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Nimitz-class aircraft carrier

The Nimitz class is a class of ten nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in service with the United States Navy. The lead ship of the class is named after World War II United States Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, who was the last living U.S. Navy officer to hold the rank. With an overall length of 1092 ft and a full-load displacement of over 100000 LT, the Nimitz-class ships were the largest warships built and in service until USS Gerald R. Ford entered the fleet in 2017.

Instead of the gas turbines or diesel–electric systems used for propulsion on many modern warships, the carriers use two A4W pressurized water reactors. The reactors drive four propeller shafts and can produce a maximum speed of over 30 kn and a maximum power of around 260000 shp. As a result of nuclear power, the ships are capable of operating for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years. They are categorized as nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and are numbered with consecutive hull numbers from CVN-68 to CVN-77.

All ten carriers were constructed by Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia. USS Nimitz (CVN-68), the lead ship of the class, was commissioned on 3 May 1975, and USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), the tenth and last of the class, was commissioned on 10 January 2009. Since the 1970s, Nimitz-class carriers have participated in many conflicts and operations across the world, including Operation Eagle Claw in Iran, the Gulf War, and more recently in Iraq and Afghanistan.

The angled flight decks of the carriers use a CATOBAR arrangement to operate aircraft, with steam catapults and arrestor wires for launch and recovery. As well as speeding up flight deck operations, this allows for a much wider variety of aircraft than with the STOVL arrangement used on smaller carriers. An embarked carrier air wing comprising around 64 aircraft is normally deployed on board. The air wings' strike fighters are primarily F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornets. In addition to their aircraft, the vessels carry short-range defensive weaponry for anti-aircraft warfare and missile defense.

The unit cost was about US$8.5 billion in FY 2012 dollars, equal to US$ billion in.

Description
The Nimitz-class aircraft carriers have a length of 1092 ft overall and 1040 ft at the waterline, with a beam of 252 ft overall and 134 ft at the waterline; the individual ships have slight variations in their dimensions. They were initially designed with a full-load displacement of 87000 LT and a draft of 37 ft, but the ships would be delivered several thousand tons heavier, particularly for later members of the class. As the vessels were overhauled and installed more equipment, loaded displacement would climb to exceed 100000 LT. For example, USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) currently displaces 104112 LT at full load. The ships' nominal complement comprises: 3,000–3,200; 1,500 (air wing); and 500 (other).

Design
The Nimitz-class aircraft carriers were ordered to supplement the aircraft carriers of the Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carrier and Enterprise-class aircraft carrieres, maintaining the strength and capability of the U.S. Navy after the older carriers were decommissioned. The ships were designed to be improvements on previous U.S. aircraft carriers, particularly the Enterprise and Forrestal-class aircraft carrier supercarriers, although the arrangement of the vessels is relatively similar to that of the Kitty Hawk class. Among other design improvements, the two reactors on Nimitz-class carriers take up less space than the eight reactors used on Enterprise. Along with a more generally improved design, Nimitz-class carriers can carry 90% more aviation fuel and 50% more ordnance when compared to the Forrestal class.

The U.S. Navy has stated that the carriers could withstand three times the damage sustained by the Essex-class aircraft carrier inflicted by Japanese air attacks during World War II. The hangars on the ships are divided into three fire bays by thick steel doors that are designed to restrict the spread of fire. This addition has been present on U.S. aircraft carriers since World War II, after the fires caused by kamikaze attacks.

The first ships were designed around the time of the Vietnam War, and certain aspects of the design were influenced by operations there. To a certain extent, the carrier operations in Vietnam demonstrated the need for increased capabilities of aircraft carriers over their survivability; they were used to send sorties into the war and were, therefore, less subject to attack. As a result of this experience, Nimitz-class carriers were designed with larger stores of aviation fuel and larger magazines compared to previous carriers, although this was partly a result of increased space available by the new design of the ships' propulsion systems.

A major purpose of the carriers was initially to support the U.S. military during the Cold War. They were designed with capabilities for that role, including using nuclear power instead of oil for greater endurance and the ability to adjust their weapons systems on the basis of new intelligence and technological developments. They were initially categorized only as attack carriers, but ships have been constructed with anti-submarine capabilities since USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70). As a result, the ships and their aircraft can participate in a wide range of operations, including sea and air blockades; mine laying; and missile strikes on land, air, and sea.

Because of a design flaw, ships of this class have inherent lists to starboard when under combat loads that exceed the capability of their list control systems. The problem appears to be especially prevalent on some of the more modern vessels. This problem has been previously rectified by using damage control voids for ballast, but a solution using solid ballast that does not affect the ship's survivability has been proposed.

Construction
All ten Nimitz-class carriers were constructed between 1968 and 2006 at Newport News Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia. The first three units of the class were erected in Dry Dock 11, the other seven ships were constructed in the largest dry dock in the western hemisphere, Dry Dock 12, now 2172 ft long after a recent expansion.

Beginning with USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), the aircraft carriers were manufactured with modular construction. This means that whole sections could be welded together with plumbing and electrical equipment already fitted, improving efficiency. The modules were lifted into the dry dock using gantry cranes and welded. In the case of the bow sections, these can weigh over 1500000 lb. This method was originally developed by Ingalls Shipbuilding and increases the rate of work because much of the fitting out does not have to be carried out within the confines of the already-finished hull.

The total cost of construction for each ship was around $4.5 billion.

Propulsion

All ships of the class are powered by two A4W nuclear reactors, housed in separate compartments. The reactors produce heat through nuclear fission, which heats water to produce steam. This is then passed through four turbines, which are shared by the two reactors. A gearbox transmits power to four propeller shafts, producing a maximum speed of over 30 kn and maximum power of 260000 bhp. The turbines power the four bronze propellers, each with a diameter of 25 ft and a weight of 66000 lb. Behind these are the two rudders, which are 29 ft high and 22 ft long, and each weighs 110000 lb.

The Nimitz-class ships constructed since USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) also have bulbous bows to improve speed and fuel efficiency by reducing wave-making resistance. As a result of nuclear power, the ships are capable of operating continuously for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years.

Armament and protection
In addition to the aircraft carried on board, the ships carry defensive equipment for use against missiles and hostile aircraft. These consist of either two or three RIM-7 Sea Sparrow or RIM-162 Evolved SeaSparrow Missile Mk 29 missile launchers designed for defense against aircraft and anti-ship missiles, as well as either three or four 20 mm Phalanx CIWS.

USS Ronald Reagan has none of these, having been built with the Mk 49 Guided Missile Launching Systems for RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missiles, two of which have also been installed on USS Nimitz (CVN-68) and USS George Washington (CVN-73). These will be installed on the other ships as they return for Refueling Complex Overhaul (RCOH). Since USS Theodore Roosevelt, the carriers have been constructed with 2.5 in Kevlar armor over vital spaces, and earlier ships have been retrofitted with it: Nimitz in 1983–1984, Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1985 to 1987 and Carl Vinson in 1989.

The ships' other countermeasures are four Sippican SRBOC (super rapid bloom off-board chaff) six-barrel Mk 36 decoy launchers, which deploy infrared flares and chaff to disrupt the sensors of incoming missiles; an SSTDS torpedo defense system; and an AN/SLQ-25 Nixie torpedo countermeasures system. The carriers also use AN/SLQ-32(V) jamming systems to detect and disrupt hostile radar signals in addition to the electronic warfare capabilities of some of the aircraft on board.

The presence of nuclear weapons on board U.S. aircraft carriers since the end of the Cold War has neither been confirmed nor denied by the U.S. government. As a result, the presence of a U.S. aircraft carrier in a foreign port has occasionally provoked protest from local people, for example, when Nimitz visited Chennai, India, in 2007. At that time, the Strike Group commander Rear Admiral John Terence Blake stated, "The U.S. policy [...] is that we do not routinely deploy nuclear weapons on board Nimitz."

In May 2013, George H.W. Bush conducted the first carrier-borne end-to-end at-sea test of the Surface Ship Torpedo Defense System (SSTDS). The SSTDS combined the passive detection of the Torpedo Warning System (TWS) that finds, classifies, and tracks torpedoes with the hard-kill capability of a Countermeasure Anti-Torpedo (CAT), an encapsulated miniature torpedo designed to locate, home in on, and destroy hostile torpedoes. This was to increase protection against wake-homing torpedoes like the Type 53 that do not respond to acoustic decoys. The pieces of the SSTDS were engineered to locate and destroy incoming torpedoes in a matter of seconds; each system included one TWS and 8 CATs. Initial operational capability (IOC) was planned for 2019, and all aircraft carriers were to be outfitted by 2035. The Navy suspended work on the project in September 2018 due to poor reliability of the components; hardware, already installed on five carriers, is to be removed by 2023.

Carrier air wing

In order for a carrier to deploy, it must embark one of ten Carrier Air Wings (CVW). The carriers can accommodate a maximum of 130 F/A-18 Hornets or 85–90 aircraft of different types, but current numbers are typically 64 aircraft. Although the air wings are integrated with the operation of the carriers they are deployed to, they are regarded as separate entities. As well as the aircrew, the air wings are also made up of support personnel involved in roles including maintenance, aircraft and ordnance handling, and emergency procedures. Each person on the flight deck wears color-coded clothing to make their role easily identifiable.

A typical carrier air wing can include 24–36 F/A-18E or F Super Hornets as strike fighters; two squadrons of 10–12 F/A-18C Hornets, with one of these often provided by the U.S. Marine Corps (VMFA), also as strike fighters; 4–6 EA-18G Growlers for electronic warfare; 4–6 E-2C or D Hawkeyes for airborne early warning (AEW), C-2 Greyhounds used for logistics (to be replaced by MV-22 Ospreys); and a Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron of 6–8 SH-60F and HH-60H Seahawks. Aircraft previously operated from Nimitz-class carriers include F-4 Phantoms, RA-5C Vigilantes, RF-8G Crusaders, F-14 Tomcats, S-3 Vikings, EA-3B Skywarriors, EA-6B Prowlers, A-7 Corsair II, and A-6E Intruder aircraft.

Flight deck and aircraft facilities

The flight deck is angled at nine degrees, which allows for aircraft to be launched and recovered simultaneously. This angle of the flight deck was reduced slightly compared to previous carriers, as the current design improves the airflow around the carrier. Four steam catapults are used to launch fixed-wing aircraft, and four arrestor wires are used for recovery. The two newest carriers, Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush, have only three arrestor wires each, as the fourth was used infrequently on earlier ships and was therefore deemed unnecessary.

This CATOBAR arrangement allows for faster launching and recovery as well as a much wider range of aircraft that can be used on board compared with smaller aircraft carriers, most of which use a simpler STOVL arrangement without catapults or arrestor wires. The ship's aircraft operations are controlled by the air boss from Primary Flight Control or Pri-Fly. Four large elevators transport aircraft between the flight deck and the hangars below. These hangars are divided into three bays by thick steel doors that are designed to restrict the spread of fire.

Strike groups

When an aircraft carrier deploys, it takes a Carrier Strike Group (CSG), made up of several other warships and supply vessels that allow the operation to be carried out. The armament of the Nimitz class is made up only of short-range defensive weapons, used as a last line of defense against enemy missiles and aircraft. As with all surface ships, an aircraft carrier is particularly vulnerable to attack from below, specifically from submarines. An aircraft carrier is a very expensive, hard to replace, and strategically valuable asset, and therefore it logically has immense value as a target.

As a result of its target value and vulnerability, aircraft carriers are always escorted by at least one submarine for protection. The other vessels in the Strike Group provide additional capabilities, such as long-range Tomahawk missiles or the Aegis Combat System, and protect the carrier from attack. A typical Strike Group may include, in addition to an aircraft carrier: up to six surface combatants, including guided-missile cruisers and guided-missile destroyers, used primarily for anti-aircraft warfare and anti-submarine warfare, and frigates/guided-missile frigates, prior to their retirement from USN service. When the Navy commissions a new class of frigates (FFG(X)), they will again accompany CSGs. Also making up part of the group is one or two attack submarines for seeking out and destroying hostile surface ships and submarines and an ammunition, oiler, and supply ship from Military Sealift Command to provide logistical support. The numbers and types of vessels that make up each strike group can vary from group to group, depending on deployments, mission, and availability.

Design differences within the class
While the designs of the last seven ships, beginning with Theodore Roosevelt, differ slightly from those of the earlier ships, the U.S. Navy considers all ten carriers a single class. When the older carriers come in for Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH), their nuclear power plants are refueled, and they are upgraded to the standards of the later carriers. Other modifications may be performed to update the ships' equipment.

The ships were initially classified only as attack carriers but have been constructed with anti-submarine capabilities since Carl Vinson. These improvements include more advanced radar systems and facilities enabling the ships to operate aircraft in a more effective anti-submarine warfare role, including fitting common undersea picture (CUP) technology, which uses sonar to allow for better assessment of the threat from submarines.

Theodore Roosevelt and later carriers have slight structural differences from the earlier Nimitz carriers, such as improved protection for ordnance stored in their magazines. Other improvements include upgraded flight deck ballistic protection, first installed on George Washington, and the high-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA-100) used for constructing ships starting with John C. Stennis. More recently, older ships have had their flight decks upgraded with a new non-slip material fitted on new-build ships to improve safety for crew members and aircraft.

The last carrier of the class, George H.W. Bush, was designed as a "transition ship" from the Nimitz class to the replacement Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier. George H.W. Bush incorporates new technologies, including improved propeller and bulbous bow designs, a reduced radar cross-section, and electronic and environmental upgrades. The ship's cost was $6.2 billion. The earlier Nimitz-class ships each cost around $4.5 billion. To lower costs, some new technologies and design features were also incorporated into USS Ronald Reagan, the previous carrier, including a redesigned island.

Ships in class
The United States Navy lists the following ten ships in the Nimitz class:

1975–1989
One of the first major operations in which the ships were involved was Operation Eagle Claw launched by Nimitz in 1980 after she had deployed to the Indian Ocean in response to the taking of hostages in the U.S. embassy in Tehran. Although initially part of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet, Dwight D. Eisenhower relieved Nimitz in this operation after her service in the Mediterranean Sea. Nimitz conducted a Freedom of Navigation exercise alongside the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal (CV-59) in August 1981 in the Gulf of Sidra, near Libya. During this exercise, two of the ship's F-14 Tomcats shot down two Libyan aircraft in what became known as the Gulf of Sidra incident. In 1987, Carl Vinson participated in the first U.S. carrier deployment in the Bering Sea, and Nimitz provided security during the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul.

1990–2000

The two most significant deployments the Nimitz class was involved in during the 1990s were the Gulf War and its aftermath and Operation Southern Watch in southern Iraq. All active vessels were engaged in both of these to some extent, with Operation Southern Watch continuing until 2003. Most carriers in operation in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm played supporting roles, with only Theodore Roosevelt playing an active part in combat operations.

Throughout the 1990s and more recently, Nimitz-class carriers have been deployed as part of humanitarian missions. While deployed in the Gulf War, Abraham Lincoln was diverted to the Pacific Ocean to participate alongside 22 other ships in Operation Fiery Vigil, evacuating civilians following the eruption of Mount Pinatubo on Luzon Island in the Philippines. In October 1993, Abraham Lincoln deployed to Somalia to assist UN humanitarian operations there, spending four weeks flying patrols around Mogadishu while supporting U.S. troops during Operation Restore Hope. The same ship also participated in Operation Vigilant Sentinel in the Persian Gulf in 1995.

Theodore Roosevelt flew patrols in support of the Kurds over northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort in 1991. In 1996, George Washington played a peacekeeping role in Operation Decisive Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1999, Theodore Roosevelt was called to the Ionian Sea to support Operation Allied Force alongside other NATO militaries.

2001–present
Harry S. Truman's maiden deployment was in November 2000. The carrier's air wing flew 869 combat sorties in support of Operation Southern Watch, including a strike on Iraqi air defense sites on 16 February 2001, in response to Iraqi surface-to-air missile fire against United Nations coalition forces.

After the September 11 attacks, Carl Vinson and Theodore Roosevelt were among the first warships to participate in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Carl Vinson sailed towards the Persian Gulf intending to support Operation Southern Watch in July 2001. This changed in response to the attacks, and the ship changed course to travel towards the North Arabian Sea, where she launched the first airstrikes in support of the operation on 7 October 2001.

Following the attacks, John C. Stennis and George Washington participated in Operation Noble Eagle, carrying out homeland security operations off the West Coast of the United States. All active ships have been involved in Iraq and Afghanistan since that time. This included the invasion in 2003, as well as providing subsequent support for Operation Iraqi Freedom since then.

The carriers have also provided aid after natural disasters. In 2005, Abraham Lincoln supported Operation Unified Assistance in Indonesia after the December 2004 tsunami, and Harry S. Truman provided aid after Hurricane Katrina later in 2005. The Ronald Reagan Carrier Strike Group performed humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations in the Philippines in June 2008 after Typhoon Fengshen, which killed hundreds from the central island regions and the main island of Luzon. In January 2010, Carl Vinson operated off Haiti, providing aid and drinking water to earthquake survivors as part of the U.S.-led Operation Unified Response, alongside other major warships and hospital ship USNS Comfort (T-AH-20).

Refueling Complex Overhaul
In order to refuel their nuclear power plants, the carriers each undergo a Refueling and Overhaul (RCOH) once in their service lives. This is also the most substantial overhaul the ships undergo while in service and involves bringing the vessels' equipment up to the standards of the newest ships. The ship is placed in a dry dock, and essential maintenance is carried out, including painting the hull below the waterline and replacing electrical and mechanical components such as valves. Because of the large time periods between the ships' constructions, the armament and designs of the newer ships are more modern than those of the older ships. In RCOH, the older ships are refitted to the standards of the newer ships, which can include upgrades to the flight deck, aircraft catapults, combat systems, and radar systems; precise details can vary significantly between the ships. The improvements normally take around four years to complete. The RCOH for USS Theodore Roosevelt took four years to complete (2009–2013) and cost about $2.6 billion. Planned Incremental Availability is a similar procedure, although it is less substantial and does not involve refueling the nuclear power plants.

Symbolic and diplomatic roles

Because of their status as the largest warships in the U.S. Navy, the deployment of an aircraft carrier can fulfill a symbolic role, not just as a deterrent to an enemy but often as a diplomatic tool in strengthening relations with allies and potential allies. The latter of these functions can occur either as a single visit to a country, in which senior naval officers are allowed to observe the operation of the carrier and interact with its senior officers, or as part of an international task force. This can be in combat operations, such as the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, or training deployments, such as Exercise RIMPAC. In addition, carriers have participated in international Maritime security operations, combating piracy in the Persian Gulf and off the coast of Somalia.

Accidents and incidents
On 26 May 1981, an EA-6B Prowler crashed on the flight deck of Nimitz, killing 14 crewmen and injuring 45 others. Forensic testing of the personnel involved showed that several tested positive for marijuana. While this was not found to have directly caused the crash, the investigation's findings prompted the introduction of mandatory drug testing of all service personnel.

Pilots have been able to eject safely in several cases of ditched aircraft. However, fatal aircraft crashes have occurred; in 1994, Lieutenant Kara Hultgreen, the first female F-14 Tomcat pilot, was killed while attempting to land on board Abraham Lincoln during a training exercise.

Fires have also caused damage to the ships; in May 2008, while rotating through to her new homeport at Yokosuka Naval Base in Yokosuka, Japan, George Washington suffered a fire that cost $70 million in repairs, injured 37 sailors and led to the ship undergoing three months of repairs at San Diego; this led to its having to miss the 2008 RIMPAC exercises and delayed the final withdrawal from service of USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63). The fire was caused by unauthorized smoking near improperly stored flammable refrigerant compressor oil.

Future and planned replacement

Nimitz-class carriers were initially designed to have a 50-year service life. At the end of their service life, ships will be decommissioned. This process will first take place on Nimitz and is estimated to cost from $750 to $900 million. This compares with an estimated $53 million for a conventionally powered carrier. Most of the difference in cost is attributed to the deactivation of the nuclear power plants and the safe removal of radioactive material and other contaminated equipment.

A new class of carriers, the Gerald R. Ford class, is being constructed to replace previous vessels after decommissioning. Ten of these are expected, and the first has entered service as of 22 July 2017 to replace USS Enterprise (CVN-65). Most of the rest of these new carriers are to replace the oldest Nimitz ships as they reach the end of their service lives. The new carriers will have a similar design to George H.W. Bush (using an almost identical hull shape) and technological and structural improvements.

The Navy reported in early 2022 that it was conducting a study to determine if the Nimitz-class carrier lives could be extended to as long as 55 years.

title: Nimitz-class aircraft carrier


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Performance poetry

Performance poetry is poetry that is specifically composed for or during a performance before an audience. It covers a variety of styles and genres.

History

The phenomenon of performance poetry, a kind of poetry specifically made for and offered during a performance before an audience goes back to Dada, the term itself only emerged later. On June 23, 1916, Hugo Ball performed one of the first sound poems, Gadji beri bimba at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, dressed in a cardboard costume so that he had to be carried onto the stage. The actual birthplace of performance poetry is therefore Zürich. Since then the spectrum ranges from Kurt Schwitters’ own recitation of his wellknown Ursonate to the recitations of "otto's pug" by German poet Ernst Jandl and a typ of performance that is mixed from impromptu speech, body language and theatricality such as Natias Neutert’s ''Diogenes Synopsis’’.

The term performance poetry originates from an early press release describing the 1980s performance poet Hedwig Gorski, whose audio recordings achieved success on spoken word radio programs around the world. Her band, East of Eden Band, produced music and poetry collaborations, allowing cassettes of her live radio broadcast recordings to stay in rotation with popular underground music recordings on some radio stations. Gorski, an art school graduate, tried to come up with a term that would distinguish her text-based vocal performances from performance art, especially the work of performance artists, such as Laurie Anderson, who worked with music at that time.

Performance poets relied more on the rhetorical and philosophical expression in their poetics than performance artists, who arose from the visual art genres of painting and sculpture. The Austin Chronicle newspaper, printing Gorski's bi-weekly "Litera" column, first published the term "performance poetry" to describe the work of Gorski with composer D'Jalma Garnier III as early as 1982. She began using the term, however, to describe a 1978 "neo-verse drama" and "conceptual spoken poetry for five voices" titled Booby, Mama! that employs the cut-up method made popular by William Burroughs and conceptual art methods.

The National Endowment for the Arts categorized performance art within the visual arts judging panels; it originally placed performance poetry within the category of theater before correcting it to literature in the 21st century. Since many performance poets did not have publications, the former classification made performance poets categorically ineligible for the NEA fellowship funding or recognition. Their audio cassettes were not acceptable sample material for literature grant consideration. A stated objection to this presentation method protested their performance poems translated into text on paper could not compete with poetry written for print publication. The National Endowment for the Arts is now accepting varied presentations for publication verification for poetry fellowship applicants, including audio recordings that have no printed versions of the poems. Performance poetry with music peaked during the 1980s just as performance art peaked in the 1970s.

During that time, San Francisco and New York were the centers for this type of activity; however, Austin, Texas (The Third Coast) also had a thriving scene during the 1980s with a coterie of unique characters such as raúlrsalinas, Konstantyn K. Kuzminsky, Joy Cole, Hedwig Gorski, Roxy Gordon, Ricardo Sánchez and Harryette Mullen, who was nominated for the National Book Award. The Austin Poets Audio Anthology Project, a public arts project, recorded them for radio broadcasts. There were many others, though, and Hedwig Gorski once wrote in "Litera" that some were "eerie", a word used by one newspaper reviewer to describe Gorski's vocals on the East of Eden Band track "There's Always Something That Can Make You Happy". Other performing writers in the robust literary scene of the Austin area during that time when performance poetry turned into a school of poetry included Pat Littledog, Eleanor Crockett, Jim Ryan, Chuck Taylor, Greg Gauntner, Albert Huffstickler, W. Joe Hoppe, Andy Clausen, poet and playwright Isabella Russell-Ides (Getting Dangerously Close To Myself, Slough Press) and David Jewell (poet); most recorded on Hedwig Gorski's audio anthology project.

Jewell deserves special mention as a transitional figure, younger than the aforementioned, and one not especially rooted in the Beats like Gorski who has strong connections to Ginsberg, Corso, Gary Snyder, and others. By the 1990s the general poetry public was less interested in the Beat Poets of the 1950s and 1960s. They were looking for something fresher, newer, hipper, more in touch with the times in which they were living. Performance poets established clubs, cafes, and media as venues that later became stages for the emerging slam poetry scene. Unlike Gorski, who with East of Eden Band, began broadcasting live performance poetry on radio and distributing the recordings of these broadcasts in place of publishing in print, Jewell and slam poets were more interested in small live audiences. Venues like Nuyorican Poets Cafe in New York City and mass media formats, like Gorski's and John Giorno's, form the two lines of influence leading to Def Poetry on HBO. Performing poets-writers and especially performance poets excelled in the ability to put the event of oral literature into the primary social/communicative function for literature. The plurality of the literary performance is under the control of the poet/writer, and the performer never minimizes the participation of the audience members. Performance was the primary distribution method for poetics since tribal times and ancient Greece. As Gorski often states, broadcast and technology surpass books in reaching mass audiences for poetry, and just as writing poetry for print made poetry a completely different artform since the invention of the book, audio "mediums influence the way poets write just as they do painters and sculptors".

Today, performance poetry is also being used as a means to promote literacy in public school systems. Global Writes Inc. has been incorporating technology, such as videoconferencing and podcasts, into literacy programs as a means for students to share their poetry. Performance poetry also provides avenues for students to perform their poems onstage.

Poetry in oral cultures
Performance poetry is not solely a postmodern phenomenon. It began with the performance of oral poems in pre-literate societies. By definition, these poems were transmitted orally from performer to performer and were constructed using devices such as repetition, alliteration, rhyme and kennings to facilitate memorization and recall. The performer "composed" the poem from memory, using the version they had learned as a kind of mental template. This process allowed the performer to add their own flavor to the poem in question, although fidelity to the traditional versions of the poems was generally favored.

Advent of printing
Although popular works, including popular poems or collections of poems, were already being distributed for private reading and study in manuscript form, there can be little doubt that the introduction of cheap printing technologies accelerated this trend considerably. The result was a change in the poet's role in society. From having been an entertainer, the poet became primarily a provider of written texts for private readings. The public performance of poetry became generally restricted, at least in a European context, to the staging of plays in verse and occasionally, for example in the cases of the Elizabethan madrigalists or Robert Burns, as texts for singing. Apart from this, the performance of poetry was restricted to reading aloud from printed books within families or groups of friends.

20th century
The early years of the 20th century saw a general questioning of artistic forms and conventions. Poets like Basil Bunting and Louis Zukofsky called for a renewed emphasis on poetry as sound. Bunting in particular argued that the poem on the page was like a musical score; not fully intelligible until manifested through sound. This attitude to poetry helped to encourage an environment in which poetry readings were fostered. This was reinforced by Charles Olson's call for a poetic line based primarily on spoken human breath. Clive Sansom devoted much of his life to gathering and contributing poetry and drama particularly suited to performance by children.

During the 1950s, the American poet Cid Corman began to experiment with what he called oral poetry. This involved spontaneously composing poems into a tape recorder. Allen Ginsberg was to take up this practice in the 1960s. David Antin, who heard some of Corman's tapes, took the process one step further. He composed his talk-poems by improvising in front of an audience. These performances were recorded and the tapes were later transcribed to be published in book form. Around the same time, Jerome Rothenberg was drawing on his ethnopoetic researches to create poems for ritual performances as happenings.

The writers of the Beat generation held performance events that married poetry and jazz. In the late 1960s, other poets outside San Francisco and New York City were experimenting with performance pieces. Notable among these was David Franks, at the time a faculty member at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Franks' work was not poetry recited to a musical counterpoint but literary pieces in which the performance was a necessary and integral part of the work itself.

In Britain, sound poets like Bob Cobbing and Edwin Morgan were exploring the possibilities of live performance. Cobbing's groups Bird Yak and Konkrete Canticle involved collaborative performance with other poets and musicians and were partly responsible for drawing a number of the poets of the British Poetry Revival into the performance arena.

Meanwhile, many more mainstream poets in both Britain and the United States were giving poetry readings, largely to small academic gatherings on university campuses. Poetry readings were given national prominence when Robert Frost recited "The Gift Outright" from memory at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy.After that event, spoken word recordings of Frost and other major figures enjoyed increased popularity.

The 1970s and after
By the 1970s, three main forms of poetry performance had emerged. First was the poetry reading, at which poems that had been written for the page were read to an audience, usually by the author. Poetry readings have become widespread and poetry festivals and reading series are now part of the cultural landscape of most Western societies. However, most people would not consider the poetry readings of this type as part of the performance poetry phenomena.

This leaves two types of poetry performance: poems written specifically for performance on the Jerome Rothenberg model and poems like those of David Antin that are composed during performance. Both these types would generally be considered to constitute performance poetry. Another type based on the Beat method of reading their print poems is poetry with music. The bands with performance poets make spoken vocals an exercise in not singing, but the texts are not categorized as songs. While Ginsberg sang his Blake songs with a harmonium, the original practitioner of this third and most popular type of performance poetry is Hedwig Gorski, who coined the term performance poetry to describe her work with music. She is sometimes called a neo-beat, but considers herself an American "futurist". Unlike the Beats, Ginsberg and Kerouac, her poems were written for performance with music that was specifically composed for the poems. Her spoken vocals have come as close to singing as possible without really singing. That is the key to Gorski's performance poetry: the marriage of poetry to music written specifically to fit poems written for vocal performance. The other type of performance poetry Gorski practiced is without music and tied to conceptual art, but that was at appearances in smaller venues that could not accommodate her band. Unlike Antin and Cormin, Gorski never improvised text but wrote poetry only for performance while eschewing printed poetry.

In the U. S., the rise to prominence of the language poets with their distrust of speech as a basis for poetry has, broadly speaking, meant that performance poetry went out of fashion with the avant-garde. However, the increasing popularity of open mics, which allow "unknown" poets to take the stage and share their own work in 3- to 5-minute increments and of poetry slams has meant that performance poetry is now one of the most widespread forms of popular poetry. Chief among the proponents of these new forms of popular poetry were Bob Holman in New York, Marc Smith in Chicago and Alan Kaufman in San Francisco. In the 1990s, the Favorite Poem project of then U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky gave new visibility to ordinary Americans reading and performing their favorite poems. Contemporary performance poets are now experimenting with poetry performances adapted to CD, to video, and to Web audiences.

The Beat Poets were the first to popularize crossing over into recorded media to distribute their performed poetry. The best-known Beat poet, Allen Ginsberg, followed the lead of fellow Beat, Jack Kerouac, in reciting his work for audio recording. Ginsberg always used music with his readings and often accompanied himself on the harmonium. Ginsberg put William Blake's poems to music and performed them with the harmonium. Even though the Beats did not use the term "Performance Poetry" to categorize their work with music and audio recordings, the Beats provided an immediate model for the work of Hedwig Gorski. She is a Nova Scotia College of Art and Design art school graduate in 1976. The art school was infamous for starting the careers of numerous 1970s performance artists, such as Vito Acconci, known for photographing his bites. It is worth noting that Gorski, who coined the term "Performance Poetry" to describe her poems written only for performance, recordings, and broadcast usually with her musical band East of Eden Band, is the only woman, besides Patti Smith, in this group of late twentieth-century innovators reviving oral poetry. Similar to the ancient bards, touring became a widespread means for performance poets and slammers to distribute their work since the 1990s. The Poetry Slam is a competitive live performance format founded by poet Marc Smith in Chicago, which has become a hotbed for performance poetry.

Performance poetry has also been boosted considerably by the appearance of Def Jam—the hip-hop recording company helmed by Russell Simmons—on the scene. def jam has created a television show that showcases performance poets that runs on HBO, as well as a show of performance poets that ran on Broadway for almost a year and won a Tony Award.

Hispanic performing artists, such as Pedro Pietri, Miguel Algarín, Giannina Braschi, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña, are known for their humorous and politically charged attacks against American imperialism. Later contemporary Latino poets such as Willie Perdomo, Edwin Torres (poet) and Caridad de la Luz would follow in this tradition.

Closely tied to Chicano poets is the Native American poet John Trudell who recorded and crossed over with his poetry and music cassettes. Trudell arose from the persecution on his reservation by FBI agents, who allegedly killed his wife and children. Protest is significant with the minority practitioners of performance poetry, such as def poets and slammers. This adds to the vitality of American performance poetry and connects to the social protest of Beat poets like Allen Ginsberg.

In France, fr:Lucien Suel, Akenaton, and many other represents the way of performance poetry.

Setsuko Chiba is a Japanese poet and artist who takes the theatrical way of performance poetry since her debut in East Village in New York.

In the Czech Republic performance poetry has also become popular among both Czech speakers and expats living in the capital city, Prague, and surrounding areas. In 2002 the first expat-based performance poetry group Alchemy was established and regularly held open-mic poetry events until 2018. In 2003, the first year of the national slam poetry championship was organized as part of the Olomouc literary festival Poetry without Borders, initiated by poets and writers Jaromír Konečný and Martin Reiner and literary theorist Miroslav Balaštík.

In 2018 the Prague-based poetics collective Object:Paradise was established by writers Tyko Say and Jeff Milton with the mission to make "poetry readings more inclusive, inter-disciplinary and less restricted to art cafes and turtlenecks". The collective has since aimed to make poetry readings more similar to language happenings which involve a variety of interdisciplinary acts and performances occurring at the same time. The collective outlined twenty mantras in their manifesto to make performance poetry more of a singular happening.

The United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, many avant-garde poets are deeply committed to live exposition of work, moving on from Cobbing and his peers. Well-known names include cris cheek and Aaron Williamson. The work of UK poet Michael Horovitz helped to spread this tradition in Britain during the early 1960s. His Live New Departures - a touring version of his poetry and arts journal New Departures (launched 1959) - gave space and opportunities to poets like Pete Brown and Adrian Mitchell who combined performed verse with the backing of jazz musicians like pianist Stan Tracey and saxophonist Bobby Wellins.

However, the emergence of performed poetry as a popular art form can probably be linked to Allen Ginsberg's performance at the Albert Hall in 1965 at the International Poetry Incarnation. Horovitz, Brown and Mitchell would join Ginsberg and Beat colleagues Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Gregory Corso and other European poets at that landmark London occasion. These developments were also connected to the emergence of the Liverpool Poets, which referred mainly to the poets Roger McGough, Adrian Henri and Brian Patten who fired up audiences across the UK in the 70s and then the likes of John Hegley emerged in the 80s, influenced as much by stand-up comedy as a love for wordplay, creating the template for what became recognised as contemporary British performance poetry - a format still exemplified by the work of acts such as Murray Lachlan Young, Francesca Beard and Gerard McKeown.

Apples and Snakes, a collective promoting performance poetry in pubs and at festivals, was started by Mandy Williams, PR Murry and Jane Addison in London in 1982 inspired by the work of New Variety/CAST. They worked with 'ranting poets' such as Attila the Stockbroker and Seething Wells and other poets and musicians with a political message such as Billy Bragg. Apples and Snakes continues today, 31 years later, as a national organisation. In the 90s, however, in big cities like Manchester and London, a different style emerged that was influenced more by hip hop with much less emphasis on comedy in the manner of Def Poets in the United States. Well-known writers from this evolution include Lemn Sissay and the late Dike Omeje from the Manchester scene and Roger Robinson and El Crisis from the London circuit.

On the experimental front, there has been fresh emphasis on collaborative choreographed stage work focused on poetry. ShadoWork, for instance, disrupts and enriches the conventional regimes of author, text and audience by combining (simple) theatrical movement with the full range of voice and stage in ways designed to draw deeper attention to the text. This represents a 'counter-cultural' mode of performance poetry which shuns bald entertainment value. Other initiatives such as Lyrikal Fearta by Jonzi D have shaped street-based art for the stage, extending spoken word to short prose productions and fusing performance poetry with dance.

British performance poetry continues to thrive at a grassroots level, with performances in pubs and theatres, as well as at literary festivals and arts festivals such as Glastonbury and The Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Slams as well as open mics for more traditional writers remain popular. Media works influenced by radio performance poet Hedwig Gorski have gained ground; there has been some crossover into TV and radio. Many contemporary British performance poets have been influenced by punk poets like John Cooper Clarke and reggae poets like Linton Kwesi Johnson as well as by comedy and hip hop. In 2003 the first UK conference of performance poetry, organised by Lucy English, was held at Bath Spa University. Speakers included performing poets from the United States Bob Holman and Charles Bernstein. Bath Spa university runs a performance poetry module as part of its Creative Writing programme.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Performance poetry


text:
The Last Continent

The Last Continent is a fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett, the twenty-second book in his Discworld series. First published in 1998, it mocks the aspects of time travel such as the grandfather paradox and the Ray Bradbury short story "A Sound of Thunder". It also parodies Australian people and aspects of Australian culture, such as Crocodile Dundee, The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert and Mad Max films, the Australian beer XXXX, Vegemite, thongs, cork hats, the Peach Melba, Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, the bushranger Ned Kelly, the Henley-on-Todd Regatta, and the Australian songs "Waltzing Matilda", "Down Under", and "The Man From Snowy River".

Plot summary
The story opens weeks after the events of Interesting Times, in which Rincewind is magically transported to the continent of XXXX. Here he meets the magical kangaroo Scrappy, who explains to Rincewind that he is fated to bring back the rain, and end the eons-long drought.

Meanwhile, the senior wizards are trying to find a cure for the Librarian's magical malady, which causes him to transform into a native object, such as a book when near a library, whenever he sneezes. The Lecturer in Recent Runes suggests they interrogate Rincewind, as he once worked closely with the Librarian and seemed to know more about him than anyone else.

Back in the present, Rincewind ends up wrongfully arrested for sheep theft and taken to Bugarup, where he is hoping to find a ship to escape on. The people of Bugarup regard sheep thieves as folk heroes and encourage Rincewind to escape, while not actually allowing him to. He finds a hidden message on the ceiling of his holding cell, telling him: "G'day mate, check the hinges." He discovers that he is able to lift the door off its hinges and escape.

After several comical misadventures, the University wizards reach Fourecks and meet the Creator of Fourecks. The Librarian meanwhile steals the Creator's bullroarer and spins it, causing the drought Rincewind is in the process of stopping. The wizards are then frozen in time for thousands of years by the stray magic left over from creating the continent.

Rincewind, having escaped from gaol, meets up with two female impersonators, Darleen and Letitia, and a woman named Neilette. The "ladies" guide him to the University of Fourecks. Rincewind figures out how to free the wizards. The wizards attempt to find a way to bring back the rain, but are unsuccessful. As they are sitting around, Rincewind idly twirls the bullroarer, which soon begins to fly faster and farther than it should. Rincewind lets go and the bullroarer flies off; immediately, it begins to rain. Having saved Fourecks, Rincewind and the wizards return to Ankh-Morpork by ship.

Reception
The SF Site described it as "(l)oads of sarcasm, an outrageous plot and tons of sheer fun". Infinity Plus was less positive, recommending that Discworld newcomers start elsewhere, and stating that it "falls below (Pratchett's) normal very high standard on several counts", because although it is "great fun" and "worth buying", it "doesn't hang together as a plot, as an unfolding story".

title: The Last Continent


text:
Rudolf von Jhering

Caspar Rudolph Ritter von Jhering (also Ihering; 22 August 1818 – 17 September 1892) was a German jurist. He is best known for his 1872 book Der Kampf ums Recht (The Struggle for Law), as a legal scholar, and as the founder of a modern sociological and historical school of law. His ideas were important to the subsequent development of the "jurisprudence of interests" in Germany.

Life and career
Jhering was born on 22 August 1818 in Aurich, the Kingdom of Hanover. He entered the University of Heidelberg in 1836 and also studied in Göttingen, Munich, and starting 1838 in Berlin, where he earned his PhD. Of all his teachers, Georg Friedrich Puchta was the most influential one to him.

In 1844, after graduating as a doctor juris, Jhering established himself in Berlin as Privatdozent for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on the Geist des römischen Rechts (Spirit of Roman law), the theme that may be said to have constituted his life's work. In 1845, he became an ordinary professor at the University of Basel, in 1846 at Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in 1851 at Giessen. He left his mark at each of those seats of learning; beyond any other of his contemporaries he animated the dry bones of Roman law.

In that period, the German juristic world was still under the dominating influence of Savigny. The older school looked askance at the young professor, who attempted to build up a system of jurisprudence based on natural justice. This is the keynote of his famous work, Geist des römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwicklung (The spirit of Roman law at the various stages of its development, 1852–1865). Its originality and lucidity placed its author in the forefront of modern Roman jurists.

In the second half of the 19th century, Jhering's reputation was as high as that of Savigny's in the first half. Their methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and his school represented a historical approach. Jhering's conception of jurisprudence was as a science to be utilized for the further advancement of the moral and social interests of mankind.

In 1868, Jhering accepted the chair of Roman Law at Vienna, where his lecture-room was not only crowded with regular students but also men of all professions and even high-ranking officials. In 1872 Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria conferred a title of hereditary nobility upon him.

The social functions of the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and Jhering gladly exchanged it for the repose of Göttingen, where he became professor in 1872. That year, he had read a lecture in Vienna before an admiring audience, published under the title of Der Kampf um's Recht (1872; Eng. trans., The Struggle for Law, 1879). Its success was extraordinary. Within two years it attained twelve editions, and it has been translated into 26 languages. In this, his most famous work, Jhering based his theory of duty in the maintenance of one's rights, firstly, on the connection between rights and personality; and secondly, on the solidarity of law and rights. The relationship of rights to personality is explored. Our rights involve a parcel of our social worth, our honor. Whoever violates our rights, attacks our worth, our honor.

This work was followed five years later by Der Zweck im Recht (The Purpose in Law, 2 volumes, 1877–1883). These two works reflect Jhering's individuality. The Kampf ums Recht shows the firmness of his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and his juristic method and logic: every responsible person owes a duty to himself to assert his rights. The Zweck im Recht evidences the bent of the author's intellect. But perhaps the happiest combination of all his distinctive characteristics is to be found in his Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great feature of his lectures was his so-called Praktika, problems in Roman law, and a collection of these with hints for solution was published as early as 1847 under the title Civilrechtsfalle ohne Entscheidungen.

Aside from shorter positions at Leipzig and Heidelberg, Jhering continued to work in Göttingen until his death on 17 September 1892.

His other works include the following: Beiträge zur Lehre vom Besitz, first published in the Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privatrechts, and then separately; Der Besitzwille, and an article entitled Besitz in the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (1891), which aroused much controversy at the time, particularly on account of the opposition manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject.

Jhering was married to Ida Christina Frölich. His oldest son was the German-Brazilian zoologist Hermann von Ihering (1850–1930). He was also the great-great-grandfather of Australian singer and actress Olivia Newton-John through his daughter Helene Ehrenberg and her marriage to the German jurist Victor Ehrenberg.

Jhering was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1874.

See also Scherz und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz (1885); Das Schuldmoment im römischen Privatrecht (1867); Das Trinkgeld (1882); and among the papers he left behind him his Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropaer, a fragment, was published by Victor Ehrenberg in 1894.

In October 2018, the bicentenary of Jhering was commemorated by scholars of Roman law from several countries.

Selected works
A bibliography of Jhering is provided by Tasia Walter. His main works include:

title: Rudolf von Jhering


text:
Loreto, Marche

Loreto is a hill town and comune of the Italian province of Ancona, in the Marche. It is most commonly known as the seat of the Basilica della Santa Casa, a popular Catholic pilgrimage site.

Location
Loreto is located 127 m above sea level on the right bank of the Musone river and 22 km by rail south-southeast of Ancona; like many places in the Marche, it provides good views from the Apennines to the Adriatic.

Main sights
The city's main monuments occupy the four sides of the piazza: the college of the Jesuits; the Palazzo Comunale (formerly the Palazzo Apostolico), designed by Bramante, that houses an art gallery with works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and Annibale Carracci as well as a collection of maiolica, and the Shrine of the Holy House (Santuario della Santa Casa). It also boasts a massive line of walls, designed by the architect (and military engineer) Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, which were erected from 1518 and reinforced in the 17th century.

Twin towns and sister cities
Loreto is twinned with:

 * 🇦🇹 Mariazell, Austria
 * Fátima, Portugal
 * 🇩🇪 Altötting, Germany
 * 🇵🇱 Częstochowa, Poland
 * 🇫🇷 Lourdes, France
 * 🇮🇱 Nazareth, Israel
 * Harissa, Lebanon
 * 🇲🇹 Għajnsielem, Malta

title: Loreto, Marche


text:
Talk:Proton pump

Untitled
Oh God. ATP usually does *****NOT***** power the translocation of protons in these systems. Usually it is electron equivalents provided originally by NADPH or FADH2. God, The articles I originally authored are being attacked by a body of ignorance. I wish people would know something about bioenergetics before they edit these articles. Dwmyers 15:52 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC) - More points to be made. the F1FO particle is a reversible ATP synthase. It can create ATP, or use ATP to create a gradient. More so, in the mitochondrion, there are 5 membrane bound complexes. Complex V is another name for the F1FO particle. Complexes I through IV are largely proton pumps, and none of them can use ATP directly to create a proton gradient. The only one of these that can is the F1FO particle itself. It's reversible, you see. And while there may be exogenous proton pumps that use ATP, they're uncommon in organelles that create electrochemical gradients to make ATP. Think about it. The biochemical point is to reduce glucose to carbon dioxide and water, and make ATP in the process. If the proteins in the electron transport chain had to consume ATP to make the gradient that then is used to create ATP, it wouldn't be an energy producing process, it would be a futile cycle, consuming energy and producing heat. Dwmyers 16:11 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

Another point: the person who redirected ATP synthase to proton pump did noone a favor, as there is a lot of worthwhile chemistry about the particle that could be discussed in a separate article that has nothing to do with the general physical properties of proton pumps. Dwmyers 16:24 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

Many of the electron transport chain proteins you call pumps I'd talk about as "in effect pumps" but not as pumps in the common sense. I don't know if I'm idiosyncratic in this regard, but when I hear "proton pump," I think "proton ATPase." Perhaps related to the fact that many people call the Na/K ATPase a pump and multidrug resistance transporter a pump and lots of other ATPases pumps. Bacteriorhodopsin "pumps," I would say, but I wouldn't call it a pump. I'd like to find out what the normal usage is. If it agrees with my sense, I think the ATPase pump belongs at the top of the article and the transport proteins should follow as elaboration. 168... 22:23 Feb 12, 2003 (UTC)
 * I think the pumps a particular individual would consider important depends on circumstance. If I'm a family practitioner dealing with ulcers, I'd have one orientation. If I were an emergency room physician dealing with a case of cyanide poisoning, I might not give a hoot about my patient's ulcers, but I might want to give my patient a mitochondrial uncoupler instead. You might consider the possibility that people will come at this post from multiple angles, and be careful about writing points of view that are not yours into tiny corners, or worse, out of existence. If you wish to expand on the things you know, I'm all for it. Just please be aware that your point of view isn't the only one. Dwmyers 14:58 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * And just to elaborate on the difference in orientation, you don't think of the mitochondrial proteins as proton pumps, but the guy most instrumental in proving that they were proton pumps won a Nobel Prize for doing so. And this may be a generational thing, in that science students under the age of 30 may just take mitochondrial biochemistry for granted, but Peter Mitchell managing to prove himself right is one of the more striking examples of a maverick bucking the 20th century scientific establishment. Dwmyers 15:29 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * This might help in terms of organizing how this article goes. 168, what for you is a "normal" proton pump? Does it have any common identifiable characteristics? Are those characteristics quantifiable? I guess the point is, if you can break down the kinds of proton pumps into classes of pumps, and then we go ahead and enunciate these classes, giving examples (I'd say give names and PDB structure and EC numbers, when possible) then we have an article that benefits everyone, regardless of orientation. Dwmyers 16:05 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)

Funny, we're discussing usage again. I wonder what principles dictionaries use to hierarchize their definitions. My gut feeling, point one, is that if mechanics call a radiator a radiator and if taxi drivers call a tire a radiator, then in explaining to someone who's never heard the term radiator one should start with the mechanic's usage. That's why I wanted to know whether bioenergeticists ever used "chemiosmotic potential." Point two is that it's a totally different challenge to definition when mechanics call a radiator a radiator and paleontologists call a dorsal fin a radiator (i.e. if they did). I think these two usages are more deserving of equal treatment than in the first scenario, and I think it's more challenging in this case to say which should come first. A natural basis to choose might be the date each usage arose, putting the older first--but I don't know. But this pump thing is closer to the first category, I think. Anyway, if a thing is not foremost a pump, if it is not inseparable from pumping in the minds of the people who pick it up and move it from place to place, and notably if it has other names for what it is that don't include "pump," then I think it belongs below the other pumps. I suppose I should elaborate on "inseparable": An Earth "globe" is in effect a ball and a baseball is a ball and ballness might be _said_ to be inseparable from both, but a globe is not foremost a ball: foremost it's a kind of map. Maybe that's not the best example but I imagine you'll see what I'm getting at.

"Transmembrane ATPases" are rarely referred to as such. Typically they are called pumps and exchangers and transporters. Foremost is that they transport. I'd say foremost in electron transport proteins is that they simply swap things laterally between each other and vaguely "participate" in oxidative phosphorylation--although I'm not a bioenergeticist, and barely remember this stuff, so that my intuition isn't worth much and I may just be displaying my ignorance here. But I do doubt that these are foremost pumps to bioenergetists, if only because they weren't first known as pumps and because they are talked about together and need to be distinguished when they are. 168... 18:12 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * 168, My PhD was with a man who did hard core spectroscopy (electron spin resonance, circular dichroism, magnetically induced circular dichroism, and optical spectroscopy) on proteins in the electron transport system (among the things Graham Palmer did was determine what kinds of iron-sulfur clusters actually were in the complexes of the electron transport system; his use of magnetically induced circular dichroism with cytochrome oxidase was innovative and helped determine the coordinating ligands to cytochrome a and cytochrome a3 within the complex, all of which was a big deal in the days before crystal structures existed), and the functional mechanism of cytochrome c oxidase was a major focus of the lab I got my PhD in (we were working simultaneously on Complex III as well). I personally did not do laboratory work with cytochrome c oxidase, I worked with cytochrome c peroxidase for the most part, and then later I did computational studies of cytochrome c oxidase steady state mechanisms. So I wouldn't call myself a bioenergeticist, but I'm a lot more familiar with what they do because my PhD was all about these kinds of proteins. To me a bioenergeticist is a guy who makes mitochondrial preparations and then uses Clark electrodes to study high energy phosphate production to oxygen consumption ratios. Guys like Al Lehninger or Peter Mitchell were bioenergeticists. Incidentally, unless you have fully coupled mitochondrial preparations with active proton pumping, how can you do quantitative bioenergetics at all? If you think about it, though, what the large complexes of the electron transport system do is pump protons. That is their whole purpose. Without them aerobic respiration breaks down and you have no ATP to run anything. If they get blocked, all respiration breaks down because the buildup of metabolic intermediates shuts down anaerobic glycolysis as well. It's fine and dandy that they're sexy metalloproteins, and allow scientists with exotic equipment free license to study them, but if they didn't pump protons, what's the point? Can you point to any other useful function of these complexes? Back to characterization: What I would suggest is a functional breakdown of the various pumps. Is this pump devoted to ionic balance? Does this pump dump acid into the gastrointestinal tract? Does this pump co-transport ions? Is this pump involved in electron transport in mitochondria? What do the proton pumps you are familar with do? I'll be happy to add my two cents about the proton pumps I'm most familar with, which are the electron transport complexes. Dwmyers 19:29 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)

I think we're talking past each other here. I'll think about the function issue. Meanwhile, your response makes me think you thought I was challenging your credentials or opinion, when actually I was only offering information to help you or others assess my own. But I'm glad now to have the opinion of someone so in-the-know and to sense that it coincides with my own. You do sound like you don't consider metalloproteins _foremost_ pumps, in my terms. Anyway, since I think of these as "electron transport proteins" and vaguely recall that the electrons at least in some instances move as hydronium, I wonder if you wouldn't consider them hydronium pumps more than proton pumps. 168... 21:45 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)

At least so far as guys like Peter Mitchell and Marten Wikstrom (Marten may be the smartest man no one knows that I've ever run into. I had the pleasure of meeting him a couple times) go, no, they think of these complexes as proton pumps. To get a feel for this, there is a nice bio of Peter Mitchell whose url I stuck up on the chemiosmotic hypothesis entry that is hugely worth reading. The electrons that travel the electron transport chain, AFAIK, usually enter through NADH and FADH2, and then are either housed in the redox centers of the complexes (or cytochrome c) or in the oxidized and reduced quinones. They never are transferred laterally as hydronium. I certainly do not think of a generic metalloprotein as a proton pump per se, but just about everyone that deals with electron transport complexes calls them proton pumps. The mechanism of proton pumping in the electron transport complexes was/is the Holy Grail of mechanistic understanding of these complexes. The person who explains it at the molecular level is going to be a really big fish in the field. With luck, they could end up a Nobel candidate (though Boyer may have gotten the last of those). Dwmyers 22:18 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)

As a layman I didn't understand the article at first. Then I researched the concept and added clarification. Specialists may be annoyed by the loosy goosy analogies but specialists already know what a proton pump is.Cayte 21:09, 14 June 2006 (UTC)Cayte

I think you missed the point of Dwmyers. There is no use writing something simplified if it's not totally correct. SteveD. 3rd May 2008. 11:43 am. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.168.20.223 (talk) 01:44, 3 May 2008 (UTC)

___

Who did writte this? Ubiquinone is NOT an enzyme, it's just small molecule. And the picture is the other way round. Matrix is inside and protons are pumped into intermembrane space!!!

Image
This article could still use more references, and definitely more clarity. I agree with the previous point that the picture is very misleading - time to remove it?

Esotera (talk) 17:19, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree. That picture is entirely incorrect. It's been here for quite a while, how can we remove it? Mindule (talk) 13:48, 31 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I agreed too, I didn't understand what the image was supposed to mean, so I took it out. (And I brought it here for future reference) Here is the link to the original edit inroducing the scheme into the article.R e o + 23:10, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Proton pump


text:
Sand dollar

Sand dollars (also known as sea cookies or snapper biscuits in New Zealand and Brazil, or pansy shells in South Africa) are species of flat, burrowing sea urchins belonging to the order Clypeasteroida. Some species within the order, not quite as flat, are known as sea biscuits. Sand dollars can also be called "sand cakes" or "cake urchins".

Names
The term "sand dollar" derives from the appearance of the tests (skeletons) of dead individuals after being washed ashore. The test lacks its velvet-like skin of spines and has often been bleached white by sunlight. To beachcombers of the past, this suggested a large, silver coin, such as the old Spanish dollar, which had a diameter of 38–40 mm.

Other names for the sand dollar include sand cakes, pansy shells, snapper biscuits, cake urchins, and sea cookies. In South Africa, they are known as pansy shells from their suggestion of a five-petaled garden flower. The Caribbean sand dollar or inflated sea biscuit, Clypeaster rosaceus, is thicker in height than most. In Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas, the sand dollar is most often known as galleta de mar (sea cookie); the translated term is often encountered in English.

In the folklore of Georgia in the United States, sand dollars were believed to represent coins lost by mermaids.

Description

Sand dollars diverged from the other irregular echinoids, namely the cassiduloids, during the early Jurassic, with the first true sand dollar genus, Togocyamus, arising during the Paleocene. Soon after Togocyamus, more modern-looking groups emerged during the Eocene.

Sand dollars are small in size, averaging from 80 to 100 mm (3 to 4 inches). As with all members of the order Clypeasteroida, they possess a rigid skeleton called a test. The test consists of calcium carbonate plates arranged in a fivefold symmetric pattern. The test of certain species of sand dollar have slits called lunules that can help the animal stay embedded in the sand to stop it from being swept away by an ocean wave. In living individuals, the test is covered by a skin of velvet-textured spines which are covered with very small hairs (cilia). Coordinated movements of the spines enable sand dollars to move across the seabed. The velvety spines of live sand dollars appear in a variety of colors—green, blue, violet, or purple—depending on the species. Individuals which are very recently dead or dying (moribund) are sometimes found on beaches with much of the external morphology still intact. Dead individuals are commonly found with their empty test devoid of all surface material and bleached white by sunlight.

The bodies of adult sand dollars, like those of other echinoids, display radial symmetry. The petal-like pattern in sand dollars consists of five paired rows of pores. The pores are perforations in the endoskeleton through which podia for gas exchange project from the body. The mouth of the sand dollar is located on the bottom of its body at the center of the petal-like pattern. Unlike other urchins, the bodies of sand dollars also display secondary front-to-back bilateral symmetry with no morphological distinguishing features between males and females. The anus of sand dollars is located at the back rather than at the top as in most urchins, with many more bilateral features appearing in some species. These result from the adaptation of sand dollars, in the course of their evolution, from creatures that originally lived their lives on top of the seabed (epibenthos) to creatures that burrow beneath it (endobenthos).

Suborders and families
According to World Register of Marine Species:

 * sub-order Clypeasterina
 * family Clypeasteridae L. Agassiz, 1835
 * family Fossulasteridae Philip & Foster, 1971 †
 * family Scutellinoididae Irwin, 1995 †
 * family Conoclypidae von Zittel, 1879 †
 * family Faujasiidae Lambert, 1905 †
 * family Oligopygidae Duncan, 1889 †
 * family Plesiolampadidae Lambert, 1905 †
 * sub-order Scutellina
 * infra-order Laganiformes
 * family Echinocyamidae Lambert & Thiéry, 1914
 * family Fibulariidae Gray, 1855
 * family Laganidae Desor, 1858
 * infra-order Scutelliformes
 * family Echinarachniidae Lambert in Lambert & Thiéry, 1914
 * family Eoscutellidae Durham, 1955 †
 * family Protoscutellidae Durham, 1955 †
 * family Rotulidae Gray, 1855
 * super-family Scutellidea Gray, 1825
 * family Abertellidae Durham, 1955 †
 * family Astriclypeidae Stefanini, 1912
 * family Dendrasteridae Lambert, 1900 -- Pacific eccentric sand dollar.
 * family Mellitidae Stefanini, 1912 -- Keyhole sand dollars
 * family Monophorasteridae Lahille, 1896 †
 * family Scutasteridae Durham, 1955 †
 * family Scutellidae Gray, 1825
 * family Taiwanasteridae Wang, 1984
 * family Scutellinidae Pomel, 1888a †

Behavior and habitat

Sand dollars can be found in temperate and tropical zones along all continents. Sand dollars live in waters below the mean low tide line, on or just beneath the surface of sandy and muddy areas. The common sand dollar, Echinarachnius parma, can be found in the Northern Hemisphere from the intertidal zone to the depths of the ocean, while the keyhole sand dollars (three species of the genus Mellita) can be found on many a wide range of coasts in and around the Caribbean Sea.

The spines on the somewhat flattened topside and underside of the animal allow it to burrow or creep through the sediment when looking for shelter or food. Fine, hair-like cilia cover these tiny spines. Sand dollars usually eat algae and organic matter found along the ocean floor, though some species will tip on their side to catch organic matter floating in ocean currents.

Sand dollars frequently gather on the ocean floor, in part to their preference for soft bottom areas, which are convenient for their reproduction. The sexes are separate and, as with most echinoids, gametes are released into the water column and go through external fertilization. The nektonic larvae metamorphose through several stages before the skeleton or test begins to form, at which point they become benthic.

In 2008, biologists discovered that sand dollar larvae will clone themselves for a few different reasons. When a predator is near, certain species of sand dollar larvae will split themselves in half in a process they use to asexually clone themselves when sensing danger. The cloning process can take up to 24 hours and creates larvae that are 2/3 smaller than their original size which can help conceal them from the predator. The larvae of these sand dollars clone themselves when they sense dissolved mucus from a predatory fish. The larvae exposed to this mucus from the predatory fish respond to the threat by cloning themselves. This process doubles their population and halves their size which allows them to better escape detection by the predatory fish but may make them more vulnerable to attacks from smaller predators like crustaceans. Sand dollars will also clone themselves during normal asexual reproduction. Larvae will undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. Cloning may also occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis.

The flattened test of the sand dollar allows it to burrow into the sand and remain hidden from sight from potential predators. Predators of the sand dollar are the fish species cod, flounder, sheepshead and haddock. These fish will prey on sand dollars even through their tough exterior.

Sand dollars have spines on their bodies that help them to move around the ocean floor. When a sand dollar dies, it loses the spines and becomes smooth as the exoskeleton is then exposed.

title: Sand dollar


text:
Nicolaus Zinzendorf

Nikolaus Ludwig, Reichsgraf von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf (26 May 1700 – 9 May 1760) was a German religious and social reformer, bishop of the Moravian Church, founder of the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine, Christian mission pioneer and a major figure of 18th-century Protestantism.

Born in Dresden, Zinzendorf was often influenced by strong and vehement feelings, and he was easily moved both by sorrow and joy. Called Ludwig or Brother Ludwig by his intimates, he was a natural orator, and though his dress was simple his personal appearance gave an impression of distinction and force. He was notable for providing shelter for German-speaking Moravian exiles at Herrnhut, an effort that was influenced by Pietist ideas from the Lutheran faith he was brought up in.

Zinzendorf was critical of slavery, and played a role in starting the Protestant mission movement by supporting two determined Moravian missionaries Johann Leonhard Dober and David Nitschmann to go (via Copenhagen) to the Danish colony of Saint Thomas to minister to the enslaved population there (see Moravian slaves). In spite of having Danish royal support from Charlotte Amalie of Denmark, these missionaries faced discouragement in several forms, including by some Moravians at Herrnhut (including Christian David), by the Danish West India Company, by planters in Saint Thomas, by the risk of getting malaria, and by the slaves themselves.

His projects were often misunderstood. In 1736 he was banished from Saxony, but in 1749 the government rescinded its decree and begged him to establish within its jurisdiction more settlements like that at Herrnhut.

Zinzendorf's effect on the Moravian Church was significant, and is still evident nearly three centuries later. He is commemorated as a hymnwriter and a renewer of the church by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on its Calendar of Saints on 9 May.

Early life and ancestry
Born into one of the most prominent noble families of the region, House of Zinzendorf, Nicolaus (also Nikolaus) was the only son of Count Georg Ludwig von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf (1662–1700) by his second wife, Baroness Charlotte Justina von Gersdorff (1675–1763), daughter of Nicolaus, Baron von Gersdorff (1629–1702), Governor of the Saxon Upper Lusatia and Henrietta Catharina von Friesen-Roetha. From his father's first marriage to Baroness Maria Elisabeth Teuffel von Gundersdorf (1661–1698), Nicolaus had one half-sister, Countess Susanne Louise von Ortenburg (1690–1709), and one half-brother Count Friedrich Christian (1696–1756), who was the father of Count Karl von Zinzendorf, Governor of Trieste.

Formative years
At age six, young Nikolaus would often write love letters to Jesus. He would then climb to the castle tower and toss them out the window, where they scattered around the courtyard like innocent prayers. During the Great Northern War, Swedish soldiers overran Saxony in 1706. They entered the room where young Nickolas just happened to be conducting his customary devotions. The soldiers were incredibly moved by the boy's prayer.

His school days were spent at Franke Foundations at Halle where Pietism was strong, and in 1716, he went to the University of Wittenberg, to study law so as to be ready for a diplomatic career. Three years later, he traveled in the Netherlands, in France, and in various parts of Germany, where he made the personal acquaintance of men distinguished for practical goodness and belonging to a variety of churches. During a visit to an art museum, Zinzendorf was said to have experienced the Holy Spirit upon viewing Ecce Homo by Domencia Feti. Young Zinzendorf was convicted, noting: "I have loved Him for a long time, but I have never actually done anything for Him. From now on I will do whatever He leads me to do."

Religious freedom and discord
In 1722, Zinzendorf offered asylum to a number of persecuted wanderers from Moravia and Bohemia (parts of Czech Republic today), and permitted them to build the village of Herrnhut on a corner of his estate of Berthelsdorf. Most of the initial refugees who came to this asylum were recruited by Christian David and came from areas where the early Protestant groups such as the Unitas Fratrum had been dominant prior to the Thirty Years' War. As the village grew it became known as a place of religious freedom, and attracted individuals from a variety of persecuted groups, including the Schwenkfelders. The concentration of differing beliefs in the village produced intense conflict. Personal and religious differences between the estate manager Heitz and Johann Andreas Rothe, the Lutheran pastor of Berthelsdorf, were made more tense by the apocalyptic preaching of Johann Sigismund Krüger.

He began to visit each home for prayer, and finally called the men of the village together for an intense study of the Scriptures. The question they came to focus on was how the Scriptures described Christian life in community. These studies, combined with intense prayer, convinced many of the community that they were called to live together in love, and that the disunity and conflict they had experienced was contrary to the clear calling of Scripture.

Reconciliation and the Brotherly Agreement
Out of this study and prayer, the community formed a document known as the Brüderlicher Vertrag, the Brotherly Agreement, a voluntary discipline of Christian community. This document, and a set of rules laid down by Zinzendorf    known as The Manorial Injunctions, were signed by the members of the community on 12 May 1727. This document, which has been revised over many years, is today known as "The Moravian Covenant for Christian Living." The Moravian Church is one of the few denominations that emphasizes a code of Christian behavior over specific creeds.

Continued study and prayer in small groups known as banden resulted in a sense of reconciliation in the community, leading to a powerful spiritual renewal on 13 August 1727 during a special communion service at the Berthelsdorf Church. This experience, referred to as the "Moravian Pentecost," marked the beginning of a new era of spiritual growth in Herrnhut. It also began a period of radical experimentation with communal Christian living as expressed in Zinzendorf's theology.

Reconnection with early Unitas Fratrum
As the renewed community of Herrnhut grew, Zinzendorf obtained a copy of Ratio Disciplinae, the church order of the early Bohemian Unity. As he began to study the history of the Bohemians, he was astonished to find powerful similarities between the theology and practice of the early Unitas Fratrum and the newly established order of Herrnhut. Zinzendorf and the Herrnhuters felt a strong identification with the writings of Moravian Bishop John Amos Comenius and incorporated many of the ideas of the early Unity. However, Zinzendorf saw the new group as a spark for renewal of all denominations, not a new and separate denomination. This theological bent was reinforced by the legal structure of the Lutheran state church.

New Protestant family order
In this renewed community, Zinzendorf was able to organize the people into something similar to a militia Christi, based not on monastic but on family life. However his ideas of family were centered not on a traditional nuclear family of parents and children. Indeed, he wanted to break traditional family bonds by organizing communal families based on age, marital status and gender. The banden, or small groups, continued but were organized into "choirs" based on age, marital status, and gender. Zinzendorf's theology recognized that at each stage of life, we had different spiritual needs and a different relationship with the Savior.

Zinzendorf was consecrated a bishop at Berlin on 20 May 1737 by Bishops David Nitschmann der Bischof and Daniel Ernst Jablonski.

Missionaries and the Pilgrim Count
In 1732, the community began sending out missionaries among slaves in the Danish-governed West Indies and the Inuit of Greenland. Zinzendorf's personal and familial relation to the court of Denmark and to King Christian VI facilitated such endeavors. He saw with delight the spread of this Protestant family order in Germany, Denmark, Russia and England.

In 1736, accusations from neighboring nobles and questions of theological unorthodoxy caused Zinzendorf to be exiled from his home in Saxony. He and a number of his followers moved to Marienborn (near Büdingen) and began a period of exile and travel, during which he became known as the "Pilgrim Count."

The missionary work in the West Indies had been hugely controversial in Europe, with many accusing Zinzendorf of simply sending young missionaries off to die. He decided to place himself on the line, and in 1739 left Europe to visit the mission work on St. Thomas. Convinced that he himself might not come back, he preached his "last sermon" and left his will with his wife.

In 1741, Zinzendorf visited Pennsylvania, thus becoming one of the few 18th century European nobles to have actually set foot in the Americas. In addition to visiting leaders in Philadelphia such as Benjamin Franklin, he met with the leaders of the Iroquois and, with the assistance of Conrad Weiser reached agreements for the free movement of Moravian missionaries in the area.

Theology
He taught that the Savior had a relationship with each believer, but a different level of relationship with the Gemeinde. Decisions on interpretation of Scripture were to be made communally, not individually. He believed it was the Gemeinde, not the ecclesiastical and political institution, that was truly the Church of Jesus Christ.

His famous preaching of the redemption through the blood of Christ, followed a change of opinion around 1734/35, the years before it was suspected he had adhered to the opposite doctrines of Johann Conrad Dippel.

More scandalously, he had his secret or half-public doctrines, most notably of the "Holy marriage" or "Marriage-Sacrament". In his first big song-book, "Sammlung Geist- und lieblicher Lieder", Herrnhut 1731, in the preface p. 16, he states a holy marriage as a sacrament together with the baptism and Lord's Supper. This means that man and wife who live in such a marriage are sinless. The doctrines of this were especially given out to the married couples of the congregation in the count's speeches, notably in his 1747 edited: "Oeffentliche Gemeinreden", 2. Vols., and in the 1755 at Frankfurt and Leipzig published (by a local Saxon clergyman who had got hold of the manuscript): "Haupt-Schlüssel zum herrnhutischen Ehe-Sacrament". From 1735 on, in public writings, Z. expressly declared himself for the lutheran confession of Augsburg, but in private letters he declared indifference to any confession; that is, the Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran churches as "sects" called, that is an adherence to Jesus Christ without any doctrine, and finally his own church as the center of this, and including threats to those who would oppose him. In a letter to some separatists outside Frankfurt M, of 16. June 1736 he states: "Wir haben Lust, Seelen zu JEsu zu bereden, in allen Secten und Verfassungen. Denn wir machen keine neue, sondern leben in JESU gemein, die allenthalben nur eine ist. Will man uns dieses in Liebe lassen, so so lassen wir wieder stehen, was wir nicht gebauet. Wil man uns aber darinnen stören; so werden wir uns mit dem Schwerdt des Geistes zur Rechten und zur Lincken Platz machen. (We have desire, to prepare souls to Jesus, in all sects and constitutions. Then we make no new ones, but live in the congregation of Jesus, which everywhere only one is. Would one let this in love, so will we leave standing, what we did not build. But if one will disturb this; so will we right and left make place with the sword of spirit.)" Such utterances carried the double appearance of theological toleration and dictatorship. Which Jesus he is referring to, is also unclear, because it is a Jesus without certain content. The theology that emerged from all the controversies, was a ceremonial, liturgical one. An original English account (from Z. visit in North America) of Count Z. opinions can be found in: Gilbert Tennent: "Some account of the Principles of the Moravians", London 1743.

Declining years
By 1741 his daughter, Maria Theresa, had died and he decided to adopt a replacement. He chose an heiress, Mary Stonehouse, whom he renamed Maria Theresa. She had been married for two years to an estranged Anglican vicar. She joined the Moravian church in 1742 and served as a worker as a patron and deaconess within his household. Her husband had a more difficult relationship with the church.

A financial board was established among the Brethren, on a plan furnished by lawyer John Frederick Köber, which worked well. His son Christian Renatus, whom Zinzendorf had hoped to make his successor, died in 1752 of tuberculosis.

Works
He wrote a large number of hymns, of which the best-known is "Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness".

title: Nicolaus Zinzendorf


text:
Talk:CERN

Semi-protected edit request on 15 March 2022

The article currently uses incorrect picture in the infobox. It should be changed to correct one. I put both links here. 178.221.215.76 (talk) 09:54, 15 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Done. --mfb (talk) 10:29, 15 March 2022 (UTC)

Merging CERN and .cern
I am sceptical to merge these pages. If we follow that logic .no should be merged with Norway. In many aspects CERN is nearly like a country. Bibliophilen (talk)
 * Is there more we can say about the TLD? .no has a lot of content. .cern is simply used for official CERN websites. --mfb (talk) 05:01, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * It is still a top-level domain just like any other, I don't see why you'd remove it. Ombreux (talk) 22:47, 26 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Great Idea! You should move it, this page is so small and can easily fit on the main CERN page. Also make sure that this is mentioned on the page about top-level domains. Nrl103 (talk) 22:10, 24 August 2022 (UTC)
 * There are several hundred pages on TLDs; and they all are short. That's the nature of these subjects. Why should we merge this one, but not all the others? It is absolutely OK to have a short article, if there is not much more to say about this subject. There is nothing wrong with a short article. I'm against merge. Ping welcome, Steue (talk) 11:12, 15 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Shortness alone would be fine, but .cern (and many other .tld pages) fail WP:NOTABILITY, and by policy should be deleted or merged. (IMHO none of the information on it need be salvaged; "when did an organization register its current domain" is usually trivia, whether tld or no). There are literally over a thousand tld's; I know of no notability exemption for tld's. Rolf H Nelson (talk) 23:35, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * OPPOSE: TLDs commonly have their own article. 78.55.98.91 (talk) 01:16, 31 October 2022 (UTC)
 * I oppose to merge the both articles as country level TLD's have different aspect while organizational level TLD's have different aspect. As well CERN is not a country, though it is a member based organizations still it remains an organization only so it clearly shows not to be merged.User:Bibliophilen please elaborate more.Rockstar250802 (talk) 18:26, 22 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose To me merging the two articles is bacically trying to mix apple and pears. TLDs commonly have their own article. If .cern is to go, there will be no logic if .nato remains. From the discussion it seems like most contributors agree with me. Bibliophilen (talk)
 * Support merge for the reasons of short text and context. Categorization can be maintained with categories on the redirected page, and section redirects ensure that readers will be directed to the most relevant material. Klbrain (talk) 11:51, 7 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per Klbrain: Is there any policy, guideline or other rule I'm not aware of that so many editors insist on all TLDs having their own article, no matter how tiny? --89.206.112.10 (talk) 17:02, 4 May 2023 (UTC)

 * ✅ Klbrain (talk) 06:42, 18 June 2023 (UTC)

Z Lineshape
I don't see explict mention of one of the most important scientific achievements to come out of CERN: the precision measurement of the Z lineshape. There's an indirect mention: the 1989 publications on the number of light neutrino species based on the first few Z events collected in 1989. However, there are two main reasons why that isn't quite the same. First, orders of magnitude more data were collected (with much better precision) from 1990 to 1995; in fact, the 1989 data were not even used in the final lineshape measurement. And second, the Z lineshape does more than give the number of light neutrinos: it constrains the Higgs boson mass, provides several precision measurments of the Standard Model (e.g., lepton universality, unitarity of the neutrino mixing matrix, etc.), and constrains parameters of Supersymmetry and other beyond-the-Standard-Model theories.

So, I thought I'd add it. However, it's hard to assign a date to the lineshape measurement. The bulk of the data used for the measurement was collected from 1990 to 1995 when LEP ran at the Z pole, and several preliminary results were published in the mid-1990s. However, the LEP electroweak working group continuously refined the systematics and didn't publish their final result until 2005 (after incorporating data from SLAC). So in the absence of any other ideas, I'll put down 1995-2005 as the date of the measurement. But if anyone has other opinions, feel free to change it. Gdlong (talk) 17:53, 11 April 2023 (UTC)

History, missing quite a lot
Here's an excerpt from another language:

In the aftermath of the Second World War, European research in physics was almost non-existent, whereas it had been at the height of its glory a few years earlier. It was under these conditions that the Frenchman Louis de Broglie, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929, launched the idea, at the European Conference on Culture held in Lausanne in 1949, to create a European scientific laboratory.

In 1952, with the support of UNESCO, which promotes the creation of regional scientific laboratories, eleven European governments decide to create a European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN). It is during a meeting in Amsterdam that the site where the CERN facilities will be located is chosen: it will be in Switzerland, in the municipality of Meyrin, located against the Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva. Esteban Outeiral Dias (talk) 11:47, 31 May 2023 (UTC)

 * It's strange. Contemporary video footage clearly shows a "Centre Européen pour la Recherche Nucléair" sign when the construction works began. Then, at the time of laying the foundation stone by Felix Bloch, it was called as European Institute for Nuclear Research. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Yogurt (talk • contribs) 09:37, 29 September 2023 (UTC)

spelling error
The "Computer science" section says about the World Wide Web, "It became the dominate way through which most users interact with the Internet." As far as I know, even "British English Oxford spelling" doesn't replace "dominant" (the adjective) with "dominate" (the verb). This is admittedly a trivial error, but one that I've encountered often enough that it annoys me every time. 173.61.40.240 (talk) 22:08, 6 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for pointing that out, I fixed it. XeCyranium (talk) 22:49, 11 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:CERN