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Pacifica Foundation

Pacifica Foundation is an American non-profit organization that owns five independently operated, non-commercial, listener-supported radio stations known for their progressive/liberal political orientation. Its national headquarters adjoins station KPFK in Los Angeles, California.

Pacifica Foundation also operates the Pacifica Network, a program service supplying over 200 affiliated stations with various programs, primarily news and public affairs. It was the first public radio network in the United States and it is the world's oldest listener-funded radio network. Programs such as Democracy Now! and Free Speech Radio News have been some of its most popular productions.

Early history
Pacifica was founded in 1946 by pacifists E. John Lewis and Lewis Hill. During World War II, both of them had filed for conscientious objector status. After the war, Lewis, Hill and a small group of former conscientious objectors created the Pacifica Foundation in Pacifica, California. Their first station, KPFA in Berkeley, commenced broadcasting in 1949. By 1977, the network had added WBAI in New York City, KPFK in Los Angeles, WPFW in Washington, DC, and KPFT in Houston.

In 1973, one of Pacifica's stations, WBAI, broadcast comedian George Carlin's Filthy Words routine uncensored. Following a listener complaint, Pacifica received a letter of reprimand from the FCC, censuring them for allegedly violating broadcast regulations which prohibited airing indecent material. The foundation took the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court in FCC v. Pacifica Foundation and lost in a 5–4 decision. This became a landmark moment in the history of free speech, and the case continues to define the power of the government over broadcast material it calls indecent.

1990s–2002
For most of its history, Pacifica gave each of its stations independent control of programming. During the 1990s, a major controversy arose over rumors that the Pacifica National Board and national staff were attempting to centralize control of content, to increase audience. The rumors included accusations that the board proposed changing the network's funding model away from a reliance exclusively on listener donations and toward a mix of listener donations and corporate foundation funding similar to that of NPR. There were also accusations that the Board was considering selling both KPFA and WBAI in New York City, which operate on commercial-band FM frequencies (94.1 and 99.5, respectively) worth hundreds of millions of dollars.

This led to years of conflict, including court cases, public demonstrations, firings and strikes of station staff, whose common plight inspired creation of Radio4all.net to preserve what they saw as the original spirit of Pacifica. Many listeners of the individual stations—especially KPFA and WBAI—objected to what they saw as an attempt to tone down the overtly left-leaning political content on Pacifica stations. The controversy included highly publicized ideologically-charged disputes between listener organizations and Mary Frances Berry, a former chairwoman of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, who chaired the corporation's board at the time.

The board eventually was embroiled in counter-lawsuits by board members and listener-sponsors and, after global settlement of the lawsuits in November 2001, an interim board was formed to craft new bylaws, which it did in two tumultuous years of national debates among thousands of listener-sponsors and activists, finally giving listener-sponsors the right and responsibility to elect new Local Station Boards at each of the five Pacifica stations. These local boards in turn elect the national board of directors. Aside from some minor changes, the same 2003 bylaws remain in effect today.

2002–2009
Pacifica National News director Dan Coughlin was voted Interim Executive Director of the network in 2002 (the "Interim" was later dropped). The years of internal legal battles and financial mismanagement had taken a toll. In 2005, Coughlin resigned, the network was still largely disorganized, and Pacifica reverted to operating with an interim executive director for most of the year.

In January 2006, Pacifica hired Greg Guma as the next executive director of the Pacifica Foundation. By the end of the year, the Foundation had fully recovered its financial health and had launched two new national programs: Informativo Pacifica, a daily Spanish Language newscast, and From the Vault, a weekly program drawn from Pacifica's extensive audio archives. Pacifica also produced Informed Dissent, a ten-week series for the 2006 mid-term elections that drew from talent across the network. Guma left his post in September 2007.

Pacifica's National Board unanimously chose former KPFA general manager Nicole Sawaya as the next executive director. Sawaya was among the staff members fired by the national board in 1999 amidst Pacifica's internal crisis. Sawaya began her tenure as executive director in mid-November 2007, but abruptly changed her mind two weeks later. Pacifica historian Matthew Lasar said she "found the level of internecine dysfunction at Pacifica overwhelming, and fled her job." The Pacifica National Board spent the next several months negotiating with her, and Sawaya resumed her job on March 5, 2008. She resigned effective September 30, citing "dysfunctional" governance and "shoddy and opaque" business practices that had plunged the organization into a financial crisis.

Sawaya's departure was followed by major staff layoffs. In 2009, Pacifica Board chair Grace Aaron became interim executive director, former board member LaVarn Williams replaced Lonnie Hicks as chief financial officer, and the national office took control of WBAI in New York. Aaron appointed Williams acting GM of WBAI in May, and Hicks filed a lawsuit against the foundation alleging that he was dismissed because he is African American and a whistleblower.

Financial situation in the 2010s
On August 9, 2013, Pacifica interim executive director Summer Reese announced that due to financial problems, Pacifica-owned radio station WBAI-FM in New York was laying off about two-thirds of its staff, effective August 12, 2013. The entire news department was reportedly included in the layoff.

After Pacifica's board of directors completed the 2016 board year with the exclusion of 75% of WBAI's board representation, it then moved to decertify Pacifica's 2016 board elections, which had been won handily by the independent faction not in power. The new 2017 board of directors replaced interim executive director Lydia Brazon with KPFT director Bill Crosier and reinstated WBAI's delegation.

On Friday, October 6, 2017, Pacifica lost a $1.8 million settlement over what they claimed was price gouging by Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT), which had been raising antenna rental charges for WBAI at 9% per year for the last 12 years under a 15-year lease WBAI signed in 2005 that did not expire until 2020. The rent was set at more than half a million dollars annually, which Pacifica claimed was approximately 4 times the current market rent for Midtown Manhattan antenna rentals. Pacifica Radio's WBAI has housed its transmitter on the Empire State Building since 1966. The 9% annual rental increases were facilitated by the destruction of the twin towers on September 11, 2001, which dramatically reduced space available for comparable antennas. The ruling encumbered all of Pacifica's assets including KPFA and KPFB in Berkeley, KPFK in Los Angeles, WPFW in Washington, DC, and KPFT in Houston in addition to WBAI in New York City but does not affect the assets of any of its affiliates. On April 6, 2018, The Pacifica Foundation announced the settlement on a series of agreements that release WBAI, the organization's New York radio station, from a court judgment as well as the last two years of its lease at the Empire State Building as of May 31, 2018. The Foundation later completed an agreement to relocate its transmission facility to a new site nearby.

On October 8, 2019, it was announced that WBAI's local operations were abruptly shut down. Their programming was superseded by Pacifica Across America: a compilation of work from sister stations and other sources; Democracy Now! continued to be broadcast.

The 2019 WBAI shutdown was litigated in the fall of 2019. The New York State Supreme Court ruled in November 2019 that the WBAI shutdown by then-executive director John Vernile was executed "ultra vires" (without the proper authority) and ordered the station re-opened.

Archives
The Pacifica Radio Archives, housed at station KPFK in Los Angeles, is the oldest public radio archive in the United States documenting more than five decades of grassroots political, cultural, and performing arts history. The archive includes recordings of interviews with John Coltrane, James Baldwin, Lorraine Hansberry, and Langston Hughes, among many others. The Pacifica Radio Archives were featured in their own 30-minute slot on BBC Radio 5 Live's (now defunct) Up All Night program.

Democracy Now!
A show that for years has been considered the flagship of Pacifica Radio's national programming is Democracy Now!, an independent news organization that covers democracy, human rights and justice issues, and questions the motives of U.S. foreign and domestic policy. Hosted by Amy Goodman and Juan González, this program is a compilation of news, interviews, and documentaries. Democracy Now! is heard and seen on more than 700 radio and TV stations across the U.S. including public-access television stations and satellite television channels Free Speech TV and Link TV. WDEV, based in Waterbury, Vermont, is the only commercial radio station in the U.S. that carries the program —even though it is also heard in north-central Vermont over Pacifica affiliate WGDR in Plainfield and its sister station, WGDH in Hardwick.

In 2002, as Pacifica implemented its new listener-sponsor-accountability structure and as Pacifica and Democracy Now! settled outstanding disputes from previous years, Democracy Now! spun off with substantial funding from Pacifica to become an independent production.

Other Pacifica programming: 2000-2006
The Pacifica network, in addition to extensive community-based productions at its various stations around the United States, also featured a daily newscast Free Speech Radio News from 2003-2013. FSRN was a radio program founded by Pacifica Reporters Against Censorship, a group of mostly Pacifica Network News reporters who went on strike against the Pacifica board policies of the late 1990s. FSRN was primarily funded by Pacifica, and includes headlines and news features produced by reporters based around the U.S. and in scores of countries around the world. In September 2013, the board of directors of FSRN issued a lay-off notice to all staff, and confirmed that their last broadcast would take place on September 27, 2013. The board cited financial difficulties as the reason for the decision.

In 2006, Pacifica added two new national programs: From the Vault from the Pacifica Radio Archives, a weekly program that thematically repackages archival material, making it relevant to contemporary listeners; and Informativo Pacifica, based at KPFK in Los Angeles, a daily Spanish-language newscast that includes reporters from the U.S. and many Latin American countries.

Initiatives 2007-2008

 * In 2007, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) announced that it would accept new applications for non-commercial radio licenses for the first time in more than a decade. In response, Pacifica joined forces with other advocates for independent media in the "Radio for People" campaign, helping local groups apply for these full-power licenses.
 * Pacifica has expanded its schedule of national special broadcasts, distributing more audio documentaries, covering the Attorney General Alberto Gonzales hearings live, and sending production teams to the United States Social Forum and the National Conference for Media Reform.
 * Pacifica expanded its offerings in multiple media platforms, using "Web 2.0" technology. In September 2007, one interactive website, KPFA's Warcomeshome.org, began to offer hard-hitting stories from reporter Aaron Glantz about the human costs of the Iraq War, as well as innovative ways of contributing to, and distributing information about, the impact of the conflict.
 * Pacifica suspended regular programming for three days to air a live broadcast of the Iraq War Winter Soldier event in Silver Spring, Maryland from March 14 through March 16, 2008. The broadcast was co-anchored by journalist Aaron Glantz and KPFA Morning Show host Aimee Allison.

Recent programming
Local Pacifica stations produce many programs that are available to network stations and affiliates. These include: Sprouts, a weekly showcase of producers and stations around the network, often in documentary format; Explorations in Science with Dr. Michio Kaku, a weekly radio program on science, politics, and the environment; Dennis Bernstein's Flashpoints, a daily drive-time public affairs program; Against The Grain a progressive and radical commentary program; and many other regular programs.

Pacifica also produces a wide variety of special broadcasts, including live coverage of major U.S. Congressional hearings, national mobilizations against war, and other important events, such as the United States Social Forum. Special programs also include news documentaries, holidays and commemorations, and archival audio from the Pacifica Radio Archives.

Pacifica distributes program content via the Audioport system.

Pacifica-owned stations
The Pacifica-owned stations are listed below in alphabetical order by state and community of license.

Note: All stations except for WBAI were built and signed-on by the Pacifica Foundation.

title: Pacifica Foundation


text:
Talk:Henry Maudslay

Surname spelling OK as is
Google search indicates vacillation between Maudslay and Maudsley. S.

 * The Joseph Wickham Roe reference spells it Maudslay. I suspect that several things are going on here: (1) There is another notable 19th-century Englishman, a psychiatrist, with nearly the same name, according to his article, Henry Maudsley. So any Google hits that represent correct spellings are going to bring up both of these men. (2) Google hits dredge up all kinds of things from all over the internet, including those endemic internet creatures, horrabel missspelings and stoopid drunkin typnig. Lumbercutter 02:48, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

 * There is more to this story, as covered nowadays in the article at Henry_Maudslay. — ¾-10 01:51, 7 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Could someone please reference the actual pronunciation? "reduced /li/ terminal syllable as is typical..." Has no meaning unless you already know what a reduced terminal syllable is (may not be legit linguistic lingo), or already know how an 18th century Englishman pronounces Maudslay.  So this is self-referential and not as useful as it could be. KeithLofstrom (talk) 02:16, 30 October 2012 (UTC)

 * There's nothing illegit about the words "reduced" (see vowel reduction and stress and vowel reduction in English) nor the words "terminal syllable" (see terminal and syllable). But your point (consider the target audience when choosing how to present the info) is a good one. I changed the paragraph to be more useful to a general audience. — ¾-10 20:53, 4 November 2012 (UTC)

And now for something completely different
Here's a link to some addition information and photos, but Wikipedia would like external editors to review since this is a link to our own webpage: http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/research/digital-collections/maudslay.php Brooklynmuseum 00:13, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I would like external editors to review it, too, because it's about a completely different person surnamed Maudslay. (My question for the external editors would be, how many seconds of scanning that page does it take before you realize it's about a completely different person? 3 seconds? 12? Certainly not much more than that.) Lumbercutter 02:48, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

Inheritance
"The company was one of the most important British engineering manufactories of the nineteenth century" That's an understatement. Maudslay was the inventor of the modern machine tool, i.e. a tool that makes other tools. In other words, his tools made tools which made tools ... that eventually became today's machine tools. We can therefore say that any manufacturered gizmo, gadget or widget that you hold in your hand today was made by a tool that was made by a tool ... that was made by Maudslay. The entire industrial output of the world is directly descended from Maudslay's factory. Grendlegrutch 06:05, 4 March 2007 (UTC)

First screw-cutting lathe?
Many screw-cutting lathes are documented prior to Maudslay's birth. Henry Hindley and Jesse Ramsden among others. How does he get to be considered first?

Is there a specific criteria for what constitutes a proper screw-cutting lathe (i.e. the prior inventions were used to make screws but are not the same class of machine)? Michael Daly 23:47, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that you are correct in the latter point. In other words, screw-cutting lathes existed before Maudslay, but the industrial-era screw-cutting lathe began with him. Simplistic breezy bios of Maudslay (of which many pop up when you Google his name) say that Maudslay invented the slide-rest (which, they often don't bother to explain, superseded the practice of having the lathe operator hold the cutting tool in his hands against a stationary rest [the way wood-turning is still often done]). And they imply that the slide-rest alone was revolutionary. It seems that the basic concept of a slide-rest had already been invented over the centuries, but that Maudslay is the one who is credited with independently (re)inventing it at the right moment to create modern machine tools. (However, David Wilkinson (1771-1852) may have beaten him to it independently.) I am inferring, from what I can (a) remember from Wickham Roe 1916 and (b) find on the internet tonight, that Maudslay is the one who put together the concept of a leadscrew driving a slide-rest-style carriage through a set of change gears. But it is very frustrating because everyone gushes about how great his advancements to the lathe were, but few actually talk about exactly what they were. Wickham Roe 1916 is the place to look for the whole story. I seem to remember from when I read it about 5 years ago that the history of the leadscrew, and of the slide-rest, and of the concept of tying the two together with a geartrain (let alone change gears specifically) was clearly traced and I understood it. But at this point I can't remember those details. When I get around to unpacking my dead-tree copy I think I'll re-read it. In the meantime you can read it yourself for free here and more specifically at chapter IV here if you like, thanks to Google's book-digitizing efforts—it's one of the books from the New York Public Library that have already been digitized. Hope this helps! — Lumbercutter 02:24, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * PS—I seem to recall that Wickham Roe 1916 cites Smiles's Industrial Biography a lot (the latter is available for free on the web at the World Wide School). Their version is from the first edition (1863), according to the preface. — Lumbercutter 02:32, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I find articles that have stuff like this on the web:
 * Jesse Ramsden developed the first satisfactory screw-cutting lathe in 1770. Henry Maudslay's lathe was far superior to any of its predecessors and as such it became widely used. (Whitworth Society
 * It then goes on to gush over Maudslay. Most articles talk about Maudslay as if he was the only person to do it.  I can't tease out the factor that differentiates Ramsden's machine from Maudslay's - I think it's like your first comment - industrial scale vs one shop.  When I look at the drawing I have of Ramsden's, I see the bits that Maudslay had - leadscrew, moving tool-holder, geared hand-crank etc.  The only real difference is that Maudslay's was on a rigid stand and Ramsden's appears to have been bolted to a workbench.  I have been trying to determine whether Maudslay's was adjustable to "automatically" make different size screws or whether it pretty much worked with a fixed-pitch leadscrew and could only change the cutting tool to change diameter.  One article suggested that the "real" screw-cutting lathes were fully adjustable.
 * This isn't the first article where I've been questioning multiple claims of a "first" or "last" or "greatest".
 * BTW - I recently found a book that stated that Hindley's was "stillborn". Not a strong claim for first in his case, I guess.  Michael Daly 05:07, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * PS - I just found this site that pretty much describes Maudslay's priority as being based on hero worship rather than historical fact. Michael Daly 05:25, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Wow—that link is amazing. I'll have to read that whole thing sometime in the future when I have time to devote to it.
 * I think it's true that there is too much "first-ever" and "hero" mythology around inventors, and screw-cutting lathes are a good case study. Sometime in the future if I get around to studying this topic in-depth I will revamp this article to reflect those ideas.
 * Regarding your question about switching to different thread pitches: This is accomplished on all modern manual (non-CNC) lathes with the quick-change gear box, the predecessor of which was (non-quick) change gears that you had to swap on and off the leadscrew and headstock manually (they still make this set-up for economy's sake on some of the lowest-cost lathes). According to Wickham Row 1916:38, Ramsden may have been the first with this winning combination (leadscrew AND slide-rest AND change gears, all on one machine) in 1775 (Wickham Roe could not verify); but Maudslay was the first one who definitely got it right and spread it to the rest of the world (1800). Wickham Row 1916:38-40 is basically talking about this very topic at some length. Basically, to sum up in paraphrase, you need the leadscrew AND the slide-rest AND the change gears all on one machine to create a "real" ("modern"/"proper"/"non-primitive") screw-cutting lathe.
 * Thanks for prompting this discussion! Clearly we have a goal to work towards on Wikipedia, explaining this multi-person, multi-decade invention process in a proper amount of detail (which those breezy little web bios really get wrong!) and qualifying the "first-ever" claims.
 * — Lumbercutter 21:12, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I created a page, screw-cutting lathe, after finding several references to it and needing it on another page I created on the dividing engine (my interests are in historical scientific instruments, esp. navigation and surveying). I'm a civil eng, not mech, so I'm short on knowledge on some of these machines - your comments and explanations are quite helpful.  I'm trying to make sure these topics/articles all tie together.  I don't like putting something like "Ramsden built the first highly reliable screw-cutting lathe to help him build a dividing engine" only to have most other pages claiming that Maudslay was the first and he was born the year Ramsden did it!  I think I'd like to have any changes reflect what seems to be the case - Ramsden solved most of the problems, but Maudslay created a machine that could produce screws on an industrial scale - in volume and with high consistency.  Being able to make a few high-quality screws a week and making thousands are two different things.  Ramsden's purpose was not to make little machine screws to bolt his instruments together but make a highly accurate device based on gears (worm gear = screw) that could measure off the division of graduations on an instrument with exceptional accuracy and little human error.  It's the dividing engine he's known for (and of course, the instruments he made with it). Michael Daly 21:51, 21 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Regarding the "hero mythology", I think the issue is that a lot of Maudslay's contributions are harder to quantify by historians to an audience that may not have experience or know anything about machining or machine tools in general.  It probably takes a machinist to truly appreciate the difference between a tool that can simply perform a task, and a tool that can perform that task well.  The quality of much of Maudslay's workmanship was far ahead of his time, and he impressed this level of precision and engineering in all his machines and tools on his plethora of apprentices and followers- the overall effect being a considerable impact on the industrial revolution in Great Britain, and thus rest of the world.  Of course it's not really a practical task to catalog and categorize all sorts of little effects Maudslay may have impressed upon the developing machine tool industry- and thus is difficult to historically remember his effects without the sense of unverifiable gushing.  There was a good book I read, "A short history of machine tools" by Rolt that detailed contributions of Maudslay and many of his fellow craftsmen well, and I will have to find and maybe bring some more light to this article.  With reference to the screw-cutting lathe- Maudslay was certainly not the first, but I know he however was the first to build a screw-cutting lathe with adjustment built in as to carefully eliminate the tiny imperfections of pitch in the leadscrew (within a ten thousandths of an inch to the meter)- thus creating perfect screws which can be used in new lathes, and so forth- an astounding achievement, really.  The level of precision, rigidity, robustness, and functionality he put into his machine tools I guess is what makes his contributions so much more important to some- although I can understand that to others it's only important who was first.03:25, 11 August 2009 (UTC)  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.195.132.29 (talk)

Number of woodworking machines
According to James Nasmyth's Biography, there were 'forty-four' in number, not 42. See http://www.naesmyth.com/bio/jn07.htm 20.133.0.13 (talk) 10:20, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

First specialized machinery?
I removed the following from the article, re Maudslay's Portmsouth pulleys:

 * This was the first well-known example of specialized machinery in an assembly line type factory.

Although there's a source attached (and I admit I haven't located the original text), the claim seems overly bold. For example, Hargreave's spinning jenny was in use as specialised machinery in an assembly-line style from 1784. Happy to discuss the removal if there's disagreement. Euryalus (talk) 09:20, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

 * The original claim was obviously wrong, but not by much. "Machinery" wasn't a new innovation, but "specialized machinery for manufacture by machining" was. This excludes both textiles (not a machining process) and the many pin factory processes (e.g. hat making) that were assembly lines, but using hand labour rather than machine tools. Andy Dingley (talk) 10:53, 24 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Fair point. Is there an alternative wording that could be used? I'd prefer not to paraphrase the line I removed because it's sourced to a book I haven't read, so I could lose whatever the original meaning was in trying to improve the accuracy of the sentence. Euryalus (talk) 11:02, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

 * You really out to read the book 8-)   If you've any interest in articles like this, you'll be wanting a copy of Rolt (and most of Rolt's work). His Victorian Engineers and particularly Tools for the Job are classics in the field.
 * I've rephrased it, and added a couple of other refs, one with a literal quote. Andy Dingley (talk) 11:06, 24 January 2010 (UTC)
 * My interest is more in Portsmouth docks than in Maudslay, but thanks for improving the sentence. I'll hunt down a copy of Rolt for background reading when next at the library. :) Euryalus (talk) 11:36, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

Maudslay's slide rest late and screw cutting
I believe the section labeled screw cutting should be re-labeled to standards for thread and screw sizes. Also, the screw cutting lathe I believe is the slide rest lathe, and if so references should be made to that section instead of repeating. Perhaps better would be to combine them in one section.Phmoreno (talk) 20:28, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

Difference between David Wilkinson's lathe and Maudslay's
Does anyone know the difference? Roe (1916) said he had never seen Wilkinson's lathe, so unless he had a good understanding of it I don't know how he could compare it to Maudslay's. I posted some quotes about Wilkinson's in his Wikipedia articlePhmoreno (talk) 20:37, 11 December 2011 (UTC)
 * I found the answer to this in An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology by Ian McNeil. Maudslay's lathe was more advanced than Wilkinson's. Wilkinson's did not use change gears so it lacked the ability to cut various thread pitches.  However, Wilkinson's lathe was capable of doing heavier work.Phmoreno (talk) 01:11, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Henry Maudslay


text:
John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester

John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (1 April 1647 – 26 July 1680) was an English poet and courtier of King Charles II's Restoration court, who reacted against the "spiritual authoritarianism" of the Puritan era. Rochester embodied this new era, and he became as well known for his rakish lifestyle as for his poetry, although the two were often interlinked. He died as a result of a sexually transmitted infection at the age of 33.

Rochester was described by his contemporary Andrew Marvell as "the best English satirist", and he is generally considered to be the most considerable poet and the most learned among the Restoration wits. His poetry was widely censored during the Victorian era, but enjoyed a revival from the 1920s onwards, with reappraisals from noted literary figures such as Graham Greene and Ezra Pound. The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian materialism.

During his lifetime Rochester was best known for A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind and it remains among his best-known works today.

Upbringing and teens
John Wilmot was born at Ditchley House in Oxfordshire on 1 April 1647. His father, Henry, Viscount Wilmot, was created Earl of Rochester in 1652 for his military service to Charles II during the King's exile under the Commonwealth. Paul Davis describes Henry as "a Cavalier legend, a dashing bon vivant and war-hero who single-handedly engineered the future Charles II's escape to the Continent (including the famous concealment in an oak tree) after the disastrous battle of Worcester in 1651". His mother, Anne St. John, was a strong-willed Puritan from a noble Wiltshire family.

From the age of seven, Rochester was privately tutored, two years later attending the grammar school in nearby Burford. His father died in 1658, and John Wilmot inherited the title of the Earl of Rochester in April of that year. In January 1660, Rochester was admitted as a Fellow commoner to Wadham College, Oxford, a new and comparatively poor college. Whilst there, it is said, the 13-year-old "grew debauched". In September 1661 he was awarded an honorary M.A. by the newly elected chancellor of the university, Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, a family friend.

As an act of gratitude towards the son of Henry Wilmot, Charles II conferred on Rochester an annual pension of £500. In November 1661 Charles sent Rochester on a three-year Grand Tour of France and Italy, and appointed the physician Andrew Balfour as his governor. This exposed him to an unusual degree to European (especially French) writing and thought. In 1664 Rochester returned to London, and made his formal début at the Restoration court on Christmas Day.

It has been suggested by a number of scholars that the King took a paternal role in Rochester's life. Charles II suggested a marriage between Rochester and the wealthy heiress Elizabeth Malet. Her relatives opposed marriage to the impoverished Rochester, who conspired with his mother to abduct the young Countess. Samuel Pepys described the attempted abduction in his diary on 28 May 1665: "Thence to my Lady Sandwich's, where, to my shame, I had not been a great while before. Here, [I told] her a story of my Lord Rochester's running away on Friday night last with Mrs. Mallett, the great beauty and fortune of the North, who had supped at White Hall with Mrs. Stewart, and was going home to her lodgings with her grandfather, my Lord Haly, by coach; and was at Charing Cross seized on by both horse and foot men, and forcibly taken from him, and put into a coach with six horses, and two women provided to receive her, and carried away. Upon immediate pursuit, my Lord of Rochester (for whom the King had spoke to the lady often, but with no successe [sic]) was taken at Uxbridge; but the lady is not yet heard of, and the King mighty angry, and the Lord sent to the Tower."

18-year-old Rochester spent three weeks in the Tower, and was released only after he wrote a penitent apology to the King.

Rochester attempted to redeem himself by volunteering for the navy in the Second Dutch War in the winter of 1665, serving under the Earl of Sandwich. His courage at the Battle of Vågen, serving on board the ship of Thomas Teddeman, made him a war hero. Pleased with his conduct, Charles appointed Rochester a Gentleman of the Bedchamber in March 1666, which granted him prime lodgings in Whitehall and a pension of £1,000 a year. The role encompassed, one week in every four, Rochester helping the King to dress and undress, serve his meals when dining in private, and sleeping at the foot of the King's bed. In the summer of 1666, Rochester returned to sea, serving aboard HMS Victory (1620) under Edward Spragge. He again showed extraordinary courage in battle, including rowing between vessels under heavy cannon fire, to deliver Spragge's messages around the fleet.

Upon returning from sea, Rochester resumed his courtship of Elizabeth Malet. Defying her family's wishes, Malet eloped with Rochester again in January 1667, and they were married at the Knightsbridge chapel. They had four children: Lady Anne Wilmot (1669–1703), Charles Wilmot (1671–1681), Lady Elizabeth Wilmot (1674–1757) and Lady Malet Wilmot (1676–1708/1709).

In October 1667, the monarch granted Rochester special licence to enter the House of Lords early, despite being seven months underage. The act was an attempt by the King to bolster his number of supporters among the Lords.

Teenage actress Nell Gwyn "almost certainly" took him as her lover; she was later to become the mistress of Charles II. Gwyn remained a lifelong friend and political associate, and her relationship with the King gave Rochester influence and status within the Court.

Twenties and last years
Rochester's life was divided between domesticity in the country and a riotous existence at court, where he was renowned for drunkenness, vivacious conversation, and "extravagant frolics" as part of the Merry Gang (as Andrew Marvell described them). The Merry Gang flourished for about 15 years after 1665 and included Henry Jermyn; Charles Sackville, Earl of Dorset; John Sheffield, Earl of Mulgrave; Henry Killigrew; Sir Charles Sedley; the playwrights William Wycherley and George Etherege; and George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. Gilbert Burnet wrote of him that, "For five years together he was continually Drunk ... [and] not ... perfectly Master of himself ... [which] led him to ... do many wild and unaccountable things." Pepys's Diary records one such occasion on 16 February 1669 when Rochester was invited to dine with the King and the Dutch ambassador:

"The King dining yesterday at the Dutch ambassador's, after dinner they drank and were pretty merry; and among the rest of the King's company there was that worthy fellow my Lord of Rochester, and Tom Killigrew, whose mirth and raillery offended the former so much that he did give Tom Killigrew a box on the ear in the King's presence, which do give much offence to the people here at Court ..."

His actions were considered an offence against the King, or a lèse-majesté, and he was banned from the court, although the King soon called for his return.

In 1673, Rochester began to train Elizabeth Barry as an actress. She went on to become the most famous actress of her age. He took her as his mistress in 1675. The relationship lasted for around five years, and produced a daughter, before descending into acrimony after Rochester began to resent her success. Rochester wrote afterwards, "With what face can I incline/To damn you to be only mine? ... Live up to thy mighty mind/And be the mistress of mankind".

When the King's advisor and friend of Rochester, George Villiers, lost power in 1673, Rochester's standing fell as well. At the Christmas festivities at Whitehall of that year, Rochester delivered a satire to Charles II, "In the Isle of Britain" – which criticized the King for being obsessed with sex at the expense of his kingdom. Charles's reaction to this satirical portrayal resulted in Rochester's exile from the court until February. During this time Rochester dwelt at his estate in Adderbury. Despite this, in February 1674, after much petitioning by Rochester, the King appointed him Ranger of Woodstock Park.

In June 1675 "Lord Rochester in a frolick after a rant did ... beat downe the dyill (i.e. sundial) which stood in the middle of the Privie Garding, which was esteemed the rarest in Europ". John Aubrey learned what Rochester said on this occasion when he came in from his "revells" with Charles Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, and Fleetwood Sheppard to see the object: What ... doest thou stand here to fuck time?' Dash they fell to worke". It has been speculated that the comment refers not to the dial itself, which was not phallic in appearance, but a painting of the King next to the dial that featured his phallic sceptre. Rochester fled the court again.

Rochester fell into disfavour again in 1676. During a late-night scuffle with the night watch, one of Rochester's companions, Roger Downes, was killed by a pike-thrust. Rochester was reported to have fled the scene of the incident, and his standing with the monarch reached an all-time low. Following this incident, Rochester briefly fled to Tower Hill, where he impersonated a mountebank "Doctor Bendo". Under this persona, he claimed skill in treating "barrenness" (infertility), and other gynaecological disorders. Gilbert Burnet wryly noted that Rochester's practice was "not without success", implying his intercession of himself as a surreptitious sperm donor. On occasion, Rochester also assumed the role of the grave and matronly Mrs. Bendo, presumably so that he could inspect young women privately without arousing their husbands' suspicions.

Death
By the age of 33, Rochester was dying from what is usually described as the effects of tertiary syphilis, gonorrohea, or other venereal diseases, combined with the effects of alcoholism. Carol Richards has disputed this, arguing that it is more likely that he died of renal failure due to chronic nephritis (Bright's disease). His mother had him attended in his final weeks by her religious associates, particularly Gilbert Burnet, later Bishop of Salisbury.

After hearing of Burnet's departure from his side, Rochester muttered his last words: "Has my friend left me? Then I shall die shortly". In the early morning of 26 July 1680, Rochester died "without a shudder or a sound". He was buried at Spelsbury church in Oxfordshire.

A deathbed renunciation of libertinism and conversion to Anglican Christianity, Some Passages of the Life and Death of the Honourable John Wilmot Earl of Rochester, was published by Reverend Burnet. Because this account appears in Burnet's own writings, its accuracy has been disputed by some scholars, who accuse Burnet with having shaped the account of Rochester's denunciation of libertinism to enhance his own reputation. On the other hand, Graham Greene, in his biography of Wilmot, calls Burnet's book "convincing".

Works
Rochester's poetic work varies widely in form, genre, and content. He was part of a "mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease", who continued to produce their poetry in manuscripts, rather than in publication. As a consequence, some of Rochester's work deals with topical concerns, such as satires of courtly affairs in libels, to parodies of the styles of his contemporaries, such as Sir Carr Scrope. He is also notable for his impromptus, one of which is a teasing epigram on King Charles II:

To which Charles supposedly replied, "That's true, for my words are my own, but my actions are those of my ministers".

Rochester's poetry displays a range of learning and influences. These included imitations of Malherbe, Ronsard, and Boileau. He also translated or adapted from classical authors such as Petronius, Lucretius, Ovid, Anacreon, Horace, and Seneca.

Rochester's writings were at once admired and infamous. A Satyr Against Mankind (1675), one of the few poems he published (in a broadside in 1679), is a scathing denunciation of rationalism and optimism that contrasts human perfidy with animal wisdom.

The majority of his poetry was not published under his name until after his death. Because most of his poems circulated only in manuscript form during his lifetime, it is likely that much of his writing does not survive. Burnet claimed that Rochester's conversion experience led him to ask that "all his profane and lewd writings" be burned; it is unclear how much, if any, of Rochester's writing was destroyed.

Rochester was also interested in the theatre. In addition to an interest in actresses, he wrote an adaptation of Fletcher's Valentinian (1685), a scene for Sir Robert Howard's The Conquest of China, a prologue to Elkanah Settle's The Empress of Morocco (1673), and epilogues to Sir Francis Fane's Love in the Dark (1675), Charles Davenant's Circe, a Tragedy (1677). The best-known dramatic work attributed to Rochester, Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery, has never been successfully proven to be written by him. Posthumous printings of Sodom, however, gave rise to prosecutions for obscenity, and were destroyed. On 16 December 2004 one of the few surviving copies of Sodom was sold by Sotheby's for £45,600.

"[Rochester's] letters to his wife and to his friend Henry Savile ... show an admirable mastery of easy, colloquial prose."

Scholarship has identified approximately 75 authentic Rochester poems. Three major critical editions of Rochester in the twentieth century have taken very different approaches to authenticating and organising his canon. David Vieth's 1968 edition adopts a heavily biographical organisation, modernising spellings and heading the sections of his book "Prentice Work", "Early Maturity", "Tragic Maturity", and "Disillusionment and Death". Keith Walker's 1984 edition takes a genre-based approach, returning to the older spellings and accidentals in an effort to present documents closer to those a seventeenth-century audience would have received. Harold Love's Oxford University Press edition of 1999, now the scholarly standard, notes the variorum history conscientiously, but arranges works in genre sections ordered from the private to the public.

Reception and influence
Rochester was the model for a number of rake heroes in plays of the period, such as Don John in Thomas Shadwell's The Libertine (1675) and Dorimant in George Etherege's The Man of Mode (1676). Meanwhile he was eulogised by his contemporaries such as Aphra Behn and Andrew Marvell, who described him as "the only man in England that had the true vein of satire". Daniel Defoe quoted him in Moll Flanders, and discussed him in other works. Voltaire, who spoke of Rochester as "the man of genius, the great poet", admired his satire for its "energy and fire" and translated some lines into French to "display the shining imagination his lordship only could boast".

By the 1750s, Rochester's reputation suffered as the liberality of the Restoration era subsided; Samuel Johnson characterised him as a worthless and dissolute rake. Horace Walpole described him as "a man whom the muses were fond to inspire but ashamed to avow". Despite this general disdain for Rochester, William Hazlitt commented that his "verses cut and sparkle like diamonds" while his "epigrams were the bitterest, the least laboured, and the truest, that ever were written". Referring to Rochester's perspective, Hazlitt wrote that "his contempt for everything that others respect almost amounts to sublimity". Meanwhile, Goethe quoted A Satyr against Reason and Mankind in English in his Autobiography. Despite this, Rochester's work was largely ignored throughout the Victorian era.

Rochester's reputation would not begin to revive until the 1920s. Ezra Pound, in his ABC of Reading, compared Rochester's poetry favourably to better-known figures such as Alexander Pope and John Milton. Graham Greene characterised Rochester as a "spoiled Puritan". Although F. R. Leavis argued that "Rochester is not a great poet of any kind", William Empson admired him. More recently, Germaine Greer has questioned the validity of the appraisal of Rochester as a drunken rake, and hailed the sensitivity of some of his lyrics.

Rochester was listed #6 in Time Out's "Top 30 chart of London's most erotic writers". Tom Morris, the associate director, of the National Theatre said, "Rochester reminds me of an unhinged poacher, moving noiselessly through the night and shooting every convention that moves. Bishop Burnett, who coached him to an implausible death-bed repentance, said that he was unable to express any feeling without oaths and obscenities. He seemed like a punk in a frock coat. But once the straw dolls have been slain, Rochester celebrates in a sexual landscape all of his own."

In popular culture
A play, The Libertine (1994), was written by Stephen Jeffreys, and staged by the Royal Court Theatre. The 2004 film The Libertine, based on Jeffreys' play, starred Johnny Depp as Rochester, Samantha Morton as Elizabeth Barry, John Malkovich as King Charles II and Rosamund Pike as Elizabeth Malet. Michael Nyman set to music an excerpt of Rochester's poem "Signor Dildo" for the film.

The play The Ministry of Pleasure by Craig Baxter also dramatises Wilmot's life and was produced at the Latchmere Theatre, London in 2004.

Rochester is the central character in Anna Lieff Saxby's 1996 erotic novella, No Paradise but Pleasure.

The story of Lord Rochester's life in Susan Cooper-Bridgewater's historical fiction Of Ink, Wit and Intrigue – Lord Rochester in Chains of Quicksilver, 2014. ISBN 978-1783063-079

Nick Cave's 2004 song "There She Goes, My Beautiful World", from the album Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus, includes the lines "John Wilmot penned his poetry / Riddled with the pox".

Germaine Greer published a piece called "Doomed to Sincerity" about the life of the Earl.

title: John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester


text:
James Barry

James Barry may refer to:

Politics

 * James Barry (Wisconsin politician) (1812–1883), Irish-born Wisconsin state assemblyman
 * James Barry (Irish MP, 1659–1717), Irish politician
 * James Barry (Irish MP, 1661–1725), Irish politician
 * James Barry (Irish MP, 1689–1743), Irish politician
 * James Alexander Barry (1886–1950), Canadian politician
 * James G. Barry (1800–1880), Missouri politician
 * James J. Barry Jr. (born 1946), New Jersey politician
 * James Barry, 4th Earl of Barrymore (1667–1748), Irish soldier and Jacobite politician

Sports

 * Jimmy Barry (1870–1943), Irish-American boxer
 * James Barry (hurler) (born 1990), Irish hurler
 * James E. Barry (1884–1941), American college football coach

Other

 * James Barry, 1st Baron Barry of Santry (1603–1673), Irish lawyer
 * James Barry (painter) (1741–1806), Irish painter
 * James Barry (surgeon) (c. 1789–1865), Irish physician in the British Army
 * James L. Barry, comics artist

title: James Barry


text:
Advocacy

Advocacy is an activity by an individual or group that aims to influence decisions within political, economic, and social institutions. Advocacy includes activities and publications to influence public policy, laws and budgets by using facts, their relationships, the media, and messaging to educate government officials and the public. Advocacy can include many activities that a person or organization undertakes, including media campaigns, public speaking, commissioning and publishing research. Lobbying (often by lobby groups) is a form of advocacy where a direct approach is made to legislators on a specific issue or specific piece of legislation. Research has started to address how advocacy groups in the United States and Canada are using social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.

Forms
There are several forms of advocacy, each representing a different approach in a way to initiate changes in the society. One of the most popular forms is social justice advocacy. Cohen, de la Vega, and Watson (2001) state that this definition does not encompass the notions of power relations, people's participation, and a vision of a just society as promoted by social justice advocates. For them, advocacy represents the series of actions taken and issues highlighted to change the "what is" into a "what should be", considering that this "what should be" is a more decent and a more just society Those actions, which vary with the political, economic and social environment in which they are conducted, have several points in common. For instance, they:

 * Question the way policy is administered
 * Participate in the agenda-setting as they raise significant issues
 * Target political systems "because those systems are not responding to people's needs"
 * Are inclusive and engaging
 * Propose policy solutions
 * Open up space for public argumentation

Other forms of advocacy include:

Different contexts in which advocacy is used:
 * Budget advocacy: another aspect of advocacy that ensures proactive engagement of Civil Society Organizations with the government budget to make the government more accountable to the people and promote transparency. Budget advocacy also enables citizens and social action groups to compel the government to be more alert to the needs and aspirations of people in general and the deprived sections of the community.
 * Bureaucratic advocacy: people considered "experts" have more chance to succeed at presenting their issues to decision-makers. They use bureaucratic advocacy to influence the agenda, although at a slower pace.
 * Express versus issue advocacy: These two types of advocacy when grouped together usually refers to a debate in the United States whether a group is expressly making their desire known that voters should cast ballots in a particular way, or whether a group has a long-term issue that isn't campaign and election season specific.
 * Health, environment and climate change negotiations advocacy: supports and promotes patients' health care rights as well as enhance community health and policy initiatives that focus on the availability, safety and quality of care.
 * Ideological advocacy: in this approach, groups fight, sometimes during protests, to advance their ideas in the decision-making circles.
 * Interest-group advocacy: lobbying is the main tool used by interest groups doing mass advocacy. It is a form of action that does not always succeed at influencing political decision-makers as it requires resources and organization to be effective.
 * Legislative advocacy: the "reliance on the state or federal legislative process" as part of a strategy to create change.
 * Mass advocacy: any type of action taken by large groups (petitions, demonstrations, etc.)
 * Media advocacy: "the strategic use of the mass media as a resource to advance a social or public policy initiative" (Jernigan and Wright, 1996). In Canada, for example, the Manitoba Public Insurance campaigns illustrate how media advocacy was used to fight alcohol and tobacco-related health issues. We can also consider the role of health advocacy and the media in "the enactment of municipal smoking bylaws in Canada between 1970 and 1995."
 * Special education advocacy: advocacy with a "specific focus on the educational rights of students with disabilities."
 * In a legal/law context: An "advocate" is the title of a specific person who is authorized/appointed in some way to speak on behalf of a person in a legal process.
 * In a political context: An "advocacy group" is an organized collection of people who seek to influence political decisions and policy, without seeking election to public office.
 * In a social care context: Both terms (and more specific ones such as "independent advocacy") are used in the UK in the context of a network of interconnected organisations and projects which seek to benefit people who are in difficulty (primarily in the context of disability and mental health).
 * In the context of inclusion: Citizen Advocacy organisations (or programmes) seek to cause benefit by reconnecting people who have become isolated. Their practice was defined in two key documents: CAPE, and Learning from Citizen Advocacy Programs.

Tactics
Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink have observed four types of advocacy tactics: These tactics have been also observed within advocacy organizations outside the USA.
 * 1) Information politics: quickly and credibly generating politically usable information and moving it to where it will have the most impact.
 * 2) Symbolic politics: calling upon symbols, actions, or stories that make sense of a situation for an audience that is frequently far away.
 * 3) Leverage politics: calling upon powerful actors to affect a situation where weaker members of a network are unlikely to have influence.
 * 4) Accountability politics: efforts to hold powerful actors to their previously stated policies or principles.

Use of the Internet
Groups involved in advocacy work have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals. It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed, reach and effectiveness of advocacy-related communication as well as mobilization efforts, suggesting that social media are beneficial to the advocacy community.

Other examples
Advocacy activities may include conducting an exit poll or the filing of an amicus brief.

Topics
People advocate for a large number and variety of topics. Some of these are clear-cut social issues that are universally agreed to be problematic and worth solving, such as human trafficking. Others—such as abortion—are much more divisive and inspire strongly held opinions on both sides. There may never be a consensus on this latter type of issues, but intense advocacy is likely to remain. In the United States, any issue of widespread debate and deeply divided opinion can be referred to as a social issue. The Library of Congress has assembled an extensive list of social issues in the United States, ranging from vast ones like abortion to same-sex marriage to smaller ones like hacking and academic cheating.

Topics that appear to involve advancing a certain positive ideal are often known as causes. A particular cause may be very expansive in nature — for instance, increasing liberty or fixing a broken political system. For instance in 2008, U.S. presidential candidate Barack Obama utilized such a meaning when he said, "this was the moment when we tore down barriers that have divided us for too long; when we rallied people of all parties and ages to a common cause." Change.org and Causes are two popular websites that allow people to organize around a common cause.

Topics upon which there is universal agreement that they need to be solved include, for example, human trafficking, poverty, water and sanitation as a human right.

"Social issues" as referred to in the United States also include topics (also known as "causes") intended by their advocates to advance certain ideals (such as equality) include: civil rights, LGBT rights, women's rights, environmentalism, and veganism.

Transnational advocacy
Advocates and advocacy groups represent a wide range of categories and support several issues as listed on worldadvocacy.com. The Advocacy Institute, a US-based global organization, is dedicated to strengthening the capacity of political, social, and economic justice advocates to influence and change public policy.

The phenomenon of globalization draws a special attention to advocacy beyond countries’ borders. The core existence of networks such as World Advocacy or the Advocacy Institute demonstrates the increasing importance of transnational advocacy and international advocacy. Transnational advocacy networks are more likely to emerge around issues where external influence is necessary to ease the communication between internal groups and their own government. Groups of advocates willing to further their mission also tend to promote networks and to meet with their internal counterparts to exchange ideas.

Transnational advocacy is increasingly playing a role in advocacy for migrants rights, and migrant advocacy organizations have strategically called upon governments and international organizations for leverage.

Transnational advocates spend time with local interest groups in order to better understand their views and wishes.

title: Advocacy


text:
Talk:Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace

Credit
Internet and Copyright in Japan (07-2002) by Andreas Bovens - "the creation of new ideas based on existing works" was originally "recreations of new ideas based on existing works" - has anyone who's read the book know if the author talks of "re-creating" ideas that existed in orginal works; or if my interpretation (creating new ideas based on prior works) is correct? Tenbaset 10:18 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace


text:
John Lloyd Stephens

John Lloyd Stephens (November 28, 1805 – October 13, 1852) was an American explorer, writer, and diplomat. He was a pivotal figure in the rediscovery of Maya civilization throughout Middle America and in the planning of the Panama railroad.

Early life
John Lloyd Stephens was born November 28, 1805, in the township of Shrewsbury, New Jersey. He was the second son of Benjamin Stephens, a successful New Jersey merchant, and Clemence Lloyd, daughter of an eminent local judge. The following year the family moved to New York City. There Stephens received an education in the Classics at two privately tutored schools. At the age of 13, he enrolled at Columbia College, graduating at the top of his class four years later in 1822.

After studying law with an attorney for a year, he attended the Litchfield Law School. He passed the bar exam after completing his course of study and practiced in New York City.

Stephens embarked on a journey through Europe in 1834 and went on to Egypt and the Levant, returning home in 1836. He later wrote several popular books about his travels and explorations.

Politics
He was recommended for the post of Minister to the Netherlands in 1837, but President Martin Van Buren nominated Harmanus Bleecker, who served until 1842. In 1846 Stephens was a delegate to the state constitutional convention, where he was responsible for the introduction and adoption of a conciliation court (small claims court).

Mesoamerican studies
Stephens read with interest early accounts of ruined cities of Mesoamerica by such writers and explorers as Alexander von Humboldt and Juan Galindo. In 1839, President Martin Van Buren commissioned Stephens as Special Ambassador to Central America. While there the government of the Federal Republic of Central America fell apart in civil war. He later published an account of the events he witnessed in Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatán.

Stephens and his traveling companion, architect, and draftsman Frederick Catherwood first came across Maya ruins at Copán, having landed in British Honduras (now Belize). They were astonished at their findings and spent two weeks mapping the site. Stephens surmised that it must have been built by some long-forgotten people, as he could not imagine it was the native Mayans. However, Catherwood noted the facial resemblance to modern Mayans. Stephens was able to buy the city of Copan for a sum of $50 and had dreams of floating it down the river and into museums in the United States.

They went on to Palenque, Quiriguá and Uxmal. They reached Palenque on May 11, 1840, and left in early June. While there, they documented the Temple of the Inscriptions, the Temple of the Cross, the Temple of the Sun, and the Temple of the Foliated Cross. They continued investigating Maya ruins with a return trip to Yucatán in October 1841. According to Stephens's book about the trip, they visited a total of 44 Mayan sites such as Chichen Itza, Izamal, Kabah, the gateway at Labná, Mayapan, Sayil, Tulum, Uxmal, and Xtampak. In Uxmal, they documented the Governor's House, the Nunnery Quadrangle, and the Pyramid of the Magician. Catherwood also drew a famous view of the well at Bolonchén.

Catherwood's drawings and lithographs showed, without question, the Maya to have been the authors of some of the most artistic and intellectual works of pre-Columbian America. Besides large constructions, they produced works of artistic refinement such as stone and plaster sculptures, frescoes, painted pottery, and bas-reliefs in wood. As a result of their explorations, Stephens and Catherwood argued convincingly that the Mayans built the ancient Central American cities in contrast to the theory that ethnic groups from European or Asian civilizations had built them.

Stephens's books served to inspire Edgar Allan Poe, who reviewed three of Stephens's books for the New York Review and Graham's Magazine.

Panama Railroad Company
At the time England enjoyed a monopoly over the ocean navigation to and from the United States. Stephens obtained a charter from the state of New York and incorporated the Ocean Steam Navigation Company. The company acquired two steamships, the Washington and the Hermann which made journeys to Europe.

When the Panama Railroad Company was founded in 1849, Stephens was chosen as vice president. He visited Panama and New Granada to make arrangements for the laying of the railroad. On his way to Bogotá, the capital of New Granada, he fell off his mule and sustained severe injuries from which he never fully recovered. He returned to the United States and was appointed President of the railroad.

Personal life
In 1841, Stephens was elected to the American Philosophical Society. While in Panama, he was struck down by malaria in the spring of 1852. He recovered sufficiently to return to New York, only to have a recurrence of the disease. He died October 13, 1852. He was buried at New York City Marble Cemetery.

Legacy
Stephens is the subject of the following works: Maya Explorer by Victor Wolfgang von Hagen, first published in 1947, and Jungle of Stone by William Carlsen (2016).

Publications

 * Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land (1837)
 * Incidents of Travel in Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland (1838)
 * Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatán, Vols. 1 & 2 (1841) (Reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1-108-01730-5)
 * Incidents of Travel in Yucatán, Vols. 1 & 2 (1843)

 * John Lloyd Stephens, a biography.
 * Guide to the John Lloyd Stephens at The Bancroft Library
 * Reed College website including all the illustrations of Uxmal, Kabah, Sayil, and Labná in Stephens's 1841 Incidents of Travel in Central America and Stephens and Catherwood's 1843 Incidents of Travel in Yucatán.
 * Works by John Lloyd Stephens at Google Books
 * Works by John Lloyd Stephens at Google Books
 * Works by John Lloyd Stephens at Google Books
 * Works by John Lloyd Stephens at Google Books

title: John Lloyd Stephens


text:
Talk:Chennai

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 4 February 2024
157.46.67.95 (talk) 13:32, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

Chennai corporation founded by 1688

 * ❌ The article already states "Chennai city is governed by the Greater Chennai Corporation (formerly "Corporation of Madras"), which was established in 1688" - Arjayay (talk) 13:36, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 10 February 2024
An easy typo: In the etymology section it should clearly say 1639 and not 1939. Arbitrer (talk) 20:51, 10 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Done. Magentic Manifestations (talk) 04:22, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

The article would benefit from a little addition of the Bombardment of Madras (1914) in the history section
In 1914 the German cruiser Emden bombarded the oil tanks in Madras and set them aflame, killing some civilians and damaging structures in the city. The ship got away completely unscathed despite being shelled from shore batteries in Madras. Someone with more Wikipedia expertise could add this as I am inexperienced. SchlachtkreuzerEmden (talk) 15:33, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

Lakh
In the section Demographics, the expression "3lakh" should be changed to "300 thousand" for better comprehension by the general user Marc With (talk) 07:25, 15 May 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅. Thanks. Rasnaboy (talk) 10:39, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

Source 18 has dead link. Suggest the following link as a replacement
Opinion | MEANWHILE : In India's name game, cities are the big losers - The New York Times (nytimes.com) Igrokugrok (talk) 14:20, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Have added a different source which specifies the data, as the renaming was actually done in July 1996. Thanks! Magentic Manifestations (talk) 05:42, 19 June 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 17 July 2024
Chennai is also a Digital Marketing Hub with many Digital Marketing Agencies of different sizes helping local and international businesses to grow online. 115.97.75.60 (talk) 10:19, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. – macaddct1984 (talk | contribs) 12:58, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chennai


text:
Porco Rosso

Porco Rosso (紅の豚) is a 1992 Japanese animated adventure fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki, based on his 1989 manga Hikōtei Jidai. It stars the voices of Shūichirō Moriyama, Tokiko Kato, Akemi Okamura and Akio Ōtsuka. Animated by Studio Ghibli for Tokuma Shoten, Japan Airlines, and the Nippon Television Network, it was produced by Toshio Suzuki and distributed by Toho. Its score is by Japanese composer Joe Hisaishi.

The plot revolves around an Italian World War I ex-fighter ace, now living as a freelance bounty hunter chasing "air pirates" in the Adriatic Sea. However, an unusual curse has transformed him into an anthropomorphic pig. Once called Marco Pagot (Marco Rossolini in the American version), he is now known to the world as "Porco Rosso", Italian for "Red Pig".

A first English-dubbed version was made for Japan Airlines and included in the Ghibli LD Box Set and on the first Region 2 DVD releases in 2002. The film was later redubbed by Walt Disney Home Entertainment and released on DVD and Blu-ray in the United States and Canada on February 22, 2005. GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on November 21, 2017, under a new deal with Studio Ghibli.

Plot
In 1929, Italian World War I fighter ace and bounty hunter Porco Rosso, cursed to have a pig's head, defends an ocean liner from airborne pirates. He dines at his friend Gina's Hotel Adriano.

The pirates contract American ace Curtis to assist their attacks. Curtis falls in love with Gina but she loves Porco. While Porco is flying to Milan to have his red seaplane serviced, Curtis shoots him down. Porco survives and continues the trip by train with his damaged plane, to Gina's irritation. She reminds him there is a warrant for his arrest in Italy.

Porco meets his mechanic Piccolo in Milan. Piccolo's sons have emigrated so the work will be done by his young granddaughter Fio. Once Porco's plane is finished, Fio joins him on his flight home as cover should the secret police arrest them. They can claim that Porco took Fio hostage to force Piccolo to help. The new fascist government is hiring pirates for their own use, putting Porco out of business.

Curtis proposes to Gina but she says she is waiting for Porco. Porco and Fio are ambushed by the pirates, and Curtis challenges Porco to a duel. Fio declares that if Porco wins, Curtis must pay his debts owed to Piccolo's company, and if Curtis wins, he may marry her.

While Porco is preparing shells, Fio glimpses his true face. Porco tells Fio a story from World War I. Just after Gina's wedding to Porco's pilot friend Bellini, their squadron was attacked. Porco entered a cloud to evade his pursuers. He blacked out then awakened to complete stillness above the clouds. The airmen who died in the dogfight—Bellini included—rose out of the cloud to fly up towards a band of thousands of planes flying together. After offering in vain to die in Bellini's place for Gina's sake, he awakened again flying alone low over the sea. He concludes that he is meant to "fly solo". Fio rebukes him and kisses his cheek.

Curtis and Porco's dogfight devolves into a boxing match when both planes' guns jam. Porco accuses Curtis of being a womanizer; Curtis responds that Porco is worse; Fio adores him, and Gina is waiting on him to the exclusion of any other, but he does not reciprocate. The combatants knock each other out and fall into the shallow water. Gina calls out to Porco, who rises first and is declared the winner. She warns that the Italian air force is on its way, and invites everyone to regroup at her hotel. Porco requests Gina look after Fio and turns away. Fio gives Porco a kiss.

Porco volunteers to lead the air force away and invites Curtis to join him. As they walk to their planes, Curtis catches a glimpse of Porco's face and says he has changed; he asks to get a better look and is refused. As she flies in a jet seaplane, Fio narrates the epilogue: Porco outflew the Italian air force and remained at large; Fio became president of the Piccolo aircraft company; Curtis became a famous actor, and the pirates continued to attend the Hotel Adriano in their old age. She says that whether Gina's hope for Porco Rosso was ever realized is their secret. A red seaplane is docked by Gina's garden as Fio flies over the hotel.

Cast
The cast of the 1992 Japan Airlines English dub is mostly unverified due to not having any known existing credits. It stars Ward Sexton as Porco, alongside Lynn Harris as Fio and Barry Gjerde as several additional voices.

The French dub of the film stars Jean Reno as Porco.

Production
The film was originally planned as a short in-flight film for Japan Airlines based on Hayao Miyazaki's manga The Age of the Flying Boat, but grew into a feature-length film. The outbreak of war in Yugoslavia cast a shadow over production and prompted a more serious tone for the film, which had been set in Dalmatia. The airline remained a major investor in the film and showed it as an in-flight film well before its theatrical release. Due to this, the opening text introducing the film appears simultaneously in Japanese, Italian, Korean, English, Chinese, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, French, and German. Telecom Animation Film Co., Ltd. helped animate the film.

As with Miyazaki's other films, Joe Hisaishi composed the soundtrack. For the soundtrack, Tokiko Kato performs "The Time of Cherries" as well as an original song, "Once in a While, Talk of the Old Days".

History, geography and politics

Marco is an Italian hero from the First World War and is shown fighting against Austro-Hungarian fighter planes in a flashback sequence. The story is set in Northern Italy, including Milan, and the Italian and Croatian Adriatic Sea east coast. Some locations resemble certain islands of the Italian Lakes. The concealed beach Porco uses as a hideout bears a strong resemblance to Stiniva Beach, on the southern side of the Croatian island of Vis.

Miyazaki shed light on the political context of the making of the film in an interview with Empire. He reflects that the conflicts that broke out during the film's production (such as those in Dubrovnik and elsewhere) made Porco Rosso a much more complicated and difficult film.

Evident historical and political realism aside, at least one scholar has argued that the film's more overt historical references can be understood as representative of wakon yōsai ( Jp ; "Japanese spirit, Western learning")—a tendency, since the Meiji period, for Japanese artists to paint Europe as spectacular, while simultaneously maintaining the distance necessary to preserve a distinct sense of Japanese identity. "In Porco Rosso," states academic Chris Wood, "Europe is tamed, rendered as a charming site of pleasurable consumption, made distant and viewed through a tourist gaze."

Homage to early aviation
The fictional "Piccolo" aircraft company depicted in the film is based on the Italian aircraft manufacturers Caproni and Piaggio. The jet shown in the last scene is very similar in concept to the Caproni C-22J, an aircraft designed by Carlo Ferrarin, a designer for Caproni, whose name is notably used in the film for Marco's Air Force pilot friend. The jet-amphibian also has a V-tail, slightly reminiscent of the Magister jet trainer. The Savoia-Marchetti S.55, Fiat C.R.20 and Macchi M.39 are featured in the movie.

Porco's air-force friend Ferrarin was inspired by the Italian Air Force pilot Arturo Ferrarin who flew with an Ansaldo SVA.9 from Rome to Tokyo in 1920. Additionally, the Caproni Ca.309 light reconnaissance aircraft, known as the "Ghibli", was the namesake for Miyazaki's and Takahata's animation studio.

Porco's plane is named after the Savoia S.21, but is based on the Macchi M.33. While in Piccolo's engine shop, the engine to be used in Porco's rebuilt Savoia S.21 also has the word "Ghibli" visible on its rocker covers—in design it is a narrow-angle V-12 engine, similar in form to racing engines of the period. Piccolo mentions that it was used in a racing aeroplane for the Schneider Trophy race in the year before.

In the early 1930s, Italian seaplane designers set world speed records (such as the Macchi M.C.72 designed by the Italian airplane designer Mario Castoldi). One of the test pilots killed during the attempt to set the speed record was named Bellini, the name given to Porco's pilot friend in the film. Italian top fighter aces Francesco Baracca and Adriano Visconti also appear in the film.

Marco Pagot, the real name of the main character, is also a homage to the Pagot brothers, pioneers of Italian animation (Nino and Toni Pagot were the authors of the first Italian animated feature film, The Dynamite Brothers, and Nino's son and daughter Marco and Gi Pagot were Miyazaki's collaborators in the production of Sherlock Hound).

Meanwhile, the character of Curtis is likely to have been named after the American aviation pioneer Glenn Hammond Curtiss who, along with the Wright Brothers, founded the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. Curtis' airplane is a Curtiss R3C, which was built for the 1925 Schneider Cup race (which Porco refers to when he first meets Curtis). His character is also an oblique reference to Ronald Reagan, in that his ambitions lie not only in Hollywood, but also the Presidency. The rest of Curtis' character appears to come directly from the adventure film heroes portrayed by Errol Flynn at this time—indeed, they share a jaw line—including his buccaneering derring-do, willingness to fight, and overall demeanour combined with romantic ardour.

In 2017, Miyazaki and producer Toshio Suzuki collaborated with Setouchi Seaplanes, a Japanese company flying Kodiak 100 seaplanes in Japan's Seto Inland Sea area, to design a special edition L’ala Rossa livery for Kodiak 100-0143.

Miyazaki revisited the theme of aviation history in his 2013 film The Wind Rises.

Release
The film was released in Japan on July 18, 1992, by Toho and was released on VHS by Tokuma Shoten in 1993. The movie was later reissued on VHS by Buena Vista Home Entertainment Japan (now Walt Disney Studios Japan) on April 23, 1999, and was released on DVD on December 18, 2002. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc on November 6, 2013, with a reissue of the DVD following on July 16, 2014.

Japan Airlines commissioned an English dub that was produced in Japan in 1992 for viewing on international flights. The dub was supervised by Ward Sexton, who also starred as Porco. Although Sexton felt the project was too big for an English-speaking cast in Japan, Studio Ghibli insisted he be in charge. The dub was included in the 1996 Ghibli ga Ippai Laserdisc Box Set and on the 2002 Japanese DVD release of the film, both of which are out of print.

Walt Disney Home Entertainment released the film on DVD on February 22, 2005, and on Blu-ray on February 3, 2015, both with a new English dub featuring the voices of Michael Keaton, Cary Elwes, Susan Egan, and Kimberly Williams-Paisley, which is included on most international releases as well as the 2014 Japanese DVD reissue. This dub was supervised by Tony Bancroft and written by frequent Ghibli dub screenwriters Don and Cindy Hewitt. GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on November 21, 2017, under a new deal with Studio Ghibli.

Box office
Porco Rosso was the number-one film on the Japanese market in 1992, with distribution rentals of ¥2.8 billion and gross receipts of ¥5.4 billion, at the time equivalent to US$,000,000.

In France, it sold 167,793 tickets, equivalent to an estimated US$ at an average 1992 ticket price of FF34 ($6). In other European countries, it grossed $573,719, for an estimated combined total of US$ grossed in Japan and Europe.

Critical reception
It won the Cristal du long métrage ("Best feature-length film award") at the 1993 Annecy International Animation Film Festival, and also made Time Out's Top 50 animated movie list. On Rotten Tomatoes, 96% of 23 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 8.1/10. On review aggregator Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 11 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".

Wilson McLachlan, of the Left Field Cinema, considered it "the most underrated film from the Studio Ghibli catalogue." Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times wrote: "Mr. Miyazaki smooshes fantasy and history into a pastel-pretty yarn as irresistible as his feminism." Robert Pardi of TV Guide gave the film 4/5 stars, stating: "Miyazaki pays homage to Hollywood’s wartime adventure films in this masterwork built around the adventures of a high-flying pig ... This animated feature's visual splendor is matched by a droll screenplay that takes a sty-side view of heroism ... Seamlessly adapted for American audiences by Donald H. Davis and Cindy Hewitt Davis, this spoof/pastiche of old-movie cliches also soars as a paean to the redeeming power of friendship and loyalty."

Cultural impact
Porco Rosso and his famous line "Better a pig than a fascist" became a rallying symbol among some Spanish artist circles encouraging people to vote against conservative to far-right parties in Spain's 2023 general elections.

Possible sequel
In 2011, Miyazaki said that he wanted to make a follow-up anime to the 1992 original film if his next few films following Ponyo were successful. The film's working name was Porco Rosso: The Last Sortie; it was to have been set during the Spanish Civil War with Porco appearing as a veteran pilot. Miyazaki was to create the sequel, although the studio has since indicated that the sequel is not in their current plans.

title: Porco Rosso


text:
Autochrome Lumière

The Autochrome Lumière was an early color photography process patented in 1903 by the Lumière brothers in France and first marketed in 1907. Autochrome was an additive color "mosaic screen plate" process. It was the principal color photography process in use before the advent of subtractive color film in the mid-1930s.

Prior to the Lumière brothers, Louis Ducos du Hauron utilized the separation technique to create colour images on paper with screen plates, producing natural colours through superimposition, which would become the foundation of all commercial colour photography. Descendants of photographer Antoine Lumière, inventors Louis and Auguste Lumière utilized Du Hauron's (1869) technique, which had already been improved upon by other inventors such as John Joly (1894) and James William McDonough (1896), making it possible to print photographic images in colour. One of the most broadly used forms of colour photography in the early twentieth century, autochrome was recognized for its aesthetic appeal.

Structure and use
Autochrome is an additive color "mosaic screen plate" process. The medium consists of a glass plate coated on one side with a random mosaic of microscopic grains of potato starch dyed red-orange, green, and blue-violet (a variant of the standard red, green, and blue additive colors); the grains of starch act as color filters. Lampblack fills the spaces between grains, and a black-and-white panchromatic silver halide emulsion is coated on top of the filter layer.

Unlike ordinary black-and-white plates, the Autochrome was loaded into the camera with the bare glass side facing the lens so that the light passed through the mosaic filter layer before reaching the emulsion. The use of an additional special orange-yellow filter in the camera was required to block ultraviolet light and restrain the effects of violet and blue light, parts of the spectrum to which the emulsion was overly sensitive. Because of the light loss due to all the filtering, Autochrome plates required much longer exposures than black-and-white plates and films, which meant that a tripod or other stand had to be used and that it was not practical to photograph moving subjects. The plate was reversal-processed into a positive transparency — that is, the plate was first developed into a negative image but not "fixed", then the silver forming the negative image was chemically removed, then the remaining silver halide was exposed to light and developed, producing a positive image.

The luminance filter (silver halide layer) and the mosaic chrominance filter (the colored potato starch grain layer) remained precisely aligned and were distributed together, so that light was filtered in situ. Each starch grain remained in alignment with the corresponding microscopic area of silver halide emulsion coated over it. When the finished image was viewed by transmitted light, each bit of the silver image acted as a micro-filter, allowing more or less light to pass through the corresponding colored starch grain, recreating the original proportions of the three colors. At normal viewing distances, the light coming through the individual grains blended together in the eye, reconstructing the color of the light photographed through the filter grains.

Manufacturing techniques
To create the Autochrome color filter mosaic, a thin glass plate was first coated with a transparent adhesive layer. The dyed starch grains were graded to between 5 and 10 micrometers in size and the three colors were thoroughly intermingled in proportions which made the mixture appear gray to the unaided eye. They were then spread onto the adhesive, creating a layer with approximately 4,000,000 grains per square inch but only one grain thick. The exact means by which significant gaps and overlapping grains were avoided still remains unclear. It was found that the application of extreme pressure would produce a mosaic that more efficiently transmitted light to the emulsion, because the grains would be flattened slightly, making them more transparent, and pressed into more intimate contact with each other, reducing wasted space between them. As it was impractical to apply such pressure to the entire plate all at once, a steamroller approach was used which flattened only one very small area at a time. Lampblack was used to block up the slight spaces that remained. The plate was then coated with shellac to protect the moisture-vulnerable grains and dyes from the water-based gelatin emulsion, which was coated onto the plate after the shellac had dried. The resulting finished plate was cut up into smaller plates of the desired size, which were packaged in boxes of four. Each plate was accompanied by a thin piece of cardboard colored black on the side facing the emulsion. This was to be retained when loading and exposing the plate and served both to protect the delicate emulsion and to inhibit halation.

The 1906 U.S. patent describes the process more generally: the grains can be orange, violet, and green, or red, yellow, and blue (or "any number of colors"), optionally with black powder filling the gaps. Experimentations within the early twentieth century provided solutions to many issues, including the addition of screen plates, a yellow filter designed to balance the blue, and adjustments to the size of the silver halide crystals to allow for a broader spectrum of colour and control over the frequency of light.

Viewing techniques
Because the presence of the mosaic color screen made the finished Autochrome image very dark overall, bright light and special viewing arrangements were needed for satisfactory results.

Stereoscopic Autochromes were especially popular, the combined color and depth proving to be a bewitching experience to early 20th-century eyes. Usually of a small size, they were most commonly viewed in a small hand-held box-type stereoscope. Larger, non-stereoscopic plates were most commonly displayed in a diascope, which was a folding case with the Autochrome image and a ground glass diffuser fitted into an opening on one side, and a mirror framed into the other side. The user would place the diascope near a window or other light source so that light passed through the diffuser and the Autochrome, and the resulting back-lit, dark-surrounded image would be viewed in the mirror. Slide projectors, then known as magic lanterns and stereopticons, were a less common but especially effective display technique, more suitable for public exhibitions. Projection required an extremely bright and therefore hot light source (a carbon arc or a 500-watt bulb were typical) and could visibly "fry" the plate if continued for more than two or three minutes, causing serious damage to the color. Many surviving Autochromes suffer from such "tanning" and conventional projection is not a recommended means of displaying these irreplaceable images today.

However, a projector-like optical system (i.e., using condenser lenses for illumination, with a viewing lens in place of the projection lens), employing daylight (not direct sunlight) for the light source, can produce comparably excellent visual results—although for only one viewer at a time—without the hazards of actual projection.

The use of a "light box" or similar highly diffused artificial light source for viewing Autochromes, can damage the plates as the heavy scattering of light within and among the several layers of coatings on the plate degrades the color saturation. The slight pinkish tinge caused by colloidal scattering (the effect seen through a glass of water into which a couple of drops of milk have been mixed) is exacerbated, and the use of artificial light—especially fluorescent light—upsets the color rendition of a system which the Lumière Brothers carefully balanced for use with natural daylight.Making modern film or digital copies of Autochromes introduces other problems, because a color system based on red, green, and blue is used to copy an image that exists within the red-orange, green, and blue-violet system, providing further opportunities for color degradation. Vintage reproductions of Autochromes in old books and magazines have often been noticeably hand-adjusted by the photoengravers in an effort to compensate for some of the difficulties of reproduction, and as a result, they sometimes look more like hand-colored photographs than "natural color" ones. In short, it is very difficult to form an accurate impression of the appearance of any Autochrome image without seeing the original "in person" and correctly illuminated.

The lamination of the grains, varnish, and emulsion makes autochrome plates susceptible to deterioration with each layer being vulnerable to changes in environment including moisture, oxidation, cracking, or flaking as well as physical damage from handling; Solutions include conservative lighting conditions, chemical-free materials, medium-range humidity control of between 63 and 68 degrees Fahrenheit, and a well-designed preservation plan.

Artistic considerations
If an Autochrome was well made and has been well preserved, color values can be very good. The dyed starch grains are somewhat coarse, giving a hazy, pointillist effect, with faint stray colors often visible, especially in open light areas such as skies. The smaller the image, the more noticeable these effects are. Autochrome has been touted as "the colour of dreams." The resulting "dream-like" impressionist quality may have been one reason behind the enduring popularity of the medium even after more starkly realistic color processes had become available.

Although difficult to manufacture and fairly expensive, Autochromes were relatively easy to use and were immensely popular among enthusiastic amateur photographers, at least among those who could bear the cost and were willing to sacrifice the convenience of black and white hand-held "snapshooting." Autochromes failed to sustain the initial interest of more serious "artistic" practitioners, largely due to their inflexibility. Not only did the need for diascopes and projectors make them extremely difficult to publicly exhibit, they allowed little in the way of the manipulation much loved by aficionados of the then-popular Pictorialist approach.

Advent of film-based versions
Autochromes continued to be produced as glass plates into the 1930s, when film-based versions were introduced, first Lumière Filmcolor sheet film in 1931, then Lumicolor roll film in 1933. Although these soon completely replaced glass plate Autochromes, their triumph was short-lived, as Kodak and Agfa soon began to produce multi-layer subtractive color films (Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu respectively). Nevertheless, the Lumière products had a devoted following, above all in France, and their use persisted long after modern color films had become available. The final version, Alticolor, was introduced in 1952 and discontinued in 1955, marking the end of the nearly fifty-year-long public life of the Autochrome.

Important autochrome collections
Between 1909 and 1931, a collection of 72,000 autochrome photographs, documenting life at the time in 50 countries around the world, was created by French banker Albert Kahn. The collection, one of the biggest of its kind in the world, is housed in The Albert Kahn Museum (Musée Albert-Kahn) on the outskirts of Paris. A new compilation of images from the Albert Kahn collection was published in 2008. The National Geographic Society made extensive use of autochromes and other mosaic color screen plates for over twenty years. 15,000 original Autochrome plates are still preserved in the Society's archives. The collection contains unique photographs, including numerous autochromes from Paris by Auguste Léon from 1925 and by W. Robert Moore from 1936 just before WWII.

In the U.S. Library of Congress's huge collection of American Pictorialist photographer Arnold Genthe's work, 384 of his autochrome plates were among the holdings as of 1955.

The George Eastman Museum in Rochester, N.Y. has an extensive collection of early colour photography, including Louise Ducos Du Hauron's earliest autochrome images and materials used by the Lumière brothers.

Bassetlaw Museum in Retford, Nottinghamshire holds a collection of over 700 autochromes by Stephen Pegler. This includes a collection of over 100 plates purchased by the museum in 2017 thanks to the generosity of local individuals and organisations. The images cover a range of subjects from still lifes, posed studies, local people and landscapes, and his travels abroad, and were taken between 1910 and the early 1930s. The Pegler collection of autochromes is thought to be the largest collection of autochromes by one photographer in Britain today.

The Royal Horticultural Society, UK has among the earliest colour photographs of plants and gardens taken by amateur photographer William Van Sommer (1859–1941), including of RHS Garden Wisley taken around 1913.

Commercial use
One of the first books published with color photography used this technique. The 12 volumes of "Luther Burbank: His Methods and Discoveries, Their Practical Application" included 1,260 color photographs and a chapter on how this process worked.

In the early 1900s Ethel Standiford-Mehling was an experimental photographer and artist and owner of the Standiford Studio in Louisville, Kentucky. She was commissioned by Louisville artist and art patron Eleanor Belknap Humphrey to create an autochrome diascope of her two oldest children. Both the autochrome photograph of the Humphrey children and the diascope mirror viewing device, which closes into itself in a leather-bound case similar in size and appearance to a book, are well preserved and still viewable in 2015. Ethel Standiford-Mehling later moved her Louisville enterprise Standiford Studios to Cleveland, Ohio, and it is not known if any other examples of her autochrome diascopes still exist.

Vladimír Jindřich Bufka was a pioneer and popularizer of Autochrome in Bohemia.

Neo-Autochromists
There has been a revival of interest in the process by some, including a few groups in France working with original Lumière machinery and notes. One such recreation is a series of images from 2008 by the French photographer Frédéric Mocellin. The British multimedia artist Stuart Humphryes has helped popularise the medium via his autochrome enhancement work in magazines, newspapers, and online platforms, with over 200,000 followers on his autochrome enhancement Twitter feed

In popular culture

 * The 2006 film The Illusionist tried to recreate the look of Autochrome, although apparently basing that "look" on published reproductions rather than on actual Autochrome plates.
 * Modern image sensors in digital cameras most commonly use a Bayer filter, which works in essentially the same way as the colored starch grains in an Autochrome plate—by breaking up the image into microscopically small color-filtered elements. In physical arrangement, however, the Bayer filter mosaic much more closely resembles the regular geometric pattern used in other color screen plates of the Autochrome era, such as the Paget and Finlay plates.

title: Autochrome Lumière