text:
Talk:Watt steam engine

Very old comment
Isn't Watt steam engine steam engine? If so, why did you delete see also? Taku 03:32 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

References needed
The article is looking good, although a few more images wouldn't go amiss. (For example, Crofton? a rotative beam engine?)

However, the main problem is that it is currently devoid of references.

EdJogg 00:11, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

The engine at the Powerhouse Museum is marked Boulton and Watt Engine #1. I read in an Aus newspaper (not really suitable as a ref, just toilet paper) that it was the first engine off the production line. It was used in a brewery from 1799 to 1899. A Sydney collector made the trip to London to purchase the engine, outbidding the local scrap iron dealers at the auction. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.33.246.3 (talk) 01:45, 9 March 2015 (UTC)

Latest edit summary
I like the spelling of "grammar".--John of Paris (talk) 18:34, 18 November 2007 (UTC)

Size?
Can anyone include details as to the size of the Watt engine? The pictures give you some idea, but there isn't much to scale it against. Thanks - TheMightyQuill (talk) 00:23, 21 February 2009 (UTC)
 * That is like asking, "How long is a piece of string?". A large pumping engine would be houses in an engine house, large enough to convert into a substantial dwelling, with the beam coming out through a high window, using the wall as a pivot.  Peterkingiron (talk) 23:52, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

 * No, the OP is quite right -- the article gives no idea how big the engines were. The original beam pumping engines were extremely large, but later rotative engines were much smaller. None of the current pictures, good as they are, really gives an idea of scale.
 * EdJogg (talk) 09:44, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

Pieces of string are not at all limited in their size. From what I understand, the reason steam engines were not used to make steamboats or trains for quite some time after their invention, was that they were too large. Is this incorrect? - TheMightyQuill (talk) 15:30, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Size is very important, _especially_ for pre-Watt engines. As with so many things, Newtonian mechanics just doesn't scale linearly with size and there's often a 3/2 power rule becoming important, because of volume/area ratios. When Watt was given that famous small demonstration model engine to fix it wasn't "broken", it just didn't work and hadn't ever worked well. There's a limit to how small you can make a model of a Newcomen engine: if the piston area becomes too small in relation to the cylinder volume, they're no longer efficient enough to function. Watt's separate condenser was a reasoned solution to initially just the problem of getting this small model to work, but he soon realised the additional benefits of it and applied it to full-size engines. Andy Dingley (talk) 17:44, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I found a picture (showing Watt's linkage) which shows a 'small' beam engine (compare size of the ladder in the background). Don't know if the engine is specificaly a Watt's, or a later type. This picture clearly shows the scale of a moderately large beam engine. (This one is of a much later type, a Woolf compound rotative.)

 * Large pumping engines, such as those at Kew Bridge and Crofton, would typically occupy three floors within a specially constructed building. The top ('beam') floor is at the same level as the main bearings for the beam. The middle floor has the cylinder, valve gear and controls; and the bottom floor is for the pumps, condenser, etc.

 * Later engines, such as the rotative type shown at the start of the article, were rather smaller (down to a minimum height of about 8 feet?)
 * EdJogg (talk) 01:44, 28 February 2009 (UTC)

Ting Tang Mine
Maybe means Ding Dong mine? --BjKa (talk) 10:25, 27 June 2011 (UTC)

 * No, it means Ting Tang mine (possibly Tingtang). Much as the Chacewater mine was at Chacewater (or Wheal Busy), not Chasewater.
 * Ting Tang was a fairly early engine (1777) and was just East of Redruth, towards Chacewater. Ding Dong is West of Penzance - nearly 20 miles away and 20 years later. Ding Dong is well known because of the court case involving Bull, an attempt by Cornish mine adventurers (not Bull, he couldn't afford courts) to defeat Watt's patent and thus save them all some licence fees. Andy Dingley (talk) 10:30, 27 June 2011 (UTC)

First practical or first general purpose engine
Watt's was not the first practical engine. Newcomen's engine was practical and had been in use in mines for over 50 years before Watt produced his first engine. Newcomen's engine was best suited for pumping mines because that is where waste coal was available and the weight of the plunger rod returned the piston to the top of the cylinder for the next cycle. Watt's engine was more efficient and was capable of rotary motion, aided by a double acting cylinder that completed the cycle. Rotary motion and better efficiency allowed it to be used for applications other than pumping. In technical terms that would be a "general purpose" engine, borrowing the term from economic historians.Phmoreno (talk) 03:01, 23 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Please provide a citation from a reliable source to support your contention. Beyond My Ken (talk) 04:10, 23 December 2018 (UTC)
 * For example see: General purpose technologyPhmoreno (talk) 04:22, 23 December 2018 (UTC)

 * What is "Watt's engine"? (A long issue on this page, there's no such thing as a single design). Watt made a series of incremental improvements, not one single design. So if "Watt's engine" is Old Bess then that's an improved Newcomen engine, still only usable for pumping, and clearly not "the first" anything (no matter what the definition of "practical") because it's merely an improvement on what went before, carrying out just the same tasks.  If "Watt's engine" is the Whitbread Engine or the Lap Engine, then that's a different matter because these were now rotative and had more of a claim to being a "general purpose" engine (as Boulton was selling them), and able to do new tasks.
 * Both "first practical" and "first general purpose" are misleadingly wrong. "Practical" because they're not the first (Newcomen was) and "general purpose" is wrong because Watt's first engines were no more general than others, and less general than his later rotative engines. Andy Dingley (talk) 11:29, 23 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Would this make a better first sentence to avoid the practical/general discussion:"A Watt steam engine, alternatively known as a Boulton and Watt steam engine, was one of a series of incremental improvements that James Watt applied to the original Newcomen engine. Later versions were more compact and could be rotative, thus becoming one of the driving forces of the industrial revolution". Martin of Sheffield (talk) 12:44, 23 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Delete per WP:TNT, IMHO.
 * Certainly I think this whole article ought to go, under this title at least. We could rename and restructure it as "Watt's development of the steam engine" or "History of Watt steam engines", but the basic notion of there existing "a single concept of a Watt steam engine" is just wrong.
 * I'm also wary of calling anything a "Boulton and Watt engine", as Boulton had so little technical input to them. Andy Dingley (talk) 12:48, 23 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Watt steam engine was split off from Steam engine. Maybe it would be best to move it back.Phmoreno (talk) 14:00, 23 December 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Watt steam engine


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La Jolla

La Jolla is a hilly, seaside neighborhood within the city of San Diego, occupying 7 mi of curving coastline along the Pacific Ocean. The population reported in the 2010 census was 46,781. The climate is mild, with an average daily temperature of 70.5 F.

La Jolla is surrounded on three sides by ocean bluffs and beaches and is located 12 mi north of downtown San Diego and 45 mi south of the Orange County line. The neighborhood's border starts at Pacific Beach to the south and extends along the Pacific Ocean shoreline north to include Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve ending at Del Mar, California.

La Jolla is home to many educational institutions and a variety of businesses in the areas of lodging, dining, shopping, software, finance, real estate, bioengineering, medical practice and scientific research. The University of California, San Diego (UCSD), is located in La Jolla, as are the Salk Institute, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Scripps Research.

Origin of the name
Local Native Americans, the Kumeyaay, called this location mat kulaaxuuy, lit. 'land of holes' (mat = land). The topographic feature that gave rise to the name "holes" is uncertain; it probably refers to sea-level caves located on the north-facing bluffs, which are visible from La Jolla Shores. It is suggested that the Kumeyaay name for the area was transcribed by the Spanish settlers as La Jolla. Another suggestion for the origin of the name is that it is an alternative spelling of the Spanish phrase la joya, which means the jewel. Despite being disputed by scholars, this derivation of the name has been widely cited in popular culture. This supposed origin gave rise to the nickname "The Jewel". The name may also come from the Spanish La Hoya, meaning a geographic hollow. Different spelling conventions over the years would permit this to be written as La Jolla. Our earliest archaeological evidence of settlement in Kumeyaay territory dates back 12,000 years.

Early history

During the Mexican period of San Diego's history, La Jolla was mapped as pueblo land and contained about 60 lots. When California became a state in 1850, the La Jolla area was incorporated as part of the chartered City of San Diego. In 1870, Charles Dean acquired several of the pueblo lots and subdivided them into an area that became known as La Jolla Park. Dean was unable to develop the land and left San Diego in 1881. A real estate boom in the 1880s led speculators Frank T. Botsford and George W. Heald to further develop the sparsely settled area.

In the 1890s, the San Diego, Pacific Beach, and La Jolla Railway was built, connecting La Jolla to the rest of San Diego. La Jolla became known as a resort area. To attract visitors to the beach, the railway built facilities such as a bath house and a dance pavilion. Visitors were housed in small cottages and bungalows above La Jolla Cove, as well as a temporary tent city erected every summer. Two of the cottages that were built in 1894, the "Red Roost" and the "Red Rest", also known as the "Neptune and Cove Tea Room", still exist and are the oldest buildings in La Jolla that are still on their original site. The two cottages have been vacant since the 1980s, boarded up and covered in tarpaulins while their fate was debated. In November 2020 the Red Rest was largely destroyed by fire.

The La Jolla Park Hotel opened in 1893. The Hotel Cabrillo was built in 1908 by "Squire" James A. Wilson and was later incorporated into the La Valencia Hotel.

By 1900, La Jolla comprised 100 buildings and 350 residents. The first reading room (library) was built in 1898. A volunteer fire brigade was organized in 1907; the city of San Diego established a regular fire house in 1914. Livery stable owner Nathan Rannells served successively as La Jolla's volunteer fire captain, first police officer (the only San Diego police officer north of Mission Valley), and first postmaster.

La Jolla Elementary School began educating local children in 1896. The Bishop's School opened in 1909. La Jolla High School was established in 1922. Between 1951 and 1963, other elementary schools (Bird Rock, Decatur, Scripps, and Torrey Pines) were established in the area to ease overcrowding. The La Jolla Beach and Yacht Club (later the La Jolla Beach and Tennis Club) was built in 1927.

Ellen Browning Scripps
In 1896 journalist and publisher Ellen Browning Scripps settled in La Jolla, where she lived for the last 35 years of her life. She was wealthy in her own right from her investments and writing, and she inherited a large sum from her brother George H. Scripps in 1900. She devoted herself to philanthropic endeavors, particularly those benefiting her adopted home of La Jolla. She commissioned many of La Jolla's most notable buildings, usually designed by Irving Gill or his nephew and partner Louis John Gill. Many of these buildings are now on the National Register of Historic Places or are listed as historic by the city of San Diego; these include the La Jolla Woman's Club (1914), the La Jolla Recreational Center (1915), the earliest buildings of The Bishop's School, and the Old Scripps Building at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, as well as her own residence, built in 1915 and now housing the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego. Her donations also launched the Scripps Memorial Hospital in 1924 (originally located on Prospect Street in La Jolla until it moved to its present site in 1964), the Scripps Metabolic Clinic (now the Scripps Research Institute), and the Children's Pool. Ellen Browning Scripps also founded Scripps College, a women's college, in 1926. Scripps College is located in Claremont in Los Angeles County (not to be confused with Clairemont, a neighborhood of San Diego).

Scripps Institution of Oceanography
The Scripps Institution of Oceanography, one of the nation's oldest oceanographic institutes, was founded in 1903 by William Emerson Ritter, chair of the zoology department at the University of California, Berkeley, with financial support from Scripps and her brother E. W. Scripps. At first the institution operated out of a boathouse in Coronado. In 1905, they purchased a 170 acre site in La Jolla, where the Institution still stands today. The first laboratory buildings there opened in 1907. The institution became part of the University of California in 1912. Ultimately, it became the nucleus for the establishment of the University of California San Diego.

Camp Matthews
From 1917 through 1964, the United States Marine Corps maintained a military base in La Jolla. The base was used for marksmanship training and was known as Camp Calvin B. Matthews. During and after World War II, the population of La Jolla grew, causing residential development to draw close to the base, so that it became less and less suitable as a firing range because of risk to the adjacent civilian population. Meanwhile, the site was being eyed as a location for a proposed new campus of the University of California. In 1962, Camp Matthews was declared surplus by the Marine Corps. The base formally closed in 1964, and that same year, the first class of undergraduates enrolled in the University of California San Diego.

University of California, San Diego
Local civic leaders had long toyed with the idea of a San Diego campus of the University of California, and the quest became more definite following World War II. The Scripps Institution of Oceanography, under its director Roger Revelle, had become an important defense contractor, and local aerospace companies like Convair were pressing for local training for their scientists and engineers. The state legislature proposed the idea in 1955, and the Regents of the university formally approved it in 1960. During the planning stage of the university's establishment, it was briefly known as the "University of California, La Jolla", but the name was changed to "University of California, San Diego" before its founding in 1960. The founding chancellor was Herbert York, named in 1961, and the second chancellor was John Semple Galbraith, named in 1964. The university was designed to have a "college" system; there are now eight colleges. The first college was established in 1965 and was named Revelle College after Roger Revelle, who is regarded as the "father" of the university. A medical school was established in 1968. The landmark Geisel Library with its Brutalist architecture opened in 1970. The university is the second largest employer in the city and has the 7th largest research expenditure in the country.

Antisemitism
The Camp Matthews site for the university was selected with some hesitation; one of the concerns was "whether La Jollans in particular would lay aside old prejudices in order to welcome a culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse professoriate into their midst". La Jolla had a history of restrictive housing policies, often specified in deeds and ownership documents. In La Jolla Shores and La Jolla Hermosa, only people with pure European ancestry could own property; this excluded Jews, who were not considered white. Such "restrictive covenants" were once fairly common throughout the United States; the 1948 Supreme Court case Shelley v. Kraemer ruled them to be unenforceable, and Congress outlawed them twenty years later via the Fair Housing Act (Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968). However, realtors and property owners in La Jolla continued to use more subtle ways of preventing or discouraging Jews from owning property there. Revelle stated the issue bluntly: "You can't have a university without having Jewish professors. The Real Estate Broker's Association and their supporters in La Jolla had to make up their minds whether they wanted a university or an anti-Semitic covenant. You couldn't have both." The issue was overcome; La Jolla now boasts a thriving Jewish population, and there are four synagogues in La Jolla.

Mount Soledad cross

Mount Soledad is an 822 ft hill on the eastern edge of La Jolla and one of the highest points in San Diego. A large Christian cross was placed at the top in 1913 as a prominent landmark. It has been replaced twice, most recently in 1954 with a 29 ft cross (43 ft tall including the base). Originally known as the "Mount Soledad Easter Cross", its presence on publicly owned land was challenged in the 1980s as a violation of the separation of church and state. Since then the cross has had a war memorial built around it and was renamed "Mount Soledad Veterans War Memorial".

The issue has been in almost continual litigation ever since, with the city attempting to sell or give away the land under the cross. By an act of Congress, the federal government took possession of it under eminent domain in 2006. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit declared the cross unconstitutional in 2011, and the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear an appeal. In December 2013, U.S. District Judge Larry Burns ordered that the cross be removed within 90 days, but stayed the order pending a forthcoming appeal by the government.

On July 20, 2015, a group called the Mt. Soledad Memorial Association reported that it had bought the land under the cross from the Department of Defense for $1.4 million. On September 7, 2016, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals issued a one-page ruling, ordering dismissal of the case and an end to all current appeals, stating that the case was now moot because the cross was no longer on government land. Both sides agreed that this decision puts a final end to the case.

Arts
La Jolla became an art colony in 1894 when Anna Held (also known as Anna Held Heinrich) established the Green Dragon Colony. This was a cluster of twelve rustic cottages that included The Green Dragon, Wahnfried, and The Ark, a boat-shaped structure with port holes and swinging bunks.

The La Jolla Playhouse was founded in 1947 by Gregory Peck, Dorothy McGuire, and Mel Ferrer. It became inactive in 1959, but was revived in 1983 on the University of California campus under the leadership of Des McAnuff. It now incorporates three theaters: the Mandell Weiss Theatre (1983), the Mandell Weiss Forum (1991) and the Potiker Theater (2005).

The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego was founded in 1941 in La Jolla, in the former home of Ellen Browning Scripps (designed by Irving J. Gill). The museum has undergone several renovations and expansions, and is working on plans to triple its size.

The La Jolla Music Society was founded in 1941 as the Musical Arts Society of La Jolla by Nikolai Sokoloff, former conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra. It presented the premieres of commissioned works in the auditorium of La Jolla High School before presenting their concerts in the Sherwood Auditorium of the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego. Since April 2019, the Conrad Prebys Performing Arts Center is the permanent home of La Jolla Music Society and hosts world-class performances presented by LJMS as well as other San Diego arts presenters. Additionally, The Conrad will see a wide range of conferences, corporate meetings, and private events.

As a regional shopping district
In the mid-20th century, downtown La Jolla was a major regional retail district with branches of major department stores Walker Scott and upscale specialty department stores Saks Fifth Avenue and I. Magnin, all on Girard Avenue within walking distance of each other. Boutique shopping continues there, but heavyweight retail presence, since the closing of the last downtown La Jolla department store, Saks Fifth Avenue, in 2004, has long since moved to Westfield UTC and other adjacent shopping centers.

Incorporation Attempt
Due to growing dissatisfaction with San Diego city leadership, some activists in La Jolla have started the process of disincorporating from San Diego and incorporating the neighborhood into its own chartered city.

Demarcation
The neighborhoods's border starts at Pacific Beach to the south and extends along the Pacific Ocean shoreline north to include Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve ending at Del Mar, California. La Jolla encompasses the neighborhoods of Bird Rock, Windansea Beach, the commercial center known as the Village of La Jolla, Muirlands, La Jolla Shores, La Jolla Farms, Torrey Pines, and Mount Soledad to name a few.

The City of San Diego defines the neighboorhood's eastern boundary as Gilman Drive and the Interstate 5 freeway and the northern boundary as UCSD.

The United States Postal Service defines a somewhat larger area, assigning the neighborhood the 92037 ZIP Code, recognizing it as a historically and geographically distinct area. This unique ZIP code allows addresses to read La Jolla, CA, and is the only neighborhood within the City of San Diego so recognized. Additionally, it is in the 919xx/920xx sequence used for suburban and rural ZIP Codes in San Diego County, rather than the 921xx sequence used for the remainder of the City of San Diego. These conditions sometimes lead to the erroneous impression that La Jolla is a separate city, rather than a part of San Diego. The 92037 ZIP code extends the northeasterly boundary to Genesee Avenue and the northerly boundary to Del Mar, California. The UCSD campus, also part of La Jolla, has ZIP Codes 92092 and 92093.

Despite the city and postal service definitions, La Jolla does not have universally accepted boundaries. In the 1980s, the trustees of Scripps Hospital voted to move the campus from downtown La Jolla to University City, east of Interstate 5 and not within the traditional boundaries of La Jolla. The governing documents of the hospital required it to be located in La Jolla, however. A court ruled that "La Jolla" exists merely as a "state of mind" and thus allowed the relocation of the hospital. Several businesses and housing developments east of Interstate 5 use "La Jolla" in their names despite being geographically located in the University City neighborhood of San Diego, which includes areas east of Interstate 5.

Wildlife
La Jolla's offshore waters are known to be home to an endless array of marine wildlife, including sea lions, harbor seals, whales—such as migratory gray, humpback and blue whales—harbor porpoises, dolphins (including, at times, hundreds of common dolphins, as well as rough-toothed, bottlenose, Pacific white-sided and Risso's dolphins, and orcas), green sea turtles, countless fish (such as garibaldi, sculpin and more), many migratory and resident sea and shorebirds, and many different sharks, ranging from diminutive, clam-eating dogfish and leopard sharks to the formidable great white shark. Many of the marine animals live within and/or depend on the extensive offshore kelp forest, where scuba divers often venture to explore and encounter interesting species. The kelp forests are also home to an extensive number of invertebrate species, from sea urchins, abalone, sea stars and limpets to king crab and giant octopus.

Throughout the year, especially in summertime, pods of dolphins can be seen playing in the water, sometimes appearing to surf the waves alongside surfers. Pinnipeds. all year-round, can be seen, smelled and heard, even from a distance. Oftentimes, tourists can see California sea lions and harbor seals hauled-out on the rocks, basking in the sun; however, as many local divers and swimmers can attest, pinnipeds are not always a good omen, as their presence usually lures bigger, predatory sharks—namely the great whites. During the winter, these apex predators breed, hunting the plentiful seals around the kelp forest, and sometimes, coming even closer to shore. Piers, caves, and buoys are areas that surfers avoid for these reasons, as sharks patrol these locations to ambush pinnipeds diving back into the water. However, with very few exceptions, the majority of shark encounters are uneventful and not aggressive, and, many times, great white sharks may come within mere feet of surfers or swimmers yet remain completely unnoticed; it is often only with drone footage that such close encounters are even observed.

Geology
La Jolla is an area of mixed geology, including sandy beaches and rocky shorelines. The area is occasionally susceptible to flooding and ocean storms, as occurred in January and December 2010.

Mount Soledad is covered with the narrow roads that follow its contours and hundreds of homes overlooking the ocean on its slopes. It is the home of the large concrete Mount Soledad Easter Cross built in 1954, later designated a Korean War Memorial, that became the center of a controversy over the display of religious symbols on government property. The most compelling geographical highlight of La Jolla is its ocean front, with alternating rugged and sandy coastline that serves as habitat for many wild seal congregations. There are many beaches, accessible from the cliffs all throughout the coast of La Jolla. Locals and surfers will walk barefoot down to the beachfront, occasionally using ropes and planks to safely cross otherwise impassable, steep passageways down the cliff-face. There are many notable tourist locations including Blacks Beach, Torrey Pines Glider Port, Sunset Cliffs, La Jolla Shores, La Jolla Cove, and more. Blacks Beach, commonly known for being one of the only nudist beaches in the area, is one of the most popular lesser known surfer spots throughout the year. The Torrey Pines Glider Port is another a staple of the La Jolla cliffs, as boats coming in from sea are sure to see many gliders scattered throughout the air. Sunset Cliffs is a location popular amongst locals and tourists alike, known for views of the sunset off to the horizon past the cliffs and caves below. La Jolla Shores, not to be mistaken with La Jolla Cove, is located right next to the UCSD Scripps pier and is close to many small shops, homes, and restaurants. La Jolla Cove, the staple of La Jolla, is the most popular tourist destination in La Jolla, featuring many snorkelers, swimmers, and wildlife (most notably the La Jolla seals). During some parts of the year, people will find the shallow ends of the beach filled with harmless Leopard Sharks, as they come closer to shore to breed. All of the popular beaches and coastal access points, listed from north to south, include:

 * Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve
 * Black's Beach (a de facto nude beach)
 * Scripps, near Scripps Institution of Oceanography
 * La Jolla Shores
 * La Jolla Beach and Tennis Club
 * La Jolla Cove
 * Boomers Beach
 * Shell Beach
 * Children's Pool Beach
 * Wipeout Beach
 * Horseshoes
 * Marine Street
 * Windansea Beach
 * Bird Rock

Demographics
According to United States Census Bureau figures, the ethnic/racial makeup of La Jolla is 82.5% White, 0.8% Black, 0.2% American Indian, 11.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.0% any other race, and 3.1% two or more races. Latinos, who may be of any race, form 7.2% of La Jolla's population. There is also a sizable Persian population in La Jolla.

La Jolla had the highest home prices in the nation in 2008 and 2009, according to a survey by Coldwell Banker. The survey compares the cost of a standardized four-bedroom home in communities across the country. The average price for such a home in La Jolla was reported as US$1.842 million in 2008 and US$2.125 million in 2009.

Neighborhoods

 * La Jolla Farms — This northern La Jolla neighborhood is just west of UCSD. It includes the Torrey Pines Gliderport, the Salk Institute, and a group of expensive homes on the cliffs above Black's Beach (one of which is the Audrey Geisel University House).
 * La Jolla Shores — The residential area and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography campus along La Jolla Shores Beach and east up the hillside. Also includes a small business district of shops and restaurants along Avenida de la Playa.
 * La Jolla Heights — The homes on the hills overlooking La Jolla Shores. No businesses.
 * Hidden Valley — Lower portion of Mount Soledad on the northern slopes. No businesses.
 * Country Club — Lower Mt. Soledad on the northwest side, including the La Jolla Country Club golf course.
 * Village — Also called Village of La Jolla (not to be confused with La Jolla Village) the "downtown" business district area, including most of La Jolla's shops and restaurants, and the immediately surrounding higher density and single family residential areas.
 * Beach-Barber Tract — The coastal section from Windansea Beach to the Village. A few shops and restaurants along La Jolla Boulevard.
 * Lower Hermosa — Coastal strip south of Beach-Barber Tract. No businesses.
 * Bird Rock — Southern coastal La Jolla, and the very lowest slopes of Mt. Soledad in the area. Notable for shops and restaurants along La Jolla Boulevard, five traffic roundabouts on La Jolla Boulevard, coastal bluffs, and surfing areas just two blocks off the main drag.
 * Muirlands — Relatively large area on western middle slope of Mt. Soledad. No businesses.
 * La Jolla Mesa — A strip on the lower southern side of Mt. Soledad, bordering Pacific Beach. No businesses.
 * La Jolla Alta — A master-planned development east of La Jolla Mesa. No businesses.
 * Soledad South — Southeastern slopes of Mt. Soledad, all the way up to the top, east of La Jolla Alta.
 * Muirlands West — The small neighborhood between Muirlands to the south, and Country Club to the north. No businesses.
 * Upper Hermosa — Southwestern La Jolla, north of Bird Rock and east of La Jolla Blvd.
 * La Jolla Village — Not to be confused with the Village (of La Jolla). In northeast La Jolla, east of La Jolla Heights, west of I-5 and south of UCSD. The neighborhood's namesake is the La Jolla Village Square shopping and residential mall, which includes La Jolla's only remaining movie theater.

Community groups
The La Jolla Community Planning Association advises the city council, Planning Commission, City Planning Department as well as other governmental agency as appropriate in the initial preparation, adoption of, implementation of, or amendment to the General or Community Plan as it pertains to the La Jolla area as well as review specific development proposals. The nonprofit La Jolla Town Council represents the interests of La Jolla businesses and residents that belong to the council. The Bird Rock Community Council serves the Bird Rock neighborhood, while the La Jolla Shores Association serves the La Jolla Shores neighborhood. La Jolla Village Merchants Association, Inc. is a non-profit organization formed in February 2011 to manage the La Jolla Village Business Improvement District for the City of San Diego.

Community organizations include Independent La Jolla, a membership-based citizens group seeking to secede from the city of San Diego. Service clubs in La Jolla include Kiwanis, Rotary, La Jolla Woman's Club and the Social Service League of La Jolla, to name a few.

La Jolla is a subsidiary location for Chicago-based Linking Efforts Against Drugs (LEAD), a national drug-prevention organization recognized nationally for its success in reducing substance use and abuse among teens.

La Jolla is the home of InspirED, a community-focused EdTech company that supports schools in supporting their students' mental health through therapeutic services, educational opportunities, and technology.

Attractions and activities

La Jolla is the location of Torrey Pines Golf Course, the site each January or February of a PGA Tour event formerly known as the Buick Invitational and since 2010, called the Farmers Insurance Open. Torrey Pines also hosted the 2008 U.S. Open, and the 2021 U.S. Open. Nearby are the de facto nude beach, Black's Beach, and the Torrey Pines Gliderport.

Downtown La Jolla is noted for jewelry stores, boutiques, upmarket restaurants and hotels. Prospect Street and Girard Avenue are also shopping and dining districts. The Museum of Contemporary Art, founded in 1941, is located just above the waterfront in what was originally the 1915 residence of philanthropist Ellen Browning Scripps. The museum has a permanent collection with more than 3,500 post-1950 American and European works, including paintings, works on paper, sculptures, photographic art, design objects and video works. The museum was renamed Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego in 1990 to recognize its regional significance.

Beaches and ocean access include Windansea Beach, La Jolla Shores, La Jolla Cove and Children's Pool Beach. For many years, La Jolla has been the host of a rough water swim at La Jolla Cove.

In 2011, the La Jolla Community Foundation commissioned various artists to contribute to the scenery of the town, through various murals. Some of the artists that are featured in the series are John Baldessari, Julian Opie, and Kim MacConnel. There are 11 murals in the series, all of which will be on display for two years.

The La Jolla Fencing Academy opened in 2017 on Villa La Jolla Drive. Among its coaches is two-time world junior saber champion, and 2023 US saber champion, Konstantin Lokhanov.

The La Jolla Concours d'Elegance auto show is hosted at La Jolla Cove annually.

Transportation
The San Diego Trolley light rail system has four stops on the Blue Line located in the La Jolla neighborhood:
 * Nobel Drive, which serves the La Jolla Village Square shopping center in the La Jolla Village neighborhood.
 * VA Medical Center, which serves the Veteran Affairs hospital of the same name next to UC San Diego.
 * UC San Diego Central Campus, located in the center of the university of the same name.
 * UC San Diego Health La Jolla, located near Scripps Memorial Health La Jolla, the Jacobs Medical Center, the Moores Cancer Center, and the UC San Diego East Campus (contains the UC San Diego Health La Jolla campus of hospitals & medical facilities, and the Preuss School).

These four stations were opened on November 21, 2021, when the Blue Line was extended nine stops north from Old Town Transit Center to serve areas such as La Jolla Village, UC San Diego, and University City.

Higher education
The University of California San Diego is the center of higher education in La Jolla. The campus' name was briefly UC La Jolla during the planning stage of the university's development. UCSD includes the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the San Diego Supercomputer Center.

National University is also headquartered in La Jolla, with several academic campuses located throughout the county and the state. Among the several research institutes near UCSD and in the nearby Torrey Pines Science Park are Scripps Research Institute, the Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute (formerly called the La Jolla Cancer Research Foundation), La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology (LJI), and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

Other schools
La Jolla is served by the San Diego Unified School District. Public schools include La Jolla High School, La Jolla Elementary, Muirlands Middle School, Torrey Pines Elementary, and Bird Rock Elementary, as well as Preuss School, a public charter school. The community's prep schools are The Bishop's School, The Children's School, Delphi Academy, Stella Maris Academy, The Gillispie School, and the Evans School. La Jolla Country Day School is located in the nearby community of University City.

Religious institutions
Christian:
 * All Hallows Catholic Church
 * Assembly of God
 * Christian Science Church
 * Congregational Church (the first church built; burned down in 1915 and re-built in 1916 at 1216 Cave Street)
 * Barabbas Road Church
 * First Baptist Church
 * La Jolla Christian Fellowship
 * La Jolla Lutheran Church
 * La Jolla Presbyterian Church
 * La Jolla Religious Society of Friends
 * La Jolla United Methodist Church
 * Mary, Star of the Sea Catholic church
 * Prince Chapel by the Sea (African Methodist Episcopal Church)
 * St. James by-the-Sea Episcopal
 * St. John Church of God in Christ
 * Torrey Pines Christian Church
 * The Church Of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints San Diego California Temple
 * University Lutheran Church

Jewish:
 * Congregation Beth El
 * Congregation Adat Yeshurun
 * Chabad Jewish Center of La Jolla

Business and media

 * La Jolla (under the fictionalized name "Esmerelda") is the setting for Raymond Chandler's final Philip Marlowe novel, Playback, published in 1958. Chandler lived in La Jolla for the previous decade. La Jolla's Hotel del Charro becomes "Rancho Descansado" in the novel. A number of landmarks described can still be found today.
 * La Jolla was home to the comic book publisher WildStorm Productions, from its founding by Jim Lee in 1993, until its closing in 2012 when DC Comics, which had purchased the publisher as an imprint in 1998, absorbed the company and moved the office to Burbank, California.
 * La Jolla is the base for the Sundt Memorial Foundation, a national organization aimed at discouraging youth from getting involved in drugs.
 * La Jolla is also a subsidiary location for Chicago-based Linking Efforts Against Drugs (LEAD), a national drug-prevention organization recognized nationally for its success in reducing substance use and abuse among teens.
 * La Jolla is the home of InspirED, an EdTech company that supports schools in supporting their students' mental health through therapeutic services, educational opportunities, and technology.
 * La Jolla is mentioned in the Beach Boys' 1963 song Surfin' U.S.A. and in The Network's 2003 song Spike.
 * "La Jolla" is the name of a song on Wilbur Soot's 2020 album Your City Gave Me Asthma.

Film

 * Laboratory scenes for the movie The Cell (2000) were filmed at The Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla.
 * La Jolla is one of the backdrops in the movie Traffic (2000).
 * Scenes for the movie The Samuel Project (2018) were filmed in La Jolla.
 * The movie Hemet, or the Landlady Don't Drink Tea (2023) is set in Riverside County, California, but some scenes were filmed at the director's home in La Jolla.

Television

 * La Jolla is the setting for the 2011 season of The Real World: San Diego, the twenty-sixth season of the long-running MTV reality television series.
 * The Netflix sitcom Grace and Frankie is set in La Jolla, although filming takes place in other parts of California.
 * Disney+'s Big Shot takes place in La Jolla.

Notable people
La Jolla has been the home to many notable people, including prominent scientists, business people, artists, writers, surfers and performers.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: La Jolla


text:
Alagoas

Alagoas, officially State of Alagoas, is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil and is situated in the eastern part of the Northeast Region. It borders: Pernambuco (N and NW); Sergipe (S); Bahia (SW); and the Atlantic Ocean (E). Its capital is the city of Maceió. It has 1.6% of the Brazilian population and produces 0.8% of the Brazilian GDP. It is made up of 102 municipalities and its most populous cities are Maceió, Arapiraca, Palmeira dos Índios, Rio Largo, Penedo, União dos Palmares, São Miguel dos Campos, Santana do Ipanema, Delmiro Gouveia, Coruripe, and Campo Alegre.

It is the second smallest Brazilian state in area (larger only than Sergipe) and it is 16th in population. It is also one of the largest producers of sugarcane, coconuts, and natural gas in the country. Alagoas also has oil exploration, mostly of onshore deposits.

Land of the sururu (or Charru Mussel), lagoon shellfish which serves as food for the coastal population, and of coconut water, Alagoas also possesses some of the country's richest folklore.

Initially, the territory of Alagoas constituted the southern part of the Captaincy of Pernambuco and only gained its autonomy in 1817. Its occupation pushed the expansion of the captaincy's sugarcane farming, which required new areas of cultivation, southward. Thus arose Porto Calvo, Alagoas (now Marechal Deodoro) and Penedo, nuclei which guided the colonization, economic, and social life of the region for a long time.

The Dutch invasion in Pernambuco was extended to Alagoas in 1631. The invaders were expelled in 1645, after intense fighting in Porto Calvo, leaving the economy in ruins.

The escape of African slaves during the Dutch invasion created a serious labour shortage problem on the sugarcane plantations. Grouped in villages called quilombos, the Africans were only completely dominated at the end of the 17th century with the destruction of the most important quilombo, Palmares.

During the empire, the separatist and republican Confederation of the Equator received the support of noteworthy figures from Alagoas. Throughout the 1840s, political life was marked by the conflict between the lisos (lit. "straights", not the sexual orientation connotation), conservatives, and the cabeludos (lit. "hairies"), liberals.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the region's hinterland lived through the pioneering experience of Delmiro Gouveia, a entrepreneur from Pernambuco who installed the Estrela thread factory, which came to produce 200 spools daily. Delmiro Gouveia was killed in October 1917 in circumstances still unclarified, after being pressured, according to rumor, to sell his factory to competing foreign firms. After his death, his machines would be destroyed and thrown into Paulo Afonso Falls.

Nicknamed the Land of the Marshals (Terra dos Marechais), for being the birthplace of Deodoro da Fonseca and Floriano Peixoto, the first two presidents of Brazil, Alagoas gave the country numerous illustrious Brazilians among whom are the anthropologist Arthur Ramos, the maestro Hekel Tavares, the philologist Aurélio Buarque de Holanda, the musicians Djavan and Hermeto Pascoal the poet Jorge de Lima, the jurists Pontes de Miranda and Marcos Bernardes de Mello, besides the writers Lêdo Ivo and Graciliano Ramos.

Etymology
The Latin lacus, "reservoir, lake" is the origin, in the primitive vocabulary heritage, of the Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian lago, French lac, one of its derivatives, the Latin lacuna, "pitfall, hole", "lack, want, neglect", explains the Spanish and Italian laguna. But the Portuguese lagoa, coincidentally with the Spanish lagona and Mirandese llagona, suggests a change in suffix, already documented in a 938 document from Valencia, under the spelling lacona, and in another from 1094, in Sahagún, under the spelling lagona.

The Portuguese lagoa under the spelling lagona (perhaps lagõna), is documented in the 14th century, and alternated with the other for a long time; the prosthesis is then explained by the introduction of the article, chiefly in locution (na lagoa, vindo da lagoa) (in the lake, coming from the lake), and for morphologic regularization with the derivatives of the verb alagar (to inundate) (alagadiço, alagado, alagador, alagamento, etc.) (swampish, waterlogged, flooding, overflow, etc.).

The name appears as a competitor with the names of the lagoons of Manguaba, a lagoa do sul ("the southern lagoon"), and Mundaú, a lagoa do norte ("the northern lagoon"), already in the 16th century, when settlements were founded near the Alagoa do Norte and the Alagoa do Sul, the Alagoas, with the inclusion of the rest of the lagoons in the area.

The suffix -ano is characteristic of Brazil: paraibano, pernambucano, alagoano, sergipano, baiano, goiano, and later acriano.

Geography
The state's name originates with the lakes along its coast near the city of Maceió. The coast is bordered by fringing reefs and many fine beaches. Behind the beaches, sometimes only hundreds of meters and defined by steep scarps, lies a stretch of green coastal hills having enough rainfall for considerable agriculture and scarce remnants of the Atlantic Forest that now is largely limited to steep hill tops or steep valley sides and bottoms. This is the area long dominated by sugar cane.

Still farther inland lies the Sertão of the Northeast region of the nation. The Sertão is a high dry region dominated by scrub that is often thorn-filled and sometimes toxic, the caatinga. This area and its people are famed in legend and song. It is the land of the cowboy who is clad from head to toe (if he is lucky) with very thick leather to avoid the sharp vegetation.

History
During the first three centuries of its history, Alagoas was part of the captaincy of Pernambuco, only becoming an independent captaincy in 1817. As a reprisal against the Pernambuco Revolution, the King John VI of Portugal ordered a vast portion of the territory of Pernambuco to be taken from it, most including its southern portion, one part was given to the captaincy of Bahia, the other portion was made independent, creating Alagoas as a new Brazilian captaincy.

Initially, in the first years of the 16th century, Alagoas settlement went on slowly, however helped by Africans turned into slaves whose work urged the local economy. In the period of the 16th and 17th centuries, French pirates invaded its territory attracted by the commerce of brazilwood.

Some time later, Duarte Coelho, owner of the captaincy of Pernambuco, gave the control of the region back to the Portuguese, running the territory as part of his captaincy. He increased the number of sugar cane plantations and built some sugar mills, as well as founding the cities of Penedo and Alagoas – this last one originally baptized by Portuguese as Santa Maria Madalena da Alagoa do Sul (Saint Mary Magdalene of the Southern Lake), currently the historic heritage town of Deodoro da Fonseca.

In 1570, a second expedition ordered by Duarte Coelho and led by Cristóvão Lins, explored the north of Alagoas and founded the settlement of Porto Calvo and five sugar mills, which two of them still endure, Buenos Aires and Escurial.

In 1630, the territory was taken by the Dutch, whose interest was to manage the commerce of sugarcane in most parts of the northeastern region of Brazil. As part of one of the wealthiest Brazilian captaincies, Alagoas prospered along with the sugar trade. They built Fort Maurits in Penedo, on the river São Francisco. However, the Dutch colonizers abandoned the territory after being defeated in 1646.

Decades before Alagoas was formed in 1817, its sugar industry had 200 mills, and agriculture also involved cotton, tobacco and corn plantations. With Brazilian independence from Portugal in 1822, Alagoas became a province. In 1839, the capital of the province was changed definitively from the town of Alagoas to Maceió, mainly due to the increasing growth of the city because of its port.

Demographics

According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 3,173,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 109.9 inhabitants/km2.

Urbanization: 67.4% (2006); Population growth: 1.3% (1991–2000); Houses: 779,000 (2006).

The 2022 census revealed the following numbers: 1,887,865 Brown (Multiracial) people (60.4%), 915,400 White people (29.3%), 298,709 Black people (9.6%), 20,095 Amerindian people (0.6%), 5,505 Asian people (0.2%).

According to a genetic study from 2013, Brazilians in Alagoas have 53.7% European, 26.6% African and 18.7% Amerindian ancestries, respectively.

Statistics

 * Vehicles: 287,018 (March 2007)
 * Mobile phones: 1.4 million (April 2007)
 * Telephones: 302,000 (April 2007)
 * Cities: 102 (2007).
 * Homicides: 60 per 100,000 inhabitants

Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.

Educational institutions

 * Universidade Federal de Alagoas (UFAL) (Federal University of Alagoas);
 * Universidade Estadual de Alagoas (Uneal) (State University of Alagoas);
 * Universidade de Ciências da Saúde de Alagoas (Uncisal) (University of Sciences of the Health of Alagoas);
 * Instituto Federal de Alagoas (IFAL);
 * Centro de Ensino Superior de Maceió (CESMAC) (Center of Higher Education of Maceió);
 * Faculdade de Alagoas (FAL) (College of Alagoas);
 * and many others.

Economy

Alagoas is one of the poorest states of Brazil. It has the second worst HDI in the country, ahead only of the state of Maranhão, though its indicators have improved in recent years. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 55.8%, followed by the industrial sector at 36.9%. Agriculture represents 7.3% of the state's GDP (2004). Alagoas exports consist of: sugar 58.8%, alcohol 29.4%, chemicals 9%, tobacco 2.1% (2002).

The economy has been agricultural, dependent largely on large sugarcane plantations with some tobacco farming that is concentrated around the city of Arapiraca. Sugar cane formed the basis for an alcohol industry that is in decline. Small to medium-sized tanker ships took alcohol on board in Maceio's port with considerable frequency during the peak period. Such loads still take place with less frequency. Another local industry is based on chemical products from brine pumped from deep wells on the outskirts of Maceió.

In the last twenty years the tourist industry has found the beaches and Maceió itself has changed from a rather sleepy little port with coconut palm plantations along its beaches to high-rise hotels. The northern coast, particularly around the towns Maragogi and Japaratinga is beginning to see some of this development in the form of resorts attracting people from the south and from Europe. There is considerable European investment (as of 2007) in beach property north of Maceió with walled compounds of beach homes.

International Airport
Alagoas gained a new airport complex, Zumbi dos Palmares International Airport, in the Maceió Metropolitan Area, designed by homegrown architect Mário Aloísio, which combines glass, metal and granite. It includes space for art exhibitions, a panoramic deck, chapel, seven escalators, nine elevators and four boarding bridges. The whole terminal was designed to permit access by the physically disabled, with ramps and special bathroom fixtures.

In the new terminal, Infraero also brings to Maceió "Aeroshopping" – a concept that is transforming the country's airports into centers for leisure and high-quality products and services. The entire building has a computerized air conditioning, with commercial spaces that will be occupied gradually. The parking area was more than tripled. Demand will be able to grow to 1.2 million passengers a year since the new passenger terminal has 24,000 square meters, the triple of its former size. The check-in counters were doubled and can reach higher numbers without any structural remodeling. The building is "intelligent", meaning controlled by a computerized system that regulates factors ranging from the lighting level to air temperature and even the speed of the escalators. This system also controls access to restricted areas and the fire protection system, among others.

Highways

 * BR-101
 * BR-104
 * BR-110
 * BR-316
 * BR-423
 * BR-424

Port
The Port of Jaraguá is located in Maceió. The commercial and economic development of the Port of Jaraguá, on the margins of the Mundaú lagoon, was responsible for the emergence of an important settlement that received the name of Maceió and later became the present capital of Alagoas. The Port of Jaraguá is situated in a natural port area that facilitates the ships docking. During the colonial period, the most important products exported through the port were sugar, tobacco, coconut and spices.

Sports
Alagoas provides visitors and residents with various sport activities. There are several football clubs based in the state, such as ASA de Arapiraca, CRB, CSA, Murici, Coruripe, CSE, Santa Rita, Penedense and Ipanema.

Maceió was one of the 18 candidates to host games of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, for which Brazil was the selected host, but it did not make the final cut.

Notable people

 * Bruno de Barros, Brazilian sprinter, Olympic medallist.
 * Maurício Borges, Brazilian volleyball player, Olympic champion.
 * Floriano Peixoto, second president of the Brazilian republic.
 * Tiago Fernandes, former Brazilian tennis player, champion of the 2010 Australian Open at Boys Singles
 * Zagallo (Mário Jorge Lobo Zagallo), football coach.
 * Maria Eduarda Arakaki, considered the best Brazilian rhythmic gymnast of all time.
 * Yohansson Nascimento, athlete, paralympic champion.
 * Képler Laveran Lima Ferreira aka 'Pepe', footballer.
 * Adriano Gabiru, football player, winner of the 2006 FIFA Club World Cup playing for Sport Club Internacional.
 * Roberto Firmino, footballer.
 * Roberval Davino, football coach.
 * Sandra Suruagy, volleyball player, Olympic medallist.
 * Deodoro da Fonseca (1827-1892) - First president of Federative Republic of Brazil, 1889-1891.
 * Bruna Tenório - Top Model.

Flag
The coat of arms symbolizes the first Alagoan settlement of Porto Calvo. Some plantations, sugarcane, and cotton that provided wealth in the past are incorporated in the design. The colors red, white, and blue refer to the French Tricolore, symbolizing the ideals of the French Revolution (liberté, égalité, fraternité), while the five-pointed star refers to the coat of arms of Brazil.

title: Alagoas


text:
California Institute of the Arts

The California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) is a private art university in Santa Clarita, California. It was incorporated in 1961 as the first degree-granting institution of higher learning in the US created specifically for students of both the visual and performing arts. It offers Bachelor of Fine Arts, Master of Fine Arts, Master of Arts, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees through its six schools: Art, Critical Studies, Dance, Film/Video, Music, and Theater.

The school was first envisioned by many benefactors in the early 1960s including Nelbert Chouinard, Walt Disney, Lulu Von Hagen, and Thornton Ladd. CalArts students develop their own work, over which they retain control and copyright, in a workshop atmosphere.

History
CalArts was originally formed in 1961, as a merger of the Chouinard Art Institute (founded 1921) and the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music (founded 1883). Both of the formerly existing institutions were going through financial difficulties, and the founder of the Art Institute, Nelbert Chouinard, was terminally ill. Walt Disney was longtime friends with both Chouinard and Lulu May Von Hagen, the chair of the Conservatory, and discovered and trained many of his studio's artists at the two schools (including Mary Blair, Maurice Noble, and some of the Nine Old Men, among others). To keep the educational mission of the schools alive, the merger and expansion of the two institutions was coordinated; a process which continued after Walt's death in 1966. Joining him in this effort were his brother Roy O. Disney, Nelbert Chouinard, Lulu May Von Hagen and Thornton Ladd (Ladd & Kelsey, Architects).

Without Walt, the remaining founders assembled a team and planned on creating CalArts as a school that was a destination, like Disneyland, to be a feeder school for the various arts industries. To lead this project they appointed Robert W. Corrigan as the first president of the institute.

The original board of trustees at CalArts included Nelbert Chouinard, Lulu May Von Hagen, Harrison Price, Royal Clark, Robert W. Corrigan, Roy E. Disney, Roy O. Disney, film producer Z. Wayne Griffin, H. R. Haldeman, Ralph Hetzel (then vice president of Motion Picture Association of America), Chuck Jones, Ronald Miller, Millard Sheets, attorney Maynard Toll, attorney Luther Reese Marr, bank executive G. Robert Truex Jr., Jerry Wexler, Meredith Willson, Peter McBean and Scott Newhall (descendants of Henry Newhall), Mrs. Roswell Gilpatric, and Mrs. J. L. Hurschler.

In 1965, the Alumni Association was founded as a separate organization. The 12 founding board of directors members were Mary Costa, Edith Head, Gale Storm, Marc Davis, Tony Duquette, Harold Grieve, John Hench, Chuck Jones, Henry Mancini, Marty Paich, Nelson Riddle, and Millard Sheets.

The ground-breaking for CalArts' current campus took place on May 3, 1969, as part of the Master Plan for a new planned community in the Santa Clarita Valley of Los Angeles. However, construction of the new campus was hampered by torrential rains, labor shortages, and the Sylmar Earthquake in 1971. As a result, the first combined campus for the Institute started at the former Villa Cabrini Academy (now the home of Woodbury University) in July 1970. CalArts moved to its new campus in Valencia, now part of the city of Santa Clarita, California, in November 1971.

Founding CalArts president Corrigan, formerly the founding dean of the School of Arts at New York University, fired almost all the artists who taught at Chouinard and the Conservatory in his attempt to remake CalArts into his new vision. He appointed fellow academic Herbert Blau to be the founding dean of the School of Theatre and Dance, and serve as the institute's first Provost. Blau and Corrigan then hired other academics to found the original academic areas, including Mel Powell (dean of the School of Music), Paul Brach (dean of the School of Art), Alexander Mackendrick (dean of the School of Film), Maurice R. Stein (director of Critical Studies), and Richard Farson (dean of the School of Design), as well as other influential faculty such as Stephan von Huene, Allan Kaprow, Bella Lewitzky, Michael Asher, Jules Engel, John Baldessari, Judy Chicago, Ravi Shankar, Max Kozloff, Miriam Shapiro, Douglas Huebler, Morton Subotnick, Norman M. Klein, and Nam June Paik, most of whom came from a counterculture and avant garde perspective.

Corrigan held his position until 1972, when he was fired and replaced by then board member William S. Lund, Walt Disney's son-in-law, as the Institute approached insolvency. The period between 1972 and 1975 was extremely unstable financially, and Lund had to make significant operational reductions, including layoffs, the pausing of some degree programs, and the elimination of the School of Design, in order to keep the Institute alive.

In 1975, Robert J. Fitzpatrick was appointed president of CalArts. During his presidency, the Institute grew its enrollment and stabilized, renewed its accreditation, and added new programs for which it is known globally today including the programs of Character Animation and Jazz. While President, Fitzpatrick also served as the director of the 1984 Olympic Arts Festival. He then founded the Los Angeles Festival, which grew directly out of the proceeds of the 1984 Olympic Games. After 1984, John Orders (the assistant to the president/chief of staff) largely coordinated the institute's operations in partnership with the other leaders. In 1987, Fitzpatrick resigned as president to take the position of head of EuroDisney (now Disneyland Paris) in Paris, France.

During the search for a President from 1987-88 Nicholas England, the then dean of the School of Music, served as Acting President. In the fall of 1988, Steven D. Lavine, then the Assistant Program Director for the Arts and Humanities of the Rockefeller Foundation, was appointed president. During his time in office Lavine continued to grow enrollment without significantly physically expanding the campus, and added the Roy & Edna Disney CalArts Theatre, part of the Los Angeles Music Center’s new Walt Disney Concert Hall project, to the operations of the Institute.

Lavine navigated the 1994 Northridge Earthquake which closed the main building in Valencia at the start of the spring semester. Classes were held in rental party tents on the 60 acre grounds, and alternate teaching locations were scattered miles apart around Los Angeles County. The building was “red tagged” and not allowed to be used until millions of dollars of repairs were performed. The Federal Emergency Management Agency provided the bulk of the financial assistance allowing fundamental repairs due to seismic activity to occur, with private donations allowing the aesthetic renovations of certain spaces in the building, which opened again during the fall 1994 semester.

Also in 1994, Herb Alpert, a professional musician and admirer of the institute, established the Alpert Awards in the Arts in collaboration with CalArts and his Herb Alpert Foundation. The foundation provides the funding for the awards and related activity. The institute's faculty in the fields film/new media, visual arts, theatre, dance, and music select artists in their field to nominate an individual artist who is recognized for their innovation in their given medium. Recipients of the award have a visiting artist residency at CalArts, mentor students, and sometimes premiere work at REDCAT. In 2008, CalArts named the School of Music for Alpert, in recognition of his ongoing support.

On June 24, 2015, Lavine announced he would step down as president in May 2017, after 29 years in the position. After an 18-month search which included over 500 candidates, Board Chair Tim Disney and the CalArts board of trustees announced on December 13, 2016, that Ravi S. Rajan, then the dean of the School of the Arts at the State University of New York at Purchase, was unanimously selected as president, to begin in June 2017.

Over the years the institute has developed experimental interdisciplinary laboratories such as the Center for Experiments in Art, Information, and Technology, Center for Integrated Media, Center for New Performance at CalArts, and the Cotsen Center for Puppetry and the Arts. Some of these experimental labs continue today.

Academics
CalArts offers various undergraduate and graduate degrees in programs that are related to and combine music, art, dance, film, animation, theater, and writing. Students receive intensive professional training in an area of their creative aspirations without being cast into a rigid pattern. The institute's overall focus is on experimental, multidisciplinary, contemporary arts practices, and its stated mission is to enable the professional artists of tomorrow, artists who will transform the world through artistic practice. With these goals in place, the Institute encourages students to recognize the complexity of political, social, and aesthetic questions and to respond to them with informed, independent judgment.

Admission
Every program within the Institute requires that applicants send in an artist's statement, along with a portfolio or audition to be considered for admission. The institute has never required an applicant's SAT or other test scores, and does not consider an applicant's GPA as part of the admission process without the consent of the applicant.

Conception and foundation
The initial concept behind CalArts' interdisciplinary approach came from Richard Wagner's idea of Gesamtkunstwerk ("total artwork"), of which Walt Disney himself was fond and explored in a variety of forms, beginning with his own studio, then later in the incorporation of CalArts. He began with the film Fantasia (1940), where animators, dancers, composers, and artists alike collaborated. In 1952, Walt Disney Imagineering was founded, where Disney formed a team of artists including Herbert Ryman, Ken O’Brien, Collin Campbell, Marc Davis, Al Bertino, Wathel Rogers, Mary Blair, T. Hee, Blaine Gibson, Xavier Atencio, Claude Coats, and Yale Gracey. He believed that the same concept that developed WDI could also be applied to a university setting, where art students of different media would be exposed to and explore a wide range of creative directions.

Schools
Schools at CalArts include:

 * School of Art
 * School of Critical Studies
 * The Sharon Disney Lund School of Dance
 * School of Film/Video
 * The Herb Alpert School of Music
 * School of Theater

A113
A113 is a classroom at CalArts where the character animation program (then called the Disney animation program) was originally founded. Many CalArts alumni have inserted references to it in their works (not just animation) as an homage to this classroom and to CalArts.

Downtown Los Angeles
In 2003, CalArts built a theater and art gallery in downtown Los Angeles called REDCAT, the Roy and Edna Disney CalArts Theater as part of the Walt Disney Concert Hall in the Los Angeles Music Center.

John Baldessari Art Studios
In 2013, CalArts opened its John Baldessari Art Studios, which cost $3.1 million to build, and features approximately 7,000 square feet of space for MFA Art students and program courses. In addition to debt, funding for the studios was partially raised by the sale of artwork donated by School of Art alumni, for whom each studio was then named.

Notable alumni, faculty, and honorary degrees

 * List of California Institute of the Arts people

Alpert Award in the Arts
The Alpert Award in the Arts was established in 1994 by The Herb Alpert Foundation and CalArts. The Institute annually awards a $75,000 no-strings-attached fellowship to five artists in the fields of dance, film and video, music, theatre, and visual arts. Awardees have a residency at CalArts during the following academic year.

Student outcomes
According to College Scorecard, Calarts has a graduation rate of 65% with the median salary for students 10 years after CalArts being $41,120 regardless of their completion status. While British magazine Times Higher Education states the salary 10 years after graduation is $35500.

Center on Education and the Workforce estimates the return on investment 10 years after graduation with a bachelor’s from CalArts is -$80,000; however, this metric appreciates to $630,000 40 years after graduation.

Reception and legacy
In 2011, Newsweek/The Daily Beast listed CalArts as the top school for arts-minded students. The ranking was not aimed to assess the country's best school, but rather to assess campuses that offer an exceptional artistic atmosphere.

CalArts’ various schools are consistently featured in the top ten lists of the “best schools” of Art, Film, Animation, Theater, Music, and Dance of publications such as U.S. News, New York Times, The Hollywood Reporter, Variety, and various other news and trade publications. No other single college or university in the world reflects such a high reputation across the full breadth of the many arts and creative industries.

Animation industry
Many students who attended CalArts' animation programs have found work at Walt Disney Animation Studios, and several of those went on to successful careers at Disney, Pixar, and other animation studios. In February 2014, Vanity Fair magazine highlighted the success of CalArts' 1970s animation alumni and briefly profiled several (including Jerry Rees, John Lasseter, Tim Burton, John Musker, Brad Bird, Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Henry Selick and Nancy Beiman) in an article illustrated with a group portrait taken by photographer Annie Leibovitz inside classroom A113.

In the late 1980s, a group of CalArts animation students contacted animation director Ralph Bakshi. As he was in the process of moving to New York, they persuaded him to stay in Los Angeles to continue to produce adult animation. Bakshi then got the production rights to the cartoon character Mighty Mouse. By Bakshi's request, Tom Minton and John Kricfalusi then went to the CalArts campus to recruit the best talent from what was the recent group of graduates. They hired Jeff Pidgeon, Rich Moore, Carole Holiday, Andrew Stanton and Nate Kanfer to work on the then-new Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures television series.

In an interview, Craig "Spike" Decker of Spike and Mike's Festival of Animation criticized commercial aspects of the school, saying "A lot of animators come out of CalArts – they could be so prolific, but then they're owned by Disney or someone, and they're painting the fins on the Little Mermaid. You'll never see their full potential."

Art
During the formative years of the Art School many of the teaching artists led different camps of movements. The two main camps were the conceptualism students, which were led by John Baldasseri, and the fluxus camp, which was led by Allan Kaprow. Kaprow's approach to art was a continuation from his tenure at Rutgers University. Other movements included Light and Space, which was closely related to the artists associated with the Ferus Gallery in the greater Los Angeles area. In 1972, Calarts hosted an exhibition called The Last Plastics Show, which was organized by faculty artist Judy Chicago, Doug Edge, as well as Dewain Valentine. This exhibition included artists such as, Carole Caroompas, Ron Cooper, Ronald Davis, Fred Eversley, Craig Kauffman, Linda Levi, Ed Moses, Barbara T. Smith, and Vasa Mihich.

In the autobiography Bad Boy: My Life On and Off the Canvas by CalArts alum Eric Fischl, he describes his experience as a student as "CalArts had such a narrow idea of the New. It was innovation for its own sake, a future that didn't include the past But without foundation, without techniques or a deeper understanding of history, you'd go off these wild explorations and end up reinventing the wheel. And then you'd get slammed for it."

Art critic Dave Hickey critiqued the art program of CalArts by suggesting that the variety of reference that students are exposed to is limited to a certain pantheon. He stated "I can go over to Cal Arts and ask them if they know who John Wesly is, and they would go, 'Huh? What discourse does he participate in?' I am in the art world only insofar as there are interesting things for me to write about. When that stops, or when I stop getting offers to write things, I’ll be out." Additionally, Hickey mentioned the use of appropriation by students at programs like CalArts. In this, he referenced the VH1 show Pop-Up Video, by which he stated "Creators Tad Low and Woody Thompson should receive honorary MFAs for [Pop Up Video], because grad students worldwide are getting diplomas for just this sort of thing -- stealing (or as they say in art school, "appropriating") hackneyed pop images and scribbling on top of them à la granddaddy Marcel. The show, which would not be out of place on a monitor in a darkened gallery at CalArts [...]".

In the LA Weekly op-ed piece "The Kids Aren't All Right: Is over-education killing young artists?", published in 2005, curator Aaron Rose wrote about an observed trend he recognized in Los Angeles's most esteemed art schools and their MFA programs, including CalArts. He uses the example of Supersonic, "a large exhibition ... that features the work of MFA students from esteemed area programs like CalArts, Art Center, UCLA, etc." In his observation of the showcase, he examined, "... the work left me mostly empty and with a few exceptions seemed like nothing more than a rehash of conceptual ideas that were mined years ago." He went on to state that "these institutions are staffed with amazing talents (Mike Kelley and John Baldessari among them). Legions of creative young people flock to our city [Los Angeles] every year to work alongside their heroes and develop their talents with hopes of making it as an artist." He goes on to further state "What happens too often in these situations, though, is that we find young artists simply emulating their instructors, rather than finding and honing their own aesthetics and points of view about the world, society, themselves. In the beginnings of an artist's career, the power in his or her work should lie not in their technique or knowledge of art history or theory or business acumen, but in what one has to say."

Musician and CalArts alumnus Ariel Pink notes in an interview "Unlike other art schools, they didn't focus on skills of any kind, specific color theory or anything like that. They were the only art school that was totally focused on teaching artists about the art market. They were trying to make the next Damien Hirst. They're trying to make the next Jeff Koons. Those guys don't need to know how to paint or draw."

Music
CalArts graduates have joined or started successful pop bands, including: Maryama, Tranquility Bass, The Belle Brigade, The Weirdos, The Swords of Fatima / Buko Pan Guerra, Bedroom Walls, Dawn of Midi, Dirtwire, The Rippingtons, Fitz and the Tantrums, Fol Chen, London After Midnight, No Doubt, Mission of Burma, Radio Vago, Oingo Boingo, Acetone, Liars, Suburban Lawns, The Mae Shi, The Suburbs, Touché Amoré, and Ozomatli.

Individually, Danny Elfman and Grant-Lee Phillips never officially enrolled at CalArts, but participated in the world music courses at CalArts. Elfman would later gain recognition for his composition work with CalArts alum Tim Burton, and Phillips would go onto a career in music.

Thurston Moore and Kim Gordon, members of the band Sonic Youth, remarked in an interview with VH1 about the band Liars, of which Angus Andrew and Julian Gross are CalArts luminaries. Moore's initial remarks were: "There's this whole world of young people who [think] everything's allowed. What Liars are doing right now is completely crazy. I saw them the other night and it was really great. It's really out-there". Gordon then stated "I'm not so crazy about the way [the Liars' They Were Wrong, So We Drowned] sounds. It's like 'how lo-fi can we make it?' But I think the content is really good". In reference to CalArts and Gordon's statement, Moore lastly remarked "They're art kids. They came out of CalArts and that's the kind of sensibility you have when you come out of these sort of places." Interestingly, Moore's partner Gordon went to the Otis College of Art and Design, herself a product of an art school. In a 2005 interview, Moore discussed the book Jack Goldstein and the CalArts Mafia and his conversation with Gordon after reading the book. During their conversation, Moore asked Gordon why she had chosen to attend Otis College of Art and Design instead of CalArts, a school she had always wanted to attend since she grew up in Los Angeles. Gordon explained that she was unable to afford CalArts' high tuition. Moore went on to emphasize that the book did not mention the economic feasibility of attending CalArts and that this financial barrier can create a division between those who can afford highly regarded academic art education and those who pursue DIY art.

Theater
In his book, Survival of the Richest, media theorist and MFA directing program graduate Douglas Rushkoff described his time while a theater student at CalArts. He saw CalArts as an institution that offered numerous opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration; however, despite the creative atmosphere, the theater school was rooted in tradition, adhering to the classical approach to drama with a focus on crisis, climax, and resolution.

Rushkoff, influenced by the experimental theater of the 1970s and 1980s (i.e. Happenings, Fluxus), had a different perspective on theater. Rushkoff believed in blurring the line between performer and audience, and questioned the traditional theater model, which he viewed as imposing a sense of inevitability and confirming established order. He saw this as cultural propaganda, creating problems in the first act and solving them in the last.

In addition to his dissatisfaction with the traditional theater model, Rushkoff was troubled by the high cost of theater productions. After attending a performance of Brecht's Threepenny Opera at the Ahmanson Theatre in 1989, and noticing the high cost of the least expensive ticket, he decide to leave the theater behind in favor of the Internet. He believed that interactivity and digital platforms, such as the Web and hypertext stories, would provide users with multiple pathways and the freedom to choose their own adventures. Even in video games with clear-cut goals (i.e. Super Mario, World of Warcraft), players could derive satisfaction from exploring the game world rather than focusing solely on achieving the official story objectives.

Controversy
A pejorative term, "CalArts style" gained prominence in the late 2010s to describe an animation style allegedly overused on popular American television channels such as Cartoon Network and Disney Channel. The term had reportedly been in use within the animation industry since the early 1990s; its spread outside of the industry is attributed to animator John Kricfalusi. In a now-deleted blog post from 2010 about the film The Iron Giant, Kricfalusi criticizes what he sees as young animators subconsciously copying superficial aspects of well-respected animators' work (specifically, late 1950s to 1970s Disney Movies) without learning underlying animation skills. As the decade progressed, the term came to refer to a cartoon aesthetic different from the one Kricfalusi described. Works that have been said to exemplify this version of the "CalArts style" include Adventure Time, Gravity Falls, and Over the Garden Wall, which were from CalArts graduates Pendleton Ward, Alex Hirsch, and Pat McHale respectively, but also the works of many non-CalArts animators, such as Rebecca Sugar's Steven Universe, Kyle Carrozza's Mighty Magiswords, John McIntyre's 2016 Ben 10 reboot, Ben Bocquelet's The Amazing World of Gumball, Justin Roiland & Dan Harmon's Rick and Morty, Justin Roiland & Mike McMahan's Solar Opposites, Domee Shi's Academy Award-nominated Turning Red, etc.

Detractors claim that because of CalArts' importance to American animation, it often inspires other styles of illustration. American animator Rob Renzetti questioned the use of the term, saying that it has been applied so broadly as to be functionally meaningless as criticism, and is instead just name calling. Adam Muto, executive producer on Adventure Time, has also said the term over-simplifies the process of animation design, and is too vague. Gavia Baker-Whitelaw on The Daily Dot wrote that many animation fans that deride the "CalArts style" do so only when it is associated with shows that appear to promote, in their views, "Tumblr culture" that favors progressive views.

title: California Institute of the Arts


text:
Talk:Lewiston, Idaho

Untitled

 * As you work your way uphill, away from downtown the odor gets significantly less at each plateau.

This is somewhat dubious. My recollection was that downtown wasn't so bad, but that there were particular layers (e.g. coming down Lewiston hill/U.S. 95) that things got nasty.

I'm going to remove this barring objection from others. - RobLa 04:17 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

Having lived there for about 30 years, I can attest to the comments about the Orchards. The odor is still particularly strong even at higher elevations on the "Lewiston Hill" side however due to the proximity to Potlatch. --66.82.9.45 00:14, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Oh ho ho! So Lewiston gets the Wiki love, and poor Clarkston is bare bones barren.  Well, as Bantams and Bengals once warred and defaced hillsides for their respective town's honor, it is ON!  Give me a few weeks and I'll have Clarkston's page way more rocking than Lewiston's.  Ha ha!  It is sooo ON!!  Phoenix frou 22:21, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Highlights
Gets a bit into NPOV violation toward the end of the section with "the displays are typically quite impressive and often attract many visitors". Also, what the heck is the Big Four - rodeo events I guess? This isn't mentioned on the PRCA page or on the rodeo page. Fredgoat (talk) 01:01, 29 September 2008 (UTC)

Demographics
Lots of figures here, but is it all backed up by the link to the census? I couldn't find where it says "27.9% of all households were made up of individuals" from the link, and anyway what does that even mean? -Fredgoat (talk) 01:40, 29 September 2008 (UTC)

Famous Lewiston Borns
Do these two seem rather obscure to anyone else? I get the impression that this section is just a couple people trying to see how long their dubious edits can remain on the page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.252.78.82 (talk) 22:37, 12 April 2009 (UTC)

Linked to Clearwater Paper Corporation
I just added a wikilink to the newly created (by me) Clearwater Paper Corporation page.

Scixx (talk) 15:29, 10 August 2009 (UTC)

History
This section needs some cleanup. It has definite POV problems with the moving of the capital, and there shouldn't be a plug for a book in the body of the article. The book can be in the references, and maybe a source link at the end to Mueller, but no more Alexgriz (talk) 23:12, 8 May 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Census vs. Population history
Why do we have the "Population history" when we have a very comprehensive chart under Census? I feel like one of these should be removed...

Steep roadways
The Highways section includes a statement:

 * The lyrics of the song were changed variously to say San Pedro or The Grapevine in later versions, but the origin is documented.

I'll link The Grapevine to Grapevine, California, which is the most relevant entry from the disambiguation page for The Grapevine.

I'm not as confident on what San Pedro refers to. I think the Locations of interest section of San Pedro, California may be the most relevant. Can anyone confirm?

Given the assertion of documentation, I'll add a citation needed tag unless I get a search hit.

Msramming (talk) 21:34, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

 * The linked article Hot Rod Lincoln also lacks sufficient citations. Msramming (talk) 21:41, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

Geography of Lewiston
There's a U.S. federal resource available here describing Lewiston's geography:

In the papers linked to (e.g. "NPDES Permit Fact Sheet, City of Lewiston and Lewis-Clark State College MS4s, Idaho, #IDS028061 (pdf)"), there is plenty of public-domain text that can be used to list notable geographic regions of Lewiston:
 * #North Lewiston — which includes the Port District, Lewiston Hill, and Northeast Lewiston. This is the portion of Lewiston north of the Clearwater River. Note that I recently created a "North Lewiston, Idaho" redirect, because two articles currently to North Lewiston, Idaho (see Special:WhatLinksHere/North Lewiston, Idaho)
 * #Downtown — which is lumped in with the Normal Hill area in the EPA report.  The downtown area is the portion closest to the Snake and Clearwater Rivers that is protected from flooding by the levees along the the rivers.
 * #Normal Hill — which includes the Southway, Bryden Canyon, and Country Club subdrainage areas. This is a low plateau just south of the downtown area, which has a much lower elevation than The Orchards.
 * #The Orchards — referred to as "a gently inclined basalt plateau" draining to Tammany Creek to the south, Lindsay Creek to the northeast (which is a largely uninhabited area between The Orchards and the Clearwater River).

The largely uninhabited areas surrounding the city and between portions of the city are also considered a region in the EPA report. I don't have the time/energy right now to embark on changes to the structure of the article, but it seems there should be these three sections somewhere in the article for all of the regions above, and not just the section about #The Orchards. -- RobLa (talk) 02:47, 8 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lewiston, Idaho


text:
Dettingen

Dettingen may refer to:

Municipalities

 * Dettingen an der Erms in the district of Reutlingen in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen an der Iller in the district of Biberach in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen unter Teck in the district of Esslingen in Baden-Württemberg

Parts of cities and municipalities

 * Dettingen (Horb) is part of the city of Horb am Neckar in the district of Freudenstadt in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen (Rottenburg) is a part of the City of Rottenburg am Neckar in the district of Tübingen in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen (Ehingen) is part of Ehingen in the Alb-Donau in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen (Konstanz), is part of Konstanz in Baden-Württemberg
 * Dettingen am Albuch is part of the municipality Gerstetten (Heidenheim district in Baden-Württemberg)
 * Dettingen am Main is part of the municipality Karlstein am Main (Aschaffenburg district in Bavaria)

Other

 * Battle of Dettingen, which took place in what is now Karlstein am Main, which led to the naming of:
 * Dettingen Te Deum, a canticle composed by George Frideric Handel
 * Dettingen Company, a training company at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
 * Dettingen Park, a housing development in Deepcut, Surrey, UK, built on the former Alma Dettingen Barracks Princess Royal Barracks

title: Dettingen


text:
Talk:Environmental geology

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
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title: Talk:Environmental geology


text:
Hutt Valley

The Hutt Valley (or 'The Hutt') is the large area of fairly flat land in the Hutt River valley in the Wellington region of New Zealand. Like the river that flows through it, it takes its name from Sir William Hutt, a director of the New Zealand Company in early colonial New Zealand.

The river flows roughly along the course of an active geologic fault, which continues to the south to become the main instrument responsible for the uplift of the South Island's Southern Alps. For this reason, the land rises abruptly to the west of the river; to the east two floodplains have developed. The higher of these is between 15-22 km from the mouth of the river. Beyond this, the river is briefly confined by a steep-sided gorge near Taitā, before the land opens up into a long triangular plain close to the outflow into Wellington Harbour.

The Waiwhetu Aquifer is formed from water seeping underground from the Hutt River near Taitā. It flows underground down the Hutt Valley and out under Wellington Harbour.

Human settlement
Some early Māori nations (iwi) of the region were Ngāi Tara, Muaūpoko, Rangitāne, Ngāti Apa ki te Rā Tō and Ngāti Ira. These iwi descended from the sons of Whātonga, Taraika and Tautoki-ihu-nui-a-Whātonga, who migrated through the lower North Island with some descendants settling in the Hutt Valley. The name Heretaunga is often applied to the Hutt Valley from the name of the 'house of Whātonga at Nukutaurua vollage (pā)'.

In 1846 there was fighting between Māori tribes and the Government, known as the Hutt Valley Campaign.

The Hutt River also has the name Te Awa Kairangi, and was a major arterial route for Māori. There was a trail linking Wellington Harbour and the Wairarapa over the Remutaka Range and through Pākuratahi river. Before the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake large Māori boats (waka) could travel as far Pākuratahi river, and European ships could also go up the valley 'almost' to Silverstream.

The lower valley contains the city of Lower Hutt, administered by Hutt City Council, while the adjacent, larger but less populous city of Upper Hutt has its centre on the smaller plain above the Taita Gorge. The valley forms a major dormitory suburban area for Wellington, and is a location for manufacturing and heavy industry, educational and recreational facilities, and the region's motor camps.

Petone, on the Wellington Harbour shoreline, was proposed as the initial site for the settlement of Wellington by the New Zealand Company. However, as the chosen site was soon seen to be prone to river flooding, early settlement was relocated to Wellington. A small settlement remained at the Petone site as the whole valley was believed to be well suited as farm land.

Almost the whole valley was clearfelled and converted to pasture or market gardens before the urbanisation of the 20th century. A small remnant of the early podocarp forest is preserved in Barton's Bush in Upper Hutt.

title: Hutt Valley


text:
Taxiing

Taxiing (rarely spelled taxying) is the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power, in contrast to towing or pushback where the aircraft is moved by a tug. The aircraft usually moves on wheels, but the term also includes aircraft with skis or floats (for water-based travel).

An airplane uses taxiways to taxi from one place on an airport to another; for example, when moving from a hangar to the runway. The term "taxiing" is not used for the accelerating run along a runway prior to takeoff, or the decelerating run immediately after landing, which are called the takeoff roll and landing rollout, respectively.

Etymology
As early as 1909 aviation journalists envisioned aeroplanes to replace the taxicab in traffic-congested cities.

Some aviators and some linguists report that around the year 1911 the slang word "taxi" was in use for an "airplane". They suggest that the way aircraft move under power before they take off or after they land reminded someone of the way taxicabs slowly drove around the block when looking for passengers.

Also by 1909, French aviation pioneers like Blériot, Farman and Voisin used the term "taxi" for a trainer aircraft, that was so constructed that a pupil would not accidentally get airborne.

Usage of the word for an airplane quickly disappeared again, but the verb "to taxi" stuck, and words like the "taxiway" were derived from it.

Propulsion
The thrust to propel the aircraft forward comes from its propellers or jet engines. Reverse thrust for backing up can be generated by thrust reversers such as on the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, or reversible pitch propellers such as on the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, a rare procedure known as powerback. Most aircraft, however, are not designed to back up on their own and must be pushed back either by hand or by using an aircraft tug.

At low power settings, combustion aircraft engines operate at lower efficiency than at cruise power settings. A typical A320 spends an average of 3.5 hours a day taxiing, using 600 L of fuel. Hybrid electrically driven nose gear are under development to allow high use aircraft to shut down the engines during taxi operations.

Control

Steering is achieved by turning a nose wheel or tail wheel/rudder; the pilot controls the direction travelled with their feet. Larger jet aircraft have a tiller wheel on the left side of the cockpit that acts as a steering wheel allowing the nosewheel to be turned hydraulically. Braking is controlled by differential toe or heel brakes. Not all aircraft have steerable wheels, and in some cases steering is solely by means of differential braking (all Van's aircraft for instance) or solely by means of the rudder (including all floatplanes).

Hover taxi

Skid-equipped helicopters and other VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) aircraft conduct hover taxiing to move in ground effect in the same manner that wheel-equipped aircraft ground taxi. In general hover taxis are conducted at speeds up to 20 kn, or below translational lift.

The Bell CH-135 Twin Huey is hover taxied in a manner typical for skid-equipped aircraft of that size:

Safety
When taxiing, aircraft travel slowly. This ensures that they can be stopped quickly and do not risk wheel damage on larger aircraft if they accidentally turn off the paved surface. Taxi speeds are typically 16 to 19 kn.

Rotor downwash limits helicopter hover-taxiing near parked light aircraft. The use of engine thrust near terminals is restricted due to the possibility of structural damage or injury to personnel caused by jet blast.

title: Taxiing