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Morus (plant)

Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of diverse species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. Generally, the genus has 64 subordinate taxa, three of which are well-known and are ostensibly named for the fruit color of the best-known cultivar: white, red, and black mulberry (Morus alba, M. rubra, and M. nigra, respectively), with numerous cultivars and some taxa currently unchecked and awaiting taxonomic scrutiny. M. alba is native to South Asia, but is widely distributed across Europe, Southern Africa, South America, and North America. M. alba is also the species most preferred by the silkworm, and is regarded as an invasive species in Brazil and the United States.

The closely related genus Broussonetia is also commonly known as mulberry, notably the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera).

Despite their similar appearance, mulberries are not closely related to raspberries or blackberries. All three species belong to the Rosales order. But while the mulberry is a tree belonging to the Moraceae family (also including the fig, jackfruit, and other fruits), raspberries and blackberries are brambles and belong to the Rosaceae family (also including the apple, peach, and other fruits).

Description
Mulberries are fast-growing when young, and can grow to 24 m tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, and often lobed and serrated on the margin. Lobes are more common on juvenile shoots than on mature trees. The trees can be monoecious or dioecious.

The mulberry fruit is a multiple, about 2-3 cm long. Immature fruits are white, green, or pale yellow. The fruit turns from pink to red while ripening, then dark purple or black, and has a sweet flavor when fully ripe.

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of Morus is complex and disputed. Fossils of Morus appear in the Pliocene record of the Netherlands. Over 150 species names have been published, and although differing sources may cite different selections of accepted names, less than 20 are accepted by the vast majority of botanical authorities. Morus classification is even further complicated by widespread hybridisation, wherein the hybrids are fertile.

The following species are accepted:

 * Morus alba L. – white mulberry (China, Korea, Japan)
 * Morus australis Poir. – East and South-East Asia
 * Morus boninensis Koidz.
 * Morus cathayana Hemsl. – China, Japan, Korea
 * Morus celtidifolia Kunth – Texas mulberry (southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, South America)
 * Morus indica L. – India, Southeast Asia
 * Morus koordersiana J.-F.Leroy
 * Morus liboensis S.S.Chang – Guizhou Province in China
 * Morus macroura Miq. – long mulberry (Tibet, Himalayas, Indochina)
 * Morus microphylla Buckley
 * Morus miyabeana Hotta
 * Morus mongolica (Bureau) C.K.Schneid.
 * Morus nigra L. - black mulberry (Iran, Caucasus, Levant)
 * Morus notabilis C.K.Schneid. – Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in China
 * Morus rubra L. – red mulberry (eastern North America)
 * Morus serrata Roxb. – Tibet, Nepal, northwestern India
 * Morus trilobata (S.S.Chang) Z.Y.Cao – Guizhou Province in China
 * Morus wittiorum Hand.-Mazz. – southern China

In southern Brazil, the mulberry is known as amorinha.

Distribution

Black, red, and white mulberries are widespread in Southern Europe, the Middle East, Northern Africa, and the Indian subcontinent, where the tree and the fruit have names under regional dialects. Black mulberry was imported to Britain in the 17th century in the hopes that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms. It was much used in folk medicine, especially in the treatment of ringworm s. Mulberries are also widespread in Greece, particularly in the Peloponnese, which in the Middle Ages was known as Morea, deriving from the Greek word for the tree (, mouria).

Cultivation

Mulberries can be grown from seed, and this is often advised, as seedling-grown trees are generally of better shape and health. Mulberry trees grown from seed can take up to ten years to bear fruit. Mulberries are most often planted from large cuttings, which root readily. The mulberry plants allowed to grow tall have a crown height of 5 to 6 ft from ground level and a stem girth of 4 - 5 in. They are specially raised with the help of well-grown saplings 8–10 months old of any of the varieties recommended for rainfed areas like S-13 (for red loamy soil) or S-34 (black cotton soil), which are tolerant to drought or soil-moisture stress conditions. Usually, the plantation is raised and in block formation with a spacing of 6 by, or 8 by, as plant-to-plant and row-to-row distances. The plants are usually pruned once a year during the monsoon season to a height of 5 - 6 ft and allowed to grow with a maximum of 8–10 shoots at the crown. The leaves are harvested three or four times a year by a leaf-picking method under rain-fed or semi-arid conditions, depending on the monsoon. The tree branches pruned during the fall season (after the leaves have fallen) are cut and are used to make durable baskets supporting agriculture and animal husbandry.

Some North American cities have banned the planting of mulberries because of the large amounts of pollen they produce, posing a potential health hazard for some pollen allergy sufferers. Actually, only the male mulberry trees produce pollen; this lightweight pollen can be inhaled deeply into the lungs, sometimes triggering asthma. Conversely, female mulberry trees produce all-female flowers, which draw pollen and dust from the air. Because of this pollen-absorbing feature, all-female mulberry trees have an OPALS allergy scale rating of just 1 (lowest level of allergy potential), and some consider it "allergy-free".

Mulberry tree scion wood can easily be grafted onto other mulberry trees during the winter, when the tree is dormant. One common scenario is converting a problematic male mulberry tree to an allergy-free female tree, by grafting all-female mulberry tree scions to a male mulberry that has been pruned back to the trunk. However, any new growth from below the graft(s) must be removed, as they would be from the original male mulberry tree.

Toxicity
All parts of the plant besides the ripe fruit contain a toxic milky sap. Eating too many berries may have a laxative effect. Additionally, unripe green fruit may cause nausea, cramps, and a hallucinogenic effect.

Nutrition
Raw mulberries are 88% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and less than 1% fat. In a 100 g reference amount, raw mulberries provide 43 calories, 44% of the Daily Value (DV) for vitamin C, and 14% of the DV for iron; other micronutrients are insignificant in quantity.

Culinary
As the fruit matures, mulberries change in texture and color, becoming succulent, plump, and juicy, resembling a blackberry. The color of the fruit does not distinguish the mulberry species, as mulberries may be white, lavender or black in color. White mulberry fruits are typically sweet, but not tart, while red mulberries are usually deep red, sweet, and juicy. Black mulberries are large and juicy, with balanced sweetness and tartness.

The fruit of the East Asian white mulberry – a species extensively naturalized in urban regions of eastern North America – has a different flavor, sometimes characterized as refreshing and a little tart, with a bit of gumminess to it and a hint of vanilla. In North America, the white mulberry is considered an invasive exotic and has taken over extensive tracts from native plant species, including the red mulberry.

Mulberries are used in pies, tarts, wines, cordials, and herbal teas. The fruit of the black mulberry (native to southwest Asia) and the red mulberry (native to eastern North America) have distinct flavors likened to 'fireworks in the mouth'. Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in the Old World.

The tender twigs are semisweet and can be eaten raw or cooked.

Supplement
The fruit and leaves are sold in various forms as dietary supplements.

Silk industry

Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, are ecologically important as the sole food source of the silkworm (Bombyx mori, named after the mulberry genus Morus), the cocoon of which is used to make silk. The wild silk moth also eats mulberry. Other Lepidoptera larvae—which include the common emerald, lime hawk-moth, sycamore moth, and fall webworm—also eat the plant.

The Ancient Greeks and Romans cultivated the mulberry for silkworms; at least as early as 220 AD, Emperor Elagabalus wore a silk robe. English clergy wore silk vestments from about 1500 onwards. Mulberry and the silk industry played a role in colonial Virginia.

Pigment
Mulberry fruit color derives from anthocyanins, which have unknown effects in humans. Anthocyanins are responsible for the attractive colors of fresh plant foods, including orange, red, purple, black, and blue. These colors are water-soluble and easily extractable, yielding natural food colorants. Due to a growing demand for natural food colorants, they have numerous applications in the food industry.

A cheap and industrially feasible method has been developed to extract anthocyanins from mulberry fruit that could be used as a fabric dye or food colorant of high color value (above 100). Scientists found that, of 31 Chinese mulberry cultivars tested, the total anthocyanin yield varied from 148 to 2725mg/L of fruit juice. Sugars, acids, and vitamins of the fruit remained intact in the residual juice after removal of the anthocyanins, indicating that the juice may be used for other food products.

Mulberry germplasm resources may be used for:
 * exploration and collection of fruit yielding mulberry species
 * their characterization, cataloging, and evaluation for anthocyanin content by using traditional, as well as modern, means and biotechnology tools
 * developing an information system about these cultivars and varieties
 * training and global coordination of genetic stocks
 * evolving suitable breeding strategies to improve the anthocyanin content in potential breeds by collaboration with various research stations in the field of sericulture, plant genetics, and breeding, biotechnology and pharmacology

Paper
During the Angkorian age of the Khmer Empire of Southeast Asia, monks at Buddhist temples made paper from the bark of mulberry trees. The paper was used to make books, known as kraing.

Tengujo is the thinnest paper in the world. It is produced in Japan and made with kozo (stems of mulberry trees). Traditional Japanese washi paper is often created from parts of the mulberry tree.

Wood
The wood of mulberry trees is used for barrel aging of Țuică, a traditional Romanian plum brandy.

Culture

A Babylonian etiological myth, which Ovid incorporated in his Metamorphoses, attributes the reddish-purple color of the mulberry fruits to the tragic deaths of the lovers Pyramus and Thisbe. Meeting under a mulberry tree (probably the native Morus nigra), Thisbe commits suicide by sword after Pyramus does the same, he having believed, on finding her bloodstained cloak, that she was killed by a lion. Their splashed blood stained the previously white fruit, and the gods forever changed the mulberry's colour to honour their forbidden love.

The nursery rhyme "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush" uses the tree in the refrain, as do some contemporary American versions of the nursery rhyme "Pop Goes the Weasel".

Vincent van Gogh featured the mulberry tree in some of his paintings, notably Mulberry Tree (Mûrier, 1889, now in Pasadena's Norton Simon Museum). He painted it after a stay at an asylum, and he considered it a technical success.

title: Morus (plant)


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Talk:Linspire/Archive 1

hasnt Microsfot sued these guys recently?

Yes. They lost. Tannin

That's probably more interesting thatn the name off their CEO -- Tarquin 18:34 Jan 11, 2003 (UTC)

Indeed. I don't know enough about Lindows to do it myself though. BTW, I should clarify - when I said "they lost" I meant Microsoft lost. This was no doubt written up on The Register and/or The Inquirer at the time: maybe a couple of months ago, or a little longer. www.theregister.co.uk and www.theinquirer.net Tannin

I found that the latest Linspire disables the RPM and Apt-Get programs. Here is how to fix them to get Linspire working like other Debian distros:

Go to /etc/apt/sources.lst and take out the comments, those "#" signs and then apt-get works as it should.

apt-get install gcc apt-get install man apt-get install mozilla

Also they crippled RPM too. /var/lib/rpm/ was missing so I created it, ran apt-get install rpm and then rpm --initdb and rpm --rebuilddb and it fixed the problem of not being able to load RPMs with Linspire. Added by: Orion Blastar OrionBlastar

Linspire helped me do stuff with GNU/Linux that I otherwise would not have been able to do. I'm a simple end user, so I really have had a bit of a hard time with SuSE Linux, which is my other distro of choice. I like SuSE well enough, and it takes lots of pounding in my law office, but there is more of a learning curve to SuSE than with Linspire. Added Christian Einfeldt, einfeldt@gmail.com on 2004/12/15

So whats the shpiel? Are these guys GPL compliant? If so where is there source code? It sounds fishy to me! Kramer

Yes, Linspire is GPL compliant. The source code can be downloaded from http://www.linspire.com/lindows_products_license.php#sou David Orban on 2005/05/25

One question/comment about Linspire running as root by default: what Linux distro doesn't run as root by default? I've installed several distros on several computers, and the only account that's created is root. It's up to the user to create additional, non-root accounts. I haven't seen the Linspire documentation, but that information should be there.

 * ubuntu doesn't even have root users (if you need root user privileges temporarily, you can run the command with sudo) --Limulus 23:06, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * A far more experienced Linux user informs me that indeed, ubuntu does have a root user, but there is no root user password set up, effectively making it useless (unless, of course, one knows how to set the password...) --Limulus 07:53, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

 * True, and it should be noted that Ubuntu does away with the same problems as Linspire by allowing to elevate privileges as necessary, and all users in the system may not even have this ability. The approach is very similar to that of Mac OS X, in which (even when logged in with an administrator-privileged account), the user has to log in again as some administrator when installing programs or updating the system. --80.221.11.149 05:26, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

Michael Robertson called the legal action "Sextuple Jeopardy", which is like "Double jeopardy" but sextupled.

This line sounds kind of unprofessional, unless the whole line is Robertson's, but that's not my main complaint. Wouldn't Sextuple Jeopardy be Double Jeopardy but tripled? (Unless Robertson made that mistake too.) Azure Haights 02:57, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)

a friend just bought a comp loaded with this sys. not too happy with it!

Whoever is editing the CNR link to point to their commercial site where they are selling the product... STOP IT! You should point it to the Linspire site for information direct from the source. Another thing is the addition of "apt-get" information under the heading of CNR. This does NOT belong there! You can start a new section if you want to..... but, apt-get has nothing to do with CNR and if you start to apt-get software on a Linspire system you will turn it into a "frankensystem" that is half-Debian and half-Linspire and you will most likely end up breaking things. You can use apt-get OR you can use CNR by you cannot use both of them unless you really want to hose your computer. Unknown Linspire User

CNR cost too much for me and others to afford the subscription to, in order to download F/OSS software. I mean why pay a monthly fee to have the right to download F/OSS software? I'd rather use apt-get instead. I switched from Linspire to KNOPPIX, then KANOTIX, and then Unbuntu, and now Red Hat Fedora. Linspire upset me for the last time, and spited me with the 4.0 to 5.0 upgrade in which they wanted me to pay more for the new OS to fix bugs and security flaws in 4.0 that they refused to fix. Since I was using F/OSS software via apt-get, I no longer needed Linspire. Fedora Up2Date and Synoptic work as well as Linspire CNR, only without the monthly access fees. Linspire is one of the few Linux based distros that breaks when you apply F/OSS software the normal way you are supposed to install it. OrionBlastar 14:54 Sept 28, 2005 (CDT)

It seems to me a rather troubling accusation that security flaws were not corrected in a prior release. That said, Apple did the same thing, until they were pressured into releasing the security updates for Jaguar as well as integrating them into Panther. The debate over what qualifies as a bugfix and what should be a free update is a debate --albiet IMHO an illegitamete one. If you look at Office 2003, an improved feature often meant "contains bug fixes". For example, if error reporting has been improved, doesn't that mean "works more reliably" (ie. works as intended). It still didn't fix my problems with error reporting.. but you see my point.

Could you provide evidence that security flaws went uncorrected?

--Smkatz

The Criticisms-section seemed to be in need of a workout. Debasing established and field-tested security practices as well as numerous expert opinions simply with a biased choice of words doesn't seem to constitute very good encyclopedic material. --80.221.11.149 05:16, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

The whole article looks like a commercial advertisement. As for the Criticism section, there is no word about the commertial nature of the CNR service- the main thing the Linspire opponents dislike. In the Freespire section, I was shocked these words: In August 2005, a distribution LiveCD called "Freespire" hit the web by accident. What accident? Squiggle OS however, is no longer in development. Why? What really happened between Andrew Betts and Linspire Inc.?

CNR / Ubuntu
My opinion: Do not remove the Ubuntu/CNR deal rumor from ubuntu's page. It is pertinent to Ubuntu; if you are interested in Ubuntu and did not hear this rumor, you will not find out about it if it's only on the Linspire page. It's ok to have the topic covered in both articles, or even have it mostly in Linspire with a note on the Ubuntu page briefly summarizing with a "more info" link. --AlanH 22:47, 21 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Seconded. - 81.179.222.74 01:38, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Linspire/Archive 1


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Wikipedia talk:FAQ/Editing

Paid editing and experience
I noticed that there is a page titled Paid editing (guideline). This page talks about editing Wikipedia and getting paid for it, but it doesn't seem to include some crucial details such as the following: - How does Wikipedia evaluate your article-writing capabilities? How does it verify that you should get paid to write? - If your skills in writing are not good enough, does Wikipedia teach you how to write better? Does it tell you where to find writing courses? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dominic inquisitive (talk • contribs) 07:39, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

How do I find an editor's contributions?
This should be an FAQ. (By the way, I would like to know the answer, since I forgot how to do it.) Kdammers 06:26, 30 September 2006 (UTC)

 * In the search box, type "user:" and then the person's username. Once at their user page, click the "Contributions" link on the left.  Equazcion •✗/C • 14:08, 12/21/2007

External Link
How do I add an external link to a town page.

Margaret —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alltheinfo (talk • contribs) 21:01, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

 * See External links. Also read the part about which links are appropriate, for example "You should avoid linking to a website that you own, maintain or represent". PrimeHunter (talk) 22:40, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

How can I add pictures to pages?
This section needs a major update. --—— Gadget850 (Ed)  talk  -  14:54, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

"How do I add a link?" Section
As with much of Wikipedia help, I found this section quite unreadable for people who don't use the program frequently. When help says "the "page name" can come from a URL," it is simply utterly unclear to someone who doesn't know the syntax already. There is no reference made to the text that is being edited, so, there is no context. One must say explicitly what code is is to be inserted (or even that code is inserted) and what it will do. It would be REALLY nice if when one goes for help, there is a simple list of the possible commands and what they do. I have never been able to search for help and find what I wished without clicking about five more links. Sorry, rant for the day. I love Wikipedia otherwise! If my replacement is unclear, please change. I had no clue from what was written how you use the search command to make a link, and the link from there was not helpful. Peacedance (talk) 03:40, 14 October 2009 (UTC) thanks — Preceding unsigned comment added by 197.156.81.231 (talk) 11:55, 5 February 2019 (UTC)

Translation
Is there any shortcut or easy way to translate and create a wiki page into different language? --Rashid Jorvee 04:54, 20 February 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rashid Jorvee (talk • contribs)

title: Wikipedia talk:FAQ/Editing


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Urticales

Urticales is an order of flowering plants. Before molecular phylogenetics became an important part of plant taxonomy, Urticales was recognized in many, perhaps even most, systems of plant classification, with some variations in circumscription. Among these is the Cronquist system (1981), which placed the order in the subclass Hamamelidae [sic], as comprising:
 * Barbeyaceae
 * Cannabaceae
 * Cecropiaceae
 * Moraceae
 * Ulmaceae
 * Urticaceae

In the APG III system (2009), the plants belonging to this order, along with four other families, constitute the order Rosales. Cecropiaceae is no longer recognized as separate from Urticaceae. The families Ulmaceae, Cannabaceae, Moraceae, and Urticaceae form a clade that has strong statistical support in phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences. This clade has been informally called the urticalean rosids.

Urticalean rosids refers to the relationships amongst several families of angiosperms, and now includes more than 2,500 species.

The families are:
 * Cannabaceae
 * Moraceae
 * Ulmaceae
 * Urticaceae

The relationships within the "urticalean lineage" are now considered to be within the Rosales. The Moraceae and Urticaceae account for approximately 90% of the diversity within the clade.

Analysis of DNA samples in rbcL, trnL-F, and ndhF plastid regions suggests that Urticalean rosids are derived out of a lineage including Barbeyaceae, Dirachmaceae, Elaeagnaceae, and Rhamnaceae, with Rosaceae less closely related. The morphological and molecular characters which define "urticalean rosids" are:
 * A dense gray tomentum comprising curly unicellular trichomes on abaxial leaf surfaces
 * A reduced stamen count to one whorl or less
 * Presence of inconspicuous flowers with up to five stamens
 * Presence of two carpels
 * A unilocular ovary with single apical ovule
 * Urticoid teeth upon leaves
 * Developed prophyllar buds between paired inflorescences

Urticalean families span a wide range of morphological features—deciduous or evergreen trees, vines, shrubs, annuals and some succulents. Leaves also vary though they tend to share brochidodromous or palmately pinnate venation, often associated with lobing or compounding in the leaf blade. Among Moraceae, Urticacae and Cecropiaceae, mucilage cells and latex production is common. However, Cannabaceae and Ulmaceae do not produce this material despite the presence of laticifers.

title: Urticales


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Derek Jacobi

Sir Derek George Jacobi (born 22 October 1938) is an English actor. Jacobi is known for his work at the Royal National Theatre and for his film and television roles. He has received numerous accolades including a BAFTA Award, two Olivier Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and a Tony Award. He was given a knighthood for his services to theatre by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994.

Jacobi started his professional acting career with Laurence Olivier as one of the founding members of the National Theatre. He has appeared in numerous Shakespearean stage productions including Hamlet, Much Ado About Nothing, Macbeth, Twelfth Night, The Tempest, King Lear, and Romeo and Juliet. Jacobi received the Laurence Olivier Award, for the title role in Cyrano de Bergerac in 1983 and Malvolio in Twelfth Night in 2009. He also won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his role as Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing in 1985.

Jacobi has also made numerous television appearances including starring as Claudius in the BBC series I, Claudius (1976), for which he won the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor. He received two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie for The Tenth Man (1988), and Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for Frasier (2001). He is also known for his roles in the medieval drama series Cadfael (1994–1998), the HBO film The Gathering Storm (2002), the ITV sitcom Vicious (2013-2016) and in BBC's Last Tango in Halifax (2012–2020). He portrayed Edward VIII, the Duke of Windsor, in the third season of the acclaimed Netflix series The Crown in 2019.

Though principally a stage actor, Jacobi has appeared in a number of films, including Othello (1965), The Day of the Jackal (1973), Henry V (1989), Dead Again (1991), Hamlet (1996), Gladiator (2000), Nanny McPhee (2005), The Riddle (2007), My Week with Marilyn (2011), Anonymous (2011), Cinderella (2015), and Murder on the Orient Express (2017). Jacobi has also earned two Screen Actors Guild Awards along with the ensemble cast for Robert Altman's Gosford Park (2001), and Tom Hooper's The King's Speech (2010).

Early life
Derek George Jacobi was born on 22 October 1938 in Leytonstone, Essex, England, the only child of Daisy Gertrude (née Masters; 1910–1980), a secretary who worked in a drapery store in Leyton High Road, and Alfred George Jacobi (1910–1993), who ran a sweet shop and was a tobacconist in Chingford. His patrilineal great-grandfather had emigrated from Germany to England during the 19th century. He also has a distant Huguenot ancestor. His family was working-class, and Jacobi describes his childhood as happy. In his teens he went to Leyton County High School for Boys, now known as the Leyton Sixth Form College, and became an integral part of the drama club, The Players of Leyton.

While in the sixth form, he starred in a production of Hamlet, which was taken to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and very well regarded. At 18 he won a scholarship to the University of Cambridge, where he read history at St John's College and earned his degree. Younger members of the university at the time included Ian McKellen (who had a crush on him—"a passion that was undeclared and unrequited", as McKellen relates it) and Trevor Nunn. During his studies at Cambridge, Jacobi played many parts including Hamlet, which was taken on a tour to Switzerland, where he met Richard Burton. As a result of his performance of Edward II at Cambridge, Jacobi was invited to become a member of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre immediately upon his graduation in 1960.

Early work
Jacobi's talent was recognised by Laurence Olivier, who invited the young actor back to London to become one of the founding members of the new National Theatre, even though at the time Jacobi was relatively unknown. He played Laertes in the National Theatre's inaugural production of Hamlet opposite Peter O'Toole in 1963. Olivier cast him as Cassio in the successful National Theatre stage production of Othello, a role that Jacobi repeated in the 1965 film version. He played Andrei in the NT production and film of Three Sisters (1970), both featuring Olivier. On 27 July 1965, Jacobi played Brindsley Miller in the first production of Peter Shaffer's Black Comedy. It was presented by the National Theatre at Chichester and subsequently in London.

After eight years at the National Theatre, Jacobi left in 1971 to pursue different roles. In 1972, he starred in the BBC serial Man of Straw, an adaptation of Heinrich Mann's book Der Untertan, directed by Herbert Wise. Jacobi appeared in a somewhat comical role, as Lord Fawn, in eight episodes of the 26-episode mini-series The Pallisers for BBC Two in 1974. Most of his theatrical work in the 1970s was with the touring classical Prospect Theatre Company, with which he undertook many roles, including Ivanov, Pericles, Prince of Tyre and A Month in the Country opposite Dorothy Tutin (1976).

Jacobi was increasingly busy with stage and screen acting, but his big breakthrough came in 1976 when he played the title role in the BBC's series I, Claudius. He cemented his reputation with his performance as the stammering, twitching Emperor Claudius, winning much praise. In 1979, thanks to his international popularity, he took Hamlet on a theatrical world tour through England, Egypt, Greece, Sweden, Australia, Japan and China, playing Prince Hamlet. He was invited to perform the role at Kronborg Castle, Denmark, known as Elsinore Castle, the setting of the play. In 1978, he appeared in the BBC Television Shakespeare production of Richard II, with Sir John Gielgud and Dame Wendy Hiller.

Later career
In 1980, Jacobi took the leading role in the BBC's Hamlet, made his Broadway debut in The Suicide (a run shortened by Jacobi's return home to England due to the death of his mother), and joined the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC). From 1982 to 1985, he played four demanding roles simultaneously: Benedick in Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing, for which he won a Tony for its Broadway run (1984–1985); Prospero in The Tempest; Peer Gynt; and Cyrano de Bergerac which he brought to the US and played in repertory with Much Ado About Nothing on Broadway and in Washington DC (1984–1985). In 1986, he made his West End debut in Breaking the Code by Hugh Whitemore, starring in the role of Alan Turing, which was written with Jacobi specifically in mind. The play was taken to Broadway. In 1988, Jacobi alternated in West End the title roles of Shakespeare's Richard II and Richard III in repertoire.

He appeared in the television dramas Inside the Third Reich (1982), where he played Hitler; Mr Pye (1985); and Little Dorrit (1987), based on Charles Dickens's novel; The Tenth Man (1988) with Anthony Hopkins and Kristin Scott Thomas. In 1982, he lent his voice to the character of Nicodemus in the animated film, The Secret of NIMH. In 1990, he starred as Daedalus in episode 4 of Jim Henson's The Storyteller: Greek Myths.

Jacobi continued to play Shakespeare roles, notably in Kenneth Branagh's 1989 film of Henry V (as the Chorus), and made his directing debut as Branagh's director for the 1988 Renaissance Theatre Company's touring production of Hamlet, which also played at Elsinore and as part of a Renaissance repertory season at the Phoenix Theatre in London. The 1990s saw Jacobi keeping on with repertoire stage work in Kean at The Old Vic, Becket in the West End (the Haymarket Theatre) and Macbeth at the RSC in both London and Stratford. In 1993 Jacobi voiced Mr Jeremy Fisher in The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.

He was appointed the joint artistic director of the Chichester Festival Theatre, with the West End impresario Duncan Weldon in 1995 for a three-year tenure. As an actor at Chichester he also starred in four plays, including his first Uncle Vanya in 1996 (he played it again in 2000, bringing the Chekhov play to Broadway for a limited run). Jacobi's work during the 1990s included the 13-episode series TV adaptation of the novels by Ellis Peters, Cadfael (1994–1998) and a televised version of Breaking the Code (1996). Film appearances of the era included performances in Kenneth Branagh's Dead Again (1991), Branagh's full-text rendition of Hamlet (1996) as King Claudius, John Maybury's Love is the Devil (1998), a portrait of painter Francis Bacon, as Senator Gracchus in Gladiator (2000) with Russell Crowe, and as "The Duke" opposite Christopher Eccleston and Eddie Izzard in a post-apocalyptic version of Thomas Middleton's The Revenger's Tragedy (2002).

In 2001, Jacobi won an Emmy Award by mocking his Shakespearean background in the television sitcom Frasier episode "The Show Must Go Off", in which he played the hammy, loud, untalented Jackson Hedley, a television star with a misguided belief that he deserves a revival of his stage career.

2000–present
Jacobi has narrated audio book versions of the Iliad, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader by C. S. Lewis, Farmer Giles of Ham by J. R. R. Tolkien, and two abridged versions of I, Claudius by Robert Graves. In 2001, he provided the voice of "Duke Theseus" in The Children's Midsummer Night's Dream film. In 2002, Jacobi toured Australia in The Hollow Crown with Sir Donald Sinden, Ian Richardson and Dame Diana Rigg. Jacobi also played the role of Senator Gracchus in Gladiator and starred in the 2002 miniseries The Jury. He is also the narrator for the BBC children's series In the Night Garden....

In 2003, he was involved with Scream of the Shalka, a webcast based on the science fiction series Doctor Who. He played the voice of the Doctor's nemesis the Master alongside Richard E. Grant as the Doctor. In the same year, he also appeared in Deadline, an audio drama also based on Doctor Who. Therein he played Martin Bannister, an ageing writer who makes up stories about "the Doctor", a character who travels in time and space, the premise being that the series had never made it on to television. Jacobi later followed this up with an appearance in the Doctor Who episode "Utopia" (June 2007); he appears as the kindly Professor Yana, who by the end of the episode is revealed to be the Master. Jacobi admitted to Doctor Who Confidential he had always wanted to be on the show: "One of my ambitions since the '60s has been to take part in a Doctor Who. The other one is Coronation Street. So I've cracked Doctor Who now. I'm still waiting for Corrie."

In 2004, Jacobi starred in Friedrich Schiller's Don Carlos at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, in an acclaimed production, which transferred to the Gielgud Theatre in London in January 2005. The London production of Don Carlos gathered rave reviews. Also in 2004, he starred as Lord Teddy Thursby in the first of the four-part BBC series The Long Firm, based on Jake Arnott's novel of the same name. In Nanny McPhee (2005), he played the role of the colourful Mr. Wheen, an undertaker. He played the role of Alexander Corvinus in the 2006 action-horror film Underworld: Evolution.

In March 2006, BBC Two broadcast Pinochet in Suburbia, a docudrama about former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and the attempts to extradite him from Great Britain; Jacobi played the leading role. In September 2007, it was released in the U.S., retitled Pinochet's Last Stand. In 2006, he appeared in the children's movie Mist, the tale of a sheepdog puppy, he also narrated this movie. In July–August 2006, he played the eponymous role in A Voyage Round My Father at the Donmar Warehouse, a production which then transferred to the West End. In February 2007, The Riddle, directed by Brendan Foley and starring Jacobi, Vinnie Jones, and Vanessa Redgrave, was screened at Berlin EFM. Jacobi plays twin roles: first a present-day London tramp and then the ghost of Charles Dickens. In March 2007, the BBC's children's programme In the Night Garden... started its run of one hundred episodes, with Jacobi as the narrator. He played Nell's grandfather in ITV's Christmas 2007 adaptation of The Old Curiosity Shop, and returned to the stage to play Malvolio in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night (2009) for the Donmar Warehouse at Wyndham's Theatre in London. The role won him the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor. He appears in five 2009 films: Morris: A Life with Bells On, Hippie Hippie Shake, Endgame, Adam Resurrected and Charles Dickens's England. In 2010, he returned to I, Claudius, as Augustus in a radio adaptation. In 2011, he was part of a medieval epic, Ironclad, which also starred James Purefoy and Paul Giamatti, as the ineffectual Reginald de Cornhill, castellan of Rochester castle.

Jacobi starred in Michael Grandage's production of King Lear (London, 2010), giving what The New Yorker called "one of the finest performances of his distinguished career". In May 2011, he reprised this role at the Brooklyn Academy of Music.

In April 2012, he appeared in Titanic: Blood and Steel and in November 2012, he starred in the BBC series Last Tango in Halifax. In 2013, he starred in the second series of Last Tango, and in 2014, the third series.

In 2013, Jacobi starred alongside Ian McKellen in the ITV sitcom Vicious as Stuart Bixby, the partner to Freddie Thornhill, played by McKellen. On 23 August 2013, the show was renewed for a six-episode second series which began airing in June 2015. The show ended in December 2016, with a Christmas special.

Since 2017, Jacobi has again portrayed The Master in several box set series for Big Finish Productions, collectively entitled The War Master.

In 2018, he played the Bishop of Digne in the BBC miniseries Les Misérables.

In 2018, Jacobi received the World United Creator – Platinum Demiurge Award for his tremendous contribution to uniting and promoting world literature based on his efforts to introduce William Shakespeare into modern cinema.

In 2019 he reprised the role of the emperor Claudius in Horrible Histories: The Movie – Rotten Romans.

In 2022 Jacobi appeared in Allelujah, a film adaptation of Alan Bennett's play of the same name directed by Richard Eyre, which also starred Jennifer Saunders, Bally Gill, Russell Tovey, David Bradley, and Judi Dench.

Shakespeare authorship involvement
Jacobi has been publicly involved in the Shakespeare authorship question. He supports the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, according to which Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford wrote the works of Shakespeare. Jacobi has given an address to the Shakespeare Authorship Research Centre promoting de Vere as the Shakespeare author and wrote forewords to two books on the subject in 2004 and 2005.

In 2007, Jacobi and fellow Shakespearean actor and director Mark Rylance initiated a "Declaration of Reasonable Doubt" on the authorship of Shakespeare's work, to encourage new research into the question.

In 2011, Jacobi accepted a role in the film Anonymous, about the Oxfordian theory, starring Rhys Ifans and Vanessa Redgrave. In the film Jacobi narrates the Prologue and Epilogue, set in modern-day New York, while the film proper is set in Elizabethan England. Jacobi said that making the film was "a very risky thing to do", stating "the orthodox Stratfordians are going to be apoplectic with rage".

Personal life
In March 2006, four months after civil partnerships were introduced in the United Kingdom, Jacobi registered his partnership with Richard Clifford, a theatre director and Jacobi's partner of 27 years (46 years total time together, including marriage, as of 2024). They live in West Hampstead, northwest London.

Along with his Vicious co-star Ian McKellen, he was a Grand Marshal of the 46th New York City Gay Pride March in 2015.

Jacobi is an atheist.

Awards and honours
Jacobi has received various awards including two Olivier Awards, a Tony, a BAFTA, two Primetime Emmy Awards and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.
 * 1985: Commander of the Order of the British Empire (United Kingdom)
 * 1989: Knight 1st class of the Order of the Dannebrog (Denmark)
 * 1994: Knight Bachelor, for services to Drama (United Kingdom)

title: Derek Jacobi


text:
Talk:James Brown

Please don't erase reliable sources
The Citing sources policy is not a justifiable excuse to erase my sources. Two sources are still accepted on the Gorgeous George article. I even included another newer source which is very easy to read. Please follow the NPOV policy.Mancalledsting (talk) 10:38, 16 June 2020 (UTC)
 * When you have been told repeatedly that the links to sources don't work and you continue to add them, you are edit warring. Revise the edit using ONLY sources that work, but the sources cited must fully support your edit. And take one minute to CHECK the links to see if they work. Sundayclose (talk) 15:46, 16 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Just a friendly suggestion; it's perfectly OK to start with a suggestion on the Talk page before making changes and putting in links, especially if you're new. And if your new account is an attempt to get around an edit ban, I certainly don't want to encourage that, but I will say if that's the case, really not a good idea to get flagged as an edit vandal again. Accuracy Banshee (talk) 20:43, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

You are making up nonsense, especially with the source I even mentioned above. You are only demonstrating that you are looking for excuses to erase edits you don't like. Are you going to send the abuse of power calvary which doesn't like the good edit too?Mancalledsting (talk) 16:28, 16 June 2020 (UTC)
 * And you have a serious misunderstanding about how Wikipedia works. Allow me to respectfully suggest that you slow down and discuss things when others who disagree with you instead of charging in with guns blasting. You have edited less than one month, and you have received multiple warnings during that short time. Slow down, read some policies, and discuss. Otherwise you are headed for a block from editing.
 * Also be aware that two editors can have several common articles in their watchlists. Editing those pages is not "stalking". You need to read WP:NPA before making accusations. Sundayclose (talk) 17:02, 16 June 2020 (UTC)

Annie Lennox reference
Article states that Annie Lennox released a 2007 album called Venus, containing a song called Vengeance. Her 2007 album is called Songs of Mass Destruction and contains no such song. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Octolad (talk • contribs) 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Ted Wright
Knowledgeable parties, please see the discussion at Talk:I Got You (I Feel Good). Perhaps this issue is notable enough to address in this article? At the very least, we need a RS for the info. - dcljr (talk) 09:03, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

Moved paragraph
The first paragraph under "personal life" was about how ill he became near the end of his life, which makes no sense as a beginning. I moved that paragraph to the "illness and death" section. The personal life section may now give the appearance of being "unbalanced" by emphasizing that he was not a kind or gentle man; my defense is that the section now appears packed with abuse and violence because Brown's personal life really was packed with abuse and violence, and there's no point in trying to soften that. TooManyFingers (talk) 09:29, 7 October 2022 (UTC)

Yvonne Fair
In the article Yvonne Fair, why does it list that she is the mother of his two children when it is mentioned on her daughter’s find a grave website, but not on here? Yvonne is the mother of his two daughters Venisha. This should be included in the James Brown article. Oldschoollover24 (talk) 06:07, 24 November 2023 (UTC)

Is there a list of band members?
Thinking of something like this 78.144.96.118 (talk) 23:19, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

No reference to most iconic legacy in contemporary pop culture?
The article does not seem to mention his most well known work among contemporary pop culture; the Bully Maguire song from Spiderman 3. Should this be added under the legacy section? 203.46.132.214 (talk) 03:12, 10 April 2024 (UTC)

Image with disc jockey
I sugggest that we restore the image replaced here. The full image is very rare and particularly relevant because it shows Brown with a disc jockey (whose name need not be mentioned). SergeWoodzing (talk) 19:08, 14 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:James Brown


text:
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen

Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (15 January 1895 – 11 November 1973) was a Finnish chemist and recipient of the 1945 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method".

He invented AIV silage which improved milk production and a method of preserving butter, the AIV salt, which led to increased Finnish butter exports.

Personal life
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen was born on 15 January, 1895, in Helsinki, Finland. He is the son of Kaarlo Virtanen, a railway engine driver and Serafina Isotalo.

He completed his school education at the Classical Lyceum in Viipuri, Finland. He married the botanist Lilja Moisio (1894-1972) in 1920 and had two sons with her.

In 1933, he bought a farm near Helsinki where he tested some of his scientific results in practice. He saw in the overproduction of food only a temporary phenomenon. He lived a simple life, he never had a car of his own, never smoked and never consumed alcohol. He died of pneumonia in November 1973, following a broken femur from a fall few weeks prior. He was buried at the Hietaniemi Cemetery.

Academics
Virtanen began his studies at the University of Helsinki in chemistry 1913 earning his Master and in 1918 his PhD in organic chemistry. In 1919 he started to work in the laboratories of Valio, a large producer of dairy products and became director of the laboratory in 1920. Feeling not fully qualified and following his interest in botany and zoology led him to further scientific education and so he left Valio and studied at the ETH, the University of Münster and the University of Stockholm he studied physical chemistry, soil chemistry and microbiology. In 1923 in Sweden he worked with Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1929. Back in Finland he became lecturer at the University of Helsinki in 1924, known for his lectures on chemistry of life. He worked in the laboratory of the Butter Export Association, which became a laboratory of the university. In 1930 the Institute for Biochemistry was founded and Virtanen stayed there until his death in 1973. He became professor of biochemistry at the Helsinki University of Technology in 1931 and at the University of Helsinki in 1939.

Career
His research started with work on the phosphorylation of hexoses in 1924. He was able to show that phosphorylation is the first step in many fermentation reactions, which was the foundation of the Embden–Meyerhof pathway.

In 1925 his interests shifted to the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants. The improved methods of butter preservation, by adding disodium phosphate to prevent acidic hydrolysis. This method was in use for several decades in Finland. His research from 1925 till 1932 included the invention of a fodder preservation method (AIV fodder). The method, patented in 1932, was basically a kind of silage that improved the storage of green fodder, which is important during long winters. The process includes adding dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid to newly stored grain. Increased acidity stops harmful fermentation and has no adverse effect on the nutritive value of the fodder or the animals it is fed to. In 1945, Virtanen received the Nobel Prize in chemistry "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry".

His later years studies included the development of partially synthetic cattle feeds. The nitrogen for the synthesis of amino acids normally comes from proteins in the fodder. A special bacterial environment in the rumen of cattle allows them to use urea and ammonium salts as source for the nitrogen instead of plant proteins like soybean or meat and bone meal. He also headed the Valio Laboratory from 1921 to 1969.

Awards and honours
The prestige conferred by the Nobel Prize brought Virtanen invitations, honorary doctorates and membership in foreign academies of science. He was a member of the Finnish, Norwegian, Swedish, Flemish, Bavarian, and Pontifical Academies of Science, and of the Swedish and Danish Academies of Engineering Sciences. He was an honorary member of learned societies in Finland, Sweden, Austria, Edinburgh, and the US, and received honorary degrees of the Universities of Lund, Paris, Giessen, and Helsinki, the Royal Technical College at Stockholm, and the Finland Institute of Technology.

The asteroid 1449 Virtanen, discovered by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him. The lunar crater Virtanen is also named after him.

title: Artturi Ilmari Virtanen


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Laestadianism

Laestadianism (Læstadianism, Lestadiolaisuus), also known as Laestadian Lutheranism and Apostolic Lutheranism, is a pietistic Lutheran revival movement started in Sápmi in the middle of the 19th century. Named after Swedish Lutheran state church administrator and temperance movement leader Lars Levi Laestadius, it is the biggest pietistic revivalist movement in the Nordic countries. It has members mainly in Finland, Northern America, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. There are also smaller congregations in Africa, South America, and Central Europe. In addition Laestadian Lutherans have missionaries in 23 countries. The number of Laestadians worldwide is estimated to be between 144,000 and 219,000.

Organization in Finland and North America
Most Laestadians in Finland are part of the national Lutheran Church of Finland (cf. Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses); but in America, where there is no official Lutheran church, they founded their own denomination, which split into three sub-groups in the mid-20th century. Subsequent splits in the American church later resulted in 19 branches, of which about 15 are active today.

The three large main branches, comprising about 90 percent of Laestadians, are:

 * Conservative Laestadianism are known to other Laestadians as the "Heidemans", after 20th-century leader Paul A. Heideman. They are represented in North America by the Laestadian Lutheran Church.
 * The Firstborn are known to other Laestadians as the "Esikoinens". They are represented in North America by the Old Apostolic Lutheran Church.
 * Rauhan Sana ("Word of Peace") are known to other Laestadians as the "Mickelsens", after 20th-century leader Andrew Mickelsen. They are represented in North America by the Apostolic Lutheran Church of America.

The other branches are small and some of them inactive.

In Finland, the Elämän Sana ("the Word of life") group, as the most "mainline" of the different branches of Laestadianism, has been prominent within the hierarchy of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland: two members have been elected bishops of Oulu, and one has served as Chaplain General (head chaplain of the Finnish Defence Forces, the equivalent of a Major General).

Emphasis on justification
All branches share many essential teachings including a central emphasis on the Lutheran doctrine of justification (forgiveness and grace).

The true Christians doctrine
Another core teaching concerns essential differences in lifestyle and beliefs between true believers on one hand, and false Christians and unbelievers (sometimes distinguished as of living faith versus dead faith), on the other.

Exclusion and inclusion among Laestadian sub-groups
The leaders of the two largest Laestadian sub-groups, the Conservative Laestadians and Firstborn Laestadians, have for decades excluded each other and all other Laestadian sub-groups from the kingdom of Heaven even though the denominations' core doctrines are nearly indistinguishable. The leadership of the smaller third main sub-group, the Federation, has continued to regard the other sub-groups as of living faith, after having unsuccessfully sought to preserve unity within Laestadianism when its larger counterparts' leaders in the 1930s called for, and later required, dissociation from the Federation and other Laestadian denominations.

Declaration of forgiveness
The church teaches that every believer has the authority to testify that others' sins are forgiven, sometimes referred to as the audible declaration of the forgiveness of sins. Laestadians usually proclaim the forgiveness of sins "in Jesus' name and blood".

In practice
Laestadianism holds that when a Christian has committed a sin, whether in thought or deed, she or he should confess the sin to another believer. Thus it is a common practice among Laestadians in or out of church at any time, but especially during the church service prior to the rite of holy communion, to be confessing their sins to one another or, occasionally, to one of the church ministers performing the sacrament. A common declaration is, "Believe your sin(s) forgiven in Jesus' name and (shed) blood." This procedure, ingrained in Laestadianism, differs from absolution in mainstream Lutheran churches in several aspects, including that the request for forgiveness need not be, and most often is not, to the minister; the confession is often made openly; confession is not by appointment but rather readily available to any believer from any other believer at any time; and the specific wording of the declaration states that the means of atonement is Christ's shed blood.

A most solemn rite
Because a Laestadian takes very seriously the proposition that grace exists only for one whose sins have been specifically forgiven, there is scarcely another rite in this movement that would rival the importance of the declaration of forgiveness. This doctrine is a unique extension of the priesthood of the believer doctrine.

Identifying greeting and farewell
When greeting each other, Laestadians say "God's peace" in English, and Jumalan terve, meaning 'God's greeting' or 'welcome', in Finnish. To take their leave of each other, they say "God's blessing" in English, the same as the Finnish farewell Jumalan rauhaa.

Emphasis on avoiding sin and "worldliness"
"Worldliness" is discouraged, and Laestadians frown on pre-marital sex, and on alcohol consumption except in the sacrament of holy communion. Conservative Laestadians frown upon worldly vices such as dancing, television, birth control, rhythmic music, make-up, earrings, movies, tattoos, and cursing. Some conservative elements within the church go even further in rejecting the ways of the world by, for example, refusing to buy insurance, prohibiting their children's participation in organized school sports, and removing their car radios. Simplicity in the home, including the prohibition of curtains and flowers, is also a common claim especially among Firstborn Laestadians, but is not a church doctrine.

Birth control
Especially large numbers of Firstborn Apostolic Lutherans and many members of the most conservative congregations within the Word of Peace group do not use birth control because they believe that a child is a gift from God; therefore, many Laestadian families are large.

Social gatherings
The central activities of Laestadians are annual or more frequent church conventions, including the Summer Services of Conservative Laestadians, attended by members from congregations far and wide; and for the youth, haps (gatherings of teenagers and young adults to sing from Songs and Hymns of Zion and visit), song services, bonfires, youth discussions, caretaking meetings and revival meetings.

Within Firstborn Laestadianism in Scandinavia, the most important yearly events are the Christmas services in Gällivare and the Midsummer services in Lahti, where thousands of Firstborn Laestadians from different countries gather each year.

Publications
Different branches publish their newspapers and magazines.

Chosen Scripture
In Finland, the Bible version primarily used by Laestadians is the Finnish Bible of 1776 which, unlike newer translations, is based on the Textus Receptus. The Central Association of the Finnish Associations of Peace (SRK) publishes a triple Finnish translation (1776, 1933/1938, and 1992) that is used as both a study and a service Bible by Conservative Laestadian preachers. American and Canadian Laestadianism uses the King James Version, based as well on the Textus Receptus.

Roots of the movement
The name of the movement stems from Lars Levi Laestadius (1800–1861), a Swedish Sámi preacher and administrator for the Swedish state Lutheran church in Sápmi who was also a noted botanist. Laestadius started the movement when working as a pastor for the Church of Sweden in northern Sweden in the 1840s. Laestadius met a Sami woman named Milla Clementsdotter from Föllinge in the municipality of Krokom in Jämtland during an 1844 inspection tour of Åsele. She belonged to a revival movement within the Church of Sweden led by pastor Pehr Brandell of the parish of Nora in the municipality of Kramfors in Ångermanland and characterized by pietistic and Moravian influences. She told Laestadius about her spiritual experiences on her journey to a truly living Christianity, and after the meeting Laestadius felt he had come to understand the secret of living faith. He had had a deep experience of having entered a state of grace, of having received God's forgiveness for his sins and of at last truly seeing the path that leads to eternal life. His sermons acquired, in his own words, "a new kind of colour" to which people began to respond. The movement began to spread from Sweden to Finland and Norway, particularly among the Sámi and the Kvens. He preferred his followers to be known simply as "Christians", but others started to call them "Laestadians."

Initial effect on Laestadius's Sámi parishioners
Two great challenges Laestadius had faced since his early days as a church minister were the indifference of his Sámi parishioners, who had been forced by the Swedish government to convert from their shamanistic religion to Lutheranism, and the misery caused them by alcoholism. The spiritual understanding Laestadius acquired and shared in his new sermons "filled with vivid metaphors from the lives of the Sami that they could understand, ... about a God who cared about the lives of the people" had a profound positive effect on both problems. An account from the Sámi cultural perspective recalls a new desire among the Sámi to learn to read and a bustle and energy in the church, with people confessing their sins, crying and praying for forgiveness—within Laestadianism this was known as liikutukset, a kind of ecstasy. Drunkenness and cattle theft diminished, which had a positive influence on the Samis' relationships, finances and family life.

Rise of Laestadianism among the Sámi
The rapid rise of Laestadianism among the Sámi was due to several factors. Laestadius proudly self-identified as Sámi through his Southern Sámi mother. He spoke and preached in two Sámi dialects. Further he chose uneducated lay preachers from the Sámi reindeer herders to travel year around with them and preach to the unrepented among them. Additionally, in the early days of the movement, Laestadius, in order to find common ground with his parishioners, borrowed the Sámis' own familiar pagan deities and concepts and adapted them to Christianity. Another factor in the rise of Laestadianism among the Sámi was that the state-mandated boarding schools soon came to be populated by Laestadian personnel. Next, the strict moral code including strict temperance of Laestadianism appealed to the Sámi. Whole communities that had been wrecked by alcoholism went sober virtually overnight. This had the added positive effect of improving the Sámis' social standing with the outside world. Finally, Laestadianism was a faith that the Sámi could identify as originating from within inasmuch as Laestadius himself professed to have come to know the true living faith only upon his encounter with the poor abused Sámi woman, Milla Clementsdotter.

"Unbroken line of living Christianity"
A faction within Laestadianism has believed that the movement is a contemporary descendant of an unbroken line of living Christianity via Luther, the Bohemian Brethren, the Lollards, and the Waldensians all the way back to the primitive Church. Martin Luther, Jan Hus, John Wycliffe, and Peter Waldo are seen as spiritual ancestors of Laestadianism.

Groups in 2024

 * 1. Conservative Laestadianism 115,000 people (in Finland (SRK), the U.S. (Laestadian Lutheran Church), Sweden (SFC), Russia, Togo (ELLT), Canada (LLC), Kenya (LLOP), Ghana (LLC), Gambia (LLC), Ecuador, Norway, Estonia (ELR), Latvia, London, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, etc.)
 * 2. Firstborn Laestadianism unknown membership number (in U.S.A. (Old Apostolic Lutheran Church), Finland (Esikoislestadiolaiset ry), Sweden, Norway, Russia, Latvia)
 * 3. Little Firstborn group (Rauhan Sana group) 21,000 people (in Finland (LFF and LYRS), the U.S. (Apostolic Lutheran Church of America), Sweden, Norway, Canada (ALC), Guatemala, Nigeria, India, Togo (ALC) and Kenya)
 * 4. Torola group 4,000 people (in the U.S. (First Apostolic Lutheran Church), Sweden and Finland (SVR))
 * 5. Reed group (Pollarites) 3,500 people in the U.S. (Independent Apostolic Lutheran Church)
 * 6. Reawakening 3,000 people (in Finland (LLK) and Norway)
 * 7. Esikoiset ry 1,500 people (in Finland)
 * 8. Old Erikians (Lyngen group) 1,200 people in Norway
 * 9. Alajokites 1,000 people (In Minneapolis and Wolf Lake in Minnesota in the U.S.)
 * 10. New Erikians 800 people in Norway
 * 11. Aunes group 550 people in the U.S. (The Apostolic Lutheran Church)
 * 12. Elämän Sana group (clericalists) 300 people (in Finland, Sweden (SFK) and Norway)
 * 13. Levi group 200 people (in Finland and Sweden)
 * 14. GALC 50 people in the U.S. (Grace Apostolic Lutheran Church)
 * 15. Leskinen group 50 people (in Sweden and Norway)
 * 16. Kvaenangen group (svärmeri) 50 people in Norway
 * 17. Davidites 40 people in the U.S.
 * 18. Gundersen group 30 people in Norway
 * 19. Hanka group (Melvinites) 20 people in the U.S.
 * 20. Sten group 15 people in Finland
 * 21. Kontio group 5 people in Finland

Fertility
Members tend to have large families by Western standards. In Finland, their demographic advantage has grown as the national fertility rate has fallen: in the 1940s their fertility rate was twice the national average, while in the 1980s it was four times the average. "By 1985–7, the Laestadian and Finnish TFRs stood at 5.47 and 1.45 respectively. Even within the Laestadian TFR of 5.47, there is diversity, with a 'moderate' group preferring to stop at four [children] and practise birth control while a conservative cluster engages in unrestrained reproduction.

No research has been done on Laestadians' level of endogamy and membership retention [as of 2010]. However, they are residentially and occupationally integrated, so lose more members to assimilation. For example, in the small town of Larsmo, despite some losses to outmarriage and emigration, their share of the population doubled over just thirty years to about 40% in 1991 and was predicted to be "a two-thirds majority of the town in a generation."

In literature

 * An Examination of the Pearl, a book written by Edwin A. Suominen. An Examination of the Pearl is a study of the doctrine and history of Conservative Laestadianism. The book also looks at the teachings of Martin Luther, early Christianity, Christian fundamentalism and sectarianism, and the Bible.
 * To Cook A Bear by Mikael Niemi. A fictional tale set in the far north of Sweden in 1852 following a runaway Sami boy and his mentor, the famous pastor Laestadius.
 * Lars Levi Laestadius and the Sami
 * Læstadianism and Its Role in the Loss of the Traditional Sámi Worldview, by Viktor 'Vulle' Cornell
 * Laestadianism
 * Lars Levi Laestadius and the Revival in Lapland, by Warren H. Hepokoski
 * The Laestadian Movement: Background Writings and Testimonies, compiled by Warren H. Hepokoski
 * The Laestadian Movement: Disputes and Divisions 1861 – 2000, by Warren H. Hepokoski
 * We Sinners, a novel about Laestadianism by former LLC-member Hanna Pylväinen.
 * The End of Drum-Time, a 2023 novel by Hanna Pylväinen set northern Scandinavia in the 1850's, in which primary characters include Lars Levi Laestadius (fictionalized) and Sámi reindeer herders ISBN 9781250822901
 * Science Fiction author Walter Jon Williams discusses his family history with Laestadianism

In film and television

 * All the Sins - a Finnish television series set in a Laestadian town in northern Finland
 * Laestadianism – USA (short documentary)
 * Forbidden Fruit
 * The Kautokeino Rebellion
 * The Earth Is a Sinful Song
 * Elina: As If I Wasn't There
 * Arctic Circle (Finnish: Ivalo) – TV Series
 * Bordertown (Finnish TV series), season 3, episodes 7 & 8, features mysterious deaths in a Conservative Laestadian community.

Famous Laestadians

 * Juha Sipilä, Finnish MP and former Finnish prime minister and Centre Party leader, is a life-long Rauhan Sana Laestadian.
 * Sexmane (real name Edward Maximilian Sene), platinum-selling Finnish recording artist, was born and raised in a Laestadian family in Siilinjärvi.

title: Laestadianism


text:
Aleksis Kivi

Aleksis Kivi (born Alexis Stenvall; 10 October 1834 – 31 December 1872) was a Finnish writer who wrote the first significant novel in the Finnish language, Seitsemän veljestä ("Seven Brothers" ), published in 1870. He is also known for his 1864 play, Nummisuutarit ("Heath Cobblers" ). Although Kivi was among the very earliest writers of prose and lyrics in Finnish, he is still considered one of the greatest.

Kivi is regarded as the national writer of Finland and his birthday, 10 October, is celebrated as Finnish Literature Day.

Life
Aleksis Stenvall was born in Palojoki village, Nurmijärvi, Grand Duchy of Finland. His parents were the village tailor Erik Johan Stenvall (1798–1866) and Anna-Kristiina Hamberg (1793–1863). Aleksis had three older brothers – Johannes, Emanuel, and Albert – and a younger sister, Agnes, who died in 1851 at the age of 13.

In 1846, Kivi left for school in Helsinki. In 1859, he was accepted into the University of Helsinki, where he studied literature and developed an interest in the theatre. His first play was Kullervo (1860), based on a tragic tale from the Kalevala, Finland's national epic. He also met the famous journalist and statesman Johan Vilhelm Snellman who became his supporter.

During his time at school Kivi read world literature from the library of his landlord, and during his university studies, he saw plays by Molière and Schiller at the Swedish Theatre in Helsinki. Kivi also became friends with Fredrik Cygnaeus and Elias Lönnrot.

From 1863 onwards, Kivi devoted his time to writing. He wrote 12 plays and a collection of poetry. The novel Seitsemän veljestä ("Seven Brothers") took him ten years to write. Literary critics, especially the prominent August Ahlqvist, disapproved of the book, at least nominally because of its "rudeness" (Romanticism was at its height at the time). Ahlqvist also wrote "It is a ridiculous work and a blot on the name of Finnish literature". It is known that no other critic hated Kivi's writings as much as Ahlqvist, in which case the situation could almost be called "persecution", but the Fennomans also disapproved of Kivi's not-so-virtuous depictions of rural life, which were far from their idealized point of view, and Kivi's excessive drinking may have alienated some.

In 1865, Kivi won the State Prize for his still often performed comedy Nummisuutarit ("Heath Cobblers"). However, the less than enthusiastic reception of his books was taking its toll and he was already drinking heavily. His main benefactor Charlotta Lönnqvist, with whom Kivi lived in Siuntio at the time of his creative writing, could not help him after the 1860s.

By 1870, while he was living at Franzén's cottage in Tapanila, Helsinki, Kivi's health collapsed. Assailed by typhoid and attacks of delirium he was hospitalised. His doctor diagnosed melancholia due to his "injured dignity as a writer". The psychiatrist Kalle Achté concludes, based on a documentary survey, that Kivi was suffering from of schizophrenia, although advanced borreliosis has also been suggested.

Kivi died in poverty in 1872 (aged 38) in Tuusula, at the home of his brother Albert. According to legend, his last words were, "I live" ("Minä elän").

Tribute
In the early 20th century, young writers Volter Kilpi and Eino Leino raised Kivi to the status of national icon. Eino Leino – and later Väinö Linna and Veijo Meri – also identified with Kivi's fate as an author.

In 1936, the Aleksis Kivi Prize, awarded for contributions to Finnish literature, was established.

In 1939, the Aleksis Kivi Memorial, a bronze statue of Kivi by Wäinö Aaltonen, was erected in front of the Finnish National Theatre. Many streets in Finnish cities and towns have also been named after Kivi, such as Aleksis Kiven katu in Tampere.

In 1941 the Aleksis Kivi Society was founded.

In 1995 to 1996, Finnish composer Einojuhani Rautavaara wrote an opera about Kivi's life and works. Two films have also been made: "I Live" (Finnish title: Minä elän) from 1946, directed by Ilmari Unho; and The Life of Aleksis Kivi (Finnish title: Aleksis Kiven elämä) from 2002, written and directed by Jari Halonen.

Kivi in English

 * Impola, Richard A., trans. Aleksis Kivi, Seven Brothers (English translation of Seitsemän veljestä). New Paltz, NY: Finnish-American Translators Association, 1991.
 * Matson, Alex, trans. Aleksis Kivi, Seven Brothers (English translation of Seitsemän veljestä). 1st edition, New York: Coward-McCann, 1929. 2nd edition, Helsinki: Tammi, 1952. 3rd edition, edited by Irma Rantavaara, Helsinki: Tammi, 1973.
 * Robinson, Douglas, trans. Aleksis Kivi's Heath Cobblers and Kullervo. St. Cloud, MN: North Star Press of St. Cloud, 1993.
 * Robinson, Douglas, trans. The Brothers Seven. Bucharest, Romania: Zeta Books, 2017

title: Aleksis Kivi


text:
Seitsemän veljestä

Seitsemän veljestä (literally translated The Seven Brothers, or The Brothers Seven in Douglas Robinson's 2017 translation) is the first and only novel by Aleksis Kivi, the national author of Finland. It is widely regarded as the first significant novel written in Finnish and by a Finnish-speaking author, and it is considered to be a real pioneer of Finnish realistic folklore. Today, some people still regard it as the greatest Finnish novel ever written, and in time it has even gained the status of a "national novel of Finland". The deep significance of the work for Finnish culture has even been quoted internationally, and in a BBC article by Lizzie Enfield, for example, describes Kivi's Seitsemän veljestä as "the book that shaped a Nordic identity."

Kivi began writing the work in the early 1860s and wrote it at least three times, but no manuscript has survived. The work was largely created while Kivi lived in Siuntio's Fanjurkars with Charlotta Lönnqvist. It was first time published in 1870 in four volumes, but the publication of a one-volume novel did not happen until 1873, a year after the author's death.

Reception history
Published in 1870, Seitsemän veljestä ended an era dominated by Swedish-speaking authors, most notable of whom was J. L. Runeberg, and created a solid basis for new Finnish authors like Minna Canth and Juhani Aho, who were, following Aleksis Kivi, the first authors to depict ordinary Finns in a realistic way.

The novel was particularly reviled by the literary circles of Kivi's time, who disliked the unflattering image of Finns it presented. The title characters were seen as crude caricatures of the nationalistic ideals of the time. Foremost in this hostile backlash was the influential critic August Ahlqvist, who called the book a "ridiculous work and a blot on the name of Finnish literature" and wrote in review published in Finlands Allmänna Tidning that "the brothers' characters were nothing like calm, serious and laborious folk who toiled the Finnish lands." Another critic worth mentioning was the Fennoman politician Agathon Meurman, who, among other things, said the book was "a hellish lie about Finnish peasants" and stated that "Mr. Kivi regards the printing press as his poetic rectum."

Literary scholar Markku Eskelinen considers Seitsemän veljestä to be very exceptional compared to his time of birth and the state of Finnish prose literature at that time. According to Eskelinen, the work is more tense and aesthetically complex than the realistic novels of the significant generation of writers who followed Kivi. Eskelinen also highlights Kivi's linguistic play with genres: although the work uses a lot of biblical and otherwise religious language for understandable reasons due to the dominance of religious literature at the time, its attitude to religious authority is not submissive, unlike other prose literature of the time. In Eskelinen's opinion, Finnish-language prose works comparable to the richness and multilevelness of Kivi's work began to appear only in the next century.

The novel is referred to in the coat of arms of the Nurmijärvi municipality, the birthplace of Kivi. The explanation of the coat of arms is “in the blue field, the heads of seven young golden-haired young men set 2+3+2.” The coat of arms was designed by Olof Eriksson in accordance with the idea proposed by B. Harald Hellström, and was approved by the Nurmijärvi Municipal Council at its meeting on December 18, 1953. The coat of arms was approved for use by the Ministry of the Interior on April 14, 1954.

Jukola brothers

 * Juhani – at 25 years old the oldest brother. The leader of the group and also the most stubborn.
 * Tuomas – scrupulous, strong as a bull, although Juhani claims to be the strongest brother.
 * Aapo – twin-brother of Tuomas. Logical and peaceful.
 * Simeoni – alcoholic and the most religious brother.
 * Lauri – the most solemn brother, friend of nature and a loner.
 * Timo – twin-brother of Lauri; simple and earnest.
 * Eero – at 18 years old he is the youngest brother. Intelligent, clever, quarrelsome when confronted by Juhani.

Other

 * Venla, a neighbor girl wooed by five of the seven brothers

Plot summary
At first, the brothers are not a particularly peaceful lot and end up quarreling with the local constable, juryman, vicar, churchwarden, and teachers—not to mention their neighbours in the village of Toukola. No wonder young girls' mothers do not regard them as good suitors. When the brothers are required to learn to read before they can accept church confirmation and therefore official adulthood—and the right to marry—they decide to run away.

Eventually they end up moving to distant Impivaara in the middle of relative wilderness, but their first efforts are shoddy—one Christmas Eve they end up burning down their sauna. The next spring they try again, but are forced to kill a nearby lord's herd of bulls and pay them back with wheat. Ten years of hard work clearing the forest for fields, hard drinking—and Simeoni's apocalyptic visions from delirium tremens—eventually lead them to mend their ways. They learn to read on their own and eventually return to Jukola.

In the end, most of them become pillars of the community and family men. Still, the tone of the tale is not particularly moralistic. Symbolically, the brothers represent the Finnish-speaking people and culture in the midst of external forces that force them to change.

Translations
Seitsemän veljestä has been translated three times into English and 56 more times into 33 other languages. Many significant Finnish artists have been responsible for illustrating the book, including Akseli Gallén-Kallela (1908), Marcus Collin (1948), Matti Visanti (1950), and Erkki Tanttu (1961).

The first English edition was translated by Alexander Matson and published in 1929 by Coward-McCann. Revised editions of Matson's translation were published in 1952 and 1973 by Tammi Publishers, with Irma Rantavaara conducting the third edition's revisions.

A translation by Richard Impola was published in 1991 by the Finnish American Translators Association. Douglas Robinson translated the book in 2017 under the title The Brothers Seven for Zeta Books in Bucharest.

Adaptations
The Finnish National Theatre produced the first stage version of the novel in 1898 and Armas Launis composed the first Finnish comic opera based on the novel in 1913. The first film adaptation was made by Wilho Ilmari in 1939.

In 1989, a television series called Seitsemän veljestä (TV series) directed by Jouko Turkka caused wide controversy because of its portrayal of the brothers.

The novel was adapted into a children's picture book in 2002 with all the characters changed into dogs or birds, which was titled The Seven Dog Brothers: Being a Doggerel Version of The Seven Brothers, Aleksis Kivi's Classic Novel from 1870. The book was credited to Mauri Kunnas, a Finnish children's author, and Tarja Kunnas. Mr. Clutterbuck from Goodnight, Mr. Clutterbuck, also by Mauri Kunnas, makes an appearance in the story.

title: Seitsemän veljestä


text:
Arvo Ylppö

Arvo Henrik Ylppö (27 October 1887 – 28 January 1992) was a Finnish physician and professor of pediatrics who significantly decreased Finnish infant mortality during the 20th century. He is credited as the father of Finland's public maternity and child health clinic system established in 1922 (neuvola), which focuses on monitoring the health and development of newborn and pre-school children and their families, providing parents with childcare guidance and supporting child-parent interaction. For forty years, Ylppö held the title of archiater (arkkiatri), the highest honorary title awarded to a physician. Internationally, he was known for his research on premature infants.

Ylppö was born in 1887 in Akaa, Finland into a farming family. He was apparently born premature and remained small in stature through his life. He entered the University of Helsinki in 1906 and decided to specialize in pediatric medicine. In 1912, he moved to the Imperial Children's Hospital in Berlin, Germany, where he wrote his thesis about infants' bilirubin metabolism in 1913. It was printed in Germany. He graduated as a medical doctor in March 1914 in Helsinki.

While in Germany, Ylppö concentrated on research about children's pathological anatomy and attracted international recognition. In his research, he observed that deaths of prematurely born infants are usually due to treatable conditions rather than simple underdevelopment, which motivated advancement of treatment of and science related to prematurely born infants.

After returning to Finland in 1920, he became a teacher at Helsinki University Hospital. In 1922, he established an advice centre for the care of young children in the Children's Castle (Lastenlinna) hospital, which is considered to be the beginning of child health clinics in Finland. In 1925, he became professor of pediatrics.

Ylppö continued his research, wrote extensively to medical journals about child care. He supported efforts to expand Finnish nurse training, Finnish pharmacy industry, and public awareness about medical matters. He retired as a professor in 1957 but still sponsored many childcare initiatives. From 1920 to 1963, he was chief physician at the Children's Castle hospital. He also had a private practice in Helsinki.

Arvo Ylppö died in January 1992 at the age of 104. He is buried in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki.

title: Arvo Ylppö


text:
Codpiece

A codpiece is a triangular piece that attached to the front of men's hose, covering the fly. It may be held in place by ties or buttons. It was an important fashion item of European clothing during the 15th–16th centuries, in the 16th century becoming a firm upwards-pointing projection based on a stiff material such as boiled leather, or in plate armour, steel.

In the modern era, similar clothing pieces are worn in the leather subculture, and in performance costumes, such as for rock and metal musicians. A similar device with rigid construction, an athletic cup, is used as protective gear for male athletes.

In European fashion
From the ancient world there are extant depictions of articles of clothing designed to cover just the male genitalia; for example, archaeological recovery at Minoan Knossos on Crete has yielded figurines, some of whom wear only a garment covering the male genitalia. However, the codpiece, per se, appeared in everyday European fashion for men only many centuries later, associated with hose and trousers. In 14th century European fashions, men's hose were two separate legs worn over linen drawers, leaving a man's genitals covered only by a layer of the linen drawers. As the century wore on and men's hemline fashion rose, the hose became longer and joined at the centre back, there rising to the waist, but remaining open at the centre front. Further shortening of the cote or doublet fashion resulted in more prominence of the genitals; this area would then be covered with a triangular material called a codpiece. Most of what is known about the cut, fit, and materials used for Renaissance codpieces is through portraits, clothing inventories, receipts for payments and tailor cutting guides.

As time passed, codpieces became shaped and padded to emphasize rather than to conceal the penis.

Such excessive codpieces became an object of derision showered on outlandish fashions. The Renaissance author, François Rabelais, refers satirically to a book entitled On the Dignity of Codpieces, in the foreword to his 1532 book, The Histories of Gargantua and Pantagruel.

This fashion reached its peak of size and decoration in the 1540s before falling out of use by the 1590s.Suits of armor of the 16th century followed civilian fashion, and for a time, codpieces were a prominent addition to the full suits of armor.

A few examples of full suits of armor with codpieces are on display in museums today. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City has one. The Higgins Armory in Worcester, Massachusetts also had an example on display until its close. The armor of Henry VIII displayed in the Tower of London has a codpiece as well.

Examples of metal parts of such armor are depicted by Wendelin Boeheim in his 1890 publication on the history of weapons, Handbuch der Waffenkunde, which was published in Leipzig, Germany.

title: Codpiece


text:
Sassafras

Sassafras is a genus of three extant and one extinct species of deciduous trees in the family Lauraceae, native to eastern North America and eastern Asia. The genus is distinguished by its aromatic properties, which have made the tree useful to humans.

Description
Sassafras trees grow from 9 – tall with many slender sympodial branches and smooth, orange-brown bark or yellow bark. All parts of the plants are fragrant. The species are unusual in having three distinct leaf patterns on the same plant: unlobed oval, bilobed (mitten-shaped), and trilobed (three-pronged); the leaves are hardly ever five-lobed. Three-lobed leaves are more common in Sassafras tzumu and S. randaiense than in their North American counterparts, although three-lobed leaves often occur on S. albidum. The young leaves and twigs are quite mucilaginous and produce a citrus-like scent when crushed. The tiny, yellow flowers are generally six-petaled; S. albidum and (the extinct) S. hesperia are dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate trees, while S. tzumu and S. randaiense have male and female flowers occurring on the same trees. The fruit is a drupe, blue-black when ripe.

The largest known sassafras tree in the world is in Owensboro, Kentucky, and is over 100 ft high and 21 ft in circumference.

Taxonomy
The genus Sassafras was first described by the Bohemian botanist Jan Presl in 1825. The name "sassafras", applied by the botanist Nicolas Monardes in 1569, comes from the French sassafras. Some sources claim it originates from the Latin saxifraga or : "stone-breaking"; "rock" +  "to break").  Sassafras trees are not within the family Saxifragaceae.

Early European colonists reported that the plant was called winauk by Native Americans in Delaware and Virginia and pauane by the Timucua. Native Americans distinguished between white sassafras and red sassafras, terms which referred to different parts of the same plant but with distinct colors and uses. Sassafras was known as fennel wood (German Fenchelholz) due to its distinctive aroma.

Species
The genus Sassafras includes four species, three extant and one extinct. Sassafras plants are endemic to North America and East Asia, with two species in each region that are distinguished by some important characteristics, including the frequency of three-lobed leaves (more frequent in East Asian species) and aspects of their sexual reproduction (North American species being dioecious).

Taiwanese sassafras, Taiwan, is treated by some botanists in a distinct genus as Yushunia randaiensis (Hayata) Kamikoti, though this is not supported by recent genetic evidence, which shows Sassafras to be monophyletic.

North America

 * Sassafras albidum (Nuttall) Nees – sassafras, white sassafras, red sassafras, or silky sassafras, eastern North America, from southernmost Ontario, Canada through the eastern United States, south to central Florida, and west to southern Iowa and East Texas, formerly, Wisconsin
 * †Sassafras hesperia (Berry) – western North American, from the Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation of Washington and British Columbia; extinct, known only from fossils.

East Asia

 * Sassafras tzumu (Hemsl.) Hemsl. – Chinese sassafras or tzumu, central and southwestern China
 * Sassafras randaiense (Hayata) Rehd. – Taiwan

Distribution and habitat
Many Lauraceae are aromatic, evergreen trees or shrubs adapted to high rainfall and humidity, but the genus Sassafras is deciduous. Deciduous sassafras trees lose all of their leaves for part of the year, depending on variations in rainfall. In deciduous tropical Lauraceae, leaf loss coincides with the dry season in tropical, subtropical and arid regions.

Sassafras is commonly found in open woods, along fences, or in fields. It grows well in moist, well-drained, or sandy loam soils and tolerates a variety of soil types, attaining a maximum in southern and wetter areas of distribution.

Sassafras albidum ranges from southern Maine and southern Ontario west to Iowa, and south to central Florida and eastern Texas, in North America. S. tzumu may be found in Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang, China. S. randaiense is native to Taiwan.

Ecology
The leaves, bark, twigs, stems, and fruits are eaten by birds and mammals in small quantities. For most animals, sassafras is not consumed in large enough quantities to be important, although it is an important deer food in some areas. Carey and Gill rate its value to wildlife as fair, their lowest rating. Sassafras leaves and twigs are consumed by white-tailed deer and porcupines. Other sassafras leaf browsers include groundhogs, marsh rabbits, and American black bears. Rabbits eat sassafras bark in winter. American beavers will cut sassafras stems. Sassafras fruits are eaten by many species of birds, including bobwhite quail, eastern kingbirds, great crested flycatchers, phoebes, wild turkeys, gray catbirds, northern flickers, pileated woodpeckers, downy woodpeckers, thrushes, vireos, and northern mockingbirds. Some small mammals also consume sassafras fruits.

Toxicity
Sassafras oil contains safrole, which may have a carcinogenic effect.

Uses
All parts of sassafras plants, including roots, stems, twig leaves, bark, flowers, and fruit, have been used for culinary, medicinal, and aromatic purposes, both in areas where they are endemic and in areas where they were imported, such as Europe. The wood of sassafras trees has been used as a material for building ships and furniture in China, Europe, and the United States, and sassafras played an important role in the history of the European colonization of the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. Sassafras twigs have been used as toothbrushes and fire starters.

Culinary
Sassafras albidum is an important ingredient in some distinct foods of the US. It is the main ingredient in traditional root beer and sassafras root tea, and ground leaves of sassafras are a distinctive additive in Louisiana Creole cuisine. It is used in filé powder, a common thickening and flavoring agent in gumbo. Methods of cooking with sassafras combine this ingredient native to America with traditional North American, as well as European, culinary techniques, to create a unique blend of Creole cuisine, and are thought by some to be heavily influenced by a blend of cultures. Sassafras is no longer used in commercially produced root beer since sassafras oil was banned for use in commercially mass-produced foods and drugs by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1960 due to health concerns about the carcinogenicity of safrole, a major constituent of sassafras oil, in animal studies.

Sassafras leaves and flowers have also been used in salads, and to flavor fats or cure meats. The young twigs can also be eaten fresh or dried. Additionally, the subterranean portion of the plant can be peeled, dried and boiled to make tea.

Traditional medicine
Numerous Native American tribes used the leaves of sassafras to treat wounds by rubbing the leaves directly into a wound and used different parts of the plant for many medicinal purposes such as treating acne, urinary disorders, and sicknesses that increased body temperature, such as high fevers. East Asian types of sassafras such as S. tzumu (chu mu) and S. randaiense (chu shu) are used in Chinese medicine to treat rheumatism and trauma. Some modern researchers conclude that the oil, roots and bark of sassafras have analgesic and antiseptic properties. Different parts of the sassafras plant (including the leaves and stems, the bark, and the roots) have been used to treat scurvy, skin sores, kidney problems, toothaches, rheumatism, swelling, menstrual disorders, sexually transmitted diseases, bronchitis, hypertension, and dysentery. It is also used as a fungicide, dentifrice, rubefacient, diaphoretic, perfume, carminative and sudorific. Before the twentieth century, Sassafras enjoyed a great reputation in the medical literature, but became valued for its power to improve the flavor of other medicines.

Sassafras root was an early export from North America, as early as 1609.

Sassafras wood and oil were both used in dentistry. Early toothbrushes were crafted from sassafras twigs or wood because of its aromatic properties. Sassafras was also used as an early dental anesthetic and disinfectant.

Wood
Sassafras albidum is often grown as an ornamental tree for its unusual leaves and aromatic scent. Outside of its native area, it is occasionally cultivated in Europe and elsewhere. The durable and beautiful wood of sassafras plants has been used in shipbuilding and furniture-making in North America, in Asia, and in Europe (once Europeans were introduced to the plant). Sassafras wood was also used by Native Americans in the southeastern United States as a fire-starter because of the flammability of its natural oils found within the wood and the leaves.

Oil and aroma
Steam distillation of dried root bark produces an essential oil which has a high safrole content, as well as significant amounts of varying other chemicals such as camphor, eugenol (including 5-methoxyeugenol), asarone, and various sesquiterpenes. Many other trees contain similarly high percentages and their extracted oils are sometimes referred to as sassafras oil, which once was extensively used as a fragrance in perfumes and soaps, food and for aromatherapy. Safrole is a precursor for the clandestine manufacture of the drugs MDA and MDMA, and as such, sales and import of sassafras oil (as a safrole-containing mixture of above-threshold concentration) are heavily restricted in the US.

Sassafras oil has also been used as a natural insect or pest deterrent, and in liqueurs (such as the opium-based Godfrey's), and in homemade liquor to mask strong or unpleasant smells. Sassafras oil has also been added to soap and other toiletries. It is banned in the United States for use in commercially mass-produced foods and drugs by the FDA as a potential carcinogen.

Commercial use
For a more detailed description of uses by indigenous peoples of North America, and a history of the commercial use of Sassafras albidum by Europeans in the United States in the 16th and 17th centuries, see the article on the extant North American species of sassafras, Sassafras albidum.

In modern times, the sassafras plant has been grown and harvested for the extraction of sassafras oil. It is used in a variety of commercial products or their syntheses, such as the insecticide synergistic compound piperonyl butoxide. These plants are primarily harvested for commercial purposes in Asia and Brazil.

title: Sassafras


text:
Talk:Trapani

Untitled
Why is Mozia as a major interest?? I know the region quite well and don't see really a reason to mention that at all. Even Scopello is probably of major interest, and that's small (and turistic). -Zisa

Tràpani v. Trapani
The grave accent is rarely used on the name of this city, even in Italian. I am therefore removing the accent marks. :: Salvo (talk) 03:21, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Goodmorning, I'm a student enrolled in Planning and Management of Tourism systems. For an exam https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:GLAM/UNIBG/Heritage_studies_and_ICT, I will contribute to some articles on Wikipedia in order to enlarge and to enrich some topics linked to my territory and to my municipality. In this artcile I will make some contributions by translating parts on economy and tourism coming from the Italian version of the page

--Utente:Simonella911 (msg) 20:50 24 01 2021 (CET) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Simonella911 (talk • contribs) 22:43, 24 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trapani