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War Measures Act

The War Measures Act (Loi sur les mesures de guerre; 5 George V, Chap. 2) was a statute of the Parliament of Canada that provided for the declaration of war, invasion, or insurrection, and the types of emergency measures that could thereby be taken. The Act was brought into force three times in Canadian history: during the First World War, Second World War, and the 1970 October Crisis.

The Act was questioned for its suspension of civil liberties and personal freedoms, including only for Ukrainians and other Europeans during Canada's first national internment operations of 19141920, the Second World War's Japanese Canadian internment, and in the October Crisis. In 1988, it was repealed and replaced by the Emergencies Act.

First World War
In the First World War, a state of war with Germany was declared by the United Kingdom on behalf of the entire British Empire. Canada was notified by telegraphic despatch accordingly, effective 4 August 1914, and that status remained in effect until 10 January 1920.

The War Measures Act, 1914, was subsequently adopted on 22 August 1914 to ratify all steps taken by Canada from the declaration of war, to continue until the war was over. Sections 2 to 6 of the original Act in particular provided for the following:

"1. All acts and things done or omitted to be done prior to the passing of this Act and on or after the first day of August, A.D. 1914, by or under the authority of or ratified by,-(a) His Majesty the King in Council;

(b) any Minister or officer of His Majesty's Imperial Government;

(c) the Governor in Council;

(d) any Minister or officer of the Government of Canada;

(e) any other authority or person; which, had they been done or omitted after the passing of this Act, would have been authorized by this Act or by orders or regulations hereunder, shall be deemed to have been done or omitted under the authority of this Act, and are hereby declared to have been lawfully done or omitted.

2. The provisions of sections 6, 10, 11 and 13 of this Act shall only be in force during war, invasion, or insurrection, real or apprehended.

3. The issue of a proclamation by His Majesty, or under the authority of the Governor in Council shall be conclusive evidence that war, invasion, or insurrection, real or apprehended, exists and has existed for any period of time therein stated, and of its continuance, until by the issue of a further proclamation it is declared that the war, invasion or insurrection no longer exists.

4. It is hereby declared that war has continuously existed since the fourth day of August 1914, and shall be deemed to exist until the Governor in Council by proclamation published in The Canada Gazette declares that it no longer exists; but any and all proceedings instituted or commenced by or under the authority of the Governor in Council before the issue of such last mentioned proclamation, the continuance of which he may authorize, may be carried on and concluded as if the said proclamation had not issued.

5. The Governor in Council shall have the power to do and authorize such acts and things, and to make from time to time such orders and regulations, as he may by reason of the existence of real or apprehended war, invasion or insurrection deem necessary or advisable for the security, defence, peace, order and welfare of Canada; and for greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the generality of the foregoing terms, it is hereby declared that the powers of the Governor in Council shall extend to all matters coming within the classes of subjects hereinafter enumerated, that is to say:-(a) censorship and the control and suppression of publications, writings, maps, plans, photographs, communications and means of communication;

(b) arrest, detention, exclusion and deportation;

(c) control of the harbours, ports and territorial waters of Canada and the movements of vessels; (d) transportation by land, air, or water and the control of the transport of persons and things;

(e) trading, exportation, importation, production and manufacture;

(f) appropriation, control, forfeiture and disposition of property and of the use thereof."

Extent of authority under the Act
The Act conferred broad authority, and was even held by the Supreme Court of Canada in In re Gray to include the power to amend other Acts by way of regulation. Noting that the British House of Lords, in R v Halliday, had held in 1917 that the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 possessed similar wide powers with respect to the United Kingdom, Chief Justice of Canada Sir Charles Fitzpatrick declared:

It seems to me obvious that parliament intended, as the language used implies, to clothe the executive with the widest powers in time of danger. Taken literally, the language of the section contains unlimited powers. Parliament expressly enacted that, when need arises, the executive may for the common defence make such orders and regulations as they may deem necessary or advisable for the security, peace, order and welfare of Canada. The enlightened men who framed that section, and the members of parliament who adopted it, were providing for a very great emergency, and they must be understood to have employed words in their natural sense, and to have intended what they have said. There is no doubt, in my opinion, that the regulation in question was passed to provide for the security and welfare of Canada and it is therefore intra vires of the statute under which it purports to be made.

Internment during First World War and afterwards
Canada's first national internment operations of 1914–1920 involved the internment of both genuine POWs and thousands of civilians, most of them Ukrainians who had come from western Ukrainian lands (Galicia and Northern Bukovina) then held by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Branded as "enemy aliens", they were stripped of what little wealth they had, forced to work for the profit of their jailers and subjected to other state-sanctioned censures, including disenfranchisement under the Wartime Elections Act. A campaign begun by the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association in 1985 aimed at securing official acknowledgement and symbolic restitution for what happened succeeded in 2005, following passage of the Internment of Persons of Ukrainian Origin Recognition Act, which resulted in the establishment of the Canadian First World War Internment Recognition Fund.

With the advent of the Russian Revolution in 1917, additional regulations and orders were added to make the membership in a number of organizations, including socialist and communist organizations, forbidden. Immigration from nations that were connected directly or indirectly with the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Germany was stopped and natives of these countries (Austria, Hungary, Germany and Ukraine) were classed as enemy aliens under the Act. These enemy aliens were required to always carry identification with them and forbidden from possessing firearms, leaving the country without permission, or publishing or reading anything in a language other than English or French. Thousands of these enemy aliens were also interned in camps or deported from Canada. It was not until the labour shortage in Canada became dire that these interned individuals were released into the workforce again in an attempt to boost the economy and the war effort.

Second World War
In contrast to the previous war, by virtue of the Statute of Westminster 1931, Canada instituted its measures separately from the United Kingdom. A state of apprehended war was declared on 25 August 1939, and the Defence of Canada Regulations were implemented under the Act. A state of war was declared with Germany on 10 September 1939.

The extreme security measures permitted by the Defence of Canada Regulations included the waiving of habeas corpus and the right to trial, internment, bans on political and religious groups, restrictions of free speech including the banning of certain publications, and the confiscation of property. S. 21 of the Defence of Canada Regulations allowed the Minister of Justice to detain without charge anyone who might act "in any manner prejudicial to the public safety or the safety of the state." The government soon interned fascists and Communists as well as opponents of conscription. The regulations were later used to intern Japanese Canadians on a large scale as well as some German and Italian Canadians who were viewed as enemy aliens.

In 1940, the more complex nature of organizing the war effort required the National Resources Mobilization Act to be adopted as well, and many subsequent regulations were brought into force by virtue of both of these Acts.

In 1943, the Supreme Court of Canada, in the Chemicals Reference, ruled that Orders in Council made under the Act were equivalent to an Act of Parliament, as Rinfret J observed:

"There follows from the principles so enunciated these consequences:

The powers conferred upon the Governor in Council by the War Measures Act constitute a law-making authority, an authority to pass legislative enactments such as should be deemed necessary and advisable by reason of war; and, when acting within those limits, the Governor in Council is vested with plenary powers of legislation as large and of the same nature as those of Parliament itself. Within the ambit of the Act by which his authority is measured, the Governor in Council is given the same authority as is vested in Parliament itself. He has been given a law-making power.

The conditions for the exercise of that power are: The existence of a state of war, or of apprehended war, and that the orders or regulations are deemed advisable or 'necessary by the Governor in Council by reason of such state of war, or apprehended war.

Parliament retains its power intact and can, whenever it pleases, take the matter directly into its own hands. How far it shall seek the aid of subordinate agencies and how long it shall continue them in existence, are matters for Parliament and not for courts of law to decide. Parliament has not abdicated its general legislative powers. It has not effaced itself, as has been suggested. It has indicated no intention of abandoning control and has made no abandonment of control, in fact. The subordinate instrumentality, which it has created for exercising the powers, remains responsible directly to Parliament and depends upon the will of Parliament for the continuance of its official existence."

(Citations omitted.) This authority was cited later in support of decisions taken in the Reference re Persons of Japanese Race.

The Act's effect was further clarified in the Wartime Leasehold Regulations Reference, which held that regulations instituting rental and housing controls displaced provincial jurisdiction for the duration of the emergency. As Taschereau J (as he then was) noted:

Under "Property and Civil Rights", rentals are normally of provincial concern, but as the result of an emergency, the existing provincial laws on the matter become inoperative. The rights of the provinces are not of course permanently suppressed, and their jurisdiction temporarily suspended during the federal invasion, flows afresh when the field is finally abandoned. It is only during the period of occupation that the provincial jurisdiction is overridden. This is the reason that may justify the Dominion Government to offer to some or to all of the provinces to legislate on rentals and to exercise anew their constitutional rights.

In order, however, to vest in the Federal Parliament the necessary authority to deal with such matters, there must be an emergency. There is no doubt that such an emergency existed during the war, and that during that period, the jurisdiction of Parliament could not be impugned. But the time that an emergency lasts is not limited to the period of actual hostilities. War is the cause of many social and economic disturbances and its aftermath brings unstable conditions which are settled only after a period of necessary readjustment, during which the emergency may very well persist.

The Act was in force until 31 December 1945, after which the National Emergency Transitional Powers Act, 1945 was in force until 31 March 1947. In 1947, the Continuation of Transitional Measures Act, 1947 was enacted, maintaining certain wartime orders and regulations, and stayed in place until 30 April 1951.

Treatment of Japanese Canadians
The attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to Canada declaring war against Japan on 8 December 1941. An already established racial bias towards Japanese Canadians was transformed into full anti-Japanese thoughts and behaviour by many Canadian citizens who saw Japanese Canadians as spies for Japan. This fear towards Japanese Canadians led to the quick restriction of their rights and freedoms:

 * On 17 December 1941, persons of Japanese descent were required to register with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
 * On 29 January 1942, a protected area was declared by Government Notice within British Columbia.
 * On 24 February, the Defence of Canada Regulations were amended to restrict Japanese Canadians from owning land or growing crops.
 * On 26 February, a notice was issued instituting curfews on Japanese Canadians in the protected area of British Columbia, and restricting them from possessing motor vehicles, cameras, radios, firearms, ammunition or explosives.
 * On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to forcibly remove Japanese Canadians from the protected area. As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.

In December 1945, three Orders in Council were issued to provide for the expulsion of Japanese nationals and other persons of Japanese origin, whether or not they were British subjects (either natural born or naturalized). Although the Supreme Court of Canada gave a mixed ruling on the matter, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council declared all of them to be valid. Following various protests among politicians and academics, the orders were revoked in 1947.

Control of the wartime economy
At the beginning of the war, the Wartime Prices and Trade Board was created with a wide mandate to regulate all matters dealing with the necessities of life, rental and housing controls, import and export controls, and wage and price controls. In 1942, its responsibilities were expanded to include the reduction of non-essential industrial activities in order to maintain minimum requirements only for civilian goods.

The Act was also used to create the Wartime Labour Relations Regulations in order to control strikes and lockouts and keep wartime production going. While the regulations were initially restricted to industries under federal jurisdictions and companies directly involved in the war effort, provision was made for the provinces to co-opt into the scheme (which all eventually did).

As labour unrest was widespread at the time, a system of compulsory conciliation was brought into effect, and no strike or lockout could occur until:

 * a collective agreement had expired,
 * an attempt had been made to negotiate a new agreement,
 * compulsory conciliation had been undertaken, and
 * fourteen days after the conciliation period had elapsed.

There was, however, frustration on the part of the unions which felt that the government tended to not care about the issues the unions were trying to bring to light. The regulations continued after the war's end until 1948, where they were replaced by similar legislation at both the federal and provincial levels.

Postwar history
In 1960, the Act was amended by the Canadian Bill of Rights, in order to ensure that:

 * actions taken under the Act were deemed not to be infringements of the latter statute, and
 * proclamations to bring the Act into force were subject to abrogation by both the Senate and the House of Commons.

The October Crisis
In 1970, members of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) kidnapped British diplomat James Cross and Quebec provincial cabinet minister Pierre Laporte, who was later murdered. What is now referred to as the October Crisis raised fears in Canada of a militant faction rising up against the government.

Under provisions of the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces were deployed to assist the police. They appeared on the streets of Ottawa on 12 October 1970. Upon request of the Quebec government with the unanimous consent of all party leaders in the Quebec National Assembly, troops appeared on the streets of Montreal on 15 October.

At the request of the Mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau, and the Quebec provincial government, and in response to general threats and demands made by the FLQ, the federal government declared a state of apprehended insurrection under the War Measures Act on 16 October. This was done so that police had more power in arrest and detention, in order to find and stop the FLQ members.

The use of the Act to address the problem presented by the FLQ was well supported by Canadians in all regions of Canada, according to a December Gallup Poll. However, there were many vocal critics of the government action, including New Democratic Party leader Tommy Douglas, who said, "The government, I submit, is using a sledgehammer to crack a peanut."

While the Act was in force, 465 people were arrested and held without charge but were eventually released.

The response by the federal and provincial governments to the incident still sparks controversy. There was a large amount of concern about the act being used, as it was a considered to be a direct threat to civil liberties, removing rights such as habeas corpus from all Canadians. This is the only time that the Act had been put in place during peacetime in Canada.

Critics, such as Laurier LaPierre, accused Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's move to suspend habeas corpus as more of a reaction to the separatist movement in Quebec by criminalizing it.

The Act's 1970 regulations were replaced by the Public Order (Temporary Measures) Act in November 1970, which subsequently expired on 30 April 1971.

In October 2020, Bloc Quebecois leader Yves-François Blanchet asked PM Justin Trudeau to apologize for the Canadian Government's invocation of the Act.

Replacement
In May 1981, the Emergency Planning Order was passed, which assigned responsibilities for planning to meet the exigencies of different types of emergencies to various Ministers, departments and agencies of government.

In 1988, the Emergencies Act was  passed, and the War Measures Act was repealed as a consequence.

title: War Measures Act


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Elijah McCoy

Elijah J. McCoy (May 2, 1844 – October 10, 1929) was a Canadian-American engineer of African-American descent who invented lubrication systems for steam engines. Born free on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie to parents who fled enslavement in Kentucky, he traveled to the United States as a young child when his family returned in 1847, becoming a U.S. resident and citizen. His inventions and accomplishments were honored in 2012 when the United States Patent and Trademark Office named its first regional office, in Detroit, Michigan, the "Elijah J. McCoy Midwest Regional Patent Office".

Early life
Elijah McCoy was born in 1844 in Colchester, Ontario, to George and Mildred Goins McCoy. At the time, they were fugitive slaves who had escaped from Kentucky to Ontario via helpers through the Underground Railroad. George and Mildred arrived in Colchester Township, Essex County, in what was then called Upper Canada in 1837 via Detroit. Elijah McCoy had eleven siblings. Ten of the children were born in Ontario from Alfred (1836) to William (1859).

Upper Canadian schools were segregated under the Common Schools Act as amended in 1850, and McCoy was educated in black schools of Colchester Township. At the age of 15, in 1859, Elijah McCoy was sent to Scotland. While there he was apprenticed and, after studying at the University of Edinburgh, certified as a mechanical engineer. Based on 1860 Tax Assessment Rolls, land deeds of sale, and the 1870 US Census it can be determined George McCoy's family moved to Ypsilanti, Michigan in the United States in 1859–60; by the time Elijah returned, his family had established themselves on the farm of John and Maryann Starkweather in Ypsilanti. George used his skills as a tobacconist in order to establish a tobacco and cigar business.

Career
When Elijah McCoy arrived in Michigan, he could find work only as a fireman and oiler at the Michigan Central Railroad. In a home-based machine shop in Ypsilanti, McCoy also did more highly skilled work, such as developing improvements and inventions. He invented an automatic lubricator for oiling the steam engines of locomotives and ships, patenting it in 1872 as "Improvement in Lubricators for Steam-Engines".

Similar automatic oilers had been patented previously; one is the displacement lubricator, which had already attained widespread use and whose technological descendants continued to be widely used into the 20th century. Lubricators were a boon for railroads, as they enabled trains to run faster and more profitably with less need to stop for lubrication and maintenance. By 1899, the Michigan Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics reported that the McCoy lubricator was in use on almost all North American railroads.

McCoy continued to refine his devices and design new ones, and was noted in periodicals of the time, including the Railroad Gazette. Most of his patents dealt with lubricating systems, including a further patent in 1898 which added a glass 'sight-feed' tube to monitor the rate of lubricant delivery.

After the turn of the century, he attracted notice among his Black contemporaries. Booker T. Washington, in Story of the Negro (1909), recognized him as having produced more patents than any other Black inventor up to that time. This creativity gave McCoy an honored status in the Black community that has persisted to this day. He continued to invent until late in life, obtaining as many as 57 patents; most related to lubrication, but others also included a folding ironing board and a lawn sprinkler. Lacking the capital with which to manufacture his lubricators in large numbers, he usually assigned his patent rights to his employers or sold them to investors. In 1920, near the end of his career, he formed the Elijah McCoy Manufacturing Company.

Regarding the phrase "The real McCoy"
This popular expression, typically meaning the real thing, has been attributed to Elijah McCoy's oil-drip cup invention. One theory is that railroad engineers looking to avoid inferior copies would request it by name, and inquire if a locomotive was fitted with "the real McCoy system". This theory is mentioned in Elijah McCoy's biography at the National Inventors Hall of Fame.

The expression "The real McCoy" was first published in Yorkville (now part of Toronto), Ontario, in 1881. Later, the December 1966 issue of Ebony, in an advertisement for Old Taylor bourbon whiskey made mention of Elijah McCoy: "But the most famous legacy McCoy left his country was his name." Other possibilities for its origin have been proposed, including it being a corruption of the Scottish name "Reay Mackay" and while it has undoubtedly been applied as an epithet to many other McCoys, its association with Elijah has become iconic in American parlance.

Marriage and death
McCoy married for the second time in 1873 to Mary Eleanora Delaney. The couple moved to Detroit when McCoy found work there. Mary McCoy (died 1923) helped found the Phillis Wheatley Home for Aged Colored Men in 1898. Elijah McCoy died in the Eloise Infirmary in Nankin Township, now Westland, Michigan, on 10 October 1929, at the age of 85, as a result of injuries suffered in a car accident seven years earlier in which his wife Mary died. He is buried in Detroit Memorial Park East in Warren, Michigan.

In popular culture

 * 1966, an ad for Old Taylor bourbon cited Elijah McCoy with a photo and the expression "the real McCoy", ending with the tag line: "But the most famous legacy McCoy left his country was his name."
 * 2006, Canadian playwright Andrew Moodie's The Real McCoy portrayed McCoy's life, the challenges he faced as an African American, and the development of his inventions. It was first produced in Toronto and has also been produced in the United States, for example in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 2011, where it was performed by the Black Rep Theatre.
 * In her 2001 novel Noughts & Crosses, Malorie Blackman describes a racial dystopia in which the roles of black and white people are reversed; Elijah McCoy is among the black scientists, inventors, and pioneers mentioned in a history class that Blackman "never learned about in school".
 * A 1945 song by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, "Isn't it Kinda Fun", from the musical State Fair, includes the lyrical phrase "...this is the real McCoy."

Legacy

 * In 1974, the state of Michigan put a historical marker (P25170) at the McCoys' former home at 5720 Lincoln Avenue, and at his gravesite.
 * In 1975, Detroit celebrated Elijah McCoy Day by placing a historic marker at the site of his home. The city also named a nearby street for him.
 * In 1994, Michigan installed a historical marker (S0642) at his first workshop in Ypsilanti, Michigan.
 * In 2001, McCoy was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Alexandria, Virginia.
 * In 2012, The Elijah J. McCoy Midwest Regional U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (the first USPTO satellite office) was opened in Detroit, Michigan.
 * In 2022, a Google Doodle appeared in Canada and the U.S. marking his 178th birthday on May 2.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Elijah McCoy


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MPEG-7

MPEG-7 is a multimedia content description standard. It was standardized in ISO/IEC 15938 (Multimedia content description interface). This description will be associated with the content itself, to allow fast and efficient searching for material that is of interest to the user. MPEG-7 is formally called Multimedia Content Description Interface. Thus, it is not a standard which deals with the actual encoding of moving pictures and audio, like MPEG-1, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4. It uses XML to store metadata, and can be attached to timecode in order to tag particular events, or synchronise lyrics to a song, for example.

It was designed to standardize:
 * a set of Description Schemes ("DS") and Descriptors ("D")
 * a language to specify these schemes, called the Description Definition Language ("DDL")
 * a scheme for coding the description

The combination of MPEG-4 and MPEG-7 has been sometimes referred to as MPEG-47.

Introduction
MPEG-7 is intended to complement the previous MPEG standards, by standardizing multimedia metadata -- information about the content, not the content itself. MPEG-7 can be used independently of the other MPEG standards - the description might even be attached to an analog movie. The representation that is defined within MPEG-4, i.e. the representation of audio-visual data in terms of objects, is however very well suited to what will be built on the MPEG-7 standard. This representation is basic to the process of categorization. In addition, MPEG-7 descriptions could be used to improve the functionality of previous MPEG standards. With these tools, we can build an MPEG-7 Description and deploy it. According to the requirements document,1 "a Description consists of a Description Scheme (structure) and the set of Descriptor Values (instantiations) that describe the Data." A Descriptor Value is "an instantiation of a Descriptor for a given data set (or subset thereof)." The Descriptor is the syntactic and semantic definition of the content. Extraction algorithms are inside the scope of the standard because their standardization is not required to allow interoperability.

Parts
The MPEG-7 (ISO/IEC 15938) consists of different Parts. Each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification.

Relation between description and content
An MPEG-7 architecture requirement is that description must be separate from the audiovisual content.

On the other hand, there must be a relation between the content and description. Thus the description is multiplexed with the content itself.

On the right side you can see this relation between description and content.

MPEG-7 tools

MPEG-7 uses the following tools:

 * Descriptor (D): It is a representation of a feature defined syntactically and semantically. It could be that a unique object was described by several descriptors.
 * Description Schemes (DS): Specify the structure and semantics of the relations between its components, these components can be descriptors (D) or description schemes (DS).
 * Description Definition Language (DDL): It is based on XML language used to define the structural relations between descriptors. It allows the creation and modification of description schemes and also the creation of new descriptors (D).
 * System tools: These tools deal with binarization, synchronization, transport and storage of descriptors. It also deals with Intellectual Property protection.

On the right side you can see the relation between MPEG-7 tools.

MPEG-7 applications
There are many applications and application domains which will benefit from the MPEG-7 standard. A few application examples are:

 * Digital library: Image/video catalogue, musical dictionary.
 * Multimedia directory services: e.g. yellow pages.
 * Broadcast media selection: Radio channel, TV channel.
 * Multimedia editing: Personalized electronic news service, media authoring.
 * Security services: Traffic control, production chains...
 * E-business: Searching process of products.
 * Cultural services: Art-galleries, museums...
 * Educational applications.
 * Biomedical applications.
 * Intelligent multimedia applications that leverage low-level multimedia semantics via formal representation and automated reasoning.

Limitations
The MPEG-7 standard was originally written in XML Schema (XSD), which constitutes semi-structured data. For example, the running time of a movie annotated using MPEG-7 in XML is machine-readable data, so software agents will know that the number expressing the running time is a positive integer, but such data is not machine-interpretable (cannot be understood by agents), because it does not convey semantics (meaning), known as the "Semantic Gap." To address this issue, there were many attempts to map the MPEG-7 XML Schema to the Web Ontology Language (OWL), which is a structured data equivalent of the terms of the MPEG-7 standard (MPEG-7Ontos, COMM, SWIntO, etc.). However, these mappings did not really bridge the "Semantic Gap," because low-level video features alone are inadequate for representing video semantics. In other words, annotating an automatically extracted video feature, such as color distribution, does not provide the meaning of the actual visual content.

Compare

 * Material Exchange Format (MXF), a container format for professional digital video and audio media defined by SMPTE.

title: MPEG-7


text:
Talk:Zinc

About Zinc Ingots
According to the Periodic Table, zinc is known as a metal element with the atomic number 30 and its symbol is "Zn." The mineral zinc is the 24th most prevalent element to know in the crust of the Earth. You may polish it to a bright silver finish and give it a metallic grey tone. Natural deposits of zinc are a combination of chemicals rather than pure deposits. The zinc smelting process gives you an outcome of SHG Special high-grade Zinc. The most known end product of the above process is what you call zing ingot

Zinc is a mineral that supports growth and the immune system in children. If you have a low level of zinc, there is a greater chance of you getting sick or developing a disease. Many biological functions rely on zinc for support. The reason is that it boosts the immune system, CaApromotes wound healing aids in childhood growth and development, and aids in the body's production of proteins and DNA. Moreover, zinc has amazing antioxidant properties. You can also find zinc as a dietary supplement.

Background of the Commodity Zinc According to numerous historical publications, including Greek, Roman, and Indian documents, as well as statuettes and other ornaments made of Zinc Ingots, the use of zinc dates back to the fifth century BC. In Palestine around the 14th century BC, brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, was utilized for the first time. Many people were successful in extracting pure zinc from the end of the 17th century until as late as the middle of the 18th century.

The Production of Metal Zinc

Mining The supply of zinc in the world consists of 70% mined zinc and 30% recycled zinc. Almost 95% of the mines in the world mine sulfidic ore deposits for their zinc, which is recovered from them. China is known as the largest maker of zinc in 2010. It accounts for nearly 29% of global production. The mining of zinc involves using conventional blasting and hauling techniques. There is also drilling in it. After the crushing of the ore, froth flotation is used to separate the zinc from other minerals. With this method, the final zinc concentration is around 50%; sulfur and iron make up the remainder.

Froth Flotation They usually synthesize zinc through the froth flotation process. Froth flotation is also known to reduce copper and lead ores. The zinc ore is first crushed into a fine powder, which is then mixed with water, pine tar, and flotation chemicals in the process. The flotation agents bind to any zinc particles that may be present when air adds to stir the liquid. Scrapers collect zinc-coated froth by snatching up rising bubbles with zinc-coated particles attached. The next step is the removal of oils and water from the foam through filtration. At 1371 degrees Celsius, the residual material roasts into solid blocks known as sinter. Zinc oxide creates completely of the entire substance.

Refining To refine zinc, there are mainly two known methods. The two methods are known as pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. Dyder007 (talk) 11:49, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Zinc


text:
Väinö Linna

Väinö Linna (20 December 1920 – 21 April 1992) was a Finnish author. He gained literary fame with his third novel, Tuntematon sotilas (The Unknown Soldier, published in 1954), and consolidated his position with the trilogy Täällä Pohjantähden alla (Under the North Star, published in 1959–1963 and translated into English by Richard Impola). Both have been adapted to a film format on several occasions; The Unknown Soldier was first adapted into a film in 1955 and Under the North Star in 1968 as Here, Beneath the North Star, both directed by Edvin Laine.

Biography
Väinö Linna was born in Urjala in the Pirkanmaa region. He was the seventh child of Viktor (Vihtori) Linna (1874–1928) and Johanna Maria (Maija) Linna (1888–1972). Linna's father, a butcher, died when Linna was only seven years old, thus Linna's mother had to support the entire family by working at a nearby manor. Despite his background, Linna's interest in literature began early on. As a child, Linna loved adventure novels which he borrowed from the local library. The author's education was, however, limited to six years at a public school which he finished in the mid-1930s. After working as a lumberjack and a farm hand at the same manor where his mother had worked, Linna moved to Tampere in 1938. Typical of his generation, the adolescent author-to-be moved from the countryside to a developing city in search of industrial labour which he found at the Finlayson textile mills.

In 1940, Linna was conscripted into the army. The Second World War had broken out, and for Linna's part it meant participation in the Continuation War (1941–44). He fought on the eastern front. In addition to being a squad-leader, he wrote notes and observations about his and his unit's experiences. Already at this point Linna knew that writing would be his preferred occupation. However, failure to get the notes published led him to burn them. In spite of rejection, the idea of a novel, which would depict ordinary soldiers' views on war, would later lead him to write The Unknown Soldier.

After the war, Linna got married and started writing while working at the mills during the day. Throughout his time at Finlayson, Väinö Linna read avidly. Such authors as Schopenhauer, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche gained Linna's respect. Linna later said that Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front had also had a great influence on him. However, Linna's first two novels Päämäärä and Musta rakkaus sold poorly; he also wrote poetry but did not enjoy success with that either. Not until the release of The Unknown Soldier (1954) did he rise to fame. It is evident that at the time there was a distinct social need for a novel that would deal with the war and ordinary people's role in it. A decade after the peace treaty with the Soviet Union many Finns were ready to reminisce, some even in a critical manner. The Unknown Soldier satisfied that need completely, as its characters were unarguably more diverse, realistic yet heroic, than those of earlier Finnish war novels. The book soon became something of a best-seller, as it sold 175,000 copies in only six months – quite a lot for a Finnish novel in the 1950s.

Early on, the reception of the book was harsh. In Finland's biggest newspaper, Helsingin Sanomat, the critic Toini Havu argued in her review that Linna did not present his characters in a grand historical and ethical context, which she thought was crucial. Also modernists treated The Unknown Soldier with contempt. At the time Tuomas Anhava referred to The Unknown Soldier as a "boy's book" because of its action-packed storyline. Acceptance by the general public was enough to counter the negative criticism in the end. The novel is now considered both a classic in Finnish literature and a part of the national legacy.

In the mid-1950s, he moved to Hämeenkyrö and began to cultivate crops. In 1959, the first part of Under the North Star was released. The book was a success and other parts were to follow. The second part was published in 1960 and the final part in 1963. The third part of the novel was honoured with the Nordic Council's Literature Prize. In 1964, Linna sold the farm and moved back to Tampere. This time he did not return to Finlayson, as he now could dedicate his life entirely to literature due to the financial success his works had earned him. He was given the honorary title of Academician in 1980, despite the fact that he had no higher education.

In 1984, Väinö Linna had a stroke, which caused him to lose the ability to speak. Some time after that, he was diagnosed with cancer, which tired him out, leading to his death on 21 April 1992.

Literary works

 * (1947) Päämäärä
 * (1948) Musta rakkaus
 * (1949–53) Messias, (unfinished)
 * (1954) Tuntematon sotilas, The Unknown Soldier
 * (1959–63) Täällä Pohjantähden alla I–III, Under the North Star, translated by Richard Impola
 * (1967) Oheisia
 * (1990) Murroksia
 * (2000) Sotaromaani, uncensored version of The Unknown Soldier

Legacy
Linna's realism of his work has had a profound influence on Finnish social, political and cultural life. His novels have a place in Finland's literary canon, among Kalevala, Seven Brothers and other classics. Many quotations from his works are nowadays Finnish sayings. The opening line of Under the North Star, "In the beginning there were the swamp, the hoe – and Jussi", is recognized by most Finns as well as Rokka's famous exclamation, "Where do you need a real good man, here you have one!", from The Unknown Soldier. Showcasing the value of his legacy, Linna was pictured on the 20 markka banknote which was in use from 1993 to the introduction of the Euro. In addition, both of his major works have been filmed multiple times.

In 1995, a square of the same name was named after Väinö Linna in Tampere.

title: Väinö Linna


text:
Chaconne

A chaconne (, ; chacona ; ciaccona ; earlier English: chacony) is a type of musical composition often used as a vehicle for variation on a repeated short harmonic progression, often involving a fairly short repetitive bass-line (ground bass) which offers a compositional outline for variation, decoration, figuration and melodic invention. In this it closely resembles the passacaglia. It originates and was particularly popular in the Baroque era; a large number of Chaconnes exist from the 17th- and 18th- centuries.

The ground bass, if there is one, may typically descend stepwise from the tonic to the dominant pitch of the scale; the harmonies given to the upper parts may emphasize the circle of fifths or a derivative pattern thereof.

History
Though it originally emerged during the late sixteenth century in Spanish culture, having reputedly been introduced from the New World, as a quick dance-song characterized by suggestive movements and mocking texts, the chaconne by the early eighteenth century had evolved into a slow triple meter instrumental form.

Alex Ross describes the origins of the chacona as actually having been a sexily swirling dance that appeared in South America at the end of the sixteenth century and quickly spread to Europe. The dance became popular both in the elite courts and in the general population. "Un sarao de la chacona" is one of the earliest known examples of a "chacona", written down by Spanish musician Juan Arañés.

Outstanding examples of early baroque chaconnes are Monteverdi's "Zefiro torna" and "Es steh Gott auf" by Heinrich Schütz.

One of the best known and most masterful and expressive examples of the chaconne is the final movement from the Violin Partita in D minor by Johann Sebastian Bach. This 256-measure chaconne takes a plaintive four-bar phrase through a continuous kaleidoscope of musical expression in both major and minor modes. However, recently it has been proposed that Bach's "Ciaccona" (he used the Italian form of the name, rather than the French "Chaconne") is really cast in the form of a French theatrical dance known as the "passacaille", although it also incorporates Italian and German style features as well.

After the Baroque period, the chaconne fell into decline during the 19th century, though the 32 Variations in C minor by Beethoven suggest its continuing influence. However, the form saw a very substantial revival during the 20th century, with more than two dozen composers contributing examples (see below).

Chaconne and passacaglia
The chaconne has been understood by some nineteenth and early twentieth-century theorists to be a set of variations on a harmonic progression, as opposed to a set of variations on a melodic bass pattern (to which is assigned the term passacaglia), while other theorists of the same period make the distinction the other way around. In actual usage in music history, the term "chaconne" has not been so clearly distinguished from passacaglia as regards the way the given piece of music is constructed, and "modern attempts to arrive at a clear distinction are arbitrary and historically unfounded." In fact, the two genres were sometimes combined in a single composition, as in the Cento partite sopra passacagli, from Toccate d’intavolatura di cimbalo et organo, partite di diverse arie ... (1637), by Girolamo Frescobaldi, and the first suite of Les Nations (1726) as well as in the Pièces de Violes (1728) by François Couperin.

Frescobaldi, who was probably the first composer to treat the chaconne and passacaglia comparatively, usually (but not always) sets the former in major key, with two compound triple-beat groups per variation, giving his chaconne a more propulsive forward motion than his passacaglia, which usually has four simple triple-beat groups per variation. Both are usually in triple meter, begin on the second beat of the bar, and have a theme of four measures (or a close multiple thereof). (In more recent times the chaconne, like the passacaglia, need not be in time; see, for instance, Francesco Tristano Schlimé's Chaconne/Ground Bass, where every section is built on seven-beats patterns)

17th century

 * Antonio Bertali (1605–1669): Ciaccona in C major for violin and continuo (undated)
 * Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704): Ciacona in D major for violin and basso continuo (undated); another in the Partita no. 3 in A major for seven string instruments, from Harmonia artificioso-ariosa (written 1696)
 * Dieterich Buxtehude (c. 1638–1707): Prelude, fugue, and chaconne in C Major (BuxWV 137), chaconne in C minor (BuxWV 159), and chaconne in E minor (BuxWV 160); all for organ (probably 1690s)
 * Francesca Caccini (1587 – c.1641): Ciaccona
 * Maurizio Cazzati (1616–1678): Ciaccona a tre con il suo balletto for two violins and violone, from Correnti, balletti, galiarde a 3 è 4 (1659)
 * Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704): Chaconne from the opera Les arts florissants (1685); another from the opera David et Jonathas (1688); another from the opera Médée (1694)
 * Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713): Chaconne in G major in the Sonata op. 2, no. 12, from the Sonate da camera a tre: doi violini, e violone o cembalo (1685)
 * Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583–1643): Four ciaccone (in F major, A minor, G major, A minor again) for harpsichord from Toccate d’intavolatura di cimbalo et organo, partite di diverse arie . . . (1637)
 * Jean-Nicolas Geoffroy (1633–1694): Eighteen chaconnes for harpsichord, all unpublished in the composer's lifetime, perhaps the most chaconnes written by any known 17th-, 18th-, or 19th-century composer
 * Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687): Chaconne from the opera Phaëton (1683); another from the opera Roland (1685); another from the opera Acis et Galatée (1686)
 * Marin Marais (1656–1728): Chaconne in G major for two violas da gamba and continuo, no. 47 from the Pièces de violes, premier livre (1686–89)
 * Tarquinio Merula (1594/95–1665): "Su la cetra amorosa," aria in ciaccona for soprano and instrumental accompaniment, from Madrigali et altre musiche concertate (1633)
 * Girolamo Montesardo (dates unknown): Chaconne bass line in three keys (G major, C major, F major) for guitar, from Nuova inventione d'intavolatura (1606), perhaps the first written chaconne
 * Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643): "Zefiro torna," ciaccona for two tenors and instrumental accompaniment, from Scherzi musicali cioè arie et madrigali (1632)
 * Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706): Two chaconnes (in C major, D major) for organ, from Hexachordum Apollinis (1699); four more (in D major, D minor, F major, F minor) for organ (undated)
 * Henry Purcell (1659–1695): Chaconne from the semi-opera Prophetess, or The History of Dioclesian (1690); two more from the semi-opera King Arthur, or The British Worthy (1691); another from the semi-opera The Fairy-Queen (1692)
 * Robert de Visée (1655–1732/33): Two chaconnes (in F major, G major) for guitar from Livre de guittarre, dédié au roi (1682); another in G minor, from Livre de pieces pour la guittarre, dédié au roi (1686)

18th century

 * Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750): Chaconne, fifth movement of Partita no. 2 in D minor for solo violin (1720)
 * Luigi Boccherini (1743–1805): "Chaconne that represents Hell . . . in imitation of the one by M. Gluck," finale to Symphony in D minor, op. 12, no. 4 (1771)
 * Joseph Bodin de Boismortier (1689–1755): Chaconne in A major for two cellos, from Neuf petites sonates et chaconne (1737); another in G major, from the opera Daphnis et Chloé (1747)
 * François Couperin (1668–1733): "La Favorite," chaconne, ninth movement in Ordre 3ème in C minor for harpsichord, from Pièces de clavecin, premier livre (1713)
 * Antoine Forqueray (1671–1745): Chaconne "La Buisson", from Pieces de viole avec basse continue (1747)
 * Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787): Chaconne in the opera Orfeo ed Euridice (1762); the same chaconne also in the opera Iphigénie en Aulide (1774); a different chaconne in the opera Armide (1777)
 * George Frideric Handel (1685–1759): Chaconne in G major and 21 variations for harpsichord (written 1705–17, published 1733); another in G major and 62 variations for organ (written 1703–06, published 1733)
 * Marin Marais (1656–1728): Chaconne, eighth movement in Suite 3 in F major; another, final movement in Suite in A major; both for viola da gamba and continuo, from Pièces de viole, quatrième livre (1717)
 * Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764): chaconne in D minor from the opera-ballet Les Indes galantes (1735); another in D minor from the opera-ballet Les fêtes d'Hébé (1739); another in A major from the comic opera Platée (1745)
 * Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767): "Lilliputian Chaconne," second movement of "Gulliver's Travels," Intrada-Suite in D major for 2 violins, from Der getreue Musikmeister (1728–29)
 * Tommaso Vitali (1663–1745): Chaconne in G minor for violin and piano (c. 1710–1730)
 * Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741): Ciaccona, third movement of Concerto in G minor for flute, oboe, violin, bassoon, strings (c. 1720)
 * Sylvius Leopold Weiss (1687–1750): Chaconne, eleventh movement in Sonata 1; another, ninth movement in Sonata 2; another, seventh movement in Sonata 10; another, seventh movement in Sonata 12; all for lute (all undated)

19th century

 * Johannes Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98, finale
 * Franz Liszt: Chaconne from Sarabande und Chaconne aus dem Singspiel Almira, S.181 (1879)
 * Heinrich Reimann: Ciacona in F minor, op. 32, for organ

20th century

 * John Adams: second movement "Chaconne: Body Through Which the Dream Flows" from Violin Concerto (1993)
 * Malcolm Arnold: second movement "Chaconne" from Recorder Sonatina, Op. 41 (1953)
 * Malcolm Arnold: second movement "Chaconne: Andante con moto" from Quintet For Brass, Op. 73 (1961)
 * Béla Bartók: first movement, "Tempo di ciaccona" from the Sonata for violin solo (1944)
 * Howard Blake: Chaconne (from Lifecycle, sequence of 24 piano solos) (1975)
 * Benjamin Britten: "Chacony," third movement of the String Quartet No. 2, in C (1945)
 * Benjamin Britten: "Ciaccona," fifth movement of the Cello Suite No. 2 (1967)
 * Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco: "El Sueño de la Razón Produce Monstruos", from "24 Caprichos de Goya", Op. 195
 * John Corigliano: The Red Violin (Chaconne) for violin and orchestra
 * John Corigliano: Chaconne, 3rd movement of Symphony No. 1 "Giulio's Song" (1990)
 * Johann Nepomuk David: Chaconne in A minor for organ (1933)
 * Johann Nepomuk David: Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland: kleine Chaconne on "Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland" for organ
 * Robert Davidson: Chaconne for orchestra (1994)
 * Norman Dello Joio: Variations, Chaconne, and Finale for orchestra
 * David Diamond: Chaconne, for violin and piano (1951)
 * Cornelis Dopper: Ciaconna gotica (1920)
 * Marcel Dupré: Triptyque, op. 51 (Chaconne, Musette, Dithyrambe), for organ
 * Jean Françaix: Chaconne for harp and string orchestra (1976)
 * Gunnar de Frumerie: Chaconne op. 8, for piano (1932)
 * Philip Glass: Echorus for two violins and string orchestra (1995)
 * Philip Glass: Symphony No. 3, third movement (1995)
 * Philip Glass: Violin Concerto No. 1, second movement (1987)
 * Alexander Goehr: Chaconne, for organ (1985)
 * Sofia Gubaidulina: Chaconne, for piano (1962)
 * Lou Harrison: Suite for Violin and American Gamelan (1974)
 * Hans Werner Henze: Il Vitalino raddoppiato: ciaccona per violino soloista e orchestra da camera (1977)
 * Hans Werner Henze: Concerto for Double Bass, third movement (1966)
 * Heinz Holliger: Chaconne for solo cello (1975)
 * Gustav Holst: "Chaconne" from First Suite in E-flat major for Military Band (according to one writer, technically a passacaglia, but according to others, technically a chaconne)
 * Arthur Honegger: Chaconne de l'impératrice, from the film music for Napoléon (1926–27)
 * Ernst Krenek: Toccata und Chaconne: über den Choral "Ja ich glaub an Jesum Christum", op. 13, for piano
 * György Ligeti: Hungarian Rock: Chaconne, for harpsichord
 * Douglas Lilburn: Chaconne, for Piano (1946)
 * Frank Martin: Chaconne, for cello and piano (1931)
 * Carl Nielsen: Chaconne, op. 32, for piano (1916–17)
 * Henri Pousseur: Chaconne for solo violin
 * Knudåge Riisager: Chaconne, op. 50, for orchestra
 * Poul Ruders: Chaconne for solo guitar
 * Franz Schmidt: Chaconne in C♯ minor, for organ. (1925) Arranged for orchestra (transposed to D minor) in 1931.
 * Reginald Smith Brindle: Chaconne and Interludes: (The Instruments of Peace III), for two guitars
 * Leo Sowerby: Chaconne, for tuba and piano (1938)
 * Leo Sowerby: Canon, Chacony, & Fugue for organ (1948)
 * David Van Vactor: Fantasia, Chaconne, and Allegro, for orchestra
 * Stefan Wolpe: Dance in Form of a Chaconne for piano (1941)
 * Michiru Yamane: Chaconne in C-moll for organ (1996)
 * Bernd Alois Zimmermann: opera Die Soldaten (1965). Act 1, Scene 2 (Ciacona 1). Act 2, Scene 2 (Capriccio, Corale e Ciacona II). Act 4, Scene 2 (Ciacona III)

21st century

 * Paulo Galvão: Chacoinas (2) in A minor for baroque guitar.
 * Jennifer Higdon: "Chaconni," second movement from her violin concerto (2008)
 * Krzysztof Penderecki: Ciaccona in memoria Giovanni Paolo II per archi (for string orchestra) from Polish Requiem (added in 2005).
 * Francesco Tristano Schlimé: Chaconne/Ground Bass for piano (1997/2004/2012).
 * Roman Turovsky: Chaconnes in C major, C minor and D minor for baroque lute.
 * Simon Andrews: Chaconne, 2nd movement of Symphony No. 1 "For the heart is an organ of fire" (2013)
 * Marc-André Dalbavie: Ciaccona for orchestra (2002).
 * Paulo Ugoletti: Ciaccona per pianoforte.
 * Michael Blake: French Suite for piano, first dance (1994).
 * Michael Blake: Kora for harp (2009).
 * Enhypen with their song Chaconne (2023).

title: Chaconne