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Cyclotron radiation

Cyclotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by non-relativistic accelerating charged particles deflected by a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on the particles acts perpendicular to both the magnetic field lines and the particles' motion through them, creating an acceleration of charged particles that causes them to emit radiation as a result of the acceleration they undergo as they spiral around the lines of the magnetic field.

The name of this radiation derives from the cyclotron, a type of particle accelerator used since the 1930s to create highly energetic particles for study. The cyclotron makes use of the circular orbits that charged particles exhibit in a uniform magnetic field. Furthermore, the period of the orbit is independent of the energy of the particles, allowing the cyclotron to operate at a set frequency. Cyclotron radiation is emitted by all charged particles travelling through magnetic fields, not just those in cyclotrons. Cyclotron radiation from plasma in the interstellar medium or around black holes and other astronomical phenomena is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields.

Properties
The power (energy per unit time) of the emission of each electron can be calculated:

 * $${-dE \over dt}={\sigma_t B^2 v^2 \over c \mu_0} $$

where E is energy, t is time, $$ \sigma_t $$ is the Thomson cross section (total, not differential), B is the magnetic field strength, v is the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, c is the speed of light and $$ \mu_0 $$ is the permeability of free space.

Cyclotron radiation has a spectrum with its main spike at the same fundamental frequency as the particle's orbit, and harmonics at higher integral factors. Harmonics are the result of imperfections in the actual emission environment, which also create a broadening of the spectral lines. The most obvious source of line broadening is non-uniformities in the magnetic field; as an electron passes from one area of the field to another, its emission frequency will change with the strength of the field. Other sources of broadening include collisional broadening as the electron will invariably fail to follow a perfect orbit, distortions of the emission caused by interactions with the surrounding plasma, and relativistic effects if the charged particles are sufficiently energetic. When the electrons are moving at relativistic speeds, cyclotron radiation is known as synchrotron radiation.

The recoil experienced by a particle emitting cyclotron radiation is called radiation reaction. Radiation reaction acts as a resistance to motion in a cyclotron; and the work necessary to overcome it is the main energetic cost of accelerating a particle in a cyclotron. Cyclotrons are prime examples of systems which experience radiation reaction.

Examples
In the context of magnetic fusion energy, cyclotron radiation losses translate into a requirement for a minimum plasma energy density in relation to the magnetic field energy density.

Cyclotron radiation would likely be produced in a high altitude nuclear explosion. Gamma rays produced by the explosion would ionize atoms in the upper atmosphere and those free electrons would interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce cyclotron radiation in the form of an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). This phenomenon is of concern to the military as the EMP may damage solid state electronic equipment.

title: Cyclotron radiation


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Alphonse de Lamartine

Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine (21 October 1790 – 28 February 1869) was a French author, poet, and statesman who was instrumental in the foundation of the French Second Republic and the continuation of the tricolore as the flag of France.

Early years
Born in Mâcon, Burgundy, on 21 October 1790, into a family of the French provincial nobility, Lamartine spent his youth at the family estate. He is famous for his partly autobiographical poem, "Le lac" ("The Lake"), which describes in retrospect the fervent love shared by a couple from the point of view of the bereaved man. Lamartine was masterly in his use of French poetic forms. Raised a devout Catholic, Lamartine became a  pantheist, writing Jocelyn and La Chute d'un ange. He wrote Histoire des Girondins in 1847 in praise of the Girondists.

Lamartine made his entrance into the field of poetry with a masterpiece, Les Méditations Poétiques (1820) and awoke to find himself famous. One of the notable poems in this collection was Le Lac, which he dedicated to Julie Charles, the wife of a celebrated physician. He was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1825. He worked for the French embassy in Italy from 1825 to 1828. In 1829, he was elected a member of the Académie française. He was elected as a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1833. In 1835 he published the Voyage en Orient, a brilliant and bold account of the journey he had just made, in royal luxury, to the countries of the Orient, and in the course of which he had lost his only daughter. From then on he confined himself to prose.

Political career
Lamartine, who was a former monarchist, came to embrace democratic ideals and opposed militaristic nationalism. Around 1830, Lamartine's opinions shifted in the direction of liberalism. When elected in 1833 to the Chamber of Deputies, he quickly founded his own "Social Party" with some influence from Saint-Simonian ideas and established himself as a prominent critic of the July Monarchy, becoming more and more of a republican in the monarchy's last years.

He was briefly in charge of the government during the turbulence of 1848. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 24 February 1848 to 11 May 1848. Due to his great age, Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure, Chairman of the Provisional Government, effectively delegated many of his duties to Lamartine. He was then a member of the Executive Commission, the political body which served as France's joint Head of State.

Lamartine was instrumental in the founding of the Second Republic of France, having met with Republican Deputies and journalists in the Hôtel de Ville to agree on the makeup of its provisional government. Lamartine himself was chosen to declare the Republic in traditional form in the balcony of the Hôtel de Ville, and ensured the continuation of the Tricolour as the flag of the nation.

On 25 February 1848, Lamartine said about the Tricolour Flag: ""I spoke to you as a citizen earlier, well! Now listen to me, your Foreign Minister. If you take the tricolor flag away from me, know it, you will remove from me half the external force of France! Because Europe only knows the flag of its defeats and of our victories in the flag of the Republic and of the Empire. By seeing the red flag, they will believe that they are only seeing the flag of a party! This is the flag of France, it is the flag of our victorious armies, it is the flag of our triumphs that must be raised before Europe. France and the tricolor are one same thought, one same prestige, one same terror, if necessary, for our enemies! Imagine how much blood would be necessary for you to get another flag renamed! Citizens, for me, the red flag, I will never adopt it, and I am going to tell you why I'm against it with all the strength of my patriotism. It's that the tricolor has toured the world with the Republic and the Empire, with your freedoms and your glories, and the red flag has only toured the Champ-de-Mars, dragged in the blood of the people.""

During his term as a politician in the Second Republic, he led efforts that culminated in the abolition of slavery and the death penalty, as well as the enshrinement of the right to work and the short-lived national workshop programs. A political idealist who supported democracy and pacifism, his moderate stance on most issues caused many of his followers to desert him. He was an unsuccessful candidate in the presidential election of 10 December 1848, receiving fewer than 19,000 votes and losing to Louis Napoléon Bonaparte. He subsequently retired from politics and dedicated himself to literature.

Final years and legacy
He published volumes on the most varied subjects (history, criticism, personal confidences, literary conversations) especially during the Empire, when, having retired to private life and having become the prey of his creditors, he condemned himself to what he calls "literary hard-labor to exist and pay his debts". Lamartine ended his life in poverty, publishing monthly installments of the Cours familier de littérature to support himself. He died in Paris in 1869.

Nobel prize winner Frédéric Mistral's fame was in part due to the praise of Alphonse de Lamartine in the fortieth edition of his periodical Cours familier de littérature, following the publication of Mistral's long poem Mirèio. Mistral is the most revered writer in modern Occitan literature.

Lamartine is considered to be the first French romantic poet (though Charles-Julien Lioult de Chênedollé was working on similar innovations at the same time), and was acknowledged by Paul Verlaine and the Symbolists as an important influence. Leo Tolstoy also admired Lamartine, who was the subject of some discourses in his notebooks.

Other interests
Alphonse de Lamartine was also an Orientalist. He used themes and materials of the Levant and the Bible to create plotlines, heroes, and landscapes that resemble an exotic Oriental world. He also had a particular interest in Lebanon and the Middle East. He travelled to Lebanon, Syria and the Holy Land in 1832–33. During that trip, while he and his wife, the painter and sculptor Elisa de Lamartine, were in Beirut, on 6 December 1832, their only remaining child, Julia, died at ten years of age. It was, however, considered a journey of recovery and immersion in specific Christian icons, symbols, and terrain with his view that the region could bring about the rebirth of a new Christianity and spirituality that could save Europe from destruction.

During his trip to Lebanon he had met prince Bashir Shihab II and prince Simon Karam, who were enthusiasts of poetry. A valley in Lebanon is still called the Valley of Lamartine as a commemoration of that visit, and the Lebanon cedar forest still harbors the "Lamartine Cedar", which is said to be the cedar under which Lamartine had sat 200 years ago. Lamartine was so influenced by his trip that he staged his 1838 epic poem La Chute d'un ange (The Fall of an Angel) in Lebanon.

Raised by his mother to respect animal life, he found the eating of meat repugnant, saying 'One does not have one heart for Man and one for animals. One has a heart or one does not'. His writings in La chute d’un Ange (1838) and Les confidences (1849) would be taken up by supporters of vegetarianism in the twentieth century.

On the spirit of the times

Thanks to the increase of general reason, to the light of philosophy, to the inspiration of Christianity, to the progress of the idea of justice, of charity, and of fraternity, in laws, manners, and religion, society in America, in Europe, and in France, especially since the Revolution, has broken down all these barriers, all these denominations of caste, all these injurious distinctions among men. Society is composed only of various conditions, professions, functions, and ways of life, among those who form what we call a Nation; of proprietors of the soil, and proprietors of houses; of investments, of handicrafts, of merchants, of manufacturers, of formers; of day-laborers becoming farmers, manufacturers, merchants, or possessors of houses or capital, in their turn; of the rich, of those in easy circumstances, of the poor, of workmen with their hands, workmen with their minds; of day-laborers, of those in need, of a small number of men enjoying considerable acquired or inherited wealth, of others of a smaller fortune painfully increased and improved, of others with property only sufficient for their needs; there are some, finally, without any personal possession but their hands, and gleaning for themselves and for their families, in the workshop, or the field, and at the threshold of the homes of others on the earth, the asylum, the wages, the bread, the instruction, the tools, the daily pay, all those means of existence which they have neither inherited, saved, nor acquired. These last are what have been improperly called the People.
 * — Atheism Among the People, by Alphonse de Lamartine (1850), pp. 19–20

On Catholic priests
Alphonse de Lamartine as quoted in "A Priest" by Robert Nash (1943) on Catholic priests:

"'There is a man in every parish, having no family, but belonging to a family is worldwide; who is called in as a witness and adviser in all the important affairs of human life. No one comes into the world or goes out of it without his ministrations. He takes the child from its mother’s arms, and parts with him only at the grave. He blesses and consecrates the cradle, the bridal chamber, the bed of death, and the bier. He is one whom innocent children instinctively venerate and reverence, and to whom men of venerable age come to seek for wisdom, and call him father; at whose feet men fall down and lay bare the innermost thoughts of their souls, and weep their most sacred tears. He is one whose mission is to console the afflicted, and soften the pains of body and soul; to whose door come alike the rich and the poor. He belongs to no social class, because he belongs equally to all. He is one, in fine, who knows all, has a right to speak unreservedly, and whose speech, inspired from on high, falls on the minds and hearts of all with the authority of one who is divinely sent, and with the constraining power of one who has an unclouded faith.'"

Online

 * Alphonse de Lamartine: French poet, historian, and statesman, in Britannica.com Online, by Henri Guillemin, The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Gloria Lotha and J.E. Luebering

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alphonse de Lamartine


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Peruvian Paso

The Peruvian Horse is a breed of light saddle horse known for its smooth ride. It is distinguished by a natural, four-beat, lateral gait called the paso llano. This breed is protected by the Peruvian government through Decree number 25919 of Peru enacted on November 28, 1992, and has been declared a Cultural Heritage of the Nation by the National Institute of Culture (INC). Due to the isolation suffered for about 400 years and the selection made by their breeders, this breed is very particular in their body proportions and an ambling gait or "paso llano" that is characteristic. It is typical of the northern Peruvian regions of the country from which it originated. Trujillo city is considered the cradle of typical Peruvian Horses.

History
Smooth-gaited horses, generally known as Palfreys, existed in the Middle Ages, and the Jennet in particular was noted for its ambling gaits. Peruvians trace their ancestry to these ambling Jennets; as well as to the Barb, which contributed strength and stamina; and to the Andalusian which added style, conformation and action.

Horses arrived in South America during the Spanish Conquest, beginning with the arrival of Pizarro in 1531. Foundation bloodstock came from Spain, Jamaica, Panama and other areas of Central America. Importations increased after 1542, when the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla. This later became the Viceroyalty of Peru, an important center of Spain's New World viceroyalties in the eighteenth century.

Once in Peru, they were used primarily for transportation and breeding stock. In the north of Peru, the vast size of sugar and cotton plantations meant that overseers needed to travel long distances, often taking days to cross the plantation. In the south of Peru, the arid deserts that separated settlements required sturdy, strong horses. In both cases, smooth-gaited horses with good endurance were required. On the other hand, Peru did not develop a livestock-based economy, and thus did not need to breed for the speed or agility characteristic of stock horses.

Over time, Peruvian breeders kept the bloodlines clean and selectively bred primarily for gait, conformation, and temperament. They wanted strong, hardy animals that were comfortable to ride and easy to control. Over four centuries, their dedication to breeding only the best gaited bloodstock resulted in the modern Peruvian Horse.

A decline in the use of Peruvians was seen in the southern part of Peru in the early 1900s, following the building of major highways that allowed motor travel to replace the use of the horse. Many of the major breeders in the area gave their best horses away to peasants living in the nearby quebradas (valleys). It was in one of these quebradas that breeder Gustavo de la Borda found the horse that was to become the most important modern sire in the breed, Sol de Oro (Viejo).

The Peruvian Horse continued to flourish in the northern regions because it was still needed for transportation on the haciendas. This changed with the harsh Agrarian Reforms instituted by the government of Juan Velasco Alvarado in the late 1960s that had a devastating effect on the Peruvian Horse within Peru. Major breeding operations were broken up and breeding stock was lost. Because interest in the Peruvian Horse was growing in the United States and Central America at the same time, many of the finest Peruvians were exported, leading to a period where it appeared the Peruvian Horse would fade in its homeland.

Don Pedro Venturo Zapata was a major breeder of the Peruvians in his "Hacienda Higuereta y Anexos - Negociacion Vinicola Pedro Venturo S.A." from 1925 to 1952.

The last quarter of the 20th century saw a resurgence in the Peruvian Horse's fortune in Peru. The annual National Show in Lima is a major event in Peruvian cultural life. The Peruvian has been declared a Patrimonio Cultural (Cultural Heritage) of Peru in an attempt to shore up the breed within the country. There are now laws in place that restrict the export of national champion horses.

Peruvian Horses are noted internationally for their good temperament and comfortable ride. As of 2003, there are approximately 25,000 horses worldwide, used for pleasure riding, trail, horse shows, parades, and endurance riding.

Appearance
The horse is medium-sized, usually standing between tall, with an elegant yet powerful build. The Peruvian horse has a deep chest, heavy neck and body with substance without any trace of being hound gutted in the flank area. A low set, quiet tail, clamped tightly between the buttocks is a vital quality. Stallions have a broader chest and larger neck than mares, and are known for their quality temperament. The coat color can be varied; and is seen in chestnut, black, bay, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, roan or dun. Solid colors, grays and dark skin are considered the most desirable. The mane and forelock are lustrous, fine and abundant. White markings are acceptable on the legs and face.

Gait
Instead of a trot, the Peruvian performs an ambling four beat gait between the walk and the trot. There are two official gaits, called the "Paso Llano" or "even step", and the "sobreandando" which is a bit closer in timing to the pace. Both gaits can be performed at a variety of speeds. The fast sobreandando is often the speed of a canter. Both acceptable gaits are lateral, having four beats and is performed in a lateral sequence — left hind, left fore, right hind, right fore. The Peruvian Horse can also canter, will trot and pace at liberty, and do a natural relaxed walk.

The Peruvian performs two variations of the four-beat gait. The first, the paso llano, is isochronous, meaning that there are four equal beats in a 1-2-3-4 rhythm. This is the preferred gait. The second gait, the sobreandando, is often faster. Instead of four equal beats, the lateral beats are closer together in a 1–2, 3-4 rhythm, with the pause between the forefoot of one side to the rear of the other side is longer.

This characteristic gait was utilized for the purpose of covering long distances over a short period of time without tiring the horse or rider. The gait is natural and does not require extensive training. Purebred Peruvian foals can be seen gaiting alongside their dams within a few hours of their birth.

The gait supplies essentially none of the vertical bounce that is characteristic of the trot, and hence posting (moving up and down with each of the horse's footfalls) is unnecessary. It is also very stable, as the execution of the gait means there are always two, and sometimes three, feet on the ground. Because the rider feels no strain or jolt, gaited horses such as the Peruvian are often popular with riders who have back trouble.

Termino
A unique trait of the Peruvian gait is termino — an outward swinging leg action, originating from the shoulder, in which the front lower legs roll to the outside during the stride forward, similar to a swimmer's arms. Individual horses may have more or less termino. High lift or wide termino is not necessarily a sign of a well gaited horse; in fact it may be detrimental to a good gait.

Brío
Brío refers to a horse's vigor, energy, exuberance, courage and liveliness; it automatically implies that these qualities are willingly placed in the service of the rider. Horses with true brio are willing workers. Their attention does not wander but is focused on the handler or rider, and thus they are quick to react and fast to learn. Horses with brio attract attention, and combined with the stamina of the breed have reserves they can tap to travel long distances for many hours.

Breeders and judges look for Brío, often translated as "spirit," but this does not capture the complexity of the term. Brío describes a somewhat contradictory temperament, which combines arrogance, spirit, and the sense of always being on parade, with a willingness to please the rider. Brío is an intangible quality of controlled energy that creates a metamorphosis in ordinary-looking horses and is an important trait of Peruvians.

Peruvian Horse shows
In the United States, competitions are organized by the North American Peruvian Horse Association and by their clubs. in Peru, the two best-known and most important events are The National Horse Competition Caballo de Paso Peruano held in Pachacamac and at the Internacional de la Primavera during the months of September and October in Trujillo city and during the international Marinera Festival in January. Peru's National Institute of Culture has declared that the horses are part of Peru's national cultural heritage.

Name
Because of the shared word Paso, a close relationship between the Peruvian and the Paso Fino breed is incorrectly assumed. "Paso" simply means "step," in Spanish, and does not imply a common breed or origin. Although the two breeds share ancestors in the Old World, and have some similarities, they were developed independently for different purposes. The two breeds are different and easily distinguishable. The Peruvian is somewhat larger, deeper in the body and wider. The Paso Fino is not bred for "termino" in its stride.

The Peruvian has been called the "national horse" of Peru. On the other hand, the Paso Fino was developed from horses throughout northern Latin America and the Caribbean, with major centers of development in Colombia and Puerto Rico. The Peruvian is also increasingly referred to in North America as the "Peruvian Horse" to distinguish its breed apart from other breeds.

title: Peruvian Paso


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Talk:Hummingbird

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 6 January 2021 and 21 April 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Pook21.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 August 2020 and 5 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jordanviv02. Peer reviewers: Cbutl37, Wmartin21, Glabor5.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:03, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

A mistake in "Courtship Dives"
In that section, "pmid = 14556561" appears in plain text. I know its supposed to be some sort of reference, but I couldn't figure out how to fix it. 74.132.8.133 (talk) 20:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

- Seems the PMID was incorrectly entered. This is a 2020 replacement, containing summary information stating the threshold is 5+ Gz for blackout in pilots. In this reference citing a 1955 study, Clark says the threshold for pilot blackout is 7+ Gz. Zefr (talk) 22:32, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

Audio file for humming section
I looked through Wikimedia Commons for a simple audio file to include with the humming section added today, but there is nothing there. If any enthusiasts following this article have a short audio file to contribute, please upload it to Commons, and notify here. Thanks. Zefr (talk) 17:17, 13 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Recorded "humming" from a cell phone of a single calliope hummingbird from my balcony (closeup recording) - added to the article Humming section - and another from a group of 3 calliopes at 2 m distance. Both in Commons and here. Zefr (talk) 01:09, 15 May 2021 (UTC)

Section: Lifespan makes no sense
In Lifespan the text states:
 * Due to their small size they are occasionally prey of chameleons, spiders, and insects, particularly praying mantises.

However, chameleons do not occur naturally in the americas, and hummingbirds don't occur naturally in Africa and Eurasia, where chameleons are found. None of the references provided say this and I propose to delete that statement. MFdeS (talk) 02:44, 4 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Certainly a good critical point on chameleons. There are some vivid videos one can find of mantis predation on hummingbirds, as well as this review which reported numerous mantis attacks, now mentioned in the article. Thanks. Zefr (talk) 03:22, 4 November 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Plant Behavior 2022
— Assignment last updated by Gonet99 (talk) 19:16, 13 June 2022 (UTC)

Incorrect summary of scientific paper
Hi there - I'm the lead author of the paper cited for hummingbirds using monoterpene volatiles to find flowers (Byers et al 2014), which was not what the paper found - we found that bumblebees were attracted to these volatiles (which are produced by the petals, not the nectar), but did not do any studies with hummingbirds and previous data suggests they do not have a very good sense of smell anyway. Could someone remove this sentence, please? I'd do it myself but that feels conflict-of-interest-y...? 80.189.6.106 (talk) 18:24, 2 August 2022 (UTC)

 * ✅ - thanks. Zefr (talk) 18:39, 2 August 2022 (UTC)

archive this page
so many topics modern_primat ඞඞඞ TALK 15:22, 11 January 2023 (UTC)

✅. Zefr (talk) 19:52, 28 February 2023 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Hummingbird migration into Hummingbird
This split into a separate article (not that it is handled as a split - it's just duplicated material) seems unnecessary. About half the material, "Locations", is copied straight from Hummingbird; the rest, the "Reasons" section plus the end of the lede, could be added to the source article without problem. - If a separate article were required, then Hummingbird would need to be edited down to a short summary and linked there. The current setup is unsuitable. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 09:39, 21 January 2023 (UTC) Elmidae (talk · contribs) 09:39, 21 January 2023 (UTC)
 * I support merging "Hummingbird migration" into "Hummingbird". Much of the information in "Hummingbird migration" duplicates the main article, and the additional information could easily be incorporated into the main article. I don't think an article on the migration of the North American species is necessary. - Aa77zz (talk) 13:16, 21 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Merge we do not need a separate migration article. Catfurball (talk) 16:04, 21 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Merge. The content of the "hummingbird migration" article can be stated more succinctly and readily merged into the main hummingbird article. Zefr (talk) 17:22, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

I will edit down the migration section in the main Hummingbird page rather than have the Hummingbird migration moved into the main page. I feel hummingbird migration is notable enough to warrant its own page. I would rather have the migration page be revised and expanded, as opposed to merging into the main page. I don't have the time to increase it further, so hopefully some of you can increase and expand it with new facts and info. Anderswarr (talk) 13:25, 21 January 2023 (PT)
 * Errm... at present, given the material included in the new page, there is no case for making it a standalone article. Saying "I'm not going to expand it but we need a new page anyway" is not going to fly under these circumstances. The correct approach would be to wait until you have the time and material to make a solid split and then do it. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 09:43, 22 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Ok....but why must I be the one to expand it? I mean, why don't you have the time to do so, or anyone else for that matter? I'm not an active Wikipedia artist, and don't have time to constantly add to pages. I would be delighted for anyone else to contribute to the page, but the fact that you think I should have sole or primary responsibility for this page alone is not rational. Anderswarr (talk) 21:09, 22 January 2023 (UTC)
 * the intention is to have, at any one point in time, the optimal setup to present the material. With the current amount of material, that setup is a single article. Possibly with more content we would be better off with a split, but for that the stuff needs to be present, or intended to be added very shortly. Otherwise we are sustaining a setup that may be ideal at some point in the future but until then only has downsides. So no, it's not your responsibility to expand this topic, but it is yours and everyone elses to maintain optimal article states, and that may mean putting off such shufflings-around of text until it yields an improvement. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 19:29, 24 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Merge - no need for separate article.  Onel 5969  TT me 18:12, 24 January 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ Onel 5969  TT me 11:23, 31 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Ah, was just about to look into it. Cheers! -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 14:00, 31 January 2023 (UTC)

Chukchi Peninsula or Autonomous Okrug?
This article states that the rufous hummingbird has been sighted in the Chukchi Peninsula, but Big_Diomede suggests that it should be on the island, which is part of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug but not part of the Peninsula. The article refers to BOW, which I am not subscribed to. Could anyone verify this information? ——🦝 The Interaccoonale Will be the raccoon race(talk・contribs) 00:40, 4 July 2023 (UTC)

 * I cannot see a mention of the Chukchi Peninsula in the Cornell BOW text here (Susan Healy and William A. Calder Version: 1.0 — Published March 4, 2020 Text last updated September 1, 2006). The Distribution section in the BOW article contains the text: "Coastal se. Alaska to 61° N, through Prince William Sound (unconfirmed report on St. Lawrence I. in the Bering Sea), s. Yukon, most of British Columbia but sporadic in northeast, ..."

 * The mention of the Chukchi Peninsula in the Wiki article was added in 6 Feb 2018 by an IP in this edit. The addition included a cite to the now defunct online edition of the Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW). The original cite to HBW Online has been changed to the BOW website mentioned above. Cornell BOW purchased the HBW Online data but BOW (then Birds of North America) would have already had an article on the rufous hummingbird. The original article in HBW Vol 5 p. 679 here (registration required) does not mention the Chukchi Peninsula.

 * Based on the above, I've removed the mention of the Chukchi Peninsula from the wiki article. - Aa77zz (talk) 10:56, 4 July 2023 (UTC)

 * The article on the article of Big Diomede cites Newfield & Nielsen (1996) which includes the text: "Gibson notes that, for such tiny creature, hummingbirds are prodigious travelers. One rufous flew across the Pacific and ended up in Asia, landing on route on Russia's Big Diomede island." This report cannot be considered as reliable - the sighting needs confirmation. - Aa77zz (talk) 11:39, 4 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Agree. Moreover, the reference does not include time. I don't know where the "1976" comes from. ——🦝 The Interaccoonale Will be the raccoon race(talk・contribs) 14:11, 4 July 2023 (UTC)
 * It was added in 14 March 2014 by Silvio1973. ——🦝 The Interaccoonale Will be the raccoon race(talk・contribs) 14:30, 4 July 2023 (UTC)

Superficially similar species - hummingbird hawk moth in Australia?
I note the reference to the hummingbird hawk moth which has been mistaken for the hummingbird is found ONLY in Eurasian. There is a similar moth found in Australia that has also been mistaken for a hummingbird. Following are some websites which mention the moth found in Australia which has been mistaken for a hummingbird:

https://www.sunshinecoast.qld.gov.au/Environment/Education-Resources-and-Events/Environment-Resources-and-Publications/Invertebrates/Hummingbird-hawk-moth

https://wildandpets.com/hummingbirds-in-australia/?expand_article=1

I personally saw one of these moths in Australia at dusk, and mistook it for a hummingbird even knowing we don't have hummingbirds here.

Tzali (talk) 17:01, 8 January 2024 (UTC)

"Avian Therapod Dinosaurs"
I have had very reasonable edits reverted twice. I am told to go to the talk page to discuss basic reasonable changes to a tiny sentence. I am directly lied to that this has been discussed at length, unless that is just referring to my single comment reply? Because it is literally not discussed here at all. And to top it off, the sentence contains a laughable and juvenile error that these editors are less interested in simply correcting than they are in exercising their power to revert edits (which we all have). It makes the article a farce, but sure, leave this obvious typo up. The fact that even this typo correction is not retained, or re-added manually, shows where the motivations of certain types lie.

So, let's discuss this. First, there is an obvious and laughable basic typo. It is properly spelled "theropod". Leave that if you like, to make a point or whatever, but it makes Wikipedia look shoddy. It is right at the start of the article, after the lede.

Second, this sentence is an abomination. The very phrase "avian theropod dinosaur" literally just means "bird", with an emphasis on their theropod and dinosaur affinities. All avians ARE theropods, and all theropods ARE dinosaurs, so it is also doubly redundant. It involves only a small number of words, sure, that's good, I guess. But I barely doubled the word count and provided a much more accurate and clear statement.

The real problem here is that it attempts to mash three statements together into one awkward, ambiguous, and unsightly phrase. These are: 1) That hummingbirds are the smallest birds (ever), 2) that birds are dinosaurs, and 3) that hummingbirds are the smallest of the dinosaurs (ever).

Although the second of these claims is by far the most ancillary, it is the ONLY one that has citations, and not only that, it has THREE separate ones. None of these even mention hummingbirds in any special respect (though two mention them in passing). Birds being dinosaurs is a highly tangential claim to anything discussed anywhere else in the article and certainly does not demand three separate sources. Claims like this in other articles, highly tangential and well-established, often go without citation at all.

The sources I provided are both DIRECTLY relevant, and both from reputable world-class authorities, to the question of small dinosaurs. The claim that hummingbirds are the smallest dinosaurs ever is really the one most in need of a source, and they are few and far between. If mine were inadequate, and there is no other adequate source, then this claim should not even be made in the article at all.

The very issue of dinosaurs to begin with is brought up randomly and needlessly. If it is brought up, these points must be clarified. Otherwise, it should not be brought up at all.

You owe it to Wikipedia to at least read this reply. I know it isn't as fun, easy, satisfying, and (somehow, sadly) fulfilling as just removing other people's edits in all of 5 seconds of very useful and important work, but it is incumbent upon you to continue engaging in what you have already engaged in with reasonable counterpoints. Otherwise, if you are not willing to put that subsequent work in, don't do the first, easier part.

Elmidae

Zefr

KettleMettle (talk) 09:38, 3 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Yeah, cool it. The relevant discussion has largely happened at Talk:Bee hummingbird and other related pages. While I personally agree that the "smallest dinosaur" angle is mostly a party trick and is being ridden to death by some editors overly enchanted with the concept, there seems to be a general consensus that it's worth a mention, and wholesale removal will thus require consensus. So wait a few days for others to comment; civilization is unlikely to collapse in the meantime due to this content. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 13:41, 3 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I am concerned with the particular phrasing of the statement here. I am not opposed to simply any mention at all of hummingbirds as the smallest dinosaurs; in fact I think it is an interesting and relevant factoid. But it is largely tangential and unnecessary, and should only be included if it can be phrased in an accurate and coherent way. KettleMettle (talk) 01:11, 4 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Three versions of text with/without sources have been presented. A revision combining versions 1 and 2 is possible (#4 below). Which version do editors prefer?

Version 1. Hummingbirds are the smallest known and smallest living avian theropod ( typo corrected ) dinosaurs.

Version 2. Hummingbirds include the smallest living birds, as well as the smallest birds ever known. Since birds comprise a lineage of theropod dinosaurs, and no smaller non-avian dinosaur is known, hummingbirds are also the smallest known dinosaurs ever to have existed.

Version 3. Hummingbirds are the smallest living birds.(unsourced)

Version 4. As the smallest bird in a lineage of theropod dinosaurs, hummingbirds are the smallest known and smallest living dinosaurs.

 * Version 4. Zefr (talk) 19:02, 3 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Version 4. In version 3, the ref is not unsourced, but is the Britannica ref, which is for the whole paragraph. With intervening references, the Britannica ref should be repeated, for the "smallest bird" claim. I will concede to this as a reasonable compromise; I think the phrasing of ". . . bird in a lineage of . . ." is imperfect, but as I said, it is difficult to accurately and concisely convey these three ideas at once. For what it is worth, the two references do not explicitly say that hummingbirds are the smallest known dinosaurs, or even that they are the smallest birds (Britannica ref should go here). I appreciate the time and effort in responding and constructively furthering the discussion. KettleMettle (talk) 01:06, 4 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hummingbird


text:
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Don Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla Gallaga Mandarte y Villaseñor (8 May 1753 – 30 July 1811), more commonly known as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or Miguel Hidalgo, was a Catholic priest, leader of the Mexican War of Independence and recognized as the Father of the Nation.

A professor at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid, Hidalgo was influenced by Enlightenment ideas, which contributed to his ouster in 1792. He served in a church in Colima and then in Dolores. After his arrival, he was shocked by the rich soil he had found. He tried to help the poor by showing them how to grow olives and grapes, but in New Spain (modern Mexico) growing these crops was discouraged or prohibited by colonial authorities to prevent competition with imports from Spain. On 16 September 1810 he gave the Cry of Dolores, a speech calling upon the people to protect the interest of their King Ferdinand VII, held captive during the Peninsular War, by revolting against the European-born Spaniards who had overthrown the Spanish Viceroy José de Iturrigaray.

He marched across Mexico and gathered an army of nearly 90,000 poor farmers and Mexican civilians who attacked Spanish Peninsular and Criollo elites. Hidalgo's insurgent army accumulated initial victories in its way to Mexico City, but his troops ultimately lacked training and were poorly armed. These troops ran into an army of well-trained and armed Spanish troops in the Battle of Calderón Bridge and were defeated. After the battle, Hidalgo and his remaining troops fled north, but Hidalgo was betrayed, captured and executed.

Early years
Hidalgo was the second-born child of Cristóbal Hidalgo y Costilla Espinoza de los Monteros and Ana María Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor, both criollos. On his maternal side, he was of Basque ancestry. His most recent identifiable Spanish ancestor was his maternal great-grandfather, who was from Durango, Biscay. On his paternal side, he descended from criollo families native to Tejupilco, which were well-respected within the criollo community. Hidalgo's father was an hacienda manager in Valladolid, Michoacán, where Hidalgo spent the majority of his life. Eight days after his birth, Hidalgo was baptized into the Catholic faith in the parish church of Cuitzeo de los Naranjos. Hidalgo's parents had three other sons; José Joaquín, Manuel Mariano, and José María, before their mother died when Hildalgo was nine years old. A step brother named Mariano was born later.

In 1759, Charles III of Spain ascended to the throne of Spain; he soon sent out a visitor-general with the power to investigate and reform all parts of colonial government. During this period, Cristóbal was determined that Miguel and his younger brother Joaquín should both enter the priesthood and hierarchy of the Catholic Church. Being of significant means he paid for all of his sons to receive the best education the region had to offer. After receiving private instruction, likely from the priest of the neighboring parish, Hidalgo was ready for further education.

Education, ordination, and early career
At the age of fifteen Hidalgo was sent to Valladolid (now Morelia), Michoacán, to study at the Colegio de San Francisco Javier with the Jesuits, along with his brothers. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, he entered the Colegio de San Nicolás, where he studied for the priesthood.

He completed his preparatory education in 1770. After this, he went to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in Mexico City for further study, earning his degree in philosophy and theology in 1773. His education for the priesthood was traditional, with subjects in Latin, rhetoric and logic. Like many priests in Mexico, he studied indigenous languages, such as Nahuatl, Otomi, and Purépecha. He also studied Italian and French, which were not commonly studied in Mexico at this time. He earned the nickname "El Zorro" ("The Fox") for his reputation for cleverness at school. Hidalgo's study of French allowed him to read and study works of the Enlightenment current in Europe but, at the same time, forbidden by the Catholic church in Mexico.

Hidalgo was ordained as a priest in 1778 when he was 25 years old. From 1779 to 1792, he dedicated himself to teaching at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid (now Morelia); it was "one of the most important educational centers of the viceroyalty." He was a professor of Latin grammar and arts, as well as a theology professor. Beginning in 1787, he was named treasurer, vice-rector and secretary, becoming dean of the school in 1790 when he was 39. As rector, Hidalgo continued studying the liberal ideas that were coming from France and other parts of Europe. Authorities ousted him in 1792 for revising traditional teaching methods there, but also for "irregular handling of some funds." The Church sent him to work at the parishes of Colima and San Felipe Torres Mochas until he became the parish priest in Dolores, Guanajuato, succeeding his brother José Joaquín a few weeks after his death on 19 September 1802.

Although Hidalgo had a traditional education for the priesthood, as an educator at the Colegio de San Nicolás he had innovated in teaching methods and curriculum. In his personal life, he did not advocate or live the way expected of 18th-century Mexican priests. Instead, his studies of Enlightenment-era ideas caused him to challenge traditional political and religious views. He questioned the absolute authority of the Spanish king and challenged numerous ideas presented by the Church, including the power of the popes, the virgin birth, and clerical celibacy. As a secular cleric, he was not bound by a vow of poverty, so he, like many other secular priests, pursued business activities, including owning three haciendas; but contrary to his vow of chastity, he formed liaisons with women. One was with Manuela Ramos Pichardo, with whom he had two children, as well as a child with Bibiana Lucero. He later lived with a woman named María Manuela Herrera, fathering two daughters out of wedlock with her, and later fathered three other children with a woman named Josefa Quintana.

These actions resulted in his appearance before the Court of the Inquisition, although the court did not find him guilty. Hidalgo was an egalitarian. As parish priest in both San Felipe and Dolores, he opened his house to natives and mestizos as well as criollos.

The conspiracy of Querétaro
Meanwhile, in the city of Querétaro, a conspiracy was brewing, organized by the mayor Miguel Domínguez and his wife Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez; members of the military, such as Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama and Mariano Abasolo, also participated. Allende was in charge of convincing Hidalgo to join his movement, since the priest of Dolores had very influential friends from all over the Bajío and even New Spain, such as Juan Antonio Riaño, mayor of Guanajuato, and Manuel Abad y Queipo, Bishop of Michoacán.

Napoleonic Wars
In 1807, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807) to invade Portugal, an ally of the United Kingdom. The French troops that were supposed to go through Spain to Portugal remained in Spain and the Spanish people were upset by the presence of the French troops as a result of the numerous excesses that the French committed against the Spanish people, such as occupation of the territory, numerous looting, pillaging, murder of civilians, and the kidnappings of King Charles IV and Prince Ferdinan VII. Also, Napoleon forced both to abdicate and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. This triggered a revolt by Spanish troops first and, subsequently, an uprising in Madrid, This was followed by further revolts across Spain. In August 1808, a British army landed in Portugal. Britain and France then went to war against each other in Portugal and Spain. The war and instability in Spain affected Mexico and other parts of New Spain.

Parish priest in Dolores
In 1803, aged 50, he arrived in Dolores accompanied by his family that included a younger brother, a cousin, two half sisters, as well as María and their two children. He obtained this parish in spite of his hearing before the Inquisition, which did not stop his secular practices.

After Hidalgo settled in Dolores, he turned over most of the clerical duties to one of his vicars, Francisco Iglesias, and devoted himself almost exclusively to commerce, intellectual pursuits and humanitarian activities. He spent much of his time studying literature, scientific works, grape cultivation, and the raising of silkworms. He used the knowledge that he gained to promote economic activities for the poor and rural people in his area. He established factories to make bricks and pottery and trained indigenous people in the making of leather. He promoted beekeeping. He was interested in promoting activities of commercial value to use the natural resources of the area to help the poor. His goal was to make the indigenous and mestizos more self-reliant. However, these activities violated mercantilist policies designed to protect agriculture and industry in Spain, and Hidalgo was ordered to stop them. These policies as well as exploitation of mixed race castas fostered animosity in Hidalgo towards the Peninsular-born Spaniards in Mexico.

In addition to restricting economic activities in New Spain, Spanish mercantile practices caused misery for native peoples. A drought in 1807–1808 caused a famine in the Dolores area, and rather than releasing stored grain to market, Spanish merchants blocked its release, speculating on price increases. Hidalgo lobbied against these practices but was not successful.

Cry of Dolores
Fearing his arrest, Hidalgo commanded his brother Mauricio, as well as Ignacio Allende and Mariano Abasolo, to go with a number of other armed men to make the sheriff release prison inmates in Dolores on the night of 15 September 1810, setting eighty free. On the morning of 16 September 1810, Hidalgo celebrated Mass, which was attended by about 300 people, including hacienda owners, local politicians, and Spaniards. There he gave what is now known as the Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores), calling the people of his parish to leave their homes and join with him in a rebellion against the current government, in the name of their King, Ferdinand VII.

Hidalgo's Grito did not condemn the notion of monarchy or criticize the current social order in detail, but his opposition to the events in Spain and the current viceregal government was clearly expressed in his reference to bad government. The Grito also emphasized loyalty to the Catholic religion, a sentiment with which both Creoles and Peninsulares could sympathize.

Hidalgo's army – from Celaya to Monte de las Cruces
Hidalgo was met with an outpouring of support. Intellectuals, liberal priests and many poor people followed Hidalgo with enthusiasm. His movement was joined by mestizos and the indigenous in such numbers that the original motives of the Querétaro group were obscured. Ignacio Allende, Hidalgo's main co-conspirator in Querétaro, remained more loyal to the Querétaro group's original, criollo centered objectives. However, Hidalgo's actions and the people's response meant he would lead and not Allende. Allende had acquired military training when New Spain established a colonial militia whereas Hidalgo had none. The insurgents who followed Hidalgo also had no military training, experience or equipment. Many of these people were poor who were angry after many years of hunger and oppression. Consequently, Hidalgo was the leader of undisciplined rebels.

Hidalgo's leadership gave the insurgent movement a supernatural aspect. Many villagers that joined the insurgent army came to believe that Fernando VII himself commanded their loyalty to Hidalgo and the monarch was in New Spain personally directing the rebellion against the Viceroyalty. Historian Eric Van Young believes that such ideas gave the movement supernatural and religious legitimacy that went as far as messianic expectation.

Hidalgo and Allende left Dolores with about 800 men, half of whom were on horseback. They marched through the Bajío area, through Atotonilco, San Miguel el Grande (present-day San Miguel de Allende), Chamucuero, Celaya, Salamanca, Irapuato and Silao, to Guanajuato. From Guanajuato, Hidalgo directed his troops to Valladolid, Michoacán. They remained here for a while and eventually marched towards Mexico City. From Valladolid, they marched through the State of Mexico, through the cities of Maravatio, Ixtlahuaca, Toluca coming as close to Mexico City as the Monte de las Cruces, between the Valley of Toluca and the Valley of Mexico.

Through numbers, Hidalgo's army had some early victories. Hidalgo first went through the economically important and densely populated province of Guanajuato. One of the first stops was at the Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe in Atotonilco, where Hidalgo affixed an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe to a lance to adopt it as his banner. He inscribed the following slogans to his troops' flags: "Long live religion! Long live our most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live America and death to bad government!" For the insurgents as a whole, the Virgin represented an intense and highly localized religious sensibility, invoked more to identify allies rather than create ideological alliances or a sense of nationalism.

The extent and the intensity of the movement took colonial authorities by surprise. San Miguel and Celaya were captured with little resistance. On 21 September 1810, Hidalgo was proclaimed general and supreme commander after arriving to Celaya. At this point, Hidalgo's army numbered about 5,000. However, because of the lack of discipline, the insurgents soon fell into robbing, looting, ransacking towns and executing prisoners. This caused friction between Allende and Hidalgo as early as the capture of San Miguel in late September 1810. When rioting ran through the city, Allende tried to break up violence by striking insurgents with the flat of his sword, which brought him a rebuke from Hidalgo.

On 28 September 1810, Hidalgo arrived at the city of Guanajuato with rebels who were mostly armed with sticks, stones, and machetes. The town's peninsular and criollo populations took refuge in the fortified Alhóndiga de Granaditas commanded by Juan Antonio de Riaño. The insurgents overwhelmed the defenses after two days and killed an estimated 400 – 600 people. Allende strongly protested these events and while Hidalgo agreed that they were heinous, he also stated that he understood the historical patterns that shaped such responses. The attacks prompted criollos and peninsulares to ally against the insurgents and caused Hidalgo to lose support from liberal criollos.

From Guanajuato, Hidalgo set off for Valladolid on 10 October 1810 with 15,000 men. When he arrived at Acámbaro, he was promoted to generalissimo and given the title of His Most Serene Highness, with power to legislate. With his new rank he had a blue uniform with a clerical collar and red lapels embroidered with silver and gold. His uniform also included a black baldric also embroidered with gold. There was also a large image of the Virgin of Guadalupe in gold on his chest.

Hidalgo and his forces took Valladolid with little opposition on 17 October 1810. There, Hidalgo issued proclamations against the peninsulares, whom he accused of arrogance and despotism, as well as enslaving those in the Americas for almost 300 years. Hidalgo argued that the objective of the war was "to send the gachupines back to the motherland", accusing their greed and tyranny as leading to the temporal and spiritual degradation of Mexicans. Hidalgo forced the Bishop-elect of Michoacan, Manuel Abad y Queipo, to rescind the excommunication order he had circulated against him on 24 September 1810. Later, the Inquisition issued an excommunication edict on 13 October 1810 condemning Hidalgo as a seditionary, apostate, and heretic.

The insurgents stayed in the city preparing to march to the capital of New Spain, Mexico City. The canon of the cathedral met Hidalgo and made him promise that the atrocities of San Miguel, Celaya and Guanajuato would not be repeated in Valladolid. Wholesale destruction of the city was not repeated. However, Hidalgo was furious when he found the cathedral locked to him, which led him to jail Spaniards, replace city officials with his own and looting the city treasury before marching off toward Mexico City. On 19 October, Hidalgo left Valladolid for Mexico City after taking 400,000 pesos from the cathedral to pay expenses.

Hidalgo and his troops left the state of Michoacán and marched through the towns of Maravatio, Ixtlahuaca, and Toluca before stopping in the forested mountain area of Monte de las Cruces. Here, insurgent forces engaged Torcuato Trujillo's royalist forces. Hidalgo's troops led the royalist troops to retreat, but the insurgents suffered heavy casualties, as they had when they engaged royalist soldiers in Guanajuato.

Retreat from Mexico City

After the Battle of Monte de las Cruces on 30 October 1810, Hidalgo had some 100,000 insurgents and was in a strategic position to attack Mexico City. Numerically, his forces outnumbered royalist forces. The royalist government in Mexico City, under the leadership of Viceroy Francisco Venegas, prepared psychological and military defenses. An intensive propaganda campaign had advertised insurgent violence in the Bajío region and stressed the insurgents' threat against social stability. Hidalgo's insurgency also faced opposition from sedentary natives and castes of the Valley of Mexico.

Hidalgo's forces came as close as what is now the Cuajimalpa borough of Mexico City. Allende wanted to press forward and attack the capital, but Hidalgo disagreed. Hidalgo's reasoning for this decision is unclear and has been debated by historians. One explanation is that Hidalgo's forces were undisciplined and had suffered heavy losses whenever they encountered trained troops. As the capital was guarded by some of the most trained soldiers in New Spain, Hidalgo decided to turn away from Mexico City and move to the north through Toluca and Ixtlahuaca with a destination of Guadalajara.

After turning back, many insurgents deserted. By the time he got to Aculco, just north of Toluca, his army had shrunk to 40,000 men. New Spain General Felix Calleja attacked Hidalgo's forces, defeating them on 7 November 1810. Allende decided to take the troops under his command to Guanajuato, instead of Guadalajara. Hidalgo arrived in Guadalajara on 26 November with more than 7,000 poorly armed troops. He initially occupied the city with lower-class support because Hidalgo promised to end slavery, tribute payment and taxes on alcohol and tobacco.

Hidalgo established an alternative government in Guadalajara with himself at the head and appointed two ministers. On 6 December 1810, Hidalgo issued a decree abolishing slavery, threatening those who did not comply with death. He abolished tribute payments that indigenous peoples had to pay to criollo and peninsular lords. He ordered the publication of a newspaper called Despertador Americano (American Wake Up Call). He named Pascacio Ortiz de Letona as representative of the insurgent government and sent him to the United States to seek support, but Ortiz de Letona was apprehended by the Spanish army and executed.

During this time, insurgent violence mounted in Guadalajara. Citizens loyal to the viceregal government were seized and executed. While indiscriminate looting was avoided, insurgents targeted properties of criollos and Spaniards, regardless of political affiliation. In the meantime, the royalist army had retaken Guanajuato, forcing Allende to flee to Guadalajara. After he arrived at the city, Allende again objected to Hidalgo concerning the insurgent violence. However, Hidalgo knew the royalist army was on its way to Guadalajara and wanted to stay on good terms with his own army. After Guanajuato had been retaken by royalist forces, Bishop Manuel Abad y Queipo excommunicated Hidalgo and those following or helping him on 24 December 1810. Abad y Queipo had formerly been a friend of Hidalgo, but he was adamantly opposed to Hidalgo's tactics and the resultant disruptions, alleged "sacrileges" and purported ill-treatment of priests. The Inquisition pronounced an edict against Hidalgo, charging him with denying that God punishes sins in this world, doubting the authenticity of the Bible, denouncing the popes and Church government, allowing Jews not to convert to Christianity, denying the perpetual virginity of Mary, preaching that there was no hell, and adopting Lutheran doctrine with regard to the Eucharist. Hidalgo responded that he had never departed from Church doctrine in the slightest degree.

Royalist forces marched to Guadalajara, arriving in January 1811 with nearly 6,000 men. Allende and Abasolo wanted to concentrate their forces in the city and plan an escape route should they be defeated, but Hidalgo rejected this, deciding to make a stand at the Calderón Bridge (Puente de Calderón) just outside the city. Hidalgo had between 80,000 and 100,000 men and 95 cannons, but the better trained royalists decisively defeated the insurgent army, forcing Hidalgo to flee towards Aguascalientes. At Hacienda de Pabellón, on 25 January 1811, near the city of Aguascalientes, Allende and other insurgent leaders took military command away from Hidalgo, blaming him for their defeats. Hidalgo remained as head politically but with military command going to Allende.

The insurgent Army moved north towards Zacatecas and Saltillo with the goal of making connections in the United States for support. Hidalgo reached Saltillo, where he publicly resigned his military post and rejected a pardon offered by General José de la Cruz in the name of Venegas in return for Hidalgo's surrender. A short time later, they were betrayed and captured by royalist Ignacio Elizondo at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján) on 21 March 1811 and taken to Chihuahua.

Execution

Hidalgo was turned over to Durango, where Bishop Francisco Gabriel de Olivares had him officially defrocked and excommunicated on 27 July 1811. He was subsequently declared guilty of treason by a military court. He was tortured through the flaying of his hands, symbolically removing the chrism placed upon them at his priestly ordination and executed. There are many theories about how he was killed, the most popular that he was killed by firing squad in the morning of 30 July. Before his execution, he thanked his jailers, two soldiers, Ortega and Melchor, for their humane treatment. At his execution, Hidalgo stated "Though I may die, I shall be remembered forever; you all will soon be forgotten." His body and the bodies of Allende, Aldama and José Mariano Jiménez were decapitated, and the heads were put on display in the four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. The heads remained there for ten years until the end of the Mexican War of Independence to demoralize insurgents. Hidalgo's headless body was first displayed outside the prison and then buried in the Church of St Francis in Chihuahua. The remains were transferred to Mexico City in 1824.

Hidalgo's death resulted in a political vacuum on the insurgent side until 1812. The royalist military commander, General Félix Calleja, continued to pursue rebel troops. Insurgent fighting evolved into guerrilla warfare, and eventually the next major insurgent leader, José María Morelos Pérez y Pavón, who had led rebel movements with Hidalgo, became head of the insurgents, until Morelos himself was captured and executed in 1815.

Legacy
"Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla had the unique distinction of being a father in three senses of the word: a priestly father in the Roman Catholic Church, a biological father who produced illegitimate children in violation of his clerical vows, and the father of his country." He has been hailed as the Father of the Nation even though it was Agustín de Iturbide and not Hidalgo who became the first head of state of Mexico in 1821. Shortly after gaining independence, the day to celebrate it varied between 16 September, the day of Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores, and 27 September, when Iturbide's forces captured Mexico City, ending the war.

Later, political movements would favor the more liberal Hidalgo over the conservative Iturbide, and 16 September 1810 became officially recognized as the day of Mexican independence. The reason for this is that Hidalgo is considered to be "precursor and creator of the rest of the heroes of the (Mexican War of) Independence."

Diego Rivera painted Hidalgo's image in half a dozen murals. José Clemente Orozco depicted him with a flaming torch of liberty and considered the painting among his best work. David Alfaro Siqueiros was commissioned by San Nicolas McGinty University in Morelia to paint a mural for a celebration commemorating the 200th anniversary of Hidalgo's birth. The town of his parish was renamed Dolores Hidalgo in his honor and the state of Hidalgo was created in 1869. Every year on the night of 15–16 September, the president of Mexico re-enacts the Grito from the balcony of the National Palace. This scene is repeated by the heads of cities and towns all over Mexico. He is also the namesake of Hidalgo County, Texas, in the United States.

The remains of Hidalgo lie in the column of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City. Next to it is a lamp lit to represent the sacrifice of those who gave their lives for Mexican Independence.

His birthday is a civic holiday in Mexico.

title: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla


text:
Talk:Codon

Untitled
I have the urge to redirect this to genetic code, since the current article is just a dictionary definition and I don't see it expanding much in the future (genetic code already has all the details that might be put here). But what should I do about the link to the Spanish codon article? Any ideas? Bryan

 * I would just move the Codón into Genetic code, since there doesn't seem to be an equivalent article on the Spanish wiki (ie, an article about codons that doesn't use the word in its title) and change the backlink to match. --Brion 21:19 Jan 18, 2003 (UTC)

I have consulted two textbooks. One defines codon as any triplet in DNA, another defines it as an mRNA triplet. Neither say that it must be a terminating triplet. What is up? Slrubenstein

 * A terminating triplet is a stop codon, which is a specific kind of codon. All terminating triplets are codons, but not all codons are terminating triplets. Bryan

Thanks Bryan, I actually sorted this out yesterday -- my fault; I should have deleted this portion of the talk. Have you looked at Gene lately? Slrubenstein

I prefer to have a separate article for codon than just redirecting
How about the dictionary definition as a start where experts in the field can elaborate? "A three-letter sequence in RNAs that is used to translate the four-letter alphabet of DNA and RNA into the 20-letter amino acid code". Bernburgerin (talk) 09:30, 2 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Codon


text:
Urban secession

Urban secession is a city's secession from its surrounding region to form a new political unit.

This new unit is usually a subdivision of the same country as its surroundings. Many cities around the world form a separate local government unit. The most common reason is that the population of the city is too large for the city to be subsumed into a larger local government unit.

However, in a few cases, full sovereignty may be attained, in which case the unit is usually called a city-state. It is an extreme form of urban autonomy, which can be expressed in less formal terms or by ordinary legislation such as a city charter.

History
Urban autonomy has a long history back to the prehistoric urbanization and the original Mediterranean city-states of classical times, e.g. Ancient Athens, Ancient Rome. In medieval times such measures as the Magdeburg rights established special status for cities and their residents in commercial relations. In general it receded as European cities were incorporated into nation-states especially in the 17th century to 20th century, eventually losing many special rights.

Theory of urban secession
Modern theorists of local civic economies, including Robert J. Oakerson and Jane Jacobs, argue that cities reflect a clash of values, especially of tolerances versus preferences, with views of the city varying from a pure community to that of a pure marketplace. Suburbanites have a strong tendency to view the city as a marketplace since they do not participate in its street life voluntarily, nor do they consider the city to be a safe and comfortable place to live in. By contrast, those who choose downtown living tend to see it as more of a community, but must pay careful attention to their tolerances (for smog, noise pollution, crime, taxation, etc.). Ethics and thus politics of these interest groups vastly differ.

Secession (the setup of entirely new legislative and executive entities) is advocated by certain urban theorists, notably Jane Jacobs, as the only way to deal politically with these vast differences in culture between modern cities and even their nearest suburbs and essential watersheds. She stated that "cities that wish to thrive in the next century must separate politically from their surrounding regions." She rejected the lesser "Charter" and less formal solutions, arguing the full structure of real regional government were necessary, and applied to the urban area alone. In particular she rejected the idea that suburban regions should have any say over the rules in the city: "they have left it, and aren't part of it." Jacobs herself lived in an urban neighborhood (The Annex, Toronto) which would have been paved over in the 1970s by a highway project to serve the suburbs, the Spadina Expressway, had the proponents of urban secession not stopped it. Jacobs likewise took part in blocking the development of the Lower Manhattan Expressway in the 1960s, opposing Robert Moses. These freeways are examples of the clash of urban community versus suburban market interests.

Advocates of highway development and suburban participation in urban government theorize that cities which protect themselves from the suburbs, forcing them to become self-sufficient small towns, cutting off the freeways, forcing commuters into subways, etc., are committing suicide by forcing business out into the suburbs. Advocates respond that cities depend more on their quality of life to attract migrants and professionals, and that remote work makes it possible for workers in the city to live anywhere, coming into town less frequently, without the rush.

City-states and semi-autonomous cities
Fully autonomous cities, or city-states, are the objective of urban secession. A modern instance of a city-state is the Republic of Singapore, which was expelled from Malaysia for a variety of political and social reasons. Currently, Singapore is the sole city which has total independence, an indigenous currency, and a substantial military. The other two existing and de jure city-states are Monaco and Vatican City, which operate as, nominally, politically independent urban areas.

Certain cities like Hong Kong and Macau have a degree of autonomy, but not full political independence. Specifically, the status of a special administrative regions (SAR) has been conferred upon Hong Kong and Macau in the People's Republic of China. The reason for their relative autonomy stems from their existence for more than a century as European colonies, and a resultant difficulty of full reintegration.

Asia
In China, both Beijing and Tianjin are independent of the surrounding province of Hebei, of which they were formerly a part. Similarly, Shanghai is now independent from Jiangsu and Chongqing from Sichuan.

In Japan, Tokyo, as well as being a city, forms a prefecture, falling into a special category of "metropolitan prefecture" having some of the attributes of a city and some of a prefecture. Within Tokyo, there are smaller units, "wards", "cities", "towns", etc., but some of the responsibilities normally assigned to cities and towns in other Japanese prefectures are handled by the Tokyo metropolitan government instead.

In both South Korea and North Korea, special cities are independent from their surrounding provinces and city-states under direct governance from the central government. Examples are Seoul, Busan, Daegu, Incheon, Gwangju, Daejeon and Ulsan in South Korea and Pyongyang and Rason in North Korea. In South Korea, the main criterion for granting secession from the province is a population reaching one million.

Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, administers six cities, formerly part of the Republic of China's Taiwan Province, as special municipalities: Kaohsiung, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei, New Taipei and Taoyuan. (The People's Republic of China, which claims Taiwan, continues to recognise these municipalities as an integral part of PRC's purported Taiwan Province; the People's Republic of China regards Taiwan as its 23rd province, with Taipei as its capital.)

In Indonesia, the capital Jakarta was once part of West Java until it gained special autonomy status and broke away from its former province in 1961. The mayor position was replaced by governor, making it special autonomous province and operates independently from its surrounding provinces

Malaysian capitals Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya as well as Labuan island was once part of Selangor and Sabah respectively. In 1974 Kuala Lumpur was declared as first Federal Territory in Malaysia in order to prevent clash between Selangor state government and federal government, the state capital of Selangor was later moved to nearby Shah Alam. Later in 1984 Labuan was chosen by the federal government for the development Offshore financial centre and declared as second Federal Territory after Kuala Lumpur. Putrajaya declared as third Federal Territory later in 2001 after federal government finished developing the city as new federal capital while Kuala Lumpur stays as royal capital.

In Thailand, the capital Bangkok operates independently of any province and is considered a special administrative area. It is a primate city in terms of its large population, having nearly 8% of Thailand's total population.

Europe
The Brussels capital region, a densely built-up area consisting of 19 communes including the capital city Brussels, became one of Belgium's three regions after the country was turned into a federation in 1970. (In Belgium there are special circumstances due to the country's language communities.)

In Bulgaria the capital Sofia is an oblast of its own - Sofia-grad, while the surrounding area is divided between the Pernik Oblast and the Sofia Oblast.

Paris and the Lyon Metropolis are their own departments in France.

The capital city of Bucharest is also a county within Romania.

Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the biggest cities in Russia, have a federal city status. Following the 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, the city of Sevastopol is also administered as a federal city, though Ukraine and most of the UN member countries continue to regard Sevastopol as a city with special status within Ukraine.

In the United Kingdom, London secessionism has gathered momentum  following the Brexit referendum, when the UK as a whole voted to leave the European Union, but Greater London, which is its own region (unlike other urban areas in the UK), voted to remain in the EU.

German-speaking countries
In Germany there are two cities — Berlin and Hamburg — that are Bundesländer in themselves (thus, they are city-states within a federal system). The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen is also a city-state, comprising two cities: Bremen and Bremerhaven. At the district level, many large and medium-sized cities form their own district-free cities (German: Kreisfreie Städte).

The city of Vienna is a federal state within the Republic of Austria. As in Germany, many large and medium-sized cities in Austria are separate from the regular districts, instead forming their own statutory cities (German: Statutarstädte).

One of the cantons of Switzerland, Basel-Stadt, is a city-state.

North America
There are no city-states in North America. The District of Columbia in the United States and Distrito Federal in Mexico are federal government districts and not ordinary municipalities. As such, they are subject to the direct authority, respectively, of the U.S. and Mexican federal governments. The residents of Washington, D.C. did not elect their own mayor and city council until 1972, when the United States Congress extended home rule to the city. However, the actions of the mayor and city council must still be approved, at least retroactively, by the Congress, and no legislation passed by the Government of the District of Columbia can take effect until and unless the U.S. Congress approves it.

Canada
Urban secession is one of many possible solutions pondered by some Canadian cities as they contemplate their problems. It is one that is considered politically useful because of the strong secessionist movement in Quebec, as well as the weaker secessionist movements in Newfoundland (formerly independent), Alberta and British Columbia.

In Quebec, with a secessionist movement and linguistic dichotomy, the division of a newly independent Quebec has been a strong undercurrent, with some having a Province of Montreal remaining in Canada, sometimes containing only the West Island and the West Shore of Montreal.

For many decades, the urban communities of Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver have been configured separately from their respective provinces, for purposes of apportioning Members of Parliament after the national censuses conducted every five years.

United States
Various proposals have been made for New York City to secede from New York State. On a lower level, some states permit or have permitted a city to secede from its county and become a county-equivalent jurisdiction in its own right. Whether the new county-equivalent jurisdiction is considered to be a consolidated city-county like Philadelphia, Pennsylvania or San Francisco, California or an independent city like St. Louis, Missouri is a matter for each such state to decide. In November 2018, the Georgia General Assembly allowed voters in a wealthy enclave of Stockbridge, Georgia to decide if they wanted to secede, which they then declined to do. In Ohio, hundreds of cities and villages have withdrawn from their surrounding townships by forming paper townships.

Oceania
The 2007 Royal Commission on Auckland Governance was set up by the New Zealand Government to investigate possible changes to the administration of Auckland. The city was in 2009 named as the country's only supercity with the merging of several former councils, and in 2010 the Auckland Region became a unitary authority governed by the Auckland Council. Suggestion has since been made that the region could become an independent city state.

title: Urban secession