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Jacques Lipchitz

Jacques Lipchitz (22 August 1891 – 26 May 1973 ) was a Lithuanian-born French-American Cubist sculptor. Lipchitz retained highly figurative and legible components in his work leading up to 1915–16, after which naturalist and descriptive elements were muted, dominated by a synthetic style of Crystal Cubism. In 1920 Lipchitz held his first solo exhibition, at Léonce Rosenberg's Galerie L'Effort Moderne in Paris where he was counted as part of the School of Paris. Fleeing the Nazis he moved to the US and settled in New York City and eventually Hastings-on-Hudson. While in the US, he created a number of his best-known works, including the outdoor sculptures The Song of the Vowels, Birth of the Muses, and Bellerophon Taming Pegasus, the last of which was completed after his death.

Life and career
Jacques Lipchitz was born Chaim Jacob Lipschitz, in a Litvak family, son of a building contractor in Druskininkai, Lithuania, then within the Russian Empire. He studied at Vilnius grammar school and Vilnius Art School. Under the influence of his father he studied engineering in 1906–1909, but soon after, supported by his mother he moved to Paris (1909) to study at the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Julian.

It was there, in the artistic communities of Montmartre and Montparnasse, that he joined a group of artists that included Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso as well as where his friend, Amedeo Modigliani, painted Jacques and Berthe Lipchitz.

Living in this environment, Lipchitz soon began to create Cubist sculpture. In 1912 he exhibited at the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts and the Salon d'Automne with his first solo show held at Léonce Rosenberg's Galerie L'Effort Moderne in Paris in 1920. In 1922 he was commissioned by the Barnes Foundation in Merion, Pennsylvania to execute seven bas-reliefs and two sculptures.

With artistic innovation at its height, in the 1920s he experimented with abstract forms he called transparent sculptures. Later he developed a more dynamic style, which he applied with telling effect to bronze compositions of figures and animals.

In 1924-25 Lipchitz became a French citizen through naturalization and married Berthe Kitrosser. With the German occupation of France during World War II, and the deportation of Jews to the Nazi death camps, Lipchitz had to flee France. With the assistance of the American journalist Varian Fry in Marseille, he escaped the Nazi regime and went to the United States. There, he eventually settled in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.

He was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the Third Sculpture International Exhibition held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. He has been identified among seventy of those sculptors in a photograph Life magazine published that was taken at the exhibition. In 1954 a Lipchitz retrospective traveled from The Museum of Modern Art in New York to the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and The Cleveland Museum of Art. In 1959, his series of small bronzes To the Limit of the Possible was shown at Fine Arts Associates in New York.

In his later years Lipchitz became more involved in his Jewish faith, even referring to himself as a "religious Jew" in an interview in 1970. He began abstaining from work on Shabbat and put on Tefillin daily, at the urging of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Schneerson.

Beginning in 1963 he returned to Europe for several months of each year and worked in Pietrasanta, Italy. He developed a close friendship with fellow sculptor, Fiore de Henriquez. In 1972 his autobiography, co-authored with H. Harvard Arnason, was published on the occasion of an exhibition of his sculpture at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Death and legacy
Jacques Lipchitz died in Capri, Italy. A contingent including Rabbi Gershon Mendel Garelik flew with his body to Jerusalem for the burial.

His Tuscan Villa Bozio was donated to Chabad-Lubavitch in Italy and currently hosts an annual Jewish summer camp in its premises.

Selected works

 * Drawing of a sculpture – 1916
 * Bather – 1916–17
 * Sailor with Guitar – 1917
 * Woman with Book – 1918, at Carleton College
 * Bather, bronze – 1923–1925
 * Reclining Nude with Guitar – 1928, a prime example of Cubism
 * Dancer with Veil – 1928
 * Dancer – 1929
 * The Song of the Vowels – (Le Chant des Voyelles), – 1931 cast bronze sculptures at Cornell University; Princeton University; UCLA; Stanford University; Kykuit Estate Gardens (New York), Paris, and the Kröller-Müller Museum (Netherlands)
 * Bull and Condor – 1932
 * Bust of a Woman – 1932
 * David and Goliath – 1933
 * Embracing Figures – 1941
 * Prometheus Strangling the Vulture – 1944
 * Birth of the Muses 1944–1950, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) campus, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Rescue II- 1947
 * Mother and Child – 1949 at the Honolulu Museum of Art
 * Descent of the Spirit - 1959
 * John F. Kennedy Memorial, London - 1965. This was originally on Marylebone Road but from 2019 has been in the lobby of the International Students House, London at 229 Great Portland Street
 * Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut - 1965 at the University of Minnesota Duluth
 * Bellerophon Taming Pegasus: Large Version – 1966–1977, begun in 1966 and arrived at Columbia Law School in pieces for assembly in 1977
 * Peace on Earth – 1967–1969
 * Government of the People – 1976

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Toy piano

The toy piano, also known as the kinderklavier (child's keyboard), is a small piano-like musical instrument. Most modern toy pianos use round metal rods, as opposed to strings in a regular piano, to produce sound. The U.S. Library of Congress recognizes the toy piano as a unique instrument with the subject designation, Toy Piano Scores: M175 T69. The most famous example of a dedicated composition for the instrument is the "Suite for Toy Piano" (1948) by John Cage.

Characteristics
Toy pianos come in many shapes, from scale models of upright or grand pianos to toys which only resemble pianos in that they possess keys. Toy pianos are usually no more than 50 cm in width, and made out of wood or plastic. The first toy pianos were made in the mid-19th century and were typically uprights, although many toy pianos made today are models of grands. Rather than hammers hitting strings as on a standard piano, the toy piano sounds by way of hammers hitting metal bars or rods which are fixed at one end. The hammers are connected to the keys by a mechanism similar to that which drives celestas.

Toy pianos ostensibly use the same musical scale as full size pianos, although their tuning in all but the most expensive models is usually very approximate. Similarly, the pitch to which they are tuned is rarely close to the standard of 440 Hz for the A above middle C. A typical toy piano will have a range of one to three octaves. The cheapest models may not have black keys, or the black keys may be painted on. This means they can play a fixed diatonic scale (or an approximately tuned version of it), but not the full chromatic scale, or diatonic scales in other keys. Typically, diatonic toy pianos have only eight keys and can play one octave. Other variants may have non-functioning black keys between every key (which would make it appear to play the quarter tones between E/F and B/C), but they either do not play, play the same notes as an adjacent white key, or play a special sound effect. Some toy pianos cost hundreds of dollars.

History
Early toy pianos used glass bars to produce their sound, but Albert Schoenhut, son of a German toy-making family, introduced metal sounding bars to make the instrument more durable. One popular model used metal xylophone bars, struck by a wooden sphere thrown up by the piano key to make its sound. In 1866 he was offered employment in Philadelphia, United States, to repair German toy pianos which had been damaged in transit. In 1872 he established the Schoenhut Piano Company to manufacture toy pianos, diversifying into other instruments. By 1917, Schoenhut produced a catalog showing 10 pages of upright and grand pianos of all shapes and sizes, with one page devoted to miniature piano stools alone. The models had nicknames beginning with "P", such as Packer, Padder, Papa and Poet. Keys were made of imitation ivory. By 1935, Schoenhut had produced over 40 styles and sizes of toy piano, with prices ranging from 50 cents to 25 dollars.

In 1930, a toy piano metal rod design was patented by Alice Violet Bennett. During the 1950s, J. Chein & Company of Burlington, NJ manufactured the PianoLodeon, a child's piano remarkable for the fact that it operated by a mechanism closely related to an actual player piano. The child could play the keys or let a small piano roll take over, the metal rods being struck by hammers propelled by a vacuum driven by a blower. In the 1960s, the Tomy Toy Company offered the Tuneyville Player Piano using organ music, in which air blows through pipes. The child can play the keys manually or insert a plastic disk to play a recognizable tune.

By the 1950s, the toy piano market was dominated by two main toy piano makers: Jaymar and Schoenhut, counterparts to the Steinway and Baldwin for adult pianos. Wooden keys and hammers were replaced by moulded plastic ones. In the late 1970s, Schoenhut was acquired by Jaymar, although the two retained their distinct identities. Jaymar/Schoenhut experienced difficulty during the recession of the 1980s, folding and eventually re-emerging as the Schoenhut Piano Company in 1997. Today, Schoenhut Piano Company is still the leading manufacturer, with other toy piano manufacturers: Hering from Brazil, Zeada from China, and New Classic Toys from Netherlands.

From 1939 to 1970, Victor Michel improved toy-piano conception. Michelsonne French toy-pianos are known for their uniquely distinctive sound.

Launched in 2000, the annual Toy Piano Festival, held in San Diego at the University of California, San Diego's Geisel Library, features a collection of toy pianos, recordings of compositions, and live performance of existing and new works written for toy pianos. The Festival influenced the Library of Congress to designate, in 2001, a dedicated subject heading and call number, Toy Piano Scores: M175 T69.

Use in musical performance
Though originally made as a child's toy, the toy piano has been used in serious classical and contemporary musical contexts. The most famous example is the "Suite for Toy Piano" (1948) by John Cage. Other works in classical music for the instrument include "Ancient Voices of Children" by George Crumb and a number of pieces by Mauricio Kagel. "Streicher, Tasti et Bizarreries" (2019) by Bijan Olia uses toy piano and melodica in addition to piano quartet.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Talk:Theseus

Immortals Movie
The movie Immortals is an adaptation and amalgamation of many of the myths surrounding Theseus 2603:8090:2240:C8:C4FD:D0B1:CA25:C226 (talk) 03:58, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

Information to be re-added
"* Theseus appears as an antagonist in the PlayStation 2 video game God of War II by Santa Monica Studio, voiced by Paul Eiding. He is depicted as the horsekeeper of the Sisters of Fate and holds the key to various locks guarding the Steeds of Time. He encounters the main protagonist, Kratos on the Island of Creation, when the latter appears to try and change his fated death at Zeus' hands at the beginning of the game. Theseus provokes and battles Kratos only to meet his end after Kratos brutally slams his head with a door. However, Theseus is presumably restored to life when Kratos travels back in time to fight Zeus, which in essence possibly resets the events that occurred on the Island of Creation." That information above needs to be re-added in the video game section of theseus page as the character was portrayed in the God of War 2 video game 2600:1014:B085:7C55:6518:A5F4:6F0E:6CF3 (talk) 13:08, 30 October 2023 (UTC)

 * This seems like trivia to me Furius (talk) 14:01, 30 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Not every mention of Theseus warrants mention here. We would need reliable sources (see WP:RS) which say something relevant, significant or notable about Theseus. Per MOS:POPCULT:
 * Cultural references about a subject should not be included simply because they exist. A Wikipedia article may include a subject's cultural impact by summarizing its coverage in reliable secondary or tertiary sources. A source should cover the subject's cultural impact in some depth; it should not be a source that merely mentions the subject's appearance in a movie, song, television show, or other cultural item.
 * Paul August ☎ 14:23, 30 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Theseus


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Talk:Leif Ericcson

You might want to see the Leif Ericsson page. Danny

title: Talk:Leif Ericcson


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Paramount chieftain

The ancient Norse rulers of Greenland were called paramount chieftains.

Among the island nation's chieftains were:
 * Erik the Red, or Eirikr Thorvaldsson, the nation's first chieftain and its first settler, began rule in 985.
 * Leif Ericson, likely the first European to set foot in North America
 * Thorkell Leifsson succeeded his father, Leif, sometime after 1018.

title: Paramount chieftain


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Aladdin

Aladdin (علاء الدين,, ATU 561, 'Aladdin') is a Middle-Eastern folk tale. It is one of the best-known tales associated with The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (or, The Arabian Nights), despite not being part of the original text; it was added by the Frenchman Antoine Galland, based on a folk tale that he heard from the Syrian Maronite storyteller Hanna Diyab.

Plot summary
The story is often retold with variations. The following is a précis of the Burton translation of 1885.

Aladdin is an impoverished young ne'er-do-well, dwelling in "one of the cities of Ancient China." He is recruited by a sorcerer from the Maghreb, who passes himself off as the brother of Aladdin's late father, Mustapha the tailor, convincing Aladdin and his mother of his good will by pretending to set up the lad as a wealthy merchant. The sorcerer's real motive is to persuade young Aladdin to retrieve a wonderful oil lamp (chirag) from a booby-trapped magic cave. After the sorcerer attempts to double-cross him, Aladdin finds himself trapped in the cave. Aladdin is still wearing a magic ring the sorcerer has lent him. When he rubs his hands in despair, he inadvertently rubs the ring and a genie appears and releases him from the cave, allowing him to return to his mother while in possession of the lamp. When his mother tries to clean the lamp, so they can sell it to buy food for their supper, a second far more powerful genie appears who is bound to do the bidding of the person holding the lamp.

With the aid of the genie of the lamp, Aladdin becomes rich and powerful and marries Princess Badroulbadour, the sultan's daughter (after magically foiling her marriage to the vizier's son). The genie builds Aladdin and his bride a wonderful palace, far more magnificent than the sultan's.

The sorcerer hears of Aladdin's good fortune, and returns; he gets his hands on the lamp by tricking Aladdin's wife (who is unaware of the lamp's importance) by offering to exchange "new lamps for old". He orders the genie of the lamp to take the palace, along with all its contents, to his home in the Maghreb. Aladdin still has the magic ring and is able to summon the lesser genie. The genie of the ring is too weak to directly undo any of the magic of the genie of the lamp, but he is able to transport Aladdin to the Maghreb where, with the help of the "woman's wiles" of the princess, he recovers the lamp and slays the sorcerer, returning the palace to its proper place.

The sorcerer's more powerful and evil brother plots to destroy Aladdin for killing his brother by disguising himself as an old woman known for her healing powers. Badroulbadour falls for his disguise and commands the "woman" to stay in her palace in case of any illnesses. Aladdin is warned of this danger by the genie of the lamp and slays the impostor.

Aladdin eventually succeeds to his father-in-law's throne.

Setting
The opening sentences of the story, in both the Galland and the Burton versions, set it in "one of the cities of China". On the other hand, there is practically nothing in the rest of the story that is inconsistent with a Middle Eastern setting. For instance, the ruler is referred to as "Sultan" rather than "Emperor", as in some retellings, and the people in the story are Muslims and their conversation is filled with Muslim platitudes. A Jewish merchant buys Aladdin's wares, but there is no mention of Buddhists, Daoists or Confucians.

Notably, ethnic groups in Chinese history have long included Muslim groups, including large populations of Uyghurs, and the Hui people as well as the Tajiks whose origins go back to Silk Road travelers. Islamic communities have been known to exist in the region since the Tang dynasty (which rose to power simultaneously with the prophet Muhammad's career.) Some have suggested that the intended setting may be Turkestan (encompassing Central Asia and the modern-day Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang in Western China). The Arabicized Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate, which was located in this region and had a strong identification with China, bears a strong resemblance to the setting, their rulers even adopting the Arab title of Sultan, even going so far as to adopt the title of "Sultan of the East and China", which was used alongside Turkic titles such as Khan (title) and Khagan, however chancellors were referred to as the Hajib as opposed to the Vizier.

For all this, speculation about a "real" Chinese setting depends on a knowledge of China that the teller of a folk tale (as opposed to a geographic expert) might well not possess. In early Arabic usage, China is known to have been used in an abstract sense to designate an exotic, faraway land.

Tale type
The story of Aladdin is classified in the Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index as tale type ATU 561, "Aladdin", after the character. In the Index, the Aladdin story is situated next to two similar tale types: ATU 560, The Magic Ring, and ATU 562, The Spirit in the Blue Light. All of these stories deal with a down-on-his-luck and impoverished boy or soldier, who finds a magical item (ring, lamp, tinderbox) that grants his wishes. In this tale type, the magical item is stolen, but eventually recovered thanks to the use of another magical object.

Distribution
Since its appearance in The One Thousand and One Nights, the tale has integrated into oral tradition. Scholars Ton Deker and Theo Meder located variants across Europe and the Middle East.

An Indian variant has been attested, titled The Magic Lamp and collected among the Santal people.

Adaptations
Adaptations vary in their faithfulness to the original story. In particular, difficulties with the Chinese setting are quite often resolved by giving the story a more typical Arabian Nights background.

Books

 * One of the many literary retellings of the tale appears in A Book of Wizards (1966) and A Choice of Magic (1971), by Ruth Manning-Sanders. Another is the early Penguin version for children, Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp, illustrated by John Harwood with many Chinese details; the translator or re-teller is not acknowledged. This was a "Porpoise" imprint printed in 1947 and released in 1948.
 * Aladdin: Master of the Lamp (1992), edited by Mike Resnick and Martin H. Greenberg, is an anthology containing 43 original short stories inspired by the tale.
 * "The Nobility of Faith" by Jonathan Clements, in the anthology Doctor Who Short Trips: The Ghosts of Christmas (2007), is a retelling of the Aladdin story in the style of the Arabian Nights, but featuring the Doctor in the role of the genie.

Western comics

 * In 1962, the Italian branch of Walt Disney Productions published the story Paperino e la grotta di Aladino (Donald and Aladdin's Cave), written by Osvaldo Pavese and drawn by Pier Lorenzo De Vita. As in many pantomimes, the plot is combined with elements of the Ali Baba story: Uncle Scrooge leads Donald Duck and their nephews on an expedition to find the treasure of Aladdin and they encounter the Middle Eastern counterparts of the Beagle Boys. Scrooge describes Aladdin as a brigand who used the legend of the lamp to cover the origins of his ill-gotten gains. They find the cave holding the treasure—blocked by a huge rock requiring a magic password ("open sesame") to open.
 * The original version of the comic book character Green Lantern was partly inspired by the Aladdin myth; the protagonist discovers a "lantern-shaped power source and a 'power ring which gives him the power to create and control matter.
 * In the Elseworlds series, there was even a story that combined the Green Lantern mythos with that of Aladdin called Green Lantern: 1001 Emerald Nights.

Manga

 * The Japanese manga series Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic is not a direct adaptation, but features Aladdin as the main character of the story and includes many characters from other One Thousand and One Nights stories. An adaptation of this comic to an anime television series was made in October 2012 in which Aladdin is voiced by Kaori Ishihara in Japanese and Erica Mendez in English.

Pantomimes

 * In the United Kingdom, the story of Aladdin was dramatised in 1788 by John O'Keefe for the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. It has been a popular subject for pantomime for over 200 years.
 * The traditional Aladdin pantomime is the source of the well-known pantomime character Widow Twankey (Aladdin's mother). In pantomime versions, changes in the setting and story are often made to fit it better into "China" (albeit a China situated in the East End of London rather than medieval Baghdad), and elements of other Arabian Nights tales (in particular Ali Baba) are often introduced into the plot. One version of the "pantomime Aladdin" is Sandy Wilson's musical Aladdin, from 1979.
 * Since the early 1990s, Aladdin pantomimes have tended to be influenced by the Disney animation. For instance, the 2007/8 production at the Birmingham Hippodrome starring John Barrowman featured songs from the Disney movies Aladdin and Mulan.

Other musical theatre

 * The New Aladdin was a successful Edwardian musical comedy in 1906.
 * Adam Oehlenschläger wrote his verse drama Aladdin in 1805. Carl Nielsen wrote incidental music for this play in 1918–19. Ferruccio Busoni set some verses from the last scene of Oehlenschläger's Aladdin in the last movement of his Piano Concerto, Op. 39.
 * In 1958, a musical comedy version of Aladdin was written especially for U.S. television, with a book by S. J. Perelman and music and lyrics by Cole Porter. A London stage production followed in 1959, in which a 30-year-old Bob Monkhouse played the part of Aladdin at the Coliseum Theatre.
 * Aladdin, Prince Street Players version; book by Jim Eiler, music by Jim Eiler and Jeanne Bargy, lyrics by Jim Eiler.
 * Broadway Junior has released Aladdin Jr., a children's musical based on the music and screenplay of the Disney animation.
 * The Disney's Aladdin: A Musical Spectacular musical stage show ran at Disney California Adventure from January 2003 to January 10, 2016.
 * StarKid Productions released the musical Twisted on YouTube in 2013, a parody of the 1992 Disney film that is told from the royal vizier's point of view.
 * A Disney Theatrical Production of Aladdin opened in 2011 in Seattle, in Toronto in 2013, and on Broadway at the New Amsterdam Theatre on March 20, 2014.

Animation: Europe and Asia

 * The 1926 animated film The Adventures of Prince Achmed (the earliest surviving animated feature film) combined the story of Aladdin with that of the prince. In this version the princess Aladdin pursues is Achmed's sister and the sorcerer is his rival for her hand. The sorcerer steals the castle and the princess through his own magic and then sets a monster to attack Aladdin, from which Achmed rescues him. Achmed then informs Aladdin he requires the lamp to rescue his own intended wife, Princess Pari Banou, from the demons of the Island of Wak Wak. They convince the Witch of the Fiery Mountain to defeat the sorcerer, and then all three heroes join forces to battle the demons.
 * A Thousand and One Nights is a 1969 Japanese adult anime feature film directed by Eiichi Yamamoto, conceived by Osamu Tezuka. The film is a first part of Mushi Production's Animerama, a series of films aimed at an adult audience.
 * The animated feature Aladdin et la lampe merveilleuse by Film Jean Image was released in 1970 in France. The story contains many of the original elements of the story as compared to the Disney version.
 * Aladdin and his Wonderful Lamp (1975), Japanese short anime film produced by Toei Animation, featured in the series Classic Tales Retold (Sekai Meisaku Dōwa Manga Shirīzu).
 * Aladdin and the Magic Lamp was a rendition in Japanese directed by Yoshikatsu Kasai, produced in Japan by Toei Animation and released in the United States by The Samuel Goldwyn Company in 1982.
 * Son of Aladdin is a 2003 Indian 3D-animated fantasy-adventure film by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao, produced by Pentamedia Graphics. It follows the adventures of the son of Aladdin and his fight with an evil sorcerer.

Animation: United States

 * In the 1934 short film Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, Aladdin is a child laborer who finds a magic lamp and uses it to become a prince.
 * In the 1938 animated film Have You Got Any Castles?, Aladdin makes a brief appearance asking for help but gets punched by one of the Three Musketeers.
 * Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp is a 1939 Popeye the Sailor cartoon.
 * In the 1942 animated film Foney Fables, Aladdin makes another brief appearance rubbing the magic lamp, but the genie is on strike.
 * The 1959 animated film 1001 Arabian Nights, starring Mr. Magoo as Aladdin's uncle and produced by UPA.
 * DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp is heavily based on Aladdin, but with Huey, Dewey, and Louie replacing the title character.
 * Aladdin is a 48-minute animated film based on the story. It was produced by Golden Films and the American Film Investment Corporation. Like all other Golden Films productions, the film featured a single song, "Rub the Lamp", written and composed by Richard Hurwitz and John Arrias. It was released direct to video on April 27, 1992 by GoodTimes Home Video (months before Disney's version was released), and was reissued on DVD in 2002 as part of the distributor's Collectible Classics line of products.
 * Aladdin, the 1992 animated feature by Walt Disney Feature Animation (currently the best-known retelling of the story). In this version, several characters are renamed or amalgamated. For instance, the Sorcerer and the Sultan's vizier were combined into one character named Jafar, while the Princess is renamed Jasmine. They have new motivations for their actions. The Genie of the Lamp only grants three wishes and desires freedom from his role. A sentient magic carpet replaces the ring's genie, while Jafar uses a royal magic ring to find Aladdin. The names "Jafar" and "Abu", the Sultan's delight in toys, and their physical appearances are borrowed from the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad. The setting is moved from China to the fictional Arabian city of Agrabah, and the structure of the plot is simplified.
 * The Return of Jafar (1994), the first direct-to-video sequel to the 1992 Walt Disney movie.
 * Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996), the direct-to-video second and final sequel to the 1992 Walt Disney movie.

Live-action: English language films

 * Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp (1917), directed by Chester M. Franklin and Sidney A. Franklin and released by the Fox Film Corporation, told the story using child actors. It is the earliest known filmed adaptation of the story.
 * The 1940 British movie The Thief of Bagdad borrows elements of the Aladdin story, although it also departs from the original story fairly freely: for instance the genie grants only three wishes and the minor character of the Emperor's vizier is renamed Jaffar and becomes the main villain, replacing the sorcerer from the original plot.
 * Arabian Nights is a 1942 adventure film directed by John Rawlins and starring Sabu, Maria Montez, Jon Hall and Leif Erickson. The film is derived from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights but owes more to the imagination of Universal Pictures than the original Arabian stories. Unlike other films in the genre (The Thief of Bagdad), it features no monsters or supernatural elements.
 * A Thousand and One Nights (1945) is a tongue-in-cheek Technicolor fantasy film set in the Baghdad of the One Thousand and One Nights, starring Cornel Wilde as Aladdin, Evelyn Keyes as the genie of the magic lamp, Phil Silvers as Aladdin's larcenous sidekick, and Adele Jergens as the princess Aladdin loves.
 * Aladdin and His Lamp, a 1952 fantasy adventure film with Johnny Sands and Patricia Medina as Aladdin and Princess Jasmine.
 * The Wonders of Aladdin is a 1961 film directed by Mario Bava and Henry Levin and starring Donald O'Connor as Aladdin. This film has a more working-class focus: Aladdin helps the prince (Mario Girotti) and princess (as does a fakir) but never becomes one and ends up in a romantic relationship with his neighbor, Djalma (Noelle Adam).  The genie (Vittorio De Sica) can grant only three wishes (although what constitutes as a single wish is quite malleable, probably due to his sympathies with Aladdin) and shrinks with each one, which is leading to his eternal rest after 12,000 years.
 * 1001 Nights (Les 1001 nuits), a 1990 French-Italian film with Catherine Zeta-Jones, Stéphane Freiss and Vittorio Gassman, loosely based on Sherazade's and Aladdin's stories.
 * The Erotic Adventures of Aladdin X, a 1994 Italian pornographic film with Christoph Clark.
 * A 1998 direct-to-video movie A Kid in Aladdin's Palace directed by Robert L. Levy which is a sequel to A Kid in King Arthur's Court.
 * Adventures of Aladdin (2019), a mockbuster produced by The Asylum.
 * Aladdin, a Disney live-action remake of the 1992 animated film, released in 2019. It stars Mena Massoud as the title character, Naomi Scott as Jasmine, Marwan Kenzari as Jafar, and Will Smith as the Genie.

Live-action: Non-English language films

 * Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp is a 1927 Indian silent film, by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra, based on the folktale.
 * Alladin and the Wonderful Lamp is a 1931 Indian silent film, adapted from the folktale, by Jal Ariah.
 * Aladdin Aur Jadui Chirag (Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp) is a 1933 Indian Hindi-language fantasy-adventure film by Jal Ariah. A remake of the 1931 film in sound.
 * Aaj Ka Aladdin (Today's Aladdin) is a 1935 Indian Hindi-language film by Nagendra Majumdar. It is a modern retelling of the folktale.
 * Aladdin Aur Jadui Chirag (Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp) is a 1937 Indian Hindi-language film adaptation by Navinchandra.
 * Aladdin Aur Jadui Chirag (Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp) is a 1952 Indian Hindi-language musical fantasy-adventure film by Homi Wadia, starring Mahipal as Aladdin and Meena Kumari as Princess Badar.
 * Alif-Laila is a 1955 Indian Hindi-language fantasy film by K. Amarnath, Vijay Kumar portrays the character of Aladdin with actress Nimmi as the female genie.
 * Chirag-e-Cheen (Lamp of China) is a 1955 Indian Hindi-language film adaptation by G.P. Pawar and C. M. Trivedi.
 * Alladin Ka Beta (Son of Alladin) is a 1955 Indian Hindi-language action film, it follows the story of the son of Alladin.
 * Alladin and the Wonderful Lamp is a 1957 Indian fantasy film by T. R. Raghunath. Based on the story of Aladdin, it was simultaneously filmed in Telugu, Tamil and Hindi with Akkineni Nageshwara Rao portraying the title character.
 * Alladdin Laila is a 1957 Indian Hindi-language film by Lekhraj Bhakri, starring Mahipal, Lalita Pawar and Shakila.
 * Sindbad Alibaba and Aladdin is a 1965 Indian Hindi-language musical fantasy-adventure film by Prem Narayan Arora. It features the three most popular characters from the Arabian Nights. Very loosely based on the original, in which the heroes get to meet and share in each other's adventures. In this version, the lamp's jinni (genie) is female and Aladdin marries her rather than the princess (she becomes a mortal woman for his sake).
 * Main Hoon Aladdin (I am Aladdin) is a 1965 Indian Hindi-language film by Mohammed Hussain, starring Ajit in the title role.
 * A Soviet film Volshebnaia Lampa Aladdina ("Aladdin's Magic Lamp") was released in 1966.
 * A Mexican production, Pepito y la Lampara Maravillosa was made en 1972, where comedian Chabelo plays the role of the genie who grant wishes to a young kid called Pepito in 1970s Mexico City.
 * Adventures of Aladdin is a 1978 Indian Hindi-language adventure-film based on the tale, by Homi Wadia.
 * Allauddinum Albhutha Vilakkum (Aladdin and the Magic Lamp) is a 1979 Indian adventure fantasy-drama film by I. V. Sasi. It was simultaneously filmed in Malayalam and Tamil with Kamal Haasan in the title role.
 * In 1986, an Italian production (under supervision of Golan-Globus) of a modern-day Aladdin was filmed in Miami under the title Superfantagenio, starring actor Bud Spencer as the genie and his daughter Diamante as the daughter of a police sergeant.
 * Aladin is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language fantasy action film directed by Sujoy Ghosh. The film stars Ritesh Deshmukh in the title role, along with Amitabh Bachchan, Jacqueline Fernandez and Sanjay Dutt.
 * The New Adventures of Aladdin, France modern retelling of the tale of Aladdin.
 * Alad'2, second sequel to the French movie The New Adventures of Aladdin (2018).
 * Ashchorjyo Prodeep is a 2013 Indian Bengali-language film by Anik Dutta. This film is based on a Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay novel of the same name and deals with the issues of consumerism. It is a modern adaptation of Aladdin about the story of a middle-class man (played by Saswata Chatterjee) who accidentally finds a magic lamp containing a Jinn (played by Rajatava Dutta).
 * Aladin Saha Puduma Pahana was released in 2018 in Sri Lanka in Sinhala language.

Animation: English language

 * The Arabian Nights, episode of the Rankin/Bass series Festival of Family Classics (1972-1973), inspired by different tales of the collection, also including Aladdin.
 * Grinder Genie and the Magic Lamp (1987), episode of Sanrio and DIC series Hello Kitty's Furry Tale Theater.
 * "Aladdin and the Magic Lamp", an episode of Rabbit Ears Productions' We All Have Tales series, televised on PBS in 1991, featuring John Hurt as narrator, with illustrations by Greg Couch and music by Mickey Hart. This version is set in Isfahan, Persia, and closely follows the original plot, including the origin of the sorcerer. The audiobook version was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children in 1994.
 * Aladdin, an animated series produced by Disney based on their movie adaptation that ran from 1994 to 1995.
 * Aladdin featured in an episode of Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child. The story was set in "Ancient China", but otherwise had a tenuous connection with the original plot.

Animation: Non-English language

 * An elderly version of Aladdin appears as a protagonist in the 1975 anime series Arabian Nights: Sinbad's Adventures. Furthermore, the same story is adapted in episodes 14-16.
 * Anime series Manga Sekai Mukashi Banashi (1976-1979) features a 10-minute adaptation in episode 37.
 * An episode of French animated series Les Mille et Une Nuits (1993).
 * Pekkle - Aladdin and His Magic Lamp (1993), an episode of OVA series Hello Kitty and Friends.
 * World Fairy Tale Series (Sekai meisaku dōwa shirīzu - Wa-o! Meruhen ōkoku), anime series produced by Toei Animation based on classic tales. Episode 1 is an adaptation of Aladdin.
 * Episode of 2001 series Hello Kitty's Animation Theater (Sanrio Anime Sekai Meisaku Gekijō).
 * Episode 15 of the third season of the German animated series Simsala Grimm (1999-2010).
 * Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic (2012), adaptation of the eponymous manga.

Live-action: English language

 * Aladdin is a 1958 musical fantasy written especially for television with a book by S.J. Perelman and music and lyrics by Cole Porter, telecast in color on the DuPont Show of the Month by CBS.
 * Aladdin appeared in episode 297 of Sesame Street performed by Frank Oz. This version was made from a large lavender live-hand Anything Muppet.
 * A segment of the Marty Feldman episode of The Muppet Show retells the story of Aladdin with The Great Gonzo in the role of Aladdin and Marty Feldman playing the genie of the lamp.
 * A 1967 TV movie was based on the Prince Street Players stage musical. This version is very close to the touring musical with about 15 minutes cut to be adapted into the 50 minutes tv program. It had Will B. Able as the Genii and Fred Grades as Aladdin.
 * In 1986, the program Faerie Tale Theatre based an episode on the story called "Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp", directed by Tim Burton and starring Robert Carradine as Aladdin and James Earl Jones as both the ring Genie and the lamp Genie.
 * In 1990 Disney made a direct to TV movie based on the Prince Street Players stage musical, starring Barry Bostwick.
 * Aladdin features as one of five stories in the Hallmark Entertainment TV miniseries Arabian Nights in 2000, featuring Jason Scott Lee as Aladdin and John Leguizamo as both of the genies.
 * The characters of Aladdin, Jasmine, Jafar and the Sultan, along with Agrabah as the setting and the genie of the lamp were adapted into the sixth season of TV series Once Upon a Time, with Aladdin portrayed by Deniz Akdeniz, Jasmine portrayed by Karen David, and Jafar portrayed by Oded Fehr. Jafar previously appeared in the spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, portrayed by Naveen Andrews. Both were produced by ABC Television Studios and based on the Disney version of the story.

Live-action: Non-English language

 * In Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger, the sixteenth installment of the long-running Super Sentai metaseries, the Djinn (voiced by Eisuke Yoda) that appears in the eleventh episode ("My Master!" Transcription: "Goshujin-sama!" (Japanese: ご主人さま!)) reveals that he was the genie from the tale of "Aladdin and the Magic Lamp", which did take place.
 * The story of Aladdin was featured in Alif Laila, an Indian TV series directed by Ramanand Sagar in 1994 and telecasted on DD National.
 * Aladdin – Jaanbaaz Ek Jalwe Anek (2007–2009), an Indian fantasy television series based on the story of Aladdin that aired on Zee TV, starring Mandar Jadhav in the title role of Aladdin.
 * Aladdin - Naam Toh Suna Hoga (2018–2021), a live-action Indian fantasy television show on SAB TV starring Siddharth Nigam as Aladdin and Avneet Kaur/Ashi Singh as Yasmine.

Video games

 * A number of video games were based on the Disney movie:
 * The Genesis version (also on Amiga, MS-DOS, NES, Game Boy, and Game Boy Color) by Virgin Games.
 * The SNES version (also on Game Boy Advance) by Capcom.
 * The Master System version (also on Game Gear) by SIMS.
 * Nasira's Revenge for the PlayStation and Windows by Argonaut Games.
 * The Disney version of Aladdin appears throughout the Disney/Square Enix crossover series Kingdom Hearts, with Agrabah being a visitable world.
 * The video game Sonic and the Secret Rings is heavily based on the story of Aladdin, and both genies appear in the story. The genie of the lamp is the main antagonist, known in the game as the Erazor Djinn, and the genie of the ring, known in the game as Shahra, appears as Sonic's sidekick and guide through the game. Furthermore, the ring genie is notably lesser than the lamp genie in the story.
 * In 2010, Anuman Interactive launched Aladin and the Enchanted Lamp, a hidden object game on PC and Mac.
 * In 2016, Saturn Animation Studio produced an interactive adaptation of The Magical Lamp of Aladdin for mobile devices.

Pachinko
Sega Sammy have released a line of pachinko machines based on Aladdin since 1989. Sega Sammy have sold over 570,000 Aladdin pachinko machines in Japan,. At an average price of about $5,000, this is equivalent to approximately US$billion in pachinko sales revenue.

title: Aladdin


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Allan Kardec

Allan Kardec is the pen name of the French educator, translator, and author Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail (3 October 1804 – 31 March 1869). He is the author of the five books known as the Spiritist Codification, and the founder of Spiritism.

Early life
Rivail was born in Lyon in 1804 and raised as a Roman Catholic. He pursued interests in philosophy and the sciences, and became an acolyte and colleague of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Rivail completed a Bachelor of Arts and a doctorate in medicine. He was also fluent in German, English, Italian, and Spanish, in addition to his native French. Kardec became interested in Protestantism after his education in Switzerland.

Career
He was a member of several scholarly societies, including the Historic Institute of Paris (Institut Historique), Society of Natural Sciences of France (Société des Sciences Naturelles de France), Society for the Encouragement of National Industry (Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale), and The Royal Academy of Arras (Académie d'Arras, Société Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Arts). He organized and taught free courses for the underprivileged.

Educator
Rivail's work with Pestalozzi helped lay the foundations for the teaching model in schools in France and Germany. For several decades he helped advance Pestalozzi's pedagogy in France, founding schools and working as a teacher, educational writer and translator.

Banker
In 1839, with a new partner, Mr. Maurice Delachatre, a merchant, he created a so-called "exchange" bank, which aimed to facilitate commercial transactions and thus create new opportunities for trade and industry, in order to support in default of pecuniary resources for the natural products. The duration of the trading bank was fixed by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry at ten years.

Spiritualism
According to “My predictions concerning spiritualism” as he himself described in his manuscript written between 1855 and 1856, "in May 1855, he met a certain Mr. Fortier, a magnetizer, who took him to Madame de Plainemaison, a medium who lived in the Rue de la Grange Bateliere in Paris, just a step away from the Opera House. In the presence of other guests for the session, he entered into communication with a spirit named Zephyr, who gave him the mission of being the spokesman of the Dead. For him, it was a revelation. He was there, for the first time, witnessing the phenomenon of turntables jumping and running".

Spiritism
Rivail was in his early 50s when he became interested in séances, which were a popular entertainment at the time. Strange phenomena attributed to the action of spirits were considered a novelty, featuring objects that moved or "tapped", purportedly under the control of "spirits". In some cases, this was alleged to be a type of communication: the supposed spirits answered questions by controlling the movements of objects so as to pick out letters to form words, or simply indicate "yes" or "no". At the time, Franz Mesmer's theory of animal magnetism had become popular. When confronted with the phenomena described, some researchers, including Rivail, pointed out that animal magnetism might explain them. Rivail, however, after seeing a demonstration, dismissed animal magnetism as insufficient to explain his observations.

As a result of these influences, Rivail began his own investigation of psychic phenomena, mainly mediumship. During his initial investigation, he stated that before accepting a spiritual or paranormal cause for some phenomena, it would be necessary first to test if ordinary material causes could explain them. He proposed that fraud, hallucination and unconscious mental activity might explain many phenomena regarded as mediumistic, and also proposed that telepathy and clairvoyance may be responsible.

He compiled over one thousand questions concerning the nature and mechanisms of spirit communications, the reasons for human life on earth, and aspects of the spiritual realm. He asked those questions to ten mediums, all purportedly unknown to each other, and documented their responses. From these, he concluded that the best explanation was that personalities that had survived death were the source of at least some mediumistic communications. He became convinced that the mediums:

 * provided accurate information unknown to themselves or others present (e.g. personal information about deceased individuals);
 * demonstrated unlearned skills such as writing by illiterate mediums, handwriting similar to the alleged communicating personality, and speaking or writing in a language unknown to the medium (xenoglossy and xenography);
 * accurately portrayed a range of personality characteristics of deceased individuals.

He compiled the mediums' responses that were consistent and adapted them into a philosophy that he called Spiritism, which he initially defined as "a science that deals with the nature, origin, and destiny of spirits, and their relation with the corporeal world."

Rivail wrote under the name "Allan Kardec", allegedly following the suggestion of a spirit identified as "Truth". On 18 April 1857, as Allan Kardec, Rivail published his first book on Spiritism, The Spirits Book, comprising a series of answered questions (502 in the first edition and 1,019 in later editions) exploring matters concerning the nature of spirits, the spirit world, and the relationship between the spirit world and the material world. This was followed by a series of other books, including The Medium's Book, The Gospel According to Spiritism, Heaven and Hell and The Genesis According to Spiritism, and by a periodical, the Revue Spirite, which Kardec published until his death. Collectively, the books became known as the Spiritist Codification.

Kardec's research influenced the psychical research of Charles Richet, Camille Flammarion and Gabriel Delanne.

Family
On 6 February 1832 he married Amélie Gabrielle Boudet.

Death
After his death caused by aneurysm in 1869, Kardec was buried at the Cimetière du Père Lachaise.

Writings

 * Cours pratique et théorique d'arithmétique (1824)
 * Plan proposé pour l'amélioration de l'éducation publique (1828)
 * Catéchisme grammatical de la langue française (1848)
 * Le Livre des Esprits (The Spirits Book), 1857
 * Le Livre des Médiums (The Book on Mediums), 1861
 * L'Évangile selon le Spiritisme (The Gospel According to Spiritism), 1864
 * Le Ciel et L'Enfer (Heaven and Hell), 1865
 * La Genèse (Genesis or,Genesis According to Spiritism), 1868

title: Allan Kardec


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Saronic Gulf

The Saronic Gulf (Greek: Σαρωνικός κόλπος, Saronikós kólpos) or Gulf of Aegina in Greece is formed between the peninsulas of Attica and Argolis and forms part of the Aegean Sea. It defines the eastern side of the isthmus of Corinth, being the eastern terminus of the Corinth Canal, which cuts across the isthmus. The Saronic Islands in the gulf have played a pivotal role in the history of Greece, with the largest, Salamis being the location of a significant naval battle in the Greco-Persian wars. The Megara Gulf makes up the northern end of the Saronic Gulf.

The Athens urban area lies on the north coast of the Saronic Gulf.

Etymology
The origin of the gulf's name comes from the mythological king Saron who drowned at the Psifaei lake (modern Psifta). The Saronic Gulf was a string of six entrances to the Underworld, each guarded by a chthonic enemy in the shape of a thief or bandit.

History
The Battle of Salamis, just to the west of modern-day Piraeus, took place in the Saronic Gulf. This naval battle off Salamis Island saw the Athenians defeat Xerxes, assuring Athens its place as the cradle of modern European culture.

The ancient port of Cenchreae used to be situated here.

Geography
The gulf includes the islands of Aegina, Salamis, and Poros along with smaller islands of Patroklos and Fleves. The port of Piraeus, Athens' port, lies on the northeastern edge of the gulf. The site of the former Ellinikon International Airport is also in the northeast.

Beaches line much of the gulf coast from Poros to Epidaurus, Galataki to Kineta and from Megara to Eleusis and from Piraeus down to Anavyssos. Athens' urban area surrounds the northern and the eastern coasts of this gulf.

Bays in the gulf include Phaleron Bay, Elefsina Bay to the north, Kechries Bay in the northwest and Sofiko Bay in the east.

The volcano of Methana is located to the southwest along with Kromyonia at the Isthmus of Corinth, Aegina and Poros. Methana is also the youngest most active volcano center and forms the northwestern end of the cycladic arch of active volcanoes that includes Milos island, Santorini island and Nisyros island. A hydropathic institute at Methana makes use of the hot sulphurous water that still surfaces in the area. The most recent eruption was of a submarine volcano north of Methana in the 17th century.

The gulf has refineries around the northern part of the gulf including east of Corinth and west of Agioi Theodoroi, Eleusis, Aspropyrgos, Skaramangas and Keratsini. These refineries produce most of Greece's refined petroleum products, a large proportion of which are then exported. Commercial shipping to the refineries, Piraeus, and to and from the canal make the gulf quite a busy area with commercial shipping.

Fault lines dominate especially in the northwestern part.

Tributaries

 * Kechries Bay
 * Saronic Bay Coast (basin)
 * Lower Galataki Basin
 * Upper Galataki Basin
 * Examilia Basin
 * Athikia Basin
 * Loutro Basin
 * Megara Bay/Megara Gulf
 * Cephissus River (Eleusis)
 * Cephissus (Athenian plain) between Piraeus and Phaliron.

Capes

 * Cape Lomvardi - SW of Vouliagmeni

Sailing
Sailing is popular in the Saronic Gulf which, like the neighbouring Argolic Gulf, benefits from the Attic mainland's partial shelter from the summer Meltemi wind that can reach Force 7 and above further to the east in the Aegean islands.

The Gulf boasts two particularly notable archaeological sites: the ancient theatre at Epidaurus and nearby asclepieion and the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina.

Other
The Saronic Gulf is one of congregating areas for short-beaked common dolphins in Aegean Sea. On recent occasions, more of large whales such as fin whales have been sighted in the gulf due to improving environmental conditions.

title: Saronic Gulf


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List of micronations

Micronations, sometimes also referred to as model countries and new country projects, are small, self-proclaimed entities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of the recognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused with microstates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused with unrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries.

Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.

The following is a list of notable micronations.

title: List of micronations


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Ludwig I of Bavaria

Ludwig I or Louis I (Ludwig I.; 25 August 1786 – 29 February 1868) was King of Bavaria from 1825 until the 1848 revolutions in the German states. When he was crown prince, he was involved in the Napoleonic Wars. As king, he encouraged Bavaria's industrialization, initiating the Ludwig Canal between the rivers Main and the Danube. In 1835, the first German railway was constructed in his domain, between the cities of Fürth and Nuremberg, with his Bavaria joining the Zollverein economic union in 1834. After the July Revolution of 1830 in France, Ludwig's previous liberal policy became increasingly repressive; in 1844, Ludwig was confronted during the Beer riots in Bavaria. During the revolutions of 1848 the king faced increasing protests and demonstrations by students and the middle classes. On 20 March 1848, he abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Maximilian.

Ludwig lived for another twenty years after his abdication and remained influential. An admirer of ancient Greece and the Italian Renaissance, Ludwig patronized the arts and commissioned several neoclassical buildings, especially in Munich. He was an avid collector of arts, amassing paintings from the Early German and Early Dutch periods as well as Graeco-Roman sculptures.

All living legitimate agnatic members of the House of Wittelsbach descend from him.

Crown prince
Born in the Zweibrücker Hof in Straßburg as Ludwig Karl August von Pfalz-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken, he was the son of Count Palatine Maximilian Joseph of Zweibrücken (later Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria) by his first wife Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt. At the time of his birth, his father was an officer in the French army stationed at Strasbourg. He was the godson and namesake of Louis XVI of France. On 1 April 1795 his father succeeded Ludwig's uncle, Charles II, as duke of Zweibrücken, and on  16 February 1799 became Elector of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Arch-Steward of the Empire, and Duke of Berg on the extinction of the Sulzbach line with the death of the elector Charles Theodore. His father assumed the title of King of Bavaria on 1 January 1806.

Starting in 1803 Ludwig studied in Landshut where he was taught by Johann Michael Sailer and in Göttingen. On 12 October 1810 he married Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1792–1854), the daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The wedding was the occasion of the first-ever Oktoberfest.

Ludwig strongly rejected the alliance of his father with Napoleon I of France but in spite of his anti-French politics the crown prince had to join the emperor's wars with allied Bavarian troops in 1806. As commander of the 1st Bavarian Division in VII Corps, he served under Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre in 1809. He led his division in action at the Battle of Abensberg on 20 April.

With the Treaty of Ried of 8 October 1813 Bavaria left the Confederation of the Rhine and agreed to join the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in exchange for a guarantee of her continued sovereign and independent status. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede.

Already at the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Ludwig advocated a German national policy. Until 1816 the crown prince served as governor-general of the Duchy of Salzburg, whose cession to Austria he strongly opposed. His second son Otto, the later King of Greece, was born there. Between 1816 and 1825, he spent his years in Würzburg. He also made numerous trips to Italy and stayed often in the Villa Malta (Pincio hill) in Rome, which he later also bought (1827). Ludwig supported generously as a Philhellene the Greek War of Independence, in which he in the war of 1821 provided a loan of 1.5 million florins from his private funds.

In 1817 Ludwig was also involved in the fall of Prime Minister Count Max Josef von Montgelas whose policies he had opposed. He succeeded his father on the throne in 1825.

Reign
Ludwig's rule was strongly affected by his enthusiasm for the arts and women and by his overreaching royal assertiveness.

An enthusiast for the German Middle Ages, Ludwig ordered the re-erection of several monasteries in Bavaria which had been closed during the German mediatisation. He reorganized the administrative regions of Bavaria in 1837 and re-introduced the old names Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Palatinate and Palatinate. He changed his royal titles to Ludwig, King of Bavaria, Duke of Franconia, Duke in Swabia and Count Palatine of the Rhine. His successors kept these titles.

Ludwig's plan to reunite the eastern part of the Palatinate with Bavaria could not be realized. The Electoral Palatinate, a former dominion of the Wittelsbach, had disappeared under Napoleon when France first annexed the left bank of the Rhine, including about half of the Palatinate, and then gave what remained on the right bank including, Mannheim and Heidelberg, to Baden during the German Mediatization of 1803. In 1815, Baden's possession of Manheim and Heidelberg was confirmed and only the left bank territories were given back to Bavaria. Ludwig founded the city of Ludwigshafen there as a Bavarian rival to Mannheim.

Ludwig moved the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität from Landshut to Munich in 1826. The king also encouraged Bavaria's industrialization. He initiated the Ludwig Canal between the rivers Main and the Danube. In 1835 the first German railway was constructed in his domain, between the cities of Fürth and Nuremberg. Bavaria joined the Zollverein in 1834.

As Ludwig had supported the Greek fight of independence his second son Otto was elected king of Greece in 1832. Otto's government was initially run by a three-man regency council made up of Bavarian court officials.

After the July Revolution of 1830 in France, Ludwig's previous liberal policy became more and more repressive. The Hambacher Fest in 1832 revealed the discontent of the population caused by high taxes and censorship. In connection with the unrest of May 1832, some 142 political trials were initiated. The seven death sentences that were pronounced were commuted to long-term imprisonment by the king. About 1,000 political trials were to take place during Ludwig's reign. The strict censorship, which he had reinstated after having abolished it in 1825, was opposed by large sectors of the population.

In 1837 the Ultramontanes backed by the Roman Catholic Church gained control of the Bavarian parliament and began a campaign of changes to the constitution, such as removing civil rights that had earlier been granted to Protestants, as well as enforcing political censorship. On 14 August 1838, the King issued an order for all members of the military to kneel in the presence of the Blessed Sacrament at Corpus Christi processions and church services. The policy, which had been in place when Bavaria was still almost purely Catholic before 1803, had been discontinued after the inclusion of large Protestant areas. Catholic disturbances during the funeral of the Protestant Queen Caroline of Baden in 1841 caused a scandal. This treatment of his beloved stepmother permanently softened the attitude of Caroline's stepson Ludwig I, who had been a strong opponent of Protestantism in spite of his marriage to a Protestant princess, Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The Ultramontanes' regime only ended due to their demands against the naturalization of Ludwig I's Irish-born mistress Eliza Gilbert (better known by her stage name Lola Montez). Ludwig resented that move, and the Ultramontanes under Karl von Abel were pushed out.

Already in 1844, Ludwig was confronted with the Beer riots in Bavaria. During the revolutions of 1848 the king faced increasing protests and demonstrations by the students and the middle classes. The king had ordered to close the university in February, and on 4 March, a large crowd assaulted the Armory to storm the Munich Residenz. Ludwig's brother Prince Karl managed to appease the protesters, but the royal family and the Cabinet now turned against Ludwig. He had to sign the so-called "March Proclamation" with substantial concessions. On 16 March 1848 it was followed by renewed unrest because Lola Montez had returned to Munich after a short exile. Ludwig had to let her be searched by the police on 17 March, which was the worst humiliation for him. Not willing to rule as a constitutional monarch, Ludwig abdicated on 20 March 1848 in favour of his eldest son, Maximilian.

Ludwig lived for another 20 years after his abdication and remained influential, especially as he continued several of his cultural projects. For most of his time in Munich his residence was the neo-Gothic Wittelsbacher Palais, once built for his successor and unloved by Ludwig. He died at Nice in 1868 and was buried in St. Boniface's Abbey, Munich, which he had ordered to be built.

Cultural legacy
As admirer of ancient Greece and the Italian Renaissance, Ludwig patronized the arts as principal of many neoclassical buildings, especially in Munich, and as fanatic collector. Among others he commissioned the Walhalla temple, the Befreiungshalle, the Villa Ludwigshöhe, the Pompejanum, the Ludwigstraße, the Bavaria statue, the Ruhmeshalle, the Glyptothek, the Old and the New Pinakothek. His architects Leo von Klenze and Friedrich von Gärtner also strongly influenced the cityscape of modern Athens.

Already as crown prince Ludwig collected Early German and Early Dutch paintings, masterpieces of the Italian renaissance, and contemporary art for his museums and galleries. He also placed special emphasis on collecting Greek and Roman sculpture. Through his agents, he managed to acquire such pieces as the Medusa Rondanini, the Barberini Faun, and, in 1813, the figures from the Temple of Aphaea on Aegina. One of his most famous conceptions is the celebrated "Schönheitengalerie" (Gallery of Beauties), in the south pavilion of his Nymphenburg Palace in Munich. A collection of 36 portraits of the beautiful women painted between 1827 and 1850 mostly by Joseph Karl Stieler.

Also after his abdication, Ludwig remained an important and lavish sponsor for the arts. This caused several conflicts with his son and successor Maximilian. Finally, Ludwig financed his projects from his own resources.

Because of King Ludwig's philhellenism, the German name for Bavaria today is spelled "Bayern" instead of "Baiern", while the German dialect spoken there has retained its original spelling "Bairisch"—note the I versus the Greek-derived Y.

Ludwig was an eccentric and notoriously bad poet. He would write about anything, no matter how trivial, with strings of rhyming couplets. For this, the king was teased by Heinrich Heine who wrote several mocking poems in Ludwig's style. Ironically, Ludwig's Walhalla temple added Heine's bust to its collection in 2009.

Private life and issue
In private life Ludwig was, in spite of his royal assertiveness, modest and companionable and was even known for his often shabby attire. Ludwig was hard of hearing and had a birthmark on his forehead which was often concealed in portraits.

Ludwig had several extramarital affairs and was one of the lovers of Jane Digby, an aristocratic English adventuress. Another affair was the Italian noblewoman Marianna Florenzi. His affair with Lola Montez also caused some scandal.

Issue by Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen (8 July 1792 – 26 October 1854; married on 12 October 1810 in Theresienwiese, Munich)

Honours
• Kingdom of Bavaria:

• * Knight of the Order of St. Hubert, 1799

• * Grand Prior of the Royal Bavarian House Equestrian Order of St. George, 1801

• * Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph

• * Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown

• * Founder of the Royal Order of Ludwig, 25 August 1827

•  French Empire: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 1806/07

•  Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown, 1808

•  Baden: Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1812

•  Austrian Empire:

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1816

• * Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1825

•  Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown, 1818

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 8 November 1825

•  Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 17 December 1825

•  Russian Empire: Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, March 1826

•  Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 10 August 1826

• 🇬🇷 Kingdom of Greece: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, 1833

•  Kingdom of Portugal:

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Military Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ, 25 March 1835

• * Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword, 25 March 1835

•    Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, May 1836

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 12 March 1840

•  Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis, with Golden Crown, 1 July 1841

• 🇸🇪 🇳🇴 Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 28 September 1844

•  Ascanian duchies: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear, 28 January 1854

•  Duchy of Modena and Reggio: Grand Cross of the Order of the Eagle of Este, 1856

•  Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the Order of the Mexican Eagle, 1865

•  Grand Duchy of Tuscany: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Joseph

•  Two Sicilies:

• * Knight of the Order of Saint Januarius, 1829

• * Grand Cross of the Order of St. Ferdinand and Merit

title: Ludwig I of Bavaria


text:
Talk:List of micronations

Please read this before mentioning a new micronation

 * 1) Please don't ask us to add a new micronation to this list unless it has an article.. This is a list of notable  micronations, meaning that they have Wikipedia articles with sufficient reliable sources to show that they are notable.
 * 2) This page is to discuss this list of micronations. Please don't promote new micronations here. The flag/webpage/twitter feed/facebook link/whatever will likely be archived or removed.
 * 3) If you are the micronation's president/king/ruler/jester/general member/chief bottle washer/whatever you should not write an article about it. Please read WP:COI. Meters (talk) signed with no time stamp to prevent archiving
 * how strictly are we going to enforce the rule that entries shold be notable and have articles? I checked the whole list and the following do have their own articles:
 * Has a section in the article of the corresponding real geographical feature: Aramoana, Filettino, Forvik, Kingdom of Hay-on-Wye, Icaria, L'Anse-Saint-Jean, Minerva, Naminara Republic, Republic of Perloja, Užupis, (Whangamomona, sort of).
 * Has a section in some other kind of article: Humanity, Lovely, NSK State
 * Does not have a section, but has substantial coverage in the article: Fredonia, Poyais
 * Does not have a section, and is only briefly mentioned in the article: North Dumpling, Repubblica di Sbarre Centrali, Waveland
 * Neither has a section nor is mentioned: Republic of Hout Bay
 * Cheers – Finnusertop (talk ⋅ contribs) 11:30, 22 July 2019 (UTC)
 * user:Finnusertop Sorry, just noticed I never answered you on this. Since 2018 there has been a notice that comes up when editing this article:
 * Going by that we should remove any of your examples that are still in the article. I'll leave this for a few days for comments by any interested parties before taking action. Meters (talk) 20:12, 19 July 2021 (UTC)

 * Grand Duchy of the Lagoan Isles was deleted as not notable (for the second time) following an AfD, so I'm removing it from this list. Richard75 (talk) 12:06, 19 January 2022 (UTC)

Guys, Wiki doesn't allow me to create an Article Пан Ярош (talk) 16:19, 21 April 2022 (UTC)

As per the above, I have removed the entries for Republic of Rathnelly, Principality of Filettino, Neue Slowenische Kunst, Lamb Island, Dominion of British West Florida, Kingdom of North Dumpling, Independent State of Aramoana, Kingdom of Hay-on-Wye, Lundy, and Global State of Waveland. However, I left in the entries for Le Royaume de L'Anse-Saint-Jean, Principality of Laàs, Republic of Užupis, Republic of Whangamōmona, Sovereign State of Forvik, Kingdom of Lovely, and Republic of Malu Entu. Although the names of the articles corresponding to the latter set of entries differ from the names of the respective micronations, most of the text in those articles still concerns those micronations. – Quick and Dirty User Account (talk) 12:25, 14 March 2023 (UTC)

 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Indian_Stream 216.15.62.63 (talk) 23:22, 29 November 2023 (UTC)

remodeling
Because the whole article looks sloppy and is not very intuitive, I would like to remodel the table. I intend to create short, separate tables by internationally recognized countries. I am still thinking to add those micronations that have an article in a different language. Spratly Islands and Antarctica will be treated as separate countries. I am waiting for the opinion of others.

{==Antarctica==

Swiãtopôłk (talk) 19:19 March 29, 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 July 2024
Adding a territoryless micronation of mine, based in Athens, Greece, the Hellenic Republic of Greater Scanthia. Documentation: https://srer.neocities.org/scanthia Flag will be provided shortly after the making of the request as File:HRScanthiaFlag.png SREROfficial (talk) 20:17, 4 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: As indicated, [p]lease do not ask us to add a new micronation to this list unless it already has an article on Wikipedia. This is a list of notable micronations, meaning that they have Wikipedia articles containing references to reliable sources. The source provided does not suggest that this is a notable micronation. Kinu t/c 20:26, 4 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Ok, thank you for your time. SREROfficial (talk) 04:32, 5 July 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 16 July 2024
The addition of the micronation of Ironland Mquashiesam (talk) 21:42, 16 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: As indicated, [p]lease do not ask us to add a new micronation to this list unless it already has an article on Wikipedia. This is a list of notable micronations, meaning that they have Wikipedia articles containing references to reliable sources. The draft article about this topic has been rejected and does not provide any substantive sourced evidence that this is a notable micronation. Kinu t/c 22:02, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of micronations


text:
George Crumb

George Henry Crumb Jr. (24 October 1929 – 6 February 2022) was an American composer of avant-garde contemporary classical music. Early in his life he rejected the widespread modernist usage of serialism, developing a highly personal musical language which "range[s] in mood from peaceful to nightmarish". Crumb's compositions are known for pushing the limits of technical prowess by way of frequent use of extended techniques. The unusual timbres he employs evoke a surrealist atmosphere which portray emotions of considerable intensity with vast and sometimes haunting soundscapes. His few large-scale works include Echoes of Time and the River (1967), which won the 1968 Pulitzer Prize for Music, and Star-Child (1977), which won the 2001 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition; however, his output consists of mostly music for chamber ensembles or solo instrumentalists. Among his best known compositions are Black Angels (1970), a striking commentary on the Vietnam War for electric string quartet; Ancient Voices of Children (1970) for a mixed chamber ensemble; and Vox Balaenae (1971), a musical evocation of the humpback whale, for electric flute, electric cello, and amplified piano.

Born to a musical family, Crumb was acquainted with classical music at an early age and his affinity for Classical and Romantic composers in particular would stay throughout his life. He was especially influenced by composers such as Mahler, Debussy and Bartók; Crumb wrote his four-volume piano set Makrokosmos (1972–1979) in response to Bartók's earlier piano set Mikrokosmos. His compositions often contain musical quotations from wide range of composers including Bach, Chopin, Schubert, Strauss, and the jazz pianist and composer Thelonious Monk. The use of pastiche is also found in his music, as is text by Federico García Lorca, whose poetry Crumb set eleven times. Elements of theatricality appear in numerous compositions, inspiring choreographies from contemporary dance groups. To convey his unorthodox and complex musical style, Crumb's musical scores are facsimile manuscripts, using special notation "distinguished by astonishing clarity, precision and elegance, and by arresting graphic symbols in which staves are bent into arches, circles and other pictorial devices." Among his students were the composers Osvaldo Golijov, Jennifer Higdon, Christopher Rouse and Melinda Wagner.

Upbringing and education (1929–1959)
George Henry Crumb Jr. was born in Charleston, West Virginia on 24 October 1929 to a musical family and he grew up playing chamber music with them. Both of Crumb's parents played in the Charleston Symphony Orchestra (CSO); his father George Henry Crumb Sr. was a clarinetist while his mother Vivian (née Reed) was a cellist. The elder Crumb was a multifaceted musician, with activities that included conducting theatre orchestra for the music of silent film, teaching clarinet privately and at the Mason College, and working as both a music copyist and arranger. George, Jr. began to compose at an early age and had two of his orchestral works performed by the Charleston Symphony Orchestra while he was still in his teens. In 1947 he studied at the National Music Camp in Interlochen, Michigan. He majored in music at the Mason College of Music and Fine Arts (subsequently subsumed into the University of Charleston), where he received his bachelor's degree in 1950. He obtained his M.Mus. at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 1952 and then briefly studied as a Fulbright fellow at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin before returning to the United States to study at the University of Michigan, from which he received a D.M.A. in 1959.

Teaching and early works (1960s – early 1970s)
He earned his living primarily from teaching. His first teaching job was at a college in Virginia, before he became professor of piano and composition at the University of Colorado in 1958. It was here that he met the pianist David Burge, who asked Crumb to compose a piece for him. While creating this, Crumb woke up in a cold sweat one night, realising that thus far he had simply been rewriting the works of other composers. From here on he began experimenting with new, avant-garde techniques.

In 1965 he began a long association with the University of Pennsylvania, becoming Annenberg Professor of the Humanities in 1983.

From the 1960s on, Crumb's music filled a niche for sophisticated—though still conservative—concertgoers. His music fell between neoclassicism, which was perceived as outmoded, and the more radical music of the avant garde. Although his music from this period exhibits some novel features, it owes more to traditional techniques than to the more experimental areas of the avant-garde.

In this period, Crumb shared with a number of other young composers regarded as being under the umbrella of "new accessibility" a desire to reach out to alienated audiences. In works like Ancient Voices of Children (1970), Crumb employed theatrical ritual, using evocative masks, costumes, and sonorities. In other pieces he asks players to leave and enter the stage during the piece, and has also used unusual layouts of musical notation in a number of his scores. In several pieces, the music is symbolically laid out in a circular or spiral fashion.

Several of Crumb's works, including the four books of madrigals he wrote in the late 1960s and Ancient Voices of Children, a song cycle for two singers and small instrumental ensemble—including a toy piano (1970), are settings of texts by Federico García Lorca. Many of his vocal works were written for the virtuoso mezzo-soprano singer Jan DeGaetani.

Black Angels (Thirteen Images from the Darkland) was written in 1970, and published in 1971, in protest against the Vietnam War, using spoken word, bowed water glasses and electronics. It also explores a wide range of timbres, such as an electric string quartet, with its players required to play various percussion instruments and to bow small goblets as well as to play their instruments in both conventional and unconventional ways. It is one of Crumb's best known pieces, and has been recorded by several groups, including the Kronos Quartet, whose formation was inspired when violinist David Harrington first heard Black Angels.

Makrokosmos (1972–1979)
Crumb's most ambitious work, and among his more famous, is the 24-piece collection Makrokosmos, published in four books. The first two books (1972, 1973), for solo piano, make extensive use of string piano techniques and require amplification, as dynamics range from to. The third book, known as Music for a Summer Evening (1974), is for two pianos and percussion. The fourth book, Celestial Mechanics (1979), is for piano four-hands.

The title Makrokosmos alludes to Mikrokosmos, the six books of piano pieces by Béla Bartók. Like Bartók's work, Makrokosmos is a series of short character pieces. Apart from Bartók, Claude Debussy is another composer Crumb acknowledged as an influence here: Debussy's Préludes comprise two books of 12 character pieces. Crumb's first two books of Makrokosmos for solo piano contain 12 pieces, each bearing a dedication (a friend's initials, however he also wittily dedicates a piece to himself) at the end. On several occasions, the pianist is required to sing, shout, whistle, whisper, and moan, as well as play the instrument unconventionally. Makrokosmos was premiered by David Burge, who later recorded the work.

1988s – early 2000s
During the 1980s and 1990s, Crumb's musical output was less prolific. Beginning in 2000 Crumb wrote a number of works subtitled American Songbook. Each of these works is a set of arrangements of American hymns, spirituals, and popular tunes: Crumb originally planned to produce four such volumes, but in fact he continued to produce additional sets after the fourth (The Winds of Destiny) was written, with the seventh volume of the series (Voices from the Heartland) completed in 2010. Typically these settings preserve the familiar tunes more-or-less intact, but the accompaniments for amplified piano and percussionists use a very wide range of musical techniques and exotic sounds. As of 2017, American Songbook totalled 65 movements, 62 texts, 150 percussion instruments, more than five hours of music.

Crumb retired from teaching in 1995, though in early 2002 he was appointed with David Burge to a joint residency at Arizona State University. He continued to compose.

Personal life and death
Crumb's son David is also a composer and, since 1997, assistant professor at the University of Oregon. George Crumb's daughter, Ann, was an actress and singer. She recorded his Three Early Songs for the CD George Crumb 70th Birthday Album (1999), and had also performed his Unto the Hills (2001). She died at her parents' home on 31 October 2019.

In his later compositions, which have the subtitle Spanish Songbook, Crumb returned to settings of Lorca. Crumb died in his home in Media, Pennsylvania, on 6 February 2022, at the age of 92.

Overview
After initially being influenced by Anton Webern, Crumb became interested in exploring unusual timbres, something he considered as important as rhythm, harmony, and counterpoint. He often asks for instruments to be played in unusual ways and several of his pieces, although written for standard chamber music ensembles, such as Black Angels (string quartet) or Ancient Voices of Children (mixed ensemble), call for electronic amplification. Crumb defines music as "a system of proportions in the service of spiritual impulse." Musicologist Richard Taruskin said of Crumb's music: "The ingredients in Crumb’s collages were chosen not as representatives of styles but as expressive symbols of timeless content."

In 1980, Crumb wrote an essay for The Kenyon Review titled, "Music: Does It Have a Future?" In it, he codified his worldview of unified culture and music, arguing that, "the total musical culture of Planet Earth is ‘coming together,’ as it were. An American or European composer, for example, now has access to the music of various Asian, African, and South American cultures. […] This awareness of music in its largest sense—as a worldwide phenomenon—will inevitably have enormous consequences for the music of the future.” Of this worldview, which Crumb noted he still followed 37 years later in a 2017 interview for VAN Magazine, William Dougherty wrote: "Wherever one stands on the ethics of appropriation, it’s undeniable that Crumb, by incorporating in his work sounds from other cultures, succeeded in finding a timbrally rich sound world unlike any of his contemporaries." Of his legacy, Michael Schell said "on the morning of his death Crumb was arguably the most important living composer of piano music, and the last giant in a distinctively American line of innovative percussion writers.". Mark Swed said "Crumb may not have been well known outside of new-music circles, but he mattered beyond those perimeters."

Crumb's works were published by the Edition Peters. Recordings of Crumb's music have appeared on many labels, including several LPs issued by Nonesuch Records in the 1970s. More recently, Bridge Records has issued a series of CDs, the Complete Crumb Edition.

Filmography

 * George Crumb: The Voice of the Whale (1976).  Directed and produced by Robert Mugge.  Interviewed by Richard Wernick.  New York, New York:  Rhapsody Films (released 1988).
 * Bad Dog!: A Portrait of George Crumb (2009). Directed by David Starobin.  Interviews with the composer and performances of Apparition, Three Early Songs and Eine Kleine Mitternachtmusik.  Released on DVD by Bridge Records (BRIDGE 9312).

List of compositions
Crumb's works were published by Edition Peters, including:

Orchestral

 * Gethsemane (1947), for small orchestra
 * Diptych (1955)
 * Variazioni (1959), for large orchestra
 * Echoes of Time and the River (Echoes II) (1967)
 * A Haunted Landscape (1984)

Vocal with orchestral

 * Star-Child (1977, revised 1979), for soprano, antiphonal children's voices, male speaking choir, bell ringers, and large orchestra

Chamber music

 * Two Duos (1944?), for flute and clarinet
 * Four Pieces (1945), for violin and piano
 * Violin Sonata (1949)
 * Three Pastoral Pieces (1952), for oboe and piano
 * Viola Sonata (1953)
 * String Quartet (1954)
 * Sonata for Solo Cello (1955)
 * Four Nocturnes (Night Music II) (1964), for violin and piano
 * Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965 (Echoes I) (1966), for violin, alto flute, clarinet, and piano
 * Black Angels (Images I) (1970), for electric string quartet
 * Vox Balaenae (Voice of the Whale) (1971), for electric flute, electric cello, and amplified piano
 * Music for a Summer Evening (Makrokosmos III) (1974), for two amplified pianos and percussion (two players).
 * Dream Sequence (Images II) (1976), for violin, cello, piano, percussion (one player), and off-stage glass harmonica (two players)
 * Pastoral Drone (1982), for organ
 * An Idyll for the Misbegotten (Images III) (1986), for amplified flute and percussion (three players).
 * Easter Dawning (1991), for carillon
 * Quest (1994), for guitar, soprano saxophone, harp, double bass, and percussion (two players)
 * Mundus Canis (A Dog's World) (1998), for guitar and percussion
 * Kronos - Kryptos (2019, revised 2020), for percussion (four players)

Piano

 * Piano Sonata (1945)
 * Prelude and Toccata (1951)
 * Five Pieces (1962)
 * Makrokosmos, Volume I (1972), for amplified piano
 * Makrokosmos, Volume II (1973), for amplified piano
 * Celestial Mechanics (Makrokosmos IV) (1979), for amplified piano (four hands)
 * A Little Suite for Christmas, A.D. 1979 (1980)
 * Gnomic Variations (1981)
 * Processional (1983)
 * Zeitgeist (Tableaux Vivants) (1988), for two amplified pianos
 * Eine Kleine Mitternachtmusik (A Little Midnight Music) (2001)
 * Otherworldly Resonances (2003), for two pianos
 * Metamorphoses, Book I (2017)
 * Metamorphoses, Book II (2019)

Vocal

 * Four Songs (1945?), for voice, clarinet and piano
 * Seven Songs (1946), for voice and piano
 * Three Early Songs (1947), for voice and piano
 * A Cycle of Greek Lyrics (1950?), for voice and piano
 * Night Music I (1963, revised 1976), for soprano, piano/celeste, and two percussionists
 * Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death (1968), for baritone, electric guitar, electric double bass, amplified piano/electric harpsichord, and two percussionists
 * Night of the Four Moons (1969), for alto, alto flute/piccolo, banjo, electric cello, and percussion
 * Ancient Voices of Children (1970), for mezzo-soprano, boy soprano, oboe, mandolin, harp, amplified piano (and toy piano), and percussion (three players)
 * Lux Aeterna (1971) for soprano, bass flute/soprano recorder, sitar, and percussion (two players)
 * Apparition (1979), for soprano and amplified piano
 * The Sleeper (1984), for soprano and piano
 * Federico's Little Songs for Children (1986), for soprano, flute/piccolo/alto flute/bass flute, and harp
 * Yesteryear (2005/13), for mezzo-soprano, amplified piano, and percussion (two players)

Madrigals

 * Madrigals, Book I (1965), for soprano, vibraphone, and double bass
 * Madrigals, Book II (1965), for soprano, flute/alto flute/piccolo, and percussion
 * Madrigals, Book III (1969), for soprano, harp, and percussion
 * Madrigals, Book IV (1969), for soprano, flute/alto flute/piccolo, harp, double bass, and percussion

American Songbook

 * American Songbook I: The River of Life (2003), for soprano, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook II: A Journey Beyond Time (2003), for soprano, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook III: Unto the Hills (2001), for soprano, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook IV: Winds of Destiny (2004), for soprano, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook V: Voices from a Forgotten World (2007), for soprano, baritone, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook VI: Voices from the Morning of the Earth (2008), for soprano, baritone, percussion quartet and piano
 * American Songbook VII: Voices from the Heartland (2010), for soprano, baritone, percussion quartet and piano

Spanish Songbook

 * Spanish Songbook I: The Ghosts of Alhambra (2008), for baritone, guitar and percussion
 * Spanish Songbook II: Sun and Shadow (2009), for female voice and amplified piano
 * Spanish Songbook III: The Yellow Moon of Andalusia (2012), for mezzo-soprano and amplified piano

Choral

 * Alleluja (1948), for unaccompanied chorus

Awards and honors
Crumb was the recipient of a number of awards, including a 1968 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his orchestral work Echoes of Time and the River and a 2001 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition for his work Star-Child. In 1995, Crumb was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal.

Notable students
Among Crumb's students are the composers Ofer Ben-Amots, Margaret Brouwer, Uri Caine, Robert Carl, Osvaldo Golijov, Jennifer Higdon, Cynthia Cozette Lee, Gerald Levinson, Christopher Rouse, Melinda Wagner and Ricardo Zohn-Muldoon.

title: George Crumb