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Kenora

Kenora, previously named Rat Portage (Portage-aux-Rats), is a city situated on the Lake of the Woods in Ontario, Canada, close to the Manitoba boundary, and about 210 km east of Winnipeg by road. It is the seat of Kenora District.

The history of the name extends beyond the time of French settlers arriving in the region. The name Rat Portage had its origin in the Ojibwe name Wazhashk-Onigam, which, roughly translated, means portage to the country of the muskrats. A shortened and somewhat corrupted version, Rat Portage, was adopted by the Hudson's Bay Company in naming their post, then located on Old Fort Island on the Winnipeg River. When the post was moved to the mainland and a town grew up around it, the name Rat Portage was assumed by the community.

The town of Rat Portage was renamed in 1905 by using the first two letters of itself and the neighbouring towns of Keewatin and Norman to form the present-day City of Kenora. In 2001, the towns of Kenora (including Norman) and Keewatin as well as the Township of Jaffray Melick amalgamated under the Municipal Act.

Kenora is the administrative headquarters of the Anishinabe of Wauzhushk Onigum, Obashkaandagaang Bay, and Washagamis Bay First Nations band governments.

Toponymy
The name "Kenora" was coined by combining the first two letters of Keewatin, Norman and Rat Portage.

The traditional Ojibwe name of Kenora is Wazhashk-Onigamiing, meaning place of the muskrat portage, corresponding to the older English name of the settlement, Rat Portage. The nearby First Nation band of the Anishinabe of Wauzhushk Onigum retains this name as well.

History
Kenora is situated on the traditional territory of the Ojibway people. Among the earliest Europeans in the Lake of the Woods area was explorer and fur trader Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de La Vérendrye. The first European, Jacques de Noyon, sighted Lake of the Woods in 1688.

Pierre de La Vérendrye established a secure French trading post, Fort Saint Charles, to the south of present-day Kenora near the current Canada/U.S. border in 1732, and France maintained the post until 1763 when it lost the territory to the British in the Seven Years' War. Until then, it was the most northwesterly settlement of New France. In 1836 the Hudson's Bay Company established a post on Old Fort Island, and in 1861, the Company opened a post on the mainland at Kenora's current location.

In 1878, the company surveyed lots for the permanent settlement of Rat Portage ("portage to the country of the muskrat") — the community kept that name until 1905, when it was renamed Kenora.

Kenora was once claimed as part of the Province of Manitoba, and there are early references to Rat Portage, Manitoba. There was a long-lasting argument between the two provinces known as the Ontario-Manitoba boundary dispute. Each province claimed the town as part of their territory and the dispute lasted from 1870 to 1884. Although Ottawa had ruled the town part of Manitoba in 1881, the issue was finally taken up with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which eventually decided in Ontario's favour. Kenora officially became part of the province of Ontario in 1889. Boundaries were drawn up for the provinces and the Northwest Angle on Lake of the Woods which definitively drew the borders between Ontario, Manitoba, and the U.S. state of Minnesota.

Gold and the railway were both important in the community's early history: gold was first discovered in the area in 1850, and by 1893, 20 mines were operating within 24 km of Rat Portage, and the first Canadian ocean-to-ocean train passed through in 1886 on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Among the entrepreneurs attracted to the town was the Hon. JEP Vereker, a retired British army officer and youngest son of the 4th Viscount Gort.

Later, a highway was built through Kenora in 1932, becoming part of Canada's first coast-to-coast highway in 1943, and then part of the Trans-Canada Highway, placing the community on both of Canada's major transcontinental transportation routes. The original barrier to the completion of the highway concerned the crossing of the Winnipeg River at two locations. The single-span arch bridges are among the longest of their type in North America.

During the Prohibition era in the United States, the Lake of the Woods served as a smuggler's route for the transport of alcohol.

In December 1883, there was a large fire in Rat Portage, rendering 70 of the town's then population of 700 homeless.

The Stanley Cup was won by the Kenora Thistles hockey team in 1907. The team featured such Hall of Famers as Billy McGimsie, Tommy Phillips, and Art Ross, for whom the Art Ross Trophy is named. Kenora is the smallest town to have won a major North American sports title.

Rat Portage is mentioned in Algernon Blackwood's famous 1910 story, "The Wendigo".

On November 22, 1965, around 400 Aboriginal protesters, inspired by the Selma to Montgomery marches against white supremacy and racial discrimination in the Southern United States, undertook a quarter-mile march against anti-indigenous racism along Main Street to Legion Hall, where they expressed their grievances to the city's mayor and councillors. This march became widely referred to as Canada's first civil rights march.

In 1967, the year of the Canadian Centennial, Kenora erected a sculpture known as Husky the Muskie. It has become the town's mascot and one of its most recognizable features.

A dramatic bank robbery took place in Kenora on May 10, 1973. An unknown man entered the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce heavily armed and wearing a "dead man's switch", a device utilising a clothespin, wires, battery and dynamite, where the user holds the clothespin in the mouth, exerting force on the clothespin. Should the user release the clothespin, two wires attached to both sides of the pin complete an electrical circuit, sending current from the battery, detonating the explosives. After robbing the bank, the robber exited the CIBC, and was preparing to enter a city vehicle driven by undercover police officer Don Milliard. A sniper, Robert Letain, positioned across the street, shot the robber, causing the explosives to detonate and kill the robber. Most of the windows on the shops on the main street were shattered as a result of the blast. Later, Kenora Police submitted DNA samples from the robber's remains to a national database to identify him; however, the suspect was never positively identified.

The importance of the logging industry declined in the second part of the 20th century, and the last log boom was towed into Kenora in 1985. The tourist and recreation industries have become more important.

Neighbourhoods
In addition to the former towns of Keewatin and Jaffray Melick, the city includes the neighbourhoods of Norman, Rabbit Lake, Rideout, Pinecrest, Minto, and Lakeside.

Keewatin forms the westernmost section of the City of Kenora. Norman was a small community halfway between the village of Keewatin and Rat Portage. The Village of Keewatin was founded in 1877 while the Village of Norman was founded in 1892; both communities amalgamated with Rat Portage in 1905 to form the Township of Kenora. Keewatin eventually separated and was founded as a Township in 1908.

The Jaffray Melick neighbourhood is the north-easternmost section of the City of Kenora. The Township of Jaffray was founded in 1894 and the Township of Melick in 1902; the two townships were amalgamated in 1908 as Jaffray and Melick, and renamed Jaffray Melick in 1911. Compared to Keewatin, Norman, and Rat Portage, Jaffray Melick is the most rural community, with few retail stores and one golf course, Beauty Bay, on Black Sturgeon Lake.

Climate
Kenora has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm summers and cold, dry winters. Its climate is influenced by continental air masses. Winters are cold with a January high of -11 C and a low of -21 C. Temperatures below -20 C occur on 45 days. The average annual snowfall is 158 cm, which is lower than places to the east as it is influenced by the dry air of continental high-pressure zones, resulting in relatively dry winters. Summers are warm with a July high of 24 C and a low of 15 C and temperatures above 30 C occur on 5.3 days. The average annual precipitation is 662 mm, with most of it being concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest month and February the driest.

During the winter Kenora will get precipitation mostly in the form of snow, other forms of winter precipitation include ice, sleet, and freezing rain. Snow cover usually lasts from November to March, about 154 days or 42% of the year. The city frequently gets thunderstorms during the summer, averaging 24 days a year with thunderstorms.

The highest temperature ever recorded in Kenora was 40.6 C on 11 July 1936. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -43.9 C on 20 January 1943.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Kenora had a population of $14,967$ living in $6,510$ of its $7,637$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $15,096$. With a land area of 211.65 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

The median household income in 2005 for Kenora was $59,946, which is slightly below the Ontario provincial average of $60,455.

Economy
Forestry, tourism and mining are the three largest sectors of the Kenora economy. The population balloons in the spring and summer to almost double the normal population when summer residents move in. The Lake of the Woods and numerous smaller lakes situated all around Kenora are the major draw for cottagers who summer here. Many are from the neighbouring province of Manitoba and the state of Minnesota.

Tourism
Kenora, a site of natural attractions, has visitors from all over the world year round. In the summer months visitors come to the area to undertake activities including swimming, biking, fishing, hiking, and boating. Kenora's tourist industry is also active during the winter months as visitors come not only to observe its natural environment but also to partake in ice fishing, snowboarding, skiing (both downhill and cross country) and snowmachining.

Kenora has two travel information centres. One is the newly renovated (2011) pavilion, located on the Harbourfront. The second information centre, called the Discovery Centre, opened July 22, 2011, and serves visitors year-round from its location at 931 Lake View Drive (just off of Highway 17 West, also known as the Trans Canada highway).

Arts and culture
The Lake of the Woods Museum and Douglas Family Art Centre are located at The MUSE.

Harbourfront, a park on the shore of Lake of the Woods, hosts the city's annual winter and summer festivals, as well as concerts.

Huskie the Muskie, a 40 ft statue of a fighting muskellunge, is located in McLeod Park.

The city's downtown core has a public arts project, with 20 murals depicting the region's history painted on buildings in the business district.

The city is home to a major international freshwater bass fishing tournament.

Kenora is sometimes stereotyped as an archetypal "hoser" community, evidenced by the phrase "Kenora dinner jacket" as a nickname for a hoser's flannel shirt.

St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral is in Kenora.

The now-defunct Kenora Thistles ice hockey won the Stanley Cup in 1907, making Kenora the smallest city to have ever won the trophy. Many local contemporary ice hockey clubs pay homage to the team by using its name, including the town's amateur, junior, and senior-level men's team.

Government
Kenora is represented in the House of Commons by Conservative MP Eric Melillo, and in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by MPP Greg Rickford of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario.

Dave Canfield served as mayor from 2000 until 2006, when he was defeated by Len Compton in the 2006 municipal election; Compton did not run in the 2010 municipal election, however, and Canfield was re-elected as his successor. The current mayor is Andrew Poirier.

Some residents of Kenora, citing dissatisfaction with the level of government service provided to the region by the provincial government, have proposed that the region secede from Ontario to join the province of Manitoba.

Transportation

Via Rail offers passenger service to Redditt on the CN transcontinental rail line, approximately 30 minutes and 20 km north of Kenora. The CP transcontinental rail line passes directly through town.

Kenora Airport is located 5 NM east northeast of the city centre.

M.S. Kenora is a cruise located at the waterfront.

Highway 17 passes through Kenora's urban core, and the Highway 17A Kenora By-Pass goes around the city. Both routes are designated as part of the Trans-Canada Highway. Highway 658 extends northerly from Kenora to Redditt.

Kenora Transit operates three routes, from Monday to Saturday, 7:00am to 6:30pm.

Health care
Kenora's hospital, Lake of the Woods District Hospital, has three facilities in the city: the hospital itself, Morningstar Rehabilitation Centre, and Mental Health and Addictions services, located in St. Joseph's Health Centre.

Housing
Since Kenora is one of two judicial districts in Northwestern Ontario, it has disproportionate housing shortage as people from across the region with little to no social support in Kenora are unable to find places to stay after release from prison or while waiting in the city before their court dates. The situation worsened in 2013, when the judge in the Rainy River District moved and the position and its responsibilities was transferred to Kenora.

Military
The federal government maintains an armoury (Kenora Armoury at 800-11th Avenue North) in Kenora for the 116th Independent Field Battery, RCA.

Education
Two school boards and a community college function in the Kenora area.

The Keewatin-Patricia District School Board operates one high school (Beaver Brae Secondary School) and four elementary schools (Keewatin Public School, Evergreen School, King George IV School, and Valleyview School).

The Kenora Catholic District School Board operates one high school (Saint Thomas Aquinas High School) and three elementary schools (École Ste. Marguerite-Bourgeois, Pope John Paul II School and St. Louis School). The elementary school, officially named Pope John Paul II, amalgamated approximately 350 students from the former Mount Carmel and Our Lady of the Valley schools. École Ste. Marguerite-Bourgeois is a French immersion school.

Confederation College has a Kenora campus and serves post-secondary and adult education needs in the city and surrounding area.

Housed within the college is Contact North, which offers Kenora residents local access to university and college programs not directly offered by the college campus. Contact North is Ontario's most extensive distance education network providing access to education and training opportunities in remote locations of Northern Ontario through a network of access centres. Contact North works with 13 colleges and universities.

There is also an Indigenous college and education facility called Seven Generations, located in the building that once housed Lakewood Junior High School before becoming Seven Generations Education Institute. It prepares Indigenous and non-Indigenous students for work within the community and surrounding region.

Geological significance
One of Earth's earliest supercontinents, a large landmass comprising several of today's continents, predating Pangaea by 2.4 billion years, has been termed Kenorland by geologists, named after the Kenoran orogeny (also called the Algoman orogeny), which in turn was named after the town of Kenora, Ontario. In Kenora, rocks and geomagnetic evidence have been found which support Kenorland's creation approximately 2.72 billion years ago (2.72 Ga) as a result of a series of accretion events and the formation of new continental crust, demarcating the earliest identifiably known land on Earth.

Media
The major news source in Kenora is the Kenora Miner and News.

Radio

 * FM 89.5 - CJRL-FM ("89.5 The Lake"), adult contemporary
 * FM 93.5 - CKSB-7-FM, Ici Radio-Canada Première (relays CKSB-10-FM, Winnipeg)
 * FM 98.7 - CBQX-FM, CBC Radio One (relays CBQT-FM, Thunder Bay)
 * FM 101.3 - CKWO-FM, Wauzhushk Onigum Nation (also serves the Kenora area), First Nations community radio
 * FM 104.5 - CKQV-FM-2 ("Q104"), hot adult contemporary (relays CKQV-FM, Vermilion Bay)

Television
Kenora was Canada's smallest (and North America's second smallest) television market, served by only one television station, CJBN-TV channel 13, a Global affiliate that ceased broadcasting in January 2017. The Kenora region is not designated as a mandatory market for digital television conversion. The Winnipeg outlets of CBC Television (CBWT-DT), Radio-Canada (CBWFT-DT), CTV (CKY-DT), Global (CKND-DT) and Citytv (CHMI-DT) are piped in via cable.

Notable people

 * Gary Bergman, former NHL and Team Canada 1972 player
 * Glory Annen Clibbery, actress
 * Ralph Connor, writer
 * Tim Coulis, former NHL player
 * Phil Eyler, politician
 * Silas Griffis, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
 * Peter Heenan, municipal/provincial/federal politician
 * Robert Hilles, poet
 * Tom Hooper, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
 * Kyle Koch, former CFL offensive guard (Toronto Argonauts)
 * Victor Lindquist, Olympic hockey gold medal winner (1932)
 * Shane Lunny, designer and producer, business founder
 * Eric Melillo, MP
 * Bob Nault, former MP and Indian Affairs Minister
 * Dennis Olson, ice hockey player
 * Tom Phillips, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
 * Mike Richards, ice hockey player
 * Greg Rickford, MPP and Ontario Minister of Energy, Northern Development and Mines
 * Rick St. Croix, former NHL goaltender and assistant coach for the Toronto Maple Leafs
 * Jacques Schyrgens, painter
 * Mike Smith, silver medalist in the decathlon at the 1991 World Championships

title: Kenora


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Talk:Northern Low Saxon

[Untitled]
According to Low Saxon language (and Niedersächsische Sprache, which it was based on), Hamburger is a Northern Low Saxon dialect. This page implies otherwise. Is it? -- Toby 18:27 Feb 4, 2003 (UTC)

 * Hamburger is a variant of Northern Low Saxon, like Holsteiner or Schleswiger. There only are marginal differents.

Requested move of "Northern Low Saxon language" to "Northern Low Saxon"
''This variety's name is unique (have a look at the pages that link there), so according to the naming guideline, there is no need for the "language" suffix. Additionally, removing the "language" suffix has the advantage of being NPOV with regard to the question whether this is an independent language or not — and of putting an end to the ridiculous current situation of a lemma called XXX language being defined as a dialect in the first sentence of the article. ― j. 'mach' wust | ✑ 20:45, 10 December 2005 (UTC)''

Voting

 * Support. ― j. 'mach' wust | ✑ 20:45, 10 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. LuiKhuntek 23:46, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

Result
Moved. WhiteNight T 21:20, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

Introduction
The whole introduction has to be rewritten, mainly because of reasons of neutrality: a) the majority of the population of the listed states does not use these dialect anymore; b) these are the northern parts of western Low German and not a huge central area
 * northern low Saxon is not a Standard Low German (since such thing does not exist)
 * is not spoken and understood in a huge central area since
 * Eastphalian and Westphalian are are not border regions but rather separate dialect regions--Zarbi1 (talk) 20:41, 17 February 2009 (UTC)

Understandable to most speakers
Fact is that any variant of Low German is intelligible to most speakers of Low German and the western dialects cannot be considered Low German standard only by that means. East of Holstein radio and TV broadcasts are made in the local dialects. The impression of some "standard" Low German comes from two things: 1. The western dialects have much in common in spelling/pronunciation and vocabulary. 2. In the west there is a greater mass of Low German broadcasts and speakers. Thus the received wider acceptance.193.174.122.76 (talk) 12:25, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Yeah, exactly for that it is considered to be the "closest to a standard". --:Slomox:: >< 19:08, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

I see, makes sense. The point in deleting the parts in question was to avoid the misconception that there was some sort of agreement amongst the population or broadcasting stations that this dialect was close-to-standard or that other dialects would be less intelligible.193.174.122.76 (talk) 19:44, 13 February 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Northern Low Saxon


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Bochum

Bochum (, also ,    ; Baukem) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia. With a population of 372,348 (April 2023), it is the sixth largest city (after Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg) in one of the most populous German federal states of North Rhine-Westphalia, and the 16th largest city of Germany. On the Ruhr Heights (Ruhrhöhen) hill chain, between the rivers Ruhr to the south and Emscher to the north (tributaries of the Rhine), it is the second largest city of Westphalia after Dortmund, and the fourth largest city of the Ruhr after Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg. It lies at the centre of the Ruhr, Germany's largest urban area, in the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region, the second biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union, and belongs to the region of Arnsberg. Bochum is the sixth largest and one of the southernmost cities in the Low German dialect area. There are nine institutions of higher education in the city, most notably the Ruhr University Bochum (Ruhr-Universität Bochum), one of the ten largest universities in Germany, and the Bochum University of Applied Sciences (Hochschule Bochum).

Geographical position
The city lies on the low rolling hills of Bochum land ridge (Bochumer Landrücken), part of the Ruhrhöhen (highest elevations) between the Ruhr and Emscher rivers at the border of the southern and northern Ruhr coal region. The highest point of the city is at Kemnader Straße (Kemnader Street) in Stiepel at 196 m above sea level; the lowest point is 43 m at the Blumenkamp in Hordel.

The terrain of Bochum is characterised by rolling hills that rarely have more than three per cent graduation. Steeper graduation can be found at the Harpener Hellweg near the Berghofer Holz nature reserve (3.4%), at Westenfelder Straße in the borough of Wattenscheid (3.47%), or at Kemnader Straße, which begins at the banks of the Ruhr in Stiepel (71 m), and rises to its highest point in the centre of Stiepel (196 m, a 5.1% increase).

The city extends north to south 13.0 km and 17.1 km east to west. The perimeter of the city limits is 67.2 km.

It is surrounded by the cities of (in clockwise direction) Herne, Castrop-Rauxel, Dortmund, Witten, Hattingen, Essen and Gelsenkirchen.

Geology
There is sedimentary rock of carbon and chalk. The geological strata can be visited in the former quarry of Klosterbusch in Querenburg and at the Geological Gardens in Wiemelhausen.

Waterways
The urban area is divided into the river Ruhr catchment in the south and the Emscher catchment in the north. The Ruhr's tributaries are the Oelbach (where as well a waste water treatment plant is established ), Gerther Mühlenbach, Harpener Bach, Langendreer Bach, Lottenbach, Hörsterholzer Bach and the Knöselbach. The Ruhr in combination with upstream reservoirs is also used for drinking water abstraction. The Emscher's tributaries are Hüller Bach with Dorneburger Mühlenbach, Hofsteder Bach, Marbach, Ahbach, Kabeisemannsbach and Goldhammer Bach. The industrial developments in the region since the 19th century were leading to a kind of division of labour between the two river catchments, pumping drinking water from the Ruhr into the municipal supply system and discharging waste water mainly into the Emscher system. Today approximately 10% of the waste water in the Emscher catchment is discharged via the Hüller Bach. and treated in the centralized waste water treatment plant of the Emschergenossenschaft in Bottrop. The ecological restoration of the Emscher tributaries initiated by the Emschergenossenschaft started with the Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park in 1989.

Vegetation
The south of the city has woods, the best known of which are the. These are generally mixed forests of oak and beech. The occurrence of holly gives evidence of Bochum's temperate climate. 844 species of plants can be found within the city limts

Climate
Bochum features an Oceanic climate (Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb) characterized by cool winters and short warm summers. Extreme temperatures are uncommon. However, temperatures rising above 30 °C (86 °F) are to be expected on multiple days in summer and the climate station closest to the City did record a peak temperature of 40 °C (104 °F) on July 25, 2019.

On the other extreme, freezing temperatures are common between mid-November and late March. In some years, however, frosts may occur as late as early May. Temperatures below −10 °C are, especially in recent years, only seen on rare occasions. The city lies within the warmer extent of the 8a USDA plant hardiness zone (−12.2 to −9.4 °C or 10 to 15 °F). Some winters may pass without a frost below −5 °C (data from the nearest active climate station). These comparably mild conditions in Winter permit the planting of plants that would either not be reliably hardy or not able to bloom throughout Germany like Trachycarpus palms, Summer lilac, Paulownia tomentosa and Rosemary.

However, winters can be unpredictable with strong fluctuations in temperatures: In mid-February 2021, the city was affected by a severe cold spell bringing temperatures down to –15 degrees Celsius (5 °F) accompanied by heavy snowfall which hindered traffic for multiple days. A week later, a temperature of 17 °C (63 °F) was recorded, an increase of 32K.

The total precipitation of 815mm is distributed relatively even throughout most the year but has a peak in winter and two minima in late spring and July, respectively. June shows a second peak in precipitation due to the return of the westerlies which leads to more thunderstorms being generated along frontal boundaries of atlantic low-pressure systems. In recent years, the city was affected by summer and spring droughts. Thunderstorms are not uncommon in the warm season and can generate intense downpours and sporadically hail.

The city experiences little sunshine in winter with a minimum of 1,3h per day in December and a lot more in early summer and late spring with May featuring 7,5h per day. The total amount of sunshine per year is 1689h.

Due to the cities northern latitude of 51°N, seasonal daylength variation is significant. The longest day of the year, June 21, features 16 h 38 min. of daylight while the shortest day of the year which is December 21 is only 7 h and 50 min. long.

Districts

Bochum is divided into six administrative sections (stadtbezirke), alongside their respective sub-districts (stadtteile), with a total of 362,213 inhabitants living in an urban area of 145.4 km2.

 * Bochum-Mitte includes Innenstadt, Hamme (including Goldhamme, and Stahlhausen), Hordel, Hofstede, Riemke, Grumme and Altenbochum There are 102,145 inhabitants living in an area of 32.60 km2.
 * Wattenscheid includes Wattenscheid-Mitte, Leithe, Günnigfeld, Westenfeld, Sevinghausen, Höntrop, Munscheid and Eppendorf (which includes Engelsburg and Heide). There are 74,602 inhabitants living in an area of 23.87 km2.
 * North includes Bergen, Gerthe, Harpen (including Rosenberg), Kornharpen, Hiltrop and Voede-Abzweig. There are 37,004 inhabitants living in an area of 18.86 km2.
 * East includes Laer, Werne, and Langendreer (including Ümmingen and Kaltehardt). There are 55,193 inhabitants living in an area of 23.46 km2.
 * South includes Wiemelhausen (which includes Brenschede, and Ehrenfeld), Stiepel (which includes Haar, Brockhausen and Schrick) and Querenburg (which includes Hustadt and Steinkuhl). There are 50,866 inhabitants living in an area of 27.11 km2.
 * Southwest includes Weitmar (which includes Bärendorf, Mark, and Neuling), Sundern, Linden and Dahlhausen. There are 56,510 inhabitants living in an area of 19.50 km2.

Mayor
The current Mayor of Bochum is Thomas Eiskirch of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who was elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020.

The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 138,279 ! 99.0 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 1,438 ! 1.0 ! colspan=3| Total ! 139,717 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 287,216 ! 48.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Thomas Eiskirch
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 85,397
 * 61.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Haardt
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 28,125
 * 20.3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Amid Rabieh
 * align=left| The Left
 * 8,335
 * 6.0
 * align=left| Jens Lücking
 * align=left| UWG: Free Citizens
 * 3,937
 * 2.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Felix Haltt
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 3,441
 * 2.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Nils-Frederick Brandt
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * 3,357
 * 2.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ariane Meise
 * align=left| National Democratic Party
 * 2,546
 * 1.8
 * align=left| Volker Steude
 * align=left| The Citymakers
 * 2,351
 * 1.7
 * align=left| Günter Gleising
 * align=left| Social List Bochum
 * 790
 * 0.6
 * align=left| Volker Steude
 * align=left| The Citymakers
 * 2,351
 * 1.7
 * align=left| Günter Gleising
 * align=left| Social List Bochum
 * 790
 * 0.6
 * align=left| Günter Gleising
 * align=left| Social List Bochum
 * 790
 * 0.6
 * colspan=5| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Bochum city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 138,334 ! 99.0 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 1,447 ! 1.0 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 139,781 ! 100.0 ! ! 86 ! 2 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 287,203 ! 48.7 ! 0.2 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 46,626
 * 33.7
 * 4.9
 * 29
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 30,658
 * 22.2
 * 9.3
 * 19
 * 8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 28,799
 * 20.8
 * 4.9
 * 18
 * 4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 8,434
 * 6.1
 * 0.1
 * 5
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 7,774
 * 5.6
 * 2.1
 * 5
 * 2
 * align=left| UWG: Free Citizens (UWG)
 * 4,673
 * 3.4
 * 0.9
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 4,517
 * 3.3
 * 0.4
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 3,223
 * 2.3
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * align=left| The Citymakers (Die Stadtgestalter)
 * 2,387
 * 1.7
 * 0.6
 * 2
 * 1
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * align=left| Social List Bochum (SLB)
 * 814
 * 0.6
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
 * 429
 * 0.3
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Social List Bochum (SLB)
 * 814
 * 0.6
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
 * 429
 * 0.3
 * 0.6
 * 0
 * 1
 * 0
 * 1
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

History

Bochum dates from the 9th century, when Charlemagne set up a royal court at the junction of two important trade routes. It was first officially mentioned in 1041 as Cofbuokheim in a document of the archbishops of Cologne. In 1321, Count Engelbert II von der Marck granted Bochum a town charter, but the town remained insignificant until the 19th century, when the coal mining and steel industries emerged in the Ruhr area, leading to the growth of the entire region. In the early 19th century it was part of the Grand Duchy of Berg, a client state of France, then it passed to Prussia following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, and in 1871 it became part of the German Empire. The population of Bochum increased from about 4,500 in 1850 to 100,000 in 1904. Bochum acquired city status, incorporating neighbouring towns and villages. Additional population gains came from immigration, primarily from Poland. Bochum was the main center of the Polish community of the Ruhr, being the seat of various Polish organizations and enterprises. The Poles were subjected to anti-Polish policies aimed at Germanisation, and the Central Office for Monitoring the Polish Movement in the Rhine-Westphalian Industrial District (Zentralstelle fur Uberwachung der Polenbewegung im Rheinisch-Westfalischen Industriebezirke) was established by the German authorities in Bochum in 1909.

The Nazi era and World War II
On 28 October 1938, 250 Polish or stateless Jews were expelled from Bochum to Poland. On 9 November 1938, Kristallnacht, the Bochum synagogue was set on fire and there was rioting against Jewish citizens. The first Jews from Bochum were deported to Nazi concentration camps and many Jewish institutions and homes were destroyed. Some 500 Jewish citizens are known by name to have been killed in the Holocaust, including 19 who were younger than 16 years old. Joseph Klirsfeld was Bochum's rabbi at this time. He and his wife fled to Palestine. In December 1938, the Jewish elementary school teacher Else Hirsch began organising groups of children and adolescents to be sent to the Netherlands and England, sending ten groups in all. Many Jewish children and those from other persecuted groups were taken in by Dutch families and thereby saved from abduction or deportation and death.

On 15 July 1939, the Gestapo entered the headquarters of the Union of Poles in Germany in Bochum, searched it and interrogated its chief Michał Wesołowski, however, it did not obtain the desired lists of Polish activists, which had been previously hidden by Poles. Increased Nazi terror and persecutions of Poles followed, and in response, many Poles from the region came to Bochum for organizational and information meetings. During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the Nazis carried out mass arrests of local Polish activists, who were then sent to concentration camps. Local Polish premises and seats of organizations were looted and expropriated by Nazi Germany.

During the war, Germany operated a prison in the city with three forced labour subcamps within present-day city limits, an additional detention center, a camp for Romani people in the present-day Wattenscheid district, and three subcamps of the Buchenwald concentration camp. A report from July 1943 listed 100 forced labour camps in Bochum.

Because the Ruhr region was an area of high residential density and a centre for the manufacture of weapons, it was a major target in the war. Women with young children, school children and the homeless fled or were evacuated to safer areas, leaving cities largely deserted to the arms industry, coal mines and steel plants and those unable to leave.

During the Holocaust, in 1942–1943, local Jews were deported to German-occupied Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Poland.

Bochum was first bombed heavily in May and June 1943. On 13 May 1943, the city hall was hit, destroying the top floor, and leaving the next two floors in flames. On 4 November 1944, in an attack involving 700 British bombers, the steel plant, Bochumer Verein, was hit. One of the largest steel plants in Germany, more than 10,000 high-explosive and 130,000 incendiary bombs were stored there, setting off a conflagration that destroyed the surrounding neighbourhoods. An aerial photo shows the devastation.

The town centre of Bochum was a strategic target during the Oil Campaign. In 150 air raids on Bochum, over 1,300 bombs were dropped on Bochum and Gelsenkirchen. By the end of the war, 38% of Bochum had been destroyed. 70,000 citizens were homeless and at least 4,095 dead. Of Bochum's more than 90,000 homes, only 25,000 remained for the 170,000 citizens who survived the war, many by fleeing to other areas. Most of the remaining buildings were damaged, many with only one usable room. Only 1,000 houses in Bochum remained undamaged after the war. Only two of 122 schools remained unscathed; others were totally destroyed. Hunger was rampant. A resident of neighbouring Essen was quoted on 23 April 1945 as saying, "Today, I used up my last potato... it will be a difficult time till the new [autumn] potatoes are ready to be picked – if they're not stolen."

The US army ground advance into Germany reached Bochum in April 1945. Encountering desultory resistance, the US 79th Infantry Division captured the city on 10 April 1945.

After the war, Bochum was occupied by the British, who established two camps to house people displaced by the war. The majority of them were former Polish Zwangsarbeiter, forced labourers, many of them from the Bochumer Verein.

Allied bombing destroyed 83% of the built up area of Bochum during World War II. Today around a third of Bochum consists of buildings from before World War II. More than sixty years after the war, bombs continue to be found in the region, usually by construction workers. One found in October 2008 in Bochum town centre led to the evacuation of 400 and involved hundreds of emergency workers. A month earlier, a buried bomb exploded in neighbouring Hattingen, injuring 17 people.

Post-war period
After the war, Bochum was part of West Germany and the newly established state of North Rhine-Westphalia, consisting of the Rhineland and Westphalia.

In the postwar period, Bochum began developing as a cultural centre of the Ruhr area. In 1965, the Ruhr University was opened, the first modern university in the Ruhr area and the first to be founded in Germany since World War II. Since the seventies, Bochum's industry has moved from heavy industry to the service sector. Between 1960 and 1980, the coal mines all closed. Other industries, such as automotive, compensated for the loss of jobs. The Opel Astra was assembled at the Opel Bochum plant; however, by 2009, the factory was in serious financial difficulties and in December 2012, Opel announced that it would stop vehicle production at the Bochum plant in 2016.

In the course of a comprehensive community reform in 1975, Wattenscheid, a formerly independent city, was integrated into the city of Bochum. A local referendum against the integration failed. In 2007, the new synagogue of the Jewish community of Bochum, Herne und Hattingen was opened. In 2008, Nokia closed down its production plant, causing the loss of thousands of jobs, both at the plant and at local suppliers. 20,000 people showed up to protest against the closing. Within months, the Canadian high-tech company, Research in Motion, announced plans to open a research facility, its first outside Canada, adding several hundred jobs.

Architecture

 * Bochum City Hall was built from 1927 to 1931 and was designed by architect Karl Roth as a modern office building, but in the Renaissance style, reflecting the industrial era's middle class, inventions and discoveries. There were statues of bronze and stone, and in the city council chambers, a bell tower. The ornate décor gave the Nazis an excuse to hound the then-mayor, who was of Jewish descent, driving him to suicide in 1933. Most of the bronze statues were melted down for the war effort and the stone carvings were damaged by the war, save for some small lion's heads over the entrance. Also left undamaged are two themed courtyard fountains made by August Vogel, the "Fountain of Beauty" and the "Fountain of Happiness", as well as Augusto Vasaris' florentine main entrance, which displays the motto, In Labore Honos (In labour lies honour). In 1951, a set of 28 chimes was installed, manufactured in Bochum. Known for their clarity of tone, they are the first cast steel chimes in the world. In front of the city hall is a large bell that was made by the Bochum "Verein für Bergbau und Gusstahlfabrikation AG" (Association for Mining and Cast Steel Manufacturing). Displayed at the 1867 Paris World's Fair, it has a diameter of 3.13 m and weighs 15 tonnes. It was damaged during World War II and can no longer be rung.
 * Altes Brauhaus Rietkötter, the Old Rietkötter Brewing House is one of the oldest houses in Bochum, dating from 1630. Originally a private home, it became a brewery in 1777. After nearly being torn down after the war, it now has preservation status and today houses a restaurant, where they still brew their own beer.
 * The Kaufhaus Kortum department store dates from 1913 and was built as one of the nearly 20 regional stores owned by Alsberg Bros. (Gebr. Alsberg, AG) of Cologne. During the Nazi era, these stores were taken away from their Jewish owners and put into non-Jewish hands. Today, the "Kaufhaus Kortum" building has preservation status and houses an electronics store.
 * The Friedrich Lueg Haus was built in 1924–1925 as the first high-rise building in Bochum. Contracted by the Lueg Company, the seven-story building was designed by the architect Emil Pohle. It suffered a fire during a bombing raid in 1944 and was renovated after the war. Today, the upper floors are small offices and internet companies. The seven-theatre Bochum Union Cinema rents the ground floor, showing a variety of domestic and international films.
 * Mutter Wittig is a baroque-style building in the town centre, originally opened as a bakery and inn in 1870. Damaged in World War II, its façade is protected by preservation status. It houses a restaurant and its windows are decorated with displays of old Bochum.
 * Sparkasse Bochum (Bochum Savings Bank) is a town landmark designed by the architect Wilhelm Kreis. It opened in 1928 and was emblematic of the modern era. It was heavily damaged during the war, but was afterwards restored to its former appearance.
 * The Schlegel Tower is the only remaining structure of the once-important Schlegel brewery, which closed in 1980.
 * The Jahrhunderthalle (Hall of the Century) is the former gas and power station of a steel mill built at the turn of the 20th century. With the closing of the mill, the plant was renovated and turned into a three-hall concert and event site with an industrial ambiance.
 * Dahlhauser Heide is an example of social welfare provided by wealthy German industrialists for their workers. Built in the early 1900s by the Krupp family for their coal mine workers, the modest and tastefully designed two-family houses were to enable self-sufficiency by providing gardens and a stall for a pig or a goat, "the miner's cow". The estate, which has the appearance of a small, rural town, gained preservation status in the 1970s.
 * Blankenstein Castle was built in the 13th century by Count Adolf I of the Mark. Though located in Hattingen, it is owned by Bochum and has a significant history. On 8 June 1321, Count Engelbert II of the Mark granted Bochum its town charter there. Today, only the gate and one tower remain.
 * Haus Kemnade is a moated castle. Though located in the town of Hattingen, the castle is property of the city of Bochum in 1921. Documents regarding its earliest dates of construction have been lost; it is first mentioned in 1393. Parts of the castle were built during the Renaissance and baroque periods. The castle's location on the banks of the Ruhr river was changed when the flood of 1486 receded on the opposite side, cutting the castle off from the neighbouring village. The castle remained in private hands till 1921, when it was deeded to the city of Bochum. In 1961, a museum of local history was installed, including a large collection of 16th to 20th century musical instruments. A collection of East Asian objects is also now located there, as well as a satellite of the Bochum Museum and an art exhibition space. There is also a restaurant on site. Behind the castle is a timber-framed farmhouse from 1800, now a museum exhibiting farm life from the past.
 * The Exzenterhaus is a commercial office building which is the tallest building in Bochum at 90.5 metres. It was constructed on top of World War II era bunker, with the more modern section of the building rising 15 storeys above the top of the bunker. The top 15 floors are split into three, five storey sections, each which cantilever up to 4.5 metres, giving the impression of twisting structure.

Religious architecture

 * Propsteikirche St. Peter und Paul is the oldest church in Bochum, built between 785 and 800 by Charlemagne. It was rebuilt in the 11th century, but was severely damaged by fire in 1517. In 1547, it was again rebuilt, this time in the late Gothic style. The 68-metre (223 ft) high bell tower is one of the landmarks of Bochum. The interior includes a baptismal font from 1175, the reliquary shrine of St. Perpetua and her slave Felicitas, and a high altar with a crucifix from 1352.
 * Pauluskirche is the main Protestant church of the city. After the Reformation, both Catholics and Lutherans shared the Propsteikirche, often contentiously. In 1655, the Lutherans began to build their own church with the help of donations from the Dutch Republic, Sweden, Courland and Denmark. The church was heavily damaged in a bombing raid on 12 June 1943 and was later rebuilt after the war. Next to the church is a monument to peace. A statue of an old woman searching for a loved one, it is also a memorial to the 4 November 1944 bombing raid on Bochum. Hans Ehrenberg served as minister here, until he was arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen by the Nazis.
 * The Christuskirche, built in the neo-Gothic style, opened in 1879 and was among the most beautiful churches in Europe. In 1931, the room in the steeple was extended to a cenotaph for those killed in World War I. During an air raid in 1943, the church was destroyed, except for the steeple. After the war, the ruins were integrated into a new, modern structure and the steeple became a memorial dedicated to peace and understanding among nations.
 * The neo-Gothic Marienkirche, built between 1868 and 1872, was heavily damaged in World War II (see photo above), but was rebuilt after the war. It is now closed and scheduled for demolition. The stained glass windows have been removed and it has fallen victim to vandalism.
 * Stiepeler Dorfkirche is over 1000 years old and was commemorated by a stamp in 2008. A small church consisting of one room was built by Countess Imma von Stiepel. Between 1130 and 1170, the old church was replaced by a Romanesque basilica. Today, the steeple and transept remain. Between 1150 and 1200, the interior walls and ceiling were decorated with a number of Romanesque paintings.
 * The new synagogue, which opened in 2007, consists of a white cube and stands in contrast to the round shape of the planetarium next door. The façade shows overall a variation on the Solomon's Seal achieved by relocated brickstones. The interior is graced with a gold-coloured canopy.

Parks and gardens
Bochum has a municipal zoo, a large municipal park and a number of other gardens and parks. The Ruhr University Botanical Gardens has thousands of plants from all over the world. Among others there is a tropical garden, a cactus garden, and a Chinese garden designed in the southern Chinese style, the only one of its kind in Germany.

The Geological Garden was the first of its kind in Germany. The nearly 4 acre park is the site of an old coal mine, the Zeche Friederika, which operated from 1750 to 1907. In 1962, the property came under environmental protection and a decade later was turned into a geological garden.

Other scenic areas include the West Park, Lake Kemnade, Lake Ümmingen and the municipal forest, Weitmarer Holz.

Leisure and entertainment
Bochum is a cultural centre of the Ruhr region. There is a municipal theatre, the Schauspielhaus Bochum, and about 20 smaller theatres and stages. The musical Starlight Express, which opened in 1988, is the longest-running musical in Germany.

Bermudadreieck
The Bermudadreieck (Bermuda Triangle), in the city center of Bochum, functions as the town's nightlife hub. Around sixty different bars and restaurants are located there, serving multicultural cuisine such as Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Italian, Spanish and German gastronomic specialties. Close to the Bermudadreieck is the Anneliese Brost Musikforum Ruhr, opened in 2016.

Annual events

 * Jumble Sale – on the third Saturday of the month, in front of city hall
 * April/May: Maiabendfest – local festival, hundreds of years old
 * May: Steam Festival (every other year [even or odd?])
 * June events:
 * Rubissimo, Ruhr University's summer festival
 * Kemnade International
 * Extraschicht – Night of Industrial Heritage (many locations all over the Ruhr area)

 * June/July: VfL for Fun – summer festival for Bochum's football (soccer) team, VfL Bochum 1848
 * July: Bochum Total (Rock Music Festival) – starts on the first weekend after school lets out
 * July or August: Bochum kulinarisch – culinary treats from various cuisines, held the last weekend of summer vacation
 * August: Bochumer Musiksommer, Bochum's Summer of Music
 * September: Open Flair – international cabaret and street theatre
 * October: Oktobermarkt – October Market
 * October/November: Bochumer Bachtage – music of composer Johann Sebastian Bach
 * October/November: Ruhrgebiets-Antiquariatstag – used and antique book sale
 * November: Children's and Teenagers' Theatre
 * December: Weihnachtsmarkt – Christmas Market – month-long open air market spread over the heart of downtown Bochum, includes performance stages

Museums

 * The German Mining Museum is a museum about mining technology, complete with pithead tower.
 * Railway Museum and Station Dahlhausen in the borough of Dahlhausen. Dr.-C.-Otto-Straße 191
 * Zeiss Planetarium
 * At the city's border with Herne-(Röhlinghausen), is the former mine Zeche Hannover with the Malakow Tower and engine hall. There is a steam-powered winding engine, which is operated at events.
 * Zeche Knirps ("Small Boy Mine") located on the ground of Mine Hannover. It gives children the opportunity to experience the processes in a mine.
 * Museum of local history Helf's Farm, Address: In den Höfen 37
 * Farmhouse Museum located on the grounds of moated Kemnade Castle
 * Museum of historic medical tools in the Malokos-Tower of former Mine Julius-Philipp from 1875. Address: Malakowturm, Markstraße 258a, 44799 Bochum
 * Telefonmuseum, Karl-Lange-Str. 17
 * Kunstmuseum Bochum, Kortumstraße 147, 44787 Bochum

Art galleries

 * Museum of Art: The collection's focus is central and eastern European avant garde art, German expressionism, surrealism and outsider art. Kortumstraße 147, Bochum
 * Ruhr University art collection: Modern art meets the classical. Marble and bronze portraits of Greek and Roman emperors, collection of antique Greek vases from the 9th to 4th century, B.C. Universitätsstraße 150, Bochum
 * Schlieker House: In the former apartment and studio of German painter Hans-Jürgen Schlieker (1924–2004); changing exhibitions. Paracelsusweg 16, 44801 Bochum
 * Situation Kunst: (Situation Art) Located at "Haus Weitmar" park. Indoor permanent exhibition with works by Gianni Colombo, Dan Flavin, Gotthard Graupner, Norbert Kricke, Lee Ufan, François Morellet, Maria Nordman, David Rabinowitch, Arnulf Rainer, Dirk Reinartz, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Ryman, Richard Serra, Jan J. Schoonhoven; also the Africa and Asia Room. Nevelstraße 29c, 44795 Bochum
 * Musical Instrument Collection, Hans and Hede Grumbt: Large collection of musical instruments, also the clarinet collection of Johan van Kalker. An der Kemnade 10, 45527 Hattingen
 * Ostasiatika Collection Ehrich: Kurt Ehrich's east Asian collection of Japanese netsuke, belt buckles, a display of the seven "lucky gods" and other additional objects. An der Kemnade 10, 45527 Hattingen,
 * ER MindArts: Contemporary Art online Gallery was established in Bochum in 2014. www.ermindarts.com

Public art

 * Richard Serra's sculpture, "Terminal" is located in the town centre, near the central station. It consists of four 12-metre (over 39 feet) tall steel plates.
 * Ulrich Rückriem's sculpture, "Ohne Titel" (titled "Untitled"), in front of the Kunstmuseum Bochum (Museum of Art).
 * Memorial of the herdsman at Massenberg-Boulevard: Memorial for "the good old times", when Bochum was a farmers town. The herdsmans of the town guided until 1870 the cattle of the citizens to the "Vöde", a grassland outside the town limits, a part of it is today the municipal park. Local legends say it is "the last herdsman Fritz Kortebusch". But he died 1866, nevertheless he done this job for a long time.
 * Engelbert statue in the front of the Propsteikirche. In former times it was a fountain with statue at the Kortumstrasse. It is for memory of Earl Engelbert III, who founded the so-called Maiabendfest. It is often assumed that the statue shows his grandfather Engelbert II, who granted extended market rights to Bochum in 1321.
 * Jobsiade-fountain at Husemann-Square. Shown is a scene of the examination of Hieronymus Jobs, the main character of the "Jobsiade", a comical poem of the poet Carl Armold Kortum.
 * "The envolvement of the City", sculpture of at Schützenbahn street.
 * Collection of sculptures inside the municipal park.
 * The bell in front of the city hall serves as a reminder of the improvement of steel-casting in Bochum. The bell was built in 1867 for the Paris World's Fair.
 * Stolpersteine (literally, "stumbling stones") are small, cobblestone-sized, brass commemorative plaques which are set in sidewalks all over Europe, marking the homes or work places of Jews and others who were arrested and murdered during the Nazi era. There are 38 stolpersteine in Bochum.
 * Cenotaph for the victims of the mine disaster at "Vereinigte Präsident" in 1936 at the graveyard in Bochum-Hamme. The sculpture was created by Wilhelm Wulff. Strict guidelines for artwork were in effect during the Nazi dictatorship, yet the sculpture follows only a few of them. The inscription also avoids typical Nazi phraseology.

Music
Founded in 1919, Bochum's orchestra, the Bochumer Symphoniker, has developed over the course of its history into one of the most important concert orchestras in western Germany. Since October 28, 2016, the Anneliese Brost Musikforum Ruhr has been a permanent venue. Tung-Chieh Chuang has been General Music Director of the Bochum Symphony Orchestra and Artistic Director of the Anneliese Brost Musikforum Ruhr since the 2021/2022 season. The Bochum Philharmonic Choir gives about four to five concerts a year and usually performs together with the Bochum Symphony Orchestra. In one of the venues, the Audimax of the Ruhr University Bochum, there is also one of the most modern organs from the Klais Orgelbau with 82 registers.

The free rock festival Bochum Total has been taking place in Bochum city center since 1986. With 900,000 spectators, it is now one of the largest music events in Europe.

Since the summer of 1995, the Kunstwerkstatt  am Hellweg, a former carpenter's workshop, has hosted a wide variety of concerts all year round, from medieval music to baroque music, from Bach to jazz and boogie-woogie. In this informal setting, music fans have the opportunity not only to “sit in the front row”, but also to come into direct contact with the artists. Often artists also play here who can be heard in the Carnegie Hall, in the Concertgebouw, in the Berlin Philharmonic or in the Great Hall of the Tchaikovsky Conservatory. Again and again. The initiators, Dr. Reinhard Cebulla and his wife Anna, received the Badge of Honor from the city of Bochum in 2013 and the Wattenscheid St. Gertrudis Prize in 2014.

Sports

 * The football club VfL Bochum played in the first Division from 1971 to 1992, and from 1992 to 2010 was alternating almost every year between first and second Division, but mostly first. From 2010 to 2021 it played in the second Division (2. Bundesliga) before being promoted back to the first Division for the 2021–2022 season.
 * VfL AstroStars Bochum – professional basketball team. Home arena is the Rundsporthalle.
 * Sparkassen Giro Bochum – annual road bike race.

Located companies

 * ARAL AG (Head Office), an enterprise of the Deutsche BP AG
 * Bochumer Eisenhütte Heintzmann GmbH & Co. KG – Mining, tunnelling and heat treatment
 * Bochumer Verein – formerly the "Inoxum" part of the ThyssenKrupp enterprise, now Outokumpu Nirosta
 * Bogestra (Head Office) – Bochum-Gelsenkirchener Straßenbahnen AG, local traffic firm
 * Sparkasse Bochum – public-law bank
 * Vonovia – Germany's largest residential property company (headquarters)
 * Dr. C. Otto & Comp. – fire-proof materials
 * Faber Lotto-Service GmbH
 * G Data CyberDefense AG (Head Office) – contractor of IT security solutions. well-known product: G Data AntiVirus
 * GEA Group AG founded in Bochum, headquarter moved to Düsseldorf in 2011
 * Gebr. Eickhoff Maschinenfabrik und Eisengießerei GmbH
 * GLS Bank
 * I.S.T. Services
 * Johnson Controls, just-in-time industry supplier for parts of the car, especially for Opel
 * Meteomedia GmbH (Head Office) – private weather service, German subsidiary of the Swiss Meteomedia ag
 * Möbel Hardeck – furniture shop
 * Office Jack- home and office furniture shop
 * Privatbrauerei Moritz Fiege, middle-large regional beer brewery
 * QVC – call centre
 * Roeser Medical
 * ThyssenKrupp
 * United Cinemas International
 * USB Umweltservice Bochum GmbH – municipal disposal firm (100% subsidiary of the Bochumer Stadtwerke)
 * Wollschläger Gruppe (Head Office) – trading house in the sector tooling equipment and machines (bankrupt)

Roads
Bochum is connected to the Autobahn network by the A 40, A 43 and A 44 autobahns. In addition, Bochum has a ring road, built to expressway standards, consisting of four segments; the Donezk, Oviedo, Nordhausen and Sheffield-Ring roads. It serves as a three-quarter loop around central Bochum and begins and ends at Autobahn A40. Ruhr University Bochum is also served by an expressway running from the Nordhausen-Ring to Autobahn A43. Until 2012, a new interchange (Dreieck Bochum-West) between the Donezk-Ring and Autobahn A40 is being constructed within tight parameters due to the existence of a nearby factory.

Apart from the autobahns and expressways, there is also a small ring road around the centre of Bochum, where most roads radiating out of Bochum begin. Most main roads in Bochum are multi-lane roads with traffic lights. Bochum is also served by the Bundesstraße 51 and Bundesstraße 226. B51 runs to Herne and Hattingen, and B226 runs to Gelsenkirchen and Witten.

Railways
Bochum has a central station situated on the line from Duisburg to Dortmund, connecting the city to the long-distance network of Deutsche Bahn as well as to the Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn network.

Bus, tram, underground
Local service is supplied mainly by BOGESTRA, a joint venture handling transportation between the cities of Bochum and Gelsenkirchen. The Bochum Stadtbahn is a single underground line connecting the University of Bochum to Herne, and the Bochum/Gelsenkirchen tramway network is made up of several lines, partially underground, connecting to Gelsenkirchen, Hattingen and Witten. Public transport in the city is priced according to the fare system of the VRR transport association.

Waterways
As one of the few Ruhr area cities, Bochum is not directly connected with the German waterway net; the closest link is in the more northern located Herne at the Rhine-Herne Canal. In the south the border of Bochum is marked by the Ruhr. Up to the first half of the 19th century it was one of the most-travelled rivers in Europe and was mainly used for coal departure. Aside from cruise ships, it is no longer used for commercial navigation.

Air
The closest airports are Essen/Mülheim Airport (27 km), Dortmund Airport (31 km) and Düsseldorf Airport (47 km). To reach the airport in Düsseldorf, there are ICE, InterCity, RE and S railway lines. Other reachable airports are the Cologne Bonn Airport, the Weeze Airport, the Münster International Airport and the Paderborn Lippstadt Airport.

Higher education

 * Ruhr University Bochum, founded 1965
 * Bochum University of Applied Sciences (Hochschule Bochum, formerly Fachhochschule Bochum)
 * Georg Agricola University of Applied Sciences (TH Georg Agricola)
 * Protestant University of Applied Sciences, Rheinland-Westphalia-Lippe (Evangelische FH Rheinland-Westfalen-Lippe)
 * Schauspielschule Bochum (Bochum drama school)
 * College of the Federal Social Security, Department of Social Insurance for Seafarers (Fachhochschule des Bundes der Sozialversicherung, Abteilung Knappschaft-Bahn-See)
 * University of Health Sciences (Hochschule für Gesundheit)

Elementary and secondary schools
There are 61 primary schools, 9 Hauptschulen ("general schools") and 14 special schools.

In addition, there are 11 preparatory (British: grammar) schools ("Gymnasien"), 5 comprehensive schools ("Gesamtschulen"), 8 Realschulen and 2 private Waldorf schools.

"Gymnasien" – preparatory schools (British: grammar school):
 * Goethe-Schule Bochum
 * Graf-Engelbert-Schule
 * Heinrich-von-Kleist-Schule
 * Hellweg-Schule
 * Hildegardis-Schule
 * Lessing-Schule
 * Märkische Schule
 * Neues Gymnasium Bochum (school formed by merger of the former Albert-Einstein-Schule and Gymnasium am Ostring)
 * Schiller-Schule
 * Theodor-Körner-Schule

"Gesamtschulen" – comprehensive schools:
 * Erich Kästner-Gesamtschule Schule
 * Heinrich-Böll-Gesamtschule
 * Maria Sibylla Merian-Gesamtschule
 * Willy-Brandt-Gesamtschule
 * Matthias-Claudius-Schulen

Realschulen – high schools:
 * Anne-Frank-Schule
 * Annette-von-Droste-Hülshoff-Schule
 * Franz-Dinnendahl-Schule
 * Hans-Böckler-Schule
 * Helene-Lange-Schule
 * Hugo-Schultz-Schule
 * Pestalozzi-Schule
 * Realschule Höntrop
 * Freie-Schule Bochum (with elementary school)

Waldorf schools:
 * Rudolf Steiner Schule Bochum
 * Widar Schule Wattenscheid

Twin towns – sister cities
Bochum is twinned with:
 * 🏴 Sheffield, England, United Kingdom (1950)
 * 🇪🇸 Oviedo, Spain (1980)
 * 🇺🇦 Donetsk, Ukraine (1987)
 * 🇩🇪 Nordhausen, Germany (1990)
 * 🇯🇵 Tsukuba, Japan (2019)

There is a major road in Bochum named Sheffield-Ring after its sister city Sheffield, England. There is also a long section of dual carriageway on the south-western edge of Sheffield, between the suburbs of Meadowhead and Gleadless, named Bochum Parkway.

Notable people

 * Lore Agnes (1876–1953), politician and women's rights activist
 * Kurt Biedenkopf (1930–2021), politician (CDU), 1967–1969 Rector of the Ruhr University
 * Jochen Borchert (born 1940), politician (CDU), 1993–1998 Federal Minister of Food, Agriculture and Forestry
 * Willi Brokmeier (born 1928), operatic tenor
 * Elmar Budde (born 1935), musicologist
 * Wolfgang Clement (1940–2020), politician (SPD), former Minister of Economy and Labour
 * Hans Ehrenberg (1883–1958), theologian, Nazi critic, and co-founder of the Confessing Church
 * Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), 1967 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry
 * Tommy Finke (born 1981), songwriter and composer
 * Josef Franke (1876–1944), architect
 * Kuno Gonschior (1935–2010), painter and university professor
 * Frank Goosen (born 1966), cabaret artist and author, wrote Learning to Lie
 * Herbert Grönemeyer (born 1956), actor (Das Boot), singer, songwriter of the song "Bochum"
 * Erna Herchenröder (1903–1977), politician (SPD)
 * Claus Holm (1918–1996), actor, born in Bochum
 * Else Hirsch (1889–1943), Jewish teacher who organised 10 Kindertransports to England and the Netherlands
 * Max Imdahl (1925–1988), art historian
 * Rolf Kanies (born 1957), actor, studied at Schauspielschule Bochum and performed at Schauspielhaus Bochum
 * Heinz Kaminski (1921–2002), chemical engineer and space scientist
 * Alfred Keller (1882–1974), general in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War
 * Gershon Kingsley (1922–2019), Broadway musical director and composer, most notably of the electronic hit Popcorn
 * Thomas Köner (born 1965), multimedia artist
 * Carl Arnold Kortum (1745–1824), physician and writer
 * Christine Lang (born 1957), German microbiologist
 * Norbert Lammert (born 1948), politician (CDU), president (Speaker) of the Bundestag (German parliament)
 * Karl-Heinz von Liebezeit (born 1960), actor, went to grammar and drama schools in Bochum
 * Hans Matthöfer (1925–2009), politician (SPD)
 * Ingo Naujoks (born 1962), actor
 * Elisabeth Niggemeyer (born 1930), photographer
 * Hans Werner Olm (born 1955), comedian
 * Andrei Osterman (1686–1747), Bochum-born Russian statesman.
 * Bastian Pastewka (born 1972), actor and comedian
 * Konrad Raiser (born 1938), former General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, taught theology in Bochum
 * Christian Redl (born 1948), actor, studied at Schauspielschule Bochum
 * Armin Rohde (born 1955), actor
 * Gerhard Charles Rump (born 1947), art historian and art dealer
 * Otto Schily (born 1932), lawyer, politician (first The Greens, now SPD), former Minister of the Interior
 * Hans-Jürgen Schlieker (1924–2004), painter
 * Peter Scholl-Latour (1924–2014), German-French journalist and writer
 * Paul Sethe (1901–1967), journalist
 * André Tanneberger (born 1973), also known as "ATB", electronic music producer, began his career in Wattenscheid
 * Jing Xiang (born 1993), actress at Schauspielhaus Bochum
 * Werner Stengel (born 1936), rollercoaster designer and engineer

Sport

 * Albert Bollmann (1889–1959), football player
 * Hermann Gerland (born 1954), football player and coach
 * Leon Goretzka (born 1995), football player, Olympic silver medalist
 * Joël Matip (born 1991), German-born Cameroonian football player
 * Tim Sandtler (born 1987), racing driver
 * Mark Warnecke (born 1970), breaststroke swimmer, won the world title at the age of 35
 * Lirim Zendeli (born 1999), racing driver

title: Bochum


text:
Talk:Hamburg German

Untitled
According to Low Saxon language (and Niedersächsische Sprache, which it was based on), Hamburger is a Northern Low Saxon dialect. Northern Low Saxon language implies otherwise. Is it? -- Toby 18:31 Feb 4, 2003 (UTC)

Hamburger is a variant of Northern Low Saxon like Schleswiger and Holsteiner.

Is the pronunciation of "Hamburg" correct? It was given by the same contributor that made jokes about McDonald's and referred to the dialect as "highly corrupted". -- Toby 00:16 Feb 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * The pronounciation of "Hamburg" in Hamburgisch is something like Humm-boorkh. The "kh" is spoken very softly. In German you pronounce it like Humm-boorg

This soft "kh" sound -- is it like "ch" in a Standard German word like "Milch" or "manch"? The the contributor's "sch" spelling is the usual approximation, and "ch(i)" means the sort of "ch" sound that comes before "i". What if we just change it to a straight "ch"? That seems less confusing to me, even if less precise, and I've long been of the opinion anyone that the front "ch" is the default any when it appears after a consonant at the end of a syllable. -- Toby 02:46 Feb 5, 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, the "soft kh" is the same as in "Milch". Maybe this description is good to explain the pronouciation of "Hamburg" in the article?

Sounds good to me. -- Toby 23:11 Feb 5, 2003 (UTC)

No, it's wrong. The pronunciation of "Hamburg" in Standard German is [ˈhambʊʁk], which becomes [ˈhambʊɪ̯ç] in the regional variety of Standard German in Northern Germany, but the Hamburg Low German word is "Hamborg" ['hambɔːx] with a velar fricative as in "loch". 134.100.32.73 08:42, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Split of the article into Holsteinisch and North Hanoverian
Hello, this article has the clearly differing varieties Geest-Platt and Marsch-Platt together. The first is part of spatially extensive grouping Holsteinisch and the latter part of spatially extensive grouping North Hanoverian. Both have no article. Hence there should be a split into Holsteinisch and North Hanoverian. Kind regards, Sarcelles (talk) 15:51, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

Northern Low German vs. West Low German
See Talk:Elbingian. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2003:DE:370C:38A6:CCC3:BAC8:B246:9099 (talk) 02:53, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hamburg German


text:
The Jerk

The Jerk is a 1979 American comedy film directed by Carl Reiner and written by Steve Martin, Carl Gottlieb, and Michael Elias (from a story by Martin and Gottlieb). This was Martin's first starring role in a feature film. The film also features Bernadette Peters, M. Emmet Walsh, Catlin Adams, Maurice Evans, and Jackie Mason. Critical reviews were mostly positive, and The Jerk was a major financial success.

Plot
Navin Johnson, a homeless person sleeping in a stairwell in Los Angeles, addresses the camera directly to tell his life story.

The white adopted son of black sharecroppers in Mississippi, Navin grows to adulthood naïvely unaware of these circumstances. He is unable to dance in rhythm to the spirited folk songs played by the family, but finds that he can do so perfectly to a champagne-style song on the radio. Seeing this moment as a calling, he excitedly decides to leave home and travel to St. Louis, where the broadcast originated. Along the way, he adopts a dog and names it "Shithead" after angering the guests at a motel by waking them up in the middle of the night, having misinterpreted the dog's barking at his door as a warning of a fire.

Navin finds a job as a gas station attendant, where he attempts to detain some thieves but accidentally destroys a nearby church. Later, a madman chooses his name at random from the telephone book and decides to kill him. As the gunman waits for an opportunity, Navin solders a brace to a customer's eyeglasses to stop them from slipping down his nose. The customer, Stan Fox, is an inventor who promises to try to market the device and split any profits with Navin. The gunman opens fire at Navin but misses, and Navin flees to the grounds of a traveling carnival.

Navin is hired as a weight guesser and is brusquely seduced by Patty Bernstein, an intimidating daredevil motorcyclist. Later, while operating a miniature railway, he meets a cosmetologist named Marie Kimble and arranges a date with her. When a jealous Patty interrupts and threatens to rough them up, Marie knocks her unconscious. The two fall in love and live together for about a month. Navin plans to ask Marie to marry him, but before he can, she leaves him because he cannot provide financial security. Devastated, Navin takes Shithead and travels to Los Angeles. There, the gunman who tried to kill him—now sane and working as a private investigator—tracks him down and gives him a letter from Stan requesting a meeting.

Stan has been able to market Navin's device, now branded as the Opti-Grab, and gives him a check for $250,000 as the first installment on his share of the profits. Navin finds and marries Marie, and the two adopt a life of extravagant spending as his wealth continues to grow. Soon, though, Navin is named as defendant in a class action lawsuit brought by millions of Opti-Grab users who have become permanently cross-eyed after using the device. Navin loses the suit and is ordered to pay $10 million in damages, leaving him broke, and he storms out into the street after an argument with Marie.

Having finished his story, Navin resigns himself to living in poverty, only to be found by his adoptive family, who have brought Marie and Shithead with them. The family has become wealthy by investing the money Navin sent them from time to time, and they take him and Marie home to live in their new house, which is nearly identical to their old shack but larger. Once again Navin dances on the porch to folk songs, this time with perfect rhythm.

Cast
Director Carl Reiner, credited as "Carl Reiner, the Celebrity", plays himself. Former Playboy Playmate Sharon Johansen plays Mrs. Hartounian, while Alfred Dennis has a small role as Irving. In addition there are uncredited appearances by Reiner's son Rob Reiner as the truck driver who picks up Navin, Harrison Ford who interacts with Martin briefly as a circus construction worker, and character actor Larry Hankin briefly appears as a circus hand.

Production
By 1977, comedian Steve Martin was experiencing wild success. He wanted to cross over to a film career, believing it promised more longevity. Basing his film proposal on a line from his act — "It wasn't always easy for me; I was born a poor black child" — he fleshed out his ideas into a series of notes he intended to deliver to studios. With confidence in his budding standup career, he imagined it would not be difficult to break into Hollywood. Instead, he found it more difficult than expected. Bill McEuen was acquainted with Paramount Pictures president David Picker, and convinced Picker to sign Martin for a three-year contract at the studio after showing him one of his routines at the Boarding House comedy club in San Francisco.

Martin passed along his notes, which the studio read carefully. It described a series of odd jobs lead character "Steve" would hold in his saga. Martin developed this concept into the first draft of The Jerk, but Paramount passed on the project after Picker left the studio. However, Picker convinced his new employer Universal Studios to sign a distribution deal for the film, which would leave Martin in creative control of the project. Martin was able to pick which director he wanted to work with. Martin initially chose Mike Nichols, but Nichols then "bowed out" of the project in 1978. Martin's next choice was Carl Reiner, famous for his work on The Dick Van Dyke Show.

The duo met constantly, and the film's title grew out of their conversations. Martin recounts in his memoir:"It needs to be something short, yet have the feeling of an epic tale. Like Dostoyevsky's The Idiot, but not that. Like The Jerk."

Martin wrote the part of "Marie" with Bernadette Peters in mind. He adapted several bits of his standup act to fit within the film, such as a monologue in which he emotionally exits a scene, remarking "I don't need anything", but nevertheless picking up each object he passes on his way out. In co-writing the script with Carl Gottlieb and Michael Elias, their goal was to provide a laugh on each page of the screenplay.

Principal photography took 45 days using 85 locations in Greater Los Angeles, on a $4.6 million budget. This included Mohammed al Fassi's mansion in Beverly Hills, Pasadena, Westlake Village and Devonshire Downs in Northridge. In shooting the film, Reiner "ran a joyful set", according to Martin, with the cast and crew eating lunch together each day. Martin's favorite moment of the film, as he detailed in his 2007 memoir Born Standing Up, was the scene in which he and Peters sing "Tonight You Belong to Me". Martin felt the moment was touching, and waited in anticipation at the film's premiere screening in St. Louis. Unfortunately, much of the audience left during the scene to buy more popcorn.

Deleted scenes
A scene in which Bill Murray was to have made a cameo was cut from the final film.

An alternate, comic introduction of Marie (Peters), near the train ride Navin was running at the carnival, was shot. When her nephew takes off on the train, Navin rescues him, and in returning the boy to Marie, has the bill of his engineer's cap pulled down over his eyes so he cannot see the toy village he (Navin) destroys like a lunatic. This scene might have been edited due to a reference to Godzilla.

Another scene that was cut featured Gailard Sartain as a Texas oil millionaire who tearfully begs Navin for money to replace the cracked, dried-out leather seats on his private jet. Navin grants his request and he gratefully states: "Now I can fly my friends to the Super Bowl like a MAN, and not some damned BUM!"

The television version features a scene in which a forlorn Navin, trying to forget Marie, spends six hours on the Round Up carnival ride. The boss orders the ride stopped, and Navin is removed by two carnival workers, who sit him down on the ride's stairs. "What are you looking at?", he asks them. "Haven't you seen a man so broken he needed to spin?".

Box office
The film was an hit, earning over $73 million domestically, (making the movie the eighth highest-grossing of 1979) and $100 million worldwide, having been produced on a relatively low budget of $4 million.

Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 82% based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Crude, crass, and oh so quotable, The Jerk is nothing short of an all-out comedic showcase for Steve Martin." On Metacritic, the film received a score of 61 based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that The Jerk "is by turns funny, vulgar and backhandedly clever, never more so than when it aspires to absolute stupidity. And Mr. Martin, who began his career with an arrow stuck through his head, has since developed a real genius for playing dumb ... Even when it's crude—which is quite a lot of the time—it's not mean-spirited ... Mr. Martin and his co-star, Bernadette Peters, work very sweetly together, even when they sing a duet of 'Tonight You Belong to Me,' carrying sweetness to what could easily have become an intolerable extreme."

BBC film review rated the movie two out of five stars and described the film as an "early watered-down version of the crude comedy the Farrelly Brothers would later take to new extremes" and made references to it having similar themes to the early 1980s parody film Airplane! Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times also gave the film a mixed review, stating The Jerk was "all gags and very little comedy" and built of "gag situations [which] are milked for one-time laughs. They don't grow out of his character, or contribute to it."

VideoHound's Golden Movie Retriever reviewed the film for its book and rated the movie as being two and a half stars. The author of the review referred to Steve Martin's silly, exaggerated acting as complementary to the early comedian Jerry Lewis.

Legacy
The Jerk has been praised as not only one of Martin's best comedic efforts, but also one of the funniest films ever made. In 2000, readers of Total Film voted The Jerk the 48th greatest comedy film of all time. This film is No. 20 on Bravo's 100 Funniest Movies and No. 89 on the American Film Institute list AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs. IGN ranked the film as the tenth top comedy film of all time. Premiere voted Steve Martin's performance of Navin Johnson No. 99 on their list, "The 100 Greatest Performances of All Time". A BBC poll of more than 250 critics rated the film as the 99th greatest comedy of all time.

Christiane Kubrick hailed it as one of Stanley Kubrick's favorite films of all time. It led to Kubrick meeting with Martin to discuss working together on his film Eyes Wide Shut.

In a 2015 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Steve Martin was asked if the film would be accepted in this day and age with all of the "heightened racial sensitivity." His response was that he had not watched the movie himself in a very long time, but when he reflects on his experience with making the movie he recalls everyone being treated "with such respect" throughout the filming process.

Sequel
The Jerk had a television film sequel, The Jerk, Too (1984), starring Mark Blankfield as Navin and co-starring Stacey Nelkin. Steve Martin was executive producer, but did not write the screenplay.

title: The Jerk


text:
Land Camera

The Land Camera is a model of self-developing film camera manufactured by Polaroid between 1948 and 1983. It is named after the inventor, American scientist Edwin Land, who developed a process for self-developing photography between 1943 and 1947. After Edwin Land's retirement from Polaroid in 1982, the name 'Land' was dropped from the camera name. The first commercially available model was the Model 95, which produced sepia-colored prints in about 1 minute. It was first sold to the public on November 26, 1948.

Film
The photography developing process, invented by Polaroid founder Edwin Land, employs diffusion transfer to move the dyes from the negative to the positive via a reagent. A negative sheet was exposed inside the camera, then lined up with a positive sheet and squeezed through a set of rollers which spread a reagent between the two layers, creating a developing film "sandwich". The negative developed quickly, after which some of the unexposed silver halide grains (and the latent image it contained) were solubilized by the reagent and transferred by diffusion from the negative to the positive. After a minute, the back of the camera was opened and the negative peeled away to reveal the print.

In 1963, Land introduced Polacolor pack film, which made instant color photographs possible. This process involved pulling two tabs from the camera, the second which pulled the film sandwich through the rollers to develop out of the camera. The instant color process is much more complex, involving a negative which contains three layers of emulsion sensitive to blue, green, and red. Underneath each layer are dye developing molecules in their complementary colors of yellow, magenta, and cyan. When light strikes an emulsion layer, it blocks the complementary dye below it. For instance, when blue strikes the blue sensitive emulsion layer, it blocks the yellow dye, but allows the magenta and cyan dyes to transfer to the positive, which combine to create blue. When green and red (yellow) strikes their respective layers, it blocks the complementary dyes of magenta and cyan below them, allowing only yellow dye to transfer to the positive.

In 1972, integral film was introduced which did not require the user to time the development or peel apart the negative from the positive. This process was similar to Polacolor film with added timing and receiving layers. The film itself integrates all the layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo into a plastic envelope commonly associated with a Polaroid photo. The Polaroid SX-70 was the first camera to use this film.

Improvements in SX-70 film led to the higher speed 600 series film, then to different formats such as 500 series (captiva), and spectra.

Roll film
The original cameras folded into the body and used bellows to protect the light path. The film was put on two spools, one with the negative roll, and one with the positive paper and reagent pods. The film developed inside the camera. The exception to this is the Polaroid Swinger, a hard-bodied roll-film camera whose film was pulled out of the camera body to develop outside the camera. The film for roll-film cameras was discontinued in 1992.

100 Series Pack cameras
These cameras were developed after the rollfilm models and were designed to use the newly developed 100 series pack film. As with the Swinger the film sandwich was pulled out of the camera to develop outside of the camera, but instead of two separate rolls the film was built into a compact easy loading film pack which contained 8 exposures. Hard body plastic models were marketed later a low cost alternative to the more expensive models with bellows.

There are four generations of folding colorpack cameras: the 100, the 200, the 300, and 400 series. Polaroid announced in 2008 the discontinuation of all of its film by 2009, and Fujifilm stopped producing pack film in 2016. Polaroid B.V. manufactures and sells Polaroid integrative type film for 600 and SX-70 cameras. In September 2019, Spectra/Image film was discontinued.

Meanwhile, Bob Crowley, New55, the investor David Bohnett and Florian Kaps, known as the founder of Impossible Project (now Polaroid B.V.), managed to produce packfilm for the folding colourpack cameras under the label New55. New55 FILM ended operations on December 31, 2017.

Supersence (also founded by Florian Kaps) currently produces single-shot packs handmade from original 8x10 film manufactured by Polaroid named ONE INSTANT.

title: Land Camera