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Talk:Culture war

What is a Culture War?
I Have to agree with the person below, there is no clear definition of culture war or what occurs during one or because of one. THe stuff about Hunter has no contex to todays culture war in America and the campus wars shouldnt be a huge part of the fouxus, what should be is the actual disagreements in a Culture war. The page needs serious work. --Stonelance 22:33, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with the person above and with @Stonelance . Therefore, I am changing the introduction to add an actual definition. "The notion of “culture wars” refers to the phenomenon in which multiple groups of people, who hold entrenched values and ideologies, attempt to contentiously steer public policy" It comes from https://doi.org/10.1177/07439156221103852 The definition is on page 1 and it is attributed to (Hartman 2019) (cited already). MexFin (talk) 10:07, 5 September 2022 (UTC) abcdefghijklmnop
 * What is a "fouxus"? 2A00:23C8:8F8A:B700:EC7C:10C9:9C1C:38AE (talk) 22:26, 14 July 2024 (UTC)

Introduction is crap
What the hell is "The culture war (or culture wars) in American usage is a political conflict based on different idealized cultural values" meant to mean? It could be anything. At least include a decent definition of the article's bloody topic!

Need to discuss conflict more between "liberals" & "conservatives"
Aren't the culture wars the endless battle between secular liberals and evangelical Christian conservatives over social issues? If so, shouldn't the article discuss this in more detail instead of essay-style speculation--Robert Merkel

 * If you want to throw that in there, I see no reason why not. 65.58.161.102 20:19 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * It's more complex then that. I see the culture war as less between liberals and conservatives as between age groups. My family is fairly liberal, but in some ways could be said to be on the conservative side of the culture war. Somebody Else's Problem CatDog (aka Alethiophile) 00:46, 9 April 2007 (UTC)
 * It is extremely complex to be sure...you've got religious liberals and conservatives, who are generally (but not always) aligned with their liberal and conservative political counterparts. Then you have atheists, libertarians, people who are socially conservative and fiscally liberal (and vice versa), to just name a few of the complications.  I don't think age is so much of an issue, however - if anything the younger "culture war" generation is more polarized than the other generations, and has a good amount of support from both sides of the "war".  Of course, everything I just stated is unsourced, but maybe it'll give someone a jumping-off point for some discussion about content for the article. --Tim4christ17 talk 11:39, 11 April 2007 (UTC)
 * And then you have the centralists like myself, who's rallying cry is 'compromise' and 'listen to the silent majority'. Anyway, it's the older people who are polarized: It occurred in the absence of the internet. But the internet allows us to talk and, more importantly, compromise. The baby boomers are the ones who are polarized04:24, 12 March 2008 (UTC)~

Future - generational issues
Unless this work is science fiction, how can it discuss events that have not yet occurred? 2005? -- Zoe

 * Historical eras, like generations, have an average length of around 22 years. The 2005 year is listed because the Culture Wars era would end then if it were of average length. 67.74.95.50 00:19 May 15, 2003 (UTC)

In the 20:57, 14 Sep 2004 version, this caught my eye: "The Boom Generation, who had control of the culture at the beginning of the era, came under attack from their next juniors, Generation X, who had a distinctive anti-Boom crossculture. These two generations are like oil and water: aggressive moralizers on one side, neo-hedonists on the other." This reads as if the boomers are the moralizers; however, I interpret it the opposite, so I changed it. Let's develop this by citing some sources... <>< tbc

I have removed the following:

 * Though society had been turning away from tradition and the transcendent for centuries, technology had by this time enabled the decoupling of many biological functions from their respective social functions — sex from its social function of producing the next generation, etc.

 * The Boom Generation, who had control of the culture at the beginning of the era, came under attack from their next juniors, Generation X, who had a distinctive anti-Boom crossculture. These two generations are like oil and water: the early generation was defined by their neo-hedonism, while their disillusioned children, having lived through the rise of the AIDS epidemic and their own parents' broken marriages, craved restored boundaries on behavior and a return to traditional morality. In schematic summary:

 * The Silent Generation was entering elderhood.
 * The Baby boomers were entering midlife.
 * Generation X was entering rising adulthood, looking at a Boom-built culture in need of the one thing missing at Woodstock: ice-water realism.
 * Generation Y was entering childhood.

It was unsourced original research and analysis.

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 19:11, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)

I recognize this. It comes from Strauss & Howe - probably their book The Fourth Turning. While I'm not sure of the quote, this is certainly what's in their books. 50.96.27.108 (talk) 02:00, 14 October 2013 (UTC)

I changed the dating from the 1980's to the 1960's
here is why. The culture war in America began with the "counter-culture revolution" in the 1960's. The dramatic revolution from traditional views of authority, sexuality, family, and American culture in general began in 60's - not the 80's.  We saw the rise of the Moral Majority, Christian Coalition, Americans for Life, Focus on the Family as a response to what happened in the 1960's.  The leaders of these movements all point back to the "counter-culture revolution" of the 1960's as a justification for organizing in the 1970's and 80's. The culture war was started by the secular left in the 60's. The religious right did not begin an effective response until the late 70's. (Anonymous post from 64.160.116.54)

 * Babble. The "Culture War" is simply a label (it's not literally a war after all). The label applies to social phenomena that inspired the label. The first application of the label is the sensible starting point: from that point one may assess the cultural situation that evoked the label. Then one can describe what the label means to its users. If focus is lost, one quickly winds up gabbling, and redefining the label to serve personal agendas does not help. --Wetman 19:25, 13 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The article simply isn't critical enough of anyone invoking the term. Unless you're literally fighting for your life, you're not in a war. Stop whining. --&rogyny

 * You're right. We need more pespectives on how the "culture war" is not really a war, and how the term is used in a very loaded way, almost exclusively by people who epsouse conservative values.  I'm working on finding some sources.--Farbotron 22:39, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Someone may want to look into whether some of the recently deleted material from this article should be restored; I don't have time right now. I've worked on cleaning up the first three paragraphs, which had decently cited and relevant material; I think they are now quite good, but the rest of the article is almost a total loss. -- Jmabel | Talk 02:05, August 14, 2005 (UTC)

 * The section on 9-11 is especially aimless and confused. 68.110.199.122 23:05, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

I would say the Culture War has been going on since at least the 1920s, as evidenced with things like Prohibition and the Scopes Monkey Trial, and probably well before that. The Republican slogan of the 1880s, that the Democrats stood for "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" could be seen as an appeal to Culture War-type sentiments. It went into remission during the Great Depression and World War II, but resurfaced sometime in the 50s (with the Red Scare and the Civil Rights Movement). 69.151.211.234 (talk) 16:51, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

 * There have been culture wars raging at different times, true enough. But the one which underlies the present-day extreme partisanship in the US, by virtue of its frequent reference to events, ideas, or frames of mind that come out of the 1960's, is little more than a latter-day hold-over of the culture war fought primarily amongst the two partisan extremes of the Baby Boomer generation, and which continues to be fought primarily amongst the members of that generation -- only now as members of that generation in positions of power and positions of authorities in the editing rooms of mass media outlets that determine which issues are to be given airing and focus. This was the battle that simmered in the 1970's (but still manifesting, such as in the split between pro- and anti-disco groups and the late 1970's backlash), and come back into full swing with the coming of age of the Boomers in the 1980's. Note, in particular, a large portion of the list of the main protagonists (or antagonists) in the article comprise died-in-the-wool Baby Boomers. In the articles linked above on the various generations, one of the attributes of Generation X is it disavowal of the Culture Wars -- a process that carried through more or less to completion with Generation Y (e.g. the reference of this generation sometimes as "post-racial", i.e. no longer stuck in the 1960's and its preoccupation with issues relating to race and no longer seeing everything through the filtered lens of that issue.) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.27.190.56 (talk) 21:21, 1 August 2012 (UTC)

Lead section
This doesn't now conform to Lead section. I'll restore some headings, sice the current five-paragraph lead is too dominant. Charles Matthews 06:51, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Buchanan
This edit changed the characterization of Pat Buchanan from paleoconservative to conservative. It seems to me that his paleoconservatism is precisely the issue in culture war terms: John McCain is a conservative, too, but he'd never have made that sort of speech. I am restoring; if there is a case against the use of the word here, please state it. -- Jmabel | Talk 23:18, 13 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree with his paleoconservatism being very important, but why is A Republic, Not an Empire listed as important reading on the issue of a culture war? That book is about foreign policy.  Death of the West is very much about his views on the culture war and State of Emergency explains his take on how the culture war relates to the border issue.  That book should be listed instead, because it has a clear and well-written rundown of the paleoconservative arguement that nationhood and culture come before economics and politics.  The only instance in which A Republic, Not an Empire even remotely relates to culture war is the part that mentions various ethnic lobbies and their influence over foreign policy. Shield2 04:49, 29 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Fine, make that edit; I haven't read either; I assume that was not addressed to me in particular. - Jmabel | Talk 06:55, 1 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Why does Buchanan take such a central role in the article anyway? He's by no means the only voice on the issue, and thus he shouldn't be the only one WP is quoting. Because we only quote him, there's an implicit endorsment of his views. I think this article is rather POV. Al  e  thiophile 1   2  3  16:03, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

Similar debates are occuring elsewhere
I added Australian related article links in "See also". -- Paul foord 12:49, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

 * That's one reason I added a clean-up tag just now. The lead article says this is an American political thing, but then parts of the article have been internationalized (at least to the extent of Oz). We all need to decide whether this is to be about the American thing, or about similar things in other Anglophone countries, or more generic (and, to me, less useful and meaningful). -- Orange Mike 15:37, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

"Other"
I've been racking my brain to see the connection of the list "see also" items under "Other" to this article, and I simply don't see it. Very "other", indeed. Unless someone can indicate a relevant connection, I'm really inclined to remove the section. -- Jmabel | Talk 06:30, 24 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The problem is that the term "culture war" is a generic one that can be used in a variety of contexts. Basically any group that has a culture can have a culture war, and the term is used this way   . There was even a debate once that (because of the userbox issue) Wikipedia was in a culture war: [User_talk:StrangerInParadise#In_particular.2C_a_comment_about_your_user_page_discussion see here].  But, in addition to the general use of the term, there are United States Culture War(s), which needs to be put in a separate article, as this one article is trying to do all of the heavy lifting, and (in its current state) failing.  This might even need to become a gateway page that leads to various "culture wars" (including the Australian so-called "History wars") where regional specifics and applications of the term can be sorted out.--Esprit15d 13:38, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, some genius decided to move from title 'culture wars', to the current 'culture war'. Which might indeed need to be a disambiguation page, in the fullness of time. Charles Matthews 21:48, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

Hadn't looked at this in months; I take it no one objects to removing these. - Jmabel | Talk 01:41, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

Problems with "Terrorist surveillance program"
The list of "Battleground issues in the "culture wars" " includes Terrorist surveillance program.

1) This is a POV term: Many people surveilled are not terrorists, but rather "suspected terrorists" (who turn out not to be terrorists) or "people with information about terrorists" or " -contact with terrorists" (but who are not themselves terrorists).

2) Terrorist surveillance program currently redirects to NSA electronic surveillance program, which is a USA-specific article.

I initially changed the entry for Terrorist surveillance program to NSA electronic surveillance program, but immediately realized that this was inappropriate, considering that Culture war / Culture wars currently discusses both the USA and Australia, and might be expected to include other countries in future edits. Any thoughts? -- 201.51.211.130 14:31, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree that its a loaded term, but the people who came up with the project named it that at first. But when people cried foul, they changed it. Edit: Or atleast it seems that way, no one knows for sure.208.248.33.30 21:33, 7 June 2007 (UTC)

Math wars
I added the Math wars to the list of the Culture war issues because to me, a big part of that conflict involves two radically different approaches of what education is/should be about. Monsieur david 07:58, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Does this really belong? I'm looking at the scope of the list, and the vast bulk of the items on the list have a very clear distinction in terms of falling in one camp or the other, and being very cultural in nature.  A debate on how best to teach math still is essentially a question of effective policy, but with both sides generally agreeing on the desired outcomes (aka competence in mathematical applications, and readiness to apply math to things like economics and science).
 * In the rest of these issues, you've got a fundamental disagreement on the values which need to be applied. The values debates pits things that cannot be assessed directly, empirically, or objectively.  For instance, in euthanasia, it's quality of life vs. the idea that life is sacred in its own right.  In abortion, it's whether a fetus is or is not a sacred human life.  In LGBT issues, it's whether sex between consenting adults can be considered immoral or not.

 * The math debate is a matter of policy with astablished values on both sides generally agreed upon. Barring objection or any explicit reference to an outside source that explicitly ties this issue into the larger sense of "culture war," I would like to remove its inclusion on this list.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dolewhite (talk • contribs) 19:18, 4 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I've gone ahead and eliminated Math Wars. If someone has a source taht directly ties the matter into the broader culture war notion, please include such a source. Dolewhite (talk) 17:02, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

Trying to avoid a revert war
I attempted to create a more NPOV-compliant opening sentence which addressed the fact that many people think the whole thing is more or less fictitious, or vastly exaggerated by those who profit from it (at least psychologically). My effort has been reverted without comment. Could somebody else weigh in on this so we don't get an edit war going? -- Orange Mike 15:18, 30 March 2007 (UTC)
 * if many people think it's imaginary then please add a section saying that will full citations. The lede is not the place to do that. Rjensen 15:25, 30 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, it's not my theory. Most of the cites I am finding at first google are low-grade (i.e., blogs and the like). Myself, I think the conflict is genuine, albeit not so completely monopolar as certain forces on both sides would like to pretend. I was just trying to find a more nuanced expression of something a prior editor had tried to say, and been reverted for without comment or discussion. -- Orange Mike 15:33, 30 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I reverted the POV claim of fictitiousness in the lede/opening, as there were no citations in the article supporting this viewpoint to be in the summary/lede, and there were cited details included in the main article below the summary that indicated that at least one book supported the fact that a culture war exists. A viewpoint that is unsupported by the article doesn't belong in the lede/opening.  Yaf 16:26, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

In the contemporary United States, the "Culture War" has been the battle cry of the social conservatives, most notably Bill O'Reilly of Fox News, in which any seemingly slight towards Christianity, or rejection of the "traditional" family unit, is claimed to be evidence of this war. More of this contemporary usage by the extreme right should be explored, along with the, often questionable, arguments put forth by the self-described "culture warriors" that support their view of the existence of this war. JChronop 05:30, 31 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I actually came looking for more information on exactly this. Hopefully this subject isn't dead in the water. Is the phenomenon of a culture war recognized as a reality by any prominent liberals, or anyone who isn't defending their particular cultural viewpoint? I can't imagine no one's picked up that microphone... scrambledhelix 84.159.97.17 (talk) 13:18, 5 July 2014 (UTC)

Removing Australia
This article (now?) has nothing to do with the Australian History Wars debate that are an ongoing public debate in Australia over the interpretation of the history of the European colonisation of Australia, and its impact on Indigenous Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.

I think reference to the History Wars should be removed --Philip Baird Shearer 09:18, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Ah, i thought the same (before reading this), so moved it here:

"The concept of a "culture war" is also current in Australia, particularly in the area of Australian historiography. The so-called history wars concern how to interpret the country's history, especially regarding Indigenous Australians. "

It simply seems to be aobut a different idea altogether. Maybe worth a see also link, but that is all.YobMod 13:53, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Gun Control
Why isn't gun control listed as a hot culture war topic? Too much of a noob to link it myself but I think it should be there? Dbxdesign (talk) 23:24, 11 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Done. Deltabeignet (talk) 20:49, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

Gun control should be listed as an issue mentioned by James Davison Hunter only if it is an issue mentioned by James Davison Hunter. The way the article is written, the list isn't a list of hot button topics, but a list of what James Davison Hunter considers hot button issues.Heqwm (talk) 23:35, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

WBC protestors
The use of WBC protestors in this article is extremely POV. They're a group who almost everyone in the USA disagrees with/dislikes, and are absolutely not representative of "traditionalists". Can we find a photo of some more "moderate" traditionalists? Darimoma (talk) 23:06, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

Have changed it. Darimoma (talk) 07:57, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

I removed a picture of radical christians picketing in San Francisco. These people were reminiscent of Fred Phelps's controversial Westboro Baptist Church located in Topeka, KS. These folks display signs like those featured in the photograph. They picket events ranging from gay rights events to the funerals of U.S. soldiers killed in the War on Terror. The photo, therefore, was not an accurate depiction of traditionalism but rather radical Christian fundamentalism. The picture was clearly an effort to discredit the traditionalist movement by associating the views of the Westboro Baptist Church and the like with mainstream traditionalism which does not come anywhere near the garbage Fred Phelps peddles. aint it whut chu think it mean bt whut cn we say —Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.99.15.158 (talk) 13:57, 26 February 2010 (UTC)

Disproportionate Representation
Apart from the Illuminati YouTube and Yahoo! Answers seem to be about little else. Spend 2 weeks on each and you'll see sources are not necessary for that. Sioraf (talk) 22:19, 5 April 2009 (UTC)
 * This sentence is completely incomprehensible. Please decode. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  17:24, 26 February 2010 (UTC)

What I was saying was that Youtube and Yahoo! Answers were full of content about the Illuminati and not much else. If people just spent some there they'd see that so and so no source was needed for that claim I was making. In retrospect I was exaggerating and was wrong. - Sioraf (I can't log in after a breach)

Progressive Secularism
Not sure why "secularism" needs to come after "progressive". This appears to have been coined by Bill O'Reilly as a means of weighting down and further polarizing the word "progressive". "Traditionalism" and "Progressivism" work just fine by themselves. Yerocus (talk) 14:08, 12 June 2012 (UTC)

 * But for one reason, Bill O'Reilly would be recognised as one of the greatest satirists of all time.

 * 90.243.234.191 (talk) 22:10, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

Examples of current cultural warfare worldwide:
Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan condemns 'Magnificent Century', a historical soap opera described in this article as 'a titillating weekly series that exaggerates the romance, intrigue and sex life of Suleiman the Magnificent, a revered 16th century Ottoman leader. Hugely popular in Turkey and the Middle East, the show is broadcast in 43 countries and watched by 200 million people.'

"I'm condemning both the director of that series as well as the owner of the television station," Erdogan said in a bizarre speech at the opening of an airport in western Turkey last month. "We have already alerted authorities about this and we are still waiting for a judicial action." Whilst being evidently popular the series offends some socially conservative sensibilities enough to attract prime ministerial comment.

South Africa's President Jacob Zuma is quoted using culture as a rhetorical weapon, asserting 'traditional African values in defence of sexism according to this article: "Let us not be influenced by other cultures… Let us solve African problems the African way, not the white man’s way"

The term 'culture war' is a handy media label for something which is currently going on in the USA but beyond that it describes a wider phenomenon as this commentator puts it 'Culture wars, of course, are fought in every country'.

Normskiormski (talk) 09:54, 17 December 2012 (UTC)

Globalize
The intro of this article refers to the subject as it entered the lexicon in the United States and the struggles facing that country in the 1990s. Not only is this a narrow view of the subject, it's all but contradicted later in the article when various struggles: Kulturkampf, Prohibition, and the Civil Rights Movement are all referred to as culture wars, despite predating the 1990s. Further evidence is the fact that "Prohibition" and "the Civil Rights Movement" are referring specifically to events in the United States with no clarification to that point. Similar issues all point to this article being written from the perspective of one specific culture, namely a modern US one. We should strive to improve the wording to be more inclusive and keep the perspective global. Scoundr3l (talk) 20:35, 16 August 2016 (UTC)

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Section "2000s" moved here
The section 2000s previously located as an H3 subsection of the USA section, was so egregiously unrepresentative of the decade of the 2000s, that I've removed the entire section fron the article and moved it here for possible rework. One opinion column by one author in one newspaper on a particular day in 2009 predicting the future about how the culture war will, or should, turn out, is neither a good summary of the decade, nor is it encyclopedic enough in content for an article about the culture wars.

In a February 2009 column in The New York Times, William Saletan stated that a holistic mix of left-wing and right-wing ideas would come out of the culture war. He wrote: "morality has to be practical, and that practicality requires morals." He concluded that conservatives should embrace family planning as a way to reduce abortion and government assistance while liberals should embrace personal responsibility, which means that unprotected sex is criticized "bluntly". He also advocated same-sex marriage as a way to lead LGBT Americans to an "ethic of mutual support and sacrifice" involving stricter personal responsibility.

The article well deserves a section on the 2000s in the U.S., but it needs good content and none of the content above is worth saving, imho. Mathglot (talk) 09:03, 5 September 2018 (UTC)

Lead
I'm wondering if the lead section could be reworded to start with a more general description and then give some examples. "Has had different meanings" isn't very descriptive and the flow into "Originally" seems off. The last sentence in the first paragraph also seems too general and out of place as the term hasn't really been introduced.

Maybe the introduction could be more in the vein of: (yes I know this is awkwardly worded, but still) --213.220.69.101 (talk) 01:59, 30 June 2019 (UTC)

Culture war, but not a universal pro-corporate alliance thriving behind this smoke screen?
Despite listing all the cultural war issues ad nauseum, there is almost no reference on the Internet to the deep, pro-corporate bias that binds the political partisans of each of these cultural war issues. Pro-corporate politics is redirected to office politics on the Internet. Political pro-corporate peace despite political cultural war? That misleads on the Internet back to Democratic and Republican war making proclivities. Pro-corporate media bias is detached from its political results on the Internet.
 * IP user, do you have any sources to back these claims? Symmachus Auxiliarus (talk) 03:56, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Ultimately, yeah. Both "sides" in the USA are strongly pro-capitalist, pro-big business, pro-Wall Street, and all the rest. More so if you judge their actions and not their words. Who do you vote for if you want rich men to pay more tax? To put people first before money? Real equality where it matters, not just more laws against calling people mean names. Are there _any_ American politicians from the working class? Plenty of other countries manage to have socialist governments. And I mean rich, thriving countries with low crime and high satisfaction with life! For a source, I suggest the entire Western world and every newspaper, read critically rather than consumed. Every TV show. But that would probably need a lot of little footnotes.
 * 90.243.234.191 (talk) 15:00, 19 January 2021 (UTC)

Progressive orthodoxy
Ironic that, with purity spirals and the like, the "progressives" are now the ones most rabidly defending their orthodoxy. Even if their orthodoxy might change, sometimes with the wind. The Internet, and particularly "social media", has allowed a certain personality type to dominate, one who, in real life, you'd generally avoid. But they come together, find power, and are good enough at manipulating that they hook minds and conversations this way and that. "Demagogues", that's the word I think. Everyday commonplace demagogues. The hysterical and the attention-seeking, the narcissistic and other Cluster B's, have found fertile soil, as have the psychopaths and any other fantasists. You know, they found only 10% of deaths reported on Livejournal were actually real?

Either way, terrible people, like scum, rise to the top. And politicians have gone right with it, chasing the bar as it sinks into darkness. It's logical conclusion lives in the White House. But that's not to say that his opposition aren't terrible. Only a nutcase would assume that. If only the Western world didn't seem entirely populated with nutcases, I wouldn't have had to mention it.

Not for nothing does Mark Zuckerberg's smile resemble Satan's. He's ended civilisation.

90.243.234.191 (talk) 14:49, 19 January 2021 (UTC)

POV tag
Issues discussed as part of the so-called culture wars are many and different. The article seems to make the case that only depend on one party (conservatives), citing often discredited or one-sided sources. Wikipedia assumes god faith in editors. If you are not capable of assuring that, avoiding writing disruptive contents.--86.6.148.125 (talk) 11:23, 11 March 2021 (UTC)
 * This comment itself fails WP:AGF. Tagging articles requires a discussion of the problem. No concrete suggestions have been offered, only vague complaints, so I've removed the tag. Consider this reply a demonstration of my god faith  [sic]. --Sangdeboeuf (talk) 00:00, 7 April 2021 (UTC)

Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory has an RFC
Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory has an RFC for possible consensus. A discussion is taking place. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments on the discussion page.--Emir of Wikipedia (talk) 20:12, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

United Kingdom "A 2021 report by King's College London..."
If this is going to be used as a source of information in the article, then the details – author(s), title etc. – need to be supplied.CWO (talk) 12:02, 2 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I believe I found the correct one and added it. 23impartial (talk) 14:00, 2 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Culture war


text:
Perovskite (structure)

A perovskite is any material with a crystal structure following the formula ABX3, which was first discovered as the mineral called perovskite, which consists of calcium titanium oxide (CaTiO3). The mineral was first discovered in the Ural mountains of Russia by Gustav Rose in 1839 and named after Russian mineralogist L. A. Perovski (1792–1856). 'A' and 'B' are two positively charged ions (i.e. cations), often of very different sizes, and X is a negatively charged ion (an anion, frequently oxide) that bonds to both cations. The 'A' atoms are generally larger than the 'B' atoms. The ideal cubic structure has the B cation in 6-fold coordination, surrounded by an octahedron of anions, and the A cation in 12-fold cuboctahedral coordination. Additional perovskite forms may exist where either/both the A and B sites have a configuration of A1x-1A2x and/or B1y-1B2y and the X may deviate from the ideal coordination configuration as ions within the A and B sites undergo changes in their oxidation states.

As one of the most abundant structural families, perovskites are found in an enormous number of compounds which have wide-ranging properties, applications and importance. Natural compounds with this structure are perovskite, loparite, and the silicate perovskite bridgmanite. Since the 2009 discovery of perovskite solar cells, which contain methylammonium lead halide perovskites, there has been considerable research interest into perovskite materials.

Structure
Perovskite structures are adopted by many oxides that have the chemical formula ABO3. The idealized form is a cubic structure (space group Pm$\overline{3}$m, no. 221) which is rarely encountered. The orthorhombic (e.g. space group Pnma, no. 62, or Amm2, no. 68) and tetragonal (e.g. space group I4/mcm, no. 140, or P4mm, no. 99) phases are the most common non-cubic variants. Although the perovskite structure is named after CaTiO3, this mineral forms a non-idealized form. SrTiO3 and CaRbF3 are examples of cubic perovskites. Barium titanate is an example of a perovskite which can take on the rhombohedral (space group R3m, no. 160), orthorhombic, tetragonal and cubic forms depending on temperature.

In the idealized cubic unit cell of such a compound, the type 'A' atom sits at cube corner position (0, 0, 0), the type 'B' atom sits at the body-center position (1/2, 1/2, 1/2) and oxygen atoms sit at face centered positions (1/2, 1/2, 0), (1/2, 0, 1/2) and (0, 1/2, 1/2). The diagram to the right shows edges for an equivalent unit cell with A in the cube corner position, B at the body center, and O at face-centered positions.

Four general categories of cation-pairing are possible: A+B2+X−3, or 1:2 perovskites; A2+B4+X2−3, or 2:4 perovskites; A3+B3+X2−3, or 3:3 perovskites; and A+B5+X2−3, or 1:5 perovskites.

The relative ion size requirements for stability of the cubic structure are quite stringent, so slight buckling and distortion can produce several lower-symmetry distorted versions, in which the coordination numbers of A cations, B cations or both are reduced. Tilting of the BO6 octahedra reduces the coordination of an undersized A cation from 12 to as low as 8. Conversely, off-centering of an undersized B cation within its octahedron allows it to attain a stable bonding pattern. The resulting electric dipole is responsible for the property of ferroelectricity and shown by perovskites such as BaTiO3 that distort in this fashion.

Complex perovskite structures contain two different B-site cations. This results in the possibility of ordered and disordered variants.

Layered perovskites
Perovskites may be structured in layers, with the structure separated by thin sheets of intrusive material. Different forms of intrusions, based on the chemical makeup of the intrusion, are defined as:
 * Aurivillius phase: the intruding layer is composed of a []2+ ion, occurring every n layers, leading to an overall chemical formula of []-. Their oxide ion-conducting properties were first discovered in the 1970s by Takahashi et al., and they have been used for this purpose ever since.
 * Dion−Jacobson phase: the intruding layer is composed of an alkali metal (M) every n layers, giving the overall formula as
 * Ruddlesden-Popper phase: the simplest of the phases, the intruding layer occurs between every one (n = 1) or multiple (n > 1) layers of the lattice. Ruddlesden−Popper phases have a similar relationship to perovskites in terms of atomic radii of elements with A typically being large (such as La or Sr ) with the B ion being much smaller typically a transition metal (such as Mn, Co or Ni ). Recently, hybrid organic-inorganic layered perovskites have been developed, where the structure is constituted of one or more layers of MX64--octahedra, where M is a +2 metal (such as Pb2+ or Sn2+) and X and halide ion (such as F-, Cl-, Br-, I-), separated by layers of organic cations (such as butylammonium- or phenylethylammonium-cation).

Thin films
Perovskites can be deposited as epitaxial thin films on top of other perovskites, using techniques such as pulsed laser deposition and molecular-beam epitaxy. These films can be a couple of nanometres thick or as small as a single unit cell. The well-defined and unique structures at the interfaces between the film and substrate can be used for interface engineering, where new types properties can arise. This can happen through several mechanisms, from mismatch strain between the substrate and film, change in the oxygen octahedral rotation, compositional changes, and quantum confinement. An example of this is LaAlO3 grown on SrTiO3, where the interface can exhibit conductivity, even though both LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 are non-conductive. Another example is SrTiO3 grown on LSAT ((LaAlO3)0.3 (Sr2AlTaO6)0.7) or DyScO3 can morph the incipient ferroelectric into a ferroelectric at room temperature through the means of epitaxially applied biaxial strain. The lattice mismatch of GdScO3 to SrTiO3 (+1.0%) applies tensile stress resulting in a decrease of the out-of-plane lattice constant of SrTiO3, compared to LSAT (−0.9 %), which epitaxially applies compressive stress leading to an extension of the out-of-plane lattice constant of SrTiO3 (and subsequent increase of the in-plane lattice constant).

Octahedral tilting
Beyond the most common perovskite symmetries (cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic), a more precise determination leads to a total of 23 different structure types that can be found. These 23 structure can be categorized into 4 different so-called tilt systems that are denoted by their respective Glazer notation. The notation consists of a letter a/b/c, which describes the rotation around a Cartesian axis and a superscript +/—/0 to denote the rotation with respect to the adjacent layer. A "+" denotes that the rotation of two adjacent layers points in the same direction, whereas a "—" denotes that adjacent layers are rotated in opposite directions. Common examples are a0a0a0, a0a0a– and a0a0a+ which are visualized here.

Minerals
The perovskite structure is adopted at high pressure by bridgmanite, a silicate with the chemical formula (Mg,Fe)SiO3, which is the most common mineral in the Earth's mantle. As pressure increases, the SiO44− tetrahedral units in the dominant silica-bearing minerals become unstable compared with SiO68− octahedral units. At the pressure and temperature conditions of the lower mantle, the second most abundant material is likely the rocksalt-structured (Mg,Fe)O oxide, periclase.

At the high pressure conditions of the Earth's lower mantle, the pyroxene enstatite, MgSiO3, transforms into a denser perovskite-structured polymorph; this phase may be the most common mineral in the Earth. This phase has the orthorhombically distorted perovskite structure (GdFeO3-type structure) that is stable at pressures from ~24 GPa to ~110 GPa. However, it cannot be transported from depths of several hundred km to the Earth's surface without transforming back into less dense materials. At higher pressures, MgSiO3 perovskite, commonly known as silicate perovskite, transforms to post-perovskite.

Complex perovskites
Although there is a large number of simple known ABX3 perovskites, this number can be greatly expanded if the A and B sites are increasingly doubled / complex ABX6. Ordered double perovskites are usually denoted as A2BO6 where disordered are denoted as A(B)O3. In ordered perovskites, three different types of ordering are possible: rock-salt, layered, and columnar. The most common ordering is rock-salt followed by the much more uncommon disordered and very distant columnar and layered. The formation of rock-salt superstructures is dependent on the B-site cation ordering. Octahedral tilting can occur in double perovskites, however Jahn–Teller distortions and alternative modes alter the B–O bond length.

Others
Although the most common perovskite compounds contain oxygen, there are a few perovskite compounds that form without oxygen. Fluoride perovskites such as NaMgF3 are well known. A large family of metallic perovskite compounds can be represented by RT3M (R: rare-earth or other relatively large ion, T: transition metal ion and M: light metalloids). The metalloids occupy the octahedrally coordinated "B" sites in these compounds. RPd3B, RRh3B and CeRu3C are examples. MgCNi3 is a metallic perovskite compound and has received lot of attention because of its superconducting properties. An even more exotic type of perovskite is represented by the mixed oxide-aurides of Cs and Rb, such as Cs3AuO, which contain large alkali cations in the traditional "anion" sites, bonded to O2− and Au− anions.

Materials properties
Perovskite materials exhibit many interesting and intriguing properties from both the theoretical and the application point of view. Colossal magnetoresistance, ferroelectricity, superconductivity, charge ordering, spin dependent transport, high thermopower and the interplay of structural, magnetic and transport properties are commonly observed features in this family. These compounds are used as sensors and catalyst electrodes in certain types of fuel cells and are candidates for memory devices and spintronics applications.

Many superconducting ceramic materials (the high temperature superconductors) have perovskite-like structures, often with 3 or more metals including copper, and some oxygen positions left vacant. One prime example is yttrium barium copper oxide which can be insulating or superconducting depending on the oxygen content.

Chemical engineers are considering a cobalt-based perovskite material as a replacement for platinum in catalytic converters for diesel vehicles.

Aspirational applications
Physical properties of interest to materials science among perovskites include superconductivity, magnetoresistance, ionic conductivity, and a multitude of dielectric properties, which are of great importance in microelectronics and telecommunication. They are also some interests for scintillator as they have large light yield for radiation conversion. Because of the flexibility of bond angles inherent in the perovskite structure there are many different types of distortions which can occur from the ideal structure. These include tilting of the octahedra, displacements of the cations out of the centers of their coordination polyhedra, and distortions of the octahedra driven by electronic factors (Jahn-Teller distortions). The financially biggest application of perovskites is in ceramic capacitors, in which BaTiO3 is used because of its high dielectric constant.

Photovoltaics
Synthetic perovskites are possible materials for high-efficiency photovoltaics – they showed a conversion efficiency of up to 26.3% and can be manufactured using the same thin-film manufacturing techniques as that used for thin film silicon solar cells. Methylammonium tin halides and methylammonium lead halides are of interest for use in dye-sensitized solar cells. Some perovskite PV cells reach a theoretical peak efficiency of 31%.

Among the methylammonium halides studied so far the most common is the methylammonium lead triiodide. It has a high charge carrier mobility and charge carrier lifetime that allow light-generated electrons and holes to move far enough to be extracted as current, instead of losing their energy as heat within the cell. effective diffusion lengths are some 100 nm for both electrons and holes.

Methylammonium halides are deposited by low-temperature solution methods (typically spin-coating). Other low-temperature (below 100 °C) solution-processed films tend to have considerably smaller diffusion lengths. Stranks et al. described nanostructured cells using a mixed methylammonium lead halide (CH3NH3PbI3−$\overline{3}$Cl$\overline{1}$) and demonstrated one amorphous thin-film solar cell with an 11.4% conversion efficiency, and another that reached 15.4% using vacuum evaporation. The film thickness of about 500 to 600 nm implies that the electron and hole diffusion lengths were at least of this order. They measured values of the diffusion length exceeding 1 μm for the mixed perovskite, an order of magnitude greater than the 100 nm for the pure iodide. They also showed that carrier lifetimes in the mixed perovskite are longer than in the pure iodide. Liu et al. applied Scanning Photo-current Microscopy to show that the electron diffusion length in mixed halide perovskite along (110) plane is in the order of 10 μm.

For, open-circuit voltage (VOC) typically approaches 1 V, while for with low Cl content, VOC > 1.1 V has been reported. Because the band gaps (Eg) of both are 1.55 eV, VOC-to-Eg ratios are higher than usually observed for similar third-generation cells. With wider bandgap perovskites, VOC up to 1.3 V has been demonstrated.

The technique offers the potential of low cost because of the low temperature solution methods and the absence of rare elements. Cell durability is currently insufficient for commercial use. However, the solar cells are prone to degradation due to volatility of the organic [CH3NH3]+I− salt. The all-inorganic perovskite cesium lead iodide perovskite (CsPbI3) circumvents this problem, but is itself phase-unstable, the low temperature solution methods of which have only been recently developed.

Planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells can be manufactured in simplified device architectures (without complex nanostructures) using only vapor deposition. This technique produces 15% solar-to-electrical power conversion as measured under simulated full sunlight.

Lasers
LaAlO3 doped with neodymium gave laser emission at 1080 nm. Mixed methylammonium lead halide ($CH_{3}NH_{3}PbI_{3−x}Cl_{x}$) cells fashioned into optically pumped vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) convert visible pump light to near-IR laser light with a 70% efficiency.

Light-emitting diodes
Due to their high photoluminescence quantum efficiencies, perovskites may find use in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Although the stability of perovskite LEDs is not yet as good as III-V or organic LEDs, there is ongoing research to solve this problem, such as incorporating organic molecules or potassium dopants in perovskite LEDs. Perovskite-based printing ink can be used to produce OLED display and quantum dot display panels.

Photoelectrolysis
Water electrolysis at 12.3% efficiency use perovskite photovoltaics.

Scintillators
Cerium-doped lutetium aluminum perovskite (LuAP:Ce) single crystals were reported. The main property of those crystals is a large mass density of 8.4 g/cm3, which gives short X- and gamma-ray absorption length. The scintillation light yield and the decay time with Cs137 radiation source are 11,400 photons/MeV and 17 ns, respectively. Those properties made LUAP:Ce scintillators attractive for commercials and they were used quite often in high energy physics experiments. Until eleven years later, one group in Japan proposed Ruddlesden-Popper solution-based hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite crystals as low-cost scintillators. However, the properties were not so impressive in comparison with LuAP:Ce. Until the next nine years, the solution-based hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite crystals became popular again through a report about their high light yields of more than 100,000 photons/MeV at cryogenic temperatures. Recent demonstration of perovskite nanocrystal scintillators for X-ray imaging screen was reported and it is triggering more research efforts for perovskite scintillators. Layered Ruddlesden-Popper perovskites have shown potential as fast novel scintillators with room temperature light yields up to 40,000 photons/MeV, fast decay times below 5 ns and negligible afterglow. In addition this class of materials have shown capability for wide-range particle detection, including alpha particles and thermal neutrons.

Examples of perovskites
Simple:
 * Strontium titanate
 * Calcium titanate
 * Lead titanate
 * Bismuth ferrite
 * Lanthanum ytterbium oxide
 * Silicate perovskite
 * Lanthanum manganite
 * Yttrium aluminum perovskite (YAP)
 * Lutetium aluminum perovskite (LuAP)

Solid solutions:
 * Lanthanum strontium manganite
 * LSAT (lanthanum aluminate – strontium aluminum tantalate)
 * Lead scandium tantalate
 * Lead zirconate titanate
 * Methylammonium lead halide
 * Methylammonium tin halide
 * Formamidinium tin halide

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Perovskite (structure)


text:
Titanate

In chemistry, titanate usually refers to inorganic compounds composed of titanium oxides, or oxides containing the titanium element. Together with niobate, titanate salts form the Perovskite group.

In some cases, the term is used more generally for any titanium-containing anion, e.g. [TiCl6]2− and [Ti(CO)6]2−. This article focuses on the oxides.

Many kinds of titanium oxides are known, and some are commercially important. Typically these materials are white, diamagnetic, high-melting, and insoluble in water. They are often prepared at high temperatures, e.g. using tube furnaces, from titanium dioxide. In virtually all cases, titanium achieves octahedral coordination geometry.

Orthotitanates
Orthotitanates have the formula M2TiO4, where M is divalent. An example of such a material is magnesium titanate (Mg2TiO4), which adopts the spinel structure. Li2TiO3 is not considered an orthotitanate since it adopts the rock-salt structure and does not feature an identifiable titanium anion. Orthotitanates almost never feature identifiable TiO44− centres, an exception being Ba2TiO4.

Titanic acid and its esters
Also called orthotitanic acid or titanium hydroxide, the substance H4TiO4 is called titanic acid. This material, which is not well defined, is obtained by hydrolysis of TiCl4. The solid is unstable with respect to loss of water and formation of titanium dioxide. Esters of orthotitanic acid are known, however; one example being titanium isopropoxide. Esters derived from smaller alcohols adopt more complex structures wherein titanium does achieve octahedral coordination, e.g. Ti4(OCH3)16 or titanium tetramethoxide. It is a weak acid, if it can be isolated.

Metatitanates
The metatitanates have the formula MTiO3, where again M is divalent. They do not feature discrete TiO32− centres. Some, like the commercially important mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3), crystallize in the hexagonal close packing motif seen in corundum. Alternatively, some materials with the formula MTiO3 crystallize in the motif known as perovskite, which is also the name of the mineral form of calcium titanate (CaTiO3). Barium titanate is one such perovskite-structured titanate with ferroelectric properties.

Complex titanates
More complex titanates are also known, such as bismuth titanate, Bi4Ti3O12.

title: Titanate


text:
Titanic acid

Titanic acid is a general name for a family of chemical compounds of the elements titanium, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general formula [TiO_{x}(OH)_{4−2x}]_{n}. Various simple titanic acids have been claimed, mainly in the older literature. No crystallographic and little spectroscopic support exists for these materials. Some older literature refers to TiO2 as titanic acid, and the dioxide forms an unstable hydrate when TiCl4 hydrolyzes.

 * Metatitanic acid (H2TiO3),
 * Orthotitanic acid (H4TiO4) or Ti(OH)4. It is described as a white salt-like powder under "TiO2*2.16H2O".
 * Peroxotitanic acid (Ti(OH)3O2H) has also been described as resulting from the treatment of titanium dioxide in sulfuric acid with hydrogen peroxide. The resulting yellow solid decomposes with loss of O2.
 * Pertitanic acid (H2TiO4)
 * Pertitanic acid ([TiO(H2O2)](2+))

title: Titanic acid


text:
Æ

Æ (lowercase: æ) is a character formed from the letters a and e, originally a ligature representing the Latin diphthong ae. It has been promoted to the status of a letter in some languages, including Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese. It was also used in Old Swedish before being changed to ä. The modern International Phonetic Alphabet uses it to represent the near-open front unrounded vowel (the sound represented by the 'a' in English words like cat). Diacritic variants include Ǣ/ǣ, Ǽ/ǽ, Æ̀/æ̀, Æ̂/æ̂ and Æ̃/æ̃.

As a letter of the Old English Latin alphabet, it was called æsc, "ash tree", after the Anglo-Saxon futhorc rune ᚫ which it transliterated; its traditional name in English is still ash, or æsh (æsċ) if the ligature is included.

Languages
Cyrillic

The Latin letters are frequently used in place of the Cyrillic Ӕ and ӕ in Cyrillic texts (such as on Ossetian sites on the Internet).

English

In English, use of the ligature varies between different places and contexts, but it is fairly rare. In modern typography, if technological limitations make the use of æ difficult (such as in use of typewriters, telegraphs, or ASCII), the digraph ae is often used instead.

In Old English, æ represented a sound between a and e, very much like the short a of cat in many dialects of Modern English. If long vowels are distinguished from short vowels, the long version is marked with a macron (ǣ) or, less commonly, an acute (ǽ).

In the United States, the issue of the ligature is sidestepped in many cases by use of a simplified spelling with "e", as happened with œ as well. Usage, however, may vary; for example, while medieval is now more common than mediaeval (and the now old-fashioned mediæval) even in the United Kingdom, archeology is more commonly used over archaeology solely in the US.

French
In the modern French alphabet, æ (called e-dans-l'a, 'e in the a') is used to spell Latin and Greek borrowings like curriculum vitæ, et cætera, ex æquo, tænia, and the first name Lætitia. It is mentioned in the name of Serge Gainsbourg's song Elaeudanla Téïtéïa, a reading of the French spelling of the name Lætitia: "L, A, E dans l'A, T, I, T, I, A."

Latin
In Classical Latin, the combination AE denotes the diphthong, which had a value similar to the long i in fine as pronounced in most dialects of Modern English. Both classical and present practice is to write the letters separately, but the ligature was used in medieval and early modern writings, in part because æ was reduced to the simple vowel during the Roman Empire. In some medieval scripts, the ligature was simplified to ę, an e with ogonek, called the e caudata (Latin for "tailed e"). That was further simplified into a plain e, which may have influenced or been influenced by the pronunciation change. However, the ligature is still relatively common in liturgical books and musical scores.

Numismatics

In numismatics, "Æ" is used as an abbreviation for "bronze", derived from the Latin aes (aere in the ablative, "from bronze").

Other Germanic languages
Danish

Danish and Norwegian

In Danish and Norwegian, æ is a separate letter of the alphabet that represents a monophthong. It follows z and precedes ø and å. In Norwegian, there are four ways of pronouncing the letter:
 * as in æ (the name of the letter), bær, Solskjær, læring, æra, Ænes, ærlig, tærne, Kværner, Dæhlie, særs, ærfugl, lært, trær ("trees")
 * as in færre, æsj, nærmere, Færder, Skjærvø, ærverdig, vært, lærd, Bræin (where æi is pronounced as a diphthong )
 * as in Sæther, Næser, Sæbø, gælisk, spælsau, bevæpne, sæd, æser, Cæsar, væte, trær ("thread(s)" [verb])
 * as in Sæth, Næss, Brænne, Bækkelund, Vollebæk, væske, trædd

In many northern, western, and southwestern Norwegian dialects such as Trøndersk and in the western Danish dialects of Thy and Southern Jutland, the word "I" (Standard Danish: jeg, Norwegian: jeg) is pronounced. Thus, when this word is written as it is pronounced in these dialects (rather than the standard), it is often spelled with the letter "æ".

Faroese

In most varieties of Faroese, æ is pronounced as follows:
 * when simultaneously stressed and occurring either word-finally, before a vowel letter, before a single consonant letter, or before the consonant-letter groups kl, kr, pl, pr, tr, kj, tj, sj, and those consisting of ð and one other consonant letter, except for ðr when pronounced like gr (except as below)
 * a rather open when directly followed by the sound, as in ræðast (silent ð) and frægari (silent g)
 * in all other cases

German, Swedish, and Finnish

The equivalent letter in German, Swedish, and Finnish is ä, but it is not located at the same place within the alphabet. In German, it is not a separate letter from "A" but in Swedish and Finnish, it is the second-to-last letter (between å and ö).

In the normalized spelling of Middle High German, æ represents a long vowel. The actual spelling in the manuscripts varies, however.

Icelandic

In Icelandic, æ represents the diphthong, which can be long or short.

Jutish

In western and southern Jutish dialects of Danish, æ is also the proclitic definite article: æ hus (the house), as opposed to Standard Danish and all other Nordic varieties which have enclitic definite articles (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian: huset; Icelandic, Faroese: húsið [the house]).

Old Norse

In Old Norse, æ represents the long vowel. The short version of the same vowel,, if it is distinguished from , is written as ę.

One of its etymological origins is Old Norse é (the other is Old Norse æ), which is particularly evident in the dialects of Suðuroy, where Æ is or :
 * æða (eider): Southern, Northern Faroese
 * ætt (family, direction): Southern, Northern Faroese

Ossetic

Ossetic used the letter æ when it was written using the Latin script from 1923 to 1938. Since then, Ossetian has used a Cyrillic alphabet with an identical-looking letter (Ӕ|Ӕ and ӕ). It is pronounced as a mid-central vowel (schwa).

South American languages
The letter æ is used in the official orthography of Kawésqar spoken in Chile and also in that of the Fuegian language Yaghan.

International Phonetic Alphabet
The symbol is also used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to denote a near-open front unrounded vowel like in the word cat in many dialects of Modern English, which is the sound that was most likely represented by the Old English letter. In the IPA, it is always in lowercase. is a superscript IPA letter.

Uralic Phonetic Alphabet

The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) uses four additional æ-related symbols, see Unicode table below.

Typing the character

 * The HTML entities are Æ and æ
 * Windows: or  for uppercase,  or  for lowercase.
 * In the TeX typesetting system, ӕ is produced by \ae.
 * Microsoft Word: followed by  or.
 * X: and  can be used.
 * In all versions of the Mac OS (Systems 1 through 7, Mac OS 8 and 9, OS X, macOS 11, 12, 13, and the current macOS 14): æ: (apostrophe key), Æ:.
 * On the iPhone, iPod touch and iPad, as well as phones running Google's Android OS or Windows Mobile OS and on the Kindle Touch and Paperwhite: hold down "A" until a small menu is displayed.
 * On US-International keyboards, Æ is accessible with (X sometimes uses.
 * The Icelandic keyboard layout has a separate key for Æ (and Ð, Þ and Ö).
 * The Norwegian keyboard layout also has a separate key for Æ, rightmost of the letters, to the right of Ø and below Å.
 * In Vim the digraph is 'AE' for Æ and 'ae' for æ. (Press Ctrl-K in Insert mode.)

Unicode
•

•

•

•

•

•

• (UPA)

• (UPA)

• (UPA)

• (UPA)

•

• (IPA)

title: Æ


text:
Ø

Ø (or minuscule: ø) is a letter used in the Danish, Norwegian, Faroese, and Southern Sámi languages. It is mostly used as to represent the mid front rounded vowels, such as and, except for Southern Sámi where it is used as an  diphthong.

The name of this letter is the same as the sound it represents (see usage). Among English-speaking typographers the symbol may be called a "slashed O" or "o with stroke". Although these names suggest it is a ligature or a diacritical variant of the letter, it is considered a separate letter in Danish and Norwegian, and it is alphabetized after — thus , , , , , and.

In other languages that do not have the letter as part of the regular alphabet, or in limited character sets such as ASCII, may correctly be replaced with the digraph, although in practice it is often replaced with just , e.g. in email addresses. It is equivalent to used in Swedish (and a number of other languages), and may also be replaced with, as was often the case with older typewriters in Denmark and Norway, and in national extensions of International Morse Code.

(minuscule) is also used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent a close-mid front rounded vowel.

Language usage

 * In modern Danish, Faroese, and Norwegian, the letter is a monophthongal close-mid front rounded vowel, the IPA symbol for which is also (Unicode U+00F8). As with so many vowels, it has slight variations of "light" quality (in Danish, søster ("sister") is pronounced as, like the "eu" in the French word bleu) and "dark" quality (in Danish, bønne ("bean") is pronounced as , like the "œu" in the French word bœuf). [//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Danish_alphabet.ogg Listen to a Danish speaker reciting the Danish alphabet]. In the Suðuroy-dialect of Faroese, the short ø is pronounced , e.g. børn  ("children"). The letter was used in both Antiqua and Fraktur from at least as early as the Christian III Bible. Under German influence, the letter ö appeared in older texts (particularly those using Fraktur) and was preferred for use on maps (e.g., for Helsingör or Læsö) until 1957.
 * The Southern Sami language uses the letter ø in Norway. It is used in the diphthongs yø and øø . In Sweden, the letter ö is preferred.
 * The Iaai language uses the letter ø to represent the sound.
 * Ø is used in the orthographies of several languages of Africa, such as Lendu, spoken in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Koonzime, spoken in Cameroon.
 * In Danish, ø is also a word, meaning "island". The corresponding word is spelled ö in Swedish and øy in Norwegian.
 * Ø is used as the party letter for the left-wing Danish political party Red-Green Alliance (Enhedslisten).
 *  (Ø with an acute accent, Unicode U+01FE) may be used in Danish on rare occasions to distinguish its use from a similar word with Ø. Example: hunden gǿr, "the dog barks" against hunden gør (det), "the dog does (it)". This distinction is not mandatory and the first example can be written either gǿr or gør; the first variant (with ǿ) would only be used to avoid confusion. The second example cannot be spelled gǿr. In Danish, hunden gør, "the dog barks", may sometimes be replaced by the non-standard spelling hunden gøer. This is, however, usually based on a misunderstanding of the grammatic rules of conjugation of verbs ending in the letters ø and å. These idiosyncratic spellings are not accepted in the official language standard. On Danish keyboards and typewriters, the acute accent may be typed above any vowel, by pressing the acute key before pressing the letter, but Ǿ is not implemented in the Microsoft Windows keyboard layout for Danish.
 * Ø is used in Old Icelandic texts, when written with the standardized orthography, denoting, among other things the umlauts o > ø and ǫ > ø.
 * In Old Polish texts, the letter Ø represented a nasal vowel (after all nasal vowels had merged).
 * Outside Europe, Ø is used in Latin transliteration of the Seneca language as the equivalent of the ampersand; it abbreviates the Seneca word koh.
 * Ø (or more properly, the similar null sign, ∅), is used in English as a short for "no" or "none", but this usage is discouraged in handwriting, since it may be mistaken as another number, especially "0".

Similar letters

 * The Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Tatar, Swedish, Icelandic, Rotuman, German, Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian alphabets use the letter Ö instead of Ø. Hungarian orthography uses Ő for the same sound lengthened.
 * Ø / ø is not related to, and should not be confused with similar-looking Greek Φ / φ or Cyrillic Ф / ф.
 * The Cyrillic letter Ө has the same sound as Ø, which is used in the Cyrillic alphabets for Kazakh, Mongolian, Azerbaijani, and other languages that have this sound. This is not to be confused with the Early Cyrillic letter fita Ѳ.
 * The letter Ø-with-diæresis (Ø̈, ø̈) was used by the Øresund bridge company, as part of their logotype, to symbolize its union between Sweden and Denmark. Since Ø-with-diæresis did not exist in computer fonts, it was not used in the text. The logotype now uses the spelling Øresundsbron, with Øresunds- being Danish and -bron being Swedish. The letter Ø-with-diæresis sometimes appears on packaging meant for the Scandinavian market so as to prevent printing the same word twice. For example, liquorice brand Snøre/Snöre's logo on the packaging is Snø̈re. The letter is rarely used on maps (e.g.: Malmø̈).

Similar symbols

 * The letter "Ø" is sometimes used in mathematics as a replacement for the symbol "∅" (Unicode character U+2205), referring to the empty set as established by Bourbaki, and sometimes in linguistics as a replacement for same symbol used to represent a zero. The "∅" symbol is always drawn as a slashed circle, whereas in most typefaces the letter "Ø" is a slashed ellipse.
 * The diameter symbol (⌀) (Unicode character U+2300) is similar to the lowercase letter ø, and in some typefaces it even uses the same glyph, although in many others the glyphs are subtly distinguishable (normally, the diameter symbol uses an exact circle and the letter o is somewhat stylized). The diameter symbol is used extensively in engineering drawings, and it is also seen in situations where abbreviating "diameter" is useful, such as on camera lenses. For example, a lens with a diameter of 82 millimeters would be engraved with " ⌀ 82 mm ".
 * Ø or ⌀ is sometimes also used as a symbol for average value, particularly in German-speaking countries. ("Average" in German is Durchschnitt, directly translated as cut-through.)
 * Slashed zero is an alternate glyph for the zero character. Its slash does not extend outside the ellipse (except in handwriting). It is often used to distinguish "zero" ("0") from the Latin script letter "O" anywhere that people wish to preempt confounding of the two, particularly in encoding systems, scientific and engineering applications, computer programming (such as software development), and telecommunications. It is also used in Amateur Radio call signs, such as XXØXX, XØXXX, and so on, in the United States and in other countries. See, also, for information on international amateur radio call signs.
 * The letter "Ø" is often used in trapped-key interlock sequence drawings to denote a key trapped in a lock. A lock without a key is shown as an "O".
 * The letter "Ø" is also used in written music, especially jazz, to type an ad-hoc chord symbol for a half-diminished chord, as in "Cø". The typographically correct chord symbol is spelled with the root name, followed by a slashed degree symbol, as in "C𝆩". The slashed degree symbol is found in the musical symbols block of Unicode but is unsupported by some fonts.
 * The null sign, ∅

History
The letter arose as a version of the ligature. In Danish manuscripts from the 12th and 13th century, the letter used to represent an sound is most frequently written as an  with a line through, but also. The line could both be horizontal or vertical.

Computers

Some 7-bit ASCII variants defined by ISO/IEC 646 use for Ø and  for ø, replacing the backslash and vertical bar. The most common locations in EBCDIC code pages is and. Most code pages used by MS-DOS such as CP437 did not contain this character, in Scandinavian codepages, Ø replaces the ¥|yen sign (¥) at 165, and ø replaces the ¢ sign at 162. The 8-bit ISO-8859-1 and similar sets used and, these locations were then inherited by CP1252 on Windows, and by Unicode.

Typing the character

 * Microsoft Windows: for Ø and  for ø.
 * "US International" keyboard layout:
 * Microsoft Word:.
 * macOS: or.
 * Linux and similar: or.

Unicode
Not to be confused with the mathematical signs:

title: Ø


text:
Å

The letter Å (å in lower case) represents various (although often very similar) sounds in several languages. It is a separate letter in Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, North Frisian, Low Saxon, Transylvanian Saxon, Walloon, Chamorro, Lule Sami, Pite Sami, Skolt Sami, Southern Sami, Ume Sami, Pamirian languages, and Greenlandic alphabets. Additionally, it is part of the alphabets used for some Alemannic and Austro-Bavarian dialects of German.

Though Å is derived from A by adding an overring, it is typically considered a separate letter. It developed as a form of semi-ligature of an A with a smaller o above it to denote a rounding of the long /a/ in Old Danish.

Origin
The Å-sound originally had the same origin as the long sound in German Aal and Haar (Scandinavian ål, hår).

Historically, the å derives from the Old Norse long vowel (spelled with the letter á), but over time, it developed into an  sound in most Scandinavian language varieties (in Swedish and Norwegian, it has eventually reached the pronunciation ). Medieval writing often used doubled letters for long vowels, and the vowel continued to be written Aa.

In Old Swedish the use of the ligature Æ and of Ø (originally also a variant of the ligature Œ) that represented the sounds and  respectively were gradually replaced by new letters. Instead of using ligatures, a minuscule (that is, lower-case) E was placed above the letters A and O to create new graphemes, which later evolved into the modern letters Ä and Ö, as the E was simplified into the two dots now referred to as an umlaut. Similarly, a minuscule O was placed on top of an A to create a new letter which was used in place of the digraph Aa. It was first used in print in the Gustav Vasa Bible published in 1541 and replaced Aa in the 16th century.

In an attempt to modernize the orthography, linguists tried to introduce the Å to Danish and Norwegian writing in the 19th century. Most people felt no need for the new letter, as the letter group Aa had already been pronounced like Å for centuries in Denmark and Norway. Aa was usually treated as a single letter, spoken like the present Å when spelling out names or words. Orthography reforms making Å official were carried out in Norway in 1917 and in Denmark in 1948. According to Jørgen Nørby Jensen, senior consultant at Dansk Sprognævn, the cause for the change in Denmark was a combination of anti-German and pro-Nordic sentiment. Danish had been the only language apart from German and Luxembourgish to use capitalized nouns in the last decades, but abolished them at the same time.

In a few names of Danish cities or towns, the old spelling has been retained as an option due to local resistance, e.g. Aalborg and Aabenraa; however, Ålborg and Åbenrå are the spellings recommended by the Danish Language Board. Between 1948 and 2010, the city of Aarhus was officially spelled Århus. However, the city has reverted to the Aa spelling starting 2011, in a controversial decision citing internationalization and web compatibility advantages.

Icelandic and Faroese are the only North Germanic languages not to use the å. The Old Norse letter á is retained, but the sound it now expresses is a diphthong, pronounced in Icelandic and  in Faroese. The short variation of Faroese á is pronounced, though.

Use in names
In some place names, the old Aa spelling dominates, more often in Denmark than in Norway (where it has been abolished in official use since 1917). Locals of Aalborg and Aabenraa resist the Å, whereas Ålesund is rarely seen with Aa spelling. Official rules allow both forms in the most common cases, but Å is always correct. Å as a word means "small river" in Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian and can be found in place names.

Before 1917, when spelling with the double A was common, some Norwegian place names contained three or four consecutive A letters: for instance Haaa (now Håa, a river) and Blaaaasen (Blååsen, 'the blue ("blå") ridge ("ås")').

In family names, the bearer of the name uses Aa or Å according to their choice, but since family names are inherited they are resistant to change and the traditional Aa style is often kept. For instance, the last name Aagaard is much more common than Ågård. The surname Aa is always spelled with double A, never with the single å. However, given names - which are less commonly inherited - have largely changed to the use of the Å. For instance, in Norway more than 12,000 male citizens spell their name Håkon, while only around 2,500 are named Haakon.

Company names are sometimes spelled with the double A by choice, usually in order to convey an impression of old-fashionedness or traditionality. The double A, representing a single sound, is usually kept in initials e.g. for people whose first, middle, and/or last name begins with the double A. Accordingly, a man named "Hans Aagard Hauge" would spell his initials "H. Aa. H." (not "H. A. H." nor "H. Å. H."), while a woman named Aase Vestergaard would spell her initials "Aa. V." (not "A. V." nor "Å. V.").

Danish and Norwegian
Correct alphabetization in Danish and Norwegian places Å as the last letter in the alphabet, the sequence being Æ, Ø, Å. This is also true for the alternative spelling "Aa". Unless manually corrected, sorting algorithms of programs localised for Danish or Norwegian will place e.g., Aaron after Zorro.

In Danish the correct sorting of aa depends on pronunciation: If the sound is pronounced as one sound it is sorted as Å regardless of the sound is 'a' or 'å'; thus, for example, the German city Aachen is listed under Å, as well as the Danish city Aabenraa. This is §3 in the Danish Retskrivningsreglerne.

Swedish
In the Swedish and Finnish alphabets, Å is sorted after Z, as the third letter from the end, the sequence being Å, Ä, Ö. This is easiest to remember across the Nordic languages, that Danish and Norwegian follow Z first with E-mutated letters Æ and Ø and then the symbol with a one-stroke diacritic Å. Swedish and Finnish follow Z with a one-stroke diacritic Å and then a two-stroke (or two-dot) diacritic Ä, Ö. A combined Nordic sorting mnemonic is Æ, Ø, Å, Ä, Ö.

International transcription
Alternative spellings of the Scandinavian Å have become a concern because of globalization, and particularly because of the popularization of the World Wide Web. This is to a large extent due to the fact that prior to the creation of IDNA system around 2005, internet domains containing Scandinavian letters were not recognized by the DNS, and anyway do not feature on keyboards adapted for other languages. While it is recommended to keep the Å intact wherever possible, the next best thing is to use the older, double A spelling (e.g. "www.raade.com" instead of "www.råde.com"). This is because, as previously discussed, the Å/Aa indicates a separate sound. If the Å is represented as a common A without the overring (e.g. "www.rade.com") there is no indication that the A is supposed to represent another sound entirely. Even so, representing the Å as just an A is particularly common in Sweden, as compared to Norway and Denmark, because the spelling Aa has no traditional use there.

Finnish

Because the Finnish alphabet is derived from the Swedish alphabet, Å is carried over, but it has no native Finnish use and is treated as in Swedish. Its usage is limited to loanwords (the Finnish academic dictionary Kielitoimiston sanakirja, about 100,000 words, has only one word containing Å: ångström) and names of Swedish, Danish or Norwegian origin. In Finland there are many Swedish-speaking as well as many Finnish-speaking people with Swedish surnames, and many Swedish surnames include Å. In addition, there are many geographical places in the Finnish coastal areas and archipelago that have å in their Swedish names, such as Kråkö and Långnäs, as well as the Finnish autonomic region of Åland, a group of islands midst between Sweden and Finland where almost all natives speak Swedish. The Finnish name for Å is ruotsalainen O ("Swedish O"), and is pronounced identically to O, which has the value. (Note that in Swedish, the O is pronounced differently, .)

It is not allowed to substitute aa for å in Finnish, as aa is already a common letter combination with the value.

Emilian
In Emilian, å is used to represent the open-mid back unrounded vowel, e.g. Modenese dialect åmm, dånna , "man, woman";

e.g. Bolognese dialect Bulåggna, dåpp "Bologna, later".

Walloon
The letter å was introduced to some eastern local variants of Walloon at the beginning of the 16th century and initially noted the same sound as in Danish. Its use then spread to all eastern dialects, under the cultural influence of Liege, and covered three sounds, a long open o, a long closed o, or a long a, depending on the local varieties. The use of a single å letter to cover such pronunciations has been embraced by the more recent pan-Walloon orthography, with one orthography for words regardless of the local phonetic variations.

In non-standardized writings outside the Liege area, words containing å are written with au / ô (representing the same sound) or â. For example, the word måjhon (house) in the standardized orthography is spelled môjo(n), mâhon, maujon in dialectal writings (mohone is another form that does not contain a long å).

Istro-Romanian
The Istro-Romanian alphabet is based on the standard Romanian alphabet with three additional letters used to mark sounds specific only to this language: å, ľ and ń.

Javanese
Javanese uses å to indicate open-mid back rounded vowel ⟨ɔ⟩ together with ó (o acute).

Chamorro
Å and å are also used in the practical orthography of Chamorro, a language indigenous to the people of Northern Mariana Islands and Guam. The Chamorro name for Guam is Guåhån, and its capital is called Hagåtña.

Greenlandic
In Greenlandic, å is not used in native words, but is used in several loanwords from Danish, such as båndoptageri (Danish båndoptager) 'tape recorder'. Like in Danish, å is sorted last in the alphabet.

Symbol for ångström
The letter "Å" (U+00C5) is also used as the international symbol for the non-SI unit ångström, a physical unit of length named after the Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström. It is always uppercase in this context (symbols for units named after persons are generally uppercase). The ångström is equal to $m$ (one ten-billionth of a meter) or $0.1 nm$.

In Unicode, the unit is encoded as. However, it is canonically equivalent to the ordinary letter Å. The duplicate encoding at U+212B is due to round-trip mapping compatibility with an East-Asian character encoding, but is otherwise not to be used.

Similarly styled trademarks
The logo of the Major League Baseball team known as the Los Angeles Angels is a capital "A" with a halo. Due to the resemblance, some Angels fans stylize the name as "Ångels".

The logo of the Stargate series similarly features a stylized A with a circle above it, making it resemble an Å as in Stargåte; in Norwegian, gåte means "riddle".

Cirque du Soleil's Koozå production uses this character in its logo, although it is pronounced by the main singer as a regular "a".

British producer and singer Låpsley uses it in her stage name.

title: Å


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Talk:List of cities and towns in Germany

My suggestion: Include only those towns, that either have articles or are likely to get an article in the future. That means, a link to Passau is of course okay, while I doubt this for places like Adelmannsfelden or Jagtszell. Remember that the title of the article is "List of cities in Germany". We may talk about a full list of municipalities, if you want to - if we continue to add villages and hamlets to this list, it will grow very, very large. Your opinions? -- Cordyph 11:25 Feb 17, 2003 (UTC)

I agree that muncipalities or even city parts don't belong here - but I think this list should include every entity in germany which has the city rights. However there are then very small cities (e.g. Hallenberg with just 4,744), but there are also muncipalities significantly bigger than this (e.g. Holzweckede with 17,694). Or how about a minimum population cut-off? Or another "list of big cities in Germany" with all cities with more the 100,000? andy 13:24 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

When I started this list, I thought it would be the best to include the district-free cities, the district capitals, and maybe some other towns of historical or other significance; but I don't mind to do it your way: include every town having "Stadtrecht" (is there anything like "city rights" in UK or the US?). Probably your proposal is better, since we already have a list of the large cities in List of cities. But this list will grow very big by doing so, and sooner or later we'll have to split it. We should not define a minimum population, because some smaller towns (Lauenburg) are of greater historical significance than some very large towns (Oberhausen). So, the decision is to put every town with "city right" inside, okay? -- Cordyph 17:14 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

Bremerhaven
I think you may be a little confused. There are german states, and then there are free city-states (Hanserstadt Frei). To my knowledge, there have only been 3 free city-states: Hamburg, Bremen and Berlin. The cities you have listed as district free may so be, however they are subordinate to a state. Here's an example:

Osterholz-Scharmbeck is a city (stadt) it is subordinate to Kreis Osterholz (a county) which is subordinate to Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), a state (Laender).

Bremen and Hamburg although located in the state of Lower Saxony, are not subordinate to Lower Saxony because they are free city-states. Bremerhaven, which you have listed under Bremen, is a city-district and although it is not subordinate to a Kries (County) it is subordinate to the State of Lower Saxony.

 * ???? I don't see your point. You tell me nothing new. Osterholz-Scharmbeck, Bremen and Hamburg are exactly listed the way you are describing them. As for Bremerhaven, you are simply wrong. See Bremen (state) for more information - it is not subordinate to Lower Saxony. -- Cordyph 11:47, 19 Oct 2003 (UTC)

DE Article
I think we should transfer over the page from the de-wiki with its division and forget this attempt to divide up the page. It's not complete and nobody has edited it for years. Tfine80 06:06, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

 * We should transfer over the other list of larger cities separately. Tfine80 06:33, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

The old list of cities / Großstädte
What happened to the old list of cities in Germany, listing only cities with more than 100.000 inhabitants? I thought that was pretty useful! Markussep 14:56, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * We should transfer that to a new article... This one should have a list of all of the official cities as in the DE-Wiki. Tfine80 17:45, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Are we now calling all towns cities? I have always thought that a city in Germany is a town with more than 100 000 inhabitants.  Different countries have different rules as to what constitutes a city. 84.143.48.87 08:32, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

 * In German, there is Stadt (a place with city rights/town privileges) and Großstadt (a place with more than 100.000 inhabitants). The current article lists all places with city rights. You could call them "town" as well, the definition is not so strict. There are many "cities" in the US with less than 1000 inhabitants (see e.g. Tolna, North Dakota). Markussep 10:38, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

 * How do you differentiate between city rights and town rights? In England, a city is a town which has been granted a charter to be known as a city.  This usually conincides with the presence of a cathedrale.  The size of the population does not affect whether a town is known as a city.  I do not know what makes a town a city in the USA, but thought that in Germany, towns and cities are differentiated only by population size.  Please correct me if I am wrong. 84.143.48.87 10:51, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

 * German de:Stadt links to Town and vice versa, City links to de:Großstadt. See also Town and Town privileges. If you want to be consistent, this list should be "List of towns in Germany". But it's an old and difficult discussion, with repercussions on several other countries. Markussep 15:53, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

English names
I can see that it is easier with German names, but for example München, Hannover and Köln should not be in English Wikipedia. --Audiovideo 00:22, 29 January 2006 (UTC)
 * For what it's worth, here are my two cents: We wikipedians aim to help others find the information and knowledge they are looking for.  And since users will look for the information using all correct spellings they know of, the redirects that are in place and that take them to the correctly (for the English wikipedia) named pages is a good and helpful solution.  If the pages themselves were named incorrectly, I'd agree with you.  But they are correctly titled Munich, Hanover, and Cologne.  I changed it on the list.  --Mmounties 06:12, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

List of largest German cities?
How about it? By population and area. It would be most interesting. —☆ CieloEstrellado 01:31, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

Count?
The page header claims it's a list of 2075 cities but grep counts 2074 lines with 83.46.62.208 (talk) 12:52, 16 May 2009 (UTC)

 * The count appears to be taken from the German WP article. It doesn't give specific sources for the number so it's difficult to view it as definitive.
 * The German government statistics department (Statistisches Bundesamt) has a downloadable list of towns as at the end of 2022 at:  but the total is also not identical. Germans being imprecise, whatever next?! Regards Guffydrawers (talk) 12:14, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I checked this list with the Destatis reference: Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Lower Saxony, Bremen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate, Baden-Württemberg (incl. Oberderdingen), Bavaria, Saarland, Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt correct, Thuringia also correct if you don't count Am Ettersberg, Buttstädt and Kindelbrück, that were towns but lost/gave up their Stadtrecht around 2019. I'll add this reference to the article. Markussep Talk 08:15, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

North Rhine-Westphalia
In this list, North Rhine-Westphalia has 271 cities and towns. However, Municipalities of Germany has only 236 municipalities in the state. Can it be true, because it would be the only state with more cities and towns than municipalities? That list tells also there are 23 cities in NRW, so it would mean that the other 213 municipalities would include 248 towns.

Liste der Städte und Gemeinden in Nordrhein-Westfalen has this: 396 politisch selbstständigen Städten und Gemeinden (Stand: 23. August 2012)., which probably means "396 politically self-governing cities and municipalities (as of 23 August 2012)".

And that 396 seems to include 271 cities/towns and 125 municipalities. 212.50.203.198 (talk) 04:56, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

Town vs. city
Looking at this article, I would think that a town is a municipality with town privileges, and a city such a thing with more than 100.000 inhabitants. This is obviously wrong, look at Weimar. Could the lead clarify that, please, and explain why some places are called city although they have fewer than 100.000 inhabitants? --Gerda Arendt (talk) 10:48, 19 June 2014 (UTC)
 * As there is no clear definition of "city" in Germany, any arguably important town that is not a Großstadt can still be described as "city" as well, without clear reason. --androl (talk) 12:35, 25 November 2019 (UTC)

Stadtrecht
Isn't Stadtrecht no longer in use? ZFT (talk) 03:34, 10 January 2016 (UTC)


text:
1983 Cricket World Cup

The 1983 Cricket World Cup (officially the Prudential Cup '83) was the 3rd edition of the Cricket World Cup tournament. It was held from 9 to 25 June 1983 in England and Wales and was won by India. Eight countries participated in the event. England, India, Pakistan and West Indies qualified for the semi-finals. The preliminary matches were played in two groups of four teams each, and each country played the others in its group twice. The top two teams in each group qualified for the semi-finals.

The matches consisted of 60 overs per innings and were played in traditional white clothing and with red balls. They were all played during the day. There was also a biopic made on the 1983 ICC Prudential World Cup namely, 83 with Ranveer Singh starring as Kapil Dev.

Format
The eight teams at the tournament were divided into two groups of four, and each team would play the others in their group twice. The top two teams from each group then advanced to the semi-finals, which were played as a single-elimination tournament. Every games were of 60 overs a side, and there were no day/night matches.

Participants
Eight teams qualified for the final tournament (seven full ICC members, including recently appointed full member Sri Lanka, and Zimbabwe, who qualified by winning the 1982 ICC Trophy).

Group stage
Unlike in previous Cricket World Cups, the group stages were played in a double round robin format. Group A comprised the hosts England, Pakistan, New Zealand and Sri Lanka; while Group B contained reigning champions West Indies, India, Australia, and the sole qualifier Zimbabwe. Unlike in later World Cups, with formats designed such that all games could be screened live on television, matches took place simultaneously at multiple venues, with matches played every other day and a reserve day in case of rain, although only three of the matches required a second day.

In Group A, England started strongly with a 106 run victory over New Zealand at The Oval, scoring an imposing 322/6 in their innings, driven by a partnership of 115 in 16 overs between Allan Lamb and Mike Gatting. Pakistan also started with a win, by 50 runs over Sri Lanka, despite being hampered throughout the tournament by Imran Khan being unfit to bowl, after scoring 338/5 in 60 overs. England's second group match brought a second win, as David Gower's 130, including five sixes and 12 fours, powered a 47 run win over Sri Lanka. Meanwhile, New Zealand beat Pakistan by 52 runs despite Abdul Qadir's 4/21 in 12 overs. England then beat Pakistan by 8 wickets with nearly ten overs to spare at Lord's, while Richard Hadlee's 5/25 saw Sri Lanka bowled out for 206, New Zealand getting home with over 20 overs to spare. England's only defeat of the group stages came in the fourth round of matches, against New Zealand, off the penultimate ball of the New Zealand innings. Pakistan triumphed over Sri Lanka, once again led by Abdul Qadir (5/44).

The fifth round of matches on 18 June saw England seal their place in the semi-final, with a first wicket partnership of 115 between Graeme Fowler and Chris Tavaré alone scoring nearly half of Pakistan's 232. Meanwhile, New Zealand failed to secure passage to the knockout stage, losing to Sri Lanka in a low scoring affair. In the final round of matches, England beat Sri Lanka by 9 wickets in a match with no implications for the final table. The match between New Zealand and Pakistan would decide the second qualifier. Any win by New Zealand would be sufficient to see them qualify; Pakistan had not only to win, but do so by a sufficient margin to overhaul New Zealand's average run rate. An 11 run victory for Pakistan proved sufficient, as Zaheer Abbas made an unbeaten 103 before New Zealand were bowled out.

Group B started with the first shock of the tournament, as Zimbabwe beat Australia in what Wisden described as "a bigger surprise than any in the previous two world cups". Duncan Fletcher led the way, making 69* and being awarded man of the match. In the other opening Group B match, India delivered another "shocker" as they beat the holders West Indies by 34 runs, bowling them out for 228 with 47 balls to spare – the first defeat suffered by the West Indies in a World Cup as they had dominated both the 1975 and` 1979 tournaments without losing a single match in either tournament. Wet weather in the second round of games played on 11 June led to low scores. West Indies scored 252/9 in their innings, which stretched over two days, against Australia; in response, Australia were bowled out for 151 in just 30.3 overs, an effort not helped by Graeme Wood being taken to hospital with severe concussion after being hit by Michael Holding. India comfortably beat Zimbabwe by 5 wickets in the contemporaneous fixture. Two days later, Australia defeated India by 162 runs, with man of the match Trevor Chappell scoring 110 off 131 balls and Ken MacLeay taking 6/39. The other match that day was also a one-sided affair, as West Indies restricted Zimbabwe to just 217/7 in their 60 overs, despite Duncan Fletcher scoring another unbeaten half century, and then romped home with a partnership of 195 for the third wicket between Gordon Greenidge and Larry Gomes.

In the first of the return fixtures, West Indies overcame India by 66 runs, with Viv Richards making 119; for the second time in the tournament, an opposing batsman retired hurt, as Dilip Vengsarkar was the unlucky batsman on this occasion, hit in the mouth by Malcolm Marshall. Australia beat Zimbabwe by 32 runs to level their account in the tournament. The India v Zimbabwe match on 18 June was described by Wisden as "a remarkable match [which] contained one of the most spectacular innings played in this form of cricket", as Kapil Dev coming in to bat with India at 9/4 that soon became 17/5, went on to score 175 not out from India's score of 266/8, which Zimbabwe narrowly failed to chase down, India winning by 31 runs. West Indies qualified for the semi-finals with a match to spare, beating Australia by 7 wickets substantially due to a partnership of 124 for the second wicket between Greenidge and Richards. That left West Indies versus Zimbabwe as a dead rubber, and West Indies duly won by ten wickets with nearly fifteen overs to spare. The final group B match was a straightforward tussle for qualification between Australia and India. However, after India had made 247 all out, in a team effort where the highest score was 40 and there were 37 extras, Australia collapsed to 129 all out, with Madan Lal and Roger Binny taking four wickets each.

Semi-finals
In the first semi-final, at Old Trafford on 22 June, England won the toss and elected to bat. The English batsmen mistimed many balls and used the bat's edge frequently, as the restrictive Indian bowling led England to score 213 (all out, 60 overs). Graeme Fowler (33 from 59 balls, 3 fours) top scored, and Kapil Dev took 3 for 35 in eleven overs, with Mohinder Amarnath and Roger Binny taking two wickets each. In reply, Yashpal Sharma (61 from 115 balls, 3 fours, 2 sixes) and Sandeep Patil (51 from 32 balls, 8 fours) made half-centuries, as India reached their target in 54.4 overs, winning by 6 wickets in a classic victory over the previous tournament's runners-up. Mohinder Amarnath (46 from 92 balls, 4 fours, 1 six) picked up the man-of-the-match award for his all round performance, which saw him add 46 runs to his earlier bowling success (2/27 in 12 overs).

The second semi-final, between Pakistan and the West Indies, was staged at The Oval on the same day. West Indies won the toss and invited Pakistan to bat, whom they restricted to just 184 (8 wickets, 60 overs). Mohsin Khan (70 from 176 balls, 1 four) fought his way past 50 against the formidable West Indies bowling attack (he was the only Pakistani batsman to reach 50). Malcolm Marshall (3/28) and Andy Roberts (2/25) starred with the ball. The West Indies innings was based around a superb innings by Viv Richards (80 from 96 balls, 11 fours, 1 six), who took the man-of-the-match award, and an unbeaten half-century by Larry Gomes (50 from 100 balls, 3 fours), as the defending champions reached their target for the loss of just two wickets.

Final
In the final, India lost the toss and were asked to bat first against the West Indies. Only Krishnamachari Srikkanth (38 from 57 balls) and Mohinder Amarnath (26 from 80 balls) put up any significant resistance as Roberts, Marshall, Joel Garner and Michael Holding ripped through the Indian batsmen, ably supported by Gomes. Surprising resistance by the tail allowed India to compile 183 (all out, 54.4 overs). Sandeep Patil and Madan Lal saved the game to get the team past the 150-run mark at a critical point in the match where India scored 183 runs. Without those two batsmen, India's score would have been lower. The Indian bowling exploited the weather and pitch conditions perfectly to bowl out the West Indies for 140 from 52 overs, winning by 43 runs and completing one of the most stunning upsets in cricket history. It still remains the lowest ever total successfully defended in a World Cup final. Amarnath and Madan Lal each took three wickets. Viv Richards, was West Indies' top scorer with 33 from 28 balls. Kant was the most economical bowler, conceding 0 runs from his two overs. Amarnath was once again awarded the Man of the Match award for his all-round performance. There was no 'Man of the Series' awarded in 1983.

Statistics

 * Source: ESPNcricinfo

 * Source: ESPNcricinfo

In popular culture

 * The 2021 Indian biographical film 83 portrays Team India's triumph in the World Cup. Indian actor Ranveer Singh played the role of India captain Kapil Dev in the film.
 * 1983 is a 2014 Indian Malayalam language film that has the core of its story based on the 1983 Cricket World Cup. It centres on Rameshan, played by Nivin Pauly, and his memories from 1983, when India won its first World Cup under Kapil Dev.

title: 1983 Cricket World Cup