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University of Copenhagen

The University of Copenhagen (Københavns Universitet, abbr. KU) is a prestigious public research university in Copenhagen, Denmark. Founded in 1479, the University of Copenhagen is the second-oldest university in Scandinavia after Uppsala University.

The University of Copenhagen consists of six different faculties, with teaching taking place in its four distinct campuses, all situated in Copenhagen. The university operates 36 different departments and 122 separate research centres in Copenhagen, as well as a number of museums and botanical gardens in and outside the Danish capital. The University of Copenhagen also owns and operates multiple research stations around Denmark, with two additional ones located in Greenland. Additionally, The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the public hospitals of the Capital and Zealand Region of Denmark constitute the conglomerate Copenhagen University Hospital.

As of October 2022, 10 Nobel laureates and 1 Turing Award laureate have been affiliated with the University of Copenhagen as students, alumni or faculty. Alumni include one president of the United Nations General Assembly and at least 24 prime ministers of Denmark.

History
The University of Copenhagen was founded on 1 June 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark. In 1475, Christian I of Denmark received a papal bull from Pope Sixtus IV with permission to establish a university in Denmark. The bull was issued on 19 June 1475 as a result of the visit to Rome by Christian I's wife, Dorothea of Brandenburg, Queen of Denmark.

On 4 October 1478 Christian I of Denmark issued a royal decree by which he officially established the University of Copenhagen. In this decree, Christian I set down the rules and laws governing the university. The royal decree elected magistar Peder Albertsen as vice chancellor of the university, and the task was his to employ various learned scholars at the new university and thereby establish its first four faculties: theology, law, medicine and philosophy. The royal decree made the University of Copenhagen enjoy royal patronage from its very beginning. Furthermore, the university was explicitly established as an autonomous institution, giving it a great degree of juridical freedom. As such, the University of Copenhagen was to be administered without royal interference, and it was not subject to the usual laws governing the Danish people.

The University of Copenhagen was dissolved in about 1531 as a result of the spread of Protestantism. It was re-established in 1537 by King Christian III after the Lutheran Reformation. The king charged Johannes Bugenhagen, who came from Wittenberg to Copenhagen to take up a chair of theology, with the drawing up of a new University Charter. The resulting Charter was issued in 1539. Between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations. An examination for theology was added in 1675, followed by law in 1736. By 1788, all faculties required an examination before they would issue a degree.

In 1807, the British Bombardment of Copenhagen destroyed most of the university's buildings. By 1836, however, the new main building of the university was inaugurated amid extensive building that continued until the end of the century. The University Library (now a part of the Royal Library), the Zoological Museum, the Geological Museum, the Botanic Garden with greenhouses, and the Technical College were also established during this period.

Between 1842 and 1850, the faculties at the university were restructured. Starting in 1842, the University Faculty of Medicine and the Academy of Surgeons merged to form the Faculty of Medical Science, while in 1848 the Faculty of Law was reorganised and became the Faculty of Jurisprudence and Political Science. In 1850, the Faculty of Mathematics and Science was separated from the Faculty of Philosophy. In 1845 and 1862 Copenhagen co-hosted Nordic student meetings with Lund University.

The first female student was enrolled at the university in 1877. The university underwent explosive growth between 1960 and 1980. The number of students rose from around 6,000 in 1960 to about 26,000 in 1980, with a correspondingly large growth in the number of employees. Buildings built during this time period include the new Zoological Museum, the Hans Christian Ørsted and August Krogh Institutes, the campus centre on Amager Island, and the Panum Institute.

The new university statute instituted in 1970 involved democratisation of the management of the university. It was modified in 1973 and subsequently applied to all higher education institutions in Denmark. The democratisation was later reversed with the 2003 university reforms. Further change in the structure of the university from 1990 to 1993 made a Bachelor's degree programme mandatory in virtually all subjects.

Also in 1993, the law departments broke off from the Faculty of Social Sciences to form a separate Faculty of Law. In 1994, the University of Copenhagen designated environmental studies, north–south relations, and biotechnology as areas of special priority according to its new long-term plan. Starting in 1996 and continuing to the present, the university planned new buildings, including for the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Humanities at Amager (Ørestaden), along with a Biotechnology Centre. By 1999, the student population had grown to exceed 35,000, resulting in the university appointing additional professors and other personnel.

In 2003, the revised Danish university law removed faculty, staff and students from the university decision process, creating a top-down control structure that has been described as absolute monarchy, since leaders are granted extensive powers while being appointed exclusively by higher levels in the organization.

In 2005, the Center for Health and Society (Center for Sundhed og Samfund – CSS) opened in central Copenhagen, housing the Faculty of Social Sciences and Institute of Public Health, which until then had been located in various places throughout the city. In May 2006, the university announced further plans to leave many of its old buildings in the inner city of Copenhagen, an area that has been home to the university for more than 500 years. The purpose of this has been to gather the university's many departments and faculties on three larger campuses in order to create a bigger, more concentrated and modern student environment with better teaching facilities, as well as to save money on rent and maintenance of the old buildings. The concentration of facilities on larger campuses also allows for more inter-disciplinary cooperation; for example, the Departments of Political Science and Sociology are now located in the same facilities at CSS and can pool resources more easily.

In January 2007, the University of Copenhagen merged with the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University and the Danish University of Pharmaceutical Science. The two universities were converted into faculties under the University of Copenhagen, and were renamed as the Faculty of Life Sciences and the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences. In January 2012, the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the veterinary third of the Faculty of Life Sciences merged with the Faculty of Health Sciences forming the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences – and the other two thirds of the Faculty of Life Sciences were merged into the Faculty of Science.

Campuses
The university has four main campus areas that are located in the Capital Region (three in Copenhagen and one in Frederiksberg):
 * North Campus – home to most of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.
 * City Campus – home to the Faculty of Social Sciences and Central Administration as well as parts of the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science.
 * South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities, the Faculty of Law, the Faculty of Theology, and a small proportion of the Faculty of Science.
 * Frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.

The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, which is located in Taastrup on the western outskirts of Copenhagen. The Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo.

Organisation and administration
The university is governed by a board consisting of 11 members: 6 members recruited outside the university form the majority of the board, 2 members are appointed by the scientific staff, 1 member is appointed by the administrative staff, and 2 members are appointed by the university students. The rector, the prorector and the director of the university are appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration and deans of the different faculties. The deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, or department heads. Hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. , the governing body manages an annual budget of about DKK 8.9 billion.

The university is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments and research centres. The university employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The six faculties are:
 * Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences
 * Faculty of Humanities
 * Faculty of Law
 * Faculty of Science
 * Faculty of Social Sciences
 * Faculty of Theology

The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000, including about 23,000 undergraduate students and 17,000 graduate students. The university has an international graduate talent programme which provides grants for international Ph.D., students and a tenure track carrier system. It operates about fifty master's programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with other institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students, 2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students. About 3,000 PhD students study there each year.

University housing
Most university students stay in privately owned dormitories (kollegier in Danish) or apartments in Copenhagen. There are five dormitories that are partially administered by the university; however, only students who have passed at least two years of studies are considered for admission. These are normally referred to as the old dormitories, and they consist of: Regensen, Elers' Kollegium, Borchs Kollegium, Hassagers Kollegium, and Valkendorfs Kollegium. The University of Copenhagen also offers Carlsberg Foundation researcher apartments for a duration of 6 months to 3 years for visiting research and academic research staff who affiliated with research projects funded by the Carlsberg Foundation.

The Housing Foundation Copenhagen is a separate commercial entity to the University of Copenhagen run by Chairman Erik Bisgaard Madsen and a board of directors. The Housing Foundation Copenhagen provides short-term housing exclusively for university international students ( sometimes Danish students), university staff and guest researchers. Their central office is based at South Campus. The Housing Foundation Copenhagen has received considerable criticism for the exploitation of international students for business profits and poor living conditions,  and most recently the refusal of shortening contracts for many international students affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Seal
The university's oldest known seal dates from a 1531 letter, it depicts Saint Peter with a key and a book. In a circle around him is the text

When the university was re-established by Christian III in 1537 after the Protestant Reformation, it received a new seal, showing king Christian III with crown, sceptre, and globus cruciger above a crowned coat of arms vertically divided between halved versions of the coat of arms of Denmark (to the viewer's left, dexter) and the coat of arms of Norway (to the viever's right, sinister). The text is

The 1537 seal is very similar to the current seal, which was made in 2000 and is shown at the top of this page. The text is different and the crowned shield shows the coat of arms of Denmark (as has been the case since 1820, when the heraldic reference to Norway was removed). The text is

In addition to the university seal, each of the university's six faculties carry seals of their own.

International reputation
The 2021 CWTS Leiden Ranking ranks the University of Copenhagen as the best university in Denmark and best in Continental Europe, 4th in Europe (after Oxford, UCL and Cambridge) and 27th in the world.

The 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University ranked the University of Copenhagen as the best university in Denmark and Scandinavia, 7th in Europe and 30th in the world. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2021, the University of Copenhagen is ranked first in Denmark and 84th in the world. In the 2021 QS World University Rankings list, the University of Copenhagen is ranked first in Denmark and 76th in the world. In the 2021 U.S. News & World Report's Best Global Universities Rankings list, the University of Copenhagen is ranked first in Denmark and 34th in the world.

Cooperative agreements with other universities
The university cooperates with universities around the world. In January 2006, the University of Copenhagen entered into a partnership of ten top universities, along with the: Australian National University, ETH Zürich, National University of Singapore, Peking University, University of California, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, University of Tokyo and Yale University. The partnership is referred to as the International Alliance of Research Universities (IARU).

The Department of Scandinavian Studies and Linguistics at University of Copenhagen signed a cooperation agreement with the Danish Royal School of Library and Information Science in 2009.

The university hosts the annual Aging Research and Drug Discovery conference in cooperation with Columbia University.

List of rectors

 * Henrik Caspar Wegener (2017–present). He is the 259th rector.

Notable alumni
Over the course of its history, a sizeable number of University of Copenhagen alumni have become notable in their fields, both academic, and in the wider world.
 * Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), Danish astronomer, first scientific documentation of supernovas, mentor of Johannes Kepler
 * Thomas Fincke (1561–1656), Danish mathematician and physicist
 * Caspar Bartholin (1585–1629), professor in medicine and theology. Author of textbooks on anatomy and the discoverer of the workings of the olfactory nerve.
 * Olaus Wormius (1588–1655), Danish physician and antiquarian
 * Thomas Bartholin (1616–1680), discoverer of the lymphatic system
 * Rasmus Bartholin (1625–1698), professor in geometry and medicine. He discovered birefringence, but was unable to give a scientific explanation.
 * Thomas Hansen Kingo (1634–1703), Danish bishop and poet
 * Nicholas Steno (1638–1696), a pioneer in anatomy and geology
 * Ole Rømer (1644–1710), Danish astronomer. He made the first quantitative measurements of the speed of light.
 * Peder Horrebow (1679–1764), Danish astronomer and member of Académie des Sciences
 * Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), Danish-Norwegian writer and playwright
 * Christian Jacob Protten (1715–1769), Euro-African Moravian missionary pioneer, linguist, translator and educationalist-administrator
 * Morten Thrane Brunnich (1737–1827), Danish zoologist
 * Caspar Wessel (1745–1818), mathematician
 * Martin Vahl (1749–1804), Danish-Norwegian botanist and zoologist
 * Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), Danish physicist and chemist. He discovered electromagnetism.
 * Anders Sandøe Ørsted (1778–1860), Danish lawyer and prime minister of Denmark (1853–1854)
 * Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (1779–1850), poet, author of lyrics of the Danish national anthem Der er et yndigt land
 * N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783–1872), Danish writer, poet, philosopher and priest
 * Christopher Hansteen (1784–1873), Norwegian astronomer and physicist
 * Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1791–1860), Danish poet and critic
 * Magnús Eiríksson (1806–1881), Icelandic theologian
 * Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Danish theologian and philosopher, the father of existentialism
 * Anders Sandøe Ørsted (1816–1872), professor of botany (1851–1862)
 * Hinrich Johannes Rink (1819–1893), Danish geologist, and founder of the first Greenlandic language newspaper
 * Peter Ludvig Panum (1820–1885), Danish physiologist and pathologist; the Panum Building in Copenhagen is named in his honor.
 * Hans Schjellerup (1827–1887), Danish astronomer
 * Carl Lange (1834–1900), Danish physician
 * Thorvald N. Thiele (1838–1910), Danish astronomer, actuary and mathematician
 * Julius Petersen (1839–1910), Danish mathematician
 * Eugenius Warming (1841–1924), Danish botanist and founding figure of ecology
 * Georg Brandes (1842–1927), Danish writer and critic
 * Vilhelm Thomsen (1842–1927), Danish linguist
 * Harald Høffding (1843–1931), Danish philosopher, theologian and psychologist
 * Herman Trier (1845–1925), Danish educator and politician
 * Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), Danish bacteriologist, inventor of Gram staining
 * Christian Bohr (1855–1911), Danish physician, who described Bohr effect
 * Wilhelm Johannsen (1857–1927), Danish botanist. He first coined the word gene in its modern usage.
 * Niels Ryberg Finsen (1860–1904), Nobel laureate in medicine (1903)
 * Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), Danish linguist, co-founder of the International Phonetic Association
 * Kirstine Meyer (1861–1941), Danish physicist
 * Hannes Hafstein (1861–1922), Icelandic politician and poet
 * Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger (1867–1928), Nobel laureate in medicine (1926)
 * Holger Pedersen (1867–1953), Danish linguist
 * Agner Krarup Erlang (1878-1929), creator of the field of telephone networks analysis
 * S. P. L. Sørensen (1868–1939), Danish chemist, who introduced the concept of pH
 * Martin Knudsen (1871–1949), Danish physicist
 * August Krogh (1874–1949), Nobel laureate in medicine (1920)
 * Holger Scheuermann (1877–1960), Danish surgeon after whom Scheuermann's disease is named
 * Kirstine Smith (1878–1939), Danish statistician credited with creation of optimal design of experiments
 * Benjamin Christensen (1879–1959), Danish film director, screenwriter and actor
 * Ingeborg Hammer-Jensen 1908.jpg [[Ingeborg Hammer-Jensen]] (1880–1955), classical scholar and philologist
 * Niels Bohr (1885–1962). He contributed to development of the atomic model and quantum mechanics. Director at the university's Institute of Theoretical Physics. Nobel laureate in physics (1922).
 * Øjvind Winge (1886–1964), Danish biologist
 * Harald Bohr (1887–1951), Danish Olympic silver medalist football player and mathematician; brother of Niels Bohr
 * Inge Lehmann (1888–1993), Danish seismologist discovering the Earth's inner core
 * Jakob Nielsen (1890–1959), Danish mathematician
 * Julie Vinter Hansen (1890–1960), Danish astronomer
 * Carl Vaernet (1893–1965), Danish medical doctor
 * Oskar Klein (1894–1977), Swedish theoretical physicist
 * Henrik Dam (1895–1976), Nobel laureate in medicine (1943)
 * Sir Ove Arup (1896–1988), Anglo-Danish structural engineer
 * Alf Ross (1899–1979), Danish legal philosopher
 * Louis Hjelmslev (1899–1965), Danish linguist, founder of Copenhagen School
 * Anton Frederik Bruun (1901–1961), Danish oceanographer
 * Georg Rasch (1901–1980), Danish mathematician, statistician and psychometrician
 * Knud Ejler Løgstrup (1905–1981), Danish philosopher and theologian. Pastor at Sandager-Holevad 1936–1943. Professor at University of Aarhus 1943–1975.
 * Piet Hein (1905–1996), Danish mathematician, inventor and poet
 * Bengt Strömgren (1908–1987), Danish astronomer and astrophysicist
 * Hilde Levi (1909–2003), German-Danish physicist
 * Niels Kaj Jerne (1911–1994), Nobel laureate in medicine (1984)
 * Preben von Magnus (1912–1973), Danish virologist, who gave name to the Von Magnus phenomenon
 * Jens Otto Krag (1914–1978), prime minister of Denmark (1962–1968, 1971–1972)
 * Poul Hartling (1914–2000), prime minister of Denmark (1973–1975) and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1978–1985), Nobel Peace Prize laureate on behalf of UNHCR (1981)
 * Bjørn Aage Ibsen (1915–2007), Anesthetist and founder of intensive-care medicine
 * Poul Bjørndahl Astrup (1915–2000), Danish clinical chemist, inventor of blood gas analyzer
 * Jens Christian Skou (born 1918), Nobel laureate in chemistry (1997) for his discovery of Na+,K+-ATPase
 * Hans H. Ørberg (1920–2010), linguist and scholar
 * Aage Bohr (1922–2009), professor in nuclear physics and director of the Niels Bohr Institute at the university. Nobel laureate in physics (1975).
 * Halfdan T. Mahler (1923–2016), Director-General of World Health Organization (1973–1988)
 * Ólafía Einarsdóttir (1924–2017), first person from Iceland to earn a degree in archaeology
 * Ben Roy Mottelson (1926–2022), American-born Danish nuclear physicist, Nobel laureate in physics (1975)
 * Peter Naur (1928–2016), computer scientist, Turing Award in 2005
 * Poul Schlüter (1929–2021), prime minister of Denmark (1982–1993)
 * Vigdís Finnbogadóttir (born 1930), the 4th President of Iceland (1980–1996)
 * Ozer Schild (1930–2006), Danish-born Israeli academic, president of the University of Haifa and president of the College of Judea and Samaria ("Ariel College")
 * Jørgen Rischel (1934–2007), Danish linguist, who analyzed Greenlandic and Mon-Khmer languages
 * Per Kirkeby (born 1938), Danish painter and sculptor
 * Per Pinstrup-Andersen (born 1939), Danish economist, 2001 World Food Prize laureate
 * Søren Johansen (born 1939), Danish econometrician
 * Lasse Hessel (born 1940), inventor of female condom
 * Anders Boserup (1940–1990), co-founder of the Danish Institute for Peace and Conflict Research and the Nordic Peace Foundation
 * Aage B. Sørensen (1941–2001), Danish sociologist
 * Holger Bech Nielsen (born 1941), Danish physicist, one of three creators of string theory
 * Jørgen Haugan (born 1941), Doctorate in Philosophy (1977); Norwegian author and lecturer
 * Poul Nyrup Rasmussen (born 1943), prime minister of Denmark (1993–2001)
 * Claus Bjørn (1944–2005), author, historian and broadcaster
 * Niels Peter Lemche (born 1945), biblical scholar, founder of Copenhagen School
 * Mogens Lykketoft (born 1946), Danish politician, the 70th President of the United Nations General Assembly (2015–2016)
 * Halldór Ásgrímsson (born 1947), prime minister of Iceland (2004–2006)
 * Uffe Haagerup (born 1949), Danish mathematician
 * Jesper Nygart (born 1956), Danish physician
 * Peter Høeg (born 1957), Danish fiction writer. He won international acclaim with Smilla's Sense of Snow.
 * Morten Frost (born 1958), Danish world-class badminton player and coach
 * Mads Tofte (born 1959), computer scientist, vice chancellor of IT University of Copenhagen
 * Ole Wæver (born 1960), scholar of International Relations, one of exponents of Copenhagen School
 * Steve Scully (born 1960), American host, senior producer, and political editor of the C-SPAN network's Washington Journal. He studied at the University of Copenhagen as part of his master's program at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
 * Corinna Cortes (born 1961), computer scientist
 * Lars Løkke Rasmussen (born 1964), prime minister of Denmark (2009–2011, 2015–2019)
 * Lars Mikkelsen (born 1964), Danish actor
 * Bjørn Lomborg (born 1965), Danish economist, author of The Skeptical Environmentalist
 * Helle Thorning-Schmidt (born 1966), prime minister of Denmark (2011–2015)
 * Marie-Louise Nosch (born 1970), archaeologist; Professor in the university's Saxo Institute
 * Eskild Ebbesen (born 1972), Danish world-class lightweight rower
 * Morten Meldal (born 1954), Nobel laureate in chemistry (2022) for his invention of Click chemistry

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title: University of Copenhagen


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Dornier Do 17

The Dornier Do 17 is a twin-engined light bomber produced by Dornier Flugzeugwerke for the German Luftwaffe during World War II. Designed in the early 1930s as a Schnellbomber ("fast bomber") intended to be fast enough to outrun opposing aircraft, the lightly built craft had a twin tail and "shoulder wing". Sometimes referred to as the Fliegender Bleistift ("flying pencil") or the Eversharp it was popular among its crews due to its handling, especially at low altitude, which made the Do 17 harder to hit than other German bombers.

The Do 17 made its combat debut in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War, operating in the Condor Legion in various roles. Along with the Heinkel He 111 it was the main bomber type of the German air arm in 1939–1940. The Dornier was used throughout the early war, and saw action in significant numbers in every major campaign theatre as a front line aircraft until the end of 1941, when its effectiveness and usage was curtailed as its bomb load and range were limited.

Production of the Dornier ended in mid-1940, in favour of the newer and more powerful Junkers Ju 88. The successor of the Do 17 was the much more powerful Dornier Do 217, which started to appear in strength in 1942. Some remaining Do 17s continued in various Luftwaffe roles until the end of the war, as a glider tug, research, and trainer aircraft. A considerable number were sent to other Axis nations, with few surviving the war. The last was scrapped in Finland.

Development
In 1932, the Ordnance Department (Heereswaffenamt) issued a specification for the construction of a "freight aircraft for German State Railways", and a "high speed mail plane for Lufthansa". Dornier began work on the design on 1 August 1932.

When the Nazis took power in 1933, Hermann Göring became National Commissar for aviation with former Deutsche Luft Hansa employee Erhard Milch as his deputy, soon forming the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM/Reich Aviation Ministry). The Ministry of Aviation designated the new aircraft Do 17, and on 17 March 1933, just three months after taking office, Milch gave the go ahead for the building of prototypes. At the end of 1933, the Ministry of Aviation issued an order for a "high speed aircraft with double tail," and for a "freight aircraft with special equipment," in other words, a bomber. The original design (the Do 17 V1) configuration in 1932 had sported a single vertical stabilizer, and Dornier continued developing that model. The Do 17 was first demonstrated in mock-up form in April 1933. The "special equipment" was to be fitted later, to disguise its offensive role.

In April 1934, the Dornier works at Friedrichshafen began project "definition." During this month, the defensive armament was designed and the bomb release mechanism details ironed out. Production of these prototypes began on 20 May 1934 and, on 23 November 1934, the Do 17 V1, with a single fin and powered by two BMW VI 7.3 motors, took off on its first flight. Testing was delayed by a series of accidents, with V1 being damaged in landing accidents in February and April 1935. The twin-tailed V2 (powered by low-compression BMW VI 6.3 engines) first flew on 18 May 1935 and was evaluated together with the V1 by the Ministry of Aviation at Rechlin in June. During the tests, the single fin proved to be only marginally stable, resulting in the V1 being modified with a twin tail. The aircraft was destroyed in a crash after an engine failure on 21 December 1935. The V3, also fitted with a twin tail, was originally planned to be powered by Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs engines, but as these were unavailable, it was fitted with BMW VI 7.3 engines like the V1 and flew on 19 September 1935. The V1 prototype remained the only built machine with the single stabilizer.

It is claimed that, unlike the Heinkel He 111 series, whose military use was planned from the start, the Do 17 V1 was contracted as a fast six-passenger mail plane to compete with the smaller Heinkel He 70 monoplane It has been suggested that it was rejected by Luft Hansa, as the cramped cabin was too uncomfortable for passenger use and the operating costs were too high for a mail plane. According to the story, the three prototypes remained unused in the Dornier factory in Lowental for almost six months, until Flugkapitän Untucht of Luft Hansa came across them. After receiving permission to fly one of the machines, he proceeded to put it through an almost stunt flying routine. After landing, he said that "the machine is as nimble as a fighter, give it more lateral stability and we'll have a high speed bomber!" Untucht's comments prompted Dornier to redesign the tail unit and revived interest in the type.

Dornier was then ordered to produce the V4 prototype. Some sources state this differed from the V3 in that the passenger portholes were removed and the single fin was replaced with two smaller ones. Photographic evidence demonstrates the V3 had twin stabilizers from the start of its construction. The tests of the "twin-tailed" V4, V6 and V7 prototypes were positive and more prototypes like the V8 emerged as the forerunner of the long-range reconnaissance version, while the V9 was tested as a high-speed airliner. The V9 machine was still flying in 1944.

In 1937 it made a spectacular public debut in Zürich at the International Military Aircraft Competition. By this time, bomber squadrons of the Luftwaffe were already being equipped with the first two productions models, The Do 17E and F. In 1938 both these versions were seeing service in the Spanish Civil War.

Design
The forward fuselage had a conventional stepped cockpit, with a fully glazed nose. Early variants were labelled the "flying pencil" owing to its sleek and continuous "stick-like" lines. As a result of the lessons learned in the Spanish Civil War, the cockpit roof was raised and the lower, or bottom half, of the crew compartment was a typical under-nose gondola or "Bodenlafette" (abbreviated Bola): this inverted-casemate design ventral defensive armament position was a common feature of most German medium bombers. The Bola was extended back to the leading edge of the wings where the lower-rear gunners position and upper-rear gunner position were level with each other. As with contemporary German bombers, the crew were concentrated in a single compartment.

The cockpit layout consisted of the pilot seat and front gunner in the forward part of the cockpit. The pilot sat on the left side, close up to the Plexiglas windshield. One of the gunners sat on the right seat, which was set further back to provide room for the 7.92 mm MG 15 machine gun to be traversed in use. The Do 17 usually carried a crew of four: the pilot, a bombardier and two gunners. The bomb-aimer also manned the MG 15 in the nose glazing and Bola-housed rear lower position. The two gunners operated the forward-firing MG 15 installed in the front windshield, the two MGs located in the side windows (one each side) and the rearward firing weapon. The cockpit offered a bright and panoramic view at high altitude. The standard ammunition load was 3,300 rounds of 7.92 mm ammunition in 44 double-drum magazines.

The wings were of a broad 55 m2 area and had a span of 18 m with a straight leading edge which curved in a near-perfect semicircle into the trailing edge. The positions of the wing roots were offset. The leading edge wing root merged with the top of the fuselage and cockpit. As the wing extended backwards, by roughly two thirds, it declined downwards at a sharp angle so that the trailing edge wing root ended nearly halfway down the side of the fuselage increasing the angle of incidence. This design feature was used on all future Dornier bomber designs, namely the Dornier Do 217. The trailing edge was faired into the round fuselage shape. The engine nacelle was also faired into the flaps. The extreme rear of the nacelle was hollow and allowed the flap with an attached vertical slot to fit into the cavity when deployed.

The fuselage was 15.80 m long. It was thin and narrow, which presented an enemy with a difficult target to hit. The fuselage had twin vertical stabilizers to increase lateral stability. The power plant of the Z-1 was to have been the Daimler-Benz DB 601 but, owing to shortages from priority allocation for Bf 109E and Bf 110 fighter production, it was allocated Bramo 323 A-1 power plants. The Bramos could only reach 352 km/h at 1,070 m. The limited performance of the Bramo 323s ensured the Do 17 could not reach 416 km/h at 3,960 m in level flight when fully loaded. The range of the Do 17Z-1 at ground level was 635 nmi; this increased to 1,370 km (850 nm) at 4,700 m. This gave an average attack range of 400 nmi. The introduction of the Bramo 323P increased the Z-2 performance slightly in all areas.

The Dornier had self-sealing fuel tanks to protect fuel stored in the wings and fuselage. This reduced the loss of fuel and risk of fire when hit in action, and often enabled the aircraft to return. Twenty oxygen bottles were provided for crew use during long flights above 3,660 m. Communications usually consisted of FuG X, the later FuG 10, navigational direction finder PeilG V direction finder (PeilG - Peilgerät) and the FuG 25 IFF and FuBI 1 blind-landing devices. The crew communicated by EiV intercom. A primitive autopilot device, the Siemens K4Ü, was installed and could maintain bearing using the rudder's control surfaces.

The bomb bay had four bomb racks, the No. 5 for SC50 bombs and two ETC 500 racks to carry heavier loads of up to 500 kg each. A Lotfe A, or B bombsight was issued together with the BZA-2 aperture (a modernised optical lens system). The bomb bay allowed two options, one was to carry four 250 kg bombs for a load of 1000 kg, which reduced aircraft range. With half the maximum load, ten 50 kg bombs, additional fuel tanks could be placed into the forward part of the bomb bay to increase range. The bomb aimer aimed the bombs via the Lotfe (A, B or C 7/A, depending on the variant) bomb sight which was in the left side of the nose compartment directly under and forward of the pilot. When fully loaded, the Z-1 weighed 7,740 kg.

Early Daimler-Benz-powered variants
The initial production variants were the Do 17E-1 bomber, which was tested with two Daimler-Benz DB 600, and Do 17F-1 reconnaissance aircraft, powered like the early prototypes with BMW VI engines, which entered production in late 1936. The first Luftwaffe units converted to the Do 17 in early 1937.

The Do 17E-1 was equipped with two BMW VI 7.3D inline engines of 750 PS each. The crew numbered three. The radio operator manned the two 7.92 mm MG 15 machine guns within a B-Stand pod in the rear cockpit; they had 750 rounds of ammunition. The bomb bay was divided into two compartments. Each had five bomb racks with individual capacity of 50 kg. A single ETC 500/IX bomb rack could be mounted externally underneath the aircraft to carry a 500 kg bomb. A Do 17 E-1 with the designation D-AJUN was tested with an unusual configuration, two SC 500 bombs mounted side by side under the fuselage. It showed a notable performance reduction due to the increase in weight and drag, this configuration was not used operationally. The E-1 continued to carry low bomb loads into the Second World War. The performance of the E-1 enabled it to reach a speed of 330 km/h at 3,000 m. Conducting a shallow dive the light frame of the Do 17 could reach 500 km/h. Its maximum ceiling was 5,500 m. Several E-1s were rebuilt as E-2 or E-3, at least three E-2 and one E-3 were used by DVL and Hansa-Luftbild GmbH (Hansa Aerial Photography Ltd) in a secret military reconnaissance role prior to the war.

The Do 17F-1 was a long-range reconnaissance aircraft based on field modified Do 17Es. The Do 17 prototype V8 was used to test the configuration of the F-1 and V11 for the F-2. The defensive armament consisted of a MG 15 in the B- and C-Stand (B-Stand - an upper rear firing position, C-Stand — lower gun emplacement). The fuselage had two cameras along with six ejector tubes for flashlight cartridges. The F-1 saw service until replaced by the Do 17 P in 1938. Only one F-2 was ever built, it was designated D-ACZJ and was used by Zeiss-Jena Company as a factory aircraft.

Conversion of two E-2 series aircraft with two BMW 132F radial engines led to the Do 17 J-1 and J-2. These aircraft served as flight testing machines to evaluate the BMW 132 for usage in the Do 17. The aircraft were the V18 (Wrk Nr, or Werknummer meaning works/factory number, 2021) and V19 (Wrk Nr 2022) prototypes. Trials began in late 1937. A similar conversion, but with Bramo 323 radial engines, led to the designation Do 17 L-1 and L-2. Two Do 17 (Wrk Nr 2031 and 2032) were renamed as V20 and V21 prototypes and used to evaluate the Bramo 323 for usage in the Do 17. The test was satisfactory and all future production models were equipped with this engine.

After seeing the Do 17M V1 at the Zürich air races in 1937, the Yugoslav Royal Air Force bought license rights for production at the Drzavna Fabrika Aviona factory in 1938. They equipped it with the more powerful Gnome-Rhône 14 NO radial engine. Dornier designs were delivered to the Pomorsko Vazduhoplovstvo (Naval Aviation - PV) in 1926, namely the Dornier Komet and Dornier Do Y heavy bombers. The Yugoslavs were familiar with Dornier designs, and on 19 November 1935 Yugoslav pilots test-flew the Do 17 V-3 prototype, D-ABIH, W.Nr. 258. They decided to select the Do 17 for service, despite it being more expensive than any other aircraft, because of the German willingness to deliver them quickly without limitations on numbers.

The Do 17L-0 and Do 17M-0 were developed in parallel as replacements for the earlier E and Fs, the L being the reconnaissance version. Both were designed around the more powerful DB 600A engines, delivering about 746 kW. Two L and one M versions were built as prototypes, both with another MG 15 in the nose. The first prototype of the revised version, the Do 17M V1 (D-ABVD) was powered by two DB 600s, and demonstrated impressive performance, including a maximum speed of 425 km/h.

At the International Military Aircraft Competition at Zürich, Switzerland, in 1937, the Dornier Do 17M V1 proved a leader in its class and was faster than the fastest foreign fighter, the French Dewoitine D.510. The Do 17, along with the Messerschmitt Bf 109, won many prizes, demonstrating the prowess of German aviation design.

Radial variants
Despite its success, owing to shortages in the supply of the Daimler-Benz engine, the production Do 17M was fitted with the Bramo 323 engine, with the corresponding reconnaissance aircraft, the Do 17P, being powered by BMW 132Ns to give better range.

The supply of the DB 600 remained extremely limited as production was soon switched over to the fuel-injected DB 601, which was reserved for the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters. Therefore, production versions of the basic Do 17M model airframe were fitted with the new Bramo 323A-1 Fafnir engines of 670 kW, which gave reasonable performance and raised the bomb load to 1,000 kg. The resulting Do 17 M-1 was produced in small numbers and operated until 1941.

The prototypes for the M-1 series were Do 17M V1 (Werk Nr 691) and Do 17M V2 (Werk Nr 692) which were tested with bomb loads of a medium bomber. The third prototype, Do 17M V3 was evaluated as a fast bomber. The M V1 was fitted with two Daimler Benz DB 601 inline engines while the M V2 and M V3 had the Bramo 323 A and D respectively. The Ministry of Aviation favoured the widespread use of the DB 601, but demand for the DB 601s in fighter aircraft and the lack of production forced the use of the Bramo.

The Do 17 M-1 started its service as a medium bomber and was able to carry 2200 lb of bombs. It was equipped with two air-cooled Bramo 323 A-1 or A-2. The defensive armament consisted of two, and later three, MG 15 machine guns. The first was operated in an A-Stand pod operated by the navigator through the windshield. The position was allocated 370 rounds of ammunition. The rearward firing B-Stand was operated by the radio operator and allocated 750 rounds. The rear position in the lower fuselage was allocated 375 rounds in a C-Stand pod. The Do 17M could carry a bomb load of either 20 SC50 50 kg or two SC250 250 kg bombs or 10 SC50 and a single SC250 bomb. The speed of the M was superior to that of the E variant. The Do 17M could reach 420 km/h at altitudes of 3,500 m and could achieve a maximum service ceiling of 5,790 m and a range of 850 nmi.

Reconnaissance aircraft based on the M-1, the under-surfaces of the wing were covered with duralumin and it had a wider engine axis and longer engine nacelles. The demand for a reconnaissance aircraft based on the M-1 led to the development of the P-1 variant. The L version would not be able to enter production with the DB 600 owing to its use in the Bf 109, and the Bramo engine was rather thirsty on fuel and left the M models with too short a range for reconnaissance use. BMW 132N radials of 865 PS were selected instead, which had lower fuel consumption for better range. Another two prototypes with DB 600 engines were produced as the Do 17R-0, but did not enter production. During reconnaissance missions the P-1 was armed with four MG 15s in the A, B and C—Stands. One machine gun was located in the rear of the cockpit, another in the lower rear Bola mount, one facing forward through the windscreen and the other in the nose glazing. In earlier variants the B-Stand (the gun position in the upper rear cockpit) was open to the elements, but the P-1 now provided an enclosed bulb-shaped mount protecting the radio operator from the weather.

The P variant had similar features to the Do 17M-1, with added blind flying and camera equipment for reconnaissance work. The Do 17P-1 was powered by two BMW 132N radial engines with a maximum performance of 865 PS (853 hp each. The machine was fitted with several radio variations. The FuG IIIaU radio (Funkgerät), the PeilG V direction finder (PeilG - Peilgerät) and the FuBI 1 radio blind-landing device (FuBI - Funkblindlandegerät). The crew of three communicated with each other via the EiV intercom (EiV -Eigenverständigungsanlage). The P-1 was equipped with either Rb 20/30 and Rb 50/30 or Rb 20/18 and Rb 50/18 cameras. The P-1/trop was fitted with filters and protection for the cameras. The cameras were controlled remotely by the crew from the cockpit.

Due to a shortage of night fighters, at least one Do 17P-1 was assigned to this role. A smooth metal sheet was installed in place of its glass nose and it was armed with three 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons. The machine operated under Luftflotte 1.

The Do 17P-2 was identical to the P-1, with the additional installation of an ETC 500 bomb rack under the fuselage. These aircraft were designed for night reconnaissance. It is assumed that Dornier converted most, if not all, P-2 models from existing P-1 production aircraft.

Unlike the P-2, the Do 17R-1 did not see series production. The experiences of the Spanish Civil War proved that unarmed aircraft were easy prey for fighter aircraft. The R-1 was to be a fast long-range reconnaissance aircraft with two additional fuel cells inside the fuselage aft of the bomb bay. Two variants were suggested, the first (variant I) had a Rb 50/30 and two Rb 20/30 cameras, while variant II had a third fuel cell to replace the rear Rb 20/30. The aircraft had a gross weight of 7250 kg but could be overloaded to 7500 kg in emergencies. The crew usually numbered three, but a fourth was added depending on the missions to be flown. To achieve a high performance at increased altitudes two DB 600 Gs were to be used. The power plants were tested in the Do 17R V1 prototype registered D-ABEE. The second, the R V2, registered D-ATJU, received the even more powerful DB 601 Aa engines. The power plant of the R-1s that did exist is not known.

The lessons from the Spanish Civil War had led Dornier's designers to incorporate more defensive machine guns. Battles with Soviet-built fighter aircraft had demonstrated that the Dornier was not as fast and invulnerable as was first thought. To cope with this, a completely new pod-like cockpit was designed to give the crew more room and better visibility. The roof was extended upward over the line of the fuselage, sloping down to meet it just in front of the wing. The dorsal gun was moved to the rear of the pod where it had a considerably better field of fire. The floor was dropped under the fuselage as a Bola casemate-style defensive armament emplacement, and the ventral gun moved to the back of the Bola, allowing it to fire directly to the rear. The changes in the roof and floor made the front of the aircraft much larger and the rest of the airframe remained the same. The new cockpit design was nicknamed Kampfkopf (German: "battle head").

Three S variant prototypes with the DB 600 G inline engines were tested. The S-01 (designation D-AFFY), 03 and 04 were flown. The inverted V-12 engines were constructed as the Do 17 S-0 reconnaissance version, but it did not go into production. An additional 15 Do 17 U-1 pathfinder models were built, similar to the S-0 but adding another crewman (taking the total to five) to operate the extra radio equipment. The U models were to fly ahead of other bombers on night missions, using the radio equipment to locate the target and drop flares on it. They were personally requested by KG 100 as experimental models for this role. The U-1 had a maximum speed of 265 mph and a combat ceiling of 4,500 m. The U-1 had a cruising speed of 384 km/h and a maximum reachable height of 5,700 m, owing to the "rather low performance of the Bramo 323 A-1 engines". The three prototypes (U-01 - U-03) and twelve production aircraft were built by 1938.

Dornier Do 17Z: The main variant

The Dornier Do 17Z series was the most recognised and mass-produced variant, and saw more combat service than the E-U types. The type was modified as a result of combat experience during the Spanish Civil War. The forward fuselage was redesigned, with the cockpit area being "dropped", or extended further to enable a rear firing gunner position to be installed, and the canopy extended aft, until it was nearly parallel with the leading edge and wing root.

To test the design, the Do 17S and Do 17U were produced, both to be powered by the DB 600 power plants. However, a call for all DB 600 series engines to be reserved for fighters led to the variants being fitted with Bramo Fafnir 323 A radial engines. The bomb load was increased to 1,000 kg and a fourth crew member was added. It proved to be underpowered, so Bramo 323 P engines were then fitted. Only three Do 17S and 15 Do 17Us were built. With the updates, the Dornier, with a full bomb load, had a combat radius of 322 km. Later variants, in the Do 17Z-3, Z-4 and Z-5, which were fitted with cameras, dual trainer controls and flotation aids (for maritime operations) respectively, still could not solve the problems with range and bomb load.

At first, a batch of Z-0s were built with the Fafnir for testing, the DB 600 again proving to be too hard to obtain. These were quickly replaced with the Z-1 model, which added another gun for the bombardier, but the additional weight of the nose and guns meant the bomb load was reduced to 500 kg. The Luftwaffe, not being satisfied with the test outcome of the Z series, immediately ordered performance and design studies to increase the overall performance of the bomber. These resulted in very optimistic speeds and altitudes for all future Z variants, especially for the Z-5 aircraft. Planned performance altitudes of up to 7,620 m at a maximum speed of 418 km/h with an aircraft weight of 8,100 kg were planned. Unfortunately, production aircraft never reached these optimistic performances during the service career of the Do 17Z. At 7,740 kg, the heavy Do 17Z-1 used two Bramo 323 A-1 engines with self-sealing fuel cells in the fuselage and wings. The crew of four consumed approximately 20 bottles of oxygen during long flights above 3700 m. The Do 17Z-1 had a speed of 352 km/h at 1,100 m. However, the performance of the Bramo 323s did not permit the Do 17 to reach 416 km/h at 3,900 m and level flight when fully loaded. Range of the Z-1 at ground level was 635 nmi while at 4,700 m this increased to 850 nmi. This gave an average range of 400 nmi. The introduction of the Bramo 323P increased subsequent performance in the following sub variants.

This was addressed in the major production model, the Do 17Z-2. The Z-2 mounted the new 323P-1 version of the Fafnir with 746 kW, which was specifically tuned to the performance needs of the Do 17 by decreasing supercharger power at lower altitudes and thus improving low-level performance. The increase in takeoff power allowed the bomb load to be increased from 500 to 1,000 kg. However the combat range with a full 1,000 kg bomb load was a very short 330 km. The armament was further upgraded by adding another pair of guns firing out of the sides of the upper part of the pod, but as the three guns were all fired by a single gunner, only one of them could be fired at a time. From May 1940, 422 Do 17Z-2s flew with Kampfgeschwader 2 Holzhammer (Wooden mallet), Kampfgeschwader 3 Blitz (Lightning), Kampfgeschwader 76 and Kampfgeschwader 77". The upgrades of the Z-2 had its overall weight increased from 17,600 to 17,920 lb. After heavy losses of Do 17s during the Battle of Britain it was decided to replace the MG FF cannon with the more powerful MG 151/15. Losses had mounted in spite of an increase of up to eight machine guns in some Dorniers.

The Z-3 formed part of the bomber versions of the Z series, it was, however, also used as a reconnaissance aircraft by the staff flight of the particular unit. The engines and the general equipment were identical to the Z-2 standard; however two cameras — the Rb 50/30 and Rb 20/30 - were incorporated into the crew entry hatch. A handheld camera was issued to the crew to validate the success during bombing missions. Autopilot equipment was added later. The Z-2 and Z-3 were identical visually, and could only be distinguished from each other by the altered crew hatch on the Z-3. Owing to spacing problems because of the added camera equipment, the ammunition supply was reduced from 44 to 42 magazines. The power plant of the Z-3 was upgraded to the Bramo 323P-2. The Bramo P-2 remained the engine of all the remaining Z series variants.

The Z-4 was designed as trainer. Although nearly identical to the Z-2 and Z-3, it featured several equipment changes optimised for blind flying training. The four-seat aircraft had a single control column with dual steering, which was achieved by a jib protruding to the right. Rudder pedals were in front of both seats. The defensive armament and bomb racks were reduced, or in most cases omitted to reduce weight. The Z-5 was similar to the Z-3 with a weight of 19000 lb. Designed as an anti-shipping aircraft, the Z-5, was fitted with flotation cells in the fuselage and engine nacelles in case it was forced down on water. Usually the flotation devices took the form of inflatable bags stored in the rear of the engine nacelles and in bulges on either side of the nose, just behind the front glazing.

Later variants of the Z model were developed. The Z-6 was to be a reconnaissance aircraft, although it was only built as a prototype. During the war only a few were converted from existing combat variants. The type was selected for weather check flights. It was identical to the Z-1/Z-2 variants, but offensive armament was omitted and extra fuel cells fitted. This increased the fuel load to 2,890 L (578 imperial gallons). As flights required higher altitude, the oxygen supply was increased from 20 to 24 bottles. For long-range flights over water, the larger dinghy of the Z-5 with its updated emergency escape equipment was mandatory during operations. The Z-6s were also used for night fighter operations. Some of the few converted Z-6s had the Ju 88C-6 nose installed and were equipped with machine guns and cannons. The nose proved to be unsatisfactory, and it was redesigned. In the tip of the new nose was an infrared spotlight which was soon made redundant after the introduction of Lichtenstein radar which was fitted to some of the Z-6.

The Z-8 Geier (Vulture) was not produced. It was intended as a ground attack aircraft and reached the first planning phase but was given up due to lack of performance and protective armour. An increase in armour would have meant a decrease in speed which would have exposed the aircraft further to enemy fire. The Z-9, which was fitted with special bomb release equipment, and delayed release gear for low-level attack missions. Its purpose was to suppress enemy air defences. Therefore, it was designed to fly over anti-aircraft positions and drop Butterfly Bombs, an early form of cluster bomb munitions. This could only be done with air superiority, as the Z-9 was unarmoured. The airframe and equipment was identical to the Z-1/Z-2 version. Only the bomb bay was altered to accommodate 16 bomb-dispenser systems. The maximum weight of the Z-9 was 7800 kg. The design did not reach serial production.

After bomber production ended in 1940, the Z model was modified with a "solid" nose from the Ju 88C, fitted with one 20 mm MG FF cannon and three 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns, to be used as night fighters. Three prototypes were converted from existing Z-series airframes to the Do 17Z-7 Kauz I ("screech-owl") configuration. The standard Z-7 was fitted with Bramo 323P-1 radial engines and had a crew of three airmen. In comparison to the standard bomber version, the fuel load arrangement was altered by subdividing into cells. Two cells were in the wings, with a capacity of 770 litres (154 imperial gallons) each. A third cell was placed in the bomb bay within the main fuselage, having a capacity of 895 litres (179 imperial gallons). The oxygen supply for the three man crew was reduced to nine bottles, as intercepts at high altitudes were not anticipated. Add-on armour in the form of heavy steel plates was bolted to the nose bulkhead to protect the crew against frontal fire. Originally, it was planned to completely armour the crew compartment. This idea, was given up again as the increased weight would have reduced flight performance of an already slow aircraft. The ammunition loads for the three 7.92 mm MG 17s amounted to 3,000 rounds and 400 rounds of ammunition for the 20 mm MG 151 cannon (although some Do 17Z bombers carried a single 20 mm for ground attack missions).

Later, the design was further modified to the Do 17Z-10 Kauz II, the solid nose now containing an infrared searchlight for the Spanner Anlage infrared detection system. The infrared lamp in the nose was used to illuminate the target while the display unit in the windshield made the reflection visible to the pilot. The Z-10 was armed with four 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns grouped above the IR light and two 20 mm MG FF in the lower nose. The crew could reload the 20 mm cannons' drum magazines internally. The Z-10 contained an IR searchlight (Spanner-Anlage) for the Spanner infrared detection system. A single Kauz II was equipped with and tested the Lichtenstein radar.

Only 10 of these Kauz II designs were converted from Z-series airframes. The Spanner system proved to be essentially useless and many Z-10 were left without any detection system. At least one Z-10, coded CD+PV, was used as a flying test bed to help developing the early low-UHF band B/C version of the Lichtenstein radar system in late 1941–1942. When the Z-10 was stripped of all non-night fighter equipment, it had a maximum weight of 7300 kg. Armament fit was similar to that of the Z-7, with an added MG 17 and an additional 1,000 rounds of ammunition in the nose section. Defensive gun positions included the B and C stand, each equipped with a MG 15.

German
Official figures state 2,139 Do 17s were built on German assembly lines. At the Dornier factory at Oberpfaffenhofen, 328 Do 17Es were built along with a further 77 Do 17Fs and 200 Do 17M variants. Do 17Z production figures for Oberpfaffenhofen stand at 420. At Friedrichshafen, 84 Do 17Ks were built, some of which were sold to the Yugoslav Royal Air Force. Do 17P production was spread out over different factory lines. At Siebel/Halle, eight were built. At the Henschel factory at Berlin-Schönefeld 73 were constructed. At the HFB plant in Hamburg 149 were built. Henschel also produced some 320 Do 17Zs, HFB contributed to construction of 74 at its Hamburg plant, and another 73 were built at Siebel. It was the interest shown by Yugoslavia in the Do 17Z which gave rise to the designation Dornier Do 215, allotted for no apparent reason to the Do 17Z sent to Yugoslavia for demonstration purposes. Some 105 examples of the Dornier Do 215B was later built at Oberpfaffenhofen.

By 19 September 1938, the Luftwaffe had received 579 Dornier Do 17s. These were mostly Do 17E, F, M and P variants. During 1939–1940, some 475 Dornier Do 17Z bombers, 16 reconnaissance aircraft and nine night fighters were built. Another 100 Dornier Do 215s, an updated variant of the Do 17, were built during this period also.

Yugoslav
Other governments were interested in the Do 17. In June 1936, the Yugoslav government ordered 36 Do 17E variants from Germany. The negotiations for a licence were completed on 27 June 1938 for 36 Do 17Ka's at the cost of 1,829,825 Reichsmarks. On 18 March 1938, Yugoslavia ordered 16 complete Do 17 Ka-2's and Ka-3's at a cost of 3,316,788 Reichsmarks. They received the last on 21 April 1939. The machines were from 72 to 96% complete.

The Dorniers were devoid of German equipment, including engines. The Yugoslavs found a French manufacturer to supply the powerplants instead. Gnome et Rhône was the supplier chosen, and the Gnome-Rhône Mistral Major engine was to be used in the Dornier. The French had inflated the performance data of the engine, claiming it to have 649 kW and a speed of 420 km/h at 3,850 m. The constant-speed propellers were also poor, and delivered late. This led to trials with Piaggio Aero and Ratier propellers. Only one of the Do 17s delivered was fitted out complete with German equipment. The rest of the Dorniers were equipped with Belgian FN 7.9 mm (.31 in) machine guns, Czech camera equipment and eventually Telefunken radio sets. Altogether, 70 Do 17s were produced by Yugoslav factories.

Operators and operational history

 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria
 * The Bulgarian Air Force received 11 Do 17 Ms and Ps in 1940 and at least 11 ex-Yugoslav aircraft in 1941. Six more Do 17 Ms were delivered in 1943. They remained in service until at least 1945.
 * Independent State of Croatia
 * The Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia (Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske) received at least 21 Do 17Zs (the last 12 in 1945), 11 ex-Yugoslav Do 17Ka's in 1942 and 30 Do 17Es in 1943.
 * Finnish Air Force
 * 46 Squadron received 15 aircraft in January 1942:
 * 🇩🇪 Germany
 * Luftwaffe
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary
 * Royal Hungarian Air Force received one ex-Yugoslavian Do 17Ka-3.
 * 🇮🇹 Italy
 * Regia Aeronautica operated at least one ex-Yugoslavian Do 17Ka-3 under 1°Centro Sperimentale in Guidonia, where it was tested until September 1943.
 * 🇷🇴 Romania
 * Royal Romanian Air Force received 10 worn Do 17Ms in November 1942.
 * Spanish State
 * Spanish Air Force received ex-Legion Condor Do 17E, F, and Ps and 13 remained in service after the end of the Spanish Civil War.
 * Swiss Air Force operated a single Do 17Z-2, interned after landing at Basel Airport in April 1940.
 * Kingdom of Yugoslavia
 * Royal Yugoslav Air Force
 * Royal Air Force pressed into service two Yugoslav-built Do 17Ks which escaped Yugoslavia carrying King Peter and gold. The aircraft were given the serials AX706 and AX707. Both aircraft were destroyed in an air attack on Ismaïlia airfield on 27 August 1941.
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Army Air Forces obtained at least one Do 17E-1, WkNr 2095. Renamed Axis Sally, it was taken to the United States after the war and tested.
 * Royal Air Force pressed into service two Yugoslav-built Do 17Ks which escaped Yugoslavia carrying King Peter and gold. The aircraft were given the serials AX706 and AX707. Both aircraft were destroyed in an air attack on Ismaïlia airfield on 27 August 1941.
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Army Air Forces obtained at least one Do 17E-1, WkNr 2095. Renamed Axis Sally, it was taken to the United States after the war and tested.

Dornier Do 17Z Werknummer 1160
Until 2007 none of the Dornier twin-engined bomber variants were thought to have survived intact, but various large relics of the Do 17 and Do 215 are held by public museums and private collectors. In September 2007 a Do 215 B-5 (variant of Do 17Z) was found largely intact in the shallow waters off Waddenzee in the Netherlands. On 3 September 2010, the RAF Museum announced that a Do 17 had been discovered in 50 ft of water off the coast of England. The aircraft had been discovered in September 2008 on the Goodwin Sands, a large sandbank 6 km off the coast of Kent, but the discovery was kept a closely guarded secret. The Dornier Do 17Z-2, Werknummer 1160, built under license by Henschel with the full Geschwaderkennung (combat wing aircraft ID code) of 5K+AR, was operated by 7 Staffel, III Gruppe, Kampfgeschwader 3.

On 26 August 1940, 5K+AR was taking part in a raid by KG 2 and KG 3, targeting the RAF stations RAF Debden and RAF Hornchurch. While flying over clouds, the aircraft became separated from the bomber formation and lost its bearings; it was then attacked by Boulton Paul Defiant fighters of No. 264 Squadron RAF. One of the Dornier's engines was disabled and the other damaged, so the wounded pilot, Feldwebel (flight sergeant) Willi Effmert, elected to make a crash landing on the Goodwin Sands. He and another crew member survived and were taken prisoner. The other two crew were killed; one is buried at Cannock Chase German war cemetery and the other in the Netherlands. The identity of the Defiant that shot down the Dornier is not certain, although it may have been one of three 264 Squadron aircraft that was shot down soon after in a battle with Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter escorts from Jagdgeschwader 3. In June 2010 diving operations were carried out and the survey report indicated that the aircraft was largely complete, although 5K+AR lay inverted on the seabed, indicating that it ground-looped on landing. The port rudder, starboard stabiliser, forward nose glazing, undercarriage doors and engine cowling were missing, but the discovery of a small debris field associated with the wreck indicates that some or all of those parts may still be present at the site. Some items, including two of the Dornier's six MG 15 machine guns, are missing and are believed to have been removed by unauthorized divers sometime after the aircraft's discovery.

On 10 June 2013, a salvage team raised the airframe from the seabed. It was then taken to the Michael Beetham Restoration Centre at the Royal Air Force Museum's Cosford site, where metallurgists from Imperial College London have a significant role in the post-recovery conservation of the aircraft.

Dornier Do 17M-1 (Hansakollen, Norway)
On 2 July 1942, a Dornier Do 17M-1 crashed in Hansakollen in Maridalen, near Oslo, Norway. The Do 17 was heading to the airport at Gardermoen, but crashed into a mountainside. All three German aviators on board were killed. They are buried in the German war cemetery at Alfaset. The wreck is well preserved and remains clearly visible, nearly 80 years after the accident.

title: Dornier Do 17


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Birmingham City Council

Birmingham City Council is the local authority for the city of Birmingham in the West Midlands, England. Birmingham has had an elected local authority since 1838, which has been reformed several times. Since 1974 the council has been a metropolitan borough council. It provides the majority of local government services in the city. It is the most populous local government district in England, serving over 1.1million people. The council has been a member of the West Midlands Combined Authority since 2016.

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History
Until the 18th century, Birmingham was governed by manorial courts and its parish vestry. A body of improvement commissioners called the Birmingham Street Commissioners was established in 1769 to provide services in the rapidly growing town. Birmingham was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1838, after which it was governed by a body formally called 'the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the borough of Birmingham', generally known as the corporation or town council. William Scholefield became the first mayor and William Redfern was the first town clerk. The corporation absorbed the functions of the street commissioners in 1852.

Birmingham was granted city status on 14 January 1889, after which the corporation was also known as the city council. When elected county councils were established in April 1889, Birmingham was considered large enough to provide its own county-level services, and so it became a county borough, independent from the new Warwickshire County Council, whilst remaining part of the geographical county of Warwickshire. The dignity of a lord mayor was conferred in 1896, with James Smith being appointed the first Lord Mayor of Birmingham.

The city boundaries have been enlarged many times. Notable expansions were in 1891 (Balsall Heath, Harborne, Saltley and Little Bromwich), 1909 (Quinton), 1911 (Aston Manor, Erdington, Handsworth, Kings Norton, Northfield and Yardley), 1928 (Perry Barr), 1931 (Sheldon and parts of other parishes), and 1974 (Sutton Coldfield).

The county borough was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, being replaced by a metropolitan district of Birmingham, covering the area of the old county borough plus the borough of Sutton Coldfield. The new district was one of seven metropolitan districts within the new metropolitan county of the West Midlands. Birmingham's borough and city statuses and its lord mayoralty passed to the new district and its council.

From 1974 until 1986 the council was a lower-tier authority, with upper-tier functions provided by the West Midlands County Council. The county council was abolished in 1986 and its functions passed to the county's seven borough councils, including Birmingham City Council, with some services provided through joint committees. In 1995, New Frankley and the Kitwell Estate were transferred into the city from the parish of Frankley in Bromsgrove District.

Since 2016 the council has been a member of the West Midlands Combined Authority, which has been led by the directly elected Mayor of the West Midlands since 2017. The combined authority provides strategic leadership and co-ordination for certain functions across the county, but Birmingham City Council continues to be responsible for most local government functions.

On 5 September 2023, Birmingham City Council issued a Section 114 notice, being the local government equivalent of bankruptcy, stopping all future spending with the exception of money for statutory services, including the protection of vulnerable people. The leader of the Labour authority stated that the notice was a necessary step to get Birmingham back into a sound financial footing. The government subsequently appointed commissioners to oversee the running of the council under emergency measures.

Women and minorities
The first woman elected to the council, on 1 November 1911, was Ellen Pinsent. She represented the Edgbaston Ward as a Liberal Unionist. She had earlier been co-opted as a member of the council's Education Committee and served as Chairman of the Special School Sub-Committee. She stood down from the council in October 1913 upon appointment as Commissioner for the Board of Control for Lunacy and Mental Deficiency.

Pinsent's time on the council overlapped with that of Margaret Frances Pugh, who was elected on 22 November 1911 to serve in the North Erdington ward. She resigned in November 1913.

Birmingham's third woman councillor, Clara Martineau, was elected on 14 October 1913 in the Edgbaston ward, and served until 1932, when she died, aged 57. Her father was former Mayor Sir Thomas Martineau, Lord Mayor Ernest Martineau was her brother, and Alderman Sir George Kenrick was her uncle.

Mary Cottrell became the first female Labour councillor in February 1917, when she was elected unopposed to the Selly Oak ward. The first female Lord Mayor, Marjorie Brown, held the post from 1973 to 1974. Theresa Stewart became the first female leader in October 1993, until 1999; and Lin Homer the first female chief executive, was in post from 2002 until 2005.

Bert Carless, a migrant from Jamaica, was elected the City's first non-white councillor in 1979. He was later made an Honorary Alderman.

Governance
Birmingham City Council provides metropolitan borough services. Some strategic functions in the area are provided by the West Midlands Combined Authority; the leader and deputy leader of the city council sit on the board of the combined authority as Birmingham's representatives. There are two civil parishes in the city at Sutton Coldfield and New Frankley in Birmingham, which form an additional tier of local government for their areas; the rest of the city is unparished.

Political control
The council has been under Labour majority control since 2012.

Political control of the council since the 1974 reforms has been as follows:

Leadership
The role of Lord Mayor of Birmingham is largely ceremonial. Political leadership is instead provided by the leader of the council. The first leader of the council after the 1974 reforms, Clive Wilkinson, had been the leader of the old county borough of Birmingham since December 1973. The leaders since 1973 have been:

Composition
Following the 2022 election and subsequent by-elections and changes of allegiance up to June 2024, the composition of the council was:

The next election is due in May 2026.

Elections
Since the last boundary changes in 2018, the council has comprised 101 councillors representing 69 wards, with each ward electing one or two councillors. Elections are held every four years.

Wards and councillors
The wards and councillors are:

Premises
The council meets and has some offices at the Council House on Victoria Square in the city centre. The building was first completed in 1879 for the old borough council and has been extended several times since. The council has several other office buildings, notably at 10 Woodcock Street, completed in 2011. There are two customer services centres, at 67 Sutton New Road in Erdington and at 1a Vineyard Road in Northfield. The possible closure and sale of some of the council's buildings is being considered as part of addressing the council's financial difficulties following the issuing of the Section 114 notice in 2023.

Chief executives

Past chief executives have included:

 * 2019 – 2020 Clive Heaphy (Acting)
 * 2020 – Chris Naylor (Interim)
 * 2021 – Deborah Cadman
 * 2019 – 2020 Clive Heaphy (Acting)
 * 2020 – Chris Naylor (Interim)
 * 2021 – Deborah Cadman
 * 2019 – 2020 Clive Heaphy (Acting)
 * 2020 – Chris Naylor (Interim)
 * 2021 – Deborah Cadman
 * 2021 – Deborah Cadman

Services and facilities
Notable services provided and facilities managed by Birmingham City Council include:

 * Library of Birmingham
 * Public Library and Baths, Balsall Heath
 * Birmingham Wholesale Markets
 * Cemeteries
 * Brandwood End Cemetery
 * Handsworth Cemetery
 * Lodge Hill Cemetery
 * Witton Cemetery
 * Council House
 * Hall of Memory
 * Parks
 * Brookvale Park
 * Calthorpe Park
 * Handsworth Park
 * Kings Heath Park
 * Swanshurst Park
 * Several country parks

The city's museums were transferred to the independent Birmingham Museums Trust in 2012. The council sold its Ogwen Cottage Outdoor Pursuits Centre, by auction, in October 2014.

Highways
In 2010, Birmingham City Council agreed a 25 year deal with Amey plc to manage the city's highways, but, after allegations of sub-standard repairs to roads and pavements, the council invoked penalty clauses and entered into a prolonged legal dispute. In December 2018, Amey parent Ferrovial put the business up for sale, after allocating €237m for losses on Amey's highway maintenance contract with the Council. In February 2019, Amey was close to a deal to exit its Birmingham contract, liabilities from which were preventing the company's sale by Ferrovial. A £215m deal to terminate Amey's Birmingham contract was confirmed in July 2019. The council was set to receive £160m in 2019 with a further £55m paid over the next six years, with services continuing on an interim basis until September 2019, and potentially until March 2020. However, in February 2020, it was announced the Birmingham contract would end in March 2020; Kier Group was appointed as interim contractor for 15 months while the council sought a permanent replacement for Amey. In February 2022, the city council formally began the process of identifying a contractor to deliver £2.7 billion of works over 12 years, and invited Kier and Canadian firm SNC-Lavalin to tender for the city’s restructured highways PFI contract, covering more than 2,500km of road and 5,000km of footway. However, in October 2023, the council claimed the government was preparing to "pull the plug" on £600m of highways funding. Kier were awarded the restructured contract, set to start in February 2024, but the deal was subject to government approval.

title: Birmingham City Council