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Clyde Coombs

Clyde Hamilton Coombs (July 22, 1912 – February 4, 1988) was an American psychologist specializing in the field of mathematical psychology. He devised a voting system, that was hence named Coombs' method.

Coombs founded the Mathematical Psychology program at the University of Michigan. His students included Amos Tversky, Robyn Dawes, and Baruch Fischhoff, all important researchers in Decision Sciences. The classic text "An Introduction to Mathematical Psychology," by Coombs, Dawes, and Tversky was a must for Michigan graduate students in Mathematical and Experimental Psychology.

In 1959 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.

The development of scaling theory by Louis Guttman and Clyde Coombs has been recognized by Science as one of 62 major advances in the social sciences in the period 1900-1965

Selected bibliography

 * Coombs, Clyde H. (1964). Theory of data. New York, Wiley. (OCoLC)565269224.
 * Coombs, Clyde H. (1983). Psychology and Mathematics: An Essay on Theory. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
 * Coombs, Clyde H., Coombs, Lolagene C. & Lingoes, James C. (1978). Stochastic cumulative scales. In S. Shye (Ed.) Theory construction and data analysis in the behavioral sciences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 * Coombs, Clyde H., Coombs, Lolagene C. & Lingoes, James C. (1978). Stochastic cumulative scales. In S. Shye (Ed.) Theory construction and data analysis in the behavioral sciences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

title: Clyde Coombs


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User talk:Kmccaskey

Hello, and welcome. Are you planning on creating or working on articles other than those which link to your company's home page? This is not a place for advertisements. -- Zoe

Zoe is right. --mav

There's Katie McCaskey as well as sugarducky. wikipedians don't usually advertise themselves in articles. -- Tarquin 11:01 Feb 23, 2003 (UTC)

Nomination of SoapCity for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article SoapCity is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/SoapCity until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Rathfelder (talk) 14:20, 15 October 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Kmccaskey


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James Dole

James Drummond Dole (September 27, 1877 – May 20, 1958), the "Pineapple King", was an American industrialist who developed the pineapple industry in Hawaii. He established the Hawaiian Pineapple Company (HAPCO) which was later reorganized to become the Dole Food Company that operates in over 90 countries. Dole was a cousin (once removed) of Sanford B. Dole, President of the Republic of Hawaii.

Early life
James Dole was born on September 27, 1877, in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts (now part of Boston), to an American Puritan family long settled in the country since colonial America times. His father was Charles Fletcher Dole, a Unitarian minister, and his mother was Frances Drummond. His paternal great-grandfather was Wigglesworth Dole (1779–1845). His maternal grandfather was also a clergyman, James Drummond. Growing up, Dole attended Roxbury Latin School in Roxbury, Massachusetts, from which he graduated.

In 1899, Dole obtained his bachelor's degree in agriculture from the Bussey Institution of Harvard University. After receiving US$50 as a gift, Dole began saving money for a future business. After accumulating $16,240, Dole moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, at the age of 22, arriving on November 16, 1899, (then governed by his cousin Sanford B. Dole, after the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani). He purchased a 64 acre government homestead in the central plains of the island of Oahu at 21.50833°N, -158.00611°W. After experimenting with a number of crops, he settled on planting pineapple.

Hawaiian Pineapple Company
His farm grew, and Dole constructed a cannery and packing plant in the town of Wahiawa. Soon, yields and popularity of his product proved greater than he expected and Dole built a new cannery and packing plant near Honolulu Harbor. That same year, 1907, Dole purchased magazine advertisements to promote his canned pineapples. He developed the first nationwide consumer ad campaign in the United States and was successful. Demand for Hawaiian pineapple grew even more.

In 1913, Dole invested in a new machine invented by Henry Gabriel Ginaca that could peel and core 35 pineapples every minute. Before the invention, Dole had to contend with the slow pace of having hundreds of workers peel and core each pineapple by hand. With a fully mechanized outfit, Dole's business boomed once more. Rival pineapple companies slowly began to adopt the Ginaca machine, seeing how much Dole improved his business with the introduction of new technologies. During this period, the Hawaiian pineapple sector was at its most profitable as various small companies operating on comparatively modern small land made middling income for the operators. However, this was about to change as Dole was soon to corner the market and turn it into a single mighty industry dominated by a small group of companies who mass-produced the fruit for the rest of the global market.

By 1922, Dole had managed to convince his family's network in Hawaii and in Boston to arrange for a sizable capital investment fund with which he purchased the island of Lānai and developed it as a vast pineapple plantation. It became the largest plantation in the world with over 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) devoted exclusively to growing pineapple. Utilizing large mechanized production and importing large numbers of foreign workers who were paid at indentured servitude levels, Dole managed to reduce the price of his pineapples to such a level that it drove every other producer out of the business which didn't fall into line with his scheme. With this vast pineapple cultivation at the company's disposal, throughout the 20th century, Lānai produced over seventy-five percent of the world's pineapple crop, thereby dominating the market, and in turn, the place acquired the nickname of Pineapple Island. Dole also purchased land on the island of Maui. The largest competitors in the production of pineapple in Hawaii were Maui based affiliates of Alexander & Baldwin.

In 1927, inspired by Charles Lindbergh's successful trans-Atlantic flight, and seeing the potential air transportation could play in delivering his fruit, thereby making an end-run around what remained of his competitors in the Alexander & Baldwin affiliated Matson Navigation Company, Dole sponsored the Dole Air Race, putting up a prize of US$25,000 for the first airplane to fly from Oakland, California, to Honolulu, and US$10,000 for second place. Those prizes were won by the only two airplanes to survive the flight. Ten other people died in their attempts. However, the race opened up the air-travel business to Hawaii and Dole quickly developed the contacts necessary to put a stranglehold on that commercial sector.

However, these investments in land, mechanization, and finally air transportation combined with the resulting decrease in the price of pineapples, placed the company in a vulnerable price position. Because pineapples take two years to grow to maturity, the Great Depression of the 1930s and the resulting decrease in demand caused the company to lose money. By December 1932 Dole was removed from management of the company and replaced by Atherton Richards, the grandson of Joseph Ballard Atherton. At that time, Castle & Cooke took a stake in the company.

Family and retirement
Dole married Belle Dickey (1880–1972) in Jamaica Plain on November 23, 1906. His wife was the sister of architect Charles William Dickey, a member of another missionary family. They had five children: Richard Alexander Dole was born on October 28, 1907, James Drummond Dole, Jr. was born on February 6, 1910, Elisabeth Dole was born on April 25, 1911, Charles Herbert Dole was born on October 30, 1914, and Barbara Dole (married to Tambi Larsen) was born on October 10, 1916.

Sanford Dole had asked to avoid using the Dole name for products, but it had become well-known, at least within Hawaii. The first product to actually bear his name was the canned Dole pineapple juice. Dole retired in 1948. He suffered from various ailments in retirement; the worst were a series of strokes. A heart attack finally took Dole's life on May 20, 1958.

Dole was buried in Makawao Union Church cemetery near Makawao, Hawaii, on the island of Maui. His grave overlooked the slopes of Haleakala and the vast pineapple fields of what was at the time his Maui pineapple plantation. His wife Belle inscribed the words on his gravestone, "He was a Man, Take Him All in All. I Shall Not Look Upon His Like Again."

Legacy
About 8.5 acre of the original estate, including surrounding horticultural gardens, was kept in the Dole family until 1972. Although his original three-room house collapsed in 1971, a kitchen house from 1901, and a prefabricated building constructed in 1905 and expanded around 1909 for his growing family, remained but were deteriorating. In the late 1970s, the new owners developed the land into suburban residences. The remaining structures were removed from Wahiawa for the new subdivision. The Waipahu Cultural Garden in Waipahu, Hawaii, at 21.38528°N, -158.01194°W recreated a Hawaiian plantation village.

The tourist attraction known as the Dole Plantation was established in 1950 as a small fruit stand in the middle of Dole's original pineapple fields. In 1989, the fruit stand was transformed into a plantation home mounted on what looks like a hill of red dirt, characteristic of Wahiawa. The plantation home became a living museum and historical archive of the life and work of the industrialist. It is located off of Kamehameha Highway (Route 99), at 21.52556°N, -158.0375°W.

The plantation features the world's largest maze, grown entirely out of Hawaiian plants. Originally built in 1998, it lost its place in the Guinness Book of World Records until it was expanded in July 2007. The maze covers 137194 ft2 and paths are 13001 ft long.

The "Pineapple Express" is a two-mile (3 km) train ride through the plantation that is fully animated, while explaining the history of the pineapple. The plantation garden tour gives information about North Shore, the Hibiscus, native species, the Lei, irrigation, Bromeliads, the Ti Leaf, and Life on the plantation.

In 1991, the Dole Cannery closed its operations and was transformed into a multi-purpose facility with media studios, conference rooms and ballrooms. The lower levels houses a modern shopping center and an 18-screen multiplex cinema owned by Regal Entertainment Group. The actual ginaca machines and cannery storage were preserved and turned into a museum of Hawaiian Pineapple Company history. The cannery is located in the area known as Iwilei, between Honolulu Harbor and Kapālama, at 650 Iwilei Road Honolulu, 21.31556°N, -157.87028°W, and ballrooms across the street.

title: James Dole


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SoapCity

SoapCity is a defunct soap opera website, owned by Sony Pictures Digital. The site was the former home to the official websites for two soap operas produced by Columbia TriStar Television, (now Sony Pictures Television) NBC's Days of Our Lives and CBS's The Young and the Restless. In addition, Procter & Gamble Productions contracted with SoapCity to handle the web presence for their two CBS series, As the World Turns and Guiding Light.

When announced in 1999, SoapCity was planned to be the online component to a Sony-produced cable channel of the same name, which would air same-day repeats and archives of these same shows. However the channel would never air after being beaten to the market by ABC/Disney's SoapNet, contractual objections by NBC and CBS at the time disallowing re-airs on a network not owned by them, and distribution and programming complications with Sony's Game Show Network which made launching a second channel untenable.

In addition to standard coverage of daytime soap operas, including news stories, catch-up synopses and story analysis, the site was one of the first to allow day-and-day digital downloads of Days and Y&R, along with archived episodes dating back to the series' 1965 and 1973 launches. Eventually the site became a landing page redirecting viewers to the sites of their soap operas on their television networks, though as of 2017, the domain is defunct, but still held by Sony Pictures Television.

SoapCity was created and executive produced by soap opera journalist Michael Fairman.

title: SoapCity


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Talk:The Station nightclub fire

Number of gerbs.
According to the NIST report and visible in the footage, there were actually 4 gerbs used with two in the center. I edited that into the fire section. JeffStickney (talk) 21:42, 21 July 2019 (UTC)

New England Journal of Medicine
There were 2 articles in the NEJM about the Station nightclub fire, one a first-person account by a doctor, the second a long clinical case describing the treatment in detail, with a personal response by the patient herself.

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp038179 Perspective Tragedy and Response — The Rhode Island Nightclub Fire Michael J. Dacey, M.D. November 20, 2003 N Engl J Med 2003; 349:1990-1992 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp038179

Just before midnight on February 20, 2003, a terrible fire broke out in a crowded Rhode Island nightclub. It killed almost 100 people immediately and left more than 200 injured, many of them critically. My 350-bed community hospital is two miles from the nightclub...

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmcpc049001 CASE RECORDS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL Case 6-2004 — A 35-Year-Old Woman with Extensive, Deep Burns from a Nightclub Fire Robert L. Sheridan, M.D., John T. Schulz, M.D., Ph.D., Colleen M. Ryan, M.D., and Paul J. McGinnis, M.D. February 19, 2004 N Engl J Med 2004; 350:810-821 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMcpc049001

A 35-year-old woman sustained extensive burns and was possibly trampled in a nightclub after a pyrotechnics display set fire to the building. At the scene, she was responsive but confused and agitated....

Dr. Robert L. Sheridan: Progress in burn care has been heavily influenced by disasters. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of 1911 highlighted the dangers of crowded buildings with inadequate exits. The Rialto Concert Hall fire of 1930 led to a better understanding of burn resuscitation.1 The Hartford Circus fire of 1944 emphasized the need for regional planning to distribute multiple burn casualties.2 The Cocoanut Grove nightclub fire of 1942 resulted in legislation to improve public safety, with such measures as outward-opening exit doors for public places....

The Patient: There is so much I remember about that awful night and so many things I will never know. I do not know who pulled me out of the burning building and do not remember being brought to the hospital. I awoke weeks later, and nothing seemed real....

Being a burn victim has taken away many of the things I enjoyed in life. I still struggle with many things, such as the fact that I will never have my own hair again and that I have lost my ear. I want to be me again, so with the help of my doctors, nurses, and therapists I am on the road to recovery....

--Nbauman (talk) 20:36, 7 February 2020 (UTC)

Confusing wording
Under 'Ignition', the article says: "The acoustic foam was installed in two layers, with highly flammable urethane foam on top of polyethylene foam, the latter being difficult to ignite but releasing much more heat once ignited by the less dense urethane."

In the next sentence, it says: "Burning polyurethane foam instantly develops opaque, dark smoke along with deadly carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide gas."

Urethane and polyurethane are not the same thing; does anyone know which was actually installed? If so, the article should be edited appropriately. --Dstar3k (talk) 00:25, 20 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Urethane and polyurethane are not the same thing, but the term "urethane foam" refers to a polyurethane product. See eg. --Equivamp - talk 01:42, 20 January 2022 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Ozone Disco fire which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 01:02, 20 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Station nightclub fire


text:
Talk:Dave Walker

Untitled
Is this original work? -- Zoe

 * I've no idea, but I can't find it through google. --Ducker 05:30 Feb 23, 2003 (UTC)

I played a little bit with Dave when he was laying carpet in Gallup, New Mexico. Great guy. Great musician. Can't understand a damn word he says, though.

Cleanup Taskforce
I have now been assigned this article for cleanup from the Cleanup Taskforce. Expect many edits to come! It's... Thelb4! 08:38, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Task complete. Thelb 4  21:20, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Mistress
On one of my sources,, it states that after Raven, he was in a band called Mistress for some time. Is this true? I'll check other sources, but it's strange that it hasn't been included in the article! Thelb ' 4  19:39, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Never mind - saw it in the article. Or did I add it? I can't remember. Anyway, it's there now. Thelb 4 21:20, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Categories / Methodist?
Who says he's a Methodist? Some verification needed. Bretonbanquet 23:40, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

The categories on this article are ridiculous. Walker appears to be "from" three different places, and English, and a Methodist - not all of which are verified. Can someone please verify some of these, including his Englishness, or we'll need some category pruning. Bretonbanquet 22:55, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

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Substituted at 12:53, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dave Walker


text:
Talk:Music lesson

Should this article stay? -- Zoe

 * It should now. I just rewrote it. It can probably be expanded quite a way, and it's probably biased towards piano (the only instrument I know), but I think it's encyclopedic. A bit how-to-ish, maybe. -- Tim Starling 02:38 25 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * I really thought these concluding sentences were a shade less then encyclopedic.  And of course, playing pieces is great fun. Without pieces, learning a musical instrument would just be boring. Someone want to back or oppose this decision?  Ed Cormany 03:09 25 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Something needs to be said about pieces being more enjoyable than scales and theory. Motivation is a very, very important part of music lessons, something teachers must be aware of. If you manage to find one person who disagrees, I will withdraw it. You can change the language to something a bit more formal if you like. -- Tim Starling 03:20 25 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * I agree with Tim. When I began learning guitar, I started with pieces and then moved into scales, chord shapes, theory and so forth. -- goatasaur

 * Point taken, and very nice rewrite, Tim. I'm satisfied now :-) Ed Cormany 05:18 25 Jun 2003 (UTC)

I wrote the original article to list the benefit of music lessons, I expected someone would refine the writing but preserve the points in the article. I was really disappointed when someone changed the title of the article to change the subject totally. Then someone else followed by rewriting to the new subject line. The original subject was entirely wiped clean. I plan to bring back the original subject as a new article perhaps this time someone will keep the subject line intact. -- User:Kowloonese June 25, 2003.

The new article has been listed on Votes for deletion -- Tim Starling 01:48 26 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Music is more than notes and rhythms. An encyclopedia article that only discusses the aspects of it which can be distilled into clinical, reductionist language is going to be lacking.--Ben St. Hilaire 09:05, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Wikipedia still is a encyclopedie, I have created a new site (still mediawiki basis) but I think it go's one step further then wikiepedia. My site is dedicated to Musicians only. And also provide lessons etc. So please take a look over there. The adres is: http://musicianswiki.com If you want to talk with me about this subject use: http://musicianswiki.com/index.php/user:emiel or this page ;) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 145.53.67.246 (talk • contribs) 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: EDFN 508 Introduction to Research
— Assignment last updated by MoreResearchInformation (talk) 05:50, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Music lesson


text:
Vendôme

Vendôme is a subprefecture of the department of Loir-et-Cher, France. It is also the department's third-biggest commune with 15,856 inhabitants (2019). It is one of the main towns along the river Loir. The river divides itself at the entrance of Vendôme, intersecting it into numerous different arms. The town has a rich medieval history and many historical monuments.

History
Vendôme (in Vindocinum) appears originally to have been a Gallic oppidum, replaced later by a feudal castle, around which the modern town arose. Christianity was introduced by Saint Bienheuré in the 5th century, and the important abbey of the Trinity (which claimed to possess a tear shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus) was founded about 1030. When the reign of the House of Capet began, Vendôme formed the chief town of a county belonging to Bouchard, called "the Venerable", who died in the monastery of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés in 1007.

The succession passed by various marriages to the houses of Nevers, Preuilly and Montoire. Bouchard VI, Count of Vendôme and Castres (died c. 1374), left as his heiress his sister Catherine, the wife of John of Bourbon, count of La Marche. The county of Vendôme was raised to the rank of a duchy and a peerage of France for Charles of Bourbon (1515); his son Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, was the father of Henry IV, who gave the duchy of Vendôme in 1598 to his illegitimate son César de Bourbon (1594–1665). César, Duke of Vendôme, took part in the disturbances which went on in France under the government of Cardinal Richelieu and of Cardinal Mazarin; he was the father of Louis, Duke of Vendôme, who married a niece of Mazarin, and François de Vendôme, Duc de Beaufort. The last of his family in the male line was Louis XIV's famous general, Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme (1645–1712).

Nominoe, King of Brittany, died undefeated in Vendôme in 851, after conquering the counties of Maine and Anjou.

The comte de Rochambeau, leader of 6,000 French troops in the American Revolutionary War, was born in Vendôme.

Place Vendôme in Paris had been the site of the Hôtel de Vendôme, a mansion which belonged to César de Bourbon, the illegitimate son of Henry IV and his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées.

Geography
Vendôme is located 22 mi northwest of the city of Blois and 40 minutes from Paris by TGV train (Vendôme-Villiers-sur-Loir TGV station). The town lies on the river Loir, which here divides into numerous arms intersecting the town.

Administration
Vendôme is the capital of the arrondissement of Vendôme in the Loir-et-Cher department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It has a tribunal of first instance.

Sights
On the south, it is overlooked by an eminence on which stand the ruins of the castle of the counts of Vendôme. The abbey-church of the Holy Trinity has a façade in the florid Gothic style. Abbey buildings of various periods lie round the church. The church of La Madeleine (15th century) is surmounted by a stone spire, an imitation of that of the abbey. The tower of Saint-Martin (16th century) represents the vanished church of that name.

Other monuments are: the old gate, the Porte Saint-Georges; its river front is composed of two large crenelated and machicolated towers, connected by a pavilion, and the ancient hospital of Saint-Jacques that afterwards became a college of the Oratorians, then a lycée for boys and that is now occupied by the town administration offices. The charming chapel, in the most florid Gothic style, is preserved. In the garden surrounding, is located the tourism office in an ancient building called l'Orangerie (facing the public library). The town has a well-known archaeological and scientific society, and possesses a library with more than three hundred manuscripts, and a museum, mostly archaeological, in front of which stands a statue of the poet Pierre de Ronsard. There is also a statue of Marshal Rochambeau, born at Vendôme in 1725. Some interesting houses of the 15th and 16th centuries survive.

Twin towns – sister cities
Vendôme is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Gevelsberg, Germany
 * 🇺🇸 Hampton, United States
 * 🇨🇳 Rizhao, China

title: Vendôme


text:
Cardinal Mazarin

Jules Mazarin (born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini; 14 July 1602 – 9 March 1661), from 1641 known as Cardinal Mazarin, was an Italian Catholic prelate, diplomat and politician who served as the chief minister to the Kings of France Louis XIII and Louis XIV from 1642 to his death.

After serving as a papal diplomat for Pope Urban VIII, Mazarin offered his diplomatic services to Cardinal Richelieu and moved to Paris in 1640. After the death of Richelieu in 1642, Mazarin took his place as first minister of Louis XIII, and then of Louis XIV, when he succeeded to the throne in 1643. Mazarin acted as the head of the government for Anne of Austria, the regent for the young Louis XIV. Mazarin was also made responsible for the king's education until he came of age.

The first years of Mazarin in office were marked by military victories in the Thirty Years' War, which he used to make France the main European power and establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–1648). A major uprising against Anne of Austria and Mazarin, called the Fronde and led by the nobles of the Parlement of Paris, broke out in Paris in 1648, followed by a second Fronde, led by Louis, Grand Condé, who had turned from his chief ally to his chief enemy. Mazarin took Anne of Austria and Louis XIV out of Paris and then shifted his base to Germany for a time. Turenne, a general loyal to Louis XIV and Mazarin, defeated Condé, and Mazarin made a triumphal return to Paris in 1653.

The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1657 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories. In 1657 he made a military alliance with England. In 1658 he unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of 50 small German principalities, which were now linked by a treaty with France. The same year, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. Between February and June 1659, Mazarin conducted intensive negotiations with the Spanish. On 7 November 1659, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which added Artois, the Cerdagne and Roussillon as new provinces of France. That was followed in June 1660 by an even more important diplomatic event that had been carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain. The marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. The marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Habsburgs and France. Exhausted by his diplomatic efforts, Mazarin died in 1661.

Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France for nearly two decades, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of the principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, have remained the basis of international law to this day.

In addition to his diplomacy, Mazarin was an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian opera on a grand scale to Paris and assembled a remarkable art collection, much of which today can be seen in the Louvre. He also founded the Bibliothèque Mazarine, the first true public library in France, which is now found in the Institut de France, across the Seine from the Louvre.

Early life
Giulio Mazzarino was born on 14 July 1602 in Pescina in the Abruzzo province of Italy, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Rome. His parents were residents of Rome, spending the summer in Pescina to escape the summer heat. His father, Pietro Mazzarino (1576–1654), had moved to Rome from Sicily in 1590 to become a chamberlain in the family of Filippo I Colonna, the Grand Constable of Naples. His father became a citizen of Rome in 1608. His mother Ortensia Bufalini (1575–1644) was a native of Rome, from the Bufalini family of nobility whose origins were in Città di Castello in Umbria. The family had moved to Rome in the Middle Ages. She was the goddaughter of Filippo I Colonna, her husband's employer. Giulio was the eldest of six children, two boys and four girls.

Through the influence of the Colonnas, Giulio was admitted at the age of seven to the Jesuit College in Rome, the most respected school in the city. Though he declined to join their order, he excelled in his studies. In 1618, at the age of sixteen, he gave a public lecture on theories explaining Halley's comet, which appeared in that year. He also excelled in theatrics; he was chosen to play the part of the newly sainted Ignatius of Loyola in a religious pageant. He also acquired the habit of gambling at cards, and was frequently in debt. A particular favourite game of his was a variant of Hoc named after him: Hoc Mazarin.

When he was twenty his father decided to send him away from the bad influences of Rome. Giulio accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, who was eighteen, to the Complutense University of Madrid (then located in Alcalá de Henares) in Spain. He studied law with Girolamo during the daytime and in the evenings continued to gamble and again was in debt. A notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry, and Giulio accepted. Girolamo Colonna wrote urgently to his father in Rome, and Giulio was ordered to return immediately to Rome, without his fiancée.

Papal envoy
Upon his return to Rome, he resumed his studies, this time in law. In 1628 he received the title of doctor in utroque jure, meaning he could practice both civil and canonical law. In the same year Ferdinand II, the Habsburg emperor, laid claim to a papal territory, the Valtellina, in the Italian alps. Pope Urban VIII raised an army to defend his territory. The Prince of Palestrina, who was also a member of the Colonna family, commanded a new regiment of the Papal army, and invited Giulio to become a lieutenant in the regiment. Since neither the regiment nor Giulio had any military experience, they were assigned to a town far from the front line. Giulio knew little of military discipline. He received a message from Rome informing that his mother was seriously ill. Without asking permission from his commander, he immediately rode to Rome, and stayed there until his mother had recovered. He was summoned before the Pope, Urban VIII, to explain why he had deserted his post. He threw himself at the feet of the Pope, and pleaded to be pardoned for his excess of loyalty to his family. The Pope was impressed by Giulio's spontaneity and eloquence, forgave his desertion, and invited him to become a Papal emissary.

In 1628 Mazarin was named the secretary to Jean-François Sacchetti, a senior papal diplomat, who was trying to prevent the impending War of the Mantuan Succession between the armies of France and Spain for dominance of that region of northern Italy. Throughout 1629 and 1630 he shuttled between Milan, Mantua, Turin, Casale and France, trying to find a solution to the crisis before the fighting began. This became, throughout his career, his standard method of diplomacy; traveling continually, getting to know and win the trust of as many decision-makers as possible. During this time he came to know Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the head of diplomacy for the papacy, and, more important, Cardinal Richelieu of France, his future mentor, whom he first met in Lyon on 29 January 1630. Richelieu was aloof and confrontational; he wrote afterwards: "This Mazarini is here more to spy than to negotiate....He is so Spanish and so Savoyard that what he says shouldn't be taken as gospel truth."

Richelieu at first decided to ignore Mazarin's diplomacy and to send the French army across the Alps into Italy. On 26 October 1630 the French and Spanish armies met outside the walls of the French-held town of Casale, ready to fight. Suddenly, a man on horseback with a flag appeared, galloping toward them, crying "Pace! Pace!" ("Peace! Peace!") It was Mazarin, carrying an agreement from the Spanish commander to evacuate their soldiers from the town if the French would leave Montferrat to Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Mazarin brought together the Spanish and French commanders and explained the terms of the agreement, which were readily accepted by both sides. Mazarin had achieved his first diplomatic success.

The result of Mazarin's first diplomatic efforts was the Treaty of Cherasco, 6 April 1631, in which the Emperor and the Duke of Savoy recognized the possession of Mantua and part of Monferrat by Charles Gonzaga and the French occupation of the strategic stronghold of Pinerolo, the gate to the valley of the Po, to the great satisfaction of Richelieu and King Louis XIII of France.

The Pope sent Mazarin to Paris at the beginning of 1631 to work out the final details of the agreement. He returned to France again from April to July 1632. He had his first interview with Lous XIII and with the Queen, Anne of Austria, in May 1632. He tried to persuade Louis XIII to send a military expedition to capture Geneva, the fortress of the Protestant movement, but the King, who had good relations with the Swiss cantons, rejected the idea. Mazarin returned to Rome in November 1632, and made a new friend and ally, Antonio Barberini, the nephew of the Pope and one of his chief diplomats, and his older brother, Francesco Barberini, the Cardinal Secretary of State. With their assistance, he established himself as a guardian of French interests in Rome, and then of papal interests in France. In 1632, he was named papal vice-legate at Avignon, appointed a prelate, and began to wear ecclesiastical dress, though he was not and never became a priest.

While in Rome, Mazarin sent regular gifts of flowers, perfumes and delicacies to the women of the French court, and more valuable gifts, including statues and Renaissance paintings, to Richelieu. In 1634 he was named nuncio extraordinary to Paris by Urban VIII, and entrusted with the mission of persuading Louis XIII to undertake a grand naval crusade against the Turks. The goal was to create a combined fleet of the ships of Christian nations to seize the Turkish ports around the Mediterranean. Mazarin, a realist, knew that, given the rivalries between European powers, this project would never take place.

A new crisis arrived on 19 May 1635; France declared war on the Habsburg rulers of Austria and Spain. Mazarin wrote later that he had done his best to persuade Richelieu to avoid a war. He wrote that in March 1635 he gave Richelieu all his reasons to maintain the peace. "His Eminence told me, as he stood up," Mazarin wrote, "that I courted Peace as if she were the woman of my dreams. Then he shook my hand, and concluded, 'You are no longer on the side of France.'" Mazarin returned to Avignon on 7 April 1636.

During all of his negotiations, Mazarin was very careful not to be too critical of the French court and Richelieu, and they remained in contact. In November 1636 he left Avignon to return to Rome, carrying instructions from Richelieu that made him a discreet ambassador for the king of France.

The atmosphere within the papal curia was hostile to France and to Richelieu; Spanish priests occupied many positions in the hierarchy and they considered him, with reason, an agent of France. When the Pope refused to send him back to France, or to represent the papacy at a peace conference, he wrote: "I am not a subject of the King of France, but I believe I can truly say that the declarations of the Spanish have declared me to be French, so that with justice one can say that France is my country."

His position in Rome was increasingly difficult. He had the affection of Pope Urban VIII, but he was disliked by Cardinal Barberini, the chief of Papal diplomacy, and by the large contingent of Spaniards in the papal household. He spent his time collecting sculpture and other works of art which he sent to Richelieu for the Cardinal's new palace in Paris. He considered serving the rulers of Savoy, Poland, or Queen Henriette of England, but in the end he decided to enter the service of Richelieu and France. However, Richelieu was in no hurry to bring him to Paris; he valued the diplomatic contributions Mazarin was making in Rome, as well as the art treasures he was acquiring. He kept Mazarin in Rome for two more years. Richelieu did one important favor for Mazarin; in October 1638 he put forward Mazarin's name as a candidate for Cardinal when the next vacancy opened up. In December 1638, when a sitting Cardinal died, Mazarin was nominated as a Cardinal. He had to wait the entire year of 1639 before his new position was confirmed. Then on 14 December 1639, he departed Rome for the port of Civitavecchia, boarded an armed French ship to Marseille, and then traveled from Lyon to Paris, where he arrived on 5 January 1640.

Cardinal and deputy of Richelieu
When he arrived in Paris, Mazarin was welcomed warmly by the King, by Richelieu, and by the Queen, Anne of Austria, to whom Mazarin had regularly sent perfumes, fans, gloves and other gifts. The Queen was at this time pregnant with her second child, and it was already anticipated that she would be the regent when King Louis XIII died. Mazarin advised Richelieu on both political and cultural matters. He recommended artists to bring from Rome to Paris, and in 1640 he commissioned a bust of Richelieu from the sculptor Bernini in Rome, sending Bernini pictures of Richelieu. The bust of Richelieu arrived in August 1641. Mazarin declared that it was perfect, so lifelike that, as he wrote, "it seemed about to speak", but French tastes did not approve of the Baroque style. The other members of the Court condemned the work, and Mazarin wrote back to Bernini, sending him more pictures of Richelieu and asking him to try again.

Richelieu sent Mazarin on several delicate diplomatic missions, including a long trip to Savoy to straighten out the tangled political affairs there: the regency of Christine, the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, was challenged by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy. (See Piedmontese Civil War) Mazarin successfully secured Christine's position, and established a solid alliance between Savoy and France. This task kept him away from Paris for nine months, until June 1641. On 16 December 1641, though he had not reached his fortieth birthday, he received what he most desired, he was formally made a Cardinal.

He had established a cordial relationship with Richelieu; Richelieu jokingly referred to him as Rinzama (an anagram of his name), or Nunzinicardo ("dear little envoy"), or, most frequently, Colmarduccio, or Colmardo. When was asked what it meant, he translated into French as Frère Coupechou, the term for a junior candidate monk who was assigned to chop cabbage in the kitchen of the abbey. However, he did not send Mazarin on the mission that he most wanted, as delegate of France to a Europe-wide peace conference. Richelieu's attention was devoted to making war; Richelieu, who was elderly and in poor health, took the King, who was also in poor health, the court and Mazarin on a series of long military expeditions, to suppress a rebellion in Catalonia, to capture Roussillon, and, in January 1642, to lay siege to Narbonne.

On 11 June 1642, while in Tarascon on one of the long military expeditions, Mazarin was presented with evidence that Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIII, and the Marquis of Cinq-Mars, one of the King's closest advisors, had made a secret agreement with the King of Spain, without the knowledge of Richelieu or the King. It appeared probable that the Queen, Anne of Austria, was also aware of this secret betrayal of Richelieu, but did not tell him or the King. Cinq-Mars was arrested, Gaston was disgraced, and another conspirator, the Duke of Bouillon, was granted a pardon on the condition of revealing all the details of the plot to Mazarin, and surrendering the important fortress of Sedan to the King. Mazarin did not reveal the participation of the Queen in the conspiracy, but his knowledge gave him even greater leverage at the court. The destruction of the conspiracy against the King was one of the last acts of Cardinal Richelieu. He fell ill and died on 4 December 1642.

Chief minister of France – Diplomacy

The succession of Mazarin to the position of chief minister of Louis XIII was not automatic or immediate. Despite the accounts of some later historians, Richelieu did not name Mazarin as his successor. Richelieu did, according to Mazarin himself, advise the King to employ Mazarin, who until that time had no official position at Court.

After the death of Richelieu, Louis XIII named three prominent figures to advise him; François Sublet de Noyers, Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny and Mazarin. Mazarin and de Chavigny immediately joined together to get rid of de Noyers. They hinted to the King that de Noyers had secretly made an agreement with Anne of Austria to make her the regent of France after the King's death. The King, who had little love for the Queen and in his will had refused to make her his Regent, was furious; de Noyers was forced to resign on 10 April 1643.

Louis XIII died 14 May 1643, just five months after Richelieu. His successor, Louis XIV, was just four years old. The King had specifically instructed that his wife, Anne of Austria, not rule in his place as regent. However, as soon as he was dead, she applied to the body of nobles known as the Parlement of Paris, and had his will annulled. She was declared Regent on 18 May. The Queen had a particular dislike of de Chavigny, the other chief advisor chosen by Louis XIII. He had been close to Richelieu and was the only real rival in experience to Mazarin. The evening that she became regent, she declared that Mazarin would be her chief minister and head of her government.

The management style of Mazarin was entirely different from that of Richelieu. The contrast was described by Cardinal Retz, the future enemy of Mazarin, in his Memoires: "One saw on the steps of the throne, where the sharp and fearsome Richelieu had thundered rather than governed the people, a leader who is gentle, benevolent, and demands nothing...He has the spirit, the insinuation, the playfulness, the manners, but also a certain laziness...."

Cardinal Retz and other rivals in the court underestimated Mazarin's skills, energy and determination. Mazarin continued Richelieu's costly war against the chief rivals of France in Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. The victories of Condé and Turenne finally brought Austria to the bargaining table and ended the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48)

Mazarin's policies also added Alsace (though not Strasbourg) to France. He settled Protestant princes in secularized bishoprics and abbacies in reward for their political opposition to the Habsburgs, building a network of French influence as a buffer in the western part of the Empire. In 1657, he made an attempt to get Louis XIV elected as Holy Roman Emperor. In 1658 he formed the League of the Rhine, which was designed to check the House of Austria in central Germany. In 1659 he made peace with Habsburg Spain in the Peace of the Pyrenees, which added to French territory Roussillon and northern Cerdanya—as French Cerdagne—in the far south as well as part of the Low Countries.

Towards Protestantism at home, Mazarin pursued a policy of promises and calculated delay to defuse the armed insurrection of the Ardèche (1653), for example, and to keep the Huguenots disarmed: for six years they believed themselves to be on the eve of recovering the protections of the Edict of Nantes, but in the end they obtained nothing.

There was constant friction with the pontificate of the Spanish Cardinal Pamphilj, elected Pope on 15 September 1644 as Innocent X. Mazarin protected the Barberini cardinals, nephews of the late Pope, and the Bull against them was voted by the Parlement of Paris "null and abusive"; France made a show of preparing to take Avignon by force, and Innocent backed down. Mazarin was more consistently an enemy of Jansenism, in particular during the formulary controversy, more for its political implications than out of theology. On his deathbed he warned young Louis "not to tolerate the Jansenist sect, not even their name." After his death, Louis XIV did not appoint a new principal minister and instead governed himself, marking the beginning of a new era of centralized government in France.

Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)
Mazarin's long war against the Habsburgs, the final part of the Thirty Years War, was successful, but the cost was enormous. Resentment grew against the Spanish Queen and her Italian prime minister, and culminated in the Fronde, a rebellion against the government by members of the nobility and discontented citizens of Paris, which lasted from 1648 until 1653.

Mazarin was forced to raise money by any means possible to support the war against the Habsburgs. His financial counselor was Michel Particelli d'Emery, also Italian. When taxes, loans, and the sale of titles did not bring in enough, he sought new sources of income. He discovered an old law dating to Henry IV which forbade Parisians to build houses outside the city limits. Since the city had grown well outside its old boundaries, in 1644 he imposed heavy fines on all those who lived outside the city limits. In addition, he taxed all merchandise being brought into the city. One measure caused particular resentment among the nobility; he imposed a special tax on all the nobles who served on the various royal courts and councils, amounting to four years of their fees.

The Fronde of the Parliament
The center of resistance was the Paris parlement, an ancient assembly of nobles which served as a high court of appeals. It was a period of rebellion against monarchs across Europe; independence movements appeared in the Spanish provinces of Catalonia and Portugal, a revolutionary seized power in Naples, and Charles I of England, the brother-in-law of Louis XIII, was deposed and executed in 1649. In Paris, the members of the parlement called a special session to debate Mazarin's measures. The meeting was forbidden by Regent, Anne of Austria, but went ahead anyway. The parlement issued a charter, inspired by the writ of Habeas Corpus in England, which revoked the authority of the King's justice officials, forbade any new taxes without the approval of the parlement, and declared that no royal subjects could be imprisoned without due process of law.

Mazarin recommended to the Queen that she listen to the parlement and modify her decrees, but she was furious at their opposition. She waited until the right moment to strike back. The occasion she chose was the celebration of a major victory of the French Army over the Spanish at the Battle of Lens in Belgium on 26 August 1648. On the day that a special mass was held at the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris to celebrate the victory, she gave orders to the Captain of her guards to arrest the leaders of the parlement, including the popular Pierre Broussel. News of the arrest quickly spread in Paris, and crowds came out into the street to protest and to build barricades. That evening Mazarin wrote in his journal, "the parlement has performed the functions of the King, and the people have deferred to it entirely."

During the Fronde, the anti-Mazarin crowds of Paris enjoyed listening to Mazarinades, popular songs with verses mocking the Cardinal. Dozens were written and published, accusing him of virtually all possible faults and crimes. Mazarin had a sense of humor, and when the Fronde was finished, he had the best Mazarinades collected and performed in a concert at his palace.

The rebellion lasted for three years. It took its popular name, Fronde, from the children's slings (frondes) which were used by the mobs in the Paris streets to hurl stones. It combined the anger of the Parisians against the new taxes with the resentment of the nobility against the reduction of their ancient privileges. It was led over time by an odd assortment of allies; Gaston d'Orleans, the brother of Louis XIII; Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé a brilliant general but poor politician, and the Cardinal Paul de Gondi, a consummate intriguer. Each of them had different goals, but all agreed that Mazarin should fall.

When the Fronde began, the French Army, commanded by the Prince de Condé was far from Paris, fighting the Austrians. Mazarin quickly sent an envoy to the Emperor in Vienna, calling for a truce and peace conference. The Peace of Westphalia, ending the war, was signed 24 October 1648. Despite the peace, disturbances continued in the streets of Paris. During the night of January 6, 1649, Mazarin secretly took the young Louis XIV, Anne of Austria and the court to the safety of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, just west of Paris. Mazarin then set to work intriguing to divide the different factions of the Fronde. His goal was to separate the members of the Parlement and the more radical Parisian street demonstrators, who were united only by their dislike of Mazarin and Anne of Austria.

As soon as the war was concluded, he brought Condé and his army back to Paris and placed the city under blockade. He then persuaded the Parlement that they had more to fear from an uprising of the Parisiens than they did from him. On 14 March 1649 Mazarin accepted many of the reforms demanded by the Parlement. In return, the Parlement supporters laid down their weapons and allowed Anne of Austria, the young Louis XIV and Mazarin to return to Paris.

The Fronde of the Princes

The Parlement accepted Mazarin and his government, but the Fronde was still not finished. Many frondeurs were unhappy with the compromise reached in 1649. Once in Paris, Condé made endless demands on Anne of Austria until she finally angrily dismissed him. One of the other leaders of the Fronde, Jean François Paul de Gondi, soon persuaded Condé to join him in bringing down both Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Mazarin had an excellent network of agents, and immediately learned of the plot. On 18 January 1650 Mazarin had Condé, Condé's brother, Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti and his brother-in-law, Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville arrested.

The agreements of 1649 had brought peace to Paris, but the unrest of the Fronde continued in other parts of France. Opponents of Mazarin disrupted tax collection and administration. As the rebellion grew, Mazarin observed that the rebels were only united in opposition to him. He decided it was wisest to resign his position and leave France while he could. He had Condé freed from prison, and, after a long journey to different cities, settled in Brühl near Cologne, as the guest of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne.

From Germany, he sent daily instructions to Anne of Austria and to his agents in France. The strategy was to sow distrust among the different factions of the Fronde. Mazarin's instructions were carried out meticulously by Anne of Austria. His intrigues succeeded in preventing the proposed marriage between one of the leading Frondeurs, the Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti with Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse, another of his principal enemies in Paris. He was greatly aided by the political ineptitude of Condé, who offended many of his natural allies. Mazarin urged Anne of Austria to bring him back to Paris as soon as possible, "to correct the greatest attack ever made against the royal authority".

Once back in Paris, Mazarin soon made an alliance with his old enemy, Cardinal Jean François Paul de Gondi. Condé departed to Bordeaux to gather reinforcements. He raised an army of Spanish and French soldiers, and marched on Paris, arriving on 2 July. The soldiers loyal to the Queen, commanded by Turenne, were waiting, and trapped Condé's army against the walls of Paris. An ally of Condé, the Grande Mademoiselle, ordered the gates of the city opened to rescue Condé's army. The battle was witnessed from the hills of Charonne by the young Louis XIV.

As soon as Condé's soldiers entered Paris, he demanded an immediate purge of Mazarin's supporters. Riots broke out around the Bastille, and were suppressed with great difficulty. The Presidents of the Parlement, now allies of Mazarin, demanded that the violence be stopped and that Condé take his army out of Paris. Reluctantly, Condé left the city, going to the Spanish Netherlands, pursued by Turenne.

Louis XIV, now of age to claim his throne, re-entered Paris in October 1652, accompanied by his mother and by Turenne. Mazarin had to wait longer to make his return, which was carefully orchestrated with his help. The Parlement de Paris was first transferred by Anne of Austria from Paris to Pontoise, to see how many members would accept her authority. A majority appeared at the meeting. Following the prepared plan, the Parlement respectfully asked that Mazarin be dismissed, and Anne of Austria agreed. Mazarin, knowing this was the plan, accepted this decision, and waited a respectful time in exile. He made his return to Paris in February 1653. He was welcomed with a triumphal banquet at the Hotel de Ville, where crowds earlier had demanded his downfall.

Financing the Kingdom – Fouquet and Colbert
Finding money was a primary preoccupation for Mazarin throughout his entire time as first minister. His new taxes on Parisians and the nobility had provoked the first Fronde, but the end of the Fronde did not resolve the problem. The government had borrowed huge amounts to finance the campaigns against the first Fronde and against Condé, and also had to pay for the continual travels of the Regent and the young King, and the elaborate festivities, parades, and cavalcades that accompanied their travel and every major event. The royal budget for 1653 was about 109 million livres, which amounted to eight hundred tons of silver or sixty tons of gold. Expenditures were the greatest between 1656 and 1659. Twenty-seven agreements were made with bankers, who loaned the government 98 million livres to supplement the money collected through ordinary taxes.

Following the death of his first finance minister, La Vieuville, on 2 February 1653, Mazarin chose a new minister, Nicolas Fouquet. At the age of twenty-five, Fouquet had inherited a very large fortune after the death of his young first wife, and an even greater fortune when he married the second time, to Marie-Madeleine de Castille, whose family was one of the wealthiest in Europe. Fouquet began as a master of receipts at age twenty, then an intendant to the army, then Procuror-General for the Parlement of Paris at the age of thirty-five.

Through his family connections, Fouquet had amassed a fortune of three to four million livres. One of the reasons for Fouquet's rapid rise was his willingness to lend very large sums to Mazarin for his various projects. In November 1657 Mazarin needed 11.8 million livres to pay the Army of the North. Fouquet, drawing upon his wealthy relatives, was able to provide the money. In 1659 he provided another loan of five million livres. One effect of the enormous amount of money in the market during the period of the Regency of Anne of Austria and Mazarin was a decline in the value of the Livre tournois, the French royal unit of account, lost twenty percent of its value against the gold Florentine Florin coin. However, without the money lent by Fouquet and other aristocratic financiers, Louis XIV could never have accomplished his early military and diplomatic successes.

The great rival of Fouquet was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was also recommended to Louis XIV and brought into the government by Mazarin. Soon after he became an assistant to Mazarin, he wrote a mémoire to Mazarin, claiming that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also accused Fouquet of using royal funds for his own enrichment. Mazarin did not defend Fouquet; shortly before his own death, he agreed that Fouquet had to go. Shortly after Mazarin's death, Fouquet was accused by Colbert of misuse of state funds, his property was confiscated, and he was put into prison until his death, with Colbert eventually taking his place.

In 1645, Marie Louise Gonzaga, the aunt of Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, had been granted in marriage to Władysław IV of Poland. She and her family did not have enough money to pay the agreed upon dowry of 2,100,000 livres. As a result, they went deeply in debt to Louis XIV, and their duchies of Mayenne, Nevers, and Rethel were mortgaged for this purpose. The negotiations, begun by Chancellor Séguier, were taken over by Mazarin, probably because Séguier was unable to put together enough money. Through various machinations, Mazarin and Colbert were eventually able to force Charles to pay off these debts by selling to Mazarin in 1654, the duchy of Mayenne (for 756,000 livres), and in 1659, that of Nevers (valued at 1,800,000 livres, at a discount of 1,534,675 livres), as well as the duchies of Donzy and Rethel. Thus, on 18 October 1660, less than five months before his death, Mazarin was confirmed by letters patent, issued by the young Louis XIV, as duke and peer of France.

The personal fortune of Mazarin at the time of his death was immense, amounting to 35 million livres, not counting the sums he left to his nieces. It exceeded the second-greatest personal fortune of the century, that of Richelieu, worth some 20 million livres. About one third of the personal fortune of Mazarin came from some twenty-one abbeys around France, each of which paid him an annual share of their revenue. Unlike members of the nobility, he did not have any large estates; his only real estate was the palace in Paris which he purchased in 1649, and added several surrounding houses. It was valued at 1.2 million livres. Thirty-seven percent of his fortune was in easily transportable jewels and cash. Within the ebony cabinets of his rooms at the Louvre his heirs found 450 pearls of high quality, plus quantities of gold chains and crosses, and rings with precious stones, altogether adding another 400,000 livres. He left to his family jewels worth an estimated 2.5 million livres, and gave a collection of diamonds worth 50,000 livres to the new Queen, and a 14-carat diamond called The Rose of England, valued at 73,000 livres, to the Queen Mother. The most valuable legacies of all, including a set of eighteen diamonds known as the "Mazarins", worth two million livres, were given to the young Louis XIV.

Patron of the arts
Mazarin was second only to Louis XIV as a patron of the arts in France in the 17th century. In 1648 he founded the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. After his death in 1661, the inventory of his art collection at the Mazarin Palace recorded 858 paintings, 128 statues, 185 busts, plus 150 carpets, 514 pieces of jewelry and fine silver, and 317 precious stones, not counting the famous Mazarin diamonds, which he left to Louis XIV. His collection included works by most of the major French and Italian artists of his time and before, going back to the Renaissance. His acquisitions included works by Poussin, Rubens, Corregio, Van Dyck, Titian, and many others, as well as the famous Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael, which had belonged to Charles I of England, and had been bought by Richelieu. Just before his death, he visited his gallery for the last time with his deputy Brienne, and told him: "Ah, my poor friend, I must leave all this. Farewell, dear paintings, which cost me so much and which I so much loved." Many of the paintings he owned are now in the Louvre.

The Palais Mazarin (Mazarin Palace) was created by Mazarin beginning in 1643, soon after he became first minister, when he rented four adjacent hôtels on the north side of the Rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs between the Rue Vivienne to the east and the Rue de Richelieu on the west and across from the Palais Royal, which was the King's residence. He commissioned François Mansart to add a garden wing with two superimposed galleries running north from the west end of the easternmost building, the Hôtel Tubeuf, where he could display his art. Between 1645 and 1647 he commissioned the Italian painter Giovanni Francesco Romanelli to create scenes from the works of Ovid on the ceiling of the upper gallery (although much modified, now known as the Galerie Mazarine ). In 1721, the Palais Mazarin became the site of the King's Library (Bibliothèque du Roi), now the Richelieu site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Mazarin spent little time in his Palace; he lived most of the time in the Palais Royal, when Louis XIV was in residence there, or in the Louvre. Near the end of his life he resided in the Château de Vincennes, where he decorated a suite of rooms. He also had the moats of the chateau turned into a kind of zoo, with lions, tigers, bears and other exotic animals, for the amusement of the young King.

Mazarin also played an important role in bringing Italian music to Paris. Before Mazarin, Italian opera was very little known or appreciated in Paris. Louis XIII, Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici had all brought Italian musicians to Paris, but Mazarin did it more systematically and on a much larger scale. After his arrival as a minister in 1643, he invited the famous soprano Leonora Baroni and the castrato Atto Melani. Melani doubled as a diplomat; Mazarin sent him on several secret missions to other courts in Europe.

Due to Mazarin's efforts, seven Italian operas were performed in Paris between 1645 and 1662. In 1645 Mazarin brought to Paris the famous scenery designer Giacomo Torelli, who staged Sacrati's opera La finta pazza. In 1647, for Carnaval, he staged a lavish production of the premiere of Orfeo by Luigi Rossi. Later on Torelli became involved more in the ballet de cour than in opera, reflecting the passion of the king for dancing. Torelli's career in France came to a definitive end in 1661, when he worked on sets for Molière's Les fâcheux, presented by Nicholas Fouquet as part of his grand fête at Vaux-le-Vicomte in honor of the King, the overly ostentatious display which ultimately led to Fouquet's imprisonment.

Mazarin was also a famous collector of books. In 1646, he brought to Paris his collection of nine thousand volumes, which he installed in his residence. It was the second-largest library in Paris, second only to the library of the King. However, when Mazarin was forced to leave Paris during the Fronde, his library was seized by the Fronde leaders, and was dispersed. He then began a second library with what was left of the first. The library grew to over 25,000 volumes and was open to all scholars after 1643. It is recognized as the first true public library in France. In his will, he gave his library to the Collège des Quatre-Nations which he had founded in 1661. The original bookcases of his library were transferred to the reading room of the College of Quatre-Nations when it was built.

Educator of Louis XIV
From the eighth birthday of the young Louis XIV, Mazarin took the title "Superintendent of the Royal Education" and managed every aspect of the young King's studies. All of the King's activities were governed and scheduled by Mazarin; his time of rising, his prayers, his physical exercise (paume fencing, and dance) followed by a morning lesson in politics with Mazarin himself. In the afternoons he was charged to write an essay each day for Mazarin on what he had learned. The education he gave Louis was purely practical, not theoretical. Among other topics, he instructed the King in the fine art of dissimulation, or lying, when needed, and always, when making an agreement, to leave a way out.

Beginning in 1659, as the King reached the age of twenty-one, and Mazarin approached the end of his life, he wrote a series of guidelines in political affairs for the King. When the King set off on his journey to Spain to be married, Mazarin wrote to him: "Remember, I ask you, what I have had the honor to tell you, when you asked me the way to take to become a great King....it is necessary to begin by making the greatest efforts to not be dominated by any passion....because, otherwise, if any misfortune arrives, regardless of what good will you have, you will not be able to do what has to be done."

Despite Mazarin's instructions, Louis XIV continued to correspond with Mazarin's niece Marie, with the tacit collusion of his mother. Mazarin immediately adopted a stricter tone: "God established Kings...for watching over the well-being, safety and peace of their subjects; and not to sacrifice this well-being and safety for their personal passions...you must remember your responsibilities to God for your actions and for your safety, and to the world for the support of your glory and your reputation." Mazarin also threatened to depart France with his family if the King did not agree to stop communicating with Marie. In response, Louis wrote a new letter to his mother, promising that henceforth he would forget Marie and concentrate exclusively on "the great occupation of King". (Grand metier du Roi)

Final military and diplomatic accomplishments (1658–1661)
The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1658 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories, including the marriage of Louis XIV. In 1658, after long and intense preparation, Mazarin unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of fifty small German principalities which were now linked by a treaty with France. They promised not to allow enemy forces pass through them to invade France. This treaty weakened both the old Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs, This gave a new measure of security to France's eastern border. In the same month, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. This marked the end of the threats to France from the north, from the Spanish Netherlands.

Negotiation of a draft peace treaty between France and Spain took place between February and June 1659, but many critical details remained unresolved. Mazarin and Spain's Dom Luis de Haro personally took charge of the negotiations on 13 August. Their conferences, which continued for three months, were held on the French-Spanish border on the island of Faisans, midway between French Hendaye and Spanish Fuenterrabía, in the river Bidassoa. The resulting Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on 7 November 1659 and added Artois, Cerdanya, and Roussillon as new provinces of France. It also provided for an even more important diplomatic event carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain, the French celebration of which followed in June 1660 in nearby Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. This marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Austrians and France.

Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day.

Death
In his last months, Mazarin resided mainly in the Louvre Palace. A large fire broke out in the Gallery of Apollo, the main picture gallery of the Louvre, and destroyed many pictures, greatly upsetting Mazarin. It was the beginning of his decline. When his doctor informed him that his end was near, Mazarin asked, "How long?" The Doctor replied "two months." Mazarin responded, "That's enough."

Mazarin had already prepared several wills. Knowing that his enemies at court were telling Louis XIV that he was taking money that belonged rightfully to the King, his first will, which he made public, cleverly left all of his fortune to Louis XIV. Mazarin probably calculated that the King would be too embarrassed to take all of his mentor's and chief Minister's wealth. The King waited for three days, then refused to accept it. Mazarin had also prepared a different will, which left a large sum for the establishment of the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which he had founded for students from the four new provinces which he had added to the territory of France by the Treaty of Westphalia. The college, now the Institut de France, was eventually built directly across the Seine from the Louvre, where it is visible from the Palace. Mazarin asked that his remains be interred there, where they rest today in a marble monument beneath the dome. The college is home to the five French academies, including the Academie Française.

The Mazarinettes
Mazarin did not have children, but he did have seven nieces: five from the Mancini family (daughters of his sister Girolama) and two from the Martinozzi family (daughters of his sister Laura). The nieces all moved to Paris, and Mazarin devoted care to arranging marriages for them, always with wealthy and aristocratic families. The nieces were known for their beauty, wit and ambition, and became known as the Mazarinettes.

Laura Mancini was the eldest of the five famous Mancini sisters. She married Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, grandson of King Henry IV, and was the mother of the great general the Duke of Vendôme. Both Olympia Mancini and Marie Mancini had romantic relationships with the young Louis XIV. He wished to marry Marie, but was prevented by his mother and by Mazarin, who had greater plans to marry Louis to a princess of Spain. In 1657 Olympia was married to Prince Eugene of Savoy, and became the mother of Eugene of Savoy, a famous general for the Austrians. Marie became the wife of the Italian nobleman Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, of the same family that had employed Mazarin's father as an intendant. Hortense Mancini was married shortly before Mazarin's death to a nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, who thereafter took the title Duke Mazarin. After fleeing from her abusive marriage, Hortense became for a time the mistress of King Charles II of England. Marie Anne Mancini married the Duke of Bouillon soon after the death of Mazarin.

As for the two Martinozzi sisters, Anne Marie Martinozzi married the Prince de Conti in 1654. Her sister Laura Martinozzi married Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena, and was the mother of Mary of Modena, who became Queen Consort of England as the wife of King James II.

In fiction

 * Mazarin is a major character in Alexandre Dumas' novels Twenty Years After and Le Vicomte de Bragelonne. In them, Mazarin is portrayed as greedy and devious, as well as the Queen's lover.
 * Mazarin plays a significant part in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's historical novel, Francesca Carrara. He acts as uncle to his niece, Marie Mancini and her fictional sister, Henriette, both of whom have important roles.
 * Cardinal Mazarin is an important supporting character in Rafael Sabatini's novel The Suitors of Yvonne. His plans set the main plot of the book in progress. He is portrayed fairly accurately as being ambitious and ruthless, but very protective of his family.
 * Mazarin is a character of some importance in 1634: The Galileo Affair by Eric Flint and Andrew Dennis, and also in 1636: The Cardinal Virtues by Eric Flint and Walter H. Hunt.
 * A diamond called the "Mazarin stone" is searched for in a 1921 Sherlock Holmes short story by Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone".
 * Mazarin is a major character in the 2005 series Young Blades, portrayed by Michael Ironside.
 * Mazarin (played by Gérard Depardieu) serves as the mastermind antagonist in the Hallmark movie La Femme Musketeer. Personality- and ambition-wise, he is nearly identical to Cardinal Richelieu.
 * Umberto Eco's novel The Island of the Day Before takes place just after the transition from Richelieu's rule to Mazarin's. Its protagonist witnesses the death watch for Richelieu and is subsequently forced by Mazarin to undertake a bizarre mission to the other side of the world.
 * Mazarin plays a central role in the play "Vincent in Heaven", which tells the story of St. Vincent DePaul.
 * Mazarin is a character in the French TV series of the 1960s, Le Chevalier Tempête, shown in the UK as The Flashing Blade. He was played by the Belgian actor Giani Esposito.
 * Mazarin is claimed to be the actual biological father of Louis XIV in Edward Rutherfurd's novel, Paris (2013).
 * Mazarin is the antagonist of the novel Enchantress of Paris (2015) by Marci Jefferson. Mazarin uses the wiles of his niece, Marie Mancini, in an attempt to secure his power over the king.

Notes and citations
Notes

Citations

Books cited in text

 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).
 * ISBN 9782262056742 (ePub edition, 2015).

title: Cardinal Mazarin


text:
Texas Monthly

Texas Monthly (stylized as TexasMonthly) is a monthly American magazine headquartered in Downtown Austin, Texas. Founded in 1973 by Michael R. Levy, Texas Monthly chronicles life in contemporary Texas, writing on politics, the environment, industry, and education. The magazine also covers leisure topics such as music, art, dining, and travel. It is a member of the City and Regional Magazine Association (CRMA).

After being sold to Emmis Publishing, L.P. in 1998, the magazine was later sold to Genesis Park LP in 2016 for $25 million, and is currently owned by Randa Williams. In 2021, Texas Monthly began expanding into video production through its acquisition of Phillips Productions, best known as the producers of Texas Country Reporter.

Subject matter
Texas Monthly takes as its premise that Texas began as a distinctive place and remains so. It is the self-appointed arbiter of all things culturally Texan, with past articles on Texas BBQ, the Texas Rangers (including Joaquin Jackson's famous 1994 cover appearance), and Texas musicians.

Texas Monthly's annual "Bum Steer Awards" poke fun at Texas politicians and policies, odd Texas-related news items and personalities from the previous year. Anna Nicole Smith (prior to her death) was a perennial "winner". Other Bum Steer "Hall of Famers" include Ross Perot, Tom DeLay, and Jessica Simpson. It releases biennial lists with explanations of the "Ten Best" and "Ten Worst" Texas state legislators.

Since the establishment of the magazine, barbecue enthusiasts have been among the Texas Monthly staff. The magazine's first article about barbecue in Texas was published in 1973. The magazine often ranks what it considers to be the best barbecue restaurants in Texas. Calvin Trillin of The New Yorker said in 2008 that East Texas barbecue often did not interest the Austin-based staff of the Texas Monthly, who were more focused on Central Texas barbecue.

In December 2021, the magazine signed a three-year first-look deal with HBO and HBO Max.

Headquarters
It has its headquarters at 816 Congress Ave. in Downtown Austin. It occupies a 21610 sqft area on the 17th floor of the building. it has about 80 employees.

Around 2009 the Texas Monthly headquarters moved to University Park, on the site of the former Concordia University. The headquarters was scheduled to move to its current location in Downtown Austin in the summer of 2011.

Previously the headquarters was in Suite 1600 of 701 Brazos in Downtown Austin.

Awards
The magazine has received ten National Magazine Awards:
 * General Excellence—2009, 2003, 1992, 1990
 * Public Interest—1996, for "Not What the Doctor Ordered" by Mimi Swartz
 * Photography—1990
 * Reporting—1985, for "The Man in the Black Hat" (part 1 and 2) by Paul Burka
 * Public Service—1980, for "Why Teachers Can't Teach" by Gene Lyons
 * Reporting—1979, for a three-part series by Richard West
 * Outstanding Editorial Achievement in Special Journalism—1974

Archives
The complete archives of Texas Monthly (1972–present) are located at the Wittliff collections of Southwestern Writers, Texas State University.

Texas Monthly Press
In the 1980s, Texas Monthly Press published such books as Goodbye to a River and Hank the Cowdog and authors such as Bud Shrake, Stephen Harrigan and Gary Cartwright. Gulf Publishing Company purchased Texas Monthly Press in 1989.

title: Texas Monthly


text:
Judy Holliday

Judy Holliday (born Judith Tuvim, June 21, 1921 – June 7, 1965) was an American actress, comedian and singer.

She began her career as part of a nightclub act before working in Broadway plays and musicals. Her success as Billie Dawn in the 1946 stage production of Born Yesterday led to her being cast in the 1950 film version for which she won an Academy Award for Best Actress and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. She was known for her performance on Broadway in the musical Bells Are Ringing, winning a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical and reprising her role in the 1960 film adaptation.

In 1952, Holliday was called to testify before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to answer claims she was associated with communism.

Early life
Holliday was born Judith Tuvim (she took her stage name from yom tovim, which is Hebrew for "holidays") in New York City, the only child of Abe and Helen Tuvim (née Gollomb). Her father was executive director of the foundation for the Jewish National Fund of America (1951–1958), and a political activist who ran unsuccessfully six times between 1919 and 1938 as a Socialist Party candidate for the New York state Legislature. Her mother taught piano. Both were of Russian-Jewish descent. Judith grew up in Sunnyside, Queens, New York, and graduated from Julia Richman High School in Manhattan. Her first job was as an assistant switchboard operator at the Mercury Theatre, which was administered by Orson Welles and John Houseman.

Early career
Holliday began her show business career in 1938 as part of a nightclub act called The Revuers, whose other members were Betty Comden, Adolph Green, Alvin Hammer, John Frank and Esther Cohen. They played engagements in New York night clubs including the Village Vanguard, Spivy's Roof, the Blue Angel, and the Rainbow Room, and the Trocadero in Hollywood, California. Leonard Bernstein, a friend of the group who shared an apartment with Green, occasionally provided piano accompaniment for their performances. In 1940, The Revuers released a 78-rpm album entitled Night Life in New York. The troupe filmed a scene for the 1944 Carmen Miranda movie Greenwich Village. Although the Revuers' performance was cut, Holliday was an unbilled extra in another scene. The group disbanded in early 1944. Holliday remembered her years in the Revuers as unpleasant, saying she was initially a bad actress and so shy that she vomited between shows. She found it difficult to perform on stage in smoke-filled rooms while patrons over-imbibed, heckled and fought with each other, but deemed entertainers successful if they persevered in such atmospheres.

In her first film role, Holliday played an airman's wife in Twentieth Century Fox’s version of the U.S. Army Air Forces' play Winged Victory (1944). She made her Broadway debut on March 20, 1945, at the Belasco Theatre in Kiss Them for Me, and was one of the recipients that year of the Clarence Derwent Award for Most Promising Female Actress.

In 1946, she returned to Broadway as the scatterbrained Billie Dawn in Born Yesterday. Author Garson Kanin wrote the play for Jean Arthur; but when Arthur left New York for personal reasons, Kanin selected Holliday, two decades Arthur's junior, as her replacement. When Columbia bought the rights to adapt Born Yesterday to film, studio boss Harry Cohn initially would not consider casting the Hollywood unknown, even though Holliday received rave reviews for her Broadway performance. Kanin, along with George Cukor, Spencer Tracy, and Katharine Hepburn conspired to promote Holliday by offering her a key part in the Tracy-Hepburn film Adam's Rib (1949).

Cohn eventually relented and offered Holliday the chance to repeat her role for the film version, but only after a screen test (which at first was used only as a "benchmark against which to evaluate" other actresses being considered for the role). For her film performance in Born Yesterday, Holliday won the first Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy; and at the 23rd Academy Awards, won the Academy Award for Best Actress, defeating Gloria Swanson, nominated for Sunset Boulevard; Eleanor Parker, for Caged; and Bette Davis and Anne Baxter, both for All About Eve.

Holliday starred opposite newcomer Jack Lemmon in his first two feature films, the comedies It Should Happen to You and Phffft (both 1954).

Film historian Bernard Dick summed up Holliday's acting: "Perhaps the most important aspect of the Judy Holliday persona, both in variations of Billie Dawn and in her roles as housewife, is her vulnerability...her ability to shift her mood quickly from comic to serious is one of her greatest technical gifts." Director George Cukor also observed that Holliday had "that depth of emotion, that unexpectedly touching emotion, that thing which would unexpectedly touch your heart."

Investigation for Communist sympathies
In 1950, Holliday's name appeared on a list of 151 "pro-Communist" artists in the conservative publication Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and TV. The next year, she was subpoenaed by Senator Pat McCarran's Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which was investigating subversion and Communist activity in the entertainment industry. Holliday was one of several actors accused of fundraising for Communist front organizations. She appeared before the committee on March 26, 1952, with Simon H. Rifkind as her legal counsel.

Holliday was advised to play dumb, as in her film portrayal of Billie Dawn, and she did – often to comedic effect. She denounced Stalinism and authoritarianism generally, but defended the free speech rights of those who espoused such views. Holliday later wrote of the experience to her friend Heywood Hale Broun: "Woodie, maybe you're ashamed of me, because I played Billie Dawn ... But I'm not ashamed of myself, because I didn't name names. That much I preserved." The investigation "did not reveal positive evidence of any membership in the Communist Party". The investigation concluded after three months and, unlike others whose careers were severely damaged by communist allegations, her career was relatively untarnished.

Later career
Holliday starred in the film version of The Solid Gold Cadillac, which was released in August 1956. In November 1956, Holliday returned to Broadway, starring in the musical Bells Are Ringing with book and lyrics by her Revuers friends, Betty Comden and Adolph Green, and directed by Jerome Robbins. In 1957, she won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical. Of Holliday's performance in the stage musical, Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times: "Nothing has happened to the shrill little moll whom the town loved in Born Yesterday. The squeaky voice, the embarrassed giggle, the brassy naivete, the dimples, the teeter-totter walk fortunately remain unimpaired ... Miss Holliday now adds a trunk-full of song-and-dance routines...Without losing any of that doll-like personality, she is now singing music by Jule Styne and dancing numbers composed by Jerome Robbins and Bob Fosse. She has gusto enough to triumph in every kind of music hall antic."

Returning to her film career after a gap of several years, Holliday starred in the film version of Bells Are Ringing (1960), her last film.

In October 1960, Holliday started out-of-town tryouts on the play Laurette, based on the life of Laurette Taylor. The show was directed by José Quintero with background music by Elmer Bernstein and produced by Alan Pakula. When Holliday became ill and had to leave the show, it closed in Philadelphia without opening on Broadway.

Holliday had surgery for a throat tumor shortly after leaving the production in October 1960. Her last role was in the stage musical Hot Spot, co-starring newcomers such as Joseph Campanella and Mary Louise Wilson, which closed after 43 performances on May 25, 1963.

Personal life and death
In 1948, Holliday married clarinetist David Oppenheim, later a classical music and television producer, and academic. Oppenheim struggled with his sexual orientation; Leonard Bernstein, a mutual friend, suggested that Oppenheim marry Holliday as a beard. (In 1943, Bernstein himself wrote in a letter to Oppenheim, then in the U.S. Army, that he had thought of marrying Holliday.) The couple had one child, Jonathan, before they divorced in 1957. In the late 1950s, Holliday had a long-term relationship with jazz musician Gerry Mulligan.

Holliday supported Henry Wallace in the 1948 presidential election and Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election.

In 1960, she was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6901 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles.

Holliday died on June 7, 1965, at Manhattan's Mount Sinai Hospital from metastatic breast cancer. She was interred in the Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.

Discography
Holliday recorded two studio albums (not including her film and Broadway soundtracks) during her lifetime.

 * Trouble Is a Man (1958)
 * Holliday with Mulligan (DRG, 1961 [1980]) with Gerry Mulligan

title: Judy Holliday


text:
Calvin Johnson (musician)

Calvin Johnson (born November 1, 1962) is an American guitarist, vocalist, songwriter, music producer, and disc jockey. Known for his uniquely deep and droning singing voice, Johnson was a founding member of the bands Cool Rays, Beat Happening, Dub Narcotic Sound System, The Go Team and The Halo Benders.

Calvin Johnson is also the founder and owner of the influential indie label K Records and has been cited as a major player in the beginning of the modern independent music movement.

Early years
Johnson was born in Olympia, Washington. His first introduction to underground culture was in 1977 when he became a volunteer at Olympia's community radio station, KAOS-FM, at the age of fifteen. The station's uniquely progressive programming policy mandated a focus on music available through independent and artist owned labels, rather than centralized corporate media. This independent, do-it-yourself ethos has been an important influence on Johnson's career. Johnson soon began writing for fanzines, such as Sub/Pop (later to become Sub Pop Records) and Op, and also organized music and film events. Johnson attended The Evergreen State College in Olympia, where his first band, a short-lived group called Cool Rays, made their debut recordings with Steve Fisk in 1981. Calvin established K in the summer of 1982.

At some point, his father gave him a Martin acoustic guitar. He later told an interviewer that his father had "received it as a wedding present from his bride."

Beat Happening
Johnson formed Beat Happening in 1982 with fellow Evergreen students Heather Lewis and Bret Lunsford. Beat Happening were early leaders in the American indie rock and lo-fi movements.. noted for their use of primitive recording techniques, disregard for the technical aspects of musicianship, and songs with subject matters of a childish or coy nature. Instruments were guitar and drums, with members frequently switching instruments and Calvin and Heather taking turns on lead vocals. Tours with artists such as Fugazi confused and alienated audience members while articulating a punk rock position of defiance that was more sensitive than macho. The band has been on hiatus since 1992, but briefly resurfaced to release a new 7" in 2001.

Go Team
The Go Team was a collaborative project started in 1985 based around the core duo of Johnson and Tobi Vail, later of Bikini Kill & Kill Rock Stars. They toured the West Coast as a two piece, adding Billy Karren for two U.S. tours. The group released several cassettes and 9 singles on K, with a rotating cast of collaborators that included Kurt Cobain, Rich Jensen, David Nichols, and Donna Dresch. All of their recordings are currently out of print.

Dub Narcotic Sound System
Dub Narcotic Sound System, named after Calvin's famed analog recording studio, was a project that explored funkier, more dance-party-oriented material in the tradition of the Stax/Volt house bands. Johnson was the sole member to appear on every recording, surrounded by a loose collective of musicians that's included Larry Butler, Todd Ranslow, and Brian Weber (all members of hip-hop group Dead Presidents). Numerous 7" singles and several full-length albums were released.  The revolving door nature of the ensemble led to collaborations with  Jon Spencer Blues Explosion,  Lois Maffeo and director/writer/performer Miranda July.  The lineup later solidified around the trio of Johnson, bassist Chris Sutton (C.O.C.O, Hornet Leg, The Gossip) and drummer Heather Dunn (Tiger Trap).    A catastrophic tour van crash in Montana in 2003 nearly ended the band's career in tragedy.  Johnson suffered a major concussion that left him with broken ribs and a serious speech impediment; he has since largely recovered.  The band has not toured or released recordings since 2004's Degenerate Introduction.

Halo Benders
Halo Benders was a collaboration between Johnson and Doug Martsch of Built To Spill. From 1994 to 1998, they released three albums. Calvin's deep baritone voice and Doug's high melodies are heard simultaneously, occasionally harmonizing, but often operating independently of one another. Despite the Halo Benders' critical and commercial success, Martsch's commitment to touring with Built To Spill prevented the band from touring and recording more. The band reunited for a 2008 performance in Boise, and may be working on new material.

Solo career
Concurrent with his activity with Dub Narcotic Sound System, Johnson began performing solo shows under his own name. Calvin's solo material was a marked contrast to the upbeat rock of Halo Benders and the funk-soul of DNSS, as it allowed him to explore mournful blues, folk, & gospel elements.

His first solo album, What Was Me, is an introspective album about love, loss, and death. While some songs employ simple nylon-string guitar accompaniment, many feature only Johnson's voice. It also contains duets with Beth Ditto of The Gossip and Mirah.

His second album, Before the Dream Faded..., is more varied. It includes collaborations with a variety of northwest indie luminaries. The songs cover an odd range of subjects, such as the size and color of hearts, Lucifer, and falling in love.

His third album Calvin Johnson & The Sons of the Soil is a career-spanning collection of re-recorded songs with a band consisting of Kyle Field, Adam Forkner, and Jason Anderson, documenting that ensemble's 2003 West Coast touring lineup.

His fourth album A Wonderful Beast, is true to Johnson's long established vocal and poetic style with a more contemporary production value created in part by the records producer Patrick Carney of The Black Keys who also worked as a one-man backing band of guitars, drums, bass, and keyboards.

His fifth album, Gallows Wine, is an eclectic collection of songs reflecting this singular environment including “Pink Cadillac” written by Calvin when he was 16 (held in reserve for just the right session). Title song ”Gallows Wine” rips psycho psychedelic, poetic license intact. “Crazy Legs” is a Gene Vincent class act celebrating our sock hopulation and “Orange Aid” melts downtown no WAV. Calvin Johnson traveled to Columbus, Mississippi to record Gallows Wine with the combo Hartle Road at their Pompeii studio. Columbus, in Lowndes County, is the childhood home of Tennessee Williams (just down US Route 45 from White Station, birthplace of Howlin’ Wolf).

Current projects
In 2008, Calvin Johnson appeared in the film The Lollipop Generation by G.B. Jones.

Calvin's newest project is Hive Dwellers, who made their recorded début performing Superchunk's "My Noise" on ''SCORE! 20 Years of Merge Records: The Covers!''  A full-length release is planned for fall 2009. Calvin has also revived his Dub Narcotic Disco Plate 45 rpm series, collaborating with artists such as Atlas Sound, Mahjongg, and Joey Casio at Dub Narcotic to record an A-side, and creating a Selector Dub Narcotic version for the b-side.

Relationship with other musicians
After meeting Ian MacKaye in 1980, Johnson later became friends with the members of Fugazi, and Beat Happening was the opening band on one of Fugazi's first tours.

Johnson has worked with Modest Mouse, Beck, Heavenly, The Microphones, Jon Spencer Blues Explosion, The Blow, Jens Lekman, Mecca Normal, The Gossip, Built to Spill, and Fifth Column, among many others. Since founding his Dub Narcotic recording studio in 1993, he has produced and engineered recordings by many bands and artists.

Friends of Kurt Cobain such as Ian Dickson of Earth, Mark Arm of Mudhoney, Bruce Pavitt and Slim Moon have all acknowledged Johnson's significant influence on the musician. Cobain cited Beat Happening's Jamboree as one of his favorite records, and even got the K Records logo (a small "K" in a shield) tattooed on his arm to "try and remind [him] to stay a child." They were friends in the late 80s/early 90s when Cobain lived in Olympia; he'd been a guest with The Go Team, and on September 25, 1990, Cobain appeared on a KAOS (FM) show hosted by Johnson and performed a number of songs, acoustically, including a duet with Johnson on the Wipers song, "D-7." Cobain later grew to resent Johnson's "arrogance" and denounced his ties in a (private) journal entry.

Johnson is also referred to in the John Peel session version of the Hole song, "Olympia" (also credited as "Rock Star" on the album Live Through This). The band's lead singer, Courtney Love has the line: 'I went to school with Calvin,' a reference to Johnson's influence within the burgeoning Olympia indie music scene. In 1993, Johnson had a restraining order placed on Love for harassment and assault.

Solo discography

 * What Was Me (2002, K Records)
 * Before the Dream Faded... (2005, K Records)
 * Calvin Johnson & The Sons of the Soil (2007, K Records)
 * This Party Is Just Getting Started (as Selector Dub Narcotic, 2016, K Records)
 * A Wonderful Beast (2018)
 * Gallows Wine (2023, K Records)

title: Calvin Johnson (musician)