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Haydn Quartet (vocal ensemble)

The Haydn Quartet, later known as the Hayden Quartet, was one of the most popular recording close harmony quartets in the early twentieth century. It was originally formed in 1896 as the Edison Quartet to record for Edison Records; it took its new name when recording for other companies. The name was a homage to Joseph Haydn, the classical composer; the spelling was later revised to Hayden, which reflects the way it was pronounced. The group disbanded in 1914.

Formation
The Haydn Quartet originally formed under the name "Edison Quartet" in 1896, with a membership of John Bieling (tenor), Jere Mahoney (tenor), Samuel Holland Rous (who performed under the name S. H. Dudley, baritone), and William F. Hooley (bass). Mahoney was soon replaced by John Scantlebury Macdonald, who used the pseudonym Harry Macdonough. They recorded as the Edison Quartet (or Edison Male Quartet), before taking the name Haydn Quartet in order to record for companies other than Edison.

In 1901 they signed a contract with the Victor Talking Machine Company, and in 1902 also traveled to the UK to record for the Gramophone Company, which was Victor's affiliate. The group had great success over the next decade as one of the premier recording groups of the time, on a par with the Peerless Quartet. The Haydn Quartet often sang material at a slower tempo and in a statelier fashion than other groups. The ensemble also performed vaudeville and minstrel show songs, one of which, "The Camp Meeting Jubilee", released in 1904 as Victor no. 4003, includes a very early recorded use of the phrase "rockin' and rollin'", albeit used with a spiritual rather than secular connotation.

Recordings credited to the Haydn Quartet began to be phased out in 1908. After that time, Billy Murray frequently sang lead with the group, and S. H. Dudley was often replaced by Reinald Werrenrath. Following the successful collaborations between Murray and the Haydn Quartet, Victor organized a new group, the American Quartet, in 1910, with Murray, Bieling and Hooley from the Haydn Quartet, and baritone Steve Porter. The group's name was spelled Hayden after 1910. The quartet disbanded in 1914. As well as members participating in the American Quartet, Macdonough and Hooley, together with Reinald Werranrath and tenor Lambert Murphy, also formed the Orpheus Quartet, who recorded successfully until 1919.

In his book Pop Memories 1890-1954, music archivist and statistician Joel Whitburn assessed a variety of sources such as Talking Machine Worlds lists of top-selling recordings, and Billboards sheet music and vaudeville charts, to estimate the most successful recordings of the period. He concluded that the Haydn Quartet had 62 "top ten" hits in all between 1898 and 1914, and in the decade 1900-1909 had more successful recordings than any other group, behind only Macdonough and Murray, who recorded as solo artists in addition to their group performances. Although Whitburn's methods of assessment have been criticized, this confirms that the group were one of the most popular of their era.

Discography

 * My Bonnie Lies Over The Ocean (1901)
 * In the Good Old Summer Time (1903)
 * In the Sweet Bye and Bye (1903)
 * Way Down Yonder in the Cornfield (1903)
 * Bedelia (1904)
 * Sweet Adeline (You're the Flower of My Heart) (1904)
 * In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree (1905)
 * My Wild Irish Rose (1905)
 * The Jolly Blacksmiths (1906)
 * How'd You Like To Spoon With Me (1906)
 * Will You Love Me In December As You Do In May? (1906)
 * Love Me and the World Is Mine (1908)
 * Sunbonnet Sue (1908)
 * Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1908)
 * Put On Your Old Gray Bonnet (1909)
 * By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1910)

title: Haydn Quartet (vocal ensemble)


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Orientability

In mathematics, orientability is a property of some topological spaces such as real vector spaces, Euclidean spaces, surfaces, and more generally manifolds that allows a consistent definition of "clockwise" and "anticlockwise". A space is orientable if such a consistent definition exists. In this case, there are two possible definitions, and a choice between them is an orientation of the space. Real vector spaces, Euclidean spaces, and spheres are orientable. A space is non-orientable if "clockwise" is changed into "counterclockwise" after running through some loops in it, and coming back to the starting point. This means that a geometric shape, such as, that moves continuously along such a loop is changed into its own mirror image. A Möbius strip is an example of a non-orientable space.

Various equivalent formulations of orientability can be given, depending on the desired application and level of generality. Formulations applicable to general topological manifolds often employ methods of homology theory, whereas for differentiable manifolds more structure is present, allowing a formulation in terms of differential forms. A generalization of the notion of orientability of a space is that of orientability of a family of spaces parameterized by some other space (a fiber bundle) for which an orientation must be selected in each of the spaces which varies continuously with respect to changes in the parameter values.

Orientable surfaces

A surface S in the Euclidean space R3 is orientable if a chiral two-dimensional figure (for example, ) cannot be moved around the surface and back to where it started so that it looks like its own mirror image. Otherwise the surface is non-orientable. An abstract surface (i.e., a two-dimensional manifold) is orientable if a consistent concept of clockwise rotation can be defined on the surface in a continuous manner. That is to say that a loop going around one way on the surface can never be continuously deformed (without overlapping itself) to a loop going around the opposite way. This turns out to be equivalent to the question of whether the surface contains no subset that is homeomorphic to the Möbius strip. Thus, for surfaces, the Möbius strip may be considered the source of all non-orientability.

For an orientable surface, a consistent choice of "clockwise" (as opposed to counter-clockwise) is called an orientation, and the surface is called oriented. For surfaces embedded in Euclidean space, an orientation is specified by the choice of a continuously varying surface normal n at every point. If such a normal exists at all, then there are always two ways to select it: n or −n. More generally, an orientable surface admits exactly two orientations, and the distinction between an oriented surface and an orientable surface is subtle and frequently blurred. An orientable surface is an abstract surface that admits an orientation, while an oriented surface is a surface that is abstractly orientable, and has the additional datum of a choice of one of the two possible orientations.

Examples
Most surfaces encountered in the physical world are orientable. Spheres, planes, and tori are orientable, for example. But Möbius strips, real projective planes, and Klein bottles are non-orientable. They, as visualized in 3-dimensions, all have just one side. The real projective plane and Klein bottle cannot be embedded in R3, only immersed with nice intersections.

Note that locally an embedded surface always has two sides, so a near-sighted ant crawling on a one-sided surface would think there is an "other side". The essence of one-sidedness is that the ant can crawl from one side of the surface to the "other" without going through the surface or flipping over an edge, but simply by crawling far enough.

In general, the property of being orientable is not equivalent to being two-sided; however, this holds when the ambient space (such as R3 above) is orientable. For example, a torus embedded in
 * $$K^2 \times S^1$$

can be one-sided, and a Klein bottle in the same space can be two-sided; here $$K^2$$ refers to the Klein bottle.

Orientation by triangulation
Any surface has a triangulation: a decomposition into triangles such that each edge on a triangle is glued to at most one other edge. Each triangle is oriented by choosing a direction around the perimeter of the triangle, associating a direction to each edge of the triangle. If this is done in such a way that, when glued together, neighboring edges are pointing in the opposite direction, then this determines an orientation of the surface. Such a choice is only possible if the surface is orientable, and in this case there are exactly two different orientations.

If the figure can be consistently positioned at all points of the surface without turning into its mirror image, then this will induce an orientation in the above sense on each of the triangles of the triangulation by selecting the direction of each of the triangles based on the order red-green-blue of colors of any of the figures in the interior of the triangle.

This approach generalizes to any n-manifold having a triangulation. However, some 4-manifolds do not have a triangulation, and in general for n > 4  some n-manifolds have triangulations that are inequivalent.

Orientability and homology
If H1(S) denotes the first homology group of a closed surface S, then S is orientable if and only if H1(S) has a trivial torsion subgroup. More precisely, if S is orientable then H1(S) is a free abelian group, and if not then H1(S) = F + Z/2Z where F is free abelian, and the Z/2Z factor is generated by the middle curve in a Möbius band embedded in S.

Orientability of manifolds
Let M be a connected topological n-manifold. There are several possible definitions of what it means for M to be orientable. Some of these definitions require that M has extra structure, like being differentiable. Occasionally, $n = 0$ must be made into a special case. When more than one of these definitions applies to M, then M is orientable under one definition if and only if it is orientable under the others.

Orientability of differentiable manifolds
The most intuitive definitions require that M be a differentiable manifold. This means that the transition functions in the atlas of M are C1-functions. Such a function admits a Jacobian determinant. When the Jacobian determinant is positive, the transition function is said to be orientation preserving. An oriented atlas on M is an atlas for which all transition functions are orientation preserving. M is orientable if it admits an oriented atlas. When $n > 0$, an orientation of M is a maximal oriented atlas. (When $n = 0$, an orientation of M is a function $M → {±1}$.)

Orientability and orientations can also be expressed in terms of the tangent bundle. The tangent bundle is a vector bundle, so it is a fiber bundle with structure group $GL(n, R)$. That is, the transition functions of the manifold induce transition functions on the tangent bundle which are fiberwise linear transformations. If the structure group can be reduced to the group $GL^{+}(n, R)$ of positive determinant matrices, or equivalently if there exists an atlas whose transition functions determine an orientation preserving linear transformation on each tangent space, then the manifold M is orientable. Conversely, M is orientable if and only if the structure group of the tangent bundle can be reduced in this way. Similar observations can be made for the frame bundle.

Another way to define orientations on a differentiable manifold is through volume forms. A volume form is a nowhere vanishing section ω of $⋀n TM$, the top exterior power of the cotangent bundle of M. For example, Rn has a standard volume form given by $dx^{1} ∧ ⋯ ∧ dx^{n}$. Given a volume form on M, the collection of all charts $U → R^{n}$ for which the standard volume form pulls back to a positive multiple of ω is an oriented atlas. The existence of a volume form is therefore equivalent to orientability of the manifold.

Volume forms and tangent vectors can be combined to give yet another description of orientability. If $X_{1}, …, X_{n}$ is a basis of tangent vectors at a point p, then the basis is said to be right-handed if $ω(X_{1}, …, X_{n}) > 0$. A transition function is orientation preserving if and only if it sends right-handed bases to right-handed bases. The existence of a volume form implies a reduction of the structure group of the tangent bundle or the frame bundle to $GL^{+}(n, R)$. As before, this implies the orientability of M. Conversely, if M is orientable, then local volume forms can be patched together to create a global volume form, orientability being necessary to ensure that the global form is nowhere vanishing.

Homology and the orientability of general manifolds
At the heart of all the above definitions of orientability of a differentiable manifold is the notion of an orientation preserving transition function. This raises the question of what exactly such transition functions are preserving. They cannot be preserving an orientation of the manifold because an orientation of the manifold is an atlas, and it makes no sense to say that a transition function preserves or does not preserve an atlas of which it is a member.

This question can be resolved by defining local orientations. On a one-dimensional manifold, a local orientation around a point p corresponds to a choice of left and right near that point. On a two-dimensional manifold, it corresponds to a choice of clockwise and counter-clockwise. These two situations share the common feature that they are described in terms of top-dimensional behavior near p but not at p. For the general case, let M be a topological n-manifold. A local orientation of M around a point p is a choice of generator of the group
 * $$H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right).$$

To see the geometric significance of this group, choose a chart around p. In that chart there is a neighborhood of p which is an open ball B around the origin O. By the excision theorem, $$H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$ is isomorphic to $$H_n\left(B, B \setminus \{O\}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$. The ball B is contractible, so its homology groups vanish except in degree zero, and the space $B \ O$ is an $(n − 1)$-sphere, so its homology groups vanish except in degrees $n − 1$ and $0$. A computation with the long exact sequence in relative homology shows that the above homology group is isomorphic to $$H_{n-1}\left(S^{n-1}; \mathbf{Z}\right) \cong \mathbf{Z}$$. A choice of generator therefore corresponds to a decision of whether, in the given chart, a sphere around p is positive or negative. A reflection of $R^{n}$ through the origin acts by negation on $$H_{n-1}\left(S^{n-1}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$, so the geometric significance of the choice of generator is that it distinguishes charts from their reflections.

On a topological manifold, a transition function is orientation preserving if, at each point p in its domain, it fixes the generators of $$H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$. From here, the relevant definitions are the same as in the differentiable case. An oriented atlas is one for which all transition functions are orientation preserving, M is orientable if it admits an oriented atlas, and when $n > 0$, an orientation of M is a maximal oriented atlas.

Intuitively, an orientation of M ought to define a unique local orientation of M at each point. This is made precise by noting that any chart in the oriented atlas around p can be used to determine a sphere around p, and this sphere determines a generator of $$H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$. Moreover, any other chart around p is related to the first chart by an orientation preserving transition function, and this implies that the two charts yield the same generator, whence the generator is unique.

Purely homological definitions are also possible. Assuming that M is closed and connected, M is orientable if and only if the nth homology group $$H_n(M; \mathbf{Z})$$ is isomorphic to the integers Z. An orientation of M is a choice of generator $α$ of this group. This generator determines an oriented atlas by fixing a generator of the infinite cyclic group $$H_n(M ; \mathbf{Z})$$ and taking the oriented charts to be those for which $α$ pushes forward to the fixed generator. Conversely, an oriented atlas determines such a generator as compatible local orientations can be glued together to give a generator for the homology group $$H_n(M ; \mathbf{Z})$$.

Orientation and cohomology
A manifold M is orientable if and only if the first Stiefel–Whitney class $$w_1(M) \in H^1(M; \mathbf{Z}/2)$$ vanishes. In particular, if the first cohomology group with Z/2 coefficients is zero, then the manifold is orientable. Moreover, if M is orientable and w1 vanishes, then $$H^0(M; \mathbf{Z}/2)$$ parametrizes the choices of orientations. This characterization of orientability extends to orientability of general vector bundles over M, not just the tangent bundle.

The orientation double cover
Around each point of M there are two local orientations. Intuitively, there is a way to move from a local orientation at a point $p$ to a local orientation at a nearby point $p′$: when the two points lie in the same coordinate chart $U → R^{n}$, that coordinate chart defines compatible local orientations at $p$ and $p′$. The set of local orientations can therefore be given a topology, and this topology makes it into a manifold.

More precisely, let O be the set of all local orientations of M. To topologize O we will specify a subbase for its topology. Let U be an open subset of M chosen such that $$H_n(M, M \setminus U; \mathbf{Z})$$ is isomorphic to Z. Assume that α is a generator of this group. For each p in U, there is a pushforward function $$H_n(M, M \setminus U; \mathbf{Z}) \to H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right)$$. The codomain of this group has two generators, and α maps to one of them. The topology on O is defined so that
 * $$\{\text{Image of } \alpha \text{ in } H_n\left(M, M \setminus \{p\}; \mathbf{Z}\right) \colon p \in U\}$$

is open.

There is a canonical map $π : O → M$ that sends a local orientation at p to p. It is clear that every point of M has precisely two preimages under $π$. In fact, $π$ is even a local homeomorphism, because the preimages of the open sets U mentioned above are homeomorphic to the disjoint union of two copies of U. If M is orientable, then M itself is one of these open sets, so O is the disjoint union of two copies of M. If M is non-orientable, however, then O is connected and orientable. The manifold O is called the orientation double cover.

Manifolds with boundary
If M is a manifold with boundary, then an orientation of M is defined to be an orientation of its interior. Such an orientation induces an orientation of ∂M. Indeed, suppose that an orientation of M is fixed. Let $U → R^{n}_{+}$ be a chart at a boundary point of M which, when restricted to the interior of M, is in the chosen oriented atlas. The restriction of this chart to ∂M is a chart of ∂M. Such charts form an oriented atlas for ∂M.

When M is smooth, at each point p of ∂M, the restriction of the tangent bundle of M to ∂M is isomorphic to $T_{p}∂M ⊕ R$, where the factor of R is described by the inward pointing normal vector. The orientation of Tp∂M is defined by the condition that a basis of Tp∂M is positively oriented if and only if it, when combined with the inward pointing normal vector, defines a positively oriented basis of TpM.

Orientable double cover
A closely related notion uses the idea of covering space. For a connected manifold M take M$∗$, the set of pairs (x, o) where x is a point of M and o is an orientation at x; here we assume M is either smooth so we can choose an orientation on the tangent space at a point or we use singular homology to define orientation. Then for every open, oriented subset of M we consider the corresponding set of pairs and define that to be an open set of M$∗$. This gives M$∗$ a topology and the projection sending (x, o) to x is then a 2-to-1 covering map. This covering space is called the orientable double cover, as it is orientable. M$∗$ is connected if and only if M is not orientable.

Another way to construct this cover is to divide the loops based at a basepoint into either orientation-preserving or orientation-reversing loops. The orientation preserving loops generate a subgroup of the fundamental group which is either the whole group or of index two. In the latter case (which means there is an orientation-reversing path), the subgroup corresponds to a connected double covering; this cover is orientable by construction. In the former case, one can simply take two copies of M, each of which corresponds to a different orientation.

Orientation of vector bundles
A real vector bundle, which a priori has a GL(n) structure group, is called orientable when the structure group may be reduced to $$GL^{+}(n)$$, the group of matrices with positive determinant. For the tangent bundle, this reduction is always possible if the underlying base manifold is orientable and in fact this provides a convenient way to define the orientability of a smooth real manifold: a smooth manifold is defined to be orientable if its tangent bundle is orientable (as a vector bundle). Note that as a manifold in its own right, the tangent bundle is always orientable, even over nonorientable manifolds.

Lorentzian geometry
In Lorentzian geometry, there are two kinds of orientability: space orientability and time orientability. These play a role in the causal structure of spacetime. In the context of general relativity, a spacetime manifold is space orientable if, whenever two right-handed observers head off in rocket ships starting at the same spacetime point, and then meet again at another point, they remain right-handed with respect to one another. If a spacetime is time-orientable then the two observers will always agree on the direction of time at both points of their meeting. In fact, a spacetime is time-orientable if and only if any two observers can agree which of the two meetings preceded the other.

Formally, the pseudo-orthogonal group O(p,q) has a pair of characters: the space orientation character σ+ and the time orientation character σ−,
 * $$\sigma_{\pm} : \operatorname{O}(p, q)\to \{-1, +1\}.$$

Their product σ = σ+σ− is the determinant, which gives the orientation character. A space-orientation of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold is identified with a section of the associated bundle
 * $$\operatorname{O}(M) \times_{\sigma_+} \{-1,+1\}$$

where O(M) is the bundle of pseudo-orthogonal frames. Similarly, a time orientation is a section of the associated bundle
 * $$\operatorname{O}(M) \times_{\sigma_-} \{-1,+1\}.$$

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Orientability


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London, Midland and Scottish Railway

The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS ) was a British railway company. It was formed on 1 January 1923 under the Railways Act 1921, which required the grouping of over 120 separate railways into four. The companies merged into the LMS included the London and North Western Railway, the Midland Railway, the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (which had previously merged with the London and North Western Railway on 1 January 1922), several Scottish railway companies (including the Caledonian Railway), and numerous other, smaller ventures.

Besides being the world's largest transport organisation, the company was also the largest commercial enterprise in the British Empire and the United Kingdom's second largest employer, after the Post Office.

In 1938, the LMS operated 6870 mi of railway (excluding its lines in Northern Ireland), but its profitability was generally disappointing, with a rate of return of only 2.7%. Under the Transport Act 1947, along with the other members of the "Big Four" British railway companies (Great Western Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and Southern Railway), the LMS was nationalised on 1 January 1948, becoming part of the state-owned British Railways.

The LMS was the largest of the Big Four railway companies serving routes in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

Overview
The Railways Act 1921 created four large railway companies which were in effect geographical monopolies, albeit with competition at their boundaries, and with some lines either reaching into competitor territory, or being jointly operated.

The LMS operated services in and around London, the Midlands, the North West of England, Mid/North Wales and Scotland. The company also operated a separate network of lines in Northern Ireland.

The principal routes were the West Coast Main Line and the Midland Main Line, which had been the main routes of the two largest constituent companies, the London and North Western Railway and the Midland Railway respectively.

AT the time of its creation, the LMS had inherited from the 35 merged companies, a system of 7,000 route miles and 19,000 track miles; accounting for 38.4% of the total mileage of the 'big four' grouped railways. It was the owner of 9,319 locomotives, 19,000 passenger-carrying vehicles, and 286,000 wagons. It operated more than 10,600 passenger trains and 15,000 goods trains a day, with a total staff of 231,000. In addition to this, the LMS owned 543 miles of canal, 8,950 horses, 17,000 carts, 2,000 motor vehicles, 64 steamboats and 27 docks, and was the owner of 28 hotels.

Joint lines
The LMS operated a number of lines jointly with the other main railway companies, a situation which arose when the former joint owners of a route were placed into different post-grouping companies. Most of these were situated at or near the boundaries between two or more of the companies, but there were some notable examples which extended beyond this borderland zone.

Together with the London and North Eastern Railway, the LMS ran the former Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway network. Exceeding 183 mi, this was the largest jointly operated network in Great Britain in terms of route mileage, and extended from Peterborough to the East Anglian coast. The M&GN was wholly incorporated into the LNER in 1936.

The LMS also operated a significant joint network with the Southern Railway, in the shape of the former Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway. This network connected Bath and Bournemouth, and wound its way through territory nominally allocated to a third railway company, the Great Western.

Through the former Midland Railway holdings, the LMS, together with the Great Northern Railway (Ireland), jointly owned the County Donegal Railways Joint Committee lines.

Areas of competition
Being geographically the largest, and the most central of the four main post-grouping railway companies, the LMS shared numerous boundaries with both the LNER and GWR, although its overlap with the Southern Railway was limited due to the general lack of direct routes through London. The SR and the LMS were mainly overlapping on the West London Line.

Competition with the LNER was mainly in terms of the premium London to Scotland traffic, with the rival LMS (West Coast) and LNER (East Coast) routes competing to provide ever better standards of passenger comfort and faster journey times. The LNER also competed with the LMS for traffic between London, the East Midlands, South Yorkshire and Manchester, with the former Midland main line from St Pancras (LMS) and Great Central Main Line from Marylebone (LNER) both providing express, stopping and local services between these destinations.

The London to Birmingham corridor was fiercely contested with the LMS running expresses over its West Coast Main Line via Rugby, and the Great Western running services via Banbury.

Northern Ireland
The LMS was also the only one of the Big Four companies to operate rail services in Northern Ireland, serving most major settlements in the region.

On 1 July 1903, the Midland Railway took over the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway and operated it under the name of Midland Railway (Northern Counties Committee). On grouping, the network became part of the LMS, again operating under the name of the Northern Counties Committee, and consisted of 201 mi of gauge track with a further 63 mi of  gauge line.

Apparent geographical anomalies
The expansionist policies of many of the constituent companies which formed the LMS, particularly the Midland Railway and the London and North Western Railway, resulted in the LMS owning or operating a number of lines outside its core geographical area. For instance, in 1912, the Midland Railway had purchased the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway which operated between London Fenchurch Street and Shoeburyness, with a loop serving Tilbury. These lines were automatically included in the LMS Group, along with the rest of the Midland Railway system, which meant that the LMS had a considerable presence in a part of the country (south Essex) which could be said to form part of the natural territory of the LNER. The process of Grouping under the Railways Act did not address geographical anomalies of this kind, although this particular arrangement did provide a competitive choice for residents of Southend, who could take LNER services from Southend Victoria to London Liverpool Street or LMS services from Southend Central to Fenchurch Street.

Formation
The LMS was formed from the following major companies:
 * Caledonian Railway 1,114.4 miles (1,793 km) route length
 * Furness Railway 158 miles (254 km)
 * Glasgow and South Western Railway 498.5 miles (802 km)
 * Highland Railway 506 miles (814 km)
 * London and North Western Railway (including Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, amalgamated 1 January 1922) 2,667.5 miles (4,292.9 km)
 * Midland Railway 2,170.75 miles (3,493 km)
 * North Staffordshire Railway 220.75 miles (355 km)

There were also some 24 subsidiary railways, leased or worked by the above companies, and a large number of joint railways, including the UK's largest Joint Railway, the Midland & Great Northern, and one of the most famous, the Somerset & Dorset. The LMS was the minority partner (with the LNER) in the Cheshire Lines Committee.

In Ireland there were three railways: All of the above operated, at least partially, in Northern Ireland
 * Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway 26.5 miles (42 km)
 * Northern Counties Committee 265.25 miles (426 km)
 * Joint Midland and Great Northern of Ireland Railway 91 miles (146 km), with interests in Ireland

The total route mileage of the LMS in 1923 was 7,790 miles (12,537 km).

Early history
The early history of the LMS was dominated by infighting between parties representing its constituent parts, many of whom had previously been commercial and territorial rivals. This was particularly marked in the case of the Midland and the North Western, each of which believed its way was the right – and only – way of doing business. This rivalry was so severe, that stories of connecting trains at Birmingham New Street from the previous LNWR and MR parts of the system, being deliberately made to miss each other persisted even as late as the early 1950s, long after their demise. Many of the senior appointments on the operating side were of former Midland men, such as James Anderson, so that Midland ideas and practices tended to prevail over those of other constituents. For example, the Midland's system of traffic control was imposed on a system-wide basis, along with the Midland livery of Crimson Lake for passenger locomotives and rolling stock. Particularly notable, especially after the appointment of Sir Henry Fowler as Chief Mechanical Engineer, was the continuation of the Midland Railway's small-engine policy (see Locomotives of the Midland Railway).

The LMS also implemented a novel management structure, breaking with British railway tradition, and mirroring a contemporary management practice more common in the United States, appointing a President and Vice-Presidents. On 4 January 1926, Josiah Stamp was appointed First President of the Executive, the equivalent of a Chief executive in modern organisational structures. He added the role of chairman of the board of directors to his portfolio in January 1927, succeeding Sir Guy Granet.

The Stanier revolution
The arrival of the new chief mechanical engineer, William Stanier, who was brought in from the Great Western Railway by Josiah Stamp in 1932, heralded a change. Stanier introduced practices used at the Swindon Works that had been introduced by George Jackson Churchward, such as tapered boilers, long travel valves, and large bearings. His locomotives were not only more powerful, and economical, but they also ended the company's internal conflict.

Nationalisation
The war-damaged LMS was nationalised in 1948 by the Transport Act 1947, becoming part of British Railways. It formed the London Midland Region and part of the Scottish Region. British Railways transferred the lines in Northern Ireland to the Ulster Transport Authority in 1949. The London Midland & Scottish Railway Company continued to exist as a legal entity for nearly two years after Nationalisation, being formally wound up on 23 December 1949. The lines in Great Britain were rationalised through closure in the 1950s to 70s but the main routes survive and some have been developed for 125 mph inter-city services.

Railway operations
Despite having widespread interests in a number of commercial areas, the LMS was first and foremost a railway organisation. It operated in all four constituent countries of the United Kingdom, and in England its operations penetrated 32 of the 40 counties. The company operated around 7,000 route miles of railway line, servicing 2,944 goods depots and 2,588 passenger stations, using 291,490 freight vehicles, 20,276 passenger vehicles and 9,914 locomotives. The company directly employed 263,000 staff, and through its annual coal consumption of over six and a half million tons, could claim to indirectly employ a further 26,500 coal miners.

Commercial organisation
For nearly ten years after its formation, the LMS had been run using a similar organisational structure to one of its constituents, the Midland Railway. In practice this meant that the commercial managers found themselves subservient to the needs of the operating departments. This changed in 1932 when a major restructuring was completed, replacing the traditional board of directors with an executive headed by a president, supported by vice-presidents each with responsibility for a specific area. Ernest Lemon, who had briefly held the office of Chief Mechanical Engineer pending the arrival of William Stanier became Vice-President (Railway traffic, operating and commercial), with separate chief operating and chief commercial managers of equal status reporting to him. Railway operations were directed by Charles Byrom, a veteran officer of the LNWR, while commercial activities were headed by Ashton Davies, formerly of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.

Davies created a commercial research section, increased the sales force and provided them with specialist training. The emphasis of the organisation switched from operators dictating what was reasonable to the commercial managers asking what was possible to maximise sales opportunities. Thirty five district managers were appointed to oversee sales through the company's goods depots, passenger stations and key dock facilities. There was even sales representation in the Irish Free State, certain European countries and North America. A monthly newsletter was produced entitled Quota News, and trophies were awarded to the best performing districts and salesmen. To provide maximum capacity during times of peak demand, the operating department re-organised maintenance schedules to maximise the availability of locomotives and rolling stock, and trained staff to step into key roles; firemen trained as drivers and locomotive cleaners trained to replace firemen.

Numerous special fares were introduced to encourage travel, develop niche markets and overcome competitors. The cheap day return ticket offered return travel at a price usually equivalent to the single fare, although in areas with rival bus services they were sometimes offered at less than the single fare. Companies holding large freight accounts with the LMS received reduced price season tickets for nominated employees, while commercial travellers, anglers and conveyors of racing pigeons were all tempted with special offers.

Passenger miles rose quite dramatically, from a low point of 6,500 million in 1932 to 8,500 million by 1937, while at the same time the number of coaches required was reduced through improved maintenance and more efficient utilisation. In 1938 it opened a School of Transport in Derby to train its staff in best railway practice.

Railway posters
The LMS's commercial success in the 1920s resulted in part from the contributions of English painter, Norman Wilkinson. In 1923, Wilkinson advised Superintendent of Advertising and Publicity of the LMS, T.C Jeffrey, to improve rail sales and other LMS services by incorporating fine art into the design of their advertisement posters. In this time, fine art already had a distinguished association in Europe and North America with good taste, longevity and quality. Jeffrey wanted LMS’ commercial image to align with these qualities and therefore accepted Wilkinson's advice. For the first series of posters, Wilkinson personally invited 16 of his fellow alumni from the Royal Academy of London to take part. In letter correspondence, Wilkinson outlined the details of the LMS proposal to the artists. The artist fee for each participant was £100. The railway poster would measure 50 X 40 inches. In this area, the artist's design would be reproduced as a photolithographic print on double royal satin paper, filling 45 X 35 inches. The mass-produced posters were pasted inside railway stations in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. LMS decided the subject advertised, but choices of style and approach were left to the artist's discretion. LMS’ open design brief resulted in a collection of posters that reflected the large capacity of destinations and experiences available with the transport organisation. For the Irish Free State, Wilkinson designed a poster in 1927 encouraging the public to avail of the LMS ferry and connecting boat trains to Ireland. For this promotion, Wilkinson's design was accompanied with four posters of Ireland by Belfast modernist painter, Paul Henry. The commercial success of Wilkinson and Jeffrey's collaboration manifested between 1924 and 1928, with public sale of 12,000 railway posters. Paul Henry's 1925 poster depicting the Gaeltacht region of Connemara in County Galway proved most commercially popular, with 1,500 sales.

Charter and excursion traffic
Charter and excursion trains were a significant source of revenue and the LMS became a specialist in the movement of large numbers of people, with locomotives and rolling stock often kept in operation just to service such seasonal traffic. In one year, the LMS ran 43 special trains to take spectators to the Grand National at Aintree, and a further 55 for the Cup Final at Wembley. Longer running events demanded operations on a much larger scale, with the Glasgow Empire Exhibition requiring 1,800 special trains, with a further 1,456 run in connection with the Blackpool Illuminations. The number of people moved was huge, with over 2.2 million holidaymakers arriving in Blackpool between the start of July and the end of September alone. Besides these mass-market events, the company also ran regular tourist excursions to a variety of destinations, such as Oban in the Scottish highlands, Keswick in the English Lake District, and even the First World War battlefields in Belgium, by way of the Tilbury to Dunkerque ferry service and the Belgian railways.

Such was the importance of such excursion traffic that a special department was established in 1929 and oversaw the expansion from 7,500 special trains in that year to nearly 22,000 in 1938.

Scheduled services
However important the excursion traffic was, it was the ordinary scheduled services which had to be the focus of efforts to improve the fortunes of the LMS. A number of initiatives were introduced, with the aim of making train travel more attractive and encouraging business growth. Services were accelerated, and better quality rolling stock was introduced and from 24 September 1928 sleeping cars were provided for third class ticket holders for the first time. The effect of these improvements was significant, with receipts from passenger traffic increasing by £2.9 million between 1932 and 1938.

A number of premium services were offered, culminating in 1937 with the launch of the Coronation Scot, which featured streamlined locomotives hauling a nine coach train of specially constructed stock between London Euston and Glasgow Central in six and a half hours.

Most other major cities on the network were linked by trains with names which would become famous in railway circles including the Thames-Clyde Express between London St Pancras and Glasgow St Enoch, The Palatine between London St Pancras and Manchester Central, The Irish Mail from London Euston to Holyhead and the Pines Express conveying portions from Liverpool and Manchester to Bournemouth.

Goods services
Goods accounted for around 60% of LMS revenue, and was even more varied than passenger services, catering for a range of goods from fresh perishables such as milk, fish and meat through to bulk minerals and small consignments sent point to point between individuals and companies.

Particularly notable were the Toton–Brent coal trains, which took coal from the Nottinghamshire coalfield to London.

Construction
The LMS owned and operated a number of railway works, all of which were inherited from constituent companies. Between them these sites constructed locomotives, coaching stock, multiple units and freight wagons, as well as a number of non-rolling stock items required for the everyday running of the railway.

Two facilities were located in Derby, one known as Derby Loco and one as Carriage and Wagon. The former was opened in the 1840s by the North Midland, Midland Counties and Birmingham & Derby railway companies to meet their joint requirements for locomotive, carriage and wagon construction and maintenance. The latter site was opened in the 1860s by the Midland Railway as part of a reorganisation of facilities in Derby and left the original site to concentrate on locomotive manufacture and repair. The Midland Railway also had works at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, which had been inherited from the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway.

The LNWR also contributed several works sites to the LMS. Crewe Works was opened in 1840 by the Grand Junction Railway and by the time of grouping was the locomotive works for the LNWR. Wolverton works in Buckinghamshire had been established by the London and Birmingham Railway in the 1830s, and since 1862 (when all locomotive works had transferred to Crewe) had been the LNWR's carriage works. In 1922, one year prior to the formation of the LMS, the LNWR had absorbed the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, including their works at Horwich in Lancashire, which had opened in 1886.

St. Rollox railway works, north east of Glasgow, had been built in 1856 by the Caledonian Railway, while Stoke works in Staffordshire were established in 1864 by the North Staffordshire Railway. Both were absorbed into the LMS with their parent companies, and while the former became the main workshops for the Northern Division of the LMS, the latter works were wound down, closing in 1930, all work being transferred to nearby Crewe.

Smaller workshop facilities were also transferred to the LMS by other constituent companies, including at Barrow-in-Furness (Furness Railway), Bow (North London Railway), Kilmarnock (Glasgow and South Western Railway) and Inverness (Highland Railway). The table below shows all major works taken over by the LMS upon formation.

Coaching stock
The LMS inherited a wide variety of passenger rolling stock from its constituent companies, and appointed Robert Whyte Reid, an ex-Midland Railway man, as the head of its Carriage department. Reid had already started to introduce more efficient carriage building practices at the Derby Carriage and Wagon Works of the Midland Railway prior to grouping and these same practices were soon introduced to the carriage and wagon works of the former LNWR at Wolverton and the L&YR at Newton Heath.

Most railway carriages were constructed by fitting together component parts which had been roughly machined to larger dimensions than required, which were then cut to the required size and joined together by skilled coachbuilders. Reid's new method involved the use of templates or "jigs" to mass-produce components to a set pattern and size. Once these had been checked any example of a specific part could be used interchangeably with any other of the same type. The technique was applied to any item which could be manufactured in large numbers (as there were significant costs in producing the initial jigs) such as doors, ventilators, windows and seats.

The natural progression was to streamline the assembly process and the company introduced a method known as Progressive Construction. In this process the mass-produced parts were combined into "unit assemblies", each of which was a major sub-component of the finished carriage such as side panels, carriage ends or the roof. The workshops were organised on the "flow-line" principle, similar to a modern assembly line, and the unit assemblies were taken to workstations, where the precision machining of the mass-produced parts ensured they all fitted accurately into position, building into a complete carriage as the unit moved along the flow line. The technique was already in use in Derby prior to grouping, and was adopted in Wolverton during 1925, with Newton Heath following two years later. By using this method, the time taken to construct a typical carriage fell from six weeks to six days and by 1931 Derby and Wolverton were able to handle the entire LMS carriage building workload, and production at Newton Heath ceased.

Livery
Each of the constituent companies of the LMS had their own liveries for locomotives and rolling stock. The board of directors of the LMS was dominated by former Midland Railway officers, and the company adopted the "crimson lake" livery for coaching stock as had been used by the Midland and Glasgow & South Western Railways prior to grouping (with the North Staffordshire Railway using a very similar shade). The livery worked well, proving to be hard wearing and practical.

Electrification
The LMS operated a number of suburban lines using electric traction, in and around London, Liverpool, Manchester and Lancashire.

Schemes in the London area generally used the four-rail system in use by tube and sub-surface railways (such as the Metropolitan Railway). Lines from Bow to Barking, Euston to Watford Junction, Broad Street to Richmond and a number of related branches and connecting lines were already electrified when the LMS came into existence, although the LMS did extend electrification from Barking to Upminster in 1932.

In the Liverpool area, lines were electrified using a third rail, energised at 630 V DC. Routes from Liverpool Exchange to Southport and Aintree and from Aintree to Ormskirk were already completed prior to the formation of the LMS. Lines from Birkenhead Park to West Kirby and New Brighton were added to this network in 1938.

In Manchester, the line from Bury to Manchester Victoria had already been electrified by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway using a side-contact, third rail system. In conjunction with the LNER, the lines of the former Manchester, South Junction and Altrincham Railway were electrified using the 1500 V DC overhead line system, opening on 11 May 1931.

Finally the route between Lancaster and Heysham via Morecambe had been electrified by the Midland Railway using a 6600 V AC overhead system, as early as 1908.

All-steel carriages
In 1926, the LMS introduced its "all-steel carriage", which represented a significant departure from previous carriage construction. Previously carriages had been built with wood or steel-plated wood bodies, mounted on heavy underframes. The all-steel carriages differed in that they consisted of a steel tube or box girder, which not only formed the body but also formed the load-bearing part of the carriage, meaning that a heavy underframe was not required. The new technique also meant that the carriages were stronger under collision conditions, as proved during an accident at Dinwoodie – Wamphray on 25 October 1928 when the leading "all-steel" carriage absorbed most of the impact. Construction of the carriages was carried out for the LMS by external companies, largely to provide work for them during a difficult economic period, but within a couple of years the company returned to more conventional construction methods, as it could no longer justify using external contractors due to efficiency improvements within its own workshops, which were set up to produce carriages of more traditional configuration.

Accidents

 * On 5 July 1923, an express passenger train was in a rear-end collision with a goods train at Diggle. Four people were killed.
 * On 26 April 1924, an electric multiple unit overran signals and was in a rear-end collision with an excursion train at Euston station, London.
 * On 4 November 1924, an express passenger train was derailed near Lytham St. Annes, Lancashire due to a broken tyre on the locomotive. Fourteen people were killed.
 * On 8 September 1926, a passenger train was unable to stop at Leeds Wellington station due to greasy rails after a thunderstorm. It crashed through the buffers and ended up in building. There were no injuries.
 * On 19 November 1926, a private owner wagon of a goods train disintegrated near Parkgate and Rawmarsh station, Yorkshire, derailing the goods train that it was part of. A signal post was partially knocked over, obstructing the adjacent line. An express passenger train had the sides of its carriages ripped open by the signal post, killing eleven people. A direct consequence of this accident was that private owner wagons had to be registered with railway companies before they were allowed to run on main lines. They were also subject to a detailed inspection every ten years.
 * On 30 November 1926, a passenger train overran signals at Upney, Essex and was in a rear-end collision with another. Of 604 people injured, only four are hospitalised.
 * In June 1928, a mail train was derailed at Swinderby, Lincolnshire.
 * On 2 July 1928, a goods train was derailed at Pinwherry, Renfrewshire due to excessive speed on a curve.
 * On 27 August 1928, a passenger train crashed into buffers at Euston, London, injuring 30 people.
 * In August 1928, a train was derailed at Ashton under Hill, Worcestershire.
 * On 25 October 1928, a goods train broke down at Dinwoodie, Dumfriesshire. An express passenger train was in a rear-end collision with it due to errors by the guard of the goods train and a signalman. Four people were killed and five were injured.
 * On 8 January 1929, an express passenger train from Bristol, Somerset to Leeds, Yorkshire when it overran signals at Ashchurch, Gloucestershire and collided with a goods train that was being shunted. Four people were killed.
 * On 2 February 1929, a passenger train was sent into the bay platform at Bridgeton Cross, Glasgow, due to a signalman's error. Several people were injured when the train crashed through the buffers.
 * On 12 February 1929, an express passenger train was in a head-on collision with a goods train at Doe Hill station, Derbyshire due to a signalman's error. Two people were killed.
 * On 6 March 1930, a passenger train departed from Culgaith station, Cumberland against signals. It subsequently collided with a ballast train at Langwathby, Cumberland. Two people were killed and four were seriously injured.
 * On 22 March 1931, an express passenger train was derailed at Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire due to excessive speed through a crossover. The locomotive crew were killed.
 * On 17 July 1931, a mail train overran signals and was in a rear-end collision with a goods train at Crich Junction, Derbyshire. Two people were killed and seventeen people were injured.
 * On 18 December 1931, a goods train became divided at Dagenham Dock, Essex. Due to a signalman's error, a passenger train ran into the rear portion of the goods. Two people were killed and several were injured.
 * On 17 June 1932, a passenger train was derailed at Great Bridgeford, Staffordshire.
 * On 10 July 1933, an express passenger train was in collision with a goods train and was derailed at Little Salkeld, Cumberland due to a signalman's error. One person was killed and about 30 were injured, one seriously.
 * On 6 September 1934, two passenger trains were in a head-on collision at Port Eglington Junction, Glasgow, Renfrewshire after the driver of one of them misread signals. Nine people were killed and 31 were injured, eleven seriously.
 * On 28 September 1934, an express passenger train was in a rear-end collision with a passenger train at Winwick Junction, Cheshire due to a signalman's error. Eleven people were killed and nineteen were injured.
 * On 25 February 1935, a passenger train was derailed at Ashton under Hill due to a combination of locomotive design, speed and track condition. One person was killed.
 * On 13 March 1935, an express meat train from Liverpool to London was brought to a halt at Kings Langley due to a defective vacuum brake. Due to a signalman's error a milk train ran into its rear. Wreckage spread across all four lines, with the result that a few minutes later the Camden to Holyhead freight collided with the debris, followed a few seconds later by the Toton to Willesden coal train. All four lines were blocked for some time and the driver of the milk train was killed. Contemporaneous newsreel footage shows the aftermath of the four-fold accident.
 * On 23 February 1937, an express goods train was derailed at West Hampstead, Middlesex.
 * On 17 November 1937, a passenger train overran signals and was in a rear-end collision with an express passenger train at Coppenhall Junction, Crewe, Cheshire.
 * On 21 January 1938, an express passenger train was in a head-on collision with an empty stock train at Oakley Junction due to a combination of driver and signalman's errors. Three people were killed and 46 were injured.
 * On 5 August 1939, a passenger train was derailed at Saltcoats North station, Ayrshire due to an obstruction on the line. Four people were killed.
 * On 28 September 1939, a rear-end collision occurred at Winwick Junction.
 * On 14 October 1939, An express passenger train was involved in a collision at Bletchley, Buckinghamshire. Five people were killed, more than 30 were injured.
 * On 13 October 1940, an express passenger train collided with a platform barrow obstructing the line at Wembley Central, Middlesex and was derailed. Several people were killed and many more were injured.
 * On 4 September 1942, a goods train overran a loop at Todmorden, Yorkshire in blackout conditions and was derailed.
 * On 21 July 1945, an express passenger train overran signals at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire and was in collision with a goods train that was being shunted. Two people were killed, 31 were injured.

 * On 30 September 1945, an express passenger train was derailed at Bourne End, Hertfordshire due to excessive speed through a set of points. Forty-three people were killed and 64 were injured.
 * 1946 – Lichfield rail crash; 20 killed and 21 injured.
 * On 12 April 1947, a passenger train was derailed near Keighley, Yorkshire when a bridge collapsed under it.
 * On 21 July 1947, an express passenger train was derailed at Grendon, Warwickshire due to defective track. Five people were killed and 64 were injured.

Canals
The LMS owned many canals, originally acquired by some of its constituent companies in the 19th century, such as the Shropshire Union group (which included the Montgomeryshire Canal, Ellesmere Canal and Chester Canal), originally owned by the London & North Western Railway, and the Trent and Mersey Canal, owned by the North Staffordshire Railway. Many were abandoned by Act of Parliament, instigated by LMS, although those surviving in 1948 passed to the Docks and Inland Waterways Executive of the British Transport Commission, and eventually to the British Waterways Board.

Shipping
The LMS acquired numerous docks, harbours and piers from its predecessors. These ranged in size from major ports at Barrow-in-Furness and Grangemouth through ferry harbours such as Holyhead, Heysham, Stranraer and Fleetwood to much smaller facilities including piers on the Thames and Clyde. The LMS also inherited steamers and piers from the Furness Railway on Windermere and Coniston Water.

Ships inherited from the Midland Railway.

The LMS also inherited docks at Goole.

Road transport
In 1933, along with the other three main line railways, the LMS purchased the Hay's Wharf Cartage Company Ltd., the owners of Pickfords, and Carter Paterson. Subsequently, the LMS acquired Joseph Nall & Co. of Manchester and a 51% stake in Wordie & Co. of Glasgow. The LMS operated a road haulage fleet consisting of 29,754 road vehicles.

Hotels
The LMS Hotels & Catering Service, apart from providing catering cars on trains and refreshment facilities at stations also operated a chain of nearly 30 hotels throughout the United Kingdom. Just prior to World War II the department employed 8,000 staff, served over 50 million customers per annum and grossed more than £3 million in receipts from the combined hotel and catering operations. The scale of the undertaking enabled the LMS to claim that they operated the largest chain of hotels in the British Empire.

The range of hotels was extensive ranging from large resort and city centre hotels to much smaller provincial establishments. One of the most famous was the Midland Hotel in Morecambe, which had been rebuilt as an Art Deco landmark, as had the Queens Hotel in Leeds. While most were open all year round, a number opened for only particular months in the year, to coincide with local tourist seasons.

Chairmen of the board of directors

 * 1923–1924: Charles Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence of Kingsgate
 * 1924–1927: Sir Guy Granet
 * 1927–1941: Josiah Stamp (Baron Stamp from 1938)

Presidents

 * 1926–1941: Josiah Stamp (Baron Stamp from 1938)
 * 1941–1947: Sir William Valentine Wood

Chief civil engineer

 * Ernest Frederic Crosbie Trench 1923 – 1927 (formerly chief engineer of the London and North Western Railway)
 * Alexander Newlands 1927 – 1933
 * William Kelly Wallace 1933 – 1948 (previously Locomotive and Civil Engineer [combined] of the Northern Counties Committee in Northern Ireland.)

Chief mechanical engineers

 * 1923–1925: George Hughes
 * 1925–1931: Henry Fowler
 * 1931–1932: Ernest Lemon
 * 1932–1944: Sir William Stanier
 * 1944–1945: Charles Fairburn
 * 1945–1947: Henry George Ivatt

Legacy
The name of the LMS was revived by Govia in the form of the train operating company London Midland which operated services primarily around the West Midlands and services north to Liverpool Lime Street and south to London Euston between 2007 and 2017.

LMS was trademarked by the Department for Transport on 14 November 2017 sparking speculation of the name becoming the long term branding for the new InterCity West Coast Partnership franchise, which is scheduled to commence operations on 8 December 2019, branded as Avanti West Coast.

title: London, Midland and Scottish Railway


text:
Talk:Haydn Quartet (vocal ensemble)

First chat
Are they called the Haydn Quartet (as in the article title) or the Hayden Quartet (with an E) is in the article text? --Camembert

They were the Haydn Quartet, but it was pronounced 'Hay-Den' - you can hear this eg on their 1900 recording of Annie Laurie. They would not have called themselves a barbershop quartet - the term only came to prominence after the 1910 song '(Mr Jefferson Lord) Play That Barbershop Chord' - and certainly what they sang did not conform to contemporary definitions of barbershop music

(note on the above explanation) According to Gage Averill's book 'Four Parts No Waiting' 2003 page 69, 'they later changed the spelling to "Hayden" so Americans could pronounce it.'

Proposed changes
We surely need to change this article to reflect how the quartet were seen then - using the 'barbershop' label is misleading I believe - they were simply a popular vocal group, one of the 'big three'. They weren't 'undisputed kings'; according to http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/artist_bio.asp?artistId=30 they had 60 top ten hits - cf the Peerless Quartet with 100. At that time the barbershop label of 'lead' would not have been used - there were simply 2 tenor parts.

Comments are solicited before I do the edit.... --Rrex 24March06

 * Your suggestions sound appropriate to me. -- Infrogmation 01:26, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

disambiguation
Would it be reasonable to include a disambiguating link for readers who wind up here while looking for string quartets related to Haydn? The article is fairly short and I'm not sure how to make such a link unobtrusive. (compare Haydn quartets -FZ (talk) 23:18, 14 May 2009 (UTC)

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Full (known) list of songs not included
The following is a list of songs I found credited to the Haydn/Hayden Quartet. As these are from finding records on ebay they need sourcing. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 00:43, 15 April 2024 (UTC)

Haydn

 * Annie Laurie
 * Blue Bell
 * Carry Me Back to Old Virginny
 * Christ Arose (1908)
 * Christ Receiveth Sinful Men
 * Church Scene from "The Old Homestead" (1886 play by Denman Thompson)
 * Darling Nellie Gray (Van Alstyne)
 * Dixie Dear (Reimer)
 * Eli Yale: Dear old Yale (1910)
 * Glory Song
 * Good bye Dolly Gray
 * Grandfather's Clock
 * Hard Times
 * Home Sweet Home
 * I Wonder if You Miss me (Snyder)
 * In Dear Old Georgia (Van Alstyne)
 * In the Evening by the Moonlight
 * Kathleen Mavourneen
 * Lead Kindly Light
 * Leaf by Leaf the Roses Fall
 * Little Darling dream Of me
 * Meet Me Where the Lanterns Glow
 * Mollie Darling (Hays)
 * My Creole Sue
 * Nearer my God to Thee
 * Onward Christian Soldiers
 * Rocked In The Cradle of The Deep
 * Roses Bring Dreams of You
 * Round The Campfire (1903)
 * Ship of My Dreams
 * Silent Night Hallowed Night
 * Soldiers Farewell
 * Sweet And Low
 * Tell Mother I'll Be There
 * Tenting on the Old Camp Ground
 * The Bridge
 * The Farmyard Medley
 * The Holy City
 * The Home Over There
 * The Old Oaken Bucket
 * The Owl And The Pussy Cat
 * Vesper Service
 * Where The Southern Roses Grow
 * Winter (Bryan Gut..)

Hayden

 * Jesus Christ is Risen To-day (Hayden)
 * Rest for the Weary (Hayden)
 * Shall We Gather at the River (Hayden)
 * The Vacant Chair (Hayden)
 * Where is My Boy To-Night (Hayden)

title: Talk:Haydn Quartet (vocal ensemble)


text:
Talk:At find

Moved from article:

"   *  Undernet channels : #mp3passion, #mp3freedom and #mp3tunes, #mp3Latino    * #Irnap y #Mp3 in Chat Global IRC servers.    * #mp3_depot , #leech , #musicvideos and #argentinamp3 in Action-IRC.    * #mp3 in Grnet."

I'm moving this list because it's likely to be extremely ephemeral, and because Wikipedia is not a Web directory or link repository. Vicki Rosenzweig 20:29 Feb 23, 2003 (UTC)

One can see the list in http://members.fortunecity.com/adbaorg/depot.htm too.

title: Talk:At find


text:
Gustave Caillebotte

Gustave Caillebotte (19 August 1848 – 21 February 1894) was a French painter who was a member and patron of the Impressionists, although he painted in a more realistic manner than many others in the group. Caillebotte was known for his early interest in photography as an art form.

Early life
Gustave Caillebotte was born on 19 August 1848 to an upper-class Parisian family living in the rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis. His father, Martial Caillebotte (1799–1874), was the inheritor of the family's military textile business and was also a judge at the Tribunal de commerce de la Seine. Caillebotte's father was twice widowed before marrying Caillebotte's mother, Céleste Daufresne (1819–1878), who had two more sons after Gustave: René (1851–1876) and Martial (1853–1910). Caillebotte was born at home on rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis in Paris and lived there until 1866, when his father had a home built on 77 rue de Miromesnil. Beginning in 1860, the Caillebotte family began regularly spending summer in Yerres, a town on the river Yerres about 12 mi south of Paris, where Martial Caillebotte Sr. had purchased a large property. It probably was around this time that Caillebotte began to draw and paint.

Caillebotte earned a law degree in 1868 and a license to practice law in 1870, and he also was an engineer. Shortly after his education, he was drafted to fight in the Franco-Prussian war, and served from July 1870 to March 1871 in the Garde Nationale Mobile de la Seine.

Development
After the war, Caillebotte began visiting the studio of the painter Léon Bonnat, where he began to study painting seriously. He then developed an accomplished style in a relatively short time and had his first studio in his parents' home. In 1873, Caillebotte entered the École des Beaux-Arts, but apparently did not spend much time there. He inherited his father's fortune in 1874 and the surviving sons divided the family fortune after their mother's death in 1878. Gustave and his brother sold the Yerres estate and moved into an apartment on the Boulevard Haussmann in Paris.

Around 1874, Caillebotte had met and befriended several artists working outside the Académie des Beaux-Arts, including Edgar Degas and Giuseppe de Nittis, and attended (but did not participate in) the First Impressionist Exhibition of 1874. The "Impressionists" – also called the "Independents", "Intransigents", and "Intentionalists" – had broken away from the academic painters showing in the annual Salons.

Caillebotte made his debut in the second Impressionist exhibition in 1876, showing eight paintings, including Les raboteurs de parquet (The Floor Scrapers) (1875), his earliest masterpiece. Its subject matter, the depiction of labourers preparing a wooden floor (thought to have been that of the artist's own studio) was considered "vulgar" by some critics and this is the probable reason for its rejection by the Salon of 1875. At the time, the art establishment deemed only rustic peasants or farmers acceptable subjects from the working class. The painting is now at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. A second version, in a more realistic style resembling that of Degas, also was exhibited, demonstrating Caillebotte's range of technique and his adept restatement of the same subject matter.

Style
In common with his precursors Jean-François Millet and Gustave Courbet, as well his contemporary Degas, Caillebotte aimed to paint reality as it existed and as he saw it, hoping to reduce the inherent theatricality of painting. Perhaps because of his close relationship with so many of his peers, his style and technique vary considerably among his works, as if "borrowing" and experimenting, but not really sticking to any one style. At times, he seems very much in the Degas camp of rich-colored realism (especially his interior scenes); at other times, he shares the Impressionist commitment to "optical truth" and employs an impressionistic pastel-softness and loose brush strokes most similar to Renoir and Pissarro, although with a less vibrant palette.

The tilted ground common to these paintings is characteristic of Caillebotte's work, which may have been strongly influenced by Japanese prints and the new technology of photography, although evidence of his use of photography is lacking. Cropping and "zooming-in", techniques that commonly are found in Caillebotte's oeuvre, may also be the result of his interest in photography, but may just as likely be derived from his intense interest in perspective effects. A large number of Caillebotte's works also employ a very high vantage point, including View of Rooftops (Snow) (Vue de toits (Effet de neige)) (1878), Boulevard Seen from Above (Boulevard vu d'en haut) (1880), and A Traffic Island (Un refuge, boulevard Haussmann) (1880).

Themes

Caillebotte painted many domestic and familial scenes, interiors, and portraits. Many of his paintings depict members of his family; Young Man at His Window (Jeune Homme à la fenêtre) (1876) shows René in the home on rue de Miromesnil; The Orange Trees (Les Orangers) (1878), depicts Martial Jr. and his cousin Zoé in the garden of the family property at Yerres; and Portraits in the Country (Portraits à la campagne) (1875) includes Caillebotte's mother along with his aunt, cousin, and a family friend. There are scenes of dining, card playing, piano playing, reading, and sewing, all executed in an intimate, unobtrusive manner that portrays the quiet ritual of upper-class indoor life.

His country scenes at Yerres focus on pleasure boating on the leisurely stream as well as fishing and swimming, and domestic scenes around his country home. He often used a soft impressionistic technique reminiscent of Renoir to convey the tranquil nature of the countryside, in sharp contrast to the flatter, smoother strokes of his urban paintings. In Oarsman in a Top Hat (1877), he effectively manages the perspective of a passenger in the back of a rowboat facing his rowing companion and the stream ahead, in a manner much more realistic and involving than Manet's Boating (1874).

Caillebotte is best known for his paintings of urban Paris, such as The Europe Bridge (Le Pont de l'Europe) (1876), and Paris Street; Rainy Day (Rue de Paris; temps de pluie, also known as La Place de l'Europe, temps de pluie) (1877). The latter is almost unique among his works for its particularly flat colors and photo-realistic effect, which give the painting its distinctive and modern look, almost akin to American Realists such as Edward Hopper. Many of his urban paintings were quite controversial due to their exaggerated, plunging perspective. In Man on a Balcony (1880), he invites the viewer to share the balcony with his subject and join in observing the scene of the city reaching into the distance, again by using unusual perspective. Showing little allegiance to any one style, many of Caillebotte's other urban paintings produced in the same period, such as The Place Saint-Augustin (1877), are considerably more impressionistic.

Caillebotte's still life paintings focus primarily on food, some at table ready to be eaten and some ready to be purchased, as in a series of paintings he made of meat at a butcher shop. He also produced some floral still-life paintings, particularly in the 1890s. Rounding out his subject matter, he painted a few nudes, including Homme au bain (1884) and Nude on a Couch (1882), which, although provocative in its realism, is ambivalent in its mood—neither overtly erotic nor suggestive of mythology—themes common to many nude paintings of women during that era.

Later life
In 1881, Caillebotte acquired a property at Petit-Gennevilliers, on the banks of the Seine near Argenteuil, and he moved there permanently in 1888. He ceased showing his work at age 34 and devoted himself to gardening and to building and racing yachts, and he spent much time with his brother, Martial, and his friend Auguste Renoir. Renoir often came to stay at Petit-Gennevilliers, and engaged in far-ranging discussions on art, politics, literature, and philosophy. Caillebotte was a model for Renoir's 1881 painting, Luncheon of the Boating Party. Although he never married, Caillebotte appears to have had a serious relationship with Charlotte Berthier, a woman eleven years his junior and of the lower class, to whom he left a sizeable annuity. While Caillebotte was known for his urban and domestic scenes, he also painted many rural scenes of the area around his home in the years before his death.

Caillebotte's painting career slowed dramatically in the early 1890s when he stopped working on large canvases. Caillebotte died of pulmonary congestion while working in his garden at Petit-Gennevilliers in 1894 at age 45. He was interred at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.

For many years, and partly because he never had to sell his work to support himself, Caillebotte's reputation as a painter was overshadowed by his recognition as a supporter of the arts. Seventy years after his death, however, art historians began reevaluating his artistic contributions. His striking use of varying perspective sets him apart from his peers who may have otherwise surpassed him. His art was largely forgotten until the 1950s when his descendants began to sell the family collection. In 1964, The Art Institute of Chicago acquired Paris Street; Rainy Day, spurring American interest in him. By the 1970s, his works were being exhibited again and critically reassessed.

The National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) and the Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas) organized a major retrospective display of Caillebotte's painting for exhibition in 2015–2016.

Patron and collector
Caillebotte's sizable allowance, along with the inheritance he received after the death of his father in 1874 and his mother in 1878, allowed him to paint without the pressure to sell his work. It also allowed him to help fund Impressionist exhibitions and support his fellow artists and friends (Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, and Camille Pissarro among others) by purchasing their works and, at least in the case of Monet, paying the rent for their studios.

Caillebotte bought his first Monet in 1875 and was especially helpful to that artist's career and financial survival. He was precise in his sponsorship; notably absent are works by Georges Seurat and Paul Gauguin, or any of the Symbolists. In 1890, he played a major role in assisting Claude Monet in organizing a public subscription and in persuading the French state to purchase Édouard Manet's 1863 Olympia.

Other interests
In addition, Caillebotte used his wealth to fund hobbies for which he was quite passionate, including stamp collecting, orchid growing, yacht building, and even textile design (the women in his paintings Madame Boissière Knitting, 1877, and Portrait of Madame Caillebotte, 1877, may be working on patterns created by Caillebotte). After his death, he was inscribed in the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists, and the collection he formed with his brother Martial is now in the British Library.

Caillebotte's collection
Convinced after the death in 1876 of his younger brother René that his own life would be short, Caillebotte wrote his will while still in his twenties. In the will, Caillebotte bequeathed a large collection to the French government. This collection ultimately included sixty-eight paintings by Camille Pissarro (nineteen), Claude Monet (fourteen), Pierre-Auguste Renoir (ten), Alfred Sisley (nine), Edgar Degas (seven), Paul Cézanne (five), and Édouard Manet (four).

At the time of Caillebotte's death, the Impressionists were still largely condemned by the art establishment in France, which remained dominated by Academic art and specifically, the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Because of this, Caillebotte realised that the cultural treasures in his collection would likely disappear into "attics" and "provincial museums". He therefore stipulated that they must be displayed in the Luxembourg Palace (devoted to the work of living artists), and then in the Louvre. The French government would not agree to these terms. In February 1896, they finally negotiated terms with Renoir, who was the executor of the will, under which they took thirty-eight of the paintings to the Luxembourg Palace. The installation constituted the first presentation of the Impressionists in a public venue in France. The remaining twenty-nine paintings (one by Degas was taken by Renoir in payment for his services as executor) were offered to the French government twice again, in 1904 and 1908, and were both times refused. When the government finally attempted to claim them in 1928, the bequest was repudiated by the widow of Caillebotte's brother Martial Caillebotte. One of the remaining works, Bathers at Rest, was purchased by Albert C. Barnes and is now held by the Barnes Foundation. Forty of Caillebotte's own works are held by the Musée d'Orsay. His Man on a Balcony, Boulevard Haussmann (Homme au balcon, boulevard Haussmann) (1880), sold for more than US$14.3 million in 2000.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Berhaut, Marie (1994). Gustave Caillebotte: Catalogue raisonné des peintures et pastels. Paris: Wildenstein Institute.
 * Broude, Norma (Ed.) (2002). Gustave Caillebotte and the Fashioning of Identity in Impressionist Paris. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
 * Distel, Anne (1996). Gustave Caillebotte: The Unknown Impressionist. London: The Royal Academy of Arts, London.
 * Distel, Anne; Druick, Douglas W.; Groom, Gloria & Rapetti, Rodolphe (1995). Gustave Caillebotte, Urban Impressionist. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.) & The Art Institute of Chicago. (American catalogue for retrospective exhibition in Paris, Chicago, & Los Angeles, 1994–1995.)
 * Charles, Daniel; Fonsmark, Anne-Birgitte; Hansen, Dorothee; Hedin, Gry & Thomson, Richard (2008). "Gustave Caillebotte". Published by Hatje Cantz. (Exhibition catalogue for exhibition at Ordrupgaard, Copenhagen & Kunsthalle Bremen, 2008–2009)
 * Morton, Mary & Shackelford, George T.M. (2015). "Gustave Caillebotte: The Painter's Eye". Chicago: University of Chicago Press (Catalogue for retrospective exhibition in Washington, DC, and Fort Worth, Texas 2015–2016.)
 * Varnedoe, Kirk (1987). Gustave Caillebotte. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03722-8
 * Wittmer, Pierre (1991). Caillebotte and His Garden at Yerres. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

title: Gustave Caillebotte


text:
Lenz's law

Lenz's law states that the direction of the electric current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes changes in the initial magnetic field. It is named after physicist Heinrich Lenz, who formulated it in 1834.

It is a qualitative law that specifies the direction of induced current, but states nothing about its magnitude. Lenz's law predicts the direction of many effects in electromagnetism, such as the direction of voltage induced in an inductor or wire loop by a changing current, or the drag force of eddy currents exerted on moving objects in a magnetic field.

Lenz's law may be seen as analogous to Newton's third law in classical mechanics and Le Chatelier's principle in chemistry.

Definition
Lenz's law states that: "The current induced in a circuit due to a change in a magnetic field is directed to oppose the change in flux and to exert a mechanical force which opposes the motion."

Lenz's law is contained in the rigorous treatment of Faraday's law of induction (the magnitude of EMF induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux), where it finds expression by the negative sign:

$$\mathcal{E}=-\frac{\mathrm{d} \Phi_\mathbf{B}}{\mathrm{d} t},$$

which indicates that the induced electromotive force $$\mathcal{E}$$ and the rate of change in magnetic flux $$\Phi_\mathbf{B}$$ have opposite signs.

This means that the direction of the back EMF of an induced field opposes the changing current that is its cause. D.J. Griffiths summarized it as follows: Nature abhors a change in flux.

If a change in the magnetic field of current i1 induces another electric current, i2, the direction of i2 is opposite that of the change in i1. If these currents are in two coaxial circular conductors ℓ1 and ℓ2 respectively, and both are initially 0, then the currents i1 and i2 must counter-rotate. The opposing currents will repel each other as a result.

Example
Magnetic fields from strong magnets can create counter-rotating currents in a copper or aluminium pipe. This is shown by dropping the magnet through the pipe. The descent of the magnet inside the pipe is observably slower than when dropped outside the pipe.

When a voltage is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's law, the polarity of the induced voltage is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. The direction of an induced current can be determined using the right-hand rule to show which direction of current flow would create a magnetic field that would oppose the direction of changing flux through the loop. In the examples above, if the flux is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to oppose the change.

Detailed interaction of charges in these currents

In electromagnetism, when charges move along electric field lines work is done on them, whether it involves storing potential energy (negative work) or increasing kinetic energy (positive work).

When net positive work is applied to a charge q1, it gains speed and momentum. The net work on q1 thereby generates a magnetic field whose strength (in units of magnetic flux density (1 tesla = 1 volt-second per square meter)) is proportional to the speed increase of q1. This magnetic field can interact with a neighboring charge q2, passing on this momentum to it, and in return, q1 loses momentum.

The charge q2 can also act on q1 in a similar manner, by which it returns some of the momentum that it received from  q1. This back-and-forth component of momentum contributes to magnetic inductance. The closer that q1 and q2 are, the greater the effect. When q2 is inside a conductive medium such as a thick slab made of copper or aluminum, it more readily responds to the force applied to it by q1. The energy of q1 is not instantly consumed as heat generated by the current of q2 but is also stored in two opposing magnetic fields. The energy density of magnetic fields tends to vary with the square of the magnetic field's intensity; however, in the case of magnetically non-linear materials such as ferromagnets and superconductors, this relationship breaks down.

Conservation of momentum
Momentum must be conserved in the process, so if q1 is pushed in one direction, then q2 ought to be pushed in the other direction by the same force at the same time. However, the situation becomes more complicated when the finite speed of electromagnetic wave propagation is introduced (see retarded potential). This means that for a brief period the total momentum of the two charges is not conserved, implying that the difference should be accounted for by momentum in the fields, as asserted by Richard P. Feynman. Famous 19th century electrodynamicist James Clerk Maxwell called this the "electromagnetic momentum". Yet, such a treatment of fields may be necessary when Lenz's law is applied to opposite charges. It is normally assumed that the charges in question have the same sign. If they do not, such as a proton and an electron, the interaction is different. An electron generating a magnetic field would generate an EMF that causes a proton to accelerate in the same direction as the electron. At first, this might seem to violate the law of conservation of momentum, but such an interaction is seen to conserve momentum if the momentum of electromagnetic fields is taken into account.

title: Lenz's law