text:
Rafael Hernández Airport

Rafael Hernández International Airport (Aeropuerto Internacional Rafael Hernández) is a joint civil-military airport located in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico. It is named after the Puerto Rican composer Rafael Hernández Marín. It is Puerto Rico's second largest international airport in terms of passenger movement. It is located in Porta del Sol tourist region, in Puerto Rico's west coast. It is also home to Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen and to the Caribbean Branch of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Air and Marine Operations. The airport has the longest runway in the Caribbean region.

In the past, the airport has been served by major carriers like Capitol Air, Pan Am (II and III), Kiwi International Air Lines, TWA, American Airlines, Aeronaves de Puerto Rico and Delta Connection, and by Turkish Airlines Cargo on the cargo airline side. Taesa flew in 1996 from Benito Juárez International Airport in Mexico City, and at one time, Arrow Air flew domestic jet service between it and San Juan as well as to JFK International Airport in New York. Pan Am III also flew jets between Aguadilla and San Juan during the early 2000s. Currently, although the airport lacks non-stop flights to Asia, it is the only airport in Puerto Rico served by an Asian commercial airline, in this case by Emirates Sky Cargo.

History
In 1939, the Army sent Major George C. Kenney to Puerto Rico to conduct a preliminary survey of possible air base sites on Puerto Rico. He examined a total of 42 sites and declared that Punta Borinquen the best site for a major air base. Planted sugar cane farms covered some 3796 acre that the government purchased for military use in the first week of September 1939 at a cost of $1,215,000. Later that year, Major Karl S. Axtater assumed command of what was to become Borinquen Army Air Field.

With the establishment of an independent United States Air Force in 1947, the complex was renamed Ramey Air Force Base in 1948. Ramey AFB was home to a Strategic Air Command bombardment wing and housed a number of B-36 Peacemaker intercontinental bombers. The B-36s were later replaced by B-52 Stratofortress heavy bombers and KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft, while a tenant weather reconnaissance squadron operated WB-47 Stratojet and WC-130 Hercules aircraft. Due to the size and weight of the B-36, the runway at Ramey had to be built to a length of 11702 ft and a width of 200 ft, added an 870 ft Blast Pad at each end and a 50 ft shoulder on each side.

The closure of what became Ramey Air Force Base began in 1971 and lasted until 1973. Following its closure, it was converted into a civilian airport. It used to receive domestic commercial flights by Prinair and Vieques Air Link as well as service from JFK International Airport in New York City with Capitol Air, and 707 passenger flights from Miami with Southeast Airlines. It is also noted for being the place that the large clothing company, Wrangler Jeans used to land their planes filled with company-related cargo as part of their airline operation, Wrangler Aviation, which was later renamed to Sky Lease Cargo.

In the mid and late 1970s, the Ahrens Aircraft Corporation attempted to set up operations at former USAF industrial facilities at the airport in order to manufacture the Ahrens AR 404 regional airliner, a short takeoff and landing (STOL) turboprop aircraft, with financial incentives promised by the Puerto Rican government for development. However, a subsequent government investigation over these incentives ensued and the project was cancelled after only two AR 404s were built at Rafael Hernández Airport.

In 2004, the Puerto Rico Ports Authority announced that it would be remodeling and expanding BQN to accommodate more flights and passengers. An expansion of the terminal building and a new parking lot were among the projects in mind, with said expansion being inaugurated on July 12, 2005.

Since the closure of Ramey AFB in 1974, the airport's control tower had remained standing, but was non-operational, limiting the airport to UNICOM communication as an uncontrolled airport. Following refurbishment of the former USAF control tower in 2006 and 2007, the newly renovated control tower became operational on July 5, 2007.

On February 20, 2012, it was announced by both the mayor of Aguadilla and the U.S. Secretary of Commerce that the airport will be designated a "free trade zone" (FTZ), as are many other airports in the U.S., a move that is believed will improve the development of the airport and surrounding areas.

On April 10, 2014, Lufthansa Technik announced the creation of a maintenance, repair and overhaul center (MRO) at the airport. This created operations for maintenance of Lufthansa Aircraft flying on the Americas, starting with 2 reconditioning lines by C and D checks for the Airbus A320, with plans to expand up to 5 reconditioning lines.

Passenger service
In 1988, Carnival Airlines and ATA began passenger jet service. In the 1990s, American Airlines, joined those two airlines, followed by Pan Am II and TWA. Carnival Airlines provided Airbus A300 service to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey and Fort Lauderdale International Airport in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. In the early 1990s, Carnival Airlines also operated the first intra-Puerto Rican jet service from the airport to Ponce with Boeing 727s and Airbus A300s. Another carrier, Prinair, also had previously conducted operations at Rafael Hernández Airport. North Cay Airways also provided passenger air service from San Juan at some time during the airport's history.

In 2000, North American Airlines reopened passenger service with a non-stop flight to New York JFK three times a week. Later, Continental Airlines joined North American with a daily flight to their hub in Newark. Continental has since merged with United Airlines, and the latter airline has continued to provide service. Boston-Maine Airways began service to Orlando Sanford International Airport in Florida and to Santo Domingo.

In 2005, JetBlue began a daily flight to their hub at New York JFK. Soon after the arrival of JetBlue, North American ceased operations. As a result, JetBlue announced that it would add a second daily flight to New York JFK.

In 2006, Delta Connection began regional jet service to Atlanta, Georgia, five times a week, although this service ended on January 20, 2007, as part of Delta's restructuring plan. Later in 2007, JetBlue began service to Orlando International Airport in Florida.

In the summer of 2007, Spirit Airlines announced plans to begin service from the airport to their hub in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with a flight five times a week during the summer. It then reduced its service frequency to a flight two times a week.

In 2007, there were 59 flights per week, 1 daily flight to New York City, 1 to Newark and Orlando and a flight 5 times per week to Fort Lauderdale.

Spirit increased their flight frequency to daily to/from Fort Lauderdale. In addition, Spirit added a daily non-stop service to Orlando in February 2008. JetBlue continued to have two daily flights to New York City after the holiday season, adding a second daily flight to/from Orlando on May 1, 2008. On June 2, 2008, Pan Am World Airways Dominicana restored service between the airport and Santo Domingo-Las Americas as well as to Punta Cana in the Dominican Republic.

On May 24, 2022, Frontier Airlines launched service for the first time to/from Orlando International Airport (MCO). The new service operates three to four times weekly and marks the airline's 13th route serving Puerto Rico from destinations in the U.S. and the Caribbean.

Spirit eventually stopped all flights from Aguadilla in 2023.

Facilities
Rafael Hernández Airport covers an area of 1600 acres (647 ha). BQN has one runway, 8/26: 11,702 ft x 200 ft (3,567 m x 61 m) Asphalt/Concrete.

North Side
The north side of the airport consists of a passenger terminal with an international side capable of handling flights of over 200 passengers. It also hosts the Main Cargo Terminal, the FedEx Terminal, and the General Aviation Terminal. The north side also houses the Copeca Jet Center Executive Terminal, as well as five service hangars. The military side of the airport is also located on the north side, housing Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen, a United States Coast Guard facility, as well as the 141st Air Control Squadron (which operates at the Punta Borinquen Radar Station), a non-flying unit of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard. Many Federal law enforcement agencies such as the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the US Border Patrol Ramey Sector in Map and the CBP Air and Marine Operations Operating Locations Southeast Region Caribbean Air and Marine Branch based their operations on this side of the airport.

The closure of what became Ramey Air Force Base began in 1971 and lasted until 1973. Following its closure, it was converted into a civilian airport. It used to receive domestic commercial flights by Prinair and Vieques Air Link as well as service from JFK International Airport in New York City with Capitol Air, and 707 passenger flights from Miami with Southeast Airlines. It is also noted for being the place that the large clothing company, Wrangler Jeans used to land their planes filled with company-related cargo as part of their airline operation, Wrangler Aviation, which was later renamed to Sky Lease Cargo.

In the mid and late 1970s, the Ahrens Aircraft Corporation attempted to set up operations at former USAF industrial facilities at the airport in order to manufacture the Ahrens AR 404 regional airliner, a short takeoff and landing (STOL) turboprop aircraft, with financial incentives promised by the Puerto Rican government for development. However, a subsequent government investigation over these incentives ensued and the project was cancelled after only two AR 404s were built at Rafael Hernández Airport.

In 2004, the Puerto Rico Ports Authority announced that it would be remodeling and expanding BQN to accommodate more flights and passengers. An expansion of the terminal building and a new parking lot were among the projects in mind, with said expansion being inaugurated on July 12, 2005.

Since the closure of Ramey AFB in 1974, the airport's control tower had remained standing, but was non-operational, limiting the airport to UNICOM communication as an uncontrolled airport. Following refurbishment of the former USAF control tower in 2006 and 2007, the newly renovated control tower became operational on July 5, 2007.

On February 20, 2012, it was announced by both the mayor of Aguadilla and the U.S. Secretary of Commerce that the airport will be designated a "free trade zone" (FTZ), as are many other airports in the U.S., a move that is believed will improve the development of the airport and surrounding areas.

On April 10, 2014, Lufthansa Technik announced the creation of a maintenance, repair and overhaul center (MRO) at the airport. This created operations for maintenance of Lufthansa Aircraft flying on the Americas, starting with 2 reconditioning lines by C and D checks for the Airbus A320, with plans to expand up to 5 reconditioning lines.

South Side
The south side of the airport is the largest portion of the airport, but is currently undeveloped. Since the airport was transferred from the U.S. Air Force and the General Services Administration (GSA) to Puerto Rico Port Authority in 1973, the south side has been the object of various disputes and competing political campaign promises by local elected officials and local political candidates. Despite such promises over the past four decades, the south side remains undeveloped. Under the administration of Sila M. Calderón and Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, a master plan was conceived to turn the south side into an air cargo hub for the Caribbean, but local residents objected to the use of the south side for cargo rather than a modern passenger terminal.

Passenger Terminal
The passenger terminal was upgraded to include air conditioning, more space for modern airline ticket counters and car rental counters. It consists of two gates, Gate 14 and Gate 15. Gate 15 is used for departures while Gate 14 is used for arrivals. The terminal is divided into two sections, domestic and the international, with the domestic side equipped with a United States Department of Agriculture facility, while the international side contains a United States Customs inspection facility.

Cargo Terminal
The cargo section of the airport is divided in two sections, the Main Terminal and the FedEx Terminal. The FedEx Terminal is home to FedEx and its local affiliates. The remaining Cargo Carriers are located in the Main Terminal.

The U.S Coast Guard and various reserve components of the Armed Forces maintain a military presence within the former Air Force base. Many Federal law enforcement agencies such as the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the United States Border Patrol Ramey sector and the CBP Air and Marine Operations Caribbean Branch operate at the airport.

Future expansion
A January 16, 2010, news report stated that the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved a master plan to redevelop the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla that would involve an investment of $1 billion over the next 20 years. In 2010, the Aguadilla airport had two commercial passenger gates. The master plan calls for a total of 30 commercial passenger gates.

There are also plans to expand the airport access road.

There are official plans to renovate the runway to coincide with FedEx’s expansion. There are plans to add a second runaway to the airport.

In June 2021, an official plan of expansion was announced by the Puerto Rico Ports Authority and paid by the FAA. The expansion plan includes building a new runway to replace the current one completed by 2027 as the current runway has only five years left of service, having been built in the 1930s for World War II.

Aside from the new runway, a new passenger terminal and three new cargo warehouses are planned to be built. The Puerto Rico Ports Authority seeks to bring back airlines with the new expansion. There are also plans to renovate the airport's facilities including bathrooms, relocating stores, adding jet bridges and more.

Passenger
JetBlue studied expansion for the 3 main airports in Puerto Rico for 2011 (Aguadilla, Ponce, and San Juan) and is one of two airlines that operate in all three airports. In the past, American Airlines offered service to their hub in Miami from Rafael Hernández Airport. Previously, the airport was closed due to the pandemic and passenger flights weren't permitted. On April 1, 2021, the airport reopened for passenger flights.

Statistics
This table shows the continuous growth of passenger traffic at the airport since 2001, but affected in 2009 by the lack of new flights:   For the year 2007, the airport transported 400,473 passengers, nearly a 500% increase in five years. Rafael Hernández Airport has an average of 47 regular passengers flights per week.

Access
The airport can be accessed via two highways from.
 * Arecibo and points east including Isabela and Camuy are connected to the airport via PR-110.
 * Mayagüez and points south including downtown Aguadilla, Rincon, and Cabo Rojo are connected to the airport via PR-107.

Accidents and incidents

 * On June 4, 1946, a USAAF Douglas C-47 crashed 1.5 mi ESE of then Ramey AFB while practicing single-engine landings. Three out of the four occupants on board were killed.
 * On May 3, 1960, a Navegação Aérea Brasileira (NAB) Curtiss C-46 Commando crashed into a small hill on approach to Ramey AFB on a delivery flight from Miami. All five occupants were killed.
 * On May 10, 1991, a Douglas DC-3 of Four Star Air Cargo crashed shortly after takeoff due to an engine malfunction and pilot error, causing the aircraft to stall. Both occupants died.
 * On February 3, 1992, a C-54 of Dominican airline Aerolineas Mundo-AMSA had a runway collision with a Lockheed Super Constellation, suffering a fire and being damaged beyond repair.
 * On August 7, 2002, a C-130 Hercules had taken off from BQN before crashing in Caguas, killing all 10 occupants.
 * On August 30, 2013, a Martinair Cargo MD-11 aircraft, taking off for a flight to London Stansted Airport, suffered an engine fire and had to abort the takeoff. There were no injuries to the plane's crew, but the airplane suffered substantial damage to the number one engine, nacelle and aircraft's structure.
 * On July 11, 2024, a Cessna 402B aircraft that belonged to WJ Medical Consulting took off from Aguadilla to Isla Grande Airport in San Juan. Five minutes later, it was observed losing altitude near San Antonio barrio. The airplane attempted to do an emergency landing at Aguadilla airport, but it crashed, killing its pilot, 47 year old Wilfredo Juarbe Saldana. A man who was riding a bicycle near the place where the plane crashed was also injured when the crash's impact caused him to land on a street nearby. According to Primera Hora newspaper, there was one passenger on the aircraft,and that passenger was uninjured. According to the Aviation Safety Network, however, there was no passenger on board the aircraft.

title: Rafael Hernández Airport


text:
Talk:Der Schneemann

Availability
Can Anyone tell me if Der Schneemann is available anywhere to purchase? This is a vivid childhood memory for me and I will pay a nice price for the film, especially on VHS or DVD.
 * Well, it's almost three years since you asked, but Der Schneemann has appeared as a response to my clicking on Random Article. If you have not found it yet, Der Schneemann is available, well-reviewed, and priced at $13.99 USD at amazon.com in the collection The Golden Age of Cartoons: Cartoons for Victory!.  Sorry for the delay in answering!  Now for my own question, below:

Propaganda value?
I'm usually pretty good at reading between the lines, but what is the propaganda value of this cartoon? --CliffC 17:58, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes I agree, the article says that this was "created by the Nazis as propaganda material". Was it actually created by the Nazis though? Who exactly do we mean? Or does it just mean created under the Nazi regime? Also I don't see how this is propaganda. It just seems like a story about a snowman to me. SIGURD42 18:56, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

 * There are several other Fischerkoesen films at the link in the article, don't miss them. The "Das Dumme Gänslein" description says "Fischerkoesen demonstrated that even at the darkest, most menacing hours of human depravity, men of principle may resist by subverting, with subtlety, the rules and prejudices of the tyrant."  I think it's a great cartoon (with anatomically revealing geese), but I don't see the propaganda here either.  There's also a nice collection of pre-war animated ads.  --CliffC 23:39, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Well I've changed it. I've watched it and I'm certain its not propaganda. SIGURD42 10:46, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Don't forget that the masterword for the nazis was "Deutschland über alles" (Germany over all). One of there challenge was to make german people love there own country. That's why the first german "Autobahn" (hi traffic street) where not "straight" but made multiples detour to show the best places of the german landscape.In the same order of idea, the city (first scene of the Schneemann) have nice polished houses. All the other scene in this film show beautyfull landsacpe. During the time the snowman is waiting for the summer in the refrigerator, the spectator see the wake-up of the nature during the spring showing one after the other typical flowers an trees that can be seen in Germany. The german spectator can quickly find comfortable in the decorum of this film. [Nieriker, Lausanne, Switzerland, 06.08.2007]

 * I do see what you're saying but there is a difference between propoganda and an idealised image of something. This film doesn't seem to have any particular agenda, instead it is done in a simple style aimed at children. I certainly don't think it was right to call it propaganda as it once was in the article. SIGURD42 10:32, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Correct, otherwise we would have to label every TV ad for lawn fertilizer or house paint as propaganda too. :) --CliffC 14:12, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

Updates
Well I've done the best I can. I've updated the synopsis and the intro. I've changed and removed the bits that have simply been lifted from Google Video. I doubt you will ever be able to get a decent, worthy picture for this article though. I could take a screenshot of the one on Google Video but I don't have a clue about the copyright issues etc. Any ideas? SIGURD42 12:35, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

Also, if somebody could please sort out my English sometime that would be great! SIGURD42

 * Thanks for the much-improved synopsis, it will make the film much easier to appreciate for the next person who happens to wander in here. I won't "sort out" your English because I don't think it requires any, it's very good.  I did rearrange this page to get the newest items at the bottom.  As to copyright, I found some past discussion of German (and perhaps EU?) copyrights here, but I don't know what it means in this case.  Best regards, CliffC 13:37, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Well thanks for the comment! After looking at other articles and the way they use screenshots I'm fairly sure I can use one here so I'll upload that soon. SIGURD42 21:27, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Done and done :) Hope everythings OK with that. SIGURD42 22:00, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Der Schneemann


text:
Saskadena Six

Saskadena Six (formerly Suicide Six) is a ski resort in South Pomfret, Vermont. Its claim to historical fame as the earliest ski resort derives from the installation, in January 1934, of an improvised rope tow, the first in the United States, on a hill located on Clinton Gilbert's farm. The rope tow was originally powered with a Ford Model T engine. By the following month, Wallace "Bunny" Bertram (a former ski coach at Dartmouth College who had helped build the original rope lift) took over the operation, and installed a more reliable electric motor. A few years later he moved his operation to a steeper hill nearby, shown on the map as "Hill 6". Bertram once joked that to ski down the nearby Hill No. 6 would be suicide. Two years later the resort was opened using this name and photos of Bertram can be seen in the resort museum in the base lodge. Devotees of ski mountaineering and backcountry skiing mark this as the beginning of the divergence of resort skiing and traditional backcountry skiing.

Suicide Six was the location of the first National Snow Surfing Championships in 1982, considered an important event in the development of snowboarding as a sport, which later would become the U.S. Open Snowboarding Championships.

Bunny Bertram sold Suicide Six to Laurance Rockefeller in 1961, and the development continued of the ski resort in conjunction with Rockefeller's nearby Woodstock Inn. In a 2004 article, the Boston Globe described Suicide Six as "steeped in history", and now a "low key" location for "a taste of rural skiing". As of late 2011, when Suicide Six marked its 75th anniversary, the facility included 23 runs and continued to operate as the ski area of the Woodstock Inn. In 2016, S6 celebrated its 81st anniversary, and installed a brand new Leitner-Poma Alpha quad chairlift, over 2000 ft in length to the summit. In 2018, the mountain had developed summer programs, and opened a lift-served mountain bike park, only the 6th such park in the state of Vermont. In 2020, the lift served mountain biking was ceased, but the area is open to the public to park and ride up/down as they please. Maintenance of the MTB trails has been assumed by the Woodstock Area Mountain Bike Association (WAMBA). The continued investment and development into the area as a year-round destination continues to add vibrance and activities to the region in the heart of the Green Mountains.

Suicide Six is host to the longest running ski race in North America, The Fisk Trophy Race. It was first held in 1937 and is a rite of passage for serious eastern ski racers. Notable past winners include Bode Miller, Chip Knight, Jimmy Cochran, Shane McConkey, and many other Olympians, US Ski Team members, and NCAA Champions.

On June 28, 2022, the ski area announced on their website that they would be retiring the Suicide Six name.

title: Saskadena Six


text:
USS Thresher (SS-200)

USS Thresher (SS-200) was the most decorated United States Navy submarine of World War II, with 15 battle stars and a Navy Unit Commendation. Thresher was the third of twelve Tambor-class submarines that were commissioned. All twelve fought in the war, and she was one of five to survive it.

Construction and commissioning
Thresher's keel was laid down on 27 May 1939 at the Electric Boat Company of Groton, Connecticut. She was launched on 27 March 1940, sponsored by Mrs. Margaret Cox Jones, wife of Rear Admiral Claud A. Jones and commissioned on 27 August 1940, with Lieutenant Commander William Lovett Anderson in command.

August 1940–December 1941
Following training and sea trials, Thresher got underway from New London, Connecticut on 25 October 1940 for engineering trials in Gravesend Bay, New York, and shakedown off the Dry Tortugas.

She operated along the United States East Coast into 1941. She departed on 1 May 1941 for the Caribbean Sea, transiting the Panama Canal on 9 May, stopping in San Diego, California, through 21 May, and arriving at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on 31 May. She operated from the Hawaiian Islands into the fall of 1941, as tensions rose in the Far East and the United States prepared for war in both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Thresher and her sister ship USS Tautog (SS-199) departed Submarine Base Pearl Harbor on 31 October 1941 on a simulated war patrol north of Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Both carried live torpedoes. Tautog returned first, and on 7 December 1941 Thresher neared the main Hawaiian Islands to end her cruise. Escorted by the destroyer USS Litchfield (DD-336) through Hawaiian waters lest she be mistaken for a hostile submarine, Thresher received word at 08:10 that Pearl Harbor was under attack by Japanese aircraft.

First and second
Litchfield promptly set off to join American light forces departing from the harbor, leaving Thresher alone to conduct her first real war patrol. However, the destroyer was ordered back to escort; radio contact was established, and a rendezvous arranged, with Thresher. At the pre-appointed time, Thresher poked up her periscope to have a look, and noticed a destroyer—similar to Litchfield—approaching bows-on. Instead of a warm reception from friends, she got a hot reception from the destroyer's forward gunners, who opened fire on her as soon as her black conning tower broke the surface. Thresher immediately went deep to avoid. She again tried to enter the harbor on 8 December, but was driven off by depth-bombs from a patrol plane, before USS Thornton (AVD-11) finally arrived to provide safe conduct for the boat at midday.

Departing Pearl Harbor on 30 December 1941, Thresher headed for the Marshall and Mariana Islands. Reconnoitering Majuro, Arno, and Mili atolls from 9 to 13 January 1942, she shifted to waters off Japanese-held Guam in the early morning darkness of 4 February. A little before daybreak, a small freighter was sighted 7 mi north of Agana Harbor and Thresher closed for the attack. She loosed a three-torpedo spread, holing the ship and sending it down by the bow and dead in the water. Thresher then fired another spread of torpedoes, but all missed. Upon returning to the scene one-half-hour later the ship was gone and Thresher thought she had scored a kill; postwar accounting did not substantiate it.

While en route home to Pearl Harbor on 24 February, an overzealous Navy plane attacked Thresher but did no damage and the sub safely returned to port on 26 February.

Third and fourth
After refit, Thresher departed 23 March 1942 for a patrol area near the Japanese home islands. There, she was to gather weather data off Honshū for use by Admiral William Halsey's task force (the carriers USS Enterprise (CV-6) and USS Hornet (CV-8), then approaching Japan. Embarked in Hornet were 16 United States Army Air Forces B-25 Mitchell medium bombers, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle, intended to attack Tokyo on 18 April.

Warned by ULTRA of four Japanese submarines operating off Tokyo Bay, Thresher was detected by one of them and fired on, without damage.

On the morning of 10 April, Thresher sighted a large Japanese freighter. A three-torpedo spread was fired and all missed as the target escaped in the mist. When the target emerged from the murk, Thresher was not in a position to launch another attack and proceeded on her way.

A second target was sighted later that day, and this time the hunting was better. One torpedo broke the back of freighter Sado Maru (3,000 tons) off Yokohama, sending it to the bottom in less than three minutes. The subsequent depth charge attack was delivered by three or four patrol vessels (one of the most severe of the war) caused Thresher to lose depth control and she plunged to 400 ft, which was below her test depth, before control was regained. She then disobeyed orders and remained to assist Halsey.

On 13 April, running on the surface to recharge her batteries, Thresher took a wave over her conning tower. Water cascaded down the open hatch and rushed into the boat, shorting many electrical circuits. For a short time, there was a significant danger that chlorine gas would be released, but quick thinking and damage control prevented any hazard. Eventually, all shorts were repaired and the boat pumped out.

The next day, Thresher departed her assigned patrol area and turned her attention to gathering weather data. She conducted periscope patrols in the advance screen of Halsey's task force, searching for any enemy craft that could warn the Japanese homeland. She was detached from this duty on 16 April and, after evading two Japanese patrol planes, returned to Pearl Harbor on 29 April.

On 26 June 1942, Thresher commenced her fourth war patrol heading for waters between the Palau and the Marshall Islands. On 6 July one torpedo struck home during an attack on a tanker off Enijun Pass. The two surface escorts were soon joined by aircraft and, after a three-hour depth charging, Thresher was able to resume her search for other targets.

Three days later, midway between Kwajalein and Wotje atolls, Thresher fired two torpedoes at a 4,836 ton torpedo boat tender which caused tremendous explosions as the tender sank beneath the waves. Thresher withdrew from expected countermeasures. Within an hour, two depth charges shook the boat, and ten minutes later, a banging and clanking alerted her to the fact the Japanese were apparently bringing a large grapnel into play in an attempt to capture the boat.

After applying full right rudder, Thresher made a 10‑minute high-speed run which shook her free from the giant hook. Then, as a depth charge exploded near her conning tower, the boat went deeper. Bending on rudder, Thresher left the enemy behind, with some 30-odd depth charges exploding in her wake. Shaken but not seriously damaged, Thresher made minor repairs as she headed for Truk to reconnoiter the passes leading into this enemy naval bastion.

Missing a freighter with torpedoes on the night of 20 July, Thresher surfaced in a rain squall before daybreak the next morning. The boat's sonar picked up the sound of screws, close and closing. Soon an enemy patrol craft came into view, on a collision course. Surprisingly, the Japanese chose not to ram, but instead turned hard right, and came to a parallel course some 50 yd away. Thresher went deep, while the enemy's guns fired close but ineffective salvoes into the water ahead of the disappearing boat.

After escaping to the Palaus, Thresher tangled with an enemy Q-ship off Ambon in the former Netherlands East Indies. The two torpedoes she fired at the enemy failed to explode, and the Q-ship subjected Thresher to a salvo of eight depth charges before giving up the attack. Since she had been reassigned to the Southwest Pacific Submarine Force, Thresher sailed away from this encounter en route to Australian waters and terminated her fourth war patrol at Fremantle on 15 August.

Fifth and sixth
After refit, Thresher loaded mines and departed Fremantle on 15 September 1942, bound for the Gulf of Siam. She fired torpedoes at two freighters north of Lombok Strait on 19 September but was unable to determine the results of her attacks. On the night of 25 September, luck again failed to smile on her as a single torpedo streaked beneath a large, high-speed target in the Sulu Sea.

Thresher later surfaced at 23:00 and proceeded on a course which took her north to Pearl Bank. There, in the northernmost reaches of the Gulf of Siam, she made one of the first mine plants by a submarine in the Pacific War. These strategic mine fields laid by Thresher and her sisters in subsequent patrols, covered Japanese shipping lanes in areas of the Southwest Pacific Command previously unpatrolled by submarines. Later, these minefields filled the gap between patrol zones along the coastal waters of Malaya, Siam, and Indochina, when many boats were diverted to participate in the Solomon Islands campaign.

While reconnoitering off Balikpapan, Borneo, and the Celebes coast, Thresher sighted a tanker aground on a reef off Kapoposang Island in the Java Sea. She soon surfaced for a deck gun attack and left the enemy ship with decks awash. The boat then returned to Fremantle on 12 November for refit.

Underway from Fremantle on 16 December 1942, she arrived off Soerabaya, Java, on 25 December. She intercepted a convoy of freighters, escorted by two destroyers, several subchasers, and two aircraft. Slipping past the escorts, Thresher sent five torpedoes towards the leading three ships. Two successive explosions followed. Rising to periscope depth, the boat observed the second ship in the column down by the bow, with her stern up in the air and her screws, still revolving, out of the water. A second ship lay dead in the water, enveloped in smoke. Escaping unscathed from this tangle with a coastal convoy, Thresher sighted an enemy aircraft carrier the next night, but was picked up by escorts and held at bay for more than an hour while the tempting target faded into the night.

On the night of 29 December 1942, Thresher (now in the hands of William J. "Moke" Millican, Class of 1928) made contact with a 3,000-ton freighter. Just before midnight, she fired a spread of torpedoes at the cargo ship, but all missed or ran too deep. Undaunted, she waited for the moonrise and then surfaced to use her deck gun. Outmaneuvering the enemy, who tried to ram her, Thresher scored eight hits in succession with her 5 in main gun, where her target probably sank in the shallow water, one of the few sunk entirely by deck guns.

Seventh
After arriving back in Fremantle on 10 January 1943, the boat got underway 15 days later for her seventh war patrol, with four torpedoes short of a normal load. At 11:00 on 14 February, Thresher made contact with a Japanese I-65 class submarine east of Thwartway Island. She launched two torpedoes; one was a dud, and the other exploded on the ocean bottom. Turning north and firing deck guns, Thresher's adversary soon disappeared over the horizon.

Proceeding to the Flores Sea, Thresher intercepted a three-ship convoy escorted by two anti-submarine vessels on 21 February. One of the sub's two torpedoes hit the stern of a transport. Thresher then evaded 13 depth charges before returning to periscope depth a little more than an hour later. She observed her target lying dead in the water while barges lightered troops to an undamaged mate. As escorts searched the waters nearby, Thresher closed and torpedoed the second transport, which had stopped to transfer survivors. Two loud explosions reverberated in the background as the boat dived to avoid possible countermeasures.

The following day, Thresher returned to celebrate Washington's Birthday by finishing off the first transport which jack-knifed into a " " shape and sank within three minutes.

Thresher prowled for more game and came upon a tanker and a freighter on 2 March. A single torpedo hit on the 5,232-ton tanker and it sank. The freighter, sighting torpedo wakes, took evasive action to avoid being hit. Then, a nearby escort arrived on the scene and kept Thresher at bay while the target escaped. The boat subsequently concluded this patrol arriving at Fremantle on 10 March.

On her return to base, her skipper roundly criticized the torpedoes, especially the failure to sink the I-boat. Admiral Ralph W. Christie denied it and relieved him.

Eighth and ninth
Her eighth war patrol (commanded by Harry Hull, Class of 1932), lasting 4 April to 23 May 1943, was uneventful, but her ninth saw the boat score another kill. Off Balikpapan, Borneo, she sighted a three-ship convoy, escorted by a sole destroyer (Hokaze) on the night of 30 June 1943. After an unrewarding try with a trio of torpedoes, Thresher dodged the escort's depth charging attack and returned for another attempt. Tracking with radar, Thresher set a tanker ablaze from stem to stern and scored hits on a 5,274-ton passenger freighter in the Makassar Strait.

Heading for Tambu Bay on the morning of 5 July, Thresher tracked a tanker. Chasing her quarry along the Sulawesi (Celebes) coast, the submarine lurked nearby until the escort left. Thresher then closed, loosed three torpedoes, and scored one hit on the bow of the enemy vessel. This blow failed to stop the tanker, which fired her guns to keep Thresher at bay as she escaped at high speed.

Four days later, Thresher arrived off Catmou Point, Negros Island. Under cover of darkness, the boat surfaced and delivered 500 lb of stores and 40,000 rounds of ammunition to Filipino guerrillas. Receiving intelligence documents in return, Thresher got underway for a resumption of her patrol shortly before midnight on 9 July. She soon departed the Philippines and sailed via Midway Island and Pearl Harbor to the west coast for a major overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Vallejo, California.

Tenth
Newly refitted and again commanded by Harry Hull, Thresher departed the west coast on 8 October 1943 and arrived at Pearl Harbor one week later; she commenced her tenth war patrol on 1 November, bound for the waters north of the Caroline Islands. Prowling north of Truk, Thresher commenced tracking a five-ship convoy on the morning of 12 November and slipped past two escorts shortly before midnight.

She fired three torpedoes into a 4,862-ton transport. The next attack, another three torpedo spread, missed their mark. Escorting antisubmarine craft hunted in vain for the American attacker, dropping 20 depth charges in a harassing barrage.

Eleventh and twelfth
Thresher’s 11th war patrol (this one under command of Duncan C. MacMillan, Class of 1926 ) took her to the South China Sea south of Formosa. While cruising on the surface on 10 January 1944, Thresher sighted a pair of masts, low on the horizon, and quickly dove to avoid possible detection. Coming to periscope depth soon thereafter, she approached cautiously, keeping in mind the ship may have been the advance screen of a convoy. The contact proved to be a 150-ton trawler. Thresher battle-surfaced, commencing fire at 6000 yd; the trawler sank after Thresher expended 45 5 in shells, 1,000 rounds of .50 cal (12.7 mm); and 770 20 mm rounds.

Thresher next set course for the Luzon Strait, between Batan Island and Luzon, in the Philippines. At 11:43 on 15 January, she came to the surface and spotted a Japanese aircraft carrier with an escorting destroyer soon thereafter. The boat submerged to periscope depth in time to observe two enemy destroyers rapidly approaching. With insufficient time to maneuver for a "down the throat" shot, Thresher went deep and rigged for silent running. The destroyer churned overhead and dropped four depth charges, none close. After remaining overhead two hours, dropping between ten and fifteen more depth charges, the enemy finally turned away, leaving Thresher unscathed.

Again coming to periscope depth at 17:00, Thresher soon sighted a four-ship convoy at 12000 yd with a single sub-chaser as escort. Surfacing at 19:11, Thresher began the chase, tracking the convoy by radar. The three leading targets steamed in column, with the escort between the third and fourth merchantmen. Thresher maneuvered to the west to silhouette the targets against the rising moon. The convoy changed course at 21:55, giving Thresher an excellent setup for her stern tubes. At 22:07, the boat let fly from 1800 yd with four torpedoes at the lead ship, a 6,960 ton freighter. Thresher observed two hits, and the vessel, its bow in the air, was observed in a sinking condition.

Thresher next fired three bow tubes at the second target, a 4,092 ton freighter. Three torpedoes struck the freighter and literally blew her to pieces. The cargo of oil burst into flames and illuminated the night as brightly as day.

The third ship started firing on Thresher with deck guns, passing down the port side at 800 yd. With the submarine now readily visible, and her stern tubes dry, Thresher dove as bullets from the approaching escort splashed nearby. Thresher counted some 20 explosions from depth charges before the patrol craft left an hour later. Upon surfacing, Thresher was again alone and set off to patrol along the Singapore-to-Japan trade route.

On 26 January, Thresher made radar contact with a small convoy and soon spotted two ships steaming along beneath the overcast night skies. At 00:11, Thresher fired three bow torpedoes at a 1,266-ton freighter, then bent cleared the area. Her "fish" scored a bullseye, and the quarry disappeared within a minute. A second spread, 35 seconds after the first, claimed a 2,205-ton freighter. A third target made off to the south at high speed, "spraying the ocean with five-inch ammunition". Resuming the approach at 00:20, Thresher doggedly tailed the Japanese ship for four hours before reaching a favorable attack position. Firing her last torpedoes at 04:46, Thresher began to build up speed and had just commenced a turn when one torpedo struck the enemy ship, causing a tremendous explosion. The blast slowed the freighter, but its tremendous concussion stopped Thresher dead in the water. All four main engine overspeed trips were actuated; cork insulation flew; lights broke; clocks stopped; and water poured down the antenna trunk. By the time Thresher regained battle readiness, the enemy was too far away to encourage further pursuit. Well within the range of shore-based aircraft, Thresher quit the chase. Escorts, alerted to the fact an American submarine was prowling in the vicinity, arrived on the scene and conducted a three-hour-long, futile, depth-charging.

On 28 and 29 January, Thresher patrolled the Formosa-to-Palau route, in the Luzon Strait, before returning via Midway Island to Pearl Harbor where she arrived on 18 February. There, Lieutenant Commander MacMillan was awarded the Navy Cross for his aggressive action during the patrol.

Thresher went to sea again on 18 March 1944, departing Pearl Harbor for the central Caroline Islands. She remained on air-sea rescue ("lifeguard") station during American carrier strikes on Truk, bombarded Oroluk Atoll on 11 April, and photographed islands in that group. The boat played "hide and seek" with numerous enemy aircraft and witnessed several American bombing raids on Truk. She sighted only two enemy ships and was unable to attack either, before she returned to Pearl Harbor on 8 May.

Thirteenth
On 14 June 1944, Thresher headed out for her 13th war patrol, again commanded by MacMillan. 25 June, she joined a "wolfpack" that also included USS Apogon (SS-308), USS Guardfish (SS-217), and USS Piranha (SS-389). Nicknamed the "Mickey Finns" and under the overall command of Captain William V. "Mickey" O'Regan (flying his flag in Guardfish), the group picked up "ditching signals" from a downed aircraft that afternoon and changed course to investigate. Arriving in the vicinity on 27 June, they found only a drop tank and no trace of plane or pilot.

Over the succeeding days, the boats observed several planes but contacted only a few fishing vessels and small patrol craft. This drought of targets continued until 11 July, when Thresher made radar contact with a group of six ships steaming on the Formosa-Luzon route. As she changed course to intercept, she dispatched contact reports to the other boats. Guardfish and Apogon picked up the contact, but Piranha could not. Thresher deployed to a position 15000 yd astern of the convoy, to trail the enemy group and be ready to pick off stragglers. Guardfish took the enemy's port flank, and Apogon maneuvered to the convoy's starboard quarter.

A Japanese escort latched on to Thresher, however, and trailed her, depriving her of a chance to attack the convoy. Meanwhile, Piranha managed to sink a 6,504-ton passenger/cargo ship. Apogon was rammed and forced to return to base for repairs.

Rendezvousing on 13 July, the remaining boats resumed the hunt. At 16:00 on 16 July, Thresher sighted smoke on the horizon. She surfaced and dispatched a contact report. After a cat-and-mouse period of some two hours, she noted the convoy consisted of six ships: a large tanker, three freighters, and two escorts.

Thresher closed beneath a clear and dark night sky. At 23:29, with the range to the near escort at 2000 yd, she commenced fire. Three torpedoes sped from the forward tubes toward the lead escort, three to the first freighter. Thresher then turned and emptied all four stern tubes at the second freighter. Four explosions were sighted and as Thresher departed at high speed, another six soon after.

Commencing a reload of her tubes at midnight (00.00 or 24.00), Thresher returned to the area and continued the attack on the convoy which consisted now of only three ships: a freighter, the oiler, and an escort. At 01:18, Thresher fired two bow tubes at the escort and three at the leading freighter; the sub then fired her stern tubes at the oiler. Soon thereafter, Thresher heard at least six explosions. The escort promptly began a depth charge barrage. Returning to periscope depth, Thresher found the convoy had remained stubbornly afloat. She began reloading her tubes again at 01.22 and returned to the chase.

While tube number six was still being reloaded, Thresher fired two other bow tubes at the freighter, two more at the oiler, and the remaining full one at the escort; she then swung about and fired one stern tube at the latter. Two torpedoes exploded at 02:46, and the cargo ship sank immediately. One minute later, two "fish" struck the oiler. A tremendous explosion lighted the entire sky, and the ship sank within 15 seconds.

While it could not be ascertained whether or not the last escort went down, the effect of two torpedo hits made it likely he had been heavily damaged. All torpedoes expended, Thresher headed for Midway. The boat claimed to have destroyed the entire convoy, but a post-war assessment confirmed only two cargo vessels, Sainei Maru (4,916 tons) and Shozan Maru (2,838 tons), and no escort. Thresher did, however, receive the Navy Unit Commendation for the patrol, and MacMillan received his second Navy Cross.

Fourteenth
Upon completion of voyage repairs (and with John R. Middleton Jr., Class of 1935, now at the helm ), Thresher stood out of Midway on 23 August 1944, bound for the Yellow Sea and East China Sea on her fourteenth war patrol. Six days later, while cruising on the surface, Thresher was battered by heavy seas which caused the boat to roll some 53 degrees from the vertical and produced waves up to 50 ft high.

Rounding the southern tip of Kyūshū, Thresher sighted several small craft before making contact with a minelayer and two subchasers on 10 September. Clearing the vicinity at high speed, Thresher headed for a new patrol area.

Thresher was twice frustrated on 13 September, when a large oiler passed far out of reach and a freighter, attacked with four torpedoes, refused to sink. An escorting aircraft harried the boat and prevented any further attacks.

At 15:31 on 18 September, Thresher sighted the masts, funnel and bridge of a ship on the horizon. After determining the enemy's base course and zigzag plan, Thresher surfaced and locked on the freighter with radar at 19:23. Another pip, an escort vessel, soon appeared on radar.

By 21:00, Thresher had maneuvered into position off the enemy's port bow and waited for the Japanese ships to make a zig which would place her at a desirable point for the attack. Thresher closed in for the kill and loosed four torpedoes as the group turned to the right. The Japanese, however, did not meet her prediction, and the first spread ran wide of its targets. Still undetected, Thresher quickly came about and fired four stern "fish" from 1200 yd. The second spread ran true, hitting 6,854-ton freighter Gyōkū Maru. The explosions broke the cargoman's back, and she quickly slipped from sight. Thresher retired at high speed when she detected the presence of three additional ships closing rapidly.

Thresher reloaded and turned upon her pursuers, loosing a spread of torpedoes which barely missed. She evaded her hunters and shifted to waters off Manchuria. The boat sighted only fishing craft until 26 August, when a large cargo vessel hove into sight at 09:44. Thresher surfaced at 13:15 and headed for the nearest point on the enemy's zigzag course. An hour later, the submarine spotted a floatplane on patrol, and hurriedly dived. As she went deep, one depth charge exploded nearby.

Staying under until 16:00, Thresher came to the surface and reacquired her target at 18:15. Tracking until sunset, she postulated the enemy vessel was bound for Daisei Gunto and an intercept course was plotted accordingly. Attacking from the bright moon side, Thresher fired two bow tubes, aiming one torpedo at the hull near the mainmast and one at the foremast. Both struck home, and the 1,468-ton freighter broke up and sank within a minute.

The following day, 26 September, Thresher came upon a 5,000-ton oiler and cut loose with four stern tubes from a range of 4000 yd. Those on the bridge saw the target disappear within a minute. Tubes dry, Thresher headed for Midway. En route, on 3 October, she sighted, tracked, and approached a small trawler. After sunset, Thresher surfaced and manned her deck guns. After firing 27 rounds of five-inch ammunition, the boat soon received close return fire which forced her to back off. Too dark to see the target, Thresher resumed her passage to Midway.

After fueling at Midway on 8 October, Thresher sailed for the Hawaiian Islands and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 12 October 1944. Following a lengthy refit, Thresher got underway on 31 January 1945 for the Marianas, in company with USS Tilefish (SS-307), USS Shad (SS-235), and USS Peto (SS-265). Remaining at Saipan overnight on 12–13 February, the impromptu wolf pack pushed on toward its assigned patrol areas north of Luzon. However, only two of Thresher's contacts developed into attacks. One failed due to the target's shallow draft; and the second contact evaded. Thresher did, however, conduct air-sea guard patrols; and conducted a shore bombardment of Basco Harbor, Batan Island, on 28 March. The latter part of this patrol was conducted in company with Piranha and USS Puffer (SS-268).

End of active duty
Clearing her patrol station, Thresher nested alongside USS Fulton (AS-11) for voyage repairs before pushing on for Oahu on 4 April 1945. Arriving at Pearl Harbor 20 days later, Thresher ended her active combat service, after fifteen war patrols. Undergoing a routine refit and voyage repairs, Thresher subsequently rendered target training services out of Pearl Harbor and Eniwetok. She was operating out of the latter base on 15 August 1945 when the war in the Pacific ended.

Thresher cleared Eniwetok on 15 September, arrived at Pearl Harbor on 22 September, and stood out to sea on 26 September. Making port at San Francisco, on 4 October, the boat subsequently left the West Coast on 31 October. She transited the Panama Canal on 10 November and arrived at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 18 November. She was decommissioned there on 13 December 1945.

Thresher was recommissioned on 6 February 1946 to be used as a target during atomic bomb test at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. However, during the refurbishing, it was decided she had deteriorated beyond economical repair, and work was stopped. Thresher was decommissioned for the final time on 12 July 1946. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 23 December 1947, and on 18 March 1948 sold for scrap to Max Siegel of Everett, Massachusetts.

Honors and awards

 * U.S. Navy Unit Commendation ribbon.svg Navy Unit Commendation for World War II service
 * Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 15 battle stars for World War II service

Thresher was the most decorated U.S. submarine and among the most decorated U.S. ships of World War II.

In culture
Thresher is the subject of the third episode of the first season of syndicated television anthology series The Silent Service. The episode, entitled "The End of the Line," aired 5 Apr 1957. It portrayed the Japanese attempt to grab Thresher with a grappling hook when she was off Kwajalein in July 1942.

Thresher was also the subject of the sixth episode of the second season of syndicated television anthology series The Silent Service. The episode, entitled "The Thresher Story," recounts the events of firing her 3" gun on her Fifth war patrol and being subsequently refitted with "an old relic," a 5"/51 (which had entered service in 1911).

title: USS Thresher (SS-200)


text:
USS Thresher (SSN-593)

USS Thresher (SSN-593) was the lead boat of her class of nuclear-powered attack submarines in the United States Navy. She was the U.S. Navy's second submarine to be named after the thresher shark.

On 10 April 1963, Thresher sank during deep-diving tests about 220 mi east of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, killing all 129 crew and shipyard personnel aboard. Her loss was a watershed for the U.S. Navy, leading to the implementation of a rigorous submarine safety program known as SUBSAFE. The first nuclear submarine lost at sea, Thresher was also the third of four submarines lost with more than 100 people aboard, the others being the French Surcouf, sinking with 130 personnel in 1942, USS Argonaut, lost with 102 aboard in 1943, and Russian Kursk, which sank with 118 aboard in 2000.

Significance of design and loss
Created to find and destroy Soviet submarines, Thresher was the fastest and quietest submarine of its day, matching the smaller, contemporary Skipjack-class submarine. She also had the most advanced weapons system, including launchers for the U.S. Navy's newest anti-submarine missile, the SUBROC, as well as passive and active sonar that could detect vessels at unprecedented range. Shortly after her loss, the Commander of Submarine Force Atlantic wrote in the March 1964 issue of the U.S. Naval Institute's monthly journal Proceedings that "the Navy had depended upon this performance to the extent that it had asked for and received authority to build 14 of these ships, as well as an additional 11 submarines with very much the same characteristics. This was the first time since World War II that we had considered our design sufficiently advanced to embark upon construction of a large class of general-purpose attack submarines."

Following Navy tradition, this class of subs was originally named Thresher after the lead boat. When Thresher was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 16 April 1963, the class name was changed to that of the second boat, USS Permit (SSN-594). Having been lost at sea, Thresher was not decommissioned by the U.S. Navy and remains on "Eternal Patrol".

Early career
The contract to build Thresher was awarded to Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on 15 January 1958, and her keel was laid on 28 May 1958. She was launched bow first on 9 July 1960, was sponsored by Mary B. Warder (wife of World War II skipper Frederick B. Warder), and was commissioned on 3 August 1961, Commander Dean L. Axene commanding.

Thresher conducted lengthy sea trials in the western Atlantic and Caribbean Sea areas in 1961–1962. These tests allowed a thorough evaluation of her many new and complex technological features and weapons. She took part in Nuclear Submarine Exercise (NUSUBEX) 3–61 off the northeastern coast of the United States from 18–24 September 1961.

On 18 October 1961, Thresher, in company with the diesel-electric submarine USS Cavalla (SS-244), headed south on a three-week test and training cruise to San Juan, Puerto Rico, arriving 2 November. Following customary procedure while in port, her reactor was shut down. Since no shore power connection was available in San Juan, the ship's backup diesel generator was used to carry the "hotel" electrical loads. Several hours later, the backup generator broke down and the electrical load was transferred to the ship's battery. As most of the battery power was needed to keep vital systems operating and to restart the reactor, lighting and air conditioning were shut down. Without air conditioning, temperature and humidity in the submarine rose, reaching 60 °C after about 10 hours. The crew attempted to repair the diesel generator (four men would receive Navy commendation medals for their work that night). After it became apparent that the generator could not be fixed before the battery was depleted, the crew tried to restart the reactor, but the remaining battery charge was insufficient. The captain, returning to the ship from a shore function, arrived just after the battery ran down. The crew eventually borrowed cables from another ship in the harbor and connected them to the adjacent Cavalla, which started her diesels and provided enough power to allow Thresher to restart her reactor.

Thresher conducted further trials and fired test torpedoes before returning to Portsmouth on 29 November 1961. The boat remained in port through the end of the year, and spent the first two months of 1962 with her sonar and SUBROC systems under evaluation. In March, she participated in NUSUBEX 2–62 (an exercise designed to improve the tactical capabilities of nuclear submarines) and in anti-submarine warfare training with Task Group ALPHA.

Off Charleston, South Carolina, Thresher undertook operations supporting development of the SUBROC anti-submarine missile. She returned briefly to New England waters, after which she proceeded to Florida for more SUBROC tests. While moored at Port Canaveral, Florida, the submarine was accidentally struck by a tug, which damaged one of her ballast tanks. After repairs at Groton, Connecticut, by the Electric Boat Company, Thresher went south for more tests and trials off Key West, Florida, then returned northward. The submarine entered Portsmouth Shipyard on 16 July 1962 to begin a scheduled six-month post-shakedown availability to examine systems and make repairs and corrections as necessary. As is typical with a first-of-class boat, the work took longer than expected, lasting nearly nine months. The ship was finally recertified and undocked on 8 April 1963.

Sinking
On 9 April 1963, Thresher, commanded by Lieutenant Commander John Wesley Harvey, left from Kittery, Maine, at 8:00 a.m. and met with the submarine rescue ship USS Skylark (ASR-20) at 11:00 a.m. to begin her initial post-overhaul dive trials, in an area some 190 nmi east of Cape Cod, Massachusetts. That afternoon, Thresher conducted an initial trim-dive test, surfaced, and then performed a second dive to half of her 1,300-foot (400-meter) test depth. Before she entered the yard in late 1962, the Thresher had been to her test depth about 40 times. She remained submerged overnight and re-established underwater communications with Skylark at 6:30 a.m. on 10 April to commence deep-dive trials. Following standard practice, Thresher slowly dove deeper as she traveled in circles under Skylark – to remain within communications distance – pausing every 100 ft of depth to check the integrity of all systems. As Thresher neared her test depth, Skylark received garbled communications over underwater telephone indicating " ... minor difficulties, have positive up-angle, attempting to blow",   and then a final, even more garbled message that included the number "900". When Skylark received no further communication, surface observers gradually realized a problem had occurred.

By mid-afternoon, 15 Navy ships were en route to the search area. At 6:30 p.m., the commander of Submarine Force Atlantic sent word to Portsmouth Naval Shipyard to begin notifying the crew's family members, starting with Commander Harvey's wife Irene, that Thresher was missing.

Chief of Naval Operations Admiral George W. Anderson Jr. went before the press corps at the Pentagon to announce that the submarine was lost with all hands. President John F. Kennedy ordered all flags to be flown at half staff from 12 to 15 April in honor of the 129 lost submariners and shipyard personnel.

Search and recovery
The Navy quickly mounted an extensive search with surface ships and support from the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), with its deep-search capability. The laboratory's small acoustic research vessel Rockville, with a unique trainable search sonar, left on 12 April 1963 for the search area. Rockville was to be followed by other personnel with a deep-camera system. USS Allegheny, USNS Mission Capistrano, and USS Prevail became engaged in a close sonar search of an area 10 nmi square. RV Atlantis II, USNS Robert D. Conrad, and USNS James M. Gilliss investigated likely contacts found in the sonar search. The NRL deep-towed camera system and personnel later operated from James M. Gilliss with some success, finding debris later confirmed to be from Thresher. The bathyscaphe Trieste was alerted on 11 April and brought from San Diego to Boston. It was deployed for two series of dives into the debris field; the first taking place from 24 to 30 June, and the second from late August until early September. The equipment-handling capability of Gilliss proved inadequate, even hazardous, to handle the towed vehicle, and the entire search was paused in September. By morning on 11 April, submarines USS Seawolf and USS Sea Owl, both operating near Thresher’s location, were ordered to join in the search for the missing submarine as well.

The inadequacy of the existing small Auxiliary General Oceanographic Research (AGOR) vessels such as James M. Gilliss for handling deep-towed search vehicles led to a search for a vessel of a size and configuration that could handle such equipment in a sheltered area. In late 1963, that search resulted in the acquisition of USNS Mizar (AGOR-11), with the intent to eventually add a sheltered center well for deploying equipment.

The 1964 search included Mizar (with partial modifications but not a center well), USS Hoist, and Trieste II, Trieste's successor. That submersible incorporated parts of the original bathyscaphe and was completed in early 1964. The bathyscaphe was placed on board USNS Private Francis X. McGraw (T-AK-241) and shipped to Boston. Mizar did have a system called Underwater Tracking Equipment (UTE) by which it could track its towed vehicle, and it was planned for use to track Trieste. Before her departure from NRL in Washington, Mizar was equipped with highly sensitive proton magnetometers furnished by the instrument division of Varian Associates in Palo Alto. In use, the magnetometers were suspended on an electrical line that also towed underwater video cameras.

Mizar sailed on 25 June to begin the deep search and found the wreck within two days. The shattered remains of Thresher's hull were on the sea floor, about 8400 ft below the surface, in five major sections. Most of the debris had spread over an area of about 134000 m2. Major sections of Thresher, including the sail, sonar dome, bow section, engineering spaces section, operations spaces section, and the stern planes were found. By July 22, most of the lost submarine had been photographed. In early August, the entire task force returned to the area with the submersible. Its first two dives were unsuccessful, but on the third dive, the UTE enabled placement of Trieste II on the wreck, at first not seeing wreckage because the bathyscaphe was sitting upon it.

Trieste II was commanded by Lieutenant John B. Mooney Jr., with co-pilot Lieutenant John H. Howland and Captain Frank Andrews, in an operation that recovered parts of the wreckage in September 1964.

On 9 July 2021, the United States Navy declassified the narrative of the submarine Seawolf during the search for Thresher. Seawolf detected acoustic signals at 23.5 kHz and 3.5 kHz as well as metal banging noises which were interpreted at the time as originating from Thresher. However, after the commander of Task Group 89.7 ordered that echo ranging and fathometers be secured so as to not interfere with the search, no further acoustic signals were detected by Seawolf other than those originating from other searching ships and the submarine Sea Owl. Ultimately, the Court of Inquiry determined

"That while operating as a unit of the search force, the U.S.S. Seawolf (SSN575) recorded possible electronic emissions and underwater noises. None of the signals which SEAWOLF received equated with anything that could have been originated by human beings."

Cause
Deep-sea photography, recovered artifacts, and an evaluation of Thresher 's design and operational history permitted a court of inquiry to conclude that the submarine had probably suffered the failure of a salt-water piping system joint that relied heavily on silver brazing instead of welding. Earlier tests using ultrasound equipment found potential problems with about 14% of the tested brazed joints, most of which were determined not to pose a risk significant enough to require repair. But on 30 November 1960, nearly three years prior to the accident, USS Barbel (SS-580) suffered such a silver-braze joint failure near test depth while on an exercise, flooding the engine room with an estimated 18 tons of water in the 3 minutes it took to surface under power and with blown tanks. This incident was followed months later by more silver-braze failures aboard the ballistic missile submarine USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602) during trials. High-pressure water spraying from a broken pipe joint may have shorted out one of the many electrical panels, causing a shutdown ("scram") of the reactor, which in turn caused loss of propulsion.

The inability to blow the ballast tanks was later attributed to excessive moisture in the submarine's high-pressure air flasks, moisture that froze and plugged the flasks' flowpaths while passing through the valves. This was later simulated in dockside tests on Thresher's sister sub, USS Tinosa (SSN-606). During a test to simulate blowing ballast at or near test depth, ice formed on strainers installed in valves; the flow of air lasted only a few seconds. Air dryers were later retrofitted to the high-pressure air compressors, beginning with Tinosa, to permit the emergency blow system to operate properly. Submarines typically rely on speed and deck angle (angle of attack) rather than deballasting to surface; they are propelled at an angle toward the surface. Ballast tanks were almost never blown at depth, as doing so could cause the submarine to rocket to the surface out of control. Normal procedure was to drive the submarine to periscope depth, raise the periscope to verify that the area was clear, and then blow the tanks and surface the submarine.

Subsequent study of SOSUS (sound surveillance system) data from the time of the incident has given rise to doubts as to whether flooding preceded the reactor scram, as no impact sounds of the high pressure water in the compartments of the submarine could be detected on instrument recordings from SOSUS at the time. Such flooding would have caused a significant sonic event, and no evidence of such may be found in the recorded data.

At the time, reactor-plant operating procedures did not allow for a rapid reactor restart following a scram, or even the ability to use steam remaining in the secondary system to propel the submarine to the surface. After a scram, standard procedure was to isolate the main steam system, cutting off the flow of steam to the turbines providing propulsion and electricity. This was done to prevent an overly rapid cool-down of the reactor. Thresher's reactor control officer, Lieutenant Raymond McCoole—a "mustang" with years of submarine service in enlisted status, serving as a chief petty officer aboard the first nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571) before becoming a commissioned officer —was not on the boat during the fatal dive; his trainee, Jim Henry, fresh from nuclear power school, probably followed standard operating procedures and gave the order to isolate the steam system after the scram, even though Thresher was at or slightly below its maximum depth. Once closed, the large steam system isolation valves could not be reopened quickly. Reflecting on the situation in later life, McCoole was sure that he would have delayed shutting the valves, thus allowing the boat to "answer bells" and drive itself to the surface, despite the flooding in the engineering spaces. Admiral Rickover noted that the procedures were for normal operating conditions, and not intended to restrict necessary actions in an emergency involving the safety of the ship. After the accident Rickover further reduced plant restart times, which had already been gradually improving with new technology and operating experience, in addition to limiting factors that could cause a shut down.

In a dockside simulation of flooding in the engine room, held before Thresher sailed, the watch in charge took 20 minutes to isolate a simulated leak in the auxiliary seawater system. At test depth with the reactor shut down, Thresher would not have had 20 minutes to recover. Even after isolating a short circuit in the reactor controls, it would have taken nearly 10 minutes to restart the plant.

It was believed at the time that Thresher likely imploded at a depth of 1300 - 2000 ft, though 2013 acoustic analysis concluded implosion occurred at 730 m.

The U.S. Navy has periodically monitored the environmental conditions of the site since the sinking and has reported the results in an annual public report on environmental monitoring for U.S. naval nuclear-powered craft. These reports provide results of the environmental sampling of sediment, water, and marine life, which is performed to ascertain whether Thresher's nuclear reactor has had a significant effect on the deep-ocean environment. The reports also explain the methodology for conducting deep-sea monitoring from both surface vessels and submersibles. The monitoring data confirm that there has been no significant effect on the environment. Nuclear fuel in the submarine remains intact.

Information declassified in the 2008 National Geographic Documentary Titanic: Ballard's Secret Mission shows that USNR Commander Robert Ballard, the oceanographer credited with locating the wreck of RMS Titanic, was sent by the Navy on a mission under cover of the search for Titanic to map and collect visual data on the wrecks of both Thresher and USS Scorpion (SSN-589). Ballard had approached the Navy in 1982 for funding to find Titanic with his new deep-diving robot submersible. The Navy conditionally granted him the funds on condition that the submarine wrecks were surveyed before Titanic. Ballard's robotic survey showed that the depth at which Thresher had sunk caused implosion and total destruction; the only recoverable piece was a foot of mangled pipe. His 1985 search for Scorpion revealed a large debris field "as though it had been put through a shredding machine". His obligation to inspect the wrecks completed, and with the radioactive threat from both established as small, Ballard then searched for Titanic. Financial limitations allowed him 12 days to search, and the debris-field search technique he had used for the two submarines was applied to locate Titanic.

Almost all records of the court of inquiry remain unavailable to the public. In 1998, the Navy began declassifying them, but decided in 2012 that it would not release them to the public. In February 2020, in response to a FOIA lawsuit by military historian James Bryant, a federal court ordered the Navy to begin releasing documents by May 2020.

On May 22, 2020, the Navy stated in a court-mandated status report that due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the Navy's Undersea Warfare Division (OPNAV N97) had placed the records review on hold as N97 staff were limited to supporting mission-essential tasks supporting undersea forces and operations only. However, the Navy stated that they "will return to the review and process of Plaintiff’s FOIA request once the office is able to expand beyond mission-essential capabilities". Following the release of the July 18, 2020, court-mandated report, the Navy stated that they had identified and approved additional resources and reservists to begin processing the documents in August. The Navy began a rolling release of the records on September 23, 2020.

The aftermath of the public relations aspect of this major disaster has since been part of various case studies.

Disaster sequence of 10 April 1963

During the 1963 inquiry, Admiral Hyman Rickover stated:

"I believe the loss of the Thresher should not be viewed solely as the result of failure of a specific braze, weld, system or component, but rather should be considered a consequence of the philosophy of design, construction and inspection that has been permitted in our naval shipbuilding programs. I think it is important that we re-evaluate our present practices where, in the desire to make advancements, we may have forsaken the fundamentals of good engineering."

Alternative theory of the sinking: electrical failure
On 8 April 2013, Bruce Rule, US Office of Naval Intelligence lead acoustic analyst for over 42 years, published his own analysis of the data collected by USS Skylark and Atlantic SOSUS arrays in a paper in the Navy Times. Rule based his analysis on SOSUS data that was highly classified in 1963, was not discussed in open session of the Court of Inquiry and was not revealed at the congressional hearings. A retired Navy captain and former commanding officer of the same class of submarine as Thresher, citing Rule's findings, has called for the U.S. government to declassify the data associated with the boat's sinking, and presented an alternative disaster sequence based upon the acoustic data.

Rule concluded that the primary cause of the sinking was a failure of the electrical bus that powered the main coolant pumps. According to Rule, SOSUS data indicates that after two minutes of electrical instability, the bus failed at 09:11 a.m., causing the main coolant pumps to trip off. This caused an immediate reactor scram, resulting in a loss of propulsion. Thresher could not be deballasted because ice had formed in the high-pressure air pipes, and so she sank. Rule's analysis holds that flooding (whether from a silver brazed joint or anywhere else) played no role in the reactor scram or the sinking, and that Thresher was intact until she imploded. In addition to the SOSUS data that does not record any sound of flooding, the crew of Skylark did not report hearing any noise that sounded like flooding, and Skylark was able to communicate with Thresher, despite the fact that, at test depth, even a small leak would have produced a deafening roar. Additionally, the previous commander of Thresher testified that he would not have described flooding, even from a small-diameter pipe, as a "minor problem".

Rule interprets the communication "900" from Thresher at 09:17 a.m. as a reference to test depth, signifying that Thresher was 900 ft below her test depth of 1,300 ft, or 2,200 ft below sea level. According to Rule the SOSUS data indicates an implosion of Thresher at 09:18:24, at a depth of 2,400 ft, 400 ft below her predicted collapse depth. The implosion took 0.1 seconds, too fast for the human nervous system to perceive.

SUBSAFE legacy
When the Court of Inquiry delivered its final report, it recommended that the Navy implement a more rigorous program of design review and safety inspections during construction. That program, launched in December 1963, was known as SUBSAFE. From 1915 to 1963, the U.S. Navy lost a total of 16 submarines to non-combat accidents. Since the inception of SUBSAFE only one submarine has suffered a similar fate, and that was USS Scorpion (SSN-589), which sank in 1968 for reasons still undetermined. Scorpion was not SUBSAFE-certified.

Permanent

 * The chapel at Portsmouth Navy Yard, where the submarine was built, was renamed Thresher Memorial Chapel.
 * In Portsmouth, New Hampshire, there is a stone memorial with a plaque honoring all who were lost on Thresher. It is outside the USS Albacore (AGSS-569) museum.
 * Just outside the main gate of the Naval Weapons Station, Seal Beach, California, a Thresher–Scorpion Memorial honors the crews of the two submarines.
 * In Eureka, Missouri, there is a marble stone at the post office on Thresher Drive honoring the "officers and crew of the USS Thresher, lost 10 April 1963."
 * Salisbury, Massachusetts, named Robert E. Steinel Memorial Park in honor of Thresher crewman and Salisbury resident Sonarman First Class Robert Edwin Steinel.
 * In Nutley, New Jersey, there is a monument to Thresher crewmember Pervis Robison Jr.
 * In Denville, New Jersey, there is a monument to Thresher crewmember Robert D. Kearney at the Gardner Field recreation area.
 * Thresher Avenue, named for the submarine, serves a residential area in Naval Base Kitsap in Washington state.
 * A 129 ft flagpole at Kittery Memorial Circle in the town of Kittery, Maine, was dedicated on 7 April 2013, the 50th anniversary of the loss of Thresher, to honor the 129 lost souls.
 * There is a Thresher monument in Memorial Park next to the Kittery Town Hall.
 * There is a memorial monument to the submariners lost in Thresher and Scorpion located on Patriot's Point Road in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina.
 * Naval Submarine Base New London in Groton, Connecticut, named an enlisted barracks "Thresher Hall" after the submarine, and mounted a plaque in its lobby displaying the names of the crew members, shipyard government employees and contractors that were lost.
 * A commemorative monument was dedicated in Arlington National Cemetery on 26 September 2019.
 * A commemorative plaque was placed on a WW II memorial boulder at the base of a flagpole at the marina in Malba, NY, honoring local Thresher seaman Richard K. Fisher and the others lost on the Thresher.
 * Former
 * In Carpentersville, Illinois, the Dundee Township Park District named a swimming facility (later closed and demolished) in honor of Thresher.

Other

 * On 12 April 1963, President John F. Kennedy issued paying tribute to the crew of Thresher by ordering all national flags to half-staff.
 * Five folk music groups or artists have produced songs memorializing Thresher; "Ballad Of The Thresher" by The Kingston Trio, "The Thresher Disaster" by Tom Paxton; "The Thresher" by Phil Ochs on his 1964 album All the News That's Fit to Sing, "The Thresher" by Pete Seeger, and "Thresher" by Shovels & Rope.
 * "The Fear-Makers", an episode in the 1964 season of the television series Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, is inspired by the loss of the USS Thresher. Anthony Wilson, a writer for the series, was fascinated by the loss of the USS Thresher (and with 'fear gas' as an incapacitating chemical weapon aboard the submarines, an agent similar to the contemporary BZ gas), and he wrote a teleplay for the series. In Wilson's teleplay, the submarine, Seaview, searches for a missing submarine, Polidor.

title: USS Thresher (SSN-593)


text:
Respiratory failure

Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia. Respiratory failure is classified as either Type 1 or Type 2, based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level, and can be acute or chronic. In clinical trials, the definition of respiratory failure usually includes increased respiratory rate, abnormal blood gases (hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both), and evidence of increased work of breathing. Respiratory failure causes an altered state of consciousness due to ischemia in the brain.

The typical partial pressure reference values are oxygen Pa Oxygen more than 80 mmHg (11 kPa) and carbon dioxide Pa Carbon dioxide less than 45 mmHg (6.0 kPa).

Cause
A variety of conditions that can potentially result in respiratory failure. The etiologies of each type of respiratory failure (see below) may differ, as well. Different types of conditions may cause respiratory failure:
 * Conditions that reduce the flow of air into and out of the lungs, including physical obstruction by foreign bodies or masses and reduced breathing due to drugs or changes to the chest.
 * Conditions that impair the lungs' blood supply. These include thromboembolic conditions and conditions that reduce the output of the right heart, such as right heart failure and some myocardial infarctions.
 * Conditions that limit the ability of the lung tissue to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air within the lungs. Any disease which can damage the lung tissue can fit into this category. The most common causes are (in no particular order) infections, interstitial lung disease, and pulmonary edema.

Types
Respiratory failure is generally organized into 4 types. Below is a diagram that provides a general overview of the 4 types of respiratory failure, their distinguishing characteristics, and major causes of each.

Type 1
Type 1 respiratory failure is characterized by a low level of oxygen in the blood (hypoxemia) (PaO2) < 60 mmHg with a normal (normocapnia) or low (hypocapnia) level of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in the blood.

The fundamental defect in type 1 respiratory failure is a failure of oxygenation characterized by:

 * {| class="wikitable"

 * PaO2 || decreased (< 60 mmHg)
 * PaCO2 || normal or decreased (<50 mmHg)
 * PA-aO2 || increased
 * }
 * PA-aO2 || increased
 * }

Type I respiratory failure is caused by conditions that affect oxygenation and therefore lead to lower-than-normal oxygen in the blood. These include:

 * Low ambient oxygen (e.g. at high altitude).
 * Ventilation-perfusion mismatch (parts of the lung receive oxygen but not enough blood to absorb it, e.g. pulmonary embolism, Acute respiratory distress syndrome, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Congestive heart failure.
 * Alveolar hypoventilation (decreased minute volume due to reduced respiratory muscle activity, e.g. in acute neuromuscular disease); this form can also cause type 2 respiratory failure if severe.
 * Diffusion problem (oxygen cannot enter the capillaries due to parenchymal disease, e.g. in pneumonia or ARDS).
 * Right-to-left shunt (oxygenated blood mixes with non-oxygenated blood from the venous system, e.g. Arteriovenous malformation, Complete atelectasis, Severe pneumonia, Severe pulmonary edema).

Type 2
Hypoxemia (PaO2 <8kPa or normal) with hypercapnia (PaCO2 >6.0kPa).

The basic defect in type 2 respiratory failure is characterized by:

 * {| class="wikitable"

 * PaO2 || decreased (< 60 mmHg)or normal
 * PaCO2 || increased (> 50 mmHg)
 * PA-aO2 || normal
 * pH || <7.35
 * }
 * pH || <7.35
 * }
 * }

Type 2 respiratory failure is caused by inadequate alveolar ventilation; both oxygen and carbon dioxide are affected. Defined as the buildup of carbon dioxide levels (PaCO2) that has been generated by the body but cannot be eliminated. The underlying causes include:
 * Increased airways resistance (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, suffocation)
 * Reduced breathing effort (drug effects, brain stem lesion, extreme obesity)
 * A decrease in the area of the lung available for gas exchange (such as in chronic bronchitis)
 * Neuromuscular problems (Guillain–Barré syndrome, motor neuron disease)
 * Deformed (kyphoscoliosis), rigid (ankylosing spondylitis), or flail chest.

Type 3
Type 3 respiratory failure is a type of Type 1 respiratory failure, with decreased PaO2 (hypoxemia) and either normal or decreased PaCO2. However, because of its prevalence, it has been given its own category. Type 3 respiratory failure is often referred to as peri-operative respiratory failure, because it is distinguished by being a Type 1 respiratory failure that is specifically associated with an operation, procedure, or surgery.

The pathophysiology of type 3 respiratory failure often includes lung atelectasis, which is a term used to describe a collapsing of the functional units of the lung that allow for gas exchange. Because atelectasis occurs so commonly in the perioperative period, this form is also called perioperative respiratory failure. After general anesthesia, decreases in functional residual capacity leads to  collapse  of  dependent lung units.

Type 4
Type 4 respiratory failure occurs when metabolic (oxygen) demands exceed what the cardiopulmonary system can provide. It often results from hypoperfusion of respiratory muscles as in patients in shock, such as cardiogenic shock or hypovolemic shock. Patients in shock often experience respiratory distress due to pulmonary edema (e.g., in cardiogenic shock). Lactic acidosis and anemia can also result in type 4 respiratory failure. However, type 1 and 2 are the most widely accepted.

Physical exam
Physical exam findings often found in patients with respiratory failure include findings indicative of impaired oxygenation (low blood oxygen level). These include, but are not limited to, the following:

People with respiratory failure often exhibit other signs or symptoms that are associated with the underlying cause of their respiratory failure. For instance, if respiratory failure is caused by cardiogenic shock (decreased perfusion due to heart dysfunction, symptoms of heart dysfunction (e.g., pitting edema) are also expected.
 * Accessory muscle use in breathing or other signs of respiratory distress
 * Altered mental status (eg. confusion, lethargy)
 * Clubbing of fingertips (see image right)
 * Peripheral cyanosis (eg. bluish color on mucosal membranes or fingers and/or toes)
 * Tachypnea (faster breathing rate)
 * Pale conjunctiva

Diagnosis
Arterial blood gas (ABG) assessment is considered the gold standard diagnostic test for establishing a diagnosis of respiratory failure. This is because ABG can be used to measure blood oxygen levels (PaO2), and respiratory failure (all types) is characterized by a low blood oxygen level.

Alternative or supporting diagnostic methods include the following:

 * Capnometry: measures the amount of carbon dioxide in exhaled air.
 * Pulse Oximetry: measures the fraction of hemoglobin saturated with oxygen (SpO2).

Imaging (eg. ultrasonography, radiography) may be used to assist in the diagnostic workup. For example, it may be utilized to determine the etiology of a person's respiratory failure.

Treatment
Treatment of the underlying cause is required, if possible. The treatment of acute respiratory failure may involve medication such as bronchodilators (for airways disease), antibiotics (for infections), glucocorticoids (for numerous causes), diuretics (for pulmonary oedema), amongst others. Respiratory failure resulting from an overdose of opioids may be treated with the antidote naloxone. In contrast, most benzodiazepine overdose does not benefit from its antidote, flumazenil. Respiratory therapy/respiratory physiotherapy may be beneficial in some cases of respiratory failure.

Type 1 respiratory failure may require oxygen therapy to achieve adequate oxygen saturation. Lack of oxygen response may indicate other modalities such as heated humidified high-flow therapy, continuous positive airway pressure or (if severe) endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. .

Type 2 respiratory failure often requires non-invasive ventilation (NIV) unless medical therapy can improve the situation. Mechanical ventilation is sometimes indicated immediately or otherwise if NIV fails. Respiratory stimulants such as doxapram are now rarely used.

There is tentative evidence that in those with respiratory failure identified before arrival in hospital, continuous positive airway pressure can be helpful when started before conveying to hospital.

Prognosis
Prognosis is highly variable and dependent on etiology and availability of appropriate treatment and management. One of three hospitalized cases of acute respiratory failure is fatal.

title: Respiratory failure


text:
Lists by country

This is a series of lists by country. The lists generally cover topics related to sovereign countries; however, states with limited recognition are also included.

Main articles

 * Administrative divisions
 * Politics
 * Politics

Others

 * Current heads of state and government
 * Election results
 * Flags
 * Intelligence agencies
 * Legislatures
 * Militaries
 * National anthems
 * National capitals
 * National constitutions
 * National emblems
 * National governments
 * National mottos
 * Office-holders
 * Political parties
 * System of government

Topics sorted by country

 * Airlines
 * Area
 * Battles
 * Cathedrals
 * Cemeteries
 * Cities
 * Education
 * Emergency contraception
 * Islands
 * Maps
 * Metro systems
 * Monorail systems
 * Music genres
 * National animals
 * National parks
 * Newspapers
 * Nobel laureates
 * Novelists
 * Official languages
 * People
 * Population
 * Pornography
 * Prostitution
 * Rail transport
 * Railway companies
 * Religions
 * Schools
 * Suburban and commuter rail systems
 * Television
 * Tram and light rail transit systems
 * Universities and colleges
 * Vegetarianism
 * World Heritage Sites

Lists for most countries

 * Adjectival and demonymic forms of place names
 * Armed forces
 * Coats of arms
 * Country calling codes
 * Country-name etymologies
 * Divorce rate
 * FIPS country codes
 * Former national capitals
 * GDP
 * GDP per capita
 * Historical exchange rates to the USD
 * Human Development Index (HDI)
 * International rankings
 * Internet TLDs
 * List of IOC country codes
 * List of ISO 3166 country codes
 * Lists of most common surnames
 * Referendums by country
 * Social Progress Index
 * Sovereign states by year
 * Tallest structures
 * UN member states
 * Voting systems

Other

 * EU member states
 * Former countries in Europe after 1815
 * Ship prefixes
 * Timeline of country and capital changes

title: Lists by country


text:
Wedding in the Coral Sea

Wedding in the Coral Sea (Svatba v korálovém moři; Hochzeit im Korallenmeer) is a 1944 Czech animated short film. It was written, animated and directed by a group of Czech cartoonists including Jiří Brdečka, Břetislav Pojar, Stanislav Látal and Jaroslav Doubrava in German-occupied Prague in Ateliér Filmových triků studio.

Plot
The plot involves the creatures of the sea preparing for the wedding of two fish. When the fish bride is kidnapped by an octopus all the sea creatures must team up to defeat him and rescue the bride.

Production
German cartoonist Horst von Möllendorff was appointed as an official director, while his role in the making of the film was in fact minimal. The film was shot on Agfacolor film material.

title: Wedding in the Coral Sea


text:
Superfamily

Superfamily may refer to:
 * Protein superfamily
 * Superfamily database
 * Superfamily (taxonomy), a taxonomic rank
 * Superfamily (linguistics), also known as macrofamily
 * Font superfamily, a large typographic family
 * Superfamily (band), a Norwegian pop band
 * "Super Family", a group of comic characters

title: Superfamily


text:
Subphylum

In zoological nomenclature, a subphylum is a taxonomic rank below the rank of phylum.

The taxonomic rank of "subdivision" in fungi and plant taxonomy is equivalent to "subphylum" in zoological taxonomy. Some plant taxonomists have also used the rank of subphylum, for instance monocotyledons as a subphylum of phylum Angiospermae and vertebrates as a subphylum of phylum Chordata.

Taxonomic rank
Subphylum is:
 * 1) subordinate to the phylum
 * 2) superordinate to the infraphylum.

Where convenient, subphyla in turn can be divided into infraphyla; in turn such an infraphylum also would be superordinate to any classes or superclasses in the hierarchy.

Examples
Not all fauna phyla are divided into subphyla. Those that are include:
 * Arthropoda: divided into subphyla Trilobitomorpha, Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Hexapoda and Crustacea,
 * Brachiopoda: divided into subphyla Linguliformea, Craniformea and Rhynchonelliformea,
 * Chordata: divided into Tunicata, Cephalochordata, and its largest subphylum Vertebrata.

Examples of infraphyla include the Mycetozoa, the Gnathostomata and the Agnatha.

title: Subphylum