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Talk:I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again

[Untitled]
Considering that ITMA now has a page of its own containing all the same information, isn't it about time somebody removed that footnoote? --Paul A, 22 Jan 2003 7:40 (UTC)

Oh, someone has. Well done. --Paul A, 22 Jan 2003 8:10 (UTC)

Can someone check the veracity of "(except in "The Angus Prune Story" aired on 18 April 1966)" as it was added by 203.97.2.243 who has been vandalising other pages. Tiles 05:40, 30 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The statement about Angus Prune is true. The character appeared only in the one sketch (about a footballer). The early shows did not any words to what later became the Angus Prune tune so I think they were added some time afterward. Anthony Guter

Sir Angus of the Prune (played by Tim Brooke-Taylor) appears in the episode first aired on May 1966. Though, when ummasked during the Robin Hood spoof sketch, he claims to be Sir Angus of the Prune desguised as Robin Hood disguised as Sir Angus of the Prune.

Angus Prune agains appears as a character in an episode repeated on BBC7 on 24-sep-2004 (they completely failed to give any details of then original broadcase date). It's a two-hander with John Cleese as Angus Prune (refered to as Mr Prune for most of the sketch, but definitely Angus as the couple get more intimate) and Jo Kendall (as Ms Bedsock). They start as a very formal (and classic cleese-style pompous and arrogant) company chairman (Cleese) and his personal assistant, but it is revealed that they have been married to each other for 14 years and have children.

 * Just for the record, "The Angus Prune Story" (the footballer one) is in series 2, episode 6; the "Robin Hood" sketch is in series 2, episode 11; and the "Mr Prune and Miss Bedsock" sketch is in series 3, episode 2. --Paul A 14:00, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

Also just for the record, the sketch referenced above, viz. 'Mr Prune and Miss Bedsock' features David Hatch as Mr Prune and not John Cleese. Nicander 22:58, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

Re: the very final pargraph, Bill Oddie is from Birmingham, not Yorkshire, as is cited in one episode of the show (Tim's from Buxton! Well Bill Oddie's from Birmingham!) and further evidenced by "Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book," published in the late 70s. I'll try to tweak the page. AlecM (I really must register on this thing)

Wrong. He was born in Rochdale but grew up in Birmingham.

Exile 20:17, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

References?
Good article, but nothing cites references. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by AGoon (talk • contribs).

 * I have now added a reference regarding the radio programme. Figaro 23:05, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Good on you! It would be nice if adding references was easier. Perhaps the software could be changed? TDN 20:40, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Number of Shows?
Can was just do a double check on the number of shows they did. I just bough a CD of 83 Shows, with little fillers telling me where a show is missing, and according to that & also according to the external link labelled as 'Detailed information on I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again' their should be 102 Shows, though this does include the pilot episode and the half-dozen specials, but even if you remove them from the equation it still equalls more than the 86 shows described here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.106.20.207 (talk) 19:10, 7 March 2008 (UTC)

Have made alerations on this, as I have have just downloaded 105ish episodes which is greater than the 86 that have been mentioned already. Have also changed the date from 'to date' to '1964-73' as this is the proper information. The infomation for my download can be found at http://thepiratebay.org/torrent/3647603/I_m_Sorry_I_Haven_t_A_Clue_(ISIHAC)_BBC-Radio though I'm sure it'll be ignored by Wikipedia.

 * OK, I just checked this (after reverting the page). According to, there are 97 episodes, not counting Cambridge Circus. I have no idea what the discrepancies are between whatever you've got and most proper lists I've seen. Also, are you sure this "special" is from 1978? Was it recorded then or just broadcast then? And are you sure it's actually ISIRTA? A torrent list doesn't really prove anything if it can't be backed up by something... Bangdrum (talk) 16:16, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Got it! Black_Cinderella_Two_Goes_East! Rare certainly, but clearly not ISIRTA as such. That leaves one less "missing" episode to make sense of... Bangdrum (talk) 16:22, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I have figured it out! There are actually 105 (104 if not including Cambridge Circus). Link above doesn't clearly state it anywhere, but the total number of listed, detailed episodes = 104 + Cambridge Circus. This can largely be backed up with, matching the "unplaced" episodes to their proper places in series 3. As such, will put your edit back (minus the 1978 show) with these two links as references. :D Bangdrum (talk) 16:44, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Cool. You've got more patience than I have to work all that out :) Thanks
 * No problem. The joys of editing. :) Bangdrum (talk) 12:33, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Just noticed that the page is still giving the Air Dates as 'to date'. Any idea why that is? (sorry to be a ball breaker) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.106.39.189 (talk) 12:35, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Fixed it. I think the template wasn't working. I changed it from "airdates" to "first_aired" and "last_aired". :) Bangdrum (talk) 15:41, 24 November 2008 (UTC)

Pilot show ("Cambridge Circus") aired 30.12.1963. First series of 3 programmes (1964). Seceond series of 9 programmes (1965). Third series of 13 programmes (1966). Fourth series of 14 programmes (1966). Fifth series of 14 programmes (1967). Sixth series of 13 programmes (1968) plus Christmas Special (1968). Seventh series of 13 programmes (1969) plus Christmas Special (1969). Eighth series of 13 programmes (1970) plus New Year's Eve Special (1970). Ninth series of 8 programmes (1973). 25th Anniversary Special brodcast at Christmas 1988. I make that a total of 105 altogether!GARRYHIGH (talk) 20:29, 9 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed except I wouldn't include Cambridge Circus as an "episode." Mainly because it was largely stuff from the stage show, wasn't originally written for the radio, and retained its own name. I'm not in charge though, so if other people think it should go in, put it in... Bangdrum (talk) 01:01, 10 December 2008 (UTC)

What that Gibbon?
The song title has been changed to "Stop that Gibbon". I am sure it is "Stuff that Gibbon", but I am not going to go by my own ears. NYDirk (talk) 01:21, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

It is "Stuff the Gibbon". Whilst the song clearly refers to "Polythene gibbon stuffing" I think there can be little doubt Ozzypeely (talk) 18:19, 10 May 2008 (UTC)

Fiftieth Anniversary Episode
Just five years to go. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.125.155.225 (talk) 21:39, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I think that'll be less likely with Ol' Hatch gone. :( Bangdrum (talk) 05:52, 13 March 2011 (UTC)

Related article names etc
Please can we discuss the names of the various ISIRTA Plays articles and form a plan for any renames or merging? Original names were like ISIRTA Plays - "F" etc, a few are now renamed to "A" plays - ISIRTA etc. The issues which need to be sorted out include: In addition:
 * how to structure a name including alphabetical parts?
 * quoting the "A" etc make it look as if reliable sources might use this nomenclature or subdivision: I rather doubt that but if so we would need to refer to such a reliable source.
 * the reader may be better served if the main subject of the article comes first, as in the originally chosen titles. We have for example ISIRTA Songs too as well as the redirect ISIRTA
 * we should have a look at WP:MOS: I think an ndash will be better than a hyphen in the titles and certainly a range of letters should have an ndash: A–E.
 * perhaps fewer articles covering a range of letters would be better and make the editorial reason for the division clearer? We can merge if necessary.
 * The links in the main article should be section links, for example (choosing a play I remember):.
 * (Incidentally, should that not be "Jorrocks' " with a posessive apostrophe afterwards?)
 * The links in the navbox should be in a second level list for accessibility and we could lose the quotes there, thus:
 * etc.

--Mirokado (talk) 14:46, 6 July 2013 (UTC)

"A" plays - ISIRTA has now been prodded, so this thread may either be helpful in combatting deletion or moot. It would be quite possible to merge the articles as follows (the comma and letter range provide the clearest title I think: However I have now had a look through the current contents, and since they are completely unsourced I am not convinced that it will be possible to stop them being deleted merely by merging. I think I will leave it up to the original author or anyone else to do the merging and improve the contents in any other practicable way, if they wish. --Mirokado (talk) 22:15, 26 July 2013 (UTC)

Thanks to User:Figaro for merging A–C. Some points relating to the rename-and-merge: A few points which could be dealt with at the same time: The main thing these articles still need is references to reliable sources. The merging will not solve the reference problem. As well as references for the details in the article, it would be very good indeed to find references to reviews, influences on later comedy shows, other forms of legacy and so on which establish some notability for this canon. Anything like that will help establish notability for individual plays or "the plays" as opposed to "the series". --Mirokado (talk) 22:57, 28 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Moving the lowest-letter article of each group to the new name is fine. Please move to the name with an endash (as in the table above) as that will avoid a further move to comply with MOS:ENDASH later on. We cam create redirects from the minus-names to the emdash-names once the articles have settled down.
 * Looking at the table again, I think the the final range will look tidier if it ends at Z, otherwise the missing letters will look odd in a table of contents or navbox. (Table updated above).
 * Please use the plainlist implementation of the infobox-starring list in the current ISIRTA Plays - "V". This is better for accessibility (people using screenreaders for example).
 * Please make sure that the final play section also has an empty-section template if it is empty: some of the current articles are missing that.

External links modified
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Kendall, Brooke-Taylor and female characters
This article asserts that Kendall played all female characters except for Lady Constance. The article at TVTropes, on the other hand, states that Brooke-Taylor played various female characters. Which is correct? Jcejhay (talk) 13:08, 8 February 2019 (UTC)
 * From what I remember from listening to the series; Tim Brooke-Taylor did play several female characters but most of them were based on the Lady Constance character. He also played the "Good Fairy" in at least one episode. I'm not sure if that counts :-) --Roly (talk) 13:59, 8 February 2019 (UTC)

Paragraph that generally seems to stray from neutral tone and/or needs citations
This paragraph seems to need work, though I'm not knowledgeable enough about the show to undertake it:

''Although earlier BBC radio shows such as Much Binding in the Marsh, Take It From Here, and Beyond Our Ken had conditioned listeners to a mix of music, sketches and jokes in a 30-minute show, and Round the Horne was also doing this, ISIRTA accelerated the transitions, and it certainly seemed more improvised. It was one of those programmes where the listener was unlikely to get all the jokes on first hearing, so would have to listen to the scheduled repeat (or a tape recording) to discover what they had missed. It thus helped prepare the television audience for At Last the 1948 Show, Spike Milligan's Q series, Monty Python's Flying Circus, and The Goodies. It also may have influenced other spoof-based British radio programmes such as Radio Active, On the Hour, The Sunday Format, The News Huddlines, and later Bleak Expectations.'' Jcejhay (talk) 13:24, 8 February 2019 (UTC)

Spot the Dog
Spot was played by Brooke-Taylor in the serials. Was he played by Oddie in other contexts, as the article implies, or is that a mistake?Jcejhay (talk) 13:34, 8 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again


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International relations theory

International relations theory is the study of international relations (IR) from a theoretical perspective. It seeks to explain behaviors and outcomes in international politics. The four most prominent schools of thought are realism, liberalism, constructivism, and rational choice. Whereas realism and liberalism make broad and specific predictions about international relations, constructivism and rational choice are methodological approaches that focus on certain types of social explanation for phenomena.

International relations, as a discipline, is believed to have emerged after World War I with the establishment of a Chair of International Relations, the Woodrow Wilson Chair held by Alfred Eckhard Zimmern at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. The modern study of international relations, as a theory, has sometimes been traced to realist works such as E. H. Carr's The Twenty Years' Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations (1948).

The most influential IR theory work of the post-World War II era was Kenneth Waltz's Theory of International Politics (1979), which pioneered neorealism. Neoliberalism (or liberal institutionalism) became a prominent competitive framework to neorealism, with prominent proponents such as Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. During the late 1980s and 1990s, constructivism emerged as a prominent third IR theoretical framework, in addition to existing realist and liberal approaches. IR theorists such as Alexander Wendt, John Ruggie, Martha Finnemore, and Michael N. Barnett helped pioneer constructivism. Rational choice approaches to world politics became increasingly influential in the 1990s, in particular with works by James Fearon, such as the bargaining model of war.

There are also "post-positivist/reflectivist" IR theories (which stand in contrast to the aforementioned "positivist/rationalist" theories), such as critical theory.

Early history of the field
Early international relations scholarship in the interwar years focused on the need for the balance of power system to be replaced with a system of collective security. These thinkers were later described as "Idealists". The leading critique of this school of thinking was the "realist" analysis offered by Carr.

However, a more recent study, by David Long and Brian Schmidt in 2005, offers a revisionist account of the origins of the field of international relations. They claim that the history of the field can be traced back to late 19th century imperialism and internationalism. The fact that the history of the field is presented by "great debates", such as the realist-idealist debate, does not correspond with the historic evidence found in earlier works: "We should once and for all dispense with the outdated anachronistic artifice of the debate between the idealists and realists as the dominant framework for and understanding the history of the field". Their revisionist account claims that, up until 1918, international relations already existed in the form of colonial administration, race science, and race development.

Realism
Realism or political realism has been the dominant theory of international relations since the conception of the discipline. The theory claims to rely upon an ancient tradition of thought which includes writers such as Thucydides, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes. Early realism can be characterized as a reaction against interwar idealist thinking. The outbreak of World War II was seen by realists as evidence of the deficiencies of idealist thinking. There are various strands of modern-day realist thinking. However, the main tenets of the theory have been identified as statism, survival, and self-help.
 * Statism: Realists believe that nation states are the main actors in international politics. As such it is a state-centric theory of international relations. This contrasts with liberal international relations theories which accommodate roles for non-state actors and international institutions. This difference is sometimes expressed by describing a realist world view as one which sees nation states as billiard balls, liberals would consider relationships between states to be more of a cobweb.
 * Survival: Realists believe that the international system is governed by anarchy, meaning that there is no central authority. Therefore, international politics is a struggle for power between self-interested states.
 * Self-help: Realists believe that no other states can be relied upon to help guarantee the state's survival.

Realism makes several key assumptions. It assumes that nation-states are unitary, geographically based actors in an anarchic international system with no authority above capable of regulating interactions between states as no true authoritative world government exists. Secondly, it assumes that sovereign states, rather than intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, or multinational corporations, are the primary actors in international affairs. Thus, states, as the highest order, are in competition with one another. As such, a state acts as a rational autonomous actor in pursuit of its own self-interest with a primary goal to maintain and ensure its own security—and thus its sovereignty and survival. Realism holds that in pursuit of their interests, states will attempt to amass resources, and that relations between states are determined by their relative levels of power. That level of power is in turn determined by the state's military, economic, and political capabilities.

Some realists, known as human nature realists or classical realists, believe that states are inherently aggressive, that territorial expansion is constrained only by opposing powers, while others, known as offensive/defensive realists, believe that states are obsessed with the security and continuation of the state's existence. The defensive view can lead to a security dilemma, where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms, making security a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be made.

Neorealism
Neorealism or structural realism is a development of realism advanced by Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics. It is, however, only one strand of neorealism. Joseph Grieco has combined neo-realist thinking with more traditional realists. This strand of theory is sometimes called "modern realism".

Waltz's neorealism contends that the effect of structure must be taken into account in explaining state behavior. It shapes all foreign policy choices of states in the international arena. For instance, any disagreement between states derives from lack of a common power (central authority) to enforce rules and maintain them constantly. Thus, there is constant anarchy in the international system that makes it necessary for states to obtain strong weapons to guarantee their survival. Additionally, in an anarchic system, states with greater power have a tendency to increase their influence further. According to neo-realists, structure is considered an extremely important element in IR and is defined in a twofold manner as: 1) the ordering principle of the international system, which is anarchy, and 2) the distribution of capabilities across units. Waltz also challenges traditional realism's emphasis on traditional military power, instead characterizing power in terms of the combined capabilities of the state.

Waltz's version of neorealism has frequently been characterized as "Defensive Realism", whereas John Mearsheimer is a proponent of a different version of neorealism characterized as "Offensive Realism."

Liberalism
The precursor to liberal international relations theory was "idealism". Idealism (or utopianism) was viewed critically by those who saw themselves as "realists", for instance E. H. Carr. In international relations, idealism (also called "Wilsonianism" because of its association with Woodrow Wilson) holds that a state should make its internal political philosophy the goal of its foreign policy. For example, an idealist might believe that ending poverty at home should be coupled with tackling poverty abroad. Wilson's idealism was a precursor to liberal international relations theory, which would arise amongst the "institution-builders" after World War I.

Liberalism holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary determinant of state behavior. Unlike realism, where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism allows for plurality in state actions. Thus, preferences will vary from state to state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system or government type. Liberalism also holds that interaction between states is not limited to the political/security ("high politics"), but also economic/cultural ("low politics") whether through commercial firms, organizations or individuals. Thus, instead of an anarchic international system, there are plenty of opportunities for cooperation and broader notions of power, such as cultural capital (for example, the influence of films leading to the popularity of the country's culture and creating a market for its exports worldwide). Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through co-operation and interdependence—thus peace can be achieved.

The democratic peace theory and interactive model of democratic peace argue that democracies have fewer conflicts among themselves. This is seen as contradicting especially the realist theories and this empirical claim is now one of the great disputes in political science. Numerous explanations have been proposed for the democratic peace. It has also been argued, as in the book Never at War, that democracies conduct diplomacy in general very differently from non-democracies. (Neo)realists disagree with Liberals over the theory, often citing structural reasons for the peace, as opposed to the state's government. Sebastian Rosato, a critic of democratic peace theory, points to America's behavior towards left-leaning democracies in Latin America during the Cold War to challenge democratic peace. One argument is that economic interdependence makes war between trading partners less likely. In contrast, realists claim that economic interdependence increases rather than decreases the likelihood of conflict. While the democratic peace theory claims that democracy causes peace, the territorial peace theory claims that the direction of causality is opposite. In other words, peace leads to democracy. The latter theory is supported by the historical observation that peace almost always comes before democracy.

Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism, liberal institutionalism or neo-liberal institutionalism is a more recent branch of liberal international relations theory. Unlike traditional liberal theories of international politics, which focus on individual-level or domestic-level explanations, liberal institutionalism emphasizes the influence of systemic factors. Its proponents focus on the role of international institutions in allowing nations to successfully cooperate in an anarchic international system.

Complex interdependence
Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, in response to neorealism, developed an opposing theory they dubbed "complex interdependence." They explain that "... complex interdependence sometimes comes closer to reality than does realism." In explaining this, they cover the three baseline assumptions in realist thought: first, states are coherent units and are the dominant actors in international relations; second, force is a usable and effective instrument of policy; and third, there is a hierarchy in international politics.

The heart of Keohane and Nye's argument is that, in international politics, there are, in fact, multiple channels that connect societies exceeding the conventional Westphalian system of states. This manifests itself in many forms ranging from informal governmental ties to multinational corporations and organizations. Here they define their terminology: interstate relations are those channels assumed by realists; transgovernmental relations occur when one relaxes the realist assumption that states act coherently as units; transnational applies when one removes the assumption that states are the only units. It is through these channels that political exchange occurs, not through the limited interstate channels that are the focus of realist theory.

Moreover, Keohane and Nye argue that there is not, in fact, a hierarchy among issues, meaning that not only is the martial arm of foreign policy not the supreme tool by which to carry out a state's agenda, but that there are a multitude of different agendas that come to the forefront. The line between domestic and foreign policy becomes blurred in this case, as realistically there is no clear agenda in interstate relations.

Finally, the use of military force is not exercised when complex interdependence prevails. In other words, for countries among which a complex interdependence exists, the role of the military in resolving disputes is negated. However, Keohane and Nye go on to state that the role of the military is in fact important with respect to an "alliance's political and military relations with a rival bloc."

Post-liberalism
One version of post-liberal theory argues that within the modern, globalized world, states in fact are driven to cooperate in order to ensure security and sovereign interests. The departure from classical liberal theory is most notably felt in the re-interpretation of the concepts of sovereignty and autonomy. Autonomy becomes a problematic concept in shifting away from a notion of freedom, self-determination, and agency to a heavily responsible and duty laden concept. Importantly, autonomy is linked to a capacity for good governance. Similarly, sovereignty also experiences a shift from a right to a duty. In the global economy, international organizations hold sovereign states to account, leading to a situation where sovereignty is co-produced among "sovereign" states. The concept becomes a variable capacity of good governance and can no longer be accepted as an absolute right. One possible way to interpret this theory, is the idea that in order to maintain global stability and security and solve the problem of the anarchic world system in International Relations, no overarching, global, sovereign authority is created. Instead, states collectively abandon some rights for full autonomy and sovereignty. Another version of post-liberalism, drawing on work in political philosophy after the end of the Cold War, as well as on democratic transitions in particular in Latin America, argues that social forces from below are essential in understanding the nature of the state and the international system. Without understanding their contribution to political order and its progressive possibilities, particularly in the area of peace in local and international frameworks, the weaknesses of the state, the failings of the liberal peace, and challenges to global governance cannot be realised or properly understood. Furthermore, the impact of social forces on political and economic power, structures, and institutions, provides some empirical evidence of the complex shifts currently underway in IR.

Constructivism
Constructivism or social constructivism has been described as a challenge to the dominance of neo-liberal and neo-realist international relations theories. Michael Barnett describes constructivist international relations theories as being concerned with how ideas define international structure, how this structure defines the interests and identities of states and how states and non-state actors reproduce this structure. The key element of constructivism is the belief that "International politics is shaped by persuasive ideas, collective values, culture, and social identities." Constructivism argues that international reality is socially constructed by cognitive structures, which give meaning to the material world. Whereas rational choice approaches assume that actors follow a "logic of consequences", constructivist perspectives suggest that they adhere to a "logic of appropriateness". The theory emerged from debates concerning the scientific method of international relations theories and theories role in the production of international power. Emanuel Adler states that constructivism occupies a middle ground between rationalist and interpretative theories of international relations.

Constructivist theory criticises the static assumptions of traditional international relations theory and emphasizes that international relations is a social construction. And constructivism is critical of the ontological basis of rationalist theories of international relations. Whereas realism deals mainly with security and material power, and liberalism looks primarily at economic interdependence and domestic-level factors, constructivism concerns itself primarily with the role of ideas in shaping the international system; indeed it is possible that there is some overlap between constructivism and realism or liberalism, but they remain separate schools of thought. By "ideas" constructivists refer to the goals, threats, fears, identities, and other elements of perceived reality that influence states and non-state actors within the international system. Constructivists believe that these ideational factors can often have far-reaching effects, and that they can trump materialistic power concerns.

For example, constructivists note that an increase in the size of the U.S. military is likely to be viewed with much greater concern in Cuba, a traditional antagonist of the United States, than in Canada, a close U.S. ally. Therefore, there must be perceptions at work in shaping international outcomes. As such, constructivists do not see anarchy as the invariable foundation of the international system, but rather argue, in the words of Alexander Wendt, that "anarchy is what states make of it". Constructivists also believe that social norms shape and change foreign policy over time rather than security which realists cite.

Marxism
Marxist and Neo-Marxist international relations theories are structuralist paradigms which reject the realist/liberal view of state conflict or cooperation; instead focusing on the economic and material aspects. Marxist approaches argue the position of historical materialism and make the assumption that the economic concerns transcend others; allowing for the elevation of class as the focus of study. Marxists view the international system as an integrated capitalist system in pursuit of capital accumulation. A sub-discipline of Marxist IR is Critical Security Studies. Gramscian approaches rely on the ideas of Italian Antonio Gramsci whose writings concerned the hegemony that capitalism holds as an ideology. Marxist approaches have also inspired Critical Theorists such as Robert W. Cox who argues that "Theory is always for someone and for some purpose".

One notable Marxist approach to international relations theory is Immanuel Wallerstein's World-system theory which can be traced back to the ideas expressed by Lenin in Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. World-system theory argues that globalized capitalism has created a core of modern industrialized countries which exploit a periphery of exploited "Third World" countries. These ideas were developed by the Latin American Dependency School. "Neo-Marxist" or "New Marxist" approaches have returned to the writings of Karl Marx for their inspiration. Key "New Marxists" include Justin Rosenberg and Benno Teschke. Marxist approaches have enjoyed a renaissance since the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.

Criticisms of Marxists approaches to international relations theory include the narrow focus on material and economic aspects of life, as well as assuming that the interests pursued by actors are derived from class.

English School
The "English School" of international relations theory, also known as International Society, Liberal Realism, Rationalism or the British institutionalists, maintains that there is a 'society of states' at the international level, despite the condition of "anarchy", i.e., the lack of a ruler or world state. Despite being called the English School many of the academics from this school were neither English nor from the United Kingdom.

A great deal of the work of the English School concerns the examination of traditions of past international theory, casting it, as Martin Wight did in his 1950s-era lectures at the London School of Economics, into three divisions: In broad terms, the English School itself has supported the rationalist or Grotian tradition, seeking a middle way (or via media) between the power politics of realism and the "utopianism" of revolutionism. The English School rejects behavioralist approaches to international relations theory.
 * Realist (or Hobbesian, after Thomas Hobbes), which views states as independent competing units
 * Rationalist (or Grotian, after Hugo Grotius), which looks at how states can work together and cooperate for mutual benefit
 * Revolutionist (or Kantian, after Immanuel Kant), which looks at human society as transcending borders or national identities

One way to think about the English School is that, while some theories identify with just one of the three historical traditions (Classical Realism and Neorealism owe a debt to the Realist or Hobbesian tradition; Marxism to the Revolutionist tradition, for example), English School looks to combine all of them. While there is great diversity within the 'school', much of it involves either examining when and how the different traditions combine or dominate, or focusing on the Rationalist tradition, especially the concept of International Society (which is the concept most associated with English School thinking). The English School maintains that "the most distinguished theories of international politics can be divided into three basic categories: realism, which emphasises the concept of 'international anarchy'; revolutionism, which concentrates on the aspect of the 'moral unity' of the international society, and rationalism, which is based on the aspect of 'international dialogue and intercourse." Therefore, the English School highlights the assiduous interaction between the main strands of IR theory in the understanding of interstate relations.

In Hedley Bull's The Anarchical Society, a seminal work of the school, he begins by looking at the concept of order, arguing that states across time and space have come together to overcome some of the danger and uncertainty of the Hobbesian international system to create an international society of states that share certain interests and ways of thinking about the world. By doing so, they make the world more ordered, and can eventually change international relations to become significantly more peaceful and beneficial to their shared interests.

Functionalism
Functionalism is a theory of international relations that arose principally from the experience of European integration. Rather than the self-interest that realists see as a motivating factor, functionalists focus on common interests shared by states. Integration develops its own internal dynamic: as states integrate in limited functional or technical areas, they increasingly find that momentum for further rounds of integration in related areas. This "invisible hand" of integration phenomenon is termed "spillover". Although integration can be resisted, it becomes harder to stop integration's reach as it progresses. This usage, and the usage in functionalism in international relations, is the less common meaning of functionalism.

More commonly, however, functionalism is an argument that explains phenomena as functions of a system rather than an actor or actors. Immanuel Wallerstein employed a functionalist theory when he argued that the Westphalian international political system arose to secure and protect the developing international capitalist system. His theory is called "functionalist" because it says that an event was a function of the preferences of a system and not the preferences of an agent. Functionalism is different from structural or realist arguments in that while both look to broader, structural causes, realists (and structuralists more broadly) say that the structure gives incentives to agents, while functionalists attribute causal power to the system itself, bypassing agents entirely.

Post-structuralism
Post-structuralism differs from most other approaches to international politics because it does not see itself as a theory, school or paradigm which produces a single account of the subject matter. Instead, post-structuralism is an approach, attitude, or ethos that pursues critique in particular way. Post-structuralism sees critique as an inherently positive exercise that establishes the conditions of possibility for pursuing alternatives. It states that "Every understanding of international politics depends upon abstraction, representation and interpretation". Scholars associated with post-structuralism in international relations include Richard K. Ashley, James Der Derian, Michael J. Shapiro, R. B. J. Walker, and Lene Hansen.

Post-modernism
Post-modernist approaches to international relations are critical of metanarratives and denounces traditional IR's claims to truth and neutrality.

Postcolonialism
Postcolonial international relations scholarship posits a critical theory approach to international relations (IR), and is a non-mainstream area of international relations scholarship. Post-colonialism focuses on the persistence of colonial forms of power and the continuing existence of racism in world politics.

Feminist international relations theory
Feminist international relations theory applies a gender perspective to topics and themes in international relations such as war, peace, security, and trade. In particular, feminist international relations scholars use gender to analyze how power exists within different international political systems. Historically, feminist international relations theorists have struggled to find a place within international relations theory, either having their work ignored or discredited. Feminist international relations also analyzes how the social and the political interact, often pointing to the ways in which international relations affect individuals and vice versa. Generally, feminist international relations scholars tend to be critical of the realist school of thought for their strong positivist and state-centered approach to international relations, although feminist international scholars who are also realists exist. Feminist International Relations borrows from a number of methodologies and theories such as post-positivism, constructivism, postmodernism, and post-colonialism.

Jean Bethke Elshtain is a key contributor to feminist international relations theory. In her seminal book, Women and War, Elshtain criticizes gender roles inherent in mainstream international relations theory. Particularly, Elshtain decries international relations for perpetuating a tradition of armed civic culture that automatically excludes women/wives. Instead, Elshatin challenges the trope of women as solely passive peacekeepers, using drawing parallels between wartime experiences and her personal experiences from her childhood and later as a mother. Thus, Elshtain has been lauded by some feminist international relations theorists as one of the first theorists to blend personal experience with international relations, thus challenging international relation's traditional preference for positivism.

Cynthia Enloe is another influential scholar in the field of feminist international relations. Her influential feminist international relations text, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, considers where women fit into the international political system. Similar to Jean Bethke Elshtain, Enloe looks at how the everyday lives of women are influenced by international relations. For example, Enloe uses banana plantations to illustrate how different women are affected by international politics depending on their geographical location, race, or ethnicity. Women, Enloe argues, play a role in international relations whether this work is recognized or not, working as labourers, wives, sex workers, and mothers, sometimes within army bases.

J. Ann Tickner is a prominent feminist international relations theorist with many notable written pieces. For example, her piece "You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists" examines the misunderstandings that occur between feminist scholars and international relations theorists. Specifically, Tickner argues that feminist international relations theory sometimes works outside of traditional ontological and epistemological international relations structures, instead analyzing international relations from a more humanistic perspective. Thus, Tickner was critical of the ways in which the study of international relations itself excludes women from participating in international relations theorizing. This piece of Tickner's was met with criticism from multiple scholars, such as Robert Keohane, who wrote "Beyond Dichotomy: Conversations Between International Relations and Feminist Theory" and Marianne Marchand, who criticized Tickner's assumption that feminist international relations scholars worked in the same ontological reality and epistemological tradition in her piece "Different Communities/Different Realities/Different Encounters".

Psychological approaches to international relations
Psychological approaches to international relations focus on the impact of cognition and emotion on world politics. Through the analysis of political decision making, scholars have examined a broad spectrum of issues ranging from nuclear strategy and nuclear proliferation to deterrence, reassurance, signaling, and bargaining, as well as conflict management and conflict resolution.

In the 1970s, scholars of world politics started drawing on new research in cognitive psychology to explain decisions to cooperate or compete in international relations. Cognitive psychology had assigned cognition a central role in the explanation of human decision-making. It found that people's behavior often deviates from the expectations of the traditional rational choice model. To explain these deviations, cognitive psychologists developed several concepts and theories. These include theories of misperception, the importance of beliefs and schemas in information processing, and the use of analogies and heuristics in interpreting information, among others.

Scholars of international relations took up these insights and applied them to issues in world politics. For example, Robert Jervis identified patterns of leaders' misperception in historical cases that led to unwanted escalation, failures of deterrence, and the outbreak of war. Deborah Welch Larson and Rose McDermott have referred to belief systems and schemas as central drivers of information processing and foreign policy decision-making. Keren Yarhi-Milo has investigated how policy-makers rely on cognitive shortcuts called "heuristics" when they assess the intentions of their adversaries.

In addition to cognitive psychology, social psychology has long inspired research in international relations. Social psychologists have identified a fundamental human need for identity – the way in which a person or a group is, or wishes to be known by others. The resulting identity formation dynamics can contribute to conflicts between and among groups. Scholars of international relations have drawn on insights in social psychology to explore the dynamics of conflict among and between groups as well as processes of conflict management and resolution.

More recently, scholars of international relations have started drawing on emotion research in psychology to shed light on issues in world politics. Research in psychology suggests that affect and emotions are core drivers in decision making and behavior. This has significant consequences for our understanding of foreign policy, escalation to war, conflict resolution, and numerous other issues in world politics. For example, Rose McDermott and Jonathan Mercer were among the first to use these new findings to argue that affective experience can have adaptive functions by facilitating quick and effective decision-making. Thomas Dolan has drawn on affective intelligence theory to show that some emotional responses leaders may have to new events during wartime, such as joy or anxiety, tend to bring about change in their approaches to war, while others, like contentment or frustration, are prone to produce resistance to change. Combining insights from experimental psychology and the sociology of emotions, Robin Markwica has developed "emotional choice theory" as an alternative model to rational choice theory and constructivist perspectives.

Evolutionary perspectives, such as from evolutionary psychology, have been argued to help explain many features of international relations. Humans in the ancestral environment did not live in states and likely rarely had interactions with groups outside of a very local area. However, a variety of evolved psychological mechanisms, in particular those for dealing with inter group interactions, are argued to influence current international relations. These include evolved mechanisms for social exchange, cheating and detecting cheating, status conflicts, leadership, ingroup and outgroup distinction and biases, coalitions, and violence.

Theory in international relations scholarship
In a 1955 article, Kenneth W. Thompson characterized IR theory as a recent phenomena in political science scholarship. Thompson distinguished between "normative" IR theory, "general" IR theory, and IR theory as the "basis of action."

In recent years, several IR scholars have remarked on what they see as a trend away from IR theory in IR scholarship. The September 2013 issue of European Journal of International Relations and the June 2015 issue of Perspectives on Politics debated the state of IR theory. A 2016 study showed that while theoretical innovations and qualitative analyses are a large part of graduate training, journals favor middle-range theory, quantitative hypothesis testing and methodology for publishing.

Alternative approaches
Several alternative approaches have been developed based on foundationalism, anti-foundationalism, behaviouralism, structuralism and post-structuralism.

Behavioural international relations theory is an approach to international relations theory which believes in the idea that the social sciences can adapt methodologies from the natural sciences. Accordingly, behavioural scholars reject isms (ideological approaches) because their adherents believe the maxims of their isms are self-evidently true. Instead of testing maxims systematically to determine whether they are true, behaviouralists view proponents of ideological isms as spreading propaganda in the guise of scholarship to guide policy-makers.

The latest formulation of the behavioural approach involves macro-theories or paradigms. That is, theories that can be applied at several levels of analysis. Theories previously developed in economics and sociology are applied to international affairs, while the major isms, such as realism, are reconstituted into a form that can be tested systematically with comprehensive databases. The major international relations paradigms are identified as the Marxian (not ideological Marxism), mass society, community building, and rational actor paradigms, each of which are homes to alternative variants. Behavioural scholars seek to retrofit isms identified above into variants of existing paradigms that can be tested empirically, whereupon the future of international relations theory will move beyond untested maxims to a solid foundation of knowledge.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: International relations theory


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Mainau

Mainau also referred to as Mav(e)no(w), Maienowe (in 1242), Maienow (in 1357), Maienau, Mainowe (in 1394) and Mainaw (in 1580) is an island in Lake Constance (on the Southern shore of the Überlinger See near the city of Konstanz, Baden-Württemberg, Germany). It is maintained as a garden island and a model of excellent environmental practices. Administratively, the island has been a part of Konstanz since December 1, 1971, when the municipality of Litzelstetten, of which Mainau was part, was incorporated into Konstanz. Mainau is still part of Litzelstetten, now one of 15 wards (administrative subdivisions) of Konstanz.

The island belongs to the Lennart Bernadotte-Stiftung (eng. The Lennart Bernadotte Foundation), an entity created by Prince Lennart Bernadotte, Count of Wisborg, originally a Prince of Sweden and Duke of Småland. It is one of the main tourist attractions of Lake Constance. Beside flowers there is a park landscape with views on the lake. There is also a greenhouse with a tropical climate and thousands of butterflies.

Mainau Bay is the location of their university's sailing club.

Position
The island averages out at a height between 395 m (roughly equals the lake’s average medium water-level) and 425 m above sea level. Its highest peak is located at the Großherzog-Friedrich Terrace (historic water reservoir). Mainau Island is 610 m long from North to South and a 1050 m wide from West to East. The island’s circumference is about 3 km. The shortest distance between the downwelling molasse slice and the lake’s shore is about 130 m.

Population
Few people inhabit Mainau Island. Due to its small number of inhabitants, it is considered a hamlet. Meyer’s Lexikon’s issue of 1888 declared that 28 people lived on Mainau Island. During the census of 1961, a population of 123 was verified. Count Björn Bernadotte is living in the castle on Mainau Island.

Flora and fauna
Due to subtropical influences, Mainau features an almost year round warm climate, that allows the cultivation of exotic trees like banana trees or many kinds of palm trees.

Besides this subtropical vegetation, Mainau is also home to many topical Central European trees like the lind.

The cultivation of the gardens has a long history in Mainau and attract thousands of tourists from all over the world each year.

Parks and gardens
Mainau Island is a "flowering island" notable for its parks and gardens. Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden, created the island's arboretum, which now contains 500 species of deciduous and coniferous trees, many exotic and valuable, including fine specimens of Sequoiadendron giganteum (1864) and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (1952). The island also contains about 200 rhododendron and azalea varieties.

Due to the advantageous climate at the lake, palm trees and other Mediterranean plants can grow on the drop-shaped island. Because of its rich subtropical and partly even tropical vegetation, Mainau Island is also called "flowering island in the Lake Constance". Count Lennart Bernadotte, who died in 2004, liked to call his island "Blumenschiff" (engl. flower ship). He also described the famous destination as follows: "She is a coquettish little Lady, Mainau Island, who constantly demands much attention, even more love and ceaselessly new clothes." - Lennart Bernadotte. By "new clothes", he probably meant the blossoms, plants and flower-beds which are constantly renewed by the gardeners.

Apart from the historic buildings, the centerpiece of Mainau Island is the Arboretum with its 500 different types of rare and valuable broad-leaved trees and conifers, which was created in 1856 by grand duke Friedrich I. Among those is one of Germany's "oldest" dawn redwood trees (Metasequoia glyptostroboides). The tree, which originated from China, was planted on the island in 1952, when it was just 70 cm tall. Particularly mighty are some exemplars of the giant redwood (Sequoiadendron giganteum). Their seeds came from California in 1853 and were planted on the island in 1864, which makes them one of the oldest of their kind in Europe. You can find the above-mentioned giant redwoods as well as Cedars, Dawn Redwoods and Tulip Poplars on the island. The Arboretum expands towards the north-west of the island. Spring marks the beginning of the "Blumenjahr" (eng. Flower Year) with an exhibition of orchids. From March to May you can see several types of flowers in full bloom, like Tulips, Daffodils, Primroses, Forget-Me-Nots and Hyacinths. To show the full beauty of all these flowers the so-called „Frühlingsallee“ (eng. Spring Avenue) was opened, which is a path across the island surrounded by beds of these plants. From May to June over 200 kinds of Rhododendrons and Azaleas are in full bloom. To the west of the "Comturey-Keller" you can find an Italian rose garden commissioned by Friedrich I. This rose garden is strictly geometric and consists of pergolas, sculptures and fountains. In general, over 1200 kinds of roses can be found on the island.

„Frühlingsallee“ leads to „Mediterran-Terrassen“ (eng. Mediterranean Terrace) where exotic plants such as palm families, agaves, cacti and bougainvillea are presented in pails during summer. Lake Constance and its surroundings as well as the Alps can be seen in a panoramic view from here. In July the blossoms of brugmansia and hibiscus are blooming on Mainau Island and in August the blossoms of passion flowers bloom.

On the southern end you can find “Südgarten” (eng. South Garden) where in autumn fields of dahlia with approximately 20,000 dahlia bushes and 250 varieties gleam from September until October. Spring and summer flowers such as different kinds of fuchsia are growing on the affiliated shore garden to the eastern side of “Südgarten”.

The “Bodenseerelief” (eng. Relief of Lake Constance) is a very popular photo motive. It is a relief with the picture of a flower which is changed by season. A small harbor with a landing place is situated to the northern side of Mainau Island. Excursion boats lay in here and another entrance to “Frühlingsallee” can be found here.

History
Until the Napoleonic mediatisations and secularisations of small German fiefs this island belonged to the Order of Teutonic Knights. It was later sold into private ownership. In 1853 Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden purchased the island as his personal property and used the palace built by the Teutonic Knights as summer palace. At the end of World War I Baden became a republic with the abdication of Grand Duke Frederick II, son of Frederick I. The former Grand Duke retained his private property including Mainau. When he died childless in 1928 the island passed to his sister Victoria of Baden, wife of King Gustaf V of Sweden. Upon her death two years later she bequeathed the island to her second son Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland and his descendants. In 1932 Prince Wilhem gave Mainau to his only child Lennart Bernadotte who owned it until 1974 when he transferred the island to a foundation. Count Bernadotte formed Enterprise Mainau GmbH in 1991 as a private enterprise to manage the island for the benefit of the Lennart Bernadotte-Stiftung. The Count remained active in managing Mainau until his death in 2004 but had appointed his second wife Sonja co-manager in 2001. Widowed, she and their children ran both the foundation and the management company until 2007. Since January 2007 Bettina Bernadotte, the eldest daughter of Lennart and Sonja, directs the Mainau GmbH as current manager, and since 2011 her brother Björn Bernadotte has joined her.

Pre- and early history
In 1862, signs of an earlier population were discovered along the south banks of Mainau and soon exploited by domain administrator Walter: among the items were wedges, a potsherd, flint splinters, an axe and a muller. The pile dwelling settlement made up of six houses was uncovered in the 1930s and dated back to the Neolithic Age (3,000 b.c.). Lake-dwelling settlements of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age were located along the northern shore and the southwestern island along the shallow water zone.

title: Mainau


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Stunnel

Stunnel is an open-source multi-platform application used to provide a universal TLS/SSL tunneling service.

Stunnel is used to provide secure encrypted connections for clients or servers that do not speak TLS or SSL natively. It runs on a variety of operating systems, including most Unix-like operating systems and Windows. Stunnel relies on the OpenSSL library to implement the underlying TLS or SSL protocol.

Stunnel uses public-key cryptography with X.509 digital certificates to secure the SSL connection, and clients can optionally be authenticated via a certificate.

If linked against libwrap, it can be configured to act as a proxy–firewall service as well.

Stunnel is maintained by Polish programmer Michał Trojnara and released under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) with OpenSSL exception.

Example
A stunnel can be used to provide a secure SSL connection to an existing non-SSL-aware SMTP mail server. Assuming the SMTP server expects TCP connections on port 25, the stunnel would be configured to map the SSL port 465 to non-SSL port 25. A mail client connects via SSL to port 465. Network traffic from the client initially passes over SSL to the stunnel application, which transparently encrypts and decrypts traffic and forwards unsecured traffic to port 25 locally. The mail server sees a non-SSL mail client.

The stunnel process could be running on the same or a different server from the unsecured mail application; however, both machines would typically be behind a firewall on a secure internal network (so that an intruder could not make its own unsecured connection directly to port 25).

title: Stunnel


text:
French literature

French literature (littérature française) generally speaking, is literature written in the French language, particularly by citizens of France; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak traditional languages of France other than French. Literature written in the French language by citizens of other nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, etc. is referred to as Francophone literature.

For centuries, French literature has been an object of national pride for French people, and it has been one of the most influential aspects of the literature of Europe. France ranks first on the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country.

One of the first known examples of French literature is the Song of Roland, the first major work in a series of poems known as, "chansons de geste".

The French language is a Romance language derived from Latin and heavily influenced principally by Celtic and Frankish. Beginning in the 11th century, literature written in medieval French was one of the oldest vernacular (non-Latin) literatures in western Europe and it became a key source of literary themes in the Middle Ages across the continent.

Although the European prominence of French literature was eclipsed in part by vernacular literature in Italy in the 14th century, literature in France in the 16th century underwent a major creative evolution, and through the political and artistic programs of the Ancien Régime, French literature came to dominate European letters in the 17th century.

In the 18th century, French became the literary lingua franca and diplomatic language of western Europe (and, to a certain degree, in America), and French letters have had a profound impact on all European and American literary traditions while at the same time being heavily influenced by these other national traditions. Africa and the far East have brought the French language to non-European cultures that are transforming and adding to the French literary experience today.

Under the aristocratic ideals of the Ancien Régime (the "honnête homme"), the nationalist spirit of post-revolutionary France, and the mass educational ideals of the Third Republic and modern France, the French have come to have a profound cultural attachment to their literary heritage. Today, French schools emphasize the study of novels, theater and poetry (often learnt by heart). The literary arts are heavily sponsored by the state and literary prizes are major news. The Académie française and the Institut de France are important linguistic and artistic institutions in France, and French television features shows on writers and poets (one of the most watched shows on French television was Apostrophes, a weekly talk show on literature and the arts). Literature matters deeply to the people of France and plays an important role in their sense of identity.

As of 2022, fifteen French authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature which is more than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country. In 1964 Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that "It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize winner. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form."

French Nobel Prize in Literature winners

For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. The following French or French language authors have won a Nobel Prize in Literature:
 * 1901 – Sully Prudhomme (The first Nobel Prize in Literature)
 * 1904 – Frédéric Mistral (wrote in Occitan)
 * 1915 – Romain Rolland
 * 1921 – Anatole France
 * 1927 – Henri Bergson
 * 1937 – Roger Martin du Gard
 * 1947 – André Gide
 * 1952 – François Mauriac
 * 1957 – Albert Camus
 * 1960 – Saint-John Perse
 * 1964 – Jean-Paul Sartre (declined the prize)
 * 1969 – Samuel Beckett (Irish, wrote in English and French)
 * 1985 – Claude Simon
 * 2008 – J. M. G. Le Clézio
 * 2014 – Patrick Modiano
 * 2022 - Annie Ernaux

French literary awards

 * Grand Prix de Littérature Policière – created in 1948, for crime and detective fiction.
 * Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française – created 1918.
 * Prix Décembre – created in 1989.
 * Prix Femina – created 1904, decided each year by an exclusively female jury, although the authors of the winning works do not have to be women.
 * Prix Goncourt – created 1903, given to the author of "the best and most imaginative prose work of the year".
 * Prix Goncourt des Lycéens – created in 1987.
 * Prix Littéraire Valery Larbaud – created in 1957.
 * Prix Médicis – created 1958, awarded to an author whose "fame does not yet match their talent."
 * Prix Renaudot – created in 1926.
 * Prix Tour-Apollo Award – 1972–1990, given to the best science fiction novel published in French during the preceding year.
 * Prix des Deux Magots – created in 1933.

Fiction

 * Middle Ages
 * anonymous – La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland)
 * Chrétien de Troyes – Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion (Yvain, the Knight of the Lion), Lancelot, ou le Chevalier à la charrette (Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart)
 * various – Tristan et Iseult (Tristan and Iseult)
 * anonymous – Lancelot-Graal (Lancelot-Grail), also known as the prose Lancelot or the Vulgate Cycle
 * Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung – Roman de la Rose ("Romance of the Rose")
 * Christine de Pizan – "The Book of the City of Ladies"
 * 16th century
 * François Rabelais – La vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel ("Gargantua and Pantagruel")
 * 17th century
 * Honoré d'Urfé – L'Astrée
 * Madame de Lafayette – La Princesse de Clèves
 * 18th century
 * Abbé Prévost – Manon Lescaut
 * Voltaire – Candide, Zadig ou la Destinée
 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse
 * Denis Diderot – Jacques le fataliste (Jacques the Fatalist)
 * Montesquieu – Persian Letters
 * Pierre Choderlos de Laclos – Les Liaisons dangereuses
 * Marquis de Sade – Justine (Sade)
 * 19th century
 * François-René de Chateaubriand – Atala, René
 * Benjamin Constant – Adolphe
 * Stendhal – Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black), La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma)
 * Honoré de Balzac – La Comédie humaine ("The Human Comedy", a novel cycle which includes Père Goriot, Lost Illusions, and Eugénie Grandet)
 * Alexandre Dumas – The Count of Monte Cristo, The Three Musketeers
 * Victor Hugo – Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame), Les Misérables
 * Théophile Gautier – Mademoiselle de Maupin
 * Gustave Flaubert – Madame Bovary, Salammbô, L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education)
 * Jules Verne – Vingt mille lieues sous les mers (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas), Voyage au centre de la Terre (A Journey to the Center of the Earth), Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours (Around the World in Eighty Days)
 * Edmond and Jules de Goncourt – Germinie Lacerteux
 * George Sand – La Petite Fadette
 * Joris-Karl Huysmans - "À rebours"
 * Guy de Maupassant – Bel Ami, La Parure (The Necklace), other short stories
 * Émile Zola – Thérèse Raquin, Les Rougon-Macquart (a novel cycle which includes L'Assommoir, Nana and Germinal)
 * 20th century
 * André Gide – Les Faux-monnayeurs (The Counterfeiters), L'Immoraliste (The Immoralist)
 * Marcel Proust – À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time)
 * Albert Cohen
 * François Mauriac
 * Louis Aragon
 * Blaise Cendrars
 * Samuel Beckett - Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable, How It Is
 * André Breton – Nadja
 * Gaston Leroux – Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (The Phantom of the Opera)
 * Roger Martin du Gard – Les Thibault (The Thibaults)
 * Louis-Ferdinand Céline – Voyage au bout de la nuit (Journey to the End of the Night)
 * Colette – Gigi
 * Jean Genet – Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs
 * Julien Gracq – Le Rivage des Syrtes (The Opposing Shore)
 * André Malraux – La Condition Humaine (Man's Fate), L'Espoir (Man's Hope)
 * Albert Camus – L'Étranger (The Stranger or The Outsider)
 * Michel Butor – La Modification
 * Marguerite Yourcenar – Mémoires d'Hadrien
 * Alain Robbe-Grillet – Dans le labyrinthe
 * Georges Perec – La vie mode d'emploi
 * Claude Simon - Les Géorgiques (The Georgics)
 * Robert Pinget – Passacaille
 * Jean-Paul Sartre – La Nausée (Nausea), L´Âge de Raison (The Age of Reason)
 * Françoise Sagan – Bonjour Tristesse (Hello Sadness)
 * Antoine de Saint-Exupéry – Le Petit Prince (The Little Prince)
 * 21st century
 * Michel Houellebecq – La carte et le territoire (The Map and the Territory)
 * Léonora Miano – La Saison de l'ombre
 * Kamel Daoud – Meursault, contre-enquête (The Meursault Investigation)

Poetry

 * Middle Ages
 * William IX (1071–1127)
 * Jaufre Rudel (1113–70)
 * Bernart de Ventadorn (1130–90)
 * Bertran de Born (1140–1215)
 * Rutebeuf (1245–85)
 * Jean Froissart (1337–1405)
 * François Villon (1431–63) – Le Testament
 * La Pléiade
 * Clément Marot (1496–1544)
 * Joachim du Bellay (1522–60)
 * Pontus de Tyard (1521–1605)
 * Pierre de Ronsard (1524–85)
 * Baroque
 * Agrippa d'Aubigné (1552–1630) – Les Tragiques
 * Théophile de Viau (1590–1626)
 * Classicism
 * François de Malherbe (1555–1628)
 * Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95) – The Fables
 * Nicolas Boileau (1636–1711)
 * Romanticism
 * André Chénier (1762–1794)
 * Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869) – Méditations poétiques
 * Alfred de Vigny (1797–1863)
 * Victor Hugo (1802–85) – Les Contemplations
 * Gérard de Nerval (1808–55) – The Chimeras
 * Alfred de Musset (1810–57)
 * Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) – Les Fleurs du mal
 * Parnassianism
 * Théophile Gautier (1811–72)
 * Leconte de Lisle (1818–94)
 * Théodore de Banville (1823–91)
 * Symbolism and Decadence
 * Villiers de L'Isle-Adam (1838–89)
 * Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–98)
 * Paul Verlaine (1844–96)
 * Comte de Lautréamont (1846–70)
 * Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91) – Une Saison en Enfer
 * Paul Valéry (1871–1945)
 * Paul Fort (1872–1960)
 * Modernism
 * Charles Péguy (1873–1914)
 * Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918) – Alcools
 * Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961)
 * Saint-John Perse (1887–1975) – Vents
 * Dada and Surrealism
 * Paul Éluard (1895-1952)
 * Tristan Tzara (1896–1963)
 * André Breton (1896–1966)
 * Louis Aragon (1897–1982)
 * Henri Michaux (1899–1984)
 * Robert Desnos (1900–45)
 * René Char (1907–88)
 * Postmodernism
 * Jules Supervielle (1884–1960)
 * Jean Cocteau (1889–1963)
 * Francis Ponge (1899–1988) – Le Parti Pris des Choses
 * Jacques Prévert (1900–77)
 * Raymond Queneau (1903–76)
 * Négritude
 * Léopold Sédar Senghor (1906–2001)
 * Birago Diop (1906–89)
 * Aimé Césaire (1913–2008)

Theatre

 * Pierre Corneille (1606–84)- Le Cid (1636), Horace
 * Molière – Tartuffe, Le Misanthrope, Dom Juan, L'Avare (The Miser), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, L'École des femmes (The School for Wives), Le Malade imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid)
 * Jean Racine – Phèdre, Andromaque, Bérénice, Athalie
 * Marivaux – Jeu de l'amour et du hasard
 * Beaumarchais – Le Barbier de Séville (The Barber of Seville), La Folle journée, ou Le Mariage de Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro)
 * Alfred Jarry – King Ubu
 * Edmond Rostand – Cyrano de Bergerac
 * Jean Giraudoux – The Trojan War Will Not Take Place
 * Jean Anouilh – Becket, Antigone
 * Jean-Paul Sartre – No Exit
 * Eugène Ionesco – La Cantatrice chauve' (The Bald Soprano), Les Chaises (The Chairs), La Leçon (The Lesson), Rhinoceros
 * Jean Genet – The Maids, The Balcony
 * Samuel Beckett – En attendant Godot (Waiting for Godot), Fin de Partie (Endgame) and other works in French

Nonfiction

 * Michel de Montaigne – The Essays
 * Blaise Pascal – Les Pensées
 * René Descartes – Meditations on First Philosophy, Discourse on Method
 * François de La Rochefoucauld – The Maxims
 * Jean de la Bruyère - Les Caractères ou les Mœurs de ce siècle
 * Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon - Mémoires
 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, The Social Contract, Les Confessions (Confessions)
 * François-René de Chateaubriand – Genius of Christianity, Memoirs from Beyond Grave
 * Alexis de Tocqueville – Democracy in America
 * Frédéric Bastiat – The Law
 * Jules Michelet – Histoire de France, La Sorcière
 * Henri Bergson – Creative Evolution
 * Albert Camus – The Myth of Sisyphus
 * Jean-Paul Sartre – Existentialism is a Humanism, Being and Nothingness
 * Simone de Beauvoir – The Second Sex
 * Claude Lévi-Strauss – Tristes Tropiques
 * Emil Cioran – A Short History of Decay, The Trouble with Being Born and other works in French
 * Paul Ricœur – Freedom and Nature. The Voluntary and the Involuntary
 * Michel Foucault – Discipline and Punish
 * Pierre Bourdieu – La Distinction

Literary criticism

 * Nicolas Boileau
 * Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve
 * Hippolyte Taine
 * Jacques Lacan
 * Maurice Blanchot
 * Paul Bénichou
 * Roland Barthes
 * Jean Ricardou
 * Paul Ricœur
 * Michel Foucault
 * Jean-François Lyotard
 * Jacques Derrida
 * Julia Kristeva

Poetry

 * Parnassianism
 * Romanticism
 * Symbolism (arts)

title: French literature


text:
Nuremberg rallies

The Nuremberg rallies (officially , meaning Reich Party Congress) were a series of celebratory events coordinated by the Nazi Party in Germany. The first Nazi Nuremberg rally took place in 1923. This rally was not particularly large and did not have much impact; however, as the party grew in size, the rallies became more elaborate and featured larger crowds. They played a seminal role in Nazi propaganda events, conveying a unified and strong Germany under Nazi control. The rallies became a national event once Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933, when they became annual occurrences. Once the Nazi dictatorship was firmly established, the party's propagandists began filming them for a national and international audience. Nazi filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl produced some of her best known work including Triumph of the Will (1934) and The Victory of Faith (1933), both filmed at the Nazi party rally grounds near Nuremberg. The party's 1938 Nuremberg rally celebrated the Anschluss that occurred earlier that year. The 1939 scheduled rally was cancelled just before Germany's invasion of Poland and the Nazi regime never held another one due to the prioritization of Germany's efforts in the Second World War.

History and purpose
The first Nazi Party rallies took place in 1923 in Munich and in 1926 in Weimar. From 1927 on, they took place exclusively in Nuremberg. The Party selected Nuremberg for pragmatic reasons: it was in the center of the German Reich and the local Luitpoldhain (converted parkland) was well suited as a venue. In addition, the Nazis could rely on the well-organized local branch of the party in Franconia, then led by Gauleiter Julius Streicher. The Nuremberg police were sympathetic to the event.

Later, the location was justified by the Nazi Party by putting it into the tradition of the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, with the Nazi dictatorship cast as its successor. After 1933, the rallies took place near the time of the Autumn equinox, under the title of Reichsparteitage des deutschen Volkes (The German people's National Party days), which was intended to symbolize the solidarity between the German people and the Nazi Party. This point was further emphasized by the annual growth in the number of participants, which finally reached over half a million from all sections of the party, the army, and the state.

Rallies
Each rally was given a programmatic title, which related to recent national events:

 * 1923: The First Party Congress took place in Munich on 27 January 1923.
 * 1923: The "German day rally" was held in Nuremberg, 1–2 September 1923.
 * 1926: The 2nd Party Congress ("Refounding Congress") was held in Weimar, 3–4 July 1926.
 * 1927: The 3rd Party Congress ("Day of Awakening") was held in Nuremberg, 19–21 August 1927. The propaganda film Eine Symphonie des Kampfwillens was made at this rally.
 * 1929: The 4th Party Congress, known as the "Day of Composure", was held in Nuremberg, 1–4 August 1929. The propaganda film Der Nürnberger Parteitag der NSDAP was made at this rally.
 * 1933: The 5th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, 30 August – 3 September 1933. It was called the "Rally of Victory" (Reichsparteitag des Sieges). The term "victory" relates to the Nazi seizure of power and the victory over the Weimar Republic. The Leni Riefenstahl film Der Sieg des Glaubens was made at this rally. Hitler announced that from then on all rallies would take place in Nuremberg.
 * 1934: The 6th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, 5–10 September 1934, which was attended by about 700,000 Nazi Party supporters. Initially it did not have a theme. Later it was labeled the "Rally of Unity and Strength" (Reichsparteitag der Einheit und Stärke), "Rally of Power" (Reichsparteitag der Macht), or "Rally of Will" (Reichsparteitag des Willens). The Leni Riefenstahl film Triumph des Willens was made at this rally. This rally was particularly notable due to Albert Speer's Cathedral of light: 152 searchlights that cast vertical beams into the sky around the Zeppelin Field to symbolise the walls of a building.
 * 1935: The 7th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, 10–16 September 1935. It was called the "Rally of Freedom" (Reichsparteitag der Freiheit). "Freedom" referred to the reintroduction of compulsory military service and thus the German "liberation" from the Treaty of Versailles. Leni Riefenstahl made the film Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces) at this rally, and the Nazis introduced the Nuremberg Laws.
 * 1936: The 8th Party Congress was known as the "Rally of Honour" (Reichsparteitag der Ehre, 8–14 September). The remilitarization of the demilitarized Rhineland in March 1936 constituted the restoration of German honour in the eyes of many Germans. The film Festliches Nürnberg incorporated footage shot at this rally, as well as the rally of 1937.
 * 1937: The 9th Party Congress was called the "Rally of Labour" (Reichsparteitag der Arbeit, 6–13 September). It celebrated the reduction of unemployment in Germany since the Nazi rise to power.
 * 1938: The 10th Party Congress was named the "Rally of Greater Germany" (Reichsparteitag Großdeutschland, 5–12 September). This was due to the annexation of Austria to Germany that had taken place earlier in the year.
 * 1939: The 11th Party Congress, scheduled for 2–11 September, was given the name "Rally of Peace" (Reichsparteitag des Friedens). It was meant to reiterate the German desire for peace, both to the German population and to other countries. It was cancelled at short notice, as one day before the planned date, on 1 September, Germany began its offensive against Poland (which ignited World War II in Europe).

Propaganda films
Official films for the rallies began in 1927, with the establishment of the NSDAP (Nazi Party) film office. The most famous films were made by Leni Riefenstahl for the rallies between 1933 and 1935. Relating to the theme of the rally, she called her first movie Victory of Faith (Der Sieg des Glaubens). This movie was taken out of circulation after the Night of the Long Knives, although a copy survived in Britain and has recently been made available on the Internet Archive for public viewing. The rally of 1934 became the setting for the award-winning Triumph of the Will (Triumph des Willens). Several generals in the Wehrmacht protested over the minimal army presence in the film: Hitler apparently proposed modifying the film to placate the generals, but Riefenstahl refused his suggestion. She did agree to return to the 1935 rally and make a film exclusively about the Wehrmacht, which became Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht.

The rallies for 1936 and 1937 were covered in Festliches Nürnberg, which was shorter than the others, only 21 minutes.

Books
There were two sets of official or semi-official books covering the rallies. The "red books" were officially published by the NSDAP and contained the proceedings of the "congress" as well as full texts of every speech given in chronological order.

The "blue books" were published initially by Julius Streicher, the Gauleiter of Nuremberg, later by Hanns Kerrl, not by the party press. These were larger scale books that included the text of speeches and proceedings, as well as larger photographs.

In addition to these, collections of Heinrich Hoffman's photographs were published to commemorate each Party congress, as well as pamphlets of Hitler's speeches. Both series of books are much sought after by collectors.

Hoffman created 100-image series on the 1936, 1937, and 1938 rallies in stereoscopic 3D through his Raumbild-Verlag outfit.

title: Nuremberg rallies