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Shigeru Yoshida

Shigeru Yoshida (吉田 茂) was a Japanese diplomat and politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954, serving through most of the American occupation following the Pacific War. He played a significant part in determining the course for post-war Japan by forging a strong relationship with the United States and pursuing economic recovery.

Born to a former samurai family, Yoshida joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a young man. After spending most of his career as a diplomat in China, he served from 1928 to 1930 as vice minister of foreign affairs under the Giichi Tanaka Cabinet and the Hamaguchi Cabinet. He was then ambassador to Italy until 1932, after which he had no posting for several years. Yoshida was considered for foreign minister in the cabinet of Kōki Hirota, but was opposed by the Army. Instead he was appointed ambassador to Britain, serving from 1936 to 1938. Yoshida tried to deescalate tensions with Britain and the United States before the outbreak of the Pacific War. During the war he was in retirement, but was nevertheless involved in attempts to seek peace with the Allied powers.

Under the American occupation after the war, Yoshida served as foreign minister in the Higashikuni Cabinet and the Shidehara Cabinet. Yoshida became prime minister in 1946, after Ichirō Hatoyama was purged by the occupation on the verge of becoming prime minister and endorsed Yoshida as his replacement. Yoshida oversaw the adoption of the Constitution of Japan before losing office after the election of 1947. He returned to the premiership in 1948. He negotiated the Treaty of San Francisco, which ended the occupation and saw the restoration of sovereignty to Japan. Yoshida pursued a strategy of concentrating on economic reconstruction while relying on an alliance with the United States for defense, a strategy known as the Yoshida Doctrine. The last years of his premiership were marked by conflict with Ichirō Hatoyama, who had been depurged. This culminated in Yoshida being ousted and replaced by Hatoyama in 1954.

Yoshida's legacy continued to play an important part in Japanese political life, particularly through his two protégés, Hayato Ikeda and Eisaku Sato, who served a prime ministers from 1960 to 1964 and 1964 to 1972 respectively. Yoshida died in 1967 and received a state funeral. His grandson, Tarō Asō, served as prime minister from 2008 to 2009.

Early life and education
Shigeru Yoshida was born on 22 September 1878, in Kanda-Surugadai, Tokyo, the fifth son of Tsuna Takeuchi, a former samurai of the Tosa domain. Tsuna Takeuchi was a close aide to Taisuke Itagaki in the 1880s and would serve in the first National Diet elected in 1890. The identity of Yoshida's biological mother is not known. It's likely she was a concubine of Takeuchi and possibly a geisha.

Shortly before Yoshida's birth, his biological father was imprisoned for anti-government conspiracy in connection to the Satsuma Rebellion, and his mother gave birth to him at the house of Kenzō Yoshida, a friend of his father. As young samurai, Tsuna and Kenzō had made names for themselves amidst the decades of unrest around the time of Meiji Restoration. Since Takeuchi had several sons and his friend Kenzō Yoshida had none, Yoshida was adopted by Kenzō Yoshida and his wife Kotoko in August 1881. Kenzō Yoshida was a former samurai who had traveled to England as a stowaway in his youth. He then established himself in Yokohama as a branch manager for Jardine Matheson, before becoming a successful businessman in his own right. Kotoko was the granddaughter of the Edo period Confucian scholar Issai Satō.

Yoshida spent his early childhood in Yokohama. After he graduated from elementary school there in 1889, he was enrolled at Koyo Juku, a prestigious rural boarding school. That same year, Kenzō Yoshida died, and Shigeru inherited a substantial fortune from him. Kotoko subsequently raised Shigeru on the family's estate in Ōiso when he was not at school.

Yoshida spent five years at Koyo Juku. In 1894 he went to Tokyo and spent a year studying at Nihon Gakuen, a school run by the famous educator Jugo Sugiura. He then went on to Higher Commercial School, but soon found he was unsuited for business and dropped out. He then briefly studied at Seisoku Academy and the Tokyo Physics School while preparing for higher school examinations, but he fell ill and had to spend a year at home in Ōiso. Returning to Tokyo in 1897, he entered the prestigious Peers' School, the headed by Prince Atsumaro Konoe. Yoshida advanced to the university department at Peers’ School, which Prince Konoe had established to train diplomats. The university department became defunct after Prince Konoe died in 1904, so Yoshida transferred to Tokyo Imperial University and graduated with a law degree in 1906. He passed the Foreign Service Entry Exam and entered Japan's diplomatic corps that same year, shortly after Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War.

Diplomatic career
Yoshida's diplomatic career began with a posting in China, first at the Japanese mission in Tianjin in November 1906, then in Fengtian (now Shenyang) in 1907. In 1909, Yoshida married Yukiko Makino, the eldest daughter of Nobuaki Makino. That same year he was assigned to Italy, and in 1912, he was posted to Andong in Japanese-ruled Korea, where he served concurrently as secretary to the Governor General Masatake Terauchi. When Terauchi was appointed Prime Minister in 1916, Yoshida turned down an offer to serve as his personal secretary. He was instead assigned to the Japanese embassy in the United States, but this appointment was cancelled when the Ministry became aware Yoshida had opposed the Twenty-One Demands, which he thought undermined the Japanese policy in China by alienating the Western powers and provoking Chinese opposition. Yoshida was instead made chief of the documents section the following year and in 1918 he was appointed consul in Jinan, China.

In 1919, he was part of the Japanese delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, as secretary to his father-in-law Makino, one of the Japanese plenipotentiaries. When the conference concluded in 1920, he was assigned as first secretary to the Japanese embassy in the United Kingdom. In 1922, he returned to China and served as consul in Tianjin until 1925, then as Consul General in Fengtian until 1928.

In March 1928, Yoshida was first appointed minister to Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, but before assuming the post he was appointed vice minister for foreign affairs in July of the same year, after having recommended himself to the Prime Minister Giichi Tanaka. Tanaka served concurrently as minister for foreign affairs. During this time, Yoshida supported increasing Japanese influence in China, and advocated for the independence of Manchuria and Mongolia to weaken the Republic of China. He acquainted Ichiro Hatoyama, who was chief cabinet secretary under Tanaka. Yoshida remained in his post when Tanaka was replaced as prime minister by Osachi Hamaguchi and as foreign minister by Kijūrō Shidehara in July 1929, until he was appointed ambassador to Italy in December 1930. He returned to Japan in 1932 and, after having turned down the ambassadorship to the United States, for which he considered himself unsuitable, held a nebulous role as an ambassador-in-waiting. He undertook some foreign tours on behalf of the ministry and notably developed a warm relationship with the American ambassador Joseph Grew. Yoshida formally retired from the ministry in 1935.

In the aftermath of the February 26 incident of 1936, Prince Fumimaro Konoe contacted Yoshida to request that he'd help persuade Koki Hirota accept the premiership. Yoshida assisted Hirota in the cabinet formation and was himself considered for the post of foreign minister. However, he was included on a list of potential cabinet ministers unacceptable to the army presented by the incoming War Minister Hisaichi Terauchi. This prevented his appointment. Instead he became ambassador to the United Kingdom. After his ambassadorship to the United Kingdom ended in 1938, he retired from the diplomatic service.

During the Pacific War
Although considered a "hawk" on China, Yoshida was firmly against war with the United States and United Kingdom. Despite holding no official positions during World War II, he was active in trying to prevent war with the Allies, and then to try to bring about an early end of the war, allying himself with Prince Fumimaro Konoe.

Right before the Pacific War began, Yoshida joined Konoe in unsuccessfully attempting to deescalate the situation. During the war, Yoshida continued to associate with Konoe in trying to get the government to negotiate a peace with the Allies. In April 1945, he was arrested and briefly imprisoned over his association with Prince Konoe.

Post-war period and premiership
Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, the Allied occupation of the country began. Yoshida was brought out of retirement to serve as foreign minister in the cabinet of Prince Higashikuni after the resignation of Mamoru Shigemitsu in September 1945. At that point, the main fuction of the foreign minister was to liaise with the occupation authority: the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. As such, Yoshida came into regular contact with General Douglas MacArthur. When Prince Higashikuni resigned Yoshida was approached by the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Koichi Kido to become prime minister, but he turned him down and suggested Kijuro Shidehara for the post, who was duly appointed. Yoshida remained foreign minister in the Shidehara Cabinet.

The first post-war election in April 1946 brought a plurality of the seats in the Diet to the Liberal Party led by Yoshida's old friend Ichirō Hatoyama. Hatoyama was expected to become prime minister, but was abruptly purged by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers on the eve of his appointment. Hatoyama approached Yoshida to take his place as prime minister and leader of the Liberal Party, despite Yoshida not even being a member of the party. Although reluctant, Yoshida eventually accepted, becoming prime minister of Japan on 22 May 1946. In the same month he joined the Liberal Party and was first made chairman of the general council before being formally elected party president four months later.

First premiership
Yoshida's first cabinet was based on a coalition between the Liberal Party and the Japan Progressive Party led by former Prime Minister Shidehara. The cabinet notably included Shidehara as minister without portfolio and Tanzan Ishibashi as finance minister. Yoshida remained as foreign minister concurrently. The cabinet implemented several reforms based on occupation directives, the scope of which Yoshida personally resisted. Yoshida oversaw the adoption of the post-war Constitution of Japan, which was promulgated on 3 November 1946 and came into effect on 3 May 1947. Yoshida, a warm supporter of the imperial institution, did not believe that the revised constitution fundamentally changed the kokutai.

In terms of economic policy, Yoshida and Finance Minister Ishibashi initiated a "priority production system" (傾斜生産方式, keisha seisan hoshiki) designed to increase production of steel and coal as they were essential for reconstruction. This system was based on the theories of Hiromi Arisawa, an economic expert who advised Yoshida.

The cabinet had to face significant social unrest due to the impoverished situation and labour disputes at the time. These issues came to a head when the labour movement called for a general strike to take place on 1 February 1947. Yoshida believed that the strike would be an economic catastrophe, which could create the conditions for a communist revolution. The situation was resolved when General MacArthur prohibited the strike before it could take place on January 31. Afterwards, MacArthur communicated to Yoshida that a new election should be called.

Opposition
The election was held in April 1947 election. Yoshida himself stood for election for the first time, choosing for his constituency Kochi Prefecture, where his family originated. While Yoshida won his election, a plurality of the seats in the House of Representatives went to the Japan Socialist Party. Yoshida was approached by Tetsu Katayama and Suehiro Nishio, respectively chairman and secretary general of the Socialist Party, about including the Liberal Party in a grand coalition, but he declined because he considered the left-wing of the Socialist Party too close to the communists. The Socialists instead formed a coalition with only the Democratic Party, which had been formed by merging the Progressive Party with defectors led by Hitoshi Ashida from the Liberal Party, and the National Cooperative Party. Yoshida was succeeded by Tetsu Katayama on 24 May 1947.

Yoshida and his party thus entered the opposition. Yoshida used this time to strengthen his party and consolidate his leadership. Shortly after the Katayama Cabinet was replaced by the Ashida Cabinet in March 1948, the Liberal Party formed into the Democratic Liberal Party by merging with a breakaway group led by Shidehara from the Democratic Party.

Second premiership
After the fall of the Ashida Cabinet, Yoshida returned to the post of prime minister on 15 October 1948. He soon called an election which was held in January 1949; his party won in a landslide.

In order to fill the places left by purged politicians, Yoshida had recruited a large number of former bureaucrats to serve as candidates for the party, including Hayato Ikeda, Eisaku Sato and Katsuo Okazaki. Many of these were elected for the first time in the 1949 election. This group would be the core of Yoshida’s own informal faction, known as the ”Yoshida School."

Dodge Line

In February after the election, Joseph Dodge arrived in Japan as financial adviser to SCAP with a mission to stabilize the Japanese economy, which was suffering from rampant inflation and other problems. The Dodge Line, as the plan advocated by Dodge would be called, prescribed strict austerity measures that significantly curtailed public spending and government subsidies.

Yoshida appointed Hayato Ikeda finance minister later the same month. Although Yoshida and Ikeda had apprehensions about the Dodge Line, they had no choice but to implement occupation policy. The plan was successful in ending hyperinflation, but it also caused severe short-term hardship. The decreased money supply led to a wave of bankruptcies and increased unemployment. Furthermore, spending cuts necessitated mass layoffs in the public sector.

This situation continued until the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950. The war led to an economic boom stimulated by demand for goods and services from Japan by the American forces in Korea. Yoshida described this as a ”gift from the gods.”

Treaty of San Francisco
In April 1950 Yoshida sent Finance Minister Ikeda, together with Ikeda’s secretary Kiichi Miyazawa and Yoshida’s confidant Jiro Shirasu, to Washington. On the pretext of an economic mission, Ikeda conveyed the message that the Japanese government would accept a continued U. S. military presence after the occupation in order to ensure Japan’s security and make an early peace treaty possible. President Truman assigned the responsibility of negotiating a peace treaty to John Foster Dulles. Dulles met with Yoshida in Tokyo for the first time in June 1950, only days before the outbreak of the Korean War. They subsequently met several times to negotiate the treaty.

In September 1951, Yoshida signed the Treaty of San Francisco, a peace treaty with the Allies that would serve as a formal peace agreement and bring about the end of the occupation of Japan when the treaty took effect in April 1952. Yoshida also signed the Security Treaty, which inaugurated the post-war military alliance between Japan and the United States. During a stopover in Hawaii on the way back from San Francisco, he also paid a visit to Pearl Harbor.

Yoshida Doctrine
The Yoshida Doctrine was a strategy adopted by Japan under Yoshida starting in 1951. He concentrated upon reconstructing Japan's domestic economy while relying heavily on the security alliance with the United States. Firstly, Japan is firmly allied with the United States in the Cold War against communism. Secondly, Japan relies on American military strength and limits its own defense forces to a minimum. Thirdly, Japan emphasizes economic diplomacy in its world affairs. The Yoshida doctrine was accepted by the United States; the actual term was coined in 1977. The economic dimension was fostered by Hayato Ikeda who served as his finance minister and later was prime minister. The Yoshida Doctrine shaped Japanese foreign policy into the 21st century. Most historians argue the policy was wise and successful, but a minority criticize it as naïve and inappropriate.

Conflict with Hatoyama
Before the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco Ichirō Hatoyama had been released from the purge. Since Yoshida had originally become prime minister as a replacement for Hatoyama, many expected him to step down in Hatoyama's favour, but by this time Yoshida had become a well-established politician in his own right and had no intention to retire. This led to a conflict with Hatoyama.

According to CIA files that were declassified in 2005, there was a 1952 plot to assassinate Yoshida and replace him with Ichirō Hatoyama as prime minister. The plot was led by Takushiro Hattori, who served as an Imperial Japanese Army officer, and had the support of 500,000 Japanese.

Dissatisfaction with his leadership led to the defection of many Diet members from his party to the new Democratic Party, causing his cabinet to resign on December 7, 1954, rather than face a no-confidence vote. He was replaced by Ichirō Hatoyama on December 10, 1954. Yoshida resigned as party president in favour of Taketora Ogata at the same time. He remained in the Diet until his retirement in 1963.

Later years and legacy
After his resignation he spent most of his time at his villa in Oiso, though he remained a member of the House of Representatives until 1963. Yoshida served a president of the America-Japan Society from 1960 and as chancellor of Kogakkan University from 1962. He was also president of the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

Shigeru Yoshida died on 20 October 1967 at his home in Oiso. He was baptized on his deathbed, having hidden his Catholicism throughout most of his life. His funeral was held in St. Mary's Cathedral, Tokyo and he was buried at Aoyama Cemetery.

His state funeral was held in Nippon Budokan on 31 October 1967 in the presence of the Crown Prince and Princess.

Under Yoshida's leadership, Japan began to rebuild its lost industrial infrastructure and placed a premium on unrestrained economic growth. Many of these concepts still impact Japan's political and economic policies. However, since the 1970s environmental movement, the bursting of Japan's economic bubble, and the end of the Cold War, Japan has been struggling to redefine its national goals. Yoshida has long been regarded as prioritising the economy over defense, but recent years have seen a reevaluation of this viewpoint.

In his 1982 book "Leaders", US President Richard Nixon praised Yoshida as one of the greatest world leaders during his lifetime for his role in Japan's post-WWII economic miracle.

Personal life
In 1909, Yoshida married Makino Yukiko, the eldest daughter of Makino Nobuaki. They had four children: Sakurako, Kenichi, Kazuko, and Masao. Two of Yoshida's grandchildren are Tarō Asō, who served as the 92nd prime minister of Japan from 2008 to 2009, and Nobuko Asō, who later married Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, a first cousin of Emperor Akihito.

Honours

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (29 April 1940)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (29 April 1964)
 * Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (20 October 1967; posthumous)
 * Junior First Rank (20 October 1967; posthumous)
 * Golden Pheasant Award of the Scout Association of Japan (1967)

title: Shigeru Yoshida


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Sarvastivada

The Sarvāstivāda (𑀲𑀭𑁆𑀯𑀸𑀲𑁆𑀢𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤; 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤 ;สรวาสติวาท) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (third century BCE). It was particularly known as an Abhidharma tradition, with a unique set of seven canonical Abhidharma texts.

The Sarvāstivādins were one of the most influential Buddhist monastic groups, flourishing throughout North India, especially Kashmir and Central Asia, until the 7th century CE. The orthodox Kashmiri branch of the school composed the large and encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra around the time of the reign of Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE). Because of this, orthodox Sarvāstivādins who upheld the doctrines in the Mahāvibhāṣa were called ''Vaibhāṣikas. ''

According to the Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa, the Sarvāstivādins emerged from the older Mahīśāsaka school, but the Śāriputraparipṛcchā and the Samayabhedoparacanacakra state that the Mahīśāsaka emerged from the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivādins are believed to have given rise to the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools, although the relationship between these groups has not yet been fully determined.

Name
Sarvāstivāda is a Sanskrit term that can be glossed as: "the theory of all that exists". The Sarvāstivāda argued that all dharmas (phenomena) exist in the past, present and future, the "three times". Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya states, "He who affirms the existence of the dharmas of the three time periods [past, present and future] is held to be a Sarvāstivādin."

Although there is some dispute over how the word "Sarvāstivāda" is to be analyzed, the general consensus is that it is to be parsed into three parts: sarva "all" or "every" + asti "exist" + vada "speak", "say" or "theory". This equates perfectly with the Chinese term, Shuōyīqièyǒu bù, which is literally "the sect that speaks of the existence of everything," as used by Xuanzang and other translators.

The Sarvāstivāda was also known by other names, particularly hetuvada and yuktivada. Hetuvada comes from hetu – 'cause', which indicates their emphasis on causation and conditionality. Yuktivada comes from yukti – 'reason' or even 'logic', which echoes their use of rational argument and syllogism.

Early history
According to Charles Prebish, "there is a great deal of mystery surrounding the rise and early development of the Sarvāstivādin school." According to Dhammajoti, "its presence, as well as that of its rival — the Vibhajyavāda lineage — in the time of Emperor Aśoka is beyond doubt. Since Aśoka's reign is around 268–232 B.C.E., this means that at least by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.E., it had already developed into a distinct school."

In Central Asia, several Buddhist monastic groups were historically prevalent. According to some accounts, the Sarvāstivādins emerged from the Sthavira nikāya, a small group of conservatives, who split from the reformist majority Mahāsāṃghikas at the Second Buddhist council. According to this account, they were expelled from Magadha, and moved to northwestern India where they developed into the Sarvāstivādin school.

A number of scholars have identified three distinct major phases of missionary activity seen in the history of Buddhism in Central Asia, which are associated with respectively the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda, and the origins of the Sarvāstivāda have also been related to Ashoka sending Majjhantika (Sanskrit: Madhyāntika) on a mission to Gandhara, which had an early presence of the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivādins in turn are believed to have given rise to the Mūlasarvāstivāda sect, although the relationship between these two groups has not yet been fully determined. According to Prebish, "this episode corresponds well with one Sarvāstivādin tradition stating that Madhyantika converted the city of Kasmir, which seems to have close ties with Gandhara."

A third tradition says that a community of Sarvāstivādin monks was established at Mathura by the patriarch Upagupta. In the Sarvāstivādin tradition Upagupta is said to have been the fifth patriarch after Mahākaśyapa, Ānanda, Madhyāntika, and Śāṇakavāsin, and in the Ch'an tradition he is regarded as the fourth.

Kushan era
The Sarvāstivāda enjoyed the patronage of Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE) emperor of the Kushan Empire, during which time they were greatly strengthened, and became one of the dominant sects of Buddhism in north India for centuries, flourishing throughout Northwest India, North India, and Central Asia.

When the Sarvāstivāda school held a synod in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka II (c. 158–176), the most important Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma text, the Astagrantha of Katyayaniputra was rewritten and revised in Sanskrit. This revised text was now known as Jñānaprasthāna ("Course of Knowledge"). Though the Gandharan Astagrantha had many vibhaṣas (commentaries), the new Kashmiri Jñānaprasthāna had a Sanskrit Mahāvibhaṣa, compiled by the Kashmir Sarvāstivāda synod. The Jñānaprasthāna and its Mahāvibhaṣa, were then declared to be the new orthodoxy by Kashmiris, who called themselves Vaibhāṣikas. This new Vaibhāṣika orthodoxy, however, was not readily accepted by all Sarvāstivādins. Some "Western masters" from Gandhara and Bactria had divergent views which disagreed with the new Kashmiri orthodoxy. These disagreements can be seen in post-Mahāvibhaṣa works, such as the *Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra (成實論), the *Abhidharmahṛdaya (T no. 1550) and its commentaries (T no. 1551, no. 1552), the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu and its commentaries (who critiqued some orthodox views), and the *Nyāyānusāra (Ny) of master Saṃghabhadra (ca fifth century CE) who formulated the most robust Vaibhāṣika response to the new criticisms.

Tarim Basin
When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Kucha in the Tarim Basin in 630 CE, he received the favours of Suvarṇadeva, the son and successor of Suvarṇapuṣpa, the non-Mahayana Buddhist king of Kucha. Xuanzang described in many details the characteristics of Kucha, and probably visited the Kizil Caves. Of the religion of the people of Kucha, he says that they were Sarvastivadins: "There are about one hundred convents (saṅghārāmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the Little Vehicle of the school of the Sarvāstivādas (Shwo-yih-tsai-yu-po). Their doctrine (teaching of Sūtras) and their rules of discipline (principles of the Vinaya) are like those of India, and those who read them use the same (originals)."

Sub-schools
Sarvāstivāda was a widespread group, and there were different sub-schools or sects throughout its history, the most influential ones being the Vaibhāṣika and the Sautrāntika schools. According to Cox, Willemen and Dessein: "we have, basically, to differentiate the original Sarvāstivādins originating from Mathura, the Kaśmīri Vaibhāṣikas, the Western Masters of Gandhara and Bactria (the Dārṣṭāntika-Sautrāntika Masters) who were also referred to as Bahirdesaka, Aparāntaka and Pāścāttya, and the Mūlasarvāstivādins. As the various groups influenced one another, even these sub-schools do very often not form homogeneous groups."

Vaibhāṣika
The Vaibhāṣika was formed by adherents of the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra (MVŚ) during the council of Kashmir. Since then, it comprised the orthodox or mainstream branch of the Sarvāstivāda school based in Kāśmīra (though not exclusive to this region). The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda, which had by far the most "comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics" of the early Buddhist schools, was widely influential in India and beyond.

As noted by KL Dhammajoti, "It is important to realize that not all of them necessarily subscribed to each and every view sanctioned by the MVŚ compilers. Moreover, the evolving nature of the Vaibhāṣika views must be recognized as well."

The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivādins are sometimes referred to in the MVŚ as "the Ābhidharmikas", "the Sarvāstivāda theoreticians" and "the masters of Kāśmīra." In various texts, they also referred to their tradition as Yuktavāda (the doctrine of logic), as well as Hetuvāda (the doctrine of causes).

The Vaibhāṣika school saw itself as the orthodox Sarvāstivāda tradition, and they were united in their doctrinal defense of the theory of "all exists" (sarvām asti). This is the doctrine which held that dharmas, past present and future, all exist. This doctrine has been described as an eternalist theory of time.

While the Vaibhāṣikas held that dharmas of the three times all exist, they held that only present dharmas have "efficacy" (karitra), thus they were able to explain how the present seems to function differently than the past or future. Among the different Sarvāstivāda thinkers, there were different ideas on how this theory was to be understood. These differences were accepted as long as they did not contradict the doctrine of "all exists" and can be seen in the MVŚ, which outlines the four different interpretations of this doctrine by the ‘four great Ābhidharmikas of the Sarvāstivāda’: Dharmatrāta, Buddhadeva, Vasumitra and Ghoṣaka.

The doctrines of Sarvāstivāda were not confined to 'all exists', but also include the theory of momentariness (ksanika), conjoining (samprayukta) and causal simultaneity (sahabhu), conditionality (hetu and pratyaya), a unique presentation of the spiritual path (marga), and others. These doctrines are all inter-connected and it is the principle of 'all exists' that is the axial doctrine holding the larger movement together when the precise details of other doctrines are at stake.

In order to explain how it is possible for a dharma to remain the same and yet also undergo change as it moves through the three times, the Vaibhāṣika held that dharmas have a constant essence (svabhāva) which persists through the three times. The term was also identified as a unique mark or own characteristic (svalaksana) that differentiated a dharma and remained unchangeable throughout its existence. According to Vaibhāṣikas, svabhavas are those things that exist substantially (dravyasat) as opposed to those things which are made up of aggregations of dharmas and thus only have a nominal existence (prajñaptisat).

Dārṣṭāntika and Sautrāntika
The Sautrāntika ("those who uphold the sūtras"), also known as Dārṣṭāntika (who may or may not have been a separate but related group), did not uphold the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra but rather emphasized the Buddhist sūtras as being authoritative.

Already by the time of the MVŚ, the early Dārṣṭāntika monks such as Dharmatrāta and Buddhadeva, existed as a school of thought within the fold of the Sarvāstivāda who disagreed with the orthodox views. These groups were also called "the western masters" (pāścātya) or "the foreign masters" (bahirdeśaka; also called ‘the masters outside Kaśmīra’, and the ‘Gāndhārian masters’). They studied the same Abhidharma texts as the other Sarvāstivādins, but in a more critical way. According to K. L. Dhammajoti, they eventually came to repudiate the Sarvāstivāda doctrine that "all exists".

It is this group, i.e. those who rejected the most important Sarvāstivāda doctrine (along with numerous other key Vaibhāṣika views), which came to be called the Sautrāntika ("those who rely on the sūtras"). However, the Sautrāntikas did not reject the Abhidharma method; in fact, they were the authors of several Abhidharma manuals, such as the Abhidharmahṛdaya. The later Buddhist tradition of pramāṇa, founded by the Buddhist monks Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, is also associated with the Sautrāntika school.

The most important Sautrāntika was Vasubandhu (ca. 350–430), a native from Purusapura in Gandhara. He is famous for being the author of the Abhidharmakośa (4–5th century CE), a very influential Abhidharma work, with an auto-commentary that defends the Sautrāntika views. He famously later converted to the Yogācāra school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, a tradition that itself developed out of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma.

Vasubandhu's Kośa led to a vigorous reaction from his contemporary, the brilliant Vaibhāṣika master Saṃghabhadra, who is said to have spent 12 years composing the Nyāyānusāra, a commentary to Vasubandhu's verses to refute his views and those of other Sautrāntika monks, such as Sthavira Śrīlāta and his pupil Rāma. The Kośa was so influential that it became the Abhidharma text par excellence in both Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism, and remains the primary source for Abhidharma studies.

Mūlasarvāstivādins
There is much uncertainty as to the relationship of the Mūlasarvāstivāda (meaning root or original Sarvāstivāda) school and the others. They were certainly influential in spreading their Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, as it remains the monastic rule used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism today. Also, they seem to have been influential in Indonesia by the 7th century, as noted by Yijing.

A number of theories have been posited by academics as to how the two are related including:

 * Frauwallner holds that Mūlasarvāstivāda was the community of Mathura, which was an independent group from the Sarvāstivādins of Kaśmir. According to Bhikkhu Sujato, this theory has "stood the test of time".
 * Lamotte thought that the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya was a late compilation from Kaśmīr.
 * Warder suggests that the Mūlasarvāstivādins was a late group who compiled a Vinaya and the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra.
 * Enomoto holds that the Sarvāstivādin and Mūlasarvāstivādin were the same.
 * Willemen, Dessein, and Cox hold that this group is really the Sautrāntika school who renamed themselves in the later years of the Sarvāstivāda school history.

Vinaya
The Dharmaguptaka are known to have rejected the authority of the Sarvāstivāda pratimokṣa rules on the grounds that the original teachings of the Buddha had been lost.

The complete Sarvāstivāda Vinaya is extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon. In its early history, the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was the most common vinaya tradition in China. However, Chinese Buddhism later settled on the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. In the 7th century, Yijing wrote that in eastern China, most people followed the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, while the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was used in earlier times in Guanzhong (the region around Chang'an), and that the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was prominent in the Yangzi River area and further south. In the 7th century, the existence of multiple Vinaya lineages throughout China was criticized by prominent Vinaya masters such as Yijing and Dao'an (654–717). In the early 8th century, Daoan gained the support of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, and an imperial edict was issued that the saṃgha in China should use only the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya for ordination.

Āgamas
Scholars at present have "a nearly complete collection of sūtras from the Sarvāstivāda school" thanks to a recent discovery in Afghanistan of roughly two-thirds of the Dīrgha Āgama in Sanskrit. The Madhyama Āgama (T26, Chinese trans. Gotama Saṅghadeva) and Saṃyukta Āgama (T99, Chinese trans. Guṇabhadra) have long been available in Chinese translation. The Sarvāstivāda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete sutra collection, although unlike the Theravada it has not all been preserved in the original language.

Abhidharma
During the first century, the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma primarily consisted of the Abhidharmahrdaya authored by Dharmashresthin, a native from Tokharistan, and the Ashtagrantha authored/compiled by Katyayaniputra. Both texts were translated by Samghadeva in 391 AD and in 183 AD. respectively, but they were not completed until 390 in Southern China.

The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma consists of seven texts:

 * Jñānaprasthāna ("Foundation of Knowledge") (T. 1543–1544)
 * Prakaraṇapāda ("Exposition") (T. 1541–1542)
 * Vijñānakāya ("Body of Consciousness") (T. 1539)
 * Dharmaskandha ("Aggregation of Dharmas") (T. 1537)
 * Prajñaptiśāstra ("Treatise on Designations") (T. 1538)
 * Dhātukāya ("Body of Elements") (T. 1540)
 * Saṅgītiparyāya ("Discourses on Gathering Together") (T. 1536)

Following these, are the texts that became the authority of the Vaibhāṣika:

 * Mahāvibhāṣā ("Great Commentary" on the Jñānaprasthāna) (T. 1545)

All of these works have been translated into Chinese, and are now part of the Chinese Buddhist canon. In the Chinese context, the word abhidharma refers to the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma, although at a minimum the Dharmaguptaka, Pudgalavada and Theravada also had abhidharmas.

Later Abhidharma manuals
Various other Abhidharma works were written by Sarvāstivāda masters, some are more concise manuals of abhidharma, others critiqued the orthodox Vaibhāṣika views or provided a defense of the orthodoxy. Dhammajoti provides the following list of such later abhidharma works that are extant in Chinese: 108 109

 * *Abhidharmāmṛta(-rasa)-śāstra (T no. 1553), by Ghoṣaka, 2 fasc., translator unknown. 2.
 * *Abhidharmahṛdaya (T no. 1550) by Dharmaśrī, 4 fasc., tr. by Saṅghadeva et al. 3.
 * *Abhidharmahṛdaya-sūtra (? T no. 1551) by Upaśānta, 2 fasc., tr. by Narendrayaśas.
 * *Abhidharmahṛdayavyākhyā (? T no. 1552), by Dharmatrāta, 11 fasc., tr. by Sanghabhūti.
 * Abhidharmakośa-mūla-kārikā (T no. 1560) by Vasubandhu, 1 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang. 6.
 * Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (T no. 1558) by Vasubandhu, 1 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang; (there is also an earlier translation by Paramārtha: T no. 1559).
 * *Abhidharmakośaśāstra-tattvārthā-ṭīkā (T no. 1561) by Sthiramati, 2 fasc., translator unknown.
 * *Abhidharma-nyāyānusāra (T no. 1562) by Saṃghabhadra, 40 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.
 * *Abhidharma-samayapradīpikā (T no. 1563) by Saṃghabhadra, 40 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.
 * *Abhidharmāvatāra (T no. 1554) by Skandhila, 2 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.

Appearance
Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which described the color of monastic robes (Skt. kāṣāya) utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (大比丘三千威儀). Another text translated at a later date, the Śāriputraparipṛcchā, contains a very similar passage with nearly the same information. In the earlier source, the Sarvāstivāda are described as wearing dark red robes, while the Dharmaguptas are described as wearing black robes. However, in the corresponding passage found in the later Śāriputraparipṛcchā, the Sarvāstivāda are described as wearing black robes and the Dharmaguptas as wearing dark red robes. In traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, which follow the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, red robes are regarded as characteristic of their tradition.

Language
During the first century BCE, in the Gandharan cultural area (consisting of Oddiyana, Gandhara and Bactria, Tokharistan, across the Khyber Pass), the Sthaviriyas used the Gāndhārī language to write their literature using the Kharosthi.

The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthavira nikāya used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa.

Influence
The Sarvāstivādins of Kāśmīra held the  as authoritative, and thus were given the moniker of being Vaibhāṣikas. The  is thought to have been authored around 150 CE, around the time of Kaniṣka (127–151) of the Kushan Empire. This massive treatise of Abhidharma (200 fascicles in Chinese) contains a great deal of material with what appear to be strong affinities to Mahāyāna doctrines. The  is also said to illustrate the accommodations reached between the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna traditions, as well as the means by which Mahāyāna doctrines would become accepted. The  also defines the Mahāyāna sūtras and the role in their Buddhist canon. Here they are described as Vaipulya doctrines, with "Vaipulya" being a commonly used synonym for Mahāyāna. The  reads:

"What is the Vaipulya? It is said to be all the sūtras corresponding to elaborations on the meanings of the exceedingly profound dharmas."

According to a number of scholars, Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished during the time of the Kuṣāṇa Empire, and this is illustrated in the form of Mahāyāna influence on the Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa also records that Kaniṣka presided over the establishment of Prajñāpāramitā doctrines in the northwest of India. Étienne Lamotte has also pointed out that a Sarvāstivāda master is known to have stated that the Mahāyāna Prajñā sūtras were to be found amongst their Vaipulya sūtras. According to Paul Williams, the similarly massive Da zhidu lun also has a clear association with the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins.

The Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika subschools are both classified in the Tibetan tenets system as the two tenets of the Hinayana, ignoring other early Indian Buddhist schools, which were not known to the Tibetans.

Sarvāstivādin meditation teachers also worked on the dhyāna sutras, a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which were translated into Chinese and became influential in the development of Chinese Buddhist meditation methods.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sarvastivada


text:
User:Ihcoyc

  Homepage of the Society for the Propagation of Vacuous Truth    "Let's all kil the human spirit" - Smerdis of Tion —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.188.85.91 (talk) 22:58, 19 April 2010 (UTC)

Good evening. I'm IHCOYC, a handle I have been using on Usenet since around 1995, and on BBSs since maybe 1984. The handle deserves an explanation. There was a Commodore 64 BBS back then that ran homebrewed software that displayed data in ALL CAPS. When choosing a handle to use there, I was momentarily moved to call myself IHCOYC XPICTOC (that is, IHΣOYΣ XPIΣTOΣ) to see if anyone got the joke. If you wonder what it stands for, think Greek. On a caprice back in August 2003, I changed my handle here to "Smerdis of Tlön." I was one of the operators of the Microdot BBS that operated in southern Indiana from 1985 to 1999. I still miss the BBSes.

My real name is Steve Gustafson. I practice law in New Albany, Indiana. My interests include Indo-European, Germanic, and Latin linguistics, nineteenth century French literature, the English Civil War, the Reformation, the 1600s. I am a proud member of the empty set, and a thorough and methodical pessimist. I've got friends on the Great White Brotherhood.

I am neither the captain of my fate, nor the master of my soul. And I have no interest in filling the unforgiving minute with sixty seconds worth of distance run. I am a Pepsi Generation dropout.

Favourite quotes from the Wikipedia

 * It is said of the angel of death that he is full of eyes.

 * (Thou) is used in solemn ritual occasions, in readings from the King James Bible, in Shakespeare, in starchily formal literary compositions that seek to evoke the solemn emotions called forth by these antecedents, and otherwise to address lofty persons like God, Achilles, or the Mighty Thor.

 * From Punch and Judy: Featuring, as it does, a deformed, child-murdering, wife-beating psychopath, who performs appalling acts of violence and cruelty upon all those around him and escapes scot-free, it is greatly enjoyed by small children.

 *  Interest in the Holy Foreskins has been specifically downplayed, with the observation in 1900 that these particular relics encouraged irreverent curiosity.

 * Although most timpanists only have two hands, it is possible to play more than two timpani at once.

 * From B,C,K,W System: in the context to recover [GKL], leave I without defining it: so, beware!.

 * Wenn Prinz Adam sein Zauberschwert in die Luft streckt und die Zauberformel: "Bei der Macht von Grayskull!" ausruft, verwandelt er sich in He-Man, den stärksten Mann des Universums.

 * The majority (of snakebite victims in the United States) are inebriated men, frequently unemployed, and almost universally tattooed.

 * Attempts at using vacuum cleaner base units for (penis enlargement) have resulted in severe damage when the fan of the vacuum cleaner is contacted.

 * As the song progresses, many of the other crucifixion victims . . . begin to dance in a very limited way

 *  Galileo made the same point, but said very little on the matter, perhaps not wishing to be burned at the stake.

 * . . . the Vombatiformes (which is the Latin for "wombat-shaped things").

 * From Folklore of the United States: Though Christopher Columbus did not participate in the founding of the American government. . .

 * This term should not be confused with an act of war waged by Smurf cartoon characters.

 * The referendum divided Kenyans and spurred violence between Orange and Banana supporters. . .

 * From omnipotence paradox: . . . (M)odern concepts of inertia and relativity have not affected the definition of a burrito.

 * Simon Johnson, former chief economist for the International Monetary Fund, says a U-shaped recession is like a bathtub: "You go in. You stay in. The sides are slippery. You know, maybe there's some bumpy stuff in the bottom, but you don't come out of the bathtub for a long time."

 * . . . Saddam Hussein is very fond of Cheetos.

 * From Year 2038 problem: Using a 64-bit value introduces a new wrap around date in about 290 billion years, on Sunday, December 4, 292,277,026,596 15:30:08 UTC. This problem is not, however, widely regarded as a pressing issue.

 * The subject of the song is the arrival of the mighty Quinn, who changes despair into joy and chaos into rest, and attracts attention from the animals.

 * May I submit UTOPIAN TURTLETOP? Do not trouble to answer unless you like it. - Poet Marianne Moore, suggesting a brand name for the Ford Edsel car.

 * Singing Trolls relate their hate of humans, especially Christians, which are for them a plague to eradicate - and to eat.

 * . . . the only European leader that showed enthusiasm for the crusade was Dracula, whom the Pope held in high regard.

 * Fortunately, two bystanders doused the flames by pouring beer on Brown’s head, preventing any serious injury.

 * From vampire pumpkins and watermelons: According to tradition, watermelons or any kind of pumpkin kept more than ten days or after Christmas will become a vampire, rolling around on the ground and growling to pester the living. People have little fear of the vampire pumpkins and melons because of the creatures' lack of teeth.

 * The reproduction of a river otter is a very complicated process.

 * From endemic warfare: Among the Chimbu and the Dugum Dani, pig theft was the most common cause of conflict, even more frequent than abduction of women...

 * From Xe: Spokeswoman Anne Tyrrell said there was no meaning in the new name, which the company spent over a year to arrive at in an internal search.

 * She later stole the rabbits back from police, and has since committed several parole violations after being caught with rabbits.

 * The death of nearly half the population (largely by torture) during her reign is seen as a unique cultural quirk.

 * From Palembang: This inscription tells of a large army coming from Minanga Tamwan with ecstasy.

 * From David Wynn Miller: The judge refused to let Lindsay opt out of personhood.

 * From Oktoberfest: In Germany, goat hair is highly valued and prized, making it one of the most expensive objects for sale.

 * Marjatta is the young virgin of Kalevala. She becomes pregnant from eating a lingonberry.

 * There is a Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, the Hephaesteum (miscalled the "Theseum"), located near the agora, or marketplace. An Athenian founding myth tells that the city's patron goddess, Athena, refused a union with Hephaestus because of his unsightly appearance and crippled nature, and that when he became angry and forceful with her, she disappeared from the bed. His ejaculate fell on the earth, impregnating Gaia, who subsequently gave birth to Erichthonius of Athens....

 * On Surtsey, (a)n improperly handled human defecation resulted in a tomato plant taking root which was also destroyed.

 * During the time of their association, Livingstone urged Sechele to make peace with the uncle who ruled the other half of the Kwêna. Sechele sent his uncle a gift of gunpowder. The uncle was suspicious of the gift and set fire to it. His death in the resulting explosion enabled Sechele to reunite the tribe.

 * From Ptosis (breasts): Motion studies have revealed that when a woman runs, more than 50% of the breast's total movement is vertical, 22% is side-to-side, and 27% is in-and-out.

 * A point is a degenerate circle.....

 * According to Ovadia Yosef, picking your nose is forbidden on the Sabbath.

 *  After a worldwide search in 1943, a mouldy cantaloupe in a Peoria, Illinois market was found to contain the best strain of penicillin....

 * Liberty ship:  In Portland, Oregon, the hulls of Richard Henry Dana and Jane Addams serve as the basis of floating docks.

 * The people of the Yaohnanen area believe that Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the consort to Queen Elizabeth II, is a divine being.

 * On 13 September 2004, the Gay Kingdom declared war on Australia.

Essays

 * Plain English
 * Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument
 * User:Ihcoyc/The presumption of non-notability for Internet related, computing, and services businesses
 * User:Ihcoyc/The problem of anti-supernatural bias
 * User:Ihcoyc/My most shocking opinions about Wikipedia

Language and peoples:
Geats - Svear - Metathesis - Propertius - laryngeal theory - augment - vowel stems - irregular verb - lorem ipsum - archaism - thou - period (rhetoric) - alliterative verse - skald - scop - standard language - Old French - indicative mood - ain't - subjunctive mood - negation (grammar) - English phonetic spelling - English verb - Larry Trask - athematic - ankh - monophthong - Vulgar Latin (much of it) - origin of language - ablative absolute - cadigan - oldest language - Latin profanity - Esperanto profanity

Seventeenth century stuff:
Geneva Bible - Great Bible - Bishops' Bible - King James Version of the Bible (large additions and edits) - Pilgrim's Progress - Joseph Glanvill - Sadducismus Triumphatus - Demon drummer of Tedworth - Jeremy Taylor - Holy Living and Holy Dying -Covenanter - Conventicle Act - penal law - Melancholia (large addition) - Robert Burton - Anatomy of Melancholy - demonology - Thomas Browne - Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial - Divine right of kings (large addition) - Wonders of the Invisible World - Isobel Gowdie - Matthew Hopkins - Olaus Wormius - Eikon Basilike

French literature
Emile Nelligan - Rémy de Gourmont - Albert Giraud - Emile Verhaeren - Jean Moréas - Stuart Merrill - Renée Vivien - Jean Lorrain - Albert Samain - Nathalie Barney - Gustave Kahn - Symbolism (arts) (much of it) - chanson de geste - Ogier the Dane - Doon de Mayence - Bayard - Paul Adam - Reynard - Alexis-Vincent-Charles Berbiguier de Terre-Neuve du Thym - Léon Bloy - Moniot d'Arras - Henri Beauclair

Other literature:
prose poetry - Pamela Colman Smith - Jan Toorop - degenerate art (large addition) - Cesare Lombroso - Max Nordau - Spenserian stanza - Conrad Aiken - Silent Snow, Secret Snow - Harry Crosby - Count Stanislaus Eric Stenbock - Grand Guignol (most of it) - Racter - Hammer horror - Russ Meyer - ribaldry - Homeric hymns - The Omen -  Hypnerotomachia Poliphili - Aubrey Beardsley - Austin Osman Spare - goliard - Archpoet - Peter of Blois - Walter of Châtillon - alliterative verse - Félicien Rops - Georgia O'Keeffe - Bram Dijkstra - Sir Orfeo - Invictus - Venantius Fortunatus - Schopenhauer's aesthetics - art for art's sake - Elizabeth Siddal - June and Jennifer Gibbons - Sotades - This Be The Verse - Carlos Schwabe - The City of Dreadful Night - airport novel - Julia A. Moore - Bernard of Cluny - Ysengrimus - Pirates and Pathfinders - Le Miracle de Théophile - The Vengeance of Nitocris - obituary poetry - Greer Gilman - Ecbasis captivi - Muddupalani - Worksop Bestiary - jangnama

Music
Psychedelic music (list) - Roky Erickson - In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida - riff - Guillaume de Machaut - motet (most of it) - Babatunde Olatunji - Llibre Vermell de Montserrat - Marquee Moon - Stagger Lee - Thomas of Celæno - Dies Iræ - Mass (music) - requiem - vespers - Magnificat - Lyke-Wake Dirge - Norman O'Neill - military cadence - Katie Cruel - Rosemary Lane - Riu Riu Chiu - Levy Dew

American folklore and popular culture
Psychedelia - melodrama - The Little Engine That Could - Legendary Stardust Cowboy - Underdog - Jonny Quest - He-Man - Poor Richard's Almanac - Hercules (comics) -  Ballantine - anti-intellectualism - peplum - legend tripping - La Llorona - Mike Fink -  Lydia Cabrera - faxlore - Billy Jack - Moment of Truth Movie - sword and sandal - The Sons of Hercules - John the Conqueroo - Prince Charming - Ilsa: She-Wolf of the SS - men's adventure magazine - Kirby dots - rabbit's foot - Bad Girl Art - Margaret Brundage - weather house - The Greening of America - Mark Eden bust developer - Pepsi Generation - folk process - Rain and Snow

Religious topics:
vicar - priesthood of all believers - atonement (now at sin) - scapegoat - Sadducee - Bernadette Soubirous - Saint Christopher - civil religion - end times - dispensationalism - Hal Lindsey - Whore of Babylon - Great Apostasy (Calvinism, Lutheranism, Anglicanism) - Ten Commandments (Protestant section) - Cyrus I. Scofield - Scofield Reference Bible - imperial cult - pow-wow - John George Hohman - divine grace - Magi - Gog - Quanta Cura - Syllabus Errorum - Thérèse de Lisieux - megachurch - Maria Monk - righteousness - List of names for the Biblical nameless - prelate - Oahspe - Douay Bible - demigod - Vetus Latina - Port-Royal - Oholah - ecclesiology - St. Ides - metrical psalter - holy water - holy card - rex Nemorensis - suovitaurilia - regifugium - Christianity and politics - lapis manalis - Eko Eko Azarak - Thomas Gouge - Reitia

My morbid tastes:
mourning - decomposition - coffin - requiem - sarcophagus - funeral (large addition) - embalming - memento mori - Et in Arcadia ego - Death (personification) (under that title) -  symbols of death - José Guadalupe Posada - shrunken head - obituary poetry - funerary cult

Legal matters:
Sherman Minton - escheat - intestacy - List of Uniform Acts (United States) - Uniform Commercial Code - Uniform Anatomical Gift Act - Twelve Tables - pater familias - mortgage - trial by combat - Assize of Clarendon - outlaw - Sir William Blackstone (most of it) - Commentaries on the Laws of England (most of it) - legal positivism - fee simple - fee tail - life estate - legal fiction - posse - small claims court - foreclosure - common scold - Jones Act (workers compensation for seamen) - doctrine of worthier title - testamentary capacity - attestation clause - statute of repose - paraphernalia - royal fish - bridge bank - certified question - Gathings committee - Fortune telling fraud

Miscellaneous:
Pool of Radiance - Forgotten Realms Unlimited Adventures - Parker-Hulme Murders - Sarah Blaffer Hrdy - atavism - Monsignor Jozef Tiso - Ara Pacis - toga - quest - Marie Laveau - List of occultists - Joe Hill - List of famous tuberculosis victims - Gogmagog - ouroboros - Gilles de Rais - Maciste - spork - Rexism - femme fatale - damsel in distress - patent medicine - Whig history - A. P. Herbert - here - testimonial - nonsense - chicken sexer - artifact (fantasy) - Sotadic zone - Ring of Gyges - cad - Termagant - Shoe flinging (major changes) - Bartok (game) - Mithridates VI of Pontus - Tarot of Marseilles - Minchiate - Ka-Bala - striking clock - time discipline - Blemmyes - high modernism - Japanese clock - healthism - Crepitus (mythology) - Indian whisky - aspidochelone - gasoline pill - Queen of Elphame - Cyprianus - rasa shastra - Tetrabiblos - John E. Nail - Tycho Brahe days

Projects / To do list:

 * The stock character pages: I want there to be a page on each one, with illustrations and examples.
 * I mean to do an article for every word on Common words, searching for which is not possible. It is my conviction that all of the grammatical particles of English are interesting and idiomatic enough, and raise issues of usage, esp. for non-native speakers, to warrant articles for themselves that go beyond mere dictionary definitions.

Welcome to the dream

title: User:Ihcoyc


text:
Tetsu Katayama

Tetsu Katayama (片山 哲) was a Japanese politician who was Prime Minister of Japan from 1947 to 1948. A Christian pacifist, he bears the distinction of having been the first socialist to serve as Prime Minister of Japan. He was a Christian socialist.

Early life
He was born in Tanabe, Wakayama Prefecture on 28 July 1887. He attended Tokyo Imperial University and received a bachelor's degree in law. Raised in the Christian faith, he was strongly influenced by the Christian socialism of Abe Isoo. After graduating, he opened a law office in a rented YMCA dormitory, and worked as an attorney.

Early political career
Katayama became secretary-general of the Social Democratic Party when it was established in 1926. He was elected to Japan's House of Representatives, representing Kanagawa Prefecture, in 1930. Later in 1932, he joined the executive committee of the Socialist Masses Party. He was removed from the party since he did not participate in the session of the House on which Takao Saito was expelled from the House for his antimilitary speech. After World War II, Katayama began to serve as secretary-general of the Japan Socialist Party when it was established in November 1945. Next in September 1946, he became the chairman of the party's executive committee.

Prime Minister and later life
Following the 1947 elections, in which the Socialist Party came in first, Katayama formed a coalition government with the Democratic Party and the National Cooperative Party. Although in reality, Emperor Hirohito was displeased by the fact that Katayama became the prime minister, wherein he was not included in the votation process. Despite leading a short-lived administration, Katayama, during his time in office, saw the enactment of a wide range of progressive social reforms such as the establishment of Japan's first Labour Ministry; an Unemployment Compensation Act; an Unemployment Insurance Act; and the overhaul revision of the Civil Code, whose section on the family institution was completely rewritten to provide, for instance, the eldest son with a greater inheritance share.

The Labour Standards Act of September 1947 introduced maternity leave for a five weekly mandatory post-natal period and prohibited dismissal of women during maternity leave and for thirty days after the end of the leave although not all workers were covered. In addition, the law provided for equal pay for equal work. The Employment Security Law of November 1947 contained authority for the government to operate a system of free public employment exchanges on a broader and more democratic basis than under the former Employment Exchange Law. It also provided for public services to the handicapped in securing employment, and outlawed labor bosses and other undemocratic forms of labor recruitment. The Child Welfare Law of December 1947 extended special protection to abused, abandoned, and neglected children, guaranteed the privacy rights of children born out of wedlock, established health-care programmes for mothers and children, provided for prenatal care, outlawed the employment of minors in dangerous occupations, and abolished the practice of indentured labour. The legislation also laid the institutional foundation for a nationwide system of childcare centres, created standards for foster parentage, and made the state responsible for setting up and supervising orphanages and other juvenile institutions.

The Law for the Elimination of Excessive Economic Concentration (passed in December 1947) provided for the dissolution of any company considered to be monopolistic, while the "law on the expulsion of Zaibatsu-affiliated controls" of January 1948 enforced the resignation of Zaibatsu board members who were related closely to Zaibatsu families, while a measure was taken to ban on holding the concurrent board posts of their affiliated companies. In addition, a government employees law was enacted, the first group of Japanese Supreme Court justices was appointed, local government and the police were reorganised, the Ministries of Home Affairs, Navy, and War were abolished, extensive revisions were made to criminal law, and progress was made on land reform.

At the end of the 1950s, Katayama was also the president of the Japan's Temperance Union. The influence of left-wing socialists, such as Suzuki Mosaburō, forced Katayama to resign early in his term. After his resignation, Katayama became a member of the Democratic Socialist Party and advocated the maintenance of the pacifist constitution, election reform, and formation of a global commonwealth. In 1963, Katayama left politics after he lost his seat in the general elections.

Global policy
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth.

Honors

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1964)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (1978; posthumous)

title: Tetsu Katayama


text:
Hitoshi Ashida

Hitoshi Ashida (芦田 均) was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan in 1948. He was a prominent figure in the immediate postwar political landscape, but was forced to resign his leadership responsibilities after a corruption scandal (Shōwa Denkō Jiken) targeting two of his cabinet ministers.

Early life
Ashida was born in Fukuchiyama, Kyoto, the second son of politician and banker Shikanosuke Ashida. His father had been in the House of Representatives and served as director of Nōkō Bank. His grandfather was landed magnate and village headman (nanushi) Jizaemon Ashida.

He studied French civil law at Tokyo Imperial University. After graduation, he worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for twenty years.

Early career
In 1932, Ashida ran his first successful campaign for a seat in the House of Representatives as a member of the Seiyūkai Party. He sided with Ichirō Hatoyama's "orthodox" wing following the Seiyukai's split in 1939.

After the war, Ashida won a seat in the new Diet as a member of the Liberal Party, from which he split to merge with Kijūrō Shidehara's Progressive Party to form the Democratic Party. Ashida was elected president of the new party, and became minister of foreign affairs in 1947 under Socialist prime minister Tetsu Katayama.

He also chaired the Committee on the Bill for Revision of the Imperial Constitution, and served as the chairman of the Kenpō Fukyū Kai, a society created to promote the revised Constitution of Japan, from 1946–1948. During his term, he made a key amendment to Article Nine of the planned Japanese Constitution, which enabled the creation of the Japanese Self-Defense Force.

Prime minister and later life
Ashida became prime minister in 1948, leading a coalition government of Democratic and Socialist members. His tenure ended just seven months after it began. Two of his cabinet ministers were accused of corruption in the Showa Electric scandal, which forced the cabinet to resign. One of them was Takeo Kurusu, a state minister without a portfolio.

Ashida's government was hampered by taking over at the end of the fiscal year. The country operated on a temporary budget until a budget was passed in July.

After his tenure as prime minister, Ashida focused on Japan's position in Asia and re-armament. He became outspoken in support of creating a national defense force after the outbreak of the Korean War, fearing that a similar conflict may occur in Japan. Ashida also promoted the idea of forming a Japanese group of volunteers to fight alongside United Nations Command in support of the Republic of Korea. In 1951, he gave speaking tours across Japan advocating for his interpretation of Article 9, stating that it does not impose restrictions on Japan preparing a force for defensive purposes.

In 1958, Ashida was cleared of all charges in relation to corruption allegations. He died a year later at the age of seventy-one.

title: Hitoshi Ashida


text:
Talk:Duel

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Greece
The section describing Greek traditions sounds much more like a plain tavern fight than a fromal duel. The editor probably wanted to mock the Greeks instead of adding valid information. 194.38.111.241 (talk) 01:53, 3 February 2019 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 13:27, 1 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Duel between Duryodhana and Bhima.jpg

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Ichirō Hatoyama

Ichirō Hatoyama (鳩山 一郎) was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1954 to 1956. During his tenure he oversaw the formation of the Liberal Democratic Party and restored official relations with the Soviet Union.

Hatoyama was born in Tokyo into a prominent and cosmopolitan family. After graduating from Tokyo Imperial University he soon entered political life and was first elected to the Diet in 1915 as a member of the Seiyukai political party. He served as chief cabinet secretary under Giichi Tanaka and minister of education under Tsuyoshi Inukai and Makoto Saitō. He was one of the leading members of the Seiyukai prior to its dissolution in 1940. During the Pacific War he opposed the cabinet of Hideki Tōjō.

After the war Hatoyama founded and led the Liberal Party which became the largest party in the first post-war election. He was expected to become prime minister, but was purged by the American occupation authorities on the eve of taking office and handed over the leadership to Shigeru Yoshida. After being released from the purge in 1951 he was in conflict with Yoshida who declined to cede the leadership back. He finally became prime minister after ousting Yoshida in 1954.

In 1955, the Democratic Party led by Hatoyama and the Liberal Party formerly led by Yoshida merged to form the Liberal Democratic Party, which has dominated Japanese politics ever since. Hatoyama pursued negotiations that led to the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, ending the formal state of war ongoing since the Soviet declaration of war on Japan in 1945, and restoring diplomatic relations between the two countries. Hatoyama resigned after this achievement, having long been of declining health.

A member of the Hatoyama family, he was the grandfather of Yukio Hatoyama, who served as prime minister from 2009 to 2010.

Early life
Ichirō Hatoyama was born in Tokyo, on New Year's Day of 1883, the eldest son of Kazuo Hatoyama and Haruko Hatoyama. His name indicated his status as the first born son in Japanese. Ichirō had an elder half-sister, Kazuko, and a younger brother Hideo, who became a noted jurist.

Their family been samurai sworn to the Miura clan before the Meiji Restoration. Kazuo Hatoyama was among a group of students selected by the government to study in America in 1875. He graduated from Columbia University and Yale Law School. After returning to Japan, he became a lawyer, educator and politician. Haruko was an educator who helped found Kyoritsu Women's Vocational School in 1886.

Ichirō Hatoyama received much of his early education from his mother. From early on Hatoyama was encouraged to pursue a political career and he readily accepted this ambition. His father was elected to the House of Representatives in 1894 and was its Speaker from 1896 to 1897.

Hatoyama attended First Higher School and afterwards studied law at Tokyo Imperial University. After graduating in 1907 he began working in his father's law office. The following year he married Kaoru, the daughter of Sakae Terada, a judge who later became a politician and an executive of the Gen'yōsha. Her mother was a niece of Haruko Hatoyama.

Pre-war political career
After his father died in 1911, Hatoyama was elected in the 1912 by-election for his father's seat in the Tokyo City Council. In the 1915 House of Representatives election, Hatoyama was elected from Tokyo district and belonged to the Rikken Seiyukai. A rival in the same constituency was Bukichi Miki, who later became a close friend and ally.

Property inherited from his father in Otowa, Bunkyō, Tokyo, was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake. Hatoyama solicited his friend Shinichirō Okada to design a western-style residence in its stead. It was finished the following year and was called the Otowa Palace, and later Hatoyama Hall.

When Keigo Kiyoura became Prime Minister in January 1924 the Rikken Seiyukai split over whether or not to support him. Kisaburo Suzuki, the husband of Hatoyama's elder sister Kazuko, served as Minister of Justice in the new cabinet. Hatoyama participated in the Seiyūhontō organised by pro-Kiyoura forces led by Takejirō Tokonami. In June Kiyoura had to resign in favour of Takaaki Kato, who had formed a coalition of his own Kenseikai, the Seiyukai and the Kakushin Club. Seiyūhontō became the main opposition.

The Seiyukai withdrew from the coalition in July 1925. The Seiyūhontō moved towards coalition with the Kenseikai, but Hatoyama opposed this and left the party with about twenty Diet members in December. They returned to the Seiyukai in February the following year. Hatoyama was close to the new party president Giichi Tanaka who made him Secretary-General in March. Hatoyama's brother-in-law Kisaburo Suzuki joined the party around this time.

Tanaka was appointed Prime Minister in April 1927 and Hatoyama became his Chief Cabinet Secretary. Hatoyama befriended Shigeru Yoshida who served as administrative vice minister for foreign affairs at the same time. After the cabinet fell in July 1929 Minseito president Osachi Hamaguchi became Prime Minister and the Seiyukai fell to the opposition. Tanaka died in September. Kisaburo Suzuki, with the support of Hatoyama, had become the most influential factional leader in the party at this time, but Takejirō Tokonami had rejoined the party to contest the presidency. In order to prevent a split the respected elder Tsuyoshi Inukai was selected instead. During his time in the opposition Hatoyama criticised the London Naval Treaty.

When Inukai was made Prime Minister in December 1931, Hatoyama became Minister of Education. Inukai was assassinated in the May 15 incident and Suzuki was elected to succeed him as Seiyukai president, but he didn't become prime minister, as the genrō Prince Saionji preferred to nominate Admiral Makoto Saito. Hatoyama continued in his post and became involved in a controversy in March 1933 when he had a professor at Kyoto Imperial University dismissed for leftist views. In March 1934 he was forced to resign due to alleged corruption in the Teijin Incident, which eventually led to the downfall of the Saito cabinet.

When Suzuki was once again passed over as prime minister, this time in favour of Admiral Keisuke Okada, the Seiyukai moved into the opposition, even expelling members who accepted positions in the new cabinet. By this time Hatoyama had become one of the most powerful men in the Seiyukai as the right-hand man of his brother-in-law.

The Seiyukai took major losses in the 1936 general election and this led Suzuki to resign the following year. Hatoyama and Chikuhei Nakajima were the leading candidates for the presidency, but to prevent schism a "Presidential Proxy Committee" was formed consisting of Hatoyama, Nakajima, Yonezō Maeda and Toshio Shimada. As there was too much antipathy against himself, Hatoyama decided to support Fusanosuke Kuhara as president. But in March 1939 the opponents of Kuhara and Hatoyama had Nakajima declared president in contravention to party rules. As a result, the party was split between a "reformist faction" led Nakajima and an "orthodox faction" led by Kuhara.

Wartime period
Hatoyama opposed the trend towards military government. He led his faction to absent itself in protest against the expulsion of Takao Saitō for an anti-militarist speech. He resisted the dissolution of political parties and the formation of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA) in 1940.

Hatoyama ran in the 1942 general election as a "non-endorsed" candidate, meaning he was not endorsed by the IRAA, but won his election anyway. Shared opposition to the Tojo cabinet brought him together with his old rival Bukichi Miki, who also ran and won as a non-endorsed candidate. Like most non-endorsed candidates elected, they were compelled to join the Imperial Rule Assistance Political Association when all other parliamentary caucuses were suppressed shortly after the election, but continued to resist from within. In November 1942, Hatoyama's son Iichirō married Yasuko Ishibashi, the daughter of Bridgestone founder Shojiro Ishibashi. Ishibashi became an important financial backer for Hatoyama.

As time went on, the prospects for resisting the cabinet seemed more and more futile. When fellow Diet member Bin Akao was expelled from the Imperial Rule Assistance Political Association for publicly rebuking Tojo in June 1943, Hatoyama and others decided to leave in solidarity. This practically made further political activities impossible, so Hatoyama decided to retire to his summer house in Karuizawa. Before leaving Tokyo he made a pledge with Miki that they would cooperate to rebuild Japan after the war. In Karuizawa he devoted himself to farming and study, but he also took part in plans surrounding Shigeru Yoshida and Fumimaro Konoe for an early peace with Britain and the United States.

Post-war political career
Immediately after the Japanese surrender was announced on 15 August 1945 Hatoyama's old associates, in particular Hitoshi Ashida, began work for the creation a new political party for the post-war era. They convinced Hatoyama to return to Tokyo and become their leader. The Hatoyama Hall was damaged from air raids and Hatoyama lodged at Shojiro Ishibashi's Tokyo residence. Besides his old comrades from the Seiyukai he brought Bukichi Miki into the party. He also recruited liberal figures who had been aloof from party politics such as the journalist Tanzan Ishibashi.

Shojiro Ishibashi was a significant sponsor for the new party and his house would serve as a de facto office in the early days. Another substantial part of the funds came from Yoshio Kodama, who was then a cabinet advisor.

The Liberal Party was officially launched in November 1945 with Hatoyama as its president. Ashida was expected to become secretary-general, but he had been appointed health minister in the Shidehara cabinet formed the previous month. The post instead went to Ichirō Kōno. Miki became chairman of the General Council.

In the first post-war election in April 1946, the Liberal Party became the largest party with 141 out of 468 seats. Hatoyama was expected to become prime minister, but while in the middle of putting together his cabinet, he was purged from public office by the occupation authority on 4 May. The purge order branded him a "ultranationalist and militarist" for his participation in pre-war cabinets.

Hatoyama was dumbfounded by the event, but he soon approached his old friend Shigeru Yoshida, who was foreign minister at the time, to take his place as prime minister and president of the Liberal Party. Yoshida initially demurred and Kazuo Kojima and Tsuneo Matsudaira were also considered as candidates, but Yoshida was ultimately persuaded to accept.

Yoshida was appointed prime minister on 22 May, and he would formally be elected party president at the convention in August. Hatoyama once again retired to Karuizawa. Another round of purges in June removed both Kōno and Miki from office. As part of the Occupation's "Reverse Course," Hatoyama was de-purged and allowed to return to politics in 1951.

CIA files that were declassified in 2005 and then publicized in January 2007 by the U.S. National Archives detail a plot by ultranationalists to assassinate prime minister Shigeru Yoshida and install a more hawkish government led by Ichirō Hatoyama in 1952. The plot was never carried out.

Hatoyama was appointed prime minister in December 1954. A staunch conservative, Hatoyama favored pardons for some of the Class A war criminals who had been sentenced to life imprisonment by the Tokyo Trial. He hoped to revise the Constitution to remove Article 9 and eventually remilitarize Japan. To this end, in 1956 he established a "Constitutional Research Commission" to prepare for the process of constitutional revision.

That same year, Hatoyama attempted to implement his infamous "Hatomander" (ハトマンダー, hatomandā, a portmanteau of Hatoyama and Gerrymander), an attempt to replace Japan's SNTV multi-member constituencies with American-style first-past-the-post single-member districts, which would have made it easier for the LDP to secure the two-thirds of seats in the Lower House of the National Diet needed to revise the Constitution. The plan passed the Lower House of the Diet, but was shelved in the face of intense popular opposition before it could pass the Upper House.

In October 1956, he restored diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union. After that he announced his resignation as prime minister and stepped down in December 1956.

Ichirō Hatoyama died in his Hatoyama Hall house, in Tokyo's Bunkyō ward, on 7 March 1959. He was buried in the Yanaka Cemetery, in nearby Taitō ward.

Family and beliefs
Ichirō was a Protestant Christian. He was Japan's third postwar Christian Prime Minister.

Iichirō Hatoyama, Ichirō's only son, made a career for himself as a civil servant in the Budget Bureau of the Finance Ministry. Iichirō retired after having achieved the rank of administrative Vice Minister. In his second career in politics, he rose to become Foreign Minister of Japan in 1976–1977.

One of Ichirō's grandsons, Yukio Hatoyama, became prime minister in 2009 as a member of the Democratic Party of Japan. Another grandson Kunio Hatoyama was a prominent politician in the LDP.

During the purge against Ichirō (1946–1951), he received an English book The Totalitarian State against Man originally written in German by the half-Japanese Austrian Count Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi from a professor of Waseda University Kesazō Ichimura (1898–1950) who wanted Ichirō to translate the English book into Japanese. The English book struck a sympathetic chord in Ichirō, and he began to advocate fraternity, also known as yūai (友愛) in Japanese.

Hatoyama founded the Yūai Kyōkai (or Yūai Association ) in 1953 to promote his idea of fraternity. His widow and many of his descendants has served as officers in the association.

On 29 March 1951, he was initiated as a first degree Freemason, and on 26 March 1955, passed as second degree mason, and raised to Master Mason.

Honours
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1959; posthumous)

title: Ichirō Hatoyama


text:
Hayato Ikeda

Hayato Ikeda (池田 勇人) was a Japanese bureaucrat and later politician who served as prime minister of Japan from 1960 to 1964. He is best known for his Income Doubling Plan, which promised to double Japan's GDP in ten years.

Ikeda is also known for repairing U.S.–Japan relations and Japanese domestic political rifts after the contentious 1960 Anpo Protests, as well as for presiding over the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.

Early life
Ikeda was born on 3 December 1899, in Yoshina, Hiroshima Prefecture (present-day Takehara, Hiroshima), the youngest child of Goichirō Ikeda and his wife Ume. He had six siblings.

He attended Kyoto Imperial University and joined the Ministry of Finance following graduation in 1925. While at the ministry, he served as the head of the local tax offices in Hakodate and Utsunomiya. During his time in the latter role, in 1929, he contracted pemphigus foliaceus and went on sick leave for two years, formally resigning in 1931 once his sick leave had run out. The condition was cured by 1934. He briefly considered accepting a position at Hitachi, but returned to the Ministry of Finance in December 1934 to head a tax office in Osaka. Ikeda remained within the ministry through the end of World War II, eventually becoming Vice Minister of Finance under Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida in 1947.

Entry into politics
Ikeda resigned from the Ministry of Finance in 1948 and won a seat in the House of Representatives, representing a portion of Hiroshima Prefecture, in the general election of 23 January 1949. He was a part of the liberal group that established the Democratic Liberal Party, a forerunner of the current Liberal Democratic Party. Along with Eisaku Satō, Ikeda was an understudy of Shigeru Yoshida early in his career, and was called an "honor student" for his commitment to the ideas presented in the Yoshida Doctrine, although he was a strong personality himself.

He was appointed Minister of Finance on 16 February 1949 by Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida, and on 7 March announced the Dodge Line monetary policy with American occupation advisor Joseph Dodge. He visited the United States in 1950 to begin preparations for U.S.–Japan security cooperation following the end of the occupation. In 1951, he oversaw the formation of the Development Bank of Japan and Japan Bank for International Cooperation.

In the 1950s, Ikeda developed a reputation as a distant and haughty technocrat unsympathetic to the concerns of ordinary people following a series of verbal gaffes. In a December 1950 Upper House Budget Committee meeting, for example, Ikeda suggested that poor people should eat more barley, rather than expensive white rice. This was reported in the press as "Let the poor eat barley!" Ikeda then became Minister of International Trade and Industry following a cabinet reshuffle in 1952, but was forced to resign less than one month later after he was reported to have said in the Diet, in reference to efforts to curb rampant inflation, "even if five or ten small businessmen commit suicide, it can't be helped." Nevertheless, Ikeda remained a senior LDP lawmaker in various party posts, and returned to the Cabinet as Minister of Finance in December 1956. He then became minister without portfolio in June 1958, and Minister of International Trade and Industry in June 1959.

Prime Minister of Japan
Ikeda was elected president of the LDP and became Prime Minister in July 1960, at an extremely difficult moment in Japanese domestic politics and U.S.-Japan relations. Ikeda's immediate predecessor as prime minister, Nobusuke Kishi, had disastrously mishandled his attempt to revise the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (known as Anpo in Japanese), leading to the massive 1960 Anpo protests, which were the largest protests in Japan's modern history. Although Kishi was ultimately successful in ramming the revised treaty through the Diet, the size and violence of the protests that followed forced him to cancel a planned visit by U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower and resign in disgrace. Ikeda also inherited from Kishi a violent dispute at the Miike Coal Mine in Kyushu, where striking coal miners repeatedly clashed with right-wing thugs sent by their corporate overlords to break the strike. Ikeda had been a compromise candidate to succeed Kishi, and had only secured the premiership by promising to call an immediate election, just a few months later in the fall of 1960. Given Ikeda's image as an unpopular politician out of touch with the common people and prone to verbal gaffes, few expected Ikeda to be anything more than a temporary placeholder prime minister.

However, Ikeda surprised observers by undertaking a dramatic personal makeover. He drew a sharp contrast to Kishi's "high posture" (高姿勢, kō shisei) and ruthless, take-no-prisoners approach by taking a "low posture" (低姿勢, tei shisei) and by adopting an accommodating stance toward the political opposition and making "Tolerance and Patience" (i.e. toward the political opposition) his slogan for the fall election campaign. Ikeda also underwent a deliberate physical makeover, switching out the dark, double-breasted suits and severe, wire-rimmed glasses he had worn prior to becoming prime minister for more approachable light, single-breasted suits and thick, plastic-rimmed glasses. Most dramatically of all, Ikeda announced his bold Income Doubling Plan, which promised to double the size of Japan's economy in just ten years' time, by 1970. Eschewing the usual 5-year economic plan, Ikeda set an extremely ambitious 10-year time frame, promising a package of targeted tax breaks, government investment, and an expanded social safety net to turbocharge economic growth. Ikeda's new image and Income Doubling Plan proved popular, and he won a resounding victory at the polls in the fall, leaving no chance that one of his factional rivals in the LDP could replace him.

Upon taking office, Ikeda acted quickly to defuse the bloody clash at the Miike mine. As his Labor Minister, he chose Hirohide Ishida, who was a member of a rival political faction but was seen as more trustworthy by labor unions. He immediately dispatched Ishida to negotiate a compromise between the miners and Mitsui corporation, which owned the mine, and Ishida succeeded in getting the two sides to agree to binding arbitration, finally bringing an end to the year-long Miike Struggle in December 1960.

Ikeda also placed a high priority on repairing the U.S. Japan relationship, which had been damaged by the anti-American character of the anti-Treaty protests and the cancellation of Eisenhower's visit. He gave numerous reassurances to the U.S. government that he would staunchly support U.S. Cold War policies, including support for Taiwan and non-interaction with mainland China. He asked for, and was granted, a summit meeting with incoming U.S. president John F. Kennedy in Washington D.C. in the summer of 1961. At the summit, Ikeda reiterated his support for U.S. policy, and Kennedy promised to treat Japan more like a close ally such as Great Britain. Ikeda hoped to make up for Eisenhower's inability to visit Japan by hosting Kennedy in Tokyo, and Kennedy agreed. Plans were made for Kennedy to visit Japan in 1964, but he was assassinated before he could visit, and Secretary of State Dean Rusk went in his stead.

Ikeda also relentlessly pushed Japanese trade abroad, in support of his goal to expand export-led economic growth under the Income Doubling Plan. Targeted government investment in strategic manufacturing industries helped Japan move up the value chain and into high-tech and other higher-value-added goods. In 1962, French president Charles De Gaulle famously referred to Ikeda as "that transistor salesman," signalling that Japan was becoming more known for exporting electronics than for the cheap toys, bicycles, and textiles it had exported in the 1950s.

Domestically, Ikeda fulfilled his promise to expand the social safety net in support of the Income Doubling Plan. A universal national pension scheme was established in 1961, together with a system of universal health insurance. The Physically Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Law was passed in 1960 to promote the employment of people with physical disabilities through the creation of an employment quota system in Japan, an on-the-job adjustment scheme, and a financial assistance system in addition to offering vocational guidance and placement services through approximately 600 Public Employment Security Offices (PESO) and their branch offices. In addition, the 1963 Welfare Law for the Aged provided funding for respite care, home care, homes for the aged, and other services paid by taxes collected through local and central governments.

In 1963, Ikeda remained extremely popular and was able to win a second term as prime minister. Now he was powerful enough to take on the factional rivalries that had nearly torn the LDP apart during the Security Treaty Crisis. Ikeda took a number of steps to tame intra-party factional infighting, including appointing an "All-Faction Cabinet" with members from enemy factions, and bringing his bitter rival Ichirō Kōno into his government as Agriculture Minister, Construction Minister, and finally Minister in charge of planning the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, thus allowing Kōno to accrue much of the glory and credit for the successful Olympic Games, which were seen as Japan's "coming out party" after completing postwar reconstruction.

By 1963, Ikeda was also powerful enough to announce, over the objection of many conservatives in his own party, that the LDP would renounce any effort to revise Japan's postwar constitution and specifically Article 9, which forbade Japan from maintaining a military. He even made "no constitutional revision on our watch" one of the LDP's campaign slogans for the general election. This move outraged his predecessor Kishi, who had avidly pursued constitutional revision. However, it also severely damaged the electoral prospects of the opposition Japan Socialist Party going forward, as the JSP had previously been able to win votes by pointing out that they needed at least one-third of the seats in the Diet to block the LDP's attempts at revising the Constitution.

Retirement and death
Ikeda contracted laryngeal cancer and was admitted to the National Cancer Center for treatment in September 1964, by which point the condition had progressed considerably. On 25 October, the day after the closing of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Ikeda announced his resignation. Hoping to avoid a vicious intra-party struggle to succeed him, Ikeda took the unusual step of personally designating Eisaku Satō as his successor. Ikeda's longstanding rival Ichirō Kōno respected his dying wish and declined to run for party president, clearing the way for Satō to succeed to the premiership.

Although Ikeda was released from the hospital in December 1964, he underwent another operation at the University of Tokyo Hospital in August 1965. He died of pneumonia on 13 August, several days after the operation, at the age of 65.

Ikeda's "Kōchikai" faction was one of the most powerful factions in the LDP, and occupied the left wing of the party. As faction leader, he was succeeded in turn by Shigesaburō Maeo, Masayoshi Ōhira, Zenkō Suzuki, Kiichi Miyazawa, Koichi Kato, Mitsuo Horiuchi, Makoto Koga, and Fumio Kishida.

Legacy
Historian Nick Kapur credits Ikeda with stabilizing the "1955 System" in Japanese politics, after it nearly came apart amid vicious factional infighting within the LDP during the 1960 Security Treaty crisis. Ikeda's "low posture" and conciliatory politics helped tame factions within his own party and reduce inter-party conflict with the opposition parties in order to preclude future mass extra-parliamentary street protests. Ikeda helped turn the LDP into a stable, "big tent" party that could win thumping super-majorities at the polls by winning votes from a broad cross-section of interest groups, while also not abusing those super-majorities by ramming through unpopular policies. In particular, Ikeda's renunciation of constitutional revision, long seen as a holy grail by LDP conservatives, set the course for Japan's stable conservative rule under U.S. hegemony for the next several decades, and paved the way for the decline of the opposition Japan Socialist Party.

Ikeda's Income Doubling Plan also proved to be an astonishing success, helping greatly extend the lifespan of Japan's postwar "economic miracle." Although the initial target growth rate of the plan was 7.2% per year, by the mid 1960s Japan's GDP growth rate reached as high as 11.6%, and averaged greater than 10% over the entire decade, with the economy achieving the goal of doubling its size in less than seven years. Perhaps even more importantly, according to Kapur, Ikeda's Income Doubling Plan "enshrined 'economic growthism' as a sort of secular religion of both the Japanese people and their government, bringing about a circumstance in which both the effectiveness of the government and the worth of the populace came to be measured above all by the annual percentage change in GDP." Similarly, Japanese economist Takafusa Nakamura concluded that "Ikeda was the single most important figure in Japan's rapid [economic] growth. He will be remembered as the man who pulled together a national consensus for economic growth and who strove unceasingly for the realization of that goal."

Domestic honors

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (13 August 1965; posthumous)
 * Senior Second Rank (13 August 1965; posthumous)

Foreign honor

 * Malaya: Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (S.M.N.) (1964)

title: Hayato Ikeda