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Western Ghats

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri, is a mountain range that stretches 1,600 km along the western coast of the Indian peninsula. Covering an area of 160,000 km2, it traverses the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. The range forms an almost continuous chain of mountains along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, from the Tapti River to Swamithoppe in Kanyakumari district at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The Western Ghats meet with the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris before continuing south.

Geologic evidence indicates that the mountains were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana. The mountains came along the west coast of India somewhere in the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods when India separated from the African continent. The mountains can be roughly divided into three parts: the northern section with an elevation ranging from 900-1500 m, the middle section starting from the south of Goa with a lower elevation of less than 900 m, and the southern section where the altitude rises again. The Western Ghats have several peaks that rise above 2,000 m, with Anamudi (2695 m) being the highest peak. The average elevation is around 1200 m.

The Western Ghats form one of the major watersheds of India, feeding many perennial river systems that drain almost 40% of the land area of the country. Because of the higher elevation of the Deccan plateau on the west, most rivers flow from eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal, resulting in chiselled eastern slopes and steeper western slopes facing the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats play an important role in determining the climate and seasons in India. It blocks the rain-bearing monsoon winds flowing eastward from the Arabian Sea, resulting in rainfall along the western coast. By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, forming a rain shadow region with very little rainfall on the leeward side towards the interior of the Deccan plateau.

The Western Ghats region is a biodiversity hotspot. It contains a large number of different species of flora and fauna, most of which are endemic to this region. At least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The region was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.

Etymology
The name Western Ghats is a portmanteau of the word ghat and the cardinal direction in which it is located with respect to the Indian mainland. Ghat, a term used in the Indian subcontinent, depending on the context, could either refer to a range of stepped hills such as the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats, or a series of steps leading down to a body of water or wharf. As per linguist Thomas Burrow, the word Ghat was derived from similar words used in various Dravidian languages such as kattu (mountain side, ridge, or dam) in Tamil, katte (dam), gatta (mountain), and gattu (bank or shore) in Kannada, and katta (dam), and gatte (shore or embankment) in Telugu. The ancient name for the mountain range is Sahyadri, derived from Sanskrit, meaning benevolent or tolerant mountain.

Geology
The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted, and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the super-continent of Gondwana. After the break-up, the Deccan plateau was formed by basalt rocks, which caused the western side to rise at an elevation.

Geophysical evidence indicates that the mountains came along the west coast of India somewhere in the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods when India separated from the African continent. Several faults triggered the formation of Western Ghats, then interspersed with valleys and river gorges. Because of the elevation of the Deccan plateau on the west, most rivers flow from west to east, resulting in chiselled eastern slopes and steeper western slopes facing the sea.

Geography
The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range south of the Tapti River in the north and runs approximately 1600 km to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, where it ends at the Marunthuvazh Malai at Swamithoppe in Kanyakumari district. It covers an area of 160,000 km2, traversing across the Indian states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

Topography

The Western Ghats form an almost continuous chain of mountains running parallel to the western coast of India along the Arabian Sea. The average elevation is around 1200 m. There are three gaps in the mountain range: the northernmost Goa Gap, formed 65–80 million years ago (Mya), the oldest and widest Palghat Gap, formed 500 Mya, and the southernmost, narrowest Shencottah Gap. The narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Western Coastal Plains.

The mountains can be roughly divided into three parts: the northern section with an elevation ranging from 900-1500 m, the middle section starting from the south of Goa with a lower elevation of less than 900 m, and the southern section where the altitude rises again. The Western Ghats meet with the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris before continuing south. The Western Ghats have many peaks that rise above 2,000 m, with Anamudi (2695 m) being the highest peak.

Hydrography
The Western Ghats form one of the major watersheds of India, feeding many perennial rivers. These major river systems drain almost 40% of the land area of the country. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats are the Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna. Most rivers flow eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal owing to the steeper gradient moving from east to west, and many smaller streams drain the region, often carrying a large volume of water during the monsoon months. The streams and rivers give rise to numerous waterfalls in the region. The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes, with major reservoirs spread across the region.

Climate

The Western Ghats play an important role in determining the climate and seasons in India. During the dry summer months of April – May, heat builds up on the land, which draws air from the sea. The air, which picks up moisture along the way and flows eastward from the Arabian Sea, is blocked by the Western Ghats. The rising air cools and brings about orographic precipitation along the western coast. This signifies the onset of the monsoon season in June. By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, resulting in a rain shadow region with very little rainfall on the leeward side towards the interior of the Deccan plateau. The monsoon winds rounding up the peninsula and moving from the east from the Bay of Bengal pass over the Eastern Ghats and bring the majority of the rainfall to the plains up north.

Climate in the mountains shows variations with altitude across the range. Due to its physical proximity to the equator and the Arabian Sea, the region experiences a warm and humid tropical climate throughout the year. Mean temperatures range from 20 °C in the south to 24 °C in the north. Subtropical or temperate climates, and occasional near-zero temperatures during winter are experienced in regions with higher elevations. The coldest period in the region are the wettest monsoon period in the southern part of the mountain range. Annual rainfall in this region averages 100 cm to 900 cm, with an average rainfall of 250 cm. The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area; areas in northern Maharashtra receive heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive lower annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year.

Bio-diversity
The Western Ghats region is a biodiversity hotspot. It consists of nearly 30% of all the species of flora and fauna found in India, most of which are endemic to this region. At least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats.

Flora
The Western Ghats consist of four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf terrestrial ecoregions of the Indomalayan realm, with the northern portion of the range generally drier than the southern portion. These include the following:

Other types of ecosystems include dry deciduous forests on the leeward rain shadow region, scrub forests at the foothills, peat bogs, and swamps. Montane grasslands are found in high altitude locations in the south Western Ghats interspersed with sholas, a unique type of stunted tropical montane forest found in the valleys between the mountains.

Earlier sources indicated about four to five thousand vascular plant species of which nearly one-third was endemic to the region. Later studies and publications have recorded 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the Western Ghats of which 5,588 were described as indigenous, 376 are naturalized exotics, and 1,438 species are cultivated or planted. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western Ghats. 645 tree species were recorded with a high endemic ratio of 56%. There are 850 – 1000 species of bryophytes including 682 species of mosses (28% endemic) and 280 species of liverworts (43% endemic), 277 species of pteridophytes and 949 species of lichens (26.7% endemic).

Fauna
The Western Ghats are home to thousands of species of fauna, including at least 325 globally threatened species. As per a 2010 report, following is the distribution of faunal species in the Western Ghats apart from more than 6,000 insect species.

The Western Ghats region has one of the highest tiger population, estimated at 985 in 2022. The Western Ghats ecoregion has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild, with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations. Other mammals include endangered and vulnerable species such as the lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, leopard, Nilgiri langur, dhole, and gaur. The endemic Nilgiri tahr, which was on the brink of extinction, has recovered and had an estimated 3,122 individuals in 2015. Smaller endemic species include the Malabar large-spotted civet, Nilgiri marten, brown palm civet, stripe-necked mongoose, Indian brown mongoose, small Indian civet, and leopard cat.

As per a 2014 report, at least 227 species of reptiles are found in the Western Ghats. The major population of the snake family Uropeltidae is restricted to the region. Several endemic reptile genera and species occur here, with the region having a significant population of mugger crocodiles. The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with a high proportion of species being endemic to the tropical rainforests of India. New frog species have continued to be discovered in the 21st century. Frogs of the genera Micrixalus, Indirana, and Nyctibatrachus, toads like Pedostibes, Ghatophryne, and Xanthophryne, arboreal frogs like Ghatixalus, Mercurana, and Beddomixalus, and microhylids like Melanobatrachus are endemic to this region.

There are at least 19 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including the endangered rufous-breasted laughingthrush, the vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon, white-bellied shortwing, and broad-tailed grassbird, the near threatened grey-breasted laughingthrush, black-and-rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri flycatcher, and Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue-winged) parakeet, Malabar grey hornbill, white-bellied treepie, grey-headed bulbul, rufous babbler, Wayanad laughingthrush, white-bellied blue-flycatcher, and the crimson-backed sunbird.

 * Fishes and molluscs

There is a higher fish species richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats. There are 13 genera entirely restricted to the Western Ghats (Betadevario, Dayella, Haludaria, Horabagrus, Horalabiosa, Hypselobarbus, Indoreonectes, Lepidopygopsis, Longischistura, Mesonoemacheilus, Parapsilorhynchus, Rohtee, and Travancoria). The most species-rich families are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species; including stone loaches, now regarded a separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species), and Sisorid catfishes (12 species). The region is home to several ornamental fishes like the Denison (or red line torpedo) barb, melon barb, several species of Dawkinsia barbs, zebra loach, Horabagrus catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf Malabar pufferfish. The rivers are also home to Osteobrama bakeri, and larger species such as the Malabar snakehead, and Malabar mahseer. A few are adapted to an underground life, including some Rakthamichthys swamp eels, and the catfish Horaglanis and Kryptoglanis. 97 freshwater fish species were considered threatened in 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered, and 31 vulnerable. The reservoirs in the region are important for their commercial and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer, and common carp. There are more than 200 freshwater fish species including 35 also known from brackish or marine water. Several new species have been described from the region since the last decade (e.g., Dario urops and S. sharavathiensis).

Seasonal rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats necessitate a period of dormancy for its land snails, resulting in their high abundance and diversity, including at least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24 families. A total of 77 species of freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher. This includes 28 endemics. Among the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussel species Pseudomulleria dalyi, which is a Gondwanan relict, and the snail Cremnoconchus, which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls. According to the IUCN, four species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and three are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient.

There are roughly 6,000 insect species. Of the 334 Western Ghats butterfly species, 316 species have been reported to occur in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats are home to 174 species of odonates (107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69 endemics. Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics are typically generalists. There are several species of leeches found all along the Western Ghats.
 * Insects

Threats and conservation

Historically, the Western Ghats were covered in dense forests. which formed the natural habitat for wildlife along with the native tribal people. Its inaccessibility made it difficult for people from the plains to cultivate the land and build settlements. After the establishment of British colonial rule in the region, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forests in the Western Ghats were severely fragmented due to clear-felling for plantations. The introduction of non-native species threatened the rare endemic species and habitat specialists, which depleted faster than other species. Complex and species-rich habitats like the tropical rainforests are much more adversely affected than other habitats. The primary threats to fauna were not only from habitat loss, but also from overexploitation, illicit grazing, mining, poaching, and introduced species.

The Government of India has established many protected areas, including two biosphere reserves, 13 national parks to restrict human access, several wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species, and many reserve forests. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, comprising 5500 km2 of the forests, forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western Ghats. In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), appointed by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats, designated the entire region as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions. Subsequent committees formed have recommended various suggestions to protect the region. In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) for the Western Ghats to be listed as a protected World Heritage Site. In 2012, 39 sites divided into seven clusters across the Western Ghats, were declared as World Heritage Sites.

title: Western Ghats


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Staff of office

A staff of office is a staff, the carrying of which often denotes an official's position, a social rank or a degree of social prestige.

Apart from the ecclesiastical and ceremonial usages mentioned below, there are less formal usages. A gold- or silver-topped cane can express social standing (or dandyism). Teachers or prefects in schools traditionally carried less elaborate canes which marked their right (and potential threat) to administer canings, and military officers carry a residual threat of physical punishment in their swagger sticks. Orchestral conductors have in their batons symbols of authority as well as tools of their trade.

Ecclesiastical use
Churchwardens (and sometimes sidesmen) traditionally carry staves or wands on special occasions as an emblem of their office.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church and some of the Oriental Orthodox Churches an ecclesiastical walking stick is used by bishops, archimandrites and hegumens (abbots) when walking outside. It is usually made of dark wood and is straight, rather than having a curved handle. The walking stick used by bishops and archimandrites is normally adorned with a silver grip at the top and a metal ferrule at the tip. The walking stick used by a hegumen or hegumenia (abbess) is normally of plain wood, unadorned. The walking stick is not used in any liturgical context, except to the extent that when a bishop is formally received at the beginning of the service, he will carry it as he walks into the church. An altar server will usually take it from him when he enters the narthex and return it to him when he leaves at the end of the service.

Western bishops may use a crozier or crook in a liturgical setting as a symbol of their pastoral authority.

State and ceremonial use
Monarchs often have a rod or sceptre signifying their office, and field-marshals are traditionally given a short thick baton in several countries. There are also offices which take their titles from their staff, such as Black Rod, the Tipstaff, Gold Stick and Silver Stick.

White staves
A thin white staff or "wand" is the traditional emblem of certain Great Officers of State and high-ranking officials of the Royal Household in the United Kingdom, namely:

Great Officers of State:

 * The Lord High Treasurer
 * The Lord High Steward
 * The Lord Great Chamberlain

Senior Officers of the Household:
 * The Lord Steward
 * The Lord Chamberlain
 * Treasurer of the Household
 * Comptroller of the Household
 * Vice-Chamberlain of the Household

The "wand", which is around 5 ft in length, is made of white wood and has a silver plate at its base on which is engraved the name of the office to which it pertains. The wands are carried by their holders when on duty on state or other royal occasions, such as state banquets, jubilee services and royal weddings, as well as at the State Opening of Parliament (when the Lord Great Chamberlain raises his white staff to signal to the king's messenger, Black Rod, to summon the Commons).

Apart from the Lord High Steward (an office which is only now filled for coronations), all the above-listed officials were seen carrying their white staves during the State funeral of Queen Elizabeth II. The Lord Chamberlain, as executive head of the Royal Household, ceremonially breaks his white staff at the monarch's state funeral, when he automatically loses office; it is then buried with the sovereign. This was publicly observed at the committal service of Elizabeth II on 19 September 2022 (the first time such a service had been filmed or televised), when the incumbent, Lord Parker of Minsmere, performed this duty. The ritual, sometimes referred to as the "breaking of the stick", goes back many centuries (at one time all the officers of the Household who carried white staves would break them at this point and throw them into the grave, but since the 18th century the Lord Chamberlain alone has done so). The staff used to be physically broken, but in modern time it is jointed in the middle and the two halves can be separated.

The Lords with White Staves (namely the Lord Steward and Lord Chamberlain) are traditionally responsible for presenting addresses from the House of Lords to the Sovereign, and then delivering the Sovereign's response to the House. The Vice-Chamberlain of the Household today fulfils a similar role with regard to the House of Commons.

A queen consort traditionally has a separate Household, headed by her own Lord Chamberlain, who is likewise invested with a white staff. Following the funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 2002, her Lord Chamberlain (the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres) attended the private interment service and likewise broke his white staff in two over her coffin.

Other state and ceremonial officers
The Earl Marshal and the Lord High Constable carry batons as their insignia when on duty, reflecting the military origins of those offices.

Garter King-of-Arms has carried a gold or silver rod on state occasions since 1522. In 1906 the other officers of arms were similarly each provided with a gold-mounted ebony baton, decorated with their individual badge of office; in 1953 these were replaced with white staves, topped with a blue dove within a gold coronet.

On great occasions of state the Earl Marshal may appoint officers to assist in the marshalling of processions and other duties; they are provided with a wooden staff of office as a symbol of their authority, the colour of which varies depending on the occasion: reflecting this, those on duty at Coronations are known as Gold Staff Officers, those on duty at State Funerals Purple Staff Officers, and in 1911 and 1969 those on duty at the Investiture of the Prince of Wales were termed Green Staff Officers.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Staff of office


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Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting

Fairness & Accuracy In Reporting (FAIR) is a progressive left-leaning  media critique organization based in New York City. The organization was founded in 1986 by Jeff Cohen and Martin A. Lee. FAIR monitors American news media for bias, inaccuracies and censorship, and advocates for more diversity of perspectives in the news media. FAIR describes itself as "the national media watch group".

FAIR publishes Extra!, a magazine of media criticism, and also produces the radio program CounterSpin, which features interviews with journalists, scholars, and activists on current media-related news stories.

Mission
FAIR describes itself on its website as "the national media watch group" and defines its mission as working to "invigorate the First Amendment by advocating for greater diversity in the press and by scrutinizing media practices that marginalize public interest, minority and dissenting viewpoints." FAIR refers to itself as a "progressive group that believes that structural reform is ultimately needed to break up the dominant media conglomerates, establish independent public broadcasting and promote strong nonprofit sources of information."

Commentators on FAIR's syndicated radio program, CounterSpin, have frequently argued that American media is biased in favor of conservatism. Professor of public policy Terry J. Buss has argued that FAIR combines media criticism and partisan advocacy for progressive causes, and that their criticism of conservative groups is done "more on ideological grounds than on substance".

FAIR believes that corporate sponsorship and ownership, as well as government policies and pressure, restricts journalism and therefore distorts public discourse. FAIR also believes that most news media reflects the interests of business and government elites while ignoring or minimizing minority, female, public interest, and dissenting points of view. FAIR criticizes media outlets for engaging in false balance in order to not be accused of taking sides on controversial topics.

title: Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting


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Talk:Heat transfer

Discussion of Variables
In the mechanism section many equations and variables are introduced but not discussed in much detail. A couple short sections explaining and highlighting such variables would be beneficial. For example a section which defines heat capacity, discusses how properties of chemicals effect heat capacity, and gives examples of chemicals and their heat capacities.

It also seems as though the mechanism section sets a precedence that there will be a discussion of the math and physics behind much of the material presented throughout the page. However, after the first two sections, equations relating to the material discussed are no longer included. A few specific sections second that could benefit from the addition of equations are: The heat equation: it is defined and discussed but not included. Phase change: The discussion of heat of vaporization and heat of formation would enhance section. The device section: symbols for work and heat are introduced in images but not discussed in text. Maybe include energy balance equation and how it's used.

Llavecch (talk) 09:13, 13 January 2017 (UTC)

Missing Citations
There are many areas where added citations would greatly improve this page. Many of these sections have already been identified; however, the phase change section has quite a few areas that need citations and have not been identified. The introduction could use one right after the main paragraph and mention of the mason equation. The boiling section could use at least two cites considering the length of the section and as of now there are 0 cited sources.

Llavecch (talk) 08:35, 13 January 2017 (UTC)

Error found in the picture
The formula for radiation heat transfer coefficient (in the image showing thermal resistances for each mode of heat tranfer) contains a term for surface area. This is an error and should be removed.

-mbwittig 10:16, 23 November 2008 (PST)

 * I've changed the "Equations for different heat transfer modes and their thermal resistances" image into a wikitable. Given the age of this comment, I'm not sure if the change above happened, so mine is a literal conversion.  I don't feel like I have the authority to change equations that I don't know/understand, but it should now be possible for you to change them! Sutekh.destroyer (talk) 00:22, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

Peer Review
I've requested a peer review because I think that this article meets several of the Wikipedia criteria for becoming a featured article. I believe that this article is consise, covers the topic completely, is stable, and contains minimal point-of-view influence. I believe that this article describes a very complicated topic elegantly, and may be useful for both engineers and people with no engineering knowledge. If you agree that this article is a good candidate for becoming a featured article, please let me know. Otherwise, all of use who have worked on this article would appreciate your comments and edits.

Thank you,

-Âme Errante 10:15, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

The link "Heat Transfer Links - Heat Transfer Links" located in the domian onesmartclick.com is nothing more than a page filled with Google advertisements. I would guess that someone edited it into this article to make money off people clicking that link. I'm removing the offending link. Jason 18:16, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

Don't confuse heat with energy
I removed the following statement from the intro paragraph:

energy in the form of heat,

because this is a misnomer. Heat is not, in fact, a type of energy; rather, heat is movement of energy (see the first sentence of the heat article). In reality, heat transfer is redundent: the transfer of the transfer of energy. A better name would perhaps be 'thermal transfer' in that one is transfering thermal energy. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Âme Errante (talk • contribs) 20:01, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

 * of course it is energy, check the units in any equation using heat(q).
 * BTW the heat article is also wrong, i don't know where this idea started, as a physicist with 20 years kicking around science, wikipedia is the first place i've heard of it, this is very basic stuff to be getting this badly wrong.
 * "Now although ice has a "rigid" crystalline form, its temperature can change-ice has heat. If we wish, we can change the amount of heat. What is the heat in the case of ice? The atoms are not standing still. They are jiggling and vibrating."
 * Feynman lectures on physics, chapter 1, lecture 1

Asplace 17:12, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

Of course it's a misnomer. Heat Transfer is the name given to the study of heat. Heat is a transfer of energy. The term "Heat Transfer" IS redundant. Heat is thermodynamically equivalent to work and has units of energy per time. Feynman is wrong, but Newton had it wrong too. Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier was the first person to separate the concepts of heat and temperature. (A couple hundred years after Newton but a couple hundred years before Feynman.)

Combined with Heat? Maybe it could stay separate as the engineering subject that considers heat, and the Heat article can remain more physics-based? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.192.45.122 (talk) 13:45, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

- The entire page should be deleted and combined with heat. As state above, heat transfer is a misnomer. Then why have a page entitled "Heat Transfer"? Makes no sense.

Norm —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.44.91.155 (talk) 21:59, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Norm, I disagree that this page should be deleted. The field of heat transfer may be misnamed (as are, I'm sure, many older areas of engineering and science), but it is nonetheless an applied field separate from the study of heat in physics.  As long as engineering textbooks continue to be written about heat transfer, I propose we keep the article. -Âme Errante (talk) 19:11, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
 * But the present article claims to be about physics, not engineering, and therefore confusingly implies that physicists consider heat transfer a separate topic from heat. If the justification for the article is its engineering applications then the article should make this clear. --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 18:23, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

Ok -- I will explain just how wrong you are in 4 easy steps.

1. Heat is a form of energy. 2. Heat is classifed as a type of energy called thermal energy. 3. Therefore Heat Transfer is not a redundant statement because this is the field of science that studys the transfer of thermal energy as the name implies. 4. If heat is not energy, then explain please how we are able to utilize fire as a tool to say burn some coals which then spin a turbine blade above it to harvest power. Because if heat is not a form of energy then this would not be possible.

Granted many things in both the math and science fields have so strange annotation and many time the same letter such as Q, can mean discharge of a fluid in the field of fluid dynamics or it can mean total heat transfer in it respective field. Hope that wasn't too confusing... Heat Transfer is a special part of Thermodynamics. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.133.219.194 (talk) 17:52, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree here. Heat is an amount of energy. Heat Transfer refers to the movement of heat energy from one body of mass to another. If we take a solid for example, we can find the change in heat energy stored in a body whose temperature has changed from one value to another, by multiplying the temperature difference by the mass and by the specific heat for the material. in SI units then, we would have K * kg * J/kgK -> J, which are the SI units of energy. To begin with, the body contained a particular amount of heat energy, and after the heat transfer, it contained a different amount. There are literally dozens of text books on "Heat Transfer". It is a correct and proper term. Pdr0663 (talk) 06:28, 26 April 2023 (UTC)

-- What is the reliable source for the assertion that heat is energy transfer, not energy? I have no problem finding many reliable sources that define heat as energy, but I can't find any that define it as the transfer of energy. It does not do the reputation of Wiki any good to have such a radical change in a centuries old definition asserted without a reliable source to justify it.

John G Eggert (talk) 14:26, 30 May 2014 (UTC)

What about phase change? / boiling heat transfer
Any serious treatment of heat transfer can not ignore phase change. Kjlgstp 14:27, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

Apropos the above - we need a decent article on boiling heat transfer - it's scattered around several places at present. I've bunged down a few thoughts and quotes from standard texts but much more is needed. Bob aka Linuxlad 18:58, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Major problems with this article
transferring thermal energy from cold to hot is ok, (heat pumps), its only when no work is added, as in conductive, radiative and convective transfers that heat cannot, overall, move to a higher temperature.

also this article says heat transfer is by electrons and phonons only, if this were the case gases could not be conductors, missed out is heat carrying diffusion of any particles (atoms, molecules) in the system.

Asplace 03:09, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Asplace, I think that your statement above, 'transferring thermal energy from cold to hot is ok', is wrong. Heat pumps do not transfer energy this way, and even with additional work it is impossible.  For instance, the heat pump article states about refrigerators that 'In such a system it is essential that the refrigerant reaches a sufficiently high temperature when compressed, since the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing from a cold fluid to a hot heat sink. Similarly, the fluid must reach a sufficiently low temperature when allowed to expand, or heat cannot flow from the cold region into the fluid. In particular, the pressure difference must be great enough for the fluid to condense at the hot side and still evaporate in the lower pressure region at the cold side.'  Thus, the work applied actually changes the temperature of the refrigerant by exploiting its physical properties, and at both sides energy still transfers from hot to cold.  It's a subtle point, but it's very important in engineering. As for your second point, you're right on, and I believe this has since been changed. -Âme Errante (talk) 19:07, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Nevertheless Asplace has a valid point. The first sentence of the article implies that the direction of heat transfer is from hot to cold.  This is true for radiation and conduction but not for convection, at least for laminar flow.  In the case of turbulent flow the turbulence causes mixing which has an averaging effect that resembles conduction, but the mechanism and its statistics are qualitatively different. --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 16:30, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

????What about liquid non-metals????also, read the first and second sentences regarding gas????
Someone posted this in the article. Assuming it wasn't vandalism, can someone comment on it or add something to the article? I've repressed most of what I learned in thermodynamics, and I'm much happier for it.-- joshschr (talk) 21:11, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

What causes heat to burn things?
Since this is an article that is primarily scientific in nature, I thought someone here might be able to answer it. What is it that causes fire and heat to burn other things. And I mean this on a molecular level. I really have no clue myself, yet it's the only question I've ever had about anything that I couldn't find on the internet. Does it have something to do with the speed that molecules of fire/heat are moving and when this hits say the molecules of something like wood or flesh it separates them or something? Another example would be lasers. Some lasers are fine to hit other objects, they have no visible effect. However a more intense/powerful laser will burn through very hard substances. What is the intense laser actually doing to the substance at a molecular level that the weaker laser isn't. I assume the stronger laser simply has more energy being transferred to the material it is hitting. With human flesh is it a case that it can't properly contain the energy transferred to it, and thus it damages the cells? If so what is it that actually causes the damage at a molecular level, or maybe it would be better to say what is the actual damage at a molecular level? Is it that it breaks molecular bonds or what? Livingston 00:26, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

'Burning' is a chemical reaction that involves oxidation of a material. oxygen is consumed and the burning substance undergoes changes in its chemical composition. like any chemical reaction, oxidation of a compound has an activation energy. increasing the temperature of the substance to be burned increases the probability that it will undergo oxidation, and thus burn. the laser heats the material. that is, by some process the photons in the laser beam interact with the atoms in the material, and by absorption, increase the kinetic energy of the atoms. this energy will eventually be spread into all other modes, ie rotational, vibrational, in such a way that each quadratic mode has 3/2 kT energy, statistically (mechanically) speaking. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 18.187.0.59 (talk) 20:36, 2 November 2008 (UTC)

Answer- Objects burn/melt(change state) because the energy being transported by means of conduction qk, convection qc, or radiation G contains too much energy for that substance to be absorbed over that given time frame; so dE/dt, is too great for the substance trying to continue the transport.

Example - Burning/Freezing of Human skin- If you place your hand on a wall with a lower temperature then yours, in this case the temperature for skin can be denoted Ts and the temperature for the wall can be denoted Tw, respectively. The reason your hand starts to feel cold is not because the cold is traveling through the wall and into your hand(the 2nd law of thermodynamics says this is impossible) but that your hand is actually releasing heat(thermal energy) to the surface of the wall, in an effort to reach and maintain an equalibrium point.

The equalibrium point is where Ts and Tw are closer to being the same, so that the amount of thermal energy being transported through, in this case conduction, with respect to time is no longer as large as it once was; meaning the rate at which heat transfer is occuring, tf = final time(after equilibrium point) is less than that of ti=initial time (the instant you place your hand on the wall). Once this is reached your body becomes more adjusted to the situation and it will feel much less cold, if it still feels cold at all. The opposite is true if the temperature of your hand(skin), Ts is less than that of Tw, as the heat transfer is now in the reverse direction and your body is warming up because it is absorbing(transfering) that energy.

Burning and freezing occur in human skin when the rate of a heat(thermal energy) transfer is too great for human skin to handle. Meaning if the skin cannot safely transfer energy through it then damage occurs on the skin or worse. Too much energy is being transferred and your hand on the moleculur level can not deal with this great change of energy and electron bonds, especially weak secondary bonds, vanderwall(this needs to be spelled checked i apologize) bonds start to break apart and thus your hand is damaged.

Say you take a small flame (a flame with not much energy being released such as a lighter) and (accidently) have the flame pass under your hand and leave it there(you'll have to leave it there or you will not get a burn because the flame's low energy will not have enough time to break the bonds if you don't). So in this case low energy over a long period of time will break bonds you, as well as high amounts of energy over a very small period of time, such as a nuclear blast.

A nuclear blast contains so much energy that they literally just advance at you in a wave of energy that is far too great for you body to handle, breaking apart the bonds instantly.

Basically if the energy rate of change over time is large (either small energy over a large period of time, or a high amount of energy over a small period of time) things will break down on the molecular level.

Hope that answered your question. best regards, DBL —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.133.219.194 (talk) 17:33, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

Yes, thank you. The only follow up I could think of is if a very minor burn, such as touching a hot plate, that doesn't do a lot of physical damage (only a small red mark) but still hurts for a few hours, if that is also due to the weakening of molecular bonds. In this instance have the bonds simply weakened or is there a breaking of the bonds, and if they were only weakened, but not broken, would it produce a noticeable physical effect? Also is the mark from the burn a physical indication of the molecular bonds breaking or weakening or is the physical appearance due to some other biological process. Obviously at the point where skin melts or blisters, that would be a result of the bonds breaking, but is it the same for less severe reactions. BTW I ask because I'm a First Aid instructor. So though it's not really essential to my courses, it's useful to know exactly what's going on. Thanks again. Livingston 15:21, 22 July 2009 (UTC)
 * According to skin the epidermis is a tougher outer layer that protects the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. Presumably the latter are more easily damaged (broken bonds) by a minor burn than the epidermis.  On the other hand inflammation "is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants," and presumably excess heat counts as an irritant.  So I would guess that inflammation could result even from a burn that irritated the dermis without seriously damaging it, in which case redness associated with minor burns could be as much an indication of inflammation as of any serious damage to the dermis.  Not my area, just a guess.  --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 07:42, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

Possible error in the paragraph "Insulation and radiant barriers": assertion that "at any specific wavelength, reflectivity = 1 - emissivity"
"reflectivity = 1 - emissivity" is in fact true when integrated over all the wavelengths (Kirchhoff's thermal law of thermal radiation), but is not true at a specific wavelength. The wavelength distribution of the reflected energy is the same as that of the incident radiation, but the wavelength distribution of the emitted energy is usually quite different. This is for instance what explains the greenhouse effect, or the heating of the interior of a car in summer: the window of the car (the gas layer around the earth) is transparent to the incident radiation (which has a peak in its energy distribution at the visible wavelengths, since it is produced by the sun at about 6000°K), while it is much less transparent to the emitted radiation (that has a peak in lower infrared, since it is emitted by the interior of the car or by the earth, at about 330°K). If the law were true at any specific wavelength, the energy distribution of the emitted energy would be also the same as that of the incident radiation. The independence on wavelength for the emissivity (gray body assumption) is sometimes used - still, it only means that the dependence on wavelength is neglected for some wavelength band, not that reflectivity = 1 - emissivity in this band.
 * True. WP:SOFIXIT S  B Harris 08:00, 28 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Not true (so it's a good thing it didn't get fixed). The greenhouse effect is merely a dependence of absorptivity on wavelength and is not a counterexample to reflectivity+emissivity = 1, which holds even for radiation at a specific wavelength and a specific direction.  This is stated correctly at Radiant barrier but incorrectly at Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation which brings in absorptivity incorrectly (on my list of things to fix).  The statement "If the law were true at any specific wavelength, the energy distribution of the emitted energy would be also the same as that of the incident radiation" does not relate logically to the preceding sentence concerning glass because the incoming insolation and outgoing thermal radiation both originate outside the glass: the glass merely transmits the former from the sun while absorbing the latter from the ground or car interior.  --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 07:26, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

Heat transmission redirects here, but this article has no explicit indication whether or not they refer to the same concept. Do they? Shouldn't that be mentioned?90.190.225.121 (talk) 04:47, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

Nothing about Fourier or signal processing?
I've found nothing about Fourier in this article or in any of the articles bearing on climatology and the various atmospheric sciences. Why did Fourier invent spectral analysis, a fundamental tool of signal processing, and apply it to his study of heat transfer, if it is so irrelevant to the subject that no Wikipedia editor even mentions it in the context of heat? --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 18:00, 7 December 2009 (UTC)
 * If it's so important, why don't you put something in the article about it? WP:SOFIXIT. Wikipedia editors aren't omniscient-- we wait for experts to happy by and ask questions like yours. They we point out that it's a volunteer effort, so pitch in. S  B Harris 18:29, 2 February 2010 (UTC)
 * It was a question, not a suggestion to add material. I wish I knew enough about Fourier's contribution to write something on it.  For all I know it is irrelevant.  --Vaughan Pratt (talk) 06:50, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

Newton's Law of Cooling, solving differential equations
Am I correct in my belief that using non-absolute temperature scales (e.g. Celsius or Fahrenheit) when solving the differential equation given by Newton's law of cooling will lead to errors due to the natural logarithm of the ratio between temperatures? I seem to remember this being the case, but I cannot remember and I cannot find the information anywhere.

Thanks. --137.125.104.76 (talk) 15:46, 2 February 2010 (UTC)

 * No, because the log of the ratio of the temperatures never appears in solving Newtonian cooling problems, or any other cooling problem; heat flow problems tend to be linear in ΔT, due to Fourier's law. You're probably thinking of solving problems like entropy changes in non-isothermal conditions, where integration of dT/T type terms can give wrong answers if absolute temps aren't used. But they're only off by a constant if C vs K is used, because the degree size is the same. S  B Harris 18:25, 2 February 2010 (UTC)

Convection and Work
I'm a bit curious whether Convection occurs without 'Work'. Gravity plays a key role and hence there is work, indeed this 'work' is harvested in many ways by many machines?--Rjstott (talk) 17:47, 19 February 2010 (UTC)

Needs edit
As written, the article misuses the languages of thermodynamics and radiative heat transfer, thus making a muddle of their concepts.

Thermodynamics features a body that is surrounded by a boundary. "Heat" flows through the boundary. "Work" is done on the boundary. The body has an "internal energy." The ideas of heat, work and internal energy are linked by the first law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics imposes a restriction on the flow of heat, namely that it can flow only from hotter to colder matter.

In radiative transfer, two or more bodies are said to "radiate against" one another.

Some of the article's deficiencies are:

 * Asserts "Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy..." but the ambiguous term "energy" is not used in thermodynamics. Could be modified to "Heat transfer is the transfer of heat..." but this would be redundant.
 * Asserts "Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through empty space." but this is incorrect for radiation is not a transfer of heat. The correct idea is that when two bodies radiate against each other, heat is transferred from the hotter of the two bodies to the colder of the two.
 * Asserts "All objects with a temperature above absolute zero radiate energy..." but the ambiguous term "energy" is not used in language of thermodynamics. To capture the idea of radiative heat transfer it is necessary to introduce the idea that two or more bodies "radiate against each other."
 * Asserts "The energy from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space before warming the earth." but the ambigouous term "energy" is not used in the language of thermodynamics or heat transfer. Should be changed to something like "The Sun radiates against the Earth; as the Sun is hotter, heat is transferred to the Earth." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.38.149.90 (talk) 18:36, 28 March 2010 (UTC)

 * You seem to know a lot about it - go ahead, be bold! and edit the article. --Amaher (talk) 22:29, 28 March 2010 (UTC)

Convection?
how does convection get the heat from one molecule to the next? Grabba (talk) 01:33, 18 May 2010 (UTC)

 * By diffusion (one molecule striking the next), which is also part of all convection. S  B Harris 21:09, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

First sentence
Why does the first sentence of this article state that heat transfer is only the transfer of heat by fluids? Convection in gasses, conduction and radiation are treated in the rest of the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.74.187.2 (talk) 20:19, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Gases ARE fluids. "Fluids" include gases and liquids. Convection doesn't happen in solids. S  B Harris 21:07, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Multiple issues with article
First of all, I agree with those below who say this article should be merged with heat. Heat transfer is a tautology.

Secondly, heat, denoted by a capital Q, is measured in Joules, not in Watts. In the section "Convection", Q is used (incorrectly) to denote the rate of heat transfer, whereas below, in the section "Newton's law of cooling", the quantities Q and dQ/dt are correctly defined.

I realize that many engineering textbooks use Q to denote the rate of heat transfer, but this is simply wrong. Q is heat, and it is measured in Joules. The first time derivative of Q, which can be written dQ/dt, or $$\dot{Q}$$, is the rate of heat transfer, which is measured in Watts. If any of you engineers out there are in any doubt about this, please look at the page on derived SI units.

I have gone ahead and made changes to the page where I think Q should be replaced by $$\dot{Q}$$. I leave it to other concerned editors to merge this page with heat

darkside2010 (talk) 12:47, 10 May 2010 (UTC)

 * We do not merge articles for the fun of it on Wikipedia. There is plenty of material on heat transfer to make a separate article from heat. It is, after all, an entire engineering discipline.

 * As for whether or not heat transfer is a tautology, that depends on whether or not the old or new definition of heat is used. The term comes from the days when heat was used synonymously with thermal energy, which is why today we still sometimes use "Q" to mean heat, when actually only dQ/dt is heat (Q is actually thermal energy, and "heat flow per time" is also that same tautology, if you want to be hardnosed about it).

 * Finally, please remember to use "watt" and "joule" when lecturing others about SI units. The use of capital letters are meant only to refer to the people of that name (as proper nouns), or in abbreviation (J and W), just as is the case with chemical elements. S  B Harris 23:50, 14 May 2011 (UTC)

Critical insulation thickness
The description on this page is wrong.This sentence has the logic reversed "The point where the added resistance of increasing insulation thickness becomes overshadowed by the effect of increased surface area is called the critical insulation thickness." It should read "The point where the added resistance of increasing insulation thickness overcomes the effect of increased surface area is called the critical insulation thickness."

For confirmation/explanation, see http://www.raeng.org.uk/education/diploma/maths/pdf/exemplars_engineering/2_SteamPipe.pdf or a heat transfer textbook.

131.111.85.79 (talk) 13:34, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

This section of the article is definitely a mess.

The concept of "critical insulation thickness" is interesting in theory but I'm not sure it occurs in practice often enough to merit a mention in this article. Infact I suspect that when you're looking at real insulation materials it often doesn't exist at all or exists at such a small thickness (somewhere far less than 1 mm) that there is no need to consider it.

The reason for this is that if you continually re-calculate the surface coeffient of heat transfer (h) from scratch every time you increase the insulation thickness the coefficient becomes smaller every time.

Yes, if you set the thermal conductivity to 0.15 W/(m K), then you'll get a critical insulation thickness but when you take the thermal conductivity down to a much lower level (how many insulation materials are sold with a conductivity greater than 0.05 W/(m K) in the 0-100 degree range?) the critical insulation thickness gets muted and shifted to lower thickness's. I suspect the natural reduction in the surface coefficient as the thickness increases could wipe it out entirely (especially since it has a greater influence as the thickness is lower).

There are things that should be pointed out about the relationship between thickness, surface coefficient and such (applying an insulation material with a higher emissivity finish than the pipe surface will definitely increase the heat flow than an un-insulated pipe for instance) but whether this is the right article to add this level of detail I'm not sure. Surely pipe insulation is a better place? 86.160.197.23 (talk) 16:31, 23 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Replaced cleanup tag with disputed accuracy; as 131.111..; says, it's the exact opposite. Small diameter pipes (or a thin hot wire for example) will lose more heat when a thin layer of insulation is applied. Total thermal resistance is the sum of conductive resistance and convection resistance. The critical thickness is where total resistance reaches a minimum, not a maximum. Should be obvious when one realises that convection resistance can't go lower than zero. Ssscienccce (talk) 03:07, 3 September 2012 (UTC)
 * removed the tag, description seems ok now. Changed symbol for radius to small letter r to avoid confusion with thermal resistance. Ssscienccce  (talk) 11:14, 29 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Maybe we can move the part to thermal insulation? Prokaryotes (talk) 13:44, 7 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Moved to Thermal insulation prokaryotes (talk) 00:22, 18 April 2014 (UTC)

Organization
I have re-organized some of the material to try and structure the article a bit better. I had in mind that this might clarify the contents of this article vs. the contents of Heat. Not that I necessarily think they must be separate articles, but at least for the time being this may improve the readability.

I also separated out some of the lumped capacitance / thermal circuit stuff to its own article (Lumped capacitance model) as there were bits of that topic scattered in various places and it seemed best to consolidate it there; this also had the effect of slightly shortening and focusing this article.

Also, Darkside2010, I moved your "multiple issues" section down here as I think it is the norm to add newer comments at the bottom of the talk page (as far as I can tell?)  Hope that is okay. Dhollm (talk) 10:26, 10 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I further organized the page, made the part on engineering more clear and added some basic aspects missing. Prokaryotes (talk) 13:42, 7 April 2014 (UTC)

Heat transfer physics
Please see Talk:Heat. Staszek Lem (talk) 18:07, 13 September 2013 (UTC)
 * Added link to overview. Prokaryotes (talk) 13:39, 7 April 2014 (UTC)

Heat Transfer should be compatible with Second Law article
This article on Heat Transfer should not be saying something altogether different from what the article on the Second Law of Thermodynamics says. The end state of maximum attainable entropy is a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, not just a state of thermal equilibrium. The latter may not be a state of maximum entropy, unless you define thermal equilibrium as having no further net energy transfers across any boundary between objects and any boundary within objects. The Second Law says nothing at all about heat transfers being only from hot to cold. It talks about entropy never decreasing. All this is well established physics.

Douglas Cotton (talk) 03:01, 1 April 2014 (UTC)

Radiant contribute
A picture in the page says "Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment primarily through thermal radiation".

I think this sentence is wrong and misleading, in fact if we put our hand near a red-hot iron object like that one showed in figure nothing happens, instead if we touch it we will have a burn. This means that the conduction contribute is predominant. To be predominant the radiant effect the body needs to be at a really high temperature.

Hence I think we can change the sentence in: "Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment also through thermal radiation". If we want to maintain the word "predominant" we need to use another example instead or we need to specify "at distance", comparing in this way the radiant with only the convective contribution, but also in this case I think we need another example with higher temperature (for example the Sun, that exchanges only radiant heat with the Earth). --Daniele Pugliesi (talk) 10:06, 9 November 2014 (UTC)

Newton's law of cooling
I would certainly support this becoming a separate page if an editor came along with decent reference works concerning the historical context of Newton's investigations. I didn't find a lot in a quick search. I did find one PPT which claimed that Newton used a modern-style thin tube thermometer filled with linseed oil, marked in a "Celsius" scale (perhaps centigrade would be the more correct term). It also pointed out that Newton's law is correct even though his own experiment disagreed, due to experimental effects such as convection within the thermometer itself. It wasn't up to cite-worthy standards, though. It seems Newton himself only regarded his law as valid for temperature differences up to 10 degrees C.— MaxEnt 10:48, 10 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Newton's law of cooling happens in many circumstances, some convective, some conductive. It deserves its own article as a mechanistic phenomenon, even absent a history section, and it used to have one. Then some lumper-editor person stuck it in the convective heat transfer article. I'll give everybody a few days to comment, and then assume that silence implies consent, start a Newton's Law of Cooling article, then spin this section off per WP:SS, leaving a small summary section behind. That needs be done also, referencing this "law" in several other heat transfer articles. S  B Harris 19:56, 8 June 2015 (UTC)

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Heat Flow.
The article needs cleaning up. Heat is not a fluid, it does not "flow".Damorbel (talk) 16:32, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

This is multiple times you've presented your personal fallacy, on thermal equilibrium Wikipedia pages.

""Heat is thermal energy associated with temperature-dependent motion of particles. The macroscopic energy equation for infinitesimal volume used in heat transfer analysis,

(∂T/∂t) /*snip

Once states and kinetics of the energy conversion and thermophysical properties are known, the fate of heat transfer is described by the above equation. These atomic-level mechanisms and kinetics are addressed in heat transfer physics. The microscopic thermal energy is stored, transported, and transformed by the principal energy carriers: phonons (p), electrons (e), fluid particles (f), and photons (ph).""

In layman's terms, I pour hot water into cold water, and via convection, you get tepid water.

Read this article again, where it says convection.

Heat "flows", that does an adequate job of conveying the meaning in writing. For everything else there's pictures.

Sorry if I sound harsh, but, the article is good, and doesn't deserve being yelled at. I for one value our editorial overlords.

Have a nice day. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 49.199.238.133 (talk) 18:08, 22 April 2022 (UTC)

Isn’t “heat transfer” redundant?
Hi. Isn’t the phrase “heat transfer” redundant, since “heat” is defined in thermodynamics already as energy being transferred by mechanisms other than work and transfer of matter? Alej27 (talk) 00:13, 4 November 2021 (UTC)
 * It is the commonly used term in the field. Just look at the names of the references and external links. Meters (talk) 00:17, 4 November 2021 (UTC)

Dew point
.[8] An example of steady state conduction is the heat flow through walls of a warm house on a cold day—inside the house is maintained at a high temperature and, outside, the temperature stays low, so the transfer of heat per unit time stays near a constant rate determined by the insulation in the wall and the spatial distribution of temperature in the walls will be approximately constant over time.

This does not take into account the dew point of the walls. A better example could be found. 86.150.117.77 (talk) 17:52, 5 October 2022 (UTC)

Restored the History section
I have restored the History section, but moved it to the end of the article so as to deemphasize its importance. I agree with Sgubaldo  that a History section is not really necessary, but I think it would be nice to have one. At the end of the article it will hopefully offer minimal distraction. As for now the section is woefully inadequate and unbalanced (my fault) consisting mainly of a long, quote-heavy account of just one series of experiments by Benjamin Thompson and subsections copied from other parts of Wikipedia. Some little editing has been done to the latter though, while leaving them mainly unchanged at their original pages.

The relevant parts of the History section could be moved to the articles Thermal conduction, Thermal conductivity, Convection (heat transfer), and Thermal radiation respectively, and I might try that if it is not suitable here. I was thinking of adding historical content to Convection (heat transfer), but found that there were two seemingly overlapping articles: Convection (heat transfer) and Convection; the former more relevant on account of its title, the latter—in my opinion—better and more complete. I wasn't sure where best to put it.

If some senior editor feels there should be no, or just a brief History section, I'll leave it at that. For all I have to offer is expansion. Unfortunately, I don't have time to scour the literature for a nice, balanced section covering all different time periods. My additions must rather happen as I come across them for other reasons, meaning—for now—few and far between additions of more Thompson and other 17th and 18th centuries investigators. The Cosmic Ocean (Please feel free to modify or undo any of my edits as deemed appropriate.) 16:07, 16 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Heat transfer


text:
User:BeLz~enwiki

  Philosophy : Is it possible to transpose the European civilization in Africa ?  Introduction

Were the colonists right? Did they use the best manner to make accept our society by the tribes of America and Africa? The first thing to make within the framework of a study of the question is to redefine what is a civilization : the word civilization, taken in its ethnographic direction, indicates at the same time sciences, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, habits and other faculties and practices acquired by the man in the social state. The definition that we will be useful ourselves will be less academic: it is the whole of the features characterizing an organized human group. It is also good to give the mean of “to transpose” which one will use throughout our talk. We will understand in transposable in the direction changing manners gradually and not imposing them quickly, in opposition to the white colonists of the colonialist time. It is obvious that any social or politic evolution must be done by the diplomatic way. Our development will be done into four points: policysocialsocialcultural

Argumentation

Policy In Europe, the political system used is the democracy. This one includes two sides: the participative one and the representative one. The participative one is all that the citizen makes in the political decisions. The representative supplements the participative because it is impossible that any citizen can always intervene. It delegates its decisional power to another person. That succeeded on the 3-power level. : judicial power legislative power executive power
 Based on this report, it seems obvious that a complete transposition of the political system cannot be achieved in a short run. We must before recall us that the political borders such as they are nowadays are the result of some men, far from all ethnic considerations. The conflicts between tribes within a country are usual. In this context, it seems impossible that a transposition of a government based on the compromise could succeed. Lastly, a transposition of a political system can only be done with an educated population; what is far from being mainly currently the case.

Economy Africa knew, during last century, a certain economic advancement. That is due to the convergence of three factors:
an early demographic transition

the relative weakness of the differences between professional classes

an effective education system.

Education is a key element in the economic place of Africa in the world market. The educated population sees its fertility rate to decrease, its productivity to increase and its level of health to improve. This one can thus take part more actively in the social and economic life of its country. Currently, since the decolonization, the level of education is in fall. The population is not ready to change its political and economic system.

The social

The most developed social model in the world characterizes Europe. The development towards an introduction of a European political institution will be done by the control of certain social laws such as the abolition of the child work, compulsory education or unemployment. In this manner, all is dependent.

The cultural

Le Petit Larousse® says to us that the culture is the whole of the uses, the habits, the art, religious, intellectual which define and distinguish a group. The culture makes it possible to African people to identify their selves. It appears that a transposition of the European culture in Africa would lead to a negation of their roots. The acculturation of the African people is in no case desirable.

Counter-argumentation

In this part, we will try to show that a transposition of European civilization is difficult even impossible. The History gives us examples.

The policy

It is true that if unicity of much of parties is still current in Africa, it is also true that certain countries, like Mali, have tendency to democracy. It is obvious that the democratization of the cradle of the world cannot be done in a few decades. Europe still has its hands full with blood of the independence revolts.

Economy

The traditional NORTH-SOUTH opposition is often done on a monetary basis. Europe has a GNP (Gross National Product) per capita more than 10 times superior to Africa. The gap between the two is enormous and still tends to grow. Africa produces 90% of its exports in the field of the raw materials. That is not helping. Only a general mobilization of the rich countries on the African problem can get the continent off its economic recession. Let us note nevertheless that economic alliances exist between the African countries.

The social

A social African policy is still premature. Any attempt at social conventions is useless in a weak economic context. However, the African people are altruist. It will come one day when he will have the means of dealing with his stripped.

Culture

As already developed previously, the culture is what characterizes the African people vis-a-vis a world, which has nothing any more but the green ticket like law. However, we can observe an Europeanization of the ways of life in the large African cities and capitals. It is guessed that the adaptation will be done after modification.

Our position

In this part, we will develop our position vis-a-vis the question.

The transposition, an Utopia...

First, it is necessary to say that Europeans like Africans have their own identity. It is thus impossible to adapt it. In addition, the past proves the opposite. The scars of colonialism are sometimes still too young to make it possible African to believe in European civilization. Another key of comprehension resides in the pride of the African people towards his culture and his membership at the continent. Indeed, the feeling of patriotism is not very present in Europe whereas it is strong in Africa. In addition, the African people keep his traditions and manners jealously.

The partial transposition, a reality...

In spite of the differences in culture that remain, the History gives us certain examples. Indeed, if it is still possible to find cultures primitive African (such as Bushmen), most of the cultures were modified by European mentality. The transposition is thus partial. The religion is one of the principal elements, which has been transposed on the African continent. In addition, Africa adopted certain ways of life such as clothing or the school syllabus.

Africa is composed of an impressive series of small cultures, which has their own rites. In spite of that, we can see in each one a direct influence of the European culture. For example, much of local languages are the result of a melting-pot with the language of the former colonizer. The catch of the colonizer’s model by Africans is an obstacle in the development of the continent. That involves a loss of identity. For a transposition of the European values, it is necessary to leave time to act, by leaving a phase of transition during which the values will enter manners.

title: User:BeLz~enwiki


text:
John Snow (disambiguation)

John Snow (1813–1858) was an English physician and epidemiologist.

John Snow may also refer to:

People

 * John Snow (cricketer) (born 1941), English cricketer
 * John J. Snow Jr. (born 1945), American politician, former member of the North Carolina Senate
 * John James Snow Jr. (born 1929), American politician, former member of the South Carolina House of Representatives
 * John W. Snow (born 1939), American politician, 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury
 * John Snow (MP) for Yarmouth (Isle of Wight) (UK Parliament constituency)

Other uses

 * John Snow, Inc, public health research/consulting firm

title: John Snow (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:John Snow (disambiguation)

And when was that? Not even London is mentioned in this stub. --KF 10:29 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

This page currently does John Snow a disservice. From a brief reading of http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/mapmyth/mapmyth2.html what is "apocryphal" is that he used a "spot map" to identify the Broad street pump that was the source of the outbreak. He in fact identified the Broad street pump through talking to the residents who used the pumps in the area. He then used a "spot map" to illustrate his report to parish committee and his own book. Mintguy (T)

Eric's a pimp, apparently.
Seem to be having a little trouble with someone who keeps using the page to tell us that Eric's a pimp, among other things. Thanks to Tom, who keeps reverting the rubbish, but I was wondering if we could stop this nonsense, either by getting 24.16.203.6 blocked or by getting the page protected for a little while? --Viki 15:41, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:John Snow (physician) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 01:30, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:John Snow (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Oil imperialism theories

Discussion
Are there any counter arguments?

Whilst this article is one of a well-known anonymous contributor's rants, the term "oil imperialism" is commonly used by those who have his particular political views to mean more or less what the article states.

I'm leaving it as is for now, even though it is strongly POV.

Would someone else like to edit it for NPOV, please? -- The Anome 10:53 Feb 18, 2003 (UTC)

This is a conspiracy theory, and might belong in that group of pages, but it is also a political theory. It needs NPOVing, as there is much that can be said to counter the claims in it. I don't have the energy right now though...2toise 13:46, 16 Oct 2003 (UTC)

 * I put it in Pages needing attention, but no one has wanted to take it on yet. Yes, it's horribly one-sided. -- VV 05:46, 18 Oct 2003 (UTC)

I don't see how this can exist as a serious article. It is one person's political idea; it does seem to verge on conspiracy theory. Maybe this should be removed and put on her or his own home page? Or it can be edited into a shorter form, and merged into a conspiracy theory article. JeMa 20:28, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

I will give it a serious going over to NPOV it. Let me do some research to clear up a few specifics first, and Ill get to it later today AQBachler 15:13, 21 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I attempted to NPOV this article. I feel that this is the best format because it does nto go into specific details of a specific theory, just as you could not place a Robert Frost peom under the article for poetry and then assert that that explains what a poem is. AQBachler 07:18, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

The article says 'This theory is rejected by most analysts', does anybody have any sources? Edward 17:42, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC)

--- "In neolithic times flint deposits were important; during the copper and bronze age those minerals were important."  Not essential to the subject. I have rendered the entry less contentious and more neutral. Wetman 21:49, 10 Sep 2004 (UTC)

The article needs work on NPOV for sure. For example, one should do research on public opinion on whether the public thought the Gulf War and 2003 US Invasion of Iraq was about oil imperialism because at least in Canada where I live and from talking to people in Europe and even among some Americans, it is a popular view that the US invaded Iraq mainly or even entirely to control it's oil supply. I find it hard to believe that it is only a far left view.

 * Weaker versions of this theory are very commonly held by significant proportions of people from nations around the world.
 * There have been polls conducted in Iraq etc. showing that a large proportion of the general population believe that Iraq was
 * invaded for the sake of it's oil reserves.
 * As to this being a conspiracy theory Marxism is demonstratably wrong (oil imperialism in the 21st century has a much better
 * case for it). Yet it is not considered a 'conspiracy theory'. I think this subject is fairly legitimate and should not be
 * deleted nor labled as crank nonsense.
 * --I (talk) 01:30, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

What does the reference article on abiogenic oil have to do with Oil Imperialism? Deletion required? Jm butler 21:59, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

With the exception of some (but not all) people from inside the USA, pretty much everyone does not consider "Oil Imperialism" a theory but a fact. The very fact that some are arguing over this being POV or not is already biased.

I added a link to Hydraulic despotism as it seems to be growing more relevant to petroleum politics. I was looking for a word for a commodity with the preeminent economic importance of oil; this was the closest I could find and I think it should be linked to somewhere among the pages closely associated with Petroleum. Kineticman 16:54, 19 April 2006 (UTC)

The linked article (link http://www.hermes-press.com/impintro1.htm ) by Norman D. Livergood uses unecessary derogatory terms and his article contains factual errors and many unsubstantiated claims.

Livergood refers to US government as a "regime", to George Bush as "Dubya", to Dick Cheney as George Bush Sr.'s "hitman". He calls the current conflict a "Standard Oil-Bush junta war against Iraq" and describes the 1990s sanctions against Iraqi as "genocidal" He also claims the US invation of Iraq was to "loot" Iraqi oil.

He also somehow brings drug trafficking into the subject by claiming the "Bush administration and its plutocratic controllers are at the center of the $1.5 trillion per year in U.S. cash transactions that result from the international drug trade" and that the "Wall Street and the Bush administration depend on the South American drug barons for hundreds of millions of dollars for corporate income and election campaign finances."

He provides no evidence for any of his claims and the article reads like a rambling conspiracy theory. I say, remove the link.

Cleanup
I removed all dubious unsourced statements and the links to two webpages that look more like personal rants than anything serious. A search via Google scholar did not show any evidence that "oil imperialism theories" are serious political science theories, and a search via Google showed that Oil imperialism theories are rather dubious theories at best, conspiracy theories at worst. Novidmarana (talk) 11:36, 26 May 2008 (UTC)

Control, not acquisition
The criticism section talks about "acquisition" rather than control of oil. The US doesn't want all the oil in the Middle East, or even most of it; it just wants to have its hand on the tap.

Lapsed Pacifist (talk) 10:59, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Petroleum politics
This article handles the same subject as Petroleum politics. It is currently getting very little attention : I suggest to delete or merge it.--Environnement2100 (talk) 06:10, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Oil imperialism theories


text:
Talk:Phonograph record

Equalisation
The paragraph about companies continuing to use their own equalisations into the 1970s is completely wrong. US Columbia changed to RIAA in mid-1955, Britsh Decca changed to RIAA on January 1st 1956. Telefunken (not Teldec, which was not an LP label until 1983) and Deutsche Grammophon used RIAA from at least 1962 in accordance with the DIN Standard for LPs issued in that year. Wikipedia shouldn't publish such unverified nonsense Barretter (talk) 20:43, 11 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Twelve years ago I had access to the Ronald Penndorf book Recollections guide to collectible LPs which I recall said that Columbia released some discs with their old house curve into the 1970s. I added that reference myself in an attempt to make sense of what had already been written in the article. I no longer have that book.
 * The scale of such non-RIAA releases isn't defined by Penndorf as far as I know. It might be small pressings, or filters that are not so much different than RIAA. So the reference does not support a global statement saying that RIAA filter was ignored in a major fashion. Binksternet (talk) 21:37, 11 May 2023 (UTC)

Equalisation 2
At one time there was a long section on equalization, but it was completely unsourced and had some OR problems, so was rightly removed. But this left the following section orphaned in the Limitations section:

I have removed this because it doesn't make sense to include this in the absence of any other discussion of equalization, and it certainly doesn't belong in Limitations. GA-RT-22 (talk) 21:03, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

The lead
The lead is a summary of the article. Nothing should go in the lead that isn't discussed elsewhere in the article. See WP:LEAD. GA-RT-22 (talk) 03:26, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

LP versus CD
Why is the section written in some sort of "lamer" language? Is it intentially oversimplified? "The necessity for digital recordings to presume upper and lower bounds, sampling the tones and soundwaves within those limits and using the resulting information to store and recall the audio"? "To presume upper and lower bounds"? Do you mean "to use filters"?

Anyway, the section should just say that while the Shanon–Kotelnikov–Nyquist sampling theorem "says" that the sound recorded on CD can be faithfully converted to analog, the real-life devices (DACs) that do this are imperfect. --Moscow Connection (talk) 08:18, 27 February 2024 (UTC)

Surprisingly, the current source source for most of the first paragraph is fine. ("Completely rebuild a sound wave" – nice, that's what I wanted to say, but couldn't find the right words, so I wrote "faithfully convert to analog".) But we should just explain aliasing. Here's a more technical source: (found by googling „CD "Nyquist" "imperfect" "44.1 kHz"“). --Moscow Connection (talk) 08:40, 27 February 2024 (UTC)

 * That section could use a re-write. Lots of nonsense in there. GA-RT-22 (talk) 19:29, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

45 RPM
78 RPM redirects here, and since there is no article for 45 RPM I am quite surprised to find that 45 RPM does not redirect here too. It's a disambiguation page, all the uses listed are derivative of 45 RPM record, and none are particularly well known. I can't find any previous discussion on this topic. I propose we change it to redirect here. GA-RT-22 (talk) 00:32, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

 * If we declare Phonograph record to be the WP:PRIMARY topic for 45 RPM then we would redirect 45 RPM here, rename the current disambiguation page 45 RPM (disambiguation) and add a hatnote to this article pointing there. I'm not convinced this would be a better organization for readers. I think it is possible or likely readers could be looking for Single (music) when searching for 45 RPM. ~Kvng (talk) 14:22, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

Compatibility of microgroove records
As a suggestion, there could be something more on the compatibility of mono and stereo microgroove records.

The article already correctly states that "As a result of the 45-degree turn and some vector algebra, it can be demonstrated that out of the new horizontal and vertical directions, one would represent the sum of the two channels, and the other representing the difference. Record makers decide to pick the directions such that the traditional horizontal direction codes for the sum. As a result, an ordinary mono disk will be decoded correctly as "no difference between channels", and an ordinary mono player would simply play the sum of a stereophonic record without too much loss of information." So, it says that a stereo cartridge and stylus is backward compatible to a mono recording, which is definitely true. However, it does not state that a legacy mono cartridges/stylus is generally not compatible with stereo recordings. That is because a mono cartridge only allows horizontal movement and the stereo recording has a vertical component. The legacy mono stylus may also have a larger radius (25 micron, not 12.5 micron as the stereo stylus, based on this source https://www.audiomisc.co.uk/HFN/LP3/aroundthebend.html ). Therefore, playing a stereo record using an old mono cartridge, while it will play the record, can damage the record, although both 'mono' and 'stereo' recordings are called 'microgroove'.

The older 78 rpm format used a stylus with a far larger radius, but it is more obvious that a 78 rpm player is incompatible with 'microgroove' and nobody is likely to even try playing a modern LP on a 78 rpm player.

Note that the partially duplicate article on LP record and the article Phonograph also do not cover this aspect.TrimmerinWiki (talk) 00:44, 24 March 2024 (UTC)

 * FYI I have made changes to LP record to reduce it being a duplicate of this article. It now has a more clearer format that talks specifically about the original LP by Columbia, and things that apply to records in general rather than just LP I have moved them over here. Sateystnes (talk) 23:21, 6 May 2024 (UTC)

Social Impact sections
I have reverted your edits for two reasons. One, you didn't include any inline citations. See Citing sources. Two, you changed a citation to the NYT, removing the url but leaving the archive-url the same. We don't normally remove or change citations without saying why. Your section headers are also incorrect, see MOS:SECTIONS. GA-RT-22 (talk) 14:52, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Phonograph record