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Katipunan

The Katipunan (lit. 'Association'), officially known as the Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan  (lit. 'Supreme and Venerable Association of the Children of the Nation'; Suprema y Venerable Asociación de los Hijos del Pueblo) and abbreviated as the KKK, was a revolutionary organization founded in 1892 by a group of Filipino nationalists Deodato Arellano, Andrés Bonifacio, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, José Dizon, and Teodoro Plata. Its primary objective was achieving independence from the Spanish Empire through an armed revolution. It was formed as a secret society before its eventual discovery by Spanish authorities in August 1896. This discovery led to the start of the Philippine Revolution.

Historians generally placed the date of its founding in July 1892 shortly after the arrest and deportation of Filipino author and nationalist José Rizal to Dapitan in Mindanao. Rizal was one of the founders of the nascent La Liga Filipina, which aimed for a Filipino representation to the Spanish Parliament. Many members of the Katipunan, including Bonifacio himself, were members of that organization. However, recent discovery of documents of the organization suggest that the Katipunan may have been around by January 1892 but became active by July.

Being originally formed as a secret society, the Katipunan had its members undergo through initiation rites similar to freemasonry. Membership to the organization was initially open only for men; however, women were eventually accepted. The Katipunan had a short-lived publication, Kalayaan (lit. 'Freedom'), which only saw printing in March 1896. During its existence, revolutionary ideals and works flourished, and Filipino literature was expanded by some of its prominent members.

Existing documents suggest that the Katipunan planned for an armed revolution since its founding, and initially sought for support from Filipino intellectuals. In one such incident, Bonifacio planned a rescue for the deported José Rizal in Dapitan in exchange for his support to the revolution, to which Rizal refused. An attempt to secure firearms from a visiting Japanese warship in May 1896 failed to gain anything. In August that year, Spanish authorities in Manila discovered the organization. Days after, the Katipunan, led by Bonifacio, openly declared war to the Spanish government, starting a three-year long revolution.

Etymology
The name "Katipunan" is a short name for "Kataastaasang, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan" (Supreme and Venerabe Society of the Children of the Nation). The Tagalog word "katipunan" (literally, "association", "gathering", "assemblage", or "group") comes from the root word "tipon", a Tagalog word meaning "gathering" or "to gather".

Formation

The Katipunan was formed in 1892 by Filipino nationalists Deodato Arrellano, Teodoro Plata, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, Andres Bonifacio, and Jose Dizon. It was one of the two groups that was formed after the dissolution of the nascent La Liga Filipina, a nationalist organization formed by Filipino writer Jose Rizal and members of the Propaganda Movement in Spain, following Rizal's arrest and deportation to Dapitan in Mindanao. Most of the Katipunan's early members were also members of the La Liga. However, while the La Liga advocated for a Filipino representation in the Spanish Parliament, Katipunan's goals was for the archipelago to achieve independence through an armed revolution. Its founders saw that any move for Filipino autonomy from within Spain would be suppressed by colonial Spanish authorities. The other group, Cuerpo de Compromisarios, argued for a peaceful reformation instead. While fundamentally different in their views, the Katipunan decided to name Rizal as their honorary president. Rizal's status was so prominent within the organization that "Rizal" was one of the passwords of the group alongside "Gomburza", a trio of Filipino priests executed in Bagumbayan in 1872 the wake of the Cavite mutiny.

Modern historical consensus generally place Katipunan's formation on the night of July 7, 1892, following Rizal's arrest. It was formed in secrecy on a house in Azcarraga Street (now Recto Avenue) in San Nicolas, Manila. However, it may have been formed on paper as early as January of the same year based on recent documents discovered in the 21st century.

The organization was originally formed as a secret society following freemasonic practices such as its initiation rites and its organizational structure. This may come from the fact that many of its early members were freemasons themselves. While not directly involved in the organization, prominent Filipino freemason Marcelo H. del Pilar may have influenced the group. Del Pilar is also said to have approved the Katipunan's statutes. Filipino historian Epifanio de los Santos, in the 1920s, noted, "It is very correctly stated that Andrés Bonifacio ordered Teodoro Plata to draw up the statutes of the Katipunan, and that he did this with the aid of Ladislao Diwa and Valentín Diaz. After the statutes had been discussed, Bonifacio, with the concurrence of Deodato Arellano, submitted them to Marcelo H. del Pilar for approval. Upon the latter’s letter approving the statutes, Bonifacio used the same for the purpose of gaining adepts."

Administration
The Katipunan was governed by the Supreme Council (Tagalog: Kataas-taasang Sanggunian). The first Supreme Council of the Katipunan was formed around August 1892, a month after the founding of the society. The Supreme Council was headed by an elected president (pangulo), followed by the secretary/secretaries (kalihim), the treasurer (tagaingat-yaman) and the fiscal (tagausig). The Supreme Council also had its councilors (kasangguni); the number varied through presidencies. To distinguish from presidents of lower sanggunian or councils (below), the president of the Supreme Council was called the Supreme President (Tagalog: Kataas-taasang Pangulo; Spanish: Presidente Supremo).

At the outbreak of the 1896 Revolution, the council was further reorganized into a 'cabinet' which the Katipunan regarded as a genuine revolutionary government, de facto and de jure.

In each province where there were Katipunan members, a provincial council called Sangguniang Bayan was established and in each town was an organized popular council called Sangguniang Balangay. Each bayan and balangay had its own set of elected officials: pangulo (president); kalihim (secretary); tagausig (fiscal); tagaingat-yaman (treasurer); pangalawang pangulo (vice president); pangalawang kalihim (vice secretary); mga kasangguni (councilors); mabalasig (terrible brother); taliba (guard); maniningil (collector/auditor); tagapamahala ng basahan ng bayan (custodian of the people's library); tagapangasiwa (administrator); manunulat (clerk); tagatulong sa pagsulat (assistant clerk); tagalaan (warden) and tagalibot (patroller). Each balangay was given a chance to expand their own spheres of influence through the triangle system in order to elevate their status to Sangguniang Bayan. Every balangay that did not gain Sangguniang Bayan status were dissolved and annexed by greater provincial or popular councils.

The towns/cities which supported the Katipunan cause were given symbolic names, such as Magdiwang (to celebrate) for Noveleta; Magdalo (to come) for Kawit; Magwagi (to win) for Naic; Magtagumpay (to succeed) for Maragondon; Walangtinag (never-diminished) for Indang and Haligue (wall) for Imus–all are in the province of Cavite.

Within the society functioned a secret chamber, called Camara Reina, which was presided over by Bonifacio, Jacinto and Pío Valenzuela. This mysterious chamber passed judgment upon those who had betrayed their oath and those accused of certain offenses penalized by Katipunan laws. Every katipunero stood in fearful awe of this chamber. According to José P. Santos, throughout the existence of the secret chamber, about five katipuneros were convicted and sentenced to die by it. The death sentence was handed down in the figure of a cup with a serpent coiled around it.

History of administration
In 1892, after the Katipunan was founded, the members of the Supreme Council consisted of Arellano as president, Bonifacio as comptroller, Diwa as fiscal, Plata as secretary and Díaz as treasurer.

In 1893, the Supreme Council comprised Ramón Basa as president, Bonifacio as fiscal, José Turiano Santiago as secretary, Vicente Molina as treasurer and Restituto Javier, Briccio Pantas, Teodoro Gonzales. Gonzales, Plata and Diwa were councilors. It was during Basa's term that the society organized a women's auxiliary section. Two of its initial members were Gregoria de Jesús, whom Bonifacio had just married, and Marina Dizon, daughter of José Dizon. It was also in 1893 when Basa and Diwa organized the provincial council of Cavite, which would later be the most successful council of the society.

The Filipino scholar Maximo Kalaw reports that Basa yielded the presidency to Bonifacio in 1894 because of a dispute over the usefulness of the initiation rites and Bonifacio's handling of the society's funds. Basa contested Bonifacio's practice of lending their funds to needy members, complete with promissory notes. Moreover, Basa refused to induct his son into the organization.

It was also in 1894 when Emilio Jacinto, a nephew of Dizon who was studying law at the University of Santo Tomas, joined the Katipunan. He intellectualized the society's aims and formulated the principles of the society as embodied in its primer, called Kartilla. It was written in Tagalog and all recruits were required to commit it to heart before they were initiated. Jacinto would later be called the Brains of the Katipunan.

At the same time, Jacinto also edited Kalayaan (Freedom), the society's official organ, but only one edition of the paper was issued; a second was prepared but never printed due to the discovery of the society. Kalayaan was published through the printing press of the Spanish newspaper Diario de Manila. This printing press and its workers would later play an important role in the outbreak of the revolution.

In 1895, José Turiano Santiago, a close personal friend of Bonifacio, was expelled because a coded message of the Katipunan fell into the hands of a Spanish priest teaching at the University of Santo Tomas. Since the priest was a friend of Santiago's sister, he and his half-brother Restituto Javier were suspected of betrayal, but the two would remain loyal to the Katipunan and Santiago would even join the Philippine revolutionary forces in the Philippine–American War. Jacinto replaced Santiago as secretary.

In early 1895, Bonifacio called for a meeting of the society and deposed Basa in an election that installed Bonifacio as president, Jacinto as fiscal, Santiago as secretary, Molina as secretary, Pío Valenzuela and Pantaleon Torres as physicians and Aguedo del Rosario and Doreteo Trinidad as councilors.

On December 31, 1895, another election named Bonifacio as president, Jacinto as fiscal, Santiago as secretary, Molina as secretary, Pío Valenzuela and Pantaleon Torres as physicians and Aguedo del Rosario and Doreteo Trinidad as councilors.

The members of the Supreme Council in 1895 were Bonifacio as president, Valenzuela as fiscal and physician, Jacinto as secretary and Molina as treasurer. Enrico Pacheco, Pantaleon Torres, Balbino Florentino, Francisco Carreón and Hermenegildo Reyes were named councilors.

Eight months later, in August 1896, the fifth and last supreme council was elected to rename offices. Bonifacio was named President, Jacinto as Secretary of State, Plata as Secretary of War, Bricco Pantas as Secretary of Justice, Aguedo del Rosario as Secretary of the Interior and Enrico Pacheco as Secretary of Finance.

Members
Over the next four years, the Katipunan founders would recruit new members. By the time the society was uncovered, the American writer James Le Roy estimated the strength of the Katipunan at 100,000 to 400,000 members. Historian Teodoro Agoncillo estimated that the membership had increased to around 30,000 by 1896. The Ilocano writer Isabelo de los Reyes estimated membership at 15,000 to 50,000.

Aside from Manila, the Katipunan also had sizeable chapters in Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, Rizal, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija. There were also smaller chapters in Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan and the Bicol region. The Katipunan founders spent their free time recruiting members. For example, Diwa, who was a clerk at a judicial court, was assigned to the office of a justice of the peace in Pampanga. He initiated members in that province as well as Bulacan, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija. Most of the Katipuneros were plebeian although several wealthy patriots joined the society and submitted themselves to the leadership of Bonifacio.

Katipunero (plural, mga Katipunero) is the demonym of a male member of the Katipunan. Katipunera (plural, mga Katipunera) refers to female members.

Triangle system and grades
It was the original plan of Bonifacio to increase the membership of the Katipunan by means of sistemang patatsulok or triangle system. He formed his first triangle with his two comrades, Teodoro Plata and Ladislao Diwa. Each of them re-instituted Katipunan thoughts into another two new converts. The founder of the triangle knew the other two members, but the latter did not know each other. In December 1892 the system was abolished after proving it to be clumsy and complicated. A new system of initiation, modelled after the Masonic rites was then adopted.

When the Katipuneros had expanded to more than a hundred members, Bonifacio divided the members into three grades: the Katipon (literally: Associate) which is the lowest rank, the Kawal (soldier), and the Bayani (Hero or Patriot). In the meeting of the society, Katipon wore a black hood with a triangle of white ribbon having the letters "Z. Ll. B.", corresponding to the roman "A. N. B.", meaning Anak ng̃ Bayan (Son of the People, see below). Kawal wore a green hood with a triangle having white lines and the letters "Z. LL. B." at the three angles of the triangle, and also wore a green ribbon with a medal with the letter (ka) in Baybayin script above a depiction of a crossed sword and flag. The password was Gom-Bur-Za, taken from the names of the three martyrs Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora. Bayani (Hero) wore a red mask and a sash with green borders, symbolizing courage and hope. The front of the mask had white borders that formed a triangle with three Ks arranged as if occupying the angles of a triangle within a triangle, and with the letters "Z. Ll. B." below. Another password was Rizal. Countersigns enabled members to recognize one another on the street. A member meeting another member placed the palm of his right hand on his breast and, as he passed the other member, he closed the hands to bring the right index finger and thumb together.

Color designations:
 * Katipon. First-degree members. Other symbols: Black hood, revolver and/or bolo.
 * Kawal. Second-degree members. Other symbols: green ribboned-medallion with Malayan K inscription.
 * Bayani. Third degree members. Other symbols: Red hood and sash, with green borders.

Katipon could graduate to Kawal class by bringing several new members into the society. A Kawal could become a Bayani upon being elected an officer of the society.

Membership
Any person who wished to join the Katipunan was subjected to certain initiation rites, resembling those of Masonic rites, to test his courage, patriotism and loyalty. New recruits underwent the initiation rite three at a time so that no member knew more than two other members of the society. The neophyte was first blindfolded and then led into a dimly lighted room with black curtains where his folded cloth was removed from his eyes. An admonition, in Tagalog, was posted at the entrance to the room:

Inside the candle-lit room, they would be brought to a table adorned with a skull and a bolo. There, they would condemn the abuses of the Spanish government and vow to fight colonial oppression:

"1. Anó ang kalagayan nitóng Katagalugan noóng unang panahón? (In what condition did the Spaniards find the Tagalog land when they came?)
 * (Expected answer) 'When the Spaniards came to the Philippine shores on March 16, 1521, the Filipinos were already in a civilized state. They had freedom of government; they had artillery; they had silk dresses; they had carried on commerce with neighboring countries in Asia; they had their own religion and their own script. In short, they had liberty and independence.'

2. Anó ang kalagayan sa ngayón? (In what condition do they find themselves now?)
 * (Expected answer) 'The friars have not really civilized the Filipinos, since enlightenment was contrary to the friars' interests. The Filipinos (called Tagalogs by the Katipunan) were merely superficially taught formulas of Catechism for which they eventually paid numerous costly fiestas for the benefit of the friars.'

3. Anó ang magiging kalagayan sa daratíng na panahón? (What hopes do they have for the future?)
 * (Expected answer) 'With faith, valor, and perseverance, these evils will be remedied.'"

During Bonifacio's time, all of the Filipino people are referred collectively by the Katipunan as Tagalogs, while the Philippines is referred to as the Katagalugan.

The next step in the initiation ceremony was the lecture given by the master of ceremonies, called Mabalasig/Mabalasik (terrible brother), who informed the neophyte to withdraw if he lacked courage since he would be out of place in the patriotic society. If the neophyte persisted, he was presented to the assembly of the brethren, who subjected him to various ordeals such as blindfolding him and making him shoot a supposedly a revolver at a person, or forcing him to jump over a supposedly hot flame. After the ordeals came to final rite—the pacto de sangre or blood compact—in which the neophyte signed the following oath with the blood taken from his arm:

"Ako'y si ______________, Nanunumpa sa ngalan ng Dios at ng bayan na ipagtatanggol nang buong katapangan ang mga kadahilanan ng K.K.K. ng mga A. ng B., ingatan ang kaniyang lihim na mamasdan at mapakinggan, sundin siya ng pikit -mata, saklolohan ang lahat na mga kasama sa lahat na panganib at pagkakailangan nila, Nanunumpa at nangangako rin naman ako na mag-pitagan sa kanilang mga Pinuno, huag na magtaksil sa kanilang mga kautusan at bilin at tatalaan kong aking dugo na kusang ibububo dito sa kasulatang hinaharap."

"I,_______________, swear in the name of God and to the country to defend the cause of the K.K.K. of the A. of B., with all my courage, to keep secret whatever I witness and hear, to follow orders blindly, and to support all my brethren against every danger and exigency. I also swear and pledge to respect the leaders, not to betray them, their orders of instructions, and so I attest with my blood, which is shed here in this document."

He was then accepted as a full-fledged member, with a symbolic name by which he was known within Katipunan circles. Bonifacio's symbolic name was Maypagasa; Jacinto was Pingkian and Artemio Ricarte was Vibora.

Admission of women to the society
At first, Katipunan was purely a patriotic society for men. Owing to the growing suspicion of the women regarding nocturnal absences of their husbands, the reduction of their monthly earnings and "long hours of work", Bonifacio had to bring them into the realms of the KKK. A section for women was established in the society: to become admitted, one must be a wife, a daughter, or a sister of a male katipunero. It was estimated that from 20 to 50 women had become members of the society.

The first woman to become a member of the Katipunan was Gregoria de Jesús, wife of Bonifacio. Her codename was Lakambini (Princess). Initially, there were 29 women were admitted to the Katipunan: Gregoria de Jesús, Marina Dizon, president of the women's section; Josefa and Trinidad Rizal, sisters of Dr. José Rizal; Angelica Lopez and Delfina Herbosa Natividad, close relatives of Dr. Rizal; Carmén de Rodriguez; Marina Hizon; Benita Rodriguez; Semiona de Rémigio; Gregoria Montoya; Agueda Kahabagan, Teresa Magbanua, Trinidad Tecson, rendered as "Mother of Biak-na-Bato"; Nazaria Lagos; Patrocinio Gamboa; Marcela Agoncillo; Melchora Aquino, the "Grand Old Woman of Balintawak"; Marta Saldaña and Macaria Pañgilinan.

The women rendered valuable services to the Katipunan. They guarded the secret papers and documents of the society. Whenever the Katipunan held sessions in a certain house, they usually made merry, singing and dancing with some of the men in the living room so that the civil guard were led that there was nothing but a harmless social party within.

Though women are considered to be members of the Katipunan, information regarding the women's section were scarce and sometimes conflicting. Teodoro Agoncillo, for example, disregarded Marina Dizon and concluded that Josefa Rizal was the only president of the said section. Gregorio Zaide, on the other hand, mentioned Dizon's presidency in his 1939 publication History of the Katipunan but changed his mind when he adopted Dr. Pío Valenzuela's notion that women-members did not elect officers, hence there is no room for president.

Foreign members of the Katipunan
Attracted by the universal appeal of the Katipunan's Kartilya, several members who were not native Filipinos joined the Katipunan or, later, the Philippine Revolutionary Army (PRA) in the spirit of national liberation. Among the foreign-born Katipuneros were General Juan Cailles, a half Indian (From India) and French mestizo; General Jose Ignacio Paua, a full-blooded Chinese; African-American PRA Captain David Fagen who defected from the Americans to join the Filipinos due to his disgust of racism and imperialism; Captain Camillo Richairdi, an Italian who joined the rebel Filipinos; and Vicente Catalan, a Cuban Criollo captain who became the first Admiral of the Philippine Navy. A large number of former Latin-American officers in the Spanish army from Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Costa Rica were dismissed in the context of the Andres Novales uprising, one of the precursors of the Philippine revolution. These Latin-American-born officers moved to the Philippines to serve in the military and allied with the revolutionaries. There were also several Spanish and American defectors to the Philippine side during the Philippine War of Independence and the Philippine–American War. To add to these were the Japanese militants supporting the Katipunan and the First Republic among which include Lieutenant Saburo Nakamori and Captain Chizuno Iwamoto who served on President Emilio Aguinaldo's staff. Nevertheless, there was friction between the Masons from the United States and France against the Masonic associated Katipunan as the first President of the United States, George Washington was once a Mason, but the nascent First Philippine Republic which the Katipunan founded went to war against the same Masonic-led United States in the Philippine-American War, and furthermore, the treaty which sealed the American invasion of the Philippines was concluded in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Revolution and the Philippine-American war caused many deaths but eventually, America granted the Philippines Independence after World War 2.

Notable Katipuneros

 * Andres Bonifacio (1863–1897) – The leading founder and the third Supreme President (Kataas-taasang Pangulo, Presidente Supremo) of the Katipunan, later taking the title Pangulo ng Haring Bayang Katagalugan (President of the Sovereign Tagalog Nation; "Haring Bayan" was also translated as Republic, i.e. Republika ng Katagalugan) upon the start of the revolution.
 * Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964) – First president of the First Philippine Republic, the Katipunan's successor. He was also a war general and one of the officers of the Magdalo chapter that led to a lot of notable victories for the Katipunan against Spain. During his presidency, he ordered the arrest and eventual execution of Andrés and Procopio Bonifacio in 1897 after the trial.
 * Emilio Jacinto (1875–1899) – called as the Brains of the Katipunan. He wrote several papers during the Revolution like the Kartilya (Primer).
 * Mariano Álvarez (1818–1924) – the President of the Magdiwang chapter and a war general he was also Oriang's uncle.
 * Baldomero Aguinaldo (1818–1924) – the President of the Magdalo chapter and a war general he was also Emilio Aguinaldo's first cousin.
 * Gregoria de Jesús (1875–1943) – called as the Lakambini ng Katipunan (Muse of the Katipunan) and nicknamed Aling Oryang, she was the wife of Bonifacio before marrying Julio Nakpil after the former's death. She was also regarded as one of the first women members of the Katipunan.
 * Gregorio del Pilar (1875–1899) – entered the Katipunan circle fighting against the Spanish and later the First Philippine Republic's army against the Americans. He died during the Battle of Tirad Pass.
 * Pio del Pilar (1860–1931) – the leader of the Matagumpay chapter, one of the closest officers of Andrés Bonifacio. Despite this, as the new revolutionary government was established, he was one of the officers who advised Aguinaldo to reverse his commutation (to banishment) of the death sentences given to Andrés and Procopio Bonifacio.
 * Licerio Gerónimo (1855–1924) – Aguinaldo's war general during Philippine–American War.
 * Vicente Lukbán (1860–1916) – Americans regarded him to be the mastermind of the bloody Balangiga massacre in 1901 during Philippine–American War.
 * Miguel Malvar y Carpio (1865–1911) – commander of the Katipunan and became a general of the First Philippine Republic.
 * Macario Sakay (1878–1907) – head of Katipunan in Trozo, Manila. Future founder or rather reviver of the Republika ng Katagalugan (the concept and name dating back to Bonifacio) that would oppose American occupation in the Philippines.
 * Paciano Rizal (1851–1930) – The older brother of national hero José Rizal, he was also a personal friend of Padre José Burgos in his youth. He joined the Katipunan years before Jose's return from Dapitan.
 * Manuel Tinio (1877–1924) – youngest general of the Katipunan and the First Philippine Republic, he later became the governor of Nueva Ecija from 1907 to 1909.
 * Aurelio Tolentino (1869–1915) – was a Filipino playwright, poet, journalist, and revolutionary. He wrote and directed the anti-imperialist play Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow), which led to his arrest in 1903.
 * Julián Felipe (1861–1944) – composer of Lupang Hinirang, teacher and member of La Liga Filipina, he later served as legal advisor to the Katipunan. His tenacious ability in argumentative reasoning earned him the nickname "demente viejo" among the colonial Principalía. In Manila, Julian ran a private law school which many of his personal socio-political ideals succeeded to his students. Notable Katipuneros under his tutelage was Gregorio Aglipay and Miguel Malvar.

Written works
During the Katipunan's existence, literature flourished through prominent writers of the Katipunan: Andrés Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto and Dr. Pío Valenzuela. Each of the three's works stirred patriotism and are aimed to spread the revolutionary thoughts and ideals of the society.
 * Bonifacio works. Probably one of the best works done inside the Katipunan was written by Andrés Bonifacio, Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love for the Homeland). It is a poem of sincere patriotic sentiment. Pag-ibig was published in the January 1896 issue of Kalayaan by Bonifacio under his pen name Agapito Bagumbayan. According to Manuel Artigas y Cuerva, the name Agapito Bagumbayan was a corruption of agap-ito, bagum-bayan, which, if translated from Tagalog to English word by word, means "the new nation is here and ready". There is no known original source of Pag-ibig, especially that there is no surviving Kalayaan issue. The two available texts accessible reprinted through books is the one published by Jose P. Santos in 1935. The other one, with familiar discrepancies to Santos' print, was archived in the military annals of Madrid.
 * After Rizal's execution at Bagumbayan on December 30, 1896, Bonifacio wrote the first Tagalog translation of the former's Mi último adiós (Final Farewell), in which he gave the name Pahimakas (Farewell). He also wrote the prose Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Z. Ll. B. (Duties of the Sons of the People), that was never published because he believed that Jacinto's Kartilya was superior than his. Bonifacio also wrote Ang Dapat Mabatid ng Mga Tagalog (What the Tagalogs Should Know), which is a politic-historical essay.

 * Jacinto works. Emilio Jacinto is considered as the Brains of the Katipunan, later of the Revolution. His poetical masterpiece, written in Laguna on October 8, 1897, was A la Patría (To My Fatherland), with an inspiring melody paralleled from Rizal's Mi último adiós. He also wrote a touching ode entitled A mí Madre (To My Mother). His masterpiece in prose, the Kartilya (Primer; see below), became the Bible of the Katipunan. His other prose writing was Liwanag at Dilim (Light and Darkness), a series of articles on human rights, liberty, equality, labor, government, and love of country. His pen name was Dimas-Ilaw.
 * Valenzuela works. Dr. Pío Valenzuela was a medical doctor by profession. In 1896, during the first publication of Kalayaan, Valenzuela assisted Bonifacio and Jacinto in editing the newspaper. He also wrote Catuiran? (Is it Fair?), which described the cruelties of the Spanish priest and civil guards of San Francisco del Monte (now in Quezon City) on a helpless village lieutenant. He also collaborated with Bonifacio in writing the article Sa Mga Kababayan (To my Countrymen), an essay addressing the people of the Philippines. His pen name was Madlang-Away.
 * During the infamous Cry of Balintawak, Valenzuela held the position of physician-general of the Katipunan.

Kalayaan
Kalayaan (Liberty/Freedom) was the official organ and newspaper of the Katipunan. It was first published March 1896 (even though its masthead was dated January 1896.) The first Kalayaan issue has never been followed.

In 1895, the Katipunan bought an old hand-press with the money generously donated by two Visayan co-patriots Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban–who returned to the country after working as shell and pearl divers in Australia and had some money from a lottery win. They bought the press and a small quantity of types from Antonio Salazar's "Bazar del Cisne" on Calle Carriedo, and Del Castillo transported it to the house of Andrés Bonifacio in Santa Cruz, Manila. On January 1, 1896, Valenzuela accepted the position as the Katipunan "fiscal" in exchange of Bonifacio's consent to send the printing press on his house in Calle de Lavezares, San Nicolas, Manila, "so that he could assist and edit a monthly publication which would be the Katipunan's main organ". Bonifacio agreed, and on mid-January, the press was delivered in San Nicolas.

The name Kalayaan was suggested by Dr. Pío Valenzuela, which was agreed both by Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto. Even though Valenzuela was chosen to become the editor of the organ, they all decided to use the name of Marcelo H. del Pilar as its editor. To fool the Spanish authorities, the Kalayaan was also decided to carry a false masthead stating that it was being printed in Yokohama, Japan.

That very same month, January 1896, the publication of Kalayaan began. Valenzuela expected to complete it by the end of the month and so it was dated as such. The existence of the press was kept in utmost secrecy. Under the supervision of Valenzuela, two printers, Faustino Duque, a student from Colegio de San Juan de Letran, and Ulpiano Fernández, a part-time printer at El Comercio, printed the revolutionary literature of the society and Kalayaan.

When Valenzuela was appointed the physician-general of the Katipunan, he passed on his editorial duties to Jacinto. Jacinto edited the articles after his pre-law classes in University of Santo Tomas. Since the press was in the old orthography and not in the new "Germanized" alphabet, as called by the Spaniards, there were no Tagalog letters such as "k", "w", "h" and "y". To solve this problem, Jacinto obliged his mother, Josefa Dizon, to buy typefaces that resembled such letters. The typefaces used in its printing were purchased from publisher Isabelo de los Reyes, but many were taken surreptitiously from the presses of the Diario de Manila by Filipino employees who were also members of the Katipunan.

According to Valenzuela, the printing process was so laborious that setting eight pages required two months to complete. For weeks, Jacinto, Duque and Fernández (and sometimes Valenzuela) took turns in preparing the pages of the Kalayaan, which was approximately nine by twelve inches in size.

In March 1896, the first copies of the January 1896 issue were secretly circulated with about 2,000 copies, according to Valenzuela. According to Epifanio de los Santos, only 1,000 copies were printed: 700 were distributed by Bonifacio, 300 by Aguinaldo, and some 100 by Valenzuela himself.

The first issue contained a supposed editorial done by del Pilar, which, in fact, was done by Jacinto himself. It also included Bonifacio's Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Valenzuela's Catuiran? and several works that exposed Spanish abuses and promoted patriotism. Copies spread to nearby Manila provinces, including Cavite, Morong (now Rizal), Kalookan, and Malabon. Surprised by this initial success, Jacinto decided to print a second issue that would contain nothing but his works.

In August 1896, the second issue was prepared. It was during this time that Spanish authorities began to grow wary of anti-government activities and, suspecting the existence of a subversive periodical in circulation (see below), raided the place where Kalayaan was being printed, at No. 6 Clavel Street, San Nicolas, Manila. Fortunately, the printers Duque and Fernández were warned in time, destroyed the incriminating molds and escaped. Therefore, Spanish authorities never found any evidence of the Kalayaan.

Kartilya ng Katipunan
The teachings of the Katipunan were embodied in a document entitled Kartilya ng Katipunan, a pamphlet printed in Tagalog language. Copies of which were distributed among the members of the society.

Kartilya was written by Emilio Jacinto, and later revised by Emilio Aguinaldo. The revised version consists of thirteen teachings (though some sources, such as the one provided by Philippine Centennial Commission, list only twelve ). The term kartilya was derived from Spanish cartilla, which was a primer for grade school students before going to school at that time.

Language and alphabet
According to Filipino writer and historian Hermenegildo Cruz, the official language of the Katipunan is Tagalog, and uses an alphabet nearly similar to Spanish alphabet but has a different meaning and the way it was read was changed. Diacritics were added, to emphasize the existence of ng and mga on Tagalog orthography. The following is an excerpt from Cruz' Kartilyang Makabayan: Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK (Nationalist Primer: Questions and Answers about Andrés Bonifacio and KKK, Manila, 1922):

Presented below is the Katipunan alphabet, when compared to the Spanish alphabet.

Attempt to seek Rizal's support
The night when Governor-General Eulogio Despujol exiled Dr. José Rizal to Dapitan, Katipunan was discovered.

In a secret meeting of the Katipunan by a small creek named Bitukang Manok (later known as Parian Creek, now nearly extinct) near Pasig on May 4, 1896, Bonifacio and his councilors decided to seek the advice of Rizal regarding a decision to revolt. Bonifacio delegated Dr. Pío Valenzuela as the Katipunan's emissary to Dapitan. This was done in order to inform Rizal of Katipunan's plan to launch a revolution and, if possible, a war against Spain. By the end of May 1896, Valenzuela had visited and interviewed Rizal in Dapitan. As cover, Valenzuela was accompanied by a blind man named Raymundo Máta, since Rizal is an ophthalmologist.

Valenzuela arrived in Dapitan on June 21, 1896, where Rizal welcomed him. After supper, Valenzuela told him his real purpose and the necessity of securing Rizal's support. According to Valenzuela, Rizal only answered, "Huwag, huwag! Iya'y makasasama sa bayang Pilipino!" (No, no! That will harm the Filipino nation!)

Rizal objected to Bonifacio's audacious plan to plunge the country into a bloody revolution. He believed it was premature for two reasons:

 * 1) the people are not ready for a massive revolution; and
 * 2) arms and funds must first be collected before raising the cry of revolution.

Because of this notion, Valenzuela made another proposal to Rizal: to rescue him. Rizal disapproved of this plan, because he had given his word of honor to the Spanish authorities, and he did not want to break it. Instead, Rizal advised Valenzuela to persuade wealthy Filipinos, so that they can solicit funds, where he recommended an elite army officer name Antonio Luna to be Katipunan's war general, should a revolution break out. According to Valenzuela's statement to the Spanish authorities, they almost quarreled over the matter and Valenzuela left the following day instead of staying for a month as originally planned.

When Valenzuela returned to Manila and informed the Katipunan of his failure to secure Rizal's sanction. Bonifacio, furious, warned Valenzuela not to tell anyone of Rizal's refusal to support the impending uprising. However, Valenzuela had already spread the word, so that much fund proposals to the society were canceled. Despite Rizal's rejection, the Katipunan was already trying to address its arms supply problem and had taken steps to smuggle in weapons from abroad.

At his trial, Rizal denied that he knew Valenzuela, saying only that he met him first at Dapitan and that he considered him a good friend because of what Valenzuela showed to him and his appreciation of medical tools Valenzuela gave to him. He also said that this was the last time they met.

Attempt to solicit Japan's aid
Despite Rizal's rejection of an armed revolution, Bonifacio continued to plan for an armed conflict with Spain. The Katipunan cast its eyes on Japan, which loomed then as the probable champion of Asian liberties against Western oppression at the time. In May 1896, after Valenzuela's visit to Rizal, a delegation of Katipunan members, headed by Jacinto and Bonifacio, conferred with a visiting Japanese naval officer and captain of a Japanese ship, named Kongo, and the Japanese consul at a Japanese bazaar in Manila. The interpreter, a friend of Valenzuela, was José Moritaro Tagawa who was married to a Filipino woman of Bocaue, Bulacan.

After the usual exchange of courtesies, Jacinto submitted the Katipunan memorial for the Emperor of Japan in which the Filipinos prayed for Japanese aid in their projected revolution, "so that the light of liberty that illuminates Japan may also shed its rays over the Philippines."

It was with good reason that the Katipunan solicited Japan's aid and alliance. Japan had been friendly to the Filipinos since the Spanish colonial era. Many Filipinos who had fled from Spanish persecution had been welcomed there and given full protection of Japanese laws. Bonifacio tried to purchase arms and ammunition from Japan, but failed due to lack of funds and the uncovering of the Katipunan, José Dizon was part of the committee that the Katipunan formed to secure arms from Japan with the connivance of the Japanese ship captain. Three months later, however, the Katipunan was uncovered and Dizon was among the hundreds who were arrested for rebellion.

Discovery
As the Katipunan was busy preparing for the revolt, various denunciations regarding its existence reached the Spanish authorities. On July 5, 1896, Manuél Sityar, a Spanish lieutenant of the Guardia Civil stationed at Pasig, reported to Governor-General Ramón Blanco the mysterious activities of certain natives who had been gathering arms and recruiting men for some unknown purposes. On August 13, 1896, Fr. Agustín Fernández, an Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuél Luengo, the civil governor (mayor) of Manila, denouncing anti-Spanish meetings in his parish.

The Katipunan was finally discovered by the Spanish authorities six days after Fr. Fernández's letter to Luengo. In early August 1896, Teodoro Patiño and Apolonio de la Cruz, both working for the Diario de Manila printing press (leading newspaper during those times) had undergone misunderstanding regarding wages. Press foreman de la Cruz and typesetter Patiño fought over salary increase of two pesos. De la Cruz tried to blame Patiño for the loss of the printing supplies that were used for the printing of Kalayaan. In retaliation, Patiño revealed the secrets of the society to his sister, Honoria Patiño, an inmate nun at the Mandaluyong Orphanage. That afternoon, on August 19, 1896, Honoria grew shocked and very upset of the revelation. The mother portress of the Orphanage, Sor (Sister) Teresa de Jesus saw Honoria crying so she approached her. Honoria told everything she heard from her brother. At around 6:15 pm that day, Sor Teresa called Patiño and advised him to tell everything he knew about the Katipunan through confession to Fr. Mariano Gíl.

Controlled by his fear of hell, Patiño went to Fr. Gíl, an Augustinian parish curate of the Tondo convent. Though he is willed to tell anything about the Katipunan, Patiño confessed that a lithographic stone was hidden in the press room of the Diario de Manila, which was used by the society for printing receipts. He also said that aside from the lithographic stone, there were also documents of membership (that uses member's blood for signing) hidden, together with a picture of Dr. José Rizal and several daggers that was made for the Katipunero-employees of the newspaper.

Alarmed by the stunning truth of the existence of a secret society, Fr. Gíl, accompanied by local Spanish authorities, searched the printing office of Diario de Manila and found the incriminating evidence. They also found de la Cruz in possession of a dagger used in Katipunan initiation rites and some list of newly accepted members. After the arrest, Fr. Gíl rushed to Governor-General Blanco to denounce the revolutionary plot of the Katipunan. The Spanish unleashed a crackdown and arrested dozens of people, where many innocent citizens were forced to go to Fort Santiago.

Patiño's alleged betrayal has become the standard version of how the revolution broke out in 1896. In the 1920s, however, the Philippine National Library commissioned a group of former Katipuneros to confirm the truth of the story. José Turiano Santiago, Bonifacio's close friend who was expelled in 1895, denied the story. He claimed that Bonifacio himself ordered Patiño to divulge the society's existence to hasten the Philippine revolution and preempt any objection from members.

Historian Teodoro Agoncillo gives a differing version of events, writing that Patiño revealed the secrets of the society to his sister, Honoria, following on a misunderstanding with de la Cruz, another society member who worked with him in the Spanish-owned Diario de Manila periodical. Honoria, an orphanage inmate, was upset at the news and informed Sor Teresa, the orphanage madre portera, who suggested that Patiño tell all to Fr. Gíl. On August 19, Patiño told Fr. Gíl what he knew of the secret society. Fr. Gíl and the owner of the Diario de Manila searched the printing shop, discovering the lithographic stone used to print Katipunan receipts. After this discovery, the locker of Policarpio Turla, whose signature appeared on the receipts, was forced open and found to contain a dagger, the rules of the society, and other pertinent documents. These were turned over to the Guardia Civíl, leading to the arrest and conviction on charges of illegal association and treason of some 500 prominent men.

In another version, the existence of the Katipunan became known to the authorities through Patiño, who revealed it to the general manager, La Font. Patiño was engaged in a bitter dispute over pay with de la Cruz and exposed the Katipunan to La Font, in retaliation. La Font led a Spanish police lieutenant to the shop and the desk of de la Cruz, where they "found Katipunan paraphernalia such as a rubber stamp, a little book, ledgers, membership oaths signed in blood, and a membership roster of the Maghiganti chapter of the Katipunan."

Revolution
When the Katipunan leaders learned of the arrests, Bonifacio called an assembly of all provincial councils to decide the start of the armed uprising. The meeting was held at the house of Apolonio Samson at a place called Kangkong in Balintawak. About 1,000 Katipuneros attended the meeting but they were not able to settle the issue.

They met again at another place in Balintawak the following day. Historians are still debating whether this event took place at the yard of Melchora Aquino or at the house of her son Juan Ramos. The meeting took place either on August 23 or August 24. It was at this second meeting where the Katipuneros in attendance decided to start the armed uprising and they tore their cedulas (residence certificates and identity papers) as a sign of their commitment to the revolution. The Katipuneros also agreed to attack Manila on August 29.

But Spanish civil guards discovered the meeting and the first battle occurred with the Battle of Pasong Tamo. While the Katipunan initially had the upper hand, the Spanish civil guards turned the fight around. Bonifacio and his men retreated toward Marikina via Balara (now in Quezon City). They then proceeded to San Mateo (in the province now called Rizal) and took the town. The Spanish, however, regained it three days later. After regrouping, the Katipuneros decided not to attack Manila directly but agreed to take the Spanish powder magazine and garrison at San Juan.

On August 30, the Katipunan attacked the 14 Spanish soldiers (twelve Philippine soldiers and two Spanish officers) defending the powder magazine in the Battle of San Juan del Monte or Battle of Pinaglabanan, who were before noon reinforced by the 73rd "Jolo" Regiment, composed of Filipino soldiers under Spanish officers, under the command of General Bernardo Echaluce y Jauregui. About 153 Katipuneros were killed in the battle, but the Katipunan had to withdraw upon the arrival of Spanish reinforcements. More than 200 were taken prisoners. At about the same time, Katipuneros in other suburban Manila areas, like Caloocan, San Pedro de Tunasan (now Makati), Pateros and Taguig, rose up in arms. In the afternoon of the same day, the Spanish Gov. Gen. Camilo de Polavieja declared martial law in Manila and the provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija. The Philippine Revolution had begun.

In Bulacan, the Bulacan Revolutionary Movement was attacked by the strongest artillery forces ever converged in the capital town of Bulacan. This subsequently led to the Battle of San Rafael, where Gen. Anacleto Enriquez and his men were surrounded and attacked in the Church of San Rafael.

Battle of Kakarong de Sili
Pandi, Bulacan played a vital and historical role in the fight for Philippine independence. Pandi is known for the Réal de Kakarong de Sili Shrine – Inang Filipina Shrine, the site of the bloodiest battle in Bulacan, where more than 3,000 Katipunero revolutionaries died. Likewise, it is on this site where the Republic of Réal de Kakarong de Sili of 1896, one of the first Philippine revolutionary republics, was established.

It was in Kakarong de Sili—which about 6,000 Katipuneros from various towns of Bulacan headed by Brigadier General Eusebio Roque, better known as "Maestrong Sebio" or "Dimabungo" (see list of Filipino generals in the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War)—that the "Kakarong Republic" was organized shortly after the Cry of Pugad Lawin, referred to as the "Cry of Balintawak".

Kakarong Republic
History and researchers, as well as records of the National Historical Commission, tells that the "Kakarong Republic" was the first and truly organized revolutionary government established in the country to overthrow the Spaniards antedating event the famous Malolos Republic and the Biak-na-Bato Republic. In recognition thereof, these three "republics" established in Bulacan have been incorporated in the seal of the province of Bulacan.

According to available records including the biography of General Gregorio del Pilar entitled Life and Death of a Boy General written by Teodoro Kalaw, former director of the National Library of the Philippines, a fort was constructed at "Kakarong de Sili" that was like a miniature city. It had streets, an independent police force, a musical band, a factory of falconets, bolos and repair shops for rifles and cartridges. The 'Kakarong Republic' had a complete set of officials with Canuto Villanueva as Supreme Chief and 'Maestrong Sebio'—Eusebio Roque as Brigadaier General of the Army. The fort was attacked and totally destroyed on January 1, 1897, by a large Spanish force headed by the Commandant Olaguer-Feliu. Del Pilar was only a lieutenant at the time and the Battle of Kakarong de Sili was his "baptism of fire." This was where he was first wounded and escaped to nearby barangay 'Manatal.'

The Kakarong Lodge No. 168 of the 'Legionarios del Trabajo', named in memory of the 1,200 Katipuneros who perished in the battle, erected a monument named the Inang Filipina Shrine – (Mother Philippines Shrine) in 1924 in the barrio of Kakarong of Pandi, Bulacan.

The actual site of the Battle of Kakarong de Sili is now a part of the barangay of Réal de Kakarong. No less than one of the greatest generals in the Philippines' history, General Emilio Aguinaldo who became the first Philippine president visited this sacred ground in the late 1950s.

Spanish response
Even before the discovery of the Katipunan, Rizal applied for a position as a doctor in the Spanish army in Cuba in a bid to persuade the Spanish authorities of his loyalty to Spain. His application was accepted and he arrived in Manila to board a ship for Spain in August 1896, shortly before the secret society was exposed. But while Rizal was en route to Spain, the Katipunan was unmasked and a telegram overtook the steamer at Port Said, recalling him to the Philippines to face charges that he was the mastermind of the uprising. He was later executed by musketry on December 30, 1896, at the field of Bagumbayan (now known as Luneta).

While Rizal was being tried by a military court for treason, the prisoners taken in the Battle of Pinaglabanan—Sancho Valenzuela, Ramón Peralta, Modesto Sarmiento, and Eugenio Silvestre—were executed on September 6, 1896, at Bagumbayan.

Six days later, they also executed the Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite at Fort San Felipe Fort in Cavite.

The Spanish colonial authorities also pressed the prosecution of those who were arrested after the raid on the Diario de Manila printing press, where they found evidence incriminating not only common folk but also wealthy Filipino society leaders.

The Bicol Martyrs were executed by firing squad on January 4, 1897, at Bagumbayan. They were Manuel Abella, Domingo Abella, priests Inocencio Herrera, Gabriel Prieto and Severino Díaz, Camio Jacob, Tomas Prieto, Florencio Lerma, Macario Valentin, Cornelio Mercado and Mariano Melgarejo.

They arrested and seized the properties of prominent businessmen Francisco Roxas, Telesforo Chuidián and Jacinto Limjáp. While there may be circumstantial evidence pointing to Chuidián and Limjáp as financiers of the revolution, the record showed no evidence against Roxas except that he was involved in funding the Propaganda Movement. Even Mariano Ponce, another leader of the Propaganda Movement, said the arrest of Roxas was a "fatal mistake". Nonetheless, Roxas was found guilty of treason and shot on January 11, 1897, at Bagumbayan.

Roxas was executed with Numeriano Adriáno, José Dizon, Domíngo Franco, Moisés Salvadór, Luis Enciso Villaréal, Braulio Rivera, Antonio Salazar, Ramón P. Padilla, Faustino Villaruél and Faustino Mañalac. Also executed with the group were Lt. Benedicto Nijaga and Corporal Gerónimo Cristóbal, both of the Spanish army.

On February 6, 1897, Apolonio de la Cruz, Román Bása, Teodoro Pláta, Vicente Molina, Hermenegildo de los Reyes, José Trinidad, Pedro Nicodemus, Feliciano del Rosario, Gervasio Samson and Doroteo Domínguez were also executed at Bagumbayan.

But the executions, particularly Rizal's, only added fuel to the rebellion, with the Katipuneros shouting battle cries: "Mabuhay ang Katagalugan!" ("Long Live the Tagalog Nation!" – Katagalugan (Tagalog Nation) being the Katipunan term for the Philippines) and "Mabuhay si Dr. José Rizal!" ("Long Live Dr. José Rizal!"). To the Katipuneros, Rizal was the honorary president of the Katipunan.

Schism, transfer of authority and dissolution
In the course of the revolution against Spain, a split developed between the Magdiwang faction (led by Gen. Mariano Álvarez) and the Magdalo faction (led by Gen. Baldomero Aguinaldo, cousin of General Emilio Aguinaldo), both situated in Cavite.

At a convention in Tejeros, Cavite, the revolutionaries assembled to form a revolutionary government. There, on March 22, 1897, it was decided to dissolve the Katipunan and establish a republic. Bonifacio lost his bid for the presidency of the revolutionary government to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was in Pasong Santol, fighting the Spanish forces and instead was elected Secretary of the Interior. When members of the Magdalo faction tried to discredit him as uneducated and unfit for the position, Bonifacio declared the results of the convention as null and void, speaking as the Supremo of the Katipunan. Despite this, Aguinaldo took his oath of office as president the next day in Santa Cruz de Malabon (present-day Tanza) in Cavite, as did the rest of the officers, except for Bonifacio. Bonifacio and a few others issued the Acta de Tejeros, proclaiming the events at the Tejeros Convention to have been "disorderly and tarnished by chicanery.", followed by the Naic Military Agreement characterizing actions at Tejeros to have been treasonous. This led to Andrés Bonifacio and his brother Procopio being arrested due to alleged incidents in Indang and, upon the orders of the Council of War and approved by Gen. Aguinaldo, they were both executed on May 10, 1897, at Mount Buntis in Maragondon, Cavite. He and his brother were buried in an unmarked grave.

The Katipunan revolution led to the eventual establishment of the First Philippine Republic. The Philippine Republic, more commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or the Malolos Republic was a short-lived nascent revolutionary government in the Philippines. It was formally established with the proclamation of the Malolos Constitution on January 23, 1899, in Malolos, Bulacan, and endured until the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo by the American forces on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela, which effectively dissolved the First Republic. The United States eventually destroyed the First Philippine Republic in the Philippine–American War. Afterwards, the Americans exterminated any remaining vestige of the Katipunan.

Published works

 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * At Internet Archive
 * Retana, Wenceslao. Vida y Escritorios de Dr. José Rizal. Madrid: 1907.
 * This book was published by Ricarte himself, includes his memoirs on the Philippine Revolution. A copy resides in the library of University of the Philippines Diliman (see )
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.
 * citing a letter sent to him by Pío Valenzuela dated December 19, 1931.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Katipunan


text:
Olaf Guthfrithson

Olaf Guthfrithson or Anlaf Guthfrithson (Óláfr Guðrøðsson ; ; Amlaíb mac Gofraid; died 941) was a Hiberno-Scandinavian (Irish-Viking) leader who ruled Dublin and Viking Northumbria in the 10th century. He was the son of Gofraid ua Ímair and great-grandson of Ímar, making him one of the Uí Ímair. Olaf succeeded his father as King of Dublin in 934 and succeeded in establishing dominance over the Vikings of Limerick when he captured their king, Amlaíb Cenncairech, in 937. That same year he allied with Constantine II of Scotland in an attempt to reclaim the Kingdom of Northumbria which his father had ruled briefly in 927. The forces of Olaf and Constantine were defeated by the English led by Æthelstan at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937.

Olaf returned to Ireland in 938 but after Æthelstan's death the following year Olaf left for York where he was quickly able to establish himself as king, with his brother Blácaire mac Gofraid being left to rule in Dublin. Olaf and Æthelstan's successor Edmund met in 939 at Leicester where they came to an agreement regarding the division of England between them. This agreement proved short-lived, however, and within a few years Vikings had occupied the Five Boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham and Stamford. Olaf died in 941 and was succeeded in Northumbria by his cousin Olaf Cuaran. At the time of his death, the Irish annals title him "king of Danes" and "king of the Fair Foreigners and the Dark Foreigners".

Biography
Olaf first conclusively appears in contemporary records in 933 when the annals describe him plundering Armagh on 10 November. He is then recorded as allying with Matudán mac Áeda, overking of Ulaid and raiding as far as Sliabh Beagh, where they were met by an army led by Muirchertach mac Néill of Ailech, and lost 240 men in the ensuing battle along with much of their plunder. An earlier reference to a "son of Gofraid" who plundered the monastery at Kildare in 928 might refer to Olaf but no name is given. Olaf's father Gofraid ua Ímair, King of Dublin, died in 934 and Olaf succeeded him as king. The following year Olaf carried out a raid at Lagore crannog in County Meath, and then looted the burial chamber at Knowth the following week.

Olaf is described as "Lord of the Foreigners" by the Annals of the Four Masters in 937, at which time he went to Lough Ree and captured Amlaíb Cenncairech, King of Limerick, and his troops after breaking their boats. This conflict can be ascribed to rivalry between the competing Viking settlements of Dublin and Limerick, with this event marking victory for Dublin. This period is considered to be the high-point of Viking influence in Ireland. Having secured his position in Ireland, Olaf turned his attention to England and Northumbria, which had once been ruled by Olaf's father and had been conquered in 927 by Æthelstan of England. Olaf allied with Constantine II of Scotland, whose kingdom had been invaded by Æthelstan in 934, and in 937, the same year as the victory over Limerick, Olaf and the Vikings of Dublin left for England.

The allied forces of Olaf and Constantine met the forces of Æthelstan at the Battle of Brunanburh, at a site which is the subject of much debate, although current scholarly consensus identifies the site as Bromborough in Cheshire. Olaf and Constantine commanded the Viking troops while Æthelstan alongside his brother Edmund led the English troops into the battle. Contemporary accounts indicate both sides suffered many casualties but the result was a decisive English victory. Olaf and Constantine survived the battle and returned to Ireland and Scotland respectively, but one of Constantine's sons died. The battle is well-attested, with references in Irish chronicles, and a poetic telling of the battle in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The numerous references to it in various chronicles throughout the British Isles testify to its perceived importance at the time.

The annals record Olaf's return to Ireland in 938 as well as a raid he carried out that year on Kilcullen in modern-day County Kildare, where he is said to have taken a thousand prisoners. Æthelstan died in October 939 and very soon afterwards Olaf left for York where he was able to quickly establish himself as king of Northumbria. Olaf was joined in England by his cousin Olaf Cuaran, and Olaf's brother Blácaire was left to rule in Dublin while he was away. Symeon of Durham's Historia Regum records that Olaf and the new English king Edmund met at Leicester in 939 and came to an agreement on dividing England between the two of them. This peace was short-lived and within a few years of the agreement the Vikings had seized the Five Boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham and Stamford. In 941 the Chronicle of Melrose records that Olaf raided an ancient Anglian church at Tyninghame in what is now the East Lothian and at the time was a part of Northumbria. This attack may have been more than just a raid, and may have been intended to secure a route through Scotland upon which communication between York and Dublin was reliant. Olaf died in 941 and he was succeeded in Northumbria by Olaf Cuaran. In recording his death, the annals title him "king of Danes" (Chronicon Scotorum) and "king of the Fair Foreigners and the Dark Foreigners" (Annals of Clonmacnoise).

Burial
In 2005, a skeleton was excavated in an archaeological dig at Auldhame, East Lothian. Grave goods including a belt similar to others known to have been worn in Viking-age Ireland indicate that the skeleton belonged to a high-status individual. The presence of such goods, and the age of the skeleton, has led to speculation among historians and archaeologists that the remains could be those of Olaf. Olaf is known to have conducted raids on Auldhame and Tyninghame shortly before his death in 941. Auldhame and Tyninghame were two of several local churches dedicated to Saint Baldred. According to Alex Woolf, although the skeleton cannot be definitively identified with Olaf, the date and nature of the burial make it very likely the deceased individual died as a consequence of Olaf's attacks in the area in 941. Woolf has also suggested that "there is a strong likelihood that the king’s followers hoped that by burying him in the saint’s cemetery he might have benefitted from some sort of post-mortem penance".

Family
Olaf's father is identifiable as Gofraid, who was king of Dublin between 920 and 934, and also briefly ruled Northumbria in 927. Gofraid was a grandson of Ímar but no patronymic is given in the original sources. This may be because he was a child of a son of Ímar who never ruled Dublin, or he was a child of a daughter of Ímar, which in either case would mean his legitimacy to rule in the eyes of his contemporaries was dependent on the identity of his grandfather, not his parents. Ímar, possibly identical to Ivar the Boneless, was the founder of the Uí Ímair and was one of the earliest kings of Dublin in the mid-ninth century.

Three other individuals are identifiable as sons of Gofraid; Albann, Blácaire and Ragnall. Albann was killed in battle against Muirchertach mac Néill in 926. Blácaire ruled Dublin from 939 onwards, and Ragnall mac Gofraid ruled Northumbria in 943 and 944, probably along with his cousin Olaf Cuaran, until they were driven out by Edmund I of England. John of Worcester, writing in the twelfth century, claimed that Olaf had married a daughter of Constantine II of Scotland prior to 937, but this evidence is considered unreliable. The thirteenth century chronicler Roger of Wendover wrote that Olaf married Aldgyth, the daughter of a Northumbrian earl called Orm as a consequence of the agreement at Leicester between Olaf and King Edmund.

An individual named Cammán mac Amlaíb is identifiable as a son of Olaf. The Annals of Ulster record he was defeated at a place called Dub in 960. Cammán may have been one of the meic Amlaíb (sons of Olaf) who the Annals of the Four Masters mention in 962. According to this account the sons of Olaf and the Ladgmanns (lawmen) came to Ireland and plundered Conaille Muirtheimne and Howth. Afterward the lawmen went to Munster to avenge their brother Oin. They continued the plunder there and were defeated by the Irish in Uí Liatháin where 365 of them died. In the same year an unnamed son of Olaf led a raid from Ireland's Eye on Anglesey and Britain. Cammán may be identical to Sitriuc Cam, an individual who in 962 made a naval attack on Uí Cholgain, but was forced to flee back to ships after a force of Dubliners and Leinstermen overtook him and slaughtered some of his men. An individual named Gofraid mac Amlaíb recorded by the annals as dying in 963 may have been a son of Olaf or he may have been a son of Olaf Cuaran. The Annals of Clonmacnoise list an Ímar, a "son of the king", among the dead at Brunanburh who might be a son of Olaf, although the origin of this list is uncertain.

title: Olaf Guthfrithson


text:
Del Monte Airfield

Del Monte Field (active 1941–1942) was a heavy bomber airfield of the Far East Air Force (FEAF) of the United States Army Air Forces, located on Mindanao in the Philippines. The airfield was located in a meadow of a Del Monte Corporation pineapple plantation.

Overview

Del Monte Airfield was first selected in September 1941 as an emergency landing strip on Mindanao, capable of landing four-engine B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers during the May to October wet season. It was built on a natural meadow on the Del Monte Pineapple Corporation plantation along the Sayre Highway, in the municipality of Maluko (now Manolo Fortich) of Bukidnon Province in northern Mindanao. The población of the rural municipality was nearby. The airfield was established as part of the build-up of United States military forces in the Philippines due to the rising tensions with the Japanese Empire.

November 1941
In mid-November 1941, with the creation of the FEAF, General Douglas MacArthur approved the expansion of Del Monte into a heavy bomber base for the 7th Bombardment Group, projected to arrive in early December. His plans, MacArthur told the Chief of Staff on 29 November, called ultimately for more bomber bases in the Visayas to accommodate three additional groups, but since funds for construction of runways for such bases could not be immediately allocated, he agreed to use the field at Del Monte.

On 21 November Col. Harold H. George, acting in place of FEAF commander Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton while he was in Australia trying to arrange support bases for his air force, sent the newly arrived 5th Air Base Group to Del Monte in two inter-island steamers to hurry construction. Work on the field was rushed and by 5 December it was able to accommodate heavy bombers.

Two runways were built: No. 1 (main runway) and No. 2 (pursuit). A golf course was used as a third auxiliary strip. Additional dispersal airstrips were built over the next few months at Dalirig near Del Monte, Malaybalay, Maramag, and Valencia.

On the morning of 4 December, after the only operational FEAF radar site detected Japanese weather reconnaissance flights on several successive nights, MacArthur's headquarters ordered the 19th BG to be moved out of range of direct attack. However Brereton decided to send only half of the 35 B-17s at Clark Field to Del Monte because the latter could accommodate only six squadrons and the 7th BG was expected to arrive soon.

Orders were issued on 5 December to move the 16 B-17s of the 14th and 93d Bombardment Squadrons from Clark to Del Monte. Since there were no barracks built at Del Monte yet, and intending to remain only 72 hours, the bombers were filled with tents, cots, blankets and rations. The men also took only what they needed, some toiletries and a few changes of uniform. The aircraft flew down singly on the night of 5–6 December, circling at the end of their 4-hour flight before being permitted to land at dawn (5 December in the United States) at Del Monte No. 1, just completed the day before. Materiel to support the arrival of the 7th BG was not scheduled to leave Luzon until 10 December.

Battle of the Philippines
On 8 December, the initial Japanese attack on Clark Field caught most of the remainder of the 19th Bombardment Group on the ground and the majority of the aircraft were destroyed by the bomber and fighter sweeps on the field. In the ensuing Battle of the Philippines (1942) and after the destruction of Clark and Nichols Fields on Luzon in the first days of the war, the Japanese flew extensive reconnaissance missions in an effort to discover the remaining American aircraft in the Philippines. They had been unable to find the Del Monte field, but it was only a question of time before this last haven would be discovered and destroyed as were the airfields on Luzon. Moreover, it was becoming increasingly difficult to service the B-17s with the inadequate facilities at Del Monte. There were no spare parts, engines, or propellers for the B-17s in the Philippines; damaged B-17s had to be cannibalized to keep the bombers flying. The only tools were those in the possession of the crews. The men who worked on the planes all night often got no rest the next day because of air alerts. On some days the heavy bombers had to remain aloft during the daylight hours to avoid destruction on the ground. They dodged back and forth between Mindanao and Luzon, playing a game of hide-and-seek that wore out men as well as planes.

B-17s flying from Del Monte Airfield became the first United States aircraft to engage in offensive action against the Japanese. On December 14, 1941, the American Army Air Forces reacted to the Japanese invasion of the Philippines at Legaspi, Luzon by sending 3 of a group of 6 Del Monte-based B-17s, ordered to attack the landing force. They attacked a Japanese minesweeper and a transport, thought to be a destroyer, with meager results, and 9 naval aircraft based on the Legaspi strip. The unescorted bombers were no match for the Japanese fighters and soon beat a hasty retreat. Only one of the B-17s was able to make its way back to Del Monte; the others had to crash-land short of their base. The Japanese lost at most 4 fighters.

Under these conditions, it was evident that the remaining heavy bombers could not operate efficiently in the Philippines. General Brereton therefore requested authority on December 15 to move the B-17s to Darwin in northwest Australia, 1,500 miles away, where they could be based safely and serviced properly. His intention was to operate from fields near Darwin, using Del Monte as an advance base from which to strike enemy targets in the Philippines. The planes were immediately prepared for the long flight southward, and on December 15 the first group of B-17s left Del Monte airfield. By the following evening ten of the bombers had reached Batchelor Field outside Darwin. They had left Mindanao none too soon, as the complex of airfields was discovered by the Japanese on December 18, 1941 and attacked the following day by Japanese planes based on the carrier Ryujo.

On December 22, 1941, 9 B-17's from Batchelor Field near Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, attacked shipping in Davao Bay, Mindanao Island and landed at Del Monte. The next day 4 B-17s took off from Del Monte after midnight and bombed enemy shipping in Lingayen Gulf. On the 24th, 3 B-17's based at Del Monte bombed the airfield and shipping at Davao on the southeast coast of Mindanao before flying to Australia.

On March 16, 1942, Del Monte was later used to evacuate General MacArthur, his family and senior staff from the Philippines, leaving before midnight. The evacuation party had arrived by PT boat from Corregidor and on March 16, four B-17 Flying Fortresses from Australia flew up to Del Monte: B-17E 41-2408, B-17E 41-2429, B-17E 41-2434 and B-17E 41-2447 and evacuated them to Batchelor Field, arriving on the 17th.

On Thursday, March 26, 1942, Del Monte was again used to evacuate Philippine President, Manuel Quezon, his family, doctors, chaplain, and senior staff. Two B-17's had flown up from Australia and arrived at 8:45pm and departed again at 11pm for Australia.

On April 8, 1942, the air echelons of the 24th Pursuit Group along with the remaining Army Air Corps flying operations in the Philippines were withdrawn from Luzon and transferred to Del Monte with whatever aircraft were left to carry on the fight.

In April 1942, a group of 7 B-25s and 3 B-17s from Australia returned to Del Monte for the Royce Mission, to attack the Japanese on three bombing missions. On April 12, B-25s hit the harbor and shipping at Cebu, Cebu Island while B-17s carried out single-bomber strikes against Cebu harbor and Nichols Field on Luzon. On 13 April B-25s hit targets in the Philippines for the second consecutive day. The B-25s took off just after midnight and bombed shipping at Cebu on Cebu Island and installations at Davao on Mindanao. Later in the day the B-25s again attacked Davao, bombing the dock area.

The advancing Japanese forced their return to Australia. In addition to the raids, they brought out a number of important military and diplomatic personnel who had gathered at Del Monte to await evacuation. The last of the 24th Pursuit Group's aircraft were captured or destroyed by enemy forces on or about May 1, 1942 when the airfield was abandoned by the United States, leaving its facilities to the Japanese invaders.

Del Monte Airfield today
The complex was not used by the United States or Philippine Commonwealth armed forces during the Philippines Campaign (1944–45), and the airfields were returned to the Del Monte Pineapple Corporation.

MacArthur evacuation memorial at the site of the Del Monte Field, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon, Philippines,

The present-day airstrip of the Del Monte company, built for their light aircraft, is about two miles south of the wartime airfield. Both #1 (Main) and #2 (Fighter) fields have become rice paddies and cornfields, a dirt road being the only trace of their wartime purpose. As of October 2013, The Del Monte Airfield is closed to general aviation, but ultralight aircraft, paramotor aircraft from paramotor flying school of Kampo Juan eco resort, and radio controlled aircraft enthusiasts from nearby Cagayan de Oro city use the airfield with the approval of the Del Monte management.

The Gen. Douglas MacArthur Landmark was erected by the Rotary Club of Northern Bukidnon in Barangay Dicklum to mark the site of Del Monte Field.

title: Del Monte Airfield


text:
Talk:Olaf Guthfrithson

Untitled
references moved to the article page... Tbarron

Naming
Hi - While I'm happy to see the Irish rendering of this guy's name, I'm a little taken aback, because I've never seen it before, and in books I've seen he would be either Anlaf or Olaf Guthfrithson or Guthricsson. Now of course there weren't any set spellings for any of these names, but it is possible we can have a set of alternatives, not too long, in the header somewhere so we can be sure what we're talking about and be able to relate this to stuff we might read off Wikipedia? I know how touchy a subject this can be for people - am not bothered about which one is chosen for the article name, just want fellow readers not to be scratching their heads when they arrive. This goes for this guy's relatives too. Cheers. Stevebritgimp (talk) 21:02, 11 December 2009 (UTC)

 * There is a discussion regarding this article's title at Talk:Olaf Guthfrithson. Ben   Mac  Dui  07:59, 16 August 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Olaf Guthfrithson


text:
Talk:Diet

Diet as food?
Can someone put much more to diet (as food)? or shound't we? -- Taku Lol

Diet Coke
Does Diet Coke "Aid in dieting"? Funny Americans! ummmmm how —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.195.56.156 (talk • contribs)
 * Diet Coke is low calorie, low carb, and sugar-free. I prefer water or tea for all those conditions, but some people like carbonated drinks. --Voidvector 17:35, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

Move
I request a move to diet (disambugation). See the diet (nutrition) talk page for more information. KVDP (talk) 09:54, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

Also, DIET.EXE, a forgotten MS-DOS online compressor.
blah

Spam
This one gets a lot of bot-edits adding dodgy diet websites, probably ought to be semi'd. Herr Gruber (talk) 11:20, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 19 November 2023
I want to edit JahzarraJaniyah (talk) 02:36, 19 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. RudolfRed (talk) 02:47, 19 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Diet


text:
National Diet

The National Diet (国会) is the national legislature of Japan. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives (衆議院, Shūgiin), and an upper house, the House of Councillors (参議院, Sangiin). Both houses are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for nominating the Prime Minister. The Diet was first established as the Imperial Diet in 1890 under the Meiji Constitution, and took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution. Both houses meet in the National Diet Building (国会議事堂) in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.

Composition
The houses of the National Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems. This means that the seats to be filled in any given election are divided into two groups, each elected by a different method; the main difference between the houses is in the sizes of the two groups and how they are elected. Voters are also asked to cast two votes: one for an individual candidate in a constituency, and one for a party list. Any national of Japan at least 18 years of age may vote in these elections, reduced from age 20 in 2016. Japan's parallel voting system is not to be confused with the Additional Member System used in many other nations. The Constitution of Japan does not specify the number of members of each house of the Diet, the voting system, or the necessary qualifications of those who may vote or be returned in parliamentary elections, thus allowing all of these things to be determined by law. However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot. It also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income".

Generally, the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet. This is a source of contention concerning re-apportionment of prefectures' seats in response to changes of population distribution. For example, the Liberal Democratic Party had controlled Japan for most of its post-war history, and it gained much of its support from rural areas. During the post-war era, large numbers of people were relocating to the urban centers in the seeking of wealth; though some re-apportionments have been made to the number of each prefecture's assigned seats in the Diet, rural areas generally have more representation than do urban areas. The Supreme Court of Japan began exercising judicial review of apportionment laws following the Kurokawa decision of 1976, invalidating an election in which one district in Hyōgo Prefecture received five times the representation of another district in Osaka Prefecture. In recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4.8 in the House of Councillors (census 2005: Ōsaka/Tottori; election 2007: Kanagawa/Tottori ) and 2.3 in the House of Representatives (election 2009: Chiba 4/Kōchi 3).

Candidates for the lower house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house. All candidates must be Japanese nationals. Under Article 49 of Japan's Constitution, Diet members are paid about ¥1.3 million a month in salary. Each lawmaker is entitled to employ three secretaries with taxpayer funds, free Shinkansen tickets, and four round-trip airplane tickets a month to enable them to travel back and forth to their home districts.

Powers
Article 41 of the Constitution describes the National Diet as "the highest organ of State power" and "the sole law-making organ of the State". This statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution, which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet. The Diet's responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the annual national budget that the government submits and the ratification of treaties. It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, must be presented to the people in a referendum. The Diet may conduct "investigations in relation to government" (Article 62).

The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution, establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies (Article 67). The government can also be dissolved by the Diet if the House of Representatives passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives. Government officials, including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members, are required to appear before Diet investigative committees and answer inquiries. The Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct.

In most circumstances, in order to become law a bill must be first passed by both houses of the Diet and then promulgated by the Emperor. This role of the Emperor is similar to the Royal Assent in some other nations; however, the Emperor cannot refuse to promulgate a law and therefore his legislative role is merely a formality.

The House of Representatives is the more powerful chamber of the Diet. While the House of Representatives cannot usually overrule the House of Councillors on a bill, the House of Councillors can only delay the adoption of a budget or a treaty that has been approved by the House of Representatives, and the House of Councillors has almost no power at all to prevent the lower house from selecting any Prime Minister it wishes. Furthermore, once appointed it is the confidence of the House of Representatives alone that the Prime Minister must enjoy in order to continue in office. The House of Representatives can overrule the upper house in the following circumstances:
 * If a bill is adopted by the House of Representatives and then either rejected, amended or not approved within 60 days by the House of Councillors, then the bill will become law if again adopted by the House of Representatives by a majority of at least two-thirds of members present.
 * If both houses cannot agree on a budget or a treaty, even through the appointment of a joint committee of the Diet, or if the House of Councillors fails to take final action on a proposed budget or treaty within 30 days of its approval by the House of Representatives, then the decision of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet.
 * If both houses cannot agree on a candidate for Prime Minister, even through a joint committee, or if the House of Councillors fails to designate a candidate within 10 days of House of Representatives' decision, then the nominee of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet.

Activities
Under the Constitution, at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year. Technically, only the House of Representatives is dissolved before an election. But, while the lower house is in dissolution, the House of Councillors is usually "closed". The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives but in doing so must act on the advice of the Cabinet. In an emergency the Cabinet can convoke the Diet for an extraordinary session, and an extraordinary session may be requested by one-quarter of the members of either house. At the beginning of each parliamentary session, the Emperor reads a special speech from his throne in the chamber of the House of Councillors.

The presence of one-third of the membership of either house constitutes a quorum and deliberations are in public unless at least two-thirds of those present agree otherwise. Each house elects its own presiding officer who casts the deciding vote in the event of a tie. The Diet has parliamentary immunity. Members of each house have certain protections against arrest while the Diet is in session and arrested members must be released during the term of the session if the House demands. They are immune outside the house for words spoken and votes cast in the House. Each house of the Diet determines its own standing orders and has responsibility for disciplining its own members. A member may be expelled, but only by a two-thirds majority vote. Every member of the Cabinet has the right to appear in either house of the Diet for the purpose of speaking on bills, and each house has the right to compel the appearance of Cabinet members.

Legislative process
The vast majority of bills are submitted to the Diet by the Cabinet. Bills are usually drafted by the relevant ministry, sometimes with the advice of an external committee if the issue is sufficiently important or neutrality is necessary. Such advisory committees may include university professors, trade union representatives, industry representatives, and local governors and mayors, and invariably include retired officials. Such draft bills would be sent to the Cabinet Legislation Bureau of the government, as well as to the ruling party.

History
Japan's first modern legislature was the Imperial Diet (帝国議会) established by the Meiji Constitution in force from 1889 to 1947. The Meiji Constitution was adopted on February 11, 1889, and the Imperial Diet first met on November 29, 1890, when the document entered into force. The first Imperial Diet of 1890 was plagued by controversy and political tensions. The Prime Minister of Japan at that time was General Count Yamagata Aritomo, who entered into a confrontation with the legislative body over military funding. During this time, there were many critics of the army who derided the Meiji slogan of "rich country, strong military" as in effect producing a poor country (albeit with a strong military). They advocated for infrastructure projects and lower taxes instead and felt their interests were not being served by high levels of military spending. As a result of these early conflicts, public opinion of politicians was not favorable.

The Imperial Diet consisted of a House of Representatives and a House of Peers (貴族院). The House of Representatives was directly elected, if on a limited franchise; universal adult male suffrage was introduced in 1925. The House of Peers, much like the British House of Lords, consisted of high-ranking nobles chosen by the Emperor.

The word diet derives from Latin and was a common name for an assembly in medieval European polities like the Holy Roman Empire. The Meiji Constitution was largely based on the form of constitutional monarchy found in nineteenth century Prussia that placed the king not as a servant of the state but rather the sole holder of power and sovereignty over his kingdom, which the Japanese view of their emperor and his role at the time favoured. The new Diet was modeled partly on the German Reichstag and partly on the British Westminster system. Unlike the post-war constitution, the Meiji constitution granted a real political role to the Emperor, although in practice the Emperor's powers were largely directed by a group of oligarchs called the genrō or elder statesmen.

To become law or bill, a constitutional amendment had to have the assent of both the Diet and the Emperor. This meant that while the Emperor could no longer legislate by decree he still had a veto over the Diet. The Emperor also had complete freedom in choosing the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, and so, under the Meiji Constitution, Prime Ministers often were not chosen from and did not enjoy the confidence of the Diet. The Imperial Diet was also limited in its control over the budget. However, the Diet could veto the annual budget, if no budget was approved the budget of the previous year continued in force. This changed with the new constitution after World War II.

The proportional representation system for the House of Councillors, introduced in 1982, was the first major electoral reform under the post-war constitution. Instead of choosing national constituency candidates as individuals, as had previously been the case, voters cast ballots for parties. Individual councillors, listed officially by the parties before the election, are selected on the basis of the parties' proportions of the total national constituency vote. The system was introduced to reduce the excessive money spent by candidates for the national constituencies. Critics charged, however, that this new system benefited the two largest parties, the LDP and the Japan Socialist Party (now Social Democratic Party), which in fact had sponsored the reform.

List of sessions
There are three types of sessions of the National Diet:
 * R – jōkai (常会), regular, annual sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "regular National Diet" (通常国会, tsūjō Kokkai). These are nowadays usually called in January, they last for 150 days and can be extended once.
 * E – rinjikai (臨時会), extraordinary sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "extraordinary National Diet" (臨時国会, rinji Kokkai). These are often called in autumn, or in the summer after a regular election of the House of Councillors (参議院議員通常選挙, sangiingiin tsūjōsenkyo) or after a full-term general election of the House of Representatives (衆議院議員総選挙, shūgiingiin sōsenkyo). Its length is negotiated between the two houses, it can be extended twice.
 * S – tokubetsukai (特別会), special sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "special National Diet" (特別国会, tokubetsu Kokkai). They are called only after a dissolution and early general election of the House of Representatives. Because the cabinet must resign after a House of Representatives election, the National Diet always chooses a prime minister-designate in a special session (but inversely, not all PM elections take place in a special Diet). A special session can be extended twice.
 * HCES – There is a fourth type of legislative session: If the House of Representatives is dissolved, a National Diet cannot be convened. In urgent cases, the cabinet may invoke an emergency session (緊急集会, kinkyū shūkai) of the House of Councillors to take provisional decisions for the whole Diet. As soon as the whole National Diet convenes again, these decisions must be confirmed by the House of Representatives or become ineffective. Such emergency sessions have been called twice in history, in 1952 and 1953.

Any session of the National Diet may be cut short by a dissolution of the House of Representatives (衆議院解散, shūgiin kaisan). In the table, this is listed simply as "(dissolution)"; the House of Councillors or the National Diet as such cannot be dissolved.

20th century

 * 1947 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1950 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1953 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1956 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1959 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1962 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1965 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1968 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1971 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1974 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1977 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1980 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1983 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1986 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1989 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1992 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1995 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 1998 Japanese House of Councillors election

21st century

 * 2001 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2004 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2007 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2010 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2013 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2016 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2019 Japanese House of Councillors election
 * 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election

title: National Diet


text: Talk:Montenegro

title: Talk:Montenegro