eichhorn


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Karl Friedrich Eichhorn

Karl Friedrich Eichhorn (20 November 1781 – 4 July 1854) was a German jurist.

Eichhorn was born in Jena as the son of Johann Gottfried Eichhorn. He entered the University of Göttingen in 1797. In 1805 he obtained the professorship of law at Frankfurt (Oder), holding it until 1811, when he accepted the same chair at the new Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. On the call to arms in 1813 he became a captain of horse, and received the Iron Cross at the end of the war.

In 1817 he was offered the chair of law at Göttingen, and, preferring it to the Berlin professorship, taught there with great success until ill-health compelled him to resign in 1828. His successor in the Berlin chair having died in 1832, he again entered on its duties, but resigned two years afterwards. In 1832 he also received an appointment in the ministry of foreign affairs, which, with his labours on many state committees and his legal researches and writings, occupied him until his death at Cologne. He was furthermore a member of the Prussian Supreme Tribunal.

Eichhorn was regarded as one of the principal authorities on German constitutional law. His chief work is Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte (Göttingen, 1808– 1823, 5th ed. 1843–1844). In company with Friedrich Carl von Savigny and Johann Friedrich Ludwig Göschen he founded the Zeitschrift für geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft. He was the author besides of Einleitung in das deutsche Privatrecht mit Einschluss des Lehenrechts (Gött., 1823) and the Grundsätze des Kirchenrechts der Katholischen und der Evangelischen Religionspartei in Deutschland, 2 Bde. (ib., 1831– 1833).

Awards and decorations

 * Iron Cross of 1813
 * Pour le Mérite for Arts and Sciences (1842)
 * Order of the Red Eagle (Prussia, 1847)
 * Maximilian Order for Science and Art (Bavaria, 1853)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Karl Friedrich Eichhorn


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Karl Friedrich

Karl Friedrich may refer to:

 * Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden (1728–1811)
 * Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1700–1739)
 * Karl Friedrich, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (1712–1743)
 * Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern (born 1952)
 * Karl Friedrich (tenor) (1905–1981)
 * Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1724–1785)

title: Karl Friedrich


text:
Talk:King David Hotel bombing

The source linked to for the "60th anniversary events" does not talk about "events"
It talks about one small event primarily composed of former IZL members, and Netanyahu is misquoted.

George Marantz
Should the article mention George Marantz, referring the Haaretz article and/or its republished text ? Mcljlm (talk) 02:48, 9 May 2021 (UTC)

 * It's an interesting story but, without any further indication that it might be true or any reliable source confirming that the story itself was of historical importance, I think it is too fringe. As an aside (original research warning) the idea that the Hagana gave money to the Irgun to carry out the attack is perfectly plausible but the amount of 70,000 pounds is impossibly high. I don't believe the Hagana had such large amounts to give away (equivalent to over 3 million pounds today). Zerotalk 04:10, 9 May 2021 (UTC)
 * One interesting aspect of the Haaretz article is that it has a photograph of the hotel, likely taken from the YMCA, as the bomb went off. The article includes a photo of the document in the Haganah archives, which it might be worthwhile having translated.     ←   ZScarpia  20:37, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

Mirror newspaper: eyewitness account published the day after the bombing.
On the occasion of the UK's Prince William staying at the King David Hotel in 2018, the Mirror published an article which had the report on the bombing published the day afterwards appended. Journalist Barbara Broad was entering the hotel as the bomb went off. Of particular interest in her report is the inclusion, at the end, of what Emil Christian, the telephone operator at the hotel who received the bomb warning, told her.

Mirror - Steve Myall - King David Hotel bombing killed 91 and struck at heart of British rule in Palestine - now Prince William is staying there, 26 June 2018: ''Daily Mirror reporter Barbara Broad was walking in through the hotel entrance when the bomb exploded. ... In an hotel telephone booth I talked with Emil Christian, Arab telephone operator who received a telephone message from one of the terrorists a few moments before the explosion. "A voice suddenly came on the line saying, 'The building has been mined. You have four minutes to escape,'" Emil told me. The line then went dead while the operator tried vainly to give warning in time to the hotel military headquarters and secretariat.''

   ←   ZScarpia  20:48, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

"Warnings" subsection
Someone with authority to edit this article certainly needs to fix the link to "Palestine Post" in this subsection as it links not to the predecessor paper to The Jerusalem Post but rather to the current postal organisation servicing The Territories. This is a fairly egregious error. 72.105.77.191 (talk) 03:14, 6 September 2021 (UTC)

 * Fixed. Zerotalk 03:52, 6 September 2021 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 19 August 2022
Add this to the category of Attacks on buildings and structures in Jerusalem as seen here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_buildings_and_structures_in_Jerusalem HistoryResearcher101 (talk) 18:39, 19 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Okay, don't see a reason why not. Done. Iskandar323 (talk) 19:13, 19 August 2022 (UTC)

"Terrorist attack"?
"The King David Hotel bombing was a terrorist attack"? From past discussions in Wikipedia I was told that the official policy of Wikipedia is not to take sides and identify an attack or organization as terroristic, which is why Hamas and Second Intifada are not classified as such. Is there an explanation for these double standards? 2A00:A040:197:1220:9095:D57C:54E5:D02F (talk) 12:32, 15 September 2022 (UTC)

 * All of those pages make reference to terrorism, so I'm not sure where this double standard claim is coming from. However, in this particular instances, the terroristic nature of the act is particularly well attested in reliable sources, our go-to, including tertiary ones such as the Encyclopedia of terrorism. This page also has a section that explains at length why the act was considered terroristic, alongside Irgun itself, which was condemned by all the authorities involved. "Irgun was branded a terrorist organisation by Britain, the 1946 Zionist Congress and the Jewish Agency." Iskandar323 (talk) 13:57, 15 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Lots of attacks are called terrorist attacks on WP, so you are mistaken (just for example, Afula mall bombing, but lots more). The Second Intifada wasnt a terrorist attack, and the views on Hamas are wider than "terroristic".  nableezy  - 14:20, 15 September 2022 (UTC)
 * I recommend taking a look at this article's talkpage archives.     ←   ZScarpia  19:41, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:King David Hotel bombing


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Gooney bird

Gooney bird may refer to:

 * Albatross or gooney bird
 * Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Gooney Bird, a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner
 * Gooney Bird character in The "Hard Luck Bears" animatronic show: see Aaron Fechter

title: Gooney bird


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Heinrich Ewald

Georg Heinrich August Ewald (16 November 1803 – 4 May 1875) was a German orientalist, Protestant theologian, and Biblical exegete. He studied at the University of Göttingen. In 1827 he became extraordinary professor there, in 1831 ordinary professor of theology, and in 1835 professor of oriental languages. In 1837, as a member of the Göttingen Seven, he lost his position at Göttingen on account of his protest against King Ernst August's abrogation of the liberal constitution, and became professor of theology at the University of Tübingen. In 1848, he returned to his old position at Göttingen. When Hanover was annexed by Prussia in 1866, Ewald became a defender of the rights of the ex-king. Among his chief works are: Complete Course on the Hebrew Language (Ausführliches Lehrbuch der hebräischen Sprache), The Poetical Books of the Old Testament (Die poetischen Bücher des alten Bundes), History of the People of Israel (Geschichte des Volkes Israel), and Antiquities of the People of Israel (Die Altertümer des Volkes Israel). Ewald represented the city of Hanover as a member of the Guelph faction in the North German and German Diets.

Life
Ewald was born at Göttingen where his father was a linen weaver. In 1815 he was sent to the gymnasium, and in 1820 he entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied with J.G. Eichhorn and T. C. Tychsen, specialising in oriental languages. At the close of his academic studies in 1823 he was appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium at Wolfenbüttel, and made a study of the oriental manuscripts in the Wolfenbüttel library. But in the spring of 1824 he was recalled to Göttingen as theological tutor (Repetent), and in 1827 (the year of Eichhorn's death) he became professor extraordinarius in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament exegesis. In 1830, Ewald married Wilhelmine Gauss (1808–1840), the daughter of mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Of all of Gauss's children, Wilhelmina was said to have come closest to her father's talent, but she died in 1840. In 1831 Heinrich Ewald was promoted to professor ordinarius in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen's death, he entered the faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.

Two years later occurred the first important episode in Ewald's studious life. In 1837, on 18 November, along with six of his colleagues he signed a formal protest against the action of King Ernst August in abolishing the liberal constitution of 1833, which had been granted to the House of Hanover by his predecessor William IV. This procedure of the seven professors led to their expulsion from the university (14 December). Early in 1838 Ewald received a call to Tübingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a chair as professor ordinarius, first in philosophy and afterwards, from 1841, in theology. To this period belong some of his most important works, and also the commencement of his bitter feud with F.C. Baur and the Tübingen school. In 1847, "the great shipwreck-year in Germany," as he has called it, he was invited back to Göttingen on honourable terms—the liberal constitution having been restored. He accepted the invitation.

In 1845, Ewald remarried, this time to Auguste Schleiermacher (1822–1897); the couple had a daughter in 1850 who was named Caroline Therese Wilhelmine.

In 1862-1863 Ewald took an active part in a movement for reform within the Hanoverian Church, and he was a member of the synod which passed the new constitution. He had an important share also in the formation of the Protestantenverein, or Protestant association, in September 1863. But the chief crisis in his life arose out of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. His loyalty to King George V of Hanover (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to take the oath of allegiance to the victorious King William I of Prussia, and he was therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount of his salary as pension.

This degree of severity might have been held by the Prussian authorities to be unnecessary, had Ewald been less hostile in his language. The violent tone of some of his printed manifestoes about this time, especially of his Lob des Königs u. des Volkes, led to his being deprived of the venia legendi (1868) and also to a criminal trial, which, however, resulted in his acquittal (May 1869). Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was returned by the city of Hanover as a member of the North German and German parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on Otto von Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick the Great in "his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion and morality," to Napoleon III in his way of "picking out the best time possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence he was sentenced to undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He died in Göttingen in his 72nd year, of heart disease.

Influence
In his public life Ewald displayed characteristics such as simplicity and sincerity, moral earnestness, independence, absolute fearlessness. As a teacher he had a remarkable power of kindling enthusiasm; and he taught many distinguished pupils, including August Schleicher, Ferdinand Hitzig, Eberhard Schrader, Theodor Noldeke, Diestel and Christian Friedrich August Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school, but many eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which he suggested.

Ewald's Hebrew Grammar inaugurated a new era in biblical philology. Subsequent works in that department were avowedly based on his, and Hitzig referred to him as "the second founder of the science of the Hebrew language." He made important contributions as an exegete, biblical critic and grammarian. In particular, his Geschichte des Volkes Israel, the result of thirty years' labour, was important in that branch of research.

Taking up the idea of a divine education of the human race, and firmly believing that Providence assigned a special task to each of the leading nations of antiquity, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel's place in universal history, or about the problem which that race had been called upon to solve. The history of Israel, according to him, was the history how humanity acquired one true religion, beginning with the exodus and culminating in the appearing of Jesus.

The historical interval that separated these two events is treated as naturally dividing itself into three great periods—those of Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are externally indicated by the successive names by which the chosen people were called—Hebrews, Israelites, Jews. The events prior to the exodus are relegated by Ewald to a preliminary chapter of primitive history; and the events of the apostolic and post-apostolic age are treated as a kind of appendix. The entire construction of the history is based on a critical examination and chronological arrangement of the available documents.

Works
The more important of Ewald's works are:

 * Die Composition der Genesis kritisch untersucht (1823), an attempt to account for the use of the two names of God without recourse to the documentary hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanently convinced by it.
 * De metris carminum Arabicorum (1825)
 * Des Hohelied Salomons übersetzt und erklärt (1826; 3rd ed, 1866)
 * Über einige ältere Sanskritmetra (1827)
 * Kritische Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache (Leipzig 1827), was abridged and published under a new title: Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache (Leipzig 1828); 2nd ed. of the abridged version (Leipzig 1835) [English translation of the 1835 ed. by John Nicholson (1809–1886): A Grammar of the Hebrew Language of the Old Testament (London 1836)]; 3rd ed. (Leipzig 1838). The subsequent editions [numbered 5th to 8th] were published under the title of Ausführliches Lehrbuch der hebräischen Sprache, 5th ed. (Leipzig 1844); 6th ed. (Leipzig 1855); 7th ed. (Göttingen 1863); 8th ed. (Göttingen 1870). English translation of the third part (Syntax) of the 1870 ed., by James Kennedy: Syntax of the Hebrew Language of the Old Testament (Edinburgh 1879; 1891).
 * Hebräische Sprachlehre für Anfänger (Leipzig 1842); 2nd ed. (Leipzig 1855); 3rd ed. (Göttingen 1862) [English translation of the 1862 ed. by J. Frederick Smith: Ewald's Introductory Hebrew Grammar (London: Asher 1870)]; 4th ed. (Göttingen 1874).
 * Liber Vakedu de Mesopotamiae expugnatae historia (1827)
 * Commentarius in Apocalypsin Johannis (1828)
 * Abhandlungen zur biblischen und orientalischen Literatur (1832)
 * Grammatica critica linguae Arabicae (1831–1833)
 * Die poetischen Bücher des alten Bundes (1835–1837, 3rd ed, 1866–1867)
 * Plan dieser Zeitschrift. In: Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 1 (1837), pp. 3–13.
 * Verzeichniss der orientalischen Handschriften der Universitätsbibliothek zu Tübingen (1839)
 * Die Propheten des alten Bundes (1840-1841, 2nd ed., 1867-1868 [English translation: Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament in five volumes, 1875]
 * Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1843-1859, 3rd ed., 1864-1868 [English translation: The History of Israel in eight volumes, 1869-1883]
 * Die Alterthümer des Volkes Israel (1848, 3rd ed., 1866)
 * Die drei ersten Evangelien übersetzt u. erklärt (1850)
 * Über das äthiopische Buch Henoch (1854)
 * Über die phönikischen Ansichten von der Weltschöpfung und den geschichtlichen Wert Sanchuniathons (1857)
 * Die Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus übersetzt und erklärt (1857)
 * Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (3 parts, 1861–71)
 * Die Johanneischen Schriften übersetzt und erklärt (1861–1862)
 * Über des vierte Esrabuch (1863)
 * The Life of Jesus Christ (1865) (translated from German by Octavius Glover) (1865)
 * Sieben Sendschreiben des neuen Bundes (1870)
 * Das Sendschreiben an die Hebräer und Jakobos' Rundschreiben (1870)
 * Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, oder Theologie des alten und neuen Bundes (1871–1875).
 * Das Buch Ijob (1854) [English translation of the 1882 edition by J. Frederick Smith: Commentary on the book of Job ISBN 0-8370-3085-4 ]
 * Commentary on the Psalms (2019) ISBN 978-0530138312

The Jahrbücher der biblischen Wissenschaft (1849–1865) were edited, and for the most part written, by him. He was the chief promoter of the Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, begun in 1837; and he frequently contributed on various subjects to the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen. He was also the author of many pamphlets.

title: Heinrich Ewald


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Talk:Persuasion

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Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:27, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Persuasion


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Monato

Monato is a monthly magazine produced in Esperanto which carries articles on politics, culture and economics. It is printed in Belgium and distributed to readers in 65 countries. The title simply means "month".

It has 100 correspondents in 45 countries and only prints articles originally written in Esperanto and not published elsewhere.

In style, content and appearance it could be likened to Time Magazine or Newsweek; however, a key difference is that its articles are produced by the residents of the country concerned, rather than by foreign correspondents.

Semajno
In 1977 Stefan Maul was editor of the German newspaper Weltbild and received the task to develop Zenit, a new newspaper for the older generation. Although the project failed due to several independent factors from Maul, he became expert about the creation of a new publication, the testing of the market and other similar necessary steps. That gave strength to his old dream: to publish a weekly newspaper in Esperanto, not about Esperanto itself, but on general issues such as politics, economics, science and much more.

In 1978 Maul realized his dream. He printed a sample of Semajno ("week" in Esperanto), a 40-page number DIN A4-formed, black-white illustrated, with articles about terrorism, the Olympic games in Moscow in 1980, about the political situation in Spain, about gerontology and much more. This edition paid from his own pocket. He calculated that the project would succeed if Semajno had 10,000 subscribers but he did not reach that amount at all. Maul left the idea and considered it had lost a beautiful dream.

Monato
Torben Kehlet, whose firm "TK / Stafeto" had already published many books and had its own printing press suggested publishing the magazine not weekly, but monthly. Maul was not sure it would be a good idea because in his opinion a monthly magazine can not be relevant. However, Kehlet managed to convince him. Instead of relevance, the magazine can offer in-depth analytical articles written by the residents of the countries in question.

In January 1980 the first issue of the magazine Monato was published by the firm "TK/Stafeto", which assumed financial risks. Torben Kehlet himself printed and distributed the magazine. The annual subscription (12 numbers) cost 800 Belgian francs, to pay for the project it needed 2000 subscribers.

Stefan Maul became the editor-in-chief of Monato; he assembled a group of competent employees (Maria Becker-Meisberger, Marjorie Bolton, Margret Brandenburg, Eugène de Zila, Bernard Golden, Trevor Steel, Eduard Symoens, etc.). At the end of the first year, Monato conducted a survey among readers. It turned out that 28% read the magazine in full and 60% read the most.

Due to some difficulties of "TK/Stafeto", UEA took over the publication of Monato and was ready at its own expense to provide subscribers with the remaining numbers of 1984, and from 1985 to publish a magazine. In the doubled number 5/6 for 1984 there was an announcement Monato continues to live". In the same issue, several pages were devoted to readers' reactions to the alleged death of the magazine.

In the mid-1980s, UEA opened offices not only in Antwerp, but also in Budapest and New York. However, in 1988 the association began to close additional offices. The director of the Antwerp graphic center, Paŭl Peeraerts, was informed that all employees will be dismissed and the office closed. Since the graphic center carried out the administration and publication of Monato, closing the office would also mean closing the magazine, because there was no money for printing and printing the magazine in another firm.

However, the existence of the Antwerp graphic center had strengthened the local Esperanto movement in Flanders. Negotiations ensued between the UEA and the Flanders League of Esperanto, and soon after the FLE took over the equipment and the team, namely Guido Baeyens, Hugo Fontyn, Gerd Jacques, Paŭl Peeraerts, Guido van Damme and Jean-Pierre VandenDaele. Since then the Monato has been continuously published by the Flanders Esperanto League.

title: Monato


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Eberhard Schrader

Eberhard Schrader (7 January 1836 – 4 July 1908) was a German orientalist primarily known for his achievements in Assyriology.

Biography
He was born at Braunschweig, and educated at Göttingen under Ewald. In 1858 he won a university prize for a treatise on the Ethiopian languages, and in 1863 became professor of theology at the University of Zürich. Subsequently, he occupied chairs at Giessen (1870) and Jena (1873), and finally became professor of Oriental languages at the Friedrich Wilhelm University, Berlin in 1878. Though he turned first to biblical research, his chief achievements were in the field of Assyriology, in which he was a pioneer in Germany and acquired an international reputation. He died in Berlin and he was buried at the Stahnsdorf South-Western Cemetery.

Works
His publications include:

 * Studien zur Kritik und Erklärung der biblischen Urgeschichte (1863).
 * Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette's Einleitung in das Alte Testament, 8th edition (1869).
 * Die assyrisch-babylonischen keilinschriften (1872).
 * Die keilinschriften und das Alte Testament (1872; 3rd edition by Heinrich Zimmern and Hugo Winckler, 1901–02).
 * Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung (1878). online
 * Die Höllenfahrt der Istar (text, trans., notes, 1874).
 * Die Namen der Meere in den assyrischen Inschriften, Berlin 1878 (online)
 * Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung der altbabylonischen Kultur (1884).
 * Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, in conjunction with scholars Ludwig Abel, Carl Bezold, Peter Christian Albrecht Jensen, Felix Ernst Peiser and Hugo Winckler (1889).

title: Eberhard Schrader


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Eurovision Song Contest 1962

The Eurovision Song Contest 1962 was the 7th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, following the country's victory at the with the song "Nous les amoureux" by Jean-Claude Pascal. The contest was organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion (CLT), and was held at the Villa Louvigny on Sunday 18 March 1962 hosted by the Luxembourgish speaker Mireille Delannoy. This remains the last time that the final of the contest was not held on a Saturday, as since 1963 the final of the contest has consistently been held on a Saturday evening.

Sixteen countries participated in the contest – the same that took part the year before.

The winner was with the song "Un premier amour", performed by Isabelle Aubret, written by Roland Valade and composed by Claude Henri Vic. This was France's third victory in the contest in just five years, having also won in and. It was also the third consecutive winning song performed in French. For the first time in the contest's history,, , and  all scored nul points.

Location
The 1962 Eurovision Song Contest was hosted in Luxembourg City. The venue chosen to host the 1962 contest was the Villa Louvigny. The building served as the headquarters of Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion, the forerunner of RTL Group. It is located in Municipal Park, in the Ville Haute quarter of the centre of the city.

Participating countries
All countries who participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 1961 also participated in this edition.

Contest overview
The contest was held at 18 March 1962 at 21:30 CET (20:30 UTC) and lasted approxminately for 1 hour and 30 minutes. The event was hosted by the Luxembourgish speaker Mireille Delannoy.

After France's entry had been performed, there was a short power failure rendering the screens dark. There also seemed to be an even shorter power failure during the Netherlands' entry, when viewers around Europe only saw darkness on their television screens when the Netherlands performed. The power failure seemed to affect the Netherlands' score during the voting. Nevertheless, the song turned out to be popular in Europe after the contest.

Spokespersons
Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1962 contest are listed below.

 * – Tage Danielsson
 * – Alex Macintosh

Detailed voting results
This year marked the second jury voting system change in the contest's history, moving away from a point per favourite song from 10-member juries to the allocation of 3, 2 and 1 points given to the top three favourite songs from each country's 10-member jurors' ratings.

3 points
Below is a summary of all 3 points received:

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers.

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1962


text:
Associated-Rediffusion

Associated-Rediffusion, later Rediffusion London, was the British ITV franchise holder for London and parts of the surrounding counties, on weekdays between 22 September 1955 and 29 July 1968. It was the first ITA franchisee to go on air, and one of the "Big Four" companies that between them produced the majority of ITV networked programmes during this period.

Rediffusion lost its franchise in 1968 but merged with another franchisee to form Thames Television, which continued to hold the London weekday franchise for another 24 years.

Formation
Associated-Rediffusion Television was originally a partnership between British Electric Traction (BET), its subsidiary Broadcast Relay Services Ltd. (trading as Rediffusion), and Associated Newspapers, owner of the Daily Mail, which had been interested in commercial broadcasting as early as the 1920s. In the aftermath of the heavy financial losses made by the new ITV system in its initial years, Associated Newspapers sold the majority of its share to BET and Rediffusion, although the company did not drop the word "Associated" from its name until 1964. Associated Newspapers, later realising the potential of ITV, was a significant investor in the ITV franchise contractor for southern and south-east England, Southern Television and later on becoming a shareholder on Independent Television News.

Thomas Brownrigg, the general manager of Associated-Rediffusion from 1955, had a very clear idea of what his new commercial television station was to be like – the BBC Television Service, with advertisements. To this end, the station had a heraldic-style on-air clock, referred to as "Mitch" by staff (after chief station announcer Leslie Mitchell, who had not only made the first announcement when A-R went on the air in 1955, but had done the same when the BBC TV service started in 1936).

Associated-Rediffusion took over the former Wembley Film Studio at Wembley Park in Middlesex. Associated-Rediffusion officially began broadcasting on 22 September 1955 at 19:15, with actress Marjie Lawrence uttering the first words. That night the BBC, which had held the monopoly on broadcasting in the UK, aired a melodramatic episode of their popular radio soap opera The Archers on the BBC Home Service in which core character Grace Archer was fatally injured in a fire. This was seen as a desperate, and rather underhand, ploy to lure as much of the potential audience as possible from tuning in to the new station's opening night of broadcast entertainment. Britain's first female newsreader Barbara Mandell appeared during the first full day of transmissions on 23 September 1955. The London weekend contractor ATV launched two days later.

This strategy was intended to allay fears that the new service would be aimed at the bottom of the market. Associated-Rediffusion sought to make ITV respectable. It did introduce popular game shows, but also provided quality programming across all genres gained large audiences both in its own London area and, as the ITV network grew, for its programmes shown across the country.

Boris Ford became Associated-Rediffusion's first head of schools broadcasting (1957–58), during which time he persuaded Benjamin Britten to compose his church opera Noye's Fludde for a series of programmes. Ford was dismissed before the opera was produced, allegedly for administrative shortcomings and inexperience. However, A-R continued its association with Britten, producing a highly successful telecast of his opera The Turn of the Screw in 1959.

Associated-Rediffusion added new television studios at Wembley Park in 1960. Their size and unique design attracted worldwide attention. During the 1960s, the studios were home to some of the most popular programmes on the ITV network, including The Rat Catchers, Blackmail, At Last, The 1948 Show and The Frost Report. The Beatles appeared at the studios on more than one occasion.

Rebranding and loss of franchise
In 1964, the company simplified its name to Rediffusion Television and rebranded the station on screen as "Rediffusion London", with a very hip 1960s style, the face of Swinging London in the shiny prosperous new Britain. However, the new Rediffusion did not survive for long – in October 1967 the Independent Television Authority announced to the company's shock that there was no place for Rediffusion in the redrawn franchise pattern. Following changes to the ITV network structure, which resulted in the abandonment of the Midlands and North weekend franchises held by ABC Weekend TV, ABC lost all its franchises along with the rights to take over the Midlands, held by ATV, or the London weekend franchise, awarded to the London Television Consortium. To preserve the sizeable ABC, the ITA proposed ABC and Rediffusion should form a new company: Thames Television. This was not a merger or "forced marriage" as is commonly stated and is an urban myth. ABPC, the parent company of ABC, and BET, the parent company of Rediffusion, created Thames as a separate entity. Thames would use the resources and staff of ABC's Teddington Studios and Rediffusion's Television House. Rediffusion's parent company, BET, took a 49% stake in Thames, and was under-represented in the management of the new company – a state of affairs to which Rediffusion strongly objected. The ITA replied that either Thames took the new contract, or ABC took over. Rediffusion chose the former and went off the air on 29 July 1968 at 12:26 am. Employees based at Wembley went to work for London Weekend Television whilst those at Television House were employed by Thames. Some managerial and presentation staff re-located to the new Yorkshire Television in Leeds.

Much of Rediffusion's programme library was either lost or destroyed following the creation of Thames. Surviving titles from the Rediffusion archive are held by the BFI National Archive at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. Most titles are the intellectual property of Archbuild Limited, with the exception of some of Rediffusion's musical output such as Ready Steady Go! which was for a long time owned by Dave Clark International, and latterly by BMG Rights Management. Some Rediffusion shows have been rediscovered in recent years. In the late 1980s, a series of five At Last the 1948 Show compilations was found in the archives of Swedish broadcaster, SVT. In 2020 The British Film Institute released the most complete box set possible of the restored series, including all ten surviving episodes, two almost completely reconstructed episodes, and the complete audio of a further episode with fragments of film.

Revival
In the 1990s, the name "Associated-Rediffusion Television" and the adastral trademark were acquired by British journalist Victor Lewis-Smith, and were used by his own production company. Productions included:

 * TV Offal, a satirical series of TV archive clips presented by Lewis-Smith
 * Ads Infinitum, a retrospective of vintage television advertising presented by Lewis-Smith over two series
 * An Omnibus documentary covering Dudley Moore's love for music and his struggle with progressive supranuclear palsy, titled "Dudley Moore: After The Laughter". It turned out to be Moore's final interview for television and won a BAFTA Television Award in 2001.
 * A one-off revival of Dee Time
 * A series of documentaries presented by actor Keith Allen
 * 21st Century Bach, a long-running series of programmes no more than ten minutes in length, each featuring short pieces of organ music by J.S. Bach and played by John Scott Whiteley
 * Alchemists of Sound, a documentary about the BBC Radiophonic Workshop
 * The Undiscovered Tony Hancock, a 2018 documentary for Sky Arts

Reditune and Rediffusion Music
Rediffusion Music, Reditune Rediffusion, Reditune Music and Rediffusion Thorsen (Germany) were sold to AEI Music Network of Seattle, WA in 1996. DMX Music, a smaller music provider, bought AEI Music in 2000. Mood Media bought DMX Music in 2005, The current owner remains Mood Media, however it trades under the MOOD: brand today. Mood Media Corporation own the previous trading names of Rediffusion Reditune, Rediffusion Music, AEI Rediffusion Music, AEI Music and DMX Music.

Studios

The company's administrative headquarters and transmission facilities were at Television House in Kingsway, London. Most programmes were produced at Wembley Studios in Wembley Park, north-west London. However, a small basement studio at Television House, Studio 9, was occasionally used for current affairs programmes and was home to Ready Steady Go! during its first few years.

Television House had been known as Adastral House when it was the headquarters of the Air Ministry. This gave its name to A-R's logo, the 16-point Adastral Star, which appeared not only at the start and end of each commercial break but also between each advertisement. (The motto of the Royal Air Force is "per ardua, ad astra" - "through adversity to the stars".) The station's archives were also kept at these properties, with the original programme library situated on the roof of Television House with some storage in the film vaults at Wembley Studios.

Following Rediffusion's loss of franchise and the creation of Thames Television, the Wembley studios were leased to the newly formed London Weekend Television by order of the ITA, and the company officially took control of the premises on Monday 6 May 1968 for a contractual minimum term of three years. London Weekend Television subsequently vacated the studios in the late summer of 1972.

Somewhat confusingly, this Wembley studios site is the very same studio buildings site that would later be sold-off, renamed, re-purposed as film studios, then back to television studios, at various stages when used by later owners; London Weekend Television (Wembley), Lee International Studios (Wembley), Limehouse Television (Wembley), Fountain Television, before closing in 2018, and becoming a theatre space, prior to the site's planned redevelopment from 2019.

Television House was used as Thames' headquarters until their Euston Road studios were built in 1970 and was subsequently sold off.

Presentation
When Rediffusion originally launched, as Associated-Rediffusion, presentation consisted of a simple animated ident, featuring the station name, and a spinning star called the Adastral. This first ident was accompanied by a five note electronic fanfare, achieved by tapping out the morse code for 'A-R'. To accompany the ident, a timepiece was created based on a heraldic coat of arms and nicknamed 'Mitch' after Head of Presentation Leslie Mitchell.

In 1964, Associated-Rediffusion rebranded itself on screen as Rediffusion London, using a black and grey ident featuring the same spinning star as previous, but with the new name now in a stripe and in a sans serif font. A new seven note strident theme was adopted to replace the original fanfare, and a new and simpler clock was designed featuring a 24-hour display at the bottom of the face and an adastral at the centre. The original timepiece 'Mitch' was given to the Science Museum, where it became the first ITV exhibit, and now resides in the National Media Museum, Bradford.

Rediffusion used a number of continuity announcers throughout its 13 years on air, with Redvers Kyle and Muriel Young being the most recognised.

Programmes
Programmes produced by or for Associated-Rediffusion and Rediffusion include: • At Last the 1948 Show

• Boyd Q.C.

• The Citadel

• Crane

• Do Not Adjust Your Set

• Double Your Money

• Five O'Clock Club

• Francis Storm Investigates

• The Gay Cavalier

• HMS Paradise

• The Informer

• Love and Kisses

• The Music Box

• My Husband and I

• No Hiding Place

• Orlando

• Our Man at St. Mark's

• Out of Step

• The Rat Catchers

• Ready Steady Go!

• Sara and Hoppity

• Sexton Blake

• Sixpenny Corner

• Take Your Pick!

• Tales of Mystery

• This Week

• Together Again

• Top Secret

Most of the surviving archive is now held by Archbuild and it has never been officially confirmed exactly how large the surviving archive actually is.

title: Associated-Rediffusion


text:
August Dillmann

Christian Friedrich August Dillmann (25 April 1823 – 7 July 1894) was a German orientalist and biblical scholar.

Life
The son of a Württemberg schoolmaster, he was born at Illingen. He was educated at the University of Tübingen, where he became a pupil and friend of Heinrich Ewald, and studied under Ferdinand Christian Baur, though he did not join the new Tübingen school. For a short time, he worked as pastor at Sersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to feel that his studies demanded his whole time.

He devoted himself to the study of Ethiopic manuscripts in the libraries of Paris, London and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in the 19th century. In 1847 and 1848, he prepared catalogues of the Ethiopic manuscripts in the British Museum (now the British Library) and the Bodleian Library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the Ethiopic Bible.

Returning to Tübingen in 1848, in 1853, he was appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently, he became professor of philosophy at the University of Kiel (1854), and of theology in Giessen (1864) and Berlin (1869), where he succeeded Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg.

Works
In 1851, he had published the "Book of Enoch" in Ethiopian (German, 1853; English, 1893), and at Kiel, he completed the first part of the Ethiopic bible, Octateuchus Aethiopicus (1853–55). In 1857 appeared his Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache (2nd edition by Carl Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the "Book of Jubilees"; in 1861 and 1871 another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum; in 1865 his great Lexicon linguæ aethiopicæ; in 1866 his Chrestomathia aethiopica. In 1853, Dillmann published an article comparing Ethiopian king lists.

Always a theologian at heart, he returned to theology in 1864. His Giessen lectures were published under the titles, Ursprung der alttestamentlichen Religion (1865) and Die Propheten des alten Bundes nach ihrer politischen Wirksamkeit (1868). In 1869 appeared his commentary on Hiob, (4th edition 1891) which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament exegetes.

His renown as a theologian was mainly founded on the series of commentaries, based on those of August Wilhelm Knobel's Die Genesis (Leipzig, 1875); Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus, 1880; Die Bücher Numeri, Deuteronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of the Hexateuch, 1886; Der Prophet Jesaja, 1890. In 1877 he published the "Ascension of Isaiah" in Ethiopian and Latin. He was also a contributor to Daniel Schenkel's Bibellexikon, Brockhaus's Conversationslexikon, and Johann Jakob Herzog's Realencyklopädie. His book on Old Testament theology, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, was published by Rudolf Kittel in 1895.

title: August Dillmann


text:
Attack aircraft

An attack aircraft, strike aircraft, or attack bomber is a tactical military aircraft that has a primary role of carrying out airstrikes with greater precision than bombers, and is prepared to encounter strong low-level air defenses while pressing the attack. This class of aircraft is designed mostly for close air support and naval air-to-surface missions, overlapping the tactical bomber mission. Designs dedicated to non-naval roles are often known as ground-attack aircraft.

Fighter aircraft often carry out the attack role, although they would not be considered attack aircraft per se; fighter-bomber conversions of those same aircraft would be considered part of the class. Strike fighters, which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from the broad concept of an attack aircraft.

The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during and after World War II. The precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the United States and Britain, attack aircraft were generally light bombers or medium bombers, sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like the North American B-25G Mitchell and de Havilland Mosquito Tsetse. In Germany and the USSR, where they were known as Schlachtflugzeug ("battle aircraft") or sturmovik ("storm trooper") respectively, this role was carried out by purpose-designed and heavily armored aircraft such as the Henschel Hs 129 and Ilyushin Il-2. The Germans and Soviets also used light bombers in this role: cannon-armed versions of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka greatly outnumbered the Hs 129, while the Petlyakov Pe-2 was used for this role in spite of not being specifically designed for it.

In the latter part of World War II, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a transition that continued in the post-war era. Jet-powered examples were relatively rare but not unknown, such as the Blackburn Buccaneer. The U.S. Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A-series, but these were mostly similar to light and medium bombers. The need for a separate attack aircraft category was greatly diminished by the introduction of precision-guided munitions which allowed almost any aircraft to carry out this role while remaining safe at high altitude. Attack helicopters also have overtaken many remaining roles that could only be carried out at lower altitudes.

Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been widely introduced, the American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet/Russian Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot.

A variety of light attack aircraft has also been introduced in the post-World War II era, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft. These have been used in counter-insurgency operations.

United States definition and designations

U.S. attack aircraft are currently identified by the prefix A-, as in "A-6 Intruder" and "A-10 Thunderbolt II". However, until the end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for USAAF aircraft (as opposed to B- prefix for medium or heavy bombers). The US Navy used a separate designation system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers (SB) or torpedo bombers (TB or BT). For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the "attack" (A) designation, when it renamed BT2D Skyraider and BTM Mauler to, respectively, AD Skyraider and AM Mauler.

As with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U.S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission, more than any other kind of mission. Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an attack mission. In United States Navy vocabulary, the alternative designation for the same activity is a strike mission. Attack missions are principally divided into two categories: air interdiction and close air support. In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created some confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U.S. designation system, an attack aircraft (A) is designed primarily for air-to-surface (Attack: Aircraft designed to find, attack, and destroy land or sea targets) missions (also known as "attack missions"), while a fighter category F incorporates not only aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat, but additionally multipurpose aircraft designed also for ground-attack missions. "F" - Fighter Aircraft were designed to intercept and destroy other aircraft or missiles. This includes multipurpose aircraft also designed for ground support missions such as interdiction and close air support. Just to mention one example amongst many, the F-111 "Aardvark" was designated F despite having only minimal air-to-air capabilities. Only a single aircraft in the USAF's current inventory bears a simple, unmixed "A" designation: the A-10 Thunderbolt II.

Other designations
British designations have included FB for fighter-bomber and more recently "G" for "Ground-attack" as in Harrier GR1 (meaning "Ground-attack/Reconnaissance, Mark 1").

Imperial Japanese Navy designation use "B" to designate carrier attack bomber such as the Nakajima B5N Type-97 bomber although these aircraft are mostly used for torpedo attack and level bombing. They also use "D" to specifically designate carrier dive bomber like the Yokosuka D4Y Suisei. However by the end of the world war II, the IJN introduced the Aichi B7A Ryusei which could performed both torpedo bombing and dive bombing rendering the "D" designation redundant.

The NATO reporting names for Soviet/Russian ground-attack aircraft at first started with "B" categorizing them as bombers, as in case of Il-10 'Beast'. But later they were usually classified as fighters ("F")—possibly because (since Sukhoi Su-7) they were similar in size and visual appearance to Soviet fighters, or were simply derivatives of such.

World War I
The attack aircraft as a role was defined by its use during World War I, in support of ground forces on battlefields. Battlefield support is generally divided into close air support and battlefield air interdiction, the first requiring strict and the latter only general cooperation with friendly surface forces. Such aircraft also attacked targets in rear areas. Such missions required flying where light anti-aircraft fire was expected and operating at low altitudes to precisely identify targets. Other roles, including those of light bombers, medium bombers, dive bombers, reconnaissance, fighters, fighter-bombers, could and did perform air strikes on battlefields. All these types could significantly damage ground targets from a low level flight, either by bombing, machine guns, or both.

Attack aircraft came to diverge from bombers and fighters. While bombers could be used on a battlefield, their slower speeds made them extremely vulnerable to ground fire, as did the lighter construction of fighters. The survivability of attack aircraft was guaranteed by their speed/power, protection (i.e. armor panels) and strength of construction;

Germany was the first country to produce dedicated ground-attack aircraft (designated CL-class and J-class). They were put into use in autumn 1917, during World War I. Most notable was the Junkers J.I, which pioneered the idea of an armored "bathtub", that was both fuselage structure and protection for engine and crew. The British experimented with the Sopwith TF series (termed "trench fighters"), although these did not see combat.

The last battles of 1918 on the Western Front demonstrated that ground-attacking aircraft were a valuable component of all-arms tactics. Close support ground strafing (machine-gunning) and tactical bombing of infantry (especially when moving between trenches and along roads), machine gun posts, artillery, and supply formations was a part of the Allied armies' strength in holding German attacks and supporting Allied counter-attacks and offensives. Admittedly, the cost to the Allies was high, with the Royal Flying Corps sustaining a loss rate approaching 30% among ground-attack aircraft.

1919–1939

After World War I, it was widely believed that using aircraft against tactical targets was of little use other than in harassing and undermining enemy morale; attacking combatants was generally much more dangerous to aircrews than their targets, a problem that was continually becoming more acute with the ongoing refinement of anti-aircraft weapons. Within the range of types serving attack roles, dive bombers were increasingly being seen as more effective than aircraft designed for strafing with machine guns or cannons.

Nevertheless, during the 1920s, the US military, in particular, procured specialized "Attack" aircraft and formed dedicated units, that were trained primarily for that role. The US Army Engineering Division became involved in designing ground attack aircraft. The 1920 Boeing GA-1 was an armored twin-engine triplane for ground strafing with eight machine guns and about a ton of armor plate, and the 1922 Aeromarine PG-1 was a combined pursuit (fighter) and ground attack design with a 37mm gun. The United States Marine Corps Aviation applied close air support tactics in the Banana Wars. While they did not pioneer dive bombing tactics, Marine aviators were the first to include it in their doctrine during the United States occupation of Haiti and Nicaragua. The United States Army Air Corps was notable for its creation of a separate "A-" designation for attack types, distinct from and alongside "B-" for bomber types and "P-" for pursuit (later replaced by "F-" for fighter) aircraft. The first designated attack type to be operational with the USAAC was the Curtiss A-2 Falcon. Nevertheless, such aircraft, including the A-2's replacement, the Curtiss A-12 Shrike, were unarmored and highly vulnerable to AA fire.

The British Royal Air Force focused primarily on strategic bombing, rather than ground attack. However, like most air arms of the period it did operate attack aircraft, named Army Cooperation in RAF parlance, which included the Hawker Hector, Westland Lysander and others.

Aviation played a role in the Brazilian Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, although both sides had few aircraft. The federal government had approximately 58 aircraft divided between the Navy and the Army, as the Air Force at this time did not constitute an independent branch. In contrast, the rebels had only two Potez 25 planes and two Waco CSO, plus a small number of private aircraft.

During the 1930s, Nazi Germany had begun to field a class of Schlacht ("battle") aircraft, such as the Henschel Hs 123. Moreover, the experiences of German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War, against an enemy with few fighter aircraft, changed ideas about ground attack. Though equipped with generally unsuitable designs such as the Henschel Hs 123 and cannon-armed versions of the Heinkel He 112, their armament and pilots proved that aircraft were a very effective weapon, even without bombs. This led to some support within the Luftwaffe for the creation of an aircraft dedicated to this role, resulting in tenders for a new "attack aircraft". This led to the introduction (in 1942) of a unique single-seat, twin-engine attack aircraft, the slow-moving but heavily armored and formidably armed Henschel Hs 129 Panzerknacker ("Safecracker" /"Tank Cracker").

In Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy had developed the Aichi D3A dive bomber (based on the Heinkel He 70) and the Mitsubishi B5M light attack bomber. Both, like their US counterparts, were lightly armored types, and were critically reliant on surprise attacks and the absence of significant fighter or AA opposition.

During the Winter War, the Soviet Air Forces used the Polikarpov R-5SSS, and Polikarpov R-ZSh, as attack aircraft.

Perhaps the most notable attack type to emerge during the late 1930s was the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik, which became the most-produced military aircraft type in history.

As World War II approached, the concept of an attack aircraft was not well defined, and various air services used many different names for widely differing types, all performing similar roles (sometimes in tandem with non-attack roles of bombers, fighters, reconnaissance and other roles.

 * Army co-operation

The British concept of a light aircraft mixing all the roles that required extensive communication with land forces: reconnaissance, liaison, artillery spotting, aerial supply, and, last but not least, occasional strikes on the battlefield. The concept was similar to front-line aircraft used in the World War I, which was called the CL class in the German Empire. Eventually the RAF's experience showed types such as Westland Lysander to be unacceptably vulnerable and it was replaced by faster fighter types for photoreconnaissance, and light aircraft for artillery spotting.

 * Light bomber

During the inter-war period, the British considered that in a future war it would be France that would be the enemy. For the light day bomber they had the Fairey Battle which originated in a 1932 specification. Designs in 1938 for a replacement were adapted as a target tug. The last British specification issued for a light bomber was B.20/40 described as a "Close Army Support Bomber" capable of dive bombing and photoreconnaissance. However, the specification was dropped before an aircraft went into production.

 * Dive bomber

In some air services, dive bombers did not equip ground-attack units, but were treated as a separate class. In Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe distinguished between the Stuka (Sturzkampf-, "dive bombing") units, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 from Schlacht ("battle") units, using strafing/low-level bombing types such as the Henschel Hs 123).

 * Fighter-bomber

Although not a synonymous class with ground-attack aircraft, fighter-bombers were usually used for the role, and proved to excel at it, even when they were only lightly armored. The Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces relegated obsolescent fighters to this role, while cutting-edge fighters would serve as interceptors and establish air superiority.

The United States Navy, in distinction to the USAAF, preferred the older term "Scout-Bomber", under a "SB-" designation, such as the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver.

World War II

The Junkers Ju 87s of the German Luftwaffe became virtually synonymous with close air support during the early months of World War II. The British Commonwealth's Desert Air Force, led by Arthur Tedder, became the first Allied tactical formation to emphasize the attack role, usually in the form of single-engine Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 fighter-bombers or specialized "tank-busters", such as the Hurricane Mk IID, armed with two 40 mm Vickers S guns (notably No. 6 Squadron RAF). At around the same time, a massive invasion by Axis forces had forced the Soviet air forces to quickly expand their army support capacity, such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik. The women pilots known as the "Night Witches" utilised an obsolescent, wooden light trainer biplane type, the Polikarpov Po-2 and small anti-personnel bombs in "harassment bombing" attacks that proved difficult to counter.

Wartime experience showed that poorly armored and/or lightly built, pre-war types were unacceptably vulnerable, especially to fighters. Nevertheless, skilled crews could be highly successful in those types, such as the leading Stuka ace, Hans-Ulrich Rudel, who claimed 500 tanks, a battleship, a cruiser, and two destroyers in 2,300 combat missions.

The Bristol Beaufighter, based on an obsolescent RAF bomber, became a versatile twin-engine attack aircraft and served in almost every theatre of the war, in the maritime strike and ground attack roles as well as that of night fighter.

Conversely, some mid-war attack types emerged as adaptations of fighters, including several versions of the German Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the British Hawker Typhoon and the US Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The Typhoon, which was disappointing as a fighter, due to poor high altitude performance, was very fast at low altitudes and thus became the RAF's premier ground attack fighter. It was armed with four 20mm cannon, augmented first with bombs, then rockets. Likewise the P-47 was designed and intended for use as a high altitude bomber escort, but gradually found that role filled by the North American P-51 Mustang (because of its much longer range and greater maneuverability). The P-47 was also heavier and more robust than the P-51 and regarded therefore, as an "energy fighter": ideal for high-speed dive-and-climb tactics, including strafing attacks. Its armament of eight 0.50 caliber machine guns was effective against Axis infantry and light vehicles in both Europe and the Pacific.

While machine guns and cannon were initially sufficient, the evolution of well-armored tanks required heavier weapons. To augment bombs, high explosive rockets were introduced, although these unguided projectiles were still "barely adequate" because of their inaccuracy. For the British RP3, one hit per sortie was considered acceptable. However, even a near miss with rockets could cause damage or injuries to "soft targets," and patrols by Allied rocket-armed aircraft over Normandy disrupted or even completely paralyzed German road traffic. They also affected morale, because even the prospect of a rocket attack was unnerving.

The ultimate development of the cannon-armed light attack aircraft was the small production run in 1944 of the Henschel Hs 129B-3, armed with a modified PAK 40 75 mm anti-tank gun. This weapon, the Bordkanone BK 7,5, was the most powerful forward-firing weapon fitted to a production military aircraft during World War II. The only other aircraft to be factory-equipped with similar guns were the 1,420 maritime strike variants of the North American B-25 MitchellG/H, which mounted either a M4 cannon, or light-weight T13E1 or M5 versions of the same gun. These weapons, however, were hand-loaded, had shorter barrels and/or a lower muzzle velocity than the BK 7,5 and, therefore, poorer armor penetration, accuracy and rate of fire. (Except for versions of the Piaggio P.108 armed with a 102mm anti-ship cannon, The BK 7,5 was unsurpassed as an aircraft-fitted gun until 1971, when the four-engine Lockheed AC-130E Spectre; equipped with a 105 mm M102 howitzer, entered service with the US Air Force.)

Post-World War II
In the immediate post war era the piston-engined ground-attack aircraft remained useful since all of the early jets lacked endurance due to the fuel consumption rates of the jet engines. The higher powered piston engine types that had been too late for World War II were still capable of holding their own against the jets as they were able to both out accelerate and out maneuver the jets. The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued to be used throughout the Vietnam War.

Many post-World War II era air forces have been reluctant to adopt fixed-wing jet aircraft developed specifically for ground attack. Although close air support and interdiction remain crucial to the modern battlefield, attack aircraft are less glamorous than fighters, while air force pilots and military planners have a certain well-cultivated contempt for "mud-movers". More practically, the cost of operating a specialized ground-attack aircraft is harder to justify when compared with multirole combat aircraft. Jet attack aircraft were designed and employed during the Cold War era, such as the carrier-based nuclear strike Douglas A-3 Skywarrior and North American A-5 Vigilante, while the Grumman A-6 Intruder, F-105 Thunderchief, F-111, F-117 Nighthawk, LTV A-7 Corsair II, Sukhoi Su-25, A-10 Thunderbolt II, Panavia Tornado, AMX, Dassault Étendard, Super Étendard and others were designed specifically for ground-attack, strike, close support and anti-armor work, with little or no air-to-air capability.

Ground attack has increasingly become a task of converted trainers, like the BAE Systems Hawk or Aero L-39 Albatros, and many trainers are built with this task in mind, like the CASA C-101 or the Aermacchi MB-339. Such counter-insurgency aircraft are popular with air forces which cannot afford to purchase more expensive multirole aircraft, or do not wish to risk the few such aircraft they have on light ground attack missions. A proliferation of low intensity conflicts in the post-World War II era has also expanded need for these types of aircraft to conduct counter-insurgency and light ground attack operations.

A primary distinction of post-World War II aviation between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force was that latter had generally been allocated all fixed-wing aircraft, while helicopters were under control of the former; this was governed by the 1948 Key West Agreement. The Army, wishing to have its own resources to support its troops in combat and faced with a lack of Air Force enthusiasm for the ground-attack role, developed the dedicated attack helicopter.

Recent history
On 17 January 1991, Task Force Normandy began its attack on two Iraqi anti-aircraft missile sites. TF Normandy, under the command of LTC Richard A. "Dick" Cody, consisted of nine AH-64 Apaches, one UH-60 Black Hawk and four Air Force MH-53J Pave Low helicopters. The purpose of this mission was to create a safe corridor through the Iraqi air defense system. The attack was a huge success and cleared the way for the beginning of the Allied bombing campaign of Operation Desert Storm.

One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the Army Times, the Army is shifting its doctrine to favor ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire; the U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems.

In the late 1960s the United States Air Force requested a dedicated close air support (CAS) plane that became the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. The A-10 was originally conceived as an anti-armor weapon (the A-X program requirements specifically called for an aircraft mounting a large rotary cannon to destroy massed Warsaw Pact armored forces) with limited secondary capability in the interdiction and tactical bombing roles. Today it remains the only dedicated fixed-wing ground-attack aircraft in any U.S. military service. Overall U.S. experience in the Gulf War, Kosovo War, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War has resulted in renewed interest in such aircraft. The U.S. Air Force is currently researching a replacement for the A-10 and started the OA-X program to procure a light attack aircraft. The Soviets' similar Sukhoi Su-25 (Frogfoot) found success in the "flying artillery" role with many air forces. The UK has completely retired the BAE Harrier II in 2011, and the Panavia Tornado dedicated attack-reconnaissance aircraft in 2019. It obtained the F-35 in 2018 and it retains its fleet of Eurofighter Typhoon multirole fighters.

title: Attack aircraft


text:
Theodor Nöldeke

Theodor Nöldeke (born 2 March 1836 – 25 December 1930) was a German orientalist and scholar, originally a student of Heinrich Ewald. He is one of the founders of the field of Quranic studies. His research interests ranged over Old Testament studies, Semitic languages and Arabic, Persian and Syriac literature. Nöldeke translated several important works of oriental literature and during his lifetime was considered an important orientalist. He wrote numerous studies (including on the Qur’ān) and contributed articles to the Encyclopædia Britannica.

Among the projects Nöldeke collaborated on was Michael Jan de Goeje’s published edition of al-Tabari's Tarikh ("Universal History"), for which he translated the Sassanid-era section. This translation remains of great value, particularly for the extensive supplementary commentary. His numerous students included Charles Cutler Torrey, Louis Ginzberg and Friedrich Zacharias Schwally. He entrusted Schwally with the continuation of his standard work "The History of the Qur’ān".

Biography
Nöldeke was born in Harburg, (Hamburg today). In 1853 he graduated from the Gymnasium Georgianum Lingen, Emsland, and went on to study at the University of Göttingen under Heinrich Ewald, and later at the  University of Vienna, the University of Leiden and the Humboldt University of Berlin.

In 1864 he became a professor at the University of Kiel and from 1872 at the University of Strasbourg until he retired aged 70.

Nöldeke had ten children, six of whom predeceased him. His son Arnold Nöldeke became a judge and was a Hamburg senator during the Weimar period.

He died in Karlsruhe in 1930.

Geschichte des Qorâns
The Geschichte, a primarily philological work written in German, emerged out of his dissertation he began during his university studies, which was completed in 1856 and titled De origine et compositione surarum qoranicarum ipsiusque Qorani. Compared to earlier works studying the Quran by Western writers, Nöldeke uncoupled the study of the text from inquiries into the life of Muhammad and, unlike predecessors of his such as William Muir, did not have a missionary zeal. Instead, Nöldeke studied the Quran for its own sake. One of the most important aspects of Nöldeke's argument was his periodisation of the Quranic surahs into a tripartite Meccan phase followed by a Medinan phase (an idea already conceived by his predecessor, Gustav Weil). In this, Nöldeke, though he did not follow the traditional chronological division of surahs exactly, did follow it in some detail. At the same time, Nöldeke also considered his division to be malleable and tentative to a degree as opposed to absolute and deciding.

Though Nöldeke's work has been followed closely by some and rejected by others, it has been so influential that at least one scholar has referred to his work as "the rock of our church". In 2013, a complete translation of the volume into English was published.

Chronology
The Nöldeke Chronology is a "canonical ordering" of the 114 surahs of the Qur'an according to the sequence of revelation. Intended to aid theological, literary, and historical scholarship of Qur'anic exegesis by enhancing structural coherence. The Nöldeke Chronology has been adopted for general guidance by some schools of current scholarship. Nöldeke considered the surahs from the perspective of content and stylistic development and linguistic origination to rearrange them in historical sequence of revelation. According to his system Sura 21: “The Prophets,” – 21st of 114 surahs in the Qur'an – is renumbered '65'. His chronology further divided the surahs into two periods: The Meccan (in three phases), and the Medina.

The Nöldeke Chronology of the Qur'an: Four groups of the 114 Surahs:
 * Group 1. First Meccan Period (48 Surahs): Surahs 96; 74; 111; 106; 108; 104; 107; 102; 105; 92; 90; 94; 93; 97; 86; 91; 80; 68; 87; 95; 103; 85; 73; 101; 99; 82; 81; 53; 84; 100; 79; 77; 78; 88; 89; 75; 83; 69; 51; 52; 56; 70; 55; 112; 109; 113; 114; 1
 * Group 2. Second Meccan Period (21 Surahs): 54; 37; 71; 76; 44; 50; 20; 26; 15; 19; 38; 36; 43; 72; 67; 23; 21; 25; 17; 27; 18
 * Group 3. Third Meccan Period (21 Surahs): 32; 41; 45; 16; 30; 11; 14; 12; 40; 28; 39; 29; 31; 42; 10; 34; 35; 7; 46; 6; 13
 * Group 4. Medinan Period (24 Surahs): 2; 98; 64; 62; 8; 47; 3; 61; 57; 4; 65; 59; 33; 63; 24; 58; 22; 48; 66; 60; 110; 49; 9; 5

Mandaeism
In 1875, near the very beginning of the academic study of the religion of Mandaeism, Nöldeke published the Mandäische grammatik, a monumental work of Mandaean grammar that was of such philological depth that it remains the standard work on the subject to this day. It was also the basis of the subsequent Mandadic Dictionary by E. S. Drower.

Alexander the Great
In 1890, Nöldeke initiated the study of Alexander legends in the Arabic tradition with the publication of his Beiträge zur geschichte des Alexanderromans.

Distinctions

 * 1859 – won the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres prize for his Histoire du Coran and Semitic languages, and the history and civilization of Islam.
 * 1860 – Geschichte des Qorâns German edition published with additions at Göttingen.
 * 1861 – lectures at the university of Göttingen.
 * 1864 – extraordinary professor at the university of Göttingen.
 * 1868 – ordinary professor at Kiel; Grammatik der neusyrischen Sprache published.
 * 1872 – chair of Oriental Languages at Strassburg, (resigns in 1906).
 * 1874 – Mandäische Grammatik published.
 * 1878 – Foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1879 – external member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences.
 * 1881–1882 – translates Tabari (Arabic – German).
 * 1888 – member of the Order Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts.
 * 1892 – awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Edinburgh.
 * 1893 – appointed external member of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in Rome.
 * 1906 – International Member of the American Philosophical Society
 * 1920 – associate member of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences.
 * 1926 – awarded honorary membership of the Russian Academy of Sciences –he had been a corresponding member since 1885; Honorary citizen of the city of Harburg (now part of Hamburg).

Selected works

 * Encyclopædia Britannica, several early essays and article on the Qur'an, with others, republished in the journal Oriental Sketches.
 * Geschichte des Qorâns (1860; Leipzig, Dieterich, 2nd rev. ed., 1909–38, pt. 1, pt.2, ; English translation by Wolfgang H. Behn: The History of the Qurʾān, Leiden: Brill 2013)
 * Das Leben Mohammeds ("Life of Muḥammad", German text; Hanover, Rümpler, 1863)
 * Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Poesie der alten Araber. (Hanover, Carl Rümpler, 1864)
 * Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868)
 * Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (1869)
 * Histoire Littéraire de L'ancien Testament; French (Paris, Sandoz et Fischbacher, 1873)
 * Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden. Aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari übersetzt (1879)
 * Review of Julius Wellhausen's Reste Arabischen Heidentums (1887) in ZDMG, Vol. 41 (1887), pp. 707–26.
 * Aufsätze zur persischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1887); articles on Persia.
 * Beiträge zur geschichte des Alexanderromans (1890)
 * Sketches from Eastern History (London & Edinburgh, Adam And Charles Black, 1892)
 * A Servile War in the East [The Zanj Slave Uprising in 9th Century Mesopotamia] (English transl., John Sutherland Black; appeared as Chap. 5 in Sketches from Eastern History; 1892)
 * Das Iranische Nationalepos (Strassburg: Trübner, 1896).
 * Zur Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch (1896)
 * Fünf Mo'allaqat, übersetzt und erklärt (1899–1901)
 * Articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903)
 * Beiträge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft (1904)
 * Kalila wa Dimna (Strassburg, Trübner, 1912)
 * Israel und die Völker nach jüdischer Lehre co-authored by August Wünsche; ed., Joseph S Bloch; (Berlin, Wien, 1922)
 * Das Iranische Nationalepos (Strassburg: Trübner, 1896).
 * Zur Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch (1896)
 * Fünf Mo'allaqat, übersetzt und erklärt (1899–1901)
 * Articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903)
 * Beiträge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft (1904)
 * Kalila wa Dimna (Strassburg, Trübner, 1912)
 * Israel und die Völker nach jüdischer Lehre co-authored by August Wünsche; ed., Joseph S Bloch; (Berlin, Wien, 1922)
 * Israel und die Völker nach jüdischer Lehre co-authored by August Wünsche; ed., Joseph S Bloch; (Berlin, Wien, 1922)

He contributed frequently to the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen and the Expositor.

title: Theodor Nöldeke


text:
Talk:Eurovision Song Contest 1962

Message of appreciation
Interesting pages, well done! What I have to say is just a minor thing: In German (as, I think, in French), titles (of songs, books, etc.) are not automatically capitalized. For example, it should read "Zwei k leine Italiener" rather than "Zwei K leine Italiener" (which in German looks really weird). Is this important, or is there some agreement that, as this is the English version of Wikipedia, capitals are okay? --KF 14:46 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

As i don't knwo much about foreign languages i just capatalised all (even English) first letters. You may chaneg it if you understand what should be capaatlised etc. -fonzy

 * Okay, I'll do so whenever I come across a title (rather than doing it systematically). I'm looking forward to the years 1963ff. --KF 15:31 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:ESC1962.jpg
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Ole Mortensen
Ole Mortensen is given as both commentator and spokesperson for Denmark. His role as a commentator seems to be properly sourced, the spokespersons seem unsourced. The Denmark country page says that Mortensen was spokesperson, and that Skat Nørrevig was commentator, without any sources. Should Mortensen in the role as spokesperson be removed ? --EurovisionLibrarian (talk) 15:00, 8 June 2023 (UTC)

 * A lot of the spokesperson content on Wikipedia is unsourced, and most likely should be removed unless a reliable source can be found to verify the claims. The same is still true for the commentators for a lot of articles on here. I spent a good deal trying to find reliable sources for the broadcasts sections, and I do have aspirations to do the same for the jury spokspersons, however you are correct that unsourced information on spokesperson should be removed. Sims2aholic8 (talk) 15:13, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks ! --EurovisionLibrarian (talk) 17:49, 10 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eurovision Song Contest 1962