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Shopping cart

A shopping cart (American English), trolley (British English, Australian English), or buggy (Southern American English, Appalachian English), also known by a variety of other names, is a wheeled cart supplied by a shop or store, especially supermarkets, for use by customers inside the premises for transport of merchandise as they move around the premises, while shopping, prior to heading to the checkout counter, cashiers or tills. Increasing the amount of goods a shopper can collect increases the quantities they are likely to purchase in a single trip, boosting store profitability.

In many cases customers can then also use the cart to transport their purchased goods to their vehicles, but some carts are designed to prevent them from leaving either the store or the designated parking area by magnetically locking the wheels. In many places in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, customers are encouraged to leave the carts in designated areas within the parking lot, and store employees will return the carts to the entrances. In some areas carts are connected by locking mechanisms that require the insertion of a coin or token to release an individual cart. Returning the cart to its designated area releases the coin to the customer.

Design
Most modern shopping carts are made of metal or a combination of metal and plastic and have been designed to nest within each other in a line to facilitate collecting and moving many at one time and also to save on storage space. The carts can come in many sizes, with larger ones able to carry a child. There are also specialized carts designed for two children, and electric mobility scooters with baskets designed for individuals with disabilities.

As of 2006, approximately 24,000 children are injured in the United States each year in shopping carts. Some stores both in the U.S. and internationally have child carrying carts that look like a car or van with a seat where a child can sit equipped with a steering wheel and sometimes a horn. Such "Car-Carts" may offer protection and convenience by keeping the child restrained, lower to the ground, protected from falling items, and amused.

Shopping carts are usually fitted with four wheels, however if any one wheel jams the cart can become difficult to handle. Most carts in the United States have swivel wheels at the front, while the rear wheels are fixed in orientation, while in Europe it is more common to have four swivel wheels. This difference in design correlates with smaller retail premises in Europe. The front part of the cart is often sectioned off in order to place household goods such as bleach, cleaning products etc. so that they do not mix with edible products.

An alternative to the shopping cart is a small hand-held shopping basket. A customer may prefer a basket for a small amount of merchandise. Small shops, where carts would be impractical, often supply only baskets, or may offer a small cart which uses an inserted shopping basket within the frame of the cart to provide either choice to a customer.

Development of first shopping cart by Sylvan Goldman
One of the first shopping carts was introduced on June 4, 1937, the invention of Sylvan Goldman, owner of the Humpty Dumpty supermarket chain in Oklahoma. One night, in 1936, Goldman sat in his office wondering how customers might move more groceries. He found a wooden folding chair and put a basket on the seat and wheels on the legs. Goldman and one of his employees, a mechanic named Fred Young, began tinkering. Their first shopping cart was a metal frame that held two wire baskets. Since they were inspired by the folding chair, Goldman called his carts "folding basket carriers". Another mechanic, Arthur Kosted, developed a method to mass-produce the carts by inventing an assembly line capable of forming and welding the wire. The cart was awarded patent number 2,196,914 on April 9, 1940 (Filing date: March 14, 1938), titled, "Folding Basket Carriage for Self-Service Stores". They advertised the invention as part of a new "No Basket Carrying Plan". Goldman had already pioneered self-serve stores and carts were part of the self-serve retail concept.

The invention did not catch on immediately. Men found them effeminate; women found them suggestive of a baby carriage. "I've pushed my last baby," an offended woman informed Goldman. After hiring several male and female models to push his new invention around his store and demonstrate their utility, as well as greeters to explain their use, shopping carts became extremely popular and Goldman became a multimillionaire. In urban areas like New York City, where transporting groceries home from the store's parking lot is more likely to involve walking and/or a trip by public transportation than a car ride, privately owned carts resembling Goldman's design are still popular. Instead of baskets, these carts are built to hold the paper bags dispensed by the grocery store.

Another shopping cart innovator was Orla Watson, who invented the swinging rear door to allow for "nesting" in 1946. Orla Watson continued to make modifications to his original design. Advice from his trusted business partners Fred Taylor, a grocery store owner in Kansas City, and George O'Donnell, a grocery store refrigeration salesman, and the incorporation of Watson's swinging door yielded the familiar nesting cart that we see today using the "double-decker" approach. Goldman patented a similar version of the cart with only one basket rather than the double-decker feature, which he called the "Nest-Kart" in 1948, over one year after Watson filed for his patent. The Nest-Kart incorporated the same nesting mechanism present on the shopping carts designed by Watson, and an interference investigation was ordered by Telescope Carts, Inc. alleging infringement of the patent in 1948. After a protracted legal battle, Goldman ultimately recognized Watson's invention and paid one dollar in damages for counterfeit, in exchange for which Watson granted Goldman an exclusive operating license (apart from the three licenses that had already been granted).

In 1909, Bessie DeCamp invented a seat belt for chairs, go-carts or carriages. This was well before shopping carts with child seating areas were invented. Goldman introduced a child seating area on shopping carts in 1947. For whatever reason, it wasn't until 1967 that seat belts for shopping carts were introduced by David Allen. It was high tech for the time, because it was a retractable seat belt.

Development of nesting carts by Orla Watson
In 1946, Orla Watson devised a system for a telescoping (i.e., "nesting") shopping cart which did not require assembly or disassembly of its parts before and after use like Goldman's cart; Goldman's design up until this point required that the cart be unfolded much like a folding chair. This cart could be fitted into another cart for compact storage via a swinging one-way rear door. The swinging rear door formed the basis of the patent claim, and was a major innovation in the evolution of the modern shopping cart. Watson applied for a patent on his shopping cart invention in 1946, but Goldman contested it and filed an application for a similar patent with the swinging door feature on a shopping cart with only one basket in 1948 which Goldman named the "Nest-Kart". After considerable litigation and allegations of patent infringement, Goldman relinquished his rights to the patent in 1949 to Watson and his company, Telescope Carts, Inc. realizing that the swinging rear door feature was the key to Watson's patent. Watson was awarded patent #2,479,530 on August 16, 1949. In exchange, Goldman was granted an exclusive licensing right in addition to the three other licenses previously granted; Telescope Carts, Inc. continued to receive royalties for each cart produced by Goldman's company that incorporated the "nesting" design. This included any shopping cart utilizing his hinged rear door, including the familiar single basket "nesting" designs similar to those used in the present.

Owing to its overwhelming success, many different manufacturers desired to produce shopping carts with the rear swinging door feature but were denied due to the exclusive license issued to Goldman. The federal government filed a lawsuit against Telescope Carts, Inc. in 1950 alleging the exclusive license granted to Goldman was invalid, and a Consent Decree was entered into where Telescope Carts, Inc. agreed to offer the same license to any manufacturer. Orla Watson and Telescope Carts, Inc. licensed their telescoping shopping cart design to several manufacturers throughout the 1950s and 1960s until the patent expired.

New developments
In 2012, a driverless shopping cart was made by Chaotic Moon Labs. The device, called "Project Sk8" or "Smarter Cart" was basically a cart fitted with Windows Kinect (to detect obstacles), and an electric drivetrain, and used in conjunction with a Windows 8 tablet. For smaller stores, shopping baskets with wheels can be used either as a large basket or a small cart. These carts are designed for indoor use only.

In 2017, a mobile device shelf was added to shopping carts at Target stores to support the digital in-store shopping experience. The shelf was invented and designed by Nick Dyer, a former employee of Target. The introduction of "EASY Shopper" in 2019 by Pentland Firth Software GmbH in partnership with the German retailer EDEKA represents another step in the evolution of shopping carts. Equipped with a tablet, barcode scanner, and cashierless checkout system, the smart shopping cart aims to provide customers with a more streamlined and convenient shopping experience. The system utilizes computer vision to accurately track items in the cart and allow customers to scan and pay for their purchases as they shop, reducing the need to stand in line and wait to pay for their items.

Retail store acceptance
Past studies determined that retailers who did not offer shopping carts such as Sears suffered lower sales in comparison to retailers who did use shopping carts. Subsequent to the introduction of shopping carts and centralized checkout lines at Sears stores, the company noticed a correlating increase in sales.

In 2004 British supermarket chain Tesco trialed shopping carts with user-adjustable wheel resistance, heart rate monitoring and calorie counting hardware in an effort to raise awareness of health issues. The cart's introduction coincided with Tesco's sponsorship of Cancer Research UK's fundraising event Race for Life.

Also in 2004, shopping carts were identified as a source of pathogens and became a major public health concern. This was primarily due to the media spotlight on a Japanese research study revealing large amounts of bacteria on shopping carts. Those findings were later backed by a University of Arizona study in 2007.

In 2009 researchers developed prototypes of computerized context aware shopping carts by attaching tablet computers to ordinary carts. Initial field trials showed that the prototype's context awareness provided an opportunity for enhancing and altering the shopping experience.

Some retailers, such as Target, have begun using carts fully made of recycled plastic with the only metal part being the wheel axles, drawing away from the established metal cart design. Target's cart has won design awards for its improved casters, interchangeable plastic parts to simplify repairs, and handles that improve maneuverability. Other cart designs also incorporate additional features such as a cup holder for cold or hot drinks or a bouquet of flowers, along with other features such as a secure shelf for a tablet computer or mobile phone to allow the use of mobile coupons and circulars, or as seen in an all-plastic design created for the Wisconsin-based Festival Foods and also used by Whole Foods Market by Bemis Manufacturing Company, all of these features, along with extra rungs on the side rail designed to attach plastic bags or carry handles for beverages. Smaller half-sized carts for smaller shopping trips have also become common.

Deposits

In many countries, the customer has to make a small deposit by inserting a coin, token or card, which is returned if and when the customer returns the cart to a designated cart parking point. The system works through a lock mounted on the handle of the cart, connecting it to a chain mounted on the cart in front of it when nested together, or to a chain mounted on a cart collection corral. Inserting the token unlocks the chain, and reinserting the chain locks it in place and ejects the token for user to retrieve.

One motivation behind the deposit system is to reduce the expense of employees having to gather carts that are not returned, and to avoid damage done by runaway carts. Another benefit is that carts are less likely to be removed from the store premises and abandoned in the surrounding neighborhood. Carts that are not returned may be returned voluntarily by a pedestrian, with the deposit coin acting as a reward.

Although almost ubiquitous in continental Europe and the UK, the deposit system is less common in Canada and has not been widely adopted in the United States, with the exception of some chains like ALDI, which require a $0.25 deposit. One of the first store chains to use the $0.25 deposit system in the US was the Real Superstore (a subsidiary of National Supermarkets) in the early 1990s. Other stores such as Costco and ShopRite also use the coin deposit system, but it is not used at all of their locations.

In Australia, deposit systems are common in some local government areas, as they have been made compulsory by local law. Usually, all ALDI stores, and most Coles and Woolworths stores will have a lock mechanism on their carts that requires a $1 or $2 coin to unlock.

The deposit varies, but usually coins of higher value, such as €1, £1, or $1 are used. While the deposit systems usually are designed to accommodate a certain size of domestic coin, foreign coins, former currencies (like German D-Marks), or even appropriately folded pieces of cardboard can be used to unlock the carts as well. Cart collectors are also usually provided with a special key that they can use to unlock the carts from the cart bay and get the key back.

Some retailers sell "tokens" as an alternative to coins, often for charity. Merchandising companies also offer branded shopping tokens as a product.

Theft prevention
Shopping cart theft can be a costly problem with stores that use them. The carts, which typically cost between $75 and $150 each, with some models costing $300–400, are removed by people for various purposes. To prevent theft, estimated at $800 million worldwide per annum, stores use various security systems as discussed below.

Cart retrieval service
Most retailers in North America utilize a cart retrieval service, which collects carts found off the store's premises and returns them to the store for a fee. The primary strength of this system is the ability of pedestrian customers to take purchases home and allow retailers to recapture abandoned carts in a timely manner at a fraction of the cost of a replacement cart. It also allows retailers to maintain their cart inventories without an expensive capital outlay. A drawback of this method is that it is reactive, instead of proactively preventing the carts from leaving the store premises.

Electronic and magnetic
Electronic systems are sometimes used by retailers. Each shopping cart is fitted with an electronic locking wheel clamp, or "boot". A transmitter with a thin wire is placed around the perimeter of the parking lot, and the boot locks when the cart leaves the designated area. Store personnel must then deactivate the lock with a handheld remote control to return the cart to stock. Often, a line is painted in front of the broadcast range to warn customers that their cart will stop when rolled past the line. However, these systems are very expensive to install and although helpful, are not foolproof. The wheels can be lifted over the electronic barrier and/or pushed hard enough that the locks break. There are also safety concerns if the person pushing the trolley is running, and also if the trolley doesn't lock and is taken onto a road, locking due to magnetic materials under the road. Some cities have required retailers to install locking wheel systems on their shopping carts. In some cases, electronic systems companies have encouraged passage of such laws to create a captive audience of potential customers.

Physical
A low-tech form of theft prevention utilizes a physical impediment, such as vertical posts at the store entrance to keep carts from being taken into the parking lot. This method also impedes physically disabled customers, which may be illegal in many jurisdictions. For example, in the United States it would be a violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.

Another method (used for example by UK supermarket Iceland) is to mount a pole taller than the entrance, onto the shopping cart, so that the pole will block exit of the cart. However, this method requires that the store aisles be higher than the pole, including lights, piping, any overhead signage and fixtures. It also prevents customers from carting their purchases to their cars in the store's carts. Many customers learn to bring their own folding or otherwise collapsible cart with them, which they can usually hang on the store's cart while shopping.

A further system is to use a cattle grid style system. All pedestrian exits have specially designed flooring tiles, which, along with specially designed wheels on the cart, will immobilize the cart as they roll onto them. Like the magnetic systems, this can easily be overcome by lifting the cart over the tiles.

Name
The names of shopping carts vary by region. The following names are region-specific names for shopping carts. Many of these names may be used alone or in descriptive phrases such as grocery ____, shopping ____, or supermarket ____ for disambiguation:
 * cart or basket – the United States, Canada and the Philippines
 * buggy – used by some in Southeast Michigan, Western Pennsylvania (where it is considered part of the region's dialect), the Southern United States and certain parts of Canada
 * trolley – the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Trinidad and Tobago, South Africa and some regions of Canada. Was also formerly used in the Philippines
 * carriage – used by some in the New England region of the United States
 * barrae or coohudder – some places in Scotland
 * bascart – various regions
 * wagon – New York, Hawaii
 * trundler – some places in New Zealand
 * wheelbasket – some places in the Eastern United States, notably Western Massachusetts

For disabled people

Special electronic shopping carts are provided by many retailers for the elderly or disabled people. These are essentially electric wheelchairs with an attached basket. They allow customers to navigate around the store and collect items.

Manually powered carts are also available specifically designed for use by wheelchair users. A still-to-be-implemented aid for people with disabilities is the addition of a guide wheel at the center of rotation of a cart with four caster wheels. In order to allow the nesting of carts to be unhindered, this guide wheel is attached to the front of the cart with a piece of spring steel which bends under the cart's weight.

Caroline's Carts are designed for aiding non-ambulatory adults or larger children, but require an additional person to push.

Conceptual detours of the shopping cart in art, design and consumerism

Shopping cart manufacturers such as Caddie, Wanzl, or Brüder Siegel maintained intensive direct and indirect mutual business relations with artists, graphic designers, industrial and furniture designers such as Charles Eames, Harry Bertoia, or Verner Panton since the market launch of the shopping cart - not only for new and further developments of their own shopping carts and wire basket goods, but also for advertising and PR purposes. Olivier Mourgue, Otl Aicher, Stiletto (artist) as well as other artists and designers had wire furniture or artwork made by shopping cart manufacturers.

One of the most famous thematizations of a shopping cart in art is the 1970 sculpture "Supermarket Lady" by US pop artist Duane Hanson, which is critical of consumerism.

In 1983, the neoist "one-man artist group" Stiletto Studios, from Berlin converted a 'stray' shopping cart into an 'inverted' cantilever-wire chair on the principle of objet trouvé. As a design simulation critical of consumer culture, Stiletto's ironically titled "Consumer's Rest" Lounge Chair   recurred to the fact that Eames' and Bertoia's wire furniture were already over-aestheticized adaptations of the contemporary advent of shopping carts in the United States, and thus were themselves already recursions to the consumer revolutionary context of the International Style in architecture and design.

By far the most stolen shopping carts that are not returned and left outside their location, however, are misappropriated by occasional subsequent and secondary users without any artistic or cultural-critical readymade intentions as emergency solutions - among other things as improvised pieces of furniture (for example, as laundry baskets), or universal nomadic furniture for the household goods of the homeless, or, ignoring the fact that the zinc and plastic coatings of the wire surfaces are harmful to health when heated, as ad hoc barbecue grills.

title: Shopping cart


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Young MC

Marvin Young (born May 10, 1967), better known by his stage name Young M.C., is a British-born American rapper, singer and actor. He is best known for his 1989 hit "Bust a Move". His debut album Stone Cold Rhymin' found international acclaim. Young has also appeared in film in acting roles and cameo appearances and has appeared in several television programs.

Life and career
Young was born in London, to Jamaican immigrant parents. He left the United Kingdom at the age of three and later moved to Queens, New York, when he was eight years old. Young attended Hunter College High School in the Upper East Side of Manhattan (he was honored at the school's 2018 convocation). He went on to earn a degree in economics from the University of Southern California (USC). At USC, he met Michael Ross and Matt Dike from the record company Delicious Vinyl. Young rapped over the phone for Ross and Dike, who ended up delivering a record contract to his USC dorm room. In 1989, Young collaborated with Tone Lōc on the songs "Wild Thing" and "Funky Cold Medina". Young gained fame with the release of his single "Bust a Move", which reached No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 and won a Grammy for Best Rap Performance. The single helped Young's debut album, Stone Cold Rhymin', to reach No. 9 on the Billboard 200 and attain platinum status in the United States. The follow-up single, "Principal's Office", was nominated for 'Best Rap Video' at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards.

Following Young's success, he left Delicious Vinyl, citing restrictions on his work and unwanted changes to his album. The label sued him for breach of contract and the two parties eventually settled out of court. Young signed with Capitol Records and released his second album, Brainstorm, in 1991. It reached No. 66 on the Billboard 200. Despite the absence of any strong single, the album achieved gold status in the United States. However his third album, What's the Flavor?, released in 1993, was a commercial failure, with both the album and its singles failing to chart. It was his second and final album on Capitol Records. In 1997, Young released his fourth album, Return of the 1 Hit Wonder, on the independent label Overall Records. The album produced two singles, "Madame Buttafly" and "On & Poppin" which charted at No. 25 and No. 23 respectively on the Hot Rap Songs chart.

In 2000, Young released his fifth album, Ain't Goin' Out Like That, on his own record label Young Man Moving Records. The album was Young's first to chart since Brainstorm, peaking at No. 85 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.

In 2001, Young contributed a song "Deck the Halls" he co-wrote with Kevin Irving, to Disney's TV movie, 'Twas the Night. In 2002, he released his sixth album, Engage the Enzyme. Also in 2002, Young appeared as a contestant on Weakest Link – Rap Stars Edition. He was joined by Rev Run of Run-DMC, DJ Quik, Jermaine Dupri, Da Brat, B-Real of Cypress Hill, Xzibit, and Nate Dogg. Young went on to win the celebrity contest, beating Xzibit in the final round. All of the proceeds from his winnings were donated to the Humane Society.

In December 2004, Young travelled to Vancouver to film The Zero Sum. Young played Mr. Henderson, a publishing company executive. Film director Raphael Assaf and screenwriter Armen Evrensel asked Young to help create the film, for which he is a co-executive producer. Young also teamed up with Baltimore rapper KNOXX to record "Brotherly Love", the theme song from the film.

In September 2005, Young was cast in the VH1 reality show Celebrity Fit Club 3. Joining Young was Kelly Le Brock, Bruce Vilanch, Tempestt Bledsoe, Countess Vaughn, Chaz Bono, Jeff Conaway, Gunnar Nelson, and Rapper Bizarre of D12. Young won the competition, losing more weight than anybody else.

Young also made an appearance in a special episode of The Best Damn Sports Show Period which featured "The Top 50 Sports Moments of the 80's". Young crafted lyrics and performed a sports-themed rap song alongside KRS-One and Kool Moe Dee.

After twenty years of living in Los Angeles, Young relocated to Scottsdale, Arizona in 2006. He spent 2007 creating his seventh album, Adrenaline Flow, which was released in 2008. Immediately following Adrenaline Flow, Young released an online-only album, B-Sides, Demos and Remixes, compiled from unreleased, remixed and re-recorded tracks.

In 2009, Young released his eighth album, Relentless. Later that year, Young also landed a cameo role in the Jason Reitman film Up in the Air starring George Clooney. Young played himself, performing at a software convention which was crashed by Clooney's character and those of his two female co-stars, Anna Kendrick and Vera Farmiga.

On July 6, 2021, Young performed his signature hit song "Bust a Move" and other songs in the halftime show for Game 1 of the 2021 NBA Finals.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Young MC


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List of governors of Missouri

The governor of Missouri is the head of government of the U.S. state of Missouri and the commander-in-chief of the Missouri National Guard. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Missouri Legislature, to convene the legislature and grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.

The current governor is Republican Mike Parson, who took office on June 1, 2018. He is ineligible to run in the 2024 election-or any future election--since he served more than two years of the unexpired term of predecessor Eric Greitens.

List of governors
Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803, with it being proclaimed in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana on March 10, 1804, by Amos Stoddard, who remained as military commander of the region until October 1, 1804, when Orleans Territory was split from it. The remainder was designated the District of Louisiana and placed under the jurisdiction of Indiana Territory and its governor, William Henry Harrison.

Louisiana Territory and Missouri Territory
The District of Louisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory on July 4, 1805; it was renamed Missouri Territory on June 4, 1812, after the admission of the state of Louisiana. It had four governors appointed by the president of the United States, including both Meriwether Lewis and William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

State of Missouri
Missouri was admitted to the union on August 10, 1821.

The original constitution of 1820 created the offices of governor and lieutenant governor, to serve terms of four years without being able to succeed themselves. Terms were shortened to 2 years in 1865, with a limit of serving no more than four out of every six years. They were returned in 1875 to the four-year term and limit on succession of the 1820 constitution, and the term limit changed to two terms in 1965. Originally, the lieutenant governor would act as governor in the event of a vacancy; a 1968 amendment made it so that the lieutenant governor becomes governor in that situation.

A group including the governor, lieutenant governor, and members of the Missouri General Assembly, proclaimed Missouri's secession from the Union on October 31, 1861, and it was admitted to the Confederate States of America on November 28, 1861. The Confederate government elected two governors, but only had any control in the south of the state, and was forced into exile in Marshall, Texas, after the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862.

Confederate governors
During the Civil War, after the capture of Jefferson City by the Union, a constitutional convention declared the office then held by Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson to be vacant. In October, Jackson, Lieutenant Governor Thomas Caute Reynolds, and some members of the General Assembly, organized at Neosho and passed an Ordinance of Secession. This Confederate government never displaced the government in Jefferson City, and Missouri remained in the Union through the entire war. Jackson continued on as governor until his death on December 6, 1862, at which time Reynolds took over, serving until he fled to Mexico in June 1865 after the end of the war.

title: List of governors of Missouri


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Percolation theory

In statistical physics and mathematics, percolation theory describes the behavior of a network when nodes or links are added. This is a geometric type of phase transition, since at a critical fraction of addition the network of small, disconnected clusters merge into significantly larger connected, so-called spanning clusters. The applications of percolation theory to materials science and in many other disciplines are discussed here and in the articles Network theory and Percolation (cognitive psychology).

Introduction

A representative question (and the source of the name) is as follows. Assume that some liquid is poured on top of some porous material. Will the liquid be able to make its way from hole to hole and reach the bottom? This physical question is modelled mathematically as a three-dimensional network of $n × n × n$ vertices, usually called "sites", in which the edge or "bonds" between each two neighbors may be open (allowing the liquid through) with probability $p$, or closed with probability $1 – p$, and they are assumed to be independent. Therefore, for a given $p$, what is the probability that an open path (meaning a path, each of whose links is an "open" bond) exists from the top to the bottom? The behavior for large $n$ is of primary interest. This problem, called now bond percolation, was introduced in the mathematics literature by, and has been studied intensively by mathematicians and physicists since then.

In a slightly different mathematical model for obtaining a random graph, a site is "occupied" with probability $p$ or "empty" (in which case its edges are removed) with probability $1 – p$; the corresponding problem is called site percolation. The question is the same: for a given p, what is the probability that a path exists between top and bottom? Similarly, one can ask, given a connected graph at what fraction $1 – p$ of failures the graph will become disconnected (no large component). The same questions can be asked for any lattice dimension. As is quite typical, it is actually easier to examine infinite networks than just large ones. In this case the corresponding question is: does an infinite open cluster exist? That is, is there a path of connected points of infinite length "through" the network? By Kolmogorov's zero–one law, for any given $p$, the probability that an infinite cluster exists is either zero or one. Since this probability is an increasing function of $p$ (proof via coupling argument), there must be a critical $p$ (denoted by $p_{c}$) below which the probability is always 0 and above which the probability is always 1. In practice, this criticality is very easy to observe. Even for $n$ as small as 100, the probability of an open path from the top to the bottom increases sharply from very close to zero to very close to one in a short span of values of $p$.

History
The Flory–Stockmayer theory was the first theory investigating percolation processes.

The history of the percolation model as we know it has its root in the coal industry. Since the industrial revolution, the economical importance of this source of energy fostered many scientific studies to understand its composition and optimize its use. During the 1930s and 1940s, the qualitative analysis by organic chemistry left more and more room to more quantitative studies.

In this context, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA) was created in 1938. It is a research association funded by the coal mines owners. In 1942, Rosalind Franklin, who then recently graduated in chemistry from the university of Cambridge, joined the BCURA. She started research on the density and porosity of coal. During the Second World War, coal was an important strategic resource. It was used as a source of energy, but also was the main constituent of gas masks.

Coal is a porous medium. To measure its 'real' density, one was to sink it in a liquid or a gas whose molecules are small enough to fill its microscopic pores. While trying to measure the density of coal using several gases (helium, methanol, hexane, benzene), and as she found different values depending on the gas used, Rosalind Franklin showed that the pores of coal are made of microstructures of various lengths that act as a microscopic sieve to discriminate the gases. She also discovered that the size of these structures depends on the temperature of carbonation during the coal production. With this research, she obtained a PhD degree and left the BCURA in 1946.

In the mid fifties, Simon Broadbent worked in the BCURA as a statistician. Among other interests, he studied the use of coal in gas masks. One question is to understand how a fluid can diffuse in the coal pores, modeled as a random maze of open or closed tunnels. In 1954, during a symposium on Monte Carlo methods, he asks questions to John Hammersley on the use of numerical methods to analyze this model.

Broadbent and Hammersley introduced in their article of 1957 a mathematical model to model this phenomenon, that is percolation.

Computation of the critical parameter
For most infinite lattice graphs, $p = 0.51$ cannot be calculated exactly, though in some cases $p_{c}$ there is an exact value. For example:

 * for the square lattice $p_{c}$ in two dimensions, $ℤ^{2}$ for bond percolation, a fact which was an open question for more than 20 years and was finally resolved by Harry Kesten in the early 1980s, see . For site percolation on the square lattice, the value of $p_{c} = 1⁄2$ is not known from analytic derivation but only via simulations of large lattices which provide the estimate $p_{c}$ 0.59274621 ± 0.00000013.
 * A limit case for lattices in high dimensions is given by the Bethe lattice, whose threshold is at $p_{c} =$ for a coordination number $p_{c} = 1⁄z − 1$. In other words: for the regular tree of degree $$z$$, $$p_c$$ is equal to $$1/(z-1)$$.

0 < C \ll 1 $$, the critical point gets scaled by $$ (1-C)^{-1} $$ such that:
 * For a random tree-like network without degree-degree correlation, it can be shown that such network can have a giant component, and the percolation threshold (transmission probability) is given by $$p_c = \frac{1}{g_1'(1)}$$, where $$g_1(z)$$ is the generating function corresponding to the excess degree distribution. So, for random Erdős–Rényi networks of average degree $$\langle k\rangle$$, $z$.
 * In networks with low clustering, $$

$$p_c = \frac{1}{1-C}\frac{1}{g_1'(1)}.$$

This indicates that for a given degree distribution, the clustering leads to a larger percolation threshold, mainly because for a fixed number of links, the clustering structure reinforces the core of the network with the price of diluting the global connections. For networks with high clustering, strong clustering could induce the core–periphery structure, in which the core and periphery might percolate at different critical points, and the above approximate treatment is not applicable.

Universality
The universality principle states that the numerical value of $p_{c} = 1⁄⟨k⟩$ is determined by the local structure of the graph, whereas the behavior near the critical threshold, $p_{c}$, is characterized by universal critical exponents. For example the distribution of the size of clusters at criticality decays as a power law with the same exponent for all 2d lattices. This universality means that for a given dimension, the various critical exponents, the fractal dimension of the clusters at $p_{c}$ is independent of the lattice type and percolation type (e.g., bond or site). However, recently percolation has been performed on a weighted planar stochastic lattice (WPSL) and found that although the dimension of the WPSL coincides with the dimension of the space where it is embedded, its universality class is different from that of all the known planar lattices.

Subcritical and supercritical
The main fact in the subcritical phase is "exponential decay". That is, when $p_{c}$, the probability that a specific point (for example, the origin) is contained in an open cluster (meaning a maximal connected set of "open" edges of the graph) of size $p < p_{c}$ decays to zero exponentially in $r$. This was proved for percolation in three and more dimensions by and independently by. In two dimensions, it formed part of Kesten's proof that $r$.

The dual graph of the square lattice $p_{c} = 1⁄2$ is also the square lattice. It follows that, in two dimensions, the supercritical phase is dual to a subcritical percolation process. This provides essentially full information about the supercritical model with $ℤ^{2}$. The main result for the supercritical phase in three and more dimensions is that, for sufficiently large $d = 2$, there is almost certainly an infinite open cluster in the two-dimensional slab $N$. This was proved by.

In two dimensions with $ℤ^{2} × [0, N]^{d − 2}$, there is with probability one a unique infinite closed cluster (a closed cluster is a maximal connected set of "closed" edges of the graph). Thus the subcritical phase may be described as finite open islands in an infinite closed ocean. When $p < 1⁄2$ just the opposite occurs, with finite closed islands in an infinite open ocean. The picture is more complicated when $p > 1⁄2$ since $d ≥ 3$, and there is coexistence of infinite open and closed clusters for $p_{c} < 1⁄2$ between $p$ and $p_{c}$.

Criticality
Percolation has a singularity at the critical point $1 − p_{c}$ and many properties behave as of a power-law with $$p-p_c$$, near $$p_c$$. Scaling theory predicts the existence of critical exponents, depending on the number d of dimensions, that determine the class of the singularity. When $p = p_{c}$ these predictions are backed up by arguments from conformal field theory and Schramm–Loewner evolution, and include predicted numerical values for the exponents. Most of these predictions are conjectural except when the number $d = 2$ of dimensions satisfies either $d$ or $d = 2$. They include:

 * There are no infinite clusters (open or closed)
 * The probability that there is an open path from some fixed point (say the origin) to a distance of $d ≥ 6$ decreases polynomially, i.e. is on the order of $r$ for some $r^{α}$
 * $α$ does not depend on the particular lattice chosen, or on other local parameters. It depends only on the dimension $α$ (this is an instance of the universality principle).
 * $d$ decreases from $α_{d}$ until $d = 2$ and then stays fixed.
 * The shape of a large cluster in two dimensions is conformally invariant.
 * The shape of a large cluster in two dimensions is conformally invariant.
 * The shape of a large cluster in two dimensions is conformally invariant.

See. In 11 or more dimensions, these facts are largely proved using a technique known as the lace expansion. It is believed that a version of the lace expansion should be valid for 7 or more dimensions, perhaps with implications also for the threshold case of 6 dimensions. The connection of percolation to the lace expansion is found in.

In two dimensions, the first fact ("no percolation in the critical phase") is proved for many lattices, using duality. Substantial progress has been made on two-dimensional percolation through the conjecture of Oded Schramm that the scaling limit of a large cluster may be described in terms of a Schramm–Loewner evolution. This conjecture was proved by in the special case of site percolation on the triangular lattice.

Different models

 * Directed percolation that models the effect of gravitational forces acting on the liquid was also introduced in, and has connections with the contact process.
 * The first model studied was Bernoulli percolation. In this model all bonds are independent. This model is called bond percolation by physicists.
 * A generalization was next introduced as the Fortuin–Kasteleyn random cluster model, which has many connections with the Ising model and other Potts models.
 * Bernoulli (bond) percolation on complete graphs is an example of a random graph. The critical probability is $d = 6$, where $α_{2} = −5⁄48$ is the number of vertices (sites) of the graph.
 * Bootstrap percolation removes active cells from clusters when they have too few active neighbors, and looks at the connectivity of the remaining cells.
 * First passage percolation.
 * Invasion percolation.

In biology, biochemistry, and physical virology
Percolation theory has been used to successfully predict the fragmentation of biological virus shells (capsids), with the fragmentation threshold of Hepatitis B virus capsid predicted and detected experimentally. When a critical number of subunits has been randomly removed from the nanoscopic shell, it fragments and this fragmentation may be detected using Charge Detection Mass Spectroscopy (CDMS) among other single-particle techniques. This is a molecular analog to the common board game Jenga, and has relevance to the broader study of virus disassembly. Interestingly, more stable viral particles (tilings with greater fragmentation thresholds) are found in greater abundance in nature.

In ecology
Percolation theory has been applied to studies of how environment fragmentation impacts animal habitats and models of how the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis spreads.

title: Percolation theory


text:
End-to-end

End-to-end or End to End may refer to:

 * End-to-end auditable voting systems, a voting system
 * End-to-end delay, the time for a packet to be transmitted across a network from source to destination
 * End-to-end encryption, a cryptographic paradigm involving uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties
 * End-to-end data integrity
 * End-to-end principle, a principal design element of the Internet
 * End-to-end reinforcement learning
 * End-to-end vector, points from one end of a polymer to the other end
 * Land's End to John o' Groats, the journey from "End to End" across Great Britain
 * End-to-end testing (see also: Verification and validation)

title: End-to-end


text:
Demi Moore

Demi Gene Moore (née Guynes; born November 11, 1962) is an American actress. She first gained attention on daytime television before breaking out as a film star in the 1980s. By the mid-1990s, she was the highest-paid actress at the time. She has earned several accolades, including nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globes.

Moore began acting in 1981, and appeared on the soap opera General Hospital (1982–1984). After departing the show, she rose to prominence as a member of the Brat Pack, starring in the films Blame It on Rio (1984), St. Elmo's Fire (1985), and About Last Night... (1986). She earned recognition and stardom for her role in Ghost, which was the highest-grossing film of 1990. She had further box-office successes with A Few Good Men (1992), Indecent Proposal (1993), and Disclosure (1994), and received $12.5 million to star in Striptease (1996), becoming the highest-paid actress to that point. Moore was considered to be one of the most bankable stars of the 1990s.

Moore's career saw a downturn after the films The Scarlet Letter (1995), The Juror (1996), and G.I. Jane (1997) fell below commercial expectations. Since then, she has played roles in Passion of Mind (2000), Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003), Bobby (2006), Mr. Brooks (2007), Flawless (2008), Margin Call (2011), and Blind (2017). Her television projects include If These Walls Could Talk (1996), Empire (2015–2017), Brave New World (2020), and Feud: Capote vs. The Swans (2024).

Moore has been married three times. From 1981 to 1985, she was married to musician Freddy Moore. From 1987 to 2000, she was married to Bruce Willis, with whom she has three daughters. She was married to Ashton Kutcher from 2005 to 2013. Her memoir Inside Out (2019) became a New York Times Best Seller.

Early life
Moore was born November 11, 1962, in Roswell, New Mexico. Her biological father, Air Force airman Charles Foster Harmon Sr., left her then-18-year-old mother, Virginia (née King), after a two-month marriage before Moore's birth. Charles came from Lanett, Alabama, and Virginia was born in Richmond, California, but had grown up in Roswell. Moore's maternal grandmother was raised on a farm in Elida, New Mexico. Moore has deep roots in the South Central and Southern United States, particularly Oklahoma, Arkansas and Georgia. When Moore was three months old, her mother married Dan Guynes, a newspaper advertising salesman who frequently changed jobs; as a result, the family moved many times. In 1967 they had Moore's half-brother Morgan. Moore said in 1991, "My dad is Dan Guynes. He raised me. There is a man who would be considered my biological father who I don't really have a relationship with." Moore has half-siblings from Charlie Harmon's other marriages, but she does not keep in touch with them either.

Moore's stepfather Dan Guynes married and divorced Virginia twice. On October 20, 1980, a year after their second divorce from each other, Guynes committed suicide. Her biological father Harmon died in 1997 from liver cancer in Brazoria, Texas. Moore's mother had a long arrest record which included drunk driving and arson. Moore broke off contact with her in 1989, when Guynes walked away halfway through a rehab stay Moore had financed at the Hazelden Foundation in Minnesota. Virginia Guynes posed nude for the magazine High Society in 1993, where she spoofed Moore's Vanity Fair pregnancy and bodypaint covers and parodied her clay scene from Ghost. Moore and Guynes reconciled shortly before Guynes died of a brain tumor on July 2, 1998.

Moore spent her early childhood in Roswell, and later, Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. Bob Gardner, a photographer for the Monongahela Daily Herald when Dan Guynes was head of advertising, recalled that Moore "looked malnourished and not so much abused as neglected. That haunting look as a child made me feel uneasy." She suffered from strabismus, which was corrected by two operations, as well as kidney dysfunction. Moore learned that Guynes was not her real father at age 13, when she discovered a marriage certificate and inquired about the circumstances since she "saw my parents were married in February 1963. I was born in '62."

At age 14, Moore returned to her hometown of Roswell and lived with her grandmother for six months before relocating to Washington state, where her recently separated mother was residing near Seattle. Several months later, the family moved again to West Hollywood, California, where Moore's mother took a job working for a magazine distribution company. Moore attended Fairfax High School there. She moved out of her family's house the day after her 16th birthday and quit high school in her junior year to work as a receptionist at 20th Century Fox, a job she secured through her then-boyfriend Tom Dunston's mother.

In 2019, she stated she was raped at 15 by landlord Basil Doumas, then 49. Doumas claimed he had paid Moore's mother to get access to Moore to rape her, although Moore said it is unclear if this were true.

1980s: Early roles and breakthrough
Moore signed with the Elite Modeling Agency, then enrolled in drama classes after being inspired by her next-door neighbor, 17-year-old German actress Nastassja Kinski. In August 1979, at age 16, Moore met musician Freddy Moore, who was married and at the time leader of the band Boy, at the Los Angeles nightclub The Troubadour. They lived in an apartment in West Hollywood. Moore co-wrote three songs with Freddy Moore and appeared in the music video for their selection "It's Not a Rumor," performed by his band, The Nu-Kats. She continues to receive royalty checks from her songwriting work (1980–1981). Moore also sang in the films One Crazy Summer and Bobby.

Moore appeared on the cover of the January 1981 issue of the adult magazine Oui, taken from a photo session in which she had posed nude. In a 1988 interview, Moore claimed she "only posed for the cover of Oui—I was 16; I told them I was 18". Interviewer Alan Carter said, "However, some peekaboo shots did appear inside. And later, nude shots of her turned up in Celebrity Sleuth—photos that she once said 'were for a European fashion magazine'." In 1990, she told another interviewer, "I was 17 years old. I was underage. It was just the cover." Moore made her film debut with a brief role in the 1981 teen drama Choices, directed by Silvio Narizzano. Her second film feature was the 3-D sci-fi horror film Parasite (1982), for which director Charles Band had instructed casting director Johanna Ray to "find me the next Karen Allen." Moore then joined the cast of the ABC soap opera General Hospital, playing the role of investigative reporter Jackie Templeton until 1983. During her tenure on the series, she made an uncredited cameo appearance in the 1982 spoof film Young Doctors in Love. Moore's film career took off in 1984 following her appearance in the sex comedy Blame It on Rio. She also portrayed Laura Victor in the comedy film No Small Affair (1984), opposite Jon Cryer.

Moore's commercial breakthrough came in Joel Schumacher's yuppie drama St. Elmo's Fire (1985), which received negative reviews, but was a box office success and brought Moore widespread recognition. Because of her association with that film, Moore was often listed as part of the Brat Pack, a label she felt was "demeaning". Moore progressed to more serious material with About Last Night... (1986), co-starring Rob Lowe, which marked a positive turning point in her career, as Moore noted that, following its release, she began seeing better scripts. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and praised her performance, writing, "There isn't a romantic note she isn't required to play in this movie, and she plays them all flawlessly."

The success of About Last Night... was unrivaled by Moore's other two 1986 releases, One Crazy Summer and Wisdom, the last youth-oriented films in which she would star. Moore was listed as one of twelve "Promising New Actors of 1986" in John Willis's Screen World, Vol. 38. Moore made her professional stage debut in an off-Broadway production of The Early Girl, which ran at the Circle Repertory Company in fall 1986. In 1988, Moore starred as a prophecy-bearing mother in the apocalyptic drama The Seventh Sign—her first outing as a solo film star— and in 1989, she played the quick-witted local laundress and prostitute in Neil Jordan's Depression-era allegory We're No Angels, opposite Robert De Niro.

1990s: Rise to stardom and later fluctuations
Moore's most successful film to date is the supernatural romantic melodrama Ghost (1990), which grossed over US$505 million at the box office and was the highest-grossing film of the year. She played a young woman in jeopardy to be protected by the ghost of her murdered lover. The love scene between Moore and Patrick Swayze that starts in front of a potter's wheel to the sound of "Unchained Melody" has become an iconic moment in cinema history. Ghost was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Moore's performance earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination. In 1991 Moore starred in the horror comedy Nothing but Trouble, co-produced and appeared in the mystery thriller Mortal Thoughts, and played a blonde for the first time in the romantic comedy The Butcher's Wife, with Roger Ebert's review describing her as "warm and cuddly". Moore sustained her A-list status with her starring roles in Rob Reiner's A Few Good Men (1992), Adrian Lyne's Indecent Proposal (1993), and Barry Levinson's Disclosure (1994)—all of which opened at No. 1 at the box office and were blockbuster hits.

By 1995 Moore was the highest paid actress in Hollywood. Her portrayal of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter (1995), a "freely adapted" version of the historical romance novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, was met with harsh criticism. The coming-of-age drama Now and Then (1995) found moderate box office success. Moore was paid a record-breaking salary of US$12.5 million in 1996 to star in Striptease. Much hype was made about Moore's willingness to dance topless for the part, though this was the sixth time she had shown her breasts on film. The film opened to overwhelmingly negative reviews with Moore's performance being criticised. It was a moderate financial success, grossing US$113 million worldwide, and Moore received the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress. Moore starred in the thriller The Juror (1996). It was a box office bomb and was heavily panned by critics.

Moore produced and starred in a controversial miniseries for HBO called If These Walls Could Talk (1996), a three-part anthology about abortion alongside Sissy Spacek and Cher. Its screenwriter, Nancy Savoca, directed two segments, including one in which Moore played a widowed nurse in the early 1950s seeking a back-alley abortion. For that role, Moore received a second Golden Globe nomination as Best Actress. Also in 1996, she provided the speaking voice of the beautiful Esmeralda in Disney's animated adaptation of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and starred in Mike Judge's comedy Beavis and Butt-head Do America, alongside her then husband Bruce Willis. Moore shaved her head to play the first woman to undergo training in the Navy SEALs in Ridley Scott's G.I. Jane (1997). Budgeted at US$50 million, the film was a moderate commercial success, with a worldwide gross of US$97.1 million.

During the production of G.I. Jane, it was reported that Moore had ordered studio chiefs to charter two planes for her entourage and her, which reinforced her negative reputation for being a diva —she had previously turned down the Sandra Bullock role in While You Were Sleeping because the studio refused to meet her salary demands, and was dubbed "Gimme Moore" by the media. Moore took on the role of an ultrapious Jewish convert psychiatrist in Woody Allen's Deconstructing Harry, also in 1997.

2000s: Career downturn and hiatus
After G.I. Jane, Moore retreated from the spotlight and moved to Hailey, Idaho, on a full-time basis to devote herself to raising her three daughters. Moore was off screen for three years before re-emerging in the arthouse psychological drama Passion of Mind (2000), the first English-language film from Belgian director Alain Berliner. Her performance as a woman with dissociative identity disorder was well received, but the film itself garnered mixed reviews and was deemed "naggingly slow" by some critics. Moore then resumed her self-imposed career hiatus and continued to turn down film offers. Producer Irwin Winkler said in 2001, "I had a project about a year and a half ago, and we made an inquiry about her—a real good commercial picture. She wasn't interested."

Moore returned to the screen playing a villain in the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, opposite Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore and Lucy Liu. A commercial success, the film made US$259.1 million worldwide, and Rolling Stone, on Moore's role, remarked: "It's a relief when Demi Moore shows up as fallen angel [...] Moore, 40, looks great in a bikini and doesn't even try to act. Her unsmiling sexiness cuts through the gigglefest as the angels fight, kick, dance and motocross like Indiana Jones clones on estrogen". Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle was followed by yet another three-year absence. In the interim, Moore signed on as the face of the Versace fashion brand and the Helena Rubinstein brand of cosmetics.

In Emilio Estevez's drama Bobby (2006), Moore portrayed an alcoholic singer whose career is on the downswing, as part of an ensemble cast, about the hours leading up to the Robert F. Kennedy assassination. As a member of the cast, she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Cast in a Motion Picture. The film won the Hollywood Film Festival Award for Best Ensemble Cast. Moore had a lead role as grieving and tormented novelist in the mystery thriller Half Light (2006) alongside Hans Matheson, then took on the role of a driven police officer investigating a serial killer in the psychological thriller Mr. Brooks (2007), with Kevin Costner. The film received mixed reviews and grossed $48.1 million worldwide. Rolling Stone wrote that "the cop on the case, played by Demi Moore with a striking directness that deserved better than being saddled with an absurd back story as an heiress with a fortune-hunting husband."

Moore reunited with Blame It on Rio co-star Michael Caine for the British crime drama film Flawless (2008), which saw her portray an American executive helping to steal a handful of diamonds from the London Diamond Corporation during the 1960s. Moore received positive reviews from critics; Miami Herald wrote: "The inspired pairing of Demi Moore and Michael Caine as a pair of thieves in the diamond-heist semi-caper movie Flawless goes a long way toward overcoming the film's slack, leisurely pacing".

2010s: Television roles
In 2010, Moore took on the role of a daughter helping her father deal with age-related health problems in the dramedy Happy Tears, opposite Parker Posey and Rip Torn, and starred as the matriarch of a family moving into a suburban neighborhood in the comedy The Joneses, with David Duchovny. The latter film was largely highlighted upon its theatrical release, with critics concluding that it "benefits from its timely satire of consumer culture — as well as a pair of strong performances" from Duchovny and Moore. In Bunraku (2010), a film Moore described as a "big action adventure," she played a courtesan and a femme fatale with a secret past.

Moore portrayed a chief risk management officer at a large Wall Street investment bank during the initial stages of the financial crisis of 2007–08 in the critically acclaimed corporate drama Margin Call (2011), where she was part of an ensemble cast that included Kevin Spacey, Simon Baker, and Paul Bettany. The cast garnered nominations for the "Best Ensemble" award from the Gotham Awards, the Phoenix Film Critics Society and the Central Ohio Film Critics Association. Also in 2011, Moore received a Directors Guild of America Award nomination for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film for her work as a director in a segment of the 2011 Lifetime anthology film Five, and starred opposite Ellen Barkin, Ellen Burstyn and George Kennedy in Sam Levinson's black comedy Another Happy Day, which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.

Moore appeared as the mother of Miley Cyrus' character in the romantic drama film LOL (2012). She played a similar mother role in her next film, the likewise coming-of-age dramedy Very Good Girls (2013), which co-starred Dakota Fanning and Elizabeth Olsen. Her part as an old flame of a quick-draw killer in the Western drama Forsaken (2015), with Donald Sutherland and Kiefer Sutherland, was followed by the role of the daughter of a retired high school teacher in the road comedy Wild Oats, which premiered on Lifetime in August 2016, and in a limited release the following month. In her next film, the drama Blind (2017), Moore starred opposite Alec Baldwin, portraying the neglected wife of an indicted businessman having an affair with a novelist blinded in a car crash.

In February 2017, Moore joined the cast of Empire, in the recurring role of a take-charge nurse with a mysterious past. The comedy film Rough Night (2017) featured Moore as one half of a nymphomaniac couple seducing a member of a bachelorette party gone wrong. The film was released in the United States on June 16, 2017, by Columbia Pictures, received mixed reviews and grossed $47 million worldwide. She played Selma in the Indian drama film Love Sonia (2018), which tells the story of a young girl's journey to rescue her sister from the dangerous world of international sex trafficking. She portrayed Lucy, a superficial CEO in the comedy horror film Corporate Animals (2019), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 29, 2019.

Moore's memoir, Inside Out, was published on September 24, 2019, by HarperCollins. On October 13, 2019, the book debuted at number one on The New York Times ' Combined Print & E-Book Nonfiction best-sellers list and the Hardcover Nonfiction best-sellers list. Moore discussed the book in an exclusive interview with Diane Sawyer of ABC News on Good Morning America. Moore and her two daughters Rumer and Tallulah appeared on Jada Pinkett Smith's web television talk show Red Table Talk on November 4, 2019.

2020s
On June 24, 2020, Moore joined as Piper Griffin, the matriarch of a powerful family "who will stop at nothing to protect her family and her way of life" in the pandemic-themed thriller produced by Michael Bay, Songbird, alongside Craig Robinson, Paul Walter Hauser and Peter Stormare. Moore has a leading role as Diana in Amazon's drama series, Dirty Diana, which is based on the podcast of the same name. The podcast is voiced by Moore and she also serves as producer with screenwriter Shana Feste. Moore was among the celebrities who made cameo appearances modeling lingerie at Rihanna's Savage x Fenty Vol. 2 fashion show in 2020.

In 2024, she was cast as socialite Ann Woodward in the Ryan Murphy created anthology series Feud: Capote vs. The Swans on FX on Hulu. Moore acted alongside Tom Hollander, Naomi Watts, Diane Lane, and Chloë Sevigny. She also appeared in Coralie Fargeat's body horror film The Substance, which premiered at 2024 Cannes Film Festival, where she portrayed an aging star who used a black market drug to make herself younger. Her performance was praised by critics.

Status and persona
Moore is viewed as a pioneer for equal salary for women in Hollywood. She was paid $12.5 million for her role in Striptease, which was more money than any other woman in Hollywood had ever been offered at the time. Producers for Striptease and G.I. Jane got into a bidding war to see who could get Moore to film first. Striptease won and Moore became the highest paid actress in Hollywood in 1995. "She became a pioneer for other actresses by being the first female lead to demand the same salary, benefits and billing as her male counterparts," Lifetime wrote. "Her screen persona always has something indestructible about it. There's a toughness, a strength, a determination," The Guardian described in 2007. She was also the subject of an E! True Hollywood Story special in 2003 and of Celebrity Style Story special in 2012.

Moore has been included in magazine lists of the world's most beautiful women. She was selected as one of People magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People in the world in 1996. In 1999, Moore became a guest editor for the November issue of Marie Claire. In 1999, she was ranked eighth on Forbes ' list of Top 20 Actresses, based on three separate lists of box office receipts. In 2004, People ranked her ninth on their list of All-Time Most Beautiful Women. She was voted seventh on Life & Style magazine's Best Dressed Female poll in December 2006. On December 31, 2019, The Wall Street Journal listed a cover story about Moore as one of their most-read stories in 2019.

Moore has 4.5 million followers on Twitter as of January 2020. She uses Twitter as a platform to raise awareness of sexual trafficking and slavery. "She is practicing what she preaches: More than half of her posts are on the subject, directing followers where to get involved," Harper's Bazaar reported in August 2010. "I like to connect to people in the virtual world.. exchanging thoughts and ideas, when in the physical world we might never have the opportunity to cross paths," Moore told Harper's Bazaar. As of February 2024, Moore has 5 million Instagram followers.

Moore has graced the cover of numerous international fashion magazines, including France's Elle; UK's Grazia; US' W, Vanity Fair, Interview, Rolling Stone, Glamour and InStyle; Australia's Harper's Bazaar and Turkey's Marie Claire. She has also appeared on the front cover of Vogue (Portugal, France and US). Moore has appeared in commercials and print ads throughout her career. She has appeared in television commercials for Keds, Oscar Mayer, Diet Coke, Lux, Jog Mate and Seibu Department Stores, and print ads for Versace and Ann Taylor.

Vanity Fair controversies
In August 1991, Moore appeared nude on the cover of Vanity Fair under the title More Demi Moore. Annie Leibovitz shot the picture while Moore was seven months pregnant with the second of her three daughters, Scout LaRue Willis, intending to portray "anti-Hollywood, anti-glitz" attitude. The cover drew a lot of attention, being discussed on television, radio, and in newspaper articles. The frankness of Leibovitz's portrayal of a pregnant sex symbol led to divided opinions, ranging from suggestions of sexual objectification to celebrations of the photograph as a symbol of empowerment.

The photograph was subject to numerous parodies, including the Spy Magazine version, which placed Moore's then-husband Bruce Willis's head on the body of a male model with a false belly. In Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp., Leibovitz sued over one parody featuring Leslie Nielsen, made to promote the 1994 film Naked Gun $33 1/3$: The Final Insult. In the parody, the model's body was attached to what is described as "the guilty and smirking face" of Nielsen. The teaser said "Due this March." The case was dismissed in 1996 because the parody relied "for its comic effect on the contrast between the original." In November 2009, the Moroccan magazine Femmes du Maroc emulated the pose with Moroccan news reporter Nadia Larguet, causing controversy in the majority-Muslim nation.

In August 1992, Moore again appeared nude on the cover of Vanity Fair, this time modeling for body painting artist Joanne Gair in Demi's Birthday Suit. In October 2019, she posed nude on the cover of Harper's Bazaar.

Activism and philanthropy
Moore has supported numerous charities, including All Day Foundation, American Foundation for AIDS Research, Artists for Peace and Justice, Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking, Declare Yourself, Free The Slaves, Healthy Child Healthy World, Raising Malawi, The Art of Elysium and UNICEF. In 2010, Moore defeated Kevin Bacon to win $250,000 in the Pepsi Refresh Celebrity Challenge. She chose to support the organization GEMS: Girls Educational & Mentoring Services, a nonprofit group which aims to empower young women who have been the victims of commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking. She traveled to Haiti with the Artists for Peace and Justice following the earthquake of 2010. She has also supported Chrysalis, a non-profit organization which offers employment opportunities to the homeless.

Moore became a special contributor to the CNN Freedom Project and traveled to Nepal to meet with 2010 CNN Hero of the Year Anuradha Koirala and her organization, Maiti Nepal, which has rescued more than 12,000 stolen Nepalese children from sex trafficking since 1993. Moore was the narrator and anchor of CNN's documentary on child trafficking, called Nepal's Stolen Children, which aired on June 26, 2011. In the documentary, Moore talked to Nepal's prime minister, Jhalanath Khanal, and young girls who were forced into prostitution before being saved by a Nepalese nonprofit. Moore appeared on PETA's Worst-Dressed List in 2009 for wearing fur; two years later she supported the group's efforts to ban circus workers' use of bullhooks on elephants.

In 2009, Moore and Kutcher launched DNA Foundation, a nonprofit, non-governmental organization directed towards fighting child sexual slavery. The foundation's first campaign included several celebrities, including Justin Timberlake, Sean Penn, Bradley Cooper appearing in a series of viral videos proclaiming: "Real Men Don't Buy Girls." In November 2012, the foundation said it was renaming as Thorn: Digital Defenders of Children, which aimed "to disrupt and deflate the predatory behavior of those who abuse and traffic children, solicit sex with children or create and share child pornography". Thorn: Digital Defenders of Children, assisted law enforcement in identifying 5,894 child sex trafficking victims and rescuing 103 children from "situations where their sexual abuse was recorded and distributed" in 2017, according to the organization's 2017 impact report. In 2018, Los Angeles-based nonprofit organization, Visionary Women honored Moore with its inaugural Visionary Woman Award for her work to combat human trafficking. In 2022, Thorn found 824,466 child sexual abuse material files and identified 1,895 victims of child sexual abuse.

Personal life
On February 8, 1981, at the age of 18, Moore married singer Freddy Moore, 12 years her senior and recently divorced from his first wife, Lucy. Before their marriage, Demi began using Freddy's surname as her stage name. The pair separated in 1983, after which Demi had a relationship with Timothy Hutton. She filed for divorce from Freddy in September 1984; it was finalized on August 7, 1985. Moore was then engaged to actor Emilio Estevez, with whom she co-starred in St. Elmo's Fire and Wisdom, a crime drama he also wrote and directed. The pair planned to marry in December 1986, but called off the engagement.

On November 21, 1987, Moore married her second husband, actor Bruce Willis. She and Willis have three daughters together: Rumer Glenn Willis (born August 16, 1988), Scout LaRue Willis (born July 20, 1991), and Tallulah Belle Willis (born February 3, 1994). They announced their separation on June 24, 1998, and filed for divorce on October 18, 2000. Despite the divorce, Moore maintains a close friendship with Willis and his current spouse Emma Heming Willis, and has assisted her and their respective children with caretaking for Willis as his health has declined. Moore had a three-year relationship with martial arts instructor Oliver Whitcomb, whom she dated from 1999 to 2002.

In 2003, Moore began dating actor Ashton Kutcher. Soon after they began dating, Moore became pregnant and she suffered a stillbirth six months into the pregnancy. They married on September 24, 2005. The wedding was attended by about 150 close friends and family of the couple, including Willis. In November 2011, after months of media speculation about the state of the couple's marriage, Moore announced her decision to end her marriage to Kutcher. After over a year of separation, Kutcher filed for divorce from Moore on December 21, 2012, in Los Angeles Superior Court, citing irreconcilable differences. Moore filed her response papers in March 2013, requesting spousal support and payment of legal fees from Kutcher. On November 26, 2013, their divorce was finalized.

Moore claims that her good health is due to a raw vegan diet.

Moore was at one point a follower of Philip Berg's Kabbalah Centre religion, and initiated Kutcher into the faith, having said that she "didn't grow up Jewish, but [...] would say that [she has] been more exposed to the deeper meanings of particular rituals than any of [her] friends that did." She is no longer affiliated with Berg's organization. According to The New York Times, Moore is "the world's most high-profile doll collector", and among her favorites is the Gene Marshall fashion doll. At one point, she kept a separate residence to house her 2,000 dolls.

Awards and nominations
Moore is the recipient of many accolades, including nominations for a Critics' Choice Award, two Golden Globe Awards, a Primetime Emmy Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award.

title: Demi Moore


text:
Gulf of Bothnia

The Gulf of Bothnia (Pohjanlahti; Bottniska viken) is divided into the Bothnian Bay and Bothnian Sea, and it is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea, between Finland's west coast (East Bothnia) and the northern part of Sweden's east coast (West Bothnia and North Bothnia). In the south of the gulf lies Åland, between the Sea of Åland and the Archipelago Sea.

Name
Bothnia is a latinization. The Swedish name Bottenviken was originally just Botn(en), with botn being Old Norse for "gulf" or "bay", which is also the meaning of the second element vik.

The name botn was applied to the Gulf of Bothnia as Helsingjabotn in Old Norse, after Hälsingland, which at the time referred to the coastland west of the gulf. Later, botten was applied to the regions of Västerbotten on the western side and Österbotten on the eastern side ('West Bottom' and 'East Bottom'). The Finnish name of Österbotten, Pohjanmaa (maa, meaning 'land'), gives a hint as to the meaning in both languages: the meaning of pohja includes both 'bottom' and 'north'. Pohja is the base word for north, pohjoinen, with an adjectival suffix added.

Botn/botten is cognate with the English word bottom, and it might be part of a general north European distinction of lowlands, as opposed to highlands, such as the Netherlandic region, Samogitia (Lithuanian), and Sambia (Russia).

Julius Pokorny gives the extended Proto-Indo-European root as with a  variant, from which the Latin fundus, as in fundament, is derived. The original meaning of English north, from Proto-Indo-European 'under', indicates an original sense of 'lowlands' for bottomlands. On the other hand, by north the classical authors usually meant 'outermost', as the northern lands were outermost to them. In Saami, the cardinal directions were named according to the different parts of the typical tent used by this nomadic people. The door of the tent was traditionally pointed south, in the most sunny direction, and the bottom of the tent would be aligned with the north. Thus the origin of the word pohja in its use as 'north'. According to Lönnrot, north was viewed as the bottom direction because the lowest point of the sun's path is there.

Geography
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the Gulf of Bothnia as follows: From Simpnäsklubb (59°54'N) in Sweden, to Flötjan, Lagskær [sic], Fæstörne [sic], Kökarsörn, and Vænö-Kalkskær [sic] to the SW point of Hangöudde (Hangö Head, 59°49'N) in Finland, thus including Åland and adjacent shoals and channels in the Gulf of Bothnia.

The gulf is 725 km long, 80 – wide and has an average depth of 60 m. The maximum depth is 295 m. The surface area is 117,000 km2. The northernmost point is situated in Töre in the Bothnian Bay. its coordinates are 65° 54'07" N 22° 39'00 E.

The depth and surface area of the Gulf of Bothnia are constantly decreasing, as the land is rising after it had been pressed down by about 2,600 to 3,300 ft by the continental ice during last ice age. The rise is 80 cm every hundred years. It is estimated that the land has a further 300 to 400 ft to rise before equilibrium is reached. This recovery rate will progressively slow as isostatic equilibrium is approached.

Into the gulf flow a number of rivers from both sides; consequently, a salinity gradient exists from north to south. In the south the water is the normal brackish water of the Baltic Sea, but in the north, in the Bothnian Bay, the salinity is so low, from 0.4% near Kvarken to 0.2% in the northernmost part, that many freshwater fish such as the pike, whitefish and perch thrive in it.

The gulf is a combination of the Bothnian Bay in the north and the Bothnian Sea in the south, separated by the Kvarken region with a water depth of around 25 m and a rate of land rising of almost 10 mm a year. Within 2000 years the bay is expected to separate from the rest of the gulf and become a freshwater lake.

Being nearly fresh, the gulf is frozen over five months every year. The icing of the Baltic Sea begins and ends in the northern Gulf of Bothnia. Traffic restrictions for icebreaker assistance are typically in force for all the gulf from late January to late April and for the northernmost ports from the middle of December to the middle of May.

Geology
Geologically the Gulf of Bothnia is an ancient depression of tectonic origin. The depression is partly filled with sedimentary rock deposited in the Precambrian and Paleozoic. Nearby plains adjoining the gulf are part of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain. While being repeatedly covered by glaciers during the last 2.5 million years glacial erosion has had a limited effect in changing the topography.

It is estimated that within about 2,000 years, ongoing post-glacial rebound will raise the seafloor in the Norra Kvarken area above water, splitting the Gulf of Bothnia into a southern gulf and northern lake.

History
The gulf was not known by ancient and medieval geographers and as late as in 1427 not indicated by the Danish cartographer Claudius Clavus, not even in the map of Hartmann Schedel, printed in 1493. The first map in which the gulf has been delineated, although without name, is that of Nicolaus Germanus from the year 1482.

Economy
The land surrounding the Gulf of Bothnia is heavily forested. Trees are logged, then transported to the coast for milling. The gulf is also important for oil transport to the coastal cities and ore transport to steel mills, for instance in Raahe.

In terms of tonnage in international traffic, the largest ports on the Finnish side are Rauma, Kokkola and Tornio. The main ports of the Swedish side are in Luleå, Skellefteå, Umeå, Sundsvall, Gävle and Hargshamn. In Luleå, iron ore pellets are exported and coal is imported. Gävle is Sweden's third-largest container port. It also ships forest products and oil. In port operations in the Gulf of Bothnia, icebreaker assistance can be required for an ice season that averages as long as six months; whereas in the Gulf of Finland, the icebreaking season averages only three months.

There is some fishery, mainly Baltic herring, for domestic needs. A persistent problem has been pollution, because the sea is enclosed by a large drainage basin and is poorly connected to fresher waters from the Atlantic. Mercury and PCB levels have been relatively high, although the Finnish Food Safety Authority considers the herring edible. Although the levels exceed the limits, the fatty acids have health benefits that offset this risk.

Rivers

 * Kalajoki
 * Kemijoki
 * Kiiminkijoki
 * Kokemäenjoki
 * Oulujoki
 * Dalälven
 * Ljusnan
 * Ljungan
 * Indalsälven
 * Ångerman
 * Ume River
 * Skellefte River
 * Pite River
 * Lule River
 * Kalix River
 * Torne

Cities and towns

 * Gävle
 * Härnösand
 * Jakobstad
 * Kalajoki
 * Kokkola
 * Kristinestad
 * Luleå
 * Oulu
 * Pori
 * Rauma
 * Sundsvall
 * Umeå
 * Vaasa

title: Gulf of Bothnia


text:
American Iron and Steel Institute

The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is a trade association of North American steel producers. Including its predecessor organizations, it is one of the oldest trade associations in the United States, dating back to 1855. It assumed its present form in 1908, with Judge Elbert H. Gary, chairman of the United States Steel Corporation, as its first president. Its development was in response to the need for a cooperative agency in the iron and steel industry for collecting and disseminating statistics and information, carrying on investigations, providing a forum for the discussion of problems and generally advancing the interests of the industry.

Stainless steel numbering system
The AISI maintained a numbering system for wrought stainless steel in which the three digits indicate the various compositions. The 200 and 300 series are generally austenitic stainless steels, whereas the 400 series are either ferritic or martensitic. Some of the grades have a one-letter or two-letter suffix that indicates a particular modification of the composition. In 1995 the AISI turned over future maintenance of the system to the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Elbert H. Gary Medal
Since 1927, the institute has awarded the Elbert H. Gary Medal, an annual medal named for its first president, to a leader within the North American steel industry. Recipients include:
 * 1944: Quincy Bent
 * 1991: Frank W. Luerssen
 * 1997: Joseph F. Toot Jr.
 * 2003: John T. Mayberry
 * 2004: Daniel R. DiMicco
 * 2005: David Sutherland
 * 2006: John P. Surma

title: American Iron and Steel Institute