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Tameside

Tameside is a metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England, named after the River Tame, which flows through it, and includes the towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Audenshaw, Denton, Droylsden, Dukinfield, Hyde, Mossley and Stalybridge. Tameside is bordered by the metropolitan boroughs of Stockport to the south, Oldham to the north and northeast, Manchester to the west, and to the east by the Borough of High Peak in Derbyshire. , the population of Tameside was, making it the 8th-most populous borough of Greater Manchester by population.

There are over 300 listed buildings in Tameside and three Scheduled Ancient Monuments, including Buckton Castle. Its townships were agricultural until the Industrial Revolution when they grew with the cotton industry. The borough was created in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972.

History
The history of the area stretches back up to 10,000 years; there are 22 Mesolithic sites in Tameside, the oldest dating to around 8000 BC; 21 of the 22 sites are in the hilly uplands in the north east of the borough. Evidence of Neolithic and Bronze Age activity is more limited in the borough, although the Bronze Age Stalybridge Cairn is the most complete prehistoric funerary monument in the borough. The people in the area changed from hunter-gatherers to farmers around 2500 BC–1500 BC due to climate change. Werneth Low is the most likely Iron Age farmstead site in the borough, probably dating to the late 1st millennium BC. Before the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD, the area was probably part of the territory of the Brigantes, the Celtic tribe controlling most of what is now north west England.

The area came under control of the Roman Empire in the second half of the 1st century. Roads through the area were established from Ardotalia fort in Derbyshire to Mamucium (Manchester) west of Tameside and Castleshaw Roman fort in the north. Romano-British finds in the borough include a bog body in Ashton Moss, occupation sites at Werneth Low, Harridge Pike, Roe Cross, and Mottram. A 4th-century coin hoard was found in Denton and is one of only four hoards from the 4th century in the Mersey basin. A Byzantine coin from the 6th or 7th centuries, also found in Denton, indicates continued or renewed occupation once the Romans left Britain in the early 5th century.

Nico Ditch, an earthwork stretching from Stretford to Ashton-under-Lyne, is evidence of Anglo-Saxon activity in Tameside. It was probably dug between the 7th and 9th centuries and may have been used as a boundary between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. Further evidence of Anglo-Saxon era activity in Tameside comes from the derivation of settlement names from Old English such as -tun, meaning farmstead, and leah meaning clearing.

According to the Domesday Survey of 1086, Tameside was divided into four manors, those of Tintwistle, Hollingworth, Werneth, and Mottram. The land east of the River Tame was in the Hundred of Hamestan in Cheshire and held by the Earl of Chester while to the west of the river was in the Hundred of Salford under Roger de Poitevin. These manors were divided to create further manors, so that by the 13th century most of them were owned by local families and remained in the hands of the same families until the 16th century. Manorialism continued as the main form of administration and governance until the mid-19th century.

The Industrial Revolution had a significant impact on Tameside; the area, whose main towns had previously been Ashton-under-Lyne and Mottram-in-Longdendale, was transformed from a collection of the rural, farming communities into mill towns. The towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Dukinfield, Hyde, Mossley and Stalybridge have been described as "amongst the most famous mills towns in the North West". With only a brief interruption for the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 to 1865, factories producing and processing textiles were the main industry in Tameside from the late-18th century until the mid-20th century.

In 1964, Dukinfield Borough Council convened a meeting of neighbouring local authorities with the aim of formulating a policy of cross-authority social improvement for the districts in the Tame Valley. Following deindustrialisation, the area had suffered "gross-neglect" and had large areas of housing unsuitable for human habitation. This joint enterprise comprised the nine districts that would become Tameside ten years later, plus the County Borough of Stockport. This collective agreed on creating "a linear park in the valley [of the River Tame] for the use of the townspeople and as a major recreational resource within the Manchester metropolis".

Tameside was created on 1 April 1974, by the Local Government Act 1972 as one of the ten metropolitan districts of Greater Manchester. The new district covered the territory of nine former districts which were abolished at the same time: Dukinfield, Hyde, Longdendale and Stalybridge had been in the administrative county of Cheshire prior to the 1974 reforms, whilst the other five districts had been in the administrative county of Lancashire.
 * Ashton-under-Lyne Municipal Borough
 * Audenshaw Urban District
 * Denton Urban District
 * Droylsden Urban District
 * Dukinfield Municipal Borough
 * Hyde Municipal Borough
 * Longdendale Urban District
 * Mossley Municipal Borough
 * Stalybridge Municipal Borough

A name for the metropolitan borough proved problematic. The Redcliffe-Maud Report had used the name Ashton-Hyde, but double-barrelled names were prohibited for the new districts. Had Ashton-under-Lyne been a county borough, or had had a less common name, "it might have been chosen as the new name" for the new district. The eight other towns objected, adamant that "a new name should be found". Thirty suggestions were put forward, including Brigantia, Clarendon, Hartshead, Kayborough, Tame, Ninetowns, and West Pennine, with Hartshead (with reference to Hartshead Pike) being the most popular throughout most of the consultation period. However, the name Tameside (with reference to the River Tame, but a concocted name with no historical basis) won 15 votes to Hartshead's 10 in a final stage of voting. The new district was awarded borough status from its creation, allowing the chairman of the council to take the title of mayor. In 1986 Tameside effectively became a unitary authority with the abolition of the Greater Manchester County Council.

Geography
Tameside borders High Peak in Derbyshire to the east, the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham to the north, the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport to the south, and the City of Manchester to the west. Tameside features flat lowlands in the west and highlands in the east where the western edge of the Pennines encroaches on the borough. The hills in the east include Hartshead Pike and Werneth Low which is also a country park. As well as coal measures running north–south through the centre of the borough, there are areas of peat in the north east and there are large areas of boulder clay all over Tameside. Ashton Moss is a peat bog covering about 107 ha and Denton Moor is an area of about 81 ha of peat.

Waterways in Tameside include the rivers Medlock and Etherow, which form parts of Tameside's western and eastern boundaries respectively, and the River Tame crosses the borough north to south, giving Tameside its name. The Ashton Canal, the Hollinwood Branch Canal, the Huddersfield Narrow Canal, and the Peak Forest Canal all run through the borough. There are also several reservoirs, including the Audenshaw Reservoirs. Greenspace accounts for 63.5% of the Tameside's total area, domestic buildings and gardens comprise 17.4%, and the rest is made up of roads and non-domestic buildings.

Localities within the boundaries of Tameside include: Ashton-under-Lyne, Audenshaw, Broadbottom, Carrbrook, Copley, Denton, Droylsden, Dukinfield, Flowery Field, Gee Cross, Godley, Godley Green, Guide Bridge, Hartshead Green, Hattersley, Haughton Green, Hazelhurst, Heyrod, Hollingworth, Hyde, Landslow Green, Luzley, Millbrook, Mossley, Mottram in Longdendale, Newton, Park Bridge, Roe Cross, Stalybridge, Warhill, and Woolley Bridge.

Parliamentary constituencies
The residents of the Tameside are represented in the United Kingdom Parliament by Members of Parliament (MPs) for three constituencies. Ashton-under-Lyne, which also includes parts of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham, is represented by Angela Rayner (Labour). Denton and Reddish, which also covers parts of the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport, is represented by Andrew Gwynne (Labour). Stalybridge and Hyde, which is entirely within Tameside, is represented by Jonathan Reynolds (Labour).

Council
In 2007, Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council was assessed by the Audit Commission and judged to be "improving strongly" in providing services for local people. Overall the council was awarded "four star" status meaning it was "performing strongly" and "well above minimum requirements", putting it in the top 38% of all local authorities.

Civil parishes form the bottom tier of local government; the parish councils are involved in planning, management of town and parish centres, and promoting tourism. Mossley is the only civil parish in Tameside. In 2001 9,856 people lived there, 4.6% of the borough's population.

Before becoming a civil parish, Mossley was a municipal borough. The unparished areas are: Ashton-under-Lyne (municipal borough), Audenshaw (urban district), Denton (urban district), Droylsden (urban district), Dukinfield (municipal borough), Hyde (municipal borough), Longdendale (urban district), and Stalybridge (municipal borough). The status of each area before 1974 is shown in brackets. An urban district was a type of local government district which covered an urbanised area. Ashton-under-Lyne, Audenshaw, Denton, Droylsden, and Mossley were previously in Lancashire. Dukinfield, Hyde, Longdendale, and Stalybridge were in Cheshire.

Ethnicity
At the 2011 UK census, the Metropolitan Borough of Tameside had a total population of 219,324. Of the 94,953 households in Tameside, 30.8% were married couples living together, 32.7% were one-person households, 11.5% were co-habiting couples and 12.8% were lone parents.

The population density was 2126 /km2 and for every 100 females, there were 96.4 males. Of those aged 16 and over in Tameside, 28.1% had no academic qualifications, significantly higher than 22.5% in all of England. 7% of Tameside's residents were born outside the United Kingdom, significantly lower than the national average of 13.8%. The largest minority group was Asian, at 6.6% of the population.

In 1841, 8.5% of Tameside's population was middle class compared to 14% in England and Wales; this increased to 13.1% in 1931 (15% nationally) and 37.0% in 2001 (48% nationally). From 1841 to 1991, the working class population of Tameside and across the country was in decline, falling steadily from 58.0% (36% nationally) to 22.8% in 1991 (21% nationally). It has since increased slightly, up to 32.9% (26% nationwide). The rest of the population was made up of clerical workers and skilled manual workers.

Population change
Although Tameside has only existed as a Metropolitan Borough since 1974, the table below details the population change – including the percentage change since the last census 10 years earlier – in the area since 1801 using figures from the towns, villages, and civil parishes that would later become constituent parts of Tameside.

Religion
The following table shows the religious identity of residents residing in Tameside according to the 2011 and the 2021 census results.

Tameside is covered by the Roman Catholic dioceses of Shrewsbury and Salford, and the Church of England dioceses of Manchester and Chester.

There are two Grade I listed churches in Tameside, St Anne's Church, in Haughton, was built in 1881 in the Gothic Revival style by J Medland Taylor. St Michael and All Angels' Church in Ashton-under-Lyne is a 15th-century parish church which was virtually rebuilt in the 19th century. A church on the site dates back to at least 1262. St Lawrence's Church, in Denton, is a Grade II* listed building and a timber-framed church. It was remodelled by J Medland Taylor in 1872.

Economy
Tameside is currently undergoing redevelopment through the Vision Tameside project which should be completed by 2018.

Vision Tameside – a partnership between Tameside council and Tameside College – is a redevelopment strategy.

Three "advanced learning centres" are being built in central Ashton town and at the college's Beaufort Road home.

Phase one comprises two sites. The new Clarendon Sixth Form College, which began taking students in the autumn of 2015, was officially opened by Coronation Street actress Brooke Vincent on 9 March 2016. The college theatre was named in Brooke's honour.

An "advanced technologies centre" is being built on Stamford Street, Ashton. When it opens in 2017 it will provide a learning facility to support the growth of advanced engineering and technology in Tameside.

Phase two of VisionTameside will create an advanced skills centre for Tameside College alongside a new joint service centre for Tameside Council and partners. The skills centre will provide facilities for students studying a wide range of vocational subjects including hair and beauty, hospitality and catering, bakery and confectionery, travel and tourism and business skills.

Ashton's Victorian town hall and the old water board offices, which are both listed buildings, are being retained. Work should be completed in early 2018.

Phase three will ensure the Beaufort Road campus offers learners modern, inspirational learning spaces. Alongside the new advanced technologies centre, they will have access to facilities for engineering, construction and the built environment, motor-vehicle, sport and public services and health and social care provision

Provision for students with severe learning difficulties and/or disabilities will continue to be based at the Beaufort Road where a new sports academy was opened in February, 2015, by former Manchester United and England footballer Paul Scholes.

In addition, Ashton's old public baths, which lay derelict for many years, has been reborn as a "high-tech business incubator" with help from the European Regional Development Fund and the Heritage Lottery Fund.

Work at the mid-Victorian building, which closed as a swimming baths in 1975, has involved cleaning, repairs and the replacement of external stonework. The new office space is housed inside a free-standing timber-clad pod within the former main pool.

At the same time, Ashton's market has been refurbished with the installation of kiosks alongside traditional stalls.

The Ashton Arcades shopping centre opened in 1995. The centre covers 13000 m2 on two floors with over 40 shops. In 2006, after failing twice to gain permission to develop a site in the neighbouring borough of Stockport, IKEA announced plans to build its first town centre-store in Ashton-under-Lyne. The store is expected to create 500 new jobs as well as attract other businesses to the area. The store opened on 19 October 2006 and covers 27500 m2 At the time of its creation, the store was the tallest in Britain.

Life science industries have been identified as growth industries in Greater Manchester and are concentrated in Oldham and Tameside.

Average house prices in Tameside are the 5th lowest of the ten boroughs in Greater Manchester and are prices just 60% of the average price for the England.

At the 2011 UK census, Tameside had 161,459 residents aged 16 to 74. 4.3% of these people were students, 4.0% looking after home or family, 6.2% long-term sick or disabled and 2.2% economically inactive for other reasons.

In 2011, of 101,892 residents of Tameside in employment, the industry of employment was 17.7% retail and wholesale, 13.2% manufacturing, 12.4% health and social work, 8.5% construction, 8.3% education, 5.8% public administration and defence, 5.3% transport, 5.0% professional, scientific and technical, 4.8% administrative, 4.5% hotels and restaurants, 4.1% financial, 2.4% information and communication, 1.7% real estate, 1.6% energy and water supply, and 4.5% others.

Landmarks
In February 2001, Tameside had one Grade I listed buildings, 19 Grade II*, and 289 Grade II. The number of Grade I listed buildings in Tameside has increased to two, these are St Anne's Church in Haughton; St Michael and All Angels' Church in Ashton-under-Lyne. (Fairbottom Farm Barn, a 17th-century farm building, is listed on the council's website as grade I but is listed by English Heritage as grade II. ) In Tameside are three of Greater Manchester's Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Boar Flat, part of Dark Peak, the Hollinwood Branch Canal and the Huddersfield Narrow Canal. The Huddersfield Narrow Canal runs for 20 mi from Huddersfield to Ashton-under-Lyne; it is protected for its biological interest, and is "the best example of a flowing eutrophic water system in Greater Manchester".

There are three Scheduled Ancient Monuments in the borough, a Bronze Age cairn in Stalybridge, Buckton Castle, and Nico Ditch. Buckton Castle is a 12th-century enclosure castle near Carrbrook and was probably built by one of the earls of Chester. The castle lay ruinous by 1360, and has been described as "one of England's most important castles". Nico Ditch is an earthwork running from Ashton-under-Lyne in the east to Stretford in the west, in the borough of Trafford. It survives to a depth of 1.5 m in some places and is up to 4 m wide.

Tameside has nine conservation areas: Ashton and Stalybridge town centres; Carrbrook, Copley St. Paul's, and Millbrook in Stalybridge; Fairfield in Droylsden; Mottram-in-Longdendale; Portland Basin; and St. Anne's in Haughton.

The Museum of the Manchester Regiment is housed in Ashton-under-Lyne's town hall. The museum displays relics related to the Manchester Regiment including five Victoria Crosses awarded to members of the regiment. Park Bridge Heritage Centre in the Medlock Valley is a museum dedicated to the history of the settlement of Park Bridge and its industry. Broad Mills Heritage Site, in Broadbottom, preserves the remains of an early 19th-century textile works. Art galleries in the borough include Astley Cheetham Art Gallery in Stalybridge and Central Art Gallery in Ashton-under-Lyne.

Tameside has eight designated Local Nature Reserves which are Knott Hill, Hollinwood Branch Canal, Great Wood, Haughton Dale, Hulmes and Hardy Woods, Castle Clough and Cowbury Dale, Hurst Clough and Rocher Vale. Four more are to be designated.

Education
Since 2007 Tameside's schools have been transformed as the result of multimillion-pound investment.

Virtually every high school has been replaced or remodelled. Eighteen primary schools have been rebuilt in recent years and another 20 have undergone major remodelling. In addition, the borough has opened the first entirely new schools in its history: Inspire Academy on Mossley Road, Ashton, and Discovery Academy off Porlock Avenue, Hattersley. Both offer 420 places plus a nursery.

In 2015, GCSE results improved more in Tameside than anywhere else in the North West, and the borough was one of the top 10 nationally for the most improved results.

At Key Stage 4 57.3% of pupils in the borough achieved five or more A* to C grades including English and maths – a 3.6% improvement on the previous year.

In terms of expected progress in English, 73% of pupils make expected progress in Tameside compared to 71% nationally. In maths 66% of pupils make expected progress, in line with the national average of 67%.

At Key Stage 2, 80% of pupils in Tameside achieved level 4+ in reading, writing and maths combined, sustaining the borough's 6% improvement in results from 2013 to 2014.

Media
In terms of television, Tameside is served by BBC North West and ITV Granada broadcasting from the Winter Hill TV transmitter.

Radio stations for the area are:
 * BBC Radio Manchester
 * Heart North West
 * Smooth North West
 * Capital Manchester and Lancashire
 * Greatest Hits Radio Manchester & The North West
 * XS Manchester
 * Tameside Radio, a community based station which broadcast from its studios in Ashton-under-Lyne.

The local newspaper is the Tameside Reporter, published on Thursdays.

Railway

The borough is served by 13 railway stations:
 * Fairfield, Guide Bridge, Hyde Central and Hyde North are all on the Hope Valley Line between Sheffield and Manchester.
 * Broadbottom, Flowery Field, Godley, Guide Bridge, Hattersley and Newton for Hyde are served by the Glossop Line between Glossop, Hadfield and Manchester.
 * Ashton, Mossley and Stalybridge are on the Huddersfield Line.
 * Denton is on the Stockport to Stalybridge Line.

Tram
Work on an extension of the Manchester Metrolink costing £260 million began in 2008. Trams began to run to Droylsden in February 2013 and finally to Ashton in September 2013.

Buses
Ashton bus station was converted into a new transport interchange. A covered concourse replaced the five island platforms and the site was linked to the Metrolink terminus. It has new waiting areas, bicycle parking and better access to travel information and tickets. Improved pedestrian routes can now take people into the town centre. It was completed in October 2020.

The new Hyde bus station opened on 23 August 2007, having cost £3.7 million to build.

Footpaths
Tameside Council is responsible for maintaining the public rights of way in the borough, including 145 miles of footpaths.

Twin towns
The Metropolitan Borough of Tameside has formal twinning links with places in China, France and Germany. (The arrangement with Mutare, Zimbabwe has been suspended due to the political unrest in that country. )

Some localities were originally twinned with a place within the Metropolitan Borough prior to its creation in 1974. In the list below the brackets show where the place was twinned with before 1974 and since when.

 * 🇫🇷 Armentières, France, (Municipal Borough of Stalybridge, 1955)
 * 🇨🇳 Bengbu, China, (Tameside 1995)
 * 🇫🇷 Colmar, France, (Municipal Borough of Hyde, 1963)
 * 🇫🇷 Champagnole, France (Municipal Borough of Dukinfield, 1958)
 * 🇫🇷 Chaumont, France, (Municipal Borough of Ashton-under-Lyne, 1956)
 * 🇫🇷 Hem, France, (Municipal Borough of Mossley, 1972)
 * 🇩🇪 Kierspe, Germany (Denton Town Twinning Association, 1992 and 2012)
 * 🇫🇷 Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France, (Denton Town Twinning Association, 1992 and 2012)
 * 🇩🇪 Ruppichteroth, Germany, (Longdendale Urban District, 1974)
 * 🇫🇷 Villemomble, France, (Droylsden Town Twinning Association, 1983)

Sport
Tameside is home to a number of non-league football teams and a variety of other sports clubs.

The borough have several football teams playing across several levels of the National League System of Football, commonly known as Non League Football, of which several have played as high as the National League Tier 5.

National League North (Tier 6) Northern Premier League (Tier 7) (Tier 8)
 * Curzon Ashton
 * Hyde United
 * Stalybridge Celtic
 * Ashton United
 * Mossley

Only Stalybridge Celtic have played in the Football League, where they were members between 1919 and 1922.

Outside the NLS System, Dukinfield Town (Manchester League Premier Division, Tier 11) and Denton Town (Cheshire League Second Division, Tier 12)

Droylsden are currently inactive following the events of COVID-19 however have played host to Stretford Paddock from their expansion from Sunday League to the NLS System, and currently play in the Cheshire League Second Division.

Tameside has been home to three players who have been members of winning World Cup squads. Sir Geoff Hurst and James Arnfield were members of the 1966 World Cup winning England side, whilst Simone Perrotta won the World Cup in 2006 with Italy, though he was born in Ashton. All three have been given a statue outside Curzon Ashton's Tameside Stadium.

The Region hosts 2 Rugby Union sides, with Aldwynians the highest ranked side, Currently playing in the ADM Lancashire and Cheshire 1st Division while Ashton Under Lyne RFC play in the 11th Tier. Eric Evans, who was Aldwynians Captain represented England between 1956-58.

Though the Borough does not have a Professional Rugby League side, Oldham Rugby League have played at several Grounds across Tameside. In 2003 they played several Challenge Cup and League games at Ashton United's Hurst Cross ground, whilst in more modern times when playing Super League sides or when in the Championship Division have played at Stalybridge Celtic's Bower Fold as their regular home isn't suitable for higher division games.

Cricket is heavily represented in the area with all areas hosting several sides with the Greater Manchester Cricket League, Denton having the most within the higher tiers of the League System (Denton St Lawrence and Denton West Cricket Club both playing in the Premier Division), Mottram being represented in the Top Division by Roe Cross and Mottram CC in the third level of the League, Hyde are represented with Flowery Field CC in the 2nd tier and Dukinfield CC in the Tier 3 Championship Division.

Tameside Netball Club play in the Highest Amateur Division of the sport (formally the Top Division before the introduction of the Professional Super League)

title: Tameside


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Immanuel Hermann Fichte

Immanuel Hermann Fichte (ennobled as Immanuel Hermann von Fichte in 1863; 18 July 1796 – 8 August 1879) was a German philosopher and son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. In his philosophy, he was a theist and strongly opposed to the Hegelian School.

Life
Fichte was born in Jena. He early devoted himself to philosophical studies, being attracted by the later views of his father, which he considered essentially theistic. He graduated from the University of Berlin in 1818. Soon after, he became a lecturer in philosophy there. He also attended the lectures of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, but felt averse to what he deemed to be his pantheistic tendencies. As a result of semi-official suggestions, based on official disapproval of his supposedly liberal views, he decided, in 1822, to leave Berlin, and accepted a professorship at the gymnasium in Saarbrücken. In 1826 he went in the same capacity to Düsseldorf. In 1836 he became an extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Bonn, and in 1840 full professor. Here he quickly became a successful and much admired lecturer. Dissatisfied with the reactionary tendencies of the Prussian Ministry of Education, he accepted a call to the chair of philosophy at the University of Tübingen in 1842 where he continued to give lectures on all philosophic subjects until his retirement in 1875 when he moved to Stuttgart. He died in Stuttgart on 8 August 1879.

In 1837, Fichte founded the Zeitschrift für Philosophie und speculative Theologie and edited from then on. In 1847, the name was changed to Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik. Publication was suspended 1848–1852, after which Hermann Ulrici and Johann Ulrich Wirth joined him as editors. This journal served as an organ of Fichte's views, especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion, where he was in alliance with C. H. Weisse (with whom he regularly corresponded after 1829); but, whereas Weisse thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be defective, and spoke of it as a masterpiece of erroneous consistency or consistent error. Fichte's general views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he gained in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of systems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own, and his conciliatory tone.

Philosophical work
The great aim of his speculations was to find a philosophic basis for the personality of God, and for his theory on this subject he proposed the term "concrete theism." His philosophy attempts to reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbart) by means of monadism (Leibniz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism, lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose desire it is that he should realize himself in finite persons. These persons are objects of God's love, and he arranges the world for their good. The direct connecting link between God man is the genius, a higher spiritual individuality existing fan by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In conception of finite personality he recurs to something like monadism of Leibniz. His insistence on moral experience connected with his insistence on personality.

One of the tests which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is adequateness with which they interpret moral experience. The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him praise Krause (panentheism) and Schleiermacher, and speak respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte's most excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work, Der neuere Spiritualismus (1878), he supports his position by arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not unlike that adopted by F. W. H. Myers.

The regeneration of Christianity, according to Fichte, would consist in its becoming the vital and organizing power in the state, instead of being occupied solely, as heretofore, with the salvation of individuals.

Works

 * De philosophiae novae Platonicae origine (1818).
 * Sätze zur Vorschule der Theologie (1826). University of California.
 * Beiträge zur Charakteristik der neueren Philosophie (1829). Harvard. 2nd edition, 1841. Gallica; NYPL.
 * Johann Gottlieb Fichtes Leben und literarischer Briefwechsel (1830–31). 2 volumes.
 * Volume 1, 1830. 2nd edition , 1862. Oxford; Stanford; University of Göttingen.
 * Volume 2, 1831. NYPL. 2nd edition , 1862. Oxford; Stanford.
 * Über Gegensatz, Wendepunkt und Ziel heutiger Philosophie (1832). University of Michigan.
 * Grundzüge zum Systeme der Philosophie (1833–1846). 3 volumes.
 * Volume 1, 1833. Das Erkennen als Selbsterkennen. Gallica.
 * Volume 2, 1836. Die Ontologie. Gallica; University of Michigan.
 * Volume 3, 1846. Die speculative Theologie oder allgemeine Religionslehre. Gallica.
 * Die Idee der Persönlichkeit und die individuelle Fortdauer (1834). 2nd edition, 1855.
 * De principiorum contradictionis (1840). Gallica.
 * System der Ethik (1850–53). 2 volumes.
 * Volume 1, 1850. Gallica; NYPL; Stanford; University of Michigan.
 * Volume 2, part 1, 1851. Gallica; NYPL; Oxford (1&2); University of Michigan (1&2).
 * Volume 2, part 2, 1853. Gallica; NYPL.
 * Anthropologie, Die Lehre von der menschlichen Seele (1856). Gallica; Lane; University of Michigan. 2nd edition, 1860. Oxford; Oxford (Taylor). 3rd edition , 1876.
 * Über den Unterschied zwischen ethischem und naturalistischem Theismus (1857).
 * Zur Seelenfrage, Eine philosophische Confession (1859). University of California.
 * Contributions to Mental Philosophy (1860). Harvard.
 * Psychologie. Die Lehre vom bewussten Geiste des Menschen (1864–73). 2 volumes. Oxford; University of Michigan.
 * Volume 1, 1864.
 * Volume 2, 1873. Harvard.
 * Die Seelenfortdauer und die Weltstellung des Menschen (1867).
 * Vermischte Schriften zur Philosophie, Theologie und Ethik (1869). 2 volumes. Oxford.
 * Volume 1 . Gallica.
 * Volume 2 . Gallica.
 * Die theistische Weltansicht und ihre Berechtigung (1873). Oxford; University of Michigan.
 * Fragen und Bedenken über die nächste Fortbildung deutscher Speculation (1876). Gallica; Oxford; University of Michigan.
 * Der neuere Spiritualismus, sein Wert und seine Täuschungen (1878). Oxford.

He also edited the complete works and literary correspondence of his father. Some of his works were translated by J. D. Morell under the title of Contributions to Mental Philosophy (1860).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Immanuel Hermann Fichte


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613 commandments

According to Jewish tradition, the Torah contains 613 commandments (תרי״ג מצוות). This tradition is first recorded in the 3rd century CE, when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it in a sermon that is recorded in Talmud Makkot 23b. Other classical sages who hold this view include Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai and Rabbi Eleazar ben Yose the Galilean. It is quoted in Midrash Exodus Rabbah 33:7, Numbers Rabbah 13:15–16; 18:21 and Talmud Yevamot 47b. The 613 commandments include "positive commandments", to perform an act (mitzvot aseh), and "negative commandments", to abstain from an act (mitzvot lo taaseh). The negative commandments number 365, which coincides with the number of days in the solar year, and the positive commandments number 248, a number ascribed to the number of bones and main organs in the human body.

Although the number 613 is mentioned in the Talmud, its real significance increased in later medieval rabbinic literature, including many works listing or arranged by the mitzvot. The most famous of these was an enumeration of the 613 commandments by Maimonides. While the total number of commandments is 613, no individual can perform all of them. Many can only be observed at the Temple in Jerusalem, which no longer stands. According to one standard reckoning, there are 77 positive and 194 negative commandments that can be observed today, of which there are 26 commandments that apply only within the Land of Israel. In addition, some commandments only apply to certain categories of Jews: some are only observed by kohanim, and others only by men or by women.

Symbolism of 613

Rav Hamnuna sourced the count of 613 in the verse ("Moses commanded us the Torah..."). The Talmud notes that the Hebrew numerical value (gematria) of the word Torah is 611 ( = 400, = 6,  = 200,  = 5). Combining 611 commandments which Moses taught the people, with the first two of the Ten Commandments which were the only ones directly heard from God, a total of 613 is reached.

Other sources connect the tzitzit (ritual fringes of a garment) to the 613 commandments by gematria: the word tzitzit (Hebrew: ציצית, in its Mishnaic spelling) has the value 600 ( = 90, = 10,  = 400). Each tassel has eight threads (when doubled over) and five sets of knots. The sum of all these numbers is 613, reflecting the concept that tzitzit reminds its wearer of all Torah commandments.

Many Jewish philosophical and mystical works (e.g., by Baal HaTurim, the Maharal of Prague and leaders of Hasidic Judaism) find allusions and inspirational calculations relating to the number of commandments.

Dissent and difficulties
Rabbinic support for the number of commandments being 613 is not without dissent. For example, Ben Azzai held that there exist 300 positive mitzvot. Also, even as the number gained acceptance, difficulties arose in elucidating the list. Some rabbis declared that this count was not an authentic tradition, or that it was not logically possible to come up with a systematic count. No early work of Jewish law or Biblical commentary depended on the 613 system, and no early systems of Jewish principles of faith made acceptance of this Aggadah (non-legal Talmudic statement) normative. A number of classical authorities denied that it was normative:
 * Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra denied that this was an authentic rabbinic tradition. Ibn Ezra writes "Some sages enumerate 613 mitzvot in many diverse ways [...] but in truth there is no end to the number of mitzvot [...] and if we were to count only the root principles [...] the number of mitzvot would not reach 613".
 * Nahmanides held that this particular counting was a matter of rabbinic controversy, and that rabbinic opinion on this is not unanimous. Nonetheless, he concedes that "this total has proliferated throughout the aggadic literature... we ought to say that it was a tradition from Moses at Mount Sinai".
 * Rabbi Simeon ben Zemah Duran likewise rejected the dogma of the 613 as being the sum of the Law, saying that "perhaps the agreement that the number of mitzvot is 613... is just Rabbi Simlai's opinion, following his own explication of the mitzvot. And we need not rely on his explication when we come to determine [and affect] the Law, but rather on the Talmudic discussions".
 * Gersonides held that the number 613 was only one rabbi's (Rabbi Simlai's) opinion, and if the conclusion of a Talmudic discussion indicated that the number of commandments was greater or lesser than 613, Rabbi Simlai's opinion would be overruled. He argued that the number 613 was only intended as an approximation, and that the comparison to 248 limbs and 365 days was intended homiletically, to motivate Jews to keep the commandments.
 * The Vilna Gaon suggested that there exist many more than 613 commandments (because otherwise large narrative parts of the Pentateuch would be without commandments, which he considered difficult to accept) and that the count of 613 refers to "roots" (shorashim) of the other commandments.

Even when rabbis attempted to compile a list of the 613 commandments, they were faced with a number of difficulties:
 * Which statements were to be included amongst the 613 commandments? Every one of God's commands to any individual or to the entire people of Israel?
 * Would an order from God be counted as a commandment, for the purposes of such a list, if it could only be complied with in one place and time? Else, would such an order only count as a commandment if it could be followed at all times? (The latter is the view of Maimonides.)
 * Does counting a single commandment depend on whether it falls within one verse, even though it may contain multiple prohibitions, or should each prohibition count as a single commandment?

Ultimately, though, the concept of 613 commandments has become accepted as normative amongst practicing Jews and today it is still common practice to refer to the total system of commandments within the Torah as the "613 commandments", even among those who do not literally accept this count as accurate.

However, the 613 mitzvot do not constitute a formal code of present-day halakha. Later codes of law such as the Shulkhan Arukh and the Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh do not refer to it. However, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah is prefaced by a count of the 613 mitzvot.

Works which enumerate the commandments
There is no single definitive list that explicates the 613 commandments. Lists differ, for example, in how they interpret passages in the Torah that may be read as dealing with several cases under a single law or several separate laws. Other "commandments" in the Torah are restricted as one-time acts, and would not be considered as "mitzvot" binding on other persons. In rabbinic literature, Rishonim and later scholars composed to articulate and justify their enumeration of the commandments:
 * Halachot Gedolot ("Great Laws"), thought to be written by Rabbi Simeon Kayyara (the Bahag, author of the Halakhot Gedolot) is the earliest extant enumeration of the 613 mitzvot.
 * Sefer ha-Mitzvoth ("Book of Commandments") by Rabbi Saadia Gaon. Written during the period of the Geonim, Saadia's work is a simple list (though it was later expanded by Rabbi Yerucham Fishel Perlow.)
 * Sefer Hamitzvot ("Book of Commandments") by Maimonides, with a commentary by Nachmanides. Maimonides employs a set of fourteen rules (shorashim) which determine inclusion into the list. In this work, he supports his specification of each mitzvah through quotations from the midrash halakha and the Gemara. Nachmanides makes a number of critical points and replaces some items of the list with others.
 * Sefer ha-Chinnuch ("Book of Education"). This work generally follows Maimonides' reckoning of the 613 commandments. It is written in the order in which the commandments appear in the Torah rather than an arrangement by category (as in Maimonides' work.) In addition to enumerating the commandments and giving a brief overview of relevant laws, the Sefer ha-Chinuch also tries to explain the philosophical reasons behind the mitzvot. It has been attributed to various authors, most commonly Rabbi Aaron ha-Levi of Barcelona (the Ra'ah), though its true authorship is unknown.
 * Sefer Mitzvot Gadol or SMaG ("Large book of Commandments") by Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy.
 * Sefer ha-Mitzvoth by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (the "Chafetz Chaim"). The Chafetz Chaim's work follows the reckoning of Maimonides but gives only the commandments relevant today. Notably, this listing omits commandments regarding temple service, ritual purity, sacrifices, and so on. Though the original work included only those commandments relevant in all places and at all times, later editions include agricultural laws relevant today only in the Land of Israel.

Works in which the number of commandments is not 613

 * Sefer Yereim by Eliezer ben Samuel lists only 417 commandments (including commandments only applicable when the Temple stood).
 * Menahem Recanati, in his book Taamei haMitzvot, counted 250 positive and 361 negative commandments, for a total of 611. These 611 include the two commandments of, indicating that this list is incompatible with the approach of R' Hamnuna in the Talmud (who said that of the 613 commandments, the two in Exodus 20:2 were given directly by God, and the remaining 611 via Moses).
 * Sefer Mitzvoth Katan, by Rabbi Isaac of Corbeil, listed 320 commandments applicable nowadays. To reach a total of 613, one would have to add 293 commandments applicable only while the Temple stood. As the number of Temple-only commandments appears to be much lower than 293 (for example, Sefer haHinuch only counted 201 such commandments), it seems that the overall count of commandments would likely be lower than 613.
 * According to Asael Ben-Or, Gersonides' commentary to the Torah indicates that he counted a total of 513 commandments.

Maimonides' list
The following are the 613 commandments and the source of their derivation from the Hebrew Bible as enumerated by Maimonides:

title: 613 commandments


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Cosmos 1

Cosmos 1 was a project by Cosmos Studios and The Planetary Society to test a solar sail in space. As part of the project, an uncrewed solar-sail spacecraft named Cosmos 1 was launched into space at 19:46:09 UTC (15:46:09 EDT) on 21 June 2005 from the submarine RUSSIAN SUBMARINE Borisoglebsk in the Barents Sea. However, a rocket failure prevented the spacecraft from reaching its intended orbit. Once in orbit, the spacecraft was supposed to deploy a large sail, upon which photons from the Sun would push, thereby increasing the spacecraft's velocity (the contributions from the solar wind are similar, but of much smaller magnitude).

Had the mission been successful, it would have been the first ever orbital use of a solar sail to speed up a spacecraft, as well as the first space mission by a space advocacy group. The project budget was US$4 million. The Planetary Society planned to raise another US$4 million for Cosmos 2, a reimplementation of the experiment provisionally to be launched on a Soyuz resupply mission to the International Space Station (ISS). The Discovery Channel was an early investor. However, advances in technology and the greater availability of lower-mass piggyback slots on more launch vehicles led to a redesign similar to NanoSail-D, called LightSail-1, announced in November 2009.

Planned mission profile
To test the solar sail concept, the Cosmos 1 project launched an orbital spacecraft they named Cosmos 1 with a full complement of eight sail blades on 21 June 2005; the summer solstice. The spacecraft had a mass of 100 kg and consisted of eight triangular sail blades, which would be deployed from a central hub after launch by the inflating of structural tubes. The sail blades were each 15 m long, had a total surface area of 600 m2, and were made of aluminized-reinforced PET film (MPET).

The spacecraft was launched on a Volna launch vehicle (a converted SS-N-18 intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)) from the Russian Delta III submarine RUSSIAN SUBMARINE Borisoglebsk, submerged in the Barents Sea. The spacecraft's initial circular orbit would have been at an altitude of about 800 km, where it would have unfurled the sails. The sails would then have gradually raised the spacecraft to a higher Earth orbit. "Cosmos 1 might boost its orbit 50 to 100 km over the expected 30-day life of the mission", said Louis Friedman of The Planetary Society.

The mission was expected to end within a month of launch, as the mylar of the blades would degrade in sunlight.

Possible beam propulsion
The solar-sail craft could also have been used to measure the effect of artificial microwaves aimed at it from a radar installation. A 70 m dish at the Goldstone facility of NASA Deep Space Network would have been used to irradiate the sail with a 450 kW beam. This experiment in beam-powered propulsion would only have been attempted after the prime mission objective of controlled solar-sail flight was achieved.

Tracking
The craft would have been visible to the naked eye from most of the Earth's surface: the planned orbit had an inclination of 80°, so it would have been visible from latitudes of up to approximately 80° north and south.

A network of tracking stations around the world, including the Tarusa station, 121 km south of Moscow, and the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, tried to maintain contact with the solar sail during the mission. Mission control was based primarily at the Russian company NPO Lavochkin in Moscow; a center that the Planetary Society calls Mission Operations Moscow (MOM).

Physics
The craft would have been gradually accelerating during each orbit as a result of the radiation pressure of photons colliding with the sails. As photons reflected from the surface of the sails, they would transfer momentum to them. As there would be no air resistance to oppose the velocity of the spacecraft, acceleration would be proportional to the number of photons colliding with it per unit time. Sunlight amounts to a tiny $5 m/s2$ acceleration in the vicinity of the Earth. Over one day, the spacecraft's speed would reach 45 m/s; in 100 days its speed would be 4500 m/s, in 2.74 years 45000 m/s.

At that speed, a craft would reach Pluto, a very distant dwarf planet in the Solar System, in less than 5 years, although in practice the acceleration of a sail drops dramatically as the spacecraft gets farther from the Sun. However, in the vicinity of Earth, a solar sail's acceleration is larger than that of some other propulsion techniques; for example, the ion thruster-propelled SMART-1 spacecraft has a maximum acceleration of $2 m/s2$, which allowed SMART-1 to achieve lunar orbit in November 2004 after launch in September 2003.

Other aspects
Besides the main spacecraft, launched in June 2005, the Cosmos 1 project has funded two other craft:
 * A suborbital test was attempted in 2001 with only two sail blades. The spacecraft failed to separate from the rocket.
 * A second orbital spacecraft (LightSail-1) was launched in May 2015.

One of Cosmos 1 solar-sail blades was displayed at the Rockefeller Center office complex in New York City in 2003.

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The Planetary Society

The Planetary Society is an American internationally-active non-governmental nonprofit organization. It is involved in research, public outreach, and political space advocacy for engineering projects related to astronomy, planetary science, and space exploration. It was founded in 1980 by Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray, and Louis Friedman, and has about 60,000 members from more than 100 countries around the world.

The Society is dedicated to the exploration of the Solar System, the search for near-Earth objects, and the search for extraterrestrial life. The society's mission is stated as: "Empowering the world’s citizens to advance space science and exploration." The Planetary Society is a strong advocate for space funding and missions of exploration within NASA. They lobby Congress and engage their membership in the United States to write and call their representatives in support of NASA funding.

In addition to public outreach, The Planetary Society has sponsored solar sail and microorganisms-in-space projects to foster space exploration. In June 2005, the Society launched the Cosmos 1 craft to test the feasibility of solar sailing, but the rocket failed shortly after liftoff. LightSail was originally conceived as a series of three solar sail experiments but later shortened to two missions. LightSail 1 launched on May 20, 2015, and demonstrated a test deployment of its solar sail on June 7, 2015. LightSail 2 launched on June 25, 2019, and successfully used sunlight to change its orbit.

Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment (LIFE), was a two-part program designed to test the ability of microorganisms to survive in space. The first phase flew on STS-134, Space Shuttle Endeavour's final flight in 2011. The second phase rode on Russia's Fobos-Grunt mission, which attempted to go to Mars' moon Phobos and back but failed to escape Earth orbit.

History
The Planetary Society was founded in 1980 by Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray, and Louis Friedman as a champion of public support of space exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life. Until the death of Carl Sagan in 1996, the Society was led by Sagan, who used his celebrity and political clout to influence the political climate of the time, including protecting SETI in 1981 from congressional cancellation. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the Society pushed its scientific and technologic agenda, which led to an increased interest in rover-based planetary exploration and NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto.

In addition to its political affairs, the Society has created a number of space related projects and programs. The SETI program began with Paul Horowitz's Suitcase SETI and has grown to encompass searches in radio and optical wavelengths from the northern and southern hemispheres of the Earth. SETI@home, the largest distributed computing experiment on Earth, is perhaps the Society's best-known SETI project. Other projects include the development of the Mars Microphone instrument which flew on the failed Mars Polar Lander project, as well as two LightSail projects, solar sail technology demonstrators designed to determine whether space travel is possible by using only sunlight.

Program summary
The Planetary Society currently runs seven different program areas with a number of programs in each area:

 * Advocacy and education
 * Extrasolar planets
 * Innovative technologies
 * International mission participation
 * Mars exploration
 * Near-Earth objects
 * Search for extraterrestrial life

Organization
The Planetary Society is currently governed by a 12-member volunteer board of directors chosen for their passion about and knowledge of space exploration. The Board has a chairman, President, and Vice President and an Executive Committee, and normally meets twice per year to set the Society's policies and future directions. Nominations are sought and considered periodically from a variety of sources, including from members of the Board and Advisory Council, Society Members, staff, and experts in the space community. On June 7, 2010, the Society announced that American science educator Bill Nye would become the new executive director of the society.

Members
The Planetary Society's current board of directors consists of:

 * Bill Nye, chief executive officer
 * Daniel Geraci, chairman of the board
 * Bethany Ehlmann, President and member of executive committee
 * Heidi Hammel, Vice President and member of executive committee
 * Lon Levin, Treasurer of the Board and member of executive committee
 * Jim Bell, Secretary and member of executive committee
 * G. Scott Hubbard
 * John Logsdon
 * Britney Schmidt
 * Bijal (Bee) Thakore
 * Fillmore Wood
 * Robert Picardo

The advisory council consists of:

 * Buzz Aldrin
 * Robert D. Braun
 * David Brin
 * Neil deGrasse Tyson
 * Gary E. Hunt
 * Bruce Jakosky
 * Charles E. Kohlhase Jr.
 * Ben Lamm
 * Laurie Leshin
 * Jon Lomberg
 * Rosaly Lopes
 * Bob McDonald
 * Donna L. Shirley
 * Pete Slosberg
 * Kevin Stube
 * Lorne Trottier

Other well known members:
 * Emily Lakdawalla

Science and technology
The Planetary Society sponsors science and technology projects to seed further exploration. All of these projects are funded by the Society's members and donors. Some projects include:

 * Earthdials
 * FINDS Exo-Earths
 * Micro-Rovers for Assisting Humans
 * Mars Climate Sounder
 * Pioneer anomaly
 * Near-Earth Objects Research
 * Planetrek
 * Laser Bees
 * Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence
 * Solar sailing with Cosmos 1 and the LightSail project
 * Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment
 * SETI@home

The Planetary Report
The Planetary Report is the quarterly internationally recognized flagship magazine of The Planetary Society, featuring articles and full-color photos to provide comprehensive coverage of discoveries on Earth and other planets. It went from bimonthly to quarterly with the June (summer solstice) 2011 issue.

This magazine reaches 60,000 members of The Planetary Society all over the world, with news about planetary missions, spacefaring nations, space explorers, planetary science controversies, and the latest findings in humankind's exploration of the Solar System. It will be edited beginning in September 2018 by Emily Lakdawalla, who takes over from Donna Stevens.

Planetary Radio
The Planetary Society also produces Planetary Radio, a weekly 30-minute radio program and podcast hosted and produced by Sarah Al-Ahmed. The show's programming consists mostly of interviews and telephone-based conversations with scientists, engineers, project managers, artists, writers, astronauts, and many other professionals who can provide some insight or perspective into the current state of space exploration.

Science and Technology Empowered by the Public program
In 2022, the Planetary Society awarded its first grants as part of its Science and Technology Empowered by the Public (STEP) program. The inaugural grant winners were a team from University of California, Los Angeles for a SETI project and a team from University of Belgrade, Serbia, for a planetary defense project.

UnmannedSpaceflight.com
UnmannedSpaceflight.com is funded by the Planetary Society, and uses the internet forum software Invision Power Board from Invision Power Services.

title: The Planetary Society