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Charity Commission for England and Wales

The Charity Commission for England and Wales is a non-ministerial department of His Majesty's Government that regulates registered charities in England and Wales and maintains the Central Register of Charities. Its counterparts in Scotland and Northern Ireland are the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator and the Charity Commission for Northern Ireland.

Orlando Fraser succeeded interim chair, Ian Karet, who succeeded Baroness Stowell of Beeston.

The commission has four sites in London, Taunton, Liverpool and Newport. Its website lists the latest accounts submitted by charities in England and Wales.

During the financial year 2022-23, the Commission regulated £88 billion of charity income and £85 billion of charity spend.

Definition
To establish a charity, an organization must first find at least 3 trustees whom will be responsible for the general control and management of the administration of the charity. The organization needs to have a charitable purpose that helps the public. Afterwards, the administration must select an official name and decide on a structure for the charity that will impact aspect such as who runs the charity and how does the charity is run. Subsequently, the creation of a governing document that explain how the charity is run is required. Finally, an electronic application must be completed if the charity’s income is at £5,000 per year, or it’s a charitable incorporated organization (CIO). There are different rules for creating a charity in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Exempt, excepted, and other non-registered charities
Some charities are not subject to regulation by or registration with the Charity Commission, because they are already regulated by another body, and are known as exempt charities. Most exempt charities are listed in Schedule 3 to the Charities Act 2011, but some charities are made exempt by other acts. However exempt charities must still comply with charity law and may approach the Charity Commission for advice.

Some charities are 'excepted' from charity registration. This means they do not have to register or submit annual returns, but are in all other respects subject to regulation by the Charity Commission. A charity is excepted if its income is £100,000 or less and it is in one of the following groups: churches and chapels belonging to certain Christian denominations (until 2031); charities that provide premises for some types of schools; Scout and Guide groups; charitable service funds of the armed forces; and students' unions.

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Charities operating across other national borders within the United Kingdom
Registration of a charity in England and Wales does not endow that status elsewhere, thus further registration has to be made before operating in Scotland or Northern Ireland.

Charities in Scotland are regulated by the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator.

In Northern Ireland the Charity Commission for Northern Ireland was established in 2009 to replace earlier regulation by the Voluntary and Community Unit of the Department for Social Development, part of the Northern Ireland Executive.

Establishing Law
The Charities Act 2006 requires the Commission to be operationally independent of ministerial influence or control. Members of the commission, including the chair, are appointed by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport.

Charity Tax Law
The Finance Act 2010 extended charitable tax benefits (for example Gift Aid) to charities within EU member states, Norway and Iceland, rather than those just inside the UK.

Fundraising Regulator
In 2016, following the Olive Cooke scandal, the British fundraising regulatory landscape underwent a review, leading to the establishment of the Fundraising Regulator. The Fundraising Regulator is an independent oversight body without statutory authority. It serves as the regulatory authority for charitable fundraising, responsible for defining and promoting fundraising standards. Additionally, it investigates cases, addresses public complaints related to fundraising practices, and operates a fundraising preference service. This service allows the public to control how charities contact them.

Regulatory action
The commission carries out general monitoring of charities as part of its regular casework. In serious cases of abuse and regulatory concern, the commission has powers outlined in the Charities Acts to conduct statutory investigations. Before taking the decision to open a statutory inquiry, it will take the approach set out in its Regulatory and Risk framework. The commission, therefore, began around 2007 to carry out an intermediate form of action described as regulatory compliance investigations. In 2010 it opened over 140 of these cases, compared to just three full statutory investigations. However, the legality of these actions was debatable as they lacked a statutory basis. A high-profile example was the commission's report into The Atlantic Bridge, after which that body was dissolved in September 2011. The commission announced in October 2011, in the context of cost-cutting and a re-focussing of its activities, that it would no longer carry out regulatory compliance investigations.

In 2012, the Commission refused to grant charitable status to Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, stating that it was unclear whether the body's aims were compatible with the requirement for charities to have a public benefit. The Commission stated that this was called into doubt as a result of the "exclusivity" of the body. The decision was discussed at a session of the Public Accounts Committee, during which MP Charlie Elphicke accused the Commission of being "committed to the suppression of religion". The decision was later reversed by the Commission.

Between 2022-23, the Commission removed 4,146 charities from the register and concluded 5,726 regulatory action cases (includes 68 statutory inquiries).

History
Prior to the 1840s, a body of commissioners had been established by the Statute of Charitable Uses 1601 (43 Eliz. 1. c. 4), but these proved ineffective. The Charity Commission was first established by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853. There had been several attempts at reforming charities before that which had been opposed by various interest groups including the church, the courts, the companies, and the universities. The power of the commission was strengthened by amendments to the act in 1855, 1860, and 1862.

The Charity Commission was substantially reconstituted by the Charities Act 1960 (8 & 9 Eliz. 2. c. 58), which replaced the Charitable Trusts Acts (1853-1891). This introduced new duties to determine charitable status, and to maintain a public register of charities.

The commission was criticised after the Aberfan disaster in 1966 for its intransigence and decisions on what it allowed money from the disaster fund to be spent on. It sanctioned the use of £150,000 to remove remaining spoil tips from the area after the National Coal Board refused to pay for the work. It also proposed asking parents 'exactly how close were you to your child?'; those found not to have been close to their children would not be compensated.

The Charities Act 2006 established its current structure and name. the commission had 288 employees and 19 agency staff in post.

The Olive Cooke case, involving a 92-year-old poppy seller who allegedly committed suicide due to overwhelming requests for donations from charities, sparked widespread public fear and media attention across England and Wales. This scandal prompted a review of the self-regulation of fundraising practices in England and Wales, as well as Scotland, subsequently leading to the introduction of self-regulatory reforms in both jurisdictions.

In 2021, The Guardian reported that Culture Secretary Oliver Dowden "had instructed officials to ensure candidates for the Charity Commission chair role were "tested" on how they would use the watchdog's powers to rebalance charities by "refocusing" them on their founding missions", in response to what he described as "a worrying trend in some charities that appear to have been hijacked by a vocal minority seeking to burnish their woke credentials."

Orlando Fraser was appointed as Chair of the Charity Commission by the Secretary of State on a three-year term commencing from 25 April 2022. This appointment was not without controversy, including the refusal of the Digital, Culture, Media and Sports Committee to endorse the appointment.

Chairs of the commission
Prior to restructuring in 2006, the equivalent of the Chair was the Chief Charity Commissioner.
 * Chief Charity Commissioner
 * Rt Hon Peter Erle (1853– )
 * Seymour Vesey-FitzGerald (1875– )
 * Sir Henry Longley (–1900)
 * Charles Henry Alderson (5 March 1900–?)
 * Richard Fries (1992–1999)
 * John Stoker (1999–2004)
 * Geraldine Peacock (2004–2006), latterly acting Chair

From 2006 the role of Chief Charity Commissioner was replaced with those of Chair and Chief Executive of the Charity Commission
 * Chair of the Charity Commission
 * Dame Suzi Leather (1 August 2006 – 31 July 2012)
 * William Shawcross (1 August 2012 – 23 February 2018)
 * Baroness Stowell of Beeston (24 February 2018 – 23 February 2021)
 * Ian Karet (24 February 2021 – 25 April 2022) - interim, term initially until 27 December 2021, extended until 25 April 2022.
 * Orlando Fraser KC (25 April 2022 -) - appointed for a three-year term, though he was rejected by the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee per concerns about the selection process.


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Buster Mathis

Buster Mathis (June 11, 1943 – September 6, 1995 ) was an American boxer who competed from 1965 to 1972. He was a top contender throughout his career, beating other top contenders including George Chuvalo and Chuck Wepner. He fought Heavyweight greats such as Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, Jerry Quarry and Ron Lyle;   he also notably beat Joe Frazier as an amateur to qualify for the Olympics but was later replaced due to a hand injury.

Career
Mathis had a successful career as an amateur heavyweight boxer. He qualified for a spot in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics but had to withdraw due to an injury. He was replaced in the tournament by Joe Frazier, who went on to win the gold medal.

Mathis turned professional in June 1965 with a second round knockout victory over Bob Maynard. He went on to win his next 22 contests as well and qualified for a shot at the New York State Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Title, which had become vacant after Muhammad Ali was stripped of the title for refusing to be drafted into the United States Army.

The title fight was held on March 4, 1968, in New York's Madison Square Garden against "Smoking" Joe Frazier, his old rival. Frazier won by an 11th-round knockout.

Mathis continued to fight in the following years, outpointing George Chuvalo, but losing on points to Jerry Quarry - a fight Mathis was favored to win. Mathis retired after losing to Quarry in 1969, but he returned in 1971 to box Muhammad Ali for the NABF belt, losing on points over 12 rounds. Ali was later criticized for not finishing Mathis in the final rounds of the fight.

After Mathis was knocked out in just two rounds in September 1972 by Ron Lyle, he retired for good.

Retirement
A 1980 Sports Illustrated article featured interviews with Mathis and many of Muhammad Ali's other opponents. It reported Mathis worked in the trucking business after he retired from the ring.

Mathis had various health problems in later years, including two strokes, a heart attack, and kidney failure. He died of heart failure at age 52. His son Buster Mathis Jr. became a professional boxer and fought Mike Tyson in 1995.

Professional boxing record

 * align="center" colspan=8|30 Wins (21 knockouts, 9 decisions), 4 Losses (2 knockouts, 2 decisions)
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Result
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Record
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Opponent
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Type
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Round
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
 * align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
 * -align=center
 * Loss
 * 30–4
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Ron Lyle
 * KO
 * 2
 * 29 Sep 1972
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Denver Coliseum, Denver, Colorado
 * align=left|Mathis knocked out at 2:58 of the second round.
 * Win
 * 30–3
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Humphrey McBride
 * TKO
 * 3
 * 5 Sep 1972
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
 * align=left|World Super Heavyweight Title. Referee stopped the bout at 1:34 of the third round.
 * Loss
 * 29–3
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Muhammad Ali
 * UD
 * 12
 * 17 Nov 1971
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Astrodome, Houston, Texas
 * align=left|WBC NABF Heavyweight Title.
 * Loss
 * 29–2
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Jerry Quarry
 * UD
 * 12
 * 24 Mar 1969
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 29–1
 * align=left|🇨🇦 George Chuvalo
 * UD
 * 12
 * 3 Feb 1969
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 28–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 J.J. Woody
 * TKO
 * 6
 * 26 Sep 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 2:59 of the sixth round.
 * Win
 * 27–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Dick Wipperman
 * UD
 * 10
 * 16 Sep 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 County Stadium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 26–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Amos Lincoln
 * SD
 * 10
 * 5 Sep 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 25–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 J.J. Beattie
 * TKO
 * 7
 * 25 Jul 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Met Center, Bloomington, Minnesota
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 24–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 M.J. Turnbow
 * TKO
 * 7
 * 30 Apr 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Miami Beach Auditorium, Miami Beach, Florida
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 2:44 of the seventh round.
 * Loss
 * 23–1
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Joe Frazier
 * TKO
 * 11
 * 4 Mar 1968
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|NYSAC World Heavyweight Title. Referee stopped the bout at 2:33 of the 11th round.
 * Win
 * 23–0
 * align=left|🇿🇦 Gerry de Bruyn
 * KO
 * 1
 * 26 Dec 1967
 * align=left|🇸🇪 Frolundaborg, Gothenburg
 * align=left|Bruyn knocked out at 0:36 of the first round.
 * Win
 * 22–0
 * align=left|🇵🇪 Roberto Davila
 * TKO
 * 7
 * 18 Nov 1967
 * align=left|🇸🇪 Johanneshov, Stockholm
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 21–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Ron Marsh
 * TKO
 * 4
 * 18 Sep 1967
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 1:13 of the fourth round.
 * Win
 * 20–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Wayne Heath
 * KO
 * 5
 * 2 Aug 1967
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, Los Angeles, California
 * align=left|Heath knocked out at 1:16 of the fifth round.
 * Win
 * 19–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Sonny S.D. Moore
 * TKO
 * 5
 * 23 May 1967
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Saint Louis, Missouri
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 2:09 of the fifth round.
 * Win
 * 18–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Ed "Baker Boy" Hurley
 * KO
 * 1
 * 12 May 1967
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Detroit, Michigan
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 17–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Waban Thomas
 * KO
 * 1
 * 6 Feb 1967
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Astrodome, Houston, Texas
 * align=left|Thomas knocked out at 2:23 of the first round.
 * Win
 * 16–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 E.S. Andrews
 * KO
 * 2
 * 17 Nov 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Portland Exposition Building, Portland, Maine
 * align=left|Andrews knocked out at 2:10 of the second round.
 * Win
 * 15–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Johnny Barazza
 * KO
 * 1
 * 2 Nov 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Civic Center, Grand Rapids, Michigan
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 14–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Earl Averette
 * TKO
 * 3
 * 28 Sep 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Cambria County War Memorial Arena, Johnstown, Pennsylvania
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 13–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Bob Stallings
 * SD
 * 10
 * 15 Sep 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Armory, Akron, Ohio
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 12–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Mert Brownfield
 * KO
 * 1
 * 29 Aug 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Cobo Arena, Detroit, Michigan
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 11–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Charley E. Chase
 * UD
 * 6
 * 28 Jul 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Portland Exposition Building, Portland, Maine
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 10–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Everett Copeland
 * KO
 * 2
 * 23 Jun 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|Copeland knocked out at 2:27 of the second round.
 * Win
 * 9–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Tom Swift
 * KO
 * 1
 * 16 Jun 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Portland Exposition Building, Portland, Maine
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 8–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Charley Polite
 * PTS
 * 6
 * 16 Feb 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Westchester County Center, White Plains, New York
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 7–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Mike Bruce
 * TKO
 * 5
 * 19 Jan 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Westchester County Center, White Plains, New York
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 6–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Chuck Wepner
 * TKO
 * 3
 * 7 Jan 1966
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Madison Square Garden, New York City
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 1:58 of the third round.
 * Win
 * 5–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Charlie Lee
 * PTS
 * 6
 * 15 Dec 1965
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Westchester County Center, White Plains, New York
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 4–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Bob Stallings
 * UD
 * 6
 * 23 Sep 1965
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Grand Rapids, Michigan
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 3–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Bob Maynard
 * PTS
 * 4
 * 30 Aug 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Paul Sauve Arena, Montreal, Quebec
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 2–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Johnny Shore
 * TKO
 * 2
 * 28 Aug 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Rock Island, Quebec
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 2:45 of the second round.
 * Win
 * 1–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Bob Maynard
 * TKO
 * 2
 * 28 Jun 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Paul Sauve Arena, Montreal, Quebec
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 4–0
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Bob Stallings
 * UD
 * 6
 * 23 Sep 1965
 * align=left|🇺🇸 Grand Rapids, Michigan
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 3–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Bob Maynard
 * PTS
 * 4
 * 30 Aug 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Paul Sauve Arena, Montreal, Quebec
 * align=left|
 * Win
 * 2–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Johnny Shore
 * TKO
 * 2
 * 28 Aug 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Rock Island, Quebec
 * align=left|Referee stopped the bout at 2:45 of the second round.
 * Win
 * 1–0
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Bob Maynard
 * TKO
 * 2
 * 28 Jun 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Paul Sauve Arena, Montreal, Quebec
 * align=left|
 * 28 Jun 1965
 * align=left|🇨🇦 Paul Sauve Arena, Montreal, Quebec
 * align=left|

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Buster Mathis


text:
Strowger switch

The Strowger switch is the first commercially successful electromechanical stepping switch telephone exchange system. It was developed by the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company founded in 1891 by Almon Brown Strowger. Because of its operational characteristics, it is also known as a step-by-step (SXS) switch.

History
Strowger, an undertaker, was motivated to invent an automatic telephone exchange after having difficulties with his telephone service. He became convinced that the manual telephone exchange operators were deliberately interfering with his calls, leading to loss of business. According to the local Bell Telephone Company manager Herman Ritterhoff, Strowger swore to "get even" with the telephone operators and "put every last one of them out of a job." Ritterhoff claimed that the real cause of Strowger's difficulties was a metal sign hung on his wall over his telephone, causing an intermittent short circuit when blown by the wind.

Strowger conceived his invention in 1888, and was awarded a patent for an automatic telephone exchange in 1891. The initial model was made from a round collar box and some straight pins.

While Almon Strowger devised the initial concept, he was not alone in his endeavors and sought the assistance of his brother Arnold, nephew William, and others with a knowledge of electricity and financing to realize the concept. The Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company was founded in 1891. In the original design patent, four keys were added near the telephone, one each for thousands, hundreds, tens and units, with each key having an additional wire connection to the central exchange. Each key had to be tapped the correct number of times to step the switch and make the desired connection. To connect to number 1256, the user would press the first key once, the second key twice, the third key five times and the final key six times.

The company installed and opened the first commercial exchange in his then-home town of La Porte, Indiana on November 3, 1892. The exchange had around 75 subscribers. The installation followed the original patented design, with four keys and four additional line wires connected to the exchange, but not all of the keys were used.

Early advertising called the new invention the "girl-less, cuss-less, out-of-order-less, wait-less telephone".

In 1896 the company patented the finger-wheel dial as an improvement to the existing four-key design.

The Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company became the Automatic Electric Company, which Strowger was involved in founding, although Strowger himself seems not to have been involved in further developments. The Strowger patents were exclusively licensed to the Automatic Electric Company. Strowger sold his patents in 1896 for US and sold his share in Automatic Electric in 1898 for. His patents subsequently sold for in 1916. Company engineers continued development of the Strowger designs and submitted several patents in the names of its employees.

The Strowger system was widely used until the development of the more reliable crossbar switch, an electromechanical switch with a matrix of vertical and horizontal bars and simpler motions.

Patent details
Strowger's patent specifies dialing equipment at the customer location and the switching equipment at the central office.

The telegraph keys or telephone dial creates trains of on-off current pulses corresponding to the digits 1–9, and 0 (which sends 10 pulses). This equipment originally consisted of two telegraph keys engaged by knife switches, and evolved into the rotary dial telephone.

The central office switching equipment has a two-motion stepping switch. A contact arm is moved up to select one of ten rows of contacts, and then rotated clockwise to select one of ten contacts in that row, a total of 100 choices. The stepping motion is controlled by the current pulses coming from the originating customer's telegraph keys, and later from the rotary dial.

Two-motion mechanism
The Strowger switch has three banks of contacts. Toward the upper end of each shaft are two ratchets. The upper one has ten grooves, and raises the shaft. The lower one has long vertical teeth (on the other side, hidden).

The Strowger switch uses two telegraph-type keys on a telephone set for dialing. Each key requires a separate wire to the exchange. The keys are tapped to step the switch in two stages. The first set of incoming pulses raises the armature of an electromagnet to move a shaft which selects the desired level of contacts, by engaging a pawl with the upper ratchet. Another pawl, pivoting on the frame, holds the shaft at that height as it rotates. The second set of pulses, from the second key, operates another electromagnet. Its pawl engages the (hidden) vertical teeth in the lower ratchet to rotate the shaft to the required position. It is kept there against spring tension by a pawl pivoted on the frame. When the switch returns to its home position, typically when a call is complete, a release magnet disengages the pawls that hold the shaft in position. An interlock ensures that the spring on the shaft rotates it to angular home position before it drops to its home position by gravity.

Development

The commercial version of the Strowger switch, as developed by the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company, used a rotary dial for signalling to the exchange. The original final selector (connector) switch which connected to 100 customers was supplemented by preceding group selector stages, as the "cascading" enabled connection to many more customers, and to customers at other exchanges. Another requirement for commercial systems was a circuit to detect a busy connection (line) and return a busy signal to the calling subscriber.

Instead of dedicating an expensive first-stage selector switch to each customer as in the first exchange, the customer was given access to the first-stage switch of a telephone network, often by a line-finder which searches "backward" for the calling line; so requiring only a few relays (in most cases two, a Line, and a Cut-off relay), for the equipment required for each customer line.

Later Strowger (SXS) exchanges often use a subscriber uniselector as part of the line equipment individual to each line, which searches "forward" for a first selector. This is more economical for higher calling-rate domestic or business customers, and has the advantage that access to additional switches can readily be added if the traffic increases (the number of linefinders serving a group is limited by the wiring multiple installed). Hence exchanges with subscriber uniselectors were usually used at British exchanges with a high proportion of business customers, e.g. director exchanges, or in New Zealand where the provision of local free calling meant that residential customers had a relatively high calling rate.

The fundamental modularity of the system combined with its step-by-step (hence the alternative name) selection process and an almost unlimited potential for expansion gives the Strowger system its technical advantage. Previous systems had all been designed for a fixed number of subscribers to be switched directly to each other in a mesh arrangement. This became quadratically more complex as each new customer was added, as each new customer needed a switch to connect to every other customer. In modern terminology, the previous systems were not "scalable".

British deployment
From 1912, the British General Post Office, which also operated the British telephone system, installed several automatic telephone exchanges from several vendors in trials at Darlington on 10 October 1914 and Dudley on 9 September 1916 (rotary system), Fleetwood (relay exchange from Sweden), Grimsby (Siemens), Hereford (Lorimer) and Leeds (Strowger). The GPO selected the Strowger switches for small and medium-sized cities and towns. The selection of switching systems for London and other large cities was not decided until the 1920s, when the Director telephone system was adopted. The Director systems used SXS switches for destination routing and number translation facilities similar to the register used in common-control exchanges. Using similar equipment as in the rest of the network was deemed beneficial and the equipment could be manufactured in Britain.

title: Strowger switch


text:
Solenoid

A solenoid is a type of electromagnet formed by a helical coil of wire whose length is substantially greater than its diameter, which generates a controlled magnetic field. The coil can produce a uniform magnetic field in a volume of space when an electric current is passed through it.

André-Marie Ampère coined the term solenoid in 1823, having conceived of the device in 1820. The French term originally created by Ampère is solénoïde, which is a French transliteration of the Greek word σωληνοειδὴς which means tubular.

The helical coil of a solenoid does not necessarily need to revolve around a straight-line axis; for example, William Sturgeon's electromagnet of 1824 consisted of a solenoid bent into a horseshoe shape (similarly to an arc spring).

Solenoids provide magnetic focusing of electrons in vacuums, notably in television camera tubes such as vidicons and image orthicons. Electrons take helical paths within the magnetic field. These solenoids, focus coils, surround nearly the whole length of the tube.

Infinite continuous solenoid

An infinite solenoid has infinite length but finite diameter. "Continuous" means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete finite-width coils but by many infinitely thin coils with no space between them; in this abstraction, the solenoid is often viewed as a cylindrical sheet of conductive material.

The magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is homogeneous and its strength neither depends on the distance from the axis nor on the solenoid's cross-sectional area.

This is a derivation of the magnetic flux density around a solenoid that is long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored. In Figure 1, we immediately know that the flux density vector points in the positive z direction inside the solenoid, and in the negative z direction outside the solenoid. We confirm this by applying the right hand grip rule for the field around a wire. If we wrap our right hand around a wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the curl of the fingers shows how the field behaves. Since we are dealing with a long solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing upwards cancel out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation occurs, and the field is only pointing downwards.

Now consider the imaginary loop c that is located inside the solenoid. By Ampère's law, we know that the line integral of B (the magnetic flux density vector) around this loop is zero, since it encloses no electrical currents (it can be also assumed that the circuital electric field passing through the loop is constant under such conditions: a constant or constantly changing current through the solenoid). We have shown above that the field is pointing upwards inside the solenoid, so the horizontal portions of loop c do not contribute anything to the integral. Thus the integral of the up side 1 is equal to the integral of the down side 2. Since we can arbitrarily change the dimensions of the loop and get the same result, the only physical explanation is that the integrands are actually equal, that is, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is radially uniform. Note, though, that nothing prohibits it from varying longitudinally, which in fact, it does.

A similar argument can be applied to the loop a to conclude that the field outside the solenoid is radially uniform or constant. This last result, which holds strictly true only near the center of the solenoid where the field lines are parallel to its length, is important as it shows that the flux density outside is practically zero since the radii of the field outside the solenoid will tend to infinity. An intuitive argument can also be used to show that the flux density outside the solenoid is actually zero. Magnetic field lines only exist as loops, they cannot diverge from or converge to a point like electric field lines can (see Gauss's law for magnetism). The magnetic field lines follow the longitudinal path of the solenoid inside, so they must go in the opposite direction outside of the solenoid so that the lines can form loops. However, the volume outside the solenoid is much greater than the volume inside, so the density of magnetic field lines outside is greatly reduced. Now recall that the field outside is constant. In order for the total number of field lines to be conserved, the field outside must go to zero as the solenoid gets longer. Of course, if the solenoid is constructed as a wire spiral (as often done in practice), then it emanates an outside field the same way as a single wire, due to the current flowing overall down the length of the solenoid.

Applying Ampère's circuital law to the solenoid (see figure on the right) gives us

 * $$B l= \mu_0 N I,$$

where $$B$$ is the magnetic flux density, $$l$$ is the length of the solenoid, $$\mu_0$$ is the magnetic constant, $$N$$ the number of turns, and $$I$$ the current. From this we get
 * $$B = \mu_0 \frac{N I}{l}.$$

This equation is valid for a solenoid in free space, which means the permeability of the magnetic path is the same as permeability of free space, μ0.

If the solenoid is immersed in a material with relative permeability μr, then the field is increased by that amount:
 * $$B = \mu_0 \mu_{\mathrm{r}} \frac{N I}{l}.$$

In most solenoids, the solenoid is not immersed in a higher permeability material, but rather some portion of the space around the solenoid has the higher permeability material and some is just air (which behaves much like free space). In that scenario, the full effect of the high permeability material is not seen, but there will be an effective (or apparent) permeability μeff such that 1 ≤ μeff ≤ μr.

The inclusion of a ferromagnetic core, such as iron, increases the magnitude of the magnetic flux density in the solenoid and raises the effective permeability of the magnetic path. This is expressed by the formula
 * $$B = \mu_0 \mu_{\mathrm{eff}} \frac{N I}{l} = \mu \frac{N I}{l},$$

where μeff is the effective or apparent permeability of the core. The effective permeability is a function of the geometric properties of the core and its relative permeability. The terms relative permeability (a property of just the material) and effective permeability (a property of the whole structure) are often confused; they can differ by many orders of magnitude.

For an open magnetic structure, the relationship between the effective permeability and relative permeability is given as follows:
 * $$\mu_\mathrm{eff} = \frac{\mu_r}{1+k(\mu_r -1)},$$

where k is the demagnetization factor of the core.

Finite continuous solenoid
A finite solenoid is a solenoid with finite length. Continuous means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete coils but by a sheet of conductive material. We assume the current is uniformly distributed on the surface of the solenoid, with a surface current density K; in cylindrical coordinates: $$\vec{K} = \frac{I}{l} \hat{\phi} .$$

The magnetic field can be found using the vector potential, which for a finite solenoid with radius R and length l in cylindrical coordinates $$(\rho, \phi, z)$$ is $$A_\phi = \frac{\mu_0 I}{\pi } \frac{R}{l} \left[ \frac{\zeta}{\sqrt{(R+\rho)^2+\zeta^2}} \left( \frac{m+n-mn}{mn}K(m)-\frac{1}{m}E(m) +\frac{n-1}{n} \Pi(n, m) \right) \right]_{\zeta_-}^{\zeta_+},$$

Where:

 * $$\zeta_{\pm}=z\pm \frac{l}{2}$$,
 * $$n = \frac{4R\rho}{(R+\rho)^2}$$,
 * $$m = \frac{4R\rho}{(R+\rho)^2+\zeta^2}$$,
 * $$K(m)=\int_0^{\frac\pi 2}\frac{d\theta}{\sqrt{1-m \sin^2 \theta }}$$,
 * $$E(m)=\int_0^{\frac\pi 2}{\sqrt{1-m \sin^2 \theta} } \,d\theta$$ ,
 * $$\Pi(n,m)=\int_0^{\frac\pi 2}\frac{d\theta}{(1-n \sin^2 \theta)\sqrt{1-m \sin^2 \theta }}$$.

Here, $$K(m)$$, $$E(m)$$, and $$\Pi(n,m)$$ are complete elliptic integrals of the first, second, and third kind.

Using:

$$\vec{B} = \nabla \times \vec{A},$$

The magnetic flux density is obtained as $$B_\rho = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \frac{1}{l\,\rho} \left[\sqrt{(R+\rho)^2+\zeta^2} \biggl( (m-2)K(m) + 2 E(m)\biggr) \right]_{\zeta_-}^{\zeta_+},$$ $$B_z = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi} \frac{1}{l} \left[ \frac{\zeta}{\sqrt{(R+\rho)^2+\zeta^2}} \left(K(m) + \frac{R-\rho}{R+\rho} \Pi(n, m)\right)\right]_{\zeta_-}^{\zeta_+}.$$

On the symmetry axis, the radial component vanishes, and the axial field component is $$B_z = \frac{\mu_0 NI}{2}\left( \frac{l/2-z}{l \sqrt{R^2+(l/2-z)^2}} + \frac{l/2+z}{l \sqrt{R^2+(l/2+z)^2}}\right) .$$ Inside the solenoid, far away from the ends ($$l/2 - |z| \gg R$$), this tends towards the constant value $$B = \mu_0 N I/l$$.

Short solenoid estimate
For the case in which the radius is much larger than the length of the solenoid ($$R \gg l$$), the magnetic flux density through the centre of the solenoid (in the z direction, parallel to the solenoid's length, where the coil is centered at z=0) can be estimated as the flux density of a single circular conductor loop:
 * $$B_z \approx \frac{\mu_0 INR^2}{2\sqrt{R^2+z^2}^3} $$

Irregular solenoids

Within the category of finite solenoids, there are those that are sparsely wound with a single pitch, those that are sparsely wound with varying pitches (varied-pitch solenoid), and those with varying radii for different loops (non-cylindrical solenoids). They are called irregular solenoids. They have found applications in different areas, such as sparsely wound solenoids for wireless power transfer, varied-pitch solenoids for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and non-cylindrical solenoids for other medical devices.

The calculation of the intrinsic inductance and capacitance cannot be done using those for the conventional solenoids, i.e. the tightly wound ones. New calculation methods were proposed for the calculation of intrinsic inductance (codes available at ) and capacitance. (codes available at )

Inductance
As shown above, the magnetic flux density $$B$$ within the coil is practically constant and given by
 * $$B = \mu_0 \frac{NI}{l},$$

where μ0 is the magnetic constant, $$N$$ the number of turns, $$I$$ the current and $$l$$ the length of the coil. Ignoring end effects, the total magnetic flux through the coil is obtained by multiplying the flux density $$B$$ by the cross-section area $$A$$:
 * $$\Phi = \mu_0 \frac{NIA}{l}.$$

Combining this with the definition of inductance
 * $$L = \frac{N \Phi}{I},$$

the inductance of a solenoid follows as
 * $$L = \mu_0 \frac{N^2A}{l}.$$

A table of inductance for short solenoids of various diameter to length ratios has been calculated by Dellinger, Whittmore, and Ould.

This, and the inductance of more complicated shapes, can be derived from Maxwell's equations. For rigid air-core coils, inductance is a function of coil geometry and number of turns, and is independent of current.

Similar analysis applies to a solenoid with a magnetic core, but only if the length of the coil is much greater than the product of the relative permeability of the magnetic core and the diameter. That limits the simple analysis to low-permeability cores, or extremely long thin solenoids. The presence of a core can be taken into account in the above equations by replacing the magnetic constant μ0 with μ or μ0μr, where μ represents permeability and μr relative permeability. Note that since the permeability of ferromagnetic materials changes with applied magnetic flux, the inductance of a coil with a ferromagnetic core will generally vary with current.

title: Solenoid


text:
Mönchengladbach

Mönchengladbach (, Jlabbach ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located west of the Rhine, halfway between Düsseldorf and the Dutch border.

Municipal subdivisions
Since 2009, the territory of Mönchengladbach has comprised four (previously ten) boroughs which are subdivided into 44 districts.

The boroughs and their associated districts

 * Nord: Am Wasserturm, Dahl, Eicken, Gladbach, Hardt-Mitte, Hardter Wald, Ohler, Venn, Waldhausen, Westend, Windberg
 * Ost: Bettrath‑Hoven, Bungt, Flughafen, Giesenkirchen‑Mitte, Giesenkirchen‑Nord, Hardterbroich‑Pesch, Lürrip, Neuwerk‑Mitte, Schelsen, Uedding
 * Süd: Bonnenbroich‑Geneicken, Geistenbeck, Grenzland‑Stadion, Heyden, Hockstein, Mülfort, Odenkirchen‑Mitte, Odenkirchen‑West, Pongs, Rheydt, Sasserath, Schloss Rheydt, Schmölderpark, Schrievers
 * West: Hauptquartier, Hehn, Holt, Rheindahlen‑Land, Rheindahlen‑Mitte, Wanlo, Wickrath-Mitte, Wickrath‑West, Wickrathberg

Name and origins
The original name of the city was Gladbach, by which it is still often known today. To distinguish it from another town of the same name (the present Bergisch Gladbach), it took the name München-Gladbach (“Monks’ Gladbach”, in reference to the abbey ) in 1888. Between 1933 and 1950, it was written München Gladbach (short: M. Gladbach), without a hyphen. This spelling was seen as potentially misleading, as it could imply that Gladbach was a borough of Munich (München in German), so consequently the name was changed to Mönchen-Gladbach in 1950 (and subsequently Mönchengladbach in 1960) to avoid confusion.

The town was founded around Gladbach Abbey in 974. It was named after the Gladbach, a narrow brook which mostly runs underground today. The abbey and adjoining villages became a town in the 14th century. The town of Rheydt is located nearby and is incorporated into Mönchengladbach today.

Early history
The first settlements in the area of Mönchengladbach are approximately 300,000–400,000 years old and show remains of Homo erectus and Neanderthal. There are numerous cairns from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.

The history of Mönchengladbach began with the construction of the Gladbach Minster and the founding of an abbey in the year 974 by Gero, Archbishop of Cologne, and his companion, the monk Sandrad of Trier.

To improve the settlement, the monks created a market north of the church in the 12th century. Craftsmen settled near the market. Gladbach received its town charter in 1364–1366. The "town" erected a town wall made of stone, which had to be maintained by the citizens. Remains of the wall can be found at the Geroweiher, as can remains of the "Thick Tower", an old fortified tower at the Waldhausener hill. Until the end of the 18th century, the city belonged to the department of Grevenbroich within the duchy of Jülich.

On 4 October 1794, the armed forces of the French Revolution marched into the town, one day before the fortress Jülich had been handed over. When the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II ceded the left bank of the river Rhine to France with the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801, Gladbach fell under French laws suppressing religion. This was the end for the abbey, and the monastery was closed. On 31 October 1802, the last 31 monks left the monastery. The contents of the tremendous abbey library, well known outside Germany, were scattered or destroyed.

From 1798 until 1814, the Mairie Gladbach was part of Canton Odenkirchen, of the Arrondissement Krefeld, of the Roer Département.

Recent history
In 1815, Gladbach became part of the Kingdom of Prussia and seat of the Landkreis Gladbach, which was dissolved in 1929. In 1815 Gladbach became seat of the Bürgermeisterei (Office of mayor), which was split in 1859 into two parts: the City of Gladbach and Office of Mayor Obergeburth. The latter was renamed to München-Gladbach-Land in 1907.

From 1933 through 1975, the neighborhood of Rheydt was an independent city; the split from München-Gladbach was arranged by Joseph Goebbels, who was born locally. After reuniting with Mönchengladbach, the central station (Rheydt Hauptbahnhof) kept its original name, making Mönchengladbach the only city in Germany to have two rail stations each called Hauptbahnhof.

In response to the 10 May 1940 German invasion of Belgium, Mönchengladbach was bombed by RAF Bomber Command on the evening of 11 May. The bomber crews were attempting to interdict German troop movements on roads, intersections and rail lines in the area, especially the city's railyards. About half of the approximately 36 twin-engine Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers reportedly hit their targets, and three were shot down. Four people were killed on the ground, including a British woman living in Germany.

Eventually, the Prussian Rhine Province was dissolved after World War II, and the city became part of the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia which was formed in 1946.

Economy
Mönchengladbach's industrial ascent was mainly influenced by the development of the textile industry from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In addition, a textile-oriented machine industry also developed.

After the Second World War, a major structural change began, reducing the importance of the textile industry and attracting new economic sectors. At present, only 7 percent of employees work in the once dominant textile and clothing industry (for example: Van Laack and gardeur).

As part of the successful diversification of the business location, local government and representatives founded the Mönchengladbach Business Development Corporation (WFMG) in 1997. WFMG and the University of Applied Sciences Niederrhein have developed a five-pillar model for the future orientation of the business location. Thereafter textile and fashion, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering, logistics, the creative industry and the health sector are the leading sectors for the economic future of the city of Mönchengladbach. As part of an active cluster policy, the WFMG has partly initiated its own networks for these industries.

The most important employer in Mönchengladbach is the Santander Consumer Bank, which has its headquarters at Aachener Straße in Mönchengladbach's city center.

The economic structure includes: tool and spinning machines (Dörries Scharmann, Monforts, Trützschler, Schlafhorst), automatic conveyor systems, signal and system technology (Scheidt & Bachmann), transformers (SMS Meer), cables (Nexans Germany formerly Kabelwerk Rheydt), printed matter and foodstuffs.

Chocolatier Heinemann is known beyond the city limits for his cakes, pralines and baked goods, which he offers in cafés on site as well as in Düsseldorf and Munich. Furthermore, beer breweries are represented in Mönchengladbach. The Oettinger brewery produces at the site of the former Hannen brewery. The Hensen brewery has been producing a lower Rhine-type Altbier since 2015 at the former spring of the river Gladbach in the Waldhausen district.

Especially in the 1970s and 1980s nightlife was attractive to young party people from Düsseldorf. In the meantime, tourism in particular is playing a certain role. Mönchengladbach has about 40 hotels (for example: Hotel Burgund) and inns as well as a youth hostel in the district Hardter Wald. In total there are about 2000 beds. The number of overnight stays is over 200,000 annually.

Mönchengladbach Airport is dominated by general aviation. There are currently no scheduled services to and from Mönchengladbach. Additionally, there are few business-charter passenger flights. In June 2015 Hugo Junkers Hangar was opened as an aviation and event facility. Airplane enthusiasts can book sightseeing flights with Junkers Ju 52 from the 1940s. The next major international airport Düsseldorf Airport is only 20 kilometres (12 mi) away to the east.

Mayor
The current Mayor of Mönchengladbach is Felix Heinrichs of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:

! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate ! rowspan=2| Party ! colspan=2| First round ! colspan=2| Second round ! Votes ! % ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 87,546 ! 97.3 ! 67,934 ! 99.3 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 2,473 ! 2.7 ! 496 ! 0.7 ! colspan=3| Total ! 90,019 ! 100.0 ! 68,430 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 207,117 ! 43.5 ! 207,018 ! 33.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Felix Heinrichs
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 32,808
 * 37.5
 * 50,421
 * 74.2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Frank Boss
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 25,929
 * 29.6
 * 17,513
 * 25.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Boris Wolkowski
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
 * 15,304
 * 17.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Corina Bülow
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 4,706
 * 5.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Stefan Dahlmanns
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 3,149
 * 3.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Sebastian Merkens
 * align=left| The Left
 * 3,010
 * 3.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Chana Clarissa Lischewski
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * 1,914
 * 2.2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Franz Josef Schiller
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
 * 540
 * 0.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Sandra van den Broek
 * align=left| National Democratic Party
 * 186
 * 0.2
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
 * 540
 * 0.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Sandra van den Broek
 * align=left| National Democratic Party
 * 186
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Mönchengladbach city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 88,864 ! 98.7 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 1,160 ! 1.3 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 90,024 ! 100.0 ! ! 76 ! 8 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 207,117 ! 43.5 ! 0.8 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 30,198
 * 34.0
 * 7.5
 * 26
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 22,365
 * 25.2
 * 4.3
 * 20
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 18,879
 * 21.2
 * 10.6
 * 16
 * 9
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 5,282
 * 5.9
 * 4.5
 * 5
 * 4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 4,911
 * 5.5
 * 1.0
 * 4
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 3,605
 * 4.1
 * 0.4
 * 3
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 2,419
 * 2.7
 * 1.5
 * 2
 * 1
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP)
 * 507
 * 0.6
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Alliance for Innovation and Justice (BIG)
 * 439
 * 0.5
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
 * 229
 * 0.3
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 30
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
 * 229
 * 0.3
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independents
 * 30
 * 0.0
 * 0
 * 0
 * 0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Points of interest

 * Municipal Abteiberg Museum for contemporary art
 * Municipal Museum Schloss Rheydt for fine art
 * Museum im Wasserturm Rheindahlen for relics of the Stone Age
 * Museum Altes Zeughaus e. V. for Carnival
 * Museum Schloss Wickrath for ornithology
 * Bunter Garten, municipal park with botanical garden and arboretum
 * Wasserturm Mönchengladbach

Twin towns – sister cities
Mönchengladbach is twinned with:

 * Bradford, England, UK (1971)
 * North Tyneside, England, UK (1958)
 * 🇫🇷 Roubaix, France (1969)
 * Roermond, Netherlands (1971)
 * Thurrock, England, UK (1969)
 * 🇧🇪 Verviers, Belgium (1970)

Transport
The city has two main railway stations: Mönchengladbach Hauptbahnhof and Rheydt Hauptbahnhof, the result of the merger of the two cities, in which the deprecated name for Rheydt Hbf was never removed. Line 8 of the Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn connects the city to Düsseldorf and Hagen; an extension further westwards is being discussed. A number of regional trains serve Mönchengladbach, including regional line RE13 to the city of Venlo which is located in the Netherlands. By the end of 2009 it was the largest city in Germany without regular long-distance services. With the new schedule for 2010, Mönchengladbach got an InterCity/Intercity-Express connection twice a week.

The city also has a commercial airport called Düsseldorf Mönchengladbach.

Local bus and rail transport is carried out by the NEW-AG under the VRR transport association regulations.

Football

Mönchengladbach has a long football tradition. Its home club, Borussia Mönchengladbach, is one of the country's most well-known, best-supported, and successful teams. The club plays on the Borussia-Park stadium with a capacity of 54,057. The club has the sixth largest fan club in Germany, "The Foals" (Die Fohlen), with more than 50,000 active members.

Field hockey
The city hosted three International Field Hockey world championships: the 2006 Men's World Hockey Cup, the 2008 Women's Hockey Champions Trophy, and the 2010 Men's Hockey Champions Trophy.

Harness racing
Since 1892, Mönchengladbach has owned a harness racing track called Trabrennbahn Mönchengladbach (Trotting track Mönchengladbach).

Military
Until December 2013, the Rheindahlen Military Complex was located just outside Mönchengladbach, where it was home to the headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Germany.

Notable people

 * Jacob Masen (1606–1681), Jesuit priest, historian, dramatist and theologian
 * Hugo Junkers (1859–1935), engineer and entrepreneur
 * Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945), Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany
 * Lisel Haas (1898–1989), photographer
 * Hans Jonas (1903–1993), philosopher and scholar, wrote extensively on ethics
 * Franz Meyers (1908–2002), politician (CDU), former minister-president North Rhine-Westphalia
 * Elisabeth Gottschalk (1912–1989), German-born Dutch historical geographer and professor
 * Jack Zunz (1923–2018), civil and structural engineer, former chairman of Ove Arup & Partners, principal structural designer of the Sydney Opera House
 * Dietrich Nummert (1928–2021), journalist
 * Petra Schürmann (1933–2010), Miss Germany 1956, Miss World 1956
 * Shakuntala Banerjee (born 1973) television presenter
 * Hildegard Uhrmacher (born 1939), operatic soprano
 * Peter Klusen (born 1951), writer, translator and cartoonist
 * Reinhold Ewald (born 1956), physicist and ESA astronaut
 * Walter Moers (born 1957), author
 * Joscho Stephan (born 1979), gypsy jazz guitarist
 * Joko Winterscheidt (born 1979), television presenter

Sport

 * Joseph Pilates (1883–1967), physical trainer, proponent of the Pilates method
 * Hans Heyer (born 1943), racing driver
 * Horst-Dieter Höttges (born 1943), footballer
 * Günter Netzer (born 1944), footballer
 * Jupp Heynckes (born 1945), footballer and manager
 * Erwin Kremers (born 1949), footballer
 * Ulrike von der Groeben (born 1957), television sport journalist
 * Michael Frontzeck (born 1964), footballer
 * Ellen Lohr (born 1965), racing driver
 * Heinz-Harald Frentzen (born 1967), Formula One driver
 * Jorg Albertz (born 1971), footballer
 * Nick Heidfeld (born 1977), Formula One driver
 * Sven Heidfeld (born 1978), racing driver
 * Marcell Jansen (born 1985), footballer
 * Isabell Herlovsen (born 1988), Norwegian footballer
 * Marc-André ter Stegen (born 1992), footballer

title: Mönchengladbach


text:
Helix

A helix is a shape like the  cylindrical part of a coil spring or the thread of a machine screw. It is a type of smooth space curve with tangent lines at a constant angle to a fixed axis. Helices are important in biology, as the DNA molecule is formed as two intertwined helices, and many proteins have helical substructures, known as alpha helices. The word helix comes from the Greek word ἕλιξ, "twisted, curved". A "filled-in" helix – for example, a "spiral" (helical) ramp – is a surface called a helicoid.

Properties and types
The pitch of a helix is the height of one complete helix turn, measured parallel to the axis of the helix.

A double helix consists of two (typically congruent) helices with the same axis, differing by a translation along the axis.

A circular helix (i.e. one with constant radius) has constant band curvature and constant torsion.

A conic helix, also known as a conic spiral, may be defined as a spiral on a conic surface, with the distance to the apex an exponential function of the angle indicating direction from the axis.

A curve is called a general helix or cylindrical helix if its tangent makes a constant angle with a fixed line in space. A curve is a general helix if and only if the ratio of curvature to torsion is constant.

A curve is called a slant helix if its principal normal makes a constant angle with a fixed line in space. It can be constructed by applying a transformation to the moving frame of a general helix.

For more general helix-like space curves can be found, see space spiral; e.g., spherical spiral.

Handedness
Helices can be either right-handed or left-handed. With the line of sight along the helix's axis, if a clockwise screwing motion moves the helix away from the observer, then it is called a right-handed helix; if towards the observer, then it is a left-handed helix. Handedness (or chirality) is a property of the helix, not of the perspective: a right-handed helix cannot be turned to look like a left-handed one unless it is viewed in a mirror, and vice versa.

Mathematical description
In mathematics, a helix is a curve in 3-dimensional space. The following parametrisation in Cartesian coordinates defines a particular helix; perhaps the simplest equations for one is

 * $$\begin{align}

x(t) &= \cos(t),\\ y(t) &= \sin(t),\\ z(t) &= t. \end{align}$$

As the parameter $t$ increases, the point $(cos t, sin t, t)$ traces a right-handed helix of pitch $0 ≤ t ≤ 4π$ (or slope 1) and radius 1 about the $x$-axis, in a right-handed coordinate system.

In cylindrical coordinates $(x(t),y(t),z(t))$, the same helix is parametrised by:
 * $$\begin{align}

r(t) &= 1,\\ \theta(t) &= t,\\ h(t) &= t. \end{align}$$

A circular helix of radius $y$ and slope $2π$ (or pitch $(r, θ, h)$) is described by the following parametrisation:

 * $$\begin{align}

x(t) &= a\cos(t),\\ y(t) &= a\sin(t),\\ z(t) &= bt. \end{align}$$

Another way of mathematically constructing a helix is to plot the complex-valued function $a⁄b$ as a function of the real number $t$ (see Euler's formula). The value of $z$ and the real and imaginary parts of the function value give this plot three real dimensions.

Except for rotations, translations, and changes of scale, all right-handed helices are equivalent to the helix defined above. The equivalent left-handed helix can be constructed in a number of ways, the simplest being to negate any one of the $a$, $x$ or $x$ components.

Arc length, curvature and torsion
A circular helix of radius $x$ and slope $2πb$ (or pitch $e^{xi}$) expressed in Cartesian coordinates as
 * $$t\mapsto (a\cos t, a\sin t, bt), t\in [0,T]$$

has an arc length of
 * $$A = T\cdot \sqrt{a^2+b^2},$$

a curvature of
 * $$\frac{|a|}{a^2+b^2},$$

and a torsion of
 * $$\frac{b}{a^2+b^2}.$$

A helix has constant non-zero curvature and torsion.

A helix is the vector-valued function

$$\begin{align} \mathbf{r}&=a\cos t \mathbf{i}+a\sin t \mathbf{j}+ b t\mathbf{k}\\[6px]

\mathbf{v}&=-a\sin t \mathbf{i}+a\cos t \mathbf{j}+ b \mathbf{k}\\[6px]

\mathbf{a}&=-a\cos t \mathbf{i}-a\sin t \mathbf{j}+ 0\mathbf{k}\\[6px]

 * \mathbf{v}|&=\sqrt{(-a\sin t )^2 +(a\cos t)^2 + b^2}=\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}\\[6px]

 * \mathbf{a}| &= \sqrt{(-a\sin t )^2 +(a\cos t)^2 } = a\\[6px]

s(t) &= \int_{0}^{t}\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}d\tau = \sqrt{a^2 +b^2} t \end{align}$$

So a helix can be reparameterized as a function of $y$, which must be unit-speed:

$$\mathbf{r}(s) = a\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} } \mathbf{i}+a\sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}} \mathbf{j}+ \frac{bs}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}} \mathbf{k}$$

The unit tangent vector is

$$\frac{d \mathbf{r}}{d s} = \mathbf{T} = \frac{-a}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} }\sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} } \mathbf{i}+\frac{a}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} }\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} }\mathbf{j}+ \frac{b}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}} \mathbf{k}$$

The normal vector is

$$\frac{d \mathbf{T}}{d s} = \kappa \mathbf{N} = \frac{-a}{a^2 +b^2 }\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} } \mathbf{i}+\frac{-a}{a^2 +b^2} \sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} }\mathbf{j}+ 0 \mathbf{k}$$

Its curvature is

$$\kappa = \left|\frac{d\mathbf{T}}{ds}\right|= \frac{|a|}{a^2 +b^2 }$$.

The unit normal vector is

$$\mathbf{N}=-\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} } \mathbf{i} - \sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2} } \mathbf{j} + 0 \mathbf{k}$$

The binormal vector is

$$ \begin{align} \mathbf{B}=\mathbf{T}\times\mathbf{N} &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2 }} \left( b\sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}}\mathbf{i} - b\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}}\mathbf{j}+ a \mathbf{k}\right)\\[12px] \frac{d\mathbf{B}}{ds} &= \frac{1}{a^2 +b^2} \left( b\cos \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}} \mathbf{i} + b\sin \frac{s}{\sqrt{a^2 +b^2}}\mathbf{j}+ 0 \mathbf{k} \right) \end{align}$$

Its torsion is $$\tau = \left| \frac{d\mathbf{B}}{ds} \right| = \frac{b}{a^2 +b^2}.$$

Examples
An example of a double helix in molecular biology is the nucleic acid double helix.

An example of a conic helix is the Corkscrew roller coaster at Cedar Point amusement park.

Some curves found in nature consist of multiple helices of different handedness joined together by transitions known as tendril perversions.

Most hardware screw threads are right-handed helices. The alpha helix in biology as well as the A and B forms of DNA are also right-handed helices. The Z form of DNA is left-handed.

In music, pitch space is often modeled with helices or double helices, most often extending out of a circle such as the circle of fifths, so as to represent octave equivalency.

In aviation, geometric pitch is the distance an element of an airplane propeller would advance in one revolution if it were moving along a helix having an angle equal to that between the chord of the element and a plane perpendicular to the propeller axis; see also: pitch angle (aviation).

title: Helix


text:
Jimmy Young (boxer)

Jimmy Young (November 14, 1948 – February 20, 2005) was an American heavyweight professional boxer. Young was known for his awkward, defensive style and counterpunching. He was one of the top contenders of the 1970s, most notably earning a victory over George Foreman in 1977 and losing a unanimous decision against Muhammad Ali in 1976. Young fought many significant fighters of his era, including twice outpointing Ron Lyle and losing only by a split decision to then-number one contender Ken Norton in a title eliminator in late 1977. A fellow boxer, Bobby Watts, was his cousin.

Early fights
An inexperienced Young was matched against contender Earnie Shavers in what was only his 11th professional fight. Shavers, who at that time had a 42–2 record dealt Young his first knockout loss, being his 4th loss. Young had tried trading blows and was caught early on by one of the division's hardest punchers, who was well known for his overwhelming early attacks.

After this defeat Young went undefeated for the next three years, including a win over contender Ron Lyle and a controversial draw in a re-match with Earnie Shavers with many observers scoring the bout for Young. The improved outcome for Young was largely due to improvements made to his defense since his last fight with the devastating hitter. Despite Young's inability to earn a victory over Shavers, it was enough to earn him a title fight with the heavyweight champion, Muhammad Ali.

The Ali–Young fight
Young achieved widespread public recognition when he fought Muhammad Ali at the Capital Center in Landover, Maryland, on April 30, 1976, for the world heavyweight title, although boxing circles had already noted his ability. Ali weighed in at 230 pounds, the highest for any of his fights up to that point (he would weigh 236.25 pounds in his fight against Trevor Berbick), and was consequently slow and immobile throughout the bout. Seven years younger and 21 pounds lighter, Young adopted a strategy of fighting aggressively from a distance, landing numerous light blows while dodging and parrying Ali's counterpunches, and using his body blows, which had little power behind them but were effective at scoring points. At close quarters, Young would turn passive. In addition to retreating whenever possible, Young often kept his head ducked very low in order to deter Ali from landing blows at his head and risk censure from the referee for "rabbit punching". On several occasions when Ali was inside and Young had his back to the ropes, Young intentionally put his head or upper body out of the ring beyond the ropes to compel the referee to step in and separate the fighters. As a novel boxing tactic this divided opinion between its being a way of neutralizing Ali's game, to its being seen as an unsportsmanlike way of causing tactical stoppages every time Ali possessed an advantage. At one point during the bout the referee did initiate a count due to Young's being outside the ropes. The fight went the full 15 rounds resulting in a controversial one-sided unanimous decision in favor of Ali. Referee Tom Kelly scored it 72–65; judges Larry Barrett and Terry Moore had it 70–68 and 71–64, respectively.

Ken Norton, (a rival of Ali) who was commentating at ringside, had the fight even on his own scorecard. Former Ring editor Lester Bromberg called the decision a "travesty". New York Daily News reporter Dick Young said: "[Ali won] by the grace of three hero-worshipping fight officials. I believe many people, the voting officials among them, refuse to believe what they see when one of their super-heroes doesn't function as expected." After the match's televised broadcast, many viewers called to the network to complain about the decision, and Ali's career trainer Angelo Dundee went on record as saying this was Ali's "worst fight". After the match there were calls on Ali to retire from the sport from quarters of the sport's media.

Rematch with Lyle and then George Foreman
Young defeated Lyle in a November 1976 rematch by using clever defense and a fast offensive style. He was able to dominate the older fighter, with one judge's scorecard having Young winning 11 of 12 rounds.

In March 1977, Young then fought George Foreman in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Foreman was on a five bout win streak since losing the title to Muhammad Ali in "The Rumble in the Jungle", earning victories over top contenders Ron Lyle and Joe Frazier.

The Young–Foreman fight was somewhat steady until the sixth round. The early rounds were punctuated by complaints from Young and his corner about the use of elbows by Foreman, who was punished by the referee with a point deduction. For the first half of the fight, Young used his somewhat unorthodox boxing skills and good defense to keep out of harm's way, while using his punching speed to counter. In the sixth round he became somewhat more aggressive himself and landed a number of clean punches on Foreman. Eleven seconds into the seventh round, Foreman caught Young with a left-handed body punch, and immediately followed with a powerful swinging left hand to the head. Young reeled and turned away and seemed about to go down, while Foreman tried to pursue his advantage, but somehow Young survived to the end of the round. In his after-match comments on TV, he described it as "desperation". After the near knockdown Young rallied, and landed a number of good punches of his own. As the fight progressed Foreman's eyes became puffy and his punches lost their menace. For the rest of the contest, Foreman continued to move forward, trying to cut off the ring and looking for the big knock out, while taking punches from the elusive Young. In the final round Young managed a knockdown over Foreman, and earned a unanimous win by 12-round decision. The Ring named the Young–Foreman bout its 1977 "Fight of the Year". Young joined Ali as one of only two men to beat Foreman before his first retirement in 1977.

The Young–Norton eliminator fight
Now the number two contender, Young's next fight was a mandatory world title eliminator against Ken Norton, the number 1 contender. Young had won five straight since his loss to Ali.

Young lost the Norton match that occurred in November 1977 at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada, in a controversial split decision. Many observers watching in attendance felt Young should have been declared the winner. While Young boxed cleverly, drawing Norton onto sneak right hand punches, Norton himself pressed forward dangerously, always his best style. The two had sparred when Norton trained for his second Ali match. Norton had found shots thrown first to the head rarely landed so he used a heavy two-handed attack pounding away to the ribs, then lobbing powerful head shots. The fight was set at 15 rounds. Although this was unusual for a non-title match, the format was adopted due to the bout's importance as an eliminator. Due to the importance of the fight, which was later retro-designated as a WBC title match, a large crowd gathered to watch the bout including then world champion Muhammad Ali. Although the winner of the fight was supposed to go on to fight for the heavyweight championship, Leon Spinks, who had won the championship from Muhammad Ali in an upset win on February 15, 1978, chose a rematch against Ali instead of fighting Norton for the WBC title. As a result, Norton was awarded the WBC championship belt

Later career
Demoralised at having lost another close decision, Young went into a gradual downward spiral. In June 1978 poor conditioning, an increasing problem, led to Young being outpointed by prospect Ossie Ocasio. While better in a direct rematch, in January 1979, Ocasio again earned the win and went on to fight the world champion Larry Holmes.

Young won a short three-round brutal battle with unranked Wendell Bailey, showing flashes of old form. But in other matches of note Young fared poorly. He was stopped due to cuts by new heavyweight contender Gerry Cooney after four rounds in a fight where he was dominated. He also lost on points to another rising prospect and future heavyweight champion Michael Dokes. In the 1979 match with Dokes, Young was out of shape due to lack of training and weighed 229 lbs., nearly the heaviest he had weighed throughout his career and around 15 lbs. heavier than his ideal fighting weight. However Young was able to slim down for his fight against British champion John L. Gardner, occurring in December 1979. Young outpointed Gardner, knocking him down in the 10th round. The triumph over Gardner as well as wins against Marvin Stinson and Jeff Sims were probably his last notable wins.

Starting in 1981 Young appeared to be making a comeback, winning five in a row, including a TKO over previously unbeaten Gordon Racette. In 1982 however, Young's comeback was cut short when he was defeated on points by future champion Greg Page. He became a "trial horse" for emerging contenders, dropping decisions to more future champions in Tony Tucker and Tony Tubbs. He continued fighting with mixed results until 1988, when he retired at the age of 39.

Later life
After his boxing career, Young had financial, drug, and legal problems. During a court hearing on a drug possession charge, his Philadelphia public defender argued that Young had symptoms of chronic traumatic brain injury due to his time in the ring. At a boxing celebrity event, The Ring noted that Young apparently needed to be helped about by his family. He was reported as being afflicted with dementia pugilistica in his last years. He died at Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, at the age of 56 from a heart attack on February 20, 2005. He was interred at Mount Peace Cemetery in Philadelphia.

Publications

 * Jimmy Young, Heavyweight Challenger (1979), a biography by E. Dolan and R. Lyttle

title: Jimmy Young (boxer)


text:
Jimmy Young

Jimmy Young may refer to:

 * Jimmy Young (American football) (born 1987), NFL wide receiver for the Pittsburgh Steelers
 * Jimmy Young (boxer) (1948–2005), American heavyweight boxer
 * Jimmy Young (broadcaster) (1921–2016), English singer and radio personality
 * Jimmy Young (sportscaster), radio host for Boston Celtics games
 * James Young (comedian) (1918–1974) Northern Irish actor and comedian also known as Our Jimmy.

title: Jimmy Young


text:
Talk:Electromechanical

I agree that the term describes mechanisms that feature a mixture of electrical and mechanicaltechnologies. Good examples are the electric typewriter, a uniselector (used in the first automatic telephone exchanges). However, it can also be argued that a loudspeaker, microphone, pieze-electic lighter and many more devices are electro-mechanical. User:Rjstott

Quite. Rather than expand this article to include everything electrical that moves, it might be better to delete it. Or perhaps it could become just a list of all electromechanical phenomena, with links to articles. -- Heron

title: Talk:Electromechanical


text:
Jimmy Young (broadcaster)

Sir Leslie Ronald Young, known professionally as Jimmy Young (21 September 1921 – 7 November 2016), was an English singer, disc jockey and radio personality. Early in his career in the 1950s he had two number ones, "Unchained Melody" and "The Man from Laramie", both in 1955, and several other top ten hits in the UK chart, but he became better known for his long-running show on BBC Radio 2, The JY Prog, which ran from 1973 until 2002.

Early life
Young was born in Cinderford, Gloucestershire. The son of a baker and a dressmaker, he attended East Dean Grammar School. Young nearly died from bronchitis, double pneumonia and pleurisy as a child. He excelled at boxing and rugby, playing for Cinderford RFC and later turning down a place with Wigan's rugby league team.

After his parents divorced in 1939, he left for South Wales to work as an electrician. Young later joined the RAF, becoming a PT instructor, staying until 1949.

Singing career
Young signed to the new Polygon Records in 1950, joining Petula Clark, Louis Prima and Dorothy Squires. All his recordings on the label were conducted by Ron Goodwin. Goodwin later said he always liked working with Young "because he was always so enthusiastic. He thought everything we did was going to be a hit." The most popular was "Too Young" which he recorded in 1951, but this was before the days of UK record charts which didn't start until November 1952, so the record books do not list it. The song was a big sheet music seller at the time and was a cover version of the Nat King Cole original. There were also two duets with Petula Clark that year, "Mariandl" (b/w "Broken Heart").

In 1952, he signed a recording contract with Decca. Young enjoyed Top 10 successes with "Eternally", "Chain Gang" and "More" (with which he surpassed Perry Como's American original in the British Singles Chart listings). His most successful year as a recording artist was 1955, when "Unchained Melody" (from the film Unchained) and "The Man from Laramie" (from the film of the same name) were both number one hits. He returned to the UK Top 20 after a lengthy absence in 1963 with "Miss You" and continued to release singles until the late 1960s. However, after the success of Elvis Presley, he became anxious, depressed and increasingly dependent on sleeping pills. In February 1960, he started to have thoughts of suicide, and one friend told him to see an astrologer, Katina Theodossiou. Young said later, that "She said I was going to be a great success...there is absolutely no way with your chart you can commit suicide. In actual fact you're going to be around so long they're going to have to take you off the field and shoot you". Young later credited her with saving his career. Young said "She forecast that my future lay in interviewing people, not singing".

Disc jockey and radio broadcaster
After a period with Radio Luxembourg, Young joined the BBC. He became a host of Housewives' Choice, on the BBC Light Programme, and later he became one of the first disc jockeys on BBC Radio 1, presenting the weekday mid-morning show from 1967 to 1973. He then joined BBC Radio 2 in 1973, where he presented a daily lunchtime news and current affairs programme. The show (which he referred to as "The JY Prog"), ran from 2 July 1973 to 20 December 2002.

He developed a popular approach to current affairs and regularly interviewed Margaret Thatcher while she was Prime Minister. He broadcast from around the world, including several live shows from Moscow, the first in 1977, and interviewed every British Prime Minister from 1964 to 2010. His theme music was "Town Talk" by Ken Woodman & His Piccadilly Brass. BFN ('Bye for now') was one of his catchphrases.

Although he was offered the opportunity to present a weekend current affairs programme, he turned it down. His radio slot was taken over by the former Newsnight presenter, Jeremy Vine. Shortly after leaving and retiring from the BBC, Young wrote a newspaper column criticising his former employer for instances of "brutality", and making clear that it had not been his idea to leave. He declined lunch with his successor and the pair never met. He continued to write a weekly column for the Sunday Express newspaper until he retired from this role in November 2014. He did present a Christmas Day show in 2003 on BBC Radio Gloucestershire. On the same day he also appeared on 'Loose Ends' on BBC Radio 4.

Young returned to BBC Radio 2 in 2011 with a special one-hour programme in celebration of his 90th birthday. Sir Jimmy Young at 90, broadcast on 20 September 2011, heard him in conversation with his friend and former sparring partner Ken Bruce, looking back over his career. In March 2012 Young returned to presenting on Radio 2 after over nine years when he joined Desmond Carrington on a weekly show entitled Icons of the '50s. His final radio appearance was in February 2016 when he gave a brief tribute to his former colleague Sir Terry Wogan on Radio 2's Jeremy Vine Show, the programme that replaced Young's in 2003.

Awards
Young was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1979, and promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1993. In the 2002 New Year Honours, he was knighted for services to radio broadcasting.

Autobiography
His first autobiography, J.Y.: The Autobiography of Jimmy Young, was published by W.H. Allen in 1974. His second autobiography, Forever Young: The Autobiography, was published by Hodder & Stoughton in 2003. In addition he wrote a book in 1982 simply entitled 'Jimmy Young' that concentrated on his broadcasting career.

Death
According to a family spokesman, Young died "peacefully at home" in the afternoon of 7 November 2016, aged 95, with his wife Alicia by his side.

Discography
name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>
 * "Too Young" – (1951)
 * "Faith Can Move Mountains" – (1953) – UK Number 11
 * "Eternally" – (1953, music by Charles Chaplin, words by Geoff Parsons) – UK Number 8
 * "Unchained Melody" – (1955) – UK Number 1 (with Bob Sharples and His Music, Decca: F10502)
 * "The Man from Laramie" – (1955) – UK Number 1 (with Bob Sharples and His Music, Decca: F10597)
 * "Someone on Your Mind" – (1955) – UK Number 13 (with Bob Sharples and His Music) (Decca: F10640; US London 1639)
 * "Chain Gang" – (1956) – UK Number 9
 * "Wayward Wind" – (1956) – UK Number 27
 * "Rich Man Poor Man" – (1956) – UK Number 25
 * "More" – (1956) – UK Number 4
 * "Round and Round" – (1957) – UK Number 30 (with the Mike Sammes Singers)
 * "Miss You" – (1963) – UK Number 15
 * "Unchained Melody" (re-recording) – (1964) – UK Number 43 (with the Mike Sammes Singers)<ref

title: Jimmy Young (broadcaster)


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Radio 1

Radio 1 or Radio One most commonly refers to: Radio 1 or Radio One may also refer to:
 * BBC Radio 1, a music radio station from the BBC
 * BBC Radio 1Xtra, a digital radio station broadcasting black music
 * CBC Radio One, a talk radio station operated by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

Stations

 * NPO Radio 1, a talk radio station operated by the Nederlandse Publieke Omroep, The Netherlands
 * Radio 1, the former name of Nasional FM, Malaysia
 * Radio 1 (Belgium), a talk radio station operated by the Flemish public broadcaster
 * Radio 1 (Czech Republic), a commercial music radio station in Prague
 * Radio 1 FM (The Gambia), an independent station based in Serrekunda
 * Radio 1 (Ghana), a station operated by the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation
 * Radio One (India), a commercial radio station in several Indian cities
 * Radio One (Lebanon), a defunct Lebanese radio station
 * Radio One (Mauritius), a private commercial radio station in Mauritius
 * Radio One (New Zealand), a student radio station in Dunedin
 * Radio Uno (Chile), a Chilean station playing only national music
 * Radyo 1 of the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation
 * Rai Radio 1, a talk radio station operated by the Italian public broadcaster
 * RTÉ Radio 1, a talk radio station operated by the Irish public broadcaster

Networks

 * Radio 1 (Norway), a network of commercial radio stations in Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger
 * Urban One, a U.S. network radio operator, formerly Radio One

Music

 * Radio One (album), a 1988 album by the Jimi Hendrix Experience

title: Radio 1


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Talk:Solenoid

Lines of force acting in the wrong direction?
I suspect that, on the second image down on the right ('Magnetic field created by a seven-loop solenoid') the arrows on the magnetic lines of force are shown pointing in the wrong direction. By convention lines of magnetic force emanate from the north pole which, by the right hand grip rule, is on the left of the solenoid.

Also suggest that the image would be improved by showing the north and south poles.CPES (talk) 15:27, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * No, it's correct - although the "dart" notation for current flow might be unfamiliar. Andy Dingley (talk) 15:46, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes, you are correct. I am familiar with the dart notation- I was having one of those days! Thanks CPES (talk) 09:37, 23 December 2016 (UTC)

The Selenoid page should be added to the Inductor page.
Solenoid vs Inductor ?.

In physics, the term refers to a coil which produces a uniform magnetic field when an electric current is passed through it. A solenoid can be more specifically classified as an inductor rather than an electromagnet. Not all electromagnets and inductors are solenoids.

If you would like more technical Proof in form of Facts, Then please let me know.

Contributed by. GCHQ MI6 ULTRA (Signal Intelligence).

GCHQ-Mi-6 (talk) 21:13, 28 June 2017 (UTC)

 * The solenoid article includes a link to the inductor article. The inductor article includes a link to the solenoid article. If that's what you mean by "the Selenoid page should be added to the Inductor page" — then it's already done. - LuckyLouie (talk) 01:07, 29 June 2017 (UTC)

Should remove equations
While nukephysik101.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/finite-length-solenoid-potential-and-field.pdf isn't spam, I don't think we can justify whitelisting it in because it's not a WP:RS in the first place. A lot of the other material is unsourced, and I've already seen transcription errors on this page in the past. I think the best thing to do would be to remove the equations and point the readers to reliable external sources like Cylindrical Magnets and Ideal Solenoids for now, until/unless someone wants to rewrite from reliable sources. Rolf H Nelson (talk) 23:29, 6 January 2018 (UTC)

Understandability, variety, and what's not a solenoid
While parts of the whole article can be understood by people with limited education, there's significant content that is highly terhnical. Imho, the whole article seems to require major editing and rearrangement.

Typical solenoids are commonplace, and easily understood; the abstruse theoretical aspects and discussion belong in their own section.

The introduction is far too academic. Much better would be a few good photos of widely–used solenoid actuators, including their sliding cores. Cores should be shown separate as well as installed, in both energized and de–energized positions. At least one photo should show the coil without its protective cover, to reveal the magnet wire winding.

Most practical solenoids include ferromagnetic surrounds ("cores") of varying sophistication; solenoids without cores are far less common in practice, except in radio receivers of the early 20th century.

Functioning solenoids are easy to make, given a source of magnet wire, although "hookup" wire surely will work, but with lower packing density. Moreover, if film–insulated magnet wire is used in a classroom, try hard to obtain green insulation! Plainly–visible insulation is mandatory, imho.

Single–layer windings are atypical, beloved by academicians, being amenable to analysis, but rare in practice. So–called scramble wound coils are practical, and work very well.

The term "solenoid" is applied specifically to a) academic helices (not flat spirals, such as in induction food cookers) and b) electromagnetic actuators, nearly all of which have the coil and its magnetic circuit mounted on the frame of the device which uses them.

Other wirewound electromagnetic devices are conventionally not called solenoids, such as focus coils for CRTs that use magnetic focus, transformers, toroidal and other inductors, analog pointer meters, et cetera.

Must confess that I've not read all, yet, but TV camera tubes, vidicons and image orthicons, have surrounding focus coils that extend nearly or actually over the entire length of the tube. These coils are solenoids, and the uniformity of the magnetic fields inside such coils is crucial to their operation. This type of electron optics differs from that in which focusing fields are more local with respect to the overall size of the device, such as magnetic–focus CRTs. In "immersion" magnetic focus, where the coil extends along the device, electrons move helically between sources and destinations.

Helmholtz coils are not conventionally considered to be solenoids, nor are rigid ("hard") disk drive actuators.

While loudspeaker and headphone/earphone coils are much like academic solenoids (but with adjacent turns in contact), they're not typically referred to as solenoids.

(Query, for the academicians: What effect does "tightness/looseness" of turn spacing have on inductance and possibly other parameters? Early radio coils (inductors) had adjacent turns in contact, tightest–possible turns spacing. It seems that turns spacing of academic solenoids is always (?) "loose", or am I missing something?)

Somewhat off–topic, but electromagnetic actuators tend to fall into two different types: Those in which magnetic attraction* dominates, and those in which orthogonal force dominates, such as loudspeaker voice coils and disk head actuators.
 * Or, more rarely, repulsion

Solenoids without ferromagnetic flux paths, "air core", also pull their moving cores into their centers, but with miserable inefficiency. They develop force by what could be considered a third means, in which the theoretical loops of magnetic fields act like elastomers—rubber bands— developing force by what could be considered contracting forces, minimizing path length outside the solenoid.

Btw, feel free to use text here without attribution.

I discovered a really annoying bug while proofreading this, using Android 10. Trying to edit near the beginning repeatedly snapped focus to the end of the text!

By user nikevich Nikevich 02:43, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

 * After posting this, I went ahead and edited the first section (only). In retrospect, I think maybe I should restrict myself to copy edits, not major ones. At age 85, I could be "losing my touch". user:nikevich.Nikevich 05:13, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

Needs more practical explanation and examples
This article is probably great for academic use learning about solenoid theory, but is difficult to read to find out practical information on solenoids, similar to what Nikevich states above.

The term solenoid is also often used to mean a mechanical actuator consisting of a coil of wire with ferromagnetic armature that is attracted inside the coil when the coil is energised.

Bidirectional solenoids as electromechanical actuators are also produced using 2 separate coils, such that one coil attracts the iron armature in one direction and the other coil attracts the armature in the other direction.

I am an engineer and I just wanted to look up practical engineering information about mechanical actuator solenoids. I.e. how many turns are needed to create a given force and displacement of a given size iron core with specified magnetic susceptibility.

Early telephone loudspeakers used a moving iron core inside a solenoid.

A solenoid is also used as part of a moving coil loudspeaker. The solenoid coil is held in a magnetic field and as it is energised with the alternating current of the audio signal, the coil will move in one direction or the other depending on the audio signal polarity. The coil is part of the diaphragm arrangement which is in turn held by a flexible sprung surround, such that with no signal the coil and diaphragm will return to the central position. The movement of the diaphragm will depend on the force which can be applied by the magnetism from the coil against the permanent magnetic field, balanced by the force of the flexible spring mounting and force applied to move the air.

I would expect that bidirectional electromechanical actuators could be made with a movable magnet inside a solenoid coil, similar to the way a loudspeaker works.

Solenoids are also used as part of magnetic locks/latches. A permanent magnet incorporates a solenoid coil, such that when not energised a ferromagnetic plate or bar will be held with a force which cannot be overcome within the scenario of use. When the solenoid is energised, it produces an opposite magnetic field counteracting the force of the permanent magnet, such that the lock can be opened.

Etc.

Lkingscott (talk) 11:10, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

 * This is precisely what I came here to say. Thank you! Adamtakvam (talk) 07:33, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Solenoid