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Memory Stick

The Memory Stick is a removable flash memory card format, originally launched by Sony in late 1998. In addition to the original Memory Stick, this family includes the Memory Stick PRO, a revision that allows greater maximum storage capacity and faster file transfer speeds; Memory Stick Duo, a small-form-factor version of the Memory Stick (including the PRO Duo); the even smaller Memory Stick Micro (M2), and the Memory Stick PRO-HG, a high speed variant of the PRO to be used in high-definition video and still cameras.

As a proprietary format, Sony exclusively used Memory Stick on its products in the 2000s such as Cyber-shot digital cameras, Handycam digital camcorders, Sony Ericsson mobile phones, WEGA and Bravia TV sets, VAIO PCs, digital audio players, and the PlayStation Portable game console, with the format being licensed to a few other companies early in its lifetime. With the increasing popularity of Secure Digital around 2010, Sony started to include SD in their devices, marking a surrender by Sony of its format war in the memory-card business and the end to further serious development of the format. Despite this, Sony continues to support Memory Stick on certain newer devices through the use of adaptors.

History
The original Memory Stick, which was launched in October 1998, was available in capacities up to 128 MB.

In October 1999, Sony licensed the technology to Fujitsu, Aiwa, Sanyo, Sharp, Pioneer and Kenwood, in a bid to avoid a repetition of the Betamax failure. Other companies were also licensees to the format. Some early examples of Memory Stick usage by third-party companies include Sharp's MP3 players, Alpine's in-dash players, and Epson's printers.

Initially the format had a lukewarm reception, but it soon increased in popularity, especially after the licensing deal. In spring 2001, Memory Stick attained 25% market share (against CompactFlash's 40% and SmartMedia's 32%), up from 7% a year earlier. By May 2001, total shipment of Memory Stick units surpassed 10 million.

However the SD card, jointly developed by Toshiba, Panasonic and SanDisk, became widely popular among companies and soon became the most popular flash format – by November 2003 it held 42% market share in the United States, ahead of CompactFlash's 26% and Memory Stick with 16%. Eventually Sony itself became the only company to support the format. Sony was often criticized for the Memory Stick, as they were deemed to be expensive compared to other formats.

, it appeared that Sony had begun to combine support for SD/SDHC and Memory Stick formats in their products. All digital cameras and camcorders announced by Sony at the 2010 Consumer Electronics Show could use SD and SDHC cards as well as Memory Sticks. Furthermore, Sony announced the release of its own line of SD cards. Many claimed this development as the end of the format war between Memory Stick and SD card. However, Sony did not abandon the format at this time, and indicated that it would continue development of the format for the foreseeable future. A prime example was the development of WiFi transfers through a special Memory Stick PRO-Duo which was still in development.

Sony's first significant migration away from Memory Stick did not come until 2019, when it introduced the α7R IV full-frame mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera without Memory Stick support, opting instead for dual SDXC slots.

Applications
Typically, Memory Sticks are used as storage media for a portable device, in a form that can easily be removed for access by a personal computer. For example, Sony digital compact cameras use Memory Stick for storing image files. With a Memory Stick-capable memory card reader a user can copy the pictures taken with the Sony digital camera to a computer. Sony typically included Memory Stick reader hardware in its first-party consumer electronics, such as digital cameras, digital music players, PDAs, cellular phones, the VAIO line of laptop computers, TV sets under the WEGA and Bravia names, and Sony's handheld gaming device, the PlayStation Portable.

A special Memory Stick can be inserted in the hindquarters of Sony's AIBO robot pet, to enable the use of Aiboware—software intended for use on AIBOs. The Sticks include a copy protection mechanism used by the robot, allowing users to write programs. These are referred to as programmable or programming. Only 8 MB and 16 MB versions are available.

An adapter was made for the original Memory Stick that allowed them to be used in later Sony Mavica models. This adapter, which took CR2016 cells for power, served a dual purpose of expanding storage capacity of the Mavica and giving those who did not have an existing Memory Stick drive a means of computer interfacing. With the Mavica FD92 and FD97 dedicated Memory Stick slots were added.

Formats and form factors
Memory Sticks include a wide range of actual formats, including three different form factors.

Memory Stick
Introduced in July 1998. The original Memory Stick is approximately the size and thickness of a stick of chewing gum. It was available in capacities from 4 MB to 128 MB (1 MB = one million bytes). It was available both with and without MagicGate support. The MagicGate-capable memory sticks were white-colored, while the standard version was purple. The original Memory Stick is no longer manufactured.

Memory Stick Select
In response to the storage limitations of the original Memory Stick, Sony introduced the Memory Stick Select at CES 2003 on January 9. The Memory Stick Select contained two separate 128 MB partitions which the user could switch between using a physical switch on the card. This solution was fairly unpopular, but it did give users of older Memory Stick devices more capacity. Its physical size remained the same as the original Memory Stick.

Memory Stick PRO
The Memory Stick PRO, introduced on January 9, 2003, as a joint effort between Sony and SanDisk, would be the longer-lasting solution to the space problem. Most devices that use the original Memory Sticks support both the original and PRO sticks since both formats have identical form factors. Some readers that were not compatible could be upgraded to Memory Stick PRO support via a firmware update. Memory Stick PROs have a marginally higher transfer speed and a maximum theoretical capacity of 32 GB, although GB-sized capacities of more than 2GB are only available in the PRO Duo form factor. High Speed Memory Stick PROs are available, and newer devices support this high-speed mode, allowing for faster file transfers. All Memory Stick PROs larger than 1 GB support this high-speed mode, and High Speed Memory Stick PROs are backwards-compatible with devices that don't support the high-speed mode. High-capacity Memory Sticks such as the 4 GB versions are expensive compared to other types of flash memory such as SD cards and CompactFlash. , 512 MB Memory Stick PRO can be bought.

Memory Stick Duo
Introduced in July 2002. The Memory Stick Duo was developed in response to Sony's need for a smaller flash memory card for pocket-sized digital cameras, cell phones and the PlayStation Portable (the latter of which supported the Memory Stick PRO Duo variant). It is slightly smaller than the competing Secure Digital (SD) format and roughly two thirds the length of the standard Memory Stick form factor, but costs more. Memory Stick Duos are available with the same features as the larger standard Memory Stick, available with and without high speed mode, and with and without MagicGate support. The Memory Stick PRO Duo has replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to its 128 MB size limitation, but has kept the same form factor as the Duo.

A simple adapter allows Memory Stick Duo to be used in devices designed to accept the original Memory Stick form factor.

Memory Stick PRO Duo
The Memory Stick PRO Duo (MSPD) quickly replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to the Duo's size limitation of 128 MB and slow transfer speed. Memory Stick PRO Duos are available in all the same variants as the larger Memory Stick PRO, with and without High Speed mode, and with and without MagicGate support.

Sony has released different versions of Memory Stick PRO Duo. A Memory Stick PRO Duo with MagicGate was released as a 512 MB stick. Additionally, a 16 GB version in March 2008 and another a 32 GB version on August 21, 2009. In 2009, Sony and SanDisk also announced the joint development of an expanded Memory Stick PRO format tentatively named "Memory Stick PRO Format for Extended High Capacity". Sony has since finalized the format and released its specification under the new name, Memory Stick XC (see below).

There exist adapters for those who want to use microSD cards, on devices that only support Memory Stick PRO Duo cards, that allows those to use the storage on a microSD for files on the device in question.

Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo
On December 11, 2006, Sony, together with SanDisk, announced the Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo. While only serial and 4-bit parallel interfaces are supported in the Memory Stick PRO format, an 8-bit parallel interface was added to the Memory Stick PRO-HG format. Also, the maximum interface clock frequency was increased from 40 MHz to 60 MHz. With these enhancements, a theoretical transfer rate of 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) is achieved, which is three times faster than the Memory Stick PRO format.

Memory Stick Micro (M2)
In a joint venture with SanDisk, Sony released a new Memory Stick format on February 6, 2006. The Memory Stick Micro (M2) measures 15 × 12.5 × 1.2 mm (roughly one-quarter the size of the Duo) with 64 MB, 128 MB, 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, and 16 GB capacities available. The format has a theoretical limit of 32 GB and maximum transfer speed of 160 Mbit/s. However, as with the PRO Duo format, it has been expanded through the XC series as Memory Stick XC Micro and Memory Stick XC-HG Micro, both with the theoretical maximum capacity of 2 TB.

The M2 comes with an adapter, much like the Duo Sticks, to ensure physical compatibility with Memory Stick PRO devices. However, not all devices with a PRO slot are compatible with the M2/Adapter combination, as the firmware of older devices don't support the higher capacity of some M2 cards. One example is certain Sony CLIÉ PDAs which don't support cards larger than 2 GB.

Sony announced on June 1, 2009, that M2 support in Sony Ericsson phones would be dropped in favor of microSD.

The Sony DSC-RX0 Mark II made a revived usage of M2 slots.

Memory Stick XC
On January 7, 2009, SanDisk and Sony announced the Memory Stick XC format (tentatively named "Memory Stick Format Series for Extended High Capacity" at the time). The Memory Stick XC has a maximum theoretical 2 TB capacity, 64 times larger than that of the Memory Stick PRO Duo which is limited to 32 GB. XC series has the same form factors as PRO series, and supports MagicGate content protection technology as well as Access Control function as PRO series does. In line with the rest of the industry, the XC series uses the newer exFAT file system due to size and formatting limitations of FAT/FAT16/FAT32 filesystems used in the PRO series. A maximum transfer speed of 480 Mbit/s (60 Mbyte/s) is achieved through 8-bit parallel data transfer. No Memory Stick XC cards were released to the market, likely due to domination of SD cards; its equivalent here is named SDXC and eventually became more successful than any other exFAT-based memory card format.

Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo HX
Sony announced the release of the Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo HX on May 17, 2011, which was considered the fastest card ever made by the manufacturer. It measures 20 × 31 × 1.6 mm, with 8 GB, 16 GB, or 32 GB versions available. Also, the format offers a maximum transfer speed of 50 MB/s.

Mark 2 certification
As of early 2008, Mark 2-certified versions of the Memory Stick PRO Duo became available. The Mark 2 designation indicates the Memory Stick is suitable for use with AVCHD recording products or other faster Memory Stick enabled devices by providing appropriate minimum write performance.

title: Memory Stick


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Langlands program

In representation theory and algebraic number theory, the Langlands program is a web of far-reaching and consequential conjectures about connections between number theory and geometry. Proposed by, it seeks to relate Galois groups in algebraic number theory to automorphic forms and representation theory of algebraic groups over local fields and adeles. Widely seen as the single biggest project in modern mathematical research, the Langlands program has been described by Edward Frenkel as "a kind of grand unified theory of mathematics."

The Langlands program consists of some very complicated theoretical abstractions, which can be difficult even for specialist mathematicians to grasp. To oversimplify, the fundamental lemma of the project posits a direct connection between the generalized fundamental representation of a finite field with its group extension to the automorphic forms under which it is invariant. This is accomplished through abstraction to higher dimensional integration, by an equivalence to a certain analytical group as an absolute extension of its algebra. Consequently, this allows an analytical functional construction of powerful invariance transformations for a number field to its own algebraic structure.

The meaning of such a construction is nuanced, but its specific solutions and generalizations are very powerful. The consequence for proof of existence to such theoretical objects implies an analytical method in constructing the categoric mapping of fundamental structures for virtually any number field. As an analogue to the possible exact distribution of primes, the Langlands program allows a potential general tool for the resolution of invariance at the level of generalized algebraic structures. This in turn permits a somewhat unified analysis of arithmetic objects through their automorphic functions. Simply put, the Langlands philosophy allows a general analysis of structuring the abstractions of numbers. Naturally, this description is at once a reduction and over-generalization of the program's proper theorems, but these mathematical analogues provide the basis of its conceptualization.

Background
In a very broad context, the program built on existing ideas: the philosophy of cusp forms formulated a few years earlier by Harish-Chandra and, the work and approach of Harish-Chandra on semisimple Lie groups, and in technical terms the trace formula of Selberg and others.

What initially was very new in Langlands' work, besides technical depth, was the proposed direct connection to number theory, together with the rich organisational structure hypothesised (so-called functoriality).

For example, in the work of Harish-Chandra one finds the principle that what can be done for one semisimple (or reductive) Lie group, should be done for all. Therefore, once the role of some low-dimensional Lie groups such as GL(2) in the theory of modular forms had been recognised, and with hindsight GL(1) in class field theory, the way was open at least to speculation about GL(n) for general n > 2.

The cusp form idea came out of the cusps on modular curves but also had a meaning visible in spectral theory as "discrete spectrum", contrasted with the "continuous spectrum" from Eisenstein series. It becomes much more technical for bigger Lie groups, because the parabolic subgroups are more numerous.

In all these approaches there was no shortage of technical methods, often inductive in nature and based on Levi decompositions amongst other matters, but the field was – and is – very demanding.

And on the side of modular forms, there were examples such as Hilbert modular forms, Siegel modular forms, and theta-series.

Objects
There are a number of related Langlands conjectures. There are many different groups over many different fields for which they can be stated, and for each field there are several different versions of the conjectures. Some versions of the Langlands conjectures are vague, or depend on objects such as the Langlands groups, whose existence is unproven, or on the L-group that has several inequivalent definitions. Moreover, the Langlands conjectures have evolved since Langlands first stated them in 1967.

There are different types of objects for which the Langlands conjectures can be stated:
 * Representations of reductive groups over local fields (with different subcases corresponding to archimedean local fields, p-adic local fields, and completions of function fields)
 * Automorphic forms on reductive groups over global fields (with subcases corresponding to number fields or function fields).
 * Finite fields. Langlands did not originally consider this case, but his conjectures have analogues for it.
 * More general fields, such as function fields over the complex numbers.

Conjectures
There are several different ways of stating the Langlands conjectures, which are closely related but not obviously equivalent.

Reciprocity
The starting point of the program may be seen as Emil Artin's reciprocity law, which generalizes quadratic reciprocity. The Artin reciprocity law applies to a Galois extension of an algebraic number field whose Galois group is abelian; it assigns L-functions to the one-dimensional representations of this Galois group, and states that these L-functions are identical to certain Dirichlet L-series or more general series (that is, certain analogues of the Riemann zeta function) constructed from Hecke characters. The precise correspondence between these different kinds of L-functions constitutes Artin's reciprocity law.

For non-abelian Galois groups and higher-dimensional representations of them, one can still define L-functions in a natural way: Artin L-functions.

The insight of Langlands was to find the proper generalization of Dirichlet L-functions, which would allow the formulation of Artin's statement in this more general setting. Hecke had earlier related Dirichlet L-functions with automorphic forms (holomorphic functions on the upper half plane of $$\mathbb{C}$$ (the complex numbers) that satisfy certain functional equations). Langlands then generalized these to automorphic cuspidal representations, which are certain infinite dimensional irreducible representations of the general linear group GL(n) over the adele ring of $$\mathbb{Q}$$ (the rational numbers). (This ring simultaneously keeps track of all the completions of $$\mathbb{Q},$$ see p-adic numbers.)

Langlands attached automorphic L-functions to these automorphic representations, and conjectured that every Artin L-function arising from a finite-dimensional representation of the Galois group of a number field is equal to one arising from an automorphic cuspidal representation. This is known as his "reciprocity conjecture".

Roughly speaking, the reciprocity conjecture gives a correspondence between automorphic representations of a reductive group and homomorphisms from a Langlands group to an L-group. There are numerous variations of this, in part because the definitions of Langlands group and L-group are not fixed.

Over local fields this is expected to give a parameterization of L-packets of admissible irreducible representations of a reductive group over the local field. For example, over the real numbers, this correspondence is the Langlands classification of representations of real reductive groups. Over global fields, it should give a parameterization of automorphic forms.

Functoriality
The functoriality conjecture states that a suitable homomorphism of L-groups is expected to give a correspondence between automorphic forms (in the global case) or representations (in the local case). Roughly speaking, the Langlands reciprocity conjecture is the special case of the functoriality conjecture when one of the reductive groups is trivial.

Generalized functoriality
Langlands generalized the idea of functoriality: instead of using the general linear group GL(n), other connected reductive groups can be used. Furthermore, given such a group G, Langlands constructs the Langlands dual group LG, and then, for every automorphic cuspidal representation of G and every finite-dimensional representation of LG, he defines an L-function. One of his conjectures states that these L-functions satisfy a certain functional equation generalizing those of other known L-functions.

He then goes on to formulate a very general "Functoriality Principle". Given two reductive groups and a (well behaved) morphism between their corresponding L-groups, this conjecture relates their automorphic representations in a way that is compatible with their L-functions. This functoriality conjecture implies all the other conjectures presented so far. It is of the nature of an induced representation construction—what in the more traditional theory of automorphic forms had been called a 'lifting', known in special cases, and so is covariant (whereas a restricted representation is contravariant). Attempts to specify a direct construction have only produced some conditional results.

All these conjectures can be formulated for more general fields in place of $$\mathbb{Q}$$: algebraic number fields (the original and most important case), local fields, and function fields (finite extensions of Fp(t) where p is a prime and Fp(t) is the field of rational functions over the finite field with p elements).

Geometric conjectures
The so-called geometric Langlands program, suggested by Gérard Laumon following ideas of Vladimir Drinfeld, arises from a geometric reformulation of the usual Langlands program that attempts to relate more than just irreducible representations. In simple cases, it relates $l$-adic representations of the étale fundamental group of an algebraic curve to objects of the derived category of $l$-adic sheaves on the moduli stack of vector bundles over the curve.

Current status
The Langlands conjectures for GL(1, K) follow from (and are essentially equivalent to)  class field theory.

Langlands proved the Langlands conjectures for groups over the archimedean local fields $$\mathbb{R}$$ (the real numbers) and $$\mathbb{C}$$ (the complex numbers) by giving the Langlands classification of their irreducible representations.

Lusztig's classification of the irreducible representations of groups of Lie type over finite fields can be considered an analogue of the Langlands conjectures for finite fields.

Andrew Wiles' proof of modularity of semistable elliptic curves over rationals can be viewed as an instance of the Langlands reciprocity conjecture, since the main idea is to relate the Galois representations arising from elliptic curves to modular forms. Although Wiles' results have been substantially generalized, in many different directions, the full Langlands conjecture for $$\text{GL}(2,\mathbb{Q})$$ remains unproved.

In 1998, Laurent Lafforgue proved Lafforgue's theorem verifying the Langlands conjectures for the general linear group GL(n, K) for function fields K. This work continued earlier investigations by Drinfeld, who proved the case GL(2, K) in the 1980s.

In 2018, Vincent Lafforgue established the global Langlands correspondence (the direction from automorphic forms to Galois representations) for connected reductive groups over global function fields.

Local Langlands conjectures
proved the local Langlands conjectures for the general linear group GL(2, K) over local fields.

proved the local Langlands conjectures for the general linear group GL(n, K) for positive characteristic local fields K. Their proof uses a global argument.

proved the local Langlands conjectures for the general linear group GL(n, K) for characteristic 0 local fields K. gave another proof. Both proofs use a global argument. gave another proof.

Fundamental lemma
In 2008, Ngô Bảo Châu proved the "fundamental lemma", which was originally conjectured by Langlands and Shelstad in 1983 and being required in the proof of some important conjectures in the Langlands program.

Implications
To a lay reader or even nonspecialist mathematician, abstractions within the Langlands program can be somewhat impenetrable. However, there are some strong and clear implications for proof or disproof of the fundamental Langlands conjectures.

As the program posits a powerful connection between analytic number theory and generalizations of algebraic geometry, the idea of 'Functoriality' between abstract algebraic representations of number fields and their analytical prime constructions results in powerful functional tools allowing an exact quantification of prime distributions. This, in turn, yields the capacity for classification of diophantine equations and further abstractions of algebraic functions. Furthermore, if the reciprocity of such generalized algebras for the posited objects exists, and if their analytical functions can be shown to be well-defined, some very deep results in mathematics could be within reach of proof. Examples include: rational solutions of elliptic curves, topological construction of algebraic varieties, and the famous Riemann hypothesis. Such proofs would be expected to utilize abstract solutions in objects of generalized analytical series, each of which relates to the invariance within structures of number fields.

Additionally, some connections between the Langlands program and M theory have been posited, as their dualities connect in nontrivial ways, providing potential exact solutions in superstring theory (as was similarly done in group theory through monstrous moonshine).

Simply put, the Langlands project implies a deep and powerful framework of solutions, which touches the most fundamental areas of mathematics, through high-order generalizations in exact solutions of algebraic equations, with analytical functions, as embedded in geometric forms. It allows a unification of many distant mathematical fields into a formalism of powerful analytical methods.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Langlands program


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Leptospermum scoparium

Leptospermum scoparium, commonly called mānuka, mānuka myrtle, New Zealand teatree, broom tea-tree, or just tea tree, is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae, native to New Zealand (including the Chatham Islands) and south-east Australia. Its nectar produces Mānuka honey.

Description
Mānuka is a prolific shrub-type tree and is often one of the first species to regenerate on cleared land. It is typically a shrub growing to 2 - 5 m tall, but can grow into a moderately sized tree, up to 15 m or so in height. It is evergreen, with dense branching and small leaves 7 – long and 2 – broad, with a short spine tip. The flowers are white, occasionally pink, 8 – – rarely up to 25 mm – in diameter, with five petals. The wood is tough and hard. Mānuka is often confused with the related species kānuka (Kunzea ericoides) – the easiest way to tell the difference between the two species in the field is to feel their foliage – mānuka leaves are prickly, while kānuka leaves are soft. Alternatively, the seed capsules of mānuka are large (5 - 7 mm in diameter) and often remain on the plant year round, whereas the seed capsules of kānuka are much smaller (2.2 - 4.6 mm in diameter) and are not present for much of the year.

The Latin specific epithet scoparium means "like broom", referring to Northern Hemisphere genera such as Genista and Cytisus which it superficially resembles, but to which it is only distantly related.

History and habitat
Evidence suggests that L. scoparium originated in Australia before the onset of the Miocene aridity, and moved as a result of long-distance dispersal events to New Zealand from eastern Australia sometime during the last 20 million years. Cyclones and other wind activity are most likely responsible for transporting seeds long distances. Supporters of this claim cite evidence that the genus Leptospermum arose under conditions where frequent forest fires were common (i.e. in Australia, and not temperate New Zealand), because they possess fire-adaptive traits like serotiny and storage lignotubers. It has been postulated that on arrival in New Zealand, L. scoparium became established in limited edaphically suitable areas until the arrival of the Polynesian people, whose fire and forest-clearing brought about the low-nutrient-status soils for which it was preadapted in its homeland. It is now more common in New Zealand than it is in Australia. It is found throughout New Zealand, but is particularly common on the drier east coasts of the North and South Islands, and in Australia in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales.

Pests and diseases
The adult mānuka beetle (Pyronota festiva) and its larvae feed on L. scoparium in New Zealand.

The scale insect, Eriococcus orariensis, is a sap-sucking insect that feeds on L. scoparium.

Pollinators
Various pollinators are known to visit L. scoparium, some examples include Melangyna novaezelandiae, Hylaeus, and Honeybees.

Continued evolution
Leptospermum scoparium is in the process of evolutionary differentiation as a result of its isolation from fellow members of the Leptospermum genus. New studies demonstrate a loss of lignotubers among populations of Leptospermum scoparium located in relatively fire-free zones of New Zealand's South Island, while Australian and Tasmanian populations retain their lignotubers along with stronger manifestations of serotiny. Australian populations of Leptospermum scoparium are shown to be chemically distinct from their New Zealand counterparts, with significantly higher levels of cinteole and monoterpines. Chemotypical variations also exist between different populations within New Zealand, leading some to suggest that L. scoparium be divided into three subspecies: those with high pinenes, high triketones, and high sesquiterpenes. Recently, however, new research suggests that plant-to-plant variation far outstrips the variation seen between geographically isolated manuka sites, at least with regard to nectar chemistry.

Names
Mānuka, tea tree and kāhikatoa are common names for this species. "Jelly bush" is also used in Australia to describe similar honey from Leptospermum polygalifolium. Tea tree arose because Captain Cook used the leaves to make a 'tea' drink.

The name mānuka is from Māori spoken in New Zealand. It comes from Proto-Polynesian *nukanuka or *nuka which refers to Decaspermum fructicosum due to its similar small white flowers; it is a doublet of the aforementioned kānuka (referring to not only Kunzea ericoides but also K. robusta).

Cultivation
Numerous cultivars have been developed for garden use, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
 * (Nanum Group) 'Kiwi'
 * 'Nichollsii Nanum'
 * 'Red Damask'
 * 'Silver Sheen'

Many more cultivars are available in New Zealand but often the plant performs better in cultivation overseas. This is because in its homeland it is subject to attack by scale insects that secrete a honeydew on which grows a sooty mould that eventually debilitates the plant. Because of this, attempts have been made, with limited commercial success, to cross the showy New Zealand cultivars with mould-resistant Australian Leptospermum species.

Uses

The wood was often used for tool handles. Mānuka sawdust imparts a delicious flavour when used for smoking meats and fish. It is cultivated in Australia and New Zealand for mānuka honey, produced when honeybees gather the nectar from its flowers, and for the pharmaceutical industry. It is also used for carving. An essential oil, for which many medicinal claims are made, is produced by steam distillation of its leaves. Mānuka, as it is called by most New Zealanders, was used in pre-European times by Māori, and still is. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge (an agent for reducing fever). The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called pai mānuka, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and it enhances sleep.

Parakeets and parasites
Kākāriki parakeets (Cyanoramphus) use the leaves and bark of mānuka and kānuka to rid themselves of parasites. Apart from ingesting the material, they also chew it, mix it with preen gland oil and apply it to their feathers.

title: Leptospermum scoparium


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Delta blues

Delta blues is one of the earliest-known styles of blues. It originated in the Mississippi Delta and is regarded as a regional variant of country blues. Guitar and harmonica are its dominant instruments; slide guitar is a hallmark of the style. Vocal styles in Delta blues range from introspective and soulful to passionate and fiery.

Origin
Although Delta blues certainly existed in some form or another at the turn of the twentieth century, it was first recorded in the late 1920s, when record companies realized the potential African-American market for "race records". The major labels produced the earliest recordings, consisting mostly of one person singing and playing an instrument. Live performances, however, more commonly involved a group of musicians. Record company talent scouts made some of the early recordings on field trips to the South, and some performers were invited to travel to northern cities to record. Current research suggests that Freddie Spruell is the first Delta blues artist to have been recorded; his "Milk Cow Blues" was recorded in Chicago in June 1926. According to Dixon and Godrich (1981), Tommy Johnson and Ishmon Bracey were recorded by Victor on that company's second field trip to Memphis, in 1928. Robert Wilkins was first recorded by Victor in Memphis in 1928, and Big Joe Williams and Garfield Akers by Brunswick/Vocalion, also in Memphis, in 1929.

Charley Patton recorded for Paramount in Grafton, in June 1929 and May 1930. He also traveled to New York City for recording sessions in January and February 1934.

Son House first recorded in Grafton, Wisconsin, in 1930 for Paramount Records.

Robert Johnson recorded his only sessions, in San Antonio in 1936 and in Dallas in 1937, for ARC. Many other artists were recorded during this period.

Subsequently, the early Delta blues (as well as other genres) were extensively recorded by John Lomax and his son Alan Lomax, who crisscrossed the southern U.S. recording music played and sung by ordinary people, helping establish the canon of genres known today as American folk music. Their recordings, numbering in the thousands, now reside in the Smithsonian Institution. According to Dixon and Godrich (1981) and Leadbitter and Slaven (1968), Alan Lomax and the Library of Congress researchers did not record any Delta bluesmen or blueswomen prior to 1941, when he recorded Son House and Willie Brown near Lake Cormorant, Mississippi, and Muddy Waters at Stovall, Mississippi. However, among others, John and Alan Lomax recorded Lead Belly in 1933, and Bukka White in 1939.

Female performers
In big-city blues, female singers such as Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Mamie Smith dominated the recordings of the 1920s. Although very few women were recorded playing Delta blues and other rural or folk-style blues, many performers did not get professionally recorded.

Geeshie Wiley was a blues singer and guitar player who recorded six songs for Paramount Records that were issued on three records in April 1930. According to the blues historian Don Kent, Wiley "may well have been the rural South's greatest female blues singer and musician".

L. V. Thomas, better known as Elvie Thomas, was a blues singer and guitarist from Houston, Texas, who recorded with Geeshie Wiley.

Memphis Minnie was a blues guitarist, vocalist, and songwriter whose recording career lasted for more than three decades. She recorded approximately 200 songs, some of the best known being "Bumble Bee", "Nothing in Rambling", and "Me and My Chauffeur Blues".

Bertha Lee was a blues singer, active in the 1920s and 1930s. She recorded with and was the common-law wife of, Charley Patton.

Rosa Lee Hill, daughter of Sid Hemphill, learned guitar from her father and by the time she was ten, was playing at dances with him. Several of her songs, such as "Rolled and Tumbled", were recorded by Alan Lomax between 1959 and 1960. In the late 1960s, Jo Ann Kelly (UK) started her recording career. In the 1970s, Bonnie Raitt and Phoebe Snow performed blues.

Bonnie Raitt, Susan Tedeschi and Rory Block are contemporary female blues artists, who were influenced by Delta blues and learned from some of the most notable of the original artists still living. Sue Foley and Shannon Curfman also performed blues music.

Influence
Many Delta blues artists, such as Big Joe Williams, moved to Detroit and Chicago, creating a pop-influenced city blues style. This was displaced by the new Chicago blues sound in the early 1950s, pioneered by Delta bluesmen Muddy Waters, Howlin' Wolf, and Little Walter, that was harking back to a Delta-influenced sound, but with amplified instruments.

Delta blues was also an inspiration for the creation of British skiffle music, from which eventually came the British invasion bands, while simultaneously influencing British blues that led to the birth of early hard rock and heavy metal.

title: Delta blues


text:
Battle of Preveza

The Battle of Preveza (also known as Prevesa) was a naval engagement that took place on 28 September 1538 near Preveza in the Ionian Sea in northwestern Greece between an Ottoman fleet and that of a Holy League. The battle was an Ottoman victory which occurred in the same area in the Ionian Sea as the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. It was one of the three largest sea battles that took place in the sixteenth century Mediterranean, along with the Battle of Djerba and the Battle of Lepanto.

Background

In 1537, commanding a large Ottoman fleet, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured a number of Aegean and Ionian islands belonging to the Republic of Venice, namely Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, and Naxos, thus annexing the Duchy of Naxos to the Ottoman Empire. He then unsuccessfully besieged the Venetian stronghold of Corfu and ravaged the Spanish-held Calabrian coast in southern Italy.

In the face of this threat, Pope Paul III in February 1538 in assembled a ’’Holy League’’, comprising the Papal States, Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, and the Knights of Malta, to confront Ottoman fleet under Barbarossa.

Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of Emperor Charles V was in overall command.

Deployment
The Holy League assembled its fleet near the island of Corfu. The Papal fleet under Admiral Marco Grimani, Patriarch of Aquileia and the Venetian fleet under Vincenzo Capello arrived first. Andrea Doria joined them with the Spanish-Genoese fleet on 22 September 1538.

Prior to Doria's arrival, Grimani attempted to land troops near the Fortress of Preveza, but he retreated to Corfu after suffering a number of casualties in the ensuing encounter with Ottoman forces.

Barbarossa was still at the island of Kos in the Aegean Sea at that time, but he soon arrived at Preveza with the rest of the Ottoman fleet, after capturing the island of Kefalonia on the way. Sinan Reis, one of his lieutenants, suggested landing troops at Actium on the Gulf of Arta near Preveza, an idea that Barbarossa initially opposed, but which later proved to be important in securing the Ottoman victory. With the Turks holding the fortress at Actium, they could support Barbarossa's fleet with artillery fire from there, while Doria had to keep his ships away from the coast. A Christian landing to take Actium probably would have been needed to ensure success, but Doria was fearful of a defeat on land after the initial sortie by Grimani had been repelled. Two more attempts by the Holy League to land their forces, this time near the fortress of Preveza at the opposite shore facing Actium, were repulsed by the forces of Murat Reis on 25 and 26 September.

As Doria's ships kept their distance from the coast, much concerned about adverse winds driving them onto a hostile shore, Barbarossa had the advantageous interior position. During the night of 27–28 September, Doria therefore sailed 30 miles south and, when the wind died down, anchored at Sessola near the island of Lefkada. During the night, he and his commanders decided that their best option was to stage an attack towards Lepanto and force Barbarossa to fight.

Battle
Andre Doria was very surprised to see the Turks coming towards them at dawn. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha also weighed anchor and moved south. Turgut Reis was with 6 large galliots and the left wing was close to the shore. Andre Doria, who did not expect such a bold attack from the numerically small Ottoman forces, was able to give the order to anchor and be ready for battle only after 3 hours, despite the pressure of Grimani and Capello.

The two navies finally engaged each other on 28 September 1538, in Narda Bay, off the coast of Preveza.

The lack of wind was to Doria's detriment. The huge Venetian flagship Galeone di Venezia, with its enormous weapons, was stranded 4 miles off the coast and 10 miles off Sessola due to lack of wind. While the Crusader ships were trying to come to the aid of Galeone di Venezia, the ship, which was surrounded by Ottoman galleys, could not avoid being captured, even though it caused a lot of damage to the Ottoman ships in a fierce battle that lasted for hours.

When the wind finally started to blow, the Crusader fleet took action. Doria first executed several maneuvers designed to draw the Turks into the sea. Ferrante Gonzaga, governor of Sicily, held the left wing of the mixed fleet, while the Knights of Malta held the right wing. Doria placed four of his fastest galleys under the command of his nephew, Giovanni Andrea Doria, who entrenched himself in the front center between Gonzaga and the Knights of Malta. Doria's galleys were positioned behind them, and the Papal and Venetian galleys under the command of Grimani and Capello were placed in a long line in front of them. At the rear, the Venetian galleons under the command of Alessandro Condalmiero (Bondumier) and the Spanish-Portuguese-Genoese galleons under the command of Francesco Doria were deployed together with barques and support ships.

The Ottoman navy had a Y-shaped formation. Barbarossa; He was in the center with Sinan Reis, Cafer Reis, Şaban Reis and his son Hasan Reis (later Hasan Pasha). Seydi Ali Reis commanded the left wing and Salih Reis commanded the right wing. Turgut Reis, accompanied by Murat Reis, Güzelce Mehmet Reis and Sadık Reis, commanded the rear wing. The Turks quickly engaged Venetian, Papal, and Maltese ships, but Doria hesitated to mobilize his center forces against Barbarossa, resulting in too much tactical maneuvering and too little combat engagement. Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the lack of wind that immobilized the Christian ships, which made up most of the numerical difference between the two sides. These barques fell easy prey to the Turks, who boarded them from their relatively more mobile galleys and galleys. Doria's efforts to trap the Ottoman ships between the cannon fire of his barricades and the galleys were unsuccessful.

By the end of the day, the Turks had sunk, destroyed or captured 128 ships and taken approximately 3,000 prisoners. The Turks did not lose any ships, but they suffered 400 dead and 800 wounded. However, a number of Ottoman ships were seriously damaged by cannon fire from the Venetian flagship Galeone di Venezia, commanded by Alessandro Condalmiero.

The next morning, not wanting to risk the Spanish-Genoese ships with a favorable wind, Doria set sail for Corfu and abandoned the battlefield, ignoring the appeals of the Venetian, Papal and Maltese commanders to continue the battle.

Aftermath
It is widely speculated that Doria's prevarication and lack of zeal were due to his unwillingness to risk his own ships (He personally owned a substantial number of the "Spanish-Genoese" fleet.) and his long-standing enmity towards Venice, his home city's fierce rival and the primary target of Ottoman aggression at that time.

Nicolò Zen the Younger wrote his History of the War between Venice and the Turks which primarily consisted of an invective against those who had called for the war against the Ottomans in which they had behaved so ingloriously. The text was not published but a manuscript of it was circulated in his household and survived and is now held by the Biblioteca Marciana.

In 1539, Barbarossa returned and captured almost all the remaining Christian outposts in the Ionian and Aegean Seas.

In October 1540, a peace treaty was signed between Venice and the Ottoman Empire, under which the Turks gained control of the Venetian possessions in the Peloponnese and Dalmatia and the former Venetian islands in the Aegean, Ionian and Eastern Mediterranean sea. Venice also had to pay a war compensation of 300,000 ducats in gold to the Ottoman Empire.

With the victory at Preveza and the subsequent victory at the Battle of Djerba in 1560, the Ottomans were able to repel the efforts of Venice and Spain, the two main rival powers in the Mediterranean. Ottoman superiority in large-scale fleet battles in the Mediterranean remained unchallenged until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

title: Battle of Preveza


text:
Podocarpus totara

Podocarpus totara (the tōtara is a species of podocarp tree endemic to New Zealand. It grows throughout the North Island, South Island and rarely on Stewart Island / Rakiura in lowland, montane and lower subalpine forest at elevations of up to 600 m.

Tōtara is commonly found in lowland areas where the soil is fertile and well drained. Its Māori name comes from the Proto-Polynesian word tōtara referring to spiny creatures, especially the Porcupinefish (Diodon hystrix). The spelling "totara" is also common in English.

Description
The tōtara is a medium to large tree, which grows slowly to around 20 to 25 m, exceptionally to 35 m; it is noted for its longevity and the great girth of its trunk. The bark peels off in papery flakes, with a purplish to golden brown hue. The sharp, dull-green, needle-like leaves are stiff and leathery, 2 cm long. This plant produces highly modified cones with two to four fused, fleshy, berry-like, juicy scales, bright red when mature. The cone contains one or two rounded seeds at the apex of the scales. The largest known living tōtara, the Pouakani Tree, near Pureora in the central North Island, is over 35 m tall and nearly 4 m in trunk diameter at breast height. Bushmen discovered it in 1950. Other large trees are known in this area, while Whirinaki Forest, to the east, but also on deep recent volcanic soils, has groves of very tall tōtara (over 40 m in height).

Tōtara is often found regenerating on farmland, as it is not eaten by livestock.

Varieties
The two varieties of tōtara are:

 * P. t. var. totara
 * P. t. var. waihoensis

Related trees
In a classic example of Antarctic flora species-pair the tōtara is very closely related to Podocarpus nubigenus from South America, to the extent that if planted together, they are very difficult to distinguish. The best distinction is the grey-green tone of the leaves, compared to the slightly brighter green of P. nubigenus.

Cultivation
Tōtara grows easily from fresh seed and cuttings. It has been planted in the United Kingdom as far north as Inverewe, Scotland.

Several cultivars for garden use have been introduced. These include 'Albany Gold' and 'Aurea', both have yellow 'gold' foliage that darkens in winter; 'Pendula', which has a weeping growth habit that is especially pronounced in young plants; 'Silver Falls', also pendulous but with cream-edged foliage; and 'Matapouri Blue', which has a conical form and glaucous foliage.

Human use
The wood is hard, straight-grained, and very resistant to rot, especially its heartwood. Due to its durability, tōtara wood was often used for fence posts, floor pilings, and railway sleepers. It is also prized for its carving properties, and was the primary wood used in Māori carving. It was the primary wood used to make waka in traditional Maori boat building due to its relatively light weight (about 25% lighter than kauri), long, straight lengths, and natural oils in the wood that help prevent rotting. Tōtara could be drilled with chert points to make holes near the edges of the timber without splitting. In larger tōtara waka, three or more sections were laced together with flax rope. A tōtara waka took at least a year to make using stone adzes.

Bark from tōtara is used to cover and protect traditional pōhā bags.

title: Podocarpus totara


text:
Jean Rey (politician)

Jean Rey (15 July 1902 – 19 May 1983) was a Belgian Liberal politician who served as the second president of the European Commission from 1967 to 1970. He served as European Commissioner for External Relations from 1958 to 1967. The 1983–1984 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honour.

Early life
Born in Liège into a Protestant family, Jean Rey studied law at the University of Liège, where he obtained a PhD in 1926. He began his career as a barrister at the Court of Appeal in Liège. His commitment to the Walloon Movement drew him into politics. He joined the Liberal Party and was elected city councillor of Liège in 1935. In 1939, he won a seat in the Belgian Chamber of Representatives.

In the wake of World War II, he was one of the most vocal opponents of the "policy of independence" (neutrality) supported by successive Belgian governments and King Leopold III. He was mobilised as a reserve officer in 1940 and served during the Battle of Belgium. He was captured by the Germans and spent the rest of the conflict as a prisoner of war, being interned in Oflag XD near Fischbeck, where he was member of the clandestine Masonic Lodge L'Obstinée.

Career after World War II
After the war, he became an advocate of the federalisation of Belgium. As early as 1947 he promoted, together with five other members of Parliament (among whom Julien Lahaut), a bill on the organisation of a federal state. If passed, the new Constitution would have transformed Belgium into a Confederation consisting of two States, Flanders and Wallonia, and the federal region of Brussels. However, a majority in the Belgian Parliament refused to take the proposal into consideration.

Rey was Minister of Reconstruction from 1949 until 1950, and Minister of Economy from 1954 until 1958. As such, he was involved both in the early development of the European Coal and Steel Community and in the negotiations that led to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC).

Member of the commission (Hallstein Commission) of the CEE from 1958 until 1967, responsible for external relations, he played an important role in the negotiations of the Kennedy Round (1964–1967).

In 1967, he succeeded Walter Hallstein as President of the European Commission (he was the first President of the Commission of the merged CSCE, CEE and EAEC). Still a convinced federalist, he undertook to reinforce the Community institutions. He won increased powers for the European Parliament and advocated its election by universal suffrage. During his presidency, he oversaw the completion of the customs union (1968).

He also played an important role the Summit of The Hague in 1969, where the European leaders decided to relaunch European integration with two new initiatives: on the one hand, Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union (EMU), and on the other hand, European Political Cooperation (EPC), which foreshadow the euro and the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union today. It was also at The Hague that France gave up its resistance against the accession of the United Kingdom to the EEC.

Finally, in 1970, the last year of this mandate, Rey won the European governments' support for his proposal to give the Community "own resources". This meant that the EEC no longer depended exclusively on contributions by the member states, but could complete these with revenues from customs duties, levies on agricultural products from outside the Community, in addition to a share of the VAT revenue.

From 1964 until 1974, Rey was chairman of the board of the College of Europe in Bruges. He presided the over European Movement from 1974 to 1978 and was member of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe. In 1979, he became member of the first European Parliament elected by universal suffrage.

Jean Rey also remained active in Belgian politics. He became the éminence grise of the French-speaking liberals who broke away from the unitary Party for Freedom and Progress to form the Parti Réformateur et Libéral Wallon (PRLW) in 1976.

Jean Rey died in his native city Liège. In the European Quarter of Brussels, there is now a square named after him. A street in the 15e arrondissement of Paris also bears his name.

title: Jean Rey (politician)


text:
1899 in music

Events in the year 1899 in music.

Specific locations

 * 1899 in Norwegian music

Events

 * January 25 – Adelina Patti marries her third husband, Baron Rolf Cederström.
 * March 3 – Richard Strauss conducts the premiere of Ein Heldenleben with the Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester.
 * April 26
 * Jean Sibelius conducts the world première of his Symphony No. 1 in Helsinki.
 * Tenor Antonio Paoli makes his début in Rossini's William Tell in Paris.
 * May 27 – Maurice Ravel conducts the first public performance of his 1898 Shéhérazade, ouverture de féerie at a concert of the Société Nationale de Musique in Paris; it receives a critical reception and is not published in his lifetime.
 * June 19 – Edward Elgar's Enigma Variations (Variations on an Original Theme, Op. 36) are premiered at St James's Hall in London conducted by Hans Richter. A revised version is first heard on September 13 at the Three Choirs Festival in Worcester Cathedral with Elgar conducting.
 * September 18 – Scott Joplin's Maple Leaf Rag is registered for copyright as ragtime music enjoys mainstream popularity in the United States.
 * October 19 – Claude Debussy marries Rosalie Texier, having lived for nine years with her best friend; the marriage lasts only five years.
 * December 30 – Samuel Coleridge-Taylor marries Jessie Walmisley.
 * date unknown
 * Charles Hale's song "At a Darktown Cakewalk" includes an early appearance of the riff "Shave and a Haircut".
 * Billy Murray makes his singing debut.

Published popular music

 * "Absent"    w. Catherine Young Glen m. John W. Metcalf
 * "Always!"    w. Charles Horwitz m. Frederick V. Bowers
 * "Cake Walk in The Sky" by Ben Harney
 * "Come Home Dewey We Won't Do a Thing to You"    w.m. Paul Dresser
 * "A Coon Band Contest"    m. Arthur Pryor
 * "Cotton Pickers Rag & Cakewalk" by William Braun
 * "Doan Ye Cry, Mah Honey"    w.m. Alfred W. Noll
 * "Hands Across the Sea"    m. John Philip Sousa
 * "Hearts and Flowers"    w. Mary D. Brine m. Theodore Moses Tobani
 * "Hello! Ma Baby"    w.m. Ida Emerson & Joseph E. Howard
 * "I'd Leave My Happy Home for You"    w. Will A. Heelan m. Harry Von Tilzer
 * "If Only You Were Mine"    w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert
 * "I'll Be Your Sweetheart" w.m. Harry Dacre
 * "Impecunious Davis" by Kerry Mills
 * "Keep on the Sunny Side", w. A. Blenkhorn, m. J.H. Entwisle
 * "Mandy Lee" w.m. Thurland Chattaway
 * "Maple Leaf Rag" by Scott Joplin
 * "Mosquito Parade"    m. Howard Whitney
 * "My Little Georgia Rose"    w. Robert F. Roden m. Max S. Witt
 * "My Wild Irish Rose"    w.m. Chauncey Olcott
 * "'O sole mio!"    w. Giovanni Capurro m. Eduardo di Capua
 * "A Picture No Artist Can Paint"    w.m. J. Fred Helf
 * "She Was Happy Till She Met You"    w. Charles Graham m. Monroe H. Rosenfeld
 * "Smoky Mokes"    m. Abe Holzmann
 * "Stay in Your Own Back Yard"    w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall
 * "The Story of the Rose" (aka "Heart Of My Heart")     w. "Alice" m. Andrew Mack
 * "Telephone Me, Baby" w.m. George M. Cohan
 * "There's Where My Heart Is Tonight"    w.m. Paul Dresser
 * "When most I wink" m. Frank Bridge
 * "Where the Sweet Magnolias Grow"    w. Andrew B. Sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer
 * "Whistling Rufus"    w. W. Murdock Lind m. Kerry Mills
 * "You Tell Me Your Dream, I'll Tell You Mine" w. Seymore Rice & Albert H. Brown, m. Charles N. Daniels

Recorded popular music

 * "Abide With Me" (w. Rev Henry Francis Lyte m. William Henry Monk) – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records
 * "Always!" (w. Charles Horwitz m. Frederick V. Bowers) – May Kelso on Edison Records – Harry Macdonough on Edison Records
 * "Asleep In The Deep" (w. Arthur J. Lamb m. Henry W. Petrie) – William Hooley on Edison Records
 * "At A Georgia Camp Meeting" (w.m. Kerry Mills) – John Terrell on Berliner Records – Dan W. Quinn on Edison Records – banjo Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records
 * "Ave Maria" (w. (Fr) Paul Bernard m. Charles Gounod) – M. A. Guarini on Edison Records – W. D. McFarland on Berliner Records
 * "Because" (w. Charles Horwitz m. Frederick V. Bowers) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records – Sousa's Band on Berliner Records
 * "Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms" (w. Thomas Moore m. trad) – J. J. Fisher on Edison Records
 * "The Boy Guessed Right" (w.m. Lionel Monckton) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records & Berliner Records
 * "The Cake Walk" (trad US) – Eugene Stratton with piano Leslie Stuart on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Calvary" (w. Henry Vaughan m. Paul Rodney) – Albert C. Campbell on Berliner Records
 * "Comin' Thro' The Rye" (w. Robert Burns m. trad) – Syria Lamonte with piano Fred Gaisberg on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Curse of the Dreamer" – Dan W. Quinn on Columbia Records
 * "Down The Road" (w.m. Fred Gilbert) – Gus Elen on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Eli Green's Cakewalk" (w.m. David Reed & Sadie Koninsky) – banjo Vess L. Ossman on Edison Records
 * "Emmet's Lullaby" (w.m. J. K. Emmet) – George P. Watson on Edison Records
 * "Funiculi-Funicula" (w. G. Turco m. Luigi Denza) – Hotel Cecil Orchestra on Berliner Gramophone
 * "The Future Mrs 'Awkins" (w.m. Albert Chevalier) – Albert Chevalier on Berliner Gramophone
 * "God Save The Queen" – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records – Sousa's Band on Berliner Records
 * "Gypsy Love Song" (w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert) – Eugene Cowles on Berliner Records – William Hooley on Edison Records
 * "Hands Across The Sea March" (m. John Philip Sousa) – Peerless Orchestra on Edison Records – Sousa's Band on Berliner Records
 * "Hearts And Flowers" (w. Mary D. Brine m. Theodore Moses Tobani) – violin Chris De Arth on Berliner Records
 * "Hello! Ma Baby" (w.m. Ida Emerson & Joseph E. Howard) – Arthur Collins on Edison Records – Len Spencer on Berliner Records & Columbia Records
 * "The Holy City" (w. Frederick Edward Weatherly m. Stephen Adams) – Harry Macdonough on Edison Records
 * "Home Sweet Home" (w. John Howard Payne m. Sir Henry Rowley Bishop) – whistling John Yorke Atlee on Berliner Records
 * "I Dreamt I Dwelt In Marble Halls" (w. Alfred Bunn m. Michael William Balfe) – J. W. Myers on Berliner Records
 * "I Guess I'll Have To Telegraph My Baby" (w.m. George M. Cohan) – Arthur Collins on Edison Records – Edward M. Favor on Berliner Records – George J. Gaskin on Columbia Records
 * "I'd Leave My Happy Home For You" (w. Will A. Heelan m. Harry Von Tilzer) – Arthur Collins on Edison Records
 * "If It Wasn't For The 'Ouses In Between" (w. Edgar Bateman m. George Le Brunn) – Gus Elen on Berliner Gramophone
 * "If Only You Were Mine" (w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records
 * "It's A Great Big Shame" (w. Edgar Bateman m. George Le Brunn) – Gus Elen on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Jack's The Boy" (Greenbank, Jones) – H. Scott Russell with p. Fred Gaisberg on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Just As The Sun Went Down" (w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall) – J. W. Myers on Berliner Records – S. H. Dudley & Harry Macdonough on Edison Records
 * "Just One Girl" (w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Records – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records – H. Scott Russell with p. Amy Williams on Berliner Gramophone – J. W. Myers on Columbia Records
 * "Kathleen Mavourneen" (w. Annie Crawford (Barry) m. Frederick William Nichols Crouch) – William F. Hooley on Edison Records
 * "Kiss Me, Honey Do" (w. Edgar Smith m. John Stromberg) – Albert C. Campbell on Berliner Records – Len Spencer on Berliner Records & Columbia Records – Arthur Collins on Edison Records
 * "Little Dolly Daydream" (w.m. Leslie Stuart) – Eugene Stratton on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Little Old New York is Good Enough For Me" – Dan W. Quinn on Berliner Records
 * "The Lost Chord" (w. Adelaide Anne Procter m. Sir Arthur Sullivan) – William F. Hooley on Berliner Records
 * "Mandy Lee" (w.m. Thurland Chattaway) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records – Arthur Collins on Edison Records
 * "'Mid The Green Fields Of Virginia" (w.m. Charles K. Harris) – Albert C. Campbell on Berliner Records – S. H. Dudley & Harry Macdonough on Edison Records – George J. Gaskin on Columbia Records
 * "Mister Johnson, Turn Me Loose" (w.m. Ben Harney) – John Terrell on Berliner Records
 * "Molly's The Girl For Me" – J. Aldrich Libbey on Columbia Records
 * "The Moth And The Flame" (w. George Taggart m. Max S. Witt) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records – J. J. Fisher on Edison Records
 * "My Little Georgia Rose" (w. Robert F. Roden m. Max S. Witt) – Jere Mahoney on Edison Records
 * "My Old Dutch" (w. Albert Chevalier m. Charles Ingle) – Albert Chevalier on Berliner Gramophone
 * "My Old New Hampshire Home" (w. Andrew B. Sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer) – Jere Mahoney on Edison Records – Byron G. Harlan & A. D. Madeira on Edison Records – Albert C. Campbell on Berliner Records – George J. Gaskin on Berliner Records – The Greater New York Quartette on Columbia Records
 * "My Wild Irish Rose" (w.m. Chauncey Olcott) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records
 * "Night Hymn At Sea" – Clara Butt & Kennerley Rumford on Berliner Gramophone
 * "The Old Brigade" (w. Fred E. Weatherly m. Orlando Barri) – H. Scott Russell with piano Fred Gaisberg on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Old Man's Story" – J. Aldrich Libbey on Columbia records
 * "The Old Oaken Bucket" (w. Samuel Woodworth m. E. Kaillmark) – Haydn Quartette on Berliner Records
 * "The Organ Grinder's Serenade" – J. Aldrich Libbey on Columbia Records
 * "A Picture No Artist Can Paint" (w.m. J. Fred Helf) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records – George J. Gaskin on Columbia Records
 * "She Is The Belle Of New York" (w. Hugh Morton m. Gustave Kerker) – Frank Lawton with p. Fred Gaisberg on Berliner Gramophone
 * "She Was Bred In Old Kentucky" (w. Harry Braisted m. Stanley Carter) – Albert C. Campbell on Berliner Records – George J. Gaskin on Columbia Records
 * "She Was Happy Till She Met You" (w. Charles Graham m. Monroe H. Rosenfeld) – Jere Mahoney on Edison Records – Dan W. Quinn on Columbia Records
 * "Smoky Mokes" (m. Abe Holzmann) – Len Spencer on Columbia Records – Dan W. Quinn on Edison Records – Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records
 * "The Soldiers Of The Queen" (w.m. Leslie Stuart) – Albert Christian with p. Leslie Stuart on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Sweet Rosie O'Grady" (w.m. Maude Nugent) – Lil Hawthorne on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Take A Pair Of Sparkling Eyes" (w. William S. Gilbert m. Arthur Sullivan) – Herbert Scott Russell with p. Fred Gaisberg on Berliner Gramophone
 * "'Tis The Last Rose Of Summer" (w. Thomas Moore m. Richard Alfred Milliken) – J. W. Myers on Berliner Records
 * "Toreador Song" (w. H. Meilac, Ludovic Halévy m. Georges Bizet) – Montague Borwell on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Whistling Rufus" (w. W. Murdock Lind m. Kerry Mills) – Len Spencer on Berliner Records – Sousa's Band on Berliner Records – banjo Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records & Berliner Records – Dan W. Quinn on Edison Records
 * "Yes, Let Me Like A Soldier Fall" (w. Edward Fitzball m. Vincent Wallace) – Ferruccio Giannini on Berliner Records
 * "You've Been A Good Old Wagon" (Harney) – Len Spencer on Columbia Records & Berliner Records

Classical music

 * Hugo Alfvén – Symphony No. 2 in D
 * Tor Aulin – 4 Aquarellen for Violin and Piano, Op. 12 or 15
 * Amy Beach – Piano Concerto in C♯ minor, Op. 45 (198/9)
 * Joseph Callaerts – Toccata, Op.29
 * Frederick Delius – Paris, Nocturne
 * Friedrich Diethe – Romanze for Bass Clarinet
 * Ernő von Dohnányi – Sonata for Cello and Piano in B♭ minor
 * Edward Elgar
 * Variations on an Original Theme (Enigma), Op. 36
 * Dry Those Fair, Those Crystal Eyes
 * Sérénade lyrique, for orchestra
 * George Enescu – Violin Sonata No. 2 in F minor, Op. 6
 * Axel Gade – Concerto No. 2 for violin and orchestra in F major
 * Louis Glass – Symphony No. 2 in C minor
 * Reinhold Glière – Symphony No. 1
 * Leopold Godowsky – 3 Concert Studies, Op.11
 * Theodore Gouvy – Paraphrases symphoniques, Op.89
 * Edvard Grieg – Ave maris stella, EG 150
 * Johan Halvorsen – Norwegian Festival Overture
 * Siegmund von Hausegger – Barbarossa
 * Hans Huber – Concerto No. 3 for piano and orchestra
 * Scott Joplin – Maple Leaf Rag
 * Ferdinand Kühne – Geburstags-Marsch, Op.41
 * Max Laurischkus
 * Elegie, Op.2
 * Duos, Op.3
 * Luise Adolpha Le Beau – Elegy, Op.44
 * Ernst Mielck – Finnish Suite, Op. 10
 * Ethelbert Nevin – En Passant, Op.30
 * Maurice Ravel – Pavane pour une Infante défunte, for piano
 * Vladimir Rebikov
 * 3 Morceaux, Op.7
 * Suite de ballet, Op.14
 * Jean Sibelius – Symphony No. 1 in E minor
 * Josef Suk – Symphony No. 1 in E major
 * Arnold Schoenberg – Verklärte Nacht

Opera

 * Eugen d'Albert – Kain
 * Antonín Dvořák – The Devil and Kate
 * Josef Bohuslav Foerster – Eva
 * Victor Herbert – The Ameer, premiered October 10 in Scranton
 * Isidore de Lara – Messaline
 * Jules Massenet – Cendrillon (composed 1894–5, premiered 1899)
 * Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov – The Tsar's Bride, (premiered November 3 in Moscow)
 * Max von Schillings – Der Pfeifertag, Op.10 (premiered February 26 in Schwerin)

Musical theater

 * Die Landstreicher – Karl Michael Ziehrer
 * El Capitan    London production
 * Florodora (Music: Leslie Stuart Lyrics: Sidney Jones & Paul Rubens Book: Owen Hall)    London production opened at the Lyric Theatre on November 11
 * A Gaiety Girl London revival opened at Daly's Theatre on June 5
 * Helter-Skelter    Broadway production
 * The Rogers Brothers In Wall Street    Broadway production
 * The Rose of Persia (music by Sir Arthur Sullivan, libretto by Basil Hood) London production opened at the Savoy Theatre on November 29
 * San Toy    London production opened at Daly's Theatre on October 21

Births

 * January 7
 * Al Bowlly, singer (died 1941)
 * Francis Poulenc, composer (died 1963)
 * January 14 – Herbert Sumsion, composer and organist (died 1995)
 * January 21 – Alexander Tcherepnin, pianist and composer (died 1977)
 * February 15 – Georges Auric, composer (died 1983)
 * February 21 – Clara Clairbert, operatic soprano (died 1970)
 * March 5 – Patrick Hadley, composer (died 1973)
 * March 10 – Finn Høffding, composer (died 1997)
 * March 13 – Pancho Vladigerov, composer (died 1978)
 * March 26 – William Baines, English composer and pianist (died 1922)
 * April 5
 * Leonard Falcone, baritone/euphonium virtuoso and director of bands at Michigan State (died 1985)
 * Bernhard Kaun, American Hollywood filmscore composer (died 1980)
 * April 7 – Robert Casadesus, French pianist and composer (died 1972)
 * April 29 – Duke Ellington, jazz musician and composer (died 1974)
 * May 1 – Jón Leifs, composer (died 1968)
 * May 6 – Billy Cotton, bandleader (died 1969)
 * May 10 – Fred Astaire, song-and-dance man (died 1987)
 * May 30 – Jack Little, singer and songwriter (died 1956)
 * June 1 – Werner Janssen, conductor and composer (died 1990)
 * June 9 – Signe Amundsen, operatic soprano (died 1987)
 * June 11 – George Frederick McKay, composer (died 1970)
 * June 13 – Carlos Chávez, composer and conductor
 * June 16 – Helen Traubel, opera singer (died 1972)
 * June 19 – Pat Ballard, songwriter (died 1960)
 * June 21 – Pavel Haas, composer (killed 1944)
 * June 30 – Harry Shields, jazz musician (died 1971)
 * July 1 – Thomas A. Dorsey, "father of gospel music" (died 1993)
 * July 3 – Benny Nawahi, ukulele player (died 1985)
 * July 10 – André Souris, composer and writer (died 1970)
 * July 17 – James Cagney, US actor, singer and dancer (died 1986)
 * July 30 – John Woods Duke, composer (died 1984)
 * August 6 – Margarete Klose, operatic mezzo-soprano (died 1968)
 * September 6 – Billy Rose, Broadway producer and lyricist (died 1966)
 * September 9 – Maria Yudina, pianist (died 1970)
 * September 11 – Jimmie Davis, country and gospel singer-songwriter and politician (died 2000)
 * September 13 – Ephraim Amu, composer, musicologist and music teacher (died 1995)
 * September 25 – Ricard Lamote de Grignon, conductor and composer (died 1965)
 * September 26 – William L. Dawson, composer (died 1990)
 * October 9 – Mary Jarred, opera singer (died 1993)
 * October 19 – Sidonie Goossens, harpist (died 2004)
 * October 31 – Ted Shapiro, songwriter and pianist (died 1980)
 * November 9 – Mezz Mezzrow, jazz musician (died 1972)
 * November 17 – Toscha Seidel, violinist (died 1962)
 * November 18 – Eugene Ormandy, violinist and conductor (died 1985)
 * November 22 – Hoagy Carmichael, composer, pianist and singer (died 1981)
 * November 29 – Gustave Reese, musicologist (died 1977)
 * November 30 – Hans Krása, Czech-German composer (killed 1944)
 * December 2 – Sir John Barbirolli, conductor (died 1970)
 * December 11 – Julio de Caro, composer (died 1980)
 * December 16 – Noël Coward, dramatist, actor, singer and composer (died 1973)
 * December 18 – Muriel Brunskill, operatic contralto (died 1980)
 * December 21 – Silvestre Revueltas, composer (died 1940)
 * date unknown – Sadettin Heper, composer (died 1980)

Deaths

 * January 10 – Albert Becker, composer, 64
 * February 3 – Amalie Joachim, contralto and voice teacher (born 1839)
 * February 4 – Eduard Holst, Danish composer, playwright, actor, dancer and dance master, 52
 * April 17 – Hans Balatka, composer, 72
 * April 23 – Lucien Delormel, lyricist (born 1847)
 * May 21 – Louise Tunison, composer and organist, 26
 * May 29 – Frantz Jehin-Prume, violinist, composer, and music educator, 60
 * June 3 – Johann Strauss II, composer, 73
 * June 10 – Ernest Chausson, composer, 44 (bicycle accident)
 * June 16 – August Winding, composer, 64
 * August 17 – Erik Bøgh, journalist, dramatist and songwriter, 77
 * August 28 – Guillermo Morphy, musicologist, 63
 * October 10 – Allan James Foley, operatic bass, 62
 * October 11 – John Troutbeck, musicologist (b. 1832)
 * October 13 – Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, organ-builder, 88
 * October 15 – Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, conductor and composer, 57
 * October 18 – Gussie Davis, songwriter, 36
 * October 22 – Ernst Mielck, composer, 21 (tuberculosis)
 * October 23 – Ludwig Straus, violinist, 64
 * October 31 – Hugh Talbot, singer and actor, 54
 * November 16 – Vincas Kudirka, lyricist of the Lithuanian national anthem, 40 (tuberculosis)
 * November 25 – Robert Lowry, hymn writer, 73
 * December 7 – Anton de Kontski, pianist and composer, 82
 * December 10 – Hans von Milde, operatic baritone, 78
 * December 20 – Romain Bussine, poet, baritone, and voice teacher, 69
 * December 21
 * Joseph Dupont, violinist, theatre director and conductor, 61
 * Charles Lamoureux, conductor and violinist, 65
 * December 23 – Marietta Piccolomini, operatic soprano, 65
 * December 31 – Carl Millöcker, conductor and composer, 57

title: 1899 in music


text:
1898 in music

Events in the year 1898 in music.

Specific locations

 * 1898 in Norwegian music

Events

 * Otilie Dvořáková, daughter of Antonín Dvořák, marries her father's pupil, composer Josef Suk.
 * Dame Marie Tempest marries the actor-playwright Cosmo Stuart, grandson of the Duke of Richmond.

Published popular music

 * "Because" w. Charles Horwitz m. Frederick V. Bowers
 * "The Boy Guessed Right" w.m. Lionel Monckton
 * "Ciribiribin" w. Carlo Tiochet m. Alberto Pestalozza
 * "Gold Will Buy Most Anything But A True Girl's Heart" w. Charles E. Foreman m. Monroe H. Rosenfeld
 * "Good-bye Dolly Gray" w. Will D. Cobb m. Paul Barnes
 * "Goodnight, Little Girl, Goodnight" w. Julai M. Hays m. J. C. Macy
 * "Gypsy Love Song" w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert from the musical The Fortune Teller
 * "Honey on my Lips" Charles E. Trevathan
 * "I Guess I'll Have To Telegraph My Baby" w.m. George M. Cohan
 * "Just As The Sun Went Down" w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall
 * "Just One Girl" w. Karl Kennett m. Lyn Udall
 * "Kiss Me Honey Do" w. Edgar Smith m. John Stromberg
 * "The Lily Of Laguna" w.m. Leslie Stuart
 * "'Mid The Green Fields Of Virginia" w.m. Charles K. Harris
 * "Mister Johnson Don't Get Gay" w.m. Dave Reed Jr
 * "The Moth And The Flame" w. George Taggart m. Max S. Witt
 * "My Old New Hampshire Home" w. Andrew B. Sterling m. Harry Von Tilzer
 * "Recessional" w. Rudyard Kipling m. Reginald De Koven
 * "Romany Life" w. Harry B. Smith m. Victor Herbert
 * "The Rosary" w. Robert Cameron Rogers m. Ethelbert Nevin
 * "Salome" m. William Lorraine
 * "She is the Belle of New York" w. Hugh Morton m. Gustave Kerker
 * "She Was Bred In Old Kentucky" w. Harry Braisted m. Stanley Carter
 * "Swipsy Cakewalk" (for piano) c. Scott Joplin
 * "When You Were Sweet Sixteen" w.m. James Thornton
 * "Who Dat Say Chicken In Dis Crowd" w. Paul Lawrence Dunbar m. Will Marion

Christmas songs

 * "Nu tändas tusen juleljus", by Emmy Köhler

Recorded popular music

 * "The Amorous Goldfish" (w. Harry Greenbank m. Sidney Jones) – Syria Lamonte on Berliner Gramophone
 * "At A Georgia Camp Meeting" (w.m. Kerry Mills) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone – Dan W. Quinn on Columbia Records
 * "The Battle Cry Of Freedom" (w.m. George Frederick Root) – John Terrell on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms" (w. Thomas Moore m. trad) – J. W. Myers on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Break The News To Mother" (w.m. Charles K. Harris) – George J. Gaskin on Edison Records
 * "Chin, Chin, Chinaman" (w. Harry Greenbank m. Sidney Jones) – James T. Powers on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Cotton Blossoms" (m. M. H. Hall) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Don Jose Of Sevilla" (Smith, Herbert) – Jessie Bartlett Davis & W. H. MacDonald on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Happy Days In Dixie" (m. Kerry Mills) – Arthur Collins on Edison Records
 * "The Harp That Once Thro' Tara's Halls" (w. Thomas Moore m. trad) – J. W. Myers on Berliner Gramophone
 * "A Hot Time In The Old Town" (w. Joe Hayden m. Theodore A. Metz) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone -  Len Spencer with banjo Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records –  Roger Harding on Edison Records
 * "In The Gloaming" (w. Meta Orred m. Annie Fortescue Harrison) – Roger Harding on Berliner Gramophone
 * "I'se Gwine Back To Dixie" (w.m. C. A. White) – Edison Male Quartette on Edison Records
 * "Just Before The Battle, Mother" (w.m. George Frederick Root) – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records
 * "Killarney" (w. Edmund Falconer m. Michael William Balfe) – Arthur Gladstone on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Largo Al Factotum" (w. Cesare Sterbini m. Giaocchino Rossini) – Alberto Del Campo on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Love's Old Sweet Song" (w. George Clifton Bingham m. James Lyman Molloy) – Annie Carter on Berliner Gramophone
 * "The Miner's Dream Of Home" (w.m. Will Godwin & Leo Dryden) – Leo Dryden on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Mister Johnson Don't Get Gay" (w.m. Dave Reed Jr) – Press Eldridge on Edison Records
 * "Mister Johnson, Turn Me Loose" (w.m. Ben Harney) – Marguerite Newton on Edison Records –  Len Spencer with  Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records
 * "My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night" (w. m. Stephen Collins Foster) – Diamond Four on Berliner Gramophone –  Edison Male Quartette on Edison Records
 * "Oh, Promise Me" (w. Clement Scott m. Reginald DeKoven) – Jessie Bartlett Davis on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Old Folks At Home" (w. m. Stephen Collins Foster) – Diamond Four on Berliner Gramophone
 * "On The Banks Of The Wabash Far Away" (w.m. Paul Dresser) – Annie Carter on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Orange Blossoms" (m. Arthur Pryor) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone
 * "The Palms" (m. Gabriel Fauré) – Diamond Four on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Rocked In The Cradle Of The Deep" (w. Mrs Emma Hart Willard m. Joseph Phillip Knight) – William Hooley on Edison Records
 * "She Never Did the Same Thing Twice" – Dan W. Quinn on Berliner Gramophone
 * "She Was Bred In Old Kentucky" (w. Harry Braisted m. Stanley Carter) – Albert C. Campbell on Edison Records
 * "She was Happy Til She Met You" – Dan W. Quinn on Columbia Records
 * "Smoky Mokes" (m. Abe Holzmann) – banjo Vess L. Ossman on Columbia Records
 * "Stars And Stripes Forever" (m. John Philip Sousa) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Sweet And Low" (w. Alfred, Lord Tennyson m. Sir Joseph Barnby) – Ladies Brass Quartette of Boston Fadettes on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Sweet Genevieve" (w. George Cooper m. Henry Tucker) – Jessie Bartlett Davis on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Sweet Rosie O'Grady" (w.m. Maude Nugent) – Steve Porter on Berliner Gramophone
 * "The Sweetest Story Ever Told" (w.m. R. M. Stults) – Diamond Four on Berliner Gramophone –  George J. Gaskin on Edison Records
 * "Then You'll Remember Me" (w. Alfred Bunn m. Michael William Balfe) – James Norrie on Berliner Gramophone -  Annie Carter on Berliner Gramophone
 * "There's A Little Star Shining For You" (w.m. James Thornton) – Dan W. Quinn on Edison Records
 * "The Thunderer" (m. John Philip Sousa) – Sousa's Band on Berliner Gramophone
 * "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp" (w.m. George Frederick Root) – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records
 * "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" (w.m. Louis Lambert) – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records
 * "Yankee Doodle" (trad) – Frank C. Stanley on Edison Records

Classical music

 * Ernest Chausson – String Quartet (completed posthumously)
 * Samuel Coleridge-Taylor
 * Hiawatha's Wedding Feast, Op.30
 * Ballade, Op.33 (premiered September 12 in Gloucester)
 * African Suite for piano, Op.35
 * Edward Elgar – Caractacus
 * George Enescu
 * Trois melodies sur poèmes de Jules Lemaitre et Sully Prudhomme, for bass and piano, Op. 4
 * Variations for Two Pianos on an Original Theme in A♭ major, for piano, Op. 5
 * Sonata in F minor, for cello and piano, Op. 26, No. 1
 * Gabriel Fauré
 * Fantaisie, Op. 79
 * Pelléas et Mélisande, Op. 80
 * Alexander Glazunov – Ruses d'Amour (ballet)
 * Paul Juon – Sonata for Violin and Piano no. 1 in A major
 * Carl Nielsen – String Quartet No. 3 in E flat major
 * Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński – Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor
 * Henrique Oswald
 * Cello Sonata No. 1 in D minor, Op. 21
 * Piano Quartet No. 2 in G major, Op. 26
 * Camille Saint-Saëns – Barcarolle in F major
 * Christian Sinding – Concerto for Violin in A major

Opera

 * Antônio Francisco Braga – Jupyra
 * Samuel Coleridge-Taylor – The Gitanos
 * Umberto Giordano – Fedora
 * Ivar Hallstrom – Little Karin
 * Pietro Mascagni – Iris
 * Emile Pessard – La dame de trèfle premiered on May 13 at the Bouffes-Parisiens, Salle Choiseul, Paris
 * Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
 * Boyarinya Vera Sheloga
 * Sadko, premiered January 7 at the Solodovnikov Theatre in Moscow.

Musical theater

 * The Belle of New York London production
 * The Bride Elect Broadway production
 * The Fortune Teller Toronto and London productions
 * A Greek Slave London production
 * Hurly-Burly Broadway production
 * A Runaway Girl London and Broadway productions
 * The Skirt Dancer London production
 * Véronique (operetta) (André Messager) – Paris production

Births

 * January 7 – Al Bowlly, big band singer
 * January 9 – Gracie Fields, singer and actress
 * January 28 – Vittorio Rieti, composer
 * February 3 – Lil Hardin Armstrong, wife and musical collaborator of Louis Armstrong
 * February 7 – Dock Boggs, banjo player
 * February 12 – Roy Harris, composer
 * February 15 – Totò, actor and composer
 * February 28 – Molly Picon, Broadway star
 * March 4 – Robert Schmertz, American folk musician and architect (d. 1975)
 * April 3 – George Jessel, American actor, singer & songwriter
 * April 9 – Paul Robeson, singer
 * May 14 – Zutty Singleton, jazz drummer
 * May 15 – Arletty, actress and singer
 * May 26 – Ernst Bacon, pianist and composer (d. 1990)
 * May 28 – Andy Kirk, jazz musician
 * June 6 – Ninette de Valois, founder of the UK's Royal Ballet
 * June 29 – Yvonne Lefébure, French pianist
 * July 4 – Gertrude Lawrence, English actress, singer and dancer
 * July 6 – Hanns Eisler, composer
 * July 15 – Noel Gay, English songwriter
 * August 2 – Anthony Franchini, Italian-born guitarist
 * August 15 – Charles Tobias, US songwriter and singer
 * August 24 – Fred Rose, songwriter, music publisher
 * September 1
 * Marilyn Miller, US actress, singer and dancer
 * Violet Carson, actress, singer and pianist
 * September 26 – George Gershwin, US composer
 * September 27 – Vincent Youmans, US composer
 * October 7 – Alfred Wallenstein, US cellist and conductor
 * October 8 – Clarence Williams, US jazz pianist and composer
 * October 18 – Lotte Lenya, singer and actress, wife of Kurt Weill
 * November 1 – Sippie Wallace, blues singer
 * December 3 (n.s.) – Lev Knipper, Russian composer (and NKVD agent)
 * December 5 – Grace Moore, operatic soprano
 * December 14 – Lillian Randolph, actress and singer
 * December 24 – Baby Dodds, jazz drummer

Deaths

 * January 7 – Heinrich Lichner, composer, 68
 * January 8 – Alexandre Dubuque, composer, 85
 * January 16 – Antoine François Marmontel, pianist and teacher, 81
 * February 15 – Franz Behr, composer (b. 1837)
 * March 11 – Tigran Chukhajian, conductor and composer, founder of the first opera institution in the Ottoman Empire, 60
 * March 15 – Julius Schulhoff, pianist and composer, 72
 * March 28 – Anton Seidl, conductor, 47
 * April 21 – Théodore Gouvy, composer, 78
 * May 15 – Ede Reményi, violinist, 70
 * May 16 – Jean Antoine Zinnen, composer of the Luxembourg national anthem, 71
 * August 17 – Karl Zeller, Austrian composer, 56 (pneumonia)
 * August 21 – Niccolò van Westerhout, composer, 40 (peritonitis)
 * September 9 – William Chatterton Dix, hymn-writer, 61
 * September 11 – Adolphe Samuel, Belgian composer, 74
 * November 7 – Max Alvary, operatic tenor, 42
 * December 13 – George Frederick Bristow, composer, 72
 * December 29 – Georg Goltermann, cellist and composer, 74

title: 1898 in music


text:
Lee Smolin

Lee Smolin (born June 6, 1955) is an American theoretical physicist, a faculty member at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, an adjunct professor of physics at the University of Waterloo, and a member of the graduate faculty of the philosophy department at the University of Toronto. Smolin's 2006 book The Trouble with Physics criticized string theory as a viable scientific theory. He has made contributions to quantum gravity theory, in particular the approach known as loop quantum gravity. He advocates that the two primary approaches to quantum gravity, loop quantum gravity and string theory, can be reconciled as different aspects of the same underlying theory. He also advocates an alternative view on space and time that he calls temporal naturalism. His research interests also include cosmology, elementary particle theory, the foundations of quantum mechanics, and theoretical biology.

Personal life
Smolin was born in New York City to Michael Smolin, an environmental and process engineer and Pauline Smolin, a playwright. Smolin said his parents were Jewish followers of the Fourth Way, founded by George Gurdjieff, an Armenian mystic. Smolin described himself as Jewish. His brother, David M. Smolin, became a professor at the Cumberland School of Law in Birmingham, Alabama.

Smolin dropped out of Walnut Hills High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. His interest in physics began at that time when he read Einstein's reflections on the two tasks he would leave unfinished at his death: 1, to make sense of quantum mechanics, and, 2 to unify that understanding of the quanta with gravity. Smolin would take it as his "mission" to try to complete these tasks. Shortly afterward, he browsed the Physics Library at the University of Cincinnati, where he came across Louis de Broglie's pilot wave theory in French. "I still can close my eyes," Smolin wrote in "Einstein's Unfinished Revolution" "and see a page of the book, displaying the equation that relates wavelength to momentum." Soon after that he would "talk his way into" Hampshire College, find great teachers, and get lucky in his applications to graduate school. As to his mission of solving Einstein's two big questions, by Smolin's account, he did not succeed; "Very unfortunately, neither has anyone else."

Smolin has stayed involved with theatre becoming a scientific consultant for such plays as A Walk in the Woods by Lee Blessing, Background Interference by Drucilla Cornell, and Infinity by Hannah Moscovitch.

Smolin is married to Dina Graser, a lawyer and urban policy consultant in Toronto, Ontario. He was previously married to Fotini Markopoulou-Kalamara. His brother is law professor David M. Smolin.

Career
He held postdoctoral research positions at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics in Santa Barbara, and the University of Chicago, before becoming a faculty member at Yale, Syracuse, and Pennsylvania State Universities. He was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1995 and a visiting professor at Imperial College London (1999-2001), before becoming one of the founding faculty members at the Perimeter Institute in 2001.

Loop quantum gravity
Smolin contributed to the theory of loop quantum gravity (LQG) in collaborative work with Ted Jacobson, Carlo Rovelli, Louis Crane, Abhay Ashtekar and others. LQG is an approach to the unification of quantum mechanics with general relativity which utilizes a reformulation of general relativity in the language of gauge field theories, which allows the use of techniques from particle physics, particularly the expression of fields in terms of the dynamics of loops. With Rovelli he discovered the discreteness of areas and volumes and found their natural expression in terms of a discrete description of quantum geometry in terms of spin networks. In recent years he has focused on connecting LQG to phenomenology by developing implications for experimental tests of spacetime symmetries as well as investigating ways elementary particles and their interactions could emerge from spacetime geometry.

Background independent approaches to string theory
Between 1999 and 2002, Smolin made several proposals to provide a fundamental formulation of string theory that does not depend on approximate descriptions involving classical background spacetime models.

Experimental tests of quantum gravity
Smolin is among those theorists who have proposed that the effects of quantum gravity can be experimentally probed by searching for modifications in special relativity detected in observations of high energy astrophysical phenomena, including very high energy cosmic rays and photons and neutrinos from gamma ray bursts. Among Smolin's contributions are the co-invention of doubly special relativity (with João Magueijo, independently of work by Giovanni Amelino-Camelia), and of relative locality (with Amelino-Camelia, Laurent Freidel, and Jerzy Kowalski-Glikman).

Foundations of quantum mechanics
Smolin has worked since the early 1980s on a series of proposals for hidden variables theories, which would be non-local deterministic theories which would give a precise description of individual quantum phenomena. In recent years, he has pioneered two new approaches to the interpretation of quantum mechanics suggested by his work on the reality of time, called the real ensemble interpretation and the principle of precedence.

Cosmological natural selection
Smolin's hypothesis of cosmological natural selection, also called the fecund universes theory, suggests that a process analogous to biological natural selection applies at the grandest of scales. Smolin published the idea in 1992 and summarized it in a book aimed at a lay audience called The Life of the Cosmos.

Black holes have a role in this natural selection. In fecund theory, a collapsing black hole causes the emergence of a new universe on the "other side", whose fundamental constant parameters (masses of elementary particles, Planck constant, elementary charge, and so forth) may differ slightly from the universe where the black hole collapsed. Each universe gives rise to as many new universes — its "offspring" — as it has black holes, giving an evolutionary advantage to universes in which black holes are common, which are similar to our own. The theory thus explains why our universe appears "fine-tuned" for the emergence of life as we know it. Because the theory applies the evolutionary concepts of "reproduction", "mutation", and "selection" to universes, it is formally analogous to models of population biology.

When Smolin published the theory in 1992, he proposed as a prediction of his theory that no neutron star should exist with a mass of more than 1.6 times the mass of the sun. Later this figure was raised to two solar masses following more precise modeling of neutron star interiors by nuclear astrophysicists. Smolin also predicted that inflation, if true, must only be in its simplest form, governed by a single field and parameter.

Contributions to the philosophy of physics
Smolin has contributed to the philosophy of physics through a series of papers and books that advocate the relational, or Leibnizian, view of space and time. Since 2006, he has collaborated with the Brazilian philosopher and Harvard Law School professor Roberto Mangabeira Unger on the issues of the reality of time and the evolution of laws; in 2014 they published a book, its two parts being written separately.

A book length exposition of Smolin's philosophical views appeared in April 2013. Time Reborn argues that physical science has made time unreal while, as Smolin insists, it is the most fundamental feature of reality: "Space may be an illusion, but time must be real" (p. 179). An adequate description according to him would give a Leibnizian universe: indiscernibles would not be admitted and every difference should correspond to some other difference, as the principle of sufficient reason would have it. A few months later a more concise text was made available in a paper with the title Temporal Naturalism.

The Trouble with Physics
Smolin's 2006 book The Trouble with Physics explored the role of controversy and disagreement in the progress of science. It argued that science progresses fastest if the scientific community encourages the widest possible disagreement among trained and accredited professionals prior to the formation of consensus brought about by experimental confirmation of predictions of falsifiable theories. He proposed that this meant the fostering of diverse competing research programs, and that premature formation of paradigms not forced by experimental facts can slow the progress of science.

As a case study, The Trouble with Physics focused on the issue of the falsifiability of string theory due to the proposals that the anthropic principle be used to explain the properties of our universe in the context of the string landscape. The book was criticized by physicist Joseph Polchinski and other string theorists.

In his earlier book Three Roads to Quantum Gravity (2002), Smolin stated that loop quantum gravity and string theory were essentially the same concept seen from different perspectives. In that book, he also favored the holographic principle. The Trouble with Physics, on the other hand, was strongly critical of the prominence of string theory in contemporary theoretical physics, which he believes has suppressed research in other promising approaches. Smolin suggests that string theory suffers from serious deficiencies and has an unhealthy near-monopoly in the particle theory community. He called for a diversity of approaches to quantum gravity, and argued that more attention should be paid to loop quantum gravity, an approach Smolin has devised. Finally, The Trouble with Physics is also broadly concerned with the role of controversy and the value of diverse approaches in the ethics and process of science.

In the same year that The Trouble with Physics was published, Peter Woit published Not Even Wrong, a book for nonspecialists whose conclusion was similar to Smolin's, namely that string theory was a fundamentally flawed research program.

Views
Smolin's view on the nature of time:

"More and more, I have the feeling that quantum theory and general relativity are both deeply wrong about the nature of time. It is not enough to combine them. There is a deeper problem, perhaps going back to the beginning of physics."

Smolin does not believe that quantum mechanics is a "final theory":

"I am convinced that quantum mechanics is not a final theory. I believe this because I have never encountered an interpretation of the present formulation of quantum mechanics that makes sense to me. I have studied most of them in depth and thought hard about them, and in the end I still can't make real sense of quantum theory as it stands."

In a 2009 article, Smolin articulated the following philosophical views (the sentences in italics are quotations):

 * There is only one universe. There are no others, nor is there anything isomorphic to it. Smolin denies the existence of a "timeless" multiverse. Neither other universes nor copies of our universe—within or outside—exist. No copies can exist within the universe, because no subsystem can model precisely the larger system it is a part of. No copies can exist outside the universe, because the universe is by definition all there is. This principle also rules out the notion of a mathematical object isomorphic in every respect to the history of the entire universe, a notion more metaphysical than scientific.
 * All that is real is real in a moment, which is a succession of moments. Anything that is true is true of the present moment. Not only is time real, but everything that is real is situated in time. Nothing exists timelessly.
 * Everything that is real in a moment is a process of change leading to the next or future moments. Anything that is true is then a feature of a process in this process causing or implying future moments. This principle incorporates the notion that time is an aspect of causal relations. A reason for asserting it, is that anything that existed for just one moment, without causing or implying some aspect of the world at a future moment, would be gone in the next moment. Things that persist must be thought of as processes leading to newly changed processes. An atom at one moment is a process leading to a different or a changed atom at the next moment.
 * Mathematics is derived from experience as a generalization of observed regularities, when time and particularity are removed. Under this heading, Smolin distances himself from mathematical platonism, and gives his reaction to Eugene Wigner's "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences".

Smolin views rejecting the idea of a creator as essential to cosmology on similar grounds to his objections against the multiverse. He does not definitively exclude or reject religion or mysticism but rather believes that science should only deal with that of which is observable. He also opposes the anthropic principle, which he claims "cannot help us to do science."

He also advocates "principles for an open future" which he claims underlie the work of both healthy scientific communities and democratic societies: "(1) When rational argument from public evidence suffices to decide a question, it must be considered to be so decided. (2)  When rational argument from public evidence does not suffice to decide a question, the community must encourage a diverse range of viewpoints and hypotheses consistent with a good-faith attempt to develop convincing public evidence." (Time Reborn p. 265.)

Lee Smolin has been a recurring guest on Through the Wormhole.

Awards and honors
Smolin was named as #21 on Foreign Policy Magazine's list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals. He is also one of many physicists dubbed the "New Einstein" by the media. The Trouble with Physics was named by Newsweek magazine as number 17 on a list of 50 "Books for our Time", June 27, 2009. In 2007 he was awarded the Majorana Prize from the Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics, and in 2009 the Klopsteg Memorial Award from the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) for "extraordinary accomplishments in communicating the excitement of physics to the general public," He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and the American Physical Society. In 2014 he was awarded the Buchalter Cosmology Prize for a work published in collaboration with Marina Cortês.

Publications

 * 1997. The Life of the Cosmos ISBN 0195126645
 * 2001. Three Roads to Quantum Gravity ISBN 0-465-07835-4
 * 2006. The Trouble With Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-55105-7
 * 2013. Time Reborn: From the Crisis in Physics to the Future of the Universe. ISBN 978-0547511726
 * 2014. The Singular Universe and the Reality of Time: A Proposal in Natural Philosophy by Lee Smolin and Roberto Mangabeira Unger, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107074064
 * 2019. Einstein’s Unfinished Revolution: The Search for What Lies Beyond the Quantum, Penguin Press. ISBN 9781594206191

title: Lee Smolin


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List of cities and towns in Russia

This is a list of cities and towns in Russia. According to the data of 2010 Russian Census, there are 1,117 cities and towns in Russia. After the Census, Innopolis, a town in the Republic of Tatarstan, was established in 2012 and granted town status in 2015.

title: List of cities and towns in Russia