text:
Lydian language

Lydian is an extinct Indo-European Anatolian language spoken in the region of Lydia, in western Anatolia (now in Turkey). The language is attested in graffiti and in coin legends from the late 8th century or the early 7th century to the 3rd century BCE, but well-preserved inscriptions of significant length are so far limited to the 5th century and the 4th century BCE, during the period of Persian domination. Thus, Lydian texts are effectively contemporaneous with those in Lycian.

Strabo mentions that around his time (1st century BCE), the Lydian language was no longer spoken in Lydia proper but was still being spoken among the multicultural population of Kibyra (now Gölhisar) in southwestern Anatolia, by the descendants of the Lydian colonists, who had founded the city.

Text corpus and decipherment
In 1916 the Sardis bilingual inscription, a bilingual inscription in Aramaic and Lydian allowed Enno Littmann to decipher the Lydian language. From an analysis of the two parallel texts, he identified the alphabetic signs, most of them correctly, established a basic vocabulary, attempted translation of a dozen unilingual texts, gave an outline of Lydian grammar, and even recognized peculiar poetical characteristics in several texts. Eight years later William Hepburn Buckler presented a collection of 51 inscriptions then known. The 109 inscriptions known by 1986 have been treated comprehensively by Roberto Gusmani; new texts keep being found from time to time.

All but a few of the extant Lydian texts have been found in or near Sardis, the Lydian capital, but fewer than 30 of the inscriptions consist of more than a few words or are reasonably complete. Most of the inscriptions are on marble or stone and are sepulchral in content, but several are decrees of one sort or another, and some half-dozen texts seem to be in verse, with a stress-based meter and vowel assonance at the end of the line. Tomb inscriptions include many epitaphs, which typically begin with the words 𐤤𐤮 𐤥𐤠𐤫𐤠𐤮 es wãnas ("this grave"). The short texts are mostly graffiti, coin legends, seals, potter's marks, and the like. The language of the Ionian Greek poet Hipponax (sixth century BCE, born at Ephesus) is interspersed with Lydian words, many of them from popular slang.

Lydian can be officially studied at Marburg University, Germany, within the Hittitology minor program.

Classification
Within the Anatolian group, Lydian occupies a unique and problematic position. One reason is the still very limited evidence and understanding of the language. Another reason is a number of features that are not shared with any other Anatolian language. It is still not known whether those differences represent developments peculiar to pre-Lydian or the retention in Lydian of archaic features that were lost in the other Anatolian languages. Until more satisfactory knowledge becomes available, the status of Lydian within Anatolian remains a "special" one.

Writing system
The Lydian script, which is strictly alphabetic, consists of 26 signs:

The script is related to or derived from that of Greek as well as its western Anatolian neighbours, the exact relationship still remaining unclear. The direction of writing in the older texts is either from left to right or right to left. Later texts show exclusively the latter. Use of word-dividers is variable. The texts were found chiefly at the ancient capital of Sardis and include decrees and epitaphs, some of which were composed in verse; most were written during the 5th century and the 4th century BCE, but a few may have been created as early as the 7th century.

Vowels
Lydian has seven vowels: 𐤠 a, 𐤤 e, 𐤦 i, 𐤬 o, 𐤰 u, 𐤵 ã, and 𐤶 ẽ, the last two being nasal vowels, typically before a (synchronic or diachronic) nasal consonant (like n, ñ or m). The vowels e, o, ã, and ẽ occur only when accented. A vowel or glide 𐤧 y appears rarely, only in the oldest inscriptions, and probably indicates an allophone of i or e that is perhaps unstressed.

Lydian is notable for its extensive consonant clusters, which resulted from the loss of word-final short vowels, together with massive syncope; there may have been an unwritten [ə] in such sequences.

Consonants
(Note: until recently the Buckler (1924) transliteration scheme was often used, which may lead to confusion. This older system wrote v, ν, s, and ś, instead of today's w (𐤥), ñ (𐤸), š (𐤳), and s (𐤮). The modern system renders the sibilants more naturally and prevents confusion between v (= w 𐤥) and the Greek nu symbol ν (= ñ 𐤸).)

Voicing was likely not distinctive in Lydian. However /p t k/ are voiced before nasals and apparently before /r/. The palatal affricate (τ) and sibilant (š) may have been palato-alveolar.

It has now been argued that the laterals l and λ are actually flaps.

The sign 𐤣 has traditionally been transliterated d and interpreted as an interdental /ð/ resulting from the sound change *i̯ > ð or the lenition of Proto-Anatolian *t. However, it has recently been argued that in all contexts d in fact represents the palatal glide /j/, previously considered absent from Lydian. An interdental /ð/ would stand as the only interdental sound in Lydian phonology, whereas a palatal interpretation of d is complemented by a full series of other palatal consonants: λ, š, ñ, and τ.

Lydian, with its many palatal and nasal sounds, must have sounded quite strange to the ears of ancient Greeks, and transcription of Lydian names into Greek would therefore present some difficulties. Recently a case has been made that the Lydian word Qλdãns, pronounced /kʷɾʲ'ðãns/, both meaning 'king' and the name of a god, could correspond to the Greek Κροῖσος, or Croesus, the last Lydian king, whose kingdom was conquered by the Persians. If the identification is correct it would have the interesting historical consequence that king Croesus was not saved from being burnt at the stake, as Herodotus tells us, but chose suicide and was subsequently deified.

Stress
Heiner Eichner developed rules to determine which syllable in a word has the stress accent. In short, the rules are: A useful application of those rules is the investigation of metres in Lydian poetry.
 * Syllables with vowel -ã-, -ẽ-, -e-, -o-, -aa-, and -ii- always have stress. Syllables with -i- (-y-), -a- or -u- may be accented or unaccented.
 * Enclitics (-añ-, -in-, -it-, etc.) never have stress.
 * Prefixes, even those with a long vowel (ẽn-, ẽt-), do not have stress.
 * An -a- before a nasal (m, n, ñ) never has stress.
 * In consonant clusters syllabic liquidae (l, λ, r), nasals (m, n, ñ) and sibilants (s, š) do not have stress.
 * Within a declension or conjugation stress does not move from one syllable to another.

Nouns
Nouns and adjectives distinguish singular and plural forms. Words in the texts are predominantly singular. Plural forms are scarce, and a dual has not been found in Lydian. There are two genders: animate (or 'common') and inanimate (or 'neuter'). Only three cases are securely attested: nominative, accusative, and dative-locative. A genitive case seems to be present in the plural, but in the singular usually a so-called possessive is used instead, which is similar to the Luwic languages: a suffix -li is added to the root of a substantive, and thus an adjective is formed that is declined in turn. However, recently it has been defended that a form ending in -l, formerly thought to be an "endingless" variant of the possessive, was indeed a genitive singular. Of an ablative case there are only a few uncertain examples.

Nouns, adjectives, and pronomina are all declined according to a similar paradigm:

Substantives
Examples of substantives:

Adjectives
Examples of adjectives:

Pronomina
Examples of pronomina:

Verbs
Just as in other Anatolian languages verbs in Lydian were conjugated in the present-future and preterite tenses with three persons singular and plural. Imperative or gerundive forms have not been found yet. Singular forms are often hard to distinguish from plural forms in the third person present active (both ending in -t/-d): the plural form seems to be in principle nasalized, but this could not always be expressed in the writing.

Lydian distinguished a mediopassive voice with the third-person singular ending -t(a)λ or -daλ (derived from Proto-Anatolian *-tori; -t(a)λ after consonant stems and part of the stems ending in a vowel, -daλ when lenited after other stems ending in a vowel or glide).

About a dozen conjugations can be distinguished, on the basis of (1) the verbal root ending (a-stems, consonant stems, -ši-stems, etc.), and (2) the endings of the third person singular being either unlenited (-t; -tλ, -taλ) or lenited (-d; -dλ, -daλ). For example, šarpta-(t) (to inscribe, to carve) is an unlenited a-stem (šarptat, he inscribes), qaλmλa-(d) (to be king) is a lenited a-stem (qaλmλad, he rules). Differences between the various conjugations are minor.

Many Lydian verbs are composite, using prefixes such as ẽn- (= 'in-'?), ẽt- (= 'into-' ), fa-/f- ('then, subsequently, again'? ), šaw-, and kat-/kaτ- (= 'down-'?), and suffixes like -ãn-/-ẽn- (durative? ), -no-/-ño- (causative?), -ši- (iterative?), and -ki- or -ti- (denominative?); their meaning is often difficult to determine.

Examples of verbal conjugation:

Particles
To emphasize where an important next part of a sentence begins, Lydian uses a series of enclitic particles that can be affixed to a pivotal word. Examples of such "emphatic" enclitics are -in-, -it-/-iτ-, -t-/-τ-, -at-, and -m-/-um-. When stacked and combined with other suffixes (such as pronomina, or the suffix -k = 'and') veritable clusters are formed. The word ak = 'so..., so if...' provides many examples:
 * akτin (= ak-τ-in) - 'so...', 'so if...', 'yea, if...'
 * akmsin (= ak-m-s-in) - 'so if he...' (-s- = 'he'), or (= ak-ms-in) - 'so if to them...' (-ms- = 'to them')
 * akmλt (= ak-m-λ-t) - 'so if to him...' (-λ- = 'to him'); etc.

Syntax
The basic word order is subject-object-verb, but constituents may be extraposed to the right of the verb. Like other Anatolian languages, Lydian features clause-initial particles with enclitic pronouns attached in a chain. It also has a number of preverbs and at least one postposition. Modifiers of a noun normally precede it.

The Lydian bilingual
In May 1912 American excavators at the Sardis necropolis discovered a bilingual inscription in Lydian and Aramaic. Being among the first texts found, it provided a limited equivalent of the Rosetta Stone and permitted a first understanding of the Lydian language.

The first line of the Lydian text has been destroyed, but can be reconstructed from its Aramaic counterpart.

Vocabulary
Examples of words in the bilingual:
 * 𐤬𐤭𐤠 – ora – month; cf. Greek ὥρα (season, year, moment), Latin hora (hour), English hour
 * 𐤩𐤠𐤲𐤭𐤦𐤳𐤠 – laqriša – wall, walls (traditional translation); letters, inscription (?)
 * 𐤡𐤦𐤭𐤠 – pira – house; cf. Hitt. pēr/parn- 'house'
 * 𐤲𐤦𐤭𐤠 – qira – field, ground, immovable property
 * 𐤨 – -k (suffix) – and; cf. Greek τε, Latin -que = and

Other words with Indo-European roots and with modern cognates:
 * 𐤲𐤦𐤳 – qiš – who; cf. Greek τίς, Latin quis, French qui
 * 𐤡𐤭𐤠𐤱𐤭𐤮 – prafrs – community, brotherhood; cf. Latin frater, English brother, French frère
 * 𐤹𐤦𐤥𐤳 – ciwš – god; cf. Greek Ζεύς, Latin deus, French dieu (god)
 * 𐤠𐤷𐤠𐤮 – aλas – other; cf. Greek ἄλλος (other; is an element in words such as allogamy, allomorph, allopathy, allotropy), Latin alius (other), alter (another, the other one, second), French autre

Only a small fraction of the Lydian vocabulary is clearly of Indo-European stock. Gusmani provides lists of words that have been linked to Hittite, various other Indo-European languages, and Etruscan.

Lydian words still in use
Labrys (Greek: λάβρυς, lábrys) is the term for a symmetrical double-bitted axe originally from Crete in Greece, one of the oldest symbols of Greek civilization. The priests at Delphi in classical Greece were called Labryades (the men of the double axe). The term labrys "double-axe" is not found in any surviving Lydian inscription, but on the subject, Plutarch states that "the Lydians call the axe labrys" (Λυδοὶ γὰρ ‘λάβρυν’ τὸν πέλεκυν ὀνομάζουσι).

Another possibly Lydian loanword may be tyrant "absolute ruler", which was first used in Ancient Greek sources, without negative connotations, for the late 8th century or early 7th century BCE. It is possibly derived from the native town of King Gyges of Lydia, founder of the Mermnad dynasty, which was Tyrrha in classical antiquity and is now Tire, Turkey. Yet another is the element molybdenum, borrowed from Ancient Greek mólybdos, "lead", from Mycenaean Greek mo-ri-wo-do, which in Lydian was mariwda- "dark". All of those loanwords confirm a strong cultural interaction between the Lydians and the Greeks since the Creto-Mycenaean era (2nd millennium BCE).

Lydian poetry
In his seminal decipherment of Lydian texts Littmann noted that at least five of them show two poetical aspects:

 * First, assonance: all lines have the same vocal (o, or a, or i) in the last syllable. One of the longest inscriptions, 19 lines, has in each line an o in the last syllable. Littmann sensationally labeled these assonances "the earliest rhyme in the history of human literature", though the word 'rhyme' is slightly misleading because the consonants in the last syllables do vary (... factot / ... tasok / ... arktoλ, etc.).
 * Secondly, the poetic texts apparently show a metre: lines have twelve (sometimes eleven or ten) syllables with a caesura before the fifth or sixth syllable from the end. The twelve-syllable lines often sound like anapestic tetrameters.

Also, partly in order to achieve assonance and metre ("metri causa"), in poetic texts word order is more free than in prose.

Martin West, after comparing historical metres in various Indo-European languages, concluded that the Lydian metres seem to be compatible with reconstructed common Proto-Indo-European metres. The Lydians probably borrowed these metres from the Greeks; however, the assonance was a unique innovation of their own.

Only one text shows mixed character: a poetical middle part is sandwiched in between a prose introduction and a prose conclusion. Analogous to the bilingual text the introduction tells who built the monument (a certain Karos), and for whom (both his son and his ancestors), while the final sentence of the original inscription may be the usual curse for those who would dare to damage it. The poetic middle part seems to claim that the monument was built after consulting a divine oracle, cited between Lydian "quotation marks" ▷...▷, and continues with an appeal to pay as much respect to the builder as to the venerable forefathers.

It is remarkable that clear examples of rhyme (like the stock expression aaraλ piraλ-k, 'house and yard', cf. German 'Haus und Hof') and alliteration (kλidaλ kofuλ-k qiraλ qelλ-k, 'land and water, property and estate') are absent in the poetical texts, but do occur in the prose bilingual.

title: Lydian language


text:
Lycian language

The Lycian language (𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊍𐊆 Trm̃mili) was the language of the ancient Lycians who occupied the Anatolian region known during the Iron Age as Lycia. Most texts date back to the fifth and fourth century BC. Two languages are known as Lycian: regular Lycian or Lycian A, and Lycian B or Milyan. Lycian became extinct around the beginning of the first century BC, replaced by the Ancient Greek language during the Hellenization of Anatolia. Lycian had its own alphabet, which was closely related to the Greek alphabet but included at least one character borrowed from Carian as well as characters proper to the language. The words were often separated by two points.

Area
Lycia covered the region lying between the modern cities of Antalya and Fethiye in southern Turkey, especially the mountainous headland between Fethiye Bay and the Gulf of Antalya. The Lukka, as they were referred to in ancient Egyptian sources, which mention them among the Sea Peoples, probably also inhabited the region called Lycaonia, located along the next headland to the east, also mountainous, between the modern cities of Antalya and Mersin.

Discovery and decipherment
From the late eighteenth century Western European travellers began to visit Asia Minor to deepen their acquaintance with the worlds of Homer and the New Testament. In southwest Asia Minor (Lycia) they discovered inscriptions in an unknown script. The first four texts were published in 1820, and within months French Orientalist Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin used a bilingual showing individuals' names in Greek and Lycian as a key to transliterate the Lycian alphabet and determine the meaning of a few words. During the next century the number of texts increased, especially from the 1880s when Austrian expeditions systematically combed through the region. However, attempts to translate any but the most simple texts had to remain speculative, although combinatorial analysis of the texts cleared up some grammatical aspects of the language. The only substantial text with a Greek counterpart, the Xanthos stele, was hardly helpful because the Lycian text was quite heavily damaged, and worse, its Greek text does not anywhere come near to a close parallel.

It was only after the decipherment of Hittite, by Bedřich Hrozný in 1917, that a language became known that was closely related to Lycian and could help etymological interpretations of the Lycian vocabulary. A next leap forward could be made with the discovery in 1973 of the Letoon trilingual in Lycian, Greek and Aramaic. Though much remains unclear, comprehensive dictionaries of Lycian have been composed since by Craig Melchert and Günter Neumann.

Sample text
Text in Lycian: Ebẽñnẽ prñnawu mẽn e prñnawatẽ hanadaza hrppi ladi ehbi setideime ebẽñnẽ eχbeχẽnẽ tẽti.

Translate: Hanadaza built this building for his wife and sons and this stone is dedicated

Lycian alphabet
The Lycian alphabet consists of about 29 signs, many of them reminiscent of the Greek alphabet:

Classification
Lycian was an Indo-European language, one in the Luwian subgroup of Anatolian languages. A number of principal features help identify Lycian as being in the Luwian group:
 * Assibilation of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) palatals (satem change): *h₁éḱwos to Luwian á-zú-wa/i-, Lycian esbe 'horse'.
 * Replacement of genitive case with adjectives ending in -ahi or -ehi, Luwian -assi-.
 * A preterite active formed with PIE secondary middle endings:
 * PIE *-to to Luwian -ta, Lycian -te or -de in the third person singular
 * PIE *-nto to Luwian -nta, Lycian -(n)te in the third person plural
 * Similarity of words: Luwian māssan(i)-, Lycian māhān(i) 'god'.

The Luwian subgroup also includes cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian, Carian, Sidetic, Milyan and Pisidic. The pre-alphabetic forms of Luwian extended back into the Late Bronze Age and preceded the fall of the Hittite Empire. These vanished at about the time of the Neo-Hittite states in southern Anatolia (and Syria); thus, the Iron Age members of the subgroup are localized daughter languages of Luwian.

Of the Luwic languages, only the Luwian parent language is attested prior to 1000 BC, so it is unknown when the classical-era dialects diverged. Whether the Lukka people always resided in southern Anatolia or whether they always spoke Luwian are different topics.

From the inscriptions, scholars have identified at least two languages that were termed Lycian. One is considered standard Lycian, also termed Lycian A; the other, which is attested on side D of the Xanthos stele, is Milyan or Lycian B, separated by its grammatical particularities.

Nouns
Nouns and adjectives distinguish singular and plural forms. A dual has not been found in Lycian. There are two genders: animate (or 'common') and inanimate (or 'neuter'). Instead of the genitive singular case normally a so-called possessive (or "genitival adjective") is used, as is common practice in the Luwic languages: a suffix -(e)h- is added to the root of a substantive, and thus an adjective is formed that is declined in turn.

Nouns can be divided in five declension groups: a-stems, e-stems, i-stems, consonant stems, and mixed stems; the differences between the groups are very minor. The declension of nouns goes as follows:

Demonstrative pronoun
The paradigm for the demonstrative pronoun ebe, "this" is:

Personal pronoun
The demonstrative ebe, 'this', is also used as a personal pronoun: 'this one', therefore 'he, she, it'. Here is a paradigm of all attested personal pronouns:

Other pronouns
Other pronouns are:
 * Relative or interrogative pronouns: ti-, 'who, which'; teri or ẽke, 'when'; teli, 'where'; km̃mẽt(i)-, 'how many' (also indefinite: 'however many').

 * Indefinite pronouns: tike-, 'someone, something'; tise, 'anyone, anything'; tihe, 'any'.

 * Reflexive pronoun: -ti (suffixed), 'himself'.

Numerals
The following numerals are attested:

Verbs
Just as in other Anatolian languages (Luwian, Lydian) verbs in Lycian were conjugated in the present-future and preterite tenses and in the imperative with three persons singular and plural. Some endings have many variants, due to nasalization (-a- → -añ-, -ã-; -e- → -eñ-, -ẽ-), lenition (-t- → -d-), gemination (-t- → -tt-; -d- → -dd-), and vowel harmonization (-a- → -e-: prñnawãtẽ → prñnewãtẽ).

About a dozen conjugations can be distinguished, on the basis of (1) the verbal root ending (a-stems, consonant stems, -ije-stems, etc.), and (2) the endings of the third person singular being either unlenited (present -ti; preterite -te; imperative -tu) or lenited (-di; -de; -du). For example, prñnawa-(ti) (to build) is an unlenited a-stem (prñnawati, he builds), a(i)-(di) (to make) is a lenited a(i)-stem (adi, he makes). Differences between the various conjugations are minor.

Verbs are conjugated as follows; Mediopassive (MP) forms are in brown :

A suffix -s- (cognate with Greek, Latin -/sk/-), appended to the stem and attested with half a dozen verbs, is thought to make a verb iterative:
 * stem a(i)-, 'to do, to make', s-stem as-; (Preterite 3 Singular:) ade, adẽ, 'he did, made', astte, 'he always did, has made repeatedly';
 * stem tuwe-, 'to erect, place (upright)', s-stem tus-; (Present/future 3 Plural:) tuwẽti, 'they erect', tusñti , 'they will erect repeatedly'.

Syntax
Emmanuel Laroche, who analysed the Lycian text of the Letoon trilingual, concluded that word order in Lycian is slightly more free than in the other Anatolian languages. Sentences in plain text mostly have the structure
 * ipc (initial particle cluster) - V (Verb) - S (Subject) - O (direct Object).

The verb immediately follows an "initial particle cluster", consisting of a more or less meaningless particle "se-" or "me-" (literally, 'and') followed by a series of up to three suffixes, often called emphatics. The function of some of these suffixes is mysterious, but others have been identified as pronomina like "he", "it", or "them". The subject, direct object, or indirect object of the sentence may thus proleptically be referred to in the initial particle cluster. As an example, the sentence "X built a house" might in Lycian be structured: "and-he-it / he-built / X / a-house".

Other constituents of a sentence, like an indirect object, predicate, or complimentary adjuncts, can be placed anywhere after the verb.

Contrary to this pattern, funeral inscriptions as a rule have a standard form with the object at the head of the sentence: "This tomb built X"; literally: "This tomb / it / he built / X" (order: O - ipc - V - S). Laroche suspects the reason for this deviation to be that in this way emphasis fell on the funerary object: "This object, it was built by X". Example:

 * {| valign="top"

 * 1.
 * ebẽñnẽ prñnawã mẽti prñnawatẽ
 * This building, [it was] he who built it :
 * - valign="top"
 * 2.
 * xisteriya xzzbãzeh tideimi
 * Qisteria, Qtsbatse's son,
 * - valign="top"
 * 3.
 * hrppi ladi ehbi se tideime
 * for his wife and for the sons.
 * }

In line 1 mẽti = m-ẽ-ti is the initial particle cluster, where m- = me- is the neutral "steppingstone" to which two suffixes are affixed: -ẽ- = "it", and the relative pronoun -ti, "who, he who".

Subject-verb-object hypothesis
Kim McCone proposed in the 1970s that Lycian's unmarked word order was instead subject-verb-object. The apparent VSO and OVS orders come from various frontings and dislocations of a basic SVO structure.

Lycian's SVO is itself a shift from the typical Anatolian subject-object-verb order, of which Lycian preverbal object pronouns like ẽ "him/her/it" would be a relic.

mexisttẽn ẽ-ep[i]tuwe-te

Megasthenes.NOM it-set.up.PRET-3sg

Megasthenes set it up…

In spite of McCone's alternative analysis, the assumption that verb-subject-object was Lycian's unmarked word order went unchallenged until the 2010s, when Alwin Kloekhorst independently formulated and adopted the SVO hypothesis. This led to other linguists like Heiner Eichner and H. Craig Melchert to adopt the SVO hypothesis after him. The principal unmarked example cited by SVO supporters comes from the following sentence:

pajawa m[a]n[ax]ine: prñnawa-te: prñnaw-ã ebẽ-ñnẽ:

Pajawa.NOM Manaxine build.PRET-3sg building-ACC this-ACC

Pajawa Manaxine built this building. (Note the absence of the initial particle cluster.)

Further examples of subject-initial unmarked clauses cited by Melchert include:

tebursseli prñnawa-te lusñ[tr]e ẽti waziss-e

Tebursseli.NOM build.PRET-3sg Lysander.GEN at leadership-LOC

Tebursseli built (this tomb) under Lysander's leadership. upazij ẽne-prñnawa-te hrppi prñnezi ehbi

Upazij.NOM it-build.PRET-3sg for household his.DAT

Upazij built it for his household.

Endonym
A few etymological studies of the Lycian language endonym are present. These are:
 * Language of the mountain people (Laroche): Luwian tarmi- "pointed object" becomes a hypothetical *tarmašši- "mountainous" used in Trm̃mis- "Lycia." Lycia and Pisidia each had a hill-town named Termessos.
 * Attarima (Carruba): A previously unknown Late Bronze Age place name among the Lukka.
 * Termilae (Bryce): A people displaced from Crete about 1600 BC.
 * Termera (Strabo ): A Lelege people displaced by the Trojan War, first settling in Caria and assigning such names as Telmessos, Termera, Termerion, Termeros, Termilae, then displaced to Lycia by the Ionians.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lycian language


text:
Talk:Actinium

Untitled
Article changed over to new WikiProject_Elements format by Mav, Mkweise, and Dwmyers 15:40 Feb 28, 2003 (UTC). Elementbox converted 10:26, 17 July 2005 by Femto (previous revision was that of 07:26, 13 July 2005). 07:26, 13 July 2005

Information Sources
Some of the text in this entry was rewritten from Los Alamos National Laboratory - Actinium. Additional text was taken directly from USGS Actinium Statistics and Information, from the Elements database 20001107 (via [http://www.dict.org dict.org), Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) (via dict.org) and WordNet (r) 1.7 (via dict.org). Data for the table was obtained from the sources listed on the subject page and WikiProject_Elements but was reformatted and converted into SI units.

Hypothetical Application of Actinium
In principle, actinium 227 could be used as a source of thermoelectric power. It has a half life of 21.773 years and emits approximatly 56 J/s per gram of actinium 227 (this calculated energy release takes into account decay produts at equlibrum, assumes no gamma rays, assumes all alpha rays emmited have the same energy, and that all beta rays emitted have the same energy).

Actually, the energy emmitted per gram of actinium in equilibrum can be calculated to be approximatly 10 watts per gram with improved data, but this is still approximate and uncertain. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.103.109.9 (talk • contribs)

Newer review ref
This review available through the wikipedia library, might be useful: Johnjbarton (talk) 20:34, 14 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Actinium


text:
Lists of American football players

Lists of American football players include:

Professional

 * List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
 * List of American Football League players

National Football League

 * Current team rosters:
 * List of current American Football Conference players
 * List of current National Football Conference players
 * List of foreign NFL players
 * List of NFL players in the Olympics
 * List of NFL players by games played
 * List of NFL players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy
 * List of players selected to the Pro Bowl

College

 * List of College Football Hall of Fame inductees (players, A–K)
 * List of College Football Hall of Fame inductees (players, L–Z)
 * List of Heisman Trophy winners
 * List of NCAA Division I FBS field goal leaders
 * List of NCAA football records
 * List of NCAA Division I FBS quarterbacks with at least 90 career passing touchdowns
 * List of NCAA Division I FBS quarterbacks with at least 12,000 career passing yards
 * Category:Lists of National Football League draftees by college football team
 * Category:Lists of college football statistical leaders by team

Other

 * List of female American football players
 * List of players who have converted from one football code to another
 * List of gridiron football players who became professional wrestlers

title: Lists of American football players


text:
Saguenay River

The Saguenay River (Rivière Saguenay, ) is a major river of Quebec, Canada. It drains Lac Saint-Jean in the Laurentian Highlands, leaving at Alma and running east; the city of Saguenay is located on the river. It drains into the Saint Lawrence River. Tadoussac, founded as a French colonial trading post in 1600, is located on the northeast bank at this site.

The river has a very high flow-rate and is bordered by steep cliffs associated with the Saguenay Graben. Tide waters flow in its fjord upriver as far as Chicoutimi (about 100 kilometres). Many Beluga whales breed in the cold waters at its mouth, making Tadoussac a popular site for whale watching and sea kayaking; Greenland sharks also frequent the depths of the river. The area of the confluence of the Saguenay and Saint Lawrence is protected by the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park, one of Canada's national parks.

History
The Saguenay River was used as an important trade route into the interior for the First Nations people of the area. During the French colonization of the Americas, the river became a major route for the fur trade. The French established Tadoussac, France's first trading post in Canada, in 1600. They named the river for the legendary Kingdom of Saguenay. It is the namesake of Saguenay Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.

Beginning in the 19th century, the river was exploited for transport and power by the logging and pulp and paper industries. A dam on the upper Saguenay generates hydroelectricity for local industries, such as aluminum smelting and paper mills.

Severe flooding of the Saguenay's tributary rivers from July 18 to 21, 1996, devastated the region in one of Canada's costliest natural disasters, the Saguenay Flood. However, an unexpected effect of the flood was to cover the heavily contaminated sediments at the bottom of the river with 10 to 50 cm of new, relatively clean sediments. Research has shown that the old sediments are no longer a threat to ecosystems.

Geography
The Saguenay originates in Lac Saint-Jean at Alma. There are two channels: La Petite Décharge and La Grande Décharge, on which is built the dam Île Maligne hydroelectric plant. The island formed by these two rivers is part of the municipality of Alma. At this place, the water is freshwater. Three bridges cross the "Petite Décharge" and two others cross the "Grande Décharge". It is when these two rivers meet just east of Alma that the Saguenay really begins. It begins in the form of a reservoir several kilometers long, unlike the rapids and powerful falls that dotted the river before the erection of dams.

At Shipshaw, Quebec, the Saguenay splits again in two. On the northern watercourse, there is the Shipshaw hydroelectric station and, on the south side, the Chute-à-Caron power plant. It is here that the Aluminum Bridge is located.

Between Chicoutimi and Jonquière, the two spillway weirs come together to form the Saguenay. It becomes accessible to navigation at this point. Moreover, Chicoutimi means "how deep is it" in Innu-aimun. In downtown Chicoutimi, the Dubuc bridge and the Sainte-Anne bridge are located. At Tadoussac, a ferry provides the link between Tadoussac and Baie-Sainte-Catherine.

Tributaries
• The significant tributaries of the Saguenay are (going upstream):

• Sainte-Marguerite River

• * North-East Sainte-Marguerite River

• Saint-Jean River

• Ha! Ha! River

• Mars River

• Valin River

• Rivière du Moulin

• Chicoutimi River

• Shipshaw River

• Rivière aux Sables

• * Rivière aux Écorces

• Lake Saint-Jean

• * Peribonka River

• ** Manouane River

• * Mistassini River

• ** Mistassibi River

• * Ashuapmushuan River

• * Ouiatchouaniche River

• * Métabetchouane River

Riverside municipalities
• Downstream

• Alma

• Saint-Charles-de-Bourget, Quebec

• Shipshaw, Quebec (amalgamated with Saguenay)

• Jonquière (amalgamated with Saguenay)

• Chicoutimi (amalgamated with Saguenay)

• Saint-Fulgence, Quebec

• La Baie, Quebec (at the bottom of Ha! Ha! Bay, amalgamated with Saguenay)

• Sainte-Rose-du-Nord, Quebec

• Rivière-Éternité, Quebec

• L'Anse-Saint-Jean, Quebec

• Petit-Saguenay, Quebec

• Sacré-Cœur, l'Anse de Roche

• Tadoussac, Quebec

• Baie-Sainte-Catherine, Quebec

title: Saguenay River


text:
Anorthite

Anorthite (an = not, ortho = straight) is the calcium endmember of the plagioclase feldspar mineral series. The chemical formula of pure anorthite is CaAl2Si2O8. Anorthite is found in mafic igneous rocks. Anorthite is rare on the Earth but abundant on the Moon.

Mineralogy
Anorthite is the calcium-rich endmember of the plagioclase solid solution series, the other endmember being albite (NaAlSi3O8). Anorthite also refers to plagioclase compositions with more than 90 molecular percent of the anorthite endmember. The composition of plagioclases is often expressed as a molar percentage of An%, or (for a specific quantity) Ann, where n = Ca/(Ca + Na) × 100. This equation predominantly works in a terrestrial context; exotic locales and in particular Lunar rocks may need to account for other cations, such as Fe2+, to explain differences between optically and structurally derived An% data observed in Lunar anorthites.

At standard pressure, pure (An100) anorthite melts at 1553 °C.

Occurrence
Anorthite is a rare compositional variety of plagioclase. It occurs in mafic igneous rock. It also occurs in metamorphic rocks of granulite facies, in metamorphosed carbonate rocks, and corundum deposits. Its type localities are Monte Somma and Valle di Fassa, Italy. It was first described in 1823. It is more rare in surficial rocks than it normally would be due to its high weathering potential in the Goldich dissolution series.

It also makes up much of the lunar highlands; the Genesis Rock, collected during the 1971 Apollo 15 mission, is made of anorthosite, a rock composed largely of anorthite. Anorthite was discovered in samples from comet Wild 2, and the mineral is an important constituent of Ca-Al-rich inclusions in rare varieties of chondritic meteorites.

title: Anorthite


text:
Guillemot

Guillemot is the common name for several species of seabird in the Alcidae or auk family (part of the order Charadriiformes). In Europe, the term covers two genera: Uria and Cepphus. In North America the Uria species are called murres and only the Cepphus species are called "guillemots". This word of French origin derives from a form of the name William, cf. Guillaume.

The two living species of Uria, together with the razorbill, dovekie, and the extinct great auk, make up the tribe Alcini. They have distinctly white bellies, thicker and longer bills than Cepphus, and form very dense colonies on cliffs during the reproductive season. Guillemot eggs are large (around 11% of female weight ), pyriform in shape, and colourful, making them attractive targets for egg collectors.

The three living species of Cepphus form a tribe of their own: Cepphini. They are smaller than the Uria species and have black bellies, rounder heads and bright red feet.

Uria

 * Common murre or common guillemot, Uria aalge
 * Thick-billed murre or Brünnich's guillemot, Uria lomvia

Some prehistoric species are also known:

 * Uria brodkorbi (Monterey or Sisquoc Late Miocene of Lompoc, USA)
 * Uria affinis (Late Pleistocene of E USA)—possibly a subspecies of U. lomvia
 * Uria paleohesperis

Uria brodkorbi is the only known occurrence of the Alcini tribe in the temperate to subtropical Pacific, except for the very fringe of the range of U. aalge.

Cepphus

 * Black guillemot or tystie, Cepphus grylle
 * Pigeon guillemot, Cepphus columba
 * Spectacled guillemot, Cepphus carbo

As in other genera of auks, fossils of prehistoric forms of Cepphus have been found:

 * Cepphus olsoni (San Luis Rey River Late Miocene—Early Pliocene of W USA)
 * Cepphus cf. columba (Lawrence Canyon Early Pliocene of W USA)
 * Cepphus cf. grylle (San Diego Late Pliocene, W USA)

The latter two resemble the extant species, but because of the considerable distance in time or space from their current occurrence, they may represent distinct species.

Pyriform egg
Guillemots lay a single pyriform (pear-shaped) egg directly on a cliff edge in dense breeding colonies; they do not build a nest, allowing them to nest close to one another even on uneven cliff edges, the density protecting their eggs and chicks from predatory gulls. While the egg would seem vulnerable to rolling off the edge, this does not usually happen. It has been suggested that the egg might simply spin if disturbed, or roll in an arc preventing it from falling over the cliff edge. There is no evidence for either explanation. However, a pyriform egg placed experimentally on a steep slope did not roll, while a less pointed and more ellipsoidal egg did. Ornithologist Tim Birkhead experimented, and found that the arc that a pyriform egg rolls in is wider than most cliff ledges, so not protective against falls. He attributed the egg's stability to its long straight edge resting on the ground, creating more friction and making it less likely to move and fall.

Guillemot eggs were collected until the late 1920s in Scotland's St Kilda islands by their men scaling the cliffs. The eggs were buried in St Kilda peat ash to be eaten through the cold, northern winters. The eggs were considered to be similar to duck eggs in taste and nutrition.

Bounciness in chicks
Guillemot chicks are born on rocky cliffs near the seaside. They leave the nest by jumping off the cliffsides before their wings are strong enough to allow them to fly, so they parachute down toward the ground as opposed to flying. Their dense, downy feathers and underdeveloped wings allow them to avoid serious harm when falling to the ground, so they bounce around slightly after hitting the ground.

title: Guillemot


text:
Doug Flutie

Douglas Richard Flutie (born October 23, 1962) is an American former football quarterback who played professionally for 21 seasons. He played 12 seasons in the National Football League (NFL), eight seasons in the Canadian Football League (CFL), and one season in the United States Football League (USFL). Flutie played college football for the Boston College Eagles, winning the Heisman Trophy in 1984 amid a season that saw him throw the game-winning touchdown pass in the final seconds against the Miami Hurricanes.

Flutie chose to begin his professional career with the USFL's New Jersey Generals; his unavailability to NFL teams resulted in him being selected 285th overall by the Los Angeles Rams in the 11th round of the 1985 NFL Draft, the lowest drafting of a Heisman winner. After the USFL folded, Flutie spent his first four NFL seasons with the Chicago Bears and the New England Patriots.

Flutie left the NFL in 1990 for the CFL, where he became regarded as one of the league's greatest players. As a member of the BC Lions, the Calgary Stampeders, and the Toronto Argonauts, he was named the CFL's Most Outstanding Player a record six times and won three Grey Cups. In all three of his championship victories, two with the Argonauts and one with the Stampeders, he was named Grey Cup MVP.

Following his CFL success, Flutie returned to the NFL in 1998 with the Buffalo Bills, earning Pro Bowl and NFL Comeback Player of the Year honors for leading Buffalo to the playoffs. He again helped the Bills obtain a playoff berth the following season, but was controversially benched in their subsequent Wild Card defeat; Flutie would be the last quarterback to bring the Bills to the postseason over the next 17 years. Flutie held his last starting role with the San Diego Chargers in 2001 and spent his final professional season as a backup for the Patriots. He was inducted to the College Football Hall of Fame in 2007 and the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 2008. Flutie was also inducted to Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2007, becoming the first non-Canadian inductee.

Early life
Flutie was born in Manchester, Maryland, to Dick and Joan Flutie. His paternal great-grandparents were Lebanese immigrants. His family moved to Melbourne Beach, Florida, when he was six, where his father worked as a quality engineer in the aerospace industry. While there, Flutie led Hoover Junior High School's football team to two Brevard County Championships.

After the dramatic slow-down of the space program in the mid-1970s, the Flutie family again moved in 1976 to Natick, Massachusetts, 20 miles west of Boston. Flutie graduated from Natick High School, where he was an All-League performer in football, basketball, and baseball.

College career
Flutie played football at Boston College, the only Division I-A school to recruit him, from 1981 to 1984, and won the Heisman Trophy, Maxwell Award, and the Davey O'Brien National Quarterback Award in his senior year (1984). Flutie became the first quarterback to win the Heisman since Pat Sullivan in 1971. Flutie left school as the NCAA's all-time passing yardage leader with 10,579 yards and was a unanimous All-American as a senior. He earned Player of the Year awards from UPI, Kodak, The Sporting News, and the Maxwell Football Club. The quarterback coach for Boston College from 1981 to 1983 was Tom Coughlin.

Flutie gained national attention in 1984 when he led the Eagles to victory in a high-scoring, back-and-forth game against the Miami Hurricanes (led by QB Bernie Kosar). The game was nationally televised on CBS the day after Thanksgiving and thus had a huge audience. Miami staged a dramatic drive to take the lead, 45–41, in the closing minute of the game. Boston College then took possession at its own 22-yard line with 28 seconds to go. After two passes moved the ball another 30 yards, only 6 seconds remained. On the last play of the game, Flutie scrambled away from the defense and threw a "Hail Mary pass" that was caught in the end zone by Gerard Phelan, giving BC a 47–45 win. Flutie won the Heisman trophy a week later, but the voting had finished before the game; Flutie said, however, that "without the Hail Mary pass I think I could have been very, very easily forgotten". The subsequent rise in applications for admission to Boston College after Flutie's "Hail Mary" gave rise to the admissions phenomenon known as the "Flutie Effect". This idea essentially states that a winning sports team can increase the recognition value of a school enough to make it more attractive to potential applicants.

In addition to his collegiate athletic achievement, Flutie maintained a distinguished academic record at Boston College, where he majored in communication and computer science. Flutie was a candidate for the Rhodes Scholarship, for which he was named a finalist in 1984. Upon graduating, Flutie won the National Football Foundation post-graduate scholarship.

In November 2008, Flutie was honored by Boston College with a statue of him throwing his famous "Hail Mary" pass outside of Alumni Stadium. His number, 22, has been retired by the Boston College football program.

New Jersey Generals

Despite his successful college achievements, whether Flutie was too small to play professional football was uncertain. When asked on television "Can a guy who's five-foot-nine, 175 pounds make it in the pros?", he answered "Yes, he can. But it's a matter of ability and not size. I feel I can play; I don't know for sure, and those questions will be answered in the future."

Flutie was seen as extremely attractive to the USFL, which was desperate for a star to reinvigorate the league as it was in financial difficulty. Meanwhile, the Buffalo Bills, who had the first pick in the 1985 NFL Draft, still had the rights to Jim Kelly (who had earlier spurned them to go to the USFL) and also had concerns about Flutie's height. He was selected by the USFL's New Jersey Generals in the 1985 territorial draft, which took place in January, months before the 1985 NFL Draft. Flutie went through negotiations with the Generals and agreed on a deal that would make him the highest paid pro football player and highest paid rookie in any sport with $7 million over five years; Flutie was officially signed on February 4, 1985. Having already signed with the USFL, Flutie was not selected in the NFL Draft until the 11th round as the 285th overall pick by the Los Angeles Rams.

Flutie entered the USFL with much hype and fanfare. However, many began to wonder if the scouts who said Flutie could not compete on the pro level were right, despite the plenitude of great NFL quarterbacks with awful initial professional seasons. In February 1985, Flutie made his USFL debut against the Orlando Renegades. His debut was not impressive, as his first two professional passes were intercepted by Renegades linebacker Jeff Gabrielsen. The only two touchdowns that New Jersey scored came from turnovers by Orlando quarterback Jerry Golsteyn. By the time Flutie's debut was over, he completed 7 of 18 passes, for a total of 174 yards, while running for 51 yards. Flutie completed 134 of 281 passes for 2,109 yards and 13 touchdowns with the Generals in 1985 in 15 games. He suffered an injury late in the season that saw him turn over the reins to reserve quarterback Ron Reeves. The Generals went on to finish with an 11–7 record and a second-place finish in the USFL's Eastern Conference. The USFL folded in 1986, and Flutie and punter Sean Landeta were the league's last active players in the NFL.

Chicago Bears
On October 14, 1986, the Los Angeles Rams traded their rights to Flutie to the Chicago Bears in exchange for multiple draft picks. Flutie appeared in four games for the 1986 Chicago Bears, who were in need for quarterback play when Jim McMahon suffered a season-ending injury late in the season. He served as the starter in the Divisional Round game against Washington, which was only his second NFL start. He went 11-of-31 with 134 yards as Washington scored 20 unanswered points in the second half to overcome a halftime deficit while Flutie's interception in the third quarter set up Washington for a subsequent touchdown.

New England Patriots
Chicago then traded Flutie to the New England Patriots at the start of the 1987 NFL season, a season which saw the NFL Players Association go on strike, and NFL games subsequently being played by replacement players. Flutie crossed the picket lines in order to play for the Patriots, one of many NFL players to rejoin their respective teams, and the strike quickly collapsed.

On October 2, 1988, after the Patriots began the season with a 1–3 record, Flutie came off the bench to lead a comeback victory over the Indianapolis Colts in Foxborough, scoring the winning touchdown on a 13-yard bootleg at the end of the fourth quarter. He then led the team to a 6–3 record, including wins at home over the eventual division winning Cincinnati Bengals and Chicago Bears. However, after taking the Patriots to the brink of the playoffs, on December 11 Flutie was benched by head coach Raymond Berry and replaced with Tony Eason, who had not played football in over a year; Berry cited a need for more "explosive" play from the offense, which Flutie pointed out had thrown little to begin with. New England lost the last game of the year in Denver and were eliminated from the postseason in a tiebreaker.

Flutie was released by the Patriots after playing the 1989 season in a mainly backup role. No other NFL teams showed interest in Flutie and he subsequently signed to play for the Canadian Football League (CFL). After his release from the Patriots, they won only nine games over the following three seasons.

BC Lions
In 1990, Flutie began his eight-year CFL career. That year, he signed with the BC Lions for a two-year contract reportedly worth $350,000 a season. At the time he was the highest paid player in the CFL. Flutie struggled in his first season, which would be his only losing season in the CFL.

The 1991 season saw Flutie set several CFL single season records:

 * passing attempts (730)
 * passing completions (466)
 * passing yards (6,619)
 * 300-yard passing games (14)
 * 400-yard passing games (7)
 * rushing touchdowns by a quarterback (14)

On October 12 vs Edmonton, Flutie threw for 582 yards, which was second most in a regular season game at the time. For his accomplishments, he won Most Outstanding Player award for the first time. BC made the playoffs for the first time since 1988, but ultimately lost to the eventual West Division Champion Calgary Stampeders in the West Semi-Final.

Calgary Stampeders
In 1992, Flutie was rewarded with a reported million-dollar salary from the Calgary Stampeders. He quarterbacked Calgary to a league-best 13 regular season wins, won his second Most Outstanding Player award, and won his first Grey Cup. In the Grey Cup game, Flutie was 33 of 49 for 480 passing yards. All three statistics were the second highest all-time for a single Grey Cup game. For his efforts, he was named the Grey Cup MVP.

In 1993, Flutie quarterbacked Calgary to a 10-0 start, with the team ultimately finishing 15-3. He passed for 6,000 yards for the second time in his career, and set a single season record for passing touchdowns with 44. He also tied his 1991 CFL record for 400-yard passing games in a season (7), and set the CFL record for consecutive 400-yard passing games (5). Flutie won his third consecutive Most Outstanding Player award. Calgary ultimately lost in the West Division Final to the visiting Edmonton Eskimos, which prohibited the Stampeders from playing in the Grey Cup that was to be played in Calgary the following Sunday.

The 1994 season saw Calgary once again finishing with a 15-3 record. Flutie broke his CFL record from the previous season for passing touchdowns in a single season with 48. He also rushed for 760 yards, which was his best rushing season in the CFL. Against Hamilton on October 30, he completed the longest pass of his career (106 yards), a touchdown to Pee Wee Smith. Flutie won his fourth consecutive Most Outstanding Player award. Calgary lost the West Division Final once again, this time to the visiting B.C. Lions, who defeated the Stampeders with a last play touchdown.

In 1995, Flutie missed several games with injury. During this time, Jeff Garcia, who later went on to start for the NFL's San Francisco 49ers, started games at quarterback, and helped Calgary once again finish 15-3. The Stampeders advanced to the Grey Cup game, and Flutie started. However, Calgary was defeated by the Baltimore Stallions, the first American-based team to win the Grey Cup.

Toronto Argonauts
Flutie joined the Toronto Argonauts for the 1996 season, and they went 15-3. He won the Most Outstanding Player award for the fifth time in his career, and quarterbacked the team to a Grey Cup victory in The Snow Bowl held in Hamilton, Ontario. He won his second Grey Cup MVP award.

After a 15-3 regular season in 1997, Toronto was successful in its quest to win back-to-back Grey Cups when the team won the 1997 Grey Cup held in Edmonton, Alberta. With Flutie at quarterback, the Argonauts set a record for most consecutive completions in a Grey Cup game with 10, which occurred between the first and second quarters. From the late second quarter to the fourth quarter, this record was rewritten when Flutie completed 12 consecutive passes. For his performance in the Grey Cup, he won his third Grey Cup MVP award.

Prior to his final two Grey Cup victories with the Argonauts, Flutie was hampered by the opinion, supported by the media, that he was a quarterback who could not win in cold weather. In both 1993 and 1994, the Stampeders had the best record in the league, but lost the Western Final each year at home in freezing conditions. After first refusing to wear gloves in freezing temperatures, in later years Flutie adapted to throwing with gloves in cold weather.

Flutie credits his time in the CFL with helping him develop as a pro quarterback. Flutie specifically states that he modeled his game off of fellow CFL quarterback Damon Allen.

Upon completion of his CFL career, Flutie had set numerous CFL career records:

 * 5,000+ yard passing seasons (6)
 * consecutive 5,000+ yard passing seasons (4)
 * 6,000+ passing yards in a season twice in a career (also a pro football record)
 * 300-yard passing games (74)
 * 400-yard passing games in a career (29)
 * 6 Most Outstanding Player awards

Flutie ranked third in the following all-time regular season CFL passing categories: yards (41,355), touchdowns (270), completions (2,975), and he ranked fourth in all-time attempts (4,854). In all-time Grey Cup passing categories, Flutie held the record for most attempts (171), completions (108), and yards (1,421).

Other passing accomplishments upon completion of his CFL career included:

 * leading the CFL in yards five times in only eight seasons
 * holding four of the CFL's top five highest single-season completion marks
 * holding three of the CFL's top five highest single-season yardage marks
 * holding the top three single-season touchdown marks
 * gaining 9,500+ yards for three different CFL franchises
 * setting the single season individual records for three different CFL franchises in attempts, completions, yards, and touchdowns:

* since surpassed

On November 17, 2006, Flutie was named the greatest Canadian Football League player of all time from a top 50 list of CFL players conducted by TSN. In 2007, he was named to Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, the first non-Canadian to be inducted.

Buffalo Bills
The Buffalo Bills' then-pro personnel director A. J. Smith convinced the organization that Flutie would be a great asset to the team, and the Bills signed him in the 1998 offseason. The Bills' attempt at making Todd Collins their starting quarterback was a failure, and Flutie was one of two quarterbacks, the other being Rob Johnson (the presumptive starter), to join the Bills in the 1998 offseason. In his first action with the Bills, Flutie entered for an injured Johnson and passed for two TDs while leading a fourth-quarter comeback against the Indianapolis Colts on October 11, 1998. The following week, Flutie made his first NFL start since October 15, 1989, against the unbeaten Jacksonville Jaguars. The nine-year gap between starts for a quarterback in the NFL is the third-longest in duration behind Tommy Maddox (December 12, 1992, to October 6, 2002) and the man Flutie replaced, Todd Collins (December 14, 1997, to December 16, 2007). Flutie was the hero of the Bills' victory as he scored the winning touchdown against the Jaguars by rolling out on a bootleg and into the end zone on a fourth-down play in the waning seconds. The Bills' success continued with Flutie at the helm; his record as a starter that season was 8 wins and 3 losses. He then threw for 360 yards in a wild card playoff loss at Miami. Flutie was selected to play in the 1998 Pro Bowl and is currently the shortest quarterback to make the Pro Bowl since 1970.

Flutie led the Bills to a 10–5 record in 1999 but, in a controversial decision which football analyst Aaron Schatz said was "the wrong decision on one of the most mismatched quarterback controversies of all time", was replaced by Johnson for the playoffs by coach Wade Phillips, who later said he was ordered by Bills owner Ralph Wilson to do so. Rob Johnson completed only ten passes, none for touchdowns, and was sacked six times, as the Bills lost 22–16 to the eventual AFC Champion Tennessee Titans. The game has become known as the Music City Miracle, as the Titans scored on the penultimate play of the game—a kickoff return following the Bills' apparent game-clinching field goal.

The following season, Flutie was named the Bills' backup and played only late in games or when Johnson was injured, which was often. During the season, Flutie had a 4–1 record as a starter, in while Johnson's was 4–7. In a December 24, 2000 game against the Seattle Seahawks, Flutie achieved a perfect passer rating, completing 20 of 25 passes for 366 yards and three touchdowns. After the 2000 season, Bills President Tom Donahoe and head coach Gregg Williams decided to keep Johnson as the starter and cut Flutie.

San Diego Chargers
In 2001, Flutie signed with the San Diego Chargers, who had gone 1–15 in 2000. After opening 3–0, the Chargers slumped and were 4–2 going into Week 7, when Flutie's Chargers met Rob Johnson's Bills. Flutie prevailed as the new ex-Bill broke a sack attempt and ran 13 yards for the game-winning touchdown. It would be the last win for the Chargers in 2001, as they dropped their last nine games to finish 5–11 and cost head coach Mike Riley his job. (Buffalo finished 3–13 with Johnson and, later, Alex Van Pelt as starters.) Flutie was Drew Brees' backup in 2002. Brees idolized Flutie growing up, and credits Flutie with mentoring him during their time together at San Diego.

In 2003, Flutie replaced a struggling Brees when the Chargers were 1–7. The 41-year-old Flutie became the oldest player to score two rushing touchdowns in a game, the first player over 40 to accomplish that feat. He also became the oldest AFC Offensive Player of the Week, winning the award for the fourth time. On January 2, 2005, the season finale of the 2004 season, Flutie broke Jerry Rice's record set two weeks prior, to become the oldest player ever to score a touchdown, at 42 years and 71 days. Rice was 42 years and 67 days when he made his touchdown. Flutie's record as a starter that year was 2–3. He was released by the Chargers on March 13, 2005.

New England Patriots (second stint)
Flutie surprised many when he signed with the New England Patriots instead of the New York Giants. He became the backup behind Tom Brady and played several times at the end of games to take a few snaps. Flutie has a 37–28 record as an NFL starter, including a 22–9 record in home games.

Referring to his time in the Canadian Football League (and, presumably, to the quarterback's relatively diminutive stature), television football commentator John Madden once said, "Inch for inch, Flutie in his prime was the best QB of his generation."

In a December 26, 2005, game against the New York Jets, Flutie was sent in late in the game. The Jets also sent in their back-up quarterback, Vinny Testaverde. This was the first time in NFL history that two quarterbacks over the age of 40 competed against each other (Testaverde was 42, Flutie was 43).

In the Patriots' regular-season finale against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, Flutie successfully drop kicked a football for an extra point, something that was not done in a regular-season NFL game since 1941. It was Flutie's first kick attempt in the NFL, and earned him that week's title of AFC Special Teams Player of the Week. Patriots head coach Bill Belichick, known for his knowledge of the history of the game, made comments that suggested that the play was a retirement present of sorts for his veteran quarterback, although Flutie made no comment on whether 2005 would be his last season. There is a video of Flutie describing the event in his own words.

During the 2006 off-season, Flutie's agent Kristen Kuliga stated he was interested in returning to the Patriots for another season; as a result, he was widely expected to return, despite his age. However, on May 15, 2006, Flutie announced his decision to "hang up his helmet" at the age of 43 and retire. Flutie was the second-to-last former USFL player to retire, behind Sean Landeta, who last played in the same season of Flutie's retirement (but did not formally retire until 2008).

Near-return to the CFL
Because of injuries with the Toronto Argonauts, Flutie was contemplating a temporary comeback with the team as of July 25, 2006. Flutie did not plan to play long-term, for he had planned on doing college football commentary on ESPN in the coming season. On August 18, 2006, a story was published on CFL.ca examining this topic in-depth. Flutie was pondering a return to the CFL because of his relationship with Argonauts head coach and former running back Pinball Clemons, and the desire to "say goodbye to the CFL". According to the report, Flutie was poised to return to Toronto on July 22, after their victory over the Saskatchewan Roughriders and the injury to backup quarterback Spergon Wynn. Nevertheless, Flutie chose to remain in retirement.

Career statistics
* Flutie only saw game action in 10 of the 11 games he dressed for during the 1995 season.

Broadcasting career
After retirement from the NFL, Flutie took a commentating job calling college football with ESPN and ABC from 2006 until 2008.

Drawing on his USFL experience, Flutie served as an analyst for United Football League games for Versus in 2010.

Flutie served as a studio and pre-game analyst for Notre Dame Football on NBC from 2011 through 2013, then served as the lead analyst from 2014 through 2019.

Dancing with the Stars
On March 8, 2016, Flutie was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 22 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Karina Smirnoff. On April 25, 2016, Flutie and Smirnoff were eliminated, finishing in ninth place.

Doug Flutie's Maximum Football Video Game
On November 20, 2018, a partnership deal was announced between Flutie and the Maximum Football video game (Canuck Play/Spear Interactive). Future iterations of the game will be rebranded as Doug Flutie's Maximum Football and feature Flutie's likeness. The game released on the PS4 and Xbox One in the Fall of 2019. On February 4, 2020, the game was available to purchase as a physical copy. The game had 29 players at its all time peak, according to SteamDB.

Other post-career endeavors
In 2011, Flutie signed a deal to endorse joint support supplement Insatflex.

Since 2021, he has endorsed testosterone supplement Nugenix. He and fellow pitchman Frank Thomas were spoofed in a Saturday Night Live skit, with Kyle Mooney's Flutie and Kenan Thompson's Thomas extolling the virtues of the product to an unsuspecting man.

Personal life
Flutie is the older brother of the CFL's fourth all-time receptions leader, Darren Flutie. Flutie also has an older brother, Bill, and an older sister, Denise. His nephew Billy Flutie (son of Bill) was a wide receiver/punter at Boston College from 2007 to 2010. Another one of Flutie's nephews, Troy (son of Darren), played quarterback and wide receiver at Boston College from 2015 to 2017. Flutie is the second son of Richard and Joan Flutie.

Flutie is married to his high school sweetheart, Laurie (née Fortier). They have a daughter, Alexa, formerly a New England Patriots Cheerleader and San Diego Chargers Cheerleader, and a son, Doug Jr, who has childhood disintegrative disorder, a very rare severe late onset form of autism spectrum disorder. The Fluties established The Doug Flutie Jr. Foundation for Autism, Inc. in honor of him. Flutie also created a cereal, Flutie Flakes, with the benefits going toward this organization.

In his free time, he attends college football and basketball games at his alma mater Boston College and was a season ticket-holder. He has spent his summers in Bethany Beach, Delaware, frequenting basketball courts. He also has worked with the local Massachusetts Eastern Bank and is a spokesman for Natick/Framingham's Metrowest Medical Center. He is a member of the Longfellow Sports Clubs at their Wayland and Natick locations. Flutie relocated from Natick to Florida, but was honored by Natick in November 2007 by being inducted into the Natick High School Wall of Achievement. A short stretch of road connecting the Natick Mall and the Shoppers World in Natick/Framingham, Massachusetts is named "Flutie Pass" in honor of his historic 1984 play against Miami. Flutie frequents Melbourne Beach, Florida in winter, and a sports field complex there is named after him.

For a time, he was part-owner of a restaurant in New York City's South Street Seaport named "Flutie's".

In February 2021, Flutie won the WWE 24/7 Championship from R-Truth during a celebrity flag football tournament, though he would then immediately drop the title back to Truth.

With his brother Darren on guitar, Doug plays drums in the Flutie Brothers Band, and once played for Boston at a tribute honoring Doug. November 13, 2006, was Doug Flutie Day in Boston. Flutie endorsed Scott Brown for the U.S. Senate in Massachusetts for 2010, and the Flutie Brothers Band played at Brown's victory celebration. In 2014, Flutie, who has a charity team that was running, decided to run the Boston Marathon two days before the race, and finished in 5:23:54.

On November 18, 2015, Flutie's parents Dick and Joan Flutie died of heart attacks one hour apart. Dick Flutie had been ill and hospitalized.

Halls of Fame

 * In 2007, Flutie was inducted into the Boston College Varsity Club Hall of Fame.
 * On May 8, 2007, Flutie was elected to Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, becoming the first non-Canadian inductee.
 * On May 9, 2007, Flutie was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility.
 * On April 2, 2008, Flutie was elected to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility.
 * In 2009, Flutie was elected to the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame.

Legacy

 * Holds the professional football record of 6,619 yards passing in a single season.
 * Holds the CFL record for most touchdown passes in a season with 48 in 1994.
 * Was named the CFL's Most Outstanding Player a record six times (1991–1994 and 1996–1997).
 * He remains the only player in pro football history to pass 6,000+ yards in a season twice in his career.
 * In 2006, he was named the greatest Canadian Football League player of all time from a top 50 list of CFL players conducted by TSN. In 2007, he was named to Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, the first non-Canadian to be inducted.
 * Is the oldest NFL player to score two rushing touchdowns in a game.
 * Is the oldest player to win the AFC Offensive Player of the Week award.
 * Flutie has the most rushing yards (212) for any player over 40 years old.
 * In football historian Brad Oremland's ranking of the best quarterbacks in history Doug Flutie came in at #31 based on his performances in the NFL as well as his complete dominance of the CFL for years.
 * In a 2013 ranking of the best quarterbacks based on age-related performance, sports analyst Neil Paine ranked Doug Flutie 4th best, though he does state that this could be entirely due to Doug Flutie's uniquely demarcated career.
 * John Madden said that "Inch for inch, Flutie in his prime was the best QB of his generation."

title: Doug Flutie


text:
Lac Saint-Jean

Lac Saint-Jean ( Canadian French: ) is a large, relatively shallow lake in south-central Quebec, Canada, in the Laurentian Highlands. It is situated 206 km north of the Saint Lawrence River, into which it drains via the Saguenay River. It covers an area of 1053 km2, and is 63.1 m at its deepest point. Its name in the Innu language is Piekuakamu.

Description

The lake is fed by dozens of small rivers, including the Ashuapmushuan, the Mistassini, the Peribonka, the Des Aulnaies, the Métabetchouane, and the Ouiatchouane. The towns on its shores include Alma, Dolbeau-Mistassini, Roberval, Normandin, and Saint-Félicien. Three Regional County Municipalities lie on its shores: Lac-Saint-Jean-Est, Le Domaine-du-Roy, and Maria-Chapdelaine.

History
The lake was named Piekuakami by the Innu, the Indigenous people who occupied the area at the time of European arrival. It was given its French name after Jean de Quen, a Jesuit missionary who in 1647 was the first European to reach its shores.

Industry on the lake was dominated by the fur trade until the 19th century. Colonization began in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region in the early 19th century and continued intensively until the early 20th century. Industry was mainly forestry and agriculture. In the 20th century, pulp and paper mills and aluminum smelting rose to importance, encouraged by hydroelectric dams at Alma and on the Péribonka River. Lac Saint-Jean also has an important summer resort and sport-fishing industry.

The area is featured in the classic French-language novel Maria Chapdelaine by Louis Hémon published in 1914 and subsequently translated into twenty languages.

In the 1940s, during World War II, Lac Saint-Jean, along with various other regions within Canada, such as the Saguenay, Saint Helen's Island and Hull, Quebec, had Prisoner-of-war camps. Lac Saint-Jean's was numbered and remained unnamed just like most of Canada's other war prisons. The prisoners of war (POWs) were classified into categories including their nationality and civilian or military status. By 1942 this region had two camps with at least 50 POWs. Prisoners worked the land, including lumbering and assisting in the production of pulp and paper.

Geology
The bedrock of the Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean region consists largely of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. They are mostly composed of high-grade metamorphic rocks, amphibolite to granulite gneiss, that are intruded by anorthosite, mangerite, charnockite, and granite plutonic rocks. The Lac Saint-Jean anorthosite is the major mafic intrusion present in the area. These rocks comprise the Grenville Province of southern Quebec. It consists of fragments of island arcs and continental crust accreted to the south-eastern edge of Precambrian North American, Laurentia.

Lac Saint-Jean lies within a elongated rift valley that is known as the Lac Saint-Jean Lowlands. These lowlands are an elongated flat-bottomed basin formed by the Saguenay Graben by the displacement of Grenville crystalline rocks. This basin is 250 km long and 50 km wide. This basin is bounded by normal faults running parallel to its length. It extends from just west of Lac Saint-Jean along the Saguenay River to the Saint Lawrence Valley where is it truncated by St. Lawrence rift system.

Preserved within the down-faulted interior of the Saguenay Graben are two large eroded, isolated patches, known as outliers, of Paleozoic, Middle Ordovician, sedimentary rock composed of limestones and shales overlying Precambrian basement. The Lac-Saint-Jean outlier rests against the south wall of the graben south of Lac Saint-Jean and extends to the west of the lake. The Chicoutimi (Saguenay) outlier rests against the north wall of the graben and extends southward to a few kilometers from the Saguenay River north of Chicoutimi. These Middle Ordovician sedimentary rocks consist of sandstones, micritic limestones and highly fossiliferous, alternating beds of limestones and shales. These rocks have been preferentially eroded by repeated glaciations exhuming the Saguenay Graben.

The Saguenay Graben that undelies Lac Saint-Jean Lowlands has controlled the deposition and the accumulation of Quaternary deposits (sand, gravel, silt, and clay), which can reach up to 180 m in thickness beneath the central lowlands. The Quaternary sediments include glacial, marine, glaciofluvial sediments and post-glacial alluvial and delta plain sediments.

The area was covered by ice sheets several times throughout the Pleistocene. The valley formed by the Saguenay Graben being oriented more or less parallel to the glacial flow, became a preferred path for ice flow and resulted in deep excavation of the bedrock.The glaciers cut into the graben and widened it in some places as well as making it considerable deeper in others. At the time of retreat of the last ice sheet, the region had been depressed below contemporaneous sea level. As a result, as the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated, the Saguenay Graben was flooded by marine waters to form the Laflamme Sea. As the land rose in response to considerable Post-glacial rebound, the bottom of the Saguenay Graben was blanketed by the Saguenay River with deltaic and terrestrial fluvial sediments to form the modern day Lac Saint-Jean Lowlands.

Notable people

 * Jean Ratelle, NHL Hall of Famer and Team Canada 1972 member
 * Mario Chevrette, Ph.D of Molecular and Cell Biology and McGill Professor
 * Guillaume Côté, National Ballet of Canada principal dancer

title: Lac Saint-Jean


text:
Postage stamp gum

In philately, gum is the substance applied to the back of a stamp to enable it to adhere to a letter or other mailed item. The term is generic, and applies both to traditional types such as gum arabic and to synthetic modern formulations. Gum is a matter of high importance in philately.

History
Before postage stamps existed, people receiving letters would have to pay for them. The payment was based on how many papers were in the envelope and how far the letter had traveled. Rowland Hill came up with a solution of prepayment. This led to his invention of stamp gum in 1837. The world's first adhesive postage stamp was called the Penny Black. Many early stamps were not gummed, however, and some have been unable to be gummed due to shortage (for instance, the typewritten Uganda Cowry stamps of 1895). Extreme tropical climates were also a problem for Curaçao and Suriname. Some stamps, intended only for sale to stamp collectors, have been issued without gum, for instance the United States Farley's Follies souvenir sheets of 1933. On the first stamps of Great Britain the gum was called cement and was made from a mixture of potato starch, wheat starch and acacia gum.

Types and application
Originally, gumming took place after printing and before perforation, usually because the paper had to be damp for printing to work well, but in modern times most stamp printing is done dry on pre-gummed paper. There have been a couple of historical instances where stamps were regummed after being perforated, but these were unusual situations.

On early issues, gum was applied by hand, using a brush or roller, but in 1880 De La Rue came up with a machine gumming process using a printing press, and gum is now always applied by machine. The gum is universally spread as uniformly as possible.

The greatest manufacturing problem of the gumming process is its tendency to make the stamps curl, due to the different reaction of paper and gum to varying moisture levels. In the most extreme cases, the stamp will spontaneously roll up into a small tube. Various schemes have been tried, but the problem persists to this day. On Swiss stamps of the 1930s, Courvoisier used a gum-breaking machine that pressed a pattern of small squares into the gum, resulting in so-called grilled gum. Another scheme has been to slice the gum with knives after it has been applied. In some cases the gum solves the problem itself by becoming "crackly" when it dries.

The appearance of the gum varies with the type and method of application, and may range from nearly invisible to dark brown globs. Types of gum (adhesives) used on stamps include:
 * dextrin, produced by heating starch
 * gum arabic or acacia gum, derived from the acacia plant
 * glue, from gelatin, rarely seen on stamps
 * polyvinyl alcohol

Some stamps have had gum applied in a pattern resembling a watermark, presumably as an additional security device. German stamps from 1921 had a pattern of wavy lines while Czech stamps from 1923 had gum showing the initials of the Czech Republic, CSP. These patterns have been called gum devices or gum watermarks. Due to shortages of material, such as in the situation following World War II in Germany, stamps may be gummed in an economy fashion. This so-called economy gum (German: Spargummi) is only applied in patches.

Self-adhesive stamps
In recent years, the use of self-adhesive stamps, otherwise known as pressure-sensitive stamps, has become widespread. This relatively new form of stamps has a smooth waxed or polymer-coated release carrier backing to which the pressure-adhesive adhesive of the stamp does not adhere as strongly as on paper. Therefore, the stamps can be released easily from the backing and placed onto a postal envelope. The first use was by Sierra Leone in 1964, and the United States tried it later on a 1974 Christmas stamp; this was judged a failure and was not reintroduced until 1989 when it gradually became widespread. In the 1990s, the U.S. Post Office began transitioning from water-based stamps into the use of self-adhesive stamps. By 1995, only 20 percent of the thirty-five billion stamps the Post Office produced every year were self-adhesive, yet by 2013 almost all U. S. stamps issued had become self-adhesive.

Health risks
A 1965 British study of the transmission of bacteria and viruses on gummed paper found that "Although pathogenic bacteria and viruses were not isolated from sample envelopes obtained from various sources, the gums used in manufacture were found to exert a protective effect against death from desiccation on the bacteria and viruses which had been introduced into them" and it was possible to demonstrate bacterial multiplication in the gum used for the manufacture of postage stamps." The authors added the warning that "postage stamps are often handled very carelessly when issued over the counter, and yet the purchaser will usually lick them without hesitation. The present work shows how readily bacteria can adhere to the surface of gummed paper which has been slightly moistened; and the finger is a suitable source both of moisture and of bacterial contamination."

A 1996 episode of the popular sitcom Seinfeld featured a character (Susan Ross) who was poisoned after licking the flap of too many gummed envelopes. The episode has been linked anecdotally to an increase in worries about the health risks of licking gummed paper and it has been speculated that it may have contributed to the growing popularity of self-adhesive stamps, at least in the United States.

Condition of unused stamps
Stamp gum is an item of importance for collectors, although its presence is rarely of use in differentiating between common and rare stamps, and being on the back of the stamp it is not usually visible. Nevertheless, its condition is reflected in the valuation of unused stamps. Generally, the following conditions are distinguished: In stamp catalogues, these conditions are abbreviated with the signs **, *, and (*), respectively.
 * Mint: stamps with full, undamaged original gum, as sold by the post office. This condition (also called mint, never hinged) is valued highest.
 * Unused: stamps whose original gum has been damaged, e.g. through use of stamp hinges, or other influences.
 * Unused without gum: stamps which have lost their original gum.

Some stamps have been issued without any gum at all, either due to a lack of materials, or (in particular in tropical countries) to avoid the risk of stamp sheets sticking together. Such stamps cannot be found other than in (*) condition. Traditionally, in particular before World War II, stamps were mounted in albums with stamp hinges no matter whether they were used or unused. Hence some experts claim that very few unused stamps from the 19th century have not been hinged at some point in their existence. This means that old unused stamps in supposedly mint condition often come under suspicion of having been regummed, and the detection of regummed stamps is an important part of philatelic expertisation. Regummed stamps cannot be valued any higher than unused stamps without gum.

Dedicated philatelists strive to maintain the integrity of the backing gum, because such stamps are considered more desirable than stamps without their backing gum. The removal of any paper residue that has collected on the gum without removing the gum itself.

In 1906, trouble had constantly arisen due to the gum on the under face of the stamps. There was an official notice that stated that stamps were going to be prepared with 'hard' gum, and were intended for use in the summer or humid season to prevent the premature sticking together of the stamps, or the sticking to the paraffin paper when in book form.

Varieties
Stamps that have text, numbers, or symbols imprinted on the adhesive are of special interest. e.g. to thematic collectors if the imprint is related to the occasion of the stamp issue, such as on the 1909 Hudson-Fulton Celebration stamps of the United States. Stamps printed on the gummed side by mistake are sought after by collectors with an interest in uncommon varieties.

The gum of older stamp issues often causes the unused stamps to roll. To avoid this, some postal authorities, e.g. in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, had the gum broken by rollers, leading to its serration. The orientation of this serration is used to distinguish between different production runs.

Paper damage through stamp gum
Care must be taken during production that stamp gum, in particular if prepared from natural materials, does not contain an excess of acid. The latter can destroy the stamp paper over time. Notable cases are the Ostropa commemorative sheet issued in Germany in 1935, and the German Zeppelin airmail stamps of 1936.

The thick gum on some older stamps, namely on issues of Austria-Hungary, tends to break due to changes in air humidity and temperature. Such breaks can also affect the stamp paper and cause the stamps to disintegrate. In such cases, stamp catalogs recommend to remove the gum to avoid further damage to the stamps.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Bells, Mary. "History of Stamps." About. Web.  20 October 2013.
 * "History of Stamps." The American Philatelic Society.  Web.  20 October 2013.
 * Johnson, Stanley Currie. The Stamp Collector: A Guide to the World's Postage Stamps. H. Jenkins Limited. 1920. p 24.
 * Poole, Bertram. The Standard Philatelic Dictionary. Beverly, Mass.: Severn-Wylie-	Jewett Co., 1922. Print
 * Sutton, Richard. The Stamp Collector's Encyclopaedia. New York: Philosophical 	Library, 1966. Print.

title: Postage stamp gum