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Hobgoblin (comics)

The Hobgoblin is the alias of several supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, most of whom are depicted as enemies of the superhero Spider-Man and belong to the collective of adversaries that make up his rogues gallery, most of whom are brainwashed by the Winkler Device into becoming Hobgoblins. Created by writer Roger Stern and artist John Romita Jr., the first incarnation of the Hobgoblin was introduced in The Amazing Spider-Man #238 (March 1983) as a criminal mastermind equipped with Halloween-themed weapons similar to those used by the Green Goblin.

The true identity of the Hobgoblin was one of the longest-running mysteries in the Spider-Man comics. In 1987, the Hobgoblin was revealed to be Ned Leeds, Peter Parker's journalist co-worker at the Daily Bugle, while in 1997, ten years later, his identity was retroactively established to be Roderick Kingsley, a fashion designer and Mary Jane Watson's former boss, with Ned reframed as a fall guy, and later in the 2020s as the second Hogoblin and secret sorcerer apprentice of Baron Mordo. Other characters that have assumed the Hobgoblin mantle over the years include criminals Lefty Donovan and Jason Macendale, Roderick's twin brother Daniel Kingsley, Spider-Man 2211's daughter Robin Borne, Ben Urich's nephew Phil Urich, and Kingsley's butler Claude. Leeds, Donovan and Claude were first brainwashed to serve as Hobgoblins as part of a scheme orchestrated by the Kingsley brothers, with Kingsley, Macendale, Borne and Urich being the only versions to operate independently of the others (although occasionally partnering with them), with Leeds and Kingsley later also being brainwashed by Queen Goblin to serve as her enforcers. In the alternate continuities of The Amazing Spider-Man comic strip and Ultimate Marvel, Harry Osborn has also adopted the Hobgoblin persona.

The Hobgoblin has been adapted from the comics into various forms of media, including television series and video games. An amalgamated version of the character named Jason Philips appeared in the 1994–1998 Spider-Man: The Animated Series, voiced by Mark Hamill, while the Harry Osborn incarnation is featured in Spider-Man (2017–2018), voiced by Max Mittelman.

Publication history
The Hobgoblin was created by writer Roger Stern and artist John Romita Jr. for The Amazing Spider-Man #238 (March 1983). Like other writers, Stern found himself under pressure to have Spider-Man fight the Green Goblin again, but did not wish to bring Norman Osborn or Bart Hamilton back from the dead, have Harry Osborn be the Green Goblin again, or create another Green Goblin. Stern instead created a new concept as heir to the Goblin legacy and developed the Hobgoblin. Stern recounts that he directed Romita to base the costume on the Green Goblin's but to make it "a little more medieval-looking", while Romita asserts that he was given no direction beyond using the Green Goblin as a basis. Both agree, however, that the costume was chiefly Romita's design.

The Hobgoblin's identity was not initially revealed, generating one of the longest-running mysteries in the Spider-Man comics. According to Stern, "I plotted that first story with no strong idea of who the Hobgoblin was. As I was scripting those gorgeous pages from [John Romita, Jr.], particularly the last third of the book, and developing the Hobgoblin’s speech pattern, I realized who he was. It was Roderick Kingsley, that sunuvabitch corporate leader I had introduced in my first issue of [The] Spectacular [Spider-Man]." A handful of readers deduced that Kingsley was the Hobgoblin almost immediately. To throw off the scent and in the same stroke provide a retroactive explanation for Kingsley's inconsistent characterization in his early appearances, Stern came up with the idea of Kingsley having his brother Daniel Kingsley sometimes impersonate him, sealing the deception by having the Hobgoblin conspicuously appear in the same room as Kingsley in The Amazing Spider-Man #249.

Stern's original plan was to have the Hobgoblin's mystery identity run exactly one issue longer than that of the Green Goblin's identity, meaning the truth would be revealed in The Amazing Spider-Man #264. However, Stern left after The Amazing Spider-Man #251, and editor Tom DeFalco took his place. Wanting to resolve the mystery in a manner that would do justice to Stern's stories, DeFalco asked Stern who the Hobgoblin was, but objected when Stern said it was Kingsley. DeFalco argued that the "twin brother" scheme was cheating the readers since there had been no hint that Roderick even had a brother (aside from a single thought bubble), much less one who could serve as a body double. Stern disagreed but said that DeFalco should feel free to make the choice of which character to use for the Hobgoblin's secret identity, Stern reasoning that "I knew that whomever Tom chose, he would make it work." Upon reviewing the clues, DeFalco decided that the Hobgoblin was Richard Fisk. Moreover, he decided that the Hobgoblin's mystery should be prolonged as long as possible, since it was the chief element that made the Hobgoblin interesting. Through both Stern and DeFalco's runs, the answer was continuously teased on the cover art, with the covers of The Amazing Spider-Man #245, 251, and 276 all showing Spider-Man having unmasked the Hobgoblin.

The mystery was further complicated after James Owsley came on as editor of the Spider-Man titles. Owsley's relationship with DeFalco and artist Ron Frenz was strained from the beginning. When Owsley asked who the Hobgoblin was at a creators conference, DeFalco lied and said the man in question was Ned Leeds. Owsley then wrote the one-shot Spider-Man vs Wolverine in which Leeds is killed off (though the actual death is not shown), and instructed The Spectacular Spider-Man writer Peter David to reveal the Hobgoblin's identity as the Foreigner. David objected and argued that the only person who fit the clues was Leeds. Having been present at the Spider-Man creator's conference, David also thought that Leeds was who DeFalco intended it to be. Because Spider-Man vs. Wolverine had already been drawn, however, it was too late to undo Leeds's death. Thus, the Hobgoblin's identity was revealed posthumously in the double-sized The Amazing Spider-Man #289. With Spider-Man's archenemy now dead, a new storyline was created from Jason Macendale's hatred of the Hobgoblin. Though the Hobgoblin's posthumous unmasking as Leeds was unpopular with fans, David said in a 2009 interview of still being proud of the story, arguing that the Hobgoblin being unmasked in a climactic battle with Spider-Man was the sort of tale readers had already seen countless times before, whereas having an archvillain unmasked in a flashback after having been brutally killed by nameless assassins was unprecedented and shocking. From 1987 to 1997, Macendale was the Hobgoblin, initially using only the Hobgoblin's costume and weaponry, but the 1988-1989 "Inferno" crossover writer Gerry Conway had Macendale imbued with magical powers by the demon N'astirh by bonding him with a demon. In addition to power over hellfire and increased strength and speed far greater than his predecessor, N'astirh also disfigures Macendale so that his head resembled the Hobgoblin mask, and ultimately alters his mind so that he was deluded into thinking that his appearance is normal. Several years later, Macendale succeeds in purging himself of his demonic powers and acquires cybernetic implants, the demon that N'astirh imbued with Macendale becoming Demogoblin.

Stern was unhappy with the revelation that Hobgoblin's civilian identity was Leeds and wrote the three-issue miniseries Spider-Man: Hobgoblin Lives in 1997, with the retcon that Kingsley was the original Hobgoblin while Leeds was brainwashed into serving as a fall guy, Macendale is killed off, and Kingsley returned. According to Stern, initially he had not known how to resolve the situation of having two Hobgoblins, and it was at the suggestion of the editorial staff that Kingsley kill Macendale and return to operating as the Hobgoblin. Leeds would return as an independent Hobgoblin in the 2019 miniseries Symbiote Spider-Man: Alien Reality, revealed to have trained as a sorcerer under Baron Mordo in the art of reality-altering chaos magic, before both Leeds and Kinsley would be brainwashed to together serve as the simultaneous Hobgoblin enforcers of the Queen Goblin in the 2022 storyline "The Hobgoblins' Last Stand" by Zeb Wells.

"Peter Parker: 'If you're wondering whether the Hobgoblin is Ned Leeds or Roderick Kingsley… …The Answer is “Yes.” It's not a whole lot of fun, frankly.'"

Ned Leeds
Edward "Ned" Leeds was a reporter working for the Daily Bugle. In a 1987, he is revealed to be the first Hobgoblin, before being murdered by the Foreigner. Ten years later in 1997, Leeds is retroactively established to have been brainwashed by Roderick Kingsley to act as a stand-in on many occasions and fool the underworld into thinking that he was the Hobgoblin, before Kingsley took back over the role. After a clone of the character was introduced in Dead No More: The Clone Conspiracy, Leeds is revived in a 2021 storyline showing that, under the influence of Kingsley's brainwashing, he ingested a copy of Osborn's Goblin formula which revived him shortly after his initial assassination, before he went into hiding. In a 2022 storyline, Ned and Kingsley are brainwashed by the Queen Goblin into both resuming their roles as Hobgoblins once more. Synergetic with his MCU adaptation as a sorcerer in the film Spider-Man: No Way Home, in Symbiote Spider-Man: Alien Reality, Ned's Hobgoblin is revealed to have trained as a sorcerer under Baron Mordo in the art of reality-altering chaos magic.

"Peter Parker: 'If you're wondering whether the Hobgoblin is Ned Leeds or Roderick Kingsley… …The Answer is “Yes.” It's not a whole lot of fun, frankly.'"

Roderick Kingsley
Roderick Kingsley started out as a socialite, fashion designer and billionaire who had criminal underworld connections and had come about his wealth through unethical business practices and corporate raiding. Coincidentally, Kingsley was an employer of Mary Jane Watson for a time. As a means of avoiding the drill of day-to-day appearances, he had his timid identical twin brother Daniel Kingsley pose as him to run his corporation. Kingsley's activities gave him many enemies, one of which was Bella Donna (Narda Ravanna), a rival fashion designer whose business he had ruined and attempted revenge on Kingsley but is twice thwarted by Spider-Man.

After these incidents, Kingsley seeks to protect himself and his empire by gaining more power. The thug George Hill reports to Kingsley of stumbling upon Norman Osborn's secret lair in hopes of earning a reward. Kingsley instead kills Hill to make sure that no one else gets wind of the discovery. Upon examining the lair and gleaning its secrets, Kingsley decides to use the Goblin equipment. Arriving to the conclusion that all the previous Green Goblin mantle wearers went mad, he instead creates a similar but different mantle: the Hobgoblin identity. Soon afterwards, he encounters Spider-Man. He uses some of Osborn's files to blackmail prominent figures, and attempts to buy Osborn's old corporation Oscorp and merge it with his own. These schemes bring him into conflict with Spider-Man. Among Osborn's notes, Kingsley also finds incomplete remnants of Mendel Stromm's strength enhancing potion and was obsessed with finding the complete formula or perfecting the incomplete notes. During his various criminal activities, Kingsley repeatedly loses to Spider-Man, as he lacked raw physical power. Kingsley eventually perfected the strength-enhancing formula, but, aware that Osborn was driven insane, Kingsley opts to test on someone else first, tricking small-time hood Lefty Donovan after using a mind-control device developed by Gerhard Winkler (Osborn's former employee), the "Winkler Device", able to turn anyone into a Hobgoblin enthralled to another. With Donovan having administered the Goblin formula and then in the Hobgoblin costume to fight Spider-Man, Kingsley monitored his pawn's vital signs and behavior from a distance. When Spider-Man overwhelms and unmasks Donovan and the brainwashing begins to fail, Kingsley acts to protect his identity by programming Donovan's glider to crash into a building, instantly killing Donovan. Judging the experiment a success, Kingsley immerses himself in his completed formula derivative and gains greater strength than the original Goblin. He uses this strength to battle Spider-Man and the Black Cat. Despite his increased abilities, he is still narrowly defeated by Spider-Man. Worse, he attracts the attention of powerful criminal interests who perceive him as a threat, including the Kingpin. It is also revealed later that during this time, after the Hobgoblin made his appearance, Norman (presumed to be dead at the time) made a brief return to New York City in an attempt to deal with this Goblin, but ultimately abandoned this for the sake of schemes against Spider-Man. After a bitter encounter with Spider-Man, Kingsley discovers he had been followed by Daily Bugle reporter Ned Leeds having discovered his lair. Kingsley captured Leeds and brainwashes the reporter with the Winkler Device into being the Hobgoblin. Kingsley discovered that Leeds had been working with Richard Fisk on a plan to bring down the Kingpin's empire as Richard adopted the Rose crime lord identity, using Leeds to handle some negotiations, and fooling many criminals into believing that his pawn was the Hobgoblin and hoping to use the Kingpin's downfall to advance his own interests. As Leeds gets too erratic to function as a decoy, Kingsley arranged for Leeds to be assassinated by Jason Macendale and the Foreigner while on a trip to Berlin, and decided to retire from the Hobgoblin identity.

During the events of Secret Wars II, Kingsley is recruited by Mephisto to join the Legion Accursed, a team of ninety-nine supervillains who try to destroy the Beyonder. The Hobgoblin later kidnaps Harry Osborn. He battles Osborn who uses his own father's weaponry against the Hobgoblin.

After a retirement of several years, Kingsley returns to New York. He kills Macendale to prevent from giving the authorities information that would jeopardize his secret identity in addition to seeing Macendale an unworthy successor. Learning that Betty Brant has begun to investigate Ned's activities as the Hobgoblin—informed of the truth by Spider-Man after realizing that the Foreigner's human operatives could never have killed Leeds if Leeds had been super-powered—Kingsley kidnaps Betty and sets a trap for Spider-Man.

In the final fracas, Daniel is captured and the Hobgoblin is unmasked, clearing Ned's name. Roderick is taken to prison, imprisoned in the same cell where he killed Macendale. Despite his unmasking, due to Kingsley's deceptive natures, it is difficult to determine of whether he is telling the whole truth.

Furious at Norman Osborn's return and denial of being the Green Goblin, Kingsley spreads rumors that there exists a secret journal of Osborn's that proves beyond doubt that he was the Goblin, but this was later revealed to be a ruse, knowing Osborn has been sending spies on him: all of the journals in his possession had been destroyed during a battle with Spider-Man years before. He offers to barter this information, for his freedom, with the District Attorney, guessing that Osborn will try to get to him first. Osborn, deciding to make a deal with Kingsley, breaks him out of prison. Kingsley is then confronted by both Osborn and another Green Goblin. Osborn provides Kingsley with new Goblin equipment, and both Goblins swoop in to collect Daniel, now in protective custody, who Roderick claims knows the final journal's location. Spider-Man defends Daniel, but is drugged and both men are taken back to Osborn. Osborn knew Kingsley was lying about the journal and has bought Kingsley's company out from underneath him; the purpose of helping Kingsley escape is for Osborn to personally eliminate the one person who can prove that he is the Goblin. Kingsley furiously attacks Osborn who is shocked to discover that Kingsley is stronger and thus fails at killing him. The building began to burn as a result of their battle, and Spider-Man escapes with Daniel. All three of the villains managed to escape as well. With several million dollars hidden away in foreign bank accounts, Kingsley quietly moves to a small island in the Caribbean to enjoy his retirement.

Kingsley is seemingly killed by Phil Urich who takes on the Hobgoblin mantle, but this was in fact Daniel with Roderick still active in Ecuador under the alias of Devil-Spider. Roderick learns that his brother has been murdered and plans his return to New York. Kingsley arrives in New York City and returns to the Hobgoblin role, intending to go after Urich. Kingsley attacks Urich and the Kingpin in Shadowland. After a brief battle between the two Hobgoblins, Parker and Max Modell escape with the Goblin Key (a key to one of the Goblin warehouses). Kingsley and Urich decide to call a brief truce and go after them. After accessing the warehouse, Peter utilizes the Goblin tech to make himself a "Spider-Glider" and manages to escape. Urich insists on going after but Kingsley stuns Urich with a taser so they can both escape. Kingsley decides to let Urich remain the Hobgoblin, but only if Urich gives him a cut of whatever profits are made.

Kingsley obtains one of Mysterio's suits which he sells to a criminal who takes on the name Mysterion. He sells the Crime Master's gear to an unnamed Maggia operative. Hobgoblin ends up in a gang war with the Goblin Nation, selling equipment to low-level criminals who became the latest versions of 8-Ball, Answer, Blaze, Devil-Spider, Gibbon, Hitman, Killer Shrike, Mauler, Melter, Ringer, Steeplejack, Tumbler, and Unicorn as well as a new villain named Bruin who wears one of Grizzly's old exoskeleton bear suits. He is killed by the first Goblin King while his henchmen are claimed for the Goblin Nation, but his butler Claude went in his place so that his enemies could be distracted and Kingsley is actually in Paris. Kingsley decides to lay low once again working on his personal empire. It was later revealed that Kingsley sold costumes and gear that made the latest versions of Hydro-Man, Tiger Shark, Squid, and Beetle.

During the "AXIS" storyline, Kingsley appears as a member of Magneto's unnamed supervillain group during the fight against the Red Skull's Red Onslaught form. When Magneto arrives to recruit him, Kingsley attacks and is subjugated and forced to join Magneto's team. Kingsley accompanies Magneto and the other villains recruited to Genosha. The inversion spell caused by Doctor Doom and Scarlet Witch affects not only the Red Skull but all those present in Genosha, making the superheroes present evil and the supervillains present good. Following his inversion, Kingsley returns to New York and finds himself happier with his inversion, although still motivated by greed rather than altruism. He reactivates his franchises where he leases the personas and costumes of deceased or retired superheroes to ordinary people, but remains a wanted criminal. He also enfranchises his Hobgoblin persona to various people to perform heroic deeds as Hobgoblin and publishes a comic about the group for promotion. Among those who answer an ad are the amnesiac Lily Hollister and the underemployed teenager John Myers. Other attendees include a different Demolition Man, Flower Girl, Leather Boy, a character resembling Anti-Venom, a new Razorback, and a new Water Wizard. He sets a three phase program including a book and various articles with his brand and underground speeches named after Ned for people to make their own franchises in exchange for a share of their profits. Kingsley debuts his Hob-Heroes: Lily as Queen Cat, Myers as Missile Mate, Flower Girl, Leatherboy, Rocket Head, and Water Wizard. When the second Goblin King confronts Kingsley in his headquarters, Myers is convinced by Urich's claims that Kingsley will soon abandon the heroes he has trained. Missile Mate goes to Urich's headquarters and asks to join to be a supervillain. Urich is reluctant, but Myers shows also gathering all the supervillains Kingsley "abandoned" after being a good guy. When the celebration of a "Hobgoblin Day" is being held with a parade in Kingsley's honor, Missile Mate betrays Kingsley and attempts to murder him in the Goblin King's name. Kingsley has already expected the betrayal and has been using a hologram decoy which takes Missile Mate's blow. As soon as Kinglsey confronts Missile Mate, Urich appears with the Goblin Nation and attacks the celebration. Kingsley bests Urich in combat and leaves his rival to the authorities. After, he is approached by Steve Rogers to be part of a team of Avengers with the objective to stop the inverted X-Men from detonating a gene bomb which would kill everyone on the Earth who wasn't a mutant. The Avengers team that Kingsley joins is called the Astonishing Avengers. After the reinversion spell is cast to restore the Avengers and X-Men members that were affected by it back to the side of good, Kingsley is evil again.

Kingsley was also revealed to have sold one of Goldbug's costume to an unnamed criminal to establish his version of Goldbug.

Kingsley starts to get his old franchises back under control. Outside of recruiting Blizzard, Kingsley regains his former minions Beetle, Bruin, Hitman, Ringer, and Unicorn as well as establishing his versions of Cutthroat, Diamondback, Mockingbird, and Viper. When franchisee Porcupine informs him of an intent to end the contract, Kingsley tries to kill with a Pumpkin Bomb in order to reclaim said suit for future franchisees. In the resulting battle with Porcupine and crimefighting mentor Spider-Woman, Kingsley is taken down by Captain Marvel.

Kingsley turns up as a member of the Sinister Six led by the Iron Spider. He accompanies the Sinister Six in a plot to steal a decommissioned S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier.

Kingsley later attempted to enter into a business deal with the sin-purged Norman Osborn, who returned the companies he had stolen from Kingsley years earlier in an attempt to put an end to their ongoing feud. Subsequently, in the storyline "The Hobgoblins' Last Stand", both Kingsley and Ned Leeds are brainwashed by the Queen Goblin using the Winkler Device into both resuming their roles as Hobgoblins once more, serving as her maniacal enforcers.

"Peter Parker: 'If you're wondering whether the Hobgoblin is Ned Leeds or Roderick Kingsley… …The Answer is “Yes.” It's not a whole lot of fun, frankly.'"

During the "Gang War" storyline, Hobgoblin is shown to run Bushwick, Brooklyn, Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and Williamsburg, Brooklyn, having broken free from Queen Goblin's influence. Hobgoblin is shown looking at a map of Brooklyn. Hobgoblin approaches Aaron Davis outside his apartment for help with a "spider problem". Hobgoblin and Prowler provide weapons for the Enforcers in order to sway them to Hobgoblin's side. Hobgoblin later watches the altercation between Miles Morales and the Cape Killers on his screen. As Hobgoblin works with Rabble on an invention using technology stolen from the Beyond Corporation, they also mention plan to go after Queen Goblin. In addition to keep his hideout safe, Hobgoblin had hired Goldbug III, Lady Stilt-Man, Man-Bull, Mr. Fish I, Ricadonna, and Shocker to be his hired muscle. When Miles Morales, Prowler, Ms. Marvel, and Cape-Killers member Gust enter the building, Miles and Ms. Marvel are ambushed by Hobgoblin and Rabble. During Miles Morales, Ms. Marvel, and Gust's fight with Hobgoblin and Rabble, Miles notices that Hobgoblin's suit has been upgraded as Hobgoblin's drones show up. In the nick of time, Scorpion, Shift, and Starling show up after Scorpion convincing the hired villains to turn against Hobgoblin when Scorpion asked them when was the last time a Goblin had followed through on their promises that were made to them. While Rabble gets away, Hobgoblin sets off every one of his pumpkin bombs vowing to see Miles soon. After everyone evacuates, the hideout explodes, although Miles doubts that Hobgoblin died in the explosion.

Lefty Donovan
Arnold Samuel "Lefty" Donovan was a petty thug. Similar to Osborn, Donovan was a test subject mix the two vital chemicals that were mixed into the Goblin formula, disfiguring Donovan's face and granting superhuman abilities. Donovan is taken to a hospital. Brainwashed by the Winkler Device, Donovan eventually escapes the hospital and follows preprogrammed instructions to go to a hidden cache of Goblin weapons and dress up as the Hobgoblin. Donovan (impersonating the Hobgoblin) attacks New York City but Spider-Man eventually confronts and unmasks him. Spider-Man sees his (scarred) face and recognizes Lefty. As Donovan is able to shake off some of his programing and starts talking, his "boss" programmed the Goblin glider to crash into the side of a building, killing Lefty instantly on impact.

Jason Macendale
Jason Philip Macendale Jr. was a mercenary who had been trained by the CIA (and various para-military organizations). He first appeared as the supervillain Jack O'Lantern before eventually adopting the Hobgoblin identity.

Fifth Hobgoblin
An unidentified fifth Hobgoblin was introduced in the series Secret War. With very little to know about him (including his true identity), the only thing to know is that he received his equipment from the Tinkerer. He was sent along with Lady Octopus to attack Captain America in his civilian identity by the terrorist-elements wound into the events of the Secret War. Chatter from the Goblin indicated he'd been in contact with other members of Spider-Man's rogues gallery, who'd warned him about Spider-Man's constant and inane joking. This Hobgoblin is jailed along with the various defeated villains after the conclusion of the "War".

Daniel Kingsley
Daniel Kingsley is Roderick Kingsley's twin brother. He would act as a body double until being exposed by Betty Brant while the true Hobgoblin gets unmasked by Spider-Man. Now in protective custody, Daniel was unknowingly used by Roderick to blackmail Norman Osborn, resulting in the Hobgoblin to swoop in to collect Daniel. Spider-Man defends Daniel but is drugged while Daniel passes out and both are taken to Osborn. As Kingsley and Osborn furiously fight each other, Daniel gets rescued by Spider-Man. Kingsley later returned to New York, posing as his twin brother as the Hobgoblin. Kingsley investigated an old lair at OsCorp which had a flaming energy sword, but discovers Phil Urich trying to retrieve the same gear. Kingsley gets stunned by Urich's "Lunatic Laugh" long enough for Urich to kill him using his own sword, allowing his killer to claim the Hobgoblin mantle.

Phil Urich
Phillip Benjamin "Phil" Urich (who once used the Green Goblin identity to operate as a superhero) took on the Hobgoblin identity himself as a supervillain with some new gear (new body armor, a winged jetpack, and a flaming energy sword).

Norman Osborn
Norman Osborn briefly impersonated the original Hobgoblin.

Claude
Claude was Roderick's butler who was sent in place and to talk like his master to distract the Goblin Nation. He fought against and was killed in battle by the Goblin Knight who then discovered it was Claude who was killed and destroyed his body to keep the Goblin King from finding out about the imposter Hobgoblin.

Powers, abilities, and equipment
As the Hobgoblin, Roderick Kingsley wears bulletproof mail with an overlapping tunic, cape, and cowl. A computerized system cybernetically causes the finger-blasters to randomly vary their attack vectors when trained on a particular target. He uses a Goblin glider, a one-man miniature turbo-fan-powered vertical thrust, cybernetically-controlled vehicle. It can reach high velocities and is extremely maneuverable. He uses concussion and incendiary Jack O'Lanterns, wraith-shaped smoke and gas-emitting bombs, bat shaped razor-edged throwing blades, and gloves woven with micro-circuited power conducting filaments which channel pulsed discharges of electricity. He wore a shoulder bag to carry his small, portable weaponry.

Prior to his assassination, Ned Leeds wore the Hobgoblin's uniform and used the Goblin glider and equipment which included Jack O'Lantern bombs, razor bats and electrical shock gloves. However, he had no healing factor or superhuman strength. Following his ingesting the Goblin Formula and subsequent resurrection, Ned developed superhuman strength, speed, reflexes, and stamina as well as a low-level rapid healing factor, the latter of which allow him to survive otherwise fatal gunshot wounds. Wielding chaos magic following his training as a sorcerer under Baron Mordo, Ned's Hobgoblin is capable of sensing other magic users, as well as casting spells relating to flight, teleportation, time manipulation, elemental manipulation, and reality warping, using the latter skill to rewrite reality around Spider-Man and himself to make himself Sorcerer Supreme, before he is defeated by Spider-Man, although he is able to use his magic to fake his death in the aftermath, before returning years later under the guise of having been a "patsy for the 'real' Hobgoblin", free to resume his plans.

As the Hobgoblin, Phil Urich wears an orange Hobgoblin costume with wings on the back that allow him to fly without the use of a Goblin glider and he took the Hobgoblin mask as his own. He uses the traditional Pumpkin Bombs all Green Goblins and Hobgoblins before him have used, but he also has a new flaming sword. He still retains his "Lunatic Laugh" and he also has superhuman strength, speed, durability, stamina, reflexes and senses, and enhanced intellect. For unknown reasons, he no longer needs his Goblin mask to activate this power. With the help of Reverbium, his "Lunatic Laugh" was able to cause a building to collapse.

Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows
During the "Secret Wars" storyline in the pages of Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows, the Roderick Kingsley version of Hobgoblin appears as a member of Regent's Sinister Six where they are tasked to hunt down Spider-Man. During the fight with Spider-Man, Hobgoblin's hand was webbed up by Spider-Man before he could throw his Pumpkin Bomb which led to Hobgoblin getting killed in its explosion.

Hobgoblin 2211
Hobgoblin 2211 first appears in Spider-Man 2099 Meets Spider-Man. While her costume sports the twentieth-century Green Goblins' green-and-purple color scheme, she boasted that she was the Hobgoblin of 2211. Her identity was not revealed to readers (or to the visiting Spider-Men of previous eras) at the time, but her later reappearance in Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man (also written by David) revealed her true identity and origin.

Hobgoblin 2211 is Robin "Hobby"/"Hob" Borne, Spider-Man's daughter. Her father always seemed to put his superhero career before raising his own daughter. She wanted to save the universes from 'intersecting'; in other words, having other parallel universes merge with the existing one, causing it to override. She was later arrested by her father for something that she would have done in future: unauthorized time travel, chronal displacement, jumping the tracks to other realities. She was held in a virtual reality prison where she lives a benign and trouble-free existence in what appears to be Kansas. Her boyfriend attempts to free her by uploading a virus into the prison, but inadvertently causes her to be driven insane. She attacked her father with a 'retcon bomb' (a variation on the original Goblins' pumpkin bombs) but it hit her boyfriend instead, erasing (or 'retconning') him from existence.

Now suited up as the Hobgoblin, Robin managed to time-travel to the current year, attacking the current Spider-Man in his reality and derailing an Uncle Ben from another reality into the present one causing a time paradox. Later, in a confrontation with her father, she threw a 'retcon bomb' at him. Spider-Man, believing it to be no more harmful than a regular pumpkin bomb, caught it with his web and threw it back to Robin, unwittingly erasing her from existence.

JLA/Avengers
In the last issue of JLA/Avengers, the Hobgoblin is among the enthralled villains defending Krona's stronghold, and is defeated by Hawkgirl.

Marvel Adventures
In this continuity, Hobgoblin is an unidentified criminal who found a stash of Green Goblin's weaponry because he had forgotten to leave the entrance locked. Delighted at his new technological power he challenges Green Goblin to a confrontation. Spider-Man defeats them both.

MC2
The Roderick Kingsley version of Hobgoblin made his MC2 debut as a hired assassin to kill many of the Spider-Girl characters, including Normie Osborn, Spider-Girl, and Peter Parker. After a fight against both Spider-Girl and her father, he came close to victory, but at the end his only success lay in killing the Venom symbiote, and also in escaping without a trace. He attempted a complex plot to become the new kingpin of crime, but was undone due to an act of treachery by his partner, the Mindworm. Killing the Mindworm, and deciding the New York underworld had become too "hot" for him at the moment, he chose to return to the Caribbean, but vowed someday to come back and finish off Spider-Girl. He is later revealed to be the instigator of a mob war against the Black Tarantula, returning to New York to finish the job. He defeated American Dream and the New Warriors. He then dropped them from a great height, planning to kill Spider-Girl as she tried to save them. However, he himself was then killed by Mayhem, Spider-Girl's half-symbiote clone.

Newspaper strip
In "The Amazing Spider-Man" newspaper strip by Stan Lee and Larry Lieber, Harry Osborn as the Hobgoblin has repeatedly attacked Spider-Man, seeking vengeance for his father's death. After trying to kill both Spider-Man and Black Widow after, under hypnotic influence of psychiatrist "Dr. Stone" (actually spy-assassin Dimitri Gregorin who has killed friends of the Black Widow in the past), Harry, seeing Spider-Man's heroism, realizes that Spider-Man is a hero, his father was a murderer, and vows to never assume the Hobgoblin identity again.

Old Man Logan
In the pages of Old Man Logan that took place on Earth-21923, the Roderick Kingsley version of Hobgoblin was among the villains that attacked the Avengers in Connecticut. He worked with the Vulture to fight Wasp only for Wasp to use her stingers to shoot Hobgoblin off his Goblin Glider.

Spider-Man: Spider's Shadow
Around the events of Amazing Spider-Man #258 (November 1984), Hobgoblin battles with black suit Spider-Man; during the fight, Hobgoblin is unmasked as Roderick Kingsley, so Spider-Man threatens to Kingsley to not attack innocent civilians anymore. Kingsley causes an explosion at May Parker's house when he sees Spider-Man change into Peter Parker using the Venom symbiote; The symbiote shifts blame into Kingsley for May's death, and changes into a monstrous form. Spider-Man uses his fingers to kill Kingsley, who is regarded as Spider-Man's first victim.

Spider-Geddon
In the Spider-Geddon event on Earth-11580, a version of Hobgoblin is seen alongside Green Goblin, Jack O'Lantern and Demogoblin during the Goblin Night. Under the orders of the Goblin Queen, they try to kill Gwen Stacy, but Spiders-Man arrives and defeats the Goblins.

Spider-Gwen
In the alternate continuity of Spider-Gwen, the Green Goblin uses an army of Hobgoblin-based androids to assist him during his assault against Spider-Woman.

Spider-Verse
The "Spider-Verse" had two version of Hobgoblin:

Hobgoblin of Earth-21205
Overwhelmed with rage over the death of Gwen Stacy, the Earth-21205 version of Peter Parker, as Spider-Man, murdered the Green Goblin and later retired his Spider-Man identity. He soon after became "the Goblin", a villain similar in costume to the Hobgoblin. This character was later targeted by Verna of the Inheritors (alongside the Hounds Scorpion and Rhino) as a Spider-Totem. The Spider-Woman of Earth-65 attempted to recruit him into a growing army of Spiders to protect him from the Inheritors, but he initially turned the offer down. When Spider-Woman revealed herself to be an alternate version of Gwen, he sacrificed himself to save her as atonement for failing to do so in his own dimension.

Hobgoblin of Earth-001
The Earth-001 version of Hobgoblin appeared as a member of Verna's Hounds alongside the multiple Green Goblins. Hobgoblin and the other goblin-themed Hounds attacked Silk, Spider-Woman of Earth-65, and Black Widow of Earth-1610. He is killed by Superior Spider-Man, Assassin Spider-Man, and Spider-Punk.

Sword-and-sorcery
In the 2007 Spider-Man/Red Sonja mini-series, the Hobgoblin was one of several supervillains who was transformed into a sword-and-sorcery version of themselves due to the spell cast by Kulan Gath. It was never specified which Hobgoblin it was.

Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel equivalent of Hobgoblin is Harold "Harry" Osborn when his second personality Shaw takes control.

Reception
In 2009, an IGN list of the top 100 comic book villains ranked the Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin as the 57th best.

Television

 * An amalgamated incarnation of the Hobgoblin named Jason Philips appears in Spider-Man: The Animated Series, voiced by Mark Hamill. The Hobgoblin is initially hired and given an arsenal of weapons by Norman Osborn to assassinate Wilson Fisk. He instead manipulates and betrays them both to usurp Fisk as New York City's Kingpin of Crime, only to be foiled by Spider-Man. The Hobgoblin later attempts to extort Dr. Herbert Landon upon learning of his plan to exterminate mutants. He clashes with Spider-Man and the X-Men but escapes after turning Landon into a mutant. Philips begins dating Felicia Hardy and they eventually become engaged. The Hobgoblin forms an uneasy alliance with Fisk, and clashes with both Spider-Man and the Green Goblin over a time dilation accelerator. He is arrested soon after Felicia discovers his true identity. In the two-part series finale, an alternate reality version of the Hobgoblin appears under Fisk and Spider-Carnage's employ.
 * Roderick Kingsley appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man episode "Accomplices", voiced by Courtney B. Vance. This version is an African-American who is the owner of a perfume company.
 * An amalgamated incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Spider-Man (2017), voiced by Max Mittelman. This version is a battlesuit that possesses a flaming energy sword and sonic scream while sporting a design based on the various comics iterations. The Hobgoblin identity is primarily used by Harry Osborn, though Norman Osborn briefly impersonates the Hobgoblin while trying to kill Spider-Man.
 * The Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Marvel Super Hero Adventures, voiced by Andrew Francis.

Film
A Hobgoblin mask appears in Spider-Man 3 (2007) as part of Norman Osborn's secret lab.

Video games

 * The Ned Leeds incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Spider-Man and Captain America in Doctor Doom's Revenge.
 * The Ned Leeds incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears as a boss in The Amazing Spider-Man.
 * The Ned Leeds incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Spider-Man: The Video Game, voiced by David Hadinger.
 * The Jason Macendale incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Spider-Man vs. The Kingpin.
 * The Ned Leeds incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears as a boss in The Amazing Spider-Man 2.
 * The Jason Macendale incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears as a boss in Spider-Man: Return of the Sinister Six.
 * The Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears as an assist character in the PSP and PS2 versions of Spider-Man: Web of Shadows.
 * The Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears as an alternate costume for the Green Goblin in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2.
 * An exclusive Marvel 2099 incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions, voiced by Steve Blum. This version is a mercenary hired by Alchemax who possesses nanofiber/bio-organic circuitry wings bonded to his back and "psy-powers". After obtaining a fragment of the Tablet of Order and Chaos, the Hobgoblin ambushes Spider-Man 2099 and has the web-slinger pursue him as he wreaks havoc. After Spider-Man 2099 corners him, the Hobgoblin uses the fragment to increase his psy-powers and torment the web-slinger with hellish hallucinations of gargoyle-like monsters. Ultimately, Spider-Man 2099 defeats the Hobgoblin and retrieves his tablet fragment before examining his wings and deducing Alchemax's involvement.
 * The Roderick Kingsley and Ned Leeds incarnations of the Hobgoblin appear as separate playable characters in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
 * The Earth-21205 version of Peter Parker / Hobgoblin appears as a playable character in Spider-Man Unlimited.

Merchandise

 * An unidentified Hobgoblin received an action figure in Mattel's Secret Wars toy line.
 * The Jason Phillips incarnation of the Hobgoblin received five figures in the Spider-Man: The Animated Series tie-in toyline.
 * The Jason Macendale and Roderick Kingsley incarnations of the Hobgoblin received figures in series 2 and 17 of the Spider-Man Classics line, respectively.
 * An unidentified Hobgoblin received a figure in the Marvel Minimates line as part of a FYE, Suncoast, and Sam Goody-exclusive two-pack alongside a Scarlet Spider figure.
 * The Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin received a bust from Bowen Designs.
 * The Roderick Kingsley incarnation of the Hobgoblin received a bust in Hasbro's Marvel Universe toyline.
 * The Phil Urich incarnation of the Hobgoblin received a figure in the HeroClix line.
 * An unidentified Hobgoblin served as a Build-a-Figure for the Marvel Legends Infinite Series Spider-Man line.
 * An unidentified Hobgoblin received a minifigure in the Spider-Man: Ghost Rider Team-up Lego set.

Miscellaneous
The Ned Leeds incarnation of the Hobgoblin appears in The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man, voiced by Pat Fraley.

title: Hobgoblin (comics)


text:
Talk:Civil and social disobedience

There is already a page on civil disobedience. Should this page be at Disobbedienti or possible added to the article on WOMBLES? ____________________________________________________________________

I think that the concept of social disobedience is somewhat different from the concept of civil disobedience. This article doesn't quite describe it; it's certainly more than just body padding, squatting, and border-crossing. I would't mind moving it, if somebody could replace this with a better article that explains the concept of social disobedience. Perhaps one of our Italian wikipedia authors, like Gianfranco, could help.

My view is this page be merged with Disobbedienti under that title. And the the civil disobediance page has a section on social disobediance. Are their any other groups other than the Disobbedienti who advocate social disobediance? --Pfafrich 00:00, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Civil and social disobedience


text:
Réseau Express Régional

The Réseau Express Régional (Regional Express Network), commonly abbreviated RER, is a hybrid commuter rail and rapid transit system, similar to the S-Bahns of German-speaking countries, serving Paris and its suburbs. It acts as a combined city-center underground rail system and suburbs-to-city-center commuter rail. In the city center, it acts as a faster counterpart of the Paris Métro, having fewer stops.

Conceived of as a "métropolitain express" (express metro) during the mid 1930s, the scheme was revived in the 1950s and construction began in the early 1960s. The RER was not fully conceptualised until the completion of the Schéma directeur d'aménagement et d'urbanisme (roughly: "master plan for urban development") in 1965. The RER network, which initially comprised two lines, was formally inaugurated on 8 December 1977 in a ceremony that was attended by President Valery Giscard D'Estaing. A second phase of construction commenced at the end of the 1970s which saw additional lines constructed along with extensions to the original two. The RER is operated partly by RATP, the authority that operates most of the public transport in Paris, and partly by SNCF, France's national rail operator.

As of 2023, the network consists of five lines: A, B, C, D and E. The network has 257 stations and has interchanges with the Métro and commuter rail within the City of Paris and the suburbs. The lines are identified by letters to avoid confusion with the Métro lines, which are identified by numbers. The network is still expanding: RER E, which opened in 1999, is planned for westward extension toward La Défense and Mantes-la-Jolie in two phases by 2024–2026. The performance of the RER has made it a model for proposals to improve transit within other cities. In November 2022, French President Emmanuel Macron announced the creation of the additional RERs that will serve the ten largest French metropolises by 2040.

Characteristics
The RER contains 257 stations, 33 of which are within the city of Paris, and runs over 602 km of track, including 81.5 km underground. Each line passes through the city almost wholly underground and on tracks dedicated to the RER, but some city center tracks are shared between line D and line B. The RER is operated partly by RATP, the authority that operates most public transport in Paris, and partly by SNCF, the national rail operator. The system, which is structured in a traditional radial arrangement, operates a through-service and uses a single fare model that works seamlessly with several other public transit systems. Total traffic on the central sections of lines A and B, operated by RATP, was 452 million people in 2006; in the same year, total traffic on all Paris area commuter lines operated by SNCF (both RER and Transilien trains) was 657 million.

RATP manages 65 RER stations, including all stations on Line A east of Nanterre-Préfecture and those on the branch to Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It also operates stations on Line B south of Gare du Nord. Other stations on the two lines and those on lines C, D and E are operated by SNCF. Of the RER stations operated by RATP, 9 have interchanges with Métro lines, and 9 allow transfer to SNCF's Transilien service. In comparison to the system, the RER provides better coverage of Paris' suburbs and typically operates at higher speeds and with greater distances between stations. Within the city center, RER services practice limited stop operations.

Origins
Its roots are in the 1936 Ruhlmann-Langewin plan of the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris (Metropolitan Railway Company of Paris) for a "métropolitain express" (express metro). The company's post-war successor, RATP, revived the scheme in the 1950s, and in 1960 an interministerial committee decided to go ahead with the construction of an east-west line. Subsequently, the central part of the RER was completed between 1962 and 1977 in a large-scale civil engineering project whose chief supervisor was Siavash Teimouri. The construction of the RER was a major undertaking, being highly visible to both Parisians and visiting tourists at various sites across the city for an extended period.

As its instigator, RATP was granted authority to run the new link. The embryonic (and as yet unnamed) RER was not properly conceived until the 1965 Schéma directeur d'aménagement et d'urbanisme (roughly: "master plan for urban development"), which envisioned an H-shaped network with two north-south routes. Between 1969 and 1970, RATP purchased the Vincennes and Saint-Germain lines from SNCF, as the basis for the east-west link. Only a single north-south route crossing the Left Bank has so far come to fruition, although the Métro's line 13 has been extended to perform a similar function.

The RER's first phase of construction during the 1960s and 1970s was marked by scale and expense. In 1973 alone, FRF 2 billion were committed to the project in the budget, equating to roughly €1.37 billion in 2005 terms, and closer to double that as a proportion of the region's (then much smaller) economic output. The construction cost was controversial at the time of its construction. This initial investment, along with subsequent spending, was partly financed by the versement transport, a local tax levied on businesses that was introduced in July 1971. It has remained in effect into the twenty-first century.

First phase
During the first phase of construction, the Vincennes and Saint-Germain lines became the ends of the east-west Line A, the central section of which was opened station by station between 1969 and 1977. On its completion, Line A was joined by the initial southern section of the north-south Line B. Both Lines A and B were intentionally designed to converge with as many of the existing commuter lines as possible as to maximise its usefulness to existing travelers. During this first phase, six new stations were built, three of which are entirely underground.

Construction was inaugurated by Robert Buron, then Minister for Public Works, at the Pont de Neuilly on 6 July 1961, four years before the publication of the official network blueprint. The rapid expansion of the La Défense business district in the west made the western section of the first line a priority. Nation, the first new station, was opened on 12 December 1969 and became for the next 8 years the new western terminus of the Vincennes line. The section from Étoile (not yet renamed after Charles de Gaulle) to La Défense was opened a few weeks later. It was later extended eastward to the newly built Auber on 23 November 1971, and westward to Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 1 October 1972. The latter extension was achieved by a connection to the existing Saint-Germain-en-Laye line, the oldest railway line into Paris, at Nanterre.

The RER network was inaugurated on 8 December 1977 with the joining of the eastern Nation-Boissy segment and the western Auber-Saint-Germain-en-Laye segment at Châtelet–Les Halles. The inauguration was attended by President Valery Giscard D'Estaing. The southern Ligne de Sceaux was simultaneously extended from Luxembourg to meet Line A at Châtelet – Les Halles, becoming the new Line B. The system of line letters was introduced to the public on this occasion, though it had been used internally by RATP and SNCF for some time.

Second phase
A second phase of construction commenced at the end of the 1970s, which was carried out at a slower pace than the first phase. SNCF gained the authorisation to operate its own routes, which became lines C, D and E. Extensive sections of suburban tracks were added to the network, but only four new stations were built.

During 1979, Line C (along the Left Bank of the Seine) was added, although it almost entirely comprised existing SNCF lines. The main civil engineering works performed involved the construction of a connecting link between Invalides and Musée d'Orsay. In 1981, Line B was extended through to Gare du Nord via a new deep tunnel from Châtelet – Les Halles. It was later extended further northward. By 1992, a total of 233 miles of track was operational, while a further 94 miles were under construction.

During 1995, Line D (north to south-east via Châtelet – Les Halles) was completed; its primary feature was a purpose-built deep tunnel between Châtelet – Les Halles and Gare de Lyon. No new building work was necessary at Châtelet – Les Halles, as additional platforms for Line D had been built at the time of the station's construction 20 years earlier. In 1999, Line E was added to the network, connecting the north-east with Gare Saint-Lazare by means of a new deep tunnel from Gare de l'Est.

Rolling stock
The predominance of suburban SNCF track on the RER network explains why RER trains use overhead line power and run on the left, like SNCF trains (except in Alsace-Moselle), contrary to the Métro where trains use third rail power and run on the right. RER trains run by the two different operators share the same track infrastructure, a practice called interconnection. On the RER, interconnection required the development of specific trains (MI 79 series for Materiel d'Interconnexion 1979, and MI 2N series for Materiel d'Interconnexion à 2 niveaux (double-deck interconnection stock)) capable of operating under both 1.5 kV direct current on the RATP network and 25 kV / 50 Hz alternating current on the SNCF network. The MS 61 series (Matériel Suburbain 1961) can be used only on the 1.5 kV DC network.

The RER's tunnels have unusually large cross-sections. This is due to a 1961 decision to build them according to a loading gauge standard created by the Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer (UIC), with space for overhead catenary power supply to trains. Single-track tunnels measure 6.30 m across and double-track tunnels up to 8.70 m, meaning a cross-sectional area of up to 50 square metres, larger than that of the stations on many comparable underground rail networks.

The first RER rolling stock in fact predated the formation of the RER by 40 years, with the Z 23000 stock used on the ligne de Sceaux (which was thereafter integrated into RER B) from 1937 until 27 February 1987. In 1965 the Z 5300 train was introduced, followed by the MS 61 in 1967, MI 79 in 1980, MI 84 and Z 8800 in 1985, Z 20500 in 1988, MI 2N in 1996, Z 20900 in 2001, MI 09 on 5 December 2011, Z 50000 (Francilien) in 2015 and Regio 2N (Z 57000) in 2019. In 2017, it was announced that an consortium comprising Alstom and Bombardier Transportation had been selected to supply 255 X’Trapolis Cityduplex double-deck electric multiple units to replace aging rolling stock on both lines D and E under a €3.75 billion arrangement. In April 2023, 60 additional Cityduplexs were ordered to increase service frequency.

Many services are performed by double-decker train sets, usually operating in double formations.

Stations
Ten new stations have been built under the heart of Paris since the 1960s as part of the RER project. The six stations of Line A opened between 1969 and 1977 are:

 * Nation (1969): deep construction at the Place de la Nation.
 * Charles de Gaulle–Étoile (1970): deep construction at the Arc de Triomphe.
 * La Défense (1970): near-surface construction beneath the site of the yet-to-be-built Grande Arche de la Défense, just outside the Paris city boundary.
 * Auber (1971): deep construction near Gare Saint-Lazare.
 * Châtelet–Les Halles (1977): near-surface construction on the site of the former marketplace, claimed in 2017 to be the largest underground station in Europe.
 * Gare de Lyon (1977): near-surface construction beneath and alongside the main-line SNCF station.

Some controversy followed the construction of the Line A. Using the model of the existing Métro, and unlike any other underground network in the world, engineers elected to build the three new deep stations (Étoile, Auber and Nation) as single monolithic halls with lateral platforms and no supporting pillars. A hybrid solution of adjacent halls was rejected on the grounds that it "completely sacrificed the architectural aspect" of the oeuvre. The scale in question was vast: the new stations cathédrales were up to three times longer, wider and taller than Métro stations, and hence 20 or 30 times more voluminous. Most importantly, unlike the Métro they were to be constructed deep underground. The decision turned out to be expensive: around 8 billion francs for the three stations, equivalent to €1.2 billion in 2005 terms, with the two-level Auber the costliest of the three. The comparison was obvious and unfavourable with London's Victoria line, a deep line of 22 km constructed during the same period using a two-tunnel approach at vastly lower cost though with a lower capacity. However, the three stations represent undeniable engineering feats and are noticeably less claustrophobic than traditional underground stations.

Only two stations were inaugurated to complete Lines B, C and D:

 * Gare du Nord (1982): near-surface construction on two levels.
 * St-Michel - Notre-Dame (1988): deep construction on an existing stretch of the Line B between Luxembourg and Châtelet - Les Halles with two tunnels, common in other underground systems but unique in Paris. The station is situated on and built at the same time as the Luxembourg Châtelet tunnel.

Two stations were added to the network as part of Line E in the 1990s. They are notable for their lavishly spacious deep construction, a technique not used since Auber. Although similar to the three 1960s "cathedral stations" of Line A, their passenger traffic has so far proved vastly lower.

 * Magenta (1999): deep construction serving both Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est.
 * Haussmann–Saint-Lazare (1999): deep construction serving Gare Saint-Lazare and Auber.

Usage
Journey times, particularly on east-west and north-south routes, have been reduced by the RER; in combination with the cross-platform connection at Châtelet - Les Halles, even certain "diagonal" trips have reduced journey times. Typically being used for leisure journeys, the RER has made a significant social impact. By bringing far-flung suburbs within easy reach of central Paris, the network has aided the reintegration of the traditionally insular capital with its periphery. Evidence of this social impact can be seen at Châtelet - Les Halles, whose neighbourhood and Forum des Halles leisure and shopping facilities are popular among banlieusards (suburbanites), in particular from eastern suburbs.

Lines A and B reached saturation relatively quickly, exceeding by far all traffic expectations: up to 55,000 passengers per hour in each direction on Line A (1992), the highest such figure outside of East Asia. Despite a frequency of more than one train every two minutes, made possible by the installation of digital signalling in 1989, and the gradual introduction of double-decker trains from 1998 to 2017, the central stations of Line A are critically crowded at peak times. In June 2015, a contract valued at €20 million was awarded to Alstom Transport to develop and install an automatic train operation (ATO) system on RER A; at the time, this line was the most heavily frequented regional line in Europe, the introduction of ATO enabled increased service frequency and improved performance to be achieved.

The RER has a substantial impact on the suburban areas of greater Paris, specifically on land values near the stations along its lines. The RER has received criticism for its high level of particle pollution during busy periods, largely due to train braking. Pollution by PM10 particles regularly reaches 400 μg/m3 at Auber, much more than at neighboring metro stations and eight times the EU Commission's daily average limit of 50 μg/m3.

title: Réseau Express Régional


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Tula de Allende

Tula de Allende (Otomi: Mämeni) is a town and one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo in central-eastern Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 305.8 km2, and as of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 103,919. The municipality includes numerous smaller outlying towns, the largest of which are El Llano, San Marcos, and San Miguel Vindho. It is a regional economic center and one of Mexico's fastest growing cities. However, it is best known as the home of the Tula archeological site, noted for its Atlantean figures. Its built-up area (or metro) made up of Atotonilco de Tula, Atitalaquia, Tlaxcoapan municipalities was home to 188,659 inhabitants at the 2010 census.

City of Tula de Allende
The city of Tula de Allende was built on what was the southern extension of the ancient city of Tula, centered on a former monastery built by the Spanish in the 16th century. The modern city is still connected to the ancient ruins, which are an important tourist attraction as well as a symbol of the city, especially the warrior figures located on the Quetzalcoatl pyramid. Toltec finds are not uncommon underneath the modern city. In 2009, Toltec burials from 900-1100CE were found under Tula-Iturbe Boulevard along with several kilns for firing pottery.

The modern city is a regional economic center and has been listed as one of the fastest growing in Mexico by the National Commission of Population. Most of the reason for this is the existence of a refinery and a thermoelectric plant.

The city is centered around the parish and former monastery of San Jose, with the oldest part built between 1546 and 1556. The main facade has three arches, pilasters with reliefs, a curved pediment and a chapel annex that takes from the 17th century. The cloister of the monastery has two levels with arches and fresco murals. Inside the main church, there is a modern mural called “Jesus” located at the main altar. It was named a cathedral in 1961.

Near here is a main plaza and an open-air theatre, framed by a mural called “Tula Eterna” created by Juan Pablo Patiño Cornejo. Another mural called “Tianguis Mamehni” is found at the chamber of commerce. There is also the Plaza de las Artesanias dedicated to local handcrafts including replicas of the atlas figures.

The municipality
The government of the city of Tula de Allende is also the government for a total of 76 communities. The city is the largest community, with a population of about 27,000. Other important communities include El Llano (11,000 people), San Miguel Vindho (10,500), San Marcos (10,400), Bomintzha (3,000), Santa Ana Ahuehuepan (2,600), Santa Maria Macua (1,750), Ignacio Zaragoza, (1,750), Nantzha (1740), Xochitlan de las Flores (1,300), Colonia San Francisco Bojay (1,250) and Monte Alegre (1,200). The government consists of a municipal president, fourteen administrators, 54 delegates and fourteen commissions.

History
The name is derived from the Nahuatl phrase Tollan-Xicocotitlan, which means near where cattails grow. Tula is the Hispanicized pronunciation of Tollan. In Otomi the area is called Namehi, which means “place of many people.” It was given the appendage of “de Allende” in honor of Ignacio Allende who fought in the Mexican War of Independence.

The area was the capital of one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica, that of the Toltecs. The Toltecs rose to power after 713 CE as the successor to Teotihuacan. The current city is centered just south of the ceremonial center of the ancient city, which is famous for its Atlantean figures. The Toltec Empire reached as far south as the Valley of Mexico and its influence has been found in artifacts as far away as the current U.S. Southwest. It is believed that aguamiel was first extracted around 1100CE, which led to the making of pulque. The last Toltec ruler was Topilzin Ce-Acatl Quetzalcoatl who came to power in 1085.

According to the Codex Mendoza, the site was conquered under the reign of Tizoc and subsequently incorporated into the Aztec Empire

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Pedro Miahuazochil was named in 1531 as the lord of Tula helping to evangelize the area.

Tula became a municipality in 1871.

The Tula area was the scene of various battles during the Mexican Revolution, particularly between those loyal to Venustiano Carranza and those to Emiliano Zapata.

Geography

The municipality is located in the south of the Mezquital Valley in the southwest of the state of Hidalgo. With an extension of 305.8 km2 it borders the municipalities of Tepetitlán, Tlahuelilpan, Tepeji del Río, Atotonilco de Tula, Atitalaquía and Tlaxcoapan, with the State of Mexico to the west.

The city of Tula has an altitude of 2,020 meters above sea level Most of the municipality is semi flat with only one significant elevation completely in the municipality known as Magoni. Elevations in the west form the border between it and the State of Mexico. These include Magueni and La Malinche. In the north there is a small mountain of volcanic origin called Xicuco.

Surface water is mostly found in the Tula River, the Rosas River and the Arroyo Grande, whose waters are stored in the Endho Dam. The Tula River begins with the discharge from the Valley of Mexico which pass north through the State of Mexico before reaching the area. The Rosas River also begins in the State of Mexico but with clean waters from a fresh water spring. It has carved some small canyons in the area.

Pollution problems generally come from the PEMEX refinery and the discharge of wastewater from the Valley of Mexico into the Tula River.

Flora and fauna
The natural vegetation is mostly semi desert, with cactus and maguey plants the most defining followed by mesquite and the pirul tree (Schinus molle) along with seasonal grass. Native fauna includes rabbits, squirrels, chameleons, roadrunners, coyotes, various kinds of birds and snakes, skunks and opossums.

Climate
The municipality's climate varies from temperate to cold with an average annual temperature of 17.6 C. It has an average annual rainfall of 699 mm, with most rain falling from May to September.

Economy

The city and municipality have a very low level of socioeconomic marginalization but median household income varies between US$10,641 and $5,037 a year. The city is a regional economic center. The nucleus of its economic sphere includes the municipalities of Tula de Allende, Atitalaquuia, Atotonilco de Tula, Chapantongo and Nopala de Villagrán. Other municipalities which are affected include Tepetitlán, Tepeji del Río, Tlahualilpan, Tlaxcoapan, Tezontepec de Aldama, Soyaniquilpan de Juárez and Jilotepec.

Of the economically active population (minus students and retirees), just under ten percent work in agriculture and livestock; just over 33 percent work in manufacturing and mining and about 55 percent work in commerce, services and tourism. 97% of the land is held in common, generally in ejidos, for agricultural purposes. The main crops are corn, beans, oats, wheat, vegetables such as squash, tomatillos and chili peppers, alfalfa, nopal cactus, cactus fruit, peaches and avocados. Livestock includes sheep, goats, cattle and pigs along with domestic fowl. Fishing is mostly limited to sporting catching carp and catfish.

There are firms dedicated to manufacturing, mineral extraction and construction as well as "maquiladoras". The most important of these are the Francisco Pérez Ríos Thermoelectric plant and the PEMEX refinery as well as the Cruz Azul and Tolteca cement locations. The refinery was established in 1976, and makes gasoline, diesel and solvents. It has 35 plants in eleven sections, covering an area of 707 ha. It processes just under 25% of Mexico's crude employing about 3,500 workers. The main handcraft in the city is the making of replicas of Toltec stone pieces. The altas figures are also recreated in way, marble, plastic and clay. Textiles are also made especially quezquémetl, rebozos, sarapes, hats and baskets.

Commerce is mainly for local needs such as groceries and clothing. There are two main traditional markets in the city of Tula, the municipal market and the Tianguis. The latter generally concentrates on electronics. The major service sector is related to tourism. This is mostly focused on visitors to the Tula archeological site. There is also the Requena dam (boating, fishing and picnicking) and the Parque Acuático la Cantera, a water park with a pool and thermal springs. The municipality has two four star hotels and two three star hotels.

The municipality's infrastructure includes 37 km of federal highway, 72 km of state highway, 9 km of rural highway and 40 km of rail line. It has a main bus terminal with local and intercity bus service. Trains that regularly pass through include the Mexico City–Ciudad Juárez line and the Mexico City-Tula-Querétaro line. It still has telegraph service, one of the oldest still in service after 100 years. Postal service in the town is also one of Mexico's oldest, beginning in 1856. There are two radio stations, FM XHLLV and “Super Stereo 90.9”.

Populated places in Tula de Allende
The census of 2010 reported a population of 103,919 people: 53,429 females and 50,490 males. The municipality has a total population of 103,919, living in 26,937 households, with 581 speaking an indigenous language.

The Tula de Allende municipality is very big, and includes many cities, towns, and small communities. The biggest city is Tula de Allende, and the second largest city is Cruz Azul City (near to San Miguel Vindho and Santa María Ilucan). Tula-Tepeji, the third Metropolitan Area in Hidalgo state, is the most important population center in the Mezquital valley.

Culture and education
Eighty seven percent of the population is Catholic, with most of the rest practicing some form of Catholicism. The main feast day is dedicated to Saint Joseph on March 19. There is also a large annual pilgrimage from here to the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City with many traveling by foot.

Traditional garb for men consists of pants and shirt made of undyed cotton cloth along with a sombrero. Women's traditional dress is a dress made of the some cloth often with a crinoline skirt underneath, decorated with ribbons and embroidery although beads and sequins are also used. A wool rebozo is common in the winter. For charreada events, men can be seen in charro outfits and women in China Poblana dress.

Traditional dishes of the area include barbacoa, carnitas, pulque, nopal cactus with eggs, beans with epazote and mixote but the area is known for dishes made with escamoles (ant eggs) as well as mezcal worms which are both seasonal. Street food such as gorditas is popular in the local markets. The most important museum in the municipality is the site museum for the Tula archeological site called the Jorge R. Acosta Museum, which is run by INAH.

The municipality has 73 preschools, 66 primary schools, 30 middle schools, thirteen high schools and at higher level the Universidad Politecnica de la Energia and the Universidad Tecnológica de Tula-Tepeji, with a total of about thirty thousand students. This is sufficient for the lower levels but not for higher education.

Tula archeological site
The ceremonial center of ancient Tula is located about five minutes from the center of the modern city. Tula became the most important city in the region after the fall of Teotihuacan, although it never reached the same size due to competing cities in the area. Usually identified as the Toltec capital around 980 CE, the city was destroyed at some time between 1168 and 1179.

The site is at and around the junction of two rivers, the Río Rosas and the Río Tula. The two largest clusters of grand ceremonial architecture are nicknamed "Tula Grande" (the most visited by tourists) and "Tula Chico". Remains of other buildings extend for some distance in all directions. Tula Grande contains pyramids, Mesoamerican ball courts and other buildings but its most distinctive characteristics are the Atlantean figures, columns in the shape of warriors and the “Serpent Wall,” a wall with reliefs that serve as a predecessor to similar constructions in later cultures.

The archeological site was made a national park in 1981 by the Mexican government. The park covers an area of 1 km2.

title: Tula de Allende


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Talk:Riot control agent

problems with names:

 * tear gasses such as CS gas and CN gas ...

CS gas says "tear gas" is a synonym, and tear gas is a redirect. This disagrees. Should we unlink tear gas in this page or alter the redirect?

Repetitions
Through the text some info of use of tear gas in military and as warfare agent is redundant. 132.204.207.108 15:41, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Removed text
I removed this text today:
 * It should be noted that civil activism movements have developed numerous ways of defending oneself against the effect of various RCA irritants. A popular one is inhaling the smell of freshly cut onions; strangely, it seems to almost eliminate the stinging sensation in the throat and reduce the tears. In action groups in Israel-Palestine, fresh onions are distirbuted regularly on all buses heading to possibly confrontational demonstrations.

Can anybody find a source for this? – ClockworkSoul 23:03, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

 * The only thing I can find is " People inside were sniffing onions to get rid of the affects of the tear gas" on http://skazat.com/justin/currents.cgi/2001/12/1-ihatefootball.html and "I make sure i carry the onions and wear trainers to do a quick runner if the cops decide to shower us with the sweet smell of tear gas." on http://chanadbahraini.blogspot.com/2004/10/photos-from-todays-rally.html. Also "...and second, the importance of keeping an onion handy. As several Palestinian teenagers instructed me that afternoon, a whiff of raw onion can ward off the searing sensation of tear gas." on http://www.princeton.edu/paw/archive_old/PAW97-98/04-1105/1105endpg.html. Peronsaly I believe that this is practiced, though I doubt its effectiveness. Fitz05 23:54, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

benzyl bromide
I'm rather surprised by the use of benzyl bromide as a riot control agent. It is a known carcinogen. Also the phrase "At room temperature, these tear gases are white solid substances" implies that these are all solids, infact benzyl bromide is a liquid, also quite hygroscopic. Over time it converts to benzyl alcohol. Just wondering if someone knows more about its use as a riot control agent and if they could expand this bit? Fitz05 21:41, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

Can CS and CN cause Interstitial Scarring of the lungs.
I would like a medical researcher or doctor to address whether or not excessive unfiltered exposure to CS or CN gas can cause interstitial scarring of the lungs and what are the long term implications?

I offer annecdotal information on myself, The military forced me and thousands of other recruits and active duty miltary people to use defective masks, i.e. masks that had no straps. or no filters, or no exhalation diaphragms, or some combination of these problems. Even when they providied field maks that were fully functional; they often forced people to remove them for aggravatingly long periods while directly exposing them to CS or CN. I personally recall several ocassions of being exposed for 2-5 minutes in confined (sealed) quarters.

When I left the service after 21 years, I was given a chest X-ray which very clearly showed alarmingly pronounced intersttial scarring of the lungs. I'm sure every military person who was subjected to the DI's pervsity and/or lack of respect for the long term damage will appreciate a discussion of this topic. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Jmmanuto (talk • contribs) 03:27, 23 February 2007 (UTC).

Long-Term Effects
The entire long-term effects section is speculative instead of factual, referencing one source that is ". . . a working document . . . [t]he current version is being circulated for consultation [and] [i]t is not an official publication of STOA or of the European Parliament," while making it seem it comes from the STOA and another "unpublished" study from Urgence Manif, a fairly biased source (their mandate is said to be "IAs Quebec medics we are reacting to the systemic and predictable violence that is the state response to our political expression [sic]." Bias much?

(later)

Jesus, this is ridiculous. The article says that CS is mutagenic; the document cited says "However, the US Army concluded in a 1993 Aberdeen Proving Ground study that pepper spray could cause "Mutagenic effects, carcinogenic effects, sensitization, cardiovascular and pulmonary toxicity, neurotoxicity, as well as possible human fatalities." [p.36]. This is the only instance in which the word "mutagenic" appears in the doc.  Closest is a quote from Professor Howard Hu, who says ". . . CS may be linked to chromosomal mutation - damage to the body's DNA itself. _May_.

Vomit gas
I once read about something called "vomit gas" being used in Germany. It's used in a simmilar way as tear gas but causes nausea instead of tears. Anybody knows more? // Liftarn
 * Adamsite or DM. Technically considered a riot control agent, the US Army chemical warfare manuals said that it should be used only when fatalities were acceptable. It has a delayed onset, so for riot control, it was mixed with a "tear gas". There were also nastier applications when it was mixed with a lethal agent, such that if troops masked in time to avoid immediate effects of the lethal chemical, vomiting would force them to unmask or drown, and then be exposed to lethal concentrations of the other agent. IIRC, it was used during the most serious riot at Alcatraz Prison, along with concussion grenades. Hcberkowitz 23:15, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Riot control agent


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User:Lir II

Ok i am back, and have learnt my mistakes.

title: User:Lir II


text:
Application layer

An application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies the shared communication protocols and interface methods used by hosts in a communications network. An application layer abstraction is specified in both the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and the OSI model. Although both models use the same term for their respective highest-level layer, the detailed definitions and purposes are different.

Internet protocol suite
In the Internet protocol suite, the application layer contains the communications protocols and interface methods used in process-to-process communications across an Internet Protocol (IP) computer network. The application layer only standardizes communication and depends upon the underlying transport layer protocols to establish host-to-host data transfer channels and manage the data exchange in a client–server or peer-to-peer networking model. Though the TCP/IP application layer does not describe specific rules or data formats that applications must consider when communicating, the original specification (in ) does rely on and recommend the robustness principle for application design.

OSI model
In the OSI model, the definition of the application layer is narrower in scope. The OSI model defines the application layer as only the interface responsible for communicating with host-based and user-facing applications. OSI then explicitly distinguishes the functionality of two additional layers, the session layer and presentation layer, as separate levels below the application layer and above the transport layer. OSI specifies a strict modular separation of functionality at these layers and provides protocol implementations for each. In contrast, the Internet Protocol Suite compiles these functions into a single layer.

Sublayers
Originally the OSI model consisted of two kinds of application layer services with their related protocols. These two sublayers are the common application service element (CASE) and specific application service element (SASE). Generally, an application layer protocol is realized by the use of the functionality of a number of application service elements. Some application service elements invoke different procedures based on the version of the session service available.

CASE
The common application service element sublayer provides services for the application layer and request services from the session layer. It provides support for common application services, such as:
 * ACSE (Association Control Service Element)
 * ROSE (Remote Operation Service Element)
 * CCR (Commitment Concurrency and Recovery)
 * RTSE (Reliable Transfer Service Element)

SASE
The specific application service element sublayer provides application-specific services (protocols), such as:
 * FTAM (File Transfer, Access and Manager)
 * VT (Virtual Terminal)
 * MOTIS (Message Oriented Text Interchange Standard)
 * CMIP (Common Management Information Protocol)
 * JTM (Job Transfer and Manipulation)
 * MMS (Manufacturing Messaging Specification)
 * RDA (Remote Database Access)
 * DTP (Distributed Transaction Processing)

Protocols
The IETF definition document for the application layer in the Internet Protocol Suite is RFC 1123. It provided an initial set of protocols that covered the major aspects of the functionality of the early Internet:
 * Hypertext documents: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 * Remote login to hosts: Telnet, Secure Shell
 * File transfer: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
 * Electronic mail transport: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 * Networking support: Domain Name System (DNS)
 * Host initialization: BOOTP
 * Remote host management: Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Common Management Information Protocol over TCP (CMOT)

Examples
Additional notable application-layer protocols include the following:

 * 9P, Plan 9 from Bell Labs distributed file system protocol
 * AFP, Apple Filing Protocol
 * APPC, Advanced Program-to-Program Communication
 * AMQP, Advanced Message Queuing Protocol
 * Atom Publishing Protocol
 * BEEP, Block Extensible Exchange Protocol
 * Bitcoin
 * BitTorrent
 * CFDP, Coherent File Distribution Protocol
 * CoAP, Constrained Application Protocol
 * DDS, Data Distribution Service
 * DeviceNet
 * DNS, Domain Name Services
 * eDonkey
 * ENRP, Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol
 * FastTrack (KaZaa, Grokster, iMesh)
 * Finger, User Information Protocol
 * Freenet
 * FTAM, File Transfer Access and Management
 * FTP, File Transfer Protocol
 * Gemini, Gemini protocol
 * Gopher, Gopher protocol
 * HL7, Health Level Seven
 * HTTP, Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 * Hypercore, formerly dat://
 * H.323, Packet-Based Multimedia Communications System
 * IMAP, Internet Message Access Protocol
 * IRC, Internet Relay Chat
 * IPFS, InterPlanetary File System
 * Kademlia
 * LDAP, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
 * LPD, Line Printer Daemon Protocol
 * MIME (S-MIME), Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions and Secure MIME
 * Modbus
 * MQTT Protocol
 * Netconf
 * NFS, Network File System
 * NIS, Network Information Service
 * NNTP, Network News Transfer Protocol
 * NTCIP, National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Protocol
 * NTP, Network Time Protocol
 * OSCAR, AOL Instant Messenger Protocol
 * POP, Post Office Protocol
 * PNRP, Peer Name Resolution Protocol
 * RDP, Remote Desktop Protocol
 * RELP, Reliable Event Logging Protocol
 * RFB, Remote Framebuffer Protocol
 * Rlogin, Remote Login in UNIX Systems
 * RPC, Remote Procedure Call
 * RTMP, Real Time Messaging Protocol
 * RTP, Real-time Transport Protocol
 * RTPS, Real Time Publish Subscribe
 * RTSP, Real Time Streaming Protocol
 * SAP, Session Announcement Protocol
 * SDP, Session Description Protocol
 * SIP, Session Initiation Protocol
 * SLP, Service Location Protocol
 * SMB, Server Message Block
 * SMTP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 * SNTP, Simple Network Time Protocol
 * SSH, Secure Shell
 * SSMS, Secure SMS Messaging Protocol
 * TCAP, Transaction Capabilities Application Part
 * TDS, Tabular Data Stream
 * Tor (anonymity network)
 * Tox
 * TSP, Time Stamp Protocol
 * VTP, Virtual Terminal Protocol
 * Whois (and RWhois), Remote Directory Access Protocol
 * WebDAV
 * WebRTC
 * WebSocket
 * X.400, Message Handling Service Protocol
 * X.500, Directory Access Protocol (DAP)
 * XMPP, Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol
 * Z39.50

title: Application layer