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Kinescope

Kinescope, shortened to kine , also known as telerecording in Britain, is a recording of a television program on motion picture film, directly through a lens focused on the screen of a video monitor. The process was pioneered during the 1940s for the preservation, re-broadcasting and sale of television programs before the introduction of quadruplex videotape, which from 1956 eventually superseded the use of kinescopes for all of these purposes. Kinescopes were the only practical way to preserve live television broadcasts prior to videotape.

Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure (a movie camera mounted in front of a video monitor, and synchronized to the monitor's scanning rate), or a film made using the process. Film recorders are similar, but record source material from a computer system instead of a television broadcast. A telecine is the inverse device, used to show film directly on television.

The term originally referred to the cathode ray tube (CRT) used in television receivers, as named by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1929. Hence, the recordings were known in full as kinescope films or kinescope recordings. RCA was granted a trademark for the term (for its CRT) in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.

History
The General Electric laboratories in Schenectady, New York experimented with making still and motion picture records of television images in 1931.

There is anecdotal evidence that the BBC experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was suspended in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. A BBC executive, Cecil Madden, recalled filming a production of The Scarlet Pimpernel in this way, only for film director Alexander Korda to order the burning of the negative as he owned the film rights to the book, which he felt had been infringed. While there is no written record of any BBC Television production of The Scarlet Pimpernel during 1936–1939, the incident is dramatized in Jack Rosenthal's 1986 television play The Fools on the Hill.

Some of the surviving live transmissions of the Nazi German television station Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow, dating as far back as the 1930s, were recorded by pointing a 35 mm camera to a receiver's screen, although most surviving Nazi live television programs such as the 1936 Summer Olympics (not to be confused with the cinematic footage made during the same event by Leni Riefenstahl for her film Olympia), a number of Nuremberg Rallies, or official state visits (such as Benito Mussolini's) were shot directly on 35 mm instead and transmitted over the air as a television signal, with only a two minutes' delay from the original event, by means of the so-called Zwischenfilmverfahren (see intermediate film system) from an early outside broadcast van on the site.

According to a 1949 film produced by RCA, silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were produced by aiming a camera at television monitors – at a speed of eight frames per second, resulting in somewhat jerky reproductions of the images. By the mid-1940s, RCA and NBC were refining the filming process and including sound; the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy.

By early 1946, television cameras were being attached to American guided missiles to aid in their remote steering. Films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missile's performance.

The first known surviving example of the telerecording process in Britain is from October 1947, showing the singer Adelaide Hall performing at the RadiOlympia event. Hall sings "Chi-Baba, Chi-Baba (My Bambino Go to Sleep)" and "I Can't Give You Anything But Love", as well as accompanying herself on ukulele and dancing. When the show was originally broadcast on BBC TV it was 60 minutes in length and also included performances from Winifred Atwell, Evelyn Dove, Cyril Blake and his Calypso Band, Edric Connor and Mable Lee, and was produced by Eric Fawcett. The six-minute footage of Miss Hall is all that survives of the show.

From the following month, the wedding of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Philip also survives, as do various early 1950s productions such as It is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer, The Lady from the Sea and the opening two episodes of The Quatermass Experiment, although in varying degrees of quality. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 coronation also exists.

Worldwide program distribution
In the era before satellite communications, kinescopes were used to distribute live events such as a royal wedding as quickly as possible to other countries of the Commonwealth that had started a television service. A Royal Air Force aircraft would fly the telerecording from the UK to Canada, where it would be broadcast over the whole North American network.

Prior to the introduction of videotape in 1956, kinescopes were the only way to record television broadcasts, or to distribute network television programs that were broadcast live from originating cities to stations not connected to the network, or to stations that wished to show a program at a time different than the network broadcast. Although the quality was less than desirable, television programs of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner.

Even after the introduction of videotape, the BBC and the ITV companies made black and white kinescopes of selected programs for international sales and continued to do so until the early 1970s by which time programs were being videotaped in color. Most, if not all, recordings from the 405-line era have long since been lost as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently, the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, and a number thereafter, do so in the form of these telerecordings. A handful of shows, including some episodes of Doctor Who and most of the first series of Adam Adamant Lives!, were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped.

Eastman Television Recording Camera
In September 1947, Eastman Kodak introduced the Eastman Television Recording Camera, in cooperation with DuMont Laboratories and NBC, for recording images from a television screen under the trademark "Kinephoto". NBC, CBS, and DuMont set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while ABC chose Chicago. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16 mm kinescope prints each week to their affiliates across the United States, and by 1955 that number had increased to 2,500 per week for CBS. By 1954 the television industry's film consumption surpassed that of all of the Hollywood studios combined.

Hot kinescope
After the network of coaxial cable and microwave relays carrying programs to the West Coast was completed in September 1951, CBS and NBC instituted a hot kinescope process in 1952, where shows being performed in New York were transmitted west, filmed on two kinescope machines in 35 mm negative and 16 mm reversal film (the latter for backup protection) in Los Angeles, rushed to film processing, and then transmitted from Los Angeles three hours later for broadcast in the Pacific Time Zone. In September 1956, NBC began making color hot kines of some of its color programs using a lenticular film process which, unlike color negative film, could be processed rapidly using standard black-and-white methods. They were called hot kines because the film reels being delivered from the lab were still warm from the developing process.

Double system editing
Even after the introduction of quadruplex videotape machines in 1956 removed the need for hot kines, the television networks continued to use kinescopes in the double system method of videotape editing. It was impossible to slow or freeze frame a videotape at that time, so the unedited tape would be copied to a kinescope, and edited conventionally. The edited kinescope print was then used to conform the videotape master. More than 300 videotaped network series and specials used this method over a 12-year period, including the fast-paced Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In.

Alternatives to kinescoping
With the variable quality of Kinescopes, networks looked towards alternative methods to replace them with a higher degree of quality.

Change to 35 mm film broadcasts
Programs originally shot with film cameras (as opposed to kinescopes) were also used in television's early years, although they were generally considered inferior to the big-production live programs because of their lower budgets and loss of immediacy.

In 1951, the stars and producers of the Hollywood-based television series I Love Lucy, Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball, decided to film the show directly onto 35 mm film using the three-camera system, instead of broadcasting it live. Normally, a live program originating from Los Angeles would be performed live in the late afternoon for the Eastern Time Zone and seen on a kinescope three hours later in the Pacific Time Zone. But as an article in American Cinematographer explained, "In the beginning there was a very definite reason for the decision of Desilu Productions to put I Love Lucy on film instead of doing it live and having kinescope recordings carry it to affiliate outlets of the network. The company was not satisfied with the quality of kinescopes. It saw that film, produced especially for television, was the only means of ensuring top quality pictures on the home receiver as well as ensuring a flawless show." The I Love Lucy decision introduced reruns to most of the American television audience, and set a pattern for the syndication of TV shows after their network runs.

Electronicam
The program director of the DuMont Television Network, James L. Caddigan, devised an alternative – the Electronicam. In this, all the studio TV cameras had built-in 35 mm film cameras which shared the same optical path. An Electronicam technician threw switches to mark the film footage electronically, identifying the camera takes called by the director. The corresponding film segments from the various cameras then were combined by a film editor to duplicate the live program. The "Classic 39" syndicated episodes of The Honeymooners were filmed using Electronicam (as well as the daily five-minute syndicated series  Les Paul & Mary Ford At Home in 1954–55), but with the introduction of a practical videotape recorder only one year away, the Electronicam system never saw widespread use. The DuMont network did not survive into the era of videotape, and in order to gain clearances for its programs, was heavily dependent on kinescopes, which it called Teletranscriptions.

Electronovision
Attempts were made for many years to take television images, convert them to film via kinescope, then project them in theatres for paying audiences. In the mid-1960s, Producer/entrepreneur H. William "Bill" Sargent, Jr. used conventional analog Image Orthicon video camera tube units, shooting in the B&W 819-line interlaced 25fps French video standard, using modified high-band quadruplex VTRs to record the signal. The promoters of Electronovision (not to be confused with Electronicam) gave the impression that this was a new system created from scratch, using a high-tech name (and avoiding the word kinescope) to distinguish the process from conventional film photography. Nonetheless, the advances in picture quality were, at the time, a major step ahead. By capturing more than 800 lines of resolution at 25 frame/s, raw tape could be converted to film via kinescope recording with sufficient enhanced resolution to allow big-screen enlargement. The 1960s productions used Marconi image orthicon video cameras, which have a characteristic white glow around black objects (and a corresponding black glow around white objects), which was a defect of the pick-up. Later vidicon and plumbicon video camera tubes produced much cleaner, more accurate pictures.

Videotape
In 1951, singer Bing Crosby’s company Bing Crosby Enterprises made the first experimental magnetic video recordings; however, the poor picture quality and very high tape speed meant it would be impractical to use. In 1956, Ampex introduced the first commercial Quadruplex videotape recorder, followed in 1958 by a colour model. Offering high quality and instant playback at a much lower cost, Quadruplex tape quickly replaced kinescope as the primary means of recording television broadcasts.

Decline
In the late 1960s, U.S. television networks continued to make kinescopes of their daytime dramas available, many of which still aired live during that time period, for their smaller network affiliates that did not yet have videotape capability but wished to time-shift the network programming. Some of these programs aired up to two weeks after their original dates, particularly in Alaska and Hawaii. Many episodes of programs from the 1960s survive only through kinescoped copies.

In Australia, kinescopes were still being made of some evening news programs as late as 1977, if they were recorded at all. A recording of a 1975 episode of Australian series This Day Tonight is listed on the National Archives of Australia website as a kinescope, while surviving episodes of the 1978 drama series The Truckies also exist as kinescopes, indicating that the technology was still being used by the ABC at that point.

Until the early 1960s, much of the BBC's output, and British television in general, was broadcast live, and entire drama productions were performed live for a second time until recording methods improved. Eventually, telerecordings would be used to preserve a program for repeat showings. In the UK, telerecordings continued to be made after the introduction of commercial broadcast videotape in 1958 as they possessed several distinct advantages. Firstly, they were easier to transport and more durable than videotape. Secondly, they could be used in any country regardless of the television broadcasting standard, which was not true of videotape. Later, the system could be used to make black-and-white copies of color programs for sale to television stations that were not yet broadcasting in color.

The system was largely used for black-and-white reproduction. Although some color telerecordings were made, they were generally in the minority as by the time color programs were widely needed for sale, video standards conversion was easier and higher quality and the price of videotape had become much reduced. Before videotape became the exclusive recording format during the early to mid-1980s, any (color) video recordings used in documentaries or filmed program inserts were usually transferred onto film.

In the 1950s a home telerecording kit was introduced in Britain, allowing enthusiasts to make 16 mm film recordings of television programs. The major drawback, apart from the short duration of a 16 mm film magazine, was that a large opaque frame had to be placed in front of the TV set in order to block out any stray reflections, making it impossible to watch the set normally while filming. It is not known if any recordings made using this equipment still exist.

British broadcasters used telerecordings for domestic purposes well into the 1960s, with 35 mm film usually used as it produced a higher quality result. For overseas sales, 16 mm film would be used, as it was cheaper. Although domestic use of telerecording in the UK for repeat broadcasts dropped off sharply after the move to colour in the late 1960s, 16 mm black and white film telerecordings were still being offered for sale by British broadcasters well into the 1970s.

Telerecording was still being used internally at the BBC in the 1980s too, to preserve copies for posterity of programs that were not necessarily of the highest importance, but which nonetheless their producers wanted to be preserved. If there were no videotape machines available on a given day, then a telerecording would be made. There is evidence to suggest that the children's magazine program Blue Peter was occasionally telerecorded as late as 1985. After this point, however, cheap domestic videotape formats such as VHS could more easily be used to keep a backup reference copy of a program.

Another occasional use of telerecording into the late 1980s was by documentary makers working in 16 mm film who wished to include a videotape-sourced excerpt in their work, although such use was again rare.

In other territories, film telerecordings stopped being produced after the introduction of videotape. In Czechoslovakia, the first videotape recorders (Machtronics MVR-15) were introduced in 1966 but soon were replaced by the Ampex 2" Quadruplex in 1967. Most of the programs, like TV dramas, were recorded on video, but only a few programs continued to be telerecorded onto 16 mm film. The last known telerecording was produced in 1971 and soon after, all programs were recorded on video only.

Legacy

Kinescopes were intended to be used for immediate rebroadcast, or for an occasional repeat of a program; thus, only a small fraction of kinescope recordings remain today. Many television shows are represented by only a handful of episodes, such as with the early television work of comedian Ernie Kovacs, and the original version of Jeopardy! hosted by Art Fleming.

Another purpose of Kinescopes involved satisfying show sponsors. Kinescopes sometimes would be sent to the advertising agency for the sponsor of a show so that the ad agency could determine whether or not the sponsor's ads appeared properly. Due to this practice, some kinescopes have actually been discovered in the storage areas of some of these older advertising agencies or in the storage areas of the program sponsors themselves.

In US
Certain performers or production companies would require that a kinescope be made of every television program. Such is the case with performers Jackie Gleason and Milton Berle, for whom nearly complete program archives exist. As Jackie Gleason's program was broadcast live in New York, the show was kinescoped for later rebroadcast for the West Coast. Per his contract, he would receive one copy of each broadcast, which he kept in his vault, and only released them to the public (on home video) shortly before his death in 1987.

Milton Berle sued NBC late in his life, believing the kinescopes of a major portion of his programs were lost. However, the programs were later found in a warehouse in Los Angeles.

Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions, the producers of such TV game shows as What's My Line?, had a significant portion of their output recorded on both videotape and kinescopes. These programs are rebroadcast on the American cable TV's Game Show Network.

All of the NBC Symphony Orchestra telecasts with Arturo Toscanini, from 1948 to 1952, were preserved on kinescopes and later released on VHS and LaserDisc by RCA and on DVD by Testament. The original audio from the kinescopes, however, was replaced with high fidelity sound that had been recorded simultaneously either on transcription discs or magnetic tape.

In the mid-1990s, Edie Adams, wife of Ernie Kovacs, claimed that so little value was given to the kinescope recordings of the DuMont Television Network that after the network folded in 1956 its entire archive was dumped into upper New York bay. Today however, efforts are made to preserve the few surviving DuMont kinescopes, with the UCLA Film and Television Archive having collected over 300 for preservation.

In September 2010, a kinescope of game 7 of the 1960 World Series was found in the wine cellar of Bing Crosby. The game was thought lost forever but was preserved due to Crosby's superstition about watching the game live. The film was transferred to DVD and was broadcast on the MLB Network shortly afterwards.

In Australia
Early Australian television drama series were recorded as kinescopes, such as Autumn Affair and Emergency, along with variety series like The Lorrae Desmond Show. Kinescopes continued to be made after videotape was introduced to Australia; most existing episodes of the 1965–1967 children's series Magic Circle Club are kinescopes (per listings for episodes on National Film and Sound Archive website)

In Britain
Telerecordings form an important part of British television heritage, preserving what would otherwise have been lost. Nearly every pre-1960s British television program in the archives is in the form of a telerecording, along with the vast majority of existing 1960s output. Videotape was expensive and could be wiped and re-used; film was cheaper, smaller, and in practice more durable. Only a very small proportion of British television from the black-and-white era survives at all.

As the BBC has taken stock of the large gaps in its archive and sought to recover as much of the missing material as possible, many recovered programs, have been returned from the 1980s onwards as telerecordings held by foreign broadcasters or private film collectors. Many of these surviving telerecorded programs, such as episodes of Doctor Who, Steptoe and Son and Till Death Us Do Part continue to be transmitted on satellite television stations such as UKTV Gold, and many such programs have been released on VHS and DVD.

In 2008, the BBC undertook color restoration work on the existing 16 mm monochrome telerecording of Room at the Bottom, a 1969 episode of the sitcom Dad's Army. Although this episode was originally produced and broadcast in color, the black and white film was the only surviving copy of the episode following the wiping of the original videotape. However, the telerecording process left color information in the form of chroma dots in the frames of the film; using a specially designed computer program, these chroma dots were used to bring out the original color information, which as then applied to the film, allowing the color to be restored to the episode. The restored version of Room at the Bottom was broadcast on 13 December 2008, the first time it had been seen in color since May 1970.

Technology
NTSC television images are scanned at roughly $60 Hz$, with two interlaced fields per frame, displayed at 30 frames per second.

A kinescope must be able to convert the 30 frame/s image to 24 frame/s, the standard sound speed of film cameras and do so in a way so that the image is clear enough to then re-broadcast by means of a film chain back to 30 frame/s.

In kinescoping an NTSC signal, 525 lines are broadcast in one frame. A 35 mm or 16 mm camera exposes one frame of film for every one frame of television (525 lines), and moving a new frame of film into place during the time equivalent of one field of television (131.25 lines). In the British 405-line television system, the French 819-line television system and the greater European 625-line television system, television ran at 25 frames—or more correctly, 50 fields—per second, so the film camera would also be run at 25 frames per second rather than the cinematic film standard of 24 frames.

Therefore, in order to maintain successful kinescope photography, a camera must expose one frame of film for exactly 1/30th or 1/25th of a second, the time in which one frame of video is transmitted, and move to another frame of film within the small interval of 1/120th of a second.

In some instances, this was accomplished through means of an electronic shutter which cuts off the TV image at the end of every set of visible lines. Most US kinescope equipment, however, utilized a mechanical shutter, revolving at 24 revolutions per second. This shutter had a closed angle of 72° and an open angle of 288°, yielding the necessary closed time of 1/120th of a second and open time 1/30th of a second. Using this shutter, in 1 second of video (60 fields equalling 30 frames), 48 television fields (totaling to 24 frames of video) would be captured on 24 frames of film, and 12 additional fields would be omitted as the shutter closed and the film advanced.

Analog television is a field-based system, and most electronic video recording solutions retain both fields of every frame, preserving the temporal resolution of interlaced video. Some early consumer-grade video tape recorders preserved only one field of each frame. Film, being a frame-based system, can retain full information from interlaced video by converting every field into a frame, but the required frame rate had been deemed impractical. Various solutions to the mapping problem have been developed resulting in successive improvements to the quality of the image at the traditional 24 fps frame rate. Nevertheless, video converted to film loses the fluid look of interlaced video, taking on a look somewhat similar to film.

Shutter bar and banding problems
The 72°/288° shutter and the systematic loss of 12 fields per second were not without side effects. In going from 30 frame/s to 24 frame/s, the camera photographed part of some fields. The juncture on the film frame where these part-fields meet is called a splice.

If the timing is accurate, the splice is invisible. However, if the camera and television are out of phase, a phenomenon known as shutter bar or banding occurs. If the shutter is slow in closing, overexposure results where the partial fields join and the shutter bar takes the form of a white line. If the shutter closes too soon, underexposure takes place and the line is black. The term banding refers to the phenomenon occurring on the screen as two bars.

Suppressed field
A simpler system, less prone to breakdown, was to suppress one of the two fields in displaying the television picture. This left the time during which the second field would have been displayed for the film camera to advance the film by one frame, which proved sufficient. This method was called skip field recording.

The method had several disadvantages. In missing every other field of video, half the information of the picture was lost on such recordings. The resulting film thus consisted of fewer than 200 lines of picture information and as a result, the line structure was very apparent. The missing field information also made movement look jerky.

Stored field
A successful improvement on the suppressed field system was to display the image from one of the fields at a much higher intensity on the television screen during the time when the film gate was closed, and then capture the image as the second field was being displayed. By adjusting the intensity of the first field, it was possible to arrange it so that the luminosity of the phosphor had decayed to exactly match that of the second field, so that the two appeared to be at the same level and the film camera captured both.

Another technique developed by the BBC, known as spot wobble, involved the addition of an extremely high frequency but low voltage sine wave to the vertical deflection plate of the television screen, which changed the moving 'spot' - a circular beam of electrons by which the television picture was displayed - into an elongated oval. While this made the image slightly blurred, it removed the visible line structure (by causing adjacent lines to touch, so that no separating band of darkness lay between them) and thereby resulted in a better image. It also prevented moiré pattern from appearing when the resulting film was re-broadcast on television, which occurred if the line structure on the film recording did not precisely match the scanning lines of the electronic film scanner.

Moye-Mechau film recording
The Mechau system used a synchronized rotating mirror to display each frame of a film in sequence without the need for a gate. When reversed, a high-quality television monitor was set up in place of the projection screen, and unexposed film stock is run through at the point where the lamp would have been illuminating the film.

This procedure had the advantage of capturing both fields of the frame on a film, but required significant attention to produce quality reulity results. The Mechau film magazine only held enough for nine minutes so two recorders were needed to run in sequence in order to record anything longer.

Lenses
Lenses did not need a great depth of field but had to be capable both of producing a very sharp image with high resolution of a flat surface and of doing so at high speed. In order to minimize light fall-off on the perimeter of the lens, a coated lens was preferable. 40 mm or 50 mm lenses were usually used with 16 mm in calibrated mounts. Focus was checked by examining a print under a microscope.

Sound recording
The camera could be equipped with sound recording to place the soundtrack and picture on the same film for single-system sound recording. More commonly, the alternative double system, whereby the soundtrack was recorded on an optical recorder or magnetic dubber in sync with the camera, yielded a better quality soundtrack and facilitated editing.

Kinescope image
Kinescope CRTs intended for photographic use were coated with phosphors rich in blue and ultraviolet radiation. This permitted the use of positive type emulsions for photographing in spite of their slow film speeds. The brightness range of kinescope CRTs was about 1 to 30.

Kinescope images were capable of great flexibility. The operator could make the CRT image brighter or darker, adjust contrast, width and height, rotate left, right or upside down, and positive or negative image.

Since kinescope CRTs were able to produce a negative image, direct positive recordings could be made by simply photographing the negative image on the kinescope CRT. When making a negative film, in order for final prints to be in the correct emulsion position, the direction of the image was reversed on the television. This applied only when double system sound was used.

Film stock used
For kinescopes, 16 mm film was the common choice by most studios because of the lower cost of stock and film processing, but in the larger network markets, it was not uncommon to see 35 mm kinescopes, particularly for national rebroadcast. Fine grain positive stock was most commonly used because of its low cost and high resolution.

Common issues
Videotape engineer Frederick M. Remley wrote of kinescope recordings: "Because of the many variables in the combined electronic/photographic process, the quality of such recordings often leaves much to be desired. Defects often encountered in photographic recording include relatively poor image resolution; a compressed brightness range often limited by kinescope display technology to a brightness ratio of about 40:1; nonlinearity of recordings, as exemplified by lack of gradation in both the near-white and near-black portions of the reproduced pictures; and excessive image noise due to film grain and video processing artifacts. The final signal-to-noise ratio is often less than 40 dB, especially in the case of 16 mm film."

Because each field is sequential in time to the next, a kinescope film frame that captured two interlaced fields at once often showed a ghostly fringe around the edges of moving objects, an artifact not as visible when watching television directly at 50 or 60 fields per second.

Some kinescopes filmed the television pictures at the television frame rate - 30 full frames per second for American System M broadcasts and 25 full frames per second for European System B broadcasts, resulting in more faithful picture quality than those that recorded at 24 frames per second. The standard was later changed to 59.94 fields/s or 29.97 frame/s for System M broadcasts, due to the technical requirements of color TV. Since these reasons did not affect System B, the color TV framerate in Europe remained at 25 frames/s.

In the era of early color TV, the chroma information included in the video signal filmed could cause visible artifacts. It was possible to filter the chroma out, but this was not always done. Consequently, the color information was included (but not in color) in the black-and-white film image. Using modern computing techniques, the color may now be recovered, a process known as color recovery.

Because videotape records at fifty interlaced fields per second and telerecordings at twenty-five progressive frames per second, videotaped programs that exist now only as telerecordings have lost their characteristic "live video" look and the motion now looks filmic. One solution to this problem is VidFIRE, an electronic process to restore video-type motion.

title: Kinescope


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Edward

Edward is an English male given name. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name Ēadweard, composed of the elements ēad "wealth, fortunate; prosperous" and weard "guardian, protector”.

History
The name Edward was very popular in Anglo-Saxon England, but the rule of the Norman and Plantagenet dynasties had effectively ended its use amongst the upper classes. The popularity of the name was revived when Henry III named his firstborn son, the future Edward I, as part of his efforts to promote a cult around Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had a deep admiration.

Variant forms
The name has been adopted in the Iberian peninsula since the 15th century, due to Edward, King of Portugal, whose mother was English. The Spanish/Portuguese forms of the name are Eduardo and Duarte. Other variant forms include French Édouard, Italian Edoardo and Odoardo, German, Dutch, Czech and Romanian Eduard and Scandinavian Edvard.

Short forms include  Ed, Eddy, Eddie,  Ted, Teddy and Ned.

Medieval

 * Edward the Elder (c. 874–924), the son of Alfred the Great
 * Edward the Martyr (c. 962–978), English king and Christian martyr
 * Edward the Confessor (c. 1003–1066), English King; patron saint of England until 1348
 * Edward I of England (1239–1307), called Longshanks; conqueror of Wales
 * Edward Balliol (c. 1283–1367), pretender to the Scottish throne during the reign of David II
 * Edward II of England (1284–1327), deposed in January 1327, probably murdered
 * Edward III of England (1312–1377), English king
 * Edward, the Black Prince (1330–1376), eldest son of King Edward III
 * Edward, Duke of Guelders (1336–1371)
 * Edward IV of England (1442–1483), older brother of Richard III, father of Edward V
 * Edward V of England (1470–c. 1483), one of the princes in the Tower

Royalty and nobility

 * Edward VI of England (1537–1553), the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour
 * Edward, Count Palatine of Simmern (1625–1663), Count Palatine
 * Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany (1739–1767), brother of George III
 * Lord Edward FitzGerald (1763–1798), Irish aristocrat and revolutionary
 * Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (1767–1820), the son of George III, father of Queen Victoria
 * Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar (1823–1902), son of Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
 * Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar (1827–1904), wife of Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar
 * Edward VII of the United Kingdom (1841–1910), the son of Queen Victoria
 * Lord Edward Cecil (1867–1918), son of the 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
 * Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (1894–1972), the son of George V, abdicated
 * Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (born 1935), grandson of George V
 * Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh (born 1964), the son of Queen Elizabeth II
 * Lady Edward Manners (born 1975), wife of Lord Edward Manners and daughter-in-law of the 10th Duke of Rutland
 * Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick (born 1988), the grandson of The Duke of Kent

Politicians

 * Edward Dickinson Baker (1811–1861), American politician, lawyer, and military leader, close friend of Abraham Lincoln
 * Edward Butcher, American politician
 * W. Edward Crockett, American politician from Maine
 * Edward Dembowski (1822–1846), Polish leftist, philosopher and columnist
 * Edward Gierek (1913–2001), First Secretary of Polish United Workers Party from 1970 to 1980
 * Edward Heath (1916–2005), British Conservative politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974
 * Edward Jayetileke, Chief Justice of Sri Lanka from 1950 to 1952
 * Edward Stanley Kellogg (1870–1948), 16th Governor of American Samoa, former United States senator
 * Edward "Ted" M. Kennedy (1932–2009), American politician, lawyer, and senator, Kennedy family member
 * Edward M. Kennedy Jr. (born 1961), American politician and lawyer, son of Ted Kennedy
 * Ed Miliband (born 1969), British politician, former leader of the Labour Party
 * Edward Joy Morris (1815-1881), U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania
 * Ed Murray (born 1955), Democratic politician and former Mayor of Seattle
 * Edward Nothnagle (1866–1938), Pennsylvania State Representative
 * Edward Alexander Nugawela (1898–1972), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician and army major
 * Edward Polewarczyk, American politician
 * Edward "Ed" Ra, American politician
 * Edward L. Romero, entrepreneur and American diplomat who served as the U.S. Ambassador to Spain and Andorra between 1998 and 2001
 * Edward Stettinius, Jr. (1900–1949), United States Secretary of State
 * Edward L. Stokes (1880–1964), U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania
 * Edward Maria Wingfield (1550–1631), English colonist and soldier
 * Edward Youde (1924–1986), 26th Governor of Hong Kong

Artists and intellectuals

 * Edward Asare (born 1993), Ghanaian blogger, influencer, and digital marketer
 * Edward Baranoski
 * Edvard Grieg (1842-1907), Norwegian classical music composer
 * Edvard Munch (1863-1944), Norwegian painter
 * Edward Barker (1950–1997), English cartoonist who signed his drawings simply as Edward
 * Edward Blishen (1920–1996), English author
 * Edward Bridge Danson III (1947) American Actor.
 * Ed Byrne (neuroscientist) (born 1952), British neuroscientist and university administrator
 * Edward Duyker (born 1955), Australian historian
 * Edward Elgar (1857–1934), English composer
 * Edward Gamble (born 1986), English comedian
 * Edward Gibbons, English choirmaster and composer
 * Edward Gorey (1925–2000), American illustrator
 * Edward Gould (1988–2012), English animator and creator of Eddsworld
 * Edward Grimes, one of the two members of Irish pop duo Jedward
 * Edward Hopper (1882–1967), American realist painter
 * Edward Jayakody (born 1952), Sri Lankan Sinhala musician and composer
 * Edward Killy, American filmmaker
 * Edward Daniel Leahy, Irish painter
 * Edward MacDowell (1860–1908), American composer and pianist
 * Edward Maya, Romanian singer, record producer and DJ
 * Edward Coppée Mitchell (1836-1886), American lawyer and educator
 * Edward Norton (born 1969), American actor
 * Edward Platt (1916–1974), American actor
 * Edward Ayearst Reeves (1862–1945), British geographer
 * Edward G. Robinson, (1893–1973), Romanian-American actor
 * Edward John David "Eddie" Redmayne (born 1982), English actor
 * Edward Said (1935–2003), Palestinian-American academic
 * Edward Sene (born 2000), Finnish artist
 * Ed Sheeran, English singer-songwriter and musician
 * Ed Speleers, English actor
 * Edward van de Vendel, Dutch author of children's literature
 * Edward "Eddie" Van Halen (1955–2020), Dutch-American musician
 * Eddie Vedder, American singer, musician, songwriter
 * Edward W. Hardy (born 1992), American composer, musician, and producer

Sports

 * Edward Scott Bozek (1950–2022), American Olympic épée fencer
 * Edward Fatu (1973–2009), American professional wrestler better known as Umaga, member of Anoaʻi family
 * Ed Gainey (Canadian football), American player of Canadian football
 * Eddie Guerrero (1967–2005), American professional wrestler
 * Ed Hochuli (born 1950), NFL official
 * Ed Hodgkiss (born 1970), American football coach
 * Edward Lawrence Levy, English world champion weightlifter
 * Edward Meron (born 1938), Arab-Israeli Olympic weightlifter
 * Ed Mieszkowski (1925–2004), American football player
 * Ed Orgeron (born 1961), American football coach
 * Edward Pratt, British long-distance unicyclist
 * Edward Weitz (born 1946), Israeli Olympic weightlifter
 * Ed Woods (born 2002), American football player

Other people

 * Edward H. White II (1930–1967) American astronaut
 * Edward Allaway (born 1939), American mass murderer who perpetrated the 1976 California State University, Fullerton, massacre
 * Edward Rohan Amerasekera (1916–1974), first indigenous Commander of the Sri Lanka Air Force
 * Edward Harold Bell (1939–2019), American sex offender and murderer
 * Edward Brown (born 1942), American involved in a tax dispute with the U.S. government
 * Edward Douglas (bishop) (1901–1967), Scottish Roman Catholic
 * Edward Edwards (disambiguation), several people
 * Edward F. Fritsch (born 1950), American scientist
 * Edward "Ed" Gein (1906–1984), American murderer and suspected serial killer
 * Edward Lagrone (1957–2004), American serial killer and rapist
 * Edward Kmiec (1936–2020), American Catholic bishop
 * Edward Baker Lincoln (1846–1850), second son of Abraham Lincoln
 * Edward Mosberg (1926–2022), Polish-American Holocaust survivor, educator, and philanthropist
 * Edward McSweegan, American microbiologist
 * Edward Playfair, British businessman
 * Edward Popek (1919-2001), American flying ace
 * Edward Porta (born 1954), Argentinian former textile trader
 * Edward Snowden (born 1983), American who disclosed National Security Agency secrets
 * Edward Smith (disambiguation), several people

People surnamed Edward

 * John Edward, professional name of John Edward McGee, Jr. (born 1969), American self-proclaimed psychic
 * Olivia Edward (born 2007), American actress and daughter of John Edward
 * Trevelyan Edward (1938–1995), Sri Lankan cricketer

Fictional characters

 * Ed, Edd n Eddy, television show, as well as main characters thereof
 * Edward, an anthropomorphic platypus from Camp Lazlo
 * Edward, in Fire Emblem: Radiant Dawn
 * Edward AKA: DEATH, a main character and assassin from the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter series
 * Edward Bear, mock "formal" name for a teddy bear—another name for Winnie-the-Pooh
 * Edward the Blue Engine, a character from The Railway Series and Thomas & Friends
 * Eddie Brock, a character from Marvel; the best known incarnation of Venom
 * Edward Bunnigus, in the webcomic Schlock Mercenary
 * Edward Cullen, the vampire love-interest in the fantasy/romance novels of Stephenie Meyer's Twilight Series
 * Edward Elric, the protagonist in the anime/manga series, Fullmetal Alchemist
 * Edward Ferrars, in Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen
 * Edward Gardner, in the 1997 French-American fantasy drama movie FairyTale: A True Story
 * Edward "Ted" Hasting, from British television series Line of Duty
 * Edward Elizabeth Hitler, a character from British television series Bottom
 * Edward Hyde, the title character's evil alter ego in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson
 * Edward James Kenway, a character from the Assassin's Creed video game franchise, appearing as the protagonist of Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag
 * Edward Lewis, a wealthy corporate raider and the male protagonist in Pretty Woman
 * Edward Mars, the shipwrecked marshal in American television series Lost
 * Edward Gerald Marshall, the forgotten U.S. President in the British comic book series Nemesis Reloaded
 * Edward "Eddie" Munson, from the American television series Stranger Things
 * Edward "Whitebeard" Newgate, the captain of the Whitebeard Pirates in the One Piece manga series
 * Edward Nigma, aka The Riddler, a supervillain from DC
 * Edward Richtofen, a sociopathic German scientist from Call of Duty: World at War; appears in the Nazi Zombies mode as well as in Call of Duty: Black Ops, Call of Duty: Black Ops II, Call Of Duty: Black Ops III, Call Of Duty: Black Ops IIII, and the Dark Horse comic series Call Of Duty: Zombies
 * Edward Fairfax Rochester, the love interest of Jane in Jane Eyre
 * Edward Scissorhands, title character of the eponymous film
 * Edward "Stubbs" Stubblefield, the fictional undead from the Stubbs the Zombie in Rebel Without a Pulse video game
 * Edward Tanaka, a character from Sonic X
 * Edward "Blackbeard" Teach, fictionalized versions of the historical figure of the same name from various media
 * Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV, from the anime Cowboy Bebop
 * Edward Chris von Muir, "spoony bard" from Final Fantasy IV
 * Ed Norton, a character played by Art Carney in American sitcom The Honeymooners
 * Mister Ed, the talking horse, from the television series of the same name
 * Edward the Butler, played by Lachlan Walker in the web-series Corner Shop Show
 * Edward Trunk, an elephant from the Rupert Bear franchise

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edward


text:
The Endless Summer

The Endless Summer is a 1966 American surf documentary film directed, produced, edited and narrated by Bruce Brown. The film follows surfers Mike Hynson and Robert August on a surfing trip around the world. Despite the balmy mediterranean climate of their native California, cold ocean currents make local beaches inhospitable during the winter, without later, modern wetsuits. They travel to the coasts of Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii, Senegal (Dakar), Ghana, Nigeria and South Africa in a quest for new surf spots while introducing locals to the sport along the way.

The narrative presentation eases from the stiff, formal documentary of the 1950s and early 1960s to a more casual, fun-loving and personal style filled with sly humor, honed from six years of live narration. The film's surf rock soundtrack was provided by The Sandals, and the theme song was written by Gaston Georis and John Blakeley of the Sandals; Theme From "The Endless Summer" has since become one of the best known film themes in the surf movie genre.

In 1994, it was followed by the sequel The Endless Summer II. In 2000, Dana Brown, compiled The Endless Summer Revisited, later directing Step into Liquid, in 2003, documenting tow-in surfing.

8 mm
Bruce Brown started surfing in the early 1950s. He took still photographs to show his mother what the draw of the sport was. While serving in the U.S. Navy on Oahu years later, he used an 8mm movie camera to photograph surfers from California. Once Brown got back to the states, he edited his footage into an hour-long film. Surfer Dale Velzy showed it at his San Clemente shop, charging 25 cents for admission.

16 mm
Bob Bagley chose the equipment at the camera store, including a 16 mm camera, and Velzy peeled off the money from his wad of cash to outfit Brown's $5,000 production Slippery When Wet (1958), Brown's first "real" surf film.

In the winter of 1958, Brown went back to Hawaii to film the North Shore's big surf. Just as Allen had done, to learn promotion, Brown went to the library for a book about how to make movies, and on the plane ride over, the novice filmmaker read the book. Brown said, "I never had formal training in filmmaking and that probably worked to my advantage". In 1959, Dick Metz's
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
 * meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.

Prior to The Endless Summer, Brown made unnamed 25¢ silent 8mm film footage, Slippery When Wet (1958), Surf Crazy (1959), Barefoot Adventure (1960), Surfing Hollow Days (1961), and Waterlogged (1962). Each year, Allen and Brown made two tours, of the West Coast of the United States, and Hawaiʻi, exhibiting a film.

"'We would take the films to the venues in a van, and we had rewinds and viewers in the back of the van and I would actually edit the stuff while we were traveling. I would adjust it according to the reactions of the audience from the previous night.'—Bruce Brown"

Title
The film's title comes from the idea expressed at both the beginning and end of the film that, if one had enough time and money, it would be possible to follow the summer up and down the world (northern to southern hemisphere and back), making it endless.

Development
Brown remembered, "I felt if I could take two years to make a film, maybe I could make something special". To do this, he would need a bigger budget than he had on previous films. To raise the $50,000 budget for The Endless Summer, Brown took the best footage from his four previous films and made Waterlogged. With the money raised from Waterlogged, Brown filmed The Endless Summer, his sixth surf film.

Brown's original concept was for Cape St. Francis to be the main destination, but through the suggestion of a travel agent, during the planning stages of the film, that a round-the-world ticket, would cost $50 cheaper than just a Los Angeles to Cape Town, South Africa round-trip flight. after which Bruce came up with the idea of following the summer season by traveling up and down the world.

Production
The Endless Summer was filmed in:
 * Southern Hemisphere: South Africa (Cape St. Francis), Australia, New Zealand (Manu Bay), and Tahiti.
 * Northern Hemisphere: Hawaii, California (Salt Creek Beach, Steamer Lane, Malibu), Senegal, Ghana (Labadi), and Nigeria.

Mike Hynson and Robert August had to pay $1,400 for their own around-the-world tickets, and Brown required a commitment of three months. Production lasted four months.

The opening shot of Mike Hynson and Robert August as silhouettes walking to the beach with burnt orange sky evokes the movie poster.

Cast

 * Mike Hynson
 * Robert August
 * Corky Carroll
 * Nat Young
 * Butch Van Artsdalen
 * Mickey Dora
 * Phil Edwards
 * Wayne Miyata
 * Chuck Gardner
 * Chip Fitzwater
 * Dave Thynell
 * Greg Noll
 * Lord James Blears
 * Roy Crump
 * Steven R. Davis
 * Terence Bullen
 * (South African guide)

Poster
In 1964, fellow surfer John Van Hamersveld was a student at the Art Center College of Design and the art director of Surfing Illustrated Magazine and Surfer magazine. To produce the image that would become iconic, he organized a photo session with the producer and the two stars at Salt Creek Beach in Dana Point. Using photo techniques for the central image and hand-lettering the title Van Hamersveld created a “national phenomenon” image that has endured as a classic. He was paid $150 for the art. The poster is featured in the National Museum of American History section of the Smithsonian Institution. In the description the museum noted, “The poster’s premise was Browns but Van Hamersveld took Bob Bagley’s image of the movie’s stars Mike Hynson and Robert August and Brown and transformed it into a 1960s neon masterpiece.”

Distribution
Bruce Brown, at first, narrated the silent film live, from the stage, and accompanied it with tape recorded music, at school auditoriums, and similar venues, with R. Paul Allen collecting tickets, travelling by camper. He later took the completed film to several Hollywood studio distributors but was rejected because they did not think it would have mainstream appeal. In January 1964, Bruce Brown and R. Paul Allen  took The Endless Summer to Wichita, Kansas and four-walled the Sunset Theater for two weeks, amidst a projectionist strike, with a bomb threat on the first showing, where moviegoers lined up in snowy weather in the middle of winter,  selling out multiple screenings, and locally outgrossing  My Fair Lady. Distributors were still not convinced and Brown rented a theater in New York City where his film ran successfully for 48 weeks. After the success of the run at New York's Kips Bay Theater, Don Rugoff of Cinema V distribution said he did not want the film or poster changed and wanted them distributed as is, thus Brown selected him over other distributors who wished to alter the poster. When distributed by	Cinema V, The Endless Summer grossed $5 million domestically and over $20 million worldwide.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an aggregate score of 100% based on 23 critic reviews. Roger Ebert said of Brown's work, "the beautiful photography he brought home almost makes you wonder if Hollywood hasn't been trying too hard". Time magazine wrote, "Brown leaves analysis of the surf-cult mystique to seagoing sociologists, but demonstrates quite spiritedly that some of the brave souls mistaken for beachniks are, in fact, converts to a difficult, dangerous and dazzling sport".

In his review for The New York Times, Robert Alden wrote, "the subject matter itself—the challenge and the joy of a sport that is part swimming, part skiing, part sky-diving and part Russian roulette—is buoyant fun".

Legacy
When The Endless Summer premiered on June 15, 1966, it encouraged many surfers to travel abroad, giving birth to the "surf-and-travel" culture, with prizes for finding "uncrowded surf", meeting new people and riding the "perfect wave". It also introduced the sport, which had become popular outside of Hawaii and the Polynesian Islands in places like California and Australia, to a broader audience.

The then-unknown break off Cape St. Francis in South Africa, characterized as having the “perfect wave”, became one of the world's most famous surfing sites thanks to The Endless Summer.

In 2002, The Endless Summer was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Sequels
In 1994, Brown released a sequel, The Endless Summer II, in which surfers Pat O'Connell and Robert "Wingnut" Weaver retrace the steps of Hynson and August. It shows the growth and evolution of the surfing scene since the first film, which presented only classic longboard surfing. O'Connell rides a shortboard, which was developed in the time between the two movies, and there are scenes of windsurfing and bodyboarding.

The 1994 film illustrates how far surfing had spread since 1964, with footage of surf sessions in France, South Africa, Costa Rica, Bali, Java, and even Alaska. The 1994 sequel follows a similar structure to the original, with another round the world surfing adventure reflecting on cultural differences since the first film was shot. The South Africa material includes a return visit to Cape St. Francis, where the “perfect wave” had deteriorated somewhat, due to onshore construction projects.

In 2000, Dana Brown, Bruce's son, released The Endless Summer Revisited, which consisted of unused footage from the first two films, as well as original cast interviews.

title: The Endless Summer


text:
Talk:Ngaio Marsh

'Gentleman' Alleyn
He isn't. He rises in the ranks of the CID, up to Chief Super.

Pronunciation
The pronunciation of her name can be found at http://www-personal.umich.edu/~kschwart/death/er_new.html -- Zoe

 * The above link did not work (from the UK anyway) in November 2008 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Piers1943 (talk • contribs) 11:06, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

 * The wav file is pretty accurate (given that it has a Canadian(?) accent).
 * The New Zealander who claimed it was Nay-oh is talking rubbish. Although I am too young to have worked with her, many of my theatrical colleagues in Christchurch knew her intimately. -- Dramatic

 * I've removed the unsupported assertion that her work has the most characterization of any of the so-called Queens of Crime. It really isn't true -- that is more a characteristic of Sayers' work, if anybody's -- and it isn't supported by reference to an authority. Accounting4Taste 22:41, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

Lead section
I recommend expanding the lead section, per WP:LEAD, so it comprises a brief summary of the article. --Elonka 23:54, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Today I put Roderick Alleyn in the lead, based on discussion below, . And I put the Queens of Crime in the lead, essentially relying on our articles Gentleman detective and Detective fiction or Golden Age.
 * I relegated the bit about her long-unreported and now-uncertain birth date to section one, Early life. That section needs expansion because it says nothing about her childhood and teenage is lacking *and* it is so short that the left image does not adequately fit before the next heading.
 * ... continued below, --P64 (talk) 20:58, 31 May 2012 (UTC)

Bride of Death
I've never seen an edition of "Spinsters in Jeopardy" that's titled "Bride of Death", although to be sure that does sound like a reasonable title for this novel. Can someone provide a citation? Accounting4Taste: talk 18:01, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Found one. There were two US editions, the first (Boston, 1953) as Spinsters, the 2nd (New York, 1955). Given that US publication was often a year earlier, I might redo that list as a table when I get time. dramatic (talk) 23:04, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Many thanks for promptly providing this (see what happens when you lend your copy of Hubin? LOL) Accounting4Taste: talk 00:52, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

Template: Ngaio Marsh
I suspect that template Ngaio Marsh should either be renamed for Roderick Alleyn and listed under 'A' in its categories, or it should be expanded to cover more than Alleyn, and be listed under 'M' with author templates.

(I have never heard of either one and have no clue whether Alleyn or Marsh is more famous, which direction the navbox is more likely to merit expansion. This is just something i noticed while fixing author templates that are mistakenly under book series.) --P64 (talk) 19:18, 15 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Hmm. I don't think either Marsh or Alleyn is "more famous"—they're almost always considered in tandem. I rarely mess with templates except to fix obvious errors, but I'll offer a couple of thoughts. First, it looks like the template is roughly analogous to Template:Agatha Christie. The latter is divided into categories; this could also be done with Marsh's template, although Marsh only has one detective-protagonist and the Novels category would comprise nearly all of the content.
 * Thanks for the prompt reply.
 * There is some analogy but Hercule Poirot is currently closer in contents while Agatha Christie is closer in name only. Perhaps the question is not fame but whether Marsh is likely to have any non-Alleyn articles except the biography.
 * Based on a quick glance I think Alleyn might have beside the novels articles: Roderick Alleyn, some list that doesn't yet exist, The Inspector Alleyn Mysteries, and Death on the Air and Other Stories or some particular short stories and essays. -P64
 * How important are these templates, anyway? Some of Marsh's other peers, including Dorothy L. Sayers and Margery Allingham, don't appear to have templates. The only disadvantage I can see to this is that the articles on each of their books don't contain handy links to all of their other books. That seems like a minor inconvenience, since the author articles with their complete bibliographies are just one click away, but I can't be sure. Rivertorch (talk) 20:28, 15 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Ouch. I don't know how many readers use these navigational boxes [1a] (Agatha Christie and [1b] Hercule Poirot, or any other navigational tools such as [2] categories, [3] succession boxes, and [4] "preceded_by" and "followed_by" within Infobox book.
 * Not knowing, perhaps I should spend less time :-(
 * --P64 (talk) 21:44, 15 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Not at all. If you enjoy doing it and it might be helpful to some users, then I'm sure it's worth your time. I was just sort of wondering aloud. In this case, I'll just say "meh". If you decide to expand it as an author template or convert it to a character template, either way, I'll be happy to check it over. (I don't know from templates but I'm tolerably conversant with the works of Ngaio Marsh.) Rivertorch (talk) 05:39, 16 May 2012 (UTC)
 * I have expanded that template in the Alleyn direction, an easy choice to make at this point because there are no other Marsh-related articles at Wikipedia (as far as I know, except she wrote one episode for Crown Court).
 * I have summarized the situation at Category talk: New Zealand writers templates and Template talk: Ngaio Marsh.
 * I won't rename without reading WP:TEMPLATE and won't read that for a few days at least. --P64 (talk) 17:30, 26 May 2012 (UTC)

(A few days later.) I have moved/renamed the template, now Roderick Alleyn. I have also re-organized it by reference to the much grander templates Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. In particular see the display title and layout with sections Creator and See also.

Probably every Alleyn article links Ngaio Marsh in its lead. That is not true of the links that remain under heading "See also". I now understand that one main purpose of these templates --which are familiar to some readers as well as editors-- is to provide at once in every article on one of the books both [a] overview of current wikipedia coverage and [b] convenient "See also" links. --P64 (talk) 23:26, 30 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Done. (interrupted yesterday) --P64 (talk) 20:58, 31 May 2012 (UTC)

wretched snob
Surely many many critics, even in the 1920s and 30s, noted Marsh's snobbery? If so, I think it's important enough to be mentioned in the article, because it will leap out at a reader of her books(and the reader will wonder why it's not noted here too).-Richard Peterson216.86.177.36 (talk) 23:15, 23 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Well, I don't know. Did critics note her snobbery? Having read all of her books, some multiple times, I have to say that it hasn't exactly leapt out at me. Classism yes, homophobia yes, snobbery not especially—but it's a bit of a vague term. If you know that critics (or other notable authors or academics) have noted snobbery in the writings of Marsh, you're free to add that information to the article. Please be sure to cite reliable sources and avoid original research. Rivertorch (talk) 05:18, 24 May 2012 (UTC)
 * I think what you call classism is what I call snobbery. Apparently you use extremely precise terms.216.86.177.36 (talk) 21:20, 24 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Whatever it is being called, the above suggestion is sound. Find reliable sources and add it to the article. If you can't find sources, don't add it.  Schwede 66  21:38, 24 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Right. Also, it's important not to get an author's own traits or opinions muddled up with those of her characters. Rivertorch (talk) 00:23, 25 May 2012 (UTC)
 * "Gentleman detective" mentions gentlemen by conduct and the gentry --who must be distinguished from the nobility. ... [This concerns Alleyn rather than Marsh so make this a new section -P64 2012-05-31]

There was a certain amount of snobbery in Christie-the servant rarely did the murder. Slightnostalgia (talk) 14:45, 28 September 2014 (UTC)
 * Not just 'snob' but 'wretched snob'? Really? Not remotely in the same league as the hugely overrated Allingham (and even more overrated Christie).

Gentleman detectives and their authors
"Gentleman detective" (which i have added to ) mentions gentlemen by conduct and the gentry --who must be distinguished from the nobility.

That article covers the status or class-ism or snobbery, etc, of the detectives --recurrently and rather well, altho not every aspect systematically. Including this (2): There is no status/class/snob talk about Marsh but this tidbit suggests that her collected "stories" may be a useful source on related points and perhaps that one.
 * "Alleyn is a thoroughly professional policeman, but socially is very like Wimsey. ... [two paragraphs] Wimsey deliberately cultivates his aristocratic eccentricities (inter alia, he wears a monocle, delights in his Oxford accent, and collects incunabula), whereas Alleyn is not at all eccentric, and plays down his upper class background."
 * "Morse works in Oxford and is (or was) upwardly mobile: he apparently won a scholarship to Oxford ... [two sentences] Morse's snobbery is intellectual rather than a question of breeding or social advantage."
 * "In an essay by one of her Golden Age rivals, Ngaio Marsh (see below), [Dorothy] Sayers is accused of having 'fallen in love' with [Lord Peter] Wimsey."

--P64 (talk) 17:30, 26 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Except he isn't. He is a CID career officer.

Award section
The Award section, which I've just removed from the article, has been problematic since its inception because its sourcing is less than optimal. I don't doubt the author of the blog is competent and knowledgeable, but if we can't do better than a blog, then it really doesn't belong in Wikipedia. Noteworthiness is an issue, as well as reliability; a quick search fails to turn up any useful information on the Dame Ngaio Marsh Trust itself.

Unfortunately, the section has also become a venue for listing the award's recipients (and finalists, no less), and this is beyond the proper scope of the article because its relation to Ngaio Marsh is entirely peripheral (and the wording inappropriate, fwiw).

I do think the existence of the award might be mentioned if we could come up with a better source. In the meantime, the content I've removed is below, for easy reference:

Award
In 2010 the Dame Ngaio Marsh Trust created the Best Crime Novel Award, to be given annually. In its inaugural year, the three finalists were Neil Cross Captured ; Vanda Symon Containment; and Alix Bosco (pseudonym), Cut and Run. Alix Bosco won the inaugural award.

In 2011, fellow Ngaio Marsh hometown writer, Paul Cleave beat out stiff competition from Neil Cross, Paddy Richardson and Greg McKee (aka Alix Bosco) to take the award for his novel, Blood Men.

In 2012, a delighted Neil Cross accepted the award for his book, Luther: The Calling which is a novel that predates the events in Luther the television series. The other three finalists were, Vanda Symon, Ben Sanders and Paul Cleave.

Rivertorch (talk) 10:04, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

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Trousers
Dame Ngaio Marsh did not wear trousers. She wore slacks, which are not the same at all. To call them trousers implies a masculinity which is misleading.Royalcourtier (talk) 00:47, 25 June 2016 (UTC)

 * I agree that the sentence you objected to, which spoke of trousers and deep voice, implied masculinity. I don't know whether that was misleading but it certainly seemed trivial. It also (rather ridiculously, I thought) juxtaposed Marsh's denial of being gay with the said trousers and voice. On a more technical note, the sentence also was an uncomfortably close paraphrase. I have removed it and revised the paragraph. Rivertorch's Evil Twin (talk) 19:01, 25 June 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ngaio Marsh


text:
Talk:Dynamic logic

Moved
I moved "Dynamic logic" to "Dynamic logic (modal logic)" and "Clocked logic" to "Dynamic logic (digital logic)". This page is now a disambiguation page. I really hope I didn't piss anyone off. Fresheneesz 21:00, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

Deleted
Deleted links to articles not mentioning any kind of dynamic logic. (Some of these links might be appropriate for a dab page under dynamic or logic, though the ones I deleted seemed just plain incoherent and rambling.) --Vaughan Pratt 03:41, 17 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually Perlovsky's notion does have a little coverage in independent sources:, so I've added a line for it (back), but I can't write up a brief and insightful summary just yet, and dynamic logic (neural) is of little help being loaded with wp:jargon I'm unfamiliar with. Tijfo098 (talk) 20:54, 29 April 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dynamic logic


text:
Wolfram von Eschenbach

Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1160/80 – c. 1220) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry.

Life

Little is known of Wolfram's life. There are no historical documents which mention him, and his works are the sole source of evidence. In Parzival, he talks of wir Beier ("we Bavarians"); the dialect of his works is East Franconian. On the basis of this and a number of geographical references, the present-day Wolframs-Eschenbach, until 1917 Obereschenbach, near Ansbach in present-day Bavaria, has been officially designated as his birthplace. However, the evidence is circumstantial and not without problems - there are at least four other places named Eschenbach in Bavaria, and Wolframs-Eschenbach was not part of the Duchy of Bavaria (Altbayern) in Wolfram's time.

The arms shown in the Manesse manuscript come from the imagination of a 14th-century artist, drawing on the figure of the Red Knight in Parzival, and have no heraldic connection with Wolfram. Wolfram's work indicates a number of possible patrons (most reliably Hermann I of Thuringia), which suggests that he served at a number of courts during his life. He was presumably not a wealthy man, as he made frequent allusions to his own poverty.

In his Parzival, Wolfram states that he is illiterate; while the claim is treated with scepticism by some scholars, the truth of the assertion, difficult for some moderns to believe, is impossible to ascertain. But it has been credited by many commentators. It is noted in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain that "the greatest poet of the Middle Ages, Wolfram von Eschenbach, could neither read nor write," and the Catholic Encyclopedia observes: "Wolfram in his Parzival tells us explicitly that he could neither read nor write. His poems were written down from dictation. His knowledge was extensive and varied rather than accurate. He certainly knew French, but only imperfectly; for his proper names often show a curious misunderstanding of French words and phrases."

Parzival
Wolfram is best known today for his Parzival, sometimes regarded as the greatest of all German Arthurian romances. Based on Chrétien de Troyes' unfinished Perceval, le Conte du Graal, it is the first extant work in German to have as its subject the Holy Grail (in Wolfram's interpretation a gemstone). In the poem, Wolfram's narrator expresses disdain for Chrétien's (unfinished) version of the tale, and states that his source was a poet from Provence called Kyot.

Titurel and Willehalm
Wolfram is the author of two other narrative works: the fragmentary Titurel and the unfinished Willehalm. These were both composed after Parzival, and Titurel mentions the death of Hermann I, which dates it firmly after 1217. Titurel consists of two fragments, which tell the story of Schionatulander and Sigune (lovers that were already depicted in Parzival). The first fragment deals with the birth of love between the main characters. The second fragment is quite different. Schionatulander and Sigune are alone in a forest, when their peace is suddenly disturbed by a mysterious dog, whose leash contains a story written in rubies. Sigune is eager to read the story, but the dog runs off. Schionatulander sets off to find him, but, as we already know from Parzival, he dies in the attempt.

Willehalm, an unfinished poem based on the Old French chanson de geste, Aliscans, was a significant work, and has been preserved in 78 manuscripts. It is set against the backdrop of the religious wars between the Christians and the Saracens. The eponymous hero Willehalm kidnaps a Saracen princess, converts her to Christianity and marries her. The Saracen king raises an army to rescue his daughter. The poem has many of the distinguishing features of medieval literature: the victory of the Christians over a much larger Saracen army, the touching death of the young knight Vivian, Willehalm's nephew and the works mirror of chivalric courage and spiritual purity.

Lyric poetry
Wolfram's nine surviving songs, five of which are dawn-songs, are regarded as masterpieces of Minnesang. Dawn-songs recount the story of a knight who spends the night with his beloved lady, but at dawn has to slip away unnoticed. Mostly it is the lady who wakes the knight up in the morning, but sometimes this mission is made by the watchman. No melodies survived. Two melodies are still connected to him, the Schwarzer Thon, attributed to Wolfram in a 14th-century manuscript, and the fragmentary and unfinished epic Titurel (after 1217) with a complicated four-line stanza form that was often used in later poems.

Influence
The 84 surviving manuscripts of Parzival, both complete and fragmentary, indicate the immense popularity of Wolfram's major work in the following two centuries. Willehalm, with 78 manuscripts, comes not far behind. Many of these include a continuation written in the 1240s by Ulrich von Türheim under the title Rennewart. The unfinished Titurel was taken up and expanded around 1272 by a poet named Albrecht, who is generally presumed to be Albrecht von Scharfenberg and who adopts the narrative persona of Wolfram. This work is referred to as the Jüngere Titurel (Younger Titurel).

The modern rediscovery of Wolfram begins with the publication of a translation of Parzival in 1753 by the Swiss scholar Johann Jakob Bodmer. Parzival was the main source Richard Wagner used when writing the libretto to his opera, Parsifal. Wolfram himself appears as a character in another Wagner opera, Tannhäuser.

title: Wolfram von Eschenbach


text:
Talk:Wolfram von Eschenbach

Birthplace candidates
I'm not too sure about these place names I've given for his birth - is Eschenbach called something else now? And is Aschbach actually a place? I'm working from notes I made, and I can't quite make out my handwriting... --Camembert

 * I think Aschbach is Ansbach, and that Eschenbach is too small to be on my map :( -- Someone else 22:20 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

 * But not for mine ;) There actually is an Aschbach near an Eschenbach in Bavaria, but both are small villages near Bamberg. However, any search for Wolfram on Google yields German and English texts that specify Ansbach, a relatively well-known town, which is why it's referenced. -Scipius 22:25 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for the clarification/correction, both. --Camembert
 * I was born in Eschenbach in 1986. It exists. *random internet user* —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.23.104.163 (talk) 21:58, 3 December 2004

Start class?
I don't consider this classification appropriate. There is little more to say on the biographical front that is not mere speculation; further info on the individual works belongs on their own pages. Under References, I have added the only general book about Wolfram in English. I suppose there is some scope for general remarks about Wolfram's language. But I can't see what else this article needs. --Pfold 12:18, 24 December 2006 (UTC)

OR re towns
I fact tagged in "Life", specifically bcz of the last sent
 * However, the evidence is circumstantial and not without problems - there are at least four other places named Eschenbachs in present-day Bavaria, and Wolframs-Eschenbach was not part of Bavaria in Wolfram's time.

Even "not without problems" deserves a ref, bcz it insinuates the change in boundaries is problematic. Maybe it is, but there may well be a sense of Bayrischkeit that cut deeper then than the petty machinations of the multitude of German princes of this time. I thot of the boundary of Bavaria as being like that of Kansas until my poor-mouthing about how weak my German is elicited from the butcher (i'm translating) "Yeah, me too: I only speak Bayrisch." If a recognized expert says it's a problem, so be it; until then, what's there is OR. --Jerzy•t 01:47, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

Wolfram's opinions
We carried on a bit of a debate in the edit summaries, and perhaps it is my fault that it did not get more clearly documented, by originally appearing here. I wouldn't mind being called pedantic for advocating this distinction in general in an encyclopedia (as i am prepared to do). But this instance of "unneeded" pedanticism is actually drastically needed: the record on Wolfram available to scholars is that copies of a handful of poetic works were attributed to him by copyists who may not have been born before his death, a grossly different situation from anyone for whom we have any hope of knowing the relationship between their opinions and those they attributed to their corresponding narrators. In fact, if our other impressions of him rest on the champion of an opinionated and vehemently enforced aesthetic (Wagner's invention in Tannhäuser) -- as IMO those of most of the readers who recognize him are likely to -- we are likely to take "expresses" quite literally, despite that lacking any basis. --Jerzy•t 00:23, 9 April 2012 (UTC)
 * 1) I summarized by copying the tag i was adding:
 * 2)  rv'd, and summarized
 * rv - not wrong but needlessly pedantic about a perfectly standard manner of expression in discussing narrative
 * 1)  supported my tag, and acted on it, converting "Wolfram expresses" to "Wolfram's narrator expresses" and summarizing
 * (→Works: Jerzy has a (non-pedantic) point; it's literary studies 101 to distinguish bt. author & narrator, even if (as here) they have the same name. See Bumke, Groos, on this issue in Parzival)
 * (→Works: Jerzy has a (non-pedantic) point; it's literary studies 101 to distinguish bt. author & narrator, even if (as here) they have the same name. See Bumke, Groos, on this issue in Parzival)

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Illiterate?
The article states:

" the Catholic Encyclopedia observes: "Wolfram in his Parzival tells us explicitly that he could neither read nor write. His poems were written down from dictation"

Didn't he take dictation for Walther, who was illiterate? Or did I confuse the two? 79.106.203.92 (talk) 09:00, 28 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Is the Catholic Encyclopaedia even a source? 79.106.203.92 (talk) 09:01, 28 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wolfram von Eschenbach


text:
Talk:Proboscidea

Untitled
Recent DNA tests have shown that the forest elephant is not a subspecies of the African elephant but a species in its own right. See, and. D.D. 22:01 Jan 4, 2003 (UTC)

Why is Amebelodon listed as gompothere in that article, while there is also an Amebelodontidae family listed here?

Amebelodon
Why is Amebelodon listed as gompothere in that article, while there is also an Amebelodontidae family listed here? Sorry for the double post DaMatriX 15:49, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

Removed deleted image(s)
Just a note to say that I have removed some [or an] image[s] from the page beacuse they were speediable under either:

 * Category:Images with no fair use rationale
 * Category:Images with no copyright tag
 * Category:Images with no source

Or similar category. Kilo-Lima|(talk) 17:48, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

Classification
Something's not right here. Look at the taxobox - Euelephantoidea is shown as the parent of the child Gomphotheriidae. Yet the actual article for Gomphotheriidae has a taxobox indicating the taxonomic parent is Order Proboscidea. Presumably, the Gomphotheriidae page has omitted all intervening suborders? Or, is there an error? There seems to be taxonomic confusion throughout the various wiki pages within Proboscidea.--Leperflesh 20:54, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

 * There still is, three years later. cygnis insignis 12:53, 15 August 2009 (UTC)

Last glacial period
From the article: "Most families of Proboscidea are now extinct, many since the end of the last glacial period."

Could someone please include the date for the last glacial period? I think this was 20,000 years ago but I'm not sure. A link would be nice too. Thank you. Rissa, Guild of Copy Editors (talk) 01:57, 4 November 2015 (UTC)

Extinction footnote
While it is possible to figure out that species now extinct are marked with "†", a note in the article or a footnote at the end would be helpful. Because of my Wiki editing inexperience I'd rather not do this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by GeeBee60 (talk • contribs) 08:24, 18 February 2016 (UTC)

Missing species
The taxonomic tree ("cladogram" above the section "Morphology" has "Loxodonta africana" ("African bush elephant" or "African savanna elephant") but "Loxodonta cyclotis" ("African forest elephant") is missing (as of the date and time I'm typing this). What's also missing are the lines that show how the two taxons (taxa) relate to each other, at which node they join up.2600:1700:6759:B000:1C64:8308:33BC:E2D6 (talk) 06:07, 18 August 2023 (UTC)Christopher Lawrence Simpson

title: Talk:Proboscidea


text:
Oristano

Oristano (Aristanis ) is an Italian city and comune, and capital of the Province of Oristano in the central-western part of the island of Sardinia. It is located on the northern part of the Campidano plain. It was established as the provincial capital on 16 July 1974. , the city had 31,671 inhabitants.

The economy of Oristano is based mainly on services, agriculture, tourism and small industries.

History
Oristano was previously known by the Byzantines as Aristanis (in Byzantine Greek: Αριστάνις), and founded close to the ancient Phoenician settlement of Othoca (now Santa Giusta). It acquired importance in 1070, when, as a result of the frequent Saracen attacks, Archbishop Torcotorio made it the seat of the bishopric, which was previously in the nearby coastal town of Tharros. It also became the capital of the "Judicate" (equivalent to a Kingdom) of Arborea. Consequently, fortifications were designed, but the building thereof went on until judge Mariano II rose to power.

In medieval times Oristano vied for power over the whole island of Sardinia, and therefore waged wars against the other Sardinian kingdoms which culminated in the attempt to conquer the whole island during the reign (1347–75) of Mariano IV and that of his son Hugh III (1376–1383) and his daughter Eleanor (1383–1404). The Judicate of Arborea held out to be the last Sardinian kingdom to cease to exist in 1420, about 10 years after the battle of Sanluri. It was transformed in Marchesato by the Aragonese and conquered, following a revolt by the last marquess Leonardo Alagon, by the Catalan troops of the Kingdom of Aragon, in 1478 after the battle of Macomer.

Thereafter, Oristano's history was that of the island of Sardinia, characterised by the Aragonese-Spanish (until 1708) and Piedmontese (from 1720) dominations, and then the unification of Italy. In April 1921, David Cova, Emilio Lussu, Camillo Bellieni and other Sardinian veterans of World War I founded in the city the Sardinian Action Party.

Main sights

 * The Tower of St. Christophoros, otherwise known as Tower of Mariano II, was built in 1290, is 19 m tall and the most striking remaining evidence of the old walls built at the time of the Judicate, as it was one of the main gates thereof.
 * Torrione ("Big Tower") of Portixedda.
 * St. Mary's Cathedral (1130) was rebuilt during the reign of Mariano II after being destroyed in a siege. Of the original structure of Mariano, only parts of the apse and base of the campanile are left, as well as the Gothic Chapel of the Rimedio, which houses some medieval sculptures. Parts of a more ancient Byzantine edifice can be seen in the court. To the 17th century renovation belongs the Chapel of the Archivietto ("Chapel of the Small Archive"). The current Baroque style is largely from the 19th-century restoration. It has been supposed that the Cathedral was used for the burials of the Judges and their families, but the subsequent dominations have deleted all traces of them. In the interior is a wooden statue of the Annunziata, attributed to Nino Pisano.
 * The Church of St. Francis of Assisi was built around 1200 and is currently in neo-classical style. Therewithin is the Christ of Nicodemus, a wooden sculpture believed to be the work of Valencian masters, dating back to the 14th century.
 * The Franciscan church of Santa Chiara (consecrated in 1428) is an edifice in French-Gothic style with a single nave and a square apse.
 * The Church and cloister of the Carmine is one of the best examples of Baroque-Roccoco architecture in Oristano.
 * The Church of Saint Sebastian is the only medieval extramural church, i.e. it is located outside the walls.
 * The Church of Saint Dominic (San Domenico) was built in 1634 at the initiative of friar Pietro Flores and financially supported by local nobleman Baldassarre Dedoni. Citizens also made donations in exchange for 2 m2 of floor space for a tomb therewithin. The building is a rectangularly-shaped chamber with two chapels formed in its right side wall: one of them is dedicated to Saint Vincent and the other one to the name of Jesus. Most notably, it has a wood retable that served as the main altar and includes several niches dedicated to Saint Dominic and other Saints. Upon the suppression of religious orders in 1832 the Dominicans, who had been in charge until then, bequeathed the church to the archconfraternity of the Saint Name of Jesus. It was thereafter refurbished several times, deconsecrated and currently serves as an Auditorium for congresses and concerts.
 * In the village of Massama is the small pre-Romanesque church called Oratory of the Souls, showing influences from the Visigothic art of the 8th century.

Sa Sartiglia and other events
Sa Sartiglia, otherwise known at its inception as Sartilla, is an equestrian tournament held in Oristano for the past 500 years on Carnival Sunday and Mardi Gras. The tournament on Sunday is organized by the Corporation (Gremio) of farmers, whereas that on Mardi Gras is organised by the Gremio of carpenters. It has arguably an ancient Castillan origin. Researchers M. Falchi and M. Zucca found a manuscript dating the first tournament to 1543, whereas Pau, a late local historian, believed it originated in Oristano before the Spaniards set foot on the island. In fact, in a letter written to an English friar in the 14th century, St. Catherine of Siena stated that the Judge of Arborea could provide two galleys and one thousand horsemen to fight in a crusade for ten years. While being far from conclusive evidence that the tournament had already been, or was about to be held, this letter is certainly a testament to the importance of horse-breeding in Oristano and its surrounding countryside at the time.

The name "Sartiglia" comes from Sortija which, in turn, evolved from the Latin word Sorticola, the diminutive form of Sors which does not only mean fate and fortune, but also "ring".

The ring is a tin star provided with a hole at its centre, hanging from a ribbon strung above horseman's height across the street near the Cathedral, at which masked horsemen aim with their swords on steeds galloping at breath-taking speed, after being announced by trumpets and drums and having gathered pace down a route, covered with sand, snaking across the town centre. The number of stars caught on each day is a sign of the wealth that the harvest and carpentry work will bring to the corporations.

At the end of Sa Sartiglia, elsewhere within the old walls, another sand covered route will be trodden by horses ridden by those same masked horsemen and women showing their stunning prowess, while engaging in all sorts of acrobatics on two and three galloping steeds at a time. This is called La Pariglia, and ends at sunset. The leader of both trials is called Su Componidori, meaning "the one who marshals". He is chosen by the members of the Corporations, who do not disclose his name until Candlemas, when Su Majorale announces it directly to the appointee and a careful selection of the horses as well as adequate practice can start. He is neither a man, nor a woman but androgynous, much akin to the land and, at the end of the tournament, blesses bystanders and the town with the "little doll of May" (Sa Pippia 'e maiu), a bunch of flowers swaddled in a ribbon, believed to pre-date the tournament itself, followed by the other horsemen at a canter first, and then alone, riding with his back on his galloping steed's, face up gazing at the Heavens.

Transport
Oristano can be reached by train from Sardinia's ports of Olbia and Porto Torres, and the island's main cities Cagliari and Sassari. From Oristano all villages of the province can be reached by buses departing the bus station close to centrally-located Piazza G.Manno. Moreover, a private concern provides a twice-daily bus service to and from Cagliari Elmas Airport. The journey takes approximately 2 hours.

Oristano is served by the Fenosu Airport, 3 km from the city, and by a cargo sea port. The airport isn’t operating anymore.

Climate
Oristano has a subtropical mediterranean climate with hot summers and mild winters. As manifests a mediterranean climate, precipitation patterns are highly seasonally defined, with the vast majority falling during winter. Summers are still retaining warmth and humidity during night in spite of the dry weather.

Twin towns – sister cities
Oristano is twinned with:
 * 🇪🇸 Ciutadella de Menorca, Spain, since 1991
 * 🇺🇸 Garden City, Kansas, United States

title: Oristano


text:
Gennargentu

Gennargentu (Ghennarghentu ) is a large massif in central-southern Sardinia, Italy, encompassing the provinces of Nuoro and Ogliastra. It includes the highest peaks on the island, such as Punta La Marmora (1,834 m), Monte Spada (1,595 m), Punta Erbas Virdes (1,676 m), Bruncu Spina (1,829 m) and Punta Paulinu (1,792 m).

The range forms part of the Gennargentu National Park. Geologically, its rocks are amongst the oldest in Europe, and are therefore smooth shaped: rock types include schist, limestone and granite.

Toponymy
The etymology of the name Gennargentu is not attested: it could mean "Silver Door" (jenna (d)e arghentu), "Door of the Winds" (jenna de bentu) or "Door of Absinthium" (jenna de assentu).

Ski resorts
The mountains are home to the only ski resort on the island: Bruncu Spina ski area.

title: Gennargentu