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Toronto Islands

The Toronto Islands are a chain of 15 small islands in Lake Ontario, south of mainland Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Comprising the only group of islands in the western part of Lake Ontario, the Toronto Islands are located just offshore from the city's downtown area, provide shelter for Toronto Harbour, and separate Toronto from the rest of Lake Ontario. The islands are home to the Toronto Island Park, the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, several private yacht clubs, a public marina, Centreville Amusement Park, a year-round residential neighbourhood, and several public beaches. The island community is the largest urban car-free community in North America. Public ferries operate year-round from Jack Layton Ferry Terminal, and privately operated water taxis operate from May to September. A pedestrian tunnel connects the mainland to the airport (which is only connected to the airport; not to any of the park).

The Toronto Islands are a popular tourist and recreational destination. Bicycles are accommodated on the ferries at no charge and can be rented at Centre Island. Canoes, kayaks, paddle boats and stand-up paddle boards are also available for rental from May to September. A disc golf course exists on the island. The main beach is along the south shore of Centre Island and the beach on the west shore of Centre at Hanlans Point is clothing-optional. There is ample parkland suitable for picnicking, several playgrounds, water play areas and several gardens. During the winter months people reach the lagoons and Toronto Harbour from the islands for ice skating when conditions permit.

History

The Toronto Islands were not originally islands but rather a series of continuously moving sand-bars originating from the Scarborough Bluffs and pushed by Lake Ontario currents.

Prior to European colonization, the group of islands (then peninsula) and sandbars was considered a place of healing, leisure, and relaxation by Indigenous peoples. The then peninsula was called or "Island of Hiawatha" or "Menecing," meaning "On the Island" in Ojibwe.

To the descendants of the Ojibwa, now the Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation, the Toronto Islands are sacred land. According to British Crown records, Treaty 13, often referred to as the Toronto Purchase of 1787 and 1805, included the Islands and compensated the Mississaugas with "goods including 2,000 rifle flints, 24 brass kettles, 120 mirrors, 24 laced hats and 96 gallons of rum valued at £1,700 for the sale of Toronto." The Mississaugas, in a land claim settlement process started in 1986, claimed that the Islands were never included in the agreement and that the compensation was inadequate. In 2010, a settlement was reached which resulted in a $145 million cash payment to the Mississaugas from the Government of Canada. In return, the Mississaugas relinquished their claim to the Islands.

The peninsula and surrounding sand bars that now form the Toronto Islands were surveyed in 1792 by Lieutenant Joseph Bouchette of the Royal Navy. D.W. Smith's Gazetteer recorded in 1813 that "the long beach or peninsula, which affords a most delightful ride, is considered so healthy by the Indians that they resort to it whenever indisposed". Many Indigenous communities were located between the peninsula's base and the Don River.

During the 1790s, the British built the first buildings on the island. The Gibraltar Point Blockhouse and storage structures were built at Gibraltar Point in 1794. The garrison was known as the Blockhouse Bay garrison, and it supported the garrison on the mainland. By 1800, another blockhouse and a guard house were built. These were destroyed in the Battle of York. Another garrison was built, but it was abandoned by 1823 and demolished in 1833.

The Gibraltar Point Lighthouse was constructed at Gibraltar Point, the south-western extremity of the peninsula in 1809. It is perhaps best known for the demise of its first keeper, German-born John Paul Radelmüller, whose alleged 1815 murder by soldiers from Fort York forms the basis of Toronto's most enduring ghost story. Although the precise circumstances of his death remain a mystery, recent research has verified many aspects of the popular legend. The two soldiers charged with but ultimately acquitted of Radelmüller's murder were John Henry and John Blueman, both of the Glengarry Light Infantry.

The peninsula was first cut off from the mainland to the east by a storm in 1852, but a breakwater was built and the channel was filled in by silt. However, on April 13, 1858, the peninsula became an island permanently by a violent storm that cut a 500 ft wide channel. The same storm destroyed two hotels on the island.

After the peninsula became an island, the Hanlan family were among the first year-round inhabitants, settling at Gibraltar Point in 1862. In 1867, the City of Toronto acquired the Islands from the federal government, and the land was divided into lots, allowing seasonal cottages, outdoor amusement areas and summer resort hotels to be built. The west side of the island became a destination for the people of Toronto and the first summer cottage community was built there. In 1878, a hotel was built by John Hanlan at the north-west tip of the island and soon after the area became known as Hanlan's Point. John's son, Edward "Ned" Hanlan, earned international recognition as a rower before taking over his father's business. Other notable families on the Islands included the Durnans (James Durnan was the Gibraltar Point Lighthouse keeper in 1832) and the Wards (David Ward settled on the eastern end in 1830).

At the same time as Hanlan's Point was developing as a summer suburb of Toronto, developments were going on elsewhere on the Islands. Along the lakefront of Centre Island, large Victorian summer homes were built by Toronto's leading families looking for refuge from the summer heat and drawn by the prestigious Royal Canadian Yacht Club, which had moved to a location on the harbour side of RCYC Island in 1881. By contrast, the Ward's Island community began in the 1880s as a tent community. William E. Ward built the Ward's Hotel and a few houses and rented tents to visitors.

The records of the School Board indicate that a one-room school existed on donated land near the Gibraltar Lighthouse in approximately 1888 but it was not necessarily open every day, particularly in winter. The school became permanent in 1896, though still with a single teacher. After it burned down a new school was built; there were 52 students in 1909 and 630 by 1954. As of 2018, the Island Public/Natural Science School operates classes for Junior Kindergarten to grade 6, a residential natural science program (which began in 1960) for visiting grade 5 and 6 students and a day care centre for children ages 2–5.

In 1899, there was a colony of eight summer tenants on Ward's Island paying $10 rent for the season. By 1913, the number of tents pitched had increased to the point where the city felt it necessary to organize the community into streets, and the tents eventually evolved into a seasonal cottage community.

In 1894, a land reclamation project by the Toronto Ferry Company created space for an amusement park at Hanlan's Point. In 1897, the Hanlan's Point Stadium was built alongside the amusement park for the Toronto Maple Leaf baseball team. The stadium was rebuilt several times over the years, and in 1914, Babe Ruth hit his first professional home run into the waters of Lake Ontario from this stadium. In the 1920s, the Maple Leaf team moved to a new stadium on the mainland.

From 1915 to 1916, a temporary wooden hangar was built at the beach by the Curtiss Flying School. This floatplane aerodrome was used for flight training for World War I.

In 1937, construction started on a new airport on the site of the park and stadium. The construction of the airport on infill led to the demolition of the stadium and most of the amusement park. It also meant that the cottage community at Hanlan's Point needed to be relocated. The residents were given the choice of either moving their cottages further south at Hanlan's Point or resettling on Algonquin Island. Originally, Algonquin Island was simply a sandbar known as Sunfish Island that was expanded by land reclamation operations. In 1938, streets were laid out to accommodate 31 cottages that were moved by barge from Hanlan's Point.

The airport opened in 1939, formally named the Port George VI Island Airport, after the reigning monarch of the time. During the first few years of the Second World War, expatriate Norwegian (RNAF) pilots-in-training used the Toronto Island Airport as a training field for both fighter and bomber pilots. Several accidents, including one where a pilot under instruction clipped the funnel and mast of the island ferry boat Sam McBride and crashed, led to the training school being moved north to Muskoka, Ontario. A park on the mainland called Little Norway Park commemorates this period.

In 1947, Toronto City Council approved the year-round occupancy of the Islands to help cope with housing shortages after World War Two, an emergency measure meant to expire in 1968. At its peak in the 1950s, the Island residential community extended from Ward's Island to Hanlan's Point and was made up of some 630 cottages and homes, in addition to amenities including a movie theatre, a bowling alley, stores, hotels, and dance halls. Not long after its creation in 1953, Metropolitan Toronto Council undertook to remove the community and replace it with public parkland. The construction of the Gardiner Expressway had removed many acres of recreational land along the Toronto waterfront, and the Islands lands were to replace the acreage. In 1955, after the city had transferred the lands to Metropolitan Toronto ("Metro"), the new Metro Parks Department started to demolish homes and cottages whose leases had expired or whose leaseholders had surrendered. In 1959, the Metro Parks Department opened Far Enough Farm, and in 1967 opened the Centreville Amusement Park, along with a new public marina. In 1971, Metro Parks opened a new ferry terminal at the foot of Bay Street. Unlike the previous terminal, no waiting room was provided.

By 1963, all Islanders willing to leave the island had departed and the remaining residents started to fight the plans of Metro Council to remove their homes. While demolitions proceeded, community alderman David Rotenberg pushed the Islanders' cause and the number of demolitions dwindled. In 1969, the Toronto Islands' Residents Association (TIRA) was formed. By 1970, 250 homes on Ward's and Algonquin Islands had escaped the bulldozer. The 1970s saw no further demolitions as the Metro Parks plans were delayed by year-to-year leases and the election of Toronto City Councillors who were more sympathetic to the Islanders' situation. In 1973, City Council voted 17–2 to preserve the community and transfer Island lands back to the city. However, Metro Council remained opposed and the Islanders started legal challenges to Metro's plans in 1974 to delay plans of expropriation. By 1978, Metro Council had won several legal battles and had obtained writs of possession for the remaining 250 homes. At the time, a minority provincial Progressive Conservative government was in place with both the Liberal and NDP opposition parties in favour of the Islanders. The Islanders appealed to the provincial government, winning more time when the province agreed to act as mediator between the City and Islanders and Metro.

Matters came to a head on July 28, 1980, when a sheriff sent to serve eviction notices to remaining residents was met at the Algonquin Island Bridge by a crowd of community members, whose leaders persuaded the sheriff to withdraw. On July 31, the community won the right to challenge the 1974 evictions, but the Islanders lost the challenge when the Supreme Court ruled that the city had a right to evict them. The province started a formal inquiry into the Toronto Islands headed by Barry Swadron. On December 18, 1981, the province of Ontario passed a law legalizing the Islanders to stay until 2005. This kept the lands in Metro's ownership, to be leased to the City who would lease it to the Islanders. Wrangling over the terms of the lease payments to Metro took several years. In 1993, Premier of Ontario Bob Rae helped to get Toronto Islands Residential Community Stewardship Act, (S.O. 1993, c. 15) legislation passed, which granted Islanders continued deeds to their houses and 99-year leases on the land. A Land Trust was established to handle any transfers or sales of such properties on the Islands. There are 262 residential properties on Ward's Island and Algonquin Island as of late 2018. Under the Act, the deed to a house may be transferred only to the current owner's child or spouse. If the house must be sold for personal reasons, and if a child or spouse will not be the new owner, the process is handled by the Toronto Islands Residential Community Trust Corporation. The house and the land lease are sold for the owner's benefit, but the buyer must be an individual on a 500-person waiting list which was established through a lottery. A firm price is set by the Trust; no bids or negotiation are allowed. This process was intended to eliminate the risk of the homes being sold on the open market, driving up the prices, and preventing a windfall for the owner.

Geography

The area of the Islands is about 820 acres. The largest, outermost island, called Centre Island, is crescent-shaped and forms the shoreline of both the Eastern and Western Channels. Algonquin Island (formerly known as Sunfish Island) and Olympic Island are two of the other major islands. The former is mostly a residential area and the latter is public parkland. What is commonly called Ward's Island is actually the eastern end of Centre Island, and like Algonquin is mostly a residential area. The Centre Island dock and Centreville Amusement Park are located on Middle Island, which as a consequence, is often mistaken for Centre Island. Centre Island is sometimes referred to as Toronto Island (note the singular form) to prevent this type of confusion. Other smaller islands include:
 * Mugg's Island – home to the Island Yacht Club
 * Forestry Island – heavily forested and no fixed link to other islands
 * Snake Island – heavily forested and beach facing Toronto Harbour (Snake Island Park); access from the pedestrian bridge on the south side to Centre Island
 * North Chippewa Island – partially forested and used by the Royal Canadian Yacht Club to store ships and with a mini clubhouse
 * South Chippewa Island – heavily forested and located between Snake Island and South Island
 * South Island – used for mooring and on-land storage of boats by the Royal Canadian Yacht Club; east end of the island cut off at Chippewa Avenue and covered by trees; a tennis court is located on west end of the island
 * RCYC Island – occupied by Royal Canadian Yacht Club with clubhouse, moorings and other club facilities; private pier for RCYC launches Kwasind and Hiawatha to the mainland
 * Hanlan's Island – heavily forested and located in between Centre Island, located in Hanlan's Bay, near Lighthouse Pond

Three unnamed islands occupy what was once Block House Bay and Long Pond:
 * an island (sometimes called Senator Frank Patrick O'Connor Island ) – located in between Chippewa Island and Snake Island
 * a small island (sometimes called Doughnut Island ) in Long Pond (the former water intake of the City of Toronto) – located across from Mugg's Island
 * another small island (sometimes called Duckling Island ) in Long Pond (completely covered in shrubbery) – located near Middle Island

The Islands were originally a 9 km peninsula or sand spit extending from the mainland. The Islands are composed of alluvial deposits from the erosion of the Scarborough Bluffs. The flow from the Niagara River to the south across Lake Ontario causes a counter-clockwise east-to-west current which has, over time, deposited sediments at the south end of the harbour to form a sand spit.

In 1852, a storm flooded sand pits on the peninsula, creating a channel east of Ward's Island. The channel was widened and made permanent by a violent storm on April 13, 1858. The channel became known as the Eastern Gap. The peninsula to the west became known as the Toronto Islands. To the east of the Gap, the area of today's Cherry Beach was known as "Fisherman's Island".

Sediment deposition to the Islands halted in the 1960s when the Leslie Street Spit was extended beyond the southern edge of the islands. Left to nature, the islands would diminish over time, but this is limited due to hard shorelines built to limit erosion. Over the years, land reclamation has contributed to an increase in the size of the islands. The harbour was shallow with a sandy bottom and the sands were moved by dredging or suction methods. Ward's Island was expanded by dredging. Today's Algonquin Island, formerly known as Sunfish Island, was created from harbour bottom sands.

The area now occupied by the airport has been subject to several landfills over what was once sandy shoal, initially to accommodate the amusement park that preceded the airport, and then to accommodate the airport itself. The Western Channel to the north of the airport is part of the original western channel, which was just south of today's Fort York. It was opened in 1911 as part of a program to improve boat navigation into the harbour. The airport lands were created from harbour sands in the late 1930s.

A series of waterways allow boat traffic to navigate the Islands:
 * Allan Lamport Regatta Course – located between Centre Island and Middle Island from Long Pond to east end of Far Enough Farm
 * Block House Bay – located on the east side of Hanlan's Point
 * Deep Pike Cut – located on the east side of Mugg's Island
 * Hanlan's Bay – located in between Centre Island and Hanlan's Island
 * Lighthouse Pond – located next to Gibraltar Point lighthouse
 * Long Pond – located between Allan Lamport Regatta Course and Block House Bay; also referred to as Kennedy Pond in the 1890s
 * Snake Pond – located between Snug Harbour and Algonquin Island
 * Snug Harbour – located between Snake Island and Olympic Island
 * Sunfish Cut - located between Snake Island and Algonquin Island
 * Trout Pond – located west of Lighthouse Bay on the south end of Hanlan's Point

Hanlan's Bay was a waterway that has since been buried under the Toronto Island Airport runways.

Jim Crow Pond - filled in by South Island

Ward's Pond - located roughly along the south side of Olympic Island and South Island

Climate
The Toronto Island has a humid continental climate (Dfb) under the Köppen climate classification system.

The climate differs from the mainland in that cooler lake waters surrounding the island cool spring, summer and early fall daytime temperatures by 2–3 °C, on average. In winter, the unfrozen lake waters are sometimes warmer than the air, temperatures are roughly equivalent to the downtown area but warmer than areas further away from the lake. Fog and low clouds are more frequent at the island than on the mainland. Nearshore areas of the lake only freeze after a consistent period of below-freezing weather.

The highest temperature ever recorded at Toronto Island was 37.2 C on 15 June 1919. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -30.0 C on 13 January 1914.

Community
A community of about 300 homes is located on the Toronto Islands, concentrated at the eastern end of the island chain on Ward's Island and Algonquin Island. Under the terms of the Toronto Islands Residential Community Stewardship Act there are strict rules under provincial law governing the buying and selling of these homes.

There are two daycare centres, one school and one church on the islands. The Toronto Island Public School, located at Gibraltar Point, operates a day program for island residents, residents of the Toronto waterfront and other students that can apply for enrollment, up to grade 6. There is also a residential natural science program for visiting grade 5 and 6 students from the mainland, and a pre-school nursery. The Waterfront Montessori Children's Centre is a non-profit, parent-run co-operative pre-school on Algonquin Island. St. Andrew by-the-Lake Anglican Church is located on Centre Island, and serves the islands' residents and visitors. The semi-Gothic/Medieval/Stick Style building was built in 1884 and moved later to its current location.

The Ward's Island residential community encompasses 12 acres of the entire 820 acre Toronto Island park. There are approximately 150 residences, most of which are occupied on a yearly basis and a centrally located Ward's Island Association club house which was built 1937–8. The layout of the streets remains as it has been since 1915 and the streets are named sequentially First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth Streets, as well as Bayview, Willow, Channel, Lenore and Lakeshore Avenues and Withrow Street.

Artscape Gibraltar Point occupies buildings previously used by the Toronto Island Public School, and comprises more than 15 artist work studios occupied by a mix of painters, ceramists, sculptors, musicians, theatre companies, and a recording studio.

Recreation

There are several swimming beaches on the Islands, including Centre Island Beach, Manitou Beach, Gibraltar Point Beach, Hanlan's Point Beach and Ward's Island Beach. Hanlan's Point Beach is an officially recognized clothing-optional beach, one of only two in Canada. Ward's Island Beach is located on the island east end near the Eastern Gap. Island Beach is located on the south side of the island and faces out to Lake Ontario. The beach is actually two beaches with the portion west of the Lookout Pier called Manitou Beach. The eastern boundary is near the western end of the boardwalk from Ward's Island. Hanlan's Point Beach is located on the west side of Toronto Islands on Lake Ontario, south of the airport and Hanlan's Point ferry dock.

Recreational boating has been popular on the Islands for over a century. In 1965, the Toronto Island Sailing Club was founded on Algonquin Island out of the former Algonquin Island Schoolhouse. In 1970, the club moved to the northwest peninsula of Centre Island in the newly opened Toronto Island Marina. The club offers its members certified CANSail courses and competitive racing events with other dinghy clubs, and is also a member in good standing with Sail Canada, Ontario Sailing and the Canadian Albacore Association.

The Islands are home to four yacht clubs: Harbour City Yacht Club, Island Yacht Club, Queen City Yacht Club and the Royal Canadian Yacht Club. There is a public marina, the Toronto Island Marina, and several smaller clubs including the Sunfish Cut Boat Club and the Toronto Island Canoe Club. There is also a dragon boat regatta course and grandstand, where the Toronto International Dragon Boat Race Festival is held annually. Canoes, kayaks, paddle boats and stand up paddle boards are available for rental.

Centreville Amusement Park is a children's amusement park which was built in 1967 with a 1900s-style turn-of-the-century theme. The park includes a miniature railway and an antique carousel and is open daily in summer. The Far Enough Farm is nearby and displays common farm livestock and birds. The Franklin's Garden children's garden was created in the 2000s and is located to the west of the Avenue of the Islands. A splash pad, hedge maze, and playground are also located nearby.

On the western side of Ward's Island is a flying disc golf course. There are public tennis courts located at Hanlan's Point and a community tennis club at the Ward's Island Tennis Club.

Until 2007, Caribana held an annual arts festival at Olympic Island on the August long weekend. Other Island events include the Olympic Island Festival, an annual rock concert held from 2004 until 2010. It was initiated in 2004 by Sloan's Jay Ferguson. The Wakestock festival has also been held on the islands. Starting in 1975, the Canadian Open Frisbee Championships were held on Olympic and Ward's Island.

Education
The Toronto District School Board (TDSB) is an English first language secular public school board that serves the City of Toronto, including the Toronto Islands. Currently the school board operates one elementary school on the Islands, Island Public/Natural Science School on Centre Island. the school has 179 students. 15% of the student population originates from Algonquin and Ward islands and about 85% of the students live in the city and take ferry transportation to school.

Other TDSB schools attended by students that live on the Island include The Waterfront School, Jarvis Collegiate Institute, Central Technical School, Central Commerce Collegiate Institute, and Northern Secondary School. However, these schools are located on the mainland.

In addition to the TDSB, three other public school boards also provide schooling for residents of Toronto Islands, Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (CSCM), Conseil scolaire Viamonde (CSV), and Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB). CSV is a public French first language secular school board. CSCM, and TCDSB are public separate school boards, the former being a French first language school board, the latter being an English first language school board.

Politics
The islands are within the Spadina—Fort York federal riding, the Spadina—Fort York provincial riding and the Spadina–Fort York Ward 10 municipal district. The islands are represented federally by Independent MP Kevin Vuong, provincially by NDP MPP Chris Glover, and municipally by councillor Ausma Malik.

The islands were part of the federal riding of Trinity—Spadina from 2004 until 2015. From 1997 to 2004 the area was part of Toronto Centre—Rosedale, from 1966 to 1997 it was part of Rosedale, from 1933 to 1966 it was part of Spadina and from 1903 to 1933 it was part of Toronto South.

The islands were in the provincial riding of Trinity—Spadina from 2007 until 2018. From 1999 to 2007 the area was part of Toronto Centre—Rosedale, and from 1987 to 1999 it was part of Fort York.

Airport
The north-western tip of the Toronto Islands is home to the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, more often known as the Toronto Island Airport. The airport is used for civil aviation, including airlines, flight training, medevac flights and private aviation. Since 1984, it has been used for regional airlines using approved STOL-type aircraft. In recent years, the airport has become the centre of controversy between those who wish to close it down, and those who want to expand its usage. A plan to construct a road bridge to the airport became a major issue in the 2003 election for mayor, and was cancelled after David Miller was elected. A pedestrian tunnel to the airport was opened in July 2015, but does not connect to the rest of the island park. A proposal to allow jets at the airport was turned down by the Government of Canada.

Ferry services

There is no fixed road link from the mainland to the Toronto Islands, which therefore rely on ferries, water taxis and other boats for their transport needs.

Three public ferry routes provide links for visitors, island residents, and service vehicles from the Jack Layton Ferry Terminal on the central Toronto waterfront to docks at Hanlan's Point, Centre Island Park, and Ward's Island. The only year-round ferry service is to and from Ward's Island. A fourth public ferry service provides a vehicle and passenger connection from a dock at the foot of Bathurst Street to the airport. There is no public access between the airport and the rest of the island chain.

In addition to the public ferry services, several yacht clubs and marinas located on the islands provide private-tender services for their members and guests. In June 2017, Centreville purchased a used ferry boat, the Dartmouth III, from Halifax Transit in Nova Scotia and planned to operate its own service, Toronto Island Transit Service, to supplement the public ferry. The ferry arrived in Toronto but due to flooding and the pandemic, it was never used to bring passengers across the harbour.

Roads
Roads on the islands are paved, the only exception being a long wooden boardwalk on the south end of Ward's Island. The use of motor vehicles is limited to City of Toronto government service vehicles (Parks and Recreation, paramedics etc.), an exception being parking and roadways at the airport. Bicycles are welcome on the ferries and the island, and there are rental bicycles and quadricyles available on the island. Lakeshore Avenue is the main road handling vehicular traffic. The single-lane paved road traverses the east, south and west sides of the park. The six bridges on the island are for pedestrian traffic, bicycles and all-terrain vehicles only. The bridge carrying traffic from Avenue of the Islands can support large vehicles, but not cars or heavy trucks. Other bridges include:

 * two bridges connecting Centre Island with Olympic Island
 * bridge along Chippewa Avenue to South Island
 * bridge over to Snake Island
 * Algonquin Road Bridge to Algonquin Island

The Island Bus runs during Toronto Island Ferry downtime, when ferries cannot operate due to high winds, unfavourable weather conditions, a frozen harbour, or maintenance, on a very occasional basis usually during the winter months. When in use, visitors may cross at Island Airport via tunnel or ferry and take the bus from outside the main terminal. Because the bus crosses live airport runways, each crossing has to be accompanied by an escort. Two Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) GM TC40-102N buses provided service to the Toronto Parks Department for use on the Island during the 1970s. Since they were withdrawn it has become usual for TTC to assign to the Island a bus from a series that is coming to the end of its service life. A GM New Look operated on the Island until Spring 2012 after its regular service ended. Orion V #7106 was based on the Toronto Islands until it was replaced by Orion VII OG #7953.

There are fewer restrictions on motor vehicles on the airport lands, with a vehicular ferry providing access to parking lots and service access at the airport, however there is no public road access from the airport lands to the rest of the islands.

In popular culture
The Toronto Islands have appeared as significant settings in Canadian literature. Examples include Margaret Atwood's The Robber Bride and Robert Rotenberg's Old City Hall.

The novel Heyday, by Marnie Woodrow, has two narratives, one set on Ward's Island in the present day, and the other set on Hanlan's in 1909.

Claudia Dey's novel Stunt is also set on Ward's Island.

In Take This Waltz, a 2011 film by Canadian director Sarah Polley, the main character Margot (Michelle Williams) rides the Scrambler at the Centreville Amusement Park.

The second season of Sensitive Skin is set predominantly on the islands when the main character, Davina moves to a houseboat located on the islands.

Canadian singer-songwriter Jordan Paul composed his song Ward's Island, inspired by and during a visit to the island. The song was subsequently recorded with Jon Anderson, producer of Aidan Knight and Said The Whale.

In the 2013 film The F Word, characters Allan and Nicole get married on the Island.

Timeline

 * 1787 – Toronto Purchase. The British and the Mississaugas negotiate the purchase of 250800 acres of land north from Toronto Harbour.
 * 1793 – Blockhouse built by the Queen's Rangers at Gibraltar Point.
 * 1805 – The British and the Mississaugas renegotiate the Toronto Purchase.
 * 1809 – Lighthouse constructed at Gibraltar Point.
 * 1833 – First hotel "The Retreat on the Peninsula" is opened.
 * 1834 – Fisherman David Ward and family, along with shipbuilder John Hanlan and eventual lighthouse keeper James Durnan, are some of the first European settlers on the island.
 * 1830-1840 – First island hotels built. Ferry services are started.
 * 1850 – Filtration plant on the island starts supplying water to Toronto.
 * 1855 – Rower Ned Hanlan born.
 * 1858 – Storm separates Toronto Islands from the mainland. Quinn's Hotel and Parkinson's Hotel are destroyed.
 * 1867 – Islands become the property of City of Toronto. Lot leases are established.
 * 1870-80 – Summer homes established on the island. Cottages from Hanlan's Point to Centre Island.
 * 1874 – John Hanlan, father of Ned Hanlan opens Hanlan's Hotel.
 * 1879-1912 – Size of islands increased to 563 acres by landfilling. This included the creation of Algonquin Island.
 * 1880 – Royal Canadian Yacht Club established on the island.
 * 1882 – William Ward, son of David Ward opens Ward's Hotel; closed 1966.
 * 1884 – St. Rita's Roman Catholic Church and St. Andrew by-the-Lake Anglican Church built.
 * 1888 – First elementary school is established near the Gibraltar Point Lighthouse.
 * 1897 – First amusements on Hanlan's Point established by John Hanlan.
 * 1897 – Baseball and lacrosse stadium on Hanlan's Point.
 * 1899 – First summer colony established on Ward's.
 * 1903 – Baseball stadium destroyed by fire and rebuilt.
 * 1909 – Hanlan Hotel destroyed by fire.
 * 1909 – Baseball stadium again destroyed by fire and rebuilt.
 * 1910 – Ferry Trillium enters service to island
 * 1913 – First tent city on Ward's Island.
 * 1914 – First professional home run of Babe Ruth's career hit at Hanlan's Point Stadium.
 * 1916 – Area of Ward's Island doubled through dredging of the harbour.
 * 1922 – Tower and top floor of Ward's Hotel removed
 * 1926 – Baseball stadium vacated by Toronto Maple Leafs baseball team for a new stadium at foot of Bathurst and Fleet Streets.
 * 1930s – Ward's Hotel closes, becomes grocery store and ice cream parlour only.
 * 1935 – William Inglis ferry enters service.
 * 1937 – Construction of Island airport begins. Some cottages moved east to Algonquin Island.
 * 1939 – The Sam McBride ferry enters service.
 * 1947 – City approves year-round residency to cope with a housing shortage brought on by World War II, to expire in 1968.
 * 1951 – Island Yacht Club established on Muggs Island. Thomas Rennie ferry enters service.
 * 1956 – New Metro Toronto government takes over Island and leases. Starts demolishing cottages.
 * 1959 – Far Enough Farm opens.
 * 1960s – St. Rita's closes and moves to Ward's Island
 * 1965 – Toronto Island Sailing Club opens on Algonquin Island (in old schoolhouse)
 * 1966 – Ward's Hotel demolished
 * 1967 – Centreville Amusement Park opens.
 * 1967 – Toronto Island Marina opens.
 * 1970 – Toronto Island Sailing Club moves to Centre Island, NW peninsula (Toronto Island Marina)
 * 1970s – St. Rita's demolished
 * 1975-1985 – Canadian Open Frisbee Championships, held at Olympic and Ward's Island. First ultimate games and disc golf competition in Canada.
 * 1977-1993 – Supreme Court approves of cancellation of leases by Metro. Remaining residents fight to remain.
 * 1984 – Start of scheduled regional airlines at Island airport.
 * 1991 – Transfer of cottage lands and lease to City allowing residents to stay.
 * 1993 – Passing of the Toronto Islands Residential Community Stewardship Act, 1993, S.O. 1993, c. 15 which gave homeowners a 99-year lease on their properties and established a process for the transfer or sale of ownership.
 * 2002 – Council approves clothing optional Hanlan's Point Beach.
 * 2010 – Canadian government and Mississaugas settle disagreements over Toronto Purchase
 * 2015 – Opening of the island airport pedestrian tunnel.
 * 2017 – Water levels reach a record high of 75.919 m above sea level (as of May 26), surpassing the 1973 record of 75.7 m. The Toronto Island Public School, Centreville Amusement Park, and public access to the park west of Ward's Island is suspended until further notice. Most of the Island Parks reopened on July 31, 2017 but the Centreville amusement park did not reopen until the following May. In July 2017, mosquitoes carrying the West Nile virus were found on the islands but the Toronto Public Health Department said that with certain precautions, visitors should not be concerned.
 * 2019 – Water levels on Lake Ontario reach a level higher than that which "devastated the Islands in 2017". Sandbags (24,000) and industrial pumps (30) prevent only parts of the islands from flooding. Ferry service to Hanlan's Point was suspended and homes on Algonquin Island faced a risk of flooding.
 * 2020 – The islands were closed to visitors starting in early May due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario and ferry service was available only for island residents. The service resumed on June 27 but with 50% capacity per boat, and a maximum of 5,000 visitors per day to the islands.
 * 2021 – The City of Toronto launched a new Master Plan initiative to revitalize the public Toronto Island Park area and improve education and commemoration of Indigenous history.

Source: Sward 1983

Notable people

 * Peter Gzowski – broadcaster
 * Ned Hanlan – Olympic rower
 * Paul Henderson – Olympic sailor
 * W. A. Hewitt – sports executive and journalist
 * Foster Hewitt – sports radio broadcaster
 * Patrick Loubert – Producer
 * Sam McBride – Toronto mayor
 * Terry McLaughlin – Olympic sailor
 * John Millen – Olympic sailor
 * Mariah Millen – Olympic sailor
 * Allan Sparrow – City councillor

title: Toronto Islands


text:
Talk:Bananaland

This looks biased to me, and I'm an anti-American! Can this be fixed? Martin

 * Yes, though it is factually correct and did make me laugh. I've never heard the term "Bananaland" before, shouldn't "Banana republic" be the article's name, with Bananaland as a #Redirect to it?

 * Fixed as suggested. Kaihsu 19:06 Apr 14, 2003 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Bananaland


text:
Manhattan Transfer

Manhattan Transfer may refer to:
 * Manhattan Transfer station, a Pennsylvania Railroad station in New Jersey
 * Manhattan Transfer (novel), a 1925 novel by John Dos Passos
 * "Manhattan Transfer", 1984 episode of Right to Reply
 * Manhattan Transfer, a 1993 science fiction novel by John E. Stith
 * Manhattan transfer, a description of Doctor Manhattan's teleportation in Watchmen
 * The Manhattan Transfer, jazz and pop vocal quartet
 * The Manhattan Transfer (album), album by the Manhattan Transfer
 * Manhattan Transfer, the ability or "Stand" of Johngalli A., a character in the manga Stone Ocean

title: Manhattan Transfer


text:
Florø

is a town and the administrative centre of the municipality of Kinn which is in Vestland county, Norway. The town was founded by royal decree in 1860 as a ladested on the island of Florelandet, located between the Botnafjorden and Solheimsfjorden. Florø is Norway's (and thus the Scandinavian Peninsula's) westernmost town. It is the most western town on the mainland in the Nordic countries.

The 6.45 km2 town has a population (2018) of 9,024 and a population density of 1399 PD/km2.

The town encompasses the entire island of Florelandet and the western half of the island of Brandsøya. The Norwegian national road Rv 5 is the main road connecting Florø to the rest of Norway. The nearby villages of Brandsøy and Grov lie several kilometers to the east of Florø. The islands of Reksta, Kinn, Skorpa lie several kilometers to the west of the town. Florø is also home to Florø Airport and Florø Church.

Florø is also a former municipality that existed as an independent town-municipality for just over 100 years (1860-1964) before being merged into the municipality of Flora. On 1 January 2020, the town became part of the new Kinn Municipality after another municipal merger.

Name
The town (and municipality) was named after the old Flora farm (Flóra), near where the town of Florø was built in 1860. The meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain with a couple of different likely possibilities. The old name, is the accusative case/genitive case of the word which means "floor", from which the names Flora and Florelandet are derived. This Old Norse word is probably derived from a Germanic root word,, meaning "flat ground". Another possibility for the meaning of the name is that it is derived from the word which means "flood" or "deluge". A common misunderstanding is that the name Florø includes the Danish word which means "island" as a suffix that was attached to the farm name Flora. Although not true, it nearly led to the town being renamed Florøy in the 1930s.

Economy
The basis for the foundation of the town was the rich herring fisheries, symbolised by the three herrings in the town's coat of arms. Fishing is still an important part of the economy, in addition to shipbuilding and service industries. After the discovery of petroleum in the North Sea in the 1960s, Florø has been used as a supply base for the petroleum industry.

History
Florø was founded as a town (ladested) in 1860. Shortly after its founding, on 3 January 1861, it was removed from the (now) former municipality of Kinn and made into a municipality of its own with a population of 846. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, a large municipal merger took place, merging the following places to form the newly created municipality of Flora.
 * the town-municipality of Florø (population: 2,040)
 * the municipality of Eikefjord (population: 919)
 * the municipality of Kinn (population: 3,567)
 * the parts of the municipality of Bru located north of the Førde Fjord (population: 1,155)
 * the Husefest and Breivik areas of the municipality of Bremanger (population: 9)
 * the Steindal area of the municipality of Vevring (population: 25)

On 1 January 2020, Flora was one of the municipalities that merged into a newly re-created Kinn municipality, much larger than the Kinn that existed until 1964.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms for the town of Florø was granted on 19 February 1960 and they were in use until 1 January 1964, when the new Flora Municipality was created and it included the town of Florø. (On 6 October 1967, the old arms of Florø were granted as the arms for Flora Municipality. These arms were in use until 1 January 2020 when the municipality of Flora was dissolved.) The official blazon is "Gules, three herrings bendwise argent" (På raud botn tre sølv sildar i skrå-stilling). This means the arms have a red field (background) and the charge is a set of three diagonal herring. The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The three herrings are a symbol for the great local importance of herring fishing for the development and economy of Flora. The arms were designed by Hallvard Trætteberg. The municipal flag had the same design as the coat of arms.

Self-government (1861-1964)
During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor was indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council.

Mayors
The mayors of Florø:

 * 1865–1873: Ude Jacob Høst
 * 1874–1881: Livius Smitt
 * 1882–1885: Gunnar Olsen
 * 1886–1886: Oscar von Koss
 * 1887–1887: Fredrik Faye
 * 1888–1890: Fredrik T. Lorentzen
 * 1891–1897: Gunnar Olsen
 * 1897–1901: E.M. Hole
 * 1902–1904: Elias Olsen
 * 1905–1907: Abraham Haave
 * 1908–1908: Ole Johannes Vasbotten
 * 1909–1910: Elias Olsen
 * 1911–1922: E.M. Hole
 * 1923–1927: Abraham Haave
 * 1928–1933: Alfred V. Lauvsnes
 * 1934–1934: Andreas Hodnefjeld
 * 1935–1939: Alfred V. Lauvsnes
 * 1940–1940: Einar Stavang
 * 1945–1945: S.I. Solheim
 * 1945–1946: Einar Stavang
 * 1949–1955: Olav Kolle
 * 1955–1957: Ludvig Olai Botnen (V)
 * 1958–1959: Kjeld Haus
 * 1960–1961: Ludvig Olai Botnen (V)
 * 1962–1964: Kjeld Haus

Municipal council
The municipal council (Bystyre) of Florø was made up of 21 representatives that were elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

title: Florø


text:
High frequency

High frequency (HF) is the ITU designation for the band of radio waves with frequency between 3 and 30 megahertz (MHz). It is also known as the decameter band or decameter wave as its wavelengths range from one to ten decameters (ten to one hundred meters). Frequencies immediately below HF are denoted medium frequency (MF), while the next band of higher frequencies is known as the very high frequency (VHF) band. The HF band is a major part of the shortwave band of frequencies, so communication at these frequencies is often called shortwave radio. Because radio waves in this band can be reflected back to Earth by the ionosphere layer in the atmosphere – a method known as "skip" or "skywave" propagation – these frequencies are suitable for long-distance communication across intercontinental distances and for mountainous terrains which prevent line-of-sight communications. The band is used by international shortwave broadcasting stations (3.95–25.82 MHz), aviation communication, government time stations, weather stations, amateur radio and citizens band services, among other uses.

Propagation characteristics

The dominant means of long-distance communication in this band is skywave ("skip") propagation, in which radio waves directed at an angle into the sky refract back to Earth from layers of ionized atoms in the ionosphere. By this method HF radio waves can travel beyond the horizon, around the curve of the Earth, and can be received at intercontinental distances. However, suitability of this portion of the spectrum for such communication varies greatly with a complex combination of factors: At any point in time, for a given "skip" communication path between two points, the frequencies at which communication is possible are specified by these parameters: The maximum usable frequency regularly drops below 10 MHz in darkness during the winter months, while in summer during daylight it can easily surpass 30 MHz. It depends on the angle of incidence of the waves; it is lowest when the waves are directed straight upwards, and is higher with less acute angles. This means that at longer distances, where the waves graze the ionosphere at a very blunt angle, the MUF may be much higher. The lowest usable frequency depends on the absorption in the lower layer of the ionosphere (the D-layer). This absorption is stronger at low frequencies and is also stronger with increased solar activity (for example in daylight); total absorption often occurs at frequencies below 5 MHz during the daytime. The result of these two factors is that the usable spectrum shifts towards the lower frequencies and into the Medium Frequency (MF) range during winter nights, while on a day in full summer the higher frequencies tend to be more usable, often into the lower VHF range.
 * Sunlight/darkness at site of transmission and reception
 * Transmitter/receiver proximity to solar terminator
 * Season
 * Sunspot cycle
 * Solar activity
 * Polar aurora
 * Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
 * Lowest usable high frequency (LUF) and a
 * Frequency of optimum transmission (FOT)

When all factors are at their optimum, worldwide communication is possible on HF. At many other times it is possible to make contact across and between continents or oceans. At worst, when a band is "dead", no communication beyond the limited groundwave paths is possible no matter what powers, antennas or other technologies are brought to bear. When a transcontinental or worldwide path is open on a particular frequency, digital, SSB and Morse code communication is possible using surprisingly low transmission powers, often of the order of milliwatts, provided suitable antennas are in use at both ends and that there is little or no artificial or natural interference. On such an open band, interference originating over a wide area affects many potential users. These issues are significant to military, safety and amateur radio users of the HF bands.

Uses

The main uses of the high frequency spectrum are:
 * Military and governmental communication systems
 * Aviation air-to-ground communications
 * Amateur radio
 * Shortwave international and regional broadcasting
 * Maritime sea-to-shore and ship-to-ship services
 * Over-the-horizon radar systems
 * Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) communication
 * Citizen's Band Radio services worldwide (generally 26-28 MHz, the higher portion of the HF band, that behaves more like low-VHF)
 * Coastal ocean dynamics applications radar

The high frequency band is very popular with amateur radio operators, who can take advantage of direct, long-distance (often inter-continental) communications and the "thrill factor" resulting from making contacts in variable conditions. International shortwave broadcasting utilizes this set of frequencies, as well as a seemingly declining number of "utility" users (marine, aviation, military, and diplomatic interests), who have, in recent years, been swayed over to less volatile means of communication (for example, via satellites), but may maintain HF stations after switch-over for back-up purposes.

However, the development of Automatic Link Establishment technology based on MIL-STD-188-141 for automated connectivity and frequency selection, along with the high costs of satellite usage, have led to a renaissance in HF usage in government networks. The development of higher speed modems such as those conforming to MIL-STD-188-110C which support data rates up to 120 kilobit/s has also increased the usability of HF for data communications and video transmission. Other standards development such as STANAG 5066 provides for error free data communications through the use of ARQ protocols.

Some modes of communication, such as continuous wave Morse code transmissions (especially by amateur radio operators) and single sideband voice transmissions are more common in the HF range than on other frequencies, because of their bandwidth-conserving nature, but broadband modes, such as TV transmissions, are generally prohibited by HF's relatively small chunk of electromagnetic spectrum space.

Noise, especially man-made interference from electronic devices, tends to have a great effect on the HF bands. In recent years, concerns have risen among certain users of the HF spectrum over "broadband over power lines" (BPL) Internet access, which has an almost destructive effect on HF communications. This is due to the frequencies on which BPL operates (typically corresponding with the HF band) and the tendency for the BPL signal to leak from power lines. Some BPL providers have installed notch filters to block out certain portions of the spectrum (namely the amateur radio bands), but a great amount of controversy over the deployment of this access method remains. Other electronic devices including plasma televisions can also have a detrimental effect on the HF spectrum.

In aviation, HF communication systems are required for all trans-oceanic flights. These systems incorporate frequencies down to 2 MHz to include the 2182 kHz international distress and calling channel.

The upper section of HF (26.5-30 MHz) shares many characteristics with the lower part of VHF. The parts of this section not allocated to amateur radio are used for local communications. These include CB radios around 27 MHz, studio-to-transmitter (STL) radio links, radio control devices for models and radio paging transmitters. Some radio frequency identification (RFID) tags utilize HF. These tags are commonly known as HFID's or HighFID's (High-Frequency Identification).

Antennas
The most common antennas in this band are wire antennas such as wire dipoles or rhombic antennas; in the upper frequencies, multielement dipole antennas such as the Yagi, quad, and log-periodic antennas. Powerful shortwave broadcasting stations often use large wire curtain arrays.

Antennas for transmitting skywaves are typically made from horizontal dipoles or bottom-fed loops, both of which emit horizontally polarized waves. The preference for horizontally polarized transmission is because (approximately) only half of the signal power transmitted by an antenna travels directly into the sky; about half travels downward towards the ground and must "bounce" into the sky. For frequencies in the upper HF band, the ground is a better reflector of horizontally polarized waves, and better absorber of power from vertically polarized waves. The effect diminishes for longer wavelengths.

For receiving, random wire antennas are often used. Alternatively, the same directional antennas used for transmitting are helpful for receiving, since most noise comes from all directions, but the desired signal comes from only one direction. Long-distance (skywave) receiving antennas can generally be oriented either vertically or horizontally since refraction through the ionosphere usually scrambles signal polarization, and signals are received directly from the sky to the antenna.

title: High frequency


text:
HF

HF, Hf or hf can refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * HammerFall, a Swedish power metal band
 * Hard-Fi, an English indie rock band
 * Star Trek: Hidden Frontier, a long-running Star Trek fan-fiction series
 * Hi-hat with foot, part of a drum kit

Business

 * Hlutafélag (hf.), a form of limited liability company in Iceland
 * Hapag-Lloyd Flug, a German airline (former IATA code) doing business as TUIfly
 * Air Côte d'Ivoire, an Ivorian airline (IATA code)
 * Hedge fund

Education

 * Higher Preparatory Examination (HF) (Højere Forberedelseseksamen), a Danish examination programme
 * Heraldo Filipino, the student newspaper of De La Salle University-Dasmariñas, Cavite, Philippines
 * Homewood-Flossmoor High School, Flossmoor, Illinois

Organizations

 * Humanity First, an international charitable organisation, which focuses on immediate disaster response and long-term development
 * Health trust (Helseforetak), a Norwegian hospital enterprise
 * Heritage Front, a white supremacist and Canadian Nationalist group
 * Hudobný fond (Music Fund Slovakia), a presenter of the ZAI Awards

Biology and medicine

 * Heart failure
 * Holstein Friesian cattle, HF, a breed of cattle
 * Steve Biko Academic Hospital, a hospital in Pretoria, South Africa, formerly called H F Verwoerd Hospital
 * Hippocampal formation, region in the brain

Chemistry

 * Hafnium, symbol Hf, a chemical element
 * Hartree–Fock method, a calculation scheme in the field of computational chemistry
 * Hydrogen fluoride, HF, a diatomic compound which can dissolve in water to form hydrofluoric acid, a highly corrosive solution
 * Hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq), a solution of hydrogen fluoride (HF) in water

Other uses in science and technology

 * Handsfree, equipment that can be used without the use of hands
 * Helicon Filter, photo editing software
 * Helicon Focus, a photo-merging program used to increase depth of field or make panoramas
 * High frequency, the ITU 3–30 MHz radio frequency range (band)

Sport

 * Half-Forward, an Australian Rules football position
 * Heinz Field, a stadium in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the home of the Pittsburgh Steelers

People

 * H. F. Verwoerd, a South African Prime Minister
 * Harrison Ford, American film actor

Other uses

 * Have Fun, in video game slang
 * High five, celebratory hand gesture
 * Hotfix, a software patch to temporarily fix a bug in a product

title: HF


text:
Conceptual art

Conceptual art, also referred to as conceptualism, is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work are prioritized equally to or more than traditional aesthetic, technical, and material concerns. Some works of conceptual art may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. This method was fundamental to American artist Sol LeWitt's definition of conceptual art, one of the first to appear in print:

Tony Godfrey, author of Conceptual Art (Art & Ideas) (1998), asserts that conceptual art questions the nature of art, a notion that Joseph Kosuth elevated to a definition of art itself in his seminal, early manifesto of conceptual art, Art after Philosophy (1969). The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the influential art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of Modern art during the 1950s. With the emergence of an exclusively language-based art in the 1960s, however, conceptual artists such as Art & Language, Joseph Kosuth (who became the American editor of Art-Language), and Lawrence Weiner began a far more radical interrogation of art than was previously possible (see below). One of the first and most important things they questioned was the common assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Through its association with the Young British Artists and the Turner Prize during the 1990s, in popular usage, particularly in the United Kingdom, "conceptual art" came to denote all contemporary art that does not practice the traditional skills of painting and sculpture. One of the reasons why the term "conceptual art" has come to be associated with various contemporary practices far removed from its original aims and forms lies in the problem of defining the term itself. As the artist Mel Bochner suggested as early as 1970, in explaining why he does not like the epithet "conceptual", it is not always entirely clear what "concept" refers to, and it runs the risk of being confused with "intention". Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as "conceptual" with an artist's "intention".

Precursors
The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them with examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades, for instance. The most famous of Duchamp's readymades was Fountain (1917), a standard urinal-basin signed by the artist with the pseudonym "R.Mutt", and submitted for inclusion in the annual, un-juried exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in New York (which rejected it). The artistic tradition does not see a commonplace object (such as a urinal) as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art, nor is it unique or hand-crafted. Duchamp's relevance and theoretical importance for future "conceptualists" was later acknowledged by US artist Joseph Kosuth in his 1969 essay, Art after Philosophy, when he wrote: "All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually".

In 1956 the founder of Lettrism, Isidore Isou, developed the notion of a work of art which, by its very nature, could never be created in reality, but which could nevertheless provide aesthetic rewards by being contemplated intellectually. This concept, also called Art esthapériste (or "infinite-aesthetics"), derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually. The current incarnation of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small.

Origins
In 1961, philosopher and artist Henry Flynt coined the term "concept art" in an article bearing the same name which appeared in the proto-Fluxus publication An Anthology of Chance Operations. Flynt's concept art, he maintained, devolved from his notion of "cognitive nihilism", in which paradoxes in logic are shown to evacuate concepts of substance. Drawing on the syntax of logic and mathematics, concept art was meant jointly to supersede mathematics and the formalistic music then current in serious art music circles. Therefore, Flynt maintained, to merit the label concept art, a work had to be a critique of logic or mathematics in which a linguistic concept was the material, a quality which is absent from subsequent "conceptual art".

The term assumed a different meaning when employed by Joseph Kosuth and by the English Art and Language group, who discarded the conventional art object in favour of a documented critical inquiry, that began in Art-Language: The Journal of Conceptual Art in 1969, into the artist's social, philosophical, and psychological status. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts and paintings to this end. In 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center.

The critique of formalism and of the commodification of art
Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s – in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and refinement toward the goal of defining the essential, formal nature of each medium. Those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is: what makes it a painting and nothing else. As it is of the nature of paintings to be flat objects with canvas surfaces onto which colored pigment is applied, such things as figuration, 3-D perspective illusion and references to external subject matter were all found to be extraneous to the essence of painting, and ought to be removed.

Some have argued that conceptual art continued this "dematerialization" of art by removing the need for objects altogether, while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break with Greenberg's kind of formalist Modernism. Later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. However, by the end of the 1960s it was certainly clear that Greenberg's stipulations for art to continue within the confines of each medium and to exclude external subject matter no longer held traction. Conceptual art also reacted against the commodification of art; it attempted a subversion of the gallery or museum as the location and determiner of art, and the art market as the owner and distributor of art. Lawrence Weiner said: "Once you know about a work of mine you own it. There's no way I can climb inside somebody's head and remove it." Many conceptual artists' work can therefore only be known about through documentation which is manifested by it, e.g., photographs, written texts or displayed objects, which some might argue are not in and of themselves the art. It is sometimes (as in the work of Robert Barry, Yoko Ono, and Weiner himself) reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, but stopping short of actually making it—emphasising the idea as more important than the artifact. This reveals an explicit preference for the "art" side of the ostensible dichotomy between art and craft, where art, unlike craft, takes place within and engages historical discourse: for example, Ono's "written instructions" make more sense alongside other conceptual art of the time.

Language and/as art
Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s. Although the utilisation of text in art was in no way novel, only in the 1960s did the artists Lawrence Weiner, Edward Ruscha, Joseph Kosuth, Robert Barry, and Art & Language begin to produce art by exclusively linguistic means. Where previously language was presented as one kind of visual element alongside others, and subordinate to an overarching composition (e.g. Synthetic Cubism), the conceptual artists used language in place of brush and canvas, and allowed it to signify in its own right. Of Lawrence Weiner's works Anne Rorimer writes, "The thematic content of individual works derives solely from the import of the language employed, while presentational means and contextual placement play crucial, yet separate, roles."

The British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art Peter Osborne suggests that among the many factors that influenced the gravitation toward language-based art, a central role for conceptualism came from the turn to linguistic theories of meaning in both Anglo-American analytic philosophy, and structuralist and post structuralist Continental philosophy during the middle of the twentieth century. This linguistic turn "reinforced and legitimized" the direction the conceptual artists took. Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art. Osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9, 2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art (rather than say at the descriptive level of style or movement).

The American art historian Edward A. Shanken points to the example of Roy Ascott who "powerfully demonstrates the significant intersections between conceptual art and art-and-technology, exploding the conventional autonomy of these art-historical categories." Ascott, the British artist most closely associated with cybernetic art in England, was not included in Cybernetic Serendipity because his use of cybernetics was primarily conceptual and did not explicitly utilize technology. Conversely, although his essay on the application of cybernetics to art and art pedagogy, "The Construction of Change" (1964), was quoted on the dedication page (to Sol LeWitt) of Lucy R. Lippard's seminal Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972, Ascott's anticipation of and contribution to the formation of conceptual art in Britain has received scant recognition, perhaps (and ironically) because his work was too closely allied with art-and-technology. Another vital intersection was explored in Ascott's use of the thesaurus in 1963 telematic connections:: timeline, which drew an explicit parallel between the taxonomic qualities of verbal and visual languages – a concept that would be taken up in Joseph Kosuth's Second Investigation, Proposition 1 (1968) and Mel Ramsden's Elements of an Incomplete Map (1968).

Contemporary history
Proto-conceptualism has roots in the rise of Modernism with, for example, Manet (1832–1883) and later Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968). The first wave of the "conceptual art" movement extended from approximately 1967 to 1978. Early "concept" artists like Henry Flynt (1940– ), Robert Morris (1931–2018), and Ray Johnson (1927–1995) influenced the later, widely accepted movement of conceptual art. Conceptual artists like Dan Graham, Hans Haacke, and Lawrence Weiner have proven very influential on subsequent artists, and well-known contemporary artists such as Mike Kelley or Tracey Emin are sometimes labeled "second- or third-generation" conceptualists, or "post-conceptual" artists (the prefix Post- in art can frequently be interpreted as "because of").

Contemporary artists have taken up many of the concerns of the conceptual art movement, while they may or may not term themselves "conceptual artists". Ideas such as anti-commodification, social and/or political critique, and ideas/information as medium continue to be aspects of contemporary art, especially among artists working with installation art, performance art, art intervention, net.art, and electronic/digital art.

Revival
Neo-conceptual art describes art practices in the 1980s and particularly 1990s to date that derive from the conceptual art movement of the 1960s and 1970s. These subsequent initiatives have included the Moscow Conceptualists, United States neo-conceptualists such as Sherrie Levine and the Young British Artists, notably Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin in the United Kingdom.

Notable examples

 * 1913 : Bicycle Wheel (Roue de bicyclette) by Marcel Duchamp. Assisted readymade. Bicycle wheel mounted by its fork on a painted wooden stool. The first readymade, even though he did not have the idea for readymades until two years later. The original was lost. Also, recognized as the first kinetic sculpture.
 * 1914 : Bottle Rack (also called Bottle Dryer or Hedgehog) (Egouttoir or Porte-bouteilles or Hérisson) by Marcel Duchamp. Readymade. A galvanized iron bottle drying rack that Duchamp bought as an "already made" sculpture, but it gathered dust in the corner of his Paris studio. Two years later in 1916, in correspondence from New York with his sister, Suzanne Duchamp in France, he expresses a desire to make it a readymade. Suzanne, looking after his Paris studio, has already disposed of it.
 * 1915 : In Advance of the Broken Arm (En prévision du bras cassé) by Marcel Duchamp. Readymade. Snow shovel on which Duchamp carefully painted its title. The first piece the artist officially called a "readymade".
 * 1916–17 : Apolinère Enameled, 1916–1917. Rectified readymade. An altered Sapolin paint advertisement.
 * 1917 : Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, described in an article in The Independent as the invention of conceptual art. It is also an early example of an Institutional Critique
 * 1917 : Hat Rack (Porte-chapeaux), c. 1917, by Marcel Duchamp. Readymade. A wooden hatrack.
 * 1919 : L.H.O.O.Q. by Marcel Duchamp. Rectified readymade. Pencil on a reproduction of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa on which he drew a goatee and moustache titled with a coarse pun.
 * 1921 : Why Not Sneeze, Rose Sélavy? by Marcel Duchamp. Assisted readymade. Marble cubes in the shape of sugar lumps with a thermometer and cuttle bones in a small bird cage.
 * 1921 : Belle Haleine, Eau de Voilette by Marcel Duchamp. Assisted readymade. An altered perfume bottle in the original box.
 * 1952 : The premiere of American experimental composer John Cage's work, 4′33″, a three-movement composition, performed by pianist David Tudor on August 29, 1952, in Maverick Concert Hall, Woodstock, New York, as part of a recital of contemporary piano music. It is commonly perceived as "four minutes thirty-three seconds of silence".
 * 1953 : Robert Rauschenberg produces Erased De Kooning Drawing, a drawing by Willem de Kooning which Rauschenberg erased. It raised many questions about the fundamental nature of art, challenging the viewer to consider whether erasing another artist's work could be a creative act, as well as whether the work was only "art" because the famous Rauschenberg had done it.
 * 1955 : Rhea Sue Sanders creates her first text pieces of the series pièces de complices, combining visual art with poetry and philosophy, and introducing the concept of complicity: the viewer must accomplish the art in her/his imagination.
 * 1958: George Brecht invents the Event Score which would become a central feature of Fluxus. Brecht, Dick Higgins, Allan Kaprow, Al Hansen, Jackson MacLow and others studied with John Cage between 1958 and 1959 at the New School leading directly to the creation of Happenings, Fluxus and Henry Flynt's concept art. Event Scores are simple instructions to complete everyday tasks which can be performed publicly, privately, or not at all.
 * 1958: Wolf Vostell Das Theater ist auf der Straße/The theater is on the street. The first Happening in Europe.
 * 1961: Piero Manzoni exhibited Artist's Shit, tins purportedly containing his own feces (although since the work would be destroyed if opened, no one has been able to say for sure). He put the tins on sale for their own weight in gold. He also sold his own breath (enclosed in balloons) as Bodies of Air, and signed people's bodies, thus declaring them to be living works of art either for all time or for specified periods. (This depended on how much they are prepared to pay). Marcel Broodthaers and Primo Levi are amongst the designated "artworks".
 * 1962: Artist Barrie Bates rebrands himself as Billy Apple, erasing his original identity to continue his exploration of everyday life and commerce as art. By this stage, many of his works are fabricated by third parties.
 * 1962: Yves Klein presents Immaterial Pictorial Sensitivity in various ceremonies on the banks of the Seine. He offers to sell his own "pictorial sensitivity" (whatever that was – he did not define it) in exchange for gold leaf. In these ceremonies the purchaser gave Klein the gold leaf in return for a certificate. Since Klein's sensitivity was immaterial, the purchaser was then required to burn the certificate whilst Klein threw half the gold leaf into the Seine. (There were seven purchasers.)
 * 1962: FLUXUS Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik in Wiesbaden with George Maciunas, Wolf Vostell, Nam June Paik and others.
 * 1963: George Brecht's collection of Event-Scores, Water Yam, is published as the first Fluxkit by George Maciunas.
 * 1964: Yoko Ono publishes Grapefruit: A Book of Instructions and Drawings, an example of heuristic art, or a series of instructions for how to obtain an aesthetic experience.
 * 1965: Art & Language founder Michael Baldwin's Mirror Piece. Instead of paintings, the work shows a variable number of mirrors that challenge both the visitor and Clement Greenberg's theory.
 * Joseph Kosuth dates the concept of One and Three Chairs to the year 1965. The presentation of the work consists of a chair, its photo, and an enlargement of a definition of the word "chair". Kosuth chose the definition from a dictionary. Four versions with different definitions are known.
 * 1966: Conceived in 1966 The Air Conditioning Show of Art & Language is published as an article in 1967 in the November issue of Arts Magazine.
 * 1967: Mel Ramsden's first 100% Abstract Paintings. The painting shows a list of chemical components that constitutes the substance of the painting.
 * 1968: Michael Baldwin, Terry Atkinson, David Bainbridge and Harold Hurrell found Art & Language.
 * 1968: Lawrence Weiner relinquishes the physical making of his work and formulates his "Declaration of Intent", one of the most important conceptual art statements following LeWitt's "Paragraphs on Conceptual Art". The declaration, which underscores his subsequent practice, reads: "1. The artist may construct the piece. 2. The piece may be fabricated. 3. The piece need not be built. Each being equal and consistent with the intent of the artist the decision as to condition rests with the receiver upon the occasion of receivership."
 * 1969: The first generation of New York alternative exhibition spaces are established, including Billy Apple's APPLE, Robert Newman's Gain Ground, where Vito Acconci produced many important early works, and 112 Greene Street.
 * 1973-1979: Mary Kelly makes her Post-Partum Document, composed of six separate parts charting the first six years of caring for her son. Through a psychoanalytical and feminist lens, the work explores the mother-child relationship and examines her son's evolving sense of self as well as her own.
 * 1982: The opera Victorine by Art & Language was to be performed in the city of Kassel for documenta 7 and shown alongside Art & Language Studio at 3 Wesley Place Painted by Actors, but the performance was cancelled.
 * 1990: Ashley Bickerton and Ronald Jones included in "Mind Over Matter: Concept and Object" exhibition of "third generation Conceptual artists" at the Whitney Museum of American Art.
 * 1991: Ronald Jones exhibits objects and text, art, history and science rooted in grim political reality at Metro Pictures Gallery.
 * 1991: Charles Saatchi funds Damien Hirst and the next year in the Saatchi Gallery exhibits his The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine.
 * 1992: Maurizio Bolognini starts to "seal" his Programmed Machines: hundreds of computers are programmed and left to run ad infinitum to generate inexhaustible flows of random images which nobody would see.
 * 1999: Tracey Emin is nominated for the Turner Prize. Part of her exhibit is My Bed, her dishevelled bed, surrounded by detritus such as condoms, blood-stained knickers, bottles and her bedroom slippers.
 * 2001: Martin Creed wins the Turner Prize for Work No. 227: The lights going on and off, an empty room in which the lights go on and off.
 * 2003: damali ayo exhibits at the Center of Contemporary Art, Seattle, WA Flesh Tone #1: Skinned, a collaborative self-portrait where she asked paint mixers from local hardware stores to create house paint to match various parts of her body, while recording the interactions.
 * 2005: Simon Starling wins the Turner Prize for Shedboatshed, a wooden shed which he had turned into a boat, floated down the Rhine and turned back into a shed again.
 * 2014: Olaf Nicolai creates the Memorial for the Victims of Nazi Military Justice on Vienna's Ballhausplatz after winning an international competition. The inscription on top of the three-step sculpture features a poem by Scottish poet Ian Hamilton Finlay (1924–2006) with just two words: all alone.
 * 2019: Maurizio Cattelan sells two editions of Comedian, which appears as a banana duct taped to a wall, for US$120,000 each, garnering significant media attention.

Notable conceptual artists

 * Kevin Abosch (born 1969)
 * Marina Abramović (born 1946)
 * Vito Acconci (1940–2017)
 * Bas Jan Ader (1942–1975)
 * Vikky Alexander (born 1959)
 * Francis Alÿs (born 1959)
 * Billy Apple (1935-2021)
 * Shusaku Arakawa (1936–2010)
 * Keith Arnatt (1930–2008)
 * Roy Ascott (born 1934)
 * Michael Asher (1943–2012)
 * Mireille Astore (born 1961)
 * damali ayo (born 1972)
 * Abel Azcona (born 1988)
 * John Baldessari (1931–2020)
 * Adina Bar-On (born 1951)
 * NatHalie Braun Barends
 * Artur Barrio (born 1945)
 * Robert Barry (born 1936)
 * Lothar Baumgarten (1944–2018)
 * Joseph Beuys (1921–1986)
 * Adolf Bierbrauer (1915–2012)
 * Mark Bloch (born 1956)
 * Mel Bochner (born 1940)
 * Marinus Boezem (born 1934)
 * Maurizio Bolognini (born 1952)
 * Allan Bridge (1945–1995)
 * Marcel Broodthaers (1924–1976)
 * Stanley Brouwn (1935-2017)
 * Chris Burden (1946–2015)
 * Daniel Buren (born 1938)
 * María Teresa Burga Ruiz (1935–2021)
 * Victor Burgin (born 1941)
 * Donald Burgy (born 1937)
 * Maris Bustamante (born 1949)
 * John Cage (1912–1992)
 * Sophie Calle (born 1953)
 * Graciela Carnevale (born 1942)
 * Roberto Chabet (1937–2013)
 * Greg Colson (born 1956)
 * Martin Creed (born 1968)
 * Cory Danziger (born 1977)
 * Christopher D'Arcangelo (1955–1979)
 * Jack Daws (born 1970)
 * Jeremy Deller (born 1966)
 * Agnes Denes (born 1938)
 * Jan Dibbets (born 1941)
 * Braco Dimitrijević (born 1948)
 * Mark Divo (born 1966)
 * Brad Downey (born 1980)
 * Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968)
 * Olafur Eliasson (born 1967)
 * Noemí Escandell (1942–2019)
 * Ken Feingold (born 1952)
 * Teresita Fernández (born 1968)
 * Fluxus
 * Henry Flynt (born 1940)
 * Andrea Fraser (born 1965)
 * Jens Galschiøt (born 1954)
 * Kendell Geers (born 1968)
 * Thierry Geoffroy (born 1961)
 * Jochen Gerz (born 1940)
 * Gilbert and George Gilbert (born 1943) George (born 1942)
 * Manav Gupta (born 1967)
 * Felix Gonzalez-Torres (1957–1996)
 * Allan Graham (born 1943)
 * Dan Graham (1942-2022)
 * Genco Gulan (born 1969)
 * Cai Guo-Qiang (born 1957)
 * Hans Haacke (born 1936)
 * Iris Häussler (born 1962)
 * Oliver Herring (born 1964)
 * Andreas Heusser (born 1976)
 * Susan Hiller (1940–2019)
 * Jenny Holzer (born 1950)
 * Greer Honeywill (born 1945)
 * Zhang Huan (born 1965)
 * Douglas Huebler (1924–1997)
 * Irma Hünerfauth (1907–1998)
 * Industry of the Ordinary
 * David Ireland (1930–2009)
 * Alfredo Jaar (born 1956)
 * Ray Johnson (1927–1995)
 * Ronald Jones (1952–2019)
 * Ilya Kabakov (1933-2023)
 * On Kawara (1932–2014)
 * Jonathon Keats (born 1971)
 * Mary Kelly (born 1941)
 * Yves Klein (1928–1962)
 * John Knight (artist) (born 1945)
 * Joseph Kosuth (born 1945)
 * Barbara Kruger (born 1945)
 * Yayoi Kusama (born 1929)
 * Magali Lara (born 1956)
 * John Latham (1921–2006)
 * Matthieu Laurette (born 1970)
 * Sol LeWitt (1928–2007)
 * Annette Lemieux (born 1957)
 * Elliott Linwood (born 1956)
 * Noah Lyon (born 1979)
 * Richard Long (born 1945)
 * Mark Lombardi (1951–2000)
 * George Maciunas (1931–1978)
 * Teresa Margolles (born 1963)
 * María Evelia Marmolejo (born 1958)
 * Piero Manzoni (1933–1963)
 * Tom Marioni (born 1937)
 * Phyllis Mark (1921–2004)
 * Danny Matthys (born 1947)
 * Allan McCollum (born 1944)
 * Cildo Meireles (born 1948)
 * Ana Mendieta (1948-1985)
 * Marta Minujín (born 1943)
 * Linda Montano (born 1942)
 * Robert Morris (artist) (1931–2018)
 * N.E. Thing Co. Ltd. (Iain & Ingrid Baxter) Iain (born 1936) Ingrid (born 1938)
 * Maurizio Nannucci (born 1939)
 * Bruce Nauman (born 1941)
 * Olaf Nicolai (born 1962)
 * Margaret Noble (born 1972)
 * Yoko Ono (born 1933)
 * Roman Opałka (1931–2011)
 * Dennis Oppenheim (1938–2011)
 * Adrian Piper (born 1948)
 * William Pope.L (1955-2023)
 * Liliana Porter (born 1941)
 * Michele Pred (born 1966)
 * Dmitri Prigov (1940–2007)
 * Arne Quinze (born 1971)
 * Guillem Ramos-Poquí (born 1944)
 * Charles Recher (1950–2017)
 * Jim Ricks (born 1973)
 * Lotty Rosenfeld (1943–2020)
 * Martha Rosler (born 1943)
 * Allen Ruppersberg (born 1944)
 * Santiago Sierra (born 1966)
 * Bodo Sperling (born 1952)
 * Stelarc (born 1946)
 * M. Vänçi Stirnemann (born 1951)
 * Hiroshi Sugimoto (born 1948)
 * Stephanie Syjuco (born 1974)
 * Hakan Topal (born 1972)
 * Endre Tot (born 1937)
 * David Tremlett (born 1945)
 * Tucumán arde (1968)
 * Jacek Tylicki (born 1951)
 * Mierle Laderman Ukeles (born 1939)
 * Wolf Vostell (1932–1998)
 * Mark Wallinger (born 1959)
 * Theodore Wan (1953-1987)
 * Gillian Wearing (born 1963)
 * Peter Weibel (1945-2023)
 * Lawrence Weiner (1942-2021)
 * Roger Welch (born 1946)
 * Christopher Williams (born 1956)
 * David Woodard (born 1964)
 * xurban collective

title: Conceptual art


text:
Tripe

Tripe is a type of edible lining from the stomachs of various farm animals. Most tripe is from cattle, pigs and sheep.

Beef
Beef tripe is made from the muscle wall (the interior mucosal lining is removed) of a cow's stomach chambers: the rumen (blanket/flat/smooth tripe), the reticulum (honeycomb and pocket tripe), and the omasum (book/bible/leaf tripe). Abomasum (reed) tripe is seen less frequently, owing to its glandular tissue content.

Other animals
Tripe refers to cow (beef) stomach, but includes stomach of any ruminant including cattle, sheep, deer, antelope, goat, ox, giraffes, and their relatives. Tripas, the related Spanish word, refers to culinary dishes produced from the small intestines of an animal. In some cases, other names have been applied to the tripe of other animals. For example, tripe from pigs may be referred to as paunch, pig bag, or hog maw.

Washed tripe
Washed tripe is more typically known as dressed tripe. To dress the tripe, the stomachs are cleaned and the fat trimmed off. It is then boiled and bleached, giving it the white color more commonly associated with tripe as seen on market stalls and in butchers' shops. The task of dressing the tripe is usually carried out by a professional tripe dresser.

Dressed tripe was a popular, nutritious and cheap dish for the British working classes from Victorian times until the latter half of the 20th century. While it is still popular in many parts of the world today, the number of tripe eaters, and consequently the number of tripe dressers, in the UK has rapidly declined. Tripe has come to be regarded as a pet food, as the increased affluence of postwar Britain has reduced the appeal of this once staple food.

It remains a popular dish in many parts of continental Europe such as Portugal, Spain, France and Italy. In France, a very popular dish, sold in most supermarkets, is tripes à la mode de Caen. In Spain callos a la madrileña are served as tapas in many restaurants as well as in supermarkets. The most beloved and celebrated dish in the city of Porto and surrounding areas, in Portugal, is 'tripas à moda do Porto', a tripe stew made with white butter beans, carrots, paprika and chouriço. It is so loved that locals are called 'Tripeiros', in an homage to the 'tripa' (tripe).

Dishes
Tripe is eaten in many parts of the world. Tripe soup is made in many varieties in the Eastern European cuisine. Tripe dishes include:
 * Andouille — French poached, boiled, and smoked cold tripe sausage.
 * Andouillette — French grilling sausage, including beef tripe and pork.
 * Babat — Indonesian spicy beef tripe dish; can be fried with spices or served as soup as soto babat (tripe soto).
 * Bak kut teh — a Chinese herbal soup popularly served in Malaysia and Singapore with pork tripe, meat, and ribs.
 * Bao du — Chinese quick-boiled beef or lamb tripe.
 * Botifarra — Catalan sausage.
 * Bumbar — Bosnian dish where the tripe is stuffed with other beef parts.
 * Busecca – a thick tripe soup made with tomato sauce, spices, pancetta and different types of beans; it's one of the most known dishes of Milanese cuisine.
 * Caldume — a Sicilian stew or soup.
 * Callos a la Madrileña — Spanish tripe dish cooked with chorizo and paprika.
 * Callos con garbanzos — Spanish tripe dish cooked with chickpea, chorizo, and paprika.
 * Calooley — tripe dish eaten in Somalia and Djibouti; it is a stew made with different sauces.
 * Cap i pota — Catalan tripe dish.
 *  — Peruvian stew of cow tripe, potatoes, mint, and other spices and vegetables.
 * Chakna — Indian spicy stew of goat tripe and other animal parts.
 * Ciorbă de burtă — Romanian special soup with cream and garlic.
 * Cow foot soup — Belizean dish of seasoned, tenderly cooked cow tripe and foot, plus aromatic and ground vegetables with macaroni in a rich glutinous soup.
 * Cuajito – Puerto Rican dish made from pig stomach; eaten with boiled plantains.
 * Dobrada — Portuguese tripe dish usually made with white butterbeans, carrots, and chouriço; served with white rice.
 * Dršťkovka (dršťková polévka) — Czech goulash-like tripe soup.
 * Fasulia bil karsha — Libyan kidney bean soup with tripe.
 * Držková — Slovak tripe soup (držková polievka).
 * Dulot or dulet — Eritrean and Ethiopian tripe and entrail stir-fry, containing finely chopped tripe, liver, and ground beef, lamb, or goat fried in clarified and spiced butter with garlic, parsley, and berbere.
 * Ebyenda or byenda — word for tripe in some Bantu languages of Uganda; tripe may be stewed, but is especially popular when cooked with matooke as a breakfast dish.
 * Fileki or špek-fileki — Croatian tripe soup.
 * Flaczki or flaki — Polish soup, with marjoram.
 * Fuqi feipian or 夫妻肺片 — spicy and "numbing" (麻) Chinese cold dish made from various types of beef offal, nowadays mainly thinly sliced tendon, tripe, and sometimes tongue.
 * Gopchang jeongol – a spicy Korean stew or casserole made by boiling beef tripe, vegetables, and seasonings in beef broth.
 * Goto – Filipino gruel with tripe.
 * Guatitas — Ecuadorian and Chilean tripe stew, often served with peanut sauce in Ecuador.
 * Guiso de panza — Bolivian tomato-based stewed tripe.
 * Gulai babat — Indonesian Minang tripe curry.
 * Guru — Zimbabwean name for tripe, normally eaten as relish with sadza.
 * Haggis — Scottish traditional dish made of a sheep's stomach stuffed with oatmeal and the minced heart, liver, and lungs of a sheep. The stomach is used only as a vessel for the stuffing and is not eaten.
 * İşkembe çorbası — Turkish tripe soup with garlic, lemon, and spices.
 * Kare-kare — Filipino oxtail-peanut stew which may include tripe.
 * Kersha (Egyptian Arabic: كرشة) — Egyptian tripe stew with chickpea and tomato sauce.
 * Khash — in Armenia, this popular winter soup is made of boiled beef tendon and honeycomb tripe, and served with garlic and lavash bread.
 * Kirxa – popular traditional Maltese dish stewed in curry.
 * Kista — Assyrian dish cooked traditionally in a stew and stuffed with soft rice; part of a major dish known as pacha in Assyrian.
 * Lampredotto — Florentine abomasum-tripe dish, often eaten in sandwiches with green sauce and hot sauce.
 * Laray — curried tripe dish popular in Afghanistan and in the northern region of Pakistan; eaten with naan/roti.
 * Laray — a Pakistani (Pushto) dish from the Northern Area, consisting of fried cow tripe with traditional spices. Da laray pikaorae is made of small square pieces of tripe mixed with chickpea flour (baisin) with traditional spices and deep-fried.
 * Mala Mogodu — popular South African tripe dish, often eaten at dinner time as a stew with hot pap.
 * Matumbo — Kenyan tripe dish, often eaten as a stew with various accompaniments.
 * Menudo — Mexican tripe and hominy stew.
 * Mogodu – South African and Botswanan stewed tripe with fatty broth.
 * Mondongo — Latin American and Caribbean tripe, vegetable, and herb soup.
 *  – an Italian-influenced Peruvian stew.
 * Motsu — Japanese tripe served either simmered or in nabemono, such as motsunabe.
 * Mumbar – beef or sheep tripe stuffed with rice; typical dish in Adana in southern Turkey.
 * Mutura – Kenyan tripe sausage; stuffed with blood, organ and other meat, and then roasted.
 * Niubie (Chinese: 牛瘪) — a kind of Chinese huoguo, popular in Qiandongnan prefecture of Guizhou province, southwest China, and traditionally eaten by the Dong and Miao peoples; it includes the stomach and small intestine of cattle. Bile from the gall bladder and the half-digested contents of the stomach give the dish a unique, slightly bitter flavour. It can also be made with the offal of a goat, which is called yangbie (Chinese: 羊瘪).
 * 牛肚 / 金錢肚 (Mandarin: niudu/jinqiandu; Cantonese, ngautou/gumtsintou) — Chinese tripe with the inner lining resembling an ancient Chinese coin with square hole (hence the name 'coin stomach'); usually served steamed with spring onion and garlic sauce, or boiled in water served with sweet soya sauce with chilli and spring onions as a dipping sauce.
 * Obe ata pelu Shaaki — Nigerian stew made with large chunk of beef and goat tripe.
 * Ojree — Pakistani curry made from finely chopped and tenderized goat tripe.
 * Osben — Tunisian cow or sheep tripe filled with meat and vegetables, and generally cooked with couscous.
 * Pacal — Hungarian spicy meal made of tripe, similar to pörkölt.
 * Pacha — Iraqi cuisine; tripe and intestines stuffed with garlic, rice, and meat.
 * Pachownie — Trinidad and Tobago cuisine; tripe and intestines cooked with curry and other ingredients.
 * Packet and tripe — Irish meal with tripe boiled in water, then strained off and then simmered in a pot with milk, onions, salt, and pepper. It is served hot with cottage bread or bread rolls, and is popular in County Limerick.
 * Pancita — Peruvian spicy barbecued fried food made with beef tripe marinated with peppers and other ingredients.
 * Pancitas — Mexican stew similar to menudo, but made with sheep stomach.
 * Pani câ meusa – A tripe sandwich popular in the Cuisine of Sicily.
 * Papaitan — Filipino goat or beef tripe and offal soup flavored with bile.
 * Patsás (Greek: πατσάς) — Greek tripe stew seasoned with red wine vinegar and garlic (skordostoubi) or thickened with avgolemono; widely believed to be a hangover remedy.
 * Pepper soup with tripe — Nigerian hot peppered liquid soup with bite-sized tripe.
 * Philadelphia Pepper Pot soup — American (Pennsylvania) tripe soup with peppercorns.
 * Phở — Vietnamese noodle soup with many regional variations, some of which include tripe.
 * Pickled tripe — pickled white honeycomb tripe, once common in the Northeastern United States.
 * Pieds paquets — Provençal dish, consisting of stuffed sheep's offal and sheep's feet stewed together.
 * Potted meat
 * Ṣakí or shaki — word for tripe in the Yoruba language of Nigeria; ṣakí is often included in various stews, along with other meat.
 * Sapu mhichā — leaf tripe bag stuffed with bone marrow then boiled and fried; from Kathmandu, Nepal.
 * Satay babat — Marinated, skewered, and grilled tripe, eaten in the Malay world.
 * Saure Kutteln — south German dish made with beef tripe and vinegar or wine.
 * Sekba — Chinese Indonesian pork offals including tripes stewed in mild soy sauce-based soup.
 * Serobe — a Botswanan delicacy, mixed with intestines and, on some occasions, with beef.
 * Shkembe (shkembe chorba) (Шкембе чорба/Чкембе чорба in Bulgarian) — a kind of tripe soup prepared in Iran, Bulgaria, Romania, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Turkey. Schkæm (Persian: شکم) is the Persian word for 'stomach'; sirabi (Persian: سیرابی) is the Iranian version of shkembe.
 * Skembici — a Serbian dish and one of the oldest known dishes (dating from the 13th century). It is tripe in vegetable stew with herbs, served with boiled potato.
 * Soto babat — Indonesian spicy tripe soup.
 * Tablier de sapeur — a speciality of Lyon.
 * Tkalia — a Moroccan spiced dish, simmered in sauce, and often accompanied with lung meat. Generally eaten with bread, especially during Eid al-Adha.
 *  — tripe with white beans in Portuguese cuisine; a dish typical of the city of Porto. It is called dobrada elsewhere in Portugal.
 * Tripes à la mode de Caen — in Normandy, a traditional stew made with tripe. It has a very codified recipe, preserved by the brotherhood of La tripière d'or which organises a competition every year to elect the world's best maker of tripes à la mode de Caen.
 * Tripe and beans — in Jamaica, a thick, spicy stew made with tripe and broad beans.
 * Tripe and drisheen — in Cork, Ireland.
 * Tripe and onions — in Northern England.
 * Tripe in Nigerian tomato sauce – tripe cooked until tender, and finished in spicy tomato sauce.
 * Tripe soup — in Jordan, a stew made with tripe and tomato sauce.
 * Tripe taco — Mexican sheep or calf tripe dish with tortillas.
 * Tripice – a Croatian stew made from tripe boiled with potato, with bacon added for flavour.
 * Tripoux — Occitan sheep tripe dish traditional in Rouergue.
 *  — an Italian tripe dish fried with tomatoes and other vegetables.
 * Trippa alla livornese
 * Trippa alla pisana – a tripe dish from Pisa, Italy, containing onion, celery, carrot, garlic fried in oil, with tomatoes and pancetta or guanciale, and topped with Parmesan cheese.
 * Trippa alla romana — an Italian tripe dish made with white wine and tomatoes.
 * Trippa alla savoiarda — a tripe dish from Piedmont, Italy, stewed with vegetables, white wine, and sauce from roasted beef; served covered with grated Parmigiano Reggiano/Grana Padano cheese.
 * Trippe alla Veneta – a tripe dish from Veneto, Northeast Italy.
 *  — a tripe dish from Moncalieri city, Piedmont, Italy, consisting of tripe sausage served in thin slices with a few drops of olive oil, minced parsley, garlic, and a pinch of black pepper, or used mainly for trippa alla Savoiarda.
 * Tripe with potatoes — a tripe dish from Salento, Italy, consisting in tripe with tomatoes and potatoes
 * Tsitsarong bulaklak — Filipino crunchy fried tripe (literally 'flower' crackling).
 * Tuslama (Romanian)/Tuzlama (Turkish) — tripe stew specific to south-eastern Romania; a blend of Romanian and Turkish cuisines.
 * Ulusu- a tripe dish from the Matebeleland region of Zimbabwe usually eaten with Isitshwala
 * Vajri khudi – East Indian traditional variation of a vajri curry.
 * Vampi — Slovenian tripe stew.
 * Vette darmen — a traditional West Flemish dish, now on the verge of being obsolete; the tripe is seasoned and fried in a buttered pan.
 * Yakiniku and horumonyaki — Japanese chargrilled, bite-sized tripe.
 * Yem-adi – a Ghananian dish consisting of spiced and steamed tripe eaten with most stews (kontombire) and soups (light soup, peanut butter soup, palm kernel soup, ayoyo).

Related dishes
In Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, the close cognate tripas tends to denote small intestines rather than stomach lining. Dishes of this sort include:
 * Tacos de tripa — Mexican tacos filled with soft or crunchy fried small intestines

Another type of food made from the small intestines are chitterlings (chitlins).

Beef tripe is also a common meat in Kerala, India. Beef tripe and tapioca (kolliyum bottiyum) is a traditional wedding eve dinner for Christians in some parts of Kerala.

Marketing
The Tripe Marketing Board promotes World Tripe Day on 24 October, because on that day in 1662, Samuel Pepys wrote, "So home and dined there with my wife upon a most excellent dish of tripes of my own directing."

title: Tripe


text:
Pepperoni

Pepperoni is a variety of spicy salami made from cured pork and beef seasoned with paprika and chili peppers.

Prior to cooking, pepperoni is characteristically soft, slightly smoky, and bright red. Sliced pepperoni is one of the most popular pizza toppings in American pizzerias.

Traditionally made pepperonis curl into "cups" in the pizza oven's intense heat; commercialization of the production of pepperoni created slices that would lie flat on the pie. The curled "cup and char" style of pepperoni remained popular in pockets of the Midwest.

Etymology
The term pepperoni is a borrowing of peperoni, the plural of peperone, the Italian word for 'bell pepper'. The first use of pepperoni to refer to a sausage dates to 1916 at the latest. In Italian, the word peperoncino refers to hot and spicy chili peppers.

History
In 1919, Italian immigrants in New York City created pepperoni. It is a cured dry sausage, with similarities to the spicy salamis of southern Italy on which it is based, such as salsiccia or soppressata. The main differences are that pepperoni is less spicy, has a finer grain (akin to spiceless salami from Milan), is usually softer in texture, and is usually produced with the use of an artificial casing.

Production
Pepperoni is made from pork or from a mixture of pork and beef. Turkey meat is also commonly used as a substitute, but the use of poultry in pepperoni must be appropriately labeled in the United States. It is typically seasoned with paprika or other chili pepper.

Prior to cooking, pepperoni is characteristically soft, slightly smoky, and bright red. Curing with nitrates or nitrites (usually used in modern curing agents to protect against botulism and other forms of microbiological decay) also contributes to pepperoni's reddish color, by reacting with heme in the myoglobin of the proteinaceous components of the meat.

Serving
Sliced pepperoni is one of the most popular pizza toppings in American pizzerias. According to Convenience Store Decisions, in 2009 Americans consumed 251.7 e6lb of pepperoni annually, on 36% of all pizzas produced nationally.

Pepperoni is also used as the filling of the pepperoni roll, a popular regional snack in West Virginia and neighboring areas.

In the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, deep fried pepperoni served on its own (usually with a honey mustard dipping sauce) is common pub food.

Cup and char
Pepperoni has a tendency to curl up from the edges in the heat of a pizza oven; historically all pepperonis showed at least some of this tendency to curl in the oven because of their natural casings.

As commercial suppliers became the main suppliers to pizza shops, they developed a fibrous synthetic casing which is intended to be stripped from the pepperoni before it is sliced. This resulted in a pepperoni that does not curl. An additional benefit of non-curling pepperoni is that it eliminates the small deposits of hot grease that formed in the cupped pepperoni, therefore also eliminating any possible liability for customers who burn themselves on it.

The original style became known as "cup and char" pepperoni and remains popular in parts of the midwest and Great Lakes areas, particularly around Cleveland, Ohio, and Buffalo, New York, and regained popularity in other areas in the 2010s. It is more expensive to produce.

title: Pepperoni