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Haloperidol

Haloperidol, sold under the brand name Haldol among others, is a typical antipsychotic medication. Haloperidol is used in the treatment of schizophrenia, tics in Tourette syndrome, mania in bipolar disorder, delirium, agitation, acute psychosis, and hallucinations from alcohol withdrawal. It may be used by mouth or injection into a muscle or a vein. Haloperidol typically works within 30 to 60 minutes. A long-acting formulation may be used as an injection every four weeks by people with schizophrenia or related illnesses, who either forget or refuse to take the medication by mouth.

Haloperidol may result in a movement disorder known as tardive dyskinesia which may be permanent. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and QT interval prolongation may occur, the latter particularly with IV administration. In older people with psychosis due to dementia it results in an increased risk of death. When taken during pregnancy it may result in problems in the infant. It should not be used by people with Parkinson's disease.

Haloperidol was discovered in 1958 by Paul Janssen, prepared as part of a structure-activity relationship investigation into analogs of pethidine (meperidine). It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is the most commonly used typical antipsychotic. In 2020, it was the 303rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.

Physicochemical properties
Haloperidol is a crystalline material with a melting temperature of 150 °C. This drug has very low solubility in water (1.4 mg/100 mL), but it is soluble in chloroform, benzene, methanol, and acetone. It is also soluble in 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (3 mg/mL) with heating.

Medical uses
Haloperidol is used in the control of the symptoms of:
 * Acute psychosis, such as drug-induced psychosis caused by amphetamines, ketamine, and phencyclidine, and psychosis associated with high fever or metabolic disease. Some evidence has found haloperidol to worsen psychosis due to psilocybin.
 * Adjunctive treatment of alcohol and opioid withdrawal
 * Agitation and confusion associated with cerebral sclerosis
 * Alcohol-induced psychosis
 * Hallucinations in alcohol withdrawal
 * Hyperactive delirium (to control the agitation component of delirium)
 * Hyperactivity, aggression
 * Otherwise uncontrollable, severe behavioral disorders in children and adolescents
 * Schizophrenia
 * Therapeutic trial in personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder
 * Treatment of intractable hiccups
 * Treatment of neurological disorders, including tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome, and chorea
 * Treatment of severe nausea and emesis in postoperative and palliative care, especially for palliating adverse effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy in oncology. Also used as a first line antiemetic for acute Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome.
 * As chemical restraint in acute care psychiatry, mainly for violent and self-harming patients (controversial use but very commonly found in movies).

Haloperidol was considered indispensable for treating psychiatric emergency situations, although the newer atypical drugs have gained a greater role in a number of situations as outlined in a series of consensus reviews published between 2001 and 2005.

In a 2013 comparison of 15 antipsychotics in schizophrenia, haloperidol demonstrated standard effectiveness. It was 13–16% more effective than ziprasidone, chlorpromazine, and asenapine, approximately as effective as quetiapine and aripiprazole, and 10% less effective than paliperidone. A 2013 systematic review compared haloperidol to placebo in schizophrenia:

Pregnancy and lactation
Data from animal experiments indicate haloperidol is not teratogenic, but is embryotoxic in high doses. In humans, no controlled studies exist. Reports in pregnant women revealed possible damage to the fetus, although most of the women were exposed to multiple drugs during pregnancy. In addition, reports indicate neonates exposed to antipsychotic drugs are at risk for extrapyramidal and/or withdrawal symptoms following delivery, such as agitation, hypertonia, hypotonia, tremor, somnolence, respiratory distress, and feeding disorder. Following accepted general principles, haloperidol should be given during pregnancy only if the benefit to the mother clearly outweighs the potential fetal risk.

Haloperidol is excreted in breast milk. A few studies have examined the impact of haloperidol exposure on breastfed infants and in most cases, there were no adverse effects on infant growth and development.

Other considerations

During long-term treatment of chronic psychiatric disorders, the daily dose should be reduced to the lowest level needed for maintenance of remission. Sometimes, it may be indicated to terminate haloperidol treatment gradually. In addition, during long-term use, routine monitoring including measurement of BMI, blood pressure, fasting blood sugar, and lipids, is recommended due to the risk of side effects.

Other forms of therapy (psychotherapy, occupational therapy/ergotherapy, or social rehabilitation) should be instituted properly. PET imaging studies have suggested low doses are preferable. Clinical response was associated with at least 65% occupancy of D2 receptors, while greater than 72% was likely to cause hyperprolactinaemia and over 78% associated with extrapyramidal side effects. Doses of haloperidol greater than 5 mg increased the risk of side effects without improving efficacy. Patients responded with doses under even 2 mg in first-episode psychosis. For maintenance treatment of schizophrenia, an international consensus conference recommended a reduction dosage by about 20% every 6 months until a minimal maintenance dose is established.
 * Depot forms are also available; these are injected deeply intramuscularly at regular intervals. The depot forms are not suitable for initial treatment, but are suitable for patients who have demonstrated inconsistency with oral dosages.

The decanoate ester of haloperidol (haloperidol decanoate, trade names Haldol decanoate, Halomonth, Neoperidole) has a much longer duration of action, so is often used in people known to be noncompliant with oral medication. A dose is given by intramuscular injection once every two to four weeks. The IUPAC name of haloperidol decanoate is [4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxobutyl]piperidin-4-yl] decanoate.

Topical formulations of haloperidol should not be used as treatment for nausea because research does not indicate this therapy is more effective than alternatives.

Adverse effects
Sources for the following lists of adverse effects:

As haloperidol is a high-potency typical antipsychotic, it tends to produce significant extrapyramidal side effects. According to a 2013 meta-analysis of the comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs it was the most prone of the 15 for causing extrapyramidal side effects.

With more than 6 months of use 14 percent of users gain weight. Haloperidol may be neurotoxic.

Common (>1% incidence)
 * Extrapyramidal side effects including:
 * Akathisia (motor restlessness)
 * Dystonia (continuous spasms and muscle contractions)
 * Muscle rigidity
 * Parkinsonism (characteristic symptoms such as rigidity)
 * Hypotension
 * Anticholinergic side effects such as: (These adverse effects are less common than with lower-potency typical antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine.)
 * Blurred vision
 * Constipation
 * Dry mouth
 * Somnolence (which is not a particularly prominent side effect, as is supported by the results of the aforementioned meta-analysis. )

Unknown frequency
 * Anemia
 * Headache
 * Increased respiratory rate
 * Orthostatic hypotension
 * Prolonged QT interval
 * Visual disturbances

Rare (<1% incidence)

 * Acute hepatic failure
 * Agitation
 * Agranulocytosis
 * Anaphylactic reaction
 * Anorexia
 * Bronchospasm
 * Cataracts
 * Cholestasis
 * Confusional state
 * Depression
 * Dermatitis exfoliative
 * Dyspnea
 * Edema
 * Extrasystoles
 * Face edema
 * Gynecomastia
 * Hepatitis
 * Hyperglycemia
 * Hypersensitivity
 * Hyperthermia
 * Hypoglycemia
 * Hyponatremia
 * Hypothermia
 * Increased sweating
 * Injection site abscess
 * Insomnia
 * Itchiness
 * Jaundice
 * Laryngeal edema
 * Laryngospasm
 * Leukocytoclastic vasculitis
 * Leukopenia
 * Liver function test abnormal
 * Nausea
 * Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
 * Neutropenia
 * Pancytopenia
 * Photosensitivity reaction
 * Priapism
 * Psychotic disorder
 * Pulmonary embolism
 * Rash
 * Retinopathy
 * Seizure
 * Sudden death
 * Tardive dyskinesia
 * Thrombocytopenia
 * Torsades de pointes
 * Urinary retention
 * Urticaria
 * Ventricular fibrillation
 * Ventricular tachycardia
 * Vomiting

Contraindications

 * Pre-existing coma, acute stroke
 * Severe intoxication with alcohol or other central depressant drugs
 * Known allergy against haloperidol or other butyrophenones or other drug ingredients
 * Known heart disease, when combined will tend towards cardiac arrest

Special cautions

 * A multiple-year study suggested this drug and other neuroleptic antipsychotic drugs commonly given to people with Alzheimer's with mild behavioral problems often make their condition worse and its withdrawal was even beneficial for some cognitive and functional measures.
 * Elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis: analysis of 17 trials showed the risk of death in this group of patients was 1.6 to 1.7 times that of placebo-treated patients. Most of the causes of death were either cardiovascular or infectious in nature. It is not clear to what extent this observation is attributed to antipsychotic drugs rather than the characteristics of the patients. The drug bears a boxed warning about this risk.
 * Impaired liver function, as haloperidol is metabolized and eliminated mainly by the liver
 * In patients with hyperthyroidism, the action of haloperidol is intensified and side effects are more likely.
 * IV injections: risk of hypotension or orthostatic collapse
 * Patients at special risk for the development of QT prolongation (hypokalemia, concomitant use of other drugs causing QT prolongation)
 * Patients with a history of leukopenia: a complete blood count should be monitored frequently during the first few months of therapy and discontinuation of the drug should be considered at the first sign of a clinically significant decline in white blood cells.
 * Pre-existing Parkinson's disease or dementia with Lewy bodies

Interactions

 * Amiodarone: Q-Tc interval prolongation (potentially dangerous change in heart rhythm).
 * Amphetamine and methylphenidate: counteracts increased action of norepinephrine and dopamine in patients with narcolepsy or ADD/ADHD
 * Epinephrine: action antagonized, paradoxical decrease in blood pressure may result
 * Guanethidine: antihypertensive action antagonized
 * Levodopa: decreased action of levodopa
 * Lithium: rare cases of the following symptoms have been noted: encephalopathy, early and late extrapyramidal side effects, other neurologic symptoms, and coma.
 * Methyldopa: increased risk of extrapyramidal side effects and other unwanted central effects
 * Other central depressants (alcohol, tranquilizers, narcotics): actions and side effects of these drugs (sedation, respiratory depression) are increased. In particular, the doses of concomitantly used opioids for chronic pain can be reduced by 50%.
 * Other drugs metabolized by the CYP3A4 enzyme system: inducers such as carbamazepine, phenobarbital, and rifampicin decrease plasma levels and inhibitors such as quinidine, buspirone, and fluoxetine increase plasma levels
 * Tricyclic antidepressants: metabolism and elimination of tricyclics significantly decreased, increased toxicity noted (anticholinergic and cardiovascular side effects, lowering of seizure threshold)

Potential neurotoxicity
Several lines of evidence suggest that haloperidol exhibits neurotoxicity. Some studies report an association between antipsychotic medications, especially first-generation agents, and a decline in gray matter volume. Haloperidol may exert deleterious effects on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) by attenuating BDNF transcription and expression, associated with an increase in the long non-coding RNA BDNF-AS in the DLPFC.

Discontinuation
The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.

There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Symptoms
Symptoms are usually due to side effects. Most often encountered are:

 * Anticholinergic side effects (dry mouth, constipation, paralytic ileus, difficulties in urinating, decreased perspiration)
 * Coma in severe cases, accompanied by respiratory depression and massive hypotension, shock
 * Hypotension or hypertension
 * Rarely, serious ventricular arrhythmia (torsades de pointes), with or without prolonged QT-time
 * Sedation
 * Severe extrapyramidal side effects with muscle rigidity and tremors, akathisia, etc.

Treatment
Treatment is mostly symptomatic and involves intensive care with stabilization of vital functions. In early detected cases of oral overdose, induction of emesis, gastric lavage, and the use of activated charcoal can be tried. In the case of a severe overdose, antidotes such as bromocriptine or ropinirole may be used to treat the extrapyramidal effects caused by haloperidol, acting as dopamine receptor agonists. ECG and vital signs should be monitored especially for QT prolongation and severe arrhythmias should be treated with antiarrhythmic measures.

Prognosis
An overdose of haloperidol can be fatal, but in general the prognosis after overdose is good, provided the person has survived the initial phase.

Pharmacology

Haloperidol is a typical butyrophenone-type antipsychotic that exhibits high-affinity dopamine D2 receptor antagonism and slow receptor dissociation kinetics. It has effects similar to the phenothiazines. The drug binds preferentially to D2 and α1 receptors at low dose (ED50 = 0.13 and 0.42 mg/kg, respectively), and 5-HT2 receptors at a higher dose (ED50 = 2.6 mg/kg). Given that antagonism of D2 receptors is more beneficial on the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and antagonism of 5-HT2 receptors on the negative symptoms, this characteristic underlies haloperidol's greater effect on delusions, hallucinations and other manifestations of psychosis. Haloperidol's negligible affinity for histamine H1 receptors and muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptors yields an antipsychotic with a lower incidence of sedation, weight gain, and orthostatic hypotension though having higher rates of treatment emergent extrapyramidal symptoms.

By mouth
The bioavailability of oral haloperidol ranges from 60 to 70%. However, there is a wide variance in reported mean Tmax and T1/2 in different studies, ranging from 1.7 to 6.1 hours and 14.5 to 36.7 hours respectively.

Intramuscular injections
The drug is well and rapidly absorbed with a high bioavailability when injected intramuscularly. The Tmax is 20 minutes in healthy individuals and 33.8 minutes in patients with schizophrenia. The mean T1/2 is 20.7 hours. The decanoate injectable formulation is for intramuscular administration only and is not intended to be used intravenously. The plasma concentrations of haloperidol decanoate reach a peak at about six days after the injection, falling thereafter, with an approximate half-life of three weeks.

Intravenous injections
The bioavailability is 100% in intravenous (IV) injection, and the very rapid onset of action is seen within seconds. The T1/2 is 14.1 to 26.2 hours. The apparent volume of distribution is between 9.5 and 21.7 L/kg. The duration of action is four to six hours.

Therapeutic concentrations
Plasma levels of five to 15 micrograms per liter are typically seen for therapeutic response (Ulrich S, et al. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998). The determination of plasma levels is rarely used to calculate dose adjustments but can be useful to check compliance.

The concentration of haloperidol in brain tissue is about 20-fold higher compared to blood levels. It is slowly eliminated from brain tissue, which may explain the slow disappearance of side effects when the medication is stopped.

Distribution and metabolism
Haloperidol is heavily protein bound in human plasma, with a free fraction of only 7.5 to 11.6%. It is also extensively metabolized in the liver with only about 1% of the administered dose excreted unchanged in the urine. The greatest proportion of the hepatic clearance is by glucuronidation, followed by reduction and CYP-mediated oxidation, primarily by CYP3A4.

History
Haloperidol was discovered by Paul Janssen. It was developed in 1958 at the Belgian company Janssen Pharmaceutica and submitted to the first of clinical trials in Belgium later that year.

Haloperidol was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 12 April 1967; it was later marketed in the U.S. and other countries under the brand name Haldol by McNeil Laboratories.

Cost
Haloperidol is relatively inexpensive, being up to 100 fold less expensive than newer antipsychotics.

Brand names
Haloperidol is the INN, BAN, USAN, AAN approved name.

It is sold under the tradenames Aloperidin, Bioperidolo, Brotopon, Dozic, Duraperidol (Germany), Einalon S, Eukystol, Haldol (common tradename in the US and UK), Halol, Halosten, Keselan, Linton, Peluces, Serenace Norodol (Turkey) and Sigaperidol.

Veterinary use
Haloperidol is also used on many different kinds of animals for nonselective tranquilization and diminishing behavioral arousal, in veterinary and other settings including captivity management.

title: Haloperidol


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Star Wars Holiday Special

The Star Wars Holiday Special is an American television special originally broadcast by CBS on November 17, 1978. It is set in the universe of the sci-fi-based Star Wars media franchise. Directed by Steve Binder, it was the first Star Wars spin-off film, set between the events of the original film and the then-unreleased sequel The Empire Strikes Back (1980). It stars the main cast of the original Star Wars and introduces the character of Boba Fett, who appeared in later films.

In the storyline that ties the special together, following the events of the original film, Chewbacca and Han Solo attempt to visit the Wookiee home planet of Kashyyyk to celebrate "Life Day". They are pursued by agents of the Galactic Empire, who are searching for members of the Rebel Alliance on the planet. The special introduces three members of Chewbacca's family: his father Itchy, his wife Malla, and his son Lumpy.

The program also features the rest of the main Star Wars characters, including Luke Skywalker, C-3PO, R2-D2, Darth Vader and Princess Leia, all portrayed by the original cast (except R2-D2, who is simply billed as "himself"). The program includes footage from the 1977 film and a cartoon produced by Toronto-based Nelvana featuring the bounty hunter Boba Fett. Scenes take place in space and in spacecraft including the Millennium Falcon and a Star Destroyer; segments also take place in a few other locales such as the Mos Eisley cantina from the original film.

The special was very poorly received, and has never been rebroadcast nor officially released on home video in any format. It has become something of a cultural legend due to the underground quality of its existence. It has been viewed and distributed in off-air recordings of the original 1978 CBS television broadcast by fans as bootleg copies, and it has also been uploaded to content-sharing websites. In contrast, the animated segment that introduced Boba Fett was positively received and, in 2021, was released on Disney+.

Plot
On Life Day, Chewbacca, accompanied by Han Solo, is headed home to see his family. Along the way, the duo is chased by two Star Destroyers, but they escape into hyperspace. Meanwhile, on Kashyyyk, Chewbacca's family is preparing for his return. Hoping to find the Millennium Falcon, his wife, Malla, runs a computer scan for starships in the area but is unsuccessful.

Malla contacts Luke Skywalker, who, along with R2-D2, is working on his X-wing fighter. Luke tells her that he does not know what happened. Malla contacts Saun Dann, a local trader. He tells her through a carefully worded message that Han and Chewbacca are on their way and should be arriving soon.

Malla then attempts (unsuccessfully) to prepare a meal, the instructions of which are being aired via a local cooking show by an eccentric four-armed alien cook, Chef Gormaanda (Harvey Korman).

Saun arrives with Life Day gifts for everyone, including a virtual reality fantasy program (featuring Diahann Carroll) for Itchy. Back on the Falcon, Chewbacca and Han have just come out of hyperspace not far from Kashyyyk. Han notices an increased Imperial presence, so they decide to land in an unguarded area to the north.

As they enter the atmosphere, Lumpy hears the roaring of the ship. Believing Han and Chewie might be arriving, Malla opens the door, but instead finds two stormtroopers and officers. The Imperials force their way into the house. An officer orders a search for Chewbacca.

As they search, Saun and the others attempt to distract them with food and Malla's music video box (which features a video by Jefferson Starship). When the music finishes, the head officer orders the search to continue. The head officer tells Malla to keep Lumpy busy while they search his room, so Lumpy (and the viewing audience) uses a viewscreen to watch a cartoon of his father's many adventures:

"During a search for a talisman, the Millennium Falcon crashes on the water moon of Panna with the main characters onboard. They run into Boba Fett, who saves Luke from a giant monster and claims to want to help the Rebels. They all board the Falcon, where Han has been infected by a mysterious sleeping virus caused by the talisman. Luke then contracts the virus as well. Fett and Chewie go into Panna City to get the cure. Once they get into the Imperial-occupied city, Fett instructs Chewie to stay behind—so he can contact Darth Vader. On the Falcon, as C-3PO is caring for Han and Luke, R2-D2 intercepts the transmission between Vader and Fett. Evading the Imperials, Fett and Chewie return to the Falcon with the cure. After everyone recovers from the virus, they learn of Fett's true allegiances. He blasts away using his jetpack, promising they will meet again. The heroes head back to the Rebel base aboard the Falcon."

Lumpy works to create a translation device that will fool the Imperials into returning to their base by faking their commander's voice. To do so, he first must watch the manual for the device, being presented by a malfunctioning, incompetent robot (also played by Korman). While the Imperials are searching downstairs, the living room viewscreen activates, announcing that Tatooine is being put under curfew by the Empire because of "subversive forces".

The video is announced as required viewing for all Imperial forces and much of it features Ackmena (Bea Arthur) running the Mos Eisley cantina. Ackmena is approached by an admirer: Krelman, an amorous alien, who has misunderstood something she said to him recently. Ackmena announces last call, and upon being ignored, sings a farewell song.

Lumpy uses this opportunity to put his plan into motion, faking a repeated call for the Imperials to "return to base". They leave, but one stormtrooper stays behind and realizes that they were tricked. He finds Lumpy and destroys the machine, then chases Lumpy outside.

Han and Chewbacca arrive. Chewie protects Lumpy as Han kills the stormtrooper. After they are reunited, an Imperial officer appears on the viewscreen, giving a general alert for the missing stormtrooper. Saun quickly responds that the trooper stole supplies and deserted. The danger averted, the family prepares to go to the festival at the great Tree of Life. They hold glowing orbs, and appear in space wearing red robes.

Wookiees walk into a bright star and arrive at the Tree of Life, where many are gathered, including C-3PO and R2-D2. Luke, Leia, and Han also appear. Leia gives a short speech and sings a song in celebration. Chewie remembers his adventures during the events of the original film. Finally, the Wookiee family sits around a table and bow their heads.

Cast

 * Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker
 * Harrison Ford as Han Solo
 * Carrie Fisher as Princess Leia
 * Anthony Daniels as C-3PO
 * Peter Mayhew as Chewbacca
 * James Earl Jones as Darth Vader (voice)
 * Beatrice Arthur as Ackmena
 * Art Carney as Trader Saun Dann
 * Diahann Carroll as Mermeia Holographic
 * Jefferson Starship (Marty Balin, Craig Chaquico, Paul Kantner, David Freiberg, Pete Sears, John Barbata) as holographic band
 * Harvey Korman as Krelman / Chef Gormaanda / Amorphian instructor
 * Mickey Morton as Malla / Tork (uncredited) / Chef Gormaanda's second pair of arms (uncredited)
 * Paul Gale as Itchy
 * Patty Maloney as Lumpy
 * Jack Rader as Imperial Guard Officer
 * Stephanie Stromer
 * Michael Potter as Imperial Guard
 * The Wazzan Troupe
 * Yuichi Sugiyama as the "Ring-Master"
 * The Mum Brothers
 * Claude Woolman as Imperial Officer
 * Lev Mailer as Imperial Guard
 * John McLaughlin
 * David Prowse (archive footage) as Darth Vader (uncredited)
 * Alec Guinness (archive footage) as Obi-Wan Kenobi (uncredited)
 * Leslie Schofield (archive footage) as Imperial Officer (uncredited)
 * Marcus Powell (archive footage) as Rycar Ryjerd (uncredited)

Kenny Baker, who played R2-D2 in the films, was not involved in the special. The droid was performed entirely by a radio-controlled unit, operated by Mick Garris (Lucas's receptionist). In the credits, R2-D2 is credited by announcer Art James as playing himself.

Because James Earl Jones was originally uncredited in Star Wars, the special marked the first time he was credited as the voice of Darth Vader.

Malla's mask was repurposed from a Chewbacca mask from the original film. The names of Chewbacca's family were later explained to have been nicknames, their full names being Mallatobuck (Malla), Attichitcuk (Itchy), and Lumpawarrump or Lumpawaroo (Lumpy).

Production
While outlining the original Star Wars and planning its potential sequels, Lucas imagined a "film just about Wookiees, nothing else." After the original film's success, its cast made a few appearances on TV variety shows. According to Charles Lippincott, who was head of marketing of the Star Wars Corporation, CBS brought the idea of doing a TV special to him and Lucas, although there is some internal dispute about this claim. According to J.W. Rinzler, "Everybody agreed that a television special was a good idea." Lucas was busy moving his production company to a new location, which was not heavily involved in the special. According to Lucasfilm producer Gary Kurtz: "It did start out to be a lot better [with a different script]. We had half a dozen meetings with the TV company that was making it. In the end, because of work on promoting Star Wars and working on the next film, we realized we had no time. So we just left it to them and just had the occasional meetings with them, provided them with access to props and the actors, and that was it."

Though Lucas is uncredited, it was his idea to build the narrative around Chewbacca's family. CBS hired experienced variety show writers and producers, including writer Bruce Vilanch, who was concerned about the decision to center the special on a species who grunt in a fictional language without subtitles. Regardless, Lucas would not budge on his vision. The special went through two directors. The first, David Acomba, was brought in through an attempt to "make us different in variety shows", according to Lippincott.

Acomba, a classmate of George Lucas at USC film school, was unfamiliar with a multiple-camera setup, which caused some problems. Acomba also felt that there was a divide between himself and the producers, and chose to leave the project after finishing only a few scenes, including the cantina and Jefferson Starship. He was replaced by Steve Binder, whose only contact with Lucasfilm was a "Wookiee bible" detailing how the species should look and behave. Stan Winston was hired to design the Wookiee family.

The special was broadcast in its entirety in the United States only once, on Friday, November 17, 1978 (the week before Thanksgiving), on the television network CBS from 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm, Eastern Standard Time (EST), pre-empting Wonder Woman and The Incredible Hulk leading to the latter shows' episodes to be aired that day to instead be shown a week later. It was also broadcast on the Canadian television network CTV from 7:00 pm to 9:00 pm, Eastern Standard Time.

Segments
All the acts are loosely linked together with material that involves the Wookiees' preparation for Life Day on Kashyyyk, Han and Chewie's attempt to bypass the Imperial blockade and make it to Chewie's family, and the Imperial garrison's search for rebels. The plot strings together a series of musical numbers, celebrity cameos and other variety-show acts. These include songs and comedy routines by such 1970s talents as Jefferson Starship, Diahann Carroll, Art Carney, Harvey Korman and Bea Arthur, and a circus-style acrobatics routine including uneven bars and juggling. The most notable segment is an animated cartoon featuring the onscreen debut of Boba Fett.

Music
Original music was composed for The Star Wars Holiday Special by Ken and Mitzie Welch, while Ian Fraser was brought in to adapt John Williams' orchestral themes from Star Wars. The special features four songs:
 * 1) "This Minute Now" is sung by Diahann Carroll. Carroll – who is supposed to be an image created by a virtual reality machine – tells Chewbacca's father, Itchy, that she is his "fantasy" and suggestively invites him to "experience" her.
 * 2) "Light the Sky on Fire", performed by Jefferson Starship, which is presented as a 3D music video watched by one of the Imperial guards; during production the song was given the working title "Cigar-Shaped Object (Vanished Without a Trace)" (the song was included as a bonus 45 rpm single in the Jefferson Starship greatest hits collection Gold). (The clip marked Marty Balin's final appearance with Jefferson Starship, as he had left the band in October 1978, a month before the special was broadcast. He later rejoined the band in 1993.)
 * 3) Later, Bea Arthur, who plays Ackmena, proprietress of the Mos Eisley cantina, sings "Good Night, But Not Goodbye" set to the Cantina Band theme. Some of the same aliens seen in the cantina in Star Wars reappear, including the band Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes, as back-up musicians.
 * 4) Finally, at the end of the special, Carrie Fisher sings a song in celebration of Life Day to the tune of "Star Wars (Main Title)" by John Williams.

Comedy
Harvey Korman provides comedy in three of the special's skits, including the cantina skit with Bea Arthur where he plays a love-struck barfly who drinks through a hole in the top of his head. He also performs two solo routines: one as Chef Gormaanda, a four-armed parody of Julia Child (the four arms allow her to work much faster than Malla can keep up with) and one as a malfunctioning Amorphian android named Dromboid in an instruction video watched by Lumpy.

Art Carney has a more integral role in the story, playing a trader named Saun Dann on Kashyyyk who is a member of the rebellion and helps Chewie's family. His segments are also largely played for laughs and at one point includes a scene alluding to his character Ed Norton from The Honeymooners, where an Imperial officer demands that he "get on with it" while Carney dallies with a prop, thus introducing the Jefferson Starship performance.

Cartoon
The high point of the special is generally considered to be the animated segment known as "The Faithful Wookiee", which is the first official Star Wars cartoon. It was written by Lucas and produced by Toronto animation firm Nelvana Ltd., which later produced Droids and Ewoks, two Saturday-morning series based on the franchise in 1985 on ABC. Lucas requested that the visual style be inspired by Moebius. The vocal talents of the main cast are featured. Intended as an in-universe flashback, Luke wears a yellow jacket similar to his outfit at the end of A New Hope.

The cartoon introduces Boba Fett, whose appearance was based on footage of the unpainted costume from The Empire Strikes Back, and according to Nelvana co-founder Clive Smith, their suggestion to "scuff up his costume a little bit" influenced the character's live-action appearance. The final costume design made a public parade appearance two months before the Holiday Special aired. The simplified color scheme for the cartoon was later repeated for Fett's appearance in Droids. According to the official Star Wars website, Fett was voiced by Don Francks in the special.

Separate from the rest of the special, the cartoon is presently available to view on the streaming platform Disney+.

Critical response
The Star Wars Holiday Special was universally lambasted by critics, audiences, and Star Wars fans alike. Jerry Buck, in a November 1978 review for the Associated Press, called the program "bubble gum for the brain". Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club wrote, "I'm not convinced the special wasn't ultimately written and directed by a sentient bag of cocaine." David Hofstede, author of What Were They Thinking?: The 100 Dumbest Events in Television History, ranked the holiday special at number one, calling it "the worst two hours of television ever". On the review-aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 25% approval rating, based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of.

Writing for Fatherly, Nathan Rabin says the cartoon segment is singular compared to the rest of the special in that it "feels worthy of being canon and not a hypnotically insane aberration."

Recognition
The special was ranked at No. 3 in "The Five Goofiest Moments of the Star Wars Mythos" in the 62nd issue of the UK's Star Wars magazine. TV Guide ranked it at number 11 on their "25 Most Hilarious Holiday TV Moments", mentioning that it was "unintentionally hilarious." Both TV Guide and TV Land ranked the special at No. 59 on their "Top 100 Unexpected Television Moments" in a five-part special that aired from December 5 until December 9, 2005.

In 2008, the Star Wars Holiday Special was selected to be shown at the Paley Center for Media by 59% of voters in an online poll of Christmas specials (which allowed users to vote on five titles), beating A Charlie Brown Christmas (34.6%), How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (31.3%) and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (28.4%), among others.

Reception from cast and crew
George Lucas did not have significant involvement with the film's production and was reportedly unhappy with the results. In 1987, Lucas reportedly said of the special: "I believe it will be released on videotape. I'm not sure if they're going to rerun it on television or not." In a May 2005 interview, Lucas was asked if the film had soured him on working in television. He replied: "'The special from 1978 really didn't have much to do with us, you know. I can't remember what network it was on, but it was a thing that they did. We kind of let them do it. It was done by... I can't even remember who the group was, but they were variety TV guys. We let them use the characters and stuff and that probably wasn't the smartest thing to do, but you learn from those experiences.'"

In 2006, Harrison Ford made an appearance on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and jokingly did not even acknowledge its existence at first when asked about it, then saying that he had never seen it. On the 2010 television program Times Talk, New York Times columnist David Carr asked Carrie Fisher about the special; she said that she made Lucas give her a copy of the special in exchange for recording commentary for the Star Wars trilogy so that she would "have something for parties...when [she] wanted everyone to leave." In 2018, Mark Hamill admitted to not having seen the entire special. In his 2019 autobiography, Anthony Daniels referred to the special as a "turd".

The official Star Wars site states that the special "delivered mixed results" and states that its highlight was the Boba Fett animated segment. The official site also says, when referring to the fan interest in seeing the Wookiees on-screen, "the 1978 Holiday Special didn't cut it." The official site also refers to the Boba Fett animated segment as "a cult classic".

Distribution
Despite only airing once on television, bootleg recordings of the special uploaded to the Internet led to it becoming a cult classic among Star Wars fans. The entire cartoon appeared as an Easter egg on the 2011 Star Wars: The Complete Saga Blu-ray set, making it the only portion of the special to be officially released in any home video format. The cartoon was also released on Disney+ on 2 April, 2021, under the name The Story of the Faithful Wookiee.

International broadcast
The program was seen in Canada on CTV on the same evening as the CBS broadcast. Toronto CTV station CFTO-TV aired the program at 7 pm, an hour earlier than seen on the nearest American outlet, WIVB-TV in Buffalo, New York. It was also distributed and seen in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia it was repeated multiple times on local stations between 1979 and 1984. It aired in France on January 1, 1980, on TF1, in a shortened 72-minute version, dubbed in French.

It was shown on Swedish SVT on May 31, 1979 as Stjärnornas krig - och fred (literally "Star Wars - and Peace").

It aired in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ 2 on Christmas Day 1979. The special was also broadcast in Honduras on Canal 5 and Brazil on TV Bandeirantes (on Christmas Day, 1981).

Related media tie-ins

 * Prior to the special's airing, the Kenner toy company considered creating a toy line based on the special. While the project was canceled because of the unpopularity of the special, several prototype versions of the figures are known to have been created. Those depict the Chewbacca family and seem to be simply modifications of Kenner's officially released Chewbacca figure.
 * Jefferson Starship released their song from the special, "Light the Sky On Fire", as a single, with their 1974 song "Hyperdrive" as the B-side. Cash Box said of it that a "dashing rhythm section of double-timing drums and pounding bass line underpin this unusual Starship track."
 * In 2007, Hasbro released a Boba Fett action figure, using the likeness from the animated cartoon and titled "Boba Fett (Animated Debut)".
 * In 2022, a Little Golden Book adaptation of Story of the Faithful Wookiee was published, adapted by Christopher Nicholas and featuring art adapted from the original animation. (ISBN 9780736442633)

Canonicity of the special
Despite the unpopularity of the special, Lucasfilm maintained its status as part of the continuity, placing it halfway between Episodes IV and V. From 1978 to 2014, most elements of the Holiday Special fell under a secondary level of canon superseded by other licensed works.

This was clarified in 2007 by Leland Chee, who maintained Lucasfilm's internal continuity database called "the Holocron". According to Chee, the Holocron contained at least 28 entries about The Star Wars Holiday Special by that point. These placed all elements referred to in other works, such as Life Day and Chewbacca's family members, in an intermediary level of canon. Chee stated that elements not subsequently referred to were given the next lowest rank.

Chee also confirmed that Leslie Schofield appears as an unnamed character in The Star Wars Holiday Special and not the character he played in A New Hope named Chief Bast. Previously this confusion had caused some fans to question whether Bast's death aboard the Death Star was genuine (drawing on a hint in the Customizable Card Game).

After Lucasfilm was acquired by The Walt Disney Company, the Holocron was retired. Only the episodic films and animated series beginning with The Clone Wars were declared to be part of the new canon. J. J. Abrams sardonically referred to the holiday special as canonical in a 2015 interview. Life Day was mentioned in "Chapter 1: The Mandalorian", the first episode of the canonical live-action series The Mandalorian (2019).

Later appearances
After being introduced by the special, the character Boba Fett and the planet Kashyyyk have gone on to play integral roles in the franchise, making their first film appearances in The Empire Strikes Back and Revenge of the Sith, respectively. Apart from this, more specific references to The Star Wars Holiday Special have been made, including:
 * In 1979, Lucasfilm published Star Wars: The Wookiee Storybook, a children's book that reunites characters from the special.
 * A 1979 newspaper comic strip by Russ Manning features another venture by Han and Chewie to Kashyyyk (Called Hazhyyyk and Kazhyyyk in the comic) for Life Day.
 * Wookiee World (1985), issue #91 of Marvel Comics' Star Wars series, features Chewie's family in another adventure on Kashyyyk.
 * Tyrant's Test (1996), the third book of Michael P. Kube-McDowell's Black Fleet Crisis trilogy features Lumpy and his rites of passage.
 * Rebel Dawn (1997), the third book of A. C. Crispin's Han Solo Trilogy, deals with Solo's early years and early relation with Chewbacca and his family. Malla and Chewie's marriage is depicted.
 * The Star Wars Encyclopedia (1998) by Stephen J. Sansweet is an official guide to the fictional Star Wars galaxy, which features elements from the special.
 * The Star Wars Cookbook: Wookiee Cookiees and Other Galactic Recipes (1998) gives an official recipe for "Wookiee cookiees", a play on "Wookiee-ookiees" from the special.
 * Agents of Chaos I: Hero's Trial (2000) is a novel in The New Jedi Order series, in which Malla and Itchy make appearances.
 * Chewbacca (2000) is a four-issue comic book series by Darko Macan, which features Itchy and Malla recalling stories of Chewbacca's history.
 * Galactic Battlegrounds (2001) is a LucasArts game which explored Itchy's past. As seen in the game, he is a great warrior in his younger days, fighting many battles.
 * The 2002 Attack of the Clones web documentary "Bucket Head" features segments of the cartoon, introduced by Jeremy Bulloch, who portrayed Fett in the original trilogy.
 * The Unifying Force (2003) is the final book of the New Jedi Order series. It features Lumpy, who takes up Chewbacca's life debt to Han.
 * Star Wars: Galaxies (2003) was a popular MMORPG that allowed the player to visit and explore Kashyyyk. While there, the player can explore the customs of Life Day, as there are several Wookiees dressed in red robes, as in the special. Lumpy's stuffed bantha from the special can also be seen in the game. The official site for Star Wars: Galaxies even had a webpage dedicated to explaining these features in the game and the customs of Life Day.
 * A Forest Apart (2003) is an e-novella by Troy Denning. It focuses on the exploits of Lumpy, after Malla allows him to go to Coruscant with Chewbacca.
 * Revenge of the Sith: The Visual Dictionary (2005) explains that the gunner of one of the Oevvaor jet catamarans in the film was Itchy.
 * Star Wars: Complete Locations (2005) mentions that while Luke, Obi-Wan and the droids are in the cantina in Star Wars, Ackmena is in a nearby room negotiating for a raise in her pay.
 * HoloNet News (2005) featured an issue about Chef Gormaanda. Featuring a new recipe, it was explained that she had won a cooking award.
 * Star Wars The Old Republic (2011) has annual events concerning Life Day at the space station for both factions, normally during the Christmas holiday season.
 * Zen Pinball 2 (2012) featured a Star Wars table. Upon losing, Boba Fett says "we'll meet again, friends" to the player, which is a direct quote from his character in the Holiday Special.
 * Unproduced episodes of The Clone Wars would have featured Chewbacca and Kashyyyk, and made references to the Holiday Special.
 * The Star Wars streaming series The Mandalorian features a gunfighter who uses a weapon very similar to the one used by Fett in the special. In addition, the show's pilot episode features a character directly referring to Life Day.
 * A book titled Life Day Treasury: Holiday Stories from a Galaxy Far, Far Away from Cavan Scott and George Mann was released on September 7, 2021.
 * A Life Day comic from Marvel was released on November 24, 2021.
 * On January 4, 2022, a Little Golden Book adaptation of The Story of the Faithful Wookiee was released by Random House.

In popular culture
In 2005, Lawrence Person wrote a review of a "Platinum Edition" DVD release of the special as an April Fools hoax.

In the 2006 music video accompanying the "Weird Al" Yankovic song "White & Nerdy", the main character is seen buying a bootlegged version of the Star Wars Holiday Special. The scene depicts the exchange as a drug deal, referencing the underground status of the special.

In 2007, the comedy troupe RiffTrax, which is composed of Mystery Science Theater 3000 alumni Bill Corbett, Kevin Murphy and Michael J. Nelson, released a parody commentary on the special including the original commercial breaks.

In the 2011 Community episode "Regional Holiday Music", the main characters watch the "Inspector Spacetime holiday special", a clear nod to the Star Wars Holiday Special.

YouTuber JonTron reviews the holiday special in the series finale of his 2015 Star Wars themed series, StarCade, which also features appearances from his former YouTube group Game Grumps’ co-members Egoraptor and RubberNinja.

In December 2018, a comedy play was released about the special's production, entitled Special.

The LEGO Star Wars Holiday Special featuring characters from the sequel trilogy in a Life Day-themed adventure was released on Disney+ on November 17, 2020, the 42nd anniversary of the special. The same day, io9 announced that Jeremy Coon and Steve Kozak were directing a documentary about the making of the special titled A Disturbance in the Force.

The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special is a Disney+ special released in November 2022. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and director James Gunn has cited the Star Wars special as its main inspiration.

On April 1, 2022, io9 discussed the relationship between the special and the Galaxy's Edge themed area in an interview with Disney Imagineer Alex Lee. Io9 cited a tradition amongst fans attending the park dressed in red robes like the Wookiees on Life Day, and Lee acknowledged that "performers [may] react to ... and inject all of that into their storytelling", also referencing the possibility of future "formal events".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Star Wars Holiday Special


text:
Fluphenazine

Fluphenazine, sold under the brand name Prolixin among others, is a high-potency typical antipsychotic medication. It is used in the treatment of chronic psychoses such as schizophrenia, and appears to be about equal in effectiveness to low-potency antipsychotics like chlorpromazine. It is given by mouth, injection into a muscle, or just under the skin. There is also a long acting injectable version that may last for up to four weeks. Fluphenazine decanoate, the depot injection form of fluphenazine, should not be used by people with severe depression.

Common side effects include movement problems, sleepiness, depression and increased weight. Serious side effects may include neuroleptic malignant syndrome, low white blood cell levels, and the potentially permanent movement disorder tardive dyskinesia. In older people with psychosis as a result of dementia it may increase the risk of dying. It may also increase prolactin levels which may result in milk production, enlarged breasts in males, impotence, and the absence of menstrual periods. It is unclear if it is safe for use in pregnancy.

Fluphenazine is a typical antipsychotic of the phenothiazine class. Its mechanism of action is not entirely clear but believed to be related to its ability to block dopamine receptors. In up to 40% of those on long term phenothiazines, liver function tests become mildly abnormal.

Fluphenazine came into use in 1959. The injectable form is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. It was discontinued in Australia in 2017.

Medical use
A 2018 Cochrane review found that fluphenazine was an imperfect treatment and other inexpensive drugs less associated with side effects may be an equally effective choice for people with schizophrenia.

Discontinuation
The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.

There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Pharmacodynamics
Fluphenazine acts primarily by blocking post-synaptic dopaminergic D2 receptors in the basal ganglia, cortical and limbic system. It also blocks α1 adrenergic receptors, muscarinic M1 receptors, and histaminergic H1 receptors.

History
Fluphenazine came into use in 1959.

Availability
The injectable form is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. It was discontinued in Australia in 2017.

Veterinary
In horses, it is sometimes given by injection as an anxiety-relieving medication, though there are many negative common side effects and it is forbidden by many equestrian competition organizations.

title: Fluphenazine


text: User:Susan Mason

title: User:Susan Mason


text:
Typical antipsychotic

Typical antipsychotics (also known as major tranquilizers, and first generation antipsychotics) are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis (in particular, schizophrenia). Typical antipsychotics may also be used for the treatment of acute mania, agitation, and other conditions. The first typical antipsychotics to come into medical use were the phenothiazines, namely chlorpromazine which was discovered serendipitously. Another prominent grouping of antipsychotics are the butyrophenones, an example of which is haloperidol. The newer, second-generation antipsychotics, also known as atypical antipsychotics, have largely supplanted the use of typical antipsychotics as first-line agents due to the higher risk of movement disorders with typical antipsychotics.

Both generations of medication tend to block receptors in the brain's dopamine pathways, but atypicals at the time of marketing were claimed to differ from typical antipsychotics in that they are less likely to cause extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS), which include unsteady Parkinson's disease-type movements, internal restlessness, and other involuntary movements (e.g. tardive dyskinesia, which can persist after stopping the medication). More recent research has demonstrated the side effect profile of these drugs is similar to older drugs, causing the leading medical journal The Lancet to write in its editorial "the time has come to abandon the terms first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics, as they do not merit this distinction." While typical antipsychotics are more likely to cause EPS, atypicals are more likely to cause adverse metabolic effects, such as weight gain and increase the risk for type II diabetes.

Clinical uses
Typical antipsychotics block the dopamine 2 receptor (D2) receptor, causing a tranquilizing effect. It is thought that 60–80% of D2 receptors need to be occupied for antipsychotic effect. For reference, the typical antipsychotic haloperidol tends to block about 80% of D2 receptors at doses ranging from 2 to 5 mg per day. On the aggregate level, no typical antipsychotic is more effective than any other, though people will vary in which antipsychotic they prefer to take based on individual differences in tolerability and effectiveness. Typical antipsychotics can be used to treat, e.g., schizophrenia or severe agitation. Haloperidol, due to the availability of a rapid-acting injectable formulation and decades of use, remains the most commonly used antipsychotic for treating severe agitation in the emergency department setting.

Adverse effects
Adverse effects vary among the various agents in this class of medications, but common effects include: dry mouth, muscle stiffness, muscle cramping, tremors, EPS and weight gain. EPS refers to a cluster of symptoms consisting of akathisia, parkinsonism, and dystonia. Anticholinergics such as benztropine and diphenhydramine are commonly prescribed to treat the EPS. 4% of users develop rabbit syndrome while on typical antipsychotics.

There is a risk of developing a serious condition called tardive dyskinesia as a side effect of antipsychotics, including typical antipsychotics. The risk of developing tardive dyskinesia after chronic typical antipsychotic usage varies on several factors, such as age and gender, as well as the specific antipsychotic used. The commonly reported incidence of TD among younger patients is about 5% per year. Among older patients incidence rates as high as 20% per year have been reported. The average prevalence is approximately 30%. There are few treatments that have consistently been shown to be effective for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia, though an VMAT2 inhibitor like valbenazine may help. The atypical antipsychotic clozapine has also been suggested as an alternative antipsychotic for patients experiencing tardive dyskinesia. Tardive dyskinesia may reverse upon discontinuation of the offending agent or it may be irreversible, withdrawal may also make tardive dyskinesia more severe.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of antipsychotic treatment. NMS is characterized by fever, muscle rigidity, autonomic dysfunction, and altered mental status. Treatment includes discontinuation of the offending agent and supportive care.

The role of typical antipsychotics has come into question recently as studies have suggested that typical antipsychotics may increase the risk of death in elderly patients. A 2005 retrospective cohort study from the New England Journal of Medicine showed an increase in risk of death with the use of typical antipsychotics that was on par with the increase shown with atypical antipsychotics. This has led some to question the common use of antipsychotics for the treatment of agitation in the elderly, particularly with the availability of alternatives such as mood stabilizing and antiepileptic drugs.

Potency
Traditional antipsychotics are classified as high-potency, mid-potency, or low-potency based on their potency for the D2 receptor:

Prochlorperazine (Compazine, Buccastem, Stemetil) and Pimozide (Orap) are less commonly used to treat psychotic states, and so are sometimes excluded from this classification.

A related concept to D2 potency is the concept of "chlorpromazine equivalence", which provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of antipsychotics. The measure specifies the amount (mass) in milligrams of a given drug that must be administered in order to achieve desired effects equivalent to those of 100 milligrams of chlorpromazine. Another method is "defined daily dose" (DDD), which is the assumed average dose of an antipsychotic that an adult would receive during long-term treatment. DDD is primarily used for comparing the utilization of antipsychotics (e.g. in an insurance claim database), rather than comparing therapeutic effects between antipsychotics. Maximum dose methods are sometimes used to compare between antipsychotics as well. It is important to note that these methods do not generally account for differences between the tolerability (i.e. the risk of side effects) or the safety between medications.

For a list of typical antipsychotics organized by potency, see below:

Low potency

 * Chlorpromazine
 * Chlorprothixene
 * Levomepromazine
 * Mesoridazine
 * Periciazine
 * Promazine
 * Thioridazine† (withdrawn by brand-name manufacturer and most countries)

Medium potency

 * Loxapine
 * Molindone
 * Perphenazine
 * Thiothixene

High potency

 * Droperidol
 * Flupentixol
 * Fluphenazine
 * Haloperidol
 * Pimozide
 * Prochlorperazine
 * Thioproperazine
 * Trifluoperazine
 * Zuclopenthixol

Where: † indicates products that have since been discontinued.

Long-acting injectables
Some typical antipsychotics have been formulated as a long-acting injectable (LAI), or "depot", formulation. Depot injections are also used on persons under involuntary commitment to force compliance with a court treatment order when the person would refuse to take daily oral medication. This has the effect of dosing a person who doesn't consent to take the drug. The United Nations Special Rapporteur On Torture has classified this as a human rights violation and cruel or inhuman treatment.

The first LAI antipsychotics (often referred to as simply "LAIs") were the typical antipsychotics fluphenazine and haloperidol. Both fluphenazile and haloperidol are formulated as decanoates, referring to the attachment of a decanoic acid group to the antipsychotic molecule. These are then dissolved in an organic oil. Together, these modifications prevent the active medications from being released immediately upon injection, attaining a slow release of the active medications (note, though, that the fluphenazine decanoate product is unique for reaching peak fluphenazine blood levels within 24 hours after administration ). Fluphenazine decanoate can be administered every 7 to 21 days (usually every 14 to 28 days), while haloperidol decanoate can be administered every 28 days, though some people receive more or less frequent injections. If a scheduled injection of either haloperidol decanoate or fluphenazine decanoate is missed, recommendations for administering make-up injectable dose(s) or providing antipsychotics to be taken by mouth vary by, e.g., how long ago the last injection was and how many previous injections the person has received (i.e., if steady state levels of the medication have been reached or not).

Both of the typical antipsychotic LAIs are inexpensive in comparison to the atypical LAIs. Doctors usually prefer atypical LAIs over typical LAIs due to the differences in adverse effects between typical and atypical antipsychotics in general.

History

The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic after an initial report in 1952. It was first used in psychiatric institutions because of its powerful tranquilizing effect; at the time it was advertised as a "pharmacological lobotomy". (Note that "tranquilizing" here only refers to changes in external behavior, while the experience a person has internally may be one of increased agitation but inability to express it.)

Until the 1970s there was considerable debate within psychiatry on the most appropriate term to use to describe the new drugs. In the late 1950s the most widely used term was "neuroleptic", followed by "major tranquilizer" and then "ataraxic". The word neuroleptic was coined in 1955 by Delay and Deniker after their discovery (1952) of the antipsychotic effects of chlorpromazine. It is derived from the "νεῦρον" (neuron, originally meaning "sinew" but today referring to the nerves) and "λαμβάνω" (lambanō, meaning "take hold of"). Thus, the word means taking hold of one's nerves. It was often taken to refer also to common effects such as reduced activity in general, as well as lethargy and impaired motor control. Although these effects are unpleasant and harmful, they were, along with akathisia, considered a reliable sign that the drug was working. These terms have been largely replaced by the term "antipsychotic" in medical and advertising literature, which refers to the medication's more-marketable effects.

title: Typical antipsychotic


text:
User talk:Susan Mason

Comment
Hello Susan. Looking forward to collaborating with you to describe various psychiatric pharmaceuticals in full detail and precision. I would be interested in compiling a List of psychiatric pharmaceuticals Tzuhou 22:00 Feb 21, 2003 (UTC)

- What bias do you notice on the History of the Soviet Union page?

172

I dunno they think we are each other! lol Dietary Fiber

Heh heh. Caught out, Adam/Lir/Vera Cruz/Susan Mason/Dietary Fiber, which is why of course you removed the evidence from this page.

'For anyone looking for evidence as to Susan Mason's multiple identities, look back on the older versions of this page, where Adam thought he could hide the fact that one of his creation, 'Susan Mason inadvertently admitted to being Dietary Fiber.''

--- DIETARY=SUSAN=VERA=LIR PROOF: http://www.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikien-l/2003-April/002479.html

Adam, I locked your account today, at Jimbo's request. As you know, you may apply for reinstatement either on the Wikipedia mailing list (which you are NOT BANNED from), or in person to Jimbo. As before, I am willing to help smooth over any communication with Jimbo: e-mail me personally, if you like). --Uncle Ed 13:57 Apr 14, 2003 (UTC)

--- I wonder what his new account name will be. 172

Oh you cynic, 172 :-) STÓD/ÉÍRE 01:04 Apr 15, 2003 (UTC)

Adam is barred from the mailing list under the account he was using. He'd have to come in with a different email address. -- Zoe

You don't need an email to log on. Martin

(To Martin regarding The top of Wikipedia talk:Vote) If you do not agree with the outcome of a vote, please state why. Vandalizing the vote is not acceptable. Susan Mason

from village pump
I do not understand how the editing process works here. I have been trying to contribute to the article on Idolatry however my changes are constantly reverted without comment. What can be done to improve the situation? I have tried communication with other users on the talk page, however there are only a handful of users there and most of them have been quite hostile and unwilling to discuss things with me. Susan Mason

 * This is a good start, Sue.. your admitting not knowing exatly how things are done.. (which is haphazard in most cases) Second, youre admitting that there is a revert war going on (Nice to be aware of if your in one). Third is your acknowleging that communication outside of short wisenheimer comments is required to proceed. And fourth, is your honest appeal to the community. Let silence follow... go do something else... and perhaps even take it to the EN mailinglist... but MOST IMPORTANTLY - allow some time for things to settle! I dislike getting my shit reverted constantly by "some people" but what can you do? Keep your head on! - &#35918&#30505sv

In addition, I tried to remove the POV assertation that Ira Hayes is a "hero", something which he himself denied. I have not been able to engage in significant dialogue with any other user, instead, my change was reverted with the "fact" that Hayes was a hero being submitted as proof that the assertation is somehow NPOV. Susan Mason

 * Isnt it Drunken Ira Hayes? - Bad joke. SV

 * lol Susan Mason

RK reverted work I had done on Idolatry and left this message

 * Reverting Susan Mason's gross abuse of this article. Stephan, I am willing to work with you, but Susan is making huge amounts of edits screwing this up. She is writing things that just are not true

Implying that he is not even willing to work with me. What am I supposed to do? He refuses to even discuss such things! Susan Mason

Invitation to discuss
I noticed your contributions to the choicepoint page. There is currently discusssion on the Talk:U.S._presidential_election,_2000 regarding disenfranchised voters from the infamous choicepoint list. Your insights would be welcome there. Kevin Baas | talk 20:41, 2004 Aug 17 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 1000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

AfD nomination of Michael W. Wooten
Michael W. Wooten, an article you created, has been nominated for deletion. We appreciate your contributions. However, an editor does not feel that Michael W. Wooten satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion and has explained why in the nomination space (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and the Wikipedia deletion policy). Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/Michael W. Wooten and please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ). You are free to edit the content of Michael W. Wooten during the discussion but should not remove the articles for deletion template from the top of the article; such removal will not end the deletion discussion. Thank you. --  Jreferee  (Talk) 02:09, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Drooling
A tag has been placed on Drooling requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a person or group of people, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, as well as our subject-specific notability guideline for biographies.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the page (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on the talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Woland (talk) 02:21, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

Notability of Mothers Organized to Stop Environmental Sin
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Unreferenced BLPs
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 * 1) Derek V. Smith -

Speedy deletion nomination of The Best Democracy Money Can Buy

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Proposed deletion of Non-Proliferation Trust

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ArbCom elections are now open!
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Nomination of Joe D. Dowdy for deletion
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Nomination of List of people associated with the 2003 invasion of Iraq for deletion
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Nomination of CorpWatch for deletion
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title: User talk:Susan Mason


text:
Talk:Basic theories of science

to do:
 * who proposed these, who confirmed them, and when?

For example, the atomic theory dates back to the ancient Greeks, but wasn't finally proved until the start of the 20th century.

I have removed the descriptor "disputed" as it was added pertaining to Darwin's evolution. I submit that this controversial adjective should be only very conservatively used, that is to say, it is only appropriate in situations where there exists a genuine "live" controversy within the scientific community at that time. For instance "disputed" would be an accurate label to characterize the cold fusion debate in the late 1980's (not applicable today though). The "dispute" about evolution as it exists today is essentially totally removed from the scientific arena. It exists only between religious conservatives attacking the theory on nonscientific and superstitious grounds and those few willing to bother wasting their time to fight their nonsensical unfounded arguments. This situation of course deserves mention, but not in this article. --Deglr6328 01:33, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I suggest that this page be merged with Physical Science. The biology stuff can be handled on the biology page. I am not convinced that these are the "basic theories" of science. Let's leave that designation to the individual sciences. My $0.02. Steven McCrary 06:48, July 30, 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Basic theories of science


text:
Polyiamond

A polyiamond (also polyamond or simply iamond, or sometimes triangular polyomino ) is a polyform whose base form is an equilateral triangle. The word polyiamond is a back-formation from diamond, because this word is often used to describe the shape of a pair of equilateral triangles placed base to base, and the initial 'di-' looks like a Greek prefix meaning 'two-' (though diamond actually derives from Greek  ἀδάμας - also the basis for the word "adamant"). The name was suggested by recreational mathematics writer Thomas H. O'Beirne in New Scientist 1961 number 1, page 164.

Counting
The basic combinatorial question is, How many different polyiamonds exist with a given number of cells? Like polyominoes, polyiamonds may be either free or one-sided. Free polyiamonds are invariant under reflection as well as translation and rotation. One-sided polyiamonds distinguish reflections.

The number of free n-iamonds for n = 1, 2, 3, ... is:

 * 1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 12, 24, 66, 160, ....

The number of free polyiamonds with holes is given by ; the number of free polyiamonds without holes is given by ; the number of fixed polyiamonds is given by ; the number of one-sided polyiamonds is given by.

Some authors also call the diamond (rhombus with a 60° angle) a calisson after the French sweet of similar shape.

Symmetries
Possible symmetries are mirror symmetry, 2-, 3-, and 6-fold rotational symmetry, and each combined with mirror symmetry.

2-fold rotational symmetry with and without mirror symmetry requires at least 2 and 4 triangles, respectively. 6-fold rotational symmetry with and without mirror symmetry requires at least 6 and 18 triangles, respectively. Asymmetry requires at least 5 triangles. 3-fold rotational symmetry without mirror symmetry requires at least 7 triangles.

In the case of only mirror symmetry we can distinguish having the symmetry axis aligned with the grid or rotated 30° (requires at least 4 and 3 triangles, respectively); ditto for 3-fold rotational symmetry, combined with mirror symmetry (requires at least 18 and 1 triangles, respectively).

Generalizations
Like polyominoes, but unlike polyhexes, polyiamonds have three-dimensional counterparts, formed by aggregating tetrahedra. However, polytetrahedra do not tile 3-space in the way polyiamonds can tile 2-space.

Tessellations
Every polyiamond of order 8 or less tiles the plane, except for the V-heptiamond.

Correspondence with polyhexes
Every polyiamond corresponds to a polyhex, as illustrated at right. Conversely, every polyhex is also a polyiamond, because each hexagonal cell of a polyhex is the union of six adjacent equilateral triangles. Neither correspondence is one-to-one.

In popular culture
The set of 22 polyiamonds, from order 1 up to order 6, constitutes the shape of the playing pieces in the board game Blokus Trigon, where players attempt to tile a plane with as many polyiamonds as possible, subject to the game rules.

title: Polyiamond