text:
Linköping University

Linköping University (LiU; Linköpings universitet) is a public research university based in Linköping, Sweden. Originally established in 1969, it was granted full university status in 1975 and is one of Sweden's largest academic institutions.

The university has four campuses across three cities: Campus Valla and Campus US in Linköping, Campus Norrköping in Norrköping and Campus Lidingö in Stockholm. It is organized into four faculties: Arts and Sciences, Medicine and Health Sciences, Educational Sciences, and Science and Engineering (also referred to as the Institute of Technology). To facilitate interdisciplinary work, there are 12 large departments combining knowledge from several disciplines and often belonging under more than one faculty. In 2021 the university had 35,900 students and 4,300 employees. Linköping University emphasizes dialogue with the surrounding business sphere and the community at large, both in terms of research and education.

It is a founding member of the Conceive Design Implement Operate (CDIO) Initiative, as well as a member of the European Consortium of Innovative Universities (ECIU), the European University Association (EUA), the European Society for Engineering Education (SEFI) and NORDTEK.

History
The origins of Linköping University date back to the 1960s. In 1965, The Swedish National Legislative Assembly (Riksdag) decided to locate some programmes within the fields of technology and medicine to Linköping. A branch of Stockholm University was placed in Linköping in 1967, offering education within humanities, social sciences and natural sciences.

Two years later in 1969, a unit for medical training and the Institute of Technology were established, marking the founding of the university. In 1970 all activities were brought together in three faculties within the Linköping University College: the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the Faculty of Medicine and the Institute of Technology. Linköping University College was granted full university status in 1975 and renamed Linköping University.

In 1977 the teacher training colleges in Linköping and Norrköping were transferred to Linköping University. The Faculty of Health Sciences was formed in 1986 based on the faculty of medicine and regional funded education in health care professions. In 1997 a campus was opened in the neighbouring city of Norrköping. The renowned Carl Malmsten School of Furniture — officially Malmstens Linköping University (MLU), and most often referred to as Malmstens — has been part of Linköping University since 2000; after almost 60 years at the city centre, in 2009 Malmstens moved into new premises on the outskirts of Stockholm.

Campuses
Education and research are conducted at three campuses in the cities of Linköping and Norrköping — Campus Valla, Campus US and Campus Norrköping — situated approximately 200 and 160 kilometers southwest of Stockholm, respectively. The Campus Bus (free of charge for students) connects the three campuses in Linköping and Norrköping. A fourth campus, Campus Lidingö, is located in Lidingö, an island in the inner Stockholm archipelago.

Campus Valla
Campus Valla, three kilometers from the city centre of Linköping, is the university's largest campus and where the majority of students and researchers study and work. Campus Valla is sandwiched between Linköping Science Park and Linköping Golf Course to the west, and Valla Wood — a 200 acres large nature reserve — to the east. Campus Valla also houses several government research institutes, such as the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) and the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI).

Campus US
Campus US (the University Hospital campus) in Linköping houses the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Campus US is located next to Linköping University Hospital and Linköping City Park (The Garden Society, Trädgårdsföreningen), and only a few hundred meters from the city centre.

Campus Norrköping
Campus Norrköping is a city campus in central Norrköping, 40 kilometers northeast of Linköping. Approximately one-fourth of the students are enrolled here. The campus is located in the historical Industrilandskapet district, with campus buildings on both sides of the river Motala ström connected by Campusbron, a footbridge.

Campus Lidingö
Campus Lidingö houses the Carl Malmsten School of Furniture (Malmstens Linköping University), which has been part of Linköping University since 2000. After almost 60 years at the city centre, in 2009 the school moved into new premises in Lidingö, on the outskirts of Stockholm.

Faculties
Linköping University is organized into four faculties:

 * 1) Faculty of Arts and Sciences (Filosofiska fakulteten)
 * 2) Faculty of Science and Engineering (also referred to as the Institute of Technology) (Tekniska fakulteten (Tekniska högskolan))
 * 3) Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Medicinska fakulteten) and Linköping University Hospital
 * 4) Faculty of Educational Sciences (Utbildningsvetenskap)

Departments
There are 12 large departments — in turn organized in divisions (not listed below) — intersecting several disciplines and often belonging under more than one faculty:

 * Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning
 * Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences
 * Department of Biomedical Engineering
 * Department of Computer and Information Science
 * Department of Culture and Society
 * Department of Electrical Engineering
 * Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences
 * Department of Management and Engineering
 * Department of Mathematics
 * Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology
 * Department of Science and Technology
 * Department of Thematic Studies

Student organizations
Several student unions and nations exist at the university. Membership in a union or nation is voluntary.

Unions
Students are organized into different unions (and union sections) based on their field of study. There are three student unions charged with monitoring education at Linköping University:

 * Consensus: Student union for the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, organized into 9 sections
 * LinTek: Student union for the Faculty of Science and Engineering, organized into 15 sections
 * StuFF: Student union for the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and the Faculty of Educational Sciences, organized into 19 sections

Nations
There are three active student nations at the university:

 * Wermlands nation
 * Västgöta nation
 * Vargtass - Norrlands nation

Education
Linköping University offers education at the basic and advanced levels via 120 study programmes, 550 single-subject courses and specialised as well as interdisciplinary postgraduate studies. A large number of the degree programmes lead to qualified professional degrees in fields such as medicine, business and economics, teacher education and engineering. Many of the programmes are interdisciplinary, combining for example industrial management and engineering, medicine and engineering, or integrating economics, law and languages.

In 1986 the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences became the first faculty in Sweden to put problem-based learning into practice within medical training and health-care programmes.

In 2000, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in collaboration with three Swedish universities — Linköping University, Chalmers University of Technology and the KTH Royal Institute of Technology — formally founded the Conceive Design Implement Operate (CDIO) Initiative, a framework for engineering education. CDIO developed into an international collaboration, with universities around the world adopting the same framework.

In 2007, the Medical Programme and the Department of Electrical Engineering, Control systems were recognized as Centres of Excellence in Higher Education by the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education. Linköping University was awarded 2 out of the 8 Centres of Excellence recognized at Swedish universities, with the recognition based on a thorough quality assessment by a panel of experts.

Research
Linköping University pursues research and postgraduate studies within the fields of technology, medicine, and humanities, natural, educational, social and behavioural sciences. It is particularly noted for its openness to multidisciplinary research and, in 1980, was the first Swedish university to introduce interdisciplinary thematic research at the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and a cross-subject, interdisciplinary perspective in graduate schools for PhD students.

Linköping University receives research grants from the Swedish government within five strategic research areas: IT and mobile communication, materials science, security and emergency management, e-Science and transport research.

Research centres

 * Control, Autonomy, and Decision-making in Complex Systems (Linnaeus Centre CADICS)
 * Gender Excellence (GEXcel), The Swedish Research Council Centre of
 * Hearing and Deafness (Linnaeus Centre HEAD), Research on
 * The National Supercomputer Centre, a provider of national supercomputing resources
 * Novel Functional Materials (Linnécentrum LiLI-NFM), Linköping Linnaeus Initiative for
 * Organic Bioelektronics (OBOE), Strategic Research Centre for
 * Norrköping Visualization Center C, in cooperation with the City of Norrköping and Norrköping Science Park and Interactive Institute. The Dome Theatre, constructed in 2009, is the most technically advanced dome in northern Europe.
 * The Center for Disaster Medicine and Traumatology (KMC). A National Research Center for Traumatology assigned by the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare.

For a complete list of centres, see Organisation

Rankings
Linköping University has an emphasis on engineering and technology, and in the 2022 ARWU ranking it places in the top 100 in the following engineering subjects: Telecommunication Engineering 51–75, Electrical & Electronic Engineering 76–100, Materials Science & Engineering 76–100, Nanoscience & Nanotechnology 76–100 and Energy Science & Engineering 76–100.

In the 2022 THE ranking, Linköping University places in the top 125 in the following broad categories: Engineering & Technology 101–125, Business & Economics 101–125 and Psychology 101–125. In addition, it places in the top 200 in: Computer Science 151–175 and Social Sciences 176–200.

Linköping University Hospital places 176 in Newsweek's 2023 World's Best Hospitals ranking (5th in Sweden).

In the TOP500 ranking of the world's supercomputers, as of June 2022, Sweden's two fastest supercomputers are at Linköping University's National Supercomputer Centre:
 * 1) Berzelius in place 102 (specialized for machine learning and artificial intelligence)
 * 2) Tetralith in place 183

Science parks and business incubator
Two science parks — Linköping Science Park and Norrköping Science Park — are closely connected to Linköping University. The university's business incubator LEAD is also housed in these parks.

LEAD - business incubator
LEAD (acronym for LiU Entrepreneurship and Development) is Linköping University's business incubator. In 2023, LEAD was selected as a Sweden's incubator in NATO's Defence Innovation Accelerator for the North Atlantic (DIANA). The CEO of LEAD (currently Catharina Sandberg) was selected as a member of the Council for Defence Innovation (Swedish: Försvarsinnovationsrådet), launched by the Swedish Ministry of Defence in 2024, with the Minister for Defence serving as its chairman (currently Pål Jonson).

Linköping Science Park
Linköping Science Park is a multi-site science park, with four sites throughout Linköping and the surrounding region. As of 2023, Linköping Science Park hosts approximately 600 companies, from start-ups to multinationals, with a total of 14,000 employees. The largest residents are Ericsson, IFS, Infor, Sectra, Combitech, Releasy and CGI Group. Major multinationals such as ARRIS Group, Flextronics, Autoliv, Toyota Industries and Beyond Gravity are also represented. Linköping Science Park's four sites are:

 * 1) Mjärdevi is the first and main site, located next to Campus Valla (Linköping University's main campus), Linköping Golf Club and Malmen Airbase. Mjärdevi is the main site for Linköping University's business incubator LEAD.
 * 2) Ebbepark, with game development, medtech and visualization among represented industries.
 * 3) Cavok District is a new and developing site, focusing on aviation, space and advanced materials. Cavok District adjoins Linköping City Airport and Linköping University's strategic partner SAAB's main office, as well as main site for development and manufacturing, including the development and manufacturing of fighter jets such as the Saab JAS 39 Gripen. SAAB's Generic Future Fighter is ongoing project in collaboration with Linköping University, led by the Swedish Air Force to develop a fifth-generation low-observable fighter jet.
 * 4) Vreta Kluster focuses on the green industry. Located in Ljungsbro, 8 kilometers outside Linköping.

Norrköping Science Park
Norrköping Science Park in Norrköping hosts approximately 130 companies. Main areas for research and development are printed electronics, interactivity and visualisation.

Faculty

 * Gerhard Andersson, professor of clinical psychology
 * Anders Blomqvist, professor of pain research
 * Christian Berggren, professor of industrial management
 * Magnus Berggren, professor of organic electronics
 * Per-Erik Ellström, professor of education
 * Fredrik Gustafsson, professor of sensor informatics
 * Lars Hultman, professor of materials science
 * Olle Inganäs, professor of organic electronics
 * Lennart Ljung, professor of control theory
 * Nina Lykke, professor of gender studies
 * Jan-Ove Palmberg, professor of mechanical engineering
 * Jerker Rönnberg, professor of psychology
 * Carl-Ulrik Schierup, professor of ethnicity
 * Stefan Thor, professor of biology

Former faculty

 * Stig Hagström, professor emeritus of materials science
 * One of the founders of Linköping University
 * Leading researcher in materials science
 * Harold Lawson, former professor of telecommunications and computer systems
 * Credited with the invention of the pointer in programming languages
 * ACM Fellow
 * Ingemar Lundström, professor emeritus of applied physics
 * Leading researcher in biosensors and chemical sensors
 * Chairman for the Nobel Committee for Physics
 * Hans Rådström, former professor of applied mathematics
 * Mathematician who made many important contributions
 * Erik Sandewall, professor emeritus of computer science
 * Leading researcher in artificial intelligence
 * AAAI Fellow
 * Vladimir Mazya, professor emeritus of mathematics
 * Known for his work on Sobolev spaces
 * Åke Öberg, professor emeritus of biomedical engineering
 * Leading researcher in circulatory physiology, bio-optics, biomedical instrumentation, sensors and clinical engineering

Alumni

 * Carl-Henric Svanberg, chairman of Volvo, former CEO of Ericsson and chairman of BP
 * Henry Radamson, Swedish professor of microelectronics and semiconductor, member of Chinese Academy of Science
 * Anders Flodström, professor of materials physics at the Royal Institute of Technology, former rector of the Royal Institute of Technology, former university chancellor of Sweden and head of the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education
 * Gustav Fridolin, former minister for education in the Government of Sweden
 * Therése Sjömander Magnusson, head of the Nordic Africa Institute
 * Jan Malm, former CEO, Ericsson China, 2000–2004
 * Jan-Eric Sundgren, former rector of Chalmers Institute of Technology, now senior vice president, Volvo Group
 * Ola Tunander, former research professor at the Peace Research Institute Oslo
 * Åke Svensson, director general of Teknikföretagen (employers' organisation for engineering companies), former president and CEO Saab AB
 * Björn von Sydow, former Speaker of the Riksdag and Minister for Defence 1997–2002
 * Cecilia Widegren, member of the Riksdag and vice chairman in The Parliamentary Defense Committee and Group
 * Zhong Zhihua, rector of Tongji University, member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering
 * Bertil Andersson, former president of Nanyang Technological University
 * Stefan Thor, Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and Professor of Developmental Biology at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

title: Linköping University


text:
Bournemouth

Bournemouth is a coastal resort town in the Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole unitary authority area in the ceremonial county of Dorset, on the south coast of England. The built-up area had a population of 196,455 at the 2021 census, making it the largest town in Dorset. The town is part of the South East Dorset conurbation.

It was founded in 1810 as a health resort by Lewis Tregonwell, in an area of uninhabited heathland that was previously rarely visited other than by occasional fishermen and smugglers. Bournemouth grew into an important resort town, particularly following the arrival of the railway in 1870. It was historically part of Hampshire, but was transferred to Dorset in 1974. Bournemouth Borough Council was made a unitary authority in 1997, but was abolished in 2019 when the current unitary authority of Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council was created, also covering Poole, Christchurch and adjoining areas.

Victorian architecture is notable in the town centre. The 202 ft spire of St Peter's Church, one of three Grade I listed churches in the borough, is a local landmark. The town's location has made it a popular destination for tourists, attracting over five million visitors annually with its beaches and popular nightlife. It is also a regional centre of business, home of the Bournemouth International Centre (BIC) and a financial sector that is worth more than £1 billion in gross value added.

Toponymy
The first mention of Bournemouth comes in the Christchurch cartulary of 1406, where a monk describes how a large fish ("uni magno piscis"), 18 ft long, was washed up at "La Bournemothe" in October of that year and taken to the Manor of Wick; six days later, a portion of the fish was collected by a canon from Christchurch Priory and taken away as tithe. "La Bournemowthe", however, was purely a geographic reference to the uninhabited area around the mouth of the small river which, in turn, drained the heathland between the towns of Poole and Christchurch. The word bourne, meaning a small stream, is a derivative of burna, old English for a brook. From the latter half of the 16th century "Bourne Mouth" seems to be preferred, being recorded as such in surveys and reports of the period, but this appears to have been shortened to "Bourne" after the area had started to develop. A travel guide published in 1831 calls the place "Bourne Cliffe" or "Tregonwell's Bourne" after its founder. The Spas of England, published ten years later, calls it simply "Bourne" as does an 1838 edition of the Hampshire Advertiser. In the late 19th century "Bournemouth" became predominant, although its two-word form appears to have remained in use up until at least the early 20th century, turning up on a 1909 ordnance map. The Coat of arms of Bournemouth was first granted on 24 March 1891.

History
In the 12th century the region around the mouth of the River Bourne was part of the Hundred of Holdenhurst. The hundred later became the Liberty of Westover when it was extended to include the settlements of North Ashley, Muscliff, Muccleshell, Throop, Iford, Pokesdown, Tuckton and Wick, and incorporated into the Manor of Christchurch. Although the Dorset and Hampshire region surrounding it had been the site of human settlement for thousands of years, Westover was largely a remote and barren heathland before 1800. In 1574 the Earl of Southampton noted that the area was "Devoid of all habitation", and as late as 1795 the Duke of Rutland recorded that "... on this barren and uncultivated heath there was not a human to direct us".

There were some prehistoric settlements in the area, notably along the River Stour, including Longham where a skull thought to be 5,500 years old was found in 1932. Bronze Age burials near Moordown, and the discovery of Iron Age pottery on the East Cliff in 1969, suggest there may have been settlements there during that period. Hengistbury Head, added to the borough in 1932, was the site of a much older Palaeolithic encampment. During the latter half of the 16th century James Blount, 6th Baron Mountjoy, began mining for alum in the area, and at one time part of the heath was used for hunting, although by the late 18th century little evidence of either event remained. No-one lived at the mouth of the Bourne river and the only regular visitors to the area before the 19th century were a few fishermen, turf cutters and gangs of smugglers.

Prior to the Christchurch Inclosures Act 1802, more than 70% of the Westover area was common land. The act, together with the Inclosure Commissioners' Award of 1805, transferred 5000 acres into the hands of five private owners, including James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury, and Sir George Ivison Tapps. In 1809 the Tapps Arms public house was built on the heath. A few years later, in 1812, the first official residents, retired army officer Lewis Tregonwell and his wife, moved into their new home built on land purchased from Tapps. The area was well known to Tregonwell who, during the Napoleonic Wars, spent much of his time searching the heath and coastline for French invaders and smugglers.

Anticipating that people would come to the area to indulge in the newly fashionable pastime of sea-bathing, an activity with perceived health benefits, Tregonwell built a series of villas on his land between 1816 and 1822, which he hoped to let out. The common belief that pine-scented air was good for lung conditions, and in particular tuberculosis, prompted Tregonwell and Tapps to plant hundreds of pine trees. These early attempts to promote the town as a health resort meant that by the time Tregonwell died in 1832, Bournemouth had grown into a small community with a scattering of houses, villas and cottages. The town would ultimately grow up around the scattered pines and tree-lined walk to the beach, later to become known as the Invalids' Walk.

After the death of Tapps in 1835, his son Sir George William Tapps-Gervis inherited his father's estate. He hired the young local architect Benjamin Ferrey to develop Bournemouth Gardens along the coastal area on the east side of the stream. Bournemouth's first hotel, later to become part of the Royal Bath Hotel, opened in 1838 and is one of the few buildings designed by Ferrey still standing and operating. Bournemouth grew at a faster rate as Tapps-Gervis began developing the area similarly to the south coast resorts of Weymouth and Brighton. Despite enormous investment, the town's share of the market remained modest. In 1841 Tapps-Gervis invited the physician and writer Augustus Granville to stay. Granville was the author of The Spas of England, which described health resorts around the country, and as a result of his visit, he included a chapter on Bournemouth in the second edition of his book. The publication of the book, and the increase in visitors seeking the medicinal use of seawater and the pine-scented air, helped the town to grow and establish itself as an early tourist destination.

In the 1840s Benjamin Ferrey was replaced by Decimus Burton, whose plans for Bournemouth included the construction of Bournemouth Gardens alongside the Bourne stream, an idea first mooted by Granville. The fields south of the road crossing (later Bournemouth Square) were drained and laid out with shrubberies and walks. Many of these paths, including the Invalids' Walk, remain in the town today. A second suggestion of Granville's, a sanatorium, was completed in 1855 and greatly raised Bournemouth's profile as a place for recuperation. At a time when the most convenient way to arrive in the town was by sea, a pier was considered to be a necessity. The Holdenhurst parish vestry was reluctant to find the money, and an attempt to raise funds privately in 1847 had only succeeded in financing a small 100 ft jetty. The Bournemouth Improvement Act of 1856 granted greater financial autonomy to the town and a pier was approved that year. A number of wooden structures were built before an 838 ft cast iron design by Eugenius Birch was completed in 1880. Under the Act, a board of 13 Commissioners was established to build and organise the expanding infrastructure of the town, such as paving, sewers, drainage, street lighting and street cleaning.

The arrival of the railways in 1870 precipitated a massive growth in seaside and summer visitors to the town, especially from the Midlands and London. In 1880 the town had a population of 17,000, but by 1900, when railway connections to Bournemouth were at their most developed, the town's population had risen to 60,000 and it had become a favourite location for visiting artists and writers. The town was improved greatly during this period through the efforts of Sir Merton Russell-Cotes, the town's mayor and a local philanthropist, who helped to establish the town's first library and museum. The Russell-Cotes Art Gallery & Museum was housed in his mansion, and after his death, it was given to the town. Bournemouth became a municipal borough in 1890 and a county borough in 1900.

As Bournemouth's growth increased in the early 20th century, the town centre spawned theatres, cafés, two art deco cinemas, and more hotels. Bournemouth Corporation Tramways was established in 1902, becoming the towns first public transport system. In 1908, a deadly tram crash in the town gardens killed 7 people. Other new buildings constructed included the war memorial in 1921 and the Bournemouth Pavilion, the town's concert hall and grand theatre, finished in 1925.

The Bournemouth Blitz saw heavy damage to the town during the Second World War despite initially escaping heavy bombing. A raid by German fighter bombers on 23 May 1943 killed 131 people and damaged 3,359 buildings, with two large hotels being completely destroyed. It is believed that the large number of RAF airmen billeted in the town may have been the reason for the attack. The seafront incurred damage when it was fortified against invasion. The cast iron lampposts and benches along the front were removed and melted down for munitions, as was much of the superstructure from both Bournemouth and Boscombe piers before they were breached to prevent their use by enemy ships. The large amounts of barbed wire and anti-tank obstacles along the beach, and the mines at the foot of the chines, took two years to remove when peace was finally achieved.

The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed an inshore lifeboat at Bournemouth between 1965 and 1972. Coverage for the area has otherwise been provided from Poole Lifeboat Station. The Bournemouth International Centre (BIC), a large conference and exhibition centre, was constructed near the seafront in 1984, and in the following year Bournemouth became the first town in the United Kingdom to introduce and use CCTV cameras for public street-based surveillance.

In 1993, the IRA orchestrated a terrorist attack in the town centre. The only injuries sustained were minor ones but over £1 million in damage was caused.

From 2000 to 2001 the Tesco bomb campaign hit the town with a plot to extort money from Supermarket giant Tesco. Visitors to the town plummeted during the campaign, especially after a bomb exploded at an elderly woman's home after she opened a letter sent by the bomber. During the eight months, over seven bombs were found by Dorset Police, ranging from small letter bombs, to pipe bombs and parcel bombs. The culprit was found to be Robert Edward Dyer, he was sentenced to 12 years in prison.

The Waterfront complex, which was intended to hold an IMAX cinema, was constructed on the seafront in 1998. The 19 m concrete and smoked glass building featured a wavy roof design, but was despised by residents and visitors alike because it blocked views of the bay and the Isle of Purbeck. In 2005 it was voted the most hated building in England in a 10,000-person poll conducted by the Channel 4 programme Demolition, and was pulled down in spring 2013. The site is now used as an outdoor event arena. The council has recently completed a larger redevelopment of the site and adjoining council land.

In 2010, Bournemouth celebrated its bicentenary. In 2012 Bournemouth was unsuccessful in its bid for city status, losing out to Chelmsford, Essex in competition with 26 other towns to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee. Bournemouth sought city status once again for the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours in 2022 but was unsuccessful.

On 13 March 2022, 21-year-old Thomas Roberts was stabbed to death in Bournemouth Town Centre by asylum seeker Lawangeen Abdulrahimzai in a high-profile murder case.

On 31 May 2023, two people died and eight others were injured in an incident at Bournemouth beach.

Governance

There is one tier of local government covering Bournemouth, at unitary authority level: Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council, which is based at the Civic Centre (formerly known as Bournemouth Town Hall) on Bourne Avenue in Bournemouth.

Administrative history
The area that is now Bournemouth was historically mostly within the ancient parish of Christchurch in Hampshire. A chapel of ease was established at Holdenhurst to serve the west of the parish, and the chapelry of Holdenhurst subsequently came to be treated as a separate civil parish from medieval times.

When the development of Bournemouth began in 1810, the site straddled the parishes of Holdenhurst and Christchurch. An ecclesiastical parish of Bournemouth was created in 1845, but for civil purposes the town continued to straddle the parishes of Holdenhurst and Christchurch. A body of improvement commissioners was established in 1856 to provide local government services in the town.

Bournemouth was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1890. In 1900 it was elevated to the status of a county borough, making it independent from Hampshire County Council, whilst remaining part of the geographical county of Hampshire. The borough boundaries were enlarged on several occasions, notably in 1901 when it absorbed Pokesdown, Southbourne and Winton, and in 1931 when it absorbed Holdenhurst and Kinson (the latter being transferred from Dorset to Hampshire on its absorption into Bournemouth). In 1921 the borough council bought the former Mont Dore Hotel on Bourne Avenue, which had been completed in 1885, and converted into the Town Hall.

The county borough of Bournemouth was reconstituted as a non-metropolitan district in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The district kept the same boundaries, but was transferred from Hampshire to Dorset, it being considered desirable that the whole of the South East Dorset conurbation should be in the same county. Bournemouth's borough status was transferred to the new district, allowing the council to take the name Bournemouth Borough Council and giving the chair of the council the title of mayor, continuing Bournemouth's series of mayors dating back to 1890.

On 1 April 1997, Bournemouth Borough Council became a unitary authority, taking over the provision of county council functions from Dorset County Council.

As from April 2019, the nine councils of Dorset were merged into two and Bournemouth became part of a unitary authority with Christchurch and Poole (known as BCP). For the purposes of the Lieutenancy it remains part of the ceremonial county of Dorset. Since the abolition of Bournemouth Borough Council in 2019, Bournemouth has had charter trustees, being the BCP councillors representing wards in the former borough of Bournemouth. The trustees preserve the town's civic charters and traditions, including appointing one of their number each year to serve as mayor.

Parliamentary representation
Bournemouth is represented by two parliamentary constituencies in the House of Commons; Bournemouth East and Bournemouth West. In the 2024 general election, the former was gained for Labour by Tom Hayes with 40.8% of the vote, while the latter was also gained for Labour by Jessica Toale with 36.4%. However, the seats had previously both been considered Conservative safe seats. In 2022, both of the towns Conservative MPs, Conor Burns and Tobias Ellwood had the whip withdrawn forcing them to sit as Independents.

Geography
Bournemouth is about 94 mi southwest of London. The town borders the neighbouring towns of Poole and Christchurch to the west and east respectively. Poole Bay lies to the south. The River Stour forms a natural boundary to the north and east, terminating at Christchurch Harbour; while the River Bourne rises in Poole and flows through the middle of Bournemouth town centre, into the English Channel. The towns of Poole, Bournemouth and Christchurch form the South East Dorset conurbation with a combined population of over 400,000. Bournemouth is both a retail and commercial centre. Areas within Bournemouth include: Boscombe, Kinson, Southbourne, Springbourne, Throop, Westbourne, Winton and Pokesdown.

The area's geology has little variety, comprising almost entirely of Eocene clays which, prior to urbanisation, supported a heathland environment. Patches of the original heath still remain, notably Turbary Common, a 36 ha site, much of which is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest. This heathland habitat is home to all six species of native reptile, the Dartford warbler and some important flora such as sundew and bog asphodel. Small populations of Exmoor pony and Shetland cattle help to maintain the area. Bournemouth is directly north of Old Harry Rocks, the easternmost end of the Jurassic Coast, 155 km of coastline designated a World Heritage Site in 2001. Bournemouth's own coastline stretches from Sandbanks to Christchurch Harbour and comprises mainly sandy beaches backed by gravel and sandy clay cliffs. These cliffs are cut by a number of chines which provide natural access to the shore. At the easternmost point lies Hengistbury Head, a narrow peninsula that forms the southern shore of Christchurch Harbour. It is a local nature reserve and the site of a Bronze Age settlement.

Climate
Like all of the UK, Bournemouth has a temperate oceanic climate with moderate variation in annual and daily temperatures, mild summers, and cool winters. From 1991 to 2020 the annual mean temperature was 10 to 11 C. The warmest months are July and August, which have an average temperature range of 12 to 22 C, while the coolest months are January and February, which have an average temperature range of 2 to 9 C. Average rainfall in Bournemouth is around 875 mm annually, well below the national average of 1163 mm. It records both higher and lower temperatures than would be expected for its coastal location. Since 1960, temperature extremes as measured at Bournemouth Hurn Airport have ranged from 34.1 C in August 1990, down to -13.4 C in January 1963. The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was -10.4 C in December 2010. The February and winter month record high was broken in 2019, with a temperature of 17.8 C.

Green belt
Bournemouth lies at the centre of a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties. It is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the South East Dorset conurbation from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building.

Bournemouth has small areas of green belt within its district to the north and east, mostly along the fringes of the shared border with the Christchurch and East Dorset districts. These cover landscape features and greenfield facilities including the River Stour, Stour Valley Way, Millhams Mead and Stour Valley nature reserves and arboretum, Hengistbury Head, and the small communities of Throop and Holdenhurst. Turbary Park is a heathland which is a protected Site of Special Scientific Interest.

Demography
The 2011 census records the population of Bournemouth as 183,491, comprising 91,386 males and 92,105 females, which equates to 49.8% and 50.2% of the population respectively. The mean average age of all persons is 40 years. With 4,000 residents per square kilometre, Bournemouth has the highest population density of any authority in the South-West region, and is the eighth most populated.

Much of the population, 83.8%, describe their ethnicity as 'White British' while other white groups account for a further 8.1%. Asian groups; Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Chinese and other Asian, make up 3.9%. Black British, Black African, Black Caribbean and other Black groups form 1.0% of the population, Those who are Mixed race make up 2.3% of the population, and 0.9% are from other ethnic groups.

Christians made up 57.1% of the population but 30% of residents said they had no religion and 7.8% declined to say whether they were religious or not. Muslims were 1.8%, Buddhists, Hindus and Jews each had a 0.7% share, Sikhs were 0.1%. and other religions made up 0.7%.

Of all Bournemouth residents aged 16 or over, 19.1% had no qualifications at all, although 35% said they had between one and four O-levels, CSEs, GCSEs or equivalent, and 36.5% have more than five O-level equivalents (grade C and above), an A-level or two to three AS-levels. Those with an NVQ level 1 comprise 8.0% of the population while 15.2% have a level 2 NVQ, a City and Guilds craft certificate, BTEC or general diploma. Just over 20% of residents had two or more A-levels, four or more AS-Levels or an advanced diploma while 15.8% possessed a degree, such as a BA or BSc or a higher degree such as an MA or PhD. An NVQ level 4 or 5, HNC, HND, higher BTEC or higher diploma, is held by 4.2% and a professional qualification is held by 13.9% of residents. An apprenticeship has been completed by 6.3% of the population while 16.9% have some other work-related or vocational qualification and 8.3% hold a foreign qualification.

Historically Bournemouth has suffered from negative rates of natural increase and has relied on immigration to maintain population growth. In 2007 however, births exceeded deaths for the first time, and this trend has continued through to 2011. This, coupled with a substantial increase in people moving into the area, has led to a sharp rise in the resident population since 2001. Of the total population, 3.3% are 85 or over, compared to 2.2% nationally; however the largest group of people moving into the area are students in the 16-24-year age group, and 9% of the current population are between 20 and 24. In England this age group accounts for only 7%. According to the Centre for Cities in 2016, Bournemouth's population had the third highest average age among 63 large towns and cities in the UK, at 42.8 years.

Economy
Similarly to the rest of Dorset, Bournemouth's economy is primarily in the service sector, which employed 95% of the workforce in 2010. This was 10% higher than the average employment in the service sector for Great Britain and 11% higher than the South West. Of particular importance are the financial and public service sectors which through 2011 continued to show sustained growth. Compared to the rest of the country, Bournemouth performed well in these two areas but under performed in transport and communications.

The smallest geographical region for which gross value added information is available is the NUTS3 area, Bournemouth and Poole. The latest figures,, are for the year 2009 which showed that the Bournemouth and Poole area enjoyed the strongest annualised growth in the South-West region. In 2009 the South West Regional Accounts showed that the Financial Services sector in Bournemouth was worth £1,031.8 million in Gross Value Added. Important employers in this sector include JPMorgan, Nationwide Building Society, and the Liverpool Victoria, Tata Consultancy Services (formerly Unisys), and RIAS insurance companies. The manufacturing sector is predominantly based in neighbouring Poole, but still employed 2% of the workforce in 2010 and 2.6% in 2011. Notable employers in this sector include Escor Toys and Parvalux.

Tourism is also important to the local economy. In 2011, domestic and overseas visitors made more than 5.6 million trips to the town and spent over £460 million between them. The equivalent of 8,531 full-time jobs exist as a result which accounts for 15% of all employment in the town. Bournemouth seafront is one of the UK's biggest attractions with 4.5 million visitors in 2011. RNLI lifeguards provide seasonal coverage of Bournemouth's beaches.

With a third of all town centre businesses in the leisure industry, Bournemouth has a booming nightlife economy and is a popular destination for stag and hen parties. These party-goers contribute £125 million a year to the economy and support 4,000 jobs. In 2010 the town was awarded a Purple Flag for providing a wide variety of night-time activities while maintaining the safety of both residents and visitors. An independent report published in 2012 indicates there has been a rise in antisocial behaviour which it attributes to the increase in nightlife.

Those of working age make up approximately 65% of Bournemouth's population and of these, 74.6% are economically active although not necessarily employed within the Bournemouth area. Industry in Bournemouth employed more than 76,400 people in 2011 but not all of these were Bournemouth residents. Of those employed in Bournemouth based industries, 29.32% were employed in the public administration, education and health sector. This compares favourably with Dorset, the South-West region, and the country as a whole, as do the other large sectors; distribution, hotels & restaurants (29.06%), and banking, finance and insurance (24.48%). 37.2% of Bournemouth's resident population are employed full-time while 13.3% are employed part-time. An additional 7.1% full-time workers are self-employed, 3.1% are self-employed part-time. Full-time students with jobs account for 5.3% and 3.8% are unemployed.

The shopping streets are mostly pedestrianised with modern shopping malls, Victorian arcades and a large selection of bars, clubs, and cafés. North of the centre there is an out-of-town shopping complex called Castlepoint. The 41 acre site has 40 units and was the largest shopping centre in the UK when it opened it 2003. Other major shopping areas are situated in the districts of Westbourne and Boscombe.

Culture
Bournemouth is a tourist and regional centre for leisure, entertainment, culture and recreation. Local author and former mayor, Keith Rawlings, suggests that Bournemouth has a thriving youth culture due to its large university population and many language school students. In recent years, Bournemouth has become a popular nightlife destination with UK visitors and many clubs, bars and restaurants are located within the town centre. In a 2007 survey by First Direct, Bournemouth was found to be the happiest place in the UK, with 82% of people questioned saying they were happy with their lives.

Major venues for concerts include BIC, Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy. Built in 1984, the BIC is also a popular place for party political conferences and has been used by all three major political parties. Its four auditoria make it the largest venue on the south coast. The O2 and Pavilion are older and are both Grade II listed buildings. The O2, which opened in 1895 as the Grand Pavilion Theatre, was initially used as a circus and later for music hall theatre. The Pavilion opened in 1929 as concert hall and tea room while also providing a venue for the municipal orchestra. It continues to provide traditional entertainment today, presenting West End stage shows, ballet and operas. The Palace Court Theatre opened in 1931, was later used as a Christian centre, and has recently been bought and reopened as a theatre by Arts University Bournemouth. Bournemouth has more than 200 listed buildings, mainly from the Victorian and Edwardian eras, including three grade I churches; St Peter's, St Clement's and St Stephen's.

The Russell-Cotes Museum is a Grade II* listed, villa completed in 1901. It houses artefacts and paintings collected by the Victorian philanthropist Merton Russell-Cotes and his wife during their extensive travels around the world. The four art galleries display paintings by William Powell Frith, Edwin Landseer, Edwin Long, William Orchardson, Arthur Hughes, Albert Moore and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. It was Russell-Cotes who successfully campaigned to have a promenade built; it runs continuously along the Bournemouth and Poole shoreline.

The Lower, Central and Upper Gardens are Grade II* public parks, leading for several miles down the valley of the River Bourne through the centre of the town to the sea. Bournemouth has a further 425 acres of parkland. Initially serving to compensate for the loss of common rights after common land was enclosed in 1802, it was held in trust until 1889 when ownership passed to Bournemouth Corporation and the land became five public parks: King's Park, Queen's Park, Meyrick Park, Seafield Gardens and Redhill Common.

The detailed Land Use Survey by the Office for National Statistics in 2005 noted that the local authority area of Bournemouth had the third-highest proportion of land taken up by domestic gardens, 34.6%, of the 326 districts in England; narrowly less than the London Boroughs of Harrow and Sutton at the time with 34.7% and 35.1%.

One of Bournemouth's most noted cultural institutions is Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1893 under Dan Godfrey. It became the first municipal orchestra in the country when in 1896, Bournemouth Borough Council took control and Godfrey was appointed musical director and head of the town's entertainments. Originally playing three concerts a day during the summer season, in the great glass palm house known as the Winter Gardens; the orchestra is now based in Poole and performs around 130 concerts a year across Southern England.

Bournemouth is currently host to a number of festivals. Bournemouth Food and Drink Festival is a ten-day event which combines a market with live cookery demonstrations. The Arts by the Sea Festival is a mix of dance, film, theatre, literature, and music which was launched in 2012 by the local university, the Arts University Bournemouth, and is set to become an annual event. The Bourne Free carnival is held in the town each year during the summer. Initially a gay pride festival, it has become a celebration of diversity and inclusion.

Since 2008, Bournemouth has held its own air festival over four days in August. This has featured displays from the Red Arrows as well as appearances from the Yakovlevs, Blades, Team Guinot Wing-Walkers, Battle of Britain Memorial Flight including Lancaster, Hurricane, Spitfire and also the last flying Vulcan. The festival has also seen appearances from modern aircraft such as the Eurofighter Typhoon. The air festival attracts up to a million people over the four-day event. Bournemouth 7s Festival is a sports and music festival taking place in May each year. Hosting rugby, netball, hockey, dodgeball and volleyball tournaments, the event is a celebration of team sports in a festival atmosphere and was launched in 2008.

The town was especially rich in literary associations during the late 19th century and earlier years of the 20th century. P. C. Wren author of Beau Geste, Frederick E. Smith, writer of the 633 Squadron books, and Beatrice Webb, later Potter, all lived in the town. Paul Verlaine taught at a Bournemouth preparatory school and the writer J. R. R. Tolkien, spent 30 years taking holidays in Bournemouth, staying in the same room at the Hotel Miramar. He eventually retired to the area in the 1960s with his wife Edith, where they lived close to Branksome Chine. Tolkien died in September 1973 at his home in Bournemouth but was buried in Oxfordshire. The house was demolished in 2008.

Sir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet, lived at Boscombe Manor, a house he had built for his mother, Mary Shelley, the writer and author of the Gothic horror novel Frankenstein. Mary died before the house was completed but she was buried in Bournemouth, in accordance with her wishes. The family plot in St Peter's churchyard also contains her parents William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, and the heart of her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Robert Louis Stevenson wrote The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and most of his novel Kidnapped from his house "Skerryvore" on the west cliff, Westbourne. A novel of Stevenson's life while residing in Westbourne was written by Adelaide A. Boodle, who had met him there. Henry James, already acquainted with Stevenson through correspondence, and residing in Bournemouth in 1885 in large part because his invalid sister Alice lived there, visited Stevenson most evenings.

Vladimir Chertkov established a Tolstoyan publishing house with other Russian exiles at Tuckton, and under the 'Free Age Press' imprint, published the first edition of several works by Leo Tolstoy. In Roald Dahl's 1983 children's dark fantasy novel The Witches, the international conference of witches is set in a luxury hotel in Bournemouth. Author Bill Bryson worked for a time with the Bournemouth Echo newspaper and wrote about the town in his 1995 work Notes from a Small Island.

Landmarks
Bournemouth has many historic landmarks, mainly dating from the Victorian and Edwardian era. Bournemouth has three Grade I listed churches, St Peter's and St Stephen's in the town centre and St Clement's in Boscombe. St Peter's was the town's first church, completed in 1879 and designed by George Edmund Street. In his book, England's Thousand Best Churches, Simon Jenkins describes the chancel as "one of the richest Gothic Revival interiors in England", while the 202 ft spire dominates the surrounding skyline. When the architect, John Loughborough Pearson, designed St Stephen's his aim was to "bring people to their knees". It has a high stone groined roof, twin aisles and a triforium gallery, although the tower lacks a spire. Other listed churches include the Victorian St Mark's Church in the historic Talbot Village and the 12th-century St. Andrew's Church in Kinson. The borough has two piers: Bournemouth Pier, close to the town centre, and the shorter but architecturally more important Boscombe Pier. Designed by the architect Archibald Smith, Boscombe Pier opened in 1889 as a 600 ft structure which was extended to 750 ft in 1927 when a new head was constructed. Added in 1958, the boomerang-shaped entrance kiosk and overhanging concrete roof is now a Grade II listed building. In 1961 a theatre was added but this was demolished in 2008 when the rest of the pier was renovated. In 2009, fashion designer Wayne Hemingway described Boscombe Pier as "Britain's coolest pier". It was also voted Pier of the Year 2010 by the National Piers Society.

In 1856, Bournemouth Pier was a simple, wooden jetty. This was replaced by a longer, wooden pier five years later, and a cast-iron structure in 1880. Two extensions to the pier in 1894 and 1905, brought the total length to 305 m. After World War II, the structure was strengthened to allow for the addition of a Pier Theatre, finally constructed in 1960. This survived until the 2000s when it was turned into a climbing adventure centre. Between 1979 and 1981, a £1.7 million redevelopment programme, saw a great deal of reconstruction work, and the addition of a large two-storey, octagonal-shaped entrance building.

Built as the Mont Dore Hotel in 1881, Bournemouth Town Hall was designated a Grade II listed building in 2001. Designed by Alfred Bedborough in the French, Italian and neo-classical styles, the foundation stone was laid by King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway and the hotel opened in 1885. The buff brick exterior features Bath stone dressings and terracotta friezes. The main entrance is sited within a projected façade that reaches to the eaves and is topped with a pediment, while above sits a belvedere with turrets and a pavilion roof. During the First World War the hotel was used as a hospital for British and Indian soldiers and after as a convalescent home. It never opened as a hotel again and was purchased by Bournemouth Borough Council in 1919. Other Victorian hotels in Bournemouth include the Royal Bath Hotel in the Town Centre and the Norfolk Royale Hotel in Richmond Hill.

Built in the Art Deco style in 1929, situated close to the seafront, the Pavilion Theatre was at the time considered to be the greatest ever municipal enterprise for the benefit of entertainment. Built from brick and stone, the frontage features square Corinthian columns. Still a popular venue, it is today a Grade II listed building.

The Bournemouth Eye was a helium-filled balloon attached to a steel cable in the town's lower gardens. The spherical balloon was 69 m in circumference and carried an enclosed, steel gondola. Rising to a height of 150 m, it provided a panoramic view of the surrounding area for up to 28 passengers. After the balloon suffered damage in 2016, the Bournemouth Borough Council, Lower Central Gardens Trust and S&D Leisure announced in 2017 that the contract for operating the Bournemouth Eye would not be renewed due to "increased operating costs."

Bournemouth is known for having only one "street". This is Orchard Street, now a small alley between Commercial Road and Terrace Road. Originally named because it led to an orchard, it pre-dates the build up of the modern town. The 19th century developers thought that names such as Road, Avenue and Drive would be more suitable names, with Street associated with poorer areas of existing towns and cities.

Sport
The town has a professional football club, AFC Bournemouth, known as the Cherries, which play in the Premier League. AFC Bournemouth play at Dean Court near Boscombe in Kings' Park, 2 mi east of the town centre.

Bournemouth Rugby Club, which competes in the National League Division Two South, has its home at Bournemouth Sports Club. The sports club is next to Bournemouth Airport, and hosts an annual Bournemouth 7s Festival, the world's largest sport and music festival, combining Rugby sevens, netball, hockey, dodgeball and crossfit tournaments with festival entertainment. Oakmeadians RFC is the oldest RFU Accredited Rugby Club in Bournemouth, established in 1963.They train and play at Meyrick Park competing in the South West Division. Bournemouth Cricket Club also plays at Bournemouth Sports Club and is reported to be one of the biggest cricket clubs in the country. Its first team plays in the Southern Premier League. Dean Park is a former county cricket ground, once home to Hampshire County Cricket Club and later Dorset County Cricket Club. Today it is a venue for university cricket.

The BIC has become a venue for a round of the Premier League Darts Championship organised by the Professional Darts Corporation.

The Bournemouth Rowing Club, is the town's coastal rowing club. Established in 1865 as Westover and Bournemouth Rowing Club, it is reported to be the oldest sporting association in the county. The club regularly competes in regattas organised by the Hants and Dorset Amateur Rowing Association which take place on the South Coast of England between May and September.

Other watersports popular in Poole Bay include sailing and surfing, and there are a number of local schools for the beginner to learn either sport. Bournemouth has the third largest community of surfers in the UK and in 2009 an artificial surf reef, one of only four in the world, was constructed there. The reef failed to deliver the promised grade 5 wave, suffered a series of delays and ran over budget, finally costing £3.2 million.

The town is home to the Octopush (also known as underwater hockey) club: Bournemouth and Southampton Octopush Club. They train at Ringwood Leisure Centre (as well as Totton Health and Leisure Centre in Southampton. In the 2023 Nautilus Tournament, Bournemouth and Southampton OC finished 7th (out of 7) in Division 2.

Road
The principal route to the town centre is the A338 spur road, a dual carriageway that connects to the A31 close to the Hampshire border. The A31 joins the M27 at Cadnam and from there the M3 to London and the A34 to the Midlands and the North can be accessed. The main road west is the A35 to Honiton in Devon which runs through the South East Dorset Conurbation and continues east as far as Southampton, albeit as a non-primary route. The A350 in the neighbouring borough of Poole provides the only northern route out of the conurbation. National Express coaches serve Bournemouth Travel Interchange & Bournemouth University. There are frequent departures to London Victoria Coach Station and Heathrow and Gatwick Airports. Local buses are provided mainly by two companies, Wilts & Dorset, the former National Bus Company subsidiary and now owned by the Go-Ahead Group, and until they ceased operating on 4 August 2022 Yellow Buses, the former Bournemouth Council-owned company and successors to Bournemouth Corporation Transport, which began operating trams in 1902. Other operators serving the town include Damory Coaches, also owned by Go-Ahead Group and the Shaftesbury & District bus company.

Rail
There are two stations in the town; Bournemouth and Pokesdown to the east. Parts of western Bournemouth can also be reached from Branksome station. All three stations lie on the South West Main Line from Weymouth to London Waterloo. South Western Railway operates a comprehensive service along this line, which also serves Southampton, Winchester and Basingstoke to the east, and Poole, Wareham, and Dorchester South to the west. Before its closure in 1966, Bournemouth was also served by the Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway which provided direct access to Somerset and the Midlands.

Air
Originally an RAF airfield, Bournemouth Airport was transferred to the Civil Aviation Authority in 1944 and was the UK's only intercontinental airport before the opening of Heathrow Airport in 1946. Acquired by the Manchester Airports Group in 2001, the airport underwent a £45 million phased expansion programme between 2007 and 2011. Situated near the village of Hurn in Christchurch, Dorset, the airport is 7 km from Bournemouth town centre and serves around 600,000 passengers annually. There are direct flights to 23 international destinations in nine countries: Cyprus, Finland, Greece (3 destinations), Italy (4), Malta, Portugal, Spain (10), Switzerland and Turkey.

Education
The Bournemouth local education authority was first set up in 1903 and remained in existence until local government was reorganised in 1974 when Bournemouth lost its County Borough status and became part of the county of Dorset. Under the later reforms of 1997, Bournemouth became a unitary authority and the Bournemouth local education authority was re-established.

The local council operates a two-tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend one of the 26 primary schools in the borough before completing their education at secondary school. Bournemouth is one of the minority of local authorities in England still to maintain selective education, with two grammar schools (one for boys, one for girls) and ten secondary modern/comprehensive schools. There are also a small number of independent schools in the town. Bournemouth and Poole College offers further education, higher education and community courses. Bournemouth has two universities: Bournemouth University and Arts University Bournemouth, both of which are located across the boundary in neighbouring Poole. They are also home to AECC University College (formally known as Anglo European College of Chiropractic ), which is located on Parkwood Road in Bournemouth. In 2012, 60.7% of the borough's school leavers gained 5 GCSEs of grade C or above. This was slightly better than the national average of 59.4% and above the average for the rest of Dorset, with 58.8% of pupils from the local authority of Poole, and 54.1% from the remainder of the county, managing to do likewise.

Religion
The 2011 census revealed that 57.1% of the borough's population are Christian. With all other religions combined only totalling 4.7%, Christianity is by far the largest religious group. 40% of the borough falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury. The remainder, to the east, belongs to the Diocese of Winchester. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth incorporates most of Bournemouth with the exception of two small parishes to the west which are covered by the Diocese of Plymouth.

The borough has several notable examples of Victorian church architecture including the previously mentioned St. Peter's, the churchyard of which contains the grave of the author Mary Shelley; St Stephen's Church, completed in 1898 for services under the influence of the Oxford Movement and St Clement's, one of the first churches to be designed by John Dando Sedding, built in Boscombe in 1871. To serve a rapidly expanding population a third church was built in the town centre in 1891. St Augustin's church was commissioned by Henry Twells who was 'priest-in-charge' there until 1900. The largest church in the town is the Richmond Hill St Andrew's Church, part of the United Reformed Church. Built in 1865 and enlarged in 1891, it has a seating capacity of 1,100 and is unusually ornate for a non-conformist church.

Holy Trinity Church was built, at 161, Old Christchurch Road, in 1868-9 (tower added 1878) in Italian Romanesque style, designed by Cory & Ferguson of Carlisle; it was deconsecrated in 1973, and burnt down in 1979. The site now contains a modern office building named "Trinity".

Few purpose-built places of worship exist in the borough for faiths other than Christianity, although with a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average, there are three synagogues. Chabad-Lubavitch of Bournemouth is a branch of the worldwide movement. The Bournemouth Reform Synagogue, formerly known as Bournemouth New Synagogue, is a Reform Jewish synagogue with over 700 members. There is also the architecturally notable Bournemouth Hebrew Congregation synagogue built in 1911 with an Art Nouveau take on the Moorish Revival style. There are also two Christadelphian meeting halls in the town.

The Bournemouth Islamic Centre provides information, support and a place of worship for the Islamic community. There is also a mosque in the town.

Naming conventions
The word 'Bournemouth' is often used loosely to describe the South East Dorset conurbation, which also contains the neighbouring towns of Poole, Christchurch, Wimborne Minster, and Verwood. As a result, "Bournemouth" is used in the following terms:
 * Although it has a significant presence in Bournemouth town centre, Bournemouth University's main campus is located in Poole, on the boundary with Bournemouth.
 * Bournemouth Airport is located near Hurn in the borough of Christchurch, and was originally named RAF Hurn.
 * "Bournemouth Bay" is sometimes used for Poole Bay
 * The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra is now based in Poole.

Notable people

A number of famous people came from Bournemouth. Tony Hancock lived for most of his early life in hotels in Bournemouth run by his parents.

A number of actors came from Bournemouth, including Juliette Kaplan from the BBC comedy Last of the Summer Wine, Ray Lonnen from the series The Sandbaggers (1978–80), Alison Newman, actress who played Hazel Bailey in Footballers' Wives and DI Samantha Keeble in EastEnders. Jack Donnelly (born 1985) actor, played the role of Jason in the BBC series Atlantis and Sophie Rundle (born 1988) actress, portrayed Ada Shelby in the BBC One series Peaky Blinders and Ben Hardy (born 1991) actor, played Peter Beale in EastEnders. Renowned actors Christian Bale and Millie Bobby Brown both lived in Bournemouth for parts of their childhood.

Authors Radclyffe Hall (1880–1943) poet and author, who wrote The Well of Loneliness a groundbreaking work in lesbian literature came from Bournemouth and Dilys Powell (1901–1995) journalist, film critic of The Sunday Times for over fifty years went to school there. Patrick Ensor (1946–2007) editor of Guardian Weekly from 1993 to 2007 also came from Bournemouth.

Bournemouth has been home to a number of musicians, including Andy Summers, the renowned musician from the globally acclaimed band, The Police, who was born on 31 December 1942, and spent his formative years in Bournemouth. Summers discovered his passion for music there and honed his skills on the guitar playing with local bands. His musical journey led him to The Police, where his intricate guitar work became iconic. Additionally, Summers enjoyed a successful solo career, blending rock, jazz, and world music in his critically acclaimed solo albums. Collaborations with fellow Bournemouth native Robert Fripp showcased his virtuosity and artistic prowess that also spans other artistic disciplines - film composing, writing, film making, and photography. Max Bygraves (1922–2012) comedian, singer, actor and variety performer. The composer Sir Hubert Parry (1848–1918) was born in Bournemouth. One of Britain's most prolific composers of choral music he is probably best known for his setting to William Blake's words of Jerusalem. Alex James, best known as the bassist of the rock band Blur, attended Bournemouth School before moving to London. The rock band King Crimson included many musicians from Bournemouth including brothers Michael Giles (drums) and Peter Giles (bass).

Bournemouth has been the home of sporting world champions: Freddie Mills (1919–1965), who won the World Light Heavyweight title in 1948. Another famous sportsman, the athlete Charles Bennett (1870–1948), lived in the town after he retired. Bennett, was the first British track and field athlete to become Olympic Champion, winning two gold medals and a silver at the Paris Games in 1900. The tennis player and Wimbledon Championships winner Virginia Wade was born in Bournemouth. Colonel Edmond Cotter, a runner-up player for the Royal Engineers team in the inaugural 1872 FA Cup Final, and later in life an Irish Republican, died at Bournemouth in 1934.

Three recipients of the Victoria Cross (VC) came from Bournemouth. Frederick Charles Riggs (1888–1918), Cecil Noble (1891–1915), and Lieutenant Colonel Derek Anthony Seagrim  (1903–1943),  In addition five recipients of the VC died in Bournemouth - General Sir Reginald Hart (1848–1931),  Royal Navy Staff-Surgeon William Job Maillard (1863–1903), Second-Lieutenant Alfred Oliver Pollard (1893–1960), Joseph John Davies (1889–1976) and James Welch (1889–1978).

A distinguished resident of Bournemouth was Sir Donald Coleman Bailey, (1901–1985) a civil engineer who invented the Bailey bridge. Bailey was knighted in 1946 for his bridge design when he was living in Southbourne in Bournemouth. The heart of Percy Bysshe Shelley, together with Mary Shelley and her mother Mary Wollstonecraft and father William Godwin, are all buried at St Peter's Church, Bournemouth. Percy's and Mary's son, Sir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet, lived at Boscombe Manor, now the Shelley Manor Medical Centre, and is also buried in the same vault at St Peter's.

Twin towns
Bournemouth is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇱 Netanya, Israel
 * Lucerne, Switzerland

Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Bournemouth.

Individuals

 * Lord Roberts of Kandahar: 7 October 1902.
 * Sir Winston Churchill.
 * Sir Geoffrey Hurst.
 * Sir Christopher Hoy.
 * Bob Geldof.
 * Eddie Howe: 5 March 2019.

Military Units

 * The Royal Hampshire Regiment: 13 September 1945.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bournemouth


text:
Leasowe Lighthouse

Leasowe Lighthouse is a historic lighthouse in Moreton on the Wirral Peninsula in Merseyside, England. The lighthouse was built in 1763 by The Mersey Docks and Harbour Company to guide shipping safely to the Port of Liverpool and is the oldest lighthouse built from bricks in the United Kingdom. The lighthouse became obsolete and was closed in 1908. The last lighthouse keeper was a Mrs. Williams, the only known female lighthouse keeper of the period.

History
An Act of Parliament passed in 1761 allowed the Liverpool Docks Trustees to build four lighthouses. Two were built at Moreton. These were the Upper Mockbeggar Light and Lower Mockbeggar Light. When lined up, these allowed for safe passage through "Rock Channel" to the Port of Liverpool. The former is now known as Leasowe Lighthouse, while the latter was built one quarter of a mile into the sea and was destroyed by a storm in 1769, with its replacement, Bidston Lighthouse, built in 1771 on Bidston Hill. The other two lighthouses permitted by the Act were built at Hoylake (the name Hoylake was derived from Hoyle Lake, the name of a channel of water between Hilbre Island and Dove Point, Meols ) to facilitate safe access into the Hoyle Lake anchorage. Protected by a wide sandbank known as Hoyle Bank and with a water depth of about 20 feet, it provided a safe anchorage for ships.

Leasowe Lighthouse was in use until 14 July 1908; by this time, the sand banks had shifted so much that Rock Channel was barely navigable, rendering the lighthouse obsolete. The lighthouse was a place of work and also a home. The last lighthouse keeper was a Mrs. Williams, the only known female lighthouse keeper in this period. Upon its closure as a lighthouse, Williams moved into a cottage but kept the lighthouse open as a tearoom during the summer months. In 1930, the lighthouse was bought by the Wallasey Corporation, in 1935 Williams died and the building was closed. The lighthouse was listed as a historic Grade II building with Historic England in 1952. A period of disrepair ensued and the lighthouse became derelict. It was then restored by a community group called "The Friends of Leasowe Lighthouse".

Construction
The lighthouse is a tapering cylindrical design that is one hundred and one feet tall with cavity walls that are several feet thick and a plain balcony. The construction used 660,000 hand-made bricks. It has seven floors. The original wooden staircase was replaced in 1898, with one made of cast iron that has one hundred and thirty steps. The light was originally coal-fired, but in 1772 changed to oil burning. Robert Stevenson said in 1801, while on his lighthouse tour, that the tower had "one reflector of silvered glass 7½ feet in diameter and 13 inches focal distance". Later, in 1861, it was reportedly equipped with eight Argand lamps and reflectors. It was staffed by a keeper and an assistant, who resided in the tower.

Location
The lighthouse is on Moreton Common near Mockbeggar Wharf. The Wharf takes its name from Mockbeggar Hall, which is an alternative name for the nearby Leasowe Castle. The area is in the North Wirral Coastal Park and used for recreational purposes such as walking and bird watching.

Facilities
The lighthouse is a community facility that is used as a location for numerous activities and is used by the ranger service of the North Wirral Coastal Park. It is used for charity abseiling events and paranormal visits, as well as for a meeting place for running groups. It has also been used by film and television companies. The lighthouse has a small visitor centre and is a focal location on the North Wirral Coastal Park. It is open on the first and third Sunday of every month for visits.

title: Leasowe Lighthouse


text:
Leasowe

Leasowe is a village in the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, Merseyside, England. Located on the north coast of the Wirral Peninsula, it is approximately 2 mi to the west of Wallasey.

Historically within Cheshire, Leasowe was part of the old County Borough of Wallasey. It is now within the Leasowe and Moreton East Ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral. Leasowe is also part of the parliamentary constituency of Wallasey.

At the 2001 census, Leasowe had a population of 6,180. By the time of the 2011 census specific figures for Leasowe were no longer maintained. The total population of the Leasowe and Moreton East Ward was 14,640.

History
The name 'Leasowe' comes from the Anglo-Saxon Leasowes or 'Meadow Pastures'. Its sand dunes are the largest such system on the Wirral. Much of the area is at or below sea level and is protected by the coastal embankment. Houses built in the early 20th century were often flooded and unsanitary, but after about 1926, new roads and drainage were put in by the Borough Council, and much new housing was developed. Along the embankment between Leasowe and Moreton are the remains of fortifications built during the Second World War.

The world's first passenger hovercraft service operated in 1961–62. The service travelled from Moreton Common, and was advertised as between Wallasey and Rhyl in North Wales. However, the service was not profitable and soon ceased.

Geography
The River Fender merges with the Birket at Leasowe. The Birket then continues towards West Float at the site of the former Wallasey Pool.

Solar School
The Solar Campus, on Leasowe Road, is the former St Georges Secondary School, and is the site of the Solar Building, the first building in the world to be heated entirely by solar energy. At 53.4°N, it is also the most northerly. The school was built in 1955 in the contemporary style as the St Georges Secondary School for Girls, but in 1958 it was decided to admit boys as well, requiring a doubling in capacity. This was met by putting up a new block, now known as the Solar Building, to a design by Emslie Morgan, the Assistant Borough Architect, who spent a lifetime looking into ways of harnessing the sun's rays. His design featured a high south-facing solar wall, largely of glass, to absorb the sun's warmth, a sloping well-insulated roof, and a low blind north-facing wall backing the buildings corridor. The solar wall is built of glass leaves two feet apart: These draw the ultra violet rays from sunshine and reflect them around the walls of the classrooms. The walls become warm and heat the air. Hardly any warmth escapes through the school's massively thick roof and walls covered with slabs of plastic foam. On the coldest days it is always 60 °F inside, and in summer the school is cooler than its more conventional neighbours, for panels inside the glass wall can be turned to deflect heat or absorb it.

A secondary, small single-pipe heating system was installed to give additional heating on cold winter days with very few hours of sunlight, but by 1966 it had never been used, and was dismantled. The Liverpool Echo reported in 1963 that during the previous winter temperatures never dropped below 60 F, while in the summer it was cooler than the older part of the school.

The property is Grade II listed and is maintained by the Children & Young People's Department of the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral,

Leasowe Castle
Leasowe Castle may have been built for Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby – a patron of Shakespeare – in 1593, possibly (though this is disputed) as an observation platform for the Wallasey races which took place on the sands in the 16th and 17th centuries, and which are regarded as a forerunner of the Derby races. Ferdinando's brother William, the 6th Earl, was described as a noted sportsman and is remembered as a keen supporter of the Wallasey races.

At first the castle consisted only of an octagonal tower. This had become disused by 1700, and it became known as "Mockbeggar Hall", a term often used for an ornate but derelict building. The term "Mockbeggar Wharf" is still used for the adjoining foreshore. The "Mockbeggar Hall" is also the name of a Wetherspoons pub in neighbouring Moreton.

In 1821 ownership passed to the Cust family. After 1826 the building was used as a hotel for some years. The ceiling of the Star Chamber at the Palace of Westminster was brought to the castle in 1836 along with panelling and other furnishings; they had been salvaged from the old Palace of Westminster before the Star Chamber was demolished in an 1806 building project. The Star Chamber was so called because the ceiling was decorated with bright stars. The ceiling and four tapestries depicting the four seasons still remain. Oak panelling from the Star Chamber and some made from the submerged forest along the coast were also installed. However the oak panels were removed in 1893.

Between 1911 and 1970, it became a railway convalescent home, and between 1974 and 1980 it was owned by Wirral Borough Council. It reopened as a hotel in December 1982, and was acquired by Lawton Hotels Ltd in 2000. The hotel is now a popular venue for weddings and other family functions, with around 50 bedrooms. Leasowe castle is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building.

Leasowe Lighthouse
Leasowe Lighthouse was built in 1763 by Liverpool Corporation's Docks Committee (the forerunner of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board) and is the oldest brick-built lighthouse in Britain. According to local tradition its foundations were built on bales of cotton from a nearby shipwreck. Around 1763, William Hutchinson installed what may have been the first parabolic reflector in a lighthouse. The lighthouse was one of four lights on the North Wirral foreshore, the others being two at Hoylake and another – a lower light – at Leasowe. The latter was soon destroyed by the sea and was replaced by a lighthouse on Bidston Hill in 1771.

The lighthouse was operational until 14 July 1908, with the only known female lighthouse keeper in those days, a Mrs. Williams. It then became a tearoom for a period, but was unused before 1989, since when it has been the base for the ranger service of the North Wirral Coastal Park. The lighthouse is a Grade II listed building and houses a visitor centre which is occasionally open to the public.

Leasowe Hospital
Leasowe Hospital or; The Leasowe Sanatorium For Crippled Children and Hospital for Tuberculosis, to give its full and original name, later became known as the Liverpool Open-Air Hospital, Leasowe, and finally Leasowe Hospital.

To tell the story of the hospital, one name above all stands out and that is Margaret Beavan (1877–1931). She was the driving force, admired by all, she was known affectionately as the 'Little Mother of Liverpool', also not quite as complimentary – the 'Mighty Atom' and 'Clever Beggar'.

The first mention of a Sanatorium for children with Tuberculosis occurred on 16 December 1911. Slowly Leasowe Hospital changed from being principally a children's T.B. hospital to one for dealing with burns and skin grafts, and then arthritis until its closure in 1979. Another name closely associated with 'Leasowe'; amongst others, is that of (the late) Dr T.R. Littler, Consultant Rheumatologist, who was devoted to Leasowe. Leasowe Hospital was eventually bought by the Wirral Christian Centre in 1981 and was used later as a retirement home and handicap centre. After failing to make that facility work the buildings were eventually repossessed then later demolished around 2002–03. Luxury flats and houses have since been built on the site.

Notable staff at Leasowe Hospital

 * Edith Marie Tucker (1876- ), Matron of the new hospital building from 1915 to 1919. Tucker trained at The London Hospital under Matron Eva Luckes between 1904 and 1906.  After her training Tucker remained at the London as a staff nurse, then gained promotion to sister working as holiday sister, night sister, in Outpatients department and in Matron's Office until she was seconded to head a party of London Hospital nurses to the Balkan Wars between 1912 and 1913.
 * Charlotte Hughes (1883–1961), Matron 1919- 1943.  Hughes also trained at The London Hospital between 1906 and 1908. After her training Hughes remained at The London working in various departments including the Private Nursing Institute, as a ward staff nurse, and pupil (student) Midwife, before being promoted to holiday sister, then ward sister.  Hughes was in charge of both the TB hospital and adjacent Liverpool Babies Hospital, comprising over 300 beds. In 1927 Hughes wrote an article about Orthopaedic Nursing. Whilst she was Matron at Leasowe, one of Hughes's ward sister's married, and Hughes 'gave the bride away.' Probationer nurses trained for two years at Leasowe in the nursing care of children with Surgical Tuberculosis.

Transport
Leasowe railway station is situated on the Wirral Line of the Merseyrail network.

Governance
Leasowe is part of the Wallasey parliamentary constituency and represented by Angela Eagle MP.

The majority of the Leasowe area is governed locally as part of the Leasowe & Moreton East ward, which takes in the Leasowe housing estate, developments along Leasowe Road and East Moreton. Between 2008 and 2014, one of the councillors was Ian Lewis – the first-ever Conservative councillor to represent the area on Wirral Council. The most recent local elections took place on 6 May 2021, with the ward being represented by three Labour Party councillors.

Notable people

 * Malcolm Lowry, English writer, born in Leasowe.
 * Shirley Ballas (Head Judge on Strictly Come Dancing) 2017-

title: Leasowe


text:
Muretus

Muretus is the Latinized name of Marc Antoine Muret (12 April 1526 – 4 June 1585), a French humanist who was among the revivers of a Ciceronian Latin style and is among the usual candidates for the best Latin prose stylist of the Renaissance.

Biography
He was born at Muret near Limoges. At the age of eighteen he attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at the College of Guienne, Bordeaux, where his Latin tragedy Julius Caesar was presented. Some time before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the Collège du Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which drew a large audience, King Henry II and his queen being among his hearers. In Paris he formed part of the larger circle of humanists and poets that included Jean Dorat and Pierre de Ronsard. He wrote almost exclusively in Latin: epigrams, odes, satires and letters, which were widely circulated before they were printed. His orations remained models for students through the eighteenth century.

His success made him many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a charge of homosexuality, but released by the intervention of powerful friends. The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as sodomite (1554).

After a wandering and insecure life of some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of the Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In 1561 Muretus revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held at Poissy.

He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained him a European reputation, and in 1578 he received a tempting offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence in his new college at Kraków. Muretus, however, who about 1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of Gregory XIII to remain in Rome, where he died.

Muretus edited a number of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae.

Works

 * Two volumes of Scripta selecta, edited by J. Frey, 1871.
 * Variae lectiones, edited by Friedrich August Wolf and J. H. Fasi, 1791–1828.
 * The Iuvenilia of Marc-Antoine Muret, edited and translated by Kirk. M. Summers, Columbus, OH: 2006

Complete editions

 * Editio princeps, Verona (1727-1730). There were further editions of Muretus edited by David Ruhnken (1789) and by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841).

On-line

 * Julius Caesar Muretus' Senecan tragedy, printed in 1591 (Latin text)

title: Muretus


text:
List of Dreamcast games

The Dreamcast (ドリームキャスト) is a home video game console developed and sold by Sega. The first of the sixth generation of video game consoles, it was released in Japan on November 27, 1998, in North America on September 9, 1999, and in Europe on October 14, 1999. The fifth and final home console produced by Sega, the Dreamcast is the successor to the Sega Saturn, whose commercial failure prompted the company to release it only four years after its predecessor's initial release.

All licensed games for the Dreamcast were released on the GD-ROM format, a proprietary CD-based optical disc format jointly developed by Sega and Yamaha Corporation that was capable of storing up to 1 GB of data. The Dreamcast itself features regional lockout. While the higher-capacity DVD-ROM format was available during the console's development, its then-fledgling technology was deemed too expensive to implement at the time, which resulted in ramifications for Sega when competitors such as Sony's PlayStation 2 came to market; the Dreamcast was unable to offer DVD movie playback when the general public began switching from VHS to DVD, and its games were unable to take advantage of the DVD's higher storage capacity and lower cost. Furthermore, an exploit in the console's copy protection system via its support for the little-used MIL-CD format effectively allowed users to play many games burned onto CD-Rs, without any hardware modifications.

The Dreamcast's initial release in Japan had four launch titles, which were Virtua Fighter 3tb, Pen Pen TriIcelon, Godzilla Generations, and July. The North American debut featured 19 launch titles, which included highly anticipated ones such as Sonic Adventure, Soulcalibur, and NFL 2K. The European introduction was originally going to feature 10 launch titles, but the list increased to 15 as its delay from the original September 23 launch date allowed the inclusion of a handful of additional titles. Due to the similarity of the Dreamcast's hardware with Sega's own New Arcade Operation Machine Idea (NAOMI) arcade board, it saw several near-identical ports of arcade games. Plus, since the Dreamcast's hardware used parts similar to those found in personal computers (PCs) of the era, specifically ones with Pentium II and III processors, it also saw a handful of ports of PC games. American third-party publisher Electronic Arts, which had extensively supported Sega's prior consoles beginning with the Sega Genesis, elected not to develop games for the Dreamcast due to a dispute with Sega over licensing.

Sega discontinued the Dreamcast's hardware in March 2001, and software support quickly dwindled as a result. Software largely trickled to a stop by 2002, though the Dreamcast's final licensed game on GD-ROM was Karous, released only in Japan on March 8, 2007, nearly coinciding with the end of GD-ROM production the previous month. The final first-party game for the Dreamcast was Puyo Puyo Fever, released as a Japanese exclusive on February 24, 2004.

This list documents all games officially released for the Dreamcast. It does not include homebrew games, which are documented at the list of Dreamcast homebrew games, and does not include any cancelled games, which are documented at the list of cancelled Dreamcast games.

Games
There are  games that are known to have released on the console:

title: List of Dreamcast games


text:
Julius Caesar Scaliger

Julius Caesar Scaliger (23 April 1484 – 21 October 1558), or Giulio Cesare della Scala, was an Italian scholar and physician, who spent a major part of his career in France. He employed the techniques and discoveries of Renaissance humanism to defend Aristotelianism against the New Learning. In spite of his contentious disposition, his contemporary reputation was high. Jacques Auguste de Thou claimed that none of the ancients could be placed above him and that he had no equal in his own time.

Biography
Scaliger's father, Benedetto Bordone, was a miniaturist and illuminator. Scaliger himself was known in his youth by the family name Bordone, but later insisted that he was a scion of the house of La Scala, for a hundred and fifty years lords of Verona. He was born in Padua on 23 August 1484, though his son later claimed that he was born at the Rocca di Riva, on Lake Garda.

There are two accounts of his life, his own and that of his critics.

His own account
When he was twelve, his kinsman the emperor Maximilian placed him among his pages. He remained for seventeen years in the service of the emperor, distinguishing himself as a soldier and as a captain. He studied art under Albrecht Dürer.

In 1512 at the Battle of Ravenna, where his father and elder brother were killed, his conduct earned him Order of the Golden Spur, augmented with the collar and the eagle of gold.

He left the service of Maximilian, and after a brief employment by another kinsman, the duke of Ferrara, he decided to quit the military life, and in 1514 entered as a student at the University of Bologna. He decided to take holy orders, expecting that he would become cardinal, and then pope, when he would wrest from the Venetians his duchy of Verona, which the republic had taken from his ancestors. He soon gave up this plan, but remained at the university until 1519.

The next six years he passed at the castle of Vico Nuovo, in Piedmont, as a guest of the Della Rovere, at first dividing his time between military expeditions in the summer, and study, chiefly of medicine and natural history, in the winter, until a severe attack of rheumatic gout brought his military career to a close.

Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In 1525 he accompanied Antonio della Rovera, bishop of Agen, to that city as his physician.

Later account
It was not until some time after his death that the enemies of his son first alleged that he was not of the family of La Scala, but was the son of Benedetto Bordone, an illuminator or schoolmaster of Verona; that he was educated at Padua, where he took the degree of M.D.; and that the story of his life before arriving at Agen was pure invention. It is supported by no other evidence than his own statements, some of which are inconsistent with well-ascertained facts.

Life at Agen
The remaining thirty-two years of his life were passed almost wholly at Agen. On his death in 1558 he had a high scientific and literary reputation, though his books gave rise to disputes. He was charged with heresy in 1538 but was acquitted, one of the judges being his friend Arnoul Le Ferron.

Works
In 1531 he printed his first oration against Erasmus, in defence of Cicero and the Ciceronians (Oratio pro Cicerone contra Erasmum, Paris 1531), dismissing Erasmus as a literary parasite, a mere corrector of texts. It is notable for its vigorous invective and, like his subsequent writings, its excellent Latin. It has been said of it, however, that it misses the point of his opponent's treatise Ciceronianus. Erasmus did not reply, thinking it was the work of a personal enemy, Meander. Scaliger then wrote a second oration (published in 1536), also full of invective. The orations were followed by a large amount of Latin verse, which appeared in successive volumes in 1533, 1534, 1539, 1546 and 1547. This verse appeared in numerous editions, but was less appreciated by later critics. (One of them, Mark Pattison, agreed with the judgment of Pierre Daniel Huet, who said: "par ses poésies brutes et informes Scaliger a déshonoré le Parnasse".) He also published a brief tract on comic metres (De comicis dimensionibus) and a work De causis linguae Latinae (Lyons 1540; Geneva 1580; Frankfurt 1623), in which he analyzes the style of Cicero and indicates 634 mistakes of Lorenzo Valla and his humanist predecessors, claimed to be the earliest Latin grammar using scientific principles and method. He published no other purely literary works in his lifetime.

His Poetices libri septem ("Seven books on Poetics", Lyons 1561; Leyden 1581) appeared after his death. They contained many paradoxes and some elements of personal animosity (especially in his reference to Etienne Dolet), but also contain acute criticism based on the Poetics of Aristotle, "imperator noster; omnium bonarum artium dictator perpetuus" ("our Emperor, dictator forever of all good qualities in the arts"), an influential treatise in the history of literary criticism. Like many of his generation Scaliger prized Virgil above Homer. His praise of the tragedies of Seneca over those of the Greeks influenced both Shakespeare and Pierre Corneille.

Scaliger intended to be judged primarily as a philosopher and a man of science and regarded classical studies as a means of relaxation. He was noted for his powers of observation and his tenacious memory. His scientific writings are all in the form of commentaries. It was not until he was seventy that (with the exception of a brief tract on the De insomniis of Hippocrates) he felt that any of them were ready for publication. In 1556 he printed his Dialogue on the De plantis attributed to Aristotle, and in 1557 his Exotericarum exercitationum ("Exoteric Exercises", or simply Exercitationes) on Gerolamo Cardano's De Subtilitate. His other scientific works, commentaries on Theophrastus' De causis plantarum and Aristotle's History of Animals, he left in a more or less unfinished state, and they were not printed until after his death.

His work shows no sign of the inductive reasoning attributed to the scientific method. Unlike his contemporary Konrad von Gesner, he was not led by his botanical studies to a natural system of classification. He rejected the discoveries of Copernicus. He was guided by Aristotle in metaphysics and in natural history and by Galen in medicine, but did not follow them uncritically.

He is best known for his critical Exotericarum Exercitationes on Cardan's De Subtilitate (1557), a book approaching natural philosophy and which had a long popularity. The Exercitationes display encyclopaedic knowledge and accurate observation; but, as noted by Gabriel Naudé, they are not flawless. They had an influence upon natural historians, philosophers and scientists such as Lipsius, Francis Bacon, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Johannes Kepler. Charles Nisard wrote that Scaliger's object seems to be to deny all that Cardan affirms and to affirm all that Cardan denies. Yet Leibniz and Sir William Hamilton recognize him as the best modern exponent of the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle.

Family
A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell in love with an orphan of thirteen, Andiette de Roques Lobejac; she was a distant relative of the aristocratic house of Rochepozay (also Roche-Pozay or Roche-Posay), associates of Jacques Auguste de Thou, one of Scaliger's close friends and supporters. Her friends objected to her marriage, as he was then undistinguished. By 1528 he was a successful physician and at forty-five he married Andiette, who was then sixteen. The marriage lasted for twenty-nine years and produced fifteen children, including Joseph Justus Scaliger.

Honours
In 1829, botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle published Scaligeria, a genus of flowering plants from Europe and Asia, belonging to the family Apiaceae and named in Julius Caesar Scaliger's honour.

title: Julius Caesar Scaliger