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Dorgon

Dorgon (, lit. 'badger'; 17 November 1612 – 31 December 1650), was a Manchu prince and regent of the early Qing dynasty. Born in the House of Aisin-Gioro as the 14th son of Nurhaci (the founder of the Later Jin dynasty, which was the predecessor of the Qing), Dorgon started his career in military campaigns against the Mongols, the Koreans, and the Ming dynasty during the reign of Hong Taiji (his eighth brother) who succeeded their father.

After Hong Taiji's death in 1643, he was involved in a power struggle against Hong Taiji's eldest son, Hooge, over the succession to the throne. Both of them eventually came to a compromise by backing out and letting Hong Taiji's ninth son, Fulin, become the emperor; Fulin was installed on the throne as the Shunzhi Emperor. Dorgon served as Prince-Regent from 1643 to 1650, throughout the Shunzhi Emperor's early reign. In 1645, he was given the honorary title "Emperor's Uncle and Prince-Regent" (皇叔父攝政王); the title was changed to "Emperor's Father and Prince-Regent" (皇父攝政王) in 1649.

Under Dorgon's regency, Qing forces occupied Beijing, the capital of the fallen Ming dynasty, and gradually conquered the rest of the Ming in a series of battles against Ming loyalists and other opposing forces around China. Dorgon also introduced the policy of forcing all Han Chinese men to shave the front of the heads and wear their hair in queues just like the Manchus. He died in 1650 during a hunting trip and was posthumously honoured as an emperor even though he was never an emperor during his lifetime. A year after Dorgon's death, however, the Shunzhi Emperor accused Dorgon of several crimes, stripped him of his titles, and ordered his remains to be exhumed and flogged in public. Dorgon was posthumously rehabilitated and restored of his honorary titles by the Qianlong Emperor in 1778.

Early life
Dorgon was born in the Manchu Aisin-Gioro clan as the 14th son of Nurhaci, the Khan of the Later Jin dynasty (the precursor to the Qing dynasty). His mother was Nurhaci's primary consort, Lady Abahai. Ajige and Dodo were his full brothers, and Hong Taiji was one of his half-brothers. Dorgon was one of the most influential among Nurhaci's sons, and his role was instrumental to the Qing occupation of Beijing, the capital of the fallen Ming dynasty, in 1644. During Hong Taiji's reign, Dorgon participated in many military campaigns, including the conquests of Mongolia and Korea. He fought against the Chahar Mongols in 1628 and 1635.

Rise to power
After Hong Taiji died in 1643, Dorgon became involved in a power struggle with Hong Taiji's eldest son, Hooge, over the succession to the throne. The conflict was resolved with a compromise – both backed out, and Hong Taiji's ninth son, Fulin, ascended the throne as the Shunzhi Emperor. Since the Shunzhi Emperor was only six years old at that time, Dorgon and his cousin Jirgalang were appointed co-regents. In 1645, Dorgon was conferred the title "Emperor's Uncle and Prince-Regent" (皇叔父攝政王). Later, in 1649, the title was changed to "Emperor's Father and Prince-Regent" (皇父攝政王). It was rumoured that Dorgon had a romantic affair with the Shunzhi Emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang, and even secretly married her, but there are also refutations. Whether they secretly married, had a secret affair or kept their distance remains a controversy in Chinese history.

A quasi-emperor
On 17 February 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but appeared uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon. After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on 6 May of that year, Hooge was stripped of his princely title and his co-conspirators were executed. Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus gaining closer control of two more banners. By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military.

In early 1644, just as Dorgon and his advisors were pondering how to attack the Ming Empire, peasant rebellions were dangerously approaching Beijing. On 24 April of that year, rebel forces led by Li Zicheng breached the walls of the Ming capital. The last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor, hanged himself at a hill behind the Forbidden City. Hearing the news, Dorgon's Han Chinese advisors Hong Chengchou and Fan Wencheng (范文程; 1597–1666) urged the prince to seize this opportunity to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming Empire and claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing Empire. The last obstacle between Dorgon and Beijing was Wu Sangui, a former Ming general guarding the Shanhai Pass at the eastern end of the Great Wall. Wu Sangui was caught between the Manchus and Li Zicheng's forces. He requested Dorgon's help in ousting the rebels and restoring the Ming Empire. When Dorgon asked Wu Sangui to work for the Qing Empire instead, Wu had little choice but to accept. Aided by Wu Sangui's elite soldiers, who fought the rebel army for hours before Dorgon finally chose to intervene with his cavalry, the Qing army won a decisive victory against Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May. Li Zicheng and his defeated troops looted Beijing for several days until they left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth they could carry.

Settling in the capital

After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the residents of Beijing sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on 5 June. They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horse-riding Manchu with the front half of his head shaved, present himself as the Prince-Regent. In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself as Prince-Regent in Wuying Palace (武英殿), the only building that remained more or less intact after Li Zicheng had set fire to the Forbidden City on 3 June. Banner troops were ordered not to loot; their discipline made the transition to Qing rule "remarkably smooth." Yet, at the same time, as he claimed to have come to avenge the Ming Empire, Dorgon ordered that all claimants to the Ming throne (including descendants of the last Ming emperor) should be executed along with their supporters.

On 7 June, just two days after entering the city, Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population surrendered, the officials would be allowed to stay at their posts. Besides, all the men had to shave the front half of their heads and wear the rest of their hair in queues. He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region.

Dorgon greeted the Shunzhi Emperor at the gates of Beijing on 19 October 1644. On 30 October the six-year-old monarch performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven. The southern cadet branch of Confucius's descendants who held the title wujing boshi and the northern branch 65th generation descendant of Confucius to hold the title Duke Yansheng had their titles confirmed by the Shunzhi Emperor on 31 October. A formal ritual of enthronement for the Shunzhi Emperor was held on 8 November, during which the young emperor compared Dorgon's achievements to those of the Duke of Zhou, a revered regent of the Zhou dynasty. During the ceremony, Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle and Prince Regent" (叔父攝政王), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle" (ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince. Three days later Dorgon's co-regent, Jirgalang, was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant Uncle Prince Regent" (輔政叔王). In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (皇叔父攝政王), leaving him one step short of claiming the throne for himself.

Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language.

To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the Qing dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Dorgon.

One of Dorgon's first orders in the new Qing capital was to vacate the entire northern part of Beijing and give it to Bannermen, including Han Chinese Bannermen. The Yellow Banners were given the place of honor north of the palace, followed by the White Banners to the east, the Red Banners to the west, and the Blue Banners to the south. This distribution complied with the order established in the Manchu homeland before the conquest and under which "each of the banners was given a fixed geographical location according to the points of the compass." Despite tax remissions and large-scale building programmes designed to facilitate the transition, in 1648 many Chinese civilians still lived among the newly arrived Banner population and there was still animosity between the two groups. Agricultural land outside the capital was also delineated (quan 圈) and given to Qing troops. Former landowners now became tenants who had to pay rent to their absentee Bannermen landlords. This transition in land use caused "several decades of disruption and hardship."

In 1646, Dorgon also ordered that the imperial civil service examinations for selecting government officials be reinstated. From then on, examinations were held every three years as under the Ming Empire. In the very first imperial examination held under Qing rule in 1646, candidates, most of whom were northern Chinese, were asked how the Manchus and Han Chinese could work together for a common purpose. The 1649 examination asked "how Manchus and Han Chinese could be unified so that their hearts were the same and they worked together without division." Under the Shunzhi Emperor's reign, the average number of graduates of the metropolitan examination per session was the highest of the Qing dynasty ("to win more Chinese support"), continuing until 1660 when lower quotas were established.

Conquest of the Ming

Under the reign of Dorgon – whom historians have called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest" and "the principal architect of the great Manchu enterprise" – the Qing subdued almost all of China and pushed loyalist "Southern Ming" resistance into the far southwestern reaches of China. After repressing anti-Qing revolts in Hebei and Shandong in the summer and fall of 1644, Dorgon sent armies to root out Li Zicheng from the important city of Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where Li had reestablished his headquarters after fleeing Beijing in early June 1644. Under the pressure of Qing armies, Li was forced to leave Xi'an in February 1645. He was killed – either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organised for self-defence during this time of rampant banditry – in September 1645 after fleeing though several provinces.

From newly captured Xi'an, in early April 1645, the Qing forces mounted a campaign against the rich commercial and agricultural region of Jiangnan south of the lower Yangtze River, where in June 1644 the Prince of Fu had established a regime loyal to the Ming. Factional bickering and numerous defections prevented the Southern Ming from mounting an efficient resistance. Several Qing armies swept south, taking the key city of Xuzhou north of the Huai River in early May 1645 and soon converging on Yangzhou, the main city on the Southern Ming's northern line of defence. Bravely defended by Shi Kefa, who refused to surrender, Yangzhou fell to Qing artillery on 20 May after a one-week siege. Dorgon's brother, Dodo, then ordered the slaughter of Yangzhou's entire population. As intended, this massacre terrorised other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing Empire. Indeed, Nanjing surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders made Dodo promise he would not harm the population. The Qing forces soon captured the Ming emperor (who died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities, including Suzhou and Hangzhou; by early July 1645, the frontier between the Qing Empire and the Southern Ming regime had been pushed south to the Qiantang River.

On 21 July 1645, after Jiangnan had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued a most inopportune edict ordering all Han Chinese men to shave the front half of their heads and wear the rest of their hair in queues identical to those of the Manchus. The punishment for non-compliance was death. This policy of symbolic submission helped the Manchus distinguish friend from foe. For Han officials and literati, however, the new hairstyle was shameful and demeaning (because it breached a common Confucian directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair was the same as losing their virility. Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair cutting command greatly hindered the Qing conquest. The defiant population of Jiading and Songjiang was massacred by former Ming general Li Chengdong (李成東; d. 1649), respectively on 24 August and 22 September. Jiangyin also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city walls were finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by the previous Ming defector Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐; d. 1667) massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. These massacres ended armed resistance against the Qing Empire in the Lower Yangtze. A few committed loyalists became hermits, hoping that for lack of military success, their withdrawal from the world would at least symbolise their continued defiance against Qing rule.

After the fall of Nanjing, two more members of the Ming imperial household created new Southern Ming regimes: one centred in coastal Fujian around the “Longwu Emperor” Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang, – a ninth-generation descendant of the Hongwu Emperor, the Ming dynasty's founder – and one in Zhejiang around "Regent" Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu. But the two loyalist groups failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. In July 1646, a new southern campaign led by Bolo sent Prince Lu's Zhejiang court into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zhu Yujian was caught and summarily executed in Tingzhou (western Fujian) on 6 October. His adoptive son Zheng Chenggong fled to the island of Taiwan with his fleet. Finally in November, the remaining centers of Ming resistance in Jiangxi province fell to the Qing.

In late 1646, two more Southern Ming monarchs emerged in the southern province of Guangzhou, reigning under the era names of Shaowu and Yongli. Short of official robes, the Shaowu court had to purchase from local theatre troupes. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by Li Chengdong captured Guangzhou, killed the Shaowu Emperor, and sent the Yongli court fleeing to Nanning in Guangxi. In May 1648, however, Li mutinied against the Qing Empire, and the concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped the Yongli Emperor to retake most of south China. Li's loyalist resurgence failed. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli Emperor had to flee again. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured Guangzhou and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. Although Dutch traveler Johan Nieuhof who witnessed the event happened claimed only 8000 people were slaughtered

Meanwhile, in October 1646, Qing armies led by Hooge reached Sichuan, where their mission was to destroy the regime of bandit chief Zhang Xianzhong. Zhang was killed in a battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. Also late in 1646 but further north, forces assembled by a Muslim leader known in Chinese sources as Milayin (米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong (丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion. Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed by Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳; 1595–1654) in 1648, and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties. ·

Death
Dorgon died on 31 December 1650, during a hunting trip in Kharahotun (present-day Chengde, Hebei), after sustaining injuries despite the presence of imperial doctors. He was posthumously granted the title "Emperor Yi" (義皇帝) and the temple name "Chengzong" (成宗), even though he was never emperor during his lifetime, which is unique in all history of feudal China when only direct ancestors and deceased heirs of a higher degree to an emperor (such as one's own older brothers, one's father's older brothers, or one's cousins born into such uncles) were posthumously granted the title of Emperor. The Shunzhi Emperor even bowed thrice in front of Dorgon's coffin during the funeral.

However, the suspicion that Dorgon was actually murdered by his political enemies while being away from the heavy protection afforded him inside the Forbidden City never went away. Dorgon had 25 years of experience of horse-riding and managed to survive, on horseback, numerous battles with the Koreans, Mongols, Han Chinese rebels, as well as regular Han Chinese armies. The official Qing history claim that he injured his leg while riding on his horse and that the injuries were so severe that he could not survive the trip back to the Forbidden City, despite the presence of imperial doctors, was dubious at best. In the dry winter of northern China, the ground was not wet. Or else, it would have easily caused horses to trip. Another cause for suspicion is that Dorgon's corpse was exhumed, flogged, and incinerated in the purge ordered by Emperor Shunzhi, a likely method camouflaged as the ultimate punishment for his alleged plot to take over the throne, in order to remove all evidence that Dorgon was murdered.

His death also took place when Emperor Shunzhi was about 13, an appropriate age for removing the regency over his head. That is, if Dorgon had died any earlier, Shunzhi would still need a regent to supervise the empire on his behalf.

Posthumous demotion and restoration
In 1651, Dorgon's political enemies, led by his former co-regent Jirgalang, submitted to the Shunzhi Emperor a long memorial listing a series of crimes committed by Dorgon, which included: possession of yellow robes, which were strictly for use only by the emperor; plotting to seize the throne from the Shunzhi Emperor by calling himself "Emperor's Father"; killing Hooge and taking Hooge's wife for himself. It is difficult to prove verbal accusations made at the time when all records were ordered to be purged by the Qianlong Emperor in 1778 when he also ordered the rehabilitation of Dorgon. The last charge that Dorgon took Hooge's wife was mostly contrived, as the Manchu tradition dating from the 12th century had allowed a male relative to marry the deceased person's wife almost as a charitable act to save her and her children from being starved to death in the minus 20, merciless winters of the northeastern tip of China, known nowadays as Manchuria.

Jirgalang was an ally of Hooge in the 1643 bitter fight against Dorgon, who allied with his biological brothers for succession to the throne. Jirgalang had been expelled by Dorgon from the joint regency in 1646. This time, Jirgalang succeeded in convincing Emperor Shunzhi that even Dorgon's descendants could become a threat to the throne. As a result, Shunzhi posthumously stripped Dorgon of his titles and even had Dorgon's corpse exhumed and flogged in public. In the February 1651 imperial edict trying to justify the ultimate punishment to a dead person as well as a key member of the imperial clan, Shunzhi ordered that not only Dorgon's name be removed from the scrolls of the imperial ancestral temple. His biological mother, Empress Xiaoliewu, got the same treatment. It was a political act to remove the legitimacy for succession to the throne by any future heir descended from Empress Xiaoliewu.

Execution of all of Dorgon's heirs was also ordered but intentionally not recorded in official Qing history. Dorgon had two biological brothers: Ajige, the eighth son of Nurhaci and Dodo, the 15th. With Dodo dying of smallpox a few months prior to the death of Dorgon in December 1650 and the death of Ajige after he was arrested by Jirgalang's forces and put in jail, the 1651 purge was meant to permanently eliminate the potential that a future prince descending from Empress Xiaolewu would repeat the two Dorgon competitions for succession to the throne happening in 1626, upon the death of Nurhaci, and 1643, upon the death of Hongtaiji.

However, Dorgon was posthumously rehabilitated during the Qianlong Emperor's reign. In 1778, the Qianlong Emperor granted Dorgon a posthumous name zhong (忠; "loyal"), so Dorgon's full posthumous title became "Prince Ruizhong of the First Rank" (和碩睿忠親王). The word "loyal" was intentionally picked. It starkly testified that the charges made by Jirgalang in 1651 were all trumped up. The Qianlong Emperor, either intentionally or inadvertently, contradicted the records of the imperial ancestral temple left behind by Shunzhi when he ordered that the words "Dorgon's heirs having been exterminated" (后嗣废绝) be included into official Qing history to indicate why Dorbo, a fifth generation descendant of Dodo, was designated to inherit the iron-cap princely title of Dorgon. The expression "Dorgon's heirs having been exterminated" (后嗣废绝) does not carry the same meaning as "Dorgon never had a son." Regardless, after a lapse of 128 years, the Qianlong Emperor could no longer find the heirs of Dorgon. The Qianlong Emperor also ordered that the rehabilitation of Dorgon be accompanied by a destruction of all the records related to the elimination of the heirs of Dorgon. This was an inglorious chapter not only of Qing history but also the history of the imperial clan of Aisin-Gioro.

Myths about direct descendants of Dorgon
In the March 1651 purge of Dorgon, Shunzhi also ordered that the ancestral temple records be written to indicate that no woman had ever conceived a son for Dorgon (not that all of his sons had died due to infant mortality or some other reasons), to conceal this political conspiracy against Dorgon and his two biological brothers, who had conquered more than half of China for the young Qing empire since 1644. The extermination of Dorgon's heirs did not include his daughter, whose birth year of 1650, the same year when Dorgon died, was allowed to be left on records. Dorgon had married at least 10 wives and concubines over a period of 25 years or more. Records in the imperial ancestral temple indicate that none of his 10 wives and concubines was able to conceive a son for Dorgon over a period of 25 years, whereas only a daughter was born at the end of this 25-year period, in the same year when he died. These records do not suggest that Dorgon was infertile.

In the midst of the 1651 purge, a son of Dorgon managed to escape from execution. He fled Beijing with the active assistance of a key member of the White Banner under the command of Dorgon when he was alive. This heir of Dorgon ran all the way to modern-day Zhongshan, Guangdong province, the southern tip of China fronting the South China Sea, where there was no more way to maximize the distance between his hiding place and the Forbidden City. He changed his family name from Aisin-Gioro to Yuan 袁 (or Yuen in the Cantonese dialect). As a Chinese character, Yuan 袁 (Yuen) substantially resembles the word "Gon 袞" as in "Dorgon 多尔袞" in the written form. After successfully escaping execution, the camouflage to re-emerge as a Han Chinese person was considered perfect, as Yuan 袁 (Yuen) was also the family name of Yuan Chonghuan 袁崇煥 the Han Chinese general who fatally wounded Nurhaci in the 1626 Battle of Ningyuan, making it highly unlikely that pursuing forces from the Forbidden City would suspect that he and/or his descendants were members of the Dorgon clan. He named the large piece of land where he finally settled Haizhou 海洲, a combination of Haixi 海西，the tribal native place of Empress Xiaoliewu, his grandmother; and Jianzhou 建洲, the tribal native place of Nurhaci, his grandfather. The village where his descendants have sprung up since 1651 was named "Revelation of the Dragon 顯龍", indicating his hope that one day someone in his line would be able to reclaim the throne, which never happened through the remaining years of the Qing dynasty.

Legacy of Dorgon
After Dorgon led Manchu and Han Chinese troops loyal to him into Beijing on 6 June 1644, he immediately ordered restoration of order, as well as penalties for extortion and corruption activities conducted by any member of the imperial clan and other officials. Later, he declared that all Ming officials would be re-employed and the restoration of the civil service system to look for talents nationwide.

Dorgon is usually considered a good, devoted politician but he is also blamed for "Six Bad Policies (六大弊政)". These were policies designed to bolster the rule of the Qing conquerors, but which caused considerable disturbance and bloodshed in China, and included:
 * Forced head-shaving (剃发) and adopting Manchu clothing (易服): Chinese men were compelled to shave the front half of their heads and tie their hair in queues after the Manchu fashion, on pain of death. Massacres occurred in southern Chinese cities whose inhabitants resisted the imposition of the law.
 * Land enclosure (圈地) and requisitioning of homes (占房): to provide economic bases for the Bannermen, they were allowed to enclose 'wasteland without owners' for their use; this law was however abused to take farmlands and estates which were already inhabited, with military force.
 * Forced slavery (投充) and anti-escapee (逃人) laws: in the wake of the enclosure of vast agricultural estates, the manpower was provided by allowing Bannermen to seize commoners and enslave them. This in turn necessitated decrees to tackle the problem of escapees, including summary executions of people harbouring escaped slaves and hanging for repeated escapees.

Physical appearance
According to the account of Japanese travellers, Dorgon was a 34- or 35-year-old man with slightly dark skin complexion and sharp eyes. He was handsome, tall and slim, and had a shiny and beautiful beard.

Family
Primary Consort

 * Consort, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (嫡福晉 博爾濟吉特氏)
 * First primary consort, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (嫡福晉 博爾濟吉特氏; d. January 1650), personal name Batema (巴特瑪), posthumously honoured as Empress Jingxiaoyi (敬孝義皇后)
 * Second primary consort, of the Tunggiya clan (嫡福晉 佟佳氏)
 * Third primary consort, of the Zha'ermang Borjigit clan (嫡福晉 博爾濟吉特氏)
 * Fourth primary consort, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (嫡福晉 博爾濟吉特氏)
 * Fifth primary consort, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (嫡福晉 博爾濟吉特氏)
 * Princess Uisun, of the Yi clan of Jeonju (義順公主 全州李氏; 1635–1662), personal name Aesuk (愛淑)

Secondary Consort

 * Secondary consort, of the Yi clan of Jeonju (側福晉 全州李氏)
 * First daughter (b. 1638), personal name Donggo (東莪)

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Yoo Jong-keun in the 1981 KBS1 TV Series Daemyeong.
 * Portrayed by Park Ki-woong in the 2011 film War of the Arrows.
 * While he does not appear in the 2024 tvN TV Series Captivating the King, he is heavily-mentioned throughout the series as Prince Rui.
 * Portrayed by Qu Chuxiao in the 2017 Chinese TV Series Rule the World
 * Portryaed by Geng Le in Chinese TV Series The Legend of Xiao Zhuang.

title: Dorgon


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José Miguel Agrelot

Giuseppe Michael Agrelot Vilá (April 21, 1927 – January 28, 2004), also known as José Miguel Agrelot or Don Cholito, was a Puerto Rican comedian, radio and television host.

Biography
Agrelot was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He was the third of four children of Felipe Antonio Agrelot Fittipaldi and Ana Luisa Vilá Cruz. His paternal grandparents were born in Lauria, Italy and immigrated to Puerto Rico in 1892, two years before his father's birth. His sister, Ana Luisa, a teacher, later became a part-time comedic actress as well. He started working on radio stations when he was 14. At that time, he was employed by radio entrepreneur Tomás Muñiz, then the general manager of WIAC-AM and the father of later producer and actor Tommy Muñiz. During this period Agrelot developed his first comedic character, Torito Fuertes, a mischievous eight-year-old for a family comedy show sponsored by Borden, Inc. and its evaporated milk (the name Torito Fuertes was a pun on "strong calf", a desirable consequence of drinking good milk). The character later took a life of his own on a radio show first named El Profesor Colgate (sponsored by Colgate-Palmolive's flagship toothpaste) and later called El Colegio de la Alegría (The School of Joy). This program featured Tommy Muñiz as the schoolteacher of a rather dysfunctional classroom.

Apart from appearances in numerous commercials, Agrelot's credits in Puerto Rican television  included:

 * La Criada Malcriada (The Rude Maid)
 * El Especial de Corona (The Corona Special)
 * Desafiando a los Genios (Challenging The Geniuses), a personal favorite of Pablo Casals
 * Haciendo Historia (Making History)
 * El Show del Mediodia (The Midday show, as Don Cholito, another legendary character of his)
 * Parece Increible (It Seems Incredible)
 * Ja ja, Ji ji, Jo jo con Agrelot

Comedic characters
Agrelot created the following characters:

 * "Don Pulula", a mild mannered evangelical pastor with a proclivity for mild double entendres (he modeled his voice after that of Rafael Quiñones Vidal, a Puerto Rican television host),
 * "Mario Trauma", a crazed mental patient who constantly screamed in falsetto and was in reality saner than the people around him (he modeled his voice after a floor coordinator at WAPA-TV),
 * "Pasión", an old maid desperately looking for male company,
 * "Serafín Sin Fin y Sin Meta", an effeminate man with a heart-shaped birthmark in his cheek (while claiming that Serafín was not a homosexual and never made a pass to anyone during the character's run, Agrelot faced protests from the local chapter of GLAAD and discontinued the character)
 * "Soldado Manteca", an inept Beetle Bailey-like character who was part of the United States Army (Agrelot described him once as Torito Fuertes, all grown up)
 * "Cerebrito Ligón", a man who claimed to be a peeping Tom but wouldn't dare to peep. A famous episode had a young Alida Arizmendi, later a Puerto Rican legislator, confronting him while he tried to sneak into an all-female gym;
 * "Speedy González", an extremely fast gibberish-talking handyman, who would always charge US$10.00 for his services (later increased to US$20.00 because of inflation). This character was a favorite of Benicio del Toro's.
 * "Don Remigio Rodríguez y Rodriguez", an almost catatonic, extremely frank businessman (and the owner of Rodríguez y Rodriguez Sociedad en Comandita) who had a proclivity for face gestures and sticking out his tongue. He had a standing feud with Joaquín, the Spanish-born store owner across the street (played by Spanish actor Ricardo Fabregues), to whom he constantly insulted ("¡Joaquín, pillo!") Don Rodríguez later starred in Sunshine Logroño's film, "Chona, La Puerca Asesina"
 * El Juez, a character modeled after Pigmeat Markham and Sammy Davis, Jr.'s "Here Come Da Judge" character (more Davis' than Markham's) who had a huge mallet and would use it against a defendant's head if necessary during trials
 * Don Segismundo, the mayor of Trujillo Bajo, a fictional municipality in Puerto Rico (Agrelot said once that Segismundo was actually Don Rodríguez y Rodríguez turned public servant)
 * "Pancho Matanzas", a Cuban immigrant that, as many did at the time, would sell anything to support himself and his family.
 * "Juan Macana", a not-very-bright police officer, PRPD badge number 13,378 who popularized in Puerto Rico a phrase Agrelot constantly heard in Mexico during one of his tours: "Sí, ¿cómo no?" ("Yeah, why not?")

Agrelot would also parody famous characters from film and cinema in his comedy program, "Ja Ja, Ji Ji, Jo Jo Con Agrelot". His most famous parody was that of Marlon Brando as Vito Corleone in The Godfather movie trilogy.

Agrelot appeared as Padre Ambrosio, a priest, in Jacobo Morales's Dios Los Cria II. He also played a serious dramatic role in a television miniseries, Nadie lo va a saber, in 1991.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: José Miguel Agrelot


text:
Talk:Battle of Stalingrad

semi-protected edit request
the article cites that temperatures dropped to -40 Celsius however, according to Wiki Weatger and other sources, the average nighttime winter temperatures are above -10 Celsius 2A00:23C4:3522:6B01:713:C0B9:3A0E:E284 (talk) 23:33, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

Stalingrad start date and scope
The date as listed on here for the battle is 23 August 1942, however, the casualties for Soviet forces are calculated from 17 July 1942 to the end of the battle by Krivosheev, and 17 July is listed as the start of the battle by Russian historians. The Hebrew Wikipedia article explains that "It can be started on July 17, 1942, when the Sixth Army first encountered the forces of the Stalingrad front west of the bend of the Don River, on August 23, when the first force of the German army managed to reach the Volga north of Stalingrad, or on September 13, when the campaign inside the city of Stalingrad began".

Another issue is the scope of the battle, which while all include German, Italian, Romanian and Croatian losses, the inclusion of Hungarian losses is complicated, as the article from the Hebrew Wikipedia makes note that "The Second Hungarian Army also suffered heavy losses (about 200,000 casualties) during the Soviet attack in the Upper Don region, which followed the Battle of Stalingrad. However, there is no justification to include its losses within the Axis forces' losses in the campaign on Stalingrad, because the attack on the army had no direct connection to the Battle of Stalingrad, and it was conducted in the area of the city of Voronezh, hundreds of kilometers from the Stalingrad area".

Any input would be appreciated. Reaper1945 (talk) 21:59, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

 * A parenthesis should be added under both Axis and Allies casualties “(includes losses for all of Case Blue and Caucasus Campaign)”. 47.220.25.18 (talk) 16:30, 2 May 2024 (UTC)
 * The furthest extent of losses don't include the Caucasus campaign or all of the Southern Front fighting, however the scope is large regardless. Reaper1945 (talk) 04:25, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

Article size 17,000 words.
Over the last several months, the article has grown from 12,000 words (which was already too big) to over 17,000. This is going in the wrong direction. (Hohum @ ) 22:51, 31 March 2024 (UTC)

 * @Hohum I have made several recent edits to trim the article down and make it more concise, and made a new subsection detailing the tactics and battlefield conditions, as the "strategy and tactics" section was enormously long under one subsection. The problem most likely lies with the importance, popularity and all the information that can be gleaned from the battle itself. Reaper1945 (talk) 00:43, 1 April 2024 (UTC)

 * It's great that you have trimmed some parts. However the complexity of the subject isn't an excuse for such an overlength article. This is explained clearly in WP:Article size, with "reader issues/readability" being the primary one here, although it also affects maintenance significantly. Other articles on extremely complex and important subjects do manage to be far smaller, using various means. While the guideline does say that there can be occasional exceptions, I think other alternatives should be carefully considered first. (Hohum @ ) 01:19, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I have added a "section sizes" template at the top of this talk page to assist any potential efforts. (Hohum @ ) 01:23, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Understandable of course and I'll continue to make it more concise, since I am guilty myself of adding a great deal to the article to give more information and signify its importance from all sources, including a lot more Russian ones than just English sources. As noted by historian Geoffrey Roberts for example, there's just so much information about the battle and countless sources of it, so pulling what you can from these sources is a bit hard without taking away from what should be stated and explained. Reaper1945 (talk) 01:26, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Also, should the self-published source by Cameran Guan from https://thebattleofstalingrad1942-1943.weebly.com/historical-background-and-prelude.html still be used? Reaper1945 (talk) 01:28, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * With so many good sources available for the subject, I think you can be fairly ruthless with any questionable ones. (Hohum @ ) 11:35, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I think the "Tactics and battle conditions" & "Significance" sections could use trimming. I will scrutinize them in greater detail at a later date if no one else does. In general however, I think the significant historical notoriety of this battle and mountains of literature published on it warrants a large article. Durchbruchmüller (talk) 02:40, 14 April 2024 (UTC)

This article is more like a book than an encyclopedia article. It needs some ruthless trimming, IMO. The current bytecount stands at 216,605. Can we at least get it under 200,000? Nosferattus (talk) 17:34, 3 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I just came to this page for some light reading and it's ridiculously over-written. I appreciate that military enthusiasts want to share their knowledge, but several whole sections are off-topic and full of guff - the 'Aftermath' section for one. I for one would appreciate an editor taking a long blade to this article. Thanks!Newzild (talk) 05:51, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 17 April 2024
65.255.131.188 (talk) 16:09, 17 April 2024 (UTC) make more info like the general during this battle how long it was ya
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  JTP (talk • contribs) 17:30, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

Semi protected edit request
The end of the second paragraph of this article says the temperature was "tens of degrees below sub-zero" when it should say "tens of degrees below zero". It also would be helpful to note the temperature scale of Celsius here.

In terms of temperature, sub-zero is any value below zero so you could say "temperatures are sub-zero" but the statement "temperatures are below sub-zero" means nothing. 207.153.41.71 (talk) 16:43, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

 * ✅. I changed it to "below freezing" because I think that's clearer than denoting the temperature scale. Let me know if you disagree. –CWenger ( ^ •  @ ) 00:54, 25 April 2024 (UTC)

Edit request
the article cites Sokolov data about 2 million KIA and MIA casualties which seems absolutely unrealistic. Soviet forces in Battle of Stalingrad were ~1,1 million soldiers (every soldier died twice?) and Soviet army in total were ~5,5 million people

i suggest to remove this casualties data 95.220.21.185 (talk) 16:26, 28 April 2024 (UTC)

 * The issue is that both German and soviet losses are not just Stalingrad, they are for all fighting on the Southern Front from July, which is way more than “Stalingrad”. 47.220.25.18 (talk) 16:29, 2 May 2024 (UTC)

The soviet forces 1,1 mils also are not for the city itself, it is for Southern Front. Total Soviet forces were 5,5 mils for all fronts. Loosing 2 mils KIA would mean 4-8 mils wounded resulting in destruction of the whole Soviet army which is absurd

At least read Sokolov page in Russian wiki with translator: he is a freak of Russian history science community, his "researches" are not based on any facts. It is ridiculous that they are used as a serious data here

title: Talk:Battle of Stalingrad


text:
Gonesse

Gonesse is a commune in the Val-d'Oise department, in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 16.5 km from the centre of Paris.

The commune lies immediately north of Le Bourget Airport, and it is six kilometres (four miles) south-west of Charles de Gaulle International Airport.

History
Since Carolingian times, cereals have been grown in Gonesse. In the period of the 12th through to the 16th centuries, the cultivation of grain was supplemented by drapery, in particular the production of the coarse woollen material of the gaunace. The commune was an important producer of wheat for the Parisian market in modern times, until the decline of its bakery trade at the end of the 18th century helped feed a strong migration to the capital.

The world's first hydrogen filled balloon—the unmanned balloon launched by Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers from the Champ de Mars in Paris on 27 August 1783—flew for 45 minutes and landed in Gonesse, where the reportedly terrified local peasants destroyed it with pitchforks. This caused the government to issue a statement on the harmlessness and the scientific value of such experiments.

In 1815, Marshal Grouchy arrived in Gonesse in the course of the War of the Sixth Coalition, with 40,000 troops and 120 artillery pieces. On 2 July, the Duke of Wellington made his headquarters at the commune.

Since June 1939, the property Frapart (the Castle) is used as the main establishment of the urban administration.

Jean Camus, Louis Furmanek, Pierre Lorgnet, and Albert Drouhot from Gonesse belonged to the French Resistance movement during the German occupation of France from 1940 to 1944.

On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590—a Concorde supersonic transport—crashed onto a hotel in the town after a tyre blew out, caused by running over a strip of metal that had fallen off a DC-10 at nearby Charles de Gaulle International Airport. The crash led to the deaths of all 109 people on board and four more on the ground. The Concorde crash occurred fewer than 6 km from Goussainville, the site of the crash of the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 during the 1973 Paris Air Show.

Sights

Among the places worthwhile to visit in the town are the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, the old Hotel-Dieu, the Hotel-Dieu, the lofts Garlande and Orgemont, and the estates of Malmaison and of Coulanges.

Transport
Gonesse is served neither by the Paris Métro, RER, nor the suburban rail network. The closest station is the Villiers-le-Bel–Gonesse–Arnouville station on the Paris RER D. This station is located in the neighbouring commune of Arnouville-lès-Gonesse, 2.6 km from Gonesse town centre.

Education
, the commune had 20 municipal primary schools with a total of 3,526 ;pupils, including 11 pre-schools (écoles maternelles) with a total of 1,389 pupils (in addition to 20 children in toute petite programmes) and nine elementary schools with 2,137 total pupils.

Junior high schools:
 * College Philippe Auguste
 * Collège Robert Doisneau
 * Collège François Truffaut

There is one senior high school, Lycée René Cassin-Gonesse.

Notable people

 * King Philip Augustus was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165.
 * Simon Abkarian
 * Dr. Ernest Broquet, former mayor of Gonesse and recipient of the Legion of Honor
 * Woyo Coulibaly, footballer
 * Axel Disasi, footballer
 * Annabelle Euranie, judoka
 * Mohamed Fofana, footballer
 * Franck Julienne, footballer
 * Aboubakar Kamara, footballer
 * Grejohn Kyei, footballer
 * Louis Labeyrie, basketball player
 * Cedric Moukouri, footballer
 * Alice Nayo, basketball player
 * Thierry Rupert, basketball player
 * Dylan Saint-Louis, footballer
 * Halifa Soule, footballer
 * Warren Tchimbembe, footballer

Twinning with Leonessa
Gonesse has been twinned with the town of Leonessa in Rieti, Italy, since 1981.

title: Gonesse


text:
Demilitarized zone

A demilitarized zone (DMZ or DZ) is an area in which treaties or agreements between states, military powers or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. A DZ often lies along an established frontier or boundary between two or more military powers or alliances. A DZ may sometimes form a de facto international border, such as the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Other examples of demilitarized zones are a 14 km wide area between Iraq and Kuwait; Antarctica (preserved for scientific exploration and study); and outer space (space more than 100 km from the Earth's surface).

Some zones remain demilitarized after an agreement has awarded control to a state which (under the DZ terms) had originally ceded its right to maintain military forces in the disputed territory. It is also possible for powers to agree on the demilitarization of a zone without formally settling their respective territorial claims, enabling the dispute to be resolved by peaceful means such as diplomatic dialogue or an international court.

Several demilitarized zones have also unintentionally become wildlife preserves because their land is unsafe for construction or less exposed to human disturbances (including hunting). Examples include the Korean Demilitarized Zone, the Cypriot Demilitarized Zone (The Green Line), and the former Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone which divided Vietnam into two countries (North Vietnam and South Vietnam) from 21 July 1954 to 2 July 1976.

Current demilitarized zones

 * Antarctica – The Antarctic Treaty forbids military activity in Antarctica, such as "the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, as well as the testing of any type of weapon". The Treaty does however provide for the "use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purpose".
 * Joint Control Commission – Known locally as the Dniester Valley Security Zone, the demilitarized buffer zone was created by the cease-fire agreement ending the War of Transnistria. The Commission's peacekeeping mission monitors the demilitarized zone which roughly outlines the Dnister river between Moldova and Transnistria. It is 225 kilometers long and from 1 to 15 kilometers wide.
 * Korean Demilitarized Zone – The Korean Armistice Agreement created a 4 km (2.5 mi)-wide demilitarized zone between North Korea and South Korea following the Korean War. It is currently one of the most heavily militarized areas in the world despite the name.
 * Kuwait–Iraq barrier – The United Nations Security Council approved the creation of a demilitarized zone between Iraq and Kuwait in Resolution 689 after the Persian Gulf War. Although the demilitarized zone is no longer mandated by the council, it continues to exist.
 * Martín García Island – An Argentine island surrounded by Uruguayan waters of the Río de la Plata, according to the 45th article of the Río de la Plata Treaty it states that "the Martín García Island will be destined exclusively as a natural reserve for the conservation and preservation of the native fauna and flora, under the jurisdiction of the Argentine Republic", stating a demilitarized zone in the island.
 * Preah Vihear Temple – The International Court of Justice had ordered the creation of a "provisional demilitarized zone" around the Temple whose ownership is claimed by both Cambodia and Thailand.
 * Sinai Peninsula – The Egypt–Israel peace treaty sets a limit to the amount of forces Egypt can place in the Sinai Peninsula. Parts of the peninsula are demilitarized to various degrees, especially within 20 - 40 km of Israel. Israel also agreed to limit its forces within 3 km of the Egyptian border. The areas are monitored by the Multinational Force and Observers. Because of the Sinai insurgency all sides agreed and encouraged Egypt to send large amounts of military forces into the area, including tanks and helicopters, to fight Islamist groups.
 * Sudan – A 6 mi demilitarized zone along the Sudan – South Sudan border.
 * United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus – The United Nations Security Council created a buffer zone separating the self-proclaimed, internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus from the Republic of Cyprus. It was authorized by Resolution 186 and is patrolled by the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus.
 * United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Zone – The United Nations Security Council approved the creation of a demilitarized zone in a portion of the Israeli-occupied territory of the Golan Heights in Syria in Resolution 350 after the Yom Kippur War. The zone is monitored by the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force.
 * Åland – The Åland Convention of 1921, which was concluded following a decision of the League of Nations in response to the Åland crisis, mandates that the Finnish government maintain the territory as a demilitarized area.

Former demilitarized zones

 * A neutral territory was established between the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar and Spain after the end of the 1727 siege. A strip of land 600 toises (about 1.2 km) long, more than two cannon shots' distance between the British and Spanish guns, was called "the neutral ground" and shown as such on older maps. In 1908, the British built a fence in a portion claimed to be the British half of the neutral territory. Spain does not recognize British sovereignty over the isthmus (including the border), asserting it is Spanish soil. Although both the United Kingdom and Spain used to be part of the European Union (before the United Kingdom's exit), the border was a de facto international frontier with customs and immigration checks; Spain does not formally recognize it as a "frontier", referring to it as a "fence". Whatever its name, Gibraltar opted out of the European Union Customs Union and is not part of the Schengen Area; the border is open 24 hours a day, with customs duties payable on designated goods entering Spain or Gibraltar.
 * Rhineland – The Treaty of Versailles designated the Rhineland as a demilitarized zone after World War I, prohibiting the Weimar Republic from deploying its military there. It was re-occupied and re-militarized in 1936 by Nazi Germany in violation of international treaties.
 * Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone – The Uqair Protocol established a demilitarized zone between the Sultanate of Nejd and the Kingdom of Iraq, which at the time was a League of Nations mandate administered by the British Empire. Nejd was later incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The zone was partitioned in 1981 but the treaty was not filed with the United Nations. The zone was finally officially abolished during the Persian Gulf War, when Iraq and Saudi Arabia cancelled all international agreements with each other.
 * Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone – The Uqair Protocol established a neutral zone between the Sultanate of Nejd and the British protectorate of Kuwait in 1922. It was partitioned by mutual agreement in 1970.
 * Israel and Egypt:
 * Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, a DMZ (the El Auja Zone) was created by the 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Egypt.
 * Israel and Jordan:
 * The Israeli enclave and Jordanian area on Mt. Scopus was designated as a DMZ.
 * The area around the Latrun salient.
 * Israel and Syria: Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, three DMZs were created by the 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Syria.
 * China – The Imperial Japanese Army conquered Manchuria between September 1931 and February 1932, when they proclaimed the region the state of Manchukuo. In May 1933, the Tanggu Truce between China and Japan was concluded, establishing a demilitarized zone between Manchukuo and China. In 1937 Japan violated this truce with an invasion of the remainder of China. In 1945, after the fall of the Japanese empire at the end of the Asia-Pacific theater of World War II, Manchuria was re-incorporated into China.
 * Ecuador – a demilitarized zone was established on 2 October 1941, after the war between Ecuador and Peru, which existed under Ecuadorian administration and under the observation of neutral mediator nations: the United States, Brazil and Argentina. The DMZ was abolished in 1942, with the withdrawal of Peruvian forces from El Oro Province after the signing of the Rio Protocol.
 * Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone – The demilitarized zone between North Vietnam and South Vietnam was established in July 1954 as a result of the Geneva Conference ending the war between the Viet Minh and France. The DMZ in Vietnam officially lay at the 17th parallel and ended in 1976; in reality, it extended about 1 mi on either side of the Bến Hải River and west to east from the Lao border to the South China Sea.
 * Norway and Sweden established a demilitarized zone of 1 km (1,100 yards) on each side of their border after the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905. The zone was abolished by mutual agreement in 1993.
 * El Caguán DMZ – A demilitarized zone was established in southern Colombia between 1999 and 2002, during the failed peace process that involved the Government of President Andrés Pastrana and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC).
 * Northern Syria Buffer Zone – A 115 km demilitarized zone in northern Syria straddling portions of the Syria–Turkey border. It was established between Turkey and the United States, both NATO allies, during the Syrian Civil War to prevent clashes between Kurdish and Turkish forces. The DMZ collapsed in October 2019, after Turkey dismissed the agreement and the United States ordered a withdrawal of US forces from northern Syria, allowing the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria to go ahead.
 * Ground Safety Zone – A 5 km demilitarized area between Serbia and Kosovo was created under the Kumanovo Agreement following the Kosovo War that existed between 1999 and 2001. Following the Insurgency in the Preševo Valley, Serbian forces were allowed to enter GSZ.
 * Idlib demilitarization agreement zone – A 15 km demilitarized zone, created by agreement between Russian and Turkish government, splitting the last major stronghold of the Syrian rebels from the Syrian government controlled area amidst the Syrian Civil War.

title: Demilitarized zone


text:
Stevan Harnad

Stevan Robert Harnad (Hernád István Róbert, Hesslein István, born 1945) is a Canadian cognitive scientist based in Montreal.

Early life and education
Harnad was born in Budapest, Hungary. He did his undergraduate work at McGill University and his graduate work at Princeton University's Department of Psychology. Harnad completed his Master of Arts degree in Psychology from McGill University in 1969, his Doctor of Philosophy degree from Princeton University in 1992. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by University of Liège in 2013.

Research
Harnad's research interests are in cognitive science, open access and animal sentience. He is currently professor of psychology at Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), McGill University, and professor emeritus of cognitive science at the University of Southampton. Elected external member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 2001 (resigned in protest, 8 October 2016 ), he was Canada Research Chair in cognitive science 2001–2015. His research is on categorization, communication, cognition, and consciousness and he has written extensively on categorical perception, symbol grounding, origin of language, lateralization, the Turing test, distributed cognition, scientometrics, and consciousness. Harnad is a former student of Donald O. Hebb and Julian Jaynes.

Research publishing and open access
In 1978, Harnad was the founder of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, of which he remained editor-in-chief until 2002. In addition, he founded Psycoloquy (an early electronic journal sponsored by the American Psychological Association), CogPrints (an electronic eprint archive in the cognitive sciences hosted by the University of Southampton), and the American Scientist Open Access Forum (since 1998; now the Global Open Access List, GOAL ). Harnad, an active promoter of open access self-archiving and EPrints is currently Editor-in-Chief of the refereed journal Animal Sentience.

Scholarly skywriting
Scholarly skywriting, coined by Harnad around 1987, is the combination of multiple email and a topic threaded web archive such as a newsgroup, electronic mailing list, hypermail, netnews or Internet forum, linked and sortable by date, author, or subject-heading threads. The name derives from the idea that texts can be written in the "sky" (via multiple email and a web archive) for all to see ("skyreading") and all to add their own comments to ("skywriting"). Harnad suggested that it could be a kind of open peer review, a supplement to classical peer review, but not a substitute for it. What Harnad called student skywriting is scholarly skywriting done in a teaching/learning context.

Political activism
Harnad is the author of a 2011 open letter signed by over 60 external members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences addressed to the Academy's President, József Pálinkás, concerning the press and police harassment campaign against Hungarian philosophers who were critics of the current Hungarian ruling party, Fidesz, and its prime minister, Viktor Orbán. Harnad resigned from his external membership of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences on 8 October 2016 in protest against the increasingly "Illiberal democracy" of Viktor Orban.

Animal welfare
Harnad is Editor-in-Chief of the refereed journal Animal Sentience launched in 2015 by the Institute of Science and Policy  of The Humane Society of the United States. A vegan, Harnad is increasingly active in animal welfare,  animal rights, and animal law.

title: Stevan Harnad


text:
User:ShameOnTerrorists

B``H

The mission of a wholesome man is to make the world wholesome again.

title: User:ShameOnTerrorists


text:
Berengaria of Castile

Berengaria (Castilian: Berenguela), nicknamed the Great (Castilian: la Grande) (1179 or 1180 – 8 November 1246), was Queen of Castile for a brief time in 1217, and Queen of León from 1197 to 1204 as the second wife of King Alfonso IX. As the eldest child and heiress presumptive of Alfonso VIII of Castile, she was a sought-after bride, and was engaged to Conrad, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. After Conrad's death, she married her cousin Alfonso IX of León to secure the peace between him and her father. She had five children with him before their marriage was voided by Pope Innocent III.

When her father died, Berengaria served as regent for her younger brother Henry I in Castile until she succeeded him on his untimely death. Within months, she turned Castile over to her son Ferdinand III, concerned that as a woman she would not be able to lead Castile's forces. However, she remained one of his closest advisors, guiding policy, negotiating, and ruling on his behalf for the rest of her life. She was responsible for the re-unification of Castile and León under her son's authority, and supported his efforts in the Reconquista. She was a patron of religious institutions and supported the writing of a history of the two countries.

Early life
Berengaria was born either in 1179 or 1180, in Burgos. She was the eldest daughter of King Alfonso VIII of Castile and his wife, Eleanor of England. She was the elder sister of Henry I of Castile and was named in honor of Alfonso VIII's grandmother Berengaria of Barcelona. Those who cared for the young infanta were generously rewarded. Her nurse, Estefanía, received land from Alfonso and Eleanor on her retirement in May 1181. Another nurse, Elvira, received a similar retirement gift in 1189 at Berengaria's request.

As the eldest child of King Alfonso and Queen Eleanor, who preferred to give birth to a son and therefore later king, Berengaria was the heiress presumptive to the throne of Castile for several years because many of the children born later to the couple died shortly after birth or in early infancy. She became a greatly-desired bride throughout Europe.

Berengaria's first engagement was agreed in 1187 when her hand was sought by Conrad, the fifth child of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. The next year, the marriage contract was signed in Seligenstadt, including a dowry of 42000 Maravedí. Conrad then marched to Castile, where in Carrión the engagement was celebrated and Conrad was knighted making him a servant of his new lord, Alfonso. Berengaria's claim to the throne was based in part on documentation in the treaty and marriage contract, which specified that she would inherit the kingdom after her father or any childless brothers who might come along. Conrad would only be allowed to co-rule as her spouse, and Castile would not become part of the Empire. Furthermore, he was not allowed to claim the throne for himself in case of Alfonso's death, but was obliged to defend and protect the kingdom until Berengaria arrived. The treaty also documented traditional rights and obligations between the future sovereign and the nobility.

The marriage was not consummated because Berengaria was less than 10 years old. Conrad and Berengaria never saw each other again. By 1191, Berengaria requested an annulment of the engagement from the pope, influenced, no doubt, by third parties such as her grandmother Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, who was not interested in having a Hohenstaufen as a neighbor to her French fiefdoms. Those fears were neutralized when Conrad was assassinated in 1196.

Queen consort of León
In order to help secure peace between Castile and León and by becoming a mediator between her father and her husband, Berengaria married King Alfonso IX of León, her first cousin once removed, in Valladolid in 1197. As part of the marriage, and in accordance with Spanish customs of the time, she received direct control over a number of castles and lands within León. Most of these were along the border with Castile, and the nobles who ran them in her name were allowed to seek justice from either king in the event of being wronged by the other. In turn, these knights were charged with maintaining the peace along the border in the queen's name.

Starting in 1198, Pope Innocent III objected to the marriage on the grounds of consanguinity and even threatened to excommunicate Alfonso, though the couple stayed together until 1204. They vehemently sought a dispensation in order to stay together, including offering large sums of money. The pope denied their request, but they succeeded in establishing the legitimacy of their children. The marriage was dissolved in 1204. Berengaria returned to her parents in Castile in May, where she dedicated herself to the care of her children. The eldest of them, Eleanor (1198/99-1202), had died; Constance (1200–1242), Ferdinand (1201–1252), Alfonso (1203–1272), and Berengaria (1204–1237) survived infancy.

Between queenships
Though she had left her role as queen of León, she retained authority over and taxing rights in many of the lands she had received there, including Salamanca and Castroverde, which she gave to her son Ferdinand in 1206. Some of the nobles who had served her as queen followed her back to the court in Castille. The peace which had prevailed since her marriage was lost, and there was war again between León and Castille, in part over her control of these lands. In 1205, 1207, and 1209, treaties were made again between the two countries, each expanding her control. In the treaties of 1207 and 1209, Berengaria and her son were given again significant properties along the border, including many key castles, including Villalpando. The treaty in 1207 is the first existing public document in the Castilian dialect.

In 1214, on the death of her father, Alfonso VIII, the Castilian crown passed to his only surviving son, Berengaria's 10-year-old brother, Henry I. Their mother Eleanor assumed the regency, but died 24 days after her husband. Berengaria, now heir presumptive again, replaced her as regent. At this point internal strife began, instigated by the nobility, primarily the House of Lara. They forced Berengaria to cede regency and guardianship of her brother to Count Álvaro Núñez de Lara.

In 1216, an extraordinary parliamentary session was held in Valladolid, attended by such Castilian magnates as Lope Díaz II de Haro, Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón, Álvaro Díaz de Cameros, Alfonso Téllez de Meneses and others, who agreed, with the support of Berengaria, to make common cause against Álvaro Núñez de Lara. At the end of May the situation in Castile had grown perilous for Berengaria, so she decided to take refuge in the castle of Autillo de Campos, which was held by Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón (one of her allies) and sent her son Ferdinand to the court of his father. On 15 August 1216, an assembly of all the magnates of Castile was held to attempt to reach an accord that would prevent civil war, but disagreements led the families of Girón, Téllez de Meneses, and Haro to break definitively with Álvaro de Lara.

Queen of Castile
Circumstances changed suddenly when Henry died on 6 June 1217 after receiving a head wound from a tile which came loose while he was playing with other children at the palace of the bishop of Palencia. His guardian, Count Álvaro Núñez de Lara, tried to hide the fact, taking the king's body to the castle of Tariego, although it was inevitable that the news would reach Berengaria.

The new sovereign was well aware of the danger her former husband posed to her reign; being her brother's closest agnate, it was feared that he would claim the crown for himself. Therefore, she kept her brother's death and her own accession secret from Alfonso. She wrote to Alfonso asking that Ferdinand be sent to visit her, and then abdicated in their son's favour on 31 August. In part, she abdicated as she would be unable to be the military leader Castile needed its king to be in that time.

Royal advisor
Although she did not reign for long, Berengaria continued to be her son's closest advisor, intervening in state policy, albeit in an indirect manner. Well into her son's reign, contemporary authors wrote that she still wielded authority over him. One example was how she arranged the marriage of her son with princess Elisabeth of Hohenstaufen (known as Beatriz in Castile), daughter of Duke Philip of Swabia and granddaughter of two emperors: Frederick Barbarossa and Isaac II Angelos of Byzantium. The wedding took place on 30 November 1219 at Burgos. Another instance in which Berengaria's mediation stood out developed in 1218 when the scheming Lara family, still headed by former regent Álvaro Núñez de Lara, conspired to have Alfonso IX, King of León and King Ferdinand's father, invade Castile to seize his son's throne. However, the capture of Count Lara facilitated the intervention of Berengaria, who got father and son to sign the Pact of Toro on 26 August 1218, putting an end to confrontations between Castile and León.

In 1222, Berengaria intervened anew in favor of her son, achieving the ratification of the Convention of Zafra, thereby making peace with the Laras by arranging the marriage of Mafalda, daughter and heiress of the Lord of Molina, Gonzalo Pérez de Lara, to her own son and King Ferdinand's brother, Alfonso. In 1224 she arranged the marriage of her daughter Berengaria to John of Brienne, a maneuver which brought Ferdinand III closer to the throne of León, since John was the candidate Alfonso IX had in mind to marry his eldest daughter Sancha. By proceeding more quickly, Berengaria prevented the daughters of her former husband from marrying a man who could claim the throne of León.

Perhaps her most decisive intervention on Ferdinand's behalf took place in 1230, when Alfonso IX died and designated as heirs to the throne his daughters Sancha and Dulce from his first marriage to Theresa of Portugal, superseding the rights of Ferdinand III. Berengaria met with the princesses' mother and succeeded in the ratification of the Treaty of Las Tercerías, by which they renounced the throne in favor of their half-brother in exchange for a substantial sum of money and other benefits. Thus were the thrones of León and Castile re-united in the person of Ferdinand III, which had been divided by Alfonso VII in 1157. She intervened again by arranging the second marriage of Ferdinand after the death of Elisabeth of Hohenstaufen. Although he already had plenty of children, Berengaria was concerned that the king's virtue not be diminished with illicit relations. This time, she chose a French noblewoman, Joan of Dammartin, a candidate put forth by the king's aunt and Berengaria's sister Blanche, widow of King Louis VIII of France. Berengaria served again as regent, ruling while her son Ferdinand was in the south on his long campaigns of the Reconquista. She governed Castile and León with her characteristic skill, relieving him of the need to divide his attention during this time.

Patronage and legacy
She met with her son a final time in Pozuelo de Calatrava in 1245, afterwards returning to Toledo. She died on 8 November 1246 and was buried at Las Huelgas near Burgos.

Much like her mother, she was a strong patron of religious institutions. She worked with her mother to support the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas. As queen of León, she supported the Order of Santiago and supported the Basilica of San Isidoro, not only donating to it, but also exempting it from any taxes. She re-established the tradition of Leónese royal women supporting the Monastery of San Pedro de Eslonza, last performed by her great-grand aunt, Sancha Raimúndez.

She is portrayed as a wise and virtuous woman by the chroniclers of the time. She was also concerned with literature and history, charging Lucas de Tuy to compose a chronicle on the Kings of Castile and León to aid and instruct future rulers of the joint kingdom. She herself was discussed in the works of Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, whose work was sponsored by her son Ferdinand, and Juan of Osma, who was chancellor of Castile under Ferdinand.

title: Berengaria of Castile


text:
Talk:Steve Lamacq

Untitled
Sorry about the Libra thing. I just put that there as an excuse to add a facetious link. People can leave it or remove it, I'm not fussed. Not a bad article, now, is it? Links and everything, very cool- elmsyrup

 * Yep, very good, elmsyrup. So do you like this place? You can do some other articles if you want... :) -- Oliver P. 18:33 Feb 5, 2003 (UTC)

I know, it isn't a bad place at all. But I don't have many fields of expertise... elmsyrup

 * Oh, you don't have to be an expert at anything. You just need to always know at least one thing that hasn't been covered yet. And even if you don't know anything, you can always look stuff up. ;) -- Oliver P. 10:52 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

Lurpak
From what I can remember, Peel always used to refer to Lamacq as "Lammo" and it was Mark and Lard who referred to him as "Steve Lurpak". Is this correct, or did Peelie start the "Lurpak" thing?

-Zagrebo 18:17, 24 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I think you're right, I remember Peel calling him Lammo --MartinUK 16:14, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm going to change the nickname to "Lammo" since I'm sure this is correct. - Zagrebo 21:22, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

 * IIRC it (Lurpak) was a Chris Moyles afternoon show thing they conjured up one day during a link after a trailer for the evening session (on reflection realising how long ago that was i really do feel old now!)160.5.247.8 01:08, 22 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Thinking about it again, it might have been "Prince of Peanuts" ... 160.5.247.8 01:10, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Obligatory Fanzines...
I'm removing the snide/skeptical/un-encyclopedic comment: "It is obligatory that all music journalists would have started a fanzine during their teenage years. " I have left and reworked the statement that he did in fact start a fanzine called A Pack of Lies. Canjecricketer 13:39, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

On his being "arguably the most famous fan of Colchester United"
I'm not really sure that this is relevant to anything. Plus it's not sourced at all. Unless anyone really has an objection to this, I'm going to remove that line (towards the end). Canjecricketer 13:05, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

You could see it that way, but you could source it? I'm pretty sure it's true on both counts. I had a friend who as a Southend fan who told me that although he liked Lamacq's music, he didn't like him because he was a Colchester fan! A quick google search for Steve Lamacq Colchester United reveals a large number of results and interviews where Lamacq has spoken of his love for Colchester. I will source it myself if people decide that it is notable enough to remain in the article. Petepetepetepete 14:12, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

In 1965 he wouldn't have had to move from Bournemouth to be in Hampshire so this needs tweaking Britmax (talk) 21:47, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

The only controversial part of this statement is that Steve is arguably the most famous fan. What other famous fans are there of Colchester United and would they be more or less famous than Steve Lamacq? So far I've got film maker Ray Hollingsworth who was behind a film based on Colchester's old home ground of Layer Road called 'Made in Colchester. Also there's indie rock group, Absent Kid who are from the Colchester area, played a short set at Colchester's last game at Layer Road and provided the soudtrack for Ray's film. DarthJoeyJoJo (talk) 16:11, 24 February 2009 (UTC) - Edited 09:59 26 February 2009 (UTC) Have a new celebrity fan of ColU. Liberal Democrat MP for Colchester's constituary - Bob Russell. The Lim Dem's page states that he has been a fan for 50 years and is one of the only MP to travel with the fans on away games. Still not as famous as Stevo, though. - Added 07:42 1 March 2009 (UTC)

Place of birth
At 16:24, 3 February 2003, 62.252.32.6 wrote that Steve Lamacq "grew up in the Braintree area of the county of Essex on October 16, 1965." At 16:31, 3 February 2003, Oliver Pereira reformatted that to "(born October 16, 1965)" and "He grew up in the Braintree area of the county of Essex." At 17:59, 3 February 2003, 62.252.32.6 reverted the sentence to "He was born in 1965 in the Braintree area of the county of Essex." Then at 06:31, 14 January 2004, 80.6.208.75 changed the birthplace to Bournemouth, with the wording "He was born in Bournemouth in the county of Dorset. His family soon moved to Essex and he grew up in the Colne Engaine area." At 18:17, 31 August 2005, Vincej corrected the county, because Bournemouth was in Hampshire and not in Dorset in 1965.

At 18:15, 5 March 2010, 81.137.82.158 changed the place of birth in the body of the article but not in the infobox or the category (People from Bournemouth) from Bournemouth to Basingstoke.

Unfortunately, none of these changes gave any references, and I have been unable to determine whether he was born in Bournemouth or Basingstoke or somewhere else. I have looked at all the external links given as references in the article. Should his place of birth be removed from the article until someone can provide a reference? Coyets (talk) 11:33, 30 March 2010 (UTC)

Wrong year of birth
Steve Lamacq was born on October 16 1964, not 1965. He celebrated his 50th this year. He also mentioned on his radio show that he's aware of the mistake on Wikipedia, and denied that he did it himself :) I'm too unfamiliar with Wikipedia source requirements (and too lazy) to edit this myself though. Someone probably should, though.

Richey Edwards Interview
During his time at NME, he interviewed Richey Edwards of Manic Street Preachers, which ended with Richey cutting 4 Real into his arm with a razor blade. This is probably one of the defining moments of both men's careers and should probably be acknowledged. 179.25.102.96 (talk) 06:57, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

Part of radio
I am wondering if it’s okay to have a big section about a living person with no sources as we see here on Radio and other sections. I did not delete them, as I believe it’s all true about Steve, but it looks strange. Bager Drukit (talk) 19:15, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Steve Lamacq


text:
Jean-François Rewbell

Jean-François Reubell or Rewbell (6 October 1747 – 24 November 1807) was a French lawyer, diplomat, and politician of the Revolution.

The revolutionary
Born at Colmar (now in the département of Haut-Rhin), he became president of the local order of lawyers, and in 1789 was elected as a deputy to the Estates-General by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Colmar-Schlestadt.

In the National Constituent Assembly his oratory, legal knowledge and austerity of life gave him much influence. A partisan of revolutionary reforms, Rewbell voted in favor of reforms such as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, but opposed the recognition of citizenship rights for Alsatian Jews.

In July 1791, after the flight of Louis XVI, the constitutional king, Rewbell left the Jacobin Club and joined the Feuillants. During the session of the Legislative Assembly, after the Constituent Assembly was dissolved in September of that year, he exercised the functions of procureur syndic, and was subsequently secretary-general of the département of Haut-Rhin. He was elected to the Republic's National Convention in 1792, and was its envoy to the Rhineland, advocating the union of the Electorate of the Palatinate and other territories with France. A zealous promoter of the Trial of Louis XVI, he was absent on mission at the time of the king's condemnation.

Directorate and retirement
He took part in the Thermidorian Reaction movement which led to the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, and became a member of the reorganised Committee of Public Safety and of the Committee of General Security. In early 1795, he assisted Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in negotiating the surrender of the Batavian Republic to the French Republic. His moderation caused his election by seventeen départements to the Council of Five Hundred.

Appointed a member of the Directory in November 1795, he became its president in 1796; he then entered the Council of Ancients. In office, Rewbell dealt with the Royalist attempted coup d'état (The 18 Fructidor), as well as the Conspiracy of the Equals; he engineered the annexation of the Rhineland and the southern Low Countries to the Republic, as well as the invasion of the Old Swiss Confederacy and the creation of the Helvetic Republic. He was retired by ballot in 1799, after being held responsible for the French defeats of that year in front of the Second Coalition.

After Napoleon Bonaparte's coup of 18 Brumaire he retired from public life, and died at Colmar.

title: Jean-François Rewbell


text:
Prime (disambiguation)

A prime is a natural number that has exactly two distinct natural number divisors: 1 and itself.

Prime or PRIME may also refer to:

Fictional characters

 * Prime (comics), a comic book character
 * Dyson Aliens or The Primes, aliens in Peter Hamilton's Commonwealth Saga

Music

 * Prime (music)
 * Prime Boys, Canadian hip hop collective
 * Prime (percussion), to lightly strike an instrument such as a gong in preparation for playing
 * Prime form (music)
 * Unison, an interval also called a prime
 * Prime (album), an album by Christian McBride
 * "Prime", a song by Marnie Stern from This Is It and I Am It and You Are It and So Is That and He Is It and She Is It and It Is It and That Is That, 2008

Television channels

 * Prime (Canadian TV channel) or DTour
 * Prime (Moldovan TV channel)
 * Prime (New Zealand TV channel)
 * Prime TV (Philippine TV channel)
 * Prime TV (Sri Lanka)
 * AFN Prime, part of the American Forces Network
 * BBC Prime, a television channel in Europe and the Middle East
 * Prime Media Group, an Australian media corporation
 * Prime Network, a defunct cable sports network in the United States
 * Prime Televisie, a Flemish pay television channel
 * Prime7, a television network in Australia owned by Prime Media

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * Prime (film), a 2005 romantic comedy
 * Prime lens, a lens which has a fixed focal length, in film and photography
 * Prime Number (short story collection), a short story collection by Harry Harrison
 * Prime time, a block of slots each evening in broadcast programming
 * Prime version, the original version of an artwork existing in several versions
 * Sonic Prime, a 2022 TV show in the Sonic the Hedgehog franchise.

Brands and enterprises

 * Amazon Prime, a subscription service of Amazon.com
 * Prime (drink), a brand of beverages
 * Prime Books, an American publisher

Finance

 * Prime (finance)
 * Prime rate, a rate of interest applied in banking

Mathematics

 * Prime (order theory)
 * Prime 3-manifold, a 3-manifold that cannot be written as the connect sum of two nontrivial 3-manifolds
 * Prime element, in algebra
 * Prime form of a Riemann surface
 * Prime ideal, a subset of a ring
 * Prime knot, a knot that cannot be written as the knot sum of two non-trivial knots in knot theory
 * Prime model, as simple a model as possible in model theory
 * Prime polynomial

People

 * Prime (graffiti artist) (born 1971) or Jose Reza
 * Prime (surname)

Science and technology

 * a psychological stimulus which causes priming
 * PRIME (power-line communication), a power-line communication standard
 * PRIME (labeling technique), probe incorporation mediated by enzymes, a molecular biology research tool
 * Prime editing, a gene editing technique
 * PRIME, a GPU offloading solution for the Linux kernel, used in the Direct Rendering Manager
 * HP Prime, a graphing calculator model
 * Prime Computer, a producer of minicomputers

Sports

 * Prime F.C., a Nigerian football club
 * Prime parry, a parry form in fencing
 * Prime (cycling), an intermediate sprint within a bicycle race

Vehicles

 * Edel Prime Bi, a South Korean paraglider design
 * Prius Prime, an automobile
 * USS Prime (AM-279), a minesweeper in naval service 1944–46
 * USS Prime (AM-466), a minesweeper commissioned in 1954
 * X-23 PRIME, an experimental re-entry vehicle

Other uses

 * Prime (liturgy), a canonical hour
 * Prime (symbol), the ′ mark, typically used as a suffix
 * Prime, a grading of meat in beef carcass classification
 * Prime rib, or standing rib roast, a cut of beef from the primal rib, one of the primal cuts of beef
 * Programme for Rebuilding and Improving Existing Schools, a programme of the Singapore Ministry of Education
 * Prime years, the ideal or perfect age

title: Prime (disambiguation)


text:
Brumaire

Brumaire was the second month in the French Republican calendar. The month was named after the French brume 'fog', which occurs frequently in France at that time of the year.

Brumaire was the second month of the autumn quarter (mois d'automne). It started between 22 October and 24 October, ending between 20 November and 22 November. It follows Vendémiaire and precedes Frimaire.

In political/historical usage, Brumaire can refer to the coup of 18 Brumaire in the year VIII (9 November 1799), by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the government of the Directory to replace it with the Consulate, as referenced by Karl Marx in his pamphlet, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, in which Marx parallels Napoleon's original coup with the later 1851 Coup of his nephew, Louis-Napoleon.

Day name table
Like all FRC months Brumaire lasted 30 days and was divided into three 10-day weeks called décades (decades). Every day had the name of an agricultural plant, except the 5th (Quintidi) and 10th day (Decadi) of every decade, which had the name of a domestic animal (Quintidi) or an agricultural tool (Decadi).

title: Brumaire


text:
Helmut Newton

Helmut Newton (born Helmut Neustädter; 31 October 1920 – 23 January 2004) was a German-Australian photographer. The New York Times described him as a "prolific, widely imitated fashion photographer whose provocative, erotically charged black-and-white photos were a mainstay of Vogue and other publications."

Early life
Newton was born in Berlin, the son of Klara "Claire" (née Marquis) and Max Neustädter, a button factory owner. His family was Jewish. Newton attended the Heinrich-von-Treitschke-Realgymnasium and the American School in Berlin. Interested in photography from the age of 12 when he purchased his first camera, he worked for the German photographer Yva (Elsie Neuländer Simon) from 1936. The increasingly oppressive restrictions placed on Jews by the Nuremberg laws, meant that his father lost control of the factory in which he manufactured buttons and buckles; he was briefly interned in a concentration camp on Kristallnacht, 9 November 1938, which finally compelled the family to leave Germany. Newton's parents fled to Argentina. Newton was issued with a passport just after turning 18 and left Germany on 5 December 1938. At Trieste, he boarded the Conte Rosso (along with about 200 others escaping the Nazis), intending to journey to China. After arriving in Singapore, Newton found he was able to remain there, first briefly as a photographer for the Straits Times and then as a portrait photographer.

From 1940: Life in Australia
Newton was interned by British authorities while in Singapore and was sent to Australia on board the Queen Mary, arriving in Sydney on 27 September 1940. Internees travelled to the camp at Tatura by train under armed guard. He was released from internment in 1942 and briefly worked as a fruit picker in Northern Victoria. In August 1942, Newton enlisted with the Australian Army and worked as a truck driver. After the war in 1945, he became a British subject and changed his name to Newton in 1946. In 1948, he married actress June Browne, who performed under the stage name June Brunell. Later she became a successful photographer under the ironic pseudonym Alice Springs (after Alice Springs, the town in Central Australia). In 1946, Newton set up a studio in fashionable Flinders Lane in Melbourne and worked on fashion, theatre and industrial photography in the affluent postwar years. He shared his first joint exhibition in May 1953 with Wolfgang Sievers, a German refugee like himself, who had also served in the same company. The exhibition of New Visions in Photography was displayed at the Federal Hotel in Collins Street and was probably the first glimpse of New Objectivity photography in Australia. Newton went into partnership with Henry Talbot, a fellow German Jew who had also been interned at Tatura, and his association with the studio continued even after 1957, when he left Australia for London. The studio was renamed Helmut Newton and Henry Talbot.

Late 1950s: to London, Europe, a return to Australia
Newton's growing reputation as a fashion photographer was rewarded when he secured a commission to illustrate fashions in a special Australian supplement for Vogue magazine, published in January 1956. He won a 12-month contract with British Vogue and left for London in February 1957, leaving Talbot to manage the business. Newton left the magazine before the end of his contract and went to Paris, where he worked for French and German magazines. He returned to Melbourne in March 1959 to a contract for Australian Vogue.

1961: to Paris
Newton and his wife finally settled in Paris in 1961 and the work continued as a fashion photographer. His images appeared in magazines including the French edition of Vogue and Harper's Bazaar. He established a particular style marked by erotic, stylised scenes, often with sado-masochistic and fetishistic subtexts. A heart attack in 1970 reduced Newton's output, nevertheless his wife's encouragement led to his profile continuing to expand, especially with a big success, the 1980 studio-bound stark infinity of the "Big Nudes" series. His "Naked and Dressed" portfolio followed and in 1992 "Domestic Nudes" which marked the pinnacle of his erotic-urban style, these series all underpinned with the prowess of his technical skills. Newton also worked in portraiture and more fantastical studies. Newton shot a number of pictorials for Playboy, including pictorials of Nastassja Kinski and Kristine DeBell. Original prints of the photographs from his August 1976 pictorial of DeBell, "200 Motels, or How I Spent My Summer Vacation" were sold at auctions of Playboy archives by Bonhams in 2002 for $21,075, and by Christie's in December 2003 for $26,290.

"Three Boys from Pasadena"
In 2009, June Browne conceptualised a tribute exhibition to Newton, based on three photographers that befriended Newton in Los Angeles in 1980: Mark Arbeit, Just Loomis, and George Holz. All three had been photography students at The Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. All three became friends with Helmut and June Newton and to varying degrees assisted Helmut Newton. Each went on to independent careers. The exhibit premiered at the Helmut Newton Foundation in Berlin and combined the work of all three with personal snapshots, contact sheets, and letters from their time with Newton.

Polaroids
From the 1970s Newton regularly used Polaroid instant cameras and film for instant visualisation of compositions and lighting situations, especially for his fashion photography. By his own admission, for the shoot of Naked and Dressed series that started in 1981 for the Italian and French Vogue he used Polaroid film “by the crate”. These polaroids also served as a sketchbook, where he scribbled notes with regard to the model, client or location and date. In 1992, Newton published Pola Woman, a book consisting only of his Polaroids. Over 300 works based on the original Polaroids were shown at 2011 exhibition “Helmut Newton Polaroids” at the Museum für Fotografie in Berlin.

Death

In his later life, Newton lived in both Monte Carlo and Los Angeles, California where he spent winters at the Chateau Marmont, which he had done every year since 1957. On 23 January 2004, he suffered a serious heart attack while driving his automobile down Marmont Lane from the Chateau Marmont to Sunset Boulevard. He was taken to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center; doctors were unable to save him, and he was pronounced dead. His ashes are buried at the Städtischer Friedhof III in Berlin.

Published works, during his life

 * Helmut Newton, White Women, New York: Congreve, 1976.
 * Helmut Newton, Sleepless Nights, New York: Congreve, 1978.
 * Helmut Newton, Big Nudes, Paris: Editions du Regard, 1981.
 * Helmut Newton, "Sie kommen" ("They're Coming"), Paris: French Vogue, 1981.
 * Helmut Newton, World Without Men, New York: Xavier Moreau, 1984.
 * Klaus Honnef and Helmut Newton, Helmut Newton: Portraits, Schirmer Art Books, 1986.
 * Marshall Blonsky & Helmut Newton, Private Property, Schirmer Art Books, 1989.
 * Helmut Newton, Sumo book, Taschen, 1999.
 * Helmut Newton and June Newton, Helmut Newton Work, edited by Manfred Heiting, Taschen, 2000.
 * Helmut Newton, Autobiography, Nan A. Talese, 2003.

Published works, after his death

 * Helmut Newton, A Gun for Hire, edited by June Newton, Taschen, 2005.
 * Helmut Newton, Playboy: Helmut Newton, Chronicle Books, 2005.
 * Guy Featherstone, "Helmut Newton's Australian Years", in The La Trobe Journal, The State Library of Victoria Foundation, No 76, Spring, 2005.
 * Klaus Neumann, In the Interest of National Security: Civilian Internment in Australia during World War II, Canberra: National Archives of Australia, 2006.

title: Helmut Newton