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Harlaxton Manor

Harlaxton Manor is a Victorian country house in Harlaxton, Lincolnshire, England. It was built for Gregory Gregory, a local squire and businessman. Gregory employed two of the leading architects of Victorian England, Anthony Salvin and William Burn and consulted a third, Edward Blore, during its construction. Its architecture, which combines elements of Jacobean and Elizabethan styles with Baroque decoration, makes it unique among England's Jacobethan houses. Harlaxton is a Grade I listed building on the National Heritage List for England, and many other structures on the estate are also listed. The surrounding park and gardens are listed Grade II* on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. It is now the British campus of the University of Evansville.

History
Harlaxton is first recorded in the Domesday Book as Harleston. The current mansion is the second Harlaxton Manor. The first was built on a different site during the 14th century and was used as a hunting lodge by John of Gaunt. By 1619, Sir Daniel de Ligne purchased the manor. The original house was deserted after 1780; it was inherited by Gregory Gregory, and was torn down in 1857.

Gregory family
Gregory Gregory (1786–1854) was born Gregory Williams, adopting the surname Gregory when he inherited his uncle's estates. His father was William Gregory Williams (1742–1814) and his mother Olivia Preston (1758–1835). In 1822 Gregory inherited Harlaxton Manor and other property from his uncle George de Ligne Gregory (1740–1822). The original Harlaxton Manor was an ancient building in need of repair so Gregory did not move to the house, living at the nearby Hungerton Hall. In 1831 he commissioned the architect Anthony Salvin to build his mansion, a process which took 20 years. Unmarried, childless, with no interest in traditional country pursuits, and averse to socialising and entertaining, the building of Harlaxton, and the acquisition of architectural elements, paintings, furniture and glass to fit it out, became Gregory's all-consuming passion. The diarist Charles Greville, visiting during the house's construction in the 1830s, recorded Gregory's obsessive approach, [see box].

In 1851 Gregory moved into the completed manor with a staff of fourteen servants including a butler, a house keeper, three footmen, seven domestic maids and two grooms. By 1854 he was dead. The house was inherited by his cousin, George Gregory. Gregory had loathed his distant relation and attempted to bequeath Harlaxton to a friend but was unable to break the entail on the estate. George Gregory (1775–1860) had been born in London, son of Daniel Gregory (1747–1819). George did not follow his father's occupation as a merchant and instead bought an estate in Lincolnshire. In 1825 at the age of 50, he married Elizabeth Price, twenty years his junior. They moved to Harlaxton after he received his inheritance. With other owners of large houses in the area, George decided to open the house to visitors. George died in 1860 at the manor and another distant relative, John Sherwin Gregory, inherited the house.

John Sherwin Gregory (1803–1869) was born John Sherwin Longden. His father was John Longden and his mother was Charlotte Mettam. His father had inherited Bramcote Manor in Nottinghamshire. When his father died in 1818, John received the Bramcote property, changing his surname to Sherwin, becoming John Sherwin Sherwin. In 1829 he married Catherine Holden. The couple lived at Bramcote until inheriting Harlaxton in 1860, at which point Sherwin again changed his surname, becoming John Sherwin Gregory.

John died in 1869 and Catherine continued to live at Harlaxton Manor until her death in 1892 at the age of 86. Her obituary recorded that she was highly regarded as a benefactor, both of the church at Harlaxton and of the sick and poor of the parish. When she died in 1892, Thomas Sherwin Pearson, who was the second cousin and godson of John Sherwin Gregory, inherited the manor. Thomas added Gregory to his surname, becoming Thomas Sherwin Pearson Gregory (1851–1935). He was born in Barwell, Leicestershire, son of General Thomas Hooke Pearson and Francis Elizabeth Ashby Mettam. Thomas' grandfather the Reverend George Metttam was the brother of John Sherwin Gregory's mother Charlotte Mettam and was John's second cousin. Thomas was educated at Rugby and the University of Oxford, becoming a first-class cricketer. In 1885 he married Mabel Laura Payne and, in his inheritance in 1892, moved to Harlaxton with his wife and their son Philip John Sherwin Pearson-Gregory (1888–1955), who himself inherited the estate in 1935. Philip decided not to live in the house and, following an auction of the contents which lasted three days, it was sold in 1937.

20th century
Violet Van der Elst, a businesswoman and inventor, made her money from developing the first brushless shaving cream and made her name by campaigning against capital punishment. She restored the house, having renamed it Grantham Castle, and had it wired for electricity, before losing almost all of her fortune in "obsessive litigation". During the Second World War, Harlaxton was requisitioned by the Royal Air Force as the officers' mess for RAF Harlaxton and later to house a company of the 1st Airborne Division. In 1948, Harlaxton was purchased by The Society of Jesus, who used it as a novitiate. Stanford University leased Harlaxton Manor from the Jesuits in 1965, and with only 80 students in its first year, it was the first American university in Great Britain. Students attended classes from Monday to Thursday, often travelling on the weekends, similar to the Harlaxton schedule today. Stanford used the manor as part of its British study abroad programme. But the relative isolation of the house made it unpopular and the programme relocated to Cliveden in Berkshire in 1969.

University of Evansville
Harlaxton is now owned by the University of Evansville, operating as Harlaxton College, and is the base for their study-abroad programme. A number of other American universities also use the estate. Evansville began using the property in 1971 as its British campus, but it was bought personally by William Ridgway, a trustee of the university, and held by him until he donated it to the university in 1986. Immediately after the purchase the university began renovating the entire facility. Since 1984, Harlaxton Manor has also been the site of the annual Harlaxton Medieval Symposium, an interdisciplinary symposium on medieval art, literature and architecture. The house and gardens are occasionally opened for public tours.

WUEV Harlaxton Bureau at Harlaxton College
On 30 July 1997, 91.5 FM WUEV opened the Harlaxton Bureau at Harlaxton College, Lincolnshire, England. Shortly thereafter, Harlaxton Bureau correspondents covered the death of Princess Diana and were subsequently recognized by the Indiana Society of Professional Journalists. This made the University of Evansville the first American university project to have a student-run news bureau on a foreign campus.

Media appearances
The manor is a popular location for filming. Exterior and interior shots have featured in The Ruling Class, The Last Days of Patton, The Lady and the Highwayman, The Haunting, The Young Visiters and The Secret Garden.

Architecture and description
Nicholas Antram, in his revised Lincolnshire volume of the Pevsner Buildings of England published in 2002, describes the approach to Harlaxton Manor as a "crescendo of effects". From the entrance gates on the A607, just outside of the village of Harlaxton, the drive descends into a valley before crossing a serpentine lake by way of a five-arch bridge. It then passes the Kitchen Gardens before going through an outer gatehouse. It continues past the stables before entering the Cour d'honneur through a second, double, gatehouse, described by Antram as a "pyrotechnic display". The visitor is then confronted by the "towering façade" of the main house. Gregory employed three of the major architects of the Victorian era to achieve his effects; Anthony Salvin was responsible for the majority of the exterior work, Edward Blore was consulted, and William Burn undertook the conservatory and the kitchen range. There is debate among architectural historians as to who was responsible of the design of the interiors. Salvin had been dismissed by the time of their fitting out, and Burn seems unlikely. Historic England suggests that Gregory "acted largely as his own architect" and Antram and Mark Girouard agree that Gregory must have made a major contribution. But Jill Allibone, Salvin's biographer, is certain that Gregory alone could not have been responsible for the extraordinary designs.

The house cost Gregory in the region of £100,000, (£0 in adjusted for inflation) a significant sum for a landowner with an annual income of £12,000, but as it had been over 30 years in the planning and as building was undertaken at a leisurely pace, the sum was affordable from his income.

Exterior
Harlaxton is built to an Elizabethan E-plan. The foundation stone of the main central block was laid by Gregory in 1832 and it was complete externally by 1837. All of this is by Anthony Salvin, with Gregory's input. The main construction materials are Ancaster stone ashlar and brick. Salvin enhanced the drama of the entrance front by making the entry at basement level, the corresponding garden elevation behind opens directly onto a parterre. The main architectural style is that of an Elizabethan or Jacobethan prodigy house, such as nearby Burghley or Wollaton Hall in Nottinghamshire, although with notable European influences. Mark Girouard, in his 1979 study, The Victorian Country House, records that Gregory had visited "Bramshill, Hardwick, Hatfield, Knole, Burghley, Wollaton, Kirby Lonleat, Temple Newsam and the Oxford and Cambridge colleges " in pursuit of Elizabethan inspiration. The uniqueness of Harlaxton, however, is the fusion of Elizabethan and Jacobean styles with the architecture and design of the Baroque. Girouard notes that this blending continues "in varying proportions all through the house" and suggests David Bryce, William Burn's chief assistant, as a possible source.

Entrance front
The entrance front consists of a central block with a two-storey oriel window flanked by three-storey towers with bay windows and topped by cupolas. The doorway is framed by two pilasters. Behind this there is a square tower, with an octagonal turret containing a clock and again finishing in a cupola. The sources for all of these elements can be traced: the overall impression is of Burghley House; the pilasters are a direct lift from a 16th-century German architectural work, the Architectura by Wendel Dietterlin, a copy of which Gregory is known to have owned; the oriel is from Hengrave Hall in Suffolk. Antram also identifies elements from Northumberland House and from Stonyhurst. Girouard writes, "the resulting impression of power, exuberance and abundance is sensational". To the left is a service wing by Burn, which is visually balanced by a gazebo to the right, drawn from Wollaton Hall.

Inner and outer gatehouses
By the time Gregory came to begin the building of the entrance to the cour d'honneur, Salvin had been dismissed. The reason for this is unclear, but the consensus among architectural historians is that disagreements of Gregory's future plans for the design and decoration of his house led to an estrangement. After some consultations with Edward Blore, Gregory employed William Burn. Historic England credits Burn, his assistant David Bryce, and Gregory himself with the design of the gateway. Antram considers the lodges and screen to be unlike anything else in England of that date, and comparable only to the work of Vanbrugh at Blenheim Palace. The central gateway is flanked by two pavilions with pierced archways and larger lodges to each side. The outer lodges are topped by "scrolled consoles [supporting] sacrophagi...the scale gargantuan".

The outer gatehouse is earlier and was designed by Salvin in a much more restrained Tudor Revival style.

Interior
The interiors at Harlaxton have been described as "a prodigious display of decorative virtuosity unparalleled in 19th century England". The designers are an uncertain mixture of Salvin, Burn, Bryce and possibly others, all influenced by Gregory himself. Jill Franklin, in her 1981 study, The Gentleman's Country House and its plan 1835-1914, writes of the unusual nature of the interior layout of Harlaxton. Noting that there is no easy means of circulation, and that the entrance hall, the only public space at the front ground floor level, leads up via flights of stairs to two awkwardly placed landings, through which entrance is made into the main entertaining rooms of the house by concealed jib doors, she suggests that the house was always in fact designed for show, rather than for living; "a guided tour, with the visitor giving delighted cries of surprise as each door is flung open".

In the early 19th century, Gregory is believed to have held a post at the British Embassy in Paris. While there, and taking advantage of the cheap prices occasioned by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, he embarked on a spending spree purchasing, "panelling, chimneypieces, furniture and tapestries in great quantity". He also travelled extensively, "as far as Constantinople and the Crimea", taking particular interest in the Baroque design of German and Austria. The wood carver William Gibbs Rogers, who visited the house in the 1860s when Gregory's collection was still intact, recorded his impressions; "marbles, jaspers, cabinets, porcelain of fabulous value, Buhl, rare sculptures, delicate carvings, furniture, tapestries, all in glorious and unreadable confusion".

The house was technologically advanced; a miniature railway, originally used to transport brick from Gregory's kilns to the house, and subsequently used to move coal, was run into the house on a viaduct and continued into the roof spaces to supply the internal coal bunkers.

Great Hall
Entry to the house is through Salvin's entrance hall, set at basement level. Stairs rise to the first floor where the Great Hall is entered through a stone screens passage. The main inspiration for what Gregory called The Barons' Hall, is that at Audley End House in Essex, but the design and decoration has decidedly Baroque elements such as the "muscular atlantes" supporting the roof trusses. Other decorative elements are more traditional, the stained glass in the window is by Thomas Willement and depicts Gregory's heraldry and ancestry. The chandelier is a later introduction, bought by Mrs Van Elst, when its transportation to the intended destination, a palace in Madrid, was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War.

Gold Drawing Room
Louis XV style in style, as are most of the state rooms, this drawing room may have been created to emulate the Elizabeth Saloon at nearby Belvoir Castle. The decoration may be by John Crace.

Cedar Staircase
The Cedar Staircase is placed within a tower that is invisible externally. It appears to rise three full storeys in what Michael Hall, in his 2009 study, The Victorian Country House calls an, "astonishingly theatrical tour de force". This is in fact a trompe-l'œil illusion, as the upper storey is merely a decorative device and leads nowhere, culminating in a fake sky. The decoration is entirely Baroque; "swagged curtains interlaced with thriving putti blowing trumpets and supporting huge scallop shells". Franklin notes that the style would amaze in a German church but is extraordinary in an English country house. The plasterwork, here and elsewhere in the house, is possibly by the firm of Bernasconi, a London-based firm of Italian origin. An alternative theory is that Salvin, who is known to have visited Bavaria in 1835, brought back local German craftsmen to undertake the work, but architectural historians favour the former suggestion. The Bernasconi Company certainly had the necessary experience, having been employed at both Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.

Listing designations
The manor is listed at Grade I while the gardens and park are listed at Grade II* on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. To the north-west of Harlaxton Manor, the bridge 800 metres from the house is listed Grade II*, as is the gatehouse 400 metres away and its attached boundary walls. The kitchen's garden walls and the gardener's house 500 metres to the north-west are listed Grade II* and the stables 70 metres from the house with their adjoining screen wall are listed Grade II. The gateway and screen wall 1,200 metres north-west of the manor are listed Grade II.

The walls, steps, and gazebos to the south-west of the forecourt are listed Grade I. The statue at the head of the ornamental garden steps 50 metres south-west of the manor and the twelve stone benches in the garden to the south-west of the forecourt are both listed Grade II. The ornamental garden steps 50 metres south-west of the manor are listed Grade II*.

To the south of Harlaxton Manor, the garden loggia and the loggia's steps and trough 90 metres to the south of the house are listed Grade II. The gazebo 80 metres south of the manor is listed Grade II*. The steps to the east and the west of the gazebo 80 metres south of the manor are listed Grade II. The Baroque terrace fountain and statues 25 metres south-east of the manor are listed Grade II*.

title: Harlaxton Manor


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Aguascalientes (city)

Aguascalientes (, Otomi: Huaxk’anda) is the capital of the Mexican state of the same name and its most populous city, as well as the head of the Aguascalientes Municipality; with a population of 948,990 inhabitants in 2012 and 1,225,432 in the metro area. The metropolitan area also includes the municipalities of Jesús María and San Francisco de los Romo. It is located in North-Central Mexico, which roughly corresponds to the Bajío region within the central Mexican plateau. The city stands on a valley of steppe climate at 1880 meters above sea level, at 21.85°N, -102.3°W.

Originally the territory of the nomadic Chichimeca peoples, the city was founded on October 22, 1575, by Spanish families relocating from Lagos de Moreno under the name of Villa de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de las Aguas Calientes (Village of Our Lady of the Assumption of the Hot Waters), in reference to the chosen patron saint and the many thermal springs found close to the village, which still remain to this day. It would serve as an outpost in the Silver Route, while politically, it was part of the kingdom of Nueva Galicia. In 1835, President Antonio López de Santa Anna made Aguascalientes the capital of a new territory in retaliation to the state of Zacatecas, eventually becoming capital of a new state in 1857. During the Porfiriato era, Aguascalientes was chosen to host the main workshops of the Mexican Central Railway company; bringing an industrial and cultural explosion. The city hosted the Revolutionary Convention of 1914, an important meeting of war generals during the Mexican Revolution.

Formed on a tradition of farming, mining and railroad and textile industry; contemporary Aguascalientes has attracted foreign investment of automobile and electronics companies due to its peaceful business climate, strategic location and existing infrastructure. The city is home to two Nissan automobile manufacturing plants and a shared facility by Nissan and Mercedes, which has given the city a significant Japanese immigrant community. Other companies with operations in the city include Jatco, Coca-Cola, Flextronics, Texas Instruments, Donaldson and Calsonic Kansei. The city of Aguascalientes is also known for the San Marcos Fair, the largest fair celebrated in Mexico and one of the largest in North America.

History
The city of Aguascalientes was founded on October 22, 1575, by Juan de Montoro, his family and accompanying families. The village was originally conceived as a minor garrison and rest stop between the cities of Zacatecas and Lagos de Moreno, with the end goal of protecting silver in its route to Mexico City from the Chichimeca. Although the founders did not envision it becoming a major city, it would eventually become the capital of a newly formed state when the territory separated from the adjacent state of Zacatecas in 1835.

The historical center of Aguascalientes was born out of four distinct neighborhoods. The oldest of these is the Barrio del Encino, which is technically older than Aguascalientes proper. Founded in 1565 by the Andalusian Hernán González Berrocal, the neighborhood was originally named Triana after the neighborhood in Seville, Spain. The Barrio del Encino is home to the Baroque-style Templo del Señor del Encino, a Catholic church built between 1773 and 1796. The Cristo Negro del Encino ('Black Christ of the live oak'), is a widely venerated religious icon symbolic of this neighborhood. The colonial square and the José Guadalupe Posada Museum, adjacent to the church, are one of the main attractions in the city.

The second neighborhood is the Barrio de San Marcos, which has its roots in the early 17th century as an indigenous settlement on the outskirts of the then-village of Aguascalientes. Between 1628 and 1688, some communal land was allocated to the community, but the indigenous people still worked on Spanish-owned farms and produced goods to sell in Aguascalientes. Meanwhile, they organized the construction of a simple hospital and a chapel. This original chapel was replaced by the current Templo de San Marcos completed on December 15, 1763; this church is the spiritual headquarters of the Feria Nacional de San Marcos.

The third neighborhood is the Barrio de Guadalupe, which began its development as a string of shops and trading posts alongside the road leading from Aguascalientes to Jalpa and Zacatecas during the latter half of the 18th century. The neighborhood's iconic Templo de Guadalupe was built between 1767 and 1789; it is recognized for its Spanish Baroque façade and its dome lined with Talavera tiles. Especially after the founding of the Fundición Central Mexicana ('Mexican Central Foundry'), the neighborhood developed quickly; by the early 20th century its roadside inns had mostly been converted into homes and its boundaries had blurred with those of the Barrio de San Marcos.

The final neighborhood is the Barrio de la Salud, which has its roots in a small chapel and a cemetery developed towards the end of the 18th century to deal with a number of disease epidemics that had struck the area. Gravediggers established homes near the cemetery, and others took advantage of the open land to establish orchards. Though the orchards began to disappear during the early 20th century, clues as to the neighborhood's roots still remain. First of all, the fact that property lines generally followed irrigation ditches can still be seen in the neighborhood's haphazard street grids today. Second, the neighborhood's working-class character is visible in its primarily single-story homes featuring simple façades.

A fifth neighborhood, the Barrio de la Estación, named after the town's central train station, is often grouped in with the city's original neighborhoods. However, this neighborhood is considerably more modern, with much of its development dating from the final decades of the 19th century or later. Therefore, despite its important role in the history of Aguascalientes, it is not strictly accurate to consider the Barrio de la Estación one of the city's original historical neighborhoods.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Aguascalientes has a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). Most of the precipitation is concentrated from June to September.

Etymology
The name originates from the Spanish words aguas calientes, meaning 'hot waters', although a more accurate translation is 'hot springs', part of the original name of Villa de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de las Aguas Calientes (Village of our Lady of Assumption of the Hot Springs). When the city was first settled by Juan de Montoro and twelve families, it was given this name for its abundance of hot springs. These thermal features are still in demand in the city's numerous spas and even exploited for domestic use. People from Aguascalientes (both the city and the state) are known by the whimsical demonym hidrocálidos or "hydrothermal" people.

Demographics
As of 2010, the city of Aguascalientes proper had a population of 797,010. The two other municipalities considered parts of the Aguascalientes metropolitan area are Jesús María and San Francisco de los Romo; they had populations of 99,590 and 35,769, respectively. As such, the Aguascalientes metropolitan area had a total population of 932,369.

According to the latest census by the National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Data Processing (INEGI), Aguascalientes City was the 13th largest metropolitan area by population in the country. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in Mexico.

Economy
Aguascalientes is home to two large Nissan manufacturing plants, including the most important outside of Japan. Among other models of cars, they manufacture the Sentra and the Versa. The Aguascalientes plants are responsible for the majority of Mexico's overall annual production of 850,000 Nissan automobiles. Due to their presence, the city has a significant Japanese population.

Texas Instruments has one plant in Aguascalientes, which is dedicated to integrated circuitry (IC) manufacturing. Sensata Technologies has one plant in the city, making sensors and controls for automotive, HVAC and industrial use. Flextronics is another electronics manufacturer that has a plant located in Aguascalientes City. There are also several companies that work in the robotics industry, the most notable being FANUC Robotics.

Cycling
The municipality is developing a system of interconnected green bicycle routes, greenways, the aim being to facilitate fast, safe, and pleasant bicycle transport from one end of the city to the other.

Roads
Aguascalientes has a large network of roads connecting different municipalities of the city together and to other cities. Most of the city grew as a planned city, having been pioneers in urban development regulation since 1936. The city is planned around three concentric highway loops. The third beltway loop is expected to be fully operational in 2022. The first and second loop have overpasses and underpasses at major intersections to avoid traffic from stopping.

Airport
Lic. Jesús Terán Peredo International Airport serves the city, with four daily non-stop international flights from/to Los Angeles, Dallas, Houston and Chicago; as well as domestic flights.

Culture and recreation
Aguascalientes houses the largest festival held in Mexico, the San Marcos Fair, which takes place from the middle of April to the beginning of May. The celebration was held originally in the San Marcos church, neighborhood, and its magnificent neoclassical garden; since then, it has greatly expanded to cover a huge area of exposition spaces, bullrings, nightclubs, theaters, performance stages, theme parks, hotels, convention centers, and other attractions. It attracts almost 7 million visitors to Aguascalientes every year.

The old part of the city revolves around downtown and the four original neighborhoods from which the city expanded. The most notable building here is the Baroque Government Palace, dating from 1664 and constructed out of red volcanic stone; it is known for its one hundred arches. The prominent Baroque Cathedral, begun in 1575, is the oldest building in the city. The tall column in the center of the main square dates from colonial times; it held a statue of a Spain's viceroy, which was toppled when the country gained independence; the current sculpture on its summit commemorates Mexican independence.

Neighborhoods and tradition
The city of Aguascalientes is made up of four traditional neighborhoods, all of which grew up around the central Plaza de la Patria; Guadalupe, San Marcos, El Encino and La Estación.

Guadalupe neighborhood, a traditional producer of pottery, centers around its local church. Located in the heart of Guadalupe, this religious sanctuary, the second most important in the city and dating back to the late 18th century, has a Baroque façade and a large dome covered in traditional talavera tiles. Inside it has many flower and angel motifs.

The next is San Marcos, founded in 1604 and once home to natives of Tlaxcala state who fled persecution. Today, the area hosts the traditional San Marcos Fair in springtime. There is San Marcos Gardens, a green spot where paths and trees are abundant. The gardens are traditionally frequented by poets, artists and lovers. Directly in front of the gardens is the Baroque San Marcos Temple, its tiled dome glinting in the sun.

Last but not least, the neighborhood of La Estación takes its name from the old railway station, inaugurated in 1911 and one of Aguascalientes' architectural and historical treasures.

Aguascalientes historic downtown is home to several museums including the Aguascalientes Museum (Museo de Aguascalientes), the city's art museum, housed in a Classical-style building designed by the self-trained architect Refugio Reyes; the Guadalupe Posada Museum (Museo Guadalupe Posada), located in the historic nationhood of Triana, exhibits the life and work of José Guadalupe Posada; and the State History Museum, which is housed in an elegant Art Nouveau mansion typical of the Porfirian period with and ornate patio and dining room with vegetable motifs in a Mediterranean style, with a French Academism façade, and interior columns and an arcade of pink stone characteristic of Porfirian Eclecticism.

Other designs by Refugio Reyes include the Paris Hotel, the Francia Hotel, and his masterpiece, the Church of San Antonio. The Church of our Lady of Guadalupe possesses an extraordinarily exuberant Baroque facade designed by José de Alcíbar, a renowned architect of the period considered to be one of the most famous artists in Mexico in the 1770s. The Camarin of the Immaculate in the church of San Diego is considered by historians to be the last Baroque building in the world; it links the Baroque and Neoclassical styles; it is the largest of the fewer than ten of these type of structures built in the whole continent.

Aguascalientes is also home to some of the country's leading provincial theaters. Examples are the Morelos Theater, historically important for its role during the Mexican Revolution as a convention site; architecturally, the building is notable for its facade and interior, which houses a small museum. The Teatro Aguascalientes is the city's premier theatre and opera house. In addition, in the modern section of the city, the Museo Descubre astonishes as an interactive museum of science and technology. It also features an IMAX screen. The Museum of Contemporary Art is the city's art museum.

The gothic structure of the Los Arquitos cultural center used to be one of the first bathhouses in the city, declared a historic monument in 1990. The Ojocaliente is also an original bathhouse still in use today, and fed with thermal springs. La Estacion Historic Area (The Old Train Station Complex) contains the Old Train Station and Railway Museum historic complex, which at some point in 1884 formed the largest rail hub and warehouses in all Latin America. The complex is adorned with dancing fountains, a railway plaza and original locomotives and monuments. It was in this complex that the first locomotive completely manufactured in Mexico was made. It symbolizes the progress of the city and its transformation from the rural to an emergent industrial economy. The rail factories supplied with railways and locomotives to whole of Mexico and Central America. The Train Station is also historic due to its unusual (for Mexico) English architectural style. The Alameda avenue, the railway hangars, the factory complexes, and its surrounding housing have been proposed to be placed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Media
Metroaguascalientes was one of the radio stations for the city of Aguascalientes.

State-owned Radio y Televisión de Aguascalientes (RyTA) offers local programming as well as news shows.

Football
Club de Fútbol Gallos Hidrocálidos de Aguascalientes was a football club from Aguascalientes, Mexico.

The club was founded in 1994, when Salvador López Monroy, a restaurant business owner from Los Angeles, bought a second division franchise which he relocated to Aguascalientes where there was no professional football club.

The club played its last tournament in 2000–2001 when the Governor of Aguascalientes bought first division club Necaxa, with its national following, and relocated it from Mexico City. Gallos de Aguascalientes was then sold to Chivas, which changed its name to F.C. Tapatio de Guadalajara, affiliated to Chivas.

The city is home to the soccer team Club Necaxa, which plays in Mexican first division. The club left Mexico City and relocated to Aguascalientes following the 2003 opening of Estadio Victoria, which is now the club's home venue and one of the best stadiums in the country.

Basketball
Panteras de Aguascalientes its part of the Mexican basketball league National Professional Basketball League (LNBP). In 2003, the Panteras won the championship of the LNBP. The Panteras play their home games at the Gimnasio Hermanos Carreón.

Baseball
The baseball team Rieleros de Aguascalientes, returned to the Mexican League in 2012. The team previously won the championship in 1978.

Cycling
The Aguascalientes Bicentenary Velodrome, designed by Peter Junek, hosted the 2010 Pan American Track Championships. At an elevation of 1887m, the Velodrome is a frequent location for attempts at breaking the Cycling Hour Record.

Notable people

 * José María Bocanegra, lawyer, interim President of Mexico in December 1829, minister in the national government 1833–44
 * Manuel M. Ponce, musician
 * José Guadalupe Posada, illustrator
 * Saturnino Herrán, painter
 * Yadhira Carrillo, telenovela actress and beauty pageant
 * Ernesto Alonso, telenovela director/actor
 * Jaime Humberto Hermosillo, film director
 * José María Napoleón, singer/composer
 * Luis Gerardo Méndez, actor and producer
 * Violeta Retamoza, golfer
 * Gabriela Palacio, beauty pageant titleholder
 * Karina González, beauty pageant titleholder
 * William Yarbrough, Mexican-born American soccer player who played for Liga MX club León and the United States national team
 * Wendolly Esparza, American-born Mexican television personality best known for winning Miss Mexico 2014 and placing top 15 in Miss Universe 2015.

In popular culture

 * Aguascalientes was the hometown of Esperanza Ortega in the book Esperanza Rising.
 * The Festival de Calaveras, is a tribute made to the La Catrina created by José Guadalupe Posada, this colorful festival arises with the aim of rescuing and preserving the traditions of the Día de Muertos
 * Mexican engraver, illustrator and caricaturist José Guadalupe Posada was born in the city of Aguascalientes
 * Mexican painter Saturnino Herrán was born in the city of Aguascalientes
 * In 2016, American comedian, actress, television host, and producer Chelsea Handler visited Aguascalientes with a piñata effigy of Donald Trump for her Netflix Original talk show

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aguascalientes (city)


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Brigade of Gurkhas

Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective name which refers to all the units in the British Army that are composed of Nepalese Gurkha soldiers. The brigade draws its heritage from Gurkha units that originally served in the British Indian Army prior to Indian independence, and prior to that served for the East India Company. The brigade includes infantry, engineering, signal, logistic and training and support units. They are known for their khukuri, a distinctive heavy knife with a curved blade, and have a reputation for being fierce and brave soldiers.

The brigade celebrated 200 years of service in the British Army in 2015.

History
During the war in Nepal in 1814, in which the British failed to annex Nepal into the Empire, Army officers were impressed by the tenacity of the Gurkha soldiers and encouraged them to volunteer for the East India Company. Gurkhas served as troops of the Company in the Pindaree War of 1817, in Bharatpur, Nepal in 1826, and the First and Second Sikh Wars in 1846 and 1848. During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the Gurkha regiments remained loyal to the British, and became part of the British Indian Army on its formation. The 2nd Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles) and the 60th Rifles famously defended Hindu Rao's house.

During the Malayan Emergency in the late 1940s, Gurkhas fought as jungle soldiers as they had done in Burma. The Training Depot Brigade of Gurkhas was established on 15 August 1951 at Sungai Petani, Kedah, Malaya. After the conflict ended, the Gurkhas were transferred to Hong Kong, where they carried out security duties. The troops patrolled the border checking for illegal immigrants entering the territory, most crucially during the turbulence of the Cultural Revolution. They were deployed to contain crowds during the Star Ferry riots of 1966.

After Indian independence and partition in 1947, under the Tripartite Agreement, six Gurkha regiments joined the post-independence Indian Army. Four Gurkha regiments, the 2nd, 6th, 7th, and 10th Gurkha Rifles, joined the British Army on 1 January 1948. The 1st/2nd Gurkha Rifles was deployed to Brunei at the outbreak of the Brunei Revolt in 1962. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus and the 10th Gurkha Rifles was sent to defend the British sovereign base area of Dhekelia. In 1982, during the Falklands War, the 7th Gurkha Rifles formed part of 5 Infantry Brigade and was responsible for capturing Mount William shortly before the Argentinian surrender.

On 1 July 1994 the four rifle regiments were merged into one, the Royal Gurkha Rifles, and the three corps regiments (the Gurkha Military Police having been disbanded in 1965) were reduced to squadron strength. On 1 July 1997, the British government Handover of Hong Kong Sovereignty to the People's Republic of China, which led to the elimination of the local British garrison. Gurkha HQ and recruit training were moved to the UK. The Royal Gurkha Rifles took part in operations in Kosovo in 1999, in UN peacekeeping operations in East Timor in 2000 and in Sierra Leone later that year.

In September 2008 the High Court in London ruled that the British Government must issue clear guidance on the criteria against which Gurkhas may be considered for settlement rights in the UK. On 21 May 2009, and following a lengthy campaign by Gurkha veterans, the British Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith, announced that all Gurkha veterans who had served four years or more in the British Army before 1997 would be allowed to settle in Britain.

British Gurkha units 1947–1994
Former units included:
 * 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (1947–1994)
 * 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles (1947–1994)
 * 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles (1947–1994)
 * 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles (1947–1994)
 * Gurkha Army Service Corps (1958–1965)
 * Gurkha Transport Regiment (1965–1992)
 * Queen's Gurkha Engineers (1977–present)
 * Gurkha Engineer Training Squadron, Royal Engineers (1948–1951)
 * 50th (Gurkha) Engineer Regiment, Royal Engineers (1951–1955)
 * Gurkha Engineers (1955–1977)
 * Queen's Gurkha Signals (1977–present)
 * Gurkha Signals (1948–1949)
 * Gurkha Royal Signals (1949–1954)
 * Gurkha Signals (1954–1977)
 * Gurkha Provost Company, Royal Military Police (1949–1957)
 * 17th Gurkha Divisional Provost Company, Royal Military Police (1957–1969)
 * Gurkha Independent Parachute Company, Parachute Regiment (c. 1960 – 1970)

Today

Current units of the Brigade of Gurkhas include:
 * HQ, Brigade of Gurkhas, at the former Staff College, Camberley in Surrey
 * Queen's Gurkha Signals
 * 246 Squadron (part of 2 Signal Regiment)
 * 247 Squadron (part of 16 Signal Regiment)
 * 248 Squadron (part of 22 Signal Regiment), in Stafford
 * 249 Squadron (part of 3rd (UK) Division HQ and Signal Regiment), in Bulford
 * 250 Squadron (provides command support to Commander Joint Forces Operation and his Staff when deployed), in Bramcote
 * Brunei Signal Troop, in Brunei supporting British Forces Brunei
 * Nepal Signal Troop, in Kathmandu supporting HQ British Gurkhas Nepal
 * Royal Gurkha Rifles
 * 1st Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles in Brunei – a light infantry battalion, part of British Forces Brunei
 * 2nd Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles in Shorncliffe – an air assault infantry battalion, part of 16 Air Assault Brigade
 * Coriano Company, The Royal Gurkha Rifles in Aldershot – a special operations infantry company, part of Army Special Operations Brigade
 * Falklands Company, The Royal Gurkha Rifles in Aldershot – a special operations infantry company, part of Army Special Operations Brigade
 * Queen's Gurkha Engineers
 * 69 Gurkha Field Squadron (part of 36 Engineer Regiment), in Maidstone
 * 70 Gurkha Field Support Squadron (part of 36 Engineer Regiment), in Maidstone
 * 10th Queen's Own Gurkha Logistic Regiment RLC, in Aldershot
 * Gurkha Allied Rapid Reaction Corps Support Battalion
 * British Gurkhas Nepal – recruits for the British Army and Singapore Police, handles soldier and ex-soldier welfare
 * Gurkha Staff and Personnel Support Company – administration for all Brigade of Gurkhas units
 * Band of the Brigade of Gurkhas (raised in November 1859, then in 1st Gurkha Rifles)
 * Gurkha Company Catterick at the Infantry Training Centre, Catterick
 * Gurkha Company (Sittang) at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
 * Gurkha Wing (Mandalay) at the Infantry Battle School, Brecon
 * Gurkha Training Support Company (Tavoleto) at Waterloo Lines, Warminster
 * Brigade Training Team
 * Nepali Language Wing, Catterick

In 2018, the UK Government announced that it intended to expand the brigade by more than 800 posts, with the Queen's Gurkha Engineers receiving an additional squadron, while the Queen’s Gurkha Signals and the Queen's Own Gurkha Logistic Regiment will receive two new squadrons. Additionally, approximately 300 new posts within the Royal Gurkha Rifles will be created forming a new battalion planned for the Specialist Infantry role. In 2018, it was announced that from 2020, female applicants would be able to apply to join the Gurkhas. However, this decision was reversed in 2019.

Recruitment and basic training
The selection process for the Gurkhas is demanding: in 2017, 230 trainee riflemen were recruited from about 25,000 applicants. Recruitment is run by British Gurkhas Nepal; based at Jawalakhel, near Kathmandu, the main recruiting centre is in the city of Pokhara. Recruitment sees the prospective soldier undergo two stages of selection; first the regional selection at either Pokhara or Dharan, where the recruit undertakes a series of physical tests, written English and numeracy assessments, and an interview. Those that pass regional selection move forward to the central selection process in Kathmandu, which sees further physical and language tests, a medical and a second interview.

Training for Gurkhas is conducted at the Infantry Training Centre at Catterick Garrison in North Yorkshire. It lasts for 36 weeks and addresses a range of areas such as the Brigade ethos, language training, cultural training, career management and trade selection, as well as the same 26-week Combat Infantryman's Course that the Line Infantry receive. This enables the trained Gurkha soldiers to fulfill their roles on operations and continue the traditions of their forefathers.

In addition to running recruitment of soldiers to join the British Army, British Gurkhas Nepal also runs the recruitment process for the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force. Recruits indicate at the registration stage whether they wish to join the Singapore Police or the British Army.

Although all enlisted Gurkha soldiers are recruited from Nepalese citizens in Nepal, officers in the Brigade are either selected from those who have distinguished themselves in the ranks, or are commissioned from British or Commonwealth cadets at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Officers from Sandhurst attend an intensive language course at Pokhara Camp to enable them to converse with their soldiers in the Nepali language, although Gurkha soldiers are also expected to learn English.

Organisation
Brigade HQ is based at the former Staff College, Camberley. Two battalions of the Royal Gurkha Rifles are formed as light role infantry; they are not equipped with either armoured or wheeled vehicles. The 1st Battalion, Royal Gurkha Rifles is based at the British garrison in Brunei as part of Britain's commitment to maintaining a military presence in SE Asia. The 2nd Battalion, Royal Gurkha Rifles is based at Shorncliffe Army Camp, near Folkestone in Kent as part of 16 Air Assault Brigade, and is available for deployment to most areas in Europe and Africa. The 3rd Battalion, to be stationed at Aldershot, is approximately half the size of the others, and is a so-called 'specialised infantry' battalion, serving in the training role as part of the Specialised Infantry Group.

London memorial
The British memorial to the Gurkhas was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II on 3 December 1997. The inscription on the monument is a quotation from Sir Ralph Lilley Turner, a former officer in the 3rd Gurkha Rifles.

200 years of service
A series of events took place in 2015 to mark 200 years of service by the Gurkhas in the British Army including a march past Buckingham Palace.

Other
Under international law, according to Protocol 1 Additions to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Gurkhas serving as regular uniformed soldiers are not mercenaries. According to Cabinet Office official histories (Official History of the Falkland Islands by Sir Lawrence Freedman), Sir John Nott, as Secretary of State for Defence, expressed the British Government's concern that the Gurkhas could not be sent with the task force to recapture the Falkland Islands because it might upset the non-aligned members of the fragile coalition of support that the British had built in the United Nations. The then-Chief of Defence Staff Sir Edwin Bramall, a former officer in the 2nd Gurkhas like Nott, said that the Gurkhas were needed for sound military reasons (as a constituent part of 5th Infantry Brigade) and if they were not deployed then there would always be a political reason not to deploy Gurkhas in future conflicts. So he requested that Nott argue the case in Government for deploying them against the advice of the Foreign Office. Nott agreed to do so, commenting that the Gurkhas "would be mortified if we spoilt their chances [of going]".

Alliances

 * 🇦🇺 – The Royal Australian Regiment
 * 🇳🇿 – The Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment
 * – The Royal Brunei Land Force

title: Brigade of Gurkhas


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Kukri

The kukri or khukuri (खुकुरी, ) is a type of short sword with a distinct recurve in its blade that originated in the Indian subcontinent. It serves multiple purposes as a melee weapon and also as a regular cutting tool throughout most of South Asia. The kukri, khukri, and kukkri spellings are of Indian English origin.

The kukri is the national weapon of Nepal, traditionally serving the role of a basic utility knife for the Nepali-speaking Gurkhas, and consequently is a characteristic weapon of the Nepali Army.

There are many myths surrounding the kukri since its earliest recorded use in the 7th century—most notably a traditional custom that the blade must draw blood before being sheathed, owing to its sole purpose as a fighting weapon.

In addition to its use in combat, the kukri is also used for a variety of other purposes. It is used by farmers and laborers for cutting crops and clearing brush, and by hunters for skinning and cleaning game. It is also used as a tool for cooking, woodworking, and even as a ceremonial object in some Nepalese religious traditions.

History

Researchers trace the origins of the blade back to the domestic sickle and the prehistoric bent stick used for hunting and later in hand-to-hand combat. Similar implements have existed in several forms throughout the Indian subcontinent and were used both as weapons and as tools, such as for sacrificial rituals. It might have derived from the ancient Indian saber called nistrimsa (निस्त्रिंश), itself possibly based on the Greek kopis brought by Alexander the Great's forces to India in the 4th century BC. Burton (1884) writes that the British Museum housed a large kukri-like falchion inscribed with writing in Pali. Among the oldest existing kukri are those belonging to Drabya Shah (c. 1559), housed in the National Museum of Nepal in Kathmandu.

The kukri came to be known to the Western world when the East India Company came into conflict with the growing Gorkha Kingdom, culminating in the Gurkha War of 1814–1816. It gained literary attention in the 1897 novel Dracula by Irish author Bram Stoker. Despite the popular image of Dracula having a stake driven through his heart at the conclusion of a climactic battle between Dracula's bodyguards and the heroes, Mina's narrative describes his throat being sliced through by Jonathan Harker's kukri and his heart pierced by Quincey Morris's Bowie knife.

All Gurkha troops are issued with two kukris, a Service No.1 (ceremonial) and a Service No.2 (exercise); in modern times, members of the Brigade of Gurkhas receive training in its use. The weapon gained fame in the Gurkha War and its continued use through both World War I and World War II enhanced its reputation among both Allied troops and enemy forces. Its acclaim was demonstrated in North Africa by one unit's situation report. It reads: "Enemy losses: ten killed, our nil. Ammunition expenditure nil."

Design
The kukri is designed primarily for chopping. The shape varies a great deal from being quite straight to highly curved with angled or smooth spines. There are substantial variations in dimensions and blade thickness depending on intended tasks as well as the region of origin and the smith that produced it. As a general guide the spines vary from 5-10 mm at the handle, and can taper to 2 mm by the point while the blade lengths can vary from 26-38 cm for general use.

A kukri designed for general purpose is commonly 40-45 cm in overall length and weighs approximately 450-900 g. Larger examples are impractical for everyday use and are rarely found except in collections or as ceremonial weapons. Smaller ones are of more limited utility, but very easy to carry.

Another factor that affects its weight and balance is the construction of the blade. To reduce weight while keeping strength, the blade might be hollow forged, or a fuller is created. Kukris are made with several different types of fuller including tin Chira (triple fuller), Dui Chira (double fuller), Ang Khola (single fuller), or basic non-tapered spines with a large bevelled edge.

Kukri blades usually have a notch (karda, kauda, Gaudi, Kaura, or Cho) at the base of the blade. Various reasons are given for this, both practical and ceremonial: that it makes blood and sap drop off the blade rather than running onto the handle and thereby prevents the handle from becoming slippery; that it delineates the end of the blade whilst sharpening; that it is a symbol representing a cow's foot, or Shiva; or that it can catch another blade or kukri in combat. The notch may also represent the teats of a cow, a reminder that the kukri should not be used to kill a cow, an animal revered and worshipped by Hindus. The notch may also be used as a catch, to hold tight against a belt, or to bite onto twine to be suspended.

The handles are most often made of hardwood or water buffalo horn, but also ivory, bone, and metal handles have also been produced. The handle quite often has a flared butt that allows better retention in draw cuts and chopping. Most handles have metal bolsters and butt plates which are generally made of brass or steel.

The traditional handle attachment in Nepal is the partial tang, although the more modern versions have the stick tang which has become popular. The full tang is mainly used on some military models but has not become widespread in Nepal itself.

The kukri typically comes in either a decorated wooden scabbard or one which is wrapped in leather. Traditionally, the scabbard also holds two smaller blades: an unsharpened chakmak to burnish the blade, and another accessory blade called a karda. Some older style scabbards include a pouch for carrying flint or dry tinder.

Use
The kukri is effective as a chopping weapon, due to its weight, and slashing weapon, because the curved shape creates a "wedge" effect which causes the blade to cut effectively and deeper.

While most famed from use in the military, the kukri is the most commonly used multipurpose tool in the fields and homes in Nepal. Its use has varied from building, clearing, chopping firewood, digging, slaughtering animals for food, cutting meat and vegetables, skinning animals, and opening cans.

The kukri is versatile. It can function as a smaller knife by using the narrower part of the blade, closest to the handle. The heavier and wider end of the blade, towards the tip, functions as an axe or a small shovel.

The kukri often appears in Nepalese heraldry and is used in many traditional, Hindu-centric rites such as wedding ceremonies.

Manufacture
The Biswakarma Kami (caste) are the traditional inheritors of the art of kukri-making. Modern kukri blades are often forged from spring steel, sometimes collected from recycled truck suspension units. The tang of the blade usually extends all the way through to the end of the handle; the small portion of the tang that projects through the end of the handle are hammered flat to secure the blade. Kukri blades have a hard, tempered edge and a softer spine. This enables them to maintain a sharp edge, yet tolerate impacts.

Kukri handles, usually made from hardwood or buffalo horn, are often fastened with a kind of tree sap called laha (also known as "Himalayan epoxy"). With a wood or horn handle, the tang may be heated and burned into the handle to ensure a tight fit, since only the section of handle which touches the blade is burned away. In more modern kukri, handles of cast aluminium or brass are press-fitted to the tang; as the hot metal cools it shrinks, locking onto the blade. Some kukri (such as the ones made by contractors for the modern Indian Army), have a very wide tang with handle slabs fastened on by two or more rivets, commonly called a full tang (panawal) configuration.

Traditional profiling of the blade edge is performed by a two-man team; one spins a grinding wheel forwards and backwards by means of a rope wound several times around an axle while the sharpener applies the blade. The wheel is made by hand from fine river sand bound by laha, the same adhesive used to affix the handle to the blade. Routine sharpening is traditionally accomplished by passing a chakmak over the edge in a manner similar to that used by chefs to steel their knives.

Kukri scabbards are usually made of wood or metal with an animal skin or metal or wood covering. The leather work is often done by a Sarki.

Anatomy

 * Blade:
 * Keeper (Hira Jornu): Spade/diamond shaped metal/brass plate used to seal the butt cap.
 * Butt Cap (Chapri): Thick metal/brass plate used to secure the handle to the tang.
 * Tang (Paro): Rear piece of the blade that goes through the handle.
 * Bolster (Kanjo): Thick metal/brass round shaped plate between blade and handle made to support and reinforce the fixture.
 * Spine (Beet): Thickest blunt edge of the blade.
 * Fuller/Groove (Khol): Straight groove or deep line that runs along part of the upper spine.
 * Peak (Juro): Highest point of the blade.
 * Main body (Ang): Main surface or panel of the blade.
 * Fuller (Chirra): Curvature/hump in the blade made to absorb impact and to reduce unnecessary weight.
 * Tip (Toppa): The starting point of the blade.
 * Edge (Dhaar): Sharp edge of the blade.
 * Belly (Bhundi): Widest part/area of the blade.
 * Bevel (Patti): Slope from the main body until the sharp edge.
 * Notch (Cho): A distinctive cut (numeric '3 '-like shape) in the edge. Used as a stopper when sharpening with the chakmak.
 * Ricasso (Ghari): Blunt area between the notch and bolster.
 * Rings (Harhari): Round circles in the handle.
 * Rivet (Khil): Steel or metal bolt to fasten or secure tang to the handle.
 * Tang Tail (Puchchar): Last point of the kukri blade.

 * Scabbard:
 * Frog (Faras): Belt holder specially made of thick leather (2-4 mm) encircling the scabbard close towards the throat.
 * Upper Edge (Mathillo Bhaag): Spine of the scabbard where holding should be done when handling a kukri.
 * Lace (Tuna): A leather cord used to sew or attach two ends of the frog. Especially used in army types.
 * Main Body (Sharir): The main body or surface of the scabbard. Generally made in semi oval shape.
 * Chape (Khothi): Pointed metallic tip of the scabbard. Used to protect the naked tip of a scabbard.
 * Loop (Golie): Round leather room/space where a belt goes through attached/fixed to the keeper with steel rivets.
 * Throat (Mauri): Entrance towards the interior of the scabbard for the blade.
 * Strap/Ridge (Bhunti): Thick raw leather encircling the scabbard made to create a hump to secure the frog from moving or wobbling (not available in this pic).
 * Lower Edge (Tallo Bhag): Belly/curvature of the scabbard.

Classification
Kukris can be broadly classified into two types: Eastern and Western. The Eastern blades are originated and named according to the towns and villages of Eastern Nepal.

Kukris made in locations like Chainpur, Bhojpur, and Dhankuta in Eastern Nepal are excellent and ornate knives.

Western blades are generally broader. Occasionally the Western style is called Budhuna, (referring to a fish with a large head), or baspate (bamboo leaf) which refers to blades just outside the proportions of the normal Sirupate blade. Despite the classification of Eastern and Western, both styles of kukri appear to be used in all areas of Nepal.

There are kukri modelled on the one used by the Gorkhali General Amar Singh Thapa. The real one is archived at National Museum of Nepal and is more curvy in nature than other traditions.

Military adoption
The kukri is in standard service with various regiments and units within the Indian Army, such as the Assam Rifles, the Kumaon Regiment, the Garhwal Rifles and the various Gorkha regiments. Outside of its native region of South Asia, the kukri also is in service with the Brigade of Gurkhas in the British Army and Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force. The kukri is the staple weapon of all Gurkha military regiments and units throughout the world, so much so that some English-speakers refer to the weapon as a "Gurkha blade" or "Gurkha knife".

title: Kukri


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Gurkha

The Gurkhas or Gorkhas, with the endonym Gorkhali (Nepali: गोर्खाली ), are soldiers native to the Indian subcontinent, chiefly residing within Nepal and some parts of North India.

The Gurkha units are composed of Nepali and Indian Gorkha, Nepali-speaking Indian people, and are recruited for the Nepali Army (96,000), the Indian Army (42,000), the British Army (4,010), the Gurkha Contingent in Singapore, the Gurkha Reserve Unit in Brunei, for UN peacekeeping forces and in war zones around the world. Gurkhas are closely associated with the khukuri, a forward-curving knife, and have a reputation for fearless military prowess. Former Indian Army Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw once stated that: "If a man says he is not afraid of dying, he is either lying or he is a Gurkha."

Origins
Historically, the terms "Gurkha" and "Gorkhali" were synonymous with "Nepali", which originates from the hill principality Gorkha Kingdom, from which the Kingdom of Nepal expanded under Prithvi Narayan Shah, who was the last ruler of the Gorkha Kingdom and first monarch of the Kingdom of Nepal. In fact, the Gorkhas’ impressive conquests of the Kathmandu Valley supplied the British with an exaggerated view of Nepal’s strength, ultimately helping lead to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816). The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath who has a historic shrine in Gorkha District. The word itself derived from Go-Raksha (गोरक्षा i.e., 'Protector (रक्षा) of cows (गो')), raksha becoming rakha (रखा). Rakhawala means 'protector' and is derived from raksha as well.

There are Gurkha military units in the Nepalese, British and Indian armies enlisted in Nepal, United Kingdom, India and Singapore. Although they meet many of the criteria of Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions regarding mercenaries, they are exempt under clauses 47(e) and (f), similar to the French Foreign Legion.

During the 1814–16 Anglo-Nepalese War between the Gorkha Kingdom and the East India Company, the Gorkhali soldiers impressed the British, who called them Gurkhas.

British East India Company army

The Anglo-Nepalese War was fought between the Gurkha Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both belligerents. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816.

David Ochterlony and British political agent William Fraser were among the first to recognize the potential of Gurkha soldiers. During the war the British used defectors from the Gurkha army and employed them as irregular forces. Fraser's confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lt. Ross called the Nasiri Regiment. This regiment, which later became the 1st King George's Own Gurkha Rifles, saw action at Malaun Fort under the leadership of Lt. Lawtie, who reported to Ochterlony that he "had the greatest reason to be satisfied with their exertions".

About 5,000 men entered British service in 1815, most of whom were not just Gorkhalis, but Kumaonis, Garhwalis and other Himalayan hill men. These groups, eventually lumped together under the term Gurkha, became the backbone of British Indian forces.

As well as Ochterlony's Gurkha battalions, Fraser and Lt. Frederick Young raised the Sirmoor Battalion, later to become the 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles. An additional battalion—the Kumaon—was also raised, eventually becoming the 3rd Queen Alexandra's Own Gurkha Rifles. None of these units fought in the second campaign.

Gurkhas served as troops under contract to the British East India Company in the Pindaree War of 1817, in Bharatpur in 1826, and the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1846 and 1848.

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Gurkhas fought on the British side and became part of the British Indian Army on its formation. The 8th (Sirmoor) Local Battalion made a notable contribution during the conflict, and 25 Indian Order of Merit awards were made to men from that regiment during the Siege of Delhi.

Three days after the rebellion began, the Sirmoor Battalion was ordered to move to Meerut, where the British garrison was barely holding on, and in doing so they had to march up to 48 kilometres a day. Later, during the four-month Siege of Delhi, they defended Hindu Rao's house, losing 327 of 490 men. During this action they fought side by side with the 60th Rifles and a strong bond developed.

Twelve regiments from the Nepalese Army also took part in the relief of Lucknow under the command of Shri Teen (3) Maharaja Jung Bahadur Rana of Nepal and his older brother C-in-C Ranodip Singh Kunwar (Ranaudip Singh Bahadur Rana) (later to succeed Jung Bahadur and become Sri Teen Maharaja Ranodip Singh of Nepal).

After the rebellion the 60th Rifles pressed for the Sirmoor Battalion to become a rifle regiment. This honour was granted in 1858 when the battalion was renamed the Sirmoor Rifle Regiment and awarded a third colour. In 1863, Queen Victoria presented the regiment with the Queen's Truncheon, as a replacement for the colours that rifle regiments do not usually have.

British Indian Army (c. 1857–1947)

From the end of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 until the start of World War I, the Gurkha Regiments saw active service in Burma, Afghanistan, Northeast India and the North-West Frontier of India, Malta (the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78), Cyprus, Malaya, China (the Boxer Rebellion of 1900) and Tibet (Younghusband's Expedition of 1905).

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British authorities in India feared the inclusion of Hindu castes in the army. They discouraged Brahminical influence in the military and considered the Hindu castes more susceptible to Brahminical values. As a result, they discouraged the inclusion of Thakuri and Khas groups in the Gorkha units and refused to recruit tribes other than Gurungs and Magars for Gorkha units. They also exerted diplomatic pressure on Prime Minister Bir Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana to ensure that at least 75% of new recruits were Gurungs and Magars.

Between 1901 and 1906, the Gurkha regiments were renumbered from the 1st to the 10th and re-designated as the Gurkha Rifles. In this time the Brigade of Gurkhas, as the regiments came to be collectively known, was expanded to 20 battalions in the ten regiments.

During World War I (1914–1918) more than 200,000 Gurkhas served in the British Army, suffering approximately 20,000 casualties and receiving almost 2,000 gallantry awards. The number of Gurkha battalions was increased to 33, and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command by the Gurkha government for service on all fronts. Many Gurkha volunteers served in non-combatant roles, serving in units such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions.

A large number also served in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine, and Iraq. They served on the battlefields of France in the battles of Loos, Givenchy, and Neuve Chapelle; in Belgium at the battle of Ypres; in Iraq, Persia, Suez Canal and Palestine against Turkish advance, Gallipoli and Salonika. One detachment served with Lawrence of Arabia. During the Battle of Loos (June–December 1915) a battalion of the 8th Gurkhas fought to the last man, hurling themselves time after time against the weight of the German defences, and in the words of the Indian Corps commander, Lt. Gen. Sir James Willcocks, "found its Valhalla".

During the unsuccessful Gallipoli Campaign in 1915, the Gurkhas were among the first to arrive and the last to leave. The 1st/6th Gurkhas, having landed at Cape Helles, led the assault during the first major operation to take a Turkish high point, and in doing so captured a feature that later became known as "Gurkha Bluff". At Sari Bair they were the only troops in the whole campaign to reach and hold the crest line and look down on the straits, which was the ultimate objective. The 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Gurkha Rifles (2nd/3rd Gurkha Rifles) fought in the conquest of Baghdad.

Following the end of the war, the Gurkhas were returned to India, and during the inter-war years were largely kept away from the internal strife and urban conflicts of the sub-continent, instead being employed largely on the frontiers and in the hills where fiercely independent tribesmen were a constant source of trouble.

As such, between the World Wars the Gurkha regiments fought in the Third Afghan War in 1919. The regiments then participated in numerous campaigns on the North-West Frontier, mainly in Waziristan, where they were employed as garrison troops defending the frontier. They kept the peace among the local populace and engaged with the lawless and often openly hostile Pathan tribesmen.

During this time the North-West Frontier was the scene of considerable political and civil unrest and troops stationed at Razmak, Bannu, and Wanna saw extensive action.

During World War II (1939–1945) there were ten Gurkha regiments, with two battalions each, making a total of 20 pre-war battalions. Following the Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in 1940, the Nepalese government offered to increase recruitment to enlarge the number of Gurkha battalions in British service to 35. This would eventually rise to 43 battalions.

In order to achieve the increased number of battalions, third and fourth battalions were raised for all ten regiments, with fifth battalions also being raised for 1 GR, 2 GR and 9 GR. This expansion required ten training centers to be established for basic training and regimental records across India. In addition, five training battalions (14 GR, 29 GR, 38 GR, 56 GR and 710 GR) were raised, while other units (25 GR and 26 GR) were raised as garrison battalions for keeping the peace in India and defending rear areas. Large numbers of Gurkha men were also recruited for non-Gurkha units, and other specialized duties such as paratroops, signals, engineers and military police.

A total of 250,280 Gurkhas served in 40 battalions, plus eight Nepalese Army battalions, parachute, training, garrison and porter units during the war, in almost all theatres. In addition to keeping peace in India, Gurkhas fought in Syria, North Africa, Italy, Greece and against the Japanese in the jungles of Burma, northeast India and also Singapore. They did so with distinction, earning 2,734 bravery awards in the process and suffering around 32,000 casualties in all theatres.

Gurkha military rank system in the British Indian Army
Gurkha ranks in the British Indian Army followed the same pattern as those used throughout the rest of the Indian Army at that time. As in the British Army itself, there were three distinct levels: private soldiers, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers. Gurkha commissioned officers in Gurkha regiments held a "Viceroy's Commission", distinct from the King's or Queen's Commission that British officers serving with a Gurkha regiment held. Any Gurkha holding a commission was technically subordinate to any British officer, regardless of rank.

Rank equivalents in modern Indian and British Armies
Viceroy Commissioned Officers (VCOs) up to 1947 and Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs) from 1947:
 * Subedar Major/no equivalent
 * Subedar/no equivalent
 * Jemadar (now Naib Subedar)/no equivalent

Warrant officers
 * Regimental Havildar Major/Warrant Officer Class 1
 * Company Havildar Major/Warrant Officer Class 2

Non-commissioned officers
 * Company Quartermaster Havildar/Colour Sergeant
 * Havildar/Sergeant
 * Naik/Corporal
 * Lance Naik/Lance Corporal

Private soldiers
 * Rifleman

Notes
 * British Army officers received Queen's or King's Commissions, but Gurkha officers in this system received the Viceroy's Commission. After Indian independence in 1947, Gurkha officers in regiments which became part of the British Army received the King's (later Queen's) Gurkha Commission, and were known as King's/Queen's Gurkha Officers (KGO/QGO). Gurkha officers had no authority to command troops of British regiments. The QGO Commission was abolished in 2007.
 * Jemadars and subedars normally served as platoon commanders and company 2ICs but were junior to all British officers, while the subedar major was the Commanding Officer's advisor on the men and their welfare. For a long time it was impossible for Gurkhas to progress further, except that an honorary lieutenancy or captaincy was (very rarely) bestowed upon a Gurkha on retirement.
 * The equivalent ranks in the post-1947 Indian Army were (and are) known as Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs). They retained the traditional rank titles used in the British Indian Army: Jemadar (later Naib Subedar), Subedar and Subedar Major.
 * While in principle any British subject may apply for a commission without having served in the ranks, Gurkhas cannot. It was customary for a Gurkha soldier to rise through the ranks and prove his ability before his regiment would consider offering him a commission.
 * From the 1920s Gurkhas could also receive King's Indian Commissions, and later full King's or Queen's Commissions, which put them on a par with British officers. This was rare until after the Second World War.
 * Gurkha officers commissioned from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and Short Service Officers regularly fill appointments up to the rank of major. At least two Gurkhas have been promoted to lieutenant colonel and there is theoretically now no bar to further progression.
 * After 1948, the Brigade of Gurkhas (part of the British Army) was formed and adopted standard British Army rank structure and nomenclature, except for the three Viceroy Commission ranks between Warrant Officer 1 and Second Lieutenant (jemadar, subedar and subedar major) which remained, albeit with different rank titles Lieutenant (Queens Gurkha Officer), Captain (QGO) and Major (QGO). The QGO commission was abolished in 2007; Gurkha soldiers are currently commissioned as Late Entry Officers (as above).

Regiments of the Gurkha Rifles (c. 1815–1947)

 * 1st King George V's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment) (raised 1815, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles) (raised 1815, allocated to British Army in 1948)
 * 3rd Queen Alexandra's Own Gurkha Rifles (raised 1815, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 4th Prince of Wales's Own Gurkha Rifles (raised 1857, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 5th Royal Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force) (raised 1858, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 6th Gurkha Rifles, renamed 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles in 1959 (raised 1817, allocated to British Army in 1948)
 * 7th Gurkha Rifles, renamed 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles in 1959 (raised 1902, allocated to British Army in 1948)
 * 8th Gurkha Rifles (raised 1824, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 9th Gurkha Rifles (raised 1817, allocated to Indian Army at independence in 1947)
 * 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles (raised 1890, allocated to British Army in 1948)
 * 11th Gurkha Rifles (1918–1922; raised again by India – 11 Gorkha Rifles – following independence in 1947)
 * 25th Gurkha Rifles (1942–1946)
 * 26th Gurkha Rifles (1943–1946)
 * 29th Gurkha Rifles (1943–1946)
 * 42nd Gurkha Rifles (raised 1817 as the Cuttack Legion, renamed 6th Gurkha Rifles in 1903)
 * 44th Gurkha Rifles (raised 1824 as the 16th (Sylhet) Local Battalion, renamed 8th Gurkha Rifles in 1903)

Second World War training battalions

 * 14th Gurkha Rifles Training Battalion
 * 29th Gurkha Rifles Training Battalion
 * 38th Gurkha Rifles Training Battalion
 * 56th Gurkha Rifles Training Battalion
 * 710th Gurkha Rifles Training Battalion

Post-independence (1947–present)

Under the Tripartite Agreement signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, India and Nepal after Indian independence and the partition of India, the original ten Gurkha regiments consisting of the 20 pre-war battalions were split between the British Army and the newly independent Indian Army. Six Gurkha regiments (12 battalions) were transferred to the post-independence Indian Army, while four regiments (eight battalions) were transferred to the British Army.

To the disappointment of many of their British officers, the majority of Gurkhas given a choice between British or Indian Army service opted for the latter. The reason appears to have been the pragmatic one that the Gurkha regiments of the Indian Army would continue to serve in their existing roles in familiar territory and under terms and conditions that were well established. The only substantial change was the substitution of Indian officers for British. By contrast, the four regiments selected for British service faced an uncertain future, initially in Malaya - a region where relatively few Gurkhas had previously served. The four regiments (or eight battalions) in British service were subsequently reduced to a single regiment of two battalions. The Indian units have been expanded beyond their pre-Independence establishment of 12 battalions.

The principal aim of the Tripartite Agreement was to ensure that Gurkhas serving under the Crown would be paid on the same scale as those serving in the new Indian Army. This was significantly lower than the standard British rates of pay. While the difference is made up through cost of living and location allowances during a Gurkha's actual period of service, the pension payable on his return to Nepal is much lower than would be the case for his British counterparts.

With the abolition of the Nepalese monarchy in 2008, the future recruitment of Gurkhas for British and Indian service was initially put into doubt. A spokesperson for the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) (later the "Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)"), which was expected to play a major role in the new secular republic, stated that recruitment as mercenaries was degrading to the Nepalese people and would be banned. However, as of 2023, Gurkha recruitment for foreign service continues.

British Army Gurkhas
Four Gurkha regiments were transferred to the British Army on 1 January 1948:
 * 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles)
 * 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles
 * 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles
 * 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles

They formed the Brigade of Gurkhas and were initially stationed in Malaya. There were also a number of additional Gurkha units including the 69th and 70th Gurkha Field Squadrons, both included in the 36th Engineer Regiment. Since then, British Gurkhas have served in Borneo during the confrontation with Indonesia, in the Falklands War and on various peacekeeping missions in Sierra Leone, East Timor, Bosnia and Kosovo.

Major Gurkha Formations:
 * 43rd Independent Gurkha Infantry Brigade (Italy, circa 1943)
 * 26th Gurkha Brigade (Hong Kong, 1948–1950)
 * 17th Gurkha Division (Malaya, 1952–1970)
 * 51st Infantry Brigade (Hong Kong disbanded 1976)
 * 48th Gurkha Infantry Brigade (Hong Kong, 1957–1976; renamed Gurkha Field Force 1976–1997; returned to old title 1987 – c. 1992)

As of August 2021, the Brigade of Gurkhas in the British Army has the following units:
 * 1st Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles (1RGR)
 * 2nd Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles (2RGR)
 * 3rd Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles (3RGR)
 * Gurkha Allied Rapid Reaction Corps Support Battalion
 * Queen's Gurkha Signals which includes:
 * 250 Gurkha Signal Squadron, 30 Signal Regiment
 * 246 Gurkha Signal Squadron, 2 Signal Regiment
 * 247 Gurkha Signal Squadron, 16 Signal Regiment
 * 248 Gurkha Signal Squadron, 22 Signal Regiment
 * 249 Gurkha Signal Squadron, 3rd (UK) Division Signal Regiment
 * 10 Queen's Own Gurkha Logistic Regiment RLC
 * Queen's Gurkha Engineers, which includes:
 * 69th Gurkha Field Squadron, 36 Engineer Regiment
 * 70th Gurkha Field Squadron, 36 Engineer Regiment
 * Gurkha Staff and Personnel Support Company
 * Band of the Brigade of Gurkhas
 * Gurkha Company (Sittang), Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
 * Gurkha Wing (Mandalay), Infantry Battle School
 * Gurkha Company (Tavoleto), Land Warfare Centre

The Brigade of Gurkhas also has its own chefs posted among the above-mentioned units. Gurkhas were among the troops who retook the Falklands in 1982 and have served a number of tours of duty in the War in Afghanistan.

Indian Army Gurkhas

Upon independence in 1947, six of the original ten Gurkha regiments remained with the Indian Army. These regiments were:
 * 1st King George V's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment)
 * 3rd Queen Alexandra's Own Gurkha Rifles
 * 4th Prince of Wales's Own Gurkha Rifles
 * 5th Royal Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 8th Gurkha Rifles
 * 9th Gurkha Rifles

Additionally, a further regiment, 11 Gorkha Rifles, was raised. In 1949 the spelling was changed from "Gurkha" to the original "Gorkha". All royal titles were dropped when India became a republic in 1950.

Since partition, the Gurkha regiments that were transferred to the Indian Army have established themselves as a permanent and vital part of the newly independent Indian Army. Indeed, while Britain has reduced its Gurkha contingent, India has continued to recruit Gorkhas of Nepal into Gorkha regiments in large numbers, as well as Indian Gorkhas. In 2009 the Indian Army had a Gorkha contingent that numbered around 42,000 men in 46 battalions, spread across seven regiments.

Although their deployment is still governed by the 1947 Tripartite Agreement, in the post-1947 conflicts India has fought in, Gorkhas have served in almost all of them, including the wars with Pakistan in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999 and also against China in 1962. They have also been used in peacekeeping operations around the world. They have also served in Sri Lanka conducting operations against the Tamil Tigers.

Singapore Gurkha Contingent
The Gurkha Contingent (GC) of the Singapore Police Force was formed on 9 April 1949 from selected ex-British Army Gurkhas. It is an integral part of the police force and was raised to replace a Sikh unit that had existed prior to the Japanese occupation during the Second World War.

The GC is a well trained, dedicated and disciplined body whose principal role is as riot police and counter-terrorism force. In times of crisis it can be deployed as a reaction force. During the turbulent years before and after independence, the GC acquitted itself well on several occasions during outbreaks of civil disorder. The Gurkhas displayed the courage, self-restraint and professionalism for which they are famous and earned the respect of the society at large.

Brunei Gurkha Reserve Unit
The Gurkha Reserve Unit (GRU) is a special guard and elite shock-troop force in the Sultanate of Brunei. The Brunei Reserve Unit employs about 500 Gurkhas. The majority are veterans of the British Army and the Singaporean Police, who have joined the GRU as a second career.

Indian Special Frontier Force
The Special Frontier Force (SFF) is an Indian paramilitary organization consisting of Tibetan refugees, Nepali Gurkhas, and other ethnic groups from mountainous areas. The SFF is tasked with conducting covert actions against China in the event of another Sino-Indian war. The SFF was originally intended to exclusively consist of Tibetan refugees living in India, however, the SFF began recruiting Nepali Gurkhas and hill tribesmen in 1965 to make up for a declining recruitment rate among Tibetans. It is believed there are around 700 Gurkhas serving in the SFF.

Victoria Cross recipients
There have been 26 Victoria Crosses (VC) awarded to soldiers of Gurkha regiments. The first was awarded in 1858 and the last in 1965. Thirteen of the recipients have been British officers serving with Gurkha regiments. Since 1915, the majority have been awarded to Gurkhas serving in the ranks as private soldiers or NCOs. Since Indian independence in 1947, Gurkhas serving in the Indian Army have been awarded three Param Vir Chakras, which are equivalent to the Victoria Cross.

Two George Cross (GC) medals have been awarded to Gurkha soldiers for acts of bravery. The George Cross (GC) is the highest award bestowed by the British government for non-operational gallantry or gallantry not in the presence of an enemy. In the UK honours system, the George Cross is equal in stature to the Victoria Cross. This has been the case since the introduction of the George Cross in 1940.

Treatment of Gurkhas in the United Kingdom

The treatment of Gurkhas and their families was the subject of controversy in the United Kingdom once it became widely known that Gurkhas received smaller pensions than their British counterparts. The nationality status of Gurkhas and their families was also an area of dispute, with claims that some ex-army Nepali families were being denied residency and forced to leave Britain. On 8 March 2007 the British Government announced that all Gurkhas who signed up after 1 July 1997 would receive a pension equivalent to that of their British counterparts. In addition, Gurkhas would, for the first time, be able to transfer to another army unit after five years' service and women would also be allowed to join, although not in first-line units, conforming to the British Army's policy. The act also guaranteed residency rights in the UK for retired Gurkhas and their families.

Despite the changes, many Gurkhas who had not served long enough to entitle them to a pension faced hardship on their return to Nepal, and some critics derided the government's decision to only award the new pension and citizenship entitlement to those joining after 1 July 1997, claiming that this left many ex-Gurkha servicemen still facing a financially uncertain retirement. An advocacy group, Gurkha Justice Campaign, joined the debate in support of the Gurkhas.

In a landmark ruling on 30 September 2008, Mr Justice Blake in the High Court in London decided that the Home Secretary's policy allowing Gurkhas who left the Army before 1997 to apply for settlement in the United Kingdom was irrationally restrictive in its criteria, and overturned it. He upheld the claim of six Gurkha soldiers for the right to settle in Britain at the end of their service, reciting the Military Covenant and observing that granting them residence in Britain "would, in my judgment, be a vindication and an enhancement of this covenant". In response to the decision of the High Court, the Home Office said it would review all cases that were affected by it.

On 29 April 2009 a motion introduced by the Liberal Democrats that all Gurkhas be offered equal right of residence was passed in the House of Commons by 267 votes to 246. This was the only first-day motion defeat for a government since 1978. Nick Clegg, the Liberal Democrat leader, stated that "this is an immense victory ... for the rights of Gurkhas who have been waiting so long for justice, a victory for Parliament, a victory for decency." He added that it was "the kind of thing people want this country to do".

On 21 May 2009 Home Secretary Jacqui Smith announced that all Gurkha veterans who retired before 1997 with at least four years service would be allowed to settle in the UK. Actress Joanna Lumley, daughter of Gurkha corps Major James Lumley who had highlighted the treatment of the Gurkhas and campaigned for their rights, commented, "This is the welcome we have always longed to give".

A charity, The Gurkha Welfare Trust, provides aid to alleviate hardship and distress among Gurkha ex-servicemen.

On 9 June 2015, a celebration called the Gurkha 200, held at The Royal Hospital Chelsea and attended by members of the royal family, commemorated the bicentennial of the Gurkha Welfare Trust by paying tribute to Gurkha culture and military service.

Gurkha Square in Fleet, Hampshire, which contains the Fleet war memorial, is named after the Gurkhas.

Settlement rights
A 2008 UK High Court decision on a test case in London, R. (on the application of Limbu) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] EWHC 2261 (Admin), acknowledged the "debt of honour" to Gurkhas discharged before 1997. The Home Secretary's policy allowing veterans to apply on a limited set of criteria (such as connection to the United Kingdom) was quashed as being unduly restrictive. The Court found that the Gurkhas had suffered a "historic injustice" and that the policy was irrational in failing to take into account factors such as length of service or particularly meritorious conduct.

title: Gurkha


text:
Gaëtan Dugas

Gaëtan Dugas (February 20, 1953 – March 30, 1984) was a Québécois Canadian flight attendant whose role in the early years of the AIDS epidemic attracted considerable attention. Initially identified as a central figure labeled "Patient Zero", Dugas faced allegations of being a primary source of HIV transmission to the United States. This narrative, popularized notably by Randy Shilts' 1987 book And the Band Played On, has been refuted through subsequent scientific scrutiny and historical re-evaluation. Dugas' story highlights the perils of misinformation and the stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS in the 1980s. Despite facing criticism in popular discourse, subsequent studies have provided a more nuanced understanding of Dugas' impact on the epidemic, emphasizing the importance of accuracy and empathy in public health narratives.

Dugas worked as a flight attendant for Air Canada and died in Quebec City in March 1984 as a result of kidney failure caused by AIDS-related infections. In March 1984, a study tracked Dugas, along with other gay and bisexual men, to indicate his role in a particular cluster of 40 AIDS cases in the United States. He was named "Patient O" with "O" standing for "Out-of-California". A 1987 book about the epidemic, And the Band Played On, used the term "Patient Zero" and put significant focus on Dugas, with media reports expanding his role in the epidemic further. A 2016 study confirmed that Dugas did not bring HIV to the United States, and he was not Patient Zero, via genetic analysis of stored blood samples, supported by historical detective work.

1984 cluster study
A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study published in The American Journal of Medicine in 1984 titled Cluster of Cases of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome examined the sexual contacts of gay men infected with AIDS to determine if their histories were consistent with the hypothesis that AIDS was caused by an infectious agent. A graph included with the paper traced the sequence of infection among 40 men and labelled one of the nodes as "Patient 0" (with other nodes including the place of residence and a number indicating the sequence in which they developed AIDS symptoms, such as "NY 14"). The paper later stated: "If the infectious-agent hypothesis is true, Patient 0 may be an example of a 'carrier' of such an agent. He had had sexual contact with eight other AIDS patients and was the possible source of AIDS for at least three of them. Two of these three men had been his partners before he had overt signs of Kaposi's sarcoma."

The researchers later stated they had originally intended to designate Dugas as "Patient O", with "O" standing for "Out-of-California" but at some point it was changed to a "0".

"Patient Zero" designation
Dugas is featured prominently in Randy Shilts' 1987 book And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (1987), which documents the outbreak of the AIDS epidemic in the United States. Shilts refers to Dugas as "Patient Zero" and portrays him as having almost sociopathic behaviour by allegedly intentionally infecting, or at least recklessly endangering, others with the virus. Dugas is described as being a charming, handsome sexual athlete who, according to his own estimation, averaged hundreds of sex partners per year. He claimed to have had over 2,500 sexual partners across North America since becoming sexually active in 1972. In David France's 2016 book How to Survive a Plague, Shilts' editor expressed his regret for having "made a conscious decision to vilify Dugas in the book and publicity campaign in order to spur sales."

Re-examination
A number of authorities have since voiced reservations about the implications of the CDC's Patient Zero study and characterizations of Dugas as being responsible for bringing HIV to cities such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. In the Patient Zero study, the average length of time between sexual contact and the onset of symptoms was $10 1⁄2$ months. While Shilts' book does not make such an allegation, the rumour that Dugas was the principal disseminator of the virus became widespread. In 1988, Andrew R. Moss published an opposing view in The New York Review of Books.

In 2016, a group of researchers led by evolutionary biologist Michael Worobey conducted a genetic study that looked at blood samples taken from gay and bisexual men in 1978 and 1979 as part of a hepatitis B study, and based on the results of the data, concluded that Dugas was not the source of the virus in the United States. "On the family tree of the virus, Dugas fell in the middle, not at the beginning." "Beliefs about Patient Zero," Worobey concludes, "are unsupported by scientific data." Worobey's paper, published in Nature in October 2016, finds "neither biological nor historical evidence that he was the primary case in the United States or for subtype B as a whole." While Dugas was not the source of HIV infection in the U.S., he was the source of infection for a large number of men, by his own admission.

A study by historian Richard McKay of Cambridge and others identified several causes for the Patient Zero myth. During early CDC analysis of cases in California, patient 057 (Dugas) was nicknamed patient "O" for "Out-of-California", but this was interpreted by others as Patient Zero. Dugas was particularly helpful in tracing his network of partners, providing names and addresses for many of them, which was further expanded because others remembered his distinctive name. Although many of the patients analysed reported in excess of 1,000 sexual partners, most remembered "only a handful" of names, making their contacts to other cases more difficult to trace. Richard McKay later extended this study into a book, Patient Zero and the Making of the AIDS Epidemic. This book also contains the most definitive biography of Dugas' life, constructed through numerous interviews with friends, family, and lovers.

Robert M. Grant, an AIDS researcher at the University of California, has stated: "No one wants to be the Patient Zero of their village. But this may be helpful because it says, 'Just because you are the first to be diagnosed doesn't mean you started the epidemic.'"

Two films, John Greyson's musical comedy film Zero Patience (1993) and Laurie Lynd's documentary Killing Patient Zero (2019), have also discussed the Patient Zero myth around Dugas.

title: Gaëtan Dugas