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Girolamo Fracastoro

Girolamo Fracastoro (Hieronymus Fracastorius; c. 1476/8 – 6 August 1553 ) was an Italian physician, poet, and scholar in mathematics, geography and astronomy. Fracastoro subscribed to the philosophy of atomism, and rejected appeals to hidden causes in scientific investigation. His studies of the mode of syphilis transmission are an early example of epidemiology.

Life
Fracastoro was born in Verona, Republic of Venice and educated at Padua where at the age of 19 he was appointed professor at the university. On account of his eminence in the practice of medicine, he was elected physician of the Council of Trent. A bronze statue was erected in his honor by the citizens of Padua, while his native city commemorated their great compatriot with a marble statue. He lived and practised in his hometown. In 1546 he proposed that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable tiny particles or "spores" that could transmit infection by direct contact, indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. In his writing, the "spores" of diseases may refer to chemicals rather than to any living entities.

He appears to have first used the Latin word fomes, meaning tinder, in the sense of infectious agent, in his essay on contagion De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis (On Contagion and Contagious Diseases), published in 1546: "I call fomites [from the Latin fomes, meaning "tinder"] such things as clothes, linen, etc., which although not themselves corrupt, can nevertheless foster the essential seeds of the contagion and thus cause infection." His theory remained influential for nearly three centuries, before being superseded by a fully developed germ theory.

In the same work he also wrote extensively on rabies, speculating that it might be transmitted by rabid dog saliva penetrating the skin.

The name for syphilis is derived from Fracastoro's 1530 epic poem in three books, Syphilis sive morbus gallicus ("Syphilis or The French Disease"), about a shepherd boy named Syphilus who tended the flocks of King Alcinous. Syphilus insulted Sol Pater, the god of the Sun, and was punished by him with a horrible disease. The poem suggests using mercury and "guaiaco" as a cure. In 1546 his book (De contagione, "On Contagion") also gave the first description of typhus. The collected works of Fracastoro appeared for the first time in 1555.

Alongside Syphilis, Fracastoro wrote a Biblical epic in two books, Joseph, and a collection of miscellaneous poems, Carmina. Joseph was translated under the title The Maidens Blush, or Joseph by Josuah Sylvester. A full edition and English translation of Fracastoro's poetry was prepared by James Gardner for The I Tatti Renaissance Library.

In 1546 Fracastoro described an epidemic in cattle that devastated farmers near Verona, Italy. That disease is now recognized as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), an animal illness of great antiquity.

A portrait of Fracastoro that has been in the collection of the National Gallery since 1924 has recently been attributed to the renowned Italian painter Titian. The re-attribution has led scholars to speculate that Titian may have painted the portrait in exchange for syphilis treatment.

Fracastoro's landmarks in Verona
A marble portrait statue of Girolamo Fracastoro by the Carrarese sculptor Danese Cattaneo (completed 1559) stands on an arch in the central Piazza dei Signori of Verona, near the monument to Dante Alighieri. On its base is the inscription: "HIER FRACASTORIO \ PAULLI PHILIPPI F \ EX PUBLICA AUCTORITATE \ DICATA \ AN SAL MDLIX". According to a popular legend the stone ball Fracastoro holds in his right hand, symbolizing the world, will fall on the first honorable person to walk under the arch. Over the centuries many people have passed every day under the arch, but the ball remains in place.

Fracastoro's landmarks on the Moon
The lunar crater Fracastorius is named after him.

Geology and fossils
The following is a discussion of the role of Fracastoro in contemporaneous debates about the origin and nature of marine fossils discovered in excavations in Verona during 1517, as quoted from Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology: It was not till the earlier part of the sixteenth century that geological phenomena began to attract the attention of the Christian nations. At that period a very animated controversy sprung up in Italy, concerning the true nature and origin of marine shells, and other organized fossils found abundantly in the strata of the peninsula. The excavations made in 1517, for repairing the city of Verona, brought to light a multitude of curious petrifactions, and furnished matter for speculation to different authors, and among the rest to Fracastoro, who declared his opinion, that fossil shells had all belonged to living animals, which had formerly lived and multiplied, where their exuviæ are now found. He exposed the absurdity of having recourse to a certain 'plastic force,' which it was said had the power to fashion stones into organic forms; and, with no less cogent arguments, demonstrated the futility of attributing the situation of the shells in question to the Mosaic deluge, a theory obstinately defended by some. That inundation, he observed, was too transient, it consisted principally of fluviatile waters; and if it had transported shells to great distances, must have strewed them over the surface, not buried them at vast depths in the interior of mountains. His clear exposition of the evidence would have terminated the discussion forever, if the passions of mankind had not been enlisted in the dispute; and even though doubts should for a time have remained in some minds, they would speedily have been removed by the fresh information obtained almost immediately afterwards, respecting the structure of fossil remains, and of their living analogues. The clear and philosophical views of Fracastoro were disregarded, and the talent and argumentative powers of the learned were doomed for three centuries to be wasted in the discussion of these two simple and preliminary questions: first, whether fossil remains had ever belonged to living creatures; and secondly, whether, if this be admitted, all the phenomena could be explained by the Noachian deluge.

Seeds of disease theory
19th century bacteriologists studied Fracastoro’s works, and his "seeds of disease" theory as a predecessor to germ theory.

Homocentric Spheres
Fracastoro further developed Eudoxus' Astronomical model of Homocentric or Concentric spheres in an attempt to bring it back to the scientific sphere. It was criticised by Christopher Clavius, since Homocentric Spheres could not account for the change in brightness of the planets over the course of a year.

Works

 * Syphilis, sive de morbo Gallico (1530)
 * Di Vino Temperatura (1534)
 * Homocentricorum sive de Stellis, de Causis Criticorum Dierum Libellus (1535)
 * Homocentrica (1538)
 * Naugerius sive de Poetica Dialogus (c. 1540)
 * De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis (1546)
 * Syphilis sive  de  morbo  gallico (1539, poem)

title: Girolamo Fracastoro


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Fracastorius

Fracastorius is a genus of Asian seed bugs in the tribe Homoeocerini, erected by William Lucas Distant in 1901. It contains the species Fracastorius cornutus Distant, 1902 originally recorded from Myanmar.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fracastorius


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Talk:Girolamo Fracastoro

Work on the interpretation of the fossil history
The Timetables of Science [ed. Hellemans and Bunch, 1988] make mention of Fracastoro's work on interpreting fossils as the remains of actual organisms that as well could not have all been deposited during the Christian event of the great flood. The current history of the interpretation of fossils is not filled out to any great extent currently on the Wikipedia, and not sure how Fracastoro's contribution fits in.

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Tugboat hitch

The Tugboat hitch (a.k.a. Backhanded mooring hitch or Lighterman's Hitch) is a knot ideal for heavy towing, or making fast to a post, bollard, or winch. It is easy to release, even under great load.

Tying
To tie, take a single turn or a round turn around the post. Pass a bight under the standing part, then drop the bight over the top of the post. Then make a bight in the rope on the other side of the standing part and drop it over the post. Note that in each placement of a bight over the post, the end's side of the bight should lead to the side away from the standing part—this will make casting off easier. Continue this repetition as necessary until secure (usually three bights). Finish by half-hitching a bight around the standing part or a round turn about the post. With heavy loads, it is important to have made enough bights and turns to reduce force on the final turns or a hitch—otherwise, it will be difficult to untie (a hitch) or may slip.

title: Tugboat hitch


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Talk:XScale

Miscellany
Very first paragraph mentions v5TE instruction set architecture but there is no x-ref on Wiki. Would be nice to elaborate. --Todd 20:32, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Was the StrongARM designed sololy by Digital, or was Acorn/ARM involved in the development process?

 * I was under the impression that it was designed as a joint venture.

Furthermore, I also thought that the XScale was quite a re-design, compared to the SA-1110. For example, unmodified StrongArm code runs about as fast on a 400Mhz XScale as the 206MHz SA-1110. (That's what they claim about the Sharp Zaurus SL-5500 vs 5600.) The XScale is, however, designed to be able to run at a much higher clock frequency. They have been hinting at new versions approaching 1GHz, consuming around 1W since 2000, but I haven't seen any hard evidence for this yet. - Popup 15:53, 2004 Feb 4 (UTC)

I thought it was Digitals version of Arms core modified to closely suit their process technology

Though ARM consulted on the design, the actual design work was done solely by Digital/DEC. SA-1 core was a grounds-up design within Digital, while SA-2 core is a grounds-up design within Intel. Dyl 14:24, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

Need to add details ofthe Intel IXP processors(network processors and backplane processors) which use an xscale core but also have various hardware acceleration units.Maybe seperate pages ? Some using the MSA architecture jointly developed between Intel and Analog devices. Analog use MSA in their blackfin dsp chips.

The IXP processors run at up to 1.2GHz. alxx 13:12, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

The processor list is very out of date, and somewhat misleading.
 * I have begun adding information about the other processor families, but it still neds some work. Perhaps somebody with some knowledge of these chips could add more info. Judzillah 00:06, 12 April 2006 (UTC)

Out of date? Please give more detailed info. (Mar 25/06)

I so want to see mention of the bugginess of Intel's XScale chips. Like how the PXA250 was notable for sheer bugginess, and how the PXA255 errata falsely claimed many of those bugs were fixed; and design goofage. But I suppose that doesn't belong in the body of the article. It was a real PITA in terms of getting software to work there, though. 69.226.236.175 (talk) 08:34, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

Wireless MMX
There are some differences in the XScale MMX implementation compared to IA86 MMX worth mentioning, most notably that the destination register need not be one of the source registers, ie:

// XScale: mm0 = mm1 + mm2; // IA86: mm0 = mm1; mm0 += mm2; MX44 12:37, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

Sale of XScale business to Marvell
From http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/20060627corp.htm it looks like the "sale of XScale business to Marvell" covers only the communications and application processor business (i.e. PXA). There's no mention of the IXP business going the same way. The way this is described in the article (and in the ARM architecture article) would suggest it is.

Clarification needed. Ptoboley 12:57, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

I agree - the first paragraph states that just the PXA unit was sold, but then at the end of the article, it says the entire XScale unit was sold. I'm going to edit the end as the PXA is more accurate, and supply citation. Done, but I couldn't figure out how to get the citation to work. Please help. informedbanker 13:55, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

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History of Serbia

The history of Serbia covers the historical development of Serbia and of its predecessor states, from the Early Stone Age to the present state, as well as that of the Serbian people and of the areas they ruled historically. Serbian habitation and rule has varied much through the ages, and as a result the history of Serbia is similarly elastic in what it includes.

There are multiple hypotheses about the Serbian origin, which remains uncertain.

After Early Slavs first appeared in the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, they mixed with local Byzantine subjects, descendants of Paleo-Balkan tribes, such as the Thracian, Dacian, Roman, Illyrian and former Roman colonists. The First Serbian Principality was established in the 8th century by the Vlastimirovići dynasty ruling over modern-day Montenegro, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Serbia. It evolved into a Grand Principality by the 11th century, and in 1217 the Kingdom and national church (Serbian Orthodox Church) were established, under the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1345 the Serbian Empire was established, spanning most of the Balkan peninsula. In 1540 Serbia became a part of the Ottoman Empire.

A significant number of Serbs migrated north to the Kingdom of Hungary, forming what would later become Serbian Vojvodina. Serbian revolution against Ottoman rule in 1817 marked the birth of the Principality of Serbia, which achieved de facto independence in 1867 and gained full recognition by the Great Powers in the Berlin Congress of 1878. As a victor in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, Serbia regained Vardar Macedonia, Kosovo and Metohija and Raška (Old Serbia). In late 1918, with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian empire, Serbia was expanded to include regions of the former Serbian Vojvodina. Serbia was united with other Austro-Hungarian provinces into a pan-Slavic State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918 and the country was named the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Serbia achieved its current borders at the end of World War II, when it became a federal unit within the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (proclaimed in November 1945). After the dissolution of Yugoslavia in a series of wars in the 1990s, Serbia once again became an independent state on 5 June 2006, following the breakup of a short-lived union with Montenegro.

Prehistory
The Paleo-Balkan tribes formed in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. The northernmost Ancient Macedonian city was in south Serbia (Kale-Krševica). The Celtic Scordisci tribe conquered most of Serbia in 279 BC, building many forts throughout the region. The Roman Empire conquered the region in the span of 2nd century BC – 1st century AD. The Romans continued the expansion of Singidunum (modern capital Belgrade), Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) and Naissus (Niš), among other centres, and a few remnants of monuments survive, such as Via Militaris, Trajan's Bridge, Diana Fortress, Felix Romuliana (UNESCO), etc. Northern parts were included in Moesia Superior, Dacia Remesiana and Dacia Mediterranea.

The Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures existed in or near Belgrade and dominated the Balkans (as well as parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor) about 8,500 years ago. Some scholars believe that the prehistoric Vinča signs represent one of the earliest known forms of writing systems (dating to 6000–4000 BC).

Serbia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many foreign armies. The Thracians dominated Serbia before the Illyrian migration in the southwest. Greeks colonized the south in the 4th century BC, the northernmost point of the empire of Alexander the Great being the town of Kale.

Roman era
The Romans conquered parts of modern-day Serbia in the 2nd century BC, in 167 BC when conquering the West, establishing the province of Illyricum and the rest of Central Serbia in 75 BC, establishing the province of Moesia. Srem was conquered by 9 BC and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the Trajan's Dacian Wars.

Contemporary Serbia comprises the classical regions of Moesia, Pannonia, parts of Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. The northern Serbian city of Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) was among the top 4 cities of the late Roman Empire, serving as its capital during the Tetrarchy. The chief towns of Upper Moesia were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (sometimes called municipium Aelium; modern Kostolac), Remesiana (Bela Palanka)

Seventeen Roman Emperors were born in present-day Serbia. Belgrade is believed to have been torn by 140 wars since Roman times.

By the early 6th century South Slavs, present throughout the Byzantine Empire in large numbers, merged with the native population (Celts, Dacians, Illyrians, Scythians, Thracians) and assimilated them, forming the base of the ethnogenesis of modern Serbs.

Middle Ages

The Serbs in the Byzantine world lived in the so-called Slav lands, lands initially out of Byzantine control and independent. The Vlastimirović dynasty established the Serbian Principality ca. 780. In 822, Frankish annalists recorded that for the Serbs "is said to be holding the large part of Dalmatia". Christianization of Serbs, initiated in the 7th century, was a gradual process, finalized by the middle of the 9th century. In the mid-10th century, Serbian state stretched between the shores of the Adriatic Sea, the Neretva, the Sava, the Morava, and Skadar. Ethnic identity of local populations remains a matter of historiographical disputes.

In 924, the Serbs ambushed and defeated a small Bulgarian army, provoking a major retaliatory campaign that ended with Bulgaria's annexation of Serbia at the end of that year. Threatened by an alliance between the Byzantines and the Serbian state of Duklja, in 997 the Bulgarian tsar Samuel defeated and captured its Prince Jovan Vladimir and took control of the Serb lands again. The state disintegrated after the death of the last known Vlastimirid ruler; the Byzantines annexed the region and held it for a century, until 1040 when the Serbs under the leadership of what would become the Vojislavljević dynasty revolted in Duklja, a maritime region. In 1091, the Vukanović dynasty established the Serbian Grand Principality, based in Raška (Rascia).

In 1166, Stefan Nemanja assumed the throne, marking the beginning of a prospering Serbia, henceforth under the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty. Nemanja's son Rastko ( posth. Saint Sava), gained autocephaly for the Serbian Church in 1219 and authored the oldest known constitution, and at the same time Stefan the First-Crowned established the Serbian Kingdom in 1217. Medieval Serbia reached its peak during the reign of Stefan Dušan (1331–1355), who took advantage of the Byzantine civil war and doubled the size of the state by conquering territories to the south and east at the expense of Byzantium, reaching as far as the Peloponnese, also being crowned Emperor of Serbs and Greeks in 1346.

The Battle of Kosovo against the rising Ottoman Empire in 1389 marks a turning point and is considered as a beginning of the fall of the medieval Serbian state. The magnate families Lazarević and Branković ruled the suzerain Serbian Despotate afterwards (in the 15th and 16th centuries). After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and the Siege of Belgrade, the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459 following the siege of the provisional capital of Smederevo. By 1455, central Serbia was completely conquered by the Ottoman Empire. After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, opening the way for Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Délvidék (today Vojvodina), which was inhabited by Serbs and Hungarians, resisted Ottoman rule until well into the 16th century.

Early modern history

During the Early Modern period, from the Ottoman conquest of Serbia in the second half of 15th century, up to the beginning of the Serbian Revolution in 1804, several Habsburg–Ottoman wars were fought on the territory of modern Serbia. The era includes successive periods of Ottoman and Habsburg rule in various parts of Serbia.

Ottoman rule

Medieval Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Zeta lasted until 1463, 1483, and 1496 respectively. A Serbian principality was restored a few years after the fall of the Serbian Despotate by the Branković dynasty in what is now Vojvodina. It was ruled by exiled Serbian despots and nobles, existing until 1540 as a Hungarian vassal, when it fell to the Ottomans. The residence of the despots was Kupinik (modern Kupinovo). The Despots were: Vuk Grgurević-Branković (1471–1485), Đorđe Branković (1486–1496), Jovan Branković (1496–1502), Ivaniš Berislavić (1504–1514), Stjepan Berislavić (1520–1535), Radič Božić (1527–1528, Zapolya faction's pretender), and Pavle Bakić (1537). Stevan Berislavić moved in 1522 to Slavonia, since Kupinik was seized by the Ottoman forces.

Many Serbs were recruited during the devshirme system, a form of slavery in the Ottoman Empire, in which boys from Balkan Christian families were forcibly converted to Islam and trained for infantry units of the Ottoman army known as the Janissaries.

From the 14th century onward an increasing number of Serbs began migrating to the north to the region today known as Vojvodina, which was under the rule of the Kingdom of Hungary in that time. The Hungarian kings encouraged the immigration of Serbs to the kingdom, and hired many of them as soldiers and border guards. During the struggle between the Ottoman Empire and Hungary, this Serb population performed an attempt of the restoration of the Serbian state. In the Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1526, Ottoman Empire defeated the Hungarian army. Soon after the battle, the leader of Serbian mercenaries in Hungary, Jovan Nenad, established his rule in what is now Vojvodina. He created an ephemeral independent state, with Subotica as its capital. King John of Hungary defeated Jovan Nenad in 1527.

European powers, and Austria in particular, fought many wars against the Ottoman Empire, sometimes with assistance from Serbs. During the Austrian–Ottoman War (1593–1606), in 1594, some Serbs participated in an uprising in Banat—the Pannonian part of the Ottoman Empire, and Sultan Murad III retaliated by burning the relics of St. Sava. Austria established troops in Herzegovina but when peace was signed by Ottoman Empire and Austria, Austria abandoned to Ottoman vengeance. This sequence of events became customary for the centuries that followed.

During the Great War (1683–90) between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League—created with the sponsorship of the Pope and including Austria, Poland and Venice—these three powers as means of divide and conquer strategy, incited including Serbs to rebel against the Ottoman authorities and soon uprisings and terrorism spread throughout the western Balkans: from Montenegro and the Dalmatian Coast to the Danube basin and Old Serbia (Macedonia, Raška, Kosovo and Metohija). However, when the Austrians started to pull out of the Ottoman region, they invited Austrian-loyal people to come north with them into Hungarian territories. Having to choose between Ottoman reprisal or living in Hungary, some Serbs abandoned their homesteads and headed north led by patriarch Arsenije Čarnojević.

Another important episode in the history of the region took place in 1716–18, when the territories ranging from Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina to Belgrade and the Danube basin became the battleground for a new Austria-Ottoman war launched by Prince Eugene of Savoy. Some Serbs sided once again with Austria. After a peace treaty was signed in Požarevac, the Ottomans lost all its possessions in the Danube basin, as well as today's northern Serbia and northern Bosnia, parts of Dalmatia and the Peloponnesus. Hacı Mustafa Pasha was the military governor of Belgrade from 1793 to 1801. Unlike most senior Ottoman appointees he was not a member of the wealthy and militarily powerful ayan class of local notables. Instead he was a career bureaucrat who feuded with the ayan. Sultan Selim III (r. 1789–1807) wanted to recentralize provincial governance but this experiment turned out badly because of the alliance between the ayan and the corrupt janissaries.

The last Austrian-Ottoman war was in 1788–91, when the Austrians urged the Christians in Bosnia and Serbia to rebel. No wars were fought afterwards until the 20th century that marked the fall of both Austrian and Ottoman empires, staged together by the European powers just after World War I.

Serbian Revolution and Autonomous Principality (1804–1878)

David MacKenzie explores the Serbian folk tradition of epic martial poetry dating from the 14th century that commemorates a Serbian defeat at the Battle of Kosovo (1389). It stimulated widespread resistance to Ottoman rule and promoted the emergence of a Serbian national consciousness between 1804 and 1815. Heroism, not accuracy, was the message.

Serbia gained its autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in two uprisings in 1804 (led by Đorđe Petrović – Karađorđe) and 1815 (led by Miloš Obrenović), although Turkish troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867. In 1817 the Principality of Serbia was granted de facto independence from the Ottoman Empire. High officials in the Austro-Hungarian Empire lobbied for Ottoman approval of the liberal 1869 constitution for Serbia, which depended on the Porte for final approval. Vienna's strategy was that a liberal political system in Serbia would divert its impulse to foment nationalist unrest within its neighbors, and also delay its efforts to gain territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire.

The Serbs launched not only a national revolution but a social one as well. In the process of national unity, Serbia underwent a degree of modernization. The successes included freedom from foreign rule, acquisition of land by the peasants, Belgrade becoming the political and cultural center, and the diffusion of adoption of modern European norms and economic institutions. Less success was reflected in the long delays and disappointments, continued deep poverty, and a growing chasm between the modernizing urban elite and the traditionalistic peasantry.

Principality/Kingdom of Serbia (1878–1918)

The Autonomous Principality became an internationally recognized independent country following the Russo-Turkish War in 1878. Serbia remained a principality or kneževina (knjaževina) until 1882, when it became a Kingdom, during which the internal politics revolved largely around dynastic rivalry between the Obrenović and Karađorđević families.

This period was marked by the alternation of two dynasties descending from Đorđe Petrović—Karađorđe, leader of the First Serbian Uprising, and Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising. Further development of Serbia was characterized by general progress in economy, culture and arts, primarily owing to a wise state policy of sending young people to European capitals to get an education. They all brought back a new spirit and a new system of values. One of the external manifestations of the transformation that the former Turkish province was going through was the proclamation of the Province of Serbia in 1882.

During the Revolutions of 1848 the Serbs in the Austrian Empire proclaimed a Serbian autonomous province known as Serbian Vojvodina. By a decision of the Austrian emperor, in November 1849 this province was transformed into the Austrian crown land known as the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat (Dukedom of Serbia and Tamiš Banat). Against the will of the Serbs, the province was abolished in 1860, but the Serbs from the region gained another opportunity to achieve their political demands in 1918. Today this region is known as Vojvodina.

In 1885 Serbia protested against the unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia and attacked Bulgaria. This is known as the Serbo-Bulgarian War. Despite better weapons and skilled commanders, Serbia lost the war.

In the second half of 19th century Serbia gained statehood as the Kingdom of Serbia. It thus became part of the constellation of European states and the first political parties were founded, giving new momentum to political life. The May Coup in 1903, bringing Karađorđe's grandson to the throne with the title of King Peter I, opened the way for parliamentary democracy in Serbia. Having received a European education this liberal king translated ‘On Liberty’ by John Stuart Mill and gave his country a democratic constitution. It initiated a period of parliamentary government and political freedom interrupted by the outbreak of the liberation wars.

Serbia had several national goals. The large number of Serbs living in Bosnia looked to Serbia as the focus of their nationalism, but they were ruled by the Germans of the Austrian Empire. Austria's annexation of Bosnia in 1908 deeply alienated the Serbian peoples. Plotters swore revenge, which they achieved in 1914 by assassination of the Austrian heir. Serbian intellectuals dreamed of a South Slavic state—which in the 1920s became Yugoslavia.

Serbia was landlocked and strongly felt the need for access to the Mediterranean, preferably through the Adriatic Sea. Austria worked hard to block Serbian access to the sea, for example by helping with the creation of Albania in 1912. Montenegro, Serbia's only real ally, did have a small port but Austrian territory intervened, blocking access until Serbia acquired Novi Pazar and part of Macedonia from Turkey in 1913. To the south Bulgaria blocked Serbian access to the Aegean Sea.

Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League and went to war with the Ottomans in 1912–13. They won decisively and expelled that Empire from almost all of the Balkans. The main remaining foe was Austria, which strongly rejected Pan-Slavism and Serbian nationalism and was ready to make war to end those threats. Ethnic nationalism would doom the multicultural Austro-Hungarian Empire. Expansion of Serbia would block Austrian and German aspirations for direct rail connections to Constantinople and the Middle East. Serbia relied primarily on Russia for Great Power support but Russia was very hesitant at first to support Pan-Slavism, and counselled caution. However, in 1914 it reversed positions and promised military support to Serbia.

Serbia in World War I (1914–1918)

Despite its small size and population of 4.6 million, Serbia had the most effective manpower mobilization of the war, and had a highly professional officer corps. It called 350,000 men to arms, of whom 185,000 were in combat units. However the casualties and expenditure of munitions in the Balkan Wars left Serbia depleted and dependent on France for supplies. Austria invaded twice in 1914 and was turned back.

The 28 June 1914 assassination of Austrian Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, by Gavrilo Princip, a member of Young Bosnia and one of seven assassins, served as a pretext for the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, marking the beginning of World War I, despite Serbia's acceptance three days earlier of nearly all of Austria-Hungary's demands. The Austro-Hungarian army invaded Serbia capturing the capital Belgrade on 2 December 1914, however the Serbian Army successfully defended the country, won several victories, and on 15 December 1914 recaptured Belgrade.

In late 1915, however, German generals were given control and invaded Serbia with Austrian and Bulgarian forces. The Serbian army retreated across the Albanian mountain ranges to the Adriatic Sea by January 1916. Only 70,000 made it through to be evacuated to Greece by Italian, French and British naval forces. Serbia became an occupied land. Disease was rampant but the Austrians were pragmatic and paid well for food supplies, so conditions were not harsh. Instead Austria tried to depoliticize Serbia, to minimize violence, and to integrate the country into the Empire. Nevertheless, the harshness of the military occupation and the Austrian military atrocities committed in Serbia worked against these political aims and Serbian nationalism remained defiant and many young men slipped out to help rebuild the Serbian army in exile.

The Entente promised the territories of Srem, Bačka, Baranja, eastern Slavonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and eastern Dalmatia to Serbia as a reward after the war. Having recuperated on Corfu the Serbian Army returned to combat on the Thessaloniki front together with other Entente forces. Serbia suffered 1,264,000 casualties—28% of its population of 4.6 million, which also represented 58% of its male population—a loss from which it never fully recovered. Serbia suffered the biggest casualty rate in World War I.

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes/Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)
A successful Allied offensive in September 1918 secured first Bulgaria's surrender and then the liberation of the occupied Serbian territories (November 1918). On 25 November, the Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci, and other nations of Vojvodina in Novi Sad voted to join the region to Serbia. Also, on 29 November the National Assembly of Montenegro voted for union with Serbia, and two days later an assembly of leaders of Austria–Hungary's southern Slav regions voted to join the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.

With the end of World War I and the collapse of both the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires the conditions were met for proclaiming the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in December 1918. The Yugoslav ideal had long been cultivated by the intellectual circles of the three nations that gave the name to the country, but the international constellation of political forces and interests did not permit its implementation until then. However, after the war, idealist intellectuals gave way to politicians, and the most influential Croatian politicians opposed the new state right from the start.

In the early 1920s the Yugoslav government of Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić used police pressure over voters and ethnic minorities, confiscation of opposition pamphlets and other measures of election rigging to keep the opposition, and mainly the Croatian Peasant Party and its allies in minority in Yugoslav parliament. Pašić believed that Yugoslavia should be as centralized as possible, creating in place of distinct regional governments and identities a Greater Serbian national concept of concentrated power in the hands of Belgrade.

However, what pushed the Kingdom into crisis was when a Serb representative opened fire on the opposition benches in the Parliament, killing two outright and mortally wounding the leader of the Croatian Peasants Party, Stjepan Radić in 1928.

Taking advantage of the resulting crisis, King Alexander I banned national political parties in 1929, assumed executive power, and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. However, the balance of power changed in international relations: in Italy and Germany, Fascists and Nazis rose to power, and Joseph Stalin became the absolute ruler in the Soviet Union. None of these three states favored the policy pursued by Alexander I. The first two wanted to revise the international treaties signed after World War I, and the Soviets were determined to regain their positions in Europe and pursue a more active international policy. Yugoslavia was an obstacle for these plans, and King Aleksandar I was the pillar of the Yugoslav policy.

During an official visit to France in 1934, the king was assassinated in Marseille by a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – an extreme nationalist organization in Bulgaria that had plans to annex territories along the eastern and southern Yugoslav border—with the cooperation of the Ustaše – a Croatian fascist separatist organization. The international political scene in the late 1930s was marked by growing intolerance between the principal figures, by the aggressive attitude of the totalitarian regimes. Croatian leader Vladko Maček and his party managed to extort the creation of the Croatian banovina (administrative province) in 1939. The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations.

Serbia in World War II (1941–1944)

In the run up to World War II, Prince Regent Paul signed a treaty with Hitler (as did Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary). However, a popular uprising amongst the people rejected this agreement and Prince Regent Paul was sent to exile. King Peter II assumed full royal duty.

Thus the beginning of the 1940s, Yugoslavia found itself surrounded by hostile countries. Except for Greece, all other neighboring countries had signed agreements with either Germany or Italy. Adolf Hitler was strongly pressuring Yugoslavia to join the Axis powers. The government was even prepared to reach a compromise with him, but the spirit in the country was completely different. Public demonstrations against Nazism prompted a brutal reaction.

On 6 April 1941 Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria invaded Yugoslavia, and the Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade for 3 days killing 17,000 people. Belgrade was captured by German forces on 13 April 1941, and four days later on 17 April 1941 the Royal Yugoslavian Army surrendered unconditionally. Acting upon advice and with a heavy heart, King Peter II left the country to seek Allied support. He was greeted as the hero who dared oppose Hitler. The Royal Yugoslav Government, the only legal body of Yugoslavia, continued to work in London. The occupying Axis powers then divided Yugoslavia up. The western parts of the country together with Bosnia and Herzegovina were turned into a Nazi puppet state called the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and ruled by the Ustashe. Most of the territory of modern Serbia was occupied by the German army and was governed by the German Military Administration in Serbia. The governed territory was called Serbia or the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, and, besides German military administrators, it was also governed by the Serbian puppet governments first under Milan Aćimović and then under Serbian army general Milan Nedić. The northern territories were annexed by Hungary, and eastern and southern territories by Bulgaria. Kosovo and Metohija were mostly annexed by Albania which was under the sponsorship of fascist Italy. Montenegro also lost territories to Albania and was then occupied by Italian troops. Slovenia was divided between Germany and Italy, which also seized the islands in the Adriatic.

In Serbia, the German occupation authorities organized several concentration camps for Jews, members of the communist Partisan resistance movement, and Chetniks royalist resistance movement.

The biggest concentration camps were Banjica and Sajmište near Belgrade, where, according to the most conservative estimates, around 40,000 Jews were killed. In all those camps, some 90 percent of the Serbian Jewish population perished. In the Bačka region annexed by Hungary, numerous Serbs and Jews were killed in 1942 raid by the Hungarian authorities. The persecutions against ethnic Serb population also occurred in the region of Syrmia, which was controlled by the Independent State of Croatia and in the region of Banat, which was under direct German control.

The ruthless attitude of the German occupation forces and the genocidal policy of the Croatian Ustaša regime, aimed at Serbs, Jews, Roma and anti-Ustaša Croats, created a strong anti-fascist resistance in the NDH. Many Croats and other nationalities stood up against the genocide and the Nazis. Many joined the Partisan forces created by the Communist Party (National Liberation Army headed by Josip Broz Tito) in the liberation and the revolutionary war against Nazis and all the others who were against communism.

During this war and after it, the Partisans killed many civilians who did not support their Communist ideals. The Communists shot people without trials, or following politically and ideologically motivated courts, such as in the case of Draža Mihailović, leader of the Chetniks. The Agricultural Reform conducted after the war meant that peasants had to give away most of their wheat, grain, and cattle to the state, or face serious imprisonment. Land and property were confiscated on a massive scale. Many people also lost civil rights and their names were smeared. Also, a censorship was enforced on all levels of the society and media, and a cult of Tito was created in the media.

On 20 October 1944 the Soviet Red Army liberated Belgrade and by the end of 1944 all Serbia was free from German control. Yugoslavia was among the countries that had the greatest losses in the war: 1,700,000 (10.8% of the population) people were killed and national damages were estimated at US$9.1 billion according to the prices of that period.

Serbia as a federal unit in Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992)

After the war, Josip Broz Tito became the first president of the new—socialist—Yugoslavia which he ruled through the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Once a predominantly agricultural country, Yugoslavia was transformed into a mid-range industrial country, and acquired an international political reputation by supporting the decolonization process and by assuming a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement. Socialist Yugoslavia was established as a federal state comprising six republics, from north to south: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia and two autonomous regions within Serbia – Vojvodina and Kosovo.

The basic motto of Tito's Yugoslavia was "brotherhood and unity", workers' self-management, state-owned property with minimal privately owned property. In the beginning, the country copied the Soviet model, but after the 1948 split with the Soviet Union, it turned more towards the West. Eventually, it created its own brand of socialism, with aspects of a market economy, and milked both the East and the West for significant financial loans.

The 1974 constitution produced a significantly less centralized federation, increasing the autonomy of Yugoslavia's republics as well as the autonomous provinces of Serbia.

When Tito died on 4 May 1980, he was succeeded by a presidency that rotated annually between the six Republics and two Autonomous regions. This led to a fatal weakening of central power and ties between the republics. During the 1980s the republics pursued significantly different economic policies, with separatist- oriented Slovenia and Croatia allowing significant market-based reforms, while Serbia kept to its existing program of state ownership. This, too, was a cause of tension between north and south, as Slovenia in particular experienced a period of strong growth. Prior to the war, inflation skyrocketed. Then, under Prime Minister Ante Marković, things began to improve. Economic reforms had opened up the country, the living standard was at its peak, capitalism seemed to have entered the country and nobody thought that just a year later the first gunshots would be fired.

Within a year of Tito's death the first cracks began to show when in the spring of 1981 when on 11 March, 26 March, and 31 March to 2 April an escalating series of increasingly large protests spread from the campus of the University of Pristina to the streets of several cities in Kosovo demanding the upgrading of the Autonomous Region to the status of full Republic – these protests were violently suppressed by the Police with many deaths, and a state of emergency was declared. Serbian concerns about the treatment of Serb minorities in other republics and particularly in Kosovo were exacerbated by the SANU Memorandum, drawn up by the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and published in Sep 1986 byVečernje novosti, which claimed that Serbs were suffering a genocide at the hands of the Kosovo Albanian majority. Slobodan Milošević leader of the League of Communists of Serbia since May 1986, became the champion of the Serbian Nationalists when on 24 Apr 1987 he visited Kosovo Polje and, after local Serbs had clashed with the police declared, 'No one has the right to beat you'.

Slobodan Milošević became the most powerful politician in Serbia on 25 Sep 1987 when he defeated and humiliated his former mentor Serbian President Ivan Stambolić, during the televised 8th Session of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Serbia. Milosevic governed Serbia from his position as Chairman of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Serbia until 8 May 1989 when he assumed the Presidency of Serbia. Milosevic supporters gained control of three other constituent parts of Yugoslavia in what became known as the Anti-bureaucratic revolution, Vojvodina on 6 Oct 1988, Kosovo on 17 Nov 1988, and Montenegro on 11 Jan 1989. On 25 Nov 1988 the Yugoslav National Assembly granted Serbia the right to change its constitution. In March 1989 this was done, removing autonomy from Vojvodina and Kosovo, which caused great unrest in Kosovo On 28 June 1989 Slobodan Milošević made what became known as the Gazimestan Speech which was the centrepiece of a day-long event, attended by an estimated one million Serbs, to mark the 600th anniversary of the Serbian defeat at the Battle of Kosovo by the Ottoman Empire. In this speech Milošević's reference to the possibility of "armed battles" in the future of Serbia's national development was seen by many as presaging the collapse of Yugoslavia and the bloodshed of the Yugoslav Wars.

On 23 Jan 1990 at its 14th Congress the Communist League of Yugoslavia voted to remove its monopoly on political power, but the same day effectively ceased to exist as a national party when the League of Communists of Slovenia walked out after Slobodan Milošević blocked all their reformist proposals. On 27 July 1990 Milošević merged the League of Communists of Serbia with several smaller communist front parties to form the Socialist Party of Serbia. A new Constitution was drawn up and came into force on 28 Sep 1990 transforming the one-party Socialist Republic of Serbia into a multi-party Republic of Serbia The first multi-party elections were held on 9 and 23 December 1990 and in what became the pattern for the next several elections the Socialist Party of Serbia won, as Milošević maintained firm control over the state media and opposition parties had little access. On 9 March 1991, a mass rally on the streets of Belgrade turned into a riot with vicious clashes between the protesters and police. It was organized by Vuk Drašković's Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO). Two people died in the ensuing violence.

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia broke up in 1991/1992 in a series of wars following the independence declarations of Slovenia and Croatia on 25 Jun 1991, and Bosnia and Herzegovina on 5 Mar 1992. Macedonia left the federation peacefully on 25 Sep 1991. The Yugoslav People's Army(JNA) tried and failed to prevent the separation of Slovenia in the Ten Day War 26 Jun – 6 Jul 1991 and completely withdrew by 26 Oct 1991. The JNA attempted and failed to prevent the separation of Croatia during the first phase of the Croatian War of Independence from 27 Jun 1991 until the truce of Jan 1992, but did successfully enable the Croatian Serb minority to establish the Republic of Serb Krajina which looked to Serbia for support. The biggest battle of this war was the Siege of Vukovar. Following the start of the Bosnian War on 1 April 1992 the JNA officially withdrew all its forces from Croatia and Bosnia in May 1992 and was formally dissolved on 20 May 1992 – its remnant forces being taken over by the new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006)
The two remaining republics of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, formed on 28 April 1992 a new federation named Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Milošević years
Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) was established in 1992 as a federation. In 2003, it was reconstituted as a political union called the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (SCG).

From 24 March to 10 June 1999, NATO undertook an aerial bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia following a violent crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo. After the signing of the Kumanovo Agreement and withdrawal of Yugoslav troops in June, Kosovo was made a United Nations protectorate, under the UN Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) based in Priština. From early 2001, UNMIK has been working with representatives of the Serbian and union governments to reestablish stable relations in the region. A new assembly of the province was elected in November 2001, which formed a government and chose a president in February 2002.

In January 1998 Milo Đukanović became Montenegro's president, following bitterly contested elections in October 1997 against Pro-Milošević candidate Momir Bulatović. His coalition followed up with parliamentary elections in May. Đukanović distanced himself from Milošević and pursued pro-Western policies along with advocating for Montenegrin independence from Serbia. Economic ties with Serbia began to be severed as Montenegro formed a new economic policy and adopted the Deutsche Mark as its currency.

Before 5 October, even as opposition grew, Milošević continued to dominate the organs of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) Government. And although his political party, the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS) (in electoral cartel with Mirjana Markovic' Yugoslav United Left), did not enjoy a majority in either the federal or Serbian parliaments, it dominated the governing coalitions and held all the key administrative posts. An essential element of Milošević's grasp on power was his control of the Serbian police, a heavily armed force of some 100,000 that was responsible for internal security and which committed serious human rights abuses. Routine federal elections in September 2000 resulted in Kostunica receiving less than a majority, requiring a second round. Immediately, street protests and rallies filled cities across the country as Serbs rallied around Vojislav Koštunica, the recently formed Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS, a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties) candidate for FRY president. There had been widespread fear that the second round would be cancelled on the basis of foreign interference in the elections. Cries of fraud and calls for Milošević's removal echoed across city squares from Subotica to Niš.

Democratic transition
On 5 October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced to concede defeat after days of mass protests all across Serbia.

The new FRY President Vojislav Koštunica was soon joined at the top of the domestic Serbian political scene by the Democratic Party's (DS) Zoran Đinđić, who was elected Prime Minister of Serbia at the head of the DOS ticket in December's republican elections. After an initial honeymoon period in the wake of 5 October, DSS and the rest of DOS, led by Đinđić and his DS, found themselves increasingly at odds over the nature and pace of the governments' reform programs. Although initial reform efforts were highly successful, especially in the economic and fiscal sectors, by the middle of 2002, the nationalist Koštunica and the pragmatic Đinđić were openly at odds. Koštunica's party, having informally withdrawn from all DOS decision-making bodies, was agitating for early elections to the Serbian Parliament in an effort to force Đinđić from the scene. After the initial euphoria of replacing Milošević's autocratic regime, the Serbian population, in reaction to this political maneuvering, was sliding into apathy and disillusionment with its leading politicians by mid-2002. This political stalemate continued for much of 2002, and reform initiatives stalled.

In February 2003, the Constitutional Charter was finally ratified by both republics, and the FRY Parliament and the name of the country was changed from Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to Serbia and Montenegro. Under the new Constitutional Charter, most federal functions and authorities devolved to the republic level. The office of President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, held by Vojislav Koštunica, ceased to exist once Svetozar Marović was elected President of Serbia and Montenegro. On 12 March 2003, Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated. The newly formed union government of Serbia and Montenegro reacted swiftly by calling a state of emergency and undertaking an unprecedented crackdown on organized crime which led to the arrest of more than 4,000 people.

Parliamentary elections were held in the Republic of Serbia on 28 December 2003. Serbia had been in a state of political crisis since the overthrow of the post-communist ruler, Slobodan Milošević, in 2001. The reformers, led by former Yugoslav President Vojislav Koštunica, have been unable to gain control of the Serbian presidency because three successive presidential elections have failed to produce the required 50% turnout. The assassination in March 2003 of the reforming Prime Minister, Zoran Đinđić was a major setback.

Despite the great increase in support for the Radicals, the four pro-reform parties (Koštunica's Democratic Party of Serbia, late Prime Minister Đinđić's Democratic Party, now led by Boris Tadić, and the G17 Plus group of liberal economists led by Miroljub Labus, plus the SPO-NS) won 49.8% of the vote, compared with 34.8% for the two anti-western parties, the Radicals of Vojislav Šešelj and the Socialists of Milošević, and won 146 seats to 104.

At the 2004 Presidential election Boris Tadić, candidate of the Democratic Party won over Tomislav Nikolić, of the Serbian Radical Party, sealing the future reform and EU-integration path of Serbia.

Republic of Serbia (2006–present)
During the early 2000s governments of Montenegro resumed pro-independence policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade. The question whether the Federal Yugoslav state would continue to exist became a serious issue. Following Montenegro's vote for full independence in the referendum of 21 May 2006 (55.4% yes, 44.6% no), Montenegro declared independence on 3 June 2006. This was followed on 5 June 2006 by Serbia's declaration of independence, marking the final dissolution of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, and the re-emergence of Serbia as an independent state for the first time since 1918.

A referendum was held on 28 and 29 October 2006 on a proposed draft of the new Constitution of Serbia, which was approved. The constitution is Serbia's first as an independent state since the Kingdom of Serbia's 1903 constitution.

The 2007 elections confirmed the pro-reform and pro-European stance of the Serbian Parliament, in which Tadić's party doubled his representation.

On 3 February 2008, Tadić was re-elected as President.

The Serbian government passed through weeks of severe crisis after the unilateral declaration of independence of its southern province of Kosovo on 17 February 2008, which was gradually recognized by the United States and numerous European Union countries. The crisis was fuelled by the demand by Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica of the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) to the Democratic Party (Serbia) (DS), which held governmental majority, of a restructuring of the governmental contract including an annex according to which Serbia can continue European integration exclusively with Kosovo as its integral part, as stated in the 2006 Constitution. The DS and G17+ refused, and Koštunica had to resign on 8 March 2008, while also asking the President to dismiss the parliament and schedule pre-term parliamentary elections.

These pre-term parliamentary elections were held on 11 May 2008, barely a year after the previous parliamentary election. The results showed a net increase of votes for Tadić's ZES coalition, passing from 87 to 102 seats. After long and difficult negotiations, a new pro-European government was formed on 7 July 2008 by 128 out of 250 parliamentary votes of ZES, SPS-PUPS-JS and 6 out of 7 minorities representatives. The new prime minister was Mirko Cvetković, candidate of the Democratic Party.

In May 2012, nationalist Tomislav Nikolić was elected as President of Serbia after defeating Tadić in the presidential election. In July 2012, Serbian Socialist Party leader Ivica Dačić became prime minister of Serbia after parliamentary elections. His government was a coalition of President Tomislav Nikolić's nationalist Serbian Progressive Party, the Socialist Party and other groups. Since the Progressive Party came to power, Serbia has suffered from democratic backsliding into authoritarianism,  followed by a decline in media freedom and civil liberties.

Serbian Progressive Party (SNS) won in the 2014 election and the leader of SNS Aleksandar Vučić became prime minister. Three years later he moved to the presidency. Ana Brnabić has been prime minister since 2017, but president Vučić has kept a firm hold on executive power.

Since his election as President of Serbia in 2017, Aleksandar Vučić has worked on establishing good relations with European, Russian and Chinese partners.

In June 2020, Serbia's ruling Progressive Party (SNS) won a landslide victory in parliamentary elections. Main opposition groups boycotted the vote. According to the opposition the conditions were not free and fair. In April 2022, President Aleksandar Vučić was re-elected. Vucic's Serbian Progressive Party (SNS) won the snap parliamentary election, which was held simultaneously with the presidential election. Serbia drew western criticism for not joining EU sanctions against Russia and maintaining bilateral relations after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. However, Serbia condemned Russia at the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council. In December 2023, ruling Serbian Progressive Party (SNS) of President Vučić won a snap parliamentary election, gaining an absolute majority with more than half of the 250 seats in the National Assembly.

As of January 2024, more than 300,000 Russians have emigrated to Serbia since the start of the war in Ukraine. About one in 10 has been issued with a residence permit.

Kosovo dispute
On 17 February 2008 self-proclaimed representatives of Kosovo Albanians, acting outside the UNMIK's PISG framework (not representing the Assembly of Kosovo or any other of these institutions), issued a declaration of independence establishing the Republic of Kosovo to mixed international reactions.

In 2013, the two sides began to normalise relations in accordance with the Brussels Agreement, but the process stalled in November 2018 after Kosovo imposed a 100 percent tax on importing Serbian goods. On 1 April 2020, Kosovo withdrew the tax.

EU integration
Serbia officially applied for European Union membership on 22 December 2009.

Despite its setbacks in the political field, on 7 December 2009 the EU unfroze the trade agreement with Serbia and the Schengen countries dropped the visa requirement for Serbian citizens on 19 December 2009.

A Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) was signed in 2008 and entered into force on 1 September 2013.

title: History of Serbia


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Esperanto music

A number of musical works are available in the Esperanto language. The phrase "Esperanto music" is sometimes used to include music which is about Esperanto.

Classical music

 * Lou Harrison, who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably La Koro-Sutro (1973).
 * David Gaines used Esperanto texts for his Symphony No. 1 (Esperanto) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98) and Povas plori mi ne plu (I Can Cry No Longer) for unaccompanied SATB choir (1994).
 * Montagu C. Butler
 * The opera Sternenhoch by Ivan Acher is sung in Esperanto.

Musicians, singers and bands

 * Dolchamar
 * Jean-Marc Leclercq (JoMo)
 * Jonny M, a reggae and rap music singer-songwriter
 * Kim J. Henriksen
 * Kajto
 * La Perdita Generacio
 * Merlin
 * Martin & La Talpoj
 * Persone

Songs

 * "La Espero"
 * 3000 songs in a Songwiki

Music companies and publishers

 * ESP-Disk
 * Vinilkosmo
 * Floréal Martorell
 * Brazila-Esperanto-Ligo
 * Edistudio
 * Nigra Kato
 * Rusa Esperantista Unio

Events and projects

 * Vinilkosmo kompil'
 * Kolekto 2000
 * Esperanto Subgrunde kompil'
 * FESTO (Esperanto meeting)

References to Esperanto in music

 * Slovak band TEAM released an entire album in Esperanto.
 * "The Crystal Theme" from the opening of Final Fantasy XI was sung in Esperanto ("Memoro de la Ŝtono")
 * Kurt Elling wrote a vocalese song called "Esperanto" based on the Vince Mendoza composition "Esperança". Elling explains on his album Live in Chicago (Blue Note) that the lyrics were written while he was under the impression that it was titled "Esperanto" and only later found out the original title, which is the Portuguese word for 'hope'.
 * The second album of former German hip hop crew Freundeskreis was titled "Esperanto". The same-called lead track was also released as a single.
 * A Russian band Tesla Coil released an album GV in 2014. Lyrics are partially in Esperanto. There is also a song which has a name in Esperanto - "Kirasa Kerno" (Armored Core).

title: Esperanto music


text:
Lists of people by nationality

This is a list of notable persons by nationality.

By nationality
Delineating notable nationals of nation-states, and their significant dependent territories.

 * Afghans
 * Albanians
 * Algerians
 * Americans
 * Andorrans
 * Angolans
 * Antiguans and Barbudans
 * Argentines
 * Armenians
 * Arubans
 * Australians
 * Austrians
 * Azerbaijanis
 * Bahamians
 * Bahrainis
 * Bangladeshis
 * Barbadians
 * Basques
 * Belarusians
 * Belizeans
 * Beninese
 * Bermudians
 * Bhutanese
 * Bolivians
 * Bosniaks
 * Bosnians and Herzegovinians
 * Botswana
 * Brazilians
 * Bretons
 * British
 * British Virgin Islanders
 * Bruneians
 * Bulgarians
 * Macedonian Bulgarians
 * Burkinabés
 * Burmese
 * Burundians
 * Cambodians
 * Cameroonians
 * Canadians
 * Catalans
 * Cape Verdeans
 * Caymanians
 * Chaldeans
 * Chadians
 * Chileans
 * Chinese
 * Colombians
 * Comorians
 * Congolese (DRC)
 * Congolese (RotC)
 * Costa Ricans
 * Croats
 * Cubans
 * Cypriots
 * Czechs
 * Danes
 * Greenlanders
 * Djiboutians
 * Dominicans (Commonwealth)
 * Dominicans (Republic)
 * Dutch
 * East Timorese
 * Ecuadorians
 * Egyptians
 * Emiratis
 * English
 * Equatoguineans
 * Eritreans
 * Estonians
 * Ethiopians
 * Falkland Islanders
 * Faroese
 * Fijians
 * Finns
 * Finnish Swedish
 * Filipinos
 * French citizens
 * Gabonese
 * Gambians
 * Georgians
 * Germans
 * Baltic Germans
 * Ghanaians
 * Gibraltarians
 * Greeks
 * Greek Macedonians
 * Grenadians
 * Guatemalans
 * Guianese (French)
 * Guineans
 * Guinea-Bissau nationals
 * Guyanese
 * Haitians
 * Hondurans
 * Hong Kongers
 * Hungarians
 * Icelanders
 * I-Kiribati
 * Indians
 * Indonesians
 * Iranians
 * Iraqis
 * Irish
 * Israelis
 * Italians
 * Ivoirians
 * Jamaicans
 * Japanese
 * Jordanians
 * Kazakhs
 * Kenyans
 * Kosovars
 * Koreans
 * Kuwaitis
 * Kyrgyzs
 * Lao
 * Latvians
 * Lebanese
 * Liberians
 * Libyans
 * Liechtensteiners
 * Lithuanians
 * Luxembourgers
 * Macao
 * Macedonians
 * Malagasy
 * Malawians
 * Malaysians
 * Maldivians
 * Malians
 * Maltese
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title: Lists of people by nationality


text:
Leamington Spa

Royal Leamington Spa, commonly known as Leamington Spa or simply Leamington, is a spa town and civil parish in Warwickshire, England. Originally a small village called Leamington Priors, it grew into a spa town in the 18th century following the popularisation of its water which was reputed to have medicinal qualities. In the 19th century, the town experienced one of the most rapid expansions in England. It is named after the River Leam, which flows through the town.

The town contains especially fine ensembles of Regency architecture, particularly in parts of the Parade, Clarendon Square and Lansdowne Circus. The town also contains several large public parks, such as Jephson Gardens, the Royal Pump Room Gardens and Victoria Park.

Although originally founded around its spa industry, Leamington today has developed into a centre for retail, and digital industries, which has gained it the moniker "silicon spa". In 2023 The Sunday Times named Leamington as the best place to live in the Midlands.

In the 2021 census Leamington had a population of 50,923. Leamington is adjoined with the neighbouring towns of Warwick and Whitnash, and the village of Cubbington; together these form a conurbation known as the "Royal Leamington Spa Built-up area" which in 2011 had a population of 95,172.

Leamington lies around 9 mi south of Coventry, 20 mi south-east of Birmingham, and 81 mi north-west of London.

History
Formerly a small village known as Leamington Priors, Leamington began to develop as a town at the start of the 19th century. It was first mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Lamintone. For 400 years, the settlement was under the control of Kenilworth Priory, from which the older suffix derived. Its name came from Anglo-Saxon Leman-tūn or Lemen-tūn = "farm on the River Leam". The spa waters had been known in Roman times, and their rediscovery in 1784 by William Abbotts and Benjamin Satchwell led to their commercialisation, with invalids beginning to resort here in 1786. Six of the seven wells were drilled for; only the original spring at the site of the Aylesford Well, adjacent to the Parish Church, occurred naturally. The old village of Leamington Priors was on the southern bank of the River Leam, and early development was based around this. During the early 19th century, developers began concentrating the town's expansion on the land north of the river. This resulted in the Georgian centre of New Town with the Leam flowing between the two. By 1810, the town's existing bath houses could not cope with the increasing visitor numbers, and a syndicate was formed to build a new bath house north of the River Leam. A new saline spring was found on land close to the river, belonging to Bertie Greatheed, a wealthy plantation owner and landowner from Guys Cliffe, and a member of the syndicate. In 1814, the Royal Pump Rooms and Baths were opened on the site, designed by C.S. Smith, who also designed The Regent Hotel and the Upper Assembly Rooms in the town. Spa water can still be sampled outside the building. Leamington became a popular spa resort attracting the wealthy and famous, with numerous Georgian townhouses to accommodate visitors. Construction of what is now the Parade began in sections from 1808, the Regent Hotel in 1818, a town hall in 1830. and the Jephson Gardens in 1834. In 1838 Queen Victoria granted the town a 'Royal' prefix, and 'Leamington Priors' was renamed 'Royal Leamington Spa'. Queen Victoria had visited the town as a Princess in 1830 and as Queen in 1858. In 1840 the Victoria Bridge was opened, connecting the old and new towns, replacing an old, narrow, and inconvenient bridge. Nine years earlier, the opening of Portobello Bridge, a three-arch bridge over the River Avon, reconnected the town to neighbouring Warwick—an earlier bridge nearby having been condemned and demolished in 1830.

The growth of Leamington was rapid; at the time of the first national census in 1801, Leamington had a population of just 315, by 1851 this had grown to 15,724, and by 1901, the population had reached 26,888.

The London and North Western Railway opened the first railway line into Leamington; a branch line from Coventry in 1844, followed by a branch to Rugby in 1851. In 1852 the Great Western Railway's main line between Birmingham, Oxford and London opened through Leamington, upon which the first railway station at the current location was opened.

As the popularity of spa resorts declined towards the end of the 19th century, the focus of Leamington's economy shifted towards becoming a popular place of residence for retired people and for members of the middle class, many of whom relocated from Coventry and Birmingham. Its well off residents led to the development of Leamington as a popular place for shopping.

In 1832 the town's main hospital, Warneford Hospital, opened, named after philanthropist Samuel Wilson Warneford. At first a semi-private affair it was taken over by the National Health Service after the Second World War, before succumbing to budget cuts and closing in 1993.

Leamington is closely associated with the founding of lawn tennis. The first tennis club in the world was formed in 1872 by Major Henry Gem and Augurio Pereira who had started playing tennis in the garden of Pereira. It was located just behind the former Manor House Hotel and the modern rules of lawn tennis were drawn up in 1874 in Leamington Tennis Club.

During the Second World War, Leamington was bombed a number of times during The Blitz; although this caused substantial damage it caused relatively few casualties. The town was also home to the Free Czechoslovak Army; a memorial in the Jephson Gardens commemorates the bravery of Czechoslovak parachutists from Warwickshire.

Geography
Leamington is divided by the River Leam running east to west, which is susceptible to flooding in extreme weather, with especially heavy floods in 1998 and 2007.

The Leam is a tributary of the River Avon, which it joins just to the west of Leamington. The ancient town of Warwick lies adjoined directly to the west of Leamington, on the opposite bank of the Avon, with parts of Warwick (Myton and Heathcote) extending to the southwest and south of Leamington. Also contiguous with Leamington, directly to the south, with no natural border, is the smaller town of Whitnash. Whitnash and Warwick are themselves contiguous with new housing developments within the parish of Bishop's Tachbrook. The village of Cubbington is adjoined to the north-east. Just outside the town lie the villages of Old Milverton to the north and Radford Semele 2.5 mi to the east.

Leamington has several suburbs; the town has encompassed the former village of Lillington, directly to the north of the town centre. Other suburbs include Milverton to the northwest, Campion Hills to the east, and Sydenham the east. The rapidly expanding Heathcote (or "Warwick Gates") district to the southwest, though often referred to as part of Leamington, actually lies mainly within the boundaries of Warwick, with parts in Whitnash and the parish of Bishop's Tachbrook.

The main road running through the town centre is the Parade (called Lillington Lane until 1860). This shopping street contains high street chains and The Royal Priors shopping mall.

Local government
Leamington Spa falls under three tiers of local government, county, district and parish: it is a civil parish in the Warwick District, an administrative division of the county of Warwickshire, it thus falls under the jurisdiction of Warwickshire County Council, based in Warwick as the upper-tier authority. Between 1875 and 1974 Leamington was a municipal borough. As part of the 1974 local government reform it was merged with Warwick, Kenilworth and Whitnash, and surrounding rural areas into the Warwick District, which has its offices in Leamington. Since the 2023 elections, Warwick District Council has been run by a coalition of the Labour Party and Green Party, it was previously run by a Conservative-led minority administration.

In 2002 Leamington Spa became a civil parish and gained a new Town (parish) Council, as the most local tier of government.

National representation
Leamington is part of the parliamentary constituency of Warwick and Leamington. From the 1997 general election until the 2010 general election the constituency was represented in parliament by James Plaskitt of the Labour Party; until then this had been a Conservative safe seat, counting former British prime minister Anthony Eden among its Members of Parliament (MPs). The seat became highly marginal at the 2005 general election, where James Plaskitt won with a majority of just 266 votes. In the 2010 general election the seat returned to the Conservative Party, with Chris White winning the seat by 3,513 votes. White remained the MP until the 2017 general election, when the seat was won by Matt Western of the Labour Party, which he retained at the 2019 general election with his majority reduced from 1,206 to 789.

Notable buildings
Buildings in the town include a variety of Georgian and early Victorian architecture, and listed buildings such as the Grade II listed Lansdowne Crescent in neo-classical style, designed by William Thomas between 1835 and 1838.

Amongst the Anglican churches in Leamington is the Gothic parish church All Saints' Church, and St John the Baptist's Church.

St Mark's Church on Rugby Road was designed by George Gilbert Scott Jr. in 1879. It is a Gothic revival design, in red brick with stone dressings. It was endowed by the Carus-Wilson family, in memory of Frances Carus-Wilson (d.1872), wife of Sir Trevor Wheler.

There is a Roman Catholic church, St Peter's Church, two United Reformed churches (one being in Lillington), a small mosque and a Hindu temple. In 2009, the Sikh community built the Gurdwara Sahib Leamington and Warwick in Warwick which also serves Leamington. There are also Christadelphian and Jehovah's Witnesses meeting halls in the town.

Eden Court in Lillington is a residential tower block and one of several tall landmarks. In December 2010, the Warwickshire Justice Centre was completed in Newbold Terrace. As well as a police station, the complex houses a magistrates' court, and the Crown Court, County Court, and other agencies such as the Probation Service and Victim Support. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 4 March 2011.

An oak tree just to the northeast of the town centre is marked by a plaque stating that it commemorates the Midland Oak, a tree that grew near the spot and was reputed to be at the centre of England.

Demographics
At the 2011 census, there were 49,491 residents in Leamington in 22,098 households, and the median age of Leamington residents was 34. In terms of ethnicity:

 * 86% of Leamington residents were White (Comprising 77.2% White British, 6.7% Other White, and 2.1% Irish)
 * 9.2% were Asian (Comprising 6.4% Indian, 0.8% Chinese, 0.5% Pakistani, 0.1% Bangladeshi and 0.8% from another Asian background)
 * 1.1% were Black (Comprising 0.5% African, 0.5% Caribbean and 0.1% other Black)
 * 2.7% were Mixed
 * 0.2% were Arab, and 0.9% were from another ethnic group

In terms of religion, 51.5% of Leamington residents identified as Christian, 32.1% said they had no religion, 7.5% did not state any religion, 5.1% were Sikh, 1.5% were Hindu, 1.3% were Muslim, 0.4% were Buddhists, 0.3% were Jewish and 0.5% were from another religion.

Tourism
The popularity of the town's waters in the 19th century led to the town's initial growth, making tourism Leamington's primary industry in the 19th century.

Retail
In the town centre there are a variety of shops from high street chains to independent retailers, plus an indoor shopping centre, The Royal Priors. There is an out of town retail park called the Leamington Shopping Park (formerly The Shires Retail Park), even though it sits within the boundaries of Warwick. It opened in 1989.

Manufacturing
Tourism was initially driven by the spring waters. The arrival of the Warwick and Napton Canal (later amalgamated into the Grand Union Canal) officially opened in 1799 as the primary means of cargo transport and led to growth in other industries until rail gradually took over in the mid 19th century, The canal supplied coal to the gasworks on Tachbrook Road, providing gas to light the town from 1835. Pig iron, coke and limestone were delivered by canal, allowing a number of foundries to be established in Leamington, specialising in cast iron stoves. Today the Eagle Foundry, dating from at least 1851, continues to manufacture Rangemaster Aga stoves. The Imperial Foundry, dating from around 1925, was subsequently taken over by Ford, casting engine blocks until its closure in 2008.

The prominent car parts manufacturer Automotive Products based in the south of the town grew from a small garage to occupy a large site. Throughout the 20th century, while tourism took a downturn, Automotive Products expanded and built a factory in the South of the town in 1928 that is still operative in 2009, although on a much smaller scale. Karobes Limited, with its headquarters in Queensway, was one of Britain's major suppliers of accessories for cars between World War II and the 1970s.

Commercial parks for service providers and light industry and offices are primarily located to the south of the town: Althorpe Street Industrial Estate, Queensway Trading Estate, Shires Gate Trading Estate and Sydenham Industrial Estate.

In June 2014, Detroit Electric announced that they would be building their SP.01 all-electric roadster in Leamington Spa.

Digital media and the video game industry
Leamington Spa and the surrounding area, known as Silicon Spa, is a significant global centre for the video game industry, with a higher than average proportion of digital media companies involved in games development, digital design and publishing, and over a thousand employed directly in game development. Companies based in or around the town include Third Kind Games, Super Spline Studios, Lab42, Sumo Leamington, Caperfly, Widgit Software, DNA Interactive, Fish in a Bottle, Ubisoft Leamington, Unit 2, Electric Square, Full Fat, Kwalee, Pixel Toys, Playground Games, Red Chain Games, Stickman Studios, Supersonic Software and Midoki. Codemasters are based at Southam near Leamington and were the initial impetus behind the cluster, providing many of the staff for the companies in Leamington. In 2013, Sega's mobile platform studio Hardlight Studio set up in Leamington, and Exient opened a satellite studio. Former companies were Blitz Games Studios, FreeStyleGames, Bigbig Studios and Titus Software UK Limited.

Healthcare
Local hospitals include the Leamington Spa Hospital and the Warwickshire Nuffield Hospital. On 13 July 2021 a coronavirus "mega lab" was opened in the town. Named after English chemist Rosalind Franklin, the laboratory is intended to be capable of processing hundreds of thousands of samples a day, making it the largest of its kind in the UK. It is expected to create up to 1,500 jobs.

Education
There are a number of schools either located within Leamington, or which include Leamington in their priority (catchment) area. Those within Leamington include the state secondary schools of North Leamington School, Campion School, Trinity Catholic School, and the independent schools of Arnold Lodge School, a co-educational school for pupils aged 3 to 18, and Kingsley School, a school for girls. Myton School in Warwick, although located just outside Leamington, includes parts of Leamington as being within its priority area.

As well as these schools, Leamington children can attend Stratford-upon-Avon Grammar School for Girls, a state run selective school, Warwick School, an independent school for boys, the King's High School for Girls, Warwick's twin school and Princethorpe College, a mixed independent school in the nearby village of Princethorpe.

Leamington is the location of the first of Warwickshire College's six sites, and additionally another site is located just outside the town. The closest higher education institutions are the University of Warwick, in southwestern Coventry, and Coventry University.

Leamington is also home to two national educational charities – The Smallpeice Trust and The Arkwright Scholarships Trust. They specialise in making young people aware of how STEM fields studied in school can lead to fulfilling and exciting careers in science and engineering sectors of industry.

Leamington Spa Art Gallery & Museum
Leamington Spa Art Gallery & Museum is located in the Royal Pump Rooms, on the Parade. It holds a collection of over 12,000 objects, including fine and decorative arts, as well as items relating to local and social history. It provides exhibitions in the visual arts and about the history of the town, supported by workshops, talks and other events.

Community centres
There are several local community centres.

Peace Festival
Since 1978, the annual free festival and celebration of alternative culture called the Peace Festival has been held in the Pump Room Gardens, however the event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and not been held since 2019.

Music
Live music is provided by local bands in a variety of venues. In December 2005 the band Nizlopi from Leamington, reached Number 1 in the UK Singles Chart with "JCB". The Woodbine Street Recording Studios has been used by several well-known music acts such as Paul Weller, Ocean Colour Scene, Felt, The Specials, and local band The Shapes, whose single "Batman in the Launderette" charted first in 1979. Classical music concerts are organised throughout the year in the Leamington and Warwick area, including the International String Quartet series at the Royal Pump Rooms. The Assembly, is a 1,000 capacity music venue attracting national and international artists, and was awarded 'Live Music Venue of the Year' at the 2010 Music Week Awards. and the Leamington Spa Competitive Festival for Music Dance and Drama is staged annually.

Theatre and cinema
Two theatres are located in Leamington: the Spa Centre and the amateur The Loft, with outdoor summer productions in Jephson Gardens. Leamington also has two cinemas: the Spa Centre and a multiplex.

Sport and leisure
There are a number of sports clubs and leisure facilities in Leamington Spa, including the oldest purpose built Real Tennis court in the world at Leamington Tennis Court Club, the football club Leamington F.C., a disc golf course Quarry Park, a leisure centre including swimming pool Newbold Comyn Leisure Centre, rugby grounds Leamington Rugby Union Football Club, Leamington Rugby Club – Youth Section and Old Leamingtonians Rugby Football Club, Leamington Cricket, Khalsa Leamington Hockey Club, Leamington Cycling club, Leamington Athletics club, Spa Striders Running Club, Royal Leamington Spa Canoe Club, Leamington Chess Club, formed in 1851, and municipal tennis courts. The Royal Leamington Spa Bowling Club in Victoria Park hosts the annual National Lawn Bowls Championships.

Parks and gardens
The town has several parks and gardens, including the Jephson Gardens, close to the Royal Pump Rooms and next to the River Leam. These were seriously damaged in the floods of 1998, but have been restored and improved with funding from the National Lottery. The other side of the River Leam, on Priory Terrace features the "Elephant Walk" 19th-century slipway down to the river located near the suspension bridge in Jephson Gardens. It was specifically constructed so that circus elephants in winter quarters in Leamington could be watered. Other parks are the Mill Gardens on the opposite bank of the river to Jephson Gardens, Victoria Park, the Royal Pump Room Gardens, The Dell and Newbold Comyn which includes the nature reserves Welches Meadow and Leam Valley.

Local media
The Leamington Observer is the town's local newspaper.

Popular culture
The cover of the Ocean Colour Scene album Moseley Shoals features the Jephson Memorial in Jephson Gardens. The town has been used as a filming location in various television series. BBC's Upstairs Downstairs used the Georgian terrace at Clarendon Square as a main exterior location. ITV's Sherlock Holmes episode 'The Last Vampyre' featured Guy's Cliffe House, which was severely damaged in a fire during production. Leamington also appeared as a location in ChuckleVision, and often appeared in the 1990s sitcom Keeping Up Appearances.

Road
The town is 3 mi away from the M40 motorway, which links it to Birmingham and London. It is also served by the A46, which connects it to Coventry and Stratford-upon-Avon.

Railway

Leamington Spa railway station is served by three train operating companies:
 * Chiltern Railways operates frequent inter-city services on the Chiltern Main Line, which links London Marylebone, Birmingham Snow Hill and onwards to Stourbridge in the peak. Local services run to Stratford-upon-Avon, via Warwick.
 * West Midlands Trains operate local peak services to Birmingham and onwards to Worcester Shrub Hill. A line connecting Leamington Spa to Coventry is used by local hourly services to Nuneaton via Kenilworth.
 * CrossCountry provide services to Banbury, Oxford, Reading and Bournemouth to the south; Coventry, Birmingham New Street, Manchester, and Newcastle can be reached to the north.

Buses
Local bus services are operated primarily by Stagecoach Midlands; destinations include Warwick, Banbury, Stratford-upon-Avon and Rugby. National Express Coventry operates a high-frequency service to Kenilworth, the University of Warwick and Coventry.

Air
Leamington's nearest international passenger airport is Birmingham Airport.

Coventry Airport is a nearby general aviation airport and former tourist charter hub. It currently (2023) has no scheduled passenger services.

Waterways
The Grand Union Canal is used for recreation. It crosses the river Avon between Leamington and Warwick, and then passes the town to the south, parallel to the River Leam to the north. The rivers are not used for transportation, but there are proposals to render them navigable.

Cycleways
There are national and local cycleways into and around Leamington including a cycle path to Rugby following the former railway line part of National cycle route 41.

Trams
Between 1881 and 1930, Leamington & Warwick Tramways & Omnibus Company operated trams between the two towns.

Notable residents

Famous people who were born in Leamington include the world champion boxer Randolph Turpin (1928–1966), the poet, mountaineer, magician, and occultist Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), the pathologist Sir Bernard Spilsbury (1877–1947), the artist Sir Terry Frost (1915–2003), the actor, broadcaster and writer Norman Painting (1924–2009), and professional footballer and YouTuber Ben Foster.

Famous people to live or have lived in Leamington include Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte; who became the President of France and then Emperor Napoleon III, who lived in Leamington whilst in exile between 1838 and 1839, the inventor of the jet engine Frank Whittle (1907–1996) who lived in Leamington as a child, the television presenter Anne Diamond, the comedian Russell Howard. Grime artist Stormzy lived in Leamington while studying for an apprenticeship.

Twin towns – sister cities
Royal Leamington Spa is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Sceaux, France (since 1969)
 * 🇩🇪 Brühl, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (since 1973)
 * Heemstede, Netherlands (since 1987)

Friendship
Royal Leamington Spa has friendship agreements with:
 * 🇨🇦 Leamington, Canada – which was named after Royal Leamington Spa
 * 🇸🇱 Bo, Sierra Leone

Climate
Leamington Spa experiences the oceanic climate which covers most of the United Kingdom.

title: Leamington Spa


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Brookite

Brookite is the orthorhombic variant of titanium dioxide (TiO2), which occurs in four known natural polymorphic forms (minerals with the same composition but different structure). The other three of these forms are akaogiite (monoclinic), anatase (tetragonal) and rutile (tetragonal). Brookite is rare compared to anatase and rutile and, like these forms, it exhibits photocatalytic activity. Brookite also has a larger cell volume than either anatase or rutile, with 8 TiO2 groups per unit cell, compared with 4 for anatase and 2 for rutile. Iron (Fe), tantalum (Ta) and niobium (Nb) are common impurities in brookite.

Brookite was named in 1825 by French mineralogist Armand Lévy for Henry James Brooke (1771–1857), an English crystallographer, mineralogist and wool trader.

Arkansite is a variety of brookite from Magnet Cove, Arkansas, US. It is also found in the Murun Massif on the Olyokma-Chara Plateau of Eastern Siberia, Russia, part of the Aldan Shield. At temperatures above about 750 °C, brookite will revert to the rutile structure.

Unit cell
Brookite belongs to the orthorhombic dipyramidal crystal class 2/m 2/m 2/m (also designated mmm). The space group is Pcab and the unit cell parameters are a = 5.4558 Å, b = 9.1819 Å and c = 5.1429 Å. The formula is TiO2, with 8 formula units per unit cell.

Structure
The brookite structure is built up of distorted octahedra with a titanium ion at the center and oxygen ions at each of the six vertices. Each octahedron shares three edges with adjoining octahedra, forming an orthorhombic structure.

Appearance

Brookite crystals are typically tabular, elongated and striated parallel to their length. They may also be pyramidal, pseudo-hexagonal or prismatic. Brookite and rutile may grow together in an epitaxial relationship.

Brookite is usually brown in color, sometimes yellowish or reddish brown, or even black. Beautiful, deep red crystals (seen above-right) similar to pyrope and almandite garnet are also known. Brookite displays a submetallic luster. It is opaque to translucent, transparent in thin fragments and yellowish brown to dark brown in transmitted light.

Optical properties
Brookite is doubly refracting, as are all orthorhombic minerals, and it is biaxial (+). Refractive indices are very high, above 2.5, which is even higher than diamond at 2.42. For comparison, ordinary window glass has a refractive index of about 1.5.

Brookite exhibits very weak pleochroism, yellowish, reddish and orange to brown. It is neither fluorescent nor radioactive.

Physical properties
Brookite is a brittle mineral, with a subconchoidal to irregular fracture and poor cleavage in one direction parallel to the c crystal axis and traces of cleavage in a direction perpendicular to both the a and the b crystal axes. Twinning is uncertain. The mineral has a Mohs hardness of $5 1/2$ to 6, between apatite and feldspar. This is the same hardness as anatase and a little less than that of rutile (6 to $5 1/2$). The specific gravity is 4.08 to 4.18, between that of anatase at 3.9 and rutile at 4.2.

Occurrence and associations
Brookite is an accessory mineral in alpine veins in gneiss and schist; it is also a common detrital mineral. Associated minerals include its polymorphs anatase and rutile, and also titanite, orthoclase, quartz, hematite, calcite, chlorite and muscovite.

The type locality is Twll Maen Grisial, Fron Olau, Prenteg, Gwynedd, Wales. In 2004, brookite crystals were found in the Kharan, in Balochistan, Pakistan.

title: Brookite


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Leucoxene

Leucoxene is a fine granular alteration product of titanium minerals. It varies in color from yellow to brown.

It consists mainly of rutile or anatase. It is observed in some igneous rocks and iron ore deposits as the result of the alteration of ilmenite, perovskite, or titanite.

title: Leucoxene