text:
Tanaka Giichi

Baron Tanaka Giichi (田中 義一) was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army, politician, cabinet minister, and the Prime Minister of Japan from 1927 to 1929.

Early life and military career
Tanaka was born as the third son of a low-ranking samurai family in the service of Chōshū Domain in Hagi, Nagato Province (modern day Yamaguchi Prefecture), Japan. At the age of 13, he participated in the Hagi Rebellion. He had an interest in politics from an early age, serving on a village council and as an elementary school teacher. He only joined the Imperial Japanese Army at the age of 20.

He graduated from the former 8th class of Imperial Japanese Army Academy and the 8th class of the Army War College in 1892, and served as a junior officer during the First Sino-Japanese War. After the end of the war, he was sent as a military attaché to Moscow and Petrograd, and was in Russia at the same time as Takeo Hirose of the Imperial Japanese Navy, with whom he became close friends. Tanaka was fluent in the Russian language, which he learned while attending mass every Sunday at a Russian Orthodox church, which enabled him to practice his Russian at church social events, although it is uncertain if he ever actually converted to Christianity. As one of the few Russian experts within the military, he was an invaluable resource to Army planners during the Russo-Japanese War, and served as aide to General Kodama Gentarō in Manchuria.

In 1906, Tanaka helped draft a defense plan which was so highly regarded by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff and General Yamagata Aritomo that it was adopted as basic policy until World War I. He was also awarded the Order of the Golden Kite (3rd class) in April 1906.

In 1910, he established a Veterans Association. Tanaka was promoted to major general in 1911, and was made director of the Military Affairs Bureau at the Ministry of the Army, where he recommended an increase in the strength of the standing army by two additional infantry divisions. He was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure (1st class) in September 1918. He joined the cabinet of Prime Ministers Hara Takashi as Army Minister from September 1918 to June 1921. He was promoted to full general in 1920 and was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (1st class). He was also elevated to the title of danshaku (baron) under the kazoku peerage system. However, the Hara cabinet came under unceasing criticism due to the Nishihara Loans, the disastrous Nikolayevsk incident and accusations of Army misappropriation of secret funds, and supporting unsavory figures such as White Movement general Roman von Ungern-Sternberg. After suffering from an attack of angina, Tanaka resigned all posts, and retired to his summer home in Oiso, Kanagawa.

Political career
Tanaka returned as Army Minister in the 2nd Yamamoto administration from September 1923 to January 1924. After retiring from the army, Tanaka was invited to accept the post of party president of the Rikken Seiyūkai political party in 1925 and was made a member of the House of Peers from January 1926. He had been scheduled to be promoted to the rank of Field Marshal at the time of his retirement. However, when news reached the ears of the Army Ministry of a 3 million Yen bonus that Tanaka received on agreeing to join the Rikken Seiyukai, the promotion was denied.

Tanaka became Prime Minister of Japan on 20 April 1927, during the Shōwa financial crisis, serving simultaneously as the Foreign Affairs Minister. He later added the posts of Home Minister (4 May 1928 to 23 May 1928), and Colonial Affairs Minister (10 June 1929 to 2 July 1929) to his portfolio.

On the domestic front, Tanaka attempted to suppress leftists, Communists and suspected Communist sympathizers through widespread arrests (the 15 March incident of 1928, and the 19 April incident of 1929).

On foreign policy, Tanaka differed from his predecessor Shidehara both tactically and strategically. Whereas Shidehara preferred to evacuate Japanese residents where conflicts occurred with local people, Tanaka preferred using military force. While Shidehara theoretically respected China's sovereignty, Tanaka openly pursued a "separation of Manchuria and Inner Mongolia policy" (満蒙分離政策) to create a sense of difference between those areas and the rest of China. On three separate occasions in 1927 and 1928 he sent troops to intervene militarily in Shandong Province to block Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition to unify China under Kuomintang rule, in what became known as the Jinan Incident.

Tanaka came into office even as forces were already beginning to converge that would draw Japan into World War II. In 1928, however, the machinations of the ultranationalist secret societies and the Kwantung Army resulted in a crisis: the assassination of the Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin and the failed attempt to seize Manchuria. Tanaka himself was taken by surprise by the assassination plot and argued that the officers responsible should be publicly court-martialed for homicide. The military establishment, from which Tanaka was by now estranged, insisted on covering up the facts of the incident, which remained an official secret. Bereft of support, and under mounting criticism in the Diet and even from Emperor Hirohito himself, Tanaka and his cabinet resigned en masse on 2 July 1929.

Tanaka was succeeded by Hamaguchi Osachi, and died a few months after his resignation. He was awarded the Order of the Paulownia Flowers on his death. His grave is at the Tama Cemetery in Fuchū, Tokyo.

Tanaka Memorial
In 1929, China accused Tanaka of having authored the "Tanaka Memorial Imperialist Conquest Plan," which advocated the conquest of Manchuria, Mongolia, and eventually the whole of China. He was alleged to have presented the plan to the emperor in 1927. The plan was presented as fact in the wartime propaganda film series Why We Fight, which claimed that the plan envisaged the conquest of America after East Asia. In a memoir published in the mid-1950s, a Japanese-born Taiwanese businessman, Tsai Chih-Kan, claimed that he had personally copied the "Plan" from the Imperial Library on the night of 20 June 1928 in a covert action assisted by several of Japan's leading prewar politicians and officers, who were opposed to Tanaka. Today, most historians regard the document as a forgery.

Awards and decorations
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

Japanese

 * 1906 – JPN Kinshi-kunsho 3Class BAR.svg Order of the Golden Kite, 3rd class
 * 1918 – JPN Zuiho-sho (WW2) 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
 * 1920 – JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun
 * 1929 – JPN Toka-sho BAR.svg Order of the Paulownia Flowers

Foreign

 * 1914 – St.AlexanderOrder-ribbon.svg – Bulgaria, Order of Saint Alexander 2nd class
 * 1918 – Order of the Striped Tiger GC ribbon.svg – China, Order of the Striped Tiger, 2nd class
 * 1927 – POL Polonia Restituta Wielki BAR.svg – Poland, Order of Polonia Restituta, Grand Cordon
 * 1929 – Order of the Dannebrog K.svg – Denmark, Order of the Dannebrog, 1st class
 * 1929 – UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg – UK, Knight Commander of The Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (KCMG)
 * 1929 – Order of the British Empire (Civil) Ribbon.png – UK, Knight Grand Cross of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE)

title: Tanaka Giichi


text:
Hamaguchi Osachi

Hamaguchi Osachi (Kyūjitai: 濱口 雄幸; Shinjitai: 浜口 雄幸, also Hamaguchi Yūkō, 1 April 1870 – 26 August 1931) was a Japanese politician, cabinet minister and Prime Minister of Japan from 1929 to 1931. Nicknamed the "Lion Prime Minister" (ライオン宰相) due to his dignified demeanor and mane-like hair, Hamaguchi served as leading member of the liberal Rikken Minseitō (Constitutional Democratic Party) during the "Taishō democracy" of interwar Japan. He was a member of the House of Representatives from 1915 until his death. He initially survived an assassination attempt by a right-wing extremist in 1930, but died about nine months later from a bacterial infection in his unhealed wounds.

Early life and career
Hamaguchi was born in Nagaoka District, Tosa Province (now part of Kōchi city, Kōchi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku). He was the third son of Minaguchi Tanehira, an official in the local forestry department, and took the Hamaguchi name on his marriage to Hamaguchi Natsuko in 1889. Hamaguchi graduated from the Law College of Tokyo Imperial University in 1895 and began his career as a bureaucrat in the Ministry of Finance. In 1907, he rose to the position of Director of the Monopoly Bureau. He became Vice Communications Minister in 1912 and Vice Finance Minister in 1914.

Political career
Hamaguchi joined the Rikken Dōshikai political party led by Katō Takaaki in 1915, which became the Kenseikai in 1916. Hamaguchi was elected to the lower house in the Japanese Diet in 1915 from the Kōchi Second District, and was to hold onto this seat until his death in 1931.

In June 1924, Hamaguchi served as Finance Minister under the first Katō administration, holding the same portfolio under the 1st Wakatsuki administration from January to June 1926. As Finance Minister, he pursued fiscal retrenchment, and proposed reducing government spending by 17 percent and laying off tens of thousands of government workers; however, his policies had to be scaled considerably back due to strenuous opposition from government bureaucrats.

Hamaguchi was subsequently Home Minister in the Wakatsuki cabinet from June 1926 to April 1927. In a continuation of his efforts while as Finance Minister, Hamaguchi promoted a moral campaign through sponsorship of movies which emphasized thrift and reduced public consumption, with the goal of helping reduce Japan's trade deficit.

In 1927, Hamaguchi became the chairman of the new Rikken Minseitō political party formed by the merger of the Kenseikai and the Seiyūhontō.

The 1st Hamaguchi administration
After the collapse of the administration of Tanaka Giichi in June 1929, Hamaguchi was selected to become Prime Minister of Japan and formed a cabinet based largely on Minseitō party members, which supported domestic economic reforms over overseas military adventurism. With a strong sense of his own rectitude and a tough, stubborn temperament, Hamaguchi inspired trust, promising that he was "ready to die if necessary" for the good of the country during his inaugural speech and promising an administration free of corruption.

Hamaguchi's primary concern was the Japanese economy, which had been in an ever-increasing recession since the end of World War I, and had been greatly weakened by the devastation caused by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. Hamaguchi promoted retrenchment, deflation and the rationalization of industry. The 1929 Great Depression, starting soon after he took office, put further pressure on the economy.

Initial public confidence and strong support from Emperor Hirohito and his entourage, including the genrō Saionji Kinmochi allowed Hamaguchi to implement fiscal austerity measures, which included ratification of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, which curtailed military spending. However, his measures to help stimulate exports, such as maintaining the Japanese yen on the gold standard, proved disastrous.

The failure of Hamaguchi's economic policies played into the hands of right-wing elements, already enraged by the government's conciliatory foreign policies and Japan's increasing unemployment problems. The opposition Rikken Seiyūkai joined forces with the vocal anti-Treaty faction within the Imperial Japanese Navy to accuse Hamaguchi of infringing of the military's "right of supreme command" as guaranteed under the Meiji Constitution.

Hamaguchi's initial popularity quickly waned, and he fell victim to an assassination attempt on 14 November 1930 when he was shot inside Tokyo Station by Tomeo Sagoya, a member of the Aikokusha ultranationalist secret society. (Nine years earlier another Prime Minister, Hara Takashi, had been assassinated near the same place.) The head of the Aikoku-sha was Seiyūkai politician Ogawa Heikichi. The wounds kept Hamaguchi hospitalized for several months.

The 2nd Hamaguchi administration
Hamaguchi was reelected to a second term as Prime Minister of Japan in March 1931. However, with his health continuing to deteriorate, he was unable to attend the 59th Session of the Imperial Diet, which opened with Foreign Minister Kijūrō Shidehara as acting Prime Minister. The Seiyūkai immediately attacked the government on the grounds that the Prime Minister was not physically present, and that Shidehara was not even a member of the Minseitō. When Shidehara further created an uproar with a comment concerning Emperor Hirohito's support of the London Naval Treaty, the Seiyūkai refused to participate in budget deliberations until Hamaguchi could attend. Despite his failing health, Hamaguchi was forced to attend the Diet, but resigned a month later to be replaced by Wakatsuki Reijirō. He died on 26 August of the same year, and his grave is at the Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.

Tomeo Sagoya was not tried for murder. Nevertheless, in 1932, he was sentenced to death for attempted murder, after the judge ruled that the bullet had caused Osachi's death. Yoshikatsu Matsuki was sentenced to 13 years in prison as an accomplice, while Ainosuke Iwata received a 4-month sentence. However, in 1934, Sagoya's death sentence was reduced to life in prison in a general amnesty. He was one of many people involved in politically motivated murders, including that of prime ministers, to have their sentences reduced. Sagoya was released from prison in 1940, and died in 1972. He continued to be involved in far-right activities until his death.

In 1931 Hamaguchi's cabinet sponsored a bill on women's suffrage. It would have granted women over the age of 25 the right to vote in local elections and stand for office given their husbands' approval. The bill passed the lower house, but it was defeated in the House of Peers in March 1931 by a vote of 184 to 62.

Honours

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (July 1926)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (April 1927)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (April 1931)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hamaguchi Osachi


text:
Crime of passion

A crime of passion (crime passionnel), in popular usage, refers to a violent crime, especially homicide, in which the perpetrator commits the act against someone because of sudden strong impulse such as anger or jealousy rather than as a premeditated crime. A high level of social and legal acceptance of crimes of passion has been historically associated with France from the 19th century to the 1970s, and until recently with Latin America.

Description
The "crime of passion" defense challenges the mens rea element by suggesting that there was no malice aforethought, and instead the crime was committed in the "heat of passion". In some jurisdictions, a successful "crime of passion" defense may result in a conviction for manslaughter or second degree murder instead of first degree murder, because a defendant cannot ordinarily be convicted of first degree murder unless the crime was premeditated. A classic example of a crime of passion involves a spouse who, upon finding his or her partner in bed with another, kills the romantic interloper.

Additionally, the gay panic defense and or "trans panic" defenses can from time to time fall under the label of a "crime of passion", as was the defense of Michael Magidson and José Merel after they were put to trial after murdering trans woman Gwen Araujo.

In the United States, claims of "crimes of passion" have been traditionally associated with the defenses of temporary insanity or provocation. It was used as a defense in murder cases during the 1940s and 1950s. Historically, such defenses were used as complete defenses for various violent crimes, but gradually they became used primarily as a partial defense to a charge of murder; if the court accepts temporary insanity, a murder charge may be reduced to manslaughter.

In some countries, notably France, crime passionnel (or crime of passion) was a valid defense to murder charges. During the 19th century, some such cases resulted in a custodial sentence for the murderer of two years. After the Napoleonic code was updated in the 1970s, paternal authority over the members of the family was ended, thus reducing the occasions for which crime passionnel could be claimed. The Canadian Department of Justice has described crimes of passion as "abrupt, impulsive, and unpremeditated acts of violence committed by persons, who have come face to face with an incident unacceptable to them, and who are rendered incapable of self-control for the duration of the act."

Crimes of passion were widely accepted in Southern United States states, especially in Texas. Texas, unlike most other states, did not only tolerate such crimes, but had a law which codified such killings as justifiable. Until 1973, Texas had a law which stated: "Homicide is justifiable when committed by the husband upon one taken in the act of adultery with the wife, provided that the killing takes place before the parties to the act have separated. Such circumstance cannot justify a homicide where it appears that there has been, on the part of the husband, any connivance or assent to the adulterous connection." This law was repealed in 1973 by Senate Bill 34 during the 63rd Regular Session of the Texas Legislature.

Advocacy
In recent decades, feminists and women's rights organizations have worked to change laws and social norms which tolerate crimes of passion against women. UN Women has urged states to review legal defenses of passion and provocation, and other similar laws, to ensure that such laws do not lead to impunity in regard to violence against women, stating that "laws should clearly state that these defenses do not include or apply to crimes of "honour", adultery, or domestic assault or murder."

The Council of Europe Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence states that member states should "preclude adultery as an excuse for violence within the family".

There are differences between crimes of passion (which are generally impulsive and committed by and against both genders) and honour killings, as "while crimes of passion may be seen as somewhat premeditated to a certain extent, honour killings are usually deliberate, well planned and premeditated acts when a person kills a female relative ostensibly to uphold his honour." However, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, argued that "crimes of passion have a similar dynamic in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable". Some human rights advocates say that the crimes of passion in Latin America are treated leniently. Crimes of passion and honor killings often have similar triggers, particularly related to the sexual behavior (real or imaginary) of the victim, such as extramarital sex, premarital sex or homosexuality; and there have been accusations that the Western media creates artificial differentiation between the 'foreign' forms of domestic violence, such as the honor killings that are most prevalent in the Middle East and South Asia, and the crimes of passion that are relatively common in North America, Europe and Latin America.

The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, the first legally binding international document on domestic violence, states at Article 42:

"Article 42 – Unacceptable justifications for crimes, including crimes committed in the name of so-called honor

1. Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that, in criminal proceedings initiated following the commission of any of the acts of violence covered by the scope of this Convention, culture, custom, religion, tradition, or so-called honor shall not be regarded as justification for such acts. This covers, in particular, claims that the victim has transgressed cultural, religious, social, or traditional norms or customs of appropriate behavior.

2. Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that incitement by any person of a child to commit any of the acts referred to in paragraph 1 shall not diminish the criminal liability of that person for the acts committed."

In recent years, advocacy and legal reform has focused on several areas of laws:
 * repealing provisions which explicitly provided for mitigation or acquittal in crimes of passion (most such provisions focused on husbands killing wives due to adultery and fathers killing daughters due to premarital sex, e.g. such a law existed in Italy until 1981 - see below)
 * reforming self defense laws by ensuring that vague wording does not lead to broad interpretation of the concept, such as the self-defense of family honor or reputation; according to UNWOMEN, "Drafters should scrutinize self-defense provisions for vagueness that leaves open to interpretation whether the harm includes injury to "honour". Wording such as "dangerous or unjust act" are vague and leave open to judicial discretion whether such self-defense provisions apply to "honour" crimes".
 * reforming insanity related defenses, such as insanity, temporary insanity, irresistible impulse, diminished responsibility and other similar defenses to ensure that such defenses refer to genuine psychiatric medical conditions or genuine inability to comprehend due to objective factors (such as inhaling toxic fumes) and are not used as a legal fiction meant to justify domestic murders.
 * reforming the provocation defense, particularly with regard to the triggers that can be claimed. For example, Canada has modified its provocation law in 2015, restricting its use, such that the provocative behavior of the victim must constitute a criminal offense punishable by 5 or more years (rather than just "insult").

Crimes of passion and attitudes towards women
Crimes of passion are often committed against women due to beliefs about female sexuality and are often present in societies dominated by strong double standards related to male and female sexual behaviors, particularly related to premarital sex and adultery. Indeed, with regard to adultery, many societies, such as Latin American countries, have been dominated by very strong double standards regarding male and female adultery, with the latter being seen as a much more serious violation. Such ideas were also supported by laws in the West; for example, in the UK, before 1923, a man could divorce solely on the wife's adultery, but a woman had to prove additional fault (e.g., adultery and cruelty). Similarly, passion defenses to domestic murders were often available to men who killed unfaithful wives, but not to women who killed unfaithful husbands (France's crime of passion law, that was in force until 1975, is an example). In traditional societies, women could not complain about mistresses, concubines, and in many cultures even other wives (such as polygyny); whereas male sexual jealousy was recognized as the highest emotion that could justify even murder. Similarly, crimes of passion legislation made reference to fathers killing their daughters, but not sons, for premarital sex (such as Italy's law that was in effect until 1981); or Philippines's law that continues to be in effect to this day (see Art. 247 called Death or physical injuries inflicted under exceptional circumstances. ). With regard to Philippines, this double standard is also seen in the crimes dealing with extramarital sex, which are defined differently for women and men, and punished more severely for women (see Articles 333 and 334 ).

Historically, some societies considered homicide committed by a wife against her husband as a more severe crime than homicide committed by a husband against his wife. This was the case in the UK, where, under English law, until 1828, homicide committed against a social superior, which included a wife killing her husband, was classified as petty treason (which for women incurred burning at stake) and was a crime more severe than murder, because it was seen as threatening the hierarchical social order. In England and Wales, petty treason ceased to be a distinct offence from murder by virtue of the Offences against the Person Act 1828. It was abolished in Ireland in 1829.

In the Roman Empire the Roman law Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis implemented by Augustus Caesar in 18 BC permitted the killing of daughters and their lovers who committed adultery at the hands of their fathers and also permitted the killing of the adulterous wife's lover at the hand of her husband.

Crimes of passion and juries
The role of juries in trials of crimes of passion is controversial. In Brazil especially, there have been concerns that the jury system is deeply flawed, both due to the bias of juries, and due to the legal framework, which gives immense power to juries, and there is little that can be done even in jury decisions that are in blatant violation of the law. In Brazil, there is no "right" of a man to kill his wife, in fact the legal right of a husband to kill his wife due to adultery was abolished very early, in 1830. Nevertheless, acquittals in cases of men killing their wives have been very common throughout the 19th and 20th century, and have happened even in the 21st century. Men have been acquitted for killing wives due to a variety of reasons, including infidelity, attempting to leave the relationship, and refusing to have sex. In 1991, the Supreme Court ruled that the so-called legitimate defense of honor, used in these trials, has no basis in Brazilian law. Nevertheless, the legitimate defense of honor has continued to be used, including in a 2017 case of attempted murder where a man was acquitted for stabbing his ex-wife. The Supreme Court upheld the acquittal on the basis that the decision of a jury is sovereign and may not be altered. In 2021, the Supreme Court was asked to analyze the legitimate defense of honor, and ruled that the defense is not part of Brazilian law, reiterating the 1991 decision, and also ruled that this defense is unconstitutional; the ruling provided for the possibly of the prosecution to contest the decision of the jury on the basis that it is void if such defense has been used, with the final ruling being affirmed in 2023. The Supreme Court unanimously considered that the legitimate defense of honor is contrary to the principles of gender equality, human dignity and protection of life provided for in the Constitution of Brazil, for which reason it prohibited its direct or indirect use during trials. It is still not clear how and whether the prohibition of this defense can be implemented. Legal experts and politicians have expresses serious concerns of the way juries operate in Brazil, calling the legal organization anachronistic. According to a criminal court judge:

 * "The popular jury trials for murder leave the prosecutor with no recourse. He can appeal a jury verdict or a sentence and be supported by the higher court, as in Lopes, but each case returns to the state jury tribunal...In this jury system the jury decides according to its conscience not according to the law."

A study prepared for the National Council on the Rights of Women found that:

 * "[the jury] "doesn't evaluate the crime in itself, but instead evaluates the victim and the accused's life, trying to show how adapted each one is to what they imagine should be the correct behavior for a husband and wife....The man can always be acquitted if the defense manages to convince the jury that he was a good and honest worker, a dedicated father and husband, while the woman was unfaithful and did not fulfill her responsibilities as a housewife and mother....This way the ones involved in the crime are judged distinctly. Men and women are attributed different roles, in a pattern that excludes citizenship and equality  of rights."

Brazil is not the only country where there are or have been controversies about juries in crimes of passion cases; the ability of juries to return fair verdicts in crimes of passion in the French Third Republic was a major issue. In India, it was a crime of passion that led to the abolition of jury trials, after a man was acquitted by a jury for killing his wife's lover.

Australia
In Australia, as in other common law jurisdictions, crimes of passion have traditionally been subjected to the partial defense of provocation, which converts what would have been murder into manslaughter. In recent years, the defence of provocation has come under increased criticism, and, as a result, legal changes have abolished or restricted its application: in 2003, Tasmania became the first state to abolish the partial defence of provocation in murder charges; the next state to abolish it was Victoria, in 2005; followed by Western Australia in 2008; and by South Australia in 2020. ACT and Northern Territory have amended the laws to exclude non-violent homosexual sexual advances, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. In Queensland the partial defense of provocation in section 304(1) of the Criminal Code was amended in 2011, in order to "reduce the scope of the defence being available to those who kill out of sexual possessiveness or jealousy". In 2014, the New South Wales law on provocation was amended to provide that the provocative conduct of the deceased must also have constituted a serious indictable offense.

Brazil
Killing of wives due to adultery has been traditionally treated very leniently in Brazil, in court cases where husbands claimed the "legitimate defense of their honor" (legitima defesa da honra) as justification for the killing. Although this defense was not explicitly stipulated in the 20th-century Criminal Code, it has been successfully pleaded by lawyers throughout the 20th century, in particular in the countryside, though less so in the coastal big cities. In 1991 Brazil's Supreme Court explicitly rejected the "honor defense" as having no basis in Brazilian law.

In the 21st century, Brazil has improved the legal status of women, with the new Civil Code of 2002; and through other legal changes such as repealing in 2005 the provision that exempted a rapist from punishment if he married his victim, decriminalizing adultery in 2005, and enacting laws against domestic violence in Brazil.

France

Crimes of passion have a strong association with France. Prior to 1975, the French Penal Code of 1810 stated at article 324 that "in the case of adultery, provided for by article 336, murder committed upon the wife as well as upon her accomplice, at the moment when the husband shall have caught them in the fact, in the house where the husband and wife dwell, is excusable" [meaning a punishment of 1 to 5 years, according to article 326]. In practice, however, many domestic violence crimes resulted in acquittal by the juries, a situation which led jurists to became alarmed and to question whether the citizen jurors of the Third Republic were competent to render justice. In the 1960s and 70s the attitudes towards domestic violence started to change, as in other European countries. On November 7, 1975, Law no. 617/75 Article 17 repealed Article 324. Many countries, including some western countries like Belgium, were legally influenced by the Article 324. Prior to 1997, Belgian law provided for mitigating circumstances in the case of a killing or assault against a spouse caught in the act of adultery. In Luxembourg, Article 413 (repealed in 2003) provided mitigating circumstances for murder, assault and injury of an adulterous spouse.

Article 324 of the French penal code was copied by Middle Eastern Arab countries. According to the Honour Based Violence Awareness Network, the penal codes that were enacted under the Napoleonic Empire influenced the development of laws in North Africa and the Middle East. These laws permit reduced sentences for murders that are "related to honour". The French Article 324 inspired Jordan's Article 340 and Article 98. The 1858 Ottoman Penal Code's Article 188 was also inspired by Article 324. Both the French Article 324 and Ottoman article 188 were drawn on to create Jordan's Article 340, which was retained after a 1944 revision of laws, and still applies to this day.

The Napoleonic Code has been an extremely influential code. Many laws around the world have been modeled on it. The code was applied to all territories under Napoleon's control and has also influenced several other countries in Europe and South America. In addition to leniency to crimes of passion, this code enshrined the unquestionable authority of men over their families and deprived women of any individual rights, and reduced the rights of illegitimate children. It also reintroduced colonial slavery. The example of the Napoleonic Code is often used in debates about Westernization, Europeanization and imperialism. The Napoleonic Code was also influential in the "marry-your-rapist laws" (in force in France until 1994 ), which were exported to other parts of the world too.

France also had a strong culture of dueling meant to uphold honor, and France was called by National Geographic "the dueling capital of Europe". This dueling culture was also exported to Latin America, and was extremely strong in Uruguay (see below the section on Uruguay). In Corsica, a place influenced throughout the centuries both by Italian and French culture, there was a strong custom of vendetta, which required Corsicans to kill anyone who wronged their family honor. Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 vendetta killings were perpetrated in Corsica.

Stories about adulterous women, suicides and homicides committed due to 'passion', featured prominently in French literature in the 19th century, and "In literature as in life, unconventional women needed to be severely punished lest their defiant attitudes inspire further acts of rebellion".

Haiti
Haiti, a former French colony, had a crime of passion law similar to that of France until 2005, when it was abolished. Adultery was also decriminalized in 2005.

Italy
Italy has a long tradition of treating crimes of passion with leniency. Until 1981, the law read: "Art. 587: He who causes the death of a spouse, daughter, or sister upon discovering her in illegitimate carnal relations and in the heat of passion caused by the offence to his honour or that of his family will be sentenced to three to seven years. The same sentence shall apply to whom, in the above circumstances, causes the death of the person involved in illegitimate carnal relations with his spouse, daughter, or sister."

Portugal
Portugal has a long tradition of tolerating, and even encouraging, crimes of passion, under the "legitimate defense of honor", which was also brought to Brazil. During the authoritarian Estado Novo regime, (1933–1974) women's rights were restricted. Although improvements in tackling domestic violence have been achieved, particularly with legal reforms in 1982, lenient punishments continue to be given by judges, partly due to the strongly patriarchal ideology that still persists in the judicial system. Although the Supreme Court of Justice in recent years has, in most cases, rejected the defense of "passion" in domestic homicides, such defense remains open to use due to the legal framework of murder in Portuguese law, namely article 133. This article is very broad in scope, is subject to interpretation, and has a very low punishment of only 1 to 5 years, which due to the regulations of the Portuguese Penal Code, usually results in suspended sentences. This article, called "Privileged homicide" (Homicídio privilegiado) states that when the murder takes place under an understandable violent emotion, compassion, despair or other socially or morally relevant motive, such as to significantly diminish the murderer's degree of guilt, the punishment in this case is 1 to 5 years. Furthermore, the Criminal Code under Articles 71 and 72, provides guidelines to sentencing for crimes, making reference to honorabale motives and provocation by the victim. The international GREVIO expert body which is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Istanbul Convention by the State Parties (which include Portugal) has called on the Portuguese authorities to reform the Criminal Code, to ensure that it is compatible with article 42 of the convention, which states that "Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that, in criminal proceedings initiated following the commission of any of the acts of violence covered by the scope of this Convention, culture, custom, religion, tradition or so‐called “honour” shall not be regarded as justification for such acts. This covers, in particular, claims that the victim has transgressed cultural, religious, social or traditional norms or customs of appropriate behaviour."

Portugal was one of the last European countries to decriminalize adultery - the adultery law (which treated female and male adultery differently) was repealed in 1982, and the punishment for female adultery in the 20th century in Portugal was one of the most severe in the Western world. With regard to homicide law, before 1975, the law provided for a symbolic punishment of only 6 months exile from the district for killing of a spouse or daughter under 21 caught in the act of adultery/premarital sex. The Decree-Law 262/75 on 27 May 1975 repealed article 372 of the Penal Code which provided for such mitigation; nevertheless courts continued to routinely use general mitigation factors to give lenient punishments for husbands who killed out of jealousy or relationship breakup throughout the 1980s and 1990s; the concept of holding women as partly responsible for crimes committed against them extended to other crimes too, such as rape and kidnapping; for example in 1989 the Portuguese Supreme Court of Justice ruled that two hitchhiking young tourists who were kidnapped and raped had contributed to the crimes committed against them. It was only in the 21st century that a different attitude started to be more commonly adopted by the courts, as public and political discourse against of domestic violence started to grow.

United Kingdom
Killing due to adultery traditionally fell under the provocation defense. In 1707, English Lord Chief Justice John Holt described the act of a man having sexual relations with another man's wife as "the highest invasion of property" and claimed, in regard to the aggrieved husband, that "a man cannot receive a higher provocation".

In 2009 a man was cleared of murder but convicted of manslaughter by reason of provocation for stabbing his partner and his best friend to death when he found them having sex.

Although provocation in English law was abolished on 4 October 2010 by section 56(1) of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, it was replaced by a relatively similar by more narrowly drafted defence of "loss of control" created by section 54.

There has been considerable controversy regarding the application by the courts of the new law; although section 55 states "(6) In determining whether a loss of self-control had a qualifying trigger (...) (c) the fact that a thing done or said constituted sexual infidelity is to be disregarded", in a controversial decision by Lord Judge in R v Clinton [2012] 1 Cr App R 26 in the Court of Appeal, Lord Judge interpreted the new offence as allowing for sexual infidelity to count under the third prong of the new defence (see Baker and Zhao 2012). This decision has received heavy criticism from academics. Vera Baird has also been very critical of the decision, writing, "It seems that parliament says infidelity doesn't count and the court says it does."

Uruguay
In Uruguay, crimes of passion were legally tolerated until 2017. In certain circumstances, the law exonerated a perpetrator when a killing or a battery was committed due to "passion provoked by adultery". Article 36 of the Criminal Code provided for this:

"Artículo 36. (La pasión provocada por el adulterio)

La pasión provocada por el adulterio faculta al Juez para exonerar de pena por los delitos de homicidio y de lesiones, siempre que concurran los requisitos siguientes:

 * 1. Que el delito se cometa por el cónyuge que sorprendiera infraganti al otro cónyuge y que se efectúe o contra el amante.
 * 2. Que el autor tuviera buenos antecedentes y que la oportunidad para cometer el delito no hubiera sido provocada o simplemente facilitada, mediando conocimiento anterior de la infidelidad conyugal."

Translation:

"Article 36. (The passion provoked by adultery)

The passion provoked by adultery empowers the court to exempt from punishment for the crimes of homicide and injury, provided that the following conditions are present:
 * 1) The offense is committed by one spouse against the other spouse whom he or she has caught in the act, or against the lover.
 * 2) The perpetrator has a good record and the opportunity to commit the crime was not provoked or facilitated by prior knowledge of the marital infidelity."

Since 2013, there have been ongoing political efforts to remove this provision from the Criminal Code. On December 22, 2017, Article 36 of the Criminal Code was modified to remove the crime of passion.

Uruguay is a country where the case of violence against women has been considered a paradox and debated in the context that Uruguay is otherwise considered one of the most liberal countries in Latin America; nevertheless, domestic violence is a very serious problem; according to a 2018 United Nations study, Uruguay has the second-highest rate of killings of women by current or former partners in Latin America, after Dominican Republic. Despite having a reputation of being a progressive country, Uruguay has lagged behind with regard to its approach to domestic violence; for example, in Chile, considered one of the most socially conservative countries of the region, a similar legislation permitting such crimes of passion was repealed in 1953.

The culture of Uruguay has been strongly influenced by French culture, through French immigrants in the 19th century (see French Uruguayans), and, as such, the French concept of crime of passion was brought to Uruguay (see section above on France). The French dueling culture, meant to uphold honor, was also exported to Latin America, and was extremely strong in Uruguay. Uruguay's honor culture has been prominent well into the 20th century, and duels survived in Uruguay until the 1970s, long after the practice had been abandoned in other parts of the Western world. Duels in Uruguay were widespread in the early 20th century, were legalized in 1920, in an unusual political move; and remained legal until 1992.

France

 * Henriette Caillaux
 * Albert Lemaître

United Kingdom

 * Douglas Malcolm

United States

 * Lorena Bobbitt
 * Mary Jo Buttafuoco
 * Death of Steve McNair
 * Lisa Nowak
 * Murder of Nikki Whitehead
 * Murder of David Lynn Harris

title: Crime of passion


text:
Inukai Tsuyoshi

Inukai Tsuyoshi (犬養 毅, 4 June 1855 – 15 May 1932) was a Japanese statesman who was prime minister of Japan from 1931 to his assassination in 1932. At the age of 76, Inukai was Japan's second oldest serving prime minister, after Kantarō Suzuki whose term ended at the age of 77.

Early life
Inukai was born 4 June 1855, in Kawairi, Kaya, Bitchū Province (in present-day Okayama, Okayama Prefecture), the second son of Inukai Genzaemon, a samurai, district magistrate and local official (ōjōya). His family was a branch of the Itakura clan, and were originally given a status that allowed them to wear a katana by the Niwase Domain.

In 1876, Inukai travelled to Tokyo and subsequently graduated from the Keio Gijuku (now Keio University) where he specialized in Chinese studies. In his early career, Inukai worked as a journalist for the Yūbin Hōchi Shimbun (now a sports newspaper subsidiary of the Yomiuri Shimbun) and Akita Sakigake Shimpō. He went with the Imperial Japanese Army to the front during the Satsuma Rebellion as a reporter.

Political career
Ōkuma Shigenobu invited Inukai to help form the Rikken Kaishintō political party in 1882, which supported liberal political causes, strongly opposed the domination of the government by members of the former Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and called for a British-style constitutional monarchy within the framework of a parliamentary democracy.

Inukai was first elected to the Lower House of the Imperial Diet in 1890, and was reelected 17 times, holding the same seat for 42 years until his death.

Inukai's first cabinet post was as Minister of Education in the first Ōkuma Shigenobu administration of 1898, succeeding Ozaki Yukio, who was forced to resign due to a speech that conservative elements in the Diet charged promoted republicanism. However, Ozaki's resignation did not end the crisis, which culminated with the fall of the Ōkuma administration, so Inukai's term lasted only eleven days. Inukai was a leading figure in the successors to the Rikken Kaishintō, the Shimpotō, Kenseitō and the Rikken Kokumintō, which eventually toppled the government of Katsura Tarō in 1913. During this time, his politics became increasingly conservative and he was associated with both leading figures from the Pan-Asian movement and with nationalists such as Tōyama Mitsuru. He was also a strong supporter of the Chinese republican movement, visiting China in 1907, and subsequently lending aid to Sun Yat-sen during the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 which overthrew the Qing dynasty. He later assisted Sun when Sun had to flee to Japan after his attempt to overthrow Yuan Shikai failed. Inukai had a deep respect for Chinese culture, and felt that Sino-Japanese cooperation was the cornerstone of Asian solidarity. Although in later years his vision of Sino-Japanese cooperation diverged greatly from Sun's, Inukai maintained close personal ties with many leading Chinese politicians. Inukai likewise supported the Vietnamese independence leader, Prince Cường Để, and invited him to Japan in 1915.

Inukai returned to the cabinet as Minister of Communications in the second Yamamoto Gonnohyōe administration from 1923 to 1924. He was concurrently Education Minister again for a four-day period in September 1923

In 1922 the Rikken Kokumintō became the Kakushin Club, and joined forces with other minor parties to form the cabinet during the premiership of Katō Takaaki in 1924. During his time, Inukai served on the cabinet again as Minister of Communications. The Kakushin Club then merged with the Rikken Seiyūkai, and Inukai continued as a senior member.

In July 1929, Inukai travelled to Nanjing, China, with several other Japanese delegates at the invitation of Chinese government to a memorial service for Sun Yat-sen. The delegates later travelled to numerous other cities, and noted with concern the growing anti-Japanese sentiment. In 1929, after the sudden death of Tanaka Giichi, Inukai became president of the Rikken Seiyūkai. Inukai was an outspoken critic of Japan's signing of the London Naval Treaty, which reduced military spending. He supported the actions of the Imperial Japanese Army in invading Manchuria in 1931, and rejected criticism from the League of Nations over the Mukden Incident.

As Prime Minister
Following the resignation of the Wakatsuki administration over its failure to control the military and the failure of its economic policies, Saionji Kinmochi, Japan's sole surviving genrō, turned to Inukai to form a new government in 1931. Following his appointment, Inukai was instructed by Saionji to avoid drastic changes in either foreign policy or economics. Already disadvantaged by the fact that his Seiyukai was not the majority party in the Diet, he was also saddled with a cabinet composed of competing factions, ranging from his ultra-rightist Army Minister Sadao Araki to the liberal Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo. With a divided cabinet and a hostile Diet, Inukai governed with the assistance of the Privy Council, which passed emergency imperial edicts and budgetary measures to circumvent the normal Diet budgetary process.

Inukai immediately took steps to inflate the economy and to take Japan off the gold standard, implementing protectionist trade policies and attempting to stem Japan's trade deficit. These actions devaluated the yen, thus lowering the price of Japanese goods in world markets, and increasing exports.

However, Inukai was forced to accede to a request by the Imperial Japanese Army to dispatch additional troops to Manchuria and to Tianjin, despite instructions as late as 23 December 1931 from Emperor Hirohito to maintain international trust per the Nine-Power Treaty in not attacking China, and on 27 December 1931 not to authorize any moves by the Kwantung Army to occupy Jinzhou. However, by now the Imperial Japanese Army was completely beyond any civilian control and from January to March 1932 the conflict had spread to Shanghai with the 1st Shanghai Incident. During the 1932 General Election, buoyed by an upsurge in public opinion due to Japanese military successes in China, the Rikken Seiyukai won an overwhelming majority.

On 8 January 1932, a Korean independence activist named Lee Bong Chang attempted to assassinate Emperor Hirohito in the Sakuradamon Incident. Inukai and his cabinet immediately offered their resignations; however, Hirohito wished to downplay the incident and refused.

However, Inukai still came under strong criticism for his efforts to rein in the military, while reformists criticized him for not going far enough. Inukai's efforts to limit further troop deployments to China and to defuse the Shanghai Incident through negotiations with the Chinese government drew increasing ire from the general public as well as the militarists. This soon metamorphosed into terrorist activity with the League of Blood Incident in which extremists targeted wealthy businessmen and liberal politicians. The group chose twenty victims but succeeded in killing only two: former Finance Minister and head of the Rikken Minseitō, Junnosuke Inoue, and Director-General of Mitsui Holding Company, Dan Takuma.

On 1 March, the state of Manchukuo was formally proclaimed. Symbolically, Inukai withheld formal diplomatic recognition as a gesture of displeasure against the radical faction within the Imperial Japanese Army, and out of concern due to the rapidly worsening international relations with the United States, on which country Japan depended for much of its raw materials and capital investment.

Assassination
Inukai's struggle against the military led to his assassination during the May 15 Incident of 1932, which effectively marked the end of civilian political control over government decisions until after World War II. Inukai was shot by eleven junior Navy officers (most were just turning twenty years of age) in the Prime Minister's residence in Tokyo. Inukai's last words were roughly: If we could talk, you would understand (話せば分かる) to which his killers replied Dialogue is useless (問答無用). The insurgents also attacked the residence of Makino Nobuaki, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, the residence and office of Saionji Kinmochi, headquarters of the Rikken Seiyukai, and tossed hand grenades into Mitsubishi Bank headquarters in Tokyo, and several electrical transformer substations. The original assassination plan had included killing the English film star Charlie Chaplin – who had arrived in Japan on 14 May and was Inukai's guest – in the hope that this would provoke a war with the United States. However, at the time, Chaplin was watching a sumo wrestling match with the prime minister's son, Inukai Takeru, and thus escaped. Inukai’s murderers received only light sentences for their actions.

Inukai's third son was writer, politician and post-war Minister of Justice Inukai Takeru. His great-granddaughter was Sadako Ogata, who served as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from 1991 until 2001.

Honours
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (September 1920)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (May 1932; posthumous)

title: Inukai Tsuyoshi


text:
Phillips Academy

Phillips Academy (also known as PA, Phillips Academy Andover, or simply Andover) is a co-educational college-preparatory school for boarding and day students located in Andover, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. The academy enrolls approximately 1,150 students in grades 9 through 12, including postgraduate students. It is part of the Eight Schools Association and the Ten Schools Admissions Organization.

Founded in 1778, Andover is one of the oldest high schools in the United States. It has educated a long list of notable alumni through its history, including American presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, foreign heads of state, members of Congress, five Nobel laureates and six Medal of Honor recipients.

Andover is highly selective, accepting just 9% of applicants for the 2022–2023 school year. Along with its athletic rival Phillips Exeter Academy, Andover is one of only two co-ed high schools in the United States to both admit students on a need-blind basis and provide financial aid covering 100% of students' demonstrated financial need. 45% of Andover students receive financial aid.

Revolutionary-era beginnings
Phillips Academy is the oldest incorporated academy in the United States. It was established in 1778 by Samuel Phillips Jr., a local businessman who hoped to educate Calvinist students for the ministry.

The American Revolutionary War had caused significant upheaval to education in New England, and Phillips Academy filled part of that gap. (For example, Boston Latin School shut down during the war because its headmaster John Lovell, a Loyalist, fled to British Canada after the fall of Boston in 1776. ) The founders of Phillips Academy were strongly associated with the Patriot cause. Samuel Phillips and Eliphalet Pearson (later Andover's first head of school) manufactured gunpowder for the Continental Army, and the founders attempted to stock Andover's library with books confiscated from Loyalist families who had fled New England.

Several prominent Revolutionary figures maintained links with the academy, including George Washington (who personally visited the academy while president in 1789; eight of his nephews and grandnephews attended Andover ), John Hancock (who signed the academy's articles of incorporation), and Paul Revere (who designed the academy seal). Revere's design of the academy seal incorporated a beehive, crops, the sun, and the academy's two mottos: Non Sibi ("not for oneself") and Finis Origine Pendet ("the end depends upon the beginning"). Other mottos include Youth from Every Quarter and Knowledge and Goodness, two paraphrases from the academy constitution.

In 1828, all-boys Phillips Academy was joined by a sister school, Abbot Academy. Abbot was one of the first secondary schools for girls in New England. Although the academies had neighboring campuses in the town of Andover, their administrations sought to limit and regulate contact between the student bodies. The two academies merged in 1973.

Calvinist roots and Exeter rivalry
Phillips Academy's traditional rival is Phillips Exeter Academy, which was established three years later in Exeter, New Hampshire, by Samuel Phillips' uncle John Phillips. Andover and Exeter's sports teams have played each other since 1861, and the football teams have met nearly every year since 1878, making Andover-Exeter one of the nation's oldest high school football rivalries.

From 1808 to 1907, Phillips Academy shared its campus with the Andover Theological Seminary, which was founded by orthodox Calvinists who had fled Harvard University after it appointed a liberal Unitarian theology professor. The Phillips family financially backed the seminary, and the two institutions shared a board of directors.

Andover's commitment to orthodox theology helped fuel the Exeter rivalry. Exeter was more welcoming to Unitarians or at least less religious; for example, unlike Andover, its academy constitution did not compel Exeter to teach the doctrine of justification by faith alone. As such, Exeter tended to send its students to Unitarian Harvard. Andover steered its students to Yale, which was more hospitable to Calvinists. This was due in part to the conservative influence of the seminary (whose endowment and facilities were superior to the academy's ), and in other part to the fact that Andover's constitution explicitly required Andover to profess and teach Calvinist theology. The constitution also required all teachers and trustees to be Protestants, although Andover no longer enforces this restriction.

Certain New England families were drawn to Andover's reputation for theological conservatism. In the 1880s, the bulk of Andover students came from Congregationalist (mainly Calvinist) and Presbyterian households, and the academy enrolled "almost no" Unitarians or Methodists. However, by the 1900s, Calvinism was no longer popular in New England, and Andover Theological Seminary was facing declining enrollment. In 1907, the seminary reconciled with Harvard and returned to Cambridge.

Today, Andover and Exeter are now both nonsectarian institutions, and the rivalry no longer carries religious overtones.

Revival as college-preparatory institution
After a period of decline, Cecil Bancroft (h. 1873–1901), Alfred Stearns (h. 1903–33), and Claude Fuess (h. 1933–48) led Andover through a long era of expansion that transformed Andover into one of the largest and richest prep schools in the United States. Bancroft improved Andover's academic reputation; he reformed the curriculum to the expectations of college presidents and visited the English public schools to learn about best practices in Europe. Aided by a "sink-or-swim" policy of expelling underperforming or undisciplined students, the academy was able to place a majority of its students at Yale, Harvard, or Princeton (64% in 1931 and 74% in 1937). Enrollment, which had fallen from 396 students in 1855 to 177 in 1877, rebounded to roughly 400 by 1901 and passed 700 in 1937.

To compete with newer, fully residential boarding schools, the headmasters built new on-campus housing and modernized the academic facilities, a process that took over a generation to complete. Shortly after taking over, Bancroft recognized that Andover's historical reliance on local families for student housing was hurting its reputation. By 1901 Andover provided housing for approximately one-third of boarders; by 1929 all boarders could finally live on campus. Much of this expansion was funded by banker Thomas Cochran '90, a partner at J. P. Morgan who had no children and wanted to make Andover "the most beautiful school in America." Cochran donated roughly $10 million to Andover (approximately $181 million in February 2024 dollars); for reference, when he died his estate was probated at $3 million. In 1928, as many as 15,000 people visited Andover's campus to hear President Calvin Coolidge deliver the keynote address at Andover's 150th anniversary celebration, a speech that Cochran had arranged.

During this period, Andover was a primarily white and Protestant institution, although its expanding scholarship program and occasional steps toward racial integration made it relatively diverse by New England boarding school standards. The share of scholarship boys steadily increased from 10% in 1901 to roughly 25% in 1944. Andover was one of the first New England boarding schools to accept black students, starting in the 1850s. However, it had just five black students when Bancroft died in 1901, and black representation actually declined under Bancroft's successors: only four African-Americans attended Andover between 1911 and 1934. The academy admitted more Jewish students but capped their numbers at roughly 5% of the student body. Andover was also one of the first American schools to educate Chinese students, participating in the 1872–1881 Chinese Educational Mission; one student, Liang Cheng, later became the Chinese ambassador to the United States.

In the 1930s, Andover participated in the International Schoolboy Fellowship, a cultural exchange program between U.S. boarding schools, British public schools, and Nazi boarding schools. As U.S.-Germany relations deteriorated, Andover terminated the arrangement in 1939 at the State Department's request. Following America's entry into World War II, over 3,000 Andover graduates participated in the war effort in some capacity, with 142 deaths.

Post-war to present
John Kemper (h. 1948–71) updated the curriculum and improved salaries and benefits for faculty members. Under his leadership, Andover co-authored a study on high school students' preparation for college coursework, which led to the creation of the Advanced Placement program. Although tightening academic standards at elite universities and increased competition from public schools caused Andover's college placement record to decline significantly during Kemper's administration—the proportion of graduates attending Yale, Harvard, or Princeton fell to 55% in 1953 and 33% in 1967—nearly every major boarding school endured similar declines during this period.

Like many other boarding school administrators, Kemper and his successors also sought to democratize the campus. Andover began to admit more black students in the 1950s and 1960s, but progress was slow; by 1978, 6% of the student body was black or Hispanic. Andover abolished secret societies in 1949, although one society still exists. It also abolished mandatory attendance at religious services in the early 1970s. Phillips Academy became co-educational in 1973, when it merged with its sister school Abbot Academy.

During this period, Andover also began coordinating policy with other large and wealthy secondary schools. In 1952, the Ten Schools Admissions Organization began coordinating outreach to potential applicants and streamlining the admissions process. After Kemper's retirement, Andover became a founding member of the Eight Schools Association, an informal group of headmasters of large boarding schools that began meeting in the 1970s and formalized in 2006.

Raynard S. Kington has been Head of School since 2019. He was previously the president of Grinnell College in Iowa. The previous Head of School was law professor (and 1990 Exeter graduate) John Palfrey, who left Andover to take over the MacArthur Foundation. The academy is supervised by a board of trustees, all of whom are alumni except the Head of School. It is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges.

Admission policies
Phillips Academy is one of the most selective boarding schools in the United States, especially in light of its size. In 2016, four boarding schools had an acceptance rate lower than 15%, and Andover was larger than the other three put together. The acceptance rate normally hovers around 13%, but during the COVID-19 pandemic, it fell to 9% in 2022.

Andover has practiced need-blind admission since 2007. Andover and Exeter are the only two co-educational prep schools in the United States that both admit students on a need-blind basis and offer financial aid that covers 100% of demonstrated financial need for every admitted student.

About one of every eight Andover students (12.9%) has a parent who attended Andover, and at least one out of every five Andover students has a sibling who attended Andover.

Student body
Andover enrolls a student body that is more racially diverse than Massachusetts, although the numbers vary significantly depending on whether respondents are permitted to identify as two or more races. The academy reports that 59% of students identify as people of color.

For the 2021–2022 school year, Andover reported that 36.5% of its students were white, 33.0% were Asian, 10.2% were black, 10.5% were Hispanic, 0.5% were Native American/Alaska Native, and 9.3% were multiracial. The survey in question did not allow Andover to identify one student in multiple categories.

By contrast, a March 2023 survey conducted by Andover's student newspaper (to which 81.0% of the student body responded) found that 50.2% of Andover students identified as white, 42.9% as Asian (including 25.8% as Asian Americans), 13.4% as black (including 8.6% as African American), 10.9% as Hispanic or Latino, 1.4% as Native American/Alaska Native, and 1.3% as Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. This survey allowed students to identify with multiple categories. The percentage of black students represents a significant increase from 2021, when 10.4% of students identified as black and 6.8% as African American.

Andover enrolls a large international student population, representing approximately 15% of the student body. In March 2024, Andover enrolled 184 international students, of whom 55 were U.S. citizens living abroad. Conversely, a quarter of the student body lives off campus in neighboring communities.

The student body is relatively affluent and politically liberal. As of March 2023, 95.4% of Andover students have at least one parent who graduated from college, and 46.8% of students have family household incomes over $250,000/year, compared to the 11.3% of students with family household incomes under $100,000/year (another 22.9% do not know their family income). 38.8% of students identified as liberal, 13.3% as independent, 8.6% as conservative, and 8.0% as either communist or socialist (another 26.5% were unsure as to their political affiliation). 21.6% of students identified as agnostic and 21.1% as atheist, compared to 22.5% who identified as "Christian," 16.9% as Catholic, and 5.4% as Protestant (students could select multiple choices). In addition, 6.4% of students identified as ethnically Jewish and 5.3% as religiously Jewish.

Curriculum
Phillips Academy follows a trimester program, where a school year is divided into three terms lasting around ten weeks each. With 232 teaching faculty, a 7:1 student-faculty ratio, and an average class size of 13, Andover is able to offer 300 courses and a faculty-guided independent research option. Courses may last one, two, or three terms. Although Andover helped create the Advanced Placement program, the academy de-emphasized AP classes in the 21st century, citing a desire to maintain curricular flexibility and independence.

Andover does not rank students. It calculates GPA using a 6.0 scale instead of the usual 4.0 scale, where a 6 is considered outstanding, a 5 is an honors grade, and a 2 is a passing grade. A March 2023 student survey found that the average GPA was 5.41; it was 5.18 in 2018.

Andover also runs a five-week summer session for approximately 600 students entering grades 8-12, which dates back to 1942.

Test scores
Andover does not publicly report its students' standardized test scores, explaining that many colleges have adopted test-optional admission policies during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Class of 2019's average combined SAT score was 1460 (720 reading, 740 math), and its average combined ACT score was 31.1.

Grade levels
In the 2022–23 school year, Andover enrolled 214 freshmen (in academy jargon, "juniors"), 276 sophomores ("lowers"), 311 juniors ("uppers"), and 348 seniors and postgraduates ("seniors" and "PGs"), for a total enrollment of 1,149 students.

Facilities
The old core of Phillips Academy's campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of the Academy Hill Historic District. It includes the historic campuses of Phillips Academy, Abbot Academy, and Andover Theological Seminary, the latter of which sold its buildings to Phillips Academy when it left Andover in 1907.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Andover added new buildings around this campus core, including the administrative building, library, dining hall, art gallery, chapel, math building, and dormitories. Many of the buildings were named after notable Americans, some (but not all) of whom attended Andover.

Portions of Andover's campus were laid out by Andover alumnus Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of Central Park. Beginning in 1891, Olmsted and his architectural firm advised Andover on campus design; this relationship would continue for the next five decades.

Notable academic facilities

 * George Washington Hall hosts the school's administrative offices and the Drama and Art Departments. It also hosts the school post office, locker rooms, and Day Student Lounge. It was built in 1926.
 * Bulfinch Hall hosts the English Department. It was built in 1819 and renovated in 2012. It was named after architect Charles Bulfinch, who taught the hall's architect Asher Benjamin.
 * Pearson Hall hosts the Classics Department. It was built in 1817. It was formerly the chapel of Andover Theological Seminary.
 * Morse Hall hosts the Math Department, the student radio station, some student publications, and the Community and Multicultural Development department. It was built in the 1920s/1930s. It was named after Samuel Morse '05, who invented the telegraph and Morse code.
 * Gelb Science Center hosts the Science Department and an observatory. It was built in 2004. It was named after donor Richard L. Gelb '41, the heir to the Clairol hair care company.
 * Oliver Wendell Holmes Library (OWHL) houses over 80,000 books and contains classroom space. It was built in 1929 and renovated in 1987 and 2019. It is named after Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. '25, the poet and physician. Built in the Georgian Revival architectural style, it has been modernized over the years and now contains a silent study room and a makerspace. In 2019, the Internet Archive commended the OWHL for digitizing its books and allowing the Internet Archive to lend them to third parties (controlled digital lending). However, in 2023 a New York federal court ruled that this practice was copyright infringement. The ruling is under appeal.

Student facilities
The academy's dormitories vary in size from as few as four to as many as 40 students, and are organized into five "clusters" of roughly 220 students and 40 faculty affiliates each. Many social events are organized through the cluster system, including orientation, study breaks, and snacks. None of the original dormitory buildings remain; the oldest dorm is Blanchard House, built in 1789. Two dormitory names carry on the Andover Theological Seminary tradition: America House, where the song America was penned by a seminarian, and Stowe House, where American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe (author of Uncle Tom's Cabin) lived while her husband taught at the seminary.
 * Cochran Chapel hosts religious services and the philosophy, religious studies, and community service departments. It is the only building on campus named for the Cochran family, who built much of the modern-day Andover campus.
 * Paresky Commons is the dining hall. It was built in 1930 and underwent a $30 million renovation in 2007. It is named after David Paresky '56, a former Andover scholarship student who funded the 2007 renovation.
 * Cochran Wildlife Sanctuary covers 65 acres and contains the Log Cabin, a place for student groups to hold meetings and sleep-overs.
 * Rebecca M. Sykes Wellness Center offers physical and mental health facilities.
 * Andover has two athletic centers: the 98,000-square-foot Snyder Center and the 70,000-square-foot Pan Athletic Center.

The academy also operates the Andover Inn, which has 30 guest rooms and various event spaces. It was built in 1930 and renovated in 2009–2010 and 2023.

Museums
The Addison Gallery of American Art is an art museum donated by Thomas Cochran in memory of Keturah Addison Cobb, the mother of his friend Zaidee Cobb Bliss. It is open to the public, and underwent a $30 million renovation and expansion from 2008 to 2010.

The gallery's permanent collection includes Winslow Homer's Eight Bells, along with work by John Singleton Copley, Benjamin West, Thomas Eakins, James McNeill Whistler, Frederic Remington, George Bellows, Edward Hopper, Georgia O'Keeffe, Jackson Pollock, Frank Stella, and Andrew Wyeth. The museum also features collections in American photography and decorative arts, with silver and furniture dating back to precolonial America and a collection of colonial model ships. The gallery also features rotating exhibitions.

The Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology was founded in 1901. The academy bills it as "one of the nation's major repositories of Native American archaeological collections." Unlike the Addison Gallery, the Peabody Institute is accessible to researchers, public schools, and visitors only by appointment.

The collection includes materials from the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwest, Mexico and the Arctic, and range from Paleo Indian (more than 10,000 years ago) to the present day. Since the early 1990s, the museum has been at the forefront of compliance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.

Extracurriculars
Phillips Academy's extracurricular activities include music ensembles, a campus newspaper, an Internet radio station (formerly broadcasting as WPAA), and a debate club.

Andover's weekly student newspaper, The Phillipian, claims to have been publishing since 1857. If true, it would be the nation's oldest secondary school newspaper, ahead of Exeter's The Exonian. However, the official school history questioned the 1857 date, noting that no further issues were published until 1878, the same year The Exonian began publishing. According to the Phillipian website, the newspaper is "entirely uncensored and student run."

The Philomathean Society is the nation's second-oldest high school debating society, after Exeter's Daniel Webster Debate Society.

Andover students operate the Phillips Academy Poll, the first public opinion poll to be conducted by high school students. In 2022, the poll was featured by Boston Channel 7 News and The New Yorker, among others, after releasing polling results for the 2022 midterm elections. The original pollsters graduated in 2023, and the current status of the poll is unknown.

History

Athletic competition has long been a part of the Phillips Academy tradition. As early as 1805, some form of "football" was being played on campus; that year, Eliphalet Pearson's son Henry wrote that "I cannot write a long letter as I am very tired after having played at football all this afternoon." (The first game of what is now known as American football was played in 1869, and resembled soccer more than gridiron football. ) Andover participated in the first-ever high school football game, playing Adams Academy in 1875. The school organized an athletics department in 1903 with the objective of "Athletics for All." Today, Andover is an athletic powerhouse among New England private schools. Andover athletes have won over 110 New England championships in the last three decades. Some teams have even competed internationally; for example, the boys' crew has competed at England's Henley Royal Regatta.

Andover is not part of any formal athletic conference, but it is a member of the Six Schools League, a group of the northernmost members of the Eight Schools Association; it is also a member of the Eight Schools Athletic Council, another initiative of the ESA. In postseason play, Andover's teams compete in playoffs organized by the New England Preparatory School Athletic Council.

Sports
Andover offers 29 interscholastic programs and 44 intramural or instructional programs, including fencing, tai chi, figure skating, and yoga.

Fall athletic offerings

 * Crew (instructional)
 * Cross country
 * Dance (Ballet, Modern, Hip-Hop; Beg–Adv levels)
 * Fencing (instructional)
 * Field hockey
 * Skating (instructional)
 * FIT (Fundamentals In Training)
 * Football
 * Gunga FIT ("extreme" version of FIT)
 * Outdoor Pursuits (S&R)
 * Pilates
 * SLAM (instructional [cheerleading])
 * Soccer
 * Soccer (intramural)
 * Squash (instructional)
 * Swimming (instructional)
 * Tennis (instructional)
 * Volleyball (girls')
 * Volleyball (instructional)
 * Water polo (boys')
 * Yoga
 * Zumba

Winter athletic offerings

 * Basketball
 * Basketball (intramural)
 * Dance (Ballet, Modern, Hip-Hop; Beg–Adv levels)
 * FIT (Fundamentals In Training)
 * Gunga FIT ("extreme" version of FIT)
 * Hockey
 * Hockey (intramural)
 * Indoor cycling (instructional/cycling pre-season)
 * Indoor track
 * Junior Basketball (intramural)
 * Nordic skiing
 * Outdoor Pursuits (S&R)
 * Recreational cross-country skiing
 * SLAM (Spirit Leaders [cheerleading])
 * Squash
 * Squash (intramural)
 * Swimming and diving
 * Wrestling
 * Yoga
 * Zumba

Spring athletic offerings

 * Baseball
 * Crew
 * Cycling
 * Dance (Ballet, Modern, Hip-Hop; Beg–Adv levels)
 * Fencing (instructional)
 * FIT (Fundamentals In Training)
 * Golf
 * Gunga FIT ("extreme" version of FIT)
 * Lacrosse
 * Outdoor Pursuits (S&R)
 * Pilates
 * Softball
 * Squash (instructional)
 * Swimming (instructional)
 * Tennis
 * Tennis (intramural)
 * Track
 * Ultimate Frisbee
 * Ultimate Frisbee (intramural)
 * Volleyball (boys')
 * Water polo (girls')
 * Yoga

Endowment and expenses
As of June 30, 2023, Phillips Academy's financial endowment was $1.32 billion. In its Internal Revenue Service filings for the 2021–22 school year, the academy reported $110.2 million in program service expenses and $22.9 million in grants (primarily student financial aid).

The academy conducted a "record-setting" fundraising campaign from 2017 to 2023, raising $408.9 million. The campaign added over $103 million to the academy's financial aid endowment and raised $121 million to upgrade health, dormitory, library, music, and athletic facilities.

Tuition and financial aid
In the 2023–24 school year, Phillips Academy charged boarding students $69,600 and day students $53,950, of which financial aid covers approximately $43,000. The academy has a need-blind admission policy, and 45% of students receive financial aid. The academy also commits to meet 100% of each admitted student's demonstrated financial need, as determined by the academy's financial aid department.

In the twenty-first century, tuition charges at Phillips Academy have significantly increased. In the 2018–19 academic year, Phillips Academy charged boarding students $55,800 and day students $43,300, placing it among the most expensive boarding schools in the world.

Controversies
In 2013, Phillips Academy drew national attention for apparent bias against girls and women, as highlighted by a low number of girls in student leadership.

Reports in 2016 and 2017 identified several former teachers who had engaged in inappropriate sexual contact with students in the past. The academy hired an independent law firm to investigate allegations of misconduct, and the head of school, John Palfrey, and the head of the Board of Trustees, Peter Currie, sent an email to the Andover community stating that such transgressions must not recur.

In 2020, an Instagram account, @blackatandover, began circulating stories from anonymous current and former Black-identifying students, many of whom detailed personal experiences with racism at Phillips Academy. Several individuals raised concerns about Phillips Academy's disciplinary system, including perceived racial disparities in outcomes, a perceived emphasis on punishment over restorative justice, and an apparent lack of due process in discipline procedure outlined by the student handbook. The @blackatandover account was reported on by The New York Times, prompting academy officials to form an "Anti-Racism Task Force," which released a final report in March 2022.

Notable alumni
Andover has educated two U.S. presidents (George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush), a Supreme Court justice (William Henry Moody), six Medal of Honor recipients (Civil War: 2; Spanish–American War: 1; World War II: 2; Korean War: 1), five Nobel laureates (making it one of only four secondary schools in the world to have educated five or more Nobel Prize winners), as well as winners of Tony, Grammy, Emmy and Academy Awards. It has educated numerous billionaires, including venture capitalist Tim Draper; private equity pioneer Ted Forstmann; oil heir and environmental philanthropist Ed Bass; and media heir Lachlan Murdoch.

Other notable alumni

 * Alexander Trowbridge, U.S. Secretary of Commerce
 * Benjamin Spock, pediatrician
 * Bill Drayton, social entrepreneur
 * Bill Veeck, owner of the Chicago White Sox and Cleveland Indians
 * Buzz Bissinger, journalist
 * Carl Andre, artist
 * Julia Alvarez, writer
 * Charles Ruff, White House Counsel to Bill Clinton
 * Chris Hughes, co-founder of Facebook
 * Christopher Wray, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
 * David B. Birney, Union General during the Civil War
 * David Graeber, anthropologist and activist
 * Edgar Rice Burroughs, author known for creating Tarzan of the Apes and John Carter of Mars;
 * Bill Belichick, coach for the New England Patriots and recipient of eight Super Bowl rings
 * Humphrey Bogart, an Academy Award-winning actor considered to be one of the greatest stars of American cinema
 * Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, an early feminist and social reformer
 * Francis Cabot Lowell, instrumental figure in the American Industrial Revolution and namesake of Lowell, Massachusetts
 * Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect known for designing Central Park and the Emerald Necklace
 * George Church, geneticist
 * Harlan Cleveland, U.S. Ambassador to NATO
 * Heather Mac Donald, political commentator
 * Henry L. Stimson, U.S. Secretary of State and Secretary of War
 * Hiram Bingham III, Governor of Connecticut and U.S. Senator who rediscovered Machu Picchu
 * Jack Lemmon, actor
 * James Bell, U.S. Senator from New Hampshire
 * Jeb Bush, former Governor of Florida, 2016 presidential candidate, and member of the Bush family
 * Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, King of Bhutan
 * Philip K. Wrigley, chewing gum manufacturer
 * John Berman, news anchor
 * John Darnton, journalist
 * Dana Delany, actress
 * John F. Kennedy Jr., lawyer, journalist, and son of President John F. Kennedy
 * Johnson N. Camden Jr., U.S. Senator from Kentucky
 * Jonathan Alter, journalist for Newsweek and bestselling author
 * Jonathan Dee, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist
 * Joseph Carter Abbott, U.S. Senator from North Carolina and colonel in the Civil War
 * Joseph Cornell, influential avant-garde artist and filmmaker
 * Josiah Quincy III, Mayor of Boston, President of Harvard University
 * Karl Kirchwey, poet
 * Katie Porter, U.S. Representative for California's 45th congressional district
 * Lincoln Chafee, U.S. Senator and Governor of Rhode Island
 * Lucy Danziger, editor-in-chief of Self
 * Michael Beschloss, historian
 * Norman Cahners, publisher
 * Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., writer
 * Olivia Wilde, actress
 * Patrick J. Kennedy, U.S. Representative for Rhode Island's 1st congressional district and member of the Kennedy family
 * Peter Currie, CFO of Netscape
 * Peter Halley, postmodernist painter and essayist central to the development of Neogeo (art) in 1980s New York
 * Raymond C. Clevenger, Senior U.S. Circuit Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
 * Richard H. Brodhead, president of Duke University
 * Richard Theodore Greener, first African-American graduate of Harvard
 * Robert B. Stearns, co-founder of Bear Stearns
 * Sara Nelson, editor-in-chief of Publishers Weekly
 * Scooter Libby, political advisor during the Bush administration
 * Seth Moulton, U.S. Representative for Massachusetts's 6th congressional district and 2020 presidential candidate
 * Stephen Carlton Clark, founder of the Baseball Hall of Fame
 * Sullivan Ballou, Union Civil War officer remembered for a letter written to his wife before he was killed at the Battle of Bull Run
 * Theodore Dwight Weld, prominent abolitionist.
 * Thomas C. Foley, U.S. Ambassador to Ireland
 * Tracy Kidder, Pulitzer Prize-winning literary journalist
 * Vanessa Kerry, physician, CEO Seed Global Health, World Health Organization Special Envoy for Climate Change and Health
 * Vance C. McCormick, Chair of the DNC and of the American delegation at the Treaty of Versailles
 * Victor Kiam, owner of the New England Patriots and entrepreneur
 * Walker Evans, photojournalist
 * Charles L. Flint, co-founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Massachusetts Amherst
 * A. Bartlett Giamatti, president of Yale University
 * Walter Boardman Kerr, WWII correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune and author
 * William Damon, noted psychologist and educator
 * William King, first Governor of Maine and prominent proponent for Maine's statehood
 * William R. Timken, U.S. Ambassador to Germany
 * Willow Bay, journalist for the Huffington Post
 * Jens David Ohlin, Cornell Law Dean and legal scholar

In popular culture
Andover, often in combination with Exeter, is understood symbolically as an "elite New England prep school", connoting privilege. Writer William S. Dietrich II described Andover and other elite prep schools as being part of a "WASP ascendancy" during the first half of the twentieth century. Elite universities such as Yale and Princeton tended to accept disproportionate percentages of prep school students while using quotas to deny admission to minority applicants. An account in Time in 1931 described the two academies as having "flourished", and that both were "twin giants of prep schools in size and in prestige". Joe Lieberman called them feeder schools for Ivy League universities such as Harvard and Yale. A cultural image from the 1960s was young men who had "perfect white teeth" and wore Lacoste shirts, with a look easy to identify by young women at the time:

"They can tell just by looking at him whether a boy goes to an Eastern prep school or not. Not only that, they can tell which prep school, usually St. Paul's or Hotchkiss or Groton or Exeter or Andover, or whatever; just by checking his hair and his clothes."

The WASP ascendancy began to break down around the 1960s and onwards when the admissions policies of elite prep schools and universities began to emphasize merit rather than affluence. Still, images of exclusivity based on unfairness tended to remain. Gore Vidal suggested that Andover and Exeter had a "style that was quite witty." If the WASP ascendancy has waned, the image of unaffordability continues to persist, with one writer deploring how the schools cost $30,000 and more annually.

Despite some shifts, the school's image continues to connote exclusivity, prestige, and academic quality. For example, Florida governor Ron DeSantis regularly criticized Andover, Exeter, and Groton in his stump speech during his campaign for the Republican presidential nomination.

The academy is often mentioned in books and film, and on television. Some examples include:
 * Chapter 17 of The Catcher in the Rye, in which Sally Hayes introduces Holden to a boy who attended Andover.
 * John Guare's play Six Degrees of Separation has one character laments that his parents could not afford to send him to Andover or Exeter.
 * F. Scott Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise has several characters who attended Andover.

title: Phillips Academy


text:
Saitō Makoto

Viscount Saitō Makoto, GCB (27 October 1858 – 26 February 1936) was a Japanese naval officer and politician. Upon distinguishing himself during his command of two cruisers in the First Sino-Japanese War, Saitō rose rapidly to the rank of rear admiral by 1900. He was promoted to vice admiral during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. After serving as Minister of the Navy from 1906 to 1914, Saitō held the position of Governor-General of Korea from 1919 to 1927 and again from 1929 to 1931. When Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated in May 1932, he took his place as prime minister and served one term in office. Saitō returned to public service as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal in February 1935 but was assassinated only a year later during the February 26 Incident. Saitō along with Takahashi Korekiyo were the last former prime ministers of Japan to be assassinated until 2022, with the assassination of Shinzo Abe.

Early life
Saitō was born in Mizusawa Domain, Mutsu Province (part of present-day Ōshū City Iwate Prefecture), as the son of a samurai of the Mizusawa Clan. In 1879, he graduated from the 6th class Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, ranking third out of a class of 17 cadets. He was commissioned an ensign on September 8, 1882, and promoted to sub-lieutenant on February 25, 1884.

Military career
In 1884, Saitō went to the United States for four years to study as a military attaché. Promoted to lieutenant on 14 July 1886; in 1888, after returning to Japan, he served as a member of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff.

After his promotion to lieutenant commander on 20 December 1893, he served as executive officer on the cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Izumi and battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Fuji.

During the First Sino-Japanese War, Saitō served as captain of the cruisers JAPANESE CRUISER Akitsushima and JAPANESE CRUISER Itsukushima. He received rapid promotions to commander on 1 December 1897 and to captain on 27 December. On 10 November 1898, he became Vice Minister of the Navy, and was promoted to rear admiral on 20 May 1900.

Political career
Saitō was again Vice Navy Minister at the start of the Russo-Japanese War. He was promoted to vice admiral on June 6, 1904. He was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (1st class) in 1906. After the end of the war, he served as Navy Minister for 8 years, from 1906 to 1914, during which time he continually strove for expansion of the navy.

On 21 September 1907, Saitō was ennobled with the title of danshaku (baron) under the kazoku peerage system. On October 16, 1912, he was promoted to full admiral. However, on 16 April 1914, Saitō was forced to resign from his post as Navy Minister due implications of his involvement in the Siemens scandal, and officially entered the reserves.

In September 1919, Saitō was appointed as the third Japanese Governor-General of Korea. Rising to the post right after the culmination of the Korean independence movement, he was subject to an immediate assassination attempt by Kang Woo-kyu, a radical Korean nationalist. He served as governor-general of Korea twice—in 1919–1927, and again in 1929–1931, implementing a series of measures to moderate Japan's policies on Koreans. He was awarded the Order of the Paulownia Flowers in 1924. On 29 April 1925, his title was elevated to that of shishaku (viscount).

In 1927, Saitō was a member of the Japanese delegation at the Geneva Naval Conference on Disarmament, and he later became a privy councillor.

Prime Minister
Following the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi on 15 May 1932 by fanatical navy officers who thought Inukai far too conciliatory (the May 15 Incident), Prince Saionji Kinmochi, one of the Emperor's closest and strongest advisors, attempted to stop the slide towards a military take-over of the government. In a compromise move, Saitō was chosen to be Inukai's successor. Sadao Araki remained as War Minister and immediately began making demands on the new government. During Saitō's tenure, Japan recognized the independence of Manchukuo, and withdrew from the League of Nations.

Saitō's administration was one of the longer-serving ones of the inter-war period, and it continued until 8 July 1934, when the cabinet resigned en masse because of the Teijin Incident bribery scandal. Keisuke Okada succeeded as prime minister.

Saitō continued to be an important figure in politics as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal from 26 December 1935, but was assassinated during the February 26 Incident of 1936 at his home in Yotsuya, Tokyo. Takahashi, his predecessor, was shot dead the same day, along with several other top-rank politicians targeted by the rebels.

Saitō was posthumously awarded the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum.

Honours
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

Peerages

 * Baron (21 September 1907)
 * Viscount (9 April 1925)

Decorations

 * Order of the Sacred Treasure, Fourth Class (20 June 1899; Fifth Class: 25 November 1896; Sixth Class: 26 May 1893)
 * Order of the Golden Kite, Second Class (1 April 1906; Fourth Class: 23 May 1896)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1 April 1906; Second Class: 27 December 1901; Sixth Class: 23 May 1896)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (11 February 1924)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (26 February 1936; posthumous)

Foreign decorations

 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) (15 May 1906)
 * Kingdom of Prussia: Order of the Red Eagle, Knight 1st Class (26 February 1907)
 * Kingdom of Italy: Knight Grand Class of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1 July 1907)
 * 🇫🇷 France: Grand Officer of the Legion d'Honneur (17 December 1907; Commander: 4 April 1901)
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau (31 May 1911)
 * Holy See:
 * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Sylvester (17 January 1922)
 * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX (23 January 1932)

title: Saitō Makoto


text:
Keisuke Okada

Okada Keisuke (岡田 啓介) was a Japanese admiral and statesman who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1934 to 1936.

Born to a samurai family in the Fukui Domain, Okada became an officer Imperial Japanese Navy and served during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War. After reaching the rank of Admiral, he served as minister of the navy under Prime Minister Giichi Tanaka from 1927 to 1929 and under Prime Minister Makoto Saito from 1932 to 1933.

Okada was appointed prime minister to succeed Saito in 1934. A moderate who attempted to restrain the rise of militarism, Okada was among those targeted by a group of rebel officers in the February 26 incident of 1936. Okada narrowly survived, but resigned in the aftermath of the incident.

As a senior statesman during the Pacific War, Okada was a central figure in efforts to oust Prime Minister Hideki Tojo and seek peace with the allies.

Early life
Okada was born on 20 January 1868, in Fukui Prefecture, the son of a samurai of the Fukui Domain. He attended the 15th class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, graduating 7th out of a class of 80 cadets in 1889. He served as a midshipman on the ironclad warship Kongō and the cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Naniwa. He was commissioned an ensign on 9 July 1890. He later served as lieutenant on the JAPANESE CRUISER Itsukushima and JAPANESE CRUISER Takachiho as well as the corvette Hiei.

In the First Sino-Japanese War, Okada served on the JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Fuji. After his graduation from the Naval Staff College, he subsequently served on the JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Shikishima and as executive officer on the JAPANESE CRUISER Yaeyama. He was promoted to lieutenant on 9 December 1894, to lieutenant commander on 29 September 1899 and to commander on 13 July 1904.

During the Russo-Japanese War, Okada served as executive officer on a successor of vessels, including the JAPANESE CRUISER Chitose, JAPANESE CRUISER Kasuga and Asahi. He was promoted to captain on 25 September 1908 and given his own command, the Kasuga on 25 July 1910. He later transferred to the JAPANESE CRUISER Kashima in 1912.

Promoted to rear admiral on 1 December 1913, Okada served in a number of desk jobs thereafter, including that of the Naval Shipbuilding Command. He was promoted to vice admiral on 1 December 1917 and to full admiral on 11 June 1924.

Okada assumed the post of Commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet in 1924. In 1927, he became Minister of Navy in the administration of Tanaka Giichi, but resigned in 1929 to assume the post of military councillor on the Supreme War Council.

Okada was one of the few supporters (Treaty Faction) within the upper ranks of the Imperial Japanese Navy of the arms reduction treaty resulting from the London Naval Treaty of 1930, which he helped negotiate and worked hard for its ratification. He again served as Navy Minister in the Saitō Makoto cabinet of 1932.

Okada entered the reserves on 21 January 1933 and retired five years later.

Political career
In July 1934, Okada was named Prime Minister of Japan holding simultaneously the portfolio of Minister of Colonial Affairs. In the month of September 1935, he also briefly held the portfolio of Minister of Post and Telecommunications. Okada was one of the democratic and moderate voices against the increasing strength of the militarists, and was therefore a major target for extremist forces pushing for a more totalitarian Japan. He narrowly escaped assassination in the February 26 Incident of 1936, largely because rebel troops killed Colonel Denzō Matsuo, brother-in-law as well as personal secretary of Okada's, by misidentifying him as the prime minister. Okada emerged from hiding on 29 February 1936. However, he left office a few days later.

Okada was adamant in his opposition to the war with the United States. During World War II, Okada formed a group of like-minded politicians and military officers seeking an early end to the hostilities. After the defeat of Japanese forces at the Battle of Midway and Battle of Guadalcanal, Okada pushed for negotiations with the Allies, and played a leading role in the overthrow of the Hideki Tōjō cabinet in 1944.

Okada died in 1952, and his grave is at the Tama Reien Cemetery, in Fuchū, Tokyo.

Honors
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

 * Order of the Golden Kite, (3rd class) (1915)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1920)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers (1933)

title: Keisuke Okada