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John Addington Symonds

John Addington Symonds Jr. (5 October 1840 – 19 April 1893) was an English poet and literary critic. A cultural historian, he was known for his work on the Renaissance, as well as numerous biographies of writers and artists. Although married with children, Symonds supported male love (homosexuality), which he believed could include pederastic as well as egalitarian relationships, referring to it as l'amour de l'impossible (love of the impossible). He also wrote much poetry inspired by his same-sex affairs.

Early life and education
Symonds was born in Bristol, England, in 1840. His father, the physician John Addington Symonds (1807–1871), was the author of Criminal Responsibility (1869), The Principles of Beauty (1857) and Sleep and Dreams. The younger Symonds, considered delicate, did not take part in games at Harrow School after the age of 14, and he showed no particular promise as a scholar.

Symonds moved to Clifton Hill House at the age of ten, an event which he believed had a large and beneficial impact towards his health and spiritual development. Symonds's delicate condition continued, and as a child he suffered from nightmares in which corpses in and under his bed prompted sleepwalking; on one such occasion he was almost drowned when, sleepwalking in the attic of Clifton Hill House, he reached a cistern of rainwater. According to Symonds, an angel with "blue eyes and wavy, blonde hair" woke him and brought him to safety; this figure frequented Symonds's dreams and was potentially his first homosexual awakening.

In January 1858, Symonds received a letter from his friend Alfred Pretor (1840–1908), telling of Pretor's affair with their headmaster, Charles John Vaughan. Symonds was shocked and disgusted, feelings complicated by his growing awareness of his own homosexuality. He did not mention the incident for more than a year until in 1859, when a student at Oxford University, he told the story to John Conington, the Latin professor. Conington approved of romantic relationships between men and boys. Earlier, he had given Symonds a copy of Ionica, a collection of homoerotic verse by William Johnson Cory, the influential Eton College master and advocate of pederastic pedagogy. Conington encouraged Symonds to tell his father about his friend's affair, and the senior Symonds forced Vaughan to resign from Harrow. Pretor was angered by the younger man's part, and never spoke to Symonds again.

In the autumn of 1858, Symonds went to Balliol College, Oxford, as a commoner but was elected to an exhibition in the following year. In spring of that same year, he fell in love with William Fear Dyer (1843–1905), a Bristol choirboy three years younger. They engaged in a chaste love affair that lasted a year, until broken up by Symonds. The friendship continued for several years afterwards, until at least 1864. Dyer became organist and choirmaster of St Nicholas' Church, Bristol.

At Oxford University, Symonds became engaged in his studies and began to demonstrate his academic ability. In 1860, he took a first in Mods and won the Newdigate prize with a poem on "The Escorial"; in 1862 he obtained a first in Literae Humaniores, and in 1863 won the Chancellor's English Essay.

In 1862, Symonds was elected to an open fellowship at the conservative Magdalen. He made friends with a C. G. H. Shorting, whom he took as a private pupil. When Symonds refused to help Shorting gain admission to Magdalen, the younger man wrote to school officials alleging "that I [Symonds] had supported him in his pursuit of the chorister Walter Thomas Goolden (1848–1901), that I shared his habits and was bent on the same path." Although Symonds was officially cleared of any wrongdoing, he suffered a breakdown from the stress and shortly thereafter left the university for Switzerland.

Personal life
In Switzerland, he met Janet Catherine North (sister of botanical artist Marianne North, 1830–1890). They married at Hastings on 10 November 1864. They settled in London and had four daughters: Janet (born 1865), Charlotte (born 1867), Margaret (Madge) (born 1869) and Katharine (born 1875; she was later honoured for her writing as Dame Katharine Furse). Edward Lear wrote "The Owl and the Pussycat" for the three-year-old Janet.

While in Clifton in 1868, Symonds met and fell in love with Norman Moor (January 10, 1851 – March 6, 1895), a youth about to go up to Oxford, who became his pupil. Symonds and Moor had a four-year affair but did not have sex, although according to Symonds's diary of 28 January 1870, "I stripped him naked and fed sight, touch and mouth on these things." The relationship occupied a good part of his time, including one occasion he left his family and travelled to Italy and Switzerland with Moor. The unconsummated affair also inspired his most productive period of composing poetry, published in 1880 as New and Old: A Volume of Verse.

Career
Symonds intended to study law, but his health again broke down and forced him to travel. Returning to Clifton, he lectured there, both at the college and ladies' schools. From his lectures, he prepared the essays in his Introduction to the Study of Dante (1872) and Studies of the Greek Poets (1873–1876).

Meanwhile, he was occupied with his major work, Renaissance in Italy, which appeared in seven volumes at intervals between 1875 and 1886. Since his prize essay on the Renaissance at Oxford, Symonds had wanted to study it further and emphasise the reawakening of art and literature in Europe. His work was interrupted by serious illness. In 1877 his life was in danger. His recovery at Davos Platz led him to believe this was the only place where he was likely to enjoy life.

He practically made his home at Davos, and wrote about it in Our Life in the Swiss Highlands (1891). Symonds became a citizen of the town; he took part in its municipal business, made friends with the peasants, and shared their interests. There he wrote most of his books: biographies of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1878), Philip Sidney (1886), Ben Jonson (1886) and Michelangelo (1893), several volumes of poetry and essays, and a translation of the Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini (1887).

There, too, he completed his study of the Renaissance, the work for which he is chiefly remembered. He was feverishly active throughout his life. Considering his poor health, his productivity was remarkable. Two works, a volume of essays, In the Key of Blue, and a monograph on Walt Whitman, were published in the year of his death. His activity was unbroken to the last.

He had a passion for Italy, and for many years resided during the autumn in the house of his friend, Horatio F. Brown, on the Zattere, in Venice. In 1891 he made an effort to visit Karl Heinrich Ulrichs in L'Aquila. He died in Rome and was buried close to the grave of Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Legacy
Symonds left his papers and his autobiography in the hands of Brown, who wrote an expurgated biography in 1895, which Edmund Gosse further stripped of homoerotic content before publication. In 1926, upon coming into the possession of Symonds's papers, Gosse burned everything except the memoirs, to the dismay of Symonds's granddaughter.

Symonds was morbidly introspective, but with a capacity for action. In Talks and Talkers, the contemporary writer Robert Louis Stevenson described Symonds (known as "Opalstein" in Stevenson's essay) as "the best of talkers, singing the praises of the earth and the arts, flowers and jewels, wine and music, in a moonlight, serenading manner, as to the light guitar." Beneath his good fellowship, he was a melancholic.

This side of his nature is revealed in his gnomic poetry, and particularly in the sonnets of his Animi Figura (1882). He portrayed his own character with great subtlety. His poetry is perhaps rather that of the student than of the inspired singer, but it has moments of deep thought and emotion.

It is, indeed, in passages and extracts that Symonds appears at his best. Rich in description, full of "purple patches", his work lacks the harmony and unity essential to the conduct of philosophical argument. His translations are among the finest in the language; here his subject was found for him, and he was able to lavish on it the wealth of colour and quick sympathy which were his characteristics.

Homosexual writings

In 1873, Symonds wrote A Problem in Greek Ethics, a work of what would later be called "gay history". He was inspired by the poetry of Walt Whitman, with whom he corresponded. The work, "perhaps the most exhaustive eulogy of Greek love," remained unpublished for a decade, and then was printed at first only in a limited edition for private distribution. Although the Oxford English Dictionary credits the medical writer C. G. Chaddock for introducing "homosexual" into the English language in 1892, Symonds had already used the word in A Problem in Greek Ethics. Aware of the taboo nature of his subject matter, Symonds referred obliquely to pederasty as "that unmentionable custom" in a letter to a prospective reader of the book, but defined "Greek love" in the essay itself as "a passionate and enthusiastic attachment subsisting between man and youth, recognised by society and protected by opinion, which, though it was not free from sensuality, did not degenerate into mere licentiousness."

Symonds studied classics under Benjamin Jowett at Balliol College, Oxford, and later worked with Jowett on an English translation of Plato's Symposium. Jowett was critical of Symonds's opinions on sexuality, but when Symonds was falsely accused of corrupting choirboys, Jowett supported him, despite his own equivocal views of the relation of Hellenism to contemporary legal and social issues that affected homosexuals.

Symonds also translated classical poetry on homoerotic themes, and wrote poems drawing on ancient Greek imagery and language such as Eudiades, which has been called "the most famous of his homoerotic poems". While the taboos of Victorian England prevented Symonds from speaking openly about homosexuality, his works published for a general audience contained strong implications and some of the first direct references to male-male sexual love in English literature. For example, in "The Meeting of David and Jonathan", from 1878, Jonathan takes David "In his arms of strength / [and] in that kiss / Soul into soul was knit and bliss to bliss". The same year, his translations of Michelangelo's sonnets to the painter's beloved Tommaso Cavalieri restore the male pronouns which had been made female by previous editors. In November 2016, Symonds's homoerotic poem, 'The Song of the Swimmer', written in 1867, was published for the first time in the Times Literary Supplement.

By the end of his life, Symonds's bisexuality had become an open secret in certain literary and cultural circles. His private memoirs, written (but never completed) over a four-year period from 1889 to 1893, form the earliest known self-conscious gay autobiography.

Symonds's daughter, Madge Vaughan, was probably writer Virginia Woolf's first same-sex crush, though there is no evidence that the feeling was mutual. Woolf was the cousin of her husband William Wyamar Vaughan. Another daughter, Charlotte Symonds, married the classicist Walter Leaf. Henry James used some details of Symonds's life, especially the relationship between him and his wife, as the starting-point for the short story "The Author of Beltraffio" (1884).

Over a century after Symonds's death, in 2007, his first work on homosexuality, Soldier Love and Related Matter, was finally published by Andrew Dakyns (grandson of Symonds' associate, Henry Graham Dakyns), in Eastbourne, E. Sussex, England. Soldier Love, or Soldatenliebe since it was limited to a German edition. Symonds' English text is lost. This translation and edition by Dakyns is the only version ever to appear in the author's own language.

Works

 * The Renaissance. An Essay (1863)
 * Miscellanies by John Addington Symonds, M.D.,: Selected and Edited with an Introductory Memoir, by His Son (1871)
 * Introduction to the Study of Dante (1872);
 * Studies of the Greek Poets, 2 vol. (1873, 1876)
 * Renaissance in Italy, 7 vol. (1875–86)
 * Shelley (1878)
 * Sketches in Italy and Greece (London, Smith and Elder 1879)
 * Sketches and Studies in Italy (London, Smith and Elder 1879)
 * Animi Figura (1882)
 * Sketches in Italy (Selections prepared by Symonds, arranged, so as to, in his own words in a Prefatory Note, "adapt itself to the use of travellers rather than of students"; Leipzig, Bernhard Tauchnitz 1883)
 * A Problem in Greek Ethics (1883)
 * Shakespere's Predecessors in the English Drama (1884)
 * New Italian Sketches (Bernard Tauchnitz: Leipzig, 1884)
 * Wine, Women, and Song. Medieval Latin Students' Songs (1884) English translations/paraphrases.
 * Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini (1887) An English translation.
 * A Problem in Modern Ethics (1891)
 * Our Life in the Swiss Highlands (1892) (with his daughter Margaret Symonds as coauthor)
 * Essays: Speculative and Suggestive (1893)
 * In the Key of Blue (1893)
 * The Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti (1893)
 * Walt Whitman. A Study (1893)

title: John Addington Symonds


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Thomas Linacre

Thomas Linacre or Lynaker (c. 1460 – 20 October 1524) was an English humanist scholar and physician, after whom Linacre College, Oxford, and Linacre House, a boys' boarding house at The King's School, Canterbury, were named.

Linacre was more of a scholar than a scientific investigator. It is difficult to judge his practical skill in his profession, but it was highly esteemed in his own day. He took no part in political or theological questions, but his career as a scholar was characteristic of the critical period in the history of learning through which he lived.

He was one of the first Englishmen to study Greek, in Italy, and brought back to his native country and his own university the lessons of the "New Learning". His teachers were some of the greatest scholars of the day. Among his pupils was one—Erasmus—whose name alone would suffice to preserve the memory of his instructor in Greek, and others of note in letters and politics, such as Sir Thomas More, Prince Arthur, and Queen Mary I of England. John Colet, William Grocyn, William Lilye, and other eminent scholars were his close friends, and he was esteemed by a still wider circle of literary correspondents in all parts of Europe.

Life
Linacre was born at Brampton, Chesterfield, in Derbyshire, descended from an ancient family, recorded in the Domesday Book. He received his early education at the Canterbury Cathedral school, under the direction of William Tilly of Selling, who became prior of Canterbury in 1472. It was from Selling that Linacre must have received his first incentive to study Classics. Linacre entered Oxford in about 1480, and in 1484 was elected a fellow of All Souls College. Shortly afterwards he visited Italy in the train of Selling, who was sent by King Henry VII as an envoy to the papal court. Linacre accompanied his patron as far as Bologna. There he became the pupil of Angelo Poliziano, and shared the instruction that Poliziano imparted at Florence to the sons of Lorenzo de Medici. The younger of these princes became Pope Leo X and later remembered his old companionship with Linacre.

Among his other teachers and friends in Italy were Demetrius Chalcondylas, Hermolaus Barbarus, Aldus Romanus the printer of Venice (of whose New Academy Linacre was a member), and Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza. Linacre took the degree of doctor of medicine with great distinction at Padua.

On his return to Oxford, full of learning and imbued with the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, he formed one of the brilliant circle of Oxford scholars, including John Colet, William Grocyn, and William Latimer, who are mentioned in the letters of Erasmus.

Linacre does not appear to have practised or taught medicine in Oxford. In about 1501 he was called to court as tutor of the young Arthur, Prince of Wales. On the accession of Henry VIII in 1509, he was appointed as Physician to the King, an office at that time of considerable influence and importance, and practised medicine in London, having among his patients most of the great statesmen and prelates of the time, including Cardinal Wolsey, Archbishop William Warham, and Bishop Fox.

After some years of professional activity, Linacre devoted himself to the study of theology and the duties of the priesthood. In around 1509, he received priest's orders as the rector of Merstham, Kent. Numerous ecclesiastical positions followed, and he finally obtained the rectorship of Wigan in 1520, which he held until his death in 1524. His clerical benefices included the Precentorship of York Minster. His ordination was connected with his retirement from active life. Literary labours and the cares of the foundation that owed its existence chiefly to him, the Royal College of Physicians, occupied Linacre's remaining years.

The most important service Linacre conferred on his own profession and science was the foundation by royal charter of the College of Physicians in London, and he was the first President of the new college, which he further aided by bequeathing to it his own house and library. Shortly before his death, Linacre obtained from the king letters patent for the establishment of readerships in medicine at Oxford and Cambridge, and placed valuable estates in the hands of trustees for their endowment. Two readerships were founded at Merton College, Oxford, and a lectureship at St John's College, Cambridge. The Oxford foundation was revived by the university commissioners in 1856 in the form of the Linacre professorship of anatomy. At St John's College the funds are still in use today; since 1989 the college has hosted an annual "Linacre Lecture" on a subject in medicine, delivered by a leading research scientist in their field.

A modern monument in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral in London lists Linacre's grave as one of the important lost in the Great Fire of London in 1666. His epitaph in Old St Paul's Cathedral was recorded by Paul Hentzner and translated by Robert Naunton as reading:

"Virtue survives the funeral. To the memory of Thomas Linacre, an eminent physician, John Caius placed this monument.

On the lower part of it is this inscription in gold letters:

Thomas Linacre, physician to King Henry VIII., a man learned in the Greek and Latin languages, and particularly skilful in physick, by which he restored many from a state of languishment and despair to life. He translated with extraordinary eloquence many of Galen's works into Latin; and published, a little before his death, at the request of his friends, a very valuable book on the correct structure of the Latin tongue. He founded in perpetuity in favour of students in physick, two public lectures at Oxford, and one at Cambridge. In this city he brought about, by his own industry, the establishing of a College of Physicians, of which he was elected the first president. He was a detester of all fraud and deceit, and faithful in his friendships; equally dear to men of all ranks: he went into orders a few years before his death, and quitted this life full of years, and much lamented, A.D. 1524, on the 29th of October."

Works
Linacre's literary activity was displayed in both pure scholarship and translation from Greek. In the domain of scholarship he was known by the rudiments of (Latin) grammar (Progymnasmata Grammatices vulgaria), composed in English, a revised version of which was made for the use of the Princess Mary, and afterwards translated into Latin by George Buchanan. He also wrote a work on Latin composition, De emendata structura Latini sermonis ("On the Pure and Correct Structure of Latin Prose"), which was published in London in 1524 and reprinted many times on the continent of Europe.

Linacre's only medical works were his translations. He wanted to make the works of Galen (and indeed those of Aristotle also) accessible to all readers of Latin. What he effected in the case of the first, though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable compared with the whole mass of Galen's writings; and of his translations from Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed, nothing has survived. The following are the works of Galen translated by Linacre:

 * 1) De sanitate tuenda (Paris, 1517)
 * 2) Methodus medendi (Paris, 1519)
 * 3) De temperamentis et de inaequali intemperie (Cambridge, 1521)
 * 4) De naturalibus facultatibus (London, 1523)
 * 5) De symptomatum differentiis et causis (London, 1524)
 * 6) De pulsuum usu (London, without date).

He also translated, for the use of Prince Arthur, an astronomical treatise of Proclus, De sphaera, which was printed at Venice by Aldus in 1499. The accuracy of these translations and their elegance of style were universally admitted. They were generally accepted as the standard versions of those parts of Galen's writings, and frequently reprinted, either as parts of the collected works or separately.

Linacre's intellectual fastidiousness and minute accuracy were, as Erasmus suggested, the chief reason for his having left no more permanent literary memorials. It is difficult to justify, by any extant work, the extremely high reputation that he enjoyed among the scholars of his time. His Latin style was greatly admired by Erasmus, who also praised Linacre's critical judgment ("vir non-exacti tantum sed severi judicii"). According to others it was hard to say whether he was more distinguished as a grammarian or a rhetorician. Of Greek he was regarded a consummate master; and he was equally eminent as a "philosopher", that is, learned in the works of the ancient philosophers and naturalists. In this there may have been some exaggeration; but all have acknowledged the elevation of Linacre's character, and the fine moral qualities summed up in the epitaph written by John Caius: "Fraudes dolosque mire perosus; fidus amicis; omnibus ordinibus juxta carus" ("An enemy of deceit; a loyal friend; equally loved by men of all classes).

Authorities
The materials for Linacre's biography are to a large extent contained in the older biographical collections of George Lily (in Paulus Jovius, Descriptio Britanniae), John Bale, John Leland, and Pits, in Anthony Wood's Athenae Oxonienses, and in the Biographia Britannica. All are completely collected in the Life of Thomas Linacre by John Noble Johnson (London, 1835). See also William Munk's Roll of the Royal College of Physicians (2nd edition, London, 1878); and the Introduction, by Joseph Frank Payne, to a facsimile reproduction of Linacre's version of Galen de temperamentis (Cambridge, 1881).

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title: Thomas Linacre


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John Caius

John Caius (born John Kays ; 6 October 1510 – 29 July 1573), also known as Johannes Caius and Ioannes Caius, was an English physician, and second founder of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Early years
Caius was born in Norwich and was educated at Norwich School. In 1529, he was admitted as a student at Gonville Hall, Cambridge, founded by Edmund Gonville in 1348, where he seems to have mainly studied divinity.

After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he studied under Montanus and Vesalius at Padua. In 1541 he took his degree as a physician at the University of Padua.

In 1543 he visited several parts of Italy, Germany and France and then returned to England. Upon his return from Italy he Latinised his surname which was somewhat fashionable at the time.

Career
Caius was a physician in London in 1547, and was admitted as a fellow of the College of Physicians, of which he was for many years president.

In 1551 he was attending in Shrewsbury when a notable outbreak of sweating sickness occurred in the town; the following year, after his return to London, he published A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse (1552), which became the main source of knowledge of this disease, now understood to be influenza.

In 1557 Caius, at that time physician to Queen Mary, enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College", and endowed it with several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense of £1,834. He accepted the mastership of the college 24 January 1559 on the death of Thomas Bacon, and held it until about a month before his own death.

He was physician to Edward VI, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. From this position he was dismissed in 1568 on account of his adherence to the Roman Catholic faith. He was incongruously accused both of atheism, and of keeping secretly a collection of ornaments and vestments for Roman Catholic use. The latter were found and burned in the college court.

He was elected nine times president of the College of Physicians, an account of which, Annales collegii medicorum 1520-1565, he left in manuscript.

He returned to Cambridge from London for a few days in June 1573, about a month before his death, and resigned the mastership to Thomas Legge, a tutor at Jesus College. He died at his London house, in St Bartholomew's Hospital, on 29 July 1573, but his body was brought to Cambridge, and buried in the chapel under the monument which he had designed.

The question of whether he was the inspiration for the character of Dr Caius in Shakespeare's play the Merry Wives of Windsor has been discussed at length by Arnold McNair, 1st Baron McNair.

Legacy
Caius was a learned, active and benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a monument in St Paul's Cathedral to the memory of Thomas Linacre. In 1564, he obtained a grant for Gonville and Caius College to take the bodies of two malefactors annually for dissection; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the science of anatomy. He probably devised, and certainly presented, the silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College as part of its insignia. He first gave it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards presented the London College with another.

Works
Caius was also a pioneer naturalist, prepared to make his own observations about nature rather than simply relying on accepted authorities. He was ready to make journeys about the country to see and record unusual animals. As such he could be considered also a pioneer of zoology, not yet recognised as a separate science.

He corresponded with the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner, with whom he had made friends while returning from Padua. He wrote a study of British dogs to send to Gesner as a contribution (not used) to Gesner's Historiae animalium, and also sent Gesner drawings of dogs, which were printed in later editions of Gesner's work. Caius' Catholic religious convictions did not prevent his friendship with the Protestant Gesner (indeed, the Historiae Animalium, to which Caius contributed, was under Pope Paul IV placed on the Roman Catholic Church's list of prohibited books).

His last literary production was a history of Cambridge University, Historia Cantabrigiensis Academiae (London, 1574).

title: John Caius


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William Grocyn

William Grocyn (c. 1446 – 1519) was an human English scholar and friend of Erasmus.

Grocyn was a prominent educator born in Colerne, Wiltshire. Intended for the church, he attended Winchester College and later New College, Oxford. He held various positions, including a fellow at New College and a reader in divinity at Magdalen College. Grocyn visited Italy and studied Greek and Latin, later helping to promote Greek learning in England. Erasmus regarded him as a friend and preceptor.

Grocyn held several positions within the church, but his generosity led to financial difficulties. He died in 1519 and was buried in Maidstone. Although he did not leave many literary works, Erasmus praised his character and scholarship. Grocyn's legacy lives on in his namesake, the University of Oxford's chief lecturer on classical languages.

Life
Grocyn was born at Colerne, Wiltshire. Intended by his parents for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467 he became a fellow, and among his pupils was William Warham, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479, Grocyn accepted the rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued to live at Oxford. As reader in divinity at Magdalen College in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of divinity, in the presence of King Richard III; the king acknowledged his skill as a debater by the present of a deer and five marks. In 1485, Grocyn became prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. In about 1488, he left England for Italy, and before his return in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalcondyles and Poliziano. As lecturer at Exeter College, Oxford he helped indoctrinate his countrymen in the new Greek learning.

Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn may have learned Greek from him. He seems to have lived in Oxford until 1499, but by the time his friend John Colet became dean of St Paul's in 1504 he was living in London. Grocyn was chosen by Colet to deliver lectures in St Paul's. Having at first denounced those who impugned the authenticity of the Hierarchia ecclesiastica ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, he was led to modify his views by further investigation, and openly declared that he had been mistaken. He also counted Thomas Linacre, William Lilye, William Latimer and Thomas More among his friends, and Erasmus – writing in 1514 – says that he was supported by Grocyn in London, and calls him "the friend and preceptor of us all".

Grocyn held several preferments, but his generosity to his friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in 1506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham's recommendation master or warden of the College of All Saints, Maidstone in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and even to pledge his plate as a security.

He died in 1519, and was buried in his collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted as Grocyn's executor, and spent the money he received on alms for the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars.

Assessment
With the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snubbed him, and a letter to Aldus Manutius at the head of Linacre's translation of Proclus's Sphaera (Venice, 1499), Grocyn left no literary proof of his scholarship. His proposal to translate Aristotle in company with Linacre and Latimer was never carried out. Anthony Wood assigns some Latin works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority.

By Erasmus he has been described as "vir severissimae castissimae vitae, ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum genere exacte versatus", "A man of a most stern and moral life; most observant of the decrees of the Church almost to the point of superstition; learned to his very fingertips in scholastic theology; and also by nature of the keenest judgment; finally, exactly versed in every kind of learning" (Declarationes ad censures facultatis theoiogiae Parisianae, 1522).

An account of Grocyn by M. Burrows appeared in the Oxford Historical Society's Collectanea (1890).

Legacy
Grocyn gives his name to the University of Oxford's chief lecturer on Classical languages.

title: William Grocyn


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Wedding ring

A wedding ring or wedding band is a finger ring that indicates that its wearer is married. It is usually forged from metal, traditionally gold or another precious metal. Rings were used in ancient Rome during marriage.

In western culture, a wedding ring is typically worn on the base of the left ring finger; if the wearer is left-handed, often it will go onto the right hand. The ring finger is widely claimed to be associated with the traditional belief known as vena amoris ("vein of love").

History

The Western traditions of wedding rings can be traced to ancient Rome and Greece, and were first associated with the marital dowry and later with a promise of fidelity. The modern exchange of rings derived from the customs of Europe in the Middle Ages as part of Christendom.

Gimmel rings

During the 16th and 17th centuries, European husbands bestowed a gimmel ring upon their wives. Similar to the puzzle ring, the gimmel ring consisted of two interlocking bands. The bride and groom both wore one of these bands after their engagement, and the two bands were reunited during the wedding ceremony. Subsequently, the wife wore the combined ring.

Poesy rings
The poesy ring was a style of ring that was popular during the Renaissance era. It was a band of sterling silver inscribed with a poem or "poesy".

Other styles
Different cultures used many other historical styles of wedding ring. According to popular legend, in the Middle East, a puzzle ring, consisting of many bands that interlock to create a finished ring, would be given by the husband as a wedding ring, because if the wife removed it (presumably to commit adultery), the bands of the ring would fall apart, and she would be unable to reassemble it before its absence would be noticed. However, a puzzle ring can be easily removed without the bands falling apart.

The fede ring, being a band consisting of two hands clasped in betrothal, is another historical custom of Europe that ostensibly dates from antiquity.

Limited gold content in the United Kingdom
In 1942 during the Second World War, British wartime restrictions on the manufacture of jewelry resulted in "utility" wedding rings that were limited to a maximum mass of two pennyweights, being slightly heavier than 3 g, and were forged of 9 carat gold rather than the traditional 22 carat. The Regional Assayer Office hallmarked these rings, which guaranteed their gold content and compliance with the wartime regulations with a special utility mark adjacent to the mark for the year on the inside of the band; the hallmark resembled a capital "U" with the bottom curve absent or two parentheses enclosing a space, i. e., "".

Double-ring ceremony
The double-ring ceremony describes the exchange of wedding rings by and for both spouses. In several European nations such as the Nordic countries, it is common to exchange plain engagement rings of the same form for both sexes, and typically, an additional, more precious, and bejeweled wedding ring is given to the bride. In the nuptials, the groom's ring becomes a wedding ring also, and can be bestowed anew by the bride as a part of the wedding ceremony. The engagement is commonly a matter of agreement between the two, and the wedding rings are chosen together. Both engagement and wedding rings are worn on the left hand, the bride having both rings together. Occasionally, the groom receives a separate wedding ring. In Germany and Austria, both parties use engagement rings worn on the left hand. At the nuptials, a wedding ring is placed on the right hand, as in several east European nations, including Bulgaria, Poland, and Russia. This can be a new ring for the bride or both, or reusing the engagement rings. Any engagement rings can then remain on the left hand or be transferred to the right hand. In Germany, it has been customary for both the bride and the groom to wear a wedding ring since at least the 1870s and mentions of couples exchanging rings during the wedding ceremony in the Netherlands can be found at least as far back as 1815. In both the United States and Canada, wedding rings were initially only worn by wives, but became customary for both spouses during the 20th century. In Brazil, Mexico, and Spain both sexes also wear engagement rings, and the groom's ring often becomes a wedding ring in the nuptial exchange ceremony. In The Netherlands plain bands can be worn on either hand, left for Catholics and right for Protestants. When engaged, both bride and groom wear what will be the wedding band on the opposite hand and switch hands after the wedding.

Compositions and styles
In Western nations, wedding rings are often forged of gold, palladium, platinum, argentium silver, titanium, tungsten, or more recently, silicone. Common engravings on the inside of the ring include the name of one's spouse, the names of both spouses, the date of the wedding or a phrase of significance to the spouses. In many nations the engagement rings are plain while the bride's wedding ring commonly is bejeweled.

Some customs include the wedding ring as the final of a series of gifts, which also may include the engagement ring, traditionally given as a betrothal present. This custom was practiced in ancient Rome.

Wedding ceremony customs

In several traditions, the best man or maid of honor has the duty of keeping track of a couple's wedding rings and to produce them at the symbolic moment of the giving and receiving of the rings during the traditional marriage ceremony. In more elaborate weddings, a ring bearer (who is often part of the family of the bride or groom) may assist in the ceremonial parading of the rings into the ceremony, sometimes on a special cushion.

In Western Christianity, engagement rings are exchanged during the betrothal rite, while wedding rings are given during the celebration of holy matrimony itself. Among Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Lutheran and Eastern Catholic Christians, the exchange of rings is not technically part of the wedding service, but rather are exchanged at the betrothal. It is always a two-ring set given to her by the priest or by the best man. Unlike most other Orthodox Churches, the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church of Greece has recently stopped performing betrothal blessings separately, and now a betrothal ceremony is the initial part of the wedding service. In Greece, the ceremony of betrothal may be performed immediately before the wedding (or "crowning" as it is more properly called), and the actual symbolic act of marriage is not the exchange of rings, but the crowning.

Historically, the wedding ring was connected to the exchange of valuables at the moment of the wedding rather than a symbol of eternal love and devotion, a sign of "earnest money". According to the 1549 edition of the Book of Common Prayer: after the words "with this ring I thee wed" follow the words "This gold and silver I give thee", at which point the groom was supposed to hand a leather purse filled with gold and silver coins to the bride. It is a relic of the times when marriage was a contract between families, not individual lovers. Both families were then eager to ensure the economic safety of the young couple. Sometimes it went as far as being a conditional exchange as this old (and today outdated) German formula shows: "I give you this ring as a sign of the marriage which has been promised between us, provided your father gives with you a marriage portion of 1000 Reichsthalers" (approximately 20 kg of silver).

Post-wedding customs

After marriage, the wedding ring is worn on the hand on which it had been placed during the ceremony. By wearing rings on their fourth fingers, married spouses symbolically declare their life-long love for and fidelity to each other. This symbol has public utility and is presently expected as a matter of tradition and etiquette, so much so that its absence is often interpreted as meaning that the person is single. Many spouses wear their wedding rings day and night. It is not uncommon for some spouses, especially those who have occupations that make the wearing of rings dangerous, such as actors, police and electrical workers, to not wear their rings on their fingers, instead wearing them on a chain around their neck. Since the 19th century in the West, it has been considered unlucky to remove a wedding ring once it has been placed on the finger in church.

Some cultures exchange additional rings. In some parts of India, Hindu women may wear a toe ring or bichiya instead of a finger ring, but the bichiya is increasingly worn in addition to a finger ring. In eastern India, primarily in West Bengal, women wear an iron bangle, which may be gold- or silver-plated, called a loha. In Romania, spouses celebrate their silver wedding anniversary, i.e. twenty-fifth anniversary, by exchanging silver rings, which are worn on the fourth finger of the left hand along with their original, and usually gold, wedding rings.

Christian

 * Anglican (Book of Common Prayer): "With this ring I thee wed, with my body I thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I thee endow: in the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. Amen."
 * Eastern Orthodoxy: In the Eastern Orthodox Service of Betrothal, the priest makes the Sign of the Cross with rings over the bride's head while declaring three times "The servant of God (Groom) is betrothed to the handmaid of God (Bride), in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen". Next, it is declared three times again over the bride's head with the names reversed, after which the rings are exchanged three times, either by the priest or best man. The priest asks God "to bless this putting on of rings with a heavenly blessing and that an Angel of the Lord will go before these Your servants, all the days of their life." In the Eastern Orthodox Church, wedding rings are traditionally worn on the right hand.
 * Lutheran: "I give you this ring as a sign of my love and faithfulness."
 * Roman Catholic Church: "[Name], receive this ring as a sign of my love and fidelity. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." Because the equality of the spouses is emphasized in the Roman Catholic Sacrament of Marriage, generally the bride and groom each give to the other a wedding ring and recite the above formula in turn.

Mixed usage and non-use in other Christian Churches
While most Christian Churches (such as the Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican) have the exchange of rings within their wedding liturgies, some Christian denominations eschew the use of wedding rings.

The wearing of plain dress has historically been practiced by many Methodist Churches, in keeping with the teaching of John Wesley, who stated that people should not be "adorned with gold, or pearls, or costly apparel" (this clause is contained in The General Rules of the Methodist Church). The first Methodist liturgical text, The Sunday Service of the Methodists, omitted the ring ceremony. As such, members of some Methodist Churches, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, do not wear wedding rings. However, other Methodist Churches contain the exchange of wedding rings within their services for Holy Matrimony. In the wedding liturgy for the Free Methodist Church, for example, the groom and bride say the following when exchanging rings: "This ring I give you in token and pledge of our constant faith and steadfast love". "A Service of Christian Marriage, Rite I" contained in The United Methodist Book of Worship states that the exchange of rings is optional but when it is done, they are blessed and pronounced as "the outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace, signifying to us the union between Jesus Christ and His Church". Following this, the bride and groom state the following as they exchange rings: "[Name], I give you this ring as a sign of my vow, and with all that I am, and all that I have, I honor you; in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."

Some conservative Mennonite groups do not wear jewelry, including wedding rings, as part of their practice of plain dress. The Amish do not wear wedding rings but the men are clean shaven before marriage and grow a full beard after marriage.

Among Quaker Christians, especially Conservative Friends and Holiness Friends, the wedding ring is traditionally not worn as a part of their testimony of simplicity. Among Quaker groups that do wear wedding rings, the following wording is used by the bride and groom as they are exchanged: "With this ring, I thee wed." The Friends General Conference, for example, teaches that "Although wedding rings are not necessary in a Quaker wedding, the couple may exchange them if they wish. This is often done after they speak their vows."

Traditionally, adherents of the Seventh-day Adventist Church do not wear wedding rings. The usage of wedding rings among Seventh-day Adventists, however, has increased.

Jewish

 * Judaism: "You are consecrated to me with this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel." In Orthodox Judaism, only the groom declares this in Hebrew; but in Reform Judaism, both the bride and groom declare it. Many Orthodox Jewish men do not wear wedding rings.

title: Wedding ring


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John Colet

John Colet (January 1467 – 16 September 1519) was an English Catholic priest and educational pioneer.

Colet was an English scholar, Renaissance humanist, theologian, member of the Worshipful Company of Mercers, and Dean of St Paul's Cathedral, London. Colet wanted people to see the scripture as their guide through life. Furthermore, he wanted to restore theology and rejuvenate Christianity. Colet is an important early leader of Christian humanism as he linked humanism and reform. John Colet was a friend of Erasmus, a key figure in Christian humanism.

Childhood and education
The eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (Lord Mayor of London 1486 and 1495), he was born in London in January 1467, and was educated at St Anthony's school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his M.A. in 1490. He was already nonresident rector of Dennington, Suffolk, and vicar of St Dunstan's, Stepney, and now became rector of Thurning, Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and then to Italy, studying canon and civil law, patristics and Greek.

Time abroad
During his time abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus (Guillaume Budé) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 he took orders and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of Saint Paul, replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation with one more in harmony with the new learning. Due to their influences, when he arrived back in England, he returned more than just a humanist; he returned a Christian reformer. His methods did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498, and who later received an annuity from Colet.

Holding office
Since 1494, Colet had been prebendary of York, and canon of St Martin le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendary of Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's, and immediately afterwards its dean, having previously taken the degree of doctor of divinity. He continued to lecture on the books of the Bible; and he soon afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, three days each week, in St Paul's itself. While at St. Paul's between 1505 and 1519, Colet used his preaching, administration, scriptural exegesis and education towards Church reform.

Around 1508, having inherited his father's wealth, Colet formed his plan for the re-foundation of St Paul's School, which he completed in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of £122 and upwards. The school, dedicated to the Infant Jesus, was in place to give young boys a Christian education.

The celebrated grammarian William Lilye was the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510) appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management in education. Some held Colet's religious opinions to be heretical, but William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to prosecute him. King Henry VIII also held him in high esteem despite his sermons against the French wars.

Colet was rector of the guild of Jesus at St Paul's Cathedral and chaplain to Henry VIII. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage and in 1515 preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal.

Sermons
Colet had many distinguished sermons. One is the beginning of the Convocation of the clergy of Canterbury province at the London Cathedral on 6 February 1512. Archbishop Warham of Canterbury invited Colet to make the speech. Colet's speech is both direct and insightful. It represents his work, or as Colet said himself, he is "speaking out of zeal, a man sorrowing for the ruin of the Church". Furthermore, Colet stated that he came "…here today, fathers, to admonish you with all your minds to deliberate, in this your Council, concerning the reformation of the Church". The Convocation sermon is one of the most well known of his sermons. In addition, Colet gave a notable sermon before the royal court on Good Friday, 1513. He gave this speech in the wake of political tension; specifically, an English push for war against France. In his speech, Colet condemned war and prompted Christians to fight only for Jesus Christ.

A Christian humanist
Colet's writings are reflective and added to the tradition of Christian humanism. He studied Cicero, Augustine, Jerome, John Chrysostom, Ignatius of Antioch, Lactantius and Polycarp.

In his writings, Colet refers to Italian humanists and Platonists Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola.

Erasmus said of Colet, "When I listen to Colet it seems to me that I am listening to Plato himself." Erasmus likely portrayed Colet to show that one could be highly critical of the Church while still a loyal priest. His depiction of Colet was partly a depiction of himself.

Studied over time
Colet has been studied frequently over time and has experienced resurgences in popularity. Bishop Kennett studied Colet during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Kennett passed his notes to Samuel Knight who used them to write a biography of Colet which was published in 1724. During the nineteenth century, interest in Colet increased. Several editions of his works and an additional biography were published during that time. Scholars believed Colet strongly impacted his friend Erasmus and the English Reformation. Later critics went on to view Colet as Protestant-like, though others believe that Colet was merely a reform preacher that wanted to improve the quality of the Church.

Colet died in 1519 of the "sweating sickness." His monument was erected on the south aisle of the choir at the cathedral church of Saint Paul but destroyed in the Great Fire of London.

Other works
In addition to his sermons Colet's works include some scriptural commentary and works entitled Daily Devotions and Monition to a Godly Life. Together with Lilye, Erasmus, and Wolsey, Colet produced materials forming the basis of the authorised Latin Grammar, used for centuries in the English schools. A number of letters from Colet to Erasmus also survive.

Lasting influence of Colet
To this day, Colet's achievement is celebrated by St Paul's School, St Paul's Girls' School and St Paul's Juniors (formerly known as Colet Court) on John Colet Day at St Paul's Cathedral (having begun in 2003).

The John Colet School in Wendover, Buckinghamshire is named after him, as well as Colet Gardens, a road in the London suburb of Hammersmith, W6, and John Colet School in Sydney, Australia.

Colet's convocation sermon (1512)
In the introductory paragraph, Colet concludes by stating that his presence is due to the need for the Council to consider a Church reformation. First, Colet criticises the living style of the priests. Colet explains that the priests should set an example for others as be a beacon of light, because if they are instead figures of darkness, the Church will be engulfed by darkness. Colet cites four evils, referencing the Apostle, that constitute the corrupt, priestly living: devilish pride, carnal concupiscence, worldly covetousness, and worldly occupations.

First, in regard to pride of life, Colet believes that priests of the day were more consumed by the honour and dignity one could receive by being a part of the priesthood. Service to the Church must be only humble service.

Secondly, many priests take part in the lust for the flesh: feasting and banqueting, vain conversation, sports, plays, hunting, and hawking. They are "drowned in the delights of this world" and "patronize those who cater for their pleasure".

Thirdly, covetousness is the third worldly evil, which is also known as lust. Colet calls this a plague that has overtaken many priests and blinded many. Many take part in the Church only for the hope of riches and promotions. Priests forget that they should be interested in the good they can do more than the amount of riches that they stand to gain. Paul called covetousness the root of all evils. From it, benefices stack up, including pensions and tithes. Colet states that: "every corruption, all the ruin of the Church, all the scandals of the world, come from the covetousness of priests".

The fourth evil arises because priests have become more servants of men than servants of God. According to Paul, priests are supposed to be an intermediary between men and God. As such, warfare should only be spiritual in nature and reflective of Jesus. In addition, they need to pray, read, and meditate regarding the Scriptures. They must deliver the word of God, give the sacraments of salvation, make sacrifices for people, and hold masses for people's souls.

Colet then moves on to discuss the needed clergy reform. Paul orders that people must "be reformed into a new mind". People should turn to humility, sobriety, charity, and spiritual occupations. Reform must begin with the priests so that it can spread throughout the Church. Colet disagrees with the creation of new laws; instead he thinks that the old laws must simply be enforced.

Colet believes several things are important: a good, pure, and holy life, approved morals, moderate knowledge of the Scriptures, knowledge of the Sacraments, the fear of God and love of the heavenly life.

Finally, Colet urges people to "return to the God of love and peace; return to Christ, in whom is the true peace of the Spirit which passeth all understanding; return to the true priestly life". "Be ye reformed in the newness of your minds, that ye may know those things which are of God; and the peace of God shall be with you".

Memorial
There was a memorial to him in the south aisle at Old St Paul's Cathedral.

A bronze statue of John Colet with two pupils, made by Hamo Thornycroft in 1902, has a prominent position near the entrance of St Paul's School, London.

title: John Colet


text:
Talk:Wedding ring

2003

 * "wedding band is the traditional European" ... but it's a "wedding ''ring" in the UK. And what about the US? hell yes

 * "Girls traditionally judge the seriousness of a promise ring by its value, and the size of its gem." ... do they all? Doesn't this tie in with the feminist "legalized prostitution" argument? -- Tarquin 18:34 Jan 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, it's usually called a "ring" in the U.S., too. This whole article sets my teeth on edge, as much because of its sillly tone ("girls" don't get engaged/married, for example -- women do) as that its "facts" are not true, but I choose not to get involved. -- isis 18:49 Jan 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * The two are interchangeable and synonymous here. Ring is more colloquial and band is what a jeweler would be apt to call it. As for "girls", promise rings are not wedding rings. Calling females of high school age girls seems perfectly reasonable. --belg4mit 2006-01-15armecia lee waz here

 * Handedness The whole concept of handedness ought to be broken out into a section. Much of the west wears a wedding ring on the left hand, however Russia--and at least as well--traditionally wear it on the right. See also (and link) claddagh ring which has a whole set of rules for orientation and handedness. Interestingly, the same finger for all of the above though. --belg4mit 2006-01-15

Dear pleople,

I am from Chile and we use wedding ring on the left hand.

Greetings!

Deleted sentence
I deleted this sentence because I didn't know what it was supposed to mean. If this offends someone please make it more clear before you put it back in the article.

So it commonly occurs for chaste married people not to wear a wedding ring.

hdstubbs

Gems
Removed the below... it's unencyclopedic, written in the second person, and on a page about wedding rings which no where mentions gems... only a band of metal.

Be aware of the gem`s softness before you decide on the stone. The softer the weaker. Use Mohs scale that registers the stones ability to resist abrasion

On Mohs scale 1 will be the weakest and 10 the hardest.

You should not pick gems that are softer than 7 on Mohs scale for the wedding ring.

List of the most common gems and their Mohs scale ranking: Diamonds 10 Rubies 9

Sapphire 9

Emerald 8

Topaz 8

Aquamarine 7.5 to 8

Amethyst 7

Garnet 6.5 to 7.5

Opal 6

Jews
What about those rare Jewish betrothal rings that were shaped as a synagogue? Is that still a custom?

I've read that it was a custom for Jewish woman to wear the wedding ring on the the index finger because that was the finger with which they point to the Torah as they read. Is this true?

Not all Spain wears it in the right hand
If you understand that Aragon or the Catalan (or catalan related languages) speaking provinces (Catalonia, Valencia and Balearic Islands) are a part of Spain, all belonging to the former Aragon Crown, they do not wear their ring in the right hand, but in the left. I am from the Valencian Country and I actually wear it on my left hand. Manel

I am "castillian" (Madrid) and wear it on the right. I also knew of the tradition explained by my countryman Manel. So Spain should be listed on both the right and the left hands. E.

title: Talk:Wedding ring


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User:Markonen

Hi! I've been slowly exploring wikipedia since December 2002, contributing entries related to aviation, Antarctica and computing, among other things.

title: User:Markonen


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Richard Steele

Sir Richard Steele (c. 1671 – 1 September 1729) was an Anglo-Irish writer, playwright and politician best known as the co-founder of the magazine The Spectator alongside his close friend Joseph Addison.

Early life
Steele was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1671 to Richard Steele, a wealthy attorney, and Elinor Symes (née Sheyles); his sister Katherine was born the previous year. He was the grandson of Sir William Steele, Lord Chancellor of Ireland and his first wife Elizabeth Godfrey. His father lived at Mountown House, Monkstown, County Dublin. His mother, of whose family background little is known, was described as "a very beautiful woman, of a noble spirit".

His father died when he was four, and his mother a year later. Steele was largely raised by his uncle and aunt, Henry Gascoigne (secretary to James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde), and Lady Katherine Mildmay.

A member of the Protestant gentry, he was educated at Charterhouse School, where he first met Addison. After starting at Christ Church, Oxford, he went on to Merton College, Oxford, then joined the Life Guards of the Household Cavalry in order to support King William's wars against France. He was commissioned in 1697, and rose to the rank of captain within two years.

Literary life
Steele's first published work, The Christian Hero (1701), attempted to point out the differences between perceived and actual masculinity. Written while Steele served in the army, it expressed his idea of a pamphlet of moral instruction. The Christian Hero was ultimately ridiculed for what some thought was hypocrisy because Steele did not necessarily follow his own preaching. He was criticized for publishing a booklet about morals when he himself enjoyed drinking, occasional duelling, and debauchery around town.

Steele wrote a comedy that same year titled The Funeral. This play met with wide success and was performed at Drury Lane, bringing him to the attention of the King and the Whig party. Next, Steele wrote The Lying Lover (1703), one of the first sentimental comedies, but a failure on stage.

Steele was a member of the Whig Kit-Kat Club. Both Steele and Addison became closely associated with Child's Coffee-house in St Paul's Churchyard.

Steele left the army in 1705, perhaps due to the death of the 34th Foot's commanding officer, Lord Lucas, which limited his opportunities of promotion.

Also in 1705, Steele married a widow, Margaret Stretch, who died in the following year. After Margaret's death, a slave plantation she owned in Barbados came into the ownership of Steele. At her funeral he met his second wife, Mary Scurlock, whom he nicknamed "Prue" and married in 1707. In the course of their courtship and marriage, he wrote over 400 letters to her.

Steele wrote The Tender Husband (1705) with contributions from Addison, and later that year wrote the prologue to The Mistake, by John Vanbrugh, also an important member of the Kit-Kat Club.

In 1706 Steele was appointed to a position in the household of Prince George of Denmark, consort of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. He also gained the favour of Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford.

The Tatler, Steele's first public journal, first came out on 12 April 1709, and appeared three times a week: on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Steele edited this periodical under the pseudonym Isaac Bickerstaff and gave the existing Bickerstaff character an entire, fully developed personality. "Bickerstaff's" best Tatler columns were published by Steele as the book Isaac Bickerstaff, Physician and Astrologer later that year.

Steele described his motive in writing The Tatler as "to expose the false arts of life, to pull off the disguises of cunning, vanity, and affectation, and to recommend a general simplicity in our dress, our discourse, and our behaviour". Steele founded the magazine, and although he and Addison collaborated, Steele wrote the majority of the essays; Steele wrote roughly 188 of the 271 total and Addison 42, with 36 representing the pair's collaborative works. While Addison contributed to The Tatler, it is widely regarded as Steele's work.

The Tatler was closed down in early 1711 to avoid the complications of running a Whig publication that had come under Tory attack. Addison and Steele then founded The Spectator in 1711 and also The Guardian in 1713.

Steele also had an illegitimate child, Elizabeth Ousley, whom he later adopted.

Parliamentary and late literary life
Steele became a Whig Member of Parliament in 1713, for Stockbridge. He was soon expelled for issuing a pamphlet in favour of the Hanoverian succession. When the Hanoverian George I of Great Britain came to the throne in the following year, Steele was knighted and given responsibility for the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London. He returned to parliament in 1715, for Boroughbridge.

He wrote a preface to Addison's 1716 comedy play The Drummer.

His wife Mary died in 1718, at a time when she was considering separation. Their daughter, Elizabeth (Steele's only surviving legitimate child), married John Trevor, 3rd Baron Trevor.

Steele ended his parliamentary career in March 1722.

While at Drury Lane, Steele wrote and directed the sentimental comedy The Conscious Lovers, which was an immediate hit on stage in November 1722.

Retirement
Steele fell out with Addison and with the government administration over the Peerage Bill (1719), and in 1724 he retired to his second wife's homeland of Wales, where he spent the remainder of his life. Steele died in 1729. He was buried in Carmathen at St Peter's Church. During the restoration of the church in 2000, his skull was discovered in a lead casket, having previously been accidentally disinterred during the 1870s.

In literature
Steele plays a minor role in the novel The History of Henry Esmond by William Makepeace Thackeray. It is during his time with the Life Guards, where he is mostly referred to as Dick the Scholar and makes mention of his friend "Joe Addison". Thackeray depicts Steele in glowing terms as a warm, generous, talented mentor who befriends the title character in his youth and remains loyal to him for years despite their political differences.

title: Richard Steele


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Kalimantaan

Kalimantaan is a novel by C. S. Godshalk offering a fictionalized account of the exploits of James Brooke in Sarawak on Borneo.

The novel won the 1998 Art Seidenbaum Award for First Fiction.

Plot introduction
The novel uses of a variety of writing forms, including diary entries, letters, and straight narrative to tell its story. The author intentionally makes it difficult to determine what "really" happens in the story from dreams and fantasies of the characters.

Plot summary
In 1839, an English adventurer arrived on the northwest coast of Borneo, commissioned to deliver a letter of gratitude to the Sultan of Brunei for having safely returned the crew of a British merchantman, lost on his coast. It was a region full of headhunters, pirate tribes, and slave traders. Most Europeans with the temerity to enter the region had never been heard from again. This particular adventurer, however, seems to know how to play one power against another and manages to keep his balance in the midst of chaos. After performing a service for the Sultan (resolving a local tribal conflict through the use of his schooner's guns and leading an organized assault on a small native river fort), he is named governor of Sarawak, subject to the Sultan of Brunei. Within a few years, he has become the Rajah of Sarawak, an independent state, and established a dynasty that will last one hundred years.

Godshalk has changed names and details while evoking a sense of the time, place, and atmosphere of the real events. The real adventurer was James Brooke; Ms. Godshalk's is named Gideon Barr. James Brooke's schooner was named the Royalist; Gideon Barr's is the Carolina (named after his mother). James Brooke was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Johnson, who took the last name Brooke. Gideon Barr is succeeded by his nephew Richard Hogg (Ms. Godshalk does not deal with the change of last name since her story focuses on Gideon's life and ends with his death).

Although many of the events described actually took place, one cannot simply change the names and read the novel as history. James Brooke's mother died in 1844, two years after he became Rajah. Gideon's mother dies in Borneo much earlier while he is in grade school in England, providing him an emotional link to Borneo James Brooke did not have. James Brooke never married a European, although there is evidence that he was married to a Malay woman. Gideon Barr marries an Englishwoman to provide himself an "air of permanence" as Rajah and we see much of the later portion of the story through Amelia Barr's eyes. Amelia Barr is fictional, but largely based on Margaret Brooke, wife of the second Rajah, and her book "My Life in Sarawak". Gideon also maintains a Malayan mistress who provides a note of tragedy in the way her presence poisons Gideon and Amelia's relationship.

On the other hand, the 30,000 pounds that Brooke/Barr inherited at his father's death which enabled him to acquire his schooner, the massacre of the sons of the Sultan of Brunei, the Chinese insurrection of 1857, and the commission of inquiry in Singapore all took place as described. The inquiry in Singapore was concerned with the battle of Labuan in which Brooke/Barr led British warships in a pre-emptive strike against a pirate fleet, breaking the power of the Bugis for the next twenty years. Brooke/Barr's enemies attempted to use this against him by claiming he had used British naval power to slaughter innocent natives.

Godshalk uses Malay words extensively in the book. While she provides a brief Malay glossary as an appendix, it does not cover all the words she uses. Enjoyment of Kalimantaan will be enhanced if one knows the following Malay words which are not in the glossary provided by the author:

Kampilan, actually a Filipino word, designates a long native sword.

Release details

 * 1998, USA ?, Henry Holt ISBN 0-8050-5533-9, Pub date ? April 1998, hardback
 * 1999, Canada, Doubleday of Canada ISBN 0-385-25769-4, Pub date ? May 1999, paperback

title: Kalimantaan


text:
List of bailiffs of Guernsey

The Bailiwick of Guernsey is a British crown dependency off the coast of France.

This is a list of holders of the post of Bailiff of Guernsey.

13th century (1 to 9)

 * Hugh de Trubleville (1270–1277)
 * William de St Remi (1278–1281)
 * Raynald de Ashwell (1282–1287)
 * William de St Remi (1288–1291)
 * William de St Remi (1292–1296)
 * Sir Nicholas de Cheney (1297)
 * Peter Le Marchant (1298)
 * Radulph de Gand (1299)
 * Robert Comberwell (1300)

14th century (10 to 39)

 * Radulph de Haverland (1301)
 * John de Newent (1302)
 * Radulph Gaultier (1303)
 * Peter Le Marchant (1304)
 * Massey de la Court (1305–1309)
 * James de Vinchelez (1310)
 * Robert Le Gay (1311–1312)
 * Walter de la Hogue (1313–1314)
 * Massey de la Court (1315–1316)
 * Peter Le Marchant (1317)
 * Massey de la Court (1318)
 * Robert Le Gay (1319)
 * Radulph Gaultier (1320)
 * John Le Marchant (1321)
 * James de Vinchelez (1322)
 * William Le Petit (1323)
 * William de Souslemont (1324)
 * William Le Petit (1325)
 * Peter de Garis (1326)
 * Henry de St Martin (1327)
 * Radulph Le Gay (1328)
 * Radulph Cokerel (1329)
 * Geoffrey de la Hogue (1330)
 * Thomas d'Esterfield (1331)
 * Radulph Le Gay (1332–1339)
 * John de la Lande (1340–1346)
 * John de la Lande (1347–1356)
 * John Le Marchant (1357–1383)
 * John Nicholas (1384–1386)
 * Gervase de Clermont (1387–1411)

15th century (40 to 49)

 * James Cocquerel (1412–1432)
 * Thomas de la Court (1433–1445)
 * John Henry (1446–1447)
 * William Cartier (1447–1465)
 * Thomas de la Court (1466–1469)
 * Peter de Beauvoir (1470–1479)
 * Edmund de Cheney (1480–1481)
 * Nicholas Fouaschin (1481–1482)
 * John Blondel (1483–1498)
 * John Martin (1499–1510)

16th century (50 to 57)

 * James Guille (1511–1537)
 * Thomas Compton (1538–1544)
 * John Haryvell (1545–1549)
 * Hellier Gosselin (1549–1562)
 * Thomas Compton (1562–1570)
 * William de Beauvoir (1571–1581)
 * Thomas Wigmore (1581–1588)
 * Louis de Vic (1588–1600)

17th century (58 to 62)

 * Amice de Carteret (1601–1631)
 * John de Quetteville (1631–1643)
 * Peter de Beauvoir (1644–1651, 1652–1653, 1656–1660)
 * Amias Andros (1661–1674)
 * Edmund Andros (1674–1713)

18th century (63 to 68)

 * John de Sausmarez (1714–1728)
 * Josuah Le Marchant (1728–1751)
 * Eleazar Le Marchant (1752–1758)
 * Samuel Bonamy (1758–1771)
 * William Le Marchant (1771–1800)
 * Robert Porrett Le Marchant (1800–1810)

19th century (69 to 75)

 * Peter de Havilland (1810–1821)
 * Daniel de Lisle Brock (1821–1843)
 * John Guille (1843–1845)
 * Peter Stafford Carey (1845–1883)
 * John de Havilland Utermarck (1883–1884)
 * Edgar McCulloch (1884–1895)
 * Sir Thomas Godfrey Carey Kt., LL.D. (1895–1902), married Eliza de Sausmarez Grassic, daughter of Thomas Ritchie Grassic, of Halifax, N.S. January 22, 1901; he served as Attorney-General of Guernsey, Bailiff of Guernsey, and President of the States of Guernsey

20th century (76 to 87)

 * Henry Alexander Giffard (1902–1908)
 * William Carey (1908–1915)
 * Edward Chepmell Ozanne (1915–1922)
 * Havilland Walter de Sausmarez (1922–1929)
 * Arthur William Bell (1929–1935)
 * Victor Carey (1935–1946)
 * Ambrose Sherwill (1946–1959)
 * William Arnold (1959–1973)
 * John Loveridge (1973–1982)
 * Charles Frossard (1982–1992)
 * Graham Martyn Dorey (1992–1999)
 * de Vic Carey (1999–2005)

21st century (88 to 90)

 * Geoffrey Rowland (2005–2012)
 * Richard Collas (2012–2020)
 * Richard McMahon (2020–)

title: List of bailiffs of Guernsey


text:
Talk:Copyright law of Japan

Bias?
I think this article is rather biased, sentences like the one below give the article an unprofessional impression.

"In other words, the clever user who tries to free-ride on the original genius of the creator of this or that tune has to be educated, and forced to participate in a trusted system in order to obtain the desired tunes. No one has so far mentioned about either fair use or the reach of the public domain."

—Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.225.141.201 (talk) 15:22, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

Ive been told by several sources that promotional materials (ie. movie posters) are not covered by copyright in Japan. Can anyone expand/confirm/debunk this? --168.156.89.181 04:11, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Want someone who speaks Dutch to read thesis by Andreas Bovens.

 * this one? It's already in English.

Nope. Another much big one.

Can somebody expand on this:

 * The concept of public domain in Japan is controversial. Because there is no concept of public domain in Japan's copyright law, even though the materials are claimed public domain, there can be some restrictions such as about commercial use, which has a conflict with GFDL.

Does copyright never expire in Japan? Is it not possible for a copyright holder to give a licence that waives all copyright restrictions? ( 19:11, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I did a quick reading of the CRIC site, and there's no mention of how one may renounce copyright (automatically granted to all except certain Government documents) to one's work. A-giau 02:55, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * This is not unusual in copyright law, I don't think the UK and USA are any different.

 * Why even bother adding the GFDL blurb in there? Isn't that by an American?  I'm sure plenty of "American" clauses don't apply in Japan.  It sounds like GNU zealotry to me.  I will remove it for the time being.

Postage stamps
Does anyone know how this relates to Japanese postage stamps? They aren't mentioned. Broken Sphere Msg me 00:04, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Discrepancy with Japanese Language Version
The exceptions and limitations to copyright section in English specifically lists educational use as one exemption to the requirement for express permission from the author. However, this particular exemption doesn't exist in the Japanese version of the page at all (not to mention the wildly differing structure, which makes comparison difficult). How recent is the information on the respective pages? I'd mark this entire page as needing some serious review.

Midnightbrewer (talk) 03:42, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:United States copyright law which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RM bot 12:45, 16 June 2011 (UTC)

Autumn 2012 developments
I think the article should mention the "illegal downloading means jailtime" development as reported here and here (examples of reliable sources). --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 17:23, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Copyright law of Japan


text:
John Redwood

Sir John Alan Redwood (born 15 June 1951) is a British politician and academic who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Wokingham in Berkshire from 1987 to 2024. A member of the Conservative Party, he was Secretary of State for Wales in the Major government and was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the leadership of the Conservative Party in the 1990s. Redwood subsequently served in the Shadow Cabinets of William Hague and Michael Howard; he remained a backbencher from then on. On 24 May 2024, Redwood announced that he would stand down as MP for Wokingham and not seek re-election in the upcoming 2024 United Kingdom general election.

Prior to becoming an MP, Redwood completed a doctorate at All Souls College, Oxford and served as Director of the Number 10 Policy Unit under Margaret Thatcher. He is a veteran Eurosceptic who was described in 1993 as a "pragmatic Thatcherite". He was the co-chairman of the Conservative Party's Policy Review Group on Economic Competitiveness until 2010. He has the role of Chief Global Strategist of investment management company Charles Stanley & Co Ltd (part of Charles Stanley Group). Redwood supported Brexit in the 2016 EU referendum, and is a member of the British Eurosceptic pressure group Leave Means Leave.

Early life and education
John Redwood was born in Dover, the second child of William Redwood (1925–2016), an accountant and company secretary, and his wife, Amy Emma (née Champion), the manager of a shoe shop. He had an elder sister, Jennifer, who died as a baby in 1949. His childhood began in a council house, and he describes his family buying their own house as a "big breakthrough" for the family.

Redwood was educated at private Kent College in Canterbury, and Magdalen College, Oxford, where he graduated with a BA in modern history in 1971. He was a postgraduate at St Antony's College, Oxford, from 1971 to 1972 and was elected an Examination Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford, from 1972 to 1979, which later led to a distinguished fellowship in 2007. At All Souls, he wrote a DPhil thesis which investigated the fear of atheism in England, from the Restoration to the publication of Alciphron by George Berkeley. He graduated with a DPhil in 1975.

Before parliament
Redwood was an Oxfordshire county councillor, representing the Conservative Party between 1973 and 1977, the youngest ever at the age of 21 when elected. In 1981 he unsuccessfully stood for the Greater London Council seat of Peckham. From 1983 onwards, he headed Margaret Thatcher's policy unit, where he was one of the champions of privatisation.

Redwood stood as the Conservative candidate at the Peckham by-election of October 1982, coming third with 12.42% of the vote behind the Labour Party candidate Harriet Harman and the SDP candidate Dick Taverne.

As a parliamentarian
At the 1987 general election, Redwood was elected to the House of Commons as MP for Wokingham, winning with 61.4% of the vote and a majority of 20,387.

He was made a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in July 1989 for corporate affairs at the Department of Trade and Industry. In November 1990, he was promoted to Minister of State. Redwood became Minister for Local Government and Inner Cities following the 1992 general election, where he oversaw the abolition of the Community Charge, known colloquially as the "poll tax", and its replacement with the Council Tax.

Redwood was re-elected as MP for Wokingham at the 1992 general election with the same vote share of 61.4% and an increased majority of 25,709.

Redwood was opposed to attempts to reduce the age of consent for homosexuality in both 1994 and 1999, choosing to vote to keep Section 28 in November 2003. He has generally been opposed to same-sex marriage. He voted for the reintroduction of capital punishment in 1988, 1990 and 1994 and voiced support for the reintroducing of the death penalty when he launched his leadership bid on 26 June 1995. Redwood has stated since then: "I have never spoken or written against civil partnerships and gay marriage and am not proposing any change to current laws. I regard the debate about capital punishment as being over and do not support its reintroduction."

At the 1997 general election, Redwood was again re-elected, with a decreased vote share of 50.1% and a decreased majority of 9,365. After the election, Redwood was appointed Shadow Secretary of State for Trade and Industry by William Hague. He was appointed Shadow Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions in June 1999, but was dropped in a mini reshuffle in February 2000, being succeeded by Archie Norman.

Redwood was again re-elected at the 2001 general election with a decreased vote share of 46.1% and a decreased majority of 5,994. Under Michael Howard, he was appointed Shadow Secretary of State for Deregulation.

At the 2005 general election, Redwood was again re-elected, with an increased vote share of 48.1% and an increased majority of 7,240. Redwood was interviewed about the rise of Thatcherism for the BBC television documentary series of 2006, Tory! Tory! Tory!, and has often appeared on television, including appearances on the BBC's Question Time.

Redwood was again re-elected at the 2010 general election with an increased vote share of 52.7% and an increased majority of 13,492. In 2011, he abstained on the military intervention in Libya. Redwood supports the establishment of a devolved English parliament. Following the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Redwood called for radical reform involving the establishment of an English Parliament. His politicking prior to and succeeding the referendum placed him "front and centre" to any political gain due to the perceived power vacuum resulting from any possible changes to the status quo of the union.

At the 2015 general election, Redwood was again re-elected with an increased vote share of 57.7% and an increased majority of 24,197. He was again re-elected at the snap 2017 general election, with a decreased vote share of 56.6% and a decreased majority of 18,798. He was again re-elected at the 2019 general election with a decreased vote share of 49.6% and a decreased majority of 7,383. In 2021, Redwood publicly argued with Greta Thunberg over the UK's climate emissions on Twitter.

On 24 May 2024, two days after announcement of the date of the 2024 UK general election, and just 40 days before the actual date, John Redwood announced he would be not be standing again for his Wokingham constituency, saying that he had ‘other things I wish to do’.

As a government minister
In the government reshuffle of May 1993, Redwood was appointed to the cabinet as Secretary of State for Wales. He deferred some road-widening schemes in Wales because of suggested harm to the environment.

Redwood committed a gaffe in 1993, when he attempted to mime to the Welsh national anthem at the Welsh Conservative Party conference, when he did not know the words. Redwood subsequently learned the anthem but, in August 2007, an unconnected news story on Redwood was illustrated with the same clip. This resulted in Conservative activists filing complaints, and as a result the BBC apologised to Redwood for airing the dated footage. In February 1995, he was at loggerheads with the Countryside Council for Wales, because he had decided to cut its grant by 16%.

Redwood consequently gained a somewhat haughty reputation with apparent disregard for Welsh national feeling; this did not endear him further to some of the population, including when he returned £100 million of Wales's block grant to the Treasury unspent in 1995.

Leadership contests
When John Major called upon his critics to "put up or shut up" and tendered his resignation to allow for a leadership challenge, Redwood resigned from the Cabinet, and stood against Major in the subsequent party leadership election on 26 June 1995. In the ballot held on 4 July 1995, Redwood received 89 votes, around a quarter of the then Parliamentary Party. Major received 218 votes, or two thirds of the parliamentary party vote. The Sun newspaper had declared its support for Redwood in the run up to the leadership contest, running the front-page headline "Redwood versus Deadwood".

When Major resigned as party leader following the General Election defeat of May 1997, Redwood stood in the resulting election for the leadership, and was again defeated. After being defeated in the third round with 38 votes to Kenneth Clarke's 64 and William Hague's 62, Redwood backed Clarke against Hague.

Brexit
Redwood is a veteran Eurosceptic. A critic of the Euro before its launch, in 2011 Redwood suggested that the Eurozone should "break up", and proposed that the United Kingdom should give up its Council voting rights in return for the ability to opt out of any EU legislation. There are no existing laws that would permit such an arrangement, as it would make European law not apply evenly across the Union as a whole. Later that year, he joined 81 rebel Conservative MPs in voting for an in-out referendum for leaving the European Union, saying afterwards "People used to call me an extreme Eurosceptic. Now I'm a moderate." Before the Brexit referendum, Redwood wrote that, to Conservative Eurosceptics like him, leaving the EU was "more important than which party wins the next election or who is the prime minister."

Since then, he has suggested the United Kingdom need not prioritise a post-Brexit deal with the EU, and received criticism for writing an investment advice column which recommended investors "look further afield" than the United Kingdom. Redwood denied this interpretation, saying that he simply advises investors of where international markets are heading and did not write an investment column "recommending investors pull their money out of the United Kingdom".

In statements to media and in the House of Commons, Redwood has consistently defended the position that the UK should not pay the so-called Brexit bill (amounting to around £39 billion). This is in line with a House of Lords EU financial affairs committee report, which itself is contested on its legal soundness since the financial settlement simply reflects commitments already entered into by the UK under the EU's multi-annual financial framework for the years 2014–2020 and therefore is not linked to the process of the UK leaving the European Union. In December 2019, Redwood voted in favour of the Withdrawal Agreement through which the UK accepts to pay its outstanding financial obligations to the EU.

In June 2021, Redwood criticised the composition of the G7 which includes the president of the European Commission and the president of the European Council in addition to representatives from France, Germany and Italy. According to Redwood this hands a majority to the EU in the G7, even if the G7 does not take decisions through majority voting.

Public image
He has often been compared to a Vulcan, a comparison originally made by Matthew Parris, due to his physical appearance and intonation, a preference for making arguments with logic over passion and a perception for being cold and humourless. Redwood said that he does not like the description but "if you don't like the heat then get out of the kitchen". He continued, "I think people sometimes go for those kind of things because they haven't managed to trap me in the more normal way".

Business career
Redwood worked as an investment analyst, manager and director for Robert Fleming and for NM Rothschild in the 1970s and 1980s. In 2007 he co-founded Evercore Pan-Asset Capital Management Ltd, a financial management company, which was subsequently sold to Charles Stanley. He is currently Chief Global Strategist at Charles Stanley & Co Ltd. He was previously a non-executive chairman of Mabey Securities, an investment arm of the engineering firm Mabey.

In January 2023, Sky News revealed that Redwood had, since the 2019 general election, earnt more than £600,000 in addition to his salary as an MP – the fifth-highest amount of any MP.

Personal life
He married Gail Felicity Chippington, a barrister, on 20 April 1974 in Chipping Norton; they had two children, Catherine (born 1978) and Richard (born 1982). They divorced in July 2003.

Blog
Redwood regularly updates a blog of political commentary which he has called John Redwood's Diary. Printed and bound copies of this blog are housed at the British Library and can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.

Honours

 * Appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1993, giving him the honorific "the Right Honourable" for life.
 * Knight-Bachelor.ribbon.png Knighted in the 2019 New Year Honours List.

title: John Redwood


text:
Guillaume Budé

Guillaume Budé (Latinized as Guilielmus Budaeus; January 26, 1467 – August 20, 1540) was a French scholar and humanist. He was involved in the founding of Collegium Trilingue, which later became the Collège de France.

Budé was also the first keeper of the royal library at the Palace of Fontainebleau, which was later moved to Paris, where it became the Bibliothèque nationale de France. He was an ambassador to Rome and held several important judicial and civil administrative posts.

Life
Budé was born in Paris. He went to the University of Orléans to study law, but for several years, having ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When about twenty-four years of age, he was seized with a sudden passion for study, and made rapid progress, particularly in Latin and Ancient Greek.

The work which gained him greatest reputation was his De Asse et Partibus Eius (1514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held in high esteem by Francis I, who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du Bellay, Bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue (afterwards the Collège de France) and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliothèque Nationale.

He also induced Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been advised by the Sorbonne in 1533. Earlier, he had been sent by Louis XII to Rome as ambassador to Leo X, and in 1522 was appointed maître des requêtes and was several times prévôt des marchands.

Death
Before his death in Paris, he requested to be buried at night, and his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where she retired after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings towards Calvinism.

Sections of his correspondence with Erasmus also suggest this religious inclination. At the time of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, the members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house, while others settled in Swedish Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus (see Johann Franz Buddeus).

Budé was also the author of ''Annotationes in XXIV. libros Pandectarum (1508), which, by the application of philology and history, had a great influence on the study of Roman law, and of Commentarii linguae Graecae'' (1529), an extensive collection of lexicographical notes, which contributed greatly to the study of Greek literature in France. Epistolae (1520, 8vo) is a collection that contains only a small part of the voluminous correspondence of Bude, written in Greek with remarkable purity.

Budé corresponded with the most learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the "marvel of France", and Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek and Latin.

Works

 * Translations from Plutarch, from 1502 to 1505
 * Annotationes in XXIV libros Pandectarum, Paris, 1508
 * Annotationes in quattuor et viginti pendectarum libros. Paris, Josse Bade, 1532
 * De contemptu rerum fortuitarum libri tres, Paris, 1520
 * Epistolae, in 8vo, 1520
 * Summaire ou Epitome du livre de Asse, Paris, 1522
 * De studio litterarum recte et commode instituendo, Paris, 1527
 * Commentarii linguae graecae, Paris, 1529
 * Commentarii Linguae Græcae, Gulielmo Budaeo, consiliario Regio, supplicumque libellorum in Regia magistro, auctore. Ab eodem accuratè recogniti, atque amplius tertia parte aucti. Ex officina Roberti Stephani typographi Regii, Parisiis, 1548
 * De philologia, Paris, 1530
 * Libellorumque magistri in praetorio, altera aeditio annotationum in pandectas, Paris, Josse Bade, 1532
 * De Studio Literarum Recte Et Commode Instituendo. Item Eiusdem G. Budaei De Philologia Lib. II. Basileae, apud Ioan. Walderum, martio 1533
 * De transitu Hellenismi ad Christianismum libri tres, Paris, Robert Estienne, 1534
 * De l'institution du prince, in-folio, 1547
 * Opera omnia, 4 vol. in-folio, Basel, 1557
 * De transitu Hellenismi ad Christianismum libri tres, Paris, Robert Estienne, 1534
 * De l'institution du prince, in-folio, 1547
 * Opera omnia, 4 vol. in-folio, Basel, 1557

Family
Guillaume was the son of Jean Budé (d. 1502) and Catherine Le Picart. He married Roberte Le Lieur when she was about 15 years old. Their children included:
 * Dreux Budé (d. 1547), married Marthe Paillart
 * François (d. 1550)

title: Guillaume Budé


text:
Talk:Sathya Sai Baba

__NOINDEX__

Why there is no mention of his family?
Does he have a wife, kids? Why there is no mention of his family? 176.33.65.11 (talk) 13:46, 20 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sathya Sai Baba


text:
User:AnnieKat

Well, since THIS article is about me, I guess it might as well be good... so here goes.

Bio
I'm an eighteen year-old college student in Arlington, Texas, attending the University of Texas at Arlington. At home, I have a dog, a hampster, three siblings, two parents, and more computers than I can count. I am sarcastic, I am a frequent denizen of forums, I am a 1337speeker, and I recently sold my soul to EverQuest. I used to be a cracker, but I somehow managed to avoid getting caught long enough to grow up. I like chocolate. (And pina coladas, and getting caught in the rain...) If I could figure out what I want out of life, things would be easier.

I'm Episcopalian... sort of, I drink waaaaaay too much V8 juice, I'm a listmod and a roleplayer and an occasional programmer. I'd like a pet dragon, and I've read all the Harry Potter books. The most interesting thing I've ever done is discuss philosophy/life/art/sex at 1:30 in the morning in a dorm laundry room with five strangers who are now some of my good friends. I don't think jicama tastes like turpentine anymore.

And if you actually read all that, I am SOOOO sorry for you.

Interests
My interests are Pokemon, anime, dragons, Pern, science fiction, fantasy, instant messenger, HTML, computers, MMORPGs, painting, and being my chaotic neutral self.

Comments of the Day
"How could you forget about a bottomless pit?"

title: User:AnnieKat