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Iwate Prefecture

Iwate Prefecture (岩手県) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. It is the second-largest Japanese prefecture at 15,275 km2, with a population of 1,165,886 (as of July 1, 2023). Iwate Prefecture borders Aomori Prefecture to the north, Akita Prefecture to the west, and Miyagi Prefecture to the south.

Morioka is the capital and largest city of Iwate Prefecture; other major cities include Ichinoseki, Ōshū, and Hanamaki. Located on Japan's Pacific Ocean coast, Iwate Prefecture features the easternmost point of Honshu at Cape Todo, and shares the highest peaks of the Ōu Mountains—the longest mountain range in Japan—at the border with Akita Prefecture. Iwate Prefecture is home to famous attractions such as Morioka Castle, the Buddhist temples of Hiraizumi including Chūson-ji and Mōtsū-ji, the Fujiwara no Sato movie lot and theme park in Ōshū, and the Tenshochi park in Kitakami known for its huge, ancient cherry trees. Iwate has the lowest population density of any prefecture outside Hokkaido, 5% of its total land area having been designated as National Parks.

Name
There are several theories about the origin of the name "Iwate", but the most well known is the tale Oni no tegata, which is associated with the Mitsuishi or "Three Rocks" Shrine in Morioka. These rocks are said to have been thrown down into Morioka by an eruption of Mt. Iwate. According to the legend, there was once a devil who often tormented and harassed the local people. When the people prayed to the spirits of Mitsuishi for protection, the devil was immediately shackled to these rocks and forced to make a promise never to trouble the people again. As a seal of his oath, the devil made a handprint on one of the rocks, thus giving rise to the name Iwate, its direct translation being "rock hand". Even now after a rainfall, it is said that the devil's hand print can still be seen there.

Culture
There are many present-day cultural foods popularly eaten in Iwate Prefecture, some of which include walnuts, wanko soba (meaning "bowl noodles") and hittsumi-jiru (meaning "pull and tear", in reference to the way the dough is pulled and torn into oval shapes before being turned into noodles). Iwate's prefectural capital Morioka is also popular for its apples, blooming in May and ready for harvest from September to November.

Japanese poet Matsuo Bashō visited Iwate and wrote about it in the journey described in his major work Oku no Hosomichi. He was especially inspired by the town of Hiraizumi.

History
While the entire island of Honshū was claimed by the Japanese, or Yamato, government from earliest times as a sort of divine right or manifest destiny, the imperial forces were unable to occupy any part of what would become Iwate until 802 when two powerful Emishi leaders, Aterui and More, surrendered at Fort Isawa.

The area now known as Iwate Prefecture was inhabited by the Jōmon people who left their artifacts throughout the prefecture. For example, a large number of burial pits from the Middle Jōmon Period (2,800–1,900 BC) have been found in Nishida. Various sites from the Late Jōmon Period (1,900–1,300 BC) including Tateishi, Makumae and Hatten contain clay figurines, masks and ear and nose shaped clay artifacts. The Kunenbashi site in Kitakami City has yielded stone "swords", tablets and tools as well as clay figurines, earrings and potsherds from the Final Jōmon Period (1,300–300 BC).

The earliest mention of a Japanese presence dates to about 630 when the Hakusan Shrine was said to have been built on Mt. Kanzan in what is now Hiraizumi. At this time various Japanese traders, hunters, adventurers, priests and criminals made their way to Iwate. In 712 the province of Mutsu, containing all of Tōhoku, was divided into Dewa Province, the area west of the Ou Mountains and Mutsu Province. In 729 Kokuseki-ji Temple was founded in what is now Mizusawa Ward, Oshu City by the itinerant priest Gyōki.

Little is known about relations between these Japanese frontiersmen and the native Emishi but in 776 they took a turn for the worse when large forces of the Yamato army invaded Iwate attacking the Isawa and Shiwa tribes in February and November of that year. More fighting occurred the next and following years but mostly in Dewa and the area south of present-day Iwate prefecture. This situation continued until March 787 when the Yamato army suffered a disastrous defeat in the Battle of Sufuse Village in what is now Mizusawa Ward, Oshu City. There the Emishi leaders and Aterui leading a large cavalry force trapped the Yamato infantry and pushed them into the Kitakami River where their heavy armour proved deadly. Over 1,000 soldiers drowned that day. The Japanese general Ki no Asami Kosami was "rebuked" by the Emperor Kanmu when he returned to Kyoto.

Since the Japanese could not win on the battlefield they resorted to other means to conquer the Emishi. Trade for superior quality iron wares and sake made the Emishi dependent on the Japanese for these valuable goods. Bribes were offered to the Emishi leaders in the form of Japanese citizenship and rank if they would defect. Finally a campaign of burning crops and kidnapping the Emishi women and children and relocating them to Western Japan was adopted. Many a stout warrior gave up the fight to join his family again.

In 801, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro began a new campaign against the Isawa Emishi having moderate success. Finally on 15 April 802 the Emishi leaders More and Aterui surrendered with some 500 warriors. The captives were taken to Kyoto for an audience with the emperor and beheaded at Moriyama in Kawachi Province against the wishes of General Sakanoue. This act of cruelty enraged the Emishi leading to another twenty or more years of fighting.

After the surrender numerous forts were built on the Chinese model along the Kitakami River. In 802, Fort Isawa was built in what is now Mizusawa Ward, Oshu City, in 803, Fort Shiwa was built in what is now Morioka City, and in 812 Fort Tokutan was built also in Morioka.

In the latter part of the Heian period, the town of Hiraizumi in what is now southern Iwate became the capital of the Northern Fujiwara. The warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune fled here after the Genpei War.

Until the Meiji Restoration, the area of Iwate prefecture was part of Mutsu Province.

Iwate Prefecture was created in 1876, in the aftermath of the Boshin Civil War, which heralded the beginning of the Meiji Restoration.

Geography

Iwate faces the Pacific Ocean to the east with sheer, rocky cliffs along most of the shoreline interrupted by a few sandy beaches. The border with Akita Prefecture on the west is generally formed by the highest points of the Ōu Mountains. Aomori Prefecture is to the north and Miyagi Prefecture is to the south.

The Ōu mountains on the west still contain active volcanoes such as Mt. Iwate (at 2,038 m the highest point in the prefecture) and Mt. Kurikoma (1,627 m). But the Kitakami Mountains running through the middle of the prefecture from north to south are much older and have not been active for thousands of years. Mt. Hayachine (1,917 m) lies at the heart of the Kitakami range.

Besides these two mountain ranges and the rugged coastline, the prefecture is characterized by the Kitakami River which flows from north to south between the Ōu and Kitakami mountain ranges. It is the fourth longest river in Japan and the longest in Tōhoku. The basin of the Kitakami is large and fertile providing room for the prefecture's largest cities, industrial parks and farms.

In the past Iwate has been famous for its mineral wealth especially in the form of gold, iron, coal and sulfur but these are no longer produced. There is still an abundance of hot water for onsen, or hot springs, which is the basis of a thriving industry. The forests of the prefecture are another valuable resource. Before World War II the forests were mainly composed of beech but since then there has been a huge swing towards the production of faster growing Japanese cedar. Recently, though, there has been a push to restore the original beech forests in some areas.

As of 31 March 2019, 5% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely Towada-Hachimantai and Sanriku Fukkō National Parks; Kurikoma and Hayachine Quasi-National Parks; and Goyōzan, Hanamaki Onsenkyō, Kuji-Hiraniwa, Murone Kōgen, Oritsume Basenkyō, Sotoyama-Hayasaka Heights, and Yuda Onsenkyō Prefectural Natural Parks.

Cities
Fourteen cities are located in Iwate Prefecture:

Towns and villages
These are the towns and villages in each district:

Economy
Iwate's industry is concentrated around Morioka and specializes in semiconductor and communications manufacturing.

As of March 2011, the prefecture produced 3.9% of Japan's beef and 14.4% of broiler chickens. In 2009, 866 tons of dolphins and whales were harvested off the coast of Iwate, accounting for more than half of Japan's total catch of 1,404 tons.

Demographics
As of October 1, 2022, Iwate Prefecture had a population of 1,180,595. Consistent with population trends across Japan, Iwate has experienced a slow, but steady decline in growth since the end of World War II with a major contributing factor being an aging population. As of October 2019, 33.1% of the population was over 65 with 15.4% aged between 65 and 74 and 17.7% over 75. Moreover, the 1950 census saw the most births in the prefecture with 45,968 reported, but since then there has been a major decline to only 7,220 births from October 2018 to September 2019. This is in contrast to the 17,681 deaths recorded during the same period. Finally, Iwate has a net negative migration rate (-2.8) with 21,265 permanently leaving the prefecture and 16,795 entering.

Famous Iwate people
The web site of the Iwate prefecture provides the summarized biographies of 'Famous Iwate people' in Japanese and English.

 * Chineko Sugawara (1938–2016), Japanese actress and voice actress
 * Gege Akutami (1992-), Manga artist and author of Jujutsu Kaisen
 * Shohei Ohtani (1994-), Two-way player for the Los Angeles Dodgers
 * Yusei Kikuchi (1991-), Pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays

Natural disasters
On 13 July 869, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake and tsunami struck the coast of Iwate.

On 14 November 1230, volcanic activity was reported.

On 2 December 1611, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake and tsunami were reported to have killed over 3,000 horses and people.

In 1662 Morioka and its suburbs were hit by a large flood leaving 1,000 dead.

Volcanic activity was reported on Mt. Iwate on 23 March 1686 and 14 April 1687.

In 1700, a tsunami from the 1700 Cascadia earthquake struck Iwate Prefecture. No records from North America exist, but the event was reconstructed using Japanese records.

On 13 May 1717, The Hanamaki area was struck with a magnitude 7.6 earthquake opening cracks in the ground everywhere. There was also widespread destruction of houses and shops.

In Nanbu-han alone, 49,594 people starved to death in the famine of 1755.

Severe famines continue from 1783 to 1787 and again from 1832 to 1838.

Cholera outbreaks occurred in August 1879, in Miyako and Kuji.

In July 1882, a cholera outbreak in Kamaishi left 302 dead and warnings about drinking water were posted throughout the prefecture.

In April 1884, there was another outbreak of cholera in Kamaishi.

In September 1886, cholera outbreaks throughout Iwate left 312 dead.

On 15 June 1896, at 7:32 am, a magnitude 8.5 earthquake struck offshore. The ensuing tsunami sent waves onto the coast of Iwate at Yoshihama, in what is now Sanriku town, reaching 24 m in height. 18,158 people died in Iwate alone while some 10,000 homes were destroyed. Fishermen fishing the ocean about 20 mi offshore felt nothing, then returning home the next morning found the shore littered with their homes and the bodies of their loved ones.

In September 1899, dysentery spread throughout the prefecture killing 2,070 people.

There was a widespread crop failure due to violent storms in September 1902. Only 32,900 tons of rice were produced in Iwate, just 30% of the previous year's harvest.

In 1905, there was again a massive crop failure due to heavy rain and cold leading to famine in 1906. People were reduced to eating straw, acorns and roots.

In 1919, a small eruption occurred at Nishi-Iwate.

On 3 March 1933, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake struck offshore killing 3,008 people and destroying 7,479 homes. This is the fifth worst earthquake in Japan since 1923.

Small explosions shook Mt. Iwate throughout 1934 and 1935.

In August 1957, there was volcanic activity on Mt. Kurikoma.

There was volcanic activity on Mt. Akita-Komagatake from September to December 1970 with lava flows visible from Morioka.

In 2003, earthquakes struck on 26 May (M7.0 off the coast of Kesennuma, Miyagi Prefecture), 25 July (three jolts of M5.5, 6.2 and 5.3 in southern Iwate) and 26 September (M8.3 in Hokkaido but strongly felt in Iwate).

At 8:43 am on 14 June 2008, Iwate was struck by a 7.2 magnitude earthquake. The epicenter was about 8 km underground in Ichinoseki City. Thirteen deaths were reported and massive landshifts occurred in Northern Miyagi and Southern Iwate.

On Friday, 11 March 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit this area, triggering a large tsunami and extensive damage. The highest run up of water was measured at over 38 m. The disaster destroyed 9,672 of the prefecture's fishing vessels, damaged 108 of 111 ports, wiped out nearly all of the prefecture's fish processing centers, and caused ¥371.5 billion in damage to the prefecture's fishing industry.

Tourism

 * Chūson-ji
 * Mōtsū-ji
 * Muryōkō-in
 * Kanjizaiō-in
 * Takadachi-gikei-dō
 * Iwate Park
 * Morioka Hashimoto Museum of Art
 * Ryūsen Cave
 * Tōno City Museum
 * Bank of Iwate Red Brick Building

The Pokémon Geodude was announced as the tourism ambassador to Iwate Prefecture. The character was chosen for being a rock type Pokémon, since the word for rock, in Japanese, is Iwa (岩 Iwa).

Rail
Iwate is served by the East Japan Railway Company (JR East) which operates two high-speed shinkansen lines in the prefecture and seven local rail lines. The Tōhoku Shinkansen has stations at Ichinoseki, Oshu, Kitakami, Hanamaki, Morioka, Iwate Town and Ninohe. The Akita Shinkansen starts at Morioka Station and connects to locations in Akita Prefecture.

JR East operates passenger and freight trains on the Tōhoku Main Line or Tōhoku-honsen in Iwate but sold the track north of Morioka to the Iwate Galaxy Railway Line in 2002. The two lines share track with JR still running freight trains and some passenger trains over IGR track and IGR running occasional passenger trains as far south as Hanamaki. There is a large JR freight yard and maintenance facility in Yahaba.

Local lines include the Ofunato Line, the Kitakami Line, the Kamaishi Line, the Tazawako Line, the Yamada Line and the Hanawa Line.

Other lines include the Sanriku Railway which operates two lines along the coast, the North Rias Line and the South Rias Line.

Air

 * Hanamaki Airport

Sea

 * Ofunato Port
 * Kamaishi Port
 * Miyako Port

title: Iwate Prefecture


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Proof theory

Proof theory is a major branch of mathematical logic and theoretical computer science within which proofs are treated as formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Proofs are typically presented as inductively-defined data structures such as lists, boxed lists, or trees, which are constructed according to the axioms and rules of inference of a given logical system. Consequently, proof theory is syntactic in nature, in contrast to model theory, which is semantic in nature.

Some of the major areas of proof theory include structural proof theory, ordinal analysis, provability logic, reverse mathematics, proof mining, automated theorem proving, and proof complexity. Much research also focuses on applications in computer science, linguistics, and philosophy.

History
Although the formalisation of logic was much advanced by the work of such figures as Gottlob Frege, Giuseppe Peano, Bertrand Russell, and Richard Dedekind, the story of modern proof theory is often seen as being established by David Hilbert, who initiated what is called Hilbert's program in the Foundations of Mathematics. The central idea of this program was that if we could give finitary proofs of consistency for all the sophisticated formal theories needed by mathematicians, then we could ground these theories by means of a metamathematical argument, which shows that all of their purely universal assertions (more technically their provable $\Pi^0_1$ sentences) are finitarily true; once so grounded we do not care about the non-finitary meaning of their existential theorems, regarding these as pseudo-meaningful stipulations of the existence of ideal entities.

The failure of the program was induced by Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which showed that any ω-consistent theory that is sufficiently strong to express certain simple arithmetic truths, cannot prove its own consistency, which on Gödel's formulation is a $$\Pi^0_1$$ sentence. However, modified versions of Hilbert's program emerged and research has been carried out on related topics. This has led, in particular, to:
 * Refinement of Gödel's result, particularly J. Barkley Rosser's refinement, weakening the above requirement of ω-consistency to simple consistency;
 * Axiomatisation of the core of Gödel's result in terms of a modal language, provability logic;
 * Transfinite iteration of theories, due to Alan Turing and Solomon Feferman;
 * The discovery of self-verifying theories, systems strong enough to talk about themselves, but too weak to carry out the diagonal argument that is the key to Gödel's unprovability argument.

In parallel to the rise and fall of Hilbert's program, the foundations of structural proof theory were being founded. Jan Łukasiewicz suggested in 1926 that one could improve on Hilbert systems as a basis for the axiomatic presentation of logic if one allowed the drawing of conclusions from assumptions in the inference rules of the logic. In response to this, Stanisław Jaśkowski (1929) and Gerhard Gentzen (1934) independently provided such systems, called calculi of natural deduction, with Gentzen's approach introducing the idea of symmetry between the grounds for asserting propositions, expressed in introduction rules, and the consequences of accepting propositions in the elimination rules, an idea that has proved very important in proof theory. Gentzen (1934) further introduced the idea of the sequent calculus, a calculus advanced in a similar spirit that better expressed the duality of the logical connectives, and went on to make fundamental advances in the formalisation of intuitionistic logic, and provide the first combinatorial proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic. Together, the presentation of natural deduction and the sequent calculus introduced the fundamental idea of analytic proof to proof theory.

Structural proof theory
Structural proof theory is the subdiscipline of proof theory that studies the specifics of proof calculi. The three most well-known styles of proof calculi are:
 * The Hilbert calculi
 * The natural deduction calculi
 * The sequent calculi

Each of these can give a complete and axiomatic formalization of propositional or predicate logic of either the classical or intuitionistic flavour, almost any modal logic, and many substructural logics, such as relevance logic or linear logic. Indeed, it is unusual to find a logic that resists being represented in one of these calculi.

Proof theorists are typically interested in proof calculi that support a notion of analytic proof. The notion of analytic proof was introduced by Gentzen for the sequent calculus; there the analytic proofs are those that are cut-free. Much of the interest in cut-free proofs comes from the subformula property: every formula in the end sequent of a cut-free proof is a subformula of one of the premises. This allows one to show consistency of the sequent calculus easily; if the empty sequent were derivable it would have to be a subformula of some premise, which it is not. Gentzen's midsequent theorem, the Craig interpolation theorem, and Herbrand's theorem also follow as corollaries of the cut-elimination theorem.

Gentzen's natural deduction calculus also supports a notion of analytic proof, as shown by Dag Prawitz. The definition is slightly more complex: we say the analytic proofs are the normal forms, which are related to the notion of normal form in term rewriting. More exotic proof calculi such as Jean-Yves Girard's proof nets also support a notion of analytic proof.

A particular family of analytic proofs arising in reductive logic are focused proofs which characterise a large family of goal-directed proof-search procedures. The ability to transform a proof system into a focused form is a good indication of its syntactic quality, in a manner similar to how admissibility of cut shows that a proof system is syntactically consistent.

Structural proof theory is connected to type theory by means of the Curry–Howard correspondence, which observes a structural analogy between the process of normalisation in the natural deduction calculus and beta reduction in the typed lambda calculus. This provides the foundation for the intuitionistic type theory developed by Per Martin-Löf, and is often extended to a three way correspondence, the third leg of which are the cartesian closed categories.

Other research topics in structural theory include analytic tableau, which apply the central idea of analytic proof from structural proof theory to provide decision procedures and semi-decision procedures for a wide range of logics, and the proof theory of substructural logics.

Ordinal analysis
Ordinal analysis is a powerful technique for providing combinatorial consistency proofs for subsystems of arithmetic, analysis, and set theory. Gödel's second incompleteness theorem is often interpreted as demonstrating that finitistic consistency proofs are impossible for theories of sufficient strength. Ordinal analysis allows one to measure precisely the infinitary content of the consistency of theories. For a consistent recursively axiomatized theory T, one can prove in finitistic arithmetic that the well-foundedness of a certain transfinite ordinal implies the consistency of T. Gödel's second incompleteness theorem implies that the well-foundedness of such an ordinal cannot be proved in the theory T.

Consequences of ordinal analysis include (1) consistency of subsystems of classical second order arithmetic and set theory relative to constructive theories, (2) combinatorial independence results, and (3) classifications of provably total recursive functions and provably well-founded ordinals.

Ordinal analysis was originated by Gentzen, who proved the consistency of Peano Arithmetic using transfinite induction up to ordinal ε0. Ordinal analysis has been extended to many fragments of first and second order arithmetic and set theory. One major challenge has been the ordinal analysis of impredicative theories. The first breakthrough in this direction was Takeuti's proof of the consistency of Π$1 1$-CA0 using the method of ordinal diagrams.

Provability logic
Provability logic is a modal logic, in which the box operator is interpreted as 'it is provable that'. The point is to capture the notion of a proof predicate of a reasonably rich formal theory. As basic axioms of the provability logic GL (Gödel-Löb), which captures provable in Peano Arithmetic, one takes modal analogues of the Hilbert-Bernays derivability conditions and Löb's theorem (if it is provable that the provability of A implies A, then A is provable).

Some of the basic results concerning the incompleteness of Peano Arithmetic and related theories have analogues in provability logic. For example, it is a theorem in GL that if a contradiction is not provable then it is not provable that a contradiction is not provable (Gödel's second incompleteness theorem). There are also modal analogues of the fixed-point theorem. Robert Solovay proved that the modal logic GL is complete with respect to Peano Arithmetic. That is, the propositional theory of provability in Peano Arithmetic is completely represented by the modal logic GL. This straightforwardly implies that propositional reasoning about provability in Peano Arithmetic is complete and decidable.

Other research in provability logic has focused on first-order provability logic, polymodal provability logic (with one modality representing provability in the object theory and another representing provability in the meta-theory), and interpretability logics intended to capture the interaction between provability and interpretability. Some very recent research has involved applications of graded provability algebras to the ordinal analysis of arithmetical theories.

Reverse mathematics
Reverse mathematics is a program in mathematical logic that seeks to determine which axioms are required to prove theorems of mathematics. The field was founded by Harvey Friedman. Its defining method can be described as "going backwards from the theorems to the axioms", in contrast to the ordinary mathematical practice of deriving theorems from axioms. The reverse mathematics program was foreshadowed by results in set theory such as the classical theorem that the axiom of choice and Zorn's lemma are equivalent over ZF set theory. The goal of reverse mathematics, however, is to study possible axioms of ordinary theorems of mathematics rather than possible axioms for set theory.

In reverse mathematics, one starts with a framework language and a base theory—a core axiom system—that is too weak to prove most of the theorems one might be interested in, but still powerful enough to develop the definitions necessary to state these theorems. For example, to study the theorem "Every bounded sequence of real numbers has a supremum" it is necessary to use a base system that can speak of real numbers and sequences of real numbers.

For each theorem that can be stated in the base system but is not provable in the base system, the goal is to determine the particular axiom system (stronger than the base system) that is necessary to prove that theorem. To show that a system S is required to prove a theorem T, two proofs are required. The first proof shows T is provable from S; this is an ordinary mathematical proof along with a justification that it can be carried out in the system S. The second proof, known as a reversal, shows that T itself implies S; this proof is carried out in the base system. The reversal establishes that no axiom system S′ that extends the base system can be weaker than S while still proving T.

One striking phenomenon in reverse mathematics is the robustness of the Big Five axiom systems. In order of increasing strength, these systems are named by the initialisms RCA0, WKL0, ACA0, ATR0, and Π$1 1$-CA0. Nearly every theorem of ordinary mathematics that has been reverse mathematically analyzed has been proven equivalent to one of these five systems. Much recent research has focused on combinatorial principles that do not fit neatly into this framework, like RT$2 2$ (Ramsey's theorem for pairs).

Research in reverse mathematics often incorporates methods and techniques from recursion theory as well as proof theory.

Functional interpretations
Functional interpretations are interpretations of non-constructive theories in functional ones. Functional interpretations usually proceed in two stages. First, one "reduces" a classical theory C to an intuitionistic one I. That is, one provides a constructive mapping that translates the theorems of C to the theorems of I. Second, one reduces the intuitionistic theory I to a quantifier free theory of functionals F. These interpretations contribute to a form of Hilbert's program, since they prove the consistency of classical theories relative to constructive ones. Successful functional interpretations have yielded reductions of infinitary theories to finitary theories and impredicative theories to predicative ones.

Functional interpretations also provide a way to extract constructive information from proofs in the reduced theory. As a direct consequence of the interpretation one usually obtains the result that any recursive function whose totality can be proven either in I or in C is represented by a term of F. If one can provide an additional interpretation of F in I, which is sometimes possible, this characterization is in fact usually shown to be exact. It often turns out that the terms of F coincide with a natural class of functions, such as the primitive recursive or polynomial-time computable functions. Functional interpretations have also been used to provide ordinal analyses of theories and classify their provably recursive functions.

The study of functional interpretations began with Kurt Gödel's interpretation of intuitionistic arithmetic in a quantifier-free theory of functionals of finite type. This interpretation is commonly known as the Dialectica interpretation. Together with the double-negation interpretation of classical logic in intuitionistic logic, it provides a reduction of classical arithmetic to intuitionistic arithmetic.

Formal and informal proof
The informal proofs of everyday mathematical practice are unlike the formal proofs of proof theory. They are rather like high-level sketches that would allow an expert to reconstruct a formal proof at least in principle, given enough time and patience. For most mathematicians, writing a fully formal proof is too pedantic and long-winded to be in common use.

Formal proofs are constructed with the help of computers in interactive theorem proving. Significantly, these proofs can be checked automatically, also by computer. Checking formal proofs is usually simple, whereas finding proofs (automated theorem proving) is generally hard. An informal proof in the mathematics literature, by contrast, requires weeks of peer review to be checked, and may still contain errors.

Proof-theoretic semantics
In linguistics, type-logical grammar, categorial grammar and Montague grammar apply formalisms based on structural proof theory to give a formal natural language semantics.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Proof theory


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Duke of Windsor

Duke of Windsor was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 8 March 1937 for the former monarch Edward VIII, following his abdication on 11 December 1936. The dukedom takes its name from the town where Windsor Castle, a residence of English monarchs since the time of Henry I, following the Norman Conquest, is situated. Windsor has been the house name of the royal family since 1917.

History
King Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936, so that he could marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. At the time of the abdication, there was controversy as to how the former King should be titled. The new monarch, King George VI, apparently brought up the idea of a title just after the abdication instrument was signed, and suggested using "the family name". Neither the Instrument of Abdication signed by Edward VIII on 10 December 1936 nor its enabling legislation, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, indicated whether the king was renouncing the privileges of royal birth as well as relinquishing the throne. On 12 December 1936, at the Accession Council of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, George VI announced he was to make his brother the "Duke of Windsor" with the style of Royal Highness. That declaration is recorded in the London Gazette. The Dukedom was formalised by Letters Patent on 8 March 1937. Edward, as a royal duke, could neither stand for election to the House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords. On 3 June 1937, Edward married Simpson, who upon their marriage became the Duchess of Windsor. Following his abdication, Edward and Wallis lived in exile in Paris, France, except while he was Governor of the Bahamas. When Germany invaded France in May 1940, the duke and duchess moved to Spain and then Portugal until August when they set sail for the Bahamas. After the war, they became members of café society often splitting their time between Paris and the United States, which they visited frequently. During their stays in New York, they were fond of the Waldorf Astoria Hotel. The Duke suffered from ill health in his later years and died of cancer on 28 May 1972 in Paris. As the Duke died without issue, the title became extinct upon his death. Queen Elizabeth II banned the title from being recreated during her reign.

House of Windsor 1937–1972 White Lodge, Richmond son of King George V and Queen Mary 3 June 1937
 * Edward VIII
 * HRH The Prince of Wales No 4 (HS85-10-36416).jpg
 * 23 June 1894
 * Wallis Simpson

Villa Windsor, Paris aged 77
 * 28 May 1972
 * colspan=5|Edward had no children and all his titles became extinct on his death.
 * }
 * colspan=5|Edward had no children and all his titles became extinct on his death.
 * }

Royal arms
As the royal arms go hand-in-hand with the crown, the undifferentiated royal arms passed to George VI. It was and is common heraldic practice for the eldest son to differentiate his arms in his father's lifetime, but the Duke of Windsor was left in the unusual position of the eldest son needing to difference his arms after his father's death. This was done by means of a label argent of three points, bearing on the middle point an imperial crown proper.

Further references
Lownie, Andrew 2021. The Scandalous Exile of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. Blink.

title: Duke of Windsor


text:
User talk:Collin~enwiki

Collin Hsu(Xu Han), Southeast University, Nanjing, P.R.China.

Hello Collin, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need any questions answered about the project then check out Help or contact me on my talk page. --The Anome

- Hi Collin, I saw you article on Catenet, I did not know that, even after 7 years of studying computer science! Very interresting. Would be great, if you could write some more about it. Have fun at Wikipedia and Welcome, Fantasy 08:22 Apr 29, 2003 (UTC) :-)

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New World vulture

Cathartidae, known commonly as New World vultures or condors, are a family of birds of prey consisting of seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in the Americas. They are known as "New World" vultures to distinguish them from Old World vultures, with which the Cathartidae does not form a single clade despite the two being similar in appearance and behavior as a result of convergent evolution.

Like other vultures, New World vultures are scavengers, having evolved to feed off of the carcasses of dead animals without any notable ill effects. Some species of New World vulture have a good sense of smell, whereas Old World vultures find carcasses exclusively by sight. Other adaptations shared by both Old and New World vultures include a bald head, devoid of feathers to prevent rotting matter from accumulating while feeding, and an extremely disease-resistant digestive system to protect against scavenging-related germs.

Taxonomy and systematics
The family Cathartidae was introduced (as the subfamily Cathartinae) by the French ornithologist Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1839. The New World vultures comprise seven species in five genera, being Coragyps, Cathartes, Gymnogyps, Sarcoramphus, and Vultur. Of these, only Cathartes is not monotypic. The family's scientific name, Cathartidae, comes from cathartes, Greek for "purifier". Although New World vultures and Old World vultures are not very closely related, they share many resemblances because of convergent evolution. Phylogenetic analyses including all Cathartidae species found two primary clades. The first consists of black vultures (Coragyps atratus) together with the three Cathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vultures ''(C. burrovianus), greater yellow-headed vultures (C. melambrotus), and turkey vultures (C. aura)), while the second consists of king vultures (Sarcoramphus papa), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) and Andean condors (Vultur gryphus'').

New World vultures were traditionally placed in a family of their own in the Falconiformes. However, in the late 20th century some ornithologists argued that they are more closely related to storks on the basis of karyotype, morphological, and behavioral data. Thus some authorities placed them in the Ciconiiformes with storks and herons; Sibley and Monroe (1990) even considered them a subfamily of the storks. This was criticized, and an early DNA sequence study was based on erroneous data and subsequently retracted. There was then an attempt to raise the New World vultures to the rank of an independent order, Cathartiformes, not closely associated with either the birds of prey or the storks and herons.

Recent multi-locus DNA studies on the evolutionary relationships between bird groups indicate that New World vultures are related to the other birds of prey, excluding the Falconidae. This analysis argues New World vulture should either be a part of a new order Accipitriformes or part of an order (Cathartiformes) closely related to, but distinct from, other birds of prey. New World vultures are a sister group to Accipitriformes, a group consisting of Accipitridae, the osprey and secretarybird. Both groups are basal members of the recently recognized clade Afroaves.

Extinct species and fossils
The fossil history of the Cathartidae is complex, and many taxa that may possibly have been New World vultures have at some stage been treated as early representatives of the family. There is no unequivocal European record from the Neogene. It is clear that the Cathartidae had a much higher diversity in the Plio-Pleistocene, rivalling the current diversity of Old World vultures and their relatives in shapes, sizes, and ecological niches. Extinct taxa include:

 * Diatropornis ("European vulture") Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – ?Middle Oligocene of France
 * Phasmagyps Chadronian of Colorado
 * Cathartidae gen. et sp. indet. Late Oligocene of Mongolia
 * Brasilogyps Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of Brazil
 * Hadrogyps ("American dwarf vulture") Middle Miocene of SW North America
 * Cathartidae gen. et sp. indet. Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, USA
 * Pliogyps ("Miocene vulture") Late Miocene – Late Pliocene of S North America
 * Perugyps ("Peruvian vulture") Pisco Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of SC Peru
 * Dryornis ("Argentinean vulture") Early – Late? Pliocene of Argentina; may belong to modern genus Vultur
 * Cathartidae gen. et sp. indet. Middle Pliocene of Argentina
 * Aizenogyps ("South American vulture") Late Pliocene of SE North America
 * Breagyps ("long-legged vulture") Late Pleistocene of SW North America
 * Geronogyps Late Pleistocene of Argentina and Peru
 * Gymnogyps varonai Late Quaternary of Cuba
 * Wingegyps Late Pleistocene of Brazil
 * Pleistovultur Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene of Brazil
 * Cathartidae gen. et sp. indet. Cuba
 * Gymnogyps amplus Late Pleistocene – Holocene of W North America

Description
New World vultures are generally large, ranging in length from the lesser yellow-headed vulture at 56–61 centimeters (22–24 inches) up to the California and Andean condors, both of which can reach 120 centimeters (48 inches) in length and weigh 12 or more kilograms (26 or more pounds). Plumage is predominantly black or brown, and is sometimes marked with white. All species have featherless heads and necks. In some, this skin is brightly colored, and in the king vulture it is developed into colorful wattles and outgrowths.

All New World vultures have long, broad wings and a stiff tail, suitable for soaring. They are the best adapted to soaring of all land birds. The feet are clawed but weak and not adapted to grasping. The front toes are long with small webs at their bases. No New World vulture possesses a syrinx, the vocal organ of birds. Therefore, the voice is limited to infrequent grunts and hisses.

The beak is slightly hooked and is relatively weak compared with those of other birds of prey. This is because it is adapted to tear the weak flesh of partially rotted carrion, rather than fresh meat. The nostrils are oval and set in a soft cere. The nasal passage is perforate, not divided by a septum, so that when looking from the side, one can see through the beak. The eyes are prominent, and, unlike those of eagles, hawks, and falcons, they are not shaded by a brow bone. Members of Coragyps and Cathartes have a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid, while Gymnogyps, Vultur, and Sarcoramphus lack eyelashes altogether.

New World vultures have the unusual habit of urohidrosis, or defecating on their legs to cool them evaporatively. As this behavior is also present in storks, it is one of the arguments for a close relationship between the two groups.

Distribution and habitat
New World vultures are restricted to the western hemisphere, ranging from southern Canada to South America. Most species are mainly resident, but the turkey vulture breeds in Canada and the northern US and migrates south in the northern winter. New World vultures inhabit a large variety of habitats and ecosystems, ranging from deserts to tropical rainforests and at heights of sea level to mountain ranges, using their highly adapted sense of smell to locate carrion. These species of birds are also occasionally seen in human settlements, perhaps emerging to feed upon the food sources provided from roadkills.

Breeding
New World vultures and condors do not build nests, but lay eggs on bare surfaces. On average one to three eggs are laid, depending on the species. Chicks are naked on hatching and later grow down. Like most birds, the parents feed the young by regurgitation. The young are altricial, fledging in 2 to 3 months. California Condor chicks fledge anywhere from 5–6 months, while Andean condor chicks fledge anywhere from 6–10 months.

Feeding
All living species of New World vultures and condors are scavengers. Their diet consists primarily of carrion, and they are commonly seen near carcasses. Other additions to the diet include fruit (especially rotten fruit) and garbage. The genus Cathartes locates carrion by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the bodies of decaying animals. The olfactory lobe of the brains in these species, which is responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals. Other species, such as the American black vulture and the king vulture, have weak senses of smell and find food only by sight, sometimes by following Cathartes vultures and other scavengers.

Tolerance to bacterial toxins in decaying meat
Vultures possess a very acidic digestive system, with their gut dominated by two species of anaerobic bacteria that help them withstand toxins present in decaying prey. In a 2014 study of 50 (turkey and black) vultures, researchers analyzed the microbial community or microbiome of the facial skin and the large intestine. The facial bacterial flora and the gut flora overlapped somewhat, but in general, the facial flora was much more diverse than the gut flora, which is in contrast to other vertebrates, where the gut flora is more diverse. Two anaerobic faecal bacteria groups that are pathogenic in other vertebrates stood out: Clostridia and Fusobacteriota (formerly Fusobacteria). They were especially common in the gut with Clostridia DNA sequence counts between 26% and 85% relative to total sequence counts, and Fusobacteriota between 0.2% and 54% in black vultures and 2% to 69% of all counts in turkey vultures. Unexpectedly, both anaerobic bacteria were also found on the air exposed facial skin samples, with Clostridia at 7%–40% and Fusobacteriota up to 23%. It is assumed that vultures acquire them when they insert their heads into the body cavities of rotten meat. The regularly ingested Clostridia and Fusobacteriota outcompete other bacterial groups in the gut and become predominant. Genes that encode tissue-degrading enzymes and toxins that are associated with Clostridium perfringens have been found in the vulture gut metagenome. This supports the hypothesis that vultures do benefit from the bacterial breakdown of carrion, while at the same time tolerating the bacterial toxins.

Status and conservation
The California condor is critically endangered. It formerly ranged from Baja California to British Columbia, but by 1937 was restricted to California. In 1987, all surviving birds were removed from the wild into a captive breeding program to ensure the species' survival. In 2005, there were 127 Californian condors in the wild. As of October 31, 2009 there were 180 birds in the wild. The Andean condor is vulnerable. The American black vulture, turkey vulture, lesser yellow-headed vulture, and greater yellow-headed vulture are listed as species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. The king vulture is also listed as Least Concern, although there is evidence of a decline in the population.

In culture
The American black vulture and the king vulture appear in a variety of Maya hieroglyphs in Mayan codices. The king vulture is commonly represented, with its glyph being easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird's beak and by the concentric circles that represent the bird's eyes. It is sometimes portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head. According to Mayan mythology, this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods. It is also used to represent Cozcaquauhtli, the thirteenth day of the month in the Mayan calendar. Meanwhile, the American black vulture is normally connected with death or shown as a bird of prey, and its glyph is often depicted attacking humans. This species lacks the religious connections that the king vulture has. While some of the glyphs clearly show the American black vulture's open nostril and hooked beak, some are assumed to be this species because they are vulture-like, painted black, and lack the king vulture's knob.

title: New World vulture


text:
1916 in literature

Events from the year 1916 in literature .

Events

 * January
 * The Journal of Negro History is founded by Carter G. Woodson, father of "Black History" and "Negro History Week" in the United States.
 * Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's short story The Nose is published in a student magazine.
 * March 1 – The National Library of Wales completes its transfer to purpose-built premises in Aberystwyth.
 * March 22 – J. R. R. Tolkien and Edith Bratt marry at St Mary Immaculate Roman Catholic Church, Warwick, England. They will serve as inspiration for the fictional characters Beren and Lúthien. Tolkien leaves for military service in France at the beginning of June.
 * March 30 – Don Marquis introduces the characters Archy and Mehitabel in "The Sun Dial" column in The Evening Sun (New York City). Archy is a poetry-writing cockroach unable to operate the typewriter shift key; Mehitabel is a cat.
 * April–June – Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry live as neighbours to D. H. and Frieda Lawrence at Higher Tregerthen, near Zennor in Cornwall (England).
 * April 24–30 – In the Easter Rising in Ireland, members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood proclaim an Irish Republic and the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army occupy the General Post Office and other buildings in Dublin, before surrendering to the British Army. Of the seven subsequently executed leaders of the Rising, Thomas MacDonagh, Patrick Pearse and Joseph Plunkett are poets and James Connolly a balladeer and playwright. The events are the theme of W. B. Yeats' poem "Easter, 1916", first published this September.
 * May 16 – Natsume Sōseki's novel Light and Darkness (明暗, Mei An) begins to be serialized in the Tokyo and Osaka editions of the newspaper Asahi Shimbun, but will remain unfinished at the author's death on December 9, aged 49.
 * July 1
 * The poets W. N. Hodgson, Will Streets, Gilbert Waterhouse, Henry Field, Alfred Ratcliffe, Alexander Robertson and Bernard White are among 19,000 British soldiers killed on the First day on the Somme alone. The same day is chosen for the death of fictitious poet Cecil Valance in Alan Hollinghurst's 2011 novel The Stranger's Child. The Battle of the Somme continues until October 18, during which time American poet Alan Seeger (serving with the French), Irish writer Tom Kettle, English poet Edward Tennant, English short story writer Saki and English bowler Percy Jeeves (whose name P. G. Wodehouse borrowed for his character) are all killed. The English writer Robert Graves, novelist Stuart Cloete, playwright/actor Arnold Ridley and artist/poet David Jones are seriously injured – Graves is for a time believed killed. Ford Madox Hueffer suffers concussion and shell shock. A. A. Milne and J. R. R. Tolkien are invalided out. The English poet Siegfried Sassoon wins the Military Cross. The Cameron Highlander Dòmhnall Ruadh Chorùna composes the Scottish Gaelic love song An Eala Bhàn (The White Swan) in the oral literature tradition. The future U.K. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan is wounded in September's Battle of Flers–Courcelette; sheltering in a slit trench, he reads Aeschylus in the original Greek.
 * W. B. Yeats makes his fifth and final proposal of marriage to the newly widowed Maud Gonne in France.
 * c. July–December – Poets Terence MacSwiney and Darrell Figgis are among Irish republicans detained in Reading Gaol (England) following the Easter Rising.
 * Summer – In the United States, 15-year-old Margaret Mitchell writes a novella called Lost Laysen in two notebooks. She will later give the manuscript to a boyfriend and the book remains lost until the mid-1990s. It is published in 1996. Meanwhile, Mitchell will go on to write Gone with the Wind.
 * September – Joseph Conrad's novella The Shadow Line begins to be serialized in The English Review (London) and the Metropolitan Magazine (New York).
 * October 6 – The poet Perpessicius loses his right arm fighting for the Romanians in a skirmish at Muratan.
 * October 19 – New premises for the German National Library open in Leipzig.
 * December – The first of many editions of Robert Baden-Powell's The Wolf Cub's Handbook is published.
 * December 29 – James Joyce's semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is first published complete in book form, in New York by B. W. Huebsch.

Fiction

 * Sholem Aleichem – In America (אין אַמעריקע, In amerike), second part of Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son: The Writings of an Orphan Boy (מאָטל פּייסי דעם חזנס; כתבֿים פֿון אַ ייִנגל אַ יתום, )
 * Sherwood Anderson – Windy McPherson's Son
 * Ruby M. Ayres
 * The Road That Bends
 * Paper Roses
 * A Man of His Word
 * The Year After
 * Henri Barbusse – Under Fire (Le Feu)
 * Arnold Bennett – These Twain
 * E. F. Benson
 * David Blaize
 * Mike
 * The Freaks of Mayfair
 * Adrien Bertrand – L'Appel du sol
 * John Edward Bruce – The Awakening of Hezekiah Jones
 * Mary Grant Bruce – Captain Jim
 * Thomas Burke – Limehouse Nights (including "Beryl and the Croucher", "The Chink and the Child" and "Gina of the Chinatown")
 * Gilbert Cannan – Mendel: a story of youth
 * Ethel M. Dell – The Bars of Iron
 * Alfred Döblin – The Three Leaps of Wang Lun (Die drei Sprünge des Wang-lun, dated 1915)
 * Ronald Firbank – Inclinations
 * Walter Flex – Der Wanderer zwischen beiden Welten (The Wanderer between Two Worlds)
 * Charlotte Perkins Gilman – With Her in Ourland
 * Elinor Glyn – The Career of Katherine Bush
 * Sarah Grand – The Winged Victory
 * Louis Hémon – Maria Chapdelaine
 * Hermann Hesse – Schön ist die Jugend
 * William Dean Howells – The Leatherwood God
 * James Joyce – A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
 * Franz Kafka – The Metamorphosis (Die Verwandlung, first book publication)
 * Frigyes Karinthy
 * Please, Sir! (Tanár úr, kérem)
 * Voyage to Faremido (Utazás Faremidóba)
 * Grace King – The Pleasant Ways of St. Medard
 * Ring Lardner – You Know Me Al
 * Gaston Leroux – Chéri-Bibi and Cécily
 * Ada Leverson – Love At Second Sight
 * Benito Lynch – The Caranchos of Florida
 * I. I. Mironescu – Sandu Hurmuzel (short stories)
 * George Moore – The Brook Kerith: A Syrian Story
 * Mori Ōgai – Takasebune (高瀬舟 The Boat on the Takase River)
 * Baroness Orczy – Leatherface
 * Dorothy Richardson – Backwater
 * Berta Ruck – In Another Girl's Shoes
 * Ruth Sawyer – Seven Miles to Arden
 * May Sinclair – Tasker Jevons
 * Rabindranath Tagore – The Home and the World (ঘরে বাইরে, Ghôre Baire)
 * Booth Tarkington – Seventeen: A Tale of Youth and Summer Time and the Baxter Family Especially William
 * Mark Twain – The Mysterious Stranger (completed posthumously)
 * Eduard Vilde – Mäeküla piimamees (The Milkman of Mäeküla)
 * Edgar Wallace
 * A Debt Discharged
 * The Tomb of Ts'in
 * Mrs Humphry Ward – Lady Connie
 * Mary Webb – The Golden Arrow
 * H. G. Wells – Mr. Britling Sees It Through
 * Francis Brett Young – The Iron Age

Children and young people

 * L. Frank Baum
 * Rinkitink in Oz
 * Mary Louise (as Edith Van Dyne)
 * Frances Hodgson Burnett - The Little Hunchback Zia
 * Edgar Rice Burroughs – The Beasts of Tarzan
 * Dorothy Canfield Fisher – Understood Betsy
 * May Gibbs – Gumnut Babies

Drama

 * Jacinto Benavente – Campo de armiño (Ermine Field)
 * Hall Caine
 * The Prime Minister
 * The Iron Hand (also known as The Call of the King)
 * Luigi Chiarelli – La maschera e il volto: grottesco in tre atti (The Mask and the Face)
 * Ernest Fenollosa and Ezra Pound (translated & edited) – Certain Noble Plays of Japan (published)
 * Susan Glaspell – Trifles
 * Harley Granville-Barker – Farewell to the Theatre
 * Sacha Guitry – Let's Make a Dream
 * Walter C. Hackett - The Barton Mystery
 * Franz Kafka – The Warden of the Tomb (Der Gruftwächter; writing commenced)
 * Jack London – The Acorn Planter: A California Forest Play
 * André de Lorde – Le Laboratoire des hallucinations
 * Gregorio Martínez Sierra – El reino de Dios (The Kingdom of God)
 * Allan Monkhouse – Night Watches: a comedy in one act
 * Eden Phillpotts – The Farmer's Wife
 * Sophie Treadwell – Claws
 * W. B. Yeats – At the Hawk's Well (private performance)

Poetry

 * Pauline B. Barrington — "Education"
 * Robert Frost – Mountain Interval
 * Yvan Goll – Requiem pour les morts de l'Europe
 * Joseph Lee – Ballads of Battle
 * Amy Lowell – Men, Women, and Ghosts
 * Antonio Machado – Campos de Castilla (revised edition)
 * Charlotte Mew – The Farmer's Bride
 * Ezra Pound – Lustra
 * Carl Sandburg – Chicago Poems
 * Muriel Stuart – Christ at Carnival and Other Poems
 * Katharine Tynan – Holy War
 * Gilbert Waterhouse – Rail-Head and other poems (published posthumously)
 * W. B. Yeats – "Easter, 1916" (written)
 * Sergei Yesenin – Радуница (Radunitsa, Ritual for the Dead)

Non-fiction

 * Max Aitken – Canada in Flanders
 * Hall Caine – Our Girls: Their Work for the War
 * Max Dvořák – Katechismus der Denkmalpflege (Catechism of Historical Preservation)
 * Ferdinand de Saussure (posthumous) – Cours de linguistique générale
 * Albert Einstein – "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" (The Groundwork of General Relativity), Annalen der Physik 49
 * Ernest Fenollosa and Ezra Pound – Noh, or, Accomplishment: A Study of the Classical Stage of Japan
 * Israel Gollancz (ed.) – A Book of Homage to Shakespeare
 * Madison Grant – The Passing of the Great Race; or, The Racial Basis of European History
 * Ellen La Motte – The Backwash of War
 * Sydney Loch (as Sydney De Loghe) – The Straits Impregnable (military autobiography; 1st edition, published as fiction)
 * Sir Oliver Lodge – Raymond; or, Life and Death, with Evidence for Survival of Memory and Affection after Death
 * Ezra Pound – Gaudier-Brzeska: A Memoir
 * George Barbu Știrbei – Feuilles d'automne et feuilles d'hiver (Autumn Leaves and Winter Leaves)
 * Mrs Humphry Ward – England's Effort: Six Letters to an American Friend
 * Frances Garnet Wolseley, 2nd Viscountess Wolseley – Women on the Land

Births

 * January 10 – Bernard Binlin Dadié, Ivorien author and politician (died 2019)
 * February 15 – Ian Ballantine, American publisher (died 1995)
 * March 4
 * Giorgio Bassani, Italian author (died 2000)
 * Hans Eysenck, German-born England-based psychologist (died 1997)
 * April 12 – Beverly Cleary, American children's author (died 2021)
 * April 15 – Helene Hanff, American writer and critic (died 1997)
 * May 12 – Albert Murray, American critic, novelist and biographer (died 2013)
 * May 21 – Harold Robbins, American novelist (died 1997)
 * May 28 – Walker Percy, American novelist (died 1990)
 * June 16 – Barbara Skelton, English fiction writer, memoirist and literary figure (died 1996)
 * July 14 – Natalia Ginzburg, Italian author (died 1991)
 * July 24 – John D. MacDonald, American novelist and short story writer (died 1986)
 * August 28
 * C. Wright Mills, American sociologist (died 1962)
 * Jack Vance, American mystery, fantasy, and science fiction writer (died 2013)
 * September 13 – Roald Dahl, Welsh-born children's author (died 1990)
 * September 14 – Eric Bentley, English-born American drama critic (died 2020)
 * September 17 – Mary Stewart (Mary Rainbow), English romantic suspense novelist (died 2014)
 * September 19 – Giles Romilly, English journalist (died 1967)
 * September 25 – Jessica Anderson, Australian novelist and short story writer (died 2010)
 * September 27 – S. Yizhar (Yizhar Smilansky), Israeli author (died 2006)
 * October 3 – James Herriot (James Alfred Wight), English writer and veterinary surgeon (died 1995)
 * October 10 – David Gascoyne, English Surrealist poet (died 2001)
 * October 11 – Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar, Saudi Arabian writer, journalist and poet (died 1991)
 * October 12 – Alice Childress, African American playwright, actress and novelist (died 1994)
 * November 7 – Ian Niall (John Kincaid McNeillie), Scottish novelist and non-fiction writer (died 2002)
 * November 18 – Peter Weiss, German writer, painter and filmmaker (died 1982)
 * November 24 – James Pope-Hennessy, English biographer and travel writer (murdered 1974)
 * December 14 – Shirley Jackson, American novelist and short story writer (died 1965)
 * December 17 – Penelope Fitzgerald (Penelope Knox), English novelist (died 2000)
 * December 30 – Lili Berger, Yiddish writer, antifascist militant and literary critic (died 1996)

Deaths

 * January 27 – C. Morton Horne, Irish writer and performer (killed in action, born 1885)
 * February 6 – Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan poet (born 1867)
 * February 12 – John Townsend Trowbridge, American author (born 1827)
 * February 28 – Henry James, American-born novelist (born 1843)
 * April 19 – Emily Lee Sherwood Ragan, American author and journalist (born 1839)
 * April 26 – Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Portuguese novelist and poet (suicide, born 1890)
 * May 3 – Patrick Pearse, poet and Irish nationalist leader (executed, born 1879)
 * May 13 – Sholem Aleichem, Ukrainian-born humorist (born 1859)
 * May 25 – Jane Dieulafoy, French archaeologist and novelist (born 1851)
 * May 28 (May 15 O.S.) – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian writer, translator and political activist (born 1856)
 * May 31 – Gorch Fock (Johann Wilhelm Kinau), German poet and novelist (killed in action, born 1880)
 * June 4 – Emma Rood Tuttle, American writer an dpoet (born 1839)
 * June 7 – Émile Faguet, French critic (born 1847)
 * June 30 – Eunice Gibbs Allyn, American correspondent, author, songwriter (born 1847)
 * July 1
 * W. N. Hodgson (Edward Melbourne), English war poet (killed in action, born 1893)
 * Gilbert Waterhouse, English architect and war poet (killed in action, born 1883)
 * August 8 – Lily Braun (Amalie von Kretschmann), German feminist writer (born 1865)
 * August 27 – Petar Kočić, Bosnian novelist and politician (born 1877)
 * September 7 – Annie Le Porte Diggs, Canadian-born American activist, journalist, author (born 1853)
 * September 22 – Edward Tennant, English war poet (killed in action, born 1897)
 * October 7 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet (born 1849)
 * October 21 – Olindo Guerrini, Italian poet (born 1845)
 * October 25 – John Todhunter, Irish poet and dramatist (born 1839)
 * November 14 – Saki (H. H. Munro), English short-story writer (killed in action, born 1870)
 * November 15 – Molly Elliot Seawell, American novelist (born 1860)
 * November 20 – Lucie Fulton Isaacs, American writer, philanthropist, suffragist (born 1841)
 * November 22 – Jack London, American novelist (born 1876)
 * November 27 – Émile Verhaeren, Belgian Symbolist poet (born 1855)
 * December 9 – Natsume Sōseki, Japanese novelist (born 1867)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize in Literature: Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam (Swedish)

title: 1916 in literature


text:
1915 in literature

This article contains information about the literary persons, events and publications of 1915.

Events

 * January – The Geração de Orpheu launch the short-lived magazine Orpheu, introducing literary modernism to Portugal.
 * January 13 – "Reminiscences of Sergeant Michael Cassidy", the first known story by Captain H. C. McNeile, Royal Engineers, writing as "Sapper", begins in the Daily Mail (London).
 * March – Ford Madox Ford's novel The Good Soldier: A tale of passion is published by John Lane – The Bodley Head in London under this title, and under the author's original name, Ford Madox Hueffer, although he had intended it to be called The Saddest Story.
 * March 26 – Virginia Woolf's first novel, The Voyage Out, is published in London by the firm of her half-brother, Gerald Duckworth.
 * April 6 – The American Ezra Pound's poetry collection Cathay, "translations... for the most part of the Chinese of Rihaku, from the notes of the late Ernest Fenollosa, and the decipherings of the Professors Mori and Ariga", by Elkin Mathews, is published in London.
 * April 23 – English poet and writer Rupert Brooke, having sailed on February 28 with the British Mediterranean Expeditionary Force for the Gallipoli campaign, dies age 27 on a hospital ship of streptococcal sepsis from an infected mosquito bite off the Greek island of Skyros in the Aegean, where he is buried this evening. He came to public attention as a war poet on March 11 when The Times Literary Supplement published two sonnets ("IV: The Dead" and "V: The Soldier"); the latter was then read from the pulpit of St Paul's Cathedral on Easter Sunday (April 4). His collection of poetry, containing all five sonnets, 1914 & Other Poems, is first published posthumously in May and runs to 11 further impressions this year alone.
 * April 24 – Deportation of Armenian notables from Constantinople begins. Among the writers, poets, teachers and literary critics killed are Dikran Chökürian, Armen Dorian, Melkon Giurdjian, Ardashes Harutiunian, Jacques Sayabalian, Ruben Sevak, Siamanto, and Rupen Zartarian. (Survivors include Yervant Odian and Alexander Panossian.)
 * May 3 – The rondeau "In Flanders Fields" by the Canadian poet John McCrae is written; it is first published on December 8 in the London magazine Punch.
 * May 7 – The Sinking of the RMS Lusitania claims 1,198 victims. The Americans among them in this torpedo attack on a civilian passenger liner include the writer and playwright Justus Miles Forman (born 1875), the theatrical producer Charles Frohman (born 1856), the writer and philosopher Elbert Hubbard (born 1856) and his second wife Alice Moore Hubbard (born 1861), and the playwright Charles Klein (born 1867). The survivors include the British-born writer and educator Ian Holbourn and the bookseller Charles E. Lauriat, Jr.
 * May 13 – As Julian Grenfell stands talking with other officers, a shell lands some yards away and a splinter hits him in the head. He is taken to a hospital in Boulogne, where he dies 13 days later. His poem "Into Battle" is published in The Times the following day. His younger brother Gerald William (Billy) Grenfell is killed in action two months later.
 * c. May – Publication of the first modern book illustrated with wood engravings, Frances Cornford's Spring Morning, from the Poetry Bookshop, London, has engravings by her cousin Gwen Raverat.
 * June 24 – The Widener Library at Harvard University is dedicated.
 * June 26 – August 14 – P. G. Wodehouse's novel Something Fresh is serialized in The Saturday Evening Post (U.S.), introducing the character of Lord Emsworth of Blandings Castle. It first appears in book form on September 3 in New York, from D. Appleton & Company, and on September 16 in London, from Methuen.
 * August/September – John Buchan's thriller The Thirty-Nine Steps, set just before the outbreak of war and introducing as hero Richard Hannay, is serialised in Blackwood's Magazine. Book publication follows in October by William Blackwood and Sons in Edinburgh.
 * August–December – Ezra Pound completes the early sections of his poem The Cantos.
 * September 15
 * P. G. Wodehouse's story "Extricating Young Gussie" is published in The Saturday Evening Post (U.S.). It introduces as characters Jeeves and Bertie.
 * New Culture Movement: Chen Duxiu establishes the New Youth magazine in Shanghai, China.
 * September 30 – Methuen, publishers of D. H. Lawrence's new novel The Rainbow, are prosecuted in London under the Obscene Publications Act 1857 and its sale is banned. The U.S. edition appears in November without any legal challenge.
 * October – Franz Kafka's seminal novella The Metamorphosis (Die Verwandlung) is first published in Die Weißen Blätter (Leipzig). Kafka finishes writing The Trial (Der Process) this year, but it will not be published until 1925, the year after his death.
 * October 15 – Detective Story Magazine is first published by Street & Smith of New York, a successor to Nick Carter Stories.
 * October 27 – Leonid Andreyev's play He Who Gets Slapped premieres at the Moscow Art Theatre
 * November – The German author Heinrich Mann's essay on Émile Zola in Die Weißen Blätter marks Zola's political commitment and attacks the economic causes of the war. This temporarily disrupts Mann's relations with his younger brother, the novelist Thomas Mann.
 * unknown dates
 * James Joyce, Tristan Tzara and Vladimir Lenin all take up residence in Zurich, in a coincidence to be exploited in Tom Stoppard's 1974 play Travesties.
 * Alfred A. Knopf, Sr. establishes the publishers Alfred A. Knopf in New York City.
 * The Goudy Old Style serif typeface is created by Frederic Goudy for American Type Founders.

Fiction

 * Ryūnosuke Akutagawa – "Rashōmon" (羅生門, short story published in Teikoku Bungaku)
 * Victor Appleton – Tom Swift and His Aerial Warship
 * Ruby M. Ayres – Richard Chatterton, V.C.
 * Mariano Azuela – The Underdogs (Los de abajo)
 * E. F. Benson – The Oakleyites
 * Stella Benson – I Pose
 * John Buchan – The Thirty-nine Steps
 * Willa Cather – The Song of the Lark
 * Joseph Conrad – Victory
 * Arthur Conan Doyle – The Valley of Fear
 * Theodore Dreiser – The "Genius"
 * Caradoc Evans – My People: Stories of the Peasantry of West Wales
 * Edna Ferber – Emma Mc Chesney and Co.
 * Ronald Firbank – Vainglory
 * Ford Madox Hueffer – The Good Soldier
 * Charlotte Perkins Gilman – Herland
 * Anna Katharine Green – The Golden Slipper, and Other Problems for Violet Strange
 * Hermann Hesse – Knulp
 * Franz Kafka – The Metamorphosis
 * D. H. Lawrence – The Rainbow
 * Jack London – The Little Lady of the Big House
 * Arthur Machen
 * The Bowmen; and Other Legends of the War
 * The Great Return
 * Compton Mackenzie – Guy and Pauline
 * W. Somerset Maugham – Of Human Bondage
 * Oscar Micheaux – The Forged Note: A Romance Of The Darker Races
 * Mori Ōgai (森 鷗外) – Sansho the Steward (山椒大夫, Sanshō Dayū)
 * John Muir
 * Travels to Alaska
 * Letters to A Friend
 * Natsume Sōseki (夏目 漱石) – Grass on the Wayside (道草, Michikusa)
 * E. Phillips Oppenheim
 * The Game of Liberty
 * Mr. Grex of Monte Carlo
 * Baroness Orczy
 * A Bride of the Plains
 * The Bronze Eagle
 * P. D. Ouspensky – Strange Life of Ivan Osokin (Странная жизнь Ивана Осокина)
 * Eleanor H. Porter – Pollyanna Grows Up
 * Dorothy Richardson – Pointed Roofs
 * Sax Rohmer – The Yellow Claw
 * Rafael Sabatini – The Sea Hawk
 * Ruth Sawyer – The Primrose Ring
 * Edgar Wallace
 * The Man Who Bought London
 * The Melody of Death
 * Jean Webster – Dear Enemy
 * H. G. Wells – Boon
 * Luang Wilatpariwat – Khwam mai phayabat (No Vendetta; first full-length Thai novel, adapted from English)
 * Harry Leon Wilson – Ruggles of Red Gap
 * P. G. Wodehouse
 * Something Fresh
 * Psmith, Journalist
 * Virginia Woolf – The Voyage Out

Children and young people

 * Gerdt von Bassewitz – Peter and Anneli's Journey to the Moon (Peterchens Mondfahrt)
 * L. Frank Baum
 * The Scarecrow of Oz
 * Aunt Jane's Nieces in the Red Cross (as Edith Van Dyne)
 * Waldemar Bonsels – Himmelsvolk (People in the Sky)
 * Frances Hodgson Burnett – The Lost Prince
 * Edgar Rice Burroughs – The Return of Tarzan
 * Russell Thorndike – Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh
 * Else Ury
 * Nesthäkchen's First School Year
 * Nesthäkchen in the Children's Sanitorium

Drama

 * Leonid Andreyev – He Who Gets Slapped
 * Susan Glaspell – Suppressed Desires
 * Maxim Gorky – The Old Man
 * Avery Hopwood
 * Fair and Warmer
 * Sadie Love
 * Agha Hashar Kashmiri – Bilwamangal
 * Cleves Kinkead – Common Clay
 * Louis N. Parker – Mavourneen
 * Patrick Pearse – The Singer (written)
 * Quintero brothers
 * Becquerina
 * Diana cazadora
 * Caton Theodorian – Bujoreștii
 * Horace Annesley Vachell – The Case of Lady Camber

Poetry

 * C. J. Dennis – The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke (verse novel)
 * John Drinkwater – Swords and Ploughshares
 * T. S. Eliot – The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
 * H. B. Elliott, ed. – Lest We Forget: A War Anthology
 * Geoffrey Faber – Interflow, Poems Mainly Lyrical
 * Rudyard Kipling – "My Boy Jack"
 * Francis Ledwidge – Songs of the Fields
 * Vladimir Mayakovsky – A Cloud in Trousers
 * Alice Meynell – Poems of the War
 * Barbu Nemțeanu – Stropi de soare
 * Fernando Pessoa – Opiário and Ode Marítima
 * Jessie Pope – Jessie Pope's War Poems and More War Poems

Non-fiction

 * John Hay Beith – The First Hundred Thousand
 * John Buchan – Nelson's History of the War (begun)
 * Hall Caine – The Drama of 365 Days: Scenes in the Great War
 * Maxim Gorky – In the World (В людях)
 * Rudyard Kipling – The Fringes of the Fleet (essays and poems)
 * Hugo Krabbe – Die moderne staatsidee
 * Friedrich Naumann – Mitteleuropa
 * May Sinclair – A Journal of Impressions in Belgium
 * Percy Sykes – A History of Persia
 * Zhonghua Da Zidian (中華大字典) (Great Chinese Dictionary)

Births

 * January 1 – Branko Ćopić, Bosnian Serb writer (suicide 1984)
 * January 6 – Alan Watts, British/American philosopher (died 1973)
 * January 28 – Nien Cheng, Chinese-born American writer (died 2009)
 * February 2 – Khushwant Singh, Indian novelist and journalist (died 2014)
 * February 11 – Patrick Leigh Fermor, British author (died 2011)
 * March 8 – Drue Heinz, born Doreen English, British-American patron (died 2018)
 * March 13 – Protiva Bose (Ranu Shome), Bengali singer and writer (died 2006)
 * March 18 – Richard Condon, American novelist (died 1996)
 * March 26 – Hwang Sun-won, Korean fiction writer (died 2000)
 * April 12 – Július Tomin, Czech writer known for promoting Interlingua (died 2003)
 * April 15 – Hilda Bernstein, English-born author, artist, and anti-apartheid activist (died 2006)
 * April 24 – Salvador Borrego, Mexican journalist, historical revisionist and neo-nazi writer (d. 2018)
 * May 5 – Emanuel Litvinoff, Anglo-Jewish writer (died 2011)
 * May 8 – Milton Meltzer, American historian and author (died 2009)
 * May 10 – Monica Dickens, English novelist (died 1992)
 * May 12 – Joe David Brown, American novelist and journalist (died 1976)
 * May 27 – Herman Wouk, American novelist (died 2019)
 * June 10 – Saul Bellow, American writer (died 2005)
 * June 21 – Jesús Arango Cano, Colombian economist, diplomat, anthropologist, archaeologist and writer (died 2015)
 * June 22 – Thomas Quinn Curtiss, American writer, and film and theatre critic (died 2000)
 * July 1
 * Alun Lewis, Welsh poet in English (died 1944)
 * Jean Stafford, American fiction writer (died 1979)
 * July 7 – Margaret Walker, American poet and novelist (died 1998)
 * July 14 – Jerome Lawrence, American dramatist (died 2004)
 * July 31 – Herbert Aptheker, American historian (died 2003)
 * August 13 – Muhammad Ibrahim Joyo, Pakistani teacher, writer, scholar, and Sindhi nationalist (died 2017)
 * August 19 – Ring Lardner, Jr., American journalist and screenwriter (died 2000)
 * August 28 – Claude Roy, French poet (died 1997)
 * August 30 – Jack Simmons, English historian (died 2000)
 * September 8 – Benoît Lacroix, Canadian theologian and philosopher (died 2016)
 * September 17 – Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez, Spanish-born philosopher (2011)
 * September 21 – Gertrude Poe, American journalist (died 2017)
 * September 27 – Marjorie Chibnall, English medievalist, biographer and translator (died 2012)
 * October 17 – Arthur Miller, American dramatist (died 2005)
 * October 24 – Marghanita Laski, English biographer, novelist and broadcaster (died 1988)
 * November 8 – G. S. Fraser, Scottish poet and critic (died 1980)
 * November 12 – Roland Barthes, French literary theorist (died 1980)
 * November 16 – Jean Fritz, American children's writer (died 2017)
 * November 26 – Emilio D'Amore, Italian writer, journalist, and politician (died 2017)
 * December 6 – Nilawan Pintong, Thai writer (died 2017)
 * December 13 – Ross Macdonald, American-Canadian writer (died 1983)
 * December 22 – David Martin, Hungarian-born Australian poet (died 1997)
 * December 27 – John Cornford, English poet (died 1936)

Deaths

 * January 3 – James Elroy Flecker, English poet, novelist and dramatist (tuberculosis, born 1884)
 * January 19 – Elizabeth Boynton Harbert, American author, lecturer, reformer (born 1843)
 * February 4 – Mary Elizabeth Braddon, English popular novelist (born 1837)
 * April 8 – Louis Pergaud, French novelist (killed in action, born 1882)
 * April 19 – Julia Evelyn Ditto Young, American poet and novelist (born 1857)
 * April 23 – Rupert Brooke, English war poet (blood poisoning, born 1887)
 * May 7 (passengers drowned in the sinking of the Lusitania)
 * Justus Miles Forman, American writer (b. 1875)
 * Charles Frohman, American theater producer (b. 1856)
 * Elbert Hubbard, American writer and philosopher (b. 1856)
 * Alice Moore Hubbard, American wife of Elbert Hubbard (b. 1861)
 * Charles Klein, American playwright (b. 1867)
 * May 11 – Lucy Bethia Walford, Scottish novelist and artist (born 1845)
 * May 26 – Julian Grenfell, English war poet (killed in action, born 1888)
 * July 5 – Aurelio Tolentino, Filipino dramatist (born 1867)
 * August 19 – Tevfik Fikret, Ottoman Turkish poet and journalist (diabetes, born 1867).
 * September 1 – August Stramm, German Expressionist poet and playwright (killed in action, born 1874)
 * September 27 – Remy de Gourmont, French Symbolist poet, novelist, and critic (stroke, born 1858)
 * October 17 – Edmond Laforest, Haitian French-language poet (suicide, born 1876)
 * November 14 – Booker T. Washington, American writer and educator (born 1856)
 * December 23 – Roland Leighton, English war poet (died of wounds, born 1895)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Romain Rolland (French)

title: 1915 in literature


text:
1914 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1914.

Events

 * January 18 – A party held in honour of English poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt at his stud farm in West Sussex brings together W. B. Yeats, Ezra Pound, Thomas Sturge Moore, Victor Plarr, Richard Aldington, F. S. Flint and Frederic Manning. Peacock is on the menu.
 * February 2 – James Joyce's semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man commences serialization in The Egoist, a new London literary magazine founded by Dora Marsden.
 * February 4 – A staging of George A. Birmingham's comedy General John Regan at Westport Town Hall in Ireland provokes a riot.
 * February 10 – Thomas Hardy marries his second wife, the children's author Florence Dugdale, at St Andrew's, Enfield.
 * March
 * The Times Literary Supplement is published separately for the first time (in London).
 * The Little Review is founded by Margaret Caroline Anderson as part of Chicago's literary renaissance.
 * March 4 – Irish-born novelist George Moore publishes Vale, the final of his 3-volume autobiographical Hail and Farewell (first in 1911).
 * March 4 (dated February) – Publication of the first issue of New Numbers, a quarterly collection of work by the Dymock poets in England edited by Lascelles Abercrombie with Wilfrid Gibson.
 * April 11 – The first English-language performance of George Bernard Shaw's comedy Pygmalion at His Majesty's Theatre is given in London starring Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Herbert Beerbohm Tree, and famously including the Act III line "Not bloody likely!".
 * June – James Joyce's Dubliners, a collection of fifteen short stories depicting the Irish middle classes in and around Dublin during the early 20th century, is published in London.
 * June 20 – The first issue (of two) appears of the Vorticist literary magazine BLAST edited by Wyndham Lewis. It includes Ford Madox Hueffer's "The Saddest Story", a preliminary version of The Good Soldier.
 * June 24 – Edward Thomas makes the English railway journey which inspires his poem "Adlestrop" while traveling to meet Robert Frost; Thomas begins writing poetry for the first time in December.
 * July
 * E. M. Forster completes his novel Maurice, with its theme of male homosexual love; it is not published until 1971.
 * Heinrich Mann completes his novel Der Untertan, with its critique of German nationalism; it is not published until 1918.
 * July 23 – Austro-Hungarian ultimatum includes demands that Serbia should suppress all publications which "incite hatred and contempt of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy", particularly schoolbooks.
 * August
 * The literature of World War I makes its first appearance. John Masefield writes the poem "August, 1914" (published in the September 1 issue of The English Review), the last he will produce before the peace.
 * Stanley Unwin purchases a controlling interest in the London publisher George Allen.
 * At about this date Loughborough (England) publishers Wills & Hepworth publish their first illustrated children's books in the Ladybird series, Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales by E[thel] Talbot and Tiny Tots Travels by M. Burridge.
 * August 3 – Siegfried Sassoon volunteers for military service, initially as a Trooper in the Sussex Yeomanry.
 * August 25 – The library of the Catholic University of Leuven is set on fire by German troops during the Rape of Belgium.
 * September – J. R. R. Tolkien writes a poem about Eärendil, the first appearance of his mythopoeic Middle-earth legendarium. Eärendil will much later appear in The Silmarillion. At this time Tolkien is an Oxford undergraduate staying at Phoenix Farm, Gedling, near Nottingham.
 * September 2 – Charles Masterman invites 25 "eminent literary men" to Wellington House in London to form a secret British War Propaganda Bureau. Those who attend include William Archer, Arnold Bennett, Hall Caine, G. K. Chesterton, Arthur Conan Doyle, Ford Madox Hueffer, John Galsworthy, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling, John Masefield, Henry Newbolt, Gilbert Parker, G. M. Trevelyan and H. G. Wells. Kipling soon afterwards writes the poem "For all we have and are" and Hardy three days later writes the poem "Men Who March Away". W. B. Yeats, however, refuses to sign a letter of support for the War signed by most of the participants (with others) and published in The Times (London) on September 18.
 * September 9 – Hilaire Belloc is contracted to write regular articles on the War in the new British weekly Land and Water.
 * September 21 – Laurence Binyon's poem "For the Fallen", containing his "Ode of Remembrance", is published in The Times (London).
 * September 22
 * French novelist Alain-Fournier (Lieutenant Henri-Alban Fournier), aged 27, is killed in action near Vaux-lès-Palameix (Meuse) a month after enlisting, leaving his second novel, Colombe Blanchet, unfinished; his body will not be identified until 1991.
 * T. S. Eliot (at this time in England to study) meets fellow American poet Ezra Pound for the first time, in London.
 * September 29 – Arthur Machen's short story "The Bowmen", origin of the legend of the Angels of Mons, is published in The Evening News (London).
 * October 2 – The date predicted by Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Watchtower Society (Jehovah's Witnesses), as the date for the "full end" of Babylon, or nominal Christianity, with statements such as: "True, it is expecting great things to claim, as we do, that within the coming twenty-six years all present governments will be overthrown and dissolved.... In view of this strong Bible evidence concerning the Times of the Gentiles, we consider it an established truth that the final end of the kingdoms of this world, and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God, will be accomplished at the end of A. D. 1914...."
 * November 7 – The first issue of The New Republic magazine is published in the United States.
 * November 16 – M. P. Shiel is convicted and imprisoned for "indecently assaulting and carnally knowing" his 12-year-old de facto stepdaughter on October 26 in London.
 * December – Wilhelm Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky, who writes under the pen name "Guillaume Apollinaire", enlists in the French Army to fight in World War I and becomes a French citizen after an August attempt at enlistment is rejected.
 * December 31 – T. S. Eliot writes to Conrad Aiken from Oxford (where he has a scholarship at Merton College), saying: "I hate university towns and university people, who are the same everywhere, with pregnant wives, sprawling children, many books and hideous pictures on the walls.... Oxford is very pretty, but I don't like to be dead."

Fiction

 * Ion Agârbiceanu – Arhanghelii
 * Arnold Bennett – The Price of Love
 * E. F. Benson – Arundel
 * Rhoda Broughton – Concerning a Vow
 * Mary Grant Bruce
 * From Billabong to London
 * Grays Hollow
 * G. K. Chesterton
 * The Flying Inn
 * The Wisdom of Father Brown (collected detective stories)
 * Dikran Chökürian – Vanke (Վանքը, The Monastery)
 * Marie Corelli – Innocent: Her Fancy and His Fact
 * Miguel de Unamuno
 * Niebla (Mist, "nivola")
 * Vida de Don Quijote y Sancho (The Life of Don Quixote and Sancho or Our Lord Don Quixote)
 * Ethel M. Dell – The Rocks of Valpré
 * Theodore Dreiser – The Titan
 * Edna Ferber – Personality Plus
 * James Elroy Flecker – The King of Alsander
 * Anatole France – La Révolte des anges (The Revolt of the Angels)
 * André Gide – Les Caves du Vatican (The Cellars of the Vatican)
 * Elinor Glyn – Letters to Caroline
 * Nathaniel Gould – A Gamble for Love
 * John MacDougall Hay – Gillespie
 * Hermann Hesse – Rosshalde
 * Frederic S. Isham – Nothing But the Truth
 * James Joyce – Dubliners (short stories)
 * D. H. Lawrence – The Prussian Officer and Other Stories
 * Stephen Leacock – Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich
 * Ada Leverson – Birds of Paradise
 * Sinclair Lewis – Our Mr. Wrenn
 * Harold MacGrath – The Adventures of Kathlyn
 * Compton Mackenzie – Sinister Street, vol. 2
 * Natsume Sōseki (夏目 漱石) – Kokoro (こころ)
 * Frank Norris – Vandover and the Brute
 * Baroness Orczy
 * The Laughing Cavalier
 * Unto Cæsar
 * Gertrude Page – The Pathway
 * Eleanor H. Porter – Miss Billy Married
 * Raymond Roussel – Locus Solus
 * Berta Ruck – His Official Fiancée
 * Rafael Sabatini – The Gates of Doom
 * Saki – Beasts and Super-Beasts
 * Paul Scheerbart – Das graue Tuch und zehn Prozent Weiß: Ein Damenroman (The Gray Cloth with Ten Per cent White: A Ladies' Novel)
 * Henri Stahl – Un român în lună
 * Booth Tarkington – Penrod
 * Robert Tressell (died 1911) – The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists
 * Mary Augusta Ward – Delia Blanchflower
 * H. G. Wells
 * The Wife of Sir Isaac Harman
 * The World Set Free (originally serialised as A Prophetic Trilogy in Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine January–March)
 * P. G. Wodehouse – The Man Upstairs
 * Francis Brett Young – Deep Sea

Children and young people

 * L. Frank Baum
 * Tik-Tok of Oz
 * Aunt Jane's Nieces Out West (as Edith Van Dyne)
 * Edgar Rice Burroughs – Tarzan of the Apes (book publication)
 * Elsie J. Oxenham – Girls of the Hamlet Club (first in the Abbey Series)

Drama

 * Lascelles Abercrombie – The End of the World (September, Birmingham, England)
 * Frank Craven – Too Many Cooks (February 24, New York)
 * John Drinkwater – Rebellion
 * Lord Dunsany – Five Plays (publication)
 * Harley Granville-Barker – Vote By Ballot
 * D. H. Lawrence – The Widowing of Mrs. Holroyd (publication, revised version)
 * John Howard Lawson – Atmosphere
 * Terence MacSwiney – The Revolutionist (publication)
 * Roi Cooper Megrue and Walter C. Hackett – It Pays to Advertise
 * Ramanbhai Neelkanth – Raino Parvat
 * Elmer Rice – On Trial
 * Edward Sheldon – The Song of Songs
 * J. E. Harold Terry and Lechmere Worrall – The Man Who Stayed at Home (also The White Feather)
 * E. Temple Thurston – The Evolution of Katherine
 * Horace Annesley Vachell – Quinneys

Poetry

 * Laurence Binyon – "For the Fallen" (including "Ode of Remembrance")
 * Janus Djurhuus – Yrkingar
 * Robert Frost – North of Boston (including "Mending Wall")
 * Wilfrid Gibson – Borderlands and Thoroughfares
 * Thomas Hardy – Satires of Circumstance (including "Poems 1912–13")
 * Ernst Lissauer – Song of Hate against England (Hassgesang gegen England)
 * Amy Lowell – Sword Blades and Poppy Seeds
 * Gabriela Mistral – Los sonetos de la muerte (Sonnets of Death)
 * Ezra Pound, ed. – Des Imagistes: An Anthology
 * Ernst Stadler – Der Aufbruch (The Departure)
 * Gertrude Stein – Tender Buttons
 * Wallace Stevens – Phases
 * Katharine Tynan – The Flower of Peace

Non-fiction

 * Clive Bell – Art
 * Arnold Bennett – Liberty: A Statement of the British Case
 * Hall Caine – King Albert's Book
 * G. K. Chesterton – The Barbarism of Berlin
 * Henry James – Notes of a Son and Brother
 * Chrystal Macmillan – "Facts versus Fancies on Woman Suffrage" (pamphlet)
 * Paul Scheerbart – Glasarchitektur (Glass Architecture)
 * George Bernard Shaw
 * The Case for Belgium
 * Common Sense About The War
 * Edward Thomas – In Pursuit of Spring
 * H. G. Wells – The War That Will End War (collected articles)

Births

 * January 2 – Vivian Stuart (aka Alex Stuart, Barbara Allen, Fiona Finlay, V. A. Stuart, William Stuart Long, Robyn Stuart), British writer (died 1986)
 * January 8 – Norman Nicholson, English poet (died 1987)
 * January 15 – Etty Hillesum, Dutch correspondent, diarist and Holocaust victim (died 1943)
 * January 17 – William Stafford, American poet, pacifist (died 1993)
 * January 26 – Kaye Webb, English publisher and journalist (died 1996)
 * February 4 – Alfred Andersch, German writer (died 1980)
 * February 5 – William S. Burroughs, American author (died 1997)
 * February 6 – Arkadi Kuleshov, Soviet poet and translator (died 1978)
 * February 13 – Katarína Lazarová, Slovak novelist and translator (died 1995)
 * February 25 – Frank Bonham, American novelist (died 1988)
 * March 1 – Ralph Ellison, American scholar and writer (died 1994)
 * March 4 – Barbara Newhall Follett, American prodigy novelist (went missing in December 1939)
 * March 27 – Budd Schulberg, American writer (died 2009)
 * March 28 – Bohumil Hrabal, Czech poet and controversialist (died 1997)
 * March 31 – Octavio Paz, Nobel Prize winning Mexican author (died 1998)
 * April 4 – Marguerite Duras, French writer (died 1996)
 * April 10 – Maria Banuș, Romanian poet and translator (died 1999)
 * April 25 – Ross Lockridge Jr., American novelist (died 1948)
 * April 26 – Bernard Malamud, American novelist (died 1986)
 * April 28 – Michel Mohrt, French author and historian (died 2011)
 * May 3
 * Georges-Emmanuel Clancier, French poet (died 2018)
 * Martín de Riquer, Spanish writer and Romantic scholar (died 2013)
 * May 6 – Randall Jarrell, American poet (died 1965)
 * May 8 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-born French novelist (died 1980)
 * May 12 – James Bacon, author and journalist (died 2010)
 * May 14 – Anne Baker, British writer
 * June 15 – Lena Kennedy, English novelist (died 1986)
 * June 17 – Julián Marías, Spanish philosopher and author (died 2005)
 * June 26 – Laurie Lee, English poet and memoirist (died 1997)
 * July 14
 * Wim Hora Adema, Dutch children's author and feminist (died 1998)
 * Béatrix Beck, French writer of Belgian origin (died 2008)
 * July 15
 * Hammond Innes, English adventure novelist (died 1998)
 * Gavin Maxwell, Scottish naturalist and author (died 1969)
 * July 17 – Alice Gore King, American entrepreneur, educator, writer and artist (died 2007)
 * July 18 – Roy Huggins, American novelist (died 2002)
 * July 23 – Alf Prøysen, Norwegian author, musician and children's writer (died 1970)
 * July 25 – Winifred Foley, English memoirist (died 2009)
 * August 5 – Anthony West, English author and critic, son of 'Rebecca West' and H. G. Wells (died 1987)
 * August 9 – Tove Jansson, Finnish children's author (died 2001)
 * August 20 – Colin MacInnes, English novelist (died 1976)
 * August 21 – Stephen Coulter, British novelist (died 1986)
 * August 26 – Julio Cortázar, Argentine author (died 1984)
 * September 5
 * Nicanor Parra, Chilean poet and physicist (died 2018)
 * Gogu Rădulescu, Romanian communist politician, journalist, and patron of the arts (died 1991)
 * September 15 – Adolfo Bioy Casares, Argentine author (died 1999)
 * October 1 – Hilda Ellis Davidson, English antiquarian and academic (died 2006)
 * October 6 – Joan Littlewood, English theatre director and biographer (died 2002)
 * October 20 – L. P. Davies, English novelist (died 1988)
 * October 26 – John Masters, British Raj novelist (died 1983)
 * October 27 – Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet and author (died 1953)
 * November 22 – Leah Bodine Drake, American poet (died 1964)
 * December 12 – Patrick O'Brian (Richard Patrick Russ), English historical novelist (died 2000)
 * December 14 – Diana Forbes-Robertson, English writer and biographer (died 1987)
 * December 24 – Herbert Reinecker, German novelist and playwright (died 2007)

Deaths

 * January 6 – Henrietta Keddie (Sarah Tytler), Scottish novelist and children's writer (born 1827)
 * February 1 – Marie Robinson Wright, American travel writer (born 1853)
 * February 15 – Kate Brownlee Sherwood, American poet, journalist, translator, and story writer (born 1841)
 * February 25 – John Tenniel, English cartoonist and illustrator (born 1820)
 * March – Evelyn Magruder DeJarnette, American short story writer (born 1842)
 * March 17 – Hiraide Shū (平出 修), Japanese novelist, poet, and lawyer (born 1878)
 * March 19 – Thomas Cooper de Leon, American journalist, author and playwright (born 1839)
 * March 25 – Frédéric Mistral, Nobel Prize winning French author (born 1830)
 * March 31 – Christian Morgenstern, German poet and writer (born 1871)
 * April 2 – Paul Heyse, Nobel Prize winning German author (born 1830)
 * April 7 – Edith Maude Eaton (Sui Sin Far, 水仙花), English-born writer on Chinese (born 1865)
 * May 13 – Isabella Fyvie Mayo, British poet and novelist born 1843)
 * May 19 – William Aldis Wright, English writer and editor (born 1831)
 * May 29 – Laurence Irving, English dramatist and novelist (drowned, born 1871)
 * June 3 – Danske Dandridge, Danish-born American poet, historian, and garden writer (b. 1854)
 * June 6 – Theodore Watts-Dunton, English critic and poet (born 1832)
 * June 19 – Brandon Thomas, British actor and playwright (Charley's Aunt) (born 1848)
 * June 21 – Bertha von Suttner, Austrian pacifist writer (born 1843)
 * July 6 – Delmira Agustini, Uruguayan poet (murdered; born 1886)
 * July 23 – Charlotte Forten Grimké, African American poet (born 1837)
 * September 4 – Charles Péguy, French poet and essayist (killed in action, born 1873)
 * September 8
 * Mariana Cox Méndez, Chilean writer (born 1871)
 * Hans Leybold, German nihilist poet (born 1892)
 * September 11 – Mircea Demetriade, Romanian poet and actor (born 1861)
 * September 22 – Alain-Fournier, French novelist (killed in action, born 1886)
 * September 25 – Alfred Lichtenstein, German Expressionist writer (killed in action, born 1889)
 * October 9 – Dumitru C. Moruzi, Russian-born Romanian political figure and social novelist (asthma; born 1850)
 * October 30 – Ernst Stadler, German Expressionist poet (killed in action, born 1883)
 * November 3 – Georg Trakl, Austrian Expressionist poet (cocaine overdose, born 1887)
 * November 9 – Alessandro d'Ancona, Italian critic and writer (born 1835)
 * November 12 – Augusto dos Anjos, Brazilian poet (b. 1884)
 * November 16 – Nikolai Chayev, Russian writer, poet and playwright (born 1824)
 * November 19 – Robert Jones Burdette, American minister and sentimental humorist (born 1844)

Awards

 * Newdigate Prize: Robert William Sterling, "The Burial of Sophocles"
 * Nobel Prize for Literature: not awarded
 * Prix Goncourt: Adrien Bertrand, L'Appel du Sol

title: 1914 in literature