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Courland

Courland is one of the Historical Latvian Lands in western Latvia. Courland's largest city is Liepāja, which is the third largest city in Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland as they were formerly held by the same duke.

The literal meaning of the name is "Land of Curonians".

Geography and climate

Situated in western Latvia, Courland roughly corresponds to the former Latvian districts of Kuldīga, Liepāja, Saldus, Talsi, Tukums and Ventspils.

When combined with Semigallia and Selonia, Courland's northeastern boundary is the Daugava River, which separates it from the regions of Latgale and Vidzeme. To the north, Courland's coast lies along the Gulf of Riga. On the west it is bordered by the Baltic Sea, and on the south by Lithuania. It lies between 55° 45′ and 57° 45′ North and 21° and 27° East.

The name is also found in the Curonian Spit and Lithuanian Karšuvos giria - the Courland wood.

The area comprises 27,286 km², of which 262 km² is made up of lakes. The landscape generally has a low and undulating character, with flat and marshy coastlands. The interior features wooded dunes, covered with pine, spruce, birch, and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. Courland's elevation never rises more than 213 m above sea level.

The Jelgava plain divides Courland into two parts, the western side, which is fertile and densely inhabited, except in the north, and the eastern side, less fertile and thinly inhabited.

Nearly one hundred rivers drain Courland, but only three of these rivers – the Daugava, the Lielupe and the Venta – are navigable. They all flow northwestward and discharge into the Baltic Sea.

Owing to its numerous lakes and marshes, Courland has a damp, often foggy, and changeable climate; its winters are severe.

Early history
In ancient times the Curonians, a pagan tribe, inhabited Courland. The Brethren of the Sword, a German Catholic military order, subdued the Curonians and converted them to Christianity in the first quarter of the 13th century. Thus in 1230, the Curonian king Lammekinus (Latvian: Lamekins) made peace directly with the papal legate. He accepted baptism, and became a vassal of the pope. In 1237 the area passed into the rule of the Teutonic Order owing to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the Sword.

Livonian Confederation
The Livonian Confederation was a loosely organized confederation formed by the German-led Livonian Order and various bishoprics that encompassed much of present-day Estonia and Latvia. It existed from 1228 to the 1560s, when it was dismembered by the Tsardom of Russia during the Livonian War.

Duchy of Courland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1561–1795

The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a semi-independent duchy that existed from 1561 until 1795, encompassing the areas of Courland and Semigallia. Although nominally a vassal state of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the dukes operated autonomously. In the 18th century, Russia acquired great influence over the Duchy; the future Empress Anna of Russia served as regent there from 1711 until her accession to the Russian throne in 1730. After the last of the ducal line into which she had married died in 1737, she arranged for the Duchy to be given to her lover, Ernst Johann von Biron instead.

The Duchy was one of the smallest European nations to colonize overseas territories, establishing short-lived outposts on the Caribbean islands of Tobago and Trinidad and at the mouth of the Gambia River in Africa on what was then known as James Island.

In 1795, the last Duke, Peter von Biron, ceded the Duchy to the Russian Empire.

The former Bishopric of Courland was directly incorporated into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as the District of Pilten of the Wenden and later Inflanty Voivodeship.

Courland as part of the Russian Empire
After annexation by the Russian Empire, the territory of the former Duchy formed the Courland Governorate.

From the time of the Northern Crusades in the early 13th century, most land was owned by nobles descended from the German invaders. In 1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means, some occupants bought their farms, but the great mass of the population remained landless, and lived as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the social scale.

Agriculture was the chief occupation, with the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax, and potatoes. The large estates conducted agriculture with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grew well. Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs were kept. Liepāja and Jelgava operated as the principal industrial centres, with ironworks, agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass and soap works. Flax spinning took place mostly as a domestic industry. Iron and limestone were the chief minerals; a little amber was found on the coast. The only seaports were Liepāja, Ventspils and Palanga, there being none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga.

Population
In 1870 the population was 619,154; in 1897 it was 674,437 (of whom 345,756 were women); in 1906 it was estimated at 714,200. Of the whole, 79% were Latvians, 8.4% Baltic Germans, about 8% Jews, 1.4% Russians, 1% Lithuanians, 1% Poles, and some Livonians.

The chief towns of the ten districts were Jelgava (Mitau), Courland's capital (pop. 35,011 in 1897); Liepāja (Libau) (pop. 64,500 in 1897); Bauska (6,543); Jaunjelgava (Friedrichstadt) (5,223); Kuldīga (Goldingen) (9,733); Grobiņa (1,489); Aizpute (Hasenpoth) (3,338); Ilūkste (Illuxt) (2,340); Talsi (Talsen) (6,215); Tukums (Tuckum) (7542); and Ventspils (Windau) (7,132).

75% of the population belonged to the prevailing denomination, Lutheranism; the rest belonged to the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. There was a small but vigorous Jewish population.

Courland during and after World War I

During World War I, Courland formed part of the Eastern Front theatre of operations that saw fighting primarily between forces of the Russian and German Empires. Following Russia's Great Retreat of 1915, Courland came under the control of the Imperial German Army's Ober Ost commander in the person of Paul von Hindenburg, a Prussian military hero. (The Russian authorities of the Courland Governorate were exiled to Tartu, never to return.) With large territories coming under the Ober Ost's administration as a result of military successes on the Eastern Front, General Erich Ludendorff was charged with managing the large area now under its jurisdiction. Courland District (which included parts of Semigallia) was made one of three districts of the region, which also came to be known as Ober Ost.

As Russian rule in the rest of what is now Latvia began collapsing at the end of World War I, Baltic Germans began a process of forming provincial councils between September 1917 and March 1918, competing with ethnic Latvians' moves toward independence. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 3 March 1918, the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic formally relinquished control of Courland to Germany. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was proclaimed on 8 March 1918 by a Baltic German Landesrat, who offered the crown of the duchy to German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Wilhelm recognised the duchy as a German vassal that same month. However, the duchy was absorbed on 22 September 1918 by the United Baltic Duchy.

On 18 November 1918, Latvia proclaimed its independence and on 7 December 1918, the German military handed over authority to the pro-German Latvian Provisional Government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis. By January 1919, much of Courland had been overrun by the Bolsheviks' Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic, but the provisional government with the aid of German forces pushed back and took back Courland by April. Throughout the Latvian War of Independence, much of Courland remained a German stronghold. Latvia eventually signed a cease-fire with Germany on 15 July 1920, and the Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty of 11 August ended the war.

Courland as part of interbellum Latvia
After World War I, Courland became one of five provinces of the newly formed nation of Latvia. These provinces corresponded to Latvia's four traditional regions plus Riga. In 1935, Courland had an area of 5099 sqmi and a population of 292,659 making it the least populous of the provinces.

Courland during and after World War II
The Soviet Army occupied Latvia in conformity with the terms of 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 17 June 1940. On 5 August 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the region along with the rest of Latvia which was made a constituent republic of the USSR, the Latvian SSR.

At the start of Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941, the German Wehrmacht's Army Group North headed by Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb overran Courland, along with the rest of the Baltic littoral. During the German occupation Courland was administered as Liepāja County area (Kreisgebiet Libau).

In 1944 the Red Army lifted the siege of Leningrad and re-conquered the Baltic countries along with much of Ukraine and Belarus. However, some 200,000 German troops held out in Courland. With their backs to the Baltic Sea, they remained trapped in what became known as the Courland Pocket, blockaded by the Red Army and by the Red Baltic Fleet. Colonel-General Heinz Guderian, the Chief of the German General Staff, pleaded with Adolf Hitler to allow evacuation of the troops in Courland by sea for use in the defense of Germany. Hitler refused and ordered the Wehrmacht, Waffen-SS, Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine forces in Courland to continue the defense of the area. Germany’s naval capacity to evacuate these forces was restricted as it needed the majority of its transport ships to evacuate troops from East Prussia and maintain vital trade with Sweden. On January 15, 1945, Army Group Courland (Heeresgruppe Kurland) formed under Colonel-General Dr. Lothar Rendulic. The blockade by elements of the Leningrad Front remained until May 8, 1945, when Army Group Courland, then under its last commander, Colonel-General Carl Hilpert, surrendered to Marshal Leonid Govorov, the commander of the Leningrad Front (reinforced by elements of the 2nd Baltic Front) on the Courland perimeter. At this time the group consisted of the remnants of some 31 divisions. After May 9, 1945, approximately 203,000 troops of Army Group Courland began to be moved to Soviet prison camps to the east. The majority of them never returned to Germany (Haupt, 1997).

Courland remained part of the Latvian SSR within the Soviet Union following World War II. Courland was no longer an administrative unit under the Soviets. Liepājas apgabals (1952-1953), one of three oblasts in Latvia, roughly corresponded to Courland.

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Courland became part of independent Latvia once more and it remains so to this day. Although Courland is not an administrative entity today, the Courland (Kurzeme) Planning Region, with an area of 13596 km2 and a population of 301,621 in 2008, includes much of the traditional region. The remainder of Courland is part of the planning regions of Riga and Semigallia (Zemgale).

Notable residents

 * Ephraim Deinard (1846–1930), born in Valdemārpils, publisher and author.
 * George Henry Loskiel (1740–1814), born in Angermuende in Courland, Moravian clergyman who obtained complete separation of the European and American branches of the church.
 * Otto Mears, (1840–1931), pioneering road and railway builder in Colorado, United States; born in Courland.
 * Dorothea von Medem (1761–1821), Duchess of Courland, wife of the last Duke of Courland
 * Elisa von der Recke

title: Courland


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Flag flying days in Sweden

By an ordinance issued by the Government of Sweden, a number of days of the calendar year are designated as official flag flying days. This means that the Flag of Sweden is flown on all public flag poles and buildings. Hoisting of the Swedish flag on private flagpoles on these days is also strongly encouraged, but not mandatory.

Flying of the flag is in general governed by the sun, but there are guidelines specified by military tradition. The flag is hoisted at 8 AM in the summer and 9 AM in the winter, and is lowered by sunset but never later than 9 PM. In parts of Sweden north of the Arctic Circle, the sun does not rise at all for some weeks during winter. One example of handling this is the practice of the Infantry Regiment in Kiruna, which during this period flies the flag from 9 AM to 11.50 AM.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Flag flying days in Sweden


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Mother and Son

Mother and Son is an Australian television sitcom that was broadcast on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) from 16 January 1984 until 21 March 1994. The show stars Ruth Cracknell, Garry McDonald, Henri Szeps and Judy Morris. It featured many Australian actors of the time in guest roles. It was created and written by Geoffrey Atherden. Its theme song features the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, playing I Want a Girl (Just Like the Girl That Married Dear Old Dad), a jazz standard which was recorded by Al Jolson in the 1920s.

A stage version of Mother and Son was written by Geoffrey Atherden and premiered at the Comedy Theatre, Melbourne, on 18 July 2014.

In November 2022, it was announced the series would be given an eight-episode reboot with Denise Scott and Matt Okine playing Maggie and Arthur, respectively. Filming for the series began in Sydney in March 2023.

Premise
The plot of the show addresses the problems of ageing and caring for somebody with increasing memory loss, with an often sharp-edged humour which carried with it a tinge of sadness. Despite its unlikely subject matter for a comedy, the show was a favourite with audiences. Maggie's and Arthur's relationship was presented with a fascinating complexity—Maggie's cruel attacks on and emotional manipulation of Arthur disguised her deep dependence on and need of him, and Arthur's dutiful love of Maggie was constantly in conflict with his guilty frustration at the huge limitations for his own life which looking after his mother entailed. The performance of Cracknell, a famous stage actress, as Maggie was particularly lauded as one of the finest characterisations on Australian television. The series itself became extremely popular and has screened in constant re-runs, particularly by Network Ten. Garry McDonald and Ruth Cracknell in character would appear in television adverts for Dynamo laundry liquid.

Maggie Beare
Maggie (Ruth Cracknell), full name Margaret May Lapsley Beare, is the widow of World War II veteran Leo, mother of Robert and Arthur, sister to Lorna and grandmother to Damien and Teonie. Maggie is apparently in the early stages of some form of dementia and her younger son Arthur lives with and takes care of her. However, despite being increasingly forgetful, Maggie is lucid enough to manipulate Arthur when she wants to, usually for something devilish that will seriously inconvenience him. Maggie was a former nurse and met Leo while treating him for war wounds.

Arthur Beare
Younger son of Maggie and Leo, brother of Robert, uncle to Damien and Teonie and recent ex-husband of Deidre, Arthur (Garry McDonald) is an editor and journalist for a newspaper. When he is not working, he is usually at home attending to the demands of his impish and increasingly confused mother. He drives a 1955 Morris Minor Series II Tourer convertible that is constantly breaking down, has trouble bringing female friends back to the house because of his mother's deliberate interference, and is almost always thwarted by Maggie whenever he attempts to socialize with his work friends. Maggie frequently excoriates Arthur, labelling all his would-be girlfriends as "floozies", Arthur is nicknamed "Artie" by brother Robert.

Robert Beare
Elder son of Maggie and Leo, brother of Arthur, husband to Liz and father of Damien and Teonie, Robert (Henri Szeps) is a successful dentist who takes many holidays and has extramarital affairs. He does so by disguising his overseas holiday trysts as dental research conferences. His mother tells him off for his womanising and says that it is the reason he failed medical school, much to the disappointment of his late father. He is a 'man of leisure' who is adept at providing excuses as to why it is Arthur and not he that must take the primary care of their elderly mother. Robert loves to play tennis and golf, listening to classical music, and throughout the show owns a series of luxury cars: a Jaguar, Volvo and a BMW. When Arthur asked him for a loan to buy a new car, all Robert would offer him was a seriously impaired Volvo at a discount.

Liz Beare
Wife of Robert, mother to Damien and Teonie, the long-suffering Liz (Judy Morris) is well aware of her husband's affairs but finds it difficult to prove any of them, because of Robert's well-honed skill at covering them up. So in the meantime, Liz compensates by spending Robert's money and socialising with her equally rich, bored and unhappy friends. She occasionally seeks consolation from Arthur, using behaviour that could suggest that she is attracted to him. She is frequently, however, just as insensitive and selfish as Robert is and just as eager to put Maggie in a home. Liz has a verbal drawl, and is frequently heard to say "Oh Gawd" or "You're weird, Arthur".

Recurring characters
Deidre Beare (Suzanne Roylance): Ex-wife of Arthur. Appears in five episodes. Deidre seems to want the best for her ex-husband Arthur and dislikes him looking after his mother. Maggie resents the fact that Arthur had divorced. They end up getting back together in the final episode.

Aunty Lorna (Melissa Jaffer): Sister of Maggie. Appears in three episodes. She is married to Stan and has three children—Colin, Dawn and Murray. Lorna is the "younger and prettier" sister, much to Maggie's chagrin. Stan, Colin, Dawn and Murray do not appear in the show, and are only mentioned by name. In the second episode in which she appears it is revealed that Stan has died.

Dr. Holloway (Martin Vaughan): (3 episodes) the family's doctor, who apparently suffers from Alzheimer's disease.

Main

 * Ruth Cracknell as Maggie Beare
 * Garry McDonald as Arthur Beare
 * Henri Szeps as Robert Beare
 * Judy Morris as Liz Beare

Recurring

 * Suzanne Roylance as Deidre Beare (5 episodes)
 * Andrea Demetriades as Dee (4 episodes)
 * Melissa Jaffer as Aunty Lorna (3 episodes)
 * Martin Vaughan as Dr. Holloway (3 episodes)
 * Roslyn Gentle as Wendy (2 episodes)
 * Warwick Moss as Fireman (2 episodes)
 * Ron Haddrick as Claude Price (2 episodes)
 * Constance Lansberg as Helen (2 episodes)
 * Suzette Williams as Constable (2 episodes)

Guests

 * Betty Lucas as Mavis (1 episode)
 * Colleen Clifford as Old Lady (1 episode)
 * Peter Gwynne as Uncle Tom
 * Vivienne Garrett as Tessa (1 episode)
 * Penne Hackforth-Jones as Community Medical Officer Joan
 * Melissa Jaffer as Lorna (1 episode)
 * Ray Meagher as Geoff (1 episode)
 * Lois Ramsey as Butcher #1 (1 episode)
 * Joan Sydney as Merle MacDonald (1 episode)
 * George Whaley as Doctor (1 episode)
 * Frank Lloyd as Catholic Priest
 * Sonia Todd as Policewoman (1 episode)

The house
The house used for outside shots with the cast, at 16 Rickard Street Rodd Point, was built by John Cockerill in 1927, had an auction which was "off the Richter scale with well and truly over 100 people, at least".

The house was mainly unknown in connection to the show (with most bidders being too young to know the sitcom) and sold in 2014 for $1.95 million to build a dual-occupancy dwelling with an underground garage and swimming pool.

No objections were received, the application was amended and demolition and construction was approved in June 2015.

DVD releases
All six series have been released in Australia.

 * Vol. 1 (2-disc set), released 10 June 2004
 * Vol. 2 (2-disc set), released 3 February 2005
 * Vol. 3 (2-disc set), released 7 July 2005
 * Vol. 4 (2-disc set), released 6 October 2005
 * Vol. 5 (1-disc set), released 7 November 2007
 * 'The Complete Series 1–6' (6-disc box set), released 7 November 2007
 * Series 1, released 1 April 2010
 * Series 2, released 1 April 2010
 * Series 3, released 1 April 2010
 * Series 4, released 1 April 2010
 * Series 5, released 1 April 2010
 * Series 6, released 1 April 2010

Digital release
In 2016, the show in its entirety was available on Netflix in Australia. As of 2018, it is on Stan.

Gold Logies

 * 1994: Most Popular Comedy Personality, Ruth Cracknell

Silver Logies

 * 1993, 1994: Most Outstanding Actress, Ruth Cracknell
 * 1994: Most Outstanding Actor, Garry McDonald

Other awards

 * 1987: Winner of the Television Drama Award presented by the Australian Human Rights Commission

Stage productions
The stage version of Mother and Son, written by Geoffrey Atherden and starring Noeline Brown, Darren Gilshenan and Shane Jacobson, premiered at the Comedy Theatre, Melbourne on 18 July 2014.

Jally Entertainment was scheduled to tour the stage production, starring Julie McGregor and Christopher Truswell, in June and July 2020 to Caloundra, Wangaratta, Bainsdale, Wonthagi, Sale, Drysdale, Maryborough, Rockhampton, Mackay, Brisbane, Redland, Cessnock, Taree, Newcastle and Queanbeyan.

title: Mother and Son


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Ernst Johann von Biron

Ernst Johann von Biron (Ernst Johann von Biron; Эрнст Иоганн Бирон; (Bühren); 23 November 1690 – 29 December 1772 ) was a Duke of Courland and Semigallia (1737–1740 and 1763–1769) and briefly regent of the Russian Empire in 1740.

Early years
Biron was born as Ernst Johann von Bühren in Kalnciems, Semigallia as a second son of Karl von Bühren (1653–1733) and his wife Katharina Hedwig von der Raab genannt Thülen (1660–1740). His grandfather Carl von Bühren (died in 1674) had been a groom in the service of Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, and had received a small estate from his master, which Biron's father inherited and where Biron himself was born. He received some education at the academy of Königsberg, but was expelled from there for riotous conduct. In 1714, he set out to seek his fortune in Russia, and unsuccessfully solicited a place at the offices of Princess Charlotte of Brunswick-Lüneburg, wife of the Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich.

Unsuccessful in Russia, Biron returned after a while to Mitau (Courland), where one of his sisters, who served as a lady in waiting to Anna, regent of Courland, had become the fancy of the ruling minister, Peter Bestuzhev. Through his sister's intercession and the minister's favour, Biron gained a place at Anna's court. Later, during his patron's absence, Biron, a handsome, insinuating fellow, succeeded in supplanting him in Anna's favour, and even procuring the disgrace and banishment of Bestuzhev and his family. From this time to the end of her life, Biron's influence over Anna was paramount, and he would be at the pinnacle of this life during the period when she ruled Russia as Empress Anna.

Ruling Russia
In 1723, Biron married Benigna Gottlieb von Trotha gt Treyden (1703–1782), lady-in-waiting to Regent Anna and the daughter of a Baltic nobleman. The marriage, which was reportedly arranged by Anna in an attempt to conceal her own relationship with Biron, proved harmonious and felicitous. His wife remained devoted to Biron not only throughout his years as Anna's favorite and confidant, but also during his two decades of exile to Siberia after her death, which Benigna shared with Biron. They had three children together, a son, Peter, prince of Courland, a son Karl Ernst von Biron (1728–1801)  and a daughter, Hedvig Elizabeth.

In 1730, Anna was elevated to the Russian throne. Biron and his wife moved to Moscow, both of them retaining their position as adviser and lady-in-waiting, and received many honours and riches. At Anna's coronation (19 May 1730), Biron was appointed grand chamberlain, made a count of the Empire, and granted an estate at Wenden with an income of 50,000 crowns a year. It was on this occasion that his name was first rendered in court documents as 'Biron' (rather than 'Biren'), and he is said to have adopted the arms of the French Ducal House of Biron, to which house he did not in fact have the slightest connection.

The Council of the Empire attempted to secure from Anna an aristocratic constitution, but she crushed the powerful nobility, notably the Dolgorukis and the Galitsins, and placed her reliance exclusively on Biron, who became for all practical purposes the ruler of the Empire. His ascendancy over the empress was unshakable, and whenever required, Biron's enemies and rivals were swept out of the way quite literally; he is said to have caused over 1000 executions, while the number of persons exiled by him to Siberia is estimated at between 20,000–40,000. Meanwhile, the common people were ground down by taxation. Russians have described this reign as the Bironovshchina and the "German yoke." Nevertheless, he showed himself an administrator of considerable ability, and maintained order in the Empire at a time when troubles could have been expected, because the main Romanov line was now extinct, and even the empress did not have children or definite heirs.

During the latter years of Anna's reign in Russia, Biron increased enormously in power and riches. His apartments in the palace adjoined those of the empress, and his liveries, furniture and equipages were scarcely less expensive or splendid than hers. The magnificence of his plate astonished the French ambassador, and the diamonds of his duchess were the envy of princes. A special department of state looked after his brood mares and stallions. He had landed estates everywhere. Half the bribes intended for the Russian court passed through his coffers.

Duke of Courland and Semigallia
The climax of his elevation occurred in June 1737 when, on the extinction of the line of Kettler, the nobility ('estates') of Courland were arm-twisted into electing Biron as their reigning duke. Anna had been the wife of the penultimate duke, whose successor, his uncle Ferdinand, died childless in that year. The Kettler dynasty being now extinct, the estates were called upon to elect a new duke, and Anna proposed Biron. He was almost as unpopular in Courland and Semigallia as in Russia, and the estates were mortified at the prospect of this upstart holding sway over them, but the will of the empress could not be easily gainsaid. Still, it was found necessary to supply large sums of money, smuggled into Courland and Semigallia in the shape of bills payable in Amsterdam to bearer, in order to persuade the electors to fall in with Anna's choice. There was another complication: the duchy of Courland and Semigallia was then in dispute between Poland and Lithuania and Russia. Russian armies were employed to place Augustus III, Elector of Saxony, on the Polish throne. In return, the Elector promised that Biron would be invested with the duchy of Courland and Semigallia. The Emperor Charles VI, subordinating everything to his Pragmatic Sanction, readily countenanced these violent acts, and the king of Prussia was bought by certain territorial concessions. The investiture took place in 1739 at Warsaw by authority of the Polish king and senate.

Fall from power
Outwardly humble during his first years in power, Biron became haughty and overbearing towards the end of Anna's reign. This behavior and the gruesome execution on somewhat dubious charges of his erstwhile protégé, the cabinet minister Artemy Volynsky (insisted upon by Biron), made Biron unpopular with Russians of all classes.

On her deathbed, very unwillingly and only at his urgent entreaty, Anna appointed Biron regent during the minority of the baby emperor, Ivan VI of Russia. Her common sense told her that the only way she could save the man she loved from the vengeance of his enemies after her death was to facilitate in time his descent from his untenable position. Finally, on 26 October 1740, a so-called "positive declaration" signed by 194 dignitaries, in the name of the Russian nation, conferred the regency on Biron.

Anna died on October 28. Biron's regency lasted exactly three weeks - at midnight on 19 November 1740 he was seized in his bedroom by his ancient rival, Field Marshal Münnich. A commission was appointed to try his case, and it condemned him (11 April 1741) to death by quartering. However, this sentence was commuted by the clemency of the new regent, Anna Leopoldovna, the mother of Ivan VI, to banishment for life at Pelym in Siberia. All of Biron's vast property was confiscated, including his diamonds, worth £600,000. A second palace revolution occurred soon afterwards, and the new empress, Elizabeth Petrovna, banished Münnich and permitted Biron to take up his residence at Yaroslavl.

Later years
For 22 years, the ex-regent disappeared from the high places of history. He re-emerged for a brief moment in 1762, when the Germanophile Peter III of Russia summoned him to court. In 1763, Catherine II of Russia re-established him in his duchy of Courland, which he bequeathed to his son Peter in 1769. The last years of his rule were just and even benevolent, if somewhat autocratic. He died at Rastrelli's palace in Mitava, his capital, on 29 December 1772. His wife, who had been his faithful companion in all his travails, as in his ascendency, survived him by ten years. Biron was succeeded as Duke of Courland by their son, Peter von Biron.

title: Ernst Johann von Biron


text:
Talk:European bison

Intro
I do not like the phrase "not counting a tail of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) long"; suggest changing it to "length" instead of "long". --99.6.237.51 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.6.237.51 (talk) 07:09, 2 September 2012 (UTC)

Range
I changed Siberia to Russia since siberia isn't a part of Europe and Russia is the most Eastern nation —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.230.176.190 (talk) 15:31, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

There are 50 wisents in Romania as well but the survival is difficult.

- The historic range should be moved to west, because there were paintings and bones of European bison in some caves in Spain from the ice age (as the Altamira caves, showed in the article)

Diet
"... and vast herds may gather around this diet supplement." Should this sentence be in the present tense, or does it describe a past habit? I understand the article to report that there are only a few wild animals now, certainly no remaining 'vast herds'. Dawright12 (talk) 08:40, 2 May 2012 (UTC)

Pronunciation
Pronunciation taken from Webster's Third. --Cam 16:40, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Y chromosomes
I looked at the scientific literature and comprehensive sites like Ultimate Ungulate and could see nothing about there being only 2 Y-chromosome variants, although it is believable ... please cite a source! Satyrium 16:06, 9 September 2006 (UTC)

Image:Wisent.jpg
Isn't that a Bison, not a Wisent? ---Majestic- 10:49, 5 April 2007 (UTC)
 * If it is photographed in Białowieża, Eastern Poland, it is most likely a true wisent. But don't be confused as wisents are also bisons! They are European Bison, a very close relative of the North American Bison! Peter Maas\talk 15:15, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

Former Range
From my memory, and then in turn from a German language handbook of mammal zoology (published in the 1990es): Wisent ranged in historical times from France to China (or ist border), but did not occur in the British Isles (as opposed to Auerochs) - range in prehistoric times or of palaeobiological ancestors may of course differ. The article contradicts that. Without sources given, it is hard to decide. Naturally, I trust more what I read (in a Zoological University Institute library) than what some anonymus typed on the Internet. Perhaps we could compare sources (taking into account their nature and assessed reliability!).147.142.186.54 (talk) 14:49, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

Dead Internet link
One link was supposed to lead to some article on that (alleged) German "re-introductory" program; but that did not work when I tried it today.147.142.186.54 (talk) 14:49, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

Cultural History
One of my "pet" areas of study is the cultural history of animals (to supplement my equally strong interest in the natural history of them). Years ago I browsed the largest dictionary of German for early references. One difficulty is that many early authors confused Wisent and Aurochs/Urus. But some quotes as early as medieval literature are certain, among them in the Nibelungenlied. I don't know if that would be of interest to other readers also.

Regards, Sophophilos: 147.142.186.54 (talk) 14:49, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

IUCN: "Endangered" or "Critically Endangered"?
Both the info box and the opening text say the wisent is classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. However, further down in the page, it says the IUCN classified it as Endangered in 1996. I have gone to the source and checked the IUCN website, and in fact it is the latter that is true; however, I would like to have someone else's approval before I go ahead and edit the text so that I can be sure I am not missing some IUCN update I am not privy to. Or if someone else with more knowledge on the subject wants to go ahead and change it in the meantime, I suppose that would be OK too. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rcgy (talk • contribs) 05:38, 27 May 2008 (UTC)
 * I just changed it. No one else has come forward with information, so I think we should just go with what the website says. 05:27, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * It looks like the "critically endangered" designation was put there by an IP editor with a history of sloppy work: . So I don't think there's anything to worry about. Zagalejo^^^ 05:31, 18 June 2008 (UTC)

Plagiarism
An external site has raised the concern that a portion of this article might be plagiarized from the WWF panda.org site, with large sections of text being taken verbatim. Duck of Luke (talk) 04:21, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Seems like most of that content was added in this edit. I've reverted to the first edit before that point, but a lot of constructive changes have been lost. Unfortunately, I have to sign off right now, so I can't restore the good edits at this moment. Anyone want to help? Zagalejo^^^ 04:37, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I'm back. I think I fixed the problem, but someone should double-check, just to be sure. Zagalejo^^^ 05:09, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks to Emperor at Wikipedia Review for pointing that out. (I'll probably incur someone's wrath for that, but I should give credit where credit is due.) Zagalejo^^^ 05:12, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * It was actually a user named "Meldrick Lewis" on Encyc.org who originally found the problem, but then the Emperor took it to Wikipedia Review. And of course I took it here.  Thanks for getting to it so quickly. Duck of Luke (talk) 13:09, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Right. I learned about the problem by browsing WR. But thanks to Meldrick, and you, as well. Zagalejo^^^ 15:06, 18 June 2008 (UTC)

Social Structure and Territorial Behaviors
The article currently describes one sort of herd as: "Mixed groups consist of infants, young aged 2–3 years, calves and young adult bulls." There is no mention of the cows who -- I presume -- are the mothers of the other individuals mentioned. It's also not clear whether the "young adult bulls" are the older offspring of those mothers, or whether they are the fathers of present and future offspring of those mothers. I also see no mention of whether these mixed groups contain a herd bull -- a bull who mates with all the adult cows.

I suggest that a reasonable edit would be: "Mixed groups consist of several [related|unrelated|mostly unrelated] cows, [a herd bull,] and infants, young aged 2–3 years, calves and young adult bulls who are offspring of the herd cows." However, I suggest this from a generalized knowledge of herd animals and not any knowledge of wisents in particular, which is why I have not gone ahead and made the edit. It would be good if someone who knows wisents could decide whether the bracketed words are to be included or excluded.

VictoriaWordNerd (talk) 19:22, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Nobody has fixed your problem after two years, I have changed it to something that at least makes basic sense.Eregli bob (talk) 03:31, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

Map update
Reading the article alone leads to the impression that the map is awfully outdated (based on the one at the UICN site I guess). Shouldn't somebody make a new one, showing the areas where the species has been reintroduced (and in the case of Kirguizistan, introduced)? The Caucasian reserve should be shown at the very least, considering the reintroduction there took place "decades ago".--Menah the Great (talk) 10:37, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

"with only scattered reports from the 19th century of wolf and bear predation" < BS!!! There are some cases in Poland about killing zubr by wolves only in last 20 years. I have seen documentary film from about 2003 with "butchering place" of one zubr. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.23.42.50 (talk) 00:12, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

Stone age depictions
Aren't these rather the Steppe Wisent? FunkMonk (talk) 01:00, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

Minoan?
They have wall paintings on the Minoan Palace showing Bull Jumping, any chance the animal shown painted is a relatitve of the European Bison/Auroch? 108.38.36.17 (talk) 02:04, 28 June 2012 (UTC)

File:Bison bonasus (Linnaeus 1758).jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Bison bonasus (Linnaeus 1758).jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on July 29, 2012. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2012-07-29. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page so Wikipedia doesn't look bad. :) Thanks! — howcheng  {chat} 16:58, 27 July 2012 (UTC)

Adult females ?
"The European bison is a herd animal, which lives in both mixed and solely male groups. Mixed groups consist of infants, young aged 2–3 years, calves and young adult bulls."

This makes no sense. Where are the adult females ? It is also inconsistent with every other species of herding herbivore. I suspect that "calves" may be a mistranslation of a word which actually means "cows" ( adult females ).Eregli bob (talk) 03:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

Wisent became extinct in the area of modern day Germany 200–400 years earlier than stated
The article states, ″In April 2013, eight European bison (one male, five females and two calves) were released into the wild in the Bad Berleburg region of Germany, after 300 years of absence since the species became extinct in that region.″ This definitely is incorrect (even though quoted correctly, but unfortunately the source already got it wrong). Compare German WP: „Auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Deutschlands verschwand der Wisent zwischen dem 14. und 16. Jahrhundert.” (= ″On the territory of today's Germany, the wisent disappeared between the 14th and the 16th century.″) (The confusion probably stems from the East Prussian wisent population, whose last member was killed in 1755 (~250 years ago). East Prussia definitely isn't a part of Germany today (the area is now divided between Poland and Russia) and, to make things even more complicated, it never was a part of Germany while wisent lived there even though it was a part of the state of Prussia, whose western half (Brandenburg, Pommerania) was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Germany from 962 – 1806). Thus even German WP is a bit misleading, as it would be absolutely correct to leave out the ′today's′ in the quote mentioned above.) --92.206.106.169 (talk) 15:53, 19 April 2013 (UTC)

History
The section has several issues:
 * the survival of the species in zoos and parks is not covered
 * the survival outside Białowieża is only mentioned passingly, but the survival of the Caucasian population with at least one bull is of importance
 * a freely roaming population seems to have survived on the island of Darß until the end of World War II
 * it is said that the Europen Bison was protected by Polish laws. This is a half truth because any hunt - not just that of the Bison - in the forest was a royal privilege. The legal situation during the Russian time needs at least one citation - and make it a historical source, not hearsay from WWF pages unless they mention their secondary sources
 * same for the claim that it were Germans (and Germans only) who killed 600 bisons at the end of WW I. See the point about sources from professional historians above.
 * the survival after WW II can be expanded. -- Zz (talk) 11:39, 6 May 2013 (UTC)

Either here or in the Miscellanea section, someone ought to mention Mikołaj Hussowczyk and his epic Latin poem about bisons, the De statura, feritate, et venatione bisontis. 98.180.54.181 (talk) 05:17, 24 February 2014 (UTC)

Etymology
The etymology needs some work; see http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bison for a better attempt. The modern word (and spelling) enters English via French from Latin, not directly from the German. The Latin ''bison" probably gave rise to the Greek βίσων, since there's no record of the word in Greek prior to Pliny's mention of it in Latin in the NH -- the Greeks borrowed it from the Romans too. 98.180.54.181 (talk) 05:11, 24 February 2014 (UTC)

Herd size
Article says herd size is small 20-30 animals. The American bison herds could be massive, 10s of thousands. Did the European bisen at one time also have huge herds, like in the open steepes of the east? If not, are small herds a survival mechanism from hominid predators whom they would have evolved with over millions of years, unlike the American bison which were hominid-free until the last 10 thousand years or so. -- Green  C  03:23, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:25, 9 February 2020 (UTC)
 * 2 wisents in a field.jpg

Etymology of 'zubr'
Wiktionary states that the older Polish form was zubr, while żubr arose through hypercorrection. Given that the English word is both spelt and pronounced with a /z/ sound and not with anything like Polish ż, this makes one suspect that it might have been borrowed from this older Polish form. Or simply from Russian. And, as Wiktionary also points out, the early Polish zubr must have originated from the Old East Slavic (what people used to call Old Russian) form, because the proper Polish reflex of Proto-Slavic *zǫbrъ was ząbr. 79.100.144.23 (talk) 00:19, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * This is interesting and could very well be true, but unless we have reliable sources saying this then we won't be able to put it in the article as that would be original research. --Pitsarotta (talk) 20:23, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

Recent edits
- less bluster, more good edits please. You are a) removing sourced, informative content; b) inserting less informative, less well sourced content; c) adding "references" to your own observations, which is absolutely not an option anywhere on this project; (d) screwing up existing formatting. So could you please state here what it is you are actually trying to achieve, and then maybe we can implement it without the drama and debris? -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 06:25, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
 * The only thing I'm trying to do is improving the article. I was adding more specific information (which parks and zoos keep animals) with more exact numbers of animals. I was literally shocked to see that according to our article, only the Suchy park kept bisons! What the actual fuck! I also added a reference to a zoo animal database which actually stated the number of animals per zoo/park (which was missing the numbers of animals in Suchy, which was an outdated number anyway, and also the number of animals at the park in Bern).
 * All right. So, zootierliste.de might a suitable source - it's user-generated but with editorial oversight. But you will need to link to an actual useful URL (I assume this one ?). As for this source I can't even make out which of your claims it is supposed to source - it only deals with a single population so pasting it after a sentence listing multiple holdings is misleading. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 15:03, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
 * "your own observations": It is a valid reference because you can visit the park any day (entrance: 10 CHF, open from 9 AM to 5 PM), and verify this data. There is no difference to citing an out-of-print book which is available at my library, but not at yours. (I've already cited a publicly accessible placard in an article. Other Wikipedians were not happy. But a source is a source. One can go there, and check it.)--Keimzelle (talk) 08:22, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but that's frankly a case of tough beans. If there is not a published, written source to back up a statement, that statement can not go on Wikipedia. We don't deal in "go and see for yourself" verifiability. But it doesn't look as if you even need that claim, if the statement is backed up by Zootierliste? -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 15:03, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Each and anything that allows you to check the veracity of a statement is a source, and I will continue to revert any unhelpful edits. Right now it makes the readers believe that the first bisons arrived in Switzerland only in 2019? What the actual fuck? Even the sourced crap is not true.--Keimzelle (talk) 11:29, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm not making this up, it's a policy. You have two options: a) continue with the opinion that original research is suitable for sourcing, in which case you cannot edit Wikipedia, and will likely end up blocked at some point; b) restrict yourself to statements backed by reliable, published sources. Since basically all you want to add appears to be sourceable as per the latter, I have no idea why you seem so hellbent on stringing yourself up on a). -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 17:42, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Awww cute, now you're going to conflate the issue with original research. So, stumbling upon a quote in a book is original research, too? And no, I would not have all these issues with your if you were not insisting on a section that has less and less correct information. I live in Switzerland, and I have personally seen many of the animals I am referring to. But, sheesh.--Keimzelle (talk) 18:23, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Your choice. Nothing based on "personal observation" is getting in, and the next person to tell you so is going to be an admin if you insist on trying that. Feel free to update the section on based on written material. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 18:27, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * If you see a quote in a written source, then it is your personal observation of that quote. In the end, I have to trust you that you have seen this quote. Therefore, there is no difference between walking into a publicly accessible park and entering a library. Both contain objectively observable facts. And now you are threatening me with administrative action because I flat out refuse accept a section that is both incomplete and untrue?--Keimzelle (talk) 21:10, 24 September 2022 (UTC)
 * It feels a little pointless to keep up an argument against a policy- especially since you currently seem to be chilling for a week on account of sticking to I Am Right And Everyone Else Is Wrong. So let's leave it at this: there is no leeway here. I, everyone else, the administrators, and the written policy agree that there is a fundamental difference between "This is published in a written source" and "I have seen this". Take it (and edit) or leave it (and stay away from the page). -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 07:08, 25 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Just gonna add here that I agree with Elmidae. Keimzelle, please be civil. --Pitsarotta (talk) 20:21, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Not today.--Keimzelle (talk) 11:29, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Вторая мировая война прервала эту работу, часть животных погибла. Однако по окончании войны работа по спасению зубра возобновилась. В 1946 году зубров стали разводить на территории Беловежской пущи, принадлежащей Советскому Союзу (на польской территории к этому времени сохранилось 17 зубров, которые были собраны в специальный питомник).
 * В 2000 году количество зубров составляло около 3500 особей. У сегодняшних зубров можно выделить две формы: первая — беловежский подвид, и вторая — заводская линия. Кавказско-беловежские зубры содержат гены единственного выжившего в неволе кавказского экземпляра. С 1961 года в СССР началось расселение зубров в леса, в пределах их прежнего ареала (работы под руководством М. А. Заблоцкого).
 * Зубр в Беловежской пуще
 * На сегодняшний день выполнен первый этап работ по сохранению зубра: исчезновение в ближайшее время этому редкому виду не угрожает. Тем не менее, Красная Книга МСОП относит данный вид к категории уязвимый — «VU» («vulnerable») по критерию D1 (несмотря на уменьшение в 1990-х годах, популяция растёт с 2000 года). На территории России Красная книга РФ (1998) ставила зубра в категорию 1 «Находящиеся под угрозой исчезновения».
 * В результате целенаправленной деятельности многих специалистов на 31 декабря 1997 года в мире в условиях неволи (зоопарках, питомниках и прочих резерватах) находилось 1096 зубров, в вольных популяциях — 1829 особей. Но если в середине 1980-х годов в СССР было порядка 1100 зубров, в том числе около 300 в России, то к концу 1990-х годов вольные популяции чистокровных зубров на Кавказе несколько сократились (они живут в Кавказском заповеднике, Цейском заказнике в Северной Осетии и Архызском участке Тебердинского заповедника).Последний живущий на свободе зубр был убит в Беловежской пуще лесничим Казимиром Шпаковским в 1921 году, а на Кавказе последних трёх зубров убили в 1926 году в окрестностях горы Алоус. В зоопарках и частных владениях всего мира сохранились лишь 66 животных. По инициативе польского зоолога Яна Штольцмана во Франкфурте-на-Майне в 1923 году было создано Международное общество охраны зубра. Сегодня выселенные по специальным программам из зоопарков на природу популяции зубров обитают в Польше, Испании, Белоруссии, Литве, Латвии, Молдавии, Украине, Словакии, Германии.
 * Первый зубровый питомник в России был создан в 1948 году на территории Приокско-Террасного государственного природного биосферного заповедника Серпуховского района Московской области. К 2009 году в питомнике выращены и отправлены в различные районы России, Украины, Белоруссии, Литвы и других стран 328 чистокровных зубров. В Спасском районе Рязанской области расположен Окский биосферный государственный заповедник с зубровым питомником (питомник действует с 1959 года). С 1989 года вольная популяция зубров обитает в Клязьминско-Лухском заказнике во Владимирской области (около 50 голов в 2017 году). В Вологодской области зубры появились в 1991 году (завезли 1 самца и 2 самки), а в настоящее время их численность насчитывает 112 особей. С 1992 года этот редкий вид краснокнижных животных есть и в новом заповеднике «Калужские засеки» на юго-востоке Калужской области на территории, пограничной с Орловской и Тульской областями. С 1996 года по настоящее время в национальный парк Орловское Полесье завезено 65 зубров. К 2001 году там создано три группы зубров общей численностью более 120 животных. В 2019 году — 401 зубр, это самая большая популяция вольноживущего зубра в России и вторая по численности в мире. В Шебалинском районе Республики Алтай находится Чергинский зубровый питомник. В 2015 году поголовье Зубров в Чергинском питомнике составляло 47 особей. Цйфыву (talk) 16:40, 21 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:European bison


text:
Talk:German game designer

I propose to incorporate this into German-style board games Sebastian 11:17 Feb 9, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:German game designer