text:
Talk:Women in Judaism

Women's prayer groups
The text you propose is the following:

 * Since women are not allowed to lead services or read from the Torah in Orthodox Jewish synagogues, a small number of Orthodox women have begun holding women's tefila (prayer) groups. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a prayer quorum for the purpose of regular services, women in these groups read the prayers, and study Torah. The emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed Orthodox Judaism in a debate which still continues today. Basically there are three schools of Orthodox thought on this issue.
 * The first school of thought rules the while women do not constitute a minyan, they may still carry out full prayer services. The first Jewish authority who ruled this way was Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shlomo Goren, in 1974. he reaffimed this view for 15 years; however after receiving harsh criticism from Haredi rabbis, Rabbi Goren stated that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, and not intended as a practical responsum. This view is still held by some Orthodox rabbis, such as Avi Weiss and many rabbis associated with Edah.
 * The second school of thought includes leading faculty of Modern Orthodox Judaism's Yeshiva University, and almost all Haredi Rabbis. This school of thought holds that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by Jewish law.
 * A third school of thought maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatiable with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e. do not include certain parts of the service known as "devarim she-bi-kdusha"), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this school of thought include Rabbis Moshe Feinstein, Joseph Soloveitchik, Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits, and Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, among others[1] (http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm).

 * Many Orthodox Jewish feminists have taken umbridge at this view, saying that it is inappropriate for men to publicly judge a women's inner intention's, while women are not allowed to judge men's inner intentions. They reject entirely the claim that their are being judged as "rebelling against halakha".

Woman's Prayer Groups- Question Sources
The interpretation of the sources provided for the existence of prayer groups in the middle ages is unsourced original research. The Kol Bo is referring specifically to Tisha Baav- hardly a direct source for the inference of "woman's prayer groups" (which implies normative praying- not the dirges of Tisha Baav). Additionally, it was common practice in the synagogues of Europe for a knowledgeable woman to repeat the prayers out loud for woman who did not know how to pray. However- and this is crucial- these were not separate "woman's groups," but were in the womans section praying with the men! Basically, a regular minyan with the addition of a woman helping out less knowledgeable congregants. Therefore, the interpretation of these sources as referring to separate "woman's prayer groups" is unsourced speculative original research. 38.117.213.19 (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 05:16, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

 * The source is Grossman, Avraham. Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-392-2. The language is not intended to suggest that what happened in the Middle Ages is precisely the same as what occurs in a contemporary "women's prayer group" or that contemporary groups are successors to the Medieval situation. It is intended only to support that in Medieval Europe, (a) Jewish women prayed in groups separately from men on certain occassions, and (b) it was common for women to lead prayers with respect to other women, and such women were identified specifically as prayer leaders. Both propositions are supported by the source, as you note. We can adjust the language if it implies otherwise. Hope this helps. Best, --Shirahadasha (talk) 19:24, 1 April 2008 (UTC)
 * We should indeed adjust the language to reflect your above comment. It is worth noting that the term "prayer leader" is loaded. It would imply that a woman led the prayers in a traditional sense i.e. recitation of prayers that require a minyan. I will work on a new draft and post it here for comment before editing the article. 38.117.213.19 (talk) 18:59, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

Role of R Mordechai Kaplan Z'l
Rabbi Kaplan IIUC conducted the first Bat Mitzvah ceremony, a landmark in Judaism. He did it while he was still associated with JTS, but this is not noted in the Conservative J section, where he is not mentioned at all. In the new Recon section only his actions after founding Recon are mentioned. R Kaplan's career, and its impact on women, started BEFORE he founded Recon, and it seems appropriate to mention it.

Ricardianman (talk) 01:11, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

Debates within Orthodoxy essay
What should we do with the Debates within Orthodoxy essay? I don't think we should keep it as it is. Should we dispose of it entirely? I'm not sure how to "rescue" it. Any thoughts? --GHcool (talk) 22:49, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

Editing to Middle Ages
As part of my course, I re-wrote the section on the Middle Ages. If you would like to see the article before my changes, visit http://web.archive.org/web/20121129094615/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Judaism I was able to address some of the issues talked about, such as the women's prayer groups. rr9842a (talk) 01:53, 22 April 2013 (UTC)

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defender of modesty
The part in the "Rules of modesty" section that claims, "This is reflective of the women's role in being the historical defender of modesty and the purity of the Jewish people" and speaks about the Golden Calf and the heresy at Peor sounds like a bubbemeise. If it cannot be cited to a reliable source, I propose removing it. --GHcool (talk) 20:12, 11 February 2020 (UTC)
 * DONE. --GHcool (talk) 18:28, 14 February 2020 (UTC)

To be removed?
This statement doesn't seem to relate to Education. The Cairo Geniza is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women. Perhaps it fits somewhere else, but not in this section.Pngeditor (talk) 12:24, 19 September 2022 (UTC) Pngeditor (talk) 12:24, 19 September 2022 (UTC)
 * DONE. ✅

title: Talk:Women in Judaism


text:
Overpressure

Overpressure (or blast overpressure) is the pressure caused by a shock wave over and above normal atmospheric pressure. The shock wave may be caused by sonic boom or by explosion, and the resulting overpressure receives particular attention when measuring the effects of nuclear weapons or thermobaric bombs.

Effects
According to an article in the journal Toxicological Sciences,

Blast overpressure (BOP), also known as high energy impulse noise, is a damaging outcome of explosive detonations and firing of weapons. Exposure to BOP shock waves alone results in injury predominantly to the hollow organ systems such as auditory, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems.

An EOD suit worn by bomb disposal experts can protect against the effects of BOP.

It is important to note that the above table details the effects of overpressure on the human body in a building affected by a blast of overpressure waves, as clarified later in the journal. "The human body can survive relatively high blast overpressure without experiencing barotrauma. A 5 psi blast overpressure will rupture eardrums in about 1% of subjects, and a 45 psi overpressure will cause eardrum rupture in about 99% of all subjects. The threshold for lung damage occurs at about 15 psi blast overpressure. A 35-45 psi overpressure may cause 1% fatalities, and 55 to 65 psi overpressure may cause 99% fatalities."

According to documents released by the United States Military Defense Technical Information Center, or DTIC, "Human beings have about a 50:50 chance of surviving 500 psi, but will probably be severely injured at 70-100 psi. Exposed eardrums will be ruptured 50% of the time at 15 psi. However, a standing man will be blown away at about 10 f/s velocity by a shock of 25 psi peak pressure."

Calculation for an enclosed space
Overpressure in an enclosed space is determined using "Weibull's formula":

$$\Delta p = 22.5 \left( {m \over V} \right)^{0.72} \text{bars}$$

where:
 * 22.5 is a constant based on experimentation
 * $$m\,$$ = (kilograms) net explosive mass calculated using all explosive materials and their relative effectiveness
 * $$V\,$$ = (cubic meters) volume of given area (primarily used to determine volume within an enclosed space)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Overpressure


text:
William Knox D'Arcy

William Knox D'Arcy (11 October 1849 –1 May 1917) was a British-Australian businessman who was one of the principal founders of the oil and petrochemical industry in Persia (Iran). The D’Arcy Concession was signed in 1901 and allowed D'Arcy to explore, obtain, and market oil, natural gas, asphalt, and ozokerite in Persia.

Early life
He was born in Newton Abbot, Devon, England and was the son of a solicitor. He attended Westminster School until 1866, when the family emigrated to Australia following his father's bankruptcy, settling in Rockhampton, Queensland. D'Arcy continued his studies and chose to follow law, later joining his father's business. He did well and began to speculate, initially in land.

He married Elena Birkbeck of Rockhampton at St Patrick's Cathedral, Parramatta on 23 October 1872. Elena was born in Mexico in 1840, the only daughter of Damiana de Barre Valdez and Samuel Birkbeck, a mining engineer from Illinois in the United States, who was in Mexico managing a silver mine. He was descended from the English Birkbecks, a Quaker family with an interest in education.

Mining in Australia and New Zealand
In 1882 he became a partner, with Walter Russell Hall and Thomas Skarratt Hall, in a syndicate with Thomas, Frederick and Edwin Morgan when they opened a mine on Ironstone Mountain (later renamed Mount Morgan), in Queensland, 24 mi south of Rockhampton. There was a significant deposit at Mount Morgan Mine. In October 1886, the syndicate became the Mount Morgan Gold Mining Company, with D'Arcy a director and the largest shareholder. He held 125,000 shares in his own name and 233,000 in trust. At one stage the shares reached £17/1s/- each, making them worth more than £6 million (an amount equivalent to £ in present-day terms). The company also worked a rich gold mine at Matakanui, Central Otago, New Zealand, through its subsidiary the Mount Morgan Sluicing Company.

Oil exploration in Persia
In 1889, with a substantial fortune, D'Arcy and his family moved to England, where he bought the Stanmore Hall mansion, Bylaugh Park, and a house on Grosvenor Square. His wife, Elena, died in 1897 and, in 1899, he married Nina Boucicault (a first cousin of her namesake, celebrated Irish stage and film actress Nina Boucicault), with whom he lavishly entertained guests. He had acquired a strong interest in horse-racing while in Australia, and maintained a private box at Epsom racecourse.

In 1900, he agreed to fund a search for oil and minerals in Persia headed by Wolff, Ketabchee and Cotte, although D'Arcy never visited Persia himself. Negotiations with the Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar began in 1901, and with the offer of £20,000 (£0 million today), for a sixty-year concession to explore for oil – later, the D'Arcy Concession –  was secured in May, covering 480000 sqmi, and stipulated that D'Arcy would have the oil rights to the entire country except for five provinces in Northern Iran. In exchange, the Iranian government was given 16% of the oil company's annual profits, an agreement that would remain in effect until the nationalisation of the industry by the Iranian government in March 1952.

A drilling team under George B. Reynolds was sent to Chiah Surkh and drilling commenced at the end of 1902. Despite drilling a producer in January 1904, D'Arcy had already spent £160,000, and was overdrawn at Lloyds Bank by £177,000. D'Arcy was forced to find further financial support, and in 1905 the Concession Syndicate was established with Burmah Oil Company Ltd. as a major investor, and D'Arcy's operation a subsidiary. More importantly, operations moved to the Shardin region in 1906.

Drilling in southern Persia at Shardin continued until 1907, when the search was switched to Masjed Soleyman (Masjed-e-Sulayman in Persian مسجد سلیمان), in a place named Maydon-e-Naftune. Drilling began at one site in January 1908, and at another nearby in March. By April, with no success, the venture close to collapse, and D'Arcy almost bankrupt, he decided, with Burmah, to abandon exploration in Iran. In early May 1908, they sent Reynolds a telegram stating that they had run out of money and ordering him to "cease work, dismiss the staff, dismantle anything worth the cost of transporting to the coast for re-shipment, and come home". Reynolds delayed following these orders and in a stroke of luck, struck oil at 1180 ft shortly after on 26 May 1908.

In April 1909, D'Arcy was appointed a director of the newly founded Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), which would later become British Petroleum (BP). By 1911, APOC had run a pipeline from the find to a refinery at Abadan. In 1912, the Mount Morgan company was listed in London, and D'Arcy was made chairman of that board.

The financial support given by Burmah Oil and the British Admiralty meant that D'Arcy could no longer put his name to the new company despite the best efforts of his wife, and so was a shareholder.

Later life
Later in life he lived at Stanmore Hall, Middlesex. It was enlarged by Brightwen Binyon in 1888–91. A billiard room and new dining room were created. Then he commissioned from William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones a suite of tapestries, 'The Quest of the Holy Grail', that were displayed in the hall but are now dispersed. He also owned paintings by Frank Dicksee and Frederick Goodall.

He died on 1 May 1917, aged 67.

D'Arcy was posthumously inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame in 2012.

title: William Knox D'Arcy


text:
Talk:1960 Winter Olympics

Comment
My info is that:

The Olympic Flame is lit in Squaw Valley at February 18 by the 1952 Olympic champion in 500 meter speed skating, Ken Henry. The games are opened by Vice  President Richard Nixon. The fire from Morgedal is still burning in Squaw Valley. -- Egil

US Flag incorrect
A 50 star US flag is shown in the medal table. This is incorrect - the US flew a 49-star flag from July 4 1959 until July 3 1960. 02:10, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * So fixed — Michael J 20:11, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Nordic events
Talk amongst the Tahoe locals is that the Nordic events were held at Sugar Pine Point State Park and surrounding environs. Bandy 17:31, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Incorrect facts

 * The first televised winter games was the 1956 games. See  from the IOC for proof.   H1nkles (talk) 16:38, 11 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Giuliana Chenal-Minuzzo recited the athlete's oath at the 1956 Games. She was the first woman to do so per this link also from the IOC .  I will change these discrepencies.
 * Squaw Valley ski area is located in Olympic Valley, CA, not Squaw Valley, CA. Squaw Valley, CA is in central California, near Fresno. A simple check on the Squaw Valley Ski Corp. web site (www.squaw.com/contact-squaw-valley-usa) will clearly show their address as Squaw Valley Ski Corporation, P.O. Box 2007, 1960 Squaw Valley Road, Olympic Valley CA 96146. Why do the guardians of this entry insist in using the wrong city for the famous resort's address?

Greece in the opening ceremonies
It was mentioned that the Greek standardbearer (as always) led the procession of athletes into the Opening Ceremonies. However, Greece is not shown as having participated in these Games officially. Did Greece just send a non-athlete flag bearer, was the Greek flagbearer not even Greek from from the Olympic Committee? Was the story about the Greek flag leading in the athletes even true? Enquiring minds think this article should elucidate on that. --Canuckguy (talk) 19:36, 28 February 2013 (UTC)

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"Gave CBS the idea for instant replay"
This is sourced to a single statement on IOC's web page about Squaw Valley. It seems dubious and poorly sourced. I couldn't find any good sourcing for this statement; in fact, most of the internet that mentions Squaw Valley and instant replay together seems to have gotten that opinion directly from this article, sometimes word-for-word. The instant replay page itself, which is well-sourced, does not even mention Squaw Valley. It seems like a TV urban legend that has made its way into this article and I believe it should be removed. ArchieOof (talk) 17:05, 31 December 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:1960 Winter Olympics


text:
Talk:Miranda Richardson

Actor vs Actress
Dear MarnetteD, please don't change "actress" to "actor".

Everywhere, such as her IMDB page, all award citations and interviews (other then Guardian, who seem to wish to eradicate the term) have it as "actress".

If you really need another reason, imagine editing Laverne Cox instead. 2406:3400:319:C860:ECB8:375B:1584:9E2C (talk) 11:38, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

"....shows herself as a current actress that can mirable dictu act""

 * What the hell does this mean? Mintguy

 * "mirable dictu" literally means "wonderful to tell". Whoever wrote that clearly has a low opinion of the modern acting profession... —Paul A

 * the expression is actually mirabile dictu --ukexpat 20:55, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Antoxl
This article is the only page in the entire Google index which contains the word 'antoxl'. What the heck does it mean?Adambisset 00:47, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * After some rummaging around in Google, it appears that someone meant "axolotl". Interview. Shadoks 11:44, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Cleanup
noticed this article still has the cleanup tag, can anyone explain why or what needs to be done? Idril 15:08, 22 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Looks okay to me. I think the cleanup could be removed. Guinness 00:04, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

"professional" vs rep theatre
is this the typically drawn distinction? repertory is professional too though, so it doesn't really seem to fit... Amo 19:50, 15 March 2006 (UTC)

not npov if I ever saw one...
From the beginning paragraph... "noted for her distinctive ability to deeply delve into the minds of the characters she plays." What is that supposed to mean? --Fbv 65 edel (discuss 23:02, 7 May 2006 (UTC)
 * And could someone pare down that alliteration please? Sumergocognito 22:41, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

best known......
i removed the blackadder reference from the opening, 'cos it's subjective, and probably not correct. - Petesmiles 12:26, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

Photo
I don't think we can claim fair use on this: the Non-free images guidelines (#12 in the list) specifically mentions "people still alive" as an example that may fail the test. There is an exception for "retired individuals whose notability rests in large part on their earlier visual appearance", but that does not apply to Richardson. 86.132.137.224 (talk) 03:31, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

removal of Miranda Online site external link
Hi MarnetteD Sorry I didn;t realise the link to the 'Miranda Online' website broke the rules. The link had been there quite happily for ages, and when it disappeared I tried adding it again. I didn't see any explanation for its removal the next times, so re-added it. Definitely not trying to spam, and as far as I can see the only reason it is an invalid link is because I run the site. I still think it is a worthwhile link to include, and note that many other actors/actresses have fan-page links (some of which I also run) on their Wiki pages. I won't try and add it again, but would like to stress that it is not a money-making site and I don't care about driving traffic to it, it is a personal labour of love, and the intention was to direct people visiting the wiki page to further information about Miranda. Indeed there are links to articles and research I have done within the existing wiki page. Threecard (talk) 07:17, 20 August 2008 (UTC)

Death Info
I have made several attempts to update the page with information regarding Miranda`s recent death. Please do note delete the changes altogether - I am happy to have facts added, but unfortunately, Miranda has in fact died. thanks. Kwangawoo
 * This isn't funny: it was Natasha Richardson who sadly died, not Miranda Richardson. Natasha Richardson's article has been updated to state this. Acalamari 16:20, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Personal section
I have removed the text from the Personal Section. I am putting the text here while we discuss whether it should be in the article or not. The text seems to be "non-encyclopedic" to me, more suited to a magazine or gossip column. What do others think? --BwB (talk) 19:47, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

Also, it only supported by a blogg as a ref - not adhering to Wiki policy for refs. --BwB (talk) 19:52, 29 April 2012 (UTC)
 * == Personal life ==

Richardson lives in West London with her two cats, Otis and Waldo, and her dogs Liv and Ivo. Her hobbies include drawing, walking, gardening, fashion, falconry and music.

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CR2
Per WP:MOSFILM there needs to a an official release date for any upcoming film to be listed in the filmography. MarnetteD|Talk 09:11, 19 November 2019 (UTC)

Theatre roles
I'm puzzled by the references to 'Derby Playhouse, Lancaster', in the list of her theatre roles. There isn't a Derby Playhouse in Lancaster, and the list of productions of the Derby Playhouse (based in Derby) doesn't list those plays. I wonder if 'Dukes Playhouse' (which is in Lancaster) is meant. However, I can't find a list of the Dukes' productions so can't confirm when or whether those plays were ever staged. It must have been after 1979. PhilUK (talk) 11:46, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

English/British
Miranda is described as English in sources, and her preferred nationality is English, as per the guide on UK nationals; Nationality of people from the United Kingdom it says, Look specifically for evidence that the person has a preferred nationality.Halbared (talk) 08:58, 27 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Miranda Richardson


text:
Chris Tucker

Christopher Tucker (born August 31, 1971) is an American stand-up comedian and actor. Tucker made his debut in 1992 as a stand-up performer on the HBO comedy series Def Comedy Jam, where he frequently appeared on the show during the 1990s. He made his feature film debut in House Party 3 in 1994 and gained greater recognition in Friday the following year. In 1997, he co-starred in the films The Fifth Element and Money Talks, and appeared in a supporting role in Quentin Tarantino's Jackie Brown. Tucker gained widespread fame and popularity in the 2000s for playing Detective James Carter in the Rush Hour film series.

Early life, education, and career
Christopher Tucker was born in Atlanta on August 31, 1971, the youngest of six children of Mary Louise (née Bryant) and Norris Tucker. Tucker learned early in life that humor had the power to draw attention to himself both at school and at home. His father was an independent businessman who owned a janitorial service. Tucker grew up in a Pentecostal Christian household; his parents were members of the Church of God in Christ during his childhood. His mother is a Evangelist Missionary and Jurisdictional Supervisor of Women of a Jurisdiction in the Church, until these days.

Tucker grew up in Decatur, Georgia, and after graduating from Columbia High School, he moved to Los Angeles to pursue his comedy career. His comedy influences were Richard Pryor and Eddie Murphy, and Tucker was known by his teachers and high school classmates for making people laugh by doing impressions of Murphy, Michael Jackson, and others.

Career
Tucker began showcasing his comedy skills before an audience in local Atlanta comedy clubs until he decided to move to Los Angeles in 1990 to further pursue his stand-up comedy career. In 1992, Tucker was a frequent performer on the HBO comedy series Def Comedy Jam. He made his cinematic debut in House Party 3 in 1994 and gained greater film recognition alongside N.W.A rapper Ice Cube in Friday the following year. In 1997, he co-starred in the films The Fifth Element and Money Talks. He also played a supporting role in Quentin Tarantino's Jackie Brown and had a starring role in the spy comedy Double-O-Soul, but the latter was never released.

Along with Hong Kong martial artist Jackie Chan, Tucker starred as LAPD detective James Carter in the martial arts action comedy film series Rush Hour. After the commercial success of the first Rush Hour film, he held out for a $20 million salary for Rush Hour 2, and was paid $25 million for Rush Hour 3. The latter was part of a $40 million two-movie contract with New Line Cinema that also included an unnamed future film. He was also to receive 20% of the gross from Rush Hour 3.

Tucker did not reprise his role as Smokey in Next Friday (2000) or Friday After Next (2002) for religious reasons, later explaining that he didn't want to encourage others to smoke marijuana. He starred in Michael Jackson's video "You Rock My World" and made a cameo appearance in Tupac Shakur's "California Love". On February 13, 2009, Tucker participated in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Celebrity Game. Other celebrities participating included rapper Master P, NBA Hall of Famers Clyde Drexler and Dominique Wilkins, wide receiver Terrell Owens, and four Harlem Globetrotters.

Tucker was announced in 2007 to star in the New Line drama film Mr. S: My Life with Frank Sinatra, directed by Brett Ratner and based on George Jacobs's autobiography of working as Frank Sinatra's valet during the Rat Pack era of 1953–68.

In 2011, Tucker made a comeback to stand-up comedy. The next year, he returned to film in Silver Linings Playbook, co-starring Bradley Cooper, Jennifer Lawrence, and Robert De Niro. Tucker's performance in the film was well received by critics and audiences alike. The film itself received numerous nominations and awards including the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast. He also hosted the 2013 BET Awards. In 2016, he appeared in Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk. In 2023, he portrayed Nike executive Howard White in the film Air.

Philanthropy and political views
He endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 primaries.

In 2021, Tucker joined the Heal Los Angeles Foundation as an official ambassador. The Foundation is co-founded by Michael Jackson’s son, Prince Jackson, and their purpose is to help inner-city youth in Los Angeles by ending homelessness, child abuse, and hunger in the city.

During the 2022 Halloween Thriller Night hosted by the Heal Los Angeles Foundation, Tucker and Steve Harvey were honored and received the inaugural "Man in The Mirror" Award. The award is given to influential individuals using their platforms for good. Tucker accepted the award that was presented by Prince Jackson.

Personal life
Tucker has a son named Destin with his ex-wife Azja Pryor. He divides his time between Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Atlanta.

Tucker is good friends with fellow Rush Hour co-star Jackie Chan. He was also close with singer Michael Jackson: introducing and dancing with him at his 30th Anniversary Celebration; appearing in his video "You Rock My World" from the 2001 album Invincible; and attending his memorial service. Tucker's career was also influenced by Jackson, as he is seen dancing and singing to "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough" in a scene in Rush Hour 2 and imitating Jackson's dancing style in Friday.

Tucker participated in professor Henry Louis Gates Jr.'s 2006 PBS documentary on the genetic makeup of African Americans, African American Lives, that specifically focused on stories of Native American heritage in African-American communities. Tucker's DNA test results showed African, European, and "likely some Native American" ancestors. Tucker's patrilineal ancestry was also traced back to the Ambundu ethnic group of Angola and one line of his mother's to the Bamileke of Cameroon. He also traced his family tree back to the 1830s. Tucker and Gates were shown visiting Angola, the birthplace of some of his ancestors.

In 2014, Tucker settled a $2.5 million tax debt. A representative blamed "poor accounting and business management". In November 2021, the IRS sued Tucker, seeking $9.6 million in back taxes.

Also in 2014, Tucker told an interviewer that he refrains from using harsh profanity in his performances due to his Christian faith.

Tucker's connection to Jeffrey Epstein was covered in the 2020 Netflix documentary series Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich. In 2002, Tucker traveled in Epstein's airplane alongside Bill Clinton and Kevin Spacey for humanitarian purposes in combating the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Africa.

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Altena

Altena (Westphalian: Altenoa) is a town in the district of Märkischer Kreis, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The town's castle is the origin for the later Dukes of Berg. Altena is situated on the Lenne river valley, in the northern stretches of the Sauerland.

History
Altena Castle was built in the early 12th century, as a stronghold of the older Counts of Berg. A short time later a village was founded beneath the hill, with the castle alongside the river Lenne, which feeds into the river Ruhr. After the distribution of the Berg family estates in 1161, Altena became the centre of the County of Altena. The first Count of Altena became Eberhard I, Count of Berg-Altena. In 1180, after the death of the first count, the county was divided between the two oldest sons: Arnold of Altena and Friedrich of Altena. The third son, Adolf of Altena, became Archbishop of Cologne. Arnold was provided with on half of the Castle and County of Altena, the Castle Hövel and some estates as fiefdoms of the Archbishops of Cologne and bailiwicks of the Abbey Essen. Near the Village and Castle of Hövel, he built the Castle and town of Nienbrügge (Novus Ponte) on the Lippe riverbanks. His family branch renamed themselves after selling their half of Altena to the Archbishop of Cologne as de Nienbrügge or de Novus Ponte, their new principal residence about forty kilometers to the north. The heir of Arnold was Friedrich de Novus Ponte (Nienbrügge) who changed his title to Isenberg after his new castle in Hattingen. He was sentenced to death as head of a conspiracy to murder Engelbert I. Archbishop of Cologne, Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, Duke of Westphalia and Count of Berg, a close relative, in 1226. The Archbishop was ambushed and slain on his way from his City of Soest to City of Cologne by Friedrich and his men near Gevelsberg in a hollow way. Both had a dispute over the bailiwicks of Essen Abbey.

The junior branch of the Counts of Altena, was founded by Friedrich de Altena. He was provided with the other half of Altena and a vassal to his brother the Archbishop of Cologne. In or around 1170 he bought the Oberhof Mark or was rewarded with it by the Archbishop. The Oberhof was a mayor manor without fortifications in the village of Mark, between the Lippe and Ahse rivers less than five kilometers to the east of the Nienbrügge Castle and about seven kilometers southeast of Hövel Castle. Today, about a 1,5 kilometers to the east of the centre of the city of Hamm. Before or in 1198 he built the Castle of Mark. His son Adolf I. named himself in 1202 puer comes de marca and became the first Count of Mark. He sometimes used the old title Altena in combination with Mark. His principal residence was the Castle of Mark. After the execution of his cousin Friedrich de Isenberg in Cologne, he destroyed the Castle of Neinbruegge and took over the possessions of the senior family branch.

After 1202, Altena Castle was only one of several Stronghold of the family of Altena-Mark. During a feud in 1323 between the Prince-Bishop of Münster and the Count of Mark, the Bishop was captured and held for ransom in Altena. In 1367 the settlement below the castle received limited town rights through Engelbert III. Count de la Mark. Since 1392 Altena remained only the seat of the bailiff for bailiwick Altena. The castle was also used as an archive for documents and patents for the county.

In 1609, the last count died childless. His realm, the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg were practically divided into a Catholic and a Protestant part. The Duchy of Cleves and the counties of Mark and Ravensberg, and the Dominion of Ravenstein were inherited by the Protestant Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, Margrave of Brandenburg, and Duke of Prussia Johann Sigismund of Hohenzollern. The catholic Duchy of Jülich-Berg were inherited by the Count Palatine Wolfgang Wilhelm of Neuburg.

During the Napoleonic occupation of the Rhineland and Westphalia, Altena was re-joined with the now elevated Grand Duchy of Berg. After the Congress of Vienna the County of Mark was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia and reorganized as a district (Kreis) and government district (Regierungsbezirk). Altena became part of the Regierungsbezirk Hamm and was seat of the Kreis Altena. Within the year 1815 the Government moved the quarters from Hamm to Arnsberg, and changed the name into Regierungsbezirk Arnsberg.

With the start of the year 1969, the Kreis Altena and the town Lüdenscheid were merged to form the new Kreis Lüdenscheid. Lüdenscheid became the new administrative center of the district. Only six years later the Kreis Lüdenscheid was reformed and enlarged. In reminiscence of the County of Mark it was renamed as Märkischer Kreis.

In May 2017, Chancellor Merkel awarded Altena Mayor Andreas Hollstein the "National Prize for Integration" for taking in 370 refugees, i.e. 100 more than the mandatory quota. Six months later, even though Mayor Hollstein had been stabbed by a man with a knife who reportedly was upset over his immigration policy, he remained determined to promote policies aimed at helping refugees assimilate into the town.

Mayors

 * April 1945 – August 1945 Fritz Berg
 * August 1945 – March 1946 Friedrich Heyne
 * September 1946 – November 1952 Hermann Voß
 * November 1952 – October 1956 Gustav Trappe
 * November 1956 – January 1957 Hermann Voß
 * January 1957 – March 1961 Heinrich Malkus
 * March 1961 – March 1969 Gustav Trappe
 * April 1969 – April 1970 Friedhelm Halfmeier (SPD)
 * April 1970 – September 1999 Günter Topmann (SPD)
 * September 1999 - Oktober 2020 Andreas Hollstein (CDU)
 * since November 2020 Uwe Kober (CDU)

Population development
Number of inhabitants (December 31)

Points of interest
The town's biggest attraction is the castle: Burg Altena. After being un-used for centuries it was in ruins, although part of the buildings was used as a hospital. A complete restoration was undertaken in 1909 to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Prussian incorporation of the county of Mark into Prussia (Brandenburg). However, most of the work did not finish before 1914; the celebrations were then held at Hohensyburg Castle.

In 1912 the world's first youth hostel was created by Richard Schirrmann inside the castle. The old rooms are still on display, and new rooms inside the castle area are still part of the hostel today.

The dominant industry in Altena was wire production, and thus it has a museum dedicated to this industry only, the Drahtmuseum.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows Catherine of Alexandria, the patron saint of the church built in 1310. She is depicted with a sword and a wheel, as she was killed in 307 by these two items. The choice of patron saint goes back to a vow made by Count Engelbert III of the Mark made at the burial place of Catherine in Jerusalem. The red and white checked fess refers to the coat of arms of the Counts of the Mark.

The coat of arms is quite old: a seal from the 15th century already depicts the same elements. In its current design it was created by Otto Hupp in 1938.

Twin towns – sister cities
Altena is twinned with:
 * 🏴 Blackburn, England, United Kingdom (1972)
 * 🇫🇷 Péronne, France (1967)
 * 🇧🇾 Pinsk, Belarus (1990)

Friendship city
Altena is a friendship city with:
 * 🇺🇸 Owensville, United States (2005)

Notable people

 * Fritz Berg (1901–1979), first president of the Federation of the German Industry after Second World War
 * Herbert Berg (1910–1938), racing driver
 * Jason Dark (born 1945), pseudonym of the writer Helmut Rellergerd
 * Fritz Heinemann (1864–1932), sculptor
 * Friedrich Sieburg (1893–1964), literary critic, journalist and writer

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Talk:Lists of airports

IATA v ICAO
Why are we using IATA codes everywhere on the Wiki? Why not ICAO codes? ICAO codes are what pilots and air traffic control agencies use to file flight plans, because they are unique. I'm curious how this decision was made and if it's still open for discussion.

IATA codes are used more often by travellers and airline timetables. However, you can start a list of airlines by ICAO code, if you want to. WhisperToMe 00:29, 30 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Perhaps it should be made clear that only airports with IATA codes are on this list. (I know it says it sorts airports by IATA code, but not that it is excluding airports without one) Dunro 17:54, 2005 Mar 22 (UTC)
 * I try and list both. The infobox, which will eventually be rolled out, also lists spaces for both. Burgundavia 06:57, Mar 23, 2005 (UTC)

Delete this page?
I started a discussion on the List of airports in Canada page, but I think that it more properly belongs here. This page and the national pages it points to duplicate Category:Airports and its subcategories. There are tens of thousands of airports in the world, and I do not believe that it makes sense to try to maintain these lists by hand, even divided into national articles (there are over 1,000 registered airports in Canada alone, and probably ten times as many in the U.S.). The categories maintain themselves automatically, so they are always more complete and up to date.

Note that I am not proposing deleting specialty lists like List of airports in the New York City area, since those have groupings that are not found anywhere else. I am proposing deleting this page, and eventually, all of the national pages. I'm going to wait a while before doing a vfd, however, so that there's time for informal discussion. David 17:32, 2005 May 24 (UTC)
 * OK, no discussion, so I've vfd'd it. David 18:19, 2005 Jun 3 (UTC)
 * A little late, but I agree. Maintaining this by hand would definitely be a pain. And I can't see what anyone would ever want this information for that they couldn't get from the category page. Danorris 30 June 2005 14:52 (UTC)

HOU
LON, NYC, etc are listed as something like "NYC – All Airports – New York City, New York, United States" because the represent all the airports in an area. I think HOU should also be listed like this as it is a metro code for both HOU-Hobby and IAH-Bush Intercontinental.

The new listing would look like this:
 * 1) HOU (KHOU) – William P. Hobby Airport – Houston, Texas, United States
 * 2) HOU - All Airports – Houston, Texas, United States

Agreed?

Numbers?
Need to list airports that start with numbers such as 34U and 3CM. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 147.240.236.8 (talk) 21:10, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

Hello Editor
Hello Everyone, Recently, I have posted my Airport Search Website in the External links of this page but my link has been removed. An editor (Ahunt) explain me why it was removed. The link I have posted violates the Wikipedia External link policy because it's a Link mainly intended to promote a website and because the website belongs to me, I'm in a conflict of interest in posting it.

I'm sorry about that everyone, I'm new to wikipedia and I didn't know about this policy.

I'm proud of my website and my goal was only to offer this services to the community. If you think that my website should be useful for people and is appropriate to be included in this page, I will really appreciate it. If not, it's ok I will understand. Or if you have any comments about my website, to improve it or whatever, simply give me a comment, I will be happy to receive your message. Thank you and sorry for my english (it's not my primary language). Lindbergh2002 (talk) 15:20, 22 January 2008 (UTC)
 * It is a good database! I've added it to the list of information resources at WikiProject Airports. Canglesea (talk) 04:29, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Help needed
Need help from someone who knows how to make both the navboxes be in the uncollapsed state. If anyone knows how to override the default parameters, please help!--Funandtrvl (talk) 21:53, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

historic
I miss any reference to LYD, the old airport code of TLV. What about a section "historic airport codes" and or a date in the article on Ben Gurion Airport when the code was changed? 178.5.238.52 (talk) 12:32, 5 December 2014 (UTC)

Cleanup
Hi all - I've made a significant cleanup to this page - splitting it by type. I was considering adding a list of lists of airports by country, but I think it's better to navigate by continent. I am also working on standardising the page for each continent. Let me know if you have any thoughts about how it can be structured. Thanks Anguswiki (talk) 22:24, 18 May 2024 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Lists of airports by IATA and ICAO code into Lists of airports
Exact copy of Lists of airports. HueMan1 (talk) 14:44, 25 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Support - redirect to that section Anguswiki (talk) 12:04, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

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Connate fluids

In geology and sedimentology, connate fluids are liquids that were trapped in the pores of sedimentary rocks as they were deposited. These liquids are largely composed of water, but also contain many mineral components as ions in solution.

As rocks are buried, they undergo lithification and the connate fluids are usually expelled. If the escape route for these fluids is blocked, the pore fluid pressure can build up, leading to overpressure.

Significance
An understanding of the geochemistry of connate fluids is important if the diagenesis of the rock is to be quantified. The solutes in the connate fluids often precipitate and reduce the porosity and permeability of the host rock, which can have important implications for its hydrocarbon prospectivity. The chemical components of the connate fluid can also yield information on the provenance of aquifers and of the thermal history of the host rock. Minute bubbles of fluid are often trapped within the crystals of the cementing material. These fluid inclusions provide direct information about the composition of the fluid and the pressure-temperature conditions that existed during diagenesis of the sediments.

Some analyses of connate water samples from Louisiana (USA) compared to seawater

Similar, but different in origin, is the concept of fossil water, which is used to describe very old groundwater found in deep aquifers or bedrock. Typically it was recharged during a different climatic period (e.g., the last ice age) so is also very old, but possibly not of the same genesis as the rock.

title: Connate fluids


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User:Roger.wernersson

User:roger.wernersson/List of public domain fictional characters

title: User:Roger.wernersson


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User talk:Roger.wernersson

Welcome to the Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need any questions answered about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! -- Mintguy

BTW your edit to DirectX was and incorrect statement of fact.

Re: Dinosaur King
My bad, I undid it because I thought that it would confuse readers to see a category called "Dinosaur King". Also, I didn't really understand the point of it; redo the edit (if you haven't done so already) and say the reason under the 'Reason' box. -- DQ13 | Talk  Contribs  00:35, 18 November 2010 (UTC)

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Frigatebird

Frigatebirds are a family of seabirds called Fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans. The five extant species are classified in a single genus, Fregata. All have predominantly black plumage, long, deeply forked tails and long hooked bills. Females have white underbellies and males have a distinctive red gular pouch, which they inflate during the breeding season to attract females. Their wings are long and pointed and can span up to 2.3 m, the largest wing area to body weight ratio of any bird.

Able to soar for weeks on wind currents, frigatebirds spend most of the day in flight hunting for food, and roost on trees or cliffs at night. Their main prey are fish and squid, caught when chased to the water surface by large predators such as tuna. Frigatebirds are referred to as kleptoparasites as they occasionally rob other seabirds for food, and are known to snatch seabird chicks from the nest. Seasonally monogamous, frigatebirds nest colonially. A rough nest is constructed in low trees or on the ground on remote islands. A single egg is laid each breeding season. The duration of parental care is among the longest of any bird species; frigatebirds are only able to breed every other year.

The Fregatidae are a sister group to Suloidea which consists of cormorants, darters, gannets, and boobies. Three of the five extant species of frigatebirds are widespread (the magnificent, great and lesser frigatebirds), while two are endangered (the Christmas Island and Ascension Island frigatebirds) and restrict their breeding habitat to one small island each. The oldest fossils date to the early Eocene, around 50 million years ago. Classified in the genus Limnofregata, the three species had shorter, less-hooked bills and longer legs, and lived in a freshwater environment.

Etymology
The term Frigate Bird itself was used in 1738 by the English naturalist and illustrator Eleazar Albin in his A Natural History of the Birds. The book included an illustration of the male bird showing the red gular pouch. Like the genus name, the English term is derived from the French mariners' name for the bird la frégate—a frigate or fast warship. The etymology was mentioned by French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre when describing the bird in 1667. Alternative names and spellings include "frigate bird", "frigate-bird", "frigate", "frigate-petrel".

Christopher Columbus encountered frigatebirds when passing the Cape Verde Islands on his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492. In his journal entry for 29 September he used the word rabiforçado, modern Spanish rabihorcado or forktail. In the Caribbean frigatebirds were called Man-of-War birds by English mariners. This name was used by the English explorer William Dampier in his book An Account of a New Voyage Around the World published in 1697: "The Man-of-War (as it is called by the English) is about the bigness of a Kite, and in shape like it, but black; and the neck is red. It lives on Fish yet never lights on the water, but soars aloft like a Kite, and when it sees its prey, it flys down head foremost to the Waters edge, very swiftly takes its prey out of the Sea with his Bill, and immediately mounts again as swiftly; never touching the Water with his Bill. His Wings are very long; his feet are like other Land-fowl, and he builds on Trees, where he finds any; but where they are wanting on the ground."

Classification
Frigatebirds were grouped with cormorants, and sulids (gannets and boobies) as well as pelicans in the genus Pelecanus by Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He described the distinguishing characteristics as a straight bill hooked at the tip, linear nostrils, a bare face, and fully webbed feet. The genus Fregata was introduced by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. The type species was designated as the Ascension frigatebird by French zoologist François Marie Daudin in 1802. Louis Pierre Vieillot described the genus name Tachypetes in 1816 for the great frigatebird. The genus name Atagen had been coined by German naturalist Paul Möhring in 1752, though this has no validity as it predates the official beginning of Linnaean taxonomy.

In 1874, English zoologist Alfred Henry Garrod published a study where he had examined various groups of birds and recorded which muscles of a selected group of five they possessed or lacked. Noting that the muscle patterns were different among the steganopodes (classical Pelecaniformes), he resolved that there were divergent lineages in the group that should be in separate families, including frigatebirds in their own family Fregatidae. Urless N. Lanham observed in 1947 that frigatebirds bore some skeletal characteristics more in common with Procellariiformes than Pelecaniformes, though concluded they still belonged in the latter group (as suborder Fregatae), albeit as an early offshoot. Martyn Kennedy and colleagues derived a cladogram based on behavioural characteristics of the traditional Pelecaniformes, calculating the frigatebirds to be more divergent than pelicans from a core group of gannets, darters and cormorants, and tropicbirds the most distant lineage. The classification of this group as the traditional Pelecaniformes, united by feet that are totipalmate (with all four toes linked by webbing) and the presence of a gular pouch, persisted until the early 1990s. The DNA–DNA hybridization studies of Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist placed the frigatebirds in a lineage with penguins, loons, petrels and albatrosses. Subsequent genetic studies place the frigatebirds as a sister group to the group Suloidea, which comprises the gannets and boobies, cormorants and darters. Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of frigatebirds resembled those of other Pelecaniformes in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells.

Molecular studies have consistently shown that pelicans, the namesake family of the Pelecaniformes, are actually more closely related to herons, ibises and spoonbills, the hamerkop and the shoebill than to the remaining species. In recognition of this, the order comprising the frigatebirds and Suloidea was renamed Suliformes in 2010.

In 1994, the family name Fregatidae, cited as described in 1867 by French naturalists Côme-Damien Degland and Zéphirin Gerbe, was conserved under Article 40(b) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in preference to the 1840 description Tachypetidae by Johann Friedrich von Brandt. This was because the genus names Atagen and Tachypetes had been synonymised with Fregata before 1961, resulting in the aligning of family and genus names.

Fossil record
The Eocene frigatebird genus Limnofregata comprises birds whose fossil remains were recovered from prehistoric freshwater environments, unlike the marine preferences of their modern-day relatives. They had shorter less-hooked bills and longer legs, and longer slit-like nasal openings. Three species have been described from fossil deposits in the western United States, two—L. azygosternon and L. hasegawai—from the Green River Formation (48–52 million years old) and one—L. hutchisoni—from the Wasatch Formation (between 53 and 55 million years of age). Fossil material indistinguishable from living species dating to the Pleistocene and Holocene has been recovered from Ascension Island (for F. aquila), Saint Helena Island, both in the southern Atlantic Ocean, and also from various islands in the Pacific Ocean (for F. minor and F. ariel).

A cladistic study of the skeletal and bone morphology of the classical Pelecaniformes and relatives found that the frigatebirds formed a clade with Limnofregata. Birds of the two genera have 15 cervical vertebrae, unlike almost all other Ciconiiformes, Suliformes and Pelecaniformes, which have 17. The age of Limnofregata indicates that these lineages had separated by the Eocene.

Living species and infrageneric classification
The type species of the genus is the Ascension frigatebird (Fregata aquila). For many years, the consensus was to recognise only two species of frigatebird, with larger birds as F. aquila and smaller as F. ariel. In 1914 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews delineated five species, which remain valid. Analysis of ribosomal and mitochondrial DNA indicated that the five species had diverged from a common ancestor only recently—as little as 1.5 million years ago. There are two species pairs, the great and Christmas Island frigatebirds, and the magnificent and Ascension frigatebirds, while the fifth species, the lesser frigatebird, is an early offshoot of the common ancestor of the other four species. Two subspecies of the magnificent, three subspecies of the lesser and five subspecies of the great frigatebird are recognised.

Description
Frigatebirds are large slender mostly black-plumaged seabirds, with the five species similar in appearance to each other. The largest species is the magnificent frigatebird, which reaches 114 cm in length, with three of the remaining four almost as large. The lesser frigatebird is substantially smaller, at around 71 cm long. Frigatebirds exhibit marked sexual dimorphism; females are larger and up to 25 percent heavier than males, and generally have white markings on their underparts. Frigatebirds have short necks and long, slender hooked bills. Their long narrow wings (male wingspan can reach 2.3 m) taper to points. Their wings have eleven primary flight feathers, with the tenth the longest and eleventh a vestigial feather only, and 23 secondaries. Their tails are deeply forked, though this is not apparent unless the tail is fanned. The tail and wings give them a distinctive 'W' silhouette in flight. The legs and face are fully feathered. The totipalmate feet are short and weak, the webbing is reduced and part of each toe is free.

The bones of frigatebirds are markedly pneumatic, making them very light and contributing only 5% to total body weight. The pectoral girdle is strong as its bones are fused. The pectoral muscles are well-developed, and weigh as much as the frigatebird's feathers—around half the body weight is made up equally of these muscles and feathers. The males have inflatable red-coloured throat pouches called gular pouches, which they inflate to attract females during the mating season. The gular sac is, perhaps, the most striking frigatebird feature. These can only deflate slowly, so males that are disturbed will fly off with pouches distended for some time.

Frigatebirds remain in the air and do not settle on the ocean. They produce very little oil from their uropygial glands so their feathers would become sodden if they settled on the surface. In addition, with their long wings relative to body size, they would have great difficulty taking off again.

Distribution and habitat
Frigatebirds are found over tropical oceans, and ride warm updrafts under cumulus clouds. Their range coincides with availability of food such as flying fish, and with the trade winds, which provide the windy conditions that facilitate their flying. They are rare vagrants to temperate regions and not found in polar latitudes. Adults are generally sedentary, remaining near the islands where they breed. However, male frigatebirds have been recorded dispersing great distances after departing a breeding colony—one male great frigatebird relocated from Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel to the Maldives 4400 km away, and a male magnificent frigatebird flew 1400 km from French Guiana to Trinidad. In 2015, a magnificent frigatebird was spotted as far north as Michigan. Great frigatebirds marked with wing tags on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals were found to regularly travel the 873 km to Johnston Atoll, although one was reported in Quezon City in the Philippines. Genetic testing seems to indicate that the species has fidelity to their site of hatching despite their high mobility. Young birds may disperse far and wide, with distances of up to 6000 km recorded.

Behaviour and ecology
Having the largest wing-area-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, frigatebirds are essentially aerial. This allows them to soar continuously and only rarely flap their wings. One great frigatebird, being tracked by satellite in the Indian Ocean, stayed aloft for two months. They can fly higher than 4,000 meters in freezing conditions. Like swifts they are able to spend the night on the wing, but they will also return to an island to roost on trees or cliffs. Field observations in the Mozambique Channel found that great frigatebirds could remain on the wing for up to 12 days while foraging. Highly adept, they use their forked tails for steering during flight and make strong deep wing-beats, though not suited to flying by sustained flapping. Frigatebirds bathe and clean themselves in flight by flying low and splashing at the water surface before preening and scratching afterwards. Conversely, frigatebirds do not swim and with their short legs cannot walk well or take off from the sea easily.

According to a study in the journal Nature Communication, scientists attached an accelerometer and an electroencephalogram testing device on nine great frigatebirds to measure if they slept during flight. The study found the birds do sleep, but usually only using one hemisphere of the brain at a time and usually sleep while ascending at higher altitudes. The amount of time mid-air sleeping was less than an hour and always at night.

The average life span is unknown but in common with seabirds such as the wandering albatross and Leach's storm petrel, frigatebirds are long-lived. In 2002, 35 ringed great frigatebirds were recovered on Tern Island in the Hawaiian Islands. Of these ten were older than 37 years and one was at least 44 years of age.

Despite having dark plumage in a tropical climate, frigatebirds have found ways not to overheat—particularly as they are exposed to full sunlight when on the nest. They ruffle feathers to lift them away from the skin and improve air circulation, and can extend and upturn their wings to expose the hot undersurface to the air and lose heat by evaporation and convection. Frigatebirds also place their heads in the shade of their wings, and males frequently flutter their gular pouches.

Unlike most seabirds, frigatebirds are thermal soarers, using thermals to glide. This is in contrast to birds like albatrosses, which are dynamic soarers, using winds produced by the waves to stay aloft.

Breeding behaviour
Frigatebirds typically breed on remote oceanic islands, generally in colonies of up to 5000 birds. Within these colonies, they most often nest in groups of 10 to 30 (or rarely 100) individuals. Breeding can occur at any time of year, often prompted by commencement of the dry season or plentiful food.

Frigatebirds have the most elaborate mating displays of all seabirds. The male birds take up residence in the colony in groups of up to thirty individuals. They display to females flying overhead by pointing their bills upwards, inflating their red throat pouches and vibrating their outstretched wings, showing the lighter wing undersurfaces in the process. They produce a drumming sound by vibrating their bills together and sometimes give a whistling call. The female descends to join a male she has chosen and allows him to take her bill in his. The pair also engages in mutual "head-snaking".

After copulation it is generally the male who gathers sticks and the female that constructs the loosely woven nest. The nest is subsequently covered with (and cemented by) guano. Frigatebirds prefer to nest in trees or bushes, though when these are not available they will nest on the ground. A single white egg that weighs up to 6–7% of mother's body mass is laid, and is incubated in turns by both birds for 41 to 55 days. The altricial chicks are naked on hatching and develop a white down. They are continuously guarded by the parents for the first 4–6 weeks and are fed on the nest for 5–6 months. Both parents take turns feeding for the first three months, after which the male's attendance trails off leaving the mother to feed the young for another six to nine months on average. The chicks feed by reaching their heads in their parents' throat and eating the part-regurgitated food. It takes so long to rear a chick that frigatebirds generally breed every other year. The duration of parental care in frigatebirds is among the longest for birds, rivalled only by the southern ground hornbill and some large accipitrids. Frigatebirds take many years to reach sexual maturity. A study of great frigatebirds in the Galapagos Islands found that they only bred once they have acquired the full adult plumage. This was attained by female birds when they were eight to nine years of age and by male birds when they were ten to eleven years of age.

Feeding
Frigatebirds' feeding habits are pelagic, and they may forage up to 500 km (310 mi) from land. They do not land on the water but snatch prey from the ocean surface using their long, hooked bills. They mainly catch small fish such as flying fish, particularly the genera Exocoetus and Cypselurus, that are driven to the surface by predators such as tuna and dolphinfish, but they will also eat cephalopods, particularly squid. Menhaden of the genus Brevoortia can be an important prey item where common, and jellyfish and larger plankton are also eaten. Frigatebirds have learned to follow fishing vessels and take fish from holding areas. Conversely tuna fishermen fish in areas where they catch sight of frigatebirds due to their association with large marine predators. Frigatebirds also at times prey directly on eggs and young of other seabirds, including boobies, petrels, shearwaters and terns, in particular the sooty tern.

Frigatebirds will rob other seabirds such as boobies, particularly the red-footed booby, tropicbirds, shearwaters, petrels, terns, gulls and even ospreys of their catch, using their speed and manoeuvrability to outrun and harass their victims until they regurgitate their stomach contents. They may either assail their targets after they have caught their food or circle high over seabird colonies waiting for parent birds to return laden with food. Although frigatebirds are renowned for their kleptoparasitic feeding behaviour, kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting. A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%.

Unlike most other seabirds, frigatebirds drink freshwater when they come across it, by swooping down and gulping with their bills.

Parasites
Frigatebirds are unusual among seabirds in that they often carry blood parasites. Blood-borne protozoa of the genus Haemoproteus have been recovered from four of the five species. Bird lice of the ischnoceran genus Pectinopygus and amblyceran genus Colpocephalum and species Fregatiella aurifasciata have been recovered from magnificent and great frigatebirds of the Galapagos Islands. Frigatebirds tended to have more parasitic lice than did boobies analysed in the same study.

A heavy chick mortality at a large and important colony of the magnificent frigatebird, located on Île du Grand Connétable off French Guiana, was recorded in summer 2005. Chicks showed nodular skin lesions, feather loss and corneal changes, with around half the year's progeny perishing across the colony. An alphaherpesvirus was isolated and provisionally named Fregata magnificens herpesvirus, though it was unclear whether it caused the outbreak or affected birds already suffering malnutrition.

Populations and threats
Two of the five species are considered at risk. In 2003, a survey of the four colonies of the critically endangered Christmas Island frigatebirds counted 1200 breeding pairs. As frigatebirds normally breed every other year, the total adult population was estimated to lie between 1800 and 3600 pairs. Larger numbers formerly bred on the island, but the clearance of breeding habitat during World War II and dust pollution from phosphate mining have contributed to the decrease. The population of the vulnerable Ascension frigatebird has been estimated at around 12,500 individuals. The birds formerly bred on Ascension Island itself, but the colonies were exterminated by feral cats introduced in 1815. The birds continued to breed on a rocky outcrop just off the shore of the island. A program conducted between 2002 and 2004 eradicated the feral cats and a few birds have returned to nest on the island.

The other three species are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern. The populations of all three are large, with that of the magnificent frigatebird thought to be increasing, while the great and lesser frigatebird decreasing. Monitoring populations of all species is difficult due to their movements across the open ocean and low reproductivity. The status of the Atlantic populations of the great and lesser frigatebirds are unknown and possibly extinct.

As frigatebirds rely on large marine predators such as tuna for their prey, overfishing threatens to significantly impact on food availability and jeopardise whole populations. As frigatebirds nest in large dense colonies in small areas, they are vulnerable to local disasters that could wipe out the rare species or significantly impact the widespread ones.

Hunting
In Nauru, catching frigatebirds was an important tradition still practised to some degree. Donald W. Buden writes: "Birds typically are captured by slinging the weighted end of a coil of line in front of an approaching bird attracted to previously captured birds used as decoys. In a successful toss, the line becomes entangled about the bird's wing and bringing [sic] it to ground." Marine birds including frigatebirds were once harvested for food on Christmas Island but this practice ceased in the late 1970s. Eggs and young of magnificent frigatebirds were taken and eaten in the Caribbean. Great frigatebirds were eaten in the Hawaiian Islands and their feathers used for decoration.

Cultural significance
The frigate bird appears on the national Flag of Kiribati. The design is based on its former colonial Gilbert and Ellice Islands coat of arms. The bird also appears on the flag of Barbuda, and is the national bird of Antigua and Barbuda.

There are anecdotal reports of tame frigatebirds being kept across Polynesia and Micronesia in the Pacific. A bird that had come from one island and had been taken elsewhere could be reliably trusted to return to its original home, hence would be used as a speedy way to relay a message there. There is evidence of this practice taking place in the Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu.

The great frigatebird was venerated by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island; carvings of the birdman Tangata manu depict him with the characteristic hooked beak and throat pouch. Its incorporation into local ceremonies suggests that the now-vanished species was extant there between the 1800s and 1860s.

Maritime folklore around the time of European contact with the Americas held that frigatebirds were birds of good omen as their presence meant land was near.

title: Frigatebird