text:
East Horsley

East Horsley is a village and civil parish in Surrey, England, 21 miles southwest of London, on the A246 between Leatherhead and Guildford. Horsley and Effingham Junction railway stations are on the New Guildford line to London Waterloo. The two-halves of ancient Horsley are similar in having substantial woodland and some chalky lower slopes, in the south, of the North Downs.

Manors
East Horsley appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as having two manors, listed under the chief manor's heading of Horslei. This was held by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury. Its domesday assets were: 3 hides and 1½ virgates; 8½ ploughs, woodland worth 50 hogs. It rendered £5 per year to its overlords.

The Bishop's Manor in East Horsley seems to have belonged to the see of Exeter throughout the Middle Ages. Malden writing in 1911 associates closely the Domesday entry in Latin meaning 'Bishop Osborn of Exeter holds Woking' with this manor which his successors later held, since there is no trace of any land held by the Bishop of Exeter in Woking in pipe rolls, Assize Rolls, feet of fines or the records of Lambeth Palace.

Enclosure and development
In 1792 an Inclosure Act enabled William Currie MP to inclose most of Horsley Common at the northern end of the parish and the common fields and waste at the southern part, very much on the chalk. The parsonage and glebe were at the same time moved within the parish.

The village is the site of Horsley Towers, a gothic mansion designed by Sir Charles Barry (later the architect of the Houses of Parliament) for William Currie in place of an earlier building. Currie, a distiller and banker, had bought the property in 1784 and over the next 44 years made extensive changes to the village, including rebuilding most of its houses, establishing the school and restoring the church.

After Currie's death in 1829, the property was acquired by the 1st Earl of Lovelace (1805–1893). It was the marital home of Ada, Lady Lovelace (the writer, mathematician and what today we would call a "computer programmer"). The 1st Earl of Lovelace had fifteen bridges, known as the Lovelace Bridges, constructed on his estate to facilitate the transport of timber by horse-drawn carts. The bridges were built where the tracks crossed existing bridleways or roads. Ten bridges still exist.

In the early 1900s, the 3rd Earl of Lovelace applied restrictive covenants on most of his former fields when selling these to private developers, leading to the overwhelming proportion of homes being detached. No minimum plot size is specified, and planning is controlled by Guildford Borough Council, subject to advice from the local Horsley council.

Horsley Towers was also the home of Sir Thomas Sopwith, the aviation pioneer.

Geography
The settlement is 21 miles southwest of London, partly on the A246 between Leatherhead and Guildford. As such it forms a cross between a nucleated village and dispersed settlement directly north of this road, with a wide array of medium-sized individual home plots typically of 0.4 acres. Horsley and Effingham Junction railway stations are on the New Guildford line in the parish (connected to London Waterloo and both have a line direct to Leatherhead and Epsom).

The village has the parade of shops and businesses of the two Horsleys (see West Horsley), Otherwise the two halves of ancient Horsley are similar in having substantial woodland and some chalky lower slopes, in the south, of the North Downs.

Amenities
The main row of shops is near the western railway station on a local thoroughfare from the end of Forest Road towards Ockham, a small number of professions operate here, such as accountants, opticians and the NHS medical practice. A Legacy hotel is in the village.
 * Shops and businesses

The medieval church, St Martin's, is part of the Diocese of Guildford.

The Nomad Theatre is a well-equipped amateur production stage which is behind the smaller of East Horsley's two rows of shops, Bishopsmead Parade. Its construction was largely financed by National Lottery grants from Arts Council England. The theatre opened in October 1998 with a production of Dylan Thomas's Under Milk Wood.

Demography and housing
East Horsley had 1,343 detached homes (of which 1,309 were inhabited) and fewer than 183 of any other dwelling types at the 2011 census, and a high proportion of business-owners and directors, accordingly it was deemed Britain's "richest village" by The Daily Telegraph in 2011 and again in 2015.

The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.

The proportion of households in East Horsley who owned their home outright was 19.3% above the regional average. The proportion who owned their home with a loan was 0.3% greater than the regional average; providing overall a lower proportion than average of rented residential property relative to the average in Surrey, the district and the country.

Politics
Local government is administered by Guildford Borough Council and Surrey County Council.

At Surrey County Council, one of the 81 representatives represents the area within the Horsleys division.

At Guildford Borough Council the ward of the borough is represented by three councillors.

East Horsley is in Guildford parliamentary constituency.

Neighbouring areas
Neighbouring areas are:

Notes and references

 * Notes

 * References

title: East Horsley


text:
J. P. Morgan

John Pierpont Morgan (April 17, 1837 – March 31, 1913) was an American financier and investment banker who dominated corporate finance on Wall Street throughout the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. As the head of the banking firm that ultimately became known as J.P. Morgan and Co., he was a driving personal force behind the wave of industrial consolidations in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century.

Over the course of his career on Wall Street, Morgan spearheaded the formation of several prominent multinational corporations including U.S. Steel, International Harvester, and General Electric. He and his partners also held controlling interests in numerous other American businesses including Aetna, Western Union, the Pullman Car Company, and 21 railroads. Through his holdings, Morgan exercised enormous influence over capital markets in the United States. During the Panic of 1907, he organized a coalition of financiers that saved the American monetary system from collapse.

As the Progressive Era's leading financier, Morgan's dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform the shape of the American economy. Adrian Wooldridge characterized Morgan as America's "greatest banker". Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan Jr. Biographer Ron Chernow estimated his fortune at $80   million (equivalent to $    billion in ).

Childhood and education
John Pierpont Morgan was born on April 17, 1837, in Hartford, Connecticut to Junius Spencer Morgan (1813–1890) and Juliet Pierpont (1816–1884), of the influential Morgan family. His father, Junius, was then a partner at Howe Mather & Co., the largest dry goods wholesaler in Hartford. His mother Juliet was the daughter of the poet John Pierpont.

Morgan preferred to be called "Pierpont", as opposed to "John". In 1847, when Morgan was ten years old, his grandfather Joseph Morgan died and left the family a large fortune. He was educated in public and private schools in New England. Junius soon became a senior partner at the rechristened Mather Morgan & Co.

In September 1851, he passed the entrance exam for The English High School of Boston, which specialized in mathematics for careers in commerce. In April 1852, he suffered from rheumatic fever, an illness whose symptoms became more severe as his life progressed and ultimately left him in such pain that he could not walk. Junius sent him to the Azores to recover. He convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to Boston to resume his studies.

In 1856, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school in the Swiss village of La Tour-de-Peilz, where he gained fluency in French. His father then sent him to the University of Göttingen to improve his German. He attained passable fluency and a degree in art history within six months, completing his studies in 1857.

J.S. Morgan & Co.: 1858–1871

After completing his education, Morgan went to London in August 1857 to join his father, now a partner in the merchant banking firm George Peabody & Co. For the next fourteen years, he worked as his father's American representative in a series of affiliated New York City banking houses, learning the trade and lifestyle of a bank partner: Duncan, Sherman & Company (1858–1861), his own firm J. Pierpont Morgan & Co. (1861–1864), and finally Dabney Morgan (1864–1872). Dabney, Morgan & Company was co-founded by Charles H. Dabney and Jim Goodwin.

Duncan, Sherman & Company: 1858–1861
Morgan quickly moved on to New York City to begin work at Duncan Sherman as a junior clerk. Through his father's reputation and his position as the obvious successor to the Peabody house, he was quickly among the most sought-after young men on Wall Street and enjoyed the company of many of New York's leading citizens. Morgan had a great deal of independence in both his investment decisions and lifestyle, owing partly to his father's faith in Morgan's austere religious discipline. "Remember," J.S. Morgan wrote his son, "that there is an Eye above that is ever upon you and that for every act, word, and deed you will one day be called to give account." He adopted a serious, energetic approach to his work and was praised by his father's friends for his work ethic and capacity for business.

At the time Morgan entered the firm, Peabody & Co. was struggling in the wake of the Panic of 1857, a rash of business failures which dramatically hurt investor confidence in American securities. Peabody & Co., whose business was focused on the United States, was particularly threatened when a few of its American correspondent banks were forced to suspend operations. The house's creditors, including Baring Brothers, demanded payment; Peabody defied them, daring his rivals to put him out of business, and turned to the Bank of England for a loan in November 1857. Morgan himself expressed surprise that the famed Barings house was not more accommodating. The loan secured the house's survival and the London office was stabilized, but Duncan Sherman came under criticism on Wall Street, and the Mercantile Agency recommended its dissolution. J. P. Morgan urged his father to stand by Duncan Sherman in the face of "outrageous" reports "of Browns & Barings getting the credit for what they never did."

While at Duncan Sherman, Morgan gained early experience in the financing and reorganization of railroads, including the major Ohio & Mississippi and Illinois Central lines, for which he personally negotiated the loans. Most of his work involved collecting and transmitting interest and dividend payments, executing orders on the New York Stock Exchange, and conducting credit checks on mercantile houses doing business with Peabody & Co.

Starting in early January 1859, Morgan spent several months in the South to visit the firm's correspondents in Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana and to improve his knowledge of the cotton trade. He briefly visited Cuba, where he developed a lifelong taste for Cuban cigars. Most of his time in the South was spent in New Orleans, a leading cotton export hub. He received a stern warning from Duncan Sherman when he conducted an unauthorized trade of coffee at a profit, which he considered his first totally independent transaction. Later that summer, he visited his father in London. They discussed the prospects of Morgan's going into business for himself, and Morgan courted Amelia Sturges, whom he later married.

J. Pierpont Morgan & Co.: 1861–1864
As the American Civil War began, business slowed, delaying Morgan's efforts to open his own office. He opened J. Pierpont Morgan & Company some time between April and July 1861, conducting operations out of a one-room office at 53 Exchange Place. As he anticipated, most of his business was for his father and consistent with the work he had managed at Duncan Sherman. Morgan avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place.

The Civil War radically altered Morgan's focus by virtually eliminating his cotton business and drastically reducing iron imports for American railroads in favor of securities and foreign exchange operations. The Morgans, trading through J. P.'s New York office, made a large profit in the purchase and sale of Union bonds once the Battle of Antietam turned the war in the Union's favor. The Morgans also expanded their trade in European securities during a period of industrial expansion, financed by a large deposit from W. W. Corcoran after he liquidated his American holdings out of sympathy for the Confederate cause.

Morgan also profited in gold after specie payments were suspended in 1862; its price was largely pegged to the possibility of a Union victory. In October 1863, he and Edward B. Ketchum transferred $1.15 million in gold to England, forcing a price spike and allowing both men to sell their holdings at a large profit. Critics have long considered the deal a speculative effort to corner the American gold market and evidence of Morgan's insensitivity to the nation's financial situation, although the economic consequences were ultimately minor.

In 1862, Morgan made his cousin, James Goodwin, a partner. The firm received a serious boost when Morgan's father succeeded George Peabody as head of the London office. J.S. Morgan transferred all of the firm's remaining commercial credit and securities accounts from Duncan Sherman, and by the end of 1862, J. Pierpont Morgan & Co. was considered one of the stronger private banking houses on Wall Street.

Hall Carbine Affair
In August 1861, Morgan lent $20,000 to Simon Stevens, a well-connected New York City attorney and former secretary to Thaddeus Stevens. Stevens used the money to purchase five thousand carbines for resale to General John C. Frémont, commander of the Department of the West. The carbines in question were developed by John H. Hall and manufactured by Simeon North, purchased by the U.S. government, and resold to arms dealer Arthur M. Eastman for $3.50 apiece in June 1861. After the Union defeat at Bull Run placed a premium on arms, Stevens used the Morgan loan to purchase the rifles from Eastman at $11.50 apiece and immediately resold them to Frémont, a longtime acquaintance, at $22 each.

During the loan's thirty-eight day duration, Morgan held title to the carbines and assumed responsibility for having their barrels replaced with rifled ones before shipment to Frémont. Stevens approached Morgan for another loan, which Morgan refused, instead asking Stevens for the $20,000 on the original loan and attempting to remove himself from the transaction. On September 14, Morgan received $55,000 from the Army for the carbines, deducted the face value of the loan plus expenses and interest, and passed the remainder to Stevens.

By September, when Morgan received payment, the deal was already controversial. Military officials felt Frémont had overpaid, and an 1863 House of Representatives report indicted the profiteers as "worse than traitors in arms." Though Morgan was neither criticized nor censured during contemporary investigations, his name remained connected with the Hall Carbine Affair for many years.

Debate over Morgan's knowledge and involvement became a cause célèbre within his lifetime, attracting a wide range of commentary, and the debate has persisted long after his death. Interest in Morgan's role in the affair was rekindled in 1910 with the publication of Gustavus Myers' History of the Great American Fortunes. Myers claimed the rifles were more likely to blow the rifleman's thumb off than they were to cause any damage to the enemy. An earlier version of the carbine rifle was known to be subject to this problem. R. Gordon Wasson, later the head of public relations for J.P. Morgan & Co., argued that there was no evidence Morgan knew that he was participating in a scheme to profit. Vincent Carosso, author of an academic history of the Morgan house, concurs that Stevens "used Morgan's name" to cover his greed and that "none of the evidence suggested that Morgan himself had been a party to the shabby contract or had participated in its profits," though he "failed to exercise the care and caution that he had demonstrated two years earlier in the New Orleans coffee deal." Matthew Josephson, who popularized the term "robber baron", asserted that Morgan certainly did know of the scheme, because he had presented the government with a bill for $58,175 before he delivered the remaining rifles that were being held as collateral. Reviewing the evidence, Charles Morris also concluded that it was "implausible" that Morgan did not know about the source of his profits.

Dabney, Morgan & Co.: 1864–1872
On October 1, 1864, George Peabody retired completely from the rechristened J. S. Morgan & Co. and agreed to reinvest his share of the partnership with the firm. In an effort to expand the business internationally, Junius Morgan hired Dabney on November 15 as a senior partner. Dabney, a fifty-seven-year-old partner at Duncan Sherman, was widely respected in the business community for his accounting skill and integrity. In the reconfigured firm, J. P. Morgan took on primary responsibility for recruiting new business.

Both Dabney Morgan and J.S. Morgan & Co. remained focused on merchant banking and commodities into the 1870s. Between 1863 to 1873, the firm's profits from its securities business only exceeded its commissions on trade in 1865. Dabney Morgan traded globally in a variety of commodities, including iron rails, American cotton, Philippine tobacco, Brazilian coffee, and Peruvian guano. Beginning on the advice of Levi P. Morton in 1865, J. P. Morgan secured an exclusive four-year contract with the Peruvian government to export guano, used in the production of fertilizer and gunpowder, at a two-and-a-half percent commission.

To the extent the firm engaged in securities trading, the focus was railroad stock and government bonds. However, railroad construction had halted during the Civil War. Construction did not recover until after 1867, when the firm of Jay Cooke & Company in Philadelphia dominated in getting American government financing. In 1866, J. S. Morgan & Co. did make a "considerable sum" selling shares of the Atlantic Telegraph Company after the trans-Atlantic telegraph wire was laid. Despite this success, the firm's creditor, Brown Shipley, declined to expand Morgan's line of credit, stating the company was no better than a speculative trader in securities.

Drexel Morgan & Co.: 1871–1895
In 1871, at the behest of J.S. Morgan, the Philadelphia financier Anthony Joseph Drexel became J. P.'s mentor. They formed Drexel Morgan & Co. This new merchant banking partnership, based in New York, served as an agent for European investment in the United States and assumed the leading role in financing America's railroads and stabilizing and revitalizing American securities markets. The firm created a national capital market for industrial companies, which had previously existed only for railroads and canals. Drexel Morgan also played an important role in government finance. To restore investor confidence, Drexel Morgan underwrote the pay of the entire U.S. Army in 1877 and bailed out the U.S. government during the Panic of 1895.

Railroad investments and management

In his ascent to power, Morgan focused on America's largest business enterprises: railroads. He led the syndicate that broke the government-financing privileges of Jay Cooke and developed and financed a national railroad empire by reorganization and consolidation. He raised large sums in Europe. Rather than participating solely as a financier, he actively managed and reorganized the railroad corporations, increasing efficiency and acting as an early pioneer in the practice of private equity investing, a process that became known as "Morganization."

In 1883, Morgan successfully marketed a large part of William H. Vanderbilt's New York Central holdings. In 1885, he reorganized the New York, West Shore & Buffalo Railroad and leased it to the New York Central. In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act. Morgan set up industry conferences in 1889 and 1890 which paved the way for a wave of consolidations in the early 20th century. In an unprecedented move, he brought together railroad presidents to follow the new laws and write agreements for the maintenance of "public, reasonable, uniform and stable rates." The first of their kind, the conferences created a community of interest among competing lines, paving the way for the great consolidations of the early 20th century.

J.P. Morgan & Company: 1895–1913
After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was renamed J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia; Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris; and J.S. Morgan & Company (after 1910 Morgan, Grenfell & Company) of London. By 1900, it was one of the world's most powerful banking houses, focused primarily on reorganizations and consolidations.

Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George Walbridge Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge. His international reputation as a financier began to draw investors to the businesses that he took over.

Panic of 1893 and election of 1896
At the depths of the Panic of 1893, around 1895, the U.S. Treasury nearly depleted its gold reserves. Morgan put forward a plan for the federal government to buy gold from his and European banks, but it was declined in favor of a plan to sell government bonds directly to the general public. Morgan demanded a meeting with President Grover Cleveland, where he claimed the United States government could default that day if action was not taken.

Morgan came up with a plan to use an old civil war statute that allowed Morgan and the Rothschilds to sell 3.5 million ounces of gold directly to the U.S. Treasury in exchange for a 30-year bond issue. The episode saved the Treasury but hurt Cleveland's standing with the populist agrarian wing of the Democratic Party, ensuring his political career was over. In the 1896 United States presidential election, bankers came under a withering attack from William Jennings Bryan, and Morgan was among many who donated heavily to Republican William McKinley.

Nikola Tesla's Wardenclyffe station: 1900
In 1900, the inventor Nikola Tesla convinced Morgan he could build a trans-Atlantic wireless communication system based on his theories of Earth and atmospheric electrical conduction (eventually sited at Wardenclyffe) that would outperform the short range radio wave-based wireless telegraph system then being demonstrated by Guglielmo Marconi. In what may have been a philanthropic investment, Morgan gave Tesla $150,000 to build the system and Tesla offered him a 51% control of the patents. Almost as soon as the letter of agreement was signed Tesla decided to scale up the facility to include his ideas of terrestrial wireless power transmission to make what he thought was a more competitive system. Morgan refused to give Tesla any further money towards the project and, with Tesla unable to secure further investment capital, Wardenclyffe's development stalled and the site was abandoned by 1906.

Northern Securities: 1901–1904

The Northern Pacific Railway went bankrupt in the Panic of 1893. The bankruptcy wiped out the railroad's bondholders, leaving it free of debt, and a complex financial battle for its control ensued. In 1901, a compromise was reached between Morgan, New York financier E. H. Harriman and Minnesota railroad builder James J. Hill. To reduce competition in the Midwest, they created the Northern Securities Company to merge three of the region's most important railways: the Northern Pacific Railway, the Great Northern Railway, and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. The parties ran into unexpected opposition from President Theodore Roosevelt, who considered the merger bad for consumers and a violation of the seldom enforced Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. In 1902, Roosevelt ordered Attorney General Philander Knox to sue to break it up. In 1904, the Supreme Court dissolved the Northern Security company; though Morgan did not lose money, his all-powerful political reputation suffered.

U.S. Steel: 1901–1913
In 1900, Morgan began talks to purchase Andrew Carnegie's steel business and merge it with several other steel, coal, mining and shipping firms. After financing the creation of the Federal Steel Company, Morgan merged it with the Carnegie Steel Company and several other steel and iron businesses (including William Edenbirn's Consolidated Steel and Wire Company) in 1901, forming the United States Steel Corporation. U.S. Steel was the world's first billion-dollar company, with an authorized capitalization of $1.4 billion, much larger than any other industrial firm and comparable in size to the largest railroads.

U.S. Steel's goals were to achieve greater economies of scale, reduce transportation and resource costs, expand product lines, and improve distribution to allow the United States to compete globally with the United Kingdom and Germany. U.S. Steel president Charles M. Schwab and others claimed the company's size would enable it to be more aggressive and effective in pursuing distant international markets. Critics regarded U.S. Steel as a monopoly, as it sought to dominate not only steel, but also the construction of bridges, ships, railroad cars, rails, wire, nails, and many other products. With U.S. Steel, Morgan captured two-thirds of the steel market, and Schwab was confident that the company would soon hold a 75% market share.

U.S. Steel also faced criticism for its labor policies. U.S. Steel was non-union and used aggressive tactics to identify and root out pro-union "troublemakers." The lawyers and bankers who had organized the merger, including Morgan, were more concerned with long-range profits, stability, good public relations, and avoiding trouble. His views generally prevailed, and the result was a "paternalistic" labor policy.

Failed London Underground line: 1902
Morgan suffered a rare business defeat in 1902 when he attempted to build and operate a line on the London Underground. Transit magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes thwarted Morgan's effort to obtain parliamentary authority to build the Piccadilly, City and North East London Railway, a subway line that would have competed with "tube" lines controlled by Yerkes. Morgan called Yerkes' coup "the greatest rascality and conspiracy I ever heard of".

International Mercantile Marine and RMS Titanic: 1902–1913
In 1902, J.P. Morgan & Co. financed the formation of International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMMC), an Atlantic shipping company which absorbed several major American and British lines, in an attempt to monopolize the shipping trade. Morgan hoped to dominate transatlantic shipping through interlocking directorates and contractual arrangements with the railroads, but that proved impossible because of the unscheduled nature of sea transport, American antitrust legislation, and an agreement with the British government.

Morgan had booked a luxury suite with a private promenade deck on the RMS Titanic and scheduled to sail on the ill-fated maiden voyage of the ship, which was owned by an IMMC subsidiary, White Star Line, but those plans were later changed. The ship's famous sinking was a financial disaster for IMMC. Analysis of financial records shows that IMMC was over-leveraged and suffered from inadequate cash flow causing it to default on bond interest payments.

In response to the sinking, Morgan purportedly said:

"Monetary losses amount to nothing in life. It is the loss of life that counts. It is that frightful death."

Panic of 1907

The Panic of 1907 was a financial crisis that almost crippled the American economy. Major New York banks were on the verge of bankruptcy and there was no mechanism to rescue them, until Morgan stepped in to help resolve the crisis. To ease the crisis, Secretary of the Treasury George B. Cortelyou earmarked $35 million of federal money to deposit in New York banks. Morgan then met with the nation's leading financiers in his New York mansion, where he forced them to devise a plan to meet the crisis. James Stillman, president of the National City Bank, also played a central role. Morgan organized a team of bank and trust executives which redirected money between banks, secured further international lines of credit, and bought up the plummeting stocks of healthy corporations.

A delicate issue arose regarding the brokerage firm of Moore and Schley, which was deeply invested in the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company (TCI). Moore and Schley had used over $6 million of TCI stock as collateral for loans to Wall Street banks, which the firm now could not pay. If Moore and Schley failed, it could precipitate a larger crisis. Thus, Morgan proposed merging the TCI with U.S. Steel, one of its chief competitors.

U.S. Steel president Elbert Gary agreed, but was concerned that antitrust implications could obstruct the merger. Morgan sent Gary to see President Theodore Roosevelt, who promised legal immunity for the deal. U.S. Steel thereupon paid $30 million for the TCI stock and Moore and Schley was saved. The announcement had an immediate effect; by November 7, 1907, the panic was over.

Criticisms and investigations

While conservatives hailed Morgan for civic responsibility, strengthening the national economy, and devotion to the arts and religion, critics of banking and consolidation viewed him as one of the leading figures in the system they rejected. They attacked Morgan for the terms of his 1895 loan of gold to the U.S. Treasury. Many, including writer Upton Sinclair, attacked him for his handling of the Panic of 1907.

In December 1912, Morgan testified before the Pujo Committee, a subcommittee of the House Banking and Currency committee. The committee ultimately concluded that a small number of financial leaders was exercising considerable control over many industries. The partners of J.P. Morgan & Co. and directors of First National and National City Bank controlled aggregate resources of $22.245 billion, which Louis Brandeis compared to the value of all the property in the twenty-two states west of the Mississippi River.

In the early 2000s, an investigation by historian James Lide discovered that through parts of its business, JPMorgan Chase accepted thousands of slaves as collateral on loans made to plantation owners in the early 19th century, and that it ended up owning several hundred slaves. The banks in question, Citizens' Bank and Canal Bank, both now part of JPMorgan, served plantations from the 1830s until the American Civil War, and sometimes took ownership of slaves when the plantation owners defaulted on loans. JPMorgan estimated that between 1831 and 1865, the two banks accepted approximately 13,000 slaves as collateral and ended up owning about 1,250 slaves. An apology was made in compliance with a rule requiring companies to detail past dealings with the slave trade when doing business with the city of Chicago.

List of Morgan corporations
From 1890 to 1913, 42 major corporations were organized or their securities were underwritten, in whole or part, by J.P. Morgan and Company.

Manufacturing and construction industry

 * Aetna Inc.
 * American Bridge Company
 * American Can Company
 * American Telephone & Telegraph
 * Atlas Portland Cement Company
 * Boomer Coal & Coke
 * Consolidated Edison
 * DuPont
 * Federal Steel Company
 * General Electric
 * General Motors
 * Hartford Carpet Corporation
 * Inspiration Consolidated Copper Company
 * International Harvester
 * International Mercantile Marine
 * International Telephone & Telegraph
 * J. I. Case Threshing Machine
 * Kennecott Copper
 * National Tube
 * Montgomery Ward
 * Pullman Car Company
 * United Dry Goods
 * United States Steel Corporation
 * Western Union

Railroads

 * Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
 * Atlantic Coast Line
 * Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
 * Central of Georgia Railway
 * Chesapeake and Ohio Railway
 * Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad
 * Chicago, Burlington and Quincy
 * Chicago Great Western Railway
 * Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville Railroad
 * Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway
 * Erie Railroad
 * Florida East Coast Railway
 * Great Northern Railway
 * Hocking Valley Railway
 * Jersey Central Railroad
 * Lehigh Valley Railroad
 * Louisville and Nashville Railroad
 * New York Central System
 * New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
 * New York, Ontario and Western Railway
 * New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway
 * Nickel Plate Road
 * Northern Pacific Railway
 * Pennsylvania Railroad
 * Pere Marquette Railroad
 * Reading Railroad
 * St. Louis–San Francisco Railway
 * Southern Railway
 * Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis

Marriages and children

In October 1861, Morgan married Amelia "Memi" Sturges (1835–1862) at her home on 5 East Fourteenth Street. He had courted her for two years, and when they married, Memi was already seriously ill with tuberculosis. Morgan had to carry her to the drawing room for a small private ceremony and afterwards to the carriage which took them to the pier. They travelled to Algiers, where he hoped the warm climate would restore their health, but it did not, and she died in Nice in February 1862, four months and ten days after their marriage.

On May 31, 1865, Morgan married Frances Louisa "Fanny" Tracy (1842–1924), whom he met at St. George's Church. They had four children:
 * Louisa Pierpont Morgan (1866–1946), who married Herbert L. Satterlee (1863–1947)
 * J. P. Morgan Jr. (1867–1943), who succeeded his father and married Jane Norton Grew
 * Juliet Pierpont Morgan (1870–1952), who married William Pierson Hamilton (1869–1950)
 * Anne Tracy Morgan (1873–1952), philanthropist

Appearance

Morgan often had a tremendous physical effect on people; one man said that a visit from Morgan left him feeling "as if a gale had blown through the house." He was physically large with massive shoulders, piercing eyes, and a purple nose. He was known to dislike publicity and hated being photographed without his permission; as a result of his self-consciousness of his rosacea, all of his professional portraits were retouched. His deformed nose was due to a disease called rhinophyma, which can result from rosacea. As the deformity worsens, pits, nodules, fissures, lobulations, and pedunculation contort the nose. This condition inspired the crude taunt "Johnny Morgan's nasal organ has a purple hue." Surgeons could have shaved away the rhinophymous growth of sebaceous tissue during Morgan's lifetime, but as a child he suffered from infantile seizures, and Morgan's son-in-law, Herbert L. Satterlee, has speculated that he did not seek surgery for his nose because he feared the seizures would return.

His social and professional self-confidence were too well established to be undermined by this affliction. It appeared as if he dared people to meet him squarely and not shrink from the sight, asserting the force of his character over the ugliness of his face.

Morgan smoked dozens of cigars per day and favored large Havana cigars dubbed Hercules' Clubs by observers.

Religion
Morgan was a lifelong member of the Episcopal Church, and by 1890 was one of its most influential leaders. He was a founding member of the Church Club of New York, an Episcopal private member's club in Manhattan. Morgan was appointed as one of the first laymen on the committee that created the 1892 revision of the Book of Common Prayer, where he petitioned for the creation of a special limited collectible printing that he later financed. In 1910, the General Convention of the Episcopal Church established a commission, proposed by Bishop Charles Brent, to implement a world conference of churches to address their differences in their "faith and order." Morgan was so impressed by the proposal for such a conference that he contributed $100,000 to finance the commission's work.

Residences

His house at 219 Madison Avenue was originally built in 1853 by John Jay Phelps and purchased by Morgan in 1882. On June 6, 1882, it became the first electrically lit private residence in America. A coal-fueled steam engine provided power for two generators that produced the required electricity. His interest in the new technology was a result of his financing Thomas Alva Edison's Edison Electric Illuminating Company in 1878. It was there that a reception of 1,000 people was held for the marriage of Juliet Morgan and William Pierson Hamilton on April 12, 1894, where they were given a favorite clock of Morgan's. Morgan also owned the "Cragston" estate, located in Highland Falls, New York. His son, of the same name, was the owner of East Island in Glen Cove, New York.

J. P. Morgan spent three months of every year in London and owned two houses there. His 'town' house, 13 Prince's Gate was inherited from his father and was later expanded by the acquisition of the neighbouring Number 14 to house his growing art collection. After his death the merged houses were offered to the US government for use as the residence of the US Ambassador, from 1929 to 1955. His other property was Dover House, Putney, which was later demolished and developed into the Dover House Estate.

Social organizations and philanthropy
Morgan was a member of the Union Club in New York City. When a friend, Erie Railroad president John King, was blackballed, Morgan resigned and organized the Metropolitan Club of New York. He donated the land on 5th Avenue and 60th Street at a cost of $125,000, and commanded Stanford White to "...build me a club fit for gentlemen, forget the expense..." He invited King in as a charter member and served as club president from 1891 to 1900.

Morgan was a benefactor of the Morgan Library and Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the British Museum, Groton School, Harvard University (especially its medical school), Trinity College, the Lying-in Hospital of the City of New York, and the New York trade schools.

Yachting

Morgan was the Commodore of the New York Yacht Club (NYYC) and was present at a board meeting on October 27, 1898, to discuss the construction of a new clubhouse. Morgan offered to acquire a 75 by plot on 44th Street in midtown Manhattan if the NYYC raised its annual membership dues from $25 to $50 and the new clubhouse occupied the entire site. The NYYC's board accepted his offer, and Morgan bought the lots the next day for $148,000 and donated to the club.

NYYC members hosted an informal housewarming party on January 29, 1901, giving Morgan a trophy in gratitude of his purchase of the site.

An avid yachtsman, Morgan owned several large yachts, the first being the Corsair, built by William Cramp & Sons for Charles J. Osborn (1837–1885) and launched on May 26, 1880. Charles J. Osborn was Jay Gould's private banker. Morgan bought the yacht in 1882. The well-known quote, "If you have to ask the price, you can't afford it" is commonly attributed to Morgan in response to a question about the cost of maintaining a yacht, although the story is unconfirmed.

Collections
Morgan was a collector of books, pictures, paintings, clocks and other art objects, many loaned or given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art (of which he was president and a major force in its establishment), and many housed in his London house and in his private library on 36th Street, near Madison Avenue in New York City.

For a number of years the British artist and art critic Roger Fry worked for the museum, and in effect for Morgan, as a collector.

His son, J. P. Morgan Jr., made the Pierpont Morgan Library a public institution in 1924 as a memorial to his father, and appointed Belle da Costa Greene, his father's private librarian, as its first director.

Gems
By the turn of the century, Morgan had become one of America's most important collectors of gems and had assembled the most important gem collection in the U.S. as well as of American gemstones (over 1,000 pieces). Tiffany & Co. assembled his first collection under their chief gemologist, George Frederick Kunz. The collection was exhibited at the World's Fair in Paris in 1889. The exhibit won two golden awards and drew the attention of important scholars, lapidaries, and the general public.

George Frederick Kunz continued to build a second, even finer, collection which was exhibited in Paris in 1900. These collections have been donated to the American Museum of Natural History in New York, where they were known as the Morgan-Tiffany and the Morgan-Bement collections.

Photography

Morgan was a patron to photographer Edward S. Curtis, offering Curtis $75,000 in 1906 to create a series on the American Indians. Curtis eventually published a 20-volume work entitled The North American Indian. Curtis also produced a motion picture, In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which was restored in 1974 and re-released as In the Land of the War Canoes. Curtis was also famous for a 1911 magic lantern slide show The Indian Picture Opera which used his photos and original musical compositions by composer Henry F. Gilbert.

Death
It is said in the newspaper on March 31, 1913, that Morgan fell ill to "a long sinking spell" which included symptoms of extreme weakness, nervousness after his realization of the inability to take in food due to a paralysis of the muscles in his throat; no other organic trouble was present. When he tried to speak, contraction of his throat followed. As his condition worsened, he was in and out of comatose and semi-consciousness, while they gave him food through "injection". Morgan had been traveling abroad and died on March 31, 1913, in his sleep at the Grand Hotel Plaza in Rome, Italy. His body was brought back to America aboard the SS France (1910), a French Line passenger ship. Flags on Wall Street flew at half-staff, and in an honor usually reserved for heads of state, the stock market closed for two hours when his body passed through New York City. His body was brought to lie in his home and adjacent library the first night of arrival in New York City. His remains were interred in the Cedar Hill Cemetery in his birthplace of Hartford, Connecticut. His son, John Pierpont "Jack" Morgan Jr., inherited the banking business. His estate was worth $68.3 million ($1.39 billion in today's dollars based on CPI, or $25.2 billion based on share of GDP), of which about $30 million represented his share in the New York and Philadelphia banks. The value of his art collection was estimated at $50 million.

Legacy
His son, J. P. Morgan Jr., took over the business at his father's death, but he was never as influential. The 1933 Glass–Steagall Act forced the dissolution of the House of Morgan into three entities:
 * J.P. Morgan & Co., which later became Morgan Guaranty Trust
 * Morgan Stanley, an investment house formed by his grandson Henry Sturgis Morgan
 * Morgan Grenfell in London, an overseas securities house

The gemstone morganite was named in his honor.

The Cragston Dependencies, associated with his estate, Cragston (at Highlands, New York), was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.

Popular culture

 * A contemporary literary biography of Morgan is used as an allegory for the financial environment in America after World War I in the second volume, Nineteen Nineteen, of John Dos Passos' U.S.A. trilogy.
 * Morgan appears as a character in Caleb Carr's novel The Alienist, in E. L. Doctorow's novel Ragtime, in Steven S. Drachman's novel The Ghosts of Watt O'Hugh, in Graham Moore's novel The Last Days of Night, and in Marie Benedict and Victoria Christopher Murray's novel The Personal Librarian.
 * Morgan is believed to have been the model for Walter Parks Thatcher (played by George Coulouris), guardian of the young Citizen Kane (film directed by Orson Welles) with whom he has a tense relationship—Kane blaming Thatcher for destroying his childhood.
 * According to Phil Orbanes, former vice president of Parker Brothers, the Rich Uncle Pennybags of the American version of the board game Monopoly is modeled after J. P. Morgan. The family of the illustrator Daniel Fox, who in 1936 created the mascot for the game, have credited J. P. Morgan as being the inspiration for the character.
 * Morgan's career is highlighted in episodes three and four of the History Channel's The Men Who Built America.
 * "My Name Is Morgan (But It Ain't J.P.)" – 1906 popular song released as an Edison cylinder recording, with words by Will A. Mahoney, music by Halsey K. Mohr, and sung by Bob Roberts. Originally released as a "coon song" but revised over the years, a poor man named Morgan tells his girlfriend not to mistake him for a rich man.
 * 1950s popular singer, later game show panelist Jaye P. Morgan, born Mary Margaret Morgan, acquired the nickname reflecting J.P. Morgan while serving as her high school class treasurer.
 * The villain of Street Fighter 6 is an elderly upper-class banker that uses a variety of aliases, all of which have the initials "JP." He claims to have lived for over one hundred years, empowered by his business association with M. Bison
 * Morgan was the inspiration for the Monopoly mascot Milburn Pennybags

Biographies

 * Bryman, Jeremy. J. P. Morgan: Banker to a Growing Nation. Morgan Reynolds Publishing (2001) ISBN 1-883846-60-9, for middle schools
 * Wheeler, George, Pierpont Morgan and Friends: the Anatomy of a Myth, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1973. ISBN 0136761488

Specialized studies

 * Carosso, Vincent P. Investment Banking in America: A History Harvard University Press (1970)
 * De Long, Bradford. "Did JP Morgan's Men Add Value?: An Economist's Perspective on Financial Capitalism," in Peter Temin, ed., Inside the Business Enterprise: Historical Perspectives on the Use of Information (1991) pp. 205–36; shows firms with a Morgan partner on their board had higher stock prices (relative to book value) than their competitors
 * Forbes, John Douglas. J. P. Morgan Jr. 1867–1943 (1981). 262 pp. biography of his son
 * Fraser, Steve. Every Man a Speculator: A History of Wall Street in American Life HarperCollins (2005)
 * Garraty, John A. Right-Hand Man: The Life of George W. Perkins. (1960) ISBN 978-0-313-20186-8; Perkins was a top aide 1900–1910
 * Geisst; Charles R. Wall Street: A History from Its Beginnings to the Fall of Enron . Oxford University Press. 2004.
 * Giedeman, Daniel C. "J. P. Morgan, the Clayton Antitrust Act, and Industrial Finance-Constraints in the Early Twentieth Century", Essays in Economic and Business History, 2004 22: 111–126
 * Hannah, Leslie. "J. P. Morgan in London and New York before 1914," Business History Review 85 (Spring 2011) 113–50
 * Moody, John. The Masters of Capital: A Chronicle of Wall Street (1921)
 * Moody, John. The Masters of Capital: A Chronicle of Wall Street (1921)

Other

 * , a biographical magazine article
 * , including a short biography of Morgan

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: J. P. Morgan


text:
Pinus sylvestris

Pinus sylvestris, the Scots pine (UK), Scotch pine (US), Baltic pine, or European red pine is a species of tree in the pine family Pinaceae that is native to Eurasia. It can readily be identified by its combination of fairly short, blue-green leaves and orange-red bark.

Description

Pinus sylvestris is an evergreen coniferous tree growing up to 35 m in height and 1 m in trunk diameter when mature, exceptionally over 45 m tall and 1.7 m in trunk diameter on very productive sites. The tallest on record is a tree over 210 years old growing in Estonia which stands at 46.6 m. The lifespan is normally 150–300 years, with the oldest recorded specimens in Lapland, Northern Finland over 760 years.

The bark is thick, flaky and orange-red when young to scaly and gray-brown in maturity, sometimes retaining the former on the upper portion. The habit of the mature tree is distinctive due to its long, bare and straight trunk topped by a rounded or flat-topped mass of foliage.

The shoots are light brown, with a spirally arranged scale-like pattern. On mature trees the leaves ('needles') are a glaucous blue-green, often darker green to dark yellow-green in winter, 2.5 – long and 1 – broad, produced in fascicles of two with a persistent gray 5 – basal sheath. On vigorous young trees the leaves can be twice as long, and occasionally occur in fascicles of three or four on the tips of strong shoots. Leaf persistence varies from two to four years in warmer climates, and up to nine years in subarctic regions. Seedlings up to one year old bear juvenile leaves; these are single (not in pairs), 2 – long, flattened, with a serrated margin.

The seed cones are red at pollination, then pale brown, globose and 4 – in diameter in their first year, expanding to full size in their second year, pointed ovoid-conic, green, then gray-green to yellow-brown at maturity, 3 - 7.5 cm long. The cone scales have a flat to pyramidal apophysis (the external part of the cone scale), with a small prickle on the umbo (central boss or protuberance). The seeds are blackish, 3 – in length with a pale brown 12 – wing and are released when the cones open in spring 22–24 months after pollination. The pollen cones are yellow, occasionally pink, 8 – long; pollen release is in mid to late spring.

Varieties

Over 100 Pinus sylvestris varieties have been described in the botanical literature, but only three or four are now accepted. They differ only minimally in morphology, but with more pronounced differences in genetic analysis and resin composition. Populations in westernmost Scotland are genetically distinct from those in the rest of Scotland and northern Europe, but not sufficiently to have been distinguished as separate botanical varieties. Trees in the far north of the range were formerly sometimes treated as var. lapponica, but the differences are clinal and it is not genetically distinct.

Names
Before the 18th century, the species was more often known as Scots fir or Scotch fir. Another, less common name is European redwood.

The timber from it is also called red deal or yellow deal; the name "deal" comes from an archaic unit of volume used to measure wood.

Distribution and habitat
Pinus sylvestris is the only pine native to northern Europe, ranging from Western Europe to Eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains and Anatolia, and north to well inside the Arctic Circle in Fennoscandia. In the north of its range, it occurs from sea level to 1000 m, while in the south of its range it is a mountain tree, growing at 1200 – altitude. Its distribution intersects with T. piniperda's habitat, making the beetle a primary pest of the tree.

The species is mainly found on poorer, sandy soils, rocky outcrops, peat bogs or close to the forest limit. On fertile sites, the pine is out-competed by other tree species, usually spruce or broad-leaved trees.

Britain and Ireland

The tree spread across Britain and Ireland after the Last Glacial Maximum. Pollen records show that pine was present locally in southern England by 9,000 years ago having entered from northeast France and that it had spread as far north as the Lake District and North Pennines 500 years later.

It was present in Ireland over 8,800 years ago but absent from Wales at that time which suggests that the pine in Ireland had a separate Iberian origin or contained surviving populations, although evidence towards its survival is lacking. Pine expanded into Scotland between 8,000 and 8,500 years ago either from an independent refuge, from Scandinavia (via Doggerland) or from Ireland. As the climate warmed it became extinct from most of Britain and Ireland around 5,500 years ago except in Scotland, Kielder in England and The Burren in County Clare, Ireland.

The Irish and western Scottish populations went through a massive decline around 4,000 years ago which ultimately led to the practical extinction of the Irish population between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago. It was replaced by large areas of blanket bog in western Scotland and Ireland though the reasons for its decline and extinction in England are not clear, but it may have been influenced by human activities.

In Britain it now occurs naturally only in Scotland. Historical and archaeological records indicate that it also occurred in Wales and England until about 300–400 years ago, becoming extinct there due to over-exploitation and grazing; it has been re-introduced in these countries. Similar historical extinction and re-introduction applies to Ireland, Denmark and the Netherlands. Whether it truly became extinct in England is unknown. It has been speculated that it may have survived wild long enough for trees used in cultivation in England to derive from native (rather than imported) sources. Shakespeare (in Richard II) was familiar with the species in the 1590s, as was Evelyn in the early 1660s (Sylva), both around the time when the pine was thought to become extinct in England, but when landowners were also beginning ornamental and forestry planting.

The pine formed much of the Caledonian Forest, which once covered much of the Scottish Highlands. Overcutting for timber demand, fire, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and even deliberate clearance to deter wolves have all been factors in the decline of this once great pine and birch forest. Only comparatively small areas – 17,000 ha, only just over 1% of the estimated original 1,500,000 ha – of this ancient forest remain, the main surviving remnants being at Abernethy Forest, Glen Affric, Rothiemurchus Forest, and the Black Wood of Rannoch. Plans are currently in progress to restore at least some areas and work has started at key sites.

Ecology
It forms either pure forests or mixes with Norway spruce, common juniper, silver birch, European rowan, Eurasian aspen and other hardwood species. In central and southern Europe, it occurs with numerous additional species, including European black pine, mountain pine, Macedonian pine, and Swiss pine. In the eastern part of its range, it occurs with Siberian pine, among others.

In 2020, black spot needle blight was found on hundreds of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica trees in four forest farms in northeastern China. It first appeared on the upper part of the needles, and then the needles became withered and gradually showed light black spots, although they still remained green. As the fungal disease progressed, the needles eventually died and turned gray with many dark black spots. The fungus was identified as Heterotruncatella spartii (within the family Sporocadaceae) based on morphology and molecular methods.

Uses

Pinus sylvestris is an important tree in forestry. The wood is used for pulp and sawn timber products. A seedling stand can be created by planting, sowing, or natural regeneration. Commercial plantation rotations vary between 50 and 120 years, with longer rotations in northeastern areas where growth is slower.

In Scandinavian countries, the pine was used for making tar in the preindustrial age. Some active tar producers still exist, but that industry has almost ceased. The pine has also been used as a source of rosin and turpentine.

The wood is pale brown to red-brown, and used for general construction work. It has a dry density around 470 kg/m3 (varying with growth conditions), an open porosity of 60%, a fibre saturation point of 0.25 kg/kg, and a saturation moisture content of 1.60 kg/kg. The pine fibres are used to make the textile known as vegetable flannel, which has a hemp-like appearance, but with a tighter, softer texture.

The pine has also been widely planted in New Zealand and much of the colder regions of North America; it was one of the first trees introduced to North America, in about 1600. It is listed as an invasive species in some areas there, including Ontario, Michigan. It has been widely used in the United States for the Christmas tree trade, and was one of the most popular Christmas trees from the 1950s through the 1980s. It remains popular for that usage, though it has been eclipsed in popularity, by such species as Fraser fir, Douglas-fir, and others. Despite its invasiveness in parts of eastern North America, the pine does not often grow well there, partly due to climate and soil differences between its native habitat and that of North America, and partly due to damage by pests and diseases; the tree often grows in a twisted, haphazard manner if not tended to (as they are in the Christmas tree trade). The pines may be killed by the pine wood nematode, which causes pine wilt disease. The nematode most often attacks trees that are at least ten years old and often kills trees it infects within a few weeks.

Previously, the pine was grown in and used extensively by the coal mining regions of Flanders, Belgium. It was used to fortify tunnels, primarily because it would make a cracking sound when in need of replacement. Large patches of forest, mostly containing the species, are still scattered over the countryside.

Cultivars
Several cultivars are grown for ornamental purposes in parks and large gardens, of which 'Aurea', 'Beuvronensis', 'Frensham', and 'Gold Coin' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

In culture
The Scots pine is the plant badge of Clan Gregor. It is the national tree of Scotland.

title: Pinus sylvestris


text:
Notting Hill Gate tube station

Notting Hill Gate is a London Underground station near Notting Hill, London, located on the street called Notting Hill Gate. On the Central line, it is between Holland Park to the west and Queensway to the east. On the District line and Circle line, it is between High Street Kensington and Bayswater stations. It is on the boundary of Travelcard Zone 1 and Zone 2.

History
The sub-surface Circle and District line platforms were opened on 1 October 1868 by the Metropolitan Railway (MR) as part of its extension from Paddington to Gloucester Road. The Central line platforms were opened on 30 July 1900 by the Central London Railway (CLR). Entrances to the two sets of platforms were originally via separate station buildings on opposite sides of the road; access to the CLR platforms was originally via lifts.

The station name Notting Hill Gate had potential for confusion with the MR station to the north in Ladbroke Grove which was known as "Notting Hill" when opened in 1864, and renamed "Notting Hill & Ladbroke Grove" in 1880. This latter station eventually, in 1919, dropped its reference to Notting Hill, becoming "Ladbroke Grove (North Kensington)" in 1919 and, simply, "Ladbroke Grove" in 1938 (see Ladbroke Grove Underground station).

On the Circle and District lines Notting Hill Gate is a cut and cover station still covered with a glass roof, despite many other similar stations having lost theirs.

Redevelopment
The station was rebuilt in the late 1950s and reopened on 1 March 1959, now linking the two 'Notting Hill Gate stations' on the Circle and District and Central lines, which had previously been accessed on either side of the street, with a shared sub-surface ticket hall and escalators down to the deeper Central line, replacing the aged and now sealed-off lifts. The escalators were the first on the Underground to have metal side panels rather than wooden. The new entrance also acts as a pedestrian subway under the widened Notting Hill Gate. The mosaic columns at the southern entrance were created in 2006 by local public art organisation Urban Eye.

Refurbishment
The station was refurbished from 2010 to 2011, with new ceramic tiling throughout the subway entrances, deep-level passageways and Central line tube platforms as well as a modified ticket hall layout.

During the refurbishment works an abandoned lift passageway from the original 1900 CLR station, closed to the public after Notting Hill Gate was last upgraded in 1959, was rediscovered and found to contain a series of original posters dating from the late 1950s. Images have been posted online.

A scheme was developed by the architects Weston Williamson to provide canopies over the entrances from the street, but this has not been implemented.

Nearby places

 * Portobello Road, famous for Portobello Market
 * Kensington Palace Gardens

Media appearances
In the 1968 film Otley, one of the Central line platforms at Notting Hill Gate (or a station pretending to be it) is where the assassin and coach driver Johnston, played by Leonard Rossiter, blows himself up opening a booby-trapped suitcase full of money.

The station and its staff featured prominently in the third episode of BBC Two documentary series The Tube, which first aired on 5 March 2012.

Layout
The westbound Central line platform is located above the eastbound platform because when the CLR was built it did not want to tunnel under buildings, and the street above was not wide enough for the two platforms to be side by side.

Connections
London Buses day and night routes serve the station, as well as Oxford Tube coaches.

title: Notting Hill Gate tube station


text:
Talk:Computer file

Oldest file?
Digital files existed years before the advent of digital computers. Digital information emerged with writing, especially using alphabet. The first digital files, i.e. digital information stored in a digital storage systems were printing type stored in galleys for proof reading. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition of 1911 was stored, (and edited) as sequences of Monotype font at least until 1929 when the 14th edition appeared.

Other early forms of digital information include punched cards and paper tape (as well as cards for the Jacquard loom).

This brings as to the question; what is the oldest digital file in existence? Has it already entered the public domain?

Project Gutenberg and other similar efforts have used OCR techniques to recreate the original typesetting "files" from printed paper copies of books and newspapers. Although the information is old, I would not call the resulting files "old", as they are recreated from non-digital storage.

-- Petri Krohn 08:55, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

Competition
The aim of this competition is to find a link to the oldest file, that has remained in digital storage from its creation. Please list your entries (and links) here:

needed
I see nothing here on access dates nor does the string 'meta' occur. Need something on the metadata associated with files by the OS, I think. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

I agree, that's what i'm looking for. -Oxinabox (talk) 03:34, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

"File contents" section incomprehensible
IMHO this section badly needs a rewrite. I cannot make sense of things like

 * the general definition of a file does not contstain its instant size as having any real meaning, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage.

and

 * In Unix-like systems, user-space processes do not normally deal with files at all; the operating system provides a level of abstraction which means that almost all interaction with files from user-space is through hard links.

and

 * In some cases, computer programs manipulate files that are made visible to the computer user

Well, I can make sense of them, after I decode them using previous knowledge. But they, and a lot of the other text, simply don't seem relevant and do more to confuse than enlighten.

The text also seems unaware of the out-of-fashion record-based file systems; it mentions files containing records, but seems to list it among application-level design choices.

I am tempted to make an attempt — although I'm mostly familiar with Unix files.

JöG 22:03, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

Idea
I was wondering if wiki has a list of different file types with links to them. (Ex. files ending with .txt, .wo4, .skn, etc. as well as a link to them explaining the difference.) Perhaps that would be too specialized, and there are alot of different file types but I would find it helpful. Give me your opinions or where a link to that might be. If there is such a link maybe it should be added to the end of the article? Thanks Flclovesun 19:55, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

Corrupt Files
So what is a corrupt file. It could be something we should add. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.53.222.122 (talk) 21:37, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Done! — Avelludo 20:26, 17 March 2019 (UTC)

Opening a file
Noticing someone asking what this phrase means at Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computing#What does it mean to open a file? I looked around in various articles and found ones that use it but none that define or explain it. Is this the article that ought to say something along that line? Jim.henderson (talk) 04:05, 6 August 2012 (UTC)

 * This may either move the file in the filesystem, copy the file in the filesystem, or save memory-held contents to the destination file. If the destination file already exists, it will be deleted first. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 183.96.152.86 (talk) 02:16, 29 August 2012 (UTC)

What is a file?
The article says:

"A computer file is a resource for storing information ..."

I am no expert, but I am a literate computer user. I understand a file to be an irreducible object or entity in the data storage structure of a computer. I don't know the history of the term in the context of computing, but it seems to me that defining a file to be an irreducible object or entity would be more perspicuous, more utilitarian, and more accurate than defining it as "a resource for storing information". ---Dagme (talk) 07:31, 19 July 2014 (UTC)

 * Can't say you're wrong ... since I don't know what irreducible object means. or perspicuous. :) You sound like an expert to me :) Stevebroshar (talk) 17:29, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

What is a file? (again)
Again on the same point touched by Dagme almost 4 years ago.

A (computer) file is not defined by just the hardware resource where it is written. Semantically the term "file" is something closer to its information content, that which remains the same inside another copy of the same file. A file though does not coincides with a copy of itself: two copies of anything may be close or identical to almost all practical purposes, but still are physically separated.

Wiktionary defines file (=computer file) as: Etymology 1 4. : "(computing) An aggregation of data on a storage device, identified by a name." This definition is more restrictive, because it adds the necessary condition of a specific information content.

It is suggested that the article sentence:

"A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device."

is replaced by:

"A computer file is an aggregation of data on a storage device, identified by a name."

The rest of the article should not remain as it stands now, as the updated definition requires amendment of the existing explanations and examples, as well as explanations and examples about the "aggregation of data" that are specific to any given file. It may be remarked that this goes together with the added necessary condition to the definition, that represents the "application" point of view in addition to the "system", or "physical", point of view.

BORGATO Pierandrea 17:18, 20 May 2018 (UTC)

 * What does this mean: "'file' is something closer to its information content, that which remains the same inside another copy of the same file"? You're saying if I copy a file, I don't have two files? ... since the content of the two things is the same? What do you call these things? I call them files. If I copy a file, I have two files ... that happen to have the same content. ... I do think that 'resource' is an awkward term. Stevebroshar (talk) 17:40, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

What is a file? (again, again)
The article is primarily about ordinary files, stored on secondary media: There is no mention of

 * Ram based file-systems
 * Calculated files (not stored): /proc
 * special files: devices, symbolic-links, directories, etc.

ctrl-alt-delor 2021-01-08T0645 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.70.58.138 (talk) 06:49, 8 January 2021 (UTC)

 * Sounds good to me. Add that. :) Stevebroshar (talk) 17:43, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

File Size
The following text was placed at the end of the second paragraph of the "File Size" section:

 * (This is misleading because /dev/null is not really a file: in Unix-like systems, all resources, including devices, are accessed like files, but there is still a real distinction between files and devices—at core, they behave differently—and the obscurity of the "size" of /dev/null is one manifestation of this. As a character device, /dev/null has no size.)

This reads to me as more of a comment/correction rather than encyclopedic content. I haven't gone through the trouble of finding the author of this addition. I believe it adds meaningful content, but not in the way it is written. Since I am not an expert on the inner workings of Unix-like files, I've only removed it so someone more capable can properly correct the article.

— Avelludo 00:28, 15 March 2019 (UTC)

Computer
Basic operation of computer 102.89.46.106 (talk) 20:42, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

On file
On file in short 2409:4089:8694:4E5B:0:0:23D5:40A4 (talk) 15:02, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer file


text:
Service (economics)

A service is an act or use for which a consumer, company, or government is willing to pay. Examples include work done by barbers, doctors, lawyers, mechanics, banks, insurance companies, and so on. Public services are those that society (nation state, fiscal union or region) as a whole pays for. Using resources, skill, ingenuity, and experience, service provider's benefit service consumers. Services may be defined as intangible acts or performances whereby the service provider provides value to the customer.

Key characteristics
Services have three key characteristics:

Intangibility
Services are by definition intangible. They are not manufactured, transported or stocked.

One cannot store services for future use. They are produced and consumed simultaneously.

Perishability
Services are perishable in two regards: The service provider must deliver the service at the exact time of service consumption. The service is not manifested in a physical object that is independent of the provider. The service consumer is also inseparable from service delivery. Examples: The service consumer must sit in the hairdresser's chair, or in the airplane seat. Correspondingly, the hairdresser or the pilot must be in the shop or plane, respectively, to deliver the service.
 * Service-relevant resources, processes, and systems are assigned for service delivery during a specific period in time. If the service consumer does not request and consume the service during this period, the related resources may go unused. From the perspective of the service provider, this is a lost business opportunity if no other use for those resources is available. Examples: A hairdresser serves another client. An empty seat on an airplane cannot be filled after departure.
 * When the service has been completely rendered to the consumer, this particular service irreversibly vanishes. Example: a passenger has been transported to the destination.

Variability
Each service is unique. It can never be exactly repeated as the time, location, circumstances, conditions, current configurations and/or assigned resources are different for the next delivery, even if the same service is requested by the consumer. Many services are regarded as heterogeneous and are typically modified for each service-consumer or for each service-context. Example: The taxi service which transports the service consumer from home to work is different from the taxi service which transports the same service consumer from work to home – another point in time, the other direction, possibly another route, probably another taxi-driver and cab. Another and more common term for this is heterogeneity.

Service quality
Mass generation and delivery of services must be mastered for a service provider to expand. This can be seen as a problem of service quality. Both inputs and outputs to the processes involved providing services are highly variable, as are the relationships between these processes, making it difficult to maintain consistent service quality. Many services involve variable human activity, rather than a precisely determined process; exceptions include utilities. The human factor is often the key success factor in service provision. Demand can vary by season, time of day, business cycle, etc. Consistency is necessary to create enduring business relationships.

Specification
Any service can be clearly and completely, consistently and concisely specified by means of standard attributes that conform to the MECE principle (Mutually Exclusive, Collectively Exhaustive).

 * Service consumer benefits – (set of) benefits that are triggerable, consumable and effectively utilizable for any authorized service consumer and that are rendered upon request. These benefits must be described in terms that are meaningful to consumers.
 * Service-specific functional parameters – parameters that are essential to the respective service and that describe the important dimension(s) of the servicescape, the service output or the service outcome, e.g. whether the passenger sits in an aisle or window seat.
 * Service delivery point – the physical location and/or logical interface where the benefits of the service are rendered to the consumer. At this point the service delivery preparation can be assessed and delivery can be monitored and controlled.
 * Service consumer count – the number of consumers that are enabled to consume a service.
 * Service delivery readiness time – the moments when the service is available and all the specified service elements are available at the delivery point
 * Service consumer support times – the moments when the support team ("service desk") is available. The service desk is the Single Point of Contact (SPoC) for service inquiries. At those times, the service desk can be reached via commonly available communication methods (phone, web, etc.)
 * Service consumer support language – the language(s) spoken by the service desk.
 * Service fulfillment target – the provider's promise to deliver the service, expressed as the ratio of the count of successful service deliveries to the count of service requests by a single consumer or consumer group over some time period.
 * Service impairment duration – the maximum allowable interval between the first occurrence of a service impairment and the full resumption and completion of the service delivery.
 * Service delivery duration – the maximum allowable period for effectively rendering all service benefits to the consumer.
 * Service delivery unit – the scope/number of action(s) that constitute a delivered service. Serves as the reference object for the Service Delivering Price, for all service costs as well as for charging and billing.
 * Service delivery price – the amount of money the customer pays to receive a service. Typically, the price includes a service access price that qualifies the consumer to request the service and a service consumption price for each delivered service.

Delivery
The delivery of a service typically involves six factors:
 * Service provider (workers and managers)
 * Equipment used to provide the service (e.g. vehicles, cash registers, technical systems, computer systems)
 * Physical facilities (e.g. buildings, parking, waiting rooms)
 * Service consumer
 * Other customers at the service delivery location
 * Customer contact

The service encounter is defined as all activities involved in the service delivery process. Some service managers use the term "moment of truth" to indicate that point in a service encounter where interactions are most intense.

Many business theorists view service provision as a performance or act (sometimes humorously referred to as dramalurgy, perhaps in reference to dramaturgy). The location of the service delivery is referred to as the stage and the objects that facilitate the service process are called props. A script is a sequence of behaviors followed by those involved, including the client(s). Some service dramas are tightly scripted, others are more ad lib. Role congruence occurs when each actor follows a script that harmonizes with the roles played by the other actors.

In some service industries, especially health care, dispute resolution and social services, a popular concept is the idea of the caseload, which refers to the total number of patients, clients, litigants, or claimants for which a given employee is responsible. Employees must balance the needs of each individual case against the needs of all other current cases as well as their own needs.

Under English law, if a service provider is induced to deliver services to a dishonest client by a deception, this is an offence under the Theft Act 1978.

Lovelock used the number of delivery sites (whether single or multiple) and the method of delivery to classify services in a 2 x 3 matrix. Then implications are that the convenience of receiving the service is the lowest when the customer has to come to the service and must use a single or specific outlet. Convenience increases (to a point) as the number of service points increase.

Service-commodity goods continuum

The distinction between a good and a service remains disputed. The perspective in the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries focused on creation and possession of wealth. Classical economists contended that goods were objects of value over which ownership rights could be established and exchanged. Ownership implied tangible possession of an object that had been acquired through purchase, barter or gift from the producer or previous owner and was legally identifiable as the property of the current owner.

Adam Smith's famous book, The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, distinguished between the outputs of what he termed "productive" and "unproductive" labor. The former, he stated, produced goods that could be stored after production and subsequently exchanged for money or other items of value. The latter, however useful or necessary, created services that perished at the time of production and therefore did not contribute to wealth. Building on this theme, French economist Jean-Baptiste Say argued that production and consumption were inseparable in services, coining the term "immaterial products" to describe them.

In the modern day, Gustofsson & Johnson describe a continuum with pure service on one terminal point and pure commodity good on the other. Most products fall between these two extremes. For example, a restaurant provides a physical good (the food), but also provides services in the form of ambience, the setting and clearing of the table, etc. And although some utilities actually deliver physical goods — like water utilities that deliver water — utilities are usually treated as services.

Service types
The following is a list of service industries, grouped into sectors. Parenthetical notations indicate how specific occupations and organizations can be regarded as service industries to the extent they provide an intangible service, as opposed to a tangible good.

 * Business functions (that apply to all organizations in general)
 * Consulting
 * Customer service
 * Human resources administrators (providing services like ensuring that employees are paid accurately)
 * Cleaning, patronage, repair and maintenance services
 * Gardeners
 * Janitors (who provide cleaning services)
 * Mechanics
 * Construction
 * Carpentry
 * Electricians (offering the service of making wiring work properly)
 * Plumbing
 * Death care
 * Coroners (who provide the service of identifying cadavers and determining time and cause of death)
 * Funeral homes (who prepare corpses for public display, cremation or burial)
 * Dispute resolution and prevention services
 * Arbitration
 * Courts of law (who perform the service of dispute resolution backed by the power of the state)
 * Diplomacy
 * Incarceration (provides the service of keeping criminals out of society)
 * Law enforcement (provides the service of identifying and apprehending criminals)
 * Lawyers (who perform the services of advocacy and decisionmaking in many dispute resolution and prevention processes)
 * Mediation
 * Military (performs the service of protecting states in disputes with other states)
 * Negotiation (not really a service unless someone is negotiating on behalf of another)
 * Education (institutions offering the services of teaching and access to information)
 * Library
 * Museum
 * School
 * Entertainment (when provided live or within a highly specialized facility)
 * Gambling
 * Movie theatres (providing the service of showing a movie on a big screen)
 * Performing arts productions
 * Sport
 * Television
 * Fabric care
 * Dry cleaning
 * Laundry
 * Financial services
 * Accountancy
 * Banks and building societies (offering lending services and safekeeping of money and valuables)
 * Real estate
 * Stock brokerages
 * Tax services
 * Valuation
 * Foodservice industry
 * Health care (all health care professions provide services)
 * Hospitality industry
 * Information services
 * Database services
 * Data processing
 * Interpreting
 * Translation
 * Logistics
 * Transport
 * Warehousing
 * Stock management
 * Packaging
 * Personal grooming
 * Body hair removal
 * Dental hygienist
 * Hairdressing
 * Manicurist / pedicurist
 * Public utility
 * Electric power
 * Natural gas
 * Telecommunications
 * Waste management
 * Water industry
 * Risk management
 * Insurance
 * Security
 * Social services
 * Social work
 * Childcare
 * Elderly care

title: Service (economics)


text:
0X

0X or 0-X ("zero/oh ex") may refer to:

Computing

 * 0x, prefix for a hexadecimal numeric constant
 * 0x (decentralized exchange infrastructure), a blockchain protocol
 * C++11, standard for the C++ programming language (previously C++0x)

In fiction

 * Zero-X, a spacecraft from the Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlett puppet series
 * $\overline{0X}$, a living cellular automaton from the Of Man and Manta novels

Vehicle

 * Zero X, an electric motorcycle model

title: 0X


text:
Tiamat

In Mesopotamian religion, Tiamat ( or , Θαλάττη) is the primordial sea, mating with Abzû (Apsu), the groundwater, to produce the gods in the Babylonian epic Enûma Elish, which translates as "When on High". She is referred to as a woman, and has, at various points in the epic, both anthropomorphic and theriomorphic features including breasts and a tail.

In the Enûma Elish, the Babylonian epic of creation, Tiamat bears the first generation of deities after mingling her waters with those of Apsu, her consort. The gods continue to reproduce, forming a noisy new mass of divine children. Apsu, driven to violence by the noise they make, seeks to destroy them and is killed. Enraged, she also wars upon those of her own and Apsu's children who killed her consort, bringing forth a series of monsters as weapons. She also takes a new consort, Qingu, and bestows on him the Tablet of Destinies, which represents legitimate divine rulership. She is ultimately defeated and slain by Enki's son, the storm-god Marduk, but not before she brings forth monsters whose bodies she fills with "poison instead of blood". Marduk dismembers her and then constructs and structures elements of the cosmos from her body.

Some sources have identified her (without real proof) with images of a sea serpent or dragon.

Etymology
Thorkild Jacobsen and Walter Burkert both argue for a connection with the Akkadian word for sea, tâmtu, following an early form, ti'amtum. Burkert continues by making a linguistic connection to Tethys. The later form Θαλάττη, which appears in the Hellenistic Babylonian writer Berossus' first volume of universal history, is clearly related to Greek Θάλαττα, an Eastern variant of Θάλασσα. It is thought that the proper name ti'amat, which is the vocative or construct form, was dropped in secondary translations of the original texts because some Akkadian copyists of Enuma Elish substituted the ordinary word tāmtu ('sea') for Tiamat, the two names having become essentially the same due to association. Tiamat also has been claimed to be cognate with the Northwest Semitic word tehom (תְּהוֹם; 'the deeps, abyss'), in the Book of Genesis 1:2.

The Babylonian epic Enuma Elish is named for its incipit: "When on high [or: When above]" the heavens did not yet exist nor the earth below, Abzu the subterranean ocean was there, "the first, the begetter", and Tiamat, the overground sea, "she who bore them all"; they were "mixing their waters". It is thought that female deities are older than male ones in Mesopotamia and Tiamat may have begun as part of the cult of Nammu, a female principle of a watery creative force, with equally strong connections to the underworld, which predates the appearance of Ea-Enki.

Harriet Crawford finds this "mixing of the waters" to be a natural feature of the middle Persian Gulf, where fresh waters from the Arabian aquifer mix and mingle with the salt waters of the sea. This characteristic is especially true of the region of Bahrain, whose name in Arabic means "two seas", and which is thought to be the site of Dilmun, the original site of the Sumerian creation beliefs. The difference in density of salt and fresh water drives a perceptible separation.

Appearance and nature
In the Enuma Elish her physical description includes a tail, a thigh, "lower parts" (which shake together), a belly, an udder, ribs, a neck, a head, a skull, eyes, nostrils, a mouth, and lips. She has insides (possibly "entrails"), a heart, arteries, and blood.

Tiamat was once regarded as a sea serpent or dragon, although Assyriologist Alexander Heidel already recognized that "dragon form can not be imputed to Tiamat with certainty". She is still often referred to as a monster, though this identification has been credibly challenged. In Enuma Elish, she is clearly portrayed as a mother of monsters but, before this, she is just as clearly portrayed as a mother to all the gods.

Mythology
Abzu (or Apsû) fathered with Tiamat the elder deities Lahmu and Lahamu (masc. the 'hairy'), a title given to the gatekeepers at Enki's Abzu/E'engurra-temple in Eridu. Lahmu and Lahamu, in turn, were the parents of the 'ends' of the heavens (Anshar, from an-šar, 'heaven-totality/end') and the earth (Kishar); Anshar and Kishar were considered to meet at the horizon, becoming, thereby, the parents of Anu (Heaven) and Ki (Earth).

Tiamat was the "shining" personification of the sea who roared and smote in the chaos of original creation. She and Abzu filled the cosmic abyss with the primeval waters. She is "Ummu-Hubur who formed all things".

In the myth recorded on cuneiform tablets, the deity Enki (later Ea) believed correctly that Abzu was planning to murder the younger deities, upset with the noisy tumult they created, and so captured him and held him prisoner beneath his temple, the E-Abzu ('temple of Abzu'). This angered Kingu, their son, who reported the event to Tiamat, whereupon she fashioned eleven monsters to battle the deities in order to avenge Abzu's death. These were her own offspring: Bašmu ('Venomous Snake'), Ušumgallu ('Great Dragon'), Mušmaḫḫū ('Exalted Serpent'), Mušḫuššu ('Furious Snake'), Laḫmu (the 'Hairy One'), Ugallu (the 'Big Weather-Beast'), Uridimmu ('Mad Lion'), Girtablullû ('Scorpion-Man'), Umū dabrūtu ('Violent Storms'), Kulullû ('Fish-Man'), and Kusarikku ('Bull-Man').

Tiamat possessed the Tablet of Destinies and in the primordial battle she gave them to Kingu, the deity she had chosen as her lover and the leader of her host, and who was also one of her children. The terrified deities were rescued by Anu, who secured their promise to revere him as "king of the gods". He fought Tiamat with the arrows of the winds, a net, a club, and an invincible spear. Anu was later replaced by Enlil and, in the late version that has survived after the First Dynasty of Babylon, by Marduk, the son of Ea.

Slicing Tiamat in half, he made from her ribs the vault of heaven and earth. Her weeping eyes became the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, her tail became the Milky Way. With the approval of the elder deities, he took the Tablet of Destinies from Kingu, installing himself as the head of the Babylonian pantheon. Kingu was captured and later was slain: his red blood mixed with the red clay of the Earth would make the body of humankind, created to act as the servant of the younger Igigi deities.

The principal theme of the epic is the rightful elevation of Marduk to command over all the deities. "It has long been realized that the Marduk epic, for all its local coloring and probable elaboration by the Babylonian theologians, reflects in substance older Sumerian material", American Assyriologist E. A. Speiser remarked in 1942, adding "The exact Sumerian prototype, however, has not turned up so far." This surmise that the Babylonian version of the story is based upon a modified version of an older epic, in which Enlil, not Marduk, was the god who slew Tiamat, is more recently dismissed as "distinctly improbable".

Interpretations
It was once thought that the Tiamat myth was one of the earliest recorded versions of the Chaoskampf, the battle between a culture hero and a chthonic or aquatic monster, serpent or dragon. Chaoskampf motifs in other mythologies perhaps linked to the Tiamat myth include the Hittite Illuyanka myth, and in Greek tradition Apollo's killing of the Python as a necessary action to take over the Delphic Oracle, and to Genesis in the Hebrew Bible.

A number of writers have put forth ideas about Tiamat: Robert Graves, for example, considered Tiamat's death by Marduk as evidence for his hypothesis of an ancient shift in power from a matriarchal society to a patriarchy. The theory suggested that Tiamat and other ancient monster figures were depictions of former supreme deities of peaceful, woman-centered religions. Their defeat at the hands of a male hero corresponded to the overthrow of these matristic religions and societies by male-dominated ones.

In popular culture
The depiction of Tiamat as a multi-headed dragon was popularized in the 1970s as a fixture of Dungeons & Dragons, a role-playing game inspired by earlier sources associating Tiamat with later mythological characters such as Lotan (Leviathan).

In the Monsterverse, an unseen monster is designated as "Titanus Tiamat" in Godzilla: King of the Monsters. Tiamat fully appears as an aquatic serpentine dragon in the Godzilla vs Kong prequel grapic novel Godzilla Dominion before making her live action debut in Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire. She served as a minor antagonist in both, conflicting with Godzilla over territory.

Iconography
One example of an icon was more so a motif of Tiamat which was within the Temple of Bêl which is located in Palmyra. The motif describes Nabu and Marduk defeating Tiamat. Tiamat in this picture is shown as a woman's body with legs which are made of snakes.

title: Tiamat