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Julius Firmicus Maternus

Julius Firmicus Maternus was a Roman Latin writer and astrologer, who received a pagan classical education that made him conversant with Greek; he lived in the reign of Constantine I (306 to 337 AD) and his successors. His triple career made him a public advocate, an astrologer and finally a Christian apologist. The explicit, or end-tag, of the sole surviving manuscript of his De errore profanarum religionum ("On the error of profane religions") gives his name as Iulius Firmicus Maternus V C, identifying him as a vir clarissimus and a member of the senatorial class. He was also author of the most extensive surviving text of Roman astrology, Matheseos libri octo ("Eight books of astrology") written around 334–337. Manuscripts of this work identify him as "the younger" (iunior) or "the Sicilian" (Siculus). The lunar crater Firmicus was named in his honour.

The Matheseos was dedicated to the governor of Campania, Lollianus Mavortius, whose knowledge of the subject inspired Firmicus, and whose encouragement supported him during the composition of this handbook. It is among the last extensive handbooks of a "scientific" astrology that circulated in the West before the appearance of Arabic texts in the 12th century. Augustine of Hippo, drawn to astrology in his youth in the mid-fourth century, fulminated against the study's impieties, in part based on the astrologers' view that the planets were divinities, but also on rational grounds, taking, for instance, the divergent careers of twins. The Neoplatonist astrological work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1499, and has often been reprinted.

About the year 346 he composed De errore profanarum religionum, which he dedicated to Constantius II and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. He holds up to scorn the religious beliefs and practices of pagans and implores the Emperor to stamp out the old religions as a sacred duty which will be rewarded by God. In the first part (chs. 1‑17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18‑29) he discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries, with particular attention and animus toward alleged homosexual practices, recovering in a certain way the contempt that the senators had at the time of the Republic to the Hellenization of the Roman religion and culture.

For 19th-century readers, De errore profanarum religionum provided such a sharp contrast with Firmicus' book on astrology (commonly referred to as the Matheseos) that the two works were generally attributed to different writers. However, Clifford Herschel Moore soundly identified the single authorship of the two works, by idiosyncratic choices of vocabulary and syntax, in a dissertation overseen by Eduard Wölfflin (1897). Theodor Mommsen has shown that the Matheseos was composed in the year 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held, thus making it an earlier work than De errore profanarum religionum; modern readers who find astrology incompatible with Early Christianity argue that it would have been written prior to Firmicus' conversion to Christianity.

The Christian work is preserved in a single manuscript from the Bibliotheca Palatina. It was first printed at Strasbourg in 1562, and has been reprinted several times, both separately and combined with the polemical writings of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius.

Editions

 * Matheseos libri VIII, 2 vols, edited by W. Kroll and F. Skutsch, Stuttgart, Teubner, 1968.

Translations

 * De errore profanarum religionum, translated by Clarence A. Forbes as The Error of the Pagan Religions, Newman Press, 1970 (Ancient Christian Writers, 37). ISBN 9780809100392
 * Ancient Astrology: Theory and Practice. Matheseos Libri VIII by Firmicus Maternus, translated by Jean Rhys Bram, Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1975.
 * Mathesis, edited and translated by James Herschel Holden, Tempe, Az., A.F.A., Inc., 2011.

title: Julius Firmicus Maternus


text:
Joseph Addison

Joseph Addison (1 May 1672 – 17 May 1719) was an English essayist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was the eldest son of Lancelot Addison. His name is usually remembered alongside that of his long-standing friend Richard Steele, with whom he founded The Spectator magazine. His simple prose style marked the end of the mannerisms and conventional classical images of the 17th century.

Early life and education
Addison was born in Milston, Wiltshire, but soon after his birth his father, Lancelot Addison, was appointed Dean of Lichfield and the family moved into the cathedral close. His father was a scholarly English clergyman. Joseph was educated at Charterhouse School, London, where he first met Richard Steele, and at The Queen's College, Oxford. He excelled in classics, being specially noted for his Neo-Latin verse, and became a fellow of Magdalen College.

In 1693, he addressed a poem to John Dryden, and his first major work, a book of the lives of English poets, was published in 1694. His translation of Virgil's Georgics was published in the same year. Dryden, Lord Somers and Charles Montague, 1st Earl of Halifax, took an interest in Addison's work and obtained for him a pension of £300 a year to enable him to travel to Europe with a view to diplomatic employment, all the time writing and studying politics.

While, in Switzerland, in 1702, he heard of the death of William III, an event which lost him his pension, as his influential contacts, Halifax and Somers, had lost their employment with the Crown.

Political career
Addison returned to England at the end of 1703. For more than a year he remained unemployed, but the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 gave him a fresh opportunity to distinguish himself. The government, specifically Lord Treasurer Godolphin, commissioned Addison to write a commemorative poem about the battle, and he produced The Campaign, which was received with such satisfaction that he was appointed Commissioner of Appeals in Halifax's government.

His next literary venture was an account of his travels in Italy, Remarks on several parts of Italy, &c., in the years 1701, 1702, 1703, published in 1705 by Jacob Tonson.

In 1705, with the Whigs in power, Addison was made Under-Secretary of State and accompanied Lord Halifax on a diplomatic mission to Hannover, Germany. A biography of Addison states: "In the field of his foreign responsibilities Addison's views were those of a good Whig. He had always believed that England's power depended upon her wealth, her wealth upon her commerce, and her commerce upon the freedom of the seas and the checking of the power of France and Spain."

In 1708 and 1709, Addison was a Member of Parliament for the borough of Lostwithiel. He was soon appointed secretary to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Wharton. Under the direction of Wharton, he was an MP in the Irish House of Commons for Cavan Borough from 1709 until 1713. In 1710, he represented Malmesbury, in his home county of Wiltshire, holding the seat until his death in 1719.

Magazine founder
He met Jonathan Swift in Ireland and remained there for a year. Later, he helped form the Kitcat Club and renewed his friendship with Richard Steele. In 1709, Steele began to publish the Tatler, and Addison became a regular contributor. In 1711, they began The Spectator; its first issue appeared on 1 March 1711. This paper, which was originally a daily, was published until 20 December 1714, interrupted for a year by the publication of The Guardian in 1713. His last publication was The Freeholder, a political paper, in 1715–16.

Plays
He wrote the libretto for Thomas Clayton's opera Rosamond, which had a disastrous premiere in London in 1707. In 1713 Addison's tragedy Cato was produced, and was received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories. He followed this effort with a comedic play, The Drummer (1716).

Cato

In 1712, Addison wrote his most famous work, Cato, a Tragedy. Based on the last days of Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis, it deals with conflicts such as individual liberty versus government tyranny, Republicanism versus Monarchism, logic versus emotion, and Cato's personal struggle to retain his beliefs in the face of death. It has a prologue written by Alexander Pope and an epilogue by Samuel Garth.

The play was a success throughout the British Empire. It continued to grow in popularity, especially in America, for several generations. It is cited by some historians as a literary inspiration for the American Revolution, being known to many of the Founding Fathers. General George Washington sponsored a performance of Cato for the Continental Army during the difficult winter of 1777–78 at Valley Forge. According to John J. Miller, "no single work of literature may have been more important than Cato" for the leaders of the American revolution.

Scholars have identified the inspiration for several famous quotations from the American Revolution in Cato. These include:
 * Patrick Henry's famous ultimatum: "Give me liberty or give me death!"
 * (Supposed reference to Act II, Scene 4: "It is not now time to talk of aught/But chains or conquest, liberty or death.").

 * Nathan Hale's valediction: "I regret that I have but one life to give for my country."
 * (Supposed reference to Act IV, Scene 4: "What a pity it is/That we can die but once to serve our country.").

 * Washington's praise for Benedict Arnold in a letter: "It is not in the power of any man to command success; but you have done more – you have deserved it."
 * (Clear reference to Act I, Scene 2: "'Tis not in mortals to command success; but we'll do more, Sempronius, we'll deserve it.").

In 1789, Edmund Burke quoted the play in a letter to Charles-Jean-François Depont entitled Reflections on the revolution in France, saying that the French people may yet be obliged to go through more changes and "to pass, as one of our poets says, 'through great varieties of untried being,'" before their state obtains its final form. The poet referred to is Addison and the passage quoted is from Cato (V.i. II): "Through what variety of untried being, through what new scenes and changes must we pass!"

Though the play has fallen from popularity and is now rarely performed, it was popular and often cited in the eighteenth century, with Cato being an example of republican virtue and liberty. John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon were inspired by the play to write an epistolary exchange entitled Cato's Letters (1720–1723), concerning individual rights, using the name "Cato".

The action of the play involves the forces of Cato at Utica, awaiting the attack of Caesar immediately following his victory at Thapsus (46 BC). The noble sons of Cato, Portius and Marcus, are both in love with Lucia, the daughter of Lucius, an ally of Cato. Juba, prince of Numidia, one of Cato's warriors, loves Cato's daughter Marcia. Meanwhile, Sempronius, a senator, and Syphax, a general of the Numidians, are conspiring secretly against Cato, hoping to prevent the Numidian army from supporting him. In the final act, Cato commits suicide, leaving his followers to make their peace with the approaching army of Caesar – an easier task after Cato's death, since he was Caesar's most implacable enemy.

Hymn
Addison wrote the popular church hymn "The Spacious Firmament on High", publishing it in The Spectator in 1712. It is sung either to the tune known as "London (Addison's)" by John Sheeles, written c. 1720, or to "Creation" by Joseph Haydn, 1798.

Marriage and death
The later part of Addison's life was not without its troubles. In 1716, he married Charlotte, Dowager Countess of Warwick, after working for a time as a tutor for her son. He then lived at Bilton Hall in Warwickshire. His political career continued, and he served as Secretary of State for the Southern Department from 1717 to 1718. His political newspaper The Freeholder was much criticised. His wife was arrogant and imperious; his stepson, Edward Rich, was an unfriendly rake. Addison's shyness in public limited his effectiveness as a member of Parliament. He eventually fell out with Steele over the Peerage Bill.

In 1718, Addison was forced to resign as Secretary of State because of his poor health, but he remained an MP until his death at Holland House, London, on 17 June 1719 (aged 47). He was buried in Westminster Abbey. After his death, an apocryphal story circulated that Addison, on his deathbed, had sent for his wastrel stepson to witness how a Christian man meets death.

On 6 April 1808, Middletown, a town in upstate New York, was renamed Addison in his honour. Addison Road in West Kensington was also named after him.

Contribution
It is as an essayist that Addison is remembered today. He began writing essays quite casually. In April 1709, his childhood friend Richard Steele started the Tatler. Addison contributed 42 essays to the Tatler, while Steele wrote 188. Regarding Addison's help, Steele remarked, "when I had once called him in, I could not subsist without dependence on him". The Tatler was discontinued on 2 January 1711. The Spectator began publication on 1 March of that year, and it continued – being issued daily, and achieving great popularity – until 6 December 1712. It exercised an influence over the reading public of the time, and Addison soon became the leading partner in it, contributing 274 essays out of a total of 635; Steele wrote 236. Addison also assisted Steele with The Guardian, which began in 1713. Addison is the originator of the quote, "Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body". The quote can be found in Issue 147 of the Tatler.

The breezy, conversational style of the essays later prompted Bishop Richard Hurd to reprove Addison for what he called an "Addisonian Termination", or preposition stranding, a grammatical construction that ends a sentence with a preposition. Alexander Pope in his 1735 Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot made Addison an object of derision, naming him "Atticus", and comparing him to an adder, "willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike".

He wrote an essay entitled Dialogues on Medals which was translated into French by eighteenth-century priest and journalist Simon-Jérôme Bourlet de Vauxcelles (1733–1802). His essay "Adventures of a Shilling" (1710) is a brief, early example of an it-narrative or object narrative, a genre that would become more common later in the century. He also left an incomplete work, Of the Christian Religion.

Albin Schram letters
In 2005, an Austrian banker and collector named Albin Schram died, and in a file cabinet next to his laundry room a collection of a thousand letters was found, some of them of interest to historians. Two of them were written by Joseph Addison.

The first reported on a debate in the House of Commons about a grant to John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and his heirs, following the Battle of Ramillies. The letter was written on the day of the debate, probably to George Stepney.

Addison explains that the motion was opposed by Misters Annesley, Ward, Casar, and Sir William Vevian. "One said that this was showing no honour to His Grace but to a posterity that he was not concern'd in. Casar ... hoped ye Duke tho he had ben Victorious over the Enemy would not think of being so over a House of Commons: wch was said in pursuance to a Motion made by some of the Craftier sort that would not oppose the proposition directly but turn it off by a Side-Wind pretending that it being a money affaire it should be refer'd to a Committee of the whole House wch in all probability would have defeated the whole affaire...."

Following the Duke of Marlborough's successful campaign of 1706, the Duke and George Stepney became the first English regents of the Anglo-Dutch condominium for governing the southern Netherlands. It was Stepney who formally took possession of the principality of Mindelheim in the Duke's name on 26 May, after the Battle of Ramillies. Upon Marlborough's return to London in November, Parliament accepted the Duke's request that a grant of £5,000 'out of ye Post-Office' be made in perpetuity to his heirs.

A second letter, written to Richard Steele, was also found, concerning the Tatler and other matters.

"I very much liked your last paper upon the Courtship that is usually paid to the fair sex. I wish you had reserved the Letter in this days paper concerning Indecencies at Church for an entire piece. It wd have made as good a one as any you have published. Your Reflections upon Almanza are very good." The letter concludes with references to impeachment proceedings against Addison's friend Henry Sacheverell ("I am much obliged to you for yor Letters relating to Sackeverell"), and the Light House petition: "I am something troubled that you have not sent away ye Letters received from Ireland to my Lord Lieutenant, particularly that from Mr Forster [the Attorney General] with the Enclosed petition about the Light House, which I hope will be delivered to the House before my Return."

Analysis
Addison's character has been described as kind and magnanimous, albeit somewhat cool and unimpassioned, with a tendency for convivial excess. His appealing manners and conversation contributed to his general popularity. He often put his friends under obligations for substantial favours, but he showed great forbearance toward his few enemies. His essays are noted for their clarity and elegant style, as well as their cheerful and respectful humour.

William Thackeray portrayed Addison and Steele as characters in his novel The History of Henry Esmond.

Lord Macaulay wrote this generous tribute to Addison, which was published in 1866, seven years after Macaulay's death in 1859:

"As a man, he may not have deserved the adoration which he received from those who, bewitched by his fascinating society, and indebted for all the comforts of life to his generous and delicate friendship, worshiped him nightly, in his favourite temple at Button's. But, after full inquiry and impartial reflection, we have long been convinced that he deserved as much love and esteem as can be justly claimed by any of our infirm and erring race. Some blemishes may undoubtedly be detected in his character; but the more carefully it is examined, the more it will appear, to use the phrase of the old anatomists, sound in the noble parts, free from all taint of perfidy, of cowardice, of cruelty, of ingratitude, of envy. Men may easily be named, in whom some particular good disposition has been more conspicuous than in Addison. But the just harmony of qualities, the exact temper between the stern and the humane virtues, the habitual observance of every law, not only of moral rectitude, but of moral grace and dignity, distinguish him from all men who have been tried by equally strong temptations, and about whose conduct we possess equally full information.""

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title: Joseph Addison


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Aldus Manutius

Aldus Pius Manutius (Aldo Pio Manuzio; c. 1449/1452 – 6 February 1515) was an Italian printer and humanist who founded the Aldine Press. Manutius devoted the later part of his life to publishing and disseminating rare texts. His interest in and preservation of Greek manuscripts mark him as an innovative publisher of his age dedicated to the editions he produced. Aldus Manutius introduced the small portable book format with his enchiridia, which revolutionized personal reading and are the predecessor of the modern paperback book. He also helped to standardize use of punctuation including the comma and the semicolon.

Manutius wanted to produce Greek texts for his readers because he believed that works by Aristotle or Aristophanes in their original Greek form were pure and unadulterated by translation. Before Manutius, publishers rarely printed volumes in Greek, mainly due to the complexity of providing a standardized Greek typeface. Manutius published rare manuscripts in their original Greek and Latin forms. He commissioned the creation of typefaces in Greek and Latin resembling the humanist handwriting of his time; typefaces that are the first known precursor of italic type. As the Aldine Press grew in popularity, Manutius's innovations were quickly copied across Italy despite his efforts to prevent the piracy of Aldine editions.

Because of the Aldine Press's growing reputation for meticulous, accurate publications, Dutch philosopher Erasmus sought out Manutius to publish his translations of Iphigenia in Aulis.

In his youth, Manutius studied in Rome to become a humanist scholar. He was friends with Giovanni Pico and tutored Pico's nephews, the lords of Carpi, Alberto and Leonello Pio. While a tutor, Manutius published two works for his pupils and their mother. In his late thirties or early forties, Manutius settled in Venice to become a print publisher. He met Andrea Torresano in Venice and the two co-founded the Aldine Press.

Manutius is also known as "Aldus Manutius the Elder" to distinguish him from his grandson, Aldus Manutius the Younger.

Early life

Aldus Manutius was born close to Rome in Bassiano between 1449 and 1452. He grew up in a wealthy family during the Italian Renaissance and in his youth was sent to Rome to become a humanist scholar. In Rome, he studied Latin under Gaspare da Verona and attended lectures by Domizio Calderini in the early 1470s. From 1475 to 1478, Manutius studied Greek in Ferrara with Battista Guarino as his teacher.

Most of Manutius's early life is rather unknown. According to John Addington Symonds, writing in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Manutius was granted citizenship of the town of Carpi on 8 March 1480 where he owned local property, and in 1482 he travelled to Mirandola for a time with his longtime friend and fellow student, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, where he stayed two years to study Greek literature. Pico recommended Manutius to become the tutor of his nephews, Alberto and Leonello Pio, princes of the town of Carpi. In Carpi, Manutius shared a close bond with his student, Alberto Pio. At the end of the 1480s, Manutius published two works addressed to his two pupils and their mother, Caterina Pico—both works were published in Venice by Baptista de Tortis: Musarum Panagyris with its Epistola Catherinae Piae (March/May 1487 to March 1491) and the Paraenesis (1490).

Giovanni Pico and Alberto Pio's families funded the starting costs of Manutius's printing press and gave him lands in Carpi. Manutius determined that Venice was the best location for his work, settling there in 1490. In Venice, Manutius began gathering publishing contracts, at which point he met Andrea Torresano, who was also engaged in print publishing. Torresano and Manutius became lifelong business partners, and for their first contract together Manutius hired Torresano to print the first edition of his Latin grammar book the Institutiones grammaticae, published on 9 March 1493.

Aldine Press
The Aldine Press, established in 1494, had its first publication in March 1495: Erotemata cum interpretatione Latina by Constantine Lascaris. Andrea Torresano and Pier Francesco Barbarigo, nephew of the Doge, Agostino Barbarigo, each held fifty per cent of the press. Of Torresano's fifty per cent, Manutius was given one-fifth, but accounts are unclear as to whether Manutius's one-fifth refers to ten per cent of the Aldine Press or ownership exclusively to one-fifth of Torresano's share.

The press's first great achievement was a five-volume folio edition of Aristotle. Manutius started the first volume of his Aristotle edition in 1495. Four more volumes were published together in 1497 and 1498. The Aldine Press produced nine comedies of Aristophanes in 1498, and Pietro Bembo edited Petrarch's poems that Manutius published in July 1501. In addition to editing Greek manuscripts, Manutius corrected and improved texts originally published in Florence, Rome, and Milan.

The Second Italian War suspended the press for a time. During that time, Desiderius Erasmus asked Manutius to publish his translations of Hecuba and Iphigenia in Aulis through the Aldine Press. Erasmus's original letter to Manutius inquires about the printer's proposed plans: a Greek Plato and a polyglot bible. Through correspondence, the two came to an agreement. In December 1507, the Aldine Press published Iphigenia in Aulis in an 80-page octavo with Erasmus's translation from Greek into Latin. With the success and accuracy of their first collaboration, Manutius agreed to publish the expanded version of the Adagiorum collectanea Erasmus was working on. Erasmus travelled to Venice, where he spent his first ten months working at the Aldine Press. He lived in Manutius and Torresano's home, where he shared a room with Girolamo Aleandro. His research using Manutius's resources and Greek scholars enabled him to expand his collection of proverbs from 819 entries to 3,260 entries. The Aldine press published this newly expanded collection of proverbs, Adagiorum Chiliades, in 1508. After the publication of Adagiorum Chiliades, Erasmus helped Manutius proofread a Greek edition of Plutarch's Moralia along with many other Aldine Press publications.

Manutius relied on Marcus Musurus, Ioannis Grigoropoulos, and other Greek collaborators to translate for the Aldine Press. He published an edition of minor Greek orators (1508) and the lesser works of Plutarch (1509). Printing work halted again while the League of Cambrai tried to lessen Venice's influence. Manutius reappeared in 1513 with an edition of Plato that he dedicated to Pope Leo X in a preface that compares the miseries of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the student's life.

With the Aldine Press's increasing popularity, people would come to visit the shop, interrupting Manutius's work. Manutius put up a sign that read, "Whoever you are, Aldus asks you again and again what it is you want from him. State your business briefly and then immediately go away."

Manutius strove for excellence in typography and book design while publishing lower-cost editions. This was carried out under continual difficulties, including problems arising from strikes among his workmen, unauthorized use of Manutius's materials by rivals, and frequent interruptions by war.

Greek classics
Before Manutius, there were fewer than ten Greek titles in print, most of which had to be imported from the Accursius Press of Milan. Only four Italian towns were authorized to produce Greek publications: Milan, Venice, Vicenza, and Florence, and they only published works by Theocritus, Isocrates, and Homer. Venice printer John Speyer produced Greek passages but required the minimal Greek letters to be left blank and later filled in by hand.

Manutius desired to "inspire and refine his readers by inundating them with Greek." He originally came to Venice because of its many Greek resources; Venice held Greek manuscripts from the time of Constantinople and was home to a large cluster of Greek scholars who travelled there from Crete. Venice was also where Cardinal Bessarion, in 1468, donated his large Greek manuscript collection. To preserve ancient Greek literature, the Aldine Press commissioned a typeface based on classical Greek manuscripts so that readers could experience the original Greek text more authentically.

While publishing Greek manuscripts, Manutius founded the New Academy, a group of Hellenist scholars, in 1502 to promote Greek studies. Symonds writes that the New Academy's "rules were written in Greek, its members spoke Greek, their names were Hellenized, and their official titles were Greek." Members of the New Academy included Desiderius Erasmus, Pietro Bembo, and Scipio Fortiguerra. M.J.C. Lowry, a lecturer in history at the University of Warwick, has a different view, regarding the New Academy as a hopeful dream rather than an organized institute.

Manutius spoke Greek in his household and employed thirty Greek speakers at the Aldine Press. Greek speakers from Crete prepared and proofed manuscripts and their calligraphy was a model for the casts used for Greek type. Instructions for typesetters and binders were written in Greek, and the prefaces to Manutius's editions were also in Greek. Manutius printed editions of Hero and Leander by Musaeus Grammaticus, the Galeomyomachia, and the Greek Psalter. He called these "Precursors of the Greek Library" because they served as guides to the Greek language. Under Manutius's supervision, the Aldine Press published 75 texts by Classical Greek and Byzantine authors.

Latin and Italian classics
Along with Greek classics, the Aldine Press published Latin and Italian authors. Manutius launched Pietro Bembo's career as a writer by publishing De Aetna in 1496, which was the Aldine Press's first Latin publication by a contemporary author. The Bembo family hired the Aldine Press to produce accurate texts of Dante and Petrarch using Bernardo Bembo's personal manuscript collection. Pietro Bembo worked with Manutius from 1501 to 1502 to provide an accurate edition of Dante and Petrarch and also introduced punctuation. Bembo later made a diagram of sins to illustrate the 1515 Aldine edition of Dante.

Manutius did not hold the same power of innovation over Latin classics as with Greek classics because the publication of these works started 30 years before his time. To promote the Aldine editions in Latin, Manutius promoted the quality of his publications through his prefaces. Manutius was on the lookout for rare manuscripts, but often found instead missing parts of previously published works. Cuspinianus let Manutius publish the missing parts of Valerius Maximus's work, which Cuspinianus "had found in a manuscript in Vienna." Francesco Negri let Manutius publish the missing text of Julius Firmicus, which Negri found in Romania, and "a manuscript from Britain made an improved edition of Prudentius possible."

The press printed first editions of Poliziano's collected works, Pietro Bembo's Asolani, Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, and Dante's Divine Comedy. The 1501 publication of Virgil introduced the use of italic print and was produced in higher-than-normal print runs (1,000 rather than the usual 200 to 500 copies).

Imprint and motto
Manutius adopted the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor as his publisher's device in June 1502. The dolphin-and-anchor symbol is associated with the phrase festina lente, meaning "make haste slowly," indicating quickness combined with firmness in the execution of a great scheme. The symbol and phrase were taken from a Roman coin minted during Emperor Vespasian's reign that was given to Manutius by Pietro Bembo.

Manutius's editions of the classics were so highly respected that the dolphin-and-anchor device was almost immediately pirated by French and Italian publishers. Many modern organizations use the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor. The device has been used by the nineteenth-century London firm of William Pickering, and by Doubleday. The international honour society for library and information science, Beta Phi Mu, uses the dolphin and anchor as its insignia.

Enchiridia
Manutius described his new format of books as "libelli portatiles in formam enchiridii" ("portable small books in the form of a manual"). Enchiridion, described in A Legacy More Lasting than Bronze, also refers to a handheld weapon, a hint that Aldus intended the books in his Portable Library to be the weapons of scholars. It was for these pocket-sized classics Aldus designed the italic font.

Manutius converted to the smaller format in 1501 with the publication of Virgil. As time went on, Manutius self-advertised his portable format through the dedication pages he published.

Many scholars consider the development of the portable book as Manutius's most celebrated contribution to printing and publishing. These mobile books were the first known appearance of an editio minor, a straightforward text. During the 15th century, books were often chained to a reading platform to protect valuable property, requiring the reader to stay stationary. Publishers often added commentary to their published classics. Thus, pages became overloaded with scholarship and serious material which produced a large book that was difficult to transport. The Aldine Press removed these inconveniences; Manutius's books were "published without commentary and in smaller sizes, usually octavos of five by eight or four by six inches." His famous octavo editions are often regarded as the first prototype of the mass-market paperback.

The octavos were moderately priced considering the known average salaries of the time, but they were not cheap. Manutius priced his Latin octavos at 30 soldi, which was a fourth of a ducat. His Greek octavos were double the price at 60 soldi. For context, a master mason would earn about 50 soldi a day to make between 50 and 100 ducats a year.

Typefaces
Everyday handwriting in Venice was in cursive, but at the time, printed works imitated formal manuscript hands, either blackletter or the humanistic littera antica. Manutius commissioned typefaces designed to look like the handwriting of humanists both in Latin and Greek in order to uphold the manuscript tradition. In the New Aldine Studies, Harry George Fletcher III, Pierpont Morgan Library's curator for printed books and bindings, writes that Manutius intended "to make available in type a face comfortable for its readers" with the cursive typeface.

Manutius commissioned the punchcutter Francesco Griffo of Bologna to create the new typeface. The handwriting reproduced for the many Aldine Press typefaces is a topic of conflicting opinions by scholars; Symonds (1911) suggests Petrarch's handwriting, while the New Aldine Studies presumes the handwriting of scribes Pomponio Leto and Bartolomeo Sanvito was the inspiration for the typeface. Other scholars believe the first Greek typeface was derived from the handwriting of Immanuel Rhusotas, another scribe during the time of Manutius. The Aldine Press commissioned the first Greek script designed "with accents and letters cast separately and combined by the compositor." The typeface was first used in publishing Erotemata by Constantine Lascaris in 1495. The Roman typeface was finished later the same year and Pietro Bembo's De Aetna was the first book published in the new Roman script.

Manutius and Griffo's original typeface is the first known model of italic type and was used by Manutius until 1501. Five italic words were printed in St. Catherine of Siena in 1500 and in 1501 an Opera by Virgil was the first completed book in italic type. A falling out between Manutius and Griffo brought Griffo to leave and supply other publishers with the italic type originally commissioned by the Aldine Press. Griffo only made one set of punches for the Aldine Press, which were used until 1559. Griffo's original italic type did not include capital letters, so many of the Aldine Press publications forwent capital letters.

The 1502 publication of the Metamorphoses included Manutius's privilege from the Doge of Venice indicating that any use or imitation of Manutius's Greek and Italic typefaces was forbidden. Despite trying to have the typeface protected legally, Manutius could not stop printers outside of Venice from using his work, which led to the typeface's popularity outside of Italy.

Counterfeits and piracy
As the Aldine Press grew in popularity, Aldine counterfeits also increased. Manutius acquired privileges for his printing press from the Venetian Senate, specifically, for "his types, his pioneering octavo format, and even individual texts." Pope Alexander VI in 1502 and Pope Julius II in 1514 granted Manutius printing privileges from the papacy. This did not stop Aldine Press counterfeits, as there was little penalty for piracy at the time.

Manutius attempted to discourage piracy with blunt warnings at the end of his publications, as in Sylvarum libri quinque, by Publius Papinius Statius, where he warned "no one is allowed to print this without penalty." In the Bibliothèque du Roi on 16 March 1503, Manutius tried to warn off those who plagiarized his content, "it happens that in the city of Lyon our books appeared under my name, but full of errors... and deceived unwary buyers due to the similarity of typography and format....Furthermore, the paper is of poor quality and has a heavy odour, and the typography, if you examine it closely, exudes a sort of (as one might phrase it) 'Frenchiness'." He described the counterfeit's typographical errors in detail so that readers might distinguish a real Aldine from a fake. In spite of his efforts, the Lyonese printers were quick to use Manutius's critique to improve their counterfeits.

Illuminated manuscripts and prefaces
Before the printing press and during the Italian Renaissance, illuminated manuscripts were individually created by a credited artist. When print publishing became popular, woodcuts were used to mass-illuminate works. The woodcuts were often reused in several editions, thereby decreasing their value. These woodcuts soon came to Venice and were viewed as part of the "new humanist manuscript." The woodcut images "included aspects of both continuity and discontinuity that involved the activity of Manutius, who was called upon to wholly explicate the new potential of the printed book and deal with the crisis of the illumination." Many of the Aldine Press's publications contained illumination, but Manutius let patrons decide the illumination details while he worked to translate and publish.

Prefatory letters, popular in first editions of Latin works years before, were also common for Aldine editions. Manutius used the Aldine editions to ask scholarly questions and provide information for his readers. In the preface of Ovid's Metamorphoses (1502), he argues that Heroides 17, 19, and 21 (the letters of Helen, Hero, and Cudippe, respectively) were the work of the poet Sabinus, whom Ovid refers to as Amores. In another preface Manutius explains how a sundial works.

Personal life
In 1505, Manutius married Maria, the daughter of Andrea Torresani of Asola. Torresani and Manutius were already business partners, but the marriage combined the two partners' shares in the publishing business. After the marriage, Manutius lived at Torresani's house. Shrinking in popularity, in 1506 the Aldine Press was moved to a house now covered by a bank building in the Venice square, Campo Manin.

In March 1506, Manutius decided to travel for six months in search of new and reliable manuscripts. While travelling with a guide, Manutius was stopped by border guards of the Marquisate of Mantua who were looking for two criminals. Manutius's guide ran in fear, taking with him all of Manutius's personal effects. This suspicious activity led the guards to arrest Manutius. Manutius knew the Marquis of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, and wrote letters to him to explain the situation, but it took six days until Manutius's imprisonment was brought to Gonzaga's attention. While waiting, Manutius spent five days in jail in Casal Romano and another night in Canneto. He was eventually released by Geoffroy Carles, president of the Milanese Senate. A new, improved edition of Horace (after 30 March 1509) with an accompanying work by Manutius on Horatian metrics dedicated to Carles was contingent on this experience and Manutius's connection with Carles.

Manutius wrote his will on 16 January 1515 instructing Giulio Campagnola to provide capital letters for the Aldine Press's italic type. He died the next month, 6 February, and "with his death, the importance of Italy as a seminal and dynamic force in printing came to an end." Torresani and his two sons carried on the business during the youth of Manutius's children, and eventually Paulus, Manutius's son, born 1512, took over the business. Paulus won a lawsuit against his Torresani relatives for sole ownership of Manutius' italic typeface and in 1539 led the press with the Sons of Aldus imprint alongside his brothers until his death in 1574. The publishing symbol and motto were never wholly abandoned by the Aldine Press until the expiration of their firm in its third generation of operation by Aldus Manutius the Younger.

Manutius dreamed of a trilingual Bible but never saw it come to fruition. However, before his death Manutius had begun an edition of the Septuagint, also known as the Greek Old Testament translated from Hebrew, the first-ever to be published; it appeared posthumously in 1518.

Modern influence
1994 marked the 500th anniversary of Aldus Manutius's first publication. On Manutius, Paul F. Grendler wrote, "Aldus ensured the survival of a large number of ancient texts and greatly facilitated the diffusion of the values, enthusiasms, and scholarship of Italian Renaissance Humanism to the rest of Europe". "He jettisoned commentary because he felt that it prevented the dialogue between author and reader that the Renaissance prized."

Legacy
The Aldine Press produced more than 100 editions from 1495 to 1505. The majority were Greek classics, but many notable Latin and Italian works were published as well. Aldus often produced small-format editions that were cheap and sold readily. These inexpensive books—the first paperbacks—were, as ever, a boon to scholars.

Erasmus was impressed by Manutius; "in a long passage he extols the 'tireless efforts' of Manutius in restoring ancient learning, truly 'a Herculean task,' and he announces that 'Aldus is building up a library which has no other limits than the world itself'."

The Palazzo dei Pio chapel in Carpi has a painted mural that includes Aldus Manutius along with Alberto and Leonello Pio. In Bassiano, Manutius's birthplace, a monument was erected to commemorate the 450th year since Manutius's death. The inscription is Manutius's own words: "for the abundance of good books which, we hope, will finally put to flight all ignorance."

The quality and popularity of Manutius's work made it more expensive in the 20th century than others published around the same time. In 1991, Martin Lowry found that an auction in New York took place where "initial prices of $6,000 – $8,000 and $8,000 – $12,000 were quotes on copies of Decor Puellarum and Aulus Gellius in Jenson's editions: Aldus' Hypnerotomachia Polifili started at $25,000 – $30,000."

Publications
A partial list of works translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision.

Greek editions
Greek editions published during Manutius's lifetime:

 * Galeomyomachia, c. 1494–1495
 * Hero and Leander, Musaeus, c. 1495
 * Psalter, c. 1497
 * Rules of the New Academy, c. 1501
 * Epitome of the Eight Parts of Speech, Lascaris, 1495
 * Organon, Aristotle, 1495
 * Grammar, Theodorus Gaza, 1495
 * Idylls, Theocritus, 1495–1496
 * Thesaurus, Corn of Amalthea and Gardens of Adones, 1496
 * Historia Plantarum, Theophrastus, 1497
 * Dictionarium Graecum, I. Crastonus, 1497
 * Hours of the Virgin, 1497
 * Institutiones Graecae Grammatices, U. Bolzanius, 1497/1498
 * Physics, Aristotle, 1497
 * History of animals, Aristotle, 1497
 * Prolegomena to the Deipnosophists, Athenaeus, 1498
 * Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, 1498
 * Nine Comedies, Aristophanes, 1498
 * Catalogues of Aldus's editions
 * Epistolae diversorum philosophorum oratorum..., 1499
 * De materia medica, Dioscorides, 1499
 * Phaenomena, Aratus, 1499
 * Metabole [Paraphrase of John], Nonnus of Panopolis, 1501
 * Bibbia, 1501
 * Poetae Christiani Veteres, first volume, 1501
 * Poetae Christiani Veteres, second volume, 1502
 * De octo partibus orationis, Constantine Lascaris, 1501–1503
 * De urbibus, Stephanus Byzantius, 1502
 * Onomasticon, Julius Pollux, 1502
 * History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, 1502
 * Tragedies, Sophocles, 1502
 * Historiarum libri novem, Herodotus, 1502
 * Tragoediae septendecim, Euripides, 1503
 * Complete works, Lucian, 1503
 * De interpretatione, Ammonius Hermiae, 1503
 * Prolegomena, Ulpian, 1503
 * Paralipomena, Xenophon, 1503
 * Anthology of Epigrams, M. Planudes, 1503
 * Commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Ioannes Grammaticus (Philoponus), 1504
 * Life of Apollonius of Tyana, Flavius Philostratus, 1504
 * Carmina ad bene..., Gregorius Nazianzenus, 1504
 * Homer, 1504
 * Orations, Demosthenes, 1504
 * Horae in Laudem..., 1504
 * Posthomerica, Quintus Smyrnaeus, 1504–1505
 * Aesop, 1505
 * Adagiorum, Erasmus, 1508
 * Greek Orators (2 volumes), 1508–1509
 * Opuscula, Plutarch, 1509
 * Erotemata, M. Chrysoloras, 1512
 * Epitome, C. lascaris, 1512
 * Pindar, 1513
 * Orators' Speeches, 1513
 * Greek Orators, 1513
 * Complete works, Plato, 1513
 * Commentary On the Topics of Aristotle, Alexander of Aphrodisias, 1513/1514
 * Suda, 1514
 * Lexikon, Hesychius, 1514
 * Deipnosophists, Athenaeus, 1514
 * Grammar, Aldus Manutius, 1515

Latin classics
Partial list of Latin editions published during his lifetime:

 * Astronomica, Julius Firmicus, October 1499. & Astronomica, Manilius (October 1499)
 * Lucretius (December 1500)
 * Christian Poets, Volume 1, Prudentius, Prosper, John of Damascus (January 1501)
 * Vergil (April 1501)
 * Horace (May 1501)
 * Juvenal & Persius (August 1501)
 * Martial (December 1501)
 * Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius (January 1502)
 * Letter to Friends, Cicero (April 1502)
 * Lucan (April 1502)
 * Christian Poets, Volume 2, Sedulius, Iuvencus, Arator (June 1502)
 * Statius (August 1502)
 * Valerius Maximus (October 1502)
 * Metamorphoses, Ovid (October 1502)
 * Heroides, Amores, Ars amandi, Remedia amoris, etc., Ovid (December 1502)
 * Fasti, Tristia, Ex Ponto, Ovid (February 1503)
 * Homilies, Origen (after 4 April 1503)
 * Vergil (December 1505)
 * Letters, Pliny the Younger (November 1508)
 * Horace (after 30 March 1509)
 * Sallust (April 1509)
 * Letters to Atticus, Brutus and his brother Quintus, Cicero (June 1513)
 * On the Meaning of Archaic Words, Festus (June 1513)
 * Julius Caesar (December 1513)
 * Rhetorical Works, Cicero (March 1514)
 * On Agriculture, Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius (May 1514)
 * Quintilian (August 1514)
 * Vergil (October 1514)
 * Lucretius (January 1515)

Humanist works
Partial list of Humanist authors translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision:

 * Instructional Principles of Latin Grammar, Aldus Manutius (5 March 1493)
 * Gleanings in Dialectics, Lorenzo Maioli (July 1497)
 * Complete Works, Angelo Poliziano (July 1498)
 * Cornucopiae, Niccolò Perotti (July 1499)
 * Rudiments of Latin Grammar, Aldus Manutius (February–June 1501)
 * On Imagination, Gianfrancesco Pico (April 1501)
 * The Land and Customs of the Zygians call Circassians, Giorgio Interiano (October 1502)
 * Urania, Meteora, The Gardens of the Hesperides, etc., Giovanni Pontano (May–August 1505)
 * On Hunting, Adriano Castellesi (September 1505)
 * Adages or Adagiorum Chiliades, Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (September 1508)
 * Poems, Tito and Ercole Strozzi (January 1513)
 * Arcadia, Jacopo Sannazaro (September 1514)

title: Aldus Manutius


text:
Buy Nothing Day

Buy Nothing Day is a day of protest against consumerism. In North America, the United Kingdom, Finland and Sweden, Buy Nothing Day is held the day after U.S. Thanksgiving, concurrent with Black Friday; elsewhere, it is held the following day, which is the last Saturday in November.

Created by artist Ted Dave and promoted by magazine and nonprofit Adbusters, Buy Nothing Day encourages people not to shop for one day. Participants may participate in a variety of anti-consumerist and philanthropic activities, such as donating winter coats or marching through stores. Some activists have also extended Buy Nothing Day to cover the entire Christmas shopping season. As of 2001, Buy Nothing Day was observed in over 35 countries. In the late 1990s, Adbusters created a TV commercial to promote Buy Nothing Day in the US, but most television stations refused to air it. Some commentators, particularly business groups, have criticized the event, claiming that it is economically destructive.

History
The holiday was invented by Canadian artist Ted Dave. The Independent journalist Joe Sommerlad traced supporters' philosophy back to the 1899 text The Theory of the Leisure Class, which argued that consumerism was left over from the feudal era and should be discontinued. Soon thereafter, Canadian magazine and nonprofit Adbusters began promoting the day as well. It then spread to the United States, then internationally. It began to be observed in Japan in 1999, and by 2001 was observed in 35 countries around the world.

The first Buy Nothing Day was organized in Canada in September 1992 "as a day for society to examine the issue of overconsumption." In 1997, it was moved to the Friday after American Thanksgiving, also called "Black Friday", which is one of the ten busiest shopping days in the United States.

Activism
Beginning in the 1990s, Adbusters readers began engaging in culture jamming activities on Buy Nothing Day. Various gatherings and forms of protest have been used to draw attention to overconsumption:
 * Credit card cutting parties
 * Handing out flyers: Participants gather in busy city areas to hand out flyers to inform passerby of the movement and anticonsumerism
 * Forming long lines of people pushing empty shopping carts around stores (referred to as "Whirly-Mart" by Adbusters)
 * Buy Nothing Coat Exchange: Four states, including Utah, hold winter coat exchange programs as an alternative to Black Friday shopping.
 * Walking through streets or malls in zombie makeup

Commercials
Beginning in the 1990s, Adbusters produced a commercial promoting Buy Nothing Day. The ad depicted North Americans as a belching pig, to symbolize their overconsumption, and cited statistics comparing North Americans' consumption to those of people in Mexico, China, and India. The ad also refers to "A world that could die because of the way we North Americans live". However, Adbusters struggled to get the ad on the air, with MTV, ABC, CBS, and NBC refusing to show it. Only CNN, as well as some local stations, agreed to air the ad. In 1997, CBS justified their refusal by citing "the current economic policy in the United States". Lasn questioned why MTV was comfortable airing gangsta rap and sexualized videos, but would not run the ad. In 2001, Slate advertising critic Rob Walker opined that Adbusters shouldn't "suddenly change their convictions" following the September 11 attacks, but should consider airing a new ad, especially in light of the "world that could die" language.

Buy Nothing Christmas
Buy Nothing Christmas started unofficially in 1968, when Ellie Clark and her family decided to publicly disregard the commercial aspects of the Christmas holiday. Contemporarily, a movement was created to extend Adbusters' Buy Nothing Day into the entire Christmas season. Buy Nothing Christmas first became official in 2001 when a small group of Canadian Mennonites created a website and gave the movement a name. Adbusters in 2011 renamed the event Occupy Xmas, a reference to the Occupy movement.

Buy Nothing Day was first joined with Adbusters' Buy Nothing Christmas campaign. Shortly after, Lauren Bercovitch, the production manager at Adbusters Media Foundation, publicly embraced the principles of Occupy Xmas, advocating "something as simple as buying locally—going out and putting money into your local economy—or making your Christmas presents". Previously, the central message of Occupy Xmas and Occupy Christmas differed in that Occupy Xmas called for a "Buy Nothing Christmas" and Occupy Christmas called for support of local economy, artists, and craftspeople in holiday shopping. The union of these ideologies calls for a Buy Nothing Day to kick off a season of supporting local economy and family. Adbusters editor Kalle Lasn claimed in 2006 that the holiday was celebrated in over 65 countries around the world.

Opposition
In 2001, during the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Adbusters encountered an increase in opposition to Buy Nothing Day, with some Americans believing that consumerism was critical to rehabilitating the US economy. In 2002, the president of the Maryland Retailers' Association opined that supporters of the holiday should "get in the holiday spirit" and claimed that their activities could hurt retail workers financially. That year, the director of communications for the National Association of Manufacturers called Buy Nothing Day "a very bad idea" and accused it of being "a protest against modernity".

In 2012, Andrew Simms published an opinion piece in The Guardian arguing that abstinence-focused movements fail and that the economy was already suffering from too little demand, instead advocating that people buy better-quality goods.

In popular culture
English alternative rock band Chumbawamba recorded a song titled "Buy Nothing Day" for their 2004 studio album Un. AllMusic critic Johnny Loftus deemed it an "endorsement" of Adbusters' movement, while fellow AllMusic critic Chris Nickson deemed it a "musing on greed" on their 2007 live album, Get On with It. In 2019, actress Shailene Woodley tweeted her support for the holiday.

title: Buy Nothing Day


text:
Jacopo Sannazaro

Jacopo Sannazaro (28 July 1458 – 6 August 1530 ) was an Italian poet, humanist, member and head of the Accademia Pontaniana from Naples.

He wrote easily in Latin, in Italian and in Neapolitan, but is best remembered for his humanist classic Arcadia, a masterwork that illustrated the possibilities of poetical prose in Italian, and instituted the theme of Arcadia, representing an idyllic land, in European literature. Sannazaro's elegant style was the inspiration for much courtly literature of the 16th century, including Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia.

Biography
He was born in 1458 at Naples of a noble family of the Lomellina, that claimed to derive its name from a seat in Lombard territory, at San Nazaro near Pavia. His father died ca 1462, during the boyhood of Jacopo, who was brought up at Nocera Inferiore and at San Cipriano Piacentino (hosted at the home of Family Sabato, located in Via Santilli) whose rural atmosphere colored his poetry. In 1483–85 he campaigned twice with Alfonso against papal forces near Rome.

In the Accademia Pontaniana that collected around Giovanni Pontano (Jovianus Pontanus), he took the classicizing nom de plume of Actius Syncerus. His withdrawal from Naples as a young man, sometimes treated as biographical, is apparently a purely literary trope. He speedily achieved fame as a poet and a place as a courtier. Following the death of his major patron, Alfonso (1495), in 1499 he received his villa "Mergellina" near Naples from Frederick IV, but when Frederick capitulated to France and Aragon, he followed him into exile in France in 1501, whence he returned to Mergellina after Frederick's death at Tours (1504). The later years of the poet seem to have been spent at Naples. In 1525 he succeeded the humanist Pietro Summonte as head of the Pontanian academy.

Works
The Arcadia of Sannazaro was written in the 1480s, completed about 1489 and circulated in manuscript before its initial publication. Begun in early life and published in Naples in 1504, the Arcadia is a pastoral Romance, in which Sincero, the persona of the poet, disappointed in love, withdraws from the city (Naples in this case) to pursue in Arcadia an idealized pastoral existence among the shepherd-poets, in the manner of the Idylls of Theocritus. But a frightful dream induces him to return to the city, traversing a dark tunnel to his native Naples, where he learns of the death of his beloved. The events are amplified by extensive imagery drawn from classic sources, by the poet's languid melancholy and by atmospheric elegiac descriptions of the lost world of Arcadia. It was the first pastoral work in Renaissance Europe to gain international success. Inspired in part by classical authors who wrote in the pastoral mode— in addition to Virgil and Theocritus including comparatively obscure recently rediscovered Latin poets Calpurnius and Nemesianus— and by Boccaccio's Ameto, Sannazaro depicts a lovelorn first-person narrator ("Sincero") wandering the countryside (Arcadia) and listening to the amorous or mournful songs of the shepherds he meets. In addition to its pastoral setting, the other great originality of the work stems from its novel structure of alternating prose and verse.

Sannazaro's Arcadia – coupled with the Portuguese author Jorge de Montemayor's Diana (Los siete libros de la Diana, 1559), itself indebted to Sannazaro's work – had a profound impact on literature throughout Europe up until the middle of the seventeenth century.

With the Arcadia behind him, Sannazaro concentrated on Latin works of classical inspiration. His Virgilian bucolic works include the five Eclogae piscatoriae, eclogues on themes connected with the Bay of Naples, which originated the genre of the piscatorial eclogue; three books of elegies; and three books of epigrams. Other works in Latin include three books of epigrams, and two short works entitled Salices [Willows] and De Morte Christi Lamentatio ["Lament on the Death of Christ"].

Sannazaro's now seldom-read sacred poem in Latin, De partu Virginis, which gained for him the name of the "Christian Virgil", was extensively rewritten in 1519–21 and appeared in print, 1526. It has been characterized as "his version of Mary's Magnificat".

Among his works in Italian and Neapolitan are the recasting of Neapolitan proverbs as Gliommeri his Farse, and the Rime (published as Sonetti et canzoni di M. Jacopo Sannazaro, Naples and Rome, 1530), where the manner of Petrarch is paramount. He also wrote some savage and caustic epigrams. Most famous is the one he wrote against Pope Alexander VI after the murder of Giovanni Borgia, eldest son of the Pope, whose body was recovered from the Tiber River—Sannazaro cheekily described Alexander VI as a "fisher of men" (playing on the Christ's words to Peter). This epigram caused immense grief to the Pope.

His portrait by Titian, painted ca 1514–18, is in the Royal Collection, part of the diplomatic "Dutch Gift" to Charles II, in 1660.

The first complete translation into English of the Arcadia is by Ralph Nash, Jacopo Sannazaro: Arcadia and Piscatorial Eclogues (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1966. Nash returned to translate into English prose and verse The Major Latin Poems of Jacopo Sannazaro, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press) 1996. The distinguished Latinist Michael C. J. Putnam has recently published the first translation of all of Sannazaro's Latin poetry.

Sannazaro has also a long-time correspondence with some Italian humanists. The beloved pen-friend was Antonio Seripando, brother of the Augustinian friar Girolamo (1493–1563).

Tomb
"Montfaucon describes the tomb of the poet Sannazaro in the church of the Olivetans, Naples, as ornamented with the statues of Apollo and Minerva, and with groups of satyrs. In the eighteenth century the ecclesiastical authorities tried to give a less profane aspect to the composition, by engraving the name of David under the Apollo, and of Judith under the Minerva".

title: Jacopo Sannazaro


text:
Giovanni Pontano

Giovanni Pontano (1426–1503), later known as Giovanni Gioviano (Ioannes Iovianus Pontanus), was a humanist and poet from Cerreto di Spoleto, in central Italy. He was the leading figure of the Accademia Pontaniana after the death of Antonio Beccadelli in 1471, and the academy took his name.

Biography
Pontano was born at Cerreto in the Duchy of Spoleto, where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civic brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His date of birth is given in various sources between 1421 and 1429; it is often given as 1426, but may have been 1429.

His mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature. Failing to recover his patrimony, he abandoned Umbria, and at the age of twenty-two established himself at Naples, which continued to be his chief place of residence during a long and prosperous career. He here began a close friendship with the distinguished scholar, Antonio Beccadelli, through whose influence he gained admission to the royal chancery of Alphonso the Magnanimous. Alphonso discerned the singular gifts of the young scholar, and made him tutor to his sons, notably Alfonso, who would reign for a single year but whose energies in the decade 1485–1495 brought the Renaissance to Naples in many fields, from poetry to villas, from portrait sculpture to fortifications. Pontano was laureated by Pope Innocent VIII on 8 January 1486. His connection with the Aragonese dynasty as political adviser, military secretary and chancellor was henceforth a close one; he passed from tutor to cultural advisor to Alfonso. The most doubtful passage in his diplomatic career is when he welcomed Charles VIII of France upon the entry of that king into Naples in 1495, thus showing that he was too ready to abandon the princes upon whose generosity his fortunes had been raised.

Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He was almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house, enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at the very height of social importance. Following the example of Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence, Pontano led and lent his name to the Accademia Pontaniana, for the meetings of learned and distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsists today.

In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana Sassone, who bore him son Lucio and three daughters before her death in 1491. Nothing distinguished Pontano more than the strength of his domestic feeling. He was passionately attached to his wife and children; and, while his friend Beccadelli signed the licentious verses of Hermaphroditus, his own Muse celebrated in liberal but loyal strains the pleasures of conjugal affection, the charm of infancy and the sorrows of a husband and a father in the loss of those he loved. Not long after the death of his first wife Pontano took in second marriage a beautiful girl of Ferrara, who is only known to us under the name of Stella.

Although he was at least sixty-five years of age at this period, his poetic faculty displayed itself with more than usual warmth and lustre in the glowing series of elegies, styled Eridanus, which he poured forth to commemorate the rapture of this union. Stella's one child, Lucilio, survived his birth but fifty days; nor did his mother long remain to comfort the scholar's old age. Pontano had already lost his only son by the first marriage; therefore his declining years were solitary. He died in 1503 at Naples, where a remarkable group of terracotta figures, life-sized and painted, still adorns his tomb in the church of Monte Oliveto. He is there represented together with his patron Alfonso and his friend Jacopo Sannazaro in adoration before the dead Christ.

As a diplomat and state official Pontano played a part of some importance in the affairs of southern Italy and in the Barons' War, the wars with the Papacy, and the expulsion and restoration of the Aragonese dynasty. But his chief claim is as a scholar. His writings divide themselves into dissertations upon such topics as the "Liberality of Princes", "Ferocity" or "Magnificence", in which he argued that architecture and great monuments were the mark of a great ruler, composed in the rhetorical style of the day, and his poems.

He was distinguished for energy of Latin style, for vigorous intellectual powers, and for the faculty, rare among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently classical yet always characteristic of the man. His prose treatises are more useful to students of manners than the similar lucubrations of Poggio Bracciolini. Yet it was principally as a Latin poet that he exhibited his full strength. An ambitious didactic composition in hexameters, entitled Urania, embodying the astronomical science of the age, and adorning this high theme with brilliant mythological episodes, won the admiration of Italy. It still remains a monument of fertile invention, exuberant facility and energetic handling of material. Not less excellent is the didactic poem on orange trees, De hortis Hesperidum. His most original compositions in verse, however, are elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics — the De conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeniae, Baiae, in which he uttered his vehemently passionate emotions with a warmth of colouring, an evident sincerity, and a truth of painting from reality which excuse their erotic freedom.

Pontano's prose and poems were printed by Aldus Manutius at Venice. Pontano's Latin translation of Claudius Ptolemy's astrological work, the Tetrabiblos (or Quadripartitum) was first printed in 1535 as part of Joachim Camerarius first portfolio edition that also included the Greek text.

title: Giovanni Pontano


text:
Talk:Clonaid

older entries
There's some uncertainty over the connections between the Raelians and Clonaid. Some reports say there are "philosophical" connections, but not direct financial or organizational links.

The sentence, "They claim that aliens taught them how to perform cloning, even though the company has no record of having successfully cloned any previous animal." seems a POV comment to me which attempts to discredit their claim with no counter evidence. If aliens had taught me to clone humans, I would expect them to do just that. If my alien friends had to walk me though lab rats first I would be less impressed with their technological superiority. I personally think UFOs are the modern era manifestation of the same phenomena that in the past was understood to be sightings of demons, in other words, it is attributable to intracranial rather than extraterrestrial events. However, I do not think we should make the article too demeaning of the views of the Raelians. --Qaz
 * So Qaz, how doe we address the situation that they haven't successfully cloned anything? -- Zoe

"They claim that aliens taught them how to perform cloning, however, they have not produced any verifiable evidence (DNA tests with samples taken under supervision for example) of having achieved the feat so the scientific community remains skeptical." This is one way you could express the same idea and it states just as strongly that there is no evidence but does not seem to talk down to the sect or whatever they call themselves. The whole article seems to have been reworked though and the offending part is gone. --Qaz

The outline of the 'whole body transplant' objectives of the Raelians is now neither in this article nor the one on the Raelians. It belongs in one or the other.

 * Just to clarify, this is currently discussed in Raelism, under the heading "Immortality through science?". I'm not sure the phrase "whole body transplant" is used there, but I'm also not sure that is a phrase the Raelians use, as opposed to one that one of us non-Raelians finds helpful. In any case, I think it is better covered in that article than this one, because it is extremely unlikely that Clonaid's scientists are anywhere near ready to begin investigating "whole body transplants". --Ryguasu 20:26 Jan 10, 2003 (UTC)

"a couple of Dutch lesbians"? Lordy, I thought somebody would have caught that.-Sv

Where is this company incorporated or registered? --zeno 06:28 Jan 24, 2003 (UTC)

What do you mean by "raëlly" ? :-)

Could we have a link to this article ?

(cur) (last) 01:52, 21 November 2006 SmackBot (Talk | contribs) m (ISBN formatting/gen fixes using AWB)
The following suggestions were generated by a semi-automatic javascript program, and might not be applicable for the article in question. You may wish to browse through User:AndyZ/Suggestions for further ideas. Thanks, Kmarinas86 01:53, 26 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Per Wikipedia:Context and Wikipedia:Manual of Style (dates), months and days of the week generally should not be linked. Years, decades, and centuries can be linked if they provide context for the article.
 * As per WP:MOS, please do not link words in headings.
 * There are a few occurrences of weasel words in this article- please observe WP:AWT. Certain phrases should specify exactly who supports, considers, believes, etc., such a view.
 * it has been
 * allege
 * might be weasel words, and should be provided with proper citations (if they already do, or are not weasel terms, please strike this comment).
 * Watch for redundancies that make the article too wordy instead of being crisp and concise. (You may wish to try Tony1's redundancy exercises.)
 * Vague terms of size often are unnecessary and redundant - “some”, “a variety/number/majority of”, “several”, “a few”, “many”, “any”, and “all”. For example, “ All pigs are pink, so we thought of a number of ways to turn them green.”
 * As done in WP:FOOTNOTE, footnotes usually are located right after a punctuation mark (as recommended by the CMS, but not mandatory), such that there is no space inbetween. For example, the sun is larger than the moon [2]. is usually written as the sun is larger than the moon.[2]
 * Please ensure that the article has gone through a thorough copyediting so that it exemplifies some of Wikipedia's best work. See also User:Tony1/How to satisfy Criterion 1a.

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The following suggestions were generated by a semi-automatic javascript program, and might not be applicable for the article in question. You may wish to browse through User:AndyZ/Suggestions for further ideas. Thanks, Kmarinas86 01:53, 26 November 2006 (UTC)
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There are
Not sure if these are bot-made edits, but the phrase "There are", "There were", etc occurs suspiciously often and damages grammar and meaning.

Compare:

"Scientists in the field, noting the high incidence of malformations and fetal deaths in animal cloning, have condemned Clonaid for premature human experimentation."

with: "There are scientists in the field, noting the high incidence of malformations and fetal deaths in animal cloning, have condemned Clonaid for premature human experimentation."

I "fixed" the grammar by adding a "who", but it's clear that the "there are" has been added (breaking the grammar), as a "weasel word" to insinuate a minority opinion rather than majority consensus.

Other places it's been added:

"There were scientists who were interviewed regarding the announcement averred skepticism regarding both the authenticity and the ethics of Clonaid's procedures. These included Lord Robert Winston[8], head of the IVF research team at London's Hammersmith Hospital, and Tanja Dominko[9] of the Oregon Regional Primate Center's monkey cloning project."

"There are scientists with experience in animal cloning who have stated that cloning has a low rate of success per implantation, and that there are cloned fetuses which are malformed or do not survive to be born. Whether this is indicative of Clonaid's success is still yet to be seen, as IVF in animals is prone to the same problems. Regardless, there are those continue to be surprised that Clonaid does not appear to be affected by these problems; either Clonaid has been extremely lucky in discovering a superior method of cloning, they claim, or the company is making false claims. Still, there are people to whom it seems odd to that Clonaid is not more forthcoming with proof of their success."

"There are Jewish, Christian and Muslim religious leaders who openly condemn Clonaid, and there are those who view it as challenging long-held definitions of human dignity and encroaching on the power of God, whom these faiths view as "creating Man in His own image.""

Ah, heck with it, the bad grammar (not to mention complete mangling of meaning) is getting to me - I'll check the history, and if these are additions, I will remove all "there are". Particularly blatant in bending the meaning is the claim that scientists only claim that "there are cloned fetuses which die" rather than "cloned fetuses die". DewiMorgan 19:32, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Update - the "there are" grammar gets worse as I go back in time. People have been fixing the grammar around the "there are"s without actually removing them. I regret I am too lazy to bother going right back into history to see who added them, though. I'm just removing them. If you want NPoV, do it right: don't just slap a set phrase before every claim, messing up the grammar and destroying meaning. DewiMorgan 19:32, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Funny typo
"Some experts noted that scientists reproductive chemistry is understood better in humans than in most animals."

This might be true, but as I've never met a non-human scientist I don't see how we would know anything about animal scientists' reproductive chemistry! Tim Vickers 22:14, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

LOL. Man. Funny and a good eye at the same time.Kmarinas86 22:21, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

I'm just wondering whether the Florida judge should link back to the RHCP guitarist..

add this
lots of pages ive been too havesaid that clonaid has anounced that the first human clone was born in 2002 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.37.109.84 (talk) 01:02, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

GA review

 * GA review (see here for criteria)

 * 1) It is reasonably well written.
 * a (prose): b (MoS):
 * 1) It is factually accurate and verifiable.
 * a (references): b (citations to reliable sources):  c (OR):
 * 1) It is broad in its coverage.
 * a (major aspects): b (focused):
 * 1) It follows the neutral point of view policy.
 * Fair representation without bias:
 * 1) It is stable.
 * No edit wars etc.:
 * 1) It is illustrated by images, where possible and appropriate.
 * a (images are tagged and non-free images have fair use rationales): b (appropriate use with suitable captions):
 * 1) Overall:
 * Pass/Fail:
 * 1) It is illustrated by images, where possible and appropriate.
 * a (images are tagged and non-free images have fair use rationales): b (appropriate use with suitable captions):
 * 1) Overall:
 * Pass/Fail:
 * 1) Overall:
 * Pass/Fail:

Details:
 * Lede - does not just summarize the article, but puts forth information that is only in the article in the lede. See WP:Lede
 * Several of the footnotes go to dead article links. I'm not sure if this is because the site requires registration or not.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The organization of the article mixes up the contents of the edits. There are paragraphs dealing with criticism of the cloning plans intermixed with paragraphs on the plans to clone which are mixed in with paragraphs on the structure and funding of the company, all of which are under a heading titled "Plans to clone a human being" The whole article could stand to be organized better and have headings that are theme based as well as chronologically organized. I'd suggest at a minimum: a section on the organization and founding of the company, a section on early plans to clone, a section on eve, a section on the testing controversy, a section on other claims of cloned humans, a section on the planned and offered products of the company, and a section on skepticism. Note that this is NOT an exhaustive list of possible sections.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Surely there is a Wikipedia article on controversies dealing with human cloning? Large chunks of the information on the ethical and moral issues of cloning should be on THAT article, and not here, where they are extraneous to the focus of this article, which should be the company.
 * I'm not entirely sure it's best to cover the controversy over the cloning in as much detail as this article does. It seems to give undue weight and violates WP:NPOV.
 * There are many many prose flow issues and grammar issues in the prose. Examples -
 * 1) Plans to clone a human being section, first paragraph, first sentence starts with "In 31 May 1997,.." Should be "On 31 May 1997...
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Same sentence, the flow is stilted. Might try "... Movement had plans to set up a company..." which flows much easier.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Same section, last sentence is awkward.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Same section, second paragraph is choppy, especially the second sentence, which starts badly "In it was the intention..", which doesn't flow well from the previous sentence, and the part "couples the chance to have genetically identical" is grammatically incorrect.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Same section, third paragraph, the sentence starting "In 19 December..." the phrasing of the last phrase is awkward.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Many places are missing 'a' or 'the' which makes the sentence choppy.One example is the second sentence of the sixth paragraph of the Plans section.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Plans section, fifth paragraph, sentence starting "A biotechnology firm..." the last phrase is missing an "in" somewhere.
 * 2) Same section, last paragraph, 'successfully attained pregnancy" is incredibly awkward and just plain odd way to phrase the concept.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * 1) Same section and paragraph, second sentence is just awkward (refers to South Korea's Ministry of Health and Welfare in Korea, which is redundant) and says "on the week of ..." which should be "in the week of"
 * 2) Alleged clone section, first paragraph, the second sentence should not be in present tense, but past
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Plans to clone a human being section, first paragraph, can you name some of the bioethicists that were opposed? And what is New Scientist, a popular science magazine or a peer reviewed journal?
 * Same section, third paragraph, who is Brigitte Boisselier? I know you mentioned she was the CEO in the lede, but the lede summarizes the article, so she needs to be named as the chief executive at her first mention in the body of the article.
 * Why the first mention? The lede clearly states here being involved with the Clonaid controversy in 2002-2003, not 1997. Otherwise the need for chronological order must be violated.'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Same section and paragraph. What year was the New Scientist article from 19 December?
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Same section, fourth paragraph. It's unclear if the couple referred to in the first paragraph is also the couple looking for the clone of their daughter. The paragraph implies it, but doesn't explicitly state that.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Same section, sixth paragraph is disjointed and jumps around. It's unclear why the insects flying through the windows are significant, the bit about the grad student working on cow ovaries, or the part about it being in an abandoned high school is significant.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Same section, seventh paragraph. No need to link March 2001, see WP:MOSNUM
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Same section, last paragraph. Needs to be reworded completely, to work on flow issues and the number of repetitions of names of people and companies. Last sentence appears tacked on.
 * Fixed'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 20:16, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

These are just some expamples. There is quite enough here to justify failing the article, which I am doing. I have not detailed every issue I saw with the article. I only got to the second section, where I looked at the issues and decided to go ahead and fail.The article would be well served with finding an outside person to copyedit the article. I suggest a thorough reorganization and going over the article to focus it on the company itself and any controversies it was involved in. Some of the data is only tangentially related to the article (like the last two sentences of the last paragraph of the Tests cancelled section, the third paragraph of that section).

If you disagree with my review, you are welcome to bring it to Good article reassessment. Ealdgyth | Talk 17:11, 18 January 2008 (UTC)

March GA
The writing and prose in this article is reasonably good, and the information is backed up by sufficient inline citations to satisfy the citation requirement. However, I can not in good conscience pass this article. There's just too much missing. First, the [[WP:LEAD|lead section is far too short, and doesn't adequately summarize the article. Secondly, if this article was about the 'History of Clonaid', it might stand a better chance at passing. But because this article is about Clonaid, the company, it is missing a lot of information about the organization of the company. There's nothing about the profits, revenues, shareholders, board of directors (governance), and other information that needs to be in an article on a corporation.

The overall organization of the article is severely lacking. There's lots of first-level headers, and many of these have long titles. I would recommend combining some of these sections to make the writing flow a little bit better together. For example, a section with a title of 'responses by scientists' with a single paragraph cited by a single source, would be better off if it's talking about the response to a specific action, and should be placed into a section dealing with that issue. Some of the sections have pretty long titles as well, and section titles like "The year before the alleged clone baby claim" should be shortened to something more clear and concise, and easier to read in the table of contents. The section entitled "Embyronic cell fusion machine" is 85% quote and 15% non-quoted text, so this is another excellent candidate for combining with another section, or expanding it.

So overall, the article meets the GA criteria with respect to the overall grammar, writing, and prose, and reference citations. But it is far too short, lacking significant content, and poorly organized that it fails to meet the criteria on the completeness and organization aspects. Dr. Cash (talk) 16:10, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Can we get some clarification?
I'm really confused here. Was the child, Eve, verified or not as being a clone? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.182.23.218 (talk) 10:24, 5 February 2010 (UTC)
 * No.'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 14:44, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

So she was not verified? Or she was found not to be a clone? 124.148.196.177 (talk) 08:01, 21 April 2010 (UTC) Sutter Cane
 * She was not verified.'' Kmarinas86 (6sin8karma) 12:24, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

I support human cloning
I just want to say that I absolutely SUPPORT human cloning. What's so unethical about it? Would this, by any chance, have anything to do with religion? Let's get past this archaic BS. We should WANT to clone humans. It should be one of our major priorities. We need to make real advances in science. I don't support animal testing though.

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title: Talk:Clonaid


text:
Talk:Christina Aguilera

Semi-protected typo fix request
Reference 27 has a typo. It is "Wexford," not "Wextford." Could someone with access kindly update? Quillseek (talk) 09:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ Maxwell King 123321 02:25, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 20 October 2023
Christina moved to Wexford, PA, a suburb of Pittsburgh not Rochester 2601:985:900:7C00:79D6:2FD7:78E6:A8CD (talk) 13:24, 20 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Cannolis (talk) 13:59, 20 October 2023 (UTC)

Endorsements
I think it’s a big oversight not to mention Christina’s endorsement and commercial ads with Nintendo. There are also many articles to support it https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/christina-aguilera-nintendo-mario-kart-1235135083/amp/ 107.145.228.1 (talk) 05:12, 7 February 2024 (UTC)

Page Image
We need a photo on this page that isn’t of a performance. Might we use one of the header images from these articles: • https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/christina-aguilera-bodyshaming-grammys-2024 • https://parade.com/news/christina-aguilera-turns-heads-nyfw-colorful-optical-illusion-dress-photo 50.225.222.90 (talk) 03:27, 17 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Those are not freely licensed images. If you can find an image licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license, or something compatible with it, then that would be a possibility, but we can't just go grabbing images off the Web. They have to have an appropriate license. Seraphimblade Talk to me 07:30, 17 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Also, I'd note that there already are two properly licensed photos of Aguilera in the article where she is not performing: this one, and this one. But of course since Aguilera is notable as a singer, it stands to reason that most of the article's images would depict her singing. Seraphimblade Talk to me 07:33, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

Eminem
No mention of the Eminem saga/controversy/feud. This is as culturally relevant and important as anything else in this article. 136.62.48.122 (talk) 12:32, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

 * It could be, you should ask Maxwell King123321, since he seems to be the main editor here. Cena332 (talk) 18:06, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

 * ✅ Maxwell King 123321 05:57, 19 June 2024 (UTC)

Lead section
Hello. I moved the “Disney Legend” sentence to the last paragraph, but was reverted. Why not consider rewriting a lead? Something like this: Christina María Aguilera (, ; born December 18, 1980) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and television personality. Regarded as an influential figure in popular music, she is known for her four-octave vocal range, melismatic singing style, and musical reinventions. She is also known for incorporating controversial themes such as feminism, sexuality, LGBT culture and the sex-positive movement into her work.

Born in New York, Aguilera appeared on The All-New Mickey Mouse Club (1993–1994) as a child, and gained international recognition for recording "Reflection", the theme for the film Mulan (1998). After signing a record deal with RCA Records, sye rose to fame in 1999 with her self-titled debut album, which included the singles "Genie in a Bottle", "What a Girl Wants", and "Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You)", all of which topped the US Billboard Hot 100. She also won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist and followed with Mi Reflejo (2000) and My Kind of Christmas (2000); with the former becoming the best-selling Latin pop album of 2000. Aguilera then evolved away from her teen idol image and released Stripped (2002), which initially had a mixed response. The album later became one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century. Zhe underwent another reinvention with the release of the critically praised old-school-music inspired Back to Basics (2006). Throughout these periods, she amassed numerous international successes, including the number-one single "Lady Marmalade", alongside "Beautiful", "Dirrty", "Can't Hold Us Down", "Fighter", "Ain't No Other Man" and "Hurt".

Throughout the early 2010s, Aguilera had a moderately successful period with the albums Bionic (2010) and Lotus (2012), with their respective lead singles, "Not Myself Tonight" and "Your Body", topping the US Dance Club Songs chart. She also starred in the 2010 film Burlesque and contributed to its soundtrack, earning a Golden Globe Award nomination. Aguilera returned to the top of the charts with a string of collaborations, including "Feel This Moment", "Say Something", and "Moves like Jagger"; with the latter reaching number-one on the Hot 100, making Aguilera one of the few artists to reach the top spot over three decades. She found critical success with her follow-up albums Liberation (2018) and Aguilera (2022). Outside of music, Aguilera acted in the TV series Nashville (2015) and in the films The Emoji Movie (2017) and Zoe (2018). She also became an ambassador for the World Food Programme (WFP), performing two concert residencies, co-founding the company Playground, and serving as a coach on the reality competition show The Voice (2011–2016).

Aguilera is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, with estimated sales of over 90 million records sold worldwide. Considered a pop culture icon and a triple threat entertainer, she has been named one of the greatest vocalists of all time by publications such as Rolling Stone and Consequence of Sound and has been hailed as one of the most successful artists to come out of the 2000s. In 2009, Billboard named her the twentieth most successful artist of the decade, and was ranked eighth on VH1's list of greatest women in music. Aguilera has since been regarded as one of the most influential Latin artists in the entertainment industry, having helped shape the "Latin explosion" in the music industry. Her accolades include five Grammy Awards, two Latin Grammy Awards, six ALMA Awards, two MTV Video Music Awards (VMA), one Billboard Music Award, one Guinness World Record, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Aguilera is also honored as a Disney Legend in 2019.

What do you think?  Scarlet Violet  💬 📝 04:10, 6 July 2024 (UTC)  Scarlet Violet  💬 📝 04:10, 6 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Why would we remove the "Voice of a Generation" title? This is sourced + many artists have their "Honorific nicknames in popular music" titles mentioned in their lead paragraphs. Also the "Disney Legend" is very fitting to be in the first paragraph considering she has done a lot of work for Disney (Reflection for both Mulan movies, Disney family singalong, Loyal Brave True, etc.)
 * Additionally, your revised version has a lot of grammatical errors including spelling and wording. "After gaining more control over her career, Aguilera sought a departure from her teen idol image and released" sounds more WP:TONE and neutral than "Aguilera then evolved away from her teen idol image". Also, the Reflection recording and RCA signing works better in one sentence considering she was signed in the same week of its release. I'm a bit confused you haven't made any changes or rewritten anything. You have either just replaced words like "Aguilera" with "Zhe" (also sp.), or removed content for no apparent reason. What major changes do you want to see to the lead and why? Maxwell King 123321 04:39, 6 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christina Aguilera