text:
Hemorrhoid

Hemorrhoids (or haemorrhoids), also known as piles, are vascular structures in the anal canal. In their normal state, they are cushions that help with stool control. They become a disease when swollen or inflamed; the unqualified term hemorrhoid is often used to refer to the disease. The signs and symptoms of hemorrhoids depend on the type present. Internal hemorrhoids often result in painless, bright red rectal bleeding when defecating. External hemorrhoids often result in pain and swelling in the area of the anus. If bleeding occurs, it is usually darker. Symptoms frequently get better after a few days. A skin tag may remain after the healing of an external hemorrhoid.

While the exact cause of hemorrhoids remains unknown, a number of factors that increase pressure in the abdomen are believed to be involved. This may include constipation, diarrhea, and sitting on the toilet for long periods. Hemorrhoids are also more common during pregnancy. Diagnosis is made by looking at the area. Many people incorrectly refer to any symptom occurring around the anal area as hemorrhoids, and serious causes of the symptoms should not be ruled out. Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy is reasonable to confirm the diagnosis and rule out more serious causes.

Often, no specific treatment is needed. Initial measures consist of increasing fiber intake, drinking fluids to maintain hydration, NSAIDs to help with pain, and rest. Medicated creams may be applied to the area, but their effectiveness is poorly supported by evidence. A number of minor procedures may be performed if symptoms are severe or do not improve with conservative management. Surgery is reserved for those who fail to improve following these measures.

Approximately 50% to 66% of people have problems with hemorrhoids at some point in their lives. Males and females are both affected with about equal frequency. Hemorrhoids affect people most often between 45 and 65 years of age, and they are more common among the wealthy. Outcomes are usually good.

The first known mention of the disease is from a 1700 BC Egyptian papyrus.

Signs and symptoms

In about 40% of people with pathological hemorrhoids, there are no significant symptoms. Internal and external hemorrhoids may present differently; however, many people may have a combination of the two. Bleeding enough to cause anemia is rare, and life-threatening bleeding is even more uncommon. Many people feel embarrassed when facing the problem and often seek medical care only when the case is advanced.

External
If not thrombosed, external hemorrhoids may cause few problems. However, when thrombosed, hemorrhoids may be very painful. Nevertheless, this pain typically resolves in two to three days. The swelling may, however, take a few weeks to disappear. A skin tag may remain after healing. If hemorrhoids are large and cause issues with hygiene, they may produce irritation of the surrounding skin, and thus itchiness around the anus.

Internal
Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless, bright red rectal bleeding during or following a bowel movement. The blood typically covers the stool (a condition known as hematochezia), is on the toilet paper, or drips into the toilet bowl. The stool itself is usually normally coloured. Other symptoms may include mucous discharge, a perianal mass if they prolapse through the anus, itchiness, and fecal incontinence. Internal hemorrhoids are usually painful only if they become thrombosed or necrotic.

Causes
The exact cause of symptomatic hemorrhoids is unknown. A number of factors are believed to play a role, including irregular bowel habits (constipation or diarrhea), lack of exercise, nutritional factors (low-fiber diets), increased intra-abdominal pressure (prolonged straining, ascites, an intra-abdominal mass, or pregnancy), genetics, an absence of valves within the hemorrhoidal veins, and aging. Other factors believed to increase risk include obesity, prolonged sitting, a chronic cough, and pelvic floor dysfunction. Squatting while defecating may also increase the risk of severe hemorrhoids. Evidence for these associations, however, is poor. Being a receptive partner in anal intercourse has been listed as a cause.

During pregnancy, pressure from the fetus on the abdomen and hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge. The birth of the baby also leads to increased intra-abdominal pressures. Pregnant women rarely need surgical treatment, as symptoms usually resolve after delivery.

Pathophysiology
Hemorrhoid cushions are a part of normal human anatomy and become a pathological disease only when they experience abnormal changes. There are three main cushions present in the normal anal canal. These are located classically at left lateral, right anterior, and right posterior positions. They are composed of neither arteries nor veins, but blood vessels called sinusoids, connective tissue, and smooth muscle. Sinusoids do not have muscle tissue in their walls, as veins do. This set of blood vessels is known as the hemorrhoidal plexus.

Hemorrhoid cushions are important for continence. They contribute to 15–20% of anal closure pressure at rest and protect the internal and external anal sphincter muscles during the passage of stool. When a person bears down, the intra-abdominal pressure grows, and hemorrhoid cushions increase in size, helping maintain anal closure. Hemorrhoid symptoms are believed to result when these vascular structures slide downwards or when venous pressure is excessively increased. Increased internal and external anal sphincter pressure may also be involved in hemorrhoid symptoms. Two types of hemorrhoids occur: internals from the superior hemorrhoidal plexus and externals from the inferior hemorrhoidal plexus. The pectinate line divides the two regions.

Diagnosis
Hemorrhoids are typically diagnosed by physical examination. A visual examination of the anus and surrounding area may diagnose external or prolapsed hemorrhoids. Visual confirmation of internal hemorrhoids, on the other hand, may require anoscopy, insertion of a hollow tube device with a light attached at one end. A digital rectal exam (DRE) can also be performed to detect possible rectal tumors, polyps, an enlarged prostate, or abscesses. This examination may not be possible without appropriate sedation because of pain, although most internal hemorrhoids are not associated with pain. If pain is present, the condition is more likely to be an anal fissure or external hemorrhoid rather than internal hemorrhoid.

Internal
Internal hemorrhoids originate above the pectinate line. They are covered by columnar epithelium, which lacks pain receptors. They were classified in 1985 into four grades based on the degree of prolapse:

 * Grade I: No prolapse, just prominent blood vessels
 * Grade II: Prolapse upon bearing down, but spontaneous reduction
 * Grade III: Prolapse upon bearing down requiring manual reduction
 * Grade IV: Prolapse with inability to be manually reduced.

External

External hemorrhoids occur below the dentate (or pectinate) line. They are covered proximally by anoderm and distally by skin, both of which are sensitive to pain and temperature.

Differential
Many anorectal problems, including fissures, fistulae, abscesses, colorectal cancer, rectal varices, and itching have similar symptoms and may be incorrectly referred to as hemorrhoids. Rectal bleeding may also occur owing to colorectal cancer, colitis including inflammatory bowel disease, diverticular disease, and angiodysplasia. If anemia is present, other potential causes should be considered.

Other conditions that produce an anal mass include skin tags, anal warts, rectal prolapse, polyps, and enlarged anal papillae. Anorectal varices due to portal hypertension (blood pressure in the portal venous system) may present similar to hemorrhoids but are a different condition. Portal hypertension does not increase the risk of hemorrhoids.

Prevention
A number of preventative measures are recommended, including avoiding straining while attempting to defecate, avoiding constipation and diarrhea either by eating a high-fiber diet and drinking plenty of fluid or by taking fiber supplements and getting sufficient exercise. Spending less time attempting to defecate, avoiding reading while on the toilet, and losing weight for overweight persons and avoiding heavy lifting are also recommended.

Conservative
Conservative treatment typically consists of foods rich in dietary fiber, intake of oral fluids to maintain hydration, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, sitz baths, and rest. Increased fiber intake has been shown to improve outcomes and may be achieved by dietary alterations or the consumption of fiber supplements. Evidence for benefits from sitz baths during any point in treatment, however, is lacking. If they are used, they should be limited to 15 minutes at a time. Decreasing time spent on the toilet and not straining is also recommended.

While many topical agents and suppositories are available for the treatment of hemorrhoids, little evidence supports their use. As such, they are not recommended by the American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons. Steroid-containing agents should not be used for more than 14 days, as they may cause thinning of the skin. Most agents include a combination of active ingredients. These may include a barrier cream such as petroleum jelly or zinc oxide, an analgesic agent such as lidocaine, and a vasoconstrictor such as epinephrine. Some contain Balsam of Peru to which certain people may be allergic.

Flavonoids are of questionable benefit, with potential side effects. Symptoms usually resolve following pregnancy; thus active treatment is often delayed until after delivery. Evidence does not support the use of traditional Chinese herbal treatment.

Several professional organizations weakly recommend the use of phlebotonics in the treatment of the symptoms of haemorrhoids grade I to II,     although these drugs are not approved in the United States  and in Germany, and restricted in Spain for the treatment of chronic venous diseases.

Procedures
A number of office-based procedures may be performed. While generally safe, rare serious side effects such as perianal sepsis may occur.

Hemorrhoidal artery embolization (HAE) is an additional minimally invasive procedure performed by an interventional radiologist. HAE involves the blockage of abnormal blood flow to the rectal (hemorrhoidal) arteries using microcoils and/or microparticles to decrease the size of the hemorrhoids and improve hemorrhoid related symptoms, especially bleeding. HAE is very effective at stopping bleeding related symptom with success rate of approximately 90%.
 * 1) Rubber band ligation is typically recommended as the first-line treatment in those with grade I to III disease. It is a procedure in which elastic bands are applied onto internal hemorrhoid at least 1 cm above the pectinate line to cut off its blood supply. Within 5–7 days, the withered hemorrhoid falls off. If the band is placed too close to the pectinate line, intense pain results immediately afterwards. The cure rate has been found to be about 87%, with a complication rate of up to 3%.
 * 2) Sclerotherapy involves the injection of a sclerosing agent, such as phenol, into the hemorrhoid. This causes the vein walls to collapse and the hemorrhoids to shrivel up. The success rate four years after treatment is about 70%.
 * 3) A number of cauterization methods have been shown to be effective for hemorrhoids, but are usually used only when other methods fail. This procedure can be done using electrocautery, infrared radiation, laser surgery, or cryosurgery. Infrared cauterization may be an option for grade I or II disease. In those with grade III or IV disease, reoccurrence rates are high.

Surgery
A number of surgical techniques may be used if conservative management and simple procedures fail. All surgical treatments are associated with some degree of complications, including bleeding, infection, anal strictures, and urinary retention, due to the close proximity of the rectum to the nerves that supply the bladder. Also, a small risk of fecal incontinence occurs, particularly of liquid, with rates reported between 0% and 28%. Mucosal ectropion is another condition which may occur after hemorrhoidectomy (often together with anal stenosis). This is where the anal mucosa becomes everted from the anus, similar to a very mild form of rectal prolapse.
 * 1) Excisional hemorrhoidectomy is a surgical excision of the hemorrhoid used primarily only in severe cases. It is associated with significant postoperative pain and usually requires two to four weeks for recovery. However, the long-term benefit is greater in those with grade III hemorrhoids as compared to rubber band ligation. It is the recommended treatment in those with a thrombosed external hemorrhoid if carried out within 24–72 hours. Evidence to support this is weak, however. Glyceryl trinitrate ointment after the procedure helps both with pain and with healing.
 * 2) Doppler-guided transanal hemorrhoidal dearterialization is a minimally invasive treatment using an ultrasound Doppler to accurately locate the arterial blood inflow. These arteries are then "tied off" and the prolapsed tissue is sutured back to its normal position. It has a slightly higher recurrence rate but fewer complications compared to a hemorrhoidectomy.
 * 3) Stapled hemorrhoidectomy, also known as stapled hemorrhoidopexy, involves the removal of much of the abnormally enlarged hemorrhoidal tissue, followed by a repositioning of the remaining hemorrhoidal tissue back to its normal anatomical position. It is generally less painful and is associated with faster healing compared to complete removal of hemorrhoids. However, the chance of symptomatic hemorrhoids returning is greater than for conventional hemorrhoidectomy, so it is typically recommended only for grade II or III disease.

Epidemiology
It is difficult to determine how common hemorrhoids are as many people with the condition do not see a healthcare provider. However, symptomatic hemorrhoids are thought to affect at least 50% of the US population at some time during their lives, and around 5% of the population is affected at any given time. Both sexes experience about the same incidence of the condition, with rates peaking between 45 and 65 years. They are more common in Caucasians and those of higher socioeconomic status.

Long-term outcomes are generally good, though some people may have recurrent symptomatic episodes. Only a small proportion of persons end up needing surgery.

History

The first known mention of this disease is from a 1700 BC Egyptian papyrus, which advises: "... Thou shouldest give a recipe, an ointment of great protection; acacia leaves, ground, titurated and cooked together. Smear a strip of fine linen there-with and place in the anus, that he recovers immediately." In 460 BC, the Hippocratic corpus discusses a treatment similar to modern rubber band ligation: "And hemorrhoids in like manner you may treat by transfixing them with a needle and tying them with very thick and woolen thread, for application, and do not foment until they drop off, and always leave one behind; and when the patient recovers, let him be put on a course of Hellebore." Hemorrhoids may have been described in the Bible, with earlier English translations using the now-obsolete spelling "emerods".

Celsus (25 BC – 14 AD) described ligation and excision procedures and discussed the possible complications. Galen advocated severing the connection of the arteries to veins, claiming it reduced both pain and the spread of gangrene. The Susruta Samhita (4th–5th century BC) is similar to the words of Hippocrates, but emphasizes wound cleanliness. In the 13th century, European surgeons such as Lanfranc of Milan, Guy de Chauliac, Henri de Mondeville, and John of Ardene made great progress and development of the surgical techniques.

In medieval times, hemorrhoids were also known as Saint Fiacre's curse after a sixth-century saint who developed them following tilling the soil. The first use of the word "hemorrhoid" in English occurs in 1398, derived from the Old French "emorroides", from Latin hæmorrhoida, in turn from the Greek αἱμορροΐς (haimorrhois), "liable to discharge blood", from αἷμα (haima), "blood" and ῥόος (rhoos), "stream, flow, current", itself from ῥέω (rheo), "to flow, to stream".

Notable cases

 * Hall-of-Fame baseball player George Brett was removed from a game in the 1980 World Series due to hemorrhoid pain. After undergoing minor surgery, Brett returned to play in the next game, quipping, "My problems are all behind me". Brett underwent further hemorrhoid surgery the following spring.
 * Conservative political commentator Glenn Beck underwent surgery for hemorrhoids, subsequently describing his unpleasant experience in a widely viewed 2008 YouTube video.
 * Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter had surgery for hemorrhoids in 1984.
 * Cricketers Matthew Hayden and Viv Richards have suffered the condition.
 * During World War II, US Army Lieutenant Colonel Harold Cohen was selected by General George S. Patton to organize a raid to rescue Patton's son-in-law from a German prison camp; Cohen was prevented from leading the raid due to hemorrhoids. Patton personally examined Cohen and remarked, "that is some sorry ass".

title: Hemorrhoid


text:
Talk:National holiday

Untitled
A sure fact is that the 4th of May isn't a dutch national holiday. We are only silent on 8 at night for 2 minutes, like the English do on the 11th of november. Other cthan that it's just a normal day like any other day.

The 5th is a bit of a complicated story. It's only a national holiday once everry 5 years. next time when the second world war is 65 years ago. All the other it' s business as usual for most people.

Maybe this should rather be included in Public holiday.

The link there to Google category: Holidays -- Calendars and Lists seems to ultimately lead to http://www.kidlink.org/KIDPROJ/MCC/. Which is a nice page, but it is not edited. 4th of July occurs half a dozen times.

Sebastian 05:09 Jan 24, 2003 (UTC)

Do we need this page as well as one for public holidays? I'd think the contents of both lists would be practically identical. Maybe that page could be widened to include national events and celebrations that aren't actually 'holidays'... I think mothers day and fathers day are both on the list and neither is a calendered holiday - just an excuse for a retail frenzy! KJ

 * A list of national holidays of all the countries can be quite long, so I think we should seperate this article from public holiday, and left a link to this article there. (Just like the current setting) --Lorenzarius 16:10 Feb 3, 2003 (UTC)

Holiday has a list of national holidays. Redirect? --Jiang 19:54, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

What is the article about?
It seems to describe pretty much the same thing as National Day. However, isn't a national holiday simply a public holiday in a country, celebrated for whatever reason? The definition should be cleaned up or, if I'm wrong, the two articles should be merged. -- Ranveig 13:46, 3 November 2005 (UTC)

No more Bongos: Directly from the first sentence of the subheading: "Some nations (in the cultural sense) have their own national holidays". To argue that Galicia, Catalonia or Castile are not nations (in the cultural sense) is just ignorance on your part.

 * If the National Holiday page can be made tabular, so that you can organize by month or country that would be useful. Nikhil 14:41, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with the previous statement, I much prefer the way that the National holiday section is orgranised in comparison to the National Day section. --Star

My understanding of the difference between a national day and a national holiday is that a national holiday is a public holiday relevant to a nation (often patriotic or military related), such as Armed Forces day, memorial day, presidents day, flag day, unity day, veteren's day. While A national day is a national holiday that is singularly about the countries nationhood. this would commonly be observed on a date when the country came into being or experienced a government revolution. examples Independance day(usa), portugal day, russia day, sami national day, revolution day(egypt), St George's Day(england) so each nation can only have One national day but many national holidays.Some thing 17:54, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

- What is Mike Kup doing on the 31st May ? Markspar 14:59, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:National holiday


text:
Ron Fricke

Ron Fricke (born February 24, 1953) is an American film director and cinematographer specializing in time-lapse and large-format cinematography, known for his non-narrative feature films.

Career
After serving as director of photography for Koyaanisqatsi (1982, directed by Godfrey Reggio), Fricke directed the IMAX films Chronos (1985) and Sacred Site (1986).

He directed the purely cinematic non-verbal non-narrative Baraka (1992), designing his own 65 mm camera equipment for the feature, and earning broad critical acclaim.

Fricke worked as a cinematographer for parts of the 2005 Star Wars film Revenge of the Sith, shooting the eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily for scenes of the volcanic planet Mustafar.

His film Samsara premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2011, then screened in the U.S. the following year. Fricke described the film as an evolution of his work: "Both technically and philosophically, I am ready to delve even deeper into my favorite theme: humanity's relationship to the eternal."

title: Ron Fricke


text:
Ludic

Ludic may refer to:

 * Ludic language, a Finnic language in the Uralic language family
 * Ludic fallacy, is "the misuse of games to model real-life situations."
 * Ludic interface, are types of computer interface that are inherently "playful".
 * Ludology, Game studies (Not to be confused with Game theory.)

title: Ludic


text:
126 film

126 film is a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1963, and is associated mainly with low-end point-and-shoot cameras, particularly Kodak's own Instamatic series of cameras.

Although 126 was once very popular, it is no longer manufactured, and few photofinishers will process it.

Technical details

In 1963, Kodak introduced a new film, encased in a plastic cartridge, for which they re-introduced the "126" designation. (The number was originally used for the unrelated 126 roll film format from 1906 to 1949). The term "126" was intended to show that 26 mm square images were recorded, using Kodak's common 1xx film numbering system. However the image size is actually 28×28 mm, which usually was reduced to approximately 26.5×26.5 mm by masking during printing or mounting. At the nominal 28 mm square size, the image diagonal is mm, which is close to the  mm diagonal of a 135 film frame (24×36 mm); the crop factor or equivalent focal length multiplier is  based on the diagonal measurements.

The 126 film cartridge and format were defined in ISO 3029, which has since been withdrawn.

Like the 120 format, there is a continuous backing paper, and the frame number is visible through a small window at the rear of the cartridge. Cameras for this type of film are equipped with a large rectangular window in the back door, through which is visible not only the frame number, but also a portion of the label showing the film type and speed. The cartridge has a captive take-up spool, but no supply spool: the film and backing paper are simply coiled tightly and placed in the supply end of the cartridge. The positioning of the image is fixed by the cartridge. The film is 35 mm wide, but unlike 135 film, it is unperforated, except for one registration hole per image, similar to the earlier 828 film. The camera is equipped with a sensing pin which falls into this hole when the film is fully advanced to the next frame, at which point the winding knob or lever is locked, so as to prevent winding past the pre-exposed frame lines.

The top edge of the cartridge above the film gate has a square notch in a specific position that signaled the film speed. Some of the higher-end cameras used this notch to determine the correct exposure, or to set the light meter, if so equipped. Although the actual films manufactured in 126 cartridge format had speeds varying between ISO 64/19° and ISO 400/27°, the standard defined 20 different speeds, spanning from ISO 20/14° to ISO 1600/33°.

The film was originally available in 12 and 20 image lengths; at the time regular production stopped it was only available in 24 exposure cartridges. The exposed film is stored on the take-up spool and does not need to be rewound, making the cameras very simple to load and unload.

History
The format was introduced in 1963 by Kodak under the brand name Kodapak, together with the Instamatic camera line. Although the Instamatic name is sometimes treated as synonymous with the 126 format, Kodak also used it on similar film cartridge-based camera lines, including its later Pocket Instamatic cameras using 110-format cartridges (1972), and on its Instamatic M series movie cameras using Super 8 film (1965).

Around ten million cameras were made by Kodak and other companies. With a few exceptions, the format was mainly used for fairly simple amateur cameras; some of the few high-end models were manufactured by companies included Kodak, Minolta, Rollei, Yashica and Zeiss Ikon. The 126 cartridge also was used as the basis for a pinhole camera that could be built using household supplies. Kodak officially discontinued the format on 31 December 1999. Unused, outdated 126 films continue to show up at thrift stores, estate sales, and online auctions. Unless they have been stored frozen, they are probably deteriorated and are suitable only for experimenting.

Current availability and usage
Ferrania in Italy was the last factory producing 126 film. They marketed an ISO 200 colour print film under their Solaris brand. The last scheduled production run took place in April 2007, but an unscheduled production run in late 2007 surprised industry observers and raised hopes that it had not actually been discontinued. Ferrania's subsequent bankruptcy meant that there was no longer any large-scale factory source for 126 film.

Some photographers reuse the plastic cartridge from outdated 126 films and reload them with fresh 35mm film. The process is not difficult, but it is not entirely practical since the process must be carried out in the dark, as the 35mm film must be removed from the cartridge. In addition, the two films have significantly different perforation schemes. 126 cameras have a film-advance mechanism that relies on one edge perforation per image, and 35mm camera film has eight perforations per image, on both edges of the film. The photographer must use the film-advance mechanism several times between images, and one edge of each image will have visible perforations. An adapter is available for photographers without access to 126 cartridges, but the adapter does not fit all cameras.

Because it is 35 mm wide and is developed in industry-standard C-41 process chemistry, processing of most 126 films is readily available, as long as the photofinisher knows that it is standard, 35 mm-wide, C-41 film. Printing the photos can present problems, because modern film processing equipment often cannot handle the square format of 126 film. Some specialist photographic printers can correctly handle it. Standard flatbed scanners that have a light source for scanning film can be used to scan 126 negatives, perhaps using a mask made with black paper. Note that older film may require uncommon film processing such as C-22.

title: 126 film


text:
110 film

110 is a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1972. 110 is essentially a miniaturized version of Kodak's earlier 126 film format. Each frame is 13 x, with one registration hole. Cartridges with 12, 20, or 24 frames are available on-line. Production variations sometimes have allowed for an additional image.

The film is fully housed in a plastic cartridge, which also registers the image when the film is advanced. There is a continuous backing paper, and the frame number is visible through a window at the rear of the cartridge. The film does not need to be rewound and is very simple to load and unload. The film is usually pre-exposed with frame lines and numbers, a feature intended to make it easier and more efficient for photo finishers to print.

Unlike later competing formats, such as disc and APS film, processed 110 negatives are returned in strips, without the original cartridge.

History
The 110 cartridge was introduced by Kodak in 1972 with Kodak Pocket Instamatic cameras with Kodachrome-X, Ektachrome-X, Kodacolor II, and Verichrome Pan film. The new pocket-sized cameras became immediately popular, and soon displaced competing subminiature cameras, such as the Minolta 16 series, from the market. The 110 film width is 16 mm. A four-frame strip measures 111 mm.

The 16 mm film width allowed Kodachrome film in 110 size to be processed on the existing processing machines that processed movie films in the Standard 8 mm film and 16 mm film sizes.

Fujifilm stopped manufacturing 110 format film in September 2009. Lomography re-commenced 110 film production in 2011. As of 2024, they offer 110 Black and White, Color Negative, and a variety of experimental stocks such as Lomochrome Purple and Metropolis.

Estes Industries has long marketed several model rockets, the most notable being the Astrocam, with a simple 110 camera in the nose; the shutter is triggered when the nose cone separates from the rocket body.

Tyco (in their Spy Tech line of toys) made two toy spy cameras in the early 1990s that utilized 110 film, called the Hidden Camera and Reese's Camera. The Reese's Camera was meant to resemble two Reese's two packs stuck together (it used a generic, likely pre-existing mold, it was just molded in orange and had Reese's stickers on it), while the Hidden Camera came with a removable cardboard cover sleeve with small cutouts for the trigger button and front lens that made it resemble a Good & Plenty candy box. The Hidden Camera had a periscope-like attachment that used a mirror for taking pictures around corners or behind objects. The Hidden Camera's shape and size is similar to that of the Minox B.

The only new 110 film available on the market is currently produced by Austrian analogue photography company, Lomography.

Design and technical issues

Although the format is most closely associated with cheaply produced, low-cost cameras, Canon, Minolta, Minox, Pentax, Rollei, Voigtländer, and others, as well as Kodak, offered sophisticated, expensive 110 cameras, with excellent multi-element focusing lenses and precise, electronically controlled exposure systems. Such cameras are capable of making high-quality images on 110 film. Some of these cameras are quite small and still hold appeal to subminiature-photography enthusiasts.

The small negative size of 110 film makes it difficult to enlarge successfully. For these reasons, the 110 format is associated with prints that are often rather grainy and unsharp. This has led to the misconception that the cartridge itself is incapable of holding film flat enough for making high-quality negatives.

The 110 cartridge, as specified by Kodak, has a plastic tab on one end. Camera designers had the option of using this tab to sense film speed, enabling sophisticated cameras to switch between high- and low-speed film. A short tab indicated high-speed film, and a long tab indicated low-speed film. Kodak left it to the film manufacturer to decide which film speeds were high or low. Only a few cameras took advantage of this feature: Rollei A110, Canon 110 ED 20, Minolta 110 Zoom SLR Mark I/II, Minox 110S, Voigtlander Vitoret 110 EL, Pentax Auto 110 and the Kodak Ektralite 10.

Some manufacturers would vary the low speed ASA setting and then change it in later models. For example, Minox 110S low speed was 64 ASA (Kodachrome then being made for 110) and high 400 ASA: but Canon 110 ED has 80 ASA only, with the 110 ED 20 having 80 and 400 ASA.

The last 110 film that Kodak produced was ISO 400 speed packed in a cartridge that senses as "low" speed. As shown in the photograph to the right, these cartridges can be modified by hand so that they signal the proper speed to the camera.

Film types

Although the format is commonly associated with print film, Kodak also produced Kodachrome 64 slide film in 110 cartridges until 1982. In 2012 Lomography re-introduced slide film for 110 with their Peacock 200 ASA model. However, since not all 110 cameras have a settable ASA dial (low or high, depending on presence of a notch in the cassette), a neutral-density filter has to be used over the lens or the exposure compensation dial has to be used where available. Otherwise, over-exposure by a factor of x2 will result, leading to over-exposed images.

Along with standard-sized slides that fit into standard projectors, 110 slide film could also be processed into smaller format slides. The latter requires special Pocket Carousel projectors. or the Leica 110 projector. The sub-miniature slides are mounted in small mounts, or for Kodachrome mounted in 35mm-sized mounts with a 110 frame. There are also mount adapters available that allow the small mounts to be projected in a common 35mm projector. These adapters were not entirely satisfactory however, as to project the smaller slide at a size comparable to that from 35mm the projector had to be moved further from the screen, resulting in a dimmer image. Dedicated 110 projectors overcame this by using a brighter lamp.

Kodak's Verichrome Pan was the only 110 black and white film produced until 2012, when Lomography manufactured their "Orca" Black and White film at 100 ISO speed. This speed is supported by most 110 cameras. Lomography went on to launch color, redscale, and slide film cartridges which, along with black and white, are the only 110 film types in production as of 2022.

title: 110 film


text:
Talk:Devil

Semi-protected edit request on 9 April 2024
Under the Zoroastrianism subsection it says that Ahura Mazda is the good that opposes Ahriman/Angra Mainyu, however this is false as it is Spenta Mainyu the progressive mentality which opposes Angra Mainyu the constricted mentality. There is only 1 god in Zoroastrianism that is Ahura Mazda but there are 2 spirits that of Spenta Mainyu and the good and the absence of good represented by Angra Mainyu. Shahstradamus (talk) 16:16, 9 April 2024 (UTC)

Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. PianoDan (talk) 17:42, 9 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Devil


text:
Talk:Mikhail Bulgakov

Disambiguation; S. Bulgakov
I came here looking for a page on Sergej Bulgakov, Soviet Idealist philosopher, author of Religija i politika, Religiya chelovekobozhestva u L. Feuerbacha etc. One of the main movers of Neo-Kantian philosophy in Marxist-Leninist dialectical thought. There may need to be a disambiguation page at "Bulgakov" for this reason. Nagelfar 10:26, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

letter to Stalin
Hi. Just wanted to say that contrary to what is written in the article, Bulgakov wrote to Stalin on March 28, 1930, not 1938 - and a second letter in 1931 (he had already written several letters to the Central Comitee of the Communist Party in 1929). And to the question whether Stalin liked Bulgakov's work or not, it may be worth noticing that Belaïa Gvardia (the white guard) was paradoxically one of Stalin's favourite novels - which is in some way even more interesting than his opinion of the Master and Margarita, which Bulgakov finished only shortly before his death, so that Stalin's opinion on that work could not influence his opinion of the writer while Bulgakov needed his "protection". Malena

Bulgakov and the Soviet state
The mid 1920’s were a prolific time for Bulgakov, and it was to be the only period in his life when he would see something published. In 1924, the magazine “Rossiya” agreed to publish his first novel, The White Guard, the story of a Tsarist Ukrainian family and their struggle during the civil war against the Bolshevik Red Army. Rossiya was to be closed down before Bulgakov’s third and final instalment could be published, but the first two were enough to attract the interest of P.A.Markov, the literary editor of the Moscow Academic Arts Theatre, who commissioned Bulgakov to adapt the novel for the stage, resulting in the play, The Days of the Turbins. In 1925, Bulgakov saw the publication of a collection of short stories, Diaboliad, the serialisation of Notes of a Young Doctor (A Country Doctor’s Notebook) in a medical journal and the completion of his novella, the Heart of a Dog, even if it was to remain unpublished until 1987.

The 1920’s in soviet Russia saw as much cultural and literary upheaval as it did political. In the early years of the revolution, it was agreed by most, including Lenin, that a new “proletarian” culture was to be developed. This stemmed from the basic Marxist thesis that the dominant ideas of any age were always the ideas of the ruling classes. The Proletkult movement, founded by Bogdanov on the eve of the October Revolution in 1917, prescribed to this and theorised that it was not enough for the proletariat to control the political and economic mechanisms of the state, cultural backwardness would have to be alleviated and a new socialist form of thought developed if the revolution was going to be a success in creating a truly equal and harmonious nation. Proletkult did not however, seek to create an androgynous art, at least not in the sense of later soviet theory would. Bogdanov advocated using art to organise the “social Experience”, both in the literal, cognitive sense and in the realm of emotion and sensation, as he believe that these too led to an intellectual experience, and developed the reader’s understanding. He even encouraged the study of art from past and foreign cultures, even religious art, if it would develop the aesthetic of the new socialist movement, but did warn against assimilating ideology from past ruling classes into the art of the proletariat. During this period, Bulgakov got work as a satirist for some “thick journals”, satire still being possible at this time, with these journals having no direct contact with the party and no more a political objective than to promote writers who’s ideals were loosely attachable to a communist principle. This skill would be invaluable to him in his work to come, not least in the novella, The Heart of a Dog.

The letter Bulgakov received on the 21st of may, 1925, from Boris Leontyev, a publisher, summed up how The Heart of a Dog was received. It read; Dear Mikhail Afanasyevich, I am sending you Cuff Notes And The Heart of a Dog. Do what you like with them. Sarychev at the Censorship Committee declared that the was no point in even tidying up The Heart of a Dog. “It’s an entirely unacceptable piece” or something similar.# To read The Heart of a Dog as mere satire on the Soviet blend of communism would be to do Bulgakov an injustice. It is true that sharik and his willingness to give up his freedom for the promise of a better life, irrespective of how he will be treated by the professor, with his mispronunciation of Engles could be a sarcastic representation of the proletariat, but perhaps the more inflammatory reading of Bulgakov’s novella is that, beneath the fantastic events that unfold in Prechistenka St., the core subject of the novel is the moral state of modern Moscow. The possibility of Professor Peobrazshensky and Sharikov representing Lenin and the Revolution respectively then becomes a moot point, for if there exists in The Heart of a Dog a very real illustration of the moral malaise in the capital of the supposed socialist utopia, the novel would automatically become unsuitable to the regime, even in the pre-Stalinist Socialist Realism era. Sharikov may have been transformed by Philip Philipovich, but the mentality that existed in the dog sharik was a product of his “up-bringing” on the city streets, and with it’s human inhabitants. His drinking and foul language are acceptable etiquette within the lower classes he developed amongst. The dog cannot be blamed for his actions, he does not possess the cognitive powers to make decisions the way humanity does, if Sharikov does reflect his society, then it is that society which must be held to account. Any possibility of misconstruing Bulgakov’s intentions in attacking modern morality, or the possibility that Sharikov acts the way he does because he, as a dog, is a baser being, is blasted when Philip Philipovich corrects Bormenthal for implying Sharikov has “the heart of a dog”. the professor declares “for heaven’s sake don’t insult the dog…The whole horror of the situation is that he now has a Human heart, not a dog’s heart.”# The danger in this work is that, even in terms of the relatively moderate Proletkult thinking of the day, if the revolution was really about the proletariat, what kind of future could a nation have if it’s power base stemmed from the dregs shown in The Heart of a Dog? The Prols, as George Orwell would call them, looked foolish, violent and rude when held up to the moral and intellectual standard personified in Philip Philipovich, an obvious exemplar of tsarist bourgeois, a comparison that the Regime could not allow to be made, no matter how true it may have been. The Heart of a Dog did not see publication in the Soviet Union until 1987.

Things were to go from bad to worse for Mr. Bulgakov. The constrictions of the early and mid twenties would soon seem relaxed by comparison to what was to come. The formation of the R.A.P.P., the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, and the advent of Socialist Realism would quickly destroy the experimentalism of the early revolution and strive for a State endorsed androgyny in literature. R.A.P.P. academics advocated the critic Ermilov’s theory of the “Harmonious Man”, who could maintain a balance between the Psyche and ideology, the conscious and the subconscious and between instinct and consciousness. His theory maintained that when the right socialist ideology controlled the psyche of the masses, the revolution would be completed by an unconditioned reflex. This thinking made suppressing unsuitable ideals in literature an imperative, giving those in authorities positions a carte blanche when it came to denouncing writers seen to be “enemies” of the revolution. Owing to this “necessary” censorship, Bulgakov’s Notes of a Young Doctor was the last thing published in his lifetime, and this suppression by the state would be of constant annoyance to and source of great depression for Bulgakov until his death. In a letter dated the 28th of March, 1930, and addressed “To the Soviet Government”, Bulgakov vented this frustration in no uncertain terms that; I am a passionate supporter of that freedom [freedom of the press], and I consider that if any writer were to imagine that he could prove he didn’t need that freedom, then he would be like a fish affirming in public that it didn’t need water.#

Three weeks later he was to receive a phone call form Stalin, who after denying Bulgakov’s request for foreign travel permits suggested he work for the Moscow Arts Theatre, a job he had previously been refused. Bulgakov accepted, along with a posting in T.R.A.M., the Young Workers’ Theatre. He immediately began work, fulfilling a commitment to transform Gogol’s Dead Souls into a stage production, actually quitting TRAM on the 15th of March,1931, believing himself to be overtaxed and as a result of no benefit to the organisation. It seems that when Stalin hinted at the possibility of foreign travel during the course of their conversation, Mikhail Afanasyevich took him at his word#, but never heard directly from the dictator again, a fact that cut the writer deeply. Around this time, Stalin’s influence, and indeed the influence of many R.A.P.P. writers, further tightened controlled on the arts, culminating in the genesis of a theory referred to as “Socialist Realism” whereby the established techniques of the 19th Century were to be used to represent the struggle for socialism and the revolution in a positive light. In this Bulgakov was half there. He was not a modernist, a dirty word in Stalinist Russia, in terms of style. As opposed to some of his contemporaries, such as the novelist Zamyatin, Bulgakov had little or no interest in modernity and the future, he was more interested in preserving the past heritage of Russian literature, and his technique reflects this. It was his treatment of subject that was to prove far more controversial. Rather than the institution of Soviet totalitarianism, It was to be the institution of R.A.P.P. and other “proletarian” writers that would cause Bulgakov the most problems in the final years of his life. The general dogma of the day was that, in a perverse application of an interpretation of Hegel, the psychology of a literary parsonage reflected the psychology of his society, ergo, all literature must be Marxist-Leninist in content and proletarian in style. The leader of R.A.P.P., L.L. Averbakh, decreed that “the artistic method of the writer is completely subordinated to his ideological orientation”#, an attitude that was to assure Bulgakov’s position as an outsider with most of Soviet Russia’s literati.

On the 3rd of October, 1931, thanks in part to a favourable report given by Maksim Gorky, Bulgakov’s play, Molière, was given licence to be played in Leningrad and Moscow by the Chief Repertory Committee. The events that were to unfold came as a shock to Mikhail Afanasyevich, who was to tell his friend, Pavel Popov; “It turns out that that the play was not taken off by an organ of the State. Molière was destroyed by an utterly unexpected figure!”# The unexpected figure was none other than Vsevold Vishnevsky, an influential communist writer who, upon seeing rehearsals for the play in Leningrad, demanded that the Bolshoy’s Artistic-Political Council shut down the production immediately. Bulgakov knew this to be a jealous move by a rival who’s “motives were by no means political”#. The news that Molière had been cancelled left Bulgakov abject and facing serious financial troubles. In these late years, Mikhail Afanasyevich was becoming very embittered at his situation, and increasingly cynical. On the 7th of May, 1932, just before his 41st birthday, Bulgakov sarcastically wrote to Popov; “And here, towards the end of my career as a writer, I find myself obliged to write stage adaptations. What a brilliant finale, don’t you think? I gaze at the shelves and shudder: whom, oh whom will I have to adapt next?”# This stoical side of Bulgakov becomes very clear in his later work, especially his masterpiece The Master and Margarita. Events immediately preceding the Molière set-back would provide the writer with some respite, because in January a disappointed Stalin enquired as to why The Days of the Turbins was no longer being performed at the Moscow Arts Theatre. As a result of instruction from the Soviet Government, the theatre quickly revived the play, and in the author’s words, “[I’ve] had a part of [my] life restored to [me].”# this intervention form the State was to provide Bulgakov with almost his only source of constant income for the remainder of his life.

Bouncing back from the devastation inflicts by the Bolshoy’s termination of his first new play in years, in July 1932 Bulgakov signed a contract to produce a prose biography of Molière, which he worked on with great interest, delivering it to the publishers on the 5th of March 1933, only to have it rejected a month later on the advice of Gorky, a previous supporter of Bulgakov’s works on the life of the French writer. Maksim Gorky agreed with the editor, Aleksandr Tikhonov, who thought that the book was far too subversive in it’s style and much too suggestive of the soviet political reality in it’s description of the life and times of the playwright. Bulgakov refused to edit the book in any way, and in April 1933, writing again to Popov, who seems to have been a great source of strength for the embattled writer, he declared; “And so, it is my pleasure to bury Jean-Baptiste Molière. It will be better and more peaceful for everyone.”# After promising Stalin in a letter in 1930 that he had burned the manuscripts of the novel that was to become The Master and Margarita, Bulgakov returned to this work with great interest during the final years of his life. He used the novel as a tool with which to attack everything he saw as rotten in the soviet state, the story he produced standing as a classic of the soviet age, even though it was not to be published until long after his death. In the novel Moscow is visited by the devil, and the events that ensue are run parallel to the Master’s revised account of the final episode of Jesus Christ’s life. From the outset, there was never any question of the novel being printed under Stalin and Soviet Realism’s tight grip on Russian literature of the day, as we see Bulgakov challenging the basis of soviet rule from the beginning. In the “never talk to strangers” chapter, the Professor argues with Berlioz on the nature of power in relation to humanity’s frail mortality, a theme that is in direct contradiction not only to the ideology of the permanent world revolution and the inevitability of the success of communism, but also to the cult of Lenin and his continuing guidance of the revolution, not mentioning the emerging cult of the apparently omnipotent Stalin. The possibility of the regime being vulnerable, or of it being subject to a higher power or worse, an anarchic chaos theory was completely out of the question when it came to it being published, and when the Professor asks; “If there is no God, then who, one wonders, rules the life of Man and keeps the world in order?”# Any answer other than ‘Stalin, of course’ had to be nothing short of heresy. This also calls the theory of Socialist Realism into question, because, in affirming the mortality of man and the triviality of trying to control everything, it refutes any claim that either man or regime, with their inherent finite boundaries, could have on the infinite nature of art, what James Joyce called “the eternal affirmation of the spirit of man.” the novel can be seen as a condemnation of that spirit in Moscow, as the devil never has to corrupt, he only unmasks the presence of evil in the capital of Socialist utopia. In Bulgakov’s last novel we can detect much of the Socratic tradition, or the 3rd of Mikhail Bahktin’s elements of Menippean satire, whereby fantastic situations provoke and test the truth rather than having to accurately embody it. Bulgakov questions Soviet Russia and it’s morals, asking it to “drink the bitter cup of responsibility” as Rimsky does, if it sees elements of truth in the work. It is interesting that in a time of “communist equality”, Bulgakov felt the need to point out that both the Master and Ieshua were befriended only for material gain, by Mogarych and Iuda respectively. This is possibly a dig at the nature of soviet society as Bulgakov saw it, as he had suffered often at the hands of others for materialistic or jealous reasons, not least when Vsevold Vishnevsky had interfered in Molière’s fate. The novel also confronts soviet theory on the intellect, and cynically parodies it’s ideas on the intellect’s subversion. In the Master and the short lived Berlioz, we see the too ends of the intellectual spectrum. Berlioz is an educated man in a respectable position in the world of academia and yet he is represented as foolish and ignorant compared to the equally intelligent Master. The difference is that Bulgakov, who was a man of some faith, believed that knowledge is no guarantee of authenticity. Both Berlioz and the Master claim to “know” the truth about Jesus, one believes, the other doesn’t. Both perhaps have a strong argument, but neither can qualify it, and so we must take the Master to be the higher intellect, as he is the one who is prepared to embrace the improbable and believe. This element of Bulgakov’s masterpiece could be it’s most dangerous in terms of it’s threat to the regime, as it calls for people to re-introduce a dimension of irrational faith in the fantastic and improvable back into their cognition, something that could undo the tight controls imposed by a rationalistic atheist dictatorship. In terms of the soviet regime and Socialist Realism, this debates whether official myth mattered more than an obvious reality.

The tyranny of soviet mob rule is exposed best in the character of Bezdomny, who is incarcerated in a mental institution simply because what he has seen cannot be endorsed by soviet ideology, regardless of whether or not it could explain the death of Berlioz and the strange events surrounding Flat No.50. This is sardonic attack on Soviet theory derived from Hegel, that if might is right, than anyone in opposition to that right must be wrong and in need of treatment#. One cannot help but attach some significance between this representation and Bulgakov himself, as even though he was not incarcerated for his works, the constant efforts of the regime, the R.A.P.P., directors, other writers and editors to either heavily rework his writings or have them condemned as heresy, must have seemed to the writer as the actions of those who ‘knew better’ than he did, as he was obviously, in their eyes, disillusioned. The obvious parallels between Ieshua and the Master, and even Bulgakov himself, suggest that, in a society like ancient Jerusalem or contemporary Moscow, with their blind attachment to orthodoxy, leaves only one chance of development, and that is the martyrdom of heretic sacrifice in the hope followers might take that to be the highest qualification a belief could have, and spread it on that basis, the way the followers of Jesus would, and hopefully the way the Master’s teachings might infiltrate literature. It is obvious that Bulgakov held many of his contemporaries in contempt, as parodied in the MASSOLIT organisation, and no doubt believed that Russian literature was in need of a saviour if it was to survive. In a classic example of Bulgakov’s sarcastic wit, he makes fun of the belief Koroviev holds that, in MASSOLIT and the Soviet tyranny that the organisation represented that it was possible to think “that at this moment in that house there may be the future author of a Don Quixote, or a Faust or who knows-Dead Souls?”#

Two years before Bulgakov finished the novel, his theatrical career was to experience one final flutter of hope. Despite Vishnevsky’s attacks in Leningrad, the Moscow Arts Theatre where Bulgakov worked had continued very sporadically with rehearsals of Molière. It was premiered in early 1936, the delay a result of the lack-lustre approach of the theatre to the play and of the constant meddling of it’s director, Konstantin Stanislavsky, whom Bulgakov had become increasingly contemptuous. Eventually, after relations between Bulgakov and Stanislavsky reached breaking point over his constant reworking of the text, the theatre’s other Director, one time friend and current rival of Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, took over the production. It was to receive rave reviews to early premieres, but a damning article entitled “Superficial glitter and False Content” in Pravda on the 9th of March saw the play cancelled that very day. This latest attack on Mikhail Afanasyevich also saw his other plays, Pushkin and Ivan Vasilyevich, the latter being banned on the spot during a dress rehearsal by a member of the Party Central Committee.# Once again Bulgakov had been attacked under the auspices of Socialist Realism, but once again he incurred no penalty  other than insult and the loss of yet more of his work to dogma. There were discussions held regarding the plays’ resurrections, on condition of their being reworked, but Bulgakov categorically refused any changes, obviously too disillusioned with the regime to believe any changes would really make a difference. It is also possible that the now very cynical Bulgakov saw any changes as a confession of wrong-doing. In her diary, his third wife, Yelena Sergeyevna, discusses the absurdity of suggestions that her husband should apologise or vindicate himself and his works by way of a letter. She says, in a exasperated tone; “Vindicate what? Misha won’t write such a letter…Everybody is saying the same thing in a friendly fashion-a vindication. He has nothing to vindicate.”#

Following the latest barrage of criticism, a scornful Bulgakov put an end to his six year career at the Moscow Arts Theatre, taking with him a cynical and bitter opinion of the two Directors of the theatre, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, the two former friends of Chekov, innovators of the Russian theatre during the early years of the revolution, and the cornerstones of the Soviet stage, holding them to be jealous, conceited hacks who did nothing more than preserve what he now held to be nothing more than the statuesque pageant of communist theatre.

This disdain found incarnation in Bulgakov’s other secret novel of the period, A Theatrical Novel or The Notes of a Dead Man, as he would later refer to it as. It is an obvious recollection of his time working under the two giants of the Moscow stage, with Stanislavsky parodied in the guise of the character Ivan Vasilievich, a play on words pointing towards Ivan the Terrible, no doubt a comparison Bulgakov found to be very fitting.

The Notes of a Dead Man was never finished, Mikhail Bulgakov died on the 10th of March 1940. While it lacks the direction and originality of his other works, it is a brilliant piece of hatchet work directed at the tyrannical orthodoxy that Bulgakov saw in contemporary Russian artistic circles. This unfinished piece is also a vital key to the career of Bulgakov, as it was the first thing he had published in the Soviet Union since the 1920’s. It appeared in the journal, Novy Mir, in 1965 and sparked the renaissance in interest that Bulgakov’s writings still enjoy today. 1966/67 saw The Master and Margarita make an appearance, albeit somewhat censored, in the Moskva publication. This rejuvenation of his work shows Bulgakov to be an artist of the highest moral integrity, one of the few that did not bend or buckle under Soviet pressure, but instead remained true to his beliefs and his art. His resistance to political pressures and the absurd dogma of Socialist Realism in Soviet Russia is a testament to the will of great artists to persevere with originality, and Bulgakov’s mentality perhaps finds apt voice in the opinion of another great writer, Bertolt Brecht, who, when discussing the Soviet regime and it’s control over artists, declared that “it is not the job of the Marxist-Leninist party to organise production of poems as on a poultry farm. If it did the poems would resemble one another like so many eggs.”

In his infamous letter to Stalin in May 1931, Bulgakov himself summed up his career and his philosophies, and their relation and resistance to the Soviet Union, he said; “In the broad field of Russian literature in the U.S.S.R. I have been the one and only literary wolf. I was Advised to dye my fur. An absurd piece of advice. Whether a wolf dyes it’s fur or has it clipped, he will still look nothing like a poodle.”#�

title: Talk:Mikhail Bulgakov


text:
User:Strakes

Hi welcome to Wikipedia.

I'm sorry but we use ogg for audio, wma is the worse choice you can make.

title: User:Strakes


text:
Talk:The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari

So is it on semi today
I am auto confirmed, but saying it to all of my other friends who are IP’s, impossible to create an account and more! Gale5050 (talk) 20:34, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:52, 22 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari poster.jpg

title: Talk:The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari


text:
Grokster

Grokster Ltd. was a privately owned software company based in Nevis, West Indies that created the Grokster peer-to-peer file-sharing client in 2001 that used the FastTrack protocol. Grokster Ltd. was rendered extinct in late 2005 by the United States Supreme Court's decision in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. The court ruled against Grokster's peer-to-peer file sharing program for computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system, effectively forcing the company to cease operations.

The product was similar in look and feel to Kazaa, marketed by Sharman Networks, and Morpheus, which was distributed by StreamCast. Grokster, along with Morpheus and Kazaa, are considered second-generation peer-to-peer file sharing programs. Unlike their predecessor Napster, these file sharing programs allowed users to trade files directly between one another, without these transactions passing through a centralized server. Because Napster maintained this fraction of control over the transaction of files through its server, it was ruled illegal because it should have exercised its power over the server to stop the sharing of copyright infringing files. Grokster and this second generation of peer-to-peer file sharing programs sought to avoid this legal obstacle.

A summary of the piracy argument
It has been estimated that 90% of files shared on Grokster were downloaded illegally. Whether such downloads have substantially affected the retail sales of music, videos, and other works protected by copyright and the intellectual property laws is a matter of debate. Grokster claimed they did not violate any copyright laws because no files passed through their computers. They assigned certain user computers as "root supernodes" that acted as music hubs for their company. Thus they were not responsible for controlling any specific file downloads.

The key issue in the copyright infringement case was the so-called "Sony safe-harbor" principle that was set by the Supreme Court over 21 years previously in Sony v. Universal Studios 464 U.S. 417 (1984). The ruling stated that, "...the sale of copying equipment, like the sale of other articles of commerce, does not constitute contributory infringement if the product is widely used for legitimate, unobjectionable purposes. Indeed, it need merely be capable of substantial non-infringing uses" (Sony 464 U.S. at 442). This case challenged the legality of using VTRs to copy content using Betamax tapes. Grokster argued that proof of reasonable, actual or potential, non-infringing use, is sufficient to fulfill the "substantiality" requirement. The RIAA and MPAA argued that Sony safe-harbor requires proof that the non-infringing use is the primary one; an incidental non-infringing use is not enough.

Among the amicus curiae briefs:

 * The U.S. government proposed that a manufacturer of a technological device will be protected by Sony safe-harbor only if the non-infringing uses are commercially significant compared to the infringing uses.
 * A group of law and economic professors (among them Professors Kenneth J. Arrow, and William M. Landes) argue that the test whether the non-infringing use is substantial, requires an examination of all the existing legal mechanisms for accomplishing the same task. The example given is the distribution of the Bible. This is lawfully available through peer-to-peer file sharing software and is therefore a non-infringing use. But many religious websites offer a free copy. Thus, since downloading the Bible through peer-to-peer file sharing software is an addition to the list of well-established legitimate methods for obtaining a free Bible, the benefits of this addition are not substantial and the overall use of P2P software should not be considered a non-infringing use.
 * The cost-benefit analysis, first introduced by Judge Posner from the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals in the Aimster case, holds that a manufacturer of technological device will enjoy the Sony safe-harbor only if "...it would have been disproportionately costly for him to eliminate or at least reduce substantially the infringing uses."
 * The Creative Commons organization presented a strong argument for non-infringing use in the form of the Creative Commons licence, despite the fact that the architecture of the software did not allow for the licence information to be transferred.
 * Notable Emerging Technology Companies with the support of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (among them Kaleidescape, Inc. (CEO Michael Malcolm), Sling Media, Inc. (Founder Raghu Tarra), Time Trax Technologies Corp. (CEO Elliott Frutkin) argued unwarranted alteration of the test set forth in Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417 (1984), that would have profound negative consequences for emerging technology companies. Determining a product’s "primary uses" necessarily requires evaluating how the product is actually used. This ex post facto, or after-the-fact, test for contributory infringement would greatly increase the legal uncertainty surrounding the decision to pursue commercialization of a new technology. Emerging technology companies cannot necessarily predict the "primary uses" to which their new technology will be put, much less whether those uses would be held by the courts to be infringing uses.

The history of the case in the U.S. courts
In April 2003, Los Angeles federal judge Stephen Wilson ruled in favor of Grokster and Streamcast (providers of Morpheus P2P software) against the Recording Industry Association of America and the Motion Picture Association of America and held that their file sharing software was not illegal.

On 20 August 2003, the decision was appealed by the RIAA and the MPAA.

On 17 August 2004, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit issued a partial ruling supporting Grokster, holding "This appeal presents the question of whether distributors of peer-to-peer file-sharing networking software may be held contributorily or vicariously liable for copyright infringements by users. Under the circumstances presented by this case, we conclude that the defendants are not liable for contributory and vicarious copyright infringement and affirm the district court's partial grant of summary judgment."

In December 2004, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case. On 25 March 2005, billionaire and former Broadcast.com owner Mark Cuban announced he would finance Grokster's fight in the Supreme Court. Oral arguments were held for MGM v. Grokster on 29 March 2005, and in June 2005, the court unanimously held that Grokster could indeed be sued for infringement for their activities prior to the date of this judgment. But the future impact of the case may only be to require software companies to more carefully advertise their packages to discourage illegal downloading (see also inducement rule).

Grokster settled with plaintiffs shortly after the Supreme Court's decision. On 14 February 2006, the plaintiffs filed motions for summary judgment as to the liability of the remaining defendants, StreamCast and Sharman. Defendant Sharman Networks reached a tentative settlement agreement in August 2006.

On 27 September 2006, Judge Steven Wilson of the United States District Court for the Central District of California granted summary judgment to the plaintiffs as to StreamCast's liability. The court rejected StreamCast's argument that the plaintiff needs to show specific instances of infringement resulting from StreamCast's acts, holding that "Plaintiff need prove only that StreamCast distributed the product with the intent to encourage infringement."

Supreme Court decision leads to shutdown
Grokster closed its site on November 7, 2005. A note on its home page cited a United States Supreme Court ruling that copying copyrighted material using "unauthorized peer-to-peer services is illegal" and while legal download services exist, "this service is not one of them."

The website is now threatening visitors that their actions can get them caught, displaying the visitor's IP address.

The screen text reads as follows: "The United States Supreme Court unanimously confirmed that using this service to trade copyrighted material is illegal. Copying copyrighted motion picture and music files using unauthorized peer-to-peer services is illegal and is prosecuted by copyright owners.

There are legal services for downloading music and movies. This service is not one of them.

YOUR IP ADDRESS IS XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX AND HAS BEEN LOGGED. Don't think you can't get caught. You are not anonymous."

- Grokster site

Impact of legal threats and fallout from Grokster’s demise
In the aftermath of the Grokster warning, many users became alarmed that their IP addresses were being stored. Prosecution of such individuals relies upon what has commonly been referred to as a process of doe subpoena in which prosecutors are required to gain a series of subpoenas in order to find out the identity of the user behind the IP address in question. Following the shutdown of Grokster, blogs became inundated with concerned users fearful of the warning; however, there have been no reports of the use of doe subpoenas in this case.

Research into the effects of warnings such as the one left on Grokster’s website has shown that while these warnings can result in a substantial reduction in online file sharing of individuals, the overall availability of downloadable content did not diminish. Furthermore, researchers cannot account for how much of this reduction in individual file sharing is simply shifted to other file sharing programs. In cases where the RIAA has issued threats, the users who conduct the most file sharing usually reduced their daily transactions to levels below the level of prosecution. In effect, these warnings have only caused only a brief reduction in overall online file sharing.

In popular culture

 * Weird Al Yankovic mentions Grokster in "Don't Download This Song".

title: Grokster


text:
Béla Fleck and the Flecktones

Béla Fleck and the Flecktones is an American jazz fusion band that is known for its eclectic style and instrumentation, combining jazz improvisation with progressive bluegrass, rock, classical, funk, and world music traditions.

The Flecktones formed in 1988 when Béla Fleck was invited to perform on the PBS TV series The Lonesome Pine Specials. The original members were Fleck on banjo, Victor Wooten on bass guitar, his brother Roy Wooten on Drumitar, and Howard Levy on harmonica and keyboards. After Levy's departure in 1992 the group continued as a trio for several years until recruiting Jeff Coffin in 1997 on saxophones. Coffin quit the group in 2010, and Levy rejoined in 2011.

Formation
Near the end of his time with the New Grass Revival band, Fleck was invited to play for the Lonesome Pine Special on PBS in 1988, and he gathered a group of musicians to assist him. He had met Howard Levy the year before at the Winnipeg Folk Festival. Victor Wooten auditioned over the phone and volunteered his brother Roy as a potential member. After the PBS performance, Fleck decided to keep the group together, calling it Bela Fleck and the Flecktones and using it to explore a more complex series of his own compositions.

The Flecktones merged bluegrass with jazz, presenting record store owners with the problem of selecting a genre under which to stock their whimsically titled albums, whose covers bore cartoons. The leader played electric banjo and was influenced by the Kentucky bluegrass of Earl Scruggs and "The Ballad of Jed Clampett". Victor Wooten broke into jazz bass solos. Roy Wooten called himself "Future Man" and played drumitar, an instrument which he'd developed by linking a customised SynthAxe guitar synthesizer controller to drum sounds. Melodies were usually taken by Howard Levy.

The first Flecktones video, "Sinister Minister", was in rotation at the networks VH-1, which played pop and adult contemporary music; BET, the Black Entertainment channel; and Country Music Television. The band performed initially at jazz festivals, as well as with soul singer Stevie Wonder, blues guitarist Bonnie Raitt, and the Christian a cappella group Take 6. Followers of the Grateful Dead took note.

Recording
The band's debut album, Béla Fleck and the Flecktones (Warner Bros, 1989), received a Grammy nomination for Best Contemporary Jazz Album, as did their second album, Flight of the Cosmic Hippo (Warner Bros., 1991), which also received a nomination for Best Instrumental Composition for the song "Blu-Bop" and contained the Flecktones's version of "The Star-Spangled Banner". Their next album had another cartoon cover and the palindromic title UFO TOFU (Warner Bros., 1992). One of its songs, "Bonnie & Slyde", had Fleck playing banjo atypically with a slide, an idea suggested to him by slide guitarist Bonnie Raitt.

UFO Tofu would be the last album the Flecktones recorded with their original lineup until Rocket Science in 2011. Howard Levy left the band in December 1992. While the departure of Levy was tough for the band, it was not unexpected. During their 1992 tour it became evident to the band that Levy was not happy with the rigors of touring and wanted to spend more time with his wife and children.

The remaining trio, consisting of Fleck and the Wooten brothers, recorded their fourth album, Three Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. "'Once we started rehearsing, everything was fine,' said Fleck. 'We started finding ways to sound good, and it was real exciting.'" Without Levy, the Flecktones as usual spent most of 1993 on the road and released Three Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest in September of that year. The band continued to tour for the next couple of years. 1996 saw the release of the live album Live Art, featuring recordings made over a four-year touring period which also saw the core Flecktones trio (plus, on some tunes, Levy) collaborating with assorted jazz and bluegrass musicians including Sam Bush, Branford Marsalis, Chick Corea, and Bruce Hornsby.

Return to quartet
In April 1997, the Flecktones became a quartet again, as they added saxophone player Jeff Coffin to the mix. In June 1997, the Flecktones opened for the Dave Matthews Band. In July the Flecktones toured Europe and sat in on the second set of a Phish show in Lyon, France. This marked the second and final time that the Flecktones played with Phish.

In June 1998, the Flecktones released their sixth album, and fifth studio album, Left of Cool. It represented a switch from previous Flecktones albums, as the band, according to critic Terri Horak, "jettisoned their self-imposed rule to only record what could be duplicated on live instruments." In July 2000, the Flecktones released their seventh album, Outbound, another studio album. The Flecktones' philosophy with this album was to do something different from everything they had done before. What makes Outbound unique is the way in which the Flecktones recorded the album. The quartet recorded each track on the album, then invited guest musicians to overdub vocals or instrumentation. Outbound guests include Jon Anderson from Yes, Shawn Colvin, and John Medeski, of Medeski, Martin and Wood, to name a few.

Live at the Quick, which was also released as a DVD, is the band's eighth album and second live album. For fans of live Flecktones, this album, like Live Art, successfully captured the sound and feel of the Flecktones in concert.

In February 2006, the band released their tenth album, The Hidden Land. As with every Flecktones album, they needed to change something from their last album. For The Hidden Land, the Flecktones didn't want any guest musicians. "'The truth is, the last few records are not what we are,' Fleck said. 'Obviously, we loved playing with those musicians, but if you keep on doing it, you become a gathering point rather than a group with its own identity.'" For the Flecktones to keep moving forward, they felt their music had to get back to the roots of the quartet.

Jeff Coffin amicably left the band in 2010 to join the Dave Matthews Band. Original member Howard Levy rejoined the following year in 2011, when the band recorded and released their eleventh album Rocket Science.

In June 2012, following another summer tour, the Flecktones announced their hiatus as a band.

Reunion
In January 2016, the Flecktones announced a short reunion tour scheduled for June 2016, confirming an appearance at the Telluride Bluegrass Festival on June 16, 2016. In 2017, the band announced concerts for June–August 2017, and also confirmed a tour with Chick Corea Elektric Band in August 2017.

Critical reception
Thom Jurek of AllMusic.com called the Flecktones's music an "unclassifiable meld of jazz, progressive bluegrass, rock, classical, funk, and world music traditions," a style sometimes dubbed "blu-bop".

Of the album Béla Fleck and the Flecktones critic Geoffrey Himes wrote, "Fleck's banjo-playing takes the quartet on wide tangents through the outer space of jazz improvisation and minimalist composition, but he always brings them back to the traditions of rural America."

The quartet received attention for their musical innovations and invention, including praise from music critic Bill Kolhaase. However, he was critical of the band's lack of a drum kit, claiming that Wooten's "electronic beat seemed a bit muddy compared to the real thing".

Cosmic Hippo was received favorably. Himes applauded their prodigious improvisatory ability. John Griffin of The Gazette also praised the group's ability to create such an individual style that "the whole of idea of style disappears." Mike Joyce, of The Washington Post was impressed by the Flecktones' ability to maintain a distinct voice. Joyce called a Flecktones show a "musical free-for-all, embracing the band's recorded material and venturing off into the great unknown." Jim Santella of The Buffalo News praised the band's mastery of styles and their ability to weave together complicated pieces. Santella even compared Fleck's playing to a "miniature Bach canon."

Geoffrey Himes remarked that Left of Cool sounded too ordinary. In his negative review he wrote, "Unfortunately the Flecktones' first studio album in five years reveals that they've become a very ordinary band." Himes adds, "The four Flecktones are all marvelous musicians, and they come up with imaginative parts for the new album's 15 cuts. The overall concept, however has diminished into easy-to-digest pop-jazz, for which there is too much already."

Hidden Land received mixed reviews. Critic Michael Endelman of Entertainment Weekly, wrote that the Flecktones sound "hasn't aged well." Dan Ouelette of Billboard found Hidden Land to be "by far their best album." Ouelette was particularly impressed by the quartet's range of repertoire in this album.

Jingle All the Way was well received. Geoffrey Himes praised the band for being able to package the Flecktones' complex sound into an easily digestible holiday album without having to compromise.

Jeff Kelman of Jazz Times writes favorably about Rocket Science and Levy's reunion with the Flecktones, "Rocket Science recaptures everything that made the Flecktones so fresh, so innovative, so important during its first five years." Kelman particularly praised the album's writing and the interactions between Levy and Fleck. AllMusic critic Thom Jurek also gave Rocket Science a rave review, "Rocket Science fires on all cylinders and comes off as a fresh and exciting reintroduction to a newly energized Flecktones."

Studio albums

 * Béla Fleck and the Flecktones (1990)
 * Flight of the Cosmic Hippo (1991)
 * UFO Tofu (1992)
 * Three Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1993)
 * Left of Cool (1998)
 * Outbound (2000)
 * Little Worlds (2003)
 * The Hidden Land (2006)
 * Jingle All the Way (2008)
 * Rocket Science (2011)

Live albums

 * Live Art (1996)
 * Live at the Quick (2002)

Compilation albums

 * Greatest Hits of the 20th Century (1999)

Band members

 * Béla Fleck – banjos, synthesizers, guitar (1988–)
 * Howard Levy – harmonicas, piano, keyboards, jaw harp (1988–1993, 2010–)
 * Victor Wooten – bass guitars, double bass, cello (1988–)
 * Roy Wooten ("Future Man") – drumitar, drums, percussion, electronic drums (1988–)

Former
 * Jeff Coffin – saxophones, flute, clarinet, synthesizers (1998–2010)

title: Béla Fleck and the Flecktones


text:
Talk:Grokster

Add
There isn't much here. Can somebody brush it up? -- Zoe

Brushed
The problem with a page like this is that it is ephemeral so it should not engage in journalism but restrict itself to a short factual exposition. I have attempted to produce this. No doubt, when the Supreme Court issues its decision, someone can rewrite it. -David91 17:11, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Glokster vs Glokster Case
I want to emphasize that the bigger half of the article is about Grokster Case. I'm sorry, cos I don't know proper template. --Loading 4 July 2005 21:26 (UTC)

Material from article
I have removed the following material from the page:
 * ==The spyware problem==
 * Grokster is a Peer-To-Peer File Sharing program. It offers free, peer-to-peer fast and detailed searches, no incomplete/failed downloads, auto resume, fast downloads, file preview, and ability to handle all file types. In an organization, Grokster can severely degrade network performance and consume vast amounts of storage. Installs numerous other products, including Active Delivery, CasinoOnNet, ClipGenie, CommonName, Cydoor, DelFin Media Viewer, DownloadWare, eUniverse, FavoriteMan, FlashTrack, Gator, IGetNet, IGetNet/ClearSearch, IncrediFind, IPInsight, Look2Me, Lycos.SideSearch, NetworkEssentials, NetworkEssentials/SCBar, PeopleOnPage, RVP, SAHAgent, Search-EXE, SearchEnhancement, TOPicks, VX2/e, VX2/f, and Webhancer.

 * In recent versions of Grokster, the download includes additional applications that are bundled within the software's installer file, some of which may be provided by parties other than the developer of the download. These applications may deliver advertisements, collect personal information, overlay content or graphics on the Web site you are viewing, or modify your system settings. Pay close attention to the options presented to you during the installation process. As of 9/3/02, the version of Grokster available for download requires that you also install Cydoor and GAIN components. During installation, you will also be presented with more than 10 optional installation items and/or services from Symantec, File Freedom, New.net, eBates, GreenCarrot, and others.

 * Additional information from Spyware Information Center
 * Spyware Information Center and Microsoft are the sources for this information.
 * Source citations Computer Associates Spyware Information Center http://www3.ca.com/securityadvisor/pest/pest.aspx?id=453060425

 * Microsoft Corporation http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;317013 and http://search.microsoft.com/search/results.aspx?view=en-us&st=b&na=82&qu=grokster"

The page is primarily concerned with the litigation. That there may be some spyware introduced by the downloading and use of the software is irrelevant to the general thrust of the page. However, rather than simply delete it, I have saved it all here and those with a sufficient interest can move it to pages where it would be more relevant. David91 04:53, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

Questionable statement in "piracy argument" section.
I felt bold tonight and removed the line "They are now logging your IP once you even get onto their original homepage to use against users" from that paragraph. A source is not cited for this claim and it's dubious at best. -Spectere 04:03, 1 March 2007 (UTC)
 * To further elaborate, I don't doubt that the IP addresses are logged, per se (since they are on virtually every web server a person hits) but I highly doubt that it's "used against users." If so, Google, Microsoft, et al, are in big trouble, thanks to their web caching services. :)  -Spectere 05:52, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

What's going on with the present hosting of their website http://www.grokster.com/ ??
http://www.grokster.com says stuff like:

The United States Supreme Court unanimously confirmed that using this service to trade copyrighted material is illegal. Copying copyrighted motion picture and music files using unauthorized peer-to-peer services is illegal and is prosecuted by copyright owners.

There are legal services for downloading music and movies. This service is not one of them.

YOUR IP ADDRESS IS [I removed my IP] AND HAS BEEN LOGGED. Don't think you can't get caught. You are not anonymous.

That kinda thing. ???? Are you ready for IPv6? (talk) 01:57, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

Warning
I think there should be a warning on the link to the Grokster website that logging on to it will have your IP logged —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.236.39.247 (talk) 20:35, 15 April 2011 (UTC)
 * The only link to grokster.com from this article is a reference for the warning you are talking about. I don't see why should we add another warning for that. As a side note, you can expect that your IP address will be logged whenever you access any website, and I don't see any reason why accessing this particular website should be illegal or cause any kind of problems for anyone. I think the message is just FUD. User<Svick>.Talk; 20:18, 17 April 2011 (UTC)
 * Agreed. And also the original poster has his IP listed here (by sinebot)! Ms.henrick (talk) 09:58, 22 May 2011 (UTC)

additions for aftermath of shutdown
I want to add some portion at the end of this page to put the shutdown in some kind of context and provide some information concerning the after effects of the grokster shutdown, specifically I want to include a link to the wikipedia page on doe subpoenas that will help people understand what the threat of IP logging means. I have also found a statistical research paper that gives some analysis of how users react to these type of legal threats.Jaugust87 (talk) 20:12, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

second generation peer to peer program
I would also like to add a clarification of grokster, morpheus and kazzaa as second generation peer to peer programs as differentiated from Napster any thoughts would be appreciated. Jaugust87 (talk) 20:12, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 3 one external links on Grokster. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20060710070936/http://www.philiplarson.com:80/blog/?p=3 to http://www.philiplarson.com/blog/?p=3
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20060227233926/http://www.philiplarson.com:80/blog/?p=4 to http://www.philiplarson.com/blog/?p=4
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20060227234440/http://www.philiplarson.com:80/blog/?p=5 to http://www.philiplarson.com/blog/?p=5

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at Sourcecheck).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 00:39, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Grokster. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060207094002/http://www.pcreview.co.uk/articles/Consumer-Advice/The_Legality_of_File_Sharing_-_MGM_vs_Grokster/ to http://www.pcreview.co.uk/articles/Consumer-Advice/The_Legality_of_File_Sharing_-_MGM_vs_Grokster/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:51, 24 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grokster


text:
Franz Marc

Franz Moritz Wilhelm Marc (8 February 1880 – 4 March 1916) was a German painter and printmaker, one of the key figures of German Expressionism. He was a founding member of Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), a journal whose name later became synonymous with the circle of artists collaborating in it.

His mature works mostly are animals, and are known for bright colors. He was drafted to serve in the German Army at the beginning of World War I, and died two years later at the Battle of Verdun.

In the 1930s, the Nazis named him a degenerate artist as part of their suppression of modern art. However, most of his work survived World War II, securing his legacy. His work is now exhibited in many eminent galleries and museums. His major paintings have attracted large sums, with a record of £42,654,500 for Die Füchse (The Foxes) in 2022.

Early life
Franz Marc was born in 1880 in Munich, the then capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria. His father, Wilhelm Marc, was a professional landscape painter; his mother, Sophie, was a homemaker and a devout, socially liberal Calvinist. At the age of 17 Marc wanted to study theology, as his older brother Paul had. Two years later, however, he enrolled in the arts program of Munich University. He was first required to serve in the military for a year, after which, in 1900, he began studies instead at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, where his teachers included Gabriel von Hackl and Wilhelm von Diez. In 1903 and 1907, he spent time in France, particularly in Paris, visiting the museums in the city and copying many paintings, a traditional way for artists to study and develop technique. In Paris, Marc frequented artistic circles, meeting numerous artists and the actress Sarah Bernhardt. He discovered a strong affinity for the work of painter Vincent van Gogh. After the 1903 trip, he ceased attending the Academy of Fine Arts.

During his 20s, Marc was involved in a number of stormy relationships, including an affair lasting for many years with Annette Von Eckhardt, a married antique dealer nine years his senior. He married twice, first to Marie Schnür, then to Maria Franck; both were artists.

Career
In 1906, Marc traveled with his elder brother Paul, a Byzantine expert, to Thessaloniki, Mount Athos, and various other Greek locations. A few years later, in 1910, Marc developed an important friendship with the artist August Macke. In 1910 Marc painted Nude with Cat and Grazing Horses, and showed works in the second exhibition of the Neue Künstlervereinigung (New Artists' Association, of which Marc was briefly a member) at the Thannhauser Galleries in Munich.

Der Blaue Reiter
In 1911, Marc founded the Der Blaue Reiter journal, which became the center of an artist circle, along with Macke, Wassily Kandinsky, and others who had decided to split off from the Neue Künstlervereinigung movement. Though Marc showed several of his works in the first Der Blaue Reiter exhibition at the Thannhauser Galleries in Munich between December 1911 and January 1912, as it was the apex of the German expressionist movement, the exhibit also showed in Berlin, Cologne, Hagen, and Frankfurt. In 1912, Marc met Robert Delaunay, whose use of color and the futurist method was a major influence on Marc's work; fascinated by futurism and cubism, Marc created art that increasingly was stark in nature, painting natural abstract forms which found spiritual value in color. He painted The Tiger and Red Deer in 1912 and The Tower of Blue Horses, The Foxes, and Fate of the Animals in 1913.

Wartime
With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Marc was drafted into the Imperial German Army as a cavalryman. By February 1916, as shown in a letter to his wife, he had gravitated to military camouflage. His technique for hiding artillery from aerial observation was to paint canvas covers in broadly pointillist style. He took pleasure in creating a series of nine such tarpaulin covers in styles varying "from Manet to Kandinsky", suspecting that the latter could be the most effective against aircraft flying at 2000 m or higher.

By 1916, he had been promoted to lieutenant and awarded the Iron Cross.

After mobilization of the German Army, the government identified notable artists to be withdrawn from combat for their own safety. Marc was on the list but was struck in the head and killed instantly by a shell splinter during the Battle of Verdun in 1916 before orders for reassignment could reach him.

Style
Marc made some sixty prints in woodcut and lithography. Most of his mature work portrays animals, usually in natural settings. His work is characterized by bright primary color, an almost cubist portrayal of animals, stark simplicity and a profound sense of emotion. Even in his own time, his work attracted notice in influential circles. Marc gave an emotional meaning or purpose to the colors he used in his work: blue was used to portray masculinity and spirituality, yellow represented feminine joy, and red encased the sound of violence.

One of Marc's best-known paintings is Tierschicksale (Animal Destinies or Fate of the Animals), which hangs in the Kunstmuseum Basel. Marc had completed the work in 1913, when "the tension of impending cataclysm had pervaded society", as one art historian noted. On the rear of the canvas, Marc wrote, "Und Alles Sein ist flammend Leid" ("And all being is flaming agony"). Serving in World War I, Marc wrote to his wife about the painting, "[it] is like a premonition of this war – horrible and shattering. I can hardly conceive that I painted it."

Nazi Germany and the seizure of so-called "degenerate" art
After the National Socialists took power, they suppressed modern art; in 1936 and 1937, the Nazis condemned the late Marc as an entarteter Künstler (degenerate artist) and ordered approximately 130 of his works removed from exhibition in German museums. The Blue Horses was auctioned off at the infamous Theodor Fischer gallery "degenerate art" sale in Lucerne, on 29 June 1939, and acquired by the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Liège. His painting Landscape With Horses was discovered in 2012 along with more than a thousand other paintings, in the Munich apartment of Cornelius Gurlitt whose father, Hildebrand Gurlitt, was one of Hitler's four official art dealers of Modernist art the Nazis called "degenerate" which the Nazis sold or traded to raise cash for the Third Reich.

In 2017, the family of Kurt Grawi demanded the restitution of Marc's painting The Foxes (1913) from Düsseldorf's Kunstpalast. Grawi, a German Jewish banker who had owned the painting before the Nazis rose to power was arrested on Kristallnacht and incarcerated in Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1938, before he managed to flee to Chile in 1939. The painting passed through Galerie Nierendorf, and William and Charlotte Dieterle, according to the German Lost Art Foundation. In 2021, the German Advisory Commission recommended that the city of Düsseldorf restitute the painting to Grawi's heirs; this was done, and the painting was sold at Christie's by Grawi's heirs in 2022.

Legacy and honors
Marc's family house in Munich is marked with a historical plaque. The Franz Marc Museum which is located in Kochel am See, opened in 1986 and is dedicated to the artist's life and work. It houses many of his paintings, and also works by other contemporary artists.

In October 1998, several of Marc's paintings garnered record prices at Christie's art auction house in London, including Rote Rehe I (Red Deer I), which sold for $3.3 million. In October 1999, his Der Wasserfall (The Waterfall) was sold by Sotheby's in London for $5.06 million. This price set a record for Franz Marc's work and for twentieth-century German painting. In 2008, the former record was again broken when Marc's Weidende Pferde III (Grazing Horses III) was sold for £12,340,500 ($24,376,190) at Sotheby's.   This record was again beaten by the £42.6m sale of The Foxes in 2022.

Public collections
Among the public collections holding works by Franz Marc are   :
 * Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, Netherlands
 * Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
 * Franz Marc Museum in Kochel am See
 * Lenbachhaus, Munich
 * Detroit Institute of Arts

title: Franz Marc