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Talk:Kumbakonam

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Kumbakonam is a small temple-town with very peaceful life. It is rich in Tamil culture. The food served in Kumbakonam is considered to be the best in Tamil Cuisine. Kumbakonam is known as "Kasi of South India." Big temples, with beautifully carved sculptures are located very near to each other. Besides Men's college, where the famous mathematician Ramanujam had studied, the Government college of Arts and Crafts is also famous for producing some of the well known artist.

The quiet town has faced some of the worst disasters, such as the stampede in Mahamaham in 1992 and tragic fire disaster in the year 2004.

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Business The town which was originally a religious town become an industrial center during last quarter of the 19th Century and early period of 20th century. Predominance was gained for Silk Industries and Metal manufacturing.The Major Suppliers of Silk Sarees to the Indian Silk Saree Market is Kumbakonam Silk Industry. All the South Indian Brass Pooja articles and utensils are manufactured in Kumbakonam and these articles are manufactured nowhere in South India other than Kumbakonam.KuthuVilakku and Statues are the famous articles. Stainless Steel utensils are manufactured.Betelnuts, Suparis are manufactured in Kumbakonam.

[edit] Demographics Historical populations Year Pop. %± 1871 44,444 — 1881 50,098 12.7% 1891 54,307 8.4% 1901 59,673 9.9% 1911 64,647 8.3% 1921 60,700 −6.1% 1931 — 1941  — 1951 92,581 — 1961  — 1971 113,130 — 1981 132,832 17.4% 1991 150,502 13.3% 2001 140,021 −7.0% As of 2001 India census,[4] Kumbakonam had a population of 140,021. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Kumbakonam has an average literacy rate of 78%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 86%, and female literacy is 70%. 10% of the population is under 6 years of age. The population is constituted mainly by the Hindus, Christians and Muslims.

[edit] Economy Kumbakonam is primarily a market city for surrounding smaller towns and agricultural villages. The town is surrounded by small villages of great historical importance. The agricultural region around the town is famous for its betelnuts and betel leaves. It is a market town where people from all over the Kaveri delta region (Composite Thanjavur District) come for business purposes. The town is also home to many goldsmiths and ornament makers. And the city is world famous for sculpture because of the workshop in Swamimalai.

[edit] Temples Kumbakonam is known as the City of temples as there are around thousand of temples in and around Kumbakonam.

Lord shiva temples

In Kumbakonam

1. Adi Kumbheswarar Temple. 2. Nageswara Swami Temple. 3. Someswarar Temple.

Temples to the East/North East of Kumbakonam

4. Thiruviyalur. 5. Thirunageswaram. 6. Thiruvidaimarudur. 7. Thirukkodika. 8. Tenkurangaduthurai. 9. Thiruneelakkudy. 10. Thirumangalakkudi. 11. Palaiyur.

Temples to the SouthEast of Kumbakonam 12. Kalayanallur(Sakkotai). 13. Thiru Chivapuram(Sivapuram). 14. Karukkudy(Marudhanallur). 15. Arisikaraiputhur(Azhagaputhur). 16. Penu Perundurai. 17. Thirunaraiyur. 18. Penu Perundurai. 19. Thirucherai. 20. Thirunallam. 21. Narayur Chitteswaram. 22. Nalur Mayanam. 23. Karuvili. 24. Kudavayil(Kudavasal).

Temples to the Southwest of Kumbakonam

25. Pattesvaram. 26. Thiruchathimutham. 27. Aavur. 28. Nallur. 29. Pazhayarai Vadathali. 30. Tiru palathurai.

Temples to the west of Kumbakonam

31. Kottaiyur. 32.Thiruvalanchuzhi.

Temples to NorthWest of Kumbakonam

33. Innambur. 34. Thiruppurambiam. 35. VijayaMangai. 36. Tiruvaikavoor.

Temples to the Northeast of Kumbakonam

37. Thirundudevankudy. 38. Thirucheynjalur. 39. Thiruvappadi. 40. Thiruppanandal.

Lord Vishnu Temples

In Kumbakonam

1. Sarangapani Temple. 2. Chakrapani Temple. 3. Ramaswamy Temple

Temples to the SouthEast of Kumbakonam

3. Tiruvinnagar(Uppiliyappan Koil). 4. Nachiyarkovil. 5. Thirucherai.

Temples to the West of Kumbakonam

6. Pullabhudangudi. 7. Kapisthalam.

Temples to the SouthWest of Kumbakonam

8. Nandipura Vinnagram

Temples to the NorthWest of Kumbakonam

9. Aadanur.

Temples to the NorthEast of Kumbakonam

10. Thiruvalliankudi. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 117.201.4.2 (talk) 01:53, 8 October 2009 (UTC)

Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
It has been discovered that this book: Contains significant amounts of material plagiarized from Wikipedia articles. (Some other books from the same publisher also have this problem). There is no practical way of determining which material came from Wikipedia, and which came from other sources. Further, widespread plagiarism is an indication of poor scholarship. For those reasons, and according to Wikipedia policy, WP:CIRCULAR, I will deleting all citations to the book. However I will not delete the material that cites it, as there's no indication that the material is inaccurate. For more background, see WP:RSN, or the archive after it goes there.  Will Beback   talk    22:49, 18 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Gupta, Om. Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Gyan Publishing House, 2006. ISBN 8182053897, 9788182053892.

 * I have just done the same thing again. Looks like someone reinserted the citations. - Sitush (talk) 07:55, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

Political Divisions
Order of state and region should be reversed. I will do it if I hear no objections.Beowulf (talk) 02:50, 15 May 2012 (UTC)

Demographics
Demographics of the town was stated wrongly. it was given as 1.9 lakh ... but really it was just 1.4 lakhs. Rohit Mudliar 12:42, 19 May 2014 (UTC)

Kumbeswarar temple shown wrongly
In the left side of the five photographs were found. The caption for the (second)photograph of Sarangapani Temple was given as Adhi Kumbeswarar Temple. The caption for the (third)photograph of Adhi Kumbeswarar Temple was given as Sarangapani Temple. Now corrections were made please. --B Jambulingam (talk) 11:33, 12 September 2014 (UTC)

Pewter not Lead
Under economy, amongst other things, the article mentions about "lead vessels". This is incorrect. It should read as "pewter vessels". The error has crept it for the author must have translated the tamil word "eeyam pathiram" to "lead vessels". In Tamil "eeyam' stands for both tin (out of which pewter is made) as also lead. While "veleeyam" is pewter, "kar eeyam" is lead.

Please therefore replace "lead vessels" to "pewter vessels" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 59.93.94.21 (talk) 16:04, 1 September 2015 (UTC)
 * The ref shows only lead vessels,i will search and update.Ssriram mt (talk) 04:40, 2 September 2015 (UTC)

கும்பக்கோணம் (Kumbakonam)
கும்பக்கோணம் should be written and read as கும்பகோணம் and not கும்பக்கோணம் in Tamil language. Hence correction is made accordingly. --B Jambulingam (talk) 06:39, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:25, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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Jack Pickford

John Charles Smith (August 18, 1896 – January 3, 1933), known professionally as Jack Pickford, was a Canadian-American actor, film director and producer. He was the younger brother of actresses Mary and Lottie Pickford.

After their father deserted the family, all three Pickford children began working as child actors on the stage. Mary later became a highly popular silent film actress, producer and early Hollywood pioneer. While he appeared in numerous films as the "All American boy next door" and was a fairly popular performer, he was overshadowed by his sister's success. His career declined steadily due to alcohol, drugs and chronic depression.

Early life
John Charles Smith, known as "Jack", was born in 1896 in Toronto, Ontario, to John Charles Smith, an English immigrant odd-job man of Methodist background, and Charlotte Hennessy Smith, who was Irish Catholic. His alcoholic father died in 1898, leaving the family impoverished. The children were dispersed, all living in separate households as their mother was grief-stricken and unable to support the family. However, Jack soon became very ill. The news of his illness revitalized their mother Charlotte and the family was reunited.

Out of desperation, Charlotte allowed Jack and his two sisters Gladys and Lottie to appear onstage, beginning with Gladys, the eldest. This proved a good source of income and, by 1900, the family had relocated to New York City and the children were acting in plays across the United States. Most notably, young Jack appeared onstage in Peg Robin and The Three of Us. Jack received his education in public schools and later attended St. Francis Military Academy, New York.

Due to work, the family was constantly separated until 1910 when Gladys signed with Biograph Studios, led by director D. W. Griffith. By this time, his sister Gladys Smith had been transformed into Mary Pickford. (Marie was her middle name, and Pickford an old family name.) Following suit, the Smiths changed their stage names to "Pickford".

Soon after signing with Biograph, Mary secured jobs for all the family, including the then-14-year-old Jack. In early January 1910, when the Biograph Company headed west to Los Angeles, California, only Mary was meant to go until Jack pleaded to join the company as well. Much to Mary's protest, Charlotte threw him on the train as it left the station. When the company arrived in Hollywood, Jack acted in bit parts and as a stunt double for young actresses, earning his way and supporting Mary. They both returned to New York months later, in April 1910.

The Pickford family briefly signed to the Independent Motion Picture Company (IMP) and the company moved to Havana, Cuba. However, the family eventually left and returned to the United States, resigning with Biograph. Jack had a leading role in the short A Dash Through the Clouds (1912), but the Pickford family conclusively left Biograph in late 1912.

In 1912, Adolph Zukor formed Famous Players in Famous Plays, later known as Famous Players–Lasky and then Paramount Pictures, one of the first American feature film companies. Mary signed with Famous Players, and included the family. Mary soon became a well-known star, and by 1919 had signed a contract for $1 million with First National Pictures. As part of her contract, Mary saw to it that her family was brought along, giving Jack Pickford a lucrative contract with the company, as well.

Acting career
By the time he signed with First National, Pickford had played bit parts in 95 shorts and full-length feature films. Although Pickford was considered an excellent actor, he is largely viewed as having failed to live up to his potential.

Pickford appeared in a large number of short films, prior to the mid-1910s, when his sister Mary was at the pinnacle of her fame. The two siblings feature together in A Girl of Yesterday (1915) and Poor Little Peppina (1916) under Famous Players. However, Fanchon, the Cricket (1915) was one of the only films in which all three Pickford siblings appear. It was thought lost until rediscovered in the 20th century at the British Film Institute.

Famous Players–Lasky president Adolph Zukor gave Pickford his first lead performance debut in the film Seventeen (1916), an adaptation of Booth Tarkington's novel. It was described as "screamingly funny". In 1917, he starred in one of his first major roles as Pip in the adaptation of Charles Dickens' Great Expectations. After gaining critical success from these two productions, Pickford was then cast as the lead in The Dummy (1917), adapted from the 1914 play by Harriet Ford and Harvey J. O'Higgins, which proved extremely popular. It was a critical success and Pickford's first breakthrough performance.

Later in 1917, Pickford secured the title role in Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer and the follow-up Huck and Tom (1918). Tom Sawyer (1917) was considered one of Pickford's most successful film roles, as the title character resembled Pickford's on and off-screen persona. In a letter, on the completion of the production, he wrote: "I've always been fond of Mark Twain's writings and Tom has long been a favorite of mine—somehow we seem to have a great deal in common. He performed so many of the very stunts that I remember in my own boyhood." In the early years of his career, Pickford became known for his clever portrayal of various boy parts in American novels.

Pickford was regularly teamed up with onscreen partner Louise Huff. They both appeared in Seventeen (1916), Great Expectations (1917), Freckles (1917), What Money Can't Buy (1917), The Varmint (1917), The Ghost House (1917), Jack and Jill (1917), His Majesty, Bunker Bean (1918), Mile-a-Minute Kendall (1918), and Sandy (1918) under Paramount Pictures. In early 1918, after the United States entered World War I, Pickford voluntary joined the U.S. Navy as an enlisted sailor and was stationed at the Third Naval District in Manhattan, New York. Despite nearly being dishonorably discharged, Pickford was granted an honourable discharge in May 1919. In August 1920, he officially became a citizen of the United States and legally changed his surname from Smith to Pickford. After the war in 1919, Pickford formed his own production company named the Jack Pickford Film Company, in partnership with First National Pictures. For a brief period, he produced and starred in his own films such as Bill Apperson's Boy (1919), Burglar by Proxy (1919), and In Wrong (1919). James Kirkwood directed Pickford during this time, in hope of boosting the actor's career.

In 1920, he signed with Goldwyn Pictures and starred in The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come (1920), an adaptation of John Fox Jr.'s novel. Pickford became "bitterly disappointed" in the writing quality and directorial style of the film. He was determined to buy back the rights, with the intention for a future remake. A Double-Eyed Deceiver (1920), The Man Who Had Everything (1920), and Just Out of College (1920) followed and were all directed by Alfred E. Green, starring Pickford as the lead. However, Goldwyn and Pickford had creative differences and parted ways.

Pickford also dabbled in screenwriting and directing. In 1921, he co-directed Little Lord Faunteroy (1921) and Through the Back Door (1921) with Alfred E. Green, under United Artists, both films starring his sister Mary. Pickford was hired as the director in an attempt to rid him of his depression after the passing of his wife Olive Thomas a year prior. This was seen as an opportunity to give his career a new direction. In 1921, there were plans afoot for A Tailor-Made Man (1922) to be directed by Alfred E. Green and starring Pickford, under United Artists. But for reasons unknown, changes were made and Mary sold the film to Charles Ray.

By 1923, his roles had gone from several a year to one. After dedicating the last two years to directorial work, Pickford returned to acting in Garrison's Finish (1923). While Pickford’s career did slow down after Thomas' death, the roles he played showed a new maturity and were some of the best of his career. These included The Hill Billy (1924), The Goose Woman (1925), Brown of Harvard (1926), and Exit Smiling (1926). In 1926, he played Brooks Bailey in The Bat (1926), directed by Roland West. Years later, West made a sound version titled The Bat Whispers (1930).

In 1928, he finished his last film, acting as Clyde Baxter in Gang War (1928) – a confirmed part talkie. It was best known for being the main feature attached to Steamboat Willie, the debut of Mickey Mouse in sound.

Most of his films, especially those in the late 1910s, were both commercial and critical successes, making a highly regarded name for himself. Pickford's image was that of the All-American boy, with his sister being "America's Sweetheart". In all, Pickford appeared in more than 130 films between 1908 and 1928. The majority of these silent films remain lost, unknown by the general public. However, a few of his films have been made available on DVD.

Personal life
Pickford was a lavish and renowned bachelor, and married three former Ziegfeld girls. He was good friends with James Kirkwood and Bobby Harron, originating from their Biograph days. They all appeared in Home, Sweet Home (1914).

Pickford had an interest in automobiles. His sister Mary's first major extravagance was a car, a Stanley Streamer EMF, and Jack nicknamed it the "Even Mama Fell" and "Every Morning Fix it". He was filmed once driving a Citroën in Hollywood, a rival of Henry Ford.

Marriages
Pickford met actress and Ziegfeld girl Olive Thomas at a beach cafe on the Santa Monica Pier. Screenwriter and director Frances Marion later commented on the couple's lifestyle:"...I had seen her [Thomas] often at the Pickford home, for she was engaged to Mary's brother, Jack. Two innocent-looking children, they were the gayest, wildest brats who ever stirred the stardust on Broadway. Both were talented, but they were much more interested in playing the roulette of life than in concentrating on their careers."

Pickford and Thomas eloped on October 25, 1916, in New Jersey. None of their family was present and their only witness was Thomas Meighan. The couple had no children of their own, though in 1920, they adopted Olive's then-six-year-old nephew when his mother died. Although by most accounts Olive was the love of Pickford's life, the marriage was stormy and filled with highly charged conflict, followed by lavish making up through the exchange of expensive gifts. For many years the Pickfords had intended to vacation together and with their marriage on the rocks, the couple decided to take a second honeymoon.

In August 1920, the pair traveled to Paris, hoping to combine a vacation with some film preparations. On the night of September 5, 1920, the couple went out for a night of entertainment and partying at the famous bistros in the Montparnasse quarter of Paris. They returned to their room in the Hôtel Ritz around 3:00 a.m. It was rumored Thomas may have taken cocaine that night, though it was never proven. She was intoxicated and tired, and took a large dose of mercury bichloride, a common item for bathroom cleaning. She was taken to the American Hospital in the Paris suburb of Neuilly, where Pickford, together with his former brother-in-law Owen Moore, remained at her side until she died from the poison a few days later. Rumors arose that she had either tried to die by suicide or had been murdered. A police investigation followed, as well as an autopsy, and Thomas's death was ruled accidental.

Pickford married two more times. On July 31, 1922, he married Marilyn Miller (1898–1936), a celebrated Broadway dancer and former Ziegfeld girl, at his sister and brother-in-law's famed home Pickfair. By most accounts it was an abusive marriage due to Pickford's drug abuse and alcoholism. They separated in 1926 and Miller was granted a French divorce in November 1927.

Pickford's final marriage was to Mary Mulhern, aged 22 and a former Ziegfeld girl, whom he married on August 12, 1930. Within three months Pickford grew increasingly volatile towards Mulhern. After two years Mulhern left Pickford, claiming he had mistreated her throughout the marriage. She was granted an interlocutory divorce in February 1932 which had yet to be finalized at the time of Pickford's death.

Death and legacy
In 1932, Pickford visited his sister Mary at Pickfair. According to Mary, he looked ill and emaciated; his clothes were hanging on him as if he were a clothes hanger. Mary Pickford recalled in her autobiography that she felt a wave of premonition when watching her brother leave. As they started down the stairs to the automobile entrance, Jack called back to her "Don't come down with me, Mary dear, I can go alone." Mary later wrote that as she stood at the top of the staircase, an inner voice said "That's the last time you'll see Jack".

Jack Pickford, at age 36, died at the American Hospital of Paris on January 3, 1933. The cause for his death was listed as "progressive multiple neuritis which attacked all the nerve centers". This was believed due to his alcoholism. "I have lived more than most men, and I am tired — so tired!" These were the last words whispered by Jack on his death bed. Mary Pickford arranged for his body to be returned to Los Angeles, where he was interred in the private Pickford plot at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale.

For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Jack Pickford has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1523 Vine Street.

Pickford siblings
Pickford and his sister Lottie were both silent film actors in their own right, but of course, were often overshadowed by their older sister, Mary. Living in her shadow, the two younger siblings embraced the happy-go-lucky times and fast living of the 1920s. Oddly enough, they both starred in Mile-a-Minute Kendall (1918) as lovers. Lottie was left heartbroken after Pickford's untimely death in early 1933. According to Mary: "She [Lottie] was never the same after Jack's going. They were so very close in temperament and even in looks. It was as though with my brother's passing the better part of her had died too".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jack Pickford


text:
Douglas Shearer

Douglas Graham Shearer (November 17, 1899 – January 5, 1971) was a Canadian American pioneering sound designer and recording director who played a key role in the advancement of sound technology for motion pictures. The elder brother of actress Norma Shearer, he won seven Academy Awards for his work. In 2008, he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.

Early life and career
Shearer was born in Westmount, Quebec, to a prominent family that fell on hard times after his father's business failed, which ultimately led to his parents' separation. Douglas remained with his father Andrew in Montreal while his two younger sisters, Norma Shearer (the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer star) and Athole Shearer (also a Hollywood actress and one-time wife of director Howard Hawks), moved to the United States—to New York City—with their mother, Edith.

Unable to afford a university education, Douglas Shearer left school and began working in a variety of jobs. In 1924, he traveled to Hollywood, California, to visit his mother and sisters, who had moved there a few years earlier. He decided to remain there too, finding a job at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where Norma was already under contract.

At MGM, working as an assistant in the studio's camera department, he pursued an interest in adding sound to film. That interest led to a career that spanned more than four decades in motion pictures. "What I knew about sound you could have put in a nutshell," he said. "Overnight I became the one-man sound department. They ordered me to do the job; they didn't give it to me. And probably they wouldn't have given it to me except that they were desperate."

Douglas became a significant inventor and innovator in sound technology, with one of his many contributions being a system he developed that eliminated unwanted background noise. Over his long career, Shearer was nominated twenty-one times for Academy Awards, winning seven Oscars for Sound and Special Effects. He is credited as recording director in most of the films that MGM produced between 1930 and 1953.

Shearer was appointed the studio's director of technical research in 1955; and by the time he retired in 1968 Shearer had won an additional seven Scientific or Technical Academy Awards. In summing up his career, The Film Encyclopedia by Ephraim Katz (2001) states that "during his more than 40 years with MGM he contributed more than any other man in Hollywood to the perfection of motion picture sound."

Personal life
Shearer married Marion B. Tilden in Montreal in September 1922. She died on June 6, 1931, and the following year he married Ann Cunningham in California. In its October 4, 1932 issue, the trade paper The Film Daily announced that "Douglas Shearer, head of the M-G-M sound department...has returned [to Hollywood] from an 'aerial honeymoon' with his bride, formerly Ann Cunningham, also of the studio staff." The couple had two sons, Mark and Stephen. Later he married Avice Curry.

Death
Shearer died in Culver City, California, in 1971.

Awards and nominations
Scientific and Technical Academy Award
 * 7 wins

Academy Award for Sound (Wins):
 * The Big House (1930)
 * Naughty Marietta  (1935)
 * San Francisco  (1936)
 * Strike Up the Band (1940)
 * The Great Caruso (1951)

Academy Award for Best Visual Effects (Wins):
 * Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo  (1944)
 * Green Dolphin Street (1947)

Academy Award for Sound (Nominations):
 * Viva Villa!  (1934)
 * Maytime  (1937)
 * Sweethearts  (1938)
 * Balalaika  (1939)
 * The Chocolate Soldier (1941)
 * Mrs. Miniver  (1942)
 * Madame Curie (1943)
 * Kismet  (1944)
 * They Were Expendable  (1945)
 * Green Dolphin Street  (1947)

Academy Award for Best Special Effects (Nominations):
 * The Wizard of Oz (1939)
 * Boom Town (1940)
 * Flight Command (1941)
 * Mrs. Miniver (1942)

title: Douglas Shearer


text:
Mahamaham

Mahamaham, also known as Mahamagham or Mamangam, is a Hindu festival celebrated every 12 years in the Mahamaham tank located in the city of Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu in the south of India. This 20-acre square tank surrounded by Shiva mandapams is believed by Tamil Hindus to be ancient, and the holy confluence of nine Indian river goddesses: Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Kaveri, and Sarayu, states Diana Eck – a professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies. On the day of the Mahamaham festival, the river goddesses and Shiva gather here to rejuvenate their waters, according to a legend in the Periya Purana. The Hindus consider taking a pilgrimage and holy dip at the Mahamaham tirtha on the day of Mahamaham festival as sacred. The event attracts chariot processions, street fairs and classical dance performances in temple mandapas. The 12-year cycle Mahamaham festival in Tamil Nadu is observed in the Hindu calendar month of Magha, and is a symbolic equivalent of the Kumbh Mela.

The Mahamaham festival – also referred to as the Maha Magam festival – and the holy dip tradition of the South Indian Hindus was documented by the British colonial era writers in the 19th century. The last Mahamaham was celebrated on 22 February 2016 with over a million people from various places taking the holy dip in the Mahamaham tank. The festival with its dip-in-the-tank-waters tradition extends over 10 days (Brahmothsavam). The 10-day festivities are also observed with lesser crowds in the Magha month (about February) every year between the 12-year Maha (major) cycle. In the interim years, the event is called the Masi-maham festival.

Legend
The Mahamaham tank is surrounded by small temple mandapas with Vedic and Puranic deities, each with a Shiva linga in the sanctum. It also features the big Kashi Vishwanathar temple to its north. At the entrance temple gate, there is the image of Shiva with nine Indian river goddesses: Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Kaveri, and Sarayu. Portions of the Periya Purana are inscribed inside the mandapas and the temple. The complete legend is found on the inner walls of the Kumbheshvara temple near the water pool. According to this legend, after the end of each cyclic existence, there is a Mahapralaya (great flood) when Shiva helped save all creation by floating all seeds of creation and amritam (nectar of immortality) in a pot (kumbha). The flood subsided and the pot came to rest on ground, which was broken by an arrow by Shiva in a hunter form. This spilled the contents into a large pool that became the Mahamaham tank. Another legend is painted pictorially. This shows Brahma being instructed by Shiva to preserve all seeds of creation and life forms in a giant kumbha (pot) during a great flood. It floats to Meru, survives the floods, and when the floods end the pot comes to rest near the banks of Kaveri river in a place now called Kumbhakonam. Shiva, in the form of Kiratamoorty (hunter) breaks it and the water inside the pot becomes the Mahamaham tank. The coconut on top of the pot breaks and becomes the lingas. The pot parts were memorialized by the many mandapa and temples near the tank and the Kumbhakunam region: Kumbeswara, Someswara, Kasi Viswanatha, Nageswara, Kamata Viswanatha, Abimukeshwara, Goutameswara, Banapuriswara, Varahar, Lakshminaryana, Sarangapani, Chakrapani and Varadharaja.

Astronomically, Maha maham or magha festival is celebrated in the month when full moon occurs as moon is passing Magha nakshatra (Leo sign) and Sun is on the other end in the opposite Aquarius sign (Kumnha Rasi). Mahamagham occurs once in twelve years when the planet Jupiter's residence in Leo coincides with full-moon in Leo. On the day of the festival in the month of Magha, it is believed to bring all water bodies together and water is rejuvenated.

History
The antiquity of the event is deduced from the architectural and epigraphy. The visit of Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) is recorded in an inscription in the gopuram of Nagalpuram, a village in Chengalpattu district. That Krishnadevaraya visited the event is also recorded in the inscription found in the Shiva temple in Kuthalam. The ceiling of the Gangatirtha mandapam carries the sculptural representation of Tulapurushardava. It is believed that the 16th-century Nayak era prime minister Govinda Dikshitar attended the event and donated gold which help build the sixteen mandapas.

The tank is significant particularly to the South Indian Hindus. The festival is a symbolic equivalent to the Kumbh Mela pilgrimage at Prayaga in Uttar Pradesh.

The festival
The Masimaham is an annual event that occurs in Kumbakonam in the Tamil month of Masi (February–March) in the star of Magam. Vast crowds of Hindu devotees gather at Kumbakonam to have a dip in the tank. All the rivers of India are believed to meet at the tank on this day and a purificatory bath at this tank on this day is considered equal to the combined dips in all the holy rivers of India. Festival deities from all the temples in Kumbakonam arrive at the tank and at noon, all the deities bathe along with the devotees - it is called "Theerthavari". The purificatory bath is believed to remove sins and after the dip, pilgrims offer charitable gifts in the hope of being rewarded in the current life and subsequent lives. The temple cars of major temples in Kumbakonam come around the city on the festival night. During the Mahamaham of 1992, the number of devotees were estimated to be one million.

During the time of Mahamaham festival, it is believed that the famous Indian river goddesses Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati River, Sarayu, Godavari River, Tungabhadra River (alternately Mahanadi River ), Narmada River, Krishna River, and Kaveri River. These arrive here to rejuvenate and get repurified through Ganga and with Shiva's blessing. This cyclic event makes this a sacred site and the waters holy to cleanse one of any sins they may have committed or absorbed from others. which are mixed together in Mahamaham tank, would get rid of sins. The images of the deities indicating the legend, is housed in the nearby Kasi Viswanatha Temple.

In the northern bank mandapa, there is an inscription of Tulapurshadana, a practise of weighing oneself against gold. The ceremony is observed during various times like equinoxes, commencement of an era (Yuga) and its ending, eclipses and Makara Sankranti. The ceremony is usually performed in sacred places like temples, rivers and tanks. The amount of gold thus weighed is distributed among deserving men.

The tank
The tank is located in the heart of Kumbakonam city which is near the Kaveri river. The tank and temple premises spread over 20 acres, while the water pool with ghat-like steps covers an area of over 6 acres. It is square in its original design, but infrastructure upgrades and extensions have made it somewhat trapezoidal in shape. The tank is surrounded by 16 small mandapams (shrines) and has 21 wells inside the tank. The names of the wells carry the name of Lord Shiva or that of Rivers of India. Govinda Dikshitar, the chieftain of Ragunatha Nayak of Thanjavur, constructed the sixteen mandapams and stone steps around this tank.

The Mahamaham tank has four streets along its four banks. It is constructed with steps on the sides for people to easily access the tank and take dips. There are 16 mandapas (Gopuram Towers) around the corners and sides of the tank. These towers are considered to be forms of Shiva.

Names of the Gopuram Tower
1. Brammatheertheshwarar; 2. Mukundeshwarar; 3. Dhaneshwarar; 4. Virushabeshwarar; 5. Baaneshwarar; 6. Koneshwarar; 7. Bhakthikeshwarar; 8. Bhairaveshwarar; 9. Agasthyeshwarar; 10. Vyaneshwarar; 11. Umaibakeshwarar; 12. Nairutheeshwarar; 13. Brammeshwarar; 14. Gangatheshwarar; 15. Mukthatheertheshwarar; 16. Shethrabaleshwarar

Names of 20 Theertham (wells)
1. Vayu Theertham; 2. Ganga Theertham; 3. Bramma Theertham; 4. Yamuna Theertham; 5. Kubera Theertham; 6. Godavari Theertham; 7. Eshana Theertham; 8. Narmada Theertham; 9. Saraswathi Theertham; 10. Indira Theertham; 11. Agni Theertham; 12. Cauvery Theertham; 13. Yama Theertham; 14. Kumari Theertham; 15. Niruthi Theertham; 16. Bayoshni Theertham; 17. Deva Theertham; 18. Varunai Theertham; 19. Sarayu Theertham; 20. Kanya Theertham

Mahamaham festival rituals
On the Mahamaham day people start with praying these Siva temples, followed by a dip in the holy tank. The devouts follow a more exhaustive procedure with dips in the 20 wells, visit to Kumbeswarar Temple, dip in the holy tank and finally in Kaveri river to complete the process. Other celebrations including public chariot parades and fares, featuring the sanctum idols of the main temples of Kumbakonam being brought out for public viewing, carried in wooden chariots through the different streets of the town.

Connected Shiva temples
Twelve Shiva temples are connected with Mahamaham festival which happens once in 12 years in Kumbakonam. They are Kasi Viswanathar Temple, Kumbeswarar Temple, Someswarar Temple, Nageswara Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple, Gowthameswarar Temple, Abimukeswarar Temple, Kambatta Visvanathar Temple, Banapuriswarar Temple, Kalahasteeswarar Temple, Koteeswarar Temple, and Amirthakalasanathar Temple. Of these twelve, first ten temples are located in Kumbakonam town itself. Of them 11 temples are in Kumbakonam.

Connected Vishnu temples
Five Vishnu temples are connected with this festival. They are Sarangapani Temple, Chakrapani Temple, Ramaswamy Temple, Rajagopalaswamy Temple, and Varahaperumal Temple. All these temples are in Kumbakonam.

title: Mahamaham


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Diwali

Diwali (Deepavali, IAST: Dīpāvalī) is the Hindu festival of lights, with variations celebrated in other Indian religions. It symbolises the spiritual "victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance". Diwali is celebrated during the Hindu lunisolar months of Ashvin (according to the amanta tradition) and Kartikabetween around mid-September and mid-November. The celebrations generally last five or six days.

Diwali is connected to various religious events, deities and personalities, such as being the day Rama returned to his kingdom in Ayodhya with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana after defeating the demon king Ravana. It is also widely associated with Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, and Ganesha, the god of wisdom and the remover of obstacles. Other regional traditions connect the holiday to Vishnu, Krishna, Durga, Shiva, Kali, Hanuman, Kubera, Yama, Yami, Dhanvantari, or Vishvakarman.

Primarily a Hindu festival, variations of Diwali are also celebrated by adherents of other faiths. The Jains observe their own Diwali which marks the final liberation of Mahavira. The Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas to mark the release of Guru Hargobind from a Mughal prison. Newar Buddhists, unlike other Buddhists, celebrate Diwali by worshipping Lakshmi, while the Hindus of Eastern India and Bangladesh generally celebrate Diwali by worshipping the goddess Kali.

During the festival, the celebrants illuminate their homes, temples and workspaces with diyas (oil lamps), candles and lanterns. Hindus, in particular, have a ritual oil bath at dawn on each day of the festival. Diwali is also marked with fireworks as well as the decoration of floors with rangoli designs and other parts of the house with jhalars. Food is a major focus with families partaking in feasts and sharing mithai. The festival is an annual homecoming and bonding period not only for families, but also for communities and associations, particularly those in urban areas, which will organise activities, events, and gatherings. Many towns organise community parades and fairs with parades or music and dance performances in parks. Some Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs will send Diwali greeting cards to family near and far during the festive season, occasionally with boxes of Indian confectionery. Another aspect of the festival is remembering the ancestors.

Diwali is also a major cultural event for the Hindu, Sikh, and Jain diaspora. The main day of the festival of Diwali (the day of Lakshmi Puja) is an official holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.

Etymology
Diwali also known as Dewali, Divali,  or Deepavali (IAST: dīpāvalī)comes from the Sanskrit dīpāvali meaning row or series of lights. The term is derived from the Sanskrit words dīpa, lamp, light, lantern, candle, that which glows, shines, illuminates or knowledge and āvali, a row, range, continuous line, series.

Dates
The five-day celebration is observed every year in early autumn after the conclusion of the summer harvest. It coincides with the new moon (amāvasyā) and is deemed the darkest night of the Hindu lunisolar calendar. The festivities begin two days before amāvasyā, on Dhanteras, and extend two days after, until the second (or 17th) day of the month of Kartik. (According to Indologist Constance Jones, this night ends the lunar month of Ashwin and starts the month of Kartik – but see this note and Amanta and Purnima systems.) The darkest night is the apex of the celebration and coincides with the second half of October or early November in the Gregorian calendar. The festival climax is on the third day and is called the main Diwali. It is an official holiday in a dozen countries, while the other festive days are regionally observed as either public or optional restricted holidays in India. In Nepal, it is also a multiday festival, although the days and rituals are named differently, with the climax being called the Tihar festival by Hindus and Swanti festival by Buddhists.

History
The five-day long festival originated in the Indian subcontinent and is likely a fusion of harvest festivals in ancient India. It is mentioned in early Sanskrit texts, such as the Padma Purana and the Skanda Purana, both of which were completed in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The diyas (lamps) are mentioned in Skanda Kishore Purana as symbolising parts of the sun, describing it as the cosmic giver of light and energy to all life and which seasonally transitions in the Hindu calendar month of Kartik.

Emperor Harsha refers to Deepavali, in the 7th-century Sanskrit play Nagananda, as Dīpapratipadotsava (dīpa = light, pratipadā = first day, utsava = festival), where lamps were lit and newly engaged brides and grooms received gifts. Rajasekhara referred to Deepavali as Dipamalika in his 9th-century Kavyamimamsa, wherein he mentions the tradition of homes being whitewashed and oil lamps decorated homes, streets, and markets in the night.

Diwali was also described by numerous travelers from outside India. In his 11th-century memoir on India, the Persian traveler and historian Al Biruni wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on the day of the New Moon in the month of Kartika. The Venetian merchant and traveler Niccolò de' Conti visited India in the early 15th-century and wrote in his memoir, "on another of these festivals they fix up within their temples, and on the outside of the roofs, an innumerable number of oil lamps... which are kept burning day and night" and that the families would gather, "clothe themselves in new garments", sing, dance, and feast. The 16th-century Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes wrote of his visit to the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire, where Dipavali was celebrated in October with householders illuminating their homes, and their temples, with lamps. It is mentioned in the Ramayana that Diwali was celebrated for only 2 years in Ayodhya.

Islamic historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era also mentioned Diwali and other Hindu festivals. A few, notably the Mughal emperor Akbar, welcomed and participated in the festivities, whereas others banned such festivals as Diwali and Holi, as Aurangzeb did in 1665.

Publications from the British colonial era also made mention of Diwali, such as the note on Hindu festivals published in 1799 by Sir William Jones, a philologist known for his early observations on Sanskrit and Indo-European languages. In his paper on The Lunar Year of the Hindus, Jones, then based in Bengal, noted four of the five days of Diwali in the autumn months of Aswina-Cartica [sic] as the following: Bhutachaturdasi Yamaterpanam (2nd day), Lacshmipuja dipanwita (the day of Diwali), Dyuta pratipat Belipuja (4th day), and Bhratri dwitiya (5th day). The Lacshmipuja dipanwita, remarked Jones, was a "great festival at night, in honour of Lakshmi, with illuminations on trees and houses".

Epigraphy

Sanskrit inscriptions in stone and copper mentioning Diwali, occasionally alongside terms such as Dipotsava, Dipavali, Divali and Divalige, have been discovered at numerous sites across India. Examples include a 10th-century Rashtrakuta empire copper plate inscription of Krishna III (939–967 CE) that mentions Dipotsava, and a 12th-century mixed Sanskrit-Kannada Sinda inscription discovered in the Isvara temple of Dharwad in Karnataka where the inscription refers to the festival as a "sacred occasion". According to Lorenz Franz Kielhorn, a German Indologist known for translating many Indic inscriptions, this festival is mentioned as Dipotsavam in verses 6 and 7 of the Ranganatha temple Sanskrit inscription of the 13th-century Venad Hindu king Ravivarman Samgramadhira. Part of the inscription, as translated by Kielhorn, reads: "'the auspicious festival of lights which disperses the most profound darkness, which in former days was celebrated by the kings Ila, Kartavirya and Sagara, (...) as Sakra (Indra) is of the gods, the universal monarch who knows the duties by the three Vedas, afterwards celebrated here at Ranga for Vishnu, resplendent with Lakshmi resting on his radiant lap.'"

Jain inscriptions, such as the 10th-century Saundatti inscription about a donation of oil to Jinendra worship for the Diwali rituals, speak of Dipotsava. Another early 13th-century Sanskrit stone inscription, written in the Devanagari script, has been found in the north end of a mosque pillar in Jalore, Rajasthan evidently built using materials from a demolished Jain temple. The inscription states that Ramachandracharya built and dedicated a drama performance hall, with a golden cupola, on Diwali.

Religious significance
The religious significance of Diwali varies regionally within India. One tradition links the festival to legends in the Hindu epic Ramayana, where Diwali is the day Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman reached Ayodhya after a period of 14 years in exile after Rama's army of good defeated demon king Ravana's army of evil. Throughout the epic, Rama's decisions were always in line with dharma (duty) and the Diwali festival serves as a reminder for followers of hinduism to maintain their dharma in day to day life.

Per another popular tradition, in the Dvapara Yuga period, Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, killed the demon Narakasura, who was the evil king of Pragjyotishapura, near present-day Assam, and released 16000 girls held captive by Narakasura. Diwali was celebrated as a signifier of triumph of good over evil after Krishna's Victory over Narakasura. The day before Diwali is remembered as Naraka Chaturdashi, the day on which Narakasura was killed by Krishna.

Many Hindus associate the festival with Goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and wife of Vishnu. According to Pintchman, the start of the 5-day Diwali festival is stated in some popular contemporary sources as the day goddess Lakshmi was born from Samudra Manthana, the churning of the cosmic ocean of milk by the Devas (gods) and the Asuras (demons) – a Vedic legend that is also found in several Puranas such as the Padma Purana, while the night of Diwali is when Lakshmi chose and wed Vishnu. Along with Lakshmi, who is representative of Vaishnavism, Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Parvati and Shiva of Shaivism tradition, is remembered as one who symbolises ethical beginnings and the remover of obstacles.

Hindus of eastern India associate the festival with the Goddess Kali, who symbolises the victory of good over evil. Hindus from the Braj region in northern India, parts of Assam, as well as southern Tamil and Telugu communities view Diwali as the day the god Krishna overcame and destroyed the evil demon king Narakasura, in yet another symbolic victory of knowledge and good over ignorance and evil.

Trade and merchant families and others also offer prayers to Saraswati, who embodies music, literature and learning and Kubera, who symbolises book-keeping, treasury and wealth management. In western states such as Gujarat, and certain northern Hindu communities of India, the festival of Diwali signifies the start of a new year.

Mythical tales shared on Diwali vary widely depending on region and even within Hindu tradition, yet all share a common focus on righteousness, self-inquiry and the importance of knowledge, which, according to Lindsey Harlan, an Indologist and scholar of Religious Studies, is the path to overcoming the "darkness of ignorance". The telling of these myths are reminiscent of the Hindu belief that good ultimately triumphs over evil.

Other religions
Originally a Hindu festival, Diwali has transcended religious lines. Diwali is celebrated by Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Newar Buddhists, although for each faith it marks different historical events and stories, but nonetheless the festival represents the same symbolic victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, and good over evil.

Jainism
A scholar of Jain and Nivethan, states that in Jain tradition, Diwali is celebrated in observance of "Mahavira Nirvana Divas", the physical death and final nirvana of Mahavira. The Jain Diwali celebrated in many parts of India has similar practices to the Hindu Diwali, such as the lighting of lamps and the offering of prayers to Lakshmi. However, the focus of the Jain Diwali remains the dedication to Mahavira. According to the Jain tradition, this practice of lighting lamps first began on the day of Mahavira's nirvana in 527 BCE, when 18 kings who had gathered for Mahavira's final teachings issued a proclamation that lamps be lit in remembrance of the "great light, Mahavira". This traditional belief of the origin of Diwali, and its significance to Jains, is reflected in their historic artworks such as paintings.

Sikhism
Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas in remembrance of the release of Guru Hargobind from the Gwalior Fort prison by the Mughal emperor Jahangir and the day he arrived at the Golden Temple in Amritsar. According to J.S. Grewal, a scholar of Sikhism and Sikh history, Diwali in the Sikh tradition is older than the sixth Guru Hargobind legend. Guru Amar Das, the third Guru of the Sikhs, built a well in Goindwal with eighty-four steps and invited Sikhs to bathe in its sacred waters on Baisakhi and Diwali as a form of community bonding. Over time, these spring and autumn festivals became the most important of Sikh festivals and holy sites such as Amritsar became focal points for annual pilgrimages. The festival of Diwali, according to Ray Colledge, highlights three events in Sikh history: the founding of the city of Amritsar in 1577, the release of Guru Hargobind from the Mughal prison, and the day of Bhai Mani Singh's martyrdom in 1738 as a result of his failure to pay a fine for trying to celebrate Diwali and thereafter refusing to convert to Islam.

Buddhism
Diwali is not a festival for most Buddhists, with the exception of the Newar people of Nepal who revere various deities in Vajrayana Buddhism and celebrate Diwali by offering prayers to Lakshmi. Newar Buddhists in Nepalese valleys also celebrate the Diwali festival over five days, in much the same way, and on the same days, as the Nepalese Hindu Diwali-Tihar festival. According to some observers, this traditional celebration by Newar Buddhists in Nepal, through the worship of Lakshmi and Vishnu during Diwali, is not syncretism but rather a reflection of the freedom within Mahayana Buddhist tradition to worship any deity for their worldly betterment.

Celebrations
In the lead-up to Diwali, celebrants prepare by cleaning, renovating, and decorating their homes and workplaces with diyas (oil lamps) and rangolis (colorful art circle patterns). During Diwali, people wear their finest clothes, illuminate the interior and exterior of their homes with saaki (earthen lamp), diyas and rangoli, perform worship ceremonies of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and wealth, light fireworks, and partake in family feasts, where mithai (sweets) and gifts are shared.

The height of Diwali is celebrated on the third day coinciding with the darkest night of Ashvin or Kartika.

The common celebratory practices are known as the festival of light, however there are minor differences from state to state in India. Diwali is usually celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami festival, with Dhanteras, or the regional equivalent, marking the first day of the festival when celebrants prepare by cleaning their homes and making decorations on the floor, such as rangolis. Some regions of India start Diwali festivities the day before Dhanteras with Govatsa Dwadashi. The second day is Naraka Chaturdashi. The third day is the day of Lakshmi Puja and the darkest night of the traditional month. In some parts of India, the day after Lakshmi Puja is marked with the Govardhan Puja and Balipratipada (Padwa). Some Hindu communities mark the last day as Bhai Dooj or the regional equivalent, which is dedicated to the bond between sister and brother, while other Hindu and Sikh craftsmen communities mark this day as Vishvakarma Puja and observe it by performing maintenance in their work spaces and offering prayers. Rituals and preparations for Diwali begin days or weeks in advance, typically after the festival of Dusshera that precedes Diwali by about 20 days. The festival formally begins two days before the night of Diwali, and ends two days thereafter. Each day has the following rituals and significance: Diwali, the Indian festival of lights has become more popular in other countries. In New York City lawmakers have passed legislation to make holidays in school. But debates over the holiday push back. In the future Diwali will be a holiday.

Dhanteras, Dhanatrayodashi, Yama Deepam (Day 1)

Dhanteras, derived from Dhan meaning wealth and teras meaning thirteenth, marks the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik and the beginning of Diwali in most parts of India. On this day, many Hindus clean their homes and business premises. They install diyas, small earthen oil-filled lamps that they light up for the next five days, near Lakshmi and Ganesha iconography. Women and children decorate doorways within homes and offices with rangolis, colourful designs made from rice flour, flower petals, colored rice or colored sand, while the boys and men decorate the roofs and walls of family homes, markets, and temples and string up lights and lanterns. The day also marks a major shopping day to purchase new utensils, home equipment, gold jewelry, firecrackers, and other items. On the evening of Dhanteras, families offer prayers (puja) to Lakshmi and Ganesha, and lay offerings of puffed rice, candy toys, rice cakes and batashas (hollow sugar cakes).

According to Tracy Pintchman, Dhanteras is a symbol of annual renewal, cleansing and an auspicious beginning for the next year. The term Dhan for this day also alludes to the Ayurvedic icon Dhanvantari, the god of health and healing, who is believed to have emerged from the "churning of cosmic ocean" on the same day as Lakshmi. Some communities, particularly those active in Ayurvedic and health-related professions, pray or perform havan rituals to Dhanvantari on Dhanteras.

On Yama Deepam (also known as Yama Dipadana or Jam ke Diya), Hindus light a diya, ideally made of wheat flour and filled with sesame oil, that faces south in the back of their homes. This is believed to please Yama, the god of death, and to ward off untimely death. Some Hindus observe Yama Deepa on the second night before the main day of Diwali.

Naraka Chaturdashi, Kali Chaudas, Chhoti Diwali, Hanuman Puja, Roop Chaudas, Yama Deepam (Day 2)
Naraka Chaturdashi, also known as Chhoti Diwali, is the second day of festivities coinciding with the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik. The term "chhoti" means little, while "Naraka" means hell and "Chaturdashi" means "fourteenth". The day and its rituals are interpreted as ways to liberate any souls from their suffering in "Naraka", or hell, as well as a reminder of spiritual auspiciousness. For some Hindus, it is a day to pray for the peace to the manes, or defiled souls of one's ancestors and light their way for their journeys in the cyclic afterlife. A mythological interpretation of this festive day is the destruction of the asura (demon) Narakasura by Krishna, a victory that frees 16,000 imprisoned princesses kidnapped by Narakasura. It is also celebrated as Roop Chaudas in some North Indian households, where women bathe before sunrise, while lighting a Diya (lamp) in the bath area, they believe it helps enhance their beauty – it is a fun ritual that young girls enjoy as part of festivities. Ubtan is applied by the women which is made up of special gram flour mixed with herbs for cleansing and beautifying themselves.

Naraka Chaturdashi is also a major day for purchasing festive foods, particularly sweets. A variety of sweets are prepared using flour, semolina, rice, chickpea flour, dry fruit pieces powders or paste, milk solids (mawa or khoya) and clarified butter (ghee). According to Goldstein, these are then shaped into various forms, such as laddus, barfis, halwa, kachoris, shrikhand, and sandesh, rolled and stuffed delicacies, such as karanji, shankarpali, maladu, susiyam, pottukadalai. Sometimes these are wrapped with edible silver foil (vark). Confectioners and shops create Diwali-themed decorative displays, selling these in large quantities, which are stocked for home celebrations to welcome guests and as gifts. Families also prepare homemade delicacies for Lakshmi Pujan, regarded as the main day of Diwali. Chhoti Diwali is also a day for visiting friends, business associates and relatives, and exchanging gifts.

On the second day of Diwali, Hanuman Puja is performed in some parts of India especially in Gujarat. It coincides with the day of Kali Chaudas. It is believed that spirits roam around on the night of Kali Chaudas, and Hanuman, who is the deity of strength, power, and protection, is worshipped to seek protection from the spirits. Diwali is also celebrated to mark the return of Rama to Ayodhya after defeating the demon-king Ravana and completing his fourteen years of exile. The devotion and dedication of Hanuman pleased Rama so much that he blessed Hanuman to be worshipped before him. Thus, people worship Hanuman the day before Diwali's main day.

This day is commonly celebrated as Diwali in Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Karnataka. Traditionally, Marathi Hindus and South Indian Hindus receive an oil massage from the elders in the family on the day and then take a ritual bath, all before sunrise. Many visit their favourite Hindu temple.

Some Hindus observe Yama Deepam (also known as Yama Dipadana or Jam ke Diya) on the second day of Diwali, instead of the first day. A diya that is filled with sesame oil is lit at back of their homes facing in the southern direction. This is believed to please Yama, the god of death, and to ward off untimely death.

Lakshmi Pujan, Kali Puja (Day 3)
The third day is the height of the festival, and coincides with the last day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik. This is the day when Hindu, Jain and Sikh temples and homes are aglow with lights, thereby making it the "festival of lights". The word Deepawali comes from the Sanskrit word deep, which means an Indian lantern/lamp. The youngest members in the family visit their elders, such as grandparents and other senior members of the community, on this day. Small business owners give gifts or special bonus payments to their employees between Dhanteras and Lakshmi Pujan. Shops either do not open or close early on this day allowing employees to enjoy family time. Shopkeepers and small operations perform puja rituals in their office premises. Unlike some other festivals, the Hindus typically do not fast during the five-day long Diwali including Lakshmi Pujan, rather they feast and share the bounties of the season at their workplaces, community centres, temples, and homes.

As the evening approaches, celebrants will wear new clothes or their best outfits, teenage girls and women, in particular, wear saris and jewelry. At dusk, family members gather for the Lakshmi Pujan, although prayers will also be offered to other deities, such as Ganesha, Saraswati, Rama, Lakshmana, Sita, Hanuman, or Kubera. The lamps from the puja ceremony are then used to light more earthenware lamps, which are placed in rows along the parapets of temples and houses, while some diyas are set adrift on rivers and streams. After the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up patakhe (fireworks) together, and then share a family feast and mithai (sweets, desserts).

The puja and rituals in the Bengali Hindu community focus on Kali, the goddess of war, instead of Lakshmi. According to Rachel Fell McDermott, a scholar of South Asian, particular Bengali, studies, in Bengal during Navaratri (Dussehra elsewhere in India) the Durga puja is the main focus, although in the eastern and north eastern states the two are synonymous, but on Diwali the focus is on the puja dedicated to Kali. These two festivals likely developed in tandem over their recent histories, states McDermott. Textual evidence suggests that Bengali Hindus worshipped Lakshmi before the colonial era, and that the Kali puja is a more recent phenomenon. Contemporary Bengali celebrations mirror those found elsewhere, with teenage boys playing with fireworks and the sharing of festive food with family, but with the Shakti goddess Kali as the focus.

On the night of Diwali, rituals across much of India are dedicated to Lakshmi to welcome her into their cleaned homes and bring prosperity and happiness for the coming year. While the cleaning, or painting, of the home is in part for goddess Lakshmi, it also signifies the ritual "reenactment of the cleansing, purifying action of the monsoon rains" that would have concluded in most of the Indian subcontinent. Vaishnava families recite Hindu legends of the victory of good over evil and the return of hope after despair on the Diwali night, where the main characters may include Rama, Krishna, Vamana or one of the avatars of Vishnu, the divine husband of Lakshmi. At dusk, lamps placed earlier in the inside and outside of the home are lit up to welcome Lakshmi. Family members light up firecrackers, which some interpret as a way to ward off all evil spirits and the inauspicious, as well as add to the festive mood. According to Pintchman, who quotes Raghavan, this ritual may also be linked to the tradition in some communities of paying respect to ancestors. Earlier in the season's fortnight, some welcome the souls of their ancestors to join the family for the festivities with the Mahalaya. The Diwali night's lights and firecrackers, in this interpretation, represent a celebratory and symbolic farewell to the departed ancestral souls.

The celebrations and rituals of the Jains and the Sikhs are similar to those of the Hindus where social and community bonds are renewed. Major temples and homes are decorated with lights, festive foods shared with all, friends and relatives remembered and visited with gifts.

Annakut, Balipratipada (Padwa), New Year's Day, Govardhan Puja (Day 4)
The day after Diwali is the first day of the bright fortnight of Kartik. It is regionally called Annakut (heap of grain), Padwa, Goverdhan puja, Bali Pratipada, Bali Padyami, Kartik Shukla Pratipada and other names. According to one tradition, the day is associated with the story of Bali's defeat at the hands of Vishnu. In another interpretation, it is thought to reference the legend of Parvati and her husband Shiva playing a game of dyuta (dice) on a board of twelve squares and thirty pieces, Parvati wins. Shiva surrenders his shirt and adornments to her, rendering him naked. According to Handelman and Shulman, as quoted by Pintchman, this legend is a Hindu metaphor for the cosmic process for creation and dissolution of the world through the masculine destructive power, as represented by Shiva, and the feminine procreative power, represented by Parvati, where twelve reflects the number of months in the cyclic year, while thirty are the number of days in its lunisolar month.

This day ritually celebrates the bond between the wife and husband, and in some Hindu communities, husbands will celebrate this with gifts to their wives. In other regions, parents invite a newly married daughter, or son, together with their spouses to a festive meal and give them gifts.

In some rural communities of the north, west and central regions, the fourth day is celebrated as Govardhan puja, honouring the legend of the Hindu god Krishna saving the cowherd and farming communities from incessant rains and floods triggered by Indra's anger, which he accomplished by lifting the Govardhan mountain. This legend is remembered through the ritual of building small mountain-like miniatures from cow dung. According to Kinsley, the ritual use of cow dung, a common fertiliser, is an agricultural motif and a celebration of its significance to annual crop cycles.

The agricultural symbolism is also observed on this day by many Hindus as Annakut, literally "mountain of food". Communities prepare over one hundred dishes from a variety of ingredients, which is then dedicated to Krishna before being shared among the community. Hindu temples on this day prepare and present "mountains of sweets" to the faithful who have gathered for darshan (visit). In Gujarat, Annakut is the first day of the new year and celebrated through the purchase of essentials, or sabras (literally, "good things in life"), such as salt, offering prayers to Krishna and visiting temples. In Gujarat New Year is celebrated after the day of Diwali. In the early morning people take showers, do prayer at home, visit temples for worship and children in the evening visit neighbor houses to say happy new year, shake hands, get mukhvas for dessert, and chocolate.

Bhai Duj, Bhau-Beej, Vishwakarma Puja (Day 5)
The last day of the festival, the second day of the bright fortnight of Kartik, is called Bhai Duj (literally "brother's day" ), Bhau Beej, Bhai Tilak or Bhai Phonta. It celebrates the sister-brother bond, similar in spirit to Raksha Bandhan but it is the brother that travels to meet the sister and her family. This festive day is interpreted by some to symbolise Yama's sister Yamuna welcoming Yama with a tilaka, while others interpret it as the arrival of Krishna at his sister Subhadra's place after defeating Narakasura. Subhadra welcomes him with a tilaka on his forehead.

The day celebrates the sibling bond between brother and sister. On this day the womenfolk of the family gather, perform a puja with prayers for the well being of their brothers, then return to a ritual of feeding their brothers with their hands and receiving gifts. According to Pintchman, in some Hindu traditions the women recite tales where sisters protect their brothers from enemies that seek to cause him either bodily or spiritual harm. In historic times, this was a day in autumn when brothers would travel to meet their sisters, or invite their sister's family to their village to celebrate their sister-brother bond with the bounty of seasonal harvests.

The artisan Hindu and Sikh community celebrates the fourth day as the Vishwakarma puja day. Vishwakarma is the presiding Hindu deity for those in architecture, building, manufacturing, textile work and crafts trades. The looms, tools of trade, machines and workplaces are cleaned and prayers offered to these livelihood means.

Other traditions and significance
During the season of Diwali, numerous rural townships and villages host melas, or fairs, where local producers and artisans trade produce and goods. A variety of entertainments are usually available for inhabitants of the local community to enjoy. The women, in particular, adorn themselves in colourful attire and decorate their hands with henna. Such events are also mentioned in Sikh historical records. In the modern day, Diwali mela are held at college, or university, campuses or as community events by members of the Indian diaspora. At such events a variety of music, dance and arts performances, food, crafts, and cultural celebrations are featured.

Economics
Diwali marks a major shopping period in India, and is comparable to the Christmas period in terms of consumer purchases and economic activity. It is traditionally a time when households purchase new clothing, home refurbishments, gifts, gold, jewelry, and other large purchases particularly as the festival is dedicated to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and such purchases are considered auspicious. According to Rao, Diwali is one of the major festivals where rural Indians spend a significant portion of their annual income, and is a means for them to renew their relationships and social networks.

Other goods that are bought in substantial quantities during Diwali include confectionery and fireworks. In 2013, about inr 25000000000 of fireworks were sold to merchants for the Diwali season, an equivalent retail value of about inr 50000000000 according to The Times of India. ASSOCHAM, a trade organisation in India, forecasted that online shopping alone to be over inr 300000000000 over the 2017 Diwali season. About two-thirds of Indian households, according to the ASSOCHAM forecast, would spend between inr 5000 and inr 10000 to celebrate Diwali in 2017. Stock markets like NSE and BSE in India are typically closed during Diwali, with the exception of a Diwali Muhurat trading session for an hour in the evening to coincide with the beginning of the new year. In 2020, the INDF ETF was launched to mark the start of Diwali.

Politics
Diwali has increasingly attracted cultural exchanges, becoming occasions for politicians and religious leaders worldwide to meet Hindu or Indian origin citizens, diplomatic staff or neighbours. Many participate in other socio-political events as a symbol of support for diversity and inclusiveness. The Catholic dicastery Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, founded as Secretariat for non-Christians by Pope Paul VI, began sending official greetings and the Pope's message to the Hindus on Diwali in the mid-1990s.

Many governments encourage or sponsor Diwali-related festivities in their territories. For example, the Singaporean government, in association with the Hindu Endowment Board of Singapore, organises many cultural events during Diwali every year. National and civic leaders such as the former Prince Charles have attended Diwali celebrations at prominent Hindu temples in the UK, such as the Swaminarayan Temple in Neasden, using the occasion to highlight contributions of the Hindu community to British society. Additionally, cities across the UK show support of the celebrations through Diwali lights, decorations, and cultural festivities such as dance performances, food stalls and workshops. Since 2009, Diwali has been celebrated every year at 10 Downing Street, the residence of the British Prime Minister.

Diwali was first celebrated in the White House by George W. Bush in 2003 and its religious and historical significance was officially recognized by the United States Congress in 2007. Barack Obama became the first president to personally attend Diwali at the White House in 2009. On the eve of his first visit to India as President of the United States, Obama released an official statement sharing his best wishes with "those celebrating Diwali".

Every year during Diwali, Indian forces approach their Pakistani counterparts at the border bearing gifts of traditional Indian confectionery, a gesture that is returned in kind by the Pakistani soldiers who give Pakistani sweets to the Indian soldiers.

Hazards
The use of firecrackers on Diwali increases the concentration of dust and pollutants in the air. After firing, the fine dust particles get settled on the surrounding surfaces which are packed with chemicals like copper, zinc, sodium, lead, magnesium, cadmium and pollutants like oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. These invisible yet harmful particles affect the environment and in turn, put people's health at stake. The smoke created by firecrackers lit up on Diwali causes smog which sometimes takes days to clear.

During Diwali, the levels of suspended particulate matter increase. When people are exposed to these pollutant particles, they may suffer from eye, nose, and throat-related problems. To produce colors when crackers are burst, carcinogenic and poisonous elements are used.

During the 2023 celebration, New Delhi briefly took the top spot in the world for air pollution with an air quality index of 680 on one night.

The use of fireworks during Diwali can also lead to burn injuries. One particular firework called anar (fountain) has been found to be responsible for 65% of such injuries, with adults being the typical victims. Most of the injuries sustained are Group I type burns (minor) requiring only outpatient care. Experts urge precaution around candles and fires and ask for children to be kept a safe distance from flames and to enjoy the festivity of Diwali.

Guinness World Record
In 2023, a Diwali celebration in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, broke the Guinness World Record for the largest display of oil lamps with 2,223,676 displayed on the eve of Diwali.

title: Diwali