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Evolutionary algorithm

In computational intelligence (CI), an evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, and selection. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the fitness function determines the quality of the solutions (see also loss function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators.

Evolutionary algorithms often perform well approximating solutions to all types of problems because they ideally do not make any assumption about the underlying fitness landscape. Techniques from evolutionary algorithms applied to the modeling of biological evolution are generally limited to explorations of microevolutionary processes and planning models based upon cellular processes. In most real applications of EAs, computational complexity is a prohibiting factor. In fact, this computational complexity is due to fitness function evaluation. Fitness approximation is one of the solutions to overcome this difficulty. However, seemingly simple EA can solve often complex problems;  therefore, there may be no direct link between algorithm complexity and problem complexity.

Implementation
The following is an example of a generic single-objective genetic algorithm.

Step One: Generate the initial population of individuals randomly. (First generation)

Step Two: Repeat the following regenerational steps until termination:

 * 1) Evaluate the fitness of each individual in the population (time limit, sufficient fitness achieved, etc.)
 * 2) Select the fittest individuals for reproduction. (Parents)
 * 3) Breed new individuals through crossover and mutation operations to give birth to offspring.
 * 4) Replace the least-fit individuals of the population with new individuals.

Types
Similar techniques differ in genetic representation and other implementation details, and the nature of the particular applied problem.
 * Genetic algorithm – This is the most popular type of EA. One seeks the solution of a problem in the form of strings of numbers (traditionally binary, although the best representations are usually those that reflect something about the problem being solved), by applying operators such as recombination and mutation (sometimes one, sometimes both). This type of EA is often used in optimization problems.
 * Genetic programming – Here the solutions are in the form of computer programs, and their fitness is determined by their ability to solve a computational problem. There are many variants of Genetic Programming, including Cartesian genetic programming, gene expression programming, grammatical evolution, linear genetic programming, multi expression programming etc.
 * Evolutionary programming – Similar to genetic programming, but the structure of the program is fixed and its numerical parameters are allowed to evolve.
 * Evolution strategy – Works with vectors of real numbers as representations of solutions, and typically uses self-adaptive mutation rates. The method is mainly used for numerical optimization, although there are also variants for combinatorial tasks.
 * Differential evolution – Based on vector differences and is therefore primarily suited for numerical optimization problems.
 * Coevolutionary algorithm – Similar to genetic algorithms and evolution strategies, but the created solutions are compared on the basis of their outcomes from interactions with other solutions. Solutions can either compete or cooperate during the search process. Coevolutionary algorithms are often used in scenarios where the fitness landscape is dynamic, complex, or involves competitive interactions.
 * Neuroevolution – Similar to genetic programming but the genomes represent artificial neural networks by describing structure and connection weights. The genome encoding can be direct or indirect.
 * Learning classifier system – Here the solution is a set of classifiers (rules or conditions). A Michigan-LCS evolves at the level of individual classifiers whereas a Pittsburgh-LCS uses populations of classifier-sets. Initially, classifiers were only binary, but now include real, neural net, or S-expression types. Fitness is typically determined with either a strength or accuracy based reinforcement learning or supervised learning approach.
 * Quality–Diversity algorithms – QD algorithms simultaneously aim for high-quality and diverse solutions. Unlike traditional optimization algorithms that solely focus on finding the best solution to a problem, QD algorithms explore a wide variety of solutions across a problem space and keep those that are not just high performing, but also diverse and unique.

Theoretical background
The following theoretical principles apply to all or almost all EAs.

No free lunch theorem
The no free lunch theorem of optimization states that all optimization strategies are equally effective when the set of all optimization problems is considered. Under the same condition, no evolutionary algorithm is fundamentally better than another. This can only be the case if the set of all problems is restricted. This is exactly what is inevitably done in practice. Therefore, to improve an EA, it must exploit problem knowledge in some form (e.g. by choosing a certain mutation strength or a problem-adapted coding). Thus, if two EAs are compared, this constraint is implied. In addition, an EA can use problem specific knowledge by, for example, not randomly generating the entire start population, but creating some individuals through heuristics or other procedures. Another possibility to tailor an EA to a given problem domain is to involve suitable heuristics, local search procedures or other problem-related procedures in the process of generating the offspring. This form of extension of an EA is also known as a memetic algorithm. Both extensions play a major role in practical applications, as they can speed up the search process and make it more robust.

Convergence
For EAs in which, in addition to the offspring, at least the best individual of the parent generation is used to form the subsequent generation (so-called elitist EAs), there is a general proof of convergence under the condition that an optimum exists. Without loss of generality, a maximum search is assumed for the proof:

From the property of elitist offspring acceptance and the existence of the optimum it follows that per generation $$k$$ an improvement of the fitness $$F$$ of the respective best individual $$x'$$ will occur with a probability $$P > 0$$. Thus:
 * $$F(x'_1) \leq F(x'_2) \leq F(x'_3) \leq \cdots \leq F(x'_k) \leq \cdots$$

I.e., the fitness values represent a monotonically non-decreasing sequence, which is bounded due to the existence of the optimum. From this follows the convergence of the sequence against the optimum.

Since the proof makes no statement about the speed of convergence, it is of little help in practical applications of EAs. But it does justify the recommendation to use elitist EAs. However, when using the usual panmictic population model, elitist EAs tend to converge prematurely more than non-elitist ones. In a panmictic population model, mate selection (step 2 of the section about implementation) is such that every individual in the entire population is eligible as a mate. In non-panmictic populations, selection is suitably restricted, so that the dispersal speed of better individuals is reduced compared to panmictic ones. Thus, the general risk of premature convergence of elitist EAs can be significantly reduced by suitable population models that restrict mate selection.

Virtual alphabets
With the theory of virtual alphabets, David E. Goldberg showed in 1990 that by using a representation with real numbers, an EA that uses classical recombination operators (e.g. uniform or n-point crossover) cannot reach certain areas of the search space, in contrast to a coding with binary numbers. This results in the recommendation for EAs with real representation to use arithmetic operators for recombination (e.g. arithmetic mean or intermediate recombination). With suitable operators, real-valued representations are more effective than binary ones, contrary to earlier opinion.

Comparison to biological processes
A possible limitation of many evolutionary algorithms is their lack of a clear genotype–phenotype distinction. In nature, the fertilized egg cell undergoes a complex process known as embryogenesis to become a mature phenotype. This indirect encoding is believed to make the genetic search more robust (i.e. reduce the probability of fatal mutations), and also may improve the evolvability of the organism. Such indirect (also known as generative or developmental) encodings also enable evolution to exploit the regularity in the environment. Recent work in the field of artificial embryogeny, or artificial developmental systems, seeks to address these concerns. And gene expression programming successfully explores a genotype–phenotype system, where the genotype consists of linear multigenic chromosomes of fixed length and the phenotype consists of multiple expression trees or computer programs of different sizes and shapes.

Comparison to Monte-Carlo methods
Both method classes have in common that their individual search steps are determined by chance. The main difference, however, is that EAs, like many other metaheuristics, learn from past search steps and incorporate this experience into the execution of the next search steps in a method-specific form. With EAs, this is done firstly through the fitness-based selection operators for partner choice and the formation of the next generation. And secondly, in the type of search steps: In EA, they start from a current solution and change it or they mix the information of two solutions. In contrast, when dicing out new solutions in Monte-Carlo methods, there is usually no connection to existing solutions.

If, on the other hand, the search space of a task is such that there is nothing to learn, Monte-Carlo methods are an appropriate tool, as they do not contain any algorithmic overhead that attempts to draw suitable conclusions from the previous search. An example of such tasks is the proverbial search for a needle in a haystack, e.g. in the form of a flat (hyper)plane with a single narrow peak.

Applications
The areas in which evolutionary algorithms are practically used are almost unlimited and range from industry, engineering, complex scheduling,  agriculture, robot movement planning and finance  to research  and art. The application of an evolutionary algorithm requires some rethinking from the inexperienced user, as the approach to a task using an EA is different from conventional exact methods and this is usually not part of the curriculum of engineers or other disciplines. For example, the fitness calculation must not only formulate the goal but also support the evolutionary search process towards it, e.g. by rewarding improvements that do not yet lead to a better evaluation of the original quality criteria. For example, if peak utilisation of resources such as personnel deployment or energy consumption is to be avoided in a scheduling task, it is not sufficient to assess the maximum utilisation. Rather, the number and duration of exceedances of a still acceptable level should also be recorded in order to reward reductions below the actual maximum peak value. There are therefore some publications that are aimed at the beginner and want to help avoiding beginner's mistakes as well as leading an application project to success. This includes clarifying the fundamental question of when an EA should be used to solve a problem and when it is better not to.

Related techniques
Swarm algorithms include:
 * Ant colony optimization is based on the ideas of ant foraging by pheromone communication to form paths. Primarily suited for combinatorial optimization and graph problems.
 * The runner-root algorithm (RRA) is inspired by the function of runners and roots of plants in nature.
 * Artificial bee colony algorithm is based on the honeybee foraging behaviour. Primarily proposed for numerical optimization and extended to solve combinatorial, constrained and multi-objective optimization problems.
 * Bees algorithm is based on the foraging behaviour of honeybees. It has been applied in many applications such as routing and scheduling.
 * Cuckoo search is inspired by the brooding parasitism of the cuckoo species. It also uses Lévy flights, and thus it suits for global optimization problems.
 * Particle swarm optimization is based on the ideas of animal flocking behaviour. Also primarily suited for numerical optimization problems.

Other population-based metaheuristic methods

 * Hunting search – A method inspired by the group hunting of some animals, such as wolves, that organize their position to surround the prey, each of them relative to the position of the others and especially that of their leader. It is a continuous optimization method adapted as a combinatorial optimization method.
 * Adaptive dimensional search – Unlike nature-inspired metaheuristic techniques, an adaptive dimensional search algorithm does not implement any metaphor as an underlying principle. Rather it uses a simple performance-oriented method, based on the update of the search dimensionality ratio (SDR) parameter at each iteration.
 * Firefly algorithm is inspired by the behavior of fireflies, attracting each other by flashing light. This is especially useful for multimodal optimization.
 * Harmony search – Based on the ideas of musicians' behavior in searching for better harmonies. This algorithm is suitable for combinatorial optimization as well as parameter optimization.
 * Gaussian adaptation – Based on information theory. Used for maximization of manufacturing yield, mean fitness or average information. See for instance Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory.
 * Memetic algorithm – A hybrid method, inspired by Richard Dawkins's notion of a meme, it commonly takes the form of a population-based algorithm coupled with individual learning procedures capable of performing local refinements. Emphasizes the exploitation of problem-specific knowledge and tries to orchestrate local and global search in a synergistic way.

Examples
In 2020, Google stated that their AutoML-Zero can successfully rediscover classic algorithms such as the concept of neural networks.

The computer simulations Tierra and Avida attempt to model macroevolutionary dynamics.

title: Evolutionary algorithm


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William Wotton

William Wotton (13 August 1666 – 13 February 1727) was an English theologian, classical scholar and linguist. He is chiefly remembered for his remarkable abilities in learning languages and for his involvement in the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns. In Wales he is remembered as the collector and first translator of the ancient Welsh laws.

Early years
William Wotton was the second son of the Rev. Henry Wotton, rector of Wrentham, Suffolk. He was a child prodigy who could read verses from the Bible in English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew before he was six. In April 1676, when he was not yet ten years old, he was sent to Catharine Hall, Cambridge, and graduated in 1679. By this time Wotton had acquired Arabic, Syriac, and Aramaic, as well as a knowledge of logic, philosophy, mathematics, geography, chronology, and history. His parents died whilst he was still at Cambridge, and as a teenager he was taken into the household of Gilbert Burnet, later bishop of Salisbury. He was awarded a fellowship at St John's College, from where he obtained an M.A. in 1683 and a B.D. in 1691. In 1686 he was appointed curate of Brimpton in Berkshire and the following year he was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In January 1689 he was appointed vicar of Lacock in Wiltshire, which he held until his resignation in 1693. Soon after ordination he was also appointed chaplain to Daniel Finch Earl of Nottingham, and tutor to his family. Finch presented him with the rectory of Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, in 1693.

Educational controversy
Wotton began his scholarly career as the translator of Louis Dupin's A new history of ecclesiastical writers, (13 vols. 1692–99). However, he is chiefly remembered for his share in the controversy about the respective merits of ancient and modern learning. In his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1694, and again 1697) he took the part of the moderns, although in a fair and judicial spirit. According to Joseph Levine, 'of all the works in the controversy that had yet appeared in English or French his was easily the most judicious.' He was attacked for pedantry by Swift in The Battle of the Books and A Tale of a Tub, but his book proved that 'Wotton was no mere pedant, but a wide-ranging intellect with a thorough command of learning, both ancient and modern.' Wotton responded calling Swift's A Tale "one of the profanest banters upon the religion of Jesus Christ, as such, that ever yet appeared." He also began to write a biography of the chemist Sir Robert Boyle, but his notes were lost and the work was never completed.

Wotton wrote a History of Rome in (1701) at the request of Bishop Burnet, which was later used by the historian Edward Gibbon. In recognition, Burnet appointed him as a prebend of Salisbury from 1705. In 1707 Wotton was awarded a "Lambeth degree" of Doctor of Divinity by Archbishop Thomas Tenison in recognition of his writings in support of the established Church of England against the Deists. Around 1713 Wotton also developed ideas concerning the relationship between languages introducing the concept of an early proto-language by relating Icelandic, the Romance languages and Greek. This pre-dated Sir William Jones' famous lecture comparing Sanskrit with the Classical languages, by more than seventy years. These theories were later published after Wotton's death, as A discourse concerning the confusion of languages at Babel (1730).

"A Drunken Whoring Soul"
Throughout his adult life, Wotton was known to be "a most excellent preacher, but a drunken whoring soul". He was also very extravagant, transforming his rectory into a 32-roomed mansion. He was, however, able to borrow money against future expectations of ecclesiastical preferment as a result of his close friendship with William Wake, then bishop of Lincoln. Between the summer of 1711 and the Spring of 1712, Wotton appears to have experienced a mid-life crisis, and he scandalised the neighbourhood on many occasions by being found drunk in public, or else was known to have spent prolonged periods in local brothels. As a result, he was initially warned about his behaviour by Wake, who later broke off their friendship and rescinded his promise of providing an additional living in Buckinghamshire. As soon as it became known that the rector's expectations had been dashed, local tradesmen began to press for the payment of their debts. In May 1714, Wotton was forced to abandon his rectory at Milton Keynes to avoid his creditors, and for seven years he lived at Carmarthen in south-west Wales under the assumed name of Dr. William Edwards.

Studies in Wales
Whilst at Carmarthen, Wotton reformed his character and returned to his studies. He was also able to re-establish his friendship with Wake, who had become Archbishop of Canterbury in December 1715.

Wotton began to study Welsh, and produced an important bilingual parallel text edition of the Welsh and Latin texts of the medieval Welsh laws traditionally attributed to Hywel Dda at the request of his friend. To do this he had first to identify and obtain transcripts of a fifteen or so known manuscripts in either Latin or Mediaeval Welsh, and establish a text, and then begin the difficult task of translating the Mediaeval Welsh terminology which appeared in both the Latin and Welsh versions, but the meaning of which had been lost by the 18th century. From 1721 Wotton was assisted by the Welsh scholar Moses Williams. Wotton lived to complete the translation but was working on an accompanying glossary when he died. This was completed by Williams, and the whole work was published in 1730 by his son-in-law William Clarke in a large folio edition under the title Leges Wallicae.

Whilst at Carmarthen he also conducted surveys of the cathedrals of St David's and Llandaff which were published by his friend Browne Willis in 1717 and 1718. He published Miscellaneous Discourses relating to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Pharisees which included a translation of part of the Mishnah in (1718).

Death
Wotton had repaid his creditors and was able to return to Bath in October 1721 and London in June 1722 but was in very poor health. He was still working on his Leges Wallicae, when he died of dropsy at Buxted, Sussex, on 13 February 1727.

Works

 * Cyfreithjeu Hywel Dda ac eraill, seu Leges Wallicae Ecclesiasticae et Civiles Hoeli boni et Aliorum Walliae Principum (London, 1730)
 * Miscellaneous Discourses relating to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Pharisees (1718)
 * (trans.), Louis Ellies Dupin, A new history of ecclesiastical writers, (13 vols. 1692–99)
 * Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1694, 1697)
 * A Discourse concerning the Confusion of Languages at Babel (London, 1713, 1730)
 * Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesauri grammatico-critici, & archaeologici, auctore Georgio Hickesio, conspectus brevis: Cui, ab antiquae literaturae septentrionalis cultore adjectae aliquot notae accedunt (London, 1708)
 * Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesauri grammatico-critici, & archaeologici, auctore Georgio Hickesio, conspectus brevis: Cui, ab antiquae literaturae septentrionalis cultore adjectae aliquot notae accedunt (London, 1708)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William Wotton


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List of German-language television channels

The List of German-language television channels includes the following channels:

Italy

 * South Tyrol

 * Rai Südtirol
 * Südtirol Digital Fernsehen
 * Südtirol Heute


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Eurovision Song Contest 1982

The Eurovision Song Contest 1982 was the 27th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Harrogate, United Kingdom, following the country's victory at the with the song "Making Your Mind Up" by Bucks Fizz. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the contest was held at the Harrogate International Centre on 24 April 1982 and was hosted by English TV presenter and newsreader Jan Leeming.

Eighteen countries took part in the contest with deciding not to enter this year. Due the downsizing of their national broadcasters, lost the rights to participating at the contest and so was also forced to withdraw.

The winner was with the song "Ein bißchen Frieden" by Nicole. This was the first time that Germany had won the contest after having competed every year since the contest's inception. Germany received 1.61 times as many points as runner-up, which was a record under the current scoring system until , when received 1.78 times as many points as. The song also cemented Ralph Siegel and Bernd Meinunger, the song's composers, into German Eurovision tradition, writing 18 Eurovision songs between them before and after "Ein bißchen Frieden", 13 of which were for Germany.

Location

Harrogate is a spa town in North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the town is a tourist destination and its visitor attractions include its spa waters and RHS Harlow Carr gardens. Nearby is the Yorkshire Dales national park and the Nidderdale AONB. Harrogate grew out of two smaller settlements, High Harrogate and Low Harrogate, in the 17th century. The town became known as 'The English Spa' in the Georgian Era, after its waters were discovered in the 16th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries its 'chalybeate' waters (containing iron) were a popular health treatment, and the influx of wealthy but sickly visitors contributed significantly to the wealth of the town.

The Harrogate International Centre was chosen as the host venue for the contest. The grand convention and exhibition centre opened short time prior to the contest, and was the first big event held in the main 2000-seat auditorium.

Participating countries
With 18 participating countries, this was the last Eurovision contest to have such a low number of entries.

Greece was due to participate in the contest with the song "Sarantapente kopelies" performed by Themis Adamantidis. Although drawn to perform in position number 2, ERT withdrew a few weeks before the contest. According to press reports, Greek Minister of Culture and Sports Melina Mercouri had voiced her opposition to the chosen entry as being too low in quality.

In November 1981, France's national broadcaster, TF1, declined to enter the Eurovision Song Contest for 1982, with the head of entertainment, Pierre Bouteiller, saying, "The absence of talent and the mediocrity of the songs is where annoyance sets in. [Eurovision is] a monument to insanity [sometimes translated as "drivel"]." Antenne 2 became the new broadcaster for Eurovision after public outcry, returning the country to the contest in 1983.

Format
The opening of the contest showed a map of Europe, with the translation "Where is Harrogate?" popping up on-screen from the languages of the various countries. The question was always in the language in which the respective country's song was performed, with the exception of Ireland. The Irish entry was sung in English, but the translation of the question in the map was in Irish. Then the map zoomed into Harrogate's location in Yorkshire, followed by an introduction video spotlighting the town.

This year, before the postcard of a specific country (with the exceptions of Israel, who had no commentator, and Yugoslavia, whose commentators were in their own country), the camera would zoom into the commentary box of that country's broadcaster, where the commentator/s would give a hand gesture, e.g. wave. The postcard would start with the country's flag on the screen and an excerpt of the country's national anthem (though in the case of the UK, the song played was "Land of Hope and Glory" instead of "God Save the Queen", while the Israeli postcard began with an excerpt of "Hava Nagila" instead of "Hatikvah"). The postcards themselves, utilizing state-of-the-art video technology (for its time), were a montage of footage of the artist in Harrogate town or at the International Flower Festival. Some of the postcards also incorporated footage from the preview videos submitted by each organization, the first time the contest had utilised the clips in the broadcast. Only the preview videos which did not consist of a performance of the song from the national final were used. Also, postcards used either a popular song or tune from the country being shown or a song performed at previous editions of Eurovision (i.e. for the Yugoslav entry, "Jedan dan" from 1968 was used, and for Israel, the winning song "Hallelujah" by Milk and Honey from 1979 was used). After the conclusion of the video clip, Jan Leeming introduced the conductor and then the artist for each nation.

Contest overview
Germany had the advantage of performing last. After coming second in The Hague in 1980 and second in Dublin in 1981, Ralph Siegel and Bernd Meinunger took the first win for Germany. The winner, Nicole, beat the nearest competition by 61 points and over 13 million West Germans watched her victory on television. Germany was the commanding leader for nearly the entire voting process.

Nicole went on to sing the reprise of her song in English, French and Dutch, as well as German, to the delight of the invited audience in Harrogate Conference Centre who stood up to applaud her. The English version (also produced by Siegel and Robert Jung (German composer)) of her Eurovision winner, A Little Peace, subsequently shot to No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart.

Spokespersons
Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1982 contest are listed below.

 * – Arne Weise
 * – Başak Doğru
 * – Colin Berry

Detailed voting results
Each country had a jury who awarded 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 point(s) for their top ten songs.

12 points
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the final:

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers. Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1982


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John Pearson

John Pearson may refer to:

Architects

 * John Loughborough Pearson (1817–1897), British architect
 * John A. Pearson (1867–1940), Canadian architect

Military

 * John Pearson (VC) (1825–1892), recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * John Andrew Pearson (Royal Navy officer), officer in the Royal Navy during the Second World War
 * John William Pearson (1808–1864), captain in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War

Politicians

 * John Pearson (politician) (1802–1875), American judge and politician
 * John James Pearson (1800–1888), United States Congressman from Pennsylvania
 * John L. Pearson (politician) (1926–2021), Mississippi state representative
 * John Mills Pearson (1832–1910), American politician and Mason

Association football

 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1868) (1868–1931), English football player and referee
 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1892) (1892–1937), Scottish football player
 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1896) (1896–1979), English football player
 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1935), English football player
 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1946), English football player
 * John Pearson (footballer, born 1963), English football player

Other sports

 * John Pearson (cricketer) (1915–2007), English cricketer
 * John Pearson (curler) (active 1959), Scottish curler
 * John Pearson (gymnast) (1902–1984), American gymnast
 * John Pearson (sport shooter) (1926–1994), British Olympic shooter
 * John Pearson, 3rd Viscount Cowdray (1910–1995), British peer, businessman and polo player

Others

 * Norman Pearson (priest) (John Norman Pearson, 1787–1865), English divine
 * John Pearson (artist) (fl. 1885–1910), English master-craftsman
 * John Pearson (author) (1930–2021), British author
 * John Pearson (bishop) (1613–1686), English theologian, scholar, and Bishop of Chester
 * John Pearson (judge) (1820–1886), British High Court justice and son of John Norman Pearson
 * John Pearson (surgeon) (1758–1826), British surgeon
 * John Pearson (advocate general) (1771–1841), Advocate General in British India
 * John Richard Anthony Pearson, British chemical engineer
 * John Thomas Pearson, British surgeon
 * Johnny Pearson (1925–2011), British composer
 * John Pearson (diplomat), British ambassador to Laos

title: John Pearson


text:
Henry Dodwell

Henry Dodwell (October 1641 – 7 June 1711) was an Anglo-Irish scholar, theologian and controversial writer.

Life
Dodwell was born in Dublin in 1641. His father, William Dodwell, who lost his property in Connacht during the Irish rebellion, was married to Elizabeth Slingsby, daughter of Sir Francis Slingsby and settled at York in 1648. Henry received his preliminary education at St Peter's School, York.

In 1654 he was sent by his uncle to Trinity College, Dublin, where he became a scholar and fellow, receiving the Bachelor of Arts in 1662 and Master of Arts in 1663. Having conscientious objections to taking religious orders, he relinquished his fellowship in 1666, but in 1688 was elected Camden professor of history at Oxford. In 1691 he was deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary.

Dodwell retired to Shottesbrooke in Berkshire to be near his friend, Francis Cherry. As the movement behind the refusal to swear allegiance declined, with the death of William Lloyd who had been deprived of his bishopric, and the decision by Thomas Ken to relinquish his claim to the See of Bath and Wells, Dodwell returned to the Church of England in 1710.

He died in Shottesbrooke.

Works
Living on the produce of a small estate in Ireland, he devoted himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical polity, providing a defence of the deprived nonjuring bishops. Edward Gibbon speaks of his learning as "immense," and says that his "skill in employing facts is equal to his learning," although he severely criticises his method and style. Dodwell's works on ecclesiastical polity are more numerous than those on chronology.

In his ecclesiastical writings he was regarded as one of the greatest champions of the non-jurors; but the doctrine which he afterwards promulgated, that the soul is naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed only by those who had received baptism from the hands of one set of regularly ordained clergy, and was therefore a privilege from which dissenters were hopelessly excluded, did not strengthen his reputation.

"Bishop Burnet thus addresses him in one of his letters : 'You are a learned man ; and your life has been not only without blemish, but exemplary ; but you do not seem to remember, or enough to consider, the woe our Saviour has denounced against those by whom scandals come ; and, according to the true notion of scandal, I know no man, that has laid more in the way of the little ones, or weaker Christians, than you have done. I do assure you, I would rather wish that I could neither read nor write, than to have read or writ to such purposes as you have been pursuing now above thirty years. You seem to love novelties and paradoxes, and to employ your learning to support them. I do assure you, I have a just value for many valuable things that I know to be in you ; and do heartily lament every thing that is otherwise.'"

Dissertations upon Irenaeus
Printed 1689 in Latin under the title of Dissertationes in Irenaeum. These Dissertations are only prolegomena to what he further designed to show what the ancient heresies were, what disturbed the primitive Church, and their foundation.

"We have at this day, certain most authentic ecclesiastical writers of the times, as Clemens Romanus, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, and Polycarp, who wrote in the same order wherein I have named them, and after all the writers of the New Testament. But in Hermas you will not find one passage, or any mention of the New Testament, nor in all the rest is any one of the evangelists named. If sometimes they cite passages like those we read in our gospels, you will find them so changed, and for the most part so interpolated, that it cannot be known whether they produced them out of ours, or some apocryphal gospels. Nay, they sometimes cite passages which most certainly are not in our present gospels."

Family
His eldest son, also named Henry Dodwell, was the author of a pamphlet entitled Christianity not founded on Argument, to which a reply was published by his brother William Dodwell (1709–1785), who was concurrently engaged in a controversy with Conyers Middleton on the subject of miracles. The pamphlet received many published replies at the time, and even as late as 1904 replies were still being made. Even the great Jonathan Swift was moved to write a reply against it.

title: Henry Dodwell


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Uppland

Uppland is a historical province or landskap on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. On the small uninhabited island of Märket in the Baltic, Uppland has a very short and unusually shaped land border with Åland, an autonomous province of Finland.

The name literally means up land, a name which is commonly encountered in especially older English literature as Upland. Its Latinised form, which is occasionally used, is Uplandia. Uppland is famous for having the highest concentration of runestones in the world, with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone left by the Vikings.

Administration
The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, but are historical and cultural entities. The corresponding administrative county, or län, is Uppsala County, which occupies the larger part of the territory. The bulk of the population, however, is within Stockholm County. Minor parts of the province are also in Västmanland, Gävleborg, and Södermanland Counties.

Heraldry
Uppland's arms were granted in 1560, distinctive in its depiction of a globus cruciger. Historically, Uppland ranked as a duchy and the coat of arms is represented with a ducal coronet, blazoned thus: "Gules, a Royal Orb Or gemmed of the field and Azure with the cross bottoned Argent." Despite the fact that the Uppsala County has a different name and a smaller territory, it was granted the same coat of arms in 1940.

Geography
Uppland was historically divided into chartered cities and districts. Within Roslagen they were called skeppslag (which roughly means "ship district"), and in the rest of the province hundreds. The abovementioned districts and cities have no administrative function today.

Cities

 * Djursholm (1913)
 * Enköping (approximately 1300)
 * Lidingö (1926)
 * Norrtälje (1622)
 * Sigtuna (approximately 990)
 * Solna (1943)
 * Stockholm (1252)
 * Sundbyberg (1927)
 * Uppsala (1286)
 * Vaxholm (1652)
 * Öregrund (1491)
 * Östhammar (approximately 1300)

Districts
• Bro Hundred

• Bälinge Hundred

• Frösåker Hundred

• Färentuna Hundred

• Hagunda Hundred

• Håbo Hundred

• Lagunda Hundred

• Ly Hundred

• Lång Hundred

• Norunda Hundred

• Närding Hundred

• Oland Hundred

• Rasbo Hundred

• Seming Hundred

• Simtuna Hundred

• Sju Hundred

• Sollentuna Hundred

• Torstuna Hundred

• Trögd Hundred

• Ulleråker Hundred

• Vaksala Hundred

• Vallentuna Hundred

• Våla Hundred

• Åsunda Hundred

• Ärling Hundred

• Örbyhus Hundred • Bro and Vätö Ship District

• Danderyd Ship District

• Frötuna and Länna Ship District

• Väddö and Häverö Ship District

• Värmdö Ship District

• Åker Ship District

Facts

 * Highest mountain: Upplandsberget at Siggeforasjön, 117 metres
 * Most Runestones: as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone
 * Largest lake: Mälaren
 * Archipelago: Roslagen
 * National Parks: Ängsö, Färnebofjärden

Population
The population of Uppland was 1,602,652 as of 31 December 2016. The provincial population corresponds to the different overlapping counties as follows:

History
Uppland is the birthplace of Bridget of Sweden (1303 – 23 July 1373).

The earliest unambiguous mention of the province of Uppland comes from the 1296, when it was mentioned that it included the Folklands of Fjärdhundraland, Attundaland, Tiundaland and Roslagen. The Swedish capital of Stockholm is divided between two provinces. The southern half lies in Södermanland and the northern half in Uppland.

Dukes and duchess

 * Prince Waldemar (1310-1318 – also Öland)
 * Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, his wife (1312-1318 – also Öland)
 * Prince Gustav (1827–1852)
 * Prince Sigvard (1907-1934)

Religion
Uppsala is the seat of the only archbishop of the Lutheran Church of Sweden. Before the Protestant Reformation, the archdiocese and archbishop were within the Roman Catholic Church.

Culture
The archaeological site Birka and the castle of Drottningholm are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Sports
Football in the province is administered by Upplands Fotbollförbund. Bandy is also popular, with IK Sirius.

title: Uppland


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List of Italian-language television channels

The List of Italian-language television channels includes the following channels:


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Andrew Kippis

Andrew Kippis (28 March 1725 – 8 October 1795) was an English nonconformist clergyman and biographer.

Life
The son of Robert Kippis, a silk-hosier, he was born at Nottingham. Having gone to Carre's Grammar School in Sleaford, Lincolnshire he passed aged 16 to the Dissenting academy at Northampton, of which Dr Philip Doddridge was then president. In 1746 Kippis became minister of a church at Boston; in 1750 he moved to Dorking, Surrey; and in 1753 he became pastor of a Presbyterian congregation at Westminster, where he remained till his death.

Kippis took a prominent part in the affairs of his church. From 1763 till 1784 he was classical and philological tutor in the Coward Trust's academy at Hoxton, and subsequently in the New College at Hackney. In 1778 he was elected a fellow of the Antiquarian Society, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1779.

Works
Kippis was a voluminous writer. He contributed largely to The Gentleman's Magazine, The Monthly Review and The Library; and he established the New Annual Register. He published sermons and pamphlets; and he prefixed a life to Nathaniel Lardner's Works (1788). He wrote a life prefixed to Philip Doddridge's Exposition of the New Testament (1792). His major work is his edition of the Biographia Britannica; he only lived to publish five volumes (folio, 1778–1793). In this work he had the assistance of Joseph Towers, minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church.

One of the works by Kippis is Cook's Voyages. This was first published in London in 1788 and includes a letter by Kippis to George III of the United Kingdom dated 13 June 1788. The book has accounts of the three voyages – 1768–1771, 1772–1775, and 1776–1779 – as well as an account of the character of James Cook, the effects of his voyages, and a commentary on his services.

title: Andrew Kippis


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Message switching

In telecommunications, message switching involves messages routed in their entirety, one hop at a time. It evolved from circuit switching and was the precursor of packet switching.

An example of message switching is email in which the message is sent through different intermediate servers to reach the mail server for storing. Unlike packet switching, the message is not divided into smaller units and sent independently over the network.

History
Western Union operated a message switching system, Plan 55-A, for processing telegrams in the 1950s. Leonard Kleinrock wrote a doctoral thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962 that analyzed queueing delays in this system.

Message switching was built by Collins Radio Company, Newport Beach, California, during the period 1959–1963 for sale to large airlines, banks and railroads.

The original design for the ARPANET was Wesley Clark's April 1967 proposal for using Interface Message Processors to create a message switching network. After the seminal meeting at the first ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967, where Roger Scantlebury presented Donald Davies work and referenced the work of Paul Baran, Larry Roberts incorporated packet switching into the design.

The SITA High-Level Network (HLN) became operational in 1969, handling data traffic for airlines in real time via a message-switched network over common carrier leased lines. It was organised to act like a packet-switching network.

Message switching systems are nowadays mostly implemented over packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. Each message is treated as a separate entity. Each message contains addressing information, and at each switch this information is read and the transfer path to the next switch is decided. Depending on network conditions, a conversation of several messages may not be transferred over the same path. Each message is stored (usually on hard drive due to RAM limitations) before being transmitted to the next switch. Because of this it is also known as a 'store and forward' network. Email is a common application for message switching. A delay in delivering email is allowed real-time data transfer between two computers.

Examples
Hop-by-hop Telex forwarding and UUCP are examples of message switching systems.

When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance between sender and receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first switching office (i.e. router) then forwarded later one hop at a time. Each block is received in its entity form, inspected for errors and then forwarded or re-transmitted.

A form of store-and-forward network. Data is transmitted into the network and stored in a switch. The network transfers the data from switch to switch when it is convenient to do so, as such the data is not transferred in real-time. Blocking can not occur, however, long delays can happen. The source and destination terminal need not be compatible, since conversions are done by the message switching networks.

A message switch is "transactional". It can store data or change its format and bit rate, then convert the data back to their original form or an entirely different form at the receive end. Message switching multiplexes data from different sources onto a common facility. A message switch is one of the switching technologies.

Store and forward delays
Since message switching stores each message at intermediate nodes in its entirety before forwarding, messages experience an end to end delay which is dependent on the message length, and the number of intermediate nodes. Each additional intermediate node introduces a delay which is at minimum the value of the minimum transmission delay into or out of the node. Note that nodes could have different transmission delays for incoming messages and outgoing messages due to different technology used on the links. The transmission delays are in addition to any propagation delays which will be experienced along the message path.

In a message-switching centre an incoming message is not lost when the required outgoing route is busy. It is stored in a queue with any other messages for the same route and retransmitted when the required circuit becomes free. Message switching is thus an example of a delay system or a queuing system. Message switching is still used for telegraph traffic and a modified form of it, known as packet switching, is used extensively for data communications.

Advantages
The advantages to message switching are:
 * Data channels are shared among communication devices, improving the use of bandwidth.
 * Messages can be stored temporarily at message switches, when network congestion becomes a problem.
 * Priorities may be used to manage network traffic.
 * Broadcast addressing uses bandwidth more efficiently because messages are delivered to multiple destinations.

title: Message switching


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Ritten

Ritten (Renon ) is a comune (municipality) in South Tyrol in northern Italy.

Territory
The 111 km2 community is named after the high plateau, elevation 1100 to 1400 m, the Ritten or the Renon, on which most of the villages are located. The plateau forms the southeast tip of the Sarntal Alps mountain range and is located between, and on average 800 m above the rivers Eisack and Talfer. Ritten lies directly northeast of Bolzano, settled on the "meeting point" of the above rivers.

Ritten borders the following municipalities: Barbian, Bolzano, Kastelruth, Karneid, Völs, Jenesien, Sarntal and Villanders.

As of 31 December 2016, Ritten had a population of 7,847.

There are 17 fraziones (subdivisions, usually consisting of one or a few villages and hamlets). These include the central village Klobenstein (Collalbo), in which the townhall is located, as well as Atzwang (Campodazzo), Gissmann (Madonnina), Lengmoos (Longomoso), Lengstein (Longostagno), Mittelberg (Monte di Mezzo), Oberbozen (Soprabolzano), Oberinn (Auna di Sopra), Rotwand (Pietrarossa), Siffian (Siffiano), Signat (Signato), Sill (Castel Novale), Unterinn (Auna di Sotto), Wangen (Vanga), and Wolfsgruben (Costalovara).

Of these only Atzwang and Sill are not located on the plateau, but on the rivers Eisack and Talfer, respectively.

History

The mountain ridge is first mentioned in AD 871–75 as "Mons Ritanus" and then in 1027 as "Mons Rittena". Already around 1200 a mountain inn was established on the plateau. In 1237 Runkelstein Castle was built on a rocky spur in Ritten territory by the lords of Wangen.

The Tyrolean patriotic hero Peter Mayr (1767–1810), involved in the rebellion against Napoleon's forces that occupied Tyrol, was born in the village of Siffian in Ritten.

From the 17th century Ritten has been a popular summer destination for citizens of Bolzano, since the air is considerably cooler on the plateau. Ritten is connected with Bolzano with a provincial road and with a cableway from Oberbozen, one of the longest cableways of the world in one track, about 4 km long and 12 minutes to travel. This cableway replaced in 1960 the previous rack railway, built in 1907. The railway is still in function on the mountain side between Maria Himmelfahrt and Klobenstein.

Coat of arms
The official community coat of arms consists of gules two chevrons embowed argent; it is the arms of the Lords of Zwingenstein who ruled the village from their castle until 1531. The emblem was adopted in 1967.

Main sights

 * Near Oberbozen and Lengstein are several groups of fairy chimneys (earth pyramids).
 * Klobenstein has a 1198 m high-elevation outdoor artificial ice track, the Arena Ritten or Ritten Kunsteisbahn, at which the 2007 and 2011 European Speed Skating Championships and many World Cup events have been held.

Economy
The candy company Loacker is based in Ritten.

Notable people

 * Frederick von Wangen, bishop of Trento, early 13th century
 * Bruno Platter (born 1944) a Roman Catholic priest and the 65th Grand Master of the Teutonic Order

Linguistic distribution
According to the 2011 census, 95.20% of the population speak German, 4.55% Italian and 0.25% Ladin as first language.

title: Ritten


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Svealand

Svealand, or Swealand, is the historical core region of Sweden. It is located in south central Sweden and is one of three historical lands of Sweden, bounded to the north by Norrland and to the south by Götaland. Deep forests, Tiveden, Tylöskog, and Kolmården, separated Svealand from Götaland. Historically, its inhabitants were called Svear, from which is derived the English 'Swedes'.

Svealand consists of the capital region Mälardalen in the east, Roslagen in the north-east, the former mining district Bergslagen in the center, and Dalarna and Värmland in the west. It includes an extensive archipelago of thousands of small islands in Södermanland and Uppland and has lakeshores on the four largest lakes in the country. In the interior, there are several ski resorts in the southern parts of the Scandinavian Mountains. Two large rivers run through Svealand. Klarälven originates in Norway and enters lake Vänern through Värmland, whereas Dalälven runs from Dalarna through the lake of Siljan. The other major river basins in Svealand are Norrström that runs up in Bergslagen through lakes Hjälmaren and Mälaren, along with Nyköpingsån that covers the post-glacial lake district of Södermanland. Svealand generally has a moderate continental climate with a gradual decline of precipitation and increase of temperatures moving eastwards as the elevation descends.

Stockholm, the capital and largest city in Sweden, is Svealand's primate city and historical urban centre. The other administrative capitals are Falun, Karlstad, Nyköping, Uppsala, Västerås and Örebro.

The older name of Sweden in Swedish, Svea rike (modern spelling: Sverige) Realm of the Swedes, "Swea Region", originally only referred to Svealand. Other forms are Sweoðeod (Old Norse/Icelandic Svíþjóð), and Sweorice. As the domains of the Swedish kings grew, the name Svealand began to be used to separate the original territory from the new.

Provinces
Svealand is made up of the following six provinces:

 * Dalarna
 * Närke
 * Södermanland
 * Uppland
 * Värmland
 * Västmanland

Stockholm, the Swedish capital, is located in both Uppland and Södermanland, and a border stone can be found in the street Västerlånggatan in Stockholm Old Town (Gamla stan).

Counties
Since 1634, Sweden has been divided into counties instead of provinces (see Län). Although Svealand is defined in terms of the historical provinces and not the counties, it roughly comprises the modern counties of Dalarna, Örebro, Södermanland, Stockholm, Uppsala, Värmland and Västmanland.

History
Svealand was the original Sweden, to which it gave its name. This is supported by linguistics and is based on early medieval sources, such as the sagas. In Old Norse and in Old English, Svealand and Sweden are synonymous, and described as a separate country from Götaland/Gautland/Geatland.
 * In Sögubrot af Nokkrum for instance, Kolmården between Svealand and Östergötland is described as the border between Sweden and Östergötland (... Kolmerkr, er skilr Svíþjóð ok Eystra-Gautland ...).
 * In Hervarar saga, king Ingold I rides to Sweden through Östergötland: Ingi konungr fór með hirð sína ok sveit nokkura ok hafði lítinn her. Hann reið austr um Smáland ok í eystra Gautland ok svá í Svíþjóð.
 * Sweoland is mentioned in the travels of Ohthere of Hålogaland around 890.
 * The lord Bo Jonsson Grip was probably the one who was best acquainted with the geography of the Swedish kingdom since he owned more than half of it. In 1384, he stated in his will that the kingdom consisted of Swerige (Sweden, i.e. Svealand), Österland (i.e. Finland) and Göthaland (i.e. Götaland).
 * The 15th-century Swedish version of the Þiðrekssaga says that Vilkinaland was formerly a name for Sweden (Swerige) and Götaland: wilcina land som nw är kalladh swerige oc götaland.

In the early Middle Ages the modern province of Gästrikland was part of Tiundaland, one of the three constituent parts of the modern province of Uppland, and therefore counted as a part of Svealand.

For a time in the early 19th century, the province of Värmland belonged to the Court of Appeal for Svealand. Even though Värmland historically belonged to Götaland (from 1815 until a new court, Court of Appeal for Western Sweden, was instituted), it has by custom long been considered part of Svealand.

title: Svealand


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Óengus II

Óengus mac Fergusa (Angus MacFergus; Irish Onuist, Latinised Hungus) was king of the Picts from 820 until 834. In Scottish historiography, he is associated with the veneration of Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, although this has not been proven.

Life
Óengus succeeded his brother Caustantín to the throne. Previously thought to have been of Dál Riatan origin and descended from Fergus mac Echdach, their family is now assumed to have been that of the first king Óengus mac Fergusa, perhaps originating in Circin (presumed to correspond with the modern Mearns), a Pictish family with ties to the Eóganachta of Munster in Ireland.

Óengus, along with his brother, son Eogán, and nephew Domnall, is included in the Duan Albanach, a praise poem from the reign of Máel Coluim (III) mac Donnchada listing Máel Coluim's predecessors as kings of Scots, of Alba and of Dál Riata from Fergus Mór and his brothers onwards. The inclusion of Pictish kings from Caustantín to Eogán in the Duan led to the supposition that Dál Riata was ruled by Pictish kings, or rather that Dál Riata kings ruled Pictland, leading to supposition that the origins of the Kingdom of Alba lay in a Gaelic conquest of Pictland. However, it is now suggested that their inclusion is due to their importance in the religious communities of Dunkeld and St Andrews, where they were seen as founders and early patrons. However, a modern reconstruction of the later lists of Dál Riata kings presumes that Óengus's nephew Domnall was king of Dál Riata during this time (approximately 811–835).

Óengus died in 834, the only event of his reign reported in the Irish annals and was succeeded by his nephew Drest mac Caustantín. Óengus's son Eogán]] was later king and was killed with his brother Bran in a battle against Vikings in 839.

Association with Saint Andrew
Walter Bower in his Scotichronicon (1440s) supplies a legend according to which Saint Andrew appears to Óengus II in 832, on the eve of a battle against the Angles. The saint advises the king to watch for the "sign of the Cross of Christ in the air". Bower's account has precedents in earlier chroniclers John of Fordun (IV, xiii-xiv) and Andrew of Wyntoun. A still earlier reference of the 12th century simply states that "King Hungus" won a victory aided by Saint Andrew, in gratitude for which the Picts agreed to venerate the Saint. Skene, in his notes to Fordun IV, xiii-xiv, states that the episode is placed in the 4th century, making the entire tale anachronistic in the extreme. The three kings whom the legend has been tied to are Athelstan of England and Athelstan of East Anglia, as well as Guthrum the Old (whose baptismal name was Athelstan).

The "Cross of Christ" vision in Bower's account (itself a reminiscence of the Milvian Bridge episode) is turned into the white on blue Saltire in the narrative by George Buchanan (1506–1582), who has such a saltire appear in the sky in the form of a cloud formation during the battle.

The religious site at St Andrews, originally Cennrígmonaid, long predates this Óengus. Túathalán, first known Abbot of Cennrígmonaid, died in 747, and it is thought likely that the establishment is due to the earlier Óengus (king from 729; died 761) or to Nechtan mac Der-Ilei (king 706–724 and ?728–729; died 732). The St Andrews Sarcophagus is assumed to have been made for the remains of Nechtan or the first Óengus. The later St Andrews tradition recounting the supposed arrival of Saint Regulus (or Saint Rule) at St Andrews, with relics of St Andrew, has him met at Forteviot by three sons of Óengus: Eogán, Nechtan and Finguine.

title: Óengus II


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Causantín mac Fergusa

Causantín or Constantín mac Fergusa ("Constantine son of Fergus") (789–820) was king of the Picts, in modern Scotland, from 789 until 820. He was until the Victorian era sometimes counted as Constantine I of Scotland; the title is now generally given to Causantín mac Cináeda. He is credited with having founded the church at Dunkeld which later received relics of St Columba from Iona.

Life
It had been proposed that Causantín and his brother Óengus were sons of Fergus mac Echdach, King of Dál Riata, but this is no longer widely accepted. Instead, it is thought they were kin to the first king Óengus mac Fergusa, perhaps grandsons or grandnephews. This family may have originated in Circin (presumed to correspond with the modern Mearns) and had ties to the Eóganachta of Munster in Ireland.

Causantín's reign falls in a period when Irish annals have relatively few notices of events in Scotland, possibly due to the failing of the annals believed to have been kept in Scotland at Iona and Applecross. Perhaps for that reason, there are only two reports which mention him. Other entries make it clear that the Vikings were active in Ireland and on the western coasts of Scotland at this time, which may also account for the lack of records. Iona was a target, and it may be that Abbot Noah of Kingarth, on the Isle of Bute, was killed by raiders.

The first report, in 789, is the record of a battle in Pictland between Causantín and Conall mac Taidg, in which Causantín was victorious. Conall later reappears in Kintyre, where was killed in 807. It is not known whether Causantín was king before defeating Conall. The king lists give varying lengths for his reign, from 35 to 45 years, and are not to be relied upon without independent confirmation. The second report is that of Causantín's death in 820.

The Dupplin Cross was long assumed to commemorate Cináed mac Ailpín's final victory over the Picts, as indeed, was Sueno's Stone. Recent analysis has revealed a small part of an inscription on the Cross, in which Causantín is named. Accordingly, it is supposed that this monument was commissioned by him, or as a memorial to him. He appears there as Custantin filius Fircus[sa], a latinisation derived from the Old Irish version of his name rather than the presumed Pictish form Castantin filius Uurguist found in the Poppleton manuscript and similar Pictish king lists.

It has been proposed that the St Andrews Sarcophagus was made for Causantín, but this is a minority view, as is the suggestion that the relics of St Columba, perhaps including the Monymusk Reliquary, may have been translated from Iona to Dunkeld during Causantín's reign. The idea that Columba's relics may have come to Dunkeld in the time of Causantín, rather than thirty years later in the time of Cináed mac Ailpín is based on an entry in the Chronicon Scotorum for 818.

That Causantín established Dunkeld is stated by later chroniclers such as John of Fordun who are following some variants of the Pictish king lists or other materials now lost. Andrew of Wyntoun dates the foundation to 815, although he states that this was after the deaths of Charlemagne and Pope Leo III, which would date it to 816 or later. It is suggested that Causantín is commemorated by the Martyrology of Tallaght, a product of one of the principal céli dé monasteries of the day. As a patron of the céli dé, and perhaps a collaborator of Abbot Diarmait of Iona, it is thought that Causantín may have been a church reformer, in line with céli dé ideals. Caustantín appears also to have been a patron of the Northumbrian monasteries, as he is commemorated, along with his nephew Eogán, in the Liber Vitae Dunelmensis, which contains a list of those for whom prayers were said, dating from around 840.

Causantín was succeeded by his brother Óengus. His son Drest was later king. Causantín's son Domnall is believed to have been king of Dál Riata from around 811 until 835. Causantín's reputation among the kings who followed him may, perhaps, be demonstrated by the use of his name for three kings in the century and a half following his death when it is not attested as a kingly name in Scotland prior to his reign.

Family
While Causantín'a parentage is not known with certainty, it is believed that he had two siblings: A brother Óengus, who succeeded him as King of the Picts, and a sister who is said to be his heir and was the mother of Alpín mac Echdach, founder of the Alpín dynasty, from which centuries of Scottish rulers descended.

Causantín is believed to have fathered at least 2 sons:
 * Drest IX;
 * Domnall.

title: Causantín mac Fergusa


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Eochaid mac Áeda Find

Eochaid mac Áeda Find is a supposed King of Dál Riata found in some rare High Medieval king-lists and in older history books.

Supposedly a son of Áed Find (died 778) and successor to Áed's brother Fergus mac Echdach.

title: Eochaid mac Áeda Find


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List of Portuguese people

The following is a list of notable and historically significant people from Portugal.

15th century

 * Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia, explorer of the African coast
 * Álvaro Caminha, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Álvaro Martins, explorer of the African coast
 * Alvise Cadamosto, explorer of the Atlantic islands and of the African coast
 * André Gonçalves, explorer of the sea route to Brazil
 * Antão Gonçalves, explorer of the African coast
 * Álvaro Fernandes, explorer of the African coast
 * Bartolomeu Dias, explorer of the African coast
 * Bartolomeu Perestrelo, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Dinis Dias, explorer of the African coast
 * Diogo Cão, explorer of the African coast
 * Diogo de Azambuja, explorer of the African coast
 * Diogo de Teive, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Diogo Dias, explorer of the Atlantic islands, of the African coast and the Indian Ocean, discovered Madagascar
 * Diogo Silves, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Duarte Pacheco Pereira, explorer of the Atlantic
 * Fernão do Pó, explorer of the African coast
 * Gil Eanes, explorer of the African coast
 * Gonçalo Velho, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * João de Santarém, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * João Gonçalves Zarco, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * João Grego, explorer of the African coast
 * João Infante, explorer of the African coast
 * João Vaz Corte-Real, explorer of North America
 * Lopes Gonçalves, explorer of the Atlantic
 * Luís Pires, explorer of the sea route to Brazil
 * Nicolau Coelho, explorer of the sea route to Brazil
 * Nuno Tristão, explorer of the African coast
 * Paulo da Gama, explorer of the sea route to India
 * Pedro Álvares Cabral, discoverer of Brazil in 1500
 * Pedro Escobar, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Pero de Alenquer, explorer of the African coast
 * Pero de Sintra, explorer of the African coast
 * Pero Dias, explorer of the African coast
 * Pero Vaz de Caminha, explorer of the sea route to Brazil
 * Tristão Vaz Teixeira, explorer of the Atlantic islands
 * Vasco da Gama, led the discovery of the sea route to India in 1498

15th/16th century

 * Afonso de Paiva, diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia
 * Fernão de Noronha, explorer of the Atlantic
 * Gaspar de Lemos, explorer of the Atlantic and of the sea route to Brazil
 * Gonçalo Coelho, explorer of the South American coast
 * João Fernandes Lavrador, explorer of North America
 * Pero da Covilhã, diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia and India
 * Pero de Barcelos, explorer of North America

16th century

 * Afonso de Albuquerque, naval admiral and viceroy of India
 * António de Abreu, explorer of Indonesia
 * António Mota, among the first to reach Japan
 * Bento de Góis, explorer
 * Cristóvão Jacques, explorer of the Brazilian coast
 * Cristóvão de Mendonça, some have claimed he discovered Australia; this is disputed
 * Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, explorer of the Indian Ocean
 * Diogo Rodrigues, explorer of the Indian Ocean
 * Duarte Fernandes, diplomat in Thailand
 * Estevão da Gama, explorer of the Indian Ocean
 * Fernão Lopez, soldier in India and first resident of the island of Saint Helena
 * Fernão Mendes Pinto, among the first to reach Japan
 * Fernão Pires de Andrade, merchant in China
 * Francisco Álvares, missionary and explorer in Ethiopia
 * Francisco de Almeida, explorer and viceroy of India
 * Gaspar Corte-Real, explorer of North America
 * Gomes de Sequeira, some claim he discovered Australia; this is disputed
 * João da Nova, explorer of the Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean
 * Jorge Álvares, the first to reach China
 * João Rodrigues Cabrilho, discoverer of California
 * Lourenço Marques, trader and explorer in East Africa
 * Martim Afonso de Sousa, explorer and soldier in India
 * Miguel Corte-Real, explorer of North America
 * Paulo Dias de Novais, colonizer of Africa
 * Pedro Mascarenhas, explorer of the Indian Ocean
 * Tristão da Cunha, naval general and discoverer
 * Ferdinand Magellan, led the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth (1519–1522); explorer of the Pacific Ocean

17th century

 * Estêvão Cacella, missionary and explorer of Tibet, first European in Bhutan
 * Baltasar Fernandes, explorer of Brazil's interior
 * Jerónimo Lobo, missionary and explorer of Ethiopia
 * Luís Vaz de Torres, 16th-century/17th-century explorer of south-west Pacific
 * Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, 16th-century/17th-century explorer of south-west Pacific, some claim he discovered Australia
 * Pedro Teixeira, explorer of the Amazon River
 * António Raposo Tavares, bandeirante

18th century

 * Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, explorer of Brazil's interior
 * Francisco de Lacerda, explorer of Africa

19th century

 * Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, explorer of Africa
 * António da Silva Porto, explorer of Africa
 * Hermenegildo Capelo, explorer of Africa
 * Roberto Ivens, explorer of Africa

20th century

 * Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral, first to cross the South Atlantic Ocean by air

Monarchs

 * Monarchs of Portugal

Saints

 * Amador of Portugal (Early Christianity)
 * Anthony of Lisbon (1195–1231)
 * Beatrice of Silva (1424–1490)
 * Elizabeth of Portugal (1271–1336)
 * Felix the Hermit (9th century)
 * Francisco Marto (1908–1919)
 * Fructuosus of Braga (7th century)
 * Irene of Tomar (7th century)
 * Jacinta Marto (1910–1920)
 * John de Brito (1647–1693)
 * John of God (1495–1550)
 * Julia (3rd century)
 * Mantius of Évora (Early Christianity)
 * Martin of Braga (520–580)
 * Maxima (3rd century)
 * Nuno Álvares Pereira (1360–1431)
 * Peter of Rates (1st century)
 * Quiteria (5th century)
 * Rita Amada de Jesus (1848–1913)
 * Rudesind (10th century)
 * Saint Ovidius (1st and 2nd centuries)
 * Theotonius (1088–1166)
 * Verissimus (3rd century)
 * Wilgefortis (folk saint)

Blessed

 * Alexandrina of Balasar (1904–1955)
 * Amadeus of Portugal (1420–1482)
 * Bartolomeu dos Mártires (1514–1590)
 * Ferdinand the Holy Prince (1402–1443)
 * Inácio de Azevedo (1528–1570)
 * Joan, Princess of Portugal (1452–1490)
 * Mafalda of Portugal (1190–1256)
 * Sancha of Portugal (1180–1229)
 * Teresa of Portugal (1181–1250)
 * Elizabeth of Portugal (1282–1325)

Religious

 * António de Andrade (1580–1634), missionary, explorer of Tibet
 * António Vieira (1608–1697), writer, diplomat and preacher
 * João Ferreira Annes de Almeida (1628–1691), missionary
 * Paulo António de Carvalho e Mendonça (1702–1770), priest and cardinal, Inquisitor-General of the Holy Inquisition
 * Lúcia de Jesus dos Santos (1907–2005), visionary, involved in the 1917 Fátima events
 * Paulus Orosius (385–420), historian, theologian and disciple of St. Augustine

Popes

 * Damasus I, 4th-century pope
 * John XXI, 13th-century pope

Philosophers

 * Agostinho da Silva (1906–1996)
 * António Castanheira Neves (born 1929)
 * António Sérgio (1883–1969)
 * Damião de Góis (1502–1574)
 * Eduardo Lourenço (1923–2020)
 * José Gil (born 1939)

Musicians

 * Adriano Correia de Oliveira (1942–1982), singer
 * Alfredo Keil (1850–1907), composer of the Portuguese anthem
 * Ana Free, singer
 * Ana Moura (born 1979), singer, fadista
 * António Zambujo (born 1975), singer, fadista
 * Alfredo Marceneiro (1891–1982), fado singer
 * Amália Rodrigues (1920–1999), the most famous fado singer
 * António Fragoso (1897–1918), piano composer
 * António Pinho Vargas (born 1951), classical, jazz and piano composer
 * António Variações (1944–1984), singer-songwriter
 * Aurea, singer
 * Camané (born 1967), singer, fadista
 * Carlos do Carmo (1939–2021), singer, fadista
 * Carlos Paredes (1925–2004), Portuguese guitar player
 * Carlos Seixas (1704–1742), composer
 * Cristina Branco (born 1972), fado singer
 * Danny Fernandes, singer
 * David Fonseca (born 1973), singer
 * Diogo Piçarra, singer
 * DJ Vibe, DJ
 * Duarte Lobo (1565–1646), composer
 * Dulce Pontes (born 1969), singer
 * Fernando Lopes Graça (1906–1995), composer
 * Fernando Ribeiro (born 1974), Moonspell vocals
 * Francisco d'Andrade (1856–1921), international opera baritone
 * Guilhermina Suggia (1885–1950), cellist
 * Isabel Soveral (born 1961), composer
 * Jay Kay (born 1969), singer; Portuguese father
 * João Domingos Bomtempo (1775–1842), composer
 * Joaquim José Antunes (1725–1790), harpsichord maker
 * Jorge Palma (born 1950), singer, pianist and songwriter
 * José Afonso (1929–1987), aka Zeca Afonso, composer, player
 * Luciana Abreu (born 1985), singer, composer, actress, TV host
 * Lúcia Moniz (born 1976), singer, actress
 * Luís de Freitas Branco (1890–1955), composer
 * Luísa Todi (1753–1833), lyrical singer
 * Mafalda Arnauth (born 1974), fado singer
 * Malvina Garrigues (1825–1904), opera soprano
 * Manuela Azevedo, singer
 * Maria Ascensão (1926–2001), folklorist
 * Maria João Pires (born 1944), piano player
 * Maria João (born 1956), jazz singer
 * Mário Laginha (born 1960), piano player
 * Mariza (born 1973), fado singer
 * Mísia, fado singer
 * Nelly Furtado, singer
 * Nuno Bettencourt (born 1966), guitarist, singer-songwriter
 * Paulo Furtado, blues performer
 * Pedro de Escobar (c. 1465 – 1535), composer
 * Rita Guerra (born 1967), singer
 * Rita Redshoes, singer
 * Rui da Silva, disc jockey
 * Rui Veloso (born 1957), singer
 * Salvador Sobral (born 1989), singer
 * Sara Tavares (born 1978), singer
 * Shawn Desman, singer
 * Shawn Mendes, singer
 * Sérgio Godinho (born 1948), singer
 * Steve Perry, lead singer of band Journey
 * Teresa Salgueiro (born 1969), Madredeus vocals
 * José Vianna da Motta (1868–1948), piano player, composer
 * Vitorino (born 1942), singer

Fictionists

 * Agustina Bessa-Luís
 * Alexandre Herculano
 * Almeida Garrett, also a poet and playwright
 * Alves Redol, neo-realist writer
 * António Lobo Antunes
 * Aquilino Ribeiro, neo-realist writer
 * Bernardim Ribeiro
 * Camilo Castelo Branco
 * Carlos de Oliveira
 * Eça de Queiroz
 * Gonçalo M. Tavares
 * Hélia Correia
 * Inês Pedrosa
 * Irene Lisboa (1892–1958)
 * João Aguiar, writer
 * José Cardoso Pires
 * José Rodrigues Miguéis (1901–1980), writer
 * José Saramago, Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998
 * Júlio Dinis
 * Mário de Sá-Carneiro, novelist and poet
 * Miguel Torga, also a poet
 * Ramalho Ortigão
 * Raul Brandão (1867–1930)
 * Soeiro Pereira Gomes, neo-realist writer
 * Vergílio Ferreira
 * Vitorino Nemésio

Poets

 * Ana Luísa Amaral
 * Antero de Quental
 * António Nobre
 * Camilo Pessanha
 * Cesário Verde
 * David Mourão-Ferreira
 * Eugénio de Andrade
 * Fernando Pessoa, poet writer philosopher, described as one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century
 * Fiama Hasse Pais Brandão, poet and writer
 * Guerra Junqueiro, poet and writer
 * Herberto Hélder
 * Jorge de Sena, writer and poet
 * José Gomes Ferreira, writer
 * Luís Vaz de Camões, poet, playwright
 * Manuel Alegre, poet, writer and politician
 * Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage
 * Orlando da Costa, poet and playwright
 * Sá de Miranda
 * Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen
 * Teixeira de Pascoaes
 * Vasco Graça Moura

Others

 * Agostinho da Silva, writer and philosopher
 * Alice Vieira, children's books writer
 * Almada Negreiros
 * Álvaro Cunhal, neo-realist writer
 * Álvaro Magalhães, writer
 * Ana de Castro Osório, writer and pioneer feminist
 * André de Resende, writer
 * António Ferreira (poet)
 * António José da Silva, playwright
 * António Vieira (1608–1697), preacher and writer
 * Damião de Góis, writer
 * Eduardo Lourenço
 * Fernão Lopes (c. 1380–1458), royal chronicler
 * Gil Vicente, playwright
 * Gomes Eanes de Zurara, chronicler
 * João de Barros, writer and historian
 * Luiz Pacheco (1925–2008), writer and editor
 * Natália Correia, writer and poet
 * Raul Proença (1884–1941), writer
 * Rosa Lobato Faria, writer
 * Rui de Pina, chronicler
 * Tomé Pires (1465–1540), author of the Suma Oriental
 * Urbano Tavares Rodrigues, writer and journalist

Artists

 * Sofia Areal, painter
 * Almada Negreiros (1893–1970), 20th-century painter
 * Amadeo de Souza Cardoso (1887–1918), 20th-century painter
 * Ana Dias (born 1984), photographer of erotic femininity
 * António Soares dos Reis (1847–1889), 19th-century sculptor
 * Aurélia de Souza (1865–1922), 19th/20th-century painter
 * Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1857–1929), 19th/20th-century painter
 * Eduardo Gageiro (born 1935), 20th-century photographer
 * Fernando Lanhas (1923–2012), 20th/21st-century painter and architect
 * Filipe Alarcão (born 1963), urban and modern contemporary designer
 * Helena Corrêa de Barros (1910–2000), 20th-century photographer
 * João M. P. Lemos, cartoonist
 * José Dias Coelho (1923–1961), 20th-century artist
 * José Malhoa, 19th-century painter
 * Joshua Benoliel (1873–1932), 19th/20th-century photographer
 * Júlio Pomar (1926–2018), 20th-century painter
 * Marco Mendes (born 1978), comic artist
 * Manuel Pereira da Silva (1920–2003), 20th-century sculptor
 * Nadir Afonso (1920–2013), geometric abstract painter
 * Nuno Gonçalves, 15th-century painter
 * Paula Rego, 20th-century painter
 * Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro, 19th-century caricaturist
 * Raquel Gameiro (1889–1970), painter and illustrator
 * Vasco Fernandes (Grão Vasco), 15th-century painter
 * Vieira da Silva, 20th-century painter

Scientists

 * Abel Salazar (1889–1946)
 * Alexandre Quintanilha (born 1945)
 * André de Resende (c. 1500 – 1573)
 * António A. de Freitas (born 1947), immunologist
 * António Damásio (born 1944), neurologist
 * Bartolomeu de Gusmão (1685–1724), inventor
 * Bento de Jesus Caraça (1901–1948), mathematician
 * Diogo Abreu (born 1947), geographer
 * Egas Moniz (1874–1955), neurologist and Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1949
 * Freitas-Magalhães (born 1966), psychologist
 * Garcia de Orta (c. 1499 – 1568), botanical scientist
 * Hanna Damásio (born 1942), neurologist
 * Jacob de Castro Sarmento (c. 1691 – 1762)
 * João de Pina-Cabral (born 1954), anthropologist
 * João Magueijo (born 1967), physicist
 * Miguel Vale de Almeida (born 1960), anthropologist
 * Benedita Barata da Rocha (1949–2021), immunologist
 * Orlando Ribeiro (1911–1997), geographer
 * Pedro Nunes (1502–1578), mathematician and cosmographer
 * Raquel Seruca (1962–2022), oncobiologist
 * Sousa Martins (1843–1897)
 * Tomé Pires (c. 1465–c. 1540)

Engineers and architects

 * Álvaro Siza Vieira (born 1933), architect
 * João Luís Carrilho da Graça, architect
 * Edgar Cardoso (1913–2000), engineer
 * Eduardo Souto de Moura, architect
 * Fernando Távora (1923–2005), architect
 * José Tribolet, engineer, IST professor
 * Tomás Taveira (born 1938), architect
 * António Maria Braga, architect

Psychiatrists

 * João dos Santos

Actors

 * Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965)
 * Ana Rita Machado (born 1991)
 * António Silva
 * Beatriz Batarda
 * Beatriz Costa
 * Carmen Miranda (1909–1955), singer and actress
 * Daniela Melchior
 * Daniela Ruah
 * Diogo Infante
 * Diogo Morgado
 * Eunice Muñoz (1928–2022)
 * Fernando Rocha (born 1975), comedian, actor
 * Francisco Ribeiro (1911–1984), actor, comedian, film director, theatre director
 * Herman José (born 1954), actor and humourist
 * João Villaret (1913–1961), actor and poetry reader
 * Joaquim de Almeida (born 1957)
 * Maria de Medeiros
 * Maria Matos (1890–1952)
 * Nicolau Breyner
 * Nuno Lopes (born 1978)
 * Raul Solnado, actor and humourist
 * Teresa Aço, actor
 * Vasco Santana (1898–1958)

Directors

 * António Lopes Ribeiro (1908–1995)
 * Constantino Esteves
 * Diana Andringa
 * João César Monteiro (1939–2003)
 * João Pedro Rodrigues
 * Luís Miguel Cintra (born 1948)
 * Manoel de Oliveira (1908–2015)
 * Marco Martins (born 1972)
 * Miguel Gomes
 * Pedro Costa
 * Rita Azevedo Gomes
 * Vasco Nunes (1974–2016), director, cinematographer, producer

Others

 * Vera Mantero (born 1966), dancer and choreographer

Soldiers

 * Álvaro Vaz de Almada (count of Avranches) (1390–1449), knight of the Garter, Captain-major of Portugal, killed in battle
 * Fernando de Almada (count of Avranches) (1430–1496), Captain-major of Portugal
 * Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho (1936–2021), chief strategist of the Carnation Revolution of Portugal
 * Aníbal Augusto Milhais (1895–1970), most decorated soldier Ordem de Torre e Espada do Valor, Lealdade e Mérito of Portugal
 * Salgueiro Maia (1944–1992), Captain who led a cavalry unit into Lisbon during the Carnation Revolution of Portugal

Football

 * Bernardo Silva (born 1994) football player
 * Carlos Queiroz, football coach
 * Costinha (born 1974), football player
 * Cristiano Ronaldo (born 1985), football player
 * Dinis Vital (1932–2014), football player
 * Eusébio (1942–2014), football player, born in Portuguese Mozambique; later moved to Portugal
 * Hugo Almeida (born 1984), football player
 * José Mourinho, football coach
 * João Cancelo, football player
 * João Félix, football player
 * João Moutinho, football player
 * Luís Figo (born 1972), football player
 * Luís Miguel Afonso Fernandes, football player
 * Maniche (born 1977), football player
 * Matheus Nunes (born 1998) football player
 * Nani, football player
 * Nuno Gomes, football player
 * Pauleta, football player
 * Paulo Ferreira, football player
 * Paulo Futre, former football player
 * Paulo Sousa, former football player
 * Pereira Da Silva, football player
 * Ricardo Carvalho, football player
 * Ricardo Pereira, football player
 * Ricardo Quaresma (born 1983), football player
 * Ricardo Sá Pinto, football player
 * Rúben Dias (born 1997) football player
 * Rui Costa (born 1972), football player
 * Simão Sabrosa (born 1979), football player
 * Vítor Baía (born 1969), football player

Others

 * Ana Rocha, professional wrestler
 * António Jesus Correia (1924–2003)
 * António Livramento (1944–1999), hockey player
 * Carlos Lopes (born 1947), marathon Olympic champion
 * Carlos Sousa, off-road driver, world champion in 2003
 * Fernanda Ribeiro (born 1969), 10,000m Olympic champion
 * Francis Obikwelu, Nigerian-born runner
 * Joaquim Agostinho, cyclist
 * José Azevedo, cyclist
 * João Sousa, tennis player
 * Moises Henriques, Australian cricketer from Portugal
 * Nelson Évora, long jump Olympic and world champion
 * Pedro Lamy, former Formula One and DTM driver
 * Rosa Mota (born 1958), marathon Olympic champion
 * Rui Costa, cycling world champion
 * Telma Monteiro, four times judo silver medalist at world championships
 * Tiago Monteiro, former Champ Car and Formula One driver
 * Ticha Penicheiro, WNBA player
 * Vanessa Fernandes, triathlon world champion

Politicians

 * Afonso Costa (1871–1937), Prime Minister during the First Republic
 * Alberto João Jardim (born 1943), President of Regional Government of the Madeira Autonomous Region for 37 years
 * Álvaro Cunhal (1913–2005), former General Secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party
 * Aníbal Cavaco Silva, Prime Minister and President of the Republic
 * Anton de Vieira (1682–1745), governor of St Petersburg and Okhotsk
 * António de Oliveira Salazar (1889–1970), head of government and de facto leader of the Estado Novo dictatorial regime for 36 years
 * António Costa (born 1961), Prime Minister
 * António Guterres, Prime Minister, Secretary-General of the United Nations, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and President of the Socialist International
 * António Vitorino, Minister, judge of the Constitutional Court, EU Commissioner and Director General of the International Organization for Migration
 * Bento Gonçalves (1902–1942), General Secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party
 * Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto (1936–1985), Prime Minister
 * Carlos Carvalhas (born 1941), General Secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party
 * Diogo Freitas do Amaral, President of the General Assembly of the United Nations and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Duarte Pio, Duke of Bragança, claimant to the abolished throne of Portugal
 * Francisco Sá Carneiro (1934–1980), Prime Minister
 * Jaime Ornelas Camacho (1921–2016), first President of the Regional Government of Madeira
 * Jerónimo de Sousa (born 1947), General Secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party
 * Jorge Sampaio, President of the Republic and Mayor of Lisbon
 * José Manuel Barroso, Prime Minister and President of the European Commission
 * José Sócrates, Prime Minister
 * Manuel Pinho (born 1954), Minister of the Economy and Innovation
 * Marcelo Caetano (1906–1980), last head of government of the Estado Novo dictatorial regime, from 1968 to 1974
 * Mário Soares (1924–2017), Prime Minister and President of the Republic
 * Octávio Pato (1925–1999)
 * Pedro Santana Lopes, Prime Minister and Mayor of Lisbon
 * Teresa Heinz Kerry, philanthropist and wife of US Senator John Kerry
 * Vasco Gonçalves (1922–2005), Prime Minister
 * Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal (1699–1782), statesman

Historians

 * Diogo do Couto (1542–1616), historian of India and Sri Lanka
 * José Hermano Saraiva (1919–2012)

Businesspeople

 * Américo Amorim (1934–2017)
 * Belmiro de Azevedo (1938–2017)
 * Francisco Pinto Balsemão (born 1937)
 * Joe Berardo (born 1944)
 * Salvador Caetano (1926–2011)
 * António Champalimaud (1918–2004)
 * Antonia Ferreira (1811–1896), winemaker

Other

 * Catarina de Albuquerque (born 1970), UN Special Rapporteur
 * Mariana Alcoforado (1624–1723), nun and writer
 * Rita Almeida (born 1974), World Bank economist
 * Jorge de Cabedo (1525–1604), jurist
 * Catarina Eufémia (1928–1954), assassinated rural worker
 * Abraham Aboab Falero, 17th century Jewish philanthropist
 * Aires de Ornelas e Vasconcelos (1837–1880), 19th-century archbishop of the Portuguese colonial enclave Goa
 * Deu-la-Deu Martins 14th century hero
 * Fernando Pessa (1902–2002), journalist
 * Sara Sampaio (born 1991), model

title: List of Portuguese people


text:
Fergus mac Echdach

Fergus mac Echdach was king of Dál Riata (modern western Scotland) from about 778 until 781.

He succeeded Áed Find. He is stated to have been a son of Eochaid mac Echdach, and thus a brother of Áed. Some much later sources make him a son of Áed, but this is not credited by modern studies. His death is noticed in 781 by the Annals of Ulster.

The next reported king of Dál Riata is Donncoirce.

title: Fergus mac Echdach


text:
Áed Find

Áed Find (Áed the White), or Áed mac Echdach (before 732–778), was king of Dál Riata (modern western Scotland and County Antrim, Ireland). Áed was the son of Eochaid mac Echdach, a descendant of Domnall Brecc in the main line of Cenél nGabráin kings.

According to later genealogies, Áed was the great-grandfather of Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) who is traditionally counted as the first king of Scots. This descent ran through Áed's son Eochaid mac Áeda Find and Eochaid's son Alpín mac Echdach. The evidence for the existence of Eochaid and Alpín is uncompelling.

The Annals of Ulster in 768 report "Bellum i Fortrinn iter Aedh & Cinaedh": a battle in Fortriu between Áed and Cináed. This is usually read as meaning Áed Find and the Pictish king Ciniod I, who is called "Cinadhon" in the notice of his death in 775.

Áed's death in 778 is noted by the Annals of Ulster. He appears to have been followed as king by his brother Fergus mac Echdach.

The "Laws of Áed Eochaid's son" are mentioned by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba in the reign of Áed's supposed great-grandson Donald MacAlpin (Domnall mac Ailpín): "In his time the Gaels with their king made the rights and laws of the kingdom [that are called the laws] of Áed Eochaid's son, in Forteviot." What these laws concerned is not known.

In fiction
Áed Find is playable in Crusader Kings II (under the regnal name Áed III) in the Charlemagne DLC's 769 AD start date, and is treated as an independent duke. His son Eochaid and brother Fergus also exist in his court. Without player intervention his realm is usually quickly conquered by neighboring Pictland.

title: Áed Find


text:
Eógan mac Muiredaig

Eógan mac Muiredaig is named in some Scots sources as a king of Dál Riata, probably in the 730s.

Presumed to be the son of Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig, and thus a king of the Cenél Loairn, Eógan is not named in any surviving Irish annals, nor does he appear in the Duan Albanach, which passes from Muiredach to Áed Find. The Chronicle of the Kings of Dál Riata names Eógan son of Muiredach as king after Muiredach, and the king-list in the Chronicle of Melrose includes him.

Later genealogies of the Mormaers of Moray trace their descent from the Cenél Loairn through one Ruadrí, a presumed brother of Eógan's father.

Eógan's reign falls in the period when Dál Riata was invaded and conquered by the Picts under Óengus mac Fergusa. The name of his successor is unknown, and the next king to appear in the record is Áed Find of the Cenél nGabráin, some three decades after Eógan's time.

title: Eógan mac Muiredaig


text:
Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig

Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig was king of the Cenél Loairn and of Dál Riata (modern western Scotland) from about 733 until 736.

He was the son of Ainbcellach mac Ferchair. His coming to power is reported in 733, and is not obviously associated with the death of Eochaid mac Echdach, the contemporary king of Dál Riata, in the Irish annals. It is not certain who preceded Muiredach as king of the Cenél Loairn, but it may have been his cousin Dúngal mac Selbaig. Muiredach is one of the kings named in the 11th-century praise poem Duan Albanach.

It is likely that his reign ended as a result of his defeat at the hands of the Picts of Fortriu, led by Talorgan mac Fergusa, brother of Óengus, at "Cnoc Cairpri in Calathros at Etarlinde". The battle is recorded in the Annals of Ulster, but Muiredach's death is not.

The independent existence of the kingdom of the Cenél Loairn, and that of Dál Riata, probably ended in 736, after which time it formed part of the kingdom of the Picts, ruled by Óengus mac Fergusa. The next king of Dál Riata reported by the Irish annals is Áed Find, of the Cenél nGabráin, named in 768. Some Scottish sources, including the Chronicle of Melrose, have Muiredach's son Eógan as his successor.

An entry in the Annals of the Four Masters under the year 771 (corresponding with about 776 AD, but perhaps as late as 778 AD since the death of Áed Find appears in the same year) reports Muiredach's death.

title: Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig


text:
Eochaid mac Echdach

Eochaid mac Echdach was king of Dál Riata (modern western Scotland) from 726 until 733. He was a son of Eochaid mac Domangairt.

Eochaid came to power as king of Dál Riata in 726, presumably deposing Dúngal mac Selbaig, son of Selbach mac Ferchair. Selbach may have tried to restore his son to power, and fought against Eochaid's supporters at Irros Foichnae in 727, but without apparent success. The annals vary as to whether the despatch of a fleet from Dál Riata to Ireland to aid Flaithbertach mac Loingsig in his war with Áed Allán should be placed in the reign of Eochaid, or that of his successor.

At his death in 733, Eochaid is named king rather than lord of Dál Riata, which may suggest that after the defeat of Dúngal and Selbach his reign was unchallenged. His son, Áed Find, was later king of Dál Riata.

As Dál Riata certainly maintained a separate existence until 736, Eochaid must have had a successor, or successors. It appears that he was succeeded by Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig, who had replaced Dúngal mac Selbaig as king of the Cenél Loairn.

title: Eochaid mac Echdach


text:
Dúngal mac Selbaig

Dúngal mac Selbaig was king of Dál Riata. His reign can best be placed in the years 723 to 726, beginning with the abdication of his father, Selbach mac Ferchair, who entered a monastery, and ending with the rise of Eochaid mac Echdach of the Cenél nGabráin. The High Medieval praise poem Duan Albanach names Dúngal the Impetuous, and claims that he ruled for seven years.

For over a generation before Dúngal's reign the Cenél Loairn, to which he belonged, and the Cenél nGabráin had contested for control of Dál Riata. It seems that Dúngal's father had finally managed to defeat his rivals shortly before he abdicated. For whatever reason, Dúngal soon lost power to the Cenél nGabráin. His father left the monastery and attempted to restore his son, but failed.

While Dúngal was no longer king of Dál Riata after 726, it may be that he remained ruler of the Cenél Loairn. Certainly he retained some following. In 731, he burned Tairpert Boitir, most probably Tarbert on Loch Fyne which was in the lands of the Cenél nGabráin and possibly a portage site.

In 733 the Annals of Ulster report that Dúngal profaned Tory Island by forcibly removing Bruide, who is presumed to be the son of Óengus mac Fergusa, king of the Picts. This entry is followed by the statement that Dúngal's cousin, Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig, became king of the Cenél Loairn, and it seems probable that the rise of Muiredach, and Dúngal's epithet, stem from his doings on Tory Island.

In 734 Dúngal fled to Ireland, "to escape the power of Óengus". Dúngal later returned to Scotland, and was captured in 736, along with his brother Feredach, by Óengus. Their subsequent fates are unknown.

title: Dúngal mac Selbaig


text:
Selbach mac Ferchair

Selbach mac Ferchair (died 730) was king of the Cenél Loairn and of Dál Riata. Selbach's existence is well-attested as he is mentioned repeatedly in Irish annals.

Life
Selbach mac Ferchair was a son of Ferchar Fota. He ruled as king of the Cenél Loairn from around 698 until his abdication in 723, but it may be that he was undisputed ruler of Dál Riata only in the final years of his reign.

He is known to have had two sons, Dúngal and Feredach. Selbach's father, brother, son and nephew are included among the predecessors of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Malcolm III) of Scotland in the Duan Albanach praise poem, but Selbach is not. This may be a form of Damnatio memoriae.

Although Selbach is first mentioned after the death of Fiannamail ua Dúnchado (died 700), it seems likely that he had deposed his brother Ainbcellach in 698. In 701 he destroyed Dún Olaigh, but whether this was in a war against Ainbcellach, against a king of the rival Cenél nGabráin, or some other enemies, is unknown. A number of battles involving Dál Riada are recorded in the time of Selbach, a defeat in Glen Lemnae in 704, and victories over the Britons at Lorg Ecclet in 711 and again at "the rock called Minuirc" in 717, but Selbach is not named in these reports. In 712 Selbach besieged Aberte (Dunaverty, near Southend, Kintyre, in the lands of the Cenél nGabráin) and rebuilt Dún Olaigh in 714.

In September 719 Selbach fought against his brother Ainbcellach at Finnglen (perhaps near Loch Fyne). Ainbcellach was killed in the battle. A month later he faced the Cenél nGabráin, led by their king Dúnchad Bec, also called king of Cenn Tíre (Kintyre), in a sea battle off Ard Nesbi. Selbach was defeated, but Dúnchad Bec died in 721, which may have left Selbach as the unchallenged king of Dál Riata.

In 723 Selbach abdicated and retired to a monastery, at which time one annalist calls him lord of Dál Riada. He was probably succeeded by his son Dungal, who was replaced by Eochaid mac Echdach in 726. Selbach is found in 727 fighting against the supporters of Eochaid at Irros Foichnae.

title: Selbach mac Ferchair


text:
Fiannamail ua Dúnchado

Fiannamail ua Dúnchado was a king of Dál Riata (modern-day western Scotland and Northern Ireland) at the end of the 7th century. Little can be said with certainty other than the recording of his death in 700AD, where he is listed as having been slain alongside Flann mac Cind-fâelad of the Cianachta Glenn Geimin in present-day County Londonderry, Northern Ireland.

His killing is reported, and he is named king of Dál Riata, by the Annals of Ulster. The Annals of Tigernach state that he was king of Dál nAraide, although he is not named in the genealogies of the Dál nAraide in the Book of Leinster. He may be the same person as Fiannamail mac Osseni who is mentioned in 699, and he is certainly the Fiannamail ua Dúnchado (Fiannamail grandson of Dúnchad) who witnessed the Cáin Adomnáin in 696–697, in which Fiachrae Cosalach is named as king of the cruithne of Dál nAraide, which argues strongly that Fiannamail was not a king of Dál nAraide.

The identity of his grandfather, Dúnchad — most commonly assumed to be the son of Conaing son of Áedán mac Gabráin — is not certain. However, many members of this family are thought to appear in the annals, including a brother, or cousin, of Fiannamail named Béc and an uncle named Conall. Dúnchad Bec may also have been a kinsman of Fiannamail.

Fiannamail is said to have had at least two sons, Indrechtach and Conall, who were killed in 741 at the battle of Forboros, perhaps fighting against the Picts led by Óengus mac Fergusa. Indrechtach son of Fiannamail is sometimes presumed to be the same person as the Indrechtach who fathered Tommaltach mac Indrechtaig, king of the Dál nAraide and Ulaid, but this Indrechtach's father is named Lethlobar in the Book of Leinster, which poses considerable problems.

title: Fiannamail ua Dúnchado


text: User talk:62.30.62.196

title: User talk:62.30.62.196