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Smash (The Offspring album)

Smash is the third studio album by American rock band the Offspring, released on April 8, 1994, through Epitaph Records. After touring in support of their previous album Ignition (1992), the band recorded their next album for nearly two months at Track Record in North Hollywood, California. Smash was the band's final studio album to be produced by Thom Wilson, who had worked with them since their 1989 debut album The Offspring. Smash was put together on the spot in the studio and there was no systematic work behind the recording of the album.

The rise of grunge, especially Nirvana's successful release of Nevermind (1991), paved the way for American punk rock to reach a wider audience, with punk rock serving as an important base to the grunge sound. While Ignition had exceeded both the band's and the label's commercial expectations, it did not give the Offspring a major commercial breakthrough; Smash was the Offspring's introduction into worldwide popularity. It produced a number of hit singles, including "Come Out and Play", "Self Esteem", and "Gotta Get Away". Along with Green Day's Dookie, Smash was responsible for bringing punk rock into the mainstream, and helped pave the way for the then-emerging pop punk scene of the 1990s.

As a fan favorite, the album received generally positive reviews from critics and garnered attention from major labels, including Columbia Records, with whom the band would sign in 1996. Peaking at number four on the US Billboard 200, Smash has sold over eleven million copies worldwide,  making it the best-selling album released by an independent record label; it was also the first Epitaph release to obtain gold and platinum status. In the United States, Smash has sold over six million copies and has been certified six times platinum by the RIAA.

Background and recording
After its heyday in the 1970s and first half of the 1980s, punk rock had declined in popularity. By the second half of the 1980s and early 1990s, it had faded into an underground genre, though niche subgenres and fusions of punk including hardcore punk, Oi! and grunge began to develop. Punk's fates began to change in September 1991 when Nirvana released Nevermind and its lead single "Smells Like Teen Spirit". Both the album and the single were very successful, and grunge became mainstream. The popularity of Nirvana and grunge's overlap with punk rock paved the way for American punk rock bands to reach a wider audience.

In 1991, the Offspring released the Baghdad 7". This EP was the turning point for the band; due to its success the band signed with Epitaph Records. Thom Wilson, who produced the Offspring's first two albums, had been trying to get the Offspring to switch to Epitaph, a label run by Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz. Gurewitz felt that the Offspring was just not quite pronounced enough for his label, but Baghdad convinced him to give the band a shot. Wilson and the Offspring entered the studio again and recorded Ignition. Released in 1992, Ignition exceeded all of the label's and band's expectations. Following the subsequent touring to support Ignition, the Offspring began writing new material for their third album in mid-1993.

Smash was recorded in 20 days between January and February 1994 at Track Record in North Hollywood. On the recording process of the album, frontman Dexter Holland told Flux Magazine in 1994, "When we recorded this album, our last one has sold maybe 15,000 copies, so the possibility of us getting played on the radio or anything like that was pretty much nonexistent. Especially because this kind of music is not generally considered acceptable by the mainstream - so, for something like this to happen, it really took us by surprise."

Smash had a small budget of $20,000, which frequently restricted the band. According to guitarist Noodles, "[we] were constantly calling our studio to find out when it was empty just so we could sneak in at a discount price". The last four songs recorded for the album were worked on through just two nights.

Writing and composition
Punk rock bands like Green Day and Rancid were gaining popularity, and riding on this wave of popularity, Smash's singles became radio rock hits. An example of this was the success of the Offspring's first major single release, "Come Out and Play", which reached No. 1 on Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart.

The second single released from the album, "Self Esteem", became a radio hit, peaking at number 4 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart.

The third single, "Gotta Get Away" reached number 6 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Being the last song written for the album, the lyrics describe a point in Dexter's life when he was suffering from extreme pressure due to the then-upcoming deadline of the album. "What Happened To You" is driven by a Jamaican ska beat.

The only cover in the album was "Killboy Powerhead", by the Didjits.

Professional reviews
Critical reviews of Smash were mostly positive. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it a "solid record, filled with enough heavy riffs to keep most teenagers happy". Erlewine praised the music as "relentlessly heavy". For the album, he claims that the Offspring had "crossed over", because of the success of its single "Come Out and Play", which "stopped and started just like Nirvana." Sputnikmusic reviewer Mike Stagno called it "a fun album to listen to." Robert Christgau was less favorable, giving the album a "neither" rating.

Chart performance and sales
Despite obtaining early support from the Los Angeles modern rock radio station KROQ, Smash initially received little attention from radio and television stations. On October 29, 1994, it peaked at number four on the Billboard 200, and since then, was in various places on the chart for 101 weeks. It also peaked at number one on the Heatseeker's Chart. On June 19, 1999, Smash peaked at number 12 on the Catalog Albums chart for one week.

Smash made history becoming the first album released on Epitaph Records to obtain gold and platinum status, and has been certified multi-platinum in three countries, including the US, Australia, and Canada. Additionally, it has achieved platinum status in Sweden and Switzerland, and gold status in Austria and Norway. Smash had sold over 11 million copies worldwide, with 6.3 million sales in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan and reported by Billboard in 2012. In France, it is the best selling album on an independent label, with 650,000 sales and 2× Platinum certification.

On July 30, 1994, "Come Out and Play", the album's first single, topped the Modern Rock Tracks, and stayed on the chart for 26 weeks. The song also charted at number 39 on the Pop Songs chart, while it reached number ten on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Self Esteem" reached number four on Modern Rock Tracks and would remain on that chart for 26 weeks, while it hit number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "Gotta Get Away", the album's third and last single, peaked at number six on the Modern Rock Tracks chart on January 14, 1995, where it would maintain some lower position on the chart for 20 weeks. Around the same time "Gotta Get Away" was officially chosen as the follow-up to "Self Esteem", "Bad Habit" was thought to be the third or fourth single from Smash when KROQ added it to its playlist and became one of the radio station's most requested songs; nonetheless, no music video nor standard single was released to promote "Bad Habit".

Legacy
Smash has inspired a number of musicians. During Trivium's early days, guitarist Matt Heafy performed a cover version of "Self Esteem" at his middle school talent show at Lake Brantley High School, while the British synthpop group Cuban Boys also covered that song on their only full-length album Eastwood. The album's other hit, "Come Out and Play", was covered by Richard Cheese on his 2000 album, Lounge Against the Machine and again released on the 2006 best-of album The Sunny Side of the Moon. Brett Gurewitz, the guitarist of Bad Religion and president of Epitaph, had also mentioned that he liked Smash and described it as "a very good record".

Along with Green Day's Dookie, Smash was among the most commercially successful punk rock albums released in 1994, a year when the genre reached arguably its greatest popularity. By the end of the year, Dookie and Smash had both sold millions of copies. The commercial success of these two albums attracted major label interest in punk rock, with bands such as Rancid, NOFX and Pennywise, all of whom had been labelmates with the Offspring at the time, being offered lucrative contracts to leave their independent record labels, though this offer was rejected.

Smash has been listed on several publications' best album lists. In November 2011, the album was ranked number two on Guitar World magazine's top ten list of guitar albums of 1994, between Bad Religion's Stranger than Fiction and Weezer's Weezer. Guitar World also ranked Smash at number 31 in their "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list. Although the Offspring is a punk rock band, Loudwire placed Smash at No. 4 on its "10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994" list. The album was included at number 6 on Rock Sound's "The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time" list. NME listed the album as one of "20 Pop Punk Albums Which Will Make You Nostalgic".

Artwork
Smash, as well as the singles "Come Out and Play", "Self Esteem", and "Gotta Get Away" have a common artwork theme: an ominous (and highly distorted) skeleton on the cover, disc, and back of the CD case. The music videos for "Self Esteem" and "Come Out and Play" also have several scenes with a similar skeleton. This symbol is believed to represent the core motifs of the album: death, greed, suicide, violence, addiction, and abuse. The skeleton is used to represent that the continuation of these acts will inevitably lead to death (or alternatively, the end of the human race). The art direction is credited to Kevin Head and Fred Hidalgo, who also designed the artwork for the Bad Religion album Recipe for Hate.

Touring and promotion
The Offspring toured for more than two years to promote Smash. They began a two-month U.S. tour in May 1994, supporting such bands as SNFU, Battery Club and Pennywise, and then that summer, the band toured North America with Guttermouth and Big Drill Car, and Europe with Desaster Area. In the wake of the success of Smash, the Offspring was reportedly offered but turned down opening arena tours with bands like Stone Temple Pilots and Metallica (replacing Alice in Chains on the latter's summer 1994 U.S. tour), due to their desire to continue playing in clubs; Holland has been quoted as saying, "It just really didn't seem like the right thing to do. I still like the club thing, even if it's a big club. I like Stone Temple Pilots—it's not like we're saying we're too punk for that." The Offspring's next U.S. tour took place in October–November 1994, and was supported by Rancid, who were promoting their second album Let's Go. The band wrapped up the year with a European tour in November and a series of theater performances in December.

In January 1995, the Offspring embarked on their first tour of Japan and Australia, where they co-headlined Big Day Out with Ministry, Primal Scream, Hole, and the Cult. They toured the U.S. with Quicksand and No Use for a Name in February–March 1995, and then headlined a European tour, which was followed by another U.S. tour with the Vandals and Lunachicks, and another European tour in June–July. The Offspring took the rest of 1995 off before playing three shows in Southern California in December, and a one-off show in Orange, California with Rancid in April 1996. In August 1996, the band played its final dates of the Smash tour in Europe.

The Offspring embarked on a full-scale tour in the summer and fall of 2014 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the release of Smash. On this tour, they played the Smash album in its entirety.

Reissues
Smash has been reissued at least twice. Remastered issues of Ignition and Smash were released on June 17, 2008, the same day as the Offspring's eighth studio album Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace. On April 8, 2014, the 20th anniversary of its original release, the Offspring announced that they would be releasing a special edition of Smash in mid-August on Epitaph. It was released as a special package that contained the remastered album on both CD and vinyl, restyled artwork, and a large format 24-page booklet containing never-before seen photos. The reissue was also released as a box set; it came with an art print (the first 250 of which are signed and on linen), a live photo print, tour pass replica and 20th anniversary items, including a pin, patch and guitar pick. The band toured in support of the reissue.

The Offspring

 * Dexter Holland – lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar
 * Noodles – lead guitar, backing vocals
 * Greg K. – bass guitar, backing vocals (uncredited for backing vocals)
 * Ron Welty – drums, backing vocals

Additional musicians

 * Jason "Blackball" McLean – additional vocals on "Come Out and Play (Keep 'Em Separated)" (uncredited, but mentioned on Greatest Hits)
 * John Mayer – spoken word on "Time to Relax", "Genocide" and "Smash" (uncredited)

Production

 * Thom Wilson – producer, engineer
 * Ken Paulakovich – engineer
 * Eddy Schreyer – mastering
 * Mike Ainsworth – assistant engineer
 * Ulysses Noriega –assistant engineer
 * Christopher C. Murphy – assistant engineer/runner
 * Fred Hidalgo – art direction
 * Lisa Johnson – photography

title: Smash (The Offspring album)


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Ixnay on the Hombre

Ixnay on the Hombre is the fourth studio album by American rock band the Offspring, released on February 4, 1997, by Columbia Records, as the band's first album on the label. After the massive commercial success of their previous album, Smash (1994), the band entered the studio in the middle of 1996 to record a new album. The title combines Pig Latin ("Ixnay" is the version of the word "nix", familiar in 1940s Hollywood movies) and Spanish ("hombre", "man") to convey the message "fuck The Man", as in "fuck authority".

Ixnay on the Hombre was a moderate commercial success upon its release, debuting at number nine on the US Billboard 200, and was well received by both critics and fans. It was later certified platinum by the RIAA for shipments of over one million copies in the United States, and has sold over three million copies worldwide. Four singles were released from the album: "All I Want", "Gone Away", "The Meaning of Life", and "I Choose".

Background and recording
By the time The Offspring began writing new material for their fourth studio album in 1995–1996, they were the biggest act of Epitaph's roster and had originally declined to leave the label before signing a recording contract with Columbia Records. Following the widespread commercial success of the band's previous album, Smash, frontman Dexter Holland wanted The Offspring to release more albums on Epitaph, or remain on the label for a long time. However, tensions were encountered when Epitaph founder and Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz decided to sell Smash to a major label in "return for a royalty override on it," an action that the band did not like. Gurewitz had approached several major labels, such as Geffen, Capitol and Sony, in attempt to sign The Offspring. The band eventually signed to Columbia, and Holland recalled that they "took less money" with the label and the signing "was not to try and make more money." Holland also claimed that The Offspring signed to Columbia because they would not "record for someone who thinks [Gurewitz] can force [them] to" and would not "record for a guy who's worse than a major label." Recording sessions for Ixnay on the Hombre took place from June to October 1996 at Eldorado Recording Studios with producer Dave Jerden (Alice in Chains, Anthrax, Jane's Addiction, Social Distortion).

On the recording process of the album, guitarist Noodles stated: We recorded a few more songs than we needed, and if we had used some of the other ones that were left off, it would have ended up a little more risky. But we're not disappointed in what we kept. I think it's a great record and I love these songs. Maybe we'll save the limb-walking for the next one.

Noodles also noted that with Columbia's financing, they had more time to work on the album, specially with the guaranteed studio space - "We did Smash on no budget at all and were constantly calling our studio to find out when it was empty just so we could sneak in at a discount price." - and Holland added that they had "the time to get better sounds."

"Pay the Man" was one of the songs recorded during the "Ixnay on the Hombre" session but was only released on "Americana". "Change the World" is a further development of the unnamed hidden track that appeared at the end of the previous album Smash (in which the guitar riff follows the same melody as the lead guitar in "Genocide"). "Change the World" itself contains a hidden track, a brief spoken piece by Larry "Bud" Melman of the David Letterman Show.

Release and reception
Ixnay on the Hombre was released on February 4, 1997, and is the first Offspring album distributed via Columbia Records. Their former label Epitaph Records released it in Europe because of disagreements between the band and the label's founder Brett Gurewitz. The band was able to release its album on Columbia for the US and other international releases but had to complete the album release in Europe through Epitaph. The Offspring would continue releasing albums on Columbia until it was announced in early 2013 that they had fulfilled their contract with the label.

Ixnay on the Hombre peaked at number 9 on the Billboard 200 album chart.

The AllMusic review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine awards the album 2.5 stars and states: "Ixnay on the Hombre sounds like a competent hard rock band trying to hitch themselves to the post-grunge bandwagon."

Touring and promotion
The Offspring toured relentlessly for almost a year to promote Ixnay on the Hombre. Prior to its release, they headlined the Big Day Out tour in Australia in January–February 1997, along with Soundgarden and The Prodigy. The Ixnay on the Hombre tour kickstarted on February 11, 1997, at Foothill in Long Beach, California, with One Hit Wonder, who had just been signed to Holland's label Nitro Records. A week later, they played five shows in the East Coast of the United States with The Joykiller, which was followed by a ten-date tour with AFI and Strung Out and a European tour with The Vandals and Lunachicks. The Offspring continued to tour over seven-month period from May to December 1997, which included U.S. tours with AFI/L7, Voodoo Glow Skulls/The Joykiller and Hagfish/One Hit Wonder/Good Riddance, as well as a Canadian tour with Doughboys, three Brazilian shows with Charlie Brown Jr., and four shows in Australia with The Living End. Social Distortion also supported The Offspring on selected dates. The Ixnay on the Hombre tour ended on December 18, 1997, in Osaka, Japan, with AFI supporting them.

Personnel
The Offspring
 * Dexter Holland – lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar
 * Noodles – lead guitar, backing vocals
 * Greg K. – bass guitar, backing vocals (uncredited for backing vocals)
 * Ron Welty – drums

Additional musicians
 * Jello Biafra – spoken word on "Disclaimer"
 * John Mayer – spoken word on "Intermission"
 * Calvert DeForest – spoken word on "Cocktail"
 * Jason "Blackball" McLean – additional Vocals on "Mota"
 * Paulinho da Costa – additional percussion
 * Davey Havok (credited as Davey Havoc) – backing vocals

Production
 * Dave Jerden – production and mixing
 * Bryan Carlstrom – engineering
 * Brian Jerden – assistant engineering
 * Annette Cisneros – assistant engineering
 * Eddy Schreyer – mastering
 * Bryan Hall – guitar tech
 * Sean Evans – art direction
 * Enrique Chagoya – cover illustration
 * Lisa Haun – photography
 * Michael Bolkin – runner

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ixnay on the Hombre


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Legalism

Legalism may refer to:

 * Legalism (Chinese philosophy), Chinese political philosophy based on the idea that a highly efficient and powerful government is the key to social order
 * Legalism (Western philosophy), a concept in Western jurisprudence
 * Legalism (theology), a sometimes pejorative term relating to a number of concepts in the Christian theological tradition
 * Liberal legalism, a theory on the relationship between politics and law

title: Legalism


text:
Germanic weak verb

In the Germanic languages, weak verbs are by far the largest group of verbs, and are therefore often regarded as the norm (the regular verbs). They are distinguished from the Germanic strong verbs by the fact that their past tense form is marked by an inflection containing a, , or sound (as in English I walk~I walked) rather than by changing the verb's root vowel (as in English I rise~I rose).

Whereas the strong verbs are the oldest group of verbs in Germanic, originating in Indo-European, the weak verbs arose as an innovation in proto-Germanic. Originally the weak verbs consisted of new verbs coined from pre-existing nouns (for example the noun name was turned into the verb to name), or coined from strong verbs to express the sense of causing the action denoted by that strong verb (for example the strong verb to rise was turned into the weak verb to raise).

However, over time, the weak verbs have become the normal form of verbs in all Germanic languages, with most strong verbs being reassigned to the weak class. For example, in Old English the verb to lock (lūcan) was strong (present tense ic lūce 'I lock', past tense ic lēac 'I locked'), but has now become weak. This transition is ongoing. For example, the English verb to cleave currently exists in both a conservative strong form (past tense I clove) and an innovative weak form (past tense I cleaved).

General description
In Germanic languages, weak verbs form their preterites and past participles by means of a dental suffix, an inflection that contains a or  sound or similar. (For comparative purposes, they will be referred to as a dental, but in some of the languages, including most varieties of English, and  are alveolar instead.) In all Germanic languages, the preterite and past participle forms of weak verbs are formed from the same stem.

Historically, the pronunciation of the suffix in the vast majority of weak verbs (all four classes) was but, in most sources discussing Proto-Germanic, it is spelled $⟨d⟩$ by convention. In the West Germanic languages, the suffix hardened to, but it remained a fricative in the other early Germanic languages (Gothic and often in Old Norse).

In the English language, the dental is a after a voiced consonant (loved) or vowel (laid), a  after a voiceless consonant (laughed), and  after the dentals/alveolars  and  themselves, but English uses the suffix spelling $⟨ed⟩$ regardless of pronunciation, with the exception of a few verbs with irregular spellings.

In Dutch, and  are distributed as in English provided there is a following vowel. When there is no following vowel, terminal devoicing leads to the universal. Nevertheless, Dutch still distinguishes between the spellings in $⟨d⟩$ and $⟨t⟩$ even in final position: see the 't kofschip rule.

In Afrikaans, which descends from Dutch, the past tense has fallen out of use altogether, and the past participle is marked only with the prefix ge-. Therefore, the suffix has disappeared along with the forms that originally contained it.

In German the dental is always and always spelled $⟨t⟩$ because of the third phase of the High German consonant shift (d→t).

In Low German, the dental ending of the preterite tense was originally or, according to the stem of the verb. However the ending has fallen out in pronunciation, starting in the 17th century when the preterite was written with the ending -er representing the sound, which was already the last remnant of the former -de and -te endings of Middle Low German. Now, the only Low German verbs that still show a remnant of a dental ending are leggen, which has the preterite leed, and the verb hebben, which has harr with old r-ending from the Middle Low German dental.

In Icelandic, the dental was originally a voiced dental fricative. It is preserved as such after vowels, voiced fricatives, and but has been hardened to a stop  after nasals and. It and has been devoiced to after voiceless consonants and in some other cases (in most Old Norse texts, the alternation is already found in heavy roots, but the light ones preserve ). Furthermore, the voicing contrast between and  has been replaced in modern Icelandic by an aspiration contrast, which may not be realized phonetically in all the relevant positions.

The situation of early Norwegian was similar to Icelandic, but intervocalic eventually disappeared. In the verbs in which it remains, the dental is or, depending on conjugation class and dialect. It is spelled accordingly. In Nynorsk, it can be different in the preterite and the past participle.

Swedish has a similar situation to that of Norwegian, but the dental is retained in the spelling, even between vowels. Some informal spellings indicate a lost dental, such as in sa ("said") from the standard spelling sade.

Classes of verbs
In Proto-Germanic, there were seven types of weak verbs, five of which were significant. However, they are normally grouped into four classes, based on the conjugational system of Gothic.

Class I Verbs
Class I verbs actually consist of three classes in Proto-Germanic:

Class I, subclass (i)
A small class of verbs had no suffix in the present, and no suffix in the past (other than the -d- or -t- of all weak verbs). This class had only three members:

 * 1) *bringaną "to bring", past tense *branht-. This verb was continued as such in all the descendants, although an alternate stem *brangij- occasionally appeared in some of the West Germanic languages (e.g., Old English brenġan).
 * 2) *brūkaną "to use", past tense *brūht-. This verb tended to move into other classes.  For example, in Gothic this verb moved into subclass (ii) of Class I (brūkjan, past brūhta), whereas in Old English it became a Class II strong verb (brūcan, past tense brēac ← *brauk).
 * 3) *būaną "to dwell", past tense *būd-. This verb continued as such in most descendants but became a Class III weak verb bauan in Gothic.

Class I, subclass (ii)
A small class of verbs had the suffix -j- in the present and no suffix in the past. This class had only five members in Proto-Germanic:

 * 1) *bugjaną "to buy," past tense *buht-
 * 2) *sōkijaną "to seek," past tense *sōht- (given a regularized subclass (iii) past sōkida in Gothic)
 * 3) *þankijaną "to think," past tense *þanht-
 * 4) *þunkijaną "to seem," past tense *þunht-
 * 5) *wurkijaną "to work," past tense *wurht-

Verbs of this class were said to undergo rückumlaut ("reverse umlaut") in the past, since the umlaut occurring in the present (triggered by the -j-) is undone or "reversed" in the past (due to the lack of the umlaut-triggering stem -i- of subclass [iii]), leading to a non-umlauted vowel in the past.

These verbs also have consonant and vowel alternations between present and past that are due to regular sound changes but result in strikingly different forms in the historical Germanic languages (e.g., think, past tense thought). Specifically:
 * There is an alternation between -k- or -g- in the present and -h- in the past, caused by the -t- of the past-tense suffix. Prior to the operation of Grimm's Law, the stem consonant was -g- or -gʰ-.  Before -t-, the consonant was devoiced to -k- by assimilation and then became -h- by Grimm's Law. This alternation is sometimes called Primärberührung.
 * -n- before -h- disappeared after nasalizing the previous vowel. When the -n- disappeared, the vowel was lengthened by the process of compensatory lengthening.
 * -u- was lowered to -o- in the past tense due to a-mutation, since the following vowel was always non-high.

The class remained small in Gothic, but expanded significantly in the other languages:

 * In Old Norse, all short-stem verbs (those with a short vowel followed by at most one consonant, or a long vowel followed by no consonant) appeared to move into this class, as indicated by the fact that no umlaut occurs in the past, as would be caused by a suffix -i-. However, this may have been due to a regular sound change that eliminated unstressed, nonfinal short vowels coming after a short stem before the operation of umlaut.
 * In Old High German, short-stem verbs ending in -zz (-tz), -pf, -ck (Proto-Germanic root ending in *-t, -p, or -k), and optionally those in -ll, join this class. For example, zellen "to tell" < *taljan, past tense zalta, zelita.  A number of long-stem verbs also join this class, like brennen "to burn," past tense branta; wenten "to turn," past tense wanta.
 * In Old English and the other northern West Germanic languages, a number of verbs ending in -(c)c- and -ll- joined the class, including the following Old English verbs:
 * cweccan "to shake" < *kwakjan, past tense cweahte < *kwaht-
 * dreccan "to afflict," past tense dreahte
 * læccan "to seize" (based on earlier *lǣcan?), past tense lǣhte
 * leccan "to moisten," past tense leahte
 * rǣcan "to reach" < *raikjan, past tense rǣhte, rāhte < *raiht-
 * reccan "to narrate," past tense reahte
 * reccan "to care for" (based on earlier *rēcan?), past tense rōhte
 * tǣcan "to teach," past tense tǣhte, tāhte
 * streccan "to stretch," past tense streahte
 * þeccan "to cover," past tense þeahte
 * weccan "to awake," past tense weahte
 * cwellan "to kill" < *kwaljan, past tense cwealde < *kwald
 * dwellan "to dwell," past tense dwealde
 * sellan "to give, sell," past tense sealde
 * stellan "to place," past tense stealde
 * tellan "to tell," past tense tealde

In Late Old English, further verbs in -can were drawn into this class by analogy, but with umlaut maintained, e.g., bepǣcan "to deceive", past tense bepǣhte, earlier bepǣcte, or wleccan "to warm," past tense wlehte, earlier wlecede. At the same time, verbs in -ccan were modified to follow the same pattern, as in the new past tense form cwehte alongside earlier cweahte.

Class I, subclass (iii)
A large class of verbs had the suffix -j- in the present and -i- in the past, for example, Gothic satjan "to set" (Old English settan) and sandjan "to send" (Old English sendan). As shown in the Old English cognates:
 * The -j- produced umlaut of the stem vowel in languages other than Gothic.
 * The -j- caused West Germanic gemination in the West Germanic languages in short-stem verbs ending in a consonant other than -r.
 * The -j- resulted in palatalization of preceding velar consonants in Old English.
 * The -j- remained in Gothic and Old Saxon, but disappeared in the other languages: In long-stem verbs in Old Norse, and in all verbs except those in -r in the remaining West Germanic languages. (In Old High German, it deflected *-jan into *-jen before disappearing, leaving the suffix -en. This phenomenon, which resembles the usual umlaut of a in syllables preceding j, is nevertheless distinct and must have happened later, as the missing j also caused umlaut.)

This class was split into two subclasses in all the Old Germanic languages, one consisting of short-stem verbs and one of long-stem verbs. The distinction between the two was originally due to Sievers' Law, and was extended due to changes such as West Germanic gemination, which affected short-stem but not long-stem verbs. The West Germanic languages had a third subclass consisting of short-stem verbs ending in -r (e.g., Old English erian "to plow," nerian "to save," styrian "to stir"), due to West Germanic gemination and subsequent loss of -j- not taking place.

The following is a cross-language paradigm of a short-stem Class I verb *gramjaną "to anger" (Gothic gramjan, Old Norse gremja, Old High German gremmen, Old Saxon *gremmian, Old English gremman, Old Frisian *gremma). Note that the Old Saxon and Old Frisian verbs given here are unattested, almost certainly due to the small nature of the respective corpora.

The following is a cross-language paradigm of a long-stem Class I verb *hauzijaną "to hear" (Gothic hausjan, Old Norse heyra, Old High German hōren, Old Saxon hōrian, Old English hīeran, Old Frisian hēra)

Class II Verbs
Class II verbs were formed with a suffix -ō-. In the northern West Germanic languages, an alternative extended suffix -ōja- sometimes appears in the non-past forms, e.g., the Old English infinitive -ian < *-ōjan.

The following is a cross-language paradigm of *laþōną "to invite" (Gothic laþōn, Old Norse laða, Old High German ladōn, lathōn, Old Saxon lathian [-ōjan], ladian [-ōjan], Old English laþian, Old Frisian lathia).

Class III Verbs
What is known as "Class III" was actually two separate classes in Proto-Germanic:
 * A class of verbs with stative semantics (i.e., denoting a state rather than an action), formed with a present suffix that was either *-ai- or *-ja-, and no suffix in the past.
 * A class of verbs with factitive semantics (i.e., with the meaning "make X" where X is an adjective or noun, e.g., "renew, enslave"), formed with a suffix that was either *-ai- or *-ā-, and a suffix *-a- in the past.

The histories of this class in the various Germanic languages are quite varied:
 * Old High German combined both into a single class and generalized *-ai- (appearing as -ē- through regular sound change) to all forms of the present and past.
 * Gothic combined both into a single class, keeping the *-ai-/-ā- alternation of the factitives in the present, generalizing the alternation to the statives as well, and borrowing *-ai- as the past suffix.
 * Old Norse for the most part combined both into a single class in the same fashion as Gothic; however, two relic stative verbs (segja "to say" and þegja "to be silent") preserve the stative suffixes in both present and past, and a third verb (hafa "to have") is a mixture of the two, with factitive suffixes in the present indicative plural and imperative and stative suffixes in the present indicative singular and past participle (elsewhere, the two types have fallen together).
 * The other (i.e., northern) West Germanic languages have only small numbers of Class III verbs—but they consistently follow the stative paradigm, unlike the three languages above.

An example is the stative verb reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *habjaną "to have", past indicative third-person singular habdē:
 * Old English hebban < *habjan, past, third-person singular hæfde — derived entirely through regular sound changes.
 * Old High German habēn, past, third person singular habēta — derived through analogical spread of suffix -ē-.
 * Gothic haban, past, third-person singular habáida — derived through various analogical changes.
 * Old Norse hafa, past, third-person hafði — partly regular, partly analogical.

Only four stative verbs survive as Class III verbs in the northern West Germanic languages (i.e., Old English, Old Saxon, Old Frisian and Old Low Franconian):
 * sagjaną "to say"
 * libjaną "to live"
 * habjaną "to hold, have"
 * hugjaną "to think"

However, there are five more verbs that appear as Class III verbs in Old High German, Gothic, and/or Old Norse that also have remnants of the stative conjugation in one or more northern West Germanic languages:
 * þagjaną "to be silent"
 * siljaną "to be silent"
 * þuljaną "to endure" (normally Class II þolian in Old English, but compare archaic umlauted infinitive -þoelġe; Class III in Old Norse þola)
 * fijaną "to hate"
 * hatjaną "to hate" (normally Class II hatian in Old English, but compare umlauted nominalized present participle hettend "enemy"; Class III in Gothic hatan)

Class IV Verbs
Class IV verbs were formed with a suffix -nan, e.g., Gothic fullnan "to become full". The present tense was conjugated as a strong verb, for example, Gothic fullna, fullnis, fullniþ, etc. The past tense was conjugated with suffix -nō-, e.g., Gothic fullnōda, fullnōdēs, etc. This class vanished in other Germanic languages; however, a significant number of cognate verbs appear as Class II verbs in Old Norse and as Class III verbs in Old High German. This class has fientive semantics, that is, "become X," where X is an adjective or a past participle of a verb.

 * Examples of deadjectival Class IV verbs in Gothic are ga-blindnan "to become blind" (blinds "blind"), ga-háilnan "to become whole" (háils "whole").
 * Examples of deverbal Class IV verbs in Gothic are fra-lusnan "to perish" (fra-liusan "to destroy"), ga-þaúrsnan "to dry up, wither away" (ga-þaírsan "to wither"), mikilnan "to be magnified" (mikiljan "to magnify"), us-háuhnan "to be exalted" (us-háuhjan "to exalt").

Note that the last two are deverbal even though the underlying root is adjectival because they are formed to other verbs (which are in turn formed from adjectives).

The vast majority of Class IV verbs appear to be deverbal. Class IV verbs derived from weak verbs keep the same stem form as the underlying weak verb. However, class IV verbs derived from strong verbs adopt the ablaut of the past participle, for example:
 * dis-skritnan "to be torn to pieces" (Class I dis-skreitan "to tear to pieces")
 * us-gutnan "to be poured out" (Class II giutan "to pour")
 * and-bundnan "to become unbound" (Class III and-bindan "to unbind")
 * dis-taúrnan "to be torn asunder, burst asunder" (Class IV dis-taíran "to tear asunder, burst")
 * ufar-hafnan "to be exalted" (Class VI ufar-hafjan "to exalt")
 * bi-auknan "to abound, become larger" (Class VII bi-aukan "to increase, add to").

Modern languages
In the modern languages, the various classes have mostly been leveled into a single productive class. Icelandic, Norwegian and Frisian have retained two productive classes of weak verbs. (In Frisian, in addition to the class with -de, there is a class of je- verbs, where the dental suffix has dropped, i.e., -je < -iad.) Swiss German also has two types of weak verbs, descended from Class I and Classes II and III, respectively, of Old High German weak verbs and marked with -t and -et, respectively, in the past participle.

In the history of English, the following changes happened:

 * 1) Most Class III verbs were moved into Class II prior to the historical period of Old English.
 * 2) The remaining four Class III verbs moved into Class I or Class II late in Old English.
 * 3) Throughout the Middle English period, Class I verbs gradually moved into Class II.

In modern English, only one productive weak paradigm remains, derived from Class II. A number of Class I verbs still persist, for example:

 * From Old English subclass (i): bring (brought)
 * From Old English subclass (ii) or analogously: buy (bought); catch (caught); seek (sought); sell (sold); teach (taught); tell (told); think (thought); work (wrought) [obsolescent]
 * From Old English subclass (iii) or analogously: bend (bent); bet (bet); breed (bred); build (built); cast (cast); cost (cost); creep (crept); cut (cut); deal (dealt); dream (dreamt); feed (fed); flee (fled); hear (heard); hit (hit); hurt (hurt); keep (kept); kneel (knelt); knit (knit); lay (laid); lead (led); leap (leapt); leave (left); lend (lent); light (lit); lose (lost); mean (meant); meet (met); put (put); read (read); rend (rent) [obsolescent]; send (sent); set (set); shed (shed); shoot (shot); shut (shut); sleep (slept); speed (sped); spend (spent); spill (spilt); split (split); spread (spread); sweep (swept); thrust (thrust); wed (wed); weep (wept); as well as a few others
 * From Old English Class III verbs: have (had); say (said)

As the previous list shows, although there is only one productive class of weak verbs, there are plenty of "irregular" weak verbs that do not follow the paradigm of this class. Furthermore, the regular paradigm in English is not unitary, but in fact is divided into subclasses in both the written and spoken language, although in different ways:
 * In the written language, before the past-tense suffix -ed, short-stem verbs double the final consonant (e.g., dip [dipped]), while a -y following a consonant becomes -i- (e.g., carry [carried]).
 * In the spoken language, the past-tense suffix -ed is variously pronounced, or depending on the preceding consonant.

Both of these characteristics occur in a similar fashion in most or all the modern Germanic languages. In modern German, for example, descendants of the original subclass (ii) of Class I are still irregular (e.g., denken [dachte] "to think", brennen [brannte] "to burn"), and subclasses of the productive verb paradigm are formed by verbs ending in -eln or -ern and in -ten or -den, among others.

Modern paradigms
One of the regular weak verb conjugations is as follows.

North Germanic

 * 1. prepare, manufacture

Weak and strong verbs
Weak verbs should be contrasted with strong verbs, which form their past tenses by means of ablaut (vowel gradation: sing - sang - sung). Most verbs in the early stages of the Germanic languages were strong. However, as the ablaut system is no longer productive except in rare cases of analogy. Almost all new verbs in Germanic languages are weak, and the majority of the original strong verbs have become weak by analogy.

Strong to weak transformations
As an example of the rather common process of originally strong verbs becoming weak, we may consider the development from the Old English strong verb scūfan to modern English shove: Many hundreds of weak verbs in contemporary English go back to Old English strong verbs.
 * scūfan scēaf scofen (strong class 2)
 * shove shoved shoved

In some cases, a verb has become weak in the preterite but not in the participle and may be thought of as "semi-strong" (not a technical term). Dutch has a number of examples:
 * wassen waste gewassen ("to wash")
 * lachen lachte gelachen ("to laugh")

An example in English is:
 * sow sowed sown (strong class 7 with weak preterite)

Often, the old strong participle may survive as an adjective long after it has been replaced with a weak form in verbal constructions. The English adjective molten is an old strong participle of melt, which is now a purely weak verb with the participle melted. The participle gebacken of the German verb backen (to bake), is gradually being replaced by gebackt, but the adjective is always gebacken (baked).

Weak to strong transformations
The reverse process is very rare and can also be partial, producing "semi-strong" verbs as in show showed shown (originally a weak verb with its participle modelled on sown)

Weak verbs that develop strong forms are often unstable. A typical example is German fragen (to ask), which is historically weak and is still weak in standard German. However, for a time in the 18th century, the forms fragen, frug, gefragen by analogy with, for example, tragen (to carry) were also considered acceptable in the standard. They survive today (along with a present tense frägt) in the Rhinelandic regiolect and underlying dialects. In Dutch, the new strong past vroeg of the cognate vragen is standard today, but its past participle is weak gevraagd (though some dialects do have gevrogen).

Origins
The weak conjugation of verbs is an innovation of Proto-Germanic (unlike the older strong verbs, the basis of which goes back to Proto-Indo-European). While primary verbs (those inherited from PIE) already had an ablaut-based perfect form that was the basis of the Germanic strong preterite. Secondary verbs (those derived from other forms after the break-up of PIE) had to form a preterite otherwise, which necessitated the creation of the weak conjugation.

Denominative derivation
The vast majority of weak verbs are secondary, or derived. The two main types of derived verbs were denominative and deverbative. A denominative verb is one that has been created out of a noun. The denominative in Indo-European and early Germanic was formed by adding an ablauting thematic *-y$é/ó$- suffix to a noun or adjective. This created verbs such as Gothic namnjan 'to name'.

Causative verbs
A significant subclass of Class I weak verbs are (deverbal) causative verbs. They are formed in a way that reflects a direct inheritance from the PIE causative class of verbs. PIE causatives were formed by adding an accented affix -éy- to the o-grade of a non-derived verb. In Proto-Germanic, causatives are formed by adding a suffix -j/ij- (the reflex of PIE -éy-) to the past-tense ablaut (mostly with the reflex of PIE o-grade) of a strong verb (the reflex of PIE non-derived verbs), with Verner's Law voicing applied (the reflex of the PIE accent on the -éy- suffix):

 * bītaną (I) "to bite" → *baitijaną "to bridle, yoke, restrain," i.e., "to make bite down"
 * rīsaną (I) "to rise" → *raizijaną "to raise," i.e., "to cause to rise"
 * beuganą (II) "to bend" → *baugijaną "to bend (transitive)"
 * brinnaną (III) "to burn" → *brannijaną "to burn (transitive)"
 * frawerþaną (III) "to perish" → *frawardijaną "to destroy," i.e., "to cause to perish"
 * nesaną (V) "to survive" → *nazjaną "to save," i.e., "to cause to survive"
 * ligjaną (V) "to lie down" → *lagjaną "to lay," i.e., "to cause to lie down"
 * sitjaną (V) "to sit" → *satjaną "to set, seat," i.e., "to cause to sit"
 * faraną (VI) "to travel, go" → *fōrijaną "to lead, bring," i.e., "to cause to go"
 * faraną (VI) "to travel, go" → *farjaną "to carry across," i.e., "to cause to travel" (an archaic instance of the o-grade ablaut used despite the differing past-tense ablaut)
 * grētaną (VII) "to weep" → *grōtijaną "to cause to weep"
 * lais (I, preterite-present) "(s)he knows" → *laizijaną "to teach," i.e., "to cause to know"

Essentially, all verbs formed this way were conjugated as Class I weak verbs.

That method of forming causative verbs is no longer productive in the modern Germanic languages, but many relics remain. For example:
 * The original strong verb fall fell fallen has a related weak verb fell felled felled, which means "to cause (a tree) to fall"
 * Strong sit sat sat and lie lay lain are matched with weak set set set and lay laid laid, meaning "to cause something to sit" or "lie" respectively.

In some cases, phonological or semantic developments make the pairs difficult to recognise. For example:
 * Rear is the regular phonological development of Proto-Germanic *raizijaną given in the above list, but the connection between rise and rear is no longer obvious. The word raise also ultimately defines from *raizijaną, but only via borrowing from Old Norse. The connection is perhaps made more obvious by noting that to rear a child is essentially synonymous with to raise a child.
 * Drench was originally the causative of drink, but the modern meaning of "drench" ("to cause to get wet") is no longer similar to "cause to drink".
 * Similarly, German strong leiden litt gelitten ("to suffer") has the derived weak verb leiten ("to lead"), which makes sense when one realises that leiden originally meant "walk, go" and came to its present meaning through the idea of "undergoing" suffering.

Other types
There are primary verbs that date to Indo-European that took a weak conjugation because they were unable to take a perfect, including verbs that had zero grade of the root in the present and so were unable to show the ablaut distinction necessary for a strong preterite. That was the case with the Gothic verbs waurkjan "to work, create," bugjan "to buy," and sokjan "to seek."

Preterite-present verbs are primary verbs in which the PIE present was lost, and the perfect was given a present meaning. They needed a new past tense, which followed the weak pattern.

Most borrowings from other languages into Germanic were weak. However, this was not always the case: for example, 'to write' from Latin.

Origin of dental suffix
The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain. Perhaps the most commonly held theory is that it evolved out of a periphrastic construction with the verb to do: Germanic *lubō-dē- ("love-did") > *lubōdē- > Old English lufode > loved or *salbō-dē- ("salve-did", i.e., "put salve") > *salbōdē- > Old English sealfode > salved. That would be analogous to do-support in modern English: I did love, I did salve.

The common PIE root *dʰeh₁- meaning 'do' was a root aorist and so did not take a perfect. However, it took a reduplicating present. The imperfect of the root, which filled in the simple past in Germanic, is probably the origin of the dental suffix.

That view is not without objections:
 * Germanic has long -ē- in the plural, which cannot directly reflect the Proto-Indo-European situation.
 * Reduplication is only in the Gothic plural, not in the singular.

The objections are sometimes answered as follows:
 * There might have been a refashioning according to cases like gēbun, namely, *gegbun > gēbun: *dedun → dēdun.
 * Reduplication only in the plural can easily be explained by haplology in Proto-Germanic (*dede- being reduced to *de-) for the singular, with a later development of haplology for the plural in non-East Germanic languages.

Another theory is that it came from a past participle ending, a final *-daz from PIE *-tos (compare Latin amatus), with personal endings added to it at a later stage. That theory, however, is also disputed because of its inability to explain all the facts.

According to Hill (2010), the endings, which in the singular do not show reduplication in any Germanic language, continue the PIE subjunctive of the root aorist.

Other meanings
The term "weak verb" was originally coined by Jacob Grimm, who only applied it to Germanic philology. However, the term is sometimes applied to other language groups to designate phenomena that are not really analogous. For example, Hebrew irregular verbs are sometimes called weak verbs because one of their radicals is weak. See weak inflection.

title: Germanic weak verb


text:
Talk:Electrical network

Need Circuit Symbol Pictures
Does anyone want me to draw eletric circuit symbols? -fonzy

 * I have a whole bunch of them. commons:User:Omegatron/Gallery
 * There's also a bunch at commons:Category:Electrical_symbols — Omegatron 15:09, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

I agree you Omegatron Ishanbull (talk) 14:16, 4 February 2016 (UTC)

Electrical / Electric network
I was just wondering which adjective to use: -ic or -ical? I thought I had found a rule: electric: containing, producing, arising from, or actuated by electricity (narrow sense) [also electrical in this case if the following noun begins with a vowel] electrical: pertaining to electricity (broader sense) --Gunnar (talk) 19:55, 6 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Electrical network


text:
Family Ties

Family Ties is an American television sitcom that aired on NBC for seven seasons, premiering on September 22, 1982, and concluding on May 14, 1989. The series, created by Gary David Goldberg, reflected the social shift in the United States from the cultural liberalism of the 1960s and 1970s to the conservatism of the 1980s. Because of this, Young Republican Alex P. Keaton (portrayed by Michael J. Fox) develops generational strife with his ex-hippie parents, Steven and Elyse Keaton (portrayed by Michael Gross and Meredith Baxter).

The show won multiple awards, including three consecutive Emmy Awards for Michael J. Fox as Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series.

The show premiered on September 22, 1982, and for the first two seasons, aired on Wednesday nights. In the show's third season, it started airing on Thursday nights. In 1987, for its sixth season, it was moved to Sunday nights where it stayed until the series' seventh and final season on May 14, 1989. Since then, it is considered, along with The Cosby Show and Roseanne, to be among the greatest family sitcoms of all time. The Writers Guild of America named it #95 on their list of 101 Best-Written TV Series, surpassing Lonesome Dove, Soap, Louie, The Fugitive, Late Night With David Letterman, and Oz. President Ronald Reagan named it his favorite TV show, and Entertainment Weekly ranked it among their 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.

Plot
Set in Columbus, Ohio, during the Reagan administration, the show depicts Steven and Elyse Keaton (Michael Gross and Meredith Baxter) as baby boomers, liberals and former hippies, raising their three children: ambitious, aspiring millionaire entrepreneur Alex (Michael J. Fox); fashion-conscious, gossipy Mallory (Justine Bateman); and tomboy Jennifer (Tina Yothers). Married in 1964, Elyse is an independent architect and Steven, a native of Buffalo, New York, is the station manager of WKS, a local public television station.

Much of the humor of the series focuses on the cultural divide during the 1980s when younger generations rejected the counterculture of the 1960s and embraced the materialism and conservative politics which came to define the 1980s. Alex, the eldest, is a Young Republican who embraces Reaganomics and exhibits conservative attitudes. In contrast to her feminist mother, Mallory is an apolitical and materialistic young woman presented as a vacuous airhead, fodder for jokes and teasing from her brother. Jennifer, an athletic tomboy and the second-youngest child, shares more of the values of her parents and just wants to be a normal kid. Steven and Elyse have a fourth child, Andrew, who is born in early 1985. Alex dotes on his young brother and molds Andy in his conservative image.

Regarding the concept, show creator Goldberg observed, "It really was just an observation of what was going on in my own life with my own friends. We were these old kind of radical people and all of a sudden you're in the mainstream ... but now you've got these kids and you've empowered them, and they're super intelligent, and they're definitely to the right of where you are. They don't understand what's wrong with having money and moving forward." A recurring theme involved Alex hatching a scheme involving some amount of greedy money-making, which led to a humorous misadventure and ended with Alex being forced to apologize for his choices. According to Goldberg, "We actually had this structure that we'd inherited from Jim Brooks and Allan [Burns], which was six scenes and a tag ... And then the last scene became Alex apologizes, in every show, we just left it up. Alex apologizes. Some version of it." Nevertheless, Fox's portrayal of a likable Alex proved to be an important part of the show's success. Goldberg again stated, "With Alex, I did not think I was creating a sympathetic character. Those were not traits that I aspired to and didn't want my kids to aspire to, actually ... But at the end of Family Ties, when we went off the air, then The New York Times had done a piece and they said, 'Greed with the face of an angel.' And I think that's true ... [Michael J. Fox] would make things work, and the audience would simply not access the darker side of what he's actually saying."

Main cast

 * Meredith Baxter as Elyse Donnelly Keaton: Steven's wife and the mother of Alex, Mallory, Jennifer, and Andy. She is a successful architect and an ex-hippie liberal who lived in California in the 1960s. She is a patient, caring, and loving wife and mother. She met Steven in college where they later married.
 * Michael Gross as Steven Keaton: Elyse's husband and father to Alex, Mallory, Jennifer, and Andy. He is a branch manager of the local PBS station, the fictional WKS, who is an ex-hippie liberal who lived in California in the 1960s. He can be argumentative at times, but in the end is a diligent and supportive father who cares about his family deeply. He met and married Elyse in college in Berkeley.
 * Michael J. Fox as Alex P. Keaton: the oldest child of Steven and Elyse. He is an intelligent and ambitious Young Republican with two goals in life: to be successful and make money. He goes on to attend Leland University, and has long-term relationships with two women: Ellen Reed and Lauren Miller. He often clashes with his parents about their liberal politics, which conflict with his own conservative views.
 * Justine Bateman as Mallory Keaton: the second child and first daughter of Steven and Elyse. She is an unscholarly material girl, but kind-hearted and inoffensive, whose main interests are shopping and boys. She has a longtime relationship with Nick Moore. In the episode "Designated Hitter," it is revealed that Mallory has a higher I.Q. than scholastic overachiever Alex.
 * Tina Yothers as Jennifer Keaton: third child and second daughter of Elyse and Steven. She is a tomboy whose cares mostly include athletics. She skews more closely to her parents' liberal views, in contrast to her siblings' more conservative views. She is shown to be aggressive but sweet. She is shown to be jealous at first of Andy, but later cares for him.
 * Brian Bonsall as Andrew "Andy" Keaton (seasons 5–7)
 * Garrett and Tyler Merriman as Baby Andrew "Andy" Keaton (season 4): the youngest child of Elyse and Steven. He is born during season 3, coinciding with Meredith Baxter's real life pregnancy. After he is born, the whole family quickly shows affection and a loving attitude towards him, especially Alex, who attempts to imbue him with conservative values. He quickly ages by about four years between seasons 4 and 5.

Recurring cast

 * Marc Price as Irwin "Skippy" Handelman
 * Scott Valentine as Nick Moore (seasons 4–7)
 * Tracy Pollan as Ellen Reed (season 4)
 * Courteney Cox as Lauren Miller (seasons 6 & 7)

Notable guest stars

 * River Phoenix as Eugene Forbes in the episode "My Tutor"
 * Jeff Cohen as Marv Jr./Dougie Barker in 2 episodes
 * Corey Feldman as Student Walter in the episode "The Disciple"
 * Tom Hanks as Ned Donnelly, Elyse's younger brother and Alex's role model, in 3 episodes
 * Martha Plimpton as Jessie Black in the episode "You've Got a Friend"
 * Wil Wheaton as Timothy Higgins in the episode "'D' Is for Date"
 * David Faustino as Keith Baily in the episode "To Snatch a Keith"
 * Geena Davis as Karen Nicholson in 2 episodes
 * Maura Tierney as Darlene in the episode "My Best Friend's Girl"
 * Crispin Glover as Doug in the episode "The Birthday Boy"
 * Christina Applegate as Kitten in the episode "Band on the Run"
 * Julia Louis-Dreyfus as Susan in the episode "Read It and Weep: Part 2"
 * Brownie McGhee as Eddie Dupree in the episode "The Blues Brother"
 * Brian McNamara as Greg McCormick in the episode "A, My Name is Alex"

The show had been sold to the network using the pitch "hip parents, square kids." Originally, Elyse and Steven were intended to be the main characters. However, the audience reacted so positively to Alex during the taping of the fourth episode that he became the focus on the show. Fox had received the role after Matthew Broderick turned it down. Laura Dern was considered for the role of Mallory Keaton. Ed O'Neill auditioned for Steven Keaton, but he later turned it down as he felt he was not right for the part.

Supporting cast and characters include neighbor Irwin "Skippy" Handelman (Marc Price), who has an eternal crush on Mallory; Nick Moore (Scott Valentine), Mallory's Sylvester Stallone-esque artist boyfriend; Lauren Miller (Courteney Cox); and Alex's feminist, artist girlfriend Ellen Reed (Tracy Pollan, whom Michael J. Fox later married, in 1988). In season 3, episode 17, Elyse gave birth to her fourth child, Andrew (who was played by Brian Bonsall from season 5 onward). Twins Garrett and Tyler Merriman played baby Andrew.

Production
Main stars Meredith Baxter and Michael Gross are exactly the same age, sharing the same birthday on June 21, 1947. In the series, their characters were intended to be approximately five or six years older, given that their on-screen son, played by Michael J. Fox, was, in fact, only fourteen years younger than Baxter and Gross in real life.

The show had several similarities or parallels to Baxter's prior series, Family. In addition to similar names for both series, the shows both initially featured three children, the youngest a tomboy, and later added another child to the cast. Baxter played the eldest child on the earlier show, and assumed the role of mother in Family Ties.

Theme song
The theme song "Without Us" (credited in season one as "Us") was composed by Jeff Barry and Tom Scott in 1982. During the first ten episodes of the first season it was performed by Dennis Tufano and Mindy Sterling. From episode 11 onward the song was performed by original recording artists Johnny Mathis and Deniece Williams, as producers were displeased with Tufano's and Sterling's version. A full-length version of "Without Us" is featured on the 2003 CD release of Mathis and Williams' duet album That's What Friends Are For, released by Columbia Records.

"At This Moment"
"At This Moment" was a 1981 single written by songwriter and recording artist Billy Vera and recorded live by Vera and his band, Billy Vera & The Beaters. Five years after its original release, a studio recording of "At This Moment" was featured at the beginning of several episodes of the fourth and early fifth seasons as the love song associated with Alex P. Keaton (Michael J. Fox) and his girlfriend Ellen Reed (Tracy Pollan). Its exposure on Family Ties renewed a huge interest in the song. People called and wrote NBC asking for the name of the song and its singer. The tune then began a revived chart run, eventually hitting #1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Adult Contemporary charts in January 1987. It also hit the Billboard R&B Chart and the Billboard Hot Country Chart. "At This Moment" quickly sold over a million copies in the United States, becoming one of the last Gold-certified singles in the 45 RPM format. The song crossed over to the R&B and Country formats, reaching #42 Country; as country was moving away from pop influence at the time, "At This Moment" would be the last song to appear on the country charts and reach number one on the pop charts for 13 years.

The first Billy Vera & The Beaters album was recorded live, so when "At This Moment" was used in Family Ties, only the live version existed. Vera later explained: "We re-recorded pieces of the song. In other words, they'd need 12 seconds here, or 20 seconds there in the show. So we went in and recorded just those pieces in the studio without the audience, because the audience would have been annoying, to the TV viewer. The thing that made it work better the second time was that the story of the song, boy-loses-girl, was the story of the episode "Boy Loses Girl." The first time they used the song, it was when he met the girl."

Family Ties writer Michael Weithorn would later recall: "In 1985, I had written an episode of Family Ties to start the fourth season, and we needed a sort of a sad romantic song. I just happened to go into a bar in Los Angeles and saw Billy and the Beaters. That was the perfect song, and the rest was history." In an interview, Vera talked about his meeting with Weithorn: "One afternoon I got a phone call, and this guy said, 'Hey I produce a show called Family Ties, and some of us were at your show the other night, and we heard you do this song that we thought would be perfect for an episode that we have coming up.' I got my publisher to make a deal for that with them and America responded like crazy." "NBC called us up, they said, 'My God, we've never had any response like this in the history of the network for a song. The switchboards are lighting up, we're getting letters, telegrams, where can we find this song?' People started calling radio stations, which never happens. I mean, it was a total organic hit."

On the DVD releases of both Family Ties' fourth and fifth seasons, "At This Moment" is still included and heard in those episodes.

In an interview with Rachael Ray in 2007, Michael J. Fox good-naturedly said, "Tracy and I couldn't get on the dance floor anywhere in the world for like ten years without them playing 'What did you think..."

At the 2011 TV Land Awards held in New York City, Billy Vera performed "At This Moment" with the main Family Ties cast in attendance that also included Michael J. Fox and Tracy Pollan, as the show had been nominated for and won Outstanding Fan Favorite.

Connection to Day by Day
During its final two seasons, Family Ties was scheduled on Sunday nights, often followed by Day by Day, another series from Ubu Productions. Michael Gross and Brian Bonsall brought their respective roles of Steven and Andy Keaton to the Day by Day episode "Trading Places," which reveals that Steven went to college with Brian Harper (Doug Sheehan). This episode is included on a bonus special-features disc in the Family Ties: The Complete Series Deluxe Family Album Collection Edition Box Set DVD.

Other appearances
Some characters were featured on Mickey's 60th Birthday, broadcast on November 13, 1988, on NBC, and featured Justine Bateman, Tina Yothers, and Brian Bonsall as their Family Ties characters, trying to help Mickey Mouse when everybody fails to recognize him due to a spell. Michael J. Fox additionally had a cameo in a flashback using archive footage.

Emmy Awards

 * 1986: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Michael J. Fox)
 * 1987: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Michael J. Fox)
 * 1987: Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series
 * 1987: Outstanding Technical Direction
 * 1988: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Michael J. Fox)

Golden Globes

 * 1989: Best Performance by an Actor in a TV Series (Michael J. Fox)

TV Land Awards

 * 2008: Character You'd Pay to Do Your Homework for You (Michael J. Fox)
 * 2011: Fan Favorite, Presented by Ben Stiller to the Family Ties cast

Young Artist Awards

 * 1985: Best Young Actress in a Television Comedy Series (Justine Bateman)
 * 1985: Best Young Supporting Actress in a Television Comedy Series (Tina Yothers)
 * 1986: Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Series (Marc Price)
 * 1988: Best Young Actor Under Nine Years of Age (Brian Bonsall)
 * 1989: Best Young Actor Under Ten Years of Age in Television or Motion Pictures (Brian Bonsall)

Syndication and international broadcast
NBC aired reruns of Family Ties weekday mornings from December 1985 until January 1987 before it was replaced by the Bill Rafferty version of Blockbusters. In the fall of 1987, the series went into syndication in the United States. Currently, reruns air on Antenna TV, Rewind TV and Pluto TV. Reruns previously aired on FamilyNet, TBS, Nick at Nite, TV Land, Hallmark Channel, The Hub and Pop.

In Canada, reruns of Family Ties began airing on CTS, a Christian-based network, on September 6, 2010. On May 15, 2011, Netflix began to stream seasons 1–7 on its "watch instantly" streaming service.

In Australia, Family Ties originally screened on the Seven Network from 1983 onwards. It became a perennial favorite repeated many times before being bought by the Nine Network which screened it up until 2008. It later screened on pay TV network TV1 before airing on 10 Peach (then known as Eleven) in the afternoons and late night until June 2013. As of June 2020, two episodes are shown on Saturday afternoons between 1 and 2 p.m.

In Germany, Family Ties was first aired on ZDF in 1984 under the title "Hilfe, wir werden erwachsen!" ("Help, we grow up!"), later on RTL (1989) as "Familienbande" (translation of the original title) and on ProSieben as "Jede Menge Familie" ("Whole lot of family").

Austria aired the show on ORF as "Jede Menge Familie" similar to ProSieben.

In the UK, Family Ties aired on Channel 4 from July 1985.

In Indonesia, Family Ties aired on RCTI and SCTV between 1990 and 1993.

In Italy, the show aired on Italia 1 under the name of Casa Keaton (Keaton House) from 1986 until 1992.

In the Philippines, the show aired on GMA Network and was simulcast on RPN-9, IBC-13, PTV-4 and ABS-CBN from 1983 to 1991. It moved to ABC-5 Pilipino and was dubbed in 1998–2000.

The show screened in New Zealand on TVNZ in the 1980s and early '90s, but has never been repeated.

DVD
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all seven seasons of Family Ties on DVD in Region 1,. The second through fifth season releases contain special features, gag reels and episodic promos. The second season contains interviews with Michael Gross and Michael J. Fox along with other cast members. The fourth season contains the made-for-TV movie, Family Ties Vacation. Paramount has also released the first three seasons on DVD in Region 4.

On November 5, 2013, CBS Home Entertainment released Family Ties - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.

On November 11, 2014, CBS Home Entertainment re-released a repackaged version of the complete series set, at a lower price, but did not include the bonus disc that was part of the original complete series set.

In Australia (Region 4), after the first three seasons were released, no further release came to light. In 2016, Via Vision Entertainment obtained the rights to the series and re-released the first three seasons along with season four on July 6, 2016. The remaining seasons were released each month after including a 'Complete Series' box set.

Digital format
In addition to DVD, the TV series is available through a variety of services such as Prime Video and Vudu in the digital format.

References in other media
Over a decade after the end of Family Ties, Michael J. Fox's final episodes on Spin City featured numerous allusions to the show. In these episodes, Michael Gross played a therapist for Fox's character Michael Patrick Flaherty and the episode contained a reference to an off-screen character named "Mallory". In the episode, after Flaherty becomes an environmental lobbyist in Washington, D.C., he meets a "conservative junior senator named Alex P. Keaton." Meredith Baxter also portrayed Mike Flaherty's mother, Macy Flaherty, in the two-part episode "Family Affair".

The main cast of Family Ties -- Fox, Gross, Baxter, Bateman, and Yothers, sometimes with a few other recurring cast members -- has reunited publicly on three occasions (along with series creator/producer Gary David Goldberg on two occasions). They first reunited on February 7, 2008 (without supporting players Tracy Pollan, Scott Valentine, Marc Price, Brian Bonsall and Courteney Cox) for an interview on The Today Show to help promote Goldberg's memoir Sit, Ubu, Sit. The cast reunited again (with Pollan and Price, but still without Valentine, Bonsall and Cox) for a second time for the 2011 TV Land Awards in March of that year, which included Pollan alongside her husband Fox. That awards show would be the final appearance of Goldberg with the entire group. In October 2015, the main cast reunited for a third time with a second appearance (which included Pollan alongside Fox, but minus Price, Valentine, Bonsall and Cox) on The Today Show, and the first cast reunion since the 2013 death of Goldberg from cancer.

WandaVision
The 2021 Marvel Cinematic Universe series for the Disney+ video streaming service, references the series in the fifth episode, "On a Very Special Episode...," such as a stylized title sequence partially parodying the Family Ties opening that depicted the family first as a penciled sketch before finishing as a painted portrait, along with an upbeat theme song praising the family's love and closeness. In the episode, Wanda Maximoff and Vision are attempting to navigate raising their new children Tommy and Billy, both of whom are developing superhero abilities of their own.

title: Family Ties


text:
Chroma subsampling

Chroma subsampling is the practice of encoding images by implementing less resolution for chroma information than for luma information, taking advantage of the human visual system's lower acuity for color differences than for luminance.

It is used in many video and still image encoding schemes – both analog and digital – including in JPEG encoding.

Rationale

Digital signals are often compressed to reduce file size and save transmission time. Since the human visual system is much more sensitive to variations in brightness than color, a video system can be optimized by devoting more bandwidth to the luma component (usually denoted Y'), than to the color difference components Cb and Cr. In compressed images, for example, the 4:2:2 Y'CbCr scheme requires two-thirds the bandwidth of non-subsampled "4:4:4" R'G'B'. This reduction results in almost no visual difference as perceived by the viewer.

How subsampling works
The human vision system (HVS) processes color information (hue and colorfulness) at about a third of the resolution of luminance (lightness/darkness information in an image). Therefore it is possible to sample color information at a lower resolution while maintaining good image quality.

This is achieved by encoding RGB image data into a composite black and white image, with separated color difference data (chroma). For example with $$Y'C_bC_r$$, gamma encoded $$R'G'B'$$ components are weighted and then summed together to create the luma $$Y'$$ component. The color difference components are created by subtracting two of the weighted $$R'G'B'$$ components from the third. A variety of filtering methods can be used to limit the resolution.

Regarding gamma and transfer functions
Gamma encoded luma $$Y'$$ should not be confused with linear luminance $$Y$$. The presence of gamma encoding is denoted with the prime symbol $$'$$. In very early video systems, gamma-correction was necessary due to the nonlinear response of a cathode-ray tube (CRT).

While CRTs are no longer widely used, gamma or electro-optical transfer curves (EOTF), are still very useful due to the nonlinear response of human vision. The use of gamma improves perceived signal-to-noise in analogue systems, and allows for more efficient data encoding in digital systems. This encoding uses more levels for darker colors than for lighter ones, accommodating human vision sensitivity.

Sampling systems and ratios
The subsampling scheme is commonly expressed as a three-part ratio J:a:b (e.g. 4:2:2) or four parts, if alpha channel is present (e.g. 4:2:2:4), that describe the number of luminance and chrominance samples in a conceptual region that is J pixels wide and 2 pixels high. The parts are (in their respective order):
 * J: horizontal sampling reference (width of the conceptual region). Usually, 4.

 * a: number of chrominance samples (Cr, Cb) in the first row of J pixels.
 * b: number of changes of chrominance samples (Cr, Cb) between first and second row of J pixels. b has to be either zero or equal to a (except in rare irregular cases like 4:4:1 and 4:2:1, which do not follow this convention).
 * Alpha: horizontal factor (relative to first digit). May be omitted if alpha component is not present, and is equal to J when present.

This notation is not valid for all combinations and has exceptions, e.g. 4:1:0 (where the height of the region is not 2 pixels, but 4 pixels, so if 8 bits per component are used, the media would be 9 bits per pixel) and 4:2:1.

The mapping examples given are only theoretical and for illustration. Also the diagram does not indicate any chroma filtering, which should be applied to avoid aliasing. To calculate required bandwidth factor relative to 4:4:4 (or 4:4:4:4), one needs to sum all the factors and divide the result by 12 (or 16, if alpha is present).

4:4:4
Each of the three Y'CbCr components has the same sample rate, thus there is no chroma subsampling. This scheme is sometimes used in high-end film scanners and cinematic post-production.

"4:4:4" may instead be wrongly referring to R'G'B' color space, which implicitly also does not have any chroma subsampling (except in JPEG R'G'B' can be subsampled). Formats such as HDCAM SR can record 4:4:4 R'G'B' over dual-link HD-SDI.

4:2:2
The two chroma components are sampled at half the horizontal sample rate of luma: the horizontal chroma resolution is halved. This reduces the bandwidth of an uncompressed video signal by one-third, which means for 8 bit per component without alpha (24 bit per pixel) only 16 bits are enough, as in NV16.

Many high-end digital video formats and interfaces use this scheme:
 * AVC-Intra 100
 * Digital Betacam
 * Betacam SX
 * DVCPRO50 and DVCPRO HD
 * Digital-S
 * CCIR 601 / Serial digital interface / D-1
 * ProRes (HQ, 422, LT, and Proxy)
 * XDCAM HD422
 * Canon MXF HD422

4:1:1
In 4:1:1 chroma subsampling, the horizontal color resolution is quartered, and the bandwidth is halved compared to no chroma subsampling. Initially, 4:1:1 chroma subsampling of the DV format was not considered to be broadcast quality and was only acceptable for low-end and consumer applications. However, DV-based formats (some of which use 4:1:1 chroma subsampling) have been used professionally in electronic news gathering and in playout servers. DV has also been sporadically used in feature films and in digital cinematography.

In the 480i "NTSC" system, if the luma is sampled at 13.5 MHz, then this means that the Cr and Cb signals will each be sampled at 3.375 MHz, which corresponds to a maximum Nyquist bandwidth of 1.6875 MHz, whereas traditional "high-end broadcast analog NTSC encoder" would have a Nyquist bandwidth of 1.5 MHz and 0.5 MHz for the I/Q channels. However, in most equipment, especially cheap TV sets and VHS/Betamax VCRs, the chroma channels have only the 0.5 MHz bandwidth for both Cr and Cb (or equivalently for I/Q). Thus the DV system actually provides a superior color bandwidth compared to the best composite analog specifications for NTSC, despite having only 1/4 of the chroma bandwidth of a "full" digital signal.

Formats that use 4:1:1 chroma subsampling include:
 * DVCPRO / D-7 (NTSC and PAL)
 * 480i "NTSC" DV and DVCAM

4:2:0
In 4:2:0, the horizontal sampling is doubled compared to 4:1:1, but as the Cb and Cr channels are only sampled on each alternate line in this scheme, the vertical resolution is halved. The data rate is thus the same. This fits reasonably well with the PAL color encoding system, since this has only half the vertical chrominance resolution of NTSC. It would also fit extremely well with the SECAM color encoding system, since like that format, 4:2:0 only stores and transmits one color channel per line (the other channel being recovered from the previous line). However, little equipment has actually been produced that outputs a SECAM analogue video signal. In general, SECAM territories either have to use a PAL-capable display or a transcoder to convert the PAL signal to SECAM for display.

Different variants of 4:2:0 chroma configurations are found in:
 * All ISO/IEC MPEG and ITU-T VCEG H.26x video coding standards including H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 implementations (although some profiles of MPEG-4 Part 2 and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC allow higher-quality sampling schemes such as 4:4:4)
 * DVD-Video and Blu-ray Disc.
 * 576i "PAL" DV and DVCAM
 * HDV
 * AVCHD and AVC-Intra 50
 * Apple Intermediate Codec
 * Most common JPEG/JFIF and MJPEG implementations
 * VC-1
 * WebP
 * YJK,  a proprietary color space implemented by the Yamaha V9958   graphic chip on MSX2+ computers.

Cb and Cr are each subsampled at a factor of 2 both horizontally and vertically. Most digital video formats corresponding to 576i "PAL" use 4:2:0 chroma subsampling.

Sampling positions
There are four main variants of 4:2:0 schemes, having different horizontal and vertical sampling siting relative to the 2×2 "square" of the original input size.

 * In MPEG-2, MPEG-4, and AVC, Cb and Cr are taken on midpoint of the left-edge of the 2×2 square. In other words, they have the same horizontal location as the top-left pixel, but is shifted one-half pixel down vertically. Also called "left".
 * In JPEG/JFIF, H.261, and MPEG-1, Cb and Cr are taken at the center of 2×2 the square. In other words, they are offset one-half pixel to the right and one-half pixel down compared to the top-left pixel. Also called "center".
 * In HEVC for BT.2020 and BT.2100 content (in particular on Blu-rays), Cb and Cr are sampled at the same location as the group's top-left Y pixel ("co-sited", "co-located"). Also called "top-left". An analogous co-sited sampling is used in MPEG-2 4:2:2.
 * In 4:2:0 PAL-DV (IEC 61834-2), Cb is sampled at the same location as the group's top-left Y pixel, but Cr is sampled one pixel down. It is also called "top-left" in ffmpeg.

Interlaced and progressive
With interlaced material, 4:2:0 chroma subsampling can result in motion artifacts if it is implemented the same way as for progressive material. The luma samples are derived from separate time intervals, while the chroma samples would be derived from both time intervals. It is this difference that can result in motion artifacts. The MPEG-2 standard allows for an alternate interlaced sampling scheme, where 4:2:0 is applied to each field (not both fields at once). This solves the problem of motion artifacts, reduces the vertical chroma resolution by half, and can introduce comb-like artifacts in the image.

Original. This image shows a single field. The moving text has some motion blur applied to it.

4:2:0 progressive sampling applied to moving interlaced material. The chroma leads and trails the moving text. This image shows a single field.

4:2:0 interlaced sampling applied to moving interlaced material. This image shows a single field.

In the 4:2:0 interlaced scheme, however, vertical resolution of the chroma is roughly halved, since the chroma samples effectively describe an area 2 samples wide by 4 samples tall instead of 2×2. As well, the spatial displacement between both fields can result in the appearance of comb-like chroma artifacts.

Original still image.

4:2:0 progressive sampling applied to a still image. Both fields are shown.

4:2:0 interlaced sampling applied to a still image. Both fields are shown.

If the interlaced material is to be de-interlaced, the comb-like chroma artifacts (from 4:2:0 interlaced sampling) can be removed by blurring the chroma vertically.

4:1:0
This ratio is possible, and some codecs support it, but it is not widely used. This ratio uses half of the vertical and one-fourth the horizontal color resolutions, with only one-eighth of the bandwidth of the maximum color resolutions used. Uncompressed video in this format with 8-bit quantization uses 10 bytes for every macropixel (which is 4×2 pixels) or 10 bit for every pixel. It has the equivalent chrominance bandwidth of a PAL-I or PAL-M signal decoded with a delay line decoder, and still very much superior to NTSC.

3:1:1
Used by Sony in their HDCAM High Definition recorders (not HDCAM SR). In the horizontal dimension, luma is sampled horizontally at three quarters of the full HD sampling rate – 1440 samples per row instead of 1920. Chroma is sampled at 480 samples per row, a third of the luma sampling rate. In the vertical dimension, both luma and chroma are sampled at the full HD sampling rate (1080 samples vertically).

Different Cb and Cr rates
A number of legacy schemes allow different subsampling factors in Cb and Cr, similar to how a different amount of bandwidth is allocated to the two chroma values in broadcast systems such as CCIR System M. These schemes are not expressible in J:a:b notation. Instead, they adopt a Y:Cb:Cr notation, with each part describing the amount of resolution for the corresponding component. It is unspecified whether the resolution reduction happens in the horizontal or vertical direction.

 * In JPEG, 4:4:2 and 4:2:1 half the vertical resolution of Cb compared to 4:4:4 and 4:4:0.
 * In another version of 4:2:1, Cb horizontal resolution is half that of Cr (and a quarter of the horizontal resolution of Y).
 * 4:1:0.5 or 4:1:0.25 are variants of 4:1:0 with reduced horizontal resolution on Cb, similar to VHS quality.

Artifacts
Chroma subsampling suffers from two main types of artifacts, causing degradation more noticeable than intended where colors change abruptly.

Gamma luminance error
Gamma-corrected signals like Y'CbCr have an issue where chroma errors "bleed" into luma. In those signals, a low chroma actually makes a color appear less bright than one with equivalent luma. As a result, when a saturated color blends with an unsaturated or complementary color, a loss of luminance occurs at the border. This can be seen in the example between magenta and green. This issue persists in HDR video where gamma is generalized into a transfer function "EOTF". A steeper EOTF shows a stronger luminance loss.

Some proposed corrections of this issue are:
 * Luma-weighted average (Kornelski, experiment for mozjpeg)
 * Iterative sharp YUV method, used by WebP and optionally AVIF. Sharp YUV assumes a bilinear upscaling for chroma.
 * RGB subsampling in linear space before chroma subsampling (HDRTools)
 * Iterative or closed-form luma correction to minimize luminance error (HDRTools)

Rec. 2020 defines a "constant luminance" Yc'CbcCrc, which is calculated from linear RGB components and then gamma-encoded. This version does not suffer from the luminance loss by design.

Gamut clipping
Another artifact that can occur with chroma subsampling is that out-of-gamut colors can occur upon chroma reconstruction. Suppose the image consisted of alternating 1-pixel red and black lines and the subsampling omitted the chroma for the black pixels. Chroma from the red pixels will be reconstructed onto the black pixels, causing the new pixels to have positive red and negative green and blue values. As displays cannot output negative light (negative light does not exist), these negative values will effectively be clipped, and the resulting luma value will be too high. Other sub-sampling filters (especially the averaging "box") have a similar issue that is harder to make a simple example out of. Similar artifacts arise in the less artificial example of gradation near a fairly sharp red/black boundary.

It is possible for the decoder to deal with out-of-gamut colors by considering how much chroma a given luma value can hold and distribute it into the 4:4:4 intermediate accordingly, termed "in-range chroma reconstruction" by Glenn Chan. The "proportion" method is in spirit similar to Kornelski's luma-weighted average, while the "spill" method resembles error diffusion. Improving chroma reconstruction remains an active field of research.

Terminology
The term Y'UV refers to an analog TV encoding scheme (ITU-R Rec. BT.470) while Y'CbCr refers to a digital encoding scheme. One difference between the two is that the scale factors on the chroma components (U, V, Cb, and Cr) are different. However, the term YUV is often used erroneously to refer to Y'CbCr encoding. Hence, expressions like "4:2:2 YUV" always refer to 4:2:2 Y'CbCr, since there simply is no such thing as 4:x:x in analog encoding (such as YUV). Pixel formats used in Y'CbCr can be referred to as YUV too, for example yuv420p, yuvj420p and many others.

In a similar vein, the term luminance and the symbol Y are often used erroneously to refer to luma, which is denoted with the symbol Y'. The luma (Y') of video engineering deviates from the luminance (Y) of color science (as defined by CIE). Luma is formed as the weighted sum of gamma-corrected (tristimulus) RGB components. Luminance is formed as a weighed sum of linear (tristimulus) RGB components. In practice, the CIE symbol Y is often incorrectly used to denote luma. In 1993, SMPTE adopted Engineering Guideline EG 28, clarifying the two terms. The prime symbol ' is used to indicate gamma correction.

Similarly, the chroma of video engineering differs from the chrominance of color science. The chroma of video engineering is formed from weighted tristimulus components (gamma corrected, OETF), not linear components. In video engineering practice, the terms chroma, chrominance, and saturation are often used interchangeably to refer to chroma, but it is not a good practice, as ITU-T Rec H.273 says.

History
Chroma subsampling was developed in the 1950s by Alda Bedford for the development of color television by RCA, which developed into the NTSC standard; luma–chroma separation was developed earlier, in 1938 by Georges Valensi. Through studies, he showed that the human eye has high resolution only for black and white, somewhat less for "mid-range" colors like yellows and greens, and much less for colors on the end of the spectrum, reds and blues. This knowledge allowed RCA to develop a system in which they discarded most of the blue signal after it comes from the camera, keeping most of the green and only some of the red; this is chroma subsampling in the YIQ color space and is roughly analogous to 4:2:1 subsampling, in that it has decreasing resolution for luma, yellow/green, and red/blue.

title: Chroma subsampling