text:
Eurovision Song Contest 1966

The Eurovision Song Contest 1966 was the 11th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, following the country's victory at the with the song "Poupée de cire, poupée de son" by France Gall. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion (CLT), the contest was held at the Villa Louvigny on 5 March 1966 and was hosted by Luxembourgish television presenter Josiane Chen.

Eighteen countries participated in the contest, the same that had competed the year before.

The winner was with the song "Merci, Chérie", performed and composed by Udo Jürgens, and written by Jürgens and Thomas Hörbiger. This was Udo Jürgens third consecutive entry in the contest, finally managing to score a victory for his native country Austria. Austria would not go on to win again until the edition. This was also the first winning song to be performed in German. The contest is also noted for its historic results for several countries. Austria who came first, who came second,  who came third and  who came fourth all achieved their best results up until then, some of which would stand for several decades. In contrast traditional Eurovision heavyweights such as, and  all achieved their worst result by far up till that point, with the general public in the aforementioned countries meeting these results with a degree of consternation.

The rule stating that a country could only sing in any of its national languages was originally created this year, possibly due to the 1965 edition's Swedish entry which was sung in English.

Location
The 1966 Eurovision Song Contest was hosted in Luxembourg City. The venue chosen to host the 1966 contest was the Villa Louvigny, which was also the venue for the edition. The building served as the headquarters of Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion, the forerunner of RTL Group. It is located in Municipal Park, in the Ville Haute quarter of the centre of the city.

Participating countries
All countries who had participated in the 1965 contest returned for a second consecutive year.

Format
A new change in rules was introduced this year, allowing music experts to be present in the juries again. 1966 also marked the year the first ever black singer graced the Eurovision stage, Milly Scott representing the. She was also the first singer to use a portable microphone.

This was one of the first contests in which an entry was not accompanied by an orchestra. The Italian entry "Dio, come ti amo" performed by Domenico Modugno had been rearranged since its performance at the Sanremo Music Festival and officially broke the EBU rule that stated the arrangement should be finalised well in advance. During the Saturday afternoon rehearsal Modugno performed the new arrangement with three of his own musicians as opposed to the orchestra, which went over the three-minute time limit. Following his rehearsal Modugno was confronted by the show's producers about exceeding the time limit and was asked to use the original arrangement with the orchestra. Modugno was so dissatisfied with the orchestra that he threatened to withdraw from the contest. Both the producers and EBU scrutineer Clifford Brown felt it was too short notice to fly Gigliola Cinquetti to Luxembourg to represent Italy, so the EBU gave in and allowed Modugno to use his own ensemble instead of the orchestra. Despite websites and the official programme listing Angelo Giacomazzi as the conductor, Giacomazzi actually played the piano for the entry.

During the voting process, the presenter (Josiane Shen) accidentally greeted United Kingdom by saying "Good night London". She then realized her mistake and said "Good evening, London". Michael Aspel, who was the spokesperson for the United Kingdom at the time, replied "Good morning, Luxembourg", prompting laughter from Josiane and the audience. Additionally, the Spanish spokesperson gave their results in reverse order, presenting the 5 points first, then 3 points second and then the 1 point third.

Spokespersons
Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1966 contest are listed below.

 * – Poppe Berg
 * – Camillo Felgen
 * – Herman Brouwer
 * – Edvard Matz
 * – Michael Aspel

5 points
Below is a summary of all 5 points in the final:

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers.

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below. In addition to the participating countries, the contest was also reportedly broadcast in Morocco, and in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union via Intervision.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1966


text:
SSDP

SSDP may refer to:

 * Simple Service Discovery Protocol, a networking protocol
 * Students for Sensible Drug Policy, an international non-profit advocacy and education organization based in Washington D.C.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: SSDP


text:
Eurovision Song Contest 1967

The Eurovision Song Contest 1967 was the 12th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Vienna, Austria, following the country's victory at the with the song "Merci, Chérie" by Udo Jürgens. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF), the contest was held at the Großer Festsaal der Wiener Hofburg on 8 April 1967, becoming the first contest held in the month of April, and was hosted by Austrian actress Erica Vaal.

Seventeen countries participated in the contest, one fewer than the record eighteen that had competed in the and  editions. decided not to enter and left the contest at this point, not returning until.

The won the contest for the first time with the song "Puppet on a String", written and composed by Bill Martin and Phil Coulter, and performed by Sandie Shaw. The entry had one of the widest margins of victory ever witnessed in the competition; it garnered more than twice as many points as the second-placed song. Shaw intensely disliked the composition, though her attitude towards the song somewhat mellowed in later years, even releasing a new version in 2007.

This was the last contest to be transmitted only in black and white as it would begin to be transmitted in colour from the edition onwards.

Location
The 1967 Eurovision Song Contest was held in Vienna, the capital of Austria. The venue for the contest was the Festival Hall of the Hofburg Palace, which was the principal winter residence of the Habsburg dynasty, rulers of the Austro-Hungarian empire. It currently serves as the official residence of the President of Austria.

Participating countries
Denmark chose not to participate this year and left the contest at this point, not to be returning again until 1978. The reason was that the new director for the TV entertainment department at DR thought that the money could be spent in a better way.

The entry from Luxembourg, "L'amour est bleu", sung by Vicky Leandros, came in fourth; nonetheless, it went on to become one of the biggest hits of the 1967 contest, and a year later would be a big instrumental hit for French musician, Paul Mauriat, under the English title, "Love Is Blue". Portugal was represented by Eduardo Nascimento, who was the first black male singer in the history of the contest; rumours claimed that Portuguese prime minister Salazar had chosen this particular singer to show the rest of Europe that he was not racist.

Format
The stage setup was a little unusual this year. There was a staircase in the middle of the stage as well as two revolving mirrored walls on both ends of the stage; they began revolving at the start of each song, and stopped at its end. A change in rule also required half of every nation's jury to be less than 30 years old.

The presenter Erica Vaal became confused whilst the voting was taking place, and declared the United Kingdom's entry to be the winner before the last country,, had announced its votes. She also ended the programme by congratulating the winning song and country, and saying "goodbye" in several different languages.

Contest overview
The contest took place on 8 April 1967, beginning at 22:00 CET (21:00 UTC).

Spokespersons
Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1967 contest are listed below.

 * – Poppe Berg
 * – Gay Byrne
 * – Sverre Christophersen
 * – Edvard Matz
 * – Michael Aspel

Detailed voting results
The voting sequence was one of the more chaotic in Eurovision history; the students from Vienna University who were operating the scoreboard made several errors during the telecast, which were corrected by the scrutineer. Hostess Erica Vaal also began to announce the winner before realising she had excluded the Irish jury.

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers. A press report estimated the global viewership to be 150 million viewers.

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below. In addition to the participating countries, the contest was also reportedly broadcast in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland and the Soviet Union via Intervision.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1967


text:
Simple Service Discovery Protocol

The Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP) is a network protocol based on the Internet protocol suite for advertisement and discovery of network services and presence information. It accomplishes this without assistance of server-based configuration mechanisms, such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) or Domain Name System (DNS), and without special static configuration of a network host. SSDP is the basis of the discovery protocol of Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) and is intended for use in residential or small office environments. It was formally described in an IETF Internet Draft by Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard in 1999. Although the IETF proposal has since expired (April, 2000), SSDP was incorporated into the UPnP protocol stack, and a description of the final implementation is included in UPnP standards documents.

Protocol transport and addressing
SSDP is a text-based protocol based on HTTPU, which uses UDP as the underlying transport protocol. Services are announced by the hosting system with multicast addressing to a specifically designated IP multicast address at UDP port number 1900. In IPv4, the multicast address is and SSDP over IPv6 uses the address set  for all scope ranges indicated by x.

This results in the following well-known practical multicast addresses for SSDP: Additionally, applications may use the source-specific multicast addresses derived from the local IPv6 routing prefix, with group ID c (decimal 12).
 * (IPv4 site-local address)
 * (IPv6 link-local)
 * (IPv6 site-local)

SSDP uses the HTTP method NOTIFY to announce the establishment or withdrawal of services (presence) information to the multicast group. A client that wishes to discover available services on a network uses method M-SEARCH. Responses to such search requests are sent via unicast addressing to the originating address and port number of the multicast request.

Microsoft's IPv6 SSDP implementations in Windows Media Player and Server use the link-local scope address. Microsoft uses port number 2869 for event notification and event subscriptions. However, early implementations of SSDP also used port 5000 for this service.

DDoS attack
In 2014 it was discovered that SSDP was being used in DDoS attacks known as an SSDP reflection attack with amplification. Many devices, including some residential routers, have a vulnerability in the UPnP software that allows an attacker to get replies from port number 1900 to a destination address of their choice. With a botnet of thousands of devices, the attackers can generate sufficient packet rates and occupy bandwidth to saturate links, causing the denial of services. The network company Cloudflare has described this attack as the "Stupidly Simple DDoS Protocol".

Firefox vulnerability
Firefox for Android prior to version 79 did not properly validate the schema of the URL received in SSDP and were vulnerable to remote code execution. An attacker on the same network could create a malicious server pretending to be a device supporting casting, but instead of a configuration file it would return an  URL. Firefox would launch the intent (if it was supported by the device) and thus would execute arbitrary code. This is not a bug with SSDP, just an improper validation performed by Firefox casting service.

title: Simple Service Discovery Protocol


text:
Eurovision Song Contest 1970

The Eurovision Song Contest 1970 was the 15th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest and took place in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS), the contest was held at the RAI Congrescentrum on 21 March 1970, and was hosted by Dutch television presenter Willy Dobbe.

Twelve countries participated in the contest this year. This was the lowest number of participants since the edition. The reason was that, , , and  all boycotted the 1970 edition, officially because they felt that the contest marginalised smaller countries and was no longer good television entertainment, though it is rumoured that this was also in protest of the four-way tie result that had occurred in 1969.

The winner of the competition was with the song "All Kinds of Everything", performed by Dana, and written by Derry Lindsay and Jackie Smith. This was Ireland's first of their eventual record seven victories in the contest. The finished in second place for the seventh time, while  ended up in third place – the best result for the country at the time. This was also the only time that received nul points.

Location
Due to there being four winners in the, a question was raised as to which nation would host the 1970 contest. With having hosted in 1969 and the  in, only  and the  were in consideration. A draw of ballots between these two countries resulted in the Netherlands being chosen as the host country.

The Congrescentrum, venue of the 1970 contest, is a semi-permanent exhibit at the Ferdinand Bolstraat to Amsterdam and was opened on 31 October 1922. This building was replaced in 1961 by the current RAI building on Europe's Square. The current congress and event center on Europe Square, was designed by Alexander Bodon and opened on 2 February 1961.

Participating countries
(who had not taken part in 1969),, , and  boycotted this contest as they were not pleased with the result of 1969 and the voting structure.

For the first time, no artists from previous contests returned.

Format
The Dutch producers were forced to pad out the show as only 12 nations decided to make the trip to Amsterdam. The result was a format that has endured almost to the present day. An extended opening sequence (filmed in Amsterdam) set the scene, while every entry was introduced by a short video 'postcard' featuring each of the participating artists, ostensibly in their own nation. However, the 'postcards' for Switzerland, Luxembourg and Monaco were all filmed on location in Paris (as was the French postcard). The long introduction film (over four minutes long) was followed by what probably is one of the shortest ever introductions by any presenter. Willy Dobbe only welcomed the viewers in English, French and Dutch, finishing her introduction after only 24 seconds. On-screen captions introduced each entry, with the song titles listed all in lowercase and the names of the artist and composers/authors all in capitals.

The set design was devised by Roland de Groot; a simple design was composed of a number of curved horizontal bars and silver baubles which could be moved in a variety of different ways.

To avoid an incident like in 1969, a tie-breaking rule was created. It stated that, if two or more songs gained the same number of votes and were tied for first place, each song would have to be performed again. After which each national jury (other than the juries of the countries concerned) would have a show of hands of which they thought was the best. If the countries tied again, then they would share first place.

Contest overview
Ireland won the contest with "All Kinds of Everything", penned by Derry Lindsay and Jackie Smith, and sung by another unknown, Dana, an 18-year-old schoolgirl from Derry, Northern Ireland. As the contest was held in the Netherlands this year, and the country was one of the four winners in 1969, Dana received her awards from the Dutch winner Lenny Kuhr.

Spokespersons
Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1970 contest are listed below.

 * – Colin Ward-Lewis

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers.

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below. In addition to the participating countries, the contest's introduction sequence claimed the contest was also broadcast in Greece, Iceland, Israel and Tunisia, in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union via Intervision, and in Brazil and Chile.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1970


text:
Eurovision Song Contest 1971

The Eurovision Song Contest 1971 was the 16th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Dublin, Ireland, following the country's victory at the with the song "All Kinds of Everything" by Dana. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ), the contest was held at the Gaiety Theatre on 3 April 1971, and was hosted by Irish television presenter Bernadette Ní Ghallchóir.

Eighteen countries participated in the contest, equalling the record of the 1965 and 1966 editions. Austria returned after their two-year absence, while Finland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden all returned after having boycotted the competition the previous year. On the other hand, Malta competed for the first time.

The winner was Monaco with the song "Un banc, un arbre, une rue", performed by Séverine, written by Yves Dessca, and composed by Jean-Pierre Bourtayre. This was Monaco's first and only victory in the contest. This was also the only time in the contest's history, where the second and third-placed entrants were also awarded.

Location
The contest was held at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin, the capital and most populous city of Ireland. This was the first time that the contest was held in Ireland. The Gaiety Theatre was selected as the venue for the 1971 contest as it was celebrating 100 years since its establishment in 1871.

Participating countries
Malta made their début in this year's contest, while Austria, Finland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden all returned after a brief absence. This brought the total number of countries to eighteen.

Format
For the first time, each participating broadcaster was required to televise all the songs in "previews" prior to the live final. Belgium's preview video featured Nicole and Hugo performing the song "Goeie morgen, morgen", but Nicole was struck with a sudden illness days before the contest final, with Jacques Raymond and Lily Castel stepping in at short notice to perform the entry in their place. Reports suggested that Castel had not even had enough time to buy a suitable dress for the show.

The BBC were worried about the possible audience reaction to the UK song due to the hostilities raging in Northern Ireland. They specifically selected a singer from Northern Ireland, Clodagh Rodgers, who was popular in both the UK and the Republic of Ireland, to ease any ill-feeling from the Dublin audience. However, Rodgers still received death threats from the IRA for representing the UK.

Groups of up to six people were allowed to perform for the first time, with the rule in previous contests of performing either solo or as a duet abolished.

This was only RTÉ's second outside broadcast in colour. The contest was broadcast in Iceland, the United States and Hong Kong several days later.

In between each song, a film depicting the tourist highlights of each nation using stock footage provided by the participant tourism bureaus was seen, accompanied by a piece of organ music chosen to complement the country.

This is the only time in the contest's history where the second and third placing entrants were also awarded.

Detailed voting results
A new voting system was introduced in this year's contest: each country sent two jury members, one aged over 25 and the other under 25 (with at least ten years' difference between their ages), with both awarding each country (except their own) a score of between one and five points.

While this meant that no country could score fewer than 34 points (and in the event all eighteen scored at least 52), it had one major problem: some jury members tended to award only one or two points. Whether this was done to increase their respective countries' chances of winning is not known for sure, but this shortcoming was nonetheless plain. However, the system remained in place for the 1972 and 1973 contests.

10 points
Below is a summary of all perfect 10 scores that were given during the voting.

Broadcasts
Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers.

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below. In addition to the participating countries, the contest was also reportedly broadcast in Greece, Iceland, Morocco and Tunisia, in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Romania via Intervision, and in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Hong Kong, Jamaica, Kenya, Mauritania, Mauritius, Sierra Leone, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda and the United States.

title: Eurovision Song Contest 1971


text:
Talk:Vicar

Explanation for a general audience
I came to this page to find out about the difference between a vicar and a parson, and I'm having a hard time understanding the information on this page. Could someone add some description that would help a more general audience?

 * I've added the information to this article and to parson and curate. Basically a parson is a parish priest who receives the temporalities of a benefice and is either a rector, vicar or perpetual curate. I hope this helps. — Gareth Hughes 11:49, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Distinction between Vicar and Rector
According to the afterword to Anthony Trollope's The Last Chronicle of Barset, the distinction (for the Anglican Church) between Vicar and Rector is receipt of the great tithes as opposed to the lesser tithes. Parish clergymen who received neither were perpetual curates. An Act of Parliament contributed to the confusion by permitting all perpetual curates to style themselves vicars. -- Alan Peakall 16:36 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * The distinction I got is as it was stated in a 1957 Encyclopedia Britannica. Assuming it is true, I'm not sure how helpful Trollope's distinction would be without knowing what great tithes or lesser tithes were.  ---Ihcoyc

 * Thanks for the speedy reply. The afterword that I referred to was that of the editor of a modern edition, not that of AT himself.  Off hand I cannot remember the precise aportionment of parish aggricultural output between great tithes and lesser tithes, but I am confident that I can retrieve this information from the same source for addition to the article provided that you do not have better information to the contrary. -- Alan Peakall 17:50 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * If you have more data, by all means take it and run with it. I started this page because in something else that I know more about, I referenced the fact that a subject was made a vicar and it came up red, and I wondered why some clergymen in England were vicars and others weren't.  ---Ihcoyc

 * Thanks for the go-ahead. The author of the afterword that I referenced was Laurence Lerner.  I have linked to the article on tithes (which in turn links to Dissolution of the Monasteries), in the hope of this update setting up beneficial ripples.  Maybe there should be a link here from curate or a redirect page perpetual curate. -- Alan Peakall 09:34 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, if this keeps up we'll be reading a single column of letters across the right margin. AAR, I have set up a page at curate that for now redirects here.  So far, this page is the only one linking there.  Perhaps curé may also be needed at some time. -- Ihcoyc

 * Perhaps a rector combines the functions of co-arb and erenagh (ie vicar and parson) as described in the Ulster section? --

Distracting blank spaces
Formatting that encases the framed table of contents in text, in just the way a framed map or image is enclosed within the text, is now available: in the HTML does the job.

Blank space opposite the ToC, besides being unsightly and distracting, suggests that there is a major break in the continuity of the text, which may not be the case. Blanks in page layout are voids and they have meanings to the experienced reader. The space betweeen paragraphs marks a brief pause between separate blocks of thought. A deeper space, in a well-printed text, signifies a more complete shift in thought: note the spaces that separate sub-headings in Wikipedia articles.

A handful of thoughtless and aggressive Wikipedians revert the "TOCleft" format at will. A particularly aggressive de-formatter is User:Ed g2s

The reader may want to compare versions at the Page history. --Wetman 20:06, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

 * In my opinion, we should let the reader decide how they want the TOC displayed, as it is easily changed by editing their personal css style sheet. Gentgeen 17:30, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

Ordinary and PMadrids edits
Wrong, no, incorrect.

VGs and EVs are "ordinaries" only with regard to exercise of their power, not with regard to source. Their jurisdiction is vicarious, which is why they are vicars, eh? That is, the source of their authority is delegated, hence they are delegates, which is why the VG loses jurisdiction with the death of the bishop (Cn. 481). They are, in fact, properly "quasi-ordinaries" in that they exercise functions by the law itself (475, 479), and so are ordinaries in the exercise of their office, but their jurisdiction is derivative (479, in that the bishop may restrict or limit their jurisdiction). "This is vicarial jurisdiction, delegated as to its source, but ordinary as to its exercise, and which would be more accurately termed quasi-ordinary. In this sense vicars-general and diocesan officials are ordinaries." (Boudhinon; cf Sagmuller). In short, as you have it written, VGs are equivalents of diocesan bishops, which is emphatically not the case.HarvardOxon 21:25, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I think I resolved this properly, but in order to avoid copying my response into each page that this note appears, I direct all interested parties to see my talk page and Talk:Vicar general for the response. Pmadrid 04:27, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

Roman Catholic Vicariates
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Erie in northwestern Pennsylvania, USA, is divided into three vicariates, each consisting of three to six counties (or parts thereof). See Map of Erie Diocese But when I search "vicariate" in Wikipedia (and in the Catholic Encyclopedia online), only the term "apostolic vicariate" comes up -- a Catholic administrative unit where a diocese doesn't exist, typically in the developing world. A search of Google reassures me that at least three American dioceses (Newark, Detroit, Hawaii) have subdivisions called vicariates. No doubt there are more. I recommend that the term vicariate be identified and discussed in Wikipedia from the perspective of its hierarchical role in Roman Catholic administration in the articles on Diocese and Parish. Seems to me it should also be in this Vicar article because of the nature of the word itself. Pat 08:00, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

Is a deanery a subdivision of a vicariate? The biography of Leonard Olivier labels his role as head of regional deaneries in the Archdiocese of Washington. The article about the archdiocese itself makes no mention of deaneries or vicariates, and the archdiocese webpage makes no mention of a substructure of church government to handle the parishes, whether by county or otherwise. Note that the Diocese of Erie identifies one or two deaneries within each vicariate. Pat 09:26, 19 May 2007 (UTC)

Etymology
Judging by the etymologies given in the OED and in the American Heritage Dictionary, there's no etymological relationship between "vicar" and "vizier."

65.213.77.129 (talk) 13:06, 31 July 2008 (UTC)
 * ...then vizier shouldn't be mentioned in the article.-Wetman (talk) 13:29, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

 * The articles Vicarius, Vicar, and Vizier all contain the claim that Vicar and Vizier are related. However, as far as I can make out the sole source for this is Klein's A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language. Klein is unique in making this connection and, I would suggest, is not to be trusted. A review of the first volume of that Dictionary provides this insight:

 * Dr. Klein claims to give the derivation of many words usually described as 'of unknown etymology', and the like, 'whereas their provenance is very well known. My dictionary contains the etymology of several hundred such words.'

 * It may be doubted whether any scholar would dismiss as unknown the origin of words whose 'etymology can be established beyond doubt'. Let us take a few examples of Dr Klein's optimistic solution: embezzle [...] In connexion with OFr. besillier Dr. Klein writes: 'I suggest that OFr. beser derives from OHG. bizzan, equivalent of OE bitan bite, sting, which is phonologically and geographically impossible.

 * G. W. S. Friedrichsen, 'Review of A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Vol. I, A-K by Ernest Klein', The Review of English Studies, New Series, Vol. 18, No. 71 (Aug., 1967), pp. 295-297

 * And so on.

 * None of this, of course, means that Klein is necessarily wrong on the Vicar - Vizier point, but his work is sufficiently contentious that I don't feel it can be cited as fact in an Encyclopedia. I suggest we should remove this claim from these three pages. What does everyone else think? Falamingotoo (talk) 11:34, 11 May 2012 (UTC)

 * I have now looked up Klein and in fact he does not claim these words as cognates. Falamingotoo (talk) 15:37, 12 May 2012 (UTC)

Are vicars celebate?
I cant find this info in the article --71.113.234.160 (talk) 05:52, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

 * The duties are not a matter of celibacy. The religion is. Latin rite Catholics are; most others aren't. Student7 (talk) 01:52, 3 February 2009 (UTC)

Related to this issue, the article makes it clear that Lutheran vicars are not yet ordained, but never states whether or not Roman Catholic vicars are ordained or are lay-people. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Eldamorie (talk • contribs) 16:16, 11 November 2010 (UTC)

Split?
This page rather seems like it could do with being turned into a proper disambiguation page. While the various theological posts discussed all have shared characteristics, they aren't all necessarily of interest to a general audience; for instance, to get to vicar (Anglicanism) you've got to drill through half the article at the moment. Chris Cunningham (not at work) - talk 17:01, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * The meaning and history of the term vicar is a useful encyclopedia subject, one that includes the example of Vicar (Anglicanism). Breaking subjects into the smallest possible elements is the work of the dictionary, and in its very nature sheds information.--Wetman (talk) 17:43, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Hmmm. Is there genuinely that much common ground between the archaic use and the modern? At the very least the lede should devote more time to the latter. Chris Cunningham (user:thumperward: not at work) - talk 18:51, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Vicar


text:
Internet Architecture Board

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is a committee of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and an advisory body of the Internet Society (ISOC). Its responsibilities include architectural oversight of IETF activities, Internet Standards Process oversight and appeal, and the appointment of the Request for Comments (RFC) Editor. The IAB is also responsible for the management of the IETF protocol parameter registries.

History
The body which eventually became the IAB was created originally by Vint Cerf in 1979 with the name Internet Configuration Control Board (ICCB) while he was working at the United States Department of Defense's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. In 1983, the ICCB was reorganized by Barry Leiner, Cerf's successor at DARPA, around a series of task forces considering different technical aspects of internetting. The re-organized group was named the Internet Activities Board.

The IAB set for itself seven principal foci for the period of 1989 to 1990. These were namely:

 * Operational Stability
 * User Services
 * OSI Coexistence
 * Testbed Facilities
 * Security
 * Getting Big
 * Getting Fast

It finally became the Internet Architecture Board, under ISOC, in January 1992, as part of the Internet's transition from a U.S.-government entity to an international, public entity.

Responsibilities
The IAB is responsible for:

 * Providing architectural oversight of Internet protocols and procedures
 * Liaising with other organizations on behalf of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 * Reviewing appeals of the Internet standards process
 * Managing Internet standards documents (the RFC series) and protocol parameter value assignment
 * Confirming the Chair of the IETF and the IETF Area Directors
 * Selecting the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) Chair
 * Acting as a source of advice and guidance to the Internet Society.

In its work, the IAB strives to:

 * Ensure that the Internet is a trusted medium of communication that provides a solid technical foundation for privacy and security, especially in light of pervasive surveillance,
 * Establish the technical direction for an Internet that will enable billions more people to connect, support the vision for an Internet of things, and allow mobile networks to flourish, while keeping the core capabilities that have been a foundation of the Internet's success, and
 * Promote the technical evolution of an open Internet without special controls, especially those that hinder trust in the network.

Activities
Activities of the IAB include:

Workshops
 * COVID-19 Network Impacts Workshop, 2020
 * Exploring Synergy between Content Aggregation and the Publisher Ecosystem Workshop 2019
 * Design Expectations vs. Deployment Reality in Protocol Development Workshop 2019
 * Position Papers: DEDR Workshop
 * Explicit Internet Naming Systems (EName) Workshop 2017
 * Internet of Things Software Update Workshop (IoTSU) 2016
 * IoT Semantic Interoperability Workshop 2016
 * Managing Radio Networks in an Encrypted World (MaRNEW) Workshop 2015
 * Coordinating Attack Response at Internet Scale (CARIS) Workshop 2015
 * Call For Papers
 * Agenda: Coordinating Attack Response at Internet Scale (CARIS) Workshop
 * IAB Workshop on Stack Evolution in a Middlebox Internet (SEMI) 2015
 * W3C/IAB workshop on Strengthening the Internet Against Pervasive Monitoring (STRINT) 2014
 * IAB Workshop on Internet Technology Adoption and Transition (ITAT) 2013
 * IAB / IRTF Workshop on Congestion Control for Interactive Real-Time Communication 2012
 * Workshop on Congestion Control: Position Papers
 * Congestion Control Workshop Agenda and Materials
 * Interconnecting Smart Objects with the Internet Workshop 2011
 * Tutorial on Interconnecting Smart Objects with the Internet
 * Position Papers
 * Agenda
 * Internet Privacy Workshop 2010
 * Slides Presentations
 * Minutes of the IAB/W3C/ISOC/MIT Internet Privacy Workshop
 * Meeting Minutes
 * Accepted Position Papers
 * Routing and Addressing Workshop 2006
 * Unwanted Traffic Workshop 2006
 * IAB Wireless Internetworking Workshop 2000

Technical programs and administrative support groups
 * RFC Editor Program: The RFC Series Oversight Committee (RSOC)
 * RFC Editor Future Development Program
 * Plenary Planning Program
 * Internet Threat Model (model-t) Program
 * IETF-IANA Group
 * Evolvability, Deployability, & Maintainability (EDM) Program
 * Concluded Programs
 * Security Program
 * Privacy Program
 * Privacy Reviews
 * IPv6 Privacy Survey
 * Privacy and Security Program
 * Names and Identifiers Program
 * Liaison Oversight Program
 * ITU-T Coordination Program
 * IP Stack Evolution Program
 * IP Evolution
 * Internationalization Program
 * IETF Protocol Registries Oversight Committee (IPROC)
 * IAB Tools and Processes Program
 * Emergency Services

IAB appointments and confirmations
 * Community Coordination Group (CCG): Russ Housley (2017-2021), Barry Leiba (2017-2021), Tim Wicinski (2018-2022)
 * IANA Stewardship Transition Coordination Group (ICG): Russ Housley, Lynn St Amour
 * ICANN Board of Directors Liaison: Harald Alvestrand: (2018–present)
 * ICANN Root Zone Evolution Review Committee (RZERC): Tim (April, 2020–2021)
 * ICANN NomCom: Peter Koch, 2020
 * ICANN Technical Liaison Group (TLG)	: Warren Kumari (2019-2021), Petr Špaček (2020-2022)

Responsibilities
The IAB's current responsibilities include:

 * Architectural Oversight: The IAB provides oversight of, and occasional commentary on, aspects of the architecture for the network protocols and procedures used by the Internet.
 * Standards Process Oversight and Appeal: The IAB provides oversight of the process used to create Internet Standards. The IAB serves as an appeal board for complaints of improper execution of the standards process, through acting as an appeal body in respect of an Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) standards decision.
 * Request for Comments series: The IAB is responsible for editorial management and publication of the Request for Comments (RFC) document series.
 * Internet Assigned Numbers Authority: In conjunction with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the IAB is responsible for the administration of the assignment of IETF protocol parameter values by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
 * External Liaison: The IAB acts as representative of the interests of the IETF in liaison relationships with other organizations concerned with standards and other technical and organizational issues relevant to the worldwide Internet.
 * Advice to the Internet Society: The IAB acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and Officers of ISOC concerning technical, architectural, procedural, and (where appropriate) policy matters pertaining to the Internet and its enabling technologies.
 * Internet Engineering Steering Group Confirmation: The IAB confirms the IETF Chair and IESG Area Directors, from nominations provided by the IETF Nominating Committee.
 * Internet Research Task Force Chair: The IAB selects a chair of the IRTF for a renewable two-year term.

RFC1087 – Ethics and the Internet and a rise to modernity
The IAB takes a formal stance on what constitutes proper use of the Internet in their 1989 memo, RFC 1087: “Ethics and the Internet.” They introduce their contemporary version of the Internet, which at the time was in its nascent stages, serving primarily as a tool for communication of research in the scientific community, and identify the use of this internet as a “privilege.”

The IAB then proclaims as unethical any activity which: This memo was written at a time during which the Internet existed in the general research milieu, but since that time the Internet has evolved greatly and expanded its user base. The IAB has accordingly taken new stances on ethical and secure Internet use, such as in RFC 8890, where the IAB identifies protecting end users as the first priority in their maintenance of the Internet.
 * seeks to gain unauthorized access to the resources of the Internet,
 * disrupts the intended use of the Internet,
 * wastes resources (people, capacity, computer) through such actions,
 * destroys the integrity of computer-based information
 * compromises the privacy of users.

As such, though their core principles are the same, the IAB's priority for protection has shifted from the technical and scientific community to the community of day-to-day users. In another memo RFC7624, the IAB takes a firm stance against pervasive mass surveillance through the use of the Internet on the part of national intelligence agencies, saying that it is necessary that the Internet technical community, including itself, “address the vulnerabilities exploited [by mass surveillance campaigns]...to ensure that the Internet can be trusted by [its] users.”

RFC 2850 - Charter of the Internet Architecture Board
RFC 2850 establishes the structure and purpose of the IAB. The RFC specifies the following:
 * IAB membership: the IAB has 13 members, 1 being the chair of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). These members are appointed to 2-year terms.
 * The Role of the IAB: The IAB serves to provide Architectural Oversight for Internet procedures, and to provide oversight in the process of creating Internet standards, including appeals. Furthermore, the IAB acts as a liaison to the Internet Society (ISOC) to advise regarding architectural and technical issues.
 * IAB Organization: The 13 members of the IAB choose 1 member to serve as the chair of the IAB for a 1-year term. There is no limit to the number of terms that the chair can serve. The executive director of the IAB is chosen by the chair. The IAB also has the power to designate the chair of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) for a 2-year term.
 * Decision-making: in most situations, the IAB aims to come to unanimous decisions on matters. When this is not possible, the IAB must come to a consensus of at least 7 members before taking action.
 * Openness and confidentiality: The IAB makes all meetings open to the public by making it available online, and also publishes RFCs regularly to make its conclusions generally available. In some situations, however, confidential information is excluded for privacy reasons.

RFC 2026 - The Internet Standards Process
The Internet Standards process is an activity of the Internet Society that is organized and managed on behalf of the Internet community by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) and the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG). The Internet Standards Process is concerned with all protocols, procedures, and conventions that are used in or by the Internet. The process of creating an Internet Standard is straightforward: a specification undergoes a period of development and several iterations of review by the Internet community and revision based upon experience, is adopted as a Standard by the appropriate body (either the IAB or the IESG), and is published. Each distinct version of an Internet standards-related specification is published as part of the "Request for Comments" (RFC) document series. This archival series is the official publication channel for Internet standards documents and other publications of the IESG, IAB, and Internet community. The complete Internet Standards Process is itself specified by an RFC, namely RFC 2026.

RFC 8980 - Workshop on Design Expectations vs. Deployment Reality in Protocol Development
The RFC 8980 workshop was held in February 2021, where the IAB discussed several topics around security protocols, including:

 * Email standards, which presumed many providers running in a largely uncoordinated fashion but have seen both significant market consolidation and a need for coordination to defend against spam and other attacks. The coordination and centralized defense mechanisms scale better for large entities; these have fueled additional consolidation.
 * The Domain Name System (DNS), which presumed deep hierarchies but has often been deployed in large, flat zones, leading to the nameservers for those zones becoming critical infrastructure. Future developments in DNS may see concentration through the use of globally available common resolver services, which evolve rapidly and can offer better security. Paradoxically, the concentration of these queries into a few services creates new security and privacy concerns.
 * The Web, which is built on a fundamentally decentralized design but is now often delivered with the aid of Content Delivery Networks (CDNs). Their services provide scaling, distribution, and prevention of denial of service in ways that new entrants and smaller systems operators would find difficult to replicate. While truly small services and truly large services may each operate using only their own infrastructure, many others are left with the only practical choice being the use of a globally available commercial service.

The workshop resulted in the following recommendations by the IAB:
 * Develop and document a modern threat model.
 * Continue discussion of consolidation/centralization issues.
 * Document architectural principles, e.g., (re)application of the end-to-end principle.

Chairs
The following people have served as chair of the IAB:

 * David D. Clark – 1981 to July 1989
 * Vint Cerf – July 1989 to July 1991
 * Lyman Chapin – July 1991 to March 1993
 * Christian Huitema – March 1993 to July 1995
 * Brian Carpenter – July 1995 to March 2000
 * John Klensin – March 2000 to March 2002
 * Leslie Daigle – March 2002 to March 2007
 * Olaf Kolkman – March 2007 to March 2011
 * Bernard Aboba – March 2011 to March 2013
 * Russ Housley- March 2013 to March 2015
 * Andrew Sullivan – March 2015 to March 2017
 * Ted Hardie – March 2017 to March 2020
 * Mirja Kühlewind - March 2020 to present

Related organizations

 * IETF Administration LLC - This organization provides legal advice for the IAB
 * Request for Comments (RFC) Editor - The RFC series contains documents released by 4 organizations: The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Independent Submissions
 * Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
 * Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - The IRTF works on long-term projects related to the Internet
 * The IETF Trust - The IETF Trust holds intellectual property licensing and other licensing related to the Internet
 * The Internet Society (ISOC)

title: Internet Architecture Board


text:
Internet Research Task Force

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is an organization, overseen by the Internet Architecture Board, that focuses on longer-term research issues related to the Internet. A parallel organization, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), focuses on the shorter term issues of engineering and standards making.

The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the Internet by creating focused, long-term research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology. Unlike the IETF, the task force does not set standards and there is no explicit outcome expected of IRTF research groups.

Organization
The IRTF is composed of a number of focused and long-term research groups. These groups work on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology. Research groups have the stable long-term membership needed to promote the development of research collaboration and teamwork in exploring research issues. Participation is by individual contributors, rather than by representatives of organizations. The list of current groups can be found on the IRTF's homepage.

Operations
The IRTF is managed by the IRTF chair in consultation with the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). The IRSG membership includes the IRTF chair, the chairs of the various Research Groups and other individuals (members at large) from the research community selected by the IRTF chair. The chair of the IRTF is appointed by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) for a two-year term.

These individuals have chaired the IRTF:

 * David D. Clark, 1989–1992
 * Jon Postel, 1992–1995
 * Abel Weinrib, 1995–1999
 * Erik Huizer, 1999–2001
 * Vern Paxson, 2001–2005
 * Aaron Falk, 2005–2011
 * Lars Eggert, 2011–2017
 * Allison Mankin, 2017–2019
 * Colin Perkins, 2019–Present

The IRTF chair is responsible for ensuring that research groups produce coherent, coordinated, architecturally consistent and timely output as a contribution to the overall evolution of the Internet architecture. In addition to the detailed tasks related to research groups outlined below, the IRTF chair may also from time to time arrange for topical workshops attended by the IRSG and perhaps other experts in the field.

The RFC Editor publishes documents from the IRTF and its research groups on the IRTF stream. The detailed IRTF research group guidelines and procedures are described in. The procedures for publishing documents on the IRTF RFC stream are defined in. The concept of RFC streams is defined in.

IRSG
The IRTF is managed by the IRTF chair in consultation with the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). The IRSG membership includes the IRTF chair, the chairs of the various IRTF research groups and other individuals (members at large) from the research or IETF communities. IRSG members at large are chosen by the IRTF chair in consultation with the rest of the IRSG and on approval by the Internet Architecture Board.

In addition to managing the research groups, the IRSG may from time to time hold topical workshops focusing on research areas of importance to the evolution of the Internet, or more general workshops to, for example, discuss research priorities from an Internet perspective.

The IRSG also reviews and approves documents published as part of the IRTF document stream.

title: Internet Research Task Force


text:
Jay Ward

Joseph Ward Cohen Jr. (September 20, 1920 – October 12, 1989), also known as Jay Ward, was an American creator and producer of animated TV cartoon shows. He produced animated series based on such characters as Crusader Rabbit, Rocky & Bullwinkle, Dudley Do-Right, Peabody and Sherman, Hoppity Hooper, George of the Jungle, Tom Slick, and Super Chicken. His own company, Jay Ward Productions, designed the trademark characters for the Cap'n Crunch, Quisp, and Quake breakfast cereals and it made TV commercials for those products. Ward produced the non-animated series Fractured Flickers (1963) that featured comedic redubbing of silent films.

Early life
Jay Ward was born Joseph Ward Cohen Jr., the son of Joseph Ward Cohen (1890–1967) and Mercedes Juanita (née Troplong) Ward (1892–1972). He was raised in Berkeley, California, attending Frances E. Willard Intermediate School as "J. Ward".

He obtained his undergraduate degree at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1947, he obtained his MBA from Harvard Business School.

Early career
In 1947, the first day that Ward opened his first real estate office at the corner of Ashby and Claremont, a runaway truck crashed through the building and pinned Ward. While recuperating, Ward decided to animate cartoons, but kept his real estate business, later moving it to Domingo Avenue and then Tunnel Road, where it stayed, in Berkeley, even after Ward moved to Los Angeles. He later received incorrect medical treatment while hyperventilating in an airplane. He then developed agoraphobia.

Animation career
Ward moved into the young mass medium of television with the help of his childhood friend, the animator Alex Anderson. Taking the character Crusader Rabbit to NBC-TV and the pioneering distributor of TV-programs, Jerry Fairbanks, they put together a pilot film, The Comic Strips of Television, featuring Crusader Rabbit, Hamhock Bones, a parody of Sherlock Holmes, and Dudley Do-Right, a bumbling Canadian Mountie.

NBC-TV and Fairbanks were both unimpressed with all but Crusader Rabbit. The animated series Crusader Rabbit premiered in 1948 and continued its initial run through 1952. Adopting a serialized, mock-melodrama format, it followed the adventures of Crusader and his dimwitted sidekick Rags the Tiger. It was, in form and content, much like the series that would later gain Ward enduring fame, Rocky and His Friends.

Rocky and Bullwinkle
Ward and Anderson lost the rights to the Crusader Rabbit character in a legal fight with businessman Shull Bonsall, who had taken over the assets of the bankrupt Jerry Fairbanks company, and a new color Crusader Rabbit series under a different producer premiered in 1956. Ward then pursued an unsold series idea, The Frostbite Falls Revue. Taking place in a TV studio in the North Woods, the proposed series featured a cast of eccentrics such as newsman Oski Bear and two minor characters named Rocky the Flying Squirrel and Bullwinkle J. Moose, described in the script treatment as a "French-Canadian moose."

Rocky and His Friends premiered in the late-afternoon, after American Bandstand. on ABC in 1959, moving to prime-time on NBC as The Bullwinkle Show in 1961, the series contained a mix of sophisticated and low-brow humor. Thanks to animators from United Productions of America, Ward's genial partner Bill Scott (who contributed to the scripts and voiced Bullwinkle and other characters) and their writers, including Chris Hayward, and Allan Burns, puns were used often and shamelessly. In a "Fractured Fairy Tales" featuring Little Jack Horner, upon pulling out the plum, Jack announced, "Lord, what foods these morsels be!" Self-referential humor was another trademark: in one episode, the breathless announcer (William Conrad) gave away the villain's plans, prompting the villain to grab the announcer from offscreen, bind and gag him, and deposit him visibly within the scene. The show skewered popular culture, taking on such subjects as advertising, college sports, the Cold War, and TV itself. The hapless duo from Frostbite Falls, Minnesota, blundered into unlikely adventures much as Crusader and Rags had before them, pursued by "no-goodnik" spies Boris Badenov and Natasha Fatale, perennially under orders to "keel moose and squirrel".

In a running-joke tribute to Ward, many of his cartoon characters had the middle initial "J." The cartoonist Matt Groening later gave the middle initial "J." to many of his characters as a tribute to Jay Ward.

Ward fought many heated battles over content with the network and sponsor. The "Kirward Derby", a bowler hat that made everyone stupid and Bullwinkle a genius, was named (as a spoonerism) for Durward Kirby, sidekick of the 1950s and 1960s TV host Garry Moore and the co-host of Allen Funt's Candid Camera. When Kirby threatened to sue, Ward quipped, "Please do! We need the publicity!"

An eccentric and proud of it, Ward was known for pulling an unusual publicity stunt that coincided with a national crisis. Ward leased an island on the Canadian border in Minnesota near his home and dubbed it "Moosylvania," based upon the home of his Bullwinkle TV character. He and publicist Howard Brandy crossed the country in a van, gathering signatures on a petition for statehood for Moosylvania. They then visited Washington, D.C., and attempted to gain an audience with President John F. Kennedy. Unfortunately, they arrived at the White House the morning the Cuban Missile Crisis was breaking, and were ordered at gunpoint to drive off.

Personal life and death
Ward married Ramona "Billie" Ward in 1943; the couple had three children: Ron, Carey, and Tiffany.

Ward died of renal cancer in West Hollywood on October 12, 1989, and is buried in Glendale's Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.

Legacy
The offices of Jay Ward Productions, today managed by members of his family, are located across the street from the Chateau Marmont on the Sunset Strip. In 2007, the building could be identified by a statue of Bullwinkle and Rocky, located in front. In 2013, the statue was reported by the Los Angeles NBC affiliate KNBC to have been removed from its location by DreamWorks Animation, which previously owned the licensing rights to the Jay Ward catalogue. DreamWorks Animation had stated that they intended to restore the statue as soon as repairs were completed on it; however, as of May 2014, the statue's whereabouts and status were unknown. It had been speculated that DreamWorks intended to relocate the statue to its own headquarters. In late 2014 (ran until 4 January 2015) the statue was temporarily housed at the Paley Center for Media, in Beverly Hills, California, in conjunction with "The Jay Ward Legacy Exhibit". The Jay Ward family gifted the refurbished statue to the City of West Hollywood as part of its Urban Art collection. On Feb 28th, 2020, the Bullwinkle statue finally received its permanent home when it was installed on the turning island at Sunset Blvd. and Holloway Drive, right across from where Tower Records and Spago had been.

Following Ward's death, Alexander Anderson Jr., who had created the initial conceptions of the characters Dudley Do-Right, Bullwinkle and Rocky, but had not received public recognition, learned the characters had been copyrighted in Ward's name alone. He sued Ward's heirs to reclaim credit as a creator, and in either 1993 or 1996 (sources differ), Anderson received a financial settlement and a court order acknowledging him as the "creator of the first version of the characters of Rocky, Bullwinkle, and Dudley."

On June 21, 2000, Ward was recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7080 Hollywood Boulevard for his contribution to the television industry, as part of the publicity for the live-action and animation film The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle.

Until it closed in July 2004, the Dudley Do-Right Emporium, which sold souvenirs based on Ward's characters and was largely staffed by Ward and his family, operated on Sunset Boulevard.

title: Jay Ward


text:
Common blackbird

The common blackbird (Turdus merula) is a species of true thrush. It is also called the Eurasian blackbird (especially in North America, to distinguish it from the unrelated New World blackbirds), or simply the blackbird where this does not lead to confusion with a similar-looking local species. It breeds in Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, and has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. It has a number of subspecies across its large range; a few former Asian subspecies are now widely treated as separate species. Depending on latitude, the common blackbird may be resident, partially migratory, or fully migratory.

The adult male of the common blackbird (Turdus merula merula, the nominate subspecies), which is found throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a rich, melodious song; the adult female and juvenile have mainly dark brown plumage. This species breeds in woods and gardens, building a neat, cup-shaped nest, bound together with mud. It is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.

Both sexes are territorial on the breeding grounds, with distinctive threat displays, but are more gregarious during migration and in wintering areas. Pairs stay in their territory throughout the year where the climate is sufficiently temperate. This common and conspicuous species has given rise to a number of literary and cultural references, frequently related to its song.

Taxonomy and systematics
The common blackbird was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Turdus merula (characterised as T. ater, rostro palpebrisque fulvis). The binomial name derives from two Latin words, turdus, "thrush", and merula, "blackbird", the latter giving rise to its French name, merle, and its Scots name, merl.

About 65 species of medium to large thrushes are in the genus Turdus, characterised by rounded heads, longish, pointed wings, and usually melodious songs. Although two European thrushes, the song thrush and mistle thrush, are early offshoots from the Eurasian lineage of Turdus thrushes after they spread north from Africa, the blackbird is descended from ancestors that had colonised the Canary Islands from Africa and subsequently reached Europe from there. It is close in evolutionary terms to the island thrush (T. poliocephalus) of Southeast Asia and islands in the southwest Pacific, which probably diverged from T. merula stock fairly recently.

It may not immediately be clear why the name "blackbird", first recorded in 1486, was applied to this species, but not to one of the various other common black English birds, such as the carrion crow, raven, rook, or jackdaw. However, in Old English, and in modern English up to about the 18th century, "bird" was used only for smaller or young birds, and larger ones such as crows were called "fowl". At that time, the blackbird was therefore the only widespread and conspicuous "black bird" in the British Isles. Until about the 17th century, another name for the species was ouzel, ousel or wosel (from Old English osle, cf. German Amsel). Another variant occurs in Act 3 of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, where Bottom refers to "The Woosell cocke, so blacke of hew, With Orenge-tawny bill". The ouzel usage survived later in poetry, and still occurs as the name of the closely related ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus), and in water ouzel, an alternative name for the unrelated but superficially similar white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus).

Five related Asian Turdus thrushes—the white-collared blackbird (T. albocinctus), the grey-winged blackbird (T. boulboul), the Indian blackbird (T. simillimus), the Tibetan blackbird (T. maximus), and the Chinese blackbird (T. mandarinus)—are also named blackbirds; the latter three species were formerly treated as conspecific with the common blackbird. In addition, the Somali thrush (T. (olivaceus) ludoviciae) is alternatively known as the Somali blackbird.

The icterid family of the New World is sometimes called the blackbird family because of some species' superficial resemblance to the common blackbird and other Old World thrushes, but they are not evolutionarily close, being related to the New World warblers and tanagers. The term is often limited to smaller species with mostly or entirely black plumage, at least in the breeding male, notably the cowbirds, the grackles, and for around 20 species with "blackbird" in the name, such as the red-winged blackbird and the melodious blackbird.

Subspecies
As would be expected for a widespread passerine bird species, several geographical subspecies are recognised. The treatment of subspecies in this article follows Clement et al. (2000).

 * T. m. merula, the nominate subspecies, breeds commonly throughout much of Europe from Iceland, the Faroes and the British Isles east to the Ural Mountains and north to about 70 N, where it is fairly scarce. A small population breeds in the Nile Valley. Birds from the north of the range winter throughout Europe and around the Mediterranean, including Cyprus and North Africa. The introduced birds in Australia and New Zealand are of the nominate race.
 * T. m. azorensis is a small race which breeds in the Azores. The male is darker and glossier than merula.
 * T. m. cabrerae, named for Ángel Cabrera, the Spanish zoologist, resembles azorensis and breeds in Madeira and the western Canary Islands.
 * T. m. mauritanicus, another small dark subspecies with a glossy black male plumage, breeds in central and northern Morocco, coastal Algeria and northern Tunisia. Turdus merula -autumn leaves -Budapest-8.jpg
 * T m. aterrimus breeds in Hungary, south and east to southern Greece, Crete, northern Turkey and northern Iran. It winters in southern Turkey, northern Egypt, Iraq and southern Iran. It is smaller than merula with a duller male and paler female plumage.
 * T. m. syriacus breeds on the Mediterranean coast of southern Turkey south to Jordan, Israel and the northern Sinai. It is mostly resident, but part of the population moves southwest or west to winter in the Jordan Valley and in the Nile Delta of northern Egypt south to about Cairo. Both sexes of this subspecies are darker and greyer than the equivalent merula plumages.
 * T. m. intermedius is an Asian race breeding from Central Russia to Tajikistan, western and northeastern Afghanistan, and eastern China. Many birds are resident, but some are altitudinal migrants and occur in southern Afghanistan and southern Iraq in winter. This is a large subspecies, with a sooty-black male and a blackish-brown female.

The Central Asian subspecies, the relatively large intermedius, also differs in structure and voice, and may represent a distinct species. Alternatively, it has been suggested that it should be considered a subspecies of T. maximus, but it differs in structure, voice and the appearance of the eye-ring.

Similar species
In Europe, the common blackbird can be confused with the paler-winged first-winter ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus) or the superficially similar common starling (Sturnus vulgaris). A number of similar Turdus thrushes exist far outside the range of the common blackbird, for example the South American Chiguanco thrush (Turdus chiguanco). The Indian blackbird (Turdus simillimus), the Tibetan blackbird (Turdus maximus), and the Chinese blackbird (Turdus mandarinus) were formerly treated as subspecies of the common blackbird.

Description

The common blackbird of the nominate subspecies T. m. merula is 23.5 – in length, has a long tail, and weighs 80 –. The adult male has glossy black plumage, blackish-brown legs, a yellow eye-ring and an orange-yellow bill. The bill darkens somewhat in winter. The adult female is sooty-brown with a dull yellowish-brownish bill, a brownish-white throat and some weak mottling on the breast. The juvenile is similar to the female, but has pale spots on the upperparts, and the very young juvenile also has a speckled breast. Young birds vary in the shade of brown, with darker birds presumably males. The first year male resembles the adult male, but has a dark bill and weaker eye ring, and its folded wing is brown, rather than black like the body plumage.

Distribution and habitat
The common blackbird breeds in temperate Eurasia, North Africa, the Canary Islands, and South Asia. It has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. Populations are sedentary in the south and west of the range, although northern birds migrate south as far as northern Africa and tropical Asia in winter. Urban males are more likely to overwinter in cooler climes than rural males, an adaptation made feasible by the warmer microclimate and relatively abundant food that allow the birds to establish territories and start reproducing earlier in the year. Recoveries of blackbirds ringed on the Isle of May show that these birds commonly migrate from southern Norway (or from as far north as Trondheim) to Scotland, and some onwards to Ireland. Scottish-ringed birds have also been recovered in England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden. Female blackbirds in Scotland and the north of England migrate more (to Ireland) in winter than do the males

Common over most of its range in woodland, the common blackbird has a preference for deciduous trees with dense undergrowth. However, gardens provide the best breeding habitat with up to 7.3 pairs per hectare (nearly three pairs per acre), with woodland typically holding about a tenth of that density, and open and very built-up habitats even less. They are often replaced by the related ring ouzel in areas of higher altitude. The common blackbird also lives in parks, gardens and hedgerows.

The common blackbird occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m in Europe, 2,300 m in North Africa, and at 900 – in peninsular India and Sri Lanka, but the large Himalayan subspecies range much higher, with T. m. maximus breeding at 3,200 – and remaining above 2,100 m even in winter.

This widespread species has occurred as a vagrant in many locations in Eurasia outside its normal range, but records from North America are normally considered to involve escapees, including, for example, the 1971 bird in Quebec. However, a 1994 record from Bonavista, Newfoundland, has been accepted as a genuine wild bird, and the species is therefore on the North American list.

Behaviour and ecology
The male common blackbird defends its breeding territory, chasing away other males or utilising a "bow and run" threat display. This consists of a short run, the head first being raised and then bowed with the tail dipped simultaneously. If a fight between male blackbirds does occur, it is usually short and the intruder is soon chased away. The female blackbird is also aggressive in the spring when it competes with other females for a good nesting territory, and although fights are less frequent, they tend to be more violent.

The bill's appearance is important in the interactions of the common blackbird. The territory-holding male responds more aggressively towards models with orange bills than to those with yellow bills, and reacts least to the brown bill colour typical of the first-year male. The female is, however, relatively indifferent to bill colour, but responds instead to shinier bills.

As long as winter food is available, both the male and female will remain in the territory throughout the year, although occupying different areas. Migrants are more gregarious, travelling in small flocks and feeding in loose groups in the wintering grounds. The flight of migrating birds comprises bursts of rapid wing beats interspersed with level or diving movement, and differs from both the normal fast agile flight of this species and the more dipping action of larger thrushes.

Breeding
The male common blackbird attracts the female with a courtship display which consists of oblique runs combined with head-bowing movements, an open beak, and a "strangled" low song. The female remains motionless until she raises her head and tail to permit copulation. This species is monogamous, and the established pair will usually stay together as long as they both survive. Pair separation rates of up to 20% have been noted following poor breeding. Although the species is socially monogamous, there have been studies showing as much as 17% extra-pair paternity.

The nominate T. merula may commence breeding in March, but eastern and Indian races are a month or more later, and the introduced New Zealand birds start nesting in August (late winter). The breeding pair prospect for a suitable nest site in a creeper or bush, favouring evergreen or thorny species such as ivy, holly, hawthorn, honeysuckle or pyracantha. Sometimes the birds will nest in sheds or outbuildings where a ledge or cavity is used. The cup-shaped nest is made with grasses, leaves and other vegetation, bound together with mud. It is built by the female alone. She lays three to five (usually four) bluish-green eggs marked with reddish-brown blotches, heaviest at the larger end; the eggs of nominate T. merula are 2.9 × in size and weigh 7.2 g, of which 6% is shell. Eggs of birds of the southern Indian races are paler than those from the northern subcontinent and Europe.

The female incubates for 12–14 days before the altricial chicks are hatched naked and blind. Fledging takes another 10–19 (average 13.6) days, with both parents feeding the young and removing faecal sacs. The nest is often ill-concealed compared with those of other species, and many breeding attempts fail due to predation. The young are fed by the parents for up to three weeks after leaving the nest, and will follow the adults begging for food. If the female starts another nest, the male alone will feed the fledged young. Second broods are common, with the female reusing the same nest if the brood was successful, and three broods may be raised in the south of the common blackbird's range.

A common blackbird has an average life expectancy of 2.4 years, and, based on data from bird ringing, the oldest recorded age is 21 years and 10 months.

Songs and calls
In its native Northern Hemisphere range, the first-year male common blackbird of the nominate race may start singing as early as late January in fine weather in order to establish a territory, followed in late March by the adult male. The male's song is a varied and melodious low-pitched fluted warble, given from trees, rooftops or other elevated perches mainly in the period from March to June, sometimes into the beginning of July. It has a number of other calls, including an aggressive seee, a pook-pook-pook alarm for terrestrial predators like cats, and various chink and chook, chook vocalisations. The territorial male invariably gives chink-chink calls in the evening in an attempt (usually unsuccessful) to deter other blackbirds from roosting in its territory overnight. During the northern winter, blackbirds can be heard quietly singing to themselves, so much so that September and October are the only months in which the song cannot be heard. Like other passerine birds, it has a thin high seee alarm call for threats from birds of prey since the sound is rapidly attenuated in vegetation, making the source difficult to locate.

At least two subspecies, T. m. merula and T. m. nigropileus, will mimic other species of birds, cats, humans or alarms, but this is usually quiet and hard to detect.

Feeding
The common blackbird is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, seeds and berries. It feeds mainly on the ground, running and hopping with a start-stop-start progress. It pulls earthworms from the soil, usually finding them by sight, but sometimes by hearing, and roots through leaf litter for other invertebrates. Small amphibians, lizards and (on rare occasions) small mammals are occasionally hunted. This species will also perch in bushes to take berries and collect caterpillars and other active insects. Animal prey predominates, and is particularly important during the breeding season, with windfall apples and berries taken more in the autumn and winter. The nature of the fruit taken depends on what is locally available, and frequently includes exotics in gardens.

Natural threats
Near human habitation the main predator of the common blackbird is the domestic cat, with newly fledged young especially vulnerable. Foxes and predatory birds, such as the sparrowhawk and other accipiters, also take this species when the opportunity arises. However, there is little direct evidence to show that either predation of the adult blackbirds or loss of the eggs and chicks to corvids, such as the European magpie or Eurasian jay, decrease population numbers.

This species is occasionally a host of parasitic cuckoos, such as the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), but this is minimal because the common blackbird recognizes the adult of the parasitic species and its non-mimetic eggs. In the UK, only three nests of 59,770 examined (0.005%) contained cuckoo eggs. The introduced merula blackbird in New Zealand, where the cuckoo does not occur, has, over the past 130 years, lost the ability to recognize the adult common cuckoo but still rejects non-mimetic eggs.

As with other passerine birds, parasites are common. Intestinal parasites were found in 88% of common blackbirds, most frequently Isospora and Capillaria species. and more than 80% had haematozoan parasites (Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma species).

Common blackbirds spend much of their time looking for food on the ground where they can become infested with ticks, which are external parasites that most commonly attach to the head of a blackbird. In France, 74% of rural blackbirds were found to be infested with Ixodes ticks, whereas, only 2% of blackbirds living in urban habitats were infested. This is partly because it is more difficult for ticks to find another host on lawns and gardens in urban areas than in uncultivated rural areas, and partly because ticks are likely to be commoner in rural areas, where a variety of tick hosts, such as foxes, deer and boar, are more numerous. Although ixodid ticks can transmit pathogenic viruses and bacteria, and are known to transmit Borrelia bacteria to birds, there is no evidence that this affects the fitness of blackbirds except when they are exhausted and run down after migration.

The common blackbird is one of a number of species which has unihemispheric slow-wave sleep. One hemisphere of the brain is effectively asleep, while a low-voltage EEG, characteristic of wakefulness, is present in the other. The benefit of this is that the bird can rest in areas of high predation or during long migratory flights, but still retain a degree of alertness.

Status and conservation
The common blackbird has an extensive range, estimated at 32.4 e6km2, and a large population, including an estimated 79 to 160 million individuals in Europe alone. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as least concern. In the western Palearctic, populations are generally stable or increasing, but there have been local declines, especially on farmland, which may be due to agricultural policies that encouraged farmers to remove hedgerows (which provide nesting places), and to drain damp grassland and increase the use of pesticides, both of which could have reduced the availability of invertebrate food.

The common blackbird was introduced to Australia by a bird dealer visiting Melbourne in early 1857, and its range has expanded from its initial foothold in Melbourne and Adelaide to include all of southeastern Australia, including Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands. The introduced population in Australia is considered a pest because it damages a variety of soft fruits in orchards, parks and gardens, including berries, cherries, stone fruit and grapes. It is thought to spread weeds, such as blackberry, and may compete with native birds for food and nesting sites.

The introduced common blackbird is, together with the native silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), the most widely distributed avian seed disperser in New Zealand. Introduced there along with the song thrush (Turdus philomelos) in 1862, it has spread throughout the country up to an elevation of 1500 m, as well as outlying islands such as the Campbell and Kermadecs. It eats a wide range of native and exotic fruit, and makes a major contribution to the development of communities of naturalised woody weeds. These communities provide fruit more suited to non-endemic native birds and naturalised birds than to endemic birds.

In popular culture

The common blackbird was seen as a sacred though destructive bird in Classical Greek folklore, and was said to die if it consumed pomegranates. Like many other small birds, it has in the past been trapped in rural areas at its night roosts as an easily available addition to the diet, and in medieval times the practice of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving may have been the origin of the familiar nursery rhyme: Sing a song of sixpence,

A pocket full of rye;

Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie!

When the pie was opened the birds began to sing,

Oh, wasn't that a dainty dish to set before the king?

The common blackbird's melodious, distinctive song is mentioned in the poem Adlestrop by Edward Thomas; And for that minute a blackbird sang

Close by, and round him, mistier,

Farther and farther, all the birds

Of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire.

In the English Christmas carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas", the line commonly sung today as "four calling birds" is believed to have originally been written in the 18th century as "four colly birds", an archaism meaning "black as coal" that was a popular English nickname for the common blackbird.

The common blackbird, unlike many black creatures, is not normally seen as a symbol of bad luck, but R. S. Thomas wrote that there is "a suggestion of dark Places about it", and it symbolised resignation in the 17th century tragic play The Duchess of Malfi; an alternate connotation is vigilance, the bird's clear cry warning of danger.

The common blackbird is the national bird of Sweden, which has a breeding population of 1–2 million pairs, and was featured on a 30 öre Christmas postage stamp in 1970; it has also featured on a number of other stamps issued by European and Asian countries, including a 1966 4d British stamp and a 1998 Irish 30p stamp. This bird—arguably—also gives rise to the Serbian name for Kosovo (and Metohija), which is the possessive adjectival form of Serbian kos ("blackbird") as in Kosovo Polje ("Blackbird Field").

A common blackbird can be heard singing on the Beatles song "Blackbird" as a symbol of the civil rights movement.

Species information

 * BBC Science & Nature – Blackbird, with song clip (archive)
 * Madeira Birdwatching – Information on subspecies cabrerae
 * RSPB – Blackbird, including video and sound clips
 * iberCaja Classroom Network – Blackbird ageing and sexing (archived PDF; 5.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
 * Ornithos – Feathers of common blackbird (Turdus merula)

Sounds and videos

 * Blackbird videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
 * Other blackbird songs on Sonatura
 * Other blackbird songs on Sonatura

Images

 * ARKive – Blackbird still images (archive)

title: Common blackbird


text:
Swim bladder

The swim bladder, gas bladder, fish maw, or air bladder is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of many bony fish (but not cartilaginous fish ) to control their buoyancy, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to expend energy in swimming. Also, the dorsal position of the swim bladder means that the expansion of the bladder moves the center of mass downwards, allowing it to act as a stabilizing agent in some species. Additionally, the swim bladder functions as a resonating chamber, to produce or receive sound.

The swim bladder is evolutionarily homologous to the lungs of tetrapods and lungfish. Charles Darwin remarked upon this in On the Origin of Species. Darwin reasoned that the lung in air-breathing vertebrates had derived from a more primitive swim bladder as a specialized form of enteral respiration.

In the embryonic stages, some species, such as redlip blenny, have lost the swim bladder again, mostly bottom dwellers like the weather fish. Other fish—like the opah and the pomfret—use their pectoral fins to swim and balance the weight of the head to keep a horizontal position. The normally bottom dwelling sea robin can use their pectoral fins to produce lift while swimming.

The gas/tissue interface at the swim bladder produces a strong reflection of sound, which is used in sonar equipment to find fish.

Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using dynamic lift); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.

Structure and function

The swim bladder normally consists of two gas-filled sacs located in the dorsal portion of the fish, although in a few primitive species, there is only a single sac. It has flexible walls that contract or expand according to the ambient pressure. The walls of the bladder contain very few blood vessels and are lined with guanine crystals, which make them impermeable to gases. By adjusting the gas pressurising organ using the gas gland or oval window, the fish can obtain neutral buoyancy and ascend and descend to a large range of depths. Due to the dorsal position it gives the fish lateral stability.

In physostomous swim bladders, a connection is retained between the swim bladder and the gut, the pneumatic duct, allowing the fish to fill up the swim bladder by "gulping" air. Excess gas can be removed in a similar manner.

In more derived varieties of fish (the physoclisti), the connection to the digestive tract is lost. In early life stages, these fish must rise to the surface to fill up their swim bladders; in later stages, the pneumatic duct disappears, and the gas gland has to introduce gas (usually oxygen) to the bladder to increase its volume and thus increase buoyancy. This process begins with the acidification of the blood in the rete mirabile when the gas gland excretes lactic acid and produces carbon dioxide, the latter of which acidifies the blood via the bicarbonate buffer system. The resulting acidity causes the hemoglobin of the blood to lose its oxygen (Root effect) which then diffuses partly into the swim bladder. Before returning to the body, the blood re-enters the rete mirabile, and as a result, virtually all the excess carbon dioxide and oxygen produced in the gas gland diffuses back to the arteries supplying the gas gland via a countercurrent multiplication loop. Thus a very high gas pressure of oxygen can be obtained, which can even account for the presence of gas in the swim bladders of deep sea fish like the eel, requiring a pressure of hundreds of bars. Elsewhere, at a similar structure known as the 'oval window', the bladder is in contact with blood and the oxygen can diffuse back out again. Together with oxygen, other gases are salted out in the swim bladder which accounts for the high pressures of other gases as well.

The combination of gases in the bladder varies. In shallow water fish, the ratios closely approximate that of the atmosphere, while deep sea fish tend to have higher percentages of oxygen. For instance, the eel Synaphobranchus has been observed to have 75.1% oxygen, 20.5% nitrogen, 3.1% carbon dioxide, and 0.4% argon in its swim bladder.

Physoclist swim bladders have one important disadvantage: they prohibit fast rising, as the bladder would burst. Physostomes can "burp" out gas, though this complicates the process of re-submergence.

The swim bladder in some species, mainly fresh water fishes (common carp, catfish, bowfin) is interconnected with the inner ear of the fish. They are connected by four bones called the Weberian ossicles from the Weberian apparatus. These bones can carry the vibrations to the saccule and the lagena. They are suited for detecting sound and vibrations due to its low density in comparison to the density of the fish's body tissues. This increases the ability of sound detection. The swim bladder can radiate the pressure of sound which help increase its sensitivity and expand its hearing. In some deep sea fishes like the Antimora, the swim bladder maybe also connected to the macula of saccule in order for the inner ear to receive a sensation from the sound pressure. In red-bellied piranha, the swim bladder may play an important role in sound production as a resonator. The sounds created by piranhas are generated through rapid contractions of the sonic muscles and is associated with the swim bladder.

Teleosts are thought to lack a sense of absolute hydrostatic pressure, which could be used to determine absolute depth. However, it has been suggested that teleosts may be able to determine their depth by sensing the rate of change of swim-bladder volume.

Evolution

Swim bladders are evolutionarily closely related (i.e., homologous) to lungs. The first lungs originated in the last common ancestor of the Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish and the tetrapods) as expansions of the upper digestive tract which allowed them to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions. In the Actinopteri (ray-finned fish minus the bichirs) the lungs evolved into a swim bladder (secondary absent in some lineages), which unlike lungs that bud ventrally, buds dorsally from the anterior foregut. Coelacanths have a "fatty organ" that have sometimes been referred to as a swim bladder, but is structurally different and have a separate evolutionary history.

In 1997, Farmer proposed that lungs evolved to supply the heart with oxygen. In fish, blood circulates from the gills to the skeletal muscle, and only then to the heart. During intense exercise, the oxygen in the blood gets used by the skeletal muscle before the blood reaches the heart. Primitive lungs gave an advantage by supplying the heart with oxygenated blood via the cardiac shunt. This theory is robustly supported by the fossil record, the ecology of extant air-breathing fishes, and the physiology of extant fishes. In embryonal development, both lung and swim bladder originate as an outpocketing from the gut; in the case of swim bladders, this connection to the gut continues to exist as the pneumatic duct in the more "primitive" ray-finned fish, and is lost in some of the more derived teleost orders. There are no animals which have both lungs and a swim bladder.

As an adaptation to migrations between the surface and deeper waters, some fish have evolved a swim bladder where the gas is replaced with low-density wax esters as a way to cope with Boyle's law.

The cartilaginous fish (e.g., sharks and rays) split from the other fishes about 420 million years ago, and lack both lungs and swim bladders, suggesting that these structures evolved after that split. Correspondingly, these fish also have both heterocercal and stiff, wing-like pectoral fins which provide the necessary lift needed due to the lack of swim bladders. Teleost fish with swim bladders have neutral buoyancy, and have no need for this lift.

Sonar reflectivity
The swim bladder of a fish can strongly reflect sound of an appropriate frequency. Strong reflection happens if the frequency is tuned to the volume resonance of the swim bladder. This can be calculated by knowing a number of properties of the fish, notably the volume of the swim bladder, although the well-accepted method for doing so requires correction factors for gas-bearing zooplankton where the radius of the swim bladder is less than about 5 cm. This is important, since sonar scattering is used to estimate the biomass of commercially- and environmentally-important fish species.

Deep scattering layer

Sonar operators, using the newly developed sonar technology during World War II, were puzzled by what appeared to be a false sea floor 300–500 metres deep at day, and less deep at night. This turned out to be due to millions of marine organisms, most particularly small mesopelagic fish, with swimbladders that reflected the sonar. These organisms migrate up into shallower water at dusk to feed on plankton. The layer is deeper when the moon is out, and can become shallower when clouds obscure the moon.

Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swim bladder. The swim bladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the mesoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 °C, thus displaying considerable tolerance for temperature change.

Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65% of all deep sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. The estimated global biomass of lanternfish is 550–660 million tonnes, several times the annual world fisheries catch. Lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans. Sonar reflects off the millions of lanternfish swim bladders, giving the appearance of a false bottom.

Human uses
In the East Asian culinary sphere, the swim bladders of certain large fishes are considered a food delicacy. In Chinese cuisine, they are known as fish maw, 花膠/鱼鳔, and are served in soups or stews.

The vanity price of a vanishing kind of maw is behind the imminent extinction of the vaquita, the world's smallest porpoise species. Found only in Mexico's Gulf of California, the once numerous vaquita are now critically endangered. Vaquita die in gillnets set to catch totoaba (the world's largest drum fish). Totoaba are being hunted to extinction for its maw, which can sell for as much $10,000 per kilogram.

Swim bladders are also used in the food industry as a source of collagen. They can be made into a strong, water-resistant glue, or used to make isinglass for the clarification of beer. In earlier times, they were used to make condoms.

Swim bladder disease
Swim bladder disease is a common ailment in aquarium fish. A fish with swim bladder disorder can float nose down tail up, or can float to the top or sink to the bottom of the aquarium.

Risk of injury
Many anthropogenic activities, such as pile driving or even seismic waves, can create high-intensity sound waves that cause internal injury to fish that possess a gas bladder. Physoclisti can not expel air quickly enough from the gas bladder, the organ most susceptible to sonic damage, thus making it difficult for them to escape major injury. Physostomes, on the other hand, can release air from their gas bladder expeditiously enough to protect it; nevertheless, they can not relieve pressure in their other vital organs, and are therefore also vulnerable to injury. Some of the commonly seen injuries include ruptured gas bladder and renal Haemorrhage. These mostly affect the overall health of the fish but not their mortality rate. Investigators employed the High-Intensity-Controlled Impedance-Fluid-Filled (HICI-FT), a stainless-steel wave tube with an electromagnetic shaker. It simulates high-energy sound waves in aquatic far-field, plane-wave acoustic conditions.

Similar structures in other organisms
Siphonophores have a special swim bladder that allows the jellyfish-like colonies to float along the surface of the water while their tentacles trail below. This organ is unrelated to the one in fish.

Further references

 * Bond, Carl E. (1996) Biology of Fishes, 2nd ed., Saunders, pp. 283–290.
 * Pelster, Bernd (1997) "Buoyancy at depth" In: WS Hoar, DJ Randall and AP Farrell (Eds) Deep-Sea Fishes, pages 195–237, Academic Press. ISBN 9780080585406.

title: Swim bladder