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Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj (आर्य समाज) is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. The sannyasi (ascetic) Dayanand Saraswati founded the samaj in the 1870s.

Arya Samaj was the first Hindu organization to introduce proselytization in Hinduism. The organization has also worked towards the growth of civil rights movement in India since 1800s.

Etymology
"Arya Samaj" is a compound Sanskrit term consisting of the words "arya" and "samaj." The term "arya" refers to an individual who possesses virtuous attributes and noble characteristics, whereas "samaj" denotes a social group or organized community. Therefore, the term "arya samaj" refers to a community of individuals of high moral character.

The beginning
Swami Dayanand Saraswati established the Arya Samaj in April 1875 in Bombay with ten principles. However, these principles were finally settled in 1877 in Lahore.

Vedic schools
Between 1869 and 1873, Dayanand began his efforts to reform orthodox Hinduism in India. He established Gurukul (Vedic schools) which emphasised Vedic values, culture, and Satya (Truth). The schools gave separate educations to boys and girls based on ancient Vedic principles. The Vedic school system was also to relieve Indians from the pattern of a British education.

Emergence of Arya Samaj in Punjab
Due to Schisms in Adi Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta, a new variant of Adi Brahmoism called Arya Samaj began to take root in the Punjab. When he traveled to Calcutta Swami Dayanand had come into close and extended contact with Raj Narayan Bose, Debendranath Tagore etc. Swami Dayanand closely studied Tagore's book Brahmo Dharma, a comprehensive manual of religion and ethics for Adi Dharma, while in Calcutta. The bone of contention between these two Samajs was over the authority of the Vedas–whose authority the Adi Dharma reject and hold to be inferior works, whereas Arya Samaj hold Vedas to be divine revelation. Despite this difference of opinion, however, it seems that the members of the Brahmo Samaj and Swami Dayanand parted on good terms, the former having publicly praised the latter’s visit to Calcutta in several journals and the latter having taken inspiration from the former’s activity in the social sphere.

Growth of Arya Samaj after Dayanand
Dayanand was assassinated in 1883. Despite this set back, the Arya Samaj continued to grow, especially in Punjab. The early leaders of the Samaj were Pandit Lekh Ram (1858–1897) and Swami Shraddhanand (Mahatma Munshi Ram Vij) (1856–1926). Some authors claim that the activities of the Samaj led to increased antagonism between Muslims and Hindus. Shraddhanand led the Shuddhi movement that aimed to bring Hindus who had converted to other religions back to Hinduism.

In 1893, the Arya Samaj members of Punjab were divided on the question of vegetarianism. The group that refrained from eating meat were called the "Mahatma" group and the other group, the "Cultured Party".

In the early 1900s, the Samaj (or organizations inspired by it such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal) campaigned against caste discrimination. They also campaigned for widow remarriage and women's education. The samaj also established chapters in British colonies having Indian population such as South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

Prominent Indian Nationalists such as Lala Lajpat Rai belonged to Arya Samaj and were active in its campaigning. Bhagat Singh's grandfather followed Arya Samaj, which had a considerable influence on Bhagat Singh. The British colonial government in the early part of 20th century viewed the Samaj as a political body. Some Samajis in government service were dismissed for belonging to the Samaj.

In the 1930s, when the Hindu Nationalist group, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh grew in prominence in Northern India, they found support from the Arya Samaj of Punjab.

Arya Samaj in Punjab
In Punjab, the Arya Samaj was opposed by the Ahmadiyya movement which provided the Samaj one of its most aggressive opponents from among the various Muslim groups and whose founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was extensively involved in theological disputations with Samaj leaders, most notably with Pandit Lekh Ram. It was also opposed by the Sikh dominated Singh Sabha, the forerunner of the Akali Dal. It was also opposed by Vaishnavs, who were criticized by Dayānanda Sarasvatī.

Arya Samaj in Sindh
The Samaj was active in Sindh at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. The activities of the Samaj in the region included using shuddhi in integrating half-Muslim or low-caste communities into the organization. Narayan Dev, a Samaj member active in making many conversions is extolled as a Sindhi martyr. He is sometimes referred to as 'Dayanand ka vir sipahi' (Dayanand's heroic soldier). Dev was killed in a street fight in 1948. The history of Sindhi nationalism is also tied with the activities of the Arya Samaj. In the 19th century, the Hindu community of Sindh had been challenged by Christian missionaries and the Samaj served as a deterrent to the "conversion" done by Christian missionaries in the region. A Hindu Sindhi leader, K. R. Malkani, later on became prominent in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), and the BJP. According to Malkani, the Arya Samaj created a "new pride" among the Hindu Sindhis by opening gymnasia and Sanskrit pathshalas in the 1930s.

Arya Samaj in Gujarat
The Arya Samaj of Gujarat members were missionaries from Punjab who had been encouraged to move to Gujarat to carry out educational work amongst the untouchable castes by the Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III. The Gujarat Samaj opened orphanages. The Samaj starting losing support when Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 because many activist joined his movement.

Reconversion in Malabar
In 1921, during a rebellion by the Muslim Moplah community of Malabar Indian newspapers reported that a number of Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam. The Arya Samaj extended its efforts to the region to reconvert these people back to Hinduism through Shuddhi ceremonies.

Views of Orthodox Hindu on the Samaj
The then Shankaracharya of Badrinath Math in 1939 in a letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, called Arya Samajis Un-Hindu. He also criticized the Samaj efforts at converting Christians and Muslims.

Arya Samaj in Hyderabad state
A branch of Arya Samaj was established at Dharur in Beed district of Hyderabad state, the largest princely state during British colonial rule. Keshav Rao Koratkar was the president of the organization until 1932. During his tenure, the Samaj, established schools and libraries throughout the state. Although a social and religious organization, the Samaj activities assumed a great political role in resisting the government of the Nizam during 1930s. In 1938–1939, Arya Samaj teamed up with the Hindu Mahasabha to resist the Nizam government through Satyagraha. The Nizam government responded by raiding and desecrating Arya Samaj mandirs. The Samaj, in turn, criticized Islam and the Islamic rulers of the state. This widely increased the gulf between the Hindu and Muslim population of the state.

Language issue
Arya Samaj promoted the use of Hindi in Punjab and discouraged the use of Punjabi. This was a serious point of difference between the Sikhs, represented by the Shiromani Akali Dal group and the Arya Samaj. The difference was marked during the period immediately following the independence of India and the time of the Punjabi Suba movement (demand for a Punjabi speaking state).

Humanitarian efforts
Arya Samaj is a charitable organisation. For example, donations were made to victims of the 1905 Kangra earthquake. The samaj campaigned for women's right to vote, and for the protection of widows.

Arya Samaj in India
Arya Samaj schools and temples are found in almost all major cities and as well as in rural areas (especially in the North) of India. Some are authorised to conduct weddings. The Samaj is associated with the Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) schools which number over eight hundred. There are eight million followers of the Samaj in India.

Arya Samaj around the world
Arya Samaj is active in countries including Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Australia, South Africa, Kenya, Mauritius and other countries where a significant Hindu diaspora is present. The Arya Samaj in Kenya runs a number of schools in Nairobi and other cities of the country.

Immigrants to Canada and the United States from South Asia, Eastern Africa, South Africa, and the Caribbean countries have set up Arya Samaj temples for their respective communities. Most major metropolitan areas of the United States have chapters of Arya Samaj.

Core beliefs
Members of the Arya Samaj believe in one creator God referred to with the syllable 'Aum' as mentioned in the Yajur Veda (40:17). They believe the Vedas are an infallible authority, and they respect the Upanishads and Vedic philosophy. The Arya Samaj members reject other Hindu religious texts because they are not pure works, and because these texts promote things do not support their ideology and are therefore against the Vedas. For instance, they believe epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are legends of historical figures, and reject them as reference to supreme beings and avatars. The members of Arya Samaj also reject other scriptural works such as the Puranas, the Bible, and the Quran. Worship of idols (murti puja) is strictly prohibited in the samaj.

The core beliefs of Arya Samaj are postulated below:

 * 1) The primeval cause of all genuine knowledge and all that is known by means of knowledge is God.
 * 2) God is truth-consciousness: formless, omnipotent, unborn, infinite, unchangeable, incomparable, omnipresent, internal, undecaying, immortal, eternal, holy, and creator of the universe. God alone deserves worship.
 * 3) The Vedas are repositories of all of true knowledge. It is the paramount duty of all Aryas to study and teach and to propound the Vedas.
 * 4) One should be ever ready to imbibe truth and forsake untruth.
 * 5) All acts should be done in accordance with Dharma, i.e. after deliberating upon what is truth and untruth.
 * 6) The prime object of Arya Samaj is to do good to the whole world, i.e. to achieve physical, spiritual and social prosperity for all.
 * 7) Our conduct towards all should be guided by love, by injunctions of Dharma and according to their respective positions.
 * 8) One should dispel ignorance and promote knowledge.
 * 9) One should not be content with one's own prosperity only, but should consider the prosperity of all as his own prosperity.
 * 10) All human beings should abide by the rules concerning social or everyone's benefit, while everyone should be free to follow any rule beneficial for him/her.

Practices

The Arya Samaj members consider the Gayatri Mantra, as the most holy mantra and chant it periodically, do the meditation known as Sandhya and make offering to the holy fire (havan). The havan can be performed with a priest for special occasions or without a priest for personal worship. The havan is performed as per the, usually a simplified guide to do havan, having mantras for general or special occasions. The priest is generally a Vedic scholar from the local Arya Samaj Mandir or Gurukul. Sometimes elder members of family or neighbours can also perform the havan acting as a purohit. The host is known as the "yajmana". The priest can be called an "acharya", "shastri" or "pandit" depending upon his scholarly status and local reputation. It is customary to give a nominal "dakshina" to the priest after havan, although in Arya Samaj it is more symbolic and the priest does not state any sum. The sum is decided by the host's capability and status but is still a small amount. After a death, Arya Samajis will often conduct a havan and collect the ashes on the fourth day.

Diwali
Diwali is a very important day in Arya Samaj as Swami Dayanand died this day. A special havan is done for the same.

The Arya Samaj version of the Hindu festival Diwali is typified by the celebration in Suriname. The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil. A vegetarian fast is kept. The Gayatri Mantra is recited while oil lamps are lit, in front of a fire altar lit with sandalwood. One Diya lamp, which is of larger size has two wicks crossed to produce four lights, one in each direction and is lit first. The smaller lamp has one wick. A lamp is kept in every room except the bathroom and restroom. More lamps can be lit, which can be placed arbitrarily in the yard, living room and so on.

Holi
Holi is celebrated as the conclusion of winter and the start of spring to sow the land and hope for a good harvest. This day is marked by colors and songs (Chautal). It does not require specific prayer or fasting, however, some people keep a vegetarian fast on this day. The festivities do not associate Holi with a particular deity such as Vishnu or Shiva. The early Arya Samajist in 19th century Lahore adapted the festival to include prayers and havan but avoid the intoxication, and obscenities associated with traditional celebrations.

Arya Samaj across the world

 * Arya Samaj in Burma
 * Arya Samaj in United Kingdom
 * Arya Samaj in Fiji
 * Arya Samaj in Ghana
 * Arya Samaj in Guyana
 * Arya Samaj in Kenya
 * Arya Samaj in Mauritius
 * Arya Samaj in Mozambique
 * Arya Samaj in Singapore
 * Arya Samaj in South Africa
 * Arya Samaj in Suriname
 * Arya Samaj in Tanzania
 * Arya Samaj in Trinidad and Tobago
 * Arya Samaj in Thailand
 * Arya Samaj in Uganda

title: Arya Samaj


text: Talk:Koxinga

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Koxinga


text:
Talk:Amide

Untitled
This page seems to talk about molecules containing peptide bonds, but there are other amides out there, like dimethylformamide HCON(CH3)2 or sulfonamides or tertiary amides. AxelBoldt 19:12 Jan 23, 2003 (UTC)

AxelBoldt is right, there is not enough information on the differant types of amides. This article just focus' on seconday amides. It should include information on primary and tertiary amides aswell. This would help clarify the differances between the peptide link and an amide. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Also, I'm not so sure you can synthesize an amide from a carboxylic acid unless it is under enzymatic catalysis.

 * yes you can, you just have to heat it very hard. The ammonium salts of carboxylic acids on heating will give amides, if you heat them even harder with P2O5 then you get nitriles.Cadmium

I really think there should be more of a distinction between amides with a carbonyl group and amides such as lithium diisopropyl amide. I thought all amides had a carbonyl group until i ran across LDA. Eddietoran 19:23, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

Basicity: "the conjugate acid of an amide has a pKa around −0.5." "Conversely, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a pKa of roughly −1." Shouldn't those two pKa values be the same? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.188.175.19 (talk) 05:18, 16 June 2017 (UTC)

H two zero
The removal of water under the reaction arrow, denoted -H2O, actually has a 0 (zero) instead of O (the letter for oxygen). Could whoever made the reaction scheme picture please fix this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.151.34.108 (talk) 04:39, 12 March 2007 (UTC)
 * done! V8rik 21:17, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

Amidation redirects here, but it's not really explained. (And I don't know enough to write about it myself.) MarcelM 17:15, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Facile amidation
As per the described direct amidation of carboxylic acid with amine in presence of catalyst (Rheuthenium based), there is a better and cheaper method reported in Org. Syn. 2005, which is also far more 'green'. This describes use of Boric acid in 5 mol% quantity, with azeotropically removing water. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Chinu687 (talk • contribs) 03:38, 14 May 2008 (UTC)

only organic?
I'm sure there are a lot of amides like sulfamide without any carbonyl function. Only amides from carboxylic acids are "organic". Sadorkan (talk) 15:20, 23 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Although the specific compound called sulfamide, H2N-SO2-NH2, is inorganic, there are other amides without a carbonyl group that contain carbon and are also organic. Yes, non-carbonyl amides (amides not of carboxylic origin) should be mentioned also in this article.  H Padleckas (talk) 20:17, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

Main "amide" page should discuss all meanings, not only the one in organic chemistry
I second the above criticism, and I'm tagging this page as confusing. See more on my explanation for the same problem for "imide" page, the talk page at Talk:Imide.

12.104.156.31 (talk) 18:38, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

 * I agree. Besides the previously mentioned sulfamide (and its organic N-substituted relatives), there is the inorganic phosphoramide OP(NH2)3 (and its organic N-substituted relatives), sulfonamides R-SO2-NR'2, phosphonamides R-PO(NR'2)2, and who knows what others.  H Padleckas (talk) 20:17, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Well I am partly responsible for this predicament, which is a matter of expediency and reflects the fact early Wikipedia focused on really big topics before getting to more specialized ones.  The article follows our template for an organic functional group.  Here are some options for addressing the omission of sulfonamide-phosphoramide etc:

--Smokefoot (talk) 00:43, 20 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Suggestion 1, retain this basic article but add a paragraph that explains the nomenclature for organic amides, phosphoramides, sulfonamides, and has links to each. Note we already do this for the NH2- meaning of amide.
 * Suggestion 2, convert this article to a disambiguation page that points to articles devoted to conventional organic amides (not sure that they are called), phosphoramides, sulfonamides, etc. This idea accommodates the "specialty amides" but 99+% of amides are of the RC(O)NH2 variety in everyday life (IMHO).
 * Suggestion 3, which seems unworkable, introduce subsections within each section pertaining to synthesis of ..." "occurrence of ..." for phosphoramides, sulfonamides, etc.
 * Other idea?

 * I advocate Suggestion 1 for now, which some Users have already started to implement. This article is less than 15000 bytes, leaving plenty of room for expansion - later into Suggestion 3.  When the article finally becomes unworkably long (if ever), it could become a lists page, somewhat similar to a disambiguation page, thus approaching Suggestion 2.  Unlike a true disambiguation page, a lists page could have discussion and summaries of each of the topics.  There are already articles on sulfamide and sulfonamides.  H Padleckas (talk) 04:34, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

Figure in "Structure and bonding" section
I think something is wrong with e- movement, bond rearrangement and charges in the figure in the "Structure and bonding" section ??? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.226.107.5 (talk) 12:13, 16 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Those are resonance structures, not a chemical reaction. This is not clearly explained in that section, and an explanation should be added.  Given the fact that those are resonance structures, they are correct.  H Padleckas (talk) 21:26, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

Pronunciation contradiction
The audio and phonetic don't seem to match. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 161.130.25.152 (talk) 20:44, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

Having noticed this myself, I've tagged the article with Contradict-inline so that hopefully someone who knows which is the "correct" pronunciation can correct it. According to the OED 11th ed., both the pronunciation transcribed in the article and that spoken  are acceptable, but I have no expertise on the subject and so don't feel justified in making the edit myself. D 4 g 0 t h u r 10:02, 28 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amide


text:
Talk:Self-deification

The word "autotheism," which does not suffer from the awful mixing of Greek and Latin, has had this meaning in English since 1619 according to the OED. The only problem with using autotheism in the sense of self-deification is that it had an earlier technical meaning in Catholic writings, actually two of them:
 * 1) The doctrine of the self-existence of God
 * 2) The heresy that Jesus was God in his own right

Therefore, I'm proposing to edit "suitheism" right out of the neopagan page.

I can do that, since I am God.

Freeman 19:25 Jan 23, 2003 (UTC)

This article really doesn't deserve an encyclopedia entry. Practically no one uses this term; it is just a neologism that was made up by two authors to describe themselves. People in the real world just don't use this term. Authors make up thousands of self-defined phrases every decade; should we waste our time on encyclopedia writing about them, when real topics need work? RK

Surprisingly enough I have been a "suitheist" since I can remember and not until I stumbled on this did I realize there were others who felt the same. Leave the entry up for all those who stumble (even gods need to know where to look). ~nameless walker

For an example of Suitheism, see Ludwig Feuerbach. In 1841 he published "The Essence of Christianity".

Ironic
I am also God, and although this is not a trolly forum it is an encylopedia, I will point out something obvious: *Arguing* that you shouldnt waste time on a 'useless' encyclopedia entry is even more pointless than the original waste of time. Yes, and this message is even more of a waste. Talk to the divine hand.

If you're god, how come you've been blocked three times (there is a history bit at the top I can look at, see?) This bit is also incredibly useless... ~  Ghelæ  talkcontribs 16:10, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

He was blocked for your vandalisms.

If suitheism and apotheosis aren't going to be merged, they should at least be linked together. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rootsofamericanorder (talk • contribs) 05:09, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

This is wikipedia not wiktionary
The word Suitheism needs to have a home, however it should not be here. Suitheism is not a new word, and is a valid concept of spiritual understanding. The problem with suitheism being on Wikipedia is that this is not the proper forum for this word. Suitheism should be only in Wiktionary (spelling?). Encyclopedias are not places for the meaning of words of this sort. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.240.246.253 (talk) 03:42, 30 March 2007 (UTC).

 * I have only just come across this page as a result of an Afd concerning one of the coiners of the term "suitheism". As a neologism used by a remarkably small number of people (and with no reliable sources to back it up; Cunningham's book is obviously not reliable), I am confused by its inclusion. I suggest it is removed. Blackmetalbaz (talk) 23:47, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

Viiolation of the Three Revert Rule
User:Jupiter Optimus Maximus has just violated the Three Revert Rule (WP:3RR) at this article. I have asked him to please refrain from this behavior as it is considered to be WP:Edit warring, and to provide a WP:Reliable reference to support his contention that the Russian Orthodox Church was shut down and Stalin was worshiped as God, after a 24 hour period. I would like to return the article to its status before this last, improper edit.--Editor2020 (talk) 23:10, 13 October 2008 (UTC)

 * Okay. I'm sorry. --Jupiter Optimus Maximus (talk) 08:56, 14 October 2008 (UTC)

Theism in Advaita?
The reference to Advaita is problematic, because in a non-dual reality, by definition there is no God and no individual soul (as, say, in the Christian sense) to begin with. Therefore, there can be no act of "uniting" them. If there is a union between them, that notion is redundant, as talking about two separate entities that are in union is, again by definition, nonsensical. I understand that the analogy to dualist religions and other systems is tempting, but theism has no place in Advaita and many other similar "systems" (for lack of a better word). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.89.175.205 (talk) 23:05, 25 October 2008 (UTC)

A term based on the apotheosis- Perhaps Apotheism would be better
Apotheosis has a historical basis for its meaning true to LHP practices. So adapting it to a noun as Apotheism may be better. I think auto theism is inappropriat due to its historical connections as noted already. I really think deletions is the best route. Clearly it is a Suitheism is made up- wasn't denied by creator, and it is used by probably less than a dozen people. For these reasons it is not worth an entry. Notice pointedly that there are no users outraged by the possible deletion or stepping up to offer credentials or historical references for why they along with the creator of the term us either autotheism or suitheism for LHP work. It seemed like true unwarrented self deification to create the entry in the first place. - Waron Ignoratus —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.28.66.172 (talk) 01:27, 18 December 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Self-deification


text:
Cedric Hardwicke

Sir Cedric Webster Hardwicke (19 February 1893 – 6 August 1964) was an English stage and film actor whose career spanned nearly 50 years. His theatre work included notable performances in productions of the plays of Shakespeare and Shaw, and his film work included leading roles in several adapted literary classics.

Early life
Hardwicke was born in Lye, Worcestershire (now West Midlands) to Edwin Webster Hardwicke and his wife, Jessie (née Masterson). He attended Bridgnorth Grammar School in Shropshire. He intended to train as a doctor but failed to pass the necessary examinations. He turned to the theatre and trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA).

Military service
Hardwicke enlisted at the outbreak of the First World War. He served with the London Scottish from 1914 to 1921 as an officer in the Judge Advocate's branch of the British Army in France. He was one of the last members of the British Expeditionary Force to leave France. According to the Daily Mirror 1 January 1934, Hardwicke was one of the officers who escorted The Unknown Warrior from France.

Stage

Hardwicke made his first appearance on stage at the Lyceum Theatre, London in 1912 during the run of Frederick Melville's melodrama The Monk and the Woman, when he took over the part of Brother John. During this year, he was at Her Majesty's Theatre understudying, and subsequently appeared at the Garrick Theatre in Charles Klein's play Find the Woman, and Trust the People. In 1913, he joined Benson's Company and toured in the provinces, South Africa, and Rhodesia. During 1914 he toured with Miss Darragh (Letitia Marion Dallas, d. 1917) in Laurence Irving's play The Unwritten Law, and he appeared at the Old Vic in 1914 as Malcolm in Macbeth, Tranio in The Taming of the Shrew, the gravedigger in Hamlet, and other roles.

After serving in the British Army in WWI, he resumed his acting career. In January 1922, he joined the Birmingham Repertory Company, playing a range of parts from the drooping young lover Faulkland in The Rivals to the roistering Sir Toby Belch in Twelfth Night.

He played many classical roles on stage, appearing at London's top theatres, making his name on the stage performing works by George Bernard Shaw, who said that Hardwicke was his fifth favourite actor after the four Marx Brothers. As one of the leading Shavian actors of his generation, Hardwicke starred in Caesar and Cleopatra, Pygmalion, The Apple Cart, Candida, Too True to Be Good, and Don Juan in Hell, making such an impression that at the age of 41 he became the youngest actor to be knighted (this occurred in the 1934 New Year's Honours; Laurence Olivier subsequently took the record in 1947 when he was knighted at the age of 40). Other stage successes included The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse, Antigone and A Majority of One, winning a Tony Award nomination for his performance as a Japanese diplomat.

In 1928, whilst appearing with Edith Day, Paul Robeson and Alberta Hunter in the London production of Show Boat, he married actress Helena Pickard.

In December 1935, Hardwicke was elected Rede Lecturer to Cambridge University for 1936, he took as his subject "The Drama Tomorrow". In the late 1930s, he moved to the U.S., initially for film work. In the early 1940s, he continued his stage career on tours and in New York.

In 1944, Hardwicke returned to Britain, again touring, and reappeared on the London stage, at the Westminster Theatre, on 29 March 1945, as Richard Varwell in a revival of Eden and Adelaide Phillpotts' comedy Yellow Sands, and subsequently toured in this on the continent. He returned to America late in 1945 and appeared with Ethel Barrymore in December in a revival of Shaw's Pygmalion, and continued on the New York stage the following year. In 1946, he starred opposite Katharine Cornell as King Creon in her production of Jean Anouilh's adaptation of the Greek tragedy Antigone.

In 1948, he joined the Old Vic Company at the New Theatre to play Sir Toby Belch, Doctor Faustus, and Gaev in The Cherry Orchard, but according to critic and biographer W.A. Darlington, "it was about this time that he confessed to a friend that he was finding the competition in London too hot for him", and he moved permanently to the U.S. In 1951–52, he appeared on Broadway in Shaw's Don Juan in Hell with Agnes Moorehead, Charles Boyer and Charles Laughton.

Film and television work
Hardwicke's first appearance in a British film was in 1931, and from the late 1930s, he was in great demand in Hollywood. He played David Livingstone opposite Spencer Tracy's Henry Morton Stanley in Stanley and Livingstone in 1939, and also played the evil Frollo in the remake of The Hunchback of Notre Dame starring Charles Laughton the same year. In 1940, he played Mr. Jones in a screen version of Joseph Conrad's novel Victory. He starred as the unfortunate Ludwig von Frankenstein in The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942) alongside Lon Chaney Jr. as Frankenstein's monster and Bela Lugosi as Ygor.

Hardwicke played in films such as Les Misérables (1935) with Fredric March and Charles Laughton, the first ever three-strip Technicolor film Becky Sharp (1935), King Solomon's Mines (1937), The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), The Winslow Boy (1948), Alfred Hitchcock's Rope (1948) with James Stewart, and Olivier's Richard III (1955). He was featured as King Arthur in the comedy/musical A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1949), singing Busy Doing Nothing in a trio with Bing Crosby and William Bendix, and as the Pharaoh Sethi in Cecil B. DeMille's 1956 film The Ten Commandments starring Charlton Heston as Moses.

He appeared in a 1956 episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents titled Wet Saturday in which he portrayed Mr. Princey, an aristocratic gentleman who tries to cover up a murder to avoid public scandal. On 6 March 1958, he guest-starred on the TV series The Ford Show starring Tennessee Ernie Ford.

In 1961, he co-starred with Gertrude Berg in the Four Star Television situation comedy, Mrs. G. Goes to College (retitled The Gertrude Berg Show at mid-season). The series was cancelled after one season.

Radio
In 1945, Hardwicke played Sherlock Holmes in a BBC Radio dramatisation of The Speckled Band, opposite Finlay Currie as Dr. Watson. Years later, Hardwicke's son Edward played Watson in the acclaimed Granada series.

Hardwicke played the titular role in a short-lived revival of the Bulldog Drummond radio program on the Mutual Broadcasting System, which ran 3 January 1954 to 28 March 1954.

Personal life
In 1928, he married the English actress Helena Pickard. They divorced in 1948; their son was actor Edward Hardwicke. His second marriage, which produced a son, Michael, and likewise ended in divorce, was to actress, Mary Scott (1921–2009), from 1950 to 1961.

A lifelong heavy smoker, he suffered from emphysema and died 6 August 1964 at the age of 71 in New York from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Hardwicke's body was flown back to England; after a memorial service he was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in north London, where his ashes were scattered.

Legacy
Hardwicke left two volumes of memoirs: Let's Pretend: Recollections and Reflections of a Lucky Actor, 1932 and A Victorian in Orbit: as told to James Brough, 1962. He is commemorated by a sculpture by Tim Tolkien at Lye, commissioned by the Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council. The memorial takes the form of a giant filmstrip, the illuminated cut metal panels illustrating scenes from some of Hardwicke's better-known roles, which include The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Things to Come, and The Ghost of Frankenstein. Unveiled in November 2005, it is located at Lye Cross where he lived as a child. Thorns School and Community College in neighbouring Quarry Bank has renamed its drama theatre in his honour as the Hardwicke Theatre.

Hardwicke has a motion pictures star and a television star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Filmography

 * Nelson (1926) as Horatio Nelson (film debut)
 * Dreyfus (1931) as Captain Alfred Dreyfus
 * Rome Express (1932) as Alistair McBane
 * The Ghoul (1933) as Broughton
 * Orders Is Orders (1934) as Brigadier
 * Bella Donna (1934)
 * Nell Gwyn (1934) as Charles II
 * The Lady Is Willing (1934) as Gustav Dupont
 * Jew Süss (1934) as Rabbi Gabriel
 * The King of Paris (1934) as Max Till
 * Les Misérables (1935) as Bishop Bienvenu
 * Becky Sharp (1935) as Marquis of Steyne
 * Peg of Old Drury (1935) as David Garrick
 * Things to Come (1936) as Theotocopulos
 * Tudor Rose (1936) as Earl of Warwick
 * Laburnum Grove (1936) as Mr. Baxley
 * Green Light (1937) as Dean Harcourt
 * King Solomon's Mines (1937) as Allan Quartermain
 * On Borrowed Time (1939) as Mr. Brink
 * Stanley and Livingstone (1939) as David Livingstone
 * The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) as Frollo
 * The Invisible Man Returns (1940) as Richard Cobb
 * Tom Brown's School Days (1940) as Dr. Thomas Arnold
 * The Howards of Virginia (1940) as Fleetwood Peyton
 * Victory (1940) as Mr. Jones
 * Sundown (1941) as Bishop Coombes
 * Suspicion (1941) as General McLaidlaw
 * Valley of the Sun (1942) as Lord Warrick
 * The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942) as Ludwig Frankenstein/Henry Frankenstein
 * Invisible Agent (1942) as Conrad Stauffer
 * Commandos Strike at Dawn (1942) as Admiral Bowen
 * Forever and a Day (1943) as Mr. Dabb
 * The Moon Is Down (1943) as Colonel Lanser
 * The Cross of Lorraine (1943) as Father Sebastian
 * The Lodger (1944) as Robert Bonting
 * Wilson (1944) as Senator Henry Cabot Lodge
 * Wing and a Prayer (1944) as Admiral
 * Three Sisters of the Moors (1944, short) as Reverend Bronte
 * The Keys of the Kingdom (1944) as Monsignor at Tweedside
 * The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945) as Narrator
 * Sentimental Journey (1946) as Jim Miller
 * Beware of Pity (1946) as Albert Condor
 * Nicholas Nickleby (1947) as Ralph Nickleby
 * The Imperfect Lady (1947) as Lord Belmont
 * Ivy (1947) as Police Inspector Orpington
 * Lured (1947) as Julian Wilde
 * Tycoon (1947) as Alexander
 * A Woman's Vengeance (1948) as James Libbard
 * Song of My Heart (1948) as Grand Duke
 * I Remember Mama (1948) as Mr. Hyde
 * The Winslow Boy (1948) as Arthur Winslow
 * Rope (1948) as Henry Kentley
 * A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1949) as Lord Pendragon / King Arthur
 * Now Barabbas (1949) as Governor
 * The White Tower (1950) as Nicholas Radcliffe
 * You Belong to My Heart (1951) as Bernand
 * The Desert Fox (1951) as Karl Strolin
 * The Green Glove (1952) as Father Goron
 * Caribbean Gold (1952) as Captain Francis Barclay
 * Botany Bay (1953) as Governor Phillips
 * Salome (1953) as Tiberius Caesar
 * The War of the Worlds (1953) as Commentary (voice)
 * Bait (1954) as Prologue Speaker
 * Richard III (1955) as King Edward IV of England
 * Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1956) (Season 1 Episode 40: "Wet Saturday") as Mr. Princey
 * Diane (1956) as Ruggieri
 * Helen of Troy (1956) as Priam
 * Gaby (1956) as Mr. Edgar Carrington
 * The Vagabond King (1956) as Tristan
 * The Power and the Prize (1956) as Mr. Carew
 * The Ten Commandments (1956) as Sethi
 * Around the World in 80 Days (1956) as Sir Francis Cromarty
 * Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1957) (Season 2 Episode 33: "A Man Greatly Beloved") as "John Anderson"
 * The Story of Mankind (1957) as High Judge
 * Baby Face Nelson (1957) as Doc Saunders
 * Five Weeks in a Balloon (1962) as Fergusson
 * Twilight Zone (November 14,1963) (Season 5 Episode 8: "Uncle Simon") as Uncle Simon
 * The Pumpkin Eater (1964) as Mr. James - Jo's father (final film role)
 * The Outer Limits (1964) as Colas in "The Forms of Things Unknown"

title: Cedric Hardwicke


text:
Trinitron

Trinitron was Sony's brand name for its line of aperture-grille-based CRTs used in television sets and computer monitors, one of the first television systems to enter the market since the 1950s. Constant improvement in the basic technology and attention to overall quality allowed Sony to charge a premium for Trinitron devices into the 1990s.

Patent protection on the basic Trinitron design ran out in 1996, and it quickly faced a number of competitors at much lower prices.

The name Trinitron was derived from trinity, meaning the union of three, and tron from electron tube, after the way that the Trinitron combined the three separate electron guns of other CRT designs into one.

Color television

Color television had been demoed since the 1920s starting with John Logie Baird's system. However, it was only in the late 1940s that it was perfected by both CBS and RCA. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or "gel") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the United States Federal Communications Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.

RCA worked along different lines entirely, using the luminance-chrominance system. This system did not directly encode or transmit the RGB signals; instead it combined these colors into one overall brightness figure, the "luminance". Luminance closely matched the black and white signal of existing broadcasts, allowing it to be displayed on existing televisions. This was a major advantage over the mechanical systems being proposed by other groups. Color information was then separately encoded and folded into the signal as a high-frequency modification to produce a composite video signal – on a black and white television this extra information would be seen as a slight randomization of the image intensity, but the limited resolution of existing sets made this invisible in practice. On color sets the signal would be extracted, decoded back into RGB, and displayed. Although RCA's system had enormous benefits, it had not been successfully developed because it was difficult to produce the display tubes. Black and white TVs used a continuous signal and the tube could be coated with an even deposit of phosphor. With the compatible color encoding scheme originally developed by Georges Valensi in 1938, the color was changing continually along the line, which was far too fast for any sort of mechanical filter to follow. Instead, the phosphor had to be broken down into a discrete pattern of colored spots. Focusing the proper signal on each of these tiny spots was beyond the capability of electron guns of the era, and RCA's early experiments used three-tube projectors, or mirror-based systems known as "Triniscope".

Shadow masks
RCA eventually solved the problem of displaying the color images with their introduction of the shadow mask. The shadow mask consists of a thin sheet of steel with tiny holes photo etched into it, placed just behind the front surface of the picture tube. Three guns, arranged in a triangle, were all aimed at the holes. Stray electrons at the edge of the beam were cut off by the mask, creating a sharply focused spot that was small enough to hit a single colored phosphor on the screen. Since each of the guns was aimed at the hole from a slightly different angle, the spots of phosphor on the tube could be separated slightly to prevent overlap.

The disadvantage of this approach was that for any given amount of gun power, the shadow mask filtered out the majority of the energy. To ensure there was no overlap of the beam on the screen, the dots had to be separated and covered perhaps 25% of its surface. This led to very dim images, requiring much greater electron beam power in order to provide a useful picture. Moreover, the system was highly dependent on the relative angles of the beams between the three guns, which required constant adjustment by the user to ensure the guns hit the correct colors. In spite of this, the technical superiority of the RCA system was overwhelming compared to the CBS system, and was selected as the new NTSC standard in 1953. The first broadcast using the new standard occurred on New Year's Day in 1954, when NBC broadcast the Tournament of Roses Parade.

In spite of this early start, only a few years after regularly scheduled television broadcasting had begun, consumer uptake of color televisions was very slow to start. The dim images, constant adjustments and high costs had kept them in a niche of their own. Low consumer acceptance led to a lack of color programming, further reducing the demand for the sets in a supply and demand problem. In the United States in 1960, only 1 color set was sold for every 50 sets sold in total.

Chromatron
Sony had entered the television market in 1960 with the black and white TV8-301, the first non-projection type all-transistor television. A combination of factors, including its small screen size, limited its sales to niche markets. Sony engineers had been studying the color market, but the situation in Japan was even worse than the U.S.; they accounted for only 300 of the 9 million sets sold that year. But by 1961, dealers were asking the Sony sales department when a color set would be available, and the sales department put pressure on engineering in turn. Masaru Ibuka, Sony's president and co-founder, steadfastly refused to develop a system based on RCA's shadow mask design, which he considered technically deficient. He insisted on developing a unique solution.

In 1961, a Sony delegation was visiting the IEEE trade show in New York City, including Ibuka, Akio Morita (Sony's other co-founder) and Nobutoshi Kihara, who was promoting his new CV-2000 home video tape recorder. This was Kihara's first trip abroad and he spent much of his time wandering the trade floor, where he came across a small booth by the small company Autometric. They were demonstrating a new type of color television based on the Chromatron tube, which used a single electron gun and a vertical grille of electrically charged thin wires instead of a shadow mask. The resulting image was far brighter than anything the RCA design could produce, and lacked the convergence problems that required constant adjustments. He quickly brought Morita and Ibuka to see the design, and Morita was "sold" on the spot.

Morita arranged a deal with Paramount Pictures, who was paying for Chromatic Labs' development of the Chromatron, taking over the entire project. In early 1963, Senri Miyaoka was sent to Manhattan to arrange the transfer of the technology to Sony, which would lead to the closing of Chromatic Labs. He was unimpressed with the labs, describing the windowless basement as "squalor". The American team was only too happy to point out the serious flaws in the Chromatron system, telling Miyaoka that the design was hopeless. By September 1964, a 17-inch prototype had been built in Japan, but mass-production test runs were demonstrating serious problems. Sony engineers were unable to make a version of Chromatron that could be reliably mass-produced.

When sets were finally made available in late 1964, they were put on the market at a competitive 198,000 yen (US$550), but cost the company over 400,000 yen (US$1111.11) to produce. Ibuka had bet the company on Chromatron and had already set up a new factory to produce them with the hopes that the production problems would be ironed out and the line would become profitable. After several thousand sets had shipped, the situation was no better, while Panasonic and Toshiba were in the process of introducing sets based on RCA licenses. By 1966, the Chromatron was breaking the company financially.

Trinitron
In the autumn of 1966, Ibuka finally gave in, and announced he would personally lead a search for a replacement for Chromatron. Susumu Yoshida was sent to the U.S. to look for potential licenses, and was impressed with the improvements that RCA had made in overall brightness by introducing new rare-earth phosphors on the screen. He also saw General Electric's "Porta-color" design, using three guns in a row instead of a triangle, which allowed a greater portion of the screen to be lit. His report was cause for concern in Japan, where it seemed Sony was falling ever-farther behind the U.S. designs. They might be forced to license the shadow mask system if they wanted to remain competitive.

Ibuka was not willing to give up entirely, and had his 30 engineers explore a wide variety of approaches to see if they could come up with their own design. At one point, Yoshida asked Senri Miyaoka if the in-line gun arrangement used by GE could be replaced by a single gun with three cathodes; this would be more difficult to build, but be lower cost in the long run. Miyaoka built a prototype and was astonished by how well it worked, although it had focusing problems. Later that week, on Saturday, Miyaoka was summoned to Ibuka's office while he was attempting to leave work to attend his weekly cello practice. Yoshida had just informed Ibuka about his success, and the two asked Miyaoka if they could really develop the gun into a workable product. Miyaoka, anxious to leave, answered yes, excused himself, and left. The following Monday, Ibuka announced that Sony would be developing a new color television tube, based on Miyaoka's prototype. By February 1967, the focusing problems had been solved, and because there was a single gun, the focusing was achieved with permanent magnets instead of a coil, and required no manual adjustments after manufacturing.

During development, Sony engineer Akio Ohgoshi introduced another modification. GE's system improved on the RCA shadow mask by replacing the small round holes with slightly larger rectangles. Since the guns were in-line, their electrons would land onto three rectangular patches instead of three smaller spots, about doubling the lit area. Ohgoshi proposed removing the mask entirely and replacing it with a series of vertical slots instead, lighting the entire screen. Although this would require the guns to be very carefully aligned with the phosphors on the tube in order to ensure they hit the right colors, with Miyaoka's new tube, this appeared possible. In practice, this proved easy to build but difficult to place in the tube – the fine wires were mechanically weak and tended to move when the tubes were bumped, resulting in shifting colors on the screen. This problem was solved by running several fine tungsten wires across the grille horizontally to keep the vertical wires of the grille in place.

The combination of three-in-one electron gun and the replacement of the shadow mask with the aperture grille resulted in a unique and easily patentable product. In spite of Trinitron and Chromatron having no technology in common, the shared single electron gun has led to many erroneous claims that the two are very similar, or the same.

Introduction, early models
Officially introduced by Ibuka in April 1968, the original 12 inch Trinitron (KV-1310) had a display quality that easily surpassed any commercial set in terms of brightness, color fidelity, and simplicity of operation. The vertical wires in the aperture grille meant that the tube had to be nearly flat vertically; this gave it a unique cylindrical look. It was also all solid state, with the exception of the picture tube itself, which allowed it to be much more compact and cool running than designs like GE's Porta-color. Some larger models such as the KV-1320UB for the United Kingdom market were initially fitted with 3AT2 valves for the extra high tension (high voltage) circuitry, before being redesigned as solid state in the early 70s.

Ibuka ended the press conference by claiming that 10,000 sets would be available by October, well beyond what engineering had told him was possible. Ibuka cajoled Yoshida to take over the effort of bringing the sets into production, and although Yoshida was furious at being put in charge of a task he felt was impossible, he finally accepted the assignment and successfully met the production goal. The KV-1210 was introduced in limited numbers in Japan in October as promised, and in the U.S. as the KV-1210U the following year.

Early color sets intended for the UK market had a PAL decoder that was different from those invented and licensed by Telefunken of Germany, who invented the PAL color system. The decoder inside the UK-sold Sony color Trinitron sets, from the KV-1300UB to the KV-1330UB, had an NTSC decoder adapted for PAL. The decoder used a 64 microsecond delay line to store every other line, but instead of using the delay line to average out the phase of the current line and the previous line, it simply repeated the same line twice. Any phase errors could then be compensated for by using a tint control knob on the front of the set, normally unneeded on a PAL set.

Reception
Reviews of the Trinitron were universally positive, although they all mentioned its high cost. Sony won an Emmy Award for the Trinitron in 1973. On his 84th birthday in 1992, Ibuka claimed the Trinitron was his proudest product.

New models quickly followed. Larger sizes at 19" and then 27" were introduced, as well as smaller, including a 7" portable. In the mid-1980s, a new phosphor coating was introduced that was much darker than earlier sets, giving the screens a black color when turned off, as opposed to the earlier light grey. This improved the contrast range of the picture. Early models were generally packaged in silver cases, but with the introduction of the darker screens, Sony also introduced new cases with a dark charcoal color, following a similar change in color taking place in the hi-fi world. This line expanded with 32", 35" and finally 40" units in the 1990s. In 1990, Sony released the first HD Trinitron TV set, for use with the Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding standard.

In 1980, Sony introduced the "ProFeel" line of prosumer component televisions, consisting of a range of Trinitron monitors that could be connected to standardized tuners. The original lineup consisted of the KX-20xx1 20" and KX-27xx1 27" monitors (the "xx" is an identifier, PS for Europe, HF for Japan, etc.) the VTX-100ES tuner and TXT-100G TeleText decoder. They were often used with a set of SS-X1A stereo speakers, which matched the grey boxy styling of the suite. The concept was to build a market similar to contemporary stereo equipment, where components from different vendors could be mixed to produce a complete system. However, a lack of any major third party components, along with custom connectors between the tuner and monitors, meant that systems mixing fully compatible elements were never effectively realized. They were popular high-end units, however, and found a strong following in production companies where the excellent quality picture made them effective low-cost monitors. A second series of all-black units followed in 1986, the ProFeel Pro, sporting a space-frame around the back of the trapezoidal enclosure that doubled as a carrying handle and holder for the pop-out speakers. These units were paired with the VT-X5R tuner and optionally the APM-X5A speakers.

Sony also produced lines of Trinitron professional studio monitors, the PVM (Professional Video Monitor) and BVM (Broadcast Video Monitor) lines. These models were packaged in grey metal cubes with a variety of inputs that accepted practically any analog format. They originally used tubes similar to the ProFeel line, but over time, they gradually increased in resolution until the late 1990s when they offered over 900 lines. When these were cancelled as part of the wider Trinitron shutdown in 2007, professionals forced Sony to re-open two of the lines to produce the 20 and 14 inch models.

Among similar products, Sony produced the KV-1311 monitor/TV combination. It accepted NTSC-compatible video from various devices as well as analog broadcast TV. Along with its other functions, it had video and audio inputs and outputs as well as a wideband sound-IF decoded output. Its exterior looks much like the monitor illustrated here, with added TV controls.

By this time, Sony was well established as a supplier of reliable equipment; it was preferable to have minimal field failures instead of supporting an extensive service network for the entire United States.

Sony started developing the Trinitron for computer monitor use in the late 1970s. Demand was high, so high that there were examples of third party companies removing Trinitron tubes from televisions to use as monitors. In response, Sony started development of the GDM (Graphic Display Monitor) in 1983, which offered high resolution and faster refresh rates. Sony aggressively promoted the GDM and it became a standard on high-end monitors by the late 1980s. Particularly common models include the Apple Inc. 13" model that was originally sold with the Macintosh II starting in 1987. Well known users also included Digital Equipment Corporation, IBM, Silicon Graphics, Sun Microsystems and others. Demand for a lower cost solution led to the CDP series. In May 1988, the high-end 20 inch DDM model (Data Display Monitor) was introduced with a maximum resolution of 2,048 by 2,048, which went on to be used in the FAA's Advanced Automation System air traffic control system.

These developments meant that Sony was well placed to introduce high-definition televisions (HDTV). In April 1981, they announced the High Definition Video System (HDVS), a suite of MUSE equipment including cameras, recorders, Trinitron monitors and projection TVs.

Sony shipped its 100 millionth Trinitron screen in July 1994, 25 years after it had been introduced. New uses in the computer field and the demand for higher resolution televisions to match the quality of DVD when it was introduced in 1996 led to increased sales, with another 180 million units delivered in the next decade.

End of Trinitron
Sony's patent on the Trinitron display ran out in 1996, after 20 years. After the expiration of Sony's Trinitron patent, manufacturers like Mitsubishi (whose monitor production is now part of NEC Display Solutions) were free to use the Trinitron design for their own product line without license from Sony although they could not use the Trinitron name. For example, Mitsubishi's are called Diamondtron. To some degree, the name Trinitron became a generic term referring to any similar set.

Sony responded with the FD Trinitron, which used computer-controlled feedback systems to ensure sharp focus across a flat screen. Initially introduced on their 27, 32 and 36 inch models in 1998, the new tubes were offered in a variety of resolutions for different uses. The basic WEGA models supported normal 480i signals, but a larger version offered 16:9 aspect ratios. The technology was quickly applied to the entire Trinitron range, from 13 to 36 inch. High resolution versions, Hi-Scan and Super Fine Pitch, were also produced. With the introduction of the FD Trinitron, Sony also introduced a new industrial style, leaving the charcoal colored sets introduced in the 1980s for a new silver styling.

Sony was not the only company producing flat screen CRTs. Other companies had already introduced high-end brands with flat-screen tubes, like Panasonic's Tau. Many other companies entered the market quickly, widely copying the new silver styling as well. The FD Trinitron was unable to regain the cachet that the Trinitron brand had previously possessed; in the 2004 Christmas season, they increased sales by 5%, but only at the cost of a 75% plunge in profits after being forced to lower costs to compete in the market.

At the same time, the introduction of plasma televisions, and then LCD-based ones, led to the high-end market being increasingly focused on the "thin" sets. Both of these technologies have well known problems, and for some time Sony explored a wide array of technologies that would improve upon them in the same way the Trinitron did on the shadow mask. Among these experiments were organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) and the field-emission display, but in spite of considerable effort, neither of these technologies matured into competitors. Sony also introduced their Plasmatron displays, and later LCD as well, but these had no inherent technical advantages over similar sets from other companies. From 2006, all of Sony's BRAVIA television products are LCD displays, initially based on screens from Samsung, and later Sharp.

Sony eventually ended production of the Trinitron in Japan in 2004. In 2006, Sony announced that it would no longer market or sell Trinitrons in the United States or Canada, but it would continue to sell the Trinitron in China, India, and regions of South America using tubes delivered from their Singapore plant. Production in Singapore finally ended by the end of March 2008, only months after ending production of their rear-projection systems. Two lines of the factory were later brought back online to supply the professional market.

280 million Trinitron tubes were built. At its peak, 20 million were made annually.

Basic concept
The Trinitron design incorporates two unique features: the single-gun three-cathode picture tube, and the vertically aligned aperture grille.

The single gun consists of a long-necked tube with a single electrode at its base, flaring out into a horizontally-aligned rectangular shape with three rectangular cathodes inside. Each cathode is fed the amplified signal from one of the decoded RGB signals.

The electrons from the cathodes are all aimed toward a single point at the back of the screen where they hit the aperture grille, a steel sheet with vertical slots cut in it. Due to the slight separation of the cathodes at the back of the tube, the three beams approach the grille at slightly different angles. When they pass through the grille they retain this angle, hitting their individual colored phosphors that are deposited in vertical stripes on the inside of the faceplate. The main purpose of the grille is to ensure that each beam strikes only the phosphor stripes for its color, much as does a shadow mask. However, unlike a shadow mask, there are essentially no obstructions along each entire phosphor stripe. Larger CRTs have a few horizontal stabilizing wires part way between top and bottom.

Advantages
In comparison to early shadow mask designs, the Trinitron grille cuts off much less of the signal coming from the electron guns. RCA tubes built in the 1950s cut off about 85% of the electron beam, while the grille cuts off about 25%. Improvements to the shadow mask designs continually narrowed this difference between the two designs, and by the late 1980s the difference in performance, at least theoretically, was eliminated.

Another advantage of the aperture grille was that the distance between the wires remained constant vertically across the screen. In the shadow mask design, the size of the holes in the mask is defined by the required resolution of the phosphor dots on the screen, which was constant. However, the distance from the guns to the holes changed; for dots near the center of the screen, the distance was its shortest, at points in the corners it was at its maximum. To ensure that the guns were focused on the holes, a system known as dynamic convergence had to constantly adjust the focus point as the beam moved across the screen. In the Trinitron design, the problem was greatly simplified, requiring changes only for large screen sizes, and only on a line-by-line basis.

For this reason, Trinitron systems are easier to focus than shadow masks, and generally had a sharper image. This was a major selling point of the Trinitron design for much of its history. In the 1990s, new computer-controlled real-time feedback focusing systems eliminated this advantage, as well as leading to the introduction of "true flat" designs.

Visible support or damping wires
Even small changes in the alignment of the grille over the phosphors can cause the color purity to shift. Since the wires are thin, small bumps can cause the wires to shift alignment if they are not held in place. Monitors using Trinitron technology have one or more thin tungsten wires running horizontally across the grille to prevent this. Screens 15" and below have one wire located about two thirds of the way down the screen, while monitors greater than 15" have 2 wires at the one-third and two-thirds positions. These wires are less apparent or completely obscured on standard definition sets due to wider scan lines to match the lower resolution of the video being displayed. On computer monitors, where the scan lines are much closer together, the wires are often visible. This is a minor drawback of the Trinitron standard which is not shared by shadow mask CRTs. Aperture grilles are not as mechanically stable as shadow or slot masks; a tap can cause the image to briefly become distorted, even with damping/support wires. Some people may find the wires to be distracting.

Anti-glare coating
A polyurethane sheet coated to scatter reflections is affixed to the front of the screen, where it can be damaged.

Partial list of other aperture grille brands

 * Sharp NEC Display Solutions (NEC/Mitsubishi) "Diamondtron"
 * Gateway, Inc. "Vivitron" (Trinitron and Diamondtron rebrand)
 * MAG InnoVision "Technitron" (Trinitron rebrand)
 * ViewSonic "SonicTron" (Trinitron rebrand)

title: Trinitron


text:
Talk:Fortnight

An adjective cannot be the equivalent of a noun
"Fortnight" is obviously a noun. It is therefore ridiculous to say, as we do in the lead, "In North America it is usual to say biweekly". An adjective cannot be the equivalent of a noun. HiLo48 (talk) 05:59, 7 August 2021 (UTC)

 * The adjective is "fortnightly" Curiouskiwicat (talk) 23:15, 19 June 2023 (UTC)

When?
An etymology should at least attempt to provide an approximate date for the first use of a word. I don't see any dates at all here. Saying that it was derived from Old English is not sufficient; Old English was spoken for a period of at least 600 years. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.95.43.253 (talk) 19:29, 5 May 2022 (UTC)

Ukrainian language
There is no special lexical unit for this concept in Ukrainian. The phrase два тижні is simply translated as "two weeks". Litteraly two is “два”, weeks is “тижні”. Three weeks is три тижні etc. 178.134.247.73 (talk) 07:26, 14 November 2022 (UTC)

 * same thing for the czech language reference "čtrnáctidenní" and "dvoutýdenní" - they just mean 14 days and 2 weeks :) not the same caliber as fortnight i would say... 208.127.34.55 (talk) 09:48, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 25 March 2023
Change

Slavic languages: in Czech the terms čtrnáctidenní and dvoutýdenní have the same meaning as "fortnight".[6] In Ukrainian, the term два тижні is used in relation to "biweekly, two weeks".

To

Slavic languages: in Czech the terms čtrnáctidenní and dvoutýdenní have the same meaning as "fortnight".[6] Winturut (talk) 13:43, 25 March 2023 (UTC)

Reason: This article is about specific word meaning 2 weeks period. But this Ukranian term "два тижні" is not a special word, but simply equivalent of "two weeks". In Ukranian, "two" is translated to "два" and "week" is translated to "тиждень". So "два тижні" is not a special term, and should not be mentioned in the article.
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: I'm not particularly familiar with this topic, so correct me if my understanding of the standard practices is wrong. The article starts with "The word derives from the Old English term fēowertīene niht, meaning "fourteen nights""; the English word is in its etymology very similar to how you describe the Ukrainian word. Since it's still a unique word (as opposed to if I said, for example, "half-month"), I think it should be included. Actualcpscm (talk) 12:14, 26 March 2023 (UTC)

See h on afnafnfanfnafbaf 65.186.177.131 (talk) 03:44, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fortnight


text:
Culture of Wales

The culture of Wales is distinct, with its own language, customs, festivals, music, art, mythology, history, and politics. Wales is primarily represented by the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, but other national emblems include the leek and the daffodil.

Although sharing many customs with the other nations of the United Kingdom, Wales has its own distinct traditions and culture, and from the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", in part due to the eisteddfod tradition.

Historical influences
Wales has been identified as having been inhabited by humans for some 230,000 years, as evidenced by the discovery of a Neanderthal at the Bontnewydd Palaeolithic site in north Wales. After the Roman era of occupation, a number of small kingdoms arose in what is now Wales. These early kingdoms were also influenced by Ireland; but details prior to the 8th century AD are unclear. Kingdoms during that era included Gwynedd, Powys and Deheubarth. While Rhodri the Great in the 9th century was the first ruler to dominate a large portion of Wales, it was not until 1055 that Gruffydd ap Llywelyn united the individual Welsh kingdoms and began to annex parts of England. Gruffydd was killed, possibly in crossfire by his own men, on 5 August 1063 while Harold Godwinson sought to engage him in battle. This was just over three years before the Norman invasion of England, which led to a drastic change of fortune for Wales. By 1070, the Normans had already seen successes in their invasion of Wales, with Gwent fallen and Deheubarth plundered. The invasion was seemingly complete by 1093. However, the Welsh kingdoms were re-established and most of the land retaken from the Normans over the following decades. While Gwynedd grew in strength, Powys was broken up after the death of Llywelyn ap Madog in the 1160s and was never reunited. Llywelyn the Great rose in Gwynedd and had reunited the majority of Wales by his death in 1240. After his death, King Henry III of England intervened to prevent Dafydd ap Llywelyn from inheriting his father's lands outside Gwynedd, leading to war. The claims of his successor, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, conflicted with those of King Edward I of England; this resulted in the conquest of Wales by English forces.

The Tudors of Penmynydd grew in power and influence during the 13th to 15th centuries, first owning land in north Wales, but losing it after Maredudd ap Tudur backed the uprising of Owain Glyndŵr in 1400. Maredudd's son, Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur, anglicised his name to become Owen Tudor, and was the grandfather of Henry Tudor. Henry took the throne of England in 1485, at the end of the Wars of the Roses, when his forces defeated those of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.

Under Henry VIII, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 were passed. The distinction between the Principality of Wales and the Marches of Wales was ended. The law of England became the only law of Wales which was then administered by justices of the peace that were appointed in every Welsh county. Wales was then represented in parliament by 26 members.

English became the only official language of courts in Wales, and people that used the Welsh language would not be eligible for public office in the territories of the king of England. Welsh was limited to the working and lower middle classes, which played a central role in the public attitude to the language.

The House of Tudor continued to reign through several successive monarchs until 1603, when James I (James VI of Scotland) took the throne for the House of Stuart; his great-grandmother was Margaret Tudor.

Identity and nationalism
Welsh nationalism (Cenedlaetholdeb Cymreig) emphasises the distinctiveness of Welsh language, culture, and history, and calls for more self-determination for Wales, which might include more devolved powers for the Senedd or full independence from the United Kingdom. While a sense of nationhood has existed within Wales for over 1500 years, the idea that Wales should be a modern self-determining state has only been mooted since the mid-18th century.

In 1406 Owain Glyndŵr set out a vision of Welsh independence in his Pennal letter, sent to Charles VI King of France. The letter requested maintained military support from the French to fend off the English in Wales. Glyndŵr suggested that in return, he would recognise Benedict XIII of Avignon as the Pope. The letter sets out the ambitions of Glyndŵr of an independent Wales with its own parliament, led by himself as Prince of Wales. These ambitions also included the return of the traditional law of Hywel Dda, rather than the enforced English law, establishment of an independent Welsh church as well as two universities, one in south Wales, and one in north Wales.

Symbols
National symbols of Wales include the dragon, the daffodil and the leek. A story of soldiers wearing the leek during battle to make it easier to identify them is recounted in the 17th century, attributed to Saint David. The earliest certain reference of the leek as a Welsh emblem was when Princess Mary, daughter of Henry VIII, was presented with a leek by the yeoman of the guard on Saint David's Day in 1537. The colours of the leek were used for the uniforms of soldiers under Edward I of England.

The Red Dragon standard was most likely introduced to the British Isles by Roman troops who in turn had acquired it from the Dacians. It may also have been a reference to the 6th century Welsh word draig, which meant "dragon". The standard was appropriated by the Normans during the 11th century, and used for the Royal Standard of Scotland. Richard I of England took a red dragon standard with him on the Third Crusade.

Both symbols were popular with Tudor kings, with Henry VII of England (Henry Tudor) adding the white and green background to the red dragon standard. It was largely forgotten by the House of Stuart, who favoured a unicorn instead. By the 17th and 18th centuries, it became common practice in Great Britain for the gentry to wear leeks on St. David's Day. In 1807, a "a red dragon passant standing on a mound" was made the King's badge for Wales. Following an increase in nationalism in 1953, it was proposed to add the motto Y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn ("the red dragon takes the lead") to the flag. This was poorly received, and six years later Queen Elizabeth II intervened to put the current flag in place. It has been proposed that the flag of the United Kingdom be redesigned to include a symbol representing Wales, as it is the only nation in the United Kingdom not represented in the flag.

The daffodil is a more recent development, becoming popular during the 19th century. It may have been linked to the leek; the Welsh for daffodil (cenhinen Bedr) translates as "St Peter's leek". During the 20th century, the daffodil rose to rival the prominence of the leek as a symbol of Wales. Prime Minister David Lloyd George ensured that the daffodil had a place in the investiture of Edward, Prince of Wales.

The traditional Welsh costume and Welsh hat were well known during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Princess Alexandrina Victoria (later Queen Victoria) had a hat made for her when she visited Wales in 1832. The hat was popularised by Sydney Curnow Vosper's 1908 painting Salem, but by then its use had declined.

Welsh people may sometimes engage in gentle self-mockery and claim the sheep as a national emblem, due to the 3 million people in the country being vastly outnumbered by some 10 million sheep and the nation's reliance on sheep farming. The importance of sheep farming led to the creation of the Welsh sheepdog.

Welsh lovespoons are traditionally crafted wooden spoons which a suitor would give to his beloved. The more intricacies of the design served a dual purpose, as it demonstrated the depth of their feelings to the beloved, and their crafting abilities (and therefore potential to generate income to look after the family) to their potential suitor's family. The earliest known dated lovespoon from Wales, displayed in the St Fagans National History Museum near Cardiff. It is believed to have been crafted in 1667, although the tradition is believed to date back long before that.

Language
The two main languages of Wales are Welsh and English. Throughout the centuries, the Welsh language has been a central factor in the concept of Wales as a nation. Figures released by the Office of National Statistics taken from the 2011 census, show that Welsh is spoken by 19% of the population.

Religion
Before the Roman occupation, the dominant religion in Wales was a pagan one, led by the druids. Little is known about the traditions and ceremonies, but Tacitus, whose claims were sometimes exaggerated, stated that they performed human sacrifice: he says that in AD 61, an altar on Anglesey was found to be "drenched with the blood of their prisoners". Christianity was introduced to Wales through the Romans, and after they abandoned the British Isles, it survived in South East Wales at Hentland. In the 6th century, this was home to Dubricius, the first Celtic saint.

The largest religion in modern Wales is Christianity, with almost 58% of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2011 census. The Presbyterian Church of Wales was for many years the largest denomination; it was born out of the Welsh Methodist revival in the 18th century and seceded from the Church of England in 1811; The Church in Wales had an average Sunday attendance of 32,171 in 2012. It forms part of the Anglican Communion, and was also part of the Church of England, but was disestablished by the British Government in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914. Non-Christian religions have relatively few followers in Wales, with Muslims making up 1.5% of the population while Hindus and Buddhists represent 0.3% each in the 2011 census. Over 32% of the population in Wales did not note a religion. Research in 2007 by the Tearfund organisation showed that Wales had the lowest average church attendance in the UK, with 12% of the population routinely attending.

Festival days
The patron saint of Wales is Saint David, Dewi Sant in Welsh. St. David's Day is celebrated on 1 March, which some people argue should be designated a public holiday in Wales. Other days which have been proposed for national public commemorations are 16 September (the day on which Owain Glyndŵr's rebellion began) and 11 December (the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd).

The traditional seasonal festivals in Wales are:
 * Calan Gaeaf (a Hallowe'en or Samhain-type festival on the first day of winter)
 * Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau (literally Mary's Festival of the Candles, i.e. Candlemas; also coinciding with Imbolc)
 * Calan Mai (May Day, and similar to Beltane)
 * Calan Awst (1 August, equivalent to Lammas and Lughnasa)
 * Gŵyl Mabsant celebrated by each parish in commemoration of its native saint, often marked by a fair
 * Dydd Santes Dwynwen, a Welsh equivalent to St Valentine's Day
 * Calennig is a Welsh New Year celebration

Visual arts
Many works of Celtic art have been found in Wales. In the Early Medieval period, the Celtic Christianity of Wales participated in the Insular art of the British Isles and a number of illuminated manuscripts possibly of Welsh origin survive, of which the 8th century Hereford Gospels and Lichfield Gospels are the most notable. The 11th century Ricemarch Psalter (now in Dublin) is certainly Welsh, made in St David's, and shows a late Insular style with unusual Viking influence.

The best of the few Welsh artists of the 16th–18th centuries tended to move elsewhere to work, but in the 18th century the dominance of landscape art in English art motivated them to stay at home, and brought an influx of artists from outside to paint Welsh scenery. The Welsh painter Richard Wilson (1714–1782) is arguably the first major British landscapist, but rather more notable for Italian scenes than Welsh ones, although he did paint several on visits from London. It remained difficult for artists relying on the Welsh market to support themselves until well into the 20th century. An Act of Parliament in 1854 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom, and the Cardiff School of Art opened in 1865. Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work, but Betws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists, and its artists' colony helped form the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art in 1881. The sculptor Sir William Goscombe John made many works for Welsh commissions, although he had settled in London. Christopher Williams, whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in London. Thomas E. Stephens and Andrew Vicari had very successful careers as portraitists, based respectively in the United States and France. Sir Frank Brangwyn was Welsh by origin, but spent little time in Wales.

Perhaps the most famous Welsh painters, Augustus John and his sister Gwen John, mostly lived in London and Paris; however the landscapists Sir Kyffin Williams and Peter Prendergast remained living in Wales for most of their lives, though well in touch with the wider art world. Ceri Richards was very engaged in the Welsh art scene as a teacher in Cardiff, and even after moving to London; he was a figurative painter in international styles including Surrealism. Various artists have moved to Wales, including Eric Gill, the London-born Welshman David Jones, and the sculptor Jonah Jones. The Kardomah Gang was an intellectual circle centred on the poet Dylan Thomas and poet and artist Vernon Watkins in Swansea, which also included the painter Alfred Janes.

Ceramics
Amgueddfa Cymru houses Welsh pottery made in Swansea and Llanelli between 1764 and 1922, in addition to porcelain made at Swansea and Nantgarw between 1813 and 1826. Several further sites can be identified through their place names, for example Pwllcrochan (a hamlet near Milford Haven estuary in Pembrokeshire), which translates to Crock Pool, and archaeology has also revealed former kiln sites across the country. These were often located near clay beds, for ease of resource gathering. Buckley and Ewenny became leading areas of pottery production in Wales during the 17th and 18th centuries; these are applied as generic terms to different potters within those areas during this period. South Wales had several notable potteries during that same period, an early exponent being the Cambrian Pottery (1764–1870, also known as "Swansea pottery"). The works from Cambrian attempted to imitate those of Wedgwood. Nantgarw Pottery, near Cardiff, was in operation from 1813 to 1823 making fine porcelain. Llanelly Pottery was the last surviving major pottery works in South Wales when it closed in 1922.

Theatre
Theatrical performances are thought to have begun after the Roman invasion of Britain. There are remains of a Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon, which would have served the nearby fortress of Isca Augusta. Between Roman and modern times, theatre in Wales was limited to performances of travelling players, sometimes in temporary structures. Welsh theatrical groups also performed in England, as did English groups in Wales. The rise of the Puritans in the 17th century and then Methodism during the 18th century caused declines in Welsh theatre as performances were seen as immoral.

Despite this, performances continued on showgrounds, and with a handful of travelling groups of actors. The Savoy Theatre, Monmouth, the oldest theatre still in operation in Wales, was built during the 19th century and originally operated as the Assembly Rooms. Other theatres opened over the following decades, with Cardiff's Theatre Royal opening in 1827. After a fire, a replacement Theatre Royal opened in 1878. Competition for theatres led to further buildings being constructed, such as the New Theatre, Cardiff, which opened on 10 December 1906.

Television
Television in the United Kingdom started in 1936 as a public service which was free of advertising, but did not arrive in Wales until the opening of the Wenvoe transmitter in August 1952. Initially all programmes were in the English language, although under the leadership of Welsh director and controller Alun Oldfield-Davies, occasional Welsh language programmes were broadcast during closed periods, replacing the test card. In 1958, responsibility for programming in Wales fell to Television Wales and the West, although Welsh language broadcasting was mainly served by the Manchester-based Granada company, producing about an hour a week. On 1 November 1982, S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru) was launched bringing together the BBC, HTV and other independent producers to provide an initial service of 22 hours of Welsh-language television. The digital switchover in Wales of 2009-2010 meant that the previously bilingual Channel 4 split into S4C, broadcasting exclusively in Welsh and Channel 4 broadcasting exclusively in English.

The decision by Julie Gardner, Head of Drama for BBC Wales, to film and produce the 2005 revived version of Doctor Who in Wales is widely seen as a bellwether moment for the industry for the nation. This in turn was followed by the opening of the Roath Lock production studios in Cardiff. Recent English language programmes that have been filmed in Wales include Sherlock and His Dark Materials, while other popular series, such as Hinterland (Y Gwyll) and Keeping Faith (Un Bore Mercher) have been filmed in both Welsh and English.

Film
The Cinema of Wales comprises the art of film and creative movies made in Wales or by Welsh filmmakers either locally or abroad. Welsh cinema began in the late-19th century, led by Welsh-based director William Haggar. Wales continued to produce film of varying quality throughout the 20th century, in both the Welsh and English languages, though indigenous production was curtailed through a lack of infrastructure and finance, which prevented the growth of the industry nationally. Despite this, Wales has been represented in all fields of the film making process, producing actors and directors of note.

Music
Wales is often referred to as "the land of song", and is notable for its harpists, male choirs, and solo artists. The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the annual National Eisteddfod. The Llangollen International Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported by many societies. The Welsh Folk Song Society has published a number of collections of songs and tunes.

Male choirs (sometimes called male voice choirs), which emerged in the 19th century, have remained a lasting tradition in Wales. Originally these choirs were formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced the popular secular hymns of the day. Many of the historic Welsh choirs survive, singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs. Traditional instruments of Wales include telyn deires (triple harp), fiddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments. The Cerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival. The BBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales and internationally. The Welsh National Opera is based at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff Bay, while the National Youth Orchestra of Wales was the first of its type in the world. Wales has had a number of successful singers. In the 1960s, these included bands such as Amen Corner and The Iveys/Badfinger and singers including Sir Tom Jones, Dame Shirley Bassey and Mary Hopkin. By the 1980s, indie pop and alternative rock bands such as The Alarm, The Pooh Sticks and The Darling Buds were popular in their genres. But the wider view at the time was that the wider Welsh music scene was stagnant, as the more popular musicians from Wales were from earlier eras.

In the 1990s, in England, the Britpop scene was emerging, while in Wales, bands such as Y Cyrff and Ffa Coffi Pawb began to sing in English, starting a culture that would lead to the creation of Catatonia and the Super Furry Animals. The influence of the 80s bands and the emergence of a Welsh language and dual language music scene locally in Wales led to a dramatic shift in opinion across the United Kingdom as the "Cool Cymru" bands of the period emerged. The leading Welsh band during this period was the Manic Street Preachers, whose 1996 album Everything Must Go has been listed among the greatest albums of all time.

Some of those bands have had ongoing success, while the general popularity of Welsh music during this period led to a resurgence of singers such as Tom Jones with his album Reload. It was his first non-compilation number one album since 1968's Delilah. Meanwhile, Shirley Bassey reached the top 20 once more in the UK Charts with her collaboration with the Propellerheads on the single "History Repeating". They also introduced new acts, such as Catatonia's Owen Powell working with Duffy during her early period. Moving into the 21st century, Bullet For My Valentine were named the Best British Band at the Kerrang! Awards for three years running. Other successful bands from this period include Funeral For A Friend, and Lostprophets.

Media
Television is the most common source of news in Wales, used by 75% of people, with radio used by 43%, 33% using printed newspapers and 31% using websites and apps. In 2020, 46% of people gained their news from social media, which is largely unregulated but includes some news from regulated sources.

Sport
Over fifty national governing bodies regulate and organise their sports in Wales. Most of those involved in competitive sports select, organise and manage individuals or teams to represent their country at international events or fixtures against other countries. Wales is represented at major world sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland, England and Northern Ireland as part of a Great Britain team.

Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship and has also competed in every Rugby World Cup, with Wales hosting the 1999 tournament. The five professional sides that replaced the traditional club sides in major competitions in 2003 were in turn replaced in 2004 by the four regions: Scarlets; Cardiff Blues; Newport Gwent Dragons; and the Ospreys. The Welsh regional teams play in the Pro14 league, the Anglo-Welsh Cup (LV Cup), the European Heineken Cup and the European (Amlin) Challenge Cup.

Wales has had its own association football league since 1992. For historical and other reasons, four Welsh clubs (Cardiff City, Swansea City, Wrexham, and Newport County) play in the English Football League. Another Welsh club plays in English football's feeder leagues: Merthyr Town. This also qualifies those teams to compete for England's domestic trophies. On 23 April 1927, Cardiff City became the only team outside England to win the FA Cup. In European football competitions, only teams playing in the Welsh leagues are eligible to play for Wales. The five teams in the English leagues are eligible to represent England only, and they are not allowed to compete for domestic Welsh trophies. In international cricket, Wales and England field a single representative team, administered by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB), called the England cricket team, or simply "England". Occasionally, a separate Wales national cricket team plays in limited-overs competitions, mainly against English county teams. Glamorgan is the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship. Plaid Cymru have argued that Wales should have its own international team and withdraw from the existing arrangement under which Welsh players play for England. The proposal has aroused opposition from Cricket Wales and Glamorgan County Cricket Club, who argue such a move would be financially disastrous. The debate focused on a report produced by the Welsh National Assembly's petitions committee, which reflected the arguments on both sides. Bethan Jenkins, Plaid Cymru's spokesperson on heritage, culture, sport and broadcasting, and a member of the petitions committee, said: "Cricket Wales and Glamorgan CCC say the idea of a Welsh national cricket team is 'an emotive subject'. Of course having a national team is emotive. You only have to look at the stands during any national game to see that. To suggest this as anything other than natural is a bit of a misleading argument." In their strategic plan, Cricket Wales state they are "committed to continuing to play a major role within the ECB"

Wales has produced several world-class participants in individual sports, including snooker players Ray Reardon, Terry Griffiths, Mark Williams and Matthew Stevens. Successful track athletes include miler Jim Alford who was a world record holder in the 4 x 1500 metres relay, the 110-metre hurdler Colin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals, and Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won 11 Paralympic gold medals. Wales has also produced a number of world-class boxers. Joe Calzaghe was WBO World Super-Middleweight Champion and then won the WBA, WBC and Ring Magazine super-middleweight and Ring Magazine Light-Heavyweight titles. Other former boxing world champions include Enzo Maccarinelli, Freddie Welsh, Howard Winstone, Percy Jones, Jimmy Wilde, Steve Robinson and Robbie Regan.

Cuisine
Welsh cuisine is internationally renowned; Welsh lamb, Welsh cakes, and dishes such as bara brith remain exports synonymous with quality and flavour. Some say that some other Welsh dishes are said to be similar to English cuisine in style. However, there are regional variations in the food seen across Wales, which can be traced historically to the availability of certain crops and produce in specific areas of the country. The cuisine of Gower is particularly different to the rest of Wales. It was strongly influenced by Somerset and Devon, and developed dishes such as whitepot while ingredients such as pumpkin were used, which are unusual in the rest of Wales.

Cattle farming produces the majority of Wales' agricultural output. Welsh beef is protected under European Union law, meaning that it must be produced and slaughtered in Wales. Welsh pigs are raised, providing good cuts of meat. The mountainous areas of Wales are suited to sheep farming and this has led to an association of their meat with the country. The mutton of Wales has been popular in the rest of the United Kingdom since the 16th century, and by the end of the 20th century there were more than 11 million sheep in Wales. Several Welsh dishes are thought of as Welsh because their ingredients are associated with Wales, whereas others have been developed there. Cawl is regarded as the Welsh national dish; it is a slow-cooked meat and vegetable broth. Traditionally it was a vegetable-heavy dish, but now it is more likely to contain beef or lamb. Welsh rarebit is thought to date from the 18th century, although the original term "Welsh rabbit" may have been intended as a slur against the Welsh. Another use of cheese in a traditional Welsh dish is seen in Glamorgan sausage, which is a skinless sausage made of cheese and either leek or spring onion, which is then rolled into a sausage shape before frying. Laverbread is made using a purée of seaweed, and is traditionally served in a Welsh breakfast. Welsh cakes are made on a bakestone, and are small round spiced cakes containing raisins, sultanas and occasionally currants. Bara brith contains similar ingredients to Welsh cakes, but is similar to a tea bread.

The Welsh have their own versions of pancakes: crempogau (sing. crempog) (sometimes called ffroes, sing. ffroesen) are traditionally layered on top of each other to form a large cake. Some are very much like American pancakes; others may be made with yeast (called crempogau burum, sing. crempog furum) or oatmeal (although this is also true of American pancakes) and some are like Scotch pancakes.

Beer is the national drink of Wales, despite the influence of the link to temperance movement in Wales. The Wrexham Lager Beer Company was the first successful lager producer in Britain when it opened in 1882, and the Felinfoel Brewery was the first brewery in Europe to put beer in cans. Whisky production in Wales was historically a niche industry, and completely shut down in 1910 when the last distillery was bought out by a Scottish firm. However, the Penderyn distillery produced the first Wales-created whisky in a century to go on sale when it was launched in 2004. There are 20 Welsh vineyards producing 100,000 bottles of wine a year in total.

title: Culture of Wales


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Egon Zakrajšek

Egon Zakrajšek (July 7, 1941 – September 2002) was a Slovene mathematician and computer scientist.

Zakrajšek was born in Ljubljana, SFR Yugoslavia (today Slovenia). He became an orphan even before he started school. He went to elementary school and gymnasium in Jesenice. He was a good student and he soon showed his talents and abilities. He graduated from technical mathematics at the Department of mathematics and physics of the then Faculty for natural sciences and technology (FNT) of the University of Ljubljana. He received his Master's degree from the University of Zagreb for his work Numerična realizacija Ritzovega procesa (Numerical realization of the Ritz process) and his doctorate in 1978 in Ljubljana with his dissertation O invariantni vložitvi pri reševanju diferencialnih enačb (About the invariable embedding in solving of differential equations).

Professor Zakrajšek was one of the pioneers of computer science in Slovenia. He became an expert on the first computers of the University of Ljubljana, the Zuse Z-23 and its successor the IBM 1130. He later participated in the development of programming languages, tools and operating systems. At the same time he wrote textbooks and manuals for them: for Z-23 assembly, Algol, Fortran, Algol 68, Pascal, for domestic structran. In 1982 he set off for the United States and he became the manager of programming equipment at the Cromemco company. In 1994 he returned to homeland, where he was again a professor. With his advocacy for the C language and open operating systems, that is, Unix and Linux, he helped to modernize the lessons of computer science. He additionally became an expert for TeX, LaTeX and MATLAB.

Beside his computer science skills he was also an excellent mathematician with a broad profile. He taught and solved problems from many fields: the usage of mathematics in natural and social sciences, statistics, mechanics, classical applied mathematics, discrete mathematics, graph and network theory, linear programming, operational researches, numerical analysis.

title: Egon Zakrajšek


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