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Runway

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, taxiways and ramps, are sometimes referred to as "tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac. Takeoff and landing areas defined on the surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways. Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly used.

History
In 1916, in a World War I war effort context, the first concrete-paved runway was built in Clermont-Ferrand in France, allowing local company Michelin to manufacture Bréguet Aviation military aircraft.

In January 1919, aviation pioneer Orville Wright underlined the need for "distinctly marked and carefully prepared landing places, [but] the preparing of the surface of reasonably flat ground [is] an expensive undertaking [and] there would also be a continuous expense for the upkeep."

Headings
For fixed-wing aircraft, it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind. Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways. Wind direction is given as the direction the wind is coming from: a plane taking off from runway 09 faces east, into an "east wind" blowing from 090°.

Originally in the 1920s and 1930s, airports and air bases (particularly in the United Kingdom) were built in a triangle-like pattern of three runways at 60° angles to each other. The reason was that aviation was only starting, and although it was known that wind affected the runway distance required, not much was known about wind behaviour. As a result, three runways in a triangle-like pattern were built, and the runway with the heaviest traffic would eventually expand into the airport's main runway, while the other two runways would be either abandoned or converted into taxiways.

Naming

Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the local magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane is heading around 90° (east). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each direction separately: e.g., "runway 15" in one direction is "runway 33" when used in the other. The two numbers differ by 18 (= 180°). For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually: runway one-five, runway three-three, etc. (instead of "fifteen" or "thirty-three").

A leading zero, for example in "runway zero-six" or "runway zero-one-left", is included for all ICAO and some U.S. military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base). However, most U.S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield. This American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04, and the pilot read back the clearance as runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05.

Military airbases may include smaller paved runways known as "assault strips" for practice and training next to larger primary runways. These strips eschew the standard numerical naming convention and instead employ the runway's full three digit heading; examples include Dobbins Air Reserve Base's Runway 110/290	and Duke Field's Runway 180/360.

Runways with non-hard surfaces, such as small turf airfields and waterways for seaplanes, may use the standard numerical scheme or may use traditional compass point naming, examples include Ketchikan Harbor Seaplane Base's Waterway E/W. Airports with unpredictable or chaotic water currents, such as Santa Catalina Island's Pebbly Beach Seaplane Base, may designate their landing area as Waterway ALL/WAY to denote the lack of designated landing direction.

Letter suffix

If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending left (L), center (C) and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L), one-five-center (15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-one-right (21R) when used in the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180° difference when approaching from the opposite direction). In some countries, regulations mandate that where parallel runways are too close to each other, only one may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse weather).

At large airports with four or more parallel runways (for example, at Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta, Denver, Dallas–Fort Worth and Orlando), some runway identifiers are shifted by 1 to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all four runways are actually parallel at approximately 69°. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a heading of 175.4°. Occasionally, an airport with only three parallel runways may use different runway identifiers, such as when a third parallel runway was opened at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in 2000 to the south of existing 8R/26L—rather than confusingly becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was instead designated 7R/25L, with the former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and 8L/26R becoming 8/26.

Suffixes may also be used to denote special use runways. Airports that have seaplane waterways may choose to denote the waterway on charts with the suffix W; such as Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu and Lake Hood Seaplane Base in Anchorage. Small airports that host various forms of air traffic may employ additional suffixes to denote special runway types based on the type of aircraft expected to use them, including STOL aircraft (S), gliders (G), rotorcraft (H), and ultralights (U). Runways that are numbered relative to true north rather than magnetic north will use the suffix T; this is advantageous for certain airfields in the far north such as Thule Air Base (08T/26T).

Renumbering
Runway designations may change over time because Earth's magnetic lines slowly drift on the surface and the magnetic direction changes. Depending on the airport location and how much drift occurs, it may be necessary to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10°, this affects some runways sooner than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233°, it is designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changes downwards by 5 degrees to 228°, the runway remains Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226° (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224°, the runway becomes Runway 22. Because magnetic drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When a runway designation does change, especially at major airports, it is often done at night, because taxiway signs need to be changed and the numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in the United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night.

Declared distances
Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m long and 8 m wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5500 m long and 80 m wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets, to the huge 11917 x lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – developed as a landing site for the Space Shuttle.

Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms:

 * Takeoff Run Available (TORA) – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.
 * Takeoff Run Available (TORA) – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.

 * Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if clearway is provided. (The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

 * Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.

 * Landing Distance Available (LDA) – The length of runway that is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.

 * Emergency Distance Available (EMDA) – LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.

Sections
There are standards for runway markings.

 * The runway thresholds are markings across the runway that denote the beginning and end of the designated space for landing and takeoff under non-emergency conditions.
 * The runway safety area is the cleared, smoothed and graded area around the paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft.
 * The runway is the surface from threshold to threshold (including displaced thresholds), which typically features threshold markings, numbers, and centerlines, but excludes blast pads and stopways at both ends.
 * Blast pads are often constructed just before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planes during the takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway.
 * Stopways, also known as overrun areas, are also constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to stop planes that overrun the runway on landing or a rejected takeoff.
 * Blast pads and stopways look similar, and are both marked with yellow chevrons; stopways may optionally be surrounded by red runway lights. The differences are that stopways can support the full weight of an aircraft and are designated for use in an aborted takeoff, while blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface of the runway and are not to be used for taxiing, landing, or aborted takeoffs. An engineered materials arrestor system (EMAS) may also be present, which may overlap with the end of the blast pad or stopway and is painted similarly (although an EMAS does not count as part of a stopway).
 * Displaced thresholds may be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout, but not for touchdown. A displaced threshold often exists because of obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions making the beginning section of runway unsuitable for landings. It is marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the beginning of the landing portion of the runway. As with blast pads, landings on displaced thresholds are not permitted aside from emergency use or exigent circumstance.
 * Relocated thresholds are similar to displaced thresholds. They are used to mark a portion of the runway temporarily closed due to construction or runway maintenance. This closed portion of the runway is not available for use by aircraft for takeoff or landing, but it is available for taxi. While methods for identifying the relocated threshold vary, a common way for the relocated threshold to be marked is a ten-foot-wide white bar across the width of the runway.
 * Clearway is an area beyond the paved runway, aligned with the runway centerline and under the control of the airport authorities. This area is not less than 500 ft and there are no protruding obstacles except for threshold lights provided they are not higher than 26 inches. There is a limit on the upslope of the clearway of 1.25%. The length of the clearway may be included in the length of the takeoff distance available. For example, if a paved runway is 2000 m long and there are 400 m of clearway beyond the end of the runway, the takeoff distance available is 2400 m long. When the runway is to be used for takeoff of a large airplane, the maximum permissible takeoff weight of the airplane can be based on the takeoff distance available, including clearway.  Clearway allows large airplanes to take off at a heavier weight than would be allowed if only the length of the paved runway is taken into account.

Markings
There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the remaining distance of the runway in thousands of feet. For example, a 7 will indicate 7000 ft remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

 * Visual runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass, gravel, ice, asphalt, or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual runway, they may have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines. Additionally, they do not provide an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio communication may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.
 * Non-precision instrument runways are often used at small- to medium-size airports. These runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with threshold markings, designators, centerlines, and sometimes a 1000 ft mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes installed at 1500 ft). While centerlines provide horizontal position guidance, aiming point markers provide vertical position guidance to planes on visual approach.
 * Precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-size airports, consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets), threshold, designator, centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft, 1000 ft/1500 ft, 2000 ft, 2500 ft, and 3000 ft touchdown zone marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal and vertical guidance for instrument approaches.

Waterways may be unmarked or marked with buoys that follow maritime notation instead.

For runways and taxiways that are permanently closed, the lighting circuits are disconnected. The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow "Xs" are placed at each end of the runway and at 1000 ft intervals.

National variants

 * In Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, as well as some other countries or territories (Hong Kong and Macau) all 3-stripe and 2-stripe touchdown zones for precision runways are replaced with one-stripe touchdown zones.
 * In some South American countries like Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, one 3-stripe is added and a 2-stripe is replaced with the aiming point.
 * Some European countries replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe touchdown zone.
 * Runways in Norway have yellow markings instead of the usual white ones. This also occurs in some airports in Japan, Sweden, and Finland. The yellow markings are used to ensure better contrast against snow.
 * Runways may have different types of equipment on each end. To reduce costs, many airports do not install precision guidance equipment on both ends. Runways with one precision end and any other type of end can install the full set of touchdown zones, even if some are past the midpoint. Runways with precision markings on both ends omit touchdown zones within 900 ft of the midpoint, to avoid ambiguity over the end with which the zone is associated.

Lighting

A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path.

Technical specifications

Runway lighting is used at airports during periods of darkness and low visibility. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A runway may have some or all of the following:
 * Runway end identifier lights (REIL) – unidirectional (facing approach direction) or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed at the runway threshold, one on each side.
 * Runway end lights – a pair of four lights on each side of the runway on precision instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width of the runway. These lights show green when viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway.
 * Runway edge lights – white elevated lights that run the length of the runway on either side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes amber in the last 2000 ft of the runway, or last third of the runway, whichever is less. Taxiways are differentiated by being bordered by blue lights, or by having green center lights, depending on the width of the taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi pattern.
 * Runway centerline lighting system (RCLS) – lights embedded into the surface of the runway at 50 ft intervals along the runway centerline on some precision instrument runways. White except the last 900 m: alternate white and red for next 600 m and red for last 300 m.
 * Touchdown zone lights (TDZL ) – rows of white light bars (with three in each row) at 30 or intervals on either side of the centerline for 900 m.
 * Taxiway centerline lead-off lights – installed along lead-off markings, alternate green and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It starts with green light at about the runway centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond the Hold-Short markings on the taxiway.
 * Taxiway centerline lead-on lights – installed the same way as taxiway centerline lead-off Lights, but directing airplane traffic in the opposite direction.
 * Land and hold short lights – a row of white pulsating lights installed across the runway to indicate hold short position on some runways that are facilitating land and hold short operations (LAHSO).
 * Approach lighting system (ALS) – a lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end.

According to Transport Canada's regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 mi. Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, runway status lights, is currently being tested in the United States.

The edge lights must be arranged such that:
 * the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft, and maximum is 200 ft
 * the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft
 * the minimum length of parallel lines is 1400 ft
 * the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.

Control of lighting system
Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower, a flight service station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with pilot-controlled lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than a windsock beside a landing strip.

Safety
Types of runway safety incidents include:
 * Runway excursion – an incident involving only a single aircraft, where it makes an inappropriate exit from the runway (e.g. Thai Airways Flight 679).
 * Runway overrun (also known as an overshoot) – a type of excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the runway (e.g. Air France Flight 358, TAM Airlines Flight 3054, Air India Express Flight 812).
 * Runway incursion – an incident involving incorrect presence of a vehicle, person or another aircraft on the runway (e.g. Aeroflot Flight 3352, Scandinavian Airlines Flight 686).
 * Runway confusion – an aircraft makes use of the wrong runway for landing or takeoff (e.g. Singapore Airlines Flight 006, Western Airlines Flight 2605).
 * Runway undershoot – an aircraft that lands short of the runway (e.g. British Airways Flight 38, Asiana Airlines Flight 214).

Surface
The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete. Although certain airports have used reinforcement in concrete pavements, this is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphalt concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on a periodic basis. Fields with very low traffic of light planes may use a sod surface. Some runways make use of salt flats.

For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 to 48 in, including subgrade.

Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value. Experience has shown that the K values on which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.

The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were made by a mixture of these two design theories. A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area.

Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.

Pavement surface

Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tyres. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA, or other aviation authority friction levels.

Pavement subsurface drainage and underdrains
Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches 18 in wide and 48 in deep from the top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube (15 cm in diameter) is placed at the bottom of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure.

Surface type codes

In aviation charts, the surface type is usually abbreviated to a three-letter code.

The most common hard surface types are asphalt and concrete. The most common soft surface types are grass and gravel.

Length
A runway of at least 1800 m in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 100,000 kg. Larger aircraft including widebodies will usually require at least 2400 m at sea level. International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 3200 m or more and takeoff requirements of 4000 m. The Boeing 747 is considered to have the longest takeoff distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger international airports.

At sea level, 3200 m can be considered an adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International Airport, when landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and 10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it is routine for arrivals from East Asia, which would normally be vectored for 4L/22R (2300 m) or 9R/27L (2400 m) to request 28R (4000 m). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to 3500 m to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off. These distances are also influenced by the runway grade (slope) such that, for example, each 1 percent of runway down slope increases the landing distance by 10 percent.

An aircraft taking off at a higher altitude must do so at reduced weight due to decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces engine power and wing lift. An aircraft must also take off at a reduced weight in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing the adjustments required for a given temperature.

In India, recommendations of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) are now followed more often. For landing, only altitude correction is done for runway length whereas for take-off, all types of correction are taken into consideration.

title: Runway


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Talk:Timecode

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title: Talk:Timecode


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Takeoff

Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle leaves the ground and becomes airborne. For aircraft traveling vertically, this is known as liftoff.

For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition from moving along the ground on a runway. For balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed-wing aircraft (VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier and the Bell Boeing V22 Osprey), no runway is needed.

Power settings
For light aircraft, usually full power is used during takeoff. Large transport category (airliner) aircraft may use a reduced power for takeoff, where less than full power is applied in order to prolong engine life, reduce maintenance costs and reduce noise emissions. In some emergency cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the aircraft's performance. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed (often referred to as Vr). The term rotation is used because the aircraft pivots around the axis of its main landing gear while still on the ground, usually because of gentle manipulation of the flight controls to make or facilitate this change in aircraft attitude (once proper air displacement occurs under / over the wings, an aircraft will lift off on its own; controls are to ease that in).

The nose is raised to a nominal 5°–15° nose up pitch attitude to increase lift from the wings and effect liftoff. For most aircraft, attempting a takeoff without a pitch-up would require cruise speeds while still on the runway. Fixed-wing aircraft designed for high-speed operation (such as commercial jet aircraft) have difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during takeoff. These are therefore fitted with high-lift devices, often including slats and usually flaps, which increase the camber and often area of the wing, making it more effective at low speed, thus creating more lift. These are deployed from the wing before takeoff, and retracted during the climb. They can also be deployed at other times, such as before landing.

Required speeds
The takeoff speed required varies with aircraft weight and aircraft configuration (flap or slat position, as applicable), and is provided to the flight crew as indicated airspeed.

Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-speeds: V1, VR and V2. These speeds are determined not only by the above factors affecting takeoff performance, but also by the length and slope of the runway and any peculiar conditions, such as obstacles off the end of the runway. Below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted; above V1 the pilot continues the takeoff and returns for landing. After the co-pilot calls V1, they will call VR or "rotate," marking speed at which to rotate the aircraft. The VR for transport category aircraft is calculated such as to allow the aircraft to reach the regulatory screen height at V2 with one engine failed. Then, V2 (the safe takeoff speed) is called. This speed must be maintained after an engine failure to meet performance targets for rate of climb and angle of climb.

In a single-engine or light twin-engine aircraft, the pilot calculates the length of runway required to take off and clear any obstacles, to ensure sufficient runway to use for takeoff. A safety margin can be added to provide the option to stop on the runway in case of a rejected takeoff. In most such aircraft, any engine failure results in a rejected takeoff as a matter of course, since even overrunning the end of the runway is preferable to lifting off with insufficient power to maintain flight.

If an obstacle needs to be cleared, the pilot climbs at the speed for maximum climb angle (Vx), which results in the greatest altitude gain per unit of horizontal distance travelled. If no obstacle needs to be cleared, or after an obstacle is cleared, the pilot can accelerate to the best rate of climb speed (Vy), where the aircraft will gain the most altitude in the least amount of time. Generally speaking, Vx is a lower speed than Vy, and requires a higher pitch attitude to achieve.

The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air (indicated airspeed). A headwind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the range of 240–285 km/h. Light aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, take off at around 100 km/h. Ultralights have even lower takeoff speeds. For a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually dependent on the aircraft weight; the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft are specifically designed for short takeoff and landing (STOL), which they achieve by becoming airborne at very low speeds.

Assistance
Assisted takeoff is any system for helping aircraft into the air (as opposed to strictly under its own power). The reason it might be needed is due to the aircraft's weight exceeding the normal maximum takeoff weight, insufficient power, or the available runway length may be insufficient, or a hot and high airfield, or a combination of all four factors. Assisted takeoff is also required for gliders, which do not have an engine and so are unable to take off by themselves. Hence assisted takeoff is required.

Vertical
Vertical takeoff refers to aircraft or rockets that take off in a vertical trajectory. Vertical takeoff eliminates the need for airfields. Most vertical take off aircraft are also able to land horizontally, but there were certain rocket-powered aircraft of the Luftwaffe that only took off vertically, landing in other ways. The Bachem Ba 349 Natter landed under a parachute after having taken off vertically. Other late projects developed in Nazi Germany, such as the Heinkel P.1077 Julia or the Focke-Wulf Volksjäger 2, climbed to their ceiling at a nearly vertical angle and landed later on a skid.

VTOL
Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft include fixed-wing aircraft that can hover, take off and land vertically as well as helicopters and other aircraft with powered rotors, such as tiltrotors. Some VTOL aircraft can operate in other modes as well, such as CTOL (conventional take-off and landing), STOL (short take-off and landing), and/or STOVL (short take-off and vertical landing). Others, such as some helicopters, can only operate by VTOL, due to the aircraft lacking landing gear that can handle horizontal motion. VTOL is a subset of V/STOL (vertical and/or short take-off and landing).

Besides the helicopter, there are two types of VTOL aircraft in military service: craft using a tiltrotor, such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, and some aircraft using directed jet thrust such as the Harrier family.

Rocket launch
The takeoff phase of the flight of a rocket is called "rocket launch". Launches for orbital spaceflights, or launches into interplanetary space, are usually from a fixed location on the ground, but may also be from a floating platform such as the San Marco platform, or the Sea Launch launch vessel.

title: Takeoff


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Climb (aeronautics)

In aviation, a climb or ascent is the operation of increasing the altitude of an aircraft. It is also the logical phase of a typical flight (the climb phase or climbout) following takeoff and preceding the cruise. During the climb phase there is an increase in altitude to a predetermined level. The opposite of a climb is a descent.

Climb operation
A steady climb is carried out by using excess thrust, the amount by which the thrust from the power plant exceeds the drag on the aircraft. The aircraft will climb steadily until the excess thrust falls to zero. Excess thrust might fall to zero as a result of the pilot's deliberate action in control of the output of the engines, or as the engines' response to reducing air density.

Climb phase
The climb phase, also known as climb-out or initial climb, is the period during which the aircraft climbs to a predetermined cruising altitude after take-off. The climb phase immediately follows take-off and precedes the cruise phase of the flight. Although a single climb phase is typical, multiple climb phases may alternate with cruise phases, particularly for very long flights in which altitude is increased as the weight of fuel aboard decreases (see step climb).

As the climb progresses, the rate of climb decreases as thrust reduces due to reducing air density. A gradual climb improves forward visibility over the nose of the aircraft.

Aircraft also climb when flying in a zone of rising air, but since such zones are unpredictable and inconveniently located, and since most are poorly adapted to passive climbs of this type, only gliders attempt such climbs on a regular basis.

Normal climb
In some jurisdictions and under some conditions, normal climbs are defined by regulations or procedures, and are used to develop airway systems, airspaces, and instrument procedures. Normal climbs are simply standardized climb rates achievable by most aircraft under most conditions that are used as conservative guidelines when developing procedures or structures that are partially a function of such rates. For example, a normal climb of 20 meters per km (120 feet per nautical mile) might be assumed during the development of a navigational procedure or while defining airspace limits in airport terminal areas.

title: Climb (aeronautics)


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Aschaffenburg

Aschaffenburg (South Franconian: Aschebersch) is a town in northwest Bavaria, Germany. The town of Aschaffenburg is not part of the district of Aschaffenburg, but is its administrative seat.

Aschaffenburg belonged to the Archbishopric of Mainz for more than 800 years. The town is located at the westernmost border of Lower Franconia and separated from the central and eastern part of the Regierungsbezirk (administrative region) by the Spessart hills, whereas it opens towards the Rhine-Main plain in the west and north-west. Therefore, the inhabitants speak neither Bavarian nor East Franconian but rather a local version of Rhine Franconian.

Location
The town is located on both sides of the Main in north-west Bavaria, bordering to Hesse. On a federal scale it is part of central Germany, just 41 km southeast of Frankfurt am Main. In the western part of the municipality, the smaller Aschaff flows into the Main. The region is also known as Bayerischer Untermain ("Bavarian Lower Main").

Climate
The climate is continental, typically with warm, dry summers and cold, damp winters. Aschaffenburg usually receives less snowfall during the winter than the nearby Spessart.

Subdivision

Aschaffenburg comprises 10 Stadtteile:

 * Damm
 * Gailbach
 * Leider
 * Nilkheim
 * Obernau
 * Obernauer Kolonie (Obernauer Colony)
 * Österreicher Kolonie (Austrian Colony)
 * Schweinheim
 * Stadtmitte (town center)
 * Strietwald

Nilkheim and Leider are the only Stadtteile which are located on the left bank of the river Main.

Neighbouring communities
The following municipalities border Aschaffenburg (clockwise, from the north): Johannesberg, Glattbach, Goldbach, Haibach, Bessenbach, Sulzbach am Main, Niedernberg, Großostheim, Stockstadt am Main and Mainaschaff.

Etymology
The name Aschaffenburg (Ascaffaburc, Ascapha or Ascaphaburg in the Middle Ages) originally meant "castle at the ash tree river" deriving from the river Aschaff that runs through parts of the town.

Pre-history to Middle Ages

The earliest remains of settlements in the area of Aschaffenburg date from the Stone Age.

Aschaffenburg was originally a settlement of the Alamanni. Roman legions were stationed here. In c. 700 AD, the Ravenna Cosmography names two settlements in region: Uburzis (Würzburg) and Ascapha (Aschaffenburg).

Around 550, the area had been conquered by the Franks, and their Hausmeier built a castle here. In the 8th century, a Benedictine monastery was founded, dedicated to St. Michael, reportedly by Saint Boniface. This became the Kollegiatstift St. Peter und Alexander in the second half of the 10th century (957). In 869, King Louis the Younger married Liutgard of Saxony at Aschaffenburg. She also died here in 885 and was later laid to rest with her daughter Hildegard in the Stiftskirche. Ascaffinburg is mentioned first in 974 in a gift document by Otto II, in which he gave several villages including Wertheim am Main and a stretch of forest in the Spessart to the collegiate church.

In the Middle Ages the town was known as Ascaffaburc, Ascapha or Ascaphaburg. A stone bridge over the Main was reportedly built by Archbishop Willigis in 989, who also made the town his second residence. The town (referred to in 975 as a civitas) was part of the Archbishopric of Mainz from 982, when Duke Otto died. A Vizedom is mentioned for the first time in 1122 as the top local representative of the Archbishop. In 1292 a synod was held here, and in 1447 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of Vienna, approved a concordat (sometimes called the Aschaffenburg Concordat). In the German Peasants' War (1525), the town backed the losing side.

Modern times through 19th century
In 1552, the late-Gothic castle of Johannisburg was destroyed. It was replaced in 1605-14 by the Renaissance Schloss Johannisburg. The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War, being held in turn by the various belligerents. During the Battle of Dettingen (1743), which took place to the north, the town was occupied by French troops. It formed part of the electorate of the Archbishop of Mainz, and in 1803 was made over to Archbishop Karl Theodor von Dalberg as the Principality of Aschaffenburg.

Aschaffenburg was the site of the "" (Königlich Bayerische Centralforstlehranstalt), established in 1807, "made famous by the researches of Professor Dr Ernst Ebermayer." The academy was "dissolved in 1832, but re-organized under the Ministry of Finance in 1874"; and, as "of 30th March, 1874, united to the University of Munich."

In 1810, the Principality of Aschaffenburg was merged into the new Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, although Dalberg retained Aschaffenburg as his residence. In 1814 the town was transferred to the Kingdom of Bavaria by an Austrian-Bavarian treaty. In 1817 it was included within Bavarian Lower Franconia. From 1840 to 1848, King Ludwig I of Bavaria had a Roman villa built to the west of town. It was named Pompejanum after its model, the house of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii.

During the Austro-Prussian War, the Prussian Army inflicted a severe defeat on the Grand Duchy of Hesse near Aschaffenburg in the Battle of Frohnhofen on 13 July 1866.

World War II
In World War II, Aschaffenburg was heavily damaged by Allied area bombing, including Schloss Johannisburg which was completely restored several years later. The German military chose to strongly defend Aschaffenburg during the last weeks of the war, which resulted in the "Battle of Aschaffenburg" fought 28 March – 3 April 1945. The U.S. 45th Infantry Division was forced to take the fortified town against stiff German resistance in a series of frontal assaults that involved house-to-house fighting and vicious close combat. The resulting widespread urban destruction was quite severe, as cannon fire was used point-blank to blast through structures.

Aschaffenburg displaced persons camps
At the end of World War II the United States Army occupied military facilities formerly used and controlled by the Wehrmacht. These were converted for use by U.S. military personnel as processing centres for displaced persons at the end of the war. From 1945 7,000 Ukrainians were accommodated in four displaced persons camps:

 * Artillerie Kaserne — approx. 2,000 people (1945–1949)
 * Bois Brulé Kaserne — 1,500 people (1946–1949)
 * LaGarde Kaserne — 1,700 people (1945–1949)
 * Pionier Kaserne — 2,000 people (1946–1949)

Two other camps, Alte (old) Kaserne and Jäger Kaserne housed mainly Poles and Lithuanians.

Post-war development
In the decades following the war, Aschaffenburg and the surrounding region experienced robust economic prosperity, partially due to its close proximity to Frankfurt am Main.

According to an online 2002 survey in Stern magazine, [Stern 14/2002], 82 percent of residents living in the Bayerischer Untermain region where Aschaffenburg is located were satisfied with the place where they lived. This was the highest level recorded in the survey, making the region the #1 place to live in Germany, based on several factors including employment opportunities in the region, educational facilities, public services, transportation, recreational options, shopping, cultural facilities/events, climate, etc.

Another survey taken in 2006 by McKinsey, Stern magazine, ZDF, and web.de again showed that Aschaffenburg has one of the highest ratings for quality of life in Germany.

U.S. military presence (1945–2007)
Aschaffenburg was the location of several United States Army installations throughout the Cold War. After initially taking over the administration of the ex-Wehrmacht installations, which were then used as displaced persons camps, the American presence in the Aschaffenburg military community began after general renovations in 1948. The installation sites were known as Ready Kaserne (previously Artillerie Kaserne), Smith Kaserne (previously LaGarde Kaserne), Graves Kaserne (previously Bois Brulé Kaserne), Fiori Kaserne (previously Pionier Kaserne), and Jaeger Kaserne (previously Jäger Kaserne). These housed armour, infantry, engineer, maintenance and artillery elements of the U.S. Army 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and various VII Corps elements including the 9th Engineer Battalion, the 3rd Bn 21st Field Artillery (Honest John), and the 1st Bn 80th Field Artillery (LANCE). Much of the U.S. Army presence in Aschaffenburg ended in 1992 with the ending of the Cold War. The last buildings, which were primarily used for housing, were handed back to the local government in 2007.

Lord Mayors

 * Wilhelm Matt (1872–1936) (BVP) (1904–1933)
 * Wilhelm Wohlgemuth (1900–1978) (NSDAP) (1933–1945)
 * Jean Stock (1893–1965) (SPD) (1945)
 * Vinzenz Schwind (1910–1974) (1945–1970)
 * Willi Reiland (1933–2015) (SPD) (1970–2000)
 * Klaus Herzog (born 1951) (SPD) (2000–2020)
 * Jürgen Herzing (born 1960) (SPD) (since 2020)

Economy
In 2017 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €69,928. This places the district 9th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria (overall average: €46,698).

Well-known companies in Aschaffenburg are (e.g.):, Linde Hydraulics, Joyson Safety Systems (former Petri AG) and part of as well as DPDgroup.

Shopping
The City Galerie, opened in 1974 and located in the central part of the city, is the largest shopping mall in northern Bavaria. It was one of the first indoor shopping malls in Germany. Aschaffenburg also has a pedestrian shopping zone closed to motor vehicles, except for deliveries.

Politics
Aschaffenburg is part of the Aschaffenburg constituency for elections to the Bundestag.

Cultural events
Aschaffenburg hosts numerous festivals, fairs, exhibitions, markets and concerts throughout the year including the annual Stadtfest, held on the last weekend in August.

Theaters and entertainment venues

 * Colos-Saal, a live-music club
 * Erthaltheater
 * f.a.n. Frankenstolz Arena (formerly Unterfrankenhalle)
 * Kabarett im Hofgarten
 * Ludwigstheater
 * Stadthalle am Schloss
 * Stadttheater (town theater)
 * Zimmertheater.

Museums and galleries

 * Stiftsmuseum
 * Naturwissenschaftliches Museum Aschaffenburg
 * Gentilhaus
 * KunstLANDing
 * Städtische Galerie "Kunsthalle Jesuitenkirche"
 * Neuer Kunstverein Aschaffenburg
 * Künstlerhaus Walter Helm
 * Christian Schad Museum (opened in May 2018)

Archaeological Spessart Projekt
The Archeological Spessart Project is a registered association, whose mission is to research and communicate facts about the cultural landscape of the Spessart. The organisation works closely with various universities and research institutes in a variety of scientific projects.

Library and archive

 * Stadtbibliothek Aschaffenburg (Aschaffenburg town library)
 * Stadt- und Stiftsarchiv Aschaffenburg (Aschaffenburg town archive)

Cinemas

 * Kinopolis, a modern multiplex cinema
 * Casino

Recreation
A large recreational complex is located in the Stadtteil of Leider. It includes an indoor and outdoor swimming pool complex as well as an indoor ice rink and tennis courts, which are open to the general public. There's also a marina on the Main between the Willigis and Adenauer bridges.

Streetwear
The first Aschaffenburg Baseball Snapback was created by Tim Field in 2014.

Sights
The main sights of Aschaffenburg are the Schloss Johannisburg, built 1605–1614 by Archbishop Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg, which contains a library with a number of incunabula, a collection of engravings and paintings; the Pompejanum, a replica of a Roman town house discovered in Pompeii commissioned by King Ludwig I. and opened in 1850; the St. Peter und Alexander collegiate church, founded in the second half of the 10th century, but dating in the main from the early 12th century on, in which are preserved various monuments by the Vischers, a sarcophagus with the relics of Saint Margaret, and a painting by Matthias Grünewald; the Capuchin hospital; a theatre, which was formerly a house of the Teutonic Order; several mansions of the nobility; and the historical old town. Across the river are the Park and Schloss Schönbusch.

The graves of Clemens Brentano and his brother Christian Brentano (died 1851) and that of Wilhelm Heinse can be found in the Altstadtfriedhof (Old Town Cemetery).

Parks
Aschaffenburg has numerous parks including the following:

 * Schönbusch Park, located in Nilkheim
 * Schöntal Park, located in the town center
 * Aschaffenburger Schlossgarten, around Schloss Johannisburg
 * Kleine Schönbuschallee

Football
Viktoria Aschaffenburg is the primary football club. The club was formed on 24 June 1904 out of the merger of FC Aschaffenburg (6 August 1901) and FC Viktoria Aschaffenburg (12 April 1902). It was renamed Sportverein Viktoria 01 Aschaffenburg on 3 June 1906. Their homefield is Stadion am Schönbusch (Schönbusch stadium), a modern stadium located in Nilkheim.

American football
In 1991, the Aschaffenburg Stallions began playing American football at Schönbusch stadium. A cheerleader squad also exists.

Baseball and softball
Aschaffenburg is also home to the Aschaffenburg Mohawks Baseball and Softball team. The softball team won the 2010 German Championship. The adult baseball team won the 2011 Landesliga South Championship and will play in the highest league of the state Hessen in 2012.

Roads
Aschaffenburg is located on Bundesautobahn 3 between Frankfurt am Main and Würzburg. The southern terminus of Bundesautobahn 45 is located just west of the town. Bundesstrasse B 26 passes through the town. Bundestrasse B 8 used to pass through Aschaffenburg, but has now been rerouted along the Bundesautobahn 3. Three road bridges cross the river Main at Aschaffenburg: Friedrich Ebert Bridge (a new span opened in 2008), Willigis Bridge and Konrad Adenauer Bridge. In the 1980s, a road tunnel was constructed under the Schlossplatz to improve traffic flow through the Stadtmitte (town center).

After 43 years of planning and construction, the limited-access Innenstadtring or "inner-town-ring" road was completed in July 2013. It allows motorists to bypass the Stadtmitte (town center) and reduces traffic congestion in Aschaffenburg, which has been a problem in recent years. Another road project called Bahnparallele is currently under construction, with a small section already opened. It is located in the Stadtteil of Damm and runs parallel to the railway tracks.

Parking
There are approximately 7,500 parking spaces in the ten Stadtteile of Aschaffenburg and eight public parking garages.

Public transport
Aschaffenburg has a comprehensive bus network serving the town and surrounding region. The 15 main bus lines which serve the Stadtteile of Aschaffenburg are run by Stadtwerke Aschaffenburg. There are several other bus lines which link Aschaffenburg with the surrounding region. Those lines are run by other companies, including the Deutsche Bahn. A new regional bus terminal opened in 2008, adjacent to the Aschaffenburg Hauptbahnhof (main railway station). The Regionale Omnibusbahnhof Aschaffenburg (ROB) was built to consolidate all of the scattered bus stops in the area around the main railway station into one central location and reduce traffic congestion in the area.

Railway stations and stops
All passenger train service is provided by the Deutsche Bahn.
 * Aschaffenburg Hauptbahnhof/Aschaffenburg Central Station - The station has long-distance InterCityExpress and InterCity services as well as regional connections to neighboring towns and cities. A new, larger station building opened in 2011, replacing a smaller structure built in the 1950s.
 * Aschaffenburg-Hochschule/University of Applied Sciences - The stop, located near Würzburger Straße, opened in 2007 to accommodate students attending nearby schools. It is positioned between Aschaffenburg Hauptbahnhof and Aschaffenburg-Süd/South. There is only a single track platform.
 * Aschaffenburg-Süd/South
 * Obernau
 * Schönbusch-Nilkheim - The station closed when passenger service on the "Bachgaubahn" railway line ended in 1974.
 * Leider - Freight railway terminal close to Aschaffenburg's port on the Main. There is no passenger service.

Harbor
Aschaffenburg has an active port along the Main in the Stadtteil of Leider. There is railway access to the port. In 2005, 2.8 million tons of cargo passed through the port.

Airports
A small general aviation airport (Flugplatz Aschaffenburg, ICAO-Code: EDFC) is located in nearby Großostheim. Frankfurt Airport is located 46 km from Aschaffenburg and offers flights to destinations all over the world. The trip to and from the airport takes about 30 minutes by car or approximately 45 minutes by InterCityExpress train.

Medical
The three primary medical centers in Aschaffenburg are:
 * Klinikum Aschaffenburg, the main hospital
 * Hofgartenklinik
 * Frauenklinik am Ziegelberg

There are approximately 789 hospital beds, 159 doctors, 68 dentists and 38 pharmacies in the Stadtteile of Aschaffenburg.

Education
There are various types of schools in Aschaffenburg serving approximately 18,000 students from the town and surrounding region.

University
is a university of applied sciences (or Fachhochschule).

Printed media

 * Main-Echo, Aschaffenburg-based newspaper published daily except Sunday. This is the main newspaper for Aschaffenburg and the surrounding region. It was first published on 24 November 1945, replacing "Aschaffenburger Zeitung". It has a daily circulation of approximately 200,000 readers.
 * Prima Sonntag, newspaper published only on Sunday
 * FRIZZ Das Magazin, culture/scene magazine
 * Brot & Spiele, culture magazine
 * Szene Magazin

Radio and television

 * Radio Primavera
 * Radio Galaxy
 * Main.tv - Das Primavera Fernsehen, Aschaffenburg programming

Internet

 * www.main.tv - video-Website for Aschaffenburg (city and regional)
 * Kommweichei.com e.V., the community and party scene in Aschaffenburg
 * MainReporter.de - portal for Aschaffenburg (city and regional)
 * abscene.de | Newgae magazine
 * ABhörn, online Magazine
 * Main-netz.de, news and community information for the region

Before 1900

 * Daniel Brendel von Homburg (1523–1582), Archbishop of Mainz from 1555 to 1582
 * Martin Baldwin Kittel (1798–1885), professor of Aschaffenburg Hochschule from 1831 to 1871
 * Johann Joseph Scherer (1814–1869), chemist
 * Joseph von Lindwurm (1824–1874), physician and dermatologist
 * Lujo Brentano (1844–1931), economist and social reformer
 * Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck (1845–1904), electrical engineer
 * Joseph Anton Schneiderfranken (1876–1943), painter and author
 * Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938), expressionist painter and printmaker
 * Friedrich Dessauer (1881–1963), physicist, philosopher, socially engaged entrepreneur and journalist
 * Hans Schmidt (1881–1916), priest executed for murder in the United States
 * Alfons Maria Jakob (1884–1931), neurologist and neuropathologist
 * Otto Gentil (1892–1969), painter and sculptor

1900 to 1959

 * Hanns Seidel (1901–1961), politician and Bavarian prime minister from 1957 to 1960
 * Inge Viermetz (1908–1997), official and defendant at the Nuremberg Trials
 * Guido Dessauer (1915–2012), physicist, business executive, art collector, patron of arts and academic
 * Peter Gingold (1916–2006), figure in the German Resistance and the National Committee for a Free Germany
 * Wilfried Hofmann (1931–2020), diplomat and author
 * Adalbert Kraus (born 1937), tenor
 * Felix Magath (born 1953), football player and manager
 * Rudi Bommer (born 1957), football player and manager

From 1960

 * Urban Priol (born 1961), cabaret artist and comedian
 * Winfried Bausback (born 1965), politician
 * Burkard Schliessmann, classical pianist and concert artist
 * Christian Hock (born 1970), football player and manager
 * Carlos Boozer (born 1981), American basketball player
 * Sabine Englert (born 1981), handball player
 * Marcel Schäfer (born 1984), footballer
 * José Holebas (born 1984), Greek footballer
 * Demond Greene (born 1981), German basketballer
 * Markus Neumayr (born 1986), footballer
 * Ivo Iličević (born 1986), Croatian footballer
 * Daria Kinzer (born 1988), Austrian-Croatian singer who represented Croatia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2011
 * Patrick Amrhein (born 1989), footballer
 * Paul Hill (born 1995), English rugby union player

Notable residents

 * Willigis (940–1011), Archbishop of Mainz
 * Diether von Isenburg (1412–1482), Elector and Archbishop of Mainz
 * Dietrich Schenk von Erbach (?–1459), Archbishop of Mainz
 * Mathis Gothart-Nithart (c. 1475–1528), Renaissance painter of religious works
 * Wolfgang von Dalberg (1538–1601), Archbishop of Mainz
 * Johann Adam von Bicken (1564–1604), Archbishop of Mainz
 * Johann Schweikard von Kronberg (1553–1626), Archbishop of Mainz, commissioned the Schloss Johannisburg
 * Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal (1719–1802), prince-elector and archbishop of Mainz
 * Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg (1744–1817), Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, Arch-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince of Regensburg
 * Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse (1746–1803), author
 * Clemens Brentano (1778–1842), poet and novelist
 * Franz Bopp (1791–1867), linguist
 * Emil Erlenmeyer (1825–1909), chemist
 * Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915), psychiatrist and neuropathologist
 * Ludwig Thoma (1867–1921), author, publisher and editor, studied forestry in Aschaffenburg
 * Christian Schad (1894–1982), painter
 * (1895–1994), politician (CSU), unionist, member of Reichstag and Bundestag
 * Alfons Goppel (1905–1991), politician (CSU) and Prime Minister of Bavaria
 * Ernst Lehner (1912–1986), footballer
 * Guido Knopp (born 1948), journalist and author
 * Otto Becker (born 1958), show jumping champion

Twin towns – sister cities
Aschaffenburg is twinned with:
 * Perth, Scotland, United Kingdom (1956)
 * 🇫🇷 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France (1975)
 * 🇭🇺 Miskolc, Hungary (1996)

title: Aschaffenburg