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Murat & Jose

Murat & Jose are a Slovene hip hop duo of writers, producers and MC. Both were born in 1978 in Ljubljana, Slovenia where they still live. Together with Nikolovski they performed for some time under the name Nedotakljivi (EN: The Untouchables). Together they published one of their first releases on the first Slovene hip hop compilation 5'00" of Fame za narodov blagor (EN: 5'00" of Fame for the National Welfare).

Their first solo LP was V besedi je moč (EN:The power is in the word) from 2002. The album featured some contributions from other artists: Tomi M, singer of Slovene rock group Siddharta, appeared on socially conscious single "Od ljudi za ljudi" (EN: "From people for people"); Zagreb duo Bolesna brača on the song "Na izi" (EN: "On easy goin'"); Semo, a vocalist from Kočevje, featured on reggae-balkan-soul track "Če hočem" ("If I want") and "Dokler bova skupi" ("As long as we're together"). Nikolovski collaborated on "Neki ne štima" ("Something's wrong") and on "V besedi je moč". "Kdo je gengsta" ("Who's the Gangsta") features Kemal Trofi & Jozafat. Unusually for a Slovene hip-hop album, V besedi je moč does not include any swearing, regional, sexual, or between-band provocations, claims of illegal behaviour, or drug references.

Murat & Jose have shared the stage with Das Efx, Afu-Ra, Little Brother and many other internationally known hip-hop acts. Alongside Heavy Les Wanted they also appeared at Slovenia's first urban festival Breakbeatnikk.

Murat & Jose formed a live band in 2007 and are now performing under the name Murat & Jose Band. They recorded a fully live album with the band, entitled Tuki Not released in September 2008. Its first single "Nazaj" (Back) featured Slovene rock and soul singer Janez Bončina, who rose to fame in the mid seventies. The second single, Be your own, featured local soul singer Maya.

title: Murat & Jose


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Paleoproterozoic

The Paleoproterozoic Era (also spelled Palaeoproterozoic) is the first of the three sub-divisions (eras) of the Proterozoic eon, and also the longest era of the Earth's geological history, spanning from (2.5–1.6 Ga). It is further subdivided into four geologic periods, namely the Siderian, Rhyacian, Orosirian and Statherian.

Paleontological evidence suggests that the Earth's rotational rate ~1.8 billion years ago equated to 20-hour days, implying a total of ~450 days per year. It was during this era that the continents first stabilized.

Atmosphere
The Earth's atmosphere was originally a weakly reducing atmosphere consisting largely of nitrogen, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and inert gases, in total comparable to Titan's atmosphere. When oxygenic photosynthesis evolved in cyanobacteria during the Mesoarchean, the increasing amount of byproduct dioxygen began to deplete the reductants in the ocean, land surface and the atmosphere. Eventually all surface reductants (particularly ferrous iron, sulfur and atmospheric methane) were exhausted, and the atmospheric free oxygen levels soared permanently during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods in an aerochemical event called the Great Oxidation Event, which brought atmospheric oxygen from near none to up to 10% of the modern level.

Life
At the beginning of the preceding Archean eon, almost all existing lifeforms were single-cell prokaryotic anaerobic organisms whose metabolism was based on a form of cellular respiration that did not require oxygen, and autotrophs were either chemosynthetic or relied upon anoxygenic photosynthesis. After the Great Oxygenation Event, the then mainly archaea-dominated anaerobic microbial mats were devastated as free oxygen is highly reactive and biologically toxic to cellular structures. This was compounded by a 300-million-year-long global icehouse event known as the Huronian glaciation — at least partly due to the depletion of atmospheric methane, a powerful greenhouse gas — resulted in what is widely considered one of the first and most significant mass extinctions on Earth. The organisms that thrived after the extinction were mainly aerobes that evolved bioactive antioxidants and eventually aerobic respiration, and surviving anaerobes were forced to live symbiotically alongside aerobes in hybrid colonies, which enabled the evolution of mitochondria in eukaryotic organisms.

The Palaeoproterozoic represents the era from which the oldest cyanobacterial fossils, those of Eoentophysalis belcherensis from the Kasegalik Formation in the Belcher Islands of Nunavut, are known. By 1.75 Ga, thylakoid-bearing cyanobacteria had evolved, as evidenced by fossils from the McDermott Formation of Australia.

Many crown node eukaryotes (from which the modern-day eukaryotic lineages would have arisen) have been approximately dated to around the time of the Paleoproterozoic Era. While there is some debate as to the exact time at which eukaryotes evolved, current understanding places it somewhere in this era. Statherian fossils from the Changcheng Group in North China provide evidence that eukaryotic life was already diverse by the late Palaeoproterozoic.

Geological events
During this era, the earliest global-scale continent-continent collision belts developed. The associated continent and mountain building events are represented by the 2.1–2.0 Ga Trans-Amazonian and Eburnean orogens in South America and West Africa; the ~2.0 Ga Limpopo Belt in southern Africa; the 1.9–1.8 Ga Trans-Hudson, Penokean, Taltson–Thelon, Wopmay, Ungava and Torngat orogens in North America, the 1.9–1.8 Ga Nagssugtoqidian Orogen in Greenland; the 1.9–1.8 Ga Kola–Karelia, Svecofennian, Volhyn-Central Russian, and Pachelma orogens in Baltica (Eastern Europe); the 1.9–1.8 Ga Akitkan Orogen in Siberia; the ~1.95 Ga Khondalite Belt; the ~1.85 Ga Trans-North China Orogen in North China; and the 1.8-1.6 Ga Yavapai and Mazatzal orogenies in southern North America.

That pattern of collision belts supports the formation of a Proterozoic supercontinent named Columbia or Nuna. That continental collisions suddenly led to mountain building at large scale is interpreted as having resulted from increased biomass and carbon burial during and after the Great Oxidation Event: Subducted carbonaceous sediments are hypothesized to have lubricated compressive deformation and led to crustal thickening.

Felsic volcanism in what is now northern Sweden led to the formation of the Kiruna and Arvidsjaur porphyries.

The lithospheric mantle of Patagonia's oldest blocks formed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Paleoproterozoic


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User talk:Cockgoblin

Hello, Cockgoblin.... welcome to Wikipedia. Just to give you a heads-up, some people might consider your choice of username to be offensive, so don't be surprised if you get some flak for it. You might want to read No offensive usernames and the associated discussion. But, good to have you here, hope to see more great edits! Graft

I enjoy the name User_talk:hfastedge

The name can also be intepreted, as a goblin with something similar to the male part of the hen, nothing vulgar in that (other than it sounds pretty evil!) Firebirth
 * It can also be interpreted as Cockgob(b)lin', or a semi-clever pseudonym for user:cumguzzler. --Koyaanis Qatsi

Uh huh... sure. And it may mean this person likes male poultry. whatever. freedom to have maximum shock value from a wiki handle seems to be most important to a guzzler who crucified christ after smoking his pole BF

Hi. I changed your username to CG. --Uncle Ed 19:26 Jan 17, 2003 (UTC)

My concern about your username (Cockgoblin)
Hello, Cockgoblin, and thank you for contributing to Wikipedia!

I hope not to seem unfriendly or make you feel unwelcome, but I noticed your username, and am concerned that it might not meet Wikipedia's username policy. After you look over that policy, could we discuss that concern here?

I'd appreciate learning your own views, for instance your reasons for wanting this particular name, and what alternative username you might accept that avoids raising this concern.

You have several options freely available to you:
 * If you can relieve my concern through discussing it here, I can stop worrying about it.
 * If the two of us can't agree here, we can ask for help through Wikipedia's dispute resolution process, such as asking for a "third opinion", or requesting comments from other Wikipedians. Admins usually abide by agreements reached through this process.
 * You can keep your contributions history under a new username. Visit Changing username and follow the guidelines there.

Let me reassure you that my writing here means I don't think your username is grossly, blatantly, or obviously inappropriate; such names get reported straight to Administrator intervention against vandalism (WP:AIV), or blocked on sight. This is more a case where opinions might differ, and it would be good to reach some consensus — either here or at WP:RFC/NAME. So I look forward to a friendly discussion, and to enjoying your continued participation on Wikipedia. Thank you again! Kesac 01:32, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Username
Oh my God, what's wrong with you guys? You see vulgarity in anything! There's nothing wrong with "Cockgoblin", a cock is a male chicken. Let up on it, folks. Remember, Wikipedia is a place for everyone, and being the fascist username police isn't exactly constructive to producing a good encyclopedia. Keep that in mind before you complain about another username with the word "cock" in it. Thanks, 71.231.93.28 (talk) 07:35, 13 October 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cockgoblin


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User:Xadrian

I am an amateur Comic book artist/Sci-fi author looking to Wiki to do some much desired research in Philosophy, History, and Mythology.

You can visit my page at www.polariscomics.com

Please leave a greeting if you've stopped by.

I hope to contribute to the wealth of knowledge here as best I can.

X

title: User:Xadrian


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Margarita

A margarita is a cocktail consisting of tequila, triple sec, and lime juice. Some margarita recipes include simple syrup as well and are often served with salt on the rim of the glass. Margaritas can be served either shaken with ice (on the rocks), without ice (straight up), or blended with ice (frozen margarita). Most bars serve margaritas in a stepped-diameter variant of a cocktail glass or champagne coupe called a margarita glass. The margarita is one of the world's most popular cocktails and the most popular tequila-based cocktail.

Origin
The history of the margarita is shrouded in mystery and folklore due to its numerous origin stories. According to cocktail historian David Wondrich, the margarita is related to the brandy daisy (margarita is Spanish for "daisy"), remade with tequila instead of brandy. (Daisies are a family of cocktails that include a base spirit, liqueur, and citrus. A sidecar and gin daisy are other related drinks.) There is an account from 1936 of Iowa newspaper editor James Graham finding such a cocktail in Tijuana, years before any of the other margarita "creation myths".

The Cafe Royal Cocktail Book, published in the UK in 1937, contains a recipe for a Picador using the same concentrations of tequila, triple sec, and lime juice as a margarita. One of the earliest stories is of the margarita being invented in 1938 by Carlos "Danny" Herrera at his restaurant Rancho La Gloria, halfway between Tijuana and Rosarito, Baja California, created for customer and former Ziegfeld dancer Marjorie King, who was allergic to many spirits, but not to tequila. This story was related by Herrera and also by bartender Albert Hernandez, acknowledged for popularizing a margarita in San Diego after 1947, at the La Plaza restaurant in La Jolla. The story was debunked in 1992 by the San Diego Reader.

According to Jose Cuervo, the cocktail was invented in 1938 by a bartender in honor of Mexican showgirl Rita de la Rosa.

Hussong's Cantina also claims to have been the site of the margarita's creation in Ensenada, Baja California, in 1941. Bartender Don Carlos Orozco reputedly named a new drink after Mexican-German patron Margarita Henkel Cesena, a frequent customer to the cantina. Cesena was a ranch operator by trade, and it is disputed whether she was the daughter of a German ambassador as the story claims. Hussong's, however, has enjoyed widespread popularity as the home of the original margarita.

There are also claims that the margarita was first mixed in Juárez, Chihuahua at Tommy's Place Bar on July 4, 1942, by Francisco "Pancho" Morales. Morales later left bartending in Mexico to become a US citizen, where he worked as a milkman for 25 years. Mexico's official news agency Notimex and many experts have said Morales has the strongest claim to having invented the margarita.

Others say the inventor was Dallas socialite Margarita Sames when she concocted the drink for her guests at her Acapulco, Guerrero vacation home in 1948. Tommy Hilton reportedly attended, bringing the drink back to the Hilton chain of hotels. However, Jose Cuervo was already running ad campaigns for the margarita three years earlier, in 1945, with the slogan, "Margarita: It's more than a girl's name."

Another common origin tale begins the cocktail's history at the legendary Balinese Room in Galveston, Texas, where, in 1948, head bartender Santos Cruz created the margarita for singer Peggy Lee. He supposedly named it after the Spanish version of her name, Margarita.

The first known publication of a margarita recipe was in the December 1953 issue of Esquire, with a recipe calling for an ounce of Sierra tequila, a dash of triple sec, and the juice of half a lime or lemon. A recipe for a tequila-based cocktail first appeared in the 1930 book My New Cocktail Book by G. F. Steele. Without noting a specific recipe or inventor, a drink called the Tequila Daisy was mentioned in the Syracuse Herald as early as 1936. Margarita is Spanish for Daisy, which is a nickname for Margaret.

A later, certainly false, story is that the margarita was invented in October 1961, at a party in Houston, Texas, by partygoer Robert James "Rusty" Thomson while acting as bartender. He concocted a mixture of equal parts tequila, Controy orange liqueur, lime, and crushed ice in a salt-rimmed glass.

Variations
The IBA (IBA Official list of Cocktails) standard is 10:4:3, that is, tequila:triple sec:fresh lime juice.

The "Original Margarita" recipe, as given by Cointreau on their website, has slightly more of their own sweet liqueur: 1 part white tequila, $1/2$ part Cointreau, and $1/2$ part fresh squeezed lime juice.

Flavored tequila
Apple-cinnamon tequila, triple sec, cranberry juice, fresh lime juice, and an apple wedge or lemon twist for garnish combine to form the Cranberry Margarita With Apple-Cinnamon Tequila, a fall seasonal drink.

Flavored liqueurs
Besides Cointreau, other orange-flavored liqueurs that might be used include Grand Marnier (yielding the "Cadillac Margarita"), Gran Gala, other brands of triple sec, or blue curaçao (yielding the blue margarita). When sweeter fruit juices or freshly puréed fruits are added to the margarita, the orange-flavored liqueur is often reduced or omitted. In addition to orange-flavored liqueurs, secondary liqueurs may occasionally be added to a cocktail, including melon-flavored or black raspberry-flavored. Other flavors include pineapple and watermelon.

Fresh lime juice
Freshly squeezed lime juice is the key ingredient. The most common lime in the United States is the thick-skinned Persian lime. However, margaritas in Mexico are generally made with Mexican limes (Key limes). These are small, thin-skinned limes with a more tart and often bitter flavor than Persian limes.

Frozen margarita
The frozen margarita is a margarita served as an ice slush, similar to other tropical-inspired frozen mixed drinks like the hurricane or piña colada. The ingredients can be processed with ice in a kitchen blender, or for larger output, a slush or soft-serve ice cream machine is used: a cooled, horizontal cylinder has a rotating impeller that churns the mix so it will not freeze solid, and the thick half-frozen slush is dispensed from a spout. Frozen margaritas were first served in La Jolla, when Albert Hernandez Sr. stopped using crushed ice and instead combined the ingredients in a blender in 1947. The dedicated frozen margarita machine was introduced by Mariano Martinez in Dallas in 1971.

A lemonade or limeade margarita can be quickly whipped up by using frozen lemonade or limeade concentrate in place of lime juice.

Fruit sodas and sports drinks
Fruity sodas such as fruit punch, lime, pineapple, or mandarin orange Jarritos, or sports drinks such as blue or orange Gatorade, can substitute for triple sec. A margarita made with orange soda and beer is a sunrise beer margarita; if it is made with carbonated fruit punch soda, it is a sunset margarita. The variant that uses grapefruit soda is called a Paloma.

Other fruits and vegetables
Alternate fruits and juice mixtures can also be used in a margarita. Fruits like mango, peach, strawberry, banana, cranberry, melon, raspberry, blueberry, or avocado are suitable for creating this drink. Orange juice and pomegranate juice (poured down the inner side of the glass) can make a sunset margarita (so named because the orange is at the top and the red at the bottom). Many recipes call for a splash of orange juice. These days, margaritas can be prepared in many different ways. When the word "margarita" is used by itself, it typically refers to the lime or lemon juice margarita. Still, when other juices are used, the fruits are typically added as adjectives in the name, with lime juice or lemon juice added to give it a characteristic margarita flavor (a wedge of lime is often added to the glass). Other varieties of margarita include fruit margarita, top-shelf margarita, and virgin margarita.

Coconut cream, coconut milk, and coconut water can also be added to margaritas, e.g., skinny margaritas that substitute, e.g., pineapple juice for liqueurs.

Margaritas can also be made with vegetables such as carrots, beets, cucumber, and celery.

Beer cocktails
A beergarita (or Coronarita) is a beer cocktail that has a bottle of Corona beer or other light-flavored beer poured upside down into a margarita on the rocks.

Skinny
A skinny margarita may be purportedly lower in calories (possibly using artificial sweeteners) or one that uses fresh juices rather than a prepared mix.

One recipe uses fresh lime juice, orange juice, and agave nectar.

Another recipe uses only tequila and some concentrated lime juice.

Related drinks
A margarita with vodka substituted for tequila is a kamikaze.

Glass
Margaritas may be served in a variety of glasses, most notably the margarita glass, a variant of the classic champagne coupe; this is particularly associated with blended fruit margaritas, and the glass is also used for dishes such as guacamole or shrimp cocktails. Margaritas are often served in a standard cocktail glass in formal settings. In contrast, in informal settings, particularly with ice, margaritas may be served in an old fashioned glass, cocktail glass, wine glass, pint glass, and even large schooners.

Popularity
The margarita cocktail was the December 1953 "Drink of the Month" in Esquire magazine, with this recipe:

 * 1 ounce tequila
 * Dash of triple sec
 * Juice of $1/2$ lime or lemon

 * Pour over crushed ice, stir. Rub the rim of a stem glass with rind of lemon or lime, spin in salt—pour, and sip.

It was further popularized by the 1977 song "Margaritaville" by Jimmy Buffett. In 2004 it was described as "the most popular mixed drink in America". It was used in the title of the 1983 single "Margarita Time" by the English rock band Status Quo and was the inspiration for the cover artwork.

The margarita may be popular because it includes salt, sweet, and sour flavors.

title: Margarita


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Talk:Microphone/Archive 1

Earphones as microphones
Do you guy think it would be appopriate to ad thhat a speaker, like a small earphone, can be used as  a microphone. If so where. Dosman

I think this needs some work on how sound waves are put into it and how the inside flexes creating electrical signals.. --Cyberman 02:25, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Maybe as a parenthetical comment or an aside, but let's not lose sleep over including this in the article, because while they can be used, speakers (and other electrical-to-sound transducers) make shitty microphones. (They are used, for example, in low-quality intercoms, where the speaker also serves as the microphone, which must save the manufacturer several pennies.) ==ILike2BeAnonymous 03:45, 13 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I've heard of respectable recording studios using loudspeakers as kick drum mics... — Omegatron 00:33, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Now that might be plausible; I could see how a woofer, placed close to a bass drum, might make a pretty good pickup. If you can find any sources for that, I'd say put it in the article. ==ILike2BeAnonymous 00:37, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * When I saw it, it was a do-it-yourself thing, but it looks like Yamaha has made a product out of it. — Omegatron 00:56, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I created a new section ("Speakers as microphones") and used your link to illustrate this use. ==ILike2BeAnonymous 01:17, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I've heard of people using studio monitor headphones (like Sony MDR 7506's) as kick drum microphones, but I'm not familiar enough with the practice to add it to the article. kmccoy (talk) 01:43, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

Directionality
Your diagrams are gorgeous ;-). But it's not obvous where is the microphone. Can I suggest to add a red point ? Ericd

 * I updated the diagrams to SVG format. I was thinking it might be beneficial to show the polarity in each lobe, too.  A source in one lobe of the bidirectional will be positive polarity, while negative in the other lobe, for instance.  Is this a good idea?  What's the polarity pattern for the hypercardioid and shotgun? — Omegatron 15:14, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The red dot is good, but it is also not clear which way the mic is facing (at least not to lay people like myself). Is the body of the mic extending downward along the y axis of the picture? or is it going into/out of the screen on the z axis? My intuition tells me the body is on the y axis, going downward from the red dot, but the dot itself implies a z-oriented mic. Yeah. Kellen T 09:41, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

 * An omnidirectional microphone takes the sound from every direction, like a sphere. --Lenilucho 15:58, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes that one's obvious =P It's the others for which the diagram is not entirely clear. Kellen T 17:17, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Anybody? Kellen T 03:10, 27 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I tried to clarify the article. Better now? Han-Kwang 08:15, 27 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes. Awesome, thanks. Kellen T 23:29, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

We need to clarify:
 * That the diagrams are a 2D slice of the 3D locus, and that it would be equivalent if you sliced anywhere along the axis of symmetry
 * That the axis of symmetry extends out the end of a handheld mic, like a Shure dynamic, and out the front of a studio condenser.

I think this could most easily be explained with two 3D pictures; one of an end mic and one of a front mic. Show the axis of symmetry as a dotted line (maybe with an arrowhead at the end?) starting at the mic element and extending out towards the direction of the performer. Show the directionality pattern as a 3D "lobe" surface for each, like these:

,

Like a cardioid dynamic mic and a hypercardioid condenser should cover the concept well enough for people to understand it (omni wouldn't be as good, since it wouldn't show them the directionality). — Omegatron 14:08, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

Subcardioid, supercardioid, hypercardioid, shotgun
Is there a standard that defines these types? I see very conflicting info online. When I originally made the SVGs, I just traced over the old PNGs, since the only info I could find was in conflict. Obviously there's a continuum between omni and bidirectional, but I'd like to make the images authoritative and accurate.

 * says the progression is cardioid → super(125°) → hyper(110°)
 * says the progression is cardioid → hyper → super (= shotgun)
 * says cardioid → hyper (110°) → line (shotgun, 120°)
 * Other links

Any standards? — Omegatron 00:49, 26 May 2006 (UTC)
 * You have to realize that all pick-up patterns of small microphones can be written as (1-a)+a*cos(theta), where theta is the angle with the axis. I.e., the pattern is a superposition of a pure omni and a pure figure-8 response:
 * Omnidirectional: a=0
 * Cardioid: a=0.5
 * Figure-8: a=1.0
 * Super-,hypercardioid: a > 0.5 (the exact values don't seem to be very much standardized)
 * Subcardioid: 0a/2 Han-Kwang 15:15, 5 June 2006 (UTC))

Yes, I realize that it's a continuum, but I am wondering if there are any standard values to differentiate between hyper and super. Also, one site said that shotguns were super, but you say they are completely different. Your description makes more sense, but we need references, standards, authoritative citations. — Omegatron 14:08, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

According to ftp://members.aol.com/mihartkopf/micropho.zip
 * hypercardioid: (1-a):a = 0.3:0.7, or a=0.7
 * supercardioid: suggests that a is a bit larger
 * shotgun: is a hypercardioid in a slotted tube.

(since it is interference that creates the direction sensitivity for higher freqs in a shotgun, it must have multiple frequency-dependent lobes. So obvious it doesn't need a reference)

http://www.josephson.com/pdf/srs7ug.pdf:
 * sub/hypo/wide cardioid: a=0.33
 * super: a=0.75
 * hyper: a=0.66

http://www.knowleselectronics.com/engineering/pdf/an-4-issue01.pdf:
 * super: a=0.63
 * hyper: a=0.75

http://www.musiciansbuy.com/mmMBCOM/html/akg/music_rec_applications.pdf
 * sub: a=0.3
 * super: a=0.63
 * hyper: a=0.75

http://www.audiomastersforum.org/amforum/topic-4057.html
 * sub: a=0.3
 * super: a=0.63
 * hyper: a=0.75

So I think the only reasonable NPOV way is to state it that there is no absolute consensus, although a=0.63/0.75 seem to be the most common ones for super/hyper. In real life the pick-up patterns are never as clean and frequency-independent as these equations suggest anyway to justify the distinction between a=0.3, a=0.33, and a=0.25.

Han-Kwang 15:15, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Excellent. Thank you. — Omegatron 15:49, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

A table might be good: — Omegatron 14:08, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

Specs
I would very like to see some information about how to understand in layman's term the various specs of a microphone. For instance right now I am trying to figure out if a -44dB mike is more sensitive than a -58dB one. I would guess so, and according to this web site, it would be twice more sensitive. But I am a little lost :-)

 * I have extended the Measurements and Specifications section to include descriptions of common specs, without getting too technical. I hope this helps! Robin726 15:03, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

Kinds of Microphone
I think lav microphones should not be put together with condenser & dynamic (etc.) classification. The latter should make up a new section called "microphone principles". Lavaliers should go together with other KINDS of microphones such as shotgun, wireless, large diaphragm etc. --Dulldull 05:51, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

---

I'd like to learn exactly why pressure gradient transducer microphones pick up higher frequencies more than lower.

 * Hello--I can tell you that. Basically it's because lower frequencies have correspondingly longer waves, and because a pressure-gradient transducer works by measuring the difference in sound pressure at two nearly adjacent points in space (often the front and back of the capsule), which in turn depends on the phase difference from moment to moment. Given a fixed distance between the two points, the longer a sound wave is, the lower the phase difference will be between any two nearby points; thus the pressure difference will also be less. So there is a natural 6 dB/octave low-frequency rolloff in all pressure-gradient transducers--the only question is at what frequency the rolloff will begin. -- DSatz 18:39, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

---

Should be a mention of David Edward Hughes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Edward_Hughes who invented the carbon microphone in this article.

---

Is a "lav microphone" really a different type of microphone (operating on a different physical principle) or just a small microphone? Does this section really belong here? If it uses a different physical principle, then the paragraph should state what that is.

 * I agree and have made this change. I am not completely sure if all the other mic types here operate on different principles (for example, contact mics). Maybe someone else with more technical info can make that determination? Robin726 13:53, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Lavelier microphones are condeser microphones. They have a tiny capacitor that acts pretty much in the same way like the large diafragm condeser studio microphones. The main difference is the size. I think that should be explained. lenilucho April 1st 2006

 * No, they aren't. There are plenty of lavalier microphones that are dynamic. [Josephson 22Sep06]

 * Well, may be not all, but most modern professional lavelier microphones are condenser microphones.--Lenilucho 06:46, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Hmmm, yes, parabolics need to be here as well. Will do more editing. Robin726 14:19, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

 * It seems a shame that there is no real discussions the capsules sizes and their benefits in recording applications --DavidP 15:06, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

 * It would be nice to have a discussion of capsule principles -- size really has very little to do with it. Since most people equate dual-diaphragm with "large" they make that connection. See the paper by Guy Torio a few years back on this. [Josephson]

ITU-R 468 noise weighting
I've added a reference to 468-weighting, as I've recently created a page on this. As well as being the preferred weigting for subjective validity it makes mic measurements easier as it is much less affected by low frequency noise. Measuring mic noise, especially on omnis is normally very difficult because of the need for extraordinarily quiet surroundings, and the effect low frequency pressure variations from wind can have. I'd like to see 468-weighting used a lot more. I've made other changes, and as with previous comments I'm not sure the various categories are sorted out properly yet. Lindosland 12:40, 2 December 2005 (UTC)

abbreviated mike

Berliner
This article states that "Emile Berliner invented the first microphone", but the Emile Berliner states that he "invented an improved telephone transmitter". Is this a contradiction? --Sean Brunnock 16:55, 4 March 2006 (UTC)

History
I don't know enough to begin to write this, but something on the history of the microphone would be good. For example, in working on the article on Udi Hrant Kenkulian I came across the fact that the electronic microphone dates from 1927. I'm sure there is a lot of other chronology that should be added to this article. - Jmabel | Talk 03:54, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

Connection and technical electric information
I'm new here in Wikipedia so I'm not quite sure how to add the corresponding sections. I think here should be explained the technical issues about impedance on microphones, when to use a transformer, types of connections (XLR, plug, etc). And explain something about the cables. I've also created an article about wireless microphones. I think this article should mention something about them.--Lenilucho 19:09, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Is too called "mike"
You (Light current) are dead wrong when you say that "mike" is not used to describe microphones.

You could have used Google, as I did, and found:

 * Answers.com
 * "Mike" or "Mic"?
 * Microphones & Mike Accessories
 * See page title
 * Style manual says "mike, not mic"
 * DIY stereo mike
 * Title says "mic", text uses "mike"

So there. ==ILike2BeAnonymous 21:10, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Maybe in US but not over here my friend!--Light current 21:07, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, then, always remember: TWIAVBP. ==ILike2BeAnonymous 21:10, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

Are you a child? You certainly act like one!--Light current 21:16, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

 * LC, you know better than to make personal attacks. And yes, "mike" is a totally valid spelling, including in the UK. — Omegatron 21:24, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

 * WP:TWIAVBP should be a guideline of some sort... — Omegatron 00:35, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The Oxford English Dictionary defines mike as the abbreviation for microphone. It does not define mic as any form of abbreviation. --DavidP 21:26, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

I've seen "mike" used now and then, but always considered it a spelling error than standard usage. If google can be the ultimate arbiter, then note that "dynamic mike" gets 783 hits, and "dynamic mic" gets 175000 hits (use the quote marks); ditto for "condenser mike" (12500) vs. "condenser mic" (1150000). Also note that neither "dynamic mike" nor "condenser mike" return ads with the search, while "dynamic mic" (and "condensor mic") do return various ads -- suggesting that people are making real money with "mic", but not "mike". And indeed, perusing most of the "usual" microphone manufacturers (Shure, Sennheiser, Schoeps, etc), when not calling them "microphones", they all seem to use "mic", not "mike". Finally, the inhabitants of the nature recordists forum at Yahoo are apparently loathe to use "dynamic mike" (4 hits), while "dynamic mic" is much more common (114 hits) ("condenser": 26 for "mike" vs. 211 for "mic"). mdf 14:33, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, I can't prove it ("OR"—so sue me), but "mic" is just plain wrong. Every time I see it, I hear it pronounced "mick". Just like the widely-misspelled "kludge", which sounds (in my mind) like "fudge"; it should be (and once was) kluge. +ILike2BeAnonymous 18:26, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Looks just plain right to me. :-\ — Omegatron 00:18, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't think there is any consensus on this. In the audio engineering community both terms are used; I've settled on "mic" for the noun and "mike" for the verb, including the gerund "miking"

Button Microphone
I'm new to writing in Wikipedia but have 20+ years as an electronics engineer. I saw a request for an article on Button microphone. I considered that on the one hand, it is already covered in the Microphone article under the Carbon microphone heading, but on the other hand, redirects can't be made to a particular heading, only the top of an article. Further, I have some content that is not included in the Microphone article. I decided to write a short Button microphone article.

I am seeking opinions on whether it would be best to
 * Change the Button microphone article to a redirect and edit the Microphone to merge the content of the two articles
 * Leave the situation as is
 * Leave the Button microphone article as an article, but have it consist of just a short definition and a link to the correct section of the Microphone article, and merge the content of the two articles

Gerry Ashton 18:53, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Just a technical note: you can link to a heading within an article, by including the heading after "#" (for instance,  text to display . You might want to double-check the exact syntax, as I'm remembering this off the top of my head, or just experiment when previewing. Very useful function, that.
 * One gotcha, though: if someone changes the heading in the target article, the link will go red. ==ILike2BeAnonymous 19:41, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

 * My opinion is that they should be mentioned and described, but there should be a link to the main article where it explains it in detail.--Lenilucho 19:44, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

I endorse the changes that ILike2BeAnonymous made to the Button microphone article. I have added a link to that article in the "See also" list, and alphabetized the "See also" list. Gerry Ashton 21:32, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

Computer
Please add that when connecting a microphone to the computer, it is usually connected to the pink coloured connector thingymabob.

 * That's covered under Sound_card. Does it belong here, too? — Omegatron 00:36, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

Near-coincident recording and headphones
I have some doubts about a few remarks under 'Near-coincident recording':

Quote: The choice between one and the other depends on the recording angle of the microphone system,

It is not clear what "recording angle of the microphone system" means.

Quote: not on the distance to and the width of the sound source.

See DAT-heads digest: "the 110 degree angle was chosen because, from the recording position (as the apex) to the edges of the orchastra (as the rays) the angle was 110 degrees. from this position, the french radio network found that 18 cm produced the best sound for their purposes."

Han-Kwang 12:27, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Yikes! That isn't accurate information, unfortunately. Let's not confuse two different things: [a] the angle between the main axes of a pair of microphones and [b] the angle for the width of the orchestra, etc., that is being recorded, as "seen" from the microphones' "point of view." The so-called "stereophonic recording angle" is related closely to [b]; it will equal [a] only occasionally.

 * In an ORTF arrangement, angle [a] is 110 degrees but angle [b] is less--more like 95 to 100 degrees, or about +/- 50 degrees from the center line. Thus if you place an ORTF pair so that the two cardioid capsules are aimed at the edges of the orchestra or chorus, you'll actually be a little too close in; the setup can't properly render a stereophonic image that wide.

 * The "stereophonic recording angle" relates to what we hear when stereo recordings are played back over a pair of loudspeakers. Sounds that occurred in the center of the original sound field (an orchestra in a hall, for example) should seem to come from a spot directly between the two speakers during playback. Now if, let's say, an oboist were to stand up in the middle of the orchestra and start walking to one side or the other while continuing to play, then in the playback of the recording, the sound of the oboe would seem to move toward the corresponding loudspeaker.

 * But the oboist will eventually reach a point at which, even if he or she keeps walking in the same direction, the apparent source of the sound can't go any further because it is already coming from a point which is audibly located within one speaker. That point (on either side of center) is the limit which the "stereophonic recording angle" expresses: the angular limit of the apparent width of any body of sound which the microphones are picking up.

 * Every possible way of setting up a pair of microphones, depending on their directional pattern, their spacing and the angle between their axes, will have a corresponding SRA which can be predicted either from a mathematical formula or by looking it up in a chart. This stuff doesn't have to be entirely "hit or miss" any more. See: Michael Williams, Microphone Arrays for Stereo and Multichannel Sound Recording and also the "Image Assistant" at www.hauptmikrofon.de. --best regards DSatz 18:47, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

Material on stereophonic recording techniques is not really about microphones
The material on A/B, X/Y, ORTF and other techniques of recording is not really about microphones as such; it's about how to make stereo recordings, and much of it is already included in the article on Stereophonic sound. I propose to remove it from this article. Do people agree with that idea? -- DSatz 18:31, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Plugs?
Maybe this article should mention, with an illustration, the three or more (?) main types of microphone jacks (esp. the male parts). - User:Samsara (talk • contribs) 10:05, 16 June 2006 (UTC)
 * They all seemed to be mentioned in the connectors section, with links to articles on each with pictures, or did you mean something else? pschemp | talk 14:10, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

Mike examples
We could do with a few examples of some studio and live sound standards, photos of which I would happily take and provide. For example, under dynamic mikes, where is a photo of the Shure SM57, the podium mike of the President if the US for the last 30 years?

Added image of SM57 Iain 19:06, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

I do slightly question the use of an Oktava as an example of a condenser. This Russian firm makes some very nice mikes but there are also some unplesant Chinese copies hanging around from a manufacturing dispute. In use in professional studios you will more typically find Neumann, AKG, Gefell and such like. However, I guess in true neutral style, any change now would imply partiality. But I would expect a mike tech to be reaching for Schoeps or Sennheiser to record a grand piano not Oktava. --DavidP 21:24, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

Dynamic Microphone Low Frequency resposnse
I removed the comment about dynamic mirophones having poor low frequency response. This is not inherent to a dynamic microphone. For example, the Shure Beta52, Beyer MT88, AKG D112 etc are all used to record kick drum and other low frequency instruments. Iain 19:05, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

adding a link
To the admins:

Users have added many microphone informational resources, why cannot I add one myself? I wish to submit www.themicrophonevault.com as an educational resource of vintage microphones as well as current microphones. The microphonevault is intended to serve as an educational resource and extremely comprehensive. There are photographs of microphones, user comments, and lenghty descriptions. If this site is not allowed or does not meet the standards of being listed under the "MICROPHONE" section, then why is a DJ Forum (which is nearly completely irrelevant to the subject of MICROPHONES) and a "personal" site, countant.org on the links??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.215.58.249 (talk • contribs) 19:18, 2 August 2006

 * First of all, why are you addressing your complaints to "the admins"? Are you trying to get authority to rush to your defense here?
 * Secondly, probably none of those links should be here. +ILike2BeAnonymous 19:37, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

"The Admins" were the ones who suggested that I bring this about on the "discussion" section. I'm just trying to figure out why this is not allowed.

 * I have just a spare moment to make a comment on this topic. I have surfed http://www.themicrophonevault.com/rcaPB3.php and http://www.coutant.org/pb31/ and I don't like what I see! (In my opinion) The Microphone Vault page appears to be a lift. Further I question the copyright on content and photographs at both sites until someone can look into it. Wikipedians need to be careful, please see WP:Copyrights : 1.2 "Linking to copyrighted works". U.S. copyrights after 1923 are still valid. --Charles Gaudette 17:49, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

Correct dates?
The condenser microphone was invented in 1916 by E. C. Wente at Bell Labs. The moving-coil, or "dynamic" microphone was developed by W. C. Wente and A. C. Thuras at Bell Labs in the late 1920's, and was patented in 1931. http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/microphones2.html

Many of the excellent condenser recording mics prized today come from the fifties --more history here: http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/microphones4.html

Decide for yourself - but this does not agree with article. --G. Beat 19:55, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Condenser/Capacitor
In the early part of the 20th century when this technology was being developed, the word "condenser" was used for what are now called capacitors. Even electrolitic capacitors were called condensers. There is a similar problem with transmitter/microphone and plumbago/graphite. To avoid confusion, it is better to use current terminology. I reverted condenser to capacitor. Greensburger 01:05, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Except that it's irrelevant in this context, because practically everyone calls them "condenser", not capacitor, regardless of correctness. (Check the literature if you don't believe me.) I'm reverting back. +ILike2BeAnonymous 01:07, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

I did a google search and you're right, "condenser microphone" yielded about 1,320,000 hits, although "capacitor microphone" yielded a respectable 21,200 hits. A recent patent 6,678,383 calls it a "Capacitor Microphone". I concede the argument. Greensburger 02:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Possible corrections?
IANA Electrical or Audio Engineer. Can someone with a bit more knowledge comment on the following?

 * In the article, it says "Sinus wave" (use your search function to find it). I think this is wrong, but IANAAE.
 * In the THD section, it says "The higher the value, the better". I suspect that this is referring to the dB number next to the THD number, but it's not clear.  My understanding is that you want the THD percentage to be low.

-- TimNelson 06:25, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Sine wave not sinus wave. A sine wave represents a single frequency in which the amplitude at each point on the curve is proporional to the trigonometry sine of the phase angle. I corrected it. Greensburger 16:42, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

DPA external link
Although 's addition clearly violated WP:EL, I think that http://www.dpamicrophones.com/page.php?PID=1&LANG=3 is a good information source. However, it may be more appropriate on a page about audio recording than this page. Han-Kwang 21:49, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Microphone/Archive 1


text:
Alexander Spesivtsev

Alexander Nikolayevich Spesivtsev (Александр Николаевич Спесивцев, born 1 March 1970) is a Russian serial killer, also known as The Novokuznetsk Monster and The Siberian Ripper, convicted for the killing of 5 people in Novokuznetsk in 1991 and 1996.

Spesivtsev, with the assistance of his mother Lyudmila, targeted street children and young women across Novokuznetsk by luring them into their apartment, where they would be tortured and killed, and sometimes cannibalized. Despite only being convicted for 5 murders, Spesivtsev confessed to 20 murders that he was accused of by police, and based on evidence is believed to have committed over 80 killings starting from as early as 1991.

Early life
Alexander Nikolayevich Spesivtsev was born 1 March 1970 and raised in an apartment on Pionerskiy Prospekt in central Novokuznetsk, the largest city in Kemerovo Oblast, RSFSR, Soviet Union. He was underweight at birth but survived, although he was frequently ill afterwards. During childhood, Spesivtsev was considered unsocial, did not have friends, and was bullied while at school. His mother Lyudmila Spesivtseva worked at a nearby school and the prosecutor's office and was very affectionate towards her son. His father was an abusive alcoholic who abandoned the family. Spesivtsev and his mother held a strong, but unusual, relationship, as Lyudmila would regularly show her son photographs of corpses from books about criminal cases at a very young age, and the two shared a bed until Alexander was 12. Growing up, Spesivtsev showed increasing sadistic tendencies, and in 1988, met his first girlfriend. Ostensibly poetic by nature, they often went for walks together, but the facade didn't last. Arguments led to her breaking up with him, which Spesivstev did not accept. He kidnapped her and tortured her for a month in his apartment, until she died of sepsis. For this, at the age of 18, Spesivstev was assigned to the Oryol Special Psychiatric Hospital (Орловской психиатрической спецлечебнице).

Crimes
Though in official databases, he was, at the time, still listed as undergoing treatment, in 1991, he was discharged. Once out, he began associating with transients and beggars and developed a deep-seated hatred of street children, whom he viewed as a byproduct of Russia's emerging democracy. Spesivstev was likewise particularly embittered by an episode during his commitment at the Oryol Hospital, in which he asked another patient to insert a metal ball into his urethra to make him more virile. This had the opposite effect, causing erectile dysfunction and genital pains.

Alexander and then Lyudmila began to lure victims into their apartment, chosen at random, where Alexander would torture and eventually kill them. Unaccompanied street children attending discothèques and playing in construction sites had become commonplace in the impoverished city of Novokuznetsk since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and they became his main target. The bodies of victims would sometimes be cannibalized Lyudmila would dispose of unwanted remains by throwing them from buckets into the Aba River, late at night.

Investigation
The first sign of his victims arose when the gangrenous severed heads, torsos, and arms of unidentifiable children were found washed up on the banks of the River Aba. It was not immediately believed there was a serial killer, and only after several large groups of unattended children disappeared was a serial mass murderer suspected as being active in the city.

Otherwise, investigators in the regional Directorate of Internal Affairs suspected that organ smugglers were acting within the city's boundaries. Several criminal gangs from the Caucusus region were active in Novokuznetsk at the time, and police searched the baggage of outward flights. Additionally, several hundred internal troops and police officers were deployed to search for the killer; at some point thought to be Oleg Rylkov.

Arrest and sentencing
Witness statements following the disappearance of several girls who were seen leaving a store with his mother helped police identify her. Her son was officially listed as undergoing a course of treatment at a psychiatric hospital. One morning, the neighborhood police officer and a plumber complained that a resident refused to let them in his apartment to relieve a clog. The resident claimed he was mentally ill and kept in his apartment. This alarmed police, as her son was ostensibly still at the hospital in Oryol.

The two men forced their way into his apartment, where they smelt an intense and putrid odor, resembling unspecified rotting. A woman bleeding from a severe stab wound to the chest, and a decapitated, de-limbed torso was uncovered in the bathtub. Spesivtsev escaped "at the final moment" via the building's roof. He was arrested within the week, found at the entrance of his house, cold and without food. Lyudmila was arrested three days before on October 27, 1996.

Spesivtsev kept a diary detailing some of his crimes and did not deny his actions when captured. However, he confessed only to 20 murders and boasted of crimes that couldn't be proven. During the search of his apartment, 80 articles of bloody clothing, nearly 40 jewelry items and some photos of unknown people, who were possibly unproven victims, were found. Police experts later concluded the garments belonged to the 20 victims. He was ruled insane by a court and committed to a psychiatric hospital, and had previously been confined to a mental institution for 3 years after torturing and killing his girlfriend. The only living witness and Spesivtsev's last victim, 15-year-old Olga Galtseva, died the following day after being discovered.

Today, Spesivtsev resides at the Kamyshin Regional Hospital. His mother, who was charged with complicity to three murders, was sentenced to 13 years in prison.

title: Alexander Spesivtsev


text:
Lucius Mummius Achaicus

Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC) was a Roman statesman and general. He was consul in the year 146 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus.

Mummius was the first of his family to rise to the rank of consul thereby making him a novus homo. He received the agnomen Achaicus for his victories over the Achaean League destroying  the famous ancient city of  Corinth, at that time a leading city of the League, as part of his campaign. Mummius' victory over the Achaean League and the sack of Corinth placed Rome firmly in control of all Greece from a political standpoint - something Rome had avoided doing even though their involvement in the Greek East dated back as far as 226 BC when they confronted Illyrian piracy. The destruction of Corinth marked the end of free Greece.

Career
Almost nothing is known about Lucius Mummius' early career. He won one of the praetorships (for 154 BC) during the elections of 155 BC.

Hispania
In 154 BC the Senate assigned Mummius the task of restoring order in Hispania Ulterior (Further Spain), which was reeling from a revolt by native Lusitanian (the Lusitanian Rebellion of 155–150 BC). The rebellion was led by the Lusitanian chieftains Punicus and Caesarus. In the initial phases of his campaign he experienced several reverses, but he regrouped and at Ocile he led his army of 9,000 foot and 500 horse in a victorious battle against a numerically superior force of Lusitanians, killing about 15,000 rebels and lifting the siege; his successor, Marcus Atilius, went on to take Oxthracae, the largest city in Lusitania. Mummius was awarded a triumph for his victory over the Lusitanians.

Corinth
Mummius was elected consul for 146 BC. He was appointed to take command of the Achaean War, inheriting the command from Metellus Macedonicus. Having obtained an easy victory over the incapable Achaean leader Diaeus, Mummius entered Corinth after a victory over the defending forces. All the men of Corinth were put to the sword, the women and children were sold into slavery, and the statues, paintings and works of art were seized and shipped to Rome. Corinth was then reduced to ashes. However, at least two ancient authors give accounts that suggest Corinth was not completely destroyed. The apparently needless cruelty of Mummius in Corinth is explained by Mommsen as due to the instructions of the senate, prompted by the mercantile party, which was eager to dispel a dangerous commercial rival. According to Polybius, Mummius was unable to resist the pressure of those around him.

In the subsequent settlement of affairs, Mummius exhibited considerable administrative powers and a high degree of justice and integrity, which gained him the respect of the inhabitants. He especially abstained from offending their religious sensibilities. On his return to Rome he was honored with a triumph, and was the first novus homo to receive an agnomen for military services.

Censor
In 142 BC he was censor with Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, whose severity frequently brought him into collision with his more lenient colleague.

Art
His indifference to works of art and ignorance of their value is shown by his well-known remark to those who contracted for the shipment of the treasures of Corinth to Rome, that "if they lost or damaged them, they would have to replace them." He was, in other words, unaware that a "new-for-old-deal" was inappropriate for such valuable antiques. Mummius plundered Corinth and sent home ship loads of its priceless art and rich furniture to Rome. For the theatrical pageants exhibited by him he erected a theatre with improved acoustical conditions and seats after the Greek model, thus marking a distinct advance in the construction of places of entertainment.

title: Lucius Mummius Achaicus


text:
Académie Julian

The Académie Julian was a private art school for painting and sculpture founded in Paris, France, in 1867 by French painter and teacher Rodolphe Julian (1839–1907) that was active from 1868 through 1968. It remained famous for the number and quality of artists who attended during the great period of effervescence in the arts in the early twentieth century. After 1968, it integrated with ESAG Penninghen.

History
Rodolphe Julian established the Académie Julian in 1868 at the Passage des Panoramas, as a private studio school for art students. The Académie Julian not only prepared students for the exams at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts, but offered independent alternative education and training in arts. "Founded at a time when art was about to undergo a long series of crucial mutations, the Academie Julian played host to painters and sculptors of every kind and persuasion and never tried to make them hew to any one particular line".

In 1880, women who were not allowed to enroll for study to the École des Beaux-Arts were accepted by the new Académie Julian. Foreign applicants who had been deterred from entering the Ecole des Beaux Arts by a vicious French language examination were welcome at the Académie Julian. Men and women were trained separately, and women participated in the same studies as men, including drawing and painting of nude models. "Human exchange went forward in an atmosphere that was collegial, easygoing and mutually supportive. It nurtured some of the best artists of the day".

Académie Julian became popular as fertile ground with French as well as foreign students from diverse backgrounds from all over the world, from the United Kingdom, Canada, Hungary, and particularly the United States; French art critic Egmont Arens wrote in 1924 that American art, at least for a period of time, reflected the teachings of Académie Julian. In 1989, on the occasion of the exhibition at the Shepherd Gallery, in Manhattan, devoted to the Academie Julian in Paris as it existed between 1868 and 1939, John Russell wrote:

"By my count, more than 50 nationalities were represented at the school during its glory years. To be at the Academie Julian was to be exposed to a kind of white magic that seems to have worked in almost every case. What was learned there stayed forever with alumnus and alumna, and it related as much to the conduct of life as to the uses of brush and chisel. – in The New York Times, John Russell: 'An Art School That Also Taught Life', 19 March 1989."

The South African painter Strat Caldecott (1886–1929) worked and studied at the Académie Julian in preparation for his admission to the Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts. He vividly described the Académie Julian as: "A huge room, lighted from above, and smelling strongly of turpentine; tobacco-smoke, sweat and garlic, for the models were mostly children of the South. A room plastered to the full height of a man's reach with palette scrapings whose many colours mingled to make a warm grey background, hung with the prize studies of decades of concourse, furnished with a huge Godin stove, and tall grass-plaited stools, and a heavy mobile podium on which the model was posed each week by a quarreling agora of tousle-headed youths."

The early success of the Académie was also secured by the famous and respected artists whom Rodolphe Julian employed as instructors: Adolphe William Bouguereau (1825–1905), Henri Royer, Jean-Paul Laurens, Gabriel Ferrier, Tony Robert-Fleury, Jules Lefebvre and other leading artists of that time trained in Academic art. Eventually, Académie Julian students were granted the right to compete for the Prix de Rome, a prize awarded to promising young artists. and participate in the major "Salons" or art exhibitions.

In the late 19th century the term L'art pompier had entered the scene as a derisive term for the traditional academic art espoused by the Académie's instructors. As a result, the Académie Julian embraced a more liberal regime pushing a less conservative, more sincere approach to art which corresponded to the Secessionist art movement in Germany and the Vienna Secession in Austria. It was followed and fully articulated by the Nabis, an avant-garde movement that participated in paving the way to modern art in 1888–1889.

Over time, Académie Julian opened schools in other locations. In addition to the original school at Passage des Panoramas, studios were at no. 5 Rue de Berri in the 8th arrondissement, no. 31 Rue du Dragon in the 6th arrondissement, no. 51, rue Vivienne in the 2nd arrondissement for female student artists, overseen by painter Amélie Beaury-Saurel, Julian's spouse. Subsequent faculty included former students (Edgar Chahine, for example).

Académie Julian remained open during World War I, albeit with a lesser number of students. By contrast during World War II, after the 1941 exhibition Vingt jeunes peintres de tradition française considerations on "degenerate art" by the German military administration forced the school to close. In 1946 some of the studios were sold.

For his services to the arts, Rodolphe Julian, described by the Anglo-Irish novelist and critic George Moore as a kind of Hercules, dark-haired, strong, with broad shoulders, short legs, a soft voice and all the charm of the Midi was awarded the Legion of Honour.

The artist records still extant are those of the men's section, covering the 1870–1932 period, and those of the women's section, covering the 1880–1907 period.

In 1968, an important year in France's history with the May events, particularly in relation to education, the Académie Julian integrated with ESAG Penninghen.

title: Académie Julian


text:
Sociology of sport

Sociology of sport, alternately referred to as sports sociology, is a sub-discipline of sociology which focuses on sports as social phenomena. It is an area of study concerned with the relationship between sociology and sports, and also various socio-cultural structures, patterns, and organizations or groups involved with sport. This area of study discusses the positive impact sports have on individual people and society as a whole economically, financially, and socially. Sociology of sport attempts to view the actions and behavior of sports teams and their players through the eyes of a sociologist.

Sport is regulated by regulations and rules of behavior, spatial and time constraints, and has governing bodies. It is oriented towards a goal, which makes known both the winner and the loser. It is competitive, and ludic. All sports are culturally situated, intertwined with the value systems and power relations within the host society.

The emergence of the sociology of sport (though not the name itself) dates from the end of the 19th century, when first social psychological experiments dealing with group effects of competition and pace-making took place. Besides cultural anthropology and its interest in games in the human culture, one of the first efforts to think about sports in a more general way was Johan Huizinga's Homo Ludens or Thorstein Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class. Homo Ludens discusses the importance of the element of play in culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play, specifically sport, is primary to and a necessary condition of the generation of culture. These written works contributed to the rise of the study of sociology of sport. In 1970, sports sociology gained significant attention as an organized, legitimate field of study. The North American Society for the Sociology of Sport was formed in 1978 with the objective of studying the field. Its research outlet, the Sociology of Sport Journal, was formed in 1984.

It is a common assumption that sports can be viewed as a ritual and a game at the same time. Sports as a result can be viewed as a parallel ritual process which is connected to leisure time and freedom. The symbolic effect of a ritual allows classification of social relationships among men and between women and men, as well as the impact sports has on nations. Some national sports like baseball in Cuba, cricket in the West Indies, and football in a majority of Latin American countries drive passion that goes past the ethnic status, regional origins, or class lines. Therefore, sport is an important field of analysis for achieving better understanding of the functioning of modern societies.

1936 Berlin Games
There was controversy around the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, as the rhetoric and laws of the host country (Nazi Germany) encompassed, and indeed were largely based on, overt and extreme racism. Many Germans were dismayed that nonwhite athletes were allowed to compete; the "Nazis were deeply offended by sporting contacts with 'primitive' races and by competing against Negro athletes, in particular."

Adolf Hitler agreed with the proposition people who had ancestors who "came from the jungle" were "primitive because their physiques were stronger than those of civilized whites." and wanted to impose racial segregation on the games, but the Olympic Committee refused. The Nazi regime did, however, use any results they could to propagandize the superiority of what they called the Aryan race.

Historical racist theories
Sport has always been characterized by racial social relationships. The first scientific look at race came at the end of the 19th century, when count Arthur de Gobineau attempted to prove the physical and intellectual superiority of the white race. Darwin's theory of natural selection was used in service of racism as well. After the athletic ability of black sportspeople was proven, the theory shifted toward physical ability at the expense of intellect.

Several racist theories were advanced. Black people were athletically able because animals ate all the slow ones. The myth of "middle passage" posited only the most athletically able of black people were able to survive the slave trade and plantation work. The matriarchal theory suggested that absent fathers made black people channel their anger into sports, with coaches becoming father figures. The mandigo theory assumed that the most physically potent black men were bred with the most physically potent black women. The psychological theory claimed that black athletes did not have the intellectual capacity to assume leadership positions in sports. The "dumb jock theory" saw black people enrolling on sport scholarships as they were unable to find success in academia. Lastly, the genetic theory suggested that black sportspeople had more of certain muscle fibers.

Current sociology
Young African-Americans see sports as means of upward social mobility, which is denied to them through conventional employment. Race often interplays with class, gender and ethnicity to determine how accessible certain sports are, and how the athlete is perceived. For example, golf is inaccessible to African-Americans less because of race, and more because of the high economic and social capital needed.

Race is often connected to gender, with women having less opportunities to access and succeed in sports. Once a woman does succeed, her race is downplayed and her sexuality is accentuated. In certain cultures, especially Muslim ones, women are denied access to sports all-together.

In team sports, white players are often placed in central positions which demand intelligence, decisiveness, leadership, calmness and reliability. Black players are in turn place in positions that demand athletic ability, physical strength, speed and explosiveness. For example, white players in the role of central midfielders and black players as wingers.

Gender in sports
Female participation in sports is influenced by patriarchal ideologies surrounding the body, as well as ideas of femininity and sexuality. Physical exertion inevitably leads to development of muscle, which is connected to masculinity, which is in contrast to the idea of women as presented by modern consumer culture. Women who enter sports early are more likely to challenge these stereotypes.

Television networks and corporations focus on showcasing female athlete which are considered as attractive, which trivializes the achievements of these sportswomen. Women's sports are less covered by news than male sports. During sporting events, the camera focuses on specifically on attractive women. Allen Guttman argues that erotic component of sports cannot be rooted out, and as such remains one of its key components. Further, attractive male and female athletes will always be more sought after. The erotic component of sports should be researched, instead of being outright rejected.

Jennifer Hargreaves sees three political strategies for women in sports:

 * Co-option: this strategy rejects conservative claims of biological differences and traditional gender values. Liberal feminists believe women will gradually take over more roles within sport created and controlled by men.
 * Separatism: position held by radical feminists, which advocates self-realization through organization of sport events and governing bodies independent of men. It would further increase the number of women competing in various sports.
 * Cooperation: advocated by socialist feminists who believe that cooperation between men and women would help to establish new sporting models that would negate gender differences. They recognize the diversity of struggles within modern capitalist societies, and aims at liberation from them. Unlike separatism it engages with men, and is more extensive than co-option. Co-operation posits that men are not inherently oppressive, but are socialized into reproducing oppressive roles.

Functionalism
Structural functionalist theories see society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. Sport itself developed from religious ceremonies, which served to promote social and moral solidarity of the community.

Bromberger saw similarities between religious ceremonies and football matches. Matches are held in a particular spatial configuration, pitches are sacred and may not be polluted by pitch invaders, and lead to intense emotional states in fans. As with religious ceremonies, spectators are spatially distributed according to social distribution of power. Football seasons have a fixed calendar. Group roles on match day are ceremonial, with specially robed people performing intense ritual acts. As a church, football has an organizational network, from local to global levels. Matches have a sequential order that guides the actions of participants, from pre-match to post-match actions. Lastly, football rituals create a sense of communitas. Songs and choreography can be seen as an immanent ceremony through which spectators transfer their strength to the team.

Accounting for the fact that not all actions support the existing societal structure, Robert K. Merton saw five ways a person could react to the existing structure, which can be applied to sports as well: conformism, innovation, ritualism, withdrawal, and rebellion.

Erving Goffman drew on Durkheim's conception of positive rituals, emphasizing the sacred status of an individual's "face". Positive (compliments, greetings, etc.) and negative (avoiding confrontation, apologies, etc.) rituals all serve to protect one's face. Sport journalists, for example, utilize both the positive and negative rituals to protect the face of the athlete they wish to maintain good relations with. Birrell furthermore posits sport events are ritual competitions in which athletes show their character through a mix of bravery, good play and integrity. A good showing serves to reinforce the good face of the athlete.

Interpretative sociology
Interpretative sociology explores the interrelations of social action to status, subjectivity, meaning, motives, identities and social change. It avoids explaining human groups through general laws and generalizations, preferring what Max Weber called verstehen - understanding and explaining individual motivations. It allows for a more complete understanding of diverse social meanings, symbols and roles within sport. Sport allows for creation of various social identities within the framework of a single game or match, which may change during it or throughout the course of multiple matches. Ones role as a sportsperson further affects how they act outside of a game or a match, i.e. acting out the role of a student athlete.

Weber introduced the notion of rationalization. In modern society, relationship are organized to be as efficient as possible, based on technical knowledge, instead of moral and political principles. This creates bureaucracies that are efficient, impersonal and homogeneous. Allen Guttmann identified several key aspects of rationalization, which can likewise be applied to sports:

 * Secularization: modern sports have become independent of the religious institutions from which they have evolved. In the pre-modern societies, sport and religious festivities were interconnected. Religion does hold some importance in sports, which can be seen in the pre-match rituals, superstitions and prayer.
 * Meritocracy: Sports promote fair competition, while pre-modern sports were exclusive. For example, the ancient Olympics excluded women and non-citizens. In contrast, modern sports offer opportunities to the disadvantaged, while fair judging/refereeing offer a level playing field. Social status still plays a role in sport access and success. Richer countries will have more numerous and successful athletes, while the higher class will have access to better training and preparation.
 * Specialization: modern sports, just like industry, has a complex division of labor. Athletes have a very specialized role inside of a team, which they must learn and perform, i.e. the kicker in american football. This does not apply to all sports, as some value the ability to cover a number of roles as necessary.
 * Rationalization: modern sports identify the most efficient way to achieve the desired goal. On the other hand, Giulianotti points out that sports are dominated by irrational actions.
 * Bureaucratization: sports are controlled by organizations, committees and supervisory boards on local, continental and global levels. Leading positions are supposed to be given based on qualifications and experience, instead of charisma and nepotism. This is not always the case, as powerful and charismatic personage are often put in charge of said organizations and committees.
 * Quantification: Statistics measure and compare modern sport events, often throughout multiple generations, reducing complex events to understandable information which can be easily grasped by the mass public. Statistics are not the dominant factor in sport culture, with the socio-psychological and aesthetically pleasing factors still being the most important.

Neo-Marxism
Karl Marx saw sports as rooted in its economic context, subject to commodification and alienation. Neo-Marxism sees sport as an ideological tool of the bourgeoisie, used to deceive the masses, in order to maintain control. As laborers, athletes give up their labour power, and suffer the same fate as the alienated worker. Aside from supporting industrial capitalism, sport propagates heavy physical exertion and overworking as something positive.

Specialized division of labor force athletes to constantly perform the same movements, instead of playing creatively, experimentally and freely. The athlete if often under the illusion of being free, unaware of losing control over his labor power. Spectators themselves support the alienation of athletes' labor through their support and participation.

Marxist theories have been used to research the commodification of sport, for example, how players themselves become goods or promote them, the hyper-commercialization of sports during the 20th century, how clubs become like traditional firms, and how sport organizations become brands.

This approach has been criticized for their tendency toward raw economism, and supposing that all current social structures function to maintain the existing capitalist order. Supporting sport teams does not necessarily contradict the development of class consciousness and participating in the class struggle. Sport events have a number of examples of political protest. Neo Marxist analysis of sports often underestimate the aesthetic side of sport as well.

Cultural studies
Hegemony research describes the relations of power, as well as methods and techniques used by dominant groups to achieve ideological consent, without resorting to physical coercion. This ideological consent aims to make the exploratory social order seem natural, guaranteeing that the subordinate groups live out their subordination. A hegemony is always open to contestation, and thus counter-hegemonic movements may emerge.

The dominant groups may use sports to steer the use of the subordinate classes in the desired direction, or towards consumerism. However, the history of sport shows that colonized are not necessarily manipulated through sport, while sport professionalization, and their own popular culture, helped the working class avoid mass subordination to bourgeois values.

Resistance is a key concept in cultural studies, which describes how subordinate groups engage in particular cultural practices to resist their domination. Resistance can be overt and deliberate or latent and unconscious, but always counters the norms and conventions of the dominant groups. John Fiske differentiated between confrontational semiotics and avoidance.

Body and sports
Body became a subject of research in the 80s, with the work of Michel Foucault. For him, power is exercise in two different ways - through biopower and disciplinary power. Biopower centers on the political control of key biological aspects of the human body and whole populations, such as birth, reproduction, death, etc. Disciplinary power is exercised by means of the everyday disciplining of bodies, particularly through controlling time and space.

Eichberg sees three different types of bodies as highlighting the difference between disciplined and undisciplined bodies in sport: the dialogic body, of different shapes and sizes, which are given to freeing oneself from control, and were the main type in pre-modern festivals and carnivals. The streamlined, improved body for sports accomplishment and competition. The healthy, straight body, which is shaped through disciplined regimes of fitness. The grotesque body could be seen in pre-modern festivals and carnivals, i.e. folk wrestling or three-legged race. Modern sport pedagogy fluctuates between strictness and freedom, discipline and control, but the hierarchical relations of power and knowledge between the coach and athlete remain.

Segel claimed that the cultural raise of sports reflected the wider turn of modern society toward physical expression, which revived militarism, war and fascism. Some representatives of the Frankfurt school, saw sport as a cult of the fascistic idea of the body. Tännsjö claimed that overly complimenting sport prowess reflects the fascistic elements in society, as it normalizes the ridicule of the weak and defeated.

Sports and injury
Prizefighting allows research into the violent body. Prizefighters transform their bodily capital into prizefighting capital, for the purpose of winning fame, status and wealth. Their bodies are exploited by managers, of which they are aware, describing themselves alternatively as prostitutes, slaves and stallions. Prizefighters accept the routine damage their bodies sustain, while at the same time fearing the effects of such damage. A frequent response to this is attempting to turn themselves into heroic personalities. All contact sports have violence as part of strategy to a certain extent. Sports violence is not individual, but is a product of socialization. Finn see footballers as socializing into a culture of quasi-violence, which accentuates different values than those in regular life. It accepts violence as central to the game.

Physical injury of sportspeople can be seen through Beck's theory of a "risk society". A risk society is characterized by reflexive modernity, where members of society are well informed, critical and participate in the shaping of social structures. Unlike the routine risk of traditional society, modern societies identify and minimize risks. Reflexive modernity in sports is evinced in isolation, minimizing and removal of causes of physical injury, while at the same time keeping the techniques and strategies particular to those sports. The lower classes have lower access to risk assessment and avoidance, and as such have a higher rate of participation in riskier sports.

Despite this, athletes are still thought to ignore and attempt to overcome pain, as overcoming pain is seen as brave and heroic. The capacity of the athlete to make the body seem invincible is an integral part of sports professionalism. This ignoring of pain is often a key part of some sport subcultures. Children are also often exposed to acute pain and injuries, i.e. gymnastics.

Emotion in sports
Emotion has always been a huge part of sports as it can affect both athletes and the spectators themselves. Theorists and sociologists who study the impact of emotions in sports try to classify emotions into categories. Controversial, debated, and discussed intensely, these classifications are not definitive or set in stone. Emotion is very important in sports; athletes can use them to convey specific and significant information to their teammates and coaches and they can use emotion to send false signals to confuse their opponents. In addition to athletes using emotion to their advantage, emotion can also have a negative impact on athletes and their performances. For example, "stage fright," or nervousness and apprehension, can impact their performance in their sport, be it in a positive or negative way.

Depending on the level of sports, the level of emotion differs. In professional sports, emotions can be extremely intense because there are many more people in many distinct roles who are involved. There are the professional athletes, the coaching staff, the referees, the television crew, the commentators, and last but not least, the fans and spectators. There is much more public press, pressure, and self-pressure. It is extremely difficult to not get emotionally invested in sports; sports are very good at bringing out the worst qualities in people. There have been violent brawls when one team beats another in an intense game, loud fighting and yelling, and intense verbal arguments as well. Emotion is also highly contagious, especially if there are many emotional people in one space.

Binary divisions within sports
There are many perspectives through which sport can be viewed. Therefore, very often some binary divisions are stressed, and many sports sociologists have shown that those divisions can create constructs within the ideologies of gender and affect the relationships between genders, as well as advocate or challenge social and racial class structures. Some of these binary divisions include: professional vs. amateur, mass vs. top-level, active vs. passive/spectator, men vs. women, sports vs. play (as an antithesis to organized and institutionalized activity).

Not only can binary divisions be seen within sports themselves, but they are also seen in the research of sports. The field of research has mainly been dominated by men because many believe that women's input or research is inauthentic compared to men's research. Some women researchers also feel as though they have to "earn" their place within the sports research field whereas men, for the most part, do not. While women researchers in this field do have to deal with gender-related issues when it comes to their research, it does not prevent them from being able to gather and understand the data they are collecting. Sports sociologists believe that women can have a unique perspective when gathering research on sports since they are able to more closely look at and understand the female fan side of sporting events.

Following feminist or other reflexive and tradition-breaking paradigms, sports are sometimes studied as contested activities, i.e. as activities in the center of various people/groups interests (connection of sports and gender, mass media, or state-politics). These perspectives provide people with different ways to think about sports and figure out the differences between the binary divisions. Sports have always been of tremendous impact to the world as a whole, as well as individual societies and the people within them. There are so many positive aspects to the world of sport, specifically, organized sport. Sports involve community values, attempting to establish and exercise good morals and ethics. Spectator sports provide watchers with an enlivenment through key societal values displayed in the "game". Becoming a fan teaches you a large variety of skills as well that are a very important part of everyday life in the office, at home, and on the go. Some of these skills include teamwork, leadership, creativity, and individuality.

title: Sociology of sport