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Jean Casimir-Perier

Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier (8 November 1847 – 11 March 1907) was a French politician who served as President of France for six months in 1894-1895.

Biography
Jean Casimir-Perier was born in Paris on 8 November 1847, the son of Auguste Casimir-Perier, the grandson of Casimir Pierre Perier, premier of Louis Philippe, and the great grandson of Claude Périer, one of the founders of the Bank of France. He entered public life as secretary to his father, who was Minister of the Interior under the presidency of Thiers.

In 1874 he was elected General Councillor of the Aube département, and was sent by the same département to the Chamber of Deputies in the general elections of 1876, and he was always re-elected until his presidency. In spite of the traditions of his family, Casimir-Perier joined the group of Republicans on the Left, and was one of the 363 on the Seize-Mai (1877). He refused to vote the "expulsion of the Princes" in 1883, and resigned as Deputy upon the enactment of the law (26 June 1886) because of his personal connections with the family of Orléans.

On 17 August 1883 he became Under-Secretary of State for War, a post he retained until 7 January 1885. From 1890 to 1892 he was Vice President of the Chamber, then in 1893 President. On 3 December he became President of the council, holding the department of Foreign Affairs, resigned in May 1894, and was re-elected President of the Chamber.

On 24 June 1894, after the assassination of President Carnot, he was elected President of the Republic by 451 votes against 195 for Henri Brisson and 97 for Charles Dupuy. His presidency lasted only six months. The resignation of the Dupuy ministry on 14 January 1895 was followed the next day by that of the President. Casimir-Perier explained his action by the fact that he found himself ignored by the ministers, who did not consult him before taking decisions, and did not keep him informed upon political events, especially in foreign affairs.

From that time he completely abandoned politics, and devoted himself to business – especially mining. At the trial of Alfred Dreyfus at Rennes, Casimir-Perier's evidence, as opposed to that of General Mercier, was of great value to the cause of Dreyfus.

Casimir-Perier died on 11 March 1907 in Paris of angina pectoris.

As of 2024, of all Presidents of France through its history, Casimir-Perier had the shortest presidency.

Casimir-Perier's Ministry, 3 December 1893 – 30 May 1894

 * Jean Casimir-Perier – President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Auguste Mercier – Minister of War
 * David Raynal – Minister of the Interior
 * Auguste Burdeau – Minister of Finance
 * Antonin Dubost – Minister of Justice
 * Jean Marty – Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Colonies
 * Auguste Alfred Lefèvre – Minister of Marine
 * Eugène Spuller – Minister of Public Instruction, Fine Arts, and Worship
 * Albert Viger – Minister of Agriculture
 * Charles Jonnart – Minister of Public Works

Changes
 * 20 March 1894 – Jean Marty becomes Minister of Posts and Telegraphs as well as Minister of Commerce and Industry. Ernest Boulanger succeeds Marty as Minister of Colonies.

title: Jean Casimir-Perier


text:
Talk:Corinthian order

Comments
"Capitol" was linking to the wrong thing, like Washington DC.

From a UK perspective it's the wrong spelling anyway and should be capital, but if this is wrong for the US I apologize - it'll need looking at again.

I've slightly unsatisfactorily linked it to the disamb pag for Capital - there is no article for the architectural kind and at least the disamb page tells you what one is, so this is the current best of a bad job, I feel. Nevilley 12:12 Feb 16, 2003 (UTC)

None of this information is very reliable. This material is all discussed at Classical orders. Wetman 08:18, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I NEED HELP!!!
I'm doing an A-level course for Classical civilisation and I have a question which compares all the different styles of temple, the thing is the temples we are comparing must be in Greece...so I need to find three temples which are doric,ionic, and corinthian but i can't find the name of a temple that is corinthian in Greece please give me suggestions at c05.mcgowans@stantonbury.org.uk please!!!!

I need help
 * Please don't post requests such as this on the discussion page. This is not a blog rather a place where you can discuss proposed additions to the article. To be fair though, I would suggest that you check out Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (it has one Corinthian column inside the cella, and it is the earliest known Corinthian column found to date) - See Bassae and Corinthian order.
 * Cheers 59.101.214.170 07:10, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

Changing BCE to BC
Back in September Anonymous User:205.202.120.210 "correcrted" all the BCE references to BC. Not the kind of thing a responsible, logged-in adult Wikipedia would have done, I'm sure. I've fixed them and left a discreet commented-out reminder at the head of the html. --Wetman (talk) 07:28, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

"Fungitecture™" [sic]
The following external link has been inserted here and at various other articles: www.fungitecture.com A sense of what's up with this ican be had from the following introductory statement: "The term Fungitecture was coined to describe the peculiar resemblance between certain ancient styles of monumental architecture and the fruit of one or other species of fungus. However, Fungitecture also serves as an umbrella term covering a much wider field of human endeavour, wherever fungus imagery, lore or substance may have been invoked." There are no references to any responsible peer-reviewed literature, needless to say. This does not show Wikipedia in a flattering light, in my opinion.--Wetman (talk) 01:58, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

Wetman's incompetent reference to link corrected. O8TY (talk) 14:19, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

The name "Fungitecture" is a trademark and must be recognised as such. O8TY (talk) 10:12, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

See also response here. [O8TY:Talk] O8TY (talk) 05:24, 31 October 2008 (UTC)

Meaningless sentence
The following statement has something wrong with it. 'The name "Corinthian" is derived from the Greeks of Corinth, although its own in Roman practice....' Could someone please fix this. I can't imagine what it means. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.235.212.17 (talk) 16:43, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

Order of description is wrong in this article
Why does the description start with the Roman Corinthian order instead of the Greek Corinthian order, given that this is an ancient Greek architectural style that originated in Corinth long before the Romans started using it ? What is more amazing is that there is no Greek examples until the "history" section.÷ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.184.142.229 (talk) 06:06, 23 January 2013 (UTC)

This article starts with a long text that is identical to a blog: which came first?
Perhaps this blog stole text from Wikipedia, but in any case it raises questions of plagiarism. It really appears as though it was taken from a book or a paper, and it is not attributed properly. See http://www.architecturalbling.com/corinthian.html: "The Corinthian order is the last chronologically of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture..." — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cesca1910 (talk • contribs) 05:02, 29 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Given that the blog text with no time stamp is one long run-on paragraph, it seems likely that it was plagiarized from the Wikipedia article. A Google search in books for this text came up with no other results. Carlstak (talk) 12:04, 29 April 2014 (UTC)

Photos
I'm noticing that there's no photos from the actual place where this style originated; not just Corinth itself but Greece in general... How can that be made right? Onoufrios d (talk) 08:23, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * A time machine? The Romans ground the place into dust. There aren't actually that many in and from Ancient Greece, but I've added the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates with early if battered examples. Johnbod (talk) 15:06, 7 August 2023 (UTC)

Corinthian capitals found in Petra Nabataea Arabia Jordon a world heritage site
In the ancient capital city Petra in modern day Jordon there are some temples carved in to the stone cliffs between 500-300BC. The so called Pharaoh's Treasury or as it is known the Al-Khazhe faroune has Corinthian capitals perhaps Composta capitals. Another iconic monument is dubbed the Monastery, also sports Corinthian capitals. The ancient site of Petraea has been occupied for well over 10,000 years as a place of refuge and protection by the Arabian peoples. Nabataea Petraea Arabia became a powerful wealthy commercial trade center in control of the incense trade routes bringing precious exotic resources from all over the East. Every caravan had to pass through Petraea, report to the authority and pay taxes before being authorized to proceed to the coastal port cities of Gaza and Ashkelon where they would be distributed by merchant ships to the major cities through out the Mediterranean basin. The Nabataeans kings and queens were of Arabian Greek descent and had close family ties with royal Egyptian Ptolemies.

Nmortensen32 (talk) 18:58, 22 August 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Corinthian order


text:
Kerogen

Kerogen is solid, insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks. It consists of a variety of organic materials, including dead plants, algae, and other microorganisms, that have been compressed and heated by geological processes. All the kerogen on earth is estimated to contain 1016 tons of carbon. This makes it the most abundant source of organic compounds on earth, exceeding the total organic content of living matter 10,000-fold.

The type of kerogen present in a particular rock formation depends on the type of organic material that was originally present. Kerogen can be classified by these origins: lacustrine (e.g., algal), marine (e.g., planktonic), and terrestrial (e.g., pollen and spores). The type of kerogen depends also on the degree of heat and pressure it has been subjected to, and the length of time the geological processes ran. The result is that a complex mixture of organic compounds reside in sedimentary rocks, serving as the precursor for the formation of hydrocarbons such as oil and gas. In short, kerogen amounts to fossilized organic matter that has been buried and subjected to high temperatures and pressures over millions of years, resulting in various chemical reactions and transformations.

Kerogen is insoluble in normal organic solvents and it does not have a specific chemical formula. Upon heating, kerogen converts in part to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. Petroleum and natural gas form from kerogen. The name "kerogen" was introduced by the Scottish organic chemist Alexander Crum Brown in 1906,  derived from the Greek for "wax birth" (Greek: κηρός "wax" and -gen, γένεση "birth").

The increased production of hydrocarbons from shale has motivated a revival of research into the composition, structure, and properties of kerogen. Many studies have documented dramatic and systematic changes in kerogen composition across the range of thermal maturity relevant to the oil and gas industry. Analyses of kerogen are generally performed on samples prepared by acid demineralization with critical point drying, which isolates kerogen from the rock matrix without altering its chemical composition or microstructure.

Formation
Kerogen is formed during sedimentary diagenesis from the degradation of living matter. The original organic matter can comprise lacustrine and marine algae and plankton and terrestrial higher-order plants. During diagenesis, large biopolymers from, e.g., proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the original organic matter, decompose partially or completely. This breakdown process can be viewed as the reverse of photosynthesis. These resulting units can then polycondense to form geopolymers. The formation of geopolymers in this way accounts for the large molecular weights and diverse chemical compositions associated with kerogen. The smallest units are the fulvic acids, the medium units are the humic acids, and the largest units are the humins. This polymerization usually happens alongside the formation and/or sedimentation of one or more mineral components resulting in a sedimentary rock like oil shale.

When kerogen is contemporaneously deposited with geologic material, subsequent sedimentation and progressive burial or overburden provide elevated pressure and temperature owing to lithostatic and geothermal gradients in Earth's crust. Resulting changes in the burial temperatures and pressures lead to further changes in kerogen composition including loss of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and their associated functional groups, and subsequent isomerization and aromatization Such changes are indicative of the thermal maturity state of kerogen. Aromatization allows for molecular stacking in sheets, which in turn drives changes in physical characteristics of kerogen, such as increasing molecular density, vitrinite reflectance, and spore coloration (yellow to orange to brown to black with increasing depth/thermal maturity).

During the process of thermal maturation, kerogen breaks down in high-temperature pyrolysis reactions to form lower-molecular-weight products including bitumen, oil, and gas. The extent of thermal maturation controls the nature of the product, with lower thermal maturities yielding mainly bitumen/oil and higher thermal maturities yielding gas. These generated species are partially expelled from the kerogen-rich source rock and in some cases can charge into a reservoir rock. Kerogen takes on additional importance in unconventional resources, particularly shale. In these formations, oil and gas are produced directly from the kerogen-rich source rock (i.e. the source rock is also the reservoir rock). Much of the porosity in these shales is found to be hosted within the kerogen, rather than between mineral grains as occurs in conventional reservoir rocks. Thus, kerogen controls much of the storage and transport of oil and gas in shale.

Another possible method of formation is that vanabin-containing organisms cleave the core out of chlorin-based compounds such as the magnesium in chlorophyll and replace it with their vanadium center in order to attach and harvest energy via light-harvesting complexes. It is theorized that the bacteria contained in worm castings, Rhodopseudomonas palustris, do this during its photoautotrophism mode of metabolism. Over time colonies of light harvesting bacteria solidify, forming kerogen.

Composition
Kerogen is a complex mixture of organic chemical compounds that make up the most abundant fraction of organic matter in sedimentary rocks. As kerogen is a mixture of organic materials, it is not defined by a single chemical formula. Its chemical composition varies substantially between and even within sedimentary formations. For example, kerogen from the Green River Formation oil shale deposit of western North America contains elements in the proportions carbon 215 : hydrogen 330 : oxygen 12 : nitrogen 5 : sulfur 1.

Kerogen is insoluble in normal organic solvents in part because of the high molecular weight of its component compounds. The soluble portion is known as bitumen. When heated to the right temperatures in the earth's crust, (oil window c. 50–150 °C, gas window c. 150–200 °C, both depending on how quickly the source rock is heated) some types of kerogen release crude oil or natural gas, collectively known as hydrocarbons (fossil fuels). When such kerogens are present in high concentration in rocks such as organic-rich mudrocks shale, they form possible source rocks. Shales that are rich in kerogen but have not been heated to required temperature to generate hydrocarbons instead may form oil shale deposits.

The chemical composition of kerogen has been analyzed by several forms of solid state spectroscopy. These experiments typically measure the speciations (bonding environments) of different types of atoms in kerogen. One technique is 13C NMR spectroscopy, which measures carbon speciation. NMR experiments have found that carbon in kerogen can range from almost entirely aliphatic (sp3 hybridized) to almost entirely aromatic (sp2 hybridized), with kerogens of higher thermal maturity typically having higher abundance of aromatic carbon. Another technique is Raman spectroscopy. Raman scattering is characteristic of, and can be used to identify, specific vibrational modes and symmetries of molecular bonds. The first-order Raman spectra of kerogen comprises two principal peaks; a so-called G band ("graphitic") attributed to in-plane vibrational modes of well-ordered sp2 carbon and a so-called D band ("disordered") from symmetric vibrational modes of sp2 carbon associated with lattice defects and discontinuities. The relative spectral position (Raman shift) and intensity of these carbon species is shown to correlate to thermal maturity,     with kerogens of higher thermal maturity having higher abundance of graphitic/ordered aromatic carbons. Complementary and consistent results have been obtained with infrared (IR) spectroscopy, which show that kerogen has higher fraction of aromatic carbon and shorter lengths of aliphatic chains at higher thermal maturities. These results can be explained by the preferential removal of aliphatic carbons by cracking reactions during pyrolysis, where the cracking typically occurs at weak C–C bonds beta to aromatic rings and results in the replacement of a long aliphatic chain with a methyl group. At higher maturities, when all labile aliphatic carbons have already been removed—in other words, when the kerogen has no remaining oil-generation potential—further increase in aromaticity can occur from the conversion of aliphatic bonds (such as alicyclic rings) to aromatic bonds.

IR spectroscopy is sensitive to carbon-oxygen bonds such as quinones, ketones, and esters, so the technique can also be used to investigate oxygen speciation. It is found that the oxygen content of kerogen decreases during thermal maturation (as has also been observed by elemental analysis), with relatively little observable change in oxygen speciation. Similarly, sulfur speciation can be investigated with X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy, which is sensitive to sulfur-containing functional groups such as sulfides, thiophenes, and sulfoxides. Sulfur content in kerogen generally decreases with thermal maturity, and sulfur speciation includes a mix of sulfides and thiophenes at low thermal maturities and is further enriched in thiophenes at high maturities. Overall, changes in kerogen composition with respect to heteroatom chemistry occur predominantly at low thermal maturities (bitumen and oil windows), while changes with respect to carbon chemistry occur predominantly at high thermal maturities (oil and gas windows).

Microstructure
The microstructure of kerogen also evolves during thermal maturation, as has been inferred by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging showing the presence of abundant internal pore networks within the lattice of thermally mature kerogen. Analysis by gas sorption demonstrated that the internal specific surface area of kerogen increases by an order of magnitude (~ 40 to 400 m2/g) during thermal maturation. X-ray and neutron diffraction studies have examined the spacing between carbon atoms in kerogen, revealing during thermal maturation a shortening of carbon-carbon distances in covalently bonded carbons (related to the transition from primarily aliphatic to primarily aromatic bonding) but a lengthening of carbon-carbon distances in carbons at greater bond separations (related to the formation of kerogen-hosted porosity). This evolution is attributed to the formation of kerogen-hosted pores left behind as segments of the kerogen molecule are cracked off during thermal maturation.

Physical properties
These changes in composition and microstructure result in changes in the properties of kerogen. For example, the skeletal density of kerogen increases from approximately 1.1 g/ml at low thermal maturity to 1.7 g/ml at high thermal maturity. This evolution is consistent with the change in carbon speciation from predominantly aliphatic (similar to wax, density < 1 g/ml) to predominantly aromatic (similar to graphite, density > 2 g/ml) with increasing thermal maturity.

Spatial heterogeneity
Additional studies have explored the spatial heterogeneity of kerogen at small length scales. Individual particles of kerogen arising from different inputs are identified and assigned as different macerals. This variation in starting material may lead to variations in composition between different kerogen particles, leading to spatial heterogeneity in kerogen composition at the micron length scale. Heterogeneity between kerogen particles may also arise from local variations in catalysis of pyrolysis reactions due to the nature of the minerals surrounding different particles. Measurements performed with atomic force microscopy coupled to infrared spectroscopy (AFM-IR) and correlated with organic petrography have analyzed the evolution of the chemical composition and mechanical properties of individual macerals of kerogen with thermal maturation at the nanoscale. These results indicate that all macerals decrease in oxygen content and increase in aromaticity (decrease in aliphalicity) during thermal maturation, but some macerals undergo large changes while other macerals undergo relatively small changes. In addition, macerals that are richer in aromatic carbon are mechanically stiffer than macerals that are richer in aliphatic carbon, as expected because highly aromatic forms of carbon (such as graphite) are stiffer than highly aliphatic forms of carbon (such as wax).

Types
Labile kerogen breaks down to generate principally liquid hydrocarbons (i.e., oil), refractory kerogen breaks down to generate principally gaseous hydrocarbons, and inert kerogen generates no hydrocarbons but forms graphite.

In organic petrography, the different components of kerogen can be identified by microscopic inspection and are classified as macerals. This classification was developed originally for coal (a sedimentary rock that is rich in organic matter of terrestrial origin) but is now applied to the study of other kerogen-rich sedimentary deposits.

The Van Krevelen diagram is one method of classifying kerogen by "types", where kerogens form distinct groups when the ratios of hydrogen to carbon and oxygen to carbon are compared.

Type I: algal/sapropelic
Type I kerogens are characterized by high initial hydrogen-to-carbon (H/C) ratios and low initial oxygen-to-carbon (O/C) ratios. This kerogen is rich in lipid-derived material and is commonly, but not always, from algal organic matter in lacustrine (freshwater) environments. On a mass basis, rocks containing type I kerogen yield the largest quantity of hydrocarbons upon pyrolysis. Hence, from the theoretical view, shales containing type I kerogen are the most promising deposits in terms of conventional oil retorting.
 * Hydrogen:carbon atomic ratio > 1.25
 * Oxygen:carbon atomic ratio < 0.15
 * Derived principally from lacustrine algae, deposited in anoxic lake sediments and rarely in marine environments
 * Composed of alginite, amorphous organic matter, cyanobacteria, freshwater algae, and lesser of land plant resins
 * Formed mainly from protein and lipid precursors
 * Has few cyclic or aromatic structures
 * Shows great tendency to readily produce liquid hydrocarbons (oil) under heating

Type II: planktonic
Type II kerogens are characterized by intermediate initial H/C ratios and intermediate initial O/C ratios. Type II kerogen is principally derived from marine organic materials, which are deposited in reducing sedimentary environments. The sulfur content of type II kerogen is generally higher than in other kerogen types, and sulfur is found in substantial amounts in the associated bitumen. Although pyrolysis of type II kerogen yields less oil than type I, the amount yielded is still sufficient for type II-bearing sedimentary deposits to be petroleum source rocks.
 * Hydrogen:carbon atomic ratio < 1.25
 * Oxygen:carbon atomic ratio 0.03–0.18
 * Derived principally from marine plankton and algae
 * Produces a mixture oil and gas under heating

Type II-S: sulfurous
Similar to type II but with high sulfur content.

Type III: humic
Type III kerogens are characterized by low initial H/C ratios and high initial O/C ratios. Type III kerogens are derived from terrestrial plant matter, specifically from precursor compounds including cellulose, lignin (a non-carbohydrate polymer formed from phenyl-propane units that binds the strings of cellulose together); terpenes and phenols. Coal is an organic-rich sedimentary rock that is composed predominantly of this kerogen type. On a mass basis, type III kerogens generate the lowest oil yield of principal kerogen types.
 * Hydrogen:carbon atomic ratio < 1
 * Oxygen:carbon atomic ratio 0.03–0.3
 * Has low hydrogen content because of abundant aromatic carbon structures
 * Derived from terrestrial (land) plants
 * Tends to produce gas under heating (recent research has shown that type III kerogens can actually produce oil under extreme conditions)

Type IV: inert/residual
Type IV kerogen comprises mostly inert organic matter in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. They have no potential to produce hydrocarbons.
 * Hydrogen:carbon atomic ratio < 0.5

Kerogen cycle

The diagram on the right shows the organic carbon cycle with the flow of kerogen (black solid lines) and the flow of biospheric carbon (green solid lines), showing both the fixation of atmospheric CO2 by terrestrial and marine primary productivity. The combined flux of reworked kerogen and biospheric carbon into ocean sediments constitutes total organic carbon burial entering the endogenous kerogen pool.

Extra-terrestrial
Carbonaceous chondrite meteorites contain kerogen-like components. Such material is thought to have formed the terrestrial planets. Kerogenous materials have been detected also in interstellar clouds and dust around stars.

The Curiosity rover has detected organic deposits similar to kerogen in mudstone samples in Gale Crater on Mars using a revised drilling technique. The presence of benzene and propane also indicates the possible presence of kerogen-like materials, from which hydrocarbons are derived.

title: Kerogen


text:
Henri Brisson

Eugène Henri Brisson (31 July 1835 – 14 April 1912) was a French statesman, Prime Minister of France for a period in 1885-1886 and again in 1898.

Biography
He was born at Bourges (Cher), and followed his father's profession of advocate. Having made his mark in opposition during the last days of the empire, he was appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after the government was overthrown. He was elected to the Assembly on 8 February 1871, as a member of the extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he was the first to propose amnesty for the condemned (on 13 September 1871), but the proposal was voted down. He strongly supported compulsory primary education, and was firmly anti-clerical. He was president of the chamber from 1881 — replacing Léon Gambetta — to March 1885, when he became prime minister upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he resigned when, after the general elections of that year, he only just obtained a majority for the vote of credit for the Tonkin expedition.

He remained conspicuous as a public man, took a prominent part in exposing the Panama scandals, was a strong candidate for the presidency of France after the murder of President Carnot in 1894; however, he lost to Jean Casimir-Perier. Brisson was once again president of the chamber from December 1894 to 1898. Brisson stood once again as a candidate for the presidency of France in 1895, but lost once again to Félix Faure. Following the 1898 French legislative election, whilst the country was violently excited over the Dreyfus affair, the incumbent Premier, Jules Méline, lost the confidence of the Chamber of Deputies - subsequently allowing Brisson be re-appointed as Premier and form a new cabinet in June 1898. Brisson's firmness and honesty increased popular respect for him, but a chance vote on a matter of especial excitement overthrew his ministry in October. As a leader of the radicals he actively supported the ministries of Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially concerning the laws on the religious orders and the separation of church and state. In May 1906, he was re-elected president of the chamber of deputies by 500 out of 581 votes.

Brisson's 1st Ministry, 6 April 1885 – 7 January 1886

 * Henri Brisson – President of the Council and Minister of Justice
 * Charles de Freycinet – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Jean-Baptiste Campenon – Minister of War
 * François Allain-Targé – Minister of the Interior
 * Jean Clamageran – Minister of Finance
 * Charles Eugène Galiber – Minister of Marine and Colonies
 * René Goblet – Minister of Public Instruction, Fine Arts, and Worship
 * Hervé Mangon – Minister of Agriculture
 * Sadi Carnot – Minister of Public Works
 * Ferdinand Sarrien – Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
 * Pierre Legrand – Minister of Commerce

Changes
 * 16 April 1885 – Sadi Carnot succeeds Clamageran as Minister of Finance. Charles Demôle succeeds Carnot as Minister of Public Works.
 * 9 November 1885 – Pierre Gomot succeeds Mangon as Minister of Agriculture. Lucien Dautresme succeeds Legrand as Minister of Commerce.

Brisson's Second Ministry, 28 June – 1 November 1898

 * Henri Brisson – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
 * Théophile Delcassé – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Godefroy Cavaignac – Minister of War
 * Paul Peytral – Minister of Finance
 * Ferdinand Sarrien – Minister of Justice and Worship
 * Édouard Locroy – Minister of Marine
 * Léon Bourgeois – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Albert Viger – Minister of Agriculture
 * Georges Trouillot – Minister of Colonies
 * Louis Tillaye – Minister of Public Works
 * Émile Maruéjouls – Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs

Changes
 * 5 September 1898 – Émile Zurlinden succeeds Cavaignac as Minister of War
 * 17 September 1898 – Charles Chanoine succeeds Zurlinden as Minister of War. Jules Godin succeeds Tillaye as Minister of Public Works.
 * 25 October 1898 – Édouard Locroy succeeds Chanoine as interim Minister of War, remaining also Minister of Marine.

title: Henri Brisson


text:
Backpack

A backpack—also called knapsack, rucksack, pack, booksack, bookbag, haversack or backsack—is, in its simplest frameless form, a fabric sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders; but it can have an external or internal frame, and there are bodypacks.

Backpacks are commonly used by hikers and students, and are often preferred to handbags for carrying heavy loads or carrying any sort of equipment, because of the limited capacity to carry heavy weights for long periods of time in the hands.

Large backpacks, used to carry loads over 10 kg, as well as smaller sports backpacks (e.g. running, cycling, hiking, and hydration), usually offload the largest part (up to about 90%) of their weight onto padded hip belts, leaving the shoulder straps mainly for stabilising the load. This improves the potential to carry heavy loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders, and also increases agility and balance, since the load rides nearer the wearer's own center of mass.

Terminology
The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s. Moneybag and packsack were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms.

The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, US and in other Western military forces. In Middle High German ruck(e) means "back" (dorsum), which led to the Upper German word ruggsack. In modern German the word "der Rucksack" is commonly used. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish rygsæk, Norwegian ryggsekk, Dutch rugzak, Afrikaans rugsak, Swedish ryggsäck, and Russian рюкзак (rjukzak).

The word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. This is commonly used in Canada.

Alternative names include haversack from the German Hafersack meaning "oat sack" (which more properly describes a small cloth bag on a strap worn over one shoulder and originally referred to the bag of oats carried as horse fodder), Kraxe (a German rucksack with a rigid framework), and bergen (a large load-carrying rucksack, from a design issued by the British Army during the Second World War).

Backpacks can often simply be referred to as "packs", especially in outdoors contexts; though sometimes ambiguous compared to other bags such as saddlebags and duffel bags, context is generally sufficient for identification. They are also used in recreational activities, and are used to carry sports equipment and other materials.

Before its various terminologies began appearing in print, evidence of early backpacks was scarce. A contender for the earliest was found within the mummified remains of Ötzi in 3300BC.

Designs
Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories: frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the body more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips and legs. Most of the weight is therefore taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure (many backpacks equipped solely with shoulder straps can affect the posture of a person carrying more than 14 kg (30 lbs)), as well as being less restrictive of the upper body range of motion. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure, though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment.

A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearer's chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front and the load in the back are close to equal. The majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearer's natural posture, balance and maneuverability. The load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body.

Frameless
The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps. Such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket. This may be combined with webbing or cordage straps, while more sophisticated models add extra pockets, waist straps, chest straps, padded shoulder straps, padded backs, and sometimes reflective materials for added safety at night. These packs are generally produced inexpensively.

Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well.

Sports
Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a profile closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders and hip belts for running, cycling or hiking. Running hydration packs are the smallest and lightest, many under 2 l and most under 6 l. Compression straps across the top of one's body are common as are hip belts. Cycling hydration packs are 6-10 l sitting high on the back. Although daypacks are small averaging 10-30 l, all Trekking and Hiking hydration packs are generally the largest and heaviest. 35-65 l and above are common.

External frame packs
External frame packs were designed to carry heavy loads above 20 kg, giving the wearer more support and protection and better weight distribution than a simple, frameless strapped bag. Wooden pack frames were used for centuries around the world. Ötzi the Iceman may have used one in Copper Age Alpine Italy, though some archaeologists believe the frame found with the body was part of a snowshoe. Such packs are common in military and mountaineering applications; metal versions first appeared in the late-19th century.

The first external frame rucksack to receive a patent was made by Henry Clay Merriam, a U.S. Army officer during the late 19th century. Introduced in 1887, Merriam's innovative pack was made with drab duck canvas, which was attached to a light steel frame. In addition to two shoulder straps, the pack featured several leather straps that allowed the infantryman to attach his bedroll and canteen to the frame, instead of having them rest on his chest and hips. The most important feature, however, were the two hardwood rods that extended from the sides of the pack to leather pockets on a half-belt, which rested across the lower back and hips. This system allowed the pack to elevate off the back and shoulders, and thus transfer the weight of the load onto the hips. Though he tried in vain to sell his invention to the U.S. Army, he was only able to sell a few thousand packs to the New York National Guard, and the French and Austrian Armies.

Backpack design took another major leap forward with the introduction of the first aluminum external-frame backpack by Jack Abert, an avid hiker from Phoenix, Arizona. As a Boy Scout camp counselor, Abert saw first-hand how inadequate the backpacks scouts were using at that time, and set out to design a more comfortable pack. In 1947, he designed a contoured aluminum frame that was both strong and light, and shifted much of the weight off the shoulders and onto the hips. By 1950, his invention had received official approval from the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America, and by 1967, he had become the largest manufacturer of backpacking frames in the world.

Today's external frames are typically made from aluminum, other lightweight metal alloy, and recently reinforced synthetic polymers or plastic and is equipped with a system of straps and tautly-stretched netting which prevents contact between the metal frame and user's back. In addition to comfort, this "stand-off" provides the additional benefit of creating air circulation between the frame and the wearer's back. For this reason, external frame packs are generally considered to be a "cooler load" than internal frame designs. External frame packs have a fabric "sack" portion which is usually smaller than that of internal frame packs, but have exposed frame portions above and below the sack to accommodate attachment of larger items. In addition, the sack can often be removed entirely, permitting the user to customize the configuration of their load, or to transport a non-conventional load such as a quartered game animal. Military packs are often external frame designs due to their ability to carry loads of different shapes, sizes and weights.

A recently proposed type of external frame would be made from composite plastic, which is not flexible like current backpack straps are, and can be shaped like human spine curvature. In this type of backpack, the load would directly transfer to the shoulders through the non-flexible straps, helpful in preventing damage of long term backpack carrying. This non-flexible structure also diminishes the momentum at the lumbar region of the back. The strap curvature would be shaped closely to normal spine curvature, with two flexible drawstrings to minimize backpack movement along the transverse plane. The straps of this backpack would be wide enough to distribute the pressure on the shoulders, with an internal white glass wool layer to absorb dynamic forces from movement. This backpack type is experimental, needing further development before usage.

Internal frame packs
The internal frame backpack is a recent innovation, invented in 1967 by Greg Lowe, who went on to found Lowe Alpine and Lowepro, companies specializing in backpacks and other forms of carrying bags for various equipment. Lowe's innovation also featured the first side compression straps, the first modern sternum strap, and the first load stabilizers. Internal-frame packs have a large fabric section around an internal frame composed of strips of either aluminum, titanium or plastic, sometimes with additional metal stays to reinforce the frame. A complex series of straps works with the frame to distribute the weight and hold it in place. The internal frame permits the pack to fit closely to the wearer's back and minimizes shifting of the load, which is desirable when participating in activities that involve upper-body movement such as scrambling over rocky surfaces and skiing. However, the tight fit reduces ventilation, so these type of packs tend to be more sweaty than external frame packs. The internal construction also allows for a large storage compartment; a few lash points (including webbing loops and straps for sleeping bags and other large items) may be present, but as the frame is completely integrated, it is difficult to securely lash larger and heavier items which do not fit inside the compartment to the outside of the pack. Internal frame packs originally suffered from smaller load capacity and less comfortable fit during steady walking, but newer models have improved greatly in these respects. In addition, because of their snug fit, the improved internal frame models have largely replaced external frame backpacks for many activities.

Daily use
A daypack is a smaller, frameless backpack that can hold enough contents for a day hike, or a day's worth of other activities. They are not large enough for average wilderness backpacking that use full-sized sleeping bags and backpacking tents, but may be large enough for ultralight backpacking. Padded or unpadded waist straps may be provided to distribute weight across the body.

In many countries, backpacks are heavily identified with students, and are a primary means of transporting educational materials to and from school. In this context they are sometimes known as bookbags or schoolbags. The purchase of a suitably fashionable, attractive, and useful backpack is a crucial back-to-school ritual for many students.

Typical school backpacks generally lack the rigid frame of an outdoor-style backpack and include only a few pockets in the front in addition to the main storage compartment. While traditionally very simple in design, school backpacks are often made with padded shoulder straps and backs as well as additional reinforcement to hold large numbers of heavy textbooks, as well as safety features such as reflective panels to make the wearer of the pack more visible at night.

Backpacks are sometimes worn as fashion accessories, in which they perform the same function as a purse. Some such backpacks designed specifically for women are no larger than a typical purse, and are generally associated with younger women.

Special-purpose
Some backpacks are specifically designed to carry certain items. Common examples include backpacks for small valuable items such as laptops and cameras; backpacks designed to hold laptop computers in particular generally have a padded compartment to hold the computer and medium-sized pockets and flaps to accommodate accessories such as charger cables and mice. These are especially common in college and university settings. In order to supply these devices with electricity, a few high-end backpacks are equipped with solar panels.

Rolling backpacks are backpacks with wheels on the bottom and an extending handle. Because of their design, rolling backpacks reduce the strain on the user, though the shoulder straps may be used to carry the pack for short distances when the terrain is not suitable for wheels. Rolling backpacks are most commonly used while traveling by airplane or train.

Hydration backpacks are also available. These light daypacks are specifically designed to hold water in a special water bladder (also known as reservoir), and their purpose is to allow the carrier constant fluid hydration handsfree, so that the carrier can focus on their task without having to stop to get a water bottle out.

Professional use
Backpacks are a standard part of the load-bearing equipment of soldiers, especially infantry, in most countries, and military-style packs are regularly available to civilians in military surplus stores. Well-known examples include the United States ALICE field pack and the British Army PLCE rucksack attachment, both of which are widely available to civilian markets both as actual military surplus (new or used) and as replicas. Such packs are often, though not always (e.g. the USMC's ILBE pack), external-frame packs, with the pack itself lashed or pinned to a metal or plastic carrying frame. For units that are entering combat situations, packs may be loaded heavily and can weigh in excess of 100 lbs. Each soldier may carry extra weapons, ammunition, rations, medical supplies, tents or other shelter material, and extra clothing.

Many police tactical units, as well as players of military-style combat games such as paintball and airsoft, use these military-style tactical backpacks and webbing for storing gear and ammunition. There is also a small but thriving industry devoted to creating historical reproductions of military gear; such companies generally produce period-appropriate uniforms and other gear in addition to backpacks.

Some more recent military/tactical designs, especially the MOLLE and ILBE packs used by the United States armed forces, are covered with webbing loop attachment points for increased carrying capacity.

Recently, at least one brand of backpack has been specially designed for professional cooks and culinary students. This sort of backpack is meant to safely carry knives, cooking tools, and other miscellaneous equipment such as notebooks, towels, and uniforms.

Specialist backpacks are used by fire services for wildfire fighting, as well as by rescue services for Search and Rescue. These backpacks are generally very modular, allowing the pack to be reconfigured to the users wishes and are designed to load around the wearers hips. They may include features such as sections for water bladders and specially designed pouches, such as those used to carry personal fire shelters.

title: Backpack


text:
Catagenesis (geology)

Catagenesis is a term used in petroleum geology to describe the cracking process which results in the conversion of organic kerogens into hydrocarbons.

Theoretical reaction
Catagenesis is the second stage of maturation of organic carbon on the path to becoming graphitic. This geologic process accounts for very significant changes in the biogenic materials that make up the carbonaceous sediment. During catagenesis, the temperature increases, the pressure increases, and both organic and inorganic constituents “adjust” their phase or form to compensate. The process of “lithification” begins during this stage. Generally speaking, a rise in temperature results in the volatization of unstable species or elements that are weakly attached to carbon atoms. Increased temperature and pressure also result in the cessation of biogenic processes. One way to express these changes is to look at the ratio of oxygen to carbon, or hydrogen to carbon as the sediment matures. In almost all cases, as biogenic material matures in a geologic environment, the volatile elements such as oxygen and hydrogen are significantly reduced, resulting in a reduction in the O/C and H/C ratios. A typical O/C ratio value for a fully matured, catagenesis stage carbon might be less than 0.1. This means that for every 100 carbon atoms there are less than 10 oxygen atoms. Similar reductions in the level of hydrogen are also apparent.

This chemical reaction is believed to be a time, temperature and pressure dependent process which creates liquid and/or gaseous hydrocarbon Hc from primary kerogen X and can be summarised using the formula:

 * $$X_0 \rightarrow Hc + X(t)$$

where X0 is the initial kerogen concentration and X(t) is the kerogen concentration at time t.

It is generally held that the dependence on pressure is negligible, such that the process of catagenesis can be given as a first-order differential equation:

 * $$\frac{dX}{dt} = - \kappa X$$

where X is the reactant (kerogen) and κ is the reaction rate constant which introduces the temperature-dependence via the Arrhenius equation.

Important parameters
Several generally unrecognized but important controlling parameters of metamorphism have been suggested.
 * The absence or presence of water in the system, because hydrocarbon-thermal destruction is significantly suppressed in the presence of water.
 * Increasing fluid pressure strongly suppresses all organic-matter metamorphism.
 * Product escape from reaction sites, as lack of product escape retards metamorphism.
 * Increasing temperature as the principal driver of reactions.

Future Work
A great deal of future research is required to isolate the parameters which are most significant for inducing the catagenetic process. Future work in the field will involve the following:

For example, while it was once assumed that catagenetic processes were first-order reactions, some research has shown that this may not be the case.
 * Establishing the precise relationship between burial time and hydrocarbon cracking.
 * Determining how hydrogen from water is ultimately incorporated in kerogen.
 * Establishing the effect of regional shearing.
 * Determining how static fluid pressure affects hydrocarbon generation. Some experiments have demonstrated that static fluid pressure may explain the presence of hydrocarbon concentrations at depths where their composition would not otherwise be expected.
 * Many measurements of hydrocarbon content in sample rocks have been done at atmospheric pressure. This ignores the loss of large amounts of hydrocarbons during depressurization.  Rock samples at atmospheric pressure have been measured at 0.11–2.13 percent of samples at formation pressure.  Observations at well sites include fizzing of rock chips and oil films covering drilling mud pits.
 * Types of organic matter can not be ignored. Different types of organic matter have different chemical bonds, bond strength patterns, and thus different activation energies.
 * C15+ hydrocarbons are stable at much higher temperatures than predicted by first-order reaction kinetics.

title: Catagenesis (geology)


text:
Talk:Regions of New Zealand

Global list
In order to complete List of capitals of subnational entities, are there entities/capitals we could include from New Zealand ? Docu 12:43 Feb 16, 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes and no. Every local authority has a main office somewhere. City and district websites usually show where the main office is. But NZers don't go for terms like "the capital of Southland" - "chief town", maybe, but that could mean the biggest, and the administrative HQ might not be there. We used to have "county seats" but the last county disappeared in 1995 (after the last of its mates went in 1989) and I've not noticed a "district" equivalent. :robinp Robin Patterson (see user robinp on Zeal - http://www.zeal.com/users/profile.jhtml?uid=58269&view=public - for an indication of my involvement in these matters)

Existence
Is there a need for this page to exist separately from the Territorial Authorities of New Zealand? It seems redundant to me. Could they be combined? Bkonrad | Talk 01:09, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * It COULD be integrated, because there's not much more to add to it - someone like to prove me wrong there, please??? - but as there are many pages linking to it we would have a big redirecting task. I'll keep it in mind. :robinp 07:44, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * After further thought, I'd say "YES". These are mostly not territorial authorities. Their regional functions are different, just as central govt's functions are different from theirs. Robin Patterson 03:33, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, "region" and "territorial authority" are formal terms for different tiers in local govt. This should now be clear in both articles. I don't know why this article has the Territorial Authorities box at the bottom - shouldn't it be a "regions" box? Nurg 07:15, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Population
Any chance of some population and area figures, so's we can quickly check statements such as "fastest growing region"? Robin Patterson 03:33, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Shopping malls
Not much talk lately!!! Here's a new page for Kiwis to work on: List of shopping malls Robin Patterson 04:47, 10 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Map of New Zealand Regions
I made a map of New Zealand Regions, put it in the article if you like it. WikiDon 05:04, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

It doesn't add up
The page says there are 12 regions and 5 unitary authorities, which comes to 17 entities, but the list and the map both have 16. Can this be corrected or explained please? 62.31.55.223 11:25, 1 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm going to adjust it on the basis of the comments in unitary authority. 62.31.55.223 11:28, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

Governance
I added a Governance section which I thought was missing. The article didn't explain how the Councils were governed, and whether they were elected or apointed and by whom (voters, territorial councils or the central Government). I've only added a likkle bit based on what I was able to find here. I'm not from NZ and not familiar with the system, but somebody else may be able the expand a little bit. I thought [Elections NZ might also have been useful but haven't been able to find anything there yet. -- [[User:Adz|Adz]]|talk 11:41, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

Are Council elections partisan? If so, there should be a note about it Keeperoftheseal 00:55, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

why is napier listed as the principal city in hawkes bay? it is not the largest city or the capital. Hastings is a bit bigger —Preceding unsigned comment added by 125.237.49.113 (talk) 12:39, 2 September 2008 (UTC)
 * It may be because Hastings is technically a district, not a city. Napier is a city. See the third paragraph of Hastings, New Zealand and the second paragraph of Napier, New Zealand for an explanation.--118.93.41.78 (talk) 19:07, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

Fjordland ?
Should we be including Fiordland as a region when it's no longer an Official region? Yes it's a geographical area (region), but since it's been part of Southland for a while now, should it be dropped from the Regions of New Zealand ? Malathos 20:51, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Contradiction about Chatham Islands
The beginning of the article says that "the Chatham Islands Council ... is officially recognised as a part of the region of Canterbury". The section on areas not in regions says that "the Chatham Islands is not in a region". So which is it? —Felix the Cassowary 02:57, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

The Chatham Islands have a population of 750 people. The Chatham Islands Council is legally a unitary authority, but presumably 750 people are too few rate payers to support a fully functional local authority. Canterbury Regional Council has a management contract with the NZ Govt to service the Chatham Islands Council. refer to http://www.ecan.govt.nz/About+Us/DisplayMediaRelease.htm?id=554&PrintVersion=true Mrfebruary (talk) 12:17, 28 January 2008 (UTC)

Funding - income and expenditure
Can knowledgeable people please add a section on funding. The only ref now is briefly to income from rates, but that is a tiny part of the story. Only part of rates goes to regions, most goes to TAs, and regions get other income too. Also what do they spend, including contracting TAs for some services. Cheers, Bricaniwi (talk) 21:46, 10 February 2010 (UTC)

Te Reo Region Names
Any objections to separating the english and re reo region names out into different columns? It's more usable data that way. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 43.224.122.102 (talk) 23:44, 8 September 2020 (UTC)

Map is wrong
Map is incorrect. Basically every source I can find uses a map like this. Suggest changing it. Jakoats02 (talk) 07:56, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Are you saying the boundaries are incorrect, or that the names should be shown directly on the map, or is there something else you believe is wrong on the map?- gadfium 21:49, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
 * The link is to a tourism website that seeks to promote the different regions of New Zealand, but not to show political boundaries. This article is about the political (local government) regions of New Zealand so the map that you have provided is not relevant in this context. The map that you provided also contains a combined Nelson-Tasman region. While I personally believe that they should not be separate regions, it does not change the fact that they are politically defined as separate regions with separate councils. The map in the article is correct.  MangoMan11 (talk) 09:00, 11 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Regions of New Zealand


text:
Jules Ferry

Jules François Camille Ferry (5 April 1832 – 17 March 1893) was a French statesman and republican philosopher. He was one of the leaders of the Moderate Republicans and served as Prime Minister of France from 1880 to 1881 and 1883 to 1885. He was a promoter of laicism and colonial expansion. Under the Third Republic, Ferry made primary education free and compulsory through several new laws. However, he was forced to resign following the Sino-French War in 1885 due to his unpopularity and public opinion against the war.

Early life and family
Ferry was born in France, in the Vosges department, to Charles-Édouard Ferry, a lawyer from a family that had established itself in Saint-Dié as bellmakers, and Adélaïde Jamelet. His paternal grandfather, François-Joseph Ferry, was mayor of Saint-Dié through the Consulate and the First Empire. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris in 1854, but soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers, particularly to Le Temps. He attacked the Second French Empire with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron Haussmann, prefect of the Seine department. A series of his articles in Le Temps was later republished as The Fantastic Tales of Haussmann (1868).

Political rise
Elected republican deputy for Paris in 1869, he protested against the declaration of war with Germany, and on 6 September 1870 was appointed prefect of the Seine by the Government of National Defense.

In this position, he had the difficult task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Paris Commune was obliged to resign (5 June 1871). From 1872 to 1873 he was sent by Adolphe Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the Opportunist Republicans. When the first republican ministry was formed under W. H. Waddington on 4 February 1879, he was one of its members, and continued in the ministry until 30 March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from 10 November 1881 to 30 January 1882, and from 29 July 1882 to 21 February 1883), first as minister of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. A leader of the Opportunist Republicans faction, he was twice premier (1880–1881 and 1883–1885). He was an active Freemason initiated on 8 July 1875, in "La Clémente Amitiée" lodge in Paris the same day as Émile Littré. He became a member of the "Alsace-Lorraine" Lodge founded in Paris in 1782.

School reforms
Two important works are associated with his administration: the non-clerical organization of public education, and the major colonial expansion of France.

Ferry believed the path to a modernized and prosperous France lay in the triumph of reason over religion. School reforms were a key part of his plan.

Following the republican program, he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy in universities and found his own system of republican schooling. He reorganized the committee of public education (law of 27 February 1880) and proposed a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which, though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right to teach. He finally succeeded in passing his eponymous laws of 16 June 1881 and 28 March 1882, which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. In higher education, the number of professors called the "Republic's black hussars" (hussards noirs de la République) because of their Republican support, doubled under his ministry.

Colonial expansion
After the military defeat of France by Prussia in 1870, Ferry formed the idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, principally for the sake of economic exploitation. In 1882, as Minister of Public Instruction, he decided to create a mission to explore the Regency of Tunisia. The expedition was headed by the botanist Ernest Cosson and included the botanist Napoléon Doumet-Adanson and other naturalists. In 1884 a geological section under Georges Rolland was added to the Tunisian Scientific Exploration Mission. Rolland was assisted by Philippe Thomas from 1885 and by Georges Le Mesle in 1887.

In a speech on the colonial empire before the Chamber of Deputies on 28 March 1884, he declared that "it is a right for the superior races, because they have a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races." Ferry directed the negotiations which led to the establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of 17 December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all, he organized the conquest of Annam and Tonkin in what became Indochina.

The last of these endeavors led to a war with Qing dynasty China, which had a claim of suzerainty over the two provinces. The excitement caused in Paris by the sudden retreat of the French troops from Lạng Sơn during this war led to the Tonkin Affair: his violent denunciation by Clemenceau and other radicals, and his downfall on 30 March 1885. Although the treaty of peace with the Chinese Empire (9 June 1885), in which the Qing dynasty ceded suzerainty of Annam and Tonkin to France, was the work of his ministry, he would never again serve as premier.

The desire for a monarchy was strong in France in the early years of the Third Republic – Henri, Count of Chambord having made a bid early in its history. A committed republican, Ferry undertook a wide-scale "purge" by dismissing many known monarchists from top positions in the magistrature, army, and civil and diplomatic service.

In the 1890s he visited Algeria and provided a critical report. He predicted that Algeria could not escape a conflict between Indigènes and Europeans:
 * He was interested in providing education to the Indigènes, while the settlers were skeptical about this topic.
 * He was given a poor image of the settlers because they did not want to pay taxes.
 * He also noted that the Indigène was contributing to the Communes de plein exercice without profiting of it.
 * He considered the settlers were poorly chosen, and that they were too numerous
 * He was in favor of the self-government of Algeria but considered the settler were not enough educated to do so
 * He considered that the Muslims did not want French citizenship, Military service, French mandatory schools, civil French law.
 * He considered that the Muslims wanted fewer taxes, taxes more used for their needs, the authority of the cadis, Muslim city councilors involvement in Mayor election
 * He also considered that the Land laws were a failure.

Agreements with Germany
The key to understanding Ferry's unique position in Third Republic history is that until his political critic Georges Clemenceau became Prime Minister twice in the 20th century, Ferry had the longest tenure as Prime Minister under that regime. He also played with political dynamite that eventually destroyed his success. Ferry (like his 20th-century equivalent Joseph Caillaux) believed in not confronting Wilhelmine Germany by threats of a future war of revenge. Most French politicians in the middle and right saw it as a sacred duty to one day lead France again against Germany to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine, and avenge the awful defeat of 1870. But Ferry realized that Germany was too powerful, and it made more sense to cooperate with Otto von Bismarck and avoid trouble. A sensible policy – but hardly popular.

Bismarck was constantly nervous about the situation with France. Although he had despised the ineptness of the French under Napoleon III and the government of Adolphe Thiers and Jules Favre, he had not planned for all the demands he presented to the French in 1870. He only wished to temporarily cripple France by the billion-franc reparation, but suddenly he was confronted by the demands of Marshals Albrecht von Roon and Helmut von Moltke (backed by Emperor Wilhelm I) to annex the two French provinces as further payment. Bismarck, for all his abilities regarding the manipulation of events, could not afford to anger the Prussian military. He got the two provinces, but he realized it would eventually have severe future repercussions.

Bismarck was able to ignore the French for most of the 1870s and early 1880s, but as he found problems with his three erstwhile allies (Austria, Russia, and Italy), he realized France might one day take advantage of this (as it did with Russia in 1894). When Ferry came up with a radically different approach to the situation and offered an olive branch, Bismarck reciprocated. A Franco-German friendship would alleviate problems of siding with either Austria or Russia, or Austria and Italy. Bismarck approved of the colonial expansion that France pursued under Ferry. He only had some problems with local German imperialists who were critical that Germany lacked colonies, so he found a few in the 1880s, making certain he did not confront French interests. But he also suggested Franco-German cooperation on the imperial front against the British Empire, thus hoping to create a wedge between the two Western European great powers. It did, as a result, leading to a major race for influence across Africa that nearly culminated in war in the next decade, at Fashoda in the Sudan in 1898. But by then both Bismarck and Ferry were dead, and the rapprochement policy died when Ferry lost office. As for Fashoda, while it was a confrontation, it led to Britain and France eventually discussing their rival colonial goals, and agreeing to support each other's sphere of influence – the first step to the Entente Cordiale between the countries in 1904.

Later life
Ferry remained an influential member of the moderate republican party, and directed the opposition to General Boulanger. After the resignation of Jules Grévy (2 December 1887), he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favor of Sadi Carnot.

On 10 December 1887, a man named Aubertin attempted to assassinate Jules Ferry, who would later die on 17 March 1893 from complications attributed to this wound. The Chamber of Deputies gave him a state funeral.

Ferry's 1st Ministry, 23 September 1880 – 14 November 1881

 * Jules Ferry – President of the Council and Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Jean Joseph Farre – Minister of War
 * Ernest Constans – Minister of the Interior and Worship
 * Pierre Magnin – Minister of Finance
 * Jules Cazot – Minister of Justice
 * Georges Charles Cloué – Minister of Marine and Colonies
 * Sadi Carnot – Minister of Public Works
 * Adolphe Cochery – Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
 * Pierre Tirard – Minister of Agriculture and Commerce

Ferry's 2nd Ministry, 21 February 1883 – 6 April 1885

 * Jules Ferry – President of the Council and Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Jean Thibaudin – Minister of War
 * Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau – Minister of the Interior
 * Pierre Tirard – Minister of Finance
 * Félix Martin-Feuillée – Minister of Justice and Worship
 * Charles Brun – Minister of Marine and Colonies
 * Jules Méline – Minister of Agriculture
 * David Raynal – Minister of Public Works
 * Adolphe Cochery – Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
 * Anne Charles Hérisson – Minister of Commerce

Changes
 * 9 August 1883 – Alexandre Louis François Peyron succeeds Charles Brun as Minister of Marine and Colonies
 * 9 October 1883 – Jean-Baptiste Campenon succeeds Thibaudin as Minister of War.
 * 20 November 1883 – Jules Ferry succeeds Challemel-Lacour as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Armand Fallières succeeds Ferry as Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts.
 * 14 October 1884 – Maurice Rouvier succeeds Hérisson as Minister of Commerce
 * 3 January 1885 – Jules Louis Lewal succeeds Campenon as Minister of War.

Related articles

 * Normal schools in France

title: Jules Ferry


text:
Subsidence

Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope movement.

Processes that lead to subsidence include dissolution of underlying carbonate rock by groundwater; gradual compaction of sediments; withdrawal of fluid lava from beneath a solidified crust of rock; mining; pumping of subsurface fluids, such as groundwater or petroleum; or warping of the Earth's crust by tectonic forces. Subsidence resulting from tectonic deformation of the crust is known as tectonic subsidence and can create accommodation for sediments to accumulate and eventually lithify into sedimentary rock.

Ground subsidence is of global concern to geologists, geotechnical engineers, surveyors, engineers, urban planners, landowners, and the public in general. Pumping of groundwater or petroleum has led to subsidence of as much as 9 m in many locations around the world and incurring costs measured in hundreds of millions of US dollars. Land subsidence caused by groundwater withdrawal will likely increase in occurrence and related damages, primarily due to global population and economic growth, which will continue to drive higher groundwater demand.

Dissolution of limestone
Subsidence frequently causes major problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface creates voids (i.e., caves). If the roof of a void becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can cause sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep.

Mining
Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction, longwall mining and any metalliferous mining method which uses "caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining-induced subsidence is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a sudden pillar or near-surface tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old workings ). Mining-induced subsidence is nearly always very localized to the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside. The vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself typically does not cause problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural drainage)–rather, it is the associated surface compressive and tensile strains, curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause of the worst damage to the natural environment, buildings and infrastructure.

Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders. This is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventive measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.

Extraction of petroleum and natural gas
If natural gas is extracted from a natural gas field the initial pressure (up to 60 MPa (600 bar)) in the field will drop over the years. The pressure helps support the soil layers above the field. If the gas is extracted, the overburden pressure sediment compacts and may lead to earthquakes and subsidence at the ground level.

Since exploitation of the Slochteren (Netherlands) gas field started in the late 1960s the ground level over a 250 km2 area has dropped by a current maximum of 30 cm.

Extraction of petroleum likewise can cause significant subsidence. The city of Long Beach, California, has experienced 9 m over the course of 34 years of petroleum extraction, resulting in damage of over $100 million to infrastructure in the area. The subsidence was brought to a halt when secondary recovery wells pumped enough water into the oil reservoir to stabilize it.

Earthquake
Land subsidence can occur in various ways during an earthquake. Large areas of land can subside drastically during an earthquake because of offset along fault lines. Land subsidence can also occur as a result of settling and compacting of unconsolidated sediment from the shaking of an earthquake.

The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported immediate subsidence caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. In Northern Japan, subsidence of 0.50 m (1.64 ft) was observed on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Miyako, Tōhoku, while Rikuzentakata, Iwate measured 0.84 m (2.75 ft). In the south at Sōma, Fukushima, 0.29 m (0.95 ft) was observed. The maximum amount of subsidence was 1.2 m (3.93 ft), coupled with horizontal diastrophism of up to 5.3 m (17.3 ft) on the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi Prefecture.

Groundwater-related subsidence

Groundwater-related subsidence is the subsidence (or the sinking) of land resulting from groundwater extraction. It is a growing problem in the developing world as cities increase in population and water use, without adequate pumping regulation and enforcement. One estimate has 80% of serious land subsidence problems associated with the excessive extraction of groundwater, making it a growing problem throughout the world.

Groundwater fluctuations can also indirectly affect the decay of organic material. The habitation of lowlands, such as coastal or delta plains, requires drainage. The resulting aeration of the soil leads to the oxidation of its organic components, such as peat, and this decomposition process may cause significant land subsidence. This applies especially when groundwater levels are periodically adapted to subsidence, in order to maintain desired unsaturated zone depths, exposing more and more peat to oxygen. In addition to this, drained soils consolidate as a result of increased effective stress. In this way, land subsidence has the potential of becoming self-perpetuating, having rates up to 5 cm/yr. Water management used to be tuned primarily to factors such as crop optimization but, to varying extents, avoiding subsidence has come to be taken into account as well.

Faulting induced
When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in the brittle crust, or by ductile flow in the hotter and more fluid mantle. Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults. In reverse, or thrust, faults, relative subsidence may be measured in the footwall.

Isostatic subsidence
The crust floats buoyantly in the asthenosphere, with a ratio of mass below the "surface" in proportion to its own density and the density of the asthenosphere. If mass is added to a local area of the crust (e.g., through deposition), the crust subsides to compensate and maintain isostatic balance.

The opposite of isostatic subsidence is known as isostatic rebound—the action of the crust returning (sometimes over periods of thousands of years) to a state of isostacy, such as after the melting of large ice sheets or the drying-up of large lakes after the last ice age. Lake Bonneville is a famous example of isostatic rebound. Due to the weight of the water once held in the lake, the earth's crust subsided nearly 200 ft to maintain equilibrium. When the lake dried up, the crust rebounded. Today at Lake Bonneville, the center of the former lake is about 200 ft higher than the former lake edges.

Seasonal effects
Many soils contain significant proportions of clay. Because of the very small particle size, they are affected by changes in soil moisture content. Seasonal drying of the soil results in a lowering of both the volume and the surface of the soil. If building foundations are above the level reached by seasonal drying, they move, possibly resulting in damage to the building in the form of tapering cracks.

Trees and other vegetation can have a significant local effect on seasonal drying of soils. Over a number of years, a cumulative drying occurs as the tree grows. That can lead to the opposite of subsidence, known as heave or swelling of the soil, when the tree declines or is felled. As the cumulative moisture deficit is reversed, which can last up to 25 years, the surface level around the tree will rise and expand laterally. That often damages buildings unless the foundations have been strengthened or designed to cope with the effect.

Weight of buildings
High buildings can create land subsidence by pressing the soil beneath with their weight. The problem is already felt in New York City, San Francisco Bay Area, Lagos.

Increase of flooding potential
Land subsidence leads to the lowering of the ground surface, altering the topography. This elevation reduction increases the risk of flooding, particularly in river flood plains and delta areas.

Earth fissures
Earth fissures are linear fractures that appear on the land surface, characterized by openings or offsets. These fissures can be several meters deep, several meters wide, and extend for several kilometers. They form when the deformation of an aquifer, caused by pumping, concentrates stress in the sediment. This inhomogeneous deformation results in the differential compaction of the sediments. Ground fissures develop when this tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the sediment.

Infrastructure damage
Land subsidence can lead to differential settlements in buildings and other infrastructures, causing angular distortions. When these angular distortions exceed certain values, the structures can become damaged, resulting in issues such as tilting or cracking.

Field measurement of subsidence
Land subsidence causes vertical displacements (subsidence or uplift). Although horizontal displacements also occur, they are generally less significant. The following are field methods used to measure vertical and horizontal displacements in subsiding areas:

 * Surveying.
 * Borehole extensometers.
 * Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
 * Interferometric Synthetic Apertura Radar (InSAR)
 * LiDAR
 * Tiltmeters.

Tomás et al. conducted a comparative analysis of various land subsidence monitoring techniques. The results indicated that InSAR offered the highest coverage, lowest annual cost per point of information and the highest point density. Additionally, they found that, aside from continuous acquisition systems typically installed in areas with rapid subsidence, InSAR had the highest measurement frequencies. In contrast, leveling, non-permanent GNSS, and non-permanent extensometers generally provided only one or two measurements per year.

title: Subsidence


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Talk:100 Club Punk Special

Opening Comments
"and punk music was enjoyed. It is where Vicious recieved the nickname Vicious when he beat Nick Kent, a jouralist who didn't like the Sex Pistols, to a bloody pulp with a chain and so Johnny Rotten christened him "Vicious" there at the festival."

Historically inaccurate & POV article that needs a major rewrite/expansion.

THIS FESTIVAL OCCURED ON THE 20TH AND THE 21ST, NOT 21ST AND THE 22ND. I HAVE CORRECTED THIS.

Does anybody agree with that statement? It's a long time ago now but I was at the first night and I'm pretty sure it wasn't a Sunday. Also, the details of the glass-smashing incident, particularly the degree of injury involved, were obscure at the time, and as far as the Vicious / Kent fracas is concerned, as far as I know the only primary source for this story is Kent himself. Finally, can anybody confirm the running order for the first night? As I say, it's a long time ago but my recollection has always been that Siouxsie was up first, then the Subway Sect. BTLizard 10:48, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The first night was on a Monday. I was there and I'd come straight from school. MY memory suggests that Subway Sect were on first and Siouxie on next. (But I could be, er, wrong...)81.141.82.218 (talk) 21:23, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

I was standing next to Nick Kent when it happened. It was over in a couple of seconds. I was too busy ogling Chrissie Hynde to really see what occurred. But kent certainly wasn't "beaten to a pulp". (Big Ted)

Cleanup
I'm cleaning up this article. If you see it looking all crazy, give me a day or two. I'm gonna use this talk page as a source dump for the time being.
 * ✅Ron Watts Interview
 * ✅History Research Guide
 * ✅Rock's Backpages
 * ✅Knoxie Interview
 * Knox' Bio
 * It all went bang

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title: Talk:100 Club Punk Special


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Anhinga

The anhinga (Anhinga anhinga), sometimes called snakebird, darter, American darter, or water turkey, is a water bird of the warmer parts of the Americas. The word anhinga comes from a'ñinga in the Brazilian Tupi language and means "devil bird" or "snake bird". The origin of the name is apparent when swimming: only the neck appears above water, so the bird looks like a snake ready to strike. They do not have external nares (nostrils) and breathe solely through their epiglottis.

The anhinga is placed in the darter family, Anhingidae, and is closely related to Indian (Anhinga melanogaster), African (Anhinga rufa), and Australian (Anhinga novaehollandiae) darters. Like other darters, the anhinga hunts by spearing fish and other small prey using its sharp, slender beak.

Distribution and migration
Members of the Anhinga genus live in warm, shallow waters and swamplands worldwide. The American anhinga has been subdivided into two subspecies, A. a. anhinga and A. a. leucogaster, based on their respective location. A. a. anhinga can be found mainly east of the Andes in South America, east to the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. A. a. leucogaster can be found in the southern United States, Mexico, Cuba, and the Caribbean island of Grenada. A fossil species, Anhinga walterbolesi, has been described from the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene of Australia.

Only birds living in the extreme north or south of their respective ranges will migrate based on temperature and available sunlight; anhinga will travel closer towards the equator during winter, but this range is "determined by the amount of sunshine to warm the chilled birds". Although not part of their traditional range, American anhinga have been found as far north as the states of Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and New York.

Kettles of anhinga often migrate with other species of birds, and have been described as resembling "black paper gliders".

Description
The anhinga is a large bird, measuring approximately 89 cm in length (with a range of 75 - 95 cm), with a 1.14 m wingspan. The A. a. anhinga subspecies is larger than A. a. leucogaster and has broader buffy tail tips. They weigh on average around 1.22 kg, with a range of 1.04 - 1.35 kg. The bill is relatively long (about twice the length of the head), sharply pointed, and yellow, and the webbed feet are yellow as well.

The male is a glossy black-green with the wings, base of wings, and tail a glossy black-blue. The tip of the tail is white. The back of the head and the neck have elongated feathers that have been described as gray or light purple-white. The upper back of the body and wings are spotted or streaked with white.

The female anhinga is similar to the male except for its pale gray-buff or light brown head, neck, and upper chest. The lower chest or breast is a chestnut color, and the back is browner than the male's.

The hatchling starts bald but gains tan down within a few days of hatching. Within two weeks, the tan down is replaced by white down. Three weeks after hatching, the first juvenile feathers appear. Juveniles are mostly brown until they first breed, usually after the second or third winter.

This bird is often mistaken for the double-crested cormorant due to its similar size and shape, although the two species can be differentiated by their tails and bills. The tail of the anhinga is wider and much longer than the cormorant's. The bill of the anhinga is pointed, while the bill of the cormorant has a hook-tip.

Behavior
Anhinga swim by kicking their webbed feet to pursue their prey, fish or amphibians, underwater, which they spear by rapidly outstretching their bent neck. They come up to the surface to consume and swallow prey. Unlike ducks, ospreys and pelicans, which coat their feathers with oils from the uropygial gland, the anhinga does not have this ability; anhinga lack waterproof feathers on their bodies, causing them to be saturated upon immersion into water, while the flight feathers are slightly less wettable. Thus, their habit of basking in the sun with outstretched wings is crucial. Their dense bones, wetted plumage, and neutral buoyancy when in water allows them to fully submerge and hunt for underwater prey.

The anhinga cannot fly for any extended distance with soaked feathers; if they attempt to fly while wet, notable difficulty is experienced, the birds flapping vigorously while "running" on the water’'s surface for a short distance (often escaping a perceived threat). Like cormorants, anhingas perch and rest on fallen trees, logs or rocks near the water's edge with wings spread and feathers fanned-open in a semicircular shape, facing away from the sun, in order to dry themselves and absorb the sun's heat. Anhingas also lose body heat relatively fast, and their posture helps them absorb solar radiation from the sun to counteract this. Because an anhinga in the drying position resembles a male turkey, it has been colloquially referred to as the 'water turkey' or 'swamp turkey'.

Diet

Anhingas feed on moderately sized wetland fishes, amphibians, aquatic invertebrates and insects. In Alabama, the anhinga's diet consists of fishes (such as mullet, sunfish, black bass, catfish, suckers, and chain pickerel), crayfish, crabs, shrimp, aquatic insects, tadpoles, water snakes and small terrapins. In Florida, sunfishes and bass, killifishes, and live-bearing fishes are primarily eaten by the anhingas. Other fish eaten include pupfish and percids.

Anhingas stalk fish underwater, mainly where there is some flora present. Once they locate their prey, they partly open their bill and stab the fish swiftly. For larger fish, they use both their jaws and the lower jaw on small fish. If the fish is too large to forage, the anhinga stabs it repeatedly and then lets it go. The anhingas bring their capture to the surface of the water, toss it backward and engulf it head-first.

Conservation status
The US protects the anhinga under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. The number of individual anhingas has not been estimated, but they are considered to be of least concern because of the frequency of their occurrence in their 15000000 km2 global range.

title: Anhinga


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William Waddington

William Henry Waddington (11 December 1826 – 13 January 1894) was a French statesman who served as Prime Minister in 1879, and as an Ambassador of France to London.

Early life and education
Waddington was born at the Château of Saint-Rémy in Eure-et-Loir, the son of a rich British industrialist, Thomas Waddington, whose family had established a large cotton manufacturing business in France, Établissements Waddington fils et Cie.

His father and mother Anne (née Chisholm) were both naturalised French citizens, and Waddington received his early education at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He was then sent to Rugby School in Britain, supervised by his uncle Walter Shirley. After Rugby, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge; he took an MA degree, having won Second Prize in Classics as well as the prestigious Chancellor's Gold Medal.

Waddington rowed in the victorious Cambridge eight in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the Thames in race of March 1849; he did not take part in the repeat race in December that year, which Oxford won.

Archaeological research
Returning to France, Waddington devoted himself for some years to archaeological research. He travelled throughout Asia Minor, Greece and Syria, and his experiences and discoveries are detailed in two Mémoires, the first produced by the French Institute and subsequently in his Mélanges de numismatique et de philologie ("Numismatic and Philological Miscellanies", 1861).

Except for his essay on "The Protestant Church in France", published in 1856 in Cambridge Essays, his remaining works all concerned archaeology. They include his Fastes des Provinces Asiatiques de l'Empire Romain ("The Governor-Lists of the Asiatic Provinces of the Roman Empire", 1872), and editions of Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices and of Philippe Le Bas' Voyage archéologique (1868–1877).

A Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, in 1865, Waddington was also elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

Chamber of Deputies
After contesting the seat of the Aisne for the Chamber of Deputies unsuccessfully in 1865 and 1860, Waddington was elected as Deputy in January 1871. In 1873, he was appointed Minister of Public Instruction in Prime Minister Dufaure's short-lived second government of 18–24 May 1873.

Senator for the Aisne
On 30 January 1876, he was elected Senator for Aisne and was again nominated by Prime Minister Dufaure to the ministerial brief of Public Instruction. He was charged with devising a Bill transferring extra powers to the State, a tricky task which he negotiated through the Chamber, but was defeated in the Senate. He continued to hold office under Jules Simon's premiership until being thrown out during the Seize mai constitutional crisis (16 May 1877).

The triumph of the Republicans in the following October 1877 General Election returned Waddington to government as Minister of Foreign Affairs, again under Prime Minister Dufaure. He was one of the French plenipotentiaries at the Berlin Congress (1878). The cession of Cyprus to the United Kingdom was, at first, perceived by the French newspapers as a great blow to his diplomatic reputation, until it became clear that his discussions with Lord Salisbury had resulted in Britain's agreement to allow France a free hand in Tunisia. In 1885, he was re-elected for the senate.

Prime Minister of France
Early in 1879 Waddington agreed to take over from Jules Dufaure as a caretaker Prime Minister with the agreement of Léon Gambetta. He kept peace between the radicals and the reactionaries till the delay of urgent reforms lost him the support of all parties. He stepped down on 27 December.

He refused the immediate offer of ambassadorship to London, preferring to take up the role in 1880 of rapporteur to the parliamentary committee for the Scrutin de liste (of elections); he delivered an adverse judgment.

Waddington's Government, 5 February – 28 December 1879

 * William Henry Waddington – President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Henri François Xavier Gresley – Minister of Defence
 * Émile de Marcère – Minister of the Interior and Worship
 * Léon Say – Minister of Finance
 * Philippe Le Royer – Minister of Justice
 * Jean Bernard Jauréguiberry – Minister of Marine and Colonies
 * Jules Ferry – Minister of Public Instruction
 * Charles de Freycinet – Minister of Public Works
 * Adolphe Cochery – Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
 * Charles Lepère – Minister of Agriculture and Commerce

Ministerial changes
 * 4 March 1879 – Charles Lepère succeeded Marcère as Minister of the Interior and Worship; and Pierre Tirard succeeded Lepère as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce.

French Ambassador to London
In 1883 Waddington accepted the appointment and dignity of Ambassadeur de France to London. He held this post for ten years until 1893, during which time his wife, Mary Alsop King, wrote some recollections of their diplomatic experiences – Letters of a Diplomat's Wife, 1883–1900 (New York, 1903), and Italian Letters of a Diplomat's Wife (1904), which were published after her husband's death.

Personal life
Waddington's first wife, whom he married in 1850, was Mathilde (died 1852), daughter of the banker, ; they had a son Henri (1852–1939), a captain in the Chasseurs Alpins (French Army), who married Émilie de La Robertie.

In Paris in 1874, Waddington married his second wife, Mary Alsop King (died 1923), an American-born author from New York City, daughter of Congressman Charles King, 9th President of Columbia College (by his second wife, the travel writer, Henrietta Liston Low). They had one son, Francis Richard, who married (18 January 1903, Paris) Charlotte, daughter of Vice-Admiral Jean-Charles-Alexandre Sallandrouze de Lamornaix. Charlotte was the granddaughter of Charles Sallandrouze de Lamornaix.

Honours

 * Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg Grand-Croix, Légion d'honneur
 * Hon. LLD (Cantab)

title: William Waddington


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Talk:Georges Eugène, Baron Haussmann

There is already an article, Baron Haussmann. S.

title: Talk:Georges Eugène, Baron Haussmann


text:
Lysocline

The lysocline is the depth in the ocean dependent upon the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), usually around 5 km, below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically because of a pressure effect. While the lysocline is the upper bound of this transition zone of calcite saturation, the CCD is the lower bound of this zone.

CaCO3 content in sediment varies with different depths of the ocean, spanned by levels of separation known as the transition zone. In the mid-depth area of the ocean, sediments are rich in CaCO3, content values reaching 85–95%. This area is then spanned hundreds of meters by the transition zone, ending in the abyssal depths with 0% concentration. The lysocline is the upper bound of the transition zone, where amounts of CaCO3 content begins to noticeably drop from the mid-depth 85–95% sediment. The CaCO3 content drops to 0% concentration at the lower bound, known as the calcite compensation depth.

Shallow marine waters are generally supersaturated in calcite, CaCO3, because as marine organisms (which often have shells made of calcite or its polymorph, aragonite) die, they tend to fall downwards without dissolving. As depth and pressure increases within the water column, calcite solubility increases, causing supersaturated water above the saturation depth, allowing for preservation and burial of CaCO3 on the seafloor. However, this creates undersaturated seawater below the saturation depth, preventing CaCO3 burial on the sea floor as the shells start to dissolve.

The equation Ω = [Ca2+] X [CO32-]/K'sp expresses the CaCO3 saturation state of seawater. The calcite saturation horizon is where Ω =1; dissolution proceeds slowly below this depth. The lysocline is the depth that this dissolution impacts is again notable, also known as the inflection point with sedimentary CaCO3 versus various water depths.

Calcite compensation depth
The calcite compensation depth (CCD) occurs at the depth that the rate of calcite to the sediments is balanced with the dissolution flux, the depth at which the CaCO3 content are values 2–10%. Hence, the lysocline and CCD are not equivalent. The lysocline and compensation depth occur at greater depths in the Atlantic (5000–6000 m) than in the Pacific (4000–5000 m), and at greater depths in equatorial regions than in polar regions.

The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature. Specifically, it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature. As the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase, the CCD can be expected to decrease in depth, as the ocean's acidity rises.

title: Lysocline