text:
Talk:Figure of speech

Figurative Language
Can anyone think of a principled way to distinguish between "figure of speech" and "figurative language"? The former seems to be a subclass of the latter, but beyond that, I'm not currently sure. --Ryguasu 07:55 Feb 24, 2003 (UTC) Not sure when this became a table, but my inkling is to de-table-ify it, as really what this "table" represents is a list in three columns. Is there a wikipedia policy on the use of tables? It seems to me we don't want to transfer the lousy HTML practice of using tables for format into wikipedia markup.

(now if we were to separate out our list of figures into categories -- then perhaps we could make a table...).

 * I think maybe it is important to distinguish the differences between what "figure" means in "figure of speech" and "figurative language." In the first sense, the word refers to the style in which a given person speaks. In the latter, the word figurative refers to illustrative language. A person can have a figure of speech using a language that is not figurative. Yoda, in Star Wars for instance, has a figure of speech defined by a OSV grammar and does not necessarily use a figurative language. Figure of speech is personal mannerism that pertains to conversations and styles of speakers. Figurative language is the use of linguistic constructs like similes and metaphors. The two of them, in my opinion, do not encompass each other, though they might share certain components of a language. Tofoo (talk) 07:11, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

Votes for deletion
I am adding most of the articles linked from this article to Votes for deletion, as they are almost entirely definitions. Here are the words I am voting for deletion: Litotes, Accumulatio, Aposiopesis, Meiosis (figure of speech), Anastrophe, Anthimeria, Catachresis, Chiasmus, Periphrasis, Enallage, Hyperbaton, Metalepsis, Paralipsis, Proslepsis, Syllepsis, Synecdoche, Tmesis, Dystmesis, Zeugma. Please bring up any discussion points you have on the Votes for Deletion page. Right now, I think these should be moved to the wiktionary. - DropDeadGorgias 21:20, Feb 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * This discussion has been moved to Talk:Litotes. On a somewhat related note, does anyone have information on the origin of the word Dystmesis? It's not in dictionary.com, nor is in google's define function.  Is it a formally accepted word, or is it just an informal derivation of Tmesis?  When I search on google, I only get two pages of results, most of which are wikipedia entries or other encyclopedias that source wikipedia.  - DropDeadGorgias 15:56, Feb 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * I have recently been going through these entries and expanding them with more text and examples. As a result, I have removed most of the requests to remove or move to Wiktionary. Dpaking 20 February 2005

 * I don't think you should delete them, they seem pretty important.Asdfjkl1235 (talk) 00:26, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

Very Important
This section does not belong in the article. ghansel 23:31, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Although this page is a very good page for reference, perhaps it should only be composed of words which are useful, in terms of being easy to spot in talks or literature. Furthermore, when I went on the link to silvae rhetoricae I came across the words homoeoprophon meaning an overuse of alliteration throughout a sentence, and paromoiosis which requires an isocolon (which concerns regular length between different juxtaposed clauses, sentences, lines...) and assonance (repetition of the same vowel sounds within this), creating a form of internal rhyme and sometimes rhythm. I was wondering if in fact these were rhetoric words can be used in the English language, because when searching on the internet for them, I came up with extremely few references to them, or if they are only applicable in the American language; for instance, neither word is in the English Chamber Dictionary. If anyone knows the answer to this I would be very greatfull, after all, these are examples of extremely useful words. Answer at bottom of the discussion section of this wikipedia article. Once someone has provided an answer to this question, could they please delete this caption the article section of this wikipedia page.

Why "axiom"?
Why is "axiom" listed here? Traditionally "axiom" means a self-evident proposition upon which knowledge is built up (and "self-evident" does not mean "obvious" or the like; it has a technical meaning in epistemology), or a proposition in effect treated as if it were self-evident in a particular context. But what does it mean as a rhetorical term or a figure of speech? Michael Hardy 21:31, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Agreed. Axiom does not appear to be an example of a figure of speech, the way alliteration or metaphors is. Tofoo (talk) 07:14, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

Th term needs to be sorted out
The term "Figure of speech" is a muddled category because "speech" it refers to talking, language, and words, to the exclusion of other forms of "speaking" (for example, music and visual images.) Tropic thinking ("figures of thought") cut across lingual rhetoric (literature, journalism, oratory, linguistics, etc.), auditory rhetoric (music, radio, etc.), visual rhetoric (visual culture, paintings, sculpture, graphics, design, etc.), and audio-visual rhetoric (film, television, advertising, videos, DVDs, internet, etc.). Much that is considered "figure of speech" can no longer be cosidered in the traditional sense of lingual "speech", and those figures which are not lingual based (i.e., relating to verbal language, grammar, linguistics, etc.) should be clearly separated from the category of "figures of speech" in order to accomodate the expanding role of rhetorical studies.
 * The term was coined in 1751. It's entirely idiomatic and doesn't translate well into other languages on a verbatim basis. Commentators seem happy to throw poetic devices like alliteration into the figure of speech kettle, which doesn't make good sense to me. --Kent Dominic·(talk) 14:51, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

Schemes and tropes
I do agree that these terms need to be moved to Wiktionary. I would like to, however, give a suggestion of how to divide the different figures of speech into their respective places. The way I understand figures of speech is that they fall into two categories: schemes and tropes. A scheme, from the Greek word schema (form, shape), involves a deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of words. A trope, from the Greek word tropein (to turn), involves a deviation from the ordinary and principle signification of a word.

SCHEMES Parallelism, isocolon, antithesis, anastrophe, parenthesis, apposition, ellipsis, asyndeton, polysyndeton, alliteration, assonance, anaphora, epistrophe, epanalepsis, anadiplosis, climax, antimetabole, chiasmus

TROPES Metaphor, simile, synecdoche, metonymy, antanaclasis, paronomasis, syllepsis, anthimeria, periphrasis, personification, hyperbole, litotes, rhetorical question, irony, onomatapoeia, oxymoron, paradox

Note: Renaissance scholars such as Henry Peacham in his piece The Garden of Eloquence identified up to 184 different figures of speech. Therefore, do not be surprised by a large compiling of terms. --Philologus8 22:40, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * While putting the terms into a wiktionary is a good idea, a much better idea is to supply this list with brief explanations right here, for ease of use. Example: Today my senile brains forgot the word oxymoron. I know what I want, but cannot catch the word in the memory. (By the way what is the name of this brain disease?) I had to click, like, 15 links in the list until I got what I wanted. (Now I guess I will go and click several dozen links in psychiatry, to find out what my problem is :-) Mikkalai 00:19, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I tend to agree with the suggestion, as the current organization between "Latin" and "Greek" does not follow the classical organization of rhetorical devices into categories of schemes and tropes. I'd be willing to take a stab at this. I would also suggest that a wider reorganization occur, in which the list of Rhetoric Remedies in the Rhetoric entry be eliminated, and that the list of rhetorical devices and figures of speech be maintained on Figure of Speech. It could be done the other way, but Rhetoric is already long, and a more structured organization of the devices would make it even more so. Dpaking 20 February 2005

 * This article starts out with a potential challenge at the first sentence. For example, the figure of speech "MANY ANDS" or "POLYSYNDETON" is straight-forward and literal. It puts equal emphasis on everything connected by each "and". A companion or opposite figure is Asyndeton or "NO ANDS" which intends for the listener or reader to skim over the details to a climax statement that follows. In English, commas typically occupy the spots that could otherwise be "ands" had Polysyndeton been used. Asyndeton is fairly straight-forward too. Figures like Introverted Correspondence and Ejaculation (Ejaculatio) also don't seem to fit scheme or trope. Anyhow, the first sentence appears to need a change to accomodate a number of figures of speech. Mdvaden 07:12, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

Colloquialism
There's an article on colloquialism, which of the two lists would it fall in? Proto t c 10:56, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

here we go again

Merge with "Stylistic device"
It looks to me like "Stylistic device" and "Figure of speak" are two independently written articles about (nearly) the same concept. They have a great deal of overlap. Apus 08:18, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Hmmm. Surely merging Stylistic device into Figure of speech would be more appropriate, considering the latter has more content? --   the     GREAT     Gavini   07:04, 9 September 2006 (UTC)

I think of them quite differently. To me, one example of a stylistic device is the use of phonological variants of morphemes, such as pronouncing -ing (both in its verbal and nominal uses) as -in', as in running (runnin'). This is one thing that speakers of a language can do in order to adopt a particular speaking style (often in order to 'fit in' to a social situation). There are many 'styles' of talking (including regional or sociocultural dialects, small- and large-scale speech community "in" markers, individuals' idiolects, levels of formality, occupational/ expert vocabulary and "in" markers, expressions of gender, and more). The use of one or another of these styles in order to achieve some goal seems like a good definition of how I understand 'stylistic device'.

A figure of speech, to me, is essentially the same as a conventional metaphor, or metonymy or analogy, or one of the other construal mechanisms that refer to some concept indirectly by invoking a conventional link between some form and some function. This allows language users to talk about abstract things, for example, through the use of concrete and better-defined concepts. For instance, we know that people often talk about states as if they are locations. By using words such as prepositions that are, strictly speaking, spatial, in order to describe abstract states, people are using figures of speech (to be in love, down in the dumps, in a good mood, over a cold, in a bad space, going through a tough time, etc,). Note that novel metaphors, which involve concurrent (synchronic) psychological processes of analogy (or metaphor, or metonymy, etc.), don't count as figures of speech to me, due to their transitory nature. This is the difference, for me, between 'a figure of speech' and 'figurative language' - the latter includes the novel metaphors, novel metonmyies, and some other types of construal mechanisms.

Of course, some construal mechanisms (I use this term as in chap 3 of Croft and Cruse Cognitive Linguistics 2004 Cambridge) aren't figures of speech (such as the word choice of 'foliage' or 'leaves').

It is true that my understanding doesn't match the descriptions given at this time very well, but I thought I'd put my two cents in. --Headfacemouth 07:13, 26 November 2006 (UTC)Headfacemouth

Stylistic devices are literary devices. And I think those two articles should be combined. Figure of speech is distinct from stylistic devices, however, from the perspectives of both scope and context.

And this is what I mean. "Structure" is a major section of the article in stylistic device article. How a storyteller or a writer sets up a plot is an important way of contributing style of the language which it is told. But how can plots structures somehow represent figures of speech, when figures of speech are usually less than a sentence long? Figure of speech is something else altogether. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tofoo (talk • contribs) 07:26, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

What figure of speech is this
Are there names  for these  figures of speech:

1. Where a described individual stands for a group or class. For example, the soccer mom, the taxpayer, the voter, the liberated woman, etc.?

2. Where a series of individuals holds the same office over many years, as for example, the president, the king, the pope.

I am sure that such terms exist, but I have searched for them in vain.66.249.235.212 12:02, 26 October 2006 (UTC)Wayne B.

 * I do not think any word for 2 exists; for 1, one word that fits the description is "archetype" (noun) or "archetypal" for the adjective (e.g. "She was the archetypal soccer mom.") Firejuggler86 (talk) 18:44, 21 April 2019 (UTC)

I have thought about (1). To me, it seems like a borderline case between metaphor and metonymy (I use these terms as in Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors We Live By, 1980, University of Chicago). There is a single individual standing for an entire class of individuals, this is metonymy (think of 'The Times isn't here yet, so we can't begin', which could refer to a single reporter from the Times). However, it is also metaphorical, in that these people act in a similar way (or a way that is interpreted as being similar), much as a 'real Don Juan' is the name of an individual human that applies to a class of people who act in a certain way, or 'a real Hitler' for people who act in a dictatorial way, etc. However, rather than being used to refer to an individual, 'the soccer mom' is an image of a generic individual replacing and standing for the entire category and population that falls within that category. In that sense, it's much more abstract. It's personifying a concept which is abstract [though the speaker may assume that data on what the 'real' or 'average' soccer mom (etc.) actually could be obtained by somehow "averaging" hundreds of real-life situations, which is ridiculous]. I would suggest that it is thoroughly abstract, instead, and that the speaker's prototype image is being extended via a combination of metaphor and metonymy to stand for both the concept of soccer moms (etc,) and the entire population of soccer moms (etc,). --Headfacemouth 07:36, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

I don't have a name for (2), but I'd say that it is a situation where the referent of the word changes over time, as the people who it refers to at different times are taking turns assuming a role. In this way, it reminds me of personal pronouns (such as I, you, he, she, it). These are different depending on the speech context (who's around, who's talking at the moment), but have fixed meanings, regardless.--Headfacemouth 07:40, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I suppose I could have written it here. Anyhow, I put an answer for the first question just below this. Mdvaden 06:57, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

What Figure >> Synechdoche
The #1 question is Synechdoche (of the part). Included in E. W. Bullinger's Figures of Speech Used in the Bible.

Are you familiar with the scriptural passage where Joshua fought Amalek in Exodus? The passage says that "Joshua" defeated the Amalekites. The passage shows that "Joshua" - one man - represents the entire army, for he did not do it single-handed.

Bullinger's book is a marvelous work, for anybody who is unfamiliar with it.

Hope that helps on #1. For #2, I don't think that's a figure of speech. Can you write a sentence similar to what you had in mind?

Mdvaden 01:50, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

"I told you a million times."
Does the sentence "I told you a million times." count as a figure of speech? From time to time, you here this from others, especially when they want to remind you of something. But how may times they said is much lesser than it says. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 61.9.126.41 (talk) 01:42, 28 March 2007 (UTC).

That is hyperbole. ghansel 23:27, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

It is a hyperbole, and it is a figure of speech. If someone uses hyperbole on a daily basis, he/she has a figure of speech that is exaggerated. Tofoo (talk) 07:30, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

"How this page should be composed. Very important"
Although this page is a very good page for reference, perhaps it should only be compossed of words which are useful, in terms of
 * Are you suggesting removing or isolating a few words which are not technically figures of speech? Or did you mean something more along the lines of a list of "most common figures" used in English language discussions?Mdvaden 20:04, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

HELP
This page has been vandalized! ADMIN REQUESTED! Stinkman 17:12, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

This is kind of stupid, but I have to get back to my class. I am going to completely blank this page to try to get a bot to revert the page. Sorry for the inconvience. Stinkman 17:32, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

Rhyme schemes???
I'm puzzled about why, directly under the heading "Schemes", there is a link to the article "Rhyme schemes" (with the text "Main article: Rhyme schemes").

It seems to me that "Figure of speech" refers to figures used in prose and not necessarily poetry.

Of course, any figure of speech used in prose could be also used in poetry. But not vice versa. In particular, a rhyme scheme does not strike me as applying to prose. For this reason, I propose removing the link to "Rhyme schemes".Daqu 19:58, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

CORUANS - Country Or Regions Used As Names
CORUANS - Country Or Regions Used As Names http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coruans

Is there a proper name for this sort of thing?

Things like " what do the Danes call Danish Pastry - Answer - Viennese Breads....

What do they call Brazil nuts in Brazil? etc —Preceding unsigned comment added by Engineman (talk • contribs) 21:24, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm pretty sure you made that up. -Theanphibian (talk • contribs) 21:15, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

Literary Elements
Much of this list should be under the heading "Literary elements," as that is what they are taught as. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Elfred (talk • contribs) 02:33, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

Need to rewrite intro regarding "literal language"
These sentences seem to contradict each other. Is there a "not" missing? Should it say "do not necessarily have a concept"?

 * Note that all theories of meaning necessarily have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and figurative language). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an entirely coherent concept.

96.236.158.55 (talk) 19:54, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The logical flaw seems elsewhere to me. If all theories necessarily have a concept of 'literal language', then there is no such thing as theories that do not - though it idds easy to conceive that under them, 'figure of speech' would not be entirely coherent.

MacAuslan (talk) 15:28, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

Hello; I stumbled on this page (from sudden death (sport), where another reader insisted that non-native English speakers need to know early on that sudden death is a figure of speech). I read the lead, had the same problem as the first user commenting in this section, and restored the negative to the 4th sentence. Having now read this discussion, I agree with the first user as to the location of the error. I am a hillbilly but do not entirely understand what the 4th and 5th sentences of the lead are trying to say: Any "theory of meaning" for human beings would have to have a concept of "literal language" (as it is bound to meaning), though it might not encompass figures of speech. --Spike-from-NH (talk) 14:55, 11 March 2009 (UTC)

Now superseded, as I have done the "clean-up" requested by the icon at the top of the article. The passage we have been discussing is now the second paragraph of the lead, and its meaning and importance still escapes me. The second sentence is full of weasel words. --Spike-from-NH (talk) 01:40, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

Having returned to do minor clean-up on the introductory paragraphs to schema/trope, I see a major problem that it looks like other editors have broached here: The article deals with two separate topics: (1) figures of speech to be interpreted figuratively rather than literally, and (2) categories of word usage, many of which (such as the example presented for a schema, using apposition) do not invite figurative meaning. How to resolve this? --Spike-from-NH (talk) 11:05, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

Deleting an External Link: page N/A now
Going to delete one external link Figures of Speech: Scripture because the page is being removed. The page has been on my site www.mdvaden.com for quite some time, but I'm removing the resource from my server to conserve on traffic to the site. There are several other pages on the internet that list an outline of Dr. Bullinger's Figures of Speech. I can find one, but anyone editing here, feel free to find an appropriate one that is easy to read.Mdvaden (talk) 18:00, 16 March 2008 (UTC)

???A??? rhetoric
In 40 years of teaching and studying English Literature I have never heard of 'rhetoric' used to mean 'a figure of speech, as in l.1 "A figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetoric, or locution". So I looked.

The nearest the Oxford English Dictionary gets to this (s.v. 	rhetoric,n.1) is as a plural noun, meaning '''2. c.': "pl''. Elegant expressions; rhetorical flourishes. Also, rhetorical terms"

giving the following quotations:

1426 LYDG. ''De Guil. Pilgr.'' 19774 That poete, Wyth al hys rethorykes swete. 1543 BALE Yet a Course 26 Neuer coude tolwyn throughlye knowe what these rhetoryckes ment, as are denuncyacyon, deteccyon, and presentacyon. 1589 PUTTENHAM Eng. Poesie III. ii. (Arb.) 151 Graue and wise counsellours..do much mislike all scholasticall rhetoricks. 1628 WITHER ''Brit. Rememb''. 42b, Their fantastique Rhetoriques, Who trim their Poesies with schooleboy-tricks. 1942 W. STEVENS Parts of World 143 Midsummer love and softest silences, Weather of night creatures, whistling all day, too, And echoing rhetorics more than our own. 1949 KOESTLER Promise & Fulfilment II. v. 274 It was a disappointing speech{em}emotional rhetorics without a constructive programme. 1976 Sunday Times (Lagos) 3 Oct. 10/4 We cannot decide on the fundamental values and goals that will bind the present and future generations on the basis of vague ideas, irrelevant foreign slogans and rhetorics." —Preceding unsigned comment added by MacAuslan (talk • contribs) 12:07, 4 April 2008 (UTC)

In Italian figures of speech are called rhetorical figures. Rhetoric was invented with Latin not with English :-) --Sum (talk) 14:04, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

Mempsis
Should this word be in the lists in the articles? Thanks.83.100.250.79 (talk) 17:53, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

Question
There is a term that describes the continued use of obsolete (or nearly obsolete) words. For example, one might still hear "dial the number," "dial tone," or "dial-up access" even though rotary dials have largely disappeared. Similarly, most phones don't actually "ring." Also "radio dial", "on the FM dial" etc; a "shift key" doesn't "shift" anything (unless one happens to have a fairly old typewriter); and "cc:" usually no longer involves any carbon paper. "Anachronism" might apply, but it isn't the term I'm thinking of. -- Gyrofrog (talk) 23:03, 13 April 2010 (UTC)
 * More examples: uppercase and lowercase (and thus case-sensitive) are typesetting terms, but generally these words are used in a non-typesetting context. -- Gyrofrog (talk) 21:41, 14 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Someone elsewhere suggested that I'm thinking of "dead metaphor"s. I'm not sure whether I am or not, as I couldn't make much sense of that article ("Kidney bean" is a dead metaphor?) -- Gyrofrog (talk) 16:40, 20 June 2011 (UTC)
 * And yet another example involving the telephone: we still say "the phone is ringing," though most telephones (and certainly all mobile phones) do not have actual bells. -- Gyrofrog (talk) 05:13, 16 July 2011 (UTC)
 * The word you're looking for seems to be skeuomorph, according to the BBC http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22840833 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 125.237.30.86 (talk) 00:03, 14 February 2014 (UTC)

The four fundamental operations
What does "fundating" mean in "the four fundating principles"? Myrvin (talk) 13:00, 29 April 2010 (UTC)

Correction of major error in introduction: regarding literal meaning figures
Just noticed that the introduction had a huge error. Figures of speech were introduced as having meanings deviating from literal use. The fact that Polysyndeton or many-conjunctions was present in the article, this should have jumped out a long time ago. Figures of speech include words used with literal meaning in special arrangements as well. Polysyndeton or "many ands" for example, uses the word "and" literally every times its repeated. So the fix is an obvious and high-priority fix.
 * If anyone has a better choice of vocabulary on how to phrase or write this essential inclusion, let's hear it. Thanks. Mdvaden (talk) 04:30, 13 January 2011 (UTC)
 * The OED has "a. Any of the various ‘forms’ of expression, deviating from the normal arrangement or use of words, which are adopted in order to give beauty, variety, or force to a composition; e.g. Aposiopesis, Hyperbole, Metaphor, etc."Myrvin (talk) 08:05, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

Cats and Dogs
The first example of figures of speech, "It's raining cats and dogs", is an idiom. Which is confusing since idioms are not mentioned in the intro as a form of figure of speech. I think that several of the other examples may also be idioms and not representative for the topic. Krausman (talk) 10:49, 5 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I think it's meant to be a metaphor, which is in the tropes. If you look at idiom it says that an idiom is a metaphor. Myrvin (talk) 18:39, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Actually, I think all those examples are metaphors. Perhaps we need more varied examples. Myrvin (talk) 18:41, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

There seems to be a debate whether an idiom is a figure of speech. Anyway I think the examples should be more general. For instance the "raining cats and dogs" example makes no sense without prior knowledge of that saying. I think that would benefit those of us that do not have English as their first language. Krausman (talk) 09:14, 6 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I've started this. But I think there should be very few examples here. Myrvin (talk) 10:40, 6 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Done it now and replaced the original. Myrvin (talk) 15:16, 6 February 2011 (UTC)

To Run Up
The third example given ("She ran up...") requires that the reader be familiar with the idiomatic/colloquial meaning of "to run up." I've rarely encountered that meaning in modern English and had to read the explanation to "get it." I'd suggest using a different example, e.g. most any of the examples listed under Zeugma, Type 2, e.g.    Eggs and oaths are soon broken. Or, to avoid an explicit aphorism, the quotation You are free to execute your laws and your citizens as you see fit. (William Riker, Star Trek: The Next Generation) would be effective and contemporary. -- Jimmy Hers (talk) 00:14, 10 June 2015 (UTC)

Info about article
''For simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not further sub-classify them (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Most entries link to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical devices, which are similar in many ways.''

This paragraph mainly describes the usage style IN the article. Most entries link to a page... may not be of any value to people taking a print of the article. Please modify that paragraph. Gauravjuvekar (talk) 04:42, 5 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Disagree with <> That would not pose a problem if they also take a print of the linked articles. which is just as realistic as them taking a print of the article in the first place. 89.134.199.32 (talk) 13:58, 16 January 2019 (UTC).

Parallel irony not in Wikipedia
Like most entries in the Tropes list, parallel irony is a hyperlink to another article. But clicking thereon, you simply dump the reader at the top of article Irony, which doesn't mention it (other than the trivial "Redirected from parallel irony"--ain't that ironic?). Hence, either parallel irony is not covered in Wikipedia, or it can't be located.

The ostensible solution is to add a section Parallel irony to article Irony. (That is, assuming parallel irony differs from irony, since the Tropes list also has entry irony.)

--Jim Luedke Jimlue (talk) 07:02, 8 April 2012 (UTC)

 * after only a hasty google search i am leaning to conclude, that "parallel irony" is not an existing category, though sometimes is used as a pairing of words in the sense "double, or deeper (perhaps hidden) irony of a situation". and still, i agree with the point that once a non trivial expressiopn is hyperlinked in WP, it is only correct if there is an explanation at hand to the intended meaning of that expression. just my 2 cents. cheers. 89.134.199.32 (talk) 13:54, 16 January 2019 (UTC).

A number
How many figures of speech are there? 69.122.92.17 (talk) 14:33, 11 September 2012 (UTC)

This is a great question. It seems like there are two main ways in which "figure of speech" is used. There is the objective "figure of speech" which is a way of saying a certain thing in a different way. Instead of saying "she's really pretty", a person says "she is a tall glass of water on a summer day" that is the first kind of figure of speech.

Then there is the subjective "figure of speech" which is a way somebody says things. For instance, Yoda has a figure of speech that has the OSV grammar. Tof\ o (talk) 07:36, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

 * i dont think Yoda's (unconventional order of words in every sentence) is a good example for the figure of speech meant here. the first example, preceeding yoda's "personal peculiar way of talking" is a valid example though. yoda's backward order of words in every sentence is more like a personal voice, or like an accent, or letssay like stuttering - something remarkable (personal feature, making easy to recognize the speaker) about the way the person speaks, but not necessarily touching the way how he/she rhetorically conveys his/her message to the audience. 89.134.199.32 (talk) 13:43, 16 January 2019 (UTC). see also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Figure_of_speech#Figurative_Language 89.134.199.32 (talk) 14:08, 16 January 2019 (UTC)

added in section "Four rhetorical operations" the pronunciation of greek words
i guess it doesnt hurt to have the phonetical transscription next to the original greek words, for the benefit of those without a robust knowledge of the greek alphabet(yes, like myself). cheers. 89.134.199.32 (talk) 13:36, 16 January 2019 (UTC).

 * Not to nitpick, but i think you meant not a phonetic transcription, but a Latin transcription ;) (two things quite different) Regardless, cheers for taking the time to do such :) Firejuggler86 (talk) 19:07, 21 April 2019 (UTC)

The pocket definitions in the scheme list are weak
Many of the brief definitions in the scheme list are off-key or downright wrong. They need to be worked through and corrected by people who have read and understood the original articles. This is not that easy -- many of the original articles are themselves difficult to understand.

2001:67C:10EC:578F:8000:0:0:383 (talk) 11:08, 3 June 2022 (UTC)

Near-like Synonymous terms between "Par'hyponoian" and "Paraprosdokian"
Par'hyponoian: "...is a logical or thought trope, consisting in the replacement of a second part in a phrase or a text, that would have been logically expected from the first part"

Paraprosdokian: "scheme figure of speech where the latter part of a text is unexpected in a way that it causes the reader to interpret the first part"

Paraprosdokian is a more known term than Par'hyponoian according to Google search engine results (50k+ vs 2k+). Maybe remove Par'hyponoian or conglomerate into Paraprosdokian via aliases/subtypes...?

SEems quite superfluous anyway. FunnyKenji08 (talk) 08:27, 1 May 2024 (UTC)

 * You are correct in your observation and wise in your proposal. I will go ahead and remove the lesser known term. Trakking (talk) 10:51, 1 May 2024 (UTC)

Are figures of speech "intentional"?
I'm not sure intentional is quite the right word. Figurative language is baked into our day-to-day conversation so naturally that 1) I doubt there is any deliberateness behind it a good deal of the time and 2) plenty of figures of speech go the way of idioms, dead metaphors, etc. where the figurativeness has long been a fossilized fixture and the original meaning lost. They are "sometimes intentional", certainly. Any other thoughts? Wolfdog (talk) 23:39, 18 July 2024 (UTC)

(Also, if you think I'm overthinking it, you can straightup tell me. Today's not been my sharpest day. Wolfdog (talk) 23:47, 18 July 2024 (UTC))

 * It's an intentional deviation that factors into what becomes a figure of speech. Otherwise, an unqualified deviation might result in an unintentional rhetorical effect. (See Yogi Berra.) Kent Dominic·(talk) 03:26, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * How about going from a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from to a word or phrase originating as an intentional deviation from? Wolfdog (talk) 11:51, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I see "originiating" as a prolixity in that iteration. I'd almost be fine with "A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase as an intentional deviation from straightforward language use or literal meaning..." except "a word or phrase as" is a bit equivocal (and could be deleted to improve the meaning) since lots of clauses are construed as figures of speech. Kent Dominic·(talk) 13:46, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Yeah, that doesn't feel better to me but rather clunkier. I suppose we'll keep it. Wolfdog (talk) 18:08, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Figure of speech


text:
Cyrix 5x86

The Cyrix 5x86 is a line of x86 microprocessors designed by Cyrix and released on June 5 of 1995. Cyrix, being a fabless company, had the chips manufactured by IBM. The line came out about 5 months before the more famous Cyrix 6x86. The Cyrix 5x86 was one of the fastest CPUs ever produced for Socket 3 computer systems. With better performance in most applications than an Intel Pentium processor at 75 MHz, the Cyrix Cx5x86 filled a gap by providing a medium-performance processor option for 486 Socket 3 motherboards (which are incapable of handling Intel's Pentium CPUs, apart from the Pentium Overdrive).

The IBM 5x86C is an IBM branded and produced version of the Cyrix-designed Cyrix Cx5x86 CPU. Previous IBM x86 processors, IBM 386SLC and IBM 486SLC, were based on modified Intel designs.

Design
The Cyrix 5x86 processor, codename "M1sc", was based on a scaled-down version of the "M1" core used in the Cyrix 6x86, which provided 80% of the performance for a 50% decrease in transistors over the 6x86 design. It had the 32-bit memory bus of an ordinary 486 processor, but internally had much more in common with fifth-generation processors such as the Cyrix 6x86, the AMD K5, and the Intel Pentium, and even the sixth-generation Intel Pentium Pro. The chip featured near-complete support for i486 instructions, but very limited support for Pentium instructions. Some performance-enhancing features of the CPU were intentionally disabled due to potentially stability-threatening bugs which were not fixed before release time (these features can be enabled with freely downloadable software utilities; see below).

The similarly named SGS-Thomson (STMicroelectronics) ST5x86 and IBM 5x86C were licensed rebrandings of the Cyrix design (IBM and ST physically produced Cyrix's CPUs for them), marketed separately but identical for practical purposes, apart from the availability of a 75 MHz edition which Cyrix did not bring to market, and slight differences in voltage requirements. The Cyrix 5x86 design, however, should not be confused with the similarly named AMD Am5x86 which was essentially a clock-quadrupled 486 (not an all-new design like the Cyrix part) but which had broadly similar performance, used the same Socket 3, and was introduced at the end of the same year.

Cyrix's 5x86 was a very short-lived chip, having a market life of only six months. It is likely Cyrix could have continued to successfully sell processors based on Socket 3, but canned the 5x86 so that it would not compete with its then new 6x86 offerings.

Controversies and anomalies
The official Cyrix 5x86 website boasted about several features of the chip that were disabled by default in the final versions. The most controversial of these features was the "branch-prediction" feature, which was enabled in the benchmarks results on the company website when comparing the chip to Intel's Pentium processor. While it was possible to enable the extra features using a special software utility, it usually resulted in an unstable system, especially on earlier steppings of the chip when running 32-bit code.

There are also many rumours surrounding a 133 MHz, clock-quadrupled version of the Cyrix 5x86. The 133 MHz version is very rare, however, and producers of upgrade kits were given preferential access to it, notably Gainbery. Some of the 100 and 120 MHz parts also contain support for the 4X multiplier setting, and some of these chips may also work at 133 MHz. However, the 5x86 is not known to overclock well; 120 MHz is generally considered to be pushing the limitations of the process on which it was fabricated. An 80 MHz (2×40 MHz) 5x86 also exists, but is unclear as to whether or not it was ever officially released.

IBM's 5x86C was considered to be more conservatively rated than the Cyrix branded parts, and operated at a lower voltage (3.3V). For example: what Cyrix would rate as a 100 MHz part, IBM would mark as 75 MHz. IBM 5x86C was available as 75 MHz and 100 MHz parts. A few examples of 120 MHz parts also exist, but they have early production dates indicating that they may have been produced prior to IBM's decision to scale back clock speeds. 5x86C also had a much longer production run than the Cyrix branded parts. IBM continued to produce 5x86C at least until late 1998 (QFP only), whereas Cyrix's own part was discontinued in 1996. Parts which implement the 4X multiplier or Stepping 1 Rev 3 cores are not known to exist.

Specifications

 * iDX4WB pinout, 168 pins
 * Socket 3
 * 2.0 million transistors on 0.65 micrometre process
 * 144 mm2 die
 * 3.45 volts
 * 16 kilobytes unified level-one cache

100 MHz capable edition for 33 MHz (33×3), and 50 MHz (50×2) front side bus 100 MHz capable edition for 33 MHz (33×3), and 25 MHz (25×4) front side bus 120/133 MHz capable edition for 40 MHz (40×3) and 33 MHz (33×4) front side bus.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cyrix 5x86


text:
Talk:Henry II of Castile

Untitled
Anyone have good dates for birth or death? I have seen 1378 and 1379 for the death. Jeff

Why does Pedro become Peter?
It annoyed me that Pedro becomes Peter later in the article. Also would love to see some updates on why Henry lost the throne (because he led a battle in the field leaving a highly defensible position).

 * i agree with the previous post. all references should be consistent, and that should be 'peter'. if henry's translated everywhere, so should pete's name. besides, the main article for pete himself has his name translated. change 'em all. 4.230.162.62 18:55, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

Twin brother?
Any info on his twin brother Fadrique of Trastamara? It says on the list of twins page that he was killed in 1358, but no further information exists elsewhere on the site. --Lurlock 16:15, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Inquisition, again
The Spanish Inquisition (nor other) did not pursue jews. "False christian" (or jews who baptized but kept on with judaism), yes. But not jewish people. --213.37.241.232 (talk) 02:17, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

Or Crypto-Jews Multiverse Union (talk) 09:26, 17 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Henry II of Castile


text:
User:Dori

I've gotten tired of the English Wikipedia. It's gotten so big that I would have to spent most of my time reverting bad edits to pages on my watchlist, and that's not fun.

I occasionally contribute on Commons.

title: User:Dori


text:
Culture of Albania

Albanian culture or the culture of Albanians (kultura shqiptare ) is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, musical, political and social elements that are representative of ethnic Albanians, which implies not just Albanians of the country of Albania but also Albanians of Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro, where ethnic Albanians are a native population. Albanian culture has been considerably shaped by the geography and history of Albania, Kosovo, parts of Montenegro, parts of North Macedonia, and parts of Northern Greece, traditional homeland of Albanians. It grew from that of the Paleo-Balkan cultures, including Proto-Albanian, Illyrian, Thracian, Dacian, with their pagan beliefs and specific way of life in the wooded areas of far Southern Europe. Albanian culture has also been influenced by the Ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Ottomans.

The name 'Albanian' derived from the Illyrian tribe of the Albanoi and their capital in Albanopolis that was noted by Ptolemy in ancient times. Previously, Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni and referred to themselves as Arbëreshë or Arbëneshë until the sixteenth century as the toponym Shqipëria or Shqypnia and the endonym Shqiptarë or Shqyptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëresh. The terms Shqipëria and Shqiptarë are popularly interpreted respectively as the "Land of Eagles" and "Children of Eagles" / "Eagle-Men".

Medieval Latin name of the country called by its inhabitants Shqipëri (literally "land of eagles", from shqiponje "eagle") is also believed to come from Medieval Greek 'Albania', possibly stemming from a pre-IE word *alb "hill" (also proposed as the source of Alps) or from the PIE root *albho- "white".

Therefore, the lands of the Albanians might be named after the hills or mountains, or white snow-peaked mountains.

Another connection between the etymology of 'Albanian' and the word "white" might be found in 'alb', one of the liturgical vestments of the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian/ Reformed and Congregational churches, an ample white garment coming down to the ankles and is usually girdled with a cincture (a type of belt, sometimes of rope similar to the type used with a monastic habit, such as by Franciscans and Capuchins), from the Latin albus, meaning white. It is simply the long, white linen tunic used by the ancient Romans. As a simple derivative of ordinary first-century clothing, the alb was adopted very early by Christians, and especially by the clergy for the Eucharistic liturgy. In early Medieval Europe it was also normally worn by secular clergy in non-liturgical contexts. Nowadays, the alb is the common vestment for all ministers at Mass, both clerics and laypersons, and is worn over the cassock, but underneath any other special vestments, such as the stole, dalmatic or chasuble.

The most dominant traditional Albanian folk costumes and dresses are indeed white with black vertical lines, same colors as the liturgical Christian vestment, the 'alb', which might be what the people whose traditional fold costumes resemble the 'alb' were named after.

In addition to the connotations to 'white' color in garments, costumes and dresses, the word 'white' is found in traditional Albanian phraseology (traditional phrases like "Fat bardhë", "faqe bardhë", "ardhshit të bardhë", etc. ) and Albanian oral traditions and mythology ("Bardha", figure of Albanian mythology similar to  Zana, white maidens or spirits of the mist).

The word 'white', both in its figurative meanings and the white color in traditional Albanian costumess, dresses and clothing are certainly one of the recognisable element of traditional Albanian culture.

The double-headed eagle is the national and ethnic symbol of all Albanian-speaking people. The symbol appears in a stone carving dating from the tenth century as the Principality of Arbanon was established. It was also used as a heraldic symbol by a numerous noble families in Albania at that time. The double-headed eagle appears as a symbol for bravery, valor, freedom and heroism. The symbol is now commonly displayed on jewellery amongst the Albanian diaspora.

Albanians can be culturally and linguistically separated into two groups such as the northern Ghegs and southern Tosks. The line of demarcation between both groups, based on dialect, is the Shkumbin River that crosses Albania from east to west. Outside of Albania, Gheg is mostly spoken by the Albanians of Kosovo, northwestern North Macedonia, Montenegro and Croatia (Arbanasi). On the other hand, Tosk is spoken by the Albanians of Greece (Arvanites, Chams), southwestern North Macedonia and southern Italy (Arbëreshë). The diversity between Ghegs and Tosks can be substantial, both sides identify strongly with the common national and ethnic culture.

Home of Muslims and Christians, religious tolerance is one of the most important values of the tradition of the Albanian people. It is widely accepted, that Albanians are well known about those values, about a peaceful coexistence among the believers of different religious communities in the country.

Thanks to its long history, Albania is home to many valuable monuments such as among others the remains of Butrint, the medieval cities of Berat and Gjirokastër, the Roman amphitheatre of Durrës, the Illyrian Tombs and Fortress of Bashtovë. Other examples of important contributions to architecture may be found in Apollonia, Byllis, Amantia, Phoenice, Shkodër and many others.

Despite being a small country, Albania has three sites on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List and one Intangible Cultural Heritage element. The Codices of Berat are eminently important for the global community and as well the development of ancient biblical, liturgical and hagiographical literature. Therefore, it was inscribed on the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005.

Kanun

The Kanun, a comprehensive compilation of Albanian traditional customs and cultural practices, was codified by Lekë Dukagjini in the Middle Ages. Scholars have conjectured that the Kanun might have derived from Illyrian tribal laws, while others have suggested that it has retained elements from Indo-European Prehistoric eras. The Kanun reflects notably the historic development of Albanians through its turbulent history and encompasses in a real statute regulating various aspects of life including customs, traditions and wisdom in Albania.

Besa, "to keep the promise", is the Albanian code of honor and a major component of Albanian culture. It is among the highest and most important concept of the Kanun with a moral and ethic connotation. The term contains the given word or keeping of a promise or obligation and the guaranteed agreement among honorable men.

Most notably, Besa means taking care of those in need and being hospitable to every single person. Albania saved and protected almost 2000 Jewish people during the Holocaust. Rather than hiding the Jews in attics or the woods, the Albanians gave them clothes, gave them Albanian names and treated them as part of the family.

There is no trace of any discrimination against Jews in Albania, because Albania happens to be one of the rare lands in Europe today where religious prejudice and hate do not exist, even though Albanians themselves are divided into three faiths. - Herman Bernstein

Fis (clan)
The traditional Albanian social structure is based on clans (fise) characterized by a common culture, often common ancestry and shared social ties. In past times most of them defended their territory and interests against other clans and external forces.

The Albanian tribal society clearly crystallized in the mountains of northern Albania and adjacent areas of Montenegro, and it was also present in a less developed system in southern Albania. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the Kanun of Lekë Dukagjini.

This social structure was inherited from the ancient Illyrians, thrived until the early years of the 20th century, and remained largely intact until the rise to power of communist regime in 1944.

Oda

Oda is a typical large room in an Albanian traditional house used by the host to receive and entertain the guests. Traditionally, the host and the guests in the oda are old men and married men. Till the end of the 20th century, woman and young boys were not allowed to enter the room. In the oda, the men talk, take political discussions and sing epic songs until late hours. During an oda "session", historical events and traditions are transmitted orally through discussions and songs.

Holidays

In consideration to the long and eventful history of Albania, there are several cultural and religious holidays throughout the country. Albanians, either in Albania, Kosovo and other countries, celebrate their Independence and Flag Day on November 28. Various ceremonies, festivals and concerts take place to celebrate the historic day in major cities amongst them in Tirana and Pristina, holding festive and military parades.

Christmas is celebrated by those following the religion of Christianity. Bajram is considered by Muslims as the holiday of forgiveness, moral victory and peace, fellowship and unity. They sacrifice a sheep for this holiday, giving the meat to their family, friends and to the poor people.

Another pagan holiday is Dita e Verës, particularly popular in Elbasan and Gjirokastër. It is celebrated on March 14 and is intended to commemorate the end of winter, the rebirth of nature and a rejuvenation of spirit amongst the Albanians. The ritual of the day begins on the previous day with the preparation of sweets such as ballokume cooked in a wood oven. During the evening ballokume, dried figs, walnuts, turkey legs, boiled eggs and simite are distributed to members of the family.

Dita e Mësuesit is celebrated on March 7 since 1887 and is regarded by many Albanians as one of the most important holidays of the country. It honors the opening of the first school that taught lessons in Albanian in Korçë.

Cuisine
The Albanian cuisine, a representative of the Mediterranean cuisine, has developed through the centuries of social and economic changes and more importantly referable to different factors that stands in close interaction with each other such as the small and mountainous territory of the country with virgin forests, narrow valleys, vast plains and a favourable climate that offers excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits. Food is for Albanians an important component of their culture and is deeply rooted in the history, traditions and values of the country. The cooking traditions of the Albanian people are diverse and nevertheless olive oil is the most commonly used vegetable fat in Albanian cooking, which has been produced since antiquity throughout the country particularly along the coasts.

Albanian cuisine uses a variety of ingredients which include a wider availability of vegetables such as zucchini, eggplant, peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, potatoes, cabbages and spinach, as well as cereals such as wheat, sweetcorn, barley and rye. Herbs and spices include oregano, mint, garlic, onion and basil. Widely used meat varieties are lamb, goat, beef, veal, chicken and other poultry. Considering the direct proximity to the sea, seafood specialties are particularly popular along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts.

Hospitality is a fundamental custom of Albanian society and serving food is an integral to the hosting of guests and visitors. It is not infrequent for visitors to be invited to eat and drink with locals. The medieval Albanian code of honor, called Besa, resulted to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude.

Religion

Christianity, Islam and Judaism are the traditional religions of Albania. The constitution extends freedom of religion to all citizens and the government generally respects this right in practice. Albania have always been considered as a unique country in terms of religion and religious tolerance is one of the main characteristics of Albanians. Christianity has a long and eventful history in the country whereby it belongs to one of the most ancient countries of Christianity. There are thought to have been about seventy Christian families in Durrës as early as the time of the Apostles. Paul the Apostle was the founder of the Archbishopric of Durrës while he was preaching in Illyria and Epirus. In the eleventh century, Albanians first appeared in Byzantine sources and at this point, they were already fully Christianized. The first known bishop of Albania was the Bishop of Scutari founded in 387 in Shkodër. In the late seventeenth century, Pope Clement XI served as the Pope from 1700 to 1721. He was born to an Albanian father descended from the noble Albani family from the region of Malësi e Madhe in Albania.

The history of Judaism in the country can be traced back to the classical era. Jewish migration from the Roman Empire is considered the most likely source of the first Jews on the country's territory. It may have first arrived in Albania in the first century BC. They build the first synagogue in Sarandë in the early fifth century. In the sixteenth century, there were Jewish settlements in most of major cities such as Berat, Elbasan, Vlorë, Durrës and as well as in Kosovo region.

Albania was the only country during the Holocaust in Europe where Jewish population experienced growth. After the mass emigration to Israel following the fall of communist regime, only 200 Albanian Jews are left in the country today. In 2010, a new synagogue "Hechal Shlomo" started providing services for the Jewish community in Tirana.

Islam arrived for the first time in the ninth century to the region, when Muslim Arabs raided the eastern Adriatic Sea. In the fifteenth century, Islam emerged as the majority religion during the centuries of Ottoman rule, though a significant Christian minority remained. After declaration of independence on November 28, 1912, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later the communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. Albania never had an official state religion either as a republic or as a kingdom.

Painting

The art of Albania has a long and memorable history, represented in many forms such as painting, sculpture, mosaic and architecture. It show a great variety in style, in different regions and periods. Nonetheless, the country also has a tolerable heritage in visual arts, specifically in frescoes, murals and icons, which often can be seen in many of the older structures in the country. The surviving monuments of Illyrian, Ancient Greek and Roman art are notable for a tradition concentrating on the human figure and decorations. Through the many archaeological discoveries, in different areas of Albania have been found numerous of pottery, terracotta and metalworking belonging to the Illyrians and several sculptures and mosaics belonging to the Ancient Greeks and Romans. Albanian medieval art started with the Byzantine Empire that ruled the great majority of Albania and the Balkan Peninsula. The first paintings have been icons and frescoes with an admirable use of colour and gold. The most famous representative of Albanian medieval art were Onufri who was distinguished for its rich use of colours and decorative shades with certain ethnographic national elements that are more visible with his successors David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers.

Illuminated manuscripts were another significant feature of Albanian medieval art. The Codices of Berat are two ancient Gospels from Berat that dates from the sixth and ninth centuries. They represent one of the most valuable treasures of the Albanian cultural heritage that was inscribed on the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005.

In the fifteenth century, during the Ottoman invasion many Albanians migrated out of the area to escape either various socio-political and economic difficulties. Among them, the medieval painters Marco Basaiti and Viktor Karpaçi, sculptor and architect Andrea Nikollë Aleksi and art collector Alessandro Albani from the Albani family.

The Ottoman Empire ruled over the country and most of the Balkans for nearly five centuries. This influence were absorbed and reinterpreted with an extensive construction of mosques that opened a new section in Albanian art, that of Islamic art. In the nineteenth century a significant era for Albanian art begins. The great liberation acts starting with League of Prizren in 1878, that led to the Independence in 1912, established the climate for a new artistic movement, which would reflect life and history more realistically and Impressionism and Realism came into dominance.

Contemporary Albanian artwork captures the struggle of everyday Albanians, however new artists are utilizing different artistic styles to convey this message. Albanian artists continue to move art forward, while their art still remains distinctively Albanian in content. Though among Albanian artist postmodernism was fairly recently introduced, there is a number of artists and works known internationally.

Architecture

The country's architecture reflect a rich variety of architectural styles and is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Influences from distant social, religious and exotic communities have contributed to the variety of the architectural landscape in Albania that is richly revealed by archaeological finds that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of the earliest productions, notably from Illyrians, Ancient Greeks and Romans, are found scattered throughout the country. The best collection of Ancient architecture can be found in Butrint in the southwest, Apollonia, Durrës and Byllis in the west and Amantia and Phoenice in the south. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning of these towns at that time. In the Middle Ages a variety of architecture styles developed in the form of dwelling, defense, worship and engineering structures. The consolidation of Albanian principalities gave rise to Varosha, or neighborhoods outside city walls. Examples of such developments are centred in Petrele, Krujë, Tepelenë and Lezhë originating from the feudal castle. Some inherited historic structures were damaged by invading Ottoman forces. It is important to note that Ali Pashe Tepelena embarked on a major castle building campaign throughout Epirus.

Much earlier, the introduction of Christianity brought churches and monasteries which otherwhile became the center of most towns and cities in the country. Byzantine churches and Ottoman mosques are also on the best examples and legacies of Byzantines and Ottomans, which are specifically exemplified in Berat, Gjirokastër and Korçë region.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Albanian medieval towns underwent urban transformations by various Austro-Hungarian and Italian architects, giving them the appearance of western European cities. This can be particularly seen in Tirana and Korçë. They introduced architectural styles such as Historicism, Art Nouveau, Neo-Renaissance and Neoclassicism.

Clothing
Traditional Albanian clothing developed as a result of long processes that has differentiated the country from other countries. Its recorded history of clothing goes back to the classical times. It includes more than two hundred different forms of clothing in all Albania and neighbouring countries that includes without limitation the Albanians in Kosovo, Western North Macedonia, Southern Montenegro, Italy and Greece.

Nothing less than each cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of clothing being particularly colorful and rich in detail. The costumes are often decorated with pagan symbolic elements of Illyrians among others suns, eagles, moons, stars and snakes, but predominantly the zig-zag and concentric circles decoration, found in ancient times throughout the Balkans but also in national costumes of other Balkan peoples.

These clothes are most often worn with connection to special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious holidays, weddings and by dancing groups. Some conservative old men and women mainly from the high northern as well as southern lands wear those traditional clothes in their daily lives.

They were made mainly of products from the local agriculture and livestock such as leather, wool, linen, hemp fiber and silk. The textiles nowadays are still embroidered in very elaborate ancient patterns. Among the most important parts of clothing includes the Qeleshe, or also known as Plis, the Albanian hat, the Qylafë, the Fustanella, the Xhubleta, the Xhamadan, the Brez, the Çorape, the Opinga and many others.

One of obvious common cultural trait of Gheg, Tosk and Cham Albanians is the predominance of white color in their national dress/costume, with variations in the shapes and designs (Gheg Albanians traditionally wore white trousers while Tosk and Cham Albanians traditionally wore white kilt). The white color seems to have a special place in Albanian culture, as many phrases include the term "white" ( alb. "bardh"), both literally and figuratively ( "fatbardh" -lit. "white fate"- fig. "good luck", "faqe bardh" - lit. "white" face - fig. "clean face" - "intact honor", "rrofsh sa male te bardha" - "May you live as long as white mountains" - "snow-peaked mountains", etc.). The white Albanian scull cap, popularly knows as qeleshe, or plis, etymologically related to Greek Pilos or Pileus cap, is one of the well known Albanian cultural brands.

Music

The Albanian music is very diverse and comes from its indigenous sounds and heritage. Folk music is a prominent part of the national identity with major stylistic differences between the traditional music of the northern Ghegs and southern Labs and Tosks. The northern and southern traditions are contrasted by the rugged and heroic tone of the north and the relaxed form of the south. Albanian folk music has been influential in neighboring areas such as Kosovo, Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey, all home to significant numbers of Albanians.

The Ghegs are known for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry. Many of the songs are about the ancient history of the country and the constant Albanian themes of honor, hospitality, treachery and revenge. In contrast, Tosk music is soft and gentle, and polyphonic in nature. Notably, Albanian iso-polyphony from the south has been declared an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Along with the def, çifteli and sharki are used in the north in a style of dance and pastoral songs. Homemade wind instruments are traditionally used by shepherds in northern Albania; these include the zumarë and lahuta. The southern people are known for ensembles consisting of violins, clarinets, lahuta and def as well.

Music in Albania extends to ancient Illyria and Greece, with influences from the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empire. It is evident in archeological findings such as arenas, odeons, theatre buildings and amphitheatres, all over Albania. The remains of temples, libraries, sculptures and paintings of ancient dancers, singers and musical instruments, have been found in territories inhabited by the ancient Illyrians and ancient Greeks.

The tradition of church singing was performed throughout the Middle Ages in the country's territory by choirs or soloists in ecclesiastical centers such as Berat, Durrës and Shkodër. The Middle Ages in Albania included choral music and traditional music. Shën Jan Kukuzeli, a singer, composer and musical innovator of Albanian origin, is one of the earliest known musicians.

Albania has experienced another wave of Western cultural influence, which led to the development of many previously unknown phenomena. The most vivid example is the Albanian rock, hip hop and pop music, with some performers gaining international recognition of Albanian origin from Albania, Kosovo or Albanian diaspora, such as Action Bronson, Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Elvana Gjata, Dafina Zeqiri, Albert Stanaj, G4SHI, Ermal Meta, Enca, Noizy and Rita Ora.

Classical music became immensely popular in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and was known across even the most rural sections of the country. It was defined by the tension between classical composer Martin Gjoka along with Fan Noli and Mikel Koliqi, who embraced national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions. Most notable Albanian sopranos and tenors have gained also international recognition, among the best known are Inva Mula, Marie Kraja, Saimir Pirgu and Ermonela Jaho.

Dance
The Albanians have a rich tradition of dances with a great diversity of choreography and styles varying on the region due mainly to the fact that Albania is a country with a diverse topography thus the different varieties of dance developed. A couple of dances are ancient and to a certain extent persist nowadays. The dances of the Albanians specifically of the Ghegs from the north have more a solo character than those from the southern Tosks that have more social character, expressed in line and semi circle dances.

Language

Albanian is the most widely spoken language in Albania. It has two major distinct dialects: Tosk spoken in the south and Gheg spoken in the north. The geographical dividing line between those dialects appears to be the river of Shkumbin. Moreover, Albanian dialects are traditional local varieties and are traced back to the different Albanian tribes.

Albanian is an Indo-European language and occupies an independent branch within this family. Scholars and linguists argue that Albanian derives from the ancient Illyrian language, which were spoken in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula by Illyrian tribes.

Today, the language is spoken primarily in Kosovo, North Macedonia, Greece and Montenegro as well. Due to the large Albanian diaspora around the world, centuries-old communities speaking Albanian-based dialects can be particularly found scattered in Greece (Arvanitika, Cham), Italy (Arbëreshë), Southern Serbia and in Croatia (Arbanasi). However, the total number of speakers is much higher than the native speakers in Southern Europe. The four dialects include Tosk Albanian, Gheg Albanian, Arbëresh and Arvanitika.

Most Albanians are multi-lingual, speaking many regional and foreign languages such as Greek, Italian, Serbo-Croatian, English and others.

Mythology
The mythology of Albania consist of myths, legends, folklore, fairy tales and gods of the Albanian people. Many characters in its mythology are included in the Songs of the Frontier Warriors (Albanian: Këngë Kreshnikësh or Cikli i Kreshnikëve). It is divided into two major groups such as legends of metamorphosis and historical legends. The Albanian mythology has its origin to the ancient Illyrians, that inhabited the modern area of Albania during the classical time. Some of the legends, songs and characters include Bardha, Baloz, E Bukura e Dheut, E Bukura e Qiellit, En, Perëndi, Prende, Tomor and Zana e malit.

Literature
The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the catholic region in the North, but also of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the South. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition when cleric Gjon Buzuku translated the Catholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian what Luther did for German.

The Meshari (The Missal) by Gjon Buzuku, published in 1555 is considered one of the first literary works of written Albanian. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century.

The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae, Archbishop of Antivari, who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books though their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include: a baptism formula (Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit) from 1462, written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of Durrës, Pal Engjëlli; a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff, a German who had travelled through Albania, and a 15th-century fragment of the Bible from the Gospel of Matthew, also in Albanian, but written in Greek letters. Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who, in his book Rrethimi i Shkodrës (The Siege of Shkodër) (1504), confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (in vernacula lingua) as well as his biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (History of Skanderbeg) (1508). The History of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Scanderbeg studies, and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the catechism E mbësuame krishterë (Christian Teachings) by Lekë Matrënga in 1592, Doktrina e krishterë (The Christian Doctrine) in 1618, and Rituale romanum in 1621 by Pjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry, an apology for George Castriot in 1636 by Frang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary and folklore creations, the theological-philosophical treaty Cuneus Prophetarum (The Band of Prophets) in 1685 by Pjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages, were published in Albanian.

Today, Albania's best-known contemporary writer is Ismail Kadare (1936–2024) whose novels have been translated into 45 languages. With his novels The General of the Dead Army (1963), The Siege (1970), Chronicle in Stone (1971), The Three-Arched Bridge (1978), Broken April (1980), The File on H. (1981), The Palace of Dreams (1981), The Pyramid (1992); and The Successor (2002), Kadare brought Albanian literature into the mainstream of modern European literature.

The central theme of Kadare's works is totalitarianism and its mechanisms. His work represents an artistic encyclopedia of Albanian life. The philosophy, beliefs, dramas, and historical and cultural traditions of Albania, filtered through the artistry of the writer, in Kadare's work express the vitality of the spiritual culture of the Albanian people. Kadare creates a modern prose making wide use of historical analogies, parables and associations, Albanian legends and mythology. Starting from the epic world of medieval legends and ballads, the prose of Kadare brings ancient folk traditions 'up to date' by showing their relevance to the modern world.

In 1992 Kadare was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca; in 1998, the Herder Prize; in 2005, the inaugural Man Booker International Prize; in 2009, the Prince of Asturias Award of Arts; and in 2015, the Jerusalem Prize. He was awarded the Park Kyong-ni Prize in 2019, and the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 2020. In 1996, France made him a foreign associate of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques of France, and in 2016, he was a Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur recipient. He has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 15 times. Since the 1990s, Kadare has been asked by both major political parties in Albania to become a consensual President of Albania, but has declined.

His nominating juror for the Neustadt Prize wrote: "Kadare is the successor of Franz Kafka. No one since Kafka has delved into the infernal mechanism of totalitarian power and its impact on the human soul in as much hypnotic depth as Kadare." His writing has also been compared to that of Nikolai Gogol, George Orwell, Gabriel García Márquez, Milan Kundera, and Balzac. Living in Albania during a time of strict censorship, Kadare devised cunning stratagems to outwit Communist censors who had banned three of his books, using devices such as parable, myth, fable, folk-tale, allegory, and legend, sprinkled with double-entendre, allusion, insinuation, satire, and coded messages. In 1990, to escape the Communist regime and its Sigurimi secret police he defected to Paris. The New York Times wrote that he was a national figure in Albania comparable in popularity perhaps to Mark Twain in the United States, and that "there is hardly an Albanian household without a Kadare book." Kadare is regarded by some as one of the greatest writers and intellectuals of the 20th and 21st centuries.

Wedding traditions

The dress of the Muslim bride is characterized by its elegance and transparency, in that of the Catholic one can see full colors. The Catholic bride's dress is characterized by its picturesque effects and harmony. There are two types of Muslim wedding dresses. One is worked on a "shajak" (large piece of wool) and with floral motives worked with "gajtan" (kind of rope) black cotton, sometimes mixed with green. The other one is worked in the same material but with red color. Different from the first here the motifs are enriched with full colors. The difference between this two dresses that at the first dress the motifs occupy all the area, at the second it occupies a little part in the front and back. These dresses have a belt worked with gold and grain necklaces in red, rose, orange creating all together a warm surface. Here the motifs are very small.

 * Dress of Catholic Shkodran Bride

The dress is tripped from the transparent white, shiny, soft, which spreads all over the body, and is intended to suggest tranquility and a warm purity. This concept of tradition is achieved through the white of the base material and the gold thread over. This dress is composed by the "barnaveke": some kind of very long pants which seem a skirt.

 * Paja

Ritual songs name various elements which contain "paja" (pronounced paya) of the girl, which are the goods parents give to the daughter to wear, to furnish the house, gifts for her husband and the intimate cousins. Elements are typically made by weaving clothes using looms. The preparation of the "paja" for the parents of the bride is a pleasure which means also accomplishing the obligations toward the daughter.

 * Dhuntia

"Dhunti" in Shkodra means the gifts that the groom prepares for the bride during the engagement, mainly clothes, jewelry, gold ornaments and tricks, which are sent to her a few days before the wedding. In addition to those received by the family of his father, the bride takes many gifts from the groom and his family. "Dhuntia", which had a considerable monetary value, was prepared with great care by the family of the boy, because in some way embodied respect and love for his young bride, to whom these gifts were made, love for their son that he married at the same time was also a representation of the family in its economic and aesthetic. In "dhunti" there were enough clothes and items for use at all times, in joy and in sorrow, which expressed particular attention to the role of women.

Sports
Sport is a popular culture activity in Albania and really popular amongst the population. Albanian's participate in several sports activities and this since the 19th century.

Football
Association football is the most popular sport in Albania. It dates back to before the early 20th century.

The Football Association of Albania was founded in June 1930. It was accepted as a FIFA member in 1932 and was a UEFA founding member in 1954.

title: Culture of Albania


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Talk:Punctuated equilibrium

Article could use a new section
The article has some information about what drives punctuated equilibrium, but it is scattered and incomplete. It would be beneficial to have a section that only addresses the causes/forces behind punctuated equilibrium. To be complete the "causes of punctuated equilibrium" section should include the hypothesis and the who proposed it.

Thanks! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.237.112.57 (talk) 02:52, 14 August 2014 (UTC)

Dixon's hypothesis of punctuated equilibrium in language
I've tagged the end of the following for citation: "In linguistics, R. M. W. Dixon has proposed a punctuated equilibrium model for language histories, with reference particularly to the prehistory of the indigenous languages of Australia and his objections to the proposed Pama–Nyungan language family there. Although his model has raised considerable interest, it does not command majority support within linguistics."

Please note that I'm not disputing the degree of support that he enjoys (nor the validity of the hypothesis), just that it really needs sourcing. — Sasuke Sarutobi (talk) 14:07, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

Morphological Mutations
What is really never considered here is whether there is evidence that the rate and nature of the required beneficial or neutral morphological mutations or other evolutionary processes actually exists in the real world to achieve the sudden leaps. If the over 1 million species currently extant have been studied for over 100 years to some degree, this represents a vast sample in which to look for individual or sequential beneficial morphological mutations, or genetic triggers, that could cause major sustained changes in form and mode of life, especially considering the well documented environmental pressures of the last 1000 years. Is the assumed mechanism of change actually evidence based at all, or is it pure assumption and hoping that the required variations will come along when needed as easily as whistling up a taxi? Non morphological beneficial mutations are actually working against evolution as a whole, in that they make the existing phenotype more fit for survival without external change, and this is entirely consistent with the fossil record. The idea that flying birds could have evolved in 10 million years is a dramatic case in point. The accumulated Morphological changes required should be enormous. The rate of suitable morphological mutations, never volunteered or approximated, must be high. There should be some convincing evidence in the current sample of life that we can study that such mechanisms are credible, but I'm not aware of any, so for me that represents the biggest challenge for the theory. Unfortunately this would require an evaluation of fundamental assumptions, which no one seems to want to do, lest they be labeled creationists. The theory can be tested against real world evidence, and it appears to fail the test. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.56.25.130 (talk) 21:35, 6 October 2016 (UTC)
 * I would suggest getting a doctorate in a major field of biology, then you can publish your work in peer reviewed journals. If your findings hold up to professional scrutiny, and your arguments successfully overturn a century of scientific study, then we can cite your work in this article. Please keep us posted. Cesaravi (talk) 06:25, 15 October 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Punctuated equilibrium


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Lek

Lek or LEK may refer to:
 * Lek mating, of animals
 * Albanian lek, currency
 * Lek (magazine), Norway
 * Lek (pharmaceutical company), now part of Sandoz
 * Lek (river), Netherlands
 * De Lek, Netherlands fiefdom
 * L.E.K. Consulting, firm
 * Leung King stop, Hong Kong (by MTR station code)
 * Tata Airport, Guinea (by IATA code)
 * Lek, เล็ก, a Thai name or nickname, meaning little
 * private nickname of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand
 * Lek Nana, 1924 – 2010, Thai businessman
 * Lek Viriyaphant, or Khun Lek, 1914 - 2000, Thai businessman

title: Lek