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Querelle

Querelle is a 1982 English-language arthouse film directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and starring Brad Davis, adapted from French author Jean Genet's 1947 novel Querelle of Brest. It was Fassbinder's last film, released shortly after his death at the age of 37.

Plot
The plot centers on the handsome Belgian sailor Georges Querelle, who is also a thief and murderer. When his ship, Le Vengeur, arrives in Brest, he visits the Feria, a bar and brothel for sailors run by Madame Lysiane, whose lover, Robert, is Querelle's brother. Querelle has a love/hate relationship with his brother: when they meet at La Feria, they embrace, but also punch one another slowly and repeatedly in the belly. Lysiane's husband Nono works behind the bar and also manages La Feria's illicit affairs with the assistance of his friend Mario, the corrupt police captain.

Querelle makes a deal to sell opium to Nono. During the execution of the deal, he murders his accomplice Vic by slitting his throat. After delivering the drugs, Querelle announces that he wants to sleep with Lysiane. He knows that this means he will have to throw dice with Nono, who has the privilege of playing a game of chance with all of her prospective lovers. If Nono loses, the suitor is allowed to proceed with his affair. If the suitor loses, however, he must submit to anal sex with Nono first, according to Nono's maxim: "That way, I can say my wife only sleeps with arseholes." Querelle deliberately loses the game, allowing himself to be sodomized by Nono. When Nono gloats about Querelle's "loss" to Robert, who won his dice game, the brothers end up in a violent fight. Later, Querelle's brother becomes Lysiane's lover, and Querelle has sex with Mario.

Luckily for Querelle, a builder, Gil, murders his work mate Theo, who had been harassing and sexually assaulting him. Gil hides from the police in an abandoned prison, and Roger, who is in love with Gil, establishes contact between Querelle and Gil in the hopes that Querelle can help Gil escape. Querelle falls in love with Gil, who closely resembles his brother. Gil returns his affections, but Querelle betrays Gil by tipping off the police. Querelle cleverly arranged it so that the murder of Vic is also blamed on Gil.

A perennial undercurrent in the film is that Querelle's superior, Lieutenant Seblon, is in love with Querelle, and constantly tries to prove his manliness to him. Seblon is aware that Querelle murdered Vic, but chooses to protect him.

The film ends with the sailors aboard Le Vengeur, presumably about to leave port. A heartbroken Lysiane, spurned by Querelle, conducts a tarot reading for Robert: she realizes that he and Querelle were never brothers after all. As Lysiane laughs maniacally, we see Querelle's birth record transcribed on-screen.

Cast

 * Brad Davis as Querelle
 * Franco Nero as Lieutenant Seblon
 * Jeanne Moreau as Lysiane
 * Laurent Malet as Roger Bataille
 * Hanno Pöschl as Robert / Gil
 * Günther Kaufmann as Nono
 * Burkhard Driest as Mario
 * Roger Fritz as Marcellin
 * Dieter Schidor as Vic Rivette
 * Natja Brunckhorst as Paulette
 * Werner Asam as Worker
 * Axel Bauer as Worker
 * Neil Bell as Theo
 * Robert van Ackeren as Drunken legionnaire
 * Wolf Gremm as Drunken legionnaire
 * Frank Ripploh as Drunken legionnaire

Production
According to Genet's biographer Edmund White, Querelle was originally going to be made by Werner Schroeter, with a scenario by Burkhard Driest, and produced by Dieter Schidor. However, Schidor could not find the money to finance a film by Schroeter, and therefore turned to other directors, including John Schlesinger and Sam Peckinpah, before finally settling on Fassbinder. Driest wrote a radically different script for Fassbinder, who then "took the linear narrative and jumbled it up". White quotes Schidor as saying "Fassbinder did something totally different, he took the words of Genet and tried to meditate on something other than the story. The story became totally unimportant for him. He also said publicly that the story was a sort of third-rate police story that wouldn't be worth making a movie about without putting a particular moral impact into it".

Schroeter had wanted to make a black and white film with amateur actors and location shots, but Fassbinder instead shot it with professional actors in a lurid, expressionist color, and on sets in the studio. Edmund White comments that the result is a film in which, "Everything is bathed in an artificial light and the architectural elements are all symbolic."

Stylistically, the film is inspired heavily by the works of erotic artist Tom of Finland. Besides costume design and hair styles, actors were posed in silhouettes and scenarios common to Tom Of Finland artwork. "The director Rainer Werner Fassbinder took obvious cues from Tom of Finland in his 1982 film adaptation of Jean Genet’s novel Querelle. As the eponymous lead, actor Brad Davis was Tom’s sailor come to life."

Soundtrack

 * Jeanne Moreau – "Each Man Kills the Things He Loves" (music by Peer Raben, lyrics from Oscar Wilde's poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol")
 * "Young and Joyful Bandit" (Music by Peer Raben, lyrics by Jeanne Moreau)

Both songs were nominated to the 1984 Razzie Awards for "Worst Original Song".

Release
Querelle sold more than 100,000 tickets in the first three weeks after its release in Paris, the first time that a film with a gay theme had achieved such success. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, which categorizes reviews as positive or negative only, the film has an approval rating of 63% calculated based on 16 critics comments. By comparison, with the same opinions being calculated using a weighted arithmetic mean, the rating is 6.10/10. Writing for The New York Times critic Vincent Canby noted that Querelle was "a mess...a detour that leads to a dead end." Penny Ashbrook calls Querelle Fassbinder's "perfect epitaph: an intensely personal statement that is the most uncompromising portrayal of gay male sensibility to come from a major filmmaker." Edmund White considers Querelle the only film based on Genet's book that works, calling it "visually as artificial and menacing as Genet's prose." Genet, in discussion with Schidor, said that he had not seen the film, commenting "You can't smoke at the movies."

title: Querelle


text:
Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand Guericke

Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand Guericke (25 February 1803, Wettin – 4 February 1878, Halle an der Saale), was a German theologian.

He was born at Wettin in Saxony and studied theology at the University of Halle, where he was appointed associate professor in 1829. He disapproved of the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which had been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 1833 he joined the Old Lutherans. In 1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840.

Published works
Among his works were a biography of August Hermann Francke, "August Hermann Francke. Eine Denkschrift zur Säcularfeier seines Todes" (1827) — later translated into English as: "The life of Augustus Herman Franké" (1837). He was also the author of:
 * "Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte" (1833); translated into English by William G. T. Shedd (2 volumes):
 * "A manual of church history : ancient church history, comprising the first six centuries".
 * "A manual of church history : mediaeval church history, A.D. 590 - A.D. 1073".
 * "Lehrbuch der christlich kirchlichen Archäologie" (1847); translated into English by A.J.W. Morrison as "Manual of the antiquities of the church" (1851).
 * "Allgemeine christliche Symbolik : ein theologisches Handbuch" (3rd edition, 1861).

In 1840, with Andreas Gottlob Rudelbach, he founded the "Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche".

Translated works available online

 * Manual of the Antiquities of the Church
 * A Manual of Church History, Comprising the First Six Centuries
 * A Manual of Church History: Mediaeval Church History, A.D. 590 - A.D. 1073

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand Guericke


text:
Red-throated loon

The red-throated loon (North America) or red-throated diver (Britain and Ireland) (Gavia stellata) is a migratory aquatic bird found in the northern hemisphere. The most widely distributed member of the loon or diver family, it breeds primarily in Arctic regions, and winters in northern coastal waters. Ranging from 55 to 67 cm in length, the red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loons. In winter, it is a nondescript bird, greyish above fading to white below. During the breeding season, it acquires the distinctive reddish throat patch which is the basis for its common name. Fish form the bulk of its diet, though amphibians, invertebrates, and plant material are sometimes eaten as well. A monogamous species, red-throated loons form long-term pair bonds. Both members of the pair help to build the nest, incubate the eggs (generally two per clutch), and feed the hatched young.

The red-throated loon has a large global population and a significant global range, though some populations are declining. Oil spills, habitat degradation, pollution, and fishing nets are among the major threats this species faces. Natural predators—including various gull species, and both red and Arctic foxes, will take eggs and young. The species is protected by international treaties.

Taxonomy and etymology
First described by Danish naturalist Erik Pontoppidan in 1763, the red-throated loon is a monotypic species with no distinctive subspecies despite its large Holarctic range. Pontoppidan initially placed the species in the now-defunct genus Colymbus, which contained grebes as well as loons. By 1788, German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster realized that grebes and loons were different enough to warrant separate genera, and moved the red-throated loon (along with all other loon species) to its present genus. Its relationship to the four other loons is complex; although all belong to the same genus, it differs from the others in terms of morphology, behaviour, ecology and breeding biology and may be the basal lineage of the genus. It is thought to have evolved in the Palearctic, and then to have expanded into the Nearctic. Analysis of molecular data together with the fossil record suggests the lineage of the red-throated loon diverged from that giving rise to the other loon species around 21.4 million years ago in the Miocene, and that it may be most closely related to the fossil Pliocene species Gavia howardae.

The genus name Gavia comes from the Latin for "sea mew", as used by ancient Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder. The specific epithet stellata is Latin for "set with stars" or "starry", and refers to the bird's speckled back in its non-breeding plumage. Members of the family Gavidae are known as loons in North America and divers in Great Britain and Ireland. The International Ornithological Congress uses the name red-throated loon for this species. "Diver" refers to the family's underwater method of hunting for prey, while "red-throated" is a straightforward reference to the bird's most distinctive breeding plumage feature. The word "loon" is thought to have derived from the Swedish lom, the Old Norse or Icelandic lómr, or the Old Dutch loen, all of which mean "lame" or "clumsy", and is a probable reference to the difficulty that all loons have in moving about on land. A local name from Willapa Harbor, Washington, was Quaker loon.

Description

Like the other members of its genus, the red-throated loon is well adapted to its aquatic environment: its dense bones help it to submerge, its legs—in their set-back position—provide excellent propulsion, and its body is long and streamlined. Even its sharply pointed bill may help its underwater streamlining. Its feet are large, its front three toes are fully webbed, and its tarsus is flattened, which reduces drag and allows the leg to move easily through the water.

The red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loon species, ranging from 53 to 69 cm in length with a 91 - 120 cm wingspan, and weighing 1 - 2.7 kg. Like all loons, it is long-bodied and short-necked, with its legs set far back on its body. The sexes are similar in appearance, although males tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females. In breeding plumage, the adult has a dark grey head and neck (with narrow black and white stripes on the back of the neck), a triangular red throat patch, white underparts, and a dark grey-brown mantle. It is the only loon with an all-dark back in breeding plumage. The non-breeding plumage is drabber with the chin, foreneck, and much of the face white, the top of the head and back of the neck grey, and considerable white speckling on the dark mantle. Its iris is carmine-red to burgundy in colour, its legs are black on the outer half and pale on the inner half, and the webs of its feet are pinkish-brown, with darker margins.

Its bill is thin, straight, and sharp, and often held at an uptilted angle. One of the bird's North American folk names is pegging-awl loon, a reference to its sharply pointed bill, which resembles a sailmaker's awl (a tool also known as a "pegging awl" in New England). Though the colour of the bill changes from black in summer to pale grey in winter, the timing of the colour change does not necessarily correspond to that of the bird's overall plumage change. The nostrils are narrow slits located near the base of the bill.

When it first emerges from its egg, the young red-throated loon is covered with fine soft down feathers. Primarily dark brown to dark grey above, it is slightly paler on the sides of its head and neck, as well as on its throat, chest, and flanks, with a pale grey lower breast and belly. Within weeks, this first down is replaced by a second, paler set of down feathers, which are in turn replaced by developing juvenile feathers. The juvenile's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though with a few distinguishing features. It has a darker forehead and neck, with heavy speckling on the sides of the neck and the throat. Its back is browner and less speckled, and its underparts are tinged with brown. Its eyes are reddish-brown, and its beak is a pale grey. Though some young birds hold this plumage until mid-winter, many quickly become virtually indistinguishable from adults, except for their paler bills.

In flight, the red-throated loon has a distinctive profile; its small feet do not project far past the end of its body, its head and neck droop below the horizontal (giving the flying bird a distinctly hunchbacked shape) and its thin wings are angled back. It has a quicker, deeper wingbeat than do other loons.

Voice
The adult red-throated loon has a number of vocalisations, which are used in different circumstances. In flight, when passing conspecifics or circling its own pond, it gives a series of rapid yet rhythmic goose-like cackles—kaa-kaa-kaa or kak-kak-kak, at roughly five calls per second. Its warning call, if disturbed by humans or onshore predators, is a short croaking bark. A low-pitched moaning call, used primarily as a contact call between mates and between parents and young, but also during copulation, is made with the bill closed. The species also has a short wailing call—aarOOao...aarOOao...—which descends slightly in pitch and lasts about a second; due to strong harmonics surrounding the primary pitch, this meowing call is more musical than its other calls. Another call—a harsh, pulsed cooing that rises and falls in pitch, and is typically repeated up to 10 times in a row—is used in territorial encounters and pair-bonding, and by parent birds encouraging their young to move on land between bodies of water. Known as the "long call", it is often given in duet, which is unusual among the loons; the female's contribution is longer and softer than her mate's.

Young have a shrill closed-bill call, which they use in begging and to contact their parents. They also have a long call used in response to (and similar to that of) the long call of adults.

Similar species
At medium to close range, an adult red-throated loon in either breeding or non-breeding plumage is usually easily recognised. However, in certain light conditions, at certain times in its moulting cycle, or at greater distances, it may be mistaken for another species—most commonly the black-throated loon, but also occasionally the great crested grebe. It shows more white on the head and neck than does the black-throated loon, and—provided it is not sitting low in the water—tends to show more white on the flanks as well. If it is sitting lower in the water, so that the white on the flanks is reduced to a patch on the rear flank (thus resembling the pattern of the black-throated loon), that patch tends to be less clearly defined than the comparative patch on the black-throated.

Habitat and distribution
In contrast to other loons its main fishing grounds are not the breeding lake, but larger lakes or the sea. Several nests close to each other may occur in the same breeding lake. The red-throated loon breeds primarily in the Arctic regions of northern Eurasia and North America (generally north of 50°N latitude), and winters in northern coastal waters, sometimes in groups of considerable size. More than 4,400 spend the winter in a loose concentration on the eastern part of the German Bight, for example. Unlike other loons, it regularly uses very small freshwater lakes as breeding sites. Its small size renders it more versatile, but it is less able to feed on deeper prey. The increase in size and diversity of the remaining species of loons suggests that the benefits of larger size outweigh the limitations.

In North America, it winters regularly along both coasts, ranging as far south as the Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California in north-western Mexico; it has been recorded as a vagrant in the interior Mexican state of Hidalgo. Some of its folk names in north-eastern North America—including cape race, cape brace, cape drake and cape racer, as well as corruptions such as scapegrace—originated from its abundance around Cape Race, Newfoundland. In Europe, it breeds in Iceland, northern Scotland, north-western Ireland (only a few pairs), Scandinavia and northern Russia, and winters along the coast as far south as parts of Spain; it also regularly occurs along major inland waterways, including the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas, as well as large rivers, lakes and reservoirs. It has occurred as a vagrant as far south as Morocco, Tunisia and the Gambia. In Asia, it breeds in the northern stretches of Siberia, and winters along the Pacific coast as far south as China, Japan and Taiwan. It has occurred as a vagrant in Mongolia.

Behaviour
Because its feet are located so far back on its body, the red-throated loon is quite clumsy walking on land, but it can use its feet to shove itself forward on its breast. Young use this method of covering ground when moving from their breeding pools to larger bodies of water, including rivers and the sea. It is the only species of loon able to take off directly from land. If frightened, it may submerge until only its head or bill shows above the surface of the water. It differs from other loons by nesting in small lakes but feeding in larger lakes or the sea. The nesting lake may host several nests, close to another, with much agonistic behavior among pairs. This territorial behavior is performed pairwise, with vocalisation (long call, plesiosur race).

The red-throated loon is a diurnal migrant, which travels singly or in loose groups, often high above the water. In eastern North America (and possibly elsewhere), it tends to migrate near the coast rather than farther offshore; Siberian populations travel for hundreds of miles over land en route to their southern European wintering grounds. It is a strong flier, and has been clocked at speeds between 75 and 78 km/h. Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon goes through a simultaneous wing moult, losing all its flight feathers at once and becoming flightless for a period of three to four weeks. Unlike other loons—which undergo this moult in late winter—the red-throated loon loses its ability to fly sometime between late summer and late autumn.

Food and feeding
Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon is primarily a fish-eater, though it sometimes feeds on molluscs, crustaceans, frogs, aquatic invertebrates, insects, fish spawn or even plant material. It seizes rather than spears its prey, which is generally captured underwater. Though it normally dives and swims using only its feet for propulsion, it may use its wings as well if it needs to turn or accelerate quickly. Pursuit dives range from 2 - 9 m in depth, with an average underwater time of about a minute. Its fish diet increases the red-throated loon's vulnerability to persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, both of which bioaccumulate, thus potentially causing greater problems for long-lived species (such as the loon) at or near the top of the food chain. Its main diet has also led to several of the loon's British folk names, including "sprat borer" and "spratoon".

For the first few days after hatching, young red-throated loons are fed aquatic insects and small crustaceans by both parents. After 3–4 days, the parents switch to fish small enough for the young birds to swallow whole. By four weeks of age, the young can eat the same food—of the same size—as their parents do. Young birds may be fed for some time after fledging; adults have been seen feeding fish to juveniles at sea and on inland lakes in the United Kingdom, hundreds of kilometres from any breeding areas.

Breeding and survival
The red-throated loon is a monogamous species which forms long-term pair bonds. Both sexes build the nest, which is a shallow scrape (or occasionally a platform of mud and vegetation) lined with vegetation and sometimes a few feathers, and placed within a 0.5 m of the edge of a small pond. The female lays two eggs (though clutches of one and three have also been recorded); they are incubated for 24–29 days, primarily by the female. The eggs, which are greenish or olive-brownish spotted with black, measure 75 x and have a mass of 83 g, of which 8% is shell. Incubation is begun as soon as the first egg is laid, so they hatch asynchronously. If a clutch is lost (to predation or flooding, for example) before the young hatch, the red-throated loon usually lays a second clutch, generally in a new nest. The young birds are precocial: upon hatching, they are downy and mobile, with open eyes. Both parents feed them small aquatic invertebrates initially, then small fish for 38–48 days. Parents will perform distraction displays to lure predators away from the nest and young. Ornithologists disagree as to whether adults carry young on their backs while swimming with some maintaining that they do and others the opposite.

In the wild, the oldest known red-throated loon lived for more than two decades. It was found, oiled and dead, on a beach in Sweden 23 years and 7 months after it had been ringed (banded).

Conservation status and threats
Although the red-throated loon is not a globally threatened species, as it has a large population and a significant range, there are populations which appear to be declining. Numbers counted in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveys in Alaska show a 53% population decline between 1971 and 1993, for example, and survey count numbers have dropped in continental Europe as well. In Scotland, on the other hand, the population increased by some 16% between 1994 and 2006, according to surveys done by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and Scottish Natural Heritage. In 2002, Wetlands International estimated a global population of 490,000 to 1,500,000 individuals; global population trends have not been quantified.

The red-throated loon is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies; in the Americas, it is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. Oil spills, habitat degradation, and fishing nets are among the main threats this species faces. Because it tends to migrate close to shore—generally within 20 km of land—it may be detrimentally affected by the construction of near-shore wind farms; studies indicate a high level of avoidance of wind farm areas, though deaths due to direct strikes with the turbines appear to be uncommon. High levels of mercury in the environment have led to reproductive failures in some areas, including parts of Sweden. Studies in Sweden have also shown that they may be adversely impacted by the acidification of lakes, as the fish on which they prey are susceptible to low pH.} On the breeding grounds, Arctic and red foxes are major predators of eggs, while great skuas, Arctic skuas and various species of Larus gulls (including great black-backed gulls and glaucous gulls) are predators of both eggs and young.

The species is known to serve as host for at least 51 species of parasites, most of which are roundworms (nematodes), flatworms (digeneans) and tapeworms (cestodes) carried internally; a single species of louse is its only known external parasite. It is also known to sometimes carry significant populations of diatoms (microscopic phytoplankton) on its contour feathers. The red-throated loon is susceptible to avian influenza and Type E botulism, and is regularly killed by the ingestion of neurotoxins produced by "red tide" algal blooms. During a 2007 bloom, large numbers of the birds also died of hypothermia, after their plumages became matted by a protein byproduct of the algae, which reduced the insulating properties of their feathers.

In human culture
Used as a food source since prehistoric times, the red-throated loon is still hunted by indigenous peoples in some parts of the world today. Eggs as well as birds are taken, sometimes in significant numbers; during one study on northern Canada's Igloolik Island, 73% of all red-throated loon eggs laid within the 10 km2 study site over two breeding seasons were collected by indigenous inhabitants of the island. In some parts of Russia, red-throated loon skins were traditionally used to make caps and various clothing decorations, including collars. The species was also central to the creation mythologies of indigenous groups throughout the Holarctic. According to the myth—which varies only slightly between versions, despite the sometimes-vast distances that separated the groups who believed it—the loon was asked by a great shaman to bring up earth from the bottom of the sea. That earth was then used to build the world's dry land.

As recently as the 1800s, the behaviour of the red-throated loon was used to forecast the weather; according to the conventional wisdom of the time, birds flying inland or giving short cries predicted good weather, while those flying out to sea or giving long, wailing cries predicted rain. In the Orkney and Shetland islands of Scotland, the species is still known as the "rain goose" in deference to its supposed weather-predicting capabilities. The people of the Faroe Islands believed that if the red-throated loon miaowed like a cat, then rain was imminent, while a call of gaa-gaa-gaa or turkatrae-turkatrae predicted fine weather.

Bhutan, Japan, Åland (an autonomous region of Finland), and the Union of the Comoros have issued stamps featuring the red-throated loon.

title: Red-throated loon


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Balkanization

Balkanization or Balkanisation is the process involving the fragmentation of an area, country, or region into multiple smaller and hostile units. It is usually caused by differences in ethnicity, culture, religion, and geopolitical interests.

The term was first coined in the early 20th century, and found its roots in the depiction of events during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918), specifically referring to incidents that transpired earlier in the Balkan Peninsula.

The term is pejorative; when sponsored or encouraged by a sovereign third party, it has been used as an accusation against such third-party nations. Controversially, the term is often used by reactionary voices for the status quo to underscore the dangers of acrimonious or runaway secessionism. The Balkan peninsula is seen as an example of shatter belts in geopolitics.

Origins of the term
Coined in the early 20th century, the term "Balkanization" traces its origins to the depiction of events during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and the First World War (1914–1918). It did not emerge during the gradual secession of Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire over the 19th century, but was coined at the end of First World War. Albania was the only addition to the existing Balkan map at that time, as other nations had already formed in the nineteenth century. The term was initially employed by journalists and politicians, who used it as a conceptual tool to interpret the evolving global order resulting from the collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires and the subsequent secession of Balkan nations following the Ottoman Empire's disintegration in the nineteenth century. After the Second World War (1939–1945), the term underwent significant development, expanding beyond its original context to encompass diverse fields such as linguistics, demography, information technology, gastronomy, and more. This expansion extended its descriptive reach to various phenomena, often with pejorative connotations. In response, critical scholars in the late 20th and early 21st centuries sought to denaturalize and reclaim 'balkanization'.

Nations and societies

The term (coined in the early 20th century in the aftermath of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire) refers to the division of the Balkan peninsula, which was ruled almost entirely by the Ottoman Empire, into a number of smaller states between 1817 and 1912. It came into common use in the immediate aftermath of the First World War, with reference to the many new states that arose from the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire.

Uses to stir opinion
Countries in Europe, where uniting quite recently historically distinct peoples or nations, have seen outspoken separatists. These have prompted reactionary voices fearing Balkanization. The Iberian Peninsula, especially Spain, has from the time of Al-Andalus (ending in 1492) seen voices fearing disorderly rupture. Its main separatist movements today are Basque separatism and Catalan independentism.

Canada is a stable country but has separatist movements, the strongest of which is the Quebec sovereignty movement, which seeks to create a nation-state in Quebec, which encompasses the majority of Canada's French Canadian population. Two referendums have been held to decide the question, one in 1980 and one in 1995. Both were lost by the separatists, the latter by a small margin. Less mainstream and smaller movements also exist in the Canadian Prairie, especially Alberta, to protest what is seen as domination by Quebec and Ontario of Canadian politics. Saskatchewan Premier Roy Romanow also considered separation from Canada if the 1995 referendum had succeeded, which would have led to the balkanization of Canada.

Quebec has been the scene of a small but vociferous partition movement from the part of Anglo-Quebecers activist groups opposed to the idea of independence of Quebec since 80% of the province is francophone. One such project is the Proposal for the Province of Montreal for the establishment of a separate province from Quebec for Montreal's strongly-anglophone and allophone (mother tongue neither English nor French) communities.

In January 2007, the growing support for Scottish independence made Chancellor of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom and later Prime Minister Gordon Brown talk of a "Balkanisation of Britain". Independence movements in the United Kingdom also exist in England, Cornwall and Northern England (themselves parts of England), Wales, and Northern Ireland.

In Africa
Bates, Coatsworth & Williamson argued Balkanization was observed greatly in West Africa then British East Africa. In the 1960s, countries in the Communauté Financière Africaine started to opt for "autonomy within the French community" in the postcolonial era. Countries in the CFA franc zone were allowed to impose tariffs, regulate trade and manage transport services.

Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Uganda and Tanzania achieved independence toward the end of when the Great Powers postcolonial era came about. The period also saw the breakdown of the Federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland as well as the East African High Commission. Splintering into today's nations was a result of the movement towards a closed economy. Countries were adopting antitrade and anti-market policies. Tariff rates were 15% higher than in OECD countries during the 1970s and 1980s. Furthermore, countries took approaches to subsidise their own local industries, but the interior markets were small in scale. Transport networks were fragmented; regulations on labor and capital flow were increased; price controls were introduced. Between 1960 and 1990, balkanization led to disastrous results. The GDP of these regions were one tenth of OECD countries. Balkanization also resulted in what van de Valle called "typically fairly overvalued exchanged rates" in Africa. Balkanization contributed to what Bates, Coatsworth & Williamson claimed to be a lost decade in Africa.

Economic stagnation ended only in the mid-1990s. Countries within the region started to input more stabilization policies. What was originally a high exchange rate eventually fell to a more reasonable exchange rate after devaluations in 1994. By 1994, the number of countries with an exchange rate 50 percent higher than the official exchange rate had decreased from 18 to four. However, there is still limited progress in improving trade policies within the region, according to van de Walle. In addition, the post-independent countries still rely heavily on donors for development plans. Balkanization still has an impact on today's Africa. However, this causation narrative is not popular in many circles.

In the Levant
During the 1980s, the Lebanese academic and writer Georges Corm used the term balkanization to describe attempts by supporters of Israel to create buffer states based on ethnic backgrounds in the Levant to protect Israeli sovereignty. In 2013 the French journalist Bernard Guetta writing in the Libération newspaper applied the term to:

 * Lebanon's political division between Muslims, Christians and Druze.
 * The Syrian Civil War.

title: Balkanization


text:
Jaring

JARING (Jaring Communications Sdn Bhd) was a Malaysian internet service provider based in Technology Park Malaysia (TPM). It was the first Internet service provider in the country and was formerly owned by MIMOS Berhad.

The word "JARING" was derived from "Joint Advanced Research Integrated Networking".

JARING underwent liquidation on 23 April 2015 and is no longer in business.

History
JARING was Malaysia's first and pioneer Internet access service provider.

JARING was commercialised in 1992 after installing its first international satellite leased-circuit at 64kps, connecting Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia to Stockton in the United States. The circuit had then enabled JARING network users to be linked directly with Internet, including the BITNET and NSFNet.

In June 1997, JARING became the first Internet Service Provider (ISP) in South East Asia to install the T3 (45 Mbit/s) line, which provided JARING users with faster access to the Internet.

In 1999, JARING went a step further by introducing SuperJARING Internet backbone infrastructure with 2.5 Gigabits per second transmission speed, making it the fastest and longest (841 km) IP-over-fibre backbone service available in the world then.

The SuperJARING infrastructure that runs across Peninsular Malaysia from Kuala Lumpur through Ipoh, Penang, Kulim, Johor Bahru, Melaka and back to Kuala Lumpur has the capability to provide next-generation, bandwidth-intensive services like video-on-demand, secure virtual private networks (Secure VPNs), Internet telephony, Internet TV, distance learning and telemedicine.

As a pioneer in providing Internet access in Malaysia, JARING was committed in exploring new technologies and setting standards for others to follow in order to facilitate the creation of a knowledge-based society. Up until its closure, JARING had multiples of 622 Mbit/s links (STM4) to the global Internet, providing highly redundant circuits riding on the latest APCN-2, FLAG and PACNET submarine cable systems.

JARING Communications Sdn. Bhd. was later established as a spin-off company under MIMOS Berhad on 1 April 2005 and by December 2006, the Ministry of Finance, Malaysia, officially takes over JARING from MIMOS Berhad.

In 2008, JARING is first again to implement Internet telephone interconnect with traditional telephone services allowing Celcom subscribers to directly dial to JARING MY015 telephone subscribers. The Interconnect was later expanded to other telecommunications providers such as Maxis, Telekom Malaysia, TIME, Packet One and DiGi.

In February 2009, JARING was awarded "The International Customer Service Standard (TICSS)" Certification by the British Standards Institution (BSI), United Kingdom. JARING is the first telecommunication company in Malaysia and the Asia-Pacific to receive this award.

JARING had strategically committed its resources in embarking on an initiative to pursue the globally recognised certifications in Information Security Management System. On 20 July 2011, SIRIM QAS International formally awarded the ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO 9001 certifications for JARING Internet Data Centre, Virtual Private Network and System Operations.

On 1 January 2013, JARING becomes a private entity under Utusan Printcorp Sdn. Bhd. (UPSB) when the latter took over 100% of the withholding of the company from Ministry of Finance.

Up until its closure, it had ventured into expanding Malaysia's Internet experience by becoming among the first to provide high performance computing over the cloud, big data analysis, integrated solution for Internet of Things (IoT) and sentiment analytic for data processing.

JARING has finally closed and undergoes liquidation as of 23 April 2015.

Milestones
JARING has distinctly positions itself to be firsts in the Internet industry and its evolving technologies and applications in Malaysia. Among JARING accomplishments are:

 * 1992: Pioneered the Internet gateway in Malaysia establishing itself as the first Internet Service Provider (ISP).

 * 1999: The launch of SuperJARING Internet backbone that runs from North to South of Peninsular Malaysia at a speed of 2.5 Gigabits per second, establishing it the first, fastest and longest (841 km) IP-over-fiber backbone service in the world at that time.

 * 1999: JARING was the first ISP to be awarded the Cisco Powered Network Certification. This certification is recognized to be of international standard that identifies JARING as a reliable provider with a high-performance secured network.

 * 2000: The first broadband Internet service based on IP-over-Optical Fibre was introduced and catered for business entities at 8 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and 155 Mbit/s.

 * 2001: The state-of-the art Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) was offered for the first time to secure the performance of the Virtual Private Network (VPN).

 * 2001–2003: Voted the best ISP under the Consumer Satisfaction Survey for three consecutive years by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC).

 * 2006: In December JARING Communications Sdn Bhd becomes another arm under the Ministry of Finance of Malaysia.

 * 2014: High Growth Partner of the year by Southeast Asia and India Trend Micro Incorporated.

 * 2014: Trend Micro Gold Partner by Southeast Asia and India Trend Micro Incorporated.

 * 2015: JARING ceased operations.

title: Jaring


text:
Talk:Oder

Hungarian name
What is the connection between Hungary and Oder? Hungarian names should be included for Slovakia. Xx236 07:05, 14 September 2006 (UTC)

Inconsistent Nomenclature
After rereading the archives, I fail to understand why the current header for the article is inconsistent with other articles with multiple language names. A localized Google search along with other mediums clearly shows the name Oder being the preferred English name (the reasons for which are inconsequential). Whether or not that is offensive to Poles is inconsequential -- it is the preferred English name and as such should be used on the English Wikipedia. If there were a city named 'Kurwa' in the United States, should we change the name so that it is not offensive to Poles? No. We should not be arbitrarily changing geographic names on Wikipedia to suit the needs of the few, but rather to meet the requirements of the many -- if the majority of native English speakers (note, native) prefer the name 'Oder', which it seems to be, then the name is Oder. You are free to discuss. Antman -- chat 08:46, 30 December 2009 (UTC)
 * I don't think anyone's arbitrarily changing anything - the first sentence just isn't worded very well. Can you improve it?--Kotniski (talk) 08:52, 30 December 2009 (UTC)
 * OK, I see you have. Looks fine to me.--Kotniski (talk) 08:55, 30 December 2009 (UTC)
 * In the archives, it seems people wanted Odra to be the primary name because the river is primarily Polish and Czech -- the problem with that is the river has an English name. That's why I mentioned arbitrary changing. Antman -- chat

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051109123915/http://www.noordersoft.com/indexen.html to http://www.noorderSoft.com/indexen.html

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Szczecin Lagoon
Dziwna, Świna and Peene are not 'three branches' of the Oder, since the Szczecin Lagoon is not a lake, but a part of the Baltic Sea. These three are straits that connect the lagoon to the open sea. That's a common mistake made not only by Poles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 37.30.115.24 (talk) 12:38, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Oder


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Adelbert von Chamisso

Adelbert von Chamisso (30 January 1781 – 21 August 1838) was a German poet, writer and botanist. He was commonly known in French as Adelbert de Chamisso (or Chamissot) de Boncourt, a name referring to the family estate at Boncourt.

Life
The son of Louis Marie, Count of Chamisso, by his marriage to Anne Marie Gargam, Chamisso began life as Louis Charles Adélaïde de Chamissot at the château of Boncourt at Ante, in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his family. His name appears in several forms, one of the most common being Ludolf Karl Adelbert von Chamisso.

In 1790, the French Revolution drove his parents out of France with their seven children, and they went successively to Liège, the Hague, Würzburg, and Bayreuth, and possibly Hamburg, before settling in Berlin. There, in 1796, the young Chamisso was fortunate in obtaining the post of page-in-waiting to the queen of Prussia, and in 1798 he entered a Prussian infantry regiment as an ensign to train for a career as an army officer.

Shortly thereafter, thanks to the Peace of Tilsit, his family was able to return to France, but Chamisso remained in Prussia and continued his military career. He had little formal education, although he is a noted alumnus of the French Highschool of Berlin (Französisches Gymnasium), that has existed since 1689 for the express purpose of accommodating the children of exiled French nobles. While in the Prussian military service in Berlin he assiduously studied natural science for three years. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, in 1803 he founded the Berliner Musenalmanach, the publication in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, interrupted by the Napoleonic wars, it came to an end in 1806. It brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet.

Chamisso had become a lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 he accompanied his regiment to Hamelin, where he shared in the humiliation of the town's capitulation the next year. Placed on parole, he went to France, but both his parents were dead; returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the Prussian service early the following year. Homeless and without a profession, disillusioned and despondent, Chamisso lived in Berlin until 1810, when through the services of an old friend of the family he was offered a professorship at the lycée at Napoléonville in the Vendée.

He set out to take up the post, but instead joined the circle of Madame de Staël, and followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In 1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative Peter Schlemihl, the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English by William Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend Julius Eduard Hitzig.

In 1815, Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian ship Rurik, fitted out at the expense of Count Nikolay Rumyantsev, which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world. He collected at the Cape of Good Hope in January 1818 in the company of Krebs, Mund and Maire. His diary of the expedition (Tagebuch, 1821) is a fascinating account of the expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. During this trip Chamisso described a number of new species found in what is now the San Francisco Bay Area. Several of these, including the California poppy, Eschscholzia californica, were named after his friend Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the Rurik's entomologist. In return, Eschscholtz named a variety of plants, including the genus Camissonia, after Chamisso. On his return in 1818 he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1819 he married his friend Hitzig's foster daughter Antonie Piaste (1800–1837). He became a leading member of the Serapion Brethren, a literary circle around E. T. A. Hoffmann.

In 1827, partly for the purpose of rebutting the charges brought against him by Kotzebue, he published Views and Remarks on a Voyage of Discovery, and Description of a Voyage Round the World. Both works display great accuracy and industry. His last scientific labor was a tract on the Hawaiian language. Chamisso's travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned back to literature. In 1829, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the Deutscher Musenalmanach, in which his later poems were mainly published.

Chamisso died in Berlin at the age of 57. His grave is preserved in the Protestant Friedhof III (Cemetery No. 3 of the congregations of Jerusalem's Church and the New Church) in Berlin-Kreuzberg, to the south of the Hallesches Tor.

Chamisso collected numerous zoological and botanical specimens as well as occasional human bones. His collections are in the care of a number of European museums.

Botanical work

Chamisso is chiefly remembered for his work as a botanist; his most important contribution, done in conjunction with Diederich Franz Leonhard von Schlechtendal, was the description of many of the most important trees of Mexico in 1830–1831. Also, his Bemerkungen und Ansichten, published in an incomplete form in Kotzebue's Entdeckungsreise (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in Chamisso's Collected Works (1836), and the botanical work, Übersicht der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten Gewächse in Norddeutschland (Review of the Most Useful and the Most Noxious Plants of North Germany, with Remarks on Scientific Botany), of 1829, are esteemed for their careful treatment of their subjects. In 1824 he became a member of the Regensburg Botanical Society.

The genera Chamissoa Kunth (Amaranthaceae) and Camissonia Link (Onagraceae) and many species were named in his honor.

Belles lettres (Beautiful letters)
Chamisso's earliest writings, which include a verse translation of the tragedy Le Comte de Comminge in which "heilsam" is used in place of "heilig", show a 20-year-old still struggling to master his new language, and a number of his early poems are in French. Between 1801 and 1804 he became closely associated with other writers and edited their journal.

As a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high. Frauenliebe und -leben (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems set to music by Robert Schumann, by Carl Loewe, and by Franz Paul Lachner, is particularly famous. Composers such as Pauline Volkstein also used Chamisso’s texts in their compositions. Also noteworthy are Schloss Boncourt and Salas y Gomez. He often deals with gloomy or repulsive subjects; and even in his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. Die Löwenbraut may be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and Vergeltung is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment. The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by Hitzig and published in six volumes in 1836.

Legacy

Otto von Kotzebue named Chamisso Island after him. Chamisso is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Chilean snake, Philodryas chamissonis.

Literary work
He is the author of the famous story, Peter Schlemihl, about a man who sold his shadow and the poet of the short poem "Tragic Story" which tells about a wise monk without the knowledge of common sense who tries to change the direction of his pigtail.

title: Adelbert von Chamisso


text:
Timeline of the early universe

The timeline of the early universe outlines the formation and subsequent evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago) to the present day. An epoch is a moment in time from which nature or situations change to such a degree that it marks the beginning of a new era or age.

Times on this list are measured from the moment of the Big Bang.

Planck epoch

 * c. 0 seconds (13.799 ± 0.021 Gya): Planck epoch begins: earliest meaningful time. The Big Bang occurs in which ordinary space and time develop out of a primeval state (possibly a virtual particle or false vacuum) described by a quantum theory of gravity or "Theory of everything". All matter and energy of the entire visible universe is contained in a hot, dense point (gravitational singularity), a billionth the size of a nuclear particle. This state has been described as a particle desert. Other than a few scant details, conjecture dominates discussion about the earliest moments of the universe's history since no effective means of testing this far back in space-time is presently available. WIMPS (weakly interacting massive particles) or dark matter and dark energy may have appeared and been the catalyst for the expansion of the singularity. The infant universe cools as it begins expanding outward. It is almost completely smooth, with quantum variations beginning to cause slight variations in density.

Grand unification epoch

 * c. 10−43 seconds: Grand unification epoch begins: While still at an infinitesimal size, the universe cools down to 1032 kelvin. Gravity separates and begins operating on the universe—the remaining fundamental forces stabilize into the electronuclear force, also known as the Grand Unified Force or Grand Unified Theory (GUT), mediated by (the hypothetical) X and Y bosons which allow early matter at this stage to fluctuate between baryon and lepton states.

Electroweak epoch

 * c. 10−36 seconds: Electroweak epoch begins: The Universe cools down to 1028 kelvin. As a result, the strong nuclear force becomes distinct from the electroweak force perhaps fuelling the inflation of the universe. A wide array of exotic elementary particles result from decay of X and Y bosons which include W and Z bosons and Higgs bosons.
 * c. 10−33 seconds: Space is subjected to inflation, expanding by a factor of the order of 1026 over a time of the order of 10−33 to 10−32 seconds. The universe is supercooled from about 1027 down to 1022 kelvin.
 * c. 10−32 seconds: Cosmic inflation ends. The familiar elementary particles now form as a soup of hot ionized gas called quark–gluon plasma; hypothetical components of cold dark matter (such as axions) would also have formed at this time.

Quark epoch

 * c. 10−12 seconds: Electroweak phase transition: the four fundamental interactions familiar from the modern universe now operate as distinct forces. The weak nuclear force is now a short-range force as it separates from electromagnetic force, so matter particles can acquire mass and interact with the Higgs Field. The temperature is still too high for quarks to coalesce into hadrons, and the quark–gluon plasma persists (Quark epoch). The universe cools to 1015 kelvin.
 * c. 10−11 seconds: Baryogenesis may have taken place with matter gaining the upper hand over anti-matter as baryon to antibaryon constituencies are established.

Hadron epoch

 * c. 10−6 seconds: Hadron epoch begins: As the universe cools to about 1010 kelvin, a quark-hadron transition takes place in which quarks bind to form more complex particles—hadrons. This quark confinement includes the formation of protons and neutrons (nucleons), the building blocks of atomic nuclei.

Lepton epoch

 * c. 1 second: Lepton epoch begins: The universe cools to 109 kelvin. At this temperature, the hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind leptons and antileptons – possible disappearance of antiquarks. Gravity governs the expansion of the universe: neutrinos decouple from matter creating a cosmic neutrino background.

Photon epoch

 * c. 10 seconds: Photon epoch begins: Most of the leptons and antileptons annihilate each other. As electrons and positrons annihilate, a small number of unmatched electrons are left over – disappearance of the positrons.
 * c. 10 seconds: Universe dominated by photons of radiation – ordinary matter particles are coupled to light and radiation while dark matter particles start building non-linear structures as dark matter halos. Because charged electrons and protons hinder the emission of light, the universe becomes a super-hot glowing fog.
 * c. 3 minutes: Primordial nucleosynthesis: nuclear fusion begins as lithium and heavy hydrogen (deuterium) and helium nuclei form from protons and neutrons.
 * c. 20 minutes: Nuclear fusion ceases: normal matter consists by mass of 75% hydrogen nuclei and 25% helium nuclei or one helium nucleus per twelve hydrogen nuclei– free electrons begin scattering light.

Matter and radiation equivalence

 * c. 47,000 years (z=3600): Matter and radiation equivalence: at the beginning of this era, the expansion of the universe was decelerating at a faster rate.
 * c. 70,000 years: Matter domination in Universe: onset of gravitational collapse as the Jeans length at which the smallest structure can form begins to fall.

Cosmic Dark Age

 * c. 370,000 years (z=1,100): The "Dark Ages" is the period between decoupling, when the universe first becomes transparent, until the formation of the first stars. Recombination: electrons combine with nuclei to form atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium. Distributions of hydrogen and helium at this time remains constant as the electron-baryon plasma thins. The temperature falls to 3000 kelvin. Ordinary matter particles decouple from radiation. The photons present at the time of decoupling are the same photons that we see in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation.
 * c. 400,000 years: Density waves begin imprinting characteristic polarization signals.
 * c. 10-17 million years: The "Dark Ages" span a period during which the temperature of cosmic microwave background radiation cooled from some 4000 K down to about 60 K. The background temperature was between 373 K and 273 K, allowing the possibility of liquid water, during a period of about 7 million years, from about 10 to 17 million after the Big Bang (redshift 137–100). Loeb (2014) speculated that primitive life might in principle have appeared during this window, which he called "the Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe".
 * c. 100 million years: Gravitational collapse: ordinary matter particles fall into the structures created by dark matter. Reionization begins: smaller (stars) and larger non-linear structures (quasars) begin to take shape – their ultraviolet light ionizes remaining neutral gas.
 * 200–300 million years: First stars begin to shine: Because many are Population III stars (some Population II stars are accounted for at this time) they are much bigger and hotter and their life cycle is fairly short. Unlike later generations of stars, these stars are metal free. Reionization begins, with the absorption of certain wavelengths of light by neutral hydrogen creating Gunn–Peterson troughs. The resulting ionized gas (especially free electrons) in the intergalactic medium causes some scattering of light, but with much lower opacity than before recombination due the expansion of the universe and clumping of gas into galaxies.
 * 200 million years: HD 140283, the "Methuselah" Star, formed, the unconfirmed oldest star observed in the Universe. Because it is a Population II star, some suggestions have been raised that second generation star formation may have begun very early on. The oldest-known star (confirmed) – SMSS J031300.36-670839.3, forms.
 * 300 million years: First large-scale astronomical objects, protogalaxies and quasars may have begun forming. As Population III stars continue to burn, stellar nucleosynthesis operates – stars burn mainly by fusing hydrogen to produce more helium in what is referred to as the main sequence. Over time these stars are forced to fuse helium to produce carbon, oxygen, silicon and other heavy elements up to iron on the periodic table. These elements, when seeded into neighbouring gas clouds by supernova, will lead to the formation of more Population II stars (metal poor) and gas giants.
 * 320 million years (z=13.3): HD1, the oldest-known spectroscopically-confirmed galaxy, forms.
 * 380 million years: UDFj-39546284 forms, current record holder for unconfirmed oldest-known quasar.
 * 420 million years: The quasar MACS0647-JD, the, or one of the, furthest known quasars, forms.
 * 600 million years HE 1523-0901, the oldest star found producing neutron capture elements forms, marking a new point in ability to detect stars with a telescope.
 * 630 million years (z=8.2): GRB 090423, the oldest gamma ray burst recorded suggests that supernovas may have happened very early on in the evolution of the Universe
 * 670 million years: EGS-zs8-1, the most distant starburst or Lyman-break galaxy observed, forms. This suggests that galaxy interaction is taking place very early on in the history of the Universe as starburst galaxies are often associated with collisions and galaxy mergers.
 * 700 million years: Galaxies form. Smaller galaxies begin merging to form larger ones. Galaxy classes may have also begun forming at this time including Blazars, Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, and dwarf galaxies as well as regular types (elliptical, barred spiral, and spiral galaxies). UDFy-38135539, the first distant quasar to be observed from the reionization phase, forms. Dwarf galaxy z8 GND 5296 forms. Galaxy or possible proto-galaxy A1689-zD1 forms.
 * 720 million years: Possible formation of globular clusters in Milky Way's Galactic halo. Formation of globular cluster, NGC 6723, in the Milky Way's galactic halo
 * 740 million years: 47 Tucanae, second-brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way, forms
 * 750 million years: Galaxy IOK-1 a Lyman alpha emitter galaxy, forms. GN-108036 forms—galaxy is 5 times larger and 100 times more massive than the present day Milky Way illustrating the size attained by some galaxies very early on.
 * 770 million years: Quasar ULAS J1120+0641, one of the most distant, forms. One of the earliest galaxies to feature a supermassive black hole suggesting that such large objects existed quite soon after the Big Bang. The large fraction of neutral hydrogen in its spectrum suggests it may also have just formed or is in the process of star formation.
 * 800 million years: Farthest extent of Hubble Ultra-Deep Field. Formation of SDSS J102915+172927: unusual population II star that is extremely metal poor consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium. HE0107-5240, one of the oldest Population II stars, forms as part of a binary star system. LAE J095950.99+021219.1, one of the most remote Lyman alpha emitter galaxies, forms. Lyman alpha emitters are considered to be the progenitors of spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. Messier 2, globular cluster, forms.
 * 870 million years: Messier 30 forms in the Milky Way. Having experienced a Core collapse (cluster), the cluster has one of the highest densities among globular clusters.
 * 890 million years: Galaxy SXDF-NB1006-2 forms
 * 900 million years: Galaxy BDF-3299 forms.
 * 910 million years: Galaxy BDF-521 forms

Galaxy epoch

 * 1 billion years (12.8 Gya, z=6.56): Galaxy HCM-6A, the most distant normal galaxy observed, forms. Formation of hyper-luminous quasar SDSS J0100+2802, which harbors a black hole with mass of 12 billion solar masses, one of the most massive black holes discovered so early in the universe. HE1327-2326, a population II star, is speculated to have formed from remnants of earlier Population III stars. Visual limit of the Hubble Deep Field. Reionization is complete, with intergalactic space no longer showing any absorption lines from neutral hydrogen in the form of Gunn–Peterson troughs. Photon scattering by free electrons continues to decrease as the universe expands and gas falls into galaxies, and intergalactic space is now highly transparent, though remaining clouds of neutral hydrogen cause Lyman-alpha forests. Galaxy evolution continues as more modern looking galaxies form and develop, although barred spiral and elliptical galaxies are more rare than today. Because the Universe is still small in size, galaxy interactions become common place with larger and larger galaxies forming out of the galaxy merger process. Galaxies may have begun clustering creating the largest structures in the Universe so far – the first galaxy clusters and galaxy superclusters appear.
 * 1.1 billion years (12.7 Gya): Age of the quasar CFHQS 1641+3755. Messier 4 Globular Cluster, first to have its individual stars resolved, forms in the halo of the Milky Way Galaxy. Among the clusters' many stars, PSR B1620-26 b forms. It is a gas giant known as the "Genesis Planet" or "Methusaleh." The oldest observed exoplanet in the Universe, it orbits a pulsar and a white dwarf.
 * 1.13 billion years (12.67 Gya): Messier 12, globular cluster, forms
 * 1.3 billion years (12.5 Gya): WISE J224607.57-052635.0, a luminous infrared galaxy, forms. PSR J1719-1438 b, known as the Diamond Planet, forms around a pulsar.
 * 1.31 billion years (12.49 Gya): Globular Cluster Messier 53 forms 60,000 light-years from the Galactic Center of the Milky Way
 * 1.39 billion years (12.41 Gya): S5 0014+81, a hyper-luminous quasar, forms
 * 1.4 billion years (12.4 Gya): Age of Cayrel's Star, BPS C531082-0001, a neutron capture star, among the oldest Population II stars in Milky Way. Quasar RD1, first object observed to exceed redshift 5, forms.
 * 1.44 billion years (12.36 Gya): Messier 80 globular cluster forms in Milky Way – known for large number of "blue stragglers"
 * 1.5 billion years (12.3 Gya): Messier 55, globular cluster, forms
 * 1.8 billion years (12 Gya): Most energetic gamma ray burst lasting 23 minutes, GRB 080916C, recorded. Baby Boom Galaxy forms. Terzan 5 forms as a small dwarf galaxy on collision course with the Milky Way. Dwarf galaxy carrying the Methusaleh Star consumed by Milky Way – oldest-known star in the Universe becomes one of many population II stars of the Milky Way
 * 2.0 billion years (11.8 Gya): SN 1000+0216, the oldest observed supernova occurs – possible pulsar formed. Globular Cluster Messier 15, known to have an intermediate black hole and the only globular cluster observed to include a planetary nebula, Pease 1, forms
 * 2.02 billion years (11.78 Gya): Messier 62 forms – contains high number of variable stars (89) many of which are RR Lyrae stars.
 * 2.2 billion years (11.6 Gya): Globular Cluster NGC 6752, third-brightest, forms in Milky Way
 * 2.4 billion years (11.4 Gya): Quasar PKS 2000-330 forms.
 * 2.41 billion years (11.39 Gya): Messier 10 globular cluster forms. Messier 3 forms: prototype for the Oosterhoff type I cluster, which is considered "metal-rich". That is, for a globular cluster, Messier 3 has a relatively high abundance of heavier elements.
 * 2.5 billion years (11.3 Gya): Omega Centauri, largest globular cluster in the Milky Way forms
 * 2.6 billion years (11.2 Gya): HD 130322 planetary system, known as the first observed exoplanet system, forms
 * 3.0 billion years (10.8 billion Gya): Formation of the Gliese 581 planetary system: Gliese 581c, the first observed ocean planet and Gliese 581d, a super-Earth planet, possibly the first observed habitable planets, form. Gliese 581d has more potential for forming life since it is the first exoplanet of terrestrial mass proposed that orbits within the habitable zone of its parent star.
 * 3.3 billion years (10.5 Gya): BX442, oldest grand design spiral galaxy observed, forms
 * 3.5 billion years (10.3 Gya): Supernova SN UDS10Wil recorded
 * 3.8 billion years (10 Gya): NGC 2808 globular cluster forms: 3 generations of stars form within the first 200 million years.
 * 4.0 billion years (9.8 Gya): Quasar 3C 9 forms. The Andromeda Galaxy forms from a galactic merger – begins a collision course with the Milky Way. Barnard's Star, red dwarf star, may have formed. Beethoven Burst GRB 991216 recorded. Gliese 677 Cc, a planet in the habitable zone of its parent star, Gliese 667, forms
 * 4.5 billion years (9.3 Gya): Fierce star formation in Andromeda making it into a luminous infra-red galaxy
 * 5.0 billion years (8.8 Gya): Earliest Population I, or Sunlike stars: with heavy element saturation so high, planetary nebula appear in which rocky substances are solidified – these nurseries lead to the formation of rocky terrestrial planets, moons, asteroids, and icy comets
 * 5.1 billion years (8.7 Gya): Galaxy collision: spiral arms of the Milky Way form leading to major period of star formation.
 * 5.3 billion years (8.5 Gya): 55 Cancri B, a "hot Jupiter", first planet to be observed orbiting as part of a star system, forms. Kepler 11 planetary system, the flattest and most compact system yet discovered, forms – Kepler 11 c considered to be a giant ocean planet with hydrogen-helium atmosphere.
 * 5.8 billion years (8 Gya): 51 Pegasi b also known as Dimidium, forms – first planet discovered orbiting a main sequence star
 * 5.9 billion years (7.9 Gya): HD 176051 planetary system, known as the first observed through astrometrics, forms
 * 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): Many galaxies like NGC 4565 become relatively stable – ellipticals result from collisions of spirals with some like IC 1101 being extremely massive.
 * 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): The Universe continues to organize into larger wider structures. The great walls, sheets and filaments consisting of galaxy clusters and superclusters and voids crystallize. How this crystallization takes place is still conjecture. Certainly, it is possible the formation of super-structures like the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall may have happened much earlier, perhaps around the same time galaxies first started appearing. Either way the observable universe becomes more modern looking.
 * 6.2 billion years (7.7 Gya): 16 Cygni Bb, the first gas giant observed in a single star orbit in a trinary star system, forms – orbiting moons considered to have habitable properties or at the least capable of supporting water
 * 6.3 billion years (7.5 Gya, z=0.94): GRB 080319B, farthest gamma ray burst seen with the naked eye, recorded. Terzan 7, metal-rich globular cluster, forms in the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy
 * 6.5 billion years (7.3 Gya): HD 10180 planetary system forms (larger than both 55 Cancri and Kepler 11 systems)
 * 6.9 billion years (6.9 Gya): Orange Giant, Arcturus, forms
 * 7.64 billion years (6.16 Gya): Mu Arae planetary system forms: of four planets orbiting a yellow star, Mu Arae c is among the first terrestrial planets to be observed from Earth
 * 7.8 billion years (6.0 Gya): Formation of Earth's near twin, Kepler 452b orbiting its parent star Kepler 452
 * 7.98 billion years (5.82 Gya): Formation of Mira or Omicron ceti, binary star system. Formation of Alpha Centauri Star System, closest star to the Sun. GJ 1214 b, or Gliese 1214 b, potential Earth-like planet, forms
 * 8.2 billion years (5.6 Gya): Tau Ceti, nearby yellow star forms: five planets eventually evolve from its planetary nebula, orbiting the star – Tau Ceti e considered planet to have potential life since it orbits the hot inner edge of the star's habitable zone
 * 8.5 billion years (5.3 Gya): GRB 101225A, the "Christmas Burst", considered the longest at 28 minutes, recorded

Acceleration

 * 8.8 billion years (5 Gya, z=0.5): Acceleration: dark-energy dominated era begins, following the matter-dominated era during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.
 * 8.8 billion years (5 Gya): Messier 67 open star cluster forms: Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of the Sun
 * 9.0 billion years (4.8 Gya): Lalande 21185, red dwarf in Ursa Major, forms
 * 9.13 billion years (4.67 Gya): Proxima Centauri forms completing the Alpha Centauri trinary system

Epochs of the formation of the Solar System

 * 9.2 billion years (4.6–4.57 Gya): Primal supernova, possibly triggers the formation of the Solar System.
 * 9.2318 billion years (4.5682 Gya): Sun forms – Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets.
 * 9.23283 billion years (4.56717–4.55717 Gya): Four Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) evolve around the Sun.
 * 9.257 billion years (4.543–4.5 Gya): Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) evolve around the Sun. Because of accretion many smaller planets form orbits around the proto-Sun some with conflicting orbits – Early Heavy Bombardment begins. Precambrian Supereon and Hadean eon begin on Earth. Pre-Noachian Era begins on Mars. Pre-Tolstojan Period begins on Mercury – a large planetoid strikes Mercury stripping it of outer envelope of original crust and mantle, leaving the planet's core exposed – Mercury's iron content is notably high. Many of the Galilean moons may have formed at this time including Europa and Titan which may presently be hospitable to some form of living organism.
 * 9.266 billion years (4.533 Gya): Formation of Earth-Moon system following giant impact by hypothetical planetoid Theia (planet). Moon's gravitational pull helps stabilize Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation. Pre-Nectarian Period begins on Moon
 * 9.271 billion years (4.529 Gya): Major collision with a pluto-sized planetoid establishes the Martian dichotomy on Mars – formation of North Polar Basin of Mars
 * 9.3 billion years (4.5 Gya): Sun becomes a main sequence yellow star: formation of the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt from which a stream of comets like Halley's Comet and Hale-Bopp begins passing through the Solar System, sometimes colliding with planets and the Sun
 * 9.396 billion years (4.404 Gya): Liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
 * 9.4 billion years (4.4 Gya): Formation of Kepler 438 b, one of the most Earth-like planets, from a protoplanetary nebula surrounding its parent star
 * 9.5 billion years (4.3 Gya): Massive meteorite impact creates South Pole Aitken Basin on the Moon – a huge chain of mountains located on the lunar southern limb, sometimes called "Leibnitz mountains", form
 * 9.6 billion years (4.2 Gya): Tharsis Bulge widespread area of vulcanism, becomes active on Mars – based on the intensity of volcanic activity on Earth, Tharsis magmas may have produced a 1.5-bar atmosphere and a global layer of water 120 m deep increasing greenhouse gas effect in climate and adding to Martian water table. Age of the oldest samples from the Lunar Maria
 * 9.7 billion years (4.1 Gya): Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt causing a disruption among asteroids and comets there. As a result, Late Heavy Bombardment batters the inner Solar System. Herschel Crater formed on Mimas (moon), a moon of Saturn. Meteorite impact creates the Hellas Planitia on Mars, the largest unambiguous structure on the planet. Anseris Mons an isolated massif (mountain) in the southern highlands of Mars, located at the northeastern edge of Hellas Planitia is uplifted in the wake of the meteorite impact
 * 9.8 billion years (4 Gya): HD 209458 b, first planet detected through its transit, forms. Messier 85, lenticular galaxy, disrupted by galaxy interaction: complex outer structure of shells and ripples results. Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies experience close encounter – high levels of star formation in Andromeda while Triangulum's outer disc is distorted
 * 9.861 billion years (3.938 Gya): Major period of impacts on the Moon: Mare Imbrium forms
 * 9.88 billion years (3.92 Gya): Nectaris Basin forms from large impact event: ejecta from Nectaris forms upper part of densely cratered Lunar Highlands – Nectarian Era begins on the Moon.
 * 9.9 billion years (3.9 Gya): Tolstoj (crater) forms on Mercury. Caloris Basin forms on Mercury leading to creation of "Weird Terraine" – seismic activity triggers volcanic activity globally on Mercury. Rembrandt (crater) formed on Mercury. Caloris Period begins on Mercury. Argyre Planitia forms from asteroid impact on Mars: surrounded by rugged massifs which form concentric and radial patterns around basin – several mountain ranges including Charitum and Nereidum Montes are uplifted in its wake
 * 9.95 billion years (3.85 Gya): Beginning of Late Imbrium Period on Moon. Earliest appearance of Procellarum KREEP Mg suite materials
 * 9.96 billion years (3.84 Gya): Formation of Orientale Basin from asteroid impact on Lunar surface – collision causes ripples in crust, resulting in three concentric circular features known as Montes Rook and Montes Cordillera
 * 10 billion years (3.8 Gya): In the wake of Late Heavy Bombardment impacts on the Moon, large molten mare depressions dominate lunar surface – major period of Lunar vulcanism begins (to 3 Gyr). Archean eon begins on the Earth.
 * 10.2 billion years (3.6 Gya): Alba Mons forms on Mars, largest volcano in terms of area
 * 10.4 billion years (3.5 Gya): Earliest fossil traces of life on Earth (stromatolites)
 * 10.6 billion years (3.2 Gya): Amazonian Period begins on Mars: Martian climate thins to its present density: groundwater stored in upper crust (megaregolith) begins to freeze, forming thick cryosphere overlying deeper zone of liquid water – dry ices composed of frozen carbon dioxide form Eratosthenian period begins on the Moon: main geologic force on the Moon becomes impact cratering
 * 10.8 billion years (3 Gya): Beethoven Basin forms on Mercury – unlike many basins of similar size on the Moon, Beethoven is not multi ringed and ejecta buries crater rim and is barely visible
 * 11.2 billion years (2.5 Gya): Proterozoic begins
 * 11.6 billion years (2.2 Gya): Last great tectonic period in Martian geologic history: Valles Marineris, largest canyon complex in the Solar System, forms – although some suggestions of thermokarst activity or even water erosion, it is suggested Valles Marineris is rift fault

Recent history

 * 11.8 billion years (2 Gya): Star formation in Andromeda Galaxy slows. Formation of Hoag's Object from a galaxy collision. Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the Solar System, is formed
 * 12.1 billion years (1.7 Gya): Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy captured into an orbit around Milky Way Galaxy
 * 12.7 billion years (1.1 Gya): Copernican Period begins on Moon: defined by impact craters that possess bright optically immature ray systems
 * 12.8 billion years (1 Gya): The Kuiperian Era (1 Gyr – present) begins on Mercury: modern Mercury, a desolate cold planet that is influenced by space erosion and solar wind extremes. Interactions between Andromeda and its companion galaxies Messier 32 and Messier 110. Galaxy collision with Messier 82 forms its patterned spiral disc: galaxy interactions between NGC 3077 and Messier 81; Saturn's moon Titan begins evolving the recognisable surface features that include rivers, lakes, and deltas
 * 13 billion years (800 Mya): Copernicus (lunar crater) forms from the impact on the Lunar surface in the area of Oceanus Procellarum – has terrace inner wall and 30 km wide, sloping rampart that descends nearly a kilometre to the surrounding mare
 * 13.175 billion years (625 Mya): formation of Hyades star cluster: consists of a roughly spherical group of hundreds of stars sharing the same age, place of origin, chemical content and motion through space
 * 13.15-21 billion years (590–650 Mya): Capella star system forms
 * 13.2 billion years (600 Mya):	Collision of spiral galaxies leads to the creation of Antenna Galaxies. Whirlpool Galaxy collides with NGC 5195 forming a present connected galaxy system. HD 189733 b forms around parent star HD 189733: the first planet to reveal the climate, organic constituencies, even colour (blue) of its atmosphere
 * 13.345 billion years (455 Mya): Vega, the fifth-brightest star in Earth's galactic neighbourhood, forms.
 * 13.6–13.5 billion years (300-200 Mya): Sirius, the brightest star in the Earth's sky, forms.
 * 13.7 billion years (100 Mya): Formation of Pleiades Star Cluster
 * 13.73 billion years (70 Mya): North Star, Polaris, one of the significant navigable stars, forms
 * 13.780 billion years (20 Mya): Possible formation of Orion Nebula
 * 13.788 billion years (12 Mya): Antares forms.
 * 13.792 billion years (7.6 Mya): Betelgeuse forms.
 * 13.8 billion years (Without uncertainties): Present day.

title: Timeline of the early universe


text:
GNU Savannah

GNU Savannah is a project of the Free Software Foundation initiated by Loïc Dachary, which serves as a collaborative software development management system for free Software projects. Savannah currently offers CVS, GNU arch, Subversion, Git, Mercurial, Bazaar, mailing list, web hosting, file hosting, and bug tracking services. Savannah initially ran on the same SourceForge software that at the time was used to run the SourceForge portal.

Savannah's website is split into two domain names: savannah.gnu.org for software that is officially part of the GNU Project, and savannah.nongnu.org for all other software.

Unlike SourceForge or GitHub, Savannah's focus is for hosting free software projects and has very strict hosting policies, including a ban against the use of non-free formats (such as Adobe Flash ) to ensure that only free software is hosted. When registering a project, project submitters have to state which free software license the project uses.

Project owners do not have the freedom of deleting their submitted projects on their own wish and the staff has a policy of refusing all deletion requests, unless the project was approved by mistake or has always been empty.

History
Loïc Dachary installed SourceForge on a server located in Boston for the benefit of the GNU Project (specifically, to power the GNU Savannah's website). When, as contributor to SourceForge, he found out it was to be turned into proprietary software, he forked it and named it Savannah (since it was the software running the GNU Project's Savannah website and had no other name.). People contributing to GNU Savannah were called savannah-hackers from this day, as it was at first more a quick hack than anything else.

CERN took interest in the sourcecode and hired Mathieu Roy, a savannah-hacker, to work in Geneva. It led to the development of Savane (software) starting in 2003.

In 2003, Vincent Caron, friend to Loïc Dachary, found out the security of the server located was compromised. A new server was bought by the Free Software Foundation to provide a clean reinstall of the software. When this server was put in place, after a four-month outage without any public news, only Free Software Foundation employees had access to it. Notably savannah-hackers had no access and found out that Richard M. Stallman decided to move GNU Savannah to GForge because it was "seriously maintained". In response, Vincent Caron, Loïc Dachary and Mathieu Roy put up an alternative instance of the software called Gna!, with a specific constitution inspired by the Debian Social Contract designed to prevent any unexpected take over.

GNU Savannah was totally or partly offline for months and, ultimately, did not move to GForge, which itself turned into proprietary software.

title: GNU Savannah


text:
Otto von Kotzebue

Otto von Kotzebue (30 December 1787 - 15 February 1846) was a Baltic German naval officer in the Imperial Russian Navy. He commanded two naval expeditions into the Pacific for the purposes of exploration and scientific investigation. The first expedition explored Oceania and the western coast of North America and passed through the Bering Strait in search of a passage across the Arctic Ocean. His second voyage was intended as a military resupply mission to Kamchatka but again included significant explorations of the west coast of North America and Oceania.

Early life and education
Kotzebue was born and raised in Reval (Tallinn), Estonia, then part of the Russian Empire. He was the second son of German writer and diplomat August von Kotzebue. The Kotzebue family was of Brandenburgish origin; his earliest known patrilineal ancestors were from Kossebau in Altmark.

After attending the Saint Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied Adam Johann von Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803–1806. Both attested to the prominence of Baltic Germans in Imperial Russia's naval expeditions around 1800.

First voyage, 1815 to 1818
On promotion to lieutenant, Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition fitted out at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Nikolay Rumyantsev, on the brig Rurik. In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, including the naturalists Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz and Adelbert von Chamisso, and the artist Louis Choris, Kotzebue set out from Kronstadt on July 30, 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania.

Proceeding via Cape Horn, he visited the Chilean coast and arrived at Easter Island on March 29, 1816. From there he sailed west and reached the Tuamotu Archipelago around April 16 where he sighted several islands, some of which he named: Doubtful, so named because he thought it might be the Dog Island (Pukapuka); Romanzoff (Tikei); Spiridoff; the Palliser Islands discovered by Cook; Rurick's chain (Arutua); and Krusenstern (Tikahau). He reached Penrhyn atoll on May 1 and was greeted by the natives who came out in canoes. After leaving Polynesia, Kotzebue came upon the Radak and Ralik chains of the Marshall Islands in Micronesia.

Kotzebue then headed north for the Kamchatka Peninsula where he anchored at the harbor of St. Peter and St. Paul on June 18. From there he explored Bering Strait and the coast of Alaska. A sound north of Bering Strait was named Kotzebue Sound. In September he sailed south to California.

Returning by the coast of Asia, he again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich Islands, and on January 1, 1817 discovered New Year Island. After further cruising in the Pacific Ocean, he proceeded north. Severe illness compelled him to return to Europe, and he reached the Neva River in Russia on August 3, 1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown plants and new ethnological information.

Second voyage, 1823 to 1826
In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an expedition of two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka and patrol the northwest American coast to protect Russian settlements from the smuggling by foreign traders. A staff of scientists on board the Russian sailing sloop Enterprise collected much valuable information and material in geography, ethnography and natural history. Naturalist Eschscholtz again accompanied Kotzebue along with geologist Ernst Reinhold von Hofmann, astronomer Ernst Wilhelm Preuss and physicist Emil Lenz.

The expedition left Kronstadt on July 28, 1823, and rounded Cape Horn on December 23. Kotzebue visited Chile and then sailed west through the Tuamotu Archipelago on the way to Tahiti. The expedition reached Matavai Bay, Tahiti, on March 14. Kotzebue met various members of the London Missionary Society before leaving the island on March 24.

Kotzebue reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. That same year he visited Mission Santa Clara and noted the conditions of the ''monjerío. '' Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianas, Philippines, New Caledonia and the Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on July 10, 1826.

When he returned, Kotzebue was promoted to command of the fleet squadron at Kronshtadt, but he left the service in 1830 because of failing health. Kotzebue spent the last years of his life at his Triigi Manor near Kose. He died in Reval in 1846.

Both of Kotzebue's narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Bering’s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815–1818 (3 vols. 1821), and A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823–1826 (1830), have been translated into English.

Legacy and honors

 * Kotzebue Sound and the city of Kotzebue, Alaska are named after him.
 * Kotzebue Street in the Kalamaja area of northern Tallinn in Estonia is named after him and after his father August von Kotzebue, who both lived on the street.
 * The butterfly Pachliopta kotzebuea was named after him by Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, a botanist aboard the Rurik.

title: Otto von Kotzebue