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HMS Devonshire (39)

HMS Devonshire, pennant number 39, was a County-class cruiser heavy cruiser of the London sub-class built for the Royal Navy in the late 1920s. The ship spent most of her pre-World War II career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet aside from a brief tour with the China Station. She spent the first two months of the Second World War in the Mediterranean until she was transferred to the Home Fleet and became flagship of a cruiser squadron. Devonshire took part in the Norwegian Campaign in mid 1940 and evacuated much of the Norwegian Government in June. Several months later, she participated in the Battle of Dakar, a failed attempt to seize the Vichy French colony of Senegal in September. The ship remained in the South Atlantic afterwards and supported Free French efforts to take control of French Equatorial Africa in addition to searching for German commerce raiders.

Devonshire returned home in early 1941 and briefly rejoined the Home Fleet, during which time she escorted several aircraft carriers as they attacked German forces in Norway and Finland and covered the first convoy to the Soviet Union. Shortly afterwards, the ship was sent to the South Atlantic where she sank the auxiliary cruiser GERMAN AUXILIARY CRUISER Atlantis. Devonshire was then assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean and supported the Allied invasion of Madagascar in mid-1942. She then spent the next year escorting convoys before returning home to begin a lengthy refit. After it was completed in early 1944, the ship escorted various aircraft carriers for the rest of the war as they attacked targets in Norway.

After the German surrender in May 1945, she sailed to Norway and escorted two surrendered German cruisers from Denmark to the UK. Devonshire then began ferrying British troops home from Australia for the rest of the year. In 1947, the ship was converted into a training ship for naval cadets and served until she was sold for scrap in 1954.

Description
Devonshire displaced 9850 LT at standard load and 13315 LT at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 632 ft, a beam of 66 ft and a draught of 20 ft. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving four shafts, which developed a total of 80000 shp and gave a maximum speed of 32.35 kn. Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers. Devonshire carried a maximum of 3425 LT of fuel oil that gave her a range of 13300 nmi at 12 kn. The ship's complement was 784 officers and men.

The ship mounted eight 8-inch (203 mm) guns in four twin gun turrets, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. Her secondary armament consisted of four QF 4 in Mk V anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts. Devonshire also mounted four single 2-pounder (40 mm) light AA guns ("pom-poms"). The ship was equipped with two quadruple torpedo tube above-water mounts for 21 in torpedoes.

Devonshire was only lightly protected with little more than a single inch of plating protecting vital machinery. Her magazines were the exception and were protected by 2 - 4.375 in of armour. Space and weight was reserved for one aircraft catapult and its seaplane, but they were not fitted until after she was completed.

Construction and career
Devonshire, the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy, was named for the county. The ship was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on 16 March 1926 and was launched on 22 October 1927. Completed on 18 March 1929, she was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron (CS) of the Mediterranean Fleet together with her three sister ships. Devonshire spent the bulk of the interbellum period there, aside from a 1932–33 tour with the China Station.

While off the island of Skiathos in the Aegean, she suffered a serious accident on 26 July 1929 during gunnery training. There was a misfire in the left gun of "X" turret; when the breech block was opened the propellant charge inside the barrel detonated, which ignited the charge for the next round. The ensuing explosion killed 18 men. Devonshire returned to England for repairs in August with "the turret swung 'round and the guns awry". In 1929–1930 she received a High-Angle Control System, used to direct her anti-aircraft guns, and a catapult was fitted in 1931–1932. Four more single four-inch AA guns in addition to a pair of quadruple Vickers .50-calibre (12.7 mm) Mark III machine guns were added in 1936–1937.

During the Spanish Civil War, Devonshire brought a Nationalist emissary to Menorca on 7 February 1939. The following day, the Republicans surrendered the island to the Nationalists aboard the cruiser and she sailed to Marseille, France, with 452 Republican refugees on board.

Second World War
Devonshire was in the Mediterranean when the war began in September 1939 until she was transferred to the Home Fleet some months later. After the armed merchant cruiser HMS Rawalpindi was sunk by the German battleships GERMAN BATTLESHIP Scharnhorst and GERMAN BATTLESHIP Gneisenau on 23 November, Devonshire and the battleships HMS Nelson (28) and HMS Rodney (29) sailed from the Clyde on a fruitless attempt to find the German ships. In March 1940 she became the flagship of the 1st CS, and flew the flag of the future First Sea Lord, Vice-Admiral John H. D. Cunningham. During this time the squadron was tasked to cover Scotland, the Faeroe Islands and Iceland. As part of the Allied plans to occupy parts of Norway and interdict the iron ore traffic from Narvik to Germany (Operation Wilfred and Plan R 4), Devonshire and the rest of the squadron were assigned to ferry British troops from Rosyth to Stavanger and Bergen and to be ready to sail on the morning of 8 April, but these plans were partially preempted by the German invasion that same day.

Norwegian campaign
The Admiralty ordered that the troops, but not their equipment, be unloaded from the cruisers on the evening of the 8th, and that the cruisers were to search forthwith for the German ships known to be at sea. This was later cancelled and the squadron was ordered to rendezvous with the main body of the Home Fleet. Later that day, German bombers attacked the British ships and Devonshire suffered a near-miss. On the 11th, the squadron was detached on an unsuccessful search for German ships in the area around Trondheim and rejoined the fleet two days later. Cunningham's ships were then detached to Tromsø where he conducted negotiations with local officials to refuel there and to bring Norwegian troops west from Kirkenes. The squadron arrived there on the afternoon of the 15th and escorted Norwegian troopships back to Tromsø. Devonshire covered the evacuation of British and French troops from Namsos at the beginning of May and was nearly hit when the evacuation forces were attacked by German aircraft as they were withdrawing on 3 May.

Devonshire evacuated King Haakon VII, Crown Prince Olav, and Norwegian government officials, including the Prime Minister, Johan Nygaardsvold, from Tromsø on 7 June. On board were 461 passengers. The ship passed within 50 mi of the action in which the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious and two destroyers were sunk by Scharnhorst and Gneisenau. Although an enemy sighting report had been received in Devonshire, Cunningham's orders were to get Haakon VII to safety, and the cruiser sped up and continued on her course.

Operation Menace
In preparation for Operation Menace, a British naval attack on Dakar, Senegal, prior to a planned landing by the Free French, the ship was detached from the Home Fleet on 28 August and was assigned to Force M, the Royal Navy component of the operation. Still Cunningham's flagship, she departed the Clyde on the 31st, escorting the troop convoy en route to Gibraltar where they arrived on 3 September. On the 14th, Cunningham dispatched the 1st CS, augmented by the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal (91), in an unsuccessful attempt to locate and turn back a Vichy French cruiser squadron bound for Dakar; by this time he had hoisted his flag in the battleship HMS Barham (04). Devonshire and her Australian sister ship HMAS Australia (D84) engaged the French cruisers and destroyers as they manoeuvred in the harbour on the second day of the battle, with negligible effect in poor visibility. After Barham was lightly damaged during the action, Cunningham transferred back to Devonshire for the next day's battle during which the ship fired 200 shells from her main guns without scoring a single hit against French ships obscured by smoke screens.

After the attack was abandoned, she was employed to escort a British troop convoy to Douala, French Cameroons, in early October and then blockaded the coast of Gabon when Free French forces invaded in early November. On 7 November, her Supermarine Walrus seaplane helped to sink the Vichy submarine FRENCH SUBMARINE Poncelet off Gabon.

1941
Devonshire remained in the South Atlantic and participated in the unsuccessful hunt for the German commerce raider GERMAN AUXILIARY CRUISER Kormoran in January 1941. The ship subsequently transferred to the Home Fleet and was refitted in Liverpool 19 February–22 May. During this refit her single 2-pounder guns were replaced by two octuple mounts and an early-warning Type 281 radar. She escorted British carriers when they raided Kirkenes and Petsamo in Norway and Finland in late July. The following month, Devonshire provided distant cover for the first convoy to Russia, Operation Dervish, before she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet. Before her departure, the ship received a pair of 20 mm Oerlikon light AA guns in September. On 2 November, the ship led a force that captured a Vichy convoy bound for French Indochina off South Africa. Twenty days later, Devonshire sank a German commerce raider, the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis, north of Ascension Island.

1942–1943
The ship was subsequently refitted in Norfolk, Virginia from 24 January to 7 March 1942, where she received a Type 273 gunnery radar and six more Oerlikons. After the completion of her refit, Devonshire was sent to join the 4th Cruiser Squadron of the Eastern Fleet and escorted a convoy from Charleston, South Carolina, to Freetown, Sierra Leone en route. On 25 April, the ship escorted a convoy from Durban, South Africa to Madagascar as part of Operation Ironclad, which was launched to preempt a possible Japanese occupation of the island. The Vichy French had allowed Japanese forces to use air bases in French Indochina to launch the airstrikes that sank the capital ships Repulse and Prince of Wales, so it was quite possible they would permit the Japanese access to military facilities on Madagascar had they requested them. During late 1942, Devonshire's single four-inch AA guns were replaced with twin-gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre. The ship remained in the Far East until May 1943, covering troop convoys from Suez to Australia. By this time, her quadruple .50-calibre machineguns and six single-Oerlikon mounts had been replaced by another pair of octuple two-pounder mounts and a dozen twin-Oerlikon mounts. She returned home that month and began a lengthy refit that lasted until 20 March 1944. During this refit, 'X' turret and one twin Oerlikon mount were replaced by two additional octuple two-pounder mounts and eight single-Oerlikon mounts. Her radar suite was modernized with Type 281B replacing Type 281 and the full range of anti-aircraft gunnery radars were installed. To accommodate all the new equipment, her catapult was removed.

1944–1945
She returned to duty with the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow in April 1944. From July until the end of hostilities in May 1945, Devonshire escorted the carrier raids that were mounted on shipping and other targets in Norwegian waters (Operations Mascot, Goodwood, and Hardy).

With the end of the war in Europe, Devonshire, now the flagship of Rear-Admiral James Ritchie, the future Flag Officer Norway, sailed on 12 May to Oslo. She then went to Copenhagen the next day, and from there she escorted the German cruisers GERMAN CRUISER Prinz Eugen and GERMAN CRUISER Nürnberg to Wilhelmshaven on 24–26 May. In June, Devonshire was again the flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor, which returned King Haakon to Norway, arriving in Oslo on 7 June. The king himself sailed in her half-sister, HMS Norfolk (78). Later that month, she was outfitted for use as a troopship, and she was used to transport personnel to and from Australia for the rest of the year. On 29 September, Devonshire helped to rescued the survivors of SS Empire Patrol, a freighter loaded with Greek refugees bound from Port Said, Egypt, to Greece, that had caught fire.

Post-war
The ship was converted into a cadet training ship in 1947 and served in this role until 1954. As part of this reconstruction most of her armament was removed; by 1949 it consisted of a single eight-inch gun turret, two four-inch gun turrets and single examples of the quadruple two-pounder, single- and twin-Oerlikon mounts, plus a single 40 mm Bofors light AA gun. In 1953 she took part in the Fleet Review to celebrate the coronation of Elizabeth II. Devonshire was sold for scrap on 16 June 1954 and arrived at Newport, Wales, on 12 December 1954 where she was broken up by John Cashmore Ltd.

title: HMS Devonshire (39)


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Plain language

Plain language is writing designed to ensure the reader understands as quickly, easily, and completely as possible. Plain language strives to be easy to read, understand, and use. It avoids verbose, convoluted language and jargon. In many countries, laws mandate that public agencies use plain language to increase access to programs and services. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities includes plain language in its definition of communication.

Definition
Most literacy and communications scholars agree that plain language means:
 * "Clear and effective communication" (Joseph Kimble)
 * "The idiomatic and grammatical use of language that most effectively presents ideas to the reader" (Bryan Garner)
 * "Clear, straightforward expression, using only as many words as are necessary. It is language that avoids obscurity, inflated vocabulary and convoluted construction. It is not baby talk, nor is it a simplified version of ... language." (Dr Robert Eagleson)
 * "A literary style that is easy-to-read because it matches the reading skill of the audience" (William DuBay)
 * "Language that is clear, concise and correct" (Richard Wydick)
 * "Language that allows readers to make an informed decision about the content because it considers their literacy levels, cognitive abilities, contexts, wants, needs, attitudes and challenges." (Candice Burt)

Plain language focuses on ways of writing a text so that it is clear, concise, pertinent, efficient, and flows well for the reader. The Center for Plain Language states that: "[a] document, web site or other information is in plain language if the target audience can read it, understand what they read, and confidently act on it". Writing in plain language does not mean oversimplifying the concepts, but presenting the information in a way that makes it easier to understand and use by a wider audience. Texts written in plain language are still formal, but are easier to read and inspire confidence for the reader.

Using plain language in communications ultimately improves efficiency, because there is less ambiguity for the readers, and less time is taken for clarifications and explanations. Clear communication improves the user's experience with the organization, ultimately creating trust in the company.

Guidelines and tips
Writers who wish to write in plain language must first and foremost consider their target audience. This should influence what information is included in the text and how it is written. Different audiences have different needs, and require different information. When writing, it is important to consider what the target audience needs to accomplish, and what and how much information they need to complete it. The needs of the target audience will also affect the chosen vocabulary: writing for someone in the same field as the author is different from writing for someone whose native language is not English.

Provide informative headings, topic sentences, and frequent summaries to help orient the reader. For complex documents, create a comprehensive table of contents.

Organize the text logically: the most important information should be mentioned first, in the text as a whole and in every individual paragraph. Headings help the reader skim the text more rapidly to find what they're looking for. Sentences should be kept short, and only include necessary information. A long, verbose sentence tends to present too much information at once, and blurs its main point. The text should be direct and concise, and have an easy flow to it.

The chosen vocabulary must remain simple and familiar. Everyday language should be favoured against acronyms, jargon and legal language. Plain language favours the use of the verb form of the word, instead of the noun form. To increase clarity, use the active voice, in which the subject does the action of the verb. Sentences written in plain language have a positive construction and address the reader directly.

Writing in plain language also takes into account the presentation of the text. It is important to choose a font that is easy to read, and set it to an adequate size. Sentences written in capital letters are harder to read because the letters are less distinguishable from one another. Simple design elements like leaving white spaces, using bullets, and choosing contrasting colours encourages a user to read the text and increases readability.

Reading comprehension
Proponents of plain language adoption argue that it improves reading comprehension and readability, and grants readers greater access to information. Simple language allows documents to be read and understood by a larger audience, as plain language adoption often involves rewriting very technical and field-specific documents, like legal and medical documents.

Accessibility
Some scholars promote plain language use as a means of making documents accessible, especially for disabled readers or those who lack the expertise and education to understand overly technical documents. Simpler language can decrease a reader's cognitive load, and improve information retention in readers who normally struggle to read complex documents. Changes in font, text size, and colour can make texts more readable for individuals with impaired vision. Some scholars view plain language from a social justice perspective as a means of increasing equal access to information, especially for marginalized populations that might have decreased access to education.

Ethical Action
While plain language has positive practical outcomes across many situations, it can also be understood within the framework of ethical action. While not all plain language practitioners and scholars agree that "Plain language is a civil right," as the motto for the US-based Center for Plain Language declares, many practitioners agree that using plain language is part of ethical action, such as being responsive, respectful, honest, truthful and fair. On the other hand, plain language can also be used for unethical ends, such as to obscure or withhold truths. Willerton proposes the BUROC framework for identifying situations requiring the ethical action of plain language: Bureaucratic, Unfamiliar, Rights Oriented, Critical.

Early history
Cicero argued, "When you wish to instruct, be brief; that men's minds take in quickly what you say, learn its lesson, and retain it faithfully. Every word that is unnecessary only pours over the side of a brimming mind."

Shakespeare parodied the pretentious style, as in the speeches of Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing. The plain, or native style, was, in fact, an entire literary tradition during the English Renaissance, from John Skelton through Ben Jonson and include such poets as Barnabe Googe, George Gascoigne, Walter Raleigh, and perhaps the later work of Fulke Greville. In addition to its purely linguistic plainness, the Plain Style employed an emphatic, pre-Petrarchan prosody (each syllable either clearly stressed or clearly unstressed).

19th century
By the end of the 19th century, scholars began to study the features of plain language. A. L. Sherman, a professor of English literature at the University of Nebraska, wrote Analytics of Literature: A Manual for the Objective Study of English Prose and Poetry in 1893. In this work, Sherman showed that the typical English sentence has shortened over time and that spoken English is a pattern for written English.

Sherman wrote: Literary English, in short, will follow the forms of the standard spoken English from which it comes. No man should talk worse than he writes, no man writes better than he should talk.... The oral sentence is clearest because it is the product of millions of daily efforts to be clear and strong. It represents the work of the race for thousands of years in perfecting an effective instrument of communication.

1900 to 1950
Two 1921 works, Harry Kitson's "The Mind of the Buyer", and Edward L. Thorndike's "The Teacher's Word Book" picked up where Sherman left off. Kitson's work was the first to apply empirical psychology to advertising. He advised the use of short words and sentences. Thorndike's work contained the frequency ratings of 10,000 words. He recommended using the ratings in his book to grade books not only for students in schools but also for average readers and adults learning English. Thorndike wrote:

It is commonly assumed that children and adults prefer trashy stories in large measure because they are more exciting and more stimulating in respect to sex. There is, however, reason to believe that greater ease of reading in respect to vocabulary, construction, and facts, is a very important cause of preference. A count of the vocabulary of "best sellers" and a summary of it in terms of our list would thus be very instructive.

The 1930s saw many studies on how to make texts more readable. In 1931, Douglas Tyler and Ralph Waples published the results of their two-year study, "What People Want to Read About". In 1934, Ralph Ojemann, Edgar Dale, and Ralph Waples published two studies on writing for adults with limited reading ability. In 1935, educational psychologist William S. Gray teamed up with Bernice Leary to publish their study, "What Makes a Book Readable".

George Orwell's 1946 essay "Politics and the English Language" decried the pretentious diction, meaninglessness, vagueness, and worn-out idioms of political jargon. In 1979, the Plain English Campaign was founded in London to combat "gobbledegook, jargon and legalese".

1951 to 2000
Lyman Bryson at Teachers College in Columbia University led efforts to supply average readers with more books of substance dealing with science and current events. Bryson's students include Irving Lorge and Rudolf Flesch, who became leaders in the plain-language movement. In 1975, Flesch collaborated with J. Peter Kincaid to create the Flesch-Kincaid readability test, which uses an algorithm to produce grade level scores that predict the level of education required to read the selected text. The instrument looks at word length (number of letters) and sentence length (number of words) and produces a score that is tied to a U.S. grade school level. For example, a score of 8.0 means that an eighth grader can read the document.

Others who later led plain language and readability research include educator Edgar Dale of Ohio State, Jeanne S. Chall of the Reading Laboratory of Harvard, and George R. Klare of Ohio University. Their efforts spurred the publication of over 200 readability formulas and 1,000 published studies on readability.

Beginning in 1935, a series of literacy surveys showed that the average reader in the U.S. was an adult of limited reading ability. Today, the average adult in the U.S. reads at the 9th-grade level.

Access to health information, educational and economic development opportunities, and government programs is often referred to in a social justice context. To ensure more community members can access this information, many adult educators, legal writers, and social program developers use plain language principles when they develop public documents. The goal of plain language translation is to increase accessibility for those with lower literacy levels.

In the United States, the movement towards plain language legal writing began with the 1963 book Language of the Law, by David Mellinkoff. However, the movement was popularized by Richard Wydick's 1979 book Plain English for Lawyers. This was followed by famous plain language promissory notes by Nationwide Mutual Insurance and Citibank in the 1970s.

Concerned about the large number of suits against its customers to collect bad debts, the bank voluntarily made the decision to implement plain language policies in 1973. That same decade, the consumer-rights movement won legislation that required plain language in contracts, insurance policies, and government regulations. American law schools began requiring students to take legal writing classes that encouraged them to use plain English as much as possible and to avoid legal jargon, except when absolutely necessary. Public outrage with the skyrocketing number of unreadable government forms led to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980.

In 1972, the Plain Language Movement received practical political application, when President Richard Nixon decreed that the "Federal Register be written in layman's terms". On March 23, 1978, U.S. President Jimmy Carter signed Executive Order 12044, which said that federal officials must see that each regulation is "written in plain English and understandable to those who must comply with it". President Ronald Reagan rescinded these orders in 1981, but many political agencies continued to follow them. By 1991, eight states had also passed legislation related to plain language. Plain Language Association International (PLAIN) was formed in 1993 as the Plain Language Network. Its membership is international; it was incorporated as a non-profit organization in Canada in 2008. In June 1998, President Bill Clinton issued a memorandum that called for executive departments and agencies to use plain language in all government documents. Vice President Al Gore subsequently led a plain language initiative that formed a group called the Plain Language Action Network (PLAIN) to provide plain language training to government agencies.

21st century
PLAIN provided guidance to federal executive agencies when President Barack Obama signed the Plain Writing Act of 2010, which required federal executive agencies to put all new and revised covered documents into plain language. The Act's sponsor, U.S. Representative Bruce Braley, noted upon its passage that "The writing of documents in the standard vernacular English language will bolster and increase the accountability of government within America and will continue to more effectively save time and money in this country."

Plain language is also gaining traction in U.S. courts and legal aid agencies. California was the first state to adopt plain language court forms and instructions, for which it received the 2003 Burton Award for Outstanding Reform. A 2006 comparative study of plain language court forms concluded that "plain language court forms and instructions are better understood, easier to use, and more economical".

The European Union provides standards for making information easy to read and understand. The rules are comparable to the rules for plain language. Based in Germany there is a dictionary for plain language called Hurraki. In France, a 2002 decision by the Constitutional Council recognized a constitutional goal of ensuring the "clarity and intelligibility" of French law. In 2013 the Israeli Knesset passed service accessibility regulations which mandated the use of simple language and/or language simplification (Hebrew = פישוט לשוני), which were subsequently codified in 2015 for implementation.

ISO has formed a Working Group within Technical Committee ISO/TC 37 to develop plain language standards and guidelines. Their work began officially towards the end of 2019.

Opposites of plain language

 * Aureation
 * Corporate jargon
 * Gobbledygook
 * Legalese
 * Psychobabble
 * Technobabble
 * Verbosity

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Plain language


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Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (file formats)

Let's work out a convention for articles on computer file formats.

I'm not happy about "TAR file format". Firstly, many people advocate writing file extensions in lowercase. Secondly, it's a pain to use, since most computing articles will only want to write "tar".

I suggest one of:
 * "tar (file format)"
 * "tar (computing)"
 * "tar (format)"

(this is of course only for those names that require disambiguation. Pages like "PNG" and "JPEG" don't need anything in parentheses)

-- tarquin

(by the way, I've just noticed on Talk:Tar that it was ME who suggested the "TAR file format" article name. Aaaaaarg. Have I been sleepwalking or something? -- Tarquin 11:44 Jan 11, 2003 (UTC))

"tar (file format)" is probably best. Upper vs lower case is a tricky one: some extensions are acronyms which implies upper case, but on the whole, lower case seems better. I think it's more common at any rate. Tannin

Proposal 1
by Quuxplusone (talk)

I propose the following guidelines:

Guidelines

 * 1) There should be a family of pages titled .foo (file extension), each of which should be listed under Category:File extensions. These pages should be
 * 2) Redirects, in the case of unambiguity (.png (file extension)→PNG, .bmp (file extension)→Windows bitmap).
 * 3) Disambiguation pages, in the case of ambiguity (.doc (file extension), .cas (file extension)).
 * 4) Main articles will fall into at least three categories:
 * 5) Articles about file formats independent of specific programs (PNG, MOD (file format), ZIP (file format)). These should be named as per those examples: all-caps, with a "(file format)" dab if needed.
 * 6) Articles about programs with dedicated formats or extensions (gzip, tar (file format)). These should be named according to common usage, which will vary between *nix and non-*nix platforms.
 * 7) * *nix: see Category:Unix software. The general form is foo, disambiguated as needed with foo (Unix) or foo (mimsy frobulator) for programs that have achieved wide notability outside the *nix community.
 * 8) * Software targeted at non-*nix cultures usually has a brand or trade name: Adventure Game Toolkit, Microsoft Word. Use it.
 * 9) Articles about common usage of extensions (Readme, .txt)
 * 10) Only main articles should be tagged with categories such as Category:Archive formats. Redirects should never be placed in categories, with the special exception of Category:File extensions as described above.

Rationale

 * 1) The "File extensions" category can then serve as a Wikipedia GFDL mirror of dictionaries like wotsit.org. Redirects from e.g. .png may also be created, but not listed in that category, so there are no duplicates. The reason for the "(file extension)" dab is that otherwise we'll have to make exceptions for .com, .us, and so on. I think it's best to have everything symmetric.
 * 2) (As of this writing, gzip has been moved to GNU zip for reasons unknown and un-discussed. I'm hoping it moves back soon.)
 * 3) * By this logic, tar (file format) should be at tar (Unix). But no moves should happen based on this proposal until and unless it is accepted by a fair number of editors.
 * 4) * Use the Frobozz Wuffalo (wuffulator) style of disambiguation if needed — but it really shouldn't be needed. Version differences can be handled ad hoc; for example, Frobozz Wuffalo 3 or Wuffalo (version 9).
 * 5) For example, ".txt is a file extension usually associated with plain ASCII text." But there is no file format associated with that extension. Contrariwise, one file format using ASCII text is .csv (file extension)→Comma-separated values.
 * 1) * Use the Frobozz Wuffalo (wuffulator) style of disambiguation if needed — but it really shouldn't be needed. Version differences can be handled ad hoc; for example, Frobozz Wuffalo 3 or Wuffalo (version 9).
 * 2) For example, ".txt is a file extension usually associated with plain ASCII text." But there is no file format associated with that extension. Contrariwise, one file format using ASCII text is .csv (file extension)→Comma-separated values.

Counterproposal

 * There is rarely anything to say about file extensions; instead, these should in almost all cases be redirects to an article about the file format, a list of file formats (e.g. for the many text-like formats) or a program using the file format (the sole or most common program, e.g. ".doc" → Microsoft Word).
 * Article names should not start with a dot.
 * Redirect pages should not be in categories.
 * The extension "tar (file format)" should only be used when it's necessary because of the term (tar) having other meanings. "(file format)" is preferable over naming an operating system using it, unless there are different operating systems that use it in a different way.
 * There is rarely a need for separate articles on new versions of a program. Merging may be appropriate.
 * Radiant_ >|< 12:09, August 25, 2005 (UTC)


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Talk:List of ships called HMS Hood

Spelling changes
I don't understand why someone changed "armour" to "armor". If it's a technical point about how it is spelt in this particular usage, then fine. If on the other hand it is just that you prefer the US spelling, I don't think that is correct in an article about a UK subject. Minor I know but diversity of spelling is interesting and should be preserved. I would not try to make articles on US subjects compliant with UK spelling either! :) Nevilley 11:46 Jan 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * They are just spelling variants. Nobody should change one to the other, and I don't think it matters whether "UK subjects" use "UK spelling" or not.

 * I don't really think they should change things either, though we still don't know why someone did. The wikipedia manual of style vaguely agrees with the idea that "armour" was appropriate here, however. It says this:

 * "It is in no way a requirement, but it probably reads better to use American spellings in articles on American subjects and English spelling in articles on English subjects. A reference to "the American labour movement" (with a U) or to "Anglicization" (with a Z) may be jarring."

 * - which, some might feel, is the same as "armor" is an article about a British boat. Though to be fair I would never expect an American to write "armour" in original material on any subject, that seems silly. But to change it away from an alreayd correct spelling also seems weird. 194.117.133.118 22:54 Jan 11, 2003 (UTC)

Disambig?
Given that most references to "HMS Hood" will be to the battlecruiser sunk by the Bismarck, should this page be moved to HMS Hood (disambiguation) and the current title redirect to HMS Hood (51)? MartinMcCann 17:19, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

Page moved. MartinMcCann 16:53, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

 * You don't fancy cleaning up those pages that do link to HMS Hood in general, eg from Admiral Hood himself, do you?GraemeLeggett 09:23, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

Dab versus Set Index
A user has recently changed this article, tagging it as a disambiguation page, and asking that it conform to those guidelines. Consensus arrived at at WP:SHIPS indicates that these ship list pages are WP:SETINDEX pages, and not WP:DAB pages. As explained on the page - 'A set index article is not considered a disambiguation page, and need not follow the formatting rules for disambiguation pages. A set index article is meant for information as well as navigation: just like a normal list article, it can have metadata and extra information about each entry. It may contain redlinks to help editors create articles on notable entries.' There are thousands of these articles, only three to my knowledge contain the heading 'disambiguation' because a particular ship of this name is considered to be the primary usage (HMS Victory, HMS Beagle). Perhaps a change to the title may be helpful in clearing this up, but as a shiplist page it does not follow disambiguation guidelines, but the guidelines expressly drawn up for these lists at WikiProject Ships/Guidelines. Please obtain a new consensus for this if you want to override the set index guidelines, rather than reverting again. Benea (talk) 22:34, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

 * That all seems fine, and I have no objection to this page being a "list-of" page, rather than a dab.

 * However it really won't do for it to have "disambiguation" in the title while not actually being a dab. WP:SETINDEX is actually quite clear about this: an index page should be called by, in this case, HMS Hood, or if that is not possible, something like List of ships called HMS Hood.  Richard New Forest (talk) 18:16, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

 * My objection is that the entries on the page should be plain rather than piped. patsw (talk) 03:27, 17 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Moved as noted, since it really doesn't do for this page to have disambiguation in the title while not being a dab. -- JHunterJ (talk) 00:34, 3 December 2012 (UTC)

Battle honours
Some uniformed editors think that battle honours only apply the ship it was awarded to. This is utterly wrong. Even on the battle honours page it states that Commonwealth ships inherit battle honours. So this will apply to all HMS Hoods going forward. Not unnecessary level of detail considering it literally applies to the HMS Hood name. Llammakey (talk) 16:15, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * As the above editor has been repeatedly informed. The information is appropriate to the ships articles. The purpose of a list page is to list the relevant articles only, not provide redundant details. Mediatech492 (talk) 16:25, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * You did not read the Naval battle honours section did you? Didn't think so. It's fully cited, but here is a link explaining how Commonwealth naval battle honours work. Here is the one for Canada section 6 in the Historical Background section if you don't want to read all the way. Here is how it works for Australia. You know what they all have in common, they all inherit battle honours. So this is detail that should be on the HMS Hood page, considering that all new HMS Hoods will carry that honour, not just the one that fought in the battle. Llammakey (talk) 16:40, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * All that is fascinating, and irrelevant. The question being asked here is why does this information need to be included in the list article at all? Mediatech492 (talk) 16:44, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Because it applies to all ships named HMS Hood. Not one. All of them! It is inherited. So the next HMS Hood will get this battle honour. This is a list article about the ship name, not the ships. It is detail that goes with the name, not the ship! You could have found that out if you read the links I gave you. Llammakey (talk) 16:46, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Furthermore, please see List of battleships of Japan before spouting off again about what list articles should look like. Llammakey (talk) 16:49, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Also read WP:SETINDEX, where it states that set indices should follow the rules of any other stand-alone list. Llammakey (talk) 17:01, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * None of that states any requirement or preference for battle honours to be included on a list page. Mediatech492 (talk) 17:09, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * What are you on about now? It's a relevant detail about the ship name HMS HOOD (not the ships, the name). List articles include relevant details, and are not limited to a couple of links listing the ships. This is a set index article and follows stand alone list article MOS, which means this is not just a collection of links, but can be expanded into an article, like the List of battleships of Japan. All of things I stated allow for inclusion of the battle honours. Nothing you have said other than I don't like it supports your position. Llammakey (talk) 17:19, 21 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of ships called HMS Hood


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User:Patrick/test page 1

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title: User:Patrick/test page 1


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Sloan (band)

Sloan is a Canadian rock band based in Toronto but is originally from Halifax, Nova Scotia. Sloan has released thirteen full-length albums and has received nine Juno Award nominations, winning one. Between 1996 and 2016, Sloan was among the top 75 best-selling Canadian artists in Canada and among the top 25 best-selling Canadian bands in Canada. The band is known for their sharing of songwriting and lead vocals from each member of the group and their unaltered line-up throughout their career.

Formation (1986–1991)
Chris Murphy was introduced to Jay Ferguson through Matt Murphy in 1986. The three played together in a band called "The Deluxe Boys". The band disbanded in 1987 and Ferguson and Murphy formed the band Kearney Lake Rd. with Henri Sangalang in October of that year. In 1989, Murphy met and befriended Andrew Scott. Kearney Lake Rd. broke up in early 1990. That same year, Murphy and Scott were attending the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design (NSCAD) in Halifax and began jamming together. Ferguson started jamming with Murphy and Scott and they began searching for a bass player. Murphy knew of Patrick Pentland's vocal and guitar abilities from Pentland's previous bands and offered him a spot in the band. Pentland accepted, and Sloan was formed in late January 1991. The band's name comes from their friend, Jason Larsen. Larsen had been nicknamed "Slow One" by his boss, though it sounded more like "Sloan" in the boss's French accent. The original agreement was that they could name the band after Larsen as long as he was on the cover of their first album. As a result, it is Larsen who appears on the cover of the Peppermint EP.

Geffen Records, Peppermint EP (1991–1992)
On February 8, 1991, Sloan played their first concert at an art show at NSCAD University. Murphy and Pentland switched roles shortly after, with Pentland now playing guitar and Murphy playing bass. Through a battle of the bands-type gig, the band earned a spot on the DTK Records compilation Here and Now and a session with local producer Terry Pulliam at his Soundmarket Studios. The band took the opportunity to record an album's worth of songs. One of the songs recorded was "Underwhelmed", which was selected for the Hear and Now '92 compilation. The band attracted interest from Canadian record labels Nettwerk and MCA Canada. After attracting interest from Todd Sullivan, an A&R representative at Geffen Records, a copy of Sloan's Pulliam sessions was sent to Sullivan. After seeing Sloan perform in Vancouver, Sullivan committed to Sloan and the band signed to Geffen in the summer of 1992. That same year, Sloan released their first recording, the EP Peppermint. It was released on the band's own label, Murderecords.

Smeared, Twice Removed (1992-1994)
On October 1, 1992, Sloan released their debut full-length album, Smeared, on Geffen in Canada. Smeared was released in the United States in January, 1993. The lead single from the album was a re-recorded version of "Underwhelmed", which was a hit in Canada and peaked at No. 25 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart in the U.S. In 1993, Sloan embarked on a 10-week North American tour, which included dates opening for The Lemonheads. The band then later began recording their second album. The recordings for the album were a departure from the shoegazer-grunge style on the band's previous album, which did not please Geffen. When Sloan refused Geffen's request to re-record the album, Geffen pulled promotional support for it. In 1994, the band released the second album, which was titled Twice Removed. Spin named the album one of the "Best Albums You Didn't Hear" in 1994.

One Chord to Another to Pretty Together (1995–2001)
In early 1995, rumours began circulating that band was contemplating breaking up. Though they played a handful of shows in the summer of 1995, including a headlining gig at Edgefest, the band did indeed consider themselves broken up by late 1995. Even so, Sloan decided to release another album to help their Murderecords label financially and boost its profile. Though Geffen wanted to keep Sloan on the label, the band wanted to leave and Sloan was released from the label. In 1996, Sloan released One Chord to Another on Murderecords in Canada. The album featured three hit singles and would go on to sell over 80,000 copies, becoming their best-selling album in Canada to date. In 1997, the band won their first Juno Award, winning the "Best Alternative Album" award for One Chord to Another. In 1998, the band released Navy Blues, which was certified gold in Canada. In 1999, Sloan released their first live album, 4 Nights at the Palais Royale. The live album was followed that same year by their next studio album, Between the Bridges. In 2001, Sloan signed a licensing agreement with BMG Music Canada. That same year, Sloan released their next album, Pretty Together.

Action Pact, A Sides Win (2003–2005)
Sloan made a concerted effort to break into the US market on their 2003 release Action Pact. Songs were recorded in Los Angeles with Tom Rothrock producing. The glossier, radio-ready sound failed to raise Sloan's profile in the US, though they continued to be popular in Canada.

In 2005, Sloan released their first compilation album, A Sides Win: Singles 1992-2005. The album included two new songs, "All Used Up" and "Try to Make It". The Japanese release included two additional new tracks.

Yep Roc Records, Never Hear the End of It, Parallel Play (2006–2008)
Now signed to Yep Roc Records for their US releases, Sloan released their eighth album, Never Hear the End of It in 2006. The album contained 30 tracks with all the members of the band contributing new songs. It was met with widespread critical acclaim and became the first Sloan album to chart in the United States. In 2008, Sloan followed up their longest album with their shortest ever release at the time, Parallel Play.

Hit & Run and B-Sides Win (2009–2010)
In November 2009, Sloan added a digital music store to their website. To promote the store, the band released an online-only EP titled Hit & Run. The song Take It Upon Yourself was released as a free single. In February 2010, the band released another online exclusive, the compilation album B-Sides Win: Extras, Bonus Tracks and B-Sides 1992–2008.

The Double Cross, Twice Removed reissue (2011–2013)
Sloan announced plans to release a 10th album in 2011, to coincide with the 20th anniversary of their first show.

On February 22, 2011, Sloan announced that their new album would be released on May 10, 2011. The album was entitled The Double Cross, a nod to their 20th (or XX) anniversary. The album was preceded by its first single, "Unkind".

In promotion of the new album, a special video series produced and directed by Catherine Stockhausen was launched on YouTube to celebrate the band's success and renown. The videos featured interviews with musicians and celebrities such as Jason Schwartzman, Joel Plaskett, Stefan Brogren, Dave Foley, Kevin Drew, Buck 65, Sebastien Grainger, The Dears, Ian D'Sa and Benjamin Kowalewicz from Billy Talent, K-OS, and Dave Hamlin.

Following the completion of touring for The Double Cross, Sloan reissued and toured behind Twice Removed as a three-record vinyl box set containing the original album, rarities, and demos. They toured North America, where they played Twice Removed in its entirety, followed by additional sets of songs that don't appear on the album.

On April 24, 2013, Sloan announced the release of a hardcore punk 7" single, Jenny b/w It's In You, It's In Me. Pre-orders of the single also included a T-shirt portraying the band members circa 1985, and a bonus digital download of 12 additional hardcore covers performed by Sloan. Some of the bands covered included Minor Threat, The Descendents, Angry Samoans, 7 Seconds, Black Flag and The Nils. In 2021, Sloan compiled and released the two originals and all 12 punk covers together as part of the 12” vinyl album, This One’s an Original.

Between 2011 and 2013, Sloan also released three limited edition live "bootleg" LPs from their archives: ''Is That All I Get? (1993 September Twentieth – Recorded Live On Patrick's Birthday) (2011), Australia 1999 (2012), and Japan 2002'' (2013).

Commonwealth, 20th anniversary of One Chord to Another (2013–2017)
In 2013, the band revealed plans for a double album, with each of the four sides featuring a solo suite by a different band member. In May 2014, it was announced that the new album would be titled Commonwealth and would be released in September 2014. On July 14, 2014, the band announced the official release date for the album and the release of the album's first single, "Keep Swinging (Downtown)". In 2016, Sloan released a deluxe vinyl box set of their 1996 album, One Chord To Another, which contained the original album, rarities, and demos. To mark that record's 20th anniversary, Sloan also toured North America, where they played the OCTA album in its entirety. In November 2016, Sloan released a Christmas single on limited edition, red translucent 7" vinyl, featuring two new songs, "Kids Come Back Again at Christmas" and "December 25".

12 (2018–2020)
On February 5, 2018, Sloan announced that their twelfth record would be called 12. Advance track releases included "The Day Will Be Mine", "Spin Our Wheels" (the album's lead single), "Right to Roam," and "44 Teenagers." The album was released on April 6, 2018. The album's debut marked Sloan's highest ever position on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, reaching #11. The band then set off on a 30-date North American tour in support of the album.

In late 2019, Sloan released their third deluxe vinyl box set – this time for their 1998 album, Navy Blues. This release contained the original album, rarities, and demos. To celebrate the box set's release, Sloan embarked on a tour of North America that extended into 2020, in which they performed the Navy Blues album in its entirety.

Steady (2021–present)
In July 2021, it was reported that Sloan was working on their thirteenth album and hoped to release it in the fall of 2022.

Sloan officially announced their new album, entitled Steady, on July 13, 2022. The band released the song "Spend the Day" on streaming platforms the same day. On August 17, the band released the album's official lead single, "Scratch the Surface", along with an accompanying music video. Steady was released on October 21, 2022. The band toured behind Steady, in Canada, from October 2022 to March 2023, and commenced a US leg of the tour in April 2023, and then select US dates from June 22–30, 2023.

Songwriting, live performances
All four members of Sloan write and sing their own songs, and when they play live they switch instruments accordingly. Usually the band performs as follows: Murphy plays bass, Pentland plays lead guitar, Ferguson plays rhythm guitar, and Scott plays drums. Scott plays guitar while singing his songs, while Ferguson switches to bass and Murphy switches to drums. Prior to 2006's Never Hear the End of It, Ferguson and Scott would also play electric piano on songs that called for it. Multi-instrumentalist Gregory Macdonald has handled all keyboard duties live and in the studio since 2006. Murphy and Pentland would be considered the two main vocalists as they sing lead on the majority of the band's songs and contribute back-up/harmony vocals to all them.

While Murphy has written more of the band's songs than any of the other members, particularly on the band's first two albums, Pentland is nonetheless responsible for having written a majority of Sloan's most recognizable hits. Every member of the group has contributed at least one song per album, with the lone exception being 2003's Action Pact on which Scott has no songs. According to Eye Weekly, that album's producer, Tom Rothrock, essentially randomly selected tracks out of the band's submissions in the interest of creating a more streamlined sound. Also, Scott's songwriting output at that time may have been somewhat diminished because he had recently become a father.

Members

 * Jay Ferguson – vocals, rhythm guitar, bass guitar (1991–present)
 * Chris Murphy – vocals, bass guitar, drums (1991–present)
 * Patrick Pentland – vocals, lead guitar (1991–present)
 * Andrew Scott – vocals, drums, rhythm guitar (1991–present)

 * Touring members
 * Gregory Macdonald – Keyboards, percussion, vocals (2006–present)

Honours and awards
In 1996, a reader poll by Canadian music magazine Chart! ranked Twice Removed as the best Canadian album of all time, only two years after its release. The same poll in 2000 ranked the album third, behind Joni Mitchell's Blue and Neil Young's Harvest. However, the 2005 poll once again ranked the album first. The band has also been nominated for several Juno Awards, winning one in 1997 for Best Alternative Album for One Chord to Another.

Juno Awards
Source
 * 1994: Nominated – Best New Group
 * 1995: Nominated – Best Alternative Album (Twice Removed)
 * 1997: Won – Best Alternative Album (One Chord to Another)
 * 1999: Nominated – Best Rock Album (Navy Blues)
 * 2000: Nominated – Best Album Design (Catherine Stockhausen and Lee Towndrow, Between the Bridges)
 * 2002: Nominated – Best Rock Album (Pretty Together)
 * 2002: Nominated – Best Single ("If It Feels Good Do It")
 * 2007: Nominated – Best Rock Album (Never Hear the End of It)
 * 2009: Nominated – Best Rock Album (Parallel Play)
 * 2012: Nominated – Best Rock Album (The Double Cross)

East Coast Music Awards

 * 1993: Nominated – Album of the Year (Smeared), Entertainer of the Year, Pop Rock Recording of the Year, Song of the Year ("Underwhelmed"), Video of the Year ("Underwhelmed")
 * 1996: Won – Alternative Recording of the Year
 * Nominated – Pop Rock Recording of the Year, Video of the Year ("People of the Sky")
 * 1997: Won – Alternative Recording of the Year, Group of the Year
 * Nominated – Pop Rock Recording of the Year
 * 1998: Nominated – Single of the Year ("Everything You've Done Wrong"), Video of the Year ("Everything You've Done Wrong")
 * 1999: Nominated – Group of the Year, Video of the Year ("Money City Maniacs")
 * 2001: Nominated – Group of the Year
 * 2002: Won – Video of the Year ("If It Feels Good Do It")
 * Nominated – Album of the Year (Pretty Together), Entertainer of the Year, Group of the Year, Rock Recording of the Year, Songwriter of the Year ("If It Feels Good Do It")
 * 2003: Nominated – Entertainer of the Year, Single of the Year ("The Other Man"), Video of the Year ("The Other Man")
 * 2004: Won – Video of the Year ("The Rest of My Life")
 * Nominated – Album of the Year (Action Pact), Group of the Year, Rock Recording of the Year (Action Pact), Single of the Year ("The Rest of My Life"), Songwriter of the Year ("The Rest of My Life")
 * 2006 Nominated – Single of the Year ("All Used Up")
 * 2007 Won – Rock Recording of the Year (Never Hear the End of It)
 * Nominated: Album of the Year (Never Hear the End of It), Group of the Year

title: Sloan (band)


text:
User:BjarkeDahlEbert

I'm Bjarke Dahl Ebert from Denmark. Born 1971, married, two children. MS in Mathematics.

title: User:BjarkeDahlEbert


text:
HMHS Britannic

HMHS Britannic (originally to be the RMS Britannic) was the third and final vessel of the White Star Line's Olympic-class ocean liner of steamships and the second White Star ship to bear the name Britannic. She was the youngest sister of the RMS Olympic and the RMS Titanic and was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner. She was operated as a hospital ship from 1915 until her sinking near the Greek island of Kea, in the Aegean Sea, in November 1916. At the time she was the largest hospital ship in the world.

Britannic was launched just before the start of the First World War. She was designed to be the safest of the three ships with design changes made during construction due to lessons learned from the sinking of the Titanic. She was laid up at her builders, Harland and Wolff, in Belfast for many months before being requisitioned as a hospital ship. In 1915 and 1916 she served between the United Kingdom and the Dardanelles.

On the morning of 21 November 1916 she hit a naval mine of the Imperial German Navy near the Greek island of Kea and sank 55 minutes later, killing 30 people. There were 1,066 people on board; the 1,036 survivors were rescued from the water and lifeboats. Britannic was the largest ship lost in the First World War.

After the First World War, the White Star Line was compensated for the loss of Britannic by the award of SS Bismarck as part of postwar reparations; she entered service as RMS Majestic.

The wreck was located and explored by Jacques Cousteau in 1975. The vessel is the largest intact passenger ship on the seabed in the world. It was bought in 1996 and is currently owned by Simon Mills, a maritime historian.

Characteristics
The original dimensions of Britannic were similar to those of her older sisters, but her dimensions were altered whilst still on the building stocks after the loss of Titanic. With a gross tonnage of 48,158, she surpassed her older sisters in terms of internal volume, but this did not make her the largest passenger ship in service at that time; the German SS Vaterland (1913) held this title with a significantly higher tonnage.

The Olympic-class ships were propelled by a combined system of two triple-expansion steam engines which powered the three-bladed outboard wing propellers whilst a low-pressure steam turbine used steam exhausted from the two reciprocating engines to power the central four-bladed propeller giving a maximum speed of 23 knots.

Post-Titanic design changes
Britannic had a similar layout to her sister ships. Following the Titanic disaster and the subsequent inquiries, several design changes were made to the remaining Olympic-class liners. With Britannic, these changes made before launch included increasing the ship's beam to 94 ft to allow for a double hull along the engine and boiler rooms and raising six out of the 15 watertight bulkheads up to B Deck. Additionally, a larger 18000 hp turbine was added instead of the 16000 hp units installed on the earlier vessels to make up for the increase in hull width. The central watertight compartments were enhanced, allowing the ship to stay afloat with six compartments flooded.

Externally the largest visual change was the fitting of large crane-like gantry davits, each powered by an electric motor and capable of launching six lifeboats which were stored on gantries; the ship was designed to have eight sets of gantry davits but only five were installed before Britannic entered war service, with the difference being made up with boats launched by manually operated Welin-type davits as on Titanic and Olympic.

Additional lifeboats could be stored within reach of the davits on the deckhouse roof, and the gantry davits could reach lifeboats on the other side of the ship, providing that none of the funnels was obstructing the way. This design enabled all the lifeboats to be launched, even if the ship developed a list that would normally prevent lifeboats from being launched on the side opposite to the list. Several of these davits were placed abreast of funnels, defeating that purpose. The elevators, which previously stopped at A deck, could now reach the boat deck. The ship carried 48 lifeboats, capable of carrying at least 75 people each. Thus, at least 3,600 people could be carried by the lifeboats, which was well above the ship's maximum capacity of 3,309.

Conception
In 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, director general of the White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast had decided to build a trio of ocean liners of unmatched size to compete with the Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania not in terms of speed but in terms of luxury and safety. The names of the three vessels were decided at a later date and they showed the intention of the designers regarding their size: Olympic, Titanic and Britannic.

Construction of the Olympic and the Titanic began in 1908 and 1909 respectively. Their sizes were so large that it was necessary to build the Arrol Gantry to shelter them, wide enough to span the two new building slips and allow two ships to be built at a time. The three ships were designed to be 270 metres long and to have a gross tonnage of over 45,000. Their designed speed was approximately 22 knots, well below that of the Lusitania and Mauretania, but still allowing for a transatlantic crossing of less than one week.

Rumoured name-change
Although the White Star Line and the Harland and Wolff shipyard always denied it, some sources claim that Britannic was to be named Gigantic, but her name was changed so as not to compete with Titanic or create comparisons. One source is a poster of the ship with the name Gigantic at the top. Other sources are November 1911 American newspapers stating the White Star order for Gigantic being placed, as well as other newspapers from around the world both during construction and immediately after the sinking of the Titanic.

Tom McCluskie stated that in his capacity as archive manager and historian at Harland and Wolff, he "never saw any official reference to the name Gigantic being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic-class vessels". Some hand-written changes were added to the order book and dated January 1912. These only dealt with the ship's moulded width, not her name.

Construction
Britannic's keel was laid on 30 November 1911 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, on the gantry slip previously occupied by RMS Olympic, 13 months after the launch of that ship, and RMS Arlanza (1911), launched seven days before. The acquisition of the ship was planned to be at the beginning of 1914. Due to improvements introduced as a consequence of the Titanic's disaster, Britannic was not launched until 26 February 1914, which was filmed along with the fitting of a funnel. Several speeches were given in front of the press, and a dinner was organised in honour of the launching. Fitting out began subsequently. The ship entered dry dock in September and her propellers were installed.

Reusing Olympic's space saved the shipyard time and money by not clearing out a third slip similar in size to those used for the two previous vessels. In August 1914, before Britannic could commence transatlantic service between New York and Southampton, the First World War began. Immediately, all shipyards with Admiralty contracts were given priority to use available raw materials. All civil contracts including Britannic were slowed.

The naval authorities requisitioned a large number of ships as armed merchant cruisers or for troop transport. The Admiralty paid the companies for the use of their ships but the risk of losing a ship in naval operations was high. The larger ocean liners were not initially taken for naval use, because smaller ships were easier to operate. Olympic returned to Belfast on 3 November 1914, while work on Britannic continued slowly.

Requisition
The need for increased tonnage grew critical as naval operations extended to the Eastern Mediterranean. In May 1915, Britannic completed mooring trials of her engines, and was prepared for emergency entrance into service with as little as four weeks' notice. The same month also saw the first major loss of a civilian ocean liner when Cunard's RMS Lusitania was torpedoed near the Irish coast by SMU U-20 (Germany).

The following month, the Admiralty decided to use recently requisitioned passenger liners as troop transports in the Gallipoli Campaign (also called the Dardanelles service). The first to sail were Cunard's RMS Mauretania (1906) and RMS Aquitania. As the Gallipoli landings proved to be disastrous and the casualties mounted, the need for large hospital ships for treatment and evacuation of wounded became evident. Aquitania was diverted to hospital ship duties in August (her place as a troop transport would be taken by Olympic in September). Then on 13 November 1915, Britannic was requisitioned as a hospital ship from her storage location at Belfast.

Repainted white with large red crosses and a horizontal green stripe, she was renamed HMHS (His Majesty's Hospital Ship) Britannic and placed under the command of Captain Charles Alfred Bartlett. In the interior, 3,309 beds and several operating rooms were installed. The common areas of the upper decks were transformed into rooms for the wounded. The cabins of B Deck were used to house doctors. The first-class dining room and the first-class reception room on D Deck were transformed into operating rooms. The lower bridge was used to accommodate the lightly wounded. The medical equipment was installed on 12 December 1915.

First service
When declared fit for service on 12 December 1915 at Liverpool, Britannic was assigned a medical team consisting of 101 nurses, 336 non-commissioned officers and 52 commissioned officers as well as a crew of 675 people. On 23 December, she left Liverpool to join the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos on the Aegean Sea to bring back sick and wounded soldiers. She joined with several ships on the same route, including Mauretania, Aquitania, and her sister ship Olympic. The four ships were joined a little later by SS Statendam (1914). She made a stopover at Naples before continuing to Mudros, in order for her stock of coal to be replenished. After she returned, she spent four weeks as a floating hospital off the Isle of Wight.

The third voyage was from 20 March 1916 to 4 April. The Dardanelles was evacuated in January. At the end of her military service on 6 June 1916, Britannic returned to Belfast to undergo the necessary modifications for transforming her into a transatlantic passenger liner. The British government paid the White Star Line £75,000 to compensate for the conversion. The transformation took place for several months before being interrupted by a recall of the ship back into military service.

Recalled
The Admiralty recalled Britannic back into service as a hospital ship on 26 August 1916, and the ship returned to the Mediterranean Sea for a fourth voyage on 24 September of that year. On 29 September on her way to Naples, she encountered a violent storm from which she emerged unscathed. She left on 9 October for Southampton. Then, she made a fifth trip, which was marked by a quarantining of the crew when the ship arrived at Mudros (now Moudros) because of food-borne illness.

Life aboard the ship followed a routine. At six o'clock, the patients were awakened and the premises were cleaned up. Breakfast was served at 6:30 AM, then the captain toured the ship for an inspection. Lunch was served at 12:30 PM and tea at 4:30 PM. Patients were treated between meals and those who wished to go for a walk could do so. At 8:30 PM, the patients went to bed and the captain made another inspection tour. There were medical classes available for training the nurses.

Last voyage
After completing five successful voyages to the Middle Eastern theatre and back to the United Kingdom transporting the sick and wounded, Britannic departed Southampton for Lemnos at 14:23 on 12 November 1916, her sixth voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. The ship passed Gibraltar around midnight on 15 November and arrived at Naples on the morning of 17 November, for her usual coaling and water-refuelling stop, completing the first stage of her mission.

A storm kept the ship at Naples until Sunday afternoon when Captain Bartlett decided to take advantage of a brief break in the weather and continue. The seas rose once again as Britannic left the port. By the next morning, the storms died and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without problems. Cape Matapan was rounded in the first hours of 21 November. By morning, Britannic was steaming at full speed into the Kea Channel, between Cape Sounion (the southernmost point of Attica, the prefecture that includes Athens) and the island of Kea.

There were 1,066 people on board: 673 crew, 315 Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), 77 nurses, and the captain.

Explosion
At 08:12 am European Eastern Time Britannic was rocked by an explosion after hitting a mine. The mines had been planted in the Kea Channel on 21 October 1916 by SM U-73 under the command of Gustav Sieß.

The reaction in the dining room was immediate; doctors and nurses left instantly for their posts but not everybody reacted the same way, as further aft, the power of the explosion was less felt, and many thought the ship had hit a smaller boat. Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume were on the bridge at the time and the gravity of the situation was soon evident. The explosion was on the starboard side, between holds two and three. The force of the explosion damaged the watertight bulkhead between hold one and the forepeak. The first four watertight compartments were filling rapidly with water, the boiler-man's tunnel connecting the firemen's quarters in the bow with boiler room six was seriously damaged, and water was flowing into that boiler room.

Bartlett ordered the watertight doors closed, sent a distress signal, and ordered the crew to prepare the lifeboats. An SOS signal was immediately sent out and was received by several other ships in the area, among them HMS Scourge (1910) and HMS Heroic, but Britannic heard nothing in reply. Unknown to either Bartlett or the ship's wireless operator, the force of the first explosion had caused the antenna wires slung between the ship's masts to snap. This meant that although the ship could still send out transmissions by radio, she could no longer receive them.

Along with the damaged watertight door of the firemen's tunnel, the watertight door between boiler rooms six and five failed to close properly. Water was flowing further aft into boiler room five. Britannic had reached her flooding limit. She could stay afloat (motionless) with her first six watertight compartments flooded. There were five watertight bulkheads rising all the way up to B Deck. Those measures had been taken after the Titanic disaster (Titanic could float with only her first four compartments flooded).

The next crucial bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four and its door were undamaged and should have guaranteed the ship's survival. However, there were open portholes along the front lower decks, which tilted underwater within minutes of the explosion. The nurses had opened most of those portholes to ventilate the wards, against standing orders. As the ship's angle of list increased, water reached this level and began entering aft from the bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four. With more than six compartments flooded, Britannic could not stay afloat.

Evacuation
On the bridge, Captain Bartlett was already considering efforts to save the ship. Only two minutes after the blast, boiler rooms five and six had to be evacuated. In about ten minutes, Britannic was roughly in the same condition Titanic had been in one hour after the collision with the iceberg. Fifteen minutes after the ship was struck, the open portholes on E Deck were underwater. With water also entering her aft section from the bulkhead between boiler rooms four and five, Britannic quickly developed a serious list to starboard.

Bartlett gave the order to turn starboard towards the island of Kea in an attempt to beach her. The effect of Britannic's starboard list and the weight of the rudder made attempts to navigate the ship under her own power difficult, and the steering gear had been knocked out by the explosion, which eliminated steering by the rudder. The captain ordered the port shaft driven at a higher speed than the starboard side, which helped the ship move towards Kea.

At the same time, the hospital staff prepared to evacuate. Bartlett had given the order to prepare the lifeboats, but he did not allow them to be lowered into the water. Everyone took their most valuable belongings with them before they evacuated. The chaplain of the ship recovered his Bible. The few patients and nurses on board were assembled. Major Harold Priestley gathered his detachments from the Royal Army Medical Corps to the back of the A deck and inspected the cabins to ensure no one was left behind.

While Bartlett continued his desperate manoeuvre, Britannic's list steadily increased. Fearing that the list would become too large to launch, some crew decided to launch lifeboats without waiting for the order to do so. Two lifeboats were put onto the water on the port side without permission by Third Officer Francis Laws. These boats were sucked towards the still-turning, partly surfaced propellers. Bartlett ordered the engines to stop but before this could take effect, the two boats were sucked into the propellers, completely destroying both and killing 30 people. Bartlett was able to stop the engines before any more boats were lost.

Final moments
By 08:50, most of those on board had escaped in the 35 successfully launched lifeboats. At this point, Bartlett concluded that the rate at which Britannic was sinking had slowed so he called a halt to the evacuation and ordered the engines restarted in the hope that he might still be able to beach the ship. At 09:00 Bartlett was informed that the rate of flooding had increased due to the ship's forward motion and that the flooding had reached D-deck. Realising that there was now no hope of reaching land in time, Bartlett gave the final order to stop the engines and sounded two final long blasts of the whistle, the signal to abandon ship. As water reached the bridge, he and Assistant Commander Dyke walked off onto the deck and entered the water, swimming to a collapsible boat from which they continued to coordinate the rescue operations.

Britannic gradually capsized to starboard, and the funnels collapsed one after the other as the ship rapidly sank. By the time the stern was out of the water, the bow had already slammed into the seabed. As Britannic's length was greater than the depth of the water, the impact caused major structural damage to the bow before she slipped completely beneath the waves at 09:07, 55 minutes after the explosion. Violet Jessop (who was one of the survivors of the Titanic, and had also been on board when the Olympic collided with HMS Hawke (1891)) described the last seconds:

"She dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths, the noise of her going resounding through the water with undreamt-of violence...."

When the Britannic came to rest, she became the largest ship lost in the First World War and the world's largest sunken passenger ship.

Rescue
Compared to Titanic, the rescue of Britannic was facilitated by three factors: The water temperature was higher (20 C compared to -2 C for Titanic), more lifeboats were available (35 were successfully launched and stayed afloat compared to Titanic's 20), and help was closer (it arrived less than two hours after first distress call compared to three and a half hours for Titanic).

The first to arrive on the scene were fishermen from Kea on their caïque, who picked many survivors from the water. At 10:00, HMS Scourge (1910) sighted the first lifeboats and 10 minutes later stopped and picked up 339 survivors. Armed boarding steamer HMS Heroic had arrived some minutes earlier and picked up 494. Some 150 had made it to Korissia, Kea, where surviving doctors and nurses from Britannic were trying to save the injured, using aprons and pieces of lifebelts to make dressings. A little barren quayside served as their operating room.

Scourge and Heroic had no deck space for more survivors, and they left for Piraeus signalling the presence of those remaining at Korissia. HMS Foxhound (1909) arrived at 11:45 and, after sweeping the area, anchored in the small port at 13:00 to offer medical assistance and take on board the remaining survivors. At 14:00 the light cruiser HMS Foresight (1904) arrived. Foxhound departed for Piraeus at 14:15 while Foresight remained to arrange the burial on Kea of RAMC Sergeant William Sharpe, who had died of his injuries. Another two survivors died on the Heroic and one on the French tug Goliath. The three were buried with military honours in the Piraeus Naval and Consular Cemetery. The last fatality was G. Honeycott, who died at the Russian Hospital at Piraeus shortly after the funerals.

In total, out of the 1,066 people on board, 1,036 people survived the sinking. Thirty people lost their lives in the disaster but only five were buried; others were not recovered and are honoured on memorials in Thessaloniki (the Mikra Memorial) and London. Another 38 were injured (18 crew, 20 RAMC). Survivors were accommodated in the warships that were anchored at the port of Piraeus while nurses and officers were hosted in separate hotels at Phaleron. Many Greek citizens and officials attended the funerals. Survivors were sent home and few arrived in the United Kingdom before Christmas.

In November 2006, Britannic researcher Michail Michailakis discovered that one of the 45 unidentified graves in the New British Cemetery in the town of Hermoupolis on the island of Syros contained the remains of a soldier collected from the church of Ag. Trias at Livadi (the former name of Korissia). Maritime historian Simon Mills contacted the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Further research established that this soldier was a Britannic casualty and his remains had been registered in October 1919 as belonging to a certain "Corporal Stevens".

When the remains were moved to the new cemetery at Syros in June 1921, it was found that there was no record relating this name with the loss of the ship, and the grave was registered as unidentified. Mills provided evidence that this man could be Sergeant Sharpe and the case was considered by the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency. A new headstone for Sharpe was erected and the CWGC has updated its database.

Visualised as an ocean liner
The plan of Britannic showed that she was intended to be more luxurious than her sister ships in order to compete with SS Imperator, SS Vaterland (1913) and RMS Aquitania. Enough cabins were provided for passengers divided into three classes. The White Star Line anticipated a considerable change in its customer base. Thus, the quality of the Third Class (intended for migrants) was lowered when compared to that of her sisters, while the quality of the Second Class increased. In addition, the number of crew planned was increased from about 860 – 880 onboard Olympic and Titanic to 950 aboard Britannic.

The quality of the First Class was also improved. Children began to appear as part of the clientele that needed to be satisfied, and thus a playroom for them was built on the boat deck. Similar to her two sister ships, the first class amenities included the Grand Staircase, but Britannic's amenities were more sumptuous, with worked balustrades, decorative panels and a pipe organ. The A Deck of the ship was devoted in its entirety to the First Class, being fitted with a salon, two veranda cafes, a smoking room and a reading room. The B Deck included a hair salon, post office, and redesigned deluxe Parlour Suites, dubbed Saloons in the Builder's Plans. The most important addition was that of individual bathrooms in almost every First Class cabin, which would have been a first on an ocean liner. Aboard the Olympic and Titanic, most passengers had to use public bathrooms.

These facilities were installed but were soon removed because the ship was converted to a hospital ship and were never re-installed because the ship sank before she could enter transatlantic service, so the planned facilities were either cancelled, destroyed, reused on other vessels, like the Olympic or Majestic, or just never used. Of these accessories, only a large staircase and a children's playroom remained installed. Under the glass dome was a white wall above the first-class staircase instead of a clock and a large painting.

Pipe organ
A Welte philharmonic organ was planned to be installed on board Britannic but because of the outbreak of war, the instrument never made its way to Belfast from Germany. After the war, it was not claimed by Harland and Wolff since Britannic sank before she could have ever entered transatlantic service. It also was not installed on Olympic or Majestic since White Star Line did not want it. For a long time, it was thought that the organ was lost or destroyed.

In April 2007, the restorers of a Welte organ, now in the Museum für Musikautomaten in Seewen, Switzerland, detected that the main parts of the instrument were signed by the German organ builders with "Britanik". A photograph of a drawing in a company prospectus, found in the Welte-legacy in the Augustiner Museum in Freiburg, proved that this was the organ intended for Britannic. It was found that Welte had first sold the organ to a private owner in Stuttgart instead. Later, in 1937 it had been transferred to a company's concert hall in Wipperfürth, where it was eventually acquired by the founder of the Swiss Museum of Music Automatons in 1969. At the time, the museum was still unaware of the organ's original history. The museum maintains the organ in working condition and it is still used for fully automated and manual performances.

Wreck
The wreck of HMHS Britannic is at 37.70139°N, 24.28389°W in about 400 ft of water. It was discovered on 3 December 1975 by Jacques Cousteau, who explored it. In filming the expedition, Cousteau also held conference on camera with several surviving personnel from the ship including Sheila MacBeth Mitchell, a survivor of the sinking. In 1976, Cousteau entered the wreck with his divers for the first time. He expressed the opinion that the ship had been sunk by a single torpedo, basing this opinion on the damage to her plates.

The giant liner lies on her starboard side hiding the zone of impact with the mine. There is a huge hole just beneath the forward well deck. The bow is heavily deformed and attached to the rest of the hull only by some pieces of C-Deck. The crew's quarters in the forecastle were found to be in good shape with many details still visible. The holds were found empty.

The forecastle machinery and the two cargo cranes in the forward well deck are well preserved. The foremast is bent and lies on the seabed near the wreck with the crow's nest still attached. The bell, thought to be lost, was found in a dive in 2019, having fallen from the mast and is now lying directly below the crow's nest on the seabed. Funnel number 1 was found a few metres from the Boat Deck. Funnel numbers two, three, and four were found in the debris field (located off the stern). Pieces of coal lie beside the wreck.

In mid-1995, in an expedition filmed by NOVA, Dr Robert Ballard, best known for having discovered the wrecks of RMS Titanic in 1985, and the GERMAN BATTLESHIP Bismarck in 1989, visited the wreck, using advanced side-scan sonar. Images were obtained from remotely controlled vehicles, but the wreck was not penetrated. Ballard found all the ship's funnels in surprisingly good condition. Attempts to find mine anchors failed.

In August 1996, the wreck was bought by Simon Mills, who has written two books about the ship: Britannic – The Last Titan and Hostage To Fortune.

In November 1997, an international team of divers led by Kevin Gurr used open-circuit trimix diving techniques to visit and film the wreck in the newly available DV digital video format.

In September 1998, another team of divers made an expedition to the wreck. Using diver propulsion vehicles, the team made more man-dives to the wreck and produced more images than ever before, including video of four telegraphs, a helm and a telemotor on the captain's bridge.

In 1999 GUE divers acclimated to cave diving and ocean discovery led the first dive expedition to include extensive penetration into Britannic. Video of the expedition was broadcast by National Geographic, BBC, the History Channel and the Discovery Channel.

In September 2003, an expedition led by Carl Spencer dived into the wreck. This was the first expedition to dive Britannic where all the bottom divers were using closed circuit rebreathers (CCR). Diver Leigh Bishop brought back some of the first photographs from inside the wreck and his diver partner Rich Stevenson found that several watertight doors were open. It has been suggested that this was because the mine strike coincided with the change of watches. Alternatively, the explosion may have distorted the doorframes. A number of mine anchors were located off the wreck by sonar expert Bill Smith, confirming the German records of SMU U-73 that Britannic was sunk by a single mine and the damage was compounded by open portholes and watertight doors. Spencer's expedition was broadcast extensively across the world for many years by National Geographic and the UK's Channel 5.

In 2006, an expedition, funded and filmed by the History Channel, brought together fourteen skilled divers to help determine what caused the quick sinking of Britannic. After preparation the crew dived on the wreck site on 17 September. Time was cut short when silt was kicked up, causing zero visibility conditions, and the two divers narrowly escaped with their lives. One last dive was to be attempted on Britannic's boiler room, but it was discovered that photographing this far inside the wreck would lead to violating a permit issued by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, a department within the Greek Ministry of Culture.

Partly because of a barrier in languages, a last-minute plea was turned down by the department. The expedition was unable to determine the cause of the rapid sinking, but hours of footage were filmed and important data was documented. The Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities later recognised the importance of this mission and extended an invitation to revisit the wreck under less stringent rules.

On 24 May 2009, Carl Spencer, drawn back to his third underwater filming mission of Britannic, died in Greece due to equipment difficulties while filming the wreck for National Geographic.

In 2012, on an expedition organised by Alexander Sotiriou and Paul Lijnen, divers using rebreathers installed and recovered scientific equipment used for environmental purposes, to determine how fast bacteria are eating Britannic's iron compared to Titanic.

On 29 September 2019, a British technical diver, Tim Saville, died during a 120 m / 393 ft dive on Britannic's wreck.

Legacy
Having her career cut short in wartime, never having entered commercial service, and having had few victims, Britannic did not experience the same notoriety as her sister ship Titanic. After being largely forgotten by the public, she finally gained fame when her wreck was discovered. Her name was reused by the White Star Line when it put MV Britannic (1929) into service in 1930. That ship was the last to fly the flag of the company when it retired in 1960.

After Germany capitulated at the end of the First World War followed by the Treaty of Versailles, it handed over some of its ocean liners as war reparations, two of which were given to the company. The first, the Bismarck, renamed Majestic, replaced the Britannic. The second, the Columbus, renamed the Homeric, compensated for other ships lost in the conflict.

The last survivor, George Perman, died on the 24th of May 2000, just shy of his 100th birthday. At the time of the sinking, he was a 15-year-old Scout working on Britannic, and the youngest person onboard the ship.

In popular culture
The sinking of the ship was dramatised in a 2000 television film called Britannic that featured Edward Atterton, Amanda Ryan, Jacqueline Bisset and John Rhys-Davies. The film was a fictional account featuring a German agent sabotaging the ship, because the Britannic was secretly carrying munitions.

A BBC2 documentary, Titanic's Tragic Twin – the Britannic Disaster, was broadcast on 5 December 2016; presented by Kate Humble and Andy Torbet, it used up-to-date underwater film of the wreck and spoke to relatives of survivors.

Alma Katsu's 2020 novel The Deep was set partly on the Britannic, and on its sister ship the Titanic, and centred around the sinking of both ships.

The Gigantic, the apparent setting of the 2009 escape-room game Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, references the Britannic as a sister ship of the Titanic retrofitted as a hospital ship.

title: HMHS Britannic