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Limoges

Limoges (,, ; Lemòtges, locally Limòtges ) is a city and commune, and the prefecture of the Haute-Vienne department in west-central France. It was the administrative capital of the former Limousin region. Situated on the first western foothills of the Massif Central, Limoges is crossed by the river Vienne, of which it was originally the first ford crossing point.

The second most populated town in the New Aquitaine region after Bordeaux, a university town, an administrative centre and intermediate services with all the facilities of a regional metropolis, it has an urban area of 323,789 inhabitants in 2018. The inhabitants of the city are called the Limougeauds.

Founded around 10 BC under the name of Augustoritum, it became an important Gallo-Roman city. During the Middle Ages Limoges became a large city, strongly marked by the cultural influence of the Abbey of Saint-Martial, where the Dukes of Aquitaine were invested and crowned. From the 12th century onwards, its enamels were exported throughout the Christian world. In 1765, during the industrial revolution, the discovery of a deposit of kaolin in the Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche region enabled the development of the Limoges porcelain industry. It is sometimes nicknamed "the red city" or "the Rome of socialism" because of its tradition of voting on the left and the workers' events it experienced from the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century.

Since the 1990s, the city has had a basketball club, Limoges CSP, which has won several French championships and the European championship in 1993. Because of its heritage policy, it has held the label "City of Art and History" since 2008. Economic activities include butchering, electrical equipment for the building industry, and luxury goods. It is home to porcelain houses and art workshops working with enamel or stained glass. This craft expertise led it to join the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in 2017 in the thematic category "Crafts and Popular Arts".

Ancient and medieval history
Scarce remains of pre-urban settlements have been found in the area of Limoges. The capital of the Gaulish people of the Lemovices, who lived in the area, was probably either near Villejoubert, some kilometres south-east of Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, or St Gence, just west of Limoges.

The city proper was founded as Augustoritum by the Romans, around 10 BC: "rito-" is Gaulish for "ford". The foundation was part of the reorganization of the province by the emperor Augustus, hence the new name. The Roman city included an amphitheatre measuring 136 x 115 metres, a theatre, a forum, baths and several sanctuaries. According to tradition, a temple consecrated to Venus, Diana, Minerva and Jupiter was located near the modern cathedral. The city was on the typical Roman square plan, with two main streets crossing in the centre. It had a Senate and a currency of its own, a sign of its importance in the imperial age. Later, like many towns and cities in Gaul, it was renamed after the tribe (here the Lemovices) whose chief town it was; "Lemovices" subsequently evolved into "Limoges", and "Lemovicinus" for the area around changed into "Limousin".

Limoges was evangelized by Saint Martial, who came to the city around 250 with two companions, Alpinianus and Austriclinienus. However, in the late 3rd century it was increasingly abandoned, due to unsafe conditions created by the invasions of various Germanic tribes. The population was concentrated instead in a more easily fortifiable site, the modern Puy Saint-Étienne, which is the centre of the modern Limoges. Starting from the construction of the Abbey of St. Martial (9th century), another settlement grew around the tomb of the saint, while a third area, next to the residence of the viscount (the future Castle of Saint Martial), seems to have been populated from the 10th century.

Starting from the 11th century, thanks to the presence of the Abbey of St. Martial and its large library, Limoges became a flourishing artistic centre. It was home to an important school of medieval music composition, which is usually called the St. Martial School; its most famous member was the 13th-century troubadour Bertran de Born.

In the 13th century, at the peak of its splendour, central Limoges consisted of two fortified settlements.
 * The town proper, with a new line of walls encompassing the Vienne River, inhabited mainly by clerks and workers. It has a bridge on the Vienne river named after Saint-Étienne, built by the bishops, and a developed port. Sacked in 1370, it never recovered entirely.
 * The castle, with 12 meter-high walls, including the abbey and controlled by the abbot, sometimes in contrast with the bishop-ruled town ("la Cité"). Traces of the walls can still be seen in the city centre. Outside the lines of walls were the popular quarters.

In 1370, Limoges was occupied by Edward, the Black Prince, who massacred some 300 residents, "perhaps a sixth of the normal population", with another 60 members of the garrison of 140 dead as well.

Modern history

The porcelain industry started to develop, favoured by the presence of kaolinite which was discovered near Limoges in 1768 (near St Yrieix, south-west of Limoges). Many of the inhabitants became employed in the new sector or in connected activities (including the lumbering of wood needed for firing the porcelain) in manufacture and exporting needed for European distribution of Limoges Boxes, dinnerware, and other porcelain wares. Because the Limousin region has had a long history of breeding (Baronet sheep and Limousine cows), the leather industry also settled in and around Limoges along the banks of the Vienne–the river providing the necessary water and power. Factories in Limoges and St Junien still produce luxury leather shoes, gloves, and bags.

The city and castle were united in 1792 to form the single city of Limoges. During the French Revolution several religious edifices, considered symbols of the Ancien Régime, were destroyed by the population: these included the Abbey of St. Martial itself.

In the 19th century Limoges saw strong construction activity, which included the destruction and rebuilding of much of the city centre. The unsafe conditions of the poorer population is highlighted by the outbreak of several riots, including that of July–November 1830 and April 1848. The first French confederation of workers, Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) (General Confederation of Labour), was created in Limoges in 1895.

In early 1905, strikes began in another local industry, shoe factories soon followed in the porcelain factories. Barricades were built, the army intervened. There would be two casualties: a horse and a young porcelain worker, Camille Vardelle.

During World War II, many Jews from Alsace were evacuated to and around Limoges.

Climate
Limoges experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) common to much of Western France. Most precipitation occurs between October and February. On 27 December 1999, winds reached 148 km/h. On average, the city experiences 41 days of frost and 18 days of snow each winter. In June, July and August, precipitation tends to come only from violent thunderstorms coming from the Bay of Biscay.

Demographics
In 2018, the population of the commune proper was 131,479, and of the Limoges functional urban area 323,789. Inhabitants of Limoges are called limougeauds in French. The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Limoges proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Limoges absorbed the former commune of Beaune-les-Mines in 1962.

Main sights

 * The Crypt of Saint Martial, 10th century, including the tomb of the bishop who evangelized the city. It was discovered in the 1960s while building an underground parking lot (place de la république).
 * Remains of the Gallo-Roman amphitheatre, one of the largest in ancient Gaul.
 * The Gothic Limoges Cathedral (Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Limoges), begun in 1273 and only finished in 1888. It is noted for a fine loft built in 1534 and for the partly octagonal bell tower. The main artistic works are a Renaissance rood screen and the tomb of the bishop Jean de Langeac, with sculpted scenes of the Apocalypse.
 * The Chapelle Saint-Aurélien (14th–17th centuries). It includes the relics of St. Aurelian, the second bishop of Limoges, and has medieval statues and Baroque works of art.
 * The church of St-Pierre-du-Queyroix, begun in the 12th century
 * Church of St-Michel-des-Lions, begun in 1364. It houses the relics of St. Martial and has stained-glass windows from the 15th–16th century. The most striking feature is the 65 m-high tower, with a spire surmounted by a big bronze ball.
 * The bridges of Saint Martial (dating from the Roman era) and of St-Etienne (13th century).
 * The Limoges Fine Arts Museum (Musée des Beaux-Arts), housed in the 18th-century bishops' palace ('Palais de l'Évêché').
 * The railway station, Gare de Limoges Bénédictins, inaugurated in 1929.
 * The Château de La Borie (17th century), at 4 km from the city. It is home to the Centre Culturel de Rencontre de La Borie et l'Ensemble Baroque de Limoges.
 * The remains of the 12th-century Castle of Chalucet, 10 km south of the city. During the Hundred Years' War it was a base of the bands of pillagers which ravaged the country.
 * The city's botanical gardens include the Jardin botanique de l'Evêché next to the cathedral.
 * The University of Limoges was founded in 1968.

Art and literature

"Le marché de Limoges" (Limoges market) is the name of a section of Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky.

In 1768, kaolin, a rock rich in fine, white clay which is used for making porcelain, was discovered at Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche, 30 km south of Limoges. Under the impetus of the progressive economist Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, who had been appointed intendant of this impoverished and isolated region, a new ceramics industry was developed, and Limoges porcelain became famous during the 19th century. However, Limoges porcelain is a generic term for porcelain produced in Limoges rather than at a specific factory (there are still several porcelain factories in and around Limoges). More than 50% of all porcelain made in France comes from Limoges.

Education
Limoges hosts the national ceramics school École d'ingénieurs ENSIL-ENSCI, created in 1893, and also the University of Limoges.

Sports
The city is one of France's basketball capitals. The Palais des Sports de Beaublanc, has been host for international basketball events such as the EuroBasket 1983 and serves as home court for the professional team CSP Limoges (Cercle St Pierre). Since 1983, the club has been French champion 11 times (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2014, 2015) and 5 European titles (1982, 1983, 2000 (Korac Cup), 1988 (FIBA Saporta Cup), 1993 (Euroleague)). It was the first French club team to become European champion in a collective sport. The team currently plays in Pro A, the French first basketball professional league.

Limoges Hand 87 is a French handball team based in Limoges, France, which is currently playing in the Division 2 of Ligue Nationale de Handball.

Limoges FC was the major city association football team before the club folded in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their home games were played at Stade St. Lazare.

USA Limoges is an amateur rugby union club, based in Limoges. Currently competing in Fédérale 1, the top level of the French amateur rugby pyramid and one level below the professional leagues.

Transport
The main railway station of Limoges is the Limoges-Bénédictins station. It offers direct connections with Paris, and Toulouse, and several regional destinations. Limoges was the last major urban centre of Metropolitan France to be connected to the national motorway system; since the early 1990s, the motorway A20 connects Limoges with Châteauroux, Vierzon, Orléans and Paris to the north, and Brive-la-Gaillarde, Cahors, Montauban and Toulouse to the south. The nearest airport is Limoges – Bellegarde Airport.

Urban transport in Limoges and its metropolitan area is operated by Société de transports en commun de Limoges Métropole (STCL). The Limoges urban bus network includes the Limoges trolleybus system, one of only four such systems currently operating in France.

Notable people

 * Bernard Gui (1261–1331), Inquisitor of Toulouse, Bishop of Lodève, buried in Limoges.
 * Pierre de Casa Prior General of the Order of Carmelites then Became Bishop of the Diocese of Vaison (1341–1348) and Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (1342–1348)
 * Jean Daurat (or Dorat) (1508–1588), poet and scholar, member of the Pléiade
 * Henri François d'Aguesseau (1668–1751), chancellor of France
 * Jean-Baptiste Jourdan (1762–1833), marshal of France
 * Stephen Grellet (1773–1855), Quaker missionary
 * Thomas Robert Bugeaud de la Piconnerie, Duke of Duchy of Isly (1784–1849), marshal of France
 * Jean Cruveilhier (1791–1874), anatomist and pathologist, born in Limoges
 * Michel Chevalier (1806–1879), engineer, economist, and statesman
 * Élie Berthet (1815–1891), writer
 * Jean-Baptiste Joseph Émile Montégut (1825–1895), critic
 * Marie François Sadi Carnot (1837–1894), President of France
 * Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919), painter
 * André Antoine (1858–1943), theater pioneer, actor, director, filmmaker
 * René Navarre (1877–1968), actor
 * Marcel Vardelle (1883–1969), politician
 * Roger Gonthier (1884–1978), architect
 * Raoul Hausmann (1886–1971), artist
 * Maryse Bastié (1898–1952), aviator

 * Fred Sirieix (born 1972), maître d'hôtel famous for appearing on First Dates.
 * Franck Pulcini, 20th-century French trumpeter.
 * Fabienne Delsol, a singer active since 1996
 * Stéphane Delautrette (born 1972), politician
 * Guillaume Moreau (born 1983), racing driver
 * Marie-Ange Magne (born 1987), politician
 * Matthieu Vaxivière (born 1994), racing driver

Twin towns - sister cities
Limoges is twinned with:
 * 🇺🇸 Charlotte, United States
 * 🇩🇪 Fürth, Germany
 * 🇧🇾 Grodno, Belarus
 * 🇨🇿 Plzeň, Czech Republic
 * 🇯🇵 Seto, Japan
 * 🇰🇷 Icheon, South Korea

title: Limoges


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Talk:Neighbourhood

List in individual cities
I think the list of nieghborhoods in individual cities needs to go. It is kinda pointless in that it does not tell you much more about what neighborhoods are. And as I showed with Seattle, it will just get out of hand eventually...

What is the general consesus on this?

tpahl 07:44, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm with you. Zap it. --Lukobe 17:21, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Comment
I am making this web page right now My name is clay and clint is sitting right next to me i live in meade ks and i am at the heat and energy module at phys. sci. -- 216.96.86.251

Hi clay, if you stick around, then you can create an account and put this (and more!) about you on a user page, like this one: Toby Bartels 23:15 29 May 2003 (UTC)

Capitalization question
PY: Is that really correct, to say "Block watch" with an uppercase "B" but a lowercase "W"? Just checking! -- Toby Bartels 00:30 30 May 2003 (UTC)

Cut and paste of page
Some idiot went and did a cut and paste of this article without consulting with anyone to have it moved. I have moved it back to its original location (unfortunately I had to do a cut and paste). I went and had a look through both the page histories for "Neighbourhood" and "Neighborhood" and found that the information belongs to the page titled "Neighbourhood" while a redirect belongs to the page titled "Neighborhood".

Please if anyone feels that this page should be moved, bring it up on the talk page first and don't do a cut and paste of the article information without discussing it. Doing a cut and paste of a page destroys its history and talk page discussions. If you feel that the page title is wrong, do it the proper way as per wiki policy for moving a page. -- AxSkov 09:33, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Spelling

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

I often see the British spellings of words on Wikipedia - "neighbourhood," "colour," "realise," etc. And just curious - is Wikipedia based in the UK? Or are there a lot of British contributors? I hope so. It would just kind of turn my stomach if these are all Americans trying to sound worldly. =)
 * Per Manual of Style, both American and Commonwealth spellings are allowed on Wikipedia (which is, incidentally, based in the U.S.). In cases like this one, where the term being defined is not specific to any particular English-speaking country, the rule of thumb is to follow the spelling of the first author. In this case, that was the Commonwealth spelling neighbourhood, so I have moved the article back there, and neighborhood is a redirect. Please do not move this page to neighborhood, and please do not ever move any pages by cut-and-paste. Thanks! Angr/ talk 22:01, 6 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I'd like to suggest that this page be moved back to the American spelling due to the apparent lack of any British context in this article. This seems like a reasonable request, which I will carry out unless there is a response here soon. └ Jared ┘┌ t ┐  20:46, 17 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Per WP:ENGVAR, this should not be moved away from a stable title to change to a different regional spelling. The topic is not one which only applies to North America, even if there isn't any specific information in the article related to places that use Commonwealth English. This is both the established and the original title. Dekimasu よ! 03:28, 5 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I see you've filed a WP:RM request, but you claim there that "neighborhoods are predominantly an American entity". Do you mean that as "recognized municipal division"? I'm not aware of widespread official recognition of "neighborhoods", but I could be wrong. In a general sense, of course, there are neighborhoods everywhere. Dekimasu よ! 03:32, 5 July 2007 (UTC)
 * In short, I believe that when one thinks of a neighborhood, one thinks of the quintessential nest of American homes that has become connotative of the term. Thus, I must stick by my opinion, even if the word appears in multiple dialects. └ Jared ┘┌ t ┐  05:41, 5 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Maybe. If "one" is American.  Nests of African homes are just as quintessential, you know. -GTBacchus(talk) 22:05, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * If nothing else, neighbourhoods are as much part of Canadian life as neighborhoods are of American life, which would be enough to refute your claims even if the concept were peculiar to North America, which it isn't. --Stemonitis 07:10, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I must also oppose this proposed move, per ENGVAR. The idea that "neighborhoods" are unique to the United States is just mind-blowing. -- Groggy Dice T | C 23:10, 5 July 2007 (UTC)
 * In the physical sense, I do not believe whatsoever that they are unique to the United States. However, in the grand scheme of it all, a neighborhood has come to become a more American concept. Plus, the article has nothing to do with "Neighbourhoods," just "Neighborhoods." └ Jared ┘┌ t ┐  23:14, 5 July 2007 (UTC)
 * What's your evidence that "in the grand scheme of it all", neighborhoods are more American? What knowledge do you have of the "grand scheme of it all" as it looks from outside America, where most of the world's population lives?  I'll wager that if you say the word "neighborhood" to an average non-American, they don't think of an American neighborhood first. -GTBacchus(talk) 22:10, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Oppose the move to Neighborhood. Three reasons: Policy, commonsense, and my personal ethnic prejudices. Andrewa 04:23, 6 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Oppose the move to Neighborhood. There is no excuse for bad spelling, once we start going down this road we will eventually have to rename it "the hood", but anyway another possible reason is that it might bring down property prices in my own neighbourhood if people thought the Americans were moving in. Excalibur 01:27, 8 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Oppose. It's not doing any harm spelt this way. Saying "neighborhood has come to become a more American concept", Rubbish!! – Axman (☏) 08:21, 8 July 2007 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

It was requested that this article be renamed but there was no consensus for it be moved. --Stemonitis 06:54, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Neighborhoods before neighbors?
Maybe I have a weird perspictive, but it seems odd that neighborhoods should be defined before neighbors. The neighborhood exists because it's stuff shared between you and your neighbors, who if you don't know are just people who live near you (except for the lexically-defined 'next-door neighbor', which is more of a word than an analyseable phrase). Is there anyone else who agrees with me on that? Aussies and Brits (and whoever else is familiar with our ghastly shows), think of the tv show Neigbours. Felix the Cassowary 09:38, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Neighbor/neighborhood? I thought it was neighbo u r/neighbo u rhood for Aussies ;-) Mark 14:38, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

Redirect
How come when I type in the Arcade Fire song "Neighborhood #1 (Tunnels)" I get redirected here?
 * The character "#" can't be in article titles for technical reasons, so I think the search just looks at the "Neighborhood" part and that redirects here. At least, I think that's what happens. - JSmith60 02:20, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * The same happened with me. I searched "Neighbourhood #3 (Power Out)" and was redirected here. Wouldn't it make more sense for me to be redirected here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighborhood_3_%28Power_Out%29? Yes, there's a # in the title. But there's also a "3 (Power Out)." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.236.243.141 (talk) 02:00, 16 December 2011 (UTC)
 * You were not "redirected" here. A redirect is a term with a particular meaning on Wikipedia (see link for explanation).
 * What I assume happened is that you just typed something into the quick-search field and hit return. This causes the default behavior to be used which is for you to be taken to the first matching entry.  Instead, you should have looked at the possible matches that popped-up and determined that none of them were exactly what you wanted.  The last line on the pop-up is to show you the general search results for the terms you used.  From there you could either refine your search to get the result you desired, or click on the Neighbourhood (disambiguation) link which is the standard place to list alternate things people may be trying to find when they look for neihbourhood.  The Neighbourhood (disambiguation) link is also at the top of the Neighbourhood article page.  This is the normal way that Wikipedia handles this type of issue.
 * There is nothing any editor reading this page can do about changing the search function. This is the result of technical aspects of how Wikipedia works.  Changing it would require access to technical portions of Wikipedia which are unavailable to editors.
 * Makyen (talk) 06:16, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

Suggestions
The sociology section should be beefed up considerably (with references), and the "neighborhoods by region" section taken out (or perhaps made into a list with links). Michael E. Smith (talk) 01:28, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I tend to agree with Michael, but would like to know his reasoning before I approve it. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 07:25, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

Etimology
There is no section on etimology, why? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.131.183.218 (talk) 17:18, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

Photo
Does anyone have a more appropriate photo? The current one better exemplifies a beach resort or city more than a "neighborhood"; not to mention, Copacabana is technically a borough.  Mbinebri  talk ← 01:53, 22 April 2010 (UTC)

Neighbour bullying
Neighbour bullying is a topic that needs to be covered IMO. --Penbat (talk) 11:07, 11 March 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Neighbourhood. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090523033748/http://www.kingston.gov.uk:80/information/nhoodhome.htm to http://www.kingston.gov.uk/information/nhoodhome.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 00:56, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

neighborhood
νειμπορχουντ 152.89.116.54 (talk) 16:41, 31 January 2022 (UTC)

"'Hood" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect & and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 March 30 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. -- Tamzin  [ cetacean needed ] (she/they) 22:45, 30 March 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Neighbourhood


text:
Charles Percier

Charles Percier (22 August 1764 – 5 September 1838) was a neoclassical French architect, interior decorator and designer, who worked in a close partnership with Pierre François Léonard Fontaine, originally his friend from student days. For work undertaken from 1794 onward, trying to ascribe conceptions or details to one or other of them is fruitless; it is impossible to disentangle their cooperative efforts in this fashion. Together, Percier and Fontaine were inventors and major proponents of the rich, grand, consciously-archaeological versions of neoclassicism we recognise as Directoire style and Empire style.

Following Charles Percier's death in 1838, Fontaine designed a tomb in their characteristic style in the Pere Lachaise Cemetery. Percier and Fontaine had lived together as well as being colleagues. Fontaine married late in life and after his death in 1853 his body was placed in the same tomb according to his wishes.

Biography
Percier was born at Paris in 1764. In 1784, at age nineteen, he won the Prix de Rome, a government-funded fellowship for study in Rome. There he met Fontaine. One early product of their collaboration was Palais, maisons et autres édifices modernes dessinés à Rome ("A palace, houses and other modern buildings designed in Rome"), which attracted the attention of prospective clients when they returned to Paris. At the end of 1792, near the end of the first phase of the French Revolution, Percier was appointed to supervise the scenery at the Paris Opéra, a post at the center of innovative design. Fontaine returned from the security of London, where he had been exiled, and they continued at the Opéra together until 1796. Charles-Louis Bernier was a third member of their team.

Napoleon Bonaparte liked their work. The calculated theater of the Empire style, its aggressive opulence restrained by a slightly dry and correct sense of the antique taste, and its neo-Roman values, imperial yet separate from the ancien régime, appealed to the future emperor. He appointed them his personal architects and never wavered in his decision; they were at work on imperial projects almost until the very end of Napoleon's time in power. The relationship only dissolved when Napoleon retired to Elba. After the restoration of the House of Bourbon in 1814, they found themselves associated too intimately with the Empire ever to earn an official commission again. From that time forward, Percier conducted a student atelier, a teaching studio or workshop. One of Percier's pupils, Auguste de Montferrand, designed Saint Isaac's Cathedral in St Petersburg for Tsar Alexander I.

They worked for ten years (1802–1812) on the Louvre. The old palace had not been a royal residence for generations, so it was free of any taint associated with the detested Bourbons. It stood in the heart of Paris, so that the vain Emperor could be seen coming and going, unlike Versailles, which, besides, had been rendered uninhabitable through destruction and looting. They worked on the Tuileries Palace that faced the Louvre across the Place du Carrousel and the parterres. In that prominent square, Percier and Fontaine designed the Arc du Carrousel (1807–1808), commemorating the Battle of Austerlitz,

They also worked at Josephine's Château de Malmaison, at the Château de Montgobert for Pauline Bonaparte, and did alterations and decorations for former Bourbon palaces or castles at Compiègne, Saint-Cloud, and Fontainebleau.

Percier and Fontaine designed every detail in their interiors: state beds, sculptural side tables, and other furniture, wall lights and candlesticks, chandeliers, door hardware, textiles, and wallpaper. On special occasions, Percier was called upon to design for the Sèvres porcelain manufactory: in 1814 Percier's published designs were adapted by Alexandre Brogniart, director of Sèvres, a grand classicising vase 137 cm tall, that came to be known as the "Londonderry Vase" when Louis XVIII gave it to the Marquess of Londonderry just before the Congress of Vienna. Percier and Fontaine published several later books, notably Recueil de décoration intérieure concernant tout ce qui rapporte à l'ameublement ("Collection of interior designs: Everything that relates to furniture", 1812) with its engravings in a spare outline technique. These engravings spread their style beyond the Empire; they helped put a French stamp on the English Regency style and influenced the Dutch-British connoisseur-designer, Thomas Hope.

Students
At the end of 1814, Charles Percier officially retired and devoted himself to teaching. The following are some of his students:
 * Auguste Caristie (1783–1862)
 * François Debret (1777–1850)
 * Joseph-Louis Duc (1802–1879), prix de Rome 1825
 * Martin-Pierre Gauthier (1790–1855), prix de Rome 1819
 * Alphonse de Gisors (1796–1866), second prix de Rome 1823
 * Jacques Hittorff (1792–1867)
 * Jean-Jacques-Marie Huvé (1783–1852)
 * Louis-Hippolyte Lebas (1782–1867)
 * Achille Leclère (1785–1853)
 * Paul Letarouilly (1795–1855)
 * Auguste de Montferrand (1786–1858)
 * Bruno Renard (1781–1861)
 * Louis Tullius Joachim Visconti (1791–1853)

title: Charles Percier


text:
Accidental Death of an Anarchist

Accidental Death of an Anarchist (Morte accidentale di un anarchico) is a play by Italian playwright Dario Fo that premiered in 1970. It has been performed across the world in more than forty countries. The play is based on the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing and on the death of Giuseppe Pinelli while being interrogated by the police.

Plot
The play opens with Inspector Francesco Bertozzo interrogating a clever, quick-witted and mischievous fraudster, simply known as the Maniac, in Bertozzo's office on the third floor of the police headquarters in Milan. The Maniac constantly outsmarts the dim-witted Bertozzo and, when Bertozzo leaves the room, intercepts a phone call from Inspector Pissani. Pissani reveals to the Maniac that a judge is due at the police station to investigate the interrogation of an "accidental" death of the anarchist, whilst the Maniac pretends to be a colleague of Bertozzo's and tells Pissani that Bertozzo is "blowing a raspberry" at him. The Maniac decides to impersonate the judge, Marco Malipiero, an opportunity he has been waiting a while for, and to humiliate the policemen responsible for the "accidental" death of an Anarchist. After Bertozzo re-enters his office, the Maniac is forced out of the office, taking Bertozzo's coat and hat to use in his disguise. Bertozzo chases him, running into Pissani, who punches him in retaliation for "blowing a raspberry" at him.

The Maniac, now impersonating Malipiero, finds Pissani and his lackey, the Constable, in the room where the anarchist was during his interrogation. Telling them that he is Malipiero, the Maniac asks for the Superintendent, who was involved with the interrogation with Pissani and the Constable. The Maniac orders the three policemen to re-enact the events of the interrogation; in turn fabricating many of the events, such as changing beating the anarchist to making jokes with him, incorporating new lines into the transcript and even breaking out in song. When the investigation reaches the matter of the fall, the Constable reveals he grabbed the anarchist's shoe, in an attempt to stop him from falling. However, the Maniac notes that witnesses reported that the anarchist had both shoes on. When Pissani surmises that the anarchist was wearing a galosh, the Superintendent breaks into a rage, making Pissani accidentally reveal that the Superintendent pushed the anarchist out of the window. The two policemen then realise that the Maniac was listening. The phone in the office suddenly rings, which Pissani answers. He tells them that it is a journalist called Maria Feletti, whom the Superintendent agreed to meet to clear rumors about the interrogation, wanting to come up to the office.

As the presence of Judge Malipiero would endanger them, the policemen tell the Maniac to leave for the time being. Instead, the Maniac intends to disguise himself as a forensic expert from Rome, Captain Piccini. The Maniac leaves the office. Feletti nearly exposes the three policemen, until the Maniac re-enters, as an extravagantly-dressed amputee. The Maniac manages to concoct a story on how the anarchist died: one of the impatient policemen hit the anarchist in the neck, an ambulance being called; the anarchist then being led to the window for fresh air, and pushed accidentally out of the window due to uncoordinated balance between the two policemen leading him to the window. Feletti is unconvinced, noting how the death of the anarchist was reported by the police to be a suicide, opposed to their original comment that it was "accidental". Bertozzo suddenly enters, delivering a replica of a bomb from another attack. Bertozzo partially recognises the Maniac, as he knows Captain Piccini, but is dissuaded by Pissani and the Superintendent. Feletti begins to pick out the inconsistencies in the policemen's stories, and showing that bombers in Milan are fascists, not revolutionaries.

Bertozzo realises that "Piccini" is the Maniac, after seeing his coat and hat on a stand. Bertozzo, holding the policemen at gunpoint, orders Feletti to cuff the three policemen; getting the Maniac to show them his medical records, exposing him as a fraud. The Maniac reveals a tape recorder, which he used to record Pissani and the Superintendent's tirade, exposing their crime. The Maniac strips off his disguise, making him recognizable to Feletti, who identifies him as Paulo Davidovitch Gandolpho, the "Prose Pimpernel of the Permanent Revolution" and "notorious sports editor of Lotta Continua". Revealing that the bomb replica can in fact work, setting it off on a timer, the Maniac has Bertozzo join his fellow policemen. Feletti attempts to stop the Maniac, citing the Maniac as an "extremist" and "fanatic". The Maniac, instead of killing her, offers her an ultimatum: save the four corrupt policemen, acquitting them and the Maniac will be put behind bars; or leave them to die for their crime and unwittingly join the extremist movement as an accomplice. The Maniac then leaves to spread the recording.

The Maniac then addresses the audience, showing what the scenario entails. When Feletti leaves them, the four policemen die in the resulting explosion. However, the Maniac then offers the second result: sticking to the rule of law, Feletti releases them, but is chained to the window by the policemen when they realize that Feletti knows what they did. The Maniac then leaves the audience to decide which ending they prefer.

Adaptations and legacy
A Hindi adaptation of the play, Bechara Mara Gaya, was made into a film. Another earlier adaptation, Dhool Me Lipta Sach, ran in Pune. A Chinese adaptation with some changes to the original script was directed by Meng Jinghui.

Ed Emery was the translator for an authorised English-language version of the play. In 1979, Gavin Richards of the socialist political theatre group Belt and Braces developed an adaptation that was staged at London's Wyndham's Theatre with both Richards and Alfred Molina alternating in the lead role of "The Maniac", for which Richards was nominated for an Olivier Award. A TV movie of the play, with the Belt and Braces cast and Richards once more in the lead, was commissioned by Channel 4 in 1983 and broadcast the subsequent year.

A sequel, Pum pum! Chi è? La polizia! (Knock Knock! Who's There? The Police!), was written in 1974. Semiotician Umberto Eco commented favourably on the sequel in his column in the newspaper L'Espresso.

An English adaptation by Tom Basden starring Daniel Rigby premiered at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield in October 2022 before transferring to the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith in May 2023 and then the Theatre Royal Haymarket in London's West End in June 2023.

title: Accidental Death of an Anarchist


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Kikuyu people

The Kikuyu (also Agĩkũyũ/Gĩkũyũ) are a Bantu ethnic group native to East Africa Central Kenya. At a population of 8,148,668 as of 2019, they account for 17.13% of the total population of Kenya, making them Kenya's largest ethnic group.

The term Kikuyu is the Swahili borrowing of the autonym Gĩkũyũ

Origin
The Kikuyu belong to the Northeastern Bantu branch. Their language is most closely related to that of the Embu and Mbeere. Geographically, they are concentrated in the vicinity of Mount Kenya.

The exact place that the Northeast Bantu speakers migrated from after the initial Bantu expansion is uncertain. Some authorities suggest that the Kikuyu arrived in their present Mount Kenya area of habitation from earlier settlements further to the north and east, while others argue that the Kikuyu, along with their closely related Eastern Bantu neighbours the Embu, Meru, Mbeere, and Kamba moved into Kenya from points further north.

From archaeological evidence, their arrival at the northern side of Mt. Kenya dates to around the 3rd century, as part of the larger group known as Thagicu. By the 6th century, there was a community of Agikuyu newly established at Gatung'ang'a in Nyeri. The Agikuyu established themselves in their current homeland of Mt. Kenya region by the 13th century.

The nation and its pursuits
Before the establishment of East Africa Protectorate in 1895, the Agĩkũyũ preserved geographic and political power from almost all external influence for many generations; they had never been subdued. Before the arrival of the British, Arabs involved in slave trading and their caravans passed at the southern edges of the Agĩkũyũ nation. Slavery as an institution did not exist amongst the Agĩkũyũ, nor did they make raids for the capture of slaves. The Arabs who tried to venture into Agĩkũyũ land met instant death. Relying on a combination of land purchases, blood-brotherhood (partnerships), intermarriage with other people, and their adoption and absorption, the Agĩkũyũ were in a constant state of territorial expansion. Economically, the Agĩkũyũ were great farmers and shrewd businesspeople. Besides farming and business, the Agĩkũyũ were involved in small scale industries with professions such as bridge building, string making, wire drawing, and iron chain making. The Agĩkũyũ had a great sense of justice (kĩhooto).

Social and political life
The Agĩkũyũ nation was divided into nine clans. Each clan traced its lineage to a single female ancestor and a daughter of Mumbi. The clans were not restricted to any particular geographical area, they lived side by side. Some clans had a recognised leader, others did not. However, in either case, real political power was exercised by the ruling council of elders for each clan. Each clan then forwarded the leader of its council to the apex council of elders for the whole community. The overall council of elders representing all the clans was then led by a headman or the nation's spokesman.

Ngai – The Supreme Creator
The Gĩkũyũ were – and still are – monotheists believing in an omnipotent Creator whom they refer to as Ngai. All of the Gĩkũyũ, Embu, and Kamba use this name. Ngai was also known as Mũrungu by the Meru and Embu tribes, or Mũlungu (a variant of a word referring to the Creator). The title Mwathani or Mwathi (the greatest ruler) comes from the word gwatha meaning to rule or reign with authority, was and is still used. All sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a sycamore tree (Mũkũyũ) and if one was not available, a fig tree (Mũgumo) would be used. The olive tree (Mũtamaiyũ) was a sacred tree for women.

Mount Kenya and religion
Ngai or Mwene-Nyaga is the Supreme Creator and giver of all things. He created the first Gĩkũyũ communities, and provided them with all the resources necessary for life: land, rain, plants, and animals. Ngai cannot be seen but is manifested in the sun, moon, stars, comets and meteors, thunder and lightning, rain, rainbows, and in the great fig trees (Mugumo). These trees served as places of worship and sacrifice and marked the spot at Mũkũrwe Wa Nyagathanga where Gĩkũyũ and Mũmbi – the ancestors of the Gĩkũyũ in the oral legend – first settled. Ngai has human characteristics, and although some say that he lives in the sky or in the clouds, Gĩkũyũ lore also says that Ngai comes to earth from time to time to inspect it, bestow blessings, and mete out punishment. When he comes, Ngai rests on Mount Kenya (Kīrīnyaga) and Kilimambogo (kĩrĩma kĩa njahĩ). Thunder is interpreted to be the movement of Ngai and lightning is the weapon used by Ngai to clear the way when moving from one sacred place to another. Some people believe that Ngai's abode is on Mount Kenya. In one legend Ngai made the mountain his resting place while on an inspection tour of earth. Ngai then took the first man, Gikuyu, to the top to point out the beauty of the land he was giving him.

Philosophy of the Traditional Kikuyu Religion
The cardinal points in this Traditional Gĩkũyũ Religion Philosophy were squarely based on the general Bantu peoples thought as follows:
 * 1) The universe is composed of interacting and interconnected forces whose manifestation is the physical things we see, including ourselves and those we do not see.
 * 2) All those forces (things) in the universe came from God who, from the beginning of time, have had the vital divine force of creation within himself.
 * 3) Everything created by God retains a bond from God (Creator) to the created.
 * 4) The first humans who were created by God have the strongest vital force because they got it directly from God.
 * 5) Because these first humans sit just below God in power, they are almost like Gods or even can be Gods.
 * 6) The current parent of an individual is the link to God through the immediate dead and through ancestors.
 * 7) On Earth, humans have the highest quantity of vital force.
 * 8) All the other things (forces) on Earth were created to enable human vital force (being) become stronger.
 * 9) All things have vital force but some objects, plants and animals have higher vital force than others.
 * 10) A human can use an animal to symbolize the level of his vital force compared to other humans.
 * 11) There is a specific point within every physical manifestation (thing) of vital force where most of that force is concentrated.
 * 12) A human can easily manipulate things to his advantage or to their detriment by identifying this point of concentration of vital force. There are human beings who have more knowledge of these forces and can manipulate them at will usually by invoking higher forces to assist.
 * 13) Higher forces are invoked by humans using lower forces (animal or plant sacrifice) as intermediaries. To approach higher forces directly is thahu (abomination which leads to a curse).
 * 14) The human society has some few elite people very skilled in the art of manipulating forces to strengthen a human(s) force or diminish it, strengthen any force below human force or diminish it.
 * 15) The leader of a human society is the one possessing the highest vital force as at that time or the one closest to God or both. Since the leader of this human society has the highest vital force and hence closer to God than any other person, he should be able to nourish the rest of the people by linking them to the ultimate God and by being able to command lower forces to act in such a way so as to reinforce the other humans' vital force.
 * 16) The life force of a dead ancestor can come back to life through the act of birth of a new child, especially when the child is named after the departed ancestor and all is seen to be well.

The Gĩkũyũ held a belief in the interconnection of everything in the universe. To the Gĩkũyũ people, everything we see has an inner spiritual force and the most sacred though unspoken ontology was being is force. This spiritual vital force originated from God, who had the power to create or destroy that life force. To the Gĩkũyũ people, God was the supreme being in the universe and the giver (Mũgai/Ngai) of this life force to everything that exists. Gĩkũyũ people also believed that everything God created had a vital inner force and a connection bond to Him by the mere fact that he created that thing and gave it that inner force that makes it be and be manifested physically. To the Agĩkũyũ, God had this life force within himself hence He was the ultimate owner and ruler of everything in the universe. The latter was the ultimate conception of God among the Gĩkũyũ people hence the name Mũgai/Ngai. To the Gĩkũyũ people, those who possessed the greatest life force, those closest to God were the first parents created by God because God directly gave them the vital living force. These first parents were so respected to be treated almost like God himself. These were followed by the ancestors of the people who inherited life force from the first parents, then followed by the immediate dead and finally the eldest in the community. Hence when people wanted to offer sacrifices, the eldest in the community would perform the rites. Children in the community had a link to God through their parents and that chain would move upwards to parent parents, ancestors, first created parents until it reaches God Himself. The Gĩkũyũ people believed the departed spirits of the ancestors can be reborn again in this world when children are being born, hence the rites performed during the child naming ceremonies. The Gĩkũyũ people believed the vital life force or soul of a person can be increased or diminished, thereby affecting the person's health. They also believed that some people possessed power to manipulate the inner force in all things. These people who increased the well-being of a person spirit were called medicine-men (Mũgo) while those who diminished the person's life force were called witchdoctors (Mũrogi). They also believed that ordinary items can have their spiritual powers increased such that they protect a person against those bent on diminishing a person vital life force. Such an item with such powers was called gĩthitũ. Thus, the philosophy of the Gĩkũyũ religion and life, in general, was anchored on the understanding that everything in the universe has an inner interlinked force that we do not see. God among the Gĩkũyũ people was understood hence to be the owner and distributor (Mũgai) of this inner life force in all things and He was worshiped and praised to either increase the life force of all things (farm produce, cattle, children) the Gĩkũyũ people possessed and minimize events that led to catastrophes that would diminish the life force of the people or lead to death. The leader of the Gĩkũyũ people was the person who was thought to possess the greatest life force among the people or the person who had demonstrated the greatest life force in taking care of the people, their families, their farm produce, their cattle and their land. This person was hence thought to be closer to God than anybody else living in that nation. The said person also had to demonstrate and practice the highest levels of truth (maa) and justice (kihooto), just like the supreme God of the Gĩkũyũ people would do.

Political structures and generational change
The Agĩkũyũ had four seasons and two harvests in one year.
 * 1) Mbura ya njahĩ (the season of big rain) from March to July;
 * 2) Magetha ma njahĩ (njahĩ being Lablab purpureus) (the season of the black bean harvest) between July and early October;
 * 3) Mbura ya Mwere (short rain season) from October to January;
 * 4) Magetha ma Mwere (the season of harvesting) milletà;
 * 5) Mbura ya Kĩmera.

Further, time was recorded through the initiation by circumcision. Each initiation group was given a special name. According to Professor Godfrey Mũriũki, the individual initiation sets are then grouped into a regiment every nine calendar years. Before a regiment or army was set, there was a period in which no initiation of boys took place. This period lasted a total of four and a half calendar years (nine seasons in Gĩkũyũ land, each season referred to as imera) and is referred to as mũhingo, with initiation taking place at the start of the fifth year and going on annually for the next nine calendar years. This was the system adopted in Metumi Murang'a. The regiment or army sets also get special names, some of which seem to have ended up as popular male names. In Gaki Nyeri the system was inversed with initiation taking place annually for four calendar years, which would be followed by a period of nine calendar years in which no initiation of boys took place (mũhingo). Girls, on the other hand, were initiated every year. Several regiments then make up a ruling generation. It was estimated that ruling generations lasted an average of 35 years. The names of the initiation and regiment sets vary within Gĩkũyũ land. The ruling generations are however uniform and provide very important chronological data. On top of that, the initiation sets were a way of documenting events within the Gĩkũyũ nation, so, for example, were the occurrence of smallpox and syphilis recorded. Girls' initiation sets were also accorded special names, although there has been little research in this area. Mũriũki only unearths three sets, whose names are, Rũharo [1894], Kibiri/Ndũrĩrĩ [1895], Kagica [1896], Ndutu/Nuthi [1897]. All these names are taken from Metumi (Mũrang'a) and Kabete Kĩambu.

 * Manjiri 1512 – 1546 ± 55
 * Mamba 1547 – 1581 ± 50
 * Tene 1582 – 1616 ± 45
 * Aagu 1617 – 1651 ± 40
 * Manduti 1652 – 1686 ± 35
 * Cuma 1687 – 1721 ± 30
 * Ciira 1722 – 1756 ± 25
 * Mathathi 1757 – 1791 ± 20
 * Ndemi 1792 – 1826 ± 15
 * Iregi 1827 – 1861 ± 10
 * Maina 1862 – 1897 ± 5
 * Mwangi 1898?

Mathew Njoroge Kabetũ's list reads, Tene, Kĩyĩ, Aagu, Ciĩra, Mathathi, Ndemi, Iregi, Maina (Ngotho), Mwangi. Gakaara wa Wanjaũ's list reads Tene, Nema Thĩ, Kariraũ, Aagu, Tiru, Cuma, Ciira, Ndemi, Mathathi, Iregi, Maina, Mwangi, Irũngũ, Mwangi wa Mandũti. The last two generations came after 1900. One of the earliest recorded lists by McGregor reads (list taken from a history of unchanged) Manjiri, Mandũti, Chiera, Masai, Mathathi, Ndemi, Iregi, Maina, Mwangi, Mũirũngũ. According to Hobley (a historian) each initiation generation, riika, extended over two years. The ruling generation at the arrival of the Europeans was called Maina. It is said that Maina handed over to Mwangi in 1898. Hobley asserts that the following sets were grouped under Maina – Kĩnũthia, Karanja, Njũgũna, Kĩnyanjui, Gathuru and Ng'ang'a. Professor Mũriũki however puts these sets much earlier, namely Karanja and Kĩnũthia belong to the Ciira ruling generation which ruled from the year 1722 to 1756, give or take 25 years, according to Mũriũki. Njũgũna, Kĩnyanjui, Ng'ang'a belong to the Mathathi ruling generation that ruled from 1757 to 1791, give or take 20 years, according to Mũriũki.

Professor Mũriũki's list must be given precedence in this area as he conducted extensive research in this area starting 1969, and had the benefit of all earlier literature on the subject as well as doing extensive field work in the areas of Gaki (Nyeri), Metumi (Mũrang'a) and Kabete (Kĩambu). On top of the ruling generations, he also gives names of the regiments or army sets from 1659 [within a margin of error] and the names of annual initiation sets beginning 1864. The list from Metumi (Mũrang'a) is most complete and differentiated.

Mũriũki's is also the most systematically defined list so far. Most of the most popular male names in Gĩkũyũ land were names of riikas (initiation sets). Here is Mũriũki's list of the names of regiment sets in Metumi (Mũrang'a): Kiariĩ (1665–1673), Cege (1678–1678), Kamau (1704–1712), Kĩmani (1717–1725), Karanja (1730–1738), Kĩnũthia (1743–1751), Njũgũna (1756–1764), Kĩnyanjui (1769–1777), Ng'ang'a (1781–1789), Njoroge (1794–1802), Wainaina (1807–1815), Kang'ethe (1820–1828), Mbũgua (1859–1867), Njenga or Mbĩra Itimũ (1872–1880), Mũtũng'ũ or Mbũrũ (1885–1893).

H.E. Lambert, who dealt with the riikas extensively, has the following list of regiment sets from Gichũgũ and Ndia. (It should be remembered that this names were unlike ruling generations not uniform in Gĩkũyũ land. It should also be noted that Ndia and Gachũgũ followed a system where initiation took place every annually for four years and then a period of nine calendar years followed where no initiation of boys took place. This period was referred to as mũhingo. ) Karanja (1759–1762), Kĩnũthia (1772–1775), Ndũrĩrĩ (1785–1788), Mũgacho (1798–1801), Njoroge (1811–1814), Kang'ethe (1824–1827), Gitaũ (1837–1840), Manyaki (1850–1853), Kiambũthi (1863–1866), Watuke (1876–1879), Ngũgĩ (1889–1892), Wakanene (1902–1905).

The remarkable thing in this list in comparison to the Metumi one is how some of the same names are used, if a bit offset. Ndia and Gachũgũ are extremely far from Metumi. Gaki on the other hand, as far as my geographical understanding of Gĩkũyũ land is concerned should be much closer to Metumi, yet virtually no names of regiment sets are shared. It should however be noted that Gaki had a strong connection to the Maasai living nearby.

The ruling generation names of Maina and Mwangi are also very popular male Gĩkũyũ names. The theory is also that Waciira is also derived from ciira (case), which is also a very popular masculine name among the Agĩkũyũ. This would call into question, when it was exactly that children started being named after the parents of one's parents. Had that system, of naming one's children after one's parents been there from the beginning, there would be very few male names in circulation. This is however not the case, as there are very many Gĩkũyũ male names. One theory is that the female names are much less, with the names of the full-nine daughters of Mũmbi being most prevalent.

Gakaara wa Wanjaũ supports this view when he writes in his book, Mĩhĩrĩga ya Aagĩkũyũ,

''Hingo ĩyo ciana cia arũme ciatuagwo marĩĩtwa ma mariika ta Watene, Cuma, Iregi kana Ciira. Nao airĩĩtu magatuuo marĩĩtwa ma mĩhĩrĩga tauria hagwetetwo nah au kabere, o nginya hingo iria maundu maatabariirwo thuuthaini ati ciana ituagwo aciari a mwanake na a muirĩĩtu.''

Freely translated it means "In those days the male children were given the names of the riika (initiation set) like Watene, Cuma, Iregi, or Ciira. Girls were on the other hand named after the clans that were named earlier until such a time as it was decided to name the children after the parents of the man and the woman." From this statement it is not clear whether the girls were named ad hoc after any clan, no matter what clan the parents belonged to. Naming them after the specific clan that the parents belonged to would have severely restricted naming options.

This would strangely mean that the female names are the oldest in Gĩkũyũ land, further confirming its matrilineal descent. As far as male names are concerned, there is of course the chicken and the egg question, of when a name specifically appeared but some names are tied to events that happened during the initiation. For example, Wainaina refers to those who shivered during circumcision. Kũinaina (to shake or to shiver).

There was a very important ceremony known as Ituĩka in which the old guard would hand over the reins of government to the next generation. This was to avoid dictatorship. Kenyatta related how once, in the land of the Agĩkũyũ, there ruled a despotic King called Gĩkũyũ, grandson of the elder daughter (Wanjirũ according to Leakey) of the original Gĩkũyũ of Gĩkũyũ and Mũmbi fame. After he was deposed, it was decided that the government should be democratic, which is how the Ituĩka came to be. This legend of course calls into question exactly when it was that the matrilineal rule set in. The last Ituĩka ceremony, where the riika of Maina handed over power to the Mwangi generation, took place in 1898–9. The next one was supposed to be held in 1925–1928 [Kenyatta] but was thwarted by the colonial imperialist government and one by one Gĩkũyũ institutions crumbled.

Collapse of traditional political structure
The ruling generations, the rĩĩka system can be traced back to the year 1500 AD or thereabouts. These were:
 * Manjiri 1512 to 1546
 * Mamba 1547 to 1581
 * Tene 1582 to 1616
 * Agu 1617 to 1652
 * Manduti 1652 to 1686
 * Cuma 1687 to 1721
 * Ciira 1722 to 1756
 * Mathathi 1757 to 1791
 * Ndemi 1792 to 1826
 * Iregi 1827 to 1861
 * Maina 1862 to 1897
 * Mwangi 1898

The last Ituĩka ceremony where the rĩĩka of Maina handed over power to the Mwangi generation, took place in 1898–1899. The next one was supposed to be held in 1925–1928 but was thwarted by the colonial government. The traditional symbols of power among the Agikuyu nation is the Muthĩgi (Stick) which signifies power to lead and the Itimũ (Spear) signifying power to call people to war.

1888–1945
The traditional way of life of Agikuyu was disrupted when they came into contact with the British around 1888. British explorers had visited the region prior the "Scramble for Africa", and now various individuals moved to establish a colony in the region, noting the abundant and fertile farmland. Although initially non-hostile, relationships between the Agikuyu and the Europeans soon turned violent: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a leader of the southern Agikuyu, who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the British East Africa Company (BEAC) burned down Lugard's fort in 1890. Waiyaki was captured two years later by the company and buried alive in revenge.

Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct Crown rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening in 1902 the fertile highlands to European emigrants. The Agikuyu, upset at the waves of emigrants, enforced a policy of killing any of their own that collaborated with the colonial government. When disputes with white settlers and the Agikuyu became violent (usually over land issues), the settlers would employ Maasai tribesmen together with some colonial troops to carry out their fighting for them. The Maasai had historically negative relations with the Agikuyu, and thus were willing to take up arms against them. The various conflicts between the settlers and the Agikuyu often resulted in defeat for the latter, thanks to their inferior weaponry. The Agikuyu, having been unsuccessful in their conflicts with the European settlers and the colonial government, turned to political means as a method of resolving their grievances.

Kenya served as a base for the British in the First World War as part of their effort to capture the German colonies to the south, which were initially frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed to a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However, Lt. Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerrilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow-Vorbeck, the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.

The experiences gained by Africans in the war, coupled with the creation of the white-dominated Kenya Crown Colony, gave rise to considerable political activity in the 1920s which culminated in Archdeacon Owen's "Piny Owacho" (Voice of the People) movement and the "Young Kikuyu Association" (renamed the "East African Association") started in 1921 by Harry Thuku (1895–1970), which gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. Thuku's campaign against the colonial government was short-lived. He was exiled to Kismayu the following year, and it was not until 1924 that the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed to carry on with Thuku's campaign. From 1924, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA), with Jomo Kenyatta as its Secretary General focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation, the ban on female circumcision, and support for Thuku. The KCA sent Kenyatta to England in 1924 and again in 1931 to air their grievances against the colonial government and its policies.

By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in Agikuyu country and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu nation, most of whom had been pushed off their land by the encroaching European settlers, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the production of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and landless workers were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.

In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important military base. For the Agikuyu soldiers who took part in the war as part of the King's African Rifles (KAR), the war stimulated African nationalism and shattered their conceptions of Europeans. Meanwhile, on the political front, in 1944 Thuku founded and was first chairman of the multi-ethnic Kenya African Study Union (KASU).

1945–1963

In 1946 KASU became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was a nationalist organisation that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting with the local Bantu/Nilotic elite. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, the former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for the native inhabitants. The failure of the KAU to attain any significant reforms or redress of grievances from the colonial authorities shifted the political initiative to younger and more militant figures within the African trade union movement, among the squatters on the settler estates in the Rift Valley and in KAU branches in Nairobi and the Kikuyu districts of central province.

By 1952, under Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi, the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (Mau Mau) launched an all-out revolt against the colonial government, the settlers and their Kenyan allies. By this time, the Mau Mau were fighting for complete independence of Kenya. The war is considered by some the gravest crisis of Britain's African colonies The capture of rebel leader Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 signalled the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau Uprising, and essentially ended the military campaign although the state of emergency would last until 1959. The conflict arguably set the stage for Kenyan independence in December 1963.

1963–present

Since the proclamation of the Republic of Kenya, after colonial rule in Kenya came to an end in 1963, the Agikuyu now form an integral part of the Kenyan nation. They continue to play their part as citizens of Kenya, helping to build their country. However, some Kenyans resent their incorrectly perceived superior economic status, a resentment sometimes vented through political violence, as happened in 1992, 1997 and 2007 Kenyan elections.

Genetics
According to a Y-Chromosome DNA study by Wood et al. (2005), around 73% of Gĩkũyũs belong to the common paternal haplogroup E1b1a. The remainder carry other clades: 19% E1b1b with E-M293 contributing 11%, 2% A, and 2% B.

In terms of maternal lineages, Gĩkũyũs closely cluster with other Northeast Bantu speaking groups like the Kamba. Most belong to various Africa-centered mtDNA macro-haplogroup L lineages such as L0f, L3x, L4g and L5 per Castrì et al. (2009). Kikuyu were estimated by Tishkoff et al. to have 43% ancestry from the Niger-Kordofan cluster, 36% from Cushitic, 8% from Nilo-Saharan, 6% from Sandawe, and 1% or less from each of the other clusters According to Salas et al. (2002), other Gĩkũyũs largely carry the L1a clade, which is one of the African mtDNA Haplogroups.

Language
Gĩkũyũs speak the Gĩkũyũ language as their native tongue, which is a member of the Bantu language family. Additionally, many speak Swahili and English as lingua franca, the two official languages of Kenya.

The Gĩkũyũ are closely related to some Bantu communities due to intermarriages prior to colonization. These communities are the Embu, Meru, and Akamba people who also live around Mt. Kenya. Members of the Gĩkũyũ family from the greater Kiambu (commonly referred to as the Kabete) and Nyeri districts are closely related to the Maasai people also due to intermarriage prior to colonization. The Gĩkũyũ people between Thika and Mbeere are closely related to the Kamba people who speak a language similar to Gĩkũyũ. As a result, the Gĩkũyũ people that retain much of the original Gĩkũyũ heritage reside around Kirinyaga and Murang'a regions of Kenya. The Murang'a district is considered by many to be the cradle of the Gĩkũyũ people.

Literature
Until 1888, the Agikuyu literature was purely expressed in folklore. Famous stories include The Maiden Who Was Sacrificed By Her Kin, The Lost Sister, The Four Young Warriors, The Girl who Cut the Hair of the N'jenge, and many more.

When the European missionaries arrived in the Agikuyu country in 1888, they learned the Kikuyu language and started writing it using a modified Roman alphabet. The Kikuyu responded strongly to missionaries and European education. They had greater access to education and opportunities for involvement in the new money economy and political changes in their country. As a consequence, there are notable Kikuyu literature icons such as Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o and Meja Mwangi. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's literary works include Caitani Mutharabaini (1981), Matigari (1986) and Murogi wa Kagogo (Wizard of the Crow (2006)) which is the largest known Kikuyu language novel having been translated into more than thirty languages.

Music
Traditional Kikuyu music has existed for generations up to 1888, when colonialism disrupted their life. Before 1888 and well into the 1920s, Kikuyu music included Kibaata, Nduumo and Muthunguci. Cultural loss increased as urbanization and modernization impacted on indigenous knowledge, including the ability to play the mũtũrĩrũ – an oblique bark flute. Today, music and dance are strong components of Kikuyu culture. There is a vigorous Kikuyu recording industry, for both secular and gospel music, in their pentatonic scale and western music styles such as "Mathwiti Maigi Ngai!".

Cinema
Kikuyu cinema and film production are a very recent phenomenon among the Agikuyu. They have become popular only in the 21st century. In the 20th century, most of the Agikuyu consumed cinema and film produced in the west. Popular Kikuyu film productions include comedies such as Machang'i series and Kihenjo series. Recently, Kenyan television channels have increased greatly and there are channels that broadcast programs in the Kikuyu language.

Cuisine
Typical Agĩkũyũ food includes Yams, sweet potatoes, Gītheri (maize and beans, after corn was introduced to Africa), Mūkimo (mashed green peas and potatoes), Kīmitū (mashed beans and potatoes), Irio (mashed dry beans, corn and potatoes), Mūtura (sausage made using goat intestines, meat and blood), Ūcūrū (fermented porridge made from flour of corn, millet or sorghum) roast goat, beef, chicken and cooked green vegetables such as collards, spinach and carrots.

Religion
Although Gĩkũyũs historically adhered to indigenous faiths, most are Christians today, of varying denominations, as well as various syncretic forms of Christianity. A minority of the Kikuyu practice Islam, notably through Arab, Indian and Persian missionaries since trade with the rest of East Africa.

A small group of Kĩkũyũ, numbering about 60 people in 2015, practice Judaism in the town of Kusuku. While they practice a normative form of Judaism (similar to Conservative Judaism), they are not a recognized part of any larger Jewish group.

Religious and cultural discord
In April 2018, the Presbyterian Church of East Africa made a resolution to prohibit its members from the Kikuyu cultural rite known as Mburi cia Kiama and this triggered disturbances among devotees in the region of Mount Kenya. The Mburi cia Kiama entails the slaughtering of goats and advising men on how to become respected elders. When this process is over, they join different kiamas (groups). It is in these groups that they are given advice on issues like marriage, the Kikuyu culture and community responsibilities. Members of the church were given the ultimatum to renounce the cultural practice or to leave the church's fold.

Activism, authorship, academics and science

 * Wangari Maathai, Nobel Laureate, first African woman and first environmentalist to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. First Kenyan woman to earn a Ph.D.
 * Professor Stephen Kiama University of Nairobi Vice Chancellor 2020 - to date
 * Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Gikuyu-language author, father of author and professor Mũkoma wa Ngũgĩ
 * Wanjiku Kabira, literature professor and gender rights activist
 * Maina wa Kinyatti, historian and one of the foremost researchers on the Mau Mau
 * Micere Githae Mugo, author, activist, literary critic and professor of literature at Syracuse University
 * Wanjiru Kihoro, economist, feminist and political activist
 * Njoki Wainaina, founder and first executive director of the African Women's Development and Communication Network (FEMNET)
 * Wangui wa Goro, academic and social critic
 * Joseph Maina Mungai, pioneer medical researcher in East Africa
 * Ng'endo Mwangi, Kenya's first woman physician. The Mwangi Cultural Center at the Smith College in Massachusetts is named in her honor
 * Carole Wamuyu Wainaina, Assistant Secretary-General for Human Resources Management at the United Nations
 * Helen Gichohi, ecologist and President of the African Wildlife Foundation
 * Olive Mugenda, first woman to head a public university in the African Great Lakes region
 * Florence Wambugu, plant pathologist and virologist
 * Thumbi Ndung'u, HIV/AIDS researcher and the first to clone HIV subtype C. Recipient of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute's International Early Career Scientist award
 * Dorothy Wanja Nyingi, ichthyologist and recipient of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (Order of Academic Palms)
 * Kimani Maruge, oldest person in the world to start primary school after enrolling in first grade aged 84
 * David Muchoki Kanja, the first Assistant Secretary-General for the Office of Internal Oversight Services at the United Nations
 * Muthoni Wanyeki, political scientist and human rights activist
 * Simon Gikandi, English professor at Princeton University
 * Gibson Kamau Kuria, lawyer and recipient of the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award
 * Paul Muite, lawyer, politician, multiparty activist and former presidential candidate
 * Judy Thongori, lawyer and women's rights activist
 * Maina Kiai, lawyer, human rights activist and United Nations Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association
 * Michael Ndurumo, deaf educator and the third deaf person from Africa to obtain a Ph.D.
 * Ngugi wa Mirii, playwright
 * Koigi wa Wamwere, author, politician and human rights activist
 * Meja Mwangi, author
 * Rebeka Njau, author and playwright. Her one-act play The Scar (1965), which condemns female genital mutilation, is considered the first play written by a Kenyan woman.
 * Boniface Mwangi, photojournalist and sociopolitical activist
 * Ann Njogu, human rights and constitutional reform activist
 * John Githongo, anti-corruption activist
 * Gitura Mwaura, author, poet
 * Gitura Mwaura, author, poet

Arts and media

 * Wangechi Mutu, artist and sculptor
 * Ingrid Mwangi, Kenyan-German artist
 * Wanuri Kahiu, film director
 * Wahome Mutahi, humorist popularly known as Whispers after satirical column he wrote
 * Jeff Koinange, Emmy Award-winning journalist
 * Julie Gichuru, news anchor and entrepreneur
 * Liza Mũcherũ-Wisner, a semi-finalist in The Apprentice Season 10
 * Edi Gathegi, stage, film and television actor
 * Tom Morello, Grammy Award-winning guitarist, son of Ngethe Njoroge
 * Eric Wainana, musician
 * Janet Mbugua, news anchor
 * David Mathenge, musician popularly known as "Nameless"
 * Stella Mwangi, Kenyan-Norwegian musician known by the stage name STL. Represented Norway in Eurovision Song Contest 2011
 * Wahu, musician
 * Avril, musician and actress
 * Amani, musician
 * Jaguar, musician
 * Joseph Kamaru, musician
 * Daniel Kamau Mwai "DK", musician
 * Queen Jane, musician
 * Abbas Kubaff, hip hop artist
 * Wangechi, rapper
 * Victoria Kimani, musician and actress
 * Patricia Kihoro, musician, actress and radio personality
 * Size 8, musician and actress (mother: Esther Njeri Munyali (Kikuyu), father: Samuel Kirui Munyali (Ugandan from Mbale))
 * Mustafa Olpak, Writer, Turkish Human rights activist descended from Kikuyu slaves in Crete

Business and economics

 * Patrick Njoroge, Governor of the Central Bank of Kenya
 * Peter Ndegwa, current CEO of Safaricom PLC. the largest network service provider in East Africa.
 * Njuguna Ndung'u, economics professor and former Governor of the Central Bank of Kenya
 * Samuel Kamau Macharia, founder and chairman of Royal Media Services, the largest private radio and television network in Eastern Africa
 * Philip Ndegwa, entrepreneur, internationally respected economist and former Governor of the Central Bank of Kenya
 * Peter Munga, founder and chairman of Equity Group Holdings Limited, Eastern Africa's second largest bank by customers after C.B.E.
 * James Mwangi, group CEO and largest individual shareholder at Equity Group Holdings Limited
 * Eunice Njambi Mathu, founder and editor-in-chief of Parents Africa Magazine
 * Nelson Muguku Njoroge, entrepreneur
 * Pius Ngugi Mbugua, entrepreneur and owner of the Kenya Nut Company, one of the world's largest macadamia nut exporters
 * Chris Kirubi, industrialist and largest individual shareholder at Centum Investment Company Limited, the largest listed private equity firm in East Africa
 * Jane Wanjiru Michuki, lawyer and investor
 * Duncan Nderitu Ndegwa, former Governor of the Central Bank of Kenya
 * Betty Muthoni Gikonyo, co-founder and group CEO at Karen Hospital
 * Simon Gicharu, founder of Mount Kenya University, East and Central Africa's largest private university
 * Tabitha Karanja, Current Nakuru Senator, founder and CEO of Keroche Breweries, Kenya's second-largest brewery
 * Gerishon Kamau Kirima, real estate magnate
 * Eddah Waceke Gachukia, educationist, entrepreneur and co-founder of Riara Group of Schools
 * Esther Muthoni Passaris, businesswoman and politician
 * Wanjiku Mugane, businesswoman and investment banker. Co-founder of First Africa Group which was later bought by Standard Chartered
 * Dorcas Muthoni, an inductee to the Internet Hall of Fame
 * Benson Wairegi, group CEO at Britam Holdings plc
 * John Gachora, group CEO at NIC Bank Group
 * Wilfred Kiboro, chairman of the board of directors at Nation Media Group, East Africa's largest media house. Former group CEO
 * Mugo Kibati, group CEO of Sanlam Kenya Plc and chairman of Lake Turkana Wind Power
 * Joseph Mucheru, former Google Sub-Saharan Africa Lead and current Cabinet Secretary for ICT in Kenya
 * Dominic Kiarie, former group CEO, UAP Holdings

Politics, military and resistance

 * Rigathi Gachagua deputy President of Kenya as from September 2022
 * Ndindi Nyoro, Current Kiharu MP
 * John Kiarie Waweru, Current Dagoretti South MP.
 * Alice Wahome, Current CS for Water,Sanitation and irrigation.
 * Irungu Kang'ata, Current Murang'a Governor.
 * Susan Kihika, Current Nakuru County Governor.
 * Johnson Gicheru, former Chief Justice of Kenya
 * Stanley Munga Githunguri, politician and businessman
 * Waiyaki wa Hinga, 19th century leader
 * Waruhiu Itote also known as General China. Mau Mau resistance leader
 * Bildad Kaggia, freedom-fighter and politician. Member of the Mau Mau Central Committee and the Kapenguria Six
 * Mutahi Kagwe, politician
 * Julius Waweru Karangi, retired General and former Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces
 * Josephat Karanja, former Vice-president
 * Godfrey Gitahi Kariuki, politician
 * Josiah Mwangi Kariuki, businessman and socialist politician
 * Muthui Kariuki, former spokesman for the Government of Kenya
 * Martha Wangari Karua, politician and former presidential candidate
 * Lucy Muringo Gichuhi, first person of Black African descent to be elected to the Australian Parliament
 * Kung'u Karumba, freedom-fighter and member of the Kapenguria Six
 * Njenga Karume, politician and businessman
 * Peter Kenneth, politician, businessman and former presidential candidate
 * Jomo Kenyatta, first President of Kenya, father of Uhuru Kenyatta
 * Margaret Kenyatta, fourth First Lady of Kenya, wife of Uhuru Kenyatta
 * Uhuru Kenyatta, fourth President of Kenya, former Deputy Prime Minister
 * Ngina Kenyatta (Mama Ngina), former First Lady, wife of Jomo Kenyatta, mother of Uhuru Kenyatta
 * Lucy Kibaki, former First Lady, wife of Mwai Kibaki
 * Mwai Kibaki, third President of Kenya
 * Dedan Kimathi, Mau Mau resistance leader
 * Mbiyu Koinange, former Minister of State, brother-in-law of Jomo Kenyatta, first Kenyan holder of a master's degree
 * Moses Kuria, CS of Trade.
 * Arthur Magugu, politician
 * Wangu wa Makeri, female chief leader
 * Eliud Mathu, first African member of the Kenyan Legislative Council (LegCo)
 * Kenneth Matiba, businessman, politician, multiparty activist and former presidential candidate
 * John Njoroge Michuki, politician and businessman
 * Githu Muigai, Former Attorney General
 * Njoroge Mungai, politician and businessman. Personal doctor and first cousin to Jomo Kenyatta
 * Chris Murungaru, politician
 * John Michael Njenga Mututho, politician and anti-alcohol abuse campaigner
 * David Mwiraria, former finance minister and member of parliament
 * Njoki Susanna Ndung'u, Judge of the Supreme Court of Kenya
 * Charles Njonjo, former Attorney General and Minister for Constitutional Affairs
 * Wambui Otieno, freedom fighter and the principal protagonist in landmark burial case
 * Charles Rubia, former member of parliament and multiparty political activist
 * George Saitoti, former Vice-president
 * Harry Thuku, freedom-fighter and Independence Hero
 * Anne Waiguru, Current Kirinyaga County Governor.
 * Gakaara wa Wanjaũ, freedom fighter, author and historian

Religion

 * Caesar Gatimu, former Roman Catholic Bishop of Nyeri
 * Mugo wa Kibiru, 19th century traditional healer and seer
 * Nicodemus Kirima, Bishop of the Diocese of Nyeri
 * Manasses Kuria, second African Anglican Archbishop. See biography
 * John Njenga, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church
 * Judy Mbugua, chair of the Pan African Christian Women Alliance (PACWA)
 * Dr. David Gitari, third Archbishop and Primate of the Anglican Church of Kenya
 * Margaret Wanjiru, Evangelical Bishop
 * Right Reverend Engineer Anthony Muheria,Roman Catholic Archbishop in charge of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nyeri, elder brother to Patrick Ngugi Njoroge, the governor Central Bank of Kenya.
 * Paul Kariuki Njiru - Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wote

Sports

 * Samuel Wanjiru, first Kenyan to win the Olympic gold medal in the marathon, 2008 Beijing Olympic Marathon Champion, 2009 London and New York Marathon Champion, 2009 Rotterdam Half Marathon champion
 * John Ngugi, World Cross Country Champion four consecutive titles between 1986 and 1989 and five titles overall. 1988 Olympic Champion 5000 metres
 * Catherine Ndereba, four-time Boston Marathon Champion, Olympic marathon silver medalist in 2004 and 2008.
 * Henry Wanyoike, Paralympics Gold medalist over 5,000 meters, holder of various marathon and half marathon records
 * Douglas Wakiihuri, 1987 World Championships in Athletics Marathon Champion, 1988 Olympic Marathon silver medalist, 1990 London and New York Marathon Champion
 * Patrick Njiru, rally driver with Subaru World Rally Team
 * Joseph Gikonyo, 100 and 200 metres sprints gold medalist at 1990 African Championships.
 * Boniface Tumuti, 400 metres hurdles gold medalist at the 2016 African Championships, silver medalist at the 2016 Olympics.
 * QueenArrow, esports player, first woman in East Africa to be signed by a professional esports organisation
 * Cliff Nyakeya, footballer who is an attacking midfielder/winger for Egyptian club ZED FC and the Kenya national team

title: Kikuyu people


text:
Download (band)

Download is a Canadian electronic music group formed by Dwayne Goettel and Kevin Crompton (aka cEvin Key) of Skinny Puppy in 1994. The initial lineup also included, Off & Gone's Phil Western and Mark Spybey of Dead Voices on Air, but has since been particularly fluid, with Key and Western being the only constant members following Goettel's death. Download's music has been described as post-industrial, drawing from the band's genesis as part of Skinny Puppy but also sharing common stylistic ground with such artists as Aphex Twin and Autechre. The primary instrumentation common throughout their albums is a blend of synthesizers and sampled instruments; the music is particularly centered on the elements of percussion and rhythm.

Other artists that have been involved are Genesis P. Orridge, Anthony Valcic, Bill Van Rooy, and Ken Marshall. Earlier releases frequently included vocal elements and lyrics, but since III (and Mark Spybey's departure in 1996) their work has been strictly instrumental.

Formation
As tensions within Skinny Puppy began to mount in the early nineties, band members Dwayne Goettel and cEvin Key began experimenting with musical improvisations that they felt were more true to their "roots". Early on, the duo brought in Mark Spybey who Key had met in Vancouver some years previous through Spybey's involvement with Zoviet France. The name for the band came from the last track on Skinny Puppy's album Last Rights, an especially abstract track for the band produced by Goettel and Anthony Valcic.

Furnace and Microscopic
In the first era of Download's career, the band's sound was an Experimental Industrial style which featured vocals by Mark Spybey and guest vocals by Genesis P. Orridge. Their first LP, Furnace, was arguably their least accessible — most of the tracks lasted for over four minutes, some lasting as long as nine minutes. Their next release, the Microscopic EP continued this style. It featured three remixes of tracks from Furnace (only one of which was remixed by the band itself, the other two were remixed by Biosphere and Newt), along with five original tracks.

Charlie's Family
Charlie's Family was another experimental industrial LP by Download, except this LP was a soundtrack to the movie of the same name, and it had significantly different sound than the previous two releases. Instead of the beat-oriented music that dominated Furnace and Microscopic, this LP's music was mostly dominated by a simple beat along with many samples of anything from women orgasming to airplanes taking off.

The Eyes of Stanley Pain and Sidewinder
The Eyes of Stanley Pain, arguably Download's most diverse-sounding and accessible industrial album, was released in 1996. It spanned 14 tracks, most of which were about four or five minutes long. The only exceptions were the tracks "Glassblower" and "Collision", which were 3:02 and 10:38, respectively. Later that year, the EP Sidewinder was released by the band. In the same vein as their first EP - Microscopic - it contained eight tracks, of which four were remixes. Three were remixes by Download of songs from The Eyes of Stanley Pain, and one was a remix of the song "Attalal" from Furnace by the band Haujobb (although the packaging of Sidewinder spells it "Attallal"). The other four songs were original songs recorded by Download, and the last of Download's post-industrial era.

III and Effector
III marked a turning point for Download. Their sound became more melodic and accessible while still retaining the experimental quirks of their older material. Their next album Effector continued this direction and peaked at #12 on the CMJ RPM Charts in the U.S.

III Steps Forward and Inception
Two more albums, III Steps Forward and Inception were released as part of Subconscious Studio's From The Vault series. Inception contained outtakes from Download's more experimental early era, while III Steps Forward included outtakes from the III and Effector eras as well as new tracks. Although the original pressing of each was limited to 1000 copies, 2nd pressing editions are currently available from Subconscious Studio's website.

Fixer
In December 2006, cEvin Key announced that new material has been recorded for a new album (titled Fixer). The album was released in April 2007.

HElicopTEr & Wookie Wall
In late 2009, Subconscious Communications announced the release of the Beyond the Vault series. With it, a new Download album titled HElicopTEr was included in the series which was written by cEvin Key and Phil Western with a guest appearance by Mark Spybey. As stated on the official Subconscious Communications website, the album employs some of the oldest synthesizers the studio has in its collection. The result differs from the more ambient releases of Effector and Fixer and is more akin to Download's previous works such as Furnace or Charlie's Family.

Wookie Wall: For the 2010 "SubCon Beyond Fest", a tour in support of the albums released in the Beyond The Vault series, Download announced plans to release an EP that would be sold during the tour. Though Download apparently went as far as to commission album art, the so-called Wookie Wall EP never materialized during the tour though the title track was integrated into the setlist. Supposedly the band considered the possibility of expanding Wookie Wall into its own full-length album, but in 2011 three of the proposed Wookie Wall tracks were added onto a re-release of Download's Helicopter.

A special-edition of Furnace (Furnance Re:dux) was also released with Subconscious' From the Vault II series. The new release includes a second disc with a collection of the live jams and improvisations that were the basis of the finished album.

LingAM
On June 11, 2013, Download released their ninth studio album Lingam. In Hindu scripture, the lingam is the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva. Lingam employs some of the band's more ambient styles featured on previous albums like Effector and Fixer.

Unknown Room
On March 8, 2019, Download released their eleventh studio album Unknown Room. From the bandcamp listing: 'Unknown Room is the project's 11th studio album, recorded in Los Angeles over a several-year period, culminating in a recent two-month session in the Fall that Key describes as being "extremely intense." Unknown Room is the last album to feature Phil Western who died while the album was being prepared for release in 2019.

title: Download (band)