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Bolzano

Bolzano ( or ; Bozen ; Balsan or Bulsan) is the capital city of the province of South Tyrol, in Northern Italy. With a population of 108,245, Bolzano is also by far the largest city in South Tyrol and the third largest in historical Tyrol. The greater metro area has about 250,000 inhabitants and is one of the urban centers within the Alps.

Bolzano is the seat of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, where lectures and seminars are held in English, German, and Italian. The city is also home to the Italian Army's Alpini High Command (COMALP) and some of its combat and support units. In the 2020 version of the annual ranking of quality of life in Italian cities, Bolzano was ranked joint first for quality of life alongside Bologna.

Along with other Alpine towns in South Tyrol, Bolzano engages in the Alpine Town of the Year Association for the implementation of the Alpine Convention. The Convention aims to promote and achieve sustainable development in the Alpine Arc. Consequently, Bolzano was awarded the 2009 Alpine Town of the Year. Bolzano is considered a bridge between Northern Europe and Southern Europe due to the three spoken languages in South Tyrol (Italian, German, and Ladin) and the confluence of the Italian and German-Austrian cultures.

Location
The area of the city of Bolzano is 52.3 km2, of which 28 km2 is used as a settlement area. The city is located in the basin where the Sarntal, Eisacktal, and the Adige Valley with their rivers, Talfer, Eisack, and Adige, meet. In the Middle Ages, the two main Alpine crossings, the Via Claudia Augusta over Reschenpass and the Brenner route over Brenner Pass, met in Bolzano. Thus, the city was very important for trading. The highest point is 1616 m above sea level and the lowest point is 232 m above sea level. The center is located at an altitude of 262 m above sea level. The nearest big cities are 58 km (Trento) and 118 km (Innsbruck) away.

City districts and neighbouring communities
City districts (most district names were originally in German and italianized at a later stage):
 * Centro-Piani-Rencio/Zentrum-Bozner Boden-Rentsch
 * Don Bosco/Don Bosco-Neugries
 * Europa-Novacella/Europa-Neustift
 * Gries-San Quirino/Gries-Quirein
 * Oltrisarco-Aslago/Oberau-Haslach

In 1911 Zwölfmalgreien and in 1925 the Gries municipality was incorporated in the city of Bolzano. Neighbouring communities are: Eppan, Karneid, Laives, Deutschnofen, Ritten, Jenesien, Terlan and Vadena.

Climate
Being located at multiple climate borders, Bolzano features a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot summers and very cold winters by Italian standards. According to the Trewartha classification, this climate could not be really considered a subtropical climate because fewer than 8 months are at least 10 °C, and thus would be considered a semi-continental climate with hot summers. Some of its suburbs are designated an oceanic climate (Cfb) based on cooler summer temperatures, while mountains in the area may feature a continental climate (Dfb). The climate of Bolzano is influenced by its low altitude in a valley south of the main Alps. This causes very sheltered conditions from cool winds during daytime, ensuring much warmer temperatures year-round than in similar valley cities north of the range.

Linguistic distribution
According to the 2011 census, 73.80% of the city's inhabitants spoke Italian, 25.52% German and 0.68% Ladin as their first language.

Through fascism and the Italianization policy under Benito Mussolini in the inter-war period, the Italian language group became the majority in Bolzano. Prior to the annexation of South Tyrol to Italy (Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 1919) a small Italophone community of up to 10% of the population already lived in Bolzano.

Prehistory and Roman settlement
The modern-day Bolzano was in ancient times a marshy region inhabited by the Raetian Isarci people, traditionally believed to be descendants of Etruscan refugees fleeing Italy from the invading Gauls. The Romans built a settlement after the area had been conquered in 15 BC by general Nero Claudius Drusus. The military settlement, Pons Drusi (Drusus Bridge), was named after this Roman general. During this time the area became part of the region Venetia et Histria (Regio X) of ancient Italy.

In 1948, excavations of the current Cathedral led to the discovery of an ancient Christian basilica from the fourth century. Also discovered was a Roman cemetery, including the tomb of "Secundus Regontius" with Latin inscriptions dating to the third century, making him the oldest known inhabitant of Bolzano.

Bavarian settlement
During the gradual decline of the Lombard influence in the seventh century, Bavarian immigration took place and the first mention of a Bavarian ruler in Bolzano dates from 679. At that time, the Bavarians named the nearby villages around Bolzano Bauzanum or Bauzana. In 769 Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria issued in Bolzano the foundation charter of the Innichen Abbey. German populations have been present in the region of Tyrol from that period onwards. At around the year 1000, the settlement is called "in Pauzana valle, quae lingua Teutisca Pozana nuncupatur".

Bishopric of Trent

In 1027 the area of Bolzano and the rest of the Diocese was conferred upon the bishops of Trent by the emperor Conrad II from the Salian dynasty. In the late-12th century, the bishop founded a market town, along the Lauben thoroughfare. The town therefore became an important trading post on the Transalpine Augsburg-Venice route over the Brenner Pass, elevation 1371 m above sea level, within the Holy Roman Empire.

County of Tyrol
In 1277 Bolzano was conquered by Meinhard II, the Count of Tyrol, leading to a struggle between the counts of Tyrol and the bishops of Trent. In 1363, the County of Tyrol passed to the Austrian House of Habsburg. In 1381, Duke Leopold granted the citizens of Bolzano the privilege of a town council. This gradually eliminated the influence and power previously held by the bishops of Trent over the next few decades. In 1462, the bishops eventually resigned all their rights of jurisdiction over the town.

From the 14th and 15th centuries onwards, a large market fair was organised four times per year to greet tradesmen and merchants en-route the Brenner Pass. The Mercantile Magistrate was therefore founded in 1635 by the Austrian duchess Claudia de' Medici. During every market season, two Italian and two Germanic officers, who were appointed among the local tradesmen, worked in this magistrate office. The establishment of an official trade organisation strengthened Bolzano as a cultural crossroad in the Alps.

After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Bolzano became briefly part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and was incorporated into the Department of Alto Adige. After the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) Bolzano returned to the County of Tyrol, within the Austrian Empire and subsequently the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867. The County covered both modern-day South Tyrol, Trentino and the federal state of Tyrol (including East Tyrol) in Austria.

In 1915, the Triple Entente powers promised Italy territorial gains if she would enter the First World War on the side of the Entente instead of siding with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. When Italy abandoned the Triple Alliance (1882), the Entente offered her territorial promises in Tyrol and Istria. This secret arrangement was confirmed in the Treaty of London (1915).

After Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary on May 24, 1915, heavy fighting took place all along Tyrol's southern border for the entire duration of the conflict. For the next $3 1/2$ years Tyrol's southern border became the front line between Austro-Hungarian and Italian troops. Tyrol's south frontier was - and still is - dotted with tens of defensive fortresses that had been built in view of a possible Italian attack. Losses on both sides amount to several thousands. During World War I, tens of thousands of civilians living along Tyrol's southern border were evacuated to either of the two countries, the majority to Bohemian and inner Austrian areas, and some to Italian internment camps, away from the front line.

Annexation by Italy
On November 3, 1918, the armistice of Villa Giusti, near Padova ended military operations between Italy and Austria-Hungary. Subsequently, Italian troops entered Tyrol and occupied the Austrian areas south of the Brenner Pass. Italian control of South Tyrol was internationally recognized in 1919. At the time of Bolzano's annexation by the Kingdom of Italy the town was settled primarily by a German-speaking population. As of 1910, 29,000 inhabitants identified themselves as German speakers and only 1,300 as Italian speakers, these latter ones mainly from the Italian speaking areas of Tyrol, namely Welschtirol, currently known as Trentino. Along with the rest of South Tyrol, Bolzano was subjected to an intensive Italianisation programme enforced by Fascist leader Benito Mussolini from the 1920s onwards to September 8, 1943, when Italy left the military alliance with Nazi Germany and South Tyrol fell under direct German control. The goal of such programme was to outnumber the local German-speaking population by tripling Bolzano's population through Italian immigration from other regions of Italy. In 1927 Bolzano became the capital of the province of Bolzano. Any reference to and use of the words Tyrol and Tyrolean were banned by law and were punishable offences. In 1933, Adolf Hitler came to power in the Weimar Republic. Mussolini and the Fascists worried that Hitler, in pursuing his ideology of all ethnic Germans under one Reich, would claim South Tyrol from Italy. To avoid such prospect, in 1939 Mussolini and Hitler signed the Option Agreement, by which Germany would renounce territorial claims over South Tyrol as Germany's Lebensraum (living space). Furthermore, ethnic South-Tyroleans who had opted to stay in South Tyrol and refused resettlement to the Third Reich were subjected to full-scale Italianisation, including loss of their German names and national identity, prohibition of schooling in German and use of German for their daily transactions.

Second World War
During the Second World War, Bolzano was the site of the Nazis' Bolzano Transit Camp, a concentration camp for persecuted Jews and political prisoners. Members of the Jewish population of Bolzano were deported to the death camps in Nazi Germany and murdered there. When Italy surrendered in September 1943, the whole of South Tyrol as well as Belluno were de facto administered by the Nazis as Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills. After 1943, heavy fighting between Nazi Germany and the Allied Powers took place in the Dolomites.

Capital of an autonomous province
After the War, the Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement of September 1946 was signed by the Italian and Austrian Foreign Ministers in Paris, guaranteeing "complete equality of rights" (including education and use of German as an official language) as well as "autonomous legislative and executive regional power" to the German-speaking population in South Tyrol and Trentino.

Because the implementation of the post-war agreement was not seen as satisfactory by the Austrian government (the autonomous province of 1947 included Trentino and therefore had an Italian-speaking majority), it became a cause of significant friction with Italy and was brought to the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1960, which called for a resolution of the issue. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but proved unsuccessful, partly because of the campaign of terrorism by South Tyrolean Liberation Committee – a secessionist movement – against Italian police and electric power structures (one notable incident being the Night of Fire on 12 June 1961).

The issue was resolved in 1971, when a new statute of autonomy for the smaller, majority German-speaking province Bozen – Südtirol/Bolzano – Alto Adige, which was supported by the German-speaking population of South Tyrol, was granted by Italy. It resulted in a considerable level of self-government, also due to the large financial resources of South Tyrol, which retains almost 90% of all levied taxes. The agreement was implemented and proved broadly satisfactory to the parties involved and the separatist tensions soon eased. In 1992, Austria and Italy officially ended their dispute over the autonomy issue on the basis of the statute of 1972.

Economy
The city thrives on a mix of old and new high-quality intensive agriculture (including wine, fruit, and dairy products), tourism, traditional handicraft (wood, ceramics), and advanced services. Heavy industry (machinery, automotive, and steel) installed during the 1930s has now been mostly dismantled. The local economy is very dependent on the public sector and especially the provincial government.

Bolzano is the biggest city in South Tyrol, which is an autonomous province in Northern Italy with a special statute. This statute preserves the rights of the German-speaking minority in Italy. This unique system was admired by the Dalai Lama, who visited the city on several occasions to study a possible application in Tibet. It has also been presented as role model for the successful and fair resolution of inter-ethnic conflict to other regions of the world.

Exhibition Bolzano
The tradeshows and conferences of Exhibition Bolzano are concentrated on topics relating to the economies of Alpine countries. There is thus a great focus on trade show subjects in the economic competence of South Tyrol and Trentino. The main focuses of dining and leisure time, sports, agriculture and specific Alpine industries attract an annual total of over 3,000 exhibitors and over 230,000 visitors from all over Europe.

Italian German Business Forum Bozen-Bolzano
Since 2011, the city hosts the Italo-Germanic Business Forum, which brings together the leaders of the Italian and German economies – Confindustria and the Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie – in the Mercantile Palace to address issues related to the international crisis.

Companies

Large companies in Bolzano are:
 * THUN S.p.A. SB (AG)
 * FERCAM S.p.A. (AG)
 * Spar (retailer) Italia S.p.A.
 * Acciaierie Valbruna S.p.A.
 * Iveco S.p.A.
 * Oberalp AG
 * Alperia S.p.A. (AG)

NOI Techpark

NOI Techpark is on a 12 ha site in the south of Bolzano, on premises formerly home to aluminium works. The "Nature of Innovation" concept contains innovation imitating nature. The concept that NOI Techpark is based on has research institutes, companies and start-ups from South Tyrol and all over the globe working together to prepare the ground for a sustainable development.

Working with representatives from South Tyrol's business and research communities, BLS and TIS innovation park have developed the park's "Nature of Innovation" positioning title, the initials of which give the park its name: NOI. The name reflects two meanings in South Tyrol: depending on how you want to pronounce it, NOI can either sound like the Italian word for "we" or the South Tyrolean dialect word for "new". A special focus lies on those fields:
 * Alpine Technology
 * Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency
 * Food Technology
 * ICT & Automation

Free University of Bolzano-Bozen
The Free University of Bolzano-Bozen, founded in October 1997, is actively involved in basic and applied research projects through its five faculties, of which four are located in Bolzano. The university is engaged in a multitude of scientific and technological areas, in addition to different disciplines belonging to Humanities.

Eurac Research
The Eurac Research is a private research centre headquartered in Bolzano. The research facility was founded in 1992 and initially had 12 employees. Meanwhile, the Center for Applied Research has more than 300 employees. The topics of this institution include, for example, "Liveable Regions", "Diversity as Added Value" and "Healthy Society". The research has focused more on the Alpine region. Since 2002, the site has been located on Drusus Street, in the former fascist "GIL" building, which was then extensively renovated and integrated with modern buildings. In 2018, the research facility will lead the terraXcube in the NOI Techpark Bolzano. The terraXcube is a research infrastructure that can simulate the most extreme climatic conditions on earth. Air pressure, humidity and solar radiation can be simulated and changed simultaneously in one room. The aim is to investigate how humans react to extreme climatic conditions. Even machines can be tested in this simulator.

Fraunhofer Italia
Fraunhofer Italia is a subsidiary of Fraunhofer Gesellschaft and is headquartered in Bolzano. The company was founded in 2009 and since then specializes in areas such as "Automation and Mechatronic Engineering" and "Process Engineering in Construction". The Organization for Applied Research seeks to help small and medium-sized enterprises in the region through charitable research. Since 2017, the research facility has been based in the Technology Park in Bolzano South.

City Council
The last municipal elections were held in the year 2020. Of the 45 seats, 9 different parties were elected to the city council. The Partito Democratico (PD), the Südtiroler Volkspartei (SVP) and the Lega Nord (LN) won 7 seats each.

Mayors
This table shows the mayors of the city of Bolzano after 1945. All mayors within this list belong to the Italian language group. So far, the last mayor of the German language group in Bolzano was Julius Perathoner from 1895 to 1922 and was replaced by the march on Bolzano by the fascists.

Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino
In 1996, the European Union approved further cultural and economic integration between the Austrian province of Tyrol and the Italian autonomous provinces of South Tyrol and Trentino by recognizing the creation of the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino.

Main sights

Its medieval city center, Gothic and Romanesque churches and bilingual signage give it the flavor of a city at the crossroads of Italian and Austrian cultures. This and its natural and cultural attractions make it a popular tourist destination.

Among the major monuments and sights are:
 * the Walther Square, with a statue of Walther von der Vogelweide, a German minstrel (minnesinger)
 * the Laubengasse or Via dei Portici, a street 300 m long, in the city center with medieval arcades along its entire course, now housing countless high-street shops
 * the Gothic Cathedral, started in 1184, expanded in the 1300s by architects Martin and Peter Schiche and completed in the early 16th century by Hans Lutz von Schussenried
 * the Waaghaus at the central Kornplatz (piazza del Grano), the former site of the public weighbridge
 * the Old Parish Church of Gries, with an altarpiece by Michael Pacher
 * the benedictine monastery of Muri-Gries, with baroque paintings by Martin Knoller
 * the Chiesa dei Domenicani/Dominikanerkirche (13th century), with a series of 14th-century Gothic paintings
 * various castles, including Castle Maretsch, Runkelstein Castle and Firmian/Sigmundskron Castle
 * Victory Monument triumphal arch built under Mussolini (1928); now put in context as part of an exhibition on the two dictatorships of Italian Fascism and German Nazism
 * the former Casa del Fascio, another fascist-era monument preserved but recontextualized in 2017

For more historical and geographical information see South Tyrol.

Museums

 * South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, is the exhibition location of the Ötzi mummy. The museum also exhibits other archaeological finds from the South Tyrolean region. Due to the Ötzi, it is one of the leading archaeological museums in Italy.
 * Runkelstein Castle, was built in 1237 by the brothers Friedrich and Beral von Wangen. The castle became known for its extensive and profane fresco cycle from the Middle Ages.
 * Bolzano City Museum; The collections of the museum include works of art as paintings, sculptures, altars and folklore objects of daily life from all over South Tyrol. The access to the museum is limited and only a part of the valuable collection is visible. The museum, built in 1905, is in the planning stage for an extension that would be fully accessible.
 * Nature Museum South Tyrol, is dedicated to areas such as geology, flora and fauna. The exhibition shows the emergence of South Tyrolean landscapes, for example the Dolomites, and natural science collections from the South Tyrolean region.
 * Museion, is a museum of Modern and Contemporary Art. The museum was founded in 1985 and today, since 2008, has its headquarters on "Talferwiesen". The modern cube, including bridges, was planned by the architects' office "Krüger, Schubert, Vandreike (KSV)".
 * Mercantile Museum of Bolzano, tells about the economic history of Bolzano and its importance in Central Europe as a bridge between North and South. The museum used to be the seat of the former Mercantile Magistrate. It also documents the trade fairs and their significance for the trading city.
 * Bolzano School Museum, reports about the development of the school in South Tyrol since the introduction of the compulsory education of Empress Maria Theresia in the year 1774. Special features of this museum are, among other things, the presentation of the catacomb schools and the documentation about the Jewish school home near Merano.
 * Bolzano Cathedral Treasury, was founded in 2007 and has its seat near the Cathedral of Bolzano. The museum shows sacred art such as church treasures, 18th-century paintings and goldsmithing.
 * MMM Firmian, is one of six locations of the museum project of mountaineer Reinhold Messner. The MMM Firmian is located at Sigmundskron Castle and is also the headquarters of the project. Themes of this museum are the history of mountaineering and the art of mountaineering. It shows the connection between the people and the mountains. Additionally, Reinhold Messner's experiences, collections and memories of the expeditions will be exhibited.
 * Semi-rural House, was one of many houses built in the Semi-rural zone during the 1930s for industrial workers. It documents the development of this district at that time until the 1980s.
 * Documentation Center "BZ '18–'45: one monument, one city, two dictatorships", Victory Monument. The museum is located below the Victory Monument and documents the time of the population of Bolzano and South Tyrol during the Italian fascism and after 1943 the German National Socialism. It is the first museum in Italy to work on the fascism under Benito Mussolini. In 2016, the Museum received considerable recognition from the jury of the European Museum of the Year Award for exhibiting this sensitive topic.
 * Pons Drusi Museum, located in the retirement home "Grieserhof" and showing archaeological remains such as frescoes and vases from Roman antiquity. The remaining walls indicate a former temple complex and a building with a pillared hall. Several objects from the first century AD were found, showing the life of the Romans in Gries-Bolzano at that time.

Libraries and archives

 * Tessmann Library
 * University Library of Bozen-Bolzano
 * South Tyrolean Provincial Archives
 * Civic Archives in Bozen-Bolzano

Cinema and theater

 * Bolzano Civic Theater - Stadttheater Bozen; the new city theater was opened in 1999 according to the plans of the architect Marco Zanuso. For a long time, the city had no city theater because the old one was destroyed in World War II. It is the seat of the United Stages Bolzano (VBB) and has 2 halls. The theater features performances in Italian and German.
 * Concert Hall Bolzano, was also opened in 1999 and is the seat of the Haydn Orchestra of Bolzano and Trento. Every two years the famous Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition is held in the auditorium.
 * Haus der Kultur Walther von der Vogelweide (Culture house Walther von der Vogelweide), is a theater that presents a majority of performances in German. It is located in the center of the city and can accommodate about 500 people.
 * Teatro Cristallo, is located outside the center in Dalmatienstreet. Most of the performances are presented in Italian.
 * Stadttheater Gries (City theater Gries), located in the district of Gries-Quirein and can accommodate 371 people. Performances are presented in German and Italian.
 * Theater im Hof (Theatre in the courtyard), is located on Obstplatz and dedicated to the children and youth theater. An additional focus of the small theater is the topic of "women in and at the theater".
 * Carambolage; in this venue improvisational theater and other forms of cabaret are offered. It is located in the center of the city.
 * Batzen Sudwerk; below the 600-year-old brewery in the basement is a cultural workshop. Performances are often in the form of cabaret.
 * Teatro Cinema Rainerum; at the Rainerum Institute in the Don Bosco district there is a theater for about 400 people.
 * Filmclub Bolzano (Movie club Bolzano), is a cinema with 3 rooms that also shows several films of regional directors and actors. The Filmclub is also the venue of the Bolzano Filmfestival. The cinema is located in the old town of Bolzano.
 * Cineplexx, was opened in 2009 and it offers a majority of films in German. In addition to films in German and Italian, other films are also available in English. The cinema has 7 rooms.
 * UCI Cinema, opened in 2015 and located in the shopping center "Twenty". Most of the 6 halls offer films in Italian. In this cinema are occasionally shown films in English and German.

Cultural events
Bolzano organizes the following events every year:
 * Südtirol JazzFestival, is a festival that not only takes place in Bolzano but is also performed all over South Tyrol. The jazz festival lasts up to 10 days and performs 90 concerts in 50 different locations with over 150 jazz musicians. International jazz musicians such as Don Cherry, Randy Brecker, Carla Bley, Chick Corea, Pat Metheny, and Collin Walcott participated in this event.
 * Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition, is an international piano competition that is held every 2 years. This competition was initiated by the director of the Conservatory of Music "Claudio Monteverdi" in memory of the 25th anniversary of the death of Ferruccio Busoni. The artist influenced Italian and German music art and was therefore a symbol of the South Tyrolean culture.
 * Bolzano Filmfestival Bozen; The first Bolzano film festival was held in 1987 under the name "Bozner Filmtage". It serves as a platform for the local film scene and creates contact between filmmakers and audiences. Films in Italian and German are shown. Artists like Tobias Moretti, Fred Zinnemann, Herbert Achternbusch, Michele Placido, and Jiri Menzel participated in this event.
 * Bolzano Festival Bozen, is a festival that takes place every summer and offers classical music. The European Union Youth Orchestra, the Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester and the participants of the Ferruccio Busoni Competition are performing regularly.
 * Tanz Bozen - Bolzano Danza, is an international contemporary dance festival and is held every summer. It is a festival that shows different dance performances in different places of the city. It is organized by the Haydn Foundation of Bolzano and Trento.
 * Christmas market Bozen; The Bolzano Christmas Market was founded in 1990 as Italy's first Christmas market. The stands are located in different places of the old town. With over 1.2 million visitors (2005), the Bolzano Christmas Market is the most visited in Italy.
 * Bolzano ShortFilmFestival, also collaborates with the Bolzano Filmfestival and awards prizes for the best short films without words ("No Words"). Independently of the Bolzano Filmfestival it also awards prizes for the best Italian short film. The festival was held in 1968 for the first time.

Free University of Bozen-Bolzano
The Free University of Bozen-Bolzano was founded in 1997 and has its headquarters in the city of Bolzano. It offers trilingual courses in German, Italian and English. The unibz was the first trilingual university in Europe. Other university locations are in Brixen and Bruneck. Through the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino, the university also works closely together with the universities of Innsbruck and Trento. The University of Bolzano has the following five faculties:
 * Economics
 * Computer science
 * Design and arts
 * Science and technology
 * Education

State College of Health Professions "Claudiana"
The State College of Health Professions "Claudiana" was founded in 1993 and has since 2006 its headquarters next to the regional hospital of Bolzano outside the center. The college was named after the Regent of the Austrian County of Tyrol, Claudia de Medici. The college serves to train health professionals, such as nurses, midwives, technical medicine and rehabilitation specialists. Teaching is in Italian and German.

Conservatory "Claudio Monteverdi"
The conservatory "Claudio Monteverdi" is a college of music in Bolzano. The conservatory was founded in 1927 and has since been named after the former Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi. The rooms of the conservatory are located in the Dominican monastery. The Academy of Music gained international recognition through the biennial Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition.

Transport
Bolzano is connected to the motorway network A22-E45 to Trento and Verona and to Innsbruck (Austria) and Munich (Germany). In Bolzano South there is a transport hub that connects the dual carriageway MeBo with the A22 motorway. The dual carriageway MeBo (Merano - Bolzano) was completed in 1997 to quickly connect the two metropolitan areas of South Tyrol, Merano and Bolzano, and to relieve the surrounding communities in the district of Burggrafenamt and the old former two-lane State street SS38 (Strada statale 38).

The city is also connected to the Italian railway system. Bolzano railway station, opened in 1859, forms part of the Brenner railway (Verona–Innsbruck), which is part of the main railway route between Italy and Germany. The station is also a junction of two branch lines, to Merano and Mals. The station of Bolzano is served by Frecciarossa and Frecciargento trains of Trenitalia, Italo EVO of Nuovo Trasporto Viaggiatori (from August 2018) and EuroCity trains of ÖBB.

A two-line light rail network is planned to serve Bolzano, at a length of 7.2 km with 17 stops, with a projected cost of €192 million.

There is a 50 km network of cycle paths, and about 30% of journeys in Bolzano are made by bicycle.

Until summer 2015 there was a regular connection between Bolzano Airport (IATA: BZO) and Rome. In summer charter flights are offered to Cagliari, Olbia, Lamezia Terme and Catania.

Since 1966 a cable car connects the centre of Bolzano with Oberbozen-Soprabolzano and the community of Ritten. In 2009 the Italian manufacturer Leitner replaced the old cable car with a new modern 3S system. Although the so-called "Rittner Seilbahn" primarily serves the tourist market, it also provides an important transit link for the residents of Renon. The cable car system, which can carry up to 726 persons per hour, is the first tricable gondola lift in Italy.

Sport
The town is host to an annual road running competition – the BOclassic – which features an elite men's 10K and women's 5K races. The event, first held in 1975, takes place on New Year's Eve and is broadcast live on television by Rai Sport Più.

Bolzano is also the host city to the Giro delle Dolomiti annual road bike event.

Local teams
Football
 * F.C. Südtirol
 * A.C. Virtus Bolzano
 * Bozner F.C.
 * F.C. Neugries
 * F.C. Bolzano 1996
 * Virtus Don Bosco

Handball
 * Loacker Bozen Handball A-Elite Liga

Ice hockey
 * EV Bozen 96 plays in Serie A2
 * HC Bolzano Bozen Foxes plays in Serie A1 and the EBEL League, winning the EBEL title in 2014, their debut year

Rugby
 * Sudtirolo Rugby Cavaliers play in the Italian Serie C

American football
 * Giants Bolzano play in the IFL (Italian Football League), the first league of the FIDAF

Softball and baseball
 * Adler
 * Pool 77
 * Softball Club Dolomiti

Fistball
 * SSV Bozen plays in the FBL (Austrian Fistball League), the first Austrian league.

People

Notable people born in or associated with Bolzano include:
 * 14th century
 * Blessed Henry of Treviso (died 1315), a lay pilgrim and holy man, a German from Bolzano
 * 18th century
 * Joseph Tiefenthaler (1710–1785), a Jesuit missionary who wrote about India
 * Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer zu Gleifheim (1777–1860), Prince-Bishop of Trent
 * Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria (1783–1853), Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia
 * Jacob Anton Zallinger zum Thurn (1735–1813), philosopher and canonist
 * Annette of Menz (1796–1869), in 1811 she was the richest heiress in Bolzano
 * 19th century
 * Daniel Harrwitz (1821 – 1884), German chess master
 * Heinrich Anton of Austria (1828-1891), Archduke of Austria
 * Anton Ausserer (1843–1889), naturalist and arachnologist
 * Alois Riehl (1844–1924), neo-Kantian philosopher
 * Julius Perathoner (1849–1926), last mayor of Bolzano of German ethnicity, 1895-1922
 * Alois Delug (1859–1930), painter and a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna; rejected Adolf Hitler's application to join the academy.
 * Ludwig Thuille (1861–1907), composer, teacher and music theorist
 * Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1870–1949), member of the Spanish Royal family
 * Karl Theodor Hoeniger (1881–1970), author and cultural historian
 * Ressel Orla (1889–1931), actress, appeared in some of Fritz Lang's earliest films
 * Max Valier (1895–1930), rocketry pioneer, astronomer and writer
 * Christian Hess (1895–1944), painter and sculptor
 * Walther Oberhaidacher (1896–1945), Austrian Nazi Party politician
 * 20th century
 * Josef Mayr-Nusser (1910–1945), South Tyrolean leader of the resistance against Nazi rule
 * Maria Luise Thurmair (1912–2005), a Catholic theologian, hymnodist and writer
 * Carlo Maria Giulini (1914–2005), conductor
 * Silvius Magnago (1914-2010), lawyer and politician
 * Maria Gardena (1920–2008) film actress and later architect
 * Alcide Berloffa (1922-2011), politician
 * Valentin Braitenberg (1926-2011), brain researcher, cyberneticist and writer
 * Dorian Gray (1928-2011), actress
 * Herbert Rosendorfer (1934–2012), German jurist and writer
 * Giuseppe Anfossi (born 1935), bishop emeritus of the Diocese of Aosta 1994 to 2011
 * Adolf Dallapozza (born 1940), tenor in opera, operetta and musical theatre at the Vienna Volksoper
 * Ottavia Piccolo (born 1949), theatre and film actress
 * Matteo Thun (born 1952), an architect and designer
 * Andrea Bonatta (born 1952), pianist and conductor
 * Franz Fischnaller (born 1954), new media artist and transdisciplinary researcher
 * Cuno Tarfusser (born 1954), former judge of the International Criminal Court
 * Lilli Gruber (born 1957), journalist, former politician and TV talk show host
 * Marco Bergamo (1966-2017) the Monster of Bolzano, an Italian serial killer
 * Sergio Azzolini (born 1967) bassoonist and music conductor
 * Anna Unterberger (born 1985) actress
 * Sport

 * Paula Wiesinger (1907-2001), mountaineer, ski racer and restaurateur
 * Erika Lechner (born 1947), luger, medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics
 * Hans Kammerlander (born 1956), mountaineer
 * Antonella Bellutti (born 1968), racing cyclist and two-time Olympic champion in track cycling
 * Gerda Weissensteiner (born 1969), luger and bobsleigh pilot, competed in six Winter Olympics, gold medallist in the women's singles luge at the 1994 Winter Olympics and bronze medallist in the two-woman bobsleigh at the 2006 Winter Olympics
 * Ylenia Scapin (born 1975), judoka, won two Olympic medals in different weight classes in 1996 and 2000.
 * Isolde Kostner (born 1975), Alpine skier, two bronze medals at the 1994 Winter Olympics and a silver medal at the 2002 Winter Olympics
 * Karen Putzer (born 1978), former alpine skier, bronze medallist at the 2002 Winter Olympics
 * Andreas Seppi (born 1984), tennis player, has reached a career-high singles ranking of World Nr. 18.
 * Manuela Gostner (born 1984), racing driver
 * Tania Cagnotto (born 1985), world and European champion in diving, Olympic bronze and silver medallist
 * Carolina Kostner (born 1987), figure skater, World Champion and Olympic bronze medalist
 * Raphael Andergassen (born 1993), ice hockey player
 * Alex Trivellato (born 1993), ice hockey player
 * Peter Hochkofler (born 1994), ice hockey player
 * Simone Giannelli (born 1996), volleyball player

Twin towns – sister cities
Bolzano is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Erlangen, Germany
 * 🇺🇦 Koziatyn, Ukraine
 * 🇮🇹 Maratea, Italy
 * 🇭🇺 Sopron, Hungary

title: Bolzano


text:
Philippa Roet

Philippa de Roet (also known as Philippa Pan or Philippa Chaucer; c. 1346 – c. 1387) was an English courtier, the sister of Katherine Swynford (third wife of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster – a son of King Edward III) and the wife of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer.

Early life
Philippa was the daughter of Sir Gilles de Roet, who was a herald and, later, a knight of Hainault and accompanied Queen Philippa to England. He later became the Guienne King of Arms. There is no history of her mother, but it is thought that Philippa had two sisters and a brother: Katherine, Elizabeth, and Walter. Her father went to serve the queen's sister, Marguerite, who was the empress of Germany and the three younger children – Walter, Philippa and Katherine – were left in the care of Queen Philippa.

It was her father's relationship with royalty that gave Philippa and her family high status and a reputation among the upper class, who took Philippa in as a 'domicella', or lady-in-waiting. This phase of her life began with the households of Elizabeth of Ulster and Queen Philippa, and ended with Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster. These associations proved to be valuable, as Philippa began to receive annuities from Edward III, Richard II, and John of Gaunt, Costanza's husband.

Philippa is believed to have picked up the nickname "Philippa Pan" while working at Elizabeth of Ulster's household. There are records from 1357 to 1359 from the house of Elizabeth of Ulster which mention "a lady designated as Philippa Pan". "Pan" may have been an abbreviation of "Panetaria", meaning mistress of the pantry, which is most likely where Philippa worked in the Ulster household. The name might also come from her father, who sometimes went by 'Paon' or Payne.

Marriage to Chaucer and adulthood
Geoffrey Chaucer was commissioned to work as a page in Elizabeth's household in 1357, where Philippa was already working as a domicella, caring for her infant daughter, Philippa of Eltham. This is where they are believed to have met; Philippa was around 10 years old at the time and Chaucer was said to be around 12. After Elizabeth's death, both were sent to work for the queen. Their marriage might have been arranged by Queen Philippa herself in September 1366. It was apparently tradition for domicellas and esquire who worked in the same household to marry.

Once married, although granddaughter Philippa of Eltham was grown, it was decided they would continue working for her and the king. As a result of this marriage, Queen Philippa and King Edward III granted a lifetime annuity to the couple in 1366. This payment allowed the Chaucers to set up a household within the royal one. Chaucer was then taken into the King's household in 1367 and began to receive his own annuity. These salaries gave the Chaucers great financial security and a good lifestyle. After the death of the queen, Philippa went to the service of Costanza of Castile and John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster. Following Costanza's death in 1394, John wed his mistress, Katherine, who was Philippa's sister. This connection significantly increased the Chaucers' status in society. Philippa was much in favour in court as a lady-in-waiting and her husband continued to elevate his reputation. He worked as a Controller of Customs and royal agent. Due to the varying nature of their jobs, Chaucer and Philippa were often forced to spend much of their time apart. This may explain why very little is known about their marriage. Philippa Roet was somewhat higher born than her husband and consideration has been given to the parallels between their relationship and the one in Chaucer's "Franklin's Tale", which details the relationship between a lower-born knight and a higher-born lady.

Children
It is probable that Chaucer and Philippa had "two sons and two daughters", whose birthdates are unknown. A lurid conspiracy theory was put forth, first by Mary Eliza Haweis in the late nineteenth-century, and then again more influentially by Russell Kraus in 1932, that "one or two" of these children had been illicitly fathered by John of Gaunt. Many scholars, including almost all modern Chaucerians have argued against this theory; H. A. Kelly, for example, has effectively demonstrated that this belief is likely false as John of Gaunt having sexual relations with two sisters would have been considered incest and would have required additional papal dispensation for him to marry Katherine. Samantha Katz Seal argues that literary critics deliberately encouraged the idea of a "harlot" Philippa for the same reason that earlier critics had believed in a "shrewish" Philippa, namely that alienating Chaucer from his wife and domestic circles allowed these critics to imagine a more masculine Chaucer, and to claim that they, his critics, understood Chaucer better than anyone else ever had, especially his wife.

Elizabeth is thought to be the eldest of their children. She is likely the Elizabeth Chaucer who, along with a Margaret Swynford, was nominated a nun by royal privilege at the accession of Richard II in 1377, thus she may have been born as early as 1364. She may have been a nun in Barking Abbey; there are records of an "Elizabeth Chausier" and her nickname being "Chaucy" which leads historians to believe that she was their daughter. It has been suggested that she was named after Elizabeth of Ulster, however it is worth remembering that Philippa had an elder sister, named Elizabeth/Isabel.

Thomas, the eldest son and most well known, might have been born around 1367 judging from the dates he entered the military; it has been suggested, primarily by Russell Kraus, that he was the son of John of Gaunt, whom he served under and received favours from; however, as stated previously, this parentage is unlikely. A strong relationship with Philippa has been suggested due to an assumption that Thomas chose to bear her coat of arms over Chaucer's. However, in the Special Collections of the Harvard Library is a deed with the name and seal of Thomas Chaucer using the arms of his father Geoffrey and there is no known example of Thomas Chaucer ever using a seal with the arms of his mother. Confusion over this has likely come about because the tomb of him and his wife, constructed by their daughter, Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk, uses Roet rather than Chaucer arms.

Very little is known of Lewis and Agnes, the second son and younger daughter. However, it is recorded that Lewis was born in 1381 and sent to the school at Oxford at age 10; it is also known that Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. Agnes, who is believed to be his second daughter, was a lady-in-waiting at Henry IV's coronation in 1399.

Death
Although there is no precise evidence, Philippa is thought to have died in 1387, due to her last recorded pension being on 18 June 1387. This is evidenced by Chaucer's last recorded overseas journey, which was in the same year. It is also suggested that he may have fallen out of favour with the court following her presumed death.

There is a tomb in the church of St Mary, East Worldham in Hampshire, that is thought to be Philippa's.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Philippa Roet


text:
Joseph Canteloube

Marie-Joseph Canteloube de Malaret (21 October 1879 – 4 November 1957) was a French composer, musicologist, and author best known for his collections of orchestrated folksongs from the Auvergne region, Chants d'Auvergne.

Biography
Canteloube was born in Annonay, Ardèche, into a family with deep roots in the Auvergne region of France. He studied piano from the age of six with Amélie Doetzer, a friend of Frédéric Chopin. After earning his baccalauréat, he worked at a bank in Bordeaux. Upon his father's death in 1896, he returned to his family home in Malaret (Annonay), remaining there until his mother's death in 1899, and then beyond as sole owner of the estate. In 1901, after a period of silence and mourning, Canteloube married Charlotte Marthe Calaret, who gave birth to twins Pierre and Guy in 1903.

He began studying with Vincent d'Indy via correspondence in 1901, reluctant to leave Malaret. With d'Indy's constant urging, he finally entered the Schola Cantorum in 1907 in Paris, where he remained until the beginning of World War I in 1914. At the Schola, Canteloube became close friends with fellow composer and student Déodat de Séverac.

In 1907, he wrote a suite in four movements for piano and violin entitled Dans la montagne, which was played at the Société Nationale. Other significant works followed, including Colloque sentimental for voice and string quartet (1908), Eglogue d'Automne for orchestra (1910), Vers la Princesse lointaine, a symphonic poem (1912), Aù printemps for voice and orchestra, and L'Arada (The Earth), a song cycle of six mélodies (1922).

Canteloube composed his first opera, Le mas ("The Farmstead" in Occitan language), to his own libretto, from 1910 to 1925, its composition delayed during the war years. The three-act work won the Prix Heugel in 1925, and was awarded the prize of 100,000 francs. However, the reaction to the composition by the leaders of the Opéra-Comique in Paris was far less enthusiastic than that of the jury. After pressure from the publisher, Le mas was finally premiered on 3 April 1929, but it was never revived. His second opera, Vercingétorix, in four acts, was inspired by a libretto by Étienne Clémentel, mayor of Riom (Puy-de-Dôme), and Hervé Louwyck, about the defeat of the Gauls by Julius Caesar. The Paris Opéra gave the first performance on 22 June 1933, but it was accused of lacking theatricality.

In 1925, along with several young Auvergnats in Paris, Canteloube founded a group called La Bourrée, who were eager to publicize the folklore and the beauty of their home region. Canteloube himself believed that "peasant songs often rise to the level of purest art in terms of feeling and expression, if not in form" (les chants paysans s’élèvent bien souvent au niveau de l'art le plus pur, par le sentiment et l'expression, sinon par la forme). He composed several song collections, which include Chants de Haute-Auvergne, albums of songs of Rouergue, Limousin, and Quercy, regional religious songs (Chants religieux d'Auvergne), and L'Hymne des Gaules based on a poem by Philius Lebesque. He also participated in the creation of the Bardic College of Gaul.

In 1941, he became associated with the government in Vichy France during the Nazi occupation, and wrote in the monarchist newspaper Action Française. With the tenor Christian Selva, he participated in numerous radio broadcasts of French folklore with his "Songs of France". Radio was an ideal vehicle for disseminating regional popular music.

Alongside his career as a composer, Canteloube worked as a musicologist, collecting traditional French folksongs, which were published by Didier and Heugel. He also wrote biographies of Vincent d'Indy (1949) and of his friend Déodat de Séverac (1950).

Canteloube took more than thirty years (1924 to 1955) to complete the compilation of his most admired and famous collection of songs, Chants d'Auvergne. The passionate songs reflect the landscapes of the Auvergne in lush orchestral colors, and have enabled French folklore and rustic melodies to become better known.

He died in Grigny, Essonne, in 1957, aged 78.

Discography

 * Chants d'Auvergne, Vol. 1, with Frederica von Stade and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Antonio de Almeida, Columbia, 1982
 * Chants d'Auvergne, Vol. 2 & Triptyque, with Frederica von Stade and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Antonio de Almeida, Columbia, 1986
 * Chants d'Auvergne, with Arleen Auger and the English Chamber Orchestra, conducted by Yan Pascal Tortelier, Virgin 1988
 * Chants d'Auvergne, with Kiri Te Kanawa and the English Chamber Orchestra, conducted by Jeffery Tate, Decca, 1995
 * Canteloube: Chants d'Auvergne – Complete, with Dawn Upshaw and the Lyon National Opera Orchestra, conducted by Kent Nagano, Erato 44656, 2002
 * Chants d'Auvergne (selection), with Carolyn Sampson and the Tapiola Sinfonietta, conducted by Pascal Rophé, BIS-2513 (SACD), 2021

title: Joseph Canteloube


text:
Talk:Katherine Swynford

Untitled
Katherine and Hugh almost certainly did NOT have a daughter named Dorothy as the name didn't come into use in England for more than 100 years later. Their daughter Margaret was named a nun by royal privilege at the accession of Richard II, where she eventually became Abbess.=--jeanne (talk) 07:55, 7 April 2008 (UTC) I always heard that their daughter was named Blanchette, in honour of Blanche of Lancaster.Also,I have seen 25 November 1350 as a possible birthdate for Katherine.Can anyone out there corroborate this ?--jeanne (talk) 07:54, 7 April 2008 (UTC)--jeanne (talk) 07:54, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Katherine and Hugh Swynford's daughter was named Blanche. "Blanchette" is from Anya Seton's novel "Katherine".  In the novel, Katherine's oldest child is indeed named Blanche, after John of Gaunt's first wife Blanche of Lancaster, but then Katherine decides to call her Blanchette as a pet form.  It is a novel, not a history, so obviously there are many things in it which are not historically proven, and Blanche Swynford being called the pet form of her name Blanchette is one of them. 2600:6C5D:5A00:3694:C8C1:A515:CBBB:829 (talk) 10:51, 3 May 2022 (UTC)

Henry VII
This whole bit is wrong:

'Henry VII, who became King of England in 1485, derived his claim to the throne from his mother Margaret Beaufort, who was a great-granddaughter of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. His legal claim to the throne, however, was by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of Edward IV, and heir to the throne in the absence of her brothers, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York, known throughout history as the Princes in the Tower.'

Whilst Henry Tudor was a descendent of Gaunt (though barred from claiming the throne by his Lancastrian rellie, Henry IV), and did marry Elizabeth of York (but after his coronation; he would not marry and crown her before he was crowned, because he didn't want it said he was claiming the throne through marrying a Yorkist heir), he derived his claim to the throne through neither of these. He claimed it the same way William the Conqueror had....via right of conquest. There was nothing really *legal* about it. Veni, vidi, vici.

I question the validity of even having Henry Tudor in the lead. This article isn't about him, it's about his great-great-great grandmother. At the most he rates a mention in the Children and descendents bit. Certainly not right at the beginning. The Princes in the Tower don't belong here at all, either. Anyone care to discuss? If not, I'll tinker with it in a while. ScarletRibbons (talk) 08:31, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

House of Lancaster
As far as I know, this woman is universally called Katherine Swynford, i.e. the only family with which her name is associated is Swynford. She is never called Katherine of Lancaster. Her husband is thus a "Swynford" as much as she is an "of Lancaster". This is what I mean by anachronistic - unless we can find a source that explicitly calls her a member of the House of Lancaster. Surtsicna (talk) 16:12, 13 June 2017 (UTC)
 * Her children were Beauforts, so I don't think it's correct to say she was a "Swynford", since House Beaufort was legitimised as a cadet branch of Lancaster, and thus also Plantagenet. House Beaufort may be more correct since her children were Beauforts, and powerful nobles in their own right. Seraphim System  ( talk ) 16:39, 13 June 2017 (UTC)

Katherine Swynford and Richard III DNA
Mitochondrial DNA testing was the first of two DNA tests used to confirm the identity of Richard III's skeleton. The match was made between Richard's DNA from his skeleton and the DNA of of a living descendant of his sister, Anne of York, solely through maternal descend. That was the match they found to identify Richard III initially (paternal DNA testing verified this).

Tracing the maternal (mother to mother to mother) back from Cecily Neville (Richard III's and Anne of York's mother) back...this mitochondrial DNA is Katherine's!

Richard III and Anne of York

mother: Cecily Neville mother: Joan Beaufort mother: Katherine Swynford

I think this is worth putting in the article, but I don't have any published source except the known maternal line lineage. New to Wikipedia, can I just add this to the article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Clio85718 (talk • contribs) 17:04, 25 November 2017 (UTC)

Descendants' inheritance rights
"the Beauforts were barred from inheriting the throne of England by a clause in the legitimation act inserted by their half-brother, Henry IV, although modern scholarship disputes the authority of a monarch to alter an existing parliamentary statute on his own authority, without the further approval of Parliament. This provision was later revoked by Edward VI" ... or Edward IV? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.234.0.25 (talk) 08:33, 16 February 2019 (UTC)

I can't imagine it would have been revoked by Edward IV; he would have no reason to sanction claims to the throne based on the Beaufort line. While through his mother he descended from a Beaufort, Edward IV's claim to the throne came from the paternal Yorkist line.

I cannot find any reference however for the claim here about Edward VI. Evidently Edward did attempt to bar his two sisters from the throne in favor of Lady Jane Grey, but I find nothing about legitimizing the Beaufort line. Maybe take this out until a reference is found? I'll keep on looking. Henry VII's very weak claim to the throne by blood came through the Beaufort line (his mother was Margaret Beaufort), but he claimed the throne by right of conquest not blood. I could see why a Tudor might want to change this but can't find the evidence as yet. clio85718Clio85718 (talk) 04:11, 26 June 2019 (UTC)

Wrong coat of arms of Roeulx family
The coat of arms that you present is certified modern (1838 ). The really is found here : https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b525106591/f165.item.r=armorial%20Flandres

https://www.geni.com/people/Eustache-de-Roeulx-III-Canivet-seigneur-du-Roeulx/6000000003051193758

Pass a good day 87.231.197.72 (talk) 15:56, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Katherine Swynford


text:
Patriarch of Alexandria

The Patriarch of Alexandria is the archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt. Historically, this office has included the designation "pope" (etymologically "Father", like "Abbot").

The Alexandrian episcopate was revered as one of the three major episcopal sees (along with Rome and Antioch) before Constantinople and Jerusalem were granted similar status (in 381 and 451, respectively). Alexandria was elevated to de facto archiepiscopal status by the Councils of Alexandria, and this status was ratified by Canon Six of the First Council of Nicaea, which stipulated that all the Egyptian episcopal provinces were subject to the metropolitan see of Alexandria In the sixth century, these five archbishops were formally granted the title of "patriarch" and were subsequently known as the Pentarchy.

Due to several schisms within Christianity, the title of the Patriarch of Alexandria is currently claimed by different churches (two of which are part of the Catholic Church) and held respectively by four persons: the Coptic Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, the Melkite Patriarch of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and all the East and the Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Alexandria. Each of the respective churches consider their patriarch as the successor to the original early bishops of Alexandria. The title was also previously held by the Latin Patriarch of Alexandria. The vast majority of the population of Christians within Alexandria and Egypt, as well as almost all of the Egyptian monastic communities, are part of the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria.

History
According to church tradition, the patriarchate was founded in 42 AD by Mark the Evangelist. It was the centre from which Christianity spread throughout all Egypt. Within its jurisdiction, during its most flourishing period, were included about 108 bishops; its territory embraced the six provinces of Libya Superior, Libya Inferior, the Thebaid, Egypt, Heptanomis, and Augustamnica. In the beginning the successor of St. Mark was the only metropolitan bishop, and he governed ecclesiastically the entire territory. As the Christians multiplied, and other metropolitan sees were created, he became known the arch-metropolitan. The title of patriarch did not come into use until the fifth century.

Up to the time of the First Council of Constantinople (381) the Patriarch of Alexandria ranked next to the Bishop of Rome. By the third canon of this council, afterwards confirmed by the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of Chalcedon (451), the Patriarch of Constantinople, supported by imperial authority and by a variety of concurring advantages, was given the right of precedency over the Patriarch of Alexandria. But neither Rome nor Alexandria recognized the claim until many years later. During the first two centuries of our era, though Egypt enjoyed unusual quiet, little is known of the ecclesiastical history of its chief see, beyond a barren list of the names of its patriarchs, handed down to us chiefly through the church historian Eusebius.

All denominations acknowledge the succession of church leaders until the time of the Second Council of Ephesus of 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which gave rise to the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Chalcedonian Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.

Pope
This office has historically held the title of Pope—Πάπας (Papas), which means "Father" in Greek and Coptic—since Pope Heraclas of Alexandria, the 13th Alexandrine Bishop (227–248), was the first to associate "Pope" with the title of the Bishop of Alexandria.

The word pope derives from the Greek πάππας "father". In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied informally (especially in the east) to all bishops and other senior clergy. In the west it began to be used particularly for the Bishop of Rome (rather than for bishops in general) in the sixth century; in 1075, Pope Gregory VII issued a declaration widely interpreted as stating this by-then-established convention. By the sixth century, this was also the normal practice in the imperial chancery of Constantinople.

The earliest record of this title was regarding Pope Heraclas of Alexandria (227–240) in a letter written by his successor, Pope Dionysius of Alexandria, to Philemon (a Roman presbyter): "τοῦτον ἐγὼ τὸν κανόνα καὶ τὸν τύπον παρὰ τοῦ μακαρίου πάπα ἡμῶν Ἡρακλᾶ παρέλαβον." This is translated, "I received this rule and ordinance from our blessed father/pope, Heraclas." According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest recorded use of "pope" in English is in an Old English translation (c. 950) of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, "Þa wæs in þa tid Uitalius papa þæs apostolican seðles aldorbiscop." In modern English, "At that time, Pope Vitalian was chief bishop of the apostolic see."

Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
The Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa in the Holy See of St. Mark the Apostle leads the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, but has resided in Cairo since Christodoulos moved the residence in the mid-eleventh century. His full titles are Pope and Archbishop of the Great City of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa, the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic See of Saint Mark the Evangelist (Egypt, Libya, Nubia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and all Africa) and Successor of St. Mark the Evangelist, Holy Apostle and Martyr, on the Holy Apostolic Throne of the Great City of Alexandria.

Eastern Catholic Churches
The Patriarch of Alexandria of the Copts leads the Coptic Catholic Church in communion with the Holy See.

The Patriarch of Antioch of the Greek-Melkites, who leads the Melkite Greek Catholic Church in communion with the Holy See, also has the titles of Titular Patriarch of Alexandria of the Greek-Melkites and Titular Patriarch of Jerusalem of the Greek-Melkites.

Latin Church
The Latin Patriarch of Alexandria was head of the titular Patriarchal See of Alexandria of the Catholic Church, established by Pope Innocent III. The title was last held by Luca Ermenegildo Pasetto until his death in 1954; it remained vacant until its abolition as a Latin Church see in 1964.

Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria
The Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa leads the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. His full title is "His Divine Beatitude the Pope and Patriarch of the Great City of Alexandria, Libya, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, All Egypt and All Africa, Father of Fathers, Pastor of Pastors, Prelate of Prelates, the Thirteenth of the Apostles and Judge of the Universe".

title: Patriarch of Alexandria


text:
Allemande

An allemande (allemanda, almain(e), or alman(d), French: "German (dance)") is a Renaissance and Baroque dance, and one of the most common instrumental dance styles in Baroque music, with examples by Couperin, Purcell, Bach and Handel. It is often the first movement of a Baroque suite of dances, paired with a subsequent courante, though it is sometimes preceded by an introduction or prelude.

A quite different, later, Allemande, named as such in the time of Mozart and Beethoven, still survives in Germany and Switzerland and is a lively triple-time social dance related to the waltz and the Ländler.

The name "Allemande" comes from the name of Germany in French.

History
The allemande originated in the 16th century as a duple metre dance of moderate tempo, already considered very old, with a characteristic "double-knocking" upbeat of two or occasionally three sixteenth notes. It appears to have derived from a German dance but no identifiable dance and no German dance instructions from this era survive.

The 16th-century French dancing master Thoinot Arbeau and the British Inns of Court therefore preserve the first records of the allemande, in which dancers formed a line of couples who took hands and walked the length of the room, walking three steps then balancing on one foot. A livelier version, the allemande courante, used three springing steps and a hop. Elizabethan British composers wrote many "Almans" as separate pieces.

French composers of the 17th century experimented with the allemande, shifting to quadruple meter and ranging more widely in tempo. This slower allemande, like the pavane, was adapted to the tombeau or memorial composition. The German composers Froberger and Bach followed suit in their allemandes for keyboard instruments, although ensemble allemandes kept a more traditional style. Italian and English composers were more free with the allemande, writing in counterpoint and using a variety of tempi (Corelli wrote allemandes ranging from largo to presto).

In his Musikalisches Lexicon (Leipzig, 1732), Johann Gottfried Walther wrote that the allemande "must be composed and likewise danced in a grave and ceremonious manner." Likewise in Der Vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg, 1739) Johann Mattheson described the allemande as "a serious and well-composed harmoniousness in arpeggiated style, expressing satisfaction or amusement, and delighting in order and calm". Its music is characterised by absence of syncopation, combination of short motifs into larger units and contrasts of tone and motif.

Some of the close embraces and turns of the allemande were carried over to square dance and contra dance. In an allemande, couples hold one forearm and turn around each other to the left or right.

Triple meter dance
Late in the 18th century, "allemande" or "German Dance" came to be used for another type of dance in triple meter. Weber's Douze allemandes op. 4 of 1801 anticipate the waltz. Mozart and Beethoven both produced sets of German Dances in this style. A different version went on to become the Ländler.

title: Allemande