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Lesja

Lesja is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Lesja. Other villages in the municipality include Bjorli, Lesjaskog, Lesjaverk, and Lora.

Lesja is located in the northwestern edge of Innlandet county. It is bordered in the north by the municipalities of Molde and Sunndal (in Møre og Romsdal county) and Oppdal (in Trøndelag county). It is bordered to the east by the municipality of Dovre; in the south by Vågå and Lom municipalities; in the southwest by the municipality of Skjåk; and to the west by Rauma municipality.

The 2260 km2 municipality is the 25th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Lesja is the 282nd most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,966. The municipality's population density is 0.9 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 8.3% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The parish of Lesje was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). In 1863, the eastern part of the municipality (population: 2,537) was separated to become the new municipality of Dovre. This left Lesja with 3,666 residents.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Lesja farm (Lesjar) since the first Lesja Church was built there. There are two different interpretations of the meaning of the name. It might derive from læs meaning "pasture", or it is a shortened version of Leirsjøar meaning "muddy lakes", referring to two relatively large and shallow lakes which occupied the valley bottom until the late 19th century, when both lakes were drained in order to gain more farmland. Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Lesje. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Lesja.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 23 January 1987. The official blazon is "Per fess argent and azure, a pile issuant from the base" (På sølv grunn blå skjoldfot med spiss oppover). This means the arms have are divided with a line that is horizontal with a triangle point upwards in the middle. The field (background) below the line has a tincture of blue. Above the line, the field has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The design is meant to represent the spire of Lesja Church, which sits on a hill and its roof line and spire are visible from far away. The arms were designed by Einar H. Skjervold. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Lesja. It is part of the Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

Geography
Lesja is highly mountainous, and lies on the east–west watershed, with the lake Lesjaskogsvatnet draining both west to the Rauma river and east to the Gudbrandsdalslågen river. The largest part (82%) of the municipal area is over 900 m above sea level, with the highest mountain peaks reaching above an elevation of 2200 m in the northeast. The most populated areas lie between 500 and 650 m along the Gudbrandsdalslågen river and highway E136. Abundant summer farms (seter or sæter) are situated close to the treeline, both in the main valley and its tributaries. The summer farms were of major importance for farming until recently, but today only few are used in the traditional way, and mainly as grounds for grazing dairy cattle and sheep. More than 400 lakes are situated within the municipality, mainly above treeline, including the lake Aursjøen. The Norwegian trout is common both in lakes and rivers, even in lakes above 1500 m above sea level. The landscape is hummocky in general, and owes its appearance mainly to erosion by the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the last glacial period.

Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park
Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park was founded in 2002 and encompasses part of the former Dovre National Park area, as founded in 1974. It is 1693 km2 encompassing areas in Lesja and Dovre in Innlandet as well as areas in Trøndelag and Møre og Romsdal. It includes the Dovrefjell mountain range.

Economy
The municipality is primarily agricultural. Recent censuses show over 40% of the residents in the community are in farming.

Rail service is provided by the Rauma Line, connecting with the Dovre Line at Dombås in Dovre and extending to the terminus in Åndalsnes on the fjord in Møre og Romsdal County.

Lesja is located in a mountain region, comprising the south-westerly portion of the Dovrefjell range. It is the site of the Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park, lies just north of Jotunheimen National Park and lies just west of Rondane National Park, so tourism and outdoor sports such as skiing are also important. The Bjorli ski area lies in Lesja.

Government
Lesja Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Østre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Lesja is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Lesja:

 * 1838-1849: Johannes Tøndevold
 * 1850-1853: Peder Skotte
 * 1854-1855: Syver Hogsvold
 * 1856-1863: H.G. Kolstad
 * 1864-1867: Syver Hogsvold
 * 1868-1871: Peder Bj. Holager
 * 1872-1873: Syver Hogsvold
 * 1874-1877: H.H. Hatrem
 * 1878-1879: Peder Bj. Holager
 * 1880-1883: Per Kolstad
 * 1884-1885: H.H. Hatrem
 * 1886-1887: Peder Bj. Holager
 * 1888-1889: H.H. Hatrem
 * 1890-1891: Peder Bj. Holager
 * 1892-1901: A. Norderhus
 * 1902-1913: Ole Rolstad (Bp)
 * 1914-1916: Ole Ekre (Bp)
 * 1917-1919: Ole Rolstad (Bp)
 * 1920-1922: Ole Ekre (Bp)
 * 1923-1925: Ole Rolstad (Bp)
 * 1926-1928: Ole Ekre (Bp)
 * 1929-1937: Sigvart Jordhøy (Bp)
 * 1938-1947: John Bottheim (Bp)
 * 1947-1955: Ola O. Mølmen (Bp)
 * 1956-1959: Sverre J. Botheim (Sp)
 * 1960-1963: Ola O. Mølmen (Sp)
 * 1964-1967: Sverre J. Botheim (Sp)
 * 1968-1969: Ola O. Mølmen (Sp)
 * 1970-1971: Andreas Mølmen (Heile Lesja)
 * 1972-1975: Karl Stålaker (Sp)
 * 1976-1987: Jo Nordahl Botheim (Sp)
 * 1988-1991: Osvald Haugbotn (Sp)
 * 1992-1999: Jo N. Bottheim (Sp)
 * 1999-2011: Per Dag Hole (Sp)
 * 2011-2015: Steinar Tronhus (Ap)
 * 2015–present: Mariann Skotte (Sp)

History
Since it is located on a pass providing access to the Gudbrandsdalen, Lesja lies on an important trade route used in prehistoric times.

Earliest recorded history
The area is first mentioned in the written chronicle of the Heimskringla (The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway) by Snorri Sturluson. The account of King Olaf's (A.D. 1015–1021) conversion of Dale-Gudbrand to Christianity is popularly recognized. King Olaf's success was short-lived, for in 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied round the invading Knut the Great, and Olaf had to flee. To avoid engaging a fleet of 25 ships, 400 of King Olav's men and 100 loyal peasant farmers from Romsdal built a road up from the Romsdalfjord which passed through the area that became known as Lesjaverk. His men fled along this road and across Gudbrandsdal. There he was not warmly received since he had killed King Thorer of Gudbrandsdal, so he went on to Hedmark. From there he proceeded to Sweden and on to Russia. On his return a year later he fell at the Battle of Stiklestad.

Lesjaverk (The Lesja iron works)
Iron smelting is recorded in Lesja municipality at Lesjaverk (Lesja Iron Works) as early as 1614, when King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway authorized the Romsdal Market at Devold on the Rauma river 4 miles upstream of Åndalsnes. With this change, Molde assumed the role as principal market town for Romsdal formerly held by Veøy. This change was made to provide the ironworkers at Lesjaverk with a convenient outlet for their products as well as providing them a market to purchases goods and food supplies such as stockfish and grain.

Art and culture
Jakob Bersveinson Klukstad (1710 to 1773), who was born in Lom spent most of his career on Klukstad farm in Lesja. Klukstad was the foremost Norwegian sculptor and painter of his generation. His work can still be seen in churches at Lesja, Skjåk, and Heidal.

Emigration from Lesja
The Lesja area in the Gudbrandsdal was source of numerous emigrants to America. According to Du Chaillu, "...during the great famine of 1867; a year memorable in the annals of Northern Europe, when, in consequence of an early and heavy frost in summer, the crops were destroyed, and desolation and death spread over vast districts. The lichen and the bark of the birch tree, mixed with a little flour, became the food of the people after the cattle had been eaten up and nothing else was left. The year following a strong tide of emigration set out for America."

World War 2
After the German invasion of April 1940, while King Haakon and the Norwegian government were moving from Elverum to the west coast, the King and Crown Prince Olaf arrived in Otta on the night of April 13. The prime minister and his colleagues, who were then in Lesja, were summoned and a communiqué, ending "God save Norway," and urging resistance to the unprovoked attack was issued. They now intended to relocate to the west coast, but the Germans had dropped paratroopers higher in the Gudbrandsdalen, at Dombås, cutting off the rail route. It was not until the evening of the 21st that the King was able to travel by road from Otta to Lesja on the east–west watershed and then down the narrow Romsdal to Åndalsnes.

During the war a British fighter squadron (flying 'Gloster Gladiators') flew from the icebound surface of lake Lesjaskogsvatnet. No. 263 Squadron RAF operated with 18 Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters in late April 1940 as part of the Norwegian Campaign.

Notable people

 * Jakob Klukstad (1705–1773), a wood carver and painter who lived most of his life and died in Lesja
 * Edvard Storm (1749–1794), a national romantic poet and teacher in Lesja
 * Christen Pram (1756 in Lesja – 1821), an economist, civil servant, poet, novelist, playwright, diarist, and magazine editor
 * Jens Holmboe (1752 in Lesja – 1804), a Norwegian bailiff who helped settle the Målselvdalen
 * John Flittie (1856 in Lesja – 1913), the first North Dakota Secretary of State who emigrated from Lesja in 1867
 * Frederick Delius (1862–1934), an English composer who summered at Villa Høifagerli, the house he built in Lesjaskog in 1921
 * Sigurd Einbu (1866 in Lesjaskog – 1946), a Norwegian self-taught astronomer
 * Ragnvald Einbu (1870 in Lesja – 1943), a painter and woodcarver of fairy-tale and genre figures
 * Lars Magnus Moen (1885 in Lesja – 1964), a politician, government minister, and member of the Storting from 1928-1957
 * Olaf Heitkøtter, (Norwegian Wiki) (1928–2013), a mountain ranger in Lesja who wrote seven books
 * Ola Enstad (1942 in Lesjaskog – 2013), a Norwegian sculptor
 * Arne Hyttnes (born 1950 in Lesjaskog), a Norwegian banker

title: Lesja


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Skjåk

Skjåk is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Bismo. Most of the municipal residents live in the Billingsdalen and Ottadalen valleys along the river Otta. The local newspaper is named Fjuken.

The 2076 km2 municipality is the 33rd largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Skjåk is the 271st most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 2,147. The municipality's population density is 1.1 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 5.8% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The municipality of Skjåk was established on 1 January 1866 when the municipality of Lom was divided and the western part of the municipality (population: 2,691) became the new municipality of Skjåk (historically spelled Skiaker). The eastern part of the municipality (population: 3,299) remained as Lom.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Skjåk farm (Skeiðakr) since the first Skjåk Church was built there. The first element comes from the word which means "a running track for horse racing". The last element is which means "field" or "acre". Prior to 1889, the name was written "Skiaker", then from 1889 to 1910 it was spelled "Skiaaker". On 4 June 1910, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Skjaak, to give the name a more Norwegian and less Danish spelling due to Norwegian language reforms. On 21 December 1917, a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Prior to this change, the name was spelled with the digraph "aa", and after this reform, the letter å was used instead (Skjåk).

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 31 March 1989. The official blazon is "Azure, an acanthus quatrefoil argent" (På blå grunn eit sølv firblad). This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is four acanthus leaves connected in the centre. The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. This design was chosen to symbolize growth and strength. These symbols are found in many historic artifacts from around the area. The arms were designed by Arvid Sveen. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has two parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Skjåk. It is part of the Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

Geography
Skjåk is the westernmost municipality in the Ottadalen valley. It is bordered to the north by the municipalities of Fjord, Rauma, and Lesja, in the east and southeast by Lom, in the south by Luster and in the west by Stryn and Stranda. The municipality lies along the Otta river between the mountainous areas of Breheim and Reinheim. Bismo is the modern population center and the location of the majority of industry and shopping as well as the municipal administration.

The community is at the meeting point between Gudbrandsdalen and the mountains between the eastern parts of Norway and the west coast. The municipality lies on a historically significant traffic artery between Stryn and Nordfjord, Geiranger, and Sunnmøre and the more easterly Ottadal municipalities of Lom and Vågå. The Breheimen National Park and Reinheimen National Park are both located in the municipality.

Of the total area, 19 km2 is used for agriculture; 129 km2 for forestry; 75 km2 is covered by water (including the Breiddalsvatnet lake); and the rest is mountains and other non-arable land. Virtually the entire 23 km long valley floor is continuously, but sparsely, built up. Skjåk serves as a point of entry to the mountain areas just west; hunting and fishing are also popular tourist activities. The municipality includes a number of large lakes including Aursjoen, Breiddalsvatnet, Grønvatnet, Langvatnet, Rauddalsvatn, and Tordsvatnet. The Breheimen mountains run through the municipality and the Holåbreen and Tystigbreen glaciers are located in those mountains.

Climate
Nestled in a deep valley, the populated regions of Skjåk are rain shadowed and as a result are actually one of the most arid places in Europe with annual precipitation of about 10 in per year, but it avoids a steppe climate (Köppen BSk) by being too cold (mean annual temperature of 2.75 C), thus having a low evapotranspiration rate, and having precipitation too spread out (about 55% in summer). This gives Skjåk a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc), thanks to low overall precipitation levels in summer.

In addition, one side of the valley, solsida ("the sunny side"), has a southern exposure, whereas baksida (the "back side") gets very little sun. Agriculture has been enabled by elaborate irrigation systems for hundreds of years, so the area is green and productive rather than desert-like.

History
Skjåk has historical roots back to the Viking Age and has a rich cultural heritage. An ancient route of travel between east and west went from Skjåk up through the Raudal valley and down through the Sunndal valley to Stryn on an arm of the Nordfjord. For example, in 1197, according to King Sverre's saga, Bishop Nikolaus is reported to have sent a group of baglers from Oppdal over the mountains to Stryn on Nordfjord, via Raudal.

Government
Skjåk Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Skjåk is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordførar) of Skjåk:

 * 1866–1875: Otto Ottesen
 * 1876–1877: Ola Lund
 * 1878–1881: Jon J. Kjeka
 * 1882–1883: Kristian A. Hjeltar
 * 1884–1885: Ola O. Hyrve
 * 1886–1889: Ola Lund
 * 1890–1891: Ola O. Skjåk
 * 1892–1893: Kristian A. Hjeltar
 * 1894–1897: Lars Ånstad
 * 1898–1901: Ola O. Skjåk
 * 1902–1904: Lars Ånstad
 * 1905–1907: Rasmus Haugen
 * 1908–1910: Ola O. Ånstad
 * 1911–1913: Erik Kvale
 * 1914–1916: Kolbein Skaare
 * 1917–1919: Johannes Kjeken
 * 1920–1922: Kolbein Skaare
 * 1923–1925: Olav Øygard
 * 1926–1928: Ola F. Gjeilo
 * 1929–1931: Olav Øygard
 * 1932–1934: Ola F. Gjeilo
 * 1935–1941: Ole O. Langleite (Ap)
 * 1941–1945: Gudbrand Skjaak (NS)
 * 1945–1951: Ole O. Langleite (Ap)
 * 1952–1955: Trygve Bakke (Bp)
 * 1956–1959: Ole Langleite (Ap)
 * 1960–1971: Trygve Bakke (Sp)
 * 1972–1983: Hans Krogstad (Sp)
 * 1984–1987: Åge Willy Rønningen (Ap)
 * 1988–1995: Margit Grimstad Lien (Sp)
 * 1996–2003: Hans Krogstad (Sp)
 * 2003–2007: Ola Stensgård (Sp)
 * 2007–2015: Rolv Kristen Øygard (Sp)
 * 2015–2019: Elias Sperstad (Sp)
 * 2019–present: Edel Kveen (Sp)

Notable people

 * Skjåk-Ola, (Norwegian Wiki) (1744 in Skjåk - 1803), a wood carver whose real name was Ola Rasmussen Skjåk
 * Tore Ørjasæter (1886 in Skjåk – 1968), an educator, literature critic, author, and poet
 * Jan-Magnus Bruheim (1914 in Skjåk – 1988), a Norwegian poet and children's writer
 * Magnhild Bruheim, (Norwegian Wiki) (born 1951 in Skjåk), an author and journalist
 * Rune Øygard (born 1959 in Skjåk), a former politician and convicted paedophile
 * Trond Bersu (born 1984 in Skjåk), a Norwegian drummer and producer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Skjåk


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Lom

Lom or LOM may refer to:

Ethnic group

 * Lom people, a Romani group, mainly in the Caucasus

Antarctica

 * Lom Peak

Bulgaria

 * Lom Municipality, a municipality
 * Lom, Bulgaria, a town in the municipality
 * Gorni Lom, a village
 * Lom (river), a river
 * Rusenski Lom, a river

Cambodia

 * Lom, a village in Pak Nhai

Czech Republic

 * Lom (Most District), a town in the Ústí nad Labem Region
 * Lom (Strakonice District), a municipality and village in the South Bohemian Region
 * Lom (Tábor District), a municipality and village in the South Bohemian Region
 * Lom, a village and part of Kly (Mělník District) in the Central Bohemian Region
 * Lom u Tachova, a municipality and village in the Plzeň Region
 * Mokrý Lom, a municipality and village in the South Bohemian Region

Norway

 * Lom, Norway, a municipality
 * Lom prisoner of war camp in the municipality

Slovakia

 * Lom nad Rimavicou, a municipality and village

Surname

 * Herbert Lom, Czech-British film actor
 * Iain Lom, Scottish Gaelic poet

Other uses

 * Lom (album), by Seka Aleksić
 * Lom (digging bar), a long metal hand tool used as a lever or to break up soil or objects
 * LOM Ediciones, a Chilean publishing house

Abbreviations

 * LAN on motherboard, an integrated network interface controller in a computer
 * Lights out management, the ability for a system administrator to monitor and manage servers by remote control
 * Locator Outer Marker, a navigational aid used by aircraft
 * Learning object metadata, defined as the attributes required to fully or adequately describe a learning object
 * Laminated object manufacturing, a rapid prototyping technology developed by Helisys
 * Legion of Merit, a military decoration of the United States
 * Wings Field Airport (FAA LID airport code "LOM"), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Francisco Primo de Verdad National Airport (IATA airport code "LOM")
 * Olympique de Marseille, a French football club, sometimes referred to as l'OM

title: Lom


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Fragging

Fragging is the deliberate or attempted killing of a soldier, usually a superior, by a fellow soldier. U.S. military personnel coined the word during the Vietnam War, when such killings were most often committed or attempted with a fragmentation grenade, to make it appear that the killing was accidental or during combat with the enemy. The term fragging now encompasses any deliberate killing of military colleagues.

The high number of fragging incidents in the latter years of the Vietnam War was symptomatic of the unpopularity of the war with the American public and the breakdown of discipline in the U.S. Armed Forces. Documented and suspected fragging incidents using explosives totaled 904 from 1969 to 1972, while hundreds of fragging incidents using firearms took place, but were hard to quantify as they were indistinguishable from combat deaths and poorly documented.

Fragging should not be confused with the unintentional killing and/or wounding of comrades and/or allied personnel; such incidents are referred to as friendly fire.

Motivation
Soldiers have killed colleagues since the beginning of armed conflict, with many documented instances throughout history. However, the practice of fragging seems to have been relatively uncommon in the U.S. military until the Vietnam War. The prevalence of fragging was partially based on the ready availability of explosive weapons such as fragmentation hand grenades. Grenades were untraceable to an owner and left no ballistic evidence. M18 Claymore mines and other explosives were also occasionally used in fragging, as were firearms, although the term, as defined by the military during the Vietnam War, applied only to the use of explosives to kill fellow soldiers. Most fragging incidents were in the Army and Marine Corps. Fragging was rare among Navy and Air Force personnel, who had less access to grenades and weapons than did soldiers and Marines.

The first known incidents of fragging in South Vietnam took place in 1966, but events in 1968 appear to have catalyzed an increase in fragging. After the Tet Offensive in January and February 1968, the Vietnam War became increasingly unpopular in the United States and among American soldiers in Vietnam, many of them conscripts. Secondly, racial tensions between white and black soldiers and marines increased after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968. With troops reluctant to risk their lives in what was perceived as a lost war, fragging was seen by some enlisted men "as the most effective way to discourage their superiors from showing enthusiasm for combat".

Morale plummeted among soldiers and marines. In 1971, a USMC colonel declared in the Armed Forces Journal that "The morale, discipline, and battle worthiness of the U.S. Armed Forces are, with a few salient exceptions, lower and worse than at any time in this century and possibly in the history of the United States."

The U.S. military reflected social problems and issues in the U.S. such as racism, drug abuse, and resentment toward authoritarian leaders. As the U.S. began to withdraw its military forces from Vietnam, some American enlisted men and young officers lost their sense of purpose for being in Vietnam, and the hierarchical relationship between enlisted men and their officers deteriorated. The resentment directed from enlisted men toward older officers was exacerbated by generational gaps, as well as different perceptions of how the military should conduct itself. Enforcement of military regulations, especially if done overzealously, led to complaints and sometimes threats of physical violence directed toward officers.

A number of factors may have influenced the incidence of fragging. The demand for manpower for the war in Vietnam caused the armed forces to lower their standards for inducting both officers and enlisted men. The rapid rotation of personnel, especially of officers who served (on average) less than six months in command roles, decreased the stability and cohesion of military units. Most important of all, perhaps, was the loss of purpose in fighting the war, as it became apparent to all that the United States was withdrawing from the war without having achieved any sort of victory. Morale and discipline deteriorated.

Most fragging was perpetrated by enlisted men against officers. Enlisted men, in the words of one company commander, "feared they would get stuck with a lieutenant or platoon sergeant who would want to carry out all kinds of crazy John Wayne tactics, who would use their lives in an effort to win the war single-handedly, win the big medal, and get his picture in the hometown paper". Harassment of subordinates by a superior was another frequent motive. The stereotypical fragging incident was of "an aggressive career officer being assaulted by disillusioned subordinates". Several fragging incidents resulted from alleged racism between black and white soldiers. Attempts by officers to control drug use caused others. Most known fragging incidents were carried out by soldiers in support units rather than soldiers in combat units.

Soldiers sometimes used non-lethal smoke and tear-gas grenades to warn superiors that they were in more serious danger if they did not change their behavior. A few instances occurred—and many more were rumored—in which enlisted men pooled their money for "bounties" on particular officers or non-commissioned officers to reward soldiers for fragging them.

U.S. Forces in Vietnam
According to author George Lepre, the total number of known and suspected fragging cases using explosives in Vietnam from 1969 to 1972 totalled nearly 900, with 99 deaths and many injuries. This total is incomplete, as some cases were not reported, nor were statistics kept before 1969 (although several incidents from 1966 to 1968 are known). Most of the victims or intended victims were officers or non-commissioned officers. The number of fraggings increased in 1970 and 1971 even though the U.S. military was withdrawing and the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam was declining.

An earlier calculation by authors Richard A. Gabriel and Paul L. Savage, estimated that up to 1,017 fragging incidents may have taken place in Vietnam, causing 86 deaths and 714 injuries of U.S. military personnel, the majority officers and NCOs.

By the end of the war at least 450 officers were killed in fraggings, while the U.S. military reported at least 600 U.S. soldiers killed in fragging incidents with another 1,400 dying under mysterious circumstances.

Fragging statistics include only incidents involving explosives, most commonly grenades. Several hundred murders of U.S. soldiers by firearms occurred in Vietnam but most were of enlisted men killing other enlisted men of nearly equal rank. Fewer than ten officers are known to have been murdered by firearms. However, rumors and claims abound of the deliberate killing of officers and non-commissioned officers by enlisted men under battlefield conditions. The frequency and number of these fraggings, indistinguishable from combat deaths, cannot be quantified.

Response
The U.S. military's responses to fragging incidents included greater restrictions on access to weapons, especially grenades, for soldiers in non-combat units and post-fragging "lockdowns" in which a whole unit was isolated until after an investigation. For example, in May 1971, the U.S. Army in Vietnam temporarily halted the issuance of grenades to nearly all units and soldiers in Vietnam, inventoried stocks of weapons, and searched soldiers' quarters, confiscating weapons, ammunition, grenades, and knives. This, however, failed to reduce fragging incidents as soldiers could easily obtain weapons in a flourishing black market among nearby Vietnamese communities. The U.S. military also attempted to diminish adverse publicity concerning fragging and the security measures it was taking to reduce it.

Only a few fraggers were identified and prosecuted. It was often difficult to distinguish between fragging and enemy action. A grenade thrown into a foxhole or tent could be a fragging, or the action of an enemy infiltrator or saboteur. Enlisted men were often close-mouthed in fragging investigations, refusing to inform on their colleagues out of fear or solidarity. Sentences for fragging convictions were severe—but the few men convicted often served fairly brief prison sentences. Ten fraggers were convicted of murder and served sentences from ten months to forty years with a mean (average) prison time of about nine years.

Influence
In the Vietnam War, the threat of fragging caused many officers and NCOs to go armed in rear areas and to change their sleeping arrangements as fragging often consisted of throwing a grenade into a tent where the target was sleeping. For fear of being fragged, some leaders turned a blind eye to drug use and other indiscipline among the men in their charge. Fragging, the threat of fragging, and investigations of fragging sometimes disrupted or delayed tactical combat operations. Officers were sometimes forced to negotiate with their enlisted men to obtain their consent before undertaking dangerous patrols.

The breakdown of discipline, including fragging, was an important influence on the U.S. change to an all-volunteer military in place of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973. The volunteer military moderated some of the coercive methods of discipline previously used to maintain order in military ranks.

Coalition forces in Afghanistan
During the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021) hundreds of coalition soldiers were intentionally killed by Islamic Republic of Afghanistan forces. Increases in insider attacks against coalition forces were noted after high-profile provocations such as the 2012 Afghanistan Quran burning protests and the Kandahar massacre.

In 2012, according to NATO, 51 coalition service members died due to the deliberate actions from members of the Afghan forces. Another 65 NATO soldiers were killed in insider attacks between 2007 and 2011. The increase in so called "green-on-blue attacks" prompted U.S. officials to revamp the screening process of potential Afghan recruits as Afghan military leadership identified "hundreds" of Afghan soldiers within their ranks who were linked to the Taliban insurgency or harbored anti-American views.

Most of the attackers in these incidents were members of the special Afghan Local Police (ALP) units, who operated as a local tribal force and were known to have ties to the Taliban. They were are also known to use drugs and were sometimes reported for abusing civilians.

The Long War Journal reported on such attacks, counting 155 since 2008 to June 11, 2017, resulting in 152 Coalition dead and 193 wounded. ANA fighters sometimes fled to the Taliban, which posted videos 'welcoming' the fleeing fighters. NATO commanders initially stated that an estimated 90% of the attacks were due to cultural differences and personal enmity, while the Afghan government disagreed and blamed the problem on "infiltration by foreign spy agencies", including those of "neighboring countries".

To reduce insider attacks, joint operations between U.S. and Afghan forces were reduced and coalition soldiers were reminded to be respectful.

Notable incidents

 * 1704: Battle of Blenheim: An unpopular English Army major of Sir William Clifton's Regiment of Foot was shot in the head by his own men after the battle had been won.
 * 1718: Charles XII of Sweden was shot and killed during the siege of Halden; the shot was possibly fired by one of his own soldiers.
 * 1777: Battle of Saratoga: Lieutenant Colonel Heinrich von Breymann of the Brunswick Army, the ranking officer of German Pro-British forces as well as their Native American allies during the defeats at the Battle of Bennington and the Battle of Saratoga, was so disgusted with the performance of his men that he began attacking them with his sabre; one of the men, after being injured, pulled out a pistol and shot Lt.-Col. von Breymann dead.
 * 1815: Battle of Quatre Bras: The commander of the 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot, Colonel John Cameron of Fassfern, was shot and killed by a man whom he had recently flogged.
 * 1847: Mexican–American War: Lieutenant Colonel Braxton Bragg (later a Confederate general) survived two attempts on his life: in each case, an artillery shell exploded under his bed.
 * 1894: Battle of the Yalu River: Admiral Ding Ruchang's legs were crushed, either due to a construction defect or the deliberate misfiring of his ship's main battery by the ship's captain.
 * World War I: According to General Frank Percy Crozier, an unpopular British Army sergeant was killed when one of his men came up behind him and dropped an unpinned hand grenade down his trousers.
 * February 1984: A Japan Ground Self-Defense soldier went on a shooting spree by firing on his squadron on the target shooting range at Camp Yamaguchi: one was killed and three injured.
 * July 6, 1999: U.S. infantry soldier Barry Winchell was beaten to death with a baseball bat while he slept outside of his barracks by Calvin Glover for dating a transgender woman.
 * November 5, 2009: U.S. Army major and psychiatrist Nidal Hasan went on a shooting spree at Fort Hood that led to the deaths of 13 fellow soldiers and 32 being injured, before being shot and paralyzed from the waist down. On August 23, 2013, he was convicted of 13 counts of premeditated murder and 32 counts of attempted premeditated murder, and was sentenced to death on August 28, 2013.
 * May 28, 2012: A Kazakh border guard using his rifle and firing on his unit at Kazakh-Chinese border resulted 15 killed.
 * September 16, 2013: U.S. Navy petty officer Aaron Alexis went on a shooting spree at Washington Navy Yard using a Remington Model 870 shotgun and a Beretta M9 pistol; he killed 12 people and injured eight before being killed by a shot to the head from responding police officers.
 * November 4, 2016: A Jordanian Army soldier stationed at the King Faisal Air Base in Jordan opened fire on American soldiers attempting to enter a checkpoint. The resulting shootout lead to the deaths of three American soldiers, and ended when another American soldier shot and critically wounded the Jordanian. The Jordanian was sentenced to life in prison.
 * October 25, 2019: A Russian Army soldier gunned down eight people and injured two more during a shooting at the Gorny military base.
 * October 15, 2022: Two Russian soldiers went on a shooting spree at Soloti military base using automatic rifles; they killed 11 people and injured 15 more before being killed by Spetsnaz operators.
 * June 14, 2023: A Japan Ground Self-Defense Force soldier shot three people in an ambush at the basic firing range in Gifu: two were killed and one were wounded.

Vietnam War (U.S. forces)

 * 1969: After the controversial U.S. casualties during the Battle of Hamburger Hill, the G.I underground newspaper "G.I Says" in Vietnam placed a $10,000 bounty on Colonel Weldon Honeycutt, leading to multiple unsuccessful fragging attempts against him.
 * April 21, 1969: A grenade was thrown into the company office of K Company, 9th Marines, at Quảng Trị Combat Base, RVN, with First Lieutenant Robert T. Rohweller dying of wounds he received in the explosion. Private Reginald F. Smith, who was apprehended after boasting about the killing to a colleague in formation while still having a grenade ring on his finger, pleaded guilty to the premeditated murder of Rohweller and was sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment; he was murdered by a fellow inmate in prison on July 25, 1982.
 * March 15, 1971: A grenade was tossed into an officer billet at Bien Hoa Base Camp, with Lieutenants Thomas A. Dellwo and Richard E. Harlan of the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) being killed. Private Billy Dean Smith was charged with the murders of the officers but was acquitted at a court-martial in November 1972.

Vietnam War (Australian forces)

 * November 23, 1969: Lieutenant Robert Thomas Convery of the 9th Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment was killed when a grenade exploded as he was asleep in his tent at Nui Dat, South Vietnam, following a night of heavy drinking within the Battalion. Private Peter Denzil Allen was convicted of Convery's murder and served ten years and eight months of a life sentence in Risdon Prison.
 * December 25, 1970: Private Paul Raymond "Ramon" Ferriday took his SLR rifle and opened fire into the Sergeant's Mess of the Royal Australian Army Service Corps at Nui Dat, South Vietnam, following an all-day drinking session: Sergeants Allan Brian Moss and Wallace James Galvin were shot dead and Sergeant Frederick Edwin Bowtell was wounded. During his court-martial, an Army psychiatrist described Ferriday as having a "paranoid character" and being prone to fits of rage, despite witnesses describing him as being aware of his actions and giving details of previous threatening altercations. Ferriday was convicted on two counts of manslaughter and one of assault with a weapon, and served eight years of a ten-year sentence.

Middle East peacekeeping

 * October 27, 1982: Irish Army Private Michael McAleavey, serving at Tebnine with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, dropped into a combat stance at a checkpoint before opening fire with his FN FAL battle rifle: Corporal Gregory Morrow and Privates Thomas Murphy and Peter Burke were all shot dead. Pvt. McAleavey told Irish Military Police investigators they had been killed by Lebanese gunmen, but ultimately confessed, claiming that he had "snapped" due to dehydration and heat exhaustion. McAleavey was convicted of all three murders at a court-martial and was sentenced to life imprisonment, being paroled in 2010.

The Troubles

 * May 9, 1992: During the reconstruction of a Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) security base devastated just two days before by a Provisional IRA tractor bomb at Fivemiletown, in County Tyrone,  while soldiers from the First Battalion Staffordshire Regiment were providing a security detail to the workers, an eighteen-year-old private fired his SA80 rifle 14 times at the company's sergeant major in a frenzy, killing him in front of the rest of the platoon. The serviceman was eventually acquitted of the charge of murder in 1993, but declared guilty of manslaughter. There were allegations of previous hazing and bullying by the non-commissioned officer against his subordinate.

War in Afghanistan

 * August 17, 2002: Following an altercation, British Army Corporal John Gregory shot and killed Royal Logistic Corps Sergeant Robert Busuttil as he lay in a hammock during a barbecue at Kabul International Airport. Corporal Gregory, who was drunk and under the influence of medication, then killed himself. Wiltshire coroner David Masters asked the British Army "to tighten its rules on alcohol and gun security".
 * January 20, 2012: An Afghan soldier opened fire on French soldiers, killing four and injuring fifteen, eight of whom were seriously wounded. He was subsequently arrested and confessed his motivation came from a published video of American Marines urinating on dead Taliban fighters and a published video of British soldiers abusing an Afghan boy and girl. The incident resulted in French president Nicolas Sarkozy threatening to withdraw all French forces in Afghanistan.
 * August 5, 2014: During a high-ranking coalition delegation speech at the Marshal Fahim National Defense University, an Afghan soldier opened fire on a crowd of 90 Coalition officials and soldiers, leading to the death of U.S. Major General Harold J. Greene and the wounding of 14 others, including German Air Force officer Michael Bartscher. The soldier was killed by two Coalition soldiers at the scene, one Danish and the other American.

Iraq War (U.S. forces)

 * March 23, 2003: In Kuwait, Sergeant Hasan Karim Akbar cut power to his base and threw four hand grenades into three tents where fellow members of the 101st Airborne Division were sleeping, before opening fire with his rifle as the personnel ran to take cover: Army Captain Christopher S. Seifert and Air Force Major Gregory L. Stone were killed and fourteen other soldiers wounded. Akbar was convicted at a court-martial at Fort Bragg, North Carolina on April 21, 2005, on two counts of premeditated murder and three counts of attempted premeditated murder, and was sentenced to death on April 28.
 * June 7, 2005: Captain Phillip Esposito and 1st Lieutenant Louis Allen were both killed after a Claymore mine placed on Esposito's office window was detonated at Forward Operating Base Danger in Tikrit, Iraq. The unit's supply sergeant was charged with the murders, but was acquitted at court martial.
 * July 19, 2005: The death of LaVena Johnson is a suspected fragging incident: she was found dead with a broken nose, black eye, loose teeth, gunshot wound to the mouth, and burns from a corrosive chemical on her genitals. Additionally, bloody footprints were discovered outside of her living quarters. The U.S. Army ruled her death as a suicide, and denied claims by her father that she was raped and murdered. Christopher Grey, chief of public affairs for the USACIDC, accused people of spreading misinformation on the internet that she was murdered.
 * 2008: Army sergeant Joseph Bozicevich killed two fellow soldiers: one of his victims was found shot seven times in the corner of the base's small communications station and another in the dirt outside with six bullets in his back. Several witnesses said they saw Bozicevich chasing one of them while firing at him and fired two shots while he stood directly over him. Witnesses also testified to hearing Bozicevich screaming "Kill me!" as he was pinned to the ground. In 2011 he was sentenced to life in prison.
 * May 11, 2009: Sergeant John Russell opened fire on Camp Liberty with an M16A2 rifle and shot dead five U.S. military personnel. Russell pleaded guilty to five counts of premeditated murder and was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.
 * September 7, 2010: An Iraqi soldier pulled out his weapon and opened fire on a group of U.S. soldiers after getting into an argument with one of them, leaving two dead and nine injured before the Iraqi was shot dead.
 * September 23, 2010: United States Army Spc. Neftaly Platero shot dead two of his roommates and injured another who he had arguments with in Fallujah. In June 2013 he was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.
 * June 12, 2011: An Iraqi soldier killed two U.S. soldiers and wounded a third after smuggling real bullets into a U.S. base training centre: he was immediately killed by U.S. soldiers managing the training event.

Royal Navy

 * April 28, 2011: During a port visit to Southampton, Able Seaman Ryan Donovan abandoned his sentry post at the boarding ramp of the submarine HMS Astute, and entered the submarine's weapons locker: Donovan took an SA80 rifle and opened fire on CPOs David McCoy and Chris Brown after they confronted him. Donovan then forced his way into the control room, where he shot dead Lieutenant Commander Ian Molyneux and wounded Lt Cdr Christopher Hodge before being tackled to the deck by a visiting dignitary, city council leader Royston Smith, as he reloaded. Donovan pleaded guilty to Molyneux's murder and the attempted murders of Hodge, Brown, and McCoy, and was sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum of 25 years.

Russo-Ukrainian War

 * January 27, 2022: A Ukrainian conscript soldier serving in Ukraine's National Guard opened fire in a machine factory, killing five fellow soldiers and wounding five others, before fleeing the scene: he was later arrested by police.

 * March 2022: According to a Facebook post by a Ukrainian journalist published on March 23, after suffering heavy losses (in excess of close to half of their brigade) a group of Russian conscripts of the 37th Motor Rifle Brigade reportedly attacked their commanding officer, Colonel Yuri Medvedev, running him over with a tank, crushing both his legs approximately 48 km from Kyiv, during the battle of Makariv. An unnamed senior Western official said Medvedev later died of his injuries. The date of the incident is unknown but reports of the hospitalization of Medvedev appeared on March 11.

title: Fragging


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Vågå

Vågå is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Vågåmo. Other village areas in Vågå include Lalm and Bessheim.

The 1330 km2 municipality is the 73rd largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Vågå is the 214th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 3,532. The municipality's population density is 2.9 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 5% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The prestegjeld of Vaage was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). On 1 January 1908, the municipality was divided into three parts. The northeastern part of Vågå (population: 2,287) became Sel Municipality, the southeastern part (population: 1,241) became Hedalen Municipality, and the remaining areas in the west (population: 2,953) remained as Vågå municipality. During the 1960s, there were many municipal changes across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1965, the Tolstadåsen area of Vågå (population: 35) was transferred to the neighboring Sel Municipality.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named Vågå, using a very old name for the area (Vaga or Vága) since the first Vågå Church was built there. Two origins have been suggested for the name Vågå (historic spelling: Vaage):
 * The name Vågå may come from the Old Norse word vega meaning "travel". The area lies on an ancient east–west route mentioned in the Heimskringla.
 * The Old Norse form of the name may come from vaga (accusative and dative cases) from the word vagi (nominative case). It was probably originally the name of the lake Vågåvatn, but the meaning is unknown. (Maybe derived from vage which means "sleigh runner" since the shape of the lake has some similarity of form with a sleigh runner.)

Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Vaage. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Vaagaa. On 21 December 1917, a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Prior to this change, the name was spelled Vaagaa with the digraph "aa", and after this reform, the name was spelled Vågå, using the letter å instead. The letter å has a long vowel similar to "oh" or "aw", like in the American pronunciation of "cold" or "oar."

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 23 August 1985. The official blazon is "Gules, a reindeer springing Or" (På raud grunn eit springande gull reinsdyr på skrå oppover). This means the arms have a red field (background) and the charge is a springing reindeer. The reindeer has a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The design symbolizes the importance of reindeer herding and hunting. It is also based on a character in Henrik Ibsen's book Peer Gynt, who rides on a reindeer bull over the Besseggen mountains. Ibsen got the idea for this book from a local story. The arms were designed by Hans H. Holm and redrawn by Ola T. Rybakken. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Vågå. It is part of the Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

Geography
Vågå is bordered on the north by Lesja Municipality, in the east by Dovre Municipality and Sel Municipality, in the southeast by Nord-Fron Municipality, in the south by Vang Municipality and Øystre Slidre Municipality, and in the west by Lom Municipality.

Vågå municipality lies in a mountainous region just to the east of Norway's Jotunheimen National Park, west of Rondane National Park, and south of the Dovrefjell mountains. The highest peak is the Surtningssue with a height of 2368 m. Vågå includes a mountain road to the top of the1618 m tall Jetta mountain which provides an unobstructed view of both the Gudbrandsdal valley and the surrounding national parks.

The river Otta begins in Skjåk Municipality and flows into Vågåvatn lake. Exiting Vågåvatn at Vågåmo, the river continues its journey through the Ottadalen valley leaving Vågå municipality to meet the Gudbrandsdalslågen river at the town of Otta in the municipality of Sel. Lakes in the region include Flatningen.

Climate
Vågå lies in the rain shadow from the Jotunheimen mountains which separate Eastern and Western Norway. The climate is hence characterized by a continental climate. Warm summers and cold winters dominate, and the precipitation is very low. In fact, during some years it receives less than 300 mm of precipitation.

This dry continental climate makes Vågå the obvious place for the national hang glider and para glider centre of Norway.

Physical geography
Although being affected by the ice-sheet history spanning the Quaternary period of the last 2.5 million years, much of the landscape are moderately imprinted by ice-sheet erosion except from in the main valleys. Even these valleys including Sjodalen and Ottadalen are of pre-Quaternary origin, and were originally sculptured by fluvial rather than glacial erosion. The numerous lakes does remind us of the glacial history, although being much more limited than in the more dramatic [fiord]s of western Norway.

This limited glacial erosion also means that Vågå had limited glacier erosion during the last glacial period. Many findings of Mammoth pre-dating the last glacial maximum (LGM) have been found, being evidence of the conservative nature of the LGM in the region.

History
Vågå is mentioned in the Heimskringla (The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway) by Snorri Sturluson. The old Norse saga (Conversion of Dale-Gudbrand) relates that after King Olaf stayed several nights in Lesja, he proceeded south across the uplands to the Ottadal, and the beautiful hamlet lying there on both sides of the Otta river. King Olaf remained there five days, summoning the residents of Vågå, Lom, and Heidal to a meeting (ting). They were advised they must either receive Christianity and give their sons as hostages, or see their habitations burnt. Many submitted to his demands.

Vågå stave church is the second oldest stave church in the country, which was constructed around 1150 and originally dedicated to St. Peter. It was converted to a cruciform church in 1625; the carved portal and wall planks are original. The baptismal font dates from the original church and a Gothic crucifix from the 13th century can be seen there as well.

In 1130, Ivar Gjesling was the earliest-known owner of Sandbu (just north of Vågåmo) in Vågå. He was also King Magnus IV's lendmann for the Opplands. Sigrid Undset's fictional Lady Ragnfrid, wife of Lavrans, was created a Gjesling from Sandbu. Ivar Gjesling, allied himself with the Birchlegs (Birkebeinerne) — who chose Sverre as their king at Øreting in 1177. Sverre granted him the valley of Heidal as a reward.

Farmers from Vågå participated in the successful attack on Scottish mercenary troops journeying to join Swedish forces in 1612. The legends of the Battle of Kringen lives on to this day, including the story of how the peasant girl Prillar-Guri lured the Scots into an ambush by playing of the traditional ram's horn.

Ole Paulssøn Haagenstad (1775–1866) was in 1814 summoned by Christian-Frederick to plan the defense of Gudbrandsdalen in the event of a Swedish attack.

Over 150 houses in the municipality are designated as historic landmarks.

Government
Vågå Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Vågå is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
Since 1946, all mayors with three exceptions have represented the Norwegian Labour Party. The non-Labour mayors were Ola O. Kleiven and Kari Hølmo Holen (Norwegian Centre Party) and Harald Sve Bjørndal who was elected from the local bygdeliste. The mayors (Ordførar) of Vågå (incomplete list):

 * 1929-1931: Johannes Øverstedal
 * 1938-1940: Ola O. Kleiven
 * 1945-1946: Ola O. Kleiven
 * 1946-1951: Martinus Høgåsen (Ap)
 * 1952-1959: Anders Bjørkheim (Ap)
 * 1960-1961: Ola O. Kleiven
 * 1962-1963: Kaspar Øvstedal (Ap)
 * 1964-1983: Sigurd Granrud (Ap)
 * 1984-1987: Sverre Damstuen (Ap)
 * 1988-1991: Kjell Nyhus (Ap)
 * 1992-1995: Kari Hølmo Holen (Sp)
 * 1996-2012: Rune Øygard (Ap)
 * 2012–2019: Iselin Jonassen (Ap)
 * 2019–present: Harald Sve Bjørndal (BL)

Øygard case
In the September 2011 election, Rune Øygard was reelected as mayor, after having served in that role since 1995. His reelection by the municipal council was controversial as he was already under police investigation for alleged child sexual abuse, the so-called Øygard case, sometimes also referred to as the Vågå case. Øygard was granted temporary leave following his indictment in the case, and was succeeded as acting mayor by Iselin Jonassen (Labour) on 8 May 2012. After being found guilty and sentenced to four years imprisonment, Rune Øygard resigned as mayor. His resignation was granted by the municipal council on 18 December 2012, effective immediately.

Notable people

 * Edvard Storm (1749 in Vågå - 1794), a Norwegian poet, songwriter, and educator
 * Johan Storm Munch (1778 at Vågå – 1832), a Bishop in the Church of Norway, poet, playwright, and magazine editor
 * Jo Gjende (1794 in Vågå – 1884), an outdoorsman and freethinker who may have been the model for Henrik Ibsen’s Peer Gynt
 * Ole Herman Johannes Krag (1837 in Vågå – 1916), a Norwegian officer and firearms designer
 * Ivar Kleiven (1854 in Vågå - 1934), a politician, historian, poet, and collector of local folklore
 * Kristian Prestgard (1866 in Heidal -1946), an American journalist, author, and editor of Decorah-Posten
 * Kristen Holbø (1869 in Vågå – 1953), a painter of landscapes and illustrator
 * Thekla Resvoll (1871 in Vågå – 1948), a Norwegian botanist and educator
 * Benjamin Blessum (1877-1954), a Norwegian-American painter and illustrator whose parents were from Vågå
 * Ragnvald Skrede (1904 in Vågå - 1983), an author, journalist, literature critic, and poet
 * Ivar P. Enge (1922 in Vågå – 2013), a Norwegian radiologist who specialized in interventional radiology
 * Arne Brimi (born 1957), a Norwegian chef and food writer that lives and works in Vågå

Sister cities
Vågå has sister city agreements with the following places:
 * 🇸🇪 - Tierps, Uppsala County, Sweden

title: Vågå


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Nord-Fron

Nord-Fron is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Vinstra. Other population centers in Nord-Fron include the villages of Kvam and Skåbu.

The 1141 km2 municipality is the 95th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Nord-Fron is the 169th most populous municipality in Norway, with a population of 5,589. The municipality's population density is 5.1 PD/km2, and its population has decreased by 4.1% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The prestegjeld of Fron was established as a civil municipality on 1 January 1838 when the new formannskapsdistrikt law was enacted. On 1 January 1851, the municipality was divided in two. The northwest portion became Nord-Fron Municipality (population: 4,685), and the southeast portion became Sør-Fron Municipality (population: 3,421).

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1965, the Sjoa area (population: 413) was transferred from Nord-Fron to the neighboring Sel Municipality. Then, on 1 January 1966, Nord-Fron Municipality (population: 5,758) and Sør-Fron Municipality (population: 3,648) were merged to form a new Fron Municipality (with similar borders to the old Fron municipality that existed from 1838 to 1851 minus the Sjoa area which was then part of Sel).

This merger was not well-liked among the residents of the new municipality. On 1 January 1977, the merger was reversed. Nord-Fron Municipality (population: 6,131) and Sør-Fron Municipality (population: 3,509) were recreated using their old borders from 1965.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Fron farm (Frón) since the first Fron Church was built there. The first element is which means "northern". The last element is uncertain, but it may come from the word, which means "earth" or "land". Thus the name of the municipality is "(the) northern (part of) Fron" (since the parish of Fron was divided in 1851 into a "north" and a "south" part). Historically, it was called Nordre Fron, using another word that also means "north". Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Nordre Fron. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Nord-Fron, using an alternate word for "north".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 18 July 1980. The official blazon is "Gules, a horse forcené Or" (På raud botn ein oppreist gull hest). This means the arms have a red field (background), and the charge is a Dole Gudbrandsdal horse rearing up on its hind legs. The horse has a tincture of Or, which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The Fron area has a long-standing tradition in horse breeding and is one of the main centres of horse breeding in Norway. Historically, the old Fron municipality used unofficial arms with a horse on it. After Fron was divided into Nord- and Sør-Fron in 1977, Nord-Fron chose these arms. Hallvard Trætteberg designed the arms. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has four parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Nord-Fron. It is part of the Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

History
The Nord-Hoge farm in the Sødorp parish of Nord-Fron is the legendary home of Per Gynt. Per was made famous by Peter Asbjørnsen's folk tales and Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt.

The body of Captain Sinclair is buried in Kvam.

The small Kvam Church, built in 1775, was burned down during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany during World War II. It was rebuilt after the war.

Geography
Nord-Fron is bordered to the northwest by Sel Municipality, to the east and south by Sør-Fron Municipality, in the south by Øystre Slidre Municipality, and to the southwest by Vågå Municipality. The municipality stretches from the Rondane mountains in the north to the Jotunheimen mountains in the southwest.

There are two main population centres in Nord-Fron: the town of Vinstra in the central part of the municipality and the village of Kvam in the north. Kvam is located at the northern end of the Peer Gynt Road, which passes through high roads with excellent views of the Jotunheimen, Dovrefjell, and Rondane mountain.

Lakes in the area include Feforvatnet, Olstappen, Øyangen, and Sandvatnet/Kaldfjorden/Øyvatnet. Mountains in the region include Gravdalsknappen, Heimdalshøe, Hornflågene, Ingulssjøhøi, Saukampen, Sikkilsdalshøa, Styggehøe, and Smiubelgen.

Government
Nord-Fron Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. A vote of the municipal council indirectly elects the mayor. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Nord-Fron is made up of 25 representatives that are elected to four-year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors of Nord-Fron (incomplete list):

 * 1894–1898: Ole Iversen Teige (V)
 * 1902–1907: Ole Iversen Teige (V)
 * 1945-1955: Albert Kvammen (Ap)
 * 1956-1965: Paul Brenna (Ap)
 * (1966-1977: part of Fron Municipality)
 * 1977-1983: Tollef Beitrusten (Ap)
 * 1984-2007: Gunnar Tore Stenseng (Ap)
 * 2007-2011: Tove Haugli (Ap)
 * 2011-2015: Olav Røssum (Sp)
 * 2015–2021: Rune Støstad (Ap)
 * 2021–present: Anne-Marie Olstad (Ap)

Royal residence
The Royal Mountain Chalet, Prinsehytta, is located in the Sikkilsdalen valley in Nord-Fron. It is used as a royal residence by the Norwegian royal family for hunting trips and during the Easter and winter holidays.

Eidefoss petroglyphs
The rock carvings at Eidefoss are located on the east side of the river south of the white water.

National parks

 * Rondane National Park, which lies partially in Nord-Fron, was the first Norwegian National Park, established on 21 December 1962. In 2003, Rondane National Park was enlarged, and smaller areas of nature protection were opened or enlarged.
 * Jotunheim National Park is not technically in Nord-Fron, but its southern border brushes Nord-Fron's western border.

Sister cities
Nord-Fron has sister city agreements with the following places:
 * 🇸🇪 - Hedemora, Dalarna County, Sweden
 * - Richmond, North Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom

Notable people

 * Peder Per Veggum (1768 in Nord-Fron – 1836), a Norwegian artist and rose painter, a cabinet carpenter and woodcarver; associated with the decorative folk art of Rosemaling
 * Ole Paulssøn Haagenstad (1775 in Fron – 1866), a Norwegian farmer and politician
 * Jacob Smith Jarmann (1816 in Nord-Fron – 1894), a Norwegian firearms designer, invented the Jarmann M1884 rifle
 * Hallstein Høgåsen (born 1937 in Nord-Fron), a Norwegian theoretical physicist, main field elementary particle physics
 * Grete Berget (1954 in Vinstra – 2017), a Norwegian politician and journalist
 * Geir Helgemo (born 1970 in Vinstra), a professional bridge player, Monaco resident
 * Øystein Skar (born 1985 in Vinstra), a Norwegian pianist and composer

title: Nord-Fron


text:
Sel, Norway

Sel is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Otta. The municipality also includes several notable villages including Bjølstad, Dale, Høvringen, Nord-Sel, Sandbumoen, Sjoa, and Skogbygda.

The 905 km2 municipality is the 130th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Sel is the 170th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 5,567. The municipality's population density is 6.3 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 6.5% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The new municipality of Sel was established on 1 January 1908 when Vågå Municipality was divided into three. The northeastern part became the new Sel Municipality (population: 2,287), the southeastern part became the new Heidal Municipality (population: 1,241) and the western part continued as Vågå Municipality (population: 2,953). During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1965, the municipality of Heidal (population: 1,731) was dissolved and it was merged with the neighboring municipality of Sel (population: 3,687) along with the Tolstadåsen area of Vågå Municipality (population: 35) and the Sjoa area of Nord-Fron Municipality (population: 413) to form a new, larger Sel Municipality.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Sel farm (Sil) since the first Sel Church was built there. This farm is located in the present-day village of Nord-Sel. The name is identical with the word sil which means "slowly running and quiet part of a river" (here meaning the Gudbrandsdalslågen river).

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was approved on 18 May 1985, but it was never approved by a royal decree because it did not meet the strict rules for coats of arms at that time. The blazon is "Azure, a girl playing a trumpet Or". This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is a girl playing a trumpet. The charge has a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. The design is based on the local Prillar-Guri legend. In 1612, a Scottish army marched through the area on its way to Sweden. They were stopped by the local farmers at the Battle of Kringen. The legend tells that the farmers were warned for the Scots by a local girl with a trumpet. The arms were designed by Jarle Skuseth. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has three parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Sel. It is part of the Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

Government
Sel Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Sel is made up of 25 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Sel:

 * 1908-1910: Johan Nygaard
 * 1911-1913: Syver Veggum
 * 1914-1919: E. Uldalen
 * 1920-1922: Anton Bredevangen (AD)
 * 1923-1925: Ola S. Bu (Bp)
 * 1926-1934: Arthur Janson (Ap)
 * 1935-1938: Ole Næprud (Ap)
 * 1939-1940: Kristian Lien (Ap)
 * 1945-1948: Kristian Lien (Ap)
 * 1948-1956: Leif Slåen (Ap)
 * 1957-1975: Ola Dahl (Ap)
 * 1976-1979: Jarle Fosshagen (Ap)
 * 1980-1995: Ivar Grindstuen (Ap)
 * 1995-2003: Ola Svaet (Ap)
 * 2003-2019: Dag Erik Pryhn (Ap)
 * 2019–present: Eldri Siem (Sp)

Geography
Sel is bordered on the north by Dovre and Vågå municipalities, and on the south by Nord-Fron municipality. To the northeast it is bordered by Folldal municipality. Large parts of the very first national park in Norway, Rondane National Park is situated in the municipality of Sel and has its main entrances from the mountain villages of Høvringen and Mysuseter. The Jutulhogget canyon is located in the park.

Although it has a small population, Sel is one of the more scenic and historically significant areas of the Gudbrandsdalen valley. A large concentration of Norway's heritage-listed farms are located in the Heidal valley in Sel municipality (Heidal became part of Sel municipality in 1965).

The town of Otta, named after the Otta River, is the main population center in the municipality. Otta lies at the point where the Otta River joins the Gudbrandsdalslågen river from the west. The Otta River leads up to the historically important Vågå and Lom regions and the passes to the west into the Jotunheimen mountain range.

Attractions

 * Jørundgard Medieval Center - This reconstructed 14th century medieval farm, the location of Sigrid Undset's novel "Kristin Lavransdatter", was the site of a 1994 filming of Kransen. The buildings were furnished in medieval style for the film. It is open to the public and traditional crafts are demonstrated by staff, providing a uniquely medieval look at Norwegian history.
 * Pilgrim's Route/Old Kings Road - The Pilgrim's Route and Old King's Road passes through Sel on its way through the Gudbrand Valley and northwards over Dovrefjell mountains near present-day Dombås in the Dovre municipality.
 * Selsverket - Sel municipality has a long tradition in mining and quarrying for minerals, soapstone, and slate. Selsverket was the copper works from the 18th century which was located approximately 2 kilometers north of Otta. There were also copper works in neighboring Folldal.
 * Sel Church - The church at Selsverket was built in 1742. It is constructed of logs.
 * Steinberget Fortress - Built in the pre-Christian period, the Steinberget fortress is now a jumble of rock along European route E6.
 * Kringen - In 1612, a peasant militia ambushed Scots marching to support Sweden at Kringen (the narrowest part of the Gudbrand Valley, just below the confluence of the Otta and the Gudbrandsdalslågen). As the Scots reached the ambush site of Prillarguri hill, legend has it that Prillar-Guri, riding on the other side of the lågen, distracted the Scots until they were in the right position. She then sounded a blast with her prillarhorn (a ram's horn), and the Battle of Kringen began. A monument can be found there today, and she's also found on Sel's coat-of-arms today.
 * Hilltop Fortress - West of Prillarguri hill is another hilltop fortress, protected by a sheer drop on three sides and walls on the fourth side, which was built in the period from 300 to 600 AD.
 * Ula Dam - In 1877-1879 the Norwegian parliament ordered construction of the Ula Dam to stop gravel and rock transported by the Ula River from blocking the Gudbrandsdalslågen and flooding the fertile valley floor. The debris washed down by the Ula in 1789 destroyed the houses at Selsverket and rerouted the Gudbrandsdalslågen, such that the farms along the Sel became marshes.

In literature and legend

 * Sel is where Kristin Lavransdatter, a fictitious Norwegian woman living in the 14th century, grows up. Kristin Lavransdatter is a trilogy of historical novels written by the 1928 Nobel laureate Sigrid Undset.
 * Prillar-Guri or Prillarguri is a semi legendary figure who, according to oral tradition, was a woman from Sel, Norway who played a key role in the Battle of Kringen in August 1612

Notable people

 * Paul Thorsen Harildstad (1764 in Heidal – 1843), a farmer and representative at the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly at Eidsvoll
 * Olav Kringen (1867 in Sel – 1951), a Norwegian newspaper editor and politician from 1887–1897 in USA
 * Erling Steineide (1938 in Heidal – 2019), a cross-country skier, participated at the 1964 Winter Olympics
 * Hans Ola Sørlie (1953 in Otta – 1988), a Norwegian actor
 * Even Aleksander Hagen (born 1988 in Otta), a Norwegian politician and County Mayor of Oppland

title: Sel, Norway


text:
Sør-Fron

Sør-Fron is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Hundorp. Other villages in the municipality include Gålå, Harpefoss, and Lia.

The 742 km2 municipality is the 153rd largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Sør-Fron is the 222nd most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 3,240. The municipality's population density is 4.6 PD/km2 and its population has increased by 1.5% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The prestegjeld of Fron was established as a civil municipality on 1 January 1838 when the new formannskapsdistrikt law went into effect. On 1 January 1851, the municipality was divided in two. The northwest portion became Nord-Fron Municipality (population: 4,685) and the southeast portion became Sør-Fron Municipality (population: 3,421). On 27 July 1956, a small area of Sør-Fron municipality (population: 7) was transferred to the neighboring municipality of Vestre Gausdal.

During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1966, the municipalities of Nord-Fron (population: 5,758) and Sør-Fron (population: 3,648) were merged to form a new Fron Municipality (with similar borders to the old Fron municipality that existed from 1838-1851 minus the Sjoa area had switched from Nord-Fron to Sel).

This merger was not well-liked among the residents of the new municipality. On 1 January 1977, the merger was reversed and Nord-Fron (population: 6,131) and Sør-Fron (population: 3,509) were recreated using their old borders from 1965.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Fron farm (Frón) since the first Fron Church was built there. The first element is which means "southern". The last element is uncertain, but it may come from the word which means "earth" or "land". Thus the name of the municipality is "(the) southern (part of) Fron" (since the parish of Fron was divided in 1851 into a "north" and a "south" part). Historically, it was called Søndre Fron, using another word which also means "south". Historically, the name of the municipality was spelled Søndre Fron. On 3 November 1917, a royal resolution changed the spelling of the name of the municipality to Sør-Fron, using an alternate word for "south".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 4 March 1988. The official blazon is "Vert, a club argent in bend" (På grøn grunn ei skråstilt sølv klubbe). This means the arms have a green field (background) and the charge is a club. The club has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. The club is reminiscent of the club that Kolbein Sterke used in the year 1021 when King Olav Haraldsson met the people of Fron and Dale-Gudbrand at Hundorp. This meeting is recorded in a book by Snorre Sturlusson. "Look, our god is coming with a lot of light," said King Olav. Dale-Gudbrand and the farmers looked at the sun that was just rising. Kolbein then took the club and smashed to pieces the statue of the god Thor standing at Hundorp. After this, the people of the area were Christians, according to Snorre. The arms were designed by Amund Rudi. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Sør-Fron. It is part of the Sør-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

Government
Sør-Fron Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Sør-Fron is made up of 19 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Sør-Fron (incomplete list):

 * 1914-1919: Ivar Fosse
 * 1920-1922: O. Kjorstad
 * 1923-1925: Anton Ringdal
 * 1926-1928: Olaf Listad (Bp)
 * 1929-1941: Egil Hernæs (Ap)
 * 1942-1945: Aksel Bjerke (Ap)
 * 1945-1961: Egil Hernæs (NS)
 * 1962-1963: Asbjørn Fevolden (Ap)
 * 1964-1965: Iver Malerbakken (Ap)
 * (1966-1977: part of Fron Municipality)
 * 1977-1982: Jon Tofte (Ap)
 * 1983-1991: Arne Hernæs (Ap)
 * 1992-1997: Torstein Rudihagen (Ap)
 * 1997-1999: Willy Heimstad (Ap)
 * 1999-2011: Aksel Eng (Ap)
 * 2011-2011: Laila Nyhus Toppen (Ap)
 * 2011–present: Ole Tvete Muriteigen (Sp)

Geography
Sør-Fron municipality is bordered to the west by Nord-Fron municipality, to the southwest by Øystre Slidre municipality, to the south by Gausdal municipality, to the east by Ringebu and Stor-Elvdal municipalities, and to the north by Folldal municipality. The river Gudbrandsdalslågen runs through the central part of the municipality.

The lakes Atnsjøen, Olstappen, and Sandvatnet/Kaldfjorden/Øyvatnet are located in the municipality. The municipality includes parts of the Gudbrandsdalen and Espedalen valleys.

Rondane National Park
Rondane National Park, which lies partially in Sør-Fron, was the first Norwegian National Park, established in 1962. In 2003, Rondane National Park was enlarged and smaller areas of nature protection were opened or enlarged adjacent to the park.

Culture
The famous play Peer Gynt is staged annually at Lake Gålå in a mountainous region of Sør-Fron as part of a festival. The play itself is supposed to have been set in a Norwegian location such as Gålå.

Notable people

 * Dale-Gudbrand (1100s), a historical Norwegian Hersir who lived at a farm in Hundorp
 * Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (1684–1754), a writer, philosopher, historian, and playwright who was brought up in Sør-Fron
 * Andreas Brandrud (1868 in Sør-Fron – 1957), a Norwegian professor, theologian, and church historian
 * Oddvar Nygaard (1919 in Hundorp – 1985), a Norwegian accordionist and composer

title: Sør-Fron


text:
Hari Seldon

Hari Seldon is a fictional character in the Foundation series of novels by Isaac Asimov. In his capacity as mathematics professor at Streeling University on the planet Trantor, Seldon develops psychohistory, an algorithmic science that allows him to predict the future in probabilistic terms. On the basis of his psychohistory he is able to predict the eventual fall of the Galactic Empire and to develop a means to shorten the millennia of chaos to follow.

In the first five books of the Foundation series, Hari Seldon made only one in-the-flesh appearance, in the first part of the first book (Foundation), although he did appear at other times in pre-recorded messages to reveal a "Seldon Crisis". After writing five books in chronological order, Asimov retroactively added two books to expand on the genesis of psychohistory. The two prequels—Prelude to Foundation and Forward the Foundation—describe Seldon's life in considerable detail. He is also the central character of the Second Foundation Trilogy written after Asimov's death (Foundation's Fear by Gregory Benford, Foundation and Chaos by Greg Bear, and Foundation's Triumph by David Brin), which are set after Asimov's two prequels.

Seldon is voiced by William Eedle in several episodes of the 1973 BBC Radio 4 adaptation The Foundation Trilogy, and portrayed by Jared Harris in the 2021 Apple TV+ television series adaptation Foundation.

Appearances
Hari Seldon is first mentioned in the short story "Foundation", published in Astounding Science Fiction in May 1942, as the creator of psychohistory, and appears as a prerecorded hologram near the end. The story was renamed "The Encylopedists" and collected with four others as Foundation in 1951. "The Psychohistorians" depicts Seldon put on trial by the Commission of Public Safety for his dire predictions about the eventual fall of the Galactic Empire, after which he is exiled to the distant planet Terminus. Seldon's prerecorded messages continue to appear in Foundation and Empire (1952) and Second Foundation (1953), as well as the later sequels, Foundation's Edge (1982) and Foundation and Earth (1986). He is featured as the main character in Asimov's two prequels, Prelude to Foundation (1988) and Forward the Foundation (1993).

Describing "The Psychohistorians" as "28 pages of nonstop world-building", Josh Wimmer and Alasdair Wilkins of Gizmodo wrote that in the story, "Hari Seldon isn't so much a character as he is the living embodiment of psychohistory, an ethereal presence who's about as relatable as Gandalf. It wouldn't be until Prelude to Foundation ... that Seldon would become an actual character."

Fictional biography
Galactic Empire First Minister and psychohistorian Hari Seldon was born in the 10th month of the 11,988th year of the Galactic Era (GE) (-79 Foundation Era (FE)) and died 12,069 GE (1 FE).

He was born on the planet Helicon in the Arcturus sector where his father worked as a tobacco grower in a hydroponics plant. He shows incredible mathematical abilities at a very early age.

"HARI SELDON–… born in the 11,988th year of the Galactic Era; died 12,069. The dates are more commonly given in terms of the current Foundational Era as –79 to the year 1 F.E. Born to middle-class parents on Helicon, Arcturus sector (where his father, in a legend of doubtful authenticity, was a tobacco grower in the hydroponic plants of the planet), he showed amazing abilities in mathematics from an early age. Anecdotes concerning his ability are innumerable, and some are contradictory. At the age of two, he is said to have …"

He also learns martial arts on Helicon that later help him on Trantor, the principal art being Heliconian Twisting (a form seemingly equal parts Jiu Jitsu, Krav Maga, and Submission Wrestling). Helicon is said to be "less notable for its mathematics, and more for its martial arts" (Prelude to Foundation). Seldon is awarded a Ph.D. in mathematics for his work on turbulence at the University of Helicon. There he becomes an assistant professor specializing in the mathematical analysis of social structures.

Seldon is the subject of a biography by Gaal Dornick. Seldon is Emperor Cleon I's second and last First Minister, the first being Eto Demerzel/R. Daneel Olivaw. He is deposed as First Minister after Cleon I's assassination.

"Seldon, Hari— . . . found dead, slumped over desk in his office at Streeling University in 12,069 (1 F.E.). Apparently Seldon had been working up to his last moments on psychohistorical equations; his activated Prime Radiant was discovered clutched in hand. According to Seldon’s instructions, the instrument was shipped by his colleague Gaal Dornick who had recently emigrated to Terminus. Seldon's body was jettisoned into space, also in accordance with instructions he’d left. The official memorial service on Trantor was simple, though attended. It was worth noting that Seldon’s old friend former First Minister Eto Demerzel attended the event. Demerzel had not been seen since his mysterious disappearance immediately following the Joranumite Conspiracy during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Attempts by the Commission of Public Safety to locate Demerzel in the days following the Seldon memorial proved to be unsuccessful. Wanda Seldon, Hari Seldon's granddaughter, did not attend the ceremony. It was rumored that she was grief-stricken and had refused all public appearances. To this day, her whereabouts from then on remain unknown. It has been said that Hari Seldon left this life as lived it, for he died with the future he created unfolding all around him."

Foundation
Using psychohistory, Seldon mathematically determines what he calls The Seldon Plan—a plan to determine the right time and place to set up a new society, one that would replace the collapsing Galactic Empire by sheer force of social pressure, but over only a thousand-year time span, rather than the ten-to-thirty-thousand-year time span that would normally have been required, and thus reduce the human suffering from living in a time of barbarism. The Foundation is placed on Terminus, a remote and resource-poor planet entirely populated by scientists and their families. The planet—or so Seldon claimed—was originally occupied to create the Encyclopedia Galactica, a vast compilation of the knowledge of a dying galactic empire. In reality, Terminus had a much larger role in his Plan, which he had to conceal from its inhabitants at first.

Prelude to Foundation
Seldon visits Trantor to attend the Decennial Mathematics Convention. He presents a paper which indicates that one could theoretically predict the Galactic Empire's future. He is able to show that Galactic society can be represented in a simulation simpler than itself (in a finite number of iterations before the onset of chaotic noise smears discerning sets of events). He does so using a technique invented that past century. At first, Seldon has no idea how this could be done in practice, and he is fairly confident that no one could actually fulfill the possibility. Shortly after his presentation, he becomes a lightning rod for political forces who want to use psychohistory for their own purposes. The rest of the novel tells of his flight, which lasts for approximately a year and which takes him through the complex and variegated world of Trantor. During his flight to escape the various political factions, he discovers how psychohistory can be made a practical science. It is in this novel that he meets his future wife Dors Venabili, future adopted son Raych Seldon, and future partner Yugo Amaryl.

Forward the Foundation
This novel is told as a sequence of short stories, as was the case with the original trilogy. They take place at intervals a decade or more apart, and tell the story of Hari's life, starting about ten years after Prelude and ending with his death. The stories contrast his increasingly successful professional life with his increasingly unsuccessful personal life.

Seldon becomes involved in politics when Eto Demerzel becomes a target for a smear campaign conducted by Laskin Joranum. He eventually takes Demerzel's place as First Minister, despite his reluctance to divide his attention between government and the development of Psychohistory. His career comes to an end when Cleon I is assassinated by his gardener (a random event Seldon could not have predicted) and the seizure of power by a military junta. Seldon eventually causes the fall of the junta by dropping subtle false hints about what Psychohistory foresees, leading to the Junta making unpopular decisions. However, an agent of the Junta inside Seldon's team, having deduced that Dors is a robot, builds a device that ultimately kills her, leaving Seldon heartbroken. Years later, Seldon discovers that his granddaughter Wanda has telepathic abilities and begins searching for others like her but fails. Raych eventually decides to move his family to the planet Santanni, but Wanda chooses to remain with her elderly grandfather. However, just after they arrive a rebellion breaks out on the planet and Raych is killed in the fighting. His wife and child are lost when their ship disappears. Seldon eventually finds Stettin Palver, another telepath who becomes Wanda's husband and the pair are eventually instrumental in creating the Second Foundation.

Seldon mentions two indigenous species of Helicon: the lamec and the greti. The first is a hardworking animal, while the latter is dangerous as indicated by the native Helicon saying "If you ride a greti, you find you can't get off; for then it will eat you." The saying is similar to the age-old Chinese proverb "He who rides the tiger finds it difficult to dismount", and the words lamec and greti are anagrams of camel and tiger, respectively.

In his old age, he gains the nickname Raven for his dire predictions of the future.

In adaptations
Seldon is voiced by William Eedle in several episodes of the 1973 BBC Radio 4 adaptation The Foundation Trilogy.

Seldon is portrayed by Jared Harris in the 2021 Apple TV+ television series adaptation Foundation. His casting was announced in October 2019.

Contemporary influence
Historian Ian Morris has discussed the applicability and inspiration of Hari Seldon to statistics and prediction. Hari Seldon's name is cited in an article in The Economist discussing the use of statistics in epidemiology, the process through which societies change collective political thinking, and "a general computer model of society." Seldon is also quite often named in research as a metaphorical literary reference point.

Phil Pinn speculated in Forbes that Seldon's psychohistory is being manifested in today's emergence of Big Data. Tom Boellstorff called Seldon has even been labeled a "paradigmatic figure" in Big Data research. In 2019, the term Seldonian algorithm was chosen to honor the character in new artificial intelligence techniques intended to avoid undesirable behaviors in decision-making systems.

People who credit to Hari Seldon for the career choices that they made include economist and New York Times columnist Paul Krugman and US politician Newt Gingrich. French politician Jean-Luc Mélenchon also cites Seldon as one of his metapolitical sources of inspiration.

title: Hari Seldon


text:
Ringebu

is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Vålebru (the village is also known as Ringebu).

The 1248 km2 municipality is the 85th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Ringebu is the 195th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 4,416. The municipality's population density is 3.6 PD/km2 and its population has decreased by 1.8% over the previous 10-year period.

General information
The prestegjeld of Ringebu was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). In 1864, the northern part of Ringebu (population: 386) was separated to become the new municipality of Sollia. (In 1890, Sollia switched from Oppland county to Hedmark county.) On 1 January 1899, an unpopulated part of Ringebu (in Oppland county) was transferred to the neighboring municipality of Sollia (in Hedmark county).

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Ringebu farm (Ringabú or Hringabú) since the old Ringebu Stave Church was built there. The first element was probably derived from the word ringr which means "ring" (but in what context is unknown). The last element is which means "farm", "estate", or "rural area".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 24 April 1992. The official blazon is "Gules, a three-tongued flame Or" (I rødt en oppvoksende tretunget gull flamme). This means the arms have a red field (background) and the charge is a three-tongued flame of fire. The charge has a tincture of Or which means it is commonly colored yellow, but if it is made out of metal, then gold is used. This represents the municipality's three valleys and three parishes: Ringebu, Fåvang, and Venabygd. Fire was chosen to represent the need for heat and light by all people. The arms were designed by Inge Rotevatn. The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms.

Churches
The Church of Norway has three parishes (sokn) within the municipality of Ringebu. It is part of the Sør-Gudbrandsdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar.

History
The stave church at Ringebu was built around the year 1220 and it is one of fewer than 30 surviving stave churches in Norway and is one of the largest.

About 15 km north of the church lies the old Hundorp farm which is the legendary home of Dale-Gudbrand. Dale-Gudbrand is mentioned in the Heimskringla (The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway) by Snorri Sturluson. The account of King Olaf's (A.D. 1015-1021) conversion of Dale-Gudbrand to Christianity is popularly recognized.

Geography
Ringebu is bordered to the west by Sør-Fron municipality, to the southwest by Gausdal municipality, to the southeast by Øyer municipality, and to the east and north by Stor-Elvdal municipality.

The administrative center of Ringebu municipality is the village of Vålebru which is located at an elevation of 182 m above sea level in the valley along the river Gudbrandsdalslågen, but 50% of the area within the municipal borders lies at an elevation greater than 900 m above sea level. From Ringebu, two mountain passes provide road access into the Østerdal valley to the northeast; one of these is closed during the winter. Because these mountain areas reliably provide good snow conditions, the area is a popular tourist destination. The Kvitfjell ski area in Ringebu was expanded to serve as a downhill venue for the 1994 Winter Olympics.

Government
Ringebu Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Vestre Innlandet District Court and the Eidsivating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Ringebu is made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Mayors
The mayors (ordfører) of Ringebu:

 * 1838–1853: Vilhelm Fegth
 * 1854–1871: Nils Iversen Elstad
 * 1872–1873: Nils Johannessen Jevne
 * 1874–1877: John Kristiansen Mæhlum
 * 1878–1881: Ole Christian Elstad
 * 1882–1883: Nils Iversen Elstad
 * 1884–1893: Ole Christian Elstad (H)
 * 1894–1897: Simen Kolstad (V)
 * 1898-1899: Ole Christian Elstad (H)
 * 1899–1910: Simen Kolstad (AD)
 * 1911–1913: Jon Nordrum (H)
 * 1914–1925: Simen Kolstad (AD)
 * 1926–1928: Einar Vestad (Sp)
 * 1929–1934: Johan Hustveit (AD)
 * 1935–1937: Einar Vestad (Sp)
 * 1938–1941: Johan Hustveit (AD)
 * 1942–1945: Sigurd Mytting (NS)
 * 1945–1959: Asbjørn Haug (Ap)
 * 1960–1967: Ole Ringen (V)
 * 1968–1985: Birger Sæther (Ap)
 * 1985–1995: Erik S. Winther (Ap)
 * 1996–2007: Anders A. Fretheim (Sp)
 * 2007–2011: Arnhild Baukhol (Ap)
 * 2011–2015: Erik Odlo (Sp)
 * 2015–present: Arne Fossmo (Ap)

Sister cities
Ringebu has sister city agreements with the following places:
 * 🇸🇪 - Filipstad, Värmland County, Sweden

Notable people

 * Frederik Petersen (1759 in Ringebu – 1825), a Norwegian painter of portraits
 * Jehans Nordbu (1768 in Ringebu — ca.1860), a Norwegian-American immigrant to the USA and an early settler in Texas
 * Hans Engen (1912 in Ringebu – 1966), a Norwegian journalist, diplomat and politician, Norwegian ambassador to the United States from 1963 to 1966
 * Emil Nyeng (born 1991), a Norwegian cross-country skier

title: Ringebu