text: Wikipedia talk:Access to usage logs

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title: Wikipedia talk:Access to usage logs


text:
Talk:Sierra Nevada

Major update
The edits by the IP editor on May 30, 2010 add some useful material, but also negatively impact the formatting of the article, and also I believe the writing. I will copy the current version of the article to /Temp and revert the edit. I will start to work on /Temp: all other editors are welcome to work on that version, too. When we reach a version we are happy with, we can replace the article contents. —hike395 (talk) 07:19, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm finished with editing /Temp for today. Other editors: feel free to improve it further. —hike395 (talk) 09:38, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

I've copied the version from /Temp back into the main article. There have been a number of changes:
 * I wrote a new lede (a three-paragraph summary of the rest of the article)
 * Geography section somewhat compressed: some details were sent to the infobox by anon editor
 * Table of road passes sent to their own list article (to make this article more prose-filled)
 * Sections re-ordered
 * Ecology section compressed: list of species deleted (still in Ecology of the Sierra Nevada)
 * History section expanded
 * Anon editor added more material
 * I added section on 20th century protection from development
 * Pictures re-arranged, some dropped, some added
 * See also and external links compressed: links incorporated into main text by anon editor

As usual, everyone is free to improve on the article directly, or please add your comments here. Is there still missing material? I'm thinking we need a section on economic activity/tourism, and perhaps one on mountaineering.

Happy editing! —hike395 (talk) 10:47, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Later: User:71.219.171.61 has some good feedback on the article (inline questions as HTML), I'll investigate the 1542 evidence, and other clarifications.

 * User:71.219.171.61 may not be familiar with the guidelines of writing a wikipedia article, however. Note that WP:LEAD states that the lede should be a stand-alone summary of the whole article. Therefore, it is OK to include the same information in the lede and in the infobox, or in the lede and in the whole article. Also note that WP:SEEALSO states: Links included in the "See also" section may be useful for readers seeking to read as much about a topic as possible, including subjects only peripherally related to the one in question. Having a link to Sierra Nevada-Great Valley Block in See Also does not require the Geology section to describe it.

 * I'll get to work on clarifying —hike395 (talk) 18:43, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

 * During editing:
 * Wide image is needed to properly format a large image for smaller displays. Note that WP:IMGSIZE directs us to not have images directly included larger than 500px. MOS:IMAGES directs us to use Wide image.
 * MOS:IMAGES also directs us to put images in the section that is most relevant: I moved the photo of General Sherman down to the conservation section, next to discussion of logging of Giant Sequoia.
 * There is no reliable, commonly-agreed upon "lowest" part of a mountain range. That parameter to the geobox is meant for other geographical features.
 * The Yosemite Online Library is a valuable source of public domain books/documents about the whole Sierra (despite its name). It's maintained by Dan Anderson.

Dear Anon Editor: are you reading this discussion page? If so, please indicate here. I have been addressing your concerns (e.g., I put a page number in for the 1912 date), but you reverted my edits and put back several of the notifications that my edit had addressed. Further, some of my edits are to make the article obey Wikipedia guidelines, but you revert those changes.

I left some notes as HTML comments on the article (a very poor practice, because it is impossible to add wikilinks and keep track of who is saying what). Let's confine our discussion here.

Other editors: I'm getting somewhat frustrated at the difficulty in cooperating with the Anon editor. Judging from the edit comments and the HTML comments left by the Anon editor, I think he/she may have an issue with my edits. I would welcome other editors to come in and help with some of these issues. Thanks!

--- —hike395 (talk) 01:49, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

 * OK, I don't think I can work with Anon Editor, keep my cool, and have a productive collaborative editing session. He/she is saying I'm making "false claims" in the edit summary. I cannot get him to discuss on the talk page: he keeps wanting to use HTML comments. I try and fix his concerns, but then he reverts the fixes and reposts the concerns. For example, he labeled "northern Sierra" as ambiguous in the Geologic History section. I did a bunch of research, cleaned up the section, removed the offending "ambiguous" phrase, and added references: that should have addressed the concern. He promptly restores the sentence with his concern again.

 * In previous edit disputes, I've seen some editors personalize a dispute with a single other editor. That's very likely to be happening here. It's not healthy for an article to simply ping-pong unproductively between two editors. There's no deadline: I'm willing to step back for a while and see if consensus will build without me.

—hike395 (talk) 09:58, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

I've undone the last anon edit and removed the hidden comments. Discussion should be here not in hidden comments. The anon needs to discuss here and focus on content - avoiding the comments about other editors. To that end I've semi-protected the article for a couple weeks. Vsmith (talk) 12:13, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

Restoring deleted information
In the editing back-and-forth on 30 May-1 June, some information was deleted. I also believe that the format and writing of the article suffered. I will fix what I perceive as the problems, and keep track of the fixes, below. If other editors disagree, then can comment here or continue to improve the article directly. I shall go back and add more relevant photos to the article: the editing seemed to remove a number of them. Also, the Anon editor raised some valid points in his/her last edit, which I will attempt to address, if these edits reach consensus. Thanks! —hike395 (talk) 11:55, 3 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Sequoia picture causes bunching, moved down to conservation section, where it is more topical
 * Infobox width: removed (50-80), no units specified
 * Infobox lowest: lowest part of Lower Montane Forest does not correspond to lowest part of range (an ambiguous concept). No RS: deleted
 * Infobox period: changed to Mesozoic --- most of the granite dates to the Cretaceous, but not all
 * Restored parenthetical translation to first sentence (redundancy with infobox is OK)
 * Mention of ecology and geology from lede restored
 * Geography: restore paragraphs describing boundaries of range
 * Geography: convert bullet list of summit peaks back into prose paragraph, eliminate subsection
 * Move list article wlinks back into See Also section (rather than somewhat artificial see also in different section)
 * History: restore facts (Fremont saw Lake Tahoe, legislature authorized California Geological Survey)
 * Protected areas: clarify that 15.4% are protected from logging, rather than the total area of all of the parks/wildernesses (somewhat different)

 * Thanks for your efforts, hike395. For me, it is important that when someone who wants to make major revisions to an article that many editors have worked on, that editor (anonymous or not) explains their rationale for changes, participates in open discussion about the changes, and accepts consensus decisions. Cullen328 (talk) 15:25, 3 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Sorry for being late: It looks like Vsmith has given Hike some breathing room by semi-protecting the article. If the Anon comes back and acts in the same way, you can email me and I'll try to help. I tend to only edit Wikipedia during the weekends now, so comments on my talk page during the week may languish until the weekend. Sorry about that. --mav (reviews needed) 13:23, 5 June 2010 (UTC)

To do: mountaineering section
Hike395 mentioned that a mountaineering section would help this article. It's an important part of the history of human use of the range, and climbing techniques that were new to North American climbers found their foothold in the Sierra Nevada in the early 20th century.

However, to keep this current, I'm thinking of making it a more general climbing section. This way we can include the historical mountaineering landmarks, as well the ongoing development of world class trad climbing and bouldering routes.

Any input? I'll start this section soon. --Justin (talk) 17:16, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Happy to help, Justin and Hike395.  I wrote a college paper a third of a century ago on this very topic.  Francis P. Farquhar's "History of the Sierra Nevada" is a good place to start. Cullen328 (talk) 15:06, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

 * A climbing/mountaineering section would really add to the article. I'm not really an expert: I look forward to contributions from both of you! —hike395 (talk) 02:12, 2 June 2010 (UTC)

Plural in the name?
The name is singular Sierra Nevada, so therefore "the Sierra Nevada". However are they known as the Sierra Nevadas with an "s"? Other mountain ranges are plural such as the Alps, the Himalayas or the Appalachians? Can this not be the case here?109.151.101.18 (talk) 09:56, 20 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Strictly, no: "Sierra Nevada" means "snowy mountain range" or "snowy saw teeth" in Spanish. "Nevada" means "snowy". So, Sierra Nevadas would mean "snowys mountain range". See Colloquially, people do use "Sierra Nevadas", but that is minority usage.

 * More strictly, never: since "Sierra" means range, the real question is how many ranges comprise the Sierra Nevada. The geologic answer is one.  The Sierra is but a single, huge, block of granite that forms a single range of mountains from north to south.  This article is inconsistent, using both the singular and plural forms throughout.  It really should be cleaned up to use the term "Sierra" and "Sierra Nevada" exclusively.DRLWorthington (talk) 18:45, 20 August 2014 (UTC)

 * I only found one plural usage in the article, which I just fixed. If you see any others (other than in the infobox, which lists plural usage as alternative names), please feel free to fix them. —hike395 (talk) 02:24, 21 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Note, too, that "Himalaya" is the strictly correct term for the montain range. The singular (mountain) form is "Himal". There has been a fair amount of controversy over the article title of Himalayas, see Talk:Himalayas —hike395 (talk) 06:09, 21 August 2013 (UTC)

This is a very old conversation, but I do think it's notable that English speakers tend to say "the Sierra Nevadas". Perhaps there is something to be researched and cited to see if this counts as a case of American English. RobotGoggles (talk) 08:15, 27 May 2021 (UTC)

Requested move 20 April 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Clear consensus to move buidhe 00:20, 27 April 2020 (UTC)

– Per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC.
 * Sierra Nevada → Sierra Nevada (disambiguation)
 * Sierra Nevada (U.S.) → Sierra Nevada

Averaged over the past ~5 years (the earliest data in the pageviews tool), this article has more than twice as many page views as the articles for all other Sierra Nevada mountain ranges combined.

Average monthly pageviews:
 * 41,957 – Sierra Nevada (U.S.) (73.7%)
 * 8,641 – Sierra Nevada (Spain) (15.2%)
 * 3,615 – Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (6.3%)
 * 2,128 – Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (3.7%)
 * 320 – Sierra Nevada de Mérida (0.6%)
 * 154 – Sierra Nevada (stratovolcano) (0.3%)
 * 141 – Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas (0.2%)
 * 56,956 total

Number of backlinks in article namespace:
 * 3,675 – Sierra Nevada (U.S.) (75.7%)
 * 410 – Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (8.4%)
 * 363 – Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (7.5%)
 * 336 – Sierra Nevada (Spain) (6.9%)
 * 43 – Sierra Nevada de Mérida (0.9%)
 * 19 – Sierra Nevada (stratovolcano) (0.4%)
 * 11 – Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas (0.2%)
 * 4,857 total

When I did a Google search for "Sierra Nevada", all the first page web results were either for the mountain range in California and Nevada or for the various US companies that derive their name from that mountain range. When I did a search from Madrid, Spain in Bing (which lets you change your search location), the same thing happened.

The article for macOS Sierra, which is listed on the Sierra Nevada dab page, does get a similar amount of pageview traffic to Sierra Nevada (U.S.). However, very few people are searching for that OS as "Sierra Nevada" instead of "Sierra", so it is hard to imagine many of those pageviews coming from this dab page in particular.

 * Support as proposer. CJK09 (talk) 01:24, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Support --- one more data point: in Google Scholar, "Sierra Nevada" California = 277,000 results vs. "Sierra Nevada" Spain = 58,100 results. — hike395 (talk) 01:58, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Support Rreagan007 (talk) 04:18, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Seems reasonable but I would like to take time to hear from some contributors from Spain. --Trovatore (talk) 04:38, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Support The mountain range in Spain is also important, but our readers are predominantly English-speaking and this is what they would most likely expect to see by a significant margin. Note that if the RM is rejected, the U.S. range needs to be moved to Sierra Nevada (United States), which is the typical way we write the name of the country except in special circumstances, such as "U.S. TV series" (formerly; now superseded by "American TV series") and "U.S. state" (since "United States state" would just be really awkward). -- King of ♥   ♦   ♣  ♠ 05:29, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Support per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC. Schazjmd   (talk)  14:25, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Support per all; it's really hard to say that one mountain range has more significance than another, so it's fine to just follow page views. I think this is only going to be controversial for nationalists; I'd like to think that if pageviews were reversed, we'd allow for Spain's range to be primary topic. Sorry for the Spaniards here, but vuestros antepasados debieron ser más creativos en cuanto a nombrar las cordilleras. Red   Slash  21:28, 21 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Incidentally, Americans allow UK to have the primary topic on Channel Islands (over Channel Islands (California)) despite outnumbering them 5:1. -- King of ♥   ♦   ♣  ♠ 00:25, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * The Channel Islands in the English Channel have much more long-term significance, a much larger population and much more coverage! So not comparing like with like. -- Necrothesp (talk) 12:39, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Move to Sierra Nevada (United States), but the Spanish range has just as much long-term significance. This being English Wikipedia is utterly irrelevant as to which is more significant. It may be more more significant to Americans, but not to Europeans (which does have quite a few English speakers, you know, and many of us are even native English speakers!). -- Necrothesp (talk) 12:34, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Comment If this is not moved to Sierra Nevada, then it should be moved to Sierra Nevada (United States) per WP:NCA. –LaundryPizza03 ( d c̄ ) 10:02, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Pronunciation
changed the IPA pronuciation of "Nevada" from be from "Nuh-vada" to "Nih-vada" (from the "uh" sound in "abbot" to the "ih" sound in "kit"). The edit comment was: The problem with this edit is
 * 1) See note 42 in Help:IPA/English
 * 2) The two vowels are the same in American English
 * 1) There is no note 42 in Help:IPA/English
 * 2) Native American English speakers pronounce abbot differently than kit

I would like to restore the original IPA. Comments? — hike395 (talk) 19:53, 5 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I also am unconvinced by the substitution of /ɪ/; that sounds wrong to me.
 * That said, "abbot" vs "kit" is not an adequate refutation, because when saying they're the same in American English, Sol505000 is referring to the so-called weak vowel merger. Those of us with the merger typically do not make much distinction among reduced vowels in unstressed syllables.  That doesn't apply to "kit"; monosyllabic words are typically treated according to the same rules as stressed syllables.
 * Just the same, it would sound weird to me to hear a speaker (at least a speaker with a GA accent) pronounce it /nɪˈvædə/. --Trovatore (talk) 20:15, 5 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I also agree with restoring the original IPA. As a resident of the Sierra Nevada, it also seems to me that /ni .../ is not the accurate representation of the pronunciation.
 * It's probably also worth noting that said user also made the change on the page for the state of Nevada and provided a differing reason there. Said reason there seems to be based on the Spanish language pronunciation, which the American pronunciation has drifted significantly away from. Crescent77 (talk) 22:32, 5 May 2023 (UTC)
 * There are thousands of transcriptions with word-internal (that is also morpheme-internal) that are also "wrong" when you apply literal reading of the IPA symbols and you speak American English. "Las Vegas"  is  in AmE. American  would be  in our system (with all of the vowels being full/unreduced), or at least ambiguous between that and the former. In RP  is really  and  can only be  or, so that "Las Vegas"  (with the  vowel) is  (you could get  in Geordie, which is about as far away as you can get from RP in England. That's still  in our system, obviously, due to the lack of the foot-strut split). Our transcriptions are neither phonetic nor phonemic but diaphonemic. The initial syllable of "Nevada" is pronounced  in conservative RP and therefore the correct diaphoneme is . For many if not most speakers, this will actually be  in the syllable-final position immediately before stress just as  is  in most dialects.
 * My edits regarding the Spanish pronunciation of "Nevada" have nothing to do with the weak vowel merger but the pronunciation of the first $⟨a⟩$. Sol505000 (talk) 01:38, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Are you under the impression that our transcriptions privilege conservative RP? I don't think that's true at all, or at least should not be true. --Trovatore (talk) 01:47, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * That's not my impression, it's literally what the guide says. It tells us not to transcribe the weak vowel merger at all. Brits can also complain about the US pronunciation of "Las Vegas" being transcribed as and not, which is how they hear it (unstressed  spelled $⟨a⟩$ is exceptional, IIRC, and occurs only in words that had  in that position before the Great Vowel Shift, such as "orange"). This is why we need the double slashes:  for the US pron,  for the UK pron. The only diaphonemic difference here is in how the A in "Las" is pronounced: in the US it gets the usual  vowel, whereas in the UK it gets the usual  vowel, both reflecting how the foreign $⟨a⟩$ is treated in the respective dialect. The American schwa/schwi is close in the morpheme-internal word-internal position and mid elsewhere, AFAIK. It's an allophonic difference, for the most part. Sol505000 ( talk) 01:48, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * It is always amazing to me how long and detailed and technical these debates about minor pronunciation variations can be. I am not an IPA guy. I am a guy who was born in Michigan but has lived in California for 51 years. I started visiting the Sierra Nevada in 1975 and have spent many months deep in its wilderness over the years. I am an old mountaineer who spent time around with great climbers who talk about these mountains with great reverence. I now live in the Sierra Nevada foothills, in Nevada County, California. The fact is that some people say "Nuhvada" and some people say "Nehvada", and nobody has any problem with either pronunciation, and nobody argues about it or misunderstands. The pronunciation is the same, whether discussing the mountain range or the state where gambling is the main industry. The entire issue is so utterly trivial that electrons should not be wasted on it. In the real world, nobody cares. But people do care about "Sierra Nevadas", as Ansel Adams fans are well aware. Cullen328 (talk) 06:31, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * As a former resident of Nevada County currently living in the Sierra(s) closer to the state of Nevada, folks do argue about a pronunciation difference, but it's whether the second syllable is æ or a:. With the mountains, both are accepted, with the state it's generally only the former residents find acceptable. WP does seem to have that covered. Crescent77 (talk) 19:27, 6 May 2023 (UTC)

Instead of a long and technical debate, I think we should follow standard WP procedure in case of a factual dispute, and consult reliable sources. I consulted four different online dictionaries: In all cases, these RSes use a schwa ə. The possible source of the dispute is that Collins says that it's sɪˈɛərə nɪˈvɑːdə in British English. Since the mountain range is in the US, I believe we should use the American pronunciation, per MOS:TIES and MOS:RETAIN.
 * 1) Merriam-Webster --- nə-ˈva-də
 * 2) Britannica --- /siˌerənəˈvædə/ /siˌerənəˈvɑːdə/
 * 3) Collins (American English) --- siˈɛrə nəˈvædə ; siˈɛrə nəˈvɑdə
 * 4) Dictionary.com --- siˈɛr ə nəˈvæd ə, -ˈvɑ də

I really think we need to revert to the schwa ə. — hike395 (talk) 14:14, 6 May 2023 (UTC)

 * I agree, the WP guidelines Sol505000 references leave much open for interpretation, following the reliable sources is much more WP appropriate. Crescent77 (talk) 19:32, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Longman Pronunciation Dictionary gives both and  in the first syllable and recommends the latter for RP (so the pronunciation is not limited to Conservative RP - Wells would not recommend it in that case). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary gives both but recommends the pronunciation with  for both dialects. The correct diaphoneme is clearly.
 * A local consensus here does not override MOS:DIAPHONEMIC. We've been through this before on Melbourne and other pages. Per Help:IPA/English, is always distinguished from  in unstressed syllables per note 24 and 35. Americans should interpret  in this position as their . Sol505000 (talk) 20:34, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * None of the sources you provide show clear support for your position. Crescent77 (talk) 21:29, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * They do. An unstressed in the British pronunciation (or one British pronunciation) that corresponds to  in the American pronunciation is our  diaphoneme. Sol505000 (talk) 21:41, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Wow, that's a perplexing response. You seem to be indicating you have nothing to support your position. Why are you pushing for the change? Crescent77 (talk) 21:46, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I am not indicating that though? Sol505000 (talk) 21:49, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Okay, I'm on mobile so it's hot easy to edit to match your edits, so I'll just continue the thread. So who are you referencing when tou say "our"? Crescent77 (talk) 21:50, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Help:IPA/English, obviously. Sol505000 (talk) 21:50, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * It's not obvious when it's not stated in the comment itself, and the previous comment references multiple different locations. Crescent77 (talk) 21:53, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Help:IPA/English is the only IPA guide on Wikipedia that deals with diaphonemes rather than phones (actual sounds) themselves. I thought it was clear. Sol505000 (talk) 22:23, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * And it says the two are interchangeable. I don't understand why you're pushing one over the other, when both references and consensus suggest the opposite. Crescent77 (talk) 22:49, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Where does it say that? Sol505000 (talk) 22:50, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * The key shows a schwa as acceptable, with no notes suggesting otherwise. Note 35 says the 2 are not distinguished in certain circumstances, but does not advise against the use of schwa. I don't see anything saying we're required to replace the schwa with the i, which if I understand correctly, is what you seem to be indicating. Crescent77 (talk) 23:06, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * It does. It clearly tells us to use ⟨ɪ⟩ whenever RP and GA diverge and the latter uses a schwa to the exclusion of . Sol505000 (talk) 23:08, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Where? Please reference that. Crescent77 (talk) 23:11, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * You reference where it says that ⟨ə⟩ can be used in this context. Sol505000 (talk) 23:17, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * The key at the top of the IPA guide.. The references hike395 provided. Crescent77 (talk) 23:40, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Just to ask, your responses are confusing, are you a native English speaker? Crescent77 (talk) 21:51, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * That is not relevant to this discussion. Sol505000 (talk) 22:12, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * No offense intended, you don't need to answer
 * I'm just trying to give you a chance to explain yourself and support your point of view so I better understand it. Your suggestion seems to be based purely on a personal subjective interpretation of a vague guideline, the issue being hat both consensus and references support the opposite.
 * You seem to operating in good faith, have thought about this alot, and have a strong conviction you are making a positive change. I'd like to believe you are making the correct interpretation and be able support your efforts, but with Wikipedia we need you to make arguments supported by references and guidelines. No offense, but you're kind of all over the place. Your opening statement references notes than don't exist, and your arguments haven't had clear support from references nor guidelines since. I'm just trying to give you a chance to better explain yourself, because at this point it seems a revert of your edit is the WP appropriate thing to do. Crescent77 (talk) 22:59, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I can't see how my interpretation is subjective or how the guideline is vague. Maybe you just don't understand it? Sol505000 (talk) 23:05, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't understand it, my issue is that I'm not so sure you to do either.
 * If you have a reference showing clear support for your specific change, please copypaste the specific wording showing so. Linkspam to general guidelines full of material unrelated to the discussion at hand are not helpful. Crescent77 (talk) 23:11, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * If you don't understand the Help:IPA/English guide then this discussion should be ended. Sol505000 (talk) 23:20, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I understand the guide, what I don't understand is how you are using it as a justification for your change. I need you to reference the specific phrasing in that guide supporting your change, which you have failed to do upon previous requests.
 * If you wish to end the discussion here, feel free to do so, but please undertand, at this point, it seems pretty clear that a revison to schwa is in order. Crescent77 (talk) 23:39, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * You clearly don't understand the guide. If you did, you'd know that the weak vowel in rabbit, bizarre, Latin, usually spelled with $⟨i⟩$ or $⟨e⟩$, is the diaphoneme we're discussing here. Per guide, the only allowed transcription of that vowel is ⟨ɪ⟩. regardless of how it is realized in any specific dialect. Help:IPA/English deals with diaphonemes, not sounds per se.
 * I am just going to repeat that a local consensus here does not override MOS:DIAPHONEMIC. I will revert any changes to a schwa symbol. Sol505000 (talk) 23:50, 6 May 2023 (UTC)
 * A consensus most certainly does, that's how WP operates. Please reconsider your position, your comment suggests an intent to violate the Edit warring policy which could result in block. Crescent77 (talk) 00:01, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * No, it does not. If you want to change MOS:DIAPHONEMIC you can go to Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Pronunciation and make your case there. If you want to change the guide, go to Help talk:IPA/English. This discussion here has no bearing on either of them. Sol505000 (talk) 00:04, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Please review Policies and guidelines as well as Five pillars. Crescent77 (talk) 00:17, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * See Manual of Style. "This Manual of Style (MoS or MOS) is the style manual for all English Wikipedia articles (though provisions related to accessibility apply across the entire project, not just to articles)." MOS:DIAPHONEMIC is not mentioned there but MOS:PRON is. MOS:DIAPHONEMIC is a mere subsection of that. Sol505000 (talk) 00:29, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Please review the material I suggested. Note that WP:MOS is a guideline, whereas WP:Consensus is a policy. Crescent77 (talk) 00:37, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * A consensus based on a lack of understanding of Help:IPA/English and MOS:DIAPHONEMIC is not valid. You have shown your lack of understanding of the guide so I consider this conversation to be over. Sol505000 (talk) 00:41, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately it looks like you also need to review No personal attacks. Crescent77 (talk) 01:18, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * OK, everybody, let's take a deep breath. People are getting entrenched into emotional positions that aren't going to be helpful in the long run.
 * Sol505000, you're coming across a bit imperious here. It would be productive to dial it back a little.
 * My fellow Americans, I can understand the frustration at having someone come tell us we have to write a symbol meaning the "ih" sound in our pronunciation key, when we can hear the "ih" sound but just don't say it that way. But consider on the other side:  We consistently transcribe the diphthong in "out" as /aʊ/, whereas RP speakers would say /ɛʊ/.  They can hear the difference between that and /aʊ/, but just don't say it (the latter) way.  Similarly for r's after vowels.
 * This diaphonemic scheme is pretty complicated but does seem to be designed to preserve information as best possible. If you know the details and have a pronunciation key from the scheme, you can accurately predict the pronunciation in a wide variety of accents.  It's a fair criticism that the learning burden required to do that is high. --Trovatore (talk) 01:04, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the constructive input.
 * I'm still trying to understand Sol's viewpoint, do you agree with them? What do you understand to be the appropriate symbology in this situation? Crescent77 (talk) 01:15, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I think the idea goes something like this: Although those of us with the weak vowel merger can hear the difference between /nɪˈvædə/ and /nəˈvædə/, we shouldn't be misled by it, because we don't distinguish /ɪ/ from /ə/ phonemically in unstressed syllables.  That is, there's no pair of words with different meanings, where we would understand one of them if it used /ɪ/ in an unstressed syllable, and the other if it used /ə/.
 * On the other hand, RP speakers do use it distinctively even in unstressed syllables ("Lenin" vs "Lennon"), and therefore might be misled, given that they would specifically say /nɪˈvædə/.
 * (As an aside, I'm not really so sure that Americans don't distinguish "Lenin" from "Lennon" the same way, at least in careful speech, which is a possible flaw here.)
 * As for preferred typology — I'm not sure. The /nɪˈvædə/ strikes me as odd enough in GA that it might make sense to call it out as a specifically UK pronunciation, but in fairness note the point about the "out" diphthong I raised above.
 * On a related note, at some point the use of the reduced-vowel version /ᵻ/ seems to have been deprecated in our pronunciation keys. I'm not sure that was a great decision.  But it wouldn't help much here, because as far as I'm aware there is no common American pronunciation of "Nevada" that uses [ᵻ]. --Trovatore (talk) 05:31, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes, the whole point is that the distinction between and  in unstressed syllables applies only to those speakers that do not have the weak vowel merger. Therefore, we need to follow British sources on that because the distinction is as British as the distinction between  and.
 * The fact that even RP speakers can use in the first syllable of "Nevada" is no reason for a separate transcription. There's thousands of words in which this is the case (yet, other words, such as "rabbit", are heard only with an unstressed  in RP:, not *). Modern RP features a partial merger that is particularly resisted in some environments ( in "batted"  is typically distinguished from  in battered . ⟨#⟩ marks a morpheme boundary here. Non-rhotic Americans with the merger (as in older New York City English but not Boston or Southern American English) also distinguish the two (cf. "roses" ,  vs. "Rosa's" , ), but they rhyme "rabbit" ,  with "abbot" ,  which RP speakers do not. That's the weak vowel merger: the vowel is closer to  in some environments and to  in others, which is sadly not reflected in most dictionaries, which give  in some words and  in others not according to how the merged vowel really sounds in AmE (which would make the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ far more common than it is now and the difference between  and  could be scrapped for AmE) but according to the RP distribution (more or less) which makes zero sense (nor do they consistently use ⟨ə⟩ for the merged vowel: batting is  in AmE, not , because  triggers flapping and the nasal can be syllabic after g-dropping. If "Latin" has  then so does "batting"). If ⟨ə⟩ is good enough for  then ⟨ɪ⟩ is good enough for . Sol505000 (talk) 10:07, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Not all of that really rings true to me for AmE. Especially I don't agree with conflating /ə/ and /ʌ/.  As I see it, the weak vowel merger creates a phoneme, most conveniently represented phonemically for AmE as /ə/, but this phoneme exists only for weak vowels; it has no stressed counterpart.  The way you can tell that is the fact that it can be realized as many different phonetic vowels that in stressed positions are all phonemically distinct.  The weak vowel is sometimes rendered as [ʌ], sometimes as [ɪ], sometimes as [ʊ], or somewhere indistinct among these, and while there may be certain statistical regularities, the realizations are more or less in free variation.  I see no reason to pick out the ʌ particularly from among these. --Trovatore (talk) 18:02, 7 May 2023 (UTC)

I think I understand the argument, which appears to be saying there are two groups of pronunciations: therefore, /nɪˈvædə/ "covers" the pronunciations and should be the only one (per MOS:DIAPHONEMIC).
 * British pronunciation, which is
 * All others (including Americans), who have weak vowel merger, and should read as

The problem with this argument is that there are a substantial number of Americans (including myself) who do not have weak vowel merger, and hear and pronounce distinctly from. Only showing would thus direct a large number of non-vowel-merging Americans to mispronounce the word (i.e., not use their normal accent, but use an artificial British accent). This would be phonetic underdifferentiation.

Unfortunately, there does not appear to be a diaphoneme that is acceptable for use in WP in this case. As pointed out, the symbol  used by the OED was deprecated in 2017, and  has never been adopted by WP.

One way to resolve this conflict is to follow the second paragraph of MOS:DIAPHONEMIC, which says that alternative pronunciations can be used, and also points out that local pronunciations are of particular interest for place names. Thus, I would propose following Collins and use
 * (American English); (British English)

Would that satisfy everyone? — hike395 (talk) 23:44, 7 May 2023 (UTC)
 * The vast majority of Americans (and all Canadians, AFAIK) have the merger (see weak vowel merger). Only some Southern American English doesn't. The unstressed and  are both closer to  in some positions and  in others in AmE. Using the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ is not a judgement on the quality of the vowel, especially in AmE.
 * is the diaphoneme to be used in this case. It is listed twice, as a full vowel and as a reduced vowel subject to a merger with in accents with the weak vowel merger.
 * That doesn't work: vs.  is not a diaphonemic difference but a phonemic one. The diaphoneme is : . The variation in the pronunciation of the second vowel is the only diaphonemic difference here:,.
 * is an alternative pronunciation in BrE that coexists with and . It's not the same as the Mary-merry merger, in which case  would not be possible in BrE. We can list  and  as alternative BrE pronunciations. Sol505000 (talk) 02:24, 8 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Please check your claims, specifically "only some southern american english..." as your first link specifically mentions new england english. It's also a documented part of other vernaculars derived from such during westward expansion. Crescent77 (talk) 16:32, 19 August 2023 (UTC)
 * there are a substantial number of Americans (including myself) who do not have weak vowel merger That runs directly counter to what literature says. I wonder if you're not mistaking phones for phonemes. (The lack of the merger doesn't just mean you "hear and pronounce /ɪ/ distinctly from /ə/". It means they're in contrastive distribution in unstressed syllables.) Are Lenin and Lennon, bizarre and bazaar, etc. really distinct for you? Nardog (talk) 07:03, 8 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Speaking for myself unscientifically, I don't think I distinguish Lenin and Lennon, but I do think I distinguish bizarre and bazaar. --Trovatore (talk) 16:19, 8 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree, local vernacular does distinguish between bizarre and bazaar. Crescent77 (talk) 16:32, 19 August 2023 (UTC)
 * If this is backed up by sources then we need to update our definition of the weak vowel merger (currently, it only says that Rosa's is distinct from roses), Help:IPA/English and all transcriptions with a prevocalic that is actually  in AmE. Nevada is not special in this regard, and I don't believe that this distinction (assuming that it exists) is limited to the local vernacular of Nevada. Sol505000 (talk) 11:29, 15 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your continuing efforts on this topic.
 * I would just like to reiterate that the issue at hand may revolve around to what extent the weak vowel merger is present in the local vernacular in question. As noted above, it is heavily derived from American dialects which do not have the weak vowel merger. Crescent77 (talk) 04:59, 17 September 2023 (UTC)

We used to distinguish these possibilities, with $⟨ᵻ⟩$ for the high reduced vowel. RP merges this with the KIT vowel, and GA with the COMMA vowel. Since we now have to choose between dialects, we should go with GA for US place names and RP for UK place names.

As for bizarre ~ bazaar distinction in GA, that's a matter of vowel reduction: with a reduced vowel, the two are homonyms, but without one the first has the KIT vowel, distinguishing it from Nevada, which does not. Without vowel reduction, Nevada has the DRESS vowel, as a local mentioned above.

Although /ə/ sometimes approaches [ɪ] in GA, esp. around /t/ and /d/, that's a phonetic detail, on par with aspiration, and we don't transcribe phonetic details.

Personally, I think we should just restore ⟨ᵻ⟩ to the template so that we can have pan-dialectal transcriptions again, rather than having to choose between RP and GA whenever it appears. — kwami (talk) 04:51, 5 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree that restoring ⟨ᵻ⟩ to the template would be the best option. But how likely is that to happen? Can we just use it at this article to resolve the dispute? — hike395 (talk) 22:49, 5 December 2023 (UTC)
 * No, changing the template would make it WP-wide. The argument to stop supporting ⟨ᵻ⟩ was that it was hard to know when to use it. If we have the KIT vowel in RP and the COMMA vowel in GA, then we'd use ⟨ᵻ⟩. The problem occurs when we don't have RS's for both RP and GA, but really it's usually pretty easy to figure out. — kwami (talk) 03:48, 6 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Double sharp (talk) 04:05, 6 December 2023 (UTC)
 * To clarify, kwami, you're in favor of using ⟨ᵻ⟩ in this article? — hike395 (talk) 23:07, 6 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm in favor of restoring support of ⟨ᵻ⟩ to the template. I don't think it's appropriate to add a letter to a specific article if it isn't included in the key. If we don't have support of ⟨ᵻ⟩, then I think we should go with the GA pronunciation (i.e. schwa) over the RP, unless we list both, which IMO would be overkill. — kwami (talk) 00:40, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * What do you think of the argument (above) that MOS:DIAPHONEMIC implies that GA speakers will known to read as ? — hike395 (talk) 07:24, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * They'll just pronounce it wrong. That wouldn't matter much in cases where /ə/ is pronounced more or less as [ɪ], e.g. after /t/ or /d/, but it isn't in this case. It isn't diaphonemic, and won't work for Australians either. If we keep it as-is, we should mark it as the UK pronunciation. — kwami (talk) 09:32, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * The respelling is also wrong. Even if we transcribe it as /ɪ/ in IPA, the corresponding respelling is "nə-VAD-ə", not "niv-AD-ə", which makes no sense at all. — kwami (talk) 09:36, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree with you: the current IPA is doing a disservice to our readers who will be misled into thinking the RP is the universal pronunciation for the mountain chain. I would support going back to and fixing the respelling. — hike395 (talk) 10:07, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sierra Nevada


text:
Tamworth, New South Wales

Tamworth is a city and administrative centre of the north-eastern region of New South Wales, Australia. Situated on the Peel River within the local government area of the Tamworth Regional Council, it is the largest and most populated city in the region, with a population of 43,874 in 2021, making it the second largest inland city in New South Wales. Tamworth is 318 km from the Queensland border and is located almost midway between Brisbane and Sydney.

The city is known as the "First Town of Lights", being the first place in Australia to use electric street lights in 1888. Tamworth is also famous as the "Country Music Capital of Australia" and "Australia's answer to Nashville", annually hosting the Tamworth Country Music Festival in late January; the second-biggest country music festival in the world after Nashville. The city is recognised as the National Equine Capital of Australia because of the high number of equine events held in the city and the construction of the world-class Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre, the biggest of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere.

History
The Kamilaroi people, from whose language comes the word "budgerigar", inhabited the area before European contact. In 1818, John Oxley passed through the Peel Valley and commented, "it would be impossible to find a finer or more luxuriant country than its waters...No place in this world can afford more advantages to the industrious settler than this extensive vale". In 1831, the first sheep stations and cattle stations were formed, and in the same year, the Australian Agricultural Company was granted a lease of 127000 ha of land at Goonoo Goonoo, south of the present location of Tamworth, extending to present-day Calala.

In the 1830s, a company town began to develop on the Peel's southwest bank, the present site of West Tamworth. In 1850, a public town was gazetted on the opposite side of the river from the existing settlement. This town became the main town, called "Tamworth" after Tamworth, Staffordshire, represented at the time in parliament by Robert Peel. The town prospered, and was reached by the railway in 1878. The first streetlights used in Australia were commercially owned in Waratah Tasmania in 1886, but on 9 November 1888, Tamworth became the first location in Australia to have electric street lighting powered by a municipally owned power station, giving the town the title of "First Town of Light".

Gaol history
The first record of correctional facilities being established in Tamworth was on 17 December 1864 when the local Police Magistrate was appointed as the Visiting Justice at the Tamworth Gaol. A gaoler and sheriff were appointed in 1868. At the commencement of 1920, there were 11 prisoners detained. During that year, 201 prisoners were received with 183 discharged leaving 29 in prison by 31 December 1920. Almost 20 per cent of the prisoners were aged under 21 years. The Tamworth Gaol ceased to exist on 25 March 1943, and this was ratified by a proclamation from 8 April 1943.

Prior to its opening as an adult male correctional centre in 1991, the facility (known variously as the Tamworth Institution for Boys, the Tamworth Boys' Home, and Endeavour House) was a male juvenile justice centre that pre–dated the establishment of the Kariong Youth Correctional Centre which opened in September 1991.

Timeline

 * 1818 – Explorer John Oxley passes through the area on his exploration mission. Names the river that now runs through the town: Peel River, after British Prime Minister Robert Peel.
 * 1831 – First sheep and cattle stations, namely Joseph Brown's 'Wallamoul' and William Dangar's 'Waldoo'. The exploring expedition led by Major Mitchell visited 'Wallamoul' in December 1831 on its way to the north-west.
 * 1834 – 6000 sheep of the Australian Agriculture Company were the first to be brought to the Tamworth region.
 * 1851 – The white population of the village of Tamworth was 254.
 * 1852 – John Barnes built the Royal Oak Hotel.
 * 1861 – Population 543
 * 1866 – Tamworth Mechanics' Institute opened.
 * 1882 – Tamworth railway station opened.
 * 1883 – Tamworth base hospital opened.
 * 1888 – Power station opened and enables the beginning of electric street lighting. The first electric streetlights in Australia.
 * 1918 – A pedestal is unveiled as a memorial to the discovery of Tamworth district.
 * 1926 – An anchor from the HM survey ship Sealark is erected on the pedestal.
 * 1935 – Radio 2TM began broadcasting. Tamworth's first radio station.
 * 1946 – Proclaimed a town.
 * 1947 – East-West Airlines was established in Tamworth, flying Tamworth to Sydney.
 * 1947 – Institution for Boys home for criminal youth opened.
 * 1973 – The first Australasian Country Music Festival was hosted in Tamworth by radio station 2TM, which has led to the extraordinary success of the Tamworth Country Music Festival that is held every year in Summer, at the end of January, a celebration that runs continuously for 11 days.
 * 1988 – A country music icon, the 12 m tall Golden Guitar is erected as a symbol of the town's country music roots.
 * 1990s – The Local Council embarks on a successful campaign of urban and streetscape renewal, including the greening of Peel Street.
 * 1999 – Tamworth Regional Entertainment Centre is opened.
 * 2004 – A new local government area, Tamworth Regional Council, is formed from Tamworth town, Manilla Shire and parts of Parry, Nundle and Barraba Shires.
 * 2006 – In December the Tamworth Regional Council voted 6 to 3 against an offer from the Federal Government to take part in a one-year trial rural refugee resettlement programme; the majority of these refugees would be Sudanese escaping civil war in their homeland. Mayor of Tamworth, James Treloar, argued that the refugees being resettled were potentially diseased and criminal. The decision resulted in national and international media attention on the town. The public outrage unleashed by his comments and the summary decision to reject the refugees forced a reversal of the bill one month later, and Tamworth took part in the resettling program.
 * 2008 – The Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre opened in September.
 * 2016 – Tamworth hosted the annual City vs Country Origin rugby league match at Scully Park Regional Sporting Precinct.
 * 2020 – Tamworth became the New Zealand Warriors Temporary Training and Isolation facility During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Geography
Tamworth is located on the western side of the Great Dividing Range, on the banks of the Peel River, about 420 km north of Sydney on the New England Highway, and 280 km inland from Port Macquarie on the Oxley Highway. The city is situated at a narrow point on the Peel River floodplain, nestled at the base of the Wentworth Mounds, a spur of the Moonbi Range, where the Northwest Slopes rise to the Northern Tablelands. The elevation is around 400 m AHD. The Peel River runs southeast to northwest through Tamworth. The main city centre is on the northeast bank, between the river and the Wentworth Mounds, which rise to heights of 800 m, towering over the city. The southwest bank is much flatter, and the city's suburbs sprawl to the south. Water for residents and the town's industry is supplied by Chaffey Dam, 44 km south east of the city.

Urban Tamworth occupies an area of 240.7 km2 as of 2016. The Tamworth Regional Council area encompasses the suburbs, towns, villages and rural localities of Appleby, Attunga, Banoon, Barraba (part), Barry, Bective, Bendemeer, Bithramere, Borah Creek, Bowling Alley Point, Bundarra (part), Calala, Crawney (part), Daruka, Duncans Creek, Dungowan, Duri, East Tamworth, Garoo, Garthowen, Gidley, Goonoo Goonoo, Gowrie, Gulf Creek (part), Halls Creek, Hallsville, Hanging Rock, Hillvue, Ironbark, Kentucky (part), Kingswood, Klori, Kootingal, Limbri, Lindesay, Longarm, Loomberah, Manilla, Mayvale, Moonbi, Moore Creek, Mulla Creek, Namoi River, Nemingha, New Mexico, Niangala (part), North Tamworth, Nundle, Ogunbil, Oxley Vale, Piallamore, Red Hill, Retreat, Rushes Creek, Somerton, South Tamworth, Taminda, Tamworth, Thirloene, Timbumburi, Tintinhull, Upper Horton (part), Upper Manilla, Wallamore, Warrabah, Warral, Watsons Creek, Weabonga, West Tamworth, Westdale, Wimborne, Winton, Wongo Creek, Woodsreef, Woolbrook (part) and Woolomin.

Climate
Tamworth has a warm temperate climate with hot summers and relatively cool winters. It is included in the rainfall records and weather forecast region of the North West Slopes or the North West Slopes and Plains division of the Bureau of Meteorology forecasts. Under the Köppen climate classification scheme, Tamworth has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa).

Temperatures exceed 35 C on around 20–25 days a year, but over the past few years have exceeded this number substantially. The average maximum temperature in summer is 33 C, and the average minimum approximately 18 C, the mean annual rainfall is 673.2 mm. Winters are mild and sometimes even warm by day, and cool to cold by night. Daytime temperatures average around 16-17 C and occasionally make it to 20, and overnight minima average 3 C. On 12 January 2013, Tamworth recorded a new record maximum of 42.5 C, eclipsing the previous record by 0.5 of a degree, but only a year later, on 3 January 2014, this record was broken by almost 3 degrees, with a new record maximum of 45.1 C. This record has since been broken with a maximum of 45.9 C recorded, during a significant heatwave, on 12 February 2017.

Rainfall is experienced all year round, with summer storms providing occasional heavy downpours. Tamworth's rainy season, in the early months of a new year (particularly January) can result in major flooding. Snow is very rare in Tamworth, but does occasionally occur in the surrounding higher villages such as Nundle (although far from reliable). Frosts are frequent and often severe. On 28 and 29 November 2008, Tamworth, Gunnedah, and the surrounding area received torrential rain that caused severe flooding and led to the area being declared a natural disaster area.

Demographics
According to the 2021 census of Population, 43,874 people were in Tamworth urban area.
 * Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people made up 14.1% of the population.
 * About 82.9% of people were born in Australia. The most common countries of birth were the Philippines 1.2%, England 1.1%, India 1.1%, Vietnam 0.8%, and New Zealand 0.7%.
 * Around 85.1% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 1.0%, Vietnamese 0.8%, Tagalog 0.6%, Punjabi 0.5%, and Nepali 0.5%.
 * The most common responses for religion were no religion 32.2%, Anglican 22.0%, and Catholic 21.9%.

Around 89.5% of Tamworth were working in 2021. At the 2021 census, the industry sector in Tamworth with the most employees was Hospitals (except Psychiatric Hospitals) with 6.1% of the workforce.

Population for Tamworth Urban Area.

Suburbs
City
 * Calala
 * East Tamworth
 * Hills Plains
 * Hillvue
 * Kingswood
 * Nemingha
 * North Tamworth
 * Oxley Vale
 * South Tamworth
 * Taminda (Tamworth Industrial Area)
 * Tamworth Central Business District
 * Westdale
 * West Tamworth

Satellite suburbs
 * Daruka Estate
 * Duri
 * Hallsville
 * Kootingal
 * Moore Creek
 * Piallamore
 * Tintinhull
 * Dungowan

Central business district

The Tamworth central business district is the town centre and is located north of the Peel River. It is primarily a business area of Tamworth, with many shops, restaurants, car dealerships, as well as shopping centres and public facilities. The Tamworth Regional Council has its headquarters in Peel Street at Ray Walsh House. Bicentennial Park and number one cricket oval are also located in the suburb.

Economy
Tamworth is primarily a service centre for the New England and North West regions, providing services to a population of some 200,000 plus people from the Tamworth region and satellite areas. The retail industry is the biggest employer, followed by manufacturing and health services. The industries with the most number of businesses in order are property and business services, agriculture and construction, closely followed by finance and insurance services. With a diverse economy agriculture, education, transport and aviation are major industries.

Aviation
Aviation has been a significant part of the local economy, partly due to the town's exceptionally suitable flying weather, with the former East West Airlines and Eastern Airlines having had service and maintenance bases at the Tamworth Airport. Qantaslink currently conducts heavy maintenance on its DHC8-400 fleet at its Tamworth base. The Tamworth airport is home to the former Bae systems flight training academy complex, capable of accommodating and training up to 150 students at any time. New operators are currently being sought following the withdrawal of Bae from military flight training in 2020. The Australasian Pacific Aeronautical College and New England Institute of TAFE in the town also provide aeronautical training.

Agriculture
Agriculture is an important industry in the Tamworth economy. An estimated 307000 ha of land are used for the agricultural industry, with an economic gross value of $75 million contributing to the Tamworth economy. Important agricultural activities include beef, sheep, grain, dairy, poultry and lucerne. Other agricultural areas include alpaca, buffalo, berry, fish, goat, hydroponic, nut, olive, and specialised game fowl farming, as well as wineries. Offices for the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources are located in Tamworth.

Equine and sporting horse events
Tamworth is recognised nationally as the sporting horse capital of Australia and is the headquarters of three major equine associations: CHA, ABCRA and AQHA. Many of the Australia's most important equine events take place in Tamworth. Various international, national and state championships are regularly held in the Tamworth district, as well as Australia's richest sporting horse event; the NCHA Futurity. Additionally, the ABCRA National Finals Rodeo occurs during the Tamworth Country Music Festival. Equine sports and their participation is very high in the Tamworth region amongst residents. The strength of the equine and sporting horse industry has resulted in hundreds of businesses and horse studs being located in the town's region.

Titles held in the town include: ABCRA National Finals and Junior National Finals, Australian Quarter Horse National Championships and Barrel Race Super Challenge, and the National Cutting Horse Association Futurity among many other events. These events were hosted at the Tamworth Showgrounds in the suburb of Taminda; however, they are now hosted at the new Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre as of 2008. The Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre has been built by the Tamworth Regional Council at a cost of $30 million. Construction of stage I began in June 2007 and was completed in October 2008. The centre has an indoor arena seating 3,360 people, stables for over 478 horses, a covered stud livestock-selling area with seating for 660 people and truck and camping facilities for 195 vehicles. Associations for Appaloosas horses, all breeds, Western Performance, Australian Stock Horses, Pony Clubs and cutting horses all use the centre.

Retail
Tamworth is the largest and main retail centre for the New England and North West Slopes regions of New South Wales. Retail accounts for 22.5% of the working population and is the largest employer in the town.

Peel Street is the major retail and shopping area of Tamworth and is located in the Tamworth central business district. Three blocks of Peel St were refurbished over different stages during the 1990s. There are a few hundred shops in the main street, as well as restaurants, street cafés and banks. These include a large Target department store (formerly Grace Bros).

There are many shopping centres located in Tamworth, with the majority being located in the CBD, but many are also located in various neighbourhood suburbs. Shopping centres include:
 * Tamworth town Plaza is located in the CBD, with 42 shops including Coles and Kmart.
 * Centrepoint Shopping Centre is a A$35 million shopping centre that was completed by Christmas 2008 behind the Tamworth Town Hall, in the CBD between the old town library and behind the speciality shops in the main street Peel St. The Centre contains a supermarket, as well as a Cinema Complex that contains five cinemas and a performing arts centre/theatre known as the Capitol Theatre that also doubles as a cinema, six restaurants, a food court and 40 speciality shops.
 * The Atrium, formerly known as the Tamworth Arcade, is located in the CBD with entrances from Peel St and Kable Avenue.
 * Eastpoint Shopping Centre Tamworth, located in the CBD on Peel St
 * Tamworth Shopping World is located in West Tamworth along Bridge Street, with over 50 speciality shops, including a food court
 * Northgate Shopping Centre is situated in North Tamworth; Coles is located inside the centre, as well as 10 speciality shops. The centre has been recently redeveloped.
 * Southgate Shopping Centre in South Tamworth is home to Coles and other speciality shops. The centre was the first mall to be built in Tamworth. In 2012 Southgate undertook a redevelopment and facelift.
 * Tamworth Homespace is located out at the Longyard. It is a bulk goods complex.
 * Calala Court shopping complex, located in Calala, was opened in 2007. It has 10 speciality shops and a supermarket.

Tourism
Tourism is a significant industry in the Tamworth area, worth $AUD239 million annually as at December 2014, with by far the most significant draw being the annual Tamworth Country Music Festival, the biggest event of its type in Australia and the Southern Hemisphere. Other attractions include Tamworth's museums and galleries. Nearby destinations include several country towns, including Barraba, popular for birdwatching, Nundle, and Quirindi.

Country Music Festival
Tamworth is best known for hosting the annual Tamworth Country Music Festival (TCMF) over a period of 10 days from Friday to Sunday in mid to late January, sometimes including Australia Day. TCMF is the second biggest country music festival in the world. It features thousands of Australian and international country music artists performing live shows 24 hours a day. Each year, an estimated 100,000 people pass through Tamworth for the festival. Around 70,000 stay for a substantial duration, with some camping along the banks of the Peel River.

On the last Saturday of each TCMF, the Toyota Country Music Cavalcade is held in Peel Street (the main street), featuring many country music artists. The festival culminates in the prestigious Golden Guitar Awards. Tamworth otherwise honours country music by being home to the 'Big Golden Guitar', the Wax Museum, and the Hands of Fame Park.

Vehicle manufacturing
In the 1990s, Ansair established a bus bodying factory in Tamworth to body Scania and Volvo buses for Brisbane Transport and the State Transit Authority. Jakab Industries also bodied buses, ambulances and postal vans between 1973 and 2002.

Tamworth Capitol Theatre
The Tamworth Capitol Theatre is fitted with a 405-seat auditorium with two levels of tiered seating, professional theatre lighting, a full sound system, dressing rooms, an orchestra pit, and fly tower, and is fully air conditioned. It is a multifunctional space for live theatre and cinema productions. It has significantly added to the existing cultural facilities in the region and provides a forum for live theatre, including dance, drama, music, educational activities, conferences and community events. During the Country Music Festival, The Capitol Theatre is host to three independent shows per day.

Tamworth Town Hall
The Tamworth Town Hall, located in the Tamworth Central Business District, is a historical building used for events, conferences and concerts. Additionally, it is commonly used for career expos, antique shows, meetings and conventions. It was built in 1934, has a proscenium stage, a gallery and a seating capacity of 1074 people.

Tamworth Regional Entertainment Centre
Tamworth Regional Entertainment Centre is located in the suburb of Hillvue. It is a multipurpose centre with a seating capacity of 5,100, and is the biggest of its kind outside the New South Wales and south-east Queensland metropolitan areas.

Health
Tamworth in 2020 was dubbed Australia's "Fattest" for having the highest rate of obesity by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 69.6% of residents undertook low or no level of exercise (top 10 highest rate of inactivity) 20.2% smoked tobacco (the highest rate in the state) and 19.6% consumed alcohol at a high risk. 23.5% of adults have high blood pressure. There has been media criticism for the amount of fast food establishments in Tamworth with the town receiving its fourth McDonalds. Hungry Jacks is also looking to add another restaurant. The council approved the restaurants because of its potential to create jobs.

Education

 * University of New England
 * University of Newcastle
 * TAFE New England
 * Calrossy Anglican School
 * Carinya Christian School
 * Farrer Memorial Agricultural High School
 * Hillvue Public School
 * Liberty College
 * McCarthy Catholic College
 * Nemingha Public School
 * Oxley High School
 * Peel High School
 * St Nicholas Catholic Primary School
 * St Edwards Catholic Primary School
 * St Joseph's Catholic Primary School
 * Tamworth Public School
 * Tamworth High School
 * Tamworth South Public School
 * Tamworth West Public School
 * Westdale Public School

Sport
Sport is a very important part of Tamworth culture, and over 50 different sports and recreational pursuits are participated in by the community. Many major annual and one-off sporting events are held in the town because of the wide range of facilities and venues available. There are over 180 sporting clubs in the Tamworth region and the region has several strong competitions, including basketball, cricket, football (soccer), field hockey, netball, rugby league, rugby union, and Aussie rules football. As a result, the town has produced many sportspeople, including test cricketers, Olympic shooters and hockey players, and many players in the National Rugby League. The Northern Inland Academy of Sport is one important institution in the town that has helped talented sportspeople to establish themselves "on and off the field". It was established in 1992 and has a wide range of community support.

During the Queen's Birthday long weekend in June, Tamworth hosts a Baseball tournament with teams competing from all over NSW and QLD.

Facilities
Located within the town are an athletic track, Australian football grounds, badminton courts, baseball diamonds, indoor basketball courts, indoor and outdoor cricket pitches, croquet turf, cycling (velodrome and BMX track), two 18-hole golf courses, a gymnastic centre, water bases hockey fields, the Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre used for equine sports, eleven bowling turfs, a kart-racing track, a speedway track and a motocross track, netball courts: twelve asphalt courts, 30 grass courts and an indoor synthetic court, an inline hockey court, rugby league and union fields (nine senior fields and seven junior fields). Shooting sports have a 3 x 25 m standard pistol range, 1 x 10m air pistol range, 1 x 100m free and action pistol range; 1 x 50m service pistol range and 1 x 100m rifle range. Soccer fields include six senior fields, 8 junior fields and an indoor standard court. Two international standard softball diamonds and ten competition standard diamonds are available. Squash courts, two Olympic swimming pools and one indoor pool, tennis courts (two hardcourts, 17 synthetic courts, 8 clay courts and one indoor synthetic court), two tenpin bowling centres, 16 touch football/Oztag fields, two indoor volleyball courts and three beach courts, as well as 2 water polo competition level pools are located there. There is a awesome mountain bike track, owned and maintained by the Tamworth Council. It has a range of difficulty levels, including easy, intermediate and difficult. The park features a Jump Line with a range of jumps and build up speed through the course. The more difficult trails are further up the hill, Pha Pha Pindari, Kamikaze and Top Loader are the black downhill tracks. While Secret Valley, Goanna Crawl, Skyline and North Hill are the intermidate tech trails. While Yellow Brick Road, Hillside and Southpark are the green flowy trails.

The Oakburn Park motorsports complex built in 1996, is located 12 kilometres northwest of the city. It contains speedway and motcocross circuits and the motorcycle speedway track has hosted the New South Wales Championship on five occasions and the Australian Under-21 Championship four times.

Performing arts

 * CAPERS is a show hosted at Tamworth Regional Entertainment Centre every two years to showcase the talent of students (both primary and high school) from the North-West region public schools.
 * The Northwest Dance Festival has been held various times in Tamworth at the Tamworth Regional Entertainment Centre. This includes a wide variety of dances from all the public schools in the region.
 * The Tamworth Eisteddfod is held annually in May and June, with Speech and Drama, Debating, Music and Dance sections at the Tamworth Town Hall.
 * The Tamworth Musical Society is an important part of the Tamworth culture, and has performed musicals such as "Grease", "Westside Story", and "Les Misérables" in October–November 2007 at the Tamworth Capitol Theatre.
 * The Tamworth Regional Conservatorium of Music is another important part of the performing arts scene in Tamworth. Over 1000 students learn many instruments from experienced and qualified teachers. It is the largest regional conservatorium in the state behind Wollongong, with students ranging in age from four to 75 years old, learning over 21 different instruments.

Parks
The many important parks in the town of Tamworth include Anzac Park, Bicentennial Park and The Tamworth Regional Botanic Gardens. The botanical gardens were established in 1995 and are run by the Tamworth Regional Council. Bicentennial Park is characterised by its stagnant waters and high population of wild ducks. The gardens cover an area of 28 ha, 5 ha of which has been developed. The gardens conserve the flora of the region, as well as include flora and plant displays from various parts of Australia and the world.

Heritage listings
Tamworth has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * Fitzroy Street: Tamworth Post Office
 * King George V Memorial Avenue (East): King George V Avenue of Memorial English Oaks
 * Main Northern railway: Peel River railway bridge
 * Main Northern railway: Tamworth railway station
 * Marius Street (East): Dominican Roman Catholic Convent
 * Peel Street (cnr): Tamworth Peel Barracks

The following buildings in Tamworth are listed on the now defunct Register of the National Estate:
 * Hospital Main Block, built 1883
 * Lands Office, Fitzroy Street, built 1889
 * Post Office, Victorian Classical style, designed by Colonial Architect James Barnet, circa 1886
 * Public School, Upper Street, built 1885

Tamworth Power Station Museum
Tamworth was the first town in Australia to light its streets by municipally generated electricity in 1888. A larger power station was established in 1923 at a site in Marius Street, East Tamworth due to the high demand of electricity and the main building was demolished in 1982. The Tamworth Power Station Museum's purpose is to tell the story of the town's role in the development of electric street lighting, from the early days of oil lamps in 1876 and gas lamps in 1882, through to the installation of the first electric lights in November 1888. The museum has one of Australia's largest collections of early 20th century electrical appliances.

Powerhouse Motorcycle Museum
The Powerhouse Motorcycle Museum holds more than 50 motorcycles spanning from the 1950s to the 1980s. The museum specialises in Ducati, Triumph, Honda, Velocette and Laverda. The museum holds an example of the limited edition MV Agusta F4 Serie Oro.

Churches
Since 2000, the Combined Churches of Tamworth have run a free to the public festival called "Lifefest" in Bicentennial Park. The event is run on a Saturday in July in conjunction with Fusion Tamworth and with the support of Tamworth Regional Council. The family day celebrates National Thanksgiving Day and involves various stalls with free food, drinks, games, and showbags, as well as a drama presentation, music performances, and displays from police, fire brigade and ambulance personnel; 2007 attracted a crowd of a few thousand to the festival in the park.

Media
Tamworth serves as the regional centre for media in the New England District. Much of the region's history is stored in its original form at the Tamworth Regional Film and Sound Archive – a volunteer organisation hosted by the Tamworth Regional Council – and their database is available online. In 1970, the town (city hall, main street, swimming pool, Hoyts drive-in, and station) and region served as the setting for the Judy vignette in the 1971 film 3 to Go.

Newspapers

 * Northern Daily Leader is a long-running daily local paper (Monday to Saturday), with local and regional coverage, owned by Fairfax.
 * Tamworth Times is a free weekly paper owned by Fairfax.

Television
Tamworth is served by three commercial and two public television services, each having their respective primary and multichannel services across the North West region:
 * Seven (formerly branded as Prime7 and Prime Television), 7two, 7mate, 7Bravo, 7flix – Seven Network owned and operated channels.
 * Nine (NBN), 9Go!, 9Gem, 9Life – Nine Network owned and operated channels.
 * 10 (WIN Northern NSW), 10 Peach, 10 Bold, Sky News Regional – (Owned by WIN Corporation), Network Ten affiliated channels.
 * Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ABC TV, ABC TV Plus/ABC Kids, ABC Me, ABC News
 * Special Broadcasting Service, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS Food, SBS World Movies, SBS WorldWatch and NITV

Of the three main commercial networks:
 * The Seven Network (formerly branded as Prime7 and Prime Television) airs a half-hour local Seven News (formerly branded as Prime7 News and Prime News) bulletin for the North West at 6pm each weeknight. It is produced from a local newsroom in the city and broadcast from studios in Canberra.
 * Nine airs NBN News, a regional hour-long program including opt-outs for the North West, every night at 6pm. It is broadcast from studios in Newcastle with reporters based at a local newsroom in the city.
 * WIN Television airs short local news updates throughout the day, broadcast from its Wollongong studios.

Subscription television services are provided by Foxtel.

Radio
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) operate and broadcast five radio stations:
 * ABC New England North West 648 AM / 99.1 FM – part of the ABC Local Radio network
 * ABC News Radio 91.7 FM
 * ABC Radio National 93.9 FM / 100.7 FM
 * ABC Classic FM 96.7 FM / 103.1 FM
 * Triple J 94.7 FM / 99.9 FM
 * 2TM Tamworth 1287AM – Tamworth's first radio station
 * 92.9FM
 * 88.9fm New England Northwest 96.3fm Liverpool Plains

Several other radio stations are based in the town, including 2TM, general community station 88.9 FM, Christian community radio station Radio Rhema 89.7 FM, and hit music station FM 92.9. The community radio stations both broadcast from Bald Hill. FM 92.9 and 2TM are owned by the Broadcast Operations Group, branded as the "Super Radio Network".

Transport
Tamworth Airport has daily flights to Sydney Airport with QantasLink, and previously by Virgin Australia. Regional carrier Fly Corporate, now known as Link Airways, began a regular service between Brisbane and Tamworth on 31 October 2016.

Tamworth station is situated on the Main Northern railway line. Trains no longer continue all the way to the Queensland border, but the town is still served by the NSW TrainLink Xplorer service between Sydney and Armidale, where daily coaches continue to Tenterfield.

Other NSW TrainLink coaches operate to Dubbo and Inverell. Until November 2009, Pacific National operated a regular fuel service from Sydney, carrying 30 million litres (6,600,000 imp gal; 7,900,000 US gal) of fuel a year to Tamworth and Dubbo. It was the last freight service to serve the town; in the 1980s, up to six trains a day ran.

Tamworth was served by thrice-weekly bus services to Coffs Harbour and Brisbane by New England Coaches until 2021 because of coronavirus.

Greyhound Australia stopped servicing Tamworth in 2016 citing unprofitable passenger loadings.

Local services are provided by Tamworth Buslines who also provides interurban services to nearby Quirindi (Rt 428), Manila (Rt 443) and Bendemeer (Rt 444).

Sister cities
Tamworth has the following sister cities:

Attractions

 * Calala Cottage
 * Endeavour Park (Marsupial Park)
 * Golden Guitar
 * Oxley Park Lookout
 * PowerStation Museum
 * Tamworth Regional Botanic Gardens
 * Tamworth Regional Gallery
 * The Big Big Mac
 * Wax Museum

Military history
During World War II, Tamworth was the location of RAAF No.20 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 and closed on 14 June 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).

Notable people

 * Academic
 * Bronwyn Davies – Independent scholar and Professorial Fellow, University of Melbourne; author
 * Stephen R Kane – Associate Professor of Planetary Astrophysics, University of California, Riverside
 * Warren R Rodwell – University teacher, hostage survivor, lyricist

 * Arts, entertainment and media
 * Peter Cousens – Actor
 * Mark Ferguson – TV newsreader
 * Belinda Giblin – Actress
 * Kylie Gillies – TV presenter, co-host
 * Pixie Jenkins – Musician
 * Ezra Lee – Musician, singer, songwriter
 * Tony Martin – Actor
 * Lawrie Minson – Musician, songwriter
 * Matt Moran – Chef, TV personality
 * Philip Quast – Actor, singer
 * Ivan Sen – Film director, writer
 * Rebecca Smart – Actress
 * Don Spencer – Musician, author, TV presenter
 * Felicity Urquhart – Singer, songwriter

 * Military
 * Michael James Birchell - a soldier who died in the Vietnam War

 * Politics
 * Mark Coulton – Politician; National Party member for the Division of Parkes
 * Kevin Humphries – Politician; National Party member of the NSW Legislative Assembly
 * Barnaby Joyce – Politician; Former leader of the National Party and Deputy Prime Minister of Australia
 * Andrew Wilkie – Politician; independent federal member for the Division of Denison
 * Tony Windsor – Retired politician; independent member for the Division of New England

 * Sport
 * Clive Barton – Skeet shooter
 * George Barton – Shooter
 * David Brooks – Rugby league player
 * Jamie Dwyer – Hockey player
 * Elton Flatley – Rugby union player
 * John Gleeson – Cricketer
 * Phil Graham – Rugby league player
 * Tom Green – AFL footballer
 * Josh Hazlewood – Cricketer
 * Troy Hearfield – Soccer player
 * Mark Hensby – Golfer
 * Craig Jones – Cricketer
 * Nick Kay – Basketballer
 * Tom Learoyd-Lahrs – Rugby league player
 * Greg McNamara – Boxer
 * Ethan Parry – Rugby league player
 * Matt Parsons – Rugby league player
 * Shane Rodney – Rugby league player
 * Paddy Ryan – Rugby union player
 * Matthew Smith – Hockey player
 * Emelyn Starr – Tennis player
 * Richard Swain – Rugby league player
 * Peter Taylor – Rugby league player
 * Brad Tighe – Rugby league player
 * Alan Tongue – Rugby league player
 * Ross Warner – Rugby league player
 * Michael York – Hockey player

title: Tamworth, New South Wales


text:
Río Cuarto craters

The Río Cuarto craters are a purported group of impact craters located in Córdoba Province, Argentina. Research published in 2002 indicates that they are more likely a result of aeolian processes.

Discovery
In 1990, Captain Ruben Lianza of the Argentine Air Force, an amateur astronomer, provided a report to an astronomy publication that included aerial pictures of a set of odd teardrop-shaped depressions near the city of Río Cuarto, Córdoba in north-central Argentina. The depressions seemed very similar to the sets of craters produced in laboratory simulations of impacts taking place at low angles. Such features exist on the Moon, Mars, and Venus, but had not been seen on Earth up to that time.

The depressions had long been known to Argentine geologists, but until Lianza, nobody had seriously investigated them. Samples of materials obtained from the depressions indicated the presence of shocked materials, as well as pebbles that were clearly of meteoritic origin. A team of American researchers went to Argentina to investigate, collaborating with Captain Lianza and Argentine academics to study the strange depressions.

There were ten depressions, four of them of substantial size. One depression, named the "Drop", was about 200 m wide and 600 m long. Two more large depressions, the "Eastern Twin" and "Western Twin", both about 700 m wide and 3.5 km long, were located 5 km northeast. Another major depression, the "Northern Basin", about half and again as big as one of the Twins, was sited 11 kilometers further to the northeast. The long axes of the depressions all point to the northeast.

Impact origin theory
The depressions were thought to be due to a grazing impact of a set of objects at a very low angle, which calculations show to be a rare occurrence. Most impacts will strike at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal or greater, and the impact craters will always be close to circular, since the shock wave that results from the impact propagates symmetrically.

A grazing impact, however, will form an elliptical crater, with sprays of debris that look like butterfly wings. This has been confirmed by high-velocity guns used for impact experiments, and more recently by computer simulations. On impact, the object may shed chunks of itself that fly further downrange to perform secondary impacts.

Based upon physical and numerical modeling, proponents of the Río Cuarto event suggest that the object struck at an angle of no more than 15 degrees from the horizontal, with the impact itself having 10 times more explosive energy than the Barringer Crater event and 30 times more than the Tunguska event. Although the age of the depressions has not yet been determined precisely, it is believed by some researchers they are about 10,000 years old, placing them at the start of the Holocene, though the EID gives a broader age of less than 100,000 years old.

Aeolian origin theory
Satellite surveys of the area have found more than 400 similar oval features in the area, and studies of the layers of rock show no evidence of raised rims. These studies point to the oval features as being dune formations, aligned to the prevailing northeast wind.

There is no doubt that there is impact material in the form of glassy impactite and shocked quartz in the Río Cuarto structures. The age of this material has been questioned, and estimated to more than 500,000 BP, from an unknown source crater. There may have been a second, more recent event at around 10,000 BP which produced a second layer of impactite glass.

title: Río Cuarto craters


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Demonology

Demonology is the study of demons within religious belief and myth. Depending on context, it can refer to studies within theology, religious doctrine, or occultism. In many faiths, it concerns the study of a hierarchy of demons. Demons may be nonhuman separable souls, or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body. A sharp distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the Melanesians, several African groups, and others. The Islamic jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls. At the same time these classes are frequently conceived as producing identical results, e.g. diseases.

Prevalence of demons
According to some religions, all the affairs of the universe are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each ruling a certain "element" or even object, and themselves in subjection to a greater spirit. For example, the Inuit are said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds, the clouds, and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore, every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian spirit. Some are potentially of the malignant type, to be propitiated by an appeal to knowledge of the supernatural. Traditional Korean belief posits countless demons inhabit the natural world; they fill household objects and are present in all locations. By the thousands they accompany travellers, seeking them out from their places in the elements.

Greek philosophers such as Porphyry of Tyre (who claimed influence from Platonism ), as well as the fathers of the Christian Church, held that the world was pervaded with spirits, the latter of whom advanced the belief that demons received the worship directed at pagan gods.

Characterization of spirits
Not all spirits across all cultures are considered malevolent. In Central Africa, the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as the Inuit do; but they are regarded as inoffensive in the main. Passers-by must make some nominal offering as they near the spirits' residence. The occasional mischievous act, such as the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, is believed by the natives to be perpetuated by the class of spirits known as Ombuiri.

Many spirits, especially those regarding natural processes, are often considered neutral or benevolent; ancient European peasant fears of the corn-spirit would crop up during irritation, as a result of the farmer infringing on the domain of that said spirit, and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is no reason why the less significant pantheon should be regarded as malevolent, and historical evidence has shown that the Petara of the Dyaks are viewed as invisible guardians of mankind rather than hostile malefactors.

Types
Demons are generally classified as spirits which are believed to enter into relations with the human race. As such the term includes:
 * 1) angels in the Christian tradition that fell from grace,
 * 2) malevolent genii or familiars,
 * 3) such as receive a cult (e.g., ancestor worship),
 * 4) ghosts or other malevolent revenants.

Excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. Yet just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches. The incubi and succubi of the Middle Ages are sometimes regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give proof of their bodily existence, such as offspring (though often deformed). Belief in demons goes back many millennia. The Zoroastrian faith teaches that there are 3,333 Demons, some with specific dark responsibilities such as war, starvation, sickness, etc.

Ancient Mesopotamian religion
The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the underworld (Kur) was home to many demons, which are sometimes referred to as "offspring of arali". These demons could sometimes leave the underworld and terrorize mortals on earth. One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as galla; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. Like other demons, however, galla could also be benevolent and, in a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BC), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great galla of Girsu". Demons had no cult in Mesopotamian religious practice since demons "know no food, know no drink, eat no flour offering and drink no libation."

Christianity
Christian demonology is the study of demons from a Christian point of view. It is primarily based on the Bible (Old Testament and New Testament), the exegesis of scriptures, the writings of early Christian philosophers and hermits, tradition, and legends incorporated from other beliefs.

Some scholars suggest that the origins of early Greek Old Testament demonology can be traced to two distinctive and often competing mythologies of evil— Adamic and Enochic.

The first tradition — the Adamic tradition — ties demons to the fall of man caused by the serpent who beguiled Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Thus, the Adamic story traces the source of evil to Satan's transgression and the fall of man, a trend reflected in the Books of Adam and Eve which explains the reason for Satan's demotion by his refusal to worship and submit to God.

The other tradition — the early Enochic tradition — ties demons to the fall of angels in the antediluvian period. This tradition bases its understanding of the origin of demons on the story of the fallen Watchers led by Azazel. Scholars believe these two enigmatic figures—Azazel and Satan—exercised formative influence on early Jewish demonology. While in the beginning of their conceptual journeys Azazel and Satan are posited as representatives of two distinctive and often rival trends tied to the distinctive etiologies of corruption, in later Jewish and Christian demonological lore both antagonists are able to enter each other's respective stories in new conceptual capacities. In these later traditions Satanael is often depicted as the leader of the fallen angels while his conceptual rival Azazel is portrayed as a seducer of Adam and Eve. While historical Judaism never recognized any set of doctrines about demons, scholars believe its post-exilic concepts of eschatology, angelology, and demonology were influenced by Zoroastrianism. Some, however, believe these concepts were received as part of the Kabbalistic tradition. While many people believe today Lucifer and Satan are different names for the same being, not all scholars subscribe to this view.

A number of authors throughout Christian history have written about demons for a variety of purposes. Theologians like Thomas Aquinas wrote concerning the behaviors of which Christians should be aware, while witch hunters like Heinrich Kramer wrote about how to find and what to do with people they believed were involved with demons. Some texts such as the Lesser Key of Solomon or The Grimoire of Pope Honorius (although these, the earliest manuscripts, were from well after these individuals had died) are written with instructions on how to summon demons in the name of God and often were claimed to have been written by individuals respected within the Church. These latter texts were usually more detailed, giving names, ranks, and descriptions of demons individually and categorically. Most Christians commonly reject these texts as either diabolical or fictitious. Catholics accused Lutherans of believing in diabolatry or that the devil had unlimited powers.

In modern times, some demonological texts have been written by Christians, usually in a similar vein of Thomas Aquinas, explaining their effects in the world and how faith may lessen or eliminate damage by them. A few Christian authors, such as Jack Chick and John Todd, write with intentions similar to Kramer, proclaiming that demons and their human agents are active in the world. These claims can stray from mainstream ideology, and may include such beliefs as that Christian rock is a means through which demons influence people.

Not all Christians believe that demons exist in the literal sense. Some believe that the New Testament's exorcism language was originally part of curing ceremonies for what we now recognize as epilepsy, mental illness, etc.

Islam
Many demonic or demon-like entities are not purely spiritual, but physical in nature and related to animals. Julius Wellhausen states, that Islamic demonology is always zoology as well. One prominent classification is given by al-Jahiz, who classifies jinn as:
 * (1) when the jinn is pure and good, an angel
 * (2) when the jinn lives among humans, amir
 * (3) a malicious and evil jinn, a devil
 * (4) a strong one who steals informations from heaven, a marid
 * (5) the most powerful, an ifrit.

Zakariya al-Qazwini's Aja'ib al-Makhluqat mentions seven types of animals. The jinn are classified as an animal composed of fire and can appear in many forms. Among them, the angels are created from the light of fire, the jinn from a blaze of fire, and the devils from the smoke of fire. Satan is counted among these animals. They inhabited the earth before mankind.

The German orientalist Almut Wieland-Karimi classified the Jinn in the ten most common categories mentioned in folklore literature:

 * Jinn or Jann: ordinary jinn, a class apart from other jinn types, but also used as a collective to refer to invisible beings in general
 * Shaitan: Malevolent jinni, who causes illness and madness
 * Ifrit: delimitation to ordinary jinn remains unclear. Can be either a powerful cunning Jinn or a strong Shaitan. Ifrits are generally bad.
 * Marid: a haughty and powerful Shaitan or very malevolent Ifrit.
 * Bu'bu: a jinn that frightens children.
 * Si'lah: a female demon who seduces men.
 * Amir: spirits dwelling in houses.
 * Ghul: generally evil, lives in the desert.
 * Qarînah: name for a specific demon or doppelgänger, a type of spirit that follows every human.
 * Hatif: a mysterious phenomenon, which can only be heard but never seen.

Judaism
Judaism does not have a demonology or any set of doctrines about demons. Use of the name "Lucifer" stems from, a passage which does speak of the defeat of a particular Babylonian King, to whom it gives a title which refers to what in English is called the Day Star or Morning Star (in Latin, lucifer, meaning "light-bearer", from the words lucem ferre).

There is more than one instance in Jewish medieval myth and lore where demons are said to have come to be, as seen by the Grigori angels, of Lilith leaving Adam, of demons such as vampires, unrest spirits in Jewish folklore such as the dybbuk.

Buddhism
Traditionally, Buddhism affirms the existence of hells peopled by demons who torment sinners and tempt mortals to sin, or who seek to thwart their enlightenment, with a demon named Mara as chief tempter, "prince of darkness", or "Evil One" in Sanskrit sources.

The followers of Mara were also called mara, the devils, and are frequently cited as a cause of disease or representations of mental obstructions. The mara became fully assimilated into the Chinese worldview, and were called mo.

The idea of the imminent decline and collapse of the Buddhist religion amid a "great cacophony of demonic influences" was already a significant component of Buddhism when it reached China in the first century A.D., according to Michel Strickmann. Demonic forces had attained enormous power in the world. For some writers of the time, this state of affairs had been ordained to serve the higher purpose of effecting a "preliminary cleansing" that would purge and purify humanity in preparation for an ultimate, messianic renewal.

Medieval Chinese Buddhist demonology was heavily influenced by Indian Buddhism. Indian demonology is also fully and systematically described in written sources, though during Buddhism's centuries of direct influence in China, "Chinese demonology was whipped into respectable shape," with a number of Indian demons finding permanent niches even in Taoist ritual texts. In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra it states that heaven and hell change as the world changes and that many new hells with different demons can be created to fit the different ways that the human realm changes.

Chinese Buddhism also influenced Taoism with beliefs of hell and the Taoists eventually came up with their own demonology lore which in turn created folk beliefs about spirits in hell which was a combination of beliefs from the two religions. However, the demons in hell are viewed differently than Abrahamic faiths who instead of being pure evil are more of guards of hell although they are still viewed as malicious beings. They are ruled over by Yama which came from Buddhism's Hindu influences but certain scriptures and beliefs also state that there are 18 different Yamas in hell which have an army of demons and undead at their side.

Also, the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, a major Mahayana Buddhist text, describes fifty demonic states: the so-called fifty skandha maras, which are "negative" mirror-like reflections of or deviations from correct samādhi (meditative absorption) states. In this context demons are considered by Buddhists to be beings possessing some supernatural powers, who, in the past, might have practiced Dharma, the Buddha's teaching, but due to practicing it incorrectly failed to develop true wisdom and true compassion, which are inseparable attributes of an enlightened being such as a Buddha or a Bodhisattva. In his autobiography, The Blazing Splendor, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, a prominent Tibetan Buddhist master of the 20th century describes encounters with such beings. Therefore, depending on the context, in Buddhism demons may refer to both disturbed mind states and actual beings.

Hinduism
Vedic scriptures include a range of spirits (Vetalas, Rakshasas, Bhutas, and Pishachas) that might be classified as demons. These spirits are souls of beings that have committed certain specific sins. As a purging punishment, they are condemned to roam without a physical form for a length of time, until a rebirth. Beings that died with unfulfilled desires or anger are also said to "linger" until those issues are resolved. Hindu text Atharvaveda gives an account of nature and habitats of such spirits including how to persuade / control them. There are occult traditions in Hinduism that seek to control such spirits to do their bidding. The Hindu text Garuda Purana details other kinds of punishments and judgments given out in Hell; it also gives an account of how spirits travel to various nether worlds.

Zoroastrianism
In the Zoroastrian tradition, Ahura Mazda, as the force of good Spenta Mainyu, will eventually be victorious in a cosmic battle with an evil force known as Angra Mainyu or Ahriman.

title: Demonology