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Gelsenkirchen

Gelsenkirchen (,,  ; Gelsenkiärken) is the 25th-most populous city of Germany and the 11th-most populous in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia with 262,528 (2016) inhabitants. On the Emscher River (a tributary of the Rhine), it lies at the centre of the Ruhr area, the largest urban area of Germany, of which it is the fifth-largest city after Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg and Bochum. The Ruhr is located in the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, the second-biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Gelsenkirchen is the fifth-largest city of Westphalia after Dortmund, Bochum, Bielefeld and Münster, and it is one of the southernmost cities in the Low German dialect area. The city is home to the football club Schalke 04, which is named after Gelsenkirchen-Schalke. The club's current stadium Veltins-Arena, however, is located in Gelsenkirchen-Erle.

Gelsenkirchen was first documented in 1150, but it remained a tiny village until the 19th century, when the Industrial Revolution led to the economic and population growth of the region. In 1840, when the mining of coal began, 6,000 inhabitants lived in Gelsenkirchen; by 1900 the population had increased to 138,000. In the early 20th century, Gelsenkirchen was the most important coalmining town in Europe. It was called the "city of a thousand fires" for the flames of mine gases flaring at night. In 1928, Gelsenkirchen was merged with the adjoining cities of Buer and. The city bore the name Gelsenkirchen-Buer, until it was renamed Gelsenkirchen in 1930. The city remained a center of coal mining and oil refining during the Nazi era, so was often a target of Allied bombing raids during World War II: nevertheless, over a third of the city's buildings date from before World War II. There are no longer coalmines in and around Gelsenkirchen; the city is searching for a new economic basis, having been afflicted for decades with one of the country's highest unemployment rates.

Ancient and medieval times
Although the part of town now called Buer was first mentioned by Heribert I in a document as Puira in 1003, there were hunting people on a hill north of the Emscher as early as the Bronze Age – earlier than 1000 BC. They did not live in houses as such, but in small yards gathered together near each other. Later, the Romans pushed into the area. In about 700, the region was settled by the Saxons. A few other parts of town which today lie in Gelsenkirchen's north end were mentioned in documents from the early Middle Ages, some examples being: Raedese (nowadays Resse), Middelvic (Middelich, today part of Resse), Sutheim (Sutum; today part of Beckhausen) and Sculven (nowadays Scholven). Many nearby farming communities were later identified as iuxta Bure ("near Buer").

It was about 1150 when the name Gelstenkerken or Geilistirinkirkin appeared up for the first time. At about the same time, the first church in town was built in what is now Buer. This ecclesia Buron ("church at Buer") was listed in a directory of parish churches by the sexton from Deutz, Theodericus. This settlement belonged to the Mark. However, in ancient times and even in the Middle Ages, only a few dozen people actually lived in the settlements around the Emscher basin.

Industrialisation
Up until the middle of the 19th century, the area in and around Gelsenkirchen was only thinly settled and almost exclusively agrarian. In 1815, after temporarily belonging to the Grand Duchy of Berg, the land now comprising the city of Gelsenkirchen passed to the Kingdom of Prussia, which assigned it to the province of Westphalia. Whereas the Gelsenkirchen of that time – not including today's north-end communities, such as Buer – was put in the Amt of Wattenscheid in the Bochum district, in the governmental region of Arnsberg, Buer, which was an Amt in its own right, was along with nearby Horst joined to Recklinghausen district in the governmental region of Münster. This arrangement came to an end in 1928.

After the discovery of coal – lovingly known as "Black Gold" – in the Ruhr area in 1840, and the subsequent industrialisation, the Cologne–Minden Railway and the Gelsenkirchen Main Railway Station were opened. In 1868, Gelsenkirchen became the seat of an Amt within the Bochum district which encompassed the communities of Gelsenkirchen, Braubauerschaft (since 1900, ), Schalke, Heßler, Bulmke and Hüllen.

Friedrich Grillo founded the Corporation for Chemical Industry (Aktiengesellschaft für Chemische Industrie) in Schalke in 1872, as well as founding Vogelsang & Co. with the Grevel family (later Schalker Eisenhütte Maschinenfabrik), and also the Schalke Mining and Ironworks Association (Schalker Gruben- und Hüttenverein). A year later, and once again in Schalke, he founded the Glass and Mirror Factory Incorporated (Glas- und Spiegel-Manufaktur AG).

After Gelsenkirchen had become an important heavy-industry hub, it was raised to city in 1875.

Independent city
In 1885, after the Bochum district was split up, Gelsenkirchen became the seat of its own district (Kreis), which would last until 1926. The cities of Gelsenkirchen and Wattenscheid, as well as the Ämter of Braubauerschaft (in 1900, Bismarck), Schalke, Ückendorf, Wanne and Wattenscheid all belonged to the Gelsenkirchen district. A few years later, in 1896, Gelsenkirchen split off from Gelsenkirchen district to become an independent city (kreisfreie Stadt). In 1891, Horst was split off from the Amt of Buer, which itself was raised to city status in 1911, and to an independent city status the next year. Meanwhile, Horst became the seat of its own Amt. In 1924, the rural community of Rotthausen, which until then had belonged to the Essen district, was made part of the Gelsenkirchen district.

In 1928, under the Prussian local government reforms, the cities of Gelsenkirchen and Buer along with the Amt of Horst together became a new kreisfreie Stadt called Gelsenkirchen-Buer, effective on 1 April that year. From that time, the whole city area belonged to the governmental district of Münster. In 1930, on the city's advice, the city's name was changed to 'Gelsenkirchen', effective 21 May. By this time, the city was home to about 340,000 people.

In 1931, the Gelsenkirchen Mining Corporation (Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks-Aktien-Gesellschaft) founded the Gelsenberg Petrol Corporation (Gelsenberg-Benzin-AG). In 1935, the Hibernia Mining Company founded the Hydrierwerk Scholven AG GE-Buer coal liquefaction plant. Scholven/Buer began operation in 1936 and achieved a capacity of 200,000 tons/year of finished product, mainly aviation base gasoline. After 1937, Gelsenberg-Benzin-AG opened the Nordstern plant for converting bituminous coal to synthetic oil.

Nazi Germany
The 9 November 1938 Kristallnacht antisemitic riots destroyed Jewish businesses, dwellings and cemeteries, and a synagogue in Buer and one in downtown Gelsenkirchen. A new downtown Gelsenkirchen synagogue was opened on 1 February 2007.

Gelsenkirchen was a target of strategic bombing during World War II, particularly during the 1943 Battle of the Ruhr and the oil campaign. Three quarters of Gelsenkirchen was destroyed and many above-ground air raid shelters such as near the town hall in Buer are in nearly original form.

Oberst Werner Mölders, the legendary Luftwaffe fighter pilot, was born here.

The Gelsenberg Lager subcamp of the Buchenwald concentration camp was established in 1944 to provide forced labour of about 2000 Hungarian women and girls for Gelsenberg-Benzin-AG. About 150 died during September 1944 bombing raids (shelters and protection ditches were forbidden to them). There was also a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see Romani Holocaust) in the city.

From 1933 to 1945, the city's mayor was the appointed Nazi Carl Engelbert Böhmer. In 1994, the Institute for City History opened the documentation centre "Gelsenkirchen under National Socialism" (Dokumentationsstätte "Gelsenkirchen im Nationalsozialismus").

After the war
On 17 December 1953, the Kokerei Hassel went into operation, billed as Germany's "first new coking plant" since the war. The Scholven Power Station was built in the late 1960s with further development until 1985, one of the largest in Europe at the time. Its 302 m chimneys are among the tallest in Germany. When postal codes were introduced in 1961, Gelsenkirchen was one of the few cities in West Germany to be given two codes: Buer was given 466, while Gelsenkirchen got 465. These were in use until 1 July 1993. The first comprehensive school in North Rhine-Westphalia was opened in 1969. Scholven-Chemie AG (the old hydrogenation plant) merged with Gelsenberg-Benzin-AG to form the new corporation VEBA-Oel AG. In 1987, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass before 85,000 people at Gelsenkirchen's Parkstadion. The Pope also became an honorary member of FC Schalke 04.

In 1997, the Federal Garden Show (Bundesgartenschau or BUGA) was held on the grounds of the disused coalmine in Horst. In 1999, the last phase of the Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park, an undertaking that brought together many cities in North Rhine-Westphalia, was held. Coke was produced at the old Hassel coking works for the last time on 29 September 1999. This marked the shutdown of the last coking plant in Gelsenkirchen, after being a coking town for more than 117 years. In the same year, Shell Solar Deutschland AG took over production of photovoltaic equipment. On 28 April 2000, the Ewald-Hugo colliery closed – Gelsenkirchen's last colliery. Three thousand coalminers lost their jobs. In 2003, Buer celebrated its thousandth anniversary of first documentary mention, and FC Schalke 04 celebrated on 4 May 2004 its hundredth anniversary.

19th century
The Jewish community of Gelsenkirchen was officially established in 1874, relatively late compared to the Jewish Ashkenazi communities in Germany. In a list of 1829 to determine the salary for the Chief Rabbi of Westphalia,, three families were named: the families of Ruben Levi, Reuben Simon, and Herz Heimann families. With the growth of the town during the second half of the 19th century, its Jewish population also grew bigger, with about 120 Jews living in town in 1880, and a synagogue established in 1885. With the growth of the community, a bigger building was built to serve as the community school.

20th century
The community continued to grow and around 1,100 Jews were living in Gelsenkirchen in 1901, a number that reached its peak of 1,300 individuals in 1933. At the turn of the 20th century the Reform Jewish community was the most dominant among all Jewish communities in town, and after an organ was installed inside the synagogue, and most prayers performed mostly in German instead of traditional Hebrew, the town's orthodox community decided to stop attending the synagogue and tried to establish a new orthodox community, led by Dr. Max Meyer, Dr. Rubens and Abraham Fröhlich, most of them living on Florastraße. In addition, another Jewish orthodox congregation of Polish Jews was found in town. In 1908, a lot on Wanner Straße was purchased and served the community as its cemetery until 1936, today containing about 400 graves. In addition, another cemetery was built in 1927 in the suburb of Ückendorf.

Nazi Germany
With the rise of Hitler and National Socialism in 1933, Jewish life in Gelsenkirchen was still relatively unaffected at first. In August 1938, 160 Jewish businesses were still open in town. In October 1938, though, an official ban restricted these businesses and all Jewish doctors became unemployed. In the same month, the Jewish community of the town was expelled. Between 1937 and 1939, the Jewish population of Gelsenkirchen dropped from 1,600 to 1,000. During Kristallnacht, the town's synagogue was destroyed, after two thirds of the town's Jewish population had already left. On 27 January 1942, 350 among the 500 remaining Jews in town were deported to the Riga Ghetto; later, the last remaining Jews were deported to Warsaw and the Theresienstadt concentration camp.

The Gelsenkirchen transport
On 31 March 1942, a Nazi deportation train set out from Gelsenkirchen and, carrying 48 Jews from the town area, made its way to the Warsaw Ghetto. The train was the first to deport Jews to Warsaw and not to Trawniki concentration camp in southern Poland, as used before. After it left Gelsenkirchen, the train was boarded by other Jews from Münster, Dortmund and a few other stops along the way, and mostly by the Jews of Hanover, 500 in number. The arrival of this transport from Westphalia and Upper Saxony was recorded in his diaries by Adam Czerniakov, the last chairman of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat. He stated that those older than 68 were allowed to stay in Germany. The majority of these deportees were killed later on the different death sites around modern-day Poland.

After World War II
In 1946, 69 Jews returned to Gelsenkirchen and in 1958, a synagogue and cultural centre were built for the remaining community. In 2005, about 450 Jews were living in town. During the last decade of the 20th century, a noted number of Jews came to the town, after emigrating out of the former USSR. This situation made it necessary to extend the synagogue. Eventually, a new and bigger synagogue was built to serve the increasing Jewish community of Gelsenkirchen. The current community practices Orthodox Judaism, even though no family practices it at home. On 16 May 2014, antisemitic graffiti were painted on the town synagogue.

Sites
The building at Husemannstraße 75 belonged to Dr. Max Meyer, who built it between 1920 and 1921. A mezuzah sign can still be seen on the top right side of the door. On Florastraße, near Kennedyplatz, (formerly Schalker Straße 45), stands the house of the Tepper family, a Jewish family that vanished during the Holocaust. As part of the national Stolperstein project, five bricks, commemorating the Jewish inhabitants, were installed outside the house.

Economy and infrastructure
Gelsenkirchen presents itself as a centre of solar technology. Shell Solar Deutschland GmbH produces solar cells in Rotthausen. Scheuten Solar Technology has taken over its solar panel production. There are other large businesses in town:, Gelsenwasser, e.on, BP Gelsenkirchen GmbH, Shell Solar Deutschland GmbH and Pilkington. ZOOM Erlebniswelt Gelsenkirchen is a zoo founded in 1949 as "Ruhr-Zoo" which is now operated by the city.

Transport
Gelsenkirchen lies on autobahns A 2, A 40, A 42 and A 52, as well as on Bundesstraßen (Federal Highways) B 224, B 226 and B 227. Gelsenkirchen Hauptbahnhof (central station) lies at the junction of the Duisburg–Dortmund, the Essen–Gelsenkirchen and the Gelsenkirchen–Münster lines.

The Rhine–Herne Canal has a commercial-industrial harbour in Gelsenkirchen. has a yearly turnover of 2 million tonnes and a water surface area of about 1.2 km², one of Germany's biggest and most important canal harbours, and is furthermore connected to Deutsche Bahn's railway network at Gelsenkirchen Hauptbahnhof.

Local transport in Gelsenkirchen is provided by the Bochum/Gelsenkirchen tramway network and buses run by the Bochum-Gelsenkirchener Straßenbahn AG (BOGESTRA), as well as by buses operated by Vestische Straßenbahnen GmbH in the city's north (despite its name, it nowadays runs only buses). Some Stadtbahn and tram lines are operated by. All these services have an integrated fare structure within the VRR. There are three tram lines, one light rail line, and about 50 bus routes in Gelsenkirchen.

Media
Gelsenkirchen is the headquarters of the Verband Lokaler Rundfunk in Nordrhein-Westfalen e.V. (VLR) (Network of Local Radio in North Rhine-Westphalia Registered Association). REL (Radio Emscher-Lippe) is also headquartered in Gelsenkirchen.

Among newspapers, the Buersche Zeitung was a daily till 2006. The Ruhr Nachrichten ceased publication in Gelsenkirchen in April 2006. Now, the Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung is the only local newspaper in Gelsenkirchen. The local station also reports the local news.

There is also a free weekly newspaper, the Stadtspiegel Gelsenkirchen, along with monthly, or irregular, local publications called the Familienpost and the Beckhausener Kurier.

Education and science
Gelsenkirchen has 51 elementary schools (36 public schools, 12 Catholic schools, 3 Protestant schools), 8 Hauptschulen, 6 Realschulen, 7 Gymnasien, and 5 Gesamtschulen, among which the Gesamtschule Bismarck, as the only comprehensive school run by the Westphalian branch of the Evangelical (Lutheran) Church, warrants special mention.

The Fachhochschule Gelsenkirchen, founded in 1992, also has campuses in Bocholt and Recklinghausen. It offers courses in Economics, Computer Science, Engineering Physics, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Supply and Disposal Engineering.

There is a Volkshochschule for adult education as well as a city library with three branches.

The Institute for Underground Infrastructure, founded in 1994 and associated with the Ruhr University Bochum, provides a wide range of research, certification, and consulting services. The science park created in 1995 by Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park,, provides a pathway to restructure the local economy from coal- and steel-based industries to solar energy and project management.

Mayor
The current Mayor of Gelsenkirchen is Karin Welge of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:

! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate ! rowspan=2| Party ! colspan=2| First round ! colspan=2| Second round ! Votes ! % ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 77,486 ! 98.8 ! 49,498 ! 98.9 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 924 ! 1.2 ! 548 ! 1.1 ! colspan=3| Total ! 78,410 ! 100.0 ! 50,046 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 188,716 ! 41.5 ! 188,369 ! 26.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Karin Welge
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 31,341
 * 40.4
 * 29,397
 * 59.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Malte Stuckmann
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 19,468
 * 25.1
 * 20,101
 * 40.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Jörg Schneider
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 9,355
 * 12.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| David Fischer
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
 * 7,188
 * 9.3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Susanne Cichos
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 3,360
 * 4.3
 * align=left| Ali-Riza Akyol
 * align=left| Voter Initiative NRW
 * 2,752
 * 3.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Martin Karl-Heinz Gatzemeier
 * align=left| The Left
 * 2,300
 * 3.0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Claudia Kapuschinski
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * 1,722
 * 2.2
 * align=left| The Left
 * 2,300
 * 3.0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Claudia Kapuschinski
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * 1,722
 * 2.2
 * 2.2
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Gelsenkirch city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 77,239 ! 98.5 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 1,143 ! 1.5 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 78,382 ! 100.0 ! ! 88 ! 25 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 188,716 ! 41.5 ! 1.6 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 27,082
 * 35.1
 * 15.2
 * 31
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 17,932
 * 23.2
 * 2.2
 * 20
 * 6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 9,944
 * 12.9
 * 7.9
 * 11
 * 8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 9,457
 * 12.2
 * 6.4
 * 11
 * 7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 3,114
 * 4.0
 * 2.0
 * 4
 * 3
 * align=left| Voter Initiative NRW (WIN)
 * 2,804
 * 3.6
 * 0.3
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 2,671
 * 3.5
 * 1.2
 * 3
 * ±0
 * align=left| Animal Welfare Here! (Tierschutz hier!)
 * 1,735
 * 2.2
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 1,527
 * 2.0
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * align=left| Alternative, Independent, Progressive Gelsenkirchen (AUF)
 * 943
 * 1.2
 * 0.2
 * 1
 * ±0
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 30
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * align=left| Alternative, Independent, Progressive Gelsenkirchen (AUF)
 * 943
 * 1.2
 * 0.2
 * 1
 * ±0
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 30
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 30
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Culture

 * Musiktheater im Revier
 * Hans-Sachs-Haus
 * Kunstmuseum Gelsenkirchen
 * Architecture (Brick Expressionism), heritage listings
 * ZOOM Erlebniswelt Gelsenkirchen/Ruhr-Zoo
 * Industrial Heritage Trail (Route der Industriekultur) – Gelsenkirchen
 * Nordsternpark
 * Ruhr.2010 – European Capital of Culture
 * Rock Hard Festival
 * Filming of The Miracle of Father Malachia

Sport
Gelsenkirchen is home of the football club FC Schalke 04, currently in the 2. Bundesliga, the second tier of German football. The club has won 7 Bundesliga titles. Schalke's home ground is Arena AufSchalke. It was one of 12 German cities to host matches during the 2006 FIFA World Cup, hosting matches between Poland and Ecuador, Argentina and Serbia and Montenegro, Portugal and Mexico, and USA and Czech Republic. It is also host to four matches during the 2024 European Championships.

German football players İlkay Gündoğan, Mesut Özil, Olaf Thon and Manuel Neuer were born in Gelsenkirchen. German football manager Michael Skibbe was also born in Gelsenkirchen.

Since 1912, Gelsenkirchen owns the harness racing track Trabrennbahn Gelsenkirchen (also referred as GelsenTrabPark).

Notable people

 * Alfons Goldschmidt (1879–1940), journalist, economist, university lecturer
 * Claire Waldoff (1884–1957), kabarett singer in Berlin
 * Wilhelm Zaisser (1893–1958), communist politician, first Minister for State Security of East Germany
 * Hans Krahe (1898–1965), philologist, linguist
 * Anton Stankowski (1906–1998), graphic designer, photographer, painter
 * Werner Mölders (1913–1941), officer of the Luftwaffe
 * Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller (born 1929), musicologist
 * Harald zur Hausen (born 1936), virologist, Nobel laureate (2008), 1983–2003 chief scientific officer of German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg
 * Heinrich Breloer (born 1942), film director
 * Gerd Faltings (born 1954), mathematician, Fields medalist (1986)
 * Susanne Neumann (1959–2019), author, activist
 * Tom Angelripper (born 1963), singer and bassist of the thrash metal band Sodom
 * Oliver Mark (born 1963), photographer
 * Gregor Hagedorn (born 1965), botanist
 * Anne Schwanewilms (born 1967), opera soprano
 * Katrin Becker (born 1967), theoretical physicist
 * Kai Twilfer (born 1976), author and businessman
 * Terry Reintke (born 1987), politician and Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the Greens-EFA group

Sport

 * Ernst Kuzorra (1905–1990), footballer and manager, 12 caps and 7 goals for Germany, 6x German Champion, 450 Appearances and 419 Goals for Schalke, part of their 'Team of the Century'
 * Fritz Szepan (1907–1974), footballer with 34 caps and 8 goals for Germany, 6x German Champion, 434 Appearances and 309 Goals for Schalke, part of their 'Team of the Century'
 * Norbert Nigbur (born 1948), footballer with 6 caps for West Germany, 1974 World Cup winner, 440 appearances for Schalke, part of their 'Team of the Century'
 * Michael Skibbe (born 1965), former football player and current coach
 * Olaf Thon (born 1966), footballer and manager, 52 caps for Germany, 1990 World Cup winner, 3x Bundesliga Winner, 383 appearances for Schalke, part of their 'Team of the Century'
 * Hamit Altıntop (born 1982), footballer with 82 caps and 7 goals for Turkey, league winner in Germany, Spain and Turkey
 * Manuel Neuer (born 1986), footballer with 117 caps for Germany, 2014 World Cup winner, 11x Bundesliga Winner, 2x Champions League Winner and 5x World's Best Goalkeeper
 * Mesut Özil (born 1988), footballer with 92 caps and 23 goals for Germany, 2014 World Cup winner and La Liga winner
 * İlkay Gündoğan (born 1990), footballer with 66 caps and 17 goals for Germany, league winner in Germany and England

Twin towns – sister cities
Gelsenkirchen is twinned with:

 * Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1969)
 * Shakhty, Russia (1989)
 * Olsztyn, Poland (1992)
 * Cottbus, Germany (1995)
 * Büyükçekmece, Turkey (2004)
 * Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom (1948)

title: Gelsenkirchen


text:
Human Nature (2001 film)

Human Nature is a 2001 comedy drama film written by Charlie Kaufman and directed by Michel Gondry in his directorial debut. The film stars Tim Robbins, Patricia Arquette, Rhys Ifans, Miranda Otto, and Rosie Perez. It tells the story of three people—a writer with hypertrichosis, a man who was raised as an ape away from civilization, and a psychologist who attempts to socialize the ape-man into a civilized member of society and tame his more animal instincts. It was a box-office bomb and received negative to mixed reviews.

It was screened out of competition at the 54th Cannes International Film Festival.

Plot
Three characters are recounting events from their intertwined lives. Puff, a man who was raised as an ape in the wilderness, makes a testimony in front of Congress. Writer Lila Jute is giving a statement to the police after her arrest. Deceased psychologist Nathan Bronfman addresses an unseen audience in the afterlife. Their stories are told in flashback.

Lila is a woman with a rare hormonal imbalance which causes thick hair to grow all over her body. During her 20s after a brief freak show gig, Lila decides to leave society and live within nature where she feels free to exist comfortably in her natural state. She writes a successful book about her naked, savage, happy, and free life in the woods embracing nature. Then, at age 30, strong sexual desire causes her to return to civilization and have her hair removed in order to find a partner.

The partner she finds is Dr. Nathan Bronfman, a psychologist researching the possibility of teaching table manners to mice. Lila and Nathan go hiking in the woods one day. Lila sights a naked man acting like an ape in the woods who has lived as a wild animal his entire life. Lila discards her clothes and chases him until he's cornered on a tree branch. The man falls off the branch, knocked unconscious. Brought to Nathan's lab, the man is named Puff, after Nathan's French research assistant Gabrielle's childhood dog; a phone call to an unknown person reveals that Gabrielle is actually an American with a fake French accent. First with the help of Gabrielle and later with Lila's help, Nathan performs conditioned reinforcement training on Puff, inculcating him with a veneer of fine manners and high culture, in spite of which Puff still has difficulty controlling sexual urges.

To demonstrate his success, Nathan takes Puff on tour. Puff secretly drinks heavily and patronizes prostitutes. Meanwhile, Nathan and Lila's relationship deteriorates and he is seduced into an affair by a scheming Gabrielle. Eventually Lila decides to take Puff back into the forest to undo his manners training and return him to his natural state.

Lila and Puff live naked in the woods together until found by a threatening Nathan, who is killed by Puff. Lila turns herself in as the murderer and asks Puff to testify on the waywardness of humanity before he returns to his home in the forest after a brief encounter with his biological mother.

After the reporters and spectators leave, Puff comes back out of the forest and gets into a car with Gabrielle (still with a French accent). They drive off to the city to eat, while Puff looks back thoughtfully at the forest. The ending strongly suggests some unexplained collusion between the two, throwing much of the interpretation of what went on before into question.

At the end of the film, there are two philosophical passages read while the credits appear. The first is an excerpt of William of Ockham from Opera Theologica in which Ockham explains his theory of intuitive cognition:

Intuitive cognition is such that when some things are cognized, of which one inheres in the other, or one is spatially distant from the other, or exists in some relation to the other, immediately in virtue of that non-propositional cognition of those things, it is known if the thing inheres or does not inhere, if it is spatially distant or not, and the same for other true contingent propositions, unless that cognition is flawed or there is some impediment."

The second is an excerpt of Novum Organum by Francis Bacon in which Bacon discusses inductivism:

In establishing axioms by this kind of induction, we must also examine and try whether the axiom so established be framed the measure of those particulars only for which it is derived or whether it be larger and wider. And if it be larger and wider, we must observe whether, by indicating to us new particulars, it concerns wideness and largeness as by a collateral security, that we may not either stick fast in things already known or loosely grasp at shadows and abstract forms. That we may not either stick fast in things already known, or loosely grasp at shadows and abstract forms and not at things solid and realized in matter."

Cast

 * Patricia Arquette as Lila Jute, a writer with hypertrichosis.
 * Hilary Duff as Young Lila Jute
 * Tim Robbins as Nathan Bronfman, a psychologist.
 * Chase MacKenzie Bebak as Young Nathan Bronfman
 * Rhys Ifans as Puff, a man found in the forest acting like an ape.
 * Bobby Pyle as Young Puff
 * Rosie Perez as Louise, a friend of Lila who specializes in electrology.
 * Miranda Otto as Gabrielle, Nathan's assistant who speaks in a French accent.
 * Peter Dinklage as Frank
 * Mary Kay Place as Mrs. Bronfman
 * Robert Forster as Mr. Bronfman
 * Toby Huss as Puff's Father, a man who acted like an ape which carried to his son after they relocated to the woods.
 * Ken Magee, Sy Richardson, and David Warshofsky as the police detectives
 * Bobby Harwell and Daryl Anderson as the congressmen
 * Miguel Sandoval as Wendell, a therapist.
 * Nancy Lenehan as Puff's Mother

Production
Steven Soderbergh was first interested in directing Charlie Kaufman's script in late 1996, when Kaufman was still trying to get Being John Malkovich produced. Soderbergh's considerations for casting were for David Hyde Pierce in the role of Nathan Bronfman, Chris Kattan in the role of Puff (likely due to his character Mr. Peepers on Saturday Night Live at the time), and Marisa Tomei in the role of Lila Jute. He was about to go into pre-production when he was offered Out of Sight and after much deliberation he left the project.

Box office
Human Nature grossed $705,308 in the United States and Canada, and $869,352 in other territories for a worldwide total of 1.6 million, against a production budget of $8.6 million.

Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a score of 48% based on 95 reviews, and an average rating of 5.8/10. The website's consensus reads, "As quirky as Being John Malkovich but not as funny, Human Nature feels too forced and unengaging." On Metacritic, it has an average score of 56 out of 100 based on 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Roger Ebert awarded the film three-stars out of four, lauding the film's "screwball charm" and commenting that director Gondry stages the film with a "level of mad whimsy" that feels "just about right".

In a 2009 review as part of his "Year of Flops" series, critic Nathan Rabin argued that the screenplay, as well as the collaboration between Kaufman and Gondry (the first before Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind), had all the ingredients for a sharp social satire. Rabin wrote that like Kaufman’s scripts for films like Eternal Sunshine, Being John Malkovich, and Adaptation, Human Nature "uses a fantastical conceit to explore the fresh hell of existence and our desperate attempts to deny who we are and what we want." However, Rabin stated that Kaufman’s other works"'…are grounded in visceral human emotions and feel gloriously, painfully alive, [whereas] Human Nature feels strangely hermetic. Ifans, Robbins, and Arquette breathe incredible melancholy, pain, and confusion into their characters, but they cannot make them human. That is perhaps the tragedy of Human Nature: Despite its title and abundance of brilliant ideas and clever lines, it feels strangely abstract and theoretical. Rewatching Human Nature eight years on, the film’s bone-deep sadness resonates more strongly than its cerebral comedy of manners. It’s a profoundly flawed and strangely affecting film about what Arquette refers to as the 'waywardness of humankind' and the sublime agony of being human.'"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Human Nature (2001 film)


text:
GTO

GTO may refer to:

Entertainment

 * Great Teacher Onizuka, a manga, anime, live-action series, and film
 * GameTable Online, a game portal

Music bands

 * GTO (band), an Australian band
 * The GTOs, an American girl group
 * Giraffe Tongue Orchestra, an American band
 * Greater Than One, an English electronic music band

Other music uses

 * GTO: Gangsters Takin' Over, an album by Oran "Juice" Jones
 * GTO Records, a British record label
 * "GTO" (Ronny & the Daytonas song), 1964
 * "GTO" (Sinitta song), 1987

Science and technology

 * Gate turn-off thyristor
 * Gaussian-type orbital
 * Geostationary transfer orbit
 * Golgi tendon organ

Transport

 * Gorton railway station, in Greater Manchester, England
 * Jalaluddin Airport (IATA: GTO) in Gorontalo, Indonesia
 * Grand Touring Over, a category for production cars
 * Gran Turismo Omologata, a model name of several grand tourer automobiles:
 * Ferrari 250 GTO
 * Ferrari 288 GTO
 * Ferrari 599 GTO
 * Pontiac GTO
 * Mitsubishi 3000GT (Mitsubishi GTO in Japan)
 * Mitsubishi Galant GTO
 * HSV GTO

Other uses

 * Geographic targeting order issued by the United States Secretary of Treasury
 * Guanajuato, Mexico
 * Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR (Russian: Готов к труду и обороне СССР, Gotov k trudu i oborone SSSR), a Soviet physical training programme

title: GTO


text:
Edsel

Edsel is a discontinued division and brand of automobiles that was produced by the Ford Motor Company in the 1958 to 1960 model years. Deriving its name from Edsel Ford, son of company founder Henry Ford, Edsels were developed in an effort to give Ford a fourth brand to gain additional market share from Chrysler and General Motors. Established as an expansion of the Lincoln-Mercury Division to three brands, re-christened the Mercury-Edsel-Lincoln Division, Edsel shared a price range with Mercury. The division shared its bodies with both Mercury and Ford.

Competing against Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Dodge, and DeSoto, Edsel was the first new brand introduced by an American automaker since the 1939 launch of Mercury and 1956 launch of Continental, which ended and merged into Lincoln after 1957. In the year leading to its release, Ford invested in an advertising campaign, marketing Edsels as the cars of the future. While 1958 Edsels introduced multiple advanced features for the price segment, the launch of the model line became symbolic of commercial failure. Introduced in a recession that catastrophically affected sales of medium-priced cars, Edsels were considered overhyped, unattractive, distinguished by a vertical grille said to resemble a horse collar, and low quality.

Following a loss of over $250 million, $ in dollars, on development, manufacturing, and marketing on the model line, Ford quietly discontinued the Edsel brand before 1960.

Background (1956–1957)
Ford Motor Company became a publicly traded corporation on January 17, 1956, and thus was no longer entirely owned by members of the Ford family. The company was now able to sell cars according to current market trends following the seller's market of the postwar years. Ford's new management compared the company's roster of makes with that of General Motors and Chrysler, and concluded that Lincoln was competing not with Cadillac, but with Oldsmobile, Buick, and DeSoto. Ford developed a plan to move Lincoln upmarket, with the Continental broken out as a separate make at the top of Ford's product line, and to add premium/intermediate vehicles to the intermediate slot vacated by Lincoln.

Ford explained in 1958 that “The Edsel is new but it’s actually the germination of an idea conceived by Edsel Ford who thought years ago that the company should have greater representation in the medium-price range. This idea was furthered by his son, Henry Ford II, in 1948 when another car was proposed to keep abreast of things in the automotive market.”

Marketing research and development for the new intermediate line had begun in 1955 under the code name "E car", which stood for "experimental car." Ford Motor Company eventually decided on the name "Edsel", in honor of Edsel Ford, son of the company's founder, Henry Ford despite objections from Edsel's son Henry Ford II. The proposed vehicle marque represented the start-up of a new division of the firm, alongside that of Ford itself and the Lincoln-Mercury division, whose cars at the time shared the same bodies.

Ford later claimed to have performed more than adequate, if not superior, product development and market research work in the planning and design of the new vehicle. Ford assured its investors, and the Detroit automotive press, that Edsels were not only superior products, as compared to their Oldsmobile/Buick/DeSoto competition, but the details of their styling and specifications were the result of a sophisticated market analysis and research and development effort, that would essentially guarantee their broad acceptance by the buying public when the cars were introduced.

In November 1956, the Edsel Division of Ford Motor Company was formed to establish a retail organization and dealer network, alongside Ford and Lincoln-Mercury. The Continental Division had ceased to exist several months earlier. With a network of 1,187 Edsel dealers, Ford Motor Company now had approximately 10,000 dealerships between its three divisions, bringing it closer in line with Chrysler, withe 10,000 dealers across five brands, and General Motors, with 16,000 across six brands.

E Day introduction
Edsels were introduced amid considerable publicity on "E Day"—September 4, 1957. They were promoted by a top-rated television special, The Edsel Show, on October 13, but the promotional effort was not enough to counter the adverse initial public reaction to the Edsel's styling and unconventional build.

After the launch date, Edsel was described as a "reborn LaSalle," a General Motors brand that had disappeared in 1940. For months, Ford had been telling the industry press that it "knew", through its market research, that there would be great demand for the vehicles. Ford insisted that, in the Edsels, it had built exactly the "entirely new kind of car" that Ford had been leading the buying public to expect through its pre-introduction publicity campaign for the cars. In reality, Edsels shared their engineering and bodywork with other Ford models, and the similarities were apparent once the vehicles were viewed firsthand.

1958
For its inaugural model year, Edsel introduced a seven-model product line, including four sedans and three station wagons. The lower-trim Edsel Ranger and Edsel Pacer shared bodies with Ford Fairlane sedans (118 in wheelbase) while the higher-trim Edsel Corsair and Edsel Citation shared bodies with the Mercury Monterey and Mercury Montclair sedans (124 in wheelbase). Sharing its body and 116 in wheelbase with Ford station wagons, Edsel had the two-door Edsel Roundup and the four-door Edsel Villager and Edsel Bermuda.

The Edsel model line had multiple design features that were considered innovative for the time. In place of a horizontal strip or a round dial, the speedometer was a rotating dome. In line with aircraft design, the dashboard adopted warning lights for conditions such as low oil level, parking brake engaged, and engine overheating. While not equipped with cruise control, Edsel introduced a speed warning on the speedometer if the driver exceeded a preset speed limit. While a standard column-mounted transmission shifter was offered, as a delete option, Edsel marked the introduction of the Teletouch push-button shifting system, mounted in the steering wheel hub.

Edsels integrated many elements of the Ford Lifeguard safety package into its design. Along with optional seatbelts, Edsels featured a deep-dish steering wheel, double-latched doors, and childproof rear door locks. The model line was among the first to introduce remote-operated trunk opening and self-adjusting brakes.

In the first year, 63,110 Edsels were sold in the United States, and 4,935 were sold in Canada. Though below expectations, this nevertheless represented the second-largest launch for any new car brand to date, exceeded only by the DeSoto introduction in 1929. One four-door Citation model was purchased and delivered in October 1957 to the United Kingdom for Ian Russell, 13th Duke of Bedford. Its current whereabouts is unknown. In January 1958, the free-standing Edsel division was added to Lincoln-Mercury, with the re-christened Mercury-Edsel-Lincoln Division (M-E-L) adopting Edsel sales and marketing operations. As the model year progressed and sales fell under expectations, multiple Edsel-only dealers closed or expanded their brand offerings with the encouragement of Ford Motor Company, including Lincoln-Mercury or imported Ford of Britain and Ford of Germany franchises.

1959
For the 1959 model year, Ford revised the market position of Edsel, slotting it between Ford and Mercury. To reflect the marketing change, the Mercury-based Citation was withdrawn and the Corsair became a higher-trim version of the Ranger. The Pacer was also discontinued. The station wagon line was pared down to the Villager wagon, dropping the two-door Roundup and wood-trim Bermuda. While all Edsel sedans used a Ford body, their wheelbase was 120 in, 2 inches longer.

In response to the widely negative response to 1958 Edsel exteriors, the exterior of 1959 Edsels underwent a restyling to tone down its appearance. While the vertical center grille made its return, following heavy revision, a redesign of the hoodline integrated the headlamps into a full-width outer grille, visually lowering the hoodline. A similar revision of the rear fascia repositioned the taillamps. Being based on the 1959 Ford, Edsels received the same roof design as the Fairlanes. Although Ford got a new luxury series of cars mid year, the Galaxie, Edsel never got an equivalent series, further eroding its appeal as a medium price automobile.

The 1959 Edsel interior dropped several features to increase its commonality with Ford. The push-button Teletouch transmission controls were withdrawn, alongside the rotating-dome speedometer, as Edsel introduced a slightly restyled version of the Ford Fairlane 500 dashboard. The optional climate control and fully padded dashboard returned. Alongside the use of distinct interior trim from Ford, Edsel had a 70/30 split-bench seatback for Corsairs. In 1967, Ford returned the split-bench seatback on the Ford LTD, continuing it into the 2010s on its full-size cars.

In 1959, Edsel sold 44,891 vehicles in the United States. 2,505 vehicles were sold in Canada.

1960
For the 1960 model year, Edsel saw its model line reduced further, offering only the Ranger sedans, hardtop, and convertible alongside the Villager station wagon. Redesigned alongside 1960 Fords, 1960 Edsels were released with a far more muted styling than their 1958 namesake.

Sharing nearly its entire body with Ford, Edsel abandoned its trademark vertical grille in favor of a split grille, similar to the 1959 Pontiac. For the first time, a full-width front bumper was used. While sharing their tailfins with Ford, the rear fascia of Edsels were distinguished by four oblong vertical taillamps. Distinguished primarily by their grille and taillamps, the 1960 Edsels were fitted with model-specific hoods, bumpers, and body-side trim. The four-door Ranger hardtop had no direct Ford equivalent, as it combined the roofline of the Fairlane with the doors of the Galaxie. The two-door hardtop shared its body with the Ford Galaxie Starliner, minus the star emblems on the "C" pillar.

In a design advance, the muffler was relocated from below the passenger compartment to the rear of the car, intended for better muffler protection and less heat and noise intrusion to the passenger compartment.

The 1960 Edsels were produced between October 15 and November 19, 1959. In total, 2,846 vehicles were produced at the Louisville Assembly, except for the pilot prototypes.

Discontinuation
Ford announced the end of the Edsel program on November 19, 1959. Production continued until late in November, with 2,846 model year 1960 cars produced. Total Edsel sales were approximately 116,000, less than half the company's projected break-even point. The company lost $350 million, the equivalent of $ in dollars, on the venture. Only 118,287 Edsels were built, including 7,440 produced in Oakville, Ontario, Canada. By U.S. auto industry standards, these production figures were dismal, particularly when spread across a run of three model years.

On November 20, 1959, United Press International's (UPI) wire service reported that book values for used Edsels had declined by as much as $400, based on condition and age, immediately following the Ford press release. In some newspaper markets, dealers scrambled to renegotiate newspaper advertising contracts involving the 1960 Edsel models, while others dropped the name from their dealerships' advertising entirely. Ford issued a statement that it would distribute coupons to customers who purchased 1960 models, and carryover 1959 models, prior to the announcement, valued at $300 to $400 toward the purchase of new Ford products to offset the decreased values. The company issued credits to dealers for stock unsold or received, following the announcement.

Edsel's failure
Historians have advanced several theories in an effort to explain Edsel's failure. Popular culture often faults vehicle styling. Consumer Reports has alleged that poor workmanship was Edsel's chief problem. Marketing experts hold Edsels up as a supreme example of the corporate culture's failure to understand American consumers. Business analysts cite the weak internal support for the product inside Ford's executive offices. According to author and Edsel scholar Jan Deutsch, an Edsel was "the wrong car at the wrong time."

"The aim was right, but the target moved"
Edsels are most notorious for being a marketing disaster. The name "Edsel" became synonymous with the real-life commercial failure of the predicted "perfect" product or product idea. Similar ill-fated products have often been colloquially referred to as "Edsels". Ford's own Sierra model, which launched almost 25 years later, is often compared to Edsels owing to initial buyer antipathy to their perceived radical styling, even though, unlike Edsels, it ultimately became a sales success. Since the Edsel program was such a debacle, it gave marketers a vivid illustration of how not to market a product.

The principal reason Edsel's failure is so infamous is that Ford did not consider that failure was a possibility until after the cars had been designed and built, the dealerships established, and $400 million invested in the product's development, advertising and launch. Incredibly, Ford had presumed to invest $400 million, well over $4 billion in 21st century dollars, in developing the new product line without any prior study to determine whether such an investment would be prudent or profitable.

The pre-release advertising campaign promoted the cars as having "more YOU ideas". The teaser advertisements in magazines revealed only glimpses of the cars through a highly blurred lens or wrapped in paper or under tarps. Ford never test marketed the vehicles or their radical styling concepts with potential buyers prior to either the vehicles' initial development decision, or vehicle shipments to their new dealerships. Edsels were shipped to the dealerships under wraps, and remained so on the dealer lots.

The public also had difficulty understanding exactly what Edsels were, primarily because Ford made the mistake of pricing Edsels within Mercury's market price segment. Theoretically, Edsels were conceived to fit into Ford's marketing structure as a mid-price model, with the brand slotted in between Ford and Mercury. However, when the cars debuted in September 1957, the least expensive Ranger model was priced within $74 of the most expensive and best-trimmed Ford sedan, and $63 less than Mercury's base Medalist model. In their mid-range pricing, Edsel's Pacer and Corsair models were more expensive than their ostensibly more costly Mercury counterparts. Edsel's top-of-the-line Citation hardtop sedan was the only model priced to correctly compete with Mercury's mid-range Montclair Turnpike Cruiser model, as illustrated in the chart below. Edsel products were priced from $2,484,, to $3,766,.

Not only was Edsel competing against its own sister divisions, but model for model, buyers did not understand what the cars were supposed to be—a step above the Mercury, or a step below it.

After introduction to the public, Edsels did not live up to their preproduction publicity, even though many new features were offered, such as self-adjusting rear brakes and automatic lubrication. While Ford's market research had indicated that these and other features would make Edsels attractive to them as car buyers, their selling prices exceeded what buyers were willing to pay. Upon seeing the price for a base model, many potential buyers simply left the dealerships. Other customers were frightened by the price for a fully equipped top-of-the-line model.

“The wrong car at the wrong time”
One of the external forces working against the Edsel brand was the onset of an economic recession in late 1957.

Compounding Edsel's problems was that the car had to compete with well-established nameplates from the Big Three such as Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Buick, Dodge, and DeSoto, as well as with its sister division Mercury, which had never been a stellar sales success. To make matters worse, as a new make, Edsel had no established brand loyalty with buyers as its competing makes had.

Even if the 1957–1958 recession had not occurred, Edsel would have been entering a shrinking marketplace. In the early 1950s, when the "E" car was in its earliest stages of development, Ford Executive Vice President Ernest R. Breech had convinced Ford management that the medium-priced market segment offered great untapped opportunity. At the time, Breech's assessment was basically correct. In 1955, Pontiac, Buick, and Dodge sold a combined two million units. However, by the fall of 1957, when Edsels were introduced, the market had changed drastically. Independent manufacturers in the medium-priced field were drifting to insolvency.

Hoping to reverse its losses, Packard acquired Studebaker, which was also in financial difficulty. The board decided to stop production under the venerable Packard badge after 1958. The 1957–58 Packards were Studebaker bodied cars using much Packard styling, also known as "Packardbakers". Attempting to capitalize on the emerging consumer interest in economy cars, American Motors shifted its focus to its compact Rambler models and discontinued its pre-merger brands, Nash and Hudson, after the 1957 model year. Sales of Chrysler's DeSoto marque dropped dramatically from its 1957 high by over 50% in 1958. When DeSoto sales failed to rebound during the 1959 model year, plans were made in Highland Park to discontinue the nameplate by 1961.

Despite the presence and influence of the "whiz kids" in the Ford hierarchy and upon this car, the project epitomized the hazards of 'design by committee.'

Sales for most car manufacturers, even those not introducing new models, were down. Among domestic makes, only Rambler and Lincoln produced more cars in 1958 than in 1957. Customers started buying more fuel-efficient automobiles, particularly Volkswagen Beetles, which were selling at rates exceeding 50,000 a year in the U.S. from 1957 onward. Edsels were equipped with powerful engines and offered brisk acceleration, but they also required premium fuel, and their fuel economy, especially in city driving, was poor even by late-1950s standards.

Ford Motor Company had conducted the right marketing study, but it came up with the wrong product to fill the gap between Ford and Mercury. By 1958, buyers had become fascinated with economy cars, and a large car like an Edsel was seen as too expensive to buy and own. When Ford introduced the Falcon in 1959, it sold over 400,000 units in its first year. Ford's investment in expanded plant capacity and additional tooling for Edsels helped make the company's subsequent success with the Falcon possible.

By 1965, the market for medium-priced cars had recovered, and this time, Ford had the right car, the Galaxie 500 LTD. The LTD's success led Chevrolet to introduce the Caprice as a mid-1965 upscale trim option on its top-of-the-line Impala four-door hardtop.

"Edsel, a difficult name to place"
The name of the car, Edsel, is also often cited as a further reason for its lack of popularity. Naming the vehicle after Edsel Ford, former company president and son of Henry Ford, was proposed early in its development. However, the Ford family strongly opposed its use. Henry Ford II declared that he did not want his father's good name spinning around on thousands of hubcaps. Ford ran internal studies to decide on a name, and dispatched employees to stand outside movie theaters to poll audiences as to what their feelings were on several ideas. They reached no conclusions.

Ford retained the advertising firm Foote, Cone & Belding to come up with a name. When the agency issued its report, citing over 6,000 possibilities, Ford's Ernest Breech commented that they had been hired to develop one name, not 6,000. Early favorites for the name brand included Citation, Corsair, Pacer, and Ranger, which were ultimately chosen for the vehicle's series names.

David Wallace, manager of marketing research, and coworker Bob Young unofficially invited freethinker poet Marianne Moore for input and suggestions. Moore's unorthodox contributions, among them "Utopian Turtletop," "Pastelogram," "Turcotinga," "Resilient Bullet," "Andante con Moto" and "Mongoose Civique", were meant to stir creative thought and were not officially authorized or contractual in nature.

By the instruction of Ernest Breech, who was chairing a board meeting in the absence of Henry Ford II, the car was finally called "Edsel", in honor of Edsel Ford.

Reliability
Even though Edsels shared basic technology with other Ford cars of the era, a number of issues caused reliability problems, mostly with the 1958 models. Reports of mechanical flaws with the cars surfaced, due primarily to lack of quality control and confusion of parts with other Ford models. Ford never dedicated a stand-alone factory solely to Edsel model production. The 1958 Edsels were assembled in both Mercury and Ford factories. The longer-wheelbase models, Citation and Corsair, were produced alongside the Mercury products. The shorter-wheelbase models, Pacer and Ranger, were produced alongside Ford products.

Workers assembling Fords and Mercurys often found the task of assembling the occasional Edsel that moved down the production line burdensome, because it required them to change tools and parts bins, then switch back to resume assembling Fords or Mercurys after completing assembly on Edsels. The workers were also expected to accommodate Edsel assembly with no adjustment in their hourly quota of Ford and Mercury production. Consequently, the desired quality control of the different Edsel models proved difficult to achieve, even when the Fords and Mercurys were satisfactorily assembled on the same lines. Many Edsels actually left the assembly lines unfinished. Uninstalled parts were placed in the trunks along with installation instructions for dealership mechanics, some of whom never installed the additional parts at all. Some dealers did not even receive all the parts.

In the March 1958 issue of Popular Mechanics, 16% of Edsel owners reported poor workmanship, with complaints ranging from faulty welding to power steering failure. In its test car, Popular Mechanics tested for these problems and discovered others, notably a badly leaking trunk during rain, and the odometer showing fewer than actual miles traveled.

Body design
Edsel's most memorable design feature was its trademark "horsecollar" grille, which was distinct from that of other cars of the period. According to a popular joke at the time, Edsels "resembled an Oldsmobile sucking a lemon".

According to Thomas E. Bonsall's 2002 book, Disaster in Dearborn, it was assistant stylist Bob "Robin" Jones who suggested a vertical motif for the front end of the "E-car".

Edsel's front end bore little resemblance, if any, to the original concept. Roy Brown, the original chief designer on the Edsel project, had envisioned a slender, almost delicate opening in the center. Engineers, fearing engine cooling problems, vetoed the intended design, so a ring design was suggested. Ernest Breech then demanded that the grille be taller and wider, which led to the "horsecollar". The vertical grille, after being improved for the 1959 models, was discontinued for the 1960 models, which were similar to Ford models of the same year, although coincidentally, the new front end was very similar to that of the 1959 Pontiac.

Complaints also surfaced about the taillights on 1958 Edsel station wagons. The lenses were boomerang-shaped and placed in a reverse fashion. At a distance, they appeared as arrows pointed in the opposite direction of the turn being made. When the left turn signal flashed, its arrow shape pointed right, and vice versa. However, there was little that could be done to give the Ford-based station wagons a unique appearance from the rear, because corporate management had insisted that no sheetmetal could be changed. Only the taillights and trim could be touched. There was room for separate turn signals in addition to the boomerangs, but the U.S. industry had never supplied them up to that point, and they were probably never seriously considered.

Powertrain features
The Teletouch pushbutton automatic transmission selector was an extremely complex feature. It proved problematic in part because the steering wheel hub, where the pushbuttons were located, was the traditional location of the horn button. Some drivers inadvertently shifted gears when they intended to sound the horn. While Edsels were fast, the location of the transmission pushbuttons was not conducive to street racing. There were also jokes among stoplight drag racers about the buttons: D for Drag, L for Leap, and R for Race, instead of Drive, Low and Reverse.

The control wires for Teletouch were also routed too close to the exhaust manifold, which often caused unpredictable movement of the selector mechanism and, in some cases, complete failure. The electrical design required drivers to shift from Park to Reverse to Neutral to Drive, in that order, to avoid overloading the Teletouch motor. The motor was also not powerful enough to bring the car out of Park while on a hill, so dealerships would instruct drivers to set the parking brake before pushing the Park button.

Mechanics of the time were wary of the 410-cubic-inch Edsel "E-475" engine because its perfectly flat cylinder heads lacked distinct combustion chambers. The heads were set at an angle, with "roof" pistons forming both a squish zone on one side and a combustion chamber on the other. Combustion thus took place entirely within the cylinder bore. This design was similar to Chevrolet's 348-cubic-inch "W" engine, which was also introduced in 1958. While the design reduced the cost of manufacture and may also have helped minimize carbon buildup, it was also unfamiliar to many mechanics.

Company politics and the role of Robert McNamara
Following World War II, Henry Ford II retained Robert McNamara as one of the 10 Ford "Whiz Kids" to help turn Ford around. McNamara's cost-cutting and cost-containment skills helped Ford emerge from its near-collapse after the war. As a result, McNamara eventually amassed a considerable amount of power at Ford. McNamara was very much a throwback to Henry Ford in that, like the elder Ford, McNamara was committed to the Ford marque to the almost total exclusion of the company's other products. Thus, McNamara had little use for the Continental, Lincoln, Mercury and Edsel brand cars made by the company.

McNamara opposed the formation of the separate divisions for Continental, Lincoln, Mercury, and Edsel cars, and moved to consolidate Lincoln, Mercury, and Edsel into the M-E-L division. McNamara saw to it that the Continental program was canceled and that the model was merged into the Lincoln range for 1958. He next set his sights on Edsel by maneuvering for elimination of the dual wheelbases and separate bodies used for 1958. Instead, Edsels would share the Ford platform and use Ford's inner body structure for 1959.

By 1960, Edsels emerged as little more than a Ford with different trim. McNamara moved to reduce Edsel's advertising budget for 1959, and for 1960, he virtually eliminated it. The final blow came in the fall of 1959, when McNamara convinced Henry Ford II and the rest of Ford's management that Edsel was doomed and that it was time to end production before Edsel bled the company dry. McNamara also attempted to discontinue the Lincoln nameplate, but that effort ended with Elwood Engel's now classic redesign of 1961. McNamara left Ford when he was named Secretary of Defense by President John F. Kennedy.

During the 1964 presidential election, Republican nominee Barry Goldwater blamed McNamara, then Secretary of Defense, for Edsel's failure. Eventually, Ford's former executive vice president Ernest R. Breech, who was a financial contributor to Goldwater, wrote to the Senator's campaign, explaining that "Mr. McNamara ... had nothing to do with the plans for the Edsel car or any part of the program." However, the charge continued to be leveled against McNamara for years. During his time as head of the World Bank, McNamara instructed his public affairs officer to distribute copies of Breech's letter to the press whenever the accusation was made.

The Ho Chi Minh Museum in Hanoi features an Edsel crashing through a wall, intended to symbolically represent US military failure in the Vietnam War. McNamara became the US Secretary of Defense after his career at Ford, and oversaw the escalation of the US military presence in Vietnam.

Comet
While Edsel cost Ford over $250 million in 1958 dollars, the project saw longer-term benefits for the company, as Ford invested over $100 million to build compact cars over the 1960s.

Prior to the closure of the Edsel division, the brand was intending to release the Edsel Comet compact for the 1960 model year, sharing a body with the Ford Falcon. Running prototypes of sedans and station wagons were developed into November 1959, only days before the closure of Edsel. The design was approved for production, with the Comet sold by Lincoln-Mercury under no divisional branding. Though sharing chassis underpinnings and many body stampings with the Falcon, the Comet was stretched to a 114 in wheelbase, longer than the GM Y-body "senior compacts". The Comet adopted multiple design features from the full-size Edsel line, including its oblong taillamp lenses, though canted diagonally, creating its rear tailfins, along with the instrument cluster. Comet keys were styled like Edsel keys, restyling the "E" emblem as a "C".

While sold without divisional branding, the Comet proved successful; Lincoln-Mercury sold more 1960 Comets than the entire Edsel model line sold through its 1958–1960 existence. For 1962, the Comet was branded as a Mercury; the model line was produced through 1977.

Meteor
For 1961, Lincoln-Mercury introduced the Mercury Meteor as its entry-level full-size sedan, slotted below the Mercury Monterey. Beginning life as a design for the 1961 Edsel Ranger, the base trim of the Meteor was designed with oblong taillamps, switching to a horizontal layout, derived from the 1960 Ranger and Comet, designed as an Edsel. For 1962, the full-size Meteor was discontinued, with Mercury shifting the nameplate to its newly introduced intermediate car line, becoming a counterpart of the Ford Fairlane to 1963.

Design influence
While the Edsel trademark vertical grille saw a nearly universal negative response by contemporary buyers and critics, multiple subsequent automobile manufacturers have employed narrow vertically oriented grilles with greater success in the marketplace, including Pontiac, Jaguar, Subaru, Lancia, Alfa Romeo, and Saab. The BMW 4 Series (G22) is a contemporary model line with a vertical grille, generating a negative critical response similar to the Edsel.

Through technological advances, multiple features introduced by Edsel cars, including self-adjusting brakes, automatic climate control, steering wheel-mounted transmission controls, and childproof rear door locks are no longer impractical ideas, but included in many current production features as options or standard equipment.

Collectors
More than half a century after the brand's failure, Edsels have become highly collectible items among vintage car hobbyists. Fewer than 10,000 Edsels survive and they are considered valuable collector's items. A mint-condition Edsel convertible from any of its three model years may sell for over $100,000. The rarest Edsel by body style is the 1960 Ranger convertible, of which only 76 were built. Approximately 25 survive today. The rarest Edsel by model is the 1960 Ranger deluxe interior 4-door hardtop, model 57B. Originally intended to be released as the 1960 Corsair, only 31 units were produced.

Plastic scale models of all three Edsel years were produced by Aluminum Metal Toys (AMT) in 1/25 scale. AMT issued a new and more detailed kit of the 1958 Pacer hardtop in the 1990s. Yat Ming, a producer of die-cast model cars, offered a 1958 Citation in 1/18 scale in both hardtop and convertible body styles. Yat Ming also produced a 1/43 scale die-cast of the Citation convertible in several color combinations. The Franklin Mint produced 1/24 scale and 1/43 scale die-cast models of the 1958 Citation convertible. The Danbury Mint produced a 1/24 scale die-cast replica of the 1958 Bermuda station wagon.

title: Edsel


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Talk:Atonement in Christianity

not enough basic information in the lead
This lead jumps right into competing explanations of how atonement works but doesn't explain what it means in the first place. What are its roots in Judaism? Where does the doctrine of atonement come from? There's no mention of baptism, through which the believer participates in Jesus death and resurrection. Nothing about repentance, or what happens to you if you don't atone. And the lead is too long, I might jump in here and rework the lead. Jonathan Tweet (talk) 23:30, 15 January 2016 (UTC)

Atonement in Christianity is NOT appropriate
173.206.70.185 (talk) 20:34, 19 August 2016 (UTC)

Unfortunately, ‘atonement’ is a widely-accepted word. Set emotional attachment aside. NO ONE before 1500 used that word -- no OT or NT Scripture, no stone tablet, no papyrus, no prophet, no apostle, no disciple, no translator, no commentator, no preacher, no scholar.

FACT: The atonement-label for Old & New covenant, vicarious-substitution was invented around 1510 AD when “at-one-ment” was coined.

- Greek Septuagint (132 BC) = hemera exilasmou (Lev.23:27,28)

- Latin Vulgate (425 AD) = dies expiationum (Lev.23:27) / dies propitiationis (Lev.23:28)

- Some English translators wrongly superimpose “Day of Atonement” into these ancient texts.

- The Apostles’ Creed (120-250 AD) / Nicene Creed (325 & 381) / Chalcedonian Creed (451) / Athanasian Creed (500) could not & do not mention the word atonement.

- There are zero Greek words that = atonement / expiation / propitiation / satisfaction / reparation in the NT.

- The “Doctrine of Christ’s Atonement” label is NOT true-to-SCRIPTURE -- it's a modern man-made marquee.

Non-Trinitarian Views?
Why is there a special section on "Non-Trinitarian" views on atonement? None of the main doctrines of atonement rely explicitly on the doctrine of Trinity, yet the organization of the articles strongly suggests such. Each of the preceding doctrines of atonement has Trinitarian and Nontrinitarian proponents, and there are plenty of Nontrinitarian groups mentioned in the detailed articles for those views. The views in this Nontrinitarian section (as they pertain to atonement) are almost completely covered in the existing sub-articles.

If there are groups with distinct thoughts on atonement (Mormons?), at the very least, these views should be listed under "Other Christian Views." To create a completely separate category makes no sense and confuses the issue considerably.

Biased, unfair deletion by Editor2020
173.206.68.125 (talk) 03:39, 27 August 2016 (UTC)

My contributions are neutral, relevant, significant, verifiable, reader-empowering, perspective-balancing, intelligent-summary facts, & should be added to the article. This is vital-to-full-understanding info. It is extremely relevant to learn Atonement is not supported by original Scripture or the LXX or the Vulgate. I will take this further if we can't resolve things.

An encyclopedia ...is a type of reference work or compendium holding a comprehensive summary of information.... ~ My contributions fill a major fundamental-hole in this article. ~ My contributions are given in good faith & are cited (in sharp contrast to the article -- which contains a citation-lacking warning, since Dec 2009.)

''Atonement / Expiation / Propitiation in original manuscripts[1] ~ No occurrences in original OT Hebrew Scriptures, or in original NT Greek Scriptures. ~ Also, the word "Atonement" was invented around 1510 AD,[2] so no occurrences in Greek Septuagint LXX Pentateuch (282 BC),[3] or in Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 AD).[4]

Expiation in Latin Vulgate ~ Enter expiat* in VUL at https://www.blueletterbible.org/

36 OT occurrences ~ No NT occurrences

Propitiation in Latin Vulgate ~ Enter propit* in VUL at https://www.blueletterbible.org/

61 OT occurrences ~ 6 NT occurrences {Lk.18:13; Rom.3:25; Heb.8:12; 9:5; 1Jn.2:2; 4:10}.''

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title: Talk:Atonement in Christianity


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Scapegoating

Scapegoating is the practice of singling out a person or group for unmerited blame and consequent negative treatment. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals (e.g. "he did it, not me!"), individuals against groups (e.g., "I couldn't see anything because of all the tall people"), groups against individuals (e.g., "He was the reason our team didn't win"), and groups against groups.

A scapegoat may be an adult, child, sibling, employee, peer, ethnic, political or religious group, or country. A whipping boy, identified patient, or "fall guy" are forms of scapegoat.

Scapegoating has its origins in the scapegoat ritual of atonement described in chapter 16 of the Biblical Book of Leviticus, in which a goat (or ass) is released into the wilderness bearing all the sins of the community, which have been placed on the goat's head by a priest.

At the individual level
A medical definition of scapegoating is:

"Process in which the mechanisms of projection or displacement are used in focusing feelings of aggression, hostility, frustration, etc., upon another individual or group; the amount of blame being unwarranted. Scapegoating is a hostile tactic often employed to characterize an entire group of individuals according to the unethical or immoral conduct of a small number of individuals belonging to that group. Scapegoating relates to guilt by association and stereotyping."

Scapegoated groups throughout history have included almost every imaginable group of people: genders, religions, people of different races, nations, or sexual orientations, people with different political beliefs, or people differing in behaviour from the majority. However, scapegoating may also be applied to organizations, such as governments, corporations, or various political groups.

Its archetype
Jungian analyst Sylvia Brinton Perera situates its mythology of shadow and guilt. Individuals experience it at the archetypal level. As an ancient social process to rid a community of its past evil deeds and reconnect it to the sacred realm, the scapegoat appeared in a biblical rite, which involved two goats and the pre-Judaic, chthonic god Azazel. In the modern scapegoat complex, however, "the energy field has been radically broken apart" and the libido "split off from consciousness". Azazel's role is deformed into an accuser of the scapegoated victim.

Blame for breaking a perfectionist moral code, for instance, might be measured out by aggressive scapegoaters. Themselves often wounded, the scapegoaters can be sadistic, superego accusers with brittle personas, who have driven their own shadows underground from where such are projected onto the victim. The scapegoated victim may then live in a hell of felt unworthiness, retreating from consciousness, burdened by shadow and transpersonal guilt, and hiding from the pain of self-understanding. Therapy includes modeling self-protective skills for the victim's battered ego, and guidance in the search for inner integrity, to find the victim's own voice.

Projection
Unwanted thoughts and feelings can be unconsciously projected onto another who becomes a scapegoat for one's own problems. This concept can be extended to projection by groups. In this case the chosen individual, or group, becomes the scapegoat for the group's problems. "Political agitation in all countries is full of such projections, just as much as the backyard gossip of little groups and individuals." Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung considered indeed that "there must be some people who behave in the wrong way; they act as scapegoats and objects of interest for the normal ones".

Scapegoat theory of intergroup conflict
The scapegoat theory of intergroup conflict provides an explanation for the correlation between times of relative economic despair and increases in prejudice and violence toward outgroups. Studies of anti-black violence (racist violence) in the southern United States between 1882 and 1930 show a correlation between poor economic conditions and outbreaks of violence (e.g. lynchings) against blacks. The correlation between the price of cotton (the principal product of the area at that time) and the number of lynchings of black men by whites ranged from −0.63 to −0.72, suggesting that a poor economy induced white people to take out their frustrations by attacking an outgroup.

Scapegoating as a group necessitates that ingroup members settle on one specific target to blame for their problems.

In management, scapegoating is a known practice in which a lower staff employee is blamed for the mistakes of senior executives. This is often due to lack of accountability in upper management.

Scapegoat mechanism
Literary critic and philosopher Kenneth Burke first coined and described the expression scapegoat mechanism in his books Permanence and Change (1935), and A Grammar of Motives (1945). These works influenced some philosophical anthropologists, such as Ernest Becker and René Girard.

Girard developed the concept much more extensively as an interpretation of human culture. In Girard's view, it is humankind, not God, who has need for various forms of atoning violence. Humans are driven by desire for that which another has or wants (mimetic desire). This causes a triangulation of desire and results in conflict between the desiring parties. This mimetic contagion increases to a point where society is at risk; it is at this point that the scapegoat mechanism is triggered. This is the point where one person is singled out as the cause of the trouble and is expelled or killed by the group. This person is the scapegoat. Social order is restored as people are contented that they have solved the cause of their problems by removing the scapegoated individual, and the cycle begins again.

Scapegoating serves as a psychological relief for a group of people. Girard contends that this is what happened in the narrative of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure in Christianity. The difference between the scapegoating of Jesus and others, Girard believes, is that in the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, he is shown to be an innocent victim; humanity is thus made aware of its violent tendencies and the cycle is broken. Thus Girard's work is significant as a reconstruction of the Christus Victor atonement theory.

title: Scapegoating


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Julius Müller (theologian)

Julius Müller (10 April 1801 – 27 September 1878) was a German Protestant theologian.

Biography
He was born at Brieg (now Brzeg, Poland) and studied at Breslau, Göttingen and Berlin – first law, which he later abandoned for theology. From 1825 to 1831, he was in charge of several small parishes. In 1831, he was second university preacher at Göttingen University, and lectured on practical theology and pedagogics. In 1834, he became professor extraordinarius of theology there. From 1835 to 1839 he was professor in Marburg. In 1839 he became professor ordinarius of theology at the University of Halle, where he remained for the rest of his life. He died at Halle.

A disciple of Neander and friend of Richard Rothe, Müller bitterly opposed the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel and the criticism of F. C. Baur. His book, Über den Gegensatz des Protestantismus und das Catholicismus (On the Opposition of Protestantism and Catholicism, 1833), called forth a reply from Baur, and he was one of those who attacked David Strauss's Life of Jesus.

In 1846, he had been deputed to attend the General Evangelical Synod at Berlin. Here he supported the Consensus-Union and afterwards defended himself in the pamphlets Die erste Generalsynode der evangelische Landeskirche Preussens (1847) and Die evangelische Union, ihr Wesen und göttliches Recht (1854). In 1848 he helped to found the Deutsch-Evangelische Kirchentag, and two years later founded and edited (1850–1861), with August Neander and Karl Nitzsch, the Deutsche Zeitschrift für christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben.

His chief work, however, was Die christliche Lehre der Sünde (The Christian Teaching of Sin, 2 vols., 1839; 5th ed., 1867; Eng. trans. from 5th ed.), in which he went so far as "to revive the ancient Gnostic theory of the fall of man before all time, a theory which found no favour amongst his theological friends." Müller's other works include Dogmatische Abhandlungen (1870), and Das christliche Leben (3rd ed., 1847).

Family
His brothers were Karl Otfried Müller (1797–1840), an archeologist and philologist, and Eduard Müller (1804–1875), a philologist.

title: Julius Müller (theologian)


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Karl Immanuel Nitzsch

Karl Immanuel Nitzsch (21 September 1787, Borna – 21 August 1868, Berlin) was a German Lutheran church leader. He was the father of theologian Friedrich August Nitzsch.

Biography
He was born in the small Saxon town of Borna near Leipzig. His father, Karl Ludwig Nitzsch, at that time pastor and superintendent in Borna, later (1790) became professor at Wittenberg and director (1817) of the seminary for preachers. He was sent to study at Schulpforta in 1803, going on to the University of Wittenberg in 1806. In 1809 he graduated, and in 1810 he became a privatdozent at the university. Having become a deacon at the Schlosskirche in 1811, he showed remarkable energy and zeal during the bombardment and siege of the city in 1813. In 1815 he was appointed a preceptor in the preachers' seminary which had been established at Wittenberg after the suppression of the university.

From 1820 to 1822 he was superintendent in Kemberg, and in the latter year he was appointed professor ordinarius of systematic and practical theology at Bonn. Here he remained until called to succeed Philip Marheineke at Berlin in 1847; subsequently he became university preacher, rector of the university, provost of St Nicolai (in 1854) and member of the supreme council of the church, in which last capacity he was one of the ablest and most active promoters of the Evangelical Union. He represented the Vermittelungstheologie of the school of Friedrich Schleiermacher.

Published works
Nitzsch's principal works are: System der christlichen Lehre (1829; 6th edition, 1851; English translation: System of Christian doctrine 1849), Praktische Theologie (1847-1860; 2nd edition, 1863-1868), Akademische Vorträge über christliche Glaubenslehre (1858), and several series of sermons. According to Otto Pfleiderer, (Development of Theology, p. 123): "He took as his starting-point the fundamental thought of Schleiermacher, that religion is not doctrine but life, direct consciousness, feeling. At the same time he sought to bring religious feeling into closer connection with knowledge and volition than Schleiermacher had done; he laid special stress – and justly – on the recognition of a necessary and radical union of religion with morality, treating both dogmatics and ethics together accordingly in his System der christlichen Lehre". His Protestantische Beantwortung, a reply to the Symbolik of Johann Adam Möhler (1796-1838), which originally appeared in the Studien und Kritiken, of which he was one of the founders, may also be mentioned.

title: Karl Immanuel Nitzsch