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Nugal, Somalia

Nugal (Nugaal, نوغال, Nogal), traditionally known as Nugaaleed-Bari or Bari-Nugaal meaning eastern Nugaal, or Nugaal xaggeeda hoose meaning lower Nugaal, is an administrative region (gobol) in northern Somalia.

Overview

It is bordered by Sool to the west, Bari to the north, and Mudug to the south and the Somali Region of Ethiopia. The Somali Sea flanks the province to the east. During the 1970s, Nugaal was merged with Sool province as a single province called Nugaal. According to Jaamac Cumar Ciise, the eastern parts of the Nugaal are called Nugaal xaggeeda hoose or Nugaal xeebeheeda hoose, meaning lower Nugaal and lower coastal Nugaal respectively. Nugal is centered on Garowe, which serves as the capital of the autonomous Puntland macro-region. The segments of the Nugaal valley from Garowe eastwards is traditionally referred to as Bari-Nugaaleed or Bari-Nugaal, whilst segments of the valley which converge into the Iyah plains are called Jednugaal. Nonetheless, Nugaal proper traditionally refers to segments of the valley west of Garowe.

Garowe
Nugal is centered on Garowe, which serves as the capital of the autonomous Puntland macro-region. A major geographic feature of the region is the Nugaal Valley, a large shallow drainage basin fed by the Nugal and Dheer seasonal rivers during the April–June rainy season. The region was established on February 8, 1973.

Kobo
Towards the east, Nugaal Valley is separated from Nugaaleed-Bari via the region known as Kobo. Kobo was described in colonial sources ruminating about Dervish strength as follows:

"During all this time the Mullah and the majority of his karias (tribal encampments) had remained in the Eastern Nogal, in the area known as Kobo, roughly comprised in the triangle Halin, Gerrowei, Kallis. His strategical position here was a very strong one. It was secure from any possible danger of surprise, and he commanded the main routes to the south"

Districts
The Nugal region consists of five districts:

 * Burtinle District
 * Dangorayo District
 * Eyl District
 * Garowe District (Administrative capital)
 * Godobjiran District

Major towns

 * Burtinle
 * Dangorayo
 * Eyl
 * Garowe

title: Nugal, Somalia


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Mudug

Mudug (Mudug; Mudugh) is an administrative region (gobol) in north-central Somalia. The population of Mudug is 131,455 as of 2005.

Overview
Physiographically, Mudug is bordered to the west by Ethiopia, to the north and south by the Somali regions of Nugal and Galguduud respectively, and to the east by the Indian Ocean. The provincial capital is Galkayo.

The southern half of Mudug and the region of Galgaduud have formed the Galmudug State, which considers itself an autonomous state within the larger Federal Republic of Somalia, as defined by the provisional constitution of Somalia.

Districts
Mudug Region consists of five districts:

 * Galdogob District
 * Galkayo District
 * Harardhere District*
 * Hobyo District*
 * Jariban District

Note:
 * - part of Galmudug

Villages

 * Dajimale
 * El Dinouda Digdighei

 * Maygag Qabcalle, an unpopulated locality
 * War Galoh

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mudug


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Galguduud

Galguduud (Galgaduud, جلجدود, Galgudud or Ghelgudud) is an administrative region (gobol) of Galmudug state in central Somalia. Its administrative capital is Dusmareb. The largest town in the region is El Buur, which lies on the north-westernmost point of the region.

Galguduud is bordered by Ethiopia, the Somali regions of Mudug; Hiran, Middle Shebelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe), and the Indian Ocean. The largest clan in this region is The Hawiye. With the Abgaal, specifically Waceysle, Murusade and Habar Gidir subclans being the most prominent.

The region of Galgaduud and Mudug formed the Galmudug State by 2016, which considers itself an autonomous state within the larger Federal Republic of Somalia, as defined by the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia.

Districts
Galguduud Region consists of 5 districts:

 * 1) El Dher(Ceeldheer) District
 * 2) Adado (Cadaado) District
 * 3) Dusmareb (Dhuusamareeb) District
 * 4) El Bur (Ceelbuur) District
 * 5) Abudwak (Caabudwaaq) District

Borders
Galguduud is bordered by Somali galbeed or the Feerfeer-Dharkayn Geenyo Line to the west, the Somali region of Mudug to the north; Hiran and Middle Shebelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe) to the south, and the Indian Ocean to the east.

title: Galguduud


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Hiran, Somalia

Hiran (Hiiraan, هيران) is an administrative region (gobol) in central Somalia and part of the Hirshabelle State.

Overview
Hiran is bordered by the Somali Region of Ethiopia (or the 1908 Convention Line) to the northwest, the Somali provinces of Galgudud to the northeast, Middle Shebelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe) to the south, Lower Shebelle (Shabellaha Hoose) to the southwest, and Bay and Bakool to the west. It is approximately 31,510 km2. The Shebelle River flows into Hiran from Ethiopia, coursing through the provincial capital of Beledweyne.

Districts
According to the Somalia government's classification, Hiran Region consists of three districts:

 * 1) Beledweyne District
 * 2) Buloburde District
 * 3) Jalalaqsi District

In May 2012, Governor Hiran appointed new governors for Mahas and Mataban Districts.

In August 2017, the Hirshabelle State, inaugurated the previous year, declared that where Hiran had previously had five districts, Beledweyne, Buloburde, Mahas, Jalalaqsi, and Mataban, it would now have three new districts, Halgan, El Ali, Far- Libaax, bringing the total number of districts to eight.

Universities

 * Nile university
 * Green-Hope University

Traditional Elder
Nabadoon Dacar Xirsi Nuur

Recent history
Somalia became a civil war around 1990.

Since 1994, the Sharia law has been increasingly applied in Hiran.

In June 1995, Mohamed Farrah Aidid declared himself president of Somalia and attempted to rule Hiran, but was ousted by local clans in late 1995.

According to a 1998 report, Hiran is considered a relatively stable region within Somalia. However, banditry has flourished in the past. The governor lives in Beledweyne, and the use of militias has reduced the incidence of fighting, with the exception of Mataban District.

In June 1999, flooding in south-central Somalia caused extensive damage in Hiran.

In November 2001, the Quran School was attacked by an armed group, killing 18 students.

In August 2006, the Xawaadle and Murusade clans, who had been fighting in the Maxaas of Hiran, reconciled. However, the agreement was violated and the conflict resumed, so a peace conference was held again in October 2007.

In November 2007, militants attacked government forces near Beledweyne in Hiran. In January 2008, militants attacked an Ethiopian military base near Beledweyne.

In September 2010, the establishment of a local government called Dooxada Shabeelle was proclaimed in Kalabayr, Hiran, led by C/fataax Xasan Afrax.

In March 2011, a bombing by Al-Shabaab occurred in Beledweyne.

In December 2011, Ethiopian troops and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a completely retook the city of Baladweyne from al-Shabaab.

In May 2013, Governor Hiran decided to send deserter soldiers from al-Shabaab who are hiding, and asked the local population for help in sending them to rehabilitation facilities.

In November 2013, a disease outbreak killed 40 people in Ceel-Cali, Hiran.

In March 2014, Hiran's executive government asked foreign charities for help, saying that healthcare was in crisis after the withdrawal of a Swiss hospital last year.

In October 2014, the AMISOM base in Hiran was attacked.

In May 2015, at a meeting in Beledweyne, a proposal was made to divide Hiran into two regions.

In December 2015, the Somali government replaced Governor Hiran for his involvement in the murders in Beledweyne. In the same month, the Somali President visits Beledweyne.

In January 2016, three people were killed in a clan war in Hiran.

In August 2016, Somalia's interior minister rejected a local request to divide Hiran into two regions.

In October 2016, Somali government and Ethiopian troops withdrew from the Halgan District of Hiran and were replaced by al-Shabaab. The withdrawal of Ethiopian troops is reportedly related to a state of emergency declaration issued in response to anti-government protests in Ethiopia.

In December 2016, Governor Hiran destroyed more than 50 charcoal burning facilities in Mataban District to prevent illegal logging and arrested more than 20 people.

In November 2017, the Hiran government declared a halt to the use of Somali shillings because villages controlled by al-Shabaab refused to accept high denomination 1,000 Somali shilling bills and because of the influx of counterfeit bills from Puntland, which caused massive inflation. United States dollars were to be used for transactions.

In October 2019, Beledweyne was severely damaged by the flooding of the Jubba and Shebelle Rivers. In November 2019, the African Union Commission assisted flooded Beledweyne with $87,000 worth of relief supplies.

In March 2020, President Mohamed Abdi Ware of Hirshabelle State dismisses Hiran Governor Ali Mohamed Arale and reappoints his predecessor Ali Jeyte Osman, but Arale refuses.

In June 2022, a clan attacked the al-Shabaab base in Booco.

title: Hiran, Somalia


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Bakool

Bakool (Bakool, Maay: Bokool, بكول) is a region (gobol) in southwestern Somalia.

Overview
It is bordered by the Somali regions of Hiiraan, Bay and Gedo.

Bakool, like Gedo and Bay, as well as most parts of the Jubbada Dhexe (Middle Juba) region, used to be a part of the old Upper Region, which was subdivided in the mid-1980s. It has its capital at Hudur.

In March 2014, Somali Armed Forces assisted by an Ethiopian battalion with AMISOM re-captured the Bakool province's capital Hudur from the Al-Shabaab militant group. The offensive was part of an intensified military operation by the allied forces to remove the insurgent group from the remaining areas in southern Somalia under its control.

Districts
The Bakool region consists of five districts:
 * El Barde District
 * Hudur District
 * Rabdhure District
 * Tiyeglow District
 * Wajid District

Major towns

 * El Barde
 * Hudur
 * Qurajome
 * Rab Dhuure
 * Tiyeglow
 * Wajid
 * Yeed
 * Yowkooyow
 * Buur Dhuhnle
 * Garasweyne
 * Moorigaabey

title: Bakool


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Middle Shabelle

Middle Shabelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe, شبيلي الوسطى, Medio Scebeli) is an administrative region (gobol) in southern Somalia.

It is bordered by Hiran to the north, Galgaduud to the east, the Indian Ocean to the south and the region of Lower Shabelle and the capital Mogadishu to the west. The Shabelle River also passes through this region.

The region of Middle Shabelle formed the Hirshabelle State by 2016, which considers itself an autonomous state within the larger Federal Republic of Somalia, as defined by the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia.

The regional capital is Jowhar. The Abgaal clan dominate economically, politically, and rules across all districts.

RADIO ASAL Radio Asal is private Radio located jowhar city capital of Hir-Shabelle State in Somalia. Radio Asal is a local Radio 88.6 MHz jowhar-somali.

Overview
As part of the former Benadir region, Middle Shabelle's capital was Mogadishu up until the mid-1980s, when the town of Jowhar became the capital. It is named after the Shebelle River that passes through this region.

The region is regarded as one of the most fertile regions in Somalia and was the first region to have multiple factories opened up in it, such as a sugar and clothes factory. It was also the main source of local grown food before the civil war.

Today, the region supports livestock production, rain-fed and irrigated agriculture and fisheries, with an annual rainfall between 150 and 500 millimeters. Covering an area of approximately 60,000 square kilometres, the region has a 400 kilometre coastline on the Indian Ocean. The Shabelle river runs for 150 kilometres through the region.

Demographics
A pre-war census estimated the population at 2 million and today the Regional Council claims that the region's population is around 1.5 million. It is also estimated that 60% of the regions population are nomads or farmers.

However, the FSNAU population estimate survey in 2022 estimated the population as being 918,463, which is highly disputed.

The majority clan in the region is the Abgaal. Other clans that live in the region include other Mudulood clans.

Districts
Middle Shabelle Region consists of seven districts:

 * Jowhar District
 * Balcad District
 * Adale District
 * Adan Yabaal District
 * Warsheikh District
 * Ruun-Nirgood District
 * Mahadaay District

title: Middle Shabelle


text:
Lower Shabelle

Lower Shabelle (Shabeellaha Hoose, Maay: Shibelithy Hoosy, شبيلي السفلى, Basso Scebeli) is an administrative region (gobol) in southern Somalia.

Geography
Lower Shabelle is bordered by the regions of Banaadir, Middle Shabelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe), Hiran, Bay, Middle Jubba (Jubbada Dhexe) and by the Somali Sea. It is named after the Shebelle River, which passes through it.

Until 1984, when the regions were reassigned, it was part of the larger Benadir region and its capital was Mogadishu. Its capital is now Merca.

Districts
Lower Shabelle Region is divided into Nineteen Districts:
 * Merca Minicipality (Capital City)
 * Afgooye District
 * Barawa District
 * Kurtunwarrey District
 * Jilib Merca District
 * Danaane District
 * Gondershe District
 * Ceeljaalle District
 * Lambar 50 District
 * Qoryooley District
 * Sablaale District
 * Wanlaweyn District
 * Awdheegle District
 * Mubaarak District
 * Bariire District
 * Jannaale District
 * Shalambood District
 * Buul Golweyn District
 * Buulo marer District

Major Cities
Major Cities include
 * Merca
 * Afgooye
 * Qoryoley
 * Barawa
 * Awdheegle
 * Wanlaweyn
 * Sablale
 * Jannaale
 * Mubaarak
 * Buulo Mareer
 * Gobanle
 * Jilib Merca
 * Kunyo Barrow
 * Daarusalam

Violence in Golweyn
On 30 July 2017, an AMISOM convoy was ambushed by al-Shabaab insurgents, killing and wounding several Ugandan soldiers.

Eight children were killed and dozens were wounded when a bomb exploded in Golweyn on 31 January 2021.

title: Lower Shabelle


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Banaadir

Banaadir (Banaadir, بنادر, Benadir) is an administrative region (gobol) in southeastern Somalia. It covers the same area as the city of Mogadishu, which serves as the capital. It is the only region in the country not belonging to any of the five states. It is bordered to the northwest by the Shabelle river, and to the southeast by the Indian Ocean. Although by far the smallest administrative region in Somalia, it has the largest population, estimated at 1,650,227 (including 369,288 internally displaced persons) in 2014.

The territorial extent and scope of the term Benaadir has varied in definition throughout its history, with medieval usage extending Benaadir to huge swaths of coast adjacent to Mogadishu stretching as far as hundreds of miles, from Hobyo in the north. The early modern period which extended the meaning of Benaadir to the interior midway towards the Hirshabelle region, to the contemporary period wherein sometimes the nonstandard misnomer of usage being interchangeable with the city of Mogadishu. This Banaadir municipality is bordered to the north by Hirshabelle and to the southwest by South West, and is the only Somali gobol (administrative region) which is both a municipality and a gobol known as a region.

Overview
The Banaadir region is bordered by the Middle Shebelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe) and Lower Shebelle (Shabeellaha Hoose), as well as the Indian Ocean.

"Benaadir" is derived from the Somali banaadir, which means "coast", in reference to the southern Somali coastal cities Mogadishu, Merka and Barawa. The place name reflects the region's medieval position as a key trade center with Persia, Arabian peninsula and the Swahili coast.

The name derives from the Persian bandar meaning ‘port’ or ‘harbour’.

Its capital is Mogadishu, known locally as Xamar (pronounced: Hamar), although the administrative region itself is coextensive with the city. Benaadir is much smaller than the historical region of Benadir, which covered most of the country's central and southern seaboard opposite the Indian Ocean and up to the Juba River, including Mogadishu.

Thabit M. Abdi was appointed mayor of Mogadishu and governor of Banaadir in 2017, succeeding Yusuf Hussein Jimale who held that post since November 2015.

Political
Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia, including the Mogadishu area, was inhabited by Benadiris for centuries and was during the early modern period considered the wealthiest city on the East African coast, as well as the center of a thriving textile industry. In the 17th century, Mogadishu and parts of southern Somalia fell under the Hiraab Imamate and in the 19th century came under the Geledi Sultanate's sphere of influence.

After the Somali Republic became independent in 1960, Mogadishu became known and promoted as the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean. After the ousting of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 and the ensuing Somali Civil War, various militias fought for control of the city, later to be replaced by the Islamic Courts Union in the mid-2000s. The ICU thereafter splintered into more radical groups, notably the al-Shabaab, which fought the Transitional Federal Government (2004–2012) and its African Union Mission to Somalia allies. With a change in administration in late 2010, government troops and their military partners had succeeded in forcing out Al-Shabaab by August 2011. Mogadishu has then subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction.

Population
The 1,650,227 (as of 2014) residents of Benaadir are 50.7% female and come from 303,021 households. It has the highest percentage of residents who are internally displaced persons among the regions of Somalia, because of its relative safety, economic opportunities and availability of resources.

Districts
The Banaadir region consists of seventeen districts. Warta Nabada District was previously known as Wardhigley District until it was officially renamed in 2012. Kahda District was formed in 2013 and is still absent from most maps.

 * Abdiaziz District
 * Bondhere District
 * Daynile District
 * Dharkenley District
 * Hamar-Jajab District
 * Hamar-Weyne District
 * Hodan District
 * Howl-Wadag District
 * Huriwa District
 * Kaxda District
 * Karan District
 * Shangani District
 * Shibis District
 * Waberi District
 * Wadajir District
 * Warta Nabada District
 * Yaqshid District

title: Banaadir


text:
Bay, Somalia

Bay (Baay, باي, Bai) is an administrative region (gobol) in southern Somalia.

Overview
It is bordered by the Somali regions of Bakool, Hiran, Lower Shebelle (Shabeellaha Hoose), Middle Juba (Jubbada Dhexe), and Gedo.

Baidoa used to be the capital of the old Upper Juba region, which today also includes Gedo and Bakool, as well as most parts of the Middle Juba region. Present regions were created in the 1970s by the then ruling military regime. The capital of Bay is Baidoa.

Despite the name Bay, it is landlocked and nowhere near the Indian Ocean shores.

Demographics
The region is mainly inhabited by the Rahanweyn people. According to the Population Estimation Survey (2014) (282), the division of population in the Bay region is as follows: 93,046 urban inhabitants, 463,330 rural settlers, 195,986 nomadic and 39,820 IDPs, making a total of 792,182.

Districts
Bay Region consists of five districts:

 * Baidoa District
 * Burhakaba District
 * Dinsoor District
 * Qasadhere District
 * Berdale District
 * Ufurow District

Major towns

 * Baidoa
 * Dinsoor
 * Burhakaba
 * Berdaale
 * Qansahdhere
 * Ufurow
 * Awdiinle
 * Leego
 * Eesow

title: Bay, Somalia


text:
Gedo

Gedo (Gedo, Maay: Gethy, جيذو, Ghedo or Ghedu) is an administrative region (gobol) in Jubaland, southern Somalia. Its regional capital is Garbahaarreey. It was created in 1974 and is bordered by the Ogaden in Ethiopia, the North Eastern Province in Kenya, and the Somali regions of Bakool, Bay, Jubbada Dhexe (Middle Juba), and Jubbada Hoose (Lower Juba) further down east. The southern parts of Gedo, west of the Jubba River, used to be part of the old British Trans-Juba region during half of the seventy years of colonial era in Africa from 1890 to 1960. The British and Italians fought twice over this area. The first democratically elected governor of the administrative region was Hussein Farey, who entered office in 2008.

The regional capital is Garbaharey. The Marehan (Darod) dominate economically, politically, and militarily, and rule across all districts.

The Marehan in Gedo is split between the guri ('original inhabitants') and the galti ('new settlers'). Guri-Galti conflicts over power and resources are common, especially in Luuq, Belet Hawo, and Baardhere.

Garbaharrey was the last refuge of deposed President Mohammed Siad Barre in early 1991, before he left the country for Nairobi and exile. After 1991, the Somali National Front under Marehan Omar Haji Masale held large parts of the region for many years. The militant religious group al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (AIAI) also rose to power in the region later in the 1990s, taking Luuq as its headquarters. The Ethiopian National Defence Force then entered the area to attack AIAI's bases in 1996, and the Marehan clans split, either supporting or opposing the Ethiopian forces. A peace conference to resolve the intra-Marehan disagreements was convened in 2004.

Districts
Gedo Region consists of six districts:

 * El Wak District
 * Bardhere District
 * Balet Hawo District
 * Doolow District
 * Garbahaarreey District
 * Luuq District
 * Buurdhuubo District

Major rivers in the Gedo region include the Dawa and the Jubba.

Education
The city of Garbahaarreey and the region's two ancient cities of Luuq and Bardera had education systems up to the secondary level. There were some technical schools in Bardera and Garbaharreey, albeit without a curriculum. They are connected through the Gedo Education Committee. All of Gedo region's high school graduates attended the Somali National University or affiliated institutions in Mogadishu.

Since the civil war in Somalia, Gedo became one of half dozen regions which have restarted higher education institutions in the country. Bardera Polytechnic, Gedo's first college, and the University of Gedo, are both located in Bardera.

Demographics
According to a 1994 UNOSOM II estimate, the population of Gedo was about 590,000, the majority of the population being from the Marehan. Other estimates varied considerably; two reports by the United Nations Development Office for Somalia issued in the same year, 1995, gave very different estimates: 330,000 and about 1 million.

The United Nations Development Programme estimated the total in 2005 as 328,378; and UN estimates from 2014 stand at some 508,000.

Economy
The economy mostly depends on livestock and farming, but the Gedo region has strong interregional and international cross-border trade with Kenya and to some extent. with Ethiopia. Trade between Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia allowed the Gedo region to be economically stable for the years before the UN intervention and afterward. The 1998 Nordic Fact Finding Mission prepared a report on the Gedo region and found some encouraging economic figures. Davidson College assistant professor Ken Menkhaus said that "Traders in Gedo region made more profit than, for instance, those in Hargeisa, in north-western Somalia." Trade going through the border between the three countries were ongoing despite the raging civil war in Somalia for much of the 1990.

Government
Gedo region has a 32-member assembly body. The members are directly elected from the seven districts of the region with proportionality according to district population. The Gedo assembly or (Gollaha Gobalka Gedo) works with the federal government based in Mogadishu. Regional level posts include:

 * Governor
 * Vice Governor
 * Inter-Regional Affairs Director
 * Director of Security Services
 * Gedo Regional Police Commander
 * Director of Education Services
 * Director of Agricultural Agency
 * Director of Economic Affairs
 * Livestock and Forestry Dept. Director
 * Director of Justice and Religious Affairs

After long conflicts in the region, the regional elders started a peace conference with initiatives from the then governor, Aden Ibrahim Aw Hirsi. This effort ended in success. and were followed by the elections of the regional assembly. The process was financed by UNDP.

In addition to regional posts, the Federal Government of Somalia maintains military forces in the region. Brigade 9 of Division 60 (Somalia) was reported in the region as of 2016, originating from a U.S.-funded pilot programme that began in 2012.

Cities and towns
Bardera and Beled Haawo cities are the two principal cities of the Gedo region. In the recent past, Luuq or Lugh used to be the main political city of the Gedo Region, but the Somali Civil War made many of the city's residents to flee to other towns.

Bardera, the largest city and the seat of the most populous district in Gedo, has become urbanized to the extent that its population multiplied 400% since the breakdown of law and order in the capital of the country, Mogadishu. Aside from the urban population in proper Bardera, the rest of the region's population are pastoralists with the exception of people living in the cities where the region's seven district seats are located. The town is home to Bardera Polytechnic as well as the University of Gedo which also has a campus at Beled Haawo.

 * Adayle
 * Anoole
 * Daar
 * Mardhaa
 * Bardera
 * Barwaaqo
 * Beled Haawo
 * Banaaney
 * Bilcisha
 * Boorame
 * Buraa
 * Boore
 * Buulo Mareer
 * Buurdhuubo
 * Buusaar
 * Caanoole
 * Cinjirta
 * Caracase
 * Ceel Cadde

 * Ceel Duur
 * Ceel Gaduud
 * Ceel Waaq
 * Dhamasa or Dhamaso
 * Dheenle
 * Dhuusaay
 * Doolow
 * Calijiciir
 * El Mergis
 * Fafahdun
 * Faan Weyn
 * Gantamaa
 * Garbahaarreey
 * Gedweyne
 * Gerileey
 * Gosoweyna

 * Hareeri
 * Kurmaan
 * Luuq
 * Malmaleey
 * Mudulow
 * madhawey
 * Qooneey
 * Shaatooloow
 * Siidimo
 * Uunsi
 * Gus waran
 * Eeykiintuuri
 * Uar Esgudud
 * Xamara
 * Yurkud

title: Gedo


text:
Middle Juba

Middle Juba (Jubbada Dhexe, جوبا الأوسط, Medio Giuba) is an administrative region (gobol) in southern Somalia. With its capital at Bu'aale, it is located in the autonomous Jubaland region.

Middle Juba is bordered by the Somali regions of Gedo, Bay, Lower Shebelle (Shabellaha Hoose), Lower Juba (Jubbada Hoose), and the Indian Ocean. The region is named after the Jubba River that runs through it.

The region has agricultural production, and the products of it are sesame, corn, millet, beans, and large fruits.

Middle Juba is the only region in Somalia to be fully controlled by Al-Shabaab, a militant Islamic extremist group. As of 2019 Middle Juba has the lowest Human Development Index score in Somalia and the world.

Districts
Middle Juba consists of four districts:

 * Bu'aale District
 * Jilib District
 * Sakow District
 * Salagle District

title: Middle Juba


text:
Lower Juba

Lower Juba (Jubbada Hoose, Maay: Jubithy Hoosy, جوبا السفلى, Basso Giuba) is an administrative region (gobol) in southern Somalia. With its capital at Kismayo, it lies in the autonomous Jubaland region. It has green forests and wildlife including lions, giraffes, hippos, crocodiles, and hyenas.

Lower Juba is bordered by Kenya, the Somali regions of Gedo, Middle Juba (Jubbada Dhexe), and the Somali Sea. The province is named after the Jubba River that passes through it and empties into the Somali Sea at Goobweyn. The Lag Badana National Park is situated in Lower Juba.

History
In the latter half of the 20th century, a few Darod families started to settle in Kismayo city, which was then surrounded by the Bajuni people and other smaller groups. By the turn of the 20th century they had established a small business centres. In the beginning of the Somali civil wars, Kismaio known as Waamo faced a massive destruction among the faction leaders mainly between Different Darood sub-clans each claiming the ownership of the Lower & Middle Juba regions with the USC trying to encroach. However, the city subsequently evolved into a major hub of the livestock trade. The main Darod representatives to establish themselves in Kismayo were Marehan, Harti and Absame, as well aw Sheikhaal and Gaaljecel traders from the northeastern Ras Hafun promontory, who were referred to as Hafuuni. In the first two decades of the 20th century, members of the Marehan clan of Darod were the first to build a few settlements in modern day Kismayo and Harti and Sheikhaal clans followed suit.

Between 1974 and 1975, a major drought referred to as the Abaartii Dabadheer ("The Lingering Drought") occurred in the northern regions of Somalia. The Soviet Union, which at the time maintained strategic relations with the Siad Barre government, airlifted some 90,000 people from the devastated regions of Hobyo and Caynaba. New small settlements referred to as Danwadaagaha ("Collective Settlements") were then created in Jubbada Hoose (Lower Jubba) and Jubbada Dhexe (Middle Jubba) regions. The transplanted families were also introduced to farming and fishing techniques, a change from their traditional pastoralist lifestyle of livestock herding.

Districts
Lower Juba Region consists of 5 districts:

The Bajuni Islands are also within the region.
 * Kismaayo District
 * Afmadow District
 * Badhaadhe District
 * Jamaame District
 * Xagar District
 * Dhoobley District

Towns

 * Afmadow
 * Dhoobleey
 * Jamaame
 * Hoosingow
 * Khar-Khar
 * Kismayo
 * Badhaadhe
 * Buula Xaaji
 * Dalsan
 * Ras Kamboni
 * Kudhaa
 * Calanleey

 * Fuuma

title: Lower Juba


text:
African thrush

The African thrush or West African thrush (Turdus pelios) is a passerine bird in the thrush family Turdidae. It is common in well-wooded areas over much of the western part of sub-Saharan Africa, it was once considered to be conspecific with the olive thrush but that species has now been split further. Populations are resident (non-migratory).

Description
The African Thrush has dark olive-grey upperparts. The underparts show a whitish evenly brown- streaked side throat, the breast is greyish brown and the flanks are pale buff-orange with this colour not extending on to the lower breast, the belly and vent are white. It has a yellow-orange bill. It weighs 46–78 g and measures 21–23 cm in length.

Voice
The song of the African thrush is a sustained, clear warbling made up of different phrases repeated rather randomly in a sequence. Also a high-pitched squealing flight call.

Distribution
The African thrush is distributed from Senegal and Gambia in the west to South Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea south to northwestern Zambia and western Angola.

Habitat
The African thrush can be found in all sorts of wooded habitats including forest edge, riparian woodland, scrub cultivation, parks and gardens.

Habits
The African thrush is normally encountered either singly or in pairs and is shy and retiring, preferring to remain in cover, but will come out and gather at fruiting trees. Usually forages in the ground, flicking leaf litter and searching through vegetation. Where undisturbed or habituated to people will feed out in the open in a similar fashion to the song thrush in Europe, and it is also reported to crack open snails on an anvil stone like a song thrush. Foraging is crepuscular and fruit, especially that of the nim Azadarichta indica, as well as figs, papaya, berries and seeds, makes up most of the diet supplemented with invertebrates and the occasional small fish. Breeding is recorded in all months, but breeding activity peaks in the wet season, which is March to September or October in West Africa, April–July in Ethiopia and November to March in the rest of its range. The nest is cup shaped and bulky and is constructed using plant fibres and mud lined with fine grasses, leaves and roots. This nest is placed on a horizontal branch, in a tree fork or among vines, usually at a height lower than 10 m from the ground. It may re-use the abandoned nest of another species. The female is responsible for incubating the normal clutch of 2–3 eggs; both sexes feed the young. It is double brooded.

Taxonomy
The African thrush may be part of a superspecies with the Kurrichane thrush and the bare-eyed thrush, and some subspecies of African thrush (T.p. poensis, T.p.nigrilorum, T.p. centralis and T.p. chinguanicoides) have been considered subspecies of olive thrush.

The currently recognised subspecies and their distributions are:

 * Turdus pelios chiguancoides Seebohm, 1881 : Senegal east to northern Ghana.
 * Turdus pelios saturatus (Cabanis, 1882) : west Ghana east to central Cameroon, western Congo and Gabon.
 * Turdus pelios nigrilorum Reichenow, 1892 : Mount Cameroon.
 * Turdus pelios poensis Alexander, 1903 : Bioko (formerly Fernando Póo).
 * Turdus pelios pelios Bonaparte, 1850 : eastern Cameroon east to South Sudan, western Eritrea and western, central and eastern Ethiopia.
 * Turdus pelios centralis Reichenow, 1905 : eastern Congo and southern Central African Republic east to southern Ethiopia, western Kenya and north-western Tanzania.
 * Turdus pelios bocagei (Cabanis, 1882) : western Democratic Republic of Congo and north-western and western Angola.
 * Turdus pelios graueri Neumann, 1908 : eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda and western Tanzania.
 * Turdus pelios stormsi Hartlaub, 1886 : south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Angola and northern Zambia.

title: African thrush


text:
Warsaw Metro

The Warsaw Metro (Metro Warszawskie) is a rapid transit underground system serving the Polish capital Warsaw. It currently consists of two lines, the north–south M1 line which links central Warsaw with its densely populated northern and southern districts, and the east–west M2 line. Three more lines (M3, M4, and M5) are planned. The system is operated by Metro Warszawskie, a company owned by the city, and managed by Public Transport Authority in Warsaw. As of 2024, it is the only metro system in Poland.

The first section of M1 was opened in 1995 and the line was gradually extended until it reached its full length in October 2008. The contract for the construction of the initial central section of M2 was signed on 28 October 2009 and construction began on 16 August 2010. The initial segment of M2, measuring 6.3 km with seven stations, one of which, Świętokrzyska, includes a transfer between the two lines, was opened on 8 March 2015. The line's further extensions have been opening since 2019, and it is expected to be completed in 2026, when it will have 21 stations.

In February 2023, the mayor of Warsaw Rafał Trzaskowski released a plan for the Warsaw Metro, calling for five metro lines by the year 2050. The plan includes constructing two additional M1 stations, Plac Konstytucji and Muranów, extending M2 line to Marymont and Ursus-Niedźwiadek, as well as construction of three new lines: M3, M4, and M5. With those extensions the metro would directly serve 17 out of Warsaw’s 18 districts.

History
Plans to build an underground rail system in Warsaw date as far back as 1918, when the idea was first proposed after Warsaw regained its status as Poland's capital city. An underground railway system was expected to solve the transport difficulties of the densely built city center. Proper preliminary planning and boring work were initiated by the Warsaw Tramway Authority in 1925, with construction expected to start in the late 1920s. The Great Depression buried those plans as Poland and the world were gripped by economic hardship.

In 1934, with the election of a new mayor of Warsaw, Stefan Starzyński, work was to resume on the metro. The mayor dusted off the plans from the mid-1920s, and with some minor adjustments, construction of the metro was planned to start by the late 1930s, with a projected finishing date of the first of two projected lines scheduled for the mid-1940s. By then, the subway network was to consist of two lines. Line M1 (north–south line, 4.6 mi long) was to follow a route similar to the present-day line and was to link the southernmost borough of Mokotów with the city center and the northern borough of Żoliborz. This line was to be connected with the newly constructed Warszawa Główna railway station and the railway tunnel crossing the city from west to east. Line M2 (east–west, 3.95 mi long) was to start beneath the westernmost borough of Wola, proceed along the Chłodna street to the pivotal station beneath the Saxon Square and then further eastwards to the Vistula river escarpment. There, the line was to go overground, cross the river through a newly built bridge and proceed to the easternmost railway station of Warszawa Wschodnia. Altogether, in 35 years, 7 lines were to be built. The works finally started in 1938, but World War II brought an end to the ambitious undertaking. The short trace tunnels made in 1938 serve as a wine cellar today.

The city suffered heavily during World War II. Although the majority of pre-war projects were destroyed during the war, most of the engineers behind their creations survived and returned to their city to take part in its rebirth. However, the new Communist authorities of Poland envisioned a city completely different from what it had been before the war. As the "ideal" communist city, Warsaw was to be decentralized and the need to commute to the city center was reduced. Thus, the Office for the Reconstruction of Warsaw (BOS) commissioned several engineers to prepare a project for a fast urban railway (SKM) crossing the city in a deep cutting. Although to a large extent it was to follow line 1 of the pre-war plans, only the central stations were to be located underground. However, by the end of the decade, the project was cancelled. Instead, in 1948 communist planners developed a different concept with the new SKM morphing into a rapid transit line at a depth of up to 15 m. The suggested north–south direction, with three parallel branches of the same line in the city center, corresponded to the planned development of the city along the Vistula. The works, however, never started and this project was also abandoned.

In the 1950s, as the Cold War raged on, Soviet strategic plans required that a secure transport link across the river Vistula be built. One of the ways to achieve this was to create a deep metro system in Warsaw ( pl:Metro głębokie w Warszawie; up to 150 ft beneath the ground), which would be interlinked with the rail network and could serve as an underground conduit for transporting troops. Plans assumed that the first line (about 11 km long) would lie along a north–south axis, with a branch of the same line crossing the Vistula river in the city centre. The construction works started almost simultaneously at 17 different points on both sides of the river. By 1953 only 771 m of tunnels had been built; after the death of Joseph Stalin and the start of a period of détente, all work was halted under the pretext of technical difficulties. In the following years, only one junction tunnel and one shield-driven tunnel were continued. These works were undertaken experimentally, to discover the best driving methods suitable for the ground conditions beneath Warsaw (pliocene clay formations layer spread beneath quaternary soils). All work was halted in 1957, and the tunnel eventually flooded in 1960.

Since 1955, planners returned to the old idea of a shallow metro network. However, the planning phase proceeded at a very slow pace and the economic situation prevented all successive governments from actually starting serious work. Finally, in 1983, the program was approved by the government and the first tunnels were built. Lack of funds, technical difficulties, shortage of materials and outdated tunnelling methods meant that the work progressed very slowly, sometimes at a speed no greater than 2 m per day.

The Metro was opened on 7 April 1995 with a total of 11 stations. The initial line, M1, has 21 stations over a route distance of 22.7 km.

Many of the station name announcements are narrated by Ksawery Jasieński, with some newer stations using recordings by Maciej Gudowski.

On 11 March 2016, a 1 billion PLN (€225 million) contract was awarded to the Italian company Astaldi to build the first phase of the north-east M2 extension with 3.2 km of track and 3 stations: Szwedzka, Targówek Mieszkaniowy, and Trocka. On 30 April, construction on Szwedzka station started, and on 2 May, the other two stations started construction. Construction of this phase took 3 years, until it opened on 15 September 2019. Initially, this extension was to be built at the same time as the west extension which was due to be completed in 2020. However, due to delays, it was decided that each extension will be built at its own pace. The extension from Rondo Daszyńskiego to Księcia Janusza was opened on 4 April 2020, and the extension from Księcia Janusza to Bemowo was opened on 30 June 2022. On 28 September 2022, the extension of M2 consisting of three new stations: Zacisze, Kondratowicza, and Bródno was opened to the public.

Rolling stock

Initially, all of the trains were Russian-built 81-series metro cars. They first arrived in Warsaw in 1990 as a "gift" from the USSR, five years before the Metro's opening, from the Metrovagonmash plant in Mytishchi near Moscow (model 81-717.3/714.3 - 10 carriages). Subsequent trains arrived from Saint Petersburg's Vagonmash (I. E. Yegorov) Plant in 1994 (81-572/573 - 32 carriages) and an additional 18 81-572.1/573.1 carriages in 1997.

In 1995 the metro began operation with 14 three-car trainsets, with 5 minute intervals between trains during rush hours. With the opening of the Centrum metro stations the trains were extended to four cars and their number was increased to 15.

In 1998, 108 new carriages of the modern Metropolis family were ordered from the French company Alstom, forming 18 six-car trainsets. These were all delivered by 2005 (24 were produced in Barcelona and the remainder in the Alstom Konstal plant in Chorzów).

In 2006, additional 30 carriages were ordered from Russia to extend the existing 81-series to the target length of six cars, with deliveries taking place up to 2007.

In 2007 five new Russian 81-series trains with redesigned front-ends were purchased, with the contract extended to seven in 2009.

In February 2011, an order was signed with German manufacturer Siemens for 35 complete trains from their new Inspiro line. A large number of these were manufactured in Poland by Newag. The first five trains were put into service in 2013. However, in November 2013 a fire broke out in one of the carriages and for safety reasons all five trains were withdrawn from operation until the cause of the fire was determined. Once the investigation was completed the five new Inspiro trains were placed back into service in March 2014. In 2012, a non-revenue diesel shunting locomotive, classified as ZPS LM-400.00, was manufactured by Zakład Pojazdów Szynowych in Stargard, designed especially for shunting Inspiro trains at the Kabaty depot.

By 2020, the Siemens Inspiro formed the majority of the operating rolling stock.

Originally the 81-series and Alstom Metropolis trains were painted in two horizontal stripes of equal width, the upper one white and the lower one red, with a blue bar identifying the M1 line between them. For the Simens Inspiro a livery with a yellow and red stripe under the windows was chosen in order to resemble the color scheme of the surface public transport taken from the flag of Warsaw. Subsequently the older trains have had the blue bar replaced with a yellow one during scheduled refurbishment.

In January 2020, Škoda Transportation was awarded a new contract for 37 new, single-space trains, named the Varsovia. The first EMU arrived in Warsaw on April 25, 2022, in October the first unit entered regular passenger service on the M1 line.

With the delivery of the Škoda Varsovia the obsolete 81-series is being gradually retired, units in good technical condition have been donated for spare parts to Kyiv and Kharkiv, where trains of the type are still common. A single trainset of this is to be kept in working order as a museum exhibit and seasonal operation while 3 others remain in Warsaw for spare parts.

Depots
A single depot is located south of the Kabaty station. There is a single-track connection between the depot and Warszawa Okęcie railway station on the PKP rail network. This link is not electrified and is used only for an occasional rolling-stock transfer. A second depot (Karolin) is currently under construction and is expected to open in 2026. A third depot (Kozia Górka) is planned to be built as part of the first section of the M3 line from Stadion Narodowy to Gocław.

Retired stock
Despite being retired in Poland, the 81-series trains are still widespread in several V4 countries and are well-known in Europe. Compared to west European metro systems (such as Berlin U-Bahn or Paris Metro), these trains can maintain higher average speeds, 80 km/h maximum and 35-40 km/h average, there were produced in several thousands, so their spare parts are still on high demand abroad. So, some trains were donated to Ukraine. Unlike, for example, Hungary, Ukraine decided not to buy russian spare parts and polish ones meet this demand.

Plans
The M1 line does not pass directly under Warsaw's Old Town, the city's main tourist attraction, which has few public transport links, passing it about 600 m to the west instead. It also does not directly connect to the Warszawa Central railway station, with the nearest stop being over 400 m to the east. Until the opening of M2 in March 2015, the metro system was confined to the western bank of Vistula, thus doing nothing to ease traffic problems on Warsaw's bridges: a major bottleneck between the city center and the eastern Praga district. Plans for a third line to Warsaw Chopin Airport have been abandoned for the foreseeable future, with the airport served by a newly built railway station instead.

Transport planners have suggested that the WKD, a light rail line that runs to the western suburbs, could be integrated with the city's tram system, or be more closely tied to the metro and a future suburban rail network, or both. The first such plans were prepared in the late 1930s and the railway tunnel running below the city center was to be shared by both the railways and the metro. The WKD, PKP and Warsaw Metro systems are integrated and Warsaw city travel cards are also valid in the suburban trains operated by SKM and KM.

Future extensions

 * Plac Konstytucji and Muranów, two stations omitted from the original plan to reduce cost that were to be built by 2009;
 * extension of the M2 line, with the Lazurowa,Chrzanów, and Karolin metro stations, as well as the new Karolin Depot. This section is set to be completed in 2026;
 * the M3 line set to begin construction in 2028. The first section from Stadion Narodowy to Gocław is planned to be completed by 2032.

Reception
In 2009, the Warsaw Metro won two "Metro Award" prizes in the categories of "Special Merit Award for Commitment to the Environment" and "Best Maintenance Programme". These were followed by the Most Improved Metro award in 2011. The system consistently receives very high ratings among its passengers; a survey conducted in September 2014 indicated that 98% of the respondents rated it as good or very good.

title: Warsaw Metro


text:
Tickell's thrush

Tickell's thrush (Turdus unicolor) is a passerine bird in the thrush family Turdidae. It is common in open forest in the Himalayas, and migrates seasonally into peninsular India, Nepal and rarely to Bangladesh.

The name commemorates the British ornithologist Samuel Tickell who collected in India and Burma.

Characteristics
Males of the Tickell's thrush have uniform blue-grey upperparts, a whitish belly and vent. Adults have yellow beak and legs while it may be darker in juveniles. There is a yellow eye-ring which is thinner and fainter than the Indian black bird which is usually bigger in size. Females and young birds have browner upperparts.

Nesting
Tickell's thrush build nests from April to June, many materials are used in nest building but the primary component is dried grass.

Distribution and habitat
The Tickell's thrush is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms and berries. It nests in bushes. It does not form flocks, but loose groups of two to five.

Populations move further south in India and Nepal in winter.

title: Tickell's thrush


text:
Orange-headed thrush

The orange-headed thrush (Geokichla citrina) is a bird in the thrush family.

It is common in well-wooded areas of the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Most populations are resident. The species shows a preference for shady damp areas, and like many Geokichla and Zoothera thrushes, can be quite secretive.

The orange-headed thrush is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms and fruit. It nests in trees but does not form flocks.

The male of this small thrush has uniform grey upperparts, and an orange head and underparts. The females and young birds have browner upper parts.

Taxonomy
This species was first described by John Latham in 1790 as Turdus citrinus, the species name meaning "citrine" and referencing the colour of the head and underparts. It has about 12 subspecies. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this complex may consist of more than one species.
 * G. c. citrina, the nominate subspecies breeds from northern India east along the Himalayas to eastern Bangladesh and possibly in western and northern Burma. It winters further south in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.
 * G. c. cyanota is mainly resident in Peninsular India south to Kerala. It has a white throat and face sides, with two black stripes running downwards from below the eyes. The spelling emendation cyanota is suggested by Rasmussen and Anderton.
 * G. c. amadoni (not always recognized) found in northeastern part of peninsular India (Madhya Pradesh and Orissa) has brighter orange crown and longer wings than cyanota.
 * G. c. innotata breeds through most of South-East Asia from southern Burma and southwestern China to northwest Thailand, central and southern Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam. It winter further south in southern Burma, and much of the rest of Thailand into Malaysia. It is very similar to the nominate but the male is brighter or deeper orange and lacks white tips to the median coverts; the female is duller on head and underparts, with an olive tinge to the grey of the mantle and back.
 * G. c. melli breeds in southeastern China, and is partially migratory, regularly wintering in Hong Kong.
 * G. c. courtoisi breeds in eastern-central China; its wintering range is unknown.
 * G. c. aurimacula breeds in southern Vietnam, Hainan and possibly northern Laos. It resembles G. c. cyanota, but with a less defined head pattern. The face and neck-sides are whitish but flecked with orange or brownish and with weaker face stripes. The orange breast and flanks become paler orange on the belly and lower flanks.
 * G. c. andamensis is resident in the Andaman Islands.
 * G. c. albogularis is resident in the Nicobar Islands.
 * G. c. gibsonhilli breeds from southern Burma to southern Thailand, and winters further south at lower levels in Peninsular Thailand, on islands in the Gulf of Thailand, and into Malaysia. It is similar to the nominate subspecies, but averages slightly brighter or deeper orange on head and upperparts and also has a slightly longer, heavier bill, and white tips to the median coverts.
 * G. c. aurata is resident in the mountains of northern Borneo.
 * G. c. rubecula is resident in Western Java.
 * G. c. orientis is resident in Eastern Java and Bali and intergrades with G. c. rubecula in the west of its range. The separation of this form from the western Javan subspecies has been questioned.

Measurements
The following table summarises selected physical measurements for those subspecies for which data is available.

Distribution and habitat
The orange-headed thrush breeds in much of the Indian Subcontinent, including Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka, and through Southeast Asia to Java and southern China. Its habitat is moist broadleaved evergreen woodlands, with a medium-density undergrowth of bushes and ferns, but it also utilises bamboo forests for secondary growth. G. c. cyanota also occurs in large gardens and orchards.

This species is often found in damp areas, near streams or in shady ravines. It occurs between 250 and 1830 metres (825– 6040 ft) in the Himalayas and up to about 1500 metres (5000 ft) in Malaysia, Thailand and Java. G. c. aurata is resident between 1000 and 1630 metres (3300–5400 ft) on Mt Kinabalu and Mt Trus Madi, northern Borneo. Some of the subspecies are completely or partially migratory; their wintering habitat is similar to the breeding forests, but more likely to be at lower altitudes.

Description
The orange-headed thrush is 205–235 milliimetres (8.1–9.25 in) long and weighs 47–60 grammes (1.7–2.1 oz). The adult male of the nominate subspecies of this small thrush has an entirely orange head and underparts, uniformly grey upperparts and wings, and white median and undertail coverts. It has a slate-coloured bill and the legs and feet have brown fronts and pink or yellowish rears.

The female resembles the male but has browner or more olive upperparts and warm brown wings, but some old females are almost identical to the male. The juvenile is dull brown with buff streaks on its back, and a rufous tone to the head and face; it has grey wings. The bill is brownish horn, and the legs and feet are brown.

This species' orange and grey plumage is very distinctive, and it is unlikely to be confused with any other species. Differences between the subspecies, as described above, can be quite striking, as with the strong head pattern on G. c. cyanota, but may be less obvious variations in plumage tone, or whether there is white on the folded wing. As with many other thrushes, all forms of this species shows a distinctive underwing pattern, with a strong white band.

Voice
Calls of the orange-headed thrush include a soft chuk or tchuk, a screeching teer-teer-teer, and a thin tsee or dzef given in flight. However, this bird is generally silent especially in winter. The song is a loud clear series of variably sweet lilting musical notes, recalling the quality of the common blackbird, but with the more repetitive structure of the song thrush. It also includes imitations of other birds like bulbuls, babblers and common tailorbird. It sings from a perch in a leafy tree, mostly early morning and late afternoon.

Behaviour
The orange-headed thrush is a shy, secretive bird usually occurring alone or in pairs, but is comparatively more easily seen than many other Zoothera thrushes, and several birds may congregate outside the breeding season at a good food source. It has a swift, silent flight, but when disturbed will often sit motionless until the threat has passed.

Breeding
The nest, built by both sexes, is a wide but shallow cup of twigs, bracken and rootlets lined with softer plant material like leaves, moss and conifer needles. It is constructed at a height of up to 4.5 metres (15 ft) in a small tree or bush, with mango trees and coffee bushes being preferred. Three or four, occasionally five, eggs are laid; they are cream or tinted with pale blue, grey or green, and have pale lilac blotches and reddish brown spots. They are incubated for 13–14 days to hatching, with another 12 days until the young birds leave the nest.

This species is a host of the pied cuckoo, Clamator jacobinus, a brood parasite which lay a single egg in the nest. Unlike the common cuckoo, neither the hen nor the hatched chick evict the host's eggs, but the host's young often die because they cannot compete successfully with the cuckoo for food. The chestnut-winged cuckoo, Clamator coromandus, and, very rarely, the common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus have also been claimed as parasites on this species.

Feeding
The orange-headed thrush feeds on the ground in dense undergrowth or other thick cover. It is most active at dawn and dusk, probing the leaf litter for insects and their larvae, spiders, other invertebrates and fruit. In Malaysia, wintering birds regularly feed on figs.

Status
The orange-headed thrush has an extensive range, estimated at 2780000 km2. The population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large due to its extensive range; it also reported as being locally common. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the global population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as Least Concern.

It is very popular as cage-bird on Java, and numbers have severely declined in recent years owing to trapping for aviculture. Against the trend in Southeast Asia where loss or fragmentation of woodland poses a threat to forest birds, the orange-headed thrush has colonized Hong Kong, where it was first recorded in 1956, thanks to forest maturation.

title: Orange-headed thrush


text:
Chat (bird)

Chats (formerly sometimes known as "chat-thrushes") are a group of small Old World insectivorous birds formerly classified as members of the thrush family (Turdidae), but following genetic DNA analysis, are now considered to belong to the Old World flycatcher family (Muscicapidae).

The name is normally applied to the more robust ground-feeding flycatchers found in Europe and Asia and most northern species are strong migrants. There are many genera and these birds in particular make up most of the subfamily Saxicolinae.

Other songbirds called "chats" are:
 * Australian chats, genera Ashbyia and Epthianura of the honeyeater family (Meliphagidae). They belong to a more ancient lineage than Saxicolinae.
 * American chats, genus Granatellus of the cardinal family (Cardinalidae), formerly placed in the wood-warbler family. They belong to a more modern lineage than Saxicolinae.
 * Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens), an enigmatic North American songbird tentatively placed in the wood-warbler family (Parulidae); its true relationships are unresolved.

Species in taxonomic order

 * Subfamily Saxicolinae
 * Genus Tarsiger – bush-robins
 * Red-flanked bluetail or orange-flanked bush-robin, Tarsiger cyanurus
 * Golden bush robin, Tarsiger chrysaeus
 * White-browed bush robin, Tarsiger indicus
 * Rufous-breasted bush robin, Tarsiger hyperythrus
 * Collared bush robin, Tarsiger johnstoniae
 * Genus Luscinia (4 species)
 * Genus Calliope (4 species)
 * Genus Larvivora  (8 species)
 * Genus Erithacus – European robin
 * Genus Irania – white-throated robin
 * Genus Saxicola – bushchats and stonechats (c. 15 species)
 * Genus Pogonocichla
 * White-starred robin, Pogonocichla stellata
 * Genus Swynnertonia
 * Swynnerton's robin, Swynnertonia swynnertoni
 * Genus Stiphrornis – forest robins (1–5 species, depending on taxonomy)
 * Genus Xenocopsychus
 * Angola cave chat, Xenocopsychus ansorgei
 * Genus Saxicoloides – Indian robin (formerly)
 * Genus Cinclidium
 * Blue-fronted robin, Cinclidium frontale
 * Genus Myiomela
 * White-tailed robin, Myiomela leucura
 * Javan blue robin, Myiomela diana
 * Sumatran blue robin, Myiomela sumatrana
 * Genus Grandala
 * Grandala, Grandala coelicolor
 * Genus Namibornis
 * Herero chat, Namibornis herero
 * Genus Emarginata
 * Sickle-winged chat, Emarginata sinuata
 * Karoo chat, Emarginata schlegelii
 * Tractrac chat, Emarginata tractrac
 * Genus Oenanthe
 * Familiar chat, Oenanthe familiaris
 * Brown-tailed rock chat, Oenanthe scotocerca
 * Brown rock chat, Oenanthe fusca
 * Sombre rock chat, Oenanthe dubia
 * Blackstart, Oenanthe melanura
 * Moorland chat, Oenanthe sordida
 * Genus Myrmecocichla
 * Sooty chat (Myrmecocichla nigra)
 * Anteater chat (Myrmecocichla aethiops)
 * Congo moor chat (Myrmecocichla tholloni)
 * Ant-eating chat (Myrmecocichla formicivora)
 * Rüppell's black chat (Myrmecocichla melaena)
 * Mountain chat (Myrmecocichla monticola)
 * Arnot's chat (Myrmecocichla arnoti)
 * Ruaha chat (Myrmecocichla collaris)
 * Genus Thamnolaea – cliff chats
 * Mocking cliff chat, Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris
 * White-winged cliff chat, Thamnolaea semirufa
 * Genus Pinarornis
 * Boulder chat Pinarornis plumosus

Saxicolinae genera not usually called "chats" are:
 * Genus Sheppardia – akalats (9 species)
 * Genus Cossyphicula – white-bellied robin-chat – may belong in Cossypha
 * Genus Cossypha – robin-chats (15 species, excluding the white-bellied robin-chat)
 * Genus Cichladusa – palm-thrushes (3 species)
 * Genus Cercotrichas – scrub-robins or bush-chats (10 species)
 * Genus Myophonus, whistling thrushes
 * Genus Copsychus – magpie-robins or shamas (12 species)
 * Genus Phoenicurus – true redstarts (11 species)
 * Genus Enicurus – forktails (7 species)
 * Genus Cochoa – cochoas (4 species)
 * Genus Brachypteryx – (10 species)
 * Genus Heinrichia – great shortwing
 * Genus Leonardina – Bagobo babbler
 * Genus Oenanthe – wheatears (some 20 species)

Aberrant redstarts, possibly belonging in this subfamily:
 * Genus Chaimarrornis – white-capped redstart
 * Genus Rhyacornis (2 species)

title: Chat (bird)


text:
Isostasy

Isostasy (Greek ísos 'equal', stásis 'standstill') or isostatic equilibrium is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle, it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere, particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian Islands.

Although Earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways, isostasy describes the important limiting case in which crust and mantle are in static equilibrium. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas and other convergent margins) are not in isostatic equilibrium and are not well described by isostatic models.

The general term isostasy was coined in 1882 by the American geologist Clarence Dutton.

History of the concept
In the 17th and 18th centuries, French geodesists (for example, Jean Picard) attempted to determine the shape of the Earth (the geoid) by measuring the length of a degree of latitude at different latitudes (arc measurement). A party working in Ecuador was aware that its plumb lines, used to determine the vertical direction, would be deflected by the gravitational attraction of the nearby Andes Mountains. However, the deflection was less than expected, which was attributed to the mountains having low-density roots that compensated for the mass of the mountains. In other words, the low-density mountain roots provided the buoyancy to support the weight of the mountains above the surrounding terrain. Similar observations in the 19th century by British surveyors in India showed that this was a widespread phenomenon in mountainous areas. It was later found that the difference between the measured local gravitational field and what was expected for the altitude and local terrain (the Bouguer anomaly) is positive over ocean basins and negative over high continental areas. This shows that the low elevation of ocean basins and high elevation of continents is also compensated at depth.

The American geologist Clarence Dutton use the word 'isostasy' in 1889 to describe this general phenomenon. However, two hypotheses to explain the phenomenon had by then already been proposed, in 1855, one by George Airy and the other by John Henry Pratt. The Airy hypothesis was later refined by the Finnish geodesist Veikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen and the Pratt hypothesis by the American geodesist John Fillmore Hayford.

Both the Airy-Heiskanen and Pratt-Hayford hypotheses assume that isostacy reflects a local hydrostatic balance. A third hypothesis, lithospheric flexure, takes into account the rigidity of the Earth's outer shell, the lithosphere. Lithospheric flexure was first invoked in the late 19th century to explain the shorelines uplifted in Scandinavia following the melting of continental glaciers at the end of the last glaciation. It was likewise used by American geologist G. K. Gilbert to explain the uplifted shorelines of Lake Bonneville. The concept was further developed in the 1950s by the Dutch geodesist Vening Meinesz.

Models
Three principal models of isostasy are used:
 * 1) The Airy–Heiskanen model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by changes in crustal thickness, in which the crust has a constant density
 * 2) The Pratt–Hayford model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by lateral changes in rock density.
 * 3) The Vening Meinesz, or flexural isostasy model – where the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending.

Airy and Pratt isostasy are statements of buoyancy, but flexural isostasy is a statement of buoyancy when deflecting a sheet of finite elastic strength. In other words, the Airy and Pratt models are purely hydrostatic, taking no account of material strength, while flexural isostacy takes into account elastic forces from the deformation of the rigid crust. These elastic forces can transmit buoyant forces across a large region of deformation to a more concentrated load.

Perfect isostatic equilibrium is possible only if mantle material is in rest. However, thermal convection is present in the mantle. This introduces viscous forces that are not accounted for the static theory of isostacy. The isostatic anomaly or IA is defined as the Bouger anomaly minus the gravity anomaly due to the subsurface compensation, and is a measure of the local departure from isostatic equilibrium. At the center of a level plateau, it is approximately equal to the free air anomaly. Models such as deep dynamic isostasy (DDI) include such viscous forces and are applicable to a dynamic mantle and lithosphere. Measurements of the rate of isostatic rebound (the return to isostatic equilibrium following a change in crust loading) provide information on the viscosity of the upper mantle.

Airy

The basis of the model is Pascal's law, and particularly its consequence that, within a fluid in static equilibrium, the hydrostatic pressure is the same on every point at the same elevation (surface of hydrostatic compensation):

h1⋅ρ1 = h2⋅ρ2 = h3⋅ρ3 = ... hn⋅ρn

For the simplified picture shown, the depth of the mountain belt roots (b1) is calculated as follows:

 * $$ (h_1+c+b_1)\rho_c = (c\rho_c)+(b_1\rho_m) $$
 * $$ {b_1(\rho_m-\rho_c)} = h_1\rho_c $$
 * $$ b_1 = \frac{h_1\rho_c}{\rho_m-\rho_c} $$

where $$ \rho_m $$ is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3) and $$ \rho_c $$ is the density of the crust (ca. 2,750 kg m−3). Thus, generally:

 * b1 ≅ 5⋅h1

In the case of negative topography (a marine basin), the balancing of lithospheric columns gives:

 * $$ c\rho_c = (h_2\rho_w)+(b_2\rho_m)+[(c-h_2-b_2)\rho_c] $$
 * $$ {b_2(\rho_m-\rho_c)} = {h_2(\rho_c-\rho_w)} $$
 * $$ b_2 = (\frac{\rho_c-\rho_w}{\rho_m-\rho_c}){h_2} $$

where $$ \rho_m $$ is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3), $$ \rho_c $$ is the density of the crust (ca. 2,750 kg m−3) and $$ \rho_w $$ is the density of the water (ca. 1,000 kg m−3). Thus, generally:

 * b2 ≅ 3.2⋅h2

Pratt
For the simplified model shown the new density is given by: $$ \rho_1 = \rho_c \frac{c}{h_1+c} $$, where $$h_1$$ is the height of the mountain and c the thickness of the crust.

Vening Meinesz / flexural
This hypothesis was suggested to explain how large topographic loads such as seamounts (e.g. Hawaiian Islands) could be compensated by regional rather than local displacement of the lithosphere. This is the more general solution for lithospheric flexure, as it approaches the locally compensated models above as the load becomes much larger than a flexural wavelength or the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere approaches zero.

For example, the vertical displacement z of a region of ocean crust would be described by the differential equation

 * $$D\frac{d^4z}{dx^4}+(\rho_m-\rho_w)zg = P(x)$$

where $$\rho_m$$ and $$\rho_w$$ are the densities of the aesthenosphere and ocean water, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and $$P(x)$$ is the load on the ocean crust. The parameter D is the flexural rigidity, defined as

 * $$D=ET^3_c/12(1-\sigma^2)$$

where E is Young's modulus, $$\sigma$$ is Poisson's ratio, and $$T_c$$ is the thickness of the lithosphere. Solutions to this equation have a characteristic wave number

 * $$\kappa=\sqrt[4]{(\rho_m-\rho_w)g/4D}$$

As the rigid layer becomes weaker, $$\kappa$$ approaches infinity, and the behavior approaches the pure hydrostatic balance of the Airy-Heiskanen hypothesis.

Depth of compensation
The depth of compensation (also known as the compensation level, compensation depth, or level of compensation) is the depth below which the pressure is identical across any horizontal surface. In stable regions, it lies in the deep crust, but in active regions, it may lie below the base of the lithosphere. In the Pratt model, it is the depth below which all rock has the same density; above this depth, density is lower where topographic elevation is greater.

Deposition and erosion
When large amounts of sediment are deposited on a particular region, the immense weight of the new sediment may cause the crust below to sink. Similarly, when large amounts of material are eroded away from a region, the land may rise to compensate. Therefore, as a mountain range is eroded, the (reduced) range rebounds upwards (to a certain extent) to be eroded further. Some of the rock strata now visible at the ground surface may have spent much of their history at great depths below the surface buried under other strata, to be eventually exposed as those other strata eroded away and the lower layers rebounded upwards.

An analogy may be made with an iceberg, which always floats with a certain proportion of its mass below the surface of the water. If snow falls to the top of the iceberg, the iceberg will sink lower in the water. If a layer of ice melts off the top of the iceberg, the remaining iceberg will rise. Similarly, Earth's lithosphere "floats" in the asthenosphere.

Continental collisions
When continents collide, the continental crust may thicken at their edges in the collision. It is also very common for one of the plates to be underthrust beneath the other plate. The result is that the crust in the collision zone becomes as much as 80 km thick, versus 40 km for average continental crust. As noted above, the Airy hypothesis predicts that the resulting mountain roots will be about five times deeper than the height of the mountains, or 32 km versus 8 km. In other words, most of the thickened crust moves downwards rather than up, just as most of an iceberg is below the surface of the water.

However, convergent plate margins are tectonically highly active, and their surface features are partially supported by dynamic horizontal stresses, so that they are not in complete isostatic equilibrium. These regions show the highest isostatic anomalies on the Earth's surface.

Mid-ocean ridges
Mid-ocean ridges are explained by the Pratt hypothesis as overlying regions of unusually low density in the upper mantle. This reflects thermal expansion from the higher temperatures present under the ridges.

Basin and Range
In the Basin and Range Province of western North America, the isostatic anomaly is small except near the Pacific coast, indicating that the region is generally near isostatic equilibrium. However, the depth to the base of the crust does not strongly correlate with the height of the terrain. This provides evidence (via the Pratt hypothesis) that the upper mantle in this region is inhomogeneous, with significant lateral variations in density.

Ice sheets
The formation of ice sheets can cause Earth's surface to sink. Conversely, isostatic post-glacial rebound is observed in areas once covered by ice sheets that have now melted, such as around the Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay. As the ice retreats, the load on the lithosphere and asthenosphere is reduced and they rebound back towards their equilibrium levels. In this way, it is possible to find former sea cliffs and associated wave-cut platforms hundreds of metres above present-day sea level. The rebound movements are so slow that the uplift caused by the ending of the last glacial period is still continuing.

In addition to the vertical movement of the land and sea, isostatic adjustment of the Earth also involves horizontal movements. It can cause changes in Earth's gravitational field and rotation rate, polar wander, and earthquakes.

Lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary
The hypothesis of isostasy is often used to determine the position of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB).

title: Isostasy


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Handley Page

Handley Page Limited was a British aerospace manufacturer. Founded by Frederick Handley Page (later Sir Frederick) in 1909, it was the United Kingdom's first publicly traded aircraft manufacturing company. It went into voluntary liquidation and ceased to exist in 1970. The company, based at Radlett Aerodrome in Hertfordshire, was noted for its pioneering role in aviation history and for producing heavy bombers and large airliners.

History
Frederick Handley Page first experimented with and built several biplanes and monoplanes at premises in Woolwich, Fambridge and Barking Creek. His company, founded on 17 June 1909, became the first British public company to build aircraft.

In 1912, Handley Page established an aircraft factory at Cricklewood after moving from Barking. Aircraft were built there, and flown from the company's adjacent airfield known as Cricklewood Aerodrome, which was later used by Handley Page Transport. The factory was later sold off to Oswald Stoll and converted into Britain's largest film studio, Cricklewood Studios.

World War I
During the First World War, Handley Page produced a series of heavy bombers for the Royal Navy to bomb the German Zeppelin yards, with the ultimate intent of bombing Berlin in revenge for the Zeppelin attacks on London. Handley Page had been asked by the Admiralty to produce a "bloody paralyser of an aeroplane". These aircraft included the O/100 of 1915, the O/400 of 1918 and the four-engined V/1500 with the range to reach Berlin. The V/1500 had only just entered operational service as the war ended in 1918.

The Handley Page factory at Radlett Aerodrome employed women as part of the war effort, and was visited by royalty.

Interwar period
In early 1919, a Handley Page V/1500 aircraft, dubbed Atlantic, was shipped to Newfoundland to attempt the world's first non-stop Transatlantic flight; only to be beaten by a Vickers Vimy piloted by Alcock and Brown in June of that year. The Atlantic flew into New York City via Canada on 9 October 1919, carrying the first airmail from Canada to the United States of America.

In the immediate postwar years, Handley Page modified some O/400's for passenger use, which they flew on the London-Paris route as Handley Page Transport. The V/1500 was considered too large to be practical at the time, but many design features of the V/1500 were later incorporated into an O/400 airframe to produce their first dedicated passenger design, the W.8 that led to a series of similar airliners, fitted with two or three engines, which, aside from being used by Handley Page Transport, were also exported to Belgium.

In 1924 Handley Page Transport merged with two other airlines to create Imperial Airways, as the UK's national airline service, which continued to use a number of the W.8, W.9 and W.10 series of airliners. Handley Page continued to develop large biplane airliners, including the luxurious Handley Page H.P.42, for use on Imperial routes to Africa and India.

Handley Page developed the Handley Page Slat (or slot), an auxiliary airfoil mounted ahead and above the wing, which formed a narrow gap which improved airflow at high angles of attack and improved low speed handling. The leading edge slat was simultaneously designed by the German aerodynamicist Gustav Lachmann, who was later employed by Handley Page. The design was so successful that licensing fees to other companies were their main source of income in the early 1920s.

In 1929, Cricklewood Aerodrome was closed and Handley Page moved the aircraft final assembly to Radlett Aerodrome. Cricklewood Aerodrome was taken over by Cricklewood Studios, the largest film studio in the UK at that time. Manufacture of aircraft parts and sub-assemblies continued until 1964 at Cricklewood when the remainder of the site was sold off and a Wickes home renovation store currently occupies the site.

World War II
With the Second World War looming, Handley Page designed and produced the HP.52 Hampden bomber, which took part in the first British raid on Berlin.

In response to a 1936 government request for heavier, longer ranged aircraft, Handley Page tendered the HP.56 design powered by twin Rolls-Royce Vultures and this was ordered, along with what became the Avro Manchester. However the Vulture proved so troublesome that – years before the engine was abandoned by Rolls-Royce in 1940 – the Air Staff decided that the HP.56 should be fitted with four engines instead. Therefore, before reaching the prototype stage, the HP.56 design was reworked into the four-engined HP.57 Halifax. The Halifax became the second most-prolific British heavy bomber of the war after the Avro Lancaster (itself essentially a four-engine development of the Manchester). Although in some respects (such as crew survivability) better than the Lancaster, the Halifax suffered in terms of altitude performance and was redeployed toward the end of the war as a heavy transport and glider tug, with several variants being specifically built as such, including the HP.70 Halton.

Postwar
After the war, the British Government sought tenders for jet bombers to carry the nation's nuclear deterrent. The three types produced were known as the V-Bombers, and Handley Page's contribution was the HP.80 Victor, a four-engined, crescent-winged design. This aircraft remained in service (as a tanker aircraft) well beyond the demise of the company which created it.

In 1947 Handley Page bought some of the assets of the bankrupt Miles Aircraft company. These assets include existing designs, tools and jigs, most notably for the Miles M.52 supersonic research aircraft, and the Miles site at Woodley, near Reading. The operation was named Handley Page (Reading) Ltd, a company constituted to buy and operate the assets formed out of the inactive Handley Page Transport Ltd. The most significant of the inherited designs became the Herald airliner. Designs from the Reading site used the initials HPR ("Handley Page (Reading)").

Demise
Unlike other large British aircraft manufacturers, Handley Page resisted the government's pressure to merge into larger entities. By the late 1960s, the British aviation industry was dominated by two companies: Hawker Siddeley and the British Aircraft Corporation.

Unable to compete for government orders or build large commercial aircraft, Handley Page produced its final notable Handley Page design, the Jetstream. This was a small turboprop-powered commuter aircraft, with a pressurised cabin and a passenger capacity of 12 to 18. It was designed primarily for the United States "feederliner" market.

Although successful, Jetstream was too late to save Handley Page, and the company went into voluntary liquidation in March 1970 and was wound up after 61 years trading under the same name. The Jetstream lived on, the design being purchased and produced by Scottish Aviation at Prestwick, continuing after the company was bought by British Aerospace in 1977.

Sites
Radlett Aerodrome was opened in 1929 as a grass aerodrome for Handley Page Civil Aircraft. Its runway was extended in 1939 to enable production of Halifax bombers. By the time of its closure the airfield had two runways:

 * 03/21 approximately 7000 ft
 * 15/33 approximately 2500 ft

Most of the towers, hangars and runways were demolished in the 1970s after the Company was terminated. The M25 Motorway now runs on the south side of the site, with Lafarge Aggregates now owning the remainder. The runway surface was removed and replaced with grass, but a shadow remains when viewed from the air.

The aerodrome was used in the 1962 film, The Iron Maiden.

Designations
Handley Page originally used a letter sequence to designate types (i.e. A, B, C etc.). Beginning with the model E, the letter was used in combination with a slash and a number that referred to the installed horsepower, at least initially. However the 100 in O/100 indicated the type's 100-foot wingspan, while other designs it may or may not have been meaningful other than as a design sequence. By 1923, the company had come to the end of the alphabet and had begun reusing earlier letters, but this would have become confusing, so from 1924 they assigned the letters HP and a sequential number to indicate the model, with previous aircraft being retroactively assigned numbers in the new sequence, starting with the Type A as the HP.1. Thus the O/400 became the HP.16 and the W.8 the HP.18. Unbuilt projects were skipped from this sequence.

When the assets of Miles Aircraft were taken over, the latter's Reading design office used HPR for Handley Page Reading, followed by a number as with the HPR.1 Marathon.

First Letter Designation Sequence (pre-1924)

 * Type A – 1909-1910 "Bluebird" monoplane
 * Type B – 1909 biplane
 * Type C – 1910 monoplane, did not fly; rebuilt from Type A
 * Type D – 1911 "Antiseptic" monoplane
 * Type E – 1912 E/50 "Antiseptic" monoplane
 * Type F – 1912 F/70 military monoplane with side by side seating
 * Type G – 1913 G/100 crescent-wing biplane
 * Type H – 1913 H/70 and H/110 monoplane projects, developments of type E & F
 * Type I – not assigned
 * Type J - possibly a bomber
 * Type K – 1913 K/35 biplane project, scaled down type G
 * Type L – 1914 L/200 transatlantic biplane, never flew; scaled up Type K
 * Type M – 1914 M/200 coastal defense biplane project; land/seaplane derivative of L/200
 * Type MS/200 – 1914 seaplane derivative project of M/200
 * Type N – 1914 N/80 biplane project
 * Type O – 1915-1920 twin-engine O/100 & O/400 bombers and O/7, O/10 & O/11 airliners
 * Type P – 1916 P/320 biplane (later triplane) shipboard scout project
 * Type Q – not assigned
 * Type R – 1917 R/200 landplane/seaplane reconnaissance-fighter to Spec. N.2B
 * Type S – 1917 S/400 flying boat project, derivative of O/400
 * Type T – 1917 T/400 flying boat project; military flying boat derivative of O/400
 * Type T – 1922 Hanley biplane carrier torpedo bomber
 * Type Ta – 1924 Hendon biplane carrier torpedo-bomber
 * Type U – not assigned
 * Type V – V/1500, 1918 four engine heavy bomber
 * Type W – W/400 (later W/4), 1919 airliner; transport derivative of O/400
 * Type X – X/4, Airco DH.9A fitted with slotted monoplane wing
 * Type Y – not assigned
 * Type Z – not assigned

Second Letter Designation Sequence (1923)

 * Type C/7 Handcross – 1924 biplane day bomber, letter reused
 * Type D/4 – HP.29 biplane transport project
 * Type D – HP.32 Hamlet
 * Type E – HP.31 Harrow
 * Type F – HP.37 shipboard fighter project to Spec. O.22/26
 * Type H – HP.34 Hare
 * Type M – HP.36 Hinaidi II

Numerical Designations (1924-1970)

 * HP.1 – Type A monoplane
 * HP.2 – Type B biplane
 * HP.3 – Type C monoplane, never flew; rebuilt from HP.1
 * HP.4 – Type D monoplane
 * HP.5 – Type E monoplane
 * HP.6 – Type F monoplane
 * HP.7 – Type G biplane
 * HP.8 – Type L biplane, never flew
 * HP.9 – Type M coastal defense aircraft project
 * HP.10 – Type N biplane scout project
 * HP.11 – O/100 twin-engine bomber
 * HP.12 – O/400 twin-engine bomber
 * HP.13 – Type P biplane (later triplane) shipboard scout project
 * HP.14 – Type R prototype naval reconnaissance aircraft
 * HP.15 – V/1500 "Super Handley" four-engine bomber
 * HP.16 – W/400 airliner
 * HP.17 – Airco DH.9 fitted with wing slots
 * HP.18 Hamilton – W/8 airliner
 * HP.19 Hanley – torpedo bomber
 * HP.20 – Airco DH.9A fitted with slotted monoplane wing
 * HP.21 – Type S monoplane fighter for US Navy
 * HP.22 – single-seat sport monoplane for Lympne light aircraft trials
 * HP.23 – single-seat sport monoplane for Lympne light aircraft trials
 * HP.24 Hyderabad – biplane heavy bomber
 * HP.25 Hendon – torpedo bomber
 * HP.26 Hamilton – W/8 airliner
 * HP.27 Hampstead – W/9 airliner
 * HP.28 Handcross – biplane day bomber
 * HP.29 – D/4 biplane transport project
 * HP.30 – W/10 airliner
 * HP.31 Harrow – carrier-based torpedo bomber and reconnaissance aircraft
 * HP.32 Hamlet – six-passenger monoplane airliner
 * HP.33 Hinaidi I and Clive I – heavy bomber & transport
 * HP.34 Hare – high-altitude day bomber
 * HP.35 Clive II – heavy bomber
 * HP.36 Hinaidi II – twin-engine bomber
 * HP.37 – shipboard fighter project to Spec. O.22/26
 * HP.38 Heyford – prototype biplane heavy night bomber
 * HP.39 Gugnunc – experimental STOL/safety biplane
 * HP.40 – biplane seaplane project for Japan for 3MR5 design
 * HP.41 – biplane torpedo bomber project to Spec. M.5/28; joint tender with Blackburn
 * HP.42 – eastern biplane airliner
 * HP.43 – three-engine biplane bomber transport to Spec. C.16/28; later rebuilt as HP.51
 * HP.44 Hinaidi III – twin-engine bomber; proposed re-engining of HP.36
 * HP.45 – western biplane airliner
 * HP.46 – biplane torpedo bomber to Spec. M.1/30
 * HP.47 – general purpose monoplane to Spec. G.4/31
 * HP.48 – reserved but not used
 * HP.49 – reserved but not used
 * HP.50 Heyford – production variant, biplane heavy night bomber
 * HP.51 – prototype monoplane bomber-transport to Spec. C.26/31
 * HP.52 Hampden I – medium bomber
 * HP.53 – bomber project for Sweden, led to the HP.53 Hereford
 * HP.54 Harrow – bomber-transport
 * HP.55 – twin-engine heavy bomber design to Spec. B.1/35
 * HP.56 – twin-engine heavy bomber design to Spec. P.13/36
 * HP.57 Halifax Mk.I – four-engine heavy bomber
 * HP.58 Halifax Mk.II – four-engine heavy bomber project; cancelled due to armament problems, name transferred to HP.59
 * HP.59 Halifax Mk.II – four-engine heavy bomber
 * HP.60 Halifax Mk.IV – heavy bomber project for B.1/39, not built
 * HP.61 Halifax Mk.III – four-engine heavy bomber
 * HP.62 Hampden II – medium bomber
 * HP.63 Halifax V – four-engine heavy bomber
 * HP.64 Halifax transport – airliner to Spec. C.15/43
 * HP.65 Halifax IV "Super-Halifax" – project with low drag 113 ft wing, turbo supercharged Hercules engines.
 * HP.66 Hastings B.I and B.II – Halifax project to Spec. B.27/43, provisional name, abandoned at end of war.
 * HP.67 Hastings C1 and C2 – military transport
 * HP.68 Hermes I – airliner
 * HP.69 Hastings B.II – Halifax project with turbo-blower exhaust Hercules 100, provisional name. Order cancelled 1944
 * HP.70 Halifax C.VIII & Halton – transport & airliner
 * HP.71 Halifax A.IX – paratroop transport/glider tug
 * HP.72 – military transport project to Spec. C.15/45
 * HP.72A – four-engine swept wing jet bomber project; led to HP.80 Victor
 * HP.73 Hastings C.III – transport project
 * HP.74 Hermes II – airliner developed from the HP.68 Hermes I
 * HP.75 Manx – tailless research aircraft for possible transport, bomber and fighter aircraft projects.
 * HP.75A – unarmed high-speed swept wing jet bomber project; led to and eclipsed by the HP.72A
 * HP.76 – 34 passenger, twin turboprop airliner to Brabazon 2B
 * HP.77 – as HP.76 but with two Bristol Theseus engines to Brabazon 2B
 * HP.78 – four-engine turboprop airliner project to Brabazon 2B; four-engine derivative of HP.76
 * HP.79 Hermes III – four-engine turboprop airliner project; originally designated HP.74
 * HP.80 Victor – four-engine bomber to Spec. B.35/46
 * HP.81 Hermes IV – airliner
 * HP.82 Hermes V – airliner
 * HP.83 – Hermes airliner to Spec. C.2/47 (Brabazon III) with four Bristol Hercules 663 engines
 * HP.84 – airliner to Spec. C.2/47
 * HP.85 – Hermes airliner to Spec. C.2/47 with two Bristol Proteus coupled turboprops and single-spar wing
 * HP.86 – Hermes airliner to Spec. C.2/47 with four Bristol Hercules 663 engines and single-spar wing
 * HP.87 – 1/3 scale radio-controlled Victor glider
 * HP.88 – Victor research aircraft, wings and tail on Supermarine Attacker
 * HP.89 Hastings VI – transport project
 * HP.90 Hermes IA – project civil combi freighter
 * HP.91 Hermes VI – lightened Hermes IA project
 * HP.92 Hermes VII – as HP.91 but with four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines
 * HP.93 – Dufaylite wing for Miles Messenger
 * HP.94 Hastings C.4 – VIP transport project to Spec. C.115P
 * HP.95 Hastings C.3 – transport for RNZAF
 * HP.96 – Victor military transport project
 * HP.97 – Victor civil airliner project
 * HP.98 – Victor target-marker project
 * HP.99 – "Daisy Cutter" low-level bomber project
 * HP.100 – long-range, high-speed reconnaissance-bomber to Spec. OR.330
 * HP.101 – proposed military version of HP.97
 * HP.102 – boundary level control airliner; superseded by HP.108
 * HP.103 – BLC conversion of Jet Provost
 * HP.104 – phase 3 Victor bomber project
 * HP.105 – BLC military transport to Spec. C.132D
 * HP.106 – missile design studies
 * HP.107 – supersonic bomber project to Spec. OR.330
 * HP.108 – four-engine jetliner, rival to Boeing 707
 * HP.109 – supersonic transport project
 * HP.110 – supersonic transport project
 * HP.111 – strategic jet transport/freighter project, partially based on Victor
 * HP.111C – civil version of HP.111
 * HP.112 – "Flying Jeep" project; eclipsed by HP.118
 * HP.113 – "laminarized" 12-seat commuter project
 * HP.114 – phase 6 Victor bomber project
 * HP.115 – low speed delta wing research aircraft
 * HP.116 – tactical freighter studies
 * HP.117 – 200-300 passenger flying wing airliner project
 * HP.118 – VTOL "Jumping Jeep" project; eclipsed by HP.120
 * HP.119 – 3/10 scale model for HP.117
 * HP.120 – 2-man VTOL convertible "Jumping Jeep" project
 * HP.121 – not used to avoid confusion with de Havilland DH.121
 * HP.122 – VTOL transport project to Spec. OR.351
 * HP.123 – HP.111-based BLC military tactical transport project to Spec. OR.351
 * HP.124 – Military Herald project
 * HP.125 – tactical VTOL variant of HP.124 to NATO requirement NMBR-4
 * HP.126 – All-Wing Aerobus 100 passenger airliner
 * HP.127 – Jet Herald feederliner development
 * HP.128 – short-range supersonic transport project
 * HP.129 – Mini Herald 30 passenger feederliner
 * HP.130 – BLC conversion of HS.125
 * HP.131 – improved HP.124 with ramp; offered to Belgium in 1965 along with HP.132 and HP.133
 * HP.132 – STOL variant of HP.131
 * HP.133 – STOL variant of HP.131; offered to Belgium Air Force in 1965, but rejected
 * HP.134 – Ogee Aerobus high-speed airliner
 * HP.135 – high-wing laminar-flow military transport
 * HP.136 – not used to avoid confusion with de Havilland DH.136
 * HP.137 Jetstream – twin-turboprop light transport aircraft

Handley Page (Reading) designs

 * HPR.1 Marathon – 1948 Miles M.60 transport
 * HPR.1 (II) – 1950 Basic Trainer derivative project
 * HPR.2 Basic Trainer – 1950 basic trainer to Spec. T.16/48
 * HPR.3 Herald – 1952 airliner prototype; converted to Dart Herald standard
 * HPR.4 Herald – projected production version of HPR.3
 * HPR.4 (II) – 1953 projected turboprop derivative of HPR.3
 * HPR.5 Marathon (I) – 1949 Miles M.69 Marathon II test bed conversion
 * HPR.5 Marathon (II) – 1953 Miles M.69 T.II navigation trainers
 * HPR.6 – 1955 short-range high-density airliner project
 * HPR.7 Dart Herald – 1957 turboprop airliner
 * HPR.8 – 1959 car ferry project based on Dart Herald

title: Handley Page


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Talk:List of footballers

Why is this page redirected but the main article isn't? I'm unredirecting,  because I have something to say about this article:  This is bollocks. Nobody calls American football players "footballers". -- Zoe

title: Talk:List of footballers