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Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis

Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (5 June 1757 – 5 May 1808) was a French physiologist, freemason  and materialist philosopher.

Life
Cabanis was born at Cosnac (Corrèze), the son of Jean Baptiste Cabanis (1723–1786), a lawyer and agronomist. At the age of ten, he attended the college of Brives, where he showed great aptitude for study, but his independence of spirit was so great that he was almost constantly in a state of rebellion against his teachers and was finally expelled. He was then taken to Paris by his father and left to carry on his studies at his own discretion for two years. From 1773 to 1775 he travelled in Poland and Germany, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself mainly to poetry. About this time he sent to the Académie française a translation of the passage from Homer proposed for their prize, and, though he did not win, he received so much encouragement from his friends that he contemplated translating the whole of the Iliad.

At his father's wish, he gave up writing and decided to engage in a more settled profession, selecting medicine. In 1789 his Observations sur les hôpitaux (Observations on hospitals, 1790) procured him an appointment as administrator of hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he became professor of hygiene at the medical school of Paris, a post which he exchanged for the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in 1799.

Partly because of his poor health, he tended not to practise as a physician, his interests lying in the deeper problems of medical and physiological science. During the last two years of Honoré Mirabeau's life, Cabanis was intimately connected with him; Cabanis wrote the four papers on public education which were found among Mirabeau's papers at his death (and Cabanis edited them soon afterwards in 1791). During the illness which terminated his life Mirabeau trusted entirely to Cabanis' professional skills. Of the death of Mirabeau, Cabanis drew up a detailed narrative, intended as a justification of his treatment of the case. He was enthusiastic about the French Revolution and became a member of the Council of Five Hundred and then of the Senate, and the dissolution of the Directory was the result of a motion which he made to that effect. His political career was brief. Hostile to the policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, he rejected every offer of a place under his government. He died at Meulan.

His body is buried in the Pantheon and his heart in Auteuil Cemetery in Paris.

Works
A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes were published. His principal work, Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man, 1802), consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology is with Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the nervous system. The soul is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought.

Alongside this materialism, Cabanis held another principle. He belonged in biology to the vitalistic school of G.E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work, Lettre sur les causes premières (1824), the consequences of this opinion became clear. Life is something added to the organism: over and above the universally diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power to which we give the name of Nature. It is impossible to avoid ascribing both intelligence and will to this power. This living power constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal. Cabanis did not think that these results were out of harmony with his earlier theory.

His work was highly appreciated by the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, who called his work "excellent".

He was a member of the masonic lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1778. In 1786, Cabanis was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.

Evolution
Cabanis was an early proponent of evolution. In the Encyclopedia of Philosophy it is stated that he "believed in spontaneous generation. Species have evolved through chance mutations ("fortuitous changes") and planned mutation ("man's experimental attempts") which change the structures of heredity."

He influenced the work of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who referred to Cabanis in his Philosophie Zoologique. Cabanis was an advocate of the inheritance of acquired characteristics; he also developed his own theory of instinct.

Cabanis made a statement that recognized a basic understanding of natural selection. Historian Martin S. Staum has written that:

"In a simple statement of adaptation and selection theory, Cabanis argued that species that have escaped extinction 'have had successively to bend and conform to sequences of circumstances, from which apparently were born, in each particular circumstance, other entirely new species, better adjusted to the new order of things.'"

title: Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis


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Peter I Island

Peter I Island (Peter I Øy) is an uninhabited volcanic island in the Bellingshausen Sea, 450 km from continental Antarctica. It is claimed as a dependency of Norway and, along with Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land, composes one of the three Norwegian dependent territories in the Antarctic and Subantarctic. The island measures approximately 11 by, with an area of 156 km2; its highest point is the ultra-prominent, 1640 m Lars Christensen Peak. Nearly all the island is covered by a glacier, and it is surrounded most of the year by pack ice, making it inaccessible during these times. There is little vertebrate animal life on the island, apart from some seabirds and seals.

The island was first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on 21 January 1821 and was named after Peter I of Russia. Not until 2 February 1929 did anyone set foot on the island, when Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad's Second Norvegia Expedition, financed by Lars Christensen, was successful. They claimed it for Norway, which annexed it in 1931 and made it a dependency in 1933. The next landing occurred in 1948, and the island has been subject to some scientific research and a limited amount of tourism. The island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty in 1961. Since 1987, there has been an automated meteorological station on the island. Three amateur radio DX-peditions have visited the island, and there are sporadic landings by tourists.

History
The first sighting of Peter I Island was made on 21 October 1821 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen's expedition, who commanded the ships Vostok and Mirny under the Russian flag. He named the island after Tsar Peter I of Russia. Drift ice made it impossible for Bellinghausen to come nearer than 25 km from the island. It was the first land to have been spotted south of the Antarctic Circle, and was thus also the southernmost sighted land at the time of its discovery. In January 1910, the French expedition led by Jean-Baptiste Charcot and his ship Pourquoi-Pas confirmed Bellingshausen's discovery, but they also did not land, being stopped 5 km from the island by pack ice.

In 1926 and 1927, the Norwegian sailor Eyvind Tofte circumnavigated and surveyed the island from Odd I. However, he was also prevented from landing. The Norwegian whale-ship owner Lars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic, in part for research and in part to claim land for Norway. The latter was motivated by the British taxation of whaling stations in the Antarctic, and Christensen hoped to be able to establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges and so at least the taxes went to his home country. The first expedition to land on the island was the Christensen-financed second Norvegia expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad. They landed on 2 February 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. Larsen attempted to land again in 1931, but was hindered by pack ice. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency.

The next landing occurred on 10 February 1948 by Larsen's ship Brategg. Biological, geological and hydrographic surveys underwent for three days, before the pack ice forced the expedition to leave. The expedition built a hut and placed a copy of the document of occupation from 1929 inside. On 23 June 1961, Peter I Island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty, after Norway's signing of the treaty in 1959. Since then, there have been several landings on the island by various nations for scientific investigations, as well as a limited number of ships that have successfully landed tourists on the island.

In 1987, the Norwegian Polar Institute sent five scientists to spend eleven days on the island. The main focuses were aerial photography and topographical measurements to allow an accurate map of the island to be produced. The second important area was marine biological investigations, although also geological, biological and other surveys were conducted. The team also built an automatic weather station. Three DX-peditions have been sent to the island, in 1987, 1994 and 2006.

Geography

Peter I Island is a volcanic island located 450 km off the coast of Ellsworth Land of continental Antarctica, and about 1400 km to the south-west of Smith Island, the nearest of the South Shetland Islands. It has an area of 154 km2. The island is almost entirely covered by glacier, with about 95% of the surface covered by ice.

Surrounding the island is a 40 m tall ice front and vertical cliffs. The long stretches of ice caps are supplemented with rock outcrops. Landing is only possible at three points, and only during the short period of the year in which the island is not surrounded by pack ice. These landings take place on the west side at Kapp Ingrid Christensen, a peninsula which divides the bays Norvegiabukta and Sandefjordbukta. On the cape are some narrow strips of beach, which are suitable for landing. The beach in Norvegiabukta is just 4 m wide and is entered via the natural arch Tsarporten. On the west side is a plateau, while the north and south coasts feature ice shelves. The eastern side is the steepest and features two rock columns with flat tops in the sea.

The island is a shield volcano, although it is not known if it is still active, and it has been categorized as either Holocene or historic, based on date samples ranging from 0.1 to 0.35 million years ago. The summit, Lars Christensen Peak, is a 100 m wide circular crater. An ultra-prominent peak at 1640 m elevation, it is named after Lars Christensen. It is not known whether this volcano is extinct or not, because the upper part is apparently unmodified by glaciation, indicating an eruption several centuries ago.

Environment

The island's vegetation consists exclusively of mosses and lichens which have adapted to the extreme Antarctic climate. The island has a very harsh climate with strong winds and freezing temperatures. The steady snowfall keeps vegetation to a minimum. The island is a breeding ground for a few seabirds, particularly southern fulmars, but also Wilson's storm petrels and Antarctic terns. Penguins, including Adélie and chinstrap penguins, visit the island infrequently. There are numerous seals, particularly crabeater seals, leopard seals and smaller numbers of southern elephant seals.

Politics
Peter I Island is one of Norway's two territorial claims in Antarctica, the other being Queen Maud Land. Norway, Australia, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom have all mutually recognized each other's claims in Antarctica. Other countries however, including the United States, do not recognize this claim. Peter I Island is the only claim within 90°W and 150°W and is also the only claim which is not a sector. Being south of 60°S, the island is subject to the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty ensures free access to the island for any scientific investigation, and states that it can be used only for peaceful purposes.

Norwegian administration of the island is handled by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and Public Security, located in Oslo. The annexation of the island is regulated by the Dependency Act of 24 March 1933. It establishes that Norwegian criminal law, private law and procedural law applies to the island, in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid on the island. It further establishes that all land belongs to the state, and prohibits the storage and detonation of nuclear products.

Since 5 May 1995, Norwegian law has required all Norwegian activity in Antarctica, including Peter I Island, to follow international environmental law for Antarctica. All Norwegian citizens who plan activities on Peter I Island must therefore report to the Norwegian Polar Institute, who may deny any non-conforming activity. All people visiting the island must follow laws regarding protection of nature, treatment of waste, pollution and insurance for search and rescue operations.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Peter I Island


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Schaffhausen

Schaffhausen (Schafuuse; Schaffhouse; Sciaffusa; Schaffusa), historically known in English as Shaffhouse, is a town with historic roots, a municipality in northern Switzerland, and the capital of the canton of the same name; it has an estimated population of 36,000 It is located right next to the shore of the High Rhine; it is one of four Swiss towns located on the northern side of the Rhine, along with Neuhausen am Rheinfall, the historic Neunkirch, and medieval Stein am Rhein.

The old town has many fine Renaissance era buildings decorated with exterior frescos and sculpture, as well as the old canton fortress, the Munot. Schaffhausen is also a railway junction of Swiss and German rail networks. One of the lines connects the town with the nearby Rhine Falls in Neuhausen am Rheinfall, Europe's largest waterfall, a tourist attraction.

The official language of Schaffhausen is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.

Name
The town is first mentioned in 1045 as Villa Scafhusun. There are at least two theories on the origin of this name:

 * One relates to a mention of a "ford" across the Rhine that first occurs in 1050. This "ford" may actually refer to a scapha or skiff which was used to disembark goods coming from Constance to move them around the Rhine Falls. The name Scafhusun then arose from the scapha used at that point.
 * Another theory is that Scafhusun comes from Schaf (a sheep), as a ram (now a sheep) formed the ancient arms (traceable to 1049) of the town, derived from those of its founders, the counts of Nellenburg.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or on a Base Vert issuant from sinister a Semi Castle Argent with tower with entrance from which is issuing a Semi Ram Sable. The canting coat of arms refers to the second interpretation of the name, sheep-house.

History
Schaffhausen was a city state in the Middle Ages, documented to have struck its own coins from 1045. About 1050 the counts of Nellenburg founded the Benedictine monastery of All Saints, which became the centre of the town. Perhaps as early as 1190, certainly in 1208, it was an imperial free city, while the first seal dates from 1253. The powers of the abbot were gradually limited and in 1277 the Emperor Rudolf I gave the town a charter of liberties. In 1330 the emperor Louis of Bavaria pledged it to the Habsburgs. In the early 15th century, Habsburg power over the city waned. In 1349 and 1401 (Schaffhausen Massacre), two pogroms occurred in the city. By 1411 the guilds ruled the city. Then, in 1415 the Habsburg Duke Frederick IV of Austria sided with the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, and was banned by the Emperor Sigismund. As a result of the ban and Frederick's need of money, Schaffhausen was able to buy its independence from the Habsburgs in 1418. The city allied with six of the Swiss confederates in 1454 and allied with a further two (Uri and Unterwalden) in 1479. Schaffhausen became a full member of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1501.

The Reformation was adopted, initially, in 1524 and completely in 1529. The town was heavily damaged during the Thirty Years' War by the passage of Swedish (Protestant) and Bavarian (Roman Catholic) troops and the very important bridge was burnt down. It was not until the early 19th century that the arrested industrial development of the town recommenced. In 1857, the first railroad, the Rheinfallbahn, running from Winterthur, reached Schaffhausen.

Schaffhausen is located in a finger of Swiss territory surrounded on three sides by Germany. On 1 April 1944, Schaffhausen suffered a bombing raid by aircraft of the United States Army Air Forces, which strayed from German airspace into neutral Switzerland due to navigation errors. Air raid sirens had often sounded in the past, without an actual attack, so many residents ignored the sirens that day. A total of 40 civilians were killed in the raid. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt sent a personal letter of apology to the mayor of Schaffhausen and the United States quickly offered four million US dollars in reparations.

Topography
The town of Schaffhausen stands on the right bank of the river Rhine. It has an area, (as of the 2004/09 survey) of. Of this area, about 20.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 53.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 24.8% is settled (buildings or roads) and 1.6% is unproductive land. Over the past two decades (1979/85-2004/09) the amount of land that is settled has increased by 95 ha and the agricultural land has decreased by 117 ha.

In 1947 it merged with the former municipality of Buchthalen. Its area expanded again in 1964 when Herblingen was absorbed and for a third time in 2009 when Hemmental joined the municipality.

Schaffhausen shares an international border with the German village of Büsingen am Hochrhein, an exclave entirely surrounded by Switzerland.

Climate
Schaffhausen has an average of 122.5 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives 907 mm of precipitation. The wettest month is July during which time Schaffhausen receives an average of 95 mm of rain. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 11.3 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of 59 mm of precipitation over 8.4 days.

Government
The City Council (de: Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the town of Schaffhausen and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors (Stadtrat/Stadträtin), each presiding over a department (Referat), which each consists of several administrative districts. The president of the executive department acts as mayor (Stadtpräsident(in)). In the mandate period January 2017 – December 2020 (Amtsdauer) the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsident Peter Neukomm. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Grand City Council (parliament) are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of Schaffhausen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The mayor is elected as such as well by public election while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The mayor as well as the delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.

, Schaffhausen's City Council is made up of one representative of the SP (Social Democratic Party, who is also the mayor), one representative of the AL (Alternative List), one of the FDP (The Liberals), one of the SVP (Swiss People's Party), and one of the GLP (Green Liberal Party), giving the right parties a majority of three out of five seats. The last regular election was held on 28 August 2016.

Parliament
The Grand City Council (Grosser Stadtrat) holds legislative power. It is made up of 36 members, with elections held every four years. The Grand City Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz.

The sessions of the Grand City Council are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the Grand City Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Schaffhausen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Grand City Council. The parliament holds its meetings in the Kantonsratsaal (Cantonal Council Hall) am Kornmarkt.

The last regular election of the Grand City Council was held on 27 November 2016 for the mandate period (Legislatur) from January 2017 to December 2020. Currently the Grand City Council consist of 9 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 8 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section, the JUSOplus, 5 The Liberals (FDP/PLR) and one of its junior section, the JFSH, 4 Alternative List (AL), 3 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL), 2 ÖBS-Grüne (an alliance of the Ökoliberale Bewegung Schaffhausen (ÖBS) and the Green Party (GPS/PES)), and one each of Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PES), and Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF).

National elections
In the 2015 federal election the most popular party was the SVP with 39.0% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (34.0%), the FDP (12.7%) and the others (6.7%). In the federal election, a total of 13,754 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 60.7%. The 2015 election saw a change in the voting when compared to 2011. The percentage that the SP received dropped from 41.6% to 34.0% while the SVP increased from 31.9% in 2011 to 39.0% in 2015.
 * National Council

Population
Schaffhausen has a population of. , 27.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Of the foreign population,, 21% are from Germany, 13.3% are from Italy, 8.8% are from Croatia, 13.3% are from Serbia, 6% are from Macedonia, 9% are from Turkey, and 28.6% are from other countries. Most of the population speaks German (84.3%), with Serbo-Croatian being second most common (3.4%) and Italian being third (3.2%).

Over the last four years (2010–2014) the population has changed at a rate of 2.82%. The birth rate in the municipality, in 2014, was 9.6, while the death rate was 10.1 per thousand residents.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 17.8% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) are 61.7% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 20.5%. In 2015 there were 15,288 single residents, 15,287 people who were married or in a civil partnership, 2,119 widows or widowers, 3,253 divorced residents and 1 people who did not answer the question.

In 2014 there were 16,723 private households in Schaffhausen with an average household size of 2.10 persons. Of the 5,863 inhabited buildings in the municipality, in 2000, about 51.5% were single family homes and 29.7% were multiple family buildings. Additionally, about 22.1% of the buildings were built before 1919, while 7.6% were built between 1991 and 2000. In 2013 the rate of construction of new housing units per 1000 residents was 1.29. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.71%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:
 * Historic population

Religion
, 27.4% of the population belonged to the Roman Catholic Church and 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, later organized in the parish St. Johann – Münster.

Education
In Schaffhausen about 69.8% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule (university of applied sciences)). In Schaffhausen,, 1.73% of the population attend kindergarten or another pre-school, 5.65% attend a Primary School, 2.98% attend a lower level Secondary School, and 2.49% attend a higher level Secondary School.

Economy
, there were a total of 25,749 people employed in the municipality. Of these, a total of 103 people worked in 24 businesses in the primary economic sector. A majority (61.2%) of the primary sector employees worked in very small businesses (less than ten employees). The remainder worked in 2 small businesses with a total of 40 employees. The secondary sector employed 6,403 workers in 371 separate businesses. In 2014 a total of 2,433 employees worked in 358 small companies (less than 50 employees). There were 13 mid sized businesses with 1,631 employees and 3 large businesses which employed 2,333 people (for an average size of 777.7). Finally, the tertiary sector provided 19,243 jobs in 2,626 businesses. In 2014 the tertiary sector numbers had increased by 606 and 20 respectively. In 2014 a total of 12,890 employees worked in 2,597 small companies (less than 50 employees). There were 45 mid sized businesses with 4,938 employees and 4 large businesses which employed 2,021 people (for an average size of 505.3).

In 2014 a total of 1.3% of the population received social assistance.

In 2015 local hotels had a total of 102,537 overnight stays, of which 52.6% were international visitors. In 2015 there were two movie theaters in the municipality, with a total of 10 screens and a total of 1,816 available seats. , there are 102 restaurants, and 11 hotels with 445 beds. The catering industry in Schaffhausen employs 924 people.

the mid year average unemployment rate was 2.5%. There were 1,879 non-agrarian businesses in the municipality and 29.9% of the (non-agrarian) population was involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 70.1% were involved in the third. At the same time, 67.1% of the working population was employed full-time, and 32.9% was employed part-time. There were 21,841 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 46.6% of the workforce. there were 10,019 residents who worked in the municipality, while 5,724 residents worked outside Schaffhausen and 8,026 people commuted into the municipality for work.

Schaffhausen has an unemployment rate,, of 2.67%. , there were 196 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 33 businesses involved in this sector. 6,488 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 293 businesses in this sector. 14,019 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,486 businesses in this sector.

Train
The town of Schaffhausen is served by two railway stations, Schaffhausen railway station and Herblingen railway station.

Schaffhausen railway station is jointly owned by the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) and Deutsche Bahn (DB), and is served by trains of both nation's networks. The station is served by long-distance passenger trains (InterCity, IC) running between Stuttgart and Zürich, RegioExpress (RE) trains between Zürich HB and Schaffhausen, and Interregio-Express (IRE) trains between Basel and Friedrichshafen. Trains of Zürich S-Bahn services S9, S12, S24 and S33 serve the station, although only the S24 provides a direct service to Zürich Airport and Zürich main station. In addition, the S1 service of St. Gallen S-Bahn operates over the Lake Line to St. Gallen and Wil. The S64 and S65 services of Schaffhausen S-Bahn link Schaffhausen with Erzingen and Jestetten, respectively.

Herblingen railway station in the north-east of Schaffhausen is served by the S24 of Zürich S-Bahn and local trains of Schaffhausen S-Bahn (S62), linking Schaffhausen station with Thayngen and Singen (Hohentwiel), respectively.

The S-Bahn services S1 and S62 are part of Bodensee S-Bahn, a network of regional trains around Lake Constance (Bodensee).

Bus
Schaffhausen and the neighboring town of Neuhausen am Rheinfall have an urban bus network of 8 lines, including the Schaffhausen trolleybus system (line 1). Since 2019, the other lines (3–9) are operated by battery-powerd buses (Irizar) and diesel-powered buses. All routes except line 9 call at Schaffhausen railway station. Route 9 calls at Herblingen railway station. During weekends, there are night buses (designated as N#) operating after midnight. The urban bus routes, all operated by Verkehrsbetriebe Schaffhausen (vbsh), are as follows:

One of the previous urban routes, line 12 to the Rhine Falls, was the first route ever to feature a level 5 autonomous bus (2018–2019).

In addition, there are several regional bus services that link Schaffhausen with villages in the canton of Schaffhausen, the canton of Zürich and nearby German territory. The regional bus services 21–25, lines 630 and 634 and all night bus services (designated with N#) all depart from the forecourt of Schaffhausen railway station:

Boat
Departing from Schifflände, there are regular boat trips on the River Rhine (High Rhine) to Stein am Rhein and Kreuzlingen (Lake Constance) offered by Schweizerische Schifffahrtsgesellschaft Untersee und Rhein (URh) during warmer seasons.

Private Transport
The A4 motorway connects Schaffhausen with Zürich. The A4 continues northward to Donaueschingen/Singen (Hohentwiel) in Germany. Since 1996, the A4 runs through a tunnel, bypassing the town's center. There are three nearby exits along the A4: Schaffhausen Süd, Schaffhausen Nord and Schaffhausen Schweizersbild.

The Hauptstrasse 13 connects Schaffhausen with villages in the western part of the canton (Klettgau), through the Galgenbucktunnel which opened in 2019, and with villages along the Rhine River east of Schaffhausen.

Culture
There are 35 buildings or sites in Schaffhausen that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. This includes the entire old town of Schaffhausen, the city walls, the Giesserei +GF+ Werk I factory, the town and cantonal archives, the Schweizersbild Paleolithic cave and the Herblingen and Grüthalde Neolithic settlements. Additionally, there are four former guild houses and seven listed houses. There are only two listed religious buildings, the former Benedictine All Saints Abbey and the Church of St. John.
 * Heritage sites of national significance

Economy
Schaffhausen hosts some well-known industrial companies like Georg Fischer (piping systems, machine tools and automotives), an internationally reputed manufacturer of watches (IWC), pharmaceutical industry (Cilag, founded by Bernhard Joos) and BB Biotech (biotechnologies). Tyco International, Garmin, and cyber protection company Acronis are also incorporated in Schaffhausen.

Sport
The town has two football teams, SV Schaffhausen, of the fourth-tier Swiss 1. Liga, and FC Schaffhausen, of the second-tier Swiss Challenge League. There is a football stadium in Breite, Schaffhausen which seats 4200 persons, known as the Breitestadion. It is also the training headquarters for local children's football teams.

There is a handball team in Schaffhausen which plays in the first Swiss division: Kadetten Schaffhausen. They are centered at the BBC Arena on Schweizersbildstrasse. It seats 3600 persons, and was built in 2011. Kadetten has been very successful and has won the second most titles in the history of the SHL.

Pre-17th C

 * Bernold of Constance (c.1054 – 1100 in Schaffhausen), a chronicler and writer of religious tracts
 * Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg (1445–1510), a priest, a popular preacher of the 15th C.
 * Sebastian Hofmeister (1476–1533), known in writing as Oeconomus or Oikonomos, was a Swiss monk and religious Reformer
 * Tobias Stimmer (1539–1584), a painter and illustrator, particularly of the Strasbourg astronomical clock
 * Daniel Lindtmayer (1552-c.1605), the fourth generation of artists and glass painters

17th C

 * Johann Jakob Wepfer (1620–1695), a pathologist and pharmacologist
 * Johann Conrad Peyer (1653–1712), an anatomist
 * Johann Konrad Ammann (1669–1724), a physician and instructor of non-verbal deaf persons
 * Andrew Schalch (1692–1776), the first gun-founder at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich

18th C

 * George Michael Moser RA (1706–1783), a chaser and enameller, co-founder of the Royal Academy in 1768
 * Johann Amman (1707–1741), a Swiss-Russian botanist, a member of the Royal Society and professor of botany
 * John Snetzler (1710–1785), an organ builder who worked mostly in England
 * Lorenz Spengler (1720–1807), a Danish turner and naturalist.
 * Johann Jakob Schalch (1723–1789), a painter, noted for his paintings of the Rheinfall in Schaffhausen
 * Johann Conrad Ammann (1724–1811), a physician, naturalist and collector of fossils
 * Johannes von Müller (1752–1809), a historian
 * Johann Conrad Fischer (1773–1854), a metallurgist, inventor, and pioneer in the steel industry; founded Georg Fischer AG in 1802
 * Friedrich Emmanuel von Hurter (1787–1865), a Protestant cleric and historian who converted to Roman Catholicism

19th C

 * Johann Heinrich Gelzer (1813–1889), an historian and diplomat
 * Hans Bendel (1814–1853), a painter and illustrator
 * Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898), an industrial chemist who settled in England, researched photography
 * Dame Sophia Wintz DBE (1847–1929), a British philanthropist who co-founded the Royal Sailors' Rests
 * Ernst Homberger (1869–1955), an industrialist, Georg Fischer and International Watch Company
 * Emil Ermatinger (1873–1953), a professor for Germanic philology
 * Ferdinand Schalch (1848–1918), paleontologist and geologist
 * Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922), a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, brought up in Schaffhausen
 * Bernhard Peyer (1885–1963), paleontologist and anatomist
 * Karl Jäger (1888–1959), a mid-ranking official in the SS of Nazi Germany, perpetrated acts of genocide during the Holocaust
 * Walther Bringolf (1895–1981), mayor of Schaffhausen 1933–1968, former president of the National Council of Switzerland 1961/1962

20th C

 * Richard Meili (1900–1991), a scientist in practical psychology, diagnostics, personality development and intelligence
 * Conrad Beck (1901–1989), a composer and head of Music of Radio Basel 1933-1963
 * Carl Alfred Meier (1905–1995), a psychiatrist, Jungian psychologist, scholar, and first president of the C. G. Jung Institute in Zürich
 * Cardinal Gilberto Agustoni (1922–2017), a prelate of the Roman Catholic Church
 * Ernst Hess (1912–1968), a conductor, composer and musicologist
 * Rita Wolfensberger (1928–2020), classical pianist
 * Bruno Meyer (born 1938), a religious leader of a fundamentalist Christian, evangelical congregation; convicted in 2010 for rape and child sexual abuse
 * Markus Werner (1944–2016), a writer, author of the novels Zündels Abgang
 * Christoph Blocher (born 1940), a politician, industrialist and former member of the Swiss Federal Council
 * Pia Gyger (1940–2014), a specialist for special education and psychologist a co-initiator of the Jerusalem-Project
 * Irène Schweizer (born 1941), a jazz and free improvising pianist
 * Jürg Fröhlich (born 1946), a mathematician and theoretical physicist
 * Giorgio Behr (born 1948), a businessman, lawyer, accountant and university professor
 * Beat Furrer (born 1954), an Austrian composer and conductor
 * Philipp Landmark (born 1966), a journalist and former editor-in-chief of the St. Galler Tagblatt
 * Tom Strala (born 1974), a designer, architect and artist.

Sport

 * Jules Ehrat (1905–1997), a chess player, the 1942 joint Swiss Chess Champion
 * Liselotte Kobi (born 1930), a former swimmer, competed at the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics
 * Marianne Gossweiler (born 1943), an equestrian, medallist in team dressage at both the 1964 and 1968 Summer Olympics
 * Stefan Maurer (1960–1994), a cyclist, competed in the individual road race at the 1984 Summer Olympics
 * Stephan Lehmann (1963), a retired football goalkeeper, goalkeeper coach for FC Sion, 538 team games and 14 for the national side
 * Roberto Di Matteo (born 1970), an Italian former footballer (323 games) and team manager in the UK
 * Daniela Baumer (born 1971), a sprint canoer, silver medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics
 * Florence Schelling (born 1989), an ice hockey goaltender and three-time Olympian; first woman to be named general manager of a professional men's hockey team (SC Bern) in the world

title: Schaffhausen


text:
Talk:Roots of anti-Semitism

I don't understand why this page exists. It seems to be almost an exact copy of the Wikipedia article Anti-Semitism. RK

It's a selection of the bits of that article relating to the causes of anti-Semitism. There's obviously a lot more that can be said about anti-Semitism than merely how it is caused. My idea was that this entry could focus in on the question of what causes anti-Semitism, allowing the anti-Semitism entry to focus on other issues, such as consequences of anti-Semitism, actions taken to combat anti-Semitism, and differences in anti-Semitism around the world. In a similar way the Christianity and anti-Semitism article avoids the need for either article to spend pages disecting the responsibility and reaction of Christianity. I'll add to this entry later as well. Martin

Footnote
The footnote didn't seem to work, even though Jayjg did what it says to do in Cite sources, so I've changed it to the author and date in parenthesis after the sentence. If anyone can work out how to make the footnote thing function, by all means change it back. SlimVirgin 21:17, Mar 23, 2005 (UTC)

 * What do you mean it didn't work? It worked fine for me.  Also, you lost the page numbers, p. 118, pp. 210-216. Jayjg (talk)  21:18, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Then it must be my browser. All I could see was at the bottom and nothing in the text, though I could see it when I edited the page. But if it's showing up right for you, I'll revert. Sorry. SlimVirgin 21:29, Mar 23, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks to you both. El_C 03:19, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for supplying the reference. You always come up with very good academic references. Sorry about the footnote confusion. I'm using the latest Mac operating system and currently using the latest Netscape, but I don't see these footnotes for some reason, though I can see them on other pages. It's all part of the fun of being a Mac user. ;-) SlimVirgin 03:30, Mar 24, 2005 (UTC)

 * And thanks to both of you just for being yourselves. ;-) Jayjg (talk) 03:58, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah, you think different, I see. :p El_C 03:33, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Chip Berlet Chart
To any interested editors - there is a conversation currently occurring on the Chip Berlet talk page regarding the appropriateness of including Mr. Berlet's chart on this page. Berlet is a highly partisan political source, and as such it is contended that using his material for purposes other than to represent his personal opinions is inappropriate per WP:RS - "Partisan political and religious sources should be treated with caution. An extreme political website should never be used as a source for Wikipedia except in articles discussing the opinions of that organization or the opinions of a larger like-minded group." Factual and POV problems within the chart have also raised the issue of whether it rises to the level of encyclopedia-quality material for this article. Interested persons are invited to view the discussion here and to post any thoughts relating to its presence in this article under this message on the current talk page. Thanks! Rangerdude 07:26, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * By "extreme political website," we mean groups like Stormfront, not PRA. SlimVirgin (talk) 07:34, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * That's an arbitrary attempt to define a wikipedia guideline that makes no such specification. Your own personal definition of what constitutes "extreme" is of no determinant value. Wikipedia's provisions on source reliability are specific, however, in its application to "Partisan political and religious sources," which are discouraged in their own right. Berlet is indisputably a partisan political source, and PRA is very reasonably defined as hailing from the left wing extreme of the political spectrum. That indicates a better source should probably be used instead. Rangerdude 09:05, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * My comment on the chart is on Talk:Chip Berlet (diff). El_C 08:19, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

El C - thanks for your comments on this subject. I disagree wholly in your characterization of Berlet as a "scholarly" opinion though. I do not see any scholarly credentials affiliated with Chip Berlet's name. I am unaware that he has any higher degrees or academic accredation in any social science field, and his major institutional affiliations are all with partisan political groups. As such his description is of no more credibility than your average run of the mill political activist, or perhaps an op-ed commentator at most. It's certainly not the product of an accredited political scientist, sociologist, or historian though, and as I have noted on the other talk page this circumstance shows in the simplistic and erronious nature of the chart. Both the unaccredited and undistinguished nature of the chart and the fact that it hails from an extremely partisan political source make it unencyclopedic for this particular article. In my view, the chart belongs as nothing more than a representation of Chip Berlet's personal opinions on the article about Chip Berlet. In the case of this article, we should seek a substitute or alternative and additional material on the subject of antisemitism from an accredited scholarly source with more neutral, or at least less partisan, political leanings. Rangerdude 09:05, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Response in the section bellow. El_C 22:19, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The Chart is published on the PRA website. I claim no scholarly credentials, but I write for scholarly and academic publications, and have been through peer review in a sociology journal. I also do peer review of articles for a socioloy journal. I write chapters in academic books, lecture in college classooms, and have been invited to present papers at the conferences of the American Sociological Association and International Sociological Association. Of course, Rangerdude knows all this, since he just edited my Wiki page bio to include more criticism of my work. So unless you want to argue that Eric Hoffer was just a dockworker with a POV attitude problem, please back off.--Cberlet 13:19, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The above editor is reminded of both Wikipedia's autobiography policy and a general tendency of other editors to frown upon persons who promote their own material here. A quick review of Mr. Berlet's published work reveals that the majority of his material that has been published outside of his own outfit at PRA appears in the form of Op-Ed submissions to various newspapers and contributions to highly partisan political magazines on the far left such as Mother Jones, the SPLC's Intelligence Report, and High Times. His "lectures" at college campuses appear to individual guest visits and presentations to various university classrooms and campus activism seminars - a qualification that could also be claimed by such illustrious "scholarly" speakers as Jane Fonda, Michael Moore, and Jesse Jackson. A review of his biography also produces no evidence that Mr. Berlet holds any scholarly qualifications from an accredited institution of higher learning. Indeed, I can find no evidence that he even possesses so much as bachelor's degree - or any form of higher education for that matter - except for a 3 year stint at the University of Denver in the 1970's, from which he did not graduate. I find no evidence of him ever holding a regular faculty position at an accredited university or even a high school for that matter. His claimed "peer review" contribution to an academic journal appears to consist of a single article in a publication calling itself "The Politics of Social Inequality Volume 9" - an obscure narrow-focus journal of no mainstream distinction that appears to be devoted entirely to minority and homosexual political causes on the political left. In short, I have yet to see anything indicating that Mr. Berlet has any genuine recognized scholarly credentials or anything establishing him as a recognized academic expert on the subject of anti-semitism. As such, and in light of his political partisanship, his chart simply does not rise to the level of source reliability required for this encyclopedia. Rangerdude 20:25, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Berlet is a noted researcher and journalist on the topic. -Willmcw 20:35, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * He's also an extreme political partisan (see WP:RS) and has no demonstrated scholarly credentials on the topic. Treating him as anything more than a partisan political activist with an interest in this particular issue (and representing his work as opinions to that end accordingly) is inappropriate per the reliable sources provisions mentioned above. Rangerdude 20:57, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * He writes for scholarly journals, as well as articles that other journalists read to learn about this stuff. He's highly regarded. SlimVirgin (talk) 21:03, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Of which political party is he an "extreme political partisan"? Can we only quote material in Wikipedia from Ph.D.s? Neither of those criticisms seem to be relevant here. -Willmcw 21:07, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Slim - I've only seen one allegedly "peer reviewed" journal article to his name (discussed above), and it isn't much of one at that. Please provide evidence of accredited scholarly credentials such as a degree or an academic position. Otherwise he is nothing more than an opinionated activist. Rangerdude 21:09, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * He's an investigative journalist working for a research organization that is much used by other journalists, and you can find a list of some of his articles on Chip Berlet. Chip and PRA are both the kind of source regarded as reputable and credible for Wikipedia articles. SlimVirgin (talk) 01:55, August 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * He is also an unabashed apologist for leftist political ideology (not that there's anything wrong with that, per se). Checking out his work in the Boston Globe should quell any doubts.  Since he's a fellow WP editor, I'll just say that, while he's a good editor here, quoting his outside works as though he were an impartial observer of political or sociological phenomena is a mischaracterization of his work.  Tomer TALK  03:18, August 8, 2005 (UTC)

Scholarly citations
I have ~5 minutes so I must be brief. A small sample where Chip Berlet is cited in scholarly sources:

 * Social Movements: Changing Paradigms, M Edelman - anthro.annualreviews.org Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2001. 30:285–317 Copyright c 2001 by Annual Reviews. -- http://anthro.annualreviews.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/285

 * Marketing the Marriage ‘Solution’: Misplaced Simplicity in the Politics of Fatherhood. 2001 -… S Coltrane - Sociological Perspectives, Volume 44, Number 4, pages 387–418. -- http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sop.2001.44.4.387

 * The social construction of the divorce “problem”: Morality, child victims, and the politics of Gender … S Coltrane, M Adams - Family Relations, 2003 -- http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111%252Fj.1741-3729.2003.00363.x

 * The Social Psychology of Hatred ER Harrington - Journal of Hate Studies -- http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/againsthate/journal3/GHS110.pdf

 * Making Sense of a World Transformed: The Christian Right Post-September 11 Duane M. Oldfield Associate Professor of Political Science Knox College (Rutgers University Press, c2005) -- http://apsaproceedings.cup.org/Site/papers/033/033001OldfieldDu.pdf

 * Rush, Newspeak and Fascism: An Exegesis, D Neiwert - readthistome.com -- http://www.readthistome.com/Rush_Newspeak_Fascism.pdf

 * Anti-Gay Politics Online: A Study of Sexuality and Stigma on National Websites JM Irvine - Sexuality Research and Social Policy Journal of NSRC, 2005 - Journal of NSRC Sexuality Research and Social Policy, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 1-74, online ISSN 1553-6610. -- http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2005.2.1.3

 * The Concept that came out of the Cold: The Progressive Historicization of Generic Fascism and its New Relevance to Teaching 20 the Century History, PR Griffin, GL Campus - ah.brookes.ac.uk -- http://ah.brookes.ac.uk/history/staff/griffin/historycompass.pdf

 * Brief History of the Unorganized Militia, C Courts, P Identity - Berkeley Planning Journal, 11 (1996): 26-48 -- http://www-dcrp.ced.berkeley.edu/bpj/pdf/11-Zook.pdf

 * Militias at the Millenium:. A Test of Smelser's Theory of Collective Behavior SC Weeber, DG Rodeheaver - The Sociological Quarterly, Volume 44, Number 2, pages 181–204. The Midwest Sociological Society. -- http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/tsq.2003.44.2.181

 * RD Lipschutz - The Myth of Ethnic Conflict, 1999 - University of California eScholarship Repositories -- http://repositories.cdlib.org

 * Holiness Codes and Holy Homosexuals: Interpreting Gay and Lesbian Christian Subculture. H Hendershot - Camera Obscura, 2001 -- http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/camera_obscura/v015/15.3hendershot.pdf

 * Tradition Never Goes Out of Style: The Role of Tradition in Women’s Naming Practices, E Sutter, The Communication Review, 57, 7:57–87, 2004 -- http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/UN230KF10588NFUH.pdf

I'm seeing many fold more citations, but I'm writing in hatse; largely copied this from a shcolarly database, sorry if the format appears odd. El_C 22:19, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * El_C - thanks for the links, but political activist groups like Chip Berlet's are "cited" all the time by academics, be they liberal or conservative. That doesn't make them academically accredited scholars though. Nor does being quoted in an article on "gender studies" make one an expert in the history of anti-semitism. Rangerdude 23:05, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * RD, are you saying that we can't quote non-scholars on Wikipedia articles? I don't understand the criteria you are asserting. Are academic credentials the only test of expertise? Thanks, -Willmcw 23:18, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Your repeated straw man misconstructions of my request aside, all I am saying is that we should follow WP:RS. WP:RS explicitly discourages the use of partisan political sources on wikipedia for anything other than representing their opinions. Mr. Berlet is indisputably a partisan political source, and as he has no scholarly accredation that especially merits the use of his material on this page, his chart should be removed on the grounds that it is a partisan political source discouraged by WP:RS, or altered in a manner to reflect the fact that it represents only his opinion. Rangerdude 23:29, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

What counts as reputable?

 * WP:RS does not require scholarly credentials. Can you point to exactly what part of that guideline you are referring to? And of which political party is he an "extreme political partisan"? Thanks, -Willmcw 23:45, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * "partisan n. A fervent, sometimes militant supporter or proponent of a party, cause, faction, person, or idea." - American Heritage Dictionary. Rangerdude 05:31, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Glad to help, Rangerdude. Note that these citations pertain to Chip Berlet's works. El_C 00:52, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * RD, WP:RS is just a guideline. The policy page that talks about sources is No original research. Chip is an investigative journalist used by other journalists for their research, and is highly regarded as such. I've also seen him around Wikipedia making a real effort (in a few cases, more of an effort that I would have made) to be fair to people he disagrees with politically. He's definitely a credible source for WP and has been used as such in several articles. SlimVirgin (talk) 02:00, August 4, 2005 (UTC)

Slim - And as a general rule guidelines should be followed. Simply stating but "I'm friends with that author and consider him to be a good guy" is not sufficient as a basis to disregard a guideline when his material clearly contradicts it. Once again you are reminded to set aside your biasing personal allegiances with other editors where they conflict with matters of article content. Rangerdude 05:31, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * RD, which part of the guideline are you referring to exactly? SlimVirgin (talk) 05:33, August 4, 2005 (UTC)

 * The one I quoted previously: "Partisan political and religious sources should be treated with caution. An extreme political website should never be used as a source for Wikipedia except in articles discussing the opinions of that organization or the opinions of a larger like-minded group." Mr. Berlet is a partisan political source. Rangerdude 06:35, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I, however, challenge that the use of the term extreme is... well, extreme and misdirected here. El_C 06:42, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I guess we'll have to disagree on that. Everything I've read about Mr. Berlet indicates that he hails from the far left of the political spectrum placing his politics well outside the mainstream, hence my consideration of him as an extreme source. I'd imagine that this understanding of the word "extreme" is fairly common and if considered along side the full distribution of political opinions in the public at large, Mr. Berlet would fall squarely on the tail, a good distance removed from the centerpoint and the population's mean. While I suppose a person sharing his perspective, or perhaps having a different concept of the term, may dispute his extremity it is still difficult to argue that Berlet is not a partisan political source, which is also discouraged. In either case it is a safe characterization that Mr. Berlet is very far removed from being a neutral source, thus his use here should be governed by due caution. One solution to this problem could be adding wording that indicates that the chart is an opinion of Mr. Berlet, himself a controversial source. Rangerdude 07:02, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * PRA is not the kind of organization any of our guidelines is trying to stop us from using, and I'm certain of this because I've been involved in drafting a lot of the information about sources and original research. That sentence was added to make sure websites like the one run by Stormfront, which is a political movement, not a research organization, could only be used as primary sources about themselves. But PRA is a research group and Berlet is a published journalist and author. WP:NOR is policy so what it says about sourcing takes precedence over guidelines. WP:NOR says: "A magazine or press release self-published by a very extreme political or religious group would often not be regarded as "reputable". For example, Wikipedia would not rely only on an article in a Socialist Workers' Party magazine to publish a statement about President Bush being gay." This clearly doesn't have in mind the type of research group Chip works for. You may find PRA extreme, but it's not a political or religious group, party, or movement. SlimVirgin (talk) 07:12, August 4, 2005 (UTC)

 * Once again, Slim you are not the arbiter of which "extreme" groups WP's guidelines apply to or not. Whether you drafted other WP information on original research or not is irrelevant, as the issue here is only what the guidelines do and do not say. If it was added to exclude only Stormfront-style groups it should've said so. But it does not - it says only "extreme political sources" without any special qualifications or exemptions, and that means sources on both the far right and far left. PRA and Berlet are very reasonably categorized as hailing from the far left, and while they are entitled to take that view, wikipedia should also treat them with caution as the guideline directs both of extreme sources AND of any partisan source. And you say that PRA - as in Political Research Associates - is not a political group? Please. PRA is as political as they come and about as far left as they get where liberal thinktanks are concerned. Dressing it up denials of its strong leftist bent and pseudo-academic attributes is fooling nobody. PRA is loved among the far left and despised among persons in both the middle and the right for a reason, and that reason is the strong tilt of its political leanings. Curiously your example of the Socialist Worker's Party does little to help your case as Mr. Berlet's own biography proudly states that he has worked on behalf of this very same extremist group! Rangerdude 07:30, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Okay, I'm clearly getting nowhere here, so I'll stop now. I've told you that Reliable sources is a guideline, not policy, and that WP:NOR is policy and therefore takes priority. As you said yourself, it's what the page actually says that matters, and WP:NOR actually says nothing that would exclude Chip or PRA, and I don't think you'll find much support in Wikipedia for your argument. If we were to exclude all sources who showed political leanings, we'd be decimated overnight. SlimVirgin (talk) 07:46, August 4, 2005 (UTC)

 * Slim - Nothing you've quoted from NOR contradicts what I've quoted from WP:RS. In fact the section you cite giving the Socialist Worker's Party as an example of an extreme source actually seems to solidify my case against Mr. Berlet, as his biography openly boasts that he has done work with that group! If the Socialist Workers Party is not a reputable source as the section you quote states, would not the same be true of political activists who openly and proudly align with the Socialist Workers Party and dozens of other equally extremist organizations? Are you truly so blinded by your personal biases that you cannot even see how your own example applies against what you purport? I would hate to think as much, but my experience with you tells me that personal allegiances to other editors run strong in your decisions here, leaving me to conclude that this must be the case. Rangerdude 21:49, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Indeed, it seems we are at an impass, Rangerdude. I still feel you are missing the point and thrust of my argument. The way I see it, following Wikipedia policy, you need to bring forward some evidence demonstrating that the "scholarly community" (or significant portions therein) views him as such. You can't simply decide that they do, seemingly on a whim. That, in my opinion, counts as original research. The caution notice you outline needs to be based on something a lot more concerete, more representative of pertinent branches of social-scientific, modern academia (as opposed to intereditorially, here on the wiki). El_C 07:52, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * El C - I believe you've got the burden of proof reversed in this situation. The way I see it that burden of proof is on you to demonstrate that Mr. Berlet's material rises to the level of reputability and scholarship necessary to justify its inclusion in an encyclopedia. That he is a partisan political source is difficult to dispute, and the way that guideline reads seems to imply that some extraordinary characteristic about Mr. Berlet would have to exist to justify including him in spite it. Showing him to be a credentialed expert of high reputation, for example, might suffice, yet as this discussion has revealed Mr. Berlet has absolutely no scholarly credentials such as a degree from an accredited university - not even a common bachelor's degree - and holds no position of recognized expertise or authority in the fields that pertain to this article. The most anybody's been able to show about him is a single purportedly "peer reviewed" article in an obscure narrow-focused political journal, dozens of political rants in PRA's in-house publications and other political publications on the far left that share PRA's views, and a couple of second source references to those same political articles. In terms of establishing scholarly credentials, that sort of stuff is truly grasping at straws. Rangerdude 21:49, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Nonsense. Cberlet's material has clearly been shown to be encyclopedic, and you have completely failed in showing it is not. Jayjg (talk) 22:07, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Then answer me this, Jayjg: (1) What degrees from an accredited institution of higher education does he hold pertaining to this field or any other? (2) What accredited university, college, or even grade school for that matter does he hold a teaching or other scholarly position at?, and (3) Which well recognized and accredited experts on the subject of anti-semitism consider him to be among their peers in this field? If he is the great scholarly "expert" you and others purport him to be, then answering these three questions should be no difficulty for you. Rangerdude 23:21, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

His work has been quoted in encyclopedic sources; that's all that is required. The rest of your questions are red herrings. Jayjg (talk) 23:29, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * That Rangerdude is engaging in a false and biased personal attack on me and my published work is precisely why I have asked for mediation regarding this page and his actions.See this page I note that you began this unprincipled campaign after you lost an attempt to have me sanctioned. I have never claimed to have academic credentials, but I do claim that my work has been published in numerous scholarly journals and books. I also have published articles and op-eds in several mainstream daily newspapers. See: Selected list of publications. My work on antisemitism has been published internationally. Please stop this abusive and nasty series of attacks. Please note my responses below defending my work.--Cberlet 22:12, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * User:Cberlet is once again reminded of the provisions of WP:AUTO. As Wikipedia strongly discourages its contributers from participation in edits to off-site and biographical material pertaining to themselves, I will also ask again that he refrain from attempting to control the course of edits that qualify as such. Furthermore, Cberlet is reminded that critiques of his off-site identity made during a discussion of edits pertaining directly to the wikipedia article about that off-site identity and its work are not "personal attacks" in any reasonable sense, as all are directly pertinent to the content of the relevant articles and the process of determining what should and should not be contained in each. Among the reasons that wikipedia strongly discourages contributers from participating in edits of autobiographical material is its propensity to misconstrue the editing process of the same as a personal dispute. Rangerdude 23:21, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

WP:AUTO is a guideline, not a policy, Cberlet has not violated it, and it relates directly to articles about the authors or works they have written, not other articles, and certainly not Talk: pages. Furthermore, none of the other editors here are Cberlet. Your focus on Chip is both repetitive and personal at this point. Please desist. Oh, and I've made my position on this clear, I won't be repeating myself regardless of how many lengthy and repetitive responses you present. Jayjg (talk) 23:29, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I never claimed WP:AUTO was anything other than a guideline, Jayjg, so please do not accuse me of having done so. Guidelines nevertheless should be abided by, and I am indeed contending that Cberlet has violated this one as he has been continuously inserting himself into the editing process on material about and by him with exactly the results that WP:AUTO seeks to avoid, namely "prolonged disputes about the significance, factual accuracy, and neutrality of material on subjects in which (he is) personally involved." As for your position, whether you participate further in this discussion is not my concern. I've read your contribution, found it to be lacking in substance, and stated my disagreement. I do find it curious that the same clique of usual suspects - e.g. yourself, Willmcw, SlimVirgin, and Cberlet - always tend to pop up and regurgitate the same lines in defense of each other when one or more of your contributions are scrutinized by persons differing from a mutual POV held among you. This is just a suggestion, but your opinions would carry more weight with editors outside the aforementioned group if they weren't always predictably made in support of it and its members regardless of the circumstances or facts. Rangerdude 23:41, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

LOL! Well, as long as you aren't engaging in ad hominem arguments. Jayjg (talk) 23:45, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Nah. Try constructive criticism. Rangerdude 23:50, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Rangerdude, I agree with Jayjg on reputability having been established, and I'm afraid that (and this is an extension of our hitherto impass) I still view the burden of proof as falling on you, as per notices of extermism, etc. Also, I challenge that you cannot claim WP:AUTO in this case because, as mentioned elsewhere, I was the one who inserted the chart into this article, after securing permission from Cberlet. Note that my request to release the chart was the first instance in which I have ever spoken to Cberlet. El_C 23:56, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The direction of the burden of proof should be determined by the logical principles of proof itself, and those principles reflect on the impossibility of proving a negative. In assigning the proof burden to me, you are effectively asking me to prove the negative that "Chip Berlet's material should not be included in this article," which is of course an impossible standard to meet. Properly construed, the burden of proof is always an affirmative rather than a negative and the corrollary affirmative in this case is a demonstration that "Chip Berlet's material should be included in this article." As WP guidelines and policies establish criteria for inclusion, they are what we have to go by in judging whether this burden has been met or not. At the present WP:RS indicates Chip Berlet should probably not be used, absent other justification, because he is a partisan political source. The other justification given so far has been the suggestion that Chip Berlet is a scholarly source despite his partisanship, but as noted above I find that contention wholly unconvincing based upon his lack of normal and standard signifiers of scholarly reputation (e.g. a degree or faculty position). Rangerdude 00:07, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Rangerdude, I, as well, am against the notion whereby one is made to prove a negative (very much so), but I have provided sources and my argument is that you have yet, for example, to expose concretely how this or that source I (rather randomally) cited (or otherwise) view him as being unscholarly or extreme; meaning, qualifying him within their own citations as such. Moreover, I don't believe scholarly needs be related to tenure in or direct affiliation with (any specific body/ies in) academia, and that Wikipedia policy gravitates toward the interdisciplinary in its approach. The way I see it is that I (and others) have provided sources and now you seem to be requesting that myself (or others) draw out of these clear statements which say "he is not extreme / unscholarly," whereas my own position advances the notion that, having reached this point, citationally, it is, in fact, up to you now to draw the qualification (that is, out of these or any other citations) that he is, as you claim, unscholarly, etc. El_C 00:53, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * El C - Chip Berlet's partisanship is readily evidenced in his own biography. He is a political activist who works for a far left wing think tank that specializes in "studying" the political right. He also writes political editorials for publications on the far left such as Mother Jones and the Southern Poverty Law Center's magazine, most of which center around making allegations of "racism" and "anti-semitism" against well known conservative writers, think tanks, and activist groups. All of that combined makes him a partisan political source, which means WP:RS's stipulations kick in. Nor do I have to prove that he is "unscholarly" (="not scholarly" = proving a negative, which can't be done) as that defies the burden of proof's realm of what is possible. As you have contended that his material is sufficiently scholarly though, you do have to demonstrate that affirmative. I've suggested several different reasonable and widely accepted criteria that tend to exhibit scholarly credentials - things such as a degree or a university affiliation, and I'm open to other similar examples. But thus far the best you've offered are a single cite to an obscure allegedly peer-reviewed journal issue that seems to be focused on "gender identity" politics rather than anti-semitism plus a handful of equally obscure references to articles by other people who have mentioned Chip Berlet in a footnote. As I stated to another editor in this discussion, if Chip Berlet were truly the reputable scholarly source on anti-semitism that many of you are claiming he is you wouldn't have near this trouble in producing clear and convincing evidence of his credentials and you wouldn't be throwing out obscure footnote cites to him on largely unrelated subject matters. Rangerdude 03:30, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Rangerdude, it appears we are yet again at an impass. My point is that someone whom you claim is this "disputed" would not be simply noted per se., without such qualifications, and I'm not at all certain the Journals mentioned should be held in such low regard in that sense, nor that they are "unrelated" (at any rate, it was a smaple). As for being scholarly or not, and what is or is not the negative, I challenge, depends on the given frame of reference. I further maintain that reputability has has been established here already and that, therefore, the hihterto negative of proving he isn't then becomes a positive — you argue that it hasn't been established and that it, therefore, remains a negative. Just so we're clear on this dialectic / relationality / interchangability, etc., at least, without which, I maintain much of the argument becomes reduced to mere sophistry. But having said that, I do, though, wish to focus on the concrete and avoid abstract generalizations, which I find unhelpful in moving this forward. Hope that makes sense. El_C 04:34, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

Wagner & Hitler

 * "German antiquity and Wagner's tales of Teutonic superheroes drove Hitler's fantasies of a Germanic state. He would later transfer romanticized notions of Norse epics and the Middle Ages onto National Socialism."

 * "Aryan models of German manhood such as Siegfried and Lohengrin came to inspire a cult of ritual and make-believe within the Third Reich that seems like nothing so much as arrested adolescent development on a monumental scale. With secret codes and runic (ancient German alphabet) symbols, mystical rites (such as the passing of the Blood Flag), and oaths of loyalty, along with innumerable badges, costumes, and greetings, the Third Reich exceeded the customary use of regalia and ceremony within the military."

 * Deborah M Rothschild, Curator of Exhibitions, Williams College Museum of Art; "Prelude to a Nightmare: Art, Politics, and Hitler's Early Years in Vienna 1906-1913"

 * "Adolf Hitler was an artist—a modern artist, at that—and Nazism was a movement shaped by his aesthetic sensibility. Cosmopolitan Vienna incubated his peculiar genius as well as his hideous ideas. These views have been in the air recently, and a trenchant scholarly exhibition at the Williams College Museum of Art, in Williamstown, Massachusetts—'Prelude to a Nightmare: Art, Politics, and Hitler's Early Years in Vienna 1906-1913'—advances them."

 * "The show's curator, Deborah Rothschild, was inspired by Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship, by Brigitte Hamann (1999). A forthcoming book, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, by Frederic Spotts, promises an interpretation of Hitler as 'a perverted artist.'"

 * HITLER AS ARTIST, How Vienna inspired the Führer's dreams, by PETER SCHJELDAHL, New Yorker, Issue of 2002-08-19 and 26.

These cites back up my claim.--Cberlet 02:19, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Christianity, Nazism, and Anti-Semitism
The Chart clearly states that “Christianity…[does] not inherently intersect with supremacist, theocratic, or fascist ideologies.” I don’t see how that could be clearer. Nonetheless, this fact has been misrepresented to create a straw argument. Here are some cites to books that discuss the role of Christianity and Christian apocalyptic belief on the construction of anti-Semitism in Nazi ideology.

 * Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, revised and expanded (New York: Oxford University Press, [1957] 1970) (Note the original subtitle was: Revolutionary Messianism in Medieval and Reformation Europe and its Bearing on Modern Totalitarian Movements).
 * Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (London: Serif, [1967] 1996).
 * James M. Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford, Calif: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 1980).
 * Andrew Gow, The Red Jews. Antisemitism in an Apocalyptic Age, 1200-1600 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), Gow describes his book as an exploration of the interactions between medieval Christian attitudes to Jews and apocalyptic belief/expectation, both Christian and Jewish.
 * Richard Steigmann–Gall, The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).--Cberlet 02:26, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

My published scholarly articles and a book that discuss Anti-Semitism in detail

 * Chip Berlet. (2004) Christian Identity: The Apocalyptic Style, Political Religion, Palingenesis and Neo-Fascism. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 5, No. 3, (Winter), special issue on Fascism as a Totalitarian Movement.
 * _______. (2004). “Hate, Oppression, Repression, and the Apocalyptic Style: Facing Complex Questions and Challenges.” Journal of Hate Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, Institute for Action against Hate, Gonzaga University Law School.
 * _______. (2001). “Hate Groups, Racial Tension and Ethnoviolence in an Integrating Chicago Neighborhood 1976-1988.” In Betty A. Dobratz, Lisa K. Walder, and Timothy Buzzell, eds., Research in Political Sociology, Volume 9: The Politics of Social Inequality, pp. 117–163.
 * _______ and Matthew N. Lyons. (2000). Right–Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press.
 * _______. (2000). “Countering Genocidal and Hate Movements in the United States,” The ISG Newsletter, The Institute for the Study of Genocide, No. 24, Winter, pp. 12-17.
 * _______. (1998). “Mad as Hell: Right–wing Populism, Fascism, and Apocalyptic Millennialism.” Paper presented at the 14th World Congress of Sociology (XIVe Congrès Mondial de Sociologie), International Sociological Association, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 1998.

This is a partial list.--Cberlet 02:38, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

A possible solution
If I may propose a possible solution to our impass on using Chip Berlet as a source, I will suggest that the note to his chart be changed from "Genealogy of Antisemitic White Supremacy, Theocracy, and Fascism by Chip Berlet" to read "Genealogy of Antisemitic White Supremacy, Theocracy, and Fascism in the opinion of Chip Berlet." This would accomodate the WP:RS stipulation that partisan source citations be presented as representations of the opinions of their author while also permitting the chart itself to be retained. Rangerdude 06:15, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I reverted because I simply find it reduandant. I don't disagree strongly though, because I feel that *by him* implies his opinion. I hope that's not coming across as obstructive (such is not the intent, and I applaud efforts at a dialogue), but I honestly fail to see the point. El_C 06:27, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Identifying it as his opinion (which WP:RS says to do for partisan sources) makes this attribute clear. Otherwise the chart is presented as something factual, the "by" only conveying its authorship. Rangerdude 07:10, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Fair enough, I restored that qualification in the interim, pending the consensus (as to his status) to be reached on his article. El_C 07:23, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * El_C, with all due respect, the issues of the chart here and on the article Chip Berlet are separate. Here it is offered as an illustration of the roots of anti-Semitism, while on the biography it is offered simply as an example of Berlet's work. I don't see any linkage between the two uses. -Willmcw 17:22, August 5, 2005 (UTC)

Deep problems with the article
I have been looking at this article for awhile, ever since overhauling the anti-Semitism article, and I am not sure whether it can be saved, or should just be turned into a redirect to anti-Semitism. The problem is that the whole article is essentially original research. The only source cited (besides Chip Berlet's chart, which, whatever its merits, has remarkably little to do with the roots of racial anti-Semitism in the 19th century) seems to be Marx's view, for what its worth. Among the issues: I think it would be worth discussing a bit what this article SHOULD cover, before we start editing it futher, since I am not sure what to do to make it relevant. --Goodoldpolonius2 07:17, 5 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The article does not cover roots, it simply talks about types of anti-Semitism, but less thoroughly than the main anti-Semitism article. I can't find any information on this page that is not on the other.
 * The catagories themselves. Most authors differentiate between religious and racial anti-Semitism, but where are the other catagories coming from?  Why those divisions?
 * The material on religious anti-Semitism seems to argue that religious anti-Semitism stems from the fact that Jews are an ethnicity (why this is problematic is not explained) and the doctrine of Supersessionism. The link between the concepts and anti-Semitism is the sentence "The linking of anti-Semitism with the doctrine that Jesus is the only way to salvation has become widespread."  Huh, why?  The actual roots of religious anti-Semitism are more complicated.  Certainly supersessionism matters (and should be treated more deeply), but so does resentment at the Jews for not being converted, the fact that religious debate was taken very seriously in the early Church, the Inquisitions and the drive to root out heretics, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, blood libels, host desecrations and many other concerns.  There are quite a few books on the subject, and it would be good to at least cite some sources.
 * The socio-economic anti-Semitism section does not discuss roots at all, it starts with the assertion: "There was a widespread belief in the Middle Ages that Jews took jobs and money from Christians..." Certainly Jews DID take money, as tax collectors, court treasurers, as well as bankers (much of it at the instigation of the local rulers, who usually confiscated it back later, see Aaron of Lincoln), but jobs? And then it says "More commonly, there is prejudice against Jews when they are in positions of power and prestige, though it remains unclear whether their positions are the cause of the anti-Semitism or simply triggers for its expression."  Again, entirely assertions, and unclear ones. If this really is a catagory, than a better explaination is needed, as well as some sources.
 * The racial anti-Semitism section is not factually correct. The roots of racial anti-Semitism are in the 19th century ideas of nationhood and racial types, with the Jews as the "foreign element" in the midst of th nation.  These ideas were cleverly used by political parties and fanned by industrialization.  Instead the article seems to lump the whole thing together with white supremacism, which happened much later.
 * The political section is again just assertions: "many believe," etc.

 * Yes, I completely agree, i think this article is a waste of space whioch should be merged w anti-semitism, or completely re-written. Why do my improvements ger reverted without comment, btw? ¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸ 19:18, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Why is no mention made in this article of Prager and Telushkin's "Why the Jews?" Tomer TALK  03:21, August 8, 2005 (UTC)

 * That is a dreadful book, with passages like

 * "The generally higher quality of Jews' lives, as exemplified by the stability of the family life, significantly lower rates of intoxication and wife beating, higher education, greater professional success, much less violent crime, and greater communal solidarity, has been due solely to millennia of adherence to Jewish law, and provoked profoundly ambivalent reactions from non-Jews."

 * "At a time when nearly all Christian and Muslim men, and certainly women, were illiterate, nearly all Jewish men and women could read and write, and many of them achieved high levels of knowledge. ...This Jewish passion for study in turn helps to explain why Jews have the highest income of any ethnic group in the United States, earning 72% more than the national average. .....This unique intellectual achievement is due solely and directly to JUDAISM."

 * Etc... ¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸ 11:10, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Recent edits
Sam, I think I restored much of your edit. There were a few things I disgreed with, and so I wrote a mixture of what you wanted and what was there already; and there were a couple of things I disagreed with, like the Holocaust-denier description, so I retained the earlier version.

The text you deleted and I put back is:

"In modern times, especially since the Holocaust, supersessionism has been linked to anti-Semitism of both the ethnic and theological kind. The linking of anti-Semitism with the doctrine that Jesus is the only way to salvation has become widespread, especially within Protestantism, but also among the bishops of the Roman Catholic church since the Second Vatican Council. Consequently, to seek the conversion of any people, especially of the Jews, is regarded as a form of religious imperialism."

I've written that it needs a citation. Let me know what you think. Cheers, SlimVirgin (talk) 20:48, August 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * SlimVirgin, are you still working on the article? I really think we should just merge this back into anti-Semitism, or rewrite it from scratch, for the points listed above.  --Goodoldpolonius2 21:08, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Hi Polonious, it's a while since I read anti-Semitism, and I can't remember what's here that isn't there. This read pretty well when I went through it today, though it lacks sources. Do you mind if I get back to you in a couple of days after I've read anti-Semitism? But in the meantime, if you have ideas for improvement, go for it as far as I'm concerned. SlimVirgin <sup style="color:purple;">(talk) 22:27, August 5, 2005 (UTC)

Redirect
So, is there any objection to making this a redirect to anti-Semitism? --Goodoldpolonius2 23:29, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

 * In haste, yes. Meaning, at the very least, I want to allow SlimVrigin time to finish her study, so that pertinent material would'nt be accidentally lost. I also want to hear Jay's thoughts on this. But I don't have a strong objection at this time, one way or the other. El_C 23:44, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I did a long edit the other day, but I must not have pressed save after previewing — either that or there was a server problem, but I think it was my fault because I remember the phone rang just as I finished the edit, and it distracted me — so I lost the edit. That's why the in-use tag was up for a day, because I didn't realize my edit wasn't saved. I'm not sure I have the heart to go back and redo it, so if there are no other objections, I'm fine with redirecting it. SlimVirgin <sup style="color:purple;">(talk) 00:01, August 8, 2005 (UTC)

The problem would be in merging any content from here to there, the anti-semite article is already 68k. Most of that article is "history of anti-semitism", btw. I placed a note @ Talk:Anti-Semitism asking for input on the subject. ¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸ 00:07, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

 * What content here is not duplicated at that article? This material seems similar, and, again, little of it actually addresses the article title.  --Goodoldpolonius2 01:24, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Its kind of a ridiculous subject, since anti-semitism has been a historical fact since before the word (a misnomer, since arabs are also semites) existed. People have been persecuting or hating Jews since Babylon, and anything since then could be called "Roots of anti-Semitism". A more sensible subject might have been "basis for anti-semitism", but that would probably just be a factional battleground. Anyways, I favor redirecting, so long as no content is lost. ¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸ 10:55, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Okay, I am making this a re-direct. I have not seen much information on this page (outside of the Marx material ably spun-off by [[User:El C) that is not also covered in the article on anti-Semitism, but I will try to merge where appropriate. --Goodoldpolonius2 17:43, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roots of anti-Semitism


text:
Westland Welkin

The Westland Welkin was a British twin-engine heavy fighter from the Westland Aircraft Company, designed to fight at extremely high altitudes, in the stratosphere; the word welkin meaning "the vault of heaven" or the upper atmosphere. First conceived in 1940, the plane was built in response to the arrival of modified Junkers Ju 86P bombers flying reconnaissance missions, which suggested the Luftwaffe might attempt to re-open the bombing of England from high altitude. Construction was from 1942 to 1943. The threat never materialised; consequently, Westland produced only a small number of Welkins and few of these flew.

Design and development
Westland put forward their P.14, essentially an adaptation of Westland's Whirlwind fighter layout (and a more experimental twin, the P.13) to meet Air Ministry Specification F.4 of 1940 for a high altitude fighter. The most obvious feature was the enormous high aspect ratio wing, with a span on the production aircraft of 70 ft. The compact but troublesome Rolls-Royce Peregrine engines of the Whirlwind were replaced by the more powerful two-stage Rolls-Royce Merlin Mk.76/77. The most significant feature was a pressurised cockpit, which took the majority of effort in the design. After extensive development a new cockpit was developed that was built out of heavy-gauge duraluminium bolted directly to the front of the main spar. The cockpit hood used an internal layer of thick perspex to hold the pressure, and an outer thin layer to form a smooth line. Heated air was blown between the two to keep the canopy clear of frost.

In January 1941, the Ministry of Aircraft Production authorised the building of two P.14 prototypes DG558 & DG562. The F.4/40 specification was revised into F.7/41 that year. The Welkin design was now in competition with the Vickers Type 432 with Merlin 61 engines.

The pressurisation system was driven by a Rotol supercharger attached to the left-hand engine (this was the difference between the Merlin 76 and 77), providing a constant pressure of 3.5 psi over the exterior pressure. This resulted in an apparent cabin altitude of 24000 ft when the aircraft was operating at its design altitude of 45000 ft. This cabin altitude was still too high for normal breathing, so the pilot had to wear an oxygen mask during flight. A rubber gasket filled with the pressurized air sealed the canopy when the system was turned on, and a valve ensured the pressure was controlled automatically. Moreover, the pilot also had to wear a high altitude suit as he might have been required to bail out at altitude.

The Welkin required a sophisticated electrical system. This was to minimise the number of seals and points of entry in the cockpit for the controls and instrumentation. It took an electrician experienced in the features of the Welkin four hours to undertake a pre-flight check of this system. The wings were so large that the high lift Fowler flaps of the Whirlwind were not needed, and were replaced by a simple split flap. The extra wing area also required more stability, so the tail was lengthened to provide a longer moment arm. The armament − four Hispano 20 mm cannon − was the same as the Whirlwind's, but the Welkin carried the guns in a tray in its belly, which facilitated loading. In that position, muzzle flash was also less likely to dazzle the pilot.

The Welkin was seriously handicapped by compressibility problems caused by its long, high aspect-ratio wing which needed to be thick at the root (thickness-to-chord ratio of about 19%) for strength reasons. Compressibility caused the flight envelope (flyable speed range) between high-incidence stall and shock-stall to become very small at high altitudes – any decrease in airspeed causing a "normal" stall, any increase causing a shock-stall due to the aircraft's limiting critical Mach number. This reduction of the speed envelope is a problem common to all subsonic high-altitude designs and also occurred with the later Lockheed U-2. When W.E.W. Petter came to design his next high-altitude aircraft, the English Electric Canberra jet bomber, the required wing area was distinguished by noticeably short wings, with thickness-to-chord ratio (t/c) at the root of 12%, a t/c ratio which delays compressibility effects to an aircraft speed of about Mach 0.85.

Information on the Welkin was only released at the end of the war.

A two-seat radar-equipped night fighter version known as the Welkin NF.Mk.II for specification F.9/43 was developed but only one was eventually produced as the variant was not ordered into production.

Operational history
By the time the Welkin Mk.I was complete and in production, it was apparent that the Luftwaffe was no longer conducting high altitude missions, due largely to successful interceptions by specially modified Supermarine Spitfires. Only 77 complete Welkins were produced, plus a further 26 as engine-less airframes. Although two Welkins served with the Fighter Interception Unit based at RAF Wittering from May to November 1944, where they were used to gain experience and formulate tactics for high altitude fighter operations, the Welkin was never used operationally by the RAF.

Variants

 * P.14: Two prototypes built to meet Air Ministry Specification F.7/41.
 * Welkin Mk.I: Single-seat twin-engine high altitude fighter aircraft, 75 built, further 26 aircraft were completed without engines.
 * Welkin NF.Mk.II: Two-seat night fighter prototype, one converted from Mark I.

Operators

 * Royal Air Force
 * Fighter Interception Unit – RAF Wittering (two aircraft for evaluation)
 * Fighter Interception Unit – RAF Wittering (two aircraft for evaluation)

title: Westland Welkin


text:
Radolfzell

Radolfzell am Bodensee is a town in the state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, located at the western end of Lake Constance (Zeller Lake), approximately 18 km northwest of the city of Konstanz (Constance). It is the third largest town, after Konstanz and Singen, in the district of Konstanz.

It is situated in the Hegau region. The mouth of the river Radolfzeller Aach is located west of Radolfzell.

It is a well-known health care town (Mettnau-Kur). In 1990, Radolfzell was named the Federal Environment Capital City of Germany.

History
This town developed out of a monastery founded in 826 AD as a "cell" under Bishop Radolf of Verona. The town belonged to the Abbey of Reichenau, then for a long time to the House of Habsburg, and for 40 years it was a Free Imperial City.

In the centre is the Gothic Cathedral Unserer lieben Frau (lit. 'Of our Dear Lady'), dating from the 15th century and decorated in the Baroque style in the 18th. One particularly beautiful feature is the Rosary altar by the Zürn brothers and the Master of the House's Altar (1750) which contains the relics of the local Radolfzell saints Theopont, Senesius and Zeno. The Hausherrenfest is celebrated in their honour every year on the third Sunday in July, and the next day a famous Water Procession is held, as it has been every year since 1797. The citizens of the nearby village of Moos make a pilgrimage to Radolfzell in picturesquely decorated boats to fulfil an ancient oath.

A notable structure in the town is the Austrian mansion in the market square, built in stages from the 17th to the 19th century, the knightly hall dating from 1626. Also of note are a number of historical Patrician houses.

Radolfzell was the birthplace of cartographer Martin Waldseemüller's mother.

Mayors
(Lord Mayor since 1975) • Before 1700 Baltasar Feldkirch

• 1793–1808: Anton Leibes

• 1808–1814: Josef Hermanuz

• 1815–1816: Max Frey

• 1817–1822: Peter Mayer

• 1823–1825: Josef Grüner

• 1825–1838: Anton Spachholz

• 1838–1851: Johann Baptist Mohr

• 1851–1852: Josef Spachholz

• 1852–1864: Johann Häusler

• 1864–1865: Johann Drescher

• 1866–1867: Dominik Noppel

• 1867–1880: Josef Anton Vogt

• 1880–1891: Konstantin Noppel

• 1891–1894: August Sommer

• 1894–1902: Franz Mattes

• 1902–1911: Heinrich Riedlinger

• 1911–1934: Otto Blesch

• 1934–1935: Eugen Speer

• 1935–1942: Josef Jöhle

• 1942–1945: August Kratt, temp assistant

• 1945: Otto Blesch

• 1945–1955: Wilhelm Gohl

• 1955–1968: Hermann Albrecht

• 1968–1976: Fritz Riester

• 1976–2000: Günter Neurohr (1935-2011)

• 2000–2013: Jörg Schmidt, (born 1960)

• 2013–2021: Martin Staab (born 1964)

• 2021–   : Simon Gröger

Twin towns – sister cities
Radolfzell am Bodensee is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Istres, France (1974)
 * Amriswil, Switzerland (1999)

Notable people

 * Marcus Teggingeri (1540–1600), Roman Catholic prelate
 * Matthias Rauchmiller (1645-1686), painter, sculptor and ivory carver
 * Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1826–1886) poet and novelist, retired in Radolfzell.
 * Emil Joseph Diemer (1908–1990), chess player
 * Hans Peter Haller (1929–2006), composer and pioneer of electroacoustic music.
 * Wolfgang Ruf (born 1941), musicologist and academic
 * Werner Bodendorff (born 1958), musicologist and writer
 * Jörg Baberowski (born 1961), historian

Sport

 * Josef Eichkorn (born 1956), football coach
 * Patrick Baur (born 1965), tennis player
 * Sabine Auer (born 1966), tennis player
 * Pit Beirer (born 1972), motocross rider
 * Markus Knackmuß (born 1974), footballer, played over 380 games
 * Kristof Wilke (born 1985), belt rower, team gold medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics
 * Anna-Lena Forster (born 1995), para-alpine skier

Transportation
Radolfzell railway station is an important junction station on the High Rhine Railway (Basel Bad Bf–Konstanz) and the Hegau-Ablach Valley Railway (leading to the Stahringen–Friedrichshafen railway to Friedrichshafen Stadt).

Radolfzell harbour is connected to Iznang, Reichenau Island and Konstanz via shipping route.

title: Radolfzell