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FOXP2

Forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2) is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the FOXP2 gene. FOXP2 is a member of the forkhead box family of transcription factors, proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to DNA. It is expressed in the brain, heart, lungs and digestive system.

FOXP2 is found in many vertebrates, where it plays an important role in mimicry in birds (such as birdsong) and echolocation in bats. FOXP2 is also required for the proper development of speech and language in humans. In humans, mutations in FOXP2 cause the severe speech and language disorder developmental verbal dyspraxia. Studies of the gene in mice and songbirds indicate that it is necessary for vocal imitation and the related motor learning. Outside the brain, FOXP2 has also been implicated in development of other tissues such as the lung and digestive system.

Initially identified in 1998 as the genetic cause of a speech disorder in a British family designated the KE family, FOXP2 was the first gene discovered to be associated with speech and language and was subsequently dubbed "the language gene". However, other genes are necessary for human language development, and a 2018 analysis confirmed that there was no evidence of recent positive evolutionary selection of FOXP2 in humans.

Structure and function

As a FOX protein, FOXP2 contains a forkhead-box domain. In addition, it contains a polyglutamine tract, a zinc finger and a leucine zipper. The protein attaches to the DNA of other proteins and controls their activity through the forkhead-box domain. Only a few targeted genes have been identified, however researchers believe that there could be up to hundreds of other genes targeted by the FOXP2 gene. The forkhead box P2 protein is active in the brain and other tissues before and after birth, many studies show that it is paramount for the growth of nerve cells and transmission between them. The FOXP2 gene is also involved in synaptic plasticity, making it imperative for learning and memory.

FOXP2 is required for proper brain and lung development. Knockout mice with only one functional copy of the FOXP2 gene have significantly reduced vocalizations as pups. Knockout mice with no functional copies of FOXP2 are runted, display abnormalities in brain regions such as the Purkinje layer, and die an average of 21 days after birth from inadequate lung development.

FOXP2 is expressed in many areas of the brain, including the basal ganglia and inferior frontal cortex, where it is essential for brain maturation and speech and language development. In mice, the gene was found to be twice as highly expressed in male pups than female pups, which correlated with an almost double increase in the number of vocalisations the male pups made when separated from mothers. Conversely, in human children aged 4–5, the gene was found to be 30% more expressed in the Broca's areas of female children. The researchers suggested that the gene is more active in "the more communicative sex".

The expression of FOXP2 is subject to post-transcriptional regulation, particularly microRNA (miRNA), causing the repression of the FOXP2 3' untranslated region.

Three amino acid substitutions distinguish the human FOXP2 protein from that found in mice, while two amino acid substitutions distinguish the human FOXP2 protein from that found in chimpanzees, but only one of these changes is unique to humans. Evidence from genetically manipulated mice and human neuronal cell models suggests that these changes affect the neural functions of FOXP2.

Clinical significance
The FOXP2 gene has been implicated in several cognitive functions including; general brain development, language, and synaptic plasticity. The FOXP2 gene region acts as a transcription factor for the forkhead box P2 protein. Transcription factors affect other regions, and the forkhead box P2 protein has been suggested to also act as a transcription factor for hundreds of genes. This prolific involvement opens the possibility that the FOXP2 gene is much more extensive than originally thought. Other targets of transcription have been researched without correlation to FOXP2. Specifically, FOXP2 has been investigated in correlation with autism and dyslexia, however with no mutation was discovered as the cause. One well identified target is language. Although some research disagrees with this correlation, the majority of research shows that a mutated FOXP2 causes the observed production deficiency.

There is some evidence that the linguistic impairments associated with a mutation of the FOXP2 gene are not simply the result of a fundamental deficit in motor control. Brain imaging of affected individuals indicates functional abnormalities in language-related cortical and basal ganglia regions, demonstrating that the problems extend beyond the motor system.

Mutations in FOXP2 are among several (26 genes plus 2 intergenic) loci which correlate to ADHD diagnosis in adults – clinical ADHD is an umbrella label for a heterogeneous group of genetic and neurological phenomena which may result from FOXP2 mutations or other causes.

A 2020 genome-wide association study (GWAS) implicates single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of FOXP2 in susceptibility to cannabis use disorder.

Language disorder
It is theorized that the translocation of the 7q31.2 region of the FOXP2 gene causes a severe language impairment called developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) or childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) So far this type of mutation has only been discovered in three families across the world including the original KE family. A missense mutation causing an arginine-to-histidine substitution (R553H) in the DNA-binding domain is thought to be the abnormality in KE. This would cause a normally basic residue to be fairly acidic and highly reactive at the body's pH. A heterozygous nonsense mutation, R328X variant, produces a truncated protein involved in speech and language difficulties in one KE individual and two of their close family members. R553H and R328X mutations also affected nuclear localization, DNA-binding, and the transactivation (increased gene expression) properties of FOXP2.

These individuals present with deletions, translocations, and missense mutations. When tasked with repetition and verb generation, these individuals with DVD/CAS had decreased activation in the putamen and Broca's area in fMRI studies. These areas are commonly known as areas of language function. This is one of the primary reasons that FOXP2 is known as a language gene. They have delayed onset of speech, difficulty with articulation including slurred speech, stuttering, and poor pronunciation, as well as dyspraxia. It is believed that a major part of this speech deficit comes from an inability to coordinate the movements necessary to produce normal speech including mouth and tongue shaping. Additionally, there are more general impairments with the processing of the grammatical and linguistic aspects of speech. These findings suggest that the effects of FOXP2 are not limited to motor control, as they include comprehension among other cognitive language functions. General mild motor and cognitive deficits are noted across the board. Clinically these patients can also have difficulty coughing, sneezing, or clearing their throats.

While FOXP2 has been proposed to play a critical role in the development of speech and language, this view has been challenged by the fact that the gene is also expressed in other mammals as well as birds and fish that do not speak. It has also been proposed that the FOXP2 transcription-factor is not so much a hypothetical 'language gene' but rather part of a regulatory machinery related to externalization of speech.

Evolution

The FOXP2 gene is highly conserved in mammals. The human gene differs from that in non-human primates by the substitution of two amino acids, a threonine to asparagine substitution at position 303 (T303N) and an asparagine to serine substitution at position 325 (N325S). In mice it differs from that of humans by three substitutions, and in zebra finch by seven amino acids. One of the two amino acid differences between human and chimps also arose independently in carnivores and bats. Similar FOXP2 proteins can be found in songbirds, fish, and reptiles such as alligators.

DNA sampling from Homo neanderthalensis bones indicates that their FOXP2 gene is a little different though largely similar to those of Homo sapiens (i.e. humans). Previous genetic analysis had suggested that the H. sapiens FOXP2 gene became fixed in the population around 125,000 years ago. Some researchers consider the Neanderthal findings to indicate that the gene instead swept through the population over 260,000 years ago, before our most recent common ancestor with the Neanderthals. Other researchers offer alternative explanations for how the H. sapiens version would have appeared in Neanderthals living 43,000 years ago.

According to a 2002 study, the FOXP2 gene showed indications of recent positive selection. Some researchers have speculated that positive selection is crucial for the evolution of language in humans. Others, however, were unable to find a clear association between species with learned vocalizations and similar mutations in FOXP2. A 2018 analysis of a large sample of globally distributed genomes confirmed there was no evidence of positive selection, suggesting that the original signal of positive selection may be driven by sample composition. Insertion of both human mutations into mice, whose version of FOXP2 otherwise differs from the human and chimpanzee versions in only one additional base pair, causes changes in vocalizations as well as other behavioral changes, such as a reduction in exploratory tendencies, and a decrease in maze learning time. A reduction in dopamine levels and changes in the morphology of certain nerve cells are also observed.

Interactions
FOXP2 is known to regulate CNTNAP2, CTBP1, SRPX2 and SCN3A.

FOXP2 downregulates CNTNAP2, a member of the neurexin family found in neurons. CNTNAP2 is associated with common forms of language impairment.

FOXP2 also downregulates SRPX2, the 'Sushi Repeat-containing Protein X-linked 2'. It directly reduces its expression, by binding to its gene's promoter. SRPX2 is involved in glutamatergic synapse formation in the cerebral cortex and is more highly expressed in childhood. SRPX2 appears to specifically increase the number of glutamatergic synapses in the brain, while leaving inhibitory GABAergic synapses unchanged and not affecting dendritic spine length or shape. On the other hand, FOXP2's activity does reduce dendritic spine length and shape, in addition to number, indicating it has other regulatory roles in dendritic morphology.

Chimpanzees
In chimpanzees, FOXP2 differs from the human version by two amino acids. A study in Germany sequenced FOXP2's complementary DNA in chimps and other species to compare it with human complementary DNA in order to find the specific changes in the sequence. FOXP2 was found to be functionally different in humans compared to chimps. Since FOXP2 was also found to have an effect on other genes, its effects on other genes is also being studied. Researchers deduced that there could also be further clinical applications in the direction of these studies in regards to illnesses that show effects on human language ability.

Mice
In a mouse FOXP2 gene knockouts, loss of both copies of the gene causes severe motor impairment related to cerebellar abnormalities and lack of ultrasonic vocalisations normally elicited when pups are removed from their mothers. These vocalizations have important communicative roles in mother–offspring interactions. Loss of one copy was associated with impairment of ultrasonic vocalisations and a modest developmental delay. Male mice on encountering female mice produce complex ultrasonic vocalisations that have characteristics of song. Mice that have the R552H point mutation carried by the KE family show cerebellar reduction and abnormal synaptic plasticity in striatal and cerebellar circuits.

Humanized FOXP2 mice display altered cortico-basal ganglia circuits. The human allele of the FOXP2 gene was transferred into the mouse embryos through homologous recombination to create humanized FOXP2 mice. The human variant of FOXP2 also had an effect on the exploratory behavior of the mice. In comparison to knockout mice with one non-functional copy of FOXP2, the humanized mouse model showed opposite effects when testing its effect on the levels of dopamine, plasticity of synapses, patterns of expression in the striatum and behavior that was exploratory in nature.

When FOXP2 expression was altered in mice, it affected many different processes including the learning motor skills and the plasticity of synapses. Additionally, FOXP2 is found more in the sixth layer of the cortex than in the fifth, and this is consistent with it having greater roles in sensory integration. FOXP2 was also found in the medial geniculate nucleus of the mouse brain, which is the processing area that auditory inputs must go through in the thalamus. It was found that its mutations play a role in delaying the development of language learning. It was also found to be highly expressed in the Purkinje cells and cerebellar nuclei of the cortico-cerebellar circuits. High FOXP2 expression has also been shown in the spiny neurons that express type 1 dopamine receptors in the striatum, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus and ventral tegmental area. The negative effects of the mutations of FOXP2 in these brain regions on motor abilities were shown in mice through tasks in lab studies. When analyzing the brain circuitry in these cases, scientists found greater levels of dopamine and decreased lengths of dendrites, which caused defects in long-term depression, which is implicated in motor function learning and maintenance. Through EEG studies, it was also found that these mice had increased levels of activity in their striatum, which contributed to these results. There is further evidence for mutations of targets of the FOXP2 gene shown to have roles in schizophrenia, epilepsy, autism, bipolar disorder and intellectual disabilities.

Bats
FOXP2 has implications in the development of bat echolocation. Contrary to apes and mice, FOXP2 is extremely diverse in echolocating bats. Twenty-two sequences of non-bat eutherian mammals revealed a total number of 20 nonsynonymous mutations in contrast to half that number of bat sequences, which showed 44 nonsynonymous mutations. All cetaceans share three amino acid substitutions, but no differences were found between echolocating toothed whales and non-echolocating baleen cetaceans. Within bats, however, amino acid variation correlated with different echolocating types.

Birds
In songbirds, FOXP2 most likely regulates genes involved in neuroplasticity. Gene knockdown of FOXP2 in area X of the basal ganglia in songbirds results in incomplete and inaccurate song imitation. Overexpression of FOXP2 was accomplished through injection of adeno-associated virus serotype 1 (AAV1) into area X of the brain. This overexpression produced similar effects to that of knockdown; juvenile zebra finch birds were unable to accurately imitate their tutors. Similarly, in adult canaries, higher FOXP2 levels also correlate with song changes.

Levels of FOXP2 in adult zebra finches are significantly higher when males direct their song to females than when they sing song in other contexts. "Directed" singing refers to when a male is singing to a female usually for a courtship display. "Undirected" singing occurs when for example, a male sings when other males are present or is alone. Studies have found that FoxP2 levels vary depending on the social context. When the birds were singing undirected song, there was a decrease of FoxP2 expression in Area X. This downregulation was not observed and FoxP2 levels remained stable in birds singing directed song.

Differences between song-learning and non-song-learning birds have been shown to be caused by differences in FOXP2 gene expression, rather than differences in the amino acid sequence of the FOXP2 protein.

Zebrafish
In zebrafish, FOXP2 is expressed in the ventral and dorsal thalamus, telencephalon, diencephalon where it likely plays a role in nervous system development. The zebrafish FOXP2 gene has an 85% similarity to the human FOX2P ortholog.

History
FOXP2 and its gene were discovered as a result of investigations on an English family known as the KE family, half of whom (15 individuals across three generations) had a speech and language disorder called developmental verbal dyspraxia. Their case was studied at the Institute of Child Health of University College London. In 1990, Myrna Gopnik, Professor of Linguistics at McGill University, reported that the disorder-affected KE family had severe speech impediment with incomprehensible talk, largely characterized by grammatical deficits. She hypothesized that the basis was not of learning or cognitive disability, but due to genetic factors affecting mainly grammatical ability. (Her hypothesis led to a popularised existence of "grammar gene" and a controversial notion of grammar-specific disorder. ) In 1995, the University of Oxford and the Institute of Child Health researchers found that the disorder was purely genetic. Remarkably, the inheritance of the disorder from one generation to the next was consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance, i.e., mutation of only a single gene on an autosome (non-sex chromosome) acting in a dominant fashion. This is one of the few known examples of Mendelian (monogenic) inheritance for a disorder affecting speech and language skills, which typically have a complex basis involving multiple genetic risk factors.

In 1998, Oxford University geneticists Simon Fisher, Anthony Monaco, Cecilia S. L. Lai, Jane A. Hurst, and Faraneh Vargha-Khadem identified an autosomal dominant monogenic inheritance that is localized on a small region of chromosome 7 from DNA samples taken from the affected and unaffected members. The chromosomal region (locus) contained 70 genes. The locus was given the official name "SPCH1" (for speech-and-language-disorder-1) by the Human Genome Nomenclature committee. Mapping and sequencing of the chromosomal region was performed with the aid of bacterial artificial chromosome clones. Around this time, the researchers identified an individual who was unrelated to the KE family but had a similar type of speech and language disorder. In this case, the child, known as CS, carried a chromosomal rearrangement (a translocation) in which part of chromosome 7 had become exchanged with part of chromosome 5. The site of breakage of chromosome 7 was located within the SPCH1 region.

In 2001, the team identified in CS that the mutation is in the middle of a protein-coding gene. Using a combination of bioinformatics and RNA analyses, they discovered that the gene codes for a novel protein belonging to the forkhead-box (FOX) group of transcription factors. As such, it was assigned with the official name of FOXP2. When the researchers sequenced the FOXP2 gene in the KE family, they found a heterozygous point mutation shared by all the affected individuals, but not in unaffected members of the family and other people. This mutation is due to an amino-acid substitution that inhibits the DNA-binding domain of the FOXP2 protein. Further screening of the gene identified multiple additional cases of FOXP2 disruption, including different point mutations and chromosomal rearrangements, providing evidence that damage to one copy of this gene is sufficient to derail speech and language development.

title: FOXP2


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Vega 1

Vega 1 (along with its twin Vega 2) was a Soviet space probe, part of the Vega program. The spacecraft was a development of the earlier Venera craft. They were designed by Babakin Space Centre and constructed as 5VK by Lavochkin at Khimki. The name VeGa (ВеГа) combines the first two letters from the Russian words for Venus (Венера: "Venera") and Halley (Галлея: "Galleya").

The craft was powered by twin large solar panels and instruments included an antenna dish, cameras, spectrometer, infrared sounder, magnetometers (MISCHA), and plasma probes. The 4,840 kg craft was launched by a Proton 8K82K rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, Kazakh SSR. Both Vega 1 and 2 were three-axis stabilized spacecraft. The spacecraft were equipped with a dual bumper shield for dust protection from Halley's comet.

Venus mission
The descent module arrived at Venus on 11 June 1985, two days after being released from the Vega 1 flyby probe. The module, a 1500 kg sphere with a diameter of 240 cm, contained a surface lander and a balloon explorer. The flyby probe performed a gravitational assist maneuver using Venus, and continued its mission to intercept the comet.

Descent craft
The surface lander was identical to that of Vega 2 as well as the previous six Venera missions. The objective of the probe was the study of the atmosphere and the exposed surface of the planet. The scientific payload included an ultraviolet spectrometer, temperature and pressure sensors, a water concentration meter, a gas-phase chromatograph, an X-ray spectrometer, a mass spectrometer, and a surface sampling device. Since the probe made a nighttime landing, no images were taken. Several of these scientific tools (the UV spectrometer, the mass spectrograph, and the devices to measure pressure and temperature) were developed in collaboration with French scientists.

The lander successfully touched down at in the Mermaid Plain north of Aphrodite Terra. Due to excessive turbulence, some surface experiments were inadvertently activated 20 km above the surface. Only the mass spectrometer was able to return data.

Tools on the lander include:
 * Thermometers
 * Barometers
 * UV absorption spectrometer—ISAV-S
 * Optical aerosol analyzer, Nephelometer—ISAV-A
 * Aerosol particle-size counter—LSA
 * Aerosol mass spectrometer—MALAKHIT-M
 * Aerosol gas chromatograph—SIGMA-3
 * Aerosol X-ray fluorescence spectrometer—IFP
 * Hygrometer—VM-4
 * Soil X-ray fluorescence spectrometer—BDRP-AM25
 * Gamma-ray spectrometer—GS-15STsV
 * Penetrometer / Soil ohmmeter—Prop-V
 * Stabilized oscillator / Doppler radio

Balloon

The Vega 1 Lander/Balloon capsule entered the Venus atmosphere (125 km altitude) at 2:06:10 UT (Earth received time; Moscow time 5:06:10 a.m.) on 11 June 1985 at roughly 11 km/s. At approximately 2:06:25 UT the parachute attached to the landing craft cap opened at an altitude of 64 km. The cap and parachute were released 15 seconds later at 63 km altitude. The balloon package was pulled out of its compartment by parachute 40 seconds later at 61 km altitude, at 8.1 degrees N, 176.9 degrees east. A second parachute opened at an altitude of 55 km, 200 seconds after entry, extracting the furled balloon. The balloon was inflated 100 seconds later at 54 km and the parachute and inflation system were jettisoned. The ballast was jettisoned when the balloon reached roughly 50 km and the balloon floated back to a stable height between 53 and 54 km some 15 to 25 minutes after entry.

The mean stable height was 53.6 km, with a pressure of 535 mbar and a temperature of 300 - 310 K in the middle, most active layer of the Venus three-tiered cloud system. The balloon drifted westward in the zonal wind flow with an average speed of about 69 m/s (248 km/h) at nearly constant latitude. The probe crossed the terminator from night to day at 12:20 UT on 12 June after traversing 8500 km. The probe continued to operate in the daytime until the final transmission was received at 00:38 UT on 13 June from 8.1 N, 68.8 E after a total traverse distance of 11600 km or about 30% of the circumference of the planet. It is not known how much farther the balloon traveled after the final communication.

Halley mission
After their encounters, the Vegas' motherships used the gravity of Venus, also known as a gravity assist, to intercept Halley's Comet.

Images started to be returned on 4 March 1986, and were used to help pinpoint Giotto's close flyby of the comet. The early images from Vega showed two bright areas on the comet, which were initially interpreted as a double nucleus. The bright areas would later turn out to be two jets emitting from the comet. The images also showed the nucleus to be dark, and the infrared spectrometer readings measured a nucleus temperature of 300 to 400 K, much warmer than expected for an ice body. The conclusion was that the comet had a thin layer on its surface covering an icy body.

Vega 1 made its closest approach on 6 March at around 8889 km (at 07:20:06 UT) of the nucleus. It took more than 500 pictures via different filters as it flew through the gas cloud around the coma. Although the spacecraft was battered by dust, none of the instruments were disabled during the encounter.

The data intensive examination of the comet covered only the three hours around closest approach. They were intended to measure the physical parameters of the nucleus, such as dimensions, shape, temperature and surface properties, as well as to study the structure and dynamics of the coma, the gas composition close to the nucleus, the dust particles' composition and mass distribution as functions of distance to the nucleus and the cometary-solar wind interaction.

The Vega images showed the nucleus to be about 14 km long with a rotation period of about 53 hours. The dust mass spectrometer detected material similar to the composition of carbonaceous chondrites meteorites and also detected clathrate ice.

After subsequent imaging sessions on 7 and 8 March 1986, Vega 1 headed out to deep space. In total Vega 1 and Vega 2 returned about 1500 images of Comet Halley. Vega 1 ran out of attitude control propellant on 30 January 1987, and contact with Vega 2 continued until 24 March 1987.

Vega 1 is currently in heliocentric orbit, with perihelion of 0.70 AU, aphelion of 0.98 AU, eccentricity of 0.17, inclination of 2.3 degrees and orbital period of 281 days.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vega 1


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Dominican

Dominican may refer to:
 * a member of the Dominican Order, a Catholic mendicant order
 * a member of the Anglican Order of Preachers, a Protestant order styled on the Dominican Order
 * of the Dominican Republic, on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles, in the Caribbean
 * People of the Dominican Republic
 * Demographics of the Dominican Republic
 * Culture of the Dominican Republic
 * of Dominica, an island nation in the Lesser Antilles, in the Caribbean
 * People of Dominica
 * Demographics of Dominica
 * Culture of Dominica

Schools

 * Dominican College (disambiguation), numerous colleges throughout the world
 * Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology, Berkeley, California, United States
 * Dominican University (Illinois), River Forest, Illinois, United States
 * Dominican University of California, San Rafael, California, United States
 * Dominican University New York, Orangeburg, New York, United States

title: Dominican


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Saducismus Triumphatus

Saducismus triumphatus is a book on witchcraft by Joseph Glanvill, published posthumously in England in 1681.

The editor is presumed to have been Henry More, who certainly contributed to the volume; and topical material on witchcraft in Sweden was supplied by Anthony Horneck to later editions. By 1683 this appeared as a lengthy appendix. Horneck's contribution came from a Dutch pamphlet of 1670. Its composition is mentioned in the chapter on Transportation by an invisible power in the Miscellanies of John Aubrey.

The book affirmed the existence of witches with malign supernatural powers of magic, and attacked skepticism concerning their abilities. Glanvill likened these skeptics to the Sadducees, members of a Jewish sect from around the time of Jesus who were said to have denied the immortality of the soul. The book is also noted for the account of the Drummer of Tedworth, an early poltergeist story, and for one of the earliest descriptions of the use of a witch bottle, a countercharm against witchcraft.

Influence
The book strongly influenced Cotton Mather in his Discourse on Witchcraft (1689) and the Salem witch trials held in 1692–3 in Salem, Massachusetts. Mather's Wonders of the Invisible World (1693) is largely modeled after this book and its reports, particularly the material relating to the Mora witch trial of 1669. The book is cited by H. P. Lovecraft in his short story "The Festival". Shirley Jackson quoted passages from the book in her short story collection The Lottery and Other Stories.

In popular culture
It is possible to read the title painted on the walls of the secret passage in Dario Argento's 1977 film Suspiria at 01:29:19.

The book is mentioned in H.P. Lovecraft's short story "The Festival":

"Pointing to a chair, table, and pile of books, the old man now left the room; and when I sat down to read I saw that the books were hoary and mouldy, and that they included old Morryster’s wild Marvells of Science, the terrible Saducismus Triumphatus of Joseph Glanvill, published in 1681, the shocking Daemonolatreia of Remigius, printed in 1595 at Lyons, and worst of all, the unmentionable Necronomicon of the mad Arab Abdul Alhazred, in Olaus Wormius’ forbidden Latin translation; a book which I had never seen, but of which I had heard monstrous things whispered."

The cover art for the 2009 album "A Ticking Clock I Couldn't Stop" by Afterlives under the record label "Enemies List Home Recordings" uses one of the images from the book.

title: Saducismus Triumphatus


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Talk:Esperanto orthography

ASCII transliterations
This article discusses Esperanto orthography in general - including the "h" and "^" systems, not just the x-system - so I propose moving it to Esperanto orthography, which in any case would mean more to non-Esperantists. Any objections? -- Oliver P. 16:45 Feb 17, 2003 (UTC)

 * Okay, I've moved it and made separate sections for different systems. Somehow its ended up quite a lot longer than before, despite the fact that I haven't added much. I think my writing style may be too verbose. But hopefully it's clear enough. Please check through it if you have time! -- Oliver P. 20:42 Feb 17, 2003 (UTC)

 * I like it. Good job!  --Chuck SMITH

 * Phew! Thanks. :) Feel free to improve it if you want... I wasn't sure about including the weird capitalisation method, as I've only known one other person who has used it. I used it for a while when corresponding with Martin Howard. (He was for a time the president of the Orienta Federacio, which is the main Esperanto group for East Anglia and its environs.) I can't remember where he said he got it from, but I seem to remember him being very keen on it! I haven't written to him for quite a while, though. I'll try to find the old e-mails where he was telling me about it. -- Oliver P. 21:04 Feb 17, 2003 (UTC)

-- Speaking of h-system, i added an item about the ambiguity of u (can be either u or ŭ). The item i added cites w as an available letter (could be used in h-system or x-system), but i hope it doesn't upset people (yet-another-way-of-writing... :) ). I'm not proposing it, i think people use too many variant spellings (vx??? c' g' u'??? ^c ^g???) and this makes it hard to search the net for Esperanto words... I just wonder why the creator of the x-system didn't use w in the first place. --Yuu en 01:29, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

 * That may be to avoid confusion with actual w, which occasionally may occur in unassimilated proper names, or because w is normally trascribed as , not <ŭ>. kwami 02:08, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

Use of upper-case letters
One very unusual system is to dispense with the normal capitalisation rules, and use lower-case letters to stand for unaccented letters, and upper-case letters for accented ones. For example, ŝi would be written as Si, regardless of where it occurs in a sentence. This system has the advantage that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the letters being reprsented and the characters used to represent them. However, the resulting texts look very peculiar to most people, and the system is almost never used.

 * I removed the above section because this convention is never used in reality. --Chuck SMITH

 vs.
As far as I'm aware, Esperanto does not contain monomorphemic sequences of , , or , so the argument against the phonemicity of /c/, /ĉ/, and /ĝ/ is spurious. If there are a couple such words in some sources, most Esperantists would agree that they don't fit accepted Esperanto orthography. One could just as easily argue against the phonemicity of English  because it's phonetically [tʃ] and even spelled that way in Tchaikovsky. Bimorphemic sequences may be slightly distinct due to their composite structure, but such marginal cases are found in most languages. --kwami

 * Since there's been no comment, I'm removing that section. You wouldn't argue the Fijian script is nonphonemic because < b > is [mb], since that is a phoneme in the language. Similarly, affricates are phonemic sequences of sounds. --kwami 02:04, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * About the presence of ,  and similars: some words have them (matĉo), as a rule they are not supposed to produce an affricate, so matĉo is pronounced mat-ĉo. These words also appear not so unfrequently in compound words. Orzetto 17:06, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Not sure if you're agreeing or disagreeing, Orzetto. Geminate consonants certainly occur, though usually not monomorphemically (mallonga, for example). , ,  are the geminate equivalents of , <ĉ>, <ĝ>, and they do occur occasionally, like in your example of matĉo. (Should we also add the diphthong oŭ because someone coined the word poŭpo? Do we need to recognize as phonemic everything that someone decides to transcribe into Esperanto? [That's an honest question, by the way; I'm not trying to be sarcastic].) However, I don't believe there's any contrast between plosive + fricative and affricate, unless it's across morpheme boundaries and the syllable boundary falls between the two segments. English does this (can't think of a good example offhand; only thing that comes to mind is achoo vs. at Shoe), and you wouldn't argue  isn't phonemic because of that. I don't know if there's any official take on whether  should be syllabified as [ot.so] or [o.tso], that is, as contrasting with or homophonic with [o.tso]. Note also that  is not considered a phoneme in Esperanto, and as far as I know geminate never occurs. --kwami 01:57, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * P.S. I frequently read that Esperanto does not have monomorphemic gemination, despite a few words like matĉo.

 * My preferred minimal pair in English for biphonemic /tʃ/ vs. affricative /t͡ʃ/ does indeed seem to hinge on bimorphemicity: "catch it" /'kæt͡ʃɪt/ vs. "cat shit" /'kæt,ʃɪt/. Both are common enough idiomatic expressions, and they can even reasonably occur in the same context. I have (i.e., I am employed by) a middle-aged queen who was barely one year old, if that, when we rescued her from the alley one freezing winter afternoon 11-12 years ago. Every time I scoop her litter box to free it of /'kæt,ʃɪt/ I find myself hoping that the plastic bag will /'kæt͡ʃɪt/ and hold it, rather than losing its integrity and loosing a mess onto the floor. --Thnidu (talk) 16:17, 30 June 2019 (UTC)

Nearly phonemic?
As far as I know Esperanto is defined phonemic, so ekzemple is indeed pronounced with /kz/, or it would be written differently. The same goes for ŭ, it is not an allophone of /v/ (even though in normal Esperanto words it is found only as aŭ or eŭ). If someone is pronouncing like that, he/she's simply pronouncing wrong and looking for excuses. It can and should be remarked that some (groups of) esperantists have pronounciation biases, for example Russians tend to use anticipatory voicing quite a lot; this is possibly the origin of some rumours on irregularities in pronounciation. Orzetto 17:06, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * You're right, I should have said "nearly a one-to-one correspondance of letter and sound" or some such, which is quite different. However, there's nothing unphonemic about pronouncing /kz/ as [gz], as long as that's a systematic rule for the language: "voiceless plosives become voiced before voiced obstruents except /v/" is a perfectly normal phonemic rule (and basically the situation of Polish and Russian). Then within a morpheme, it would be an arbitrary orthographic choice whether to write [gz] as <kz> or <gz>, with Zamenhof choosing <kz>. (English is similar here; we write sky, even though *sgy would seem closer phonetically: Compare the sky with this guy – the only difference for me at least is in the placement of the syllable break.)

 * It could very well be the case that Zamenhof intended <kz> to be pronounced [gz], or even that he pronounced it that way without realizing it, and that people have been trying to pronounce it [kz] ever since, despite the nearly universal tendency for voicing assimilation (and Esperanto is the "universal language"!). Actually, I believe the Esperanto script is usually claimed to be phonetic, not phonemic. Z's phrase was "unu litero - unu sono", but that's impossible in any literal sense. (Can we really expect anyone to pronounce both the /m/ and the /f/ in the same as in and, with one bilabial and the other labial-dental?) There must be allophony in Esperanto, as human speech is impossible otherwise. The only question is how much allophony we allow. Since a good portion of Esperantists – and in rapid speech, probably the vast majority – pronounce <kz> as [gz] (whether they realize it or not), this must be reflected in any descriptive (as opposed to prescriptive) account of the language. Even if Z specifically intended <kz> to be [kz]. Fundamento or no, this is how the language is.

 * As for <ŭ>, I didn't claim it was an allophone of /v/. I believe [w] is an allophone of /v/, but <ŭ> isn't [w]: it's a diphthongal offglide [u̯]. As an onset, [w] is Esperantized as <v>. Z purposefully created a single phoneme for [w], [v], etc., which at first he wrote <w>, but which he had changed to <v> by the time he went public. He suggested Italian as the model for pronunciation, but that's only a suggestion. So any pronunciation in the [w] to [v] range would be acceptable, and these are allophones of a single phoneme /v/.

 * As for any contrast with <ŭ>, I do wonder if that's not also allophonic. <Ŭ> may very well contrast with /v/: although Z seems to have avoided any contrast in root words, there are near minimal pairs in derived forms, such as lave and laŭe. Unless the difference is one of syllabification? /la.ve/ = [la.ve] vs. /lav.e/ = [lau̯.e]? I wouldn't go so far as to make such a claim, but you don't seem to find, say, Classical Eŭgenio versus Slavic Evgenio for the proper name. Instead, <ŭ> is found as a syllabic coda, and <v> as a syllabic onset: Complementary distribution. If this is indeed the case throughout the vocabulary (and I haven't researched it), then there'd be no basis for claiming <ŭ> and <v> represent separate phonemes. By "unu litero – unu sono", Z may have merely intended there to be two recognized allophones, that would avoid German objections to [wino] at the same time as they avoided English objections to [avtomobilo]. An allophone, after all, is just a sound, and here we might have two letters for two "sounds" (two allophones). This would fit with the Esperanto alphabet being "phonetic" rather than phonemic. And even if Z did conceive of <ŭ> and <v> as separate phonemes (if he even thought in terms of phonemes!), if he created them to never contrast, then there is no linguistic basis for claiming they actually are separate phonemes in the living language.

 * Anyway, I'll go ahead and change the wording a bit. Again, I think we should be describing what Esperanto is, not what people (even Zamenhof) say it is. --kwami 06:39, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

punctuation
added a blurb on punctuation. quite rudimentary; needs to be corrected and expanded. kwami 09:48, 2005 May 6 (UTC)

Mac OS X keyboard layout
I've created a custom Esperanto keyboard layout for Mac OS X. Would it be inappropriate to link to it in some way on this page, like in External Links? -- Bill Du  Talk  08:51, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Sounds fine to me. What was the reason for making a new layout? Mithridates 11:04, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Because I wasn't aware that there was already Esperanto keyboard layouts for Macs, so I made one. I'll be bold and add the link to this page and the main Esperanto article (under the External links section "Input Tools") after I create a page with instructions on how to install the layout that includes the link to download the layout.-- Bill Du  Talk  09:07, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

Section on Shavian alphabet necessary?
The material already exists in the Shavian article and use of the Shavian alphabet with Esperanto is nearly non-existent. This article is about Esperanto orthography and I think that an explanation of Shavian is out of its scope. Also, Shavian was designed for English and the English orthography doesn't mention it. Saying Shavian has been used for Esperanto and providing a link to the Shavian article should be more than enough. - DNewhall 22:35, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Agreed, this is totally out of place. I removed the mention from the first paragraph, for starters. --babbage 22:44, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

Non-printed variants
Another explanation for the origin of the manual alphabet Z sign in Signuno might be that the number 3 resembles the Cyrillic letter that corresponds to Z. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 130.76.32.23 (talk) 23:13, 17 April 2007 (UTC).

"Modified alphabet"
Is this just someone's pet project, or is this actually used?

I've deleted about half the section, which was obviously false or subjective opinion, but we need some source for accepting any of it. — kwami (talk) 22:57, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Actually, I'll just move the factual parts of it here. I can't find anything about it on Eo wiki.

 * You said in the history page that this article was not about reforms and had not to deal with this "modified alphabet". Maybe I shouldn't have used the word "reform" because it is actually not a reform, but the way some people write in Esperanto (at least the one who wrote those lines probably does). In both cases, the few paragraphs in question are still relevant because they are about Esperanto orthography. I won't go any further with this silly game of adding and deleting these paragraphs again and again because it won't sort out the problem. But if you still have any objections to these paragraphs' presence, on which article would you suggest them to appear, instead of this one? — 86.68.8.184 (talk) 00:38, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Why should they appear anywhere? They're personal idiosyncrasies and not at all notable. For example, I spell the English word probably "prob'ly", since that's how I pronounce it. Should I add that to the English orthography article? People have written English in all sorts of reformed spellings, and most are completely insignificant. Now, if a notable Esperanto author used one of these systems, that would be a different story, but I've seen no evidence that is the case. kwami (talk) 01:13, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure these spelling modifications are only personal idiosyncrasies, as you said. They actually seem to be used by a certain number of people that shouldn't be ignored, as we can see in the history page that several people consider these paragraphs are important: 84.13.198.10, 78.149.138.236, Lothlerarhlichliarmetlialeta. However those three names may refer to the same person... We should ask the person who first wrote it (=84.13.198.10?) what were his reasons to do it and can he testify to the use of these modifications by a notable community? — 86.68.8.184 (talk) 18:31, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Likely just s.o. pushing a personal project. Not notable enough to warrant even a mention on Eo wiki. No evidence ever presented that it has any notability. I'd left this here earlier to end an edit war with s.o. pushing this, because it was rather harmless, but he was never able to justify it. No evidence presented in the mean time. Time for it to go. kwami (talk) 19:24, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Modified Alphabet

In order to combat the idea of having to use some kind of additional symbol, a "modified" alphabet has come into circulation, which represents consonant clusters as two separate letters rather than diacratically altered ones. The idea makes use of some of the letters in the latin alphabet that have not been included in the original Esperanto alphabet in order to represent the diacritically altered letters.

Below shows the original alphabet, with underneath, the "modified" system. Consonant clusters are shown in brackets, as they do not use separate letters, but instead combinations of others.

The modified system achieves a greater phoneme-letter accuracy, with one sound being represented by each letter, and all consonant clusters being represented by seperate consonants.

Changes:

Seven changes in total are seen, but these changes liken the alphabet more to the Latin alphabet used in Romance and Germanic languages.

 * The "c" changes into its consonant cluster of "t" and "s".
 * The "ĉ" changes into its consonant cluster of "t" and "c"(which was originally represented as "ŝ").
 * The "ĝ" changes into its consonant cluster of "d" and "j"(which was originally represented as "ĵ").
 * The "ĥ" changes into "q" (or sometimes "x").
 * The "j" changes into "y".
 * The "ĵ" changes into "j".
 * The "ŝ" changes into "c".
 * The "ŭ" changes into "w" (or sometimes "v", which represents an allophone of the phoneme).

Significant popularity of this method has been seen over the internet, in which it becomes quicker to type using this method, and also achieve's greater correspondance with the IPA.

Below is a comparison of text in the "originial" Esperanto alphabet side by side with a "translation" in the modified one:

Original Alphabet

Estis iam reĝido, kiu volis edziĝi kun reĝidino, sed li volis, ke tio estu vera reĝidino. Li travojaĝis la tutan mondon, por trovi tian, sed ĉie troviĝis ia kontraŭaĵo. Da reĝidinoj estis sufiĉe multe, sed ĉu tio estas veraj reĝidinoj, pri tio neniel povis konvinkiĝi: ĉiam troviĝis io, kio ne estis tute konforma. Tial li venis returne hejmen kaj estis tre malĝoja, ĉar li tre deziris havi veran reĝidinon.

Modified Alphabet

Estis iam redjido, kiu volis edzidji kun redjidino, sed li volis, ke tio estu vera redjidino. Li travoyadjis la tutan mondon, por trovi tian, sed tcie trovidjis ia kontrawajo. Da redjidinoy estis sufitxe multe, sed tcu tio estas veray redjidinoy, pri tio neniel povis konvinkidji: tciam trovidjis io, kio ne estis tute konforma. Tial li venis returne heymen kay estis tre maldjoya, tcar li tre deziris havi veran redjidinon.
 * }

I don't know what the point is. (It violates "one letter, one sound" for one thing, since three of the sounds are now -- intentionally -- written with digraphs.) Does anyone actually use it? — kwami (talk) 19:42, 30 June 2019 (UTC)

Capitalization of months
I often see the names of months capitalized. Is this less common, or is this inroad from English and German the norm? Jchthys cont. 18:02, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

 * My Plena vortaro does not capitalize the months. I think it probably is an English influence. kwami (talk) 22:23, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I do think it is an English influence. The lernu! Detala gramatiko, does capitalize the months, as does my Esperanto Ubuntu (though the translation of open-source software is not perfect). Jchthys cont. 23:23, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

Names of the letters
I think there is undue weight given to alternate names for the letters. Yes, there have been lots of reform attempts, including by prominent Esperantists such as Kalocsay. However, in common use these are virtually irrelevant. I propose cutting the entire section on alternate names to this:

''Since these names are easily confused, there have been numerous proposals of alternate naming schemes, including one by the writer Kálmán Kalocsay. However, the traditional names ending in o are widely accepted and are the only names in practical use.'' --N-k (talk) 05:41, 24 May 2010 (UTC)

 * I think your 'however' addition is good. We should be clear about that. However, given that it's Kalocsay, I don't think it's unreasonable for his names to remain. — kwami (talk) 06:09, 24 May 2010 (UTC)

Utility for typing Esperanto
I wrote a program that makes typing special characters easier. When you type, it automatically replaces sequences like ,^g ,^h ,uu with the corresponding letters ĝ ĥ ŭ. (You type a comma followed by the characters that you want to combine). This program can be found at http://catology.boisset.eu/Carlinga. It is free, open source and portable. It was originally made for translators and terminologists who need to type in several languages, but I suppose that it can be useful for typing Esperanto. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Maxbois (talk • contribs) 07:53, 8 April 2011 (UTC)

Sound value
Should we include the example of the IPA like j for you like in those IPA articles?--Kc kennylau (talk) 09:04, 20 February 2012 (UTC)

 * I added a word. It is easy for English speakers to confuse. — kwami (talk) 10:00, 20 February 2012 (UTC)

Neutrality of "Graphic work-arounds"
"Many new Esperantists from America and Western Europe, who are not used to diacritics from their own languages, perceive the Esperanto diacritics to be a problem, and often propose reforms to the orthography, sometimes with substantial modifications, in order to "fix" it. Such proposals are ignored by the community, both because they generally come from people who do not know the language well, and because reform projects tend to snowball, a fate that has destroyed several constructed languages."

Not only does this section lack citations for the claims it makes, but also seems not to be written objectively ("in order to 'fix' it"). I would rather not take it out, because orthography reform was a big force in the movement until after the Idismo split, when a self-maintained stability mindset was created among the Esperantists who remained in the movement. Before I modify this, are there any objections? — Preceding unsigned comment added by PatrickNiedzielski (talk • contribs) 01:51, 5 March 2012 (UTC)

 * I've heard a fair number of complaints about the circumflex. Along with gender, it seems to be one of the main things people dislike, so I think something that communicates that would be desired. — kwami (talk) 06:49, 5 March 2012 (UTC)

 * I have heard these complaints too, and although it seems reasonable that the complains would be coming chiefly from America and Western Europe (due more to what I know about East Asian and East European Esperantist culture than any solid knowledge), I can't find any citations that would justify this. I'm going to edit the paragraph for tone, and change the final sentence to be more accurate. PatrickNiedzielski (talk) 04:39, 11 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Though OR, look at the complaints here on WP-en about diacritics. If you're used to them, as in eastern Europe, it wouldn't be a big deal. Similarly if your native language is not written in a Latin alphabet. — kwami (talk) 05:26, 11 March 2012 (UTC)

 * I think the complaints about Esperanto orthography have largely been based on previously popular character set technology. It's less about "I don't like or am not used to diacritics" than "My computer doesn't (or didn't) have the diacritics." -- Evertype·✆ 12:28, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * I can't tell if this is supposed to be justification for your recent edit. Your edit summary contradicted the edit itself.
 * Complaints about the diacritics predate computers. — kwami (talk) 12:41, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * You are mistaken: The reason does not contradict the edit. The text you removed said workarounds aren't needed now we have Unicode. My reason for restoring that text was "I don't think it's trivial; it explains why the workarounds are not needed much." That is exactly why the sentence isn't trivial. It is useful and interesting to inform people why the -h and -x workarounds aren't needed now. We have Unicode. Please revert your reversion, because the reason for your reversion was that my reason contradicted the text I was restoring—which id did not.
 * Some complaints about the diacritics may have preceded computers, but some of the complaints about the diacritics were certainly based on the Latin 1 and Mac Roman character sets. The -x convention was popularized with computers because of data concerns (h may be appropriate at morpheme boundries). Accordingly the sentence should be restored to the article: you have certainly not demonstrated that "triviality" is anything but your opinion. 12:51, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

When I reverted your deletion of the original text, I kindly marked it "reversion of good-faith edit by Kwami". It would have been polite to have discussed it here, rather than just reverting it again. That's a bullying tactic. You employ it a lot. It makes it hard to respect you as an editor. In any case, your rationale for deleting the text and for reverting my reversion are not correct, so please revert it back yourself. Thank you. -- Evertype·✆ 12:55, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * I would have left it alone if you had given a rational reason for its removal. But (apparently) saying it is correct while removing it is irrational. Perhaps I just misinterpreted your edit summary, and your explanation here?
 * Or perhaps you misread the edit? You say I removed the text and you restored it, when I restored it and you removed it.
 * You often accuse others of being bullies because they disagree with you. That makes it hard to respect you as an editor. There is such thing as honest disagreement, as well as honest misunderstanding. — kwami (talk) 13:01, 16 July 2012 (UTC)
 * I misread the edit history. My mistake. -- Evertype·✆ 21:28, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

Cyrillic alphabet
Because we have no proofs that Cyrillic script was actually used, and it has no standard alphabet, and propositions to use it are just arbitrary volapük transliterations, that section has no encyclopedic value or authoritative source, and therefore should be removed as WP:OR. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.49.18.203 (talk) 15:29, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * I've seen the claim several places. What we don't have are Cyrillic documents from that era, so I can't tell if the link uses the same convention -- or if there even was a single convention. — kwami (talk) 23:13, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * No convention, no phenomenon. It is common knowledge that you can transliterate latin-based alphabets with cyrillic ones, and vice-versa. Because we have no proof that it was done in some standard way, and differed from common tendencies, it is probably WP:OR. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.49.18.203 (talk) 08:14, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Then why not delete the Shavian as well? That's less used than cyrillic. — kwami (talk) 10:22, 17 July 2012 (UTC)
 * There we have a booklet presumably typed in that script. About cyrillic we have nothing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.49.18.203 (talk) 19:02, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

See Cirila transliterumo de esperanto. -- Evertype·✆ 21:31, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

 * The WP-ru page has been deleted. I can't access the page history to see why. I've asked at their wikiproject. — kwami (talk) 21:43, 17 July 2012 (UTC)
 * The reason given was Original Research. -- Evertype·✆ 13:16, 18 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Well, as no reliable sources was found or presented (somebody's homepage with vague recommendations does not count), and WP should strive to contain verifiable information, I will remove the unsorced part. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.49.18.203 (talk) 14:09, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * I do not think that this qualifies as Original Research or as hearsay. See Cirila transliterumo de esperanto. It is proper to tag it for references, but not to just go delete the material ofter only two days. That's what reference tags are for, I.P., to invite people to find and provide the information which may not be to hand. -- Evertype·✆ 12:07, 21 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Like Jimmy Walsh said:
 * "There seems to be a terrible bias among some editors that some sort of random speculative 'I heard it somewhere' pseudo information is to be tagged with a 'needs a cite' tag. Wrong. It should be removed, aggressively, unless it can be sourced."
 * Links from Esperanto article (which misses source references completely btw.) lead to (1) dead, (2) somebody's homepage and (3) to joke thread in the forum. The entire eo-pedia looks like it was created for pagecount only, but that is irrelevant. Unless we find a source which (a) describe an exact version of the alphabet presumably being used, and (b) shows some tangible proof of its use, that will be the "I heard it somewhere", described above. It like if I was to create a section about Cyrillic alphabet for English, as I used it some time in my childhood, linking various sites with mock English cyrillic alphabets as sources.
 * I ask you to keep the controvercial topic removed, until someone with sources beforehand will appear to reinstate it (hint: never). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.49.18.203 (talk) 21:29, 22 July 2012 (UTC)
 * One month has been more than enough time to produce trustworthy sources. 178.49.18.203 (talk) 18:38, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

Split
Fully half of the article (29k out of 58k bytes) was about ASCII substitutions, reforms, and data-input, which is only tangentially related to orthography and therefor undue per WEIGHT. Those sections are also the ones that tend to bloat over time. I split them off.

(The split-off material is at Inputting Esperanto text on computers and at Substitutions and reforms of the Esperanto alphabet.) — kwami (talk) 09:09, 9 March 2021 (UTC)

NATO Phonetic Alphabet
Obviously this isn't sourced, but my comments are: 1. carli would be pronounced tsarli which seems odd as it ought to be ĉarli, and then 2. on that score there aren't names for the diacritic Esperanto letters. Does anyone have more information? Stevebritgimp (talk) 19:46, 7 May 2021 (UTC)

 * I've tried confirming these with the people involved, but no luck. There's been some debate on WP-eo as well.
 * The diacritic letters would presumably be e.g. carli-cxapelo or carli-hotel. There are some Eo words proposed for them, but my understanding is that they're not common. — kwami (talk) 00:54, 8 May 2021 (UTC)

 * KH6GT used galono, indiana, luna, maŝino, oktobro, rekordo, sofa, triunfo, so no reason to include their words for the diacritic letters as part of an Eo version of the ICAO alphabet. There are other words, like ŝilingo, which might be worth mentioning, but I can't be sure how widespread any of them are. — kwami (talk) 01:14, 8 May 2021 (UTC)

Phonetic transcriptions
Were there any attempts to expand the character set used for Esperanto for foreign sounds? To use ⟨T̂⟩ and ⟨t̂⟩ for /θ/ for instance, or ⟨D̂⟩ and ⟨d̂⟩ for /ð/? (In La Hobito we used ⟨tħ⟩ and ⟨dħ⟩ respectively in Sindarin words (so ⟨mitħril⟩ and not ⟨mit̂ril⟩ as not to alter the wordshape), but I wonder what others may have been proposed over time. Volapük had an extensive mechanism for foreign transcriptions. -- Evertype·✆ 12:17, 2 August 2021 (UTC)

 * I'd read ⟨mitħril⟩ as [ˈmit.xril], and ⟨dħ⟩ the same. But I'm not aware of any Esperanto convention for transcribing non-Esperanto sounds. The original orthography or romanization may be retained. Esperantizing foreign names consists of substituting existing Esperanto letters, though sometimes in novel combinations (e.g. ⟨ŭ⟩ instead of ⟨v⟩ for [w], which is quite common). Besides the use of an acute accent for stress, I think I've only seen $\langleĭ\rangle$ to distinguish the vocalic from consonantal pronunciation of $\langlej\rangle$ (e.g. ⟨ja⟩ but ⟨aĭ⟩), and that only in a discussion on Esperanto phonetics. I'm not finding anything on Esperanto Wikipedia, which has a lot of obscure info and personal projects. — kwami (talk) 17:55, 2 August 2021 (UTC)

 * In fairness the introduction to the Esperanto Hobbit explains that ⟨tħ⟩ is [θ] and ⟨dħ⟩ is [ð] (to avoid [th]/[tx] or [dh]/[dx]). Seems peculiar that no one addressed such things. -- Evertype·✆ 21:51, 14 September 2021 (UTC)

 * I don't know it doesn't happen, just that I haven't noticed any kind of convention. On WP-eo I found the supposed Wade-Giles transcription 老子 lao tsû rather than lao tsŭ, presumably to keep the vowel distinct from Eo 'ŭ'.
 * Ah, I found the pronunciation of Russian кодировка as "kâdirovka", evidently using $⟨â⟩$ for schwa. I've asked the two editors who wrote or modified that if they know of anything, but I don't know if they're still active. — kwami (talk) 01:15, 15 September 2021 (UTC)
 * I have changed "kâdirâvka" to "kâdirovka", because the second "о" in кодировка is a normal, stressed о. Bur I do not have an authoritative source on using â for schwa. As for extending, states that the almanac "Horizonto de Soveta Litovio" (Vilnius, 1983) used L-circumflex for velarized L in Russian and Lithuanian names: Vajtil̂aviĉius, Sokol̂ov, Meĵel̂ajtis. Burzuchius (talk) 09:44, 15 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Esperanto orthography


text:
De Havilland

The de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited was a British aviation manufacturer established in late 1920 by Geoffrey de Havilland at Stag Lane Aerodrome Edgware on the outskirts of north London. Operations were later moved to Hatfield in Hertfordshire.

Known for its innovation, de Havilland was responsible for a number of important aircraft, including the Moth biplane which revolutionised aviation in the 1920s; the 1930s Fox Moth, a commercial light passenger aircraft; the wooden World War II Mosquito multirole aircraft; and the pioneering passenger jet airliner Comet.

The de Havilland company became a member of the Hawker Siddeley group in 1960, but lost its separate identity in 1963. Later, Hawker Siddeley merged into what is eventually known today as BAE Systems, the British aerospace and defence business. The de Havilland name lives on in de Havilland Canada, which owns the rights to the name and the aircraft produced by de Havilland's former Canadian subsidiary, including the Dash 8 regional airliner previously produced by Bombardier Aerospace.

Origins
In January 1920 Geoffrey de Havilland was working for Airco as technical director and chief designer. Airco were in poor financial position after the war with a lack of demand for civilian aircraft. BSA bought Airco on 20 January 1920 from George Holt Thomas on the say-so of one BSA director, Percy Martin, in order to acquire their factories and equipment, BSA having no interest in aviation. The resulting losses were so great BSA was unable to pay a dividend for the next three years.

With Thomas's help, de Havilland took modest premises at the nearby Stag Lane Aerodrome and formed a limited liability company, de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited, incorporated 26 September 1920. The directors were de Havilland, Arthur Edwin Turner who had come from the War Office, and chief engineer Charles Clement Walker. Nominal capital was £50,000. Most of the capital came from Geoffrey de Havilland (£3,000) and George Holt Thomas (£10,000), with various others adding a further £1,000. As well as securing release from any contractual obligations to BSA, alongside other Airco assets de Havilland bought the Airco DH.18, two DH,14 and repair work on the DH.9 from BSA. Thomas contribution was contingent on A E Turner, Airco's financial manager becoming chairman.

Banking on an order worth about £2,500 originally intended for Airco de Havilland brought his close-knit team in from Airco: friends Charles Clement Walker (aerodynamics and stressing), Wilfred E. Nixon (company secretary), Francis E. N. St. Barbe (business and sales) and from Airco's experimental department, Frank T Hearle (works manager). Hugh Burroughes went to the Gloster Aircraft Company. The fledgling enterprise was lucky to be approached the next year by a man wanting a new aeroplane built for him, Alan Samuel Butler. He invested heavily in the business. The first year's turnover was £32,782 and net profit £2,387 and in early 1922 they bought Stag Lane aerodrome for £20,000. They survived until 1925 when de Havilland's own design, the Moth (first flown 22 February 1925) proved to be just what the flying world was waiting for. In 1928, de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited went public.

Initially de Havilland concentrated on single and two-seat biplanes, continuing the DH line of aircraft built by Airco but adapting them for airline use, but then they introduced a series of smaller aircraft powered by de Havilland's own Gipsy engines. These included the Gipsy Moth and Tiger Moth. These aircraft set many aviation records, many piloted by de Havilland himself. Amy Johnson flew solo from England to Australia in a Gipsy Moth in 1930.

The Moth series of aeroplanes continued with the more refined Hornet Moth, with enclosed accommodation, and the Moth Minor, a low-wing monoplane constructed of wood. One of de Havilland's trademarks was that the name of the aircraft type was painted on using a particularly elegant Roman typeface, all in capital letters. When there was a strike at the plant, the artisans who painted the name on the planes used the same typeface to make the workers' protest signs.

The DH.84 Dragon was the first aeroplane purchased by Aer Lingus in 1936; they later operated the DH.86B Dragon Express and the DH.89 Dragon Rapide. De Havilland continued to produce high-performance aircraft including the twin piston-engined DH.88 Comet racers, one of which became famous as the winner of the MacRobertson Air Race from England to Australia in 1934.

Second World War

The high-performance designs and wooden construction methods culminated in the Mosquito, constructed primarily of wood, which avoided use of strategic materials such as aluminium during the Second World War. The company followed this with the even higher-performing Hornet fighter, which was one of the pioneers of the use of metal-wood and metal-metal bonding techniques.

In 1937 de Havilland set up a factory at what is now known as De Havilland Way in Lostock to produce variable pitch propellers for the RAF. The site was of strategic importance and became a German Luftwaffe target. On 3 July 1942 two Ju 88 bombers attempted a low-altitude bombing raid, using the Rivington reservoir chain to navigate but the mission went off course.

After the war

After the Second World War de Havilland continued with advanced designs in both the military and civil fields, but several public disasters doomed the company as an independent entity. The experimental tailless jet-powered de Havilland DH.108 Swallow crashed in the Thames Estuary, killing Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., son of the company's founder. A large additional aircraft factory was acquired in 1948 at Hawarden Airport at Broughton near Chester, where production supplemented the Hatfield output. The de Havilland Comet was put into service in 1952 as the eagerly anticipated first commercial jet airliner, twice as fast as previous alternatives and a source of British national pride. Operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation, on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYP took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg. Powered by four de Havilland Ghost jet engines, the Comet could reach speeds of 500 miles per hour (halving journey times around the world), and fly at an altitude of 40,000 feet, a performance previously the preserve of military jet fighters. Twenty months after the launch, there were 17 Comets in service. The Comet suffered three high-profile crashes in two years. Two of these were found to be caused by structural failure resulting from metal fatigue in the airframe, a phenomenon not fully understood at the time; the other was due to overstressing of the airframe during flight through severe weather. Sir Arnold Hall led the RAE research team that made the discovery that the rivets punched into the metal caused a minute fatigue crack. The stress of repressurisation at high altitude would weaken an area of the fuselage around the Comet's square-shaped windows.

Because of the structural problems of the Comet, in 1954 all remaining examples were withdrawn from service, with de Havilland launching a major effort to build a new version that would be both larger and stronger. As a result, the Comet was extensively redesigned, with oval windows, structural reinforcements and other changes. Rival manufacturers meanwhile heeded the lessons learned from the Comet while developing their own aircraft. The Comet 4 enabled the de Havilland airliner to return to the skies in 1958. By then the United States had its Boeing 707 jet and the Douglas DC-8, both of which were faster and more economical to operate. Orders for the Comet dried up.

Hawker Siddeley bought de Havilland in 1960 but kept it as a separate company until 1963. In that year it became the de Havilland Division of Hawker Siddeley Aviation and all types in production or development changed their designations from "DH" to "HS". De Havilland's final designs became the Hawker Siddeley Trident (originally the DH.121) and the innovative Hawker Siddeley HS.125, originally the DH.125.

The DH.121 design was modified to be smaller to fit the needs of one airline—British European Airways. Other airlines found it unattractive and turned to a rival tri-jet, the Boeing 727 which was much the same size as the initial DH.121 design. De Havilland, as Hawker Siddeley, built only 117 Tridents, while Boeing went on to sell over 1,800 727s.

De Havilland also entered the field of long-range missiles, developing the liquid-fuelled Blue Streak. It did not enter military service, but became the first stage of Europa, a launch vehicle for use in space flight. In flight tests, the Blue Streak performed well but the upper stages, built in France and Germany, repeatedly failed. In 1973, the Europa programme was cancelled, with Blue Streak dying as well. The last of them wound up in the hands of a farmer who used its fuel tanks to house his chickens.

Aircraft

 * Designed by Geoffrey de Havilland
 * de Havilland Biplane No. 1
 * Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.1 (also known as "de Havilland Biplane No. 2"
 * Designed by de Havilland at Airco
 * Airco DH.1 2 seat pusher scout
 * Airco DH.2 pusher scout
 * Airco DH.3 twin engine bomber
 * Airco DH.4 single engine bomber
 * Airco DH.4A transport
 * Airco DH.5 scout
 * Airco DH.6 trainer
 * Airco DH.9 single engine bomber
 * Airco DH.9A – Westland development of the DH.9 with Liberty engine
 * Airco DH.9C – conversion of DH.9 to passenger transport
 * Airco DH.9J – re-engined DH.9 with radial engine
 * Airco DH.10 Amiens twin engine bomber
 * Airco DH.11 Oxford long range twin engine day bomber
 * DH.12 – unbuilt proposed derivative of DH.11
 * de Havilland
 * DH.14 Okapi single engine bomber
 * DH.15 Gazelle experimental flying test bed
 * Airco DH.16 4 passenger airliner similar to DH.9C
 * DH.18 8 passenger airliner
 * de Havilland company
 * DH.27 Derby single engine long range day bomber
 * DH.34
 * DH.37
 * DH.42 Dormouse
 * DH.42A & B Dingo
 * DH.48 Special re-engined DH.9
 * DH.50
 * DH.51
 * DH.54 Highclere
 * DH.56 Hyena
 * DH.60 Moth, Cirrus Moth, Genet Moth, Gypsy Moth
 * DH.60G III Moth Major
 * DH.61 Giant Moth
 * DH.65 Hound
 * DH.66 Hercules 3-engined biplane airliner
 * DH.67
 * DH.72 Canberra
 * DH.82 Tiger Moth biplane trainer
 * DH.83 Fox Moth
 * DH.84 Dragon
 * DH.86 Express
 * DH.87 Hornet Moth
 * DH.89 Dragon Rapide
 * DH.90 Dragonfly
 * DH.92 Dolphin
 * Glider
 * DH.52

 * Piston-engined monoplanes

 * DH.29 Doncaster 10 passenger airliner
 * DH.53 Humming Bird ultralight monoplane
 * DH.71 Tiger Moth racer
 * DH.75 Hawk Moth
 * DH.77 lightweight fighter
 * DH.80 Puss Moth
 * DH.81 Swallow Moth
 * DH.85 Leopard Moth
 * DH.88 Comet racer
 * DH.91 Albatross 4-engined airliner
 * DH.93 Don
 * DH.94 Moth Minor monoplane trainer
 * DH.95 Flamingo twin-engined airliner
 * DH.98 Mosquito & Sea Mosquito A highly successful wooden fighter-bomber of WWII
 * DH.103 Hornet & Sea Hornet twin-engined fighter
 * DH.104 Dove & Devon twin-engined airliner
 * DH.114 Heron 4-engined airliner
 * de Havilland Technical School designs
 * de Havilland T.K.1
 * de Havilland T.K.2
 * de Havilland T.K.4
 * de Havilland T.K.5
 * Civil and military jet transports
 * DH.106 Comet
 * DH.121 Trident later the HS.121 Trident
 * DH.125 later the HS.125
 * DH.146 later the BAe.146

 * Military jets
 * DH.100 Vampire & Sea Vampire (1945)
 * DH.110 Sea Vixen (1951)
 * DH.112 Venom (1952)
 * DH.112 Sea Venom
 * DH.113 & DH.115 Vampire two seaters
 * Experimental aircraft
 * DH.108 Swallow (1946)
 * Autogyro
 * Cierva C.24

Engines

 * Gipsy series of 4-, 6- and 12-cylinder piston engines
 * Ghost turbojet
 * Goblin turbojet
 * Gyron Junior turbojet
 * Gnome turboshaft
 * Sprite rocket

Weapon systems

 * Missiles
 * Firestreak air-to-air missile
 * Bluestreak ballistic missile
 * Spacecraft
 * Blue Streak Satellite Launch Vehicle

de Havilland Canada

de Havilland Aircraft of Canada Ltd. was formed in 1928 to build de Havilland aircraft for the Canadian market, in some cases adapted to suit to the harsh Canadian environment. When World War II arrived, this set-up was ready made to expand production to augment British aircraft factories, without any possible threat from enemy bombers. After the war de Havilland Canada developed its own range of designs, identified as DHC-1 through to DHC-8, which were also often tailor-made for Canadian use, but as rugged and/or STOL designs, also found markets in other environments. DHC became a Canadian Crown Corporation during the war, was sold to Boeing in December 1985, then on to Bombardier Aerospace in 1992.

In November 2018, Longview Aviation Capital Corp. acquired the Dash 8 programme and the de Havilland Canada brand from Bombardier, adding them to the rights and type certificates for all of the out-of-production aircraft (DHC-1 through DHC-7) already sold to its subsidiary Viking Air in 2005. The deal, which closed on 3 June 2019 following regulatory approval, brought the entire de Havilland Canada product line under the same banner for the first time in decades, under a new holding company bearing a name almost identical to the original, De Havilland Aircraft of Canada Limited.

de Havilland Australia
The first overseas subsidiary was set up in Australia in March 1927 as de Havilland Aircraft Pty. Ltd. The company moved from Melbourne to Sydney during 1930 where it acted as an agency for the parent company, with assembly, repair and spares facilities for the company's popular sporting and airliner types. Aircraft design and full manufacture by de Havilland Australia (DHA) did not take place until the Second World War, when the company began production of the DH.82 Tiger Moth primary trainer at Bankstown, NSW.

During the Second World War, DHA designed a small troop-carrying glider to be used if Australia was invaded by Japan. The DH-G1 emerged in mid-1942 and used the DH.84 Dragon forward fuselage, 87 of which were in production at the same factory as navigational trainers. The two built served as prototypes for the definitive DH-G2 produced the following year but the need had passed by this time and only six DH-G2s were built. The company also began to manufacture the Mosquito, with deliveries to the RAAF being first made in 1944. A total of 212 Mosquitos were built at Bankstown between 1943 and 1948. Some of these aircraft continued in RAAF service until 1953.

Licensed production of the de Havilland Vampire began in 1948, with the first of 190 built flying in 1949.

Another DHA design, the de Havilland Australia DHA-3 Drover, was manufactured between 1948 and 1953. Only 20 were produced, mostly for the Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS), Trans Australia Airlines and Qantas. The DHA-3 Drover was a three-engined light transport derived from the DH.104 Dove, capable of carrying six to eight passengers. It was designed as a replacement for the DH.84 Dragon, which was common in Australia due to its wartime production by DHA. The engine chosen for the new design was the de Havilland Gipsy Major Mk-10 4s. Several Drovers were later re-engined with more powerful Lycoming O-360 horizontally-opposed engines to improve performance.

In 1959 a boat building division known as de Havilland Marine was established at the Bankstown factory.

The de Havilland Australia concern was purchased by Boeing Australia and was renamed Hawker de Havilland Aerospace. On 6 February 2009, Boeing announced that Hawker de Havilland Aerospace had changed its name to Boeing Aerostructures Australia.

 * DH-G1
 * DHA-G2
 * DHA-3 Drover

de Havilland New Zealand

To meet the demand for Tiger Moth trainers for the Royal New Zealand Air Force and potentially for RAF training to be conducted in New Zealand, the de Havilland (New Zealand) Company Limited was established in March 1939, and work commenced on New Zealand's first aircraft factory at Rongotai. After World War II, the company undertook maintenance and refurbishment work until taken over by Hawker Siddeley International NZ Ltd in 1964. The site of the factory is now part of Wellington International Airport.

de Havilland Engines
As well as a prolific aircraft builder, de Havilland was also a significant producer of aero engines. This went against usual practice: usually engines are designed and produced by a dedicated company though in the UK the Bristol Aeroplane Company had a substantial engine business and Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft was part of the same business as Armstrong Siddeley The successful "Gipsy" and the later developments such as the Gipsy Major were successful and popular power units, being used in nearly all of de Havilland's light designs and several aircraft from other manufacturers. Gipsy engines were relatively unusual by the 1930s/40s because they were in-line engines, at a time when radial or opposed-action engine layouts were more popular. The de Havilland company was also a competitor to Rolls-Royce and Metrovick in the early years of jet engine development. Employing the services of Frank Halford then buying out his company they produced the de Havilland Goblin and de Havilland Ghost engines for first their jet fighters then the Comet.

de Havilland Propellers
A company set up in 1935 for the manufacture of Hamilton Standard propellers under licence, and which later produced guided and other missiles such as the Firestreak and Blue Streak.

Key technical staff

 * R. E. Bishop, aircraft designer
 * Richard Clarkson, aircraft designer
 * Tony Fairbrother, flight engineer
 * A. E. Hagg, aircraft designer
 * Frank Halford, engine designer

Test pilots

 * Hubert Broad
 * John Cunningham (RAF officer)
 * Geoffrey de Havilland Jr.
 * John de Havilland
 * Pat Fillingham
 * Bert Hinkler
 * Campbell MacKenzie-Richards

Legacy

The de Havilland company donated a site to Hertfordshire County Council for educational use: the site was then developed as Hatfield Technical College, which is now the College Lane Campus of the University of Hertfordshire. De Havilland was purchased by Hawker Siddeley in 1960 and merged into British Aerospace in 1978. The BAE site then closed in 1993, and the University of Hertfordshire purchased part of the site for the de Havilland Campus. Hatfield's aerospace history is recorded today in the names of local streets, such as Comet Way and Dragon Road.

In September 2003 part of the former British aerospace site became the de Havilland campus of the University of Hertfordshire.

title: De Havilland


text:
HMS Vanguard

Eleven ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Vanguard, meaning the forefront of an action or movement:
 * ENGLISH SHIP Vanguard was a 31-gun galleon launched in 1586, rebuilt twice and was broken up in 1630, with some parts being reused in the next HMS Vanguard.
 * HMS Vanguard (1631) was a 56-gun second rate launched in 1631, active in the Anglo-Dutch Wars, and scuttled in 1667.
 * HMS Vanguard (1678) was a 90-gun three-decker second-rate launched in 1678, sunk in 1703 but raised in 1704, rebuilt twice and renamed HMS Duke in 1728. She was broken up in 1769.
 * HMS Vanguard (1748) was a 70-gun third rate launched in 1748 and sold in 1774.
 * HMS Vanguard (1780) was a 4-gun gunvessel captured in 1780, purchased in 1781 and sold in 1783.
 * HMS Vanguard (1787) was a 74-gun third rate launched in 1787. She became a prison ship in 1812, a powder hulk in 1814 and was broken up in 1821.
 * HMS Vanguard (1835) was a 78-gun third rate launched in 1835, renamed HMS Ajax in 1867, and broken up in 1875.
 * HMS Vanguard (1869) was an Audacious-class ironclad ironclad battleship launched in 1869 and sunk in a collision with HMS Iron Duke (1870) in 1875.
 * HMS Vanguard (1909) was a St Vincent-class battleship battleship launched in 1909 and sunk in an explosion in 1917.
 * HMS Vanguard (23) was a unique battleship, the only one of her class. She was launched in 1944 and broken up in 1960.
 * HMS Vanguard (S28) is a Vanguard-class submarine ballistic missile submarine launched in 1992 and currently in service.

Battle honours

 * Armada, 1588
 * Cadiz, 1596
 * Portland, 1653
 * Gabbard, 1653
 * Scheveningen, 1653
 * Lowestoft, 1665
 * Four Days' Battle, 1666
 * Orfordness, 1666
 * Barfleur, 1692
 * Louisburg, 1758
 * Quebec, 1759
 * Martinique, 1762
 * Nile, 1798
 * Syria, 1840
 * Jutland, 1916

title: HMS Vanguard


text:
Hyperbole

Hyperbole (adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and creates strong impressions. As a figure of speech, it is usually not meant to be taken literally.

Etymology
'Hyperbole' is derived from the huperbolḗ by way of Latin. The word is composed from hupér 'above, beyond' and  bállō 'throw'.

Unlike most English words beginning with hyper-, it is stressed on the second syllable. The first known use is in the 15th century.

Usage
Hyperbole is often used for emphasis or effect. In casual speech, it functions as an intensifier: saying "the bag weighed a ton" simply means that the bag was extremely heavy. The rhetorical device may be used for serious or ironic or comic effects. Understanding hyperbole and its use in context can help understand the speaker's point. Hyperbole generally conveys feelings or emotions from the speaker, or from those who the speaker may talk about. It can be used in a form of humor, excitement, distress, and many other emotions, all depending on the context in which the speaker uses it.

In popular culture
Hyperbole is one of the most widely recognized and used forms of figurative language in everyday life. It is used heavily in advertising and entertainment. Advertisers use hyperbole to exaggerate the benefits of products to boost sales. Repetitive hyperbole is used in public relations to increase the popularity of a person or product. It is also used in propaganda, giving it a bad reputation.

US case law
Rhetorical hyperbole is defined as "extravagant exaggeration employed for rhetorical effect" for First Amendment purposes. Greenbelt Cooperative Pub. Ass'n v. Bresler (1970), Letter Carriers v. Austin (1974) and Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1989) are notable cases. In Watts v. United States (1969) the defendant was absolved of federal anti-threat punishment for saying "the first person he would put in his scope is L.B.J."; the court found this to be "political hyperbole".

In literature
Hyperbole has been used throughout literature for many centuries. Heroic drama, which is drama with an emphasis on grandeur and excess, often makes use of hyperbole to extend the effect and epic nature of the genre. Modern tall tales also make use of hyperbole to exaggerate the feats and characteristics of their protagonists. For example, the American tall tale about Paul Bunyan relies heavily on hyperbole to establish Bunyan's giant stature and abilities.

For hyperbole to be effective it needs to be obvious, deliberate, and outlandish. Using hyperbolic speech as a character trait can denote an unreliable narrator.

Emerson's Concord Hymn uses hyperbole in the lines "Here once the embattled farmers stood / And fired the shot heard round the world."

In Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five, the protagonist emerges from his shelter to find total destruction, and makes the hyperbolic statement that "Dresden was like the moon now, nothing but minerals." The hyperbole conveys how completely the city was ruined.

Literally
One of the most frequently used hyperboles in English is the word literally. It became a controversial issue when millennials began to convolute literally by using the word to artificially substantiate a position Many dictionaries now document the meaning as "to acknowledge that something is not literally true but is used for emphasis or to express strong feeling". Hence, literally has become one of the primary ways to exaggerate and hyperbolize a statement.

Common examples

 * He was so angry, I thought he was going to kill somebody.
 * She had a thousand missed calls.
 * I was so embarrassed, I wanted to die.
 * She's as blind as a bat.
 * I was so angry, I was steaming at the ears!

title: Hyperbole


text:
C. J. Cherryh

Carolyn Janice Cherry (born September 1, 1942), better known by the pen name C. J. Cherryh, is an American writer of speculative fiction. She has written more than 80 books since the mid-1970s, including the Hugo Award–winning novels Downbelow Station (1981) and Cyteen (1988), both set in her Alliance–Union universe, and her Foreigner series. She is known for worldbuilding, depicting fictional realms with great realism supported by vast research in history, language, psychology, and archeology.

Cherryh (pronounced "Cherry") appended a silent "h" to her real name because her first editor, Donald A. Wollheim, felt that "Cherry" sounded too much like a romance writer. She used only her initials, C. J., to disguise that she was female at a time when the majority of science fiction authors were male.

The author has an asteroid, 77185 Cherryh, named after her. Referring to this honor, the asteroid's discoverers wrote of Cherryh: "She has challenged us to be worthy of the stars by imagining how mankind might grow to live among them."

Biography
Cherryh was born in 1942 in St. Louis, Missouri and raised primarily in Lawton, Oklahoma. She began writing stories at the age of ten when she became frustrated with the cancellation of her favorite TV show, Flash Gordon. In 1964, she received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Latin from the University of Oklahoma (Phi Beta Kappa), with academic specializations in archaeology, mythology, and the history of engineering. In 1965, she received a Master of Arts degree in classics from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, where she was a Woodrow Wilson fellow.

After graduation, Cherryh taught Latin, Ancient Greek, the classics, and ancient history at John Marshall High School in the Oklahoma City public school system. While her job was teaching Latin, her passion was the history, religion, and culture of Rome and Ancient Greece. During the summers, she would conduct student tours of the ancient ruins in England, France, Spain, and Italy. In her spare time, she would write, using the mythology of Rome and Greece as plots for her stories of the future. Cherryh did not follow the professional path typical of science fiction writers at the time, which was to first publish short stories in science fiction and fantasy magazines and then progress to novels; she did not consider writing short stories until she had had several novels published.

Cherryh wrote novels in her spare time away from teaching and submitted these manuscripts directly for publication. Initially, she met with little success; various publishers lost manuscripts she had submitted. She was thus forced to retype them from her own carbon copies, time-consuming but cheaper than paying for photocopying. (Using carbon paper to make at least one copy of a manuscript was standard practice until the advent of the personal computer.)

Cherryh's breakthrough came in 1975 when Donald A. Wollheim purchased the two manuscripts she had submitted to DAW Books, Gate of Ivrel and Brothers of Earth. About the former, Cherryh stated in an interview on Amazing Stories:

"It was the first time a book really found an ending and really worked, because I had made contact with Don Wollheim at DAW, found him interested, and was able to write for a specific editor whose body of work and type of story I knew. It was a good match. It was a set of characters I'd invented when I was, oh, about thirteen. So it was an old favorite of my untold stories, and ended up being the first in print."

The two novels were published in 1976, Gate of Ivrel preceding Brothers of Earth by several months (although she had completed and submitted Brothers of Earth first). The books won her immediate recognition and the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer in 1977.

Although not all of her works have been published by DAW Books, during this early period Cherryh developed a strong relationship with the Wollheim family and their publishing company, frequently travelling to New York City and staying with the Wollheims in their Queens family home. Other companies who have published her novels include Baen Books, HarperCollins, Warner Books, and Random House (under its Del Rey Books imprint). She published six additional novels in the late 1970s.

In 1979, her short story "Cassandra" won the Best Short Story Hugo, and she quit teaching to write full-time. She has since won the Hugo Award for Best Novel twice, first for Downbelow Station in 1982 and then again for Cyteen in 1989.

In addition to developing her own fictional universes, Cherryh has contributed to several shared world anthologies, including Thieves' World, Heroes in Hell, Elfquest, Witch World, Magic in Ithkar, and the Merovingen Nights series, which she edited. Her writing has encompassed a variety of science fiction and fantasy subgenres and includes a few short works of non-fiction. Her books have been translated into Czech, Dutch, French, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, and Swedish. She has also translated several published works of fiction from French into English.

She now lives near Spokane, Washington with her wife, the science fiction/fantasy author and artist Jane Fancher. She enjoys skating and travelling and regularly makes appearances at science fiction conventions.

Her brother David A. Cherry is a science fiction and fantasy artist.

Writing style
Cherryh uses a writing technique she has variously labeled "very tight limited third person", "intense third person", and "intense internal" voice. In this approach, the only things the writer narrates are those that the viewpoint character specifically notices or thinks about. The narration may not mention important features of the environment or situation with which the character is already familiar, even though these things might be of interest to the reader, because the character does not think about them owing to their familiarity.

World building
Cherryh's works depict fictional worlds with great realism supported by her strong background in languages, history, archaeology, and psychology. In her introduction to Cherryh's first book, Andre Norton compared the effect of the work to Tolkien's: "Never since reading The Lord of the Rings have I been so caught up in any tale as I have been in Gate of Ivrel." Another reviewer commented, "Her blend of science and folklore gives the novels an intellectual depth comparable to Tolkien or Gene Wolfe." Cherryh creates believable alien cultures, species, and perspectives, causing the reader to reconsider basic assumptions about human nature. Her worlds have been praised as complex and realistic because she presents them through implication rather than explication. She describes the difficulties of translating/expressing concepts between differing languages. This is best demonstrated in both the Chanur and Foreigner series.

She has described the process she uses to create alien societies for her fiction as being akin to asking a series of questions, and letting the answers to these questions dictate various parameters of the alien culture. In her view, "culture is how biology responds to its environment and makes its living conditions better." Some of the issues she considers critical to take into account in detailing an intelligent alien race are:
 * The physical environment in which the species lives
 * The location and nature of the race's dwellings, including the spatial relationships between those dwellings
 * The species' diet, method(s) of obtaining and consuming food, and cultural practices regarding the preparation of meals and eating (if any)
 * Processes which the aliens use to share knowledge
 * Customs and ideas regarding death, dying, the treatment of the race's dead, and the afterlife (if any)
 * Metaphysical issues related to self-definition and the aliens' concept of the fictional universe they inhabit

Major themes
Her protagonists often attempt to uphold existing social institutions and norms in the service of the greater good while the antagonists often attempt to exploit, subvert or radically alter the predominant social order for selfish gain. She uses the theme of the outsider finding his (or her) place in society and how individuals interact with The Other. A number of Cherryh's novels focus on military and political themes. One underlying theme of her work is an exploration of gender roles. Her characters reveal both strengths and weaknesses regardless of their gender, although her female protagonists are portrayed as especially capable and determined, and many of her male characters are portrayed as damaged, abused, or otherwise vulnerable.

Works
Her career began with publication of her first books in 1976, Gate of Ivrel and Brothers of Earth. Since that time, she has published over 80 novels, short-story compilations, with continuing production as her blog attests. Ms. Cherryh has received the Hugo, Locus, and Prometheus Awards for some of her novels. Her novels are divided into various spheres, focusing mostly around the Alliance–Union universe, The Chanur novels, the Foreigner series, and her fantasy novels.

Scholarship

 * The Cherryh Odyssey (2004, ISBN 0-8095-1070-7; ISBN 0-8095-1071-5), edited by Edward Carmien, compiles a dozen essays by academic and professional voices discussing the literary life and career of Cherryh. A bibliography is included.
 * The Jack Williamson Science Fiction Library at Eastern New Mexico University contains a collection of Cherryh's manuscripts and notes for scholarly research.
 * Military Command in Women's Science Fiction: C.J. Cherryh's Signy Mallory (2000), Part 1, Part 2 by Camille Bacon-Smith.
 * "Animal Transference: A 'Mole-like Progression' in C.J. Cherry" (2011) by Lynn Turner, in Mosaic: a journal for the interdisciplinary study of literature, 44.3, pp. 163–175.

Awards and honors
Cherryh has also received the following honors:

 * John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer – 1977
 * NESFA Edward E. Smith Memorial Award (The Skylark) – 1988
 * Guest of Honor at BucConeer, the 1998 World Science Fiction Convention in Baltimore
 * Asteroid 77185 Cherryh, discovered March 20, 2001 and named in her honor.
 * Oklahoma Book Awards – Arrell Gibson Lifetime Achievement Award 2005
 * Guest of Honor at FenCon IX in Dallas/Fort Worth on September 21–23, 2012.
 * SFWA Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award – 2016
 * Prometheus Award for Best Novel 2020 —Alliance Rising
 * Robert A. Heinlein Award – 2021

Organizations

 * Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA) – member (granted for her "Morgaine" novels)
 * National Space Society – seat on the Board of Advisors
 * Endangered Language Fund – seat on the Board of Directors

title: C. J. Cherryh