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Westmorland

Westmorland (, formerly also spelt Westmoreland ) is an area of Northern England which was historically a county. People of the area are known as Westmerians. The area includes part of the Lake District and the southern Vale of Eden.

The county had an administrative function from the 12th century until 1974, when it was subsumed into Cumbria together with Cumberland, the Sedbergh area of Yorkshire, and the Furness area of Lancashire. It gives its name to the Westmorland and Furness unitary authority area of Cumbria, which covers a larger area than the former county.

Background
At the beginning of the 10th century a large part of modern day Cumbria was part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and was known as "Scottish Cumberland". The Rere Cross was ordered by Edmund I (r.939–946) to serve as a boundary marker between England and Scotland ("Scottish Cumberland").

County of Westmorland
At the time of Domesday Book in 1086, the county did not exist; half was considered to form part of Yorkshire and the other half part of Scotland. Before 1226, the Barony of Kendal was part of the Honour of Lancaster while the Barony of Westmorland was part of the Earldom of Carlisle, the latter became Cumberland and was part of Scotland at times.

Both baronies became a single county of Westmorland in 1226/7. Neighbouring Lancashire was also formed at this time. Appleby was the historic county town, having been chartered in 1179. It was a parliamentary borough from 1295-1832, and incorporated by letters patent in 1574.

Geography
Westmorland bordered Cumberland to the north, County Durham and Yorkshire to the east, and Lancashire to the south and west. Windermere formed part of the western border with Lancashire north of the sands, and Ullswater part of the border with Cumberland. The highest point of the county is Helvellyn, at 3117 ft. According to the 1831 census the county covered an area of 485990 acre.

Division into wards
Westmorland was subdivided into the two baronies of Westmorland (or sometimes Appleby) and Kendal. As with Cumberland, Durham and Northumberland it was divided into wards. The baronies were each further subdivided into two wards:

 * Westmorland
 * East ward – Appleby, Brough, Kirkby Stephen, Orton, Tebay
 * West ward – Askham, Bampton, Barton, Patterdale, Shap, Yanwath
 * Kendal
 * Kendal ward – Ambleside, Burton-in-Kendal, Grasmere, Grayrigg, Kentmere, Kendal, Windermere
 * Lonsdale ward – Kirkby Lonsdale

Modern history
In 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888, a county council was created for Westmorland, taking functions from the quarter sessions. The county council was based at the County Hall in Kendal, although the assizes were held in the Shire Hall in the historic county town of Appleby. Kendal had been chartered as a municipal borough in 1835, Appleby in 1885. The county had no county boroughs throughout its history, so the administrative county, the area under the control of the county council, was coterminous with the geographic county.

Aside from the two municipal boroughs of Kendal and Appleby, the Local Government Act 1894 divided the county into urban districts and rural districts: In 1905 a new Shap urban district was formed, while Windermere absorbed the neighbouring Bowness UD.
 * Five urban districts: Ambleside, Bowness on Windermere, Grasmere, Kirkby Lonsdale, Windermere
 * Three rural districts: West Ward, East Westmorland, South Westmorland

A County Review Order in 1935 reduced the number of districts in the county:
 * A new Lakes Urban District was formed by the merger of Ambleside and Grasmere UDs and adjacent parishes in West Ward and South Westmorland RDs
 * East Westmorland RD, most of West Ward RD and Shap UD were merged to form North Westmorland Rural District
 * South Westmorland RD absorbed Kirkby Lonsdale UD, at the same time losing an area to Lakes UD.

Despite their title, many of Westmorland's urban districts, such as Lakes, Grasmere, and Shap, were quite rural in character.

According to the 1971 census, Westmorland was the second least populated administrative county in England, after Rutland. The distribution of population was as follows:

In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county council was abolished and its former area was combined with Cumberland and parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire to form the new county of Cumbria, administered by a new Cumbria County Council. The area formed parts of the districts of South Lakeland and Eden from 1974 to 2023.

In July 2021 Robert Jenrick, Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government announced the dissolution of Cumbria County Council and its six district councils and their replacement in April 2023 by two unitary authorities: Cumberland, and Westmorland and Furness. The latter re-united and re-established historic Westmorland within a single administrative unit, along with the Furness (Lancs), Penrith (Cumberland) and Sedbergh (Yorks) areas.

Toponymy
J. E. Marr explains the name "Westmorland" thus:

The name applied to the district by the Anglo-Saxons was originally Westmoringaland, 'the land of the people of the western moors,' in distinction from that of the people of the eastern moors, on the east side of the Pennine chain. The present name has not, however, been derived from that of Westmoringaland, but from Westmarieland or Westmerieland, used in the twelfth century, hence Westmerland. The meaning of this is land of the western meres, and not moors. Mere means boundary as well as a lake, and it is doubtful whether the word as used here refers to lakes or boundaries. There is no doubt that Westmerland is the more correct spelling [...].

Coat of arms
The College of Arms granted Westmorland County Council a coat of arms in 1926. The design of the shield referred to the two components of the county: on two red bars (from the arms of the de Lancaster family, Barons of Kendal) was placed a gold apple tree (from the seal of the borough of Appleby, for the Barony of Westmorland). The crest above the shield was the head of a ram of the local Herdwick breed. On the ram's forehead was a shearman's hook, a tool used in the handling of wool. The hook was part of the insignia of the borough of Kendal, the administrative centre of the county council.

Legacy
in April 2023, Westmorland reappeared on national maps as part of Westmorland and Furness unitary authority. During the intervening 1974-2023 period, Westmorland has still been used as a place name by organisations and businesses in the area such as:
 * The Westmorland Gazette (founded 1818)
 * The Westmorland County Agricultural Society (founded 1799), which organises the annual Westmorland County Agricultural Society Show
 * The Westmorland County Football Association, the regional division of the Football Association that administers many football leagues including the Westmorland Association Football League.
 * The Westmorland Geological Society (formed 1973)
 * The Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society (founded 1866)
 * The Westmorland Youth Orchestra
 * The Westmorland Shopping Centre, Kendal
 * The Westmorland Cricket League
 * Westmorland Motorway Services, the company behind Tebay services in Westmorland and Gloucester Services.
 * In 1974 the successor parish council formed for the former borough of Appleby adopted the name Appleby-in-Westmorland.
 * Westmorland General Hospital in Kendal
 * Westmorland croquet club

The southern part of the county, the former Barony of Kendal or that part of Westmorland that is part of South Lakeland, is included in the Westmorland and Lonsdale parliamentary constituency.

In June 1994, during the 1990s UK local government reform, the Local Government Commission published draft recommendations suggesting that Westmorland's border with Yorkshire and Lancashire be restored for ceremonial purposes. The final recommendations, published in October 1994, did not include such recommendations, apparently due to lack of expression of support for the proposal to the commission.

In September 2011, the Westmorland Association, a local society which promotes the county's identity, successfully registered the Flag of Westmorland with the Flag Institute.

In 2013, the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government, Eric Pickles, formally recognised and acknowledged the continued existence of England's 39 historic counties, including Westmorland.

In April 2023, local government in Cumbria was reorganised into two unitary authority areas, one of which is named Westmorland and Furness and covers all of the historic county along with parts of historic Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumberland.

Notable people

 * Sir Thomas Strickland carried the Flag of St. George at the battle of Agincourt.
 * St. John Boste, Roman Catholic priest and martyr
 * Mary Wakefield, patron of music celebrated with annual Mary Wakefield Festival
 * Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978), award-winning Lancashire poet, born in Kendal
 * George Romney, portrait painter, many paintings by him at Kendal Town Hall
 * William Parr, 1st Baron Parr of Kendal, who was father to Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal and thus the grandfather of Queen Catherine Parr, Henry VIII's sixth wife. The Parrs' ancestral castle, Kendal Castle, is located in Kendal.
 * Tom Barker, trade unionist and socialist, born in Crosthwaite
 * Margaret Cropper, poet
 * Mary Rolls, poet

title: Westmorland


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Talk:IP address spoofing

Untitled
29 May 2003: I have touched this entry up a bit, but all in all it's not too bad. Tarquin's comments about root exploits and what not are valid, but the entry never mentions this as possible. I've filled it out with references to syn flooding and smurf attacks (which both spoof source addresses).

I'm not sure if this entry should go on to talk about things like man-in-the-middle attacks, IPsec and key exchange and possibly how spam uses spoofed from addresses.... Idcmp

 * A lot of people believe spoofing is simply the process of the hiding of the origin of an email. This section should be included. Perhaps it should be an article by itself to explain just what email spoofing is.  It would benefit people who can direct traffic to this one 'email spoofing' page when they wish to explain to someone that "no, I didn't just send you a virus, a virus did" 137.186.22.106 18:35, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

Very inaccurate article.

IP-spoofing cannot lead to root-access on the system, unless the system is majorly misconfigured. This misconfiguration is not due to the fact that it is possible to spoof IP-addresses.

Spoofing is possible without getting the reply-packets, but if it is spoofed TCP-packets, the spoofed host would send RST packets back, indicating that the connection should be torn down by the receiving side -- thus ending the connection even before a three-way handshake is completed.

I could always edit it, but I would probably erase most of what is presented in it, and rewrite it from scratch. The 'notes' are second to worthless in their present state.

 * be bold! These federal standards articles are lousy! -- Tarquin 12:36 14 May 2003 (UTC)

 * I would like to say that ip spoofing can lead to root-access on a system if the ip is part of the authentication.Smallman12q (talk) 22:10, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Spoofing TCP sucessfully sucessfully might be possible if you can predict the TCP pack sequence numbers - if I remember correctly, that is what Kevin Mitnick is supposed to have done. And if you are spoofing from the same LAN, it will be much easier - since you can see the real sequence numbers.

But the article sucks, and I am not sure what the reference to the Federal Standards has to do with it. I might do a re-write when I have the time. -- Michael

IP spoofing can be used for hiding real indentity in UDP based protocols. For example, peer A sends request to peer B (proxy), B forwards the packet to C, C sends reponse directly to A, but spoofs IP address. A does not see real IP address of C. If C spoofs IP address of B, A will see only one IP address - B. Rodi

Log on the node B can prove that there is something more interesting going on than simple data exchange between A and B. C also can ask B to forward packets to more than one destination. B/C will improve security by delaying responses and pretending that there is more bouncers (more nodes of B type) in the network PMLN

Another application of IP address spoofing and IP Port spoofing is avoiding some types of DDoS attacks.

---

I think that the sections named 'Data compression' and 'Satellite Internet access' should be deleted because they have nothing to do with IP address spoofing. 84.202.105.83 04:05, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 26 May 2020 and 3 July 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Junwei Sheng.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 08:37, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:IP address spoofing


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Thomas Adams (architect)

Thomas Adams (10 September 1871 – 24 March 1940) was a British architect who was a pioneer of urban planning in the UK and Canada.

Life and career
Born on Meadowhouse Farm near Edinburgh to dairy farmers James and Margaret Adams, he was educated at Daniel Stewart's College in Edinburgh and was a farmer in his early years. Adams moved to London where he worked as a journalist. He served as secretary to the Garden City Association and was the first manager of Letchworth, England, from 1903 to 1906.

Adams became a designer of low-density residential developments that were commonly referred to as "garden suburbs." In 1909–1914, Adams worked as Town Planning Adviser to the Local Government Board. In 1914, he was invited to Canada to work for the Commission of Conservation to provide better housing for the growing population of industrial cities. After the Halifax Explosion in 1917, Adams designed the Hydrostone section using Garden City principles. In the same year he published Rural planning and development: a study of rural conditions and problems in Canada, one of the earliest books to advocate the use of land use controls. He also designed a portion of Corner Brook, Newfoundland. He worked with Halifax architect Andrew R. Cobb on this project. On other projects in Quebec and Nova Scotia he partnered with Ross and Macdonald of Montreal. He was later responsible for surveys and a plan for New York City. From 1923 to 1930 he was a director of the Regional Plan of New York. The plan was published in 1929 and anticipated the region's basic transportation and infrastructure needs for the next 30 years.

On returning to the United Kingdom, Thomas Adams became one of the early presidents of the Institute of Landscape Architects (ILA) which became the Landscape Institute. In 1932, he was asked by Massachusetts Institute of Technology architect William Emerson to design a city planning curriculum for the university. His son, Frederick Adams, was nominated by Emerson to be the first department head of City Planning at the MIT and was named a "Pioneer Planner" by the American Institute of Certified Planners. Towards the end of his life, Adams served as a visiting lecturer in his son's new department. He took an active role in creating planning institutions in Great Britain, Canada and the United States. In Canada, Adams is recognized as a National Historic Person.

title: Thomas Adams (architect)


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Halifax Explosion

On the morning of 6 December 1917, the French cargo ship SS Mont-Blanc collided with the Norwegian vessel SS Imo in the harbour of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Mont-Blanc, laden with high explosives, caught fire and exploded, devastating the Richmond district of Halifax. At least 1,782 people were killed, largely in Halifax and Dartmouth, by the blast, debris, fires, or collapsed buildings, and an estimated 9,000 others were injured. The blast was the largest human-made explosion at the time. It released the equivalent energy of roughly 2.9 ktonTNT.

Mont-Blanc was under orders from the French government to carry her cargo from New York City via Halifax to Bordeaux, France. At roughly 8:45 am, she collided at low speed, approximately one knot (1.2 mph), with the unladen Imo, chartered by the Commission for Relief in Belgium to pick up a cargo of relief supplies in New York. On Mont-Blanc, the impact damaged benzol barrels stored on deck, leaking vapours which were ignited by sparks from the collision, setting off a fire on board that quickly grew out of control. Approximately 20 minutes later at 9:04:35 am, Mont-Blanc exploded.

Nearly all structures within an 800-metre (half-mile) radius, including the community of Richmond, were obliterated. A pressure wave snapped trees, bent iron rails, demolished buildings, grounded vessels (including Imo, which was washed ashore by the ensuing tsunami), and scattered fragments of Mont-Blanc for kilometres. Across the harbour, in Dartmouth, there was also widespread damage. A tsunami created by the blast wiped out the community of the Mi'kmaq First Nation who had lived in the Tufts Cove area for generations.

Relief efforts began almost immediately, and hospitals quickly became full. Rescue trains began arriving the day of the explosion from across Nova Scotia and New Brunswick while other trains from central Canada and the Northeastern United States were impeded by blizzards. Construction of temporary shelters to house the many people left homeless began soon after the disaster. The initial judicial inquiry found Mont-Blanc to have been responsible for the disaster, but a later appeal determined that both vessels were to blame. The North End of Halifax has several memorials to the victims of the explosion.

Background
Dartmouth lies on the east shore of Halifax Harbour, and Halifax is on the west shore. By 1917, "Halifax's inner harbour had become a principal assembly point for merchant convoys leaving for Britain and France." Halifax and Dartmouth had thrived during times of war; the harbour was one of the British Royal Navy's most important bases in North America, a centre for wartime trade, and a home to privateers who harried the British Empire's enemies during the American Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812.

The completion of the Intercolonial Railway and its Deep Water Terminal in 1880 allowed for increased steamship trade and led to accelerated development of the port area, but Halifax faced an economic downturn in the 1890s as local factories struggled to compete with businesses in central Canada. The British garrison left the city in late 1905 and early 1906. The Canadian government took over the Halifax Dockyard (now CFB Halifax) from the Royal Navy. This dockyard later became the command centre of the Royal Canadian Navy upon its founding in 1910.

Just before the First World War, the Canadian government began a determined, costly effort to develop the harbour and waterfront facilities. The outbreak of the war brought Halifax back to prominence. As the Royal Canadian Navy had virtually no seaworthy ships of its own, the Royal Navy assumed responsibility for maintaining Atlantic trade routes by re-adopting Halifax as its North American base of operations. In 1915, management of the harbour fell under the control of the Royal Canadian Navy; by 1917 there was a growing naval fleet in Halifax, including patrol ships, tugboats, and minesweepers.

The population of Halifax/Dartmouth had increased to between 60,000 and 65,000 people by 1917. Convoys carried men, animals, and supplies to the European theatre of war. The two main points of departure were in Nova Scotia at Sydney, on Cape Breton Island, and Halifax. Hospital ships brought the wounded to the city, so a new military hospital was constructed.

The success of German U-boat attacks on ships crossing the Atlantic Ocean led the Allies to institute a convoy system to reduce losses while transporting goods and soldiers to Europe. Merchant ships gathered at Bedford Basin on the northwestern end of the harbour, which was protected by two sets of anti-submarine nets and guarded by patrol ships of the Royal Canadian Navy.

The convoys departed under the protection of British cruisers and destroyers. A large army garrison protected the city with forts, gun batteries, and anti-submarine nets. These factors drove a major military, industrial, and residential expansion of the city, and the weight of goods passing through the harbour increased nearly ninefold. All neutral ships bound for ports in North America were required to report to Halifax for inspection.

Disaster
The Norwegian ship SS Imo had sailed from the Netherlands en route to New York to take on relief supplies for Belgium, under the command of Haakon From. The ship arrived in Halifax on 3 December for neutral inspection and spent two days in Bedford Basin awaiting refuelling supplies. Though she had been given clearance to leave the port on 5 December, Imo's departure was delayed because her coal load did not arrive until late that afternoon. The loading of fuel was not completed until after the anti-submarine nets had been raised for the night. Therefore, the vessel could not depart until the next morning.

The French cargo ship SS Mont-Blanc arrived from New York late on 5 December, under the command of Aimé Le Medec. The vessel was fully loaded with the explosives TNT and picric acid, the highly flammable fuel benzol and guncotton. She intended to join a slow convoy gathering in Bedford Basin readying to depart for Europe but was too late to enter the harbour before the nets were raised. Ships carrying dangerous cargo were not allowed into the harbour before the war, but the risks posed by German submarines had resulted in a relaxation of regulations.

Navigating into or out of Bedford Basin required passage through a strait called the Narrows. Ships were expected to keep close to the side of the channel situated on their starboard ("right"), and pass oncoming vessels "port to port", that is to keep them on their "left" side. Ships were restricted to a speed of 5 kn within the harbour.

Collision and fire
Imo was granted clearance to leave Bedford Basin by signals from the guard ship HMCS Acadia at approximately 7:30 on the morning of 6December, with Pilot William Hayes on board. The ship entered the Narrows well above the harbour's speed limit in an attempt to make up for the delay experienced in loading her coal. Imo met American tramp steamer SS Clara being piloted up the wrong (western) side of the harbour. The pilots agreed to pass starboard-to-starboard. Soon afterwards, Imo was forced to head even further towards the Dartmouth shore after passing the tugboat Stella Maris, which was travelling up the harbour to Bedford Basin near mid-channel. Horatio Brannen, the captain of Stella Maris, saw Imo approaching at excessive speed and ordered his ship closer to the western shore to avoid an accident.

Francis Mackey, an experienced harbour pilot, had boarded Mont-Blanc on the evening of 5 December 1917; he had asked about "special protections" such as a guard ship, given Mont-Blanc's cargo, but no protections were put in place. Mont-Blanc started moving at 7:30 am on 6 December and was the second ship to enter the harbour as the anti-submarine net between Georges Island and Pier 21 opened for the morning. Mont-Blanc headed towards Bedford Basin on the Dartmouth side of the harbour. Mackey kept his eye on the ferry traffic between Halifax and Dartmouth and other small boats in the area. He first spotted Imo when she was about 0.75 mi away and became concerned as her path appeared to be heading towards his ship's starboard side, as if to cut him off. Mackey gave a short blast of his ship's signal whistle to indicate that he had the right of way but was met with two short blasts from Imo, indicating that the approaching vessel would not yield its position. The captain ordered Mont-Blanc to halt her engines and angle slightly to starboard, closer to the Dartmouth side of the Narrows. He let out another single blast of his whistle, hoping the other vessel would likewise move to starboard but was again met with a double-blast.

Sailors on nearby ships heard the series of signals and, realizing that a collision was imminent, gathered to watch as Imo bore down on Mont-Blanc. Both ships had cut their engines by this point, but their momentum carried them towards each other at slow speed. Unable to ground his ship for fear of a shock that would set off his explosive cargo, Mackey ordered Mont-Blanc to steer hard to port (starboard helm) and crossed the bow of Imo in a last-second bid to avoid a collision. The two ships were almost parallel to each other, when Imo suddenly sent out three signal blasts, indicating the ship was reversing its engines. The combination of the cargoless ship's height in the water and the transverse thrust of her right-hand propeller caused the ship's head to swing into Mont-Blanc. Imo's prow pushed into the No. 1 hold of Mont Blanc, on her starboard side.

The collision occurred at 8:45 am. The damage to Mont Blanc was not severe, but barrels of deck cargo toppled and broke open. This flooded the deck with benzol that quickly flowed into the hold. As Imos engines kicked in, she disengaged, which created sparks inside Mont-Blancs hull. These ignited the vapours from the benzol. A fire started at the water line and travelled quickly up the side of the ship. Surrounded by thick black smoke, and fearing she would explode almost immediately, the captain ordered the crew to abandon ship. A growing number of Halifax citizens gathered on the street or stood at the windows of their homes or businesses to watch the spectacular fire. The frantic crew of Mont-Blanc shouted from their two lifeboats to some of the other vessels that their ship was about to explode, but they could not be heard above the noise and confusion. As the lifeboats made their way across the harbour to the Dartmouth shore, the abandoned ship continued to drift and beached herself at Pier 6 near the foot of Richmond street.

Towing two scows at the time of the collision, Stella Maris responded immediately to the fire, anchoring the barges and steaming back towards Pier 6 to spray the burning ship with their fire hose. The tug's captain, Horatio H. Brannen, and his crew realized that the fire was too intense for their single hose and backed off from the burning Mont Blanc. They were approached by a whaler from HMS Highflyer and later a steam pinnace belonging to HMCS Niobe. Captain Brannen and Albert Mattison of Niobe agreed to secure a line to the French ship's stern so as to pull it away from the pier to avoid setting it on fire. The 5 in hawser initially produced was deemed too small and orders for a 10 in hawser came down. It was at this point that the blast occurred.

Explosion
At 9:04:35 am the out-of-control fire on board Mont-Blanc set off her cargo of high explosives. The ship was completely blown apart and a powerful blast wave radiated away from the explosion initially at more than 1000 m per second. Temperatures of 5000 C and pressures of thousands of atmospheres accompanied the moment of detonation at the centre of the explosion. White-hot shards of iron fell down upon Halifax and Dartmouth.

A cloud of white smoke rose to at least 3600 m. The blast was felt as far away as Cape Breton (207 km) and Prince Edward Island (180 km). An area of over 1.6 km2 was completely destroyed by the explosion, and the harbour floor was momentarily exposed by the volume of water that was displaced. A tsunami was formed by water surging in to fill the void; it rose as high as 18 m above the high-water mark on the Halifax side of the harbour. Imo was carried onto the shore at Dartmouth by the tsunami. The blast killed all but one on the whaler, everyone on the pinnace and 21 of the 26 men on Stella Maris; she ended up on the Dartmouth shore, severely damaged. The captain's son, First Mate Walter Brannen, who had been thrown into the hold by the blast, survived, as did four others. All but one of Mont-Blanc's crew members survived.

Over 1,600 people were killed instantly and 9,000 were injured, more than 300 of whom later died. Every building within a 2.6 km radius, over 12,000 in total, was destroyed or badly damaged. Hundreds of people who had been watching the fire from their homes were blinded when the blast wave shattered the windows in front of them. Overturned stoves and lamps started fires throughout Halifax, particularly in the North End, where entire city blocks burned, trapping residents inside their houses. Firefighter Billy Wells, who was thrown away from the explosion and had his clothes torn from his body, described the devastation survivors faced: "The sight was awful, with people hanging out of windows dead. Some with their heads missing, and some thrown onto the overhead telegraph wires." He was the only member of the eight-man crew of the fire engine Patricia to survive.

Large brick and stone factories near Pier 6, such as the Acadia Sugar Refinery, disappeared into unrecognizable heaps of rubble, killing most of their workers. The Nova Scotia cotton mill located 1.5 km (0.93 mile) from the blast was destroyed by fire and the collapse of its concrete floors. The Royal Naval College of Canada building was badly damaged, and several cadets and instructors maimed. The Richmond Railway Yards and station were destroyed, killing 55 railway workers and destroying and damaging over 500 railway cars. The North Street Station, one of the busiest in Canada, was badly damaged.

The death toll could have been worse had it not been for the self-sacrifice of an Intercolonial Railway dispatcher, Patrick Vincent (Vince) Coleman, operating at the railyard about 750 ft from Pier 6, where the explosion occurred. He and his co-worker, William Lovett, learned of the dangerous cargo aboard the burning Mont-Blanc from a sailor and began to flee. Coleman remembered that an incoming passenger train from Saint John, New Brunswick, was due to arrive at the railyard within minutes. He returned to his post alone and continued to send out urgent telegraph messages to stop the train. Several variations of the message have been reported, among them this from the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic: "Hold up the train. Ammunition ship afire in harbor making for Pier 6 and will explode. Guess this will be my last message. Good-bye boys." Coleman's message was responsible for bringing all incoming trains around Halifax to a halt. It was heard by other stations all along the Intercolonial Railway, helping railway officials to respond immediately. Passenger Train No. 10, the overnight train from Saint John, is believed to have heeded the warning and stopped a safe distance from the blast at Rockingham, saving the lives of about 300 railway passengers. Coleman was killed at his post.

Rescue efforts

First rescue efforts came from surviving neighbours and co-workers who pulled and dug out victims from buildings. The initial informal response was soon joined by surviving policemen, firefighters and military personnel who began to arrive, as did anyone with a working vehicle; cars, trucks and delivery wagons of all kinds were enlisted to collect the wounded. A flood of victims soon began to arrive at the city's hospitals, which were quickly overwhelmed. The new military hospital, Camp Hill, admitted approximately 1,400 victims on 6 December.

Firefighters were among the first to respond to the disaster, rushing to Mont-Blanc to attempt to extinguish the blaze before the explosion even occurred. They also played a role after the blast, with fire companies arriving to assist from across Halifax, and by the end of the day from as far away as Amherst, Nova Scotia, (200 km) and Moncton, New Brunswick, (260 km) on relief trains. Halifax Fire Department's West Street Station 2 was the first to arrive at Pier 6 with the crew of Patricia, the first motorized fire engine in Canada. In the final moments before the explosion, hoses were being unrolled as the fire spread to the docks. Nine members of the Halifax Fire Department lost their lives performing their duty that day.

Royal Navy cruisers in port sent some of the first organized rescue parties ashore. HMS Highflyer, along with the armed merchant cruisers HMS Changuinola, HMS Knight Templar and HMS Calgarian, sent boats ashore with rescue parties and medical personnel and soon began to take wounded aboard. A US Coast Guard cutter, USRC Morrill (1889), also sent a rescue party ashore. Out at sea, the American cruiser USS Tacoma and armed merchant cruiser USS Von Steuben (formerly SS Kronprinz Wilhelm) were passing Halifax en route to the United States. Tacoma was rocked so severely by the blast wave that her crew went to general quarters. Spotting the large and rising column of smoke, Tacoma altered course and arrived to assist rescue at 2 pm. Von Steuben arrived a half-hour later. The American steamship Old Colony, docked in Halifax for repairs, suffered little damage and was quickly converted to serve as a hospital ship, staffed by doctors and orderlies from the British and American navy vessels in the harbour.

Dazed survivors immediately feared that the explosion was the result of a bomb dropped from a German plane. Troops at gun batteries and barracks immediately turned out in case the city was under attack, but within an hour switched from defence to rescue roles as the cause and location of the explosion were determined. All available troops were called in from harbour fortifications and barracks to the North End to rescue survivors and provide transport to the city's hospitals, including the two army hospitals in the city.

Adding to the chaos were fears of a potential second explosion. A cloud of steam shot out of ventilators at the ammunition magazine at Wellington Barracks as naval personnel extinguished a fire by the magazine. The fire was quickly put out; the cloud was seen from blocks away and quickly led to rumours that another explosion was imminent. Uniformed officers ordered everyone away from the area. As the rumour spread across the city, many families fled their homes. The confusion hampered efforts for over two hours until fears were dispelled by about noon. Many rescuers ignored the evacuation, and naval rescue parties continued working uninterrupted at the harbour.

Surviving railway workers in the railyards at the heart of the disaster carried out rescue work, pulling people from the harbour and from under debris. The overnight train from Saint John was just approaching the city when hit by the blast but was only slightly damaged. It continued into Richmond until the track was blocked by wreckage. Passengers and soldiers aboard used the emergency tools from the train to dig people out of houses and bandaged them with sheets from the sleeping cars. The train was loaded with injured and left the city at 1:30 with a doctor aboard, to evacuate the wounded to Truro.

Led by Lieutenant Governor MacCallum Grant, leading citizens formed the Halifax Relief Commission at around noon. The committee organized members in charge of organizing medical relief for both Halifax and Dartmouth, supplying transportation, food and shelter, and covering medical and funeral costs for victims. The commission would continue until 1976, participating in reconstruction and relief efforts and later distributing pensions to survivors. Men and women turned out to serve as everything from hospital aides to shelter staff, while children contributed to the relief effort by carrying messages from site to site. Community facilities like the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) were rapidly converted to emergency hospital facilities with medical students providing care.

Rescue trains were dispatched from across Atlantic Canada, as well as the northeastern United States. The first left Truro around 10 am carrying medical personnel and supplies, arrived in Halifax by noon and returned to Truro with the wounded and homeless by 3 pm. The track had become impassable after Rockingham, on the western edge of Bedford Basin. To reach the wounded, rescue personnel had to walk through parts of the devastated city until they reached a point where the military had begun to clear the streets. By nightfall, a dozen trains had reached Halifax from the Nova Scotian towns of Truro, Kentville, Amherst, Stellarton, Pictou, and Sydney and from New Brunswick, including the town of Sackville, and the cities of Moncton and Saint John.

Relief efforts were hampered the following day by a blizzard that blanketed Halifax with 16 in of heavy snow. Trains en route from other parts of Canada and from the United States were stalled in snowdrifts, and telegraph lines that had been hastily repaired following the explosion were again knocked down. Halifax was isolated by the storm, and while rescue committees were forced to suspend the search for survivors, the storm also aided efforts to put out fires throughout the city.

Destruction and loss of life
The exact number killed by the disaster is unknown. The Halifax Explosion Remembrance Book, an official database of the Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management, identified 1,782 victims. As many as 1,600 people died immediately in the blast, tsunami, and collapse of buildings. The last body, a caretaker killed at the Exhibition Grounds, was not recovered until summer 1919. An additional 9,000 were injured. 1,630 homes were destroyed in the explosion and fires, and another 12,000 damaged; roughly 6,000 people were left homeless and 25,000 had insufficient shelter. The city's industrial sector was in large part gone, with many workers among the casualties and the dockyard heavily damaged.

A mortuary committee chaired by Alderman R. B. Coldwell was quickly formed at Halifax City Hall on the morning of the disaster. The Chebucto Road School (now the Maritime Conservatory of Performing Arts) in Halifax's west end was chosen as a central morgue. A company of the Royal Canadian Engineers (RCE) repaired and converted the basement of the school to serve as a morgue and classrooms to serve as offices for the Halifax coroner. Trucks and wagons soon began to arrive with bodies. Arthur S. Barnstead took over from Coldwell as the morgue went into operation and implemented a system based on the one his father, John Henry Barnstead, developed to catalogue the dead in the aftermath of the RMS Titanic disaster of 1912.

Many of the wounds inflicted by the blast were permanently debilitating, such as those caused by flying glass or by the flash of the explosion. Thousands of people had stopped to watch the ship burning in the harbour, many from inside buildings, leaving them directly in the path of glass fragments from shattered windows. Roughly 5,900 eye injuries were reported, and 41 people lost their sight permanently.

An estimated CA$35 million in damage resulted (CA$ million today). About $30 million in financial aid was raised from various sources, including $18 million from the federal government, over $4 million from the British government, and $750,000 from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

Dartmouth
Dartmouth was not as densely populated as Halifax and was separated from the blast by the width of the harbour, but still suffered heavy damage. Almost 100 people were estimated to have died on the Dartmouth side. Windows were shattered and many buildings were damaged or destroyed, including the Oland Brewery and parts of the Starr Manufacturing Company. Nova Scotia Hospital was the only hospital in Dartmouth and many of the victims were treated there.

Mi'kmaq settlement
There were small enclaves of Mi'kmaq in and around the coves of Bedford Basin on the Dartmouth shore. Directly opposite to Pier 9 on the Halifax side sat a community in Tufts Cove which included the Mi'kmaq community of Turtle Grove. In the years and months preceding the explosion, the Department of Indian Affairs had been actively trying to force the Mi'kmaq to give up their land and move to a reserve, but this had not occurred by the time of the explosion. Turtle Grove was close to the centre of the blast and the physical structures of the settlement were obliterated by the explosion and tsunami. A precise Mi'kmaq death toll is unknown as the Department of Indian Affairs and census records for the community were incomplete. Nine bodies were recovered from Turtle Grove and there were eleven known survivors. The Halifax Remembrance Book lists 16 members of the Tufts Cove Community as dead; not all the dead listed as in Tufts Cove were Indigenous. The Turtle Grove settlement was not rebuilt in the wake of the disaster. Survivors were housed in a racially segregated building under generally poor conditions and most were eventually dispersed around Nova Scotia.

Africville
The Black community of Africville, on the southern shores of Bedford Basin adjacent to the Halifax Peninsula, was spared the direct force of the blast by the shadow effect of the raised ground to the south. Africville's small and frail homes were heavily damaged by the explosion. Families recorded the deaths of five residents. A combination of persistent racism and a growing conviction that Africville should be demolished to make way for industrial development resulted in the people of Africville receiving no police or fire protection; they had to make do without water mains and sewer lines, despite paying city taxes. Africville received little of the donated relief funds and none of the progressive reconstruction invested in other parts of the city after the explosion.

Investigation
Many people in Halifax first thought the explosion to be the result of a German attack. The Halifax Herald continued to propagate this belief for some time, reporting, for example, that Germans had mocked victims of the explosion. While John Johansen, the Norwegian helmsman of Imo, was being treated for serious injuries sustained during the explosion, it was reported to the military police that he had been behaving suspiciously. Johansen was arrested on suspicions of being a German spy when a search turned up a letter on his person, supposedly written in German. It turned out that the letter was actually written in Norwegian. Immediately following the explosion, most of the German survivors in Halifax had been rounded up and imprisoned. Eventually the fear dissipated as the real cause of the explosion became known, although rumours of German involvement persisted.

A judicial inquiry known as the Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry was formed to investigate the causes of the collision. Proceedings began at the Halifax Court House on 13 December 1917, presided over by Justice Arthur Drysdale. The inquiry's report of 4 February 1918 blamed Mont-Blanc's captain, Aimé Le Médec, the ship's pilot, Francis Mackey, and Commander F. Evan Wyatt, the Royal Canadian Navy's chief examining officer in charge of the harbour, gates and anti-submarine defences, for causing the collision. Drysdale agreed with Dominion Wreck Commissioner L. A. Demers' opinion that "it was the Mont-Blanc's responsibility alone to ensure that she avoided a collision at all costs" given her cargo; he was likely influenced by local opinion, which was strongly anti-French, as well as by the "street fighter" style of argumentation used by Imo lawyer Charles Burchell. According to Crown counsel W. A. Henry, this was "a great surprise to most people", who had expected the Imo to be blamed for being on the wrong side of the channel. All three men were charged with manslaughter and criminal negligence at a preliminary hearing heard by Stipendiary Magistrate Richard A. McLeod, and bound over for trial. A Nova Scotia Supreme Court justice, Benjamin Russell, found there was no evidence to support these charges. Mackey was discharged on a writ of habeas corpus and the charges dropped. Because the pilot and the captain were arrested on the same warrant, the charges against Le Médec were also dismissed. Commander Wyatt, charged on a separate warrant, was the only one of the three who was indicted. On 17 April 1918, a jury acquitted Wyatt in a trial that lasted less than a day.

Drysdale oversaw the first civil litigation trial, in which the owners of the two ships sought damages from each other. His decision (27 April 1918) found Mont-Blanc entirely at fault. Subsequent appeals to the Supreme Court of Canada (19 May 1919), and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London (22 March 1920), determined Mont-Blanc and Imo were equally to blame for navigational errors that led to the collision. No party was ever convicted for any crime or otherwise successfully prosecuted for any actions that precipitated the disaster.

Reconstruction
Efforts began shortly after the explosion to clear debris, repair buildings, and establish temporary housing for survivors left homeless by the explosion. By late January 1918, around 5,000 were still without shelter. A reconstruction committee under Colonel Robert Low constructed 832 new housing units, which were furnished by the Massachusetts-Halifax Relief Fund.

Partial train service resumed from a temporary rail terminal in the city's South End on 7 December. Full service resumed on 9 December when tracks were cleared and the North Street Station reopened. The Canadian Government Railways created a special unit to clear and repair railway yards as well as rebuild railway piers and the Naval Dockyard. Most piers returned to operation by late December and were repaired by January.

The North End Halifax neighbourhood of Richmond bore the brunt of the explosion. In 1917, Richmond was considered a working-class neighbourhood and had few paved roads. After the explosion, the Halifax Relief Commission approached the reconstruction of Richmond as an opportunity to improve and modernize the city's North End. English town planner Thomas Adams and Montreal architectural firm Ross and Macdonald were recruited to design a new housing plan for Richmond. Adams, inspired by the Victorian garden city movement, aimed to provide public access to green spaces and to create a low-rise, low-density, and multifunctional urban neighbourhood.

The planners designed 326 large homes that each faced a tree-lined, paved boulevard. They specified that the homes be built with a new and innovative fireproof material, blocks of compressed cement called Hydrostone. The first of these homes was occupied by March 1919, just a few months before Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, visited the site on 17 August, touring many of the houses and hearing stories about the impacts of the tragedy and "of the kindness of the people who quickly came to their aid." Once finished, the Hydrostone neighbourhood consisted of homes, businesses, and parks, which helped create a new sense of community in the North End of Halifax. It has now become an upscale neighbourhood and shopping district. In contrast, the equally poor and underdeveloped area of Africville was not included in reconstruction efforts.

Every building in the Halifax dockyard required some degree of rebuilding, as did HMCS Niobe and the docks themselves; all of the Royal Canadian Navy's minesweepers and patrol boats were undamaged. Prime Minister Robert Borden pledged that the government would be "co-operating in every way to reconstruct the Port of Halifax: this was of utmost importance to the Empire". Captain Symington of USS Tacoma speculated that the port would not be operational for months, but a convoy departed on 11 December and dockyard operations resumed before Christmas.

Legacy
The Halifax Explosion was one of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions. An extensive comparison of 130 major explosions by Halifax historian Jay White in 1994 concluded that it "remains unchallenged in overall magnitude as long as five criteria are considered together: number of casualties, force of blast, radius of devastation, quantity of explosive material, and total value of property destroyed." For many years afterward, the Halifax Explosion was the standard by which all large blasts were measured. For instance, in its report on the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Time wrote that the explosive power of the Little Boy bomb was seven times that of the Halifax Explosion.

The many eye injuries resulting from the disaster led to better understanding of how to care for damaged eyes, and "with the recently formed Canadian National Institute for the Blind, Halifax became internationally known as a centre for care for the blind", according to Dalhousie University professor Victoria Allen. The lack of coordinated pediatric care in such a disaster was noted by William Ladd, a surgeon from Boston who had arrived to help. His insights from the explosion are generally credited with inspiring him to pioneer the specialty of pediatric surgery in North America. The Halifax Explosion inspired a series of health reforms, including around public sanitation and maternity care.

The event was traumatic for the whole surviving community, so the memory was largely suppressed. After the first anniversary, the city stopped commemorating the explosion for decades. The second official commemoration did not take place before the 50th anniversary in 1967, and even after that, the activities stopped again. Construction began in 1964 on the Halifax North Memorial Library, designed to commemorate the victims of the explosion. The library entrance featured the first monument built to mark the explosion, the Halifax Explosion Memorial Sculpture, created by artist Jordi Bonet. The sculpture was dismantled by the Halifax Regional Municipality in 2004.

The Halifax Explosion Memorial Bells were built in 1985, relocating memorial carillon bells from a nearby church to a large concrete sculpture on Fort Needham Hill, facing the "ground zero" area of the explosion. The Bell Tower is the location of an annual civic ceremony every 6 December. A memorial at Halifax Fire Station No. 4 on Lady Hammond Road honours the firefighters killed while responding to the explosion. Fragments of Mont-Blanc have been mounted as neighbourhood monuments to the explosion at Albro Lake Road in Dartmouth, at Regatta Point, and elsewhere in the area. Simple monuments mark the mass graves of explosion victims at the Fairview Lawn Cemetery and the Bayers Road Cemetery. A Memorial Book listing the names of all the known victims is displayed at the Halifax North Memorial Library and at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, which has a large permanent exhibit about the Halifax Explosion. Harold Gilman was commissioned to create a painting memorializing the event; his work, Halifax Harbour at Sunset, "tells very little about the recent devastation, as the viewpoint is set back so that the harbour appears undisturbed".

Hugh MacLennan's novel Barometer Rising (1941) is set in Halifax at the time of the explosion and includes a carefully researched description of its impact on the city. Following in MacLennan's footsteps, journalist Robert MacNeil penned Burden of Desire (1992) and used the explosion as a metaphor for the societal and cultural changes of the day. MacLennan and MacNeil's use of the romance genre to fictionalize the explosion is similar to the first attempt by Lieutenant-Colonel Frank McKelvey Bell, author of the novella A Romance of the Halifax Disaster (1918). This work follows the love affair of a young woman and an injured soldier. Keith Ross Leckie wrote a miniseries entitled Shattered City: The Halifax Explosion (2003), which took the title but has no relationship to Janet Kitz's non-fiction book Shattered City: The Halifax Explosion and the Road to Recovery (1990). The film was criticized for distortions and inaccuracies.

The response to the explosion from Boston and the appreciation in Halifax cemented ongoing warm Boston–Halifax relations. In 1918, Halifax sent a Christmas tree to Boston in thanks and remembrance for the help that the Boston Red Cross and the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee provided immediately after the disaster. That gift was revived in 1971 by the Lunenburg County Christmas Tree Producers Association, which began an annual donation of a large tree to promote Christmas tree exports as well as acknowledge Boston's support after the explosion. The gift was later taken over by the Nova Scotia government to continue the goodwill gesture and to promote trade and tourism. The tree is Boston's official Christmas tree and is lit on Boston Common throughout the holiday season. In deference to its symbolic importance for both cities, the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources has specific guidelines for selecting the tree and has tasked an employee to oversee the selection.

title: Halifax Explosion


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Aermacchi MB-326

The Aermacchi or Macchi MB-326 is a light military jet trainer designed and produced by the Italian aircraft manufacter Aermacchi. It is one of the most commercially successful aircraft of its type, being bought by more than 10 countries and produced under licence in Australia, Brazil and South Africa.

The MB-326 was developed during a period in which "all-through" jet training was considered by many air forces to be the most cost-effective model for training of military pilots. Accordingly, Aermacchi designed it as a single type of aircraft that could readily perform both elementary and advanced training right through to a near combat-ready standard. After it was proposed during the 1950s, the Italian Air Force (AMI) quickly became interested in the MB-326, and an initial contract to produce three prototypes was issued following a competition. Several design refinements were made prior to the AMI giving its official approval of the project during 1956. On 10 December 1957, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. On 15 December 1958, the Italian government ordered 15 pre-series aircraft; further orders soon followed.

During February 1962, the MB-326 formally entered service with the AMI. Operational experience with the type demonstrated that the advantages of operating just one type for all training purposes, being simplicity and economy of scale, were usually outweighed by the disadvantages, namely the higher purchase and operating costs of a large all-jet training fleet. Many operators therefore soon switched to operating the MB-326 in conjunction with a cheaper piston-engined type for basic training purposes. Over time, the MB-326 found its primary role as a lead-in trainer to prepare pilots for transition to very high performance fighter aircraft. It set many category records, including an altitude record of 56,807 ft (17,315 m) on 18 March 1966. While the majority of operators were military, some civil organisations also flew the type; Italy's national flag carrier Alitalia conducted pilot training using a handful of MB-326s.

In excess of 800 MB-326s were constructed between 1961 and 1975. Brazil was the biggest export customer for the MB-326, which included its produced under license by Embraer. Licensed production of the type was also performed by Atlas Aircraft Corporation of South Africa. While the MB-326 had been originally conceived as a two-seat trainer, multiple single and two-seat light attack versions were also developed. Armed MB-326 saw combat, the South African Defence Force opting to employ the type during the South African Border War against the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and Cuban expeditionary troops in Angola between 1975 and 1989.

Origins
During the 1950s, a number of countries began to operate compact jet-powered trainer aircraft that possessed similar performance to frontline operational aircraft, often having been produced as two-seat adaptions of these aircraft. Recognising the potential to better fulfil this role, several different companies independently chose to commence the development of purpose-built aircraft to serve as trainers; these included the French Fouga Magister, the American Cessna T-37 Tweet, the British Jet Provost, and the Czechoslovakian Aero L-29. In the aftermath of the devastating Second World War, Italy spent a number of years recuperating and reestablishing its economy; as such, the nation found itself unable to prioritise the necessary financing for the independent development of high-end combat aircraft that would be competitive with the upcoming generation of supersonic interceptors or bombers; accordingly, Italian aviation company Aermacchi elected to instead focus its resources and development efforts upon the production of a line of light fighters and trainer aircraft.

What would become the MB-326 had its origins in a private venture project by Macchi; it was developed by a team headed by Italian aeronautical engineer Ermanno Bazzocchi, the company's technical director and chief engineer. Reportedly, Bazzocchi had considered many different configurations for the tentative trainer before the design team chose to proceed with a single-engined design. In accordance with its intended primary use, the airframe was a robust and light all-metal structure, being relatively simple and cheap to construct and to maintain. The design was also to be powered by the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper turbojet engine, an efficient powerplant for the time. The Viper engine had been originally designed as a short-life unit destined for use upon disposable target drones, however, the engine had showed itself to be far more reliable and useful in other roles. During 1954, initial representations by Bazzochi were made to the Italian Air Ministry. During 1953, the designed airframe and engine combination led to Macchi formally launching the MB-326 programme.

Around the time of the programme's launch, the Italian Air Force took interest in the proposed aircraft. The service was considering options for the potential replacement of its existing trainer fleet, thus, upon the commissioning of a competition to select a suitable successor, the MB-326 was an obvious early entrant. A detailed specification was released for the competition, the requirements stated included a maximum load of 7 g when flown at the maximum weight, a lifespan of 5,000 flight hours, an interval of at least 50–60 hours between servicing, ample warning in advance of stalls (to be at least 15 km/h (9 mph) above the aircraft's stall speed), the ability to take-off at maximum weight in 800 m (2,625 ft) over a 15 m (50 ft) high obstacle (or 500 m (1,640 ft) when flown at a light weight), being able to land within 450 m (1,480 ft) at minimum weight, a minimum speed of 110/130 km/h and a maximum speed of 700 km/h, a rate of climb at least 15 m/s (2,950 ft/min), and an endurance time of at least three hours at 3,000 m (9,840 ft).

Interest in the proposed MB-326 led to the awarding of the development contract for three prototypes. The programme was subject to significant refinement around this stage, leading to several modifications being made. Amongst these changes was the elimination of the negative dihedral angle previously present on the horizontal tail surfaces and the substitution of a pair of wing-based airbrakes into one located at a ventral position. During 1956, the AMI gave its official approval of the project and issued a request for the production of a pair of prototypes (later designated as MM.571 and MM.572) as well as a single airframe for static tests. These prototypes were not intended to include several features, such as the ability to equip and deploy armaments or refinements such as cabin pressurization, however, Bazzocchi chose to introduce them regardless.

Into flight
On 10 December 1957, the first prototype performed its maiden flight, flown by Macchi's chief test pilot Guido Carestiato. This prototype, designated as I-MAKI, was first publicly demonstrated over France. During its flight test programme, the MB-326 prototypes demonstrated highly favourable flight characteristics of the design; however, several of the modifications made had negatively affected the overall weight of the aircraft; allegedly, at one stage, the excess weight was 400 kg (880 lb) greater than that given in the initial estimates. The original Viper 8 engine was capable of producing 7.8 kN (1,750 lbf) of thrust; to address the increased weight, the more powerful Viper 9 model was adopted instead, which was capable of generating 0.7 kN (147 lbf) more thrust.

On 22 September 1958, the first prototype was joined by the similarly-configured second prototype. It did feature some differences from the earlier aircraft; chiefly, it was powered by a newer model of the Viper engine, the Viper 11, which had been rated to produce 11.1 kN thrust (1,134 kgf, 2,500 lbf). The Viper 11 would be the same standard of engine used on subsequent production standard aircraft. Direct competition to the MB-326 came in the form of the Fiat G.80; this aircraft was both more powerful and was the first real Italian jet, having flown five years earlier. However, the G.80 had several disadvantages, including being heavier, considerably larger and more expensive than its rival; as such, it ultimately lost the trainer contest and remained without a market.

On 15 December 1958, having been suitably impressed, the Italian government placed an order for a batch of 15 pre-series examples on behalf of the AMI. A production line was established at Macchi's facility in Masnago, Varese, Northern Italy. Shortly thereafter, the AMI issued its first order for the MB-326 for an initial group of 50 production standard aircraft. During 1960, a larger follow-on order for 100 aircraft was received by Macchi; this sizable commitment was viewed as being a major step towards establishing the company's supremacy in jet trainer market.

Design
The Aermacchi MB-326 was a low-wing monoplane with an all-metal structure composed of light alloys. It was one of the first jet trainers to be developed with the aim of catering to both for ab initio and advanced instruction. As originally developed, the MB-326 functioned as a refined but simple aircraft capable of covering the considerably wide range of performance characteristics required to cover both ab initio training and advanced instruction alike; other major characteristics of the type included the capacity to deliver a high rate of utilization in conjunction with minimised servicing and maintenance requirements. According to Flight International, the type was suitable for the teaching of the majority of advanced flying techniques. In addition to being relatively easy to fly, a high degree of safety was also intentionally built into it, including adoption of new Martin-Baker-built ejection seats.

The MB-326 was powered by a single Rolls-Royce Viper non-afterburning turbojet engine, initial production aircraft were powered by the Viper 11 model, capable of generating up to 2,500 lb of thrust. The engine possessed multiple favourable attributes, including its general simplicity and robustness, relatively low revolutions per minute (RPM) and turbine entry temperature (TET), rapid acceleration, ease of installation, and its somewhat forgiving nature to mishandling in the air by students. Air was provided to the engine via a pair of low-profile intakes set into the wing roots. The Viper was produced under licence by Italian aviation company Piaggio following an agreement established with its original manufacturer, the British engine firm Bristol Siddeley, during 1959.

In a structural perspective, the MB-326 was relatively straightforward. Both the fuselage and the wing were constructed in three sections; of these, the centre section of the wing was integral to the fuselage. The fuselage was divided into a forward, central, and rear section; the forward section contained the nose wheel and radio systems; the centre part, accommodated the cockpit, fuel tanks and the engine; and the rear section which comprised both the tail unit and jet pipe. The fuel system had one large tank in the middle-fuselage and two in the wingtips; a single-point pressure-fuelling system is located on the starboard side of the aircraft to provide a total refuelling time of around five minutes. The rear of each wing had flaps, and ailerons with a trim surface; each wing had 22 ribs and two spars. Wing fences were added mid-wing to increase the lift characteristics. Accordingly, the MB-326 was readily capable of performing relatively slow speed take-off and landing while retaining an excellent rate of climb.

The MB-326 was outfitted with a tandem cockpit configuration, this arrangement had been chosen to result in a slimmer and more aerodynamically efficient fuselage in comparison to the more usual side-by-side arrangement. It was covered by a bubble canopy for excellent external visibility; it featured a windscreen anti-icing system powered by the engine compressor using bleed air. The cockpit was also pressurised, enabling the MB-326 to conduct high altitude flight. The ability to fly at higher altitudes was favourable for multiple purposes, including during the execution of aerobatic and navigational training, as well as improving fuel efficiency for long distance flights. The onboard systems were typically pre-manufactured units which were easy both to access and to remove; several elements were also intentionally interchangeable. The exterior of the aircraft was covered by a total of 80 inspection panels and doors; in-situ engine inspection could be performed via a pair of large access panels set above and below the engine bay while another pair of doors allow access to the intake duct's interior for the inspection of the first-stage compressor rotor blades.

Italy
The MB-326 was one of the last Italian aircraft to hold the distinction of breaking multiple world records. Perhaps the most notable of these occurred during August 1961, when pilot Guido Carestiano set the C1D group 1 category altitude record of 15,489 meters. The record-breaking flights also provided publicity for the MB-326. In particular, one pilot, Massimo Ralli, was responsible for the establishment of several different records while flying the type:
 * 8 February 1966, climbing records: 2 min 2 sec to 3,000 m, 3 min 56 sec to 6,000 m, 6 min 39 sec to 9,000 m, and 12,000 m in 10 min 53 sec.
 * 18 March 1966, 15,690 m altitude record in horizontal flight, and 17,315 m with a launched climb.
 * 18 July 1966, endurance record, with 970 km
 * 2 August 1966, speed record over a 3 km straight: 871 km/h
 * December 1966: speed of 880.586 km/h over 15–25 km, 831.007 km/h over 100 km, 777.667 km/h over 500 km, and another endurance record at 777.557 km

These high-profile successes functioned as objective statements of the capable performance of the MB-326 and established the type as being one of the best aircraft amongst its contemporaries in its category. Another pilot Riccardo Peracchi, who was employed by for AMI, frequently demonstrated the manoeuvrability and controllability of the aircraft at airshows for a number of years. While Peracchi displayed the MB-326's agility, Ralli concentrated on exploring its cutting-edge performance; meanwhile, early customers of the aircraft were typically reporting their satisfaction with the type to Macchi.

The first production MB-326s, following a relatively protracted development cycle, were first delivered to the Lecce-Galatina school of the AMI's 214° Group, these were temporarily fielded at Brindisi, Apulia. On 22 March 1962, the MB-326 formally entered squadron service with 43° Flyer course. The type was soon used to replace the aging North American T-6 Texan; typically, within the space of 130 hours, pilots would be as prepared to graduate as they would have been after receiving 210 hours training in the older T-6.

As a trainer, the MB-326 was considerably costlier but was met with enthusiasm amongst students; additionally, when used in combination with the Fiat G.91T advanced trainer, it enabled the enactment of an "entirely-jet" training course for AMI pilots, and moreover these were domestically designed and produced aircraft. According to aerospace publication Flight International, during the early 1960s, the AMI's flight training programme was heavily influenced by the impending entry into service of the Lockheed F-104G Starfighter.

As well as being amongst the first customers to procure the aircraft, the AMI would be amongst the final customers of the later-built models of the MB-326 as well. The service ordered a batch of 12 MB-326E, comprising six MB-326 updated to MB-326G, and six newly produced (MM.54384/389). They had provisions for armament, but the engine was the Viper 11 Mk 200 and not the Viper 20 Mk 540. In Italian service, the MB-326 was replaced by the MB-339 between 1981 and 1984, acting after that as fast linkage aircraft, replacing the old T-33s that were slightly faster. Unusually, the MB-326 did not see service with the Frecce Tricolori aerobatic team, who kept their faster G.91PANs (they were later replaced by MB-339s).

In addition to its AMI service, the MB-326 was also employed in a civilian capacity within Italy. National flag carrier Alitalia placed an order for four trainer-configured aircraft, designated as the "D" version; these were expressly demilitarized and equipped with specialised instrumentation in order to train the airliner's pilots in preparation for the arrival of the new generation of jetliners that were being procured by the airliner.

Neither the "A" and "C" models of the MB-326 would ever be realized. The "A" variant had been intended to be operated as a light attack aircraft, armed with a pair of 7.62 mm machine guns which were to be installed upon the aircraft's nose. While none were originally built, a number of MB-326s were later referred to by the "A" designation, however, this was meant to indicate that these had been provisioned with a Marconi-built AD-370 automatic direction finder (ADF). The "C" version was envisioned as being provisioned with a nose-mounted North American Search And Ranging Radar (NASARR) unit and other electronic equipment in order to be used for the training of AMI F-104 pilots, however, this variant only appeared as a mock-up.

Australia

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) used the MB-326H as a jet trainer. A total of 97 were ordered: 12 were delivered by Macchi, 18 assembled from kits in Australia, and another 67 were built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation and Hawker Aircraft with the designation CA-30. They were essentially similar to the MB-326G but with improved avionics. The RAAF's aerobatic team, The Roulettes, flew the MB-326H from December 1970 until 1989. RAAF pilot training until 1975 consisted of 60 hours pre-selection on CAC Winjeels (from 1975 onwards the PAC CT/4 Airtrainer), 150 hours medium training and another 75 hours advanced training on MB-326H. Pilots selected for combat aircraft then progressed to the Mirage IIIOD.

Although well-suited to its task and widely liked for its excellent handling, the service career of the MB-326 was cut short because of structural fatigue problems. The Australian fleet, for example, had a life-of-type extension program in the 1980s, and were then re-winged in the early 1990s after a fatigue-related crash. Even so, the MB-326 was supplemented by new Pilatus PC-9 trainers to reduce the flying hours being accumulated by the MB-326. The last examples of the MB-326 were withdrawn by 2001 and replaced by the Hawk 127.

Brazil
Brazil was the main customer for the MB-326, in 1970 ordering two prototypes and 166 MB-326GCs, called the AT-26 Xavante. It was produced under license by Embraer with a further six for Togo and 10 for Paraguay.

The aircraft was important also for two developments: from the MB.326K the MB.326L was produced, this was the direct ancestor of the Aermacchi MB.339. With license-building in Brazil, the MB.326 opened the field to further collaborations, leading to the AMX. Neither the MB.339 nor the AMX were as successful as the MB.326, but this machine was capable of further steps in technology and commerce.

South Africa
South Africa obtained a license to produce the MB-326M (similar to the 'G' model), as the Impala Mk I in 1964 with production starting in 1966. It received 40 Italian-built aircraft followed by about 125 built locally by the Atlas Aircraft Corporation, using them both as trainers and in an armed configuration. Seven examples of the MB-326K were also bought as light attack aircraft, with a further 15 assembled from kits, while around 78 were license-produced and known as the Impala Mk II. Licence production of the single seat version began in 1974. The Impala Mk II, locally manufactured and equipped with French armament, was also advanced with a South African ECM suite.

The South African Defence Force employed Impalas during campaigns against the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and Cuban expeditionary troops in Angola between 1975 and 1989. Impala pilots typically flew at 550–650 km/h at a height of 15 m to avoid Angolan air defences. Over the course of the South African Border War, one was downed by an SA-7; another returned with an unexploded missile in its exhaust.

The aircraft had many advantages over expensive supersonic jets. Although slower, it could operate from relatively primitive airfields and strike swiftly. The South African Air Force (SAAF) used up to 6 x 120 kg or 4 x 250 kg bombs. The main armament consisted of 68 mm SNEB rocket-launchers (four x 6 or two x 18), and two 30 mm autocannon (with 300 rounds). These cannons were the real bonus for the Impala Mk II, helping to give a superior performance compared to earlier two-seat versions. The latter could also carry a pair of 30 mm DEFA guns in under-wing pods. However, dual capability as trainer-attackers was better appreciated, as was the availability of six hard points and so dual-seat versions were far more common. Six squadrons were equipped with the Impala Mk II in the SAAF during the 1970s and 1980s. Prior to Operation Moduler, most Impalas were withdrawn from their operating bases in South-West Africa, leaving the work to Mirage IIIs and Blackburn Buccaneers.

Impala Mk IIs were also opportunistically used as interceptors. In several encounters in 1985 with Mi-8 and Mi-24 helicopters, they shot down a total of six. This happened during a crucial phase of the ground war, when Angolan and Cuban troops were checked in an offensive against UNITA bases. This ended in disaster for the Angolan/Cuban alliance when their supplies were cut off by UNITA and the SAAF and front line troops ran out of ammunition. Helicopters were being used to supply the besieged troops and the SAAF cut off this link. Two Mi-24s were shot down in the first encounter while escorting Mi-17s. The MiG-21s that escorted them flew too high to react in time. Two days later the Impala Mk IIs struck again, downing two Mi-24s and two Mi-17s. Attacks on unsuspecting helicopters were carried out with only two guns per aircraft. The single seat Impala Mk IIs were also sometimes armed with Matra R550 Magic air-to-air missiles for self-defence. The Impala Mk II operated at extreme ranges and had to fly very low, climbing only when helicopters were seen at medium altitude. After each attack they returned to low level to avoid interception by enemy MiGs.

The Silver Falcons, the SAAF aerobatic team, were equipped before with Impala Mk Is.

The flying school for Impalas was Flying Training School at Langebaanweg while operational squadrons were 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 Squadrons, with 85 Combat Flying School also having a small number of Impalas to supplement their Mirage trainers.

Argentina
A number of MB-326 aircraft, together with the more modern MB-339, formed the equipment of the Argentine Navy's 1 Escuadrilla de Ataque in 1982, when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. A number of MB-326s were deployed to bases along the Argentine coast immediately following the Argentine invasion, but soon returned to the squadron's base at Punta Indio. While several MB-339s were deployed to the Falklands, the MB-326s remained on the mainland. After the end of the war, 11 EMB-326GBs were received from Brazil to replace losses and restore 1 Escuadrilla de Ataque's strength.

Other operators
In stark contrast to the competing Fiat G.91, which was often considered to be not very convincing as a light fighter, the MB-326 was quick to achieve several export successes in this capacity. The type had ultimately failed to impress other NATO nations, who only sparsely adopted it into their air forces. However, the MB-326 did achieve a visible measure of success amongst many Third World countries, leading to the MB-326 seeing considerable use as a front-line combat aircraft in a number of regional conflicts.

Eight MB-326Bs were ordered by Tunisia in 1965. These were developed from basic MB-326s with a weapons capability, with the 37th series AMI aircraft being converted (it had civilian markings I-MAKC). The main innovation was its ground attack capability, with six underwing pylons, holding a maximum of 907 kg of stores. In the same year, Ghana ordered nine similar MB-326Fs.

Other MB-326Gs used the Viper Mk 20 engine which provided 1,524 kg of thrust, and were consequently faster and had an increased payload of 1,814 kg max. Argentina ordered eight, initially as the MB-326K, later called the MB-326GB.

Another 17 MB-326GCs were built in Italy for Zaire (Force Arienne Zairoise) and 23 for the Zambian Air Force.

The MB-326K (originally known as the MB-336) was the last generation model, fitted with the Viper Mk 600 engine, capable of 1,814 kg thrust to give an even better performance. The first flight took place on 22 August 1970. The two prototypes were I-AMKK and I-KMAK, the MB-326G was converted to this new model.

Dubai bought three in 1974, and a further three in 1978 (MB-326KD), Tunisia eight (MB-326KT), Ghana nine (MB-326KB) and Zaire eight (MB-326KB).

The MB-326L was essentially the MB-326K with two seats. Two MB-326LD were supplied to Dubai and four MB-326LD to Tunisia.

The measures to save costs led the MB-326 to be frequently substituted for by propeller-driven models, however, the Macchi was often flexible enough to act as a medium trainer and light attack aircraft.

Variants

 * MB-326: Two prototypes and 125 production training aircraft for the Italian Air Force.
 * MB-326A: Proposed armed version for weapons training, not built.
 * MB-326B: Eight two-seat jet trainer, light attack aircraft for Tunisia.
 * MB-326D: Four two-seat unarmed jet trainers for Alitalia.
 * MB-326E: Six two-seat armed jet trainers for the Italian Air Force.
 * MB-326F: Nine two-seat jet trainer, light attack aircraft for Ghana.
 * MB-326G: Two two-seat jet trainer, ground-attack aircraft.
 * MB-326GB: Two-seat jet trainer, ground-attack aircraft. Eight were sold to the Argentine Navy. 17 aircraft were exported to Zaire, and another 23 aircraft to Zambia.
 * MB-326GC: Two-seat jet trainer, ground-attack aircraft for the Brazilian Air Force. 167 aircraft built under license in Brazil as the Embraer EMB-326 for the Brazilian Air Force.  Eleven of them were transferred to the Argentine Navy after the Falklands War.  Six aircraft were exported to Togo, and another ten to Paraguay. Total production, 182.
 * AT-26 Xavante: Brazilian Air Force designation of the MB-326GC.
 * RT-26 Xavante: Some AT-26 Xavantes were converted into reconnaissance aircraft.
 * MB-326H: 87 two-seat jet trainers built for the Royal Australian Air Force, and 10 for the Royal Australian Navy. Twelve Italian-built aircraft and 85 built under license in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation with the designation "CA-30".
 * MB-326K: Single-seat ground-attack aircraft for the South African Air Force. Built under license in South Africa by the Atlas Aircraft Corporation.
 * Impala Mk II: South African Air Force designation of the MB-326K.
 * MB-326KB: Single-seat ground-attack aircraft for Zaire. (Six built).
 * MB-326KD: Single-seat ground-attack aircraft for Dubai. (Three built).
 * MB-326KG: Single-seat ground-attack aircraft for Ghana. (Four built).
 * MB-326KT: Single-seat ground-attack aircraft for Tunisia. (Seven built).
 * MB-326L: Two-seat advanced jet trainer aircraft.
 * MB-326LD: Two-seat advanced jet training aircraft for Dubai. (Two built).
 * MB-326LT: Two-seat advanced jet training aircraft for Tunisia. Four built.
 * MB-326M: Two-seat jet trainer, ground-attack aircraft for the South African Air Force. Built under license in South Africa by the Atlas Aircraft Corporation.
 * Impala Mk I: South African Air Force designation of the MB-326M.
 * MB-326RM: Five Italian Air Force MB-326s were converted into ECM aircraft.

Operators

 * Argentine Navy – The Argentine Naval Aviation received 8 MB-326GB plus 11 MB-326GC ex-Brazilian Air Force
 * Royal Australian Air Force operated 87 MB-326Hs from 1967 to 2001. As of 2014 some fuselages are still in use at RAAF Base Wagga as training aids.
 * No. 25 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 76 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 77 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 79 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 2 Flying Training School RAAF
 * No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF
 * No. 5 Operational Training Unit RAAF
 * Central Flying School RAAF
 * Roulettes
 * Telstars
 * Aircraft Research and Development Unit
 * RAAF School of Technical Training (still in use as training aids)
 * Fleet Air Arm (RAN) operated 10 MB-326Hs from 1970 to 1983.
 * No. 724 Squadron RAN
 * Brazilian Air Force received 182 MB-326GCs (known as the AT-26 Xavante) and 12 Atlas Impala ex-South African Air Force. The last examples were retired on 2 December 2010.
 * No. 724 Squadron RAN
 * Brazilian Air Force received 182 MB-326GCs (known as the AT-26 Xavante) and 12 Atlas Impala ex-South African Air Force. The last examples were retired on 2 December 2010.
 * Brazilian Air Force received 182 MB-326GCs (known as the AT-26 Xavante) and 12 Atlas Impala ex-South African Air Force. The last examples were retired on 2 December 2010.
 * Cameroon Air Force: Six ex-SAAF Impala Mk I and IIs
 * Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Dubai
 * Dubai Defence Force Air Wing – 6 x MB 326KD, 3 x MB 326LD passed on to the United Arab Emirates Air Force in 1999.
 * Dubai Defence Force Air Wing – 6 x MB 326KD, 3 x MB 326LD passed on to the United Arab Emirates Air Force in 1999.
 * Ghana Air Force received 15 MB.326s.
 * Alitalia operated 4 MB-326D as trainer
 * Italian Air Force operated 135 MB-326 and two MB-326G for evaluation test
 * Paraguayan Air Force operates ten EMB-326GBs/AT-26 Xavante, some in reserve.
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa
 * South African Air Force operated 62 MB-326s plus 125 Impala Mk.1s and 73 Mk.2s
 * 4 Squadron SAAF
 * 5 Squadron SAAF
 * 6 Squadron SAAF
 * 7 Squadron SAAF
 * 8 Squadron SAAF
 * 24 Squadron SAAF
 * 40 Squadron SAAF
 * 85 Combat Flying School
 * Silver Falcons
 * 85 Combat Flying School
 * Silver Falcons

 * Togolese Air Force received six MB-326GCs.
 * Tunisian Air Force received 16 MB-326s.
 * United Arab Emirates Air Force inherited six aircraft from the Dubai Defence Force Air Wing.
 * National Test Pilot School
 * Zaire Air Force received 25 MB-326GBs.
 * Zambian Air Force received 23 MB-326GB.
 * National Test Pilot School
 * Zaire Air Force received 25 MB-326GBs.
 * Zambian Air Force received 23 MB-326GB.
 * Zaire Air Force received 25 MB-326GBs.
 * Zambian Air Force received 23 MB-326GB.
 * Zambian Air Force received 23 MB-326GB.

Aircraft on display

 * Argentina
 * 0647 – MB-326GB on static display at Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego.

 * Australia
 * A7-001 – MB-326H on static display at the RAAF Museum in Point Cook, Victoria.
 * A7-014 – MB-326H on static display at the Gippsland Armed Forces Museum in Sale, Victoria.
 * A7-015 – MB-326H on static display at the Gippsland Armed Forces Museum in Sale, Victoria.
 * A7-026 – MB-326H on static display at the South Australian Aviation Museum in Port Adelaide, South Australia.
 * A7-027 – MB-326H on static display at RAAF Base Pearce in Bullsbrook, Western Australia.
 * A7-030 – MB-326H in storage at the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society in Albion Park Rail, New South Wales.
 * A7-047 – MB-326H at the RAAF Base Amberley Aviation Heritage Centre in Ipswich, Queensland.
 * A7-054 – MB-326H on static display at the Benalla Aviation Museum in Benalla, Victoria.
 * A7-057 – MB-326H on static display at the Merredin Military Museum in Merredin, Western Australia.
 * A7-062 – MB-326H on static display at Fighter World at RAAF Base Williamtown, Williamtown, New South Wales.
 * A7-066 – MB-326H on static display at the Aviation Heritage Museum in Bull Creek, Western Australia. It is painted as A7-025.
 * A7-067 – MB-326H forward fuselage on static display at Fighter World at RAAF Base Williamtown, New South Wales.
 * A7-072 – MB-326H on static display, Queensland Air Museum, Caloundra, Sunshine Coast.
 * A7-077 – MB-326H on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum at HMAS Albatross, Nowra, New South Wales.
 * A7-097 – MB-326H at the RAAF Museum in Point Cook, Victoria.

 * Austria
 * 472 – MB-326M on display at the Österreichisches Luftfahrtmuseum Graz-Thalerhof in Graz, Styria.

 * Brazil
 * FAB-4480, an AT-26 Xavante (Brazilian version of Aermacchi MB-326, built by Embraer) on static display in the public entrance of the Barreira do Inferno Launch Center in Parnamirim, Rio Grande do Norte.
 * FAB-4488, an AT-26 Xavante on static display in the military area of the Gov. Carlos Wilson Airport in Fernando de Noronha, Pernambuco.
 * FAB-4535, an AT-26 Xavante on static display in the entrance of the CINDACTA III building in Recife, Pernambuco.
 * FAB-4548, an AT-26 Xavante on static display in the entrance of the Hospital da Aeronáutica do Recife (Brazilian Air Force Hospital in Recife).
 * FAB-4556, an AT-26 Xavante on static display in the parking lot of the Colégio Militar do Recife, a military-managed high school in Recife, Pernambuco.
 * FAB-4560, an AT-26 Xavante on static display at Jardim Vila Galvão square, in the city of Guarulhos.
 * FAB-4566, an AT-26 Xavante in storage at the TAM Museum in São Carlos, São Paulo.
 * FAB-4590, an AT-26 Xavante on display at Espaço Ciência, a free admission science museum in Olinda, Pernambuco. The original painting of this aircraft has been replaced by a Romero Britto-styled livery.
 * FAB-4635, an AT-26A Xavante on static display near lake Joao Barbosa Sitônio in Triunfo, Pernambuco.

 * Italy
 * MM54245 - MB-326E identification code 37-31, with the emblem of the 41º Stormo on the drift fin. On static display on the roundabout between via Santa Maria Goretti, via San Giuseppe la Rena and via Tiro a Segno in Catania, Sicily, near the Catania-Fontanarossa Airport.
 * MM54243 – MB-326 on static display at the San Pelagio Air and Space Museum in Due Carrare, Veneto.
 * MM54266 – MB-326D on static display at the Istituto Tecnico Industriale Aeronautico in Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia.

 * South Africa
 * 494 – MB-326M on static display at Impala Primary School in Kempton Park, Gauteng.
 * MB-326 on static display at Port Elizabeth Airport in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape.
 * 531 – MB-326M on static display at Air Force Base Ysterplaat in Cape Town, Western Cape.
 * 532 – MB-326M on static display at the South African Air Force Museum in Centurion, Gauteng.
 * 589 – MB-326M on static display at the South African Air Force Museum in Centurion, Gauteng.
 * 1000 – MB-326K on static display at the South African Air Force Museum in Centurion, Gauteng.
 * 1045 – MB-326K on static display at the South African National Museum of Military History in Johannesburg, Gauteng.
 * 1065 – MB-326K on static display at the South African Air Force Museum in Centurion, Gauteng.

 * Ghana
 * Armed Forces Museum in Kumasi, Ashanti.

 * United States
 * 474 – MB-326M on static display at the Estrella Warbirds Museum in Paso Robles, California.

title: Aermacchi MB-326


text:
User:Juergen~enwiki

Jürgen Lindemeyer lives near Heidelberg in Germany. He has studied computer science and is working as software developer.

Articles he has started:

 * Heinz Guderian

title: User:Juergen~enwiki


text:
User talk:Juergen~enwiki

Hi, Jürgen! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you don't mind my editing your article on Heinz Guderian. Looking forward to reading your contributions! --KF 14:26 Feb 17, 2003 (UTC)

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

Wikipedians/Germany is being replaced by a category
Hello! You were listed on the Wikipedians/Germany page as living in or being associated with Germany. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, or one of the Bundesland-based subcategories, please visit Category:Wikipedians in Germany for instructions. --Angr ( tɔk ) 15:04, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Juergen. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Juergen~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:48, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 14:39, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Juergen~enwiki


text:
Talk:Writing

Lead length
I've marked this article's lead section as too long. LarstonMarston (talk) 14:42, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

 * A potential solution that would also enact some structural updates of interest to WikiProject:Writing could be to stop the lead after the current second paragraph. "Contents" could begin by merging the current section 2 (Tools and Materials) with a consolidated version of the distinction introduced in paragraphs 3 and 4 of the current header (i.e., collective and individual motivations for writing), which could then become sections 3 and 4 in their own right (with 4.1 - 4.5 becoming instructive examples of contemporary collective writing practices and 4.6-4.7 becoming examples of more individualized motivations for writing. Questions of the origins of and differences among different writing systems can be incorporated in the relevant history of collective writing systems, but readers interested in a more substantive account of archeological dimensions of can be referred to existing and already very thorough pages on History of Writing and Writing Systems. This page probably needs to serve readers more interested in the multiplex contemporary uses *of* writing.

Compositionist (talk) 18:02, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Would agree w/ the suggestions above. LarstonMarston (talk) 18:19, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

Opening line
I removed the link to "activity" in the opening sentence per MOS:SOB and MOS:OL; is there a "particularly relevant" reason to link it? If so, could the link be moved?

Incidentally, the first sentence's ending contradicts the last sentence of the lead, which defines a text. Whoever checks this could fix the links at the same time. CohenTheBohemian (talk) 15:07, 5 January 2023 (UTC)

Education
Education is very useful for student. 2402:3A80:4023:21CE:4E15:16CE:E55F:6B01 (talk) 06:36, 8 February 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Writing 2
— Assignment last updated by Bryceucsb (talk) 01:22, 13 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Writing