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Lewis Binford

Lewis Roberts Binford (November 21, 1931 – April 11, 2011) was an American archaeologist known for his influential work in archaeological theory, ethnoarchaeology and the Paleolithic period. He is widely considered among the most influential archaeologists of the later 20th century, and is credited with fundamentally changing the field with the introduction of processual archaeology (or the "New Archaeology") in the 1960s. Binford's influence was controversial, however, and most theoretical work in archaeology in the late 1980s and 1990s was explicitly construed as either a reaction to or in support of the processual paradigm. Recent appraisals have judged that his approach owed more to prior work in the 1940s and 50s than suggested by Binford's strong criticism of his predecessors.

Early life and education
Binford was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on November 21, 1931. As a child he was interested in animals, and after finishing high school at Matthew Fontaine Maury High School studied wildlife biology at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Previously a mediocre student, Binford excelled in college and considered pursuing an academic career in biology until he was put off the idea when a professor suggested that there were "still a few species of blind cave salamanders" that he could be the first to study. It was during his time in the military that Binford first became interested in anthropology and archaeology. After graduating he was drafted as an interpreter and assigned to a group of anthropologists tasked with resettling people on the Pacific islands occupied by the United States during World War II. He also became involved with the recovery of archaeological material from tombs on Okinawa that were to be removed to make way for a military base. Though he had no training in archaeology, Binford found himself excavating and identifying these artifacts, which were then used to restock the destroyed museum in Shuri.

After leaving the military Binford went to study anthropology at the University of North Carolina (UNC). The military subsidy he received was not enough to fund his study completely, so Binford used the skills in construction he learned from his father (a carpenter) to start a modest contracting business. He gained a second BA at UNC and then in 1957 transferred to the University of Michigan to complete a combined MA and PhD. His thesis was the interaction between Native Americans and the first English colonists in Virginia, a subject he became interested in while still at UNC.

New Archaeology
Binford first became dissatisfied with the present state of archaeology while an undergraduate at UNC. He felt that culture history reflected the same 'stamp collecting' mentality that had turned him away from biology. At Michigan, he saw a sharp contrast between the "excitement" of the anthropology department's cultural anthropologists (which included Leslie White) and the "people in white coats counting their potsherds" in the Museum of Anthropology. His first academic position was as an assistant professor at the University of Chicago, where he taught New World archaeology and statistical methods in archaeology. Shortly after his appointment he wrote his first major article, Archaeology as Anthropology (1962), which was stimulated by problems in archaeological methodology that had become apparent with the use of radiocarbon dating to verify the dates and cultural typologies generated with relative dating techniques such as seriation. Binford criticised what he saw as a tendency to treat artifacts as undifferentiated traits, and to explain variations in these traits only in terms of cultural diffusion. He proposed that the goal of archaeology was exactly the same as that of anthropology more generally, viz. to "explicate and explain the total range of physical and cultural similarities and differences characteristic of the entire spatio-temporal span of man's existence." This would be achieved by relating artifacts to human behavior, and behavior to cultural systems (as understood by his mentor, cultural anthropologist Leslie White).

Several other archaeologists at Chicago shared Binford's ideas, a group their critics began calling the "New Archaeologists". In 1966 they presented a set of papers at a meeting of the Society for American Archaeology which were later collected in the landmark New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968), edited by Binford and his then wife Sally, also an archaeologist. By the time this volume was published he had left Chicago – dismissed, according to Binford, because of increasing tension between himself and the senior archaeologists in the faculty, particularly Robert Braidwood. He moved to the University of California, Santa Barbara for a year and then on to UCLA. He did not like the atmosphere at UCLA's large faculty, and so took the opportunity to relocate to the University of New Mexico in 1969.

Ethnoarchaeology
Binford withdrew from the theoretical debates that followed the rapid adoption of New Archaeology (by then also called processual archaeology) in the 1960s and 70s, instead focusing on his work on the Mousterian, a Middle Palaeolithic lithic industry found in Europe, North Africa and the Near East. In 1969 he decided to undertake ethnographic fieldwork among the Nunamiut in Alaska, in order to better understand the periglacial environment that Mousterian hominins occupied, and to see first hand how hunter-gatherer behavior is reflected in material remains. This methodology—conducting ethnographic fieldwork to establish firm correlations between behavior and material culture—is known as ethnoarchaeology and while not being invented by Binford, was shaped by his incorporation with Processual (New) Archaeology. Most of Binford's later work was focused on the Palaeolithic and hunter-gatherers in the archaeological record.

Later career
Binford joined the Southern Methodist University faculty in 1991, after teaching for 23 years as a distinguished professor at the University of New Mexico.

Binford's last published book, Constructing Frames of Reference (2001), was edited by his then wife, Nancy Medaris Stone. His wife at the time of his death, Amber Johnson, has said that she and a colleague will finish editing a book Binford had in progress at the time of his death.

He died on April 11, 2011, in Kirksville, Missouri, at the age of 79.

Personal life
Binford was married six times. His first marriage was to Jean Riley Mock, with whom he had his only daughter, Martha. Binford also had a son, Clinton, who died as a result of injuries sustained in a car accident in 1976. He frequently collaborated with his third wife, Sally Binford, who was also an archaeologist; the couple married while they were graduate students at the University of Chicago, and co-edited New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968), among other works. After his marriage to Sally ended, Binford married Mary Ann Howell nee Wilson, an elementary school teacher. His fifth wife was Nancy Medaris Stone, an archaeologist. At the time of his death he was married to Amber Johnson, professor and chair of sociology and anthropology at Truman State University who had worked with Binford as a research student at Southern Methodist University.

Influence
Binford is mainly known for his contributions to archaeological theory and his promotion of ethnoarchaeological research. As a leading advocate of the "New Archaeology" movement of the 1960s, he proposed a number of ideas that became central to processual archaeology. Binford and other New Archaeologists argued that there should be a greater application of scientific methodologies and the hypothetico-deductive method in archaeology. He placed a strong emphasis on generalities and the way in which human beings interact with their ecological niche, defining culture as the extrasomatic means of adaptation. This view reflects the influence of his Ph.D supervisor, Leslie White. Binford's work can largely be seen as a reaction to the earlier culture history approach to archaeology. New Archaeology was considered a revolution in archaeological theory.

Binford was involved in several high-profile debates including arguments with James Sackett on the nature and function of style and on symbolism and methodology with Ian Hodder. Binford has spoken out and reacted to a number of schools of thought, particularly the post-processual school, the behavioural school, and symbolic and postmodern anthropologies. Binford was also known for a friendlier rivalry with French archaeologist François Bordes, with whom he argued over the interpretation of Mousterian sites. Binford's disagreement with Bordes over the interpretation of Mousterian stone artifacts provided the impetus for much of Binford's theoretical work. Bordes interpreted variability in Mousterian assemblages as evidence of different tribes, while Binford felt that a functional interpretation of the different assemblages would be more appropriate. His subsequent inability to explain the Mousterian facies using a functional approach led to his ethnoarchaeological work among the Nunamiut and the development of his middle-range theory.

Awards and recognition
Binford was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2001. He also received a Lifetime Achievement Award in 2008 from the Society for American Archaeology and an honorary doctorate from Leiden University. There is an asteroid named Binford in his honor.

Works

 * Constructing frames of reference:an analytical method for archaeological theory building using hunter-gatherer and environmental data sets Berkeley: University of California Press, (2001) ISBN 0-520-22393-4
 * Debating Archaeology San Diego: Academic Press, (1989) ISBN 0-12-100045-1
 * Faunal Remains from Klasies River Mouth (1984) ISBN 0-12-100070-2
 * Working at Archaeology (Studies in Archaeology) (1983) ISBN 978-0-12-100060-8
 * In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record (1983) ISBN 0-520-23339-5
 * Bones, Ancient Men and Modern Myths (1981) ISBN 0-12-100035-4
 * Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology (1978) ISBN 0-12-100040-0
 * An archaeological perspective New York: Seminar Press, (1972) ISBN 0-12-807750-6
 * New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) ISBN 0-202-33022-2
 * Archaeology as Anthropology (1962)

title: Lewis Binford


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Berliner Gramophone

Berliner Gramophone – its discs identified with an etched-in "E. Berliner's Gramophone" as the logo – was the first (and for nearly ten years the only) disc record label in the world. Its records were played on Emile Berliner's invention, the Gramophone, which competed with the wax cylinder–playing phonographs that were more common in the 1890s and could record.

History
Emile Berliner received U.S. patents 372,786 and 382,790 on the Gramophone on November 8, 1887, and May 15, 1888, respectively. This was before the organization of the North American Phonograph Company, which first produced cylinder recordings for public use, and thus Berliner's flat disc record is roughly contemporary with the exploitation of the cylinder medium, though it took longer for Berliner to commence production of his discs in America. Although based in Washington, D.C., Berliner's first joint venture was undertaken in Germany in 1889 with the manufacturer Kämmer & Reinhardt, a maker of toys.

The Kämmer & Reinhardt machine utilized 5" hard rubber discs, and some machines and discs were exported to England. An 1890 recording of Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star, likely made by Berliner himself, is the oldest disc in the BBC Library or in the Bibliothèque nationale de France and was once touted as the oldest commercial disc in the world, though this has since been disproven. The Kämmer & Reinhardt venture did not last very long, though just how long is unclear.

In the early 1890s, Berliner attempted to found his first American company, the American Gramophone Company, in New York City, but it fell apart before issuing a single machine or disc. Back in Washington, D.C., Berliner tried again under the name of the United States Gramophone Company and began to manufacture machines and record 7-inch hard rubber discs in 1892 and in 1894 (though commercially available plates would only appear since 1894). Some celluloid discs were also made. In 1895, hard rubber was replaced by a shellac compound, which in various formulations remained the standard disc record material until the first vinyl records – initially made only for radio use and other special applications – were introduced in the 1930s.

Beginning in 1896, Berliner's gramophone players were made by Philadelphia-based machinist Eldridge Johnson, who added a spring motor to drive the previously hand-rotated turntable. Berliner also opened an office in New York City, staffed by Frank Seaman and O. D. LaDow and organized as the National Gramophone Company.

Master recordings were made onto zinc plates, which were then electroplated and a negative-image "mother" made from them to stamp discs. A major reversal of Berliner's fortunes occurred when the mastering plant in Washington, D.C. burned down on September 29, 1897, destroying a hundred unissued masters and all of his record manufacturing equipment. Within a few months, however, Berliner was up and running again, with some record production aspects moved to Philadelphia. Berliner records were short-playing. Only about two minutes could comfortably fit on each single-sided 7-inch disc. The absolute maximum depended on the speed, which was not standardized and ranged from about 75 rpm to a more typical 70 rpm down to as slow as 60 rpm. During most of the 1890s, the competing small-diameter brown wax cylinder records were recorded at about 120 rpm and could play for as long as three minutes, although recordings fully that long were uncommon. At the end of the decade, cylinder record makers began a transition to higher speeds, mainly to produce louder-playing cylinders that could better compete with the considerably louder gramophone – cylinders had usually been heard through individual stethoscope-like listening tubes, rather than through a horn that yielded relatively feeble sound. A new standard cylinder speed of 160 rpm was soon established, reducing the maximum playing time to a little over two minutes and losing an advantage over Berliner's discs.

As the popularity of the gramophone began to pick up, Berliner found himself having to deal with infringers on his patents. In 1898, Berliner shut down at least two firms that were leeching off his business models and, in the first case, products. In 1899, Berliner discovered that Frank Seaman was behind a machine called the Zonophone that seemed an exact replica of the Gramophone. Furious, Berliner cut off all supply to New York, which proved a fatal error.

Seaman countersued for breach of contract, and in June 1900 the court granted an injunction against Berliner and United States Gramophone Company. Though he would attempt in several proceedings afterward to have the injunction overturned, it was allowed to stand and it compelled Emile Berliner's exit from the gramophone business in the United States of America.

Berliner transferred his patents to Eldridge Johnson, who then changed the name over the door to his own, though Berliner retained a share in the new company. In March 1901, Johnson registered the name Victor Talking Machine Company and launched the brand later in the year. By 1905 it had regained the lead in the American disc record business, while by 1906 Seaman's Zonophone was on a receiver's index.

Foreign interests
In 1895, comic Billy Golden introduced Berliner to Fred Gaisberg, who, with Barry Peter Owen – a trusted associate within the National Gramophone Company – helped to establish Berliner's overseas interests. Although the German partnership with Kämmer & Reinhardt had long since ended, Berliner still held patents in Germany and England. In 1898, Owen founded the Berliner subsidiary in England which eventually took the name of Gramophone & Typewriter Ltd.; in 1931, this was one of the companies that was folded into EMI. That same year, Gaisberg established Berliner's German subsidiary as Deutsche Grammophon; this was the longest-lasting record company in history under its original charter, until finally being acquired by Universal Music Group in 1999. Gaisberg also founded a Berliner subsidiary in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1901.

E. Berliner Gramophone of Canada was established in 1899. It was first located in the Aqueduct Street building of Northern Electric in Montreal, and commenced marketing records and gramophones the following year. In 1904, the company received its charter as the Berliner Gram-o-phone Company of Canada. Early recordings were imported from masters recorded in the United States until a recording studio in Montreal was established in 1906.

The Berliner name as a record label lasted longest in Canada. In 1918, Emile Berliner's son Herbert Berliner left Berliner Gram-O-Phone and founded the Compo Company. Herbert's younger brother, Edgar, continued as chief executive of Berliner Gram-o-phone. In 1924, Canadian Berliner was bought out by USA's Victor and became Victor Talking Machine Company of Canada. Emile Berliner died in 1929 – the same year RCA bought out Victor – and Edgar Berliner resigned from Canadian RCA in 1930.

Berliner Gram-o-phone's facilities in Montreal, a complex of buildings at 1001 rue Lenoir and 1050 rue Lacasse in the St-Henri district, became home to RCA Victor Canada over the next several decades, developing and producing such high-tech products as microwave radio relay systems, communication satellites, television broadcast equipment, etc. Since the dissolution of RCA in 1986, the buildings have been turned into a multi-use office/commercial development, in which the Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, is documenting the history of the man, his company and the building complex, occupies part of the space. The historic Studio Victor located there was until 2014 an active recording studio. In 2015 the La hacienda creativ used the studio for recordings until 2021.

Legacy and preservation
The range of material on Berliner records was wider than that available from cylinder companies in the 1890s. As may be expected, Berliner was well-supplied with the typical band and song selections commonly found on cylinders, but he also branched out into piano music, ragtime, speeches, sermons, instrumental solos and some ethnographic material on a greater scale than his competitors. From the beginning, Berliner's European subsidiaries were deeply invested in opera and classical music, only indirectly exploited by American cylinder companies, at least in the 1890s. Documenting the output of American Berliner has proved a daunting task, as original records are scarce collector's items and the company employed a system of block numbering that seems to make little sense. Although referred to commonly as "Berliner matrices", they are not true matrix numbers, but catalog numbers concerned with preserving the same number for each selection even if a given title was re-recorded by another artist. Subsequent re-recordings are usually given a letter suffix, usually "Z-W" for early releases. Helpfully, the recording or matrix processing date is usually inscribed in the label area, but as Berliner did not employ paper labels sometimes the information is difficult to read. Many times the matrix numbers were reused to fit new records into the crumbling block system, such as the case of block 900 (which was meant to be for popular and international songs, only to be completely scrapped and refocused on opera excerpts, granting most matrix numbers to opera singer Ferruccio Giannini).

A simple new more or less sequential numbering system was started in March 1899, in which every number had a leading zero (never used previously) and the letter suffix, when present, denoted the category, e.g., "A" for marching band, "F" for banjo, "N" for vocal quartet. Berliner's foreign matrices employed entirely different strategies, and many to most of those have been documented by discographer Alan Kelly.

In 2014, the EMI Archive Trust announced an online initiative that would collect information on Berliner records worldwide. They have what appears to be the largest concentration of Berliner records in one place, numbering close to 18,000 items and largely collected by Fred Gaisberg in the early years of the company. Another large concentration of Canadian Berliners are held by the National Library of Canada, which has set up the Virtual Gramophone on the web to provide access to them, though their focus is primarily on Canadian artists.

There is a notable collection of Berliner records and gramophones housed at the Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, located in Montreal, QC, in one of the old RCA Victor factories.

Berliner recording artists
Some of the notable artists who recorded for Berliner include:
 * Auguste Aramini
 * John Yorke Atlee
 * Buffalo Bill
 * Albert Campbell (singer)
 * George Club
 * Arthur Collins
 * Cousins and DeMoss
 * Cullen and Collins
 * Charles D'Almaine
 * Will F. Denny
 * Diamond Quartette
 * S.H. Dudley
 * Edward M. Favor
 * George J. Gaskin
 * Billy Golden
 * George Graham (comic)
 * Graus Mountain Choir
 * Lil Hawthorne
 * Russell Hunting
 * George W. Johnson
 * Dwight L. Moody
 * Vess L. Ossman
 * Arthur Pryor
 * Dan W. Quinn
 * Len Spencer
 * Sousa's Band
 * U.S. Marine Band

Notable recordings
Below is a small selection of the most notable or popular 7" records strung by the company, most times the first iteration of the songs played. ·Berliner 7W ("William Tell overture", played by Sousa's band)

·Berliner 140 ("Washington Post march", played by Sousa's band)

·Berliner 830 ("Morning serenade", played by the Boston Fadettes)

·Berliner 967 ("La Donna è Mobile", sung by F. A. Giannini (sic)), commonly considered as the first serious opera record

·Berliner 932X ("Viva il Vino", sung by Ferruccio Giannini)

·Berliner 196 ("Whistling coon", sung by George W. Johnson)

·Berliner 404 ("The Laughing song", sung by G. W. Johnson) ·Berliner 930Y and 0572 ("Miserere", sung by Ferruccio Giannini)

·Berliner 940 ("Drill ye tarries, drill", sung by George J. Gaskin)

·Berliner 3312 ("Blue Bells of Scotland", trombone solo by Arthur Pryor)

·Berliner 230 ("Commodore polka", cornet solo by W. Paris Chambers)

·Berliner 3900 ("Carnival of Venice", saxophone solo by Jean Moeremans)

·Berliner 62 ("Romance for Trombone", trombone solo with band accompaniment)

While these were not the most influential or historic records ever released, they certainly are highlights of a typical Berliner collection

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Berliner Gramophone


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Talk:Edward III (play)

Untitled
This is a really interesting article, and I don't want to touch it myself as I don't know enough about it. However, I have two questions: Could we hear more about the history of its discovery, so as to shed light on these two points? Deb 22:02 Feb 10, 2003 (UTC)
 * I understood that Shakespeare was only thought to be co-author of this play with some other unknown playwright.
 * The article seems to imply that the play is now universally accepted as being by Shakespeare, but I think there is still some debate over it.

Plays not by Shakespeare?
I teach 10th grade English in Idaho Falls, Idaho. Over the past several weeks I have had several debates with a certain student (you know the kind) that swears by the moon that Shakespeare didn't write a lick of his plays. He states that all of the plays were plagerized and Shakespeare was a hack.

I don't know how accurate articles on Wikipedia are, but this interests me greatly. It is interesting that perhaps all this talk about Shakespeare's Plagerism is just puffing up these two plays that he may not have wrote the enterty of but just helped on. It will be interesting to bring this point up in class.

More information if anyone has it. Dante —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dante99 (talk • contribs) 22:23, 18 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I would be fascinated to hear this student's opinion of Plutarch's Lives, Holinshed's Chronicles, King Leir, Arthur Brooke's Romeo and Juliet poem and all the other works that Shakespeare 'simply plagiarized'. This student must have a lot of respect for these works and must know them in a lot of detail for him/her to be so certain that Shakespeare simply copied them without changing anything. It must be wonderful to be as well-read as this student. The Singing Badger 23:09, 18 November 2005 (UTC)

edward iii- not the play.
i want to know about the man not the play! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 81.179.118.24 (talk) 17:00, 8 March 2007 (UTC).
 * See Edward III of England. Thanks.  Joseph A. Spadaro (talk) 05:03, 7 May 2012 (UTC)

The criteria against Shakespeare and against his authorship of some plays is flimsy
The most recent version of the Riverside Shakespeare includes Edward III in it. Furthermore, I just want to examine some of the issues with this play (and with Cardenio):

1) It was published anonymously (although this was not uncommon in the 1590s).

The point was already made for me, it was not uncommon in the 1590s for plays to be untitled.

2) It is not mentioned in Francis Meres' Palladis Tamia (1598), a work that lists most of Shakespeare's early plays.

Not every play Shakespeare wrote had to be listed in a book for him to have written it.

3) John Heminges and Henry Condell did not include the play when they compiled the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays in 1623.

They also failed to include Pericles, Prince of Tyre and The Two Noble Kinsmen which we now know as plays written by Shakespeare.

4) Many critics view the play as not worthy of Shakespeare's writing ability.

No one not even Shakespeare) can a hit a home run every time. Honestly, the man wrote Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, The Tempest and Twelfth Night but he is still human -- he should be permitted mistakes.

Just some thoughts. Ladb2000 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ladb2000 (talk • contribs) 04:47, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

Who is thought to be the principal author?
The question that gets me is who is the principal author of the play? There doesn't seem to be much interest in this as there is to whether Shakespeare wrote parts of it. But if it's a play that's worth reading, I'd really like to know who the principal author was. I think Anthony Munday has been proposed, and George Peele has been completely rejected, but that makes me just wonder even further who the "not Shakespeare" parts are by. --Scottandrewhutchins (talk) 22:24, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I added an attributions section based on the New Cambridge Edition edited by Giorgio Melchiori. I don't know if anything new has come to light in the ten years since its publication, but I would assume that it has. --Scottandrewhutchins (talk) 02:37, 13 July 2008 (UTC)

It has been established, with a great degree of certainty, that Christopher Marlowe, not Shakespeare, is the author of "Edward III." I am surprised that the author of the article about this play is ignorant of A. D. Wraight's research into this matter:

http://www.themarlowestudies.org/wraight-EdwardIII.html 19:44, 18 November 2011 (UTC)daver852 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.215.210.156 (talk)
 * It should be pointed out that Wraight is a Marlovian who claimed with equal assurance that Marlowe wrote Shakespeare's sonnets. To my knowledge, outside of the Marlowe Society itself, this "great degree of certainty" is unshared by contemporary scholars, who give passing mention of Wraight's work in describing the history of the authorship discussion, and then move on without engaging it. The interesting above-cited article, which summarizes, excerpts from, and comments on Wraight's work, seems to me, subjectively, to testify to its coterie scholarship: the astonishment at the blindness of all other scholars so far, the spinning out of long strands of inference from a few minute quotations, an inability to recognize the disparity between the weight of the evidence offered and its power to convince a neutral reader. This is not to say that she is wrong, but that it is inaccurate to characterize her eccentric claim as established--or influential, or even controversial among mainstream scholars, including those who argue for signs of Marlowe's hand in the work. Jackaroodave (talk) 11:24, 24 December 2015 (UTC)

Publication history
The article mentions the first folio and the second quarto, but never gives a publication history or list of early editions. --EncycloPetey (talk) 19:15, 25 June 2023 (UTC)

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Wikipedia:Obtaining geographic coordinates

This page lists ways to obtain and add geographic coordinates to articles.

=Obtaining= There are various ways to obtain geographic coordinates. Note that regardless of the source of coordinates, it is a good practice to evaluate whether they appear reasonable at first glance.

From printed maps
Looking at a printed map or atlas, either those you own or at a library.

Wikipedia compatible geotagging metadata generators
List of services, directly providing Wikipedia/Wikimedia Commons compatible geotagging metadata.

Currently preferred geotagging templates are: for English Wikipedia and or for Wikimedia Commons.

Generic web-based services
These services are web based, and provide online methods for obtaining coordinates.

Be sure to read the licensing information carefully so that data providers receive an appropriate attribution.

Google Maps
Google Maps can be used to find coordinates 3 different ways, although many other sites make use of Google imagery with specialist overlays.
 * The simplest way to get coordinates from Google Maps is to right-click on the desired location and click "What's here?". The coordinates are now shown in the search box.
 * Coordinates can also be extracted from generated links with the following procedure. First locate the place you require coordinates for, and double click on it to centre the map around that point. Then click "Link" at the top of the map, and the coordinates (in degrees and parts of a degree in decimals) appear in the address bar, e.g. "https://maps.google.co.uk/?ll=51.455558,-2.605047&spn=0.032304,0.069523". In this case the latitude is 51.455558, and the longitude is -2.605047. The reverse is possible by entering the lat and long into the search bar, with a space between them.
 * Copying the coordinates from the URL can be made easier with a Javascript-supporting browser, by adding any of the following bookmarklets (create a new bookmark with this code as the URL):
 * There is a wiki-coords bookmarklet, maintained in GitHub.
 * The following bookmarklet will create an output such as : ""
 * The following bookmarklet will create an output such as : ""
 * To use these bookmarklets, centre the map on the desired point and then open the newly created bookmark. A coordinate template text will appear, ready to be pasted to Wikipedia.

Google Earth
Google Earth makes it easy to search for the coordinates of any location and zooming in on them. The coordinate format can be chosen via. There are many ways to obtain coordinates:
 * Move the mouse pointer to where you want, then use the keyboard to select the Menu item  to copy the coordinates to the clipboard. More convenient is the associated keyboard shortcut. If it is not provided in the currently chosen language of Google Earth, change it to.
 * Move the mouse pointer to where you want, and note the coordinates displayed on the bottom of the earth display window. The numbers will have to be written from the screen manually, but this does let you choose an appropriately rounded value, without excess precision, for the location you're capturing.
 * Center the screen on your location by double-clicking on it, then use the  button at the top (Google Earth 4.1 and newer). This will open Google Maps within Google Earth. You can see the center coordinates in decimal format in the address bar, but unfortunately you cannot copy them directly. To do so, use the button   to display the same Google Maps page in your browser with unrestricted access to its address bar. Of course, all the methods listed above for Google Maps are also available.
 * Center the screen on your location by double-clicking on it, then create a placemark ( -button or Menu  . The "New Placemark" window displays the coordinates.
 * For the coordinates of an existing placemark, right click on it on the sidebar and select "Copy". This makes the clipboard hold a KML ("Keyhole Markup Language") description of the placemark. Since KML is XML, it's easily manipulable. Towards the bottom of the placemark is a tag  which contains the long/lat coordinates in decimal degrees. Note that the order of the coordinates is lon/lat; you may want to swap the both in order to get the more common lat/lon notation. Also note that the precision is ridiculously high; you'll probably want to trim it down.
 * Install the Google Earth version of the hjl_get_Coor tool: Ald-Hjl-Koord-en.kmz. Once it's installed, a crosshair icon appears in the middle of the Google Earth screen. Move the view so that the crosshair is on your desired location, and then click on it. There is a link to the hjl_get_Coor tool, which gives the coordinates back in your chosen wiki markup that can be copied and pasted to an article.
 * The exported kml or kmz file can also be converted to templates using the kmlconvert tool.

OpenStreetMap
OpenStreetMap can be used. For convenience, close any open sidebar (to allow a simpler URL format like the one below). Simply navigate to the desired point by right-clicking on it, then select the "Centre map here" option from the dialog. Finally, extract the coordinate values from the browser URL (N.B. not the shortlink).

For example,  includes a latitude of   and a longitude of.

A quicker alternative to extract coordinates is to right click on a desired point in the map and select "Show address". From the sidebar search results, copy the coordinates (in  format).

World Wind
NASA World Wind can access a large online database of U.S. and global placenames (cities, villages and other geographic & anthropogenic features). Street addresses can be found using Yahoo and Virtual Earth geocoders (works for the US, Australia, UK, Japan... and maybe some other countries). (Offline search requires this pack http://www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Add-on:Classic_Placenames_cache_pack) Press Ctrl-F, enter the official place name, click Search, you will probably find the place you're looking for. Click Go. (of course you can navigate to the desired spot with your mouse; select View->Show Position to see the coordinates) Press Ctrl-C to copy the decimal coordinates. Paste it into Wikipedia. Example: For Tucson International Airport → worldwind://goto/world=Earth&lat=32.11611&lon=-110.94109&alt=24389"

For the US

 * The United States Geological Survey's public domain Geographical Names Information Service database service is extremely extensive, although riddled with errors. It also provides linkouts to topozone and terraserver so that you can tweak the results to your liking. Most of these coordinates use
 * US Census TIGER
 * US Census Boundary and Annexation Survey
 * Find Longitude and Latitude coordinates by US Zip Code
 * Search engine for GPS coordinates of latitude and longitude of the United States of America

For other regions

 * For placenames in Antarctica, try Geographic Names Information System, Antarctica
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text:
Manuel II of Portugal

Dom Manuel II (15 November 1889 – 2 July 1932), "the Patriot" ("o Patriota") or "the Unfortunate" ("o Desventurado"), was the last King of Portugal, ascending the throne after the assassination of his father, King Carlos I, and his elder brother, Luís Filipe, the Prince Royal. Before ascending the throne he held the title of Duke of Beja. His reign ended with the fall of the monarchy during the 5 October 1910 revolution, and Manuel lived the rest of his life in exile in Twickenham, Middlesex, England.

Early life

Manuel was born in the Palace of Belém, Lisbon, less than a month after his father King Carlos I ascended the Portuguese throne. He was the third child and second son of Carlos and Amélie of Orléans.

A member of the House of Braganza, he was baptised a few days later, with his maternal grandfather as godfather. The former Emperor Pedro II of Brazil, Manuel II's paternal great-granduncle, who had been deposed from the Brazilian throne on the day of Manuel's birth, attended the ceremony.

He received the traditional education of a member of the royal family, without the political preoccupations that befell his older brother, who was destined to become King. Although Manuel was raised as a member of the upper class he took a more populist tone after ascending to the throne, and abandoned many of the court protocols. He studied history and languages, learning English and French from an early age. He demonstrated a love of literature and reading, unlike his older brother who was more interested in physical activities. Manuel's upbringing included horse riding, fencing, rowing, tennis and gardening. He was a great lover of music, especially Beethoven and Wagner, and played the piano.

As a child, Manuel played with the children of Count of Figueiró, Count of Galveias and with other families of the Court. In 1902, he was taught Latin and German by Franz Kerausch, later instruction was by Father João Damasceno Fiadeiro (Portuguese history); Marquês Leitão (Mathematics); M. Boeyé (French and French literature); Alfredo King (English and English literature), Father Domingos Fructuoso (Religion and Morals) and Alexandre Rey Colaço (piano). In 1903, Manuel travelled with his mother and his brother to Egypt, on board the royal yacht Amélia. According to R. Benton, the trip "may have been decisive in Manuel's decision to enter the Portuguese navy and make it a career." In the summer of 1904, the prince became a cadet in the Portuguese Navy. He began his training in the Escola Naval  in 1907.

Lisbon regicide

Manuel's future in the Portuguese Navy was abruptly shelved on 1 February 1908. On that day, the royal family returned from the Ducal Palace in Vila Viçosa to Lisbon. On their way to the royal palace, the carriage carrying King Carlos and his family passed through the Terreiro do Paço plaza where shots were fired by at least two Portuguese republican activist revolutionaries: Alfredo Luis da Costa and Manuel Buiça. It is unclear whether the assassins were attempting to kill the King, the Prince Royal or the prime minister, João Franco. The murderers were shot dead on the spot by the royal bodyguard. The King was killed; Prince Luís Filipe was mortally wounded; Prince Manuel was hit in the arm; Queen Amélie was unharmed. It was Amélie's quick thinking that saved her younger son. About 20 minutes later, Prince Luis Filipe died. Days later, Manuel II was proclaimed King of Portugal. The young King, who had not been groomed to rule, sought to save the fragile position of the Braganza dynasty by dismissing João Franco and his entire cabinet in 1908. The ambitions of various political parties made Manuel's short reign a turbulent one. In free elections held on 28 August 1910, the republicans won only 14 seats in the legislature.

King of Portugal and the Algarves
His first act was to meet with his Council of State and request the resignation of João Franco, whose policies may have been responsible for the tragedy. He appointed a government of national unity, presided over by Admiral Francisco Joaquim Ferreira do Amaral. This quieted the republicans, but in retrospect was seen as weakness.

He opened the Royal Court Assembly on 6 May 1908 in the presence of national representatives, and affirmed his support of the Constitution. The King received general public sympathy, due to the deaths of his father and older brother. He was protected by his mother, Amélie, and sought out the support of the experienced politician José Luciano de Castro. Judging that the intervention of King Carlos was a reason for the events of 1908, he declared that he would reign, but not govern.

For his part, the new King tried to increase the monarchy's connection with its subjects. The King visited several areas of the country. His trips included stops in Porto, Braga, Viana do Castelo, Oliveira de Azeméis, Santo Tirso, Vila Nova de Gaia, Aveiro, Guimarães, Coimbra and Barcelos. During these visits, his subjects were captivated by the young king, and he was received warmly. On 23 November he travelled to Espinho in open the Vale do Vouga Railway. On his journeys, he ingratiated himself with the people with his candour and pious character.

However, he was not popular with republicans. One of them, João Chagas, the anti-monarchist journalist and propagandist of the Republican Party, warned the King of the problems that would develop when he declared:

 * "...your Highness arrives too young into a very old world...!"

Social issues
During the 19th century, many intellectuals and politicians were preoccupied with the growth of the urban proletariat as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution. In Portugal, owing to lower levels of industrialisation, this was not an important question, but it was exacerbated by an economic crisis and the Republican Party, who believed a republic would resolve the problems. This was the Questão Social (social question) of the times.

The Socialist Party had existed since 1875, but it never had representation in Parliament. This was not only because it was not popular, but also because the Republican Party was the principal channel of radical discontent within the political system. The King made some moves that did not infringe his constitutional restrictions, but which created incentives for the Socialist Party to lessen their support for the Republican Party. In 1909, Manuel invited the French sociologist, Léon Poinsard, to examine the social environment and report back to him. Poinsard wrote that the only way to combat clientelism, created by the system of rotational governments, would be a reorganisation of the local administrations. Enthusiastically, the King wrote to the President of the Council of Ministers Wenceslau de Sousa Pereira de Lima, to make him aware of the reorganisation of the Socialist Party (under Alfredo Aquiles Monteverde) and to remind him of the importance of working with the Socialists, "...so that, we will empty their supporters from the Republican Party, and orient them into a useful and productive force."

Notwithstanding the contacts made by the government of Artur Alberto de Campos Henriques with the Socialist Azedo Gneco, Venceslau de Lima considered this difficult after the Congresso Nacional Operário, which was boycotted by anarchists and republicans. For their part, the Socialists were enthusiastic about Royal support between Manuel and Aquiles Monteverde. Monteverde would later inform the King of the failure of the October 1909 trade union congress, but little was formalised between the socialists and the government, although they supported the work of Poinsard. During the government of António Teixeira de Sousa, in July 1910, that the government created a commission to study the establishment of an Instituto de Trabalho Nacional ("Institute of National Work"), that had three socialists and included Azedo Gneco. However, Aquiles Monteverde would complain that the commission lacked the resources to be effective: specifically that permanent members and unlimited transport, in order for the Socialists to promote their propaganda. Manuel II informed the government, through the Minister of Public Works, that he agreed with the establishment of the Instituto de Trabalho Nacional, but by September, it was too late for the constitutional monarchy.

During his reign he visited many parts of northern Portugal, in addition to Spain, France, and the United Kingdom, where he was appointed Knight of the Order of the Garter, in November 1909. He cultivated a foreign policy that was close to Great Britain, which was not only the geo-political strategy that his father maintained, but it also reinforced his position on the throne by having a strong ally. The court also considered the marriage of a King of the House of Braganza to a British princess would secure the protection of the United Kingdom in any impending conflict. But, the country's instability, the assassination of the King and Prince Royal, and the drawn-out negotiations that were ended with the death of Edward VII, ended these pretensions. The old British monarch, a personal friend of Carlos, would have been the great protector of the House of Braganza, and without him, the liberal government of Britain had no interest in maintaining the Portuguese monarchy.

Revolution

The stability of the government deteriorated; seven governments were established and fell in a period of 24 months. The monarchist parties continued to fragment, while the Republican Party continued to gain ground. The legislative elections on 28 August 1910 had elected 14 new representatives (resulting in an assembly that was divided: 9% Republican, 58% Government and 33% Opposition) which helped the revolutionary cause, but which made little importance since the Setúbal Congress (on 24–25 April 1909) had determined that the Republicans would take power by force. The murder of a prominent republican precipitated the coup d'état that had been so long in coming.

During the waning days of King Manuel II's reign, Prior Sardo beseeched the monarch to bestow Gafanha da Nazaré with a parish, achieving royal recognition, marking the last town to receive such acknowledgment. This historic event was officially documented in Diário do Governo nº 206 on 16 September 1910.

Between 4 and 5 October 1910, the Republican Revolution erupted in the streets of Lisbon. What started as a military coup commenced by soldiers, was joined by some civilians and municipal guards attacking the loyal garrisons and the royal palace, while the guns from the cruiser NRP Adamastor added to the cannonade. The Palace of Necessidades (then official residence of the young King) was bombarded, forcing Manuel to move to the Mafra National Palace, where he rendezvoused with his mother, Queen Amélia, and his grandmother, the Queen Mother Maria Pia of Savoy. There was little apparent popular reaction to these events: pictures from the square in front of the City Hall in Lisbon, where the declaration of the Republic occurred, did not show an overwhelming multitude, and even some in the military were fearful that their actions would not be successful. One republican commander, Admiral Cândido dos Reis, even committed suicide when he believed that the events had not succeeded.

One day later, once it was clear that the Republicans had taken the country, Manuel decided to embark from Ericeira on the royal yacht Amélia IV for Porto, with armed Republicans arriving as the ship departed. It is unclear whether his advisers motivated Manuel to change his intentions or whether he was forced to change his destination en route, but the Royal Family disembarked in Gibraltar shortly later, after they received notice that Porto had fallen to the Republicans. The coup d'état was complete, and the Royal Family departed for exile, arriving in the United Kingdom, where he was received by King George V.

Personal life

In the spring of 1912, Manuel visited Switzerland, where he met Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (1890–1966), daughter of William, Prince of Hohenzollern, and was deeply impressed by her. They were second cousins, both being great-grandchildren of Maria II.

In the following year, on 4 September 1913, Manuel married Augusta Victoria. During the Mass, which was celebrated in the Chapel of Sigmaringen Castle, Manuel, wearing his Order of the Garter medallion and the sash of the Three Portuguese Orders, stood on a crate containing soil brought from Portugal. The ceremony was conducted by Cardinal José Sebastião de Almeida Neto, Patriarch of Lisbon, then exiled in Seville, who had baptised Manuel as a young prince; Manuel was also assisted by the Prince of Wales (Edward VIII) and King Alfonso XIII of Spain, as well as representatives of the royal houses of Europe (including Spain, Germany, Italy, France and Romania, in addition to the principalities and German kingdoms). After festivities which lasted two days, the couple went on their honeymoon to Munich, where the Princess fell ill and withdrew from the public.

The marriage, a calm and serene union, lasted until the death of the former king; the couple had no children.

Exile
In exile, Manuel resided in Fulwell Park, Twickenham now in London (where his mother had been born). At Fulwell Park he tried to recreate a Portuguese environment, as the attempts to restore him to his throne (1911, 1912 and 1919) failed. He was active in the local community, attended services at the Church of St James, Twickenham, and became godfather to several children. In 1932 he donated a window to St James Church bearing the Braganza crest and depicting St Anthony to celebrate the 700th anniversary of the saint's death. His influence is also recalled by a number of toponymic references in the area: Manuel Road, Lisbon Avenue, and Portugal Gardens. He followed political events in Portugal, and was concerned with the anarchy of the First Republic, fearing that it could provoke a Spanish intervention and risk the country's independence.

While in exile, there was one case where the former King's direct intervention had an effect. After the overthrow of the government of Gomes da Costa, by General Óscar Fragoso Carmona, in 1926, Costa was appointed Ambassador to London. Given the rapid succession of ambassadors during this period, the British government refused to recognise the new official's credentials. As the ambassador was to negotiate the liquidation of the Portuguese debt to the United Kingdom, the Minister of Foreign Affairs asked Manuel to straighten out the situation. The former monarch was delighted by the opportunity to help his homeland and communicated with many of his British contacts (including, probably, King George V) in order to resolve the dispute. Even in exile Manuel continued to be a patriot, going as far as declaring in his 1915 testament his intention to transfer his possessions to the Portuguese State for the creation of a museum, and showing his interest in being buried in Portugal.

World War I
Manuel defended the entry of Portugal into the First World War and its active participation. He asked monarchists to desist from restoration efforts as long as the war continued. He even met with republicans, and at one time, solicited his involvement in the Portuguese army. But, contrary to his hopes, a majority of the monarchists did not follow his pleas for cooperation. Many of them backed the aspirations of Germany, and had hoped to see the victory of the Kaiser as another channel to restore the monarchy. Manuel believed that supporting Great Britain would guarantee the retention of overseas colonies, which would have been lost to German aggression even if the Germans were supported in the conflict. Of his close subordinates who offered their support to the Republic, none were accepted.

Manuel attempted to make himself available to the Allied Powers, wherever they saw use, but was disappointed when he was assigned a post in the British Red Cross. He characteristically put all his efforts into the role, participating in conferences, fund drives, visits to hospitals and the wounded soldiers on the front, which ultimately gave him a lot of gratification. The visits to the front were difficult on the French government, but his friendship with George V was sufficient to alleviate their concerns. Regardless, most of his efforts were not credited; years later, in an interview with António Ferro, he lamented, "The operating room in the Portuguese Hospital in Paris, during the War, was constructed by me. Do you know what they put on the plaque? 'From a Portuguese in London'." The King was also responsible for the creation of the Orthopedic Department at Shepherd's Bush Hospital which, at his insistence continued to function until 1925, in order to continue to treat the disfiguring effects of the war. A proof of his recognition by the British was by his friend King George V, who invited him to be with the King during the victory celebrations during the parade of soldiers in 1919.

Monarchy and its status
Since 1911, the Portuguese monarchists-in-exile had concentrated in Galicia, Spain in order to enter Portugal and restore the monarchy but without the tacit approval of the Spanish government. The monarchists were led by the charismatic Henrique Mitchell de Paiva Couceiro, a veteran of the African colonial campaigns. The Paladin, as the Portuguese newspapers called him, believed that demonstrating a show of force would force the rural people to rise-up and support the restoration. But he was wrong; poorly prepared and badly financed, his forces encountered apathy from the rural population and the incursions ended with retreats into Galicia.

For his part, Manuel supported these incursions the best way he could, but his financial resources were limited. He also faced a group of monarchists who were not clear supporters of his claim to the throne: one attack was made under a blue and white flag, but without the crown, while Paiva Couceiro himself declared at one time that his movement was "neutral" and wanted a plebiscite on the form of the new regime. It was only after he traded correspondence with Couceiro that the King was able to support the Galician monarchists, who had promised to support the Constitutional Charter of 1826. The second incursion, in 1912, although better prepared did not succeed because the Spanish government was forced to cede to Republican diplomats the illegality of monarchist encampments in Galicia and disarmed the remaining combatants within its territory. Manuel was never able to restore his kingdom by force and always defended that the monarchists should organise internally in order to reach power legally (by elections). This was not accepted by militant monarchists who, in the following years, continued their badly prepared attempts to restore the monarchy (for example on 20 October 1914), creating anarchy in the streets. His preoccupation worsened at the beginning of the Great War: Manuel was fearful that the United Kingdom would ally with Spain, in light of Portugal's instability, and that Spain would want to annex Portugal, as the price for Spain's entry into the War.

Dover Pact
After the failure of the first monarchist incursion, and with Manuel appearing relatively unenthusiastic for a restoration of the monarchy (and entirely against armed counter-revolution), another group of royalists attempted to legitimise the claims of the descendants of Miguel I to the throne. In order to counter this, the King allegedly entered into direct negotiations with the Duke of Braganza's representatives: he attempted to establish himself as the rightful king and, according to the Integralismo Lusitano group, he recognised the descendants of Miguel as being in line to the throne of Portugal. There are no proof of an encounter between Manuel II and Miguel in Dover on 30 January 1912. The results of the supposed meeting remain controversial: although there was an accord on challenging the republic, there remained no clear agreement on hereditary lines of succession, and Manuel still retained his claim to the throne.

Monarchy of the North

Some monarchists continued unsuccessful counter-revolutionary activities during the War, while the former King continued to condemn their actions and to exhort them to restore the monarchy at the ballot-box. This option seemed viable after the dictatorship of General Pimenta de Castro (January 1915) broke the momentum of the Democratic Party, who attempted to garner sympathies from the conservative right, by removing restrictions imposed on monarchist groups on 5 October. Between April and May 1915, 55 monarchist centres opened (33 in the north and 12 in the centre of the country), causing many republicans to close ranks and on 14 May 1915 the revolution returned to the streets, when 15,000 armed civilians and the soldiers from the Navy tried to maintain the loyalty of the Army to the government. After three days of combat 500 deaths and more than 1,000 wounded, the Democratic Party retained control and the monarchist groups were once again declared illegal. During the Sidónio Pais government, Pais cultivated support from conservative factions and incorporated a re-establishment of a regime based on universal male suffrage. His assassination allowed moderate republicans to re-establish control, but the creation of military juntas in the provinces of the north, with monarchist tendencies, created expectations of a possible monarchist restoration through a military coup d'état.

Manuel continued to plead for calm at the end of the War; while not abandoning the possibility of taking action in the future, he insisted on waiting to the end of peace negotiations in Paris: he was fearful that continued anarchy in Portugal would prejudice its negotiating position. But, for Paiva Couceiro and the other Integralists, this was the moment: they awaited the royal authorisation of the King's adjunct Aires de Ornelas. Receiving a memorandum that requested this authorisation, and convinced that this action would not occur immediately, Ornelas wrote on the margin, ''Go on. Palavras de El-Rei'', and signed the document. On 19 January 1919 a thousand soldiers and some artillery, under the command of Paiva Couceiro occupied Porto, in order to restore the Constitutional Monarchy, and its King Manuel II. A provisional government was established that controlled Minho, Trás-os-Montes (with the exception of Chaves, Mirandela and Vila Real), as well as part of the district of Aveiro, but contrary to Couceiro's expectations, the rest of the country did not rise.

In Lisbon, Aires de Ornelas was caught completely by surprise, but he could not escape with other monarchists to the safety of the 2nd Regimental Lancers, in Ajuda. There the number of refugees, who suffered as the republican reprisals increased, and the commander removed his forces and those civilians, marching them to Monsanto, where the 4th, 7th and 9th Cavalry and the 30th Infantry Battery from Belém were entrenched. Aires de Ornelas wavered in his support, which risked the possibility that Integralists would transfer their loyalty to Miguel's supporters, or assume the leadership of the monarchist movement. In a small area, and circled by Republican forces, the monarchists surrendered on 24 January. With the failure of the Restoration in the centre and south of the country, luck turned on Paiva Couceiro. On 13 February a part of the Republican National Guard deserted and restored the Republic in Porto. Those monarchists who did not escape were incarcerated and subsequently sentenced to long-term imprisonment. The King, in exile, did not hear of the failure and was informed only after reading the reports in the newspapers.

Paris Pact

Although it is not likely that such a pact took place, it is said that in 1922, with cooling of relations between monarchists of the Integralismo Lusitano and the King, and mindful that his marriage to Augusta Victória had not produced heirs, Manuel, in a Paris meeting in April 1922, represented by his adjunct Aires de Ornelas, and Miguelist representatives Infanta Adelgundes, who was by now calling herself Duchess of Guimarães, and tutor to Duarte Nuno, agreed that owing to an heir, the rights of succession would pass to Duarte Nuno. Integralists disagreed because, in their view, the agreement failed to make reference to the reestablishment of a traditional monarchy, which was fundamental to their assertions. Integralismo Lusitano withheld their support, and on September 1925, Aldegundes, in a letter to Manuel, repudiated the agreement owing the continue operation of the Constitutional Newspaper (the Integralist paper was closed as part of the accord) and the lack of Integralist participation.

Bibliographer
Manuel was always an avid reader and, during his exile, dedicated himself to the study of literature, penning treatises on Medieval and Renaissance literature in Portugal. Following the First World War and with more free time, apart from his contacts with monarchist organisations, he dedicated himself to these studies (a tradition that was instilled in him by his father). Initially, he was interested in writing a biography, and began research on a biography of Manuel I of Portugal, who he believed was badly treated by other historians. He contracted the services of the bibliographer Maurice Ettinghausen in 1919, to find older books for his project, and was helped by the dissolution of many private collections after the implementation of the Republic.

By 1926, Manuel had abandoned the idea of a biography and concentrated on descriptions of older books in his library (itself, a complete library of older works). More than a simple list, the work allowed Manuel to write of the glories of Portugal, writing not just a bibliography but also an examination of the authors and the context of their writings. His interpretation was scientifically rigorous, and resulted in a final work that was marked by a nationalism and the exaltation of ancestral valor. His examples were limited and illustrated by facsimiled copies of the works, both written in English and Portuguese. The first volume of the work Livros Antigos Portuguezes 1489–1600, da Bibliotheca de Sua Magestade Fidelíssima Descriptos por S. M. El-Rey D. Manuel em Três volumes was published in 1929. Manuel delivered, by hand, a copy of his work to his friend George V at Windsor Castle. The work was received well by critics, and the King dedicated himself to the second volume, which covered the period 1540 to 1569. But the project was terminated prematurely in 1932, when Manuel died unexpectedly: the third volume was posthumously published under the supervision of his librarian, Margery Winters. His completed works gave the King a respectful reputation among Portuguese historians, and his bust was added to the entrance atrium of the National Library in Lisbon.

Death, aftermath, and legacy

King Manuel died unexpectedly in his residence on 2 July 1932, via suffocation following an attack of "acute oedema of the glottis", a swelling of the narrow opening at the upper end of the larynx, or tracheal oedema. The Portuguese government, at that time led by António Oliveira de Salazar, authorised his burial in Lisbon, after a state funeral. His body arrived in Lisbon on 2 August 1932, on board the British cruiser HMS Concord which had made the journey from the United Kingdom and sailed into the Tagus River to deliver the coffin of the former King. The body was received at Praça do Comércio, where a crowd of people had gathered to follow the coffin to São Vicente de Fora and the roads were inundated with people interested in seeing the funeral procession. His body was interred in the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza in the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora.

By some he was given the nickname O Patriota ('The Patriot'), for his preoccupation with the national identity; O Desventurado ('The Unfortunate'), because he lost his throne to the Republic; and O Estudioso or O Bibliófilo ('The Studious' or 'The Bibliophile') for his love for Portuguese literature. Monarchists also referred to him as O Rei-Saudade ('The Missed King'), for the longing that was felt when the monarchy was abolished.

His death has been regarded as suspicious by some because he had been playing tennis on 1 July and was apparently in excellent health. An incident surrounding his sudden death was mentioned in the autobiography of Harold Brust, a member of Scotland Yard Special Branch in charge of protecting public figures. In his memoirs, Brust speaks of an incident which probably occurred in 1931 in which an intruder was discovered in the grounds of Fulwell Park who, when arrested, the Police confirmed as being a prominent member of a Portuguese republican terrorist group known as the Carbonária and who was subsequently deported to Lisbon. To date the identity of the intruder has not been confirmed. Questions remain as to the reason for the man's intrusion.

Since neither the Dover nor Paris Pacts resolved the issue of succession and there are no known documents proving them, there was no direct heir to the defunct throne. King Manuel also made it clear that the Portuguese royal family (including the Brazilian branch of the Imperial House of Orléans-Braganza and the Portuguese family branch of the descendants of the Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria of Braganza and the Duke of Loulé) would end with the last dynastic male heir of the House of Braganza (himself), the collateral Miguelist line having been furthermore excluded from the throne by the Portuguese Cortes, in December 1834, and categorically through the Constitution of 1838 (the article 98). Still, the monarchist Integralismo Lusitano movement supported (since 1920 as miguelist) and acclaimed Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza as King of Portugal in 1932, at the death of Manuel II. Their justification, ironically, included the fact that both branches had met to determine the line of succession in Dover and Paris, even though those accords were both later repudiated.

After King Manuel's death, the Portuguese National Assembly, under António de Oliveira Salazar's dictatorship, authorised the return of the banned branch of the Braganzas (ex-King Miguel's descendants) on 27 May 1950, repealing the laws of exile of 19 December 1834 and 15 October 1910, and founded, with the sale of the King's English estate and some of his remaining personal possessions, the Foundation of the House of Braganza, according to King Manuel's desire to leave his personal fortune to the Portuguese people.

Honours
National
 * Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders
 * Gold Medal of the Royal Humanitarian Society of Porto

He became Grand Master of all Portuguese orders upon his accession to the throne.

Foreign •  Austria-Hungary:

• * Gold Jubilee Court Medal, 1898

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1909

•  undefined:

• * Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 21 November 1904

• * Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 16 November 1909

• * Commemorative Medal for the Coronation of King George V, 22 June 1911

• * British War Medal (1914–1918), 26 July 1919

•  undefined:

• *, 31 December 1905

• * French Royal Family: Knight of the Holy Spirit

•  Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion, 22 January 1907

• Flag of the Papal States (1825-1870).svg Holy See: Grand Cross of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, 2 February 1908

•  undefined:

• * Knight of the Golden Fleece, 14 May 1908

• * Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 15 February 1909

•  Russian Empire:

• * Knight of St. Andrew, 17 May 1908

• * Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 17 May 1908

• * Knight of the White Eagle, 17 May 1908

• * Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, 17 May 1908

• * Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class, 17 May 1908

•  Kingdom of Italy:

• * Knight of the Annunciation, 27 May 1908

• * Gold Medal of Merit for the Messina Earthquake, 1908

• 🇧🇪 Belgium:

• * (military), 12 July 1908

•  German Empire:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, 19 August 1908

• * Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, 19 August 1908

• * Hohenzollern: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class

• 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion, 21 September 1908

•  Kingdom of Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I, 1908

• 🇸🇪 Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 27 February 1909

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 24 March 1909

• 🇲🇨 Monaco: Grand Cross of St. Charles, 13 August 1909

• 🇳🇴 Norway: Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 9 September 1909

•  Empire of Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum

title: Manuel II of Portugal


text:
Colorado College

Colorado College is a private liberal arts college in Colorado Springs, Colorado, founded in 1874. The college offers over 40 majors and 30 minors, and enrolls approximately 2,000 undergraduates at its 90 acre campus.

Colorado College is a member of the Associated Colleges of the Midwest, and is a QuestBridge partner. Notable alumni include Liz Cheney, Dutch Clark, Thomas Hornsby Ferril, James Heckman, Steve Sabol, Ken Salazar, and Marc Webb. Most of the university's varsity sports teams compete in NCAA Division III, with the exception of Division I teams in men's hockey and women's soccer.

History
Colorado College was founded in 1874 on land designated by U.S. Civil War veteran General William Jackson Palmer, the founder of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad and of Colorado Springs. Founder Thomas Nelson Haskell of the Presbyterian Church described it as a coeducational liberal arts college in the tradition of Oberlin College. As many U.S. colleges and universities that have endured from the 19th century, it now is secular in outlook but retains its focus on the liberal arts.

Cutler Hall, the college's first building, was completed in 1880 and the first degrees were conferred in 1882.

William F. Slocum, president from 1888 to 1917, oversaw the initial building of the campus, expanded the library and recruited top scholars in a number of fields. In 1930, Shove Chapel was erected by John Gray to meet the religious needs of the students (though Colorado College is not religiously affiliated).

Katharine Lee Bates wrote "America the Beautiful" during her summer teaching position at Colorado College in 1893.

Manya Whitaker has been serving as interim president since 2024. She will be serving in this role for a term of two years.

Academics
Colorado College offers 42 majors and more than 30 minors. In addition to its undergraduate programs, the college offers two master's degree programs in teaching. The college uses a block plan wherein students take only one class at a time, for a period of 3 and a half weeks per class. In 2023, the institution yielded a student-to-faculty ratio of 9:1. Its most popular undergraduate majors, by 2021 graduates, were: The college's Charles L. Tutt Library holds over 400 thousand physical volumes.
 * Economics (43)
 * Political Science & Government (38)
 * Ecology & Evolutionary Biology (28)
 * Multi-/Interdisciplinary Studies (25)
 * Computer & Information Sciences (23)
 * Psychology (23)
 * Cell/Cellular & Molecular Biology (22)

Admissions
Colorado College is considered a "most selective school" by U.S. News & World Report. For the class of 2026, Colorado College received a record number of applications, 11,026, and admitted just above eleven percent of those who applied. Those accepted who identified themselves as students of color numbered twenty-five percent. The Class of 2026 is geographically diverse, representing 15 countries and 47 states, with 24 percent who hail from both the Northeast and the West; 17 percent from Colorado; 16 percent from the Midwest; and 15 percent from the South.

Rankings
In its 2021 edition, U.S. News & World Report ranks Colorado College as tied for 25th best liberal arts college in the nation and No. 3 among the most innovative national liberal arts colleges. The most innovative schools are those "making the most innovative improvements in terms of curriculum, faculty, students, campus life, technology or facilities".

Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Colorado College 16th in its 2017 ranking of best value liberal arts colleges in the United States.

In 2019, Forbes rated it 92nd overall in "America's Top Colleges", which ranked 650 national universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies.

CC is one of six colleges in the western US included in the guidebook The Hidden Ivies.

Requirements
Students must satisfactorily complete 32 credits to graduate in addition to specifying a major of study and fulfilling those requirements. The college offers a unique alternative for students who wish to design their own major. However, standardized cross-cutting requirements still apply, though these criteria are fairly broad compared to those at comparable colleges.

Student life
The college's motto is the Latin phrase Scientia et Disciplina, translated as "Learning through Hard Work" or "Acquiring Knowledge and Living It." The median family income of Colorado College students is $277,500, the highest of any college or university in the United States, with 54% of students coming from the top 5% highest-earning families and 10.5% from the bottom 60%.

Extracurriculars
The small campus of 2,000 students boasts more than one hundred clubs and student groups, ranging from professional groups, interests clubs, and social groups. Among them are intramural sports groups, which have a strong presence on campus. There are intramural teams, ranging from broomball to ultimate frisbee.

Housing
Most students live on or directly adjacent to the college campus. Up until their junior year, students are required to live on campus in one of the residence halls or small houses, while apartments and student-owned cottages are available to upperclassmen.

Campus

Many of the earliest campus buildings, including Bemis, Cossitt, Cutler, McGregor, Montgomery, Palmer, and Ticknor Halls, are on the National Register of Historic Places, along with Shove Memorial Chapel and the William I. Spencer Center. Arthur House or Edgeplain, once home to the son of President Chester A. Arthur, is also on the National Register.

Since the mid-1950s, newer facilities include three large residence halls, Worner Campus Center, Olin Hall of Science and the Barnes Science Center, Honnen Ice Rink, Boettcher Health Center, Schlessman Pool, Armstrong Hall of Humanities, and the El Pomar Sports Center. The face of campus changed again at the beginning of the 21st century with construction of the Western Ridge Housing Complex, which offers apartment-style living for upper-division students and completion of the Russell T. Tutt Science Center. The east campus has been expanded, and is now home to the Greek Quad and several small residence halls known as "theme houses".

Some of the more recent notable buildings include Tutt Library, designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and later expanded and renovated by Pfeiffer Partners to be the largest carbon-neutral academic library in the United States, Packard Hall of Music and Art, designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes, and the Edith Kinney Gaylord Cornerstone Arts Center, which was designed by Antoine Predock with input from faculty and students.

Edith Kinney Gaylord Cornerstone Arts Center
Colorado College's Edith Kinney Gaylord Cornerstone Arts Center, completed in 2008 and located at the intersection of a performing arts corridor in Colorado Springs, is home to the college's film, drama and dance departments and contains a large theater, several smaller performance spaces, a screening room, the I.D.E.A. Space gallery, and classrooms, among other rooms. The building is also LEED certified.

Ed Robson Arena
The Ed Robson Arena is a 3,400-seat ice hockey arena on the campus of Colorado College. The arena opened on September 18 2021. Plans for a school-run arena date as far back as 2008 in the Colorado College Long Range Development Plan. At the time of planning, the Robson arena would be the second smallest facility in the NCHC, ahead of just the Goggin Ice Center. Colorado College justified this decision due to both the small undergraduate size of the college (approximately 2,000) and the average actual attendance of Tiger games (about 2,800). In spite of the COVID-19 pandemic, the arena was opened ahead of schedule in mid-September 2021. It succeeded the Broadmoor World Arena as the home for the Colorado College Tigers ice hockey team and became the first on-campus home for the program after 82 years of operation.

Athletics
The school's sports teams are nicknamed the "Tigers". Colorado College competes at the NCAA Division III level in all sports except men's hockey, in which it participates in the NCAA Division I National Collegiate Hockey Conference, and women's soccer, where it competes as an NCAA Division I team in the Mountain West Conference. CC dropped its intercollegiate athletic programs in football, softball, and women's water polo following the 2008–09 academic year.

In 1994, a student referendum to change the athletic teams' nicknames to the Cutthroat Trout narrowly failed, by a margin of 468–423.

The Tigers hockey team won the NCAA Division I championship twice (1950, 1957), were runners up three times (1952, 1955, 1996) and have made the NCAA Tournament eighteen times, including eleven times since 1995. In 1996, 1997, and 2005, CC played in the Frozen Four, finishing second in 1996. Fifty-five CC Tigers have been named All-Americans. Hockey Hall of Fame coach Bob Johnson coached the Tigers from 1963 to 1966.

The current hockey coach is Kris Mayotte, who had been an assistant coach at Providence College and the University of Michigan.

KRCC radio
Colorado College operates National Public Radio Member Station KRCC-FM. In 1944, KRCC began as a two-room public address system in the basement of Bemis Hall. Professor Woodson "Chief" Tyree, Director of Radio and Drama Department at Colorado College was the founder and inspirational force in the program that one day became KRCC-FM. In 1946, KRCC moved to South Hall (where Packard Hall now stands) on campus where two students, Charles "Bud" Edmonds '51, and Margaret Merle-Smith '51, were instrumental in securing a war surplus FM transmitter. KRCC began over the air broadcasting in April 1951 as the first non-commercial educational FM radio station in the state of Colorado.

KRCC broadcasts through a series of eleven transmitters and translators throughout southern Colorado and a portion of northern New Mexico. KRCC's main transmitter, atop Cheyenne Mountain, broadcasts three separate HD multi-cast channels, including a channel run completely by Colorado College students called the SOCC (Sounds of Colorado College).

Notable people
Colorado College has graduated a Nobel Prize winner, a Pulitzer Prize winner, 2 MacArthur Fellows, 14 Rhodes Scholars, 31 Fulbright Scholars, 68 Watson Fellows, and winners of Academy Awards, Emmy Awards, and Grammy Awards. Alumni include Liz Cheney, Peggy Fleming, William A. Welch, Frederick Madison Roberts, and Abdul Aziz Abdul Ghani. Board members include Robert J. Ross, France Winddance Twine, and alumni Frieda Ekotto and Joe Ellis. Life Trustees include David M. Lampton and alumni Neal A. Baer. Honorary Trustees include alumni Lynne Cheney, Diana DeGette, and Ken Salazar. CC has also graduated 18 Olympians and 170 professional hockey players, including over 30 current and former NHL players. Notable faculty and staff include Dick Celeste and Jill Tiefenthaler.

title: Colorado College