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Bioregionalism

Bioregionalism is a philosophy that suggests that political, cultural, and economic systems are more sustainable and just if they are organized around naturally defined areas called bioregions, similar to ecoregions. Bioregions are defined through physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the determination of a bioregion is also a cultural phenomenon, and emphasizes local populations, knowledge, and solutions.

Bioregionalism is a concept that goes beyond national boundaries—an example is the concept of Cascadia, a region that is sometimes considered to consist of most of Oregon and Washington, the Alaska Panhandle, the far north of California and the West Coast of Canada, sometimes also including some or all of Idaho and western Montana. Another example of a bioregion, which does not cross national boundaries, but does overlap state lines, is the Ozarks, a bioregion also referred to as the Ozarks Plateau, which consists of southern Missouri, northwest Arkansas, the northeast corner of Oklahoma, southeast corner of Kansas.

Bioregions are not synonymous with ecoregions as defined by bodies such as the World Wildlife Fund or the Commission for Environmental Cooperation; the latter are scientifically based and focused on wildlife and vegetation. Bioregions, by contrast are human regions, informed by nature but with a social and political element. In this way bioregionalism is simply political localism with an ecological foundation.

Overview
The term was coined by Allen Van Newkirk, founder of the Institute for Bioregional Research, in 1975, given currency by Peter Berg and Raymond F. Dasmann in the early 1970s, and has been advocated by writers such as David Haenke and Kirkpatrick Sale.

The bioregionalist perspective opposes a homogeneous economy and consumer culture with its lack of stewardship towards the environment. This perspective seeks to:
 * Ensure that political boundaries match ecological boundaries.
 * Highlight the unique ecology of the bioregion.
 * Encourage consumption of local foods where possible.
 * Encourage the use of local materials where possible.
 * Encourage the cultivation of native plants of the region.
 * Encourage sustainability in harmony with the bioregion.

Bioregional mapping is a powerful tool to increase understanding, change the story and influence policy. A good bioregional map shows layers of geology, flora, fauna, and inhabitation over time. All the interdisciplinary content that is integrated in this kind of map makes it a great communication tool to illustrate an ecological approach. One of the best examples of a richly communicative bioregional map is David McClosky's new map of Cascadia.

Relationship to environmentalism
Bioregionalism, while akin to modern environmentalism in certain aspects, such as a desire to live in harmony with nature, differs in certain ways from the 20th century movement.

According to Peter Berg, bioregionalism is proactive, and is based on forming a harmony between human culture and the natural environment, rather than being protest-based like the original environmental movement. Also, modern environmentalists saw human industry in and of itself an enemy of environmental stability, viewing nature as a victim needing to be saved; bioregionalists see humanity and its culture as a part of nature, focusing on building a positive, sustainable relationship with both the sociological and ecological environments, rather than a focus on completely preserving and segregating the wilderness from the world of humanity.

In this way the sentiments of Bioregionalism echo those of Classical Environmentalism, and early environmentalists such as Henry David Thoreau are sometimes viewed as predecessors of the Bioregionalist movement.

History of Bioregionalism
Bioregionalism emerged in the 1970s, developing primarily along the western coast of North America, and specifically from a broad coalition of poets, artists, writers, community leaders, and back-to-the-landers, and from the Digger movement which had grown in the late 1960s Beat Scene in San Francisco, and as a counter to the mainstream environmental movement, which many felt was reactionary and negative. They envisioned a positive, place-based alternative to mainstream efforts within a capitalist framework, or those of nation-states or other international bodies. This included many different individuals, including "Peter Berg, Judy Goldhaft, Raymond Dasmann, Kirkpatrick Sale, Judith Plant, Eleanor Wright, Doug Aberley, Stephanie Mills, Jim Dodge, Freeman House, Van Andruss, David Haenke, and Gary Snyder", working together through the Planet Drum foundation, and similar groups to create a new place-based philosophy they called bioregionalism.

Bioregionalism also directly grew from a relationship with the civil rights and American Indian Movement, and efforts to reclaim their languages, territories and maps, and what bioregionalists saw as the global collapse of traditional ecological knowledge, language suppression and revitalization, and a hope that maps reframing names from "North America" to "Turtle Island" would help bioregions become frameworks for decolonization, as well as more accurate cultural representation and recognition of Indigenous sovereignty. It also grew from civil rights movement, anti-war movement, anti-nuclear movement, the Diggers, as well as an increasing awareness of pervasive ecological pollution, especially in areas like Los Angeles.

Planet Drum Foundation
Starting in 1973, Planet Drum Foundation in San Franscisco became a leading institution promoting bioregionalism. They published a series of publications looking at place, poetry, cultural expression, politics, art and many other subjects. From this group, other early bioregional groups started, such as the Frisco Bay Mussel Group, Raise the Stakes newsletters, and Bioregional Bundles that would carry the bioregional movement forward for the next several decades.

This started by creating bioregional “Bundles” that they would publish each year, that would be distinct to a bioregion, and help the people within that place define that bioregion. Each envelope would contain many different pieces of poetry, art, writing, science documents, and place-specific technology booklets, articles, maps, posters, photographs, directories, and calendars. From 1973 to 1985 Planet Drum published nine Bundles, on topics ranging as far as North America, South America, the Arctic Circle, West Africa, Morocco, the Pacific Rim, Japan, and China. From 1979-2000, Planet Drum began publishing Raise The Stakes, the Planet Drum Review, a bi-annual international publication which became an important central voice for the bioregional movement, bioregional organizers around North America and world, and for defining the term bioregion among those using it. By 1990, Planet Drum served as node for more than 250 bioregionally oriented groups in North America, including Canada and Mexico, with emerging movements in Australia, Latin America, Italy and Spain.

Murray Bookchin and the Institute for Social Ecology
This new movement grew strongly also on earlier work from Murray Bookchin, who ran the Institute for Social Ecology, and was deeply involved in influencing and helping define the early bioregional movement. Drawing on earlier traditions beginning with Ecology and Revolutionary Thought in 1964 Bookchin argued for the reorganization of American society based upon a decentralized regional model which would each encompass a single bioregion or ecosystem. His organization, the Institute for Social Ecology worked with the Planet Drum Foundation for the increased implementation of alternative forms of energy, reduction and restriction of carbon dioxide emissions, anti-globalism, and the implementation of a bioregional approach to economic development. For Bookchin, a bioregional approach to economic development accepted one of the basic assertions of Social Ecology that a human community is fundamentally a part of a total ecosystem. Furthermore, Bookchin felt that humans were a part of an earth society:

"We might also conceive of this role as an expression of a kind of citizenship — if we think of ourselves not only as citizens of a town, city or neighborhood, but also as citizens of our ecosystem, of our bioregion, of our georegion, and of the earth itself."

Peter Berg, writing about his experience helping to write the "Bioregions" issue of Coevolution Quarterly in the late 70's worked with Bookchin' to use his Ecology of Freedom, which Berg claimed to be an "invaluable help to set the autonomous and self-governing tone of bioregional discourse."

Bioregional Congresses
A major evolution in how bioregions were defined also occurred alongside this work in the mid-1980s, and can be attributed to David Haenke (b. 1945), Inspired by the call of Peter Berg, who released "Amble towards a Continental Congress" in 1976 for the bicentennial of the United States founding, Haenke conceptualized the Ozark Area Community Congress in 1977, started the Bioregional Project in 1982, launched the Ozarks Bioregional Congress in 1980, and then launched the first ever North American Bioregional Congress (NABC) in 1984.

David Haenke would also go on to be one of the founders of the United States Green Party, which he viewed as a political wing of the bioregional movement.

David Haenke had two questions he asked while defining a bioregion:

"In defining a bioregion there are two main questions that you’ll need to ask: What is your effective organizing area? What and where are your resources and potential participants? Bioregional boundaries are never “hard.” There is no bioregional map of North America or the world, but the closest base maps are things like World Biogeographical Provinces Map by Miklos Udvardy and Ted Oberlander. But these provinces are huge, containing a number of bioregions that are not yet delineated. Many people use watersheds as ultimate definers, and if your group identifies strongly with a particular watershed, hydrologic survey maps may help you determine borders."

From 1984 through the 2010s, many regional groups, such as the Great Lakes, Kansas, Cascadia, would hold regional "Bioregional Congresses" for specific bioregions, and then every two years would gather as part of a North American bioregional congress. Cascadia for example held its first Cascadia Bioregional Congress at The Evergreen State College in 1986, an Ish River confluence in 1987, another Bioregional Congress in 1988 at Breitenbush in Oregon, and a third congress in Lillooet in British Columbia in 1989. This was also timed for the third North American Bioregional Congress which took place in Samish in 1988.

Bioregional Learning Centers
The idea of bioregions, and their uses was again expanded by Donella Meadows, author of The Limits to Growth in 1972, and was the primary premise for her to launch the Balaton Group in 1982. A big part of this for her, was using bioregions as the basis for "bioregional learning centers", each of which would be responsible for a discrete bioregion. In her words, the purpose of a bioregion was to:  "Help people and cultures all over the world develop and express their own capacity to solve their own problems, consistent with their own needs and with the ecosystems around them. And doing that through enhancing the power within all cultures and peoples to combine intellectual knowing and intuitive knowing, reasoning about the earth and living in consonance with it, and of a number of centers where information and models about resources and the environment are housed. There would need to be many of these centers, all over the world, each one responsible for a discrete bioregion."

In politics
North American Bioregional Assemblies have been meeting at bi-annual gatherings of bioregionalists throughout North America since 1984 and have given rise to national level Green Parties. The tenets of bioregionalism are often used by green movements, which oppose political organizations whose boundaries conform to existing electoral districts. This problem is perceived to result in elected representatives voting in accordance with their constituents, some of whom may live outside a defined bioregion, and may run counter to the well-being of the bioregion.

At the local level, several bioregions have congresses that meet regularly. For instance, the Ozark Plateau bioregion hosts a yearly Ozark Area Community Congress, better known as OACC, which has been meeting every year since 1980, most often on the first weekend in October. The Kansas Area Watershed, "KAW" was founded in 1982 and has been meeting regularly since that time. KAW holds a yearly meeting, usually in the spring.

The government of the Canadian province of Alberta created the "land-use framework regions" in 2007 roughly corresponding to each major river basin within the province. This is supported by local initiatives such as the Beaver Hills Initiative to preserve an ecoregion which encompasses Elk Island National Park and the surrounding area.

title: Bioregionalism


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USS Alaska

Four ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Alaska in honor of the territory acquired by the United States from Russia in 1867 which later became the state of Alaska:

 * USS Alaska (1868), a wooden-hulled screw sloop-of-war in commission from 1869 to 1883 that saw numerous small actions
 * USS Alaska (ID-3035), a steam trawler chartered to serve as a minesweeper during World War I, in commission from 1918 to 1919
 * USS Alaska (CB-1), the lead ship of the Alaska-class cruiser of large cruisers, in commission from 1944 to 1947; she saw action in the last days of World War II
 * USS Alaska (SSBN-732), an Ohio-class ballistic missile submarine commissioned in 1986 and currently in service

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Alaska


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Political Islam

Political Islam is any interpretation of Islam as a source of political identity and action. It can refer to a wide range of individuals or groups who advocate the formation of state and society according to their understanding of Islamic principles. It may also refer to use of Islam as a source of political positions and concepts.

Political Islam represents one aspect of the Islamic revival that began in the 20th century, and not all forms of political activity by Muslims are discussed under the rubric of political Islam. Most academic authors use the term Islamism to describe the same phenomenon or use the two terms interchangeably. There are new attempts to distinguish between Islamism as religiously based political movements and political Islam as a national modern understanding of Islam shared by secular and Islamist actors.

Development of the term
The terminology which is used for the phenomenon of political Islam differs among experts. Martin Kramer was one of the first experts to start using the term political Islam in 1980. In 2003, he stated that political Islam can also be seen as tautology because nowhere in the Muslim world is a religion separated from politics. Some experts use terms like Islamism, pointing out the same set of occurrences or they confuse both terms. Dekmejian was among the first of the experts who made remarks on politicisation of Islam in the context of the failure of secular Islamic governments while he uses both Islamism and fundamentalism at the same time (rather than political Islam).

The term political Islam has been used in connection with foreign communities, referring to the movements or groups which have invested in a broad fundamentalist revival that is connected to a certain political agenda. M. A. Muqtedar Khan incorporates into political Islam all the Islamic movements promoting a political system based solely on Islam which must be followed by every Muslim. Some of the experts also use other descriptive terms in order to distinguish various ideological courses within political Islam: conservative, progressive, militant, radical, jihadist, etc. Bill Warner, a retired professor of physics and critic of political Islam, defines political Islam as that part of the text of the primary Islamic doctrine (Koran, Sira, Hadith) that affect non-Muslims (Kafirs) and non-Muslim societies. He has been criticised for identifying Islam with Islamism and for his methodology. In 2011, the Southern Poverty Law Center included him in a list of ten anti-Islam hardliners in the United States.

Definitions
Islamic scholar Gudrun Krämer, a professor at the Free University of Berlin, writes:"'Political Islam is not synonymous with violent, radical, or extremist Islamism, and it is not restricted to opposition groups. The spectrum ranges from advocates of an Islamic republic to sympathizers of an Islamic monarchy or a resuscitated caliphate, and from self-declared liberals to uncompromising conservatives. Some Islamists are commonly classified as moderate or pragmatic, others as radical, militant, or extremist.'"

John L. Esposito (Georgetown University) and Emad El-Din Shahin (American University in Cairo) give the following definition in The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics:"'In recent years, political Islam has manifested itself in two diametrically opposed orientations: an increasing involvement in the democratization process by mainstream movements after the success of pro-democracy popular uprisings in toppling autocratic regimes and a growing inclination toward violence by fringe groups. Political Islam here refers to the attempts of Muslim individuals, groups and movements to reconstruct the political, economic, social and cultural basis of their society along Islamic lines. This process involves different views of the place of Shari`ah in society and the approach to bringing about change. While majorities of Islamic movements have engaged in the democratization process in their respective countries, some have embraced violence and terrorism as an ideological and strategic choice, with devastating consequences for the world and for Islam itself.'"

The Routledge Handbook of Political Islam provides the following definition by political scientist Shahram Akbarzadeh, a professor at the University of Melbourne:"'Political Islam is a modern phenomenon that seeks to use religion to shape the political system. Its origins lie in the perceived failure of the secular ideologies of nationalism and socialism to deliver on their promises of anti-imperialism and prosperity.'"

In another paper, Rüdiger Lohlker criticizes numerous assumptions surrounding the discussion on Political Islam:"'All the categories we are discussing are affected by this 'dubious' assumption that there is a transhistorical essence of religion. 'The most dubious' of all these categories may be Political Islam with its background assumption that 'true' religion has to be privatised but ignoring that the privatised need for belief is based on a universalised dominance of Christian traditions in public discourse and institutions. Even if political Catholicism may also be regarded as dubious, the notion ignores the fundamental difference of a phenomenon that strives for political dominance (sometimes successful) in the hegemonic European context. Thus, putting majority aspirations and some strands of minority discourses and organisations at the same level is a major failure of analysis. Talking about Political Islam means that we are referring to the ongoing discussion. To rethink this category and others we should think about Islam as a practice, not a transhistorical spectre of religion called Islam that is haunting the Western imaginaire.'"

In Muslim countries
Some factions in the Middle East have come to associate the idea of modernities with the intrusions of colonial imperialism. In some Muslim countries, especially Egypt and Pakistan, political counter-movements with religious ideological leanings took root. The reasons are multifaceted. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire was a seismic event that created many aftershocks. The region experienced turbulence for many years as Arab countries fell within the cultural and colonial sphere of European nations. Under increasing cultural pressures Muslims asserted their national identities and cultural heritage, and some factions emphasized religious dimensions. In Egypt the weakness of Muslims was blamed on poor adherence to scripture. According to Hassan al-Banna, European culture was materialistic, immoral and based on class selfishness and usury. Other contributing factors may have been opposition to modernizing influences, overall poor governance and low levels of education in the population.

Research in Europe
In July 2020, the Austrian government made up of the ÖVP and the Greens set up the Documentation Centre Political Islam, an organization to research "religiously motivated political extremism" related to political Islam and to monitor related networks and social media. It was financed by the Austrian Foundation and through the 2015 Fund Act.

In the wake of the Mahsa Amini protests in Iran, the Austrian organization produced a report on the efforts of the Islamic Republic to exert influence abroad in the cultural, religious and educational sectors in Europe through foundations and religious centres, including the Islamic Center in Hamburg and the Imam Ali Center in Vienna. In 2022, the organization also investigated the Islamic Association in Austria, an organization that runs a mosque in Vienna's Jewish neighbourhood that is allegedly responsible for propagating antisemitism, anti-Israel hatred, and support for Hamas and the Muslim Brotherhood.

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Mark-Anthony Turnage

Mark-Anthony Turnage (born 10 June 1960) is an English composer of contemporary classical music.

Life and career
Mark-Anthony Turnage was born in Corringham, Essex on 10 June 1960. He began composing at age nine and at fourteen began studying at the junior section of the Royal College of Music.

His initial musical studies were with Oliver Knussen, John Lambert, and later with Gunther Schuller. He also has been strongly influenced by jazz, in particular by the work of Miles Davis, and has composed works featuring jazz performers, including John Scofield, Peter Erskine, John Patitucci, and Joe Lovano.

Turnage has composed numerous orchestral and chamber works, and three full-length operas. Greek, composed with the encouragement of Hans Werner Henze and first performed in 1988 at the Munich Biennale, is based on Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Oedipus Rex. The Silver Tassie, first performed in 2000, is based on the play by Seán O'Casey. Anna Nicole, with a libretto by Richard Thomas and first performed in 2011, relates the rise and fall of Playboy model and media celebrity Anna-Nicole Smith. His opera for family audiences, Coraline, is based on the dark fantasy novel by Neil Gaiman, and was staged by The Royal Opera at the Barbican Theatre in 2018. His operas have been performed around the world including notably by New York City Opera (2013), Opernhaus Zurich (2019), Theater Dortmund (2013), Theater Freiburg (2018) and the Opera de Lille (2018).

Other works include Three Screaming Popes (after the paintings by Francis Bacon), Your Rockaby (a concerto for saxophone and orchestra), Yet Another Set To (a concerto for trombone and orchestra, dedicated to Christian Lindberg), and From the Wreckage (a concerto for trumpet and orchestra, written for Håkan Hardenberger). Blood on the Floor  (1993–1996), for jazz quartet and large ensemble, contains nine sections with a shared theme of drug addiction, the section titled "Elegy for Andy" being a lament for the loss of his brother in a drug-related death. More recent Turnage scores have included the orchestral work Remembering, conducted by Simon Rattle in 2017 with the London Symphony Orchestra and Berlin Philharmonic; double violin concerto Shadow Walker for soloists Vadim Repin and Daniel Hope, performed by the Borusan Istanbul Philharmonic Orchestra in 2018; and Testament (2018), his setting of Ukrainian texts for soprano and orchestra. He has composed song cycles for a number of celebrated singers including Sarah Connolly, Gerald Finley and Allan Clayton.

Turnage's work Blood on the Floor was choreographed by Wayne McGregor for Paris Opera Ballet in 2011 and in the same year he composed the score for Undance, collaborating with McGregor and visual artist Mark Wallinger. In 2012 Trespass, a ballet choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon and Alistair Marriott with score by Turnage, was first performed by The Royal Ballet. In 2017 he composed the score for Strapless, choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon for The Royal Ballet. Other choreographers that have made ballets to Turnage's works include Heinz Spoerli (Zurich Ballet 2007 and Staatsballet Berlin 2012), Ashley Page (Rambert Dance Company 2013), Jorma Elo (Hubbard Street Dance Chicago 2007) and Gregor Zollig (Tanztheater Bielefeld 2006).

Turnage was the first Radcliffe Composer in Association with the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra from 1989 until 1993 and between 2000 and 2003 was the BBC Symphony Orchestra's first Associate Composer. He was Composer in Residence with the London Philharmonic Orchestra from 2005 until 2010. Between 2006 and 2010, Turnage was a co-composer-in-residence of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, a position he held alongside Argentinian composer Osvaldo Golijov.

In Autumn 2005, he was appointed the Royal College of Music's Research Fellow in Composition. In 2015 he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his services to music.

His partner is the director Rachael Hewer.

Ballet

 * From All Sides (2005–06)
 * L'Anatomie De La Sensation (2011)
 * Undance (2011)
 * Trespass (2012)
 * Strapless (2016 revised 2017)

Orchestral

 * Night Dances (1981), for offstage string quintet, solo instrumental group and orchestra
 * Three Screaming Popes (1988–89)
 * Some Days (1989), song cycle for mezzo-soprano and orchestra
 * Momentum (1990–1991)
 * Drowned Out (1992–1993)
 * Your Rockaby (1992–93), for soprano saxophone and orchestra
 * Dispelling the Fears (1993–1994, rev. 1995), for two trumpets and orchestra
 * Scorched (1996–2001), for jazz trio and orchestra
 * Still Sleeping (1997)
 * Evening Songs (1998)
 * Silent Cities (1998)
 * About Time (1999–2000), for ensemble and chamber orchestra of period instruments
 * Another Set To (1999–2000), concerto for trombone and orchestra
 * A Quick Blast (2000), for orchestral winds, brass and percussion
 * Dark Crossing (2000), for chamber orchestra
 * Etudes and Elegies (2000–2002)
 * Four-Horned Fandango (2000), for four horns and orchestra
 * On Opened Ground (2000–2001), concerto for viola and orchestra
 * Uninterrupted Sorrow (2000–2001)
 * Fractured Lines (2001), double concerto for two percussion and orchestra
 * When I Woke (2001), for baritone and chamber orchestra
 * A Quiet Life (2002), for string orchestra
 * A Man Descending (2003), for tenor saxophone and chamber orchestra
 * Riffs and Refrains (2003), concerto for clarinet and orchestra
 * Scherzoid (2003–04)
 * A Soothing Interlude (2004), for trombone and orchestra
 * From the Wreckage (2004), concerto for trumpet and orchestra
 * Yet Another Set To (2004), concerto for trombone and orchestra
 * Ceres (2005)
 * Hidden Love Song (2005), for soprano saxophone and chamber orchestra
 * Juno (2005)
 * Lullaby for Hans (2005), for string orchestra
 * Three Asteroids (2005)
 * The Torino Scale (2005)
 * From All Sides (2005–06)
 * A Prayer Out of Stillness (2007), concertante for double bass (doubling bass guitar) and string orchestra
 * Chicago Remains (2007)
 * Five Views of a Mouth (2007), concerto for flute and orchestra
 * Mambo, Blues and Tarantella (2007), concerto for violin and orchestra
 * Texan Tenebrae (2009)
 * Hammered Out (2010)
 * Cello Concerto (2010)
 * Speranza (2011–12)
 * Canon Fever (2012), premiered at the opening night of the 2012 BBC Proms.
 * Frieze (2013) BBC co-commission with the Royal Philharmonic Society and the New York Philharmonic
 * Erskine (2013), concerto for drum set and orchestra
 * Passchendaele (2013)
 * Piano Concerto (2013)
 * Dialogue (2014), for violin and cello soloists, strings, percussion, harp and piano
 * Håkan (2014), for trumpet and orchestra
 * Martland Memorial (2014–15), for percussion and orchestra
 * Remembering (2016), for orchestra
 * Shadow Walker (2017), double concerto for two violins and orchestra
 * Symphonic Movements (2017), for orchestra
 * Towards Alba (2017–18), for horn and orchestra
 * Time Flies (2019), for orchestra
 * Go For It (2019), for orchestra
 * Last Song for Olly (reduced version) (2018 arr.2020), reduced version for orchestra
 * Up for Grabs (2020), for jazz trio and orchestra
 * Cortege for Bernard Haitink (2021), for orchestra

Choral

 * The Game Is Over (2001–2002), for S.A.T.B. choir and orchestra
 * A Relic of Memory (2003), for S.A.T.B. choir and orchestra
 * Calmo (2003), for a cappella S.A.T.B. choir and bells
 * Two Fanfares and a Lament (2003), for S.A.T.B. choir and large ensemble
 * Christmas Night (2006), for S.A.T.B. choir and piano
 * Claremont Carol (2006), for upper-voice choir and piano or organ
 * Miserere Nobis (2006), for a cappella S.A.T.B. choir
 * At Sixes and Sevens (2012), for soprano and baritone soloists, youth chorus and chamber orchestra
 * Hibiki (2014), for two solo voices, children's chorus and orchestra (world premiere: Tokyo, 11 December 2016; European premiere: London, BBC Proms, 14 August 2017)
 * Sing Out Loud (2017), two Welsh part songs for a cappella male chorus

Chamber

 * On All Fours (1985), for chamber ensemble
 * Sarabande (1986), for soprano saxophone and piano
 * Release (1987), for soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, bass clarinet, trumpet, trombone, percussion, piano and double bass
 * Kai (1989–1990), for cello solo and ensemble
 * Three Farewells (1989–1990), for flute, bass clarinet, harp and string quartet
 * Set To (1992–1993), for brass dectet
 * This Silence (1992–1993), for clarinet, bassoon, horn and string quintet
 * Blood on the Floor (1993–1996), for jazz quartet and large ensemble
 * Barrie's Deviant Fantasy (1995), for string quartet and referee's whistles
 * Bass Invention (1999–2000), for double bass solo and ensemble
 * Cantilena (2001), for oboe quintet
 * Snapshots (2002), for large ensemble
 * Crying Out Loud (2003), for large ensemble
 * A Short Procession (2003), for piano trio
 * Eulogy (2003), for viola solo and small ensemble
 * No Let Up (2003), for ensemble
 * Three Trios (2003–05), for piano trio
 * Carnac (2004), for B♭ Clarinet and piano
 * A Few Serenades (2004), for cello and piano
 * A Slow Pavane (2004–2005), for piano trio
 * A Fast Stomp (2005), for piano trio
 * Bleak Moments (2005), for horn and string quartet
 * Fanfare (from all sides) (2006), for brass ensemble
 * Returning (2006), for string sextet
 * Tango (2007), for ensemble
 * Out of Black Dust (2007–08), for brass ensemble
 * Four Chants (2008), for violin and piano
 * Twisted Blues with Twisted Ballad (2008) (aka String Quartet No 1)
 * Grazioso! (2009), for small ensemble
 * Five Processionals (2009), for clarinet, violin, cello and piano
 * Hilary's Hoedown (2009) encore for violin and piano
 * GG (2010), for cello and percussion
 * Three for Two (2010), for piano quartet
 * Amelia's March (2010), for small ensemble
 * Silem (2010), for solo trumpet and big band
 * Undance (2011), for ensemble
 * Johnston (2011), for two cellos
 * Falling Apart (2012), for clarinet and piano
 * Contusion (2013) (aka String Quartet No 2)
 * Run Riot (2013), for saxophone quartet
 * Power Play (2014), for viola and piano
 * Maya (2014), for solo cello and chamber orchestra
 * Duetti d'Amore (2015), for violin and cello
 * Shroud (2016) (aka String Quartet No 3)
 * Seven Pint-Sized Pieces (2016), for violin and piano
 * Prussian Blue (2016), Quintet for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass
 * Cleethorpes Chorale (2017), for solo violin and piano
 * Massarosa (2018), for bassoon quintet
 * Nocturne (2018), for trumpet and strings
 * Romanian Rhapsody (2018), for solo violin and ensemble
 * Lament (2018–19), for solo violin and string orchestra
 * A Furious Fanfare (2019), for trumpet, horn, trombone and percussion
 * Winter's Edge (2019) (aka String Quartet No 4)
 * Chorale (2020), for flute, bass clarinet, viola and cello
 * Split Apart (2020), for string quartet
 * Uli (2021), for eight players

Vocal

 * Lament for a Hanging Man (1983), for soprano and ensemble
 * Some Days (1989), song cycle for mezzo-soprano and orchestra
 * Greek Suite (1989), for mezzo-soprano, tenor soli and ensemble
 * The Torn Fields (2000–2002), song cycle for baritone and large ensemble
 * When I Woke (2001), song cycle for baritone and orchestra
 * Two Baudelaire Songs (2003–04), for soprano and ensemble
 * About Water (2006), for solo jazz singer; soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, bass soli; solo instrumental septet and large ensemble
 * A Constant Obsession (2007), song cycle for tenor and ensemble
 * Bellamy (2008), for countertenor and singing harpist
 * In The Bleak Mid-Winter (arr. 2010) arranged for voice, harp, cello and double bass
 * Testament (2017), cantata for solo soprano and orchestra
 * Refugee (2018), for tenor and chamber orchestra
 * Black Milk (2019), for jazz singer and sixteen players
 * Owl Songs (2019), for soprano and eight players
 * Without Ceremony (2019), for baritone and piano
 * Of Nature's Light (2020), song cycle for mezzo-soprano and piano
 * Silenced (2020), for tenor and piano
 * Songs of Sleep and Regret (2020), for mezzo-soprano and piano

Solo instrumental

 * True Life Stories (1995–1999), for piano
 * An Aria (with Dancing) (2004), for trumpet
 * Ah, Quegli Occhi! (2006), for soprano saxophone
 * Air with Variations (2007), for guitar
 * Cradle Song (2009), for clarinet
 * Milo (2009), for cello
 * Leap (2010), for clarinet
 * Four Meditations (2018), for harp
 * On Marylebone Road (2019) for piano

Other

 * Anthem by Peter Erskine, ed. Turnage (1996), for jazz trio and chamber orchestra
 * On the CD Music to Hear (Black Box, BBM 1065, 2001):
 * Two Memorials (1997–2001)
 * An Invention on "Solitude" (1997–98, rev. 1999)
 * Sleep On (1992)
 * Cortège for Chris (1997)
 * Two Elegies Framing a Shout (1994)
 * Three Farewells (1990)
 * Tune for Toru (1995–1999)

title: Mark-Anthony Turnage


text:
USS Arkansas

USS Arkansas may refer to one of these ships of the United States Navy named in honor of the 25th state.

 * USS Arkansas (1863), a screw steamer originally named the Tonawanda that served in the American Civil War. After that war, she was renamed Tonowanda, and lost off Key Largo in 1866.
 * USS Arkansas (BM-7), an Arkansas-class monitor with a single gun turret. She was one of the last monitors of the U.S. Navy, commissioned in 1902, but having her name changed to the USS Ozark in 1906. Scrapped in 1922.
 * USS Arkansas (BB-33), one of two Wyoming-class battleships, commissioned in 1912. One of the oldest ships of World War II, she was expended and wrecked in an atomic bomb test at Bikini Atoll in July 1946, where her wreckage still lies.
 * USS Arkansas (CGN-41), one of four Virginia-class cruiser nuclear-powered guided missile cruisers; commissioned in 1980 and decommissioned in 1998.
 * USS Arkansas (SSN-800), a future Virginia-class submarine nuclear-powered attack submarine, announced in June 2016.

title: USS Arkansas


text:
Marcellin Berthelot

Pierre Eugène Marcellin Berthelot (25 October 1827 – 18 March 1907) was a French chemist and Republican politician noted for the ThomsenBerthelot principle of thermochemistry. He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances, providing a large amount of counter-evidence to the theory of Jöns Jakob Berzelius that organic compounds required organisms in their synthesis. Berthelot was convinced that chemical synthesis would revolutionize the food industry by the year 2000, and that synthesized foods would replace farms and pastures. "Why not", he asked, "if it proved cheaper and better to make the same materials than to grow them?"

He was considered "one of the most famous chemists in the world." Upon being appointed to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs for the French government in 1895, he was considered "the most eminent living chemist" in France. In 1901, he was elected as one of the "Forty Immortals" of the Académie française. He gave all his discoveries not only to the French government but to humanity.

Personal life
Berthelot was born in Rue du Mouton, Paris, France, on 25 October 1827, the son of a doctor. He decided with his friend, the great historian Ernest Renan, not to attend a grande école where the vast majority of intellectuals were being educated. After doing well at school in history and philosophy, he became a scientist.

He was an atheist but was very influenced by his wife, who was a Calvinist (his wife came from Louis Breguet's family).

Discoveries
The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot's chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the action of physical forces which can be determined and measured. When he began his active career it was generally believed that, although some instances of the synthetic production of organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic chemistry remained an analytical science and could not become a constructive one, because the formation of the substances with which it deals required the intervention of vital activity in some shape. He engaged in a long argument with Louis Pasteur on the subject of vitalism, in which Pasteur took the vitalist position on the basis of his work on alcoholic fermentation.

To this attitude he offered uncompromising opposition, and by the synthetic production of numerous hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods of chemical manipulation and obey the same principles as inorganic substances, thus exhibiting the "creative character in virtue of which chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of its theories and classifications—a prerogative so far possessed neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences."

Recognition
In 1863 he became a member of the Académie Nationale de Médecine; he was also awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1880. In 1881 he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1833. In 1895, he was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society.

Avenue Berthelot in Lyon was named after him on 25 March 1907.

Publications

His investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were published in numerous papers and books, including Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse (1860) and Les Carbures d'hydrogène (1901). He stated that chemical phenomena are not governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed, with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his Mécanique chimique (1878) and his Thermochimie (1897). This branch of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives, and on the theoretical side led to the results published in his work Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives (1872), while in practical terms it enabled him to render important services to his country as president of the scientific defence committee during the siege of Paris (1870–1871) and subsequently as chief of the French explosives committee. He performed experiments to determine gas pressures during hydrogen explosions using a special chamber fitted with a piston, and was able to distinguish burning of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen from true explosions.

Historical and philosophical work
During later life he researched and wrote books on the early history of chemistry such as Les Origines de l'alchimie (1885) and Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge (1889), He also translated various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic treatises on alchemy and chemistry: Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (1887–1888) and La Chimie au moyen âge (1893). He was the author of Science et philosophie (1886), which contains a well-known letter to Renan on "La Science idéale et la science positive," of La Révolution chimique, Lavoisier (1890), of Science et morale (1897), and of numerous articles in La Grande Encyclopédie, which he helped to establish.

 * Untersuchungen über die Affinitäten, über Bildung und Zersetzung der Äther. Ostwalds Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften; 173 Leipzig: Engelmann, 1910 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf

Family
Berthelot died suddenly on 18 March 1907, immediately after the death of his wife Sophie Niaudet (1837–1907), in Paris. His professorship was filled by Emil Jungfleisch.

He was buried with his wife in the Panthéon. He had six children: Marcel André (1862–1939), Marie-Hélène (1863–1895), Camille (1864–1928), Daniel (1865–1927), Philippe (1866–1934), and René (1872–1960).

In art
Auguste Rodin created a bust of Berthelot.

title: Marcellin Berthelot


text:
Antoine Jérôme Balard

Antoine Jérôme Balard (30 September 1802 – 30 April 1876) was a French chemist and one of the discoverers of bromine.

Career
Born at Montpellier, France, on 30 September 1802, he started as an apothecary, but taking up teaching he acted as chemical assistant at the faculty of sciences of his native town, and then became professor of chemistry at the royal college and school of pharmacy and at the faculty of sciences. In 1826 he discovered in seawater a substance which he recognized as a previously unknown element and named it bromine. It had been independently prepared by Carl Jacob Löwig the previous year and the two are both regarded as having discovered the element.

This achievement brought him the reputation that secured his election as successor to Louis Jacques Thénard in the chair of chemistry at the faculty of sciences in Paris, and in 1851 he was appointed professor of chemistry at the College de France, where he had Marcellin Berthelot first as pupil, then as assistant and finally as colleague. Balard also had Louis Pasteur as a pupil when Pasteur was only 26 years old. It was in Balard's laboratory that Pasteur discovered the difference between "right-handed" and "left-handed" crystals while he was working with tartaric acid. Balard died in Paris on 30 April 1876.

While the discovery of bromine and the preparation of many of its compounds was his most conspicuous piece of work, Balard was an industrious chemist on both the pure and applied sides. In his researches on the bleaching compounds of chlorine he was the first to advance the view that bleaching-powder is a double compound of calcium chloride and hypochlorite; and he devoted much time to the problem of economically obtaining soda and potash from seawater, though here his efforts were nullified by the discovery of the much richer sources of supply afforded by the Stassfurt deposits. In organic chemistry he published papers on the decomposition of ammonium oxalate, with formation of oxamic acid, on amyl alcohol, on the cyanides, and on the difference in constitution between ethyl nitrate and ethyl sulfate. He also helped Louis Pasteur devise the experiment that would prove spontaneous generation to be false.

Botany and John Stuart Mill
Antoine Jérôme Balard met John Stuart Mill while Mill was studying at the Montpellier Faculty of Sciences in the Winter of 1820. In Mill's journal of the period he writes of visiting Balard at his home, being shown his herbarium and receiving from him a selection of his plants from the Montpellier area, in addition to other accounts of the two embarking on daytrips around the city of Montpellier and to the sea to look for coastal plants. In a later letter to Auguste Comte, Mill describes Balard as his first real friend. A ‘friend of my own choice as opposed to those given to me by family ties’. A portion of John Stuart Mill's Herbarium, believed to be in the vicinity of 4000 specimens, is housed at the National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL) and within the Mill Herbarium are contained these Balard collections, mainly from the area of Montpellier.

Commemoration
Balard is commemorated in the name of Balard station on the Paris Metro.

title: Antoine Jérôme Balard


text:
HDML

HDML may refer to:
 * Handheld Device Markup Language
 * Harbour Defence Motor Launch

title: HDML


text:
User:Rsti

= Rene Stierlis WiKi =
 * KundenListe

title: User:Rsti


text:
Handheld Device Markup Language

The Handheld Device Markup Language (HDML) is a markup language intended for display on handheld computers, information appliances, smartphones, etc.. It is similar to HTML, but for wireless and handheld devices with small displays, like PDA, mobile phones and so on.

It was originally developed in about 1996 by Unwired Planet, the company that became Phone.com and then Openwave. HDML was submitted to W3C for standardization, but was not turned into a standard. Instead it became an important influence on the development and standardization of WML, which then replaced HDML in practice. Unlike WML, HDML has no support for scripts.

title: Handheld Device Markup Language


text:
Hare Krishna (mantra)

The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the  ("Great Mantra"), is a 16-word Vaishnava mantra mentioned in the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad. In the 15th century, it rose to importance in the Bhakti movement following the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. This mantra is composed of three Sanskrit names – "Krishna", "Rama", and "Hare".

Since the 1960s, the mantra has been made well known outside India by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and his movement, International Society for Krishna Consciousness (commonly known as the Hare Krishnas or the Hare Krishna movement).

Mantra
The Hare Krishna mantra is composed of three Sanskrit names: Hare, Krishna, and Rama. It is a poetic stanza in meter (a quatrain of four lines  of eight syllables with certain syllable lengths for some of the syllables).

The mantra as rendered in the oldest extant written source, the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad, is as follows:

When followers of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu teach and practice the Mahamantra, it is rendered with the name Krishna first. The followers of International Society for Krishna Consciousness hence read it as follows:

Pronunciation of mantra in IPA (Sanskrit):

This mantra has multiple interpretations. "Hare" can be interpreted as the vocative form of Hari, another name of Vishnu meaning "he who removes illusion". Another interpretation is as the vocative of, a name of Radha, Krishna's eternal consort or his energy. According to A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, refers to "the energy/shakti of Supreme Personality of Godhead" while Krishna and Rama refer to Supreme Godhead himself, meaning "He who is All-Attractive" and "He who is the Source of All Pleasure". In the hymn Vishnu Sahasranama chanted by Bhishma in praise of Krishna after the Kurukshetra War, Krishna is also called Rama.

It is sometimes believed that "Rama" in "Hare Rama" means "Radharamana" or the beloved of Radha (another name for Krishna). The more common interpretation is that Rāma refers to Rama of the Ramayana, an earlier avatar of Krishna. "Rama can also be a shortened form of Balarama, Krishna's first expansion." The mantra is repeated, either sung out loud (bhajan), congregationally (kirtan), or to oneself aloud or mentally on prayer beads made of tulasi (japa). A. C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada describes the process of chanting the Mahamantra as follows:

"Krishna consciousness is not an artificial imposition on the mind; this consciousness is the original energy of the living entity. When we hear the transcendental vibration, this consciousness is revived [...] This chanting of 'Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare / Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare' is directly enacted from the spiritual platform, and thus this sound vibration surpasses all lower strata of consciousness – namely sensual, mental, and intellectual [...] As such anyone can take part in the chanting without any previous qualification."

History
The mantra is first attested in the (Kali Santarana Upanishads), an Upanishad, which is commented on by Raghunandan Bhattacharya in his work. In this Upanishad, Narada is instructed by Brahma (in the translation of K. N. Aiyar):

"Hearken to that which all Shrutis (the Vedas) keep secret and hidden, through which one may cross the Saṃsāra (mundane existence) of Kali. He shakes off (the evil effects of) Kali through the mere uttering of the name of Lord Narayana, who is the primeval Purusha."

Narada asks to be told this name of Narayana, and Brahma replies:

"Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare, Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; these sixteen names are destructive of the evil effects of Kali. No better means than this is to be seen in all the Vedas."

Emic tradition claims that the mantra was popularized by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu roughly around 1500 A.D. when he began his mission to spread Harinam publicly to "every town and village" in the world, traveling throughout India, and especially within the areas of Bengal and Odisha. Some versions of the Kali Santarana Upanishad give the mantra with Hare Rama preceding Hare Krishna (as quoted above), and others with Hare Krishna preceding Hare Rama, as in Navadvipa version of the manuscript. The latter format is by far the more common within the Vaishnava traditions. It is a common belief that the mantra is equally potent when spoken in either order.

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a devotee of Krishna in disciplic succession, on the order of his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, brought the teachings of Chaitanya from India and single-handedly took the responsibility of spreading them around the Western world. Beginning in New York City 1965, he encircled the globe fourteen times in the final eleven years of his life, thus making 'Hare Krishna' a well-known phrase in many parts of the world.

Popular culture
The Hare Krishna mantra appears in a number of famous songs, notably those of George Harrison. His first solo single "My Sweet Lord" topped charts around the world in 1970–71. Harrison put a Hare Krishna sticker on the back of the headstock of Eric Clapton's 1964 Gibson ES-335; the sticker also appears on Gibson's 2005 reproduction of the guitar.

Produced by Harrison, Radha Krishna Temple's recording "Hare Krishna Mantra" was issued as a single on the Beatles' Apple record label in 1969. The single was a commercial success, peaking at number 12 in the UK, and led to the Temple devotees appearing on the popular British music chart television programme Top of the Pops.

The Broadway musical Hair has a song, "Hare Krishna", containing the mantra, along with some additional lyrics.

The mantra also prominently appears in Jesus Loves You's "Bow Down Mister" (1990) and in the Pretenders' "Boots of Chinese Plastic" from their 2008 album, Break Up the Concrete. Stevie Wonder used the devotees chanting Hare Krishna in his song "Pastime Paradise".

Less well-known recordings of the Hare Krishna mantra include versions by the Fugs on their 1968 album Tenderness Junction (featuring poet Allen Ginsberg), by Nina Hagen, in multiple songs by English psychedelic rock band Quintessence (produced by John Barham, a frequent collaborator of George Harrison) and by Hüsker Dü on their 1984 album Zen Arcade. Kula Shaker, Boy George, and members of the Rubettes have recorded music tracks about Krishna Consciousness.

In a 2010 experimental study involving both devotees and non-devotees, singing vowels like "ah" and "eh" was found to be more joyful than singing vowels like "oh" and "uh", possibly due to a facial feedback effect.

Scriptural references
The practice of chanting the Hare Krishna mantra is recommended in the Puranas, the Pancharatra, and throughout Vaishnava literature in general. For example:

title: Hare Krishna (mantra)


text:
Michel Eugène Chevreul

Michel Eugène Chevreul (31 August 1786 – 9 April 1889) was a French chemist whose work contributed to significant developments in science, medicine, and art. Chevreul's early work with animal fats revolutionized soap and candle manufacturing and led to his isolation of the heptadecanoic (margaric), stearic, and oleic fatty acids. In the process, Chevreul became the first scientist to define the concept of a chemical compound and the first to formally characterize the nature of organic compounds; he is consequently considered a founder of modern organic chemistry.

In the medical field, Chevreul was first to demonstrate that diabetics excrete glucose in the urine and to isolate creatine. Chevreul's study of textile dyes while director of the Gobelins Manufactory in Paris led to color theories that "provided the scientific basis for Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painting."

Chevreul is one of the 72 French scientists, mathematicians, and engineers whose names are inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. He lived to be 102 and was a pioneer in the field of gerontology.

Biography
Chevreul was born in the town of Angers, France, where his father was a physician. Chevreul's birth certificate, kept in the registry book of Angers, bears the signature of his father, grandfather, and a great-uncle, all of whom were surgeons.

At around the age of seventeen, Chevreul went to Paris and entered L. N. Vauquelin's chemical laboratory, afterwards becoming his assistant at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (National Museum of Natural History) in the Jardin des Plantes.

In 1813, Chevreul was appointed professor of chemistry at the Lycée Charlemagne, and subsequently undertook the directorship of the Gobelins tapestry works, where he carried out his research on colour contrasts. (In 1839, he published the results of his research under the title De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs; It was translated into English and published in 1854 under the title The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. A new translation titled On the Law of Simultaneous Contrast of Colors, with commentary, additional chapters, and colour graphics by Dan Margulis, appeared in 2020.) In 1826, Chevreul became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in the same year was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, whose Copley Medal he was awarded in 1857. In 1829, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1868.

Chevreul succeeded his master, Vauquelin, as professor of organic chemistry at the National Museum of Natural History in 1830, and thirty-three years later assumed its directorship also; this he relinquished in 1879, though he still retained his professorship. A bronze medal was minted for the occasion of Chevreul's 100th birthday in 1886, and it was celebrated as a national event. Chevreul received letters of commendation from many heads of state and monarchs, including Queen Victoria. He had a series of recorded meetings with Nadar, whose son Paul Nadar took photographs, resulting in the first photo-interview ever to appear in a magazine.

Chevreul began to study the effects of aging on the human body shortly before his death at the age of 102, which occurred in Paris on 9 April 1889. He was honoured with a public funeral. In 1901, a statue was erected to his memory in the museum with which he was connected for so many years.

Chevreul's work
Chevreul's scientific work covered a wide range, but he is best known for the classical researches he carried out on animal fats, published in 1823 (Recherches sur les corps gras d'origine animale). These enabled him to elucidate the true nature of soap; he was also able to discover the composition of stearin, a white substance found in the solid parts of most animal and vegetable fats, and olein, the liquid part of any fat, and to isolate stearic and oleic acids, the names of which he invented. This work led to important improvements in the processes of candle-manufacture.

Chevreul was a determined enemy of charlatanism in every form, and a complete sceptic as to the "scientific" psychical research or spiritualism which had begun in his time. His research on the "magic pendulum", Dowsing rods and table-turning is revolutionary. In an open letter to André-Marie Ampère in 1833, and his 1854 paper "De la baguette", Chevreul explains how human muscular reactions, totally involuntary and subconscious, are responsible for seemingly magical movements. In the end, Chevreul discovered that once a person holding divining rods/magic pendulum became aware of the brain's reaction, the movements stopped and could not be willingly reproduced. His was one of the earliest explanations of the ideomotor effect.

In 1824, Chevreul was named director of the dye works at the Gobelins Manufactory in Paris, in response to complaints about technical inadequacies. He found that some dyes were indeed deficient, but that the oft-criticized black dye was first-rate. Yet fabrics dyed with this black were perceived as weak and reddish when surrounded by deep blues and/or purples. Chevreul called this effect simultaneous contrast, defining it as the tendency for a color to appear to shift toward the complementary of its neighbor, both in terms of hue and darkness.

He explored the ramifications of the concept at book-length in 1839, intending to form a comprehensive theory for all the visual arts. It offered design principles for tapestries, carpets, furniture, mosaics, churches, museums, apartments, formal gardens, theaters, maps, typography, framing, stained glass, women's clothing, and even military uniforms. It is most noted, however, for its influence on Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painting, particularly the Pointillist style developed by Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, which featured tiny juxtapositions of complementary colors. Camille Pissarro reported that he had interviewed Seurat, who had described the style as a search for "the modern synthesis with scientifically based means which will be founded on the theory of colors discovered by M. Chevreul and in accordance with the experiments of Maxwell and the measurements of N. O. Rood."

Chevreul stressed the importance of accurate portrayal of lighting in promoting realism, but added, "It is almost always so that accurate, yet exaggerated coloring is found more pleasing than absolute fidelity to the scene." Vincent van Gogh took the advice to heart, making lavish use of complementaries to intensify one another. Van Gogh wrote, "this reciprocal heightening is what's called the law of simultaneous contrast…If the complementary colors are taken at equal value, that is to say, at the same degree of brightness and light, their juxtaposition will raise both the one and the other to an intensity so violent that human eyes will scarcely be able to bear to look at it."

Chevreul was also influential in twentieth-century painting, especially that of Robert Delaunay, who was introduced to Chevreul's theories by his friend Jean Metzinger. Delaunay's style of mixing relatively large blocks of near-complementaries is today usually known as Orphism. Delaunay himself, however, preferred the name "Simultanism," a clear nod to Chevreul.

Chevreul is also linked to what is sometimes called Chevreul's illusion, the bright edges that seem to exist between adjacent strips of identical colors having different intensities. See Chevreul's The Laws of Contrast of Colour for more information.

title: Michel Eugène Chevreul


text:
Louis Nicolas Vauquelin

Louis Nicolas Vauquelin FRS(For) HFRSE (16 May 1763 – 14 November 1829) was a French pharmacist and chemist. He was the discoverer of both chromium and beryllium.

Early life
Vauquelin was born at Saint-André-d'Hébertot in Normandy, France, the son of Nicolas Vauquelin, an estate manager, and his wife, Catherine Le Charterier.

His first acquaintance with chemistry was gained as laboratory assistant to an apothecary in Rouen (1777–1779), and after various vicissitudes he obtained an introduction to A. F. Fourcroy, in whose laboratory he was an assistant from 1783 to 1791.

Moving to Paris, he became a laboratory assistant at the Jardin du Roi and was befriended by a professor of chemistry. In 1791 he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences and from that time he helped to edit the journal Annales de Chimie (Chemical annals), although he left the country for a while during the height of the French Revolution. In 1798 Vauquelin discovered beryllium oxide by extracting it from an emerald (a beryl variety); Klaproth isolated the element from the oxide.

Contributions to chemistry
At first his work appeared as that of his master and patron Fourcroy, then in their joint names; in 1790 he began to publish on his own, and between that year and 1833 his name is associated with 376 papers. Most of these were simple records of patient and laborious analytical operations, and it is perhaps surprising that among all the substances he analysed he detected only two new elements, beryllium in 1798 in beryl and chromium in 1797 in a red lead ore from Siberia. He also managed to get liquid ammonia at atmospheric pressure. Later with Fourcroy, he identified a metal in a platinum residue they called ‘ptène’, This name ‘ptene’ or ‘ptène’ was reported as an early synonym for osmium.

Either together or successively he held the offices of inspector of mines, professor at the School of Mines and at the Polytechnic School, assayer of gold and silver articles, professor of chemistry in the College de France and at the Jardin des Plantes, member of the Council of Industry and Commerce, commissioner on the pharmacy laws, and finally professor of chemistry to the Medical Faculty, to which he succeeded on Fourcroy's death in 1809. His lectures, which were supplemented with practical laboratory teaching, were attended by many chemists who subsequently attained distinction.

A lesser-known contribution and finding of his included the study of hens fed a known amount of mineral. "Having calculated all the lime in oats fed to a hen, found still more in the shells of its eggs. Therefore, there is a creation of matter.  In what way, no one knows."

Final achievements, days and legacy
From 1809 he was professor at the University of Paris. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1811 and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1816. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1828. In 1806, working with asparagus, he and Pierre Jean Robiquet (future discoverer of the famous red dye alizarin, then a young chemist and his assistant) isolated the amino acid asparagine, the first one to be discovered. He also discovered pectin and malic acid in apples, and isolated camphoric acid and quinic acid.

His death occurred while he was on a visit to his birthplace.

Among his best known works is "Manuel de l'essayeur" (Manual of the assayer).

The plant genus Vauquelinia is named in his honour, as is the Vauquelin, a white of egg foam associated with molecular gastronomy, and the mineral vauquelinite, discovered at the same mine as the crocoite from which Vauquelin isolated chromium.

title: Louis Nicolas Vauquelin