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Cliff

In geography and geology, a cliff is an area of rock which has a general angle defined by the vertical, or nearly vertical. Cliffs are formed by the processes of weathering and erosion, with the effect of gravity. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually composed of rock that is resistant to weathering and erosion. The sedimentary rocks that are most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs.

An escarpment (or scarp) is a type of cliff formed by the movement of a geologic fault, a landslide, or sometimes by rock slides or falling rocks which change the differential erosion of the rock layers.

Most cliffs have some form of scree slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock. In areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters. Sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with mushroom rocks or other types of rock columns remaining. Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline.

The British Ordnance Survey distinguishes between around most cliffs (continuous line along the topper edge with projections down the face) and outcrops (continuous lines along lower edge).

Etymology
Cliff comes from the Old English word clif of essentially the same meaning, cognate with Dutch, Low German, and Old Norse klif 'cliff'. These may in turn all be from a Romance loanword into Primitive Germanic that has its origins in the Latin forms clivus / clevus ("slope" or "hillside").

Large and famous cliffs

Given that a cliff does not need to be exactly vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not and also about how much of a certain slope to count as a cliff. For example, given a truly vertical rock wall above a very steep slope, one could count just the rock wall or the combination. Listings of cliffs are thus inherently uncertain.

Some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example, an 8,000 m drop over a 4,250 m span can be found at a ridge sitting inside the Kermadec Trench.

According to some sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. This uses a fairly stringent notion of cliff, as the 1,340 m figure refers to a nearly vertical headwall of two stacked pillars; adding in a very steep approach brings the total drop from the East Face precipice to the nearby Dunge Glacier to nearly 2,000 m.

The location of the world's highest sea cliffs depends also on the definition of 'cliff' that is used. Guinness World Records states it is Kalaupapa, Hawaii, at 1,010 m high. Another contender is the north face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1,683 m to Milford Sound, New Zealand. These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the average slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees, and Mitre Peak is similar. A more vertical drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia (also known as the 'Thumbnail') which is situated in the Torssukátak fjord area at the very tip of South Greenland and drops 1,560 m near-vertically.

Considering a truly vertical drop, Mount Thor on Baffin Island in Arctic Canada is often considered the highest at 1370 m (4500 ft) high in total (the top 480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging), and is said to give it the longest vertical drop on Earth at 1,250 m (4,100 ft). However, other cliffs on Baffin Island, such as Polar Sun Spire in the Sam Ford Fjord, or others in remote areas of Greenland may be higher.

The highest cliff in the solar system may be Verona Rupes, an approximately 20 km high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus.

List
The following is an incomplete list of cliffs of the world.

Africa
Above Sea Above Land
 * Anaga's Cliffs, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 592 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Cape Hangklip, Western Cape, South Africa, 453.1 m above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
 * Cape Point, Western Cape, South Africa, 249 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Chapman's Peak, Western Cape, South Africa, 596 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Karbonkelberg, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 653 m above Hout Bay, Atlantic Ocean
 * Kogelberg, Western Cape, South Africa, 1289 m above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
 * Los Gigantes, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 637 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Table Mountain, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 1086 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Innumerable peaks in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa are considered cliff formations. The Drakensberg Range is regarded, together with Ethiopia's Simien Mountains, as one of the two finest erosional mountain ranges on Earth. Because of their near-unique geological formation, the range has an extraordinarily high percentage of cliff faces making up its length, particularly along the highest portion of the range. This portion of the range is virtually uninterrupted cliff faces, ranging from 600 m to 1200 m in height for almost 250 km. Of all, the "Drakensberg Amphitheatre" (mentioned above) is most well known. Other notable cliffs include the Trojan Wall, Cleft Peak, Injisuthi Triplets, Cathedral Peak, Monk's Cowl, Mnweni Buttress, etc. The cliff faces of the Blyde River Canyon, technically still part of the Drakensberg, may be over 800 m, with the main face of the Swadini Buttress approximately 1000 m tall.
 * Drakensberg Amphitheatre, South Africa 1200 m above base, 5 km long. The Tugela Falls, the world's second tallest waterfall, falls 948 m over the edge of the cliff face.
 * Karambony, Madagascar, 380 m above base.
 * Mount Meru, Tanzania Caldera Cliffs, 1500 m
 * Tsaranoro, Madagascar, 700 m above base

North
Several big granite faces in the Arctic region vie for the title of 'highest vertical drop on Earth', but reliable measurements are not always available. The possible contenders include (measurements are approximate):

Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Canada; 1,370 m (4,500 ft) total; top 480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging. This is commonly regarded as being the largest vertical drop on Earth ot:leapyear at 1,250 m (4,100 ft).

of Baffin Island, rises 4,300 ft above the flat frozen fjord, although the lower portion of the face breaks from the vertical wall with a series of ledges and buttresses.
 * 1) The sheer north face of Polar Sun Spire, in the §74:MTAtoFa
 * 1) Ketil's and its neighbor Ulamertorsuaq's west faces in Tasermiut, Greenland have been reported as over 1,000 m high.  Another relevant cliff in Greenland is Agdlerussakasit's Thumbnail.

Other notable cliffs include:
 * Ättestupan Cliff, northern side of Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord, Greenland 1300 m
 * Big Sandy Mountain, east face buttress, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 550 m
 * Calvert Cliffs along the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, U.S. 25 m
 * Cap Éternité of Saguenay River, Quebec, Canada, 347 m
 * All faces of Devils Tower, Wyoming, United States, 195 m
 * Doublet Peak, southwest face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, United States, 370 m
 * El Capitan, Yosemite Valley, California, United States; 900 m (3,000 ft)
 * Grand Teton, north face Teton Range, Wyoming 760 m
 * Northwest Face of Half Dome, near El Capitan, California, United States; 1,444 m (4,737 ft) total, vertical portion about 610 m (2,000 ft)
 * Longs Peak Diamond, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, United States, 400 m
 * Mount Asgard, Baffin Island, Canada; vertical drop of about 1,200 m (4,000 ft).
 * Mount Siyeh, Glacier National Park (U.S.) north face, 1270 m
 * The North Face of North Twin Peak, Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada, 1,200 m
 * The west face of Notch Peak in the House Range of southwestern Utah, U.S.; a carbonate rock pure vertical drop of about 670 m (2,200 ft), with 4450 ft from the top of the cliff to valley floor (bottom of the canyon below the notch)
 * Painted Wall in Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, Colorado, United States; 685 m (2,250 ft)
 * Raftsmen's Acropolis, a rock face of the Montagne des Érables, Quebec, Canada, 800 m
 * Rockwall, Kootenay National Park, British Columbia, Canada, 30 km of mostly unbroken cliffs up to 900 m
 * Royal Gorge cliffs, Colorado, United States, 350 m
 * Faces of Shiprock, New Mexico, United States, 400 m
 * All walls of the Stawamus Chief, Squamish, British Columbia, Canada, up to 500 m
 * Temple Peak, east face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 400 m
 * Temple Peak East, north face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 450 m
 * Toroweap (a.k.a. Tuweep), Grand Canyon, Arizona, United States; 900 m (3,000 ft)
 * Uncompahgre Peak, northeast face, San Juan Range, Colorado, 275 m (550 m rise above surrounding plateau)
 * East face of the West Temple in Zion National Park, Utah, United States believed to be the tallest sandstone cliff in the world, 670 m

South

 * All faces of Auyan Tepui, along with all other Tepuis, Venezuela, Brazil, and Guyana, Auyan Tepui is about 1,000 m (location of Angel Falls) (the falls are 979 m, the highest in the world)
 * All faces of Cerro Chalten (Fitz Roy), Patagonia, Argentina-Chile, 1200 m
 * All faces of Cerro Torre, Patagonia, Chile-Argentina
 * Pão de Açúcar/Sugar Loaf, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 395 m
 * Pared de Gocta, Peru, 771 m
 * Pared Sur Cerro Aconcagua. Las Heras, Mendoza, Argentina, 2,700 m
 * Pedra Azul, Pedra Azul State Park, Espírito Santo, Brazil, 540 m
 * Scratched Stone (Pedra Riscada), São José do Divino/MG, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1,480 m
 * Faces of the Torres del Paine group, Patagonia, Chile, up to 900 m

Asia
Above Sea Above Land
 * Qingshui Cliff, Xiulin Township, Hualien County, Taiwan averaging 800 m above Pacific Ocean. The tallest peak, Qingshui Mountain, rises 2408 m directly from the Pacific Ocean.
 * Ra's Sajir, Oman, 900 m above the Arabian Sea
 * Theoprosopon, between Chekka and Selaata in north Lebanon jutting into the Mediterranean.
 * Tōjinbō, Sakai, Fukui prefecture, Japan 25 m above Sea of Japan
 * Various cliffs in the Ak-Su Valley of Kyrgyzstan are high and steep.
 * Baintha Brakk (The Ogre), Panmah Muztagh, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 2,000 m
 * Gyala Peri, southeast face, Mêdog County, Tibet, China, 4,600 m
 * Hunza Peak south face, Karakoram, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 1,700 m
 * K2 west face, Karakoram, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 2900m
 * The Latok Group, Panmah Muztagh, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 1,800 m
 * Lhotse northeast face, Mahalangur Himal, Nepal, 2900m
 * Lhotse south face, Mahalangur Himal, Nepal, 3200 m
 * Meru Peak, Uttarakhand, India, 1200 m
 * Nanga Parbat, Rupal Face, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, 4,600 m
 * Qingshui Cliff, Xiulin Township, Hualien County, Taiwan averaging 800 m above Pacific Ocean. The tallest peak, Qingshui Mountain, rises 2408 meters directly from the Pacific Ocean.
 * Ramon Crater, Israel, 400 m
 * Shispare Sar southwest face, Karakoram, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 3,200 m
 * Spantik northwest face, Karakoram, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 2,000 m
 * Trango Towers: East Face Great Trango Tower, Baltoro Muztagh, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 1,340 m (near vertical headwall), 2,100 m (very steep overall drop from East Summit to Dunge Glacier). Northwest Face drops approximately 2,200 m to the Trango Glacier below, but with a taller slab topped out with a shorter overhanging headwall of approximately 1,000 m. The Southwest "Azeem" Ridge forms the group's tallest steep rise of roughly 2,286 m (7,500 ft) from the Trango Glacier to the Southwest summit.
 * Uli Biaho Towers, Baltoro Glacier, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan
 * Ultar Sar southwest face, Karakoram, Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, 3,000 m
 * World's End, Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya, Sri Lanka. It has a sheer drop of about 4000 ft (1200 m)
 * Various cliffs in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, Hunan Province, China. The cliffs can get to around 1,000 ft (300 m).

Europe
Above Sea Above Land Submarine
 * Beachy Head, England, 162 m above the English Channel
 * Beinisvørð, Faroe Islands, 470 m above North Atlantic
 * Belogradchik Rocks, Bulgaria - up to 200 m high sandstone towers
 * Benwee Head Cliffs, Erris, County Mayo, Ireland, 304 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Cabo Girão, Madeira, Portugal, 589 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Cap Canaille, France, 394 m above Mediterranean sea is the highest sea cliff in France
 * Cape Enniberg, Faroe Islands, 750 m above North Atlantic
 * Conachair, St Kilda, Scotland 427 m above Atlantic Ocean, highest sea cliff in the UK
 * Croaghaun, Achill Island, Ireland, 688 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Dingli Cliffs, Malta, 250 m above Mediterranean sea
 * Dvuglav, Rila Mountain, Bulgaria 460 m (south face)
 * Étretat, France, 84 m above the English Channel
 * Faneque, Gran Canaria, Spain, 1027 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Hangman cliffs, Devon 318 m above Bristol Channel is the highest sea cliff in England
 * High Cliff, between Boscastle and St Gennys, 223 m above Celtic Sea
 * Hornelen, Norway, 860 m above Skatestraumen
 * Hvanndalabjarg, Ólafsfjörður, Iceland, 630 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Jaizkibel, Spain, 547 m above the Bay of Biscay
 * Kaliakra cliffs, Bulgaria, more than 70 m above the Black Sea
 * The Kame, Foula, Shetland, 376 m above the North Atlantic, second highest sea cliff in the UK
 * Le Tréport, France, 110 m above the English Channel
 * Cliffs of Moher, Ireland, 217 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Møns Klint, Denmark, 143 m above Baltic Sea
 * Monte Solaro, Capri, Italy, 589 m above the Mediterranean Sea
 * Ontika Limestone cliff, Estonia, 55 m above Baltic Sea.
 * Preikestolen, Norway, 604 m above Lysefjorden
 * Slieve League, Ireland, 601 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * Snake Island, Ukraine, 41 m above the Black Sea
 * Vixía Herbeira, Northern Galicia, Spain, 621 m above Atlantic Ocean
 * White cliffs of Dover, England, 100 m above the Strait of Dover
 * The six great north faces of the Alps (Eiger 1,500 m, Matterhorn 1,350 m, Grandes Jorasses 1,100 m, Petit Dru 1,000 m, and Piz Badile 850 m, Cima Grande di Lavaredo 450 m)
 * Giewont (north face), Tatra Mountains, Poland, 852 m above Polana Strążyska glade
 * Kjerag, Norway 984 m.
 * Mięguszowiecki Szczyt north face rises to 1,043 m above Morskie Oko lake level, High Tatras, Poland
 * Troll Wall, Norway 1,100 m above base
 * Vihren peak north face, Pirin Mountain, Bulgaria 460 m to the (Golemiya Kazan)
 * Vratsata, Vrachanski Balkan Nature Park, Bulgaria 400 m
 * Bouldnor Cliff - the waters of the coast of the Isle of Wight

Oceania
Above Sea Above Land
 * Ball's Pyramid, a sea stack 562m high and only 200m across at its base
 * The Elephant, New Zealand, has cliffs falling approx 1180m into Milford Sound, and a 900m drop in less than 300m horizontally
 * Great Australian Bight
 * Kalaupapa, Hawaii, 1,010 m above Pacific Ocean
 * The Lion, New Zealand, 1,302 m above Milford Sound (drops from approx 1280m to sea level in a very short distance)
 * Lovers Leap, Highcliff, and The Chasm, on Otago Peninsula, New Zealand, all 200 to 300 m above the Pacific Ocean
 * Mitre Peak, New Zealand, 1,683 m above Milford Sound
 * Tasman National Park, Tasmania, has 300m dolerite sea cliffs dropping directly to the ocean in columnar form
 * The Twelve Apostles (Victoria). A series of sea stacks in Australia, ranging from approximately 50 to 70 m above the Bass Strait
 * Zuytdorp Cliffs in Western Australia
 * Mount Banks in the Blue Mountains National Park, New South Wales, Australia: west of its saddle there is a 490 m fall within 100 M horizontally.

As habitat
Cliff landforms provide unique habitat niches to a variety of plants and animals, whose preferences and needs are suited by the vertical geometry of this landform type. For example, a number of birds have decided affinities for choosing cliff locations for nesting, often driven by the defensibility of these locations as well as absence of certain predators. Humans have also inhabited cliff dwellings.

Flora
The population of the rare Borderea chouardii, during 2012, existed only on two cliff habitats within western Europe.

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Infrared cut-off filter

Infrared cut-off filters, sometimes called IR filters or heat-absorbing filters, are designed to reflect or block near-infrared wavelengths while passing visible light. They are often used in devices with bright incandescent light bulbs (such as slide and overhead projectors) to prevent unwanted heating. There are also filters which are used in solid state (CCD or CMOS) video cameras to block IR due to the high sensitivity of many camera sensors to near-infrared light. These filters typically have a blue hue to them as they also sometimes block some of the light from the longer red wavelengths.

IR transmitting/passing filters in photography
In contrast to the naming convention of optical filters where the name of the filter denotes the wavelengths that are blocked, and in line with the convention for air filters and oil filters, photographic filters are named for the color of light they pass. Thus a blue filter makes the picture look blue. A blue filter marginally allows more light in the blue wavelength to pass resulting in a slight shift of the color temperature of the photo to a cooler color. Because of this, the term "IR filters" is commonly used to refer to filters that pass infrared light while completely blocking other wavelengths. However, in some applications the term "IR filter" still can be used as a synonym of infrared cut-off filter.

Unlike the eye, sensors based on silicon (including CCDs and CMOS sensors) have sensitivities extending into the near-infrared. Such sensors may extend to 1000 nm. Digital cameras are usually equipped with IR-blocking filters to prevent unnatural-looking images. IR-transmitting (passing) filters, or removal of factory IR-blocking filters, are commonly used in infrared photography to pass infrared light and block visible and ultraviolet light. Such filters appear black to the eye, but are transparent when viewed with an IR sensitive device. Since the dyes in processed film block various part of visible light but are all fairly transparent to infrared, dark black sections of any processed film (where all visible colors are blocked) pass only infrared light and are commonly used (layering one over another if necessary for better visual light filtering) as a cheap alternative to expensive glass-backed filters. Such filters can be used both over color camera lenses, and to filter visible light from IR illumination sources. Such filter stock is most easily made available most simply by having any commercial color negative film developed after being fully exposed to light. The leaders of 35mm film are ideal for this, without wasting an entire roll of film. (Some special communication may be necessary in such submission, to ensure that all of the "black" negative film thus produced is indeed returned, and that there is no need to print the color-negative results on photographic paper). In the same way, visually opaque "black" color-positive film emulsions mounted in cardboard, as for routine slide projection, provide inexpensive cardboard-mounted infrared filters. Film sizes larger than 35 mm may be handled in the same way for larger filter production.

For astrophotography, many photogenic targets (such as emission nebulae) are bright in the far red and near infrared. Removal of factory filters increases sensitivity to such targets, and may also increase sharpness, as such filters may also include anti-aliasing filters.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Infrared cut-off filter


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Camp David Accords

The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the country retreat of the President of the United States in Maryland. The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by President Jimmy Carter. The second of these frameworks (A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel) led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty. Due to the agreement, Sadat and Begin received the shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. The first framework (A Framework for Peace in the Middle East), which dealt with the Palestinian territories, was written without participation of the Palestinians and was condemned by the United Nations.

Carter Initiative
Carter's and Secretary of State Cyrus Vance's exploratory meetings gave a basic plan for reinvigorating the peace process based on a Geneva Peace Conference and had presented three main objectives for Arab–Israeli peace: Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist in peace, Israel's withdrawal from occupied territories gained in the Six-Day War through negotiating efforts with neighboring Arab nations to ensure that Israel's security would not be threatened and securing an undivided Jerusalem.

The Camp David Accords were the result of 14 months of diplomatic efforts by Egypt, Israel, and the United States that began after Jimmy Carter became president. The efforts initially focused on a comprehensive resolution of disputes between Israel and the Arab countries, gradually evolving into a search for a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt.

Upon assuming office on 20 January 1977, President Carter moved to rejuvenate the Middle East peace process that had stalled throughout the 1976 presidential campaign in the United States. Following the advice of a Brookings Institution report, Carter opted to replace the incremental, bilateral peace talks which had characterized Henry Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy following the 1973 Yom Kippur War with a comprehensive, multilateral approach. The Yom Kippur War further complicated efforts to achieve the objectives written in United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.

Israel's Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his successor, Menachem Begin, were both skeptical of an international conference. While Begin, who took office in May 1977, officially favored the reconvening of the conference, perhaps even more vocally than Rabin, and even accepted the Palestinian presence, in actuality the Israelis and the Egyptians were secretly formulating a framework for bilateral talks. Even earlier, Begin had not been opposed to returning the Sinai, but a major future obstacle was his firm refusal to consider relinquishing control over the West Bank.

Participating parties
Carter visited the heads of state on whom he would have to rely to make any peace agreement feasible. By the end of his first year in office, he had already met with Anwar El Sadat of Egypt, Hussein of Jordan, Hafez al-Assad of Syria, and Yitzhak Rabin of Israel. Despite the fact that he supported Sadat's peace initiative, King Hussein refused to take part in the peace talks; Begin offered Jordan little to gain and Hussein also feared he would isolate Jordan from the Arab world and provoke Syria and the PLO if he engaged in the peace talks as well. Hafez al-Assad, who had no interest in negotiating peace with Israel, also refused to come to the United States and only agreed to meet with Carter in Geneva.

Sadat Initiative

Sadat first spoke about the possibility of peace with Israel in February 1971; Egypt was the initiator of many moves in the 1970s. On 9 November 1977, he startled the world by announcing his intention to go to Jerusalem and speak before the Knesset. Shortly afterward, the Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset in a message passed to Sadat via the US ambassador to Egypt. Ten days after his speech, Sadat arrived for the groundbreaking three-day visit, which launched the first peace process between Israel and an Arab state. As would be the case with later Israeli–Arab peace initiatives, Washington was taken by surprise; the White House and State Department were particularly concerned that Sadat was merely reaching out to reacquire Sinai as quickly as possible, putting aside the Palestinian problem. Considered as a man with strong political convictions who kept his eye on the main objective, Sadat had no ideological base, which made him politically inconsistent. The Sadat visit came about after he delivered a speech in Egypt stating that he would travel anywhere, "even Jerusalem," to discuss peace. That speech led the Begin government to declare that, if Israel thought that Sadat would accept an invitation, Israel would invite him. In Sadat's Knesset speech he talked about his views on peace, the status of Israel's occupied territories, and the Palestinian refugee problem. This tactic went against the intentions of both the West and the East, which were to revive the Geneva Conference.

The gesture stemmed from an eagerness to enlist the help of the NATO countries in improving the ailing Egyptian economy, a belief that Egypt should begin to focus more on its own interests than on the interests of the Arab world, and a hope that an agreement with Israel would catalyze similar agreements between Israel and her other Arab neighbors and help solve the Palestinian problem. Prime Minister Begin's response to Sadat's initiative, though not what Sadat or Carter had hoped, demonstrated a willingness to engage the Egyptian leader. Like Sadat, Begin also saw many reasons why bilateral talks would be in his country's best interests. It would afford Israel the opportunity to negotiate only with Egypt instead of with a larger Arab delegation that might try to use its size to make unwelcome or unacceptable demands. Israel felt Egypt could help protect Israel from other Arabs and Eastern communists. In addition, the commencement of direct negotiations between leaders – summit diplomacy – would distinguish Egypt from her Arab neighbors. Carter's people apparently had no inkling of the secret talks in Morocco between Dayan and Sadat's representative, Hassan Tuhami, that paved the way for Sadat's initiative. Indeed, in a sense Egypt and Israel were ganging up to push Carter off his Geneva track. The basic message of Sadat's speech at the Knesset were the request for the implementation of Resolutions 242 and 338. Sadat's visit was the first step to negotiations such as the preliminary Cairo Conference in December 1977.

Egyptian–Israeli talks

A mechanism had yet to be created for Israel and Egypt to pursue the talks begun by Sadat and Begin in Jerusalem. The Egyptian president suggested to Begin that Israel place a secret representative in the American embassy in Cairo. With American "cover," the true identity of the Israeli, who would liaise between the Egyptian and Israeli leaders, would be known only to the American ambassador in Cairo.

Carter's acceptance of the proposed liaison scheme would have signaled American backing for Sadat's unprecedented peace initiative, but Carter rejected the proposal. However, Carter could not thwart the Israeli–Egyptian peace push. Within days Israeli journalists were allowed into Cairo, breaking a symbolic barrier, and from there the peace process quickly gained momentum. An Israeli–Egyptian working summit was scheduled for 25 December in Ismailiya, near the Suez Canal.

Accompanied by their capable negotiating teams and with their respective interests in mind, both leaders converged on Camp David for 13 days of tense and dramatic negotiations from 5 to 17 September 1978.

Carter's advisers insisted on the establishment of an Egyptian–Israeli agreement which would lead to an eventual solution to the Palestine issue. They believed in a short, loose, and overt linkage between the two countries amplified by the establishment of a coherent basis for a settlement. However, Carter felt they were not "aiming high enough" and was interested in the establishment of a written "land for peace" agreement with Israel returning the Sinai Peninsula and West Bank. Numerous times both the Egyptian and Israeli leaders wanted to scrap negotiations, only to be lured back into the process by personal appeals from Carter.

Begin and Sadat had such mutual antipathy toward one another that they only seldom had direct contact; thus Carter had to conduct his own microcosmic form of shuttle diplomacy by holding one-on-one meetings with either Sadat or Begin in one cabin, then returning to the cabin of the third party to relay the substance of his discussions. Begin and Sadat were "literally not on speaking terms," and "claustrophobia was setting in."

A particularly difficult situation arose on the tenth stalemated day of the talks. The issues of Israeli settlement withdrawal from the Sinai and the status of the West Bank created what seemed to be an impasse. In response, Carter had the choice of trying to salvage the agreement by conceding the issue of the West Bank to Begin, while advocating Sadat's less controversial position on the removal of all settlements from the Sinai Peninsula. Or he could have refused to continue the talks, reported the reasons for their failure, and allowed Begin to bear the brunt of the blame.

Carter chose to continue and for three more days negotiated. During this time, Carter even took the two leaders to the nearby Gettysburg National Military Park in the hopes of using the American Civil War as a simile to their own struggle.

Consequently, the 13 days marking the Camp David Accords were considered a success, in part due to Carter's determination in obtaining an Israeli–Egyptian agreement, which represented considerable time focused on a singular international problem. Additionally, Carter was beneficiary to a fully pledged American foreign team. Likewise, the Israeli delegation had a stable of excellent talent in Ministers Dayan and Weizman and legal experts Dr. Meir Rosenne and Aharon Barak. Furthermore, the absence of the media contributed to the Accord's successes: there were no possibilities provided to either leader to reassure his political body or be driven to conclusions by members of his opposition. An eventual scrap of negotiations by either leader would have proven disastrous, resulting in taking the blame for the summit's failure as well as a disassociation from the White House. Ultimately, neither Begin nor Sadat was willing to risk those eventualities. Both of them had invested enormous amounts of political capital and time to reach an agreement.

Partial agreements

The Camp David Accords comprise two separate agreements: "A Framework for Peace in the Middle East" and "A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel", the second leading towards the Egypt–Israel peace treaty signed in March 1979. The agreements and the peace treaty were both accompanied by "side-letters" of understanding between Egypt and the U.S. and Israel and the U.S.

Framework for Peace in the Middle East
The preamble of the "Framework for Peace in the Middle East" starts with the basis of a peaceful settlement of the Arab–Israeli conflict:

"The agreed basis for a peaceful settlement of the conflict between Israel and its neighbors is United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, in all its parts."

The framework itself consists of 3 parts. The first part of the framework was to establish an autonomous self-governing authority in the West Bank and the Gaza strip and to fully implement Resolution 242.

The Accords recognized the "legitimate rights of the Palestinian people", a process to be implemented guaranteeing the full autonomy of the people within a period of five years. Begin insisted on the adjective "full" to ensure that it was the maximum political right attainable. This full autonomy was to be discussed with the participation of Israel, Egypt, Jordan and the Palestinians. The withdrawal of Israeli troops from the West Bank and Gaza was agreed to occur after an election of a self-governing authority to replace Israel's military government. The Accords did not mention the Golan Heights, Syria, or Lebanon. This was not the comprehensive peace that Kissinger, Ford, Carter, or Sadat had in mind during the previous American presidential transition. It was less clear than the agreements concerning the Sinai, and was later interpreted differently by Israel, Egypt, and the United States. The fate of Jerusalem was deliberately excluded from this agreement.

The second part of the framework dealt with Egyptian–Israeli relations, the real content worked out in the second Egypt–Israel framework. The third part, "Associated Principles," declared principles that should apply to relations between Israel and all of its Arab neighbors.

Key points of the West Bank and Gaza section

 * Egypt, Israel, Jordan and the representatives of the Palestinian people should participate in negotiations on the resolution of the Palestinian problem in all its aspects.
 * (1.) Egypt and Israel agree that, in order to ensure a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority, and taking into account the security concerns of all the parties, there should be transitional arrangements for the West Bank and Gaza for a period not exceeding five years. In order to provide full autonomy to the inhabitants, under these arrangements the Israeli military government and its civilian administration will be withdrawn as soon as a self-governing authority has been freely elected by the inhabitants of these areas to replace the existing military government.
 * (2.) Egypt, Israel, and Jordan will agree on the modalities for establishing elected self-governing authority in the West Bank and Gaza. The delegations of Egypt and Jordan may include Palestinians from the West Bank and Gaza or other Palestinians as mutually agreed. The parties will negotiate an agreement which will define the powers and responsibilities of the self-governing authority to be exercised in the West Bank and Gaza. A withdrawal of Israeli armed forces will take place and there will be a redeployment of the remaining Israeli forces into specified security locations. The agreement will also include arrangements for assuring internal and external security and public order. A strong local police force will be established, which may include Jordanian citizens. In addition, Israeli and Jordanian forces will participate in joint patrols and in the manning of control posts to assure the security of the borders.
 * (3.) When the self-governing authority (administrative council) in the West Bank and Gaza is established and inaugurated, the transitional period of five years will begin. As soon as possible, but not later than the third year after the beginning of the transitional period, negotiations will take place to determine the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and its relationship with its neighbors and to conclude a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan by the end of the transitional period. These negotiations will be conducted among Egypt, Israel, Jordan and the elected representatives of the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza. ... The negotiations shall be based on all the provisions and principles of UN Security Council Resolution 242. The negotiations will resolve, among other matters, the location of the boundaries and the nature of the security arrangements. The solution from the negotiations must also recognize the legitimate right of the Palestinian peoples and their just requirements.

The framework merely concerned autonomy of the inhabitants of West Bank and Gaza. It neither mentions the status of Jerusalem, nor the Palestinian Right of Return.

UN Rejection of the Middle East Framework
The UN General Assembly rejected the Framework for Peace in the Middle East, because the agreement was concluded without participation of UN and PLO and did not comply with the Palestinian right of return, of self-determination and to national independence and sovereignty. In December 1978, it declared in Resolution 33/28 A that agreements were only valid if they are within the framework of the United Nations and its Charter and its resolutions, include the Palestinian right of return and the right to national independence and sovereignty in Palestine, and concluded with the participation of the PLO. On 6 December 1979, the UN condemned in Resolution 34/70 all partial agreements and separate treaties that did not meet the Palestinian rights and comprehensive solutions to peace; it condemned Israel's continued occupation and demanded withdrawal from all occupied territories. On 12 December, in Resolution 34/65 B, the UN rejected more specific parts of the Camp David Accords and similar agreements, which were not in accordance with mentioned requirements. All such partial agreements and separate treaties were strongly condemned. The part of the Camp David accords regarding the Palestinian future and all similar ones were declared invalid.

Framework Peace Treaty Egypt and Israel
The second framework outlined a basis for the peace treaty six months later, in particular deciding the future of the Sinai peninsula. Israel agreed to withdraw its armed forces from the Sinai, gave up its four air bases that had been built there since the Six-Day War (see map to the right), evacuate its 4,500 civilian inhabitants, and restore it to Egypt in return for normal diplomatic relations with Egypt, guarantees of freedom of passage through the Suez Canal and other nearby waterways (such as the Straits of Tiran), and a restriction on the forces Egypt could place on the Sinai peninsula, especially within 20–40 km from Israel. This process would take three years to complete. Israel also agreed to limit its forces a smaller distance (3 km) from the Egyptian border, and to guarantee free passage between Egypt and Jordan. With the withdrawal, Israel also returned Egypt's Abu-Rudeis oil fields in western Sinai, which contained long term, commercially productive wells.

Consequences
The Camp David accords changed Middle Eastern politics. Notably, the perception of Egypt within the Arab world changed. With the most powerful of the Arab militaries and a history of leadership in the Arab world under Nasser, Egypt had more leverage than any of the other Arab states to advance Arab interests. Egypt was subsequently suspended from the Arab League from 1979 until 1989.

Jordan's King Hussein saw it as a slap to the face when Sadat volunteered Jordan's participation in deciding how functional autonomy for the Palestinians would work. Specifically, Sadat effectively said that Jordan would have a role in how the West Bank would be administered. Like the Rabat Summit Resolution, the Camp David Accords circumscribed Jordan's objective to reassert its control over the West Bank. Focusing as it did on Egypt, the Carter administration accepted Sadat's claim that he could deliver Hussein. However, with Arab world opposition building against Sadat, Jordan could not risk accepting the Accords without the support of powerful Arab neighbours, like Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Hussein consequently felt diplomatically snubbed. One of Carter's regrets was allowing Sadat to claim that he could speak for Hussein if Jordan refused to join the talks, but by then the damage was done to the Jordanians. The Camp David Accords also prompted the disintegration of a united Arab front in opposition to Israel. Egypt's realignment created a power vacuum that Saddam Hussein of Iraq, at one time only a secondary power, hoped to fill. Because of the vague language concerning the implementation of Resolution 242, the Palestinian problem became the primary issue in the Arab–Israeli conflict. Many of the Arab nations blamed Egypt for not putting enough pressure on Israel to deal with the Palestinian problem in a way that would be satisfactory to them. Syria also informed Egypt that it would not reconcile with the nation unless it abandoned the peace agreement with Israel.

According to The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East:

"The normalization of relations [between Israel and Egypt] went into effect in January 1980. Ambassadors were exchanged in February. The boycott laws were repealed by Egypt's National Assembly the same month, and some trade began to develop, albeit less than Israel had hoped for. In March 1980 regular airline flights were inaugurated. Egypt also began supplying Israel with crude oil'."

According to Kenneth Stein in Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace:

"The Accords were another interim agreement or step, but negotiations that flowed from the Accords slowed for several reasons. These included an inability to bring the Jordanians into the discussions; the controversy over settlements; the inconclusive nature of the subsequent autonomy talks; domestic opposition sustained by both Begin and Sadat and, in Sadat's case, ostracism and anger from the Arab world; the emergence of a what became a cold peace between Egypt and Israel; and changes in foreign policy priorities including discontinuity in personnel committed to sustaining the negotiating process[.]"

Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argues that by the time Carter left office in January 1981, he: "was in an odd position—he had attempted to break with traditional US policy but ended up fulfilling the goals of that tradition, which had been to break up the Arab alliance, side-line the Palestinians, build an alliance with Egypt, weaken the Soviet Union and secure Israel."

Israeli public support
Although most Israelis supported the Accords, the Israeli settler movement opposed them because Sadat's refusal to agree to a treaty in which Israel had any presence in the Sinai Peninsula at all meant they had to withdraw from the entire Sinai Peninsula. Israeli settlers tried to prevent the government from dismantling their settlements, but were unsuccessful.

In Israel, there is lasting support of the Camp David Peace Accords, which have become a national consensus, supported by 85% of Israelis according to a 2001 poll taken by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies (Israel-based).

Assassination of Anwar Sadat
President Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords on 17 September 1978 and his shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize with Israeli Prime Minister Begin led to his assassination on 6 October 1981 by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad during the annual victory parade held in Cairo to celebrate Egypt's crossing of the Suez Canal. The president's personal protection was infiltrated by four members of this organization, who were hiding in a truck passing through the military parade with other military vehicles. As the truck approached the president, the leader of the belligerents – Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli – came out of the truck and threw three grenades towards the president; only one of the three exploded. The rest of the team opened fire with automatic assault rifles and struck President Sadat with 37 rounds. He was airlifted to a military hospital, where he died two hours after arriving.

In total, 11 were killed from collateral gunfire and 28 were injured. Among the killed were the Cuban ambassador, an Omani general, and a Coptic Orthodox bishop. Among the wounded were Egyptian Vice-President Hosni Mubarak, Irish Defence Minister James Tully, and four U.S. military liaison officers. One of the assassins was killed and the other three were wounded and taken into custody. The surviving assassins were tried and found guilty of assassinating the president and killing 10 others in the process; they were sentenced to capital punishment, and were executed on 15 April 1982.

Arab–Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties
Treaties and meetings
 * Paris Peace Conference, 1919
 * Faisal–Weizmann Agreement (1919)
 * 1949 Armistice Agreements
 * Geneva Conference (1973)
 * Camp David Accords (1978)
 * Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979)
 * Madrid Conference of 1991
 * Oslo Accords (1993)
 * Israel–Jordan peace treaty (1994)
 * Camp David 2000 Summit
 * Abraham Accords (2020)

General articles
 * International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict
 * Israeli–Palestinian peace process
 * List of Middle East peace proposals
 * Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs

Other sources

 * Adam Curtis' 2004 documentary The Power of Nightmares, in its second and third part, studies the Camp David Accords from the point of view of fundamentalist Muslims.

title: Camp David Accords


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Bear Island (Svalbard)

Bear Island (Bjørnøya, ) is the southernmost island of the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago. The island is located at the limits of the Norwegian and Barents seas, approximately halfway between Spitsbergen and the North Cape. Bear Island was discovered by Dutch explorers Willem Barentsz and Jacob van Heemskerck on 10 June 1596. It was named after a polar bear that was seen swimming nearby. The island was considered terra nullius until the Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920 placed it under Norwegian sovereignty.

Despite its remote location and barren nature, the island has seen commercial activities in past centuries, such as coal mining, fishing and whaling. However, no settlements have lasted more than a few years, and Bear Island is now uninhabited except for personnel working at the island's meteorological station Herwighamna. Along with the adjacent waters, it was declared a nature reserve in 2002.

History

Seafarers of the Viking era may have known Bear Island, but the documented history begins in 1596, when Willem Barentsz sighted the island on his third expedition. He named this island "Vogel Eylandt", "Bird Island" in English. Steven Bennet conducted further exploration in 1603 and 1604 and noted the then rich population of walrus. Starting in the early 17th century, the island was used mainly as a base for the hunting of walrus and other species of seals. Also, the eggs of seabirds were harvested from the large bird colonies until 1971.

The Muscovy Company claimed Bear Island for the English Crown in 1609, but it abandoned the site when walrus-hunting declined. A Russian settlement existed in the 18th century and its remains were later used as a basis for territorial claims by Imperial Russia in 1899 and again by the Soviet Union in 1947.

Bear Island has never been extensively settled. The remnants of a whaling station from the early 20th century can be seen at Kvalrossbukta ("walrus bay") in the southeast. From 1916 through 1925, coal was mined at a small settlement named Tunheim on the northeastern coast, but then the mining was given up as unprofitable. Due to the cold climate, the remains of the settlement, including a half-destroyed jetty and a steam locomotive, are relatively well-preserved.

The strategic value of Bear Island was recognised in the late 19th century, when Imperial Russia and Imperial Germany demonstrated their interests in the Barents Sea. The German journalist and adventurer Theodor Lerner visited the island in 1898 and 1899 and claimed rights of ownership. In 1899, the German fishery association Deutscher Seefischerei-Verein (DSV) started investigations of whaling and fishery in the Barents Sea. The DSV was secretly in contact with the German naval command and considered the possibility of an occupation of Bear Island. In reaction to these advances, the Russian Navy sent out the protected cruiser RUSSIAN CRUISER Svetlana to investigate, and the Russians hoisted their flag over Bear Island on 21 July 1899. Although Lerner protested the action, no violence occurred and the matter was settled diplomatically with no definitive claims of sovereignty over Bear Island by any nation.

The whole island was privately owned by the coal mining company of Bjørnøen AS from 1918 to 1932, when the Norwegian state took over the shares. Bjørnøen AS now exists as a state-owned company, and it is jointly managed with Kings Bay AS, the company that runs the operations of Ny-Ålesund on Spitsbergen. A Norwegian radio station (Bjørnøya Radio, callsign: LJB ) was established in Herwighamna on the northern coast in 1919. It was later extended to include a meteorological station.

In 1932 and 1933 the island was a site of the first Polish polar expedition, related to the second International Polar Year. Three researchers - Czesław Centkiewicz (who later recounted the expedition in his book Wyspa Mgieł i Wichrów), Władysław Łysakowski and Stanisław Siedlecki stayed there for entire winter conducting meteorological and geophysical observations.

Since the shipping routes from the Atlantic Ocean to the ports of the arctic White Sea pass through the Barents Sea, the waters near Bear Island were of some strategic importance during World War II as well as during the Cold War. Although Svalbard was not occupied by Germany, the Kriegsmarine built several weather stations there as part of Operation Haudegen. An automated radio station was deployed on Bjørnøya in 1941. German forces attacked several arctic convoys with military supplies bound for the Soviet Union in the waters surrounding Bear Island. They inflicted heavy losses upon the Convoy PQ 17 of June/July 1942, but they were ineffective in the Battle of the Barents Sea on New Year's Eve 1942. The waters southeast of Bear Island were the scene of more naval battles in 1943. In November 1944, the Soviet Union proposed to annul the Spitsbergen Treaty with the intention of gaining sovereignty over Bear Island. Negotiations with Trygve Lie of the Norwegian government-in-exile did not lead to an agreement by the end of World War II, and the Soviet proposals were never carried out. The Soviet Union (and later, Russia) maintained some presence on Spitsbergen, however.

By the time the Germans had surrendered to the allied forces, the weather station operating on the island was still occupied by a team of 11 soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant Wilhelm Dege, who were broadcasting weather information back to Germany. They had been informed of the German surrender via radio on May 7, 1945, and by May 22 with the arrest of Admiral Donitz, they were left to fend for themselves. After nearly running out of supplies, they surrendered to a group of Norwegian seal hunters on September 4, making them the last German soldiers to surrender during the war.

In 2002 a nature reserve was established that covers all of the island, except 1.2 km2 around the meteorological station. The reserve also includes the adjacent waters of a 4 nmi radius from the coast. In 2008, the decision was made to extend the reserve to a radius of 12 nmi from the coast covering 177 km2 on land and 2805 km2 of sea area. Today, the island's only inhabitants are the nine or so members of the staff of the Norwegian meteorological station and radio station at Herwighamna. This station carries out meteorological observations and provides logistic and telecommunication services, including a radio watch on the HF channels 2182/2168 and the VHF channels 16/12. Weather forecasts are transmitted from the station twice daily, announced on HF 2182/VHF 16. A non-directional beacon at 74°30'7.0"N 019°5'10.2"E, identification BJO transmits on 316 kHz (Morse identifier - . . .   . - - -   - - -). The station also has landing platforms for use by helicopters of the Norwegian Coast Guard, the Norwegian 330 Squadron, and the Governor of Svalbard. The Norwegian Polar Institute conducts annual expeditions to Bear Island, mostly concerned with ornithological research. Several other research projects, mostly pertaining to geography and climatology, are carried out less regularly. There are very few opportunities for individual travel to Bjørnøya.

Amateur radio operators occasionally conduct DXpeditions on the island during the summer months.

The first recorded case of the COVID-19 pandemic in Svalbard occurred on Bear Island on 6 October 2021. A Russian fisherman had been confirmed to have contracted the disease and was transported via helicopter to Longyearbyen to be treated at its hospital, where he made a full recovery. There have been 0 confirmed deaths from COVID-19 in Svalbard as of 2023.

Geography
Bear Island lies about 235 km south of mainland Spitsbergen and 397 km north-northwest of Ingøy in mainland Norway. It is located at the limits of the Norwegian and Barents Seas on Spitsbergen Bank, which extends southward from Spitsbergen and Edgeøya, forming a part of the continental shelf.

The island's outline is an approximate triangle pointing south with a greatest north–south extension of 20 km and a greatest east-west extension of 15.5 km. Its surface area is 178 km2. The southern part of Bjørnøya is mountainous, the highest top being Miseryfjellet on the southeast coast at about 536 m above sea level.

Other notable mountains are Antarcticfjellet in the southeast, and Fuglefjellet, Hambergfjellet and Alfredfjellet in the southwest. The northern part of the island forms a lowland plain that covers some two thirds of the surface area.

Apart from a few sandy beaches, the coast is mostly steep, with high cliffs and notable signs of erosion such as caverns and isolated rock pillars. A number of anchorages and landing points exist, as well as a small harbor at Herwighamna on the north coast.

Hydrography
Norwegian government agencies have conducted hydrographic surveys of Svalbard waters throughout the 20th century. The responsibility fell to the Norges Svalbard- og Ishavsundersøkelser in 1928, its successor, the Norwegian Polar Institute from 1948, and the Norwegian Hydrographic Service from 1984. Land surveying and mapping are the responsibilities of the Polar Institute.

Water depths near the island and to the north and east do not much exceed 100 m, but become much greater to the south, and especially some 30 nmi to the west, where the continental shelf slopes into the deep water of the Norwegian Sea and Greenland Sea.

The lowland is strewn with shallow freshwater lakes that cover about 19 km2 in all. Several streams flow into the ocean, often via waterfalls along the steeper parts of the coast. There are known glaciers on Bear Island.

Climate
Bear Island, located well south of the main islands in the Svalbard Archipelago, has the mildest climate in Svalbard. A branch of the North Atlantic current carries warm water to the west of Svalbard, passing Bear Island on its way. This influences climate, making it much warmer than other polar regions at similar latitude. Bear Island's climate is maritime and polar (Köppen ET) with relatively high temperatures during the winter, and a large amount of precipitation. The large winter precipitation is very unusual in a high polar region, a result of Atlantic Lows sometimes going this far northeast due to open sea southwest of Bear Island. The record high 23.6 C was recorded June 1953. The record low -31.6 C is from March 1927. The annual mean temperature was -0.4 C in the period 1991–2020, thus threatening to melt permafrost on the island; by comparison, the annual mean temperature was -2.4 C in the period 1961–1990.

While winters are very long, the maritime moderation and the delay of salt water ice formation makes Bear Island have much less cold winters than a lot of mid-latitude climates on the larger continental landmasses. In summer, the maritime influence causes seasonal lag. This means that August is slightly milder than July, which is extremely uncommon on high latitudes. The seasonal lag is extreme in the winter with the coldest month being March and April being colder than December.

The weather can be quite stable during the summer months, although foggy conditions are common, occurring during 20% of all days in July. Fog develops when the warm air of the Atlantic Ocean, from farther south, passes over cold water. The average monthly precipitation is lowest in May, and highest in September and October.

Because Bear Island lies on a boundary between cold water of polar origin and warmer Atlantic water, water temperatures within a few dozen nautical miles of the island are quite variable, sometimes reaching 10 C in summer. During the winter fast ice develops on the coast, but it is rare on the open sea around Bear Island. The Barents Sea carries pack ice to Bjørnøya every winter, but a significant amount of ice is not common before February.

The polar night lasts from about November 8 through February 3, and the period of midnight sun from about May 2 through August 11. With just 595 hours of bright sunshine per year, Bear Island has the lowest average yearly sunshine in Europe.

Earlier climate normal for Bear Island with sunhours

Flora and fauna
Bear Island was the site of a pioneering ecological study by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton in the early 1920s, which produced one of the first food web diagrams. There is a little plant growth, consisting mostly of moss and some scurvy grass, but no trees.

The only indigenous land mammals are a few Arctic foxes. Despite its name, Bear Island is not a permanent residence of polar bears, although many arrive with the expanding pack ice in the winter. Occasionally, a bear will stay behind when the ice retreats in spring and remain through the summer months. Moreover, the sub-population of Ursus maritimus polar bears found here is a genetically distinct set of polar bears associated with the Barents Sea region.

Ringed seal and bearded seal, prey of the polar bear, live in the waters near Bjørnøya, but the formerly common walruses have nowadays become guests. Bear Island's freshwater lakes are the home of some arctic fish species like the Arctic char.

Birds
The only land birds are snow buntings and rock ptarmigans, but the island is rich in seabirds that nest on the southern cliffs. Other species visit the island during their seasonal migration between Svalbard's northern islands and mainland Europe.

Bear island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. It supports breeding populations of northern fulmars (50,000–60,000 pairs), purple sandpipers, red phalaropes (10 pairs), glaucous gulls (2000 pairs), black-legged kittiwakes (100,000 pairs), little auks (10,000–100,000 pairs), common guillemots (50,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemots (190,000 individuals) and black guillemots (1000 pairs).

It also supports migratory populations of pink-footed geese (30,000 individuals), barnacle geese and long-tailed ducks.

Environmental concerns
Although there are currently no industrial activities on Bjørnøya or in its immediate vicinity, pollution by toxic and radioactive substances remains a threat to the island's virtually untouched nature. Exploration in the Barents sea and the recent development of the Snøhvit gas field off the northern coast of Norway shows that the ecologically sensitive polar and subpolar sea areas of the Norwegian and Barents Sea have come into the focus of the petrol and gas industry. The environmental organisation Bellona has criticised the Norwegian government for licensing these activities without sufficient studies of their ecological impact. Organic toxins, specifically PCBs, have been found in high concentrations in biological samples from Bear Island, especially in Arctic char of the freshwater lake Ellasjøen. The Soviet nuclear submarine Komsomolets sank on 7 April 1989, some 135 nmi southwest of Bear Island. Leakage of radioactive material from the reactor and nuclear warheads currently poses a problem, and severe pollution of the surrounding waters remains possible.

Culture
Surfing has been documented in the movie Bjørnøya – følg drømmen.

Books
“The Last Bear”, a storybook by Hannah Gold, features Bear Island and Svalbard. The story depicts a girl named April who must, with her father, go to the Arctic to research for a duration of 6 months. During these 6 months, April secretly helps a wounded bear to escape the island to Svalbard.

There is also a novel named Bear Island by Alistair MacLean. In 1979 the book was adapted into a film bearing the same name, starring Donald Sutherland, Vanessa Redgrave and Richard Widmark.

title: Bear Island (Svalbard)


text:
Draft:Bluefish (software)

Bluefish is a free and open-source software advanced source code editor with a variety of tools for programming and website development. It supports editing source code such as C, JavaScript, Java, PHP. , Python, as well as markup languages such as HTML, YAML, XML. It is available for many platforms, including Linux, macOS, and Windows,  and can be used via integration with GNOME or run as a stand-alone application. Designed as a compromise between plain text editors and full programming IDEs, Bluefish is lightweight, fast and easy to learn, while providing many IDE features. Bluefish was one of the first source code editor on the Linux desktop. It has been translated into 17 languages. The source code is available under the GNU General Public License.

Features
Bluefish's features include syntax highlighting and auto-completion for 47 different markup and code languages (including Mediawiki syntax ), customizable via a XML language definition format. It furthermore features code folding, auto-recovery, upload/download functionality (on systems where GVfs is available), a code-aware spell-checker, a Unicode character browser, project support, code navigation and bookmarks. It has some advanced search and replace functionality with regular expression support, and multi-file search and replace support. It has a multiple document interface that can quickly load large (hundreds of files) codebases or websites.

For web development it has many a toolbar with specific dialogs and wizards for all HTML tags. Furthermore autocompletion for all tags and their attributes together with Zencoding/emmet helps for quick web development.

Bluefish is extensible via plugins and scripts. Many scripts come preconfigured, including statical code analysis, and syntax and markup checks for different markup and programming languages. Also a simple marco-like feature called "custom menu" helps to speed up repeating actions.

History of Bluefish in the early years of the Linux desktop
Bluefish was started by Chris Mazuc and Olivier Sessink in 1998 to facilitate web development professionals on Linux desktop platforms. In 1998 KDE 1.0 was released, and in 1999 Gnome 1.0 was released, so this was in the early days of the Linux desktop. Bluefish was at the time the only web development editor on the Linux desktop. Bluefish was quickly part of the major Linux distributions, such as Debian Potato (released in 2000), Knoppix 2.1  and the first Fedora release. On the early Linux desktop Bluefish was the most import web editor. Various books about web development on Linux therefore cover the use of Bluefish. For example Easy Oracle PHP and Practical PHP and MySQL by Ubuntu community manager Jono Bacon which even included a customized Ubuntu live CD with Bluefish as primary editor.

The development of Bluefish was initially inspired by two other editors: the configurable syntax scanning and highlighting was inspired by the NEdit, but the user interface was inspired by Homesite which was only available on windows. The work title for the application development in the very early stages was Thtml editor, but this was considered too cryptic by the small development community; for a short time Prosite was used, but this was abandoned to avoid clashes with web-development companies already using that name. Finally the name Bluefish was chosen after a logo (a child's drawing of a blue fish) was proposed on its mailing list.

The 1.0.x branch was released in 2005, and included a new logo. The 1.0 release was featured on Slashdot, causing the slashdot effect on the Bluefish website. In 2005 a Bluefish fork of 1.3 was made to create Winefish, a LaTeX editor. The 2.0.x branch was a big rewrite, changing to the GTK-2 GtkTextView widget and a new syntax scanning engine based on a deterministic finite automaton. The 2.2.x branch, which is the current stable branch, supports both GTK-2 and GTK-3.

Although Bluefish is not an official part of Gnome, it is often considered so because it uses the GTK toolkit and integrates in GNOME.

Source code and development
The open source codebase of Bluefish is available on SourceForge. Bluefish was one of the early projects on Sourceforge, it joined in the first few months after launch, mainly promoted by Robin Miller who was a heavy Bluefish user and worked for Geeknet that owned Sourceforge. Initially CVS was used for code version control, later the code was moved to SVN.

Bluefish is written in C and uses the cross-platform GTK library for its GUI widgets. Markup and programming language support is defined in XML files that are loaded with Libxml2. The optional plugins require libenchant, python and libgucharmap

Bluefish has a plugin API in C, but it has been used mainly to separate non-maintained parts (such as the infobrowser-plugin) from maintained parts. A few Python plugins exist as well, but they need a C plugin to interact with the main program. Bluefish also supports very loosely coupled plugins: external scripts that read standard input and return their results via standard output can be configured by the user in the preferences panel. Building is done with Automake and Autoconf to configure and set up its build environment. Both llvm and GCC can be used to compile Bluefish. On Windows, MinGW is used to build the binaries.

Professional reviews
Tech writer Robin Miller (Linux.com, Time.com) wrote GPL-licensed Bluefish has become an excellent “production tool” for those of who earn our living writing for Web sites, full of little “speed you up” features. . Tech writer Jack Wallen (Techrepublic, Linux.com) wrote For those Linux (and BSD, and Mac, and Windows) users, the tool by which most measure the standard is Bluefish. A Softpedia review found the software powerful, feature-rich and easy to use. . A review on thegeeksclub found Bluefish an excellent choice if you’re serious about web development. An extensive review at lifeofageekadmin.com concluded ''As we can see Bluefish is a powerful web editor that runs on many platforms and is well suited for development to meet many needs. Although it does not have WYSIWYG capabilities it is easy to use other programs to fill in the gaps. Bluefish also adds the power of templates to allow for speedier development to common tasks used by the coder''. A review at htmlcenter.com summarized Bluefish is simply an application to put all of your favorite coding elements at your fingertips without overpowering you with a bunch of annoying suggestions. When compared to IDE's on Linux Linuxiac found Bluefish having a long list of capabilities, but lacking in advanced IDE features. Steve Litt wrote for Linux Productivity Magazine: If you write HTML professionally, you should check out Bluefish too. Computerworld wrote ''the UI is intuitive enough for anyone to begin using it right off the bat and discover additional capabilities over time. This is an appealing piece of software if you’re looking for a text editor to do Web coding''. ZDNet wrote Bluefish has evolved from its humble editor beginnings to become a pseudo-integrated development environment (IDE), with auto-completion, indentation, search, integration with external programs, support for most languages, in-line spell checker, auto-recovery, snippets sidebar, project support, and more. A comparision between open source web IDE's on OpenSourceForU.com concluded It is considered by far the most powerful among HTML editors

title: Draft:Bluefish (software)


text:
Escarpment

An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as a result of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas having different elevations.

The terms scarp and scarp face are often used interchangeably with escarpment. Some sources differentiate the two terms, with escarpment referring to the margin between two landforms, and scarp referring to a cliff or a steep slope. In this usage an escarpment is a ridge which has a gentle slope on one side and a steep scarp on the other side.

More loosely, the term scarp also describes a zone between a coastal lowland and a continental plateau which shows a marked, abrupt change in elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau.

Formation and description
Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes: either by differential erosion of sedimentary rocks, or by movement of the Earth's crust at a geologic fault. The first process is the more common type: the escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition. Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarp is created. This can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground.

Earth is not the only planet where escarpments occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts, as a result of cooling. On other Solar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, the Latin term rupes is used for an escarpment.

Erosion
When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosion and weathering may occur. Escarpments erode gradually and over geological time. The mélange tendencies of escarpments results in varying contacts between a multitude of rock types. These different rock types weather at different speeds, according to Goldich dissolution series so different stages of deformation can often be seen in the layers where the escarpments have been exposed to the elements.

Africa

 * Elgeyo escarpment (Great Rift Valley)
 * Great Escarpment, Southern Africa
 * Including the Drakensberg and God's Window in Mpumalanga's Eastern Escarpment
 * Bandiagara Escarpment (Mali)
 * Zambezi Escarpment (Zambia)
 * East coast, Madagascar

Antarctica

 * Usas Escarpment

Asia

 * Sharon Escarpment, Israel
 * Tuwaiq, Saudi Arabia
 * Vindhya Range, India
 * Western Ghats, India
 * Wulian Feng, China

Australia and New Zealand

 * Australia
 * Great Escarpment, Australia
 * Darling Scarp
 * Illawarra Escarpment
 * Lake George Escarpment
 * Nullarbor Escarpment
 * New Zealand
 * The western slope of the Southern Alps (along the Alpine Fault)
 * The Kaimai escarpment, above the Hauraki Plains
 * The Paekākāriki escarpment between Paekākāriki and Pukerua Bay

Europe

 * England
 * Cotswold escarpment
 * Chiltern escarpment
 * North Downs
 * South Downs
 * A common placename denominating an escarpment in England is "edge" as in
 * Alderley Edge
 * Edge Hill famous as the place of the first battle of the English Civil War
 * Kinver Edge
 * The Lincoln Edge
 * Stanage Edge
 * Wenlock Edge
 * Scotland
 * Quiraing, Trotternish, Isle of Skye
 * Wales
 * Eglwyseg
 * Black Mountain (range)
 * Black Mountains, Wales
 * Pen y Fan
 * France
 * La Côte d'Or is famous for its wines and has given its name to a département, Côte-d'Or.
 * Le Pays de Bray, a clay vale enclosed by chalk escarpments.
 * Sweden, Estonia and Russia
 * Baltic Klint
 * Gotland–Saaremaa Klint
 * South Småland-Sub-Cambrian escarpment
 * Malta
 * Victoria Lines

North America

 * Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line
 * Florida Escarpment, Gulf of Mexico
 * Sigsbee Escarpment, Gulf of Mexico
 * Canada and the United States
 * Manitoba Escarpment (Manitoba, Saskatchewan)
 * Pembina Escarpment (Manitoba, North Dakota)
 * Niagara Escarpment (east to west: New York, Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois)
 * Eardley Escarpment (Mattawa Fault, Gatineau Park, Quebec)
 * Onondaga (geological formation) (Ontario and New York)
 * Devil's Rock (Lake Temiskaming, Ontario)
 * Scarborough Bluffs (Toronto, Ontario)
 * United States
 * Allegheny Front (West Virginia-Maryland-Pennsylvania)
 * Blue Ridge Escarpment (North Carolina–Virginia)
 * Balcones Fault (Texas)
 * Bergen Hill (New Jersey)
 * Black River Escarpment (Wisconsin)
 * Book Cliffs (Colorado–Utah)
 * Caprock Escarpment (Texas)
 * Catskill Escarpment (New York)
 * The Chinese Wall (Montana)
 * Cody Scarp (Florida)
 * Devil's Slide (California)
 * Helderberg Escarpment (New York)
 * Hell's Half Acre (Wyoming)
 * Knobstone Escarpment (Indiana)
 * Lewiston Hill (Idaho-Washington)
 * Magnesian Escarpment (Wisconsin)
 * Mescalero Ridge (New Mexico)
 * Missouri Escarpment (North Dakota)
 * Mogollon Rim (Arizona)
 * Muldraugh Hill (Kentucky)
 * Pine Ridge (Nebraska–South Dakota)
 * Portage Escarpment (Ohio)
 * Potrero Hills in (California)
 * Pottsville Escarpment (Kentucky–Tennessee)
 * The Rimrocks (Montana)
 * Sierra Nevada eastern slope (California)
 * The Caribbean
 * Bahamas Escarpment (Bahamas)

South America

 * Brazil
 * Great Escarpment, Brazil
 * Serra do Mar (São Paulo)
 * Serra da Mantiqueira (São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro)
 * Chile
 * West Andean Escarpment

title: Escarpment


text:
Godel (disambiguation)

Kurt Gödel (28 April 1906 – 14 January 1978) was an Austrian (later American) logician, mathematician and philosopher.

Godel or similar may also refer to:
 * Gödel (programming language)
 * 3366 Gödel, a main belt asteroid discovered in 1985
 * Gödel, Kastamonu, a village in the Kastamonu Province, Turkey
 * Godel (river), at Föhr, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
 * Godel Iceport, at the coast of Queen Maud Land, Antarctica

Other people with the surname Godel include:
 * Gaston Godel (1914−2004), Swiss race walker
 * Vahé Godel (born 1931), Swiss writer
 * Arkadiusz Godel (born 1952), Polish fencer
 * Jon Godel, 21st-century British journalist

title: Godel (disambiguation)


text:
List of Poaceae genera

Poaceae, also known as the True Grasses, is the fourth largest plant family in the world with around 12,000 species and roughly 800 genera. They contain, among others, the cereal crop species and other plants of economic importance, such as the bamboos, and several important weeds.

Grasses probably originated in the understory of tropical rainforests in the Late Cretaceous, but have since come to occupy a wide range of different habitats. Notably, they are the dominant species in grasslands, open habitats that cover around one fifth of the earth's terrestrial surface. The C4 photosynthetic pathway has evolved at least 22 times independently in the grasses; C4 species are more competitive than C3 plants in open habitats with high light intensity and warm temperatures.

The deeper relationships in the family have been resolved by recent molecular phylogenetic work. This has been translated into a modern classification which divides the grasses into twelve subfamilies and a number of tribes, with large tribes further divided into subtribes.

Anomochlooideae, Pharoideae and Puelioideae are early diverging lineages containing only a few species. Most of the diversity falls into the two big BOP and PACMAD clades, which each contain roughly half of the family's species. C4 lineages have only evolved in the PACMAD clade, whereas many lineages in the BOP clade have evolved adaptations to cold climate.

While the higher-level classification of the grasses is now relatively well understood, taxonomic efforts continue at the species and genera level, and with continuing phylogenetic research, a number of names is likely to change. The list of genera below is therefore likely to evolve with further study.

Genera
793 genera are currently accepted:

A

 * Aakia J.R.Grande
 * Achnatherum P.Beauv.
 * Aciachne Benth.
 * Acidosasa C.D.Chu & C.S.Chao
 * Acostia Swallen
 * Acrachne Wight & Arn. ex Chiov.
 * Acritochaete Pilg.
 * Acroceras Stapf.
 * Acrospelion Besser
 * Actinocladum McClure ex Soderstr.
 * Adenochloa Zuloaga
 * Aegilops L.
 * × Aegilotriticum P.Fourn.
 * Aegopogon Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. – synonym of Muhlenbergia
 * Aeluropus Trin.
 * Afrotrichloris Chiov.
 * Agenium Nees
 * Agnesia Zuloaga & Judz.
 * × Agropogon P.Fourn.
 * Agropyron Gaertn.
 * Agropyropsis (Batt. & Trab.) A.Camus
 * Agrostis L.
 * Agrostopoa Davidse, Soreng & P.M.Peterson
 * Agrostula P.M.Peterson, Romasch., Soreng & Sylvester
 * Aira L.
 * Airopsis Desv.
 * Alexfloydia B.K.Simon
 * Alloeochaete C.E.Hubb.
 * Allolepis Soderstr. & H.F.Decker
 * Alloteropsis J.Presl.
 * Alopecurus L.
 * Alpagrostis P.M.Peterson, Romasch., Soreng & Sylvester
 * Altoparadisium Filg., Davidse, Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Alvimia C.E.Calderón ex Soderstr. & Londoño
 * Amelichloa Arriaga & Barkworth
 * Ammochloa Boiss.
 * Ammophila Host – synonym of Calamagrostis
 * Ampelodesmos Link
 * Amphibromus Nees
 * Amphicarpum Kunth
 * Amphipogon R.Br.
 * Anadelphia Hack.
 * Ancistrachne S.T.Blake
 * Ancistragrostis S.T.Blake
 * Andropogon L.
 * Andropterum Stapf
 * Anemanthele Veldkamp
 * Aniselytron Merr.
 * Anisopogon R.Br.
 * Annamocalamus H.N.Nguyen, N.H.Xia & V.T.Tran
 * Anomochloa Brongn.
 * Anthaenantiopsis Mez ex Pilg.
 * Anthaenantia P.Beauv.
 * Anthephora Schreb.
 * Anthosachne Steud.
 * Anthoxanthum L.
 * Antinoria Parl.
 * Apera Adans.
 * Apluda L.
 * Apochiton C.E.Hubb. – synonym of Coelachyrum
 * Apochloa Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Apoclada McClure
 * Apocopis Nees
 * Arberella Soderstr. & C.E.Calderón
 * Arctagrostis Griseb.
 * × Arctodupontia Tzvelev
 * Arctohyalopoa Röser & Tkach
 * Arctophila (Rupr.) Andersson – synonym of Dupontia
 * Arctopoa (Griseb.) Prob.
 * Aristida L.
 * Arrhenatherum P.Beauv.
 * Arthragrostis Lazarides – synonym of Panicum
 * Arthraxon P.Beauv.
 * Arthropogon Nees
 * Arthrostylidium Rupr.
 * Arundinaria Michx.
 * Arundinella Raddi
 * Arundo L.
 * Arundoclaytonia Davidse & R.P.Ellis
 * Asthenochloa Buse
 * Astrebla F.Muell.
 * Athroostachys Benth.
 * Atractantha McClure
 * Aulonemia Goudot
 * Aulonemiella L.G.Clark, Londoño, C.D.Tyrrell & Judz.
 * Australopyrum (Tzvelev) Á.Löve
 * Austrochloris Lazarides
 * Austroderia N.P.Barker & H.P.Linder
 * Austrofestuca (Tzvelev) E.B.Alexeev – synonym of Poa
 * Austrostipa S.W.L.Jacobs & J.Everett
 * Avellinia Parl.
 * Avena L.
 * Avenella Bluff ex Drejer
 * Avenula (Dumort.) Dumort.
 * Axonopus P.Beauv.

B

 * Bambusa Schreb.
 * Baptorhachis Clayton & Renvoize
 * Barkworthia Romasch., P.M.Peterson & Soreng
 * Bashania Keng f. & T.P.Yi
 * Beckmannia Host
 * Bellardiochloa Chiov.
 * Bewsia Gooss.
 * Bhidea Stapf ex Bor
 * Blepharidachne Hack.
 * Blepharoneuron Nash – synonym of Muhlenbergia
 * Boldrinia L.N.Silva
 * Bonia Balansa
 * Borinda Stapleton
 * Bothriochloa Kuntze
 * Bouteloua Lag.
 * Brachiaria (Trin.) Griseb. – synonym of Urochloa
 * Brachyachne (Benth.) Stapf – synonym of Cynodon
 * Brachychloa S.M.Phillips
 * Brachyelytrum P.Beauv.
 * Brachypodium P.Beauv.
 * Brachystachyum Keng
 * Brasilochloa R.P.Oliveira & L.G.Clark
 * Briza L.
 * Bromuniola Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
 * Bromus L.
 * Brylkinia F.Schmidt
 * Buergersiochloa Pilg.

C

 * Calamagrostis Adans.
 * Calamovilfa (A.Gray) Hack. ex Scribn. & Southw.
 * Calderonella Soderstr. & H.F.Decker – synonym of Zeugites
 * Calyptochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Cambajuva P.L.Viana, L.G.Clark & Filg.
 * Campeiostachys Drobow
 * Canastra Morrone, Zuloaga, Davidse & Filg.
 * Capeochloa H.P.Linder & N.P.Barker
 * Capillipedium Stapf
 * Castellia Tineo
 * Catabrosa P.Beauv.
 * Catabrosella (Tzvelev) Tzvelev
 * Catalepis Stapf & Stent
 * × Catanellia L.J.Gillespie & Soreng
 * Catapodium Link
 * Cathariostachys S.Dransf.
 * Cathestecum J.Presl – synonym of Bouteloua
 * Celtica F.M.Vázquez & Barkworth
 * Cenchrus L.
 * Centotheca Desv.
 * Centrochloa Swallen – synonym of Axonopus
 * Centropodia Rchb.
 * Cephalostachyum Munro
 * Chaetium Nees
 * Chaetobromus Nees
 * Chaetopoa C.E.Hubb.
 * Chaetopogon Janch. – synonym of Agrostis
 * Chamaeraphis R.Br.
 * Chandrasekharania V.J.Nair, V.S.Ramach. & Sreek.
 * Chascolytrum Desv.
 * Chasechloa A.Camus
 * Chasmanthium Link
 * Chasmopodium Stapf
 * Chevalierella A.Camus
 * Chikusichloa Koidz.
 * Chimonobambusa Makino
 * Chimonocalamus Hsueh f. & T.P.Yi
 * Chionachne R.Br. – synonym of Polytoca
 * Chionochloa Zotov
 * Chloothamnus Buse
 * Chloris Sw.
 * Chlorocalymma Clayton
 * Chrysochloa Swallen
 * Chrysopogon Trin.
 * Chusquea Kunth
 * Cinna L.
 * Cladoraphis Franch.
 * Clausospicula Lazarides
 * Cleistachne Benth.
 * Cleistochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Cleistogenes Keng
 * Cliffordiochloa
 * Cnidochloa Zuloaga
 * Cochinchinochloa H.N.Nguyen & V.T.Tran
 * Cockaynea Zotov – synonym of × Elyhordeum
 * Coelachne R.Br.
 * Coelachyrum Hochst. & Nees
 * Coelorachis Brongn. – synonym of Rottboellia
 * Coix L.
 * Colanthelia McClure & E.W.Sm.
 * Coleanthus Seidel ex Roem. & Schult.
 * Coleataenia Griseb.
 * Colpodium Trin.
 * Condilorachia P.M.Peterson, Romasch. & Soreng
 * Cornucopiae L. – synonym of Alopecurus
 * Cortaderia Stapf
 * Corynephorus P.Beauv.
 * Cottea Kunth
 * Craspedorhachis Benth.
 * Crinipes Hochst.
 * Crithopsis Jaub. & Spach
 * Crypsis Aiton – symptom of Sporobolus
 * Cryptochloa Swallen
 * Ctenium Panz.
 * Cutandia Willk.
 * Cyathopus Stapf
 * Cymbopogon Spreng.
 * × Cynochloris Clifford & Everist
 * Cynodon Rich.
 * Cynosurus L.
 * Cyperochloa Lazarides & L.Watson
 * Cyphochlaena Hack.
 * Cyrtochloa S.Dransf.
 * Cyrtococcum Stapf

D

 * Dactylis L.
 * Dactyloctenium Willd.
 * Daknopholis Clayton
 * Dallwatsonia B.K.Simon – synonym of Hymenachne
 * Danthonia DC.
 * Danthoniastrum (Holub) Holub
 * Danthonidium C.E.Hubb.
 * Danthoniopsis Stapf
 * Dasyochloa Willd. ex Rydb. – synonym of Munroa
 * Dasypoa Pilg. – synonym of Poa
 * Dasypyrum (Coss. & Durieu) T.Durand
 * Davidsea Soderstr. & R.P.Ellis
 * Decaryella A.Camus
 * Decaryochloa A.Camus
 * Dendrocalamus Nees
 * Deschampsia P.Beauv.
 * Desmazeria Dumort.
 * Desmostachya (Stapf) Stapf
 * Diandrolyra Stapf
 * Diarrhena P.Beauv.
 * Dichaetaria Nees ex Steud.
 * Dichanthelium (Hitchc. & Chase) Gould
 * Dichanthium Willemet
 * Dichelachne Engl. – synonym of Dichelachne
 * Didymogonyx (L.G.Clark & Londoño) C.D.Tyrrell, L.G.Clark & Londoño
 * Diectomis Kunth
 * Dielsiochloa Pilg. – synonym of Festuca
 * Digitaria Haller
 * Dignathia Stapf
 * Diheteropogon Stapf
 * Dilophotriche (C.E.Hubb.) Jacq.-Fél.
 * Dimeria R.Br.
 * Dimorphochloa S.T.Blake
 * Dinebra Jacq.
 * Dinochloa Buse
 * Diplachne P.Beauv.
 * Diplopogon R.Br. – synonym of Amphipogon
 * Disakisperma Steud.
 * Dissanthelium Trin. – synonym of Poa
 * Dissochondrus (Hillebr.) Kuntze
 * Distichlis Raf.
 * Dregeochloa Conert
 * Drepanostachyum Keng f.
 * Dryopoa Vickery
 * × Dupoa J.Cay. & Darbysh.
 * Dupontia R.Br.
 * Duthiea Hack. ex Procop.

E

 * Eccoptocarpha Launert
 * Echinaria Desf.
 * Echinochloa P.Beauv.
 * Echinolaena Desv.
 * Echinopogon P.Beauv.
 * Ectrosia R.Br. - synonym of Eragrostis
 * Ehrharta Thunb.
 * Ekmanochloa Hitchc.
 * Eleusine Gaertn.
 * Elionurus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
 * Ellisochloa P.M.Peterson & N.P.Barker
 * × Elyhordeum Mansf.
 * × Elyleymus B.R.Baum
 * Elymandra Stapf
 * × Elymostachys Tzvelev
 * Elymus
 * Elytrigia Desv. – synonym of Elymus
 * Elytrophorus P.Beauv.
 * Elytrostachys McClure
 * Enneapogon Desv. ex P.Beauv.
 * Enteropogon Nees
 * Entolasia Stapf
 * Entoplocamia Stapf
 * Eragrostiella Bor
 * Eragrostis Wolf
 * Eremitis Döll
 * Eremocaulon Soderstr. & Londoño
 * Eremochloa Buse
 * Eremopyrum (Ledeb.) Jaub. & Spach
 * Eriachne R.Br.
 * Erianthecium Parodi
 * Erianthus Michx.
 * Eriochloa Kunth
 * Eriochrysis P.Beauv.
 * Eriocoma Nutt.
 * Erioneuron Nash
 * × Eriosella Romasch.
 * Euclasta Franch.
 * Eulalia Kunth
 * Eulaliopsis Honda
 * Eustachys Desv.
 * Exotheca Andersson

F

 * Fargesia Franch.
 * Farrago Clayton
 * Ferrocalamus Hsueh & Keng f.
 * Festuca Tourn. ex L.
 * Festucopsis (C.E.Hubb.) Melderis
 * × Festulolium Asch. & Graebn.
 * × Festulpia Melderis ex Stace & R.Cotton
 * Filgueirasia Guala
 * Fimbribambusa Widjaja
 * Fingerhuthia Lehm.
 * Froesiochloa G.A.Black

G

 * Garnotia Brongn.
 * Gastridium P.Beauv.
 * Gaudinia P.Beauv.
 * Gaudinopsis
 * Gelidocalamus T.H.Wen
 * Geochloa H.P.Linder & N.P.Barker
 * Germainia Balansa & Poitr.
 * Gerritea Zuloaga, Morrone & Killeen
 * × Gigantocalamus K.M.Wong
 * Gigantochloa Kurz ex Munro
 * Gilgiochloa Pilg.
 * Glaziophyton Franch.
 * Glyceria R.Br.
 * Glyphochloa Clayton
 * Gouinia E.Fourn. ex Benth. & Hook.f.
 * Graphephorum Desv.
 * Greeneochloa P.M.Peterson, Soreng, Romasch. & Barberá
 * Greslania Balansa
 * Guadua Kunth
 * Guaduella Franch.
 * Gymnopogon P.Beauv.
 * Gynerium Willd. ex P.Beauv.

H

 * Habrochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Hackelochloa Kuntze
 * Hainardia Greuter – synonym of Parapholis
 * Hakonechloa Makino ex Honda
 * Halopyrum Stapf
 * Harpachne Hochst. ex A.Rich.
 * Harpochloa Kunth
 * Helictochloa Romero Zarco
 * Helictotrichon Besser
 * Hemarthria R.Br.
 * Hemisorghum C.E.Hubb.
 * Henrardia C.E.Hubb.
 * Hesperostipa (Elias) Barkworth
 * Heterachne Benth. – synonym of Eragrostis
 * Heteranthelium Hochst. ex Jaub. & Spach
 * Heteranthoecia Stapf
 * Heteropholis C.E.Hubb.
 * Heteropogon Pers.
 * Hickelia A.Camus
 * Hierochloe R.Br. – synonym of Anthoxanthum
 * Hilaria Kunth
 * Hitchcockella A.Camus
 * Holcolemma Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
 * Holcus L.
 * Holttumochloa K.M.Wong
 * Homolepis Chase
 * Homopholis C.E.Hubb.
 * Homozeugos Stapf
 * Hookerochloa E.B.Alexeev
 * Hopia Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Hordelymus (Jess.) Harz
 * Hordeum L.
 * Hsuehochloa D.Z.Li & Y.X.Zhang
 * Hubbardia Bor
 * Hubbardochloa Auquier
 * Humbertochloa A.Camus & Stapf
 * Hyalopoa (Tzvelev) Tzvelev
 * Hydrochloa Lazarides
 * Hydrothauma C.E.Hubb.
 * Hygrochloa Lazarides
 * Hygroryza Nees
 * Hylebates Chippind.
 * Hymenachne P.Beauv.
 * Hyparrhenia Andersson ex E.Fourn.
 * Hyperthelia Clayton
 * Hypseochloa C.E.Hubb.

I

 * Ichnanthus P.Beauv.
 * Imperata Cirillo
 * Indocalamus Nakai
 * Indopoa Bor
 * Indosasa McClure
 * Isachne R.Br.
 * Ischaemum L.
 * Iseilema Andersson
 * Ixophorus Schltdl.

J

 * Jansenella Bor
 * Jarava Ruiz & Pav.
 * Jouvea E.Fourn.

K

 * Kalinia H.L.Bell & Columbus
 * Kampochloa Clayton
 * Kaokochloa De Winter
 * Kellochloa Lizarazu, Nicola & Scataglini
 * Kengyilia C.Yen & J.L.Yang
 * Keratochlaena Morrone & Zuloaga
 * Kerriochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Khoonmengia N.H.Xia, Y.H.Tong & X.R.Zheng
 * Kinabaluchloa K.M.Wong
 * Koeleria Pers.
 * Koordersiochloa Merr.
 * Kuruna Attigala, Kaththr. & L.G.Clark

L

 * Lachnagrostis Trin.
 * Laegaardia P.M.Peterson, Soreng, Romasch. & Barberá
 * Lagurus L.
 * Lamarckia Moench
 * Laobambos Haev., Lamxay & D.Z.Li
 * Lasiacis (Griseb.) Hitchc.
 * Lasiorhachis (Hack.) Stapf
 * Lasiurus Boiss.
 * Lecomtella A.Camus
 * Leersia Sw.
 * Leptagrostis C.E.Hubb.
 * Leptaspis R.Br.
 * Leptocarydion Hochst. ex Stapf
 * Leptochloa P.Beauv.
 * Leptothrium Kunth
 * Lepturidium Hitchc. & Ekman
 * Lepturopetium Morat
 * Lepturus R.Br.
 * Leucophrys Rendle – synonym of Urochloa
 * × Leydeum Barkworth
 * × Leymostachys Tzvelev
 * Leymus Hochst.
 * Limnas Trin.
 * Limnodea L.H.Dewey
 * Limnopoa C.E.Hubb.
 * Lindbergella Bor – synonym of Poa
 * Lintonia Stapf – synonym of Chloris
 * Lithachne P.Beauv.
 * Littledalea Hemsl.
 * Loliolum V.I.Krecz. & Bobrov – synonym of Festuca
 * Lolium L.
 * Lombardochloa Roseng. & B.R.Arrill.
 * Lophacme Stapf.
 * Lophatherum Brongn.
 * Lopholepis Decne. – synonym of Perotis
 * Lophopogon Hack.
 * Lorenzochloa Reeder & C.Reeder
 * Loudetia Hochst. ex Steud.
 * Loudetiopsis Conert
 * Louisiella C.E.Hubb. & J.Léonard
 * Loxodera Launert
 * Luziola Juss.
 * Lycochloa Sam.
 * Lycurus Kunth – synonym of Muhlenbergia
 * Lygeum Loefl. ex L.

M

 * Maclurochloa K.M.Wong
 * Maclurolyra C.E.Calderón ex Soderstr.
 * Macrochloa Kunth
 * Maltebrunia Kunth
 * Manisuris L.
 * Mayariochloa Salariato, Morrone & Zuloaga
 * Megalachne Steud.
 * Megaloprotachne C.E.Hubb.
 * Megastachya P. Beauv.
 * Megathyrsus (Pilg.) B.K.Simon & S.W.L.Jacobs
 * Melanocenchris Nees
 * Melica L.
 * Melinis P.Beauv.
 * Melocalamus Benth.
 * Melocanna Trin.
 * Merostachys Spreng.
 * Merxmuellera Conert
 * Mesosetum Steud.
 * Metcalfia Conert
 * Mibora Adans.
 * Micrachne P.M.Peterson, Romasch. & Y.Herrera
 * Micraira F.Muell.
 * Microbriza Parodi ex Nicora & Rúgolo
 * Microcalamus Franch.
 * Microchloa R.Br.
 * Microlaena R.Br.
 * Micropyropsis Romero Zarco & Cabezudo – synonym of Lolium
 * Micropyrum (Gaudin) Link – synonym of Festuca
 * Microstegium Nees
 * Milium L.
 * Miscanthidium Stapf.
 * Miscanthus Andersson
 * Mnesithea Kunth
 * Mniochloa Chase
 * Molineriella Rouy
 * Molinia Schrank
 * Moliniopsis Hayata
 * Monachather Steud.
 * Monelytrum Hack.
 * Monocymbium Stapf
 * Moorochloa Veldkamp
 * Morronea Zuloaga & Scataglini
 * Mosdenia Stent
 * Muhlenbergia Schreb.
 * Mullerochloa K.M.Wong
 * Munroa Torr.
 * Myriocladus Swallen
 * Myriostachya (Benth.) Hook.f.

N

 * Nanooravia Kiran Raj & Sivad.
 * Narduroides Rouy – synonym of Festuca
 * Nardus L.
 * Narenga Bor
 * Nassella (Trin.) É.Desv.
 * Nastus Juss.
 * Neesiochloa Pilg.
 * Nematopoa C.E.Hubb.
 * Neobouteloua Gould
 * Neohouzeaua A.Camus – synonym of Schizostachyum
 * Neololeba Widjaja
 * Neomicrocalamus Keng f.
 * Neostapfia Burtt Davy
 * Neostapfiella A.Camus
 * Neotrinia (Tzvelev) M.Nobis, P.D.Gudkova & A.Nowak
 * Nephelochloa Boiss.
 * Neurachne R.Br.
 * Neyraudia Hook.f.
 * Nianhochloa H.N.Nguyen & V.T.Tran
 * Nicoraepoa Soreng & L.J.Gillespie
 * Notochloe Domin

O

 * Ocellochloa Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Ochlandra Thwaites
 * Ochthochloa Edgew. – synonym of Chloris
 * Odyssea Stapf
 * Oedochloa C.Silva & R.P.Oliveira
 * Oldeania Stapleton
 * Oligostachyum Z.P.Wang & G.H.Ye
 * Olmeca Soderstr.
 * Olyra L.
 * Ophiochloa Filg. – synonym of Axonopus
 * Ophiuros C.F.Gaertn.
 * Oplismenopsis Parodi
 * Oplismenus P.Beauv.
 * Orcuttia Vasey
 * Oreobambos K.Schum.
 * Oreochloa Link
 * Oreopoa H.Scholz & Parolly
 * Orinus Hitchc.
 * Oropetium Trin.
 * Ortachne Nees ex Steud.
 * Orthacanthus P.M.Peterson & Romasch.
 * Orthoclada P.Beauv.
 * Oryza L.
 * Oryzidium C.E.Hubbard & Schweick.
 * Oryzopsis Michx.
 * Osvaldoa J.R.Grande
 * Otachyrium Nees
 * Otatea (McClure & E.W.Sm.) C.E.Calderón ex Soderstr.
 * Ottochloa Dandy
 * Oxychloris Lazarides
 * Oxyrhachis Pilg.
 * Oxytenanthera Munro

P

 * Panicum L.
 * Pappagrostis Roshev.
 * Pappophorum Schreb.
 * Pappostipa (Speg.) Romasch., P.M.Peterson & Soreng
 * Parabambusa Widjaja
 * Paracolpodium (Tzvelev) Tzvelev
 * Paractaenum P.Beauv.
 * Parafestuca E.B.Alexeev
 * Parahyparrhenia A.Camus
 * Paramochloa P.M.Peterson, Soreng, Romasch. & Barberá
 * Paraneurachne
 * Parapholis C.E.Hubb.
 * Paratheria Griseb.
 * Parectenium
 * Pariana Aubl.
 * Parianella Hollowell, F.M.Ferreira & R.P.Oliveira
 * Parodiolyra Soderstr. & Zuloaga
 * Parodiophyllochloa Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Parvotrisetum Chrtek
 * Pascopyrum Á.Löve
 * Paspalidium Stapf – synonym of Setaria
 * Paspalum L.
 * Patis Ohwi
 * Patzkea G.H.Loos
 * Pennisetum Rich. – synonym of Cenchrus
 * Pentameris (including Pentaschistis) P.Beauv.
 * Pentapogon R.Br.
 * Pereilema J.Presl. – synonym of Muhlenbergia
 * Periballia Trin.
 * Peridictyon Seberg, Fred. & Baden
 * Perotis Aiton
 * Perrierbambus A.Camus
 * Peyritschia E.Fourn.
 * Phacelurus Griseb.
 * Phaenanthoecium C.E.Hubb.
 * Phaenosperma Munro ex Benth.
 * Phalaris L.
 * Pharus P.Browne
 * Pheidochloa S.T.Blake
 * Phippsia (Trin.) R.Br.
 * Phleum L.
 * Pholiurus Trin.
 * Phragmites Adans.
 * Phuphanochloa Sungkaew & Teerawat.
 * Phyllorachis Trimen
 * × Phyllosasa Demoly
 * Phyllostachys Siebold & Zucc.
 * Pinga Widjaja
 * Piptatheropsis Romasch., P.M.Peterson & Soreng
 * Piptatherum P.Beauv.
 * Piptochaetium J.Presl.
 * Piptophyllum C.E.Hubb.
 * Piresia Swallen
 * Piresiella Judz., Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Plagiantha Renvoize
 * Plagiosetum Benth.
 * Pleioblastus Nakai
 * Pleuropogon R.Br.
 * Plinthanthesis Steud.
 * Poa L.
 * Podagrostis (Griseb.) Scribn. & Merr.
 * Podophorus Phil. - synonym of Poa
 * Poecilostachys Hack.
 * Pogonachne Bor
 * Pogonarthria Stapf
 * Pogonatherum P.Beauv.
 * Pogonochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Pogononeura Napper
 * Pohlidium Davidse, Soderstr. & R.P.Ellis
 * Poidium Nees
 * Polevansia De Winter
 * Polypogon Desf.
 * Polytoca R.Br.
 * Polytrias Hack.
 * Pommereulla Naezén
 * Porteresia Tateoka – synonym of Oryza
 * Potamophila R.Br.
 * Pratochloa Hardion
 * Prosphytochloa Schweick.
 * Psammagrostis C.A.Gardner & C.E.Hubb. – synonym of Eragrostis
 * Psammochloa Hitchc.
 * Psathyrostachys Nevski ex Roshev.
 * Pseudanthistiria (Hack.) Hook.f.
 * Pseudechinolaena Stapf
 * Pseudobambusa T.Q.Nguyen
 * Pseudobromus K.Schum.
 * Pseudodanthonia Bor & C.E.Hubb.
 * Pseudodichanthium Bor
 * Pseudopentameris Conert
 * Pseudophleum Dogan
 * Pseudopogonatherum A.Camus
 * Pseudoraphis Griff. ex Pilg.
 * Pseudoroegneria (Nevski) Á.Löve
 * Pseudosasa Makino ex Nakai
 * Pseudosorghum A.Camus
 * Pseudostachyum Munro
 * Pseudoxytenanthera Soderstr. & R.P.Ellis
 * Pseudozoysia Chiov.
 * Psilathera Link
 * Psilolemma S.M.Phillips
 * Psilurus Trin. – synonym of Festuca
 * Ptilagrostiella Romasch., P.M.Peterson & Soreng
 * Ptilagrostis Griseb.
 * Puccinellia Parl.
 * × Pucciphippsia Tzvelev
 * Puelia Franch.

R

 * Racemobambos Holttum
 * Raddia Bertol.
 * Raddiella Swallen
 * Ratzeburgia Kunth
 * Ravenochloa D.Z.Li & Y.X.Zhang
 * Redfieldia Vasey – synonym of Muhlenbergia
 * Rehia Fijten
 * Reimarochloa Hitchc. – synonym of Paspalum
 * Reitzia Swallen
 * Relchela Steud.
 * Renvoizea Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Reynaudia Kunth
 * Rhipidocladum McClure
 * Rhizocephalus Boiss.
 * Rhomboelytrum Link
 * Rhynchoryza Baill.
 * Rhytachne Desv.
 * Richardsiella Elffers & Kenn.-O'Byrne
 * Rosengurttia L.N.Silva
 * Rostraria Trin.
 * Rottboellia L.f.
 * Rytidosperma Steud.

S

 * Saccharum L.
 * Sacciolepis Nash
 * Sarga Ewart
 * Sarocalamus Stapleton
 * Sartidia De Winter
 * Sasa Makino & Shibata
 * Sasaella Makino
 * Sasamorpha Nakai
 * Saugetia Hitchc. & Chase – synonym of Tetrapogon
 * Saxipoa Soreng, L.J.Gillespie & S.W.L.Jacobs
 * Schenckochloa J.J.Ortíz
 * Schismus P.Beauv.
 * Schizachne Hack.
 * Schizachyrium Nees
 * Schizostachyum Nees
 * Schmidiella Veldkamp
 * Schmidtia Steud. ex J.A.Schmidt
 * Schoenefeldia Kunth
 * Schoenefeldiella P.M.Peterson
 * Sclerochloa P.Beauv.
 * Sclerodactylon Stapf
 * Scleropogon Phil.
 * Scolochloa Link
 * Scribneria Hack. – synonym of Deschampsia
 * Scrotochloa Judz.
 * Scutachne Hitchc. & Chase
 * Secale L.
 * Sehima Forssk.
 * Semiarundinaria Makino ex Nakai
 * Sesleria Scop.
 * Sesleriella Deyl
 * Setaria P.Beauv.
 * Setariopsis Scribn. ex Millsp.
 * Shibataea Makino ex Nakai
 * Sibirotrisetum Barberá, Soreng, Romasch., Quintanar & P.M.Peterson
 * Silentvalleya V.J.Nair, Sreek., Vajr. & Bhargavan
 * Simonachne E.J.Thomps.
 * Simplicia Kirk
 * Sinobambusa Makino ex Nakai
 * Sinochasea Keng
 * Sinosasa L.C.Chia ex N.H.Xia, Q.M.Qin & Y.H.Tong
 * Sirochloa S.Dransf.
 * Snowdenia C.E.Hubb.
 * Soejatmia K.M.Wong
 * Sohnsia Airy Shaw
 * Sokinochloa S.Dransf.
 * Sorghastrum Nash
 * Sorghum Moench
 * Spartina Schreb. – synonym of Sporobolus
 * Spartochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Spathia Ewart
 * Sphaerobambos S.Dransf.
 * Sphaerocaryum Nees ex Hook.f.
 * Spheneria Kuhlm.
 * Sphenopholis Scribn.
 * Sphenopus Trin.
 * Spinifex L.
 * Spodiopogon Trin.
 * Sporobolus R.Br.
 * Stapfochloa H.Scholz
 * Stapletonia P.Singh, S.S.Dash & P.Kumari
 * Steinchisma Raf.
 * Steirachne Ekman
 * Stenostachys Turcz.
 * Stenotaphrum Trin.
 * Stephanachne Keng
 * Stephostachys Zuloaga & Morrone
 * Stereochlaena Hack
 * Steyermarkochloa Davidse & R.P.Ellis
 * Stiburus Stapf
 * Stipa L.
 * Stipagrostis Nees
 * Stipellula Röser & Hamasha
 * Stolonochloa E.J.Thomps.
 * Streptochaeta Schrad. ex Nees
 * Streptogyna P.Beauv.
 * Streptolophus Hughes
 * Streptostachys Desv.
 * Styppeiochloa De Winter
 * Sucrea Soderstr. – synonym of Raddia
 * Suddia Renvoize
 * Swallenia Soderstr. & H.F.Decker
 * Sylvipoa Soreng, L.J.Gillespie & S.W.L.Jacobs
 * Symplectrodia Lazarides – synonym of Triodia

T

 * Taeniatherum Nevski
 * Taeniorhachis Cope
 * Taquara I.L.C.Oliveira & R.P.Oliveira
 * Tarigidia Stent
 * Tatianyx Zuloaga & Soderstr.
 * Teinostachyum
 * Temburongia S.Dransf. & K.M.Wong
 * Temochloa S.Dransf.
 * Tenaxia N.P.Barker & H.P.Linder
 * Tetrachaete Chiov. ex P.R.Pirotta
 * Tetrachne Nees
 * Tetrapogon Desf.
 * Tetrarrhena R.Br.
 * Thamnocalamus Munro
 * Thaumastochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Thelepogon Roth
 * Thellungia
 * Themeda Forssk.
 * × Thinoelymus Banfi
 * Thinopyrum Á.Löve
 * Thorneochloa Romasch., P.M.Peterson & Soreng
 * Thrasya Kunth – synonym of Paspalum
 * Thuarea Pers.
 * Thyridachne C.E.Hubb.
 * Thyridolepis S.T.Blake
 * Thyrsia Stapf
 * × Thyrsocalamus Sungkaew & W.L.Goh
 * Thyrsostachys Gamble
 * Thysanolaena Nees
 * Tibisia C.D.Tyrrell, Londoño & L.G.Clark
 * Timouria Roshev.
 * Tongpeia Stapleton
 * Torreyochloa Church
 * Trachypogon Nees
 * Trachys Pers.
 * Tragus Haller
 * Tribolium Desv.
 * Tricholaena Schrad.
 * Tricholemma (Röser) Röser
 * Trichoneura Andersson
 * Trichopteryx Nees
 * Tridens Roem. & Schult.
 * Tridentopsis P.M.Peterson
 * Trigonochloa P.M.Peterson & N.Snow
 * Trikeraia Bor
 * Trilobachne Schenck ex Henrard
 * Triniochloa Hitchc.
 * Triodia R.Br.
 * Tripidium H.Scholz
 * Triplachne Link
 * Triplasiella P.M.Peterson & Romasch.
 * Triplasis P.Beauv.
 * Triplopogon Bor
 * Tripogon Roem. & Schult.
 * Tripogonella P.M.Peterson & Romasch.
 * Tripsacum L.
 * Triraphis R.Br.
 * Triscenia Griseb.
 * Trisetaria Forssk.
 * Trisetopsis Röser & A.Wölk
 * × Trisetopsotrichon Röser & A.Wölk
 * Trisetum Pers.
 * Tristachya Nees.
 * Triticum L.
 * Tuctoria Reeder
 * Tzveleviochloa Röser & A.Wölk

U

 * Uniola L.
 * Uranthoecium Stapf
 * Urelytrum Hack.
 * Urochloa P.Beauv.
 * Urochondra C.E.Hubb.

V

 * Vahlodea Fr.
 * Valiha S.Dransf.
 * Vaseyochloa Hitchc.
 * Veldkampia Ibaragi & Shiro Kobay.
 * Ventenata Koeler
 * Vietnamochloa Veldkamp & R.Nowack
 * Vietnamosasa T.Q.Nguyen
 * Viguierella A.Camus
 * Vossia Wall. & Griff.
 * Vulpia C.C.Gmel. – synonym of Festuca
 * Vulpiella (Batt. & Trab.) Burollet

W

 * Walwhalleya Wills & J.J.Bruhl
 * Wangenheimia Moench
 * Whiteochloa C.E.Hubb.
 * Widjajachloa K.M.Wong & S.Dransf.
 * Willkommia Hack.

X, Y

 * Xerochloa R.Br.
 * Yersinochloa H.N.Nguyen & V.T.Tran
 * Yakirra Lazarides & R.D.Webster – synonym of Panicum
 * Yushania Keng f.
 * Yvesia A.Camus

Z

 * Zaqiqah P.M.Peterson & Romasch.
 * Zea L.
 * Zenkeria Trin.
 * Zeugites P.Browne
 * Zingeria P.A.Smirn. – synonym of Colpodium
 * Zizania L.
 * Zizaniopsis Döll & Asch.
 * Zonotriche (C.E.Hubb.) J.B.Phipps
 * Zotovia Edgar & Connor
 * Zoysia Willd.
 * Zuloagaea Bess
 * Zygochloa S.T.Blake

title: List of Poaceae genera