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Maypole

A maypole is a tall wooden pole erected as a part of various European folk festivals, around which a maypole dance often takes place.

The festivals may occur on 1 May or Pentecost (Whitsun), although in some countries it is instead erected at Midsummer (20–26 June). In some cases, the maypole is a permanent feature that is only utilized during the festival, although in other cases it is erected specifically for the purpose before being taken down again.

Primarily found within the nations of Germanic Europe and the neighboring areas which they have influenced, its origins remain unknown. It has often been speculated that the maypole originally had some importance in the Germanic paganism of Iron Age and early Medieval cultures and that the tradition survived Christianisation, albeit losing any original meaning that it had. It has been a recorded practice in many parts of Europe throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods, although it became less popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, the tradition is still observed in some parts of Europe and among European communities in the Americas.

Symbolism
English historian Ronald Hutton concurs with Swedish scholar Carl Wilhelm von Sydow who stated that maypoles were erected "simply" as "signs that the happy season of warmth and comfort had returned." Their shape allowed for garlands to be hung from them and were first seen, at least in the British Isles, between AD 1350 and 1400 within the context of medieval Christian European culture. In 1588, at Holy Trinity Church in Exeter, villagers gathered around the 'summer rod' for feasting and drinking. Chaucer mentions that a particularly large maypole stood at St Andrew Undershaft, which was collectively erected by church parishioners annually due to its large shape. The symbolism of the maypole has been continuously debated by folklorists for centuries, although no definitive answer has been found. Some scholars classify maypoles as symbols of the world axis (axis mundi). The fact that they were found primarily in areas of Germanic Europe, where, prior to Christianisation, Germanic paganism was followed in various forms, has led to speculation by some that the maypoles were in some way a relic of a Germanic pagan tradition. One theory holds that they were a remnant of the Germanic reverence for sacred trees, as there is evidence for various sacred trees and wooden pillars that were venerated by the pagans across much of Germanic Europe, including Thor's Oak and the Irminsul. Ronald Hutton, however, states that "there is absolutely no evidence that the maypole was regarded as a reflection of it." It is also known that, in Norse paganism, cosmological views held that the universe was a world tree, known as Yggdrasil.

Some observers have proposed phallic symbolism, an idea which was expressed by Thomas Hobbes, who erroneously believed that the poles dated back to the Roman worship of the god Priapus. This notion has been supported by various figures since, including the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Phallic symbolism has been attributed to the maypole in the later Early Modern period, as one sexual reference is in John Cleland's controversial novel Fanny Hill: ... and now, disengaged from the shirt, I saw, with wonder and surprise, what? not the plaything of a boy, not the weapon of a man, but a maypole of so enormous a standard, that had have proportions been observed, it must have belonged to a young giant. Ronald Hutton has stated, however, that "there is no historical basis for his claim and no sign that the people who used maypoles thought that they were phallic" and that "they were not carved to appear so."

The anthropologist Mircea Eliade theorizes that the maypoles were simply a part of the general rejoicing at the return of summer, and the growth of new vegetation. In this way, they bore similarities with the May Day garlands which were also a common festival practice in Britain and Ireland.

Malta
Grand Master Marc'Antonio Zondadari introduced the game of cockaigne (with the use of the maypole) to Maltese Carnival in 1721: on a given signal, the crowd assembled in Palace Square converged on a collection of hams, sausages and live animals hidden beneath leafy branches outside the Main Guard. The provisions became the property of those who, having seized them, were able to carry them off.

Germany and the former Austria-Hungary
In Germany and the former Austro-Hungarian countries, the maypole (or Maibaum) is a tradition going back to the 16th century. It is a decorated tree or tree trunk that is usually erected either on 1 May – in Baden and Swabia – or on the evening before, for example, in East Frisia. In most areas, especially in Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, and Austria, it is usual to have a ceremony to erect the maypole on the village green. The custom of combining it with a village or town fete, which usually takes place on 30 April 1 May or at Pentecost (Whitsun), is widespread. This tradition is especially strong in the villages of the Bavarian Alps where the raising of the traditional maypole on 1 May in the village square is a cause for much celebration. The pole is usually painted in the Bavarian colors of white and blue and decorated with emblems depicting local crafts and industry. In Bavaria, the Maibaum is erected several weeks before 1 May. The young men from the villages try to steal the Maibaum from each other, which is why the men of each village or city take turns in watching over the Maibaum. If a village manages to steal a Maibaum, then the village the Maibaum has been stolen from has to invite the whole village of the thieves to free beer and a festivity, which then takes place on 1 May.

Just before the Maibaum is erected, depending on the region, there may be a procession through the village, usually ending up at a central place and/or restaurant and usually watched by crowds of spectators and accompanied by a brass band. The actual installation of the tree then takes place in the afternoon or evening. While the crowds usually while away the time drinking beer and eating sausages, the young men busy themselves with decorating the maypole to get the symbols of various trades representing the region into the right position. While the maypole is traditionally set up with the help of long poles, today it may sometime also be done using tractors, forklifts, or even cranes. In Lower Austria ropes and ladders are used.

In the Rhineland in and around Cologne, there exists a somewhat different maypole tradition. During the night before 1 May, unmarried men erect young birch trees in front of the houses of their sweethearts. These trees, which may reach five meters of height or more, are sold beforehand by local foresters. The men usually decorate them with multicolored crepe paper and often with a red heart of wood with the name of the girl written on it. During the month of May, many house-front gardens have such maypoles.

If the tree is erected on the eve of 1 May, then the event is usually followed by a May dance or Tanz in den Mai. Depending on local custom, the Maibaum may remain in place all year round or may be taken down at the end of May. The trunk may then be stored until the following year.

Hungary
In Hungary these were called Májusfa. They were danced around, usually decorated with a full bottle of wine, with hímestojás, flowers and ribbons. May Poles and similar decorated branches, collectively called Zöld ágak were believed to have magical properties. All of them were often put up as an ornament to bring good luck and protect against witches' witches, since it was generally believed by the Hungarians that they can be protected against with different types of weed and herbs.

The base was a tall tree stripped of its bark, with the foliage left only at the top(usually 12-15 meters), but it could also be a smaller tree or a large flowering, greenish branch. They also tried to personalise the trees, decorating them with small gifts, combs, mirrors but also thorny branches and rags, reflecting negative qualities.

Often it was only in front of the priest and judge's house that a tall May Pole was erected, but every girl had to have at least one branch. Usually each suitor would put one in the girl's garden. Often they would carve it out and write the boy's name on it. The cutting and wood delivery had to be done in secret, under the cover of night, so that the lady in question would not suspect anything. When the family saw the boys, if the girl liked the suitor, they invited them in to dinner and proudly left the tree in the garden.

In the morning, they compare who got the longer May Pole, try to guess who gave it to them and often, which envious lover has plucked the tree. Unlike other May Poles, in Hungary it was the length of the tree that mattered, which would ultimately convince the girls to go out with the men. This was a common form of rural flirting, similar to the Hajnalfa.

The lovers were always assisted by a (often drunken) courting team of similar boys. If two boys liked the same girl, after one team had erected the maypole, the other would secretly take it away and dig his own in its place.

On the last Sunday of May májusfa-kitáncolás, when they tore the pole down, while dancing one last time. The máj-kerék was placed on it that day, a wagon wheel on the end of a high pole, decorated with ribbons, wine bottles and linen scarves. Its placement was a metaphor for the fulfilment of a love affair. If the kitáncolás didn't happen that meant, the boy has abandoned his courtship. The ornaments of the wheel were raced to be taken down by the men climbing up the pole. Often, however, they would play tricks on each other by putting water with paprika in a bottle on top of the tree instead of wine. The winner was declared the King of Pentecost, the Judge Stag or the First Stag. During the demolition, young people dressed merely in green branches collected a "ransom", all around the village.

In addition to the love May Poles, there were also community May Poles in front of churches and pubs, around which they had fun until the evening.

Nordic countries
In Denmark, the maypole tradition is almost extinct but is still observed on the islands of Avernakø and Strynø south of Funen and in a few villages in southern Himmerland in eastern Jutland. The Maypole is generally referred to as a majtræ, meaning "May tree".

In Sweden and Swedish-speaking parts of Finland, the maypole is usually called a midsummer pole, (midsommarstång), as it appears at the Midsummer celebrations, although the literal translation majstång also occurs, where the word maj refers to the Old Swedish word maja which means dress, and not the month of May. The traditions surrounding the maypoles vary locally, as does the design of the poles, although the design featuring a cross and two rings is most common nowadays. A perhaps more original incarnation is the one still in use in the Swedish landscape of Småland, where the pole carries a large horizontally suspended ring around it, hanging from ropes attached at the top of the pole. This perhaps more original form of course strongly reinforces the procreation symbolism. The cross-arm may be a latter-day attempt to Christianize the pagan symbol into the semblance of a cross, although not completely successful. Common in all of Sweden are traditional ring dances, mostly in the form of dances where participants alternate dancing and making movements and gestures based on the songs, such as pretending to scrub laundry while singing about washing, or jumping as frogs during the song Små grodorna ("The little frogs"). Ring dancing is mostly popular with small children. The central part played by young children in the celebration emphasizes the procreation aspect of the celebration. Yet another pointer in this direction is the custom that young maidens expect to dream of their future mate if they pick seven different flowers and place them under their pillow when they go to bed on this day only.

Belgium
In Belgium, the Maypole is called Meiboom or Meyboom in Dutch. Hasselt erects its Meiboom on 30 April. In Brussels and Leuven, the Meyboom is traditionally erected on 9 August before 5pm. The planting of the Meyboom is the cause of a friendly rivalry between the two cities, dating back to 1213. In that year, a brawl broke out between Leuven and Brussels which saw the latter victorious. To commemorate this event, the city of Brussels was granted, almost 100 years later, the eternal right by John III, Duke of Brabant to erect a Meyboom, but only if they managed to do this every year on 9 August before 5pm.

The first attempt by Leuven to steal the tree in 1939 was stopped by the police. In 1974 however, a group of Leuven men found out which tree was chosen by Brussels as that year's Meyboom. During the night of 8 August, the tree was cut down and transported to Leuven where it was erected in front of the City Hall. Ever since Leuven claims ownership of the only official Meyboom. Brussels, however, denies having lost the right, as another tree was cut down and put up before 5pm on 9 August.

It is also customary, mostly in the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, to place a branch (also called a Meiboom) on the highest point of a building under construction. The erection of the branch is often cause for celebration by both the workmen and the neighbors.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the maypole was found primarily in England and in areas of the Scottish Lowlands and Wales which were under English influence. However, the earliest recorded evidence comes from a Welsh poem written by Gryffydd ap Adda ap Dafydd in the mid-14th century, in which he described how people used a tall birch pole at Llanidloes, central Wales. Literary evidence for maypole use across much of Britain increases in later decades, and "by the period 1350–1400 the custom was well established across southern Britain, in town and country and in both Welsh-speaking and English-speaking areas." The practice became increasingly popular throughout the ensuing centuries, with the maypoles becoming "communal symbols" that brought the local community together – in some cases, poorer parishes would join up with neighboring ones in order to obtain and erect one, whilst in other cases, such as in Hertfordshire in 1602 and Warwickshire in 1639, people stole the poles of neighboring communities, leading to violence. In some cases the wood for the pole was obtained illegally, for instance in 1603, the earl of Huntingdon was angered when trees were removed from his estates for use as maypoles without his permission.

The rise of Protestantism in the 16th century led to increasing disapproval of maypoles and other May Day practices from various Protestants who viewed them as idolatry and therefore immoral. Under the reign of Edward VI in England and Wales, Protestant Anglicanism was declared to be the state religion, and under the Reformation many maypoles, such as the famous Cornhill maypole of London, were destroyed; however when Mary I ascended the throne after Edward's death, she reinstated Roman Catholicism as the state faith, and the practice of maypoles was reinstated. Under later English monarchs, the practice was sporadic, being banned in certain areas, such as Doncaster, Canterbury, and Bristol, but continuing in many others, according to the wishes of the local governors. In Scotland meanwhile, which at this time was still an independent state, Protestantism, in the form of Presbyterianism, had taken a more powerful hold, and largely wiped out the practice of maypoles across the country.

Royal support contributed to the outlawing of maypole displays and dancing during the English Interregnum. The Long Parliament's ordinance of 1644 described maypoles as "a Heathenish vanity, generally abused to superstition and wickedness." The only recorded breach of the Long Parliament's prohibition was in 1655 in Henley-in-Arden, where local officials stopped the erection of maypoles for traditional games. Scholars suspect but have no way to prove, that the lack of such records indicates official connivance in the flouting of the prohibition. However, they are certain that the prohibition turned maypole dancing into a symbol of resistance to the Long Parliament and to the republic that followed it. The church of St Andrew Undershaft in the City of London is named after the maypole that was kept under its eaves and set up each spring until 1517 when student riots put an end to the custom. The maypole itself survived until 1547 when a Puritan mob seized and destroyed it as a "pagan idol".

When the Restoration occurred in 1660, common people in London, in particular, put up maypoles "at every crossway", according to John Aubrey. The largest was the Maypole in the Strand, near the current St Mary-le-Strand church. The maypole there was the tallest by far, reaching over 130 ft, and it stood until being blown over by a high wind in 1672 when it was moved to Wanstead in Essex and served as a mount for the telescope of Sir Isaac Newton.

In the countryside, may dances and maypoles appeared sporadically even during the Interregnum, but the practice was revived substantially after the Restoration. By the 19th century, the maypole had been subsumed into the symbology of "Merry England". The addition of intertwining ribbons seems to have been influenced by a combination of 19th-century theatrical fashion and visionary individuals such as John Ruskin in the 19th century. However, the maypole remained an anti-religious symbol to some theologians, as shown by "The Two Babylons", an anti-Catholic conspiracist pamphlet that first appeared in 1853.

As revived, the dance is performed by pairs of boys and girls (or men and women) who stand alternately around the base of the pole, each holding the end of a ribbon. They weave in and around each other, boys going one way and girls going the other and the ribbons are woven together around the pole until they meet at the base. There are also more complex dances for set numbers of (practiced) dancers (the May Queen dancing troupes) involving complicated weaves and unweaves, but they are not well known today. However, such dances are performed every Mayday around the permanent Maypole at Offenham, in Worcestershire. Temporary Maypoles are usually erected on village greens and events are often supervised by local Morris dancing groups.

In some regions, a somewhat different Maypole tradition existed: the carrying of highly decorated sticks. The sticks had hoops or cross-sticks or swags attached, covered with flowers, greenery, or artificial materials such as crepe paper. Children would take these hand-held poles to school on May Day morning and prizes may be awarded for the most impressive. This tradition is known as garlanding and was a central feature of Mayday celebrations in central and southern England until the mid-19th century. After that time, it began to be replaced by formally organized school-centered celebrations. It still occurs from place to place but is invariably a reinstatement of a local custom that had lapsed decades earlier.

In 1780, Kilmarnock Council, now in East Ayrshire, paid Robert Fraser 2s. 6d. for "dressing a Maypole", one of the last recorded examples of the rural festival of the first of May in Scotland, having been put down by Act of Parliament immediately after the Reformation in 1560.

The tallest maypoles in Britain may be found in the villages of Nun Monkton, North Yorkshire (88 ft), Barwick-in-Elmet, West Yorkshire (86 ft), Welford-on-Avon, Warwickshire (65 ft) and Paganhill, Gloucestershire (18 metres or 60 feet; although a taller, post-WWI 'Memorial Pole' of 29.5m or 97 ft was previously erected in 1919, making it one of the tallest on record).

Holywood in County Down, Northern Ireland has a maypole situated at the crossroads of Main Street and Shore Road/Church Road in the center of the town. It is the only Maypole in Ireland. Although the origin is uncertain, it is thought that the original maypole dates from the 18th century, when a Dutch ship ran aground offshore. The latest maypole was damaged and removed after a storm in February 2021. The remains were removed by Ards and North Down Borough Council and a replacement pole was ordered.

United States
While not celebrated among the general public in the United States today, a Maypole dance nearly identical to that celebrated in the United Kingdom is an important part of May Day celebrations in local schools and communities. Often the Maypole dance will be accompanied by other dances as part of a presentation to the public.

The earliest use of the Maypole in America occurred in 1628, when William Bradford, governor of New Plymouth, wrote of an incident where a number of servants, together with the aid of an agent, broke free from their indentured service to create their own colony, setting up a maypole in the center of the settlement, and behaving in such a way as to receive the scorn and disapproval of the nearby colonies, as well as an officer of the king, bearing patent for the state of Massachusetts. Bradford writes:

They also set up a May-pole, drinking and dancing about it many days together, inviting the Indian women, for their consorts, dancing and frisking together, (like so many fairies, or furies rather,) and worse practices. As if they had a new revived & celebrated the feasts of the Roman Goddess Flora, or the beastly practices of the madd Bacchinalians. Morton likewise (to shew his poetry) composed sundry rimes & verses, some tending to lasciviousness, and others to the detraction & scandal of some persons, which he affixed to this idle or idol May-pole. They changed also the name of their place, and instead of calling it Mount Wollaston, they call it Merie-mounted, as if this jollity would have lasted ever. But this continued not long, for after Morton was sent for England, shortly after came over that worthy gentleman, Mr. John Indecott, who brought a patent under the broad seal, for the government of Massachusetts, who visiting those parts caused the May-pole to be cutt downe, and rebuked them for their profanes, and admonished them to look there should be better walking; so they now, or others, changed the name of their place again, and called it Mount-Dagon. Governor Bradford's censure of the Maypole tradition played a central role in Nathaniel Hawthorne's fictional story "The Maypole of Merry Mount", published in 1837.

Italy
Maypole traditions can be found in some parts of Italy, such as in Veneto, Friuli, Umbria, and Marche. In the last of these regions, the tradition dates back to the Napoleonic campaigns, when the arbre de la liberté (Liberty tree), the symbol of the French Revolution, arrived in Italy. Liberty trees were erected in the southern part of the region in Ripatransone and Ascoli Piceno. In 1889, the first congress of the Second International, met in Paris for the centennial of the French Revolution and the Exposition Universelle. A proposal by Raymond Lavigne, called for international demonstrations on the 1890 anniversary of the Chicago protests. After the institution of the International Workers' Day the maypole rite in the southern part of the March became a socialist ritual. At the top of the tree (poplar) appeared the red flag. In the second half of the 20th century, the rite of the maypole around Ascoli remained a rite of celebration of spring but it became also a political symbol of the peasant movement (mezzadri) that struggled against the landowners to have decent living conditions. Every year, even today, on the night of 30 April, in many villages of the zone like Appignano del Tronto, Arquata del Tronto, Ascoli Piceno, Castorano, Castignano, Castel di Lama, Colli del Tronto, Grottammare, Monsampolo del Tronto, Porchia (Montalto Marche), Monteprandone, Offida, Rotella, Spinetoli, San Benedetto del Tronto, citizens cut a poplar on which they put-up a red flag and the tree is erected in village squares or at crossroads.

"After we've gone to get the pole in thirty or forty people, we placed it like a six-month child. We walked in procession with this tree and not even a single leaf had to touch the ground. We had to raise it without making it touch the ground, holding it in our arms like a child. For us it was the saint of the 1st of May"

- Quirino Marchetti (ancient peasant of San Benedetto del Tronto)

The same ritual is known from Lamon, a village in the Dolomites in Veneto, which likely predates the Napoleonic period. Here, a number of quarters and hamlets erect a maypole in the form of a larch whose branches and bark are almost completely removed. Only the top branches are left. A red flag is normally attached, although Italian flags or flags of other countries (Colombia, Bolivia for example) or artists (Bob Marley) are also attested. Around the maypole, quarters and hamlets give feasts with music, food, and alcohol which usually last until the dawn of 1 May. The Maypole is locally called 'Majo' (May in the local dialect).

Canada
In Canada, maypole dances are sometimes done as part of Victoria Day celebrations which occur in May. In New Westminster, British Columbia, dancing around the maypole and May Day celebrations have been held for 149 years.

In literature
Poet Jonathan Swift in his poem "A Maypole" describes a maypole as:

"Deprived of root, and branch, and rind, Yet flowers I bear of every kind: And such is my prolific power, They bloom in less than half an hour;"

"The May-Pole of Merry Mount" is a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne. It first appeared in The Token and Atlantic Souvenir in 1832. The story revolves around a young couple feeling the influence of nature who get betrothed in the presence of a Maypole and face Puritan ire. Hawthorne based his story on events in colonial New England history, borrowing from a story of Thomas Mortan whose settlement opposed the rigid cultural and religious standards of the Plymouth colony Puritans.

title: Maypole


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User talk:Mkluwe

Hello and Welcome! I hope you like the place. --mav

(more than five years later, see history) Yes, thanks :-) mkluwe (talk) 17:19, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Mkluwe


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Talk:.NET Framework

Singular/plural lack of consistency
".NET Framework includes a set of standard class libraries. The class library is organized in a hierarchy of namespaces. Most of the built-in application programming interfaces (APIs) are part of either System.* or Microsoft.* namespaces. These class libraries implement many common functions, such as file reading and writing, graphic rendering, database interaction, and XML document manipulation. The class libraries are available for all CLI compliant languages. The class library is divided into two parts (with no clear boundary): Base Class Library (BCL) and Framework Class Library (FCL)."

The text switches from singular to plural and vice-versa for no obvious reason. It makes the text hard to follow. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.91.223.158 (talk) 00:54, 20 June 2018 (UTC)
 * Also, as far as I understand it, it seems that the FCL is one mega-library and not a set of multiples smaller libraries. So, shouldn't be just all in singular? I'm not an expert on .NET at all, I try to understand. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.91.223.158 (talk) 01:17, 20 June 2018 (UTC)

Unclear about .NET Core
I came to this article hoping to learn how .NET Core relates to .NET Framework, but it is not very clear. For example, what does the following sentence mean?

On November 12, 2014, Microsoft announced .NET Core, in an effort to include cross-platform support for .NET, the source release of Microsoft's CoreCLR implementation, source for the "entire […] library stack" for .NET Core, and the adoption of a conventional ("bazaar"-like) open-source development model under the consolation stewardship of the .NET Foundation.

It feels like there is a verb or clause missing somewhere. And I have no idea what a "consolation stewardship" might be. Is it supposed to be "consolidating" or something? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.198.149.235 (talk) 11:16, 23 December 2019 (UTC)

.NET Standard
I am missing something about .NET Standard in this article (I don't know if it qualifies as a proper noun or not).

--Mortense (talk) 22:06, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

 * I agree but have you looked at .NET Standard? —Uzume (talk) 17:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

".NET" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect .NET. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 January 31 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. intforce (talk) 18:53, 31 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Notifying participants in past related discussion. MB 00:51, 1 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:.NET Framework


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Camille Jordan (politician)

Camille Jordan (11 January 1771 in Lyon – 19 May 1821) was a French politician born in Lyon of a well-to-do mercantile family.

Jordan was educated in Lyon, and from an early age was imbued with royalist principles. He actively supported by voice, pen, and musket his native town in its resistance to the Convention, and when Lyon fell, in October 1793, Jordan fled. From Switzerland he passed in six months to England, where he formed acquaintances with other French exiles and with prominent British statesmen, and imbibed a lasting admiration for the English Constitution.

In 1796 he returned to France, and next year he was sent by Lyon as a deputy to the Council of the Five Hundred. There, his eloquence won him consideration. He earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom, especially in matters of religious worship, though the energetic appeal on behalf of church bells in his Rapport sur la liberté des cultes procured him the sobriquet of "Jordan-Cloche". Proscribed at the coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor (4 September 1797), he escaped to Basel. Thence he went to Germany, where he met Goethe.

Back again in France by 1800, he boldly published in 1802 his Vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat à vie, in which he exposed the ambitious schemes of Bonaparte. He was unmolested, however, and during the First Empire lived in literary retirement at Lyon with his wife and family, producing for the Lyon academy occasional papers on the Influence réciproque de l'éloquence sur la Révolution et de la Révolution sur l'éloquence; Etudes sur Klopstock, etc.

At the restoration in 1814, he again emerged into public life. By Louis XVIII he was ennobled and named a councillor of state; and from 1816 he sat in the chamber of deputies as representative of Am. At first, he supported the ministry, but when they began to show signs of reaction, he separated from them, and gradually came to be at the head of the constitutional opposition. His speeches in the chamber were always eloquent and powerful. Though warned by failing health to resign, Camille Jordan remained at his post till his death at Paris, on 19 May 1821.

To his pen we owe Lettre à M. Laniourette (1791); Histoire de la conversion d'une dame parisienne (1792); La Loi et la religion vengées (1792); Adresse à ses commettants sur la Révolution du 4 Septembre 1797 (I797); Sur les troubles de Lyon (1818); La Session de 1817 (1818). His Discours were collected in 1818. The "Fragments choisis," and translations from the German, were published in L'Abeille française. Besides the histories of the time, see further details vol. x. of the Revue encyclopédique; a paper on Jordan and Madame de Staël, by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, in the Revue des deux mondes for March 1868 and R Boubbe, "Camille Jordan à Weimar," in the Correspondance (1901), ccv. 718–738 and 948–970.

title: Camille Jordan (politician)


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Talk:Monkey

Crown Catharrhini
Should the tree branch read Crown Catarrhini? Zruss (talk) 11:25, 8 November 2022 (UTC)

 * There is a tree branch so labelled. What are you asking? - UtherSRG (talk) 12:02, 8 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Also, please make your change request in the proscribed format. - UtherSRG (talk) 12:03, 8 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 17:33, 8 November 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 August 2023
Hi, I would like to edit this wiki page because I have found some pieces of information missing.

Thanks, Bob Hill Bob Hill II (talk) 06:58, 3 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hello, . Please restate your edit request in the format "please change X to Y", being very specific, and providing a reliable source that verifies the content change you wish to make. Cullen328 (talk) 07:04, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: per Cullen328 Closhund  /talk/  07:30, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on January 29, 2023
Rename Geoffroy in the second paragraph to Étienne Geoffroy, to show his full name 108.49.72.125 (talk) 00:09, 29 January 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ : I can't think of a reason why his full name shouldn't be there. NotAGenious (talk) 16:14, 29 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks! 108.49.72.125 (talk) 22:50, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 2 June 2024
Original: Monkeys a diverse species of animals. My edited version: Monkeys have been a diverse species of animals for a long time of period however lately monkeys have been decreasing in population to do deforestation and palm oil. These issues are slowly killing monkeys and if we don't do anything they may soon go extinct. Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-45146581 https://www.rewild.org/lost-species/lost-primates

I want to fix the wording and grammar of the Wikipedia article. Bobjoebobiscoolmonkey (talk) 01:26, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Original text does not exist. Proposed text is not encyclopedic. UtherSRG (talk) 11:36, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Monkey


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High/Low (album)

High/Low is the debut studio album by the American band Nada Surf, released in 1996. It contains the hit single "Popular". High/Low was produced by Ric Ocasek. Nada Surf supported it by touring with Superdrag and the Gravel Pit.

Critical reception
The Baltimore Sun noted that "there's an almost elegant austerity to the album's sound, but what ultimately brings the songs into focus is the band's ultra-efficient playing, which is so sparing you'd think the recording studio charged them by the note." The Ottawa Citizen concluded that Nada Surf "may have been moulded by a superior studio presence, but the root of their sound, guitar-driven and heavy on the backbeat, speaks of an energy that was harnessed and focused, not manufactured."

Track listing
All tracks written by Matthew Caws and Daniel Lorca, except where noted.
 * 1) "Deeper Well" – 3:55 - written by Caws, Lorca and Robert Randall
 * 2) "The Plan" – 4:31
 * 3) "Popular" – 3:48  - written by Caws, Lorca and Gloria Winters
 * 4) "Sleep" – 3:47
 * 5) "Stalemate" – 3:38
 * 6) "Treehouse" – 2:43
 * 7) "Icebox" – 3:17
 * 8) "Psychic Caramel" – 4:00
 * 9) "Hollywood" – 2:20
 * 10) "Zen Brain" – 4:28

Personnel
Nada Surf

 * Matthew Caws – guitar, vocals
 * Daniel Lorca – bass
 * Ira Elliot – drums

Production

 * Bruce Calder – engineer, mixer
 * George Marino – mastering
 * Ric Ocasek – producer
 * Andy Salas – assistant engineer

Charts
Album Singles

title: High/Low (album)


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American Eskimo Dog

The American Eskimo Dog is a breed of companion dog, originating in Germany. The American Eskimo Dog is a member of the Spitz family. The breed's progenitors were German Spitz, but due to anti-German sentiment during the First World War, it was renamed "American Eskimo Dog." Although modern American Eskimo Dogs have been exported as German Spitz Gross (or Mittel, depending on the dog's height), the breeds have diverged and the standards are significantly different. In addition to serving as a watchdog and companion, the American Eskimo Dog also achieved a high degree of popularity in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s as a circus performer.

There are three size varieties of the American Eskimo Dog breed, the toy, the miniature and the standard. They share a common resemblance with Japanese Spitz, Danish Spitz, Volpino Italiano, German Spitz, Indian Spitz, and Samoyeds.

History
In Northern Europe, smaller Spitz were eventually developed into the various German Spitz breeds. European immigrants brought their Spitz pets with them to the United States, especially New York, in the early 1900s, "all of them descended from the larger German Spitz, the Keeshond, the white Pomeranian, and the Italian Spitz, the Volpino Italiano."

Although white was not always a recognized color in the various German Spitz breeds, it was generally the preferred color in the US. In a display of patriotism in the era around World War I, dog owners began referring to their pets as American Spitz rather than German Spitz.

After World War I, the small Spitz dogs came to the attention of the American public when the dogs became popular entertainers in the American circus. In 1917, the Cooper Brothers’ Railroad Circus featured the dogs. A dog named Stout's Pal Pierre was famous for walking a tightrope with the Barnum and Bailey Circus in the 1930s, and also contributing to their popularity, they sold puppies after the show. Due to the popularity of the circus dogs, many of today's American Eskimo Dogs can trace their lineage back to these circus dogs. After World War II, the dogs continued to be popular pets. Postwar contact with Japan led to importation into the United States of the Japanese Spitz, which may have been crossed into the breed at this time. The breed was first officially recognized as the "American Eskimo" as early as 1919 by the American United Kennel Club (UKC), and the first written record and history of the breed was printed in 1958 by the UKC. At that time there was no official breed club and no breed standard, and dogs were accepted for registration as single dogs, based on appearance. In 1970 the National American Eskimo Dog Association (NAEDA) was founded, and single dog registrations ceased. In 1985 the American Eskimo Dog Club of America (AEDCA) was formed by fanciers who wished to register the breed with the American Kennel Club (AKC). Following the AKC's requirements for breed recognition, the AEDCA collected the pedigree information from 1,750 dogs that now form the basis of the AKC recognized breed, which is called the American Eskimo Dog. The breed was recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1995. The stud book was opened from 2000 to 2003 in an attempt to register more of the original UKC registered lines, and today many American Eskimo Dogs are dual-registered with both American kennel clubs. The breed was recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club in 2006.

Characteristics
American Eskimo Dogs are usually white, though white and biscuit is also accepted by the AKC. They are double-coated, with thick straight fur and a ruff around the neck and shoulders. The tail is heavily furred and generally curls over their back.

Size
American Eskimo Dogs are small to medium dogs, and come in three size varieties:

 * Toy: 9–12 inches and 5–10 lbs / 22–30 cm and 2.27–4.5 kg
 * Miniature: 12–15 inches and 10–20 lbs / 30–40 cm and 4.5–9 kg
 * Standard: 15–20 inches and 15–40 lbs / 38–50 cm and 6.8–18 kg

title: American Eskimo Dog


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Charles de Rémusat

Charles François Marie, Comte de Rémusat (, 13 March 1797 – 6 June 1875), was a French politician and writer.

Biography
He was born in Paris. His father, Auguste Laurent, Comte de Rémusat, whose family came from Toulouse, was chamberlain to Napoleon Bonaparte, but acquiesced in the restoration and became prefect first of Haute Garonne, and then of Nord. Charles' mother was Claire Élisabeth Jeanne Gravier de Vergennes, Madame de Rémusat.

He developed political views more liberal than those of his parents, and having been brought up for a career in law, he published in 1820 a pamphlet on trial by jury. He was an active journalist, showing in philosophy and literature the influence of Victor Cousin, and is said to have furnished to no small extent the original of Honoré de Balzac's character, Henri de Marsay. He signed the journalists' protest against the Ordinances of July 1830, and in the following October was elected deputy for Haute Garonne.

Becoming a Doctrinaire, he supported most of those measures of restriction on popular liberty which made the July monarchy unpopular with French Radicals. In 1836 he became for a short time undersecretary of state for the interior. He then became an ally of Adolphe Thiers, and in 1840 held the ministry of the interior for a brief period. In the same year he became an Academician. For the rest of Louis Philippe's reign he was in opposition until he joined Thiers in his attempt at a ministry in the spring of 1848. During this time Rémusat constantly spoke in the chair here, but was still more active in literature, especially on philosophical subjects, the most remarkable of his works being his book on Pierre Abélard (2 vols., 1845). He had to leave France after the coup d'état; nor did he re-enter political life during the Second Empire until 1869, when he founded a moderate opposition journal at Toulouse. Neither the Revolution of 1848 nor the Second Empire was to his taste. Eventually he gave up hope for the restoration of constitutional monarchy in France and he declared himself in favor of the Third French Republic: "I have never desired anything else than the peaceful triumph of the great principles of the French Revolution. I hoped that the monarchy would bring it forth; today I put my hopes in the Republic, firmly maintained and wisely organized."

In 1871 he refused the Vienna embassy offered him by Thiers, but in August he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to Jules Favre. Although minister he was not a deputy, and on standing for Paris in September 1873 he was beaten by Désiré Barodet. A month later he was elected (having already resigned with Thiers) for Haute Garonne by a great majority. He died in Paris.

During his abstention from politics Rémusat continued to write on philosophical history, especially English. Saint Anselme de Cantorbéry appeared in 1854; L'Angleterre au ... son temps, etc., in 1858; John Wesley in 1870; Lord Herbert de Cherbury in 1874; Histoire de la philosophie en Angleterre depuis Bacon jusqu'à Locke in 1875; besides other and minor works. He wrote well, was a forcible speaker and an acute critic; but his adoption of the indeterminate eclecticism of Victor Cousin in philosophy and of the somewhat similarly indeterminate liberalism of Thiers in politics probably limited his powers, though both no doubt accorded with his critical and unenthusiastic turn of mind. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1873.

Selected works

 * Essais de philosophie (1842)
 * Abélard (2 vol. 1845)
 * Sur la philosophie allemande (1845)
 * Saint Anselme de Cantorbéry (1854). Tableau de la vie monastique et de la lutte du pouvoir spirituel onzième siècle.
 * Critiques et études littéraires (2 volumes, 1857)
 * Politique libérale ou Fragments pour servir à la défense de la Révolution française (1860)
 * Channing, sa vie et ses œuvres (1862)
 * Philosophie religieuse ; de la théologie naturelle en France et en Angleterre, Éd. Germer Baillière, coll. «Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine» (1864)
 * John Wesley et le méthodisme (1870)
 * Lord Herbert de Cherbury (1874). Exposition, avec une grande liberté d'esprit, de la doctrine de Lord Herbert, qui peut être regardé comme le fondateur de la religion naturelle en Angleterre.
 * Casimir Perier (1874)
 * Histoire de la philosophie en Angleterre depuis Bacon jusqu'à Locke (1875)
 * Mémoires de ma vie

title: Charles de Rémusat


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Teiji Takagi

Teiji Takagi (高木 貞治 Takagi Teiji, April 21, 1875 – February 28, 1960) was a Japanese mathematician, best known for proving the Takagi existence theorem in class field theory. The Blancmange curve, the graph of a nowhere-differentiable but uniformly continuous function, is also called the Takagi curve after his work on it.

Biography
He was born in the rural area of the Gifu Prefecture, Japan. He began learning mathematics in middle school, reading texts in English since none were available in Japanese. After attending a high school for gifted students, he went on to the Imperial University (later Tokyo Imperial University), at that time the only university in Japan before the Imperial University System was established on June 18, 1897. There he learned mathematics from such European classic texts as Salmon's Algebra and Weber's Lehrbuch der Algebra. Aided by Hilbert, he then studied at Göttingen. Aside from his work in algebraic number theory he wrote a great number of Japanese textbooks on mathematics and geometry.

During World War I, he was isolated from European mathematicians and developed his existence theorem in class field theory, building on the work of Heinrich Weber. As an Invited Speaker, he presented a synopsis of this research in a talk Sur quelques théoremes généraux de la théorie des nombres algébriques at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Strasbourg in 1920. There he found little recognition of the value of his research, since algebraic number theory was then studied mainly in Germany and German mathematicians were excluded from the Congress. Takagi published his theory in the same year in the journal of the University of Tokyo. However, the significance of Takagi's work was first recognized by Emil Artin in 1922, and was again pointed out by Carl Ludwig Siegel, and at the same time by Helmut Hasse, who lectured in Kiel in 1923 on class field theory and presented Takagi's work in a lecture at the meeting of the DMV in 1925 in Danzig and in his Klassenkörperbericht (class field report) in the 1926 annual report of the DMV. Takagi was then internationally recognized as one of the world's leading number theorists. In 1932 he was vice-president of the International Congress of Mathematicians in Zürich and in 1936 was a member of the selection committee for the first Fields Medal.

He was also instrumental during World War II in the development of Japanese encryption systems; see Purple.

The Autonne-Takagi factorization of complex symmetric matrices is named in his honour.

Family

 * Sigekatu Kuroda, son-in-law, a mathematician.
 * S.-Y. Kuroda, grandson (son of Sigekatu Kuroda), mathematician and Chomskyan linguist.

title: Teiji Takagi


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User:Fantasy

de:Benutzer:Fantasy it:Utente:Fantasy

title: User:Fantasy


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Paul de Rémusat

Paul de Rémusat (17 November 1831, Paris – 22 January 1897, Paris), son of the French politician Charles de Rémusat, became a distinguished journalist and writer.

He was for many years a regular contributor to the Revue des deux Mondes. He stood for election in Haute-Garonne in 1869 in opposition to the imperial policy and failed, but was elected to the National Assembly in 1871 and later. In 1890 he entered the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques.

title: Paul de Rémusat


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Timeline of computer viruses and worms

This timeline of computer viruses and worms presents a chronological timeline of noteworthy computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan horses, similar malware, related research and events.

1960s

 * John von Neumann's article on the "Theory of self-reproducing automata" is published in 1966. The article is based on lectures given by von Neumann at the University of Illinois about the "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata" in 1949.

1970

 * The first story written about a computer virus is The Scarred Man by Gregory Benford.

1971

 * The Creeper system, an experimental self-replicating program, is written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies to test John von Neumann's theory. Creeper infected DEC PDP-10 computers running the TENEX operating system. Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message "I'm the creeper, catch me if you can!" was displayed. The Reaper program was later created to delete Creeper.
 * At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, a graduate student named Alan Davis (working for Prof. Donald Gillies) created a process on a PDP-11 that (a) checked to see if an identical copy of itself was currently running as an active process, and if not, created a copy of itself and started it running; (b) checked to see if any disk space (which all users shared) was available, and if so, created a file the size of that space; and (c) looped back to step (a). As a result, the process stole all available disk space. When users tried to save files, the operating system advised them that the disk was full and that they needed to delete some existing files. Of course, if they did delete a file, this process would immediately snatch up the available space. When users called in a system administrator (A. Ian Stocks) to fix the problem, he examined the active processes, discovered the offending process, and deleted it. Of course, before he left the room, the still existing process would create another copy of itself, and the problem would not go away. The only way to make the computer work again was to reboot.

1972

 * The science fiction novel, When HARLIE Was One, by David Gerrold, contains one of the first fictional representations of a computer virus, as well as one of the first uses of the word "virus" to denote a program that infects a computer.

1973

 * In fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimer's character summarizes the problem by stating that "...there's a clear pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process, spreading from one...area to the next." To which the replies are stated: "Perhaps there are superficial similarities to disease" and, "I must confess I find it difficult to believe in a disease of machinery." (Crichton's earlier work, the 1969 novel The Andromeda Strain and 1971 film were about an extraterrestrial biological virus-like disease that threatened the human race.)

1974

 * The Rabbit (or Wabbit) virus, more a fork bomb than a virus, is written. The Rabbit virus makes multiple copies of itself on a single computer (and was named "rabbit" for the speed at which it did so) until it clogs the system, reducing system performance, before finally reaching a threshold and crashing the computer.

1975

 * April: ANIMAL is written by John Walker for the UNIVAC 1108. ANIMAL asked several questions of the user in an attempt to guess the type of animal the user was thinking of, while the related program PERVADE would create a copy of itself and ANIMAL in every directory to which the current user had access. It spread across the multi-user UNIVACs when users with overlapping permissions discovered the game, and to other computers when tapes were shared. The program was carefully written to avoid damaging existing file or directory structures, and to avoid copying itself if permissions did not exist or if harm would result. Its spread was halted by an OS upgrade that changed the format of the file status tables PERVADE used. Though non-malicious, "Pervading Animal" represents the first Trojan "in the wild".
 * The novel The Shockwave Rider by John Brunner is published, coining the word "worm" to describe a program that propagates itself through a computer network.

1977

 * The Adolescence of P-1 novel, describes a worm program that propagates through modem-based networks, eventually developing its own strategy-developing AI, which deals with cross-hardware and cross-os issues, eventually infecting hardware manufactures and defense organizations.

1982

 * A program called Elk Cloner, written for Apple II systems, was created by high school student Richard Skrenta, originally as a prank. The Apple II was particularly vulnerable due to the storage of its operating system on a floppy disk. Elk Cloner's design combined with public ignorance about what malware was and how to protect against it led to Elk Cloner being responsible for the first large-scale computer virus outbreak in history.

1983

 * November: The term "virus" is re-coined by Frederick B. Cohen in describing self-replicating computer programs. In 1984 Cohen uses the phrase "computer virus" (suggested by his teacher Leonard Adleman) to describe the operation of such programs in terms of "infection". He defines a "virus" as "a program that can 'infect' other programs by modifying them to include a possibly evolved copy of itself." Cohen demonstrates a virus-like program on a VAX11/750 system at Lehigh University. The program could install itself in, or infect, other system objects.

1984

 * August: Ken Thompson publishes his seminal paper, "Reflections on Trusting Trust", in which he describes how he modified a C compiler so that when used to compile a specific version of the Unix operating system, it inserts a backdoor into the login command, and when used to compile a new copy of itself, it inserts the backdoor insertion code, even if neither the backdoor nor the backdoor insertion code is present in the source code of this new copy.

1986

 * January: The Brain boot sector virus is released. Brain is considered the first IBM PC compatible virus, and the program responsible for the first IBM PC compatible virus epidemic. The virus is also known as Lahore, Pakistani, Pakistani Brain, and Pakistani flu as it was created in Lahore, Pakistan, by 19-year-old Pakistani programmer Basit Farooq Alvi and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi.
 * December: Ralf Burger presented the Virdem model of programs at a meeting of the underground Chaos Computer Club in Germany. The Virdem model represented the first programs that could replicate themselves via addition of their code to executable DOS files in COM format.

1987

 * Appearance of the Vienna virus, which was subsequently neutralized – the first time this had happened on the IBM platform.
 * Appearance of Lehigh virus (discovered at its namesake university), boot sector viruses such as Yale from the US, Stoned from New Zealand, Ping Pong from Italy, and appearance of the first self-encrypting file virus, Cascade. Lehigh was stopped on campus before it spread to the "wild" (to computers beyond the university), and as a result, has never been found elsewhere. A subsequent infection of Cascade in the offices of IBM Belgium led to IBM responding with its own antivirus product development. Prior to this, antivirus solutions developed at IBM were intended for staff use only.
 * October: The Jerusalem virus, part of the (at that time unknown) Suriv family, is detected in the city of Jerusalem. The virus destroys all executable files on infected machines upon every occurrence of Friday the 13th (except Friday 13 November 1987 making its first trigger date May 13, 1988). Jerusalem caused a worldwide epidemic in 1988.
 * November: The SCA virus, a boot sector virus for Amiga computers, appears. It immediately creates a pandemic virus-writer storm. A short time later, SCA releases another, considerably more destructive virus, the Byte Bandit.
 * December: Christmas Tree EXEC was the first widely disruptive replicating network program, which paralyzed several international computer networks in December 1987. It was written in Rexx on the VM/CMS operating system and originated in West Germany. It re-emerged in 1990.

1988

 * March 1: The Ping-Pong virus (also called Boot, Bouncing Ball, Bouncing Dot, Italian, Italian-A or VeraCruz), an MS-DOS boot sector virus, is discovered at the University of Turin in Italy.
 * June: The CyberAIDS and Festering Hate Apple ProDOS viruses spreads from underground pirate BBS systems and starts infecting mainstream networks. Festering Hate was the last iteration of the CyberAIDS series extending back to 1985 and 1986. Unlike the few Apple viruses that had come before which were essentially annoying, but did no damage, the Festering Hate series of viruses was extremely destructive, spreading to all system files it could find on the host computer (hard drive, floppy, and system memory) and then destroying everything when it could no longer find any uninfected files.
 * November 2: The Morris worm, created by Robert Tappan Morris, infects DEC VAX and Sun machines running BSD UNIX that are connected to the Internet, and becomes the first worm to spread extensively "in the wild", and one of the first well-known programs exploiting buffer overrun vulnerabilities.
 * December: The Father Christmas worm attacks DEC VAX machines running VMS that are connected to the DECnet Internet (an international scientific research network using DECnet protocols), affecting NASA and other research centers. Its purpose was to deliver a Christmas greeting to all affected users.

1989

 * October: Ghostball, the first multipartite virus, is discovered by Friðrik Skúlason. It infects both executable .COM files and boot sectors on MS-DOS systems.
 * December: Several thousand floppy disks containing the AIDS Trojan, the first known ransomware, are mailed to subscribers of PC Business World magazine and a WHO AIDS conference mailing list. This DOS Trojan lies dormant for 90 boot cycles, then encrypts all filenames on the system, displaying a notice asking for $189 to be sent to a post office box in Panama in order to receive a decryption program.

1990

 * Mark Washburn, working on an analysis of the Vienna and Cascade viruses with Ralf Burger, develops the first family of polymorphic viruses, the Chameleon family. Chameleon series debuted with the release of 1260.
 * June: The Form computer virus is isolated in Switzerland. It would remain in the wild for almost 20 years and reappear afterward; during the 1990s it tended to be the most common virus in the wild with 20 to more than 50 percent of reported infections.

1991

 * Mattel releases a toyline called "Computer Warriors," bringing computer viruses into mainstream media. The villain, Megahert, is a sentient computer virus.

1992

 * March: The Michelangelo virus was expected to create a digital apocalypse on March 6, with millions of computers having their information wiped, according to mass media hysteria surrounding the virus. Later assessments of the damage showed the aftermath to be minimal. John McAfee had been quoted by the media as saying that five million computers would be affected. He later said that pressed by the interviewer to come up with a number, he had estimated a range from five thousand to five million, but the media naturally went with just the higher number.
 * October: Milton-Bradley releases Omega Virus, a board game containing one of the first examples of a sentient computer virus in mainstream media.

1993

 * "Leandro" or "Leandro & Kelly" and "Freddy Krueger" spread quickly due to popularity of BBS and shareware distribution.

1994

 * April: OneHalf is a DOS-based polymorphic computer virus.
 * September: ReBoot first airs, containing another memorable fictional, sentient computer virus, Megabyte.

1995

 * The first Macro virus, called "Concept", is created. It attacked Microsoft Word documents.

1996

 * "Ply" – DOS 16-bit based complicated polymorphic virus appeared with a built-in permutation engine.
 * Boza, the first virus designed specifically for Windows 95 files arrives.
 * Laroux, the first Excel macro virus appears.
 * Staog, the first Linux virus attacks Linux machines

1997

 * Esperanto, the first cross-platform virus, appears.

1998

 * June 2: The first version of the CIH virus appears. It is the first known virus able to erase flash ROM BIOS content.

1999

 * January 20: The Happy99 worm first appeared. It invisibly attaches itself to emails, displays fireworks to hide the changes being made, and wishes the user a happy New Year. It modifies system files related to Outlook Express and Internet Explorer (IE) on Windows 95 and Windows 98.
 * February : The Sub7 is released targeting the Windows 9x and on the Windows NT family of operating systems.
 * March 26: The Melissa worm was released, targeting Microsoft Word and Outlook-based systems, and creating considerable network traffic.
 * June 6: The ExploreZip worm, which destroys Microsoft Office documents, was first detected.
 * September: the CTX virus is isolated
 * December 30: The Kak worm is a JavaScript computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a bug in Outlook Express.

2000

 * May 5: The ILOVEYOU worm (also known as the Love Letter, VBS, or Love Bug worm), a computer worm written in VBScript and using social engineering techniques, infected millions of Windows computers worldwide within a few hours of its release.
 * June 28: The Pikachu virus is believed to be the first computer virus geared at children. It contains the character "Pikachu" from the Pokémon series. The operating systems affected by this worm are Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME.

2001

 * February 11: The Anna Kournikova virus hits e-mail servers hard by sending e-mail to contacts in the Microsoft Outlook addressbook. Its creator, Jan de Wit, was sentenced to 150 hours of community service.
 * March 13: Magistr, also called Disembowler, is discovered. It is a complex email worm for Windows systems with multiple payloads that trigger months apart from each other. It targets members of the Law profession by searching the files on a user's computer for various keywords relating to court proceedings, activating if such are found.
 * May 8: The Sadmind worm spreads by exploiting holes in both Sun Solaris and Microsoft IIS.
 * July: The Sircam worm is released, spreading through Microsoft systems via e-mail and unprotected network shares.
 * July 13: The Code Red worm attacking the Index Server ISAPI Extension in Microsoft Internet Information Services is released.
 * August 4: A complete re-write of the Code Red worm, Code Red II begins aggressively spreading onto Microsoft systems, primarily in China.
 * September 18: The Nimda worm is discovered and spreads through a variety of means including vulnerabilities in Microsoft Windows and backdoors left by Code Red II and Sadmind worm.
 * October 26: The Klez worm is first identified. It exploits a vulnerability in Microsoft Internet Explorer and Microsoft Outlook and Outlook Express.

2002

 * February 11: The Simile virus is a metamorphic computer virus written in assembly.
 * Beast is a Windows-based backdoor Trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool). It is capable of infecting almost all versions of Windows. Written in Delphi and released first by its author Tataye in 2002, its most current version was released on October 3, 2004.
 * March 7: Mylife is a computer worm that spread itself by sending malicious emails to all the contacts in Microsoft Outlook.

2003

 * January 24: The SQL Slammer worm, aka Sapphire worm, Helkern and other names, attacks vulnerabilities in Microsoft SQL Server and MSDE becomes the fastest spreading worm of all time (measured by doubling time at the peak rate of growth), causing massive Internet access disruptions worldwide just fifteen minutes after infecting its first victim.
 * April 2: Graybird is a trojan horse also known as Backdoor.Graybird.
 * June 13: ProRat is a Turkish-made Microsoft Windows based backdoor trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool).
 * August 12: The Blaster worm, aka the Lovesan worm, rapidly spreads by exploiting a vulnerability in system services present on Windows computers.
 * August 18: The Welchia (Nachi) worm is discovered. The worm tries to remove the Blaster worm and patch Windows.
 * August 19: The Sobig worm (technically the Sobig.F worm) spreads rapidly through Microsoft systems via mail and network shares.
 * September 18: Swen is a computer worm written in C++.
 * October 24: The Sober worm is first seen on Microsoft systems and maintains its presence until 2005 with many new variants. The simultaneous attacks on network weak points by the Blaster and Sobig worms cause massive damage.
 * November 10: Agobot is a computer worm that can spread itself by exploiting vulnerabilities on Microsoft Windows. Some of the vulnerabilities are MS03-026 and MS05-039.
 * November 20: Bolgimo is a computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a buffer overflow vulnerability at Microsoft Windows DCOM RPC Interface.

2004

 * January 18: Bagle is a mass-mailing worm affecting all versions of Microsoft Windows. There were two variants of Bagle worm, Bagle.A and Bagle.B. Bagle.B was discovered on February 17, 2004.
 * January 26: The MyDoom worm emerges, and currently holds the record for the fastest-spreading mass mailer worm. The worm was most notable for performing a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack on www.sco.com, which belonged to The SCO Group.
 * February 16: The Netsky worm is discovered. The worm spreads by email and by copying itself to folders on the local hard drive as well as on mapped network drives if available. Many variants of the Netsky worm appeared.
 * March 19: The Witty worm is a record-breaking worm in many regards. It exploited holes in several Internet Security Systems (ISS) products. It was the fastest computer issue to be categorized as a worm, and it was the first internet worm to carry a destructive payload. It spread rapidly using a pre-populated list of ground-zero hosts.
 * May 1: The Sasser worm emerges by exploiting a vulnerability in the Microsoft Windows LSASS service and causes problems in networks, while removing MyDoom and Bagle variants, even interrupting business.
 * June 15: Caribe or Cabir is a computer worm that is designed to infect mobile phones that run Symbian OS. It is the first computer worm that can infect mobile phones. It spread itself through Bluetooth. More information can be found on F-Secure and Symantec.
 * August 16: Nuclear RAT (short for Nuclear Remote Administration Tool) is a backdoor trojan that infects Windows NT family systems (Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 2003).
 * August 20: Vundo, or the Vundo Trojan (also known as Virtumonde or Virtumondo and sometimes referred to as MS Juan) is a trojan known to cause popups and advertising for rogue antispyware programs, and sporadically other misbehavior including performance degradation and denial of service with some websites including Google and Facebook.
 * October 12: Bifrost, also known as Bifrose, is a backdoor trojan which can infect Windows 95 through Vista. Bifrost uses the typical server, server builder, and client backdoor program configuration to allow a remote attack.
 * December: Santy, the first known "webworm" is launched. It exploited a vulnerability in phpBB and used Google to find new targets. It infected around 40000 sites before Google filtered the search query used by the worm, preventing it from spreading.

2005

 * August 2005: Zotob is a computer worm which exploits security vulnerabilities in Microsoft operating systems like Windows 2000, including the MS05-039 plug-and-play vulnerability. This worm has been known to spread on Microsoft-ds or TCP port 445.
 * October 2005: The copy protection rootkit deliberately and surreptitiously included on music CDs sold by Sony BMG is exposed. The rootkit creates vulnerabilities on affected computers, making them susceptible to infection by worms and viruses.
 * Late 2005: The Zlob Trojan, is a Trojan horse program that masquerades as a required video codec in the form of the Microsoft Windows ActiveX component. It was first detected in late 2005.

2006

 * January 20: The Nyxem worm was discovered. It spread by mass-mailing. Its payload, which activates on the third of every month, starting on February 3, attempts to disable security-related and file-sharing software, and destroy files of certain types, such as Microsoft Office files.
 * February 16: Discovery of the first-ever malware for Mac OS X, a low-threat trojan-horse known as OSX/Leap-A or OSX/Oompa-A, is announced.
 * Late March: Brontok variant N was found in late March. Brontok was a mass-email worm and the origin for the worm was from Indonesia.
 * June: Starbucks is a virus that infects StarOffice and OpenOffice.
 * Late September: Stration or Warezov worm first discovered.
 * Development of Stuxnet is presumed to have been started between 2005 and 2006.

2007

 * January 17: Storm Worm identified as a fast-spreading email spamming threat to Microsoft systems. It begins gathering infected computers into the Storm botnet. By around June 30, it had infected 1.7 million computers, and it had compromised between 1 and 10 million computers by September. Thought to have originated from Russia, it disguises itself as a news email containing a film about bogus news stories asking the user to download the attachment which it claims is a film.
 * July: Zeus is a trojan that targets Microsoft Windows to steal banking information by keystroke logging.

2008

 * February 17: Mocmex is a trojan, which was found in a digital photo frame in February 2008. It was the first serious computer virus on a digital photo frame. The virus was traced back to a group in China.
 * March 3: Torpig, also known as Sinowal and Mebroot, is a Trojan horse that affects Windows, turning off anti-virus applications. It allows others to access the computer, modifies data, steals confidential information (such as user passwords and other sensitive data) and installs more malware on the victim's computer.
 * May 6: Rustock.C, a hitherto-rumored spambot-type malware with advanced rootkit capabilities, was announced to have been detected on Microsoft systems and analyzed, having been in the wild and undetected since October 2007 at the very least.
 * July 6: Bohmini.A is a configurable remote access tool or trojan that exploits security flaws in Adobe Flash 9.0.115 with Internet Explorer 7.0 and Firefox 2.0 under Windows XP SP2.
 * July 31: The Koobface computer worm targets users of Facebook and Myspace. New variants constantly appear.
 * November 21: Computer worm Conficker infects anywhere from 9 to 15 million Microsoft server systems running everything from Windows 2000 to the Windows 7 Beta. The French Navy, UK Ministry of Defence (including Royal Navy warships and submarines), Sheffield Hospital network, German Bundeswehr and Norwegian Police were all affected. Microsoft sets a bounty of US$250,000 for information leading to the capture of the worm's author(s). Five main variants of the Conficker worm are known and have been dubbed Conficker A, B, C, D and E. They were discovered 21 November 2008, 29 December 2008, 20 February 2009, 4 March 2009 and 7 April 2009, respectively. On December 16, 2008, Microsoft releases KB958644 patching the server service vulnerability responsible for the spread of Conficker.

2009

 * July 4: The July 2009 cyber attacks occur and the emergence of the W32.Dozer attack the United States and South Korea.
 * July 15: Symantec discovered Daprosy Worm, a trojan worm is intended to steal online-game passwords in internet cafes. It could intercept all keystrokes and send them to its author, making it potentially a very dangerous worm to infect B2B (business-to-business) systems.
 * August 24: Source code for MegaPanzer is released by its author under GPLv3. and appears to have been apparently detected in the wild.
 * November 27: The virus Kenzero is a virus that spreads online from peer-to-peer networks (P2P) taking browsing history.

2010

 * January: The Waledac botnet sent spam emails. In February 2010, an international group of security researchers and Microsoft took Waledac down.
 * January: The Psyb0t worm is discovered. It is thought to be unique in that it can infect routers and high-speed modems.
 * February 18: Microsoft announced that a BSoD problem on some Windows machines which was triggered by a batch of Patch Tuesday updates was caused by the Alureon Trojan.
 * June 17: Stuxnet, a Windows Trojan, was detected. It is the first worm to attack SCADA systems. There are suggestions that it was designed to target Iranian nuclear facilities. It uses a valid certificate from Realtek.
 * September 9: The virus, called "here you have" or "VBMania", is a simple Trojan horse that arrives in the inbox with the odd-but-suggestive subject line "here you have". The body reads "This is The Document I told you about, you can find it Here" or "This is The Free Download Sex Movies, you can find it Here".

2011

 * SpyEye and Zeus merged code is seen. New variants attack mobile phone banking information.
 * Anti-Spyware 2011, a Trojan horse that attacks Windows 9x, 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7, posing as an anti-spyware program. It disables security-related processes of anti-virus programs, while also blocking access to the Internet, which prevents updates.
 * Summer 2011: The Morto worm attempts to propagate itself to additional computers via the Microsoft Windows Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). Morto spreads by forcing infected systems to scan for Windows servers allowing RDP login. Once Morto finds an RDP-accessible system, it attempts to log into a domain or local system account named 'Administrator' using several common passwords. A detailed overview of how the worm works – along with the password dictionary Morto uses – was done by Imperva.
 * July 13: the ZeroAccess rootkit (also known as Sirefef or max++) was discovered.
 * September 1: Duqu is a worm thought to be related to the Stuxnet worm. The Laboratory of Cryptography and System Security (CrySyS Lab) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics in Hungary discovered the threat, analysed the malware, and wrote a 60-page report naming the threat Duqu. Duqu gets its name from the prefix "~DQ" it gives to the names of files it creates.

2012

 * May: Flame – also known as Flamer, sKyWIper, and Skywiper – a modular computer malware that attacks computers running Microsoft Windows. Used for targeted cyber espionage in Middle Eastern countries. Its discovery was announced on 28 May 2012 by MAHER Center of Iranian National Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT), Kaspersky Lab and CrySyS Lab of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. CrySyS stated in their report that "sKyWIper is certainly the most sophisticated malware we encountered during our practice; arguably, it is the most complex malware ever found".
 * August 16: Shamoon is a computer virus designed to target computers running Microsoft Windows in the energy sector. Symantec, Kaspersky Lab, and Seculert announced its discovery on August 16, 2012.
 * September 20: NGRBot is a worm that uses the IRC network for file transfer, sending and receiving commands between zombie network machines and the attacker's IRC server, and monitoring and controlling network connectivity and intercept. It employs a user-mode rootkit technique to hide and steal its victim's information. This family of bot is also designed to infect HTML pages with inline frames (iframes), causing redirections, blocking victims from getting updates from security/antimalware products, and killing those services. The bot is designed to connect via a predefined IRC channel and communicate with a remote botnet.

2013

 * September: The CryptoLocker Trojan horse is discovered. CryptoLocker encrypts the files on a user's hard drive, then prompts them to pay a ransom to the developer to receive the decryption key. In the following months, several copycat ransomware Trojans were also discovered.
 * December: The Gameover ZeuS Trojan is discovered. This type of virus steals one's login details on popular Web sites that involve monetary transactions. It works by detecting a login page, then proceeds to inject malicious code into the page, keystroke logging the computer user's details.
 * December: Linux.Darlloz targets the Internet of things and infects routers, security cameras, set-top boxes by exploiting a PHP vulnerability.

2014

 * November: The Regin Trojan horse is discovered. Regin is a dropper, primarily spread via spoofed Web pages. Once installed, it quietly downloads additional malware, making it difficult for signature-based anti-virus programs to detect. It is believed to have been created by the United States and United Kingdom as a tool for espionage and mass surveillance.

2015

 * The BASHLITE malware is leaked leading to a massive spike in DDoS attacks.
 * Linux.Wifatch is revealed to the general public. It is found to attempt to secure devices from other more malicious malware.

2016

 * January: A trojan named "MEMZ" is created. The creator, Leurak, explained that the trojan was intended merely as a joke. The trojan alerts the user to the fact that it is a trojan and warns them that if they proceed, the computer may no longer be usable. It contains complex payloads that corrupt the system, displaying artifacts on the screen as it runs. Once run, the application cannot be closed without causing further damage to the computer, which will stop functioning properly regardless. When the computer is restarted, in place of the bootsplash is a message that reads "Your computer has been trashed by the MEMZ Trojan. Now enjoy the Nyan cat...", which follows with an animation of the Nyan Cat.
 * February: Ransomware Locky with its over 60 derivatives spread throughout Europe and infected several million computers. At the height of the spread over five thousand computers per hour were infected in Germany alone. Although ransomware was not a new thing at the time, insufficient cyber security as well as a lack of standards in IT was responsible for the high number of infections. Unfortunately, even up to date antivirus and internet security software was unable to protect systems from early versions of Locky.
 * February: Tiny Banker Trojan (Tinba) makes headlines. Since its discovery, it has been found to have infected more than two dozen major banking institutions in the United States, including TD Bank, Chase, HSBC, Wells Fargo, PNC and Bank of America. Tiny Banker Trojan uses HTTP injection to force the user's computer to believe that it is on the bank's website. This spoof page will look and function just as the real one. The user then enters their information to log on, at which point Tinba can launch the bank webpage's "incorrect login information" return, and redirect the user to the real website. This is to trick the user into thinking they had entered the wrong information and proceed as normal, although now Tinba has captured the credentials and sent them to its host.
 * August: Journalists and researchers report the discovery of spyware, called Pegasus, developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often – based on 0-day exploits – without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time. The investigation suggests it was used on many targets worldwide and revealed its use for e.g. governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others.
 * September: Mirai creates headlines by launching some of the most powerful and disruptive DDoS attacks seen to date by infecting the Internet of Things. Mirai ends up being used in the DDoS attack on 20 September 2016 on the Krebs on Security site which reached 620 Gbit/s. Ars Technica also reported a 1 Tbit/s attack on French web host OVH. On 21 October 2016 multiple major DDoS attacks in DNS services of DNS service provider Dyn occurred using Mirai malware installed on a large number of IoT devices, resulting in the inaccessibility of several high-profile websites such as GitHub, Twitter, Reddit, Netflix, Airbnb and many others. The attribution of the attack to the Mirai botnet was originally reported by BackConnect Inc., a security firm.

2017

 * May: The WannaCry ransomware attack spreads globally. Exploits revealed in the NSA hacking toolkit leak of late 2016 were used to enable the propagation of the malware. Shortly after the news of the infections broke online, a UK cybersecurity researcher in collaboration with others found and activated a "kill switch" hidden within the ransomware, effectively halting the initial wave of its global propagation. The next day, researchers announced that they had found new variants of the malware without the kill switch.
 * June: The Petya attack spreads globally affecting Windows systems. Researchers at Symantec reveal that this ransomware uses the EternalBlue exploit, similar to the one used in the WannaCry ransomware attack.
 * September: The Xafecopy Trojan attacks 47 countries, affecting only Android operating systems. Kaspersky Lab identified it as a malware from the Ubsod family, stealing money through click based WAP billing systems.
 * September: A new variety of Remote Access Trojan (RAT), Kedi RAT, is distributed in a Spear Phishing Campaign. The attack targeted Citrix users. The Trojan was able to evade usual system scanners. Kedi Trojan had all the characteristics of a common Remote Access Trojan and it could communicate to its Command and Control center via Gmail using common HTML, HTTP protocols.

2018

 * February: Thanatos, a ransomware, becomes the first ransomware program to accept ransom payment in Bitcoin Cash.

2019

 * November: Titanium is an advanced backdoor malware, developed by the PLATINUM APT.

2024
Researchers Nassi, Cohen, and Bitton developed a computer worm called Morris II, targeting generative AI email assistants to steal data and send spam, thereby breaching security protections of systems like ChatGPT and Gemini. Conducted in a test environment, this research highlights the security risks of multimodal large language models (LLMs) that now generate text, images, and videos. Generative AI systems, which operate on prompts, can be exploited through weaponized prompts. For instance, hidden text on a webpage could instruct an LLM to perform malicious activities, such as phishing for bank details. While generative AI worms like Morris II haven’t been observed in the public, their potential threat is a concern for the tech industry.
 * March 29: XZ Utils backdoor is discovered.
 * April 1: The Linux's WALLSCAPE Bug is discovered.
 * June 29: Brain Cipher - a variant of LockBit 3.0 Ransomware behind Indonesia's Data Center attacks.

title: Timeline of computer viruses and worms


text:
Reflection nebula

In astronomy, reflection nebulae are clouds of interstellar dust which might reflect the light of a nearby star or stars. The energy from the nearby stars is insufficient to ionize the gas of the nebula to create an emission nebula, but is enough to give sufficient scattering to make the dust visible. Thus, the frequency spectrum shown by reflection nebulae is similar to that of the illuminating stars. Among the microscopic particles responsible for the scattering are carbon compounds (e. g. diamond dust) and compounds of other elements such as iron and nickel. The latter two are often aligned with the galactic magnetic field and cause the scattered light to be slightly polarized.

Discovery
Analyzing the spectrum of the nebula associated with the star Merope in the Pleiades, Vesto Slipher concluded in 1912 that the source of its light is most likely the star itself, and that the nebula reflects light from the star (and that of the star Alcyone). Calculations by Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1913 lend credence to that hypothesis. Edwin Hubble further distinguished between the emission and reflection nebulae in 1922.

Reflection nebula are usually blue because the scattering is more efficient for blue light than red (this is the same scattering process that gives us blue skies and red sunsets).

Reflection nebulae and emission nebulae are often seen together and are sometimes both referred to as diffuse nebulae.

Some 500 reflection nebulae are known. A blue reflection nebula can also be seen in the same area of the sky as the Trifid Nebula. The supergiant star Antares, which is very red (spectral class M1), is surrounded by a large, yellow reflection nebula.

Reflection nebulae may also be the site of star formation.

Luminosity law
In 1922, Edwin Hubble published the result of his investigations on bright nebulae. One part of this work is the Hubble luminosity law for reflection nebulae, which makes a relationship between the angular size (R) of the nebula and the apparent magnitude (m) of the associated star:

$5 log(R) = −m + k$

where $k$ is a constant that depends on the sensitivity of the measurement.

title: Reflection nebula


text:
User:Gurdeep

Lady G

Hi im currently studying BIT at Kingston University and am required to experiment with wikipedia.

title: User:Gurdeep


text:
Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation

Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation (also called the Sharpless bishydroxylation) is the chemical reaction of an alkene with osmium tetroxide in the presence of a chiral quinine ligand to form a vicinal diol. The reaction has been applied to alkenes of virtually every substitution, often high enantioselectivities are realized, with the chiral outcome controlled by the choice of dihydroquinidine (DHQD) vs dihydroquinine (DHQ) as the ligand. Asymmetric dihydroxylation reactions are also highly site selective, providing products derived from reaction of the most electron-rich double bond in the substrate.

It is common practice to perform this reaction using a catalytic amount of osmium tetroxide, which after reaction is regenerated with reoxidants such as potassium ferricyanide or N-methylmorpholine N-oxide. This dramatically reduces the amount of the highly toxic and very expensive osmium tetroxide needed. These four reagents are commercially available premixed ("AD-mix"). The mixture containing (DHQ)2-PHAL is called AD-mix-α, and the mixture containing (DHQD)2-PHAL is called AD-mix-β.

Such chiral diols are important in organic synthesis. The introduction of chirality into nonchiral reactants through usage of chiral catalysts is an important concept in organic synthesis. This reaction was developed principally by K. Barry Sharpless building on the already known racemic Upjohn dihydroxylation, for which he was awarded a share of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Background
Alkene dihydroxylation by osmium tetroxide is an old and extremely useful method for the functionalization of olefins. However, since osmium(VIII) reagents like osmium tetroxide (OsO4) are expensive and extremely toxic, it has become desirable to develop catalytic variants of this reaction. Some stoichiometric terminal oxidants that have been employed in these catalytic reactions include potassium chlorate, hydrogen peroxide (Milas hydroxylation), N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMO, Upjohn dihydroxylation), tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP), and potassium ferricyanide (K3Fe(CN)6). K. Barry Sharpless was the first to develop a general, reliable enantioselective alkene dihydroxylation, referred to as the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation (SAD). Low levels of OsO4 are combined with a stoichiometric ferricyanide oxidant in the presence of chiral nitrogenous ligands to create an asymmetric environment around the oxidant.

Reaction mechanism
The reaction mechanism of the Sharpless dihydroxylation begins with the formation of the osmium tetroxide – ligand complex (2). A [3+2] -cycloaddition with the alkene (3) gives the cyclic intermediate 4. Basic hydrolysis liberates the diol (5) and the reduced osmate (6). Methanesulfonamide (CH3SO2NH2) has been identified as a catalyst to accelerate this step of the catalytic cycle and if frequently used as an additive to allow non-terminal alkene substrates to react efficiently at 0 °C. Finally, the stoichiometric oxidant regenerates the osmium tetroxide – ligand complex (2).

The mechanism of the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation has been extensively studied and a potential secondary catalytic cycle has been identified (see below). If the osmylate ester intermediate is oxidized before it dissociates, then an osmium(VIII)-diol complex is formed which may then dihydroxylate another alkene. Dihydroxylations resulting from this secondary pathway generally suffer lower enantioselectivities than those resulting from the primary pathway. A schematic showing this secondary catalytic pathway is shown below. This secondary pathway may be suppressed by using a higher molar concentration of ligand.

[2+2] vs [3+2] debate
In his original report Sharpless suggested the reaction proceeded via a [2+2] cycloaddition of OsO4 onto the alkene to give an osmaoxetane intermediate (see below). This intermediate would then undergo a 1,1- migratory insertion to form an osmylate ester which after hydrolysis would give the corresponding diol. In 1989 E. J. Corey published a slightly different variant of this reaction and suggested that the reaction most likely proceeded via a [3+2] cycloaddition of OsO4 with the alkene to directly generate the osmylate ester. Corey's suggestion was based on a previous computational study done by Jorgensen and Hoffmann which determined the [3+2] reaction pathway to be the lower energy pathway. In addition Corey reasoned that steric repulsions in the octahedral intermediate would disfavor the [2+2] pathway.

The next ten years saw numerous publications by both Corey and Sharpless, each supporting their own version of the mechanism. While these studies were not able to distinguish between the two proposed cyclization pathways, they were successful in shedding light on the mechanism in other ways. For example, Sharpless provided evidence for the reaction proceeding via a step-wise mechanism. Additionally both Sharpless and Corey showed that the active catalyst possesses a U-shaped chiral binding pocket. Corey also showed that the catalyst obeys Michaelis-Menten kinetics and acts like an enzyme pocket with a pre-equilibrium. In the February 1997 issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society Sharpless published the results of a study (a Hammett analysis) which he claimed supported a [2+2] cyclization over a [3+2]. In the October issue of the same year, however, Sharpless also published the results of another study conducted in collaboration with Ken Houk and Singleton which provided conclusive evidence for the [3+2] mechanism. Thus Sharpless was forced to concede the decade-long debate.

Catalyst structure
Crystallographic evidence has shown that the active catalyst possesses a pentacoordinate osmium species held in a U-shaped binding pocket. The nitrogenous ligand holds OsO4 in a chiral environment making approach of one side of the olefin sterically hindered while the other is not.

Catalytic systems
Numerous catalytic systems and modifications have been developed for the SAD. Given below is a brief overview of the various components of the catalytic system:
 * 1) Catalytic Oxidant: This is always OsO4, however certain additives can coordinate to the osmium(VIII) and modify its electronic properties. OsO4 is often generated in situ from K2OsO2(OH)4 (an Os(VI) species) due to safety concerns.
 * 2) Chiral Auxiliary: This is usually some kind of cinchona alkaloid.
 * 3) Stoichiometric Oxidant:
 * 4) * Peroxides were among the first stoichiometric oxidants to be used in this catalytic cycle; see the Milas hydroxylation. Drawbacks of peroxides include chemoselectivity issues.
 * 5) * Trialkylammonium N-oxides, such as NMO—as in the Upjohn Reaction—and trimethylamine N-oxide.
 * 6) * Potassium ferricyanide (K3Fe(CN)6) is the most commonly used stoichiometric oxidant for the reaction, and is the oxidant that comes in the commercially available AD-mix preparations.
 * 7) Additive:
 * 8) * Citric acid: Osmium tetroxide is an electrophilic oxidant and as such reacts slowly with electron-deficient olefins. It has been found that the rate of oxidation of electron-deficient olefins can be accelerated by maintaining the pH of the reaction slightly acidic. On the other hand, a high pH can increase the rate of oxidation of internal olefins, and also increase the enantiomeric excess (e.e.) for the oxidation of terminal olefins.

Regioselectivity
In general Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation favors oxidation of the more electron-rich alkene (scheme 1).

In this example SAD gives the diol of the alkene closest to the (electron-withdrawing) para-methoxybenzoyl group, albeit in low yield. This is likely due to the ability of the aryl ring to interact favorably with the active site of the catalyst via π-stacking. In this manner the aryl substituent can act as a directing group.

Stereoselectivity
The diastereoselectivity of SAD is set primarily by the choice of ligand (i.e. AD-mix-α versus AD-mix-β), however factors such as pre-existing chirality in the substrate or neighboring functional groups may also play a role. In the example shown below, the para-methoxybenzoyl substituent serves primarily as a source of steric bulk to allow the catalyst to differentiate the two faces of the alkene.

It is often difficult to obtain high diastereoselectivity on cis-disubstituted alkenes when both ends of the olefin have similar steric environments.

title: Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation