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Porto Alegre

Porto Alegre (,, Brazilian ; lit. '"Joyful Harbor"') is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Its population of 1.332.845 inhabitants (2022) makes it the 11th-most populous city in the country and the center of Brazil's fifth-largest metropolitan area, with 4,405,760 inhabitants (2010). The city is the southernmost capital city of a Brazilian state.

Porto Alegre was founded in 1769 by Manuel Jorge Gomes de Sepúlveda, who used the pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo to hide his identity; the official date, though, is 1772 with the act signed by immigrants from the Azores, Portugal.

The city lies on the eastern bank of the Guaíba Lake, where five rivers converge to form the Lagoa dos Patos, a giant freshwater lagoon navigable by even the largest of ships. This five-river junction has become an important alluvial port and a chief industrial and commercial center of Brazil.

In recent years, Porto Alegre hosted the World Social Forum, an initiative of several nongovernment organizations. The city became famous for being the first city that implemented participatory budgeting. The 9th Assembly of the World Council of Churches was held in Porto Alegre in 2006. Since 2000, Porto Alegre also hosts one of the world's largest free software events, called FISL. The city was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, having previously been a venue for the 1950 FIFA World Cup.

History

The official date of the foundation of the city of Porto Alegre is 26 March 1772, by Manuel Sepúlveda, when Freguesia de São Francisco do Porto dos Casais was created and changed a year later to Nossa Senhora da Madre de Deus de Porto Alegre. However, the village started in 1752, when 60 Azorean couples were brought over by the Treaty of Madrid to set up Missions at the Northeast Region of Rio Grande do Sul that was handed over to the Portuguese Crown in exchange for the Sacramento Colony located on the margin of the Plata River. Land demarcation took a long time and the Azoreans settled permanently at Porto de Viamão, which was the first name by which Porto Alegre went.

On 24 July 1773, Porto Alegre became the capital city of the province, when the administration of Manuel Sepúlveda, who used the fictitious name or pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo, to hide his identity, officially started. In 1824, immigrants from all over the world started arriving, especially German, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Jewish, and Lebanese.

The capital city of Rio Grande do Sul is also the capital city in the Pampas region, the name given to the region of fauna and flora typical of the vast plains that dominate the landscape of the southern tip of Brazil, and parts of Argentina and Uruguay, from where the gaúcho comes, the historical figure of a brave warrior who fought legendary battles and wars in the quest to conquer the borders of the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain in the 16th century.

Many wars occurred in the years before, but the 19th century marked its people, after they fought a long war for their independence from the Brazilian Empire. The Farrapos War started with the confrontation in Porto Alegre, near the Azenha bridge on 20 September 1835. This conflict began the myth of the gaucho who is still praised in songs and celebrated in annual pageants and honored as names of streets and parks.

When the Farrapos War ended, the city continued to develop and underwent strong urban restructuring during the last decades of the 18th century, driven by the accelerated growth of port-related activities and shipyards. Its development continued over time and the city kept abreast with cultural, political and social events that were taking place within Brazil.

The city became known worldwide in 1963 through hosting the World University Games. In 1985, the people of Porto Alegre joined the movement for free elections and one of the largest demonstrations took place in the city. .

In 2024,the city and other neighboring areas were flooded thanks to heavy rain. (See 2024 Rio Grande do Sul floods).

The city
The city is on a delta resulting from the junction of five rivers, officially called Guaíba Lake (popularly mentioned as a river, too). The city dates from the mid-18th century, when colonist from the Azores, islands in the Atlantic Ocean that are part of Portugal, settled in the area, sponsored by the Portuguese colonyimmi. The city was officially established in 1742. Porto Alegre is one of the wealthiest cities in Latin America and one of the most diverse. Its residents includes indigenous Brazilians, afro-Brazilians, immigrants from Portugal, Russia, Germany, Italy, Spain, Ukraine and Poland. There are also significant Arab and Jewish contingents among its population. The Afro-Brazilian population of the state tends to be concentrated in the city.

Before this, Porto Alegre was the port of Viamão on the shore of Guaíba Lake. Its previous name was Porto dos Casais (Port of the Couples). and it was initially settled by Azoreans. Many families of settlers came from the city of Rio Grande in the littoral Lagunar region, to the south, a military fortress at that time. Today Rio Grande is the most important port of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. The city is also known as "Porto do Sol" (Port of the Sun) and "Cidade Sorriso" (Smile City). More than 70 neighborhoods (see below) are part of the city and two-thirds of the population are concentrated in the Zona Norte (Northern Zone), where most of the economic activity, including the city center, takes place.

Porto Alegre was the seat of the World Social Forum in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005 and 2010. As the second largest city in southern Brazil, it is an important industrial center in the area. It is also a center for gaúcho (the popular name for natives of the state) history and culture, famous for its churrasco (barbecue) and chimarrão (a strong and hot tea prepared from erva mate). In 2000, the literacy rate was 97%. The high quality of life is one of the city's main features.

Geography
The city of Porto Alegre is located at the northern end of the large coastal lagoon, Lagoa dos Patos in southeastern Brazil. The city lies on the east bank of the mouth of the Rio Guaiba, the estuary of which forms the enormous freshwater lagoon, Lagoa dos Patos. Also joining the Guaíba at Porto Alegre are the Jacuí River, the Sinos River, the Gravataí River and the Caí River, all tributaries of Guaíba just before it empties into Lagoa dos Patos.

Porto Alegre has a long coastline on the Guaíba Lake, and its topography is punctuated by 40 hills. In the lake, a vast body of water, a maze of islands facing the city creates an archipelago where a unique ecosystem gives shelter to abundant wildlife. The city area concentrates 28% of the native flora of Rio Grande do Sul, with 9,288 species. Among these, there are many trees which are vestiges of the Atlantic Forest. Fauna are also diversified, especially in the islands and hills. The Portoalegrense environs include many parks, squares and wooded streets.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Porto Alegre has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) characterized by its high variability, but with well-defined seasons and evenly distributed rain throughout the year. The presence of Lake Guaíba contributes to increase the humidity of the air. The city experiences the most prominent difference among seasons and between temperature extremes among all Brazilian capitals. One reason for that is its much more southerly position relative to the rest of the country, which also contributes for the occurrence of 14 hours of daylight in December and 10 hours in June. Due to a large depletion in the ozone layer over the south of Brazil, a result of the Antarctic ozone hole, the population is occasionally dangerously exposed to extremely high UV radiation. The winter is mild to cool, windy, rainy and quite changeable, which is also a feature of this time of the year. Usual winter temperatures range from 10 °C to 19 °C. In the coldest days of the year the temperature may fall slightly below zero, like in 2012, when it recorded -0.7 °C. The summers are very hot, with temperatures that go up to 30 °C, sometimes reaching 40 °C. Sometimes, summer usually has irregular rains and periods of drought. Fall tends to be as changeable as winter, but is typically warmer. Spring is usually very rainy, with thunderstorms, strong winds and hailstorms. The climate of Porto Alegre is very affected by El Niño phenomenon, with flooding in some neighborhoods of the city, especially in the islands in the Lake Guaiba. However, a drainage system and a wall along the Historic District were built after a major flood in 1941 that devastated the city, preventing further damage.

Snow is very rare, sometimes confused with sleet. The only snowfall events in Porto Alegre were in 1879, 1910, 1984, 1994, 2000 and 2006, and few of them featured accumulation. However, frost sometimes occurs in the city. Occurrence of radiation fog is common, causing several delays in early flights. Unlike other large Brazilian cities much farther north, notably Brasília, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro who observe a pronounced summer maximum in precipitation amounts, the city of Porto Alegre experiences a prominent winter maximum in precipitation values and cloud cover, for the summer season is primarily hot and dry; though evidently high humidity levels often give a distinct mugginess to the air and negatively impacts air quality. According to 1981-2010 averages, Porto Alegre receives an average-total precipitation amount of 1,425 mmAnnually. This average makes the city slightly wetter than Rio at 1,172 mm yet, to a very small extent, drier than both São Paulo at 1,457 mm and Brasilia at 1,557 mm., Though 1991-2020 normals show annual precipitation figure rising to 1,498 mm.

The highest recorded unofficial temperature was 42.6 °C and the highest official one was 40.7 °C, recorded on January 1, 1943, while the lowest official recorded temperature was -4.0 °C on July 11, 1918.

Vegetation
Porto Alegre lies in a transitional area between the subtropical forest and the Southern Brazilian grasslands (pampa). A number of conservation programmes have been established to protect native trees. Many of the city's avenues have been planted with different tree species. One striking example of this is Teresópolis Avenue, where bottle trees have been planted. The city is covered in green vegetation and Lapacho and Jacaranda are the main species that can be found locally. The trees from the hills are protected. Two environmental conservation areas can be found in this city: "Delta do Jacuí" (Jacuí Delta) State Park and Lami Biological Reserve.

The urban area has many parks and plazas, making Porto Alegre one of the greenest provincial capitals in Brazil. The first city squares date from the second half of the 18th century and were originally large public spaces used as food markets. The city has 39 km2 of green space, occupying 31 percent of the city's area. This is an average of 17.6 m2 per person. More than one million trees line the public streets and SMAM plants an average of 30,000 seedlings each year. The four main parks are: Parque Farroupilha, a 37 ha park; Jardim Botânico (The Botanical Garden of Porto Alegre), with some 725 species of vegetation on about 43 ha of land; and Parque Marinha do Brasil (The Brazilian Navy's Park), a vast park of more than 70 ha which offers a wide variety of sports fields and tracks. The city's cycleway is called the Caminho dos Parques, which at over 5 km long links the Moinhos do Vento, Farroupilha and Guaíba shore parks.

The Lami José Lutzenberger Biological Reserve was established in 1975 in the Lami neighborhood of Porto Alegre, named after the local agronomist and environmentalist José Lutzenberger. It was the first municipal reserve in Brazil. The reserve covers 179 ha. It reopened in April 2002 after being closed for more than ten years to allow its ecosystems to recover. The reserve conserves nature and supports research and environmental education.

Water
Sewer service is available to 87.7 percent of the city, and 100 percent of the population is serviced by treated water. While in most Brazilian cities the water is supplied by large state companies, in Porto Alegre the Municipal Department of Water and Sanitation Services, (DMAE) is the provider. It is the largest municipal water supplier in the country and enjoys operational autonomy and financial independence. As a separate entity from the municipal government it can make its own decisions on how to invest revenues it has collected, and such decisions are not directly subject to interference from the municipality. It receives no subsidies and makes no payments to the municipality itself. As a municipal undertaking, DMAE enjoys tax-exempt status, which allows it to keep water prices lower.

In 2010, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) approved a US$83.2 million to support the Integrated Socioenvironmental Program of Porto Alegre. The program will be carried out by the Municipal Department of Management and Strategic Support and will focus on improving water quality in Guaíba Lake and the Cavalhada River, developing urban infrastructure to reduce flood risk along the Cavalhada River, improving the environmental management in the Municipality of Porto Alegre, and promoting efficient municipal water, sanitation and storm drainage services. This program will improve the quality of life of the population of Porto Alegre by restoring water quality along the west side of Lake Guaíba and directly benefitting more than 700,000 residents through expanded public sanitation services and urban environmental improvement.

The Jacuí estuary contains the Jacuí Delta State Park, which in turn contains the Banhados do Delta Biological Reserve, a fully protected area which covers the islands of Pólvora and Pombas.

Air quality
Motor vehicles are responsible for the main atmospheric pollutant emissions. The city has the second worst air quality in Brazil, after only São Paulo. The use of new buses along dedicated busways has decreased pollutants as there is less idling time. SMAM (the Municipal Council of the Environment) has encouraged the use of the cleanest fuels and has played a role in monitoring pollution levels.

A partnership between SMAM, the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, the State Environmental Protection Foundation (FEPAM) and Petrobrás has created a network of five air monitoring stations in Porto Alegre. By utilizing a Petrobrás product called city diesel, sulphur levels in the air have dropped from 1.2 percent in 1989 to 0.5 percent. Hybrid buses which run on both diesel and electricity are also being considered for the future. Because Porto Alegre has a ready supply of natural gas, the city's taxi fleet is gradually being converted to it from gasoline.

Ethnic groups
According to the 2022 census, there were 1,332,845 people residing in the city of Porto Alegre. The census revealed the following numbers: 981,251 White people (73.6%), 178,354 Pardo (Multiracial) people (13.4%), 168,196 Black people (12.6%), 2,708 Amerindian people (0.2%), 2,306 Asian people (0.2%). In 2010, the city of Porto Alegre was the 10th most populous city in Brazil. In 2010, the city had 269,519 opposite-sex couples and 1,401 same-sex couples. The population of Porto Alegre was 53.6% female and 46.4% male.

Porto Alegre is mostly composed of Brazilians of European descent. Its colonization started in the mid-18th century, mostly with the arrival of Portuguese colonists from the Azores Islands. From 1748 to 1756, 2,300 Azoreans were sent to the region by the King of Portugal to protect Southern Brazil from neighboring invaders. These colonists, mostly composed of married couples, established the city of Porto dos Casais (literally translated "harbor of the couples"), nowadays Porto Alegre. In 1775, 55% of Rio Grande do Sul's population was of Azorean Portuguese origin. Porto Alegre was composed mainly of Azoreans and their African slaves until the first half of the 19th century.

The first non-Portuguese people to settle Rio Grande do Sul were German immigrants. In 1824, the first immigrants from Germany arrived in Porto Alegre, but they were sent to what is now the city of São Leopoldo (28 km away). From 1824 to 1914, 50,000 Germans arrived in Rio Grande do Sul. Most of these colonists had rural communities in the countryside of the State as their first destination. The large rural exodus in Brazil in the early 20th century brought many German-descendants to Porto Alegre and, nowadays, they compose a large percentage of the population.

The second largest group of immigrants who arrived in Porto Alegre were the Italians. They started immigrating to Brazil in 1875, mainly from the Northern Italian Veneto region. As the Germans, Italians were also first sent to rural communities, mainly in the Serra Gaúcha region. After some decades, many of them started to migrate to other parts of Rio Grande do Sul, including Porto Alegre. Minority communities of immigrants, such as Central Europeans from Poland and Eastern Europeans from Ukraine and Jews; Arabs from Palestine, Lebanon and Syria; Asians from Japan; as well as Spaniards arriving after the Civil War also made Porto Alegre their home. According to an autosomal DNA genetic study from 2011, the ancestral composition of the population of Porto Alegre is: 77.70% European, 12.70% African and 9.60% Native American.

Population growth

 * Changing demographics of the city of Porto Alegre

''Source: Planet Barsa Ltda. ''

Religion
According to the 2010 population census, the population of Porto Alegre is made up of Roman Catholics (63.85%); Protestants or evangelicals (11.65%); spiritists (7.03%); Umbanda and Candomblé (3.35%); the unreligious (10.38%) and people of other religions (3.64%).

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a temple in Porto Alegre.

Crime
The number of violent crimes has been dropping steadily since 2018.

Politics, government and citizenship
The executive branch is headed by the mayor of the municipality, which includes departments and other public administration bodies directly and indirectly. The legislature is represented by the City Council.

It hosted the first three editions of the World Social Forum in 2001, 2002 and 2003. The third edition attracted 20,763 delegates from 130 countries, with a total audience of 100,000 people from all parts of the world.

Participatory budgeting
A feature of public administration in Porto Alegre is the adoption of a system of popular participation in the definition of public investment, called the Participatory Budget. The first full participatory budgeting process was developed in the city starting in 1989. Participatory budgeting in its most meaningful form took place in the city from 1991 to 2004. Participatory budgeting was part of a number of innovative reform programs to overcome severe inequality in living standards amongst city residents. One third of the city's residents lived in isolated slums at the city outskirts, lacking access to public amenities (water, sanitation, health care facilities, and schools).

Participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre has occurred annually, starting with a series of neighborhood, regional, and citywide assemblies, where residents and elected budget delegates identify spending priorities and vote on which priorities to implement. Porto Alegre spent about 200 million dollars per year on construction and services, This money is subject to participatory budgeting, unlike the annual spending on fixed expenses such as debt service and pensions, which is not subject to public participation. Around fifty thousand residents of Porto Alegre took part at the peak of the participatory budgeting process (compared to 1.5 million city inhabitants), with the number of participants having grown year on year since 1989. Participants are from diverse economic and political backgrounds. Although participatory budgeting appears to continue in the city today, two prominent scholars on the process have stated that "after the defeat of the Workers' Party in late 2004, a politically conservative coalition maintained the surface features of PB while returning the actual functioning of the administration to more traditional modes of favor-trading and the favoring of local elites."

The participatory budgeting cycle starts in January and runs throughout the year in many assemblies in each of the city's 16 districts, dealing with many areas of interest to urban life. The meetings elect delegates to represent specific neighborhoods. The mayor and staff attend, in order to respond to citizens' concerns. In the following months, delegates meet to review technical project criteria and district needs.

City department staff may participate according to their area of expertise. At a second regional plenary, regional delegates prioritize the district's demands and elect 42 councillors representing all districts and thematic areas to serve on the Municipal Council of the Budget. The main function of the Municipal Council of the Budget is to reconcile the demands of each district with available resources, and to propose and approve an overall municipal budget. The resulting budget is binding, though the city council can suggest, but not require, changes. Only the Mayor may veto the budget, or remand it back to the Municipal Council of the Budget (this has never happened).

A World Bank paper suggests that participatory budgeting has led to direct improvements in facilities in Porto Alegre. For example, sewer and water connections increased from 75% of households in 1988 to 98% in 1997. The number of schools quadrupled since 1986. According to Fedozzi and Costa, this system has been recognized as a successful experience of interaction between people and the official administrative spheres in public administration and, as such, has gained a broad impact on the political scene nationally and internationally, being interpreted as a strategy for the establishment of an active citizenship in Brazil. The distribution of investment resources planning that follows a part of the statement of priorities for regional or thematic meetings, culminating with the approval of an investment plan that works and activities program broken down by investment sector, by region and around the city. Also according to Fedozzi, this favors:

The high number of participants, after more than a decade, suggests that participatory budgeting encourages increasing citizen involvement, according to the paper. Also, Porto Alegre's health and education budget increased from 13% (1985) to almost 40% (1996), and the share of the participatory budget in the total budget increased from 17% (1992) to 21% (1999).

Despite being the pioneering experiment of participatory budgeting, Porto Alegre like many other examples does not have guaranteed sustainability. The positive impact has dwindled since 2004 due to funding changes and decreasing government commitment. Participatory budgeting has been suspended in Porto Alegre since 2017

Economy
Located at the junction of five rivers, it has become an important alluvial port as well as one of the chief industrial and commercial centers in Brazil. Products of the rich agricultural and pastoral hinterland, such as soybeans, leather, canned beef, and rice, are exported from Porto Alegre to destinations as far away as Africa and Japan.

Among the main businesses located in Porto Alegre are Gerdau, Petroleo Ipiranga, Zaffari and RBS. Since 2000, General Motors (GM) is operating in Gravataí, located in the Metropolitan Region. Also in this Region but in Triunfo, there is a Petrochemical Pool, and in Eldorado do Sul Dell Computers has established a plant. In the health sector, the three hospitals: Hospital Moinhos de Vento, which is a private, JCAH-accredited hospital, Santa Casa de Misericordia Hospital and Clinicas Hospital, public, are considered among the best in Latin America. The latter are university-affiliated, referral hospitals for the South of Brazil. Commerce is a very important economic activity, with many malls (like Praia de Belas Shopping, Shopping Iguatemi and the smaller though posh Shopping Moinhos). The Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre, directed to the production of shoes (around Novo Hamburgo) and to petrochemical industries, as well as services. In the city is located the Electronics Technology Center (CEITEC), focused on the development and production of application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), today announced the opening of Latin America's first IC design center. To create state-of-the-art semiconductor products for high-volume markets that will be consumed in Latin America as well as exported to global markets. CEITEC S.A will accelerate the growth of Latin America's electronics industry by leveraging Brazil's regional influence, leadership and economic strength. The company will add 60 engineers to its ranks who will design RFID, digital media and wireless communication chips for its fabrication facility now ramping up for production. The total investment by the Brazilian government is almost US$210 million. The company is implementing a fab-lite strategy with the ability to manufacture analog/digital chips at its facility in Porto Alegre. The in-house design center with more than 100 engineers.

The GDP for the city was R$30,116,002,000 (2006). The per capita income for the city was R$20,900 (2006).

Energy
In Brazil, there are also a few coal-fired plants, fuel-oil fired plants and one nuclear facility. Increased utilization of natural gas and other sources is planned in order to reduce Brazil's overdependence on hydroelectric power. In 1999, a natural gas pipeline from Bolivia to Brazil was completed, with its terminus in Porto Alegre. Brazilian investment group Central Termoeletrica Sul (CTSul) has plans to invest US$698 million in a 650MW coal-fired power generation plant in Cachoeira do Sul, located in Rio Grande do Sul.

The largest wind energy park in Brazil, which is being built east of Porto Alegre in Osório, will add 150 megawatts (MW) to the Brazilian energy matrix. The production represents 5 percent of the energy consumed in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and would be sufficient to meet two-thirds of Porto Alegre's energy demands. The Farm opened in 2008 with 75 2MW turbines and has been approved for a 300MW expansion which would make it the largest wind farm in the region. The project is part of the Alternative Energy Sources Program (Proinfa) from state-owned Eletrobrás, which will purchase the energy produced for the next 20 years.

Recycling
Porto Alegre was one of the first cities in Brazil to develop a recycling program and has been acknowledged as having the best management practices in the country. The city produces about 1,600 tonnes of household waste per day. Since 1997, all non-recyclable waste has been disposed of in landfill sites. Infiltration into the soil is prevented by the double-walled construction of a clay layer and a high-density polythene geo-membrane, the lowering of the water table and the draining off and treatment of any effluent.

Tourism and recreation
The area includes attractions such as the Piratini Palace, the seat of the state Government, Porto Alegre Botanical Garden, Moinhos de Vento Park the Public Market and Farroupilha Park

Nightlife

Porto Alegre is well known in Brazil for its diverse nightlife. The city's clubs, pubs, bars and restaurants provide entertainment for a wide range of tastes and budgets, going from the cheap, traditional beer-'n-bite in a corner bar to all-night raves, and nightclubs. In the "SoHo" area of Porto Alegre, there is a block full of bars, restaurants and clubs. In Cidade Baixa (translates as "Lower City") neighborhood, the historical street João Alfredo has many options including discotheques. From MPB (Brazilian popular music) to rock music, historical street João Alfredo has many options to dance and have fun.

In Calçada da Fama, Padre Chagas Street is full of more fashionable bars. Goethe Avenue has a concentration of bars and dance clubs. There is also a vibrant more alternative scene with clubs. Rua Fernando Gomes has a concentration of pubs, cafes, bars. Avenida Osvaldo Aranha, alongside the Parque Farroupilha and near the Federal University has bars with a predominantly young and trendy clientele. Moinhos de Vento is one of the richest neighborhoods in the city. Its bars and clubs are more likely to be fashionable which feature mostly house music. Along Padre Chagas Street, people can find typical Irish pubs and cafes. A fictionalized view of the Porto Alegre nightlife could be seen in the Érico Verissimo's novel Noite.

Near Oswaldo Aranha street, in the Farroupilha Park, the Araujo Viana Auditorium is an auditorium for concerts, performances and meetings. Designed by architects Moacir Moojen e Carlos Fayet, was inaugurated in March 1964, making it an important space for cultural events. The original project for the auditorium was built where nowadays Legislative Assembly is, however, it was relocated to the Farroupilha Park in 1964.

Education

Educational institutions in the area include Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (a.k.a. UFCSPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (a.k.a. UFRGS), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (a.k.a. PUC), Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (a.k.a. Unisinos) and Centro Universitário Ritter dos Reis.

Educational system
There are three important universities in Porto Alegre: the Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) and the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS) all of which ranked among the top universities in Brazil and Latin America. UFRGS is also one of the 3 main universities in the country for post-graduation work. The PUCRS technological park – TECNOPUC – is one of the largest scientific and technological parks in Latin America with interaction of graduate courses, research and innovation. PUCRS is also one of the best universities for air transport and pilot formation in the world. Other very important universities are the Lutheran University of Brazil - (Universidade Luterana do Brasil) - ULBRA and UNISINOS, among other university centers.

Museums

Rio Grande do Sul Museum of Art – MARGS

With an eclectic style, the building was designed by German architect Theo Wiederspahn. Originally it was the headquarters of the Fiscal Surveillance Agency of the Federal Revenue Office. Nowadays, it hosts the largest public collection of art works in Rio Grande do Sul.

Júlio de Castilhos Museum

Created in 1903, this is the oldest museum in the state. Its collection comprises thousands of pieces related to the local history, from Indian relics to objects and iconography about the Ragamuffin War and the Paraguayan War, including an important section showing fine sculptures from the Jesuitic Reductions. Joaquim Felizardo Museum

This is an important museum with a large collection of archaeological artifacts and photographs of Porto Alegre's old times. Its historical building, dating from 1845 to 1855, is one of the few intact relics of colonial architecture inside the modern urban environment.

Rio Grande do Sul Memorial

This museum displays a huge collection of documents, maps, objects, prints and other items related to the state's history. Its building, designed by Theodor Wiederspahn, is one of the finest examples of eclectic architecture in the city.

Iberê Camargo Foundation

An iconic landmark in the southern part of Porto Alegre, the Iberê Camargo Foundation houses the permanent installation of gaucho artist Iberê Camargo. It also hosts traveling exhibitions which change several times a year. The building, designed by Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza was opened in 2008 and offers views of the Guaiba river as well as downtown Porto Alegre.

Luiz Carlos Prestes' Memorial

Projected by Oscar Niemeyer, the Luiz Carlos Prestes' Memorial is a recent addition to the city' cultural landscape. Besides the wall presentation of Prestes' life, a hall for cultural, social and political events is placed to the citizens of Porto Alegre.

Carnival/Carnaval
The Porto Alegre Carnival began in the 18th century with the entrudo, a prank brought over by the Portuguese from the Azores, whereby people threw flour, water, and "limão de cheiro" missiles at each other. At the end of the 19th century, two important Carnival associations were born. Rivalry between the two long dominated the city's Carnival. The corso, a parade of floats down Porto Alegre's streets, was a celebration enjoyed by the more well-to-do of the city's inhabitants.

One of the most important Carnival personalities is King Momo. At the beginning of Carnival, usually in February, he receives the keys to the city from the Mayor of Porto Alegre, symbolically governing the Carnival during the four days of revelry. Vincente Rao was the most popular King Momo.

Cuisine
The traditional beverage is chimarrao, a South-American caffeine-rich infused drink. The Chalet of the XV de Novembro Plaza is located along the Glênio Peres Square, it is one of the most traditional bar-draught beer-restaurants in the city, where the last "lambe-lambe" photographs of the region work. "Lambe-lambes" are photographers who develop pictures outdoor using the oldest method known. In the Bavarian style, with art nouveau traits, the centenary Chalet was built up on a demountable steel structure, keeping its original chandeliers and tiles even nowadays.

Architecture
The architecture of Porto Alegre is a mosaic of ancient and modern styles. This characteristic is most visible in the center of the city, the historic urban center, where examples of eighteenth-century architecture survive amidst nineteenth-century and contemporary buildings.

The architectural evolution of Porto Alegre does not differ in its general mechanism from most large Brazilian cities, although it has some unique elements. Its condition of provincial capital almost from the beginning resulted in a tendency to expand and monumentalize. Today it is the largest city in the state, the seat of a Metropolitan Region, and one of the largest cities in Brazil. Throughout its history, it has collected an extensive series of monumental buildings, many of extraordinary value, and some advanced urban planning projects, but as a whole, this did not result in a coherent plan nor did it reveal a spirit of long-term planning, having grown vastly in a disorganized and poorly controlled way, with urban plans being very much linked to political and economic oscillations.

The architecture in the city began with the Portuguese colonial style, went through the neoclassical, eclectic, and modernist schools. Porto Alegre verticalized, expanded, merged with neighboring cities, and became a metropolis. Now its architecture is being renewed under the influence of postmodernism and globalization, developing a hybrid and internationalizing style. This has given rise to criticism about the de-characterization of its identity and the extensive destruction of irreplaceable historical architecture in the wave of "progress" and real estate speculation.

Today, the city is reorganizing its urban landscape with major infrastructure works, especially roads, and erecting significant examples of contemporary architecture. At the same time, it faces the challenges of growing into one of Brazil's largest capitals, with almost 1.5 million inhabitants. There is still a large population living in slums and without access to basic services, and dissatisfaction is growing with the directions that the public administration has adopted in the areas of urban planning, popular housing, use of special areas, urban mobility, nature preservation, and others. Urban revitalization projects promoted by the state and municipal governments, such as those of the Mauá Pier, the former Industrial District, and a program of concessions of parks and other public spaces to the private sector, have produced intense controversy.

Events

A wide range of cultural events are held in Porto Alegre. In addition to the traditional celebrations, a wide variety of activities are organized at Porto Alegre during the different seasons.

 * World Social Forum: on several occasions (2001, 2002, 2003, 2005) the World Social Forum has been hosted in Porto Alegre. This event gathered more than 100,000 people from more than 100 countries each year. The main aim of these meetings is to discuss and deal with social issues.
 * Porto Verão Alegre: during the summer, for example, the "Porto Verão Alegre" or (Porto Summer Alegre) takes place in this city. This celebration consists of a number of performances and exhibitions. In 2005 about seventy plays could be enjoyed.
 * International Free Software Forum: the Fórum Internacional de Software Livre (International Free Software Forum or simply FISL) is an event sponsored by Associação Software Livre (Free Software Association), a Brazilian NGO that, among other objectives, seeks the promotion and adoption of free software.
 * Farroupilha Week: this cultural celebration takes place in mid September with parades, food and musical exhibitions. The "Acampamento Farroupilha" takes place in Harmonia Park, where thousands of people set up their tents and eat typical food to commemorate the Farroupilha Revolution.
 * Bookfair: held each November at Alfândega Square. In October Porto Alegre holds the greatest Book Fair in the Americas, an event that has been taking place since 1955. Each year about 2,000,000 people attend this fair.
 * Worldwide Pinhole Photography: this is an international event created to promote and celebrate the art of pinhole photography. The event is held each year on the last Sunday in April.
 * Mercosur Biennial Exhibition: is held in Porto Alegre every two years between October and December. This is an important art and cultural event that attracts a large number of people as well.
 * Carnival: as do other Brazilian cities, Porto Alegre holds extensive festivities during the period immediately preceding Lent. Among them, there is an Escola de Samba contest, featuring Academia de Samba Puro, Acadêmicos da Orgia, Bambas da Orgia, Estado Maior da Restinga, Fidalgos e Aristocratas, Império da Zona Norte, and Impeadores do Samba, among others.

International airport
Salgado Filho International Airport serves commercial flights to most major cities all over Brazil and to smaller cities in the South of the country. There are also international flights to other South American countries, Panama, and Portugal.

Air Force Base
Canoas Air Force Base - ALA3, one of their most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the nearby city of Canoas.

Port
The Port of Porto Alegre is situated in the Eastern margin of Guaíba Lake. The port lying on the eastern bank of the Guaíba lake at the point where its waters empty into the huge Lagoa dos Patos is one of Brazil's largest ports. Located near the main access roads to Porto Alegre, it is 4 km away from the Salgado Filho International Airport and has access to the light railway station, through the docks of Mauá and Navegantes. Its geographical position enables a permanent traffic between Porto Alegre and Buenos Aires, transporting steel-industry products and mainly agricultural produce.

Metro
Porto Alegre has a rapid transit system operated by Trensurb, which links downtown Porto Alegre to its northern neighborhoods and to cities to the north of the metropolitan area, as Canoas, Esteio, Sapucaia do Sul, São Leopoldo and Novo Hamburgo. The line has stations at strategic spots, such as: the Public Market, the bus station, the airport and many other important and urban spots throughout Porto Alegre and the other cities the metro covers. The line is built at surface level (30 km, totally segregated) and elevated (12 km).

Trensurb is operated jointly by the federal government, the state government of Rio Grande do Sul and the city of Porto Alegre through the company Trensurb S.A. (Company of Urban Trains of Porto Alegre S.A.) and has 22 working stations, with a total extension of nearly 43 km, carrying about 130,000 users a day. Building of the (sole) Line 1 of the metro started in 1980. The choice of path was made to relieve the heavy traffic of highway BR-116, which already presented serious problems with the transit at the time. The line was inaugurated on March 2, 1985, between the Central Public Market and Sapucaia do Sul. In December 1997, it was extended to Unisinos. An extension of 2.4 mi São Leopoldo–Museum was added in November 2000, after two months of trial service. , an extension to Novo Hamburgo is being completed, with the first station already fully functional.

A metro system inside Porto Alegre only is currently planned and it is already subject of much publicity and speculation. However, no project has been approved so far and the beginning of the constructions is yet undefined.

Highways
There are two federal highways in the city, BR-290 and BR-116, both running close to its northern and northwestern border. The small number is due to the inexistence of many destinations southeast or south of Porto Alegre (considering the landmass east of Lagoa dos Patos), if not for the cities of Pelotas (the third-biggest in population in the State) and Rio Grande (which hosts the State biggest port). Nonetheless, when coming from west, both highways bond in the neighbor municipality of Eldorado do Sul, running mostly jointly within the borders of Porto Alegre, only coming to separate at the very interchange to Canoas. This way, BR-116 has virtually no sole run within Porto Alegre.

BR-290 highway runs east–west across the state, linking the northeast coast of the state to the Uruguay–Argentina–Brazil border. It runs close to the northern border of the municipality. Coming from west, as it reaches the urban area of Porto Alegre, BR-290 highway becomes a high-standard 100 km long freeway that connects to the coast and to the BR-101 highway. The latter is an important way to get to Porto Alegre from the north of the country, by the city Osório. BR-101 connects to Curitiba, Florianópolis and northern Santa Catarina state, and has been recently upgraded to highway standards, with multiple lanes. By entering the BR-290 freeway/BR-101 system, and the other highways it connects to, it is possible to drive from Porto Alegre to as far as Rio de Janeiro or Belo Horizonte almost entirely through 4-lane (or more) highways.

The other road, BR-116, is a longitudinal highway, running northeast–south across the state, linking Porto Alegre to several satellite cities and other Brazilian capitals to the north, and Pelotas and Uruguay to the south. Within the municipality, it only touches the northwest side of the city, close to the end of Rio Gravataí (Gravataí River), sharing its entire run with BR-290, only separating when heading north onto Canoas.

A third road, BR-448, is currently under construction. BR-448 is planned to connect the northeast of Porto Alegre to Sapucaia do Sul, as an alternative to BR-116, notably jam-packed on its Canoas-Novo Hamburgo stretch during traffic rush hours.

The connection between downtown Porto Alegre and the highways is made by Avenida Presidente Castelo Branco (President Castelo Branco Avenue), which is a short - 4 km - avenue also bordering the northwest side of the city, Avenida dos Estados (States' Avenue), which is the access way to the Salgado Filho International Airport, and Avenida Assis Brasil (Assis Brasil Avenue), the main Avenue in the northern Porto Alegre.

Bus
The city has a functioning transportation system, especially the autobuses. Porto Alegre has also mini-buses from and to all the main neighborhoods in the city, with sitting-only transport and the possibility to hop on and off at any point but also higher fares. Linha Turística (Tourist Line) is a bus that leaves from Usina do Gasômetro tourist terminal around six times per day. During 90 minutes, it traverses the various districts of Porto Alegre, for a modest price. Exclusive bus lanes in the median of seven radial corridors that converge on the city center are used by both urban and regional lines. The bus fleet totals 1,600, with 150 minibuses. About 325 million people use the system annually.

Those lines have no prefix. It is quite common to switch buses at downtown but since there is a myriad of lines there, it can be challenging to find the right terminal for the next bus. Transversal lines prefix "T" (T1, T2, ..., T11), connect different neighborhoods without going through the downtown area, which effectively eliminates the need of changing buses for the most common trips. Circular lines prefix "C" (C1, C2, C3), as the name indicates, run in a circular manner, usually connecting parts of the downtown area to the nearest neighborhoods.

Mayor José Fogaça renewed his agreement with EMBARQ and the Center for Sustainable Transport Brazil (CTS-Brasil) to improve accessibility and mobility in downtown Porto Alegre. The agreement, signed on March 11, includes a new partnership with the Andean Development Corporation, a Latin American multilateral financial institution that is expected to provide $1 million in non-reimbursable technical assistance to help Porto Alegre complete the preparation phase of the "Portais da Cidade" bus rapid transit project, a groundbreaking transport system designed to reduce pollution and congestion downtown. The system will include a southern extension to accommodate activities for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. CAF's technical assistance will be administered through CTS-Brasil, which has been working to expand sustainable transport in Porto Alegre since 2005.

The bus station downtown and is served by several national and international lines. It is also connected to a Trensurb station (Porto Alegre Metro) and several municipal bus lines. Northbound passengers can rely on good bus connections throughout Brazil. However, an express bus might be recommended to travel to Uruguay or Argentina to avoid several stops en route.

Taxi
Porto Alegre has a total of 3,922 authorized taxicabs, with 317 taxi stops. Regular taxis are colored red, whereas airport taxicabs are colored white, both with blue strips on the sides containing white lettering.

Sports
Football is a passion of the people from Porto Alegre. There is a big rivalry between two football clubs, Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense, founded in 1903, and Sport Club Internacional, founded in 1909. Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense and Sport Club Internacional currently play in the top league in Brazil, the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. Both have successful histories, having won national and international titles, including the South American top honour, the Copa Libertadores, and the highest global trophy for football clubs, the Intercontinental Cup, now known as the Club World Cup. The rivalry between the team teams is known as the Grenal and is considered one of the fiercest in Brazil, South America and the World. Other traditional teams includes Série C side Esporte Clube São José, which plays in the Estádio Passo D'Areia on the northern zone of the city, and Esporte Clube Cruzeiro, which from its founding in 1913 until 2019 played in Porto Alegre until they relocated to Cachoeirinha —in the metropolitan region of Porto Alehre—after inaugurating a brand new stadium there.

Porto Alegre was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup held in Brazil. The modernization of the Beira-Rio Stadium, home of SC Internacional and the city's 2014 FIFA World Cup venue, left the venue with a capacity for 56,000 spectators. Internacional's former home, the Estádio dos Eucaliptos, was a venue for the 1950 FIFA World Cup. Local rivals Grêmio play in their own stadium in the Humaitá district. The Arena do Grêmio stadium replaced the Estádio Olímpico Monumental in 2012 and meets CONMEBOL/FIFA standards. The Arena do Grêmio stadium has a capacity for 60,540 spectators.

American football is also played in the city, with two teams: Porto Alegre Pumpkins, the oldest in the state, and Porto Alegre Bulls, who play with the Esporte Clube São José, a club with multiple sports.

On January 22, 2015, Porto Alegre hosted its first Ultimate Fighting Championship event at the Gigantinho. UFC Fight Night: Bigfoot vs. Mir was headlined by former heavyweight champion Frank Mir making his Brazilian debut, knocking out Brasilia native Antônio Silva. Former UFC Heavyweight Champion Fabrício Werdum is a Porto Alegre native.

Neighborhoods

Neighborhoods of Porto Alegre are geographical divisions of the city. There is no devolution of administrative powers to neighborhoods, although there are several neighborhoods associations devoted to improve their own standards of living. Porto Alegre has nowadays 81 official distinguished neighborhoods.

Twin towns – sister cities
Porto Alegre is twinned with:

 * Horta, Portugal (1982)
 * 🇯🇵 Kanazawa, Japan (1967)
 * 🇦🇷 La Plata, Argentina (1982)
 * 🇮🇹 Morano Calabro, Italy (1982)
 * 🇧🇷 Natal, Brazil (1992)
 * 🇺🇸 Newark, United States (2006)
 * 🇺🇾 Punta del Este, Uruguay (1984)
 * Portalegre, Portugal (1982)
 * Ribeira Grande, Portugal (1982)
 * 🇦🇷 Rosario, Argentina (1994)
 * 🇨🇳 Suzhou, China (2004)

Partner cities
Porto Alegre also has the following partner city:
 * 🇫🇷 Paris, France (2001)

title: Porto Alegre


text:
5145 Pholus

5145 Pholus is an eccentric centaur in the outer Solar System, approximately 180 km in diameter, that crosses the orbit of both Saturn and Neptune. It was discovered on 9 January 1992 by American astronomer David Rabinowitz (uncredited) of UA's Spacewatch survey at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, United States. The very reddish object has an elongated shape and a rotation period of 9.98 hours. It was named after the centaur Pholus from Greek mythology.

Orbit and classification

Pholus was the second centaur to be discovered. Centaurs are objects in between the asteroid and trans-Neptunian populations of the Solar System – that is, beyond Jupiter's and within Neptune's orbit –  which behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets.

It orbits the Sun at a distance of 8.8–31.9 AU once every 91 years and 9 months (33,526 days; semi-major axis of 20.35 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.57 and an inclination of 25° with respect to the ecliptic. It is a Saturn-, Uranus- and Neptune-crosser, crossing the orbits of these giant planets at a mean distance of 9.6, 11.9, and 30.1 AU from the Sun, respectively. Pholus has not come within one astronomical unit of a planet since 764 BC, and will not until 5290. It is believed that it originated in the Kuiper belt.

Discovery and naming
Pholus was discovered by David Rabinowitz (not officially credited), working with the Spacewatch program, at Kitt Peak National Observatory on 9 January 1992. Rabinowitz'es discovery was confirmed by Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker who identified the object on images they previously took on 1 January 1992. The discovery was announced by James Scotti on 23 January 1992 in an IAU Circular (IAUC 5434) of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. A first precovery was taken at the Australian Siding Spring Observatory in 1977, extending the centaur's observation arc by 15 years prior to its discovery. It was the second discovery of a centaur after 2060 Chiron discovered by Charles Kowal in 1977. In 1993, while with the Spacewatch program, David Rabinowitz went on to discover another centaur, 7066 Nessus.

This minor planet was named by the Minor Planet Names Committee for Pholus, a centaur from Greek mythology. As with 2060 Chiron, named after his brother Chiron, the tradition is to name this class of outer planet-crossing objects after the half-human, half-horse mythological creatures. In the mythological account, Pholus died from a self-inflicted wound from a poisoned arrow used by Heracles (see 5143 Heracles), who buried Pholus on the mountain Pholoe. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 14 July 1992 (M.P.C. 20523).

A symbol derived from that for 2060 Chiron,, was devised in the late 1990s by German astrologer Robert von Heeren. It replaces Chiron's K with a P for Pholus. A common variant,, uses a Greek φ.

Spectral type and color
After its discovery, Pholus was quickly found to be very red in color. The color has been speculated to be due to organic compounds on its surface. It is classified as a Z-class object on the Tholen taxonomic scheme.

The object has been classified by astronomers as RR and RR-U type, respectively. Polarimetric observations with ESO's Very Large Telescope in 2007 and 2008, revealed noticeable negative polarization at certain phase angles, distinctly different from that of trans-Neptunian objects. Pholus appears to have a rather homogeneous surface with a small amount of water frost on its darker regions.

The surface composition of Pholus has been estimated from its reflectance spectrum using two spatially segregated components: dark amorphous carbon and an intimate mixture of water ice, methanol ice, olivine grains, and complex organic compounds (tholins). The carbon black component was used to match the low albedo of the object. Unlike Chiron, Pholus has shown no signs of cometary activity.

Diameter and albedo
Diameter calculations range from 99 to 190 kilometers with a corresponding albedo between 0.155 and 0.04.

According to the Herschel Space Observatory with its PACS instrument, Pholus measures 99 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.155, while a study from 1996 derived a diameter of 185 km. During 2003–2004, observations with the 1.8-meter Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope (VATT) on Mount Graham Observatory, Arizona, determined an elongated shape, $310 km$, with a mean diameter of 190 kilometers, based on a low albedo of 0.04. Johnston's archive lists a diameter of 107 km with an albedo of 0.126, and Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo of a carbonaceous body of 0.057 and derives a diameter of 165 km based on an absolute magnitude of 7.64.

Rotation period
In March 2005, a rotational lightcurve of Pholus was obtained from photometric observations by Tegler using the VATT at Mount Graham. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 9.980 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.60 magnitude (U=3-). Alternative period determinations were also conducted by Hoffmann, Franham, and Buie with concurring results of 9.977, 9.982, and 9.983 hours, respectively (U=3/3/3).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 5145 Pholus


text:
Talk:Pajamas

Vandalism
As of 2023-12-11, I've noticed many changes, mainly numbers and dates, that haven't been reverted back since 2023-02-19, and I didn't read the entirety of the page, so I would recommend a proper review of the accuracy of this page.

I'm tracing the vandalism to this revision:

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pajamas&oldid=1140282347

compare with the previous one (before the vandalism):

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1140282347&oldid=1139322263&title=Pajamas&diff-type=inline

and compare the previous one with the current one to see that those dates and numbers remained after the vandalism:

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pajamas&diff=cur&oldid=1139322263 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.112.71.229 (talk) 07:48, 11 December 2023 (UTC)

PJs vs Pajamas in image captions
Considering that the picture is actually titled "JessiePyjamas", I fail to see why it is necessary to describe her garments as "PJs" in the caption. Could please explain what is added by this useless incorporation of a colloquial name for this one image? --Khajidha (talk) 17:28, 22 July 2017 (UTC)
 * PJs is no longer colloquial (i.e. conversational), but informal (i.e. everyday language) in American English. We give at the outset the different spelling of the etymons (pyjamas pajamas) and of the clipped or shortened forms (PJs, jammies).   WP:CAPTION does not say that informal forms cannot be used, only that the caption be informative and succinct.  I don't know who added the image with that caption, but it was done years ago.  It is both informative and succinct.  There is no reason to change it.  A reader, besides, sees a different name in use, which they normally would not in the main text. Best regards,  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  18:26, 22 July 2017 (UTC)
 * 1) We must be speaking different American Englishes then, because it's very much a colloquialism where I'm from. 2) "We give at the outset..." Exactly, we name the article one thing, list alternate terms, and then write the article using the title. This makes no more sense than would using "pavement" in captions on sidewalk, "crisps" in captions on potato chip, or "lorry" in captions on truck. --Khajidha (talk) 18:38, 22 July 2017 (UTC)

It is not in the article body, only in the picture caption, which has its own MOS (see above). As for informal, it is very much a part of written English, not just conversational (=colloquial). Here are two OED examples, with years: 1970  New Yorker 4 Oct. 122/3 (advt.)    Cotton sleep culotte rated perfect for P.J. parties. 1982  People (Nexis) 26 Apr. 106   Tiegs'..slinky nightgowns ($23) and practical PJs (under $25) have found willing buyers in an ailing economy. Best regards, Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  19:00, 22 July 2017 (UTC)
 * I weigh in at Wikipedia_talk:Manual_of_Style/Captions. In summary, I don't see a problem with either term in the caption. -- ke4roh (talk) 13:30, 25 July 2017 (UTC)

Lead picture
The Emily Eden picture has been in the article for years. I know because I added it and maintained this article for a long time before it went off my watchlist. We cannot remove it without a discussion here first in which a consensus has been reached for its removal. Fowler&fowler «Talk»  15:56, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you What kept you so long? The article has needed your input for years.   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  16:36, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks - Btw, I've set up Commons cats for Emily Eden and Portraits_of_Princes_and_Indian_People%27,_London,_1844 - we had 15. What was her role in the illustrations, do you know? Johnbod (talk) 16:41, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * She did the drawings, and also watercolors, and others converted them to lithographs, I think.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  17:05, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * See the very bottom here, here, and BL page, which you must have seen. I don't know too much about lithography, but I doubt she would have been involved in that aspect.  PS I might not have understood your question.   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  17:11, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * No, that's very helpful - I hadn't seen any of those. Some picture files imply the other bloke did the drawings & she the lithos, which I didn't think was right. We'd better start calling her an artist in her bio Emily Eden then. Johnbod (talk) 17:16, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Sounds good. Will see what I can find quickly to get the ball rolling.  Very talented woman, it seems.   Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  18:34, 10 March 2020 (UTC)

Requested move 10 May 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Quite obviously no consensus whether the "strong" ties mentioned at MOS:TIES are strong enough to outweigh WP:RETAIN. Red  Slash  17:22, 18 May 2020 (UTC)

Pajamas → Pyjamas – Pyjamas is the canonical spelling in Indian English. Getsnoopy (talk) 22:55, 10 May 2020 (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request. GeoffreyT2000 (talk) 23:46, 10 May 2020 (UTC)

 * ... and this isn't Indian Wikipedia. buidhe 23:34, 10 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I think they're referring more to Indian English, but nonetheless seems bizarre to change the WP:ENGVAR now when the talk page still has . KingSkyLord (talk | contribs)

 * Oppose - no basis. -- Netoholic @ 02:03, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * The basis is strong ties to India, as per MOS:TIES. Getsnoopy (talk) 03:46, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support The very first edit, back in 2002 titled the article (then one-line) "Pajamas" but began "Pyjamas".  In full it read "Pyjamas are garments designed to wear to bed, e.g. a nightgown.  Pyjamas are often one-piece garments (see one-piece pyjamas).  Also, though the word is spelt pyjamas in Britain, it is spelled pajamas in America."  - thus setting up a discordance between title and text that still remains - the text now uses "pyjamas" throughout.  There have been several discussions over the years, but none seem to cast the question in these terms.  I think the text should take priority.  It does seem clear that only the US  (or Nth America?)  uses "pajamas".   Johnbod (talk) 02:23, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * The spelling "pajamas" is the dominant usage across all forms of English. There is no ground to switch to a minority-usage spelling used only in some English variants. -- Netoholic @ 02:28, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * That only shows that there have been more books published in US English which use the word "pajamas". The canonical spelling is "pyjamas" in all English variants other than US English, and there are manifold more people who speak non-US-English than there are US-English speakers. But then again, that's not the point. Pyjamas have strong ties to India, so Indian English should prevail, which spells it "pyjamas". Getsnoopy (talk) 03:46, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Netoholic. KingSkyLord (talk | contribs) 03:03, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support per MOS:TIES. Pyjamas come from India, and the original article text was written with the word spelled "pyjamas". So as per original MOS:RETAIN and due to strong ties to India, change it to Indian English. Getsnoopy (talk) 03:46, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose This page move request is actually justified/valid. However, as per this policy, the current use of the word pajamas or pyjamas (with respect to this article) does not currently prove to be 'home' to any country nor their English variant. Since both –article titles make a very strong case, I suggest this policy should be followed to respect "the first major contributor after the article ceased to be a stub". TheEpistle (talk) 04:02, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * A significant portion of the article content is related to India and/or the garment's Indian origins. While the word itself isn't necessarily Indian-only anymore, the topic is what is used to determine strong ties, so the argument that it doesn't have strong ties to India is not really a convincing one. Getsnoopy (talk) 04:32, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I'm staying neutral, but I like to point out the reason this article is mostly about the garment worn on the Indian subcontinent is the existence of Nightwear as a separate topic. Whilst, the final couple of sections are mostly about the nightwear,you are indeed correct since all earlier sections focus on the original garment and how nightwear evolved from it. Llew Mawr (talk) 10:27, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong support, as mentioned earlier non-American English-speakers use the spelling with a 'y' and they are the bulk of English speakers in the world. Additionally original spelling is with a 'y'.--Ortizesp (talk) 04:26, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support per MOS:TIES ~Amkgp ✉  05:40, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support. Although this is the English Wikipedia and not the Indian English Wikipedia, I've always seen it spelled "pyjamas" regardless of the source. J I P  | Talk 09:26, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I think you should peruse MOS:ENGVAR, as this is not American English Wikipedia, British English Wikipedia, Oxford English Wikipedia either. WP policy is to allow any variety of English given that the article doesn't have strong ties to a particular country, in which case use that variety. Getsnoopy (talk) 22:41, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * But the article says that the word originates from Indian English, which spells it "pyjamas", and as previously stated, the word is spelled "pyjamas" everywhere outside the USA, which already makes up the majority of the world's English speakers, and as I already stated, I have never seen it spelled "pajamas" outside Wikipedia. So my vote stays at support. J I P  | Talk 23:53, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I realize you're agreeing with me, but I was merely responding to the comment Although this is the English Wikipedia and not the Indian English Wikipedia, which is not a line of argumentation that would work with English WP given MOS:ENGVAR. Getsnoopy (talk) 03:41, 13 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Weak support. The topic has weak ties to India, which just about override contributing editors' preference for the US spelling. Certes (talk) 11:53, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong Oppose I have the dubious honor of being the major contributor to this page.  I say "dubious" because I added most of the content long ago, in 2007, and the majority of my edits are in the nature of reverts carried out thereafter.  There have already been quite a few unsuccessful page moves.  "Pajamas" has been the spelling since 2007, so per MOS:RETAIN, which says, "use the variety (of English) found in the first post-stub revision that introduced an identifiable variety,"  AmE spelling is here to stay.  "Pyjamas," in any case, is the British English spelling, not the Indian English, which would be "night suit!" The apparel/attire/article (of clothing) of interest here is the two-piece sleepwear, not the bottom only.    The OED defines the article of clothing to be: "Originally: loose trousers, usually of silk or cotton, tied round the waist, and worn by both sexes in some Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Subsequently also: nightclothes consisting of loose trousers or shorts and a jacket or other top (now the principal use)." So, again, nowhere in South Asia would anyone be referring to this sleepwear of principal interest "pyjamas, paijamas, or pajamas;"  they would be calling it "night suit," which is applied to pajamas worn by adults as well.  South Asia, especially India, no longer has a cultural "right of first refusal" for the name. I've heard all the arguments before.  This is a nonstarter, befitting a speedy close. Sorry to be blunt.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  12:42, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Here is evidence that the canonical spelling in South Asian (Indian) English is a two-word expression beginning with "N."  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  12:53, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I've just read the other comments. Johnbod, in particular, has a pertinent point about the disconnect between the spelling deployed (if I may use that word as suggestive of previous edit wars) in the lead and the rest of the article.  A reason is that editors will often introduce text in the main body, but not integrate it with the lead. India-POV editors, in particular, have been adding "originating in the Indian subcontinent."  They have been adding "Hindustani," a dated term, and "Hindus and Sikhs."
 * But the fact is that stitched clothes, including pajamas, saw wide use in South Asia only after the invasion and eventual conquest by Persian-speaking Muslims of Central Asia ca 12th-century CE. Until then, Indians had worn only draped (and knotted) clothes. ( An earlier conquest of northwestern South Asia by the Central Asian (but non-Muslim) Kushans did introduce a style of trousers, but its use was limited to  a section of northern India's elite; the wider use came after the Muslim conquest. ) In other words, the article of clothing is originally Central Asian (but inadequately documented), later (and majorly) South Asian, and eventually worldwide as a consequence of the British rule in South Asia. The OED says, "Origin: Of multiple origins. Partly a borrowing from Urdu. Partly a borrowing from Persian. Etymons: Urdu pāy-jāma; Persian pāy-jāma."  I keep reverting the text in etymology to an NPOV version, but the India-POV keeps reappearing.  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:21, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * User:Fowler&fowler, note that you were the one who properly added the Hindustani and Persian etymology to the article, which is the neutral term to use here (Hindi-Urdu could be used as well). We are not going to slant this article in favour of communal viewpoints by excluding the other standard register of Hindustani and excluding other religious communities who wear pajamas. I have access to plenty of other references that buttress the facts in that section too that will make introducing communal POV into that section difficult. Thanks for your understanding. With regards, AnupamTalk 19:24, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Regarding "night suit", there are quite a few articles which refer to them as "pyjamas" as well. Either way, the point is that when the word itself is invoked (even in Indian English), it's spelled "pyjamas", not "pajamas". Nevertheless, I agree with @Llew Mawr's point that there is already a separate article about general Nightwear, so the point about strong ties for this topic to India stands. Getsnoopy (talk) 22:35, 11 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Oppose per MOS:RETAIN. The article has been stable on American English for several years. IMO, just because something was invented in one country, WP:TIES does not automatically apply if it is now popular worldwide. If a subject is now worldwide and popular in other places, it really is no longer strictly tied to a particular country. For example, "Breakfast television" (Commonwealth English) is not the common term used in the country where it was largely invented (U.S.). Even MOS:COMMONALITY would be the better option in most cases when the worldwide common term is different from the term used in the country of its origin. Zzyzx11 (talk) 13:11, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Well MOS:COMMONALITY would favour supporting the move as well, as "pyjamas" is the canonical spelling everywhere in the world except for the US. Getsnoopy (talk) 03:41, 13 May 2020 (UTC)
 * MOS:COMMONALITY says using vocabulary common to all varieties of English is preferable, not most. And use universally accepted terms, not a term that is never commonly used in one variety. So no.Zzyzx11 (talk) 11:07, 14 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose move. Bad rationale, and the article is stable at the American English title.  O.N.R.  (talk) 23:25, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong Oppose There is already existing consensus as to what variety of English should be used in articles. It has been already established that American English should be used in this article. Hence, we are not supposed to be changing that just because the topic is associated with some certain country or culture. LSGH (talk) (contributions) 04:42, 12 May 2020 (UTC)
 * because the topic is associated with some certain country That's called MOS:TIES, and it's absolutely a valid reason to change the variety of English. Getsnoopy (talk) 03:41, 13 May 2020 (UTC)
 * For this topic, the historical ties are somehow less significant. Also, the article has been written on American English already because its scope is not limited to the country of origin. LSGH (talk) (contributions) 16:19, 15 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I would agree with your argument on, say, the article on Nightwear, as @Llew Mawr pointed out. Most of the article's content references India or the garment's Indian origins. the article has been written on American English already because its scope is not limited to the country of origin Are you saying that the mere fact that an article was written in a variety of English that's not typically used in the country which the topic has strong ties with implies that the topic does not have strong ties? That's simply not true. Getsnoopy (talk) 23:41, 15 May 2020 (UTC)
 * There still exists ties, owing to the fact that pajamas originated in India. But they have since been brought over into the West, and these ties are rarely discernible in daily life. The modern methods of producing them may have already changed so much because of Western influence. LSGH (talk) (contributions) 07:11, 16 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Originating in India is a bad reason for a topic that has been completely assimilated into the Western world. No reason to change the status quo. -- King of ♥ ♦ ♣ ♠ 06:19, 12 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support. I'm dubious about WP:TIES given the ubiquity, but the original article spelt it this way, so WP:RETAIN does apply. -- Necrothesp (talk) 14:47, 13 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Are you referring to the first version of the article back in 2002? The problem is that MOS:RETAIN says use the variety found in the first post-stub revision, not strictly the first version. Apparently, the article did not actually get tagged as a stub until July 2004, but it was still essentially a stub prior to that. In addition, the spelling change apparently happened in September 2004 when it was still a stub. (I wish I could also cite the move log in this case, but that part of the log was not yet implemented in 2004, so I am assuming a rename/page history also happened at that same time). And since the article title policy was still probably in its infancy back then, I am not in favour of massive page moves to "correct" what should have been done if the 2020 version of policy had applied back then. To do so would bring instability to currently stable pages. Therefore my position above still stands in opposing this RM and thus maintain the current spelling that has been stable for the past 16 years. Zzyzx11 (talk) 11:52, 14 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The WP:COMMONNAME uses an 'a' at the front not a 'y'. At least in Philippine English. Shhhhwwww!! (talk) 19:28, 16 May 2020 (UTC)
 * You mean the same Philippine English that derives from US English? And I hope you aren't seriously claiming that 30% of the English-speaking population of the world counts as "common", especially when 70% of the world agrees it's spelled "pyjamas". Getsnoopy (talk) 06:28, 18 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Quite. WP:COMMONNAME really isn't a valid argument here. The common name varies in different countries. -- Necrothesp (talk) 12:08, 18 May 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it.</b> Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

In Chicago, Illinois, it is illegal to fish wearing pajamas
The citation link is to one of those silly pages with weird laws which are generally just made up or misinterpreted actual laws. That page cites nothing in support. Often they just make up scenarios like if it is entirely forbidden to fish in a certain place they will say it is forbidden to fish "wearing pajamas". While technically true it is a silly interpretation of the law and that is assuming the law even exists. Fort this reason I am removing the text. 188.76.175.230 (talk) 16:43, 3 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Agreed, There are a lot of sources stating this "law" but none have concrete proof that this law actually exist .... I agree with your removal. – Davey 2010 Talk 16:56, 3 July 2020 (UTC)

Pajamas?
The article claims American spelling is 'pajamas' and that 'pyjamas' is (presumably exclusively) Commonwealth spelling. As an American who has a consiserably higher than average interest in language and spellings/etymologies, and who is acutely aware of most American/non-American variations in spelling, I have a great deal of difficulty believing that this is the case. I have never known this word to be spelled any way other than 'pyjamas'; maybe 'pajamas' is some dated variant? Or perhaps it is regional? I know that the word has several different pronunciations within the US, depending on the region.. I shall look into this matter, but I am curious to know what other native American English speakers think about this. (Note, native with a lowercase n - not to be confused with the American Indian sense of Native American). Firejuggler86 (talk) 12:43, 11 December 2020 (UTC) P.S. - when I see 'pajama' the way that I want to pronounce it by default is 'puh-hah-ma' - like 'Bahama' with a P
 * Thanks for your post. Wikipedia relies only on reliable sources. Neither intimations of nationality nor solicitations among WP's volunteer editors for the purpose of sampling native speech are reliable.  The reliable sources (in this instance the two definitive resources for American and British English respectively) are clear on the subject of spelling:

 * From Webster's Unabridged Online (subscription needed): py·ja·mas \pəˈjȧməz sometimes piˈj-, archaic pīˈj-\ chiefly British spelling of pajamas
 * From the OED Online 3rd ed. 2007 subscription needed: pyjamas | pajamas, n.
 * α. (In plural form) 1800s paunjammahs, 1800s paejamus, 1800s paijamahs, 1800s peijammahs, 1800s piejamahs, 1800s pigammahs, 1800s– pajamas (now chiefly U.S.), 1800s– pyjamahs (rare), 1800s– pyjamas, 1800s– pyjammas (nonstandard), 1900s– paijamas.
 * β. (In singular form) 1800s– pajama (now chiefly U.S.), 1800s– pyjama, 1900s– pyjamah (rare), 1900s– pyjamma (nonstandard).
 * For the other discussions on spelling, please see the archives. Best regards,  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  13:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Or just above, where most American editors rejected (wrongly imo) the Indian/British etc "pyjamas". Johnbod (talk) 13:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)
 * This native American English speaker finds your assertion that you have never known this word to be soelled this way extremely dubious. I don't recall ever seeing "pyjamas" in any American source. For the purpose of determining any regional variation, I am from North Carolina. --Khajidha (talk) 16:19, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Why pajamas exactly?
I always thought majority rules, and the overwhelming majority of dialects in the anglophone world use 'pyjamas' over the strictly US 'pajamas'. The somewhat confusing oppose-support section that closed in 2020 would appear to be Americans comprising the notion that pajamas should stay. That is a majority as may be, but that would be a majority based on an incredibly diminuntive sample of those few Americans who happened to visit this page during the given period of time. To call 'pyjamas' the mere British version neglects all of the Oceanic, European and Asian countries that do not comport with the US version.

The oppose-support discussion raises the point that the totality of pyjama usage should be 'pajamas' because 'pyjamas' does not appear at all in the US, and some Wikipedia rule somewhere says the most common version should be used that is not entirely absent from one particular dialect. So 'pyjamas' is entirely absent from the US, but 'pajamas' is entirely absent in every other anglophone state. 'Pyjamas' arrived out of the British Raj, not Colonial America. Pyjamas is synonymous with nightwear in any country. In Australia, nightwear is something one would say without any perplexion from his surroundings, as he would by saying pyjamas.

The images depicting English and Indian subjects using pajamas is... I mean, what is that? It isn't respectful to those cultures for US subejcts to supplant their usage over the commoner international usage, especially connected to international examples. If one questions how respect is at all tangled up with mere dialectical differences, then surely it would not be disrespectful to change 'pajamas' in this article to a more commensurate usage of 'pyjamas'.

Many articles across Wikipedia I do have to groan and roll over for, as apropos science or maths, if an American wrote the article substantially first, then it is only fair his dialectical prerogative is eminent. In many other articles I have seen, such as for types of bridges, the article could commence with either American or Commonwealth spelling, and upon reaching the section focusing on the alternate region, the spelling coolly changes to suit it—e.g. a bridge that exists in the harbour of Sydney, contrasting a bridge that exists in New York City harbor.

If pyjamas are being described in an explicitly American context, 'pajamas' it should very well be. Why it must stubbornly remain 'pajamas' in all its current gross overreach is beyond me. Presently it reads that 'pyjamas' entered the English language from so-and-so, yet the article inexplicably utilises pajamas thereafter for discussion centred on every country beyond and including the USA. Wooblo (talk) 06:51, 4 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Well the last discussion was only 16mths ago. There are wierd aspects to this case, as the text has consistently used "pyjamas" since the start in 2008. It might be worth trying again. Johnbod (talk) 15:35, 4 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Waste of time. Won't fly. As I said in the last proposed move: "Pajamas" has been the spelling since 2007, so per MOS:RETAIN, which says, "use the variety (of English) found in the first post-stub revision that introduced an identifiable variety," AmE spelling is here to stay. "Pyjamas," in any case, is the British English spelling, not the Indian English, which would be "night suit!"  Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  17:59, 4 November 2021 (UTC)
 * In South Asia, "paijama" has always been the garment (jama) of the legs (pai), i.e. trousers made of a thin fabric and held up by a drawstring. It was commonly worn with a kurta, a tunic, in the combination kurta-paijama. Well, it just happened that back in England, retired Company or Raj officials began to prefer a version of kurta-paijama instead of the long nightshirt a la Wee Willie Winkie, and—re-tailored in a different fabric—it became pyjamas. Fowler&fowler  «Talk»  18:09, 4 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pajamas