text:
Pictures at an Exhibition

Pictures at an Exhibition is a piano suite in ten movements, plus a recurring and varied Promenade theme, written in 1874 by Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky. It is a musical depiction of a tour of an exhibition of works by architect and painter Viktor Hartmann put on at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg, following his sudden death in the previous year. Each movement of the suite is based on an individual work, some of which are lost.

The composition has become a showpiece for virtuoso pianists, and became widely known from orchestrations and arrangements produced by other composers and contemporary musicians, with Maurice Ravel's 1922 adaptation for orchestra being the most recorded and performed. The suite, particularly the final movement, "The Bogatyr Gates", is widely considered one of Mussorgsky's greatest works.

Composition history
The composition is based on pictures by the artist, architect, and designer Viktor Hartmann. It was probably in 1868 that Mussorgsky first met Hartmann, not long after the latter's return to Russia from abroad. Both men were devoted to the cause of an intrinsically Russian art and quickly became friends. They likely met in the home of the influential critic Vladimir Stasov, who followed both of their careers with interest. According to Stasov's testimony, in 1868, Hartmann gave Mussorgsky two of the pictures that later formed the basis of Pictures at an Exhibition. In 1870, Mussorgsky dedicated the second song ("In the Corner") of the cycle The Nursery to Hartmann. Stasov remarked that Hartmann loved Mussorgsky's compositions, and particularly liked the "Scene by the Fountain" in his opera Boris Godunov. Mussorgsky had abandoned the scene in his original 1869 version, but at the requests of Stasov and Hartmann, he reworked it for Act 3 in his revision of 1872.

The years 1873–74 are associated with the staging of Boris Godunov, the zenith of Mussorgsky's career as a composer—at least from the standpoint of public acclaim. Mussorgsky's distant relative, friend, and roommate during this period, Arseniy Golenishchev-Kutuzov, describing the January 1874 premiere of the opera, remarked: "During the winter, there were, I think, nine performances, and each time the theatre was sold out, each time the public tumultuously called for Mussorgsky." The composer's victory, however, was overshadowed by the negative press he received from critics. Other circumstances conspired to dampen Mussorgsky's spirits. The disintegration of The Mighty Handful and their failure to understand his artistic goals contributed to the isolation he experienced as an outsider in Saint Petersburg's musical establishment. Golenishchev-Kutuzov wrote: "[The Mighty Handful's] banner was held by Mussorgsky alone; all the other members had left it and pursued his own path ..."

Hartmann's sudden death on 4 August 1873 from an aneurysm shook Mussorgsky along with others in Russia's art world. The loss of the artist, aged only 39, plunged the composer into deep despair. Stasov helped to organize a memorial exhibition of over 400 Hartmann works in the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg in February and March 1874. Mussorgsky lent to the exhibition the two pictures Hartmann had given him, and viewed the show in person. Later in June, two-thirds of the way through composing his song cycle Sunless, Mussorgsky was inspired to compose Pictures at an Exhibition, quickly completing the score in three weeks (2–22 June 1874). In a letter to Stasov (see photo), probably written on 12 June 1874, he describes his progress: "My dear généralissime, Hartmann is boiling as Boris boiled—sounds and ideas hung in the air, I am gulping and overeating, and can barely manage to scribble them on paper. I am writing the 4th No.—the transitions are good (on the 'promenade'). I want to work more quickly and steadily. My physiognomy can be seen in the interludes. So far I think it's well turned ..." The music depicts his tour of the exhibition, with each of the ten numbers of the suite serving as a musical illustration of an individual work by Hartmann.

Five days after finishing the composition, he wrote on the title page of the manuscript a tribute to Vladimir Stasov, to whom the work is dedicated. One month later, he added an indication that he intended to have it published.

Golenishchev-Kutuzov gives the following (perhaps biased) account of the work's reception among Mussorgsky's friends and colleagues and an explanation for his failure to follow through on his plans to publish it:

"Soon, with the composition of the musical illustrations for Pictures from an Exhibition by the architect Hartmann, he reached the acme of that musical radicalism, to whose 'new shores' and to whose 'unfathomed depths' the admirers of his 'Peepshows' and 'Savishnas' had pushed him so diligently. In music for these illustrations, as Mussorgsky called them, he represented [chicks], children, Baba Yaga in her wooden house on chicken legs, catacombs, gates, and even rattling carts. All this was not done jokingly, but 'seriously'. There was no end to the enthusiasm shown by his devotees; but many of Mussorgsky's friends, on the other hand, and especially the comrade composers, were seriously puzzled and, listening to the 'novelty,' shook their heads in bewilderment. Naturally, Mussorgsky noticed their bewilderment and seemed to feel that he 'had gone too far.' He set the illustrations aside without even trying to publish them. Mussorgsky devoted himself exclusively to Khovanshchina."

In August, Mussorgsky completed the last two songs of Sunless and then resumed work on Khovanshchina, composing the prelude to Act 1 ("Dawn on the Moscow River") in September.

Publication history
As with most of Mussorgsky's works, Pictures at an Exhibition has a complicated publication history. Although composed very rapidly, during June 1874, the work did not appear in print until 1886, five years after the composer's death, when an edition by the composer's friend and colleague Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov was published. This edition, however, was not a completely accurate representation of Mussorgsky's score but presented a revised text that contained a number of errors and misreadings.

Only in 1931, marking the 50th anniversary of the composer's death, was Pictures at an Exhibition published in a scholarly edition in agreement with his manuscript, to be included in Volume 8 of Pavel Lamm's M. P. Mussorgsky: Complete Collected Works (1939).

In 1940, the Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola published an important critical edition of Mussorgsky's work with extensive commentary.

Mussorgsky's hand-written manuscript was published in facsimile in 1975.

 * {| class="wikitable"

!Year !Editor !Publisher !Notes
 * 1886
 * Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov
 * V. Bessel and Co., Saint Petersburg
 * Revised edition
 * 1931
 * Pavel Lamm
 * Muzgiz, Moscow
 * Restoration of the composer's score
 * 1975
 * Muzïka, Moscow
 * Facsimile of the composer's manuscript
 * }
 * Muzïka, Moscow
 * Facsimile of the composer's manuscript
 * }
 * }
 * }

Hartmann's pictures
Mussorgsky based his musical material on drawings and watercolours by Hartmann produced mostly during the artist's travels abroad. Locales include Italy, France, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine. Today most of the pictures from the Hartmann exhibition are lost, making it impossible to be sure in many cases which Hartmann works Mussorgsky had in mind.

Arts critic Alfred Frankenstein gave an account of Hartmann, with reproductions of his pictures, in the article "Victor Hartmann and Modeste Mussorgsky" in The Musical Quarterly (July 1939). Frankenstein claimed to have identified seven pictures by catalogue number, corresponding to: The surviving works that can be shown with certainty to have been used by Mussorgsky in assembling his suite, along with their titles, are as follows:
 * "Tuileries" [Movement 3] (now lost)
 * "Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks" [Movement 5]
 * "Samuel Goldenberg and Schmuÿle" [Movement 6] (Frankenstein suggested two separate portraits, still extant, as the basis for "Two Jews: Rich and Poor")
 * "Catacombs" [Movement 8]
 * "The Hut on Hen's Legs" [Movement 9]
 * "The Bogatyr Gates" [Movement 10]

 * {| class="wikitable"

!Movement !Title !Title (English) !Picture Note: Mussorgsky owned the two pictures that together inspired No. 6, the so-called "Two Jews". The title of No. 6b, as provided by the Soviet editors of his letters, is Сандомирский [еврей] (Sandomirskiy [yevrey] or Sandomierz [Jew]). The bracketed word yevrey (lit. "Hebrew") is the sanitized form of the actual word in the title, very likely the derogatory epithet жид (zhid or yid).
 * 5. Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks
 * Эскизы театральных костюмов к балету "Трильби"
 * Sketches of theatre costumes for the ballet Trilby
 * Hartmann Chicks sketch for Trilby ballet.jpg
 * rowspan=2 |6. "Samuel" Goldenberg and "Schmuÿle"
 * Еврей в меховой шапке. Сандомир
 * Jew in a fur cap. Sandomierz
 * The Rich Jew.jpg
 * Сандомирский [еврей]
 * Sandomierz [Jew]
 * The Poor Jew.jpg
 * 8. Catacombs (Roman Tomb)
 * Парижские катакомбы (с фигурами В. А. Гартмана, В. А. Кенеля и проводника, держащего фонарь)
 * Paris Catacombs (with the figures of V. A. Hartmann, V. A. Kenel, and a guide holding a lantern)
 * Hartmann Paris Catacombs.jpg
 * 9. The Hut on Hen's Legs ([The Hut] of Baba Yaga)
 * Избушка Бабы-Яги на курьих ножках. Часы в русском стиле
 * The hut of Baba-Yaga on hen's legs. Clock in the Russian style
 * Izbushka2.jpg
 * 10. The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev)
 * Проект городских ворот в Киеве. Главный фасад
 * Project for city gates in Kiev. Main façade
 * Hartmann -- Plan for a City Gate.jpg
 * }
 * 10. The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev)
 * Проект городских ворот в Киеве. Главный фасад
 * Project for city gates in Kiev. Main façade
 * Hartmann -- Plan for a City Gate.jpg
 * }
 * }
 * }

Movements
Vladimir Stasov's program, identified below, and the six known extant pictures suggest the ten pieces that make up the suite correspond to eleven pictures by Hartmann, with "Samuel Goldenberg und Schmuÿle" accounting for two. The five Promenades are not numbered with the ten pictures and consist in the composer's manuscript of two titled movements and three untitled interludes appended to the first, second, and fourth pictures.

Mussorgsky links the suite's movements in a way that depicts the viewer's own progress through the exhibition. Two Promenade movements stand as portals to the suite's main sections. Their regular pace and irregular meter depicts the act of walking. Three untitled interludes present shorter statements of this theme, varying the mood, colour, and key in each to suggest reflection on a work just seen or anticipation of a new work glimpsed. A turn is taken in the work at the "Catacombae" when the Promenade theme stops functioning as merely a linking device and becomes, in "Cum mortuis", an integral element of the movement itself. The theme reaches its apotheosis in the suite's finale, "The Bogatyr Gates".

The first two movements of the suite—one grand, one grotesque—find mirrored counterparts, and apotheoses, at the end. The suite traces a journey that begins at an art exhibition, but the line between observer and observed vanishes at the Catacombs when the journey takes on a different character.

The table below shows the order of movements.

 * {| class="wikitable"

!No. !Title in score !English translation ! style="width: 57px;" |Key ! style="width: 45px;" |Meter !Tempo
 * Promenade
 * B♭ major
 * align="center" | ,
 * Allegro giusto, nel modo russico; senza allegrezza, ma poco sostenuto
 * align="center" | 1
 * Gnomus (Latin)
 * The Gnome
 * E♭ minor
 * align="center" |
 * Vivo and Meno mosso, pesante
 * Promenade
 * A♭ major
 * align="center" | ,
 * Moderato commodo assai e con delicatezza
 * align="center" | 2
 * Il vecchio castello (Italian)
 * The Old Castle
 * G♯ minor
 * align="center" |
 * Andante molto cantabile e con dolore
 * Promenade
 * B major
 * align="center" | ,
 * Moderato non tanto, pesamente
 * align="center" | 3
 * Tuileries (Dispute d'enfants après jeux) (French)
 * Tuileries (Children's Quarrel after Games)
 * B major
 * align="center" |
 * Allegretto non troppo, capriccioso
 * align="center" | 4
 * Bydło (Polish)
 * Cattle
 * G♯ minor
 * align="center" |
 * Sempre moderato, pesante
 * Promenade
 * D minor
 * align="center" |, ,
 * Tranquillo
 * align="center" | 5
 * Балет невылупившихся птенцов (Russian) Balet nevylupivshikhsya ptentsov (trans.)
 * Ballet of Unhatched Chicks
 * F major
 * align="center" |
 * Scherzino
 * align="center" | 6
 * "Samuel" Goldenberg und "Schmuÿle" (Yiddish)
 * "Samuel" Goldenberg and "Schmuÿle"
 * B♭ minor
 * align="center" |
 * Andante. Grave energico and Andantino
 * Promenade
 * B♭ major
 * align="center" |, ,
 * Allegro giusto, nel modo russico; poco sostenuto
 * align="center" | 7
 * Limoges. Le marché (La grande nouvelle) (French)
 * Limoges. The Market (The Great News)
 * E♭ major
 * align="center" |
 * Allegretto vivo, sempre scherzando
 * rowspan="2" align="center" | 8
 * Catacombae (Sepulcrum romanum) (Latin)
 * Catacombs (Roman Tomb)
 * B minor
 * align="center" |
 * Largo
 * Cum mortuis in lingua mortua (Latin)
 * With the Dead in a Dead Language
 * B minor
 * align="center" |
 * Andante non troppo con lamento
 * align="center" | 9
 * Избушка на курьих ножках (Баба-Яга) (Russian) Izbushka na kuryikh nozhkakh (Baba-Yaga) (trans.)
 * The Hut on Hen's Legs (Baba Yaga)
 * C minor
 * align="center" |
 * Allegro con brio, feroce and Andante mosso
 * align="center" | 10
 * Богатырские ворота (В стольном городе во Киеве) (Russian) Bogatyrskiye vorota (V stolnom gorode vo Kiyeve) (trans.)
 * The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev) (Often translated as "The Great Gate of Kiev" or "The Heroes' Gate at Kiev")
 * E♭ major
 * align="center" |
 * Allegro alla breve. Maestoso, con grandezza
 * }
 * Catacombae (Sepulcrum romanum) (Latin)
 * Catacombs (Roman Tomb)
 * B minor
 * align="center" |
 * Largo
 * Cum mortuis in lingua mortua (Latin)
 * With the Dead in a Dead Language
 * B minor
 * align="center" |
 * Andante non troppo con lamento
 * align="center" | 9
 * Избушка на курьих ножках (Баба-Яга) (Russian) Izbushka na kuryikh nozhkakh (Baba-Yaga) (trans.)
 * The Hut on Hen's Legs (Baba Yaga)
 * C minor
 * align="center" |
 * Allegro con brio, feroce and Andante mosso
 * align="center" | 10
 * Богатырские ворота (В стольном городе во Киеве) (Russian) Bogatyrskiye vorota (V stolnom gorode vo Kiyeve) (trans.)
 * The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev) (Often translated as "The Great Gate of Kiev" or "The Heroes' Gate at Kiev")
 * E♭ major
 * align="center" |
 * Allegro alla breve. Maestoso, con grandezza
 * }
 * align="center" |
 * Allegro alla breve. Maestoso, con grandezza
 * }

Promenade
Vladimir Stasov's comment: In this piece Mussorgsky depicts himself "roving through the exhibition, now leisurely, now briskly in order to come close to a picture that had attracted his attention, and at times sadly, thinking of his departed friend."

The piece has simple, strong rhythms in asymmetrical meter. The promenade theme is shown below:

1. The Gnome
Stasov's comment: "A sketch depicting a little gnome, clumsily running with crooked legs."

Hartmann's sketch, now lost, is thought to represent a design for a nutcracker displaying large teeth. The lurching music, in contrasting tempos with frequent stops and starts, suggests the movements of the gnome.

Promenade (2nd)
A placid statement of the promenade melody depicts the viewer walking from one display to the next.

2. The Old Castle
Stasov's comment: "A medieval castle before which a troubadour sings a song."

This movement is thought to be based on a watercolor depiction of an Italian castle and is portrayed in Ravel's orchestration by a bassoon and alto saxophone duet. Hartmann often placed appropriate human figures in his architectural renderings to suggest scale.

Promenade (3rd)
Another brief statement of the promenade melody (8 measures) gives it more extroversion and weight than before.

3. Tuileries (Children's Quarrel after Games)
Stasov's comment: "An avenue in the garden of the Tuileries, with a swarm of children and nurses."

Hartmann's picture of the Jardin des Tuileries near the Louvre in Paris (France) is now lost. Figures of children quarrelling and playing in the garden were likely added by the artist for scale (see note on No. 2 above).

The movement is cast in through-composed ternary form (ABA).

4. Cattle
Stasov's comment: "A Polish cart on enormous wheels, drawn by oxen."

The movement is cast in through-composed ternary form (ABA) with coda. Mussorgsky's original piano version of this movement begins fortissimo, suggesting that the lumbering oxcart's journey begins in the listener's foreground. After reaching a climax (con tutta forza), the dynamic marking is abruptly piano (bar 47), followed by a diminuendo to a final pianississimo, suggesting the oxcart receding into the distance. Rimsky-Korsakov's edition, and arrangements based on it such as Ravel's, begin quietly, build gradually (crescendo) to fortissimo and then undergo a diminuendo, suggesting the oxcart approaching, passing the listener, and then receding.

Promenade (4th)
A reflective 10-measure presentation of the promenade theme.

5. Ballet of Unhatched Chicks
Stasov's comment: "Hartmann's design for the décor of a picturesque scene in the ballet Trilby."

Gerald Abraham provides the following details: "Trilby or The Demon of the Heath, a ballet with choreography by Petipa, music by Julius Gerber, and décor by Hartmann, based on Charles Nodier's Trilby, or The Elf of Argyle, was produced at the Bolshoi Theatre, Saint Petersburg, in 1871. The fledglings were canary chicks."

The movement is cast in ternary form (ABA) with a literal repeat and terse extension (coda).

6. "Samuel" Goldenberg and "Schmuÿle"
Stasov's comment: "Two Jews: rich and poor" (Два еврея: богатый и бедный)

Stasov's explanatory title elucidates the personal names used in Mussorgsky's original manuscript. Published versions display various combinations, such as "Two Polish Jews, Rich and Poor (Samuel Goldenberg and Schmuyle)". The movement is thought to be based on two separate extant portraits.

The use of augmented second intervals approximates Jewish modes such as the Phrygian dominant scale. The movement is in ternary form A – B – A+B:

 * Andante, grave energico (Theme 1 "Samuel Goldenberg")
 * Andantino (Theme 2 "Schmuÿle")
 * Andante, grave energico (Themes 1 and 2 in counterpoint)
 * Coda

Promenade (5th)
A nearly bar-for-bar restatement of the opening promenade. Differences are slight: condensed second half, block chords voiced more fully. Structurally, the movement acts as a reprise, giving listeners another hearing of the opening material before these are developed in the second half of the suite.

Many arrangements, including Ravel's orchestral version, omit this movement.

7. Limoges. The Market (The Great News)
Stasov's comment: "French women quarrelling violently in the market."

Limoges is a city in central France. Mussorgsky originally provided two paragraphs in French that described a marketplace discussion (the 'great news'), but subsequently crossed them out in the manuscript.

The movement is a scherzo in through-composed ternary form (ABA). A scurrying coda leads without a break into the next movement.

8. Catacombs (Roman Tomb) – With the Dead in a Dead Language
Stasov's comment: "Hartmann represented himself examining the Paris catacombs by the light of a lantern."

The movement is in two distinct parts. Its two sections consist of a nearly static Largo consisting of a sequence of block chords with elegiac lines adding a touch of melancholy and a more flowing, gloomy Andante that introduces the Promenade theme into the scene.

The first section's alternating loud and soft chords evoke the grandeur, stillness, and echo of the catacombs. The second section suggests a merging of observer and scene as the observer descends into the catacombs. Mussorgsky's manuscript of "Catacombs" (shown right) displays two pencilled notes, in Russian: "NB – Latin text: With the dead in a dead language" and, along the right margin, "Well may it be in Latin! The creative spirit of the dead Hartmann leads me towards the skulls, invokes them; the skulls begin to glow softly."

9. The Hut on Hen's Legs (Baba Yaga)
Stasov's comment: "Hartmann's drawing depicted a clock in the form of Baba Yaga's hut on hen's legs. Mussorgsky added the witch's flight in a mortar."

A scherzo marked Feroce with a slower middle section. Motives in this movement evoke the bells of a large clock and the whirlwind sounds of a chase. Structurally, the movement mirrors the grotesque qualities of "Gnomus" on a grand scale.

The movement is cast in ternary form (ABA):

 * Allegro con brio, feroce
 * Andante mosso
 * Allegro molto (a nearly literal repeat)
 * Coda

The coda leads without a break into the final movement of the suite.

10. The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev)
Stasov's comment: "Hartmann's sketch was his design for city gates at Kiev in the ancient Russian massive style with a cupola shaped like a slavonic helmet."

Bogatyrs are heroes that appear in Russian epics called bylinas. Hartmann designed a monumental gate for Tsar Alexander II to commemorate the monarch's narrow escape from an assassination attempt on April 4, 1866. Hartmann regarded his design as the best work he had done. His design won the national competition but plans to build the structure were later cancelled.

The movement's grand main theme exalts the opening Promenade much as "Baba Yaga" amplified "Gnomus"; also like that movement, it evens out the meter of its earlier counterpart. The solemn secondary theme is based on a baptismal hymn from the repertory of Russian Orthodox chant.

The movement is cast as a broad rondo in two main sections: ABAB–CADA. The first half of the movement sets up the expectation of an ABABA pattern. The interruption of this pattern with new music just before its expected conclusion gives the rest of the movement the feeling of a vast extension. This extended leave-taking acts as a coda for the suite as a whole.

 * A: Main Theme (forte, then fortissimo); maestoso
 * B: Hymn Theme (piano) (A♭ minor); senza espressione (without expression)
 * A: Main Theme (forte); descending and ascending scale figures suggest carillons.
 * B: Hymn Theme (piano) (E♭ minor); senza espressione
 * C: Interlude/Transition (mezzo forte with crescendo to forte); promenade theme recalled. Suggestions of clockwork, bells, ascent.
 * A: Main Theme (fortissimo); Meno mosso, sempre maestoso. Triplet figuration.
 * D: Interlude/Transition (mezzo forte with crescendo). Triplets.
 * A: Main Theme (fortissimo); Grave, sempre allargando. The tempo slows to a standstill by the final cadence.

Recording of the original manuscript
In 2009, the German pianist Lars David Kellner published the original version of Gnomus on his Mussorgsky album (Enharmonic) as a premiere. In 2014, the Russian pianist Andrej Hoteev presented (in a CD recording) a performance of "Pictures at an Exhibition" based on original manuscripts he consulted in the Russian National Library at Saint Petersburg. Hoteev found numerous discrepancies with conventional sheet music editions. He believes his recorded version expresses the composer's original intent. The most important deviations are documented with illustrations from the manuscripts in the accompanying CD booklet.

Further notable recordings exist from Theodore Kuchar, Valery Gergiev, Rafael Kubelík, Fritz Reiner and Riccardo Muti.

Arrangements and interpretations
The first musician to arrange Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition for orchestra was the Russian composer and conductor Mikhail Tushmalov. However, his version (first performed in 1891 and possibly produced as early as 1886 when he was a student of Rimsky-Korsakov) does not include the entire suite: Only seven of the ten "pictures" are present, leaving out "Gnomus", "Tuileries", and "Cattle", and all the Promenades are omitted except for the last one, which is used in place of the first.

The next orchestration was undertaken by the British conductor Henry Wood in 1915. He recorded a few sections of his arrangement on a pair of acoustic Columbia 78rpm discs in 1920. However, he withdrew his version when Maurice Ravel's orchestration was published, and banned every public performance in the 1930s in deference to Ravel's work. Wood's arrangement has also been recorded by the London Philharmonic Orchestra under Nicholas Braithwaite and issued on the Lyrita label. All but the first of the Promenade movements were omitted and other passages extensively re-composed. Wood's orchestration was once described by Gordon Jacob as "superior to Ravel's in picturesqueness and vividness", with its off-stage camel-bells in "Cattle" and grand organ in "The Great Gate of Kyiv".

The first person to orchestrate the piece in its entirety was the Slovenian-born conductor and violinist Leo Funtek, who finished his version in 1922 while living and working in Finland.

The version by Maurice Ravel, produced in 1922 on a commission by Serge Koussevitzky, represents a virtuoso effort by a master colourist. The orchestration has proved the most popular in the concert hall and on record.

Ravel omitted the Promenade between "Samuel Goldenberg and Schmuÿle" and "Limoges" and applied artistic license to some particulars of dynamics and notation. His instrumental colors—a trumpet solo for the opening Promenade, dark woodwind tones for passages suggesting Orthodox chant, the piccolo and high strings for the children's "chicks in shells"—are widely admired. The influence of Ravel's version may often be discerned in subsequent versions of the suite.

Koussevitzky's commission, worked out with the publishers of the piano suite, gave him sole conducting rights for several years. He conducted the first performance in Paris on October 19, 1922. He published Ravel's score himself and in 1930 made the first recording of it with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The exclusive nature of his commission prompted the release of a number of contemporary versions by other arrangers until Ravel's became generally available.

The original publisher of Mussorgsky's piano suite, W. Bessel & Co. rushed to produce an orchestral version of its own after Ravel's proved popular. The publisher had passed on the opportunity to publish Ravel's arrangement, seeing no great commercial advantage in printing a score and set of parts for large orchestra; it had granted Koussevitzky permission to commission the setting and publish the score himself on the condition that no one else be allowed to perform it. Bessel turned to a Ravel student, 21-year-old Russian-born pianist Leonidas Leonardi (1901–1967), a.k.a. Leon Leonardi or Leonid Leonardi, to create an orchestral version that could meet the now burgeoning demand and help the publisher regain some of its lost advantage. Leonardi's orchestration requires even larger forces than the version made by his mentor. The young pianist dedicated his setting of the suite to Igor Stravinsky and conducted the premiere in Paris with the Lamoureux Orchestra on 15 June 1924. The US premiere took place on 4 December 1924 when the New York Symphony Orchestra performed it under the baton of Walter Damrosch. Regardless, Leonardi's orchestration was soon eclipsed by Ravel's, and today only the third Promenade and "Tuileries" movement of his version may be heard on audio record (Leonard Slatkin/Saint Louis Symphony: The Slatkin Years: 6 CD Set).

Another arrangement appeared when Eugene Ormandy took over the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1936 following Leopold Stokowski's decision to resign the conductorship. Ormandy wanted a version of Pictures of his own and commissioned Lucien Cailliet, the Philadelphia Orchestra's 'house arranger' and player in the woodwind section, to produce one. This version was premiered and recorded by Ormandy in 1937. Walter Goehr published a version in 1942 for smaller forces than Ravel but curiously dropped "Gnomus" altogether and made "Limoges" the first piece.

The conductor Leopold Stokowski had introduced Ravel's version to Philadelphia audiences in November 1929; ten years later, he produced his own very free orchestration (incorporating much re-composition), aiming for what he called a more Slavic orchestral sound instead of Ravel's more Gallic approach. Stokowski revised his version over the years and made three gramophone recordings of it (1939, 1941 and 1965). The score, finally published in 1971, has since been recorded by other conductors, including Matthias Bamert, Gennady Rozhdestvensky, Oliver Knussen and José Serebrier.

Although Ravel's version is most often performed and recorded, a number of conductors have made their own changes to the scoring, including Arturo Toscanini, Nikolai Golovanov, and James Conlon. Conductor and pianist Vladimir Ashkenazy produced his own orchestral arrangement, expressing dissatisfaction with Ravel's interpretive liberties and perpetuation of early printing errors. The conductor Leonard Slatkin has performed compendium versions, in which each Promenade and picture is interpreted by a different orchestral arranger.

Many other orchestrations and arrangements of Pictures have been made. Most show debts to Ravel; the original piano composition is, of course, frequently performed and recorded. A version for chamber orchestra exists, made by Taiwanese composer Chao Ching-Wen. Elgar Howarth arranged it for the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble in 1977, subsequently recasting it for Grimethorpe Colliery Band. Kazuhito Yamashita wrote an adaptation for solo classical guitar. Excerpts have also been recorded, including a 78 rpm disc of "The Old Castle" and "Catacombs" orchestrated by Sir Granville Bantock, and a spectacular version of "The Great Gate of Kyiv" was scored by Douglas Gamley for full symphony orchestra, male voice choir and organ. The Amadeus Orchestra (UK) commissioned ten composers to orchestrate one movement each to make a version first performed complete in 2012. Movements were provided by Alastair King, Roger May, Tolib Shakhidi, David Butterworth, Philip Mackenzie, Simon Whiteside, Daryl Griffiths, Natalia Villanueva, James McWilliam and Julian Kershaw.

The suite has inspired homages in a broad range of musical styles. Emerson, Lake & Palmer's version incorporated elements of progressive rock, jazz and folk music (1971/2008). An electronic music adaptation by Isao Tomita was done in 1975. A heavy metal arrangement of the entire suite was released by German band Mekong Delta; another metal band, Armored Saint, utilised the "Great Gate of Kyiv" theme as an introduction for the track "March of the Saint". In 2002, electronic musician-composer Amon Tobin paraphrased "Gnomus" for the track "Back From Space" on his album Out from Out Where. In 2003 guitarist-composer Trevor Rabin released an electric guitar adaptation of the Promenade originally intended for the Yes album Big Generator and later included on his demo album 90124. In 2005, Animusic 2 included a track entitled "Cathedral Pictures", which included only the first Promenade and the final two movements from the suite. The Michael Jackson song "HIStory" samples a short section of "The Great Gate of Kiev", with a longer part featured during the HIStory World Tour 5 minute-countdown before the MJ-2040 spaceship departs, a snippet before continuing They Don't Care About Us and in the flag parade finale in 1996/97. Re-issues of the HIStory album further changed the sample on the track. The same thing can be heard in the Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration, which during the Jacksons's ultimate medley, after Can You Feel It, the song starts and then ABC starts.

Orchestrations
A partial listing of orchestral arrangements of Pictures at an Exhibition:

 * Mikhail Tushmalov (ca. 1886; three pictures and four Promenades omitted: recorded by Marc Andreae and the Munich Philharmonic for BASF.)
 * Henry Wood (1915; four Promenades omitted: recorded by Nicholas Braithwaite and the London Philharmonic for Lyrita.)
 * Leo Funtek (1922; all Promenades included: recorded by Leif Segerstam and the Finnish Radio Symphony for BIS; Also on Teldec Laser-disc with Vladimir Ashkenazy conducting the Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra.)
 * Maurice Ravel (1922; the fifth Promenade omitted.)
 * Giuseppe Becce (1922; for "salon-orchestra". No Promenades are included at all, and only some of the Pictures.)
 * Leonidas Leonardi (1924); for large symphony orchestra, arranged by a pupil of Ravel's.
 * Lucien Cailliet (1937: recorded by Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra for RCA and reissued on Biddulph.)
 * Leopold Stokowski (1939; third Promenade, "Tuileries", fifth Promenade and "Limoges" omitted. Three recordings conducted by Stokowski himself: with the Philadelphia Orchestra, All-American Youth Orchestra, and New Philharmonia.)
 * Walter Goehr (1942; "Gnomus" omitted; includes a subsidiary part for piano.)
 * Sergei Gorchakov (1954: recorded by Kurt Masur and the London Philharmonic for Teldec; Also recorded with Karl Anton Rickenbacher, conducting the Krakow Radio Symphony, for the RCA Records. A live 1980 performance by the Leningrad Academic Symphony Orchestra under Konstantin Simeonov was recorded by Melodiya.)
 * Nikolai Golovanov (A heavily edited version of Ravel's orchestration in which Golovanov omits all but the first of the Promenades was recorded for Melodiya.)
 * Lawrence Leonard (1977; for piano and orchestra; recorded by Tamas Ungar, piano, with Geoffrey Simon and the Philharmonia Orchestra for Cala.)
 * Vladimir Ashkenazy (1982: recorded by Ashkenazy and the Philharmonia Orchestra for Decca/London.)
 * Francisco Mignone (date unknown; discovered after the composer's death in 1986.)
 * Thomas Wilbrandt (1992)
 * Émile Naoumoff (ca. 1994, in concerto style with some added music, for piano and orchestra; recorded with Igor Blaschkow conducting the Deutsches Symphony Orchestra Berlin, for Wergo.)
 * Mekong Delta (1997; for group and orchestra.)
 * Julian Yu (2001), for sixteen players or chamber orchestra
 * Jason Wright Wingate (2003; orchestra, organ and chorus.)
 * Hidemaro Konoye (date unknown.)
 * Leonard Slatkin – Two compendium versions, the second of which he recorded with the BBC Symphony Orchestra for Warner Classics live at the BBC Proms on 1 September 2004; the other recording was with the Nashville Symphony for Naxos Records.
 * Václav Smetáček (date unknown; a performance with Gennady Rozhdestvensky conducting the Prague Symphony Orchestra on 28 October 2004 has been issued on the Don Industriale label.)
 * Jukka-Pekka Saraste created a performing edition of his own, combining the orchestrations of Leo Funtek and Sergei Gorchakov, recorded with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra for Finlandia Records, a division of Warner Music Group.
 * Amadeus Orchestra version, with one picture each provided by Alastair King, Roger May, Tolib Shakhidi, David Butterworth, Philip Mackenzie, Simon Whiteside, Daryl Griffiths, Natalia Villanueva, James McWilliam and Julian Kershaw. (2012, for large orchestra.)
 * Peter Breiner (2012, for large orchestra.), recorded by Breiner and the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra for Naxos Records.
 * Tomasz Golka (2019, for full orchestra, based on Mussorgsky's original manuscript; includes all of the composer's original movements, unusual rhythms, harmonies, and notations that Rimsky-Korsakov later modified.)
 * David DeBoor Canfield (2023, for full orchestra, based on Mussorgsky's original manuscript; with reference to his orchestration in other works plus utilizing instruments not in existence in Mussorgsky's time.)
 * Jason Nett (2022, for Vancouver Island Symphony Orchestra "The Pictures Project", based on Mussorgsky's original manuscript.)

Arrangements for concert band

 * Erik W. G. Leidzén for the Edwin Franko Goldman band (1941; in three parts. Part 1 includes Promenade, The Old Castle, Tuileries, Bydło, and Ballet of the Unhatched Chickens, part 2 includes The Market Place at Limoges and Catacombs, and part 3 includes The Hut Of Baba-Yaga and The Great Gate of Kyiv.); published by Carl Fischer, Inc.
 * James Curnow (1985; for large wind ensemble; abridged version.)
 * Paul Lavender for the United States Marine Band (2012; transcription of Ravel's original orchestration.)

Arrangements for other ensembles
Arrangements of Pictures at an Exhibition for performing ensembles other than orchestra:

 * Giuseppe Becce (1930; for piano trio.)
 * Vladimir Horowitz (1946; revised version for solo piano.)
 * Ralph Burns (1957; for jazz orchestra.)
 * Allyn Ferguson (ca. 1963; for jazz orchestra.)
 * Calvin Hampton (1967; for organ.)
 * Emerson, Lake & Palmer (1971; rock group, lyrics written by Greg Lake.); see Pictures at an Exhibition (Emerson, Lake & Palmer album).
 * Harry van Hoof (ca. 1972; brass ensemble; "The Bogatyr Gates" only.)
 * Keith Chapman (1972; for the Wanamaker Organ.)
 * Isao Tomita (1966; various instruments for the Osamu Tezuka animated film.)
 * Isao Tomita (1975; for synthesizer.)
 * Elgar Howarth (ca. 1977; for brass ensemble. Recorded in 1977 by the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble for Argo.)
 * Ray Barretto (1979; "The Old Castle" for Latin-jazz band.)
 * Arthur Wills (1970s; for organ. Recorded in 1980 by Wills on the Organ of Ely Cathedral for Hyperion.)
 * Jon Faddis (1978; for trumpet, in his solo album Good and Plenty with the track name "Promenade".)
 * Kazuhito Yamashita (1980; for classical guitar.)
 * Henk de Vlieger (1981; for percussion ensemble.)
 * Hugh Lawson (1983; for jazz trio.)
 * Jean Guillou (ca. 1988; for organ.)
 * Peng Xiuwen (1989; for modern Chinese orchestra; Recorded in 1990 by China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra, China Record Co. CCD90-085.)
 * Jevgenija Lisicina (ca. 1991; for three pipe organs; ca. 1997 for organ and 14 percussion instruments.)
 * Tangerine Dream (1994; Promenade for trumpet, saxophone, horns and synthesizer; on their Turn of the Tides album.)
 * Mekong Delta (1997; for metal band.)
 * Christian Lindberg (ca. 2000; for trombone and piano.)
 * Simon Proctor (ca. 2000; for euphonium & tuba quartet, retitled Miniatures at an Exhibition.)
 * Wayne Lytle, for the DVD Animusic 2 under the title Cathedral Pictures (2005; for synthesizer; Promenade, "Baba Yaga" and "The Bogatyr Gates".)
 * Cameron Carpenter (2006, for organ.)
 * Walter Hilgers (2006; for large brass ensemble, percussion, and two harps.)
 * Glass Duo (2007; for glass harp.)
 * Slav de Hren (2008; for a punk-jazz band and vocal ensemble. Some of the pieces are complete transcriptions, others are improvisations on the original theme.)
 * Friendly Rich (2009; for avant-garde cabaret jazz ensemble.)
 * Clarice Assad (2009; for string orchestra, piano and percussion.)
 * Yaron Gottfried (2011; for jazz trio and orchestra.)
 * Robert W. Smith (2012; Madison Scouts Drum And Bugle Corps.)
 * Neil Cicierega (2014; for Smash Mouth–based mashup album "Mouth Sounds"; Promenade, made up of samples taken from "All Star" by Smash Mouth.)

 * William Schmidt (date unknown; for saxophone choir.);
 * Andrés Segovia (date unknown; for guitar; "The Old Castle" only.)
 * Ward Swingle (date unknown; for vocal ensemble, double bass and percussion; Limoges only.)
 * Boris Ivanov (2018; for synthesizers and rock band; entire suite.)
 * Guillermo Laporta (2023; for flute, violin, viola, cello and piano.)

Staging by Kandinsky
In 1928, the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky created a stage show by combining his own designs for the pictures with a performance of the piano score. Since it was put on at Dessau, elements of the staging have been lost. However, it has proved possible to animate the surviving art work using video technology.

Staging by Gen Atem and S213
In a hall on Attisholz-Areal, Switzerland, Gen Atem and S213 had a premiere performance on the basis of Ravel's orchestration of Mussorgsky's piano cycle in August 2021. Kaspar Zehnder and the Theatre Orchester Biel Solothurn provided the acoustical background in its entirety.

Ballet by Alexei Ratmansky
In 2014, choreographer Alexei Ratmansky created the ballet Pictures at an Exhibition, based on the orchestral score, for the New York City Ballet. The set featured a 1913 painting by Wassily Kandinsky, unrelated to Kandinsky’s 1928 staging.

title: Pictures at an Exhibition


text:
Hyperbolic spiral

A hyperbolic spiral is a type of spiral with a pitch angle that increases with distance from its center, unlike the constant angles of logarithmic spirals or decreasing angles of Archimedean spirals. As this curve widens, it approaches an asymptotic line. It can be found in the view up a spiral staircase and the starting arrangement of certain footraces, and is used to model spiral galaxies and architectural volutes.

As a plane curve, a hyperbolic spiral can be described in polar coordinates $$(r,\varphi)$$ by the equation $$r=\frac{a}{\varphi},$$ for an arbitrary choice of the scale factor $$a.$$

Because of the reciprocal relation between $$r$$ and $$\varphi$$ it is also called a reciprocal spiral. The same relation between Cartesian coordinates would describe a hyperbola, and the hyperbolic spiral was first discovered by applying the equation of a hyperbola to polar coordinates. Hyperbolic spirals can also be generated as the inverse curves of Archimedean spirals, or as the central projections of helixes.

Hyperbolic spirals are patterns in the Euclidean plane, and should not be confused with other kinds of spirals drawn in the hyperbolic plane. In cases where the name of these spirals might be ambiguous, their alternative name, reciprocal spirals, can be used instead.

History and applications
Pierre Varignon first studied the hyperbolic spiral in 1704, as an example of the polar curve obtained from another curve (in this case the hyperbola) by reinterpreting the Cartesian coordinates of points on the given curve as polar coordinates of points on the polar curve. Varignon and later James Clerk Maxwell were interested in the roulettes obtained by tracing a point on this curve as it rolls along another curve; for instance, when a hyperbolic spiral rolls along a straight line, its center traces out a tractrix.

Johann Bernoulli and Roger Cotes also wrote about this curve, in connection with Isaac Newton's discovery that bodies that follow conic section trajectories must be subject to an inverse-square law, such as the one in Newton's law of universal gravitation. Newton asserted that the reverse was true: that conic sections were the only trajectories possible under an inverse-square law. Bernoulli criticized this step, observing that in the case of an inverse-cube law, multiple trajectories were possible, including both a logarithmic spiral (whose connection to the inverse-cube law was already observed by Newton) and a hyperbolic spiral. Cotes found a family of spirals, the Cotes's spirals, including the logarithmic and hyperbolic spirals, that all required an inverse-cube law. By 1720, Newton had resolved the controversy by proving that inverse-square laws always produce conic-section trajectories.

For a hyperbolic spiral with equation $r=\tfrac{a}{\varphi}$, a circular arc centered at the origin, continuing clockwise for length $a$ from any of its points, will end on the $x$-axis. Because of this equal-length property, the starting marks of 200m and 400m footraces are placed in staggered positions along a hyperbolic spiral. This ensures that the runners, restricted to their concentric lanes, all have equal-length paths to the finish line. For longer races where runners move to the inside lane after the start, a different spiral (the involute of a circle) is used instead.

The increasing pitch angle of the hyperbolic spiral, as a function of distance from its center, has led to the use of these spirals to model the shapes of some spiral galaxies, which in some cases have a similarly increasing pitch angle. However, this model does not provide a good fit to the shapes of all spiral galaxies. In architecture, it has been suggested that hyperbolic spirals are a good match for the design of volutes from columns of the Corinthian order. It also describes the perspective view up the axis of a spiral staircase or other helical structure.

Along with the Archimedean and logarithmic spiral, the hyperbolic spiral has been used in psychological experiments on the perception of rotation.

Coordinate equations
The hyperbolic spiral has the equation $$r=\frac a \varphi ,\quad \varphi > 0$$ for polar coordinates $$(r,\varphi)$$ and scale coefficient $$a$$. It can be represented in Cartesian coordinates by applying the standard polar-to-Cartesian conversions $$x=r\cos\varphi$$ and $y=r\sin\varphi$, obtaining a parametric equation for the Cartesian coordinates of this curve that treats $$\varphi$$ as a parameter rather than as a coordinate: $$x = a \frac{\cos \varphi} \varphi, \qquad y = a \frac{\sin \varphi} \varphi ,\quad \varphi > 0.$$ Relaxing the constraint that $$\varphi>0$$ to $$\varphi\ne0$$ and using the same equations produces a reflected copy of the spiral, and some sources treat these two copies as branches of a single curve.

The hyperbolic spiral is a transcendental curve, meaning that it cannot be defined from a polynomial equation of its Cartesian coordinates. However, one can obtain a trigonometric equation in these coordinates by starting with its polar defining equation in the form $$r\varphi=a$$ and replacing its variables according to the Cartesian-to-polar conversions $$\varphi=\tan^{-1}\tfrac{y}{x}$$ and $r=\sqrt{x^2+y^2}$, giving: $$\sqrt{x^2+y^2}\tan^{-1}\frac{y}{x}=a.$$

It is also possible to use the polar equation to define a spiral curve in the hyperbolic plane, but this is different in some important respects from the usual form of the hyperbolic spiral in the Euclidean plane. In particular, the corresponding curve in the hyperbolic plane does not have an asymptotic line.

Inversion
Circle inversion through the unit circle is a transformation of the plane that, in polar coordinates, maps the point $$(r,\varphi)$$ (excluding the origin) to $$(\tfrac1r,\varphi)$$ and vice versa. The image of an Archimedean spiral $$r=\tfrac{\varphi}{a}$$ under this transformation (its inverse curve) is the hyperbolic spiral with equation $r=\tfrac{a}{\varphi}$.

Central projection of a helix
The central projection of a helix onto a plane perpendicular to the axis of the helix describes the view that one would see of the guardrail of a spiral staircase, looking up or down from a viewpoint on the axis of the staircase. To model this projection mathematically, consider the central projection from point $$(0,0,d)$$ onto the image plane $z=0$. This will map a point $$(x,y,z)$$ to the point $\tfrac{d}{d-z}(x,y)$.

The image under this projection of the helix with parametric representation $$(r\cos t, r\sin t, ct),\quad c\neq 0,$$ is the curve $$\frac{dr}{d-ct}(\cos t,\sin t)$$ with the polar equation $$\rho=\frac{dr}{d-ct},$$ which describes a hyperbolic spiral.

Asymptotes
The hyperbolic spiral approaches the origin as an asymptotic point. Because $$\lim_{\varphi\to 0}x = a\lim_{\varphi\to 0} \frac{\cos \varphi} \varphi =\infty,\qquad \lim_{\varphi\to 0}y = a\lim_{\varphi\to 0} \frac{\sin \varphi} \varphi = a,$$ the curve has an asymptotic line with equation $y=a$.

Pitch angle
From vector calculus in polar coordinates one gets the formula $$\tan\alpha=\tfrac{r'}{r}$$ for the pitch angle $$\alpha$$ between the tangent of any curve and the tangent of its corresponding polar circle. For the hyperbolic spiral $$r=\tfrac{a}{\varphi}$$ the pitch angle is $$\alpha=\tan^{-1}\left(-\frac{1}{\varphi}\right).$$

Curvature
The curvature of any curve with polar equation $$r=r(\varphi)$$ is $$\kappa = \frac{r^2 + 2(r')^2 - r\, r''}{\left(r^2+(r')^2\right)^{3/2}} .$$ From the equation $$r=a/\varphi$$ and its derivatives $$r'=-a/\varphi^2$$ and $$r''=2a/\varphi^3$$ one gets the curvature of a hyperbolic spiral, in terms of the radius $$r$$ or of the angle $$\varphi$$ of any of its points: $$\kappa = \frac{\varphi^4}{a \left(\varphi^2 + 1\right)^{3/2}} = \frac{a^3}{r(a^2+r^2)^{3/2}}. $$

Arc length
The length of the arc of a hyperbolic spiral $$r=a/\varphi$$ between the points $$(r(\varphi_1),\varphi_1)$$ and $$(r(\varphi_2),\varphi_2)$$ can be calculated by the integral: $$\begin{align} L&=a \int_{\varphi_1}^{\varphi_2}\frac{\sqrt{1+\varphi^2}}{\varphi^2}\,d\varphi \\ &= a\left[-\frac{\sqrt{1+\varphi^2}}{\varphi}+\ln\left(\varphi+\sqrt{1+\varphi^2}\right)\right]_{\varphi_1}^{\varphi_2}. \end{align}$$ Here, the bracket notation means to calculate the formula within the brackets for both $$\varphi_1$$ and $$\varphi_2$$, and to subtract the result for $$\varphi_1$$ from the result for $$\varphi_2$$.

Sector area
The area of a sector (see diagram above) of a hyperbolic spiral with equation $$r=a/\varphi$$ is: $$\begin{align} A&=\frac12\int_{\varphi_1}^{\varphi_2} r(\varphi)^2\, d\varphi\\ &=\frac{a}{2}\bigl(r(\varphi_1)-r(\varphi_2)\bigr). \end{align}$$ That is, the area is proportional to the difference in radii, with constant of proportionality $a/2$.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hyperbolic spiral


text:
East Asian tea ceremony

Tea ceremony is a ritualized practice of making and serving tea (茶 cha) in East Asia practiced in the Sinosphere. The original term from China, literally translated as either "way of tea", "etiquette for tea or tea rite", or "art of tea" among the languages in the Sinosphere, is a cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of tea. Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese tea culture were inspired by the Chinese tea culture during ancient and medieval times, particularly after the successful transplant of the tea plant from Tang China to Korea, Vietnam and Japan by traveling Buddhist monks and scholars in 8th century and onwards.

One can also refer to the whole set of rituals, tools, gestures, etc. used in such ceremonies as tea culture. All of these tea ceremonies and rituals contain "an adoration of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday life", as well as refinement, an inner spiritual content, humility, restraint and simplicity "as all arts that partake the extraordinary, an artistic artificiality, abstractness, symbolism and formalism" to one degree or another.

At the very rudimentary level, East Asian tea ceremonies are a formalized way of making tea, in a process that has been refined to yield the best taste. Historical classics on the subject include the 8th-century Chinese monograph The Classic of Tea (茶经 Chájīng) and the 12th-century Chinese book Treatise on Tea (大观茶论 Dàguān Chálùn).

China
In China, a tea house (茶室 cháshì, 茶館 cháguăn or 茶屋 cháwū) is traditionally similar to a coffeehouse, albeit offering tea rather than coffee. People gather at tea houses to chat, socialize, play xiangqi or Go (weiqi), and enjoy tea, and young people often meet at tea houses for dates.

Japan
In Japanese tradition a tea house ordinarily refers to a private structure called a chashitsu (茶室) designed for holding Japanese tea ceremonies. This structure and specifically the room in it where the tea ceremony takes place is called chashitsu (茶室) with its entrance called a roji (露地). The architectural space called chashitsu was created for aesthetic and intellectual fulfillment. In Japan, a tea ceremony is a blend of two principles, sabi (寂) and wabi (侘). "Wabi" represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives. Its original meaning indicated quiet or sober refinement, or subdued taste "characterized by humility, restraint, simplicity, naturalism, profundity, imperfection, and asymmetry" and "emphasizes simple, unadorned objects and architectural space, and celebrates the mellow beauty that time and care to impart to materials." "Sabi," on the other hand, represents the outer, or material imperfection of life, also the original nature of things. Zen Buddhism has been an influence in the development of the tea ceremony. The elements of the Japanese tea ceremony are the harmony of nature and self-cultivation and enjoying tea in a formal and informal setting. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a "transformative practice", and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular, that of "sabis" and "wabis" principles. Understanding emptiness was considered the most effective means to spiritual awakening while embracing imperfection was honored as a healthy reminder to cherish our unpolished selves, here and now, just as we are – the first step to "Satori" or Enlightenment. Tea drinking is used as an aid to meditation, for assistance in fortune telling, for ceremonial purposes and in the expression of the arts.

The Japanese tea garden was created during the Muromachi Period (1333–1573) and Momoyama Period (1573–1600) as a setting for the Japanese tea ceremony, or chadō (茶道). The style of the garden takes its name from the roji, or path to the teahouse, which is supposed to inspire the visitor to meditate to prepare him for the ceremony. There is an outer garden, with a gate and covered arbor where guests wait for the invitation to enter. They then pass through a gate to the inner garden, where they wash their hands and rinse their mouth, as they would before entering a Shinto shrine, before going into the teahouse itself. The path is always kept moist and green, so it will look like a remote mountain path, and there are no bright flowers that might distract the visitor from his meditation. Early tea houses had no windows, but later teahouses have a wall that can be opened for a view of the garden.

Korea
In Korea, the traditional Korean tea ceremony or Darye (다례; 茶禮), which is central to the Korean approach to tea, developed as Koreans cultivated, refined, and drank tea for thousands of years. The oldest surviving official record dates back to 8th century detailing Shilla and Gaya Confederacy monarchs and royal families holding tea ceremonies at palaces and temples. The practice continued and flourished during Goryeo and was refined during the Joseon Dynasty.

Unfortunately the decline of Joseon, the Japanese occupation, and the colonial rule of Korea contributed to suppression of its traditional tea ceremony and even overtaking by Japanese tea ceremony. Moreover, after liberation from Japanese rule, Korean tea ceremony suffered further from the ravages of the Korean War.

However, various farmers, artisans, entrepreneurs, scholars, scientists, and community leaders of Korea endeavored and persisted in keeping the Korean way of tea alive during and beyond those highly unstable times.

The contemporary Darye is more straightforward and relaxed compared to the Chinese and Japanese counterparts. Sincere attentiveness from the host in order to maximize the guest's comfort is considered paramount.

Korean tea ceremonies today are held in teahouses or Dawon (다원) and they feature a not only a variety of teas but also herbal infusions. They tend to be flexible and adaptive in choice and design of teaware used, minimalist in proceedings taken, and tea may be accompanied by traditional snacks and sweets or Dasik (다식) and Dagwa (다과).

Outside East Asia
Corresponding tea-drinking habits can be found worldwide. In the United Kingdom, including the Victorian-era afternoon tea or tea party ritual, was a social event, where the ritual of being seen to have the right equipment, manners, and social circle, was just as important as the drink itself. The Victorian-era tea was also influenced by the Indian tea culture, as for the choice of tea varieties.

In the United States, American tea culture has roots that trace back to the Dutch colonization of the Americas. In the colonies, teas were served with silver strainers, fine porcelain cups and pots and exquisite tea caddies. In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in fine teas in the United States, mainly due to the lifting of China's ban on exports in 1971. From the 1920s to 1971, Americans could not get much Chinese tea and very little Indian tea was imported.

title: East Asian tea ceremony


text:
Thrombosis

Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek  "clotting") is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (thrombocytes) and fibrin to form a blood clot to prevent blood loss. Even when a blood vessel is not injured, blood clots may form in the body under certain conditions. A clot, or a piece of the clot, that breaks free and begins to travel around the body is known as an embolus.

Thrombosis may occur in veins (venous thrombosis) or in arteries (arterial thrombosis). Venous thrombosis (sometimes called DVT, deep vein thrombosis) leads to a blood clot in the affected part of the body, while arterial thrombosis (and, rarely, severe venous thrombosis) affects the blood supply and leads to damage of the tissue supplied by that artery (ischemia and necrosis). A piece of either an arterial or a venous thrombus can break off as an embolus, which could then travel through the circulation and lodge somewhere else as an embolism. This type of embolism is known as a thromboembolism. Complications can arise when a venous thromboembolism (commonly called a VTE) lodges in the lung as a pulmonary embolism. An arterial embolus may travel further down the affected blood vessel, where it can lodge as an embolism.

Signs and symptoms
Thrombosis is generally defined by the type of blood vessel affected (arterial or venous thrombosis) and the precise location of the blood vessel or the organ supplied by it.

Deep vein thrombosis
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is the formation of a blood clot within a deep vein. It most commonly affects leg veins, such as the femoral vein. Three factors are important in the formation of a blood clot within a deep vein—these are the rate of blood flow, the thickness of the blood and qualities of the vessel wall. Classical signs of DVT include swelling, pain and redness of the affected area.

Paget-Schroetter disease
Paget-Schroetter disease or upper extremity DVT (UEDVT) is the obstruction of an arm vein (such as the axillary vein or subclavian vein) by a thrombus. The condition usually comes to light after vigorous exercise and usually presents in younger, otherwise healthy people. Men are affected more than women.

Budd-Chiari syndrome
Budd-Chiari syndrome is the blockage of a hepatic vein or of the hepatic part of the inferior vena cava. This form of thrombosis presents with abdominal pain, ascites and enlarged liver. Treatment varies between therapy and surgical intervention by the use of shunts.

Portal vein thrombosis
Portal vein thrombosis affects the hepatic portal vein, which can lead to portal hypertension and reduction of the blood supply to the liver. It usually happens in the setting of another disease such as pancreatitis, cirrhosis, diverticulitis or cholangiocarcinoma.

Renal vein thrombosis
Renal vein thrombosis is the obstruction of the renal vein by a thrombus. This tends to lead to reduced drainage from the kidney.

Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) is a rare form of stroke which results from the blockage of the dural venous sinuses by a thrombus. Symptoms may include headache, abnormal vision, any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness of the face and limbs on one side of the body and seizures. The diagnosis is usually made with a CT or MRI scan. The majority of persons affected make a full recovery. The mortality rate is 4.3%.

Jugular vein thrombosis
Jugular vein thrombosis is a condition that may occur due to infection, intravenous drug use or malignancy. Jugular vein thrombosis can have a varying list of complications, including: systemic sepsis, pulmonary embolism, and papilledema. Though characterized by a sharp pain at the site of the vein, it can prove difficult to diagnose, because it can occur at random.

Cavernous sinus thrombosis
Cavernous sinus thrombosis is a specialised form of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, where there is thrombosis of the cavernous sinus of the basal skull dura, due to the retrograde spread of infection and endothelial damage from the danger triangle of the face. The facial veins in this area anastomose with the superior and inferior ophthalmic veins of the orbit, which drain directly posteriorly into the cavernous sinus through the superior orbital fissure. Staphyloccoal or Streptococcal infections of the face, for example nasal or upper lip pustules may thus spread directly into the cavernous sinus, causing stroke-like symptoms of double vision, squint, as well as spread of infection to cause meningitis.

Arterial thrombosis
Arterial thrombosis is the formation of a thrombus within an artery. In most cases, arterial thrombosis follows rupture of atheroma (a fat-rich deposit in the blood vessel wall), and is therefore referred to as atherothrombosis. Arterial embolism occurs when clots then migrate downstream and can affect any organ. Alternatively, arterial occlusion occurs as a consequence of embolism of blood clots originating from the heart ("cardiogenic" emboli). The most common cause is atrial fibrillation, which causes a blood stasis within the atria with easy thrombus formation, but blood clots can develop inside the heart for other reasons too as infective endocarditis.

Stroke
A stroke is the rapid decline of brain function due to a disturbance in the supply of blood to the brain. This can be due to ischemia, thrombus, embolus (a lodged particle) or hemorrhage (a bleed). In thrombotic stroke, a thrombus (blood clot) usually forms around atherosclerotic plaques. Since blockage of the artery is gradual, the onset of symptomatic thrombotic strokes is slower. Thrombotic stroke can be divided into two categories — large vessel disease or small vessel disease. The former affects vessels such as the internal carotids, vertebral and the circle of Willis. The latter can affect smaller vessels, such as the branches of the circle of Willis.

Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction (MI), or heart attack, is caused by ischemia (restriction in the blood supply), which is often due to the obstruction of a coronary artery by a thrombus. This restriction gives an insufficient supply of oxygen to the heart muscle which then results in tissue death (infarction). A lesion is then formed which is the infarct. MI can quickly become fatal if emergency medical treatment is not received promptly. If diagnosed within 12 hours of the initial episode (attack) then thrombolytic therapy is initiated.

Limb ischemia
An arterial thrombus or embolus can also form in the limbs, which can lead to acute limb ischemia.

Other sites
Hepatic artery thrombosis usually occurs as a devastating complication after liver transplantation.

Causes
Thrombosis prevention is initiated with assessing the risk for its development. Some people have a higher risk of developing thrombosis and its possible development into thromboembolism. Some of these risk factors are related to inflammation. "Virchow's triad" has been suggested to describe the three factors necessary for the formation of thrombosis: hemodynamic changes (blood stasis or turbulence), vessel wall {endothelial) injury/dysfunction, and altered blood coagulation (hypercoagulability). Some risk factors predispose for venous thrombosis while others increase the risk of arterial thrombosis. Newborn babies in the neonatal period are also at risk of a thromboembolism.

Pathogenesis
The main causes of thrombosis are given in Virchow's triad which lists thrombophilia, endothelial cell injury, and disturbed blood flow. Generally speaking the risk for thrombosis increases over the life course of individuals, depending on life style factors like smoking, diet, and physical activity, the presence of other diseases like cancer or autoimmune disease, while also platelet properties change in aging individuals which is an important consideration as well.

Hypercoagulability
Hypercoagulability or thrombophilia, is caused by, for example, genetic deficiencies or autoimmune disorders. Recent studies indicate that white blood cells play a pivotal role in deep vein thrombosis, mediating numerous pro-thrombotic actions.

Endothelial cell injury
Any inflammatory process, such as trauma, surgery or infection, can cause damage to the endothelial lining of the vessel's wall. The main mechanism is exposure of tissue factor to the blood coagulation system. Inflammatory and other stimuli (such as hypercholesterolemia) can lead to changes in gene expression in endothelium producing to a pro-thrombotic state. When this occurs, endothelial cells downregulate substances such as thrombomodulin, which is a key modulator of thrombin activity. The result is a sustained activation of thrombin and reduced production of protein C and tissue factor inhibitor, which furthers the pro-thrombotic state.

Endothelial injury is almost invariably involved in the formation of thrombi in arteries, as high rates of blood flow normally hinder clot formation. In addition, arterial and cardiac clots are normally rich in platelets–which are required for clot formation in areas under high stress due to blood flow.

Disturbed blood flow
Causes of disturbed blood flow include stagnation of blood flow past the point of injury, or venous stasis which may occur in heart failure, or after long periods of sedentary behaviour, such as sitting on a long airplane flight. Also, atrial fibrillation, causes stagnant blood in the left atrium (LA), or left atrial appendage (LAA), and can lead to a thromboembolism. Cancers or malignancies such as leukemia may cause increased risk of thrombosis by possible activation of the coagulation system by cancer cells or secretion of procoagulant substances (paraneoplastic syndrome), by external compression on a blood vessel when a solid tumor is present, or (more rarely) extension into the vasculature (for example, renal cell cancers extending into the renal veins). Also, treatments for cancer (radiation, chemotherapy) often cause additional hypercoagulability. There are scores that correlate different aspects of patient data (comorbidities, vital signs, and others) to risk of thrombosis, such as the POMPE-C, which stratifies risk of mortality due to pulmonary embolism in patients with cancer, who typically have higher rates of thrombosis. Also, there are several predictive scores for thromboembolic events, such as Padua, Khorana, and ThroLy score.

Natural history
Fibrinolysis is the physiological breakdown of blood clots by enzymes such as plasmin.

Organisation: following the thrombotic event, residual vascular thrombus will be re-organised histologically with several possible outcomes. For an occlusive thrombus (defined as thrombosis within a small vessel that leads to complete occlusion), wound healing will reorganise the occlusive thrombus into collagenous scar tissue, where the scar tissue will either permanently obstruct the vessel, or contract down with myofibroblastic activity to unblock the lumen. For a mural thrombus (defined as a thrombus in a large vessel that restricts the blood flow but does not occlude completely), histological reorganisation of the thrombus does not occur via the classic wound healing mechanism. Instead, the platelet-derived growth factor degranulated by the clotted platelets will attract a layer of smooth muscle cells to cover the clot, and this layer of mural smooth muscle will be vascularised by the blood inside the vessel lumen rather than by the vasa vasorum.

Ischemia/infarction: if an arterial thrombus cannot be lysed by the body and it does not embolise, and if the thrombus is large enough to impair or occlude blood flow in the involved artery, then local ischemia or infarction will result. A venous thrombus may or may not be ischemic, since veins distribute deoxygenated blood that is less vital for cellular metabolism. Nevertheless, non-ischemic venous thrombosis may still be problematic, due to the swelling caused by blockage to venous drainage. In deep vein thrombosis this manifests as pain, redness, and swelling; in retinal vein occlusion this may result in macular oedema and visual acuity impairment, which if severe enough can lead to blindness.

Embolization
A thrombus may become detached and enter circulation as an embolus, finally lodging in and completely obstructing a blood vessel, which unless treated very quickly will lead to tissue necrosis (an infarction) in the area past the occlusion. Venous thrombosis can lead to pulmonary embolism when the migrated embolus becomes lodged in the lung. In people with a "shunt" (a connection between the pulmonary and systemic circulation), either in the heart or in the lung, a venous clot can also end up in the arteries and cause arterial embolism.

Arterial embolism can lead to obstruction of blood flow through the blood vessel that is obstructed by it, and a lack of oxygen and nutrients (ischemia) of the downstream tissue. The tissue can become irreversibly damaged, a process known as necrosis. This can affect any organ; for instance, arterial embolism of the brain is one of the causes of stroke.

Prevention
The use of heparin following surgery is common if there are no issues with bleeding. Generally, a risk-benefit analysis is required, as all anticoagulants lead to an increased risk of bleeding. In people admitted to hospital, thrombosis is a major cause for complications and occasionally death. In the UK, for instance, the Parliamentary Health Select Committee heard in 2005 that the annual rate of death due to thrombosis was 25,000, with at least 50% of these being hospital-acquired. Hence thromboprophylaxis (prevention of thrombosis) is increasingly emphasized. In patients admitted for surgery, graded compression stockings are widely used, and in severe illness, prolonged immobility and in all orthopedic surgery, professional guidelines recommend low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) administration, mechanical calf compression or (if all else is contraindicated and the patient has recently developed deep vein thrombosis) the insertion of a vena cava filter. In patients with medical rather than surgical illness, LMWH too is known to prevent thrombosis, and in the United Kingdom the Chief Medical Officer has issued guidance to the effect that preventative measures should be used in medical patients, in anticipation of formal guidelines.

Treatment
The treatment for thrombosis depends on whether it is in a vein or an artery, the impact on the person, and the risk of complications from treatment.

Anticoagulation
Warfarin and vitamin K antagonists are anticoagulants that can be taken orally to reduce thromboembolic occurrence. Where a more effective response is required, heparin can be given (by injection) concomitantly. As a side effect of any anticoagulant, the risk of bleeding is increased, so the international normalized ratio of blood is monitored. Self-monitoring and self-management are safe options for competent patients, though their practice varies. In Germany, about 20% of patients were self-managed while only 1% of U.S. patients did home self-testing (according to one 2012 study). Other medications such as direct thrombin inhibitors and direct Xa inhibitors are increasingly being used instead of warfarin.

Thrombolysis
Thrombolysis is the pharmacological destruction of blood clots by administering thrombolytic drugs including recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, which enhances the normal destruction of blood clots by the body's enzymes. This carries an increased risk of bleeding so is generally only used for specific situations (such as severe stroke or a massive pulmonary embolism).

Surgery
Arterial thrombosis may require surgery if it causes acute limb ischemia.

Endovascular treatment
Mechanical clot retrieval and catheter-guided thrombolysis are used in certain situations.

Antiplatelet agents
Arterial thrombosis is platelet-rich, and inhibition of platelet aggregation with antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin may reduce the risk of recurrence or progression.

Targeting ischemia/reperfusion injury
With reperfusion comes ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury (IRI), which paradoxically causes cell death in reperfused tissue and contributes significantly to post-reperfusion mortality and morbidity. For example, in a feline model of intestinal ischemia, four hours of ischemia resulted in less injury than three hours of ischemia followed by one hour of reperfusion. In ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), IRI contributes up to 50% of final infarct size despite timely primary percutaneous coronary intervention. This is a key reason for the continued high mortality and morbidity in these conditions, despite endovascular reperfusion treatments and continuous efforts to improve timeliness and access to these treatments. Hence, protective therapies are required to attenuate IRI alongside reperfusion in acute ischemic conditions to improve clinical outcomes. Therapeutic strategies that have potential to improve clinical outcomes in reperfused STEMI patients include remote ischemic conditioning (RIC), exenatide, and metoprolol. These have emerged amongst a multitude of cardioprotective interventions investigated with largely neutral clinical data. Of these, RIC has the most robust clinical evidence, especially in the context of STEMI, but also emerging for other indications such as acute ischemic stroke and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Neonatal thrombosis
Treatment options for full-term and preterm babies who develop thromboembolism include expectant management (with careful observation), nitroglycerin ointment, pharmacological therapy (thrombolytics and/or anticoagulants), and surgery. The evidence supporting these treatment approaches is weak. For anticoagulant treatment, it is not clear if unfractionated and/or low molecular weight heparin treatment is effective at decreasing mortality and serious adverse events in this population. There is also insufficient evidence to understand the risk of adverse effects associated with these treatment approaches in term or preterm infants.

title: Thrombosis


text:
Embolus

An embolus (: emboli; from the Greek ἔμβολος "wedge", "plug") is an unattached mass that travels through the bloodstream and is capable of creating blockages. When an embolus occludes a blood vessel, it is called an embolism or embolic event. There are a number of different types of emboli, including blood clots, cholesterol plaque or crystals, fat globules, gas bubbles, and foreign bodies, which can result in different types of embolisms.

The term is distinct from embolism and thromboembolism, which may be consequences of an embolus, as discussed below.

The term was coined in 1848 by Rudolf Virchow as part of his foundational research into blood clots.

Nomenclature
The term embolus refers generally to any free-floating mass in the bloodstream. A related term is embolism, which describes the phenomenon of an embolus lodging in a vessel and creating a blockage. An embolism is technically a consequence of an embolus, but the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Both emboli and embolisms are usually named according to their composite substance.

In contrast to emboli, which can cause occlusion at sites distant from their points of origin, there are also non-traveling blockages that develop locally from vascular trauma and inflammation or other epithelial pathology, such as atheromata and thrombi. If these local blockages dislodge into circulation, they become emboli and if not broken down during circulation, may cause embolism(s). For example, a thromboembolism is the result of a thrombus that has broken off the interior of a blood vessel and caused a vessel blockage elsewhere in the circulation.

Details of embolism classification are discussed below.

Classification by substance
The physical composition of the embolic material is the defining feature for classification, and this composition reflects the underlying pathophysiologic mechanism of the embolus' formation. Furthermore, different types of emboli result in different types of embolisms, each with distinct clinical characteristics.

In thromboembolism, the thrombus (blood clot) from a blood vessel is completely or partially detached from the site of thrombosis (clot). The blood flow will then carry the embolus (via blood vessels) to various parts of the body where it can block the lumen (vessel cavity) and cause vessel obstruction or occlusion. The free-moving thrombus is called an embolus. A thrombus is always attached to the vessel wall and is never freely moving in the blood circulation. This is also the key difference for pathologists to determine the cause of a blood clot, either by thrombosis or by post-mortem blood clot. Vessel obstruction will then lead to different pathological issues such as blood stasis and ischemia. However, not only thromboembolism will cause the obstruction of blood flow in vessels, but also any kind of embolism is capable of causing the same problem.

Fat embolism usually occurs when endogenous (from sources within the organism) fat tissue escapes into the blood circulation. The usual cause of fat embolism is therefore the fracture of tubular bones (such as the femur), which will lead to the leakage of fat tissue within the bone marrow into ruptured vessels. There are also exogenous (from sources of external origin) causes such as intravenous injection of emulsions.

An air embolism, on the other hand, is usually always caused by exogenic factors. This can be the rupture of alveoli, and inhaled air can be leaked into the blood vessels. Other more-common causes include the puncture of the subclavian vein by accident or during operation where there is negative pressure. Air is then sucked into the veins by the negative pressure caused by thoracic expansion during the inhalation phase of respiration. Air embolism can also happen during intravenous therapy, when air is leaked into the system (however this iatrogenic error in modern medicine is extremely rare).

Gas embolism is a common concern for deep-sea divers because the gases in human blood (usually nitrogen and helium) can be easily dissolved at higher amounts during the descent into deep sea. However, when the diver ascends to the normal atmospheric pressure, the gases become insoluble, causing the formation of small bubbles in the blood. This is also known as decompression sickness or the bends. This phenomenon is explained by Henry's Law in physical chemistry.

Embolism by other materials is rare. Septic embolism happens when a purulent tissue (pus-containing tissue) is dislodged from its original focus. Tissue embolism is a near-equivalent to cancer metastasis, which happens when cancer tissue infiltrates blood vessels, and small fragments of them are released into the blood stream. Foreign-body embolism happens when exogenous—and only exogenous—materials such as talc enter the blood stream and cause occlusion or obstruction of blood circulation. Bullet embolism occurs in approximately 0.3% cases of gunshot wounds. Amniotic-fluid embolism is a rare complication of childbirth.

Clinical significance
Emboli are clinically significant for their capacity to cause embolisms, which are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. By themselves, emboli are pathologic and therefore indicate some underlying dysfunction.

It may be difficult in the clinical setting to differentiate a thrombotic event (i.e., a local clot at the site of symptoms) from an embolic event (i.e., local obstruction due to a free-floating mass that traveled through circulation from elsewhere in the body). Septic emboli may also be a contributor to spreading infection through the bloodstream to other tissues.

History
Rudolf Virchow, the German physician and "father of pathology", is generally credited with the first explanation of the relationship between thrombi, emboli, and embolisms. He coined the terms embolism (initially called "Embolia") and thrombosis while proposing a hypothesis for the pathophysiology of pulmonary thromboembolism.

In his work, he described the consequences of thrombosis and the factors leading thereto, a concept which today is known as Virchow's Triad. However, there is some dispute regarding certain aspects of this attribution.

title: Embolus