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Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (25 January 1922 – 31 August 2018) was an Italian geneticist. He was a population geneticist who taught at the University of Parma, the University of Pavia and then at Stanford University.

Schooling and positions
Cavalli-Sforza entered Ghislieri College in Pavia in 1939 and he received his M.D. from the University of Pavia in 1944. In 1949, he was appointed to a research post at the Department of Genetics, Cambridge University by the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald A. Fisher in the field of E. coli genetics. In 1950, he left the University of Cambridge to teach in northern Italy (Parma, and Pavia) before taking up a professorship at Stanford in 1970. He remained at Stanford until he retired in 1992.

In 1999 he won the Balzan Prize for the Science of human origins. He has been a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences since 1994. In 1992 he was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. He was awarded the Telesio-Galilei Academy Award in 2011 for Biology.

Specific contributions
Cavalli-Sforza initiated a new field of research by combining the concrete findings of demography with a newly available analysis of blood groups in an actual human population. He also studied the connections between migration patterns and blood groups.

Writing in the mid-1960s with A.W.F. Edwards, another genetics student of Ronald A. Fisher, Cavalli-Sforza pioneered statistical methods for estimating evolutionary trees (phylogenies). Edwards and Cavalli-Sforza wrote about trees of populations within the human species, where genetic differences are affected both by treelike patterns of historical separation of populations and by spread of genes among populations by migration and admixture. Many of these influential and fundamental early papers were reprinted in 2018 in a volume focusing on A. W. F. Edwards, and dedicated to Cavalli-Sforza and Ian Hacking. In later papers, Cavalli-Sforza has written about the effects of both divergence and migration on human gene frequencies.

While Cavalli-Sforza is best known for his work in genetics, he also, in collaboration with Marcus Feldman and others, initiated the sub-discipline of cultural anthropology known alternatively as coevolution, gene-culture coevolution, cultural transmission theory or dual inheritance theory. The publication Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach (1981) made use of models from population genetics and infectious disease epidemiology to investigate the transmission of culturally transmitted units. This line of inquiry initiated research into the correlation of patterns of genetic and cultural dispersion.

Cavalli-Sforza conducted several studies of how language differences may serve as barriers to gene flow between adjacent human populations. His studies of human migration have tested hypotheses of linguists Merritt Ruhlen and Joseph Greenberg about language "superfamilies". The hypothesized superfamilies are controversial among other linguists.

Books
Cavalli-Sforza has summed up his work for laymen in five topics covered in Genes, Peoples, and Languages. According to an article published in The Economist, the work of Cavalli-Sforza "challenges the assumption that there are significant genetic differences between human races, and indeed, the idea that 'race' has any useful biological meaning at all". The book illustrates both the problems of constructing a general "hereditary tree" for the entire human race, and some mechanisms and data analysis methods to greatly reduce these problems, thus constructing a fascinating hypothesis of the recent 150,000 years of human expansion, migration, and human diversity formation. In the book Cavalli-Sforza asserts that Europeans are, in their ancestry, about two-thirds Asian and one-third African.

Cavalli-Sforza's The History and Geography of Human Genes (1994 with Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza) is a standard reference on human genetic variation. Cavalli-Sforza also wrote The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution (together with his son Francesco).

Earlier, in the 1970s, he and Walter Bodmer wrote what was the standard textbook on modern human genetics, and was also a basic reference for population genetics more generally, as the field was at the time, The Genetics of Human Populations (W. H. Freeman, 1971). The two, with Bodmer as first author, later wrote another more basic text, Genetics, Evolution, and Man (W. H. Freeman, 1976). Along with his 1994 book these are essentially classical presentations of human genetics before the genomics era began providing very much more detailed data.

Death
Professor Cavalli-Sforza died on 31 August 2018, at the age of 96 at his home in Belluno, Italy. He is survived by three sons Matteo, Francesco and Luca Tommaso Cavalli-Sforza, and one daughter, Violetta Cavalli-Sforza.

Films

 * 2003 – Journey of Man

title: Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza


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Calque

In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, “to calque” means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components, so as to create a new lexeme in the target language. For instance, the English word "skyscraper" has been calqued in dozens of other languages, combining words for "sky" and "scrape" in each language, as for example,, Portuguese: Arranha-céu, Turkish: Gökdelen, Skyskrapa. Another notable example is the Latin weekday names, which came to be associated by ancient Germanic speakers with their own gods following a practice known as interpretatio germanica: the Latin "Day of Mercury", Mercurii dies (later mercredi in modern French), was borrowed into Late Proto-Germanic as the "Day of Wōđanaz" (Wodanesdag), which became Wōdnesdæg in Old English, then "Wednesday" in Modern English.

Calquing is distinct from phono-semantic matching: while calquing includes semantic translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching—i.e., of retaining the approximate sound of the borrowed word by matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or morpheme in the target language.

Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language, or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.

Types
One system classifies calques into five groups. This terminology is not universal:
 * Phraseological calques: idiomatic phrases are translated word for word. For example, "it goes without saying" calques the French ça va sans dire.
 * Syntactic calques: syntactic functions or constructions of the source language are imitated in the target language, in violation of their meaning. For example, the use of "by" instead of "with" in the phrase "fine by me" is thought to have come from Yiddish, namely from the 1930s Yiddish Broadway musical song title בַיי מיר ביסטו שיין / / lit. 'To Me You're Beautiful'.
 * Loan-translations: words are translated morpheme by morpheme, or component by component, into another language.
 * Semantic calques (also known as semantic loans): additional meanings of the source word are transferred to the word with the same primary meaning in the target language. As described below, the "computer mouse" was named in English for its resemblance to the animal; many other languages have extended their own native word for "mouse" to include the computer mouse.
 * Morphological calques: the inflection of a word is transferred. Some authors call this a morpheme-by-morpheme translation.

Some linguists refer to a phonological calque, in which the pronunciation of a word is imitated in the other language. For example, the English word "radar" becomes the similar-sounding Chinese word, which literally means "to arrive (as fast) as thunder".

Partial
Partial calques, or loan blends, translate some parts of a compound but not others. For example, the name of the Irish digital television service Saorview is a partial calque of that of the UK service "Freeview", translating the first half of the word from English to Irish but leaving the second half unchanged. Other examples include "liverwurst" (< German ) and "apple strudel" (< German ).

Semantic
The "computer mouse" was named in English for its resemblance to the animal. Many other languages use their word for "mouse" for the "computer mouse", sometimes using a diminutive or, in Chinese, adding the word "cursor" (标), making shǔbiāo "mouse cursor". Another example is the Spanish word ratón that means both the animal and the computer mouse.

Examples
The common English phrase "flea market" is a loan translation of the French ("market with fleas"). At least 22 other languages calque the French expression directly or indirectly through another language.

The word loanword is a calque of the German noun Lehnwort. In contrast, the term calque is a loanword, from the French noun ("tracing, imitation, close copy").

Another example of a common morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is of the English word "skyscraper", which may be calqued using the word for "sky" or "cloud" and the word, variously, for "scrape", "scratch", "pierce", "sweep", "kiss", etc. At least 54 languages have their own versions of the English word.

Some Germanic and Slavic languages derived their words for "translation" from words meaning "carrying across" or "bringing across", calquing from the Latin translātiō or trādūcō.

History
Since at least 1894, according to the Trésor de la langue française informatisé, the French term calque has been used in its linguistic sense, namely in a publication by Louis Duvau:

Since at least 1926, the term calque has been attested in English through a publication by the linguist :

 * [...] such imitative forms are called calques (or décalques) by French philologists, and this is a frequent method in coining abstract terminology, whether nouns or verbs.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Calque


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Amlaíb Cuarán

Amlaíb mac Sitric (d. 980; Óláfr Sigtryggsson ), commonly called Amlaíb Cuarán (O.N.: Óláfr kváran ), was a 10th-century Norse-Gael who was King of Northumbria and Dublin. His byname, cuarán, is usually translated as "sandal". His name appears in a variety of anglicized forms, including Olaf Cuaran, Anlaf Sihtricson and Olaf Sihtricson, particularly in relation to his short-lived rule in York. He was the last of the Uí Ímair to play a major part in the politics of the British Isles.

Amlaíb was twice, perhaps three times, ruler of Northumbria and twice ruler of Dublin and its dependencies. His reign over these territories spanned some forty years. He was a renowned warrior and a ruthless pillager of churches, but ended his days in retirement at Iona Abbey. Born when the Uí Ímair ruled over large areas of the British Isles, by his death the kingdom of Dublin was a minor power in Irish politics. At the same time, Dublin became a major centre of trade in Atlantic Europe and mastery over the city and its wealth became the supreme prize for ambitious Irish kings.

In death Amlaíb was the prototype for the Middle English romance character Havelok the Dane. In life he was a patron of Irish poets and Scandinavian skalds who wrote verses praising their paymaster. Amlaíb was married at least twice, and had many children who married into Irish and Scandinavian royal families. His descendants were kings in the Isle of Man and the Hebrides until the 13th century.

Background
The earliest records of attacks by Vikings in Britain or Ireland are at the end of the eighth century. The monastery on Lindisfarne, in the kingdom of Northumbria, was sacked on 8 June 793, and the monastery of Iona in the kingdom of the Picts was attacked in 795 and 802. In Ireland Rathlin Island, off the north-east coast, was the target in 795, and so too was St Patrick's Island on the east coast in 798. Portland in the kingdom of Wessex in south-west Britain was attacked during the reign of King Beorhtric of Wessex (ruled from 786 to 802).

These raids continued in a sporadic fashion throughout the first quarter of the ninth century. During the second quarter of the century the frequency and size of raids increased and the first permanent Viking settlements (called longphorts in Ireland) appeared.

Origins
The Ímar from whom the Uí Ímair were descended is generally presumed to be that Ímar (English pronunciation Ivar): "king of the Northmen of all Britain and Ireland", whose death is reported by the Annals of Ulster in 873. Whether this Ímar is to be identified with Ivar the Boneless, the leader of the Great Heathen Army, is rather less certain, although at the same time not unlikely.

Amlaíb Cuarán was probably a great-grandson of Ímar. There is no contemporary evidence setting out the descent from Ímar to his grandsons, but it may be that the grandsons of Ímar recorded between 896 and 934—Amlaíb Cuarán's father Sitriuc (d. 927), Ragnall (d. 921), Gofraid (d. 934), Ímar (d. 904) and Amlaíb (d. 896)—were brothers rather than cousins. Amlaíb's father Sitriuc first appears in the record in 917 when he seized Dublin, a settlement which had probably been under the control of an Irish king since the expulsion of the previous Viking rulers in 902.

Sitriuc ruled Northumbria until his death in 927. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records his marriage to King Æthelstan's sister at Tamworth on 30 January 926. According to some late sources, such as the chronicler John of Wallingford, Amlaíb was the son of Sitriuc and this West Saxon princess. Sitriuc's other sons included Gofraid (died 951), king of Dublin, Aralt (died 940), ruler of Limerick, and, less certainly, Sichfrith and Auisle, listed among those killed at the battle of Brunanburh in 937 by the Annals of Clonmacnoise. A daughter of Sitriuc named Gytha is said in the Heimskringla to have married Norwegian pirate king Olaf Tryggvason, but she was probably a daughter of Amlaíb Cuarán.

Following Sitriuc's death, Amlaíb may have become king in York for a short time, but if he did it came to an end when Æthelstan took over the kingdom of Northumbria and defeated Sitriuc's brother Gofraid. According to William of Malmesbury, Amlaíb fled to Ireland while his uncle Gofraid made a second unsuccessful attempt to gain control of York. In 937 an attack on Æthelstan's kingdom by Gofraid's son Amlaíb, assisted by Constantín mac Áeda, the king of Alba, and Owen, the king of Strathclyde, ended in defeat at the battle of Brunanburh. William of Malmesbury wrote that Amlaíb was present at Brunanburh and spied out the English camp the night before the battle disguised as a skald.

King Æthelstan died in 939 and his successor, his half-brother Edmund, was unable to keep control of York. Amlaíb mac Gofrith, ruling in Dublin, crossed to Britain where he was accepted as king of the Northumbrians. He died in 941, shortly after sacking the church of Saint Baldred at Tyninghame, struck dead by the saint's power according to the Historia de Sancto Cuthberto. This traditional view of Amlaíb mac Gofrith's later career has recently been disputed by Kevin Halloran. The basic argument presented is that Amlaíb mac Gofrith did not rule in York and the suggestion that only one Amlaíb, Amlaíb Cuarán, was king there may explain some of the apparent anomalies in the numismatic record.

York
Amlaíb Cuarán's career began in 941, following the death of his cousin Amlaíb mac Gofrith, when he became co-ruler of York, sharing power with his cousin Ragnall son of Gofraid. According to the Annals of Clonmacnoise, Amlaíb had been in Britain since 940, having left another son of Gofraid, Blácaire, as ruler of Dublin.

Amlaíb and Ragnall ruled in York until 944. The dating of events in the period between the death of Æthelstan and the expulsion of Amlaíb and Ragnall is uncertain as the various versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are in conflict. It appears that after Æthelstan's death, not only did Edmund lose control of Northumbria, but that the Five Burghs of the Mercian Danelaw also pledged themselves to Amlaíb mac Gofrith. One of the Amlaíbs stormed Tamworth according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:"Here Olaf broke down Tamworth and a great slaughter fell on either side, and the Danes had the victory and led much war-booty away with them. Wulfrun was seized in the raid. Here King Edmund besieged King Olaf and Archbishop Wulfstan in Leicester, and he might have controlled them had they not escaped from the stronghold in the night." It is not clear when in the period between 940 and 943 these events took place, and as a result historians disagree as to whether they concern Amlaíb mac Gofrith or Amlaíb Cuarán.

Edmund reconquered the Five Burghs in 942, an event celebrated in verse by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Chronicle reports the baptism of Amlaíb, with King Edmund becoming his godfather. This need not mean that Amlaíb was not already a Christian, nor would such a baptism have permanently committed him to Christianity, as such baptisms were often political acts. Alfred the Great, for example, had sponsored the confirmation of Christian Welsh king Anarawd ap Rhodri. Amlaíb was expelled from the kingship of York in 944. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that "King Edmund conquered all Northumbria and caused to flee away two kings [or "royally-born men"], Olaf and Rægnald". It is possible that rivalry between Amlaíb and Ragnall contributed to their fall. Æthelweard's history reports that Amlaíb was deposed by a coup led by Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, and an unnamed Mercian ealdorman.

Congalach and Ruaidrí
After being driven out of Northumbria, Amlaíb returned to Ireland while Ragnall may have been killed at York. The Uí Ímair in Ireland had also suffered in 944 as Dublin was sacked that year by the High King of Ireland Congalach Cnogba, whose power base lay in Brega, north of Dublin on the lower reaches of the River Boyne. The following year, perhaps as a result of the sack of Dublin, Amlaíb's cousin Blácaire was driven out and Amlaíb replaced him as ruler of Dublin. Amlaíb was allied with Congalach and may have gained power with his assistance.

Congalach and Amlaíb fought against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin, a rival for the High Kingship who belonged to the Cenél Conaill, based in modern County Donegal. In 945 the two defeated part of Ruaidrí's army in Conaille Muirtheimne (modern County Louth) and the following year Amlaíb raided Kilcullen in the province of Leinster. In 947 Ruaidrí routed Congalach and Amlaíb at Slane. Losses among the Dublin men were heavy, with many drowning while fleeing the battle. This defeat appears to have lost Amlaíb his kingship, as the annals record that Blácaire, not Amlaíb, was the leader of the Dublin forces in the following year. Blácaire was killed in 948 by Congalach, and was succeeded by Amlaíb's brother Gofraid.

York again
The course of events in Northumbria while Amlaíb was in Ireland is uncertain. While Edmund certainly controlled Northumbria after Amlaíb was expelled and Ragnall killed, he may soon after have lost control of the north to a Scandinavian king named Eiríkr, usually identified with Eric Bloodaxe. If Erik did rule in Northumbria before Edmund's death, it was only for a short time. Edmund was killed in 946, and succeeded by his brother Eadred. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Eadred "reduced all the land of Northumbria to his control; and the Scots granted him oaths that they would do all that he wanted". The Northumbrian submission to Eadred led to a meeting with the notables of York led by Archbishop Wulfstan in 947, but the following year King Erik was back ruling Northumbria and Eadred laid waste to the southern parts of the kingdom— Ripon is mentioned as a particular target—to force the Northumbrians to expel Erik, which they did.

The following year, 949, by which time Blacáire was dead and Amlaíb's brother ruling in Dublin, the Northumbrians invited Amlaíb to rule in York. His return to England may have been with Eadred's agreement. That year Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, the king of Alba, raided Northumbria as far south as the River Tees, capturing many slaves and much loot. Whether this invasion was directed against Amlaíb, or perhaps intended to support him by plundering only northern Northumbria which may have been outside his control, is uncertain. A second invasion from the north in 952, this time an alliance including Máel Coluim's Scots and also Britons and Saxons, was defeated. Again, whether this was aimed against Amlaíb, who was deposed in 952 and replaced by Erik, or was mounted against King Erik in support of Amlaíb, is unclear. Erik's reign was short and the Viking kingdom of York was definitively incorporated into the kingdom of the English on his death in 954. Amlaíb returned to Ireland, never again to rule in York.

From Dublin to Iona
In 951, while Amlaíb was in Britain his brother Gofraid died in Dublin of disease. Congalach's rival Ruaidrí was also dead, leaving Amlaíb's former ally as undisputed High King and thus a serious threat to Dublin and the south-eastern Irish kingdom of Leinster. This threat was perhaps what led to Congalach's death in an ambush at Dún Ailinne (modern County Kildare) or at Tech Guigenn in the region of the River Liffey while collecting tribute in Leinster in 956. The main beneficiary was the brother of Amlaíb's new wife Dúnflaith, Domnall ua Néill, who became the next High King of Ireland. The marriage linked Amlaíb not only to the northern Uí Néill kindred of Cenél nEógain, but also to the southern Clann Cholmáin as he was now stepfather to Dúnflaith's young son Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill.

In the early 960s Amlaíb Cuarán probably faced a challenge from the sons of his cousin Amlaíb mac Gofrith. In 960 the Annals of Ulster report that Cammán, son of Amlaíb mac Gofrith, was defeated at an unidentifiable place named Dub. Two years later one Sitriuc Cam—Cam means crooked or twisted and Cammán is simply the hypocoristic form of this byname, so that Sitriuc Cam and Cammán are presumed to be the same person—was defeated by the Dubliners led by Amlaíb Cuarán and the Leinstermen while raiding in Leinster. Amlaíb Cuarán was wounded in the battle but Sitriuc fled to his ships. Sitriuc and his brothers appear to have raided Munster after this, but disappear from the record soon afterwards and do not appear to have returned to Ireland.

Amlaíb's activities in the early 960s seem largely to have been limited to occasional raids in Leinster. He attacked Kildare in 964, and it was a target again in 967 when Muiredach mac Faeláin, abbot of Kildare, a member of the Uí Dúnlainge kindred which ruled Leinster, was killed by Amlaíb and Cerball mac Lorcáin, a kinsman of Muiredach's. Another raid south in 964 ended in a heavy defeat for Amlaíb near Inistogue (modern County Kildare) at the hands of the Osraige.

Until the late 960s Domnall ua Néill, Congalach's successor as would-be High King, was occupied with enemies close to home, and in Connacht and Munster, and did not intervene in Leinster or the hinterlands of Dublin. Having defeated these, in 968 he marched south and plundered Leinster, killing several notables, and laid siege to Dublin for two months. While Domnall did not take the port, he carried off a great many cattle. Amlaíb, allied with the king of Leinster Murchad mac Finn, retaliated by attacking the abbey of Kells in 969. A pursuit by ua Néill's allies was defeated near Ardmulchan (County Meath).

In 970 Domnall ua Néill and his allies attacked Amlaíb's new-found ally, Congalach's son Domnall, the king of Brega. Domnall mac Congalaig was married to a daughter of Amlaíb, perhaps at about this time. Churches in Brega, including Monasterboice and Dunleer, guarded by Amlaíb's soldiers, were a particular target of the raids. Domnall of Brega and Amlaíb fought against Domnall ua Néill's northern army at Kilmona in modern County Westmeath. Domnall's army, which included allies from Ulaid, was defeated, and Ardgal mac Matudáin, king of Ulaid, and Cináed mac Crongilla, king of Conaille Muirtheimne, were among those killed. The battle at Kilmona did not end the war in the midlands. Monasterboice and Dunleer were burned after the battle and fighting spread to the lands of Clann Cholmáin the following year when Domnall ua Néill's enemies there drove him out, only for him to return with an army and ravage both Mide and the lands around Dublin before marching south to attack Leinster. This campaign appears to have established Domnall ua Néill as effective overlord of the midlands and Leinster for some years.

In 977, in unknown circumstances, Domnall ua Néill's sons Congalach and Muirchertach were killed and Amlaíb is given credit for their deaths by the annals. Domnall made no effort to avenge the deaths, retiring to the monastery at Armagh where he died in 980. The Dubliners campaigned against Leinster the late 970s. The overking of Leinster, Úgaire mac Túathail, was captured in 976. He was evidently ransomed or released as he was killed, along with Muiredach mac Riain of Uí Cheinnselaig of south Leinster, fighting against the Dubliners in 978 at Belan (County Kildare). Úgaire's successor Domnall Claen was little more fortunate, being captured by the Dubliners the following year.

Following the death of High King Domnall ua Néill, Amlaíb's stepson Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill claimed the title. Amlaíb's former ally Domnall son of Congalach had died in 976, removing one potential rival, and as Amlaíb had killed two of Domnall ua Néill's sons he may have cleared the way for Máel Sechnaill to take power. If so, it was unlikely to be by design. Máel Sechnaill had become king of Mide and head of Clann Cholmáin in 975 and had inaugurated his reign with an attack on his stepfather when he burned "Thor's Wood" outside Dublin. In 980 Máel Sechnaill had the support of the Leinstermen when he faced Amlaíb's sons—Amlaíb himself was by now an old man—near the hill of Tara. The Dubliners too had allies as the Irish annals record the presence of warriors from the Isle of Man or the Hebrides. Amlaíb's son Ragnall (Rögnvaldr) was among the dead in the battle which followed, and although several kings fighting alongside Máel Sechnaill were killed, the result was clearly a crushing blow for Dublin. Máel Sechnaill occupied the city and imposed a heavy tribute on the citizens.

In the aftermath of this defeat Amlaíb abdicated, or was removed from power. He was replaced by a son named Glúniairn (Járnkné), a son of Dúnlaith and thus Máel Sechnaill's half-brother. Amlaíb retired to the monastery on Iona where he died soon afterwards.

Marriages and children
He was succeeded by his son Glúniairn (Járnkné, literally "Iron Knee"), son of his wife Dúnlaith, daughter of Muirchertach mac Néill. Among his wives was Gormflaith, daughter of Murchad mac Finn, King of Leinster, and future wife of Brian Boru. Gormflaith's son Sitric Silkbeard was king of Dublin after Glúniairn's death. Amlaíb's other children included Gytha, who married Olaf Tryggvason, Máel Muire, who married Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, and Harald, possibly the grandfather of Godred Crovan.

Cuarán
Amlaíb's byname, cuarán, is usually translated as "sandal" or "shoe". It derives from the Old Irish word cúar meaning bent or crooked. It is first applied to him in the report of the battle of Slane in 947 in the Annals of Ulster. The usual translation may be misleading. The epithet probably refers to a distinctive style of footwear. Benjamin Hudson points to the description of a cuarán in a twelfth-century satire, where it is made of leather folded seven times and has a pointed toe. In Aislinge Meic Con Glinne and Scél Baili Binnbérlaig, the cuarán is waterproof. In the first story Mac Con Glinne cleans his by dipping them in his bath; in the second, a cuarán serves as a vessel to drink from. That the cuarán was a piece of footwear specific to Dublin is suggested by statements in other stories that have cobblers in the town owing a cuarán in taxes.

Icelandic sagas
Amlaíb Cuarán (Olaf Kvaran) is referred to at least twice in the Icelandic sagas, once in Njal's Saga and again in Saga of Gunnlaugr Serpent-Tongue. It is from these references that Einar Hjörleifsson Kvaran and his siblings chose the name "Kvaran" as their own.

title: Amlaíb Cuarán


text:
Neverland

Neverland is a fictional island featured in the works of J. M. Barrie and those based on them. It is an imaginary faraway place where Peter Pan, Tinker Bell, Captain Hook, the Lost Boys, and some other imaginary beings and creatures live.

Although not all people who come to Neverland cease to age, its best-known resident famously refused to grow up. Thus, the term is often used as a metaphor for eternal childhood (and childishness), as well as immortality and escapism.

The concept was first introduced as "the Never Never Land" in Barrie's West End theatre play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up, first staged in 1904. In the earliest drafts of the play, the island was called "Peter's Never Never Never Land", a name possibly influenced by the 'Never Never', a contemporary term for outback Australia. In the 1928 published version of the play's script, the name was shortened to "the Never Land". Although the caption to one of F. D. Bedford's illustrations also calls it "The Never Never Land", Barrie's 1911 novelisation Peter and Wendy simply refers to it as "the Neverland," and its many variations "the Neverlands."

Neverland has been featured prominently in subsequent works that either adapted Barrie's works or expanded upon them. These Neverlands sometimes vary in nature from the original.

Location
The novel says that the Neverlands are compact enough that adventures are never far between, and that a map of a child's mind would resemble a map of Neverland, with no boundaries at all. Accordingly, Barrie explains that the Neverlands are found in the minds of children; although each is "always more or less an island" as well as having a family resemblance, they are not the same from one child to the next. For example, John Darling's Neverland had "a lagoon with flamingos flying over it," while his little brother Michael's had "a flamingo with lagoons flying over it."

The exact situation of Neverland is ambiguous and vague. In Barrie's original tale, the name for the real world is the Mainland, which suggests Neverland is a small island, reached by flight. Peter—who is described as saying "anything that came into his head"—tells Wendy the way to Neverland is "second to the right, and straight on till morning." In the novel, the children are said to have found the island only because it was "out looking for them." Barrie additionally writes that Neverland is near the "stars of the milky way" and it is reached "always at the time of sunrise."

In Barrie's Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1906), a proto-version of Neverland, located in the Serpentine in Kensington Gardens, is called the Birds' Island, where baby Peter reaches by flight, or by sailing in a paper boat or thrush's nest.

Walt Disney's 1953 Peter Pan suggests Neverland is located in outer space, adding a "star" to Peter's directions: "second star to the right, and straight on till morning." From afar, these stars depict Neverland in the distance. The 2003 live-action film (produced by Universal Pictures, Columbia Pictures, Revolution Studios, Red Wagon Entertainment and Allied Stars Ltd) repeats this representation, as the Darling children are flown through the solar system to reach Neverland. In the 1991 film Hook (produced by TriStar Pictures and Amblin Entertainment), Neverland is shown to be located in the same way as the 1953 Disney film. While flying is the only way to reach it, the film does not show exactly how Captain Hook manages to get from Neverland to London in order to kidnap Peter's children, Jack and Maggie. In Peter Pan in Scarlet (2006), by Geraldine McCaughrean, Neverland is located in waters known as the 'Sea of One Thousand Islands'. The children get to the island by flying on a road called the High Way.

In Peter David's 2009 novel Tigerheart, Neverland is renamed the Anyplace and is described as being both a physical place and a dream land where human adults and children go when they dream. Additionally, there is a location called the Noplace which is cold and devoid of colour where people in a coma and those who are "lost" live. In the 2011 miniseries Neverland, inspired by Barrie's works, the titular place is said to be another planet existing at the centre of the universe. It is accessible only via a magic portal generated by a strange sphere. In the 2015 American film Pan, Neverland is a floating island in a sky-like dimension.

Time
The passage of time in Neverland is similarly ambiguous. The novel Peter and Wendy mentions that in Neverland there are many more suns and moons than on the Mainland, making time difficult to track. One way to tell the time is to find the crocodile, and wait until the clock inside it strikes the hour. Although Neverland is widely thought of as a place where children don't grow up, Barrie wrote that the Lost Boys eventually do grow up, having to leave, and fairies there lived typically short lifespans.

In Peter Pan in Scarlet (2006), by Geraldine McCaughrean, time freezes as soon as the children arrived in Neverland. In the 2011 miniseries Neverland, in which Neverland is said to be another planet entirely, time has frozen due to external cosmic forces converging on the planet, preventing anyone living there from ageing.

Canon
In J. M. Barrie's play and novel, most of the adventures in the stories take place in the Neverwood, where the Lost Boys hunt and fight the pirates and Native Americans.

Peter and the Lost Boys live in the Home Under The Ground, which also contains Tinker Bell's "private apartment." The Home is accessed by sliding down hollowed tree trunks, one for each boy. "It consisted of one large room, ... with a floor in which you could dig if you wanted to go fishing, and in this floor grew stout mushrooms of a charming colour, which were used as stools. A Never tree tried hard to grow in the centre of the room, but every morning they sawed the trunk through, level with the floor.'"The Little House is built from branches by the Lost Boys for Wendy after she is hit by Tootles' arrow. At the end of the play, one year after the main events in the story, the house appears in different spots every night, but always on some tree-tops. The Little House is the original "Wendy house," now the name of a children's playhouse.

The Jolly Roger is the pirates' brig, described by Barrie as "a rakish-looking craft foul to the hull."

The mermaids live in the Mermaids' Lagoon, which is also the location of Marooners' Rock, the most dangerous place in Neverland. Trapped on Marooners' Rock in the lagoon just offshore, Peter faced impending death by drowning, as he could not swim or fly from it to safety. The mermaids made no attempt to rescue him, but he was saved by the Never bird.

Non-canon
In the many film, television, and video game adaptations of Peter Pan, adventures that originally take place in either the Mermaids' Lagoon, the Neverwood forest, or on the pirates' ship are played out in a greater number of more elaborate locations.

Disney

In the Disney-franchise version of Neverland, many non-canon locales are added which appear variously throughout different instalments, as well as adding or giving names to implied locations within Barrie's original Neverland. These locales include:

 * Cannibal Cove/Tiki Forest – A jungle environment, original to the Disney franchise, filled with monkeys, parrots, boars, cobras, bees and a "host of evil traps." It is occupied by a tribe reminiscent of both African and indigenous Pacific-Islander cultures. This location appears regularly in Disney Channel's animated series Jake and the Neverland Pirates
 * The Neverseas are the seas around Neverland in Disney's Tinker Bell films. Some small islands can be found in it, and it seems that it can communicate with the real seas, as a normal ship comes across the path of a young James Hook in The Pirate Fairy
 * Pixie Hollow is where Tinker Bell and her tiny fairy friends live and dwell in Disney's Tinker Bell franchise. (See Pixie Hollow)
 * Never Land Plains – A location where the Indians reside
 * Skull Rock – A location where the "pirates are said to hide their booty."
 * Crocodile Creek – A swamp environment where the Crocodile lives

Hook (1991)
In Steven Spielberg's 1991 film Hook, the pirates occupy a small port town peppered with merchant shopfronts, warehouses, hotels, pubs, and an improvised baseball field, and many ships and boats of varying sizes and kinds fill the harbour. The Home Underground has also been replaced by an intricate tree house structure, which is home to a larger number of Lost Boys. In certain areas, the territory surrounding the tree house has its own unique weather (i.e; spring, summer, autumn, winter).

The Mermaids' Lagoon is directly connected to the Lost Boys' tree house structure by a giant clam-shell pulley system. The Home Underground is discovered buried and forgotten by an adult Peter in the film, underneath the new home of the Lost Boys. Neither the Indians nor their territory appear in the film, though they are mentioned by Hook during a conversation with Smee.

Other
The Black Castle, which is referred to in the 2003 film, is an old ruined and abandoned castle, decorated with stone dragons and gargoyles. It is one of the places where Tiger Lily is taken by Captain James Hook. This sequence is based on the Marooner's Rock sequence in the original play and book: like Disney's non-canon 'Skull Rock', Black Castle replaces Marooners's Rock in this film.

Neverpeak Mountain is the huge mountain that is right in the middle of Neverland. According to Peter Pan in Scarlet, when a child is on top of Neverpeak Mountain, he or she can see over anyone and anything and can see beyond belief.

The Maze of Regrets is a maze in Peter Pan in Scarlet where all the mothers of the Lost Boys go to find their boys.

Fairies
Fairies are arguably the most important magical inhabitants of the Neverland, and its primary magic users. A property of their nature is the production and possession of fairy dust, the magic material which enables flying for all characters except Peter, who was taught to fly by the birds, and later by the fairies in Kensington Gardens. The only-named fairy is Tinker Bell, Peter Pan's companion, whose name alludes to her profession as a 'tinker', or fixer of pots and pans. Tinker Bell is essentially a household fairy, but far from benign. Her exotic, fiery nature, and capacity for evil and mischief, due to fairies being too small to feel more than one type of emotion at any one time, is reminiscent of the more hostile fairies encountered by Peter in Kensington Gardens.

In Barrie's play and novel, the roles of fairies are brief: they are allies to the Lost Boys against the pirates, the source of fairy dust and where they act as "guides" for parties travelling to and from Neverland. They are also responsible for the collection of abandoned or lost babies from the Mainland to the Neverland. The roles and activities of the fairies are more elaborate in Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1906): they occupy kingdoms in the Gardens and at night "mischief children who are locked in after dark" to their deaths or entertain them before they return to their parents the following day; and they guard the paths to a "Proto-Neverland" called the birds' island. These fairies are more regal and engage in a variety of human activities in a magical fashion. They have courts; can grant wishes to children; and have a practical relationship with the birds, which is however "strained by differences." They are portrayed as dangerous, whimsical and extremely clever, but quite hedonistic. After forgetting how to fly, unable to be taught by the birds, Peter is given the power to fly again by the fairies.

Barrie writes that "when the first baby laughed for the first time, its laugh broke into a thousand pieces, ... and that was the beginning of fairies." Neverland's fairies can be killed whenever someone says they don't believe in fairies, suggesting that the race of fairies is finite and exhaustible. When dying from Hook's poison, Tinker Bell is saved when Peter and other children and adults across the Neverlands and Mainland call out "I do believe in fairies, I do, I do," so their deaths are not necessarily permanent. At the end of Barrie's novel Wendy asks Peter about Tinker Bell, whom he has forgotten and he answers, "I expect she is no more."

The Disney Fairies–Peter Pan franchise has elaborated on aspects of Barrie's fairy mythology. The Never Fairies (and associated sparrow men) live in Pixie Hollow, located in the heart of Neverland. As stated in the Tinker Bell film, after the baby's first laugh enters a flower, it breaks the flower into numerous pieces (the seeds), any piece that can blow with the wind and survive the trip to Pixie Hollow becomes a fairy, who then learns his/her specific talent.

Birds
In the novel and the play, between the flight from the Mainland (reality) and the Neverland, they are relatively simple animals which provide entertainment, instruction and some limited guidance to flyers. These birds are described as unable to sight its shores, "even, carrying maps and consulting them at windy corners."

The Never Bird saves Peter from drowning when he is stranded on Marooners' Rock, by giving him her nest which he uses as a sailing vessel.

In Barrie's Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, birds have a far more prominent role on a proto-Neverland called the Birds' Island. On the island, the various birds speak bird-language, described as being related to fairy language which can be understood by young humans, who used to be birds. The birds are responsible for bringing human babies into the Mainland, whose human parents send folded paper boats along the serpentine "with 'boy' or 'girl' and 'thin' or 'fat' (and so on) written", indicating to the official birds which species to send back to transform into human children, who are described as having an "itch on their backs where their wings used to be" and that their warbles are fairy/bird talk.

Lost Boys
The Lost Boys are a tribe of "children who fall out of their prams when the nurse is not looking;" having not been claimed by humans in seven days, they were collected by the fairies and flown to the Neverland. There are no 'lost girls' because, as Peter explains, girls are much too clever to fall out of their prams and be lost in this manner.

There are six Lost Boys: Tootles, Nibs, Slightly, Curly and the Twins. They are not permitted to fly by Peter, as it is a sign of his authority and uniqueness. They live in tree houses and caves, wear animal skins, have spears and bows and arrows, and live for adventure. They are a formidable fighting force despite their youth and they make war with the pirates, although they seem to enjoy a harmonious existence with the other inhabitants of Neverland.

Pirates
The crew of the Pirate ship Jolly Roger have taken up residence off-shore, and are widely feared throughout Neverland. How they came to be in Neverland is unclear. Their captain is the ruthless James Hook, named after the hook in place of his right hand.

"Redskins"
There is a tribe of wigwam-dwelling Native Americans who live on the island, referred to by Barrie as "Redskins" or as the Piccaninny tribe. Their chief is Great Big Little Panther, whose daughter Tiger Lily has a crush on Peter Pan. The Piccaninny tribe are known to make ferocious and deadly war against Captain Hook and his pirates, but their connection with the Lost Boys is more lighthearted. For "many moons", the two groups have captured each other, only to promptly release the captives, as though it were a game.

Mermaids
Mermaids live in the lagoon. They enjoy the company of Peter Pan but keep their distance from everyone else on the island, including the fairies. They are not sociable creatures and do not speak nor interact with outsiders. They are malevolent, hedonistic and frivolous; yet they sing and play "mermaid games" in which they "rise to the surface in extraordinary numbers to play with their bubbles," "made in rainbow water." They also "love to bask out on Marooners' Rock, combing their hair in a lazy way."

At first glance, Wendy is enchanted by their beauty, but finds them vain and irritating, as they would "splash her with their tails, not accidentally, but intentionally" when she attempted to steal a closer look. Their homes are "coral caves underneath the waves" to which they retire at sunset and rising tide, as well as in anticipation of storms. When one mermaid tries to pull Wendy into the water and drown her, Peter intervenes and hisses – rather than crows – at them and they quickly dive into the water and disappear. Barrie describes the mermaids' "haunting" transformation at the "turn of the moon" while "uttering strange wailing cries" at night as the lagoon becomes a very "dangerous place for mortals". The Mermaids' Lagoon is a favourite "adventure" for the children, and where they take their "midday meal". Peter gives Wendy one of the mermaids' combs as a gift.

The 2003 Peter Pan film briefly describes mermaids as different from those in traditional story books, but as "dark creatures in touch with all things mysterious," and who will drown humans who get too close, but do not harm Peter who seems to be the only one who can speak the mermaids' language. They always seem to know Hook's whereabouts on the island at any given time and tell Peter.

Animals
Animals (referred to as beasts) live throughout Neverland, such as bears, tigers, lions, wolves, flamingoes and crocodiles. In Barrie's original novel, these "beasts" hunt the Piccaninny tribe, who hunt the Pirates, who are themselves hunting the Lost Boys, who in turn hunt the beasts, creating a chain of prey and murder in the Neverland that only ends when one party stops or slows down, or when Peter redirects the Lost Boys to other tasks and activities. Like all the agencies of the Neverland, the animals do not need to eat, nor are they eaten when killed, nor do they reproduce (as they enjoy the same immortality as all other inhabitants), so their presence is a paradox. There are also a variety of birds, whose societies are present in the proto-Neverland described in Barrie's Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens.

Other residents
Other inhabitants of Neverland are suggested by Barrie in his original novel, such as a "small old lady with a hooked nose", "gnomes who are mostly tailors", and princes "with six elder brothers" – reminiscent of European fairy tales. Some locations are briefly described without inhabitants, but the narrator hints at their former presence, such as a "hut fast going to decay".

In a Japanese anime series, The Adventures of Peter Pan (1989), the individual characters of the pirates, "redskins", and mermaids are expanded, and new characters such as the schizophrenic spellcaster princess Luna and the witch Sinistra are added.

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Talk:Amlaíb Cuarán

Kváran
This name translates to Ciarán, it was a adopted name. Marcramarc (talk) 12:37, 10 February 2019 (UTC)

Untitled
moved references to the article page... Tbarron

Chronology?
The chronology seems inconsistent here. The caption under the coin suggests he was king of Dublin in 924 but the narrative states he didn't become king of Dublin until 942. Jimg 08:51, 12 August 2007 (UTC)

Havelok the Dane
Neither this nor the Havelok the Dane page mentions the influence Olaf's career had on Havelok's legend. Can somebody who knows a bit more about it fix this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.243.119.238 (talk) 12:28, 26 October 2007 (UTC)

Name
Angus, the MOS (Irish-related) page you linked to says "In cases where someone used the Irish version of his or her name but this does not enjoy widespread usage among English speakers, then use the English version when naming the article but refer to the Irish version of the name in the first line. For example, Geoffrey Keating was Irish-speaking and probably never used that name himself. He is listed under Geoffrey Keating but the first sentence reads "Seathrún Céitinn, known in English as Geoffrey Keating, was ...". " In this case, you need to prove both that Olaf/Amlaib used the Irish form of his name and that it enjoys widespread usage in English. Michael Sanders 23:46, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Your sudden interest in Norse-Gael/Viking kings of Dublin is most curious. Thank you for being quite so transparent. Angus McLellan (Talk) 23:59, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

 * And your decision to move this article is because you suddenly realised it was at the wrong name, and has nothing to do with my informing you that his link at Constantine II of Scotland should not be piped through Amlaib Cuaran, eh? Michael Sanders 00:04, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Michael, the article title forms for these Norse Gaelic kings is pretty random; most of them were named with very little thought. It's been recognised for ages they need to be changed. You shouldn't have reverted Angus' move here. He only made that move when he did because you made an issue of piping (where did you get the idea piping is bad?). Olaf Cuaran is not particularly well established in English. If Angus thinks his form is best, he's prolly correct. He's working in the bigger picture here and knows the scholarship. And while Scottish kings may have a certain significance because of their later elevated and formalised status, kings of Dublin and such are not Scottish kings; as there is no such thing, "popular usage" in English isn't an issue. I think you've chosen a bad area to make an issue. Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 00:14, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't mind piping (quite the opposite, I much prefer piping to basic redirects), it's just that if an article is named in one style, it seems dishonest to present it in another style in a different article. In this case, "Olaf Cuaran" was named "Amlaib Cuaran" in the Constantine II article; and when Angus, having expressed his preference for the latter, and been challenged by me as to the usage, decided to move an article he had had no apparent problem with on 27 December... Michael Sanders 00:33, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * On 27 December 2007, and for as long as I can remembers before that, there had been no problem with using redirects and nobody insisting that the contents of articles needed to match the page name. If things have changed, you don't have far to look for the source of the changes. Angus McLellan (Talk) 14:54, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Michael, using redirects saves kb space, often quite a bit. Each article has different demands and peculiarities. What reason is there to deny article writings flexibility because other article titles happen to be a certain way? Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 15:57, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

Pictures
Mike Christie checked the Foundation view on pictures of coins a while back and the official word is that PD-art is not appropriate: the copyright on a picture of a coin is based on that of the picture in practice. Unless we can come up with a free picture of a coin, we're generally out of luck. We can't use the one that's there now as it is plainly replaceable. Most obviously, it's easily replacable from Grueber's Handbook of the coins of Great Britain and Ireland in the British Museum, the photos (or collotypes) in which appear to be PD-EU-no author disclosure. The book is online here, the flip-book version is too low res, but the PDF should be useful. Anyone who was a dab hand with a scanner and image cleaner-upper, or who could grab the images out of a PDF at a decent res, could get a wheen of coin images from Grueber's book. Not me then, because I am not the first and have no idea how to do the second. Any ideas? Angus McLellan (Talk) 23:44, 2 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I can try get a screenshot; that's how I normally pinch images from such books. Got a page number on it? Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 23:52, 2 January 2008 (UTC)
 * (edit conflict) Yes, that PDF looks promising. You can always zoom in to the maximum appropriate resolution, push the "Print Screen" button on your keyboard and then paste the image into an image manipulation program. If you don't have any then The Gimp is freely available. Haukur (talk) 23:53, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * As easy as that? How depressingly simple. I'll give it a go: the Gimp I can just about run on this creaky old PC. Thanks! Angus McLellan (Talk) 23:58, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I've downloaded 76 % of it. I'll email it as a jpeg if I can locate it. BTW, moved three of the Strathclyde pages. You should move the others as you see fit; I'm unable to move to Owen the Bald myself because I'm no admin, so I'm just gonna leave the Owens/Ywains/Owains to you. Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 00:07, 3 January 2008 (UTC)
 * EDIT; Oops, thought you were responding to me. My mistake. Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 00:09, 3 January 2008 (UTC)
 * No problem. I was wondering if any of the moves would be a problem. I'll get those done tomorrow. Angus McLellan (Talk) 00:13, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

King of Northumbria
Olaf Guthfrithson states "After Athelstan's death in 939, Olaf again invaded York the same year, forcing Athelstan's successor, Edmund, into a treaty which ceded to Olaf Northumbria and part of Mercia. Uniquely, the legend of his silver penny minted at York is not in Latin or Old English but in Old Norse; the bird emblem perhaps represents the raven associated with the battle-god Odin. He did not get to enjoy his new lands for long, dying just two years later in 941. He was succeeded by Amlaíb Cuarán. This traditional view of Guthfrithson's later career has recently been disputed by Kevin Halloran - see ... The basic argument presented is that Guthfrithson did not rule in York and the suggestion that only one Anlaf, Anlaf Cuaran, was king there may explain some of the apparent anomalies in the numismatic record." Should this material be incorporated into this article? Alekksandr (talk) 22:16, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Now done. Alekksandr (talk) 19:16, 9 April 2015 (UTC)

Amlaíb or Olaf
It's an old question but I feel the need to bring it up again. I propose that this article be moved to Olaf Cuaran. The principal reason is that Olaf Cuaran seems to be more common than any of the alternatives (7490 on google for Olaf Cuaran vs 3940 for Amlaíb Cuarán). Another good reason is that most other kings who ruled both Dublin and Northumbria go by the English version. I won't try and force any change straight away. I'll leave this up for a while to see if anyone offers any opinion either way. Retroplum (talk) 00:31, 27 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amlaíb Cuarán


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Livonian Brothers of the Sword

The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (Fratres militiæ Christi Livoniae, Schwertbrüderorden) was a Catholic military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theoderich von Treydend). Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204 for the second time. The membership of the crusading order comprised warrior monks, mostly from northern Germany, who fought Baltic and Finnic polytheists in the area of modern-day Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Alternative names of the Order include Christ Knights, Swordbrothers, Sword Brethren, Order of the Brothers of the Sword, and The Militia of Christ of Livonia. The seal reads: +MAGISTRI ETFRM (et fratrum) MILICIE CRI (Christi) DE LIVONIA.

Following their defeat by the Samogitians and Semigallians in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the surviving Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch and became known as the Livonian Order.

Organization
The Livonian Brothers had a set of rules adopted from the Knights Templar, requiring them to be of noble birth and to take vows of obedience, poverty, and celibacy. The order also included soldiers, artisans, and clerics as members. The Knights made up a general assembly, which selected a grandmaster and other officials.

The grandmaster served for life in the order. He chose a council and a military chief for each district castle, where the order's knights were living. Wenno von Rohrbach was the first master of the order (1204–1209), followed by Volkwin Schenk von Winterstein, who died in the Battle of Schaulen in 1236.

In the beginning, the main duty of the Livonian Brothers was to protect priests and missionaries. The characteristics of the territory brought a moral challenge for the crusaders because the land of the Livs and Letts had not previously been Christian. Therefore, they did not have any justification to attack them. The division of conquered territory also was a problem faced by the order. Swordbrothers were to garrison the built castles to maintain control along the Daugava. However, garrison duties did not imply ownership. Albert of Riga established that one-third of any new territory could be retained by the order. Meanwhile, the rest of the territory was handed over to the bishop.

Foundation
Albert, Bishop of Riga (also called Prince-Bishop of Livonia) (or possibly Theoderich von Treyden) realised that a standing army in Livonia would be more useful than crusaders staying a short time. As rewards for secular knights in the Baltic area were not enough to ensure their long-term stance, Albert founded the Brotherhood in 1202 to aid the Bishopric of Livonia in the conversion of the pagan Livonians, Latgalians and Selonians living across the ancient trade routes from the Gulf of Riga eastwards.

The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia, where the walls of the Master's castle stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis), Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle). The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga), Marienburg (Alūksne), Reval (Tallinn), and the bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.

Battles
In 1205, the first battle of the Livonian brothers occurred. The Semigallian duke Viesthard visited Riga to request the help of the Swordbrothers after a local Semigallian tribe was devastated by the Lithuanians. The brotherhood was reluctant to go to war due to the absence of bishop Albert. However, Viesthard successfully persuaded the Swordbrothers. They prepared an ambush against the Lithuanians that were returning with the booty, where the Lithuanian leader was beheaded.

In 1206, the Duke Vladimir of Polozk demanded tribute from the inhabitants of the Daugava when the terms of service of the crusaders expired. The Swordbrothers, with the help of the remaining crusaders, beat the Russian troops that arrived suddenly to Daugava.

In 1207, the Swordbrothers faced an attack from Lithuania launched during the winter. The Swordbrothers and allies stayed at the castle of Lennewarden on the north of the Daugava. The Lithuanian army challenged the order to battle and was defeated by the Order. This victory served to show the value of the castle line along the river. The chain of castles allowed successful communication. Meanwhile, the local militia could assemble at the nearest fort to the raiders' return route and attack them.

The Swordbrothers had superiority in heavy cavalry. For that reason, natives tried to avoid pitched battles during the Livonian crusade. Most of the confrontations consisted of raids. The Order built a fortified line along the Daugava that created a peaceful time in the region. Livonian people began to consider the Swordbrothers as efficient protectors. Despite that, some native leaders felt that the Order represented a challenge to their authority, as the case of King Vetseke, the original owner of the fortress of Koknese. King Vetseke massacred German workers who were rebuilding the fortress. He was punished after that.

In 1211, several threats around Livonian prompted Albert of Riga to reinforce the defences. For safeguarding the northern flank, Albert organised an invasion of southern Estonia. The Swordbrothers were the core of the crusader army, allied with Russians, loyal Livs and Letts, and led by Engelbert von Thisenhusen, brother-in-law of Albert of Riga. After a siege, they took Fellin and negotiated a settlement with the condition that pagans accept baptism. The following year the order destroyed the Saccalian resistance in a battle where 2,000 Saccalians fell.

Between 1211 and 1212, the Swordbrothers realised that winter was the best season for warfare due to frozen swamps, weak undergrowth, and difficulty of their enemies to cover their tracks. Also, the knights could use frozen rivers as high-speed paths. The Order used these advantages in their campaigns until 1218, when they conquered southern Estonia, meanwhile they beat off counter-attacks from Russians and Lithuanians.

In 1230, Kurland was conquered and converted by the order.

Indiscipline
From its foundation, the indisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to the bishops. The desires of the Swordbrothers to expand to the north of the Daugava river, along the Livonian Aa stream, brought the Order into a confrontation with Bishop Albert. Albert wanted to extend to the south of the river and did not have an interest in Estonia, previously promised to King Valdemar II of Denmark.

Master Wenno advanced to the north without the permission of Bishop Albert. First, the Order took and occupied the fortress of Treiden. In 1208, they founded the castle of Segewold in the Aa valley, and the castle of Wenden further upstream. The last one grew as a fortress and Master Wenno located the Headquarters of the Order there. Wickbert, a man loyal to Albert of Riga, was placed to manage the Wenden castle. Master Wenno removed him, but Wickbert fled to the protection of Albert of Riga and killed Wenno with an axe.

In 1219, King Valdemar II of Denmark conquered the north of Estonia with the help of Bishop Albert. In 1222, Estonia was partitioned between Valdemar II and Albert of Riga in an agreement unsatisfactory to the Swordbrothers. After that, they exploited the peasants until a revolt arose. The Pope rebuked the Order for the way they managed the conflict. Then, they tried to seize Danish land in Estonia until a papal legate made them give it back. When the papal legate left, the Swordbrothers took the Danish land again. They also invaded the territory of Bishop Albert and levied tolls on traffic on the Daugava.

After the death of Albert of Riga in 1229, ecclesiastical authorities considered that the Order was no longer useful. The papal legate Bernard of Aulne decided that they should be suppressed, and he tried to recapture the Danish Castle at Reval. However, the Order defeated him and took him as a prisoner.

Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from the Novgorodian attacks in his letter of November 24, 1232. However, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (Sweden eventually conquered Finland following the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.)

Incorporation into the Teutonic Knights
The Order was decimated in the Battle of Schaulen (Saule) in 1236 against Lithuanians and Semigallians. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order. They continued to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself de jure subject to the Teutonic Order's Grand Master).

Masters

 * Wenno (von Rohrbach) 1204–1209
 * Volkwin (Schenk von Winterstein) 1209–1236

title: Livonian Brothers of the Sword


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Komeito

Komeito (公明党), formerly New Komeito and abbreviated NKP, is a political party in Japan founded by members of the Buddhist movement Soka Gakkai in 1964. It is generally considered as centrist and conservative. Since 2012, it has served in government as the junior coalition partner of the nationalist and conservative governments led by the Liberal Democratic Party.

Natsuo Yamaguchi has been the president of the party since 8 September 2009 and currently serves as a member of the House of Councillors (the upper house) in the National Diet.

Komeito currently has 32 elected Deputies in the Japanese House of Representatives.

Opposition before 1993
Komeito began as the Political Federation for Clean Government in 1961, but held its inaugural convention as Komeito on 17 November 1964. The three characters 公明党 have the approximate meanings of "public/government" (公 kō), "light/brightness" (明 mei), and "political party" (党 tō). The combination "kōmei" (公明) is usually taken to mean "justice". Komeito's predecessor party, Kōmeitō, was formed in 1962, but it had begun in 1954 as the Kōmei Political League. It lasted until it merged with the NKP in 1998.

In 1957, a group of Young Men's Division members campaigning for a Soka Gakkai candidate in an Osaka Upper House by-election were arrested for distributing money, cigarettes, and caramels at supporters' residences, in violation of election law, and on July 3 of that year, at the beginning of an event memorialized as the "Osaka Incident," Daisaku Ikeda was arrested in Osaka. He was taken into custody in his capacity as Soka Gakkai's Youth Division Chief of Staff for overseeing activities that constituted violations of election law. He spent two weeks in jail and appeared in court forty-eight times before he was cleared of all charges in January 1962.

In 1968, fourteen of its members were convicted of forging absentee ballots in Shinjuku, and eight were sentenced to prison for electoral fraud. In the 1960s it was widely criticized for violating the separation of church and state, and in February 1970 all three major Japanese newspapers printed editorials demanding that the party reorganize. It eventually broke apart based on promises to segregate from Soka Gakkai.

In the 1980s Shimbun Akahata discovered that many Soka Gakkai members were rewarding acquaintances with presents in return for Komeito votes and that Okinawa residents had changed their addresses to elect Komeito politicians.

Anti-LDP coalition government: 1993–1994
Kōmeitō joined the Hosokawa and Hata anti-LDP coalition cabinets in 1993 and 1994. After the collapse of the anti-LDP and anti-JCP governments (非自民・非共産連立政権) and the electoral and campaign finance reforms of 1994, the Kōmeitō split in December 1994: The "New Kōmei Party" (公明新党) joined the New Frontier Party (NFP) a few days later in an attempt to unify the splintered opposition. The other group, Kōmei (公明), continued to exist as a separate party. After the dissolution of the NFP in December 1997, former Kōmeitō members from the NFP founded two new groups: the "New Peace Party" (新党平和) and the "Dawn Club" (黎明クラブ) in the House of Councillors, but some ex-Kōmeitō politicians such as Shōzō Azuma followed Ichirō Ozawa into the Liberal Party. The Reimei Club merged into the New Peace Party a few weeks later in January 1998. Finally, in November 1998, Kōmei and New Peace Party merged to re-establish Kōmeitō (referred to in English now as "New Komeito" – the party's name is just Kōmeitō as before the 1994 split).

The Japan Echo alleged in 1999 that Soka Gakkai distributed fliers to local branches describing how to abuse the jūminhyō residence registration system in order to generate a large number of votes for Komeito candidates in specific districts.

Coalition with the Liberal Democratic Party: 1999–2009, 2012–present
The current conservative, more moderate, and centrist party was formed in 1998, in a merger of Kōmei and the New Peace Party. Since then it has joined coalition with the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which need Komeito to maintain majority in the Diet (especially in the House of Councillors which the LDP lost majority since 1989), and did well in the 2000 and 2001 parliamentary elections.

The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October 1999. New Komeito has been (and continues to be) a coalition partner in the Government of Japan since 1999 (excluding 2009–2011 when the Democratic Party of Japan was in power). As such, New Komeito supported a (temporary) change to Japan's "no-war constitution" in order for Japan to support the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

In the 2003 Japanese general election and 2004 Japanese House of Councillors election, the NKP did well, thanks to an extremely committed and well-organized voter base coming from Soka Gakkai. The party shares its support base with the LDP, made up of white-collar bureaucrats and rural populations, but also gained support from religious leaders. However, on 27 July 2005, NKP's Secretary-General said that his party would consider forming a coalition government with the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) if the DPJ gained a majority in the House of Representatives. On 8 August 2005, then-Prime Minister and the president of LDP Junichiro Koizumi dissolved the Lower House and called for a general election, due to the rejection on some of the members of LDP for efforts to privatize Japan Post. The incumbent LDP-New Komeito coalition won a large majority in the 2005 general election.

Natsuo Yamaguchi became the party's leader on 8 September 2009 after the party and their coalition partner LDP suffered a major defeat in the 2009 general election, become part of the opposition for the first time since 1999. New Komeito lost ten seats, including that of party leader Akihiro Ota and general secretary Kazuo Kitagawa. On 8 September 2009, Yamaguchi replaced Ota as president of New Komeito.

In the general election on 16 December 2012, the LDP/Komeito coalition secured a supermajority and came back into government. The former party chief Akihiro Ota (Ohta) is currently Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. The party also gained seats in the general election in 2014. In September 2014 the party changed its English name from New Komeito back to Komeito.

In July 2015, Komeito backed Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's push to revise the Constitution in order to "give Japan's military limited powers to fight in foreign conflicts for the first time since World War II". This legislation, supported by the United States, would allow the "Self-Defense Forces to cooperate more closely with the U.S. by providing logistical support and, in certain circumstances, armed backup in international conflicts" and "complements guidelines in a bilateral agreement governing how Japanese and United States forces work together, which was signed by the two nations" earlier in 2015.

On March 11, 2019, a project team of Komeito submitted proposals to Foreign Minister Taro Kono for an international agreement to regulate robotic weapons, calling on Japan to build global consensus for a "political declaration or a code of conduct, within the framework of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons".

Ideology and policies
A self-proclaimed party of "humanitarian socialism," Komeito's declared mission is to pioneer "people-centered politics, a politics based on a humanitarianism, that treats human life with the utmost respect and care". On 24 April 2019, joint task force efforts with its coalition partner  resulted in the passing of a bill mandating reparations and having the coalition government issue a formal apology to sterilization victims of the defunct Eugenics Protection Act, thus to advance human rights awareness in the wake of lawsuits  related to the history of eugenics in Japan.

Religious scholar and political analyst Masaru Satō explains that in postwar Japan there were two major parties, the Liberal Democratic Party representing financial interests and large corporations and the Japan Socialist Party largely advocating the interests of trade unions and the working class. There was no single party that represented people who belonged to neither, such as shop owners and housewives, among others. Komeito was thus able to capture the support of this constituency.

Relationship with Soka Gakkai
Komeito regards the Soka Gakkai as a "major electoral constituency", having formally separated from the religious group and revised both its platform and regulations in 1970 to reflect a "secular orientation". Observers continue to describe Komeito as the Soka Gakkai's "political arm",  however, and critics contend the relationship violates the separation of religion and politics enshrined in Article 20 of the Japanese Constitution. The leadership and financing of the two groups are currently said to be independent. Both groups report having occasional liaison meetings, characterizing them as informational and "open to the media". Numerous Japanese religious groups have established political parties in Japan, but statistics scholar Petter Lindgren states that "None have, however, been more successful than Soka Gakkai."

Domestic policy
Domestically, the party proposals include reduction of the central government and bureaucracy, increased transparency in public affairs, and increased local (prefectural) autonomy with the private sector playing an increased role. Komeito also supports reducing the consumption tax rate, reducing school fees and offering child allowances.

In accordance with its public affairs transparency platform, it was reported that since September 2016, the Komeito conducted independent analyses for possible environmental contamination of the proposed Toyosu market site. The Komeito officially raised its environmental concerns later regarding Toyosu market during the 5 October 2016 Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly Session. In response, the newly appointed Tokyo Governor, Yuriko Koike, cited possible disciplinary action towards those responsible for the Toyosu project.

Security policy
In contrast with the LDP, Komeito has generally been more cautious about efforts to expand the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF). At its founding, the party adhered to absolute pacifism, rejecting both the constitutionality of the JSDF and the military alliance with the US. Later softening its views, Komeito later backed LDP proposals such as a 2004 vote to dispatch the JSDF to support allied operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, and prime minister's Shinzo Abe's revision of the security laws to expand military powers in July 2015, although it did manage to moderate the policy on the latter.

Foreign policy
With regard to foreign policy, the Komeito wishes to eliminate nuclear arms and Japanese involvement in armed conflict in general. Komeito supports maintaining the Japan's military alliance with the United States.

The party promotes closer relations between China and Japan. According to a Foreign Policy article in 2021, "Of all parties in the Diet, Komeito enjoys the strongest and most stable relationship with China." Komeito's then leader Yoshikatsu Takeiri's held negotiations Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in the 1970s played a critical role in the eventual normalization of relations between the People's Republic of China and Japan in 1972. The party has advocated for friendlier policies towards China, and has maintained communications with the country even during moments when the relationships between the two countries have been strained.

Historiography
The party reportedly advocates for improved ties with China and South Korea in light of Japan's historical war crimes in both territories. In 2013, the party's chief representative Natsuo Yamaguchi praised Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's decision to not visit Yasukuni Shrine, where Japanese war criminals are enshrined. On the comfort women issue, in 2016 the party reportedly advocated for removing Yoshitaka Sakurada from a leadership position after Sakurada denied that the women were forced to work.

Party organ
The party organ of Komeito is the Komei Shinbun. It is published by the Komei Organ Paper Committee, and has also published a regional Hokkaido edition in the past.

Literature

 * Ehrhardt, George, Axel Klein, Levi McLaughlin and Steven R. Reed (2014) (Eds.): Kōmeitō – Politics and Religion in Japan. Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley

title: Komeito


text:
Talk:Neverland

January 2003
In the book it is Neverland, one word. - Patrick 03:06 Jan 2, 2003 (UTC)

Apologies. I didn't have the book in front of me, so I tried to rely on memory and what I could find from Google, which was inconsistant. I should have left it alone. Go ahead and redirect it back, then. -- Zoe

Unstubbed. -- Snowspinner

Removed from article: In Snow White, Snow White's mother does not die, but goes to Neverland instead.

Is this true in some version of the story. It is not in Grimm's original. Rmhermen 23:24, Apr 21, 2004 (UTC)

Copyright
Was Barrie the first to use this name? And if so, does his estate have any claim on its use?

 * Copyright never protects names, so him being "first to use" it wouldn't necessarily give them an exclusive claim on it. Names can be protected as trademarks, but only if they're used consistently in the marketing of a product or service, and the play/book/movies have usually been marketed using "Peter Pan", not "Neverland".  I just did a quick check of the US Trademark database, and found several registrations by Disney (for "Return to Neverland") and by a few other parties registering that name for one product or another, but nothing that looked like the Barrie estate registering a claim to it.  So I doubt it, but only the courts could say for sure. (And of course this only refers to the U.S.) Tverbeek 04:32, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

Some helpful tags for improving the article....
here they are......

cheers - Purples 01:21, 1 August 2007 (UTC)

hi ms. neverland.i love your stories. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.40.132.212 (talk) 00:12, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

= Other inhabitants = So, I saw in the article that "Other inhabitants of Neverland are suggested by Barrie, such as witches, although these are not elaborated on." Could someone tell me where these were suggested by Barrie? Also, a list or something like that would be fairly good as a source, since the statement is missing one.87.2.141.117 (talk) 01:40, 12 September 2010 (UTC)

The above post is mine, by the way; I thought I was logged in.Franx12 (talk) 01:42, 12 September 2010 (UTC)

Are mermaids deadly? I never knew mermaids are dangerous, I tell ya, "Mermaids are from the lagoon as lovely as a dream in day. But, when it comes to night, so to speak, they snatch off a child of the lagoon or off the beach. Have their way, and the children were pulled to bottom, drowned and eaten." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.125.120.94 (talk) 15:48, 31 December 2011 (UTC)

Grammar
The first sentence is missing the word "is.

No, it isn't. The verb 'featured' is in the past tense, not the past participle. The sentence would work with 'is' but its meaning would change.--Stelmaris (talk) 10:39, 25 December 2012 (UTC)

Redskins/Native Americans
Does Barrie state that his "Redskins" are from the US? If not, does it make sense to refer to them as Native Americans, even though that is the present-day term for the aboriginal peoples of what is now the US? — 84.13.131.180 (talk) 13:10, 2 April 2018 (UTC)
 * At the time, the only meaning "redskin" had was an epithet for the peoples native to the Americas. Also their depiction in the play / description in the book was consistent with contemporary caricatures of Native Americans. Unless there's a reliable source that suggests some other meaning, the obvious one should be assumed. -Jason A. Quest (talk) 16:36, 2 April 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 08:37, 18 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Peter pan 1911 pipes.jpg

title: Talk:Neverland


text:
Talk:The Wall

Plot Assumptions: Album vs. Movie
The plot summary section of the article appears to combine elements from the movie that are not necessarily attributable to the album without a separate source to back it. For instance, the first sentence claims that Pink (the character) is imagining the audience from "In the Flesh?", but there is no reason to believe that it is not a real concert that Pink is performing at (in either the audio of the album or additional context added by the live concert performance). How can ambiguity in interpretation be succinctly added to this article? Cleophelps64 (talk) 17:50, 28 September 2023 (UTC)

In The Pink?
An observation; nowhere, on the original album release, is the narrative character referred to as “Pink”, no lyric reference, nothing on the artwork, etc. There’s no argument that during the concept phase he may have been called “Pink”, and indeed during the film, his childhood friends call him “Pinky”. But, aside from the fleshy pink human / doll laying on the ground on the album cover art, there’s no actual identification of “Pink”. The name, is also a carry over from the song “Have A Cigar”, “Oh, by the way, which one is Pink?” ( A joke about the days when the band got tired of explaining their name, to unconcerned studio heads.) 75.106.32.81 (talk) 18:21, 4 July 2024 (UTC)

 * In "In the flesh", he calls himself Pink.
 * " Pink isn't well, he stayed back at the hotel". 70.94.198.1 (talk) 03:15, 9 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Wall


text:
Talk:Ketchum

Does anyone have a clue about the name's origins? To me, it sounds like it has its roots in some Indian language. Is this correct? --Zenogantner

title: Talk:Ketchum


text:
Talk:Addition

GA1
Talk:Addition/GA1

Bilorv (talk · contribs) 21:09, 22 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Transclusion replaced with a direct link. –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 13:55, 24 June 2020 (UTC)

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2-digit carry?
While adding 2 numbers at the highest digit will never be able to reach the 3-digit threshold (9+9=18), but what if you are adding far more than 2 numbers? For example 999*12 but you do this with only addition?:

9 9 9 9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9  9 9 9 +9 9 9 ---

Notice that if you try to add up the 9s on the ones place column, you end up with 108. You can simply write the 8 as the ones place in the column, but what about the 10? You're not carrying 1 digit, but 2 digits instead. Do I simply treat the 2 digit as a single number, like 10+(9*12) = 18 with the rightmost digit (8) written in the result's tens place and repeat adding numbers, and carrying multiple digits? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Joeleoj123 (talk • contribs) 02:44, 2 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Hi there. A Wikipedia talk page is not an internet forum designed to discuss the topic – it is only for discussion about content in the article and how to improve the article.
 * As to your question, people have many different ways to calculate addition and all are mathematically valid. In the case of adding 11 of more k-digit numbers (11 is the minimum needed to get a k+2 digit result), you have a couple of options: you can carry the whole overflow into the next column, or carry each digit of the overflow into the respective columns. So in your example, you can write 18 in the tens place and continue adding, or you can write an 8 in the tens place and a 1 in the hundreds place. These methods are ultimately the same – if you put the 10 in the tens place, at the next step you will simply have an overflow of 1 more than you do with the other method, which leads to an extra 1 in the hundreds place. — Bilorv(c)(talk) 08:26, 2 March 2018 (UTC)

2+3 = 5 apples
I read from left to right and then go down to the next line -- unless there is some spacing or other indication to do otherwise. So, when I read the picture of three  plus two apples, I saw

A

AA

AA,

which is 1+2+2. I think the image should be replaced with one like

A

A.. A

A ..A

if not  AAA

AA. (where .. should be a blank space or two)

Kdammers (talk) 14:37, 26 May 2018 (UTC)
 * I agree with this. Unfortunately it's not too easy to edit images. Can anyone make a new image like this (3 apples on the first row; 2 on the second)? — Bilorv(c)(talk) 16:09, 26 May 2018 (UTC)
 * Two years on, and the same image is still there. Kdammers (talk) 02:18, 27 July 2020 (UTC)

Clarify image
Could somebody please clarify what the image purports to mean? The one that reads "Defining (−2) + 1 using only addition of positive numbers: (2 − 4) + (3 − 2) = 5 − 6." --Backinstadiums (talk) 09:37, 23 June 2019 (UTC)
 * This seems impossible to clarify, as the scale (values corresponding to horizontal lines) as well as the meanings of colors and arrows are not defined. Even with the lacking definitions, I suspect that the figure would remain confusing. So, I have removed the figure. D.Lazard (talk) 09:59, 23 June 2019 (UTC)

Hypernym
What is the common hypernym of addition and subtraction, but not the wider known hypernym arithmetic operation

It is group-permissible transformation / group-allowable transformation (here write for which category, -ies of numbers) which excludes multiplication and division. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:587:4114:107C:784D:540A:FB23:78D0 (talk) 13:36, 24 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Although not used very frequently, the proper term would be additive operation. The corresponding term for multiplication and division would be multiplicative operation. Your use of "group" above is too general as it can refer to anything having a single operation, which need not be addition or subtraction.--Bill Cherowitzo (talk) 19:03, 24 June 2020 (UTC)

translation
One of the images (2+4=6) uses the word 'translation' to explain it; how-ever, "translation" is not used any-where else in the article. What does it mean? Kdammers (talk) 14:40, 7 September 2020 (UTC)

 * A translation is a rigid motion; i.e., moving without rotating, although in one dimension, this is a meaningless distinction (see Translation (geometry) for more, possibly technical as well). This introduction of terminology probably isn't great.  If anyone wants to tweak it, please go ahead; I don't have any great ideas at the moment. –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 14:47, 7 September 2020 (UTC)

labeling
One of the basic principles of good illustration is to label things where appropriate. But this article has two illustrations with the same unlabeled three colors. "Adding π2/6 and e using Dedekind cuts of rationals" --What is red, what is blue, and what is green? I don't know how this article got nominated to be a good article, with problems like this. 37.99.82.253 (talk) 09:57, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Three years on, and the illustrations are still mystifying. Kdammers (talk) 18:28, 14 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I have looked at the Dedekind cuts version of the diagram, and thought about it fot some time, and I absolutely cannot understand it at all, so, adding to that the two comments above from you and someone else, I have removed it. The Cauchy sequence version I can understand, so I've given it the benefit of the doubt and left it in place. However, I doubt that it would actually help anyone to understand the concept if they didn't already understand it, and I wouldn't quarrel with anyone who decided to remove that one too. JBW (talk) 21:02, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

Innate ability
Should the strange case of the Pirahãs' alleged lack of adding be brought up? Kdammers (talk) 10:11, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Do you have the sources? - S L A Y T H E - (talk) 08:02, 20 February 2023 (UTC)
 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language, references at footnote 6. Kdammers (talk) 18:20, 14 June 2024 (UTC)

adding adding animals
Additional adding animals apparently include ocean-dwellers (https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/news/060-2022), but, behold, bees belong by other adders as well (according to https://theconversation.com/can-bees-do-maths-yes-new-research-shows-they-can-add-and-subtract-108074). Should these be added to animals adding section? Kdammers (talk) 16:58, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

 * This experiment showed that if you do many many training runs with bees where you show 2–3 colored shapes next to an entrance to a Y-shaped room with two further examples of several shapes, one side of which leads to sugar water, where the "correct" choice had 1 shape more than the original collection if the shapes were blue or 1 shape less than the original collection if the shapes were blue, then the bees can eventually learn to get the answer "correct" about 2/3 of the time.
 * Concluding from this that bees can "perform basic maths" seems.... very liberal with definitions. To me personally this seems much closer to "rat memorizing a maze" than to a person or animal learning to add and subtract. I would skip mentioning this study here, but it might belong in some kind of article about bees' cognition and memory. –jacobolus (t) 19:35, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Addition