text:
Talk:Bulbourethral gland

Nomenclature
Don't understand why this article has Bulbourethral gland / Cowper's gland as the name and the homologous structure in females is labeled Bartholin's glands / greater vestibular glands. This article itself calls the structure a Cowper's gland closer to the end.

There should be one style of naming for both structures - either bulbourethral and greater vestibular or Cowper's and Bartholin's. I'm inclined to side with the latter, having the former redirect.

Ultimately I see two issues here, namely the inconsistency in styling between the two articles and the choice of named or purely anatomical primary listings for each.

I propose we title both articles by the attributive names. If there is good reason to keep bulbourethral gland instead of Cowper's gland please feel free to share. For the inconsistency issue between articles I don't see any good explanation but I'd still like to hear your thoughts regardless. Thanks! Robinson0201 (talk) 06:15, 5 May 2011 (UTC)

From 1918 edition of Gray's anatomy
This article is taken from the public domain text of the 1918 edition of Gray's anatomy, and so may not reflect modern anatomical knowledge -- please update as necessary —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.253.40.233 (talk) 23:18, February 15, 2003 (UTC)

Purpose?
So what is its purpose? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.1.88.193 (talk) 16:24, June 16, 2005 (UTC)

 * To provide information —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.15.92.222 (talk) 13:21, November 9, 2005 (UTC)

Contradiction
The article states
 * Their existence is said to be constant: they gradually diminish in size as age advances.

Diminishing constants? The new variable? Please clarify. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.164.76.75 (talk) 14:44, August 2, 2005 (UTC)

 * Indeed it is contradictory. And maybe completely unnecessary. The existence of arms and legs could be said to be constant as well. Suggest deleting the first part altogether, and simply state that they can diminish in size over time. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jeffro77 (talk • contribs) 05:06, November 24, 2005

 * Personal experience would indicate that they become more productive as age (65+) advances. Would this also mean that in fact they are not diminishing in size? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.154.103.165 (talk) 07:45, November 19, 2006 (UTC)

Error
The article states
 * ...neutralizing traces of 'acidic urine' in urethra. With a pH of 10.5 - 11, urine is not acidic but caustic.'' —Preceding unsigned comment added by 132.250.22.6 (talk) 19:49, 1 September 2010 (UTC)

Contraceptive success rates
It has been shown that Coitus interruptus, or the withdrawal method of birth control, has a 4% success rate, compared to Male condom's 98%, female condom's 95% and diaphrams 94% (all with perfect use).

This is uncited and makes no sense -- if coitus interruptus has a 4% success rate as a birth control method, that would mean that sex using it has a 96% pregnancy rate (which is much higher than totally unprotected sex). I'm removing this line. 66.66.80.251 18:08, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Statistics on contraception effectiveness are generally measured on a yearly basis. That wouldn't be a 96% pregnancy rate per-intercourse, but the annual pregnancy chance for "a couple engaging in regular sexual intercourse" (paraphrased).  This is why couples using birth control (correctly) don't inevitably end up with a child within a year or two anyways, despite such high failure rates as 2-6%.  All the same it makes no sense as an uncited number -- and the article on male contraception says it's a 4% annual failure rate if done perfectly, and is cited.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.241.137.116 (talk) 04:38, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

Research on presence of spermatozoa in pre-ejaculate
A 2010 (published online 2010, in print 2011) study suggests that some males always produce pre-ejaculate that contains motile spermatozoa, which may pose a pregnancy risk, and that this is not the result of sperm remaining in the urethra as a result of prior ejaculations. I am changing the following line to reflect this: "Though the pre-ejaculate does not contain sperm it is possible for this fluid to pick up sperm, remaining in the urethral bulb from previous ejaculations, and carry them out prior to the next ejaculation." See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21155689 for the source, or http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/14647273.2010.520798 for the original electronic publication. I'm not certain I got the citation format correct, so someone with some experience entering them into Wiki might want to check me. 129.89.40.150 (talk) 22:03, 14 July 2014 (UTC)

Requested move 29 June 2024

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: no consensus to move the page to the proposed title at this time, per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 03:02, 14 July 2024 (UTC)

Bulbourethral gland → Cowper's gland – This gland is the male homologue of the Bartholin's gland. Because the latter has an attributive name as its title rather than a purely anatomical one ("greater vestibular gland"), I believe the former should as well. Zoozoor (talk) 21:04, 29 June 2024 (UTC) — Relisting. BilledMammal (talk) 18:31, 9 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Oppose. N-gram shows these structures have similar usage (Cowper's slightly more than bulbourethral) . There's a general trend to descriptive rather than eponymous names and I don't see a convincing need to change this title based on usage. Whilst some standardisation of names is appealing, I don't think that's a good reason to change the title. If you feel strongly, I suggest discuss the converse situation at the greater vestibular gland. Times like this I miss User:Flyer22 Frozen. May they rest in peace. Tom (LT) (talk) 11:23, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Oppose. For another view of ngrams see the case-insensitive and singular+plural results: . Adumbrativus (talk) 22:44, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bulbourethral gland


text:
Radiolaria

The Radiolaria, also called Radiozoa, are protozoa of diameter 0.1–0.2 mm that produce intricate mineral skeletons, typically with a central capsule dividing the cell into the inner and outer portions of endoplasm and ectoplasm. The elaborate mineral skeleton is usually made of silica. They are found as zooplankton throughout the global ocean. As zooplankton, radiolarians are primarily heterotrophic, but many have photosynthetic endosymbionts and are, therefore, considered mixotrophs. The skeletal remains of some types of radiolarians make up a large part of the cover of the ocean floor as siliceous ooze. Due to their rapid change as species and intricate skeletons, radiolarians represent an important diagnostic fossil found from the Cambrian onwards.

Description
Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopods supported by bundles of microtubules, which aid in the radiolarian's buoyancy. The cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, which provide most of the cell's energy. Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines.

Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra, such as the icosahedron-shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured below.

Taxonomy
The radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with (amoeboid or flagellate) Cercozoa and (shelled amoeboid) Foraminifera. Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups—Acantharea, Nassellaria, Spumellaria and Phaeodarea. Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan. Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were therefore grouped together in the group Polycystina. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, this is also supported by molecular phylogenies. The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is closely related to a peculiar genus, Sticholonche (Taxopodida), which lacks an internal skeleton and was for long time considered a heliozoan. The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two major lineages: Polycystina (Spumellaria + Nassellaria) and Spasmaria (Acantharia + Taxopodida).

There are several higher-order groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data. Particularly, groups related to Acantharia and Spumellaria. These groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known.

The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated. Molecular trees support their close relationship—a grouping termed Retaria. But whether they are sister lineages or whether the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known.

Biogeography

In the diagram on the right, a Illustrates generalized radiolarian provinces and their relationship to water mass temperature (warm versus cool color shading) and circulation (gray arrows). Due to high-latitude water mass submergence under warm, stratified waters in lower latitudes, radiolarian species occupy habitats at multiple latitudes, and depths throughout the world oceans. Thus, marine sediments from the tropics reflect a composite of several vertically stacked faunal assemblages, some of which are contiguous with higher latitude surface assemblages. Sediments beneath polar waters include cosmopolitan deep-water radiolarians, as well as high-latitude endemic surface water species. Stars in (a) indicate the latitudes sampled, and the gray bars highlight the radiolarian assemblages included in each sedimentary composite. The horizontal purple bars indicate latitudes known for good radiolarian (silica) preservation, based on surface sediment composition.

Data show that some species were extirpated from high latitudes but persisted in the tropics during the late Neogene, either by migration or range restriction (b). With predicted global warming, modern Southern Ocean species will not be able to use migration or range contraction to escape environmental stressors, because their preferred cold-water habitats are disappearing from the globe (c). However, tropical endemic species may expand their ranges toward midlatitudes. The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces, as well as their relative water mass temperatures (cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures, and vice versa).

Radiolarian shells
Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists encased in elaborate globular shells usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as microfossils, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions.

Diversity and morphogenesis
Bernard Richards, worked under the supervision of Alan Turing (1912–1954) at Manchester as one of Turing's last students, helping to validate Turing’s theory of morphogenesis.

"Turing was keen to take forward the work that D’Arcy Thompson had published in On Growth and Form in 1917".

The gallery shows images of the radiolarians as extracted from drawings made by the German zoologist and polymath Ernst Haeckel in 1887.

 * Richards, Bernard (2005-2006) "Turing, Richards and Morphogenesis", The Rutherford Journal, Volume 1.
 * Richards, Bernard (2005-2006) "Turing, Richards and Morphogenesis", The Rutherford Journal, Volume 1.

Fossil record
The earliest known radiolaria date to the very start of the Cambrian period, appearing in the same beds as the first small shelly fauna—they may even be terminal Precambrian in age. They have significant differences from later radiolaria, with a different silica lattice structure and few, if any, spikes on the test. About ninety percent of known radiolarian species are extinct. The skeletons, or tests, of ancient radiolarians are used in geological dating, including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates.

Some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma, Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Radiolaria


text:
Steve Jones (biologist)

John Stephen Jones DSC FLSW (born 24 March 1944) is a British geneticist and, from 1995 to 1999 as well as from 2008 to June 2010, was Head of the Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment at University College London. His studies are conducted in the Galton Laboratory.

He is also a television presenter and a prize-winning author on the subject of biology, especially evolution. He is a popular contemporary writer on evolution. In 1996 his work won him the Michael Faraday Prize "for his numerous, wide ranging contributions to the public understanding of science in areas such as human evolution and variation, race, sex, inherited disease and genetic manipulation through his many broadcasts on radio and television, his lectures, popular science books, and his once-regular science column in The Daily Telegraph and contributions to other newspaper media".

Early life and education
Jones was born in Aberystwyth, Wales, to Lydia Anne and Thomas Gwilym Jones. His parents met as students at the University of Aberystwyth. Until he was about ten years old the family lived alternately at his paternal grandparents' house in New Quay, Ceredigion, and his maternal grandparents' house near Aberystwyth. Later the family moved to the Wirral, returning to Wales for their holidays.

Jones's paternal grandfather and great grandfather were both sea captains. Jones's father, a PhD chemist, worked on detergents such as Jif. Dylan Thomas was an acquaintance of his father. As a child Jones often stayed at his paternal grandparents' home and spent a lot of his time in the attic which contained some seafaring equipment, and boxes of books covering a wide variety of topics, many of which Jones read. He also went to libraries and by the age of 14 years had read all the works of Charles Dickens.

As a child in Ceredigion Jones spoke a lot of Welsh until he was 6 or 7 years old, and as a keen observer of local wildlife was particularly interested in birds. Jones was a pupil at Wirral Grammar School for Boys. At the age of 13 to 14 years old Jones was inspired to study biology by a school teacher.

Jones was rejected by all the Welsh universities, so he applied to the University of Edinburgh for an undergraduate degree, which had a closing date seven days later, and he was accepted onto a zoology course. In 1967 he won the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize in Zoology for his essay, “Area effects and the structure of peripheral populations of Cepaea nemoralis”. He stayed on in Edinburgh to do research for a Doctor of Philosophy degree on the ecological genetics of Cepaea, a snail whose shell is polymorphic in colour pattern, making it a model organism for evolutionary biologists. He developed an interest in snails from Bryan Clarke his PhD supervisor.

Career and research
After his PhD, Jones also completed post-doctoral research into the genetics of Drosophila at the University of Chicago to widen his experience. Much of Jones's research has been concerned with snails and the light their study can shed on biodiversity and genetics.

Media and outreach
Jones was the 1991 Reith Lecturer on BBC Radio, with a series entitled The Language of the Genes, the basis of his 1993 book of the same name.

 * Audio podcast: BBC Reith Lectures Archive: 1974 – 2010
 * Transcripts: BBC Reith Lectures 1990 – 1999

He presented In the Blood, a six-part TV series on human genetics first broadcast in 1996, see book of same name in bibliography. In July 2011, Jones produced a report dealing with science reporting issues at the BBC. He was critical of the BBC for giving too much space and credence to maverick views on science, including deniers of anthropogenic global warming.

Jones was commissioned by the BBC Trust to write a report on the organisation's science reporting, which was published in July 2011. This was broadly supportive of the BBC's accuracy, impartiality and science coverage although it also made some suggestions. These included better interaction of staff across the organisation on science topics and in particular an end to "false balance". Jones describes "[a]ttempts to give a place to anyone, however unqualified, who claims interest can make for false balance: to free publicity to marginal opinions and not to impartiality, but its opposite". The BBC's response to the recommendations was generally positive, several of which it immediately implemented.

Awards and honours
Jones was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2012. He won their Michael Faraday Prize in 1996 and delivered the Reith Lectures in 1991. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2011. In 2011, he was elected a Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales.

Personal life
Jones's life partner since 1977 has been American documentary maker Norma Percy; they married in 2004.

Jones is a patron of Humanists UK and an honorary associate of the National Secular Society. He was awarded the second Irwin Prize for Secularist of the Year by the National Secular Society on 7 October 2006. On 1 January 2011 he became President of The Association for Science Education.

Views on private education
In an interview on the BBC Radio 5 show '5 Live Breakfast' hosted by Nicky Campbell and Shelagh Fogarty on 13 January 2009, Jones described private schools as a "cancer on the education system". Jones cites private schools as one of the reasons that Britain remains as socially stratified as it is. Among the advantages in private schools compared to state schools, Jones listed smaller class sizes, highly trained teachers, better facilities, and coaching through university interviews.

Views on religion
Jones, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published on 15 September 2010 in The Guardian, stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI's state visit to the UK. Jones has also stated that creationism is "anti-science" and criticised creationists such as Ken Ham. Jones suggested in a BBC Radio Ulster interview in 2006 that Creationists should be forbidden from being medical doctors because "all of its (Creationism's) claims fly in the face of the whole of science" and he further claimed that no serious biologist can believe in biblical creation. For Jones, 'evolution is the grammar of biology'. Jones elaborated on his full position on creationism in a public lecture entitled 'Why creationism is wrong and evolution is right'.

National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/12) with Steve Jones in 2015 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library.

Views on human evolution
Jones's view that in humans "Natural selection has to some extent been repealed" dates back at least to 1991 and has been the focus of newspaper reports and radio interviews. Referring to the title of a public lecture entitled "Is human Evolution Over?" he stated "For those of you who have a train to catch, the answer is "yes", so you can leave now".

His views are largely based on his claim that reduced juvenile mortality, decreasing age of fathers, and decreased geographical isolation of populations in Western societies reduce evolution. Both the data supporting these assertions and his views of the way these factors influence evolution in populations have been extensively criticised by other academics.

Publications

 * winner of (Aventis Prize winner)

title: Steve Jones (biologist)


text:
Assize of Clarendon

The Assize of Clarendon was an act of Henry II of England in 1166 that began a transformation of English law and led to trial by jury in common law countries worldwide, and that established assize courts.

Prior systems for deciding the winning party in a case, especially felonies, included trial by ordeal, trial by battle, or trial by compurgation (trial by oath), in which evidence, inspection, and inquiry was made under oath by laymen, knights or ordinary freemen. After the Assize of Clarendon trial by jury developed, though some historians say beginnings of the jury system predate this act. The Assize of Clarendon did not lead to this change immediately; recourse to trial by combat was not officially rescinded until 1819, though by then it had fallen out of use.

The assize takes its name from Clarendon Palace, Wiltshire, the royal hunting lodge at which it was promulgated.

Problems addressed by the assize
In 1154, Henry II inherited the throne of a troubled England. In full swing were the Crusades, a military endeavour that kept noble landowners away from their castles for years at a time. Unoccupied and unclaimed land invited squatters; since there was no central recording office for real property in England at the time, and sorting out who owned what fief was entrusted to human memory, disputes arose when aristocrats returned or died thousands of miles from home.

Another, even more, serious was the aftermath of The Anarchy, a disastrous civil war between King Stephen and the Empress Matilda. The two factions had hired mercenary soldiers, and when there was no one left to pay them, many resorted to robbery and other forms of violence as a profession. Crime followed the breakdown of the local authority. The quarrel between the King and the Empress created more property troubles; as communities were divided, both factions were happy to reward their supporters with the lands of the local opponents.

Finally, there was the long-standing difficulty involving the Catholic Church, which culminated in the murder of Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The problem for the King was that the Church acted like an imperium in imperio, a "kingdom within a kingdom", only partially, if at all, subject to Henry's laws. The church operated its own court system, which answered not to Henry but to the Pope; it was a large landowner and a powerful vested interest. Henry wished to establish a system of justice that would enlarge the power of the Crown at the expense of the clergy.

The assizes
Henry, therefore, promulgated various assizes (i.e. courts that convened in a town periodically, rather than being permanently established). The primary and most general one, the Assize of Clarendon was issued in 1166. Others, the "petty" assizes known respectively as the assize of novel disseisin, of mort d'ancestor, and of darrein presentment gave more specific relief. The most popular one became the assize of novel disseisin, which in Law French meant something close to the "assize of recent dispossession". Those who had been recently put out of their lands could recover the beneficial use of them by resorting to this assize, which led to a then-innovative method of trial. Twelve "of the more lawful men" of the locality were summoned by the king's sheriff to determine, upon their own knowledge, who was entitled to the property. This innovative method of proceeding, the origin of the civil petit jury at common law, was aimed at the chaos introduced into property rights by crusade and civil war.

Henry's true measure of cleverness, though, is on display in his innovations in criminal justice. Henry appointed "justices in eyre", the counterpart of circuit judges, to travel from town to town. When they arrived, they too called upon the sheriff to summon twelve free men from the surrounding areas. These twelve free men were a prototype of a grand jury. They were called to report under oath any accusations of crime they were aware of in the community. In theory, then as (in the United States and Liberia) now, the grand jury only brought accusations; it did not find guilt or innocence. The crimes to be investigated were specified in the Assize of Clarendon to be robbery, murder, or theft or anyone who had harboured a robber, murderer, or thief. To these the Assize of Northampton (1176) added counterfeiting, forgery, and arson. Minor crimes were specifically excepted so the new assizes concerned themselves with what would later be labeled "felonies".

This new assize did away with the old form of trial known as "compurgation" in accusations brought by the grand jury. Under compurgation, an accused person who swore he did not commit the crime, and who found a sufficient number of his neighbours to swear that they believed him, was acquitted. Compurgation was no longer available in charges brought by the grand jury.

The only trial available to the defendant remained the traditional trial by ordeal, specifically in the Assize of Clarendon, "the ordeal of water". Nevertheless, Henry did not put much faith in the results of the ordeal. The unfortunate felon who was convicted through the ordeal was typically executed. However, the Assize of Northampton (1176) provided that the loss of the right hand shall be added to a previous punishment of the loss of one foot for those who failed the ordeal. This implies that execution was not the inevitable result of a conviction. But even if the indicted culprit was acquitted in the ordeal, he was banished from the kingdom. In other words, the proceedings by the grand jury were the actual trial; everyone it accused was punished in some way, and the community was rid of the malefactor, one way or another, as adjudicated "by the oath of twelve knights of the hundred—or, should knights not be present, by the oath of twelve lawful freemen".

Effects of the assize
These proceedings did much to transfer power out of the hands of local barons and into the hands of the royal court and its judges. In 1215, moreover, the Fourth Lateran Council forbade clergymen from participating in a trial by ordeal. After this date, trials after an indictment by the grand jury were conducted by juries as well.

The large changes wrought in the English system of justice did not go unchallenged. The dispute of jurisdiction over the one-sixth of the population of England who were clergy was the chief grievance between the king and Becket. Disgruntled peers attempted to undo Henry's reforms by the Magna Carta forced on King John, but by that time the reforms had progressed too far—and their superiority over the system they had replaced was too obvious—for the forces of reaction to gain much ground. Henry II's reforms laid the groundwork for the system of trials in common law.

title: Assize of Clarendon


text:
Tubalcain

Tubalcain may refer to:

 * Tubal-cain, biblical character associated with metalworking
 * Tubalcain Alhambra, anime and manga character
 * Tubal Cain mine, abandoned copper mine in Olympic National Park in the U.S. state of Washington
 * Clan of Tubal Cain, a traditional witch coven formed by British neopagan Robert Cochrane
 * Tubal Cain, the pen name of Tom Walshaw, a prolific British writer on model engineering
 * Tubalcain, a 1990s band with Athan Maroulis as a member

title: Tubalcain


text:
Talk:Boxcar Racer

So is it Boxcar Racer or Box Car Racer? -- Zoe

Three words. Box Car Racer. The correct term redirects to the incorrect one. -- Goatasaur
 * I had thought it was two words, but I'm willing to defer. Tokerboy
 * Check the CD -- External link here.

title: Talk:Boxcar Racer


text:
Talk:TRS-80 Color Computer

Minor accuracy problem
This has been bugging me for a year or more now, but I've never chased down the references to fix it. The Coco displayed ten colors: Black, green, yellow, red, blue, buff, cyan, magenta, orange and dark green (or dark orange). This also shows off that both the power-on screen and the character set picture was captured with an emulator that doesn't properly represent how the VDG displayed graphics. Finally, the character set picture only shows the characters accessible from BASIC, rather than the full set available to the VDG. To see the full set, you'd need to do FOR I=0 TO 255:POKE 1024+i,i:NEXT and you'd need an emulator that shows the proper colors in the characters. Regular text is actually dark green on green, not black on green and inverse text is actually light green on dark green, rather than light green on black. Additionally, inverts are available of the numerical row as well as the alphabetical row, including the space. The dark green square is essentially the only semi-graphical block of the tenth color. If someone has the ROMs available, I remember at least one of the emulators gets this right. --Steven Fisher (talk) 02:12, 6 March 2009 (UTC)

Trash-80?
Am I misremembering, or was the TRS-80 commonly referred to as a "trash-80" in the 1980s?

— Steven G. Johnson (talk) 02:07, 7 August 2009 (UTC)
 * I also remember that as a nickname (like the Commodore 64 was sooo much better). There's probably a source for it somewhere, but it was so long ago it may not be online. Those were the days, when you had to actually call a BBS directly with the telephone and then manually turn on the modem. Seems almost quaint now... Beeblebrox (talk) 03:48, 7 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Trash80s were the Z80 based models and the OS for those was referred to as TrashDOS, this was referred to as CoCo as the article states. The C64 was not really better, different yes, basically you traded graphic and sound power for computing power, as is stated in the article. While the CoCo was not as good at games it was much superior at computationally intensive apps, MIDI sequenceing for instance where this gave the 16bit computers a run for the money. reiknir (talk) 16:42, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes, the TRS-80 was commonly (and affectionately) referred to as the trash-80, though I don't have a source at the moment.

 * No mention of the Model 1, Model 3, or Model 4 in this document. That would make a good addition, as they were quite common. The Smithsonian Museum of American History has a TRS-80 Model 1 on display - http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_334337 Timdearborn (talk) 21:14, 25 January 2018 (UTC)

CoCo competition with true 16 bit machines?
That article states that the CoCo3 came out to better compete with Amiga, Atari ST, and Apple II GS computers. All of those used true 16 bit processors and were much more powerful in several ways -- the CoCo wasn't much competition for any of those advanced machines except in price.

I would say that the CC3 came out mostly in response to the Commodore 128, especially since the C-64 was its biggest competitor, and the ill-fated Atari 130XE. All three were 8 bit and came with 128K. I don't know if the C-128 and 130XE were expandable beyond that or not, might be a "one-up" by the CoCo3.

--Farna (talk) 15:07, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I would say that the CoCo3 was somewhat comparable, perhaps not with the Amiga so much as with the Atari and Apple, but a 512K upgraded CoCo3 running the right software could keep up rather well. While the 6809 is an 8 bit microprocessor, the addition of the GIME chip gave it a pretty good edge.  --Thoric (talk) 05:23, 28 November 2009 (UTC)

I owned a CoCo 3, a Commodore 64 and an Atari 130XE (among others) and remember this all very well. The CoCo 3 was intended to compete with the likes of the Commodore 128 and Atari 130XE, which had similar hardware and construction. The Amigas and ST's were out of the CoCo 3's league hardware-wise. Radio Shack had the Tandy line of PC clones to compete with those. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.100.54.146 (talk) 08:12, 31 December 2009 (UTC)

 * While the CoCo was never intended to compete with 16 bit machines, it managed to hold its ground quite surprisingly. A CoCo 3 with 512K could chase fairly close on the tail of an Atari ST.  It's graphics modes were very similar, and while it didn't have quite the same horsepower (6809 vs 68000), it could still give the ST a run for its money.  --Thoric (talk) 15:09, 31 December 2009 (UTC)

The 6809 was internally a true 16 bit processor. People seem to confuse what this means. There are two buses in a processor, a data and an address bus. While the address bus of the CoCo 3 CPU is 16 bits wide, multiplexing via its GIME allows it to map 512k, with a 64k same-page addressing limit. Its data bus was 8 bits wide, making it slower to transfer calculated values, and bytes to memory. The 68B09E however, had one internal 16 bit data register, a hardware multiplication instruction, and other 16 bit supporting instructions... In addition, it was designed in such a way that it processed its instructions at a higher speed than comparable processors (If I recall correctly, it had no microcodes but was hardwired). Bottom line: MHz for MHz, cycle for cycle, the 68B09E was the most powerful 8-bit processor in the world, and it could compete with true 16 bit processors because internally it had 16 bits capabilities. Aided by the powerful GIME, the CoCo 3 could perform many feats that where not normally within the realm of 8 bit computing, including multi-tasking, and managing sprites while running the DAC in the background to output polyphonic music.--Reefpicker (talk) 18:46, 2 March 2010 (UTC)

This is how rumors get started... I swear one person or website sometime 10-15 years ago claimed that the CoCo 3 was Tandy's answer to the Amiga and Atari ST, and now every website repeats it as fact. I don't know what the marketers at Tandy thought they were competing against, but the CoCo 3 was nothing like an Amiga in capability or operation, it was clearly Tandy's answer for the C128 - to soup up the COCO and COCO 2 just like the 128 was basically a feature expanded (and included) C64. I own, use, and like all of these computers, and the similar feature expansions of the of the 128 and CoCo 3 to their respective base computers are striking, while the similarities between the CoCo 3 and the Amiga are nonexistent. The Amiga was a radical change in computing technology and capability with no similarity or compatibility with the previous commodore 8-bit line - the CoCo 3 was a beefed up CoCo 2 pure and simple. I know that CoCo dogma will not allow you to edit the article even though it has been pointed out several times here that the statement is FALSE. This is a flaw of Wikipedia - fans do not necessarily report facts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.203.166.99 (talk) 12:07, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

So what's stopping you from changing it, Mister unsigned anonymous?? Go ahead and edit the article. Doctorx0079 (talk) 20:26, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

There you go, we'll see how long the change lasts - and by the way I put up my personal IP - what have you put up other than an IP concealing "handle". Are you any less anonymous than me or are you really MORE anonymous "Doctorx0079"? What credibility do you have that I don't by going by "Doctorx0079"? If it makes you happy, my new handle is 98.203.166.99 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.203.166.99 (talk) 01:17, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

When you don't have a username it can give the impression that you are another random whiner. However, anyone can edit Wikipedia! You deleted an unsourced assertion, fair enough. To add your info at the end of a post use four tildes, or, SineBot will just do it for you. One advantage of signing up for a username is that it allows other users to see all the edits you made. Also it lets you edit semi-protected pages, which I think is the reason I did it. It's easy and free. Just sayin'. Doctorx0079 (talk) 02:58, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

overlinking of location
I don't wish to edit war over this, but it seems absurd to make sure we mention twice in one sentence that Texas is in the United States. I reverted this and attempted to simplify and clarify the situation, but I have been reverted in turn, so it seems we need to discuss this matter. No one would say "Fort Worth, USA." Fort Worth is in Texas, Texas is in the United States. If we establish that in the beginning of the sentence, there is no need to clarify a few words later that Austin, Texas is also in the United States. If we simply establish in the lead that Tandy was/is an American company, the whole thing becomes moot. Either of these seems preferable to me to repeatedly mentioning that Texas is in the U.S. Although that is obvious to many readers, I'll grant that not everyone in the English speaking world could be expected to know that, but telling them once seems sufficient. Beeblebrox (talk) 22:07, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

"not implemented on the CoCo"
From the section "Alphanumeric/Semigraphics display": The 6847 is capable of a Semigraphics 6 display mode, where two bits select a color and 6 bits determine which 1/6th of the character box is lit. In this mode only 4 colors are possible but the Colorset bit of the VDG can select two different groups of the 4 colors. This mode is not implemented on the CoCo. Does that mean that the CoCo's hardware won't do it, or it just isn't supported by the BASIC?--Drvanthorp (talk) 21:36, 6 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Only one of the semigraphics modes it available through BASIC, therefore this limitation must be in the CoCo hardware. --Thoric (talk) 14:44, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

Not necessarily. Many computers of that era had hardware features not supported through BASIC, and if you look at this article's section on "Lower case and the 6847T1", lowercase characters seem to have been available to some CoCo 2 users that were willing to press their machines beyond the boundaries set by BASIC.--Drvanthorp (talk) 19:56, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

Color Computer 2 and monitor color?
Hi

I know Coco 3 can use a monitor but how about Coco 1 and 2? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.172.128.38 (talk) 18:33, 26 June 2010 (UTC)

Not without hardware modification AFAIK. The CoCo 1 and 2 were designed to connect to an RF modulator which would then go to a TV. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Doctorx0079 (talk • contribs) 22:01, 27 June 2010 (UTC)

OS-9 clarifications needed.
Was OS-9 offered by Tandy itself or by a third party? Was it for free or did it cost money, and if so, how much? At what time did it become available on the CoCo? What are its system requirements on the CoCo, such as RAM size? Is OS-9 software typically directly runnable on different 6809 machines, or does it have to be compiled specifically for a certain computer such as the CoCo? Maybe this information should be in the OS-9 article (where it isn't either at this time), but since I'm speaking of CoCo-specific data, I think it should go here. Please add! -- 77.189.117.82 (talk) 04:55, 6 March 2011 (UTC)

different versions of TDP-100
At the end of the "Color Computer 1" section of "Versions", the article previously stated:

"At about the same time, another white-cased "CoCo", the TDP-100, was marketed through Tandy Data Products (TDP) and sold through a different distribution channel. Except for the nameplate and case, the TDP-100 was completely identical to the CoCo 1. The TDP-100 had ventilation slots that ran the entire length of the case, rather than only on the sides. This ventilation scheme was carried over to the CoCo 2."

However, I own a TDP-100 which looks exactly like the regular CoCo1, with the ventilation slots on the side and the chiclet keyboard, but with the white case. So apparently my model is an intermediate earlier version than what is described in the article. I changed the article to reflect this history, but there needs to be further research. Monz (talk) 12:21, 20 May 2011 (UTC)

Dead link
Removed this link, site is dead. Web Warlock (talk) 17:52, 17 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Tandy Color Computer Emulator Page

Backwards compatibility?
It is unclear from the article if the CoCo had any compatibility with software made for the original TRS-80. --Stormwatch (talk) 21:36, 11 August 2012 (UTC)
 * They didn't. They had completely different OSes. Web Warlock (talk) 15:44, 13 August 2012 (UTC)

Something wrong with beginning date 1980
I used to go into the Radio Shack after school, that was just up the street from where I lived. To look at, and play with the demo model. Dreaming of the day I would get one of these. I was in the elementary school. Somewhere between the fourth and sixth grade, and I am now 55, soon to be 56. Scott 4-19-15 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.56.17.147 (talk) 00:46, 20 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Let's say sixth grade, that would make you maybe 11, if you are soon to be 56, then you were born in 1959, and therefore you should have been in the sixth grade in 1970, not 1980. The TRS-80 Model I came out in 1977, so you would have been in grade 13 by then.  The Wang 2200 came out in 1973, so you would have been in grade eight (still elementary school), perhaps this was not a TRS-80 computer you played with? --Thoric (talk) 20:54, 23 April 2015 (UTC)

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Lot of Unsourced Material available in One Source
Most of this information is available in "Coco: The Colorful History of Tandy's Underdog Computer". I'm willing to go through and cite the as yet uncited stuff by page number if no one else will, but is someone else willing ? I'd rather not have to do all that work myself, I just started reading it because I'm getting a CoCo soon myself. However, it seems important to have citations for a page on a computer rather significant in the history of home computers. 67.186.39.76 (talk) 18:24, 5 February 2018 (UTC)
 * There are also some magazine articles that are preserved at archive.org that could be linked (including one that was recently quoted on a Facebook group that talked about the rumor of the name being TRS-90). Allen Huffman (talk) 20:17, 8 February 2018 (UTC)
 * That is a good point as well. So, I'm probably going to actually go through and re-read the book so that this article can be made a bit more rigorous, though it might make the article a bit heavy towards that particular's books perspective, so I'll also try and give the other sources mentioned a read. Finally, I'd actually just like to mention that some of this uncited material actually seems to go contradictory to what I read in that book. In particular, let me give one example that jumped out at me. The section titled "The End of the Road", which claims that flyers and in store demos didn't showcase the Coco 3 playing Coco 3 games or it's improved graphics and RAM capabilities as evidence that Tandy didn't take the product seriously. It even goes so far as to claim that Tandy "offered no hint about the large number of third party hardware and software support". Well, in "Coco: The Colorful History of Tandy's Underdog Computer", it is mentioned that in the 1989 issue of the Radioshack catalogue, games including "Super Pitfall, GFL Championship Football II, Castle of Tharoggad, Silpheed, Tetris, and Soko-Ban", as well as many more, were advertised in particular for the Coco 3. I mention this because this is easily demonstrable, as here is a link to said catalogue where they explicitly mention these titles: http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/1989/h165.html . Furthermore, having talked with a Tandy executive, it also metions: "Tandy’s Mark Siegel set about to do just that, contacting companies like Sierra On-Line, Lucasfilm Games, Activision, Epyx, and other top software publishers at the time in an effort to convince them to bring their best titles over to the CoCo 3." There's even mention of particular incentives to publish software for the computer. Finally, there's this which is not attributed explicitly to any source, but is mentioned in the book: "Tandy’s push for OS-9 Level Two as the basis for applications and games was an intentional strategy aimed at making the CoCo 3 a more serious platform.". So, claims that Radioshack wasn't marketing it as a high end machine anddidn't care about the success of the Color Computer 3 seem to be at minimum not the entire story. Perhaps stores weren't demoing the high end products, and it could very well be that there is evidence that Radioshack had practically abandoned the Coco 3 before it was discontinued. I also completely admit that perhaps this point of view the article takes is backable by sources and was obvious to anyone around at the time. However, as someone who was admittedly not even alive when the Coco 3 was discontinued, all I see in that particular section is a series of unsourced claims which contradict what little I do know. That said, I'm still not even certain I want to get into the rabbit hole of actually deleting or altering any of the content in the article, because I know some might contest changes that large. At minimum, I'll try and skim the book again this week and see if I can't source some of the claims in the article.67.186.39.76 (talk) 05:45, 11 February 2018 (UTC)

256 colors ?
Your article mentions that "A rumored 256-color mode (detailed in the original Tandy spec for the GIME)[16] has never been found."

This guy is providing an example of 256 colors display on the CoCo3: http://www.lomont.org/software/misc/coco/

Hitchhikr (talk) 05:26, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:TRS-80 Color Computer


text:
Talk:Classification of finite simple groups

Classical simple groups
Would it be correct to characterize the "classic" simple groups as those which can be represented as products of matrices over C? Chas zzz brown 23:31 Feb 15, 2003 (UTC)

 * No, the classic simple groups are certain quotients of linear groups over finite fields. AxelBoldt 20:07 14 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Chas, you're thinking of the simple Lie groups. -- Toby Bartels 04:05, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Sporadic groups
Anyone want to write a bit about each of the sporadic groups? :-) -- Timwi 15:34 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Also, the article seems to imply that these 26 sporadic simple groups are the only ones that don't fit into the other four categories. Has this been proven? -- Timwi 15:34 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Yes; indeed, that's precisely the difficult content of the enormous proof. To show that each of these things is a simple group in the first place is much easier; to show that you've left nothing out is the hard part. -- Toby Bartels 04:05, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Actually the proof of the uniqueness of the 26 sporadic groups is still a debated issue. For instance the uniqueness proof of the Thompson group is flawed, although a new proof of the uniqueness will be published in the coming months. Since the paper hasn't been published yet I felt it wouldn't be appropriate to add to the article, but just FYI there are still some significant holes in the proof. TooMuchMath 18:44, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

Unitary and Lie links
In the list of groups: links to "unitary" and "Lie" do not seem to be appropriate. I expected that these links point to where unitary groups over _finite_ fields and groups of Lie type are discussed. Instead of these I have found unitary groups over R and C and real and complex Lie groups.

Answer: The unitary link should be to special unitary group; and, yes, better to have there the case of finite fields. You can see from the page history that the restriction to the complex field case is quite recent. For some reason the development over any field F (with automorphism *) never happened. As you say, this link is therefore not too helpful at present.

In the case of groups of Lie type, we are still waiting for a Chevalley group article; so I don't really see that the topic can be done justice, right now.

Charles Matthews 09:26, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Mathieu group dates
Is anyone able to verify the statement about the date of discovery of the Mathieu groups? I have been told that M11 and M12 were discovered quite a few years before M22, M23 and M24. A google search suggests a date of 1873, but it'd be nice to have some confirmation from someone.

--Huppybanny 21:35, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Answer: Mathieu published papers in 1861 and 1873. I have not seen them, but I understand that M11 and M12 appeared in the 1861 paper and the 3 large groups in the 1873 paper. They are cited in Dixon & Mortimer's "Permutation groups". Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX 05:19, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

 * E. Mathieu, 'Mémoire sur l'étude des functions des plusieurs quantités, sur le manière de les former et sur les sustitutions qui les laissent invariables', J. Math. Pures Appl. (Liouville) (2) 6 (1861), 241-323.

 * E. Mathieu, 'Sur la function cinq fois transitive de 24 quantités', J. Math. Pures Appl. (Liouville) (2) 18 (1873), 25-46.

Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX 19:46, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

Infinite simple groups?
Is there any such thing as an infinite simple group, and if not, then would it make sense to merge this page into Simple group? -℘yrop (talk) 18:51, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)

Apparently there is: see Thompson groups. -℘yrop (talk) 06:34, Jan 14, 2005 (UTC)

There are many infinite simple groups. Having this page on the finite simple case is more than justified. Charles Matthews 21:13, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

HJ story
The explanation that HJ stands for Hall-Janko should be left to the group's own page. Each group has its own story.--192.35.35.36 20:18, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Unifying theme
Is there really not a "convincing unification of the sporadic simple groups?" All but 6 are found in the Monster. The Mathieu groups are a niche within Conway 1, which is a niche within the Monster. The expansion of the Mathieu groups (binary Golay code) to the Conway groups (Leech lattice) seems natural enough - both relate to peculiarities of 24-dimensional spaces. I suppose the Monster and the Griess algebra represent a similar expansion. [Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX] 12:57 15 Mar 2006

could someone give a "basic idea" of the original classification program?
It would be nice if someone that knows something about the original classification could write a paragraph about the technical side of the program. I heard Borcherds say something to the effect of "you look at centralizers of involutions" and then explain some kind of recursion principle, but I didn't understand it well enough to write a meaningful/accurate summary. Kinser 17:54, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

Partial answer: It would need more than a paragraph, and would be hard to keep non-technical, as you will see below, but something could be attempted. The following is an over-simplification, far from comprehensive, and is too imprecise to put in the article, but gives some flavor: The 1956 result of Brauer-Fowler showing that there are only finitely many simple groups with a centralizer of an involution ( element of order 2) of given order led to numerous results to characterize simple groups by specifying a known structure for the centralizer of an involution, several of which led to new sporadic simple groups, notably in work of Z.Janko. This, combined with the 1963 Odd order theorem of Feit and Thompson, and the Brauer-Suzuki theorem ( approx. 1958) showing that no finite simple group has a (generalized) quaternion Sylow 2-subgroup, concentrated attention on elementary Abelian 2-subgroups of simple groups. J.G. Thompson's classification of N-groups (which covered the classification of minimal finite simple groups) introduced new techniques which were later refined to what became known as the "signalizer functor method" in one direction, and "failure of factorization" techniques in another. Signalizer methods were particularly effective with elementary Abelian 2-groups of order at least 16, slightly less so with elementary Abelian subgroups of order 8 (and not applicable with Klein four groups). Fortunately, character-theoretic methods (sometimes using modular representation theory) as developed by Brauer and others, were well suited to dealing with groups having no elementary Abelian subgroup of order 8, eg groups with dihedral Sylow 2-subgroups.In the presence of large enough elementary Abelian 2-subgroups, techniques such as signalizer functor methods essentially subdivided the later stages into two cases: one case (odd-type) where the centralizer of some involution resembles such a centralizer in a group of Lie type over a field of odd characteristic, and the "characteristic 2-type" case, where all involutions have centralizers resembling those in groups of Lie type in characteristic 2. Roughly speaking, the goal was to identify the former as groups of Lie type in odd characteristic, and the latter as groups of Lie type in characteristic 2, with known exceptions (eg many sporadic groups have characteristic 2-type). In all these cases, work of Michael Aschbacher led to much progress. The characteristic 2-type case proved to be by far the most difficult, and required splitting into various cases, and using signalizer methods for primes other than 2. The quasithin case was one of the subdivisions and here generic methods were not available, and the power of odd signalizer functor methods was limited. Other names ( not already mentioned) playing significant roles include: Bender,Fischer,Foote,Glauberman,Goldschmidt,Gorenstein,Greiss,Harada,Lyons,Mason,McBride,Solomon,: Stellmacher,Stroth,Timmesfeld. The "amalgam method", introduced by Goldschmidt in the later stages of the program plays a larger role in the second generation program, and is intended to play an even greater role in the third generation program (for all primes, not just the prime 2, in the 3G case). BTW: The names of Lyons and Solomon should figure more prominently on the current page, especially discussing revisionism and second generation ( and I am neither of them). BTW again: An elementary Abelian 2-group is a finite group all of whose non-identity elements have order 2. Messagetolove 21:04, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

History of finite simple groups
du Sautoy's book contains much that is incorrect. Both his and Ronan's are popular but the latter has a serious aspect. I recommend Thompson's Carus monograph: From error-correcting codes to simple groups. [It is not John Thompson.] John McKay24.200.155.110 (talk) 07:50, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

As a humble lay reader, I can recommend Symmetry and the Monster by Mark Ronan (Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-19-280723-6) for anyone seeking a historical overview of the discovery of the 26 exceptional finite simple groups and the initiation of the classification programme.-- Cala braxthis  08:31, 1 December 2007 (UTC)

I would also recommend a newly published book by Marcus du Sautoy, Finding Moonshine, Fourth Estate, 2008, ISBN 978-0-00-721461-7 which is suitable for the lay reader-- Cala braxthis  (talk) 11:03, 27 July 2008 (UTC)

Status of the second-generation classficication
<"As of 2005..."> Can anyone please update the status of the second-generation classification? Felix Hoffmann (talk) 06:52, 6 February 2010 (UTC)

 * The status as of November 2012 is addressed here, with an indication that it still had not changed as of February 2014. Robin S (talk) 22:05, 20 July 2015 (UTC)

Controversy?
The article says:
 * There has been some controversy as to whether the resulting proof is complete and correct, given its length and complexity

However, it seems that |this book doesn't see the proof as controversial. I am not even remotely an expert in group theory, but even if there is indeed some controversy, it'd be good to explain why and reference. Tony (talk) 21:54, 26 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Well Peter J. Cameron wrote in his 1999 book Permutation Groups on p. 108: "It is quite impossible for a layman to judge whether a complete proof of the theorem currently exists." 86.127.138.67 (talk) 14:07, 6 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Meanwhile, Wilson notes in the preface of his 2009 book The Finite Simple Groups (GTM 251) that "With the publication of the two volumes by Aschbacher and Smith [12, 13] in 2004 we can reasonably regard the proof of the Classification Theorem for Finite Simple Groups (usually abbreviated CFSG) as complete." Those two citations "[12, 13]" refer to the two-volume book The Classification of Quasithin Groups. 86.127.138.67 (talk) 02:08, 11 April 2015 (UTC)

Holder's result seems wrong
The article says that "Otto Hölder proves that the order of any simple group must be a product of at least 4 primes, and asks for a classification of finite simple groups." If I'm reading this correctly and not being stupid the claimed theorem is false (for example S_5 or Z/pZ for any prime p). There's presumably some additional condition needed. What is missing? JoshuaZ (talk) 21:01, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

I think the problem is imprecision in the statement. Of course, nonabelian finite simple group must be intended. Also, it is correct that the order of a finite nonabelian simple group has at least four prime factors (but the primes in the factorization need not be distinct), so this must be what is intended. The only case not covered by Burnside's p^a.q^b-theorem is then a potential simple group of order pqr where p,q,r are different primes. But there is no finite simple group G whose order has this form. This is not immediately obvious, but here's a reasonably elementary outline: let us suppose that p > q > r. If there is just one Sylow p-subgroup, then this is normal and G is not simple. The number of Sylow p-subgroups must divide the order of G, and be of the form tp+1 for some integer t. The only possibility is that there are qr Sylow p-subgroups. Hence there are qr(p-1) elements of order p in G. Let S be the set of elements of G which do not have order p -we don't know yet that this is a subgroup. Now S contains qr elements. Every element of order q in G must be in S, and S contains a subgroup of order r by Sylow's theorem for r (or by Cauchy's theorem will do in this case). Hence there are at most qr-r elements of order q in G. If there are qr-r elements of order q in G, then there is only one subgroup of order r in G, which must be normal. Otherwise, the number of Sylow q-subgroups of G is less than r. But the number of Sylow q-subgroups of G is a divisor of G, and r is the smallest divisor of the order of G other than 1, so there can be only one Sylow q-subgroup of G in this case, and then that is normal, so G is not simple. This argument has shown that if the order of G has the form pqr for three different primes pq and r, then at least one of the (non-identity) Sylow subgroups of G is normal, so G is not simple. There are more direct ways to prove this if a little more group theory is used. The alternating group of degree 5 does indeed show that it is possible for the order of a finite simple group to have the form p.q.r^2, for distinct primes p,q and rMessagetolove (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 23:28, 9 February 2011 (UTC).

Definition of 2-rank?
The term "2-rank" is used frequently in this article, but not defined. Does anyone know precisely what it means? Is it related to rank of a group? Jowa fan (talk) 07:08, 10 May 2011 (UTC)
 * The 2-rank of a group G is the maximum number of generators of an Abelian 2-subgroup of G. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Messagetolove (talk • contribs) 07:16, 10 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Is p-rank defined analogously?  Is there a standard textbook which contains this definition? Jowa fan (talk) 08:11, 10 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes, p-rank of a finite group is the largest rank of an elementary abelian p-subgroup. The sectional p-rank is the largest rank of an elementary abelian p-section (quotient of a subgroup).  Sometimes the sectional rank is better for induction as it can only go down, but the plain rank can go up (Q8 has 2-rank 1, but sectional 2-rank 2).  The definition of p-rank is on page 5 of Aschbacher's Finite Group Theory textbook. JackSchmidt (talk) 03:13, 13 May 2011 (UTC)

Comparison with factorization of natural numbers
These groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups in much the same way as the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers.

I find this sentence highly questionable and somewhat misleading. Ok for the first part, of course, but in much the same way... is not accurate: both prime factors of a given number and factors of a composition series of a given group are essentially unique, but the converse is false. A natural number is uniquely determined by its prime factors, but two "highly non-isomorphic groups" may share the same composition series! The comparison, as presented, could suggest that the extension problem is entirely trivial; on the contrary it is far from being trivial!--Paolo Lipparini (talk) 08:43, 14 April 2013 (UTC)

 * I completely agree and came to this talk page to make exactly the same comment. Finite groups can be really quite complicated and the extension problem is very subtle. In some sense if you know about primes you know about what numbers there are. That is not true for finite groups. A question like "what groups are there of order n" for large n can be extremely difficult to answer. Some other terminology would be better. Perhaps "reminiscent"? 82.68.102.190 (talk) 17:15, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

I like the periodic table analogy. The chemical formula doesn't tell you how the atoms go together. Isomers exist. If I had a "serious" source I'd add it to the article. --2607:FEA8:F8E1:F00:95F8:E103:5B90:4504 (talk) 04:39, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

Mistake in Gorenstein's working years
I dont understand the article very well but I think there is a mistake.

" Gorenstein (d.1992), Lyons, and Solomon are gradually publishing a simplified and revised version of the proof." "1994 Gorenstein, Lyons, and Solomon begin publication of the revised classification"

Was he died when he started to publish the classification? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.27.127.160 (talk) 19:17, 5 August 2013 (UTC)
 * He died in 1992 but the publication is a write-up of earlier work to which he was a major contributor, so he is still listed as an author. 2601:648:8202:350:0:0:0:90B2 (talk) 01:55, 15 June 2022 (UTC)

Some thoughts how to improve the article
I think someone expert might improve the article by writing why some facts listed in the timeline were useful in finding the proof. For example, there is a lonesome sentence "Conway introduces the Conway groups" but many readers would have no idea how that fact helps to prove the theorem. Also, a proper sketch of the whole theorem would be nice too. I know very well that it would be very challenging as the proof is so long.--78.27.127.160 (talk) 08:46, 16 September 2013 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 01:52, 5 May 2016 (UTC)

The “four broad classes described below” are not clearly delineated below.
The first sentence of this article refers to “four broad classes described below”. Foolishly, I expected to see the 4 broad classes listed somewhere below in some obvious way. Eventually I concluded that they meant the three infinite classes, plus a fourth broad class that includes the 26 sporadic groups plus the Tits group, because the latter is “sometimes considered a 27th sporadic group”.

Did I guess right?

Could this be clarified? Cicada Cycle (talk) 04:54, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

 * Well the statement of the theory sections has

 * which seems pretty clear. --Salix alba (talk): 06:30, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

 * The plain fact is that the "four" broad classes are slightly asymmetrical. The first three infinite classes is clear enough–it is that fourth "class" that causes confusion.  First of all, it is a finite class–there are just 27 of them.  Then there is the annoying Tits group that sticks out like a sore thumb.  That is just the way it is.  In any case, upon careful reading, the statement of the theorem is perfectly clear.--Toploftical (talk) 03:15, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

Citation template for second-generation proof not working properly
I don't know how to fix this, but only the first 6 published volumes of the second generation proof are being displayed in the second paragraph of that section, despite the fact that all 7 volumes are included in the "harv" template. It seems that the parameter year7=2018 is being ignored. Akriasas (talk) 12:55, 18 April 2018 (UTC)

Image summing up the classification
Hi, everyone. (I'm new to this.) The classification is just about the most impressive result in mathematics, so I think it deserves at least one nice visualization. Unfortunately, the only images of the classification that I was able to find online were confusing or misleading: they try to copy the form of the periodic table so much that it is no longer easy to see even how many families there are. Since I wanted to be constructive, I just made an image myself and I have now uploaded it. Please feel free to suggest improvements, which I will be happy to make. Also feel free to replace the image with anything better. Mathsies (talk) 14:31, 14 August 2021 (UTC)

sporadic groups
I know that the absence of additional sporadic groups beyond the Monster is a big part of this proof, but could something be added to the article summarizing why there can't be any more? It must be possible to give such an explanation (at least informally), since the result was expected long before it was proved. Thanks. 2601:648:8202:350:0:0:0:90B2 (talk) 01:28, 15 June 2022 (UTC)


text:
Anders Zorn

Anders Leonard Zorn (18 February 1860 – 22 August 1920) was a Swedish artist. He attained international success as a painter, sculptor, and etching artist. Among Zorn's portrait subjects include King Oscar II of Sweden and three American Presidents: Grover Cleveland, William H. Taft, and Theodore Roosevelt. At the end of his life, he established the Swedish literary Bellman Prize in 1920.

Biography
Zorn was born and raised on his grandparents' farm in Yvraden, a hamlet near the village of Utmeland in the parish of Mora, Dalarna. He studied until the age of twelve in the school at Mora Strand before progressing in the autumn of 1872 to a secondary grammar school in Enköping.

From 1875 to 1880, Zorn studied at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts in Stockholm, where he amazed his teachers with his talent. Members of the Stockholm Society approached him with commissions. In early 1881, Zorn met Emma Lamm, whose background was quite different from his. Emma Lamm was from a wealthy Jewish merchant family. She was interested in art and culture and, after a long engagement, they were married in a civil ceremony in October 1885.

Zorn traveled extensively, to London, Paris, the Balkans, Spain, Italy, and the United States. During the 1890s in Paris, he spent a lot of time with the Finn Albert Edelfelt. He became an international success and one of the most highly regarded painters of his era. It was primarily his skill as a portrait painter that gained Zorn international acclaim, based principally upon his incisive ability to depict the individual character of his model. His subjects included three American Presidents: Grover Cleveland, William H. Taft, and Theodore Roosevelt.

Honors
At the age of 29, he was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur at the Exposition Universelle 1889 Paris World Fair.

Collection
Zorn's art made him wealthy and he was thus able to build up a considerable collection of art. The objects were not only bought in his native country but also during the many travels he made abroad. In their joint will, Anders and Emma Zorn donated their entire holdings to the Swedish State.

Some of his most important works can be seen at the National Museum of Fine Arts (Swedish: Nationalmuseum) in Stockholm. Among them is Midsummer Dance (1897), a depiction of dancers in the evening light of a rural Midsummer's Eve celebration. Other museums holding major works by Zorn include the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The Zorn Collections (Swedish: Zornsamlingarna) located in Mora and Garberg, Älvdalen, consist of four museums dedicated to the life and works of Anders Zorn. The main museum – Zornmuseet – was designed by Ragnar Östberg and opened in 1939. Shown there are extensive works of Zorn and his collected art by Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, 'The Hovingham Master' (Poussin's follower), Bruno Liljefors, Albert Edelfelt, and Pehr Hilleström.

The Bellman Prize (Bellmanpriset) is a literature prize for "an outstanding Swedish poet", every year awarded by the Swedish Academy. The prize was established by Anders Zorn and his wife Emma in 1920.

Zorngården
In 1886, Anders Zorn and his wife, Emma, bought land close to Mora church and here they moved to a cottage from his maternal grandfather's farm. When Anders and Emma Zorn decided to return to Sweden after several years abroad, they began to enlarge the cottage. Zorngården, the Zorn combined smallholding, farmstead, and residence, was completed in 1910.

Zorngården remains today much as it was at the time of Emma Zorn's death in 1942. It is a fine example of an artist's home from the early years of the 20th century. With inspiration from English and Swedish architecture, it is today an excellent example of the architectural freedom that characterizes the years around 1900.

The main part of Zorngården consists of Zorn's home and a museum with his art, but there are two other museums that also are part of the Zorn Collections. Gammelgården is in the southern part of Mora and consists of some 40 timber houses that Zorn bought to make sure that the old art of building such houses would not be forgotten. Gopsmor, Zorn's refuge when under stress, is in the municipality of Älvdalen and is only open for visitors in July.

Paintings
While his early works were often brilliant, luminous watercolors, by 1887 he had switched firmly to oils. Zorn was a prolific artist. He became an international success as one of the most acclaimed portrait painters of his era. His sitters included three American Presidents, nobility, the Swedish king and queen, and numerous members of high society. Zorn also painted portraits of family members, friends, and self-portraits. Zorn is also noted for his nude paintings. His fondness of painting full-figured women gave rise to the terms Zornkulla or dalkulla, an unmarried woman or girl from Dalarna, as the women were called in the local dialect of the region where Zorn lived.

The paintings have the freedom and energy of sketches, using warm and cool light and shade areas with contrasting areas of warm and cool tones, and an understanding of color contrasts and reflected lights. Zorn's accomplished use of the brush allows the forms and the texture of the painted subject to reflect and transmit light. In addition to portraits and nudes, Zorn excelled in realistic depictions of water, as well as scenes depicting rustic life and customs.

Zorn's palette
Zorn was known to use a basic color palette consisting of Lead White (Flake White), Yellow Ochre, Vermilion, and Ivory Black. This limited color palette shows tremendous range in terms of color mixing. A large variety of tonal ranges is possible using this palette, a very important development for portrait painting. The color palette can also be used in still life and landscape painting under certain circumstances. The most striking aspect is that an olive greenish color is possible to obtain by mixing Ivory Black with Yellow Ochre, as Ivory Black is bluish in nature.

Other major works

 * Martha Dana (later Mrs. William Mercer) (1899) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * George Peabody Gardner (1899) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * A Portrait of the Daughters of Ramón Subercaseaux (1892), Private collection
 * Traveling companion (Mr. Charles Deering) (1904) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Other sources

 * Birnbaum, Britta (1985). Paintings at Nationalmuseum. (Stockholm: Nationalmuseum) ISBN 91-7100-273-1
 * Lidbeck, Sven (2007). Anders Zorn Etchings – Catalogue Raisonné 2007. (Stockholm: Zorn Gallery) ISBN 978-91-631-8962-3
 * "Anders Zorn in the Gilded Age", PBS biography (Colorado Public Television), one hour, 2013.
 * Oliver Tostmann, ed., Anders Zorn: A European Artist Seduces America (Boston: The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, 2013)
 * ArtGraphica biography

title: Anders Zorn


text:
Guiana Space Centre

The Guiana Space Centre (Centre spatial guyanais; CSG), also called Europe's Spaceport, is a spaceport to the northwest of Kourou in French Guiana, a overseas region of France in South America. Kourou is located approximately 500 km north of the equator at a latitude of 5°. In operation since 1968, it is a suitable location for a spaceport because of its near equatorial location and open sea to the east and north.

At CSG, space launches are conducted by several European private companies and government agencies working together. The CSG land itself is managed by CNES, the French national space agency. The launch infrastructure built on the CSG land is owned by the European Space Agency. The private company Arianespace operates the launches including planning missions, handing customer relationships and overseeing the team at CSG at that integrates and prepares vehicles for launch. The rockets themselves are designed and produced by other companies, ArianeGroup for the Ariane 6 and Avio for the Vega.

History
In 1964, Guiana was selected to become the spaceport of France, replacing France's first launch site Centre interarmées d'essais d'engins spéciaux in Hammaguir, Algeria. In 1975, France offered to share Kourou with the ESA, with ESA covering today two thirds of Guiana Space Centre's budget. Commercial launches are also bought by non-European companies. ESA pays two-thirds of the spaceport's annual budget and has also financed the upgrades made during the development of the Ariane launchers.

On 4 April 2017, the center was occupied by 30 labour unions and indigenous peoples leaders in the midst of the 2017 social unrest in French Guiana. The center resumed operation on 24 April 2017, after an emergency relief plan of up to 2.1 billion euros was authorized by the French government.

Facilities
The location of the space centre was selected based on various factors. One of the primary benefits of this spaceport is its proximity to the equator, which makes it more efficient, requiring substantially less energy, to launch spacecraft into an near-equatorial, geostationary orbit compared to launching from spaceports at higher latitudes.

Additionally, the centre's location adjacent to the open sea to the east reduces the potential risk of rocket stages and debris from launch failures falling on or near human settlements, which enhances safety during spaceflight activities.

Furthermore, rockets typically launch towards the east to take advantage of Earth's rotation and the angular momentum it provides. The near-equatorial location of the Guiana Space Centre offers an advantage for launches to low-inclination or geostationary Earth orbits, as rockets can be launched into orbits with an inclination of as low as 6°. In contrast, a rocket launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, with a latitude of 28.5°, can only be launched to an inclination of 28.5°, requiring a significant amount of propellant to change the inclination.

The location of the Guiana Space Centre provides benefits for launching spacecraft into low-inclination or geostationary Earth orbits. Rockets of similar size to those used at other spaceports to place satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), such as the Proton and Ariane 5 rockets, can send similar payloads to a low Earth orbit (LEO). For example, the Proton rocket, launched from high latitudes in Russia, can only send 6,270kg to GTO, while the Kourou-launched Ariane 5 can send more than 10,000kg to GTO.

BEC/ELA-1/ELV
Originally built in the 1960s under the name of Base Équatoriale du CECLES (ELDO Equatorial Base), the pad located at 5.236°N, -52.775°W was designed for the Europa-II launch vehicle. One Europa-II was launched from the site in 1971, which ended in failure due to a guidance problem, before the program was cancelled.

The pad at Giunana was demolished and subsequently rebuilt as the first launch complex for Ariane as ELA (Ensemble de Lancement Ariane). Redesignated later as ELA-1, it was used for Ariane 1 and Ariane 2 and 3 launches until being retired in 1989.

In November 2001, it was refurbished again for the Vega rocket and renamed ELV (Ensemble de Lancement Vega). The first launch was on 13 February 2012.

ELA-2
The ELA-2 pad (Ensemble de Lancement Ariane-2), located at 5.232°N, -52.776°W, built in 1986, had been used for Ariane 4 launches from 1988 until 2003. Before 1988, although purpose-built for Ariane 4, the pad hosted an Ariane-2 and two Ariane-3 launches. The complex consisted of two areas: the launcher preparation zone and the launch pad, separated by one kilometre, allowing a launcher to be assembled in the preparation zone while another launch from the pad. A mobile service tower at the launch pad provided a protected environment for payload installation and final preparation of the rocket. Following the retirement of the Ariane 4 in favor of the Ariane 5, In September 2011, the pad's service tower was demolished using explosives.

ELA-3
ELA-3 (Ensemble de Lancement Ariane-3) was active between 4 June 1996 and 5 July 2023, launching the Ariane 5. This facility is located at 5.239°N, -52.768°W and covers an area of 21 km2.

ELA-4
ELA4 is located along the Route de l'Espace in the Roche Christine site at 5.26258°N, -52.79074°W, between ELA-3 and ELS launch facilities. CNES was responsible for the construction of the Ariane 6 ground segments including the new launch pad. Earthworks on the 150 hectare launch site began at the end of June 2015 and was completed at the start of 2016. Four platforms were levelled to accommodate the launch pad, the liquid oxygen and hydrogen tanks and the assembly building. Civil engineering works on the flame trench and other buildings began in the summer of 2016 and ended in 2019. The new launch facility was inaugurated on 28 September 2021 with first flight of the Ariane 6 conducted on 9 July 2024.

ELS / Soyuz at CSG
ESA has built ELS (Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz) at 5.305°N, -52.834°W for launching Russian-built Soyuz-2 rockets. The first Soyuz launch from ELS was postponed several times, but launched on 21 October 2011.

ELS is located on the territory of Sinnamary commune, 27 km from Kourou harbor. It is 10 km northwest of the site used for the Ariane 5 launches. Under the terms of the Russo-European joint venture, ESA will augment its own launch vehicle fleet with Soyuz rockets – using them to launch ESA or commercial payloads – and the Russians will get access to the Kourou spaceport for launching their own payloads with Soyuz rockets. Russia will use the Guiana Space Centre in addition to Baikonur Cosmodrome. The Guiana location has the significant benefit of greatly increased payload capability, owing to the near equatorial position. A Soyuz rocket with a 1.7 tones to geostationary transfer orbit performance from Baikonur will increase its payload potential to 2.8 tones from the Guiana launch site.

The ELS project is being co-funded by Arianespace, ESA, and the European Union, with CNES being the prime contractor. The project has a projected cost of approximately €320 million, where €120 million are allocated for modernizing the Soyuz vehicle. The official opening of the launch site construction occurred on 27 February 2007.

On 13 September 2010, Spaceflight Now reported that after several delays in the construction of a mobile gantry the launch pad had been finished, and the first flight of the Soyuz was expected to occur in early 2011. By October 2010, 18 launch contracts were signed. Arianespace has ordered 24 launchers from Russian industry.

On 21 October 2011, two Galileo IOV-1 and IOV-2 satellites were launched using a Soyuz-ST rocket, in the "first Russian Soyuz vehicle ever launched from Europe's Spaceport in French Guiana.".

On 26 February 2022, Roscosmos announced that it was suspending operations at ELS as a reaction to international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War. According to Stephane Israël, CEO of Arianespace, "there will no longer be Soyuz launches" from the Guiana Space Center.

Final assembly building
Astrium assembles each Ariane 5 launcher in the Launcher Integration Building. The vehicle is then delivered to the Final Assembly Building for payload integration by Arianespace. The Final Assembly Building is located 2.8 km from the ELA-3 launch zone. The mobile launch table completes the trip with an Ariane 5 in about one hour. It is then secured in place over the launch pad's flame ducts.

Launch safety
Fire safety is ensured by a detachment of the Paris Fire Brigade, a branch of the French Army. Security around the base is ensured by French Gendarmerie forces, assisted by the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion. Before and during launch windows, CSG facility security is significantly enhanced by anti-personnel and anti-aircraft measures, the exact configurations of which are classified by the French military. All entrants to the launch complex are also subject to checks for proof of permission to enter the facility.

The Guiana Space Centre (as per CNES) also contains the Îles du Salut, a former penal colony including the infamous Devil's Island. Now a tourist site, the islands are under the launching trajectory for geosynchronous orbit and have to be evacuated during launches.

Early launches

 * 10 March 1970 – The first Diamant-B launched the DIAL/MIKA and DIAL/WIKA satellites. DIAL/MIKA failed during launch, but it entered orbit with a total mass of 111 kg. DIAL/WIKA provided data for about two months after launch.

Recent launches

 * 21 May 2011 – 04:38 (GMT+08:00) An Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle launched carrying ST-2 Satellite twice as powerful Singtel's first satellite ST-1, which was launched back in 1998. It will provide 20% more transponder capacity and a wider coverage footprint than ST-1, with C-band and Ku-band coverage of the Middle East, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
 * 21 October 2011 – A Soyuz-2 carrying two Galileo satellites was launched. This was the first launch of a Soyuz rocket at the Centre Spatial Guyanais.
 * 17 December 2011 – A Soyuz carrying the French space agency's Pleiades 1 Earth imaging satellite, four ELISA electronic intelligence satellites, and the SSOT remote sensing satellite for the Chilean military. This was the second launch of a Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre.
 * 13 February 2012 – The Vega, which was designed in Italy, lifted off at 10:00 UTC on its maiden voyage. The launcher released nine satellites into orbit: two Italian satellites and seven pico-satellites.
 * 5 July 2012 – The uncrewed Ariane 5 rocket took off to send an American communication satellite and European weather-monitoring spacecraft into orbit. Liftoff occurred at 21:36 UTC.
 * 30 August 2013 – Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched the advanced multi-band communication satellite GSAT-7. It was 17th Indian satellite launched from ESA with Ariane 5.
 * 16 October 2014 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the communication satellite ARSAT-1 to orbit. It is the first geostationary satellite built by a Latin American country, Argentina, and the second one of the Americas, after the U.S.
 * 30 September 2015 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the communication satellite ARSAT-2 to orbit, being the second Argentine geostationary satellite built in two years.
 * 1 October 2015 – Sky Muster (NBN-Co 1A) is a communication satellite launched on an Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle. Sky Muster is the first satellite of an operation to improve Australia's internet with the NBN program.
 * 6 October 2016 – Sky Muster II (NBN-Co 1B) is a communication satellite launched on an Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle. Sky Muster II is the second satellite of an operation to improve Australia's internet with the NBN program.
 * 28 January 2017 – A Soyuz-2 STB carrying the geostationary communication satellite Hispasat 36W-1 to orbit. It is the first of the ESA's "Small-GEO" class of satellites.
 * 14 February 2017 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the commercial communication satellites Sky Brasil 1 (Intelsat 32e) and Telekom 3S launched the satellites to a geostationary orbit.
 * 25 January 2018 – Partial failure of Ariane 5 launch vehicle on Ariane flight VA241.
 * 19 October 2018 – An Ariane 5 launched the European-Japanese BepiColombo mission to Mercury.
 * 5 February 2019 – An Ariane 5 launched the Saudi Geostationary Satellite SGS-1 (also known as SaudiGeosat-1/HellasSat-4).
 * 11 July 2019 – Vega failed to launch Falcon Eye 1 satellite for United Arab Emirates Armed Forces.
 * 15 August 2020 – An Ariane 5 launched MEV-2, BSAT-4b, and Galaxy-30.
 * 17 November 2020 – Vega failed to launch TARANIS and SEOSat-Ingenio.
 * 25 December 2021 – An Ariane 5 launched the James Webb Space Telescope.
 * 13 December 2022 — An Ariane 5 launched the first third generation Meteosat: Meteosat MTG-I1.
 * 21 December 2022 – Vega-C failed to launch two Pléiades Neo satellites from Airbus Defence and Space.
 * 14 April 2023 – An Ariane 5 launched the JUICE space probe on an 8-year journey to Jupiter, including four gravity assist maneuvers at the Moon, Earth, and Venus, where it will study three of Jupiter's Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa.
 * 5 July 2023 – Ariane 5 launched two military communication satellites from France and Germany (Syracuse 4B and Heinrich Hertz) as its final mission.
 * 9 July 2024 – Ariane 6 launched on its maiden flight.

Launch statistics
, Kourou counts amongst the spaceports with the highest percentage of successful launches, both successive and overall. Here is a chronology of all orbital launches from the Kourou spaceport since 1970, under the French and European space programmes.

Flights by launcher
Active:

Retired: · ·  ·  ·  ·  ·

Local impact
The space sector was responsible for about 15% of French Guiana's GDP in 2014, around half of the 28% it was in 1990. This reduction is mostly due to expansion in other sectors, rather than decreasing space activity. As of 2020, the space sector employed 4,620 people in Guiana, meaning the industry was responsible for just under 10% of salaried jobs in the overseas department, though there are estimates that as many as 9,000 people are employed directly and indirectly as a result of activities at the spaceport. The Guiana Space Centre (or CSG) is one of the spaceports in the world that receives the most traffic, and it receives large amounts of funding from the European Space Agency (ESA), with the organisation covering around 66% of the spaceport's annual budget, as well as financing new facilities. Indigenous and local activist groups argue that mainland France is only interested in French Guiana as far as the space centre is concerned, and the funding that the space centre receives is symbolic given the inequity in living standards seen between the department and mainland France. For example, despite there being high poverty levels and unemployment rates of over 20% in the department, the cost of living remains high due to a dependence on mainland France for imported food and resources, yet large amounts of funding are invested in the space programme, rather than in public services for the department.

The department became the site of strikes and protests throughout March and April 2017, which were held to highlight the insecurity and infrastructural issues facing French Guiana. Alongside 30 labour unions who launched strikes, the Collective of 500 Brothers led protests in Kourou, which spread across the entire country, and resonated in mainland France. On 21 March 2017, the launch of an Ariane 5 rocket carrying a Brazilian satellite and a South Korean satellite was prevented due to protesters and workers on strike from the CSG blockading the centre. Further strikes and occupation of the space centre meant that the satellites were not launched until May 2017. Negotiations between the French government and Guianese protesters resulted in a rejection of a €1.1 billion offer made by the French, with the Guianese demanding at least €3 billion in aid. Since the protests, CNES (National Centre for Space Studies), the French government space agency that operates the spaceport, added an additional €10 million to the €40 million it had already pledged to fund economic and social programmes in French Guiana.

title: Guiana Space Centre


text:
Talk:Watling Street

Celtic?
Do we have any citations regarding Celtic use? Watling St is pretty straight and most cetltic things were anything but -also is there any evidence of settlement at either Canterbury or St ALbans pre Roman? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.74.108.30 (talk) 9 March 2007

Image in the infobox
I reverted an edit that moved an image of the Street as a green lane (near Crick) from "History" to the info box because [imo] it does not give a reasonable impression of Watling Street as it is today. The image of the Street in Canterbury is actually a lot more typical but I doubt that too many people would support the idea of that image being featured in the infobox. If we are to have an image, it seems to me that we should first week consensus of what it should be. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 17:20, 1 November 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Single point coordinates for a linear feature and WP:LINEAR
The lead to WP:LINEAR says this: "There are a number of ways in which coordinates relating to linear features can be added to Wikipedia. As yet, there is no single method which has achieved consensus.

The best method may depend on the type of feature, its length, and the number of significant points of interest along it (though such points need not be sufficiently notable as to warrant their own article)."

and later: "Editors may give:

1. One pair of coordinates, for the mid point

2. One pair of coordinates, for the most significant point (e.g. the estuary or mouth of a river)

3. Two pairs of coordinates, one for each end

4. Three pairs of coordinates, combining the above

5. Multiple coordinates, for points of interest

6. No coordinates"

The status of the article before today was #6. made a bold edit, changing the status to #3 (though how somewhere in Canterbury counts as "the most significant point" is highly debatable, even if it was the Roman capital). I reverted that edit to status quo ante but reinstated. So I edited again to status #1 (and arguably #3, since this is one of the postulated sites for the Battle of Watling Street but I won't be surprised if it is reverted.

So we have a dispute about what to do and need to reach consensus. (I acknowledge that I should have done this formal WP:BRD process first).

IMO,
 * Option #1 is good but would take some effort to determine the precise mid-point;
 * #2 is the least satisfactory, since it rests on editor opinion
 * #3 would be good but there are three start points on the south coast.
 * #4 reintroduces the problems of #2
 * #5 is probably the best, especially if it includes the significant settlements like Lactodurum

Comments? --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 11:56, 24 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The article actually started off at a seventh option last week, which I think had been the case for a while: it had primary coordinates at a point on the road somewhere north of Birmingham, which Abductive removed as "inappropriate", clarifying on their talk page that it was because this point was arbitrary, which is a fair point. I think option #1 here is fine if someone just eyeballs it. --Lord Belbury (talk) 12:12, 24 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you, that makes more sense. The point I chose (in Northamptonshire) was fairly but not entirely arbitrary. It 'feels' about halfway from the Dover to Wroxeter though it might be a little too far to the north. It is also somewhere in between settlements, to avoid confusion with any other feature. (My final reason for the choice turns out to be wrong: the most-cited site of the Battle of Watling Street is south of Towcester, not north – but my "middle of nowhere to avoid confusion" would rule that out anyway.)
 * So is someone volunteering to work out where the half-way point is? I'm not that fussed about precision, there or thereabouts is good enough for me. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 15:53, 24 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I could look into it too. But it is not a continuous road, and its path is uncertain. A route map would be pretty difficult. I originally removed all coords. Abductive  (reasoning) 16:41, 24 November 2020 (UTC)
 * My preference would be for no COORD at all, least of all one that appears in the top line of the article. A detailed map would involve quite a lot of WP:OR and WP:SYNTH to extrapolate from the few sources we have. We could add a table of major Romano-British settlements on the route with their coordinates but IMO that is as far as we should go. Guessing that this is the emerging consensus, I will now remove the coord that I added, returning to the status quo as it was last night. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 19:12, 24 November 2020 (UTC)

Bend in river
Although a car goes slower round a bend, I don't think a river does. The volume of water past a point in a river is approximately constant, or it would back up and form a lake. DMichael6 (talk) 16:40, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

Mediolanum (Whitchurch)
is this place to be linked? -- 2001:4DD5:4643:0:8039:1C4F:D3FD:4586 (talk) 00:53, 6 July 2021 (UTC)
 * As it is north of Wroxeter, it probably doesn't qualify as Watling Street. However the table showing the route of the Antonine Iter II had Mediolanum as 'unknown' without explanation (which may just show how long ago it was written). I have just added it: if there is an issue then it can be explained here. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 11:18, 6 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Watling Street