text:
Mountbatten-Windsor

Mountbatten-Windsor is the personal surname used by some of the male-line descendants of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Under a declaration made in Privy Council in 1960, the name Mountbatten-Windsor applies to male-line descendants of Queen Elizabeth II without royal styles and titles. Individuals with royal styles do not usually use a surname, but some descendants of the Queen with royal styles have used Mountbatten-Windsor when a surname was required.

Current use
The British monarchy asserts that the name Mountbatten-Windsor is used by members of the royal family who do not have a surname, when a surname is required. For example, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and Anne, Princess Royal, children of Queen Elizabeth II, used the surname Mountbatten-Windsor in official marriage registry entries in 1986 and 1973 respectively. Likewise, William, Prince of Wales, used the name when filing a French lawsuit related to the topless pictures of his wife published by the French magazine Closer.

At the time of the 1960 declaration, palace officials claimed in private communications that it created a hidden surname that would emerge several generations later when some of Queen Elizabeth II's descendants were further removed from the throne. On the wedding of Prince Edward and Sophie Rhys-Jones in 1999, the Queen decided, with their agreement, that any of their future children should not be styled His or Her Royal Highness. Consequently, the birth of their daughter in 2003 marked the first emergence of the Mountbatten-Windsor surname. Their daughter was named Louise Alice Elizabeth Mary Mountbatten-Windsor, and she goes by the title of Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor, her father being the Duke of Edinburgh.

Mountbatten-Windsor differs from the official name of the British royal family, which remains the House of Windsor. In accordance with law and custom in the English-speaking world, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor belongs to all male-line descendants of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, and is used by them if and when a surname is needed. In contrast, male-line descendants of King George V, the first monarch of the House of Windsor, use Windsor as their surname if and when a surname is needed, as for example Lady Davina Windsor and Lady Marina Windsor, respectively descended from George V's sons Prince George, Duke of Kent and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester. (George V's other sons have no male-line descendants: King George VI had only daughters while King Edward VIII had no issue and Prince John was unmarried.) After the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was renamed Windsor, other descendants of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert could also use the name Windsor, as for example, Alastair Arthur Windsor, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, grandson of their son Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. None do so today, however, because the only male line (apart from the descendants of King George V) is through Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, whose descendants use the surname Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (English) or von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (German).

Male-line descendants of Elizabeth II and Philip
The family tree is based on the current line of succession to the British throne (addition of last heir)

 * Crown of Saint Edward (Heraldry).svg Queen Elizabeth II (1926–2022) ⚭ Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1921–2021) – m. 1947
 * Tudor Crown (Heraldry).svg King Charles III (b. 1948)
 * (1) Coronet of the British Heir Apparent.svg William, Prince of Wales (b. 1982)
 * (2) Coronet of a Child of the Heir Apparent.svg Prince George of Wales (b. 2013)
 * (3) Coronet of a Child of the Heir Apparent.svg Princess Charlotte of Wales (b. 2015)
 * (4) Coronet of a Child of the Heir Apparent.svg Prince Louis of Wales (b. 2018)
 * (5) Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex (b. 1984)
 * (6) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg Prince Archie of Sussex (b. 2019)
 * (7) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg Princess Lilibet of Sussex (b. 2021)
 * (8) Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Prince Andrew, Duke of York (b. 1960)
 * (9) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi (b. 1988)
 * (11) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank (b. 1990)
 * (14) Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh (b. 1964)
 * (15) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex (b. 2007)
 * (16) Coronet of a Grandchild of the Sovereign.svg Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor (b. 2003)
 * (17) Coronet of a Child of the Sovereign.svg Anne, Princess Royal (b. 1950)

title: Mountbatten-Windsor


text:
Private copying levy

A private copying levy (also known as blank media tax or levy) is a government-mandated scheme in which a special tax or levy (additional to any general sales tax) is charged on purchases of recordable media. Such taxes are in place in various countries and the income is typically allocated to the developers of "content". (A distinction is sometimes made between "tax" and "levy" based on the recipient of the accumulated funds; taxes are received by a government, while levies are received by a private body, such as a copyright collective.)

Levy system may operate in principle as a system of collectivisation, partially replacing a property approach of sale of individual units.

History
Such levies were first introduced in Germany in the 1960s. With the advent of the audio cassette, legislators were persuaded that cassette recorders would decimate sales of records as friend after friend would then make copies of only one purchased album. Levies today are assessed on recordable compact discs, a form of media that did not exist when levies were first conceived. Although the bulk of unrecorded compact discs are actually used in the computing industry, they are still "taxed" to provide a revenue stream to the recording industry.

Levies are often considered a compensation for illegal file sharing. This is debatable, however: levies could be seen as not being an advance for fines, but rather, only intended to compensate for copies in the private sphere that are legally allowed in many jurisdictions. A notable exception in Europe is the UK, that does not allow private copies. But generally legislators allow private copies for two reasons: firstly, because otherwise the enforcement would be unfeasible for private reasons, and secondly because the administrative burden would be disproportionate.

European Union review
On 2015-07-09 the European Parliament approved a non-binding resolution (Reda Report) asking a review of the levy in the European Union, building on previous resolutions and studies.

"57. Recalls the importance of the private copying exception that may not be technically limited, coupled with fair compensation of creators; invites the Commission to analyse, on the basis of scientific evidence, Parliament's resolution of 27 February 2014 on private copying levies and the results of the latest mediation process conducted by the Commission, the viability of existing measures for the fair compensation of rightholders in respect of reproductions made by natural persons for private use, in particular in regard to transparency measures;

58. Notes that private copying levies should be governed in such a way as to inform citizens of the actual amount of the levy, its purpose and how it is going to be used;"

Questions on fairness
A difficulty that immediately arises is the practical impossibility of devising a mechanism for distributing the proceeds to copyright holders that is considered "fair" by all copyright holders and consumers. Implemented systems are typically restricted to music and may distribute the proceeds proportionally to a measurement of sales of CDs in music shops or amount of air-play on radio or the like. This ignores other distribution channels such as the Internet, and it disproportionally benefits popular artists and publishers of the related products. Fairer methods would arguably involve extensive sampling of purchasers to determine actual recording behaviour, or alternatively paying all musicians at a simple flat-rate (the preferred method will depend on one's political views).

While the prime purpose of levy systems is to compensate authors, some part of the collected money is also used for general cultural funding purposes. In Germany this is even required by law. It acknowledges the purpose of cultural diversity - which is not necessarily identical to free market effects. This funding is usually executed by the same entities (collecting societies) that distribute the levy money to individual authors. One may question however whether these entities are properly qualified to make culture policy.

Levy systems assume that all authors want to exploit their work for money. However this is not always true, especially on the internet. Many authors do not write to entertain, but to inform readers, listeners and viewers. Often their purpose is to reach the widest possible audience rather than make the maximum profit from the copyrighted work by itself. The discrepancy between reality and the assumption underlying a levy system is growing as "web 2.0" matures, with pervasive user-supplied content, from Wikipedia to YouTube.

A further problem is to find a proper tariff base for levies. Conceivably the levy may be a percentage of storage media sales price (e.g. 3% in the US). The implication of such a scheme is however that the author gets ever less as technology proceeds and becomes less expensive. But a price based on units of information (bits, or megabits) is not fair either, as for instance a DVD can be used to store a film, a computer game, a large amount of documents, or measurement data. The cost of producing a certain amount of bits widely varies by type of information. Measurement data is even not copyrighted at all. Yet in today's world of converging technology, storage media can be used for a wide range of purposes.

An implementation question that arises is whether the tax applies to any type of copyrighted work or is restricted to a limited field such as music. If it is restricted then the issue arises of how to collect the tax on media which can also be used for other purposes. The options include:

 * Collecting the tax on all media, regardless of the end use, and ignoring the injustice to purchasers with non-covered uses.
 * Allowing taxed and untaxed media to be sold, but with only the taxed media providing the copyright-relaxation benefits.
 * Collecting the tax on all media but allowing purchasers to claim a refund for media applied to non-covered uses.

Contrary Fairness arguments
 * Although these complexities make the systems of levies are far from perfect they do have some advantages related to fairness in that since there is compensation for private copying whereas in countries where there is no levies, there is a substantial amount of copying taking place without any due compensation being made.
 * With respect to fairness in countries with the levy everyone is shares in the financial burden caused by the levy. In countries that do not have the levy, many people are copying music and never receive any reprimands while others are made an example and prosecuted. This is the similar argument that non-proponents to the levy system use to show fault. They advocate that if the levy cannot be precisely applied to the people that are private copying, it is a faulty system. Likewise, if one cannot reprimand all people that are copying illegally and not compensating the music industry, this is also a faulty system. One system over subscribes, the other undersubscribes, both have faults.
 * Finally, those countries that do not have private copying laws are in fact making many of their citizens criminals. A law which makes potentially more than 50% of the population criminals does not seem to be a fair business practice. Lawyers rather than artists may well be the greatest beneficiaries in non-private copying countries. This argument assumes that private copying can only be allowed with a levy.

Legal effects
It is theorized that such levy may be linked to a corresponding relaxation of copyright law, by permitting the recording of copyrighted works on media for which the tax has been paid. However, there is little evidence to support this theory. On the contrary, lobbyists representing publishers and copyright holders have increased pressures to implement more restrictive laws, even on countries that have implemented private copying levy. In 2007, it was reported that International Intellectual Property Alliance put 23 of the world's 30 most populous countries into Priority Watch List, even though the United States, which was not in the list, has laws that are more liberal than the laws from the countries within the list.

Even when restricting levy system to devices that primarily play music, this itself creates loopholes that prevents collecting levies from cellphones, PDAs, and other all-in-one portable electronic devices. As a result, copyright holders will have to rely on even more laws to collect levy, and to increase rates of already levied product to recover perceived losses, which run against the political trends toward eliminating levy systems.

Regulations
Examples of countries operating such schemes:

Australia
Australia had a public levy on cassette tapes. The legislation establishing the levy was passed in 1989, challenged in the High Court of Australia in Australian Tape Manufacturers Association Ltd v Commonwealth. The court found the tax legal even though it went to private sources because it served a public purpose.

Copyright Amendment Act 1989 (Cth) introduced the Levy on blank tapes but was later repealed by Copyright Amendment (Re-Enactment) Act 1993 following the "blank tapes levy case" in the HCA in 1993.

Belgium
In Belgium a fee is charged on both blank media and recording equipment which is passed on to "Auvibel", which is in charge of distributing the funds. As of 1 February 2010, these fees are applicable for the following:

 * Equipment with integrated carrier:
 * MP3/MP4 player, cellphone with MP3/MP4 functionality:
 * capacity is less or equal to 2GB: €1.00
 * capacity is higher than 2GB and less or equal to 16GB: €2.50
 * capacity is higher than 16GB: €3.00
 * TV, Hi-Fi, combined DVD writer and videorecorder, multifunctional DVD home cinema, set top box, multimediacenter:
 * capacity is less or equal to 256GB: €3.30
 * capacity is higher than 256GB and less or equal to 1TB: €10.75
 * capacity is higher than 1TB: €13.00
 * Non-integrated equipment with integrated carrier:
 * DVD recorder, DVD reader, CD writer, videorecorder, DVD home cinema:
 * capacity is less or equal to 256GB: €3.30
 * capacity is higher than 256GB and less or equal to 1TB: €10.75
 * capacity is higher than 1TB: €13.00
 * For the following equipment, without integrated carrier, that are not integrate-able in a computer and work standalone, have a fee of €2.00:
 * Hi-Fi with radio-cassette-CD
 * Combined DVD writer and videorecorder
 * Combined DVD reader and videorecorder
 * Portable radio-cassette recorder
 * Combined portable radio-cassette-CD
 * TV and combined DVD writer
 * DVD recorder
 * Cassette deck
 * Videorecorder
 * CD writer
 * MiniDisc writer
 * CD audio to MiniDisc writer
 * Digital carriers:
 * Memorystick, memorycard:
 * capacity is less or equal to 2GB: €0.15
 * capacity is higher than 2GB and less or equal to 16GB: €0.50
 * capacity is higher than 16GB: €1.35
 * External hard drive:
 * capacity is less or equal to 256GB: €1.30
 * capacity is higher than 256GB and less or equal to 1TB: €6.75
 * capacity is higher than 1TB: €9.00
 * blank CD-R/RW, MiniCD-R/RW, MiniDVD-R/RW, MiniDisc, audiocassette DAT: €0.12/disc
 * blank DVD+/-R/RW: €0.40/disc
 * Analogue carriers:
 * audiocassette, audiotape, videocassette 8mm: €0.12
 * videocassette: €0.40

Canada
A blank media levy was introduced in Canada in 1997, by the addition of Part VIII, "Private Copying", to the Canadian Copyright Act. The power to set rates and to set the distribution allocation is vested in the Copyright Board of Canada. The Copyright Board has handed the task of collecting and distributing the funds to the Canadian Private Copying Collective, which is a non-profit private organization.

In Canada:

 * The levy applies to "blank audio recording media", such as CD-Rs.
 * The levy is paid by importers and manufacturers of such media sold within Canada (and typically passed on to the retailer, and passed on to the purchaser).
 * With the exception of the zero-rating exemption, the levy is collected regardless of the purchaser's end use of the media.
 * The private copying levy, less CPCC operating costs, is distributed as per the Copyright Board's allocation as: 58.2% to eligible authors and publishers, 23.8% to eligible performers and 18.0% to eligible record companies.
 * The Canadian Private Copying Collective has developed a method by which the proceeds are distributed to rights holders based on commercial radio airplay and commercial sales samples, ignoring radio/college airplay and independent record sales not logged by Soundscan. This method has been criticised as favouring major-label artists at the expense of the long-tail. As of September 7, 2007 over one hundred million dollars has been distributed.
 * In conjunction with the levy, the Copyright Act allows individuals to make copies of sound recordings for their own private, non-commercial use. They may not distribute the copy.
 * In 2005, the Federal Court of Appeal overruled a 2003 Copyright Board decision which had applied the blank media levy to MP3 players such as Apple Inc.'s iPod, on the basis that such devices did not qualify as "audio recording medium" as per the Copyright Act definition. Before this, the proposed rates were C$2 for players with less than 1 GB of capacity, $15 for players up to 15 GB, and $25 for players 15 GB and over.
 * On February 12, 2007, CPCC asked the Copyright Board of Canada to reintroduce the levy of $5 to $75, this time onto the memory component of the digital audio recorders (such as MP3 players) in Canada. In addition, CPCC also proposed levies of $2 to $10 for memory cards (since withdrawn), 8 cent increases to CD, CD-R Audio, CD-RW Audio and MiniDiscs. Certain parties objected to this tariff based on the 2005 Federal Court of Appeal precedent and brought a preliminary motion before the Copyright Board that would have prevented that part of the tariff application from being considered. The Copyright Board dismissed this preliminary motion in July 2007.
 * In September 2007, an application for judicial review was brought before the Federal Court of Appeal to appeal the Copyright Board's dismissal. On October 26, 2007, the court granted the Canadian Recording Industry Association's request to intervene in the private copying/iPod levy judicial review. Some argue that CRIA wanted to limit the scope of the private copying levy, given that it legalizes copying for the private use of the person making the copy, possibly regardless of whether the source is non-infringing or not.
 * In January 2008, the Federal Court of Appeal overturned the Copyright Board's July 2007 decision, stating that its previous ruling in the 2005 Canadian Private Copying Collective v. Canadian Storage Media Alliance case is dispositive authority for the proposition that "the Copyright Board has no legal authority to certify a tariff on digital audio recorders or on the memory permanently embedded in digital audio recorders."

Canada's current private copying levies are as follows: $0.29 per unit for CD-R, CD-RW, CD-R Audio, CD-RW Audio disks. The Pirate Party of Canada, or the PPCA, has called for the scrapping the levy, as there are plenty of non-piracy related uses for CDs and it is unjust to punish Canadians who don't use them for these purposes.

Finland
Finland had a blank media levy 1984-2015. From 2015 on the funds come directly from the state budget.

As of beginning of 2012, the fees were (in Euros):
 * €0.005/min for analog audio tapes (e.g. €0.30 for a 60-minute cassette)
 * €0.0076/min for analog video tapes (e.g. €1.37 for an E180 tape)
 * €0.20 per disk for CD and MiniDisc (capacity: up to 1 GB)
 * €0.60 per disk for DVD, DVD-RAM, DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL (capacity: from 1 GB to 10 GB)
 * €1.20 per disk for Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD (capacity: over 10 GB to 25 GB)
 * €1.80 per disk for Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD (capacity: over 25 GB)
 * €4 to €36 depending on capacity of digital audio players or personal video recorders.
 * €4, memory up to 512 MB
 * €7, over 512 MB to 1 GB
 * €10, over 1 GB to 20 GB
 * €12, over 20 GB to 50 GB
 * €15, over 50 GB to 150 GB
 * €18, over 150 GB to 250 GB
 * €25, over 250 GB to 500 GB
 * €30, over 500 GB to 750 GB
 * €36, over 750 GB
 * €5 to €18 for external hard disk drives:
 * €9, over 50 GB to 250 GB
 * €12, over 250 GB to 1 TB
 * €18, over 1TB to 3 TB
 * smaller and bigger drives have no levies

There was no levy fee on mobile phones, computers, memory cards, game consoles, USB flash drives and 8 cm CDs/DVDs. VAT of 9% is added to the levies.

Germany
The world's first private copying system was created in Germany in 1965. It was a result of earlier successful litigation by GEMA against an audio equipment manufacturer in GEMA v. Grundig.

Luxembourg
Luxembourg is the only EU member state on the continent without a private copying levy, making it a popular "copying levy haven" for blank media buyers from countries such as France and Germany.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands a fee is charged on blank media which is passed on to "Stichting Thuiskopie" (Foundation Homecopy), which is in charge of distributing the funds. Fees for January 1, 2021 until December 31, 2023 are as follows:
 * PC / Laptop / notebook / server / mediacenter: €2,70
 * Tablet: €2,20
 * Smartphone: €7,30
 * Portable audio- / videoplayer: €2,10
 * Settopbox with hard disk / HDD-recorder: €3,80
 * E-reader: €1,10
 * External Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Disk (SSD) and USB flash drive >= 256 GB: €1,00
 * USB flash drive < 256 GB: €0,50
 * Wearables with storage capabilities: €0,60

Portugal
Portugal established a levy on CDs and DVDs in 1998.

Russian Federation
Article 1245 of Civil Code of Russian Federation "Remuneration for free reproduction of phonograms and audiovisual products for private purposes" ("Вознаграждение за свободное воспроизведение фонограмм и аудиовизуальных произведений в личных целях") mandates a fee, which is to be distributed in the following proportion: 40% to the authors, 30% to the singers, 30% to the manufacturers of the media. In practice, this fee had not been charged until after the Regulation of the Government of Russian Federation 829 from October 14, 2010, which mandated a uniform 1% tax on computers, blank optical disks, memory sticks, TVs, video and audio recorders, radios, mobile phones, etc. The controversial decision of the government to award the collected funds to the Russian Union of Rights-Holders for further distribution was criticized by the public and disputed in a lawsuit.

Sweden
In Sweden there is a fee called "privatkopieringsersättning" (private copy remuneration) earlier called "kassettersättning" (cassette tape remuneration) on storage media. The levy is handled by Copyswede. The extent of what is included in the copy levy has changed several times the past decade. In September 2019 the copy levy looks as follows https://www.copyswede.se/elektronikbranschen/produkter-och-ersattningsnivaer/:

 * Computers with built-in storage memory, loose internal hard drives, external hard drives, tablets with built-in storage memory, gaming consoles with built-in storage memory and usb memories:
 * > 2 GB - 80 GB 1 kr / GB
 * > 80 GB 80 kr / pc
 * MP3 player, set-top box with built-in hard drive, DVD player with built-in hard drive, TV with built-in hard drive and other media players with built-in hard drive:
 * 1 - 320 GB 1 SEK/ GB
 * > 320 GB 320 SEK / pc
 * Mobile phones with storage:
 * For mobile phones with storage 3 SEK / GB
 * Recordable CDs and DVDs:
 * CD-r All up to 900 MB 0.60 SEK
 * CD-rw All up to 900 MB 0.95 SEK
 * DVD-r / + r 4.7 GB 2.65 SEK
 * DVD-rw / + rw 4.7 GB 4.25 SEK
 * DVD frame 4.7 GB 4.25 SEK
 * Dvd-r / + r double layer 8.5 GB 4.80 SEK
 * Analog audio cassettes (C cassettes), vhs cassettes (E cassettes), minidisc and cd-r audio (minute tariff):
 * C-cassette 2.5 öre
 * Minidisc 2 öre
 * Cd-r audio 2 öre
 * E-cassette (vhs) 2.5 öre

Switzerland

 * Tax on recordable DVD (GT 4c):
 * CHF 0.31 per recordable DVD
 * CHF 0.88 per rewritable DVD
 * CHF 0.33 per recordable Blu-Ray
 * CHF 0.93 per rewritable Blu-Ray
 * Tax on digital storage media packaged inside audio and audiovisual recording devices (GT 4d):
 * Memory capacity up to 4 GB, CHF 0.63 per GB
 * Memory capacity between 4 GB and 8 GB, CHF 0.572 per GB
 * Memory capacity between 8 GB and 16 GB, CHF 0.332 per GB
 * Memory capacity between 16 GB and 32 GB, CHF 0.2552 per GB
 * Memory capacity over 32 GB, CHF 0.1992 per GB
 * Compensation for the transfer of use of set-top box with memory and vPVR (GT 12):
 * CHF 1.00 per month and subscriber if the following charges do not apply
 * CHF 0.13 per month and subscriber if free or part of the basic package
 * CHF 0.55 per month and subscriber for monthly subscription fee up to a max of CHF 6.50
 * Tax on digital (recordable) memory in cell phones:
 * Memory capacity up to 4 GB, CHF 0.108 per GB
 * Memory capacity up to 8 GB, CHF 0.090 per GB
 * Memory capacity up to 16 GB, CHF 0.072 per GB
 * Memory capacity up to 32 GB, CHF 0.063 per GB
 * Memory capacity up to 64 GB, CHF 0.052 per GB
 * Memory capacity up to 128 GB, CHF 0.050 per GB

Audio home recording in general
, as legislated by the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992, says that non-commercial copying by consumers of digital and analog musical recordings is not copyright infringement. Non-commercial includes such things as resale not in the course of business, perhaps of normal use working copies which are no longer wanted. It is unlikely to include resale of copies in bulk; Napster tried to use the Section 1008 defense but was rejected because it was a business.

From House Report No. 102-873(I), September 17, 1992: "In the case of home taping, the [Section 1008] exemption protects all noncommercial copying by consumers of digital and analog musical recordings".

From House Report No. 102-780(I), August 4, 1992: "In short, the reported legislation [Section 1008] would clearly establish that consumers cannot be sued for making analog or digital audio copies for private noncommercial use".

The United States music industry administers the Audio Home Recording Act and foreign hometaping royalties for artists on US sound recordings as well as US record labels. These royalties were previously administered by the Alliance of Artists and Recording Companies (AARC) for Featured Artists and Copyright Owners until it ceased operations in 2021 and is now administered by SoundExchange, ASCAP/BMI/SESAC for writers, Harry Fox Agency for publishers, and The AFM/SAG-AFTRA Intellectual Property Rights Distribution Fund (Joint venture of AFM and SAG-AFTRA ) for non-featured artists. All societies also collect foreign remuneration for their respective funds.

Blank music CDs and recorders
bars copyright infringement action and provides for a royalty of 2% of the initial transfer price for devices and 3% for media. The royalty rate in was established by the Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998. This only applies to CDs which are labeled and sold for music use; they do not apply to blank computer CDs, even though they can be (and often are) used to record or "burn" music from the computer to CD. The royalty also applies to stand-alone consumer-grade CD recorders, but not to professional CD recorders or CD burners used with computers. Most recently, portable satellite radio recording devices contribute to this royalty fund.

Thanks to a precedent established in a 1998 lawsuit involving the Rio PMP300 player, most MP3 players are deemed "computer peripherals" and are not subject to a royalty of this type in the U.S.

Currently, private copy royalties are generated in the US by the sale of "blank CDs and personal audio devices, media centers, satellite radio devices, and car audio systems that have recording capabilities."

United Kingdom
Currently there is no proper private copy exception in the United Kingdom, there is only a narrow exception regarding broadcast time-shifting (s70(1) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (CDPA)).

On 1 June 2014, the UK implemented art. 5(2)b of the Infosoc Directive via the Copyright and Rights in Performance (Personal Copies for Private Use) Regulations 2014. This provided an exception limited to the personal use, to the owners of a personal copy and with the exclusion of indirectly commercial uses. It did not provide for compensation. The UK Government's view was that "levies or other compensation are neither required nor desirable in the context of a narrow provision that causes minimal harm. Levies are an unnecessary and inefficient tax on consumers. They are unfair to consumers in that they are payable regardless of the use to which a levied device (for example a hard disk) is put and regardless of whether a user has already paid for the copies they store on a device. Furthermore, particularly in the current economic climate, it is not right to extract more money from the pockets of hard pressed consumers." The British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA), the Musicians' Union, and UK Music challenged the introduction of these regulations, and brought an application for judicial review. Their application succeeded when, in June 2015, the High Court ruled that the regulations were unlawful because of a flawed impact assessment.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Private copying levy


text:
Dennis Gabor

Dennis Gabor (   Gábor Dénes, ; 5 June 1900 – 9 February 1979) was a Hungarian-British electrical engineer and physicist who invented holography, for which he received the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics. He obtained British citizenship in 1934 and spent most of his life in England.

Life and career
Gabor was born as Günszberg Dénes, into a Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary. In 1900, his family converted to Lutheranism. Dennis was the first-born son of Günszberg Bernát and Jakobovits Adél. Despite having a religious background, religion played a minor role in his later life and he considered himself agnostic. In 1902, the family received permission to change their surname from Günszberg to Gábor. He served with the Hungarian artillery in northern Italy during World War I.

He began his studies in engineering at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics in 1918, later in Germany, at the Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg in Berlin, now known as Technische Universität Berlin. At the start of his career, he analysed the properties of high voltage electric transmission lines by using cathode-beam oscillographs, which led to his interest in electron optics. Studying the fundamental processes of the oscillograph, Gabor was led to other electron-beam devices such as electron microscopes and TV tubes. He eventually wrote his PhD thesis on Recording of Transients in Electric Circuits with the Cathode Ray Oscillograph in 1927, and worked on plasma lamps.

In 1933 Gabor fled from Nazi Germany, where he was considered Jewish, and was invited to Britain to work at the development department of the British Thomson-Houston company in Rugby, Warwickshire. During his time in Rugby, he met Marjorie Louise Butler, and they married in 1936. He became a British citizen in 1946, and it was while working at British Thomson-Houston in 1947 that he invented holography, based on an electron microscope, and thus electrons instead of visible light. He experimented with a heavily filtered mercury arc light source. The earliest visual hologram was only realised in 1964 following the 1960 invention of the laser, the first coherent light source. After this, holography became commercially available.

Gabor's research focused on electron inputs and outputs, which led him to the invention of holography. The basic idea was that for perfect optical imaging, the total of all the information has to be used; not only the amplitude, as in usual optical imaging, but also the phase. In this manner, a complete holo-spatial picture can be obtained. Gabor published his theories of holography in a series of papers between 1946 and 1951.

Gabor also researched how human beings communicate and hear; the result of his investigations was the theory of granular synthesis, although Greek composer Iannis Xenakis claimed that he was actually the first inventor of this synthesis technique. Gabor's work in this and related areas was foundational in the development of time–frequency analysis.

In 1948 Gabor moved from Rugby to Imperial College London, and in 1958 became professor of Applied Physics until his retirement in 1967. His inaugural lecture on 3 March 1959, 'Electronic Inventions and their Impact on Civilisation' provided inspiration for Norbert Wiener's treatment of self-reproducing machines in the penultimate chapter in the 1961 edition of his book Cybernetics.

As part of his many developments related to CRTs, in 1958 Gabor patented a new flat screen television concept. This used an electron gun aimed perpendicular to the screen, rather than straight at it. The beam was then directed forward to the screen using a series of fine metal wires on either side of the beam path. The concept was significantly similar to the Aiken tube, introduced in the US the same year. This led to a many-years patent battle which resulted in Aiken keeping the US rights and Gabor the UK. Gabor's version was later picked up by Clive Sinclair in the 1970s, and became a decades-long quest to introduce the concept commercially. Its difficult manufacturing, due to the many wires within the vacuum tube, meant this was never successful. While looking for a company willing to try to manufacture it, Sinclair began negotiations with Timex, who instead took over production of the ZX81.

In 1963 Gabor published Inventing the Future which discussed the three major threats Gabor saw to modern society: war, overpopulation and the Age of Leisure. The book contained the now well-known expression that "the future cannot be predicted, but futures can be invented." Reviewer Nigel Calder described his concept as, "His basic approach is that we cannot predict the future, but we can invent it..." Others such as Alan Kay, Peter Drucker, and Forrest Shaklee have used various forms of similar quotes. His next book, Innovations: scientific, technological, and social which was published in 1970, expanded on some of the topics he had already earlier touched upon, and also pointed to his interest in technological innovation as mechanism of both liberation and destruction.

In 1971 he was the single recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics with the motivation "for his invention and development of the holographic method" and presented the history of the development of holography from 1948 in his Nobel lecture.

While spending much of his retirement in Italy at Lavinio Rome, he remained connected with Imperial College as a senior research fellow and also became staff scientist of CBS Laboratories, in Stamford, Connecticut; there, he collaborated with his lifelong friend, CBS Labs' president Dr. Peter C. Goldmark in many new schemes of communication and display. One of Imperial College's new halls of residence in Prince's Gardens, Knightsbridge is named Gabor Hall in honour of Gabor's contribution to Imperial College. He developed an interest in social analysis and published The Mature Society: a view of the future in 1972. He also joined the Club of Rome and supervised a working group studying energy sources and technical change. The findings of this group were published in the report Beyond the Age of Waste in 1978, a report which was an early warning of several issues that only later received widespread attention.

Following the rapid development of lasers and a wide variety of holographic applications (e.g., art, information storage, and the recognition of patterns), Gabor achieved acknowledged success and worldwide attention during his lifetime. He received numerous awards besides the Nobel Prize.

Gabor died in a nursing home in South Kensington, London, on 9 February 1979. In 2006 a blue plaque was put up on No. 79 Queen's Gate in Kensington, where he lived from 1949 until the early 1960s.

Personal life
On 8 August 1936, he married Marjorie Louise Butler. They did not have any children.

Publications

 * The Electron Microscope (1934)
 * Inventing the Future (1963)
 * Innovations: Scientific, Technological, and Social (1970)
 * The Mature Society (1972)
 * Proper Priorities of Science and Technology (1972)
 * Beyond the Age of Waste: A Report to the Club of Rome (1979, with U. Colombo, A. King en R. Galli)

Awards and honors

 * 1956 – Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
 * 1964 – Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
 * 1964 – D.Sc., University of London
 * 1967 – Young Medal and Prize, for distinguished research in the field of optics
 * 1967 – Columbus Award of the International Institute for Communications, Genoa
 * 1968 – The first Albert A. Michelson Medal from The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia
 * 1968 – Rumford Medal of the Royal Society
 * 1970 – Honorary Doctorate, University of Southampton
 * 1970 – Medal of Honor of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 * 1970 – Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)
 * 1971 – Nobel Prize in Physics, for his invention and development of the holographic method
 * 1971 – Honorary Doctorate, Delft University of Technology
 * 1972 – Holweck Prize of the Société Française de Physique
 * 1983 – the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) established the annual Dennis Gabor Award, "in recognition of outstanding accomplishments in diffractive wavefront technologies, especially those which further the development of holography and metrology applications."
 * 1989 – the Royal Society of London began issuing the Gabor Medal for "acknowledged distinction of interdisciplinary work between the life sciences with other disciplines".
 * 1992 – Gábor Dénes College in Budapest, Hungary, is named after Gabor.
 * 1993 – the NOVOFER Foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences established its annual International Dennis Gabor Award, for outstanding young scientists researching in the fields of physics and applied technology.
 * 2000 – the asteroid 72071 Gábor is named after Gabor.
 * 2008 – the Institute of Physics renamed its Duddell Medal and Prize, established in 1923, into the Dennis Gabor Medal and Prize.
 * 2009 – Imperial College London opened the Gabor Hall.
 * Dennis-Gabor-Straße in Potsdam is named in his honour and is the location of the Potsdamer Centrum für Technologie.

In popular culture

 * The Gabor family from the animated TV series Jem and The Holograms was named after Dennis Gabor.
 * On 5 June 2010, the logo for the Google website was drawn to resemble a hologram in honour of Dennis Gabor's 110th birthday.
 * In David Foster Wallace's Infinite Jest, Hal suggests that "Dennis Gabor may very well have been the Antichrist."

title: Dennis Gabor


text:
Talk:Lower Hutt

Hutt City vs Lower Hutt
Interestingly Hutt City is not actually the formal or offical name of this locality.

Offically named Lower Hutt by the New Zealand Geographic Board (http://www.linz.govt.nz/rcs/linz/pub/web/root/core/Placenames/SearchPlaceNames/searchplacenames/index.jsp?p=53465 ) the Lower Hutt City Council changed its legal name as part of a branding exercise to Hutt City Council (see the Lower Hutt City (Name of City Council) Act 1991 ) and started using the term Hutt City in place of Lower Hutt to describe the area. Lower Hutt remains the offical name of the area.

Nobody actually calls it Hutt City, except the Council and a few businesses in the area. It's still Lower Hutt.
 * And all our road signs still say "Lower Hutt" too! --HuttValley (talk) 08:04, 25 March 2019 (UTC)
 * As I understand the place that is the central city suburb of the city is called Lower Hutt, so the street signs are correct. But the overall city boundary that is administered by Hutt City (council) that used to be, and officially still is, called Lower Hutt City is the City. This name and designation made sense before the city included the boroughs of Petone, Eastbourne, and the Wainuiomata Riding of the Hutt County Council. So Lower Hutt should not be called a city, as it is only the CBD suburb of the greater city, which is a separate legal concept. Confused? You will be if you try to apply Wikipedia naming conventions. I think we probably need two separate articles, but I am willing to put up with one, provided this is all explained properly and the right words are used for the different concepts. I don't see Lower Hutt as a city of itself but a place and population centre of some sort. However the name Hutt City includes this place and other places nearby. Has enough changed in the last almost 30 years to revisit or even change such thinking about the name change? Probably not. Having put that cat amongst the pigeons how would people react to moving this article to Lower Hutt City and writing a separate article about Lower Hutt? Or should we delay and make no attempt to address the issue it before sea-level rise drives everyone out of the Lower Hutt valley? (By which time the point will be moot.) - Cameron Dewe (talk) 05:30, 16 January 2021 (UTC)
 * I endorse addressing this as it is an issue. I find the lead confusing and am interested in what others think - including hopefully some locals. Pakoire (talk) 08:29, 16 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Just an observation. Some years ago, most cities in New Zealand had articles for the overall city (of course) as well as all the major suburbs. The one important suburb was was consistently missing was the central one, presumably based on the assumption that the city article might as well cover the central city suburb, too. They are, of course, separate things. The poorest NZ central city suburb that I'm aware of is for Wellington Central; there's a category for central suburbs. So in my view, those central city suburbs should all have their own article, and hopefully something more decent than what Wellington has.  Schwede 66  03:26, 19 January 2021 (UTC)

Petone and Wainuiomata
I reverted to the simple links for those because they already have articles (in need of attention). The names are unique in the world, so don't need to have "New Zealand" as part of the page name. Robin Patterson 20:21, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Population
Eight or ninth largest? The article contradicts itself! :) 138.37.199.199 08:39, 12 April 2006 (UTC)

CBD photo
Anyone have a good idea for a photo of some place in the CBD? I was thinking of either the council buildings shot from near the Dowse, or looking towards the council buildings and roundabout from the other side of Ewen Bridge. — Soupisgoodfood 23:00, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

In-line comments
I noticed that there are some in-line comments in the article. These suggest that the history section needs significant expansion, especially the origins of Lower Hutt. Also:
 * Comments about Hutt County Council are more relevant in that article compared to Lower Hutt.
 * Comments about CAA head office being in Lower Hutt are better placed in a business section, not one about government. - Cameron Dewe (talk) 08:58, 4 March 2012 (UTC)

The Hutt
The city council website tries to justify the Hutt City name based on the Post Office using the term The Hutt as a postmark in 1874. Reading The Dominion from the same period (available via Papers Past) suggests The Hutt term applied to the whole Hutt Valley from even earlier and the adjectives upper and lower were used if the reporter felt the need to be more specific. However, one cannot help but notice the name Lower Hutt was used by the town board when it was proclaimed in 1891, and it was only with the demise of the Hutt County Council that Hutt City appears. - Cameron Dewe (talk) 08:58, 4 March 2012 (UTC)

Climate Table
Hi. The table should be updated (if there's a found source) because today it was really cold and metservice recorded it as -1 C while the record temp for May is 0 C. Typhoon2013  (talk) 03:47, 26 May 2015 (UTC)

Hutt Valley
It's odd this isn't mentioned in the introduction (I would've thought geographic features would be important), so I'll link to it. --HuttValley (talk) 08:05, 25 March 2019 (UTC) Oops just read this again, sorry missed it! --HuttValley (talk) 08:06, 25 March 2019 (UTC)

Part of Wellington metropolitan area vs Wellington city
Regarding my 10/01/2022 reversion of edits by 222.153.41.39 (talk) about the status of Lower Hutt as part of Wellington city vs metropolitan area:

Lower Hutt City has a separate historical & political identity from the city of Wellington.

Whether some people consider it "consistent" with Wellington city seems to me to be subjective. For example: I'm from Tawa, and have worked both in town and out in the Hutt, and to me Lower Hutt does feel distinct from Wellington.

Either way, I think the reference in the article to Lower Hutt being part of the Wellington metropolitan area encompasses either interpretation.

Nāku noa, nā

--Radicuil (talk) 11:51, 9 January 2022 (UTC)

Jabba
Was Jabba the Hutt from Lower Hutt, or was Jabba from Upper Hutt? Do the residents of Hutt all appear similar to Jabba? This should be clearly explained in this article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 142.104.63.19 (talk) 09:09, 23 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lower Hutt


text:
Setúbal District

The District of Setúbal (Distrito de Setúbal ) is a district located in the south-west of Portugal. It is named for its capital, the city of Setúbal.

Geography
It is delimited by Lisbon District and Santarém District on the north, Évora District on the east, Beja District on the south and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. It has a population of 887,928 inhabitants, in an area of 5,064 km2. The district was carved out of Lisbon District in 1926, and is the only Portuguese district created after 1835.

Municipalities
It is composed of 13 municipalities, spread over two sub regions and comprising 55 parishes:

 * Península de Setúbal Subregion NUTS II Sub-Region:
 * Alcochete
 * Almada
 * Barreiro
 * Moita
 * Montijo
 * Palmela
 * Seixal
 * Sesimbra
 * Setúbal
 * Alentejo Litoral Subregion:
 * Alcácer do Sal
 * Grândola
 * Santiago do Cacém
 * Sines

Summary of votes and seats won 1976-2022
!rowspan=2|Parties!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S!!%!!S !colspan=2 | 1976 !colspan=2 | 1979 !colspan=2 | 1980 !colspan=2 | 1983 !colspan=2 | 1985 !colspan=2 | 1987 !colspan=2 | 1991 !colspan=2 | 1995 !colspan=2 | 1999 !colspan=2 | 2002 !colspan=2 | 2005 !colspan=2 | 2009 !colspan=2 | 2011 !colspan=2 | 2015 !colspan=2 | 2019 !colspan=2 | 2022 ! Total seats || colspan=12|17 || colspan=2|16 || colspan=12|17 || colspan=6|18 ! colspan=33|Source: Comissão Nacional de Eleições
 * - class="unsortable"
 * - class="unsortable" align="center"
 * align="left"| PS || 32.2 || 7 || 21.4 || 4 ||23.5 || 4 || 30.6 || 6 || 16.5 || 3 || 17.6 || 3 || 28.4 || 5 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|44.9 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|9 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|43.7 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|8 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|39.3 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|7 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|43.6 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|8 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|34.0 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|7 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|26.9 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|5 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|34.3 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|7 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|38.6 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|9 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|45.7 || style="background:#FF66FF;"|10
 * align="left"| PSD || 8.4 || 1 || align=center colspan=4 rowspan=2|In AD || 12.7 || 2 || 15.4 || 3 || 32.6 || 6 || style="background:#FF9900;"|34.7 || style="background:#FF9900;"|6 || 18.4 || 3 || 18.0 || 3 || 24.7 || 5 || 16.1 || 3 || 16.4 || 3 || 25.2 || 5 || align=center colspan=2 rowspan=2|In PàF || 14.4 || 3 || 16.2 || 3
 * align="left"| CDS-PP || 4.4 || || 5.1 || 1 || 3.8 ||  || 1.9 ||  || 2.7 ||  || 7.2 || 1 || 5.6 || 1 || 6.9 || 1 || 5.1 || 1 || 9.1 || 1 || 12.1 || 2 || 3.0 ||  || 1.1 ||
 * align="left"| PCP/APU/CDU || style="background:red;"|44.4 || style="background:red;"|9 || style="background:red;"|47.0 || style="background:red;"|9 || style="background:red;"|44.0 || style="background:red;"|9 || style="background:red;"|45.8 || style="background:red;"|8 || style="background:red;"|38.2 || style="background:red;"|7 || style="background:red;"|32.7 || style="background:red;"|7 || 24.9 || 5 || 24.8 || 4 || 24.8 || 5 || 20.5 || 4 || 20.0 || 3 || 20.1 || 4 || 19.6 || 4 || 18.8 || 4 || 15.8 || 3 || 10.1 || 2
 * align="left"| AD || colspan=2| || 22.3 || 4 || 24.1 || 4 || colspan=26|
 * align="left"| PRD || colspan=8| || 20.4 || 4 || 8.7 || 1 || colspan=20|
 * align="left"| BE || colspan=16| || 3.5 || || 4.6 ||  || 10.3 || 2 || 14.0 || 2 || 7.1 || 1 || 13.1 || 2 || 12.1 || 2 || 5.8 || 1
 * align="left"| PàF || colspan=26| || 22.6 || 5 || colspan=4|
 * align="left"| PAN || colspan=28| || 4.4 || 1 || 2.0 ||
 * align="left"| CHEGA || colspan=28| || 1.9 || || 9.0 || 1
 * align="left"| IL || colspan=28| || 1.1 || || 5.1 || 1
 * align="left"| PRD || colspan=8| || 20.4 || 4 || 8.7 || 1 || colspan=20|
 * align="left"| BE || colspan=16| || 3.5 || || 4.6 ||  || 10.3 || 2 || 14.0 || 2 || 7.1 || 1 || 13.1 || 2 || 12.1 || 2 || 5.8 || 1
 * align="left"| PàF || colspan=26| || 22.6 || 5 || colspan=4|
 * align="left"| PAN || colspan=28| || 4.4 || 1 || 2.0 ||
 * align="left"| CHEGA || colspan=28| || 1.9 || || 9.0 || 1
 * align="left"| IL || colspan=28| || 1.1 || || 5.1 || 1
 * align="left"| PAN || colspan=28| || 4.4 || 1 || 2.0 ||
 * align="left"| CHEGA || colspan=28| || 1.9 || || 9.0 || 1
 * align="left"| IL || colspan=28| || 1.1 || || 5.1 || 1
 * align="left"| IL || colspan=28| || 1.1 || || 5.1 || 1
 * align="left"| IL || colspan=28| || 1.1 || || 5.1 || 1
 * }

title: Setúbal District


text:
History of Statoil (1972–2007)

Statoil ASA was a Norwegian petroleum company established in 1972. It merged with the oil and gas division of Norsk Hydro in 2007 and was known as StatoilHydro until 2009, when the name was changed back to Statoil ASA. The brand Statoil was retained as a chain of fuel stations owned by StatoilHydro. Statoil was the largest petroleum company in the Nordic countries. In the 2013 Fortune 500, Statoil was ranked as the 39th -largest company in the world. While Statoil was listed on both the Oslo Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, the Norwegian state still held majority ownership, with 64%. The company's headquarters are located in Norway's oil capital Stavanger. The name Statoil was a truncated form of the State's oil (company).

Statoil was one of the largest net sellers of crude oil in the world, and a major supplier of natural gas to the European continent, Statoil also operated around 2000 service stations in 9 countries. The company's CEO from mid-2004 onwards was Helge Lund, formerly CEO of Aker Kværner.

Early years
Den Norske Stats Oljeselskap A/S (Norwegian State Oil Company) was founded as a private limited company owned by the Government of Norway on 14 July 1972 by a unanimous act passed by the Storting, the Norwegian parliament. The political motivation was Norwegian participation in the oil industry on the continental shelf and to build up Norwegian competency within the petroleum industry to establish the foundations of a domestic petroleum industry. Statoil was required to discuss important issues with the Minister of Industry, later Minister of Petroleum and Energy. Statoil was also required to submit an annual report to the parliament.

In 1973, the company started work acquiring a presence in the petrochemical industry. This resulted in the development of processing plants in Rafsnes and, in partnership with Norsk Hydro, the Mongstad plant in 1980. In 1981 the company acquired, as the first Norwegian company, operator rights on the Norwegian continental shelf on the Gullfaks field. 1987–88 saw the largest scandal in the companies history, the Mongstad scandal that made the until then unassailable CEO Arve Johnsen withdraw.

Privatization
The company was privatised and made a public limited company (allmennaksjeselskap) in 2001, becoming listed on both the Oslo Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange. At the same time it changed its name to Statoil ASA.

Merger with Hydro
In December 2006 Statoil revealed a proposal to merge with the oil business of Norsk Hydro, a Norwegian conglomerate. Under the rules of the EEA the proposal was approved by the European Union on 3 May 2007 and by the Norwegian Parliament on 8 June 2007. Former Statoil's shareholders hold 67.3% of the new company StatoilHydro, which started operations on 1 October 2007. The company is the biggest offshore oil and gas company in the world.

In November 2009, StatoilHydro changed its name to simply Statoil, following a prolonged name debate that sparked considerable public interest.

Environmental record
Statoil had three oil spills in Arctic waters near Norway. All the spills occurred from its ocean rig called the Erik Raude. The company was searching for oil in the region, which environmentalists were against because they wanted the sensitive area free from pollution. However, the Norwegian government allowed oil exploration, as long as there were no emissions. After the merger to StatoilHydro, in December 2007, 25000 oilbbl of oil leaked into the North Sea. This was Statoil's 2nd worst oil spill. Two leaks also occurred in February 2008. In March, Statoil dropped about 1.6 tons of pure hydraulic oil in the Barents Sea. Hydraulic oil is said to be the 2nd most hazardous pollutant. Since the leaks, Statoil has stated that the oil has mostly dissolved, and there is not much proof of ecological harm. The Norwegian government has not stopped the oil drilling in the Arctic waters, and Statoil started up its oil operations in April 2005. Bellona, a Norwegian environmental group, is looking to take legal action. They want the end of oil drilling in the Barents Sea.

Rotvoll controversy
In 1991 there arose a controversy between Statoil and local environmentalists, mainly from Natur og Ungdom and Friends of the Earth Norway, who protested the building of a new research and development centre at Rotvoll in Trondheim, Norway, wetlands area close to the city with significant bird life. The controversy was climaxed with civil disobedience by the environmentalists, but the centre was still built.

Statoil corruption case
The Statoil corruption case refers to the company's misconduct and use of corruption in Iran in 2002/2003 in an attempt to secure lucrative oil contracts in that country. This was mainly achieved by hiring the services of Horton Investments, an Iranian consultancy firm owned by Mehdi Hashemi Rafsanjani, son of former Iranian President Hashemi Rafsanjani. Horton Investments was paid US$15.2 million by Statoil to influence important political figures in Iran to grant oil contracts to Statoil. The corruption scandal was uncovered by Norwegian paper Dagens Næringsliv on 3 September 2003.

Corrib gas project
Statoil was a partner of Royal Dutch Shell in the Corrib gas project, which entails developing a natural gas field off the west of Ireland. The project has proved controversial. In the summer of 2005, five men from County Mayo were jailed for contempt of court after refusing to obey a temporary court injunction forbidding them to interfere with work being undertaken on their land. The ensuing protests led to the Shell to Sea campaign that opposes the project.

title: History of Statoil (1972–2007)


text:
Wusun

The Wusun (Eastern Han Chinese *ʔɑ-suən < Old Chinese (140 BCE - 436 CE): *Ɂâ-sûn) were an ancient semi-nomadic steppe people mentioned in Chinese records from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.

The Wusun originally lived between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang (Gansu) near the Yuezhi. Around 176 BC the Xiongnu raided the lands of the Yuezhi, who subsequently attacked the Wusun, killing their king and seizing their land. The Xiongnu adopted the surviving Wusun prince and made him one of their generals and leader of the Wusun. Around 162 BC the Yuezhi were driven into the Ili River valley in Zhetysu, Dzungaria and Tian Shan, which had formerly been inhabited by the Saka. The Wusun then resettled in Gansu as vassals of the Xiongnu. In 133–132 BC, the Wusun drove the Yuezhi out of the Ili Valley and settled the area.

The Wusun then became close allies of the Han dynasty and remained a powerful force in the region for several centuries. The Wusun are last mentioned by the Chinese as having settled in the Pamir Mountains in the 5th century AD due to pressure from the Rouran. They possibly became subsumed into the later Hephthalites.

Etymology
Wusun is a modern pronunciation of the Chinese Characters '烏孫'. The Chinese name '烏孫' (Wūsūn) literally means wū 'crow, raven' + sūn 'grandson, descendant'. There are several theories about the origin of the name.

Canadian Sinologist Edwin Pulleyblank reconstructed the pronunciation of 烏孫' Wūsūn as in Middle Chinese as ou-suən, from Old Chinese aĥ-smən and linked the Wusun to the Άσμίραιοι Asmiraioi, who inhabited modern Issyk-Kul and Semirechiye and were mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography (VI.16.3). Another theory links them to the Issedones.

Sinologist Victor H. Mair compared Wusun with Sanskrit áśva 'horse', aśvin 'mare' and Lithuanian ašvà 'mare'. The name would thus mean 'the horse people'. Hence he put forward the hypothesis that the Wusun used a satem-like language within the Indo-European languages. However, the latter hypothesis is not supported by Edwin G. Pulleyblank. Christopher I. Beckwith's analysis is similar to Mair's, reconstructing the Chinese term Wusun as Old Chinese *âswin, which he compares to Old Indic aśvin 'the horsemen', the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods.

Étienne de la Vaissière identifies the Wusun with the wδ'nn'p, mentioned on Kultobe inscriptions as enemies of the Sogdian-speaking Kangju confederation. Wδ'nn'p contains two morphemes n'p "people" and *wδ'n [wiðan], which is cognate with Manichaean Parthian wd'n and means "tent". Vaissière hypothesized that the Wusun likely spoke an Iranian language closely related to Sogdian, permitting Sogdians to translate their endonym as *wδ'n [wiðan] and Chinese to transcribe their endonym with a native Chinese /s/ standing for a foreign dental fricative. Therefore, Vaissière reconstructs Wusun's endonym as *Wəθan "[People of the] Tent(s)".

Early history

The Wusun were first mentioned by Chinese sources as living together with the Yuezhi between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang (Gansu). although different locations have been suggested for these toponyms.

Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium BCE.

Around 210–200 BCE, prince Modu Chanyu, a former hostage of the Yuezhi and prince of the Xiongnu, who were also vassals of the Yuezhi, became leader of the Xiongnu and conquered the Mongolian Plain, subjugating several peoples. Around 176 BCE Modu Chanyu launched a fierce raid against the Yuezhi. Around 173 BCE, the Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun, at that time a small nation, killing their king (Kunmi or Kunmo ) Nandoumi.

According to legend Nandoumi's infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild. He was miraculously saved from hunger being suckled by a she-wolf, and fed meat by ravens. The Wusun ancestor myth shares striking similarities with those of the Hittites, the Zhou Chinese, the Scythians, the Romans, the Goguryeo, Turks, Mongols and Dzungars. Based on the similarities between the ancestor myth of the Wusun and later Turkic peoples, Denis Sinor has suggested that the Wusun, Sogdians, or both could represent an Indo-Aryan influence, or even the origin of the royal Ashina Türks.

In 162 BCE, the Yuezhi were finally defeated by the Xiongnu, after which they fled Gansu. According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi were defeated by the rising Xiongnu empire and fled westward, driving away the Sai (Scythians) from the Ili Valley in the Zhetysu and Dzungaria area. The Sai would subsequently migrate into South Asia, where they founded various Indo-Scythian kingdoms. After the Yuezhi retreat the Wusun subsequently settled the modern province of Gansu, in the valley of the Wushui-he (lit. "Raven Water-River"), as vassals of the Xiongnu. It is not clear whether the river was named after the tribe or vice versa.

Migration to the Ili Valley
The Xiongnu ruler was impressed with Liejiaomi, considering him a supernatural being, and adopted the child. When the child grew up the Chanyu made him leader of the Wusun and a Xiongnu general. He won many victories for the Xiongnu and the Wusun became powerful. Liejiaomi constantly requested the Xiongnu ruler for permission to avenge his father, and around 133–132 BCE, he successfully attacked the Yuezhi in the Ili Valley. The Yuezhi then migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they became unified under Kujula Kadphises and expanded into South Asia, founding the Kushan Empire, which at its peak under Kanishka stretched from Turpan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China.

The Wusun subsequently took over the Ili Valley, expanding over a large area and trying to keep away from the Xiongnu. According to Shiji, Wusun was a state located west of the Xiongnu. When the Xiongnu ruler died, Liejiaomi refused to serve the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu then sent a force against the Wusun but were defeated, after which the Xiongnu even more than before considered Liejiaomi a supernatural being, avoiding conflict with him.

Establishing relations with the Han
After settling in the Ili Valley the Wusun became so strong that the Han was compelled to win their friendship in alliance. Chinese sources name the Scythian Sai (Saka), and the Yuezhi who are often identified as Tocharians, among the people of the Wusun state in the Zhetysu and Dzungaria area. The Wusun realm probably included both Yuezhi and Saka. It is clear that the majority of the population consisted of linguistically Iranian Saka tribes.

In 125 BCE, under the Han Emperor Wu of Han (156–87 BCE), the Chinese traveller and diplomat Zhang Qian was sent to establish an alliance with the Wusun Against the Xiongnu. Qian estimated the Wusun to number 630,000, with 120,000 families and 188,000 men capable of bearing arms. Hanshu described them as occupying land that previously belonged to the Saka (Sai). To their north-west the Wusun bordered Kangju, located in modern Kazakhstan. To the west was Dayuan (Ferghana), and to the south were various city states. The Royal Court of the Wusun, the walled city of Chigu, was located in a side valley leading to Issyk Kul. Lying on one of the branches of the Silk Road Chigu was an important trading centre, but its exact location has not been established.

According to Sima Qian in the Shiji:

"Wusun as a nation, has its great Kunmi [monarch] presiding at Chigu City which is 8900 li [3700km] away from Chang'an (...) It land is bare and flat, rainy and chilly. Its hills are covered with pines. Its people do not plow of plant but follow their flocks to where water and grass are found. Its customs are similar to those of the Xiongnu. The nation has plenty of horses... and its people violent, greedy and not trustworthy. There are abundant bandits and thieves. Its territories originally belonged to the Sakas, the latter king went south to Bolor (Baltistan) whereby the Yuezhi took over and settled on the land. (...) Later, when the Yuezhi moved west to subjugate Bactria, the Wusun Kunmo replaced them and lived there. For that reason, the Wusun population is admixed with Sakas and Yuezhi peoples."

- Sima Qian, Shiji

The Wusun approved of a possible alliance, and Zhang Qian was sent as ambassador in 115 BCE. According to the agreement the Wusun would jointly attack the Xiongnu with the Han, while they were offered a Han princess in marriage and the return of their original Gansu homeland (heqin). Due to fear of the Xiongnu, the Wusun however had second thoughts and suggested sending a delegation to the Han rather than moving their capital further west.

As Han allies
Some time after the Han-Wusun negotiations had ended, the Han inflicted several blows to the Xiongnu. The Han then threatened war upon the Wusun, after which Liejiaomi finally agreed to an alliance, sending tributary horses and accepting Princess Xijun as his wife. Along with the Yuezhi and the Kangju of the Ferghana Valley, the Wusun became the main suppliers of horses for the Han. The Xiongnu had however also sent a princess to marry Liejiaomi, and the Xiongnu princess was declared his senior consort, with Xijun becoming his junior wife. Since Liejiaomi was already an old man, Xijun was however married to his successor Cenzou, to which Wu agreed. Xijun wrote a famous poem, the Beichouge, in which she complains about her exile in the land of the "barbarians":

"My family sent me off to be married on the other side of heaven. They sent me a long way to a strange land, to the king of Wusun. A domed lodging is my dwelling place with walls of felt. Meat is my food, with fermented milk as the sauce. I live with constant thoughts of my home, my heart is full of sorrow. I wish I were a golden swan, returning to my home country."

Xijun bore the Wusun a daughter but died soon afterward, at which point the Han court sent Princess Jieyou to succeed her. After the death of Cenzou, Jieyou married Wengguimi, Cenzou's cousin and successor. Jieyou lived for fifty years among the Wusun and bore five children, including the oldest Yuanguimi, whose half-brother Wujiutu was born to a Xiongnu mother. She sent numerous letters to the Han requesting assistance against the Xiongnu.

Around 80 BCE, the Wusun were attacked by the Xiongnu, who inflicted a devastating defeat upon them. In 72 BCE, Kunmi, chief of the Wusun requested assistance from the Han against the Xiongnu. The Han sent an army of 160,000 men, inflicting a crushing defeat upon the Xiongnu, capturing much booty and many slaves. In the campaign the Han captured the Tarim Basin city-state of Cheshi (Turpan region), a previous ally of the Xiongnu, giving them direct contact with the Wusun. Afterwards the Wusun allied with the Dingling and Wuhuan to counter Xiongnu attacks. After their crushing victory against the Xiongnu the Wusun increased in strength, achieving significant influence over the city-states of the Tarim Basin. The son of the Kunmi became the ruler of Yarkand, while his daughter became the wife of the lord of Kucha. They came to play a role as a third force between the Han and the Xiongnu.

Around 64 BCE, according to Hanshu, Chinese agents were involved in a plot with a Wusun kunmi known as Wengguimi ("Fat King"), to kill a Wusun kunmi known to the Chinese as Nimi ("Mad King"). A Chinese deputy envoy called Chi Tu who brought a doctor to attend to Nimi was punished by castration by the Han dynasty when he returned to China for treating the mad king's illness instead of killing him which the Han court ordered them to do.

In 64 BCE another Han princess was sent to Kunmi Wengguimi, but he died before her arrival. Han emperor Xuan then permitted the princess to return, since Jieyou had married the new Kunmi, Nimi, the son of Cenzou. Jieyou bore Nimi the son Chimi. Prince Wujiutu later killed Nimi, his half-brother. Fearing the wrath of the Han, Wujiutu adopted the title of Lesser Kunmi, while Yuanguimi was given the title Greater Kunmi. The Han accepted this system and bestowed both of them with the imperial seal. After both Yuanguimi and Chimi were dead, Jieyou asked Emperor Xuan for permission to return to China. She died in 49 BCE. Over the next decades the institution of Greater and Lesser Kunmi continued, with the Lesser Kunmi being married to a Xiongnu princess and the Greater Kunmi married to a Han princess.

In 5 BCE, during the reign of Wuzhuliu Chanyu (8 BCE – CE 13), the Wusun attempted to raid Yueban pastures, but Wuzhuliu repulsed them, and the Wusun commander had to send his son to the Yueban court as a hostage. The forceful intervention of the Chinese usurper Wang Mang and internal strife brought disorder, and in 2 BCE one of the Wusun chieftains brought 80,000 Wusun to Kangju, asking for help against the Chinese. In a vain attempt to reconcile with China, he was duped and killed in 3 CE.

In 2 CE, Wang Mang issued a list of four regulations to the allied Xiongnu that the taking of any hostages from Chinese vassals, i.e. Wusun, Wuhuan and the statelets of the Western Regions, would not be tolerated.

In 74 CE the Wusun are recorded as having sent tribute to the Han military commanders in Cheshi. In 80 CE Ban Chao requested assistance from the Wusun against the city-state Quchi (Kucha) in the Tarim Basin. The Wusun were subsequently rewarded with silks, while diplomatic exchanges were resumed. During the 2nd century CE the Wusun continued their decline in political importance.

Later history
In the 5th century CE the Wusun were pressured by the Rouran and may have migrated to the Pamir Mountains. They are last mentioned in Chinese historical sources in 436 CE, when a Chinese envoy was sent to their country and the Wusun reciprocated. It is possible that they became subsumed into the later Hephthalites. After this event the Wusun seem to disappear from Chinese records: Wusun were last mentioned in 938 CE alongsides Tuyuhun and Mohe, as tributary states to the Khitan Liao.

Physical appearance
The Hanshu and Shiji do not make any special note of the physical appearance of the Wusun. The first description of the Wusun's physical appearance is found in a Western Han dynasty book of divination, the Jiaoshi Yilin, which describes the women of the Wusun as "with deep eyesockets, dark, ugly: their preferences are different, past their prime [still] without spouse." A later 7th century commentary to the Hanshu by Yan Shigu says:

"Among the barbarians (戎; Róng) in the Western Regions, the look of the Wusun is the most unusual. The present barbarians (胡人; húrén) who have green eyes and red hair, and look like macaque monkeys, are the offspring of this people."

Initially, when only a few number of skulls from Wusun territory were known, the Wusun were recognized as a Caucasoid people with slight Mongoloid admixture. Later, in a more thorough study by Soviet archaeologists of eighty-seven skulls of Zhetysu, the six skulls of the Wusun period were determined to be purely Caucasoid or close to it.

Language
The Wusun are generally believed to be an Indo-European people and speak a language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch. They are thought to be Iranian-speaking by the archaeologist Elena Kuzmina, linguist János Harmatta, Joseph Kitagawa, David Durand-Guédy, Turkologist Peter B. Golden and Central Asian scholar Denis Sinor. Yan Shigu (581 – 645 CE) described the Wusun's descendants with the exonym Húrén "foreigners, barbarians", which had been used since the 6th century to denote Iranian peoples, especially Sogdians, in Central Asia, besides other non-Chinese peoples. Archaeological evidence also supports the idea that Wusuns were Iranian speakers.

Edwin G. Pulleyblank has suggested that the Wusun, along with the Yuezhi, the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of Yanqi, could have been Tocharian-speaking. Colin Masica and David Keightley also suggest that the Wusun were Tocharian-speaking. Sinor finds it difficult to include the Wusun within the Tocharian category of Indo-European until further research. J. P. Mallory has suggested that the Wusun contained both Tocharian and Iranian elements. Central Asian scholar Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were Indo-Aryan-speaking. The first syllable of the Wusun royal title Kunmi was probably the royal title while the second syllable referred to the royal family name. Beckwith specifically suggests an Indo-Aryan etymology of the title Kunmi.

In the past, some scholars suggested that the Wusun spoke a Turkic language. Chinese scholar Han Rulin, as well as G. Vambery, A. Scherbak, P. Budberg, L. Bazin and V.P. Yudin, noted that the Wusun king's name Fu-li 拊離 (OC (20 BCE) *phoʔ-rai > LHC *pʰuoᴮ-liai ~ *pʰuoᴮ-lie), as reported in Chinese sources and translated as 'wolf', resembles Proto-Turkic *bȫrü 'wolf'. This suggestion however is rejected by Classical Chinese Literature expert Francis K. H. So, Professor at National Sun Yat-sen University. Other words listed by these scholars include the title bag, beg 'lord'. This theory has been criticized by modern Turkologists, including Peter B. Golden and Carter V. Findley, who explain that none of the mentioned words are actually Turkic in origin. Findley notes that the term böri is probably derived from one of the Iranian languages of Central Asia (cf. Khotanese birgga-). Meanwhile, Findley considers the title beg as certainly derived from the Sogdian baga 'lord', a cognate of Middle Persian baγ (as used by the rulers of the Sassanid Empire), as well as Sanskrit bhaga and Russian bog. According to Encyclopædia Iranica: "The origin of beg is still disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it is a loan-word. Two principal etymologies have been proposed. The first etymology is from a Middle Iranian form of Old Iranian baga; though the meaning would fit since the Middle Persian forms of the word often mean 'lord,' used of the king or others. The second etymology is from Chinese 伯 (MC pˠæk̚ > bó) 'eldest (brother), (feudal) lord'. Gerhard Doerfer on the other hand seriously considers the possibility that the word is genuinely Turkish. Whatever the truth may be, there is no connection with Turkish berk, Mongolian berke 'strong' or Turkish bögü, Mongolian böge 'wizard, shaman.'"

Economy
According to the Shiji (c. 123) and the Hanshu (c. 96), Liu Xijun, a daughter of the Han prince Liu Jian, was sent to the ruler (Kunmi or Kunmo) of the Wusun between 110 BCE and 105 BCE. She describes them as nomads who lived in felt tents, ate raw meat and drank fermented mare's milk. Some early Chinese descriptions of the people were pejorative, describing them as "bad, greedy and unreliable, and much given to robbery", but their state was also described as very strong. However, the Wusun were also noted for their harmony towards their neighbours, even though they were constantly raided by the Xiongnu and Kangju.

The principal activity of the Wusun was cattle-raising, but they also practiced agriculture. Since the climate of Zhetysu and Dzungaria did not allow constant wandering, they probably wandered with each change of season in the search of pasture and water. Numerous archaeological finds have found querns and agricultural implements and bones of domesticated animals, suggesting a semi-nomadic pastoral economy.

Social structure
The social structure of the Wusun resembled that of the Xiongnu. They were governed by the Great Kunmi, whose power was hereditary. The Great Kunmi and his two sons, who commanded the east and left flanks of the Wusun realm, each commanded a force of 10,000 men. The Wusun also fielded a regular army, with each freeman being considered a warrior. Their administrative apparatus was fairly sophisticated, consisting of sixteen officials. The Great Kunmi was assisted by a council of elders, which limited his power to some degree. The Wusun elite maintained itself through tribute from conquered tribes, war booty and trading profits. The booty acquired by the Wusun in their frequent conflicts enabled the administrative elite and members of the Kunmi's guard to amass enormous riches.

Wusun society seems to have been highly stratified. The main source of this stratification seems to have been property ownership. The wealthiest Wusuns are believed to have owned as many as 4,000 to 5,000 horses, and there is evidence pointing to privileged use of certain pastures. Typical of early patriarchal stratified societies, Wusun widows were obliged to remain within the family of their late husband by marrying one of his relatives, a concept known as levirate marriage. Y. A. Zadneprovskiy writes that the social inequality among the Wusun created social unrest among the lower strata. Wusun society also included many slaves, mostly prisoners of war. The Wusun are reported as having captured 10,000 slaves in a raid against the Xiongnu. Wusun slaves mainly laboured as servants and craftsmen, although the freemen formed the core of the Wusun economy.

Archaeology
Numerous sites belonging to the Wusun period in Zhetysu and the Tian Shan have been excavated. Most of the cemeteries are burial grounds with the dead interred in pit-graves, referred to as the Chil-pek group, which probably belong the local Saka population. A second group of kurgans with burials in lined "catacomb" chamber graves, of the so-called Aygîrdzhal group, are found together with the Chil-pek tombs from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, and have been attributed to the Yuezhi. Graves of the Wusun period typically contain personal belongings, with the burials of the Aygîrdzhal group often containing weapons.

A famous find is the Kargali burial of a female Shaman discovered at an altitude of 2,300 m, near Almaty, containing jewellery, clothing, head-dress and nearly 300 gold objects. A beautiful diadem of the Kargali burial attest to the artistic skill of these ancient jewellers. Another find at Tenlik in eastern Zhetysu contained the grave of a high-ranking warrior, whose clothing had been decorated with around 100 golden bosses.

Connection to Western histography
Some scholars such as Peter B. Golden have proposed that the Wusun may have been identical with the people described by Herodotus (IV. 16–25) and in Ptolemy's Geography as Issedones (also Issedoni, Issedoi or Essedoni). Their exact location of their country in Central Asia is unknown. The Issedones are "placed by some in Western Siberia and by others in Chinese Turkestan," according to E. D. Phillips.

French historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky suggests that the Wusun may have been the Asii of Geographica.

Genetics
A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of four Wusun buried between ca. 300 BC and 100 BC. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1. The samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to C4a1, HV6, J1c5a and U5b2c. The authors of the study found that the Wusun and Kangju had less East Asian admixture than the Xiongnu and the Saka. Both the Wusun and Kangju were suggested to be descended from Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) of the Late Bronze Age who admixed with Siberian hunter-gatherers and peoples related to the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex.

One theory has suggested that the Uissun tribe of Kazakhstan is descended from the Wusun, based on the superficial similarity of the ethnonym 'Uissun' to Wusun. A 2020 study could not find support for this theory, as the Uissun have a very low frequency of Haplogroup R1a (6%), most of it belonging to the Z94 clade rather than the Iranian Z93 clade. Most of the Uissun lineages were typical of Mongols, supporting their historically attested Mongolian origin.

title: Wusun


text:
Kjell Magne Bondevik

Kjell Magne Bondevik (born 3 September 1947) is a Norwegian Lutheran minister and politician. As leader of the Christian Democratic Party, he served as the 33rd prime minister of Norway from 1997 to 2000, and from 2001 to 2005, making him, after Erna Solberg, Norway's second longest serving non-Labour Party prime minister since World War II. Currently, Bondevik is president of the Oslo Centre for Peace and Human Rights.

Family and early life
Bondevik was born in Molde, the son of Johannes Bondevik, a principal at the Christian folk high school Rauma folkehøyskole who also was a local politician for the Christian Democratic Party, and Margit, née Hæreid. He became a theological candidate from MF Norwegian School of Theology in 1975. As Bondevik was active in Norwegian politics at a young age, he did not serve in the military. In 1979, he was ordained as pastor in the (Lutheran) Church of Norway.

He is married to Bjørg Bondevik (née Rasmussen) and has three children: Bjørn (born 1972), Hildegunn (born 1973), and John Harald (born 1976). Kjell Magne Bondevik is the nephew of politician Kjell Bondevik, the cousin of former bishop Odd Bondevik and brother in law of author and priest Eyvind Skeie.

Political career
In 2008, Bondevik said that he regards himself as a "68'er", and that he was "influenced by the radical wind of the time". While he remained in the movement of Young Christian Democrats (Norway, KrFU), he claims to have "radicalized the organization to great despair in the party". He has also said that he would likely rather have "oriented" himself towards the Socialist People's Party, had his radicalization of the Christian Democratic Party not gone through.

Representing the Christian Democratic Party, Bondevik was a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1973 to 2005. He was his party's parliamentary leader in the periods of 1981–1983, 1986–1989, 1993–1997, 1997, and 2000–2001, and party leader from 1983 to 1995. In this position, he was succeeded by Valgerd Svarstad Haugland. He was also Minister of Foreign Affairs in Jan P. Syse's government of 1989–1990, Minister of Church and Education in Kåre Willoch's government 1983–1986, also Prime Minister Willoch's deputy 1985–1986, and state secretary at the Office of the Prime Minister during Lars Korvald's government 1972–1973.

As Prime Minister
Bondevik's first term as prime minister lasted from 17 October 1997 to 3 March 2000, in a coalition cabinet consisting of the Christian Democratic Party, the Centre Party and the Liberal Party.

While serving his first term as prime minister, Bondevik attracted international attention in August 1998 when he announced that he was suffering from depressive episode, becoming the highest ranking world leader to admit to suffering from a mental illness while in office. Upon this revelation, Anne Enger became acting prime minister for three weeks, from 30 August to 23 September, while he recovered from the depressive episode. Bondevik then returned to office. Bondevik received thousands of supportive letters, and said that the experience had been positive overall, both for himself and because it made mental illness more publicly acceptable.

Bondevik's first cabinet resigned after losing a confidence vote in March 2000 as a result of a dispute over the construction of gas-fired power stations and was replaced by a Labour Party government led by Jens Stoltenberg until their defeat in the 2001 parliamentary election. Bondevik then formed his second cabinet, consisting of the Christian Democratic Party, the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party, which took office on 19 October 2001.

The second Bondevik government carried out reforms and left a booming economy; however, Bondevik was defeated in the 2005 parliamentary election, with 81 seats obtained for Bondevik's coalition and its supporters to the opposition Red-Green Coalition's 88.

Bondevik announced his retirement from national-level politics at the end of his term as prime minister, and did not seek re-election for his seat in parliament.

Post-premiership
The Oslo Centre for Peace and Human Rights was founded by Bondevik in January 2006. The purpose of the centre is to work for world peace, human rights and inter-religious tolerance worldwide. The centre cooperates closely with the Carter Center in Atlanta, the Kim Dae Jung Library in Seoul and the Crisis Management Initiative in Helsinki.

On 31 October 2006, he published his memoir, called Et liv i spenning (A life of excitement and tension).

On 31 January 2017, he was the first high-ranking politician from another country detained and questioned in the United States as a result of President Donald Trump's executive orders banning immigration from seven predominantly Muslim nations, because of a diplomatic visit to Iran he had made in 2014.

In 2022, it was revealed that Bondevik had published a glowing appraisal of Kazakhstan in the Norwegian daily newspaper Vårt Land after receiving cash payments from the government of Kazakhstan.

Earlier, in 2021, the Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet had revealed that one of Bondevik's colleagues, the Conservative Party politician Aamir J. Sheikh, had requested a cash payment of 704,000 NOK from the government of Bahrain in an e-mail, with Bondevik as one of the carbon-copied (CC) recipients. "A month later, Bondevik and Sheikh handed out an 'honorary prize' to representatives of Bahrain's prime minister," the newspaper wrote.

Awards and decorations
Bondevik was awarded the Grand Cross of St. Olav in 2004, the first sitting Norwegian Prime Minister to receive the Order of St. Olav in 80 years. The award happened due to a change in the Statutes of the Order with automatic awards to the prime minister and Ministers of the Government that stirred some debate and criticism. With the succeeding Stoltenberg Government, the practice was halted.

He is a full member of the Club de Madrid, a group of former leaders of democratic states that works to strengthen democratic governance and leadership.

Bondevik is an Honorary Member of The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation.

In 2009, Bondevik was awarded an honorary degree from the University of San Francisco.

title: Kjell Magne Bondevik


text:
Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band

Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band, also billed as Bob Kerr and His Whoopee Band, is a jazz band which started in 1967 and continues to perform today. It was an offshoot of the eclectic Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, and shared many similarities with other outfits of the time such as The New Vaudeville Band and The Temperance Seven. Founder Bob Kerr had been a member of both the Bonzos and the New Vaudeville Band.

Membership
Started in 1967, by 1971, for the album Making Whoopee, the band's membership consisted of Bob Kerr, Vernon Dudley Bowhay Nowell, Sam Spoons, James Chambers, John "Evil Gieves" Watson, Biff Harrison, Franklin Tomes and David Glasson.

In 1976, for the album The Whoopee Band, the membership consisted of Evil John Gieves Watson (banjo), Vernon Dudley Bowhay Nowell (tenor banjo), Biff Harrison, David Glasson (piano), Jim "Golden Boots" Chambers, and Bob Kerr.

For an August 1977 gig, the membership consisted of Bob Kerr (trumpet, trombone), Vernon Dudley Bowhay-Nowell (banjo), "Gentleman Frankie" Tooms (sousaphone), Sam Spoons (drums), "Evil John" Gieves Watson (banjo), Biff Harrison (clarinet, saxophone), Jim "Golden Boots" Chambers (saxophone), and David "Mr. Piano" Glasson (piano).

In 1978, for the Hard Pressed album, the membership consisted of Bob Kerr (cornet), Jim "Golden Boots" Chambers (alto sax), Vernon Dudley Bowhay Nowell (tenor banjo), "Evil" John Gieves Watson, Biff Harrison, David Glasson (piano), Sam Spoons (drums) and Frank Tooms.

In 1981, for the Things That Go Bump in the Mike album, the membership consisted of Bob Kerr, Jim Chambers, Vernon Dudley Bowhay Nowell, Biff Harrison, Sam Spoons, Hugh Crozier (piano) and Frank Tooms.

Two years later, the band split with Biff Harrison, Sam Spoons, Jim Chambers and John Gieves Watson moving off to the Bill Posters Will Be Band. This band continued with Megs Etherington and another former Whoopee member, Peter Shade.

By the time of a 1987 performance in Germany, the Whoopee Band consisted of Bob Kerr - tuba, Vernon Dudley Bowhay-Nowell - banjo, Richard White - clarinet, Hugh Crozier - piano, Frank Tomes - sousaphone and Colin Bowden - drums

Members of Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band are Bob Kerr, John "The Professor" Percival, Malcolm Sked, Bert Lamb and Henri Harrison.

Former members
Former members of the band have included:
 * Vernon Dudley Bowhay-Nowell
 * Ian Howarth
 * Frankie Tomes
 * Sam Spoons
 * Hugh Crozier
 * Evil John Gieves Watson
 * Biff Harrison
 * Jim "Golden Boots" Chambers
 * David "Mr Piano" Glasson
 * Sean Moyses
 * Dangerous Dave Keech
 * Spike Botterill
 * Mad Henry Davis
 * Clive Fenton
 * Tim Phillips
 * Fred Ward
 * Sir Alan Buckley
 * Phil Buckley
 * Richard White
 * Dave Turner
 * Roscoe (The Binman) Birchmore
 * Graham Collicott
 * Mike Hobbs
 * Mike Kemp

title: Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band


text:
L. E. J. Brouwer

Luitzen Egbertus Jan "Bertus" Brouwer (27 February 1881 – 2 December 1966) was a Dutch mathematician and philosopher who worked in topology, set theory, measure theory and complex analysis. Regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, he is known as one of the founders of modern topology, particularly for establishing his fixed-point theorem and the topological invariance of dimension.

Brouwer also became a major figure in the philosophy of intuitionism, a constructivist school of mathematics which argues that math is a cognitive construct rather than a type of objective truth. This position led to the Brouwer–Hilbert controversy, in which Brouwer sparred with his formalist colleague David Hilbert. Brouwer's ideas were subsequently taken up by his student Arend Heyting and Hilbert's former student Hermann Weyl. In addition to his mathematical work, Brouwer also published the short philosophical tract Life, Art, and Mysticism (1905).

Biography
Brouwer was born to Dutch Protestant parents. Early in his career, Brouwer proved a number of theorems in the emerging field of topology. The most important were his fixed point theorem, the topological invariance of degree, and the topological invariance of dimension. Among mathematicians generally, the best known is the first one, usually referred to now as the Brouwer fixed point theorem. It is a corollary to the second, concerning the topological invariance of degree, which is the best known among algebraic topologists. The third theorem is perhaps the hardest.

Brouwer also proved the simplicial approximation theorem in the foundations of algebraic topology, which justifies the reduction to combinatorial terms, after sufficient subdivision of simplicial complexes, of the treatment of general continuous mappings. In 1912, at age 31, he was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1908 at Rome and in 1912 at Cambridge, UK. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1943.

Brouwer founded intuitionism, a philosophy of mathematics that challenged the then-prevailing formalism of David Hilbert and his collaborators, who included Paul Bernays, Wilhelm Ackermann, and John von Neumann (cf. Kleene (1952), p. 46–59). A variety of constructive mathematics, intuitionism is a philosophy of the foundations of mathematics. It is sometimes (simplistically) characterized by saying that its adherents do not admit the law of excluded middle as a general axiom in mathematical reasoning, although it may be proven as a theorem in some special cases.

Brouwer was a member of the Significs Group. It formed part of the early history of semiotics—the study of symbols—around Victoria, Lady Welby in particular. The original meaning of his intuitionism probably cannot be completely disentangled from the intellectual milieu of that group.

In 1905, at the age of 24, Brouwer expressed his philosophy of life in a short tract Life, Art and Mysticism, which has been described by the mathematician Martin Davis as "drenched in romantic pessimism" (Davis (2002), p. 94). Arthur Schopenhauer had a formative influence on Brouwer, not least because he insisted that all concepts be fundamentally based on sense intuitions. Brouwer then "embarked on a self-righteous campaign to reconstruct mathematical practice from the ground up so as to satisfy his philosophical convictions"; indeed his thesis advisor refused to accept his Chapter II "as it stands, ... all interwoven with some kind of pessimism and mystical attitude to life which is not mathematics, nor has anything to do with the foundations of mathematics" (Davis, p. 94 quoting van Stigt, p. 41). Nevertheless, in 1908:
 * "... Brouwer, in a paper entitled 'The untrustworthiness of the principles of logic', challenged the belief that the rules of the classical logic, which have come down to us essentially from Aristotle (384--322 B.C.) have an absolute validity, independent of the subject matter to which they are applied" (Kleene (1952), p. 46).

"After completing his dissertation, Brouwer made a conscious decision to temporarily keep his contentious ideas under wraps and to concentrate on demonstrating his mathematical prowess" (Davis (2000), p. 95); by 1910 he had published a number of important papers, in particular the Fixed Point Theorem. Hilbert—the formalist with whom the intuitionist Brouwer would ultimately spend years in conflict—admired the young man and helped him receive a regular academic appointment (1912) at the University of Amsterdam (Davis, p. 96). It was then that "Brouwer felt free to return to his revolutionary project which he was now calling intuitionism " (ibid).

He was combative as a young man. According to Mark van Atten, this pugnacity reflected his combination of independence, brilliance, high moral standards and extreme sensitivity to issues of justice. He was involved in a very public and eventually demeaning controversy with Hilbert in the late 1920s over editorial policy at Mathematische Annalen, at that time a leading learned journal. According to Abraham Fraenkel, Brouwer espoused Germanic Aryanness and Hilbert removed him from the editorial board of  Mathematische Annalen after Brouwer objected to contributions from Ostjuden. Brouwer was accused of being a Nazi collaborator, for which there is no evidence. He retained his Jewish assistant Hans Freudenthal  in the 30s,  refused the request of a Nazi to remove Jewish mathematicians from the board of his journal Compositio Mathematica, and hid Jews in his home during the war. Likewise he took on Daniel Kan, who had survived Bergen-Belsen, as his assistant in 1948. However, Brouwer did encourage his students to sign a loyalty oath to the Nazis in 1943. In later years, he became relatively isolated; the development of intuitionism at its source was taken up by his student Arend Heyting. Dutch mathematician and historian of mathematics Bartel Leendert van der Waerden attended lectures given by Brouwer in later years, and commented: "Even though his most important research contributions were in topology, Brouwer never gave courses in topology, but always on — and only on — the foundations of his intuitionism. It seemed that he was no longer convinced of his results in topology because they were not correct from the point of view of intuitionism, and he judged everything he had done before, his greatest output, false according to his philosophy."

About his last years, Davis (2002) remarks:
 * "...he felt more and more isolated, and spent his last years under the spell of 'totally unfounded financial worries and a paranoid fear of bankruptcy, persecution and illness.' He was killed in 1966 at the age of 85, struck by a vehicle while crossing the street in front of his house." (Davis, p. 100 quoting van Stigt. p. 110.)

In English translation

 * Jean van Heijenoort, 1967 3rd printing 1976 with corrections, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, ISBN 0-674-32449-8 pbk. The original papers are prefaced with valuable commentary.
 * 1923. L. E. J. Brouwer: "On the significance of the principle of excluded middle in mathematics, especially in function theory." With two Addenda and corrigenda, 334-45. Brouwer gives brief synopsis of his belief that the law of excluded middle cannot be "applied without reservation even in the mathematics of infinite systems" and gives two examples of failures to illustrate his assertion.
 * 1925. A. N. Kolmogorov: "On the principle of excluded middle", pp. 414–437. Kolmogorov supports most of Brouwer's results but disputes a few; he discusses the ramifications of intuitionism with respect to "transfinite judgements", e.g. transfinite induction.
 * 1927. L. E. J. Brouwer: "On the domains of definition of functions". Brouwer's intuitionistic treatment of the continuum, with an extended commentary.
 * 1927. David Hilbert: "The foundations of mathematics," 464-80
 * 1927. L. E. J. Brouwer: "Intuitionistic reflections on formalism," 490-92. Brouwer lists four topics on which intuitionism and formalism might "enter into a dialogue." Three of the topics involve the law of excluded middle.
 * 1927. Hermann Weyl: "Comments on Hilbert's second lecture on the foundations of mathematics," 480-484. In 1920 Weyl, Hilbert's prize pupil, sided with Brouwer against Hilbert. But in this address Weyl "while defending Brouwer against some of Hilbert's criticisms...attempts to bring out the significance of Hilbert's approach to the problems of the foundations of mathematics."
 * Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, 2 vols. Oxford Univ. Press.
 * 1928. "Mathematics, science, and language," 1170-85.
 * 1928. "The structure of the continuum," 1186-96.
 * 1952. "Historical background, principles, and methods of intuitionism," 1197-1207.
 * Brouwer, L. E. J., Collected Works, Vol. I, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1975.
 * Brouwer, L. E. J., Collected Works, Vol. II, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976.
 * Brouwer, L. E. J., "Life, Art, and Mysticism," Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, vol. 37 (1996), pp. 389–429. Translated by W. P. van Stigt with an introduction by the translator, pp. 381–87. Davis quotes from this work, "a short book... drenched in romantic pessimism" (p. 94).
 * W. P. van Stigt, 1990, Brouwer's Intuitionism, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990

title: L. E. J. Brouwer