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Brigade

A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division.

Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored (sometimes referred to as combined arms brigades). In addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups. On operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task.

Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a single branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers, signals or logistic. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the traditional division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 5,000 troops. However, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could start as high as 10,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use "regiment" instead of brigade, and this was common in much of Europe until after World War II.

A brigade's commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a general officer. The brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. The principal staff officer, usually a lieutenant colonel or colonel, may be designated chief of staff. Until the late 20th century British and similar armies called the position 'brigade-major' and most British brigades have a major as the chief of staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander. The headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support (clerks, assistants and drivers) that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached. The headquarters will usually have its own communications unit.

In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the basic-level organizational unit.

Origin
Borrowed from the French cognate word brigade, the term originates from the Italian noun brigata, itself derived from the Italian verb brigare, to contend or fight. The word is first attested in England in the 17th century as a term for a larger military unit than the squadron or regiment. It was first adopted when armies began to consist of formations larger than a single regiment. Previously each regiment, battalion, cavalry squadron, or artillery battery operated somewhat independently, with its own field officer (i.e., colonel, lieutenant colonel, or major) or battery commander (usually a captain) reporting directly to the field force or "army" commander. As such a "field army" became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of tactical control, especially in regard to combined arms operations (i.e., those involving a coordination of infantry with cavalry and/or artillery forces), an intermediate level of command came into existence.

The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus improved the brigade as a tactical unit, introducing it in 1631 during a reorganization of the Swedish Army in the course of the Thirty Years' War. The invention of the brigade overcame the lack of coordination inherent in the traditional army structure consisting of independent regiments of infantry and units of supporting arms (viz., cavalry and artillery) acting separately under their individual commanding officers. Gustavus Adolphus accomplished this battlefield coordination by combining battalions of infantry with cavalry troops and artillery batteries into a "battle group", viz., brigada or "brigade" commanded by a senior colonel, or lieutenant colonel, appointed as a brigadier-general.

In France, Marshal Turenne (1611–1675) copied the brigade organization; he made it a permanent standing unit, requiring the creation in 1667 of a permanent rank of brigadier des armées du roi (literally translating to "brigadier of the armies of the king"). Unlike the Swedish brigades, French brigades at that time comprised two to five regiments of the same branch (brigade de cavalerie, brigade d'infanterie etc.). The rank, intermediate between colonel and maréchal de camp, disappeared in 1788 and should not be confused with that of général de brigade, which is equivalent to a brigadier general. (A modern général de brigade is referred to occasionally as brigadier.)

Argentina
In the Argentinian Army, the typical brigade comprises an HQ company, two or three battalions (called "regiments" for historical reasons) of the brigade's main branch (infantry or armoured cavalry), which give the brigade its denomination (mechanized, armoured, airborne, mountain or jungle), plus one battalion of the other branch, plus one or two artillery groups, an engineers battalion or company, a signals company, and intelligence company, an army aviation section and a logistics battalion. Mountain brigades have also a special forces (called "Mountain rangers") company. The brigade is usually commanded by a brigadier general or a senior colonel, who may be promoted to general during his tenure as brigade commander.

Australia
In the Australian Army, the brigade has always been the smallest tactical formation, since regiments are either administrative groupings of battalions (in the infantry) or battalion-sized units (in the cavalry). A typical brigade may consist of approximately 5,500 personnel between two mechanised infantry battalions, an armoured regiment, an armoured artillery regiment, and other logistic and engineering units. The brigade is usually commanded by an officer holding the rank of brigadier, who is referred to as the "Brigade Commander".

Canada
The Canadian Army currently has three Regular Force brigade groups, designated as Canadian mechanized brigade groups (CMBG): 1 CMBG, 2 CMBG, which contain the regular army's Anglophone units, and 5 CMBG, the regular Francophone formation. These CMBGs each comprise
 * Two mechanized infantry battalions
 * One light infantry battalion
 * One armoured regiment
 * One mechanized artillery regiment
 * One engineer regiment
 * One combat service and support (CSS) battalion.

Co-located with each CMBG is a field ambulance, and a tactical helicopter squadron, and a military police platoon. Regular Force CMBG's strengths are 5,000 personnel. Canada also has ten Primary Reserve brigades (Canadian brigade group, CBG), 31 CBG through 39 CBG, and 41 CBG. The CBG formations are for administrative purposes.

France
On 1 January 1791, France replaced the word "Regiment" that had been associated with the former Royal regime with the term "demi-brigade".

France replaced its divisions with brigades in 1999 (so for example the 2nd Armored Division became the 2nd Armored Brigade). It was decided in 2016 to again form two divisions (1st and 3rd) made up of four and three brigades for a total of seven brigades: two armored, two "intermediate", two light brigades (alpine and parachute) and the Franco-German Brigade. There is also an airmobile brigade subordinated to the army aviation command.

In peacetime, brigades serve primarily as force providers. The units deployed (battlegroups and task-forces) are battalion-size units provided by the regiments composing the brigades.

India
In Indian army, a brigade consists of a HQ, three battalions along with supporting troops. It is commanded by an army officer of the rank of Brigadier (Single star commander).

Norway
The main core of the Norwegian Army is the Brigade Nord, consisting of eight battalions of which four are combat battalions (one infantry, one mechanized infantry, one artillery and one armored) and the rest are various types of support battalions.

The brigade is intended to be combat ready at all times. The combat battalions have a significant portion of professional soldiers (specialists). The fairly large size of the combat ready support contingent is also intended to complement the Heimevernet (translates as "Home Defense") which is a large reserve infantry force, as well as act in a support capacity for an international cooperation force (e.g. NATO) in case of an invasion.

Japan
Brigades in the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) are combined arms and are similar to divisions. There are eight brigades in the JGSDF, with some of them formed from former divisions. A brigade in the JGSDF consists of 3,000–4,000 soldiers and is led by a major general.

 * JGSDF 1st Airborne Brigade.svg 1st Airborne Brigade, at Camp Narashino in Funabashi, Chiba Prefecture
 * JGSDF 5th Brigade.svg 5th Brigade, at Camp Obihiro in Obihiro, responsible for the defense of North Eastern Hokkaidō
 * JGSDF 11th Brigade.svg 11th Brigade, at Camp Makomanai in Sapporo, responsible for the defense of South Western Hokkaidō
 * JGSDF 12th Brigade.svg 12th Brigade (Air Assault), at Camp Soumagahara in Shintō, responsible for the defense of Gunma, Nagano, Niigata and Tochigi prefectures.
 * JGSDF 13th Brigade.svg 13th Brigade, in Kaita, responsible for the defense of the Chūgoku region.
 * JGSDF 14th Brigade.svg 14th Brigade, in Zentsūji, responsible for the defense of Shikoku.
 * JGSDF 15th Brigade.svg 15th Brigade, in Naha, responsible for the defense of Okinawa Prefecture
 * Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade.png Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade, at Camp Ainoura in Sasebo, Nagasaki; amphibious force equipped to deploy from ships, where needed.

Pakistan
A brigade is under the command of a brigadier and comprises three or more battalions of different units depending on its functionality. An independent brigade would be one that primarily consists of an artillery unit, an infantry unit, an armour unit and logistics to support its actions. Such a brigade is not part of any division and is under direct command of a corps.

There are 7 independent armoured brigades, seven engineering brigades and eight air defense brigades. Independent armoured and infantry brigades are capable of extended operations without necessarily being reliant on a higher HQ for short-term logistic or intimate support. They can be used in counter-attack, exploitation of an advance, or rapid movement to reinforce formations under pressure.

People's Republic of China
Prior to major restructures of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), forces were designed around the division as the basic operational unit in a similar fashion to Soviet divisions, from which much of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is designed. In 2003, the United States Army pivoted from division-centric warfare to combined-arms-centric warfare in response to the U.S. War in Iraq creating the brigade combat team (BCT). The Russian Federation followed suit reorganizing their forces and doctrine to switch from division-centric warfare to the use of battalion tactical groups (BTGs). Finally, the PLAGF, as part of a larger restructuring, underwent the so-called "brigade-ization" making PLAGF divisions a largely administrative echelon and moving forces into combined arms brigades (CA-BDE).

Structured very similarly to U.S. Army BCTs, the PLAGF combined arms brigade places maneuver, artillery, air defense, reconnaissance, engineer and protection, and logistics and sustainment under a single brigade-level command. The PLAGF distinguishes three distinct types of combined arms brigades: light (motorized), medium (mechanized), and heavy (armoured). These distinctive types are more indicative of the role of the organization within its parent unit than the composition and equipment which vary and overlap between types. A light combined arms brigade may be designed as an airborne, mountain, or amphibious combined arms brigade.

A combined arms brigade typically comprises the following organic units wherein the maneuver battalions vary between motorized, mechanized, or armoured depending on the type of CA-BDE.

 * 1 headquarters unit
 * 4 maneuver battalions (CA-BNs)
 * 1 reconnaissance battalion
 * 1 artillery battalion
 * 1 air defense battalion
 * 1 operational support battalion
 * 1 service support (sustainment) battalion

Republic of China
An NRA Brigade, 旅, was a military formation of the Chinese Republic's National Revolutionary Army. Infantry and cavalry brigades comprised two infantry regiments. After the 1938 reforms, the brigade was dispensed with within the infantry division in favour of the regiment to simplify the command structure.

United Kingdom
Brigades, with a field not a regional administrative role, have usually been of a named type and numbered since the 19th century (e.g. cavalry brigade or infantry brigade). Since the end of World War II, brigade numbers have been unique and not by type. Brigades in divisions do not usually command their combat support and combat service support units. These remain under divisional command, although they may be permanently affiliated with a particular brigade (as a "brigade group"). Historically, infantry or cavalry/armoured brigades have usually comprised three or four combat-arm battalions, but currently larger brigades are normal, made larger still when their affiliated artillery and engineer regiments are added.

Until 1918, the chief of staff of a brigade was known as a brigade major. Before 1922, British Army brigades were normally commanded by general officers holding the rank of brigadier-general (equivalent to a "one-star" rank in the US Army); after that date, the brigade commander was an appointment for officers with the rank of brigadier, which were then classified as field officers not general officers. This is universally the case today.

From 1859 to 1938, "brigade" ("brigade-division" 1885–1903) was also the term used for a battalion-sized unit of the Royal Artillery. This was because, unlike infantry battalions and cavalry regiments, which were organic, artillery units consisted of individually numbered batteries that were "brigaded" together. The commanding officer of such a brigade was a lieutenant colonel. In 1938, the Royal Artillery adopted the term "regiment" for this size of unit, and "brigade" became used in its normal sense, particularly for groups of anti-aircraft artillery regiments commanded by a brigadier.

In the Second World War, a tank brigade comprised three tank regiments and was equipped with infantry tanks for supporting the infantry divisions. Armoured brigades were equipped with cruiser tanks or (US Lend-Lease) medium tanks and a motorised infantry battalion. The armoured divisions included one or more armored brigades.

Army
In the United States Army, a brigade is smaller than a division and roughly equal to or a little larger than a regiment. During the American Civil War infantry brigades contained two to five regiments with the idea being to maintain a unit with a strength of 2,000 soldiers and were usually commanded by a brigadier general or a senior colonel. During World War I the division consisted of two brigades of two regiments each.

More recently, the U.S. Army has moved to a new generic brigade combat team (BCT) in which each brigade contains combat elements and their support units. After the 2013 reform, BCT personnel strength typically ranges from 4,400 personnel for infantry BCTs, to 4,500 personnel for Stryker BCTs, to 4,700 personnel for armoured BCTs. This formation is standard across the active U.S. Army, U.S. Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard.

The brigade commander is usually a colonel, although a lieutenant colonel can be selected for brigade command in lieu of an available colonel. A typical tour of duty for this assignment is 24 to 36 months. Separate brigades, viz., brigades not permanently assigned to a division, were commanded by brigadier generals

A brigade commander has a headquarters and staff to assist them in commanding the brigade and its subordinate units. The typical staff includes:

 * a brigade executive officer, usually a major
 * a brigade command sergeant major
 * a personnel officer (S1), usually a major
 * an intelligence officer (S2), usually a major
 * an operations officer (S3), usually a major
 * a logistics officer (S4), usually a major
 * a plans officer (S5), usually a major
 * a communications officer (S6), usually a major
 * a medical officer, usually a major
 * a legal officer (JAG), usually a major
 * a brigade chaplain, usually a major

In addition, the headquarters includes additional junior staff officers, non-commissioned officers, and enlisted support personnel in the occupational specialities of the staff sections; these personnel are ordinarily assigned to the brigade's headquarters and headquarters company.

Functional brigades are those from the combat support or combat service support arms.

Marine Corps
In the United States Marine Corps, brigades are designated as marine expeditionary brigades (MEB) and are usually commanded by a brigadier general. The MEB is a mid-level marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) essentially forming a "demi-division". The MEB organizational structure consists of a minimum of three regimental-equivalent-sized units and a command element (a regimental combat team, a composite marine aircraft group, a marine logistics regiment, and a MEB headquarters group). Each marine expeditionary force (MEF) contains a MEB, available for deployment on expeditionary duty. The MEB is the intermediate MAGTF between the MEF and the marine expeditionary unit (MEU). Along with the marine infantry regiments, the MEU, (while smaller than an army brigade), are the USMC organizational equivalents of army brigades. The MEU consists of three battalion-equivalent-sized units and a command element (a battalion landing team, a marine medium tilt-rotor squadron (reinforced), a combat logistics battalion, and a MEU headquarters group). The marine infantry regiments, combined with the marine artillery regiments, comprise the bulk of the marine divisions. An example of a MEB is Task Force Tarawa (2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade) during the Operation Iraqi Freedom campaign.

Myanmar
In Myanmar, a rough equivalent of a Brigade is called a Tactical Operation Command. It's just a rough equivalent as a Tactical Operation Command has 3 Infantry Battalions under its command, there're no such Brigade troops or anything, instead those units such as Military Engineer, Signal, Medical and etc are supposed to be organic to the battalions (sometimes called Regiments). A Tactical Operation Command HQ only consist of 4 Officers and 4 Other Ranks. Theoritically, a Tactical Operation Command of either a Light Infantry Division or a Military Operation Command should have 97 Officers (4+31+31+31) and 2478 (4+826+826+826) Other Ranks but this as of recent events, is far from reality

Tactical Operation Command Headquarters ( နည်းဗျူဟာကွပ်ကဲမှူအဖွဲ့): 4 Officers, 4 Other Ranks

Tactical Operation Commander (ဗျူဟာမှူး): Colonel

Coordination Officer (rough equivalent of Brigade Major) (ညှိနှိုင်းကွပ်ကဲရေးမှူး): Major (GSO II)

GS (စစ်ဦးစီးအရာရှိ): Captain (GSO III)

AQ (စစ်ရေး/စစ်ထောက်အရာရှိ): Captain (GSO III)

Sergeant (Clerk) (တပ်ကြပ်ကြီး (စာရေး) (4x)

GSO II and GSO III are called G2 and G3 in daily usages.

title: Brigade


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Corps

Corps (plural corps ; from French corps, from the Latin corpus "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies greatly, but two to five divisions and anywhere from 40,000 to 80,000 are the numbers stated by the US Department of Defense.

Within military terminology a corps may be: These usages often overlap.
 * an operational formation, sometimes known as a field corps, which consists of two or more divisions, such as the Corps d'armée, later known as I Corps ("First Corps") of Napoleon I's Grande Armée);
 * an administrative corps (or mustering) – that is a specialized branch of a military service (such as an artillery corps, an armoured corps, a signal corps, a medical corps, a marine corps, or a corps of military police) or;
 * in some cases, a distinct service within a national military (such as the United States Marine Corps).

Corps may also be a generic term for a non-military organization, such as the US Peace Corps and European Solidarity Corps.

Operational formation
In many armies, a corps is a battlefield formation composed of two or more divisions, and typically commanded by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple corps were combined into armies which then formed into army groups. In Western armies with numbered corps, the number is often indicated in Roman numerals (e.g., VII Corps).

Australia and New Zealand
The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps was raised in 1914, consisting of Australian and New Zealand troops, who went on to fight at Gallipoli in 1915. In early 1916, the original corps was reorganized and two corps were raised: I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps. In the later stages of World War I, the five infantry divisions of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF)—consisting entirely of personnel who had volunteered for service overseas—were united as the Australian Corps, on the Western Front, under Lieutenant General Sir John Monash.

During World War II, the Australian I Corps was formed to co-ordinate three Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) units: the 6th, 7th and 9th Divisions, as well as other Allied units on some occasions, in the North African campaign and Greek campaign. Following the commencement of the Pacific War, there was a phased withdrawal of I Corps to Australia, and the transfer of its headquarters to the Brisbane area, to control Allied army units in Queensland and northern New South Wales (NSW). II Corps was also formed, with Militia units, to defend south-eastern Australia, and III Corps controlled land forces in Western Australia. Sub-corps formations controlled Allied land forces in the remainder of Australia. I Corps headquarters was later assigned control of the New Guinea campaign. In early 1945, when I Corps was assigned the task of re-taking Borneo, II Corps took over in New Guinea.

Canada
Canada first fielded a corps-sized formation in the First World War; the Canadian Corps was unique in that its composition did not change from inception to the war's end, in contrast to British corps in France and Flanders. The Canadian Corps consisted of four Canadian divisions. After the Armistice, the peacetime Canadian militia was nominally organized into corps and divisions but no full-time formations larger than a battalion were ever trained or exercised. Early in the Second World War, Canada's contribution to the British-French forces fighting the Germans was limited to a single division. After the fall of France in June 1940, a second division moved to England, coming under command of a Canadian corps headquarters. This corps was renamed I Canadian Corps as a second corps headquarters was established in the UK, with the eventual formation of five Canadian divisions in England. I Canadian Corps eventually fought in Italy, II Canadian Corps in northwest Europe, and the two were reunited in early 1945. After the formations were disbanded after VE Day, Canada has never subsequently organized a corps headquarters.

Royal Canadian Army Cadets: A corps size in the RCAC is different everywhere, depending on the size. The commanding officer can be a captain or major.

China
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) corps (軍團) was a type of military organization used by the Chinese Republic, and usually exercised command over two to three NRA divisions and often a number of independent brigades or regiments and supporting units. The Chinese Republic had 133 corps during the Second Sino-Japanese War. After losses in the early part of the war, under the 1938 reforms, the remaining scarce artillery and the other support formations were withdrawn from the division and was held at corps, or army level or higher. The corps became the basic tactical unit of the NRA having strength nearly equivalent to an allied division.

The modern People's Liberation Army Ground Force group army (集团军) is the closest equivalent of a corps. After the military reforms of the early 2010s, a typical PLA group army consists of six combined arms brigades, plus additional artillery, air defence, engineering, sustainment, special operations and army aviation assets. Each formation contains approximately 30,000 combat troops and several thousands more supporting personnel.

France
The French Army under Napoleon I used corps-sized formations (corps d'armée) as the first formal combined-arms groupings of divisions with reasonably stable manning and equipment establishments. Napoleon I first used the corps d'armée in 1805. The use of the corps d'armée was a military innovation that provided Napoleon I with a significant battlefield advantage in the early phases of the Napoleonic Wars. The corps was designed to be an independent military group containing cavalry, artillery and infantry, and capable of defending against a numerically superior foe. This allowed Napoleon I to mass the bulk of his forces to effect a penetration into a weak section of enemy lines without risking his own communications or flank. This innovation stimulated other European powers to adopt similar military structures. The corps has remained an echelon of French Army organization to the modern day.

Germany
As fixed military formation already in peace-time it was used almost in all European armies after Battle of Ulm in 1805. In Prussia it was introduced by Order of His Majesty (Allerhöchste Kabinetts-Order) from 5 November 1816, in order to strengthen the readiness to war.

India
The Indian Army has 14 corps, each commanded by a general officer commanding (GOC), known as the corps commander, who holds the rank of lieutenant general. Each corps is composed of three or four divisions. There are three types of corps in the Indian Army: strike, holding and mixed. The corps HQ is the highest field formation in the army.

Pakistan
The Pakistan Army has nine manoeuvre corps, each commanded by a lieutenant general. Each corps is composed of at least two divisions. The corps HQ is the highest field formation in the army.

Poland (1938–1939)
The Polish Armed Forces used independent operational groups in the place of the corps before and during World War II. An example would be Independent Operational Group Polesie. The groups, as the name indicates, were more flexible and showed greater capacity to absorb and integrate elements of broken units over a period of just a couple days and keep cohesion during the September Campaign than more traditional army units such as divisions, regiments, or even brigades.

United Kingdom
Wellington formed a corps d'armée in 1815 for commanding his mixed allied force of four divisions against Napoleon I.

When the British Army was expanded from an expeditionary force in the First World War, corps were created to manage the large numbers of divisions. The British corps in World War I included 23 infantry corps and a few mounted corps. The word was adopted for other special formations such as the Officers Training Corps. Military training of teenage boys is undertaken at secondary schools through the Combined Cadet Force, in which participation was compulsory at some schools in the 1950s. Schoolboy jargon called the CCF simply "Corps".

The British Army still has a corps headquarters for operational control of forces. I Corps of the British Army of the Rhine was redesignated the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps in 1994. It is no longer a purely British formation, although the UK is the "framework nation" and provides most of the staff for the headquarters. A purely national Corps headquarters could be quickly reconstituted if necessary.

It took command of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan on 4 May 2006. Previously, it was deployed as the headquarters commanding land forces during the Kosovo War in 1999 and also saw service in Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding the initial stages of the IFOR deployment prior to that in 1996. Otherwise, the only time a British corps headquarters has been operationally deployed since 1945 was II Corps during the Suez Crisis.

United States
The structure of a field corps in the United States Army is not permanent. On the battlefield, the corps is the highest level of the forces that is concerned with actual combat and operational deployment. Higher levels of command are concerned with administration rather than operations, at least under current doctrine. The corps provides operational direction for the forces under its command.

As of 2014, the active field corps in the US Army are I Corps (pronounced "first core" not "eye core"), III Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps; their lineages derive from three of the corps formed during World War I (I and III Corps) and World War II (XVIII Airborne Corps). On 12 February 2020, it was announced that the Army was reactivating V Corps to bolster the presence of US forces in Europe.

American Civil War
The first field corps in the United States Army were legalized during the American Civil War by an act of Congress on 17 July 1862, although the term had been used previously to refer to any large portion of the army. Major General George B. McClellan, for example, planned to organized the Army of the Potomac into corps of two or more divisions and about 25,000 soldiers. However he delayed doing so partly for lack of experienced officers and partly for political reasons, until March 1862 when President Lincoln ordered their creation.

The exact composition of a corps in the Union Army varied during the war, though it usually consisted of between two and six division (on average three) for approximately 36,000 soldiers. After Ambrose Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac in November 1862, he reorganized it into three "grand divisions" of two corps and a cavalry division each, but this structure was abolished when Joseph Hooker took over February 1863. This also led to the creation of a dedicated Cavalry Corps of three divisions and horse artillery assigned to the corps headquarters. In the early years of the war, field artillery was either part of an artillery reserve under direct army control or assigned to individual divisions. However, after the Battle of Chancellorsville the divisional artillery was placed under corps control, with each corps assigned a brigade of between four and six batteries commanded by the senior-most artillery officer. In general the other field armies tended to model their organization after the Army of the Potomac, including the gradual development of corps.

Corps were commanded by major generals because Congress refused to promote officers past that grade (with the exception of Ulysses S. Grant to lieutenant general in 1864). To assist with their command, generals were allowed a number of aides-de-camp and a general staff of other officers. This staff consisted of a chief of cavalry, a chief of artillery, and representatives of the War Department's various bureaus: an assistant adjutant general, a quartermaster, an assistant inspector general, a commissary of subsistence, an ordnance officer (all with the rank of lieutenant colonel) and a medical director. However, there were no dedicated combat service support formations as part of the corps. This meant that either civilian workers had to be hired or line soldiers detailed from their units to carry out the necessary tasks.

Initially, corps were numbered in relation to their field army, such as I Army Corps, Army of the Potomac. After a while these numerical designations became unique to each corps regardless of the army to which they were assigned. Although designated with numbers that are sometimes the same as those found in the modern US Army, there is no direct lineage between the 43 Union field corps of the Civil War and those with similar names in the modern era, due to congressional legislation caused by the outcry from veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic during the Spanish–American War.

In the Confederate States Army, field corps were authorized in November 1862. They were commanded by lieutenant generals, and were usually larger than their Union Army counterparts because their divisions contained more brigades, each of which could contain more regiments. All of the Confederate corps at the Battle of Gettysburg, for instance, exceeded 20,000 men. However, for both armies, unit sizes varied dramatically with attrition throughout the war. In Civil War usages, by both sides, it was common to write out the number, thus "Twenty-first Army Corps", a practice that is usually ignored in modern histories of the war.

Spanish–American War
Although the US Army in the years following the Civil War lacked standing organization at the corps and division levels, it moved swiftly to adopt these during the mobilization for the Spanish–American War in the spring of 1898. On 7 May, General Order 36 called for the establishment of seven "army corps" (repeating the nomenclature of the Civil War); an eighth was authorized later that month. Two of these saw action as a unit: the Fifth in Cuba and the Eighth in the Philippines; elements of the First, Fourth, and Seventh made up the invasion force for Puerto Rico (the Second, Third, and Seventh provided replacements and occupation troops in Cuba, while the Sixth was never organized). The corps headquarters were disbanded during the months following the signing of the peace treaty (with the exception of the Eighth Army Corps, which remained active until 1900 due to the eruption of the Philippine–American War), and like the corps of the Civil War, their lineage ends at that point.

World Wars I and II
During World War I, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) adopted the common European usage of designating field corps by Roman numerals. Several "corps areas" were designated under the authority of the National Defense Act of 1920, but played little role until the Army's buildup for World War II. While some of the lower numbered corps were used for various exercises the inter-war years corps served mostly as a pool of units. During that war, the Marine Corps organized corps headquarters for the first time, the I Marine (later III Amphibious Corps) and V Amphibious Corps. The Army ultimately designated 25 field corps (I–XVI, XVIII–XXIV, XXXVI, and I Armored Corps) during World War II.

Cold War and 21st century
After the Korean War, the Army and Marines diverged in their approach to the concept of the field corps. The Army continued to group its divisions into traditional corps organizations in the Continental United States (CONUS), West Germany (V Corps and VII Corps), and South Korea (I Corps). However, during the Vietnam War, the Army designated its corps-level headquarters in South Vietnam as I Field Force and II Field Force to avoid confusion with the ARVN corps areas. As of July 2016, the Army deactivated all corps headquarters save three CONUS based corps (I Corps - Washington, III Corps - Texas, and XVIII Airborne Corps - North Carolina).

In the 1960s, the Marine Corps activated the I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) on Okinawa (based in California since 1971) and II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF) in North Carolina, and re-activated the III Amphibious Corps (which had been deactivated in 1946) as III Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF) in South Vietnam (re-deployed to Okinawa in 1971). In 1965, all three MEFs were subsequently re-designated as Marine amphibious forces or MAFs, and in 1988 all three Marine Corps corps-level commands were again re-designated as Marine expeditionary forces (MEF). The MEF had evolved into a self-contained, corps-level, Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) consisting of a MEF headquarters group, a Marine division, a Marine aircraft wing, and a force service support group (re-designated as Marine logistics group in 2005).

Soviet Union
The pre–World War II Red Army of the former USSR had rifle corps much like in the Western sense with approximately three divisions to a corps. However, after the war started, the recently purged Soviet senior command (Stavka) structure was apparently unable to handle the formations, and the armies and corps were integrated. Rifle corps were re-established during the war after Red Army commanders had gained experience handling larger formations. Before and during World War II, however, Soviet armoured units were organized into corps. The pre-war mechanized corps were made up of divisions. In the reorganizations, these "corps" were reorganized into tank brigades and support units, with no division structure. Owing to this, they are sometimes, informally, referred to as "brigade buckets".

After the war, the tank and mechanized corps were re-rated as divisions. During the reforms of 1956–58, most of the corps were again disbanded to create the new combined arms and tank armies. A few corps were nevertheless retained. The Vyborg and Archangel Corps of the Leningrad Military District were smaller armies with three low-readiness motorized rifle divisions each. In the 1980s "Unified Corps" on the brigade pattern were created in the Belorussian Military District (Western TVD/Strategic Direction) and the 48th Separate Guards Army Corps in the Transbaikal Military District, but abandoned after a few years.

The Soviet Air Forces used ground terminology for its formations down to squadron level. As intermediates between the aviation division and the air army were corps—these also had three air divisions each.

Air Defence Corps
An Air Defence Corps ('KPVO') is an operational-tactical formation (in the past - the highest tactical formation) of the former Soviet Air Defence Forces and now Russian Air Defence Forces/Aerospace Forces. The purpose of the such a corps is to protect important administrative, industrial and economic centers and regions of the country, groupings of troops (forces) and military facilities within the established limits of responsibility against air strikes. In organizational terms, an air defence corps is part of the district (or a separate army) of the Air Defence Forces. Also some air defence corps were separate. On the basis of individual corps, air defence zones or air defence corps areas could be created. The first KPVO were created in February 1938 for the air defence of Moscow, Leningrad and Baku (respectively 1st, 2nd and 3rd) based on anti-aircraft artillery divisions and air defence brigade (3rd KPVO). The staff of the KPVO included: 4-6 anti-aircraft artillery regiments, 1 anti-aircraft machine-gun regiment, 1 searchlight regiment (or battalion), 1-2 regiments (or divisions) barrage balloons, 1- 2 regiments (or battalions) of visual observation, warning and communications (VNOS), and a separate communications battalion. From September 1938 to November 1940, the KPVO also included 1-2 regiments (battalions) of local air defence. During the Great Patriotic War from November 1941 to April 1944 the air defence corps were renamed into air defence corps areas (such as the Stalingrad Corps Region). The corps districts included up to 9 anti-aircraft artillery regiments and 14 separate anti-aircraft artillery battalions, up to 3 anti-aircraft machine-gun regiments, 1 searchlight regiment, 1 regiment (or division) of barrage balloons, up to 4 regiments (or separate battalions) VNOS, and a communications regiment (or a separate battalion). In 1945, air defence corps could include 1 anti-aircraft artillery brigade or division.

Air defence fighters operating within the limits of responsibility of the KPVO was transferred to the corps. By the end of the war, there were 14 KPVO in the Active Army, of which 5 corps continued to carry out the tasks assigned to them even after the war, and the rest of the corps were disbanded.

In July 1947, all KPVO were renamed anti-aircraft artillery corps. In January 1949, part of these corps was reorganized into air defence areas. From December 1948 to January 1949, all anti-aircraft artillery corps were disbanded.

In June 1954, for the defense of the main industrial and economic centers and regions of the USSR, 10 air defence corps were re-created. At the same time, in addition to anti-aircraft artillery formations, fighter aviation regiments and divisions were included in the corps. Since the late 1950s, anti-aircraft artillery units have been replaced by anti-aircraft missile formations and formations of radio engineering troops. Searchlight and barrage balloon units were also abolished.

In the Warsaw Pact countries, groupings similar to the Soviet air defence corps were also created. In June–July 1960, all KPVO were enlarged and consisted of: anti-aircraft missile regiments and brigades, air defense fighter regiments, radio engineering regiments and brigades, separate electronic warfare battalions, regiments and battalions of communications and logistics institutions.

Administrative corps
In many English-speaking countries and other countries influenced by British military traditions, a corps is also a grouping of personnel by common function, also known as an arm, service, mustering or branch.

Britain
In the British Army, an administrative corps performs much the same role – for personnel that otherwise lack them – as a ceremonial regiment. An administrative corps therefore has its own cap badge, stable belt, and other insignia and traditions. In some cases, the term corps is also used informally, for looser groupings of independent regiments and other units – and without many or any unifying regalia, military traditions or other accoutrements – such as the Royal Armoured Corps or the "Corps of Infantry".
 * Intelligence Corps
 * RAF Regiment
 * Royal Logistic Corps
 * Corps of Royal Marines
 * Royal Corps of Signals

Australia
In Australia, soldiers belong foremost to a corps which defines a common function or employment across the army. The Australian Army has a system of coloured lanyards, which each identify a soldier as part of a specific corps (or sometimes individual battalion). This lanyard is a woven piece of cord which is worn on ceremonial uniforms and dates back to the issue of clasp knives in the early 20th century which were secured to the uniform by a length of cord.

If a soldier is posted to a unit outside of their parent corps, except in some circumstances the soldier continues to wear the hat badge and lanyard of their corps (e.g. a clerk posted to an infantry battalion would wear the hat badge of the Royal Australian Ordnance Corps but would wear the lanyard of the battalion they are posted to).

Canada
In Canada, with the integration of the Canadian Army into the Canadian Forces, the British corps model was replaced with personnel branches, defined in Canadian Forces Administrative Orders (CFAOs) as "...cohesive professional groups...based on similarity of military roles, customs and traditions." CFAO 2-10) However, the Armour Branch continued to use the title Royal Canadian Armoured Corps, the Infantry Branch continued to use the Royal Canadian Infantry Corps designation, and the Artillery Branch uses the term Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery.

When the Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged in 1968 to form the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian Dental Corps and Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps were deactivated and merged with their Naval and Air Force counterparts to form the Dental Branch (Canadian Forces) and the Canadian Forces Medical Service of the Canadian Forces Health Services Group (CF H Svcs Gp). The Royal Canadian Army Service Corps transport and supply elements were combined with the Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps to form the Logistics Branch The Royal Canadian Army Service Corps clerical trades were merged with the Royal Canadian Army Pay Corps and the Royal Canadian Postal Corps to form the Administration Branch (later merged with the Logistics Branch)

Other "corps", included: Canadian Engineer Corps, Signalling Corps, Corps of Guides, Canadian Women's Army Corps, Royal Canadian Army Veterinary Corps, Canadian Forestry Corps, Canadian Provost Corps and Canadian Intelligence Corps.

India
Administrative corps in the Indian Army include:

 * Army Armoured Corps
 * Army Aviation Corps
 * Army Dental Corps
 * Army Education Corps
 * Army Medical Corps
 * Army Ordnance Corps
 * Army Postal Service Corps
 * Army Service Corps
 * Corps of Army Air Defence
 * Corps of Electronics and Mechanical Engineers
 * Corps of Engineers
 * Corps of Military Police
 * Corps of Signals
 * Defence Security Corps
 * Intelligence Corps
 * Pioneer Corps
 * Remount and Veterinary Corps

New Zealand
In New Zealand, soldiers belong foremost to a corps which defines a common function or employment across the army.

A corps in the New Zealand Army is an administrative group that comprises members of similar work functions.

If a soldier is posted to a unit outside of their parent corps, except in some circumstances the soldier continues to wear the hat badge of their corps (e.g. a supply technician posted to an infantry battalion would wear the hat badge of the Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment.

United States
The Department of Defense; the Department of Transportation; and the United States Department of Health and Human Services use corps administratively in several ways.

1) In the title of the United States Marine Corps, Corps is used as a service-branch designator, in much the same way as Force and Guard are used for the US Air Force and US Coast Guard.

2) The US Army (all components; Regular Army, Army Reserve, and Army National Guard) uses administrative corps, also known as army branches, to group personnel with a common function. These include the Acquisition Corps, Adjutant General's Corps, Chaplain Corps, Chemical Corps, Civil Affairs Corps, Cyber Corps, Dental Corps*, Corps of Engineers, Finance Corps, Judge Advocate General's Corps, Logistics Corps, Medical Corps*, Medical Service Corps*, Medical Specialist Corps*, Military Intelligence Corps, Military Police Corps, Nurse Corps*, Ordnance Corps, Psychological Operations Corps, Quartermaster Corps, Signal Corps, Transportation Corps, and Veterinary Corps.* Each of these corps is also considered a regiment for purposes of: "... affiliation, ... loyalty and commitment, ... sense of belonging, ... unit esprit, and ... war fighting ethos." However, these regiments have no tactical function. The six corps (annotated by an asterisk above after each applicable corps' name) of the Army Medical Department (AMEDD) are included in the AMEDD Regiment .

3) US Navy officers who are not line officers (i.e., those who exercise general command authority and are eligible for operational command positions, as opposed to officers who normally exercise authority only within their own specialty ) are commissioned into various Staff Corps. These officers are specialists in career fields that are professions unto themselves, such as ministers, civil engineers, architects, dentists, lawyers, physicians, healthcare administrators, healthcare scientists, clinical care providers, nurses, financial managers, and logistics and supply specialists. These corps include the Chaplain Corps, Civil Engineer Corps, Dental Corps*, Judge Advocate General's Corps, Medical Corps*, Medical Service Corps*, Nurse Corps*, and the Supply Corps. The Navy also has a Hospital Corps consisting of enlisted medical technicians. The Hospital Corps, along with the four Navy health services corps listed above (indicated by asterisk), is one of the five corps of the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.

4) The US Air Force uses the title corps to designate several non-tactical organizations. These corps include five distinct health services corps of the United States Air Force Medical Service (AFMS). The AFMS corps are the Biomedical Sciences Corps, Dental Corps, Medical Corps, Medical Service Corps, and Nurse Corps. The Air Force also has its own Chaplain Corps and Judge Advocate General's Corps.

5) In the US Armed Forces, the term corps is also used in a general sense to mean the collective membership of a specified military body. Those uses include: the Officer Corps and Noncommissioned Officer Corps (NCO Corps) of the armed forces, either collectively or individually by branch of service; the United States Corps of Cadets at the United States Military Academy and the United States Coast Guard Corps of Cadets of the United States Coast Guard Academy; the overall program title and aggregate collection of cadets and midshipmen enrolled in the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) of the several services (i.e., Army ROTC, Navy ROTC, and Air Force ROTC), as well as the cadet organizations of the six federally recognized United States Senior Military Colleges (The Citadel, Norwich University, Texas A&M University, the University of North Georgia, the Virginia Military Institute, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University); and the members of the Naval Sea Cadet Corps.

Non-military use
The ambassadors, consuls and other foreign embassy staff in a country are collectively referred to as the diplomatic corps (corps diplomatique). In Australia, embassy vehicles have licence plates beginning with the letters DC (or DX).

The Salvation Army calls its local units/church "corps" (e.g. The Rockford Temple Corps, The St. Petersburg Citadel Corps), echoing the pseudomilitary name and structure of the organization.

In the United Kingdom, the Royal Observer Corps was a civil defence unit from 1925 until disbanded in 1995.

In the US, there are non-military, administrative, training and certification corps for commissioned officers of the government's uniformed services, such as the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps.

Many volunteer municipal or university ambulance, rescue, and first-aid squads are known as VACs (volunteer ambulance corps). Prominent examples are the Order of Malta (the largest in Ireland), Hatzolah (largest VAC network worldwide), Hackensack VAC. The usage of the term ambulance corps dates to American Civil War Major General George B. McClellan's General Order No 147 to create an "ambulance corps" within the Union Army. GO 147 used corps in one of its standard military senses. However, subsequent formations of non-military ambulance squads continued to use the term, even where they adhere less to paramilitary organizational structure.

The Peace Corps was organized by the United States as an "army" of volunteers.

Some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are known as corps. Examples include Global Health Corps and Mercy Corps.

A patent examiner in the US is a member of the Examiner Corps.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Corps


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Talk:United States Army

Army Star Logo or SSI
I'm not entirely opposed to the change of the Army Star Logo to the full color Army SSI, but I just wanted to discuss it here and see if any other uses had different perspectives. Taking a quick look at Army sites, the Army Star Logo appears to be predominantly used, with the SSI only used on uniforms. I'm not opposed to the change per say, but was wondering if you could help explain to me your rationale.Garuda28 (talk) 23:10, 22 March 2022 (UTC)

 * The only rationale I have is that it's an official heraldic item, given it's an TIOH approved insignia, and physically worn by headquarters Army and other select units. This article used SSIs to identify Army formations, so it seamed appropriate to keep with that theme. As I look at it, swapping it back to the logo version in the infobox seams appropriate, but I would keep the Star Logo SSI down in the list of units table for it is more appropriate there from a theme/continuity perspective. --McChizzle (talk) 22:06, 23 March 2022 (UTC)

Date format
The dates in this article need to be done in the format of any U.S. entity, which is month/day/year. I see an edit note in the infobox that the U.S. Army uses day/month/year, and I suppose that would be interesting if we were writing a U.S. Army document but we aren't. In this encyclopedia, the format is to use U.S. date formats for U.S. entities. This should be changed. Keystone18 (talk) 04:09, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

 * The note wasn't one person's opinion. Per MOS:MILFORMAT:
 * "In topics where a date format that differs from the usual national one is in customary usage, that format should be used for related articles: for example, articles on the modern US military, including biographical articles related to the modern US military, should use day-before-month, in accordance with US military usage.
 * While you are of course welcome to disagree with this guideline, you'll need a new consensus first to change it, but that seems unlikely, as it's been a guideline for many years. BilCat (talk) 04:35, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

Seminole Wars
Hi Bil, I don't know exactly what your source says, but if it really claims that the Seminoles had destroyed all the other Indian tribes in Florida, then it can't be trusted. Yuchi and Choctaw lived there too. Stara Marusya (talk) 06:18, 11 March 2023 (UTC)

Dubious statement
It was not US victories Plattsburgh and Baltimore that prompted British agreement on the previously rejected terms of a status quo antebellum. It was Napoleon's return from Elba! Creuzbourg (talk) 06:50, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

P.S. There were only two regular regiments at the Battle of New Orleans; most soldiers were militia or volunteers. Creuzbourg (talk) 06:51, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

The Civil War was fought by United States Volunteers, not by the Regular Army. Creuzbourg (talk) 06:55, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:United States Army


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Talk:Kahlil Gibran

Alcoholics Anonymous
One of Khalil Gibran's short poems is used in Anonymous 12-step addicted group meetings (first in AA) when the meeting is over. Aminabzz (talk) 16:59, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

Name spelling
The topic of the article spells his name Kahlil. The article then spells his name Khalil. I don't care which one the article chooses but it seems that the topic should match the article's actual spelling. I'd personally change it to Khalil in the title but would rather leave the task to people who already work with this page in order to avoid reversion and unnecessary engagement from my side. AnthonyTF (talk) 17:08, 28 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Kahlil Gibran’s real Arabic name was Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān (where the first Jubrān was his given name), but his school in the United States changed his name to “Kahlil Gibran”, which is the name he published his works and became most famous with in English. Therefore I don’t see a need to rename to “Khalil Gibran”. If people really cared about using his real Arabic name, they would ask for the page to be moved to “Jubran Khalil Jubran”… All occurrences of Khalil in the first section are of his father. Givennames (talk) 16:21, 17 June 2024 (UTC)
 * First, WP:COMMONNAME applies here.
 * Second, at the end of the first sentence, it indicates usually referred to in English as Kahlil Gibran. This adheres to the MOS:LEADSENTENCE guideline. I just searched throughout the article, & Khalil is then never seems to be used again for the subject. All subsequent uses of that spelling seem to refer to other entities. Peaceray (talk) 18:03, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kahlil Gibran


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Cavalier poet

The cavalier poets was a school of English poets of the 17th century, that came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War (1642–1651). Charles, a connoisseur of the fine arts, supported poets who created the art he craved. These poets in turn grouped themselves with the King and his service, thus becoming Cavalier Poets.

A cavalier was traditionally a mounted soldier or knight, but when the term was applied to those who supported Charles, it was meant to portray them as roistering gallants. The term was thus meant to belittle and insult. They were separate in their lifestyle and divided on religion from the Roundheads, who supported Parliament, consisting often of Puritans (either Presbyterians or Independents).

The best known of the cavalier poets are Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, and Sir John Suckling. Most of the cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a cavalier poet.

Characteristics of Cavalier poetry
Cavalier poetry is different from traditional poetry in its subject matter. Instead of tackling issues like religion, philosophy, and the arts, cavalier poetry aims to express the joy and simple gratification of celebratory things much livelier than the traditional works of their predecessors. The intent of their works was often to promote the crown (particularly Charles I), and cavalier poets spoke outwardly against the Roundheads who supported the rebellion of the Rump Parliament against the crown. Most cavalier works had allegorical and/or classical references. They drew upon the knowledge of Horace, Cicero, and Ovid. By using these resources they were able to produce poetry that impressed King Charles I. The Cavalier Poets strove to create poetry where both pleasure and virtue thrived. They were rich in reference to the ancients as well as pleasing. Commonly held traits certainly exist in cavalier poetry in that most poems “celebrate beauty, love, nature, sensuality, drinking, good fellowship, honor, and social life.” In many ways, this poetry embodies an attitude that mirrors “carpe diem.” Cavalier poets certainly wrote to promote Royalist principles in favor of the crown, but their themes ran deeper than that. Cavalier poets wrote in a way that promoted seizing the day and the opportunities presented to them and their kinsmen. They wanted to revel in society and come to be the best that they possibly could within the bounds of that society. This endorsement of living life to the fullest, for Cavalier writers, often included gaining material wealth and having sex with women. These themes contributed to the triumphant and boisterous tone and attitude of the poetry. Platonic Love was also another characteristic of cavalier poetry, where the man would show his divine love to a woman, where she would be worshipped as a creature of perfection. As such it was common to hear praise of womanly virtues as though they were divine.

Cavalier poetry is closely linked to the Royalist cause in that the main intent of their poetry was to glorify the crown. In this way, cavalier poetry is often grouped in a political category of poetry. While most of the poetry written by these cavalier poets does advocate the cause of the monarchy in some way, not all of the writers we now consider cavalier poets knew that they fell under this categorization during their lifetime. Cavalier poetry began to be recognized as its own genre with the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642 when men began to write in defense of the crown. However, authors like Thomas Carew and Sir John Suckling died years before the war began, yet are still classified as cavalier poets for the political nature of their poetry. Once the conflict began between the monarchy and the rebellious parliament, the content of the poetry became much more specifically aimed at upholding Royalist ideals. These men were considered by many to write in a nostalgic tone in that their work promoted the principles and practices of the monarchy that was under philosophical and, eventually, literal attack.

There was also a celebration of the monarchy of Charles I among the cavalier poets. Jonson in particular celebrated ideas of common sense, duty, moderation, propriety, and elegance (which he also practiced). These ideas did not belong to the ancients but rather belonged to the court and to England. In this way although the cavaliers embraced the old ways of thinking from the ancients, they also incorporated their own ideas and thoughts into their poetry. This made their writings applicable for the era they were writing in and also portrayed the greatness of the crown and of Charles.

Other characteristics of cavalier poetry were the metaphor and fantasy.

Issues of Classification
According to The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia

"The foremost poets of the Jacobean era, Ben Jonson and John Donne, are regarded as the originators of two diverse poetic traditions—the Cavalier and the metaphysical styles."

English poets of the early seventeenth century are crudely classified by the division into Cavaliers and metaphysical poets, the latter (for example John Donne) being much concerned with religion. The division is therefore along a line approximating to secular/religious. It is not considered exclusive, though, with Carew (for example) falling into both sides, in some opinions (metaphysical was in any case a retrospective term). The term 'sacred poets' has been applied, with an argument that they fall between two schools:

"Herbert, Crashaw and Vaughan form, not, indeed, a school of poetry, but a group with definite links connecting them. Unlike the Fletchers and Habington, who looked back to “Spenser’s art and Sydney's wit,” they come under the influence both of the newer literary fashions of Jonson and Fres, and of the revived spirit of cultured devotion in the Anglican church."

Others associated with the Cavalier tradition, according to Skelton, include Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Aurelian Townshend, William Cartwright, Thomas Randolph, William Habington, Sir Richard Fanshawe, Edmund Waller, and James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose. Because of the influence of Ben Jonson, the term Tribe of Ben is sometimes applied to poets in this loose group (Sons of Ben applies properly only to dramatist followers of Jonson).

In his introduction to The New Oxford Book of Seventeenth Century Verse Alastair Fowler makes a case for the existence of a third group centering on Michael Drayton and including William Browne, William Drummond of Hawthornden, John Davies of Hereford, George Sandys, Joshua Sylvester and George Wither.

Other languages

 * The Welsh poetry of Gwilym Puw, who fought as a Captain in the Royalist Army and lived long enough to witness the Stuart Restoration, marks him out as a Cavalier poet in Welsh-language literature.
 * Iain Lom, a Tacksman from Clan MacDonald of Keppoch, composed a long eyewitness account of the 1645 Battle of Inverlochy in the war poem Là Inbhir Lochaidh ("The Day of Inverlochy"). The resulting poem is still regarded as one of the great treasures of Scottish Gaelic literature and is an important primary source for historians regarding the battle.
 * Revealing that he saw the Jacobite rising of 1745 as the continuation of the war his ancestors had waged against Oliver Cromwell and the Rump Parliament, Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair's 1751 poetry book "Ais-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich" ("The Resurrection of the Ancient Scottish Language") included literary translations into Gaelic of three poems by Cavalier poet James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, which expressed his loyalty to King Charles I and to the House of Stuart during the English Civil War.

title: Cavalier poet


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Non-commissioned officer

A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is a military officer who does not hold a commission. Non-commissioned officers usually earn their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. In contrast, commissioned officers usually enter directly from a military academy, officer training corps (OTC) or reserve officer training corps (ROTC), or officer candidate school (OCS) or officer training school (OTS), after receiving a post-secondary degree.

The NCO corps usually includes many grades of enlisted, corporal and sergeant; in some countries, warrant officers also carry out the duties of NCOs. The naval equivalent includes some or all grades of petty officer. There are different classes of non-commissioned officers, including junior (lower ranked) non-commissioned officers (JNCO) and senior/staff (higher ranked) non-commissioned officers (SNCO). All non-commissioned officers are considered junior to any commissioned (or warrant) officer, although there are rare instances where an NCO may hold a varying level of authority over a commissioned officer.

Function
The non-commissioned officer corps has been referred to as "the backbone" of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders primarily responsible for executing a military organization's mission and for training military personnel so they are prepared to execute their missions. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific and combat training.

Senior NCOs are considered the primary link between enlisted personnel and the commissioned officers in a military organization. Their advice and guidance are considered particularly important for junior officers and in many cases to officers of all senior ranks.

Australia
In the Australian Army, lance corporals and corporals are classified as junior NCOs (JNCOs), sergeants and staff sergeants (currently being phased out) are classified as senior NCOs (SNCOs), while warrant officer class two and warrant officer class one are classified as warrant officers (WOs).

In the New South Wales Police Force, NCOs perform supervisory and coordination roles. The ranks of probationary constable through to leading senior constable are referred to as "constables". All NCOs within the NSW Police are given a warrant of appointment under the Commissioner's hand and seal.

All officers within the Australian Defence Force Cadets are non-commissioned, with ADFC officers appointed by the Director-General of their respective branch.

Brazil
In Brazil, a non-commissioned officer is called "graduado" or "praça graduado" and includes the ranks from third-sergeant to sub-lieutenant, the latter being equivalent to warrant officers.

Canada
In the Canadian Forces, the Queen's Regulations and Orders formally defined a non-commissioned officer as "A Canadian Forces member holding the rank of Sergeant or Corporal." In the 1990s, the term "non-commissioned member" (NCM) was introduced to indicate all ranks in the Canadian Forces from recruit to chief warrant officer.

By definition, with the unification of the Canadian Forces into one service, the rank of sergeant included the naval rank of petty officer 2nd class, and corporal includes the naval rank of sailor first class; corporal also includes the appointment of master corporal (naval master sailor).

NCOs are officially divided into two categories: junior non-commissioned officers, consisting of corporals/sailors first class and master corporals/master sailors; and senior non-commissioned officers, consisting of sergeants and petty officers 2nd class. In the Royal Canadian Navy, however, the accepted definition of "NCO" reflects the international use of the term (i.e. all grades of petty officer).

Junior non-commissioned officers mess and billet with privates and seamen; their mess is usually referred to as the junior ranks mess. Conversely, senior non-commissioned officers mess and billet with warrant officers; their mess is normally referred to as the warrant officers and sergeants mess (army and air force establishments) or the chiefs and petty officers mess (naval establishments).

As a group, NCOs rank above privates and below warrant officers. The term "non-commissioned members" includes these ranks.

Finland
In the Finnish Defence Force, NCO's (aliupseeristo) includes all ranks from corporal (alikersantti, lit. sub-sergeant) to sergeant major (sotilasmestari, lit. soldier master). Ranks of lance corporal (korpraali) and leading seaman (ylimatruusi) are considered not to be NCO ranks. This ruling applies to all branches of service and also to the troops of the Border Guard.

France
In France, Belgium and most French-speaking countries, the term sous-officier (meaning: "under officer" or "sub-officer") is a class of ranks between the rank-and-file (hommes du rang) and commissioned officers (officiers). Corporals (caporal and caporal-chef) belong to the rank-and-file. Sous-officiers include two subclasses: "subalternes" (sergents and sergents-chefs) and "supérieurs" (adjudants, adjudants-chefs and majors). "Sous-officiers supérieurs" can perform various functions within a regiment or battalion, including commanding a platoon or section.

Germany
In Germany and German-speaking countries like Austria, the term Unteroffizier describes a class of ranks between normal enlisted personnel (Mannschaften or in Austria Chargen) and officers (Offiziere). In this group of ranks there are, in Germany, two other classes: Unteroffiziere mit Portepee (with sword-knot) and Unteroffiziere ohne Portepee (without swordknot), both containing several ranks, which in Austria would be Unteroffiziere (NCOs) and Höhere Unteroffiziere (senior NCOs or literally translated as "higher under officers"). (Unteroffiziere can be literally translated as "under officer", or perhaps more idiomatically as "lower officer" or "sub-officer".)

India
In the Indian Armed Forces, junior commissioned officers are promoted from non-commissioned officers and are broadly equivalent to warrant officers in Western armies. Senior non-commissioned officers are promoted to JCO rank on the basis of merit and seniority, restricted by the number of vacancies. In between the Commissioned Officer and the NCOs lies the Junior Commissioned Officers. They have a minimum of 28 years of service.

JCOs are entrusted with supervisory roles and the three JCO ranks are Subedar Major, Subedar and Naib Subedar. JCOs are equivalent in status to Group B (Gazetted) of Government of India.

JCOs are currently enrolled as jawans and few of them get promoted to officers over a period of time-based on their performance and on their ability to clear promotion examinations. A few JCOs are directly enrolled as religious teachers and in certain technical arms such as the Corps of Engineers. As of 2021, the Indian Army is discussing a proposal to directly enrol Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs) in all arms of the service to address the shortage of commissioned officers. According to the proposal, the Indian Army will directly induct JCOs who have cleared the Services Selection Board (SSB) interview. The Union Public Service Commission will conduct an entrance examination, which would be followed by an SSB interview and a medical examination. Selected candidates would then be trained for one and a half years before joining the units as JCOs. Subsequently, they would be promoted to officers up to the rank of Colonels based on their length of service and qualifications.

Ireland
In Ireland, the Irish Defence Forces have a professional body of non-commissioned officers from the ranks of Corporal (Cpl) (OR-4) to Regimental Sergeant Major (RSM) (OR-9) in the Irish Army and Air Corps.

In the Irish Naval Service the NCO ranks rise from Leading Hand or Leading Rate (OR-4) to Warrant Officer (OR-9). In Irish Naval Service parlance the rate or rating is the service members specialisation. Therefore, L/S refers to Leading Seaman, L/RRT refers to Leading Radio Radar Technician and so on.

Further to the distinctions within the Irish Defence Forces you have Junior and Senior NCOs. Junior NCOs are Corporals and Sergeants, (OR-4 and OR-5), and Senior NCOs are Company Sergeant and Company Quartermaster Sergeants to Regimental Sergeant Majors and Regimental Quartermaster Sergeants (OR-7 to OR-9). In the Irish Naval Service, this is further complicated by having Junior and Senior Ratings. Junior ratings from Ordinary Rate (OR-1) to Leading Rate (OR-4), and Senior Ratings are from Petty Officer (OR-5) to Warrant Officer (OR-9). Therefore, it can occur that a person incorrectly describes themselves as a Senior NCO when in fact they mean a Senior Rating.

New Zealand
In the New Zealand Defence Force, a non-commissioned officer is defined as:
 * "(a) In relation to the Navy, a rating of warrant officer, chief petty officer, petty officer, or leading rank; and includes—
 * (i) A non-commissioned officer of the Army or the Air Force attached to the Navy; and
 * (ii) A person duly attached or lent as a non-commissioned officer to or seconded for service or appointed for duty as a non-commissioned officer with the Navy:
 * (b) In relation to the Army, a soldier above the rank of private but below the rank of officer cadet; and includes a warrant officer; and also includes—
 * (i) A non-commissioned officer of the Navy or the Air Force attached to the Army; and
 * (ii) A person duly attached or lent as a non-commissioned officer to or seconded for service or appointed for duty as a non-commissioned officer with the Army:
 * (c) In relation to the Air Force, an airman above the rank of leading aircraftman but below the rank of officer cadet; and includes a warrant officer; and also includes—
 * (i) A non-commissioned officer of the Navy or the Army attached to the Air Force; and
 * (ii) A person duly attached or lent as a non-commissioned officer to or seconded for service or appointed for duty as a non-commissioned officer with the Air Force:" – Defence Act 1990, Sect 2 (Interpretation)

Norway
On 1 January 2016, the Norwegian Armed Forces reintroduced non-commissioned officers in all service branches, having had a single rank tier since 1930, except for certain technical and maintenance units from 1945 to 1975. The NCOs are called specialists, and rank from sergeant to sergeant major (NATO ranks OR5–OR9). The Specialist Corps lance corporal and corporal ranks (OR2–OR4) are reserved for enlisted personnel, while the rank of private (OR1) is for conscripts only.

The NCOs are in charge of military training, discipline, practical leadership, role modelling, unit standards and mentoring officers, especially juniors. Officers commanding platoons and above are assigned a chief or master sergeant, which is the unit's highest ranking specialist, although chief and master sergeants are functions and not ranks in themselves.

Norway took a top-down approach to establishing the Specialist Corps. Since August 2015, volunteer commissioned officers have converted into sergeant majors, command sergeants and first sergeants.

Pakistan
Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs) in the Pakistan Army hold important positions and are responsible for the supervision and management of the enlisted soldiers. The NCO status begins with the rank of "Lance Naik", Here are the ranks of NCOs in the Pakistan Army, from lowest to highest:

 * 1) Lance Naik
 * 2) Naik
 * 3) Havildar

In addition to these, there are also company/battalion appointments held by senior Havildars, such as Company Quartermaster Havildar, Company Havildar Major, Battalion Quartermaster Havildar, and Battalion Havildar Major.

NCOs display their rank insignias on mid sleeves, and in combat uniforms, all individuals wear rank insignias on their chest. They are responsible for the training, discipline, and welfare of the troops under their command.

Singapore
In the Singapore Armed Forces, the term "non-commissioned officer" is no longer officially used, being replaced with Specialist for all ranks from 3rd Sergeant to Master Sergeant (Staff and Master Sergeants are known as Senior Specialists). The term used to address Warrant Officers and Specialists combined is "WOSpec". The term "NCO" however is still frequently used unofficially in the army.

Sweden
In 1983 the NCO corps, since 1972 called the Platoon Officer Corps, was disbanded and its members were given commissions as officers in ranks of second or first lieutenant in Sweden's new one-tier military leadership system. In 2009 a similar system as the NCO corps was re-established, called "specialist officers". Direct recruitment from civilian life is followed by basic and preparatory leadership training, and advanced leadership training during 1.5 year as a specialist cadet at the military academy in Halmstad, a warrant as an OR-6, followed by specialist technical training. Swedish specialist officers have relative ranks that match those of the commissioned officers; an OR-7 takes precedence over a second lieutenant, for instance.

Turkey
Non-commissioned officer, called in Turkish as astsubay, is the rank belonging to the non-enlisted class below the officer in the military hierarchy. Military persons who are assigned as an assistant to the officer in training, administration and administration and other administrative tasks at the subordinate command levels of the Land, Naval and Air Forces of the Army of the Republic of Turkey, and the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are called non-commissioned officers.

United Kingdom
In the British Armed Forces, NCOs are divided into two categories. Lance corporals (including lance bombardiers) and corporals (including lance sergeants, bombardiers, and lance corporals of horse) are junior NCOs. Sergeants (including corporals of horse), staff sergeants (including colour sergeants and staff corporals), and RAF chief technicians and flight sergeants are senior NCOs.

Warrant officers are often included in the senior NCO category, but actually form a separate class of their own, similar in many ways to NCOs but with a royal warrant. Senior NCOs and WOs have their own messes, which are similar to officers' messes (and are usually known as sergeants' messes), whereas junior NCOs live and eat with the unranked personnel, although they may have a separate corporals' club to give them some separate socialising space.

The Royal Navy does not refer to its petty officers and chief petty officers as NCOs, but calls them senior ratings (or senior rates). Leading ratings and below are junior ratings.

United States
In the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, all ranks of sergeant are termed NCOs, as are corporals in the Army and Marine Corps. The Marine Corps rank of lance corporal (E-3) is not an NCO, but rather a junior enlisted rank directly below corporal. The rank of corporal (E-4) in the Army and Marine Corps is a junior NCO, and is to be shown the same respect as any other NCO. However the rank of Specialist in the US Army, also with an E-4 pay grade, is not authorized to command troops and as such is not considered an NCO. In the Air Force, E-5 (staff sergeant) and E-6 (technical sergeant) are classified under the NCO tier, while E-7 (master sergeant), E-8 (senior master sergeant), and E-9 (chief master sergeant) are considered senior non-commissioned officers (SNCOs). In the Navy and Coast Guard, all ranks of petty officer are so designated. Junior NCOs (E-4 through E-6 grade), or simply "NCOs" (E-4 and E-5 only) in Marine Corps usage, function as first-tier supervisors and technical leaders.

NCOs serving in the top three enlisted grades (E-7, E-8, and E-9) are termed senior non-commissioned officers (chief petty officers in the Navy and Coast Guard). Senior NCOs are expected to exercise leadership at a more general level. They lead larger groups of service members, mentor junior officers, and advise senior officers on matters pertaining to their areas of responsibility.

Within the Marine Corps, senior NCOs are referred to as staff noncommissioned officers (SNCOs) and also include the rank of staff sergeant (E-6). SNCOs are those career Marines serving in grades E-6 through E-9 and serve as unit leaders and supervisors, primary assistants and technical advisors to officers, and senior enlisted advisors to commanding officers, commanding generals, and other higher-level commanders. The ranks include staff sergeant, gunnery sergeant (E-7), master sergeant / first sergeant (E-8), and master gunnery sergeant / sergeant major (E-9).

The title of superintendent is used by the Air Force as the title of the non-commissioned officer in charge (NCOIC) of a section, flight, squadron, group, staff agency, directorate, or similar organization. These positions are assigned to senior non-commissioned officers (SNCOs), as opposed to the titles "NCOIC" and "chief" (which are held by junior NCOs). The titles of commander and director are used for commissioned officers assigned as commanding officer of a unit or the head of a staff agency, directorate, or similar organization, respectively.

A select few senior NCOs in paygrade E-9 serve as "senior enlisted advisors" to senior commanders in each service (e.g., major command, fleet, force, etc.) and in DoD unified commands, e.g., United States Strategic Command, United States European Command, United States Pacific Command, etc., and DoD agencies, e.g. the Defense Information Systems Agency, Defense Intelligence Agency and the National Security Agency. One senior E-9, selected by the service chief of staff, is the ranking NCO/PO in that service, holds the highest enlisted rank for that service, and is responsible for advising their service secretary and chief of staff.

One E-9 holds a similar position as the SEA to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Senior enlisted advisors, service enlisted advisors and the SEA to the Chairman (SEAC) advise senior officer and civilian leaders on all issues affecting operational missions and the readiness, utilization, morale, technical and professional development, and quality of life of the enlisted force.

Warrant officers in the United States Armed Forces are considered specialty officers and fall in between enlisted and commissioned officers. US warrant officers also have their own tier and paygrade. However, when US warrant officers achieve the rank of chief warrant officer (CWO2) or higher, they are commissioned and are considered commissioned US officers just like any other commissioned officer, but are still held in a different paygrade tier.

U.S. Army NCO Candidate Course
Beginning in 1967 at Fort Benning, Georgia, the US Army Noncommissioned officer candidate course (NCOCC) was a Vietnam-war era program developed to alleviate shortages of enlisted leaders at squad and platoon level assignments, training enlisted personnel to assume jobs as squad leaders in combat.

Based loosely on the Officer Candidate School (OCS), NCOC was a new concept (at the time) where high performing trainees attending basic infantry combat training were nominated to attend a two-phased course of focused instruction on jungle warfare, and included a hands-on portion of intense training, promotion to sergeant, and then a 12-week assignment leading trainees going through advanced training.

Regular Army soldiers who had received their promotion through traditional methods (and others) used derisive terms for these draftees (typically) who were promoted quicker, such as "Instant NCOs", "Shake 'n' Bake", and "Whip n' Chills".

The program proved to be so successful that as the war began to wind down they elected to institutionalize training noncommissioned officers and created the NCO Education System (NCOES), which was based around the NCO candidate course. The NCO candidate course generally ended in 1971–1972.

U.S. Navy Accelerated Advancement
Within the U.S. Navy there are different ways that a sailor can earn accelerated advancement to the rank of petty officer third class. If a person tests high enough on their entrance exam they are able to select certain jobs that require a significant amount of training, far greater than the amount required for a basic job (12 months vs. 2 weeks). Because these jobs are more technically advanced, the schools have higher attrition rates, demand more responsibility, and require longer initial enlistments, these sailors are able to advance to petty officer third class. Another way for a sailor to earn accelerated advancement is by graduating in the top 10% of their class within their "A" school. For certain ratings, such as Corpsman, this has been discontinued.

title: Non-commissioned officer


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Halibut

Halibut is the common name for three flatfish in the genera Hippoglossus and Reinhardtius from the family of right-eye flounders and, in some regions, and less commonly, other species of large flatfish.

The word is derived from haly (holy) and butte (flat fish), for its popularity on Catholic holy days. Halibut are demersal fish and are highly regarded as a food fish as well as a sport fish.

Species
A 2018 cladistic analysis based on genetics and morphology showed that the Greenland halibut diverged from a lineage that gave rise to the Atlantic and Pacific halibuts. The common ancestor of all three diverged from a lineage that gave rise to the genus Verasper, comprising the spotted halibut and barfin flounder.

 * Genus Hippoglossus
 * Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus – lives in the North Atlantic
 * Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis – lives in the North Pacific Ocean
 * Genus Reinhardtius
 * Greenland halibut, Reinhardtius hippoglossoides – lives in the cold northern Atlantic, northern Pacific, and Arctic Oceans

Physical characteristics
The Atlantic halibut is the world's largest flatfish. Halibut are dark brown on the top side with a white to off-white underbelly and have very small scales invisible to the naked eye embedded in their skin. Halibut are symmetrical at birth with one eye on each side of the head. Then, about six months later, during larval metamorphosis one eye migrates to the other side of the head. The eyes are permanently set once the skull is fully ossified. At the same time, the stationary-eyed side darkens to match the top side, while the other side remains white. This color scheme disguises halibut from above (blending with the ocean floor) and from below (blending into the light from the sky) and is known as countershading.

The IGFA size record for Halibut was apparently broken off the waters of Norway in July 2013 by a 515 lb, 2.62 m fish. This was awaiting certification as of 2013. In July 2014, a 482 lb Pacific halibut was caught in Glacier Bay, Alaska; this is, however, discounted from records because the halibut was shot and harpooned before being hauled aboard.

Diet
Halibut feed on almost any fish or animal they can fit into their mouths. Juvenile halibut feed on small crustaceans and other bottom-dwelling organisms. Animals found in their stomachs include sand lance, octopus, crab, salmon, hermit crabs, lamprey, sculpin, cod, pollock, herring, and flounder, as well as other halibut. Halibut live at depths ranging from a few meters to hundreds of meters, and although they spend most of their time near the bottom, halibut may move up in the water column to feed. In most ecosystems, the halibut is near the top of the marine food chain. In the North Pacific, common predators are sea lions, killer whales, salmon sharks and humans.

Sex determining genes
Halibut species vary in sex determination systems. The Atlantic Halibut went down a purely XX/XY route, with the male being heterogametic, around 0.9 to 3.8 million years ago. The sex determining gene for the Atlantic Halibut is likely to be gsdf on chromosome 13. The Pacific Halibut went down a ZZ/ZW route, with the female being heterogametic, around 4.5 million years ago. The master sex determining gene of the Pacific Halibut is located on chromosome 9 and it is likely to be bmpr1ba. The gene sox2 is likely to play the same role in the Greenland Halibut.

Halibut fishery
The North Pacific commercial halibut fishery dates to the late 19th century and today is one of the region's largest and most lucrative. In Canadian and US waters, long-line fishing predominates, using chunks of octopus ("devilfish") or other bait on circle hooks attached at regular intervals to a weighted line that can extend for several miles across the bottom. The fishing vessel retrieves the line after several hours to a day. The effects of long-line gear on habitats are poorly understood, but could include disturbance of sediments, benthic structures, and other structures.

International management is thought to be necessary, because the species occupies waters of the United States, Canada, Russia, and possibly Japan (where the species is known to the Japanese as ohyo), and matures slowly. Halibut do not reproduce until age eight, when about 30 in long, so commercial capture below this length prevents breeding and is against US and Canadian regulations supporting sustainability. Pacific halibut fishing is managed by the International Pacific Halibut Commission.

For most of the modern era, halibut fishery operated as a derby. Regulators declared time slots when fishing was open (typically 24–48 hours at a time) and fishermen raced to catch as many pounds as they could within that interval. This approach accommodated unlimited participation in the fishery while allowing regulators to control the quantity of fish caught annually by controlling the number and timing of openings. The approach led to unsafe fishing, as openings were necessarily set before the weather was known, forcing fishermen to leave port regardless of the weather. The approach limited fresh halibut to the markets to several weeks per year when the gluts would push down the price received by fishermen.

Individual fishing quotas
In 1995, US regulators allocated individual fishing quotas (IFQs) to existing fishery participants based on each vessel's documented historical catch. IFQs grant to holders a specific proportion of each year's total allowable catch (TAC). The fishing season is about eight months. The IFQ system improved both safety and product quality by providing a stable flow of fresh halibut to the marketplace. Critics of the program suggest, since holders can sell their quota and the fish are a public resource, the IFQ system gave a public resource to the private sector. The fisheries were managed through a treaty between the United States and Canada per recommendations of the International Pacific Halibut Commission, formed in 1923.

A significant sport fishery in Alaska and British Columbia has emerged, where halibut are prized game and food fish. Sport fisherman use large rods and reels with 80 - 150 lb line, and often bait with herring, large jigs, or whole salmon heads. Halibut are strong and fight strenuously when exposed to air. Smaller fish will usually be pulled on board with a gaff and may be clubbed or even punched in the head to prevent them from thrashing around on the deck. In both commercial and sport fisheries, standard procedure is to shoot or otherwise subdue very large halibut over 150 - 200 lb before landing them.

Overfishing and population decline
The Atlantic Halibut has been a major target of fishing since the 1840s with overfishing causing the depletion of the species in the Georges Bank in 1850, then all the way up to the Canadian Arctic in 1866. In the 1940s the American fishing industry collapsed but the Canadian fishing industry remained until there was a decline in Canadian Halibut fishery in the 1970s and 1980s. This allowed the Halibut population to briefly rebound before collapsing in the 1990s. Since a low point in the early 2000s, the population has rebounded once again and may be stabilizing, but the species is not nearly as abundant in most locations as it was in the early 1800s.

Atlantic halibut population
Currently, Atlantic Halibut is managed as two stocks in Canadian waters, which are the Atlantic Continental Shelf stock and the Gulf of St. Lawrence stock. The Atlantic Halibut has two other stocks in the Northwest Atlantic, those being the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank stock controlled by the United States and one controlled by France near the Saint-Pierre and Miquelon Archipelago. The Georges Bank stock is still considered to be depleted and it is listed as a species of concern in the United States. In the two main populations of Atlantic Halibut there are many subpopulations, but many have been lost due to patches of extreme overfishing and the populations remain depleted as a whole from what they were in the 1800s.

Pacific and Greenland Halibut populations
The Pacific Halibut and Greenland Halibut have not had this level of fragmentation, and their population is far larger in the United States' waters, with North Pacific Halibut and groundfish fisheries extracting the largest volume of catch out of all United States fishery areas. Sometimes the California Halibut is mistaken for a subspecies, but they are not, and are not even a true Halibut species. In the North Atlantic, observation of migration indicates that there are only two major populations of Greenland Halibut that both stretch vast distances. Those populations being the Northeast one stretching from the Kara Sea to Greenland, and the Northwest one stretching from Newfoundland to Baffin Bay. These stocks had been previously thought to be four different populations, but migration has indicated that they are only two different populations, and that fishing has not fragmented them. New research also indicates that the Greenland halibut originally came from the Pacific Ocean and spread into the Arctic Basin when the Bering Strait opened for a second time around 3 million years ago, and thus the Pacific halibut is its closest living relative.

Evolutionary diversification of fragmented populations
In the Atlantic Halibut studies have shown that the Atlantic Continental Shelf stock and the Gulf of St. Lawrence stock have begun to differentiate genetically from each other due to low connectivity between populations, low rates of exchange, and subsequent adaptation to local environments. Some adaptations can show up as changes in life-history trait parameters, which can change on a faster time scale than evolution and cause behavioural segregation. This can occur even in areas with enough genetic mixing to prevent genetic divergence. One small but significant observed adaptation difference in the Atlantic Halibut has been that the fish in the warmer Scotian Shelf have a faster growth rate than the Halibut in the colder southern Grand Banks. The Pacific Halibut population remains largely genetically homologous throughout their range, but there is some variation of life-history traits on a geographic gradient. Despite its large range, the populations of Greenland Halibut remain largely homogenous due to a lack of barriers for gene flow between its four major populations. There are small differences between subpopulations due to differing environmental factors, such as salinity and temperature gradients, but not to the degree seen in Atlantic Halibut, as gene flow and migration continues throughout many different stocks.

Nutrition
Raw Pacific or Atlantic halibut meat is 80% water and 19% protein, with negligible fat and no carbohydrates (table). In a 100 g reference amount, raw halibut contains rich content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, selenium (65% DV), phosphorus (34% DV), vitamin D (32% DV), and several B vitamins: niacin, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 (42–46% DV).

Cooked halibut meat – presumably through the resulting dehydration – has relatively increased protein content and reduced B vitamin content (per 100 grams), while magnesium, phosphorus, and selenium are rich in content.

Food preparation
Halibut yield large fillets from both sides of the fish, with the small round cheeks providing an additional source of meat. Halibut are often boiled, deep-fried or grilled while fresh. Smoking is more difficult with halibut meat than it is with salmon, due to its ultra-low fat content. Eaten fresh, the meat has a clean taste and requires little seasoning. Halibut is noted for its dense and firm texture. Halibut have historically been an important food source to Alaska Natives and Canadian First Nations, and continue to be a key element to many coastal subsistence economies. Accommodating the competing interests of commercial, sport, and subsistence users is a challenge.

As of 2008, the Atlantic population was so depleted through overfishing that it might be declared an endangered species. According to Seafood Watch, consumers should avoid Atlantic halibut. Most halibut eaten on the East Coast of the United States is from the Pacific.

In 2012, sport fishermen in Cook Inlet reported increased instances of a condition known as "mushy halibut syndrome". The meat of the affected fish has a "jelly-like" consistency. When cooked it does not flake in the normal manner of halibut but rather falls apart. The meat is still perfectly safe to eat but the appearance and consistency are considered unappetizing. The exact cause of the condition is unknown but may be related to a change in diet.

Other species sometimes called "halibut"

 * Of the same family (Pleuronectidae) as proper halibut
 * Kamchatka flounder, Atheresthes evermanni – sometimes called "arrowtooth halibut"
 * Roundnose flounder, Eopsetta grigorjewi – often called "shotted halibut"
 * Greenland turbot, Reinhardtius hippoglossoides – often called "Greenland halibut"
 * Spotted halibut, Verasper variegatus
 * Family Paralichthyidae
 * California flounder, Paralichthys californicus – sometimes called "California halibut"
 * Olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus – sometimes called "bastard halibut"
 * Family Psettodidae
 * Psettodes erumei – sometimes called "Indian halibut"
 * Family Carangidae (jack family, not a flatfish)
 * Black pomfret, Parastromateus niger – sometimes called "Australian halibut"

title: Halibut