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Film speed

Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system introduced in 1974. A closely related system, also known as ISO, is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras. Prior to ISO, the most common systems were ASA in the U.S. and DIN in Europe.

The term speed comes from the early days of photography. Photographic emulsions that were more sensitive to light needed less time to generate an acceptable image and thus a complete exposure could be finished faster, with the subjects having to hold still for a shorter length of time. Emulsions that were less sensitive were deemed "slower" as the time to complete an exposure was much longer and often usable only for still life photography. Exposure times for photographic emulsions shortened from hours to fractions of a second by the late 19th century.

In both film and digital photography, the use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise). Generally, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.

To determine the exposure time needed for a given film, a light meter is typically used.

Emulsion speed rating criteria
Five criteria for the rating of emulsion speed have been used since the late 19th century, listed here by name and date, these criteria are: threshold (1880), inertia (1890), fixed density (1934), minimum useful gradient (1939) and fractional gradient (1939).

Threshold
The threshold criterion is the point on the characteristic curve corresponding to just perceptible density above fog.

Inertia
The inertia speed point of an emulsion is determined on the Hurter and Driffield characteristic curve by the intercept between the gradient of the straight line part of the curve and the line representing the base + fog (B+F) on the density axis.

Fixed density
The fixed density speed point is determined by defining a fixed minimum density as the basis the emulsion speed (e.g. 0.1 above B+F).

Minimum useful gradient
The minimum useful gradient criterion places the speed point where the gradient first reaches an agreed value (e.g. tan 𝜃 = 0.2).

Fractional gradient
The fractional gradient is defined as the speed point at which the slope of the characteristic curve first reaches a fixed fraction (e.g. 0.3) of the average gradient over a range (e.g. 1.5) of the characteristic curve.

Warnerke
The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke – pseudonym of Władysław Małachowski (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881.

The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time.

His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.

Hurter & Driffield
Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D.

The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called "H&D 10". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817–50.

Scheiner
The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., with each increment of a degree corresponding to a multiplicative factor of increased light sensitivity. This multiplicative factor was determined by the constraint that an increment of 19° Sch. (from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch.) corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity. Thus emulsions that differed by 1° Sch. on the Scheiner scale were $$\sqrt[19]{100} = 1.2742...$$-fold more (or, less) sensitive to each other. An increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity $$(\sqrt[19]{100})^3 = 2.06914...$$.

The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder–Hecht grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.

Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time.

DIN
The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (then known as the Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by the Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung since 1930 and presented by   (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie) held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931.

The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):

 * $$\log_{10}{(2)} = 0.30103... \approx 3/10$$

As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes.

Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film.

On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.

BSI
When BS 935:1941 was published during World War II, specifying exposure tables for negative materials, it employed the same fixed-density speed criterion used in the German DIN 4512:1934 system. The British Standard also used logarithmic speed numbers, following the example of Scheiner and DIN. When the American ASA Z38.2.1:1943 standard was published, it used a fractional gradient speed criterion and arithmetic speed numbers, for compatibility with Weston and GE.

British standard BS 1380:1947 adopted the fractional gradient criterion of the American 1943 standard, and also included arithmetic speed numbers in addition to logarithmic numbers. The logarithmic speed number proposed in the later BS 1380:1957 standard was almost identical to the DIN 4512:1957 standard, except that the BS number was +9 degrees greater than the corresponding DIN number; in 1971, the BS and DIN standards changed this to +10 degrees.

Following an increasing effort to produce international standards, the British, American and German standards became identical in ISO 6:1974, which corresponded to BS 1380:Part1:1973.

Weston

Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr., who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering.

The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufacturers and third parties in their exposure guidelines. Since manufacturers were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their "Weston film ratings" booklets.

The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955, but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston's recommendation. Vice versa, "old" Weston film speed ratings could be converted into "new" Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values.

General Electric
Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale and similar to Weston film speed ratings another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric, developed its own rating system of so-called General Electric film values (often abbreviated as G-E or GE) around 1937.

Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated General Electric Film Values leaflets and in the General Electric Photo Data Book.

General Electric switched to use the ASA scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled "Exposure Index") already. For some of the older meters with scales in "Film Speed" or "Film Value" (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer. The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale.

ASA
Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884–1954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values, the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1–1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as American standard speed numbers or ASA exposure-index numbers. (See also: Exposure Index (EI).)

The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA.

The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years.

In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value Sv (without degree symbol) as well.

ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5–1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993.

The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979 and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27–1988 prior to its withdrawal.

Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard.

On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system.

GOST
GOST (Cyrillic: ГОСТ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817–50. It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers, which had been used since 1928.

GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.

On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the ISO scale with GOST 10691–84,

This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6–88 and GOST 10691.5–88, which both became functional on 1 January 1991.

Current system: ISO
The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974.

The current International Standard for measuring the speed of color negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively.

The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019).

The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.

Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, "ISO 100" denotes "ISO 100/21°", while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as "ISO 21°" as per the standard.

Conversion between current scales
Conversion from arithmetic speed S to logarithmic speed S° is given by

 * $$S^\circ = 10 \log S + 1$$

and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by

 * $$S = 10^{\left( {S^\circ - 1} \right)/10}$$

and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table 1 below.

Table notes:
 * 1) Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.
 * 2) APEX Sv values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1° to 10° found in ASA PH2.5-1960.
 * 3) ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table 1, p. 8).
 * 4) ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table 1, p. 5) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.
 * 5) ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table "ISO speed scales", p. 4).
 * 6) ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table 1, p. 9).
 * 7) ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for Snoise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961. For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.
 * 8) Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15° to 5000/38° with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9° to 6400/39° manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12° to 3200/36° or less.
 * 9) The Booster accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.
 * 10) The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual). On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.
 * 11) The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40°, 10000/41° and 12800/42° (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42° (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its ±3 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° in half exposure steps.
 * 12) Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2012, 409600 in 2014 ), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2011, 4000000 in 2015 ), Sony (12800 in 2009, 25600 in 2010, 409600 in 2014 ), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010, 102400, 204800 in 2014 ) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011 ).

Historic ASA and DIN conversion

As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale.

The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10° DIN was converted to ASA 80 instead of ASA 100.

Some classic camera's exposure guides show the old conversion as they were valid at the time of production, for example the exposure guide of the classic camera Tessina (since 1957), where 21/10° DIN is related to ASA 80, 18° DIN to ASA 40, etc. Users of classic cameras may become confused if they are not aware of the historic background of changing standards.

Determining film speed

Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the D–log H curve or Hurter–Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the "speed point" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure Hm, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:

 * $$S = \frac {0.8\;\text{lx⋅s}} {H_\mathrm{m}}$$

This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table 1 of ISO 6:1993.

Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations.

Applying film speed
Film speed is used in the exposure equations to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: lighting, film speed, f-number (aperture size), and shutter speed (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the APEX system, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly known as a "stop". The effective f-number is proportional to the ratio between the lens focal length and aperture diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to 2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc.

The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the shutter speed is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the sunny 16 rule.

Exposure index
Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the speed setting, as compared to the speed rating.

For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use push processing to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800.

Another example occurs where a camera's shutter is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a light meter may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI setting accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives.

Reciprocity
Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000 second to 1/2 second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure.

Film sensitivity and grain
The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or "slow", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a "fast" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images.

Kodak has defined a "Print Grain Index" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define "granularity", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture. Granularity varies with exposure — underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film.

Marketing anomalies
Some high-speed black-and-white films, such as Ilford Delta 3200, P3200 T-Max, and T-MAX P3200 are marketed with film speeds in excess of their true ISO speed as determined using the ISO testing method. According to the respective data sheets, the Ilford product is actually an ISO 1000 film, while the Kodak film's speed is nominally 800 to 1000 ISO. The manufacturers do not indicate that the 3200 number is an ISO rating on their packaging. Kodak and Fuji also marketed E6 films designed for pushing (hence the "P" prefix), such as Ektachrome P800/1600 and Fujichrome P1600, both with a base speed of ISO 400. The DX codes on the film cartridges indicate the marketed film speed (i.e. 3200), not the ISO speed, in order to automate shooting and development.

Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index
In digital camera systems, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the signal gain of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image color space such as sRGB.

For digital photo cameras ("digital still cameras"), an exposure index (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera's parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor's signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm ("expanded ISO"). A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo.

Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with ISO equivalent speeds of up to 4,560,000, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster microprocessors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time-consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware.

The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard
The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006 gave digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 were carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files were introduced from CIPA DC-004. Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating could depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specified the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001.

The Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model's EI choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer's opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed sRGB images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when multi-zone metering (also called pattern metering) is used.

The Standard Output Sensitivity (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically JPEG—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used.

The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008 updates the Exif specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy compression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format.

The saturation-based (SAT or Ssat) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically TIFF—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used.

The two noise-based techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an "excellent" picture or a "usable" picture depending on the technique chosen.

An update to this standard has been published as ISO 12232:2019, defining a wider range of ISO speeds.

Measurements and calculations
ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure H (in lux seconds) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective focal length f that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, H is given by
 * $$H = \frac{q L t}{N^2},$$

where L is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m²), t is the exposure time (in seconds), N is the aperture f-number, and
 * $$q = \frac{\pi}{4} T\, v(\theta)\, \cos^4\theta$$

is a factor depending on the transmittance T of the lens, the vignetting factor v(θ), and the angle θ relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is q = 0.65, based on θ = 10°, T = 0.9, and v = 0.98.

Saturation-based speed
The saturation-based speed is defined as
 * $$S_{\mathrm{sat}} = \frac{78\;\text{lx⋅s}}{H_{\mathrm{sat}}},$$

where $$H_{\mathrm{sat}}$$ is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/$\sqrt{2}$ = 12.7% of saturation. The factor $\sqrt{2}$ indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface.

Noise-based speed
The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 ("excellent image quality") and the 10:1 ("acceptable image quality") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.

Standard output sensitivity (SOS)
In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the standard output sensitivity (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as
 * $$S_{\mathrm{sos}} = \frac{10\;\text{lx⋅s}}{H_{\mathrm{sos}}},$$

where $$H_{\mathrm{sos}}$$ is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with gamma = 2.2.

Discussion
The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded downwards to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is lower than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.

For example, a camera sensor may have the following properties: $$S_{40:1}=107$$, $$S_{10:1}=1688$$, and $$S_{\mathrm{sat}}=49$$. According to the standard, the camera should report its sensitivity as
 * ISO 100 (daylight)
 * ISO speed latitude 50–1600
 * ISO 100 (SOS, daylight).

The SOS rating could be user controlled. For a different camera with a noisier sensor, the properties might be $$S_{40:1}=40$$, $$S_{10:1}=800$$, and $$S_{\mathrm{sat}}=200$$. In this case, the camera should report
 * ISO 200 (daylight),

as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (incandescent light).

Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user "ISO" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS.

A greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than grain. APS- and 35 mm-sized digital image sensors, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about ISO 1600.

title: Film speed


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Round Midnight (film)

Round Midnight is a 1986 American musical drama film directed by Bertrand Tavernier and written by Tavernier and David Rayfiel. It stars Dexter Gordon, with a soundtrack by Herbie Hancock. The title comes from Thelonious Monk's 1943 composition  'Round Midnight, which is featured in this film in a Hancock arrangement.

The protagonist jazzman, Dale Turner, is based on a composite of real-life jazz legends Lester Young (tenor sax) and Bud Powell (piano). While the film is fictionalized, it is drawn directly from the memoir/biography Dance of the Infidels written by French author Francis Paudras, who had befriended Powell during his Paris expatriate days and on whom the character Francis was based.

Gordon was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor and won a Grammy for the film's soundtrack entitled The Other Side of Round Midnight in the category for Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Soloist. Hancock won the Academy Award for Best Original Score. The soundtrack was released in two parts: Round Midnight and The Other Side of Round Midnight.

Plot
In 1950s New York, Dale Turner is an accomplished saxophone player barely getting by playing at local jazz clubs and struggling with substance abuse, particularly of alcohol. After talking with a fellow musician who is currently disabled by illness, Dale decides to try to improve his life by traveling to Paris and making a living playing at Le Blue Note jazz club until his luck gets better.

Turner arrives in Paris and is befriended by Francis, a struggling French graphic designer specializing in film posters and who lives with his daughter, his marriage having broken up. Francis idolizes the musician and tries desperately to help him escape alcohol abuse. With time, and after Francis allows Turner to move in with him and his daughter, Turner manages to put himself on his own feet again and starts to get by without a reliance on alcohol. He eventually decides it is time to go home to New York to see his old friends and to re-acquaint himself with his own daughter.

Francis accompanies Dale, and the music community in New York is ready to accept the musician back. He writes a song dedicated to his daughter in the hope of strengthening their relationship after much time apart. He invites her to the club to hear its debut, but manages to confuse her true age and tells the audience she has just turned 15; she is actually 14, and she makes note of this to Francis, who is seated next to her in the audience. Later in the week, when Dale tries to further his bond with her by sharing a meal at a local diner, an old drug dealer recognizes him there, re-introduces himself and implies his supplies are still available to Dale.

Francis tries to intervene a few times to keep Dale protected from his old suppliers, and attempts to keep up with all of them. After Francis eventually leaves and returns to Paris and his daughter, he receives a telegram from Dale's music manager saying that the musician has died in a local hospital.

Production
Round Midnight was filmed in Paris and New York City. It was produced by Irwin Winkler.

Tavernier defied the film studio by insisting that real-life jazz tenor saxophonist Dexter Gordon play the role of Turner. Gordon, who himself played with Bud Powell in Paris in the early 1960s (and earlier in their careers), helped to revise and rewrite the script. The supporting cast is likewise composed of jazz musicians (mainly from the generation which followed Gordon and Powell) such as Herbie Hancock, Bobby Hutcherson, John McLaughlin, and Wayne Shorter, among others who perform the music throughout the film. The musicians are joined by actors François Cluzet, Gabrielle Haker, Sandra Reaves-Phillips, Lonette McKee, and Christine Pascal. Martin Scorsese and Philippe Noiret appear in cameos.

Soundtrack
The score for the film was by Herbie Hancock, featuring mostly existing Jazz standards owned by Warner Bros along with a handful of original pieces written by Hancock. The soundtrack was in two parts – Round Midnight and The Other Side of Round Midnight – released under Dexter Gordon's name and featuring his last recordings, although he does not appear on all tracks. Both albums were produced and arranged by Hancock.

Reception
It was ranked No. 2 in Roger Ebert's top films of 1986, and No. 9 in Gene Siskel's. In his review of the film for the Chicago Sun-Times, Ebert noted the film's use of live jazz performances by real musicians and praised Gordon's acting performance, writing, "Gordon plays the central role with an eerie magnetism. He is a musician, not an actor, and yet no actor could have given this performance, with its dignity, wisdom and pain."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Round Midnight (film)


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Mona Lisa (film)

Mona Lisa is a 1986 British neo-noir crime drama film about an ex-convict who becomes entangled in the dangerous life of a high-class call girl. The film was written by Neil Jordan and David Leland, and directed by Jordan. It was produced by HandMade Films and stars Bob Hoskins, Cathy Tyson, and Michael Caine.

The film was nominated for multiple awards, and Bob Hoskins was nominated for several awards for his performance (including the Academy Award for Best Actor), winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. The film seems to take its title from the song Mona Lisa heard during the end credits.

Plot
George, a low-level working-class gangster recently released after seven years in prison, is given a job in London by his former boss, Denny Mortwell, as the driver and bodyguard for a high-priced prostitute named Simone. Mortwell also wants George to gather information on one of Simone's wealthy customers for blackmail purposes. Simone, who has worked hard to develop high-class manners and an elite clientele, initially dislikes the uncouth and outspoken George, and he regards her as putting on airs. But as George and Simone find out more about each other, they form a friendship, and George begins to fall in love with her. George agrees, at the risk of his own life, to help Simone find her teenage friend Cathy, who has disappeared, and who Simone fears is being abused by her violent former pimp, Anderson.

George increasingly finds himself torn between his feelings for Simone, his obligations to his boss Mortwell, and his relationship with his teenage daughter Jeannie, a sweet normal girl who has matured while he was in prison and wants to have her father in her life.

When Anderson stalks Simone to her flat and tries to slash her, George takes her to the secluded garage where he lives with his friend Thomas and then finds the drug-addled Cathy. He takes the two girls to a hotel in Brighton and gives Simone a gun for protection, but then discovers that the pair are lovers. When Mortwell and Anderson arrive to take back control of the girls, Simone shoots them both dead and turns her gun towards George. He punches her, takes the gun and leaves. Freed of his underworld obligations, he returns to a more normal life, working in Thomas's garage and spending time with Jeannie.

Reception
The film received positive critical reception when released in 1986. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote of the two main characters "The relationship of their characters in the film is interesting, because both people, for personal reasons, have developed a style that doesn't reveal very much." Halliwell's Film Guide argued "only this actor could make a hit of this unsavoury yarn, with its highlights of sex and violence. But he did." Vincent Canby, writing for The New York Times, dismissed the film as "classy kitsch... as smooth and distinctive (and, ultimately, as insubstantial) as the old Nat (King) Cole recording of the song, which gives the film its title and a lot of its mood."

On Metacritic, Mona Lisa has a score of 85 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". That of Time Out called it "a wonderful achievement, a dark film with a generous heart in the shape of an extraordinarily touching performance from Hoskins."

On Rotten Tomatoes, Mona Lisa holds a "Certified Fresh" 98% rating based on forty reviews. The site's consensus states: "Bob Hoskins is outstanding in Mona Lisa, giving this stylish neo-noir a riveting centerpiece that sets it apart from similar stories."

Accolades
Bob Hoskins was praised for his performance and was awarded the Golden Globe Award, BAFTA Award, Prix d'interprétation masculine at the Cannes Film Festival, and other awards. Despite this heavy acclaim, he lost the Academy Award for Best Actor to Paul Newman in The Color of Money.

title: Mona Lisa (film)


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Master P

Percy Robert Miller Sr. (born April 29, 1970), better known by his stage name Master P, is an American rapper, record producer, record executive, actor and entrepreneur. He founded the record label No Limit Records in 1991, which was relaunched into the spin-off labels New No Limit Records and No Limit Forever Records. Miller gained fame in the mid-1990s as the lead member and founder of the label's hip hop group TRU, as well as his fifth solo album Ice Cream Man (1996) and its namesake lead single. His 1997 single, "Make 'Em Say Uhh!" received platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).

In total, Miller has released 15 studio albums.

Early life
Percy Robert Miller was born and raised in the Third Ward of Uptown New Orleans, Louisiana. He grew up in the Calliope Projects. He is the oldest of five children. He has one sister, Germaine, and three brothers: Kevin, and platinum-selling rap artists Corey "C-Murder" and Vyshonne "Silkk the Shocker" Miller. He attended Booker T. Washington High School and Warren Easton High School. Having played on the basketball team, Miller attended the University of Houston on an athletic scholarship, but dropped out months into his freshman year and transferred to Merritt College in Oakland, California to major in business administration. After the death of his grandfather, Miller inherited $10,000 as part of a malpractice settlement. Miller opened a record store in Richmond, California called No Limit Records And Tapes, which later became the foundation for No Limit Records. On February 15, 1990, Master P released the cassette tape Mind Of A Psychopath. His brother Kevin Miller was killed that same year in New Orleans. This increased his motivation to become a successful entrepreneur to change his life and save his family.

1989–1995: Early works
Master P released his debut studio album Get Away Clean on February 12, 1991. This was followed by his second album Mama's Bad Boy, which was released in April 1992. Both albums were released through In-A-Minute Records. Also in 1992, he released his first collaboration album with his group TRU titled Understanding the Criminal Mind, and in 1993 they released another album titled Who's da Killer? Master P released his third studio album The Ghettos Tryin to Kill Me! on March 18, 1994; it was later re-released in 1997 as a limited edition under Priority. That same year Master P collaborated on the No Limit compilation albums West Coast Bad Boyz, Vol. 1: Anotha Level of the Game and West Coast Bad Boyz: High fo Xmas. On June 6, 1995, Master P released his fourth studio album 99 Ways to Die. Master P and TRU released their third album True in 1995, which was the group's first major release after two independent albums. The album reached number 25 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and number 14 on the Top Heatseekers. The album was known for its first single and one of Master P's best known songs "I'm Bout' It, Bout It". He also worked on the compilation album, Down South Hustlers: Bouncin' and Swingin', during that year.

Master P said that when he used to open for Tupac Shakur in the early 1990s, the people responsible for introducing him would frequently call him "Mr. P the country singer".

1995–2000: Return to New Orleans and mainstream success
In 1995, Master P moved from California back to New Orleans to relocate No Limit Records with a set of new artists and in-house producers Beats By the Pound. On April 16, 1996, Master P released his fifth album Ice Cream Man. It contained the hit single "Mr. Ice Cream Man". Later in 1996, Master P returned with TRU to work on Tru 2 da Game, which would not be released until February 18, 1997. At that time, TRU was reduced to a trio with just Master P alongside his brothers C-Murder and Silkk the Shocker. On September 2, 1997, Master P released his breakthrough album Ghetto D. The first week sales of the album were the highest of any of Master P's albums, selling over 760,000 copies, and it went on to go certified triple platinum. It contained the hit single "Make 'Em Say Uhh!", Master P's highest-charting single to date. The song earned him an MTV Video Music Award nomination the following year for "Best Rap Video", but lost to Will Smith's "Gettin' Jiggy Wit It". On June 2, 1998, Master P released his seventh and best-selling album to date MP Da Last Don. Master P released a film of the same name earlier that year. The album debuted at number 1 on the Billboard Top 200 charts selling over 400,000 copies in its first week, and went on to sell over four million copies. On October 26, 1999, Master P released his eighth studio album Only God Can Judge Me, which contained his single "Step To Dis". The album went certified gold, selling over 500,000 copies. In 1999, Master P and TRU released their fifth studio album Da Crime Family. On November 28, 2000, he released his ninth studio album Ghetto Postage which contained his hit singles "Bout Dat" and "Souljas". Also in 2000, Master P and his new group 504 Boyz released their debut album Goodfellas, which peaked at number 1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and contained their hit single "Wobble Wobble".

2001–2005: The New No Limit
On December 18, 2001, Master P released his tenth studio album Game Face, the first Master P album released on The New No Limit, which had a partnership with Universal Records. In 2002, The 504 Boyz released their second album Ballers. Both albums charted high on the Hip-Hop charts, but shortly after, No Limit began to decline in popularity. Record sales as well as roster changes and lawsuits caused No Limit Records to file for bankruptcy on December 17, 2003.

Master P's eleventh album, titled Good Side, Bad Side, was released on March 23, 2004, through Koch Records, debuting at number 1 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart. Master P and TRU released their last album The Truth in 2005 followed by Master P's twelfth studio album Ghetto Bill:The Best Hustler in the Game

2005–2007: Guttar Music
In 2005, Master P and his son Romeo Miller formed the independent label Guttar Music. On November 29, 2005, Master P released his first independent album and thirteenth overall, Living Legend: Certified D-Boy, on Guttar Music. Master P and 504 Boyz released their last album titled Hurricane Katrina: We Gon Bounce Back that year, and it was dedicated to the victims of Hurricane Katrina.

In April 2006, Master P released a compilation album America's Most Luved Bad Guy. In 2007, Master P released a collaboration album with Romeo titled Hip Hop History that sold 32,000 copies worldwide.

2010–present: No Limit Forever and recent works
On December 6, 2010, it was announced that Master P was going on a new tour with his brother Silkk The Shocker and his son Romeo titled No Limit Forever International. On February 8, 2011, Master P was featured on rapper Gucci Mane's track titled "Brinks". It was his first recorded song in over four years. In early 2012, Master P started to re brand his label. On August 10, 2012, he performed at Insane Clown Posse's 12th Annual "Gathering of the Juggalos" concert. On November 16, 2011, Master P released his first mixtape and first solo project in over 6 years, titled TMZ (Too Many Zeros). On August 2, 2012, it was announced that Master P was working on his thirteenth studio album Boss of All Bosses. On September 17, 2012, Master P released snippet of an upcoming single titled "Friends With Benefits" featuring rapper/singer Kirko Bangz.

On January 16, 2013, Master P released his second official mixtape titled Al Capone as a promotion for his Boss of All Bosses album. On February 12, 2013, Master P released his first collaboration mixtape titled New World Order with his new group, Louie V. Mob, which includes himself and rappers Alley Boy and Fat Trel. On August 6, 2013, Master P released his third official mixtape titled Famous Again as a promotion for his Boss of All Bosses album; it featured appearances from Rome, Silkk The Shocker, Dee-1, Young Louie, Play Beezy, Gangsta, Howie T, Clyde Carson, Game, Chief Keef, Fat Trel, Alley Boy, Problem, Wiz Khalifa, Tyga, and Chris Brown, as well as production from 1500 & Nothin, Young Bugatti, Stiv Schneider, The Composer, and JB. On December 6, 2013, Master P released his fifth album titled The Gift.

On January 23, 2014, it was announced that The Gift would be re-released on February 21, 2014, as a video album with a music video for every song, and that it would be titled The Platinum Gift. On February 6, 2014, it was announced that Master P was working on two new albums, Ice Cream Man 2, which is a sequel to Ice Cream Man, and Boss of All Bosses. On February 28, 2014, Miller released his fourth mixtape The Gift Vol. 1: Return of The Ice Cream Man.

On January 5, 2015, Master P released his second collaboration mixtape titled We All We Got with his new group Money Mafia, which includes himself, his son Maserati Rome, Ace B, Young Junne, Eastwood, Gangsta, Play Beezy, Calliope Popeye, Flight Boy, and No Limit Forever in-house producer Blaq N Mild. The mixtape would also include a surprise feature from rapper Lil Wayne on the track "Power". On February 9, 2015, Master P released his third collaboration mixtape titled #CP3 with his No Limit Forever artist and rapper Ace B. On April 20, 2015, Master P released his fourth collaboration mixtape titled Hustlin with his group Money Mafia. On June 4, 2015, it was announced that Master P's newest group Money Mafia would be releasing their debut album in 2015 titled Rarri Boys. On June 8, 2015, Master P along with Money Mafia would release their first single from Rarri Boys titled "Bonita". On July 16, 2015, Master P released his fifth collaboration mixtape titled The Luciano Family with his group Money Mafia. On October 7, 2015, Master P would reveal the cover art's and announced that there would be three sequel album installments to his critically acclaimed debut major label album Ice Cream Man titled Ice Cream Man 2: The Streets, Ice Cream Man 3: The Hustle, Ice Cream Man 4: The Lifestyle that will be released all on the same day. On October 13, 2015, Master P would reveal and announced the cover art, release date and track list to his upcoming new album titled Empire that will be released on November 28, 2015. On November 27, 2015, Master P would release his fourteenth album titled Empire, from the Hood to Hollywood; it would feature guest appearances from Krazy, Lil Wayne, Maserati Rome, Money Mafia, Ace B, BlaqNmilD, Fame-O and Luccianos, and would be released via his label No Limit Forever Records and Globy House Records.

On February 23, 2016, Master P would release a new single titled "Funeral"; it would feature his new group No Limit Boys members Ace B and Angelo Nano. On March 2, 2016, Master P would release a new single titled "Middle Finga". On March 18, 2016, during an interview Master P would announce he was working on a new album titled The Grind Don't Stop with his new group No Limit Boys & he would also announce his new tour titled the Pop-Up Tour. On March 28, 2016, it was announced that Master P's newest group No Limit Boys formerly Money Mafia would be releasing their debut album in 2016 titled No Limit Boys. On August 21, 2016, Master P released his sixth official mixtape titled The G Mixtape; it featured appearances from 2 Chainz, A$AP Ferg, E-40, The Game, Gucci Mane, Jeremih, Lil Wayne, Nipsey Hussle, No Limit Boys, Rick Ross, Usher, Travis Scott and Yo Gotti. On October 27, 2016, Master P released his seventh official mixtape titled Louisiana Hot Sauce; it featured appearances from fellow No Limit Forever artist Ace B, Angelo Nano, Cymphonique, Gangsta, J Slugg, Lambo, Moe Roy, Play Beezy, Romeo and Young Vee.

On January 6, 2017, Master P released his sixth collaboration mixtape titled We All We Got with his group No Limit Boys.

No Limit Chronicles
On July 29, 2020, Master P released No Limit Chronicles, a five-part BET docuseries on his New Orleans-based hip-hop label. The series shares stories of Master P's career as a record executive and businessman, underscoring the unprecedented distribution deal with Priority Records that made No Limit Records a powerhouse record label in the 1990s. Awareness of the circumstances of Master P's incarcerated brother, C-Murder, resurged after the series aired, prompting Percy to rally for his brother's release. On August 17, 2020, Master P posted a video to his Instagram account of him and C-Murder's lawyer speaking to a group of protesters, inciting momentum to work in favor of his brother's liberation.

Business career
Aside from being a rapper, Master P has enjoyed a successful career as an entrepreneur and investor. Miller opened a record store in Richmond, California called No Limit Records, which later became the foundation for his own record label of the same name.

Miller was one of the first rappers to notice and take advantage of the retail potential of the music industry. As an investor, Master P was one of the first rappers to build a business and financial empire by investing in a wide range of business and investment ventures from a variety of industries. He has since invested the millions of dollars he made from his No Limit record company into a travel agency, a Foot Locker retail outlet, real estate, stocks, film, music, and television production, toy making, clothing, telecommunications, a jewellery line, auto accessories, book and magazine publishing, car rims, fast food franchises, and gas stations. His sports management agency No Limit Communications, a joint venture with marketing guru Djuan Edgerton, was a success. His conglomerate company, No Limit Enterprises became a financial powerhouse. His real estate investment and property management company, the New Orleans-based PM Properties controls over 100 properties across the United States. According to Black Enterprise magazine, No Limit Enterprises grossed $110 million in revenue in 1998 alone. This level of success inspired other rappers to branch out into other business ventures and investments. Miller also has his own line of beverages called "Make 'Em Say Ughh!" energy drinks.

Rappers had historically focused more on the artistic and glamorous side of hip hop music while paying very little attention to the business, investment, and financial aspects. All that changed in 1996 when Master P signed a music distribution deal with Priority Records, one where No Limit Records would retain 100% ownership of their master recordings and keep 85% of their record's sales while giving Priority 15% in return for pressing and distribution which allows No Limit to profit from future sales such as catalogs and reissues. Master P went on to make hundreds of millions of dollars from this deal. Additionally, Master P invented many innovative marketing techniques. According to Wendy Day, CEO of the Rap Coalition, "Master P had a whole marketing movement. He was the first person to market the way a corporate entity like IBM would market to their clientele." Whereas the traditional model for marketing records was to spend millions of dollars on expensive videos and air play, Miller did not have such a luxury. As an independent artist, Miller had to find a way to sell, market and build platinum record selling demand on a limited recording budget. He was known for keeping upfront business expenses down and profit margins high. He began selling tapes out the trunk of his car in every city and town in America where there was potential demand for his music. He gave out free samples to people with expensive cars and had them playing his music throughout their neighborhoods. This street level guerrilla marketing technique set the foundation to build a larger fanbase for the future. After signing his deal with Priority, Miller began a high volume business model of cranking out as many records as possible, as frequently as possible. He branded all his albums, so that the No Limit brand became more important than the actual artist's name. Miller cross-promoted all his artists and albums inside the album covers. He also used pen and pixel graphics and Mafia-inspired themes to make his albums stand out using Photoshop. He offered 20 songs per album, whereas most albums offered 15 or less, as Miller learned that customers wanted more for their money. He turned his artists into Marvel comic book-like characters rather than just rappers. He made sure his artists were number one on SoundScan every time they released an album, to build the perception of popularity. He used inexpensive videos to promote his artists and he cross-promoted albums using films and vice versa and tied them altogether as a package. Brand image and identity became more important than just music quality. Miller's record labels have sold 75 million records as a result of his innovative marketing and branding strategies.

As founder and CEO of No Limit Entertainment, Miller at one time presided over a business empire that included his conglomerate No Limit Enterprises, No Limit Records, Bout It Inc., No Limit Clothing, No Limit Communications, No Limit Films, No Limit Sports Management, P. M. Properties, and Advantage Travel. Miller represented former NFL running back Ricky Williams when he was drafted by the New Orleans Saints; however, the deal was rated the worst contract for a player in NFL History by ESPN. Miller manages the music, film, and television career of his son, Romeo Miller, as well as pop star Forrest Lipton and Atlanta rapper Gucci Mane. Miller was the executive television producer for his teenage daughter Cymphonique's Nickelodeon Show, How To Rock, and the co-creator of Romeo!, the hit Nickelodeon television show that stars his son.

Income
In 1998, Miller ranked 10th on Forbes magazine's list of America's 40 highest paid entertainers, with an estimated income of $56.5 million. In 2013, Miller's wealth is estimated to be $200 million, making him one of the wealthiest figures in the American hip hop scene.

Professional basketball career
In 1998, Miller joined the Fort Wayne Fury of the CBA as a backup guard after a No Limit employee asked the Fury head coach to give his boss a tryout. According to the coach Miller was "coachable [and] an eager learner", but not NBA material.

Miller was on the Charlotte Hornets training camp roster for 10 days in January 1999. He was invited to participate at the request of Hornet Ricky Davis's father. He scored 7 points in intrasquad play and played eight minutes in two exhibition games before being released on February 1. Miller claimed he played well but was cut because his rap lyrics were too offensive.

That fall he was on the Toronto Raptors training camp roster. He scored eight points in one preseason game, but was dropped before the season began. He complained that the Raptors hadn't given him a fair chance.

In November, he signed with the San Diego Stingrays of the short-lived IBL, a "home for players without NBA skills and those who are developing them." His performance was disappointing and he played for less than a season.

In 2004, Miller played for the ABA's Las Vegas Rattlers and Long Beach Jam. He earned try-outs for the Denver Nuggets at training camp for the summer league in 2004 and the same opportunity for the Sacramento Kings in 2005. He took part in the 2008 McDonald's NBA All-Star Celebrity Game and scored 17 points. He also coached the AAU team the P. Miller Ballers with players such as Brandon Jennings, Lance Stephenson, and DeMar DeRozan who went on to achieve success in the NBA. DeRozan said of his time being coached by Miller that, "I am forever grateful for having him in my life ... He taught us about life, how to understand business—the business of basketball. He was, in a sense, a father figure."

Film and television career
Since 1997, Master P has been in numerous feature and straight-to-DVD films, as well as television shows. His filmography includes Uncle P, Uncle Willy's Family, Soccer Mom, Gone in 60 Seconds, Hollywood Homicide, Toxic, Foolish, and '. In 1999, he had a small run in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), where he led a professional wrestling stable called The No Limit Soldiers in a feud with Curt Hennig's The West Texas Rednecks. Master P also starred in Romeo! alongside his son Romeo Miller on the children's network Nickelodeon from 2003 to 2006. He was also a contestant on Dancing with the Stars, replacing Romeo who dropped out due to an injury. He partnered with Ashly DelGrosso and received a total score of 8 out of 30 for his pasodoble, the lowest score in the show's history. He was eliminated in Week 4.

In 1999, Miller starred alongside Eddie Griffin in the hit film Foolish.

As reported in March 2011, Miller planned to star in a new film with his protégé Gucci Mane, titled Get Money. The film, set for release through No Limit, would be based on Miller's book of the same name.

On June 10, 2015, it was announced that Master P and his family would be starring in their own reality show titled Master P's Family Empire. It is scheduled to be aired on Reelz sometime in November.

Writing
On September 1, 2007, Miller released his first book, titled Guaranteed Success.

Pro wrestling
In 1999, The No Limit Soldiers appeared on WCW Monday Nitro feuding with The Filthy Animals and The West Texas Rednecks.

On October 8, 2019, it was reported and confirmed that Master P purchased ownership in Brooklyn, New York-based independent wrestling promotion House of Glory.

Legacy
Miller is known for his music and his business acumen, due to creating and branding his highly successful independent record label No Limit Records, as well as his other business ventures.

Miller is held in high esteem by other rappers as well. During an interview after meeting Miller, Atlanta rapper 2 Chainz stated, "This is my first time meeting [him]. I just want to let him know how he influenced the whole South in Hip-Hop." 2 Chainz went on, "We used to argue people like they ain't understand why we appreciated Master P and his music. It was more than that. I felt like it was his grind, his hustle. He actually put music out like every week. I even heard stories about some of the songs never even being mixed before. It was just about giving the fans what they needed. And he the reason why a lot of us are here, including myself."

Accolades and honors
In 2001, Master P won the award for "Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist" at the American Music Awards.

In 2005, Miller was ranked at number 36 by VH1 in their list of 50 Greatest Hip Hop Artists. On September 29, 2008, Miller's single "Make 'Em Say Uhh!" would be ranked at number 94 by VH1 in their list of 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs.

BET named Miller number 28 in 'The Most Influential Rappers of All Time'. BET also listed Miller as one of 'The 25 Influential Black Music Execs'.

In November 2011, Miller's son Romeo Miller performed at the 2010 Hip Hop Honors, along with his brother Valentino Miller, his cousins Lil' D and Black Don, and his uncle Silkk The Shocker, as well as Trina, Gucci Mane, and Mystikal to honor Master P and No Limit Records.

On December 11, 2012, DJ 5150 and DJ Hektik released a tribute mixtape to Master P titled Uptown Veteran.

On July 10, 2013, Miller was inducted into the Louisiana Music Hall of Fame, making him the first hip hop artist to be inducted.

On January 20, 2015, Montreal R&B/Hip Hop artist Xav released a song with Master P called "Bout It Bout It", from his upcoming Zeeky EP, paying homage to Master P's 1995 international hit. The music video, which also features Master P, premiered on Vibe.com the same day.

On May 23, 2021, Master P received his honorary doctorate from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.

Philanthropy
Miller has dedicated his time to communities through P. Miller Youth Centers and his P. Miller Food Foundation for the Homeless. On July 12, 2005, Willie W. Herenton Jr, the mayor of Memphis, Tennessee, presented Miller with the key to the city. On April 27, 2010, Miller and his son Romeo were awarded the Certificate of Special Recognition from California Congresswoman Maxine Waters.

Personal life
Miller is Catholic. In 1999, he donated $500,000 to the Catholic elementary school he attended and to two nearby churches.

After 21 years of marriage Miller and his wife, Sonya C. Miller, separated in 2010 but Sonya did not file for a divorce until 2013. The former couple have 7 children together: Romeo (1989), Vercy (1991), Tytyana (1992), Inty (1993), Itali (1999), Hercy (2002) and Mercy (2005), and Miller is also father to Cymphonique (1996). Sonya and Miller raised their nephew Veno after Miller's brother was killed in a robbery in 1990.

In 2014, Sonya sued Miller, asking for almost 40% of their assets. Miller has claimed that the two had settled the matter privately in 2016 but it was never submitted to court. In December 2021, he asked the judge to declare him legally single. In May 2022, it was reported that the rapper was legally declared single.

In 2007, he swore off of profanity and endorsed Barack Obama for President of the United States of America, contributing frequently to his campaign.

On May 29, 2022, Miller announced that his daughter Tytyana Miller had died at 29 years old.

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * Get Away Clean (1991)
 * Mama's Bad Boy (1992)
 * The Ghettos Tryin to Kill Me! (1994)
 * 99 Ways to Die (1995)
 * Ice Cream Man (1996)
 * Ghetto D (1997)
 * MP da Last Don (1998)
 * Only God Can Judge Me (1999)
 * Ghetto Postage (2000)
 * Game Face (2001)
 * Good Side, Bad Side (2004)
 * Ghetto Bill:The Best Hustler in the Game (2005)
 * The Gift (2013)
 * Empire, from the Hood to Hollywood (2015)

title: Master P


text:
The Mighty Mighty Bosstones

The Mighty Mighty Bosstones (informally referred to as The Bosstones and often stylized as The Mighty Mighty BossToneS) were an American ska punk band from Boston, Massachusetts, formed in 1983. From the band's inception, lead vocalist Dicky Barrett, bassist Joe Gittleman, tenor saxophonist Tim "Johnny Vegas" Burton and dancer ("Bosstone") Ben Carr remained constant members. The band's final line-up also included drummer Joe Sirois, saxophonist Leon Silva, guitarist Lawrence Katz, keyboardist John Goetchius, and trombonist Chris Rhodes.

The Bosstones are often credited as one of the progenitors of the genre of ska punk and the creators of its subgenre ska-core, which mixes elements of ska with hardcore punk. Starting with the release of their 1989 debut Devil's Night Out, the band toured and recorded extensively throughout the 1990s, becoming influential in the development of the American third-wave ska scene and was one of the first bands to popularize the genre in the musical mainstream. They reached their commercial peak with their platinum-selling 1997 album Let's Face It and its hit single "The Impression That I Get". The band was also notable for being featured in the 1995 film Clueless as the frat party house band. The band had released seven studio albums, three EPs and a live album by the time they announced a hiatus in December 2003. In 2007, the Bosstones reunited to resume recording and touring, and released four more studio albums between 2009 and 2021. From 1994 to 2002, and again from 2007 to 2019, they hosted the annual Hometown Throwdown music festival, held annually around Christmas time in Cambridge and later Boston.

On January 27, 2022, the band announced their disbandment.

Early history (1983–1988)
The band's roots lie in the hardcore punk scene of the early 1980s, along with a strong influence from the British 2 Tone ska scene of the 1970s. Bassist Joe Gittleman played with local hardcore band Gang Green, while vocalist Dicky Barrett was a member of Impact Unit and, later on, Cheapskates. The Cheapskates lineup went through frequent changes and would feature members of Gang Green on occasion. It was through Cheapskates that a core lineup coalesced around Barrett, Gittleman, Tim "Johnny Vegas" Burton (saxophone), Nate Albert (guitar), Josh Dalsimer (drums), Tim Bridwell (trumpet) and Ben Carr (a ubiquitous, dancing non-musician onstage presence, later credited as "Bosstone"). The group decided on the name, "the Bosstones" as a reference to the city near their hometowns. While some of the band members were influenced by bands such as AC/DC, Social Distortion, Motörhead, The Clash and Stiff Little Fingers, Barrett had become enthralled with 2 Tone ska, which was in the tail end of its prominence.

In 1987, the Bosstones made their recorded debut when they were featured on the Mash It Up ska compilation. The Bosstones' contribution was "The Cave", and "Ugly". Another early recording, "Drums and Chickens," appeared on the 1989 ska compilation Mashin' Up The Nation. By the time Mashin' Up The Nation was released, the Bosstones had temporarily disbanded in order for Albert and Gittleman to finish high school. After their graduation, the band reunited. Around this time, it was brought to the band's attention that an a cappella group, The Bosstones, had already used the name during the 1950s. A bartender friend arbitrarily suggested that they become the "Mighty Mighty Bosstones", in order to avoid any possible legal hassles, to which the band agreed.

Taang! years (1989–1992)
Despite not consistently drawing large crowds at their live shows, the Taang! record label gave the band a recording contract which would result in the Devil's Night Out album, produced by Paul Q. Kolderie. The album was released to positive local and lukewarm national reaction during a time when ska was struggling to move out of the American underground. The band found resistance from ska purists who did not like that the band were not playing traditional ska while hardcore fans were against the ska and heavy metal elements in the music. Despite the initial reaction, Devil's Night Out has gone on to become one of the band's most popular albums. It was during this time that the band's trademark plaid clothing came to be. After a show where Barrett wore plaid, fans started to show up wearing it as well. It was noticeable enough that the band was approached by the Converse sneaker company to promote their new line of Chuck Taylor sneakers. The band accepted the proposal and were seen in several television commercials promoting the sneakers.

By this time, Tim Bridewell had left the band, to be replaced by Dennis Brockenborough (trombone) and Kevin Lenear (saxophone). The band's next release was an EP titled Where'd You Go?. The EP featured the title track as well as cover versions of Aerosmith's "Sweet Emotion", Metallica's "Enter Sandman", Van Halen's "Ain't Talkin' 'bout Love" and a new version of "Do Somethin' Crazy", originally featured on Devil's Night Out.

In 1991, the band set out on their first full American tour. It was during the first leg of touring that drummer Josh Dalsimer would leave the band to pursue a college education. He would be replaced by Joe Sirois, who Barrett met at Bunker Hill Community College. Sirois would immediately join his new bandmates in the recording studio to start work on the band's second album.

Once again produced by Paul Q. Kolderie, More Noise and Other Disturbances was released in June 1992. The band would film a video for the song "Where'd You Go?" which had previously been available on the EP of the same name (though the band had also recorded a video for "Guns and the Young"), the video was not finished until a few years after it was recorded.

During this era, the band published a newsletter for their fans titled 737.

Mainstream success and Big Rig Records (1993–2001)
The band signed to their first major label when they joined the Mercury Records roster and soon recorded the Ska-Core, the Devil, and More EP. Released in March 1993, it was largely a collection of cover songs. Four of the seven tracks paid homage to the band's influences: The Angry Samoans' "Lights Out", Minor Threat's "Think Again", SSD's "Police Beat" and The Wailers' "Simmer Down". Three live tracks were included as well. The EP contained one new studio track "Someday I Suppose," which would later appear on the band's third full-length album.

Produced by Tony Platt, the band's third LP, Don't Know How to Party contained a cover of Stiff Little Fingers' song "Tin Soldiers" as well as a vocal appearance by Daryl Jennifer of Bad Brains. A video was also filmed for "Someday I Suppose" and it received minor airplay on MTV. Though the footage was originally intended to serve as a promo for the Bosstones debut on Mercury, the label liked the footage and turned it into a single. The band would also appear on the 1994 Kiss My Ass tribute to Kiss album, covering "Detroit Rock City". Mercury Records released it as a single, appearing on 7-inch green vinyl and backed by the original Kiss version of the song. Soon after, the band found themselves invited by fellow Bostonian Steven Tyler, to open up for Aerosmith at their New Year's Eve concert in Boston. While it was not the most successful show the Bosstones had played, it ensured that the Bosstones started 1994 on the road as they had intended.

The band released their fourth album, Question the Answers, in October 1994. The album featured production work by the Butcher Brothers, Paul Q. Kolderie and Ross Humphrey. It was at this time that the band decided it wanted to release their albums on vinyl, leading to a partnership with Mercury Records to form Big Rig Records, a vanity label that allowed the band to release their albums on vinyl. The Big Rig vinyl versions often contained a bonus track not seen on the cassette or CD versions. Besides touring, the band found itself making their network television debut on The Jon Stewart Show and hosting MTV's 120 Minutes. They also contributed a new version of "Where'd You Go?" to the Alicia Silverstone movie Clueless. The band also made an appearance in the film, performing the songs "Where'd You Go?" and "Someday I Suppose" during a college fraternity party scene. On top of their TV and film appearances, the band was added to the main stage of the 1995 Lollapalooza tour. Mercury set about repromoting Question the Answers by adding a second disc with five B-side tracks. The EP was titled Here We Go Again and it was compiled by Barrett at the request of Mercury.

After touring as part of the 1996 Warped Tour lineup (which they would repeat the following year), the Bosstones began work on their next studio album. Released in 1997, Let's Face It, would prove to be the band's biggest seller, mostly due to its first single "The Impression That I Get", which reached number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The album was followed by Video Stew, a VHS compilation of the band's twelve music videos. The mainstream exposure led to the band's appearance on Sesame Street ' s Elmopalooza television special and Grammy Award-winning soundtrack album, in which they performed the song "The Zig Zag Dance" with The Count. The band also made their Saturday Night Live debut, performing "The Impression That I Get".

Capitalizing on the band's popularity, Mercury released the band's live album, Live From the Middle East in October 1998. The album was recorded live in Cambridge, Massachusetts at The Middle East Restaurant and Nightclub during the band's annual end-of-the-year Hometown Throwdown from 1997. In 1999, the band contributed their cover version of the song, "Rudie Can't Fail," to the Burning London Clash tribute compilation. Shortly after all of these releases, Kevin Lenear quit the band to work on his own material and was replaced by Roman Fleysher.

In 2000, the band released Pay Attention which failed to meet expectations set by the previous album. "So Sad to Say", was released as a single, but it never reached a position higher than No. 22 on the Billboard charts. Ultimately, the album did not sell as well as their previous release. This was to be the band's last album with Mercury Records, who along with PolyGram, had become part of the Universal Music Group who subsequently merged Island Records and Def Jam Recordings forming the new Island Def Jam label. The band, unhappy with the way the newly formed label had been handling them, asked for a release from their contract, to which the label agreed. After the recording of "Pay Attention", founding member Nate Albert left in order to obtain a degree in political theory from Brown University. His next musical venture would be as a member of Evan Dando’s re-formed Lemonheads before forming The Kickovers, which focused more on a 1970's punk sound than ska. Albert eventually became involved in band management, handling bands such as Bayside and Lost City Angels. Albert's replacement on guitar was Lawrence Katz who appeared in the band photo on the album's reverse and in the music video for "So Sad to Say". "Pay Attention" was also the last album for Dennis Brockenborough who had already formed his own band, Chubby, for which he sang and played guitar. Brockenborough's replacement was former Spring Heeled Jack member Chris Rhodes. Spring Heeled Jack had dissolved in 2000, and Rhodes had recently taken a vacant trombone position with Bim Skala Bim when he received the invitation to join.

SideOneDummy and hiatus (2002–2006)
The band announced their return to an independent label when they signed with SideOneDummy Records. In July 2002, the band released A Jackknife to a Swan and from it the song "You Gotta Go!" was released as a single and video. The band continued to tour but in December 2003, they announced their decision to go on a hiatus and were forced to forgo that year's Hometown Throwdown. One contributing factor was that several band members were reported to already be busy with other bands and side projects. Another factor was that the band had been touring, almost non-stop, since 1991, and some of the band members desired a break.

After the hiatus announcement, several members went on to work on other projects and bands. Barrett became the announcer on ABC's Jimmy Kimmel Live! late night talk show. In 2005, he became the host of the Mighty Morning Show on Los Angeles radio's Indie 103.1 FM. In March 2006, he was dismissed from the radio station.

Before the hiatus announcement, Gittleman had already formed a side project band named Avoid One Thing featuring members of Darkbuster, the Raging Teens and Spring Heeled Jack. The band released two albums for SideOneDummy before announcing their own hiatus in 2005.

Sirois recorded and toured with Nate Albert's next band, Kickovers, and also played drums for the Street Dogs and Frank Black.

Rhodes went on to play with The Toasters until his departure in 2006. Rhodes had just joined Bim Skala Bim before the Bosstones' hiatus came to an end and left Bim Skala Bim as a result. He also performed with former Spring Heeled Jack bandmate Rick Omonte in The Mountain Movers and as a fill-in trombonist for Less Than Jake, Reel Big Fish, and NOFX.

Fleysher continued his pursuit of a professional pilot's license. In 2005, after taking classes near his home in South Florida and working as a flight instructor in his spare time, he was hired as an airline pilot for CommutAir, a Continental Airlines regional affiliate based in Plattsburgh, New York. After a short stint with the company, he began flying as a charter pilot in Los Angeles, California.

Burton and his family moved to Los Angeles where he became active in the movie business. Besides working for a Hollywood agent, he wrote several scripts and developed projects for television. He also contributed saxophone for a Cypress Hill song. In 2007, he appeared in the film Crazy, which was inspired by the life of Hank Garland.

Katz formed a band named Resistant. Katz has also played guitar on several motion picture soundtracks including Aquamarine, The Good Night and London, the latter recorded in collaboration with The Crystal Method.

Reunion and breakup (2007–2022)
Because the band left the possibility of playing together again open, rumors and speculation frequently circulated that a reunion was inevitable. The hiatus of Joe Gittleman's band, Avoid One Thing, fueled further speculation of such a reunion.

During an Alternative Press Acoustic Session, members of fellow Boston area ska band Big D and the Kids Table hinted that the Bosstones were in fact reuniting for another Hometown Throwdown. Jerry Mattes, the creator of the band's bulldog mascot, also acknowledged the chances of a reunion and announced that he was designing a new logo for the band.

On October 11, 2007, on Boston Radio Station WBCN, Dicky Barrett confirmed what he called "the worst kept secret in Boston": the announcement that the Bosstones would indeed play a tenth official Hometown Throwdown at Cambridge's famed Middle East club on December 26–30, 2007. Barrett would not confirm any long-term plans for the band. Soon after Barrett's announcement, Gittleman declared that the band intended to record three new songs to be included on an upcoming collection of unreleased material and vinyl B-sides. The album, titled Medium Rare, was released on December 18, 2007. The three new songs marked the first new material recorded since the 2002 release of A Jackknife to a Swan.

After the 2007 Throwdown, the Bosstones played a few shows every couple of months. At two of the March shows in Las Vegas and Los Angeles, Jimmy Kimmel served as a guest star on bass clarinet during "The Impression That I Get". Former saxophonist Lenear rejoined the band, replacing Fleysher, whose job prevented him from being able to play with the band. Despite the activity, the Bosstones remained non-committal on whether they would record and release a studio album. They did make it known that they would no longer tour at the frequency they were known for in the past.

On May 15, 2008, it was reported that the Bosstones would be embarking on a short United States tour in July with the Dropkick Murphys. During the tour, the Bosstones made three stops at Boston Red Sox minor league ballparks. On October 20, 2008, their website announced that they would return to the Middle East in Cambridge to play an eleventh Hometown Throwdown on December 26–29. In late 2008, the game Rock Band 2 was released and featured a re-recorded version of "Where'd You Go?" that the band had recorded earlier in the year. On November 4, 2008, a MySpace blog announced the recording of a new album, and streamed two new songs, "The Impossible Dream" and "Next to Nothing". On July 29, 2009, the band announced the completion of tracking for the album. On October 16, 2009, the album title was announced to be Pin Points and Gin Joints and a free download of the song "Graffiti Worth Reading" was made available. The release date was later stated as December 8, 2009.

The band continued to tour through the summer of 2009 with shows in Buffalo, New York, Providence, Rhode Island, Asbury Park, New Jersey, Seattle, Washington, San Francisco, California, Anaheim, California, Hampton Beach, New Hampshire, and Victoria, British Columbia where they performed at the Victoria Ska Fest with Voodoo Glow Skulls, The Slackers and Chris Murray. The band toured during the summer of 2010 with Teenage Bottlerocket and the Flatliners. They also hosted their annual Hometown Throwdown festival over three nights in December 2010.

In August 2011, Chris Rhodes posted a Facebook update stating that The Mighty Mighty Bosstones had begun work on their next album. The album, titled The Magic of Youth, was released on December 6, 2011.

March 2017 saw the release of their first recording in six years with a limited edition vinyl 7" featuring a cover version of the Burt Bacharach song, "What the World Needs Now Is Love" backed with the track "I Won’t Go Out Like That". In the time between releases, the lineup saw the addition of former Cherry Poppin' Daddies keyboard player, John Goetchius in 2008 and Leon Silva in 2016 to replace Kevin Lenear who had departed the band for a second time earlier that same year.

In September 2017, Tim Burton announced in a post Riot Fest interview that the band was working on a new album set for release in early 2018. According to guitarist Lawrence Katz and producer Ted Hutt's Instagram accounts, recording started on Friday, November 17 at Kingsize Soundlabs in Los Angeles, California. The new album's title was announced to be While We're at It.

While We're at It, the band's tenth album, was released on June 15, 2018. It is the final part of a musical trilogy that began with Pin Points and Gin Joints in 2009 followed by The Magic of Youth in 2011. For the initial 2018 tour dates supporting the album, Silva could not participate due to his commitments performing with Justin Timberlake. To temporarily fill in for Silva, the band brought in Roman Fleysher and Peter "JR" Wasilewski of Less Than Jake to play saxophone on select dates.

On January 25, 2021, it was announced that the Mighty Mighty Bosstones had signed a new record contract with Hellcat Records. In conjunction with the announcement, the band released a new single titled, "The Final Parade" which features guest appearances by Jamaican singer Stranger Cole and members of Rancid, The Interrupters, Fishbone, Stiff Little Fingers, The Suicide Machines, Less Than Jake, Murphy's Law, H2O, Goldfinger, Sonic Boom Six, The Toasters, Bim Skala Bim, Big D and the Kids Table, Doped Up Dollies, The Aggrolites, Dance Hall Crashers, The Aquabats, Buck-O-Nine, The Porkers, The Pietasters, Los Skanarles, Buster Shuffle, Kemuri, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, and The Specials.

In March 2021, the band announced their first album since signing to Hellcat Records, When God Was Great, would be released on May 7, 2021, and released the album's second single "I Don't Believe in Anything". The album's third single, "The Killing of King Georgie (Part III)", a song about the murder of George Floyd, was released on April 21, 2021.

On January 27, 2022, the band announced that they had split up. The statement shared by the band reads: "After decades of brotherhood, touring the world and making great records together we have decided not to continue on as a band. Above all, we want to express our sincere gratitude to every single one of you who have supported us. We could not have done any of it without you. Love Always, The Mighty Mighty BossToneS." Although the band chose to keep their reasoning for the split private, speculation suggested that it was over Barrett's stance on COVID-19 vaccines and his participation in the production of a video promoting the "Defeat the Mandates" anti-vaccination mandate rally held by Robert F. Kennedy Jr. In February 2022, Barrett was a guest on The Highwire with Del Bigtree podcast where he confirmed that it was his anti-vaccination views that had made the rest of the band uncomfortable.

Big Rig Records
Big Rig Records started as a vanity label in 1993 due to the band's desire to release their records on vinyl. While the band wanted to release their albums on vinyl, the label had ceased pressing albums in that format. A partnership between Mercury and the band resulted in the label continuing to handle the conventional CD and cassette versions of the albums while allowing the band's Big Rig label to focus on the vinyl editions. The new label immediately issued re-releases of Don't Know How To Party and Ska-Core, The Devil, and More on colored vinyl.

Besides the band's own albums, additional releases include the first CD release of Dicky Barrett's previous band Impact Unit, as well as Vow Of Poverty by the Boston punk band Mung, and Half Hour Of Power by Sum 41. Additionally, the label also released a benefit compilation featuring various artists titled Safe And Sound: A Benefit In Response To The Brookline Clinic Violence, as well as, You Decide: Warped Tour 2000 Sampler, a sampler of bands featured on the 2000 Vans Warped Tour. The first new release under this partnership was Question the Answers and it continued through Pay Attention, the band's final album with the Island Def Jam Music Group, the label formed after the merger of Mercury Records, Island Records, and Def Jam Recordings. After leaving Mercury, the vinyl release of A Jackknife to a Swan was handled directly by SideOneDummy, the band's label at the time. Since the band's return from hiatus, Big Rig has been run exclusively by the Mighty Mighty Bosstones as their own independent record label, handling all of their new releases up until 2021's When God Was Great, which was released on Hellcat Records.

Musical style
The band has been typically aligned with ska punk. The L.A. Times, described their sound as "blending the brassy after-beat groove of ska with the uncompromising intensity of hard-core punk". The Tampa Bay Times described it similarly as an "eclectic swirl of good-time music fuses the perky pick-it-up sound of pre-reggae ska with monstrous hard-core guitars." AllMusic credited them as being "one of the first bands to cross high-energy ska with hardcore punk and hard rock guitars", and "[laying] a great deal of the groundwork for the mid- to late-'90s ska explosion, helping shift its tone toward party music." The Boston Herald said that they "were one of the first bands to cross high-energy ska with hardcore punk and heavy metal.".

Final lineup

 * Dicky Barrett – lead vocals (1983–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Tim "Johnny Vegas" Burton – tenor saxophone, backing vocals (1983–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Ben Carr – dancer, backing vocals, percussion, tour manager and "Bosstone" (1983–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Joe Gittleman – bass, backing vocals (1983–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Joe Sirois – drums, percussion (1991–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Lawrence Katz – guitar, backing vocals (2000–2004, 2007–2022)
 * Chris Rhodes – trombone, backing vocals (2000–2004, 2007–2022)
 * John Goetchius – keyboards (2008–2022)
 * Leon Silva – tenor saxophone, backing vocals (2016–2022)

Former members

 * Tim Bridewell – trombone (1983–1991)
 * Josh Dalsimer – drums (1983–1991)
 * Dennis Brockenborough – trombone (1991–2000)
 * Kevin Lenear – alto, tenor, and baritone saxophones (1991–1998; 2008–2016)
 * Nate Albert – guitar, backing vocals (1983–2000, 2015 live only, 2020–2022 studio only)
 * Roman Fleysher – tenor saxophone (1998–2004, 2007–2008; sporadic appearances 2018–2021)

Additional personnel

 * Peter Wasilewski - saxophone (touring member)
 * Davey Holmes – keyboards
 * Brian Dwyer – trumpet
 * Kevin P. Stevenson – guitar
 * Dave Aaronoff – keyboards
 * Sledge Burton – trumpet
 * Jon Nash – guitar

Discography

 * Devil's Night Out (1990)
 * More Noise and Other Disturbances (1992)
 * Don't Know How to Party (1993)
 * Question the Answers (1994)
 * Let's Face It (1997)
 * Pay Attention (2000)
 * A Jackknife to a Swan (2002)
 * Pin Points and Gin Joints (2009)
 * The Magic of Youth (2011)
 * While We're at It (2018)
 * When God Was Great (2021)

title: The Mighty Mighty Bosstones