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Battle of Zama

The Battle of Zama was fought in 202 BC in what is now Tunisia between a Roman army commanded by Scipio Africanus and a Carthaginian army commanded by Hannibal. The battle was part of the Second Punic War and resulted in such a severe defeat for the Carthaginians that they capitulated, while Hannibal was forced into exile. The Roman army of approximately 30,000 men was outnumbered by the Carthaginians who fielded either 40,000 or 50,000; the Romans were stronger in cavalry, but the Carthaginians had 80 war elephants.

At the outset of the Second Punic War, in 218 BC, a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal invaded mainland Italy, where it campaigned for the next 16 years. In 210 BC Scipio took command of the faltering Roman war effort in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) and cleared the peninsula of Carthaginians in five years. He returned to Rome and was appointed consul in 205 BC. The following year his army landed near the Carthaginian port of Utica. The Carthaginians and their Numidian allies were repeatedly beaten in battle and the Roman ally Masinissa became the leading Numidian ruler. Scipio and Carthage entered into peace negotiations, while Carthage recalled armies from Italy commanded by Hannibal and Mago Barca. The Roman Senate ratified a draft treaty, but when Hannibal arrived from Italy, Carthage repudiated it. Hannibal marched inland to confront the Romans and a battle quickly ensued.

The fighting opened with a charge by the Carthaginian elephants. These were repulsed, some retreating through the Carthaginian cavalry on each wing and disorganising them. The Roman cavalry units on each wing took advantage to charge their counterparts, rout them and pursue them off the battlefield. The two armies' close-order infantry were each deployed in three lines. The first two lines engaged each other and after a hard-fought combat the Carthaginians were routed. The second Carthaginian line then fanatically assaulted the Roman first line, inflicting heavy losses and pushing it back. After the Romans committed their second line the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw. There was a pause, during which the Romans formed a single extended line, to match that of the Carthaginians. These two lines charged each other, according to the near-contemporary historian Polybius "with the greatest fire and fury". The fight continued for some time, neither side gaining the advantage. The Roman cavalry then returned to the battlefield and charged the Carthaginian line in the rear, routing and destroying it. Carthage was left with no army with which to continue the war. The peace treaty dictated by Rome stripped Carthage of its overseas territories and some of its African ones. Thereafter, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome.

Background
The First Punic War was fought between the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC: Carthage and Rome. The war lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC, before the Carthaginians were defeated. It took place primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily, its surrounding waters and in North Africa.

Carthage expanded its territory in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) from 236 BC, in 226 BC agreeing the Ebro Treaty with Rome which established the Ebro River as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian sphere of influence. A little later Rome made a separate treaty of association with the city of Saguntum, well south of the Ebro. Hannibal, the de facto ruler of Carthaginian Iberia, led an army to Saguntum in 219 BC and besieged, captured and sacked it. Early the following year Rome declared war on Carthage, starting the Second Punic War.

Hannibal led a large Carthaginian army from Iberia, through Gaul, over the Alps and invaded mainland Italy in 218 BC. During the next three years Hannibal inflicted heavy defeats on the Romans at the battles of the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae. At the last of these alone, at least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured. The historian Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes these as "great military calamities", and Brian Carey writes that they brought Rome to the brink of collapse. Hannibal's army campaigned in Italy for 14 years.

There was also extensive fighting in Iberia from 218 BC. In 210 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio arrived to take command of Roman forces in Iberia. During the following four years Scipio repeatedly defeated the Carthaginians, driving them out of Iberia in 206 BC. One of Carthage's allies in Iberia was the Numidian prince Masinissa, who led a force of light cavalry in several battles.

Roman preparations
In 206 BC Scipio left Iberia and returned to Italy. There he was elected to the senior position of consul in early 205 BC, despite being aged 31 when the minimum age for the office was 42. Scipio was already anticipating an invasion of North Africa and while still in Iberia had been negotiating with the Numidian leaders Masinissa and Syphax. He failed to win over the latter, but made an ally of the former.

Opinion was divided in Roman political circles as to whether an invasion of North Africa was an excessive risk. Hannibal was still on Italian soil; there was the possibility of further Carthaginian invasions, shortly to be realised when Hannibal's youngest brother Mago Barca landed in Liguria with an army from Iberia; the practical difficulties of an amphibious invasion and its logistical follow up were considerable; and when the Romans had invaded North Africa in 256 BC during the First Punic War they had been driven out with heavy losses, which had re-energised the Carthaginians. Eventually a compromise was agreed: Scipio was given Sicily as his consular province, which was the best location for the Romans to launch an invasion of the Carthaginian homeland from and then logistically support it, and permission to cross to Africa on his own judgement. But Roman commitment was less than wholehearted, Scipio could not conscript troops for his consular army, as was usual, but only call for volunteers.

In 216 BC the survivors of the Roman defeat at Cannae had been formed into two legions and sent to Sicily. They formed the core of the Roman expeditionary force. Modern historians estimate a combat strength of 25,000–30,000, of whom more than 90 per cent were infantry. With up to half of the complement of his legions being fresh volunteers, and with no fighting having taken place on Sicily for the past five years, Scipio instigated a rigorous training regime. This extended from drills by individual centuries – the basic Roman army manoeuvre unit of 80 men – to exercises by the full army. This lasted for approximately a year. At the same time Scipio assembled a vast quantity of food and materiel, merchant ships to transport it and his troops, and warships to escort the transports.

Also during 205 BC, 30 Roman ships under Scipio's second-in-command, the legate Gaius Laelius, raided North Africa around Hippo Regius, gathering large quantities of loot and many captives. The Carthaginians initially believed this was the anticipated invasion by Scipio and his full invasion force; they hastily strengthened fortifications and raised troops. Reinforcements were sent to Mago in an attempt to distract the Romans in Italy. Meanwhile a succession war had broken out in Numidia between the Roman-supporting Masinissa and the Carthaginian-inclined Syphax. Laelius re-established contact with Masinissa during his raid. Masinissa expressed dismay regarding how long it was taking the Romans to complete their preparations and land in Africa.

Roman

Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as infantry; a better-off minority provided a cavalry component. Historically, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry – this could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances, or, rarely, even more – and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry – poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary – served as javelin-armed skirmishers known as velites; they each carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword and a 90 cm shield. The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, large shields and short thrusting swords. They were divided into three ranks, of which the hastati in the front rank also carried two javelins each; the principes and triarii, in the second and third ranks, respectively, had thrusting spears instead. A standard-size legion at full strength would have 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes and 600 triarii.

Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year as senior magistrates, known as consuls, who in time of war would each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones. By this stage of the war, Roman armies were generally larger, typically consisting of four legions, two Roman and two provided by its allies, for a total of approximately 20,000 men. The Roman army which invaded Africa consisted of four legions, each of the Roman pair reinforced to an unprecedented 6,200 infantry and with a more usual 300 cavalry each. Modern historians estimate the invading army to have totalled 25,000–30,000 men, including perhaps 2,500 cavalry. Goldsworthy describes the army as being "superbly trained" when it left Sicily.

Carthaginian

Carthaginian citizens served in their army only if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many were from North Africa and these were frequently referred to as "Libyans". The region provided several types of fighters, including: close-order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat – the latter were usually Numidians.)

The close-order African infantry and the citizen-militia both fought in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx. On occasion some of the infantry would wear captured Roman armour, especially those who served with Hannibal. Both Iberia and Gaul provided experienced but unarmoured infantry who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if combat was protracted. Slingers were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands. The Carthaginians also employed war elephants; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.

Invasion

In 204 BC, probably in June or July, the Roman army left Sicily and disembarked three days later at Cape Farina 20 km north of the large Carthaginian port of Utica. Carthaginian scouting parties were repulsed and the area was pillaged. Masinissa joined the Romans with either 200 or 2,000 men, the sources differ. Masinissa had been recently defeated by his Numidian rival Syphax, who had decided to act in support of Carthage. Wanting a more permanent base and a port more resilient to the bad weather to be expected when winter came, Scipio besieged Utica. Although the Romans were well supplied with siege engines the siege dragged on. A Carthaginian army under the experienced commander Hasdrubal Gisco and a Numidian one under Syphax set up separate fortified camps nearby. The size of both of these armies is uncertain, but it is accepted that the Romans were considerably outnumbered, especially in terms of cavalry. The Romans pulled back from Utica. Both sides were reluctant to commit to a pitched battle.

Fighting in 203 BC

Scipio sent emissaries to Syphax to attempt to persuade him to defect. Syphax in turn offered to broker peace terms. A series of exchanges of negotiating parties followed, during which Scipio obtained information on the layout and construction of the Numidian camp, as well as the size and composition of the Numidian army and the most frequented routes in and out of the camp. As the weather improved Scipio made conspicuous preparations to assault Utica. Instead, he marched his army out late one evening and divided it in two. One part launched a night attack on the Numidian camp, setting fire to their reed barracks. In the ensuing panic and confusion the Numidians were dispersed with heavy casualties. Not realising what was happening, the Carthaginians were also taken by surprise when Scipio attacked them with the remaining Romans. Again the Romans inflicted heavy casualties in the dark. Hasdrubal fled 40 km to Carthage with 2,500 survivors, pursued by Scipio. Syphax escaped with a few cavalry and regrouped 11 km away.

When word of the defeat reached Carthage there was panic, and some wanted to renew the peace negotiations. The Carthaginian Senate also heard demands for Hannibal's army to be recalled. A decision was reached to fight on with locally available resources. A force of 4,000 Iberian warriors arrived in Carthage, and Hasdrubal raised further local troops with whom to reinforce the survivors of Utica; Syphax remained loyal and joined Hasdrubal with what was left of his army. The combined force is estimated at 30,000 and they established a strong camp in an area by the Bagradas River known as the Great Plains within 30–50 days of the defeat at Utica.

Scipio immediately marched most of his army to the scene. The size of his army is not known, but it was outnumbered by the Carthaginians. After several days of skirmishing both armies committed to a pitched battle. Upon being charged by the Romans and Masinissa's Numidians, those Carthaginians who had been involved in the debacle at Utica turned and fled; morale had not recovered. Only the Iberians stood and fought. They were enveloped by the well-drilled Roman legions and wiped out. Hasdrubal fled to Carthage, where he was demoted and exiled.

Syphax withdrew as far as his capital, Cirta, where he recruited more troops to supplement those survivors who had stayed with him. Masinissa's Numidians pursued their fleeing countrymen accompanied by part of the Roman force, under Laelius. The armies met in the battle of Cirta, where Syphax's army initially gained the upper hand. Laelius fed groups of Roman infantry into the battle line and Syphax's troops broke and fled. Syphax was captured and paraded beneath the city walls in chains, which caused Cirta to surrender to Masinissa, who then took over much of Syphax's kingdom and joined it to his own.

Hannibal's return
Scipio and Carthage entered into peace negotiations. Carthage built up its naval strength and prepared the city of Carthage for a siege. The Carthaginian Senate recalled both Hannibal and Mago from Italy. After Scipio overran all of Carthaginian Iberia in 205 BC, Mago had left with those forces still loyal and sailed to Liguria in northern Italy where he recruited Gallic and Ligurian reinforcements. In 203 BC Mago marched into Cisalpine Gaul in an attempt to draw Roman attention away from North Africa, but was defeated at the battle of Insubria. His army retreated and sailed for Carthage from Genua. Mago died of wounds on the voyage and some of his ships were intercepted by the Romans, but 12,000 of his troops reached Carthage.

By 207 BC, after 12 years of campaigning in Italy, Hannibal's forces had been compelled to withdraw to Bruttium, the "toe" of Italy, where they remained undefeated but were ineffective. When recalled the limited number of ships available meant that few horses could be taken and that many newer recruits were left in Italy. Hannibal's army sailed from Croton and landed at Leptis Minor, some 140 km south of Carthage, with 15,000–20,000 experienced veterans. Hannibal was appointed to command the new army and consolidated his forces at Hadrumetum.

Prelude to battle
The Roman Senate ratified a draft treaty, but because of mistrust and a surge in confidence when Hannibal arrived from Italy, Carthage repudiated it. The Romans retaliated by methodically capturing Carthaginian-controlled towns in Carthage's hinterland and selling their inhabitants into slavery, regardless of whether they had surrendered before being attacked or not. Scipio probably anticipated that these attacks would create pressure on the Carthaginians to dispatch an army to face him as soon as possible, rather than wait until it had recruited to maximum strength and was fully trained. Scipio was himself under time pressure, as he was concerned that his political opponents in the Roman Senate might appoint a new consul to replace him. The Carthaginian Senate repeatedly ordered Hannibal to advance from his base at Hadrumetum and deal with Scipio's army, but Hannibal delayed until he had been reinforced by 2,000 Numidian cavalry led by a relative of Syphax – they were reputed to be elite troops.

Hannibal believed, correctly, that the Roman army had not yet been joined by its Numidian auxiliaries under Masinissa and so had the Carthaginian army march inland for five days and camp not far from the town of Zama, just 3 km from the Roman army. This proximity all but guaranteed that a battle would result. While the Carthaginians were en route Masinissa arrived at the Roman camp with 10,000 Numidians. The site of the battle is generally, but not universally, believed to be a flat area to the south of Sicca (modern El Kef), the Draa el Metnan.

Numbers involved

Little is known of the number of men Scipio commanded at Zama. An estimated 25,000–30,000 men had landed in Africa the year before and there is no record of any reinforcements arriving from Italy. However, the strength of the force left to guard their camp and continue the siege of Utica is not known, nor is the level of attrition suffered in the three major battles and several skirmishes the legions had so far been involved in. The ancient sources agree that the Romans were supported by 6,000 Numidian infantry and 4,000 cavalry under Masinissa. The ancient historian Appian, writing 350 years after the event, states that the Numidians brought the total to 34,500 troops, but modern historians do not accept this. They usually give a total of 29,000 or 30,000, although Nigel Bagnall gives 40,000. Of these, slightly more than 6,000 were cavalry.

Appian states that the Carthaginian army at the battle of Zama consisted of 50,000 men; this is discounted by many modern historians, although some accept it with provisos. Most give 40,000, based on Polybius. Of these, all but 4,000 were infantry. Hannibal's army had abandoned its horses in Italy because of a lack of shipping space and Masinissa's defeat of Syphax had dried up the supply of Numidian cavalry; thus, even with the recent addition of 2,000 Numidians the Carthaginians fielded only 4,000 cavalry. Hannibal also deployed 80 war elephants, the first time these are recorded as being used since Scipio invaded. Hannibal delayed seeking battle to give his army time to train up a force of elephants. Such forces had been fielded earlier in the war in both Italy and Iberia. Hannibal had famously taken elephants over the Alps in 218 BC. It is unclear why Carthage was not able to field a force of fully trained war elephants at Zama, or at any time since Scipio invaded.

Initial dispositions

The Roman army formed up with the heavy infantry of its two Roman legions in the centre and with allied legions on each side of them. As usual, the hastati formed the front rank with the principes and then the triarii behind them. Instead of organising each legion's maniples – the basic Roman infantry manoeuvre unit of 120 men each – in the usual "checkerboard" or quincunx formation, Scipio arranged a principes maniple directly behind each maniple of hastati. This left broad avenues through the Roman lines, which were occupied by the Roman light infantry, the velites. Masinissa's 4,000 Numidian cavalry were on the right of the infantry. Laelius led 1,500 Roman and allied cavalry positioned on the left. There were a further 600 Numidian cavalry under Dacamas, but it is not known whether they were attached to Masinissa's or Laelius's force. It is not stated in the ancient sources what role or roles the 6,000 Numidian infantry took up. Modern suggestions include operating in close support of their cavalry, guarding the Roman camp, supplementing the velites as skirmishers or forming up as close-order infantry to one side of the legions.

The Carthaginian deployment reflected the fact that Hannibal's command was made up of the survivors of three different armies. Hannibal had not had time to integrate the forces he had been allocated into a unified command and so felt it wisest to deploy them separately. The Carthaginian infantry, like the Romans', went in the centre. Its first line was made up largely of veterans of Mago's failed expedition to northern Italy. The close-order troops were Iberians, Gauls and Ligurians. In front of these heavy infantry were light-infantry skirmishers consisting of Balearic slingers, Moor archers and Moor and Ligurian javelin-men. The total strength of this component was 12,000 men. In front of these infantry were the 80 war elephants, evenly spaced along the line, approximately 30 m apart. The modern historian José Lago states that the Carthaginian light infantry were sent out in front of the whole Carthaginian army, as was usual, including in front of the elephants, for the several hours it took the army to form up.

Carthaginians and other Africans made up the second line. They were either survivors of the earlier campaigns whose morale was poor or freshly raised recruits who had received little training. They probably fought as close-order infantry; Polybius describes them as adopting phalanx formations, but there is modern debate as to just what this describes. The strength of the second line is not known, but it is sometimes assumed by modern historians to have consisted of a further 12,000 men. About 200 m behind the Carthaginian second line were the infantry Hannibal had brought back from Italy. Most of them were Bruttians, but they included some Africans and Iberians who had left Iberia with Hannibal more than 17 years before, and Gauls recruited in northern Italy in 218 and 217 BC. All were battle-hardened veterans. This third line is variously estimated at 12,000, 15,000–20,000 or 20,000 men by modern historians. The Carthaginians are believed to have fielded approximately 4,000 cavalry. Hannibal placed the Numidians among them on his left flank, facing Masinissa's Numidians; and the other African cavalry on the right. How many of the total of 4,000 cavalry were in each of these contingents is not known, although Lazenby suggests that the Numidians on the left would have been the stronger.

Initial charges

The armies advanced towards each other, the first clashes occurring on the Carthaginian left flank, the Roman right, between the 2,000 or more Carthaginian-supporting Numidian cavalry and the 4,000 – or possibly 4,600 – siding with the Romans. Each force sent detachments to hurl javelins at the other and then withdraw. Lazenby describes these skirmishes as "desultory". Hannibal then ordered a charge against the Roman infantry by his 80 elephants, with the whole of his first two lines moving forward in support. The modern historian Jacob Edwards, in a study of Hannibal's use of elephants during the war, describes their deployment at Zama as "an ill-advised practice which departed from the successful tactics used previously". He suggests that they would have been better employed against the superior Roman cavalry on the flanks, rather than directly charging the Roman infantry. It is possible that Hannibal believed the elephants would have brought an element of surprise, as their previous use in the war had been limited. Most modern accounts have the elephants in front of the Carthaginian infantry, but Lago has the Carthaginian light infantry in front of the whole Carthaginian army, skirmishing with their opposite numbers, as was usual before armies were formed up and ready to commence the battle proper. Lago states that they stayed in front of and between the elephants, protecting them from the javelins of the Roman velites, until the elephants charged.

As the elephants advanced, the velites moved forward into the gap between the armies, hurled javelins at the elephants and fell back. The Roman heavy infantry then sounded their bugles, and possibly rhythmically banged their weapons against their shields – swashbuckling. This startled some of the elephants and several of those on the left turned and fled, past the end of the line of infantry behind them. Edwards expresses amazement that war elephants should be so easily panicked and again suggests that at least some of the animals were "young and inexperienced at battle" making them "a liability rather than an asset". These out-of-control elephants trampled their way through the Carthaginian-backing Numidian cavalry, thoroughly disordering them. Masinissa took advantage of the situation by ordering a charge. This routed the disordered cavalry and they fled, pursued by Masinissa's force.

Most of the rest of the elephants charged into the Roman infantry, amid showers of javelins. Terrified by the swashbuckling infantry and their bugles the majority stampeded into the broad gaps the Romans had left between their maniples. Many of the velites were killed as they ran back in front of the elephants and into the gaps between the ranks of the heavy infantry. From there they hurled javelins into the elephants' flanks. Those elephants which emerged into the rear of the Roman army were all wounded and now cut off. They were subsequently hunted down and killed. Some elephants did charge into the hastati as planned, where they caused heavy casualties before being driven off. This causes Mir Bahmanyar to suggest that the elephants accomplished what Hannibal expected of them. Some elephants baulked at charging the hastati on the Roman left and attacked the cavalry alongside them, who also showered the elephants with javelins. Most of these elephants were badly wounded and had lost their crews by this point; those which could fled, avoiding the line of Carthaginian infantry, but not the Carthaginian cavalry on the right flank. This cavalry force became disorganised by the out-of-control elephants and like Masinissa, Laelius ordered his cavalry to take advantage of this and charge. The Carthaginian cavalry were swept from the field and the Roman cavalry closely pursued them.

Infantry engagement
With the battlefield cleared of both elephants and cavalry all three ranks of the Roman heavy infantry and the first two of Carthaginian advanced towards each other. The Carthaginian third rank, Hannibal's Italian veterans, remained in place. The two front ranks charged enthusiastically and violently into each other and commenced a hard-fought, close-quarter, hand-to-hand combat. The Romans' superior weaponry and organisation eventually told and despite the hastati taking further heavy losses, the Carthaginian front rank broke and fled. They attempted to make their way through the Carthaginian second rank, but these men refused to let them pass; according to Polybius to the point of fighting them off. The survivors of the front rank were forced to make their escape around the flanks of the second rank. Many of these then rallied and rejoined the fight by extending the flanks of the Carthaginian second rank.

The hastati, despite having taken casualties from the elephants and the Carthaginian first rank, now attacked the Carthaginian second rank. Polybius reports that the Carthaginian and other African spearmen who made up this force fought "fanatically and in an extraordinary manner". The Romans were pushed back in disorder. Bahmanyar opines that the Roman front rank came close to being broken at this stage. The Romans were forced to commit their second line, the principes, to the fight. Liddell Hart writes that even the principes struggled to hold the line, but eventually this reinforcement was sufficient to break the Carthaginian second line; they fled, pursued impetuously by the hastati.

Both Bahmanyar and Goldsworthy suggest this was an opportunity for the Carthaginian third line to counter-attack the disorganised hastati, but that Hannibal decided against it because his third line was some distance back, the fleeing Carthaginians from the first two lines were inadvertently blocking a clean charge and because the ground over which the third line would have attacked was strewn with corpses. According to Polybius the gap between the fighting lines "was now covered with blood, slaughter, and dead bodies ... slippery corpses which were still soaked in blood and had fallen in heaps". Bagnall suggests the withdrawal of the Carthaginian second line was more deliberate and orderly than the ancient sources portray. Taylor believes that Hannibal had hoped that the Romans would rush forward in pursuit at this stage and that he had prepared an infantry envelopment in anticipation of this; in the event Scipio saw the potential trap and his troops were disciplined enough to break off their pursuit when recalled.

Decision
The Romans recalled the pursuing hastati by sounding bugles and reformed their line. The Carthaginian third line – Hannibal's veterans supplemented by some of the survivors of the first and second lines – was longer than the Roman formation and outflanked it on both sides. The hastati formed up in the centre and the principes and triarii moved to each side to make a single, longer line. There was a prolonged pause while this was taking place. The Carthaginians took advantage of the hiatus to rally some of their first and second line troops, using them to extend the length of their own fighting line. This enabled Roman close-order infantry to match the length of the Carthaginian's third line, but correspondingly thinned their line, preventing them from using their habitual tactic of feeding new, less-fatigued men into the fighting line as a combat wore on. The surviving heavy infantry of each side were roughly equal in numbers. Most of the original Carthaginian were equipped in the same manner as the Romans they faced. They were veterans of many years' experience and they were fresh, having not yet fought. Many of the Romans were veterans, some having fought at Cannae and almost all having taken part in the two, or for some three, major victories the previous year. Many of the Romans were tired from the two immediately preceding fierce combats, but their victories in both would have boosted their morale.

Having satisfactorily reorganised, the two lines charged each other, according to Polybius "with the greatest fire and fury". The fight continued for some time, neither side gaining the advantage. Lazenby describes this fighting as "a grim business". The cavalry commanded by Masinissa and Laelius then returned to the battlefield, apparently at more or less the same time. Philip Sabin states that they arrived "in the nick of time". Being fiercely engaged to their front, the Carthaginian infantry were helpless to prevent the Roman cavalry from charging into their rear. Their line collapsed and there was a great massacre. Hannibal was one of the few Carthaginians to escape.

Casualties
Polybius states that 20,000 Carthaginians were killed and as many again taken prisoner, which accounts for the entire Carthaginian army. He gives Roman losses as 1,500 killed. This is five per cent or more of their total force; Goldsworthy considers this fatality rate "a substantial loss for a victorious army, testimony to the hard fighting" and that the battle as a whole was "a slogging match". The number of wounded is not known, although the ancient sources refer to many Roman wounded being carried to the rear during the pause before the final engagement. At least 11 Carthaginian elephants survived the battle to be captured by the Romans.

Hannibal and his companions reached the main Carthaginian base at Hadrumetum, where they mustered 6,000 infantry and 500 cavalry. Hannibal considered this too few with which to continue the war and advised the Carthaginian Senate to make peace on whatever terms they could.

Aftermath
The Romans looted the Carthaginian camp and then Scipio marched his legions back to Tunis. The Carthaginians again sued for peace. Given the difficulty of ending the war by storming or starving the city of Carthage, and his continuing fear that he might be superseded in command, Scipio entered into negotiations. During these Scipio received word that a Numidian army under Syphax's son Vermina was marching to Carthage's assistance. This was intercepted and surrounded by a Roman force largely made up of cavalry and defeated. The number of Numidians involved is not known, but Livy records that more than 16,000 were killed or captured. This was the last battle of the Second Punic War.

The peace treaty the Romans subsequently imposed on the Carthaginians stripped them of their overseas territories and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents was to be paid over 50 years, hostages were taken, Carthage was forbidden to possess war elephants and its fleet was restricted to 10 warships. It was prohibited from waging war outside Africa and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201BC. Henceforth it was clear Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome. Scipio was awarded a triumph and received the agnomen "Africanus".

Third Punic War
Masinissa exploited the prohibition on Carthage waging war to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. Carthage appealed to Rome, which always backed its Numidian ally. In 149 BC, fifty years after the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage sent an army, under Hasdrubal the Boetharch, against Masinissa, the treaty notwithstanding. The campaign ended in disaster at the battle of Oroscopa and anti-Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition. The Third Punic War began later in 149 BC when a large Roman army landed in North Africa and besieged Carthage. In the spring of 146 BC the Romans launched their final assault, systematically destroying the city and killing its inhabitants; 50,000 survivors were sold into slavery. The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its capital.

title: Battle of Zama


text:
Inferno

Inferno may refer to:
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Film

 * L'Inferno, a 1911 Italian film
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Literature

 * Inferno (Dante), the first part of Dante's Divine Comedy
 * Inferno (Strindberg novel), an 1897 novel by August Strindberg
 * Inferno (Barbusse novel) (or Hell), a 1908 novel by Henri Barbusse
 * Inferno, a concept of infernality of Nature in The Bull's Hour, a 1968 novel by Ivan Yefremov
 * The Inferno, a 1973 novel by Fred Hoyle and Geoffrey Hoyle
 * Inferno (Niven and Pournelle novel), a 1976 novel by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle
 * Isaac Asimov's Inferno, a 1994 novel by Roger MacBride Allen
 * Inferno, a 2006 novel in the Bionicle Legends series, by Greg Farshtey
 * Inferno (Star Wars novel), a 2007 novel by Troy Denning
 * Inferno (anthology), a 2007 anthology edited by Ellen Datlow
 * Inferno (a poet's novel), a 2010 novel by Eileen Myles
 * Inferno (Brown novel), a 2013 mystery thriller novel by Dan Brown
 * "The Inferno", the second chapter of the 2022–2023 graphic novel Gert's Inferno by Skottie Young

Music

 * Infernö, a Norwegian thrash metal band
 * Inferno Metal Festival, annual music festival in Oslo, Norway
 * Zbigniew Robert Promiński or Inferno (born 1978), drummer with the band Behemoth
 * Inferno, guitarist with Cirith Gorgor

Albums

 * Inferno (Marty Friedman album), 2014
 * Inferno (Petra Marklund album), 2012
 * Inferno (Motörhead album), 2004
 * Inferno (Entombed album), 2003
 * Inferno, by Biréli Lagrène, 1988
 * Inferno (Metamorfosi album), 1973
 * Inferno: Last in Live, a 1998 album by Dio
 * Inferno (soundtrack), a soundtrack album by Keith Emerson, from the 1980 film (see below)
 * Inferno (Tangerine Dream album)
 * Inferno, an album by Alien Sex Fiend which is the soundtrack for the video game Inferno
 * Inferno, an album by Project Pitchfork

Songs

 * "Inferno" (song), a song by Bella Poarch and Sub Urban
 * "Inferno", a song by Amaranthe from Helix
 * "The Inferno", a song by Dir En Grey from Arche
 * "Inferno", a song by Extol from Undeceived
 * "Inferno", a song by Kreator from Voices of Transgression – A 90s Retrospective
 * "Inferno (Unleash the Fire)", a song by Symphony X from The Odyssey
 * "Inferno", a song by Lordi
 * "Inferno", the opening to first arc of Fire Force

Television

 * "Inferno", fourth episode of the 1965 Doctor Who serial The Romans
 * Inferno (Doctor Who), a 1970 serial from the British science fiction series
 * "Inferno" (Stargate Atlantis), an episode in the science fiction series
 * "Inferno" (Captain Scarlet), an episode of Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons
 * Series titles of reality game shows on MTV:
 * Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno (2004)
 * Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno II (2005)
 * Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno 3 (2007)
 * Inferno, a female gladiator in Gladiators
 * Team Inferno, Disney Channel Games Red Team

Comics

 * Inferno (DC Comics), a character in Legion of Super-Heroes
 * Inferno (Frank Verrano), a Mighty Crusaders character
 * Inferno (Exemplar), a character in the Marvel Comics team Exemplars
 * Inferno (Marvel Comics), a crossover involving the X-Men
 * Inferno!, a Warhammer anthology magazine mixing text and comic stories
 * Inferno, a title from Caliber Comics
 * Armageddon: Inferno, a DC Comics storyline connected with Armageddon 2001
 * Judge Dredd: Inferno, a story line featuring Judge Grice
 * Inferno, an alternate version of Legion of Super-Heroes member Sun Boy
 * Inferno (Dante Pertuz), a Marvel Comics character

Gaming

 * Inferno (Counter-Strike), a multiplayer map in the Counter-Strike series of video games
 * Inferno (Judges Guild), a 1980 adventure for fantasy role-playing games, a 'paper and pencil' game
 * Inferno, an episode in the video game Doom
 * Inferno (video game), a 1994 space flight simulation game by Digital Image Design
 * Inferno (Soulcalibur), a boss character in Soulcalibur
 * Alone in the Dark: Inferno, an updated version of the video game Alone in the Dark
 * Little Inferno, a 2012 puzzle game

Sports teams

 * Brampton Inferno, a Canadian Lacrosse League team
 * Columbia Inferno, an ECHL hockey team based in Columbia, South Carolina
 * Indianapolis Inferno, a Great Lakes Junior Hockey League team
 * Lancaster Inferno (NPSL), a defunct National Premier Soccer League team (2008)
 * Lancaster Inferno (UWS), a Women's Premier Soccer League team
 * Phoenix Inferno, a defunct Major Indoor Soccer League team (1980–1983)
 * Tampa Bay Inferno, a Women's Football Alliance team
 * The teams of Alverno College, a Roman Catholic college in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 * West Carleton Inferno a National Capital Junior Hockey League team

Other uses
Inferno, a villain character in the film Scooby-Doo! and WWE: Curse of the Speed Demon
 * Pedro de Ataíde Inferno, Captain-major of Portuguese Ceylon from 1564 to 1565
 * Operation Inferno, a 1968 Israeli Defense Forces raid that escalated into the Battle of Karameh
 * Inferno (G.I. Joe), a fictional character in the G.I. Joe universe
 * Inferno (wrestler), ring name of wrestler Jemma Palmer
 * Inferno Peak, Antarctica
 * Inferno Ridge, Antarctica
 * Inferno (horse), a Canadian Thoroughbred racehorse
 * Inferno (operating system), a distributed operating system started at Bell Labs
 * Inferno (software), a visual effects software system
 * Kyosho Inferno, a radio-controlled car produced by Kyosho

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Inferno


text:
Callisthenes

Callisthenes of Olynthus (/kəˈlɪsθəˌniːz/; Greek: Καλλισθένης; c. 360 – c.  327 BCE)  was a Greek historian in Macedon with connections to both Aristotle and Alexander the Great. He accompanied Alexander the Great during his Asiatic expedition and served as his historian and publicist. He later opposed Alexander’s adoption of Persian culture and was arrested after being implicated in a plot on the king's life; he died in prison. During his life, he authored several works on Greek history and a biography of Alexander the Great.

Early life
Callisthenes was born in Olynthus sometime during 360 BCE. Little is known of his early childhood except that his mother Hero was the niece of Aristotle, and daughter of Proxenus of Atarneus and Arimneste; which made Callisthenes the great-nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste, Callisthenes's grandmother. It is also known that Callisthenes was in the care of Aristotle by 347 BCE and studied under him as his student. Callisthenes spent much of his early life writing and traveling with Aristotle. His first literary work was an encomium to Hermias of Atarneus, but by 334 BC, he had written a few works including a series on Greek history and antiquarian writings, such as a registry of competitors for the Pythian Games for which Aristotle and Callisthenes are thanked. Based on the fact that a reference by Diodorus Siculus mentions Callisthenes’ historical accounts of Greek history, it can be assumed that Callisthenes was a historian of some repute before he began working with Alexander the Great. Callisthenes first met Alexander the Great, when Alexander began being tutored by Aristotle around the age of thirteen. Aristotle had been tasked by Philip II of Macedon to tutor the young Alexander in Mytilene. While both studying under Aristotle, Callisthenes and Alexander would have come to know each other as fellow students and pupils of Aristotle.

Campaign with Alexander the Great
Around 334 BCE, Callisthenes was invited to accompany Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. There were many factors as to why Callisthenes chose to accompany Alexander. First, being that he had already established a relationship with Alexander during their time as students of Aristotle and as a historian and antiquarian might have appreciated a chance at traveling. Another potential reason is that Callisthenes’ birthplace of Olynthus was destroyed by Phillip II of Macedon, and such might have been looking to better himself in the eyes of Alexander and thus Phillip II’s court, in order to aid in its reconstruction. During this expedition, Callisthenes was tasked with being the official historian for the campaign. While he occupied this role, he compiled his narrative on the events that transpired during the campaign. Much of the work is dedicated to praising Alexander and upholding his authority as the king and his army penetrated further into Asia. While much of his time during the campaign was spent working on his account of the expedition. But, Callisthenes was also sent on scientific expeditions, to places such as Kush or Babylon. Callisthenes had an affinity for the natural sciences and is known to have written several scientific works, including astronomical diaries and his own theories for the source of the Nile River. Although these theories later received pushback from Alexander the Great.

Opposition to Alexander the Great
The dramatic conflict between Alexander the Great and Callisthenes was a result of years of tensions between many of Alexander’s court members, including Callisthenes that came to a head. Throughout Alexander’s campaign, he acquired an interest in taking on Persian customs and aristocrats. By 328 BCE, Alexander had allowed a handful of Persian aristocrats to join his entourage, a choice that deeply upset the Macedonians who were close to Alexander. That same year a confrontation occurred between Alexander and Cleitus the Black an officer in Alexander’s army. During a banquet Cleitus expressed his displeasure at the current state of Alexander’s contingent. An argument broke out between the two, ending in a physical confrontation and Cleitus’ demise at Alexander’s hand. After this conflict Alexander was distraught and brought on his trusted friends, one of which being Callisthenes to provide counsel to the king after he killed Cleitus.

By the next year Alexander’s fascination with Persian culture had only grown and in 327 BCE, he attempted to introduce the Persian servile ceremony of proskynesis. Callisthenes was sharply critical of Alexander’s new Persian practices. During a banquet held shortly before Alexander’s expedition left for India, Callisthenes gave a speech arguing against the adoption of proskynesis. Callisthenes argued that Alexander was not entitled to receive divine honors, such as the proskynesis from his followers. Alexander witnessed this speech and knowing Callisthenes was correct chose not to continue with the practice.

Another account by Plutarch claims that during this banquet Alexander offers a cup to a colleague who performs the proskynesis ceremony, kisses Alexander, and then drinks from the cup. While all of the other members of the court performed the ceremony Callisthenes blatantly refused to act out the proskynesis. This direct opposition to Alexander won Callisthenes favor by the Macedonians but severely destroyed the relationship between Callisthenes and Alexander. Callisthenes eventually left the king’s court as he had lost favor with Alexander. After Callisthenes fall from grace, he became increasingly politically isolated from the remaining members of Alexander’s court. Alexander continued to introduce more Persian recruits, further displeasing the remaining Macedonians in his court.

Death
During an incident during a royal boar hunt in which Hermolaus of Macedon, one of Alexander’s royal pages and Callisthenes former pupil; Hermolaus broke royal protocol and assisted Alexander in killing the boar. For this Hermolaus was publicly humiliated by flogging as well as the removing of his horse. This led Hermolaus and several other royal pages to create a conspiracy to assassinate Alexander. Yet, the conspiracy was discovered, and the young nobles faced arrest, torture and interrogation.

While under torture, Hermolaus implicated Callisthenes as a part of the plot against Alexander. Because of Callisthenes’ previous opposition to Alexander, as well as his previous role as Hermolaus’s instructor; Alexander found Callisthenes guilty of treason and ordered his subsequent arrest. Callisthenes was subsequently thrown into prison where he died seven months later. There are several different accounts of how he died or was executed. Crucifixion is the method suggested by Ptolemy, but Chares of Mytilene and Aristobulus of Cassandreia both claim that Callisthenes died of natural causes while in prison.

Callisthenes's death was commemorated in a special treatise (Callisthenes or a Treatise on Grief) by his friend Theophrastus, whose acquaintance he made during a visit to Athens. In this eulogy Theophrastus condemns Alexander for the torture and execution of Callisthenes. He also references the acts of mourning and grief enacted by those who were close to Callisthenes and advises the bereaved on how to cope with the loss. Theophrastus also upholds Callisthenes as a figure of traditional piety and civic freedom.

Writings
Callisthenes most well-known work was an account of Alexander's expedition up to the time of Callisthenes’ own execution. Deeds of Alexander or Praxeis Alexandrou (330 BCE) was biographical-style series of works detailing the campaign of Alexander the Great. Although copies of the work do not survive today, some knowledge of it can be inferred from references by other authors. The book was intended as propaganda and glorified Alexander the Great’s military achievements and claims to divinity as the son of Zeus. According to Polybius, much of Callisthenes military accounts were over-glorified to the point of impossibility. Polybius claims that Callisthenes’ descriptions of Alexander’s military are impossible and would not fit in the locations, such as the country outside of Cilicia, that Callisthenes describes. It contained many references to Homer’s Iliad and also described locations in the Iliad that Alexander had visited. It applauded Alexander as a standard for Greek masculinity; and condemned the Persians as weak and effeminate. It is said to have been used as justification for the Panhellenic crusade and as a means of recruiting potential supporters for Alexander’s crusade.

In addition to his work on Alexander the Great, he also authored another major work, a 10 book long historical anthology of Greece. Hellenica covered the periods from the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BCE) to the start of the Phocian war (357 BCE). His other works include; the list of winners from the Pythian games that he co-authored with Aristotle, writings on astronomy including a description of the Great Comet of 371 BC, a work covering the first Sacred war of 600 BCE titled On the Sacred War, a tribute Hermias to Atarneaus and Assos who were killed by Persians, a book on witty sayings, a Diakosmos Battle Order which covers ships in Homers Iliad, and a Periplus covering the Black Sea.

Pseudo-Callisthenes
Additionally, many works have been ascribed to Callisthenes mistakenly, resulting in their authorship commonly known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. One of the more well-known examples is the Alexander Romance, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the Middle Ages. It originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form belongs to the 3rd century CE. The Latin translation for the text is usually attributed to Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (early 4th century). The work has also been said to be authored by several other people beyond Callisthenes, including; Aesopus, Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus, and Arrian. There are also Syrian, Armenian, and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the Middle Ages (see Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur, 1897, p. 849). Valerius's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, archpriest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called Historia de Preliis.

In addition to the Alexander Romance, Pseudo-Callisthenes is also credited with several other works. Including; a work titled Metamorphoses, a work on Macedonian history, a History of Thrace, and treatise on the subject of hunting. There has also been a collection of letters, written in Greek originally attributed to Callisthenes, yet later disputed as the dates of the letters range far beyond the time period that Callisthenes was alive. Many of these were originally attributed to Callisthenes due to their assumed time period aligning with Callisthenes’s active years as an author, as well as their subject matter being on topics Callisthenes was known to have written about. As of now, there are no intact copies of Callisthenes’s works known to have survived.

title: Callisthenes


text:
Talk:Callisthenes

Untitled
The Greek characters as they appear in this article are illegible to me running mozilla on linux, but I have no trouble reading ΑΒΓΔ, etc., with mozilla (although netscape can't handle them). -- Mike Hardy

They don't look right to me, either, using IE 6. -- Zoe

They look definitely wrong. But I don't know greek enough to tell what they should be. FvdP

They are scanos: an OCR program's attempts to try to recognise squiggles in the Greek alphabet as squiggles and punctuation in the Latin alphabet. There are lots of these in the 1911 entries. The Anome

Are there OCR programs that are literate in Greek? -- Mike Hardy

Yes there are OCR programs with Greek language support. I think most of them have greek support but perhaps it should be specified within the installation program.

Can anyone explain to me what great nephew means?MATIA 09:21, 12 July 2005 (UTC)
 * A great nephew is the son of your nephew. Krateros1 09:38, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Does this link to the correct Ptolemy? -- Dan James — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.25.44.170 (talk) 22:46, 24 April 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Callisthenes


text:
Flare (novel)

Flare is a science fiction novel by American writers Roger Zelazny and Thomas Thurston Thomas, published in 1992.

Flare describes the world as it may be in 2081, and the effects a future inter-planetary civilization would suffer if a solar flare occurred after almost 100 years without any solar activity.

The book takes a scientific approach to the idea, including almost no tangible story line. It is broken into short segments which describe different people in various places suffering from the effects of the solar flare.

title: Flare (novel)


text:
Talk:1937 in music

Untitled
Has anyone ever realized that there were no "albums" in the 1930s? KF 23:05 Jan 2, 2003 (UTC)

Red links
This page has a lot of broken links. Anyone willing to spend some time cleaning them up? Thanks in advance if you do.--CheMechanical 03:35, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

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4 Biggest hit songs uses RYM as criteria
RYM (Rate Your Music) is a good user-generated website, but their present-day survey has no place here. I will fix when I get to it. many of our pages have this. Tillywilly17 (talk) 07:41, 24 March 2022 (UTC)

Top blues records

 * "Cross Road Blues" – Robert Johnson
 * "Don't Tear My Clothes" – Big Bill Broonzy
 * "Horny Frog" – Big Bill Broonzy
 * "Terraplane Blues" – Robert Johnson
 * "32-20 Blues" – Robert Johnson
 * "Come On In My Kitchen" – Robert Johnson
 * "Good Morning School Girl" – Sonny Boy Williamson

List_of_1930s_jazz_standards

6	1937	My Funny Valentine 64	1937	The Nearness of You 80	1937	Easy Living 86	1937	They Can't Take That Away from Me 88	1937	A Foggy Day 143	1937	Gone with the Wind 158	1937	Nice Work If You Can Get It 201	1937	Love Walked In 208	1937	Where or When 209	1937	In the Still of the Night 222	1937	Have You Met Miss Jones 240	1937	Someday My Prince Will Come 244	1937	That Old Feeling 262	1937	Once in a While 274	1937	September in the Rain 296	1937	All God's Chillun Got Rhythm

"Easy Living",[4][136] a ballad composed by Ralph Rainger with lyrics by Leo Robin, was written for the film Easy Living and included on the soundtrack of the 1940 film Remember the Night.[137] It is most closely associated with Billie Holiday, who recorded it with Teddy Wilson's Orchestra in 1937.[138]

"A Foggy Day"[10] was written by George and Ira Gershwin for the musical film A Damsel in Distress. It was introduced in the film by Fred Astaire, whose recording rose to number three on the charts. Bob Crosby's orchestra charted with the song in 1938.[139] The song is associated with London and begins with the chimes of the Big Ben.[140] It is also called "A Foggy Day in London Town".[139]

"Have You Met Miss Jones?"[4][10][141] is a ballad from the Broadway comedy I'd Rather Be Right, introduced on stage by Joy Hodges and Austin Marshall.[142] The song was composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Lorenz Hart. Its bridge may have served as an inspiration to John Coltrane's 1959 composition "Giant Steps".[143] Female singers often sing it as "Have You Met Sir Jones?".[142]

"My Funny Valentine"[4][10][144] is Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart's show tune from the Broadway musical Babes in Arms. It was introduced on stage by Mitzi Green. Hal McIntyre and His Orchestra was the first to chart with the song in 1945.[145] Frank Sinatra recorded a hit version in 1955, and later the song became readily associated with his live performances. Other influential versions were recorded by Chet Baker (on My Funny Valentine, 1954) and Miles Davis (on Cookin', 1956).[145]

"Nice Work If You Can Get It[4] was written by George and Ira Gershwin for the musical film A Damsel in Distress. It was introduced in the film by Fred Astaire and has been recorded many times by jazz singers and pianists.[146]

"Once in a While"[10][147] is a composition by Michael Edwards with lyrics by Bud Green. It became a hit for Tommy Dorsey and His Orchestra, whose recording stayed at the top of the charts for 14 weeks. It was later taken to the charts by Horace Heidt in 1937, Louis Armstrong in 1938, Patti Page in 1952 and doo-wop group The Chimes in 1961.[148] Rahsaan Roland Kirk is credited with reviving interest in the song among jazz musicians with his 1965 recording, which mixed the original with Middle Eastern harmony.[148][149]

"One O'Clock Jump" is an instrumental twelve-bar blues composition by Count Basie. Used as the signature piece of Basie's band, it is strongly associated with the swing era and remains one of the best-known compositions of the period.[150] Saxophonist Buster Smith wrote a part of the composition, but was denied co-credit by Basie.[151][152] "One O'Clock Jump" was taken to the charts by Harry James in 1938 and by the Metronome All-Stars in 1941. Benny Goodman gave an influential performance of it in his 1938 Carnegie Hall concert.[153]

"Some Day My Prince Will Come"[4][44][154] was written by composer Frank Churchill and lyricist Larry Morey for Walt Disney's animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The first jazz recordings were by Donald Byrd and The Dave Brubeck Quartet in 1957. Bill Evans has recorded the song several times. Miles Davis's rendition on the album Someday My Prince Will Come (1961) is notable for John Coltrane's memorable solo.[155]

"They Can't Take That Away from Me"[10] is a song from the musical film Shall We Dance, composed by George Gershwin with lyrics by Ira Gershwin. It was introduced by Fred Astaire, whose recording with the Johnny Green Orchestra stayed at number one for ten weeks. A famous version was recorded by Charlie Parker in 1950 and released on Charlie Parker with Strings.[156]

RACE 1937 1937_013		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Carelessly	1	3	12	Brunswick 7867	Charles Kenny, Nick Kenny, Norman Ellis	1937/03/31	1937/04/15	1937/04/24

1937_021		Fats Waller and his Rhythm	(You Know it All) Smarty	1	2	8	Victor 25608	Ralph Freed, Burton Lane	1937/06/11	1937/06/30

1937_023		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	You Can't Stop Me from Dreaming	1	2	7	Brunswick 7954	Cliff Friend, Dave Franklin	1937/08/29	1937/09/15	1937/10/02

1937_033		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	Remember Me? 2	3	10	Brunswick 7940				1937/09/11

1937_036		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	There's a Lull in My Life	2	2	10	Brunswick 7884				1937/05/22

1937_054		Fats Waller	I'm Sorry I Made You Cry	3	1	6

1937_055		Fats Waller	Spring Cleaning	3	1	6

1937_056		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Pennies from Heaven	3	1	6	Brunswick 7789				1937/01/02

1937_060		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	Caravan	4	1	18	Master 131	Duke Ellington, Irving Mills, Juan Tizol	1937/05/14	1937/06/18	1937/07/03

1937_063		Billie Holiday	I've Got My Love To Keep Me Warm	4	1	10	Vocalion 3431

1937_071		Fats Waller (with Tommy Dorsey & Bunny Berigan & Dick McDonough)	Honeysuckle Rose	4	1	4	Victor 25559				1937/04/24

1937_072		Fats Waller	You're Laughing at Me	4	1	4

1937_100		Fats Waller	Please Keep Me in Your Dreams	6	1	5

1937_106		Lionel Hampton and His Orchestra	After You've Gone	6	1	3

1937_107		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	Ain't Misbehavin'	6	1	3	Brunswick 7964

1937_116		Fats Waller	Our Love was Meant to Be	7	1	4

1937_118		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Mean to Me	7	1	4	Brunswick 7903

1937_119		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	Where the Lazy River Goes by	7	1	4	Brunswick 7797

1937_139		Fats Waller	A Thousand Dreams of You	8	1	4

1937_142		Fats Waller	Who's Afraid of Love	8	1	3

1937_143		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	The Mood That I'm In	8	1	3	Brunswick 7844				1937/04/03

1937_144		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	This Year's Kisses	8	1	3	Brunswick 7824				1937/02/27

1937_149		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	Scattin' at the Kit Kat	9	1	5	Master 123	Duke Ellington-Irving Mills	1937/03/05		1937/06/05

1937_159		Fats Waller	T'aint Good (Like a Nickel Made of Wood)	9	1	3					1936/12/26

1937_164		Billie Holiday	Getting Some Fun Out of Life	10	1	5	Vocalion 3701

1937_174		Billie Holiday	A Sailboat in the Moonlight	10	1	3	Vocalion 3605

1937_176		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	(This Is) My Last Affair	10	1	3	Brunswick 7840

1937_177		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	I'm Coming, Virginia	10	1	3	Brunswick 7893

1937_190		Billie Holiday	Me, Myself, and I	11	1	3	Vocalion 3593

1937_200		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Moanin' Low	11	1	2	Brunswick 7877				1937/05/22 . 1937_202		Ella Fitzgerald (Chick Webb Orchestra)	If You Ever Should Leave	12	1	4

1937_204		Billie Holiday	They Can't Take That Away from Me	12	1	4	Vocalion 3520

1937_207		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	How Could You? 12	1	3	Brunswick 7867				1937/05/01

1937_209		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	There's a Lull in My Life	12	1	2	Master 117	Harry Revel, Mack Gordon	1937/04/09		1937/05/22

1937_218		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	Azure	13	1	4	Master 131	Duke Ellington	1937/05/14	1937/06/18	1937/08/21

1937_223		Billie Holiday	Please Keep Me in Your Dreams	13	1	3	Vocalion 3440

1937_237		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	All God's Chillun Get Rhythm	14	1	2	Master 137	Bronislaw Kaper,Gus Kahn, Walter Jurmann	1937/06/08		1937/07/31

1937_239		Lionel Hampton and His Orchestra	Confessin' (That I Love You)	14	1	2

1937_247		Count Basie and His Orchestra	One O'Clock Jump	15	1	3

1937_266		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Easy Living	15	1	2	Brunswick 7911

1937_269		Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra	The New East St. Louis Toodle-oo	16	1	2	Master 101	Duke Ellington-Bubber Miley	1937/03/05	1937/04/01	1937/05/01

1937_277		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Yours and Mine	16	1	2	Brunswick 7917

1937_280		Lionel Hampton and His Orchestra	China Stomp	16	1	1

1937_284		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	You're My Desire	16	1	1	Brunswick 7940

1937_308		Fats Waller	The Joint is Jumpin'	17	1	1

1937_309		Fats Waller	To a Sweet and Pretty Thing	17	1	1

1937_310		Fats Waller	When Love is Young	17	1	1

1937_313		Billie Holiday	Trav'lin' All Alone	18	1	2	Vocalion 3748

1937_316		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	Tea for Two	18	1	2	Brunswick 7816

1937_330		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra	It's Swell of You	18	1	1	Brunswick 7884

1937_342		Ella Fitzgerald & Mills Brothers	Dedicated to You	19	1	1

1937_354		Fats Waller	You Showed Me the Way	19	1	1

1937_355		Fats Waller	You're My Dish	19	1	1

1937_366		Ella Fitzgerald (Chick Webb Orchestra)	All Over Nothing at All	20	1	1

1937_367		Ella Fitzgerald & Mills Brothers	Big Boy Blue	20	1	1

1937_371		Lionel Hampton and His Orchestra	The Mood that I'm In	20	1	1

1937_379		Fats Waller	Where is the Sun? 20	1	1

1937_380		Teddy Wilson and His Orchestra v_Billie Holiday	Nice Work if You Can Get It	20	1	1	Brunswick 8015

1937_c015		Robert Johnson	Cross Road Blues				Vocalion 03519		1936/11/27	1937/04/20

1937_c024		Robert Johnson	Sweet Home Chicago				Vocalion 03601		1936/11/23	1937/07/24

1937_c026		Robert Johnson	Hellhound on My Trail				Vocalion 03623		1937/06/20	1937/08/01

1937_c034		Robert Johnson	Terraplane Blues				Vocalion 03416	Robert Johnson	1936/11/23	1937/01/14

1937_c038		Robert Johnson	Come On in My Kitchen				Vocalion 03563		1936/11/23	1937/06/01

1937_c043		Robert Johnson	Stones in My Passway				Vocalion 03723		1937/06/19	1937/11/15

1937_c053		Robert Johnson	32 20 Blues				Vocalion 03445	Robert Johnson	1936/11/26	1937/02/10

1937_c057		Robert Johnson	I Believe I'll Dust My Broom				Vocalion 03475	Robert Johnson	1936/11/23	1937/03/10

1937_c063		Robert Johnson	Ramblin' on My Mind				Vocalion 03519	Robert Johnson	1936/11/23	1937/03/10

1937_c065		Robert Johnson	Malted Milk Blues				Vocalion 03665		1937/06/19	1937/09/08

1937_c066		Robert Johnson	Kind Hearted Woman Blues				Vocalion 03416	Robert Johnson	1936/11/23	1937/01/14

1937_c067		Robert Johnson	Walkin' Blues				Vocalion 03601	-	1936/11/27	1937/07/24 Tillywilly17 (talk) 21:44, 6 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:1937 in music


text:
Talk:Description of Savannah, GA

Please merge the contents of this article with the already-existing article at Savannah, Georgia.

Is this original work? -- Zoe

 * A google search with a couple of the key phrases didn't turn up anything, but it sounds like a blurb from the tourist bureau, doesn't it? --Robert Merkel 23:20 Jan 2, 2003 (UTC)

Read like a school report to me; "big amounts" of cotten, etc. I've edited it thoroughly and merged it with the Savannah, Georgia entry; this one can be deleted.

title: Talk:Description of Savannah, GA


text:
John Earle (bishop)

John Earle (c. 1601 – 17 November 1665) was an English cleric, author and translator, who was chaplain to Charles II. Towards the end of his life he was Bishop of Worcester and then Salisbury.

Life
He was born at York, but the exact date is unknown. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, but moved to Merton, where he obtained a fellowship. In 1631 he was proctor and also chaplain to Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university, which led in 1639 to incumbency of the rectory of Bishopston in Wiltshire.

His fame spread, and in 1641 he was appointed chaplain and tutor to the future Charles II of England. In 1643 he was elected one of the Westminster Assembly, but his sympathies with Charles I of England and with the Anglican Communion were so strong that he declined to sit. Early in 1643 he was chosen chancellor of Salisbury Cathedral, but he was soon deprived of this position as a "malignant." After the final Royalist defeat at the Battle of Worcester, Earle went abroad, and was made Clerk of the Closet (1651–1664) and chaplain to his former student Charles II.

He spent a year at Antwerp in the house of Izaak Walton's friend, George Morley. He then joined the Duke of York (the future James II) in Paris, returning to England at the Restoration. He was appointed dean of Westminster, and in 1661 was one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy. He was on friendly terms with Richard Baxter. In November 1662 he was consecrated Bishop of Worcester, and was translated, ten months later, to the see of Salisbury, where he conciliated the nonconformists. He was strongly opposed to the Conventicle Act and Five Mile Act. During the Great Plague of London in 1665 – 1666, Earle attended to Charles II and his Queen consort Catherine of Braganza at Oxford, and there he died.

Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his Life, wrote "Dr Earle was a man of great piety and devotion, a most eloquent and powerful preacher, and of a conversation so pleasant and delightful, so very innocent, and so very facetious, that no man’s company was more desired and loved. No man was more negligent in his dress and habit and mien, no man more wary and cultivated in his behaviour and discourse. He was very dear to the Lord Falkland, with whom he spent as much time as he could make his own."

Works
Earle's chief title to remembrance is his witty and humorous work, Microcosmographie, or a Peece of the World discovered, in Essayes and Characters, which throws light on the manners of the time. First published anonymously in 1628, it became very popular, and ran through ten editions in the lifetime of the author. The style is quaint and epigrammatic: "A university dunner is a gentlemen follower cheaply purchased, for his own money has hyr'd him." Several reprints of the book have been issued since the author's death; and in 1671 a French translation by James Dymocke appeared with the title of Le Vice ridicule.

Earle was employed by Charles II to make the Latin translation of the Eikon Basilike, published in 1649. A similar translation of Richard Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity was accidentally destroyed.

title: John Earle (bishop)


text:
Creatures of Light and Darkness

Creatures of Light and Darkness is a 1969 science fiction novel by American writer Roger Zelazny. Long out of print, it was reissued in April 2010. The novel is set in the far future, with humans on many worlds. Some have god-like powers, or perhaps are gods—the names and aspects of various Egyptian gods are used. Elements of horror and technology are mixed, and it has points in common with cyberpunk.

Creatures of Light and Darkness was originally conceived and written as nothing more than a writing exercise in perspective by Roger Zelazny. He wrote it in present tense, constructed an entire chapter in poetry, and made the concluding chapter into the script of a play. He never intended it to be published, but when Samuel R. Delany heard about it from Zelazny, Delany convinced a Doubleday editor to demand that Zelazny give him the manuscript. Consequently, Zelazny dedicated the novel to Delany.

Unlike other books by Zelazny, such as Lord of Light or the series The Chronicles of Amber, this novel is more poetic in style, and contains less straightforward action. However, like other novels, Zelazny incorporates ancient myth, in this case from Egyptian and some Greek myth, and weaves ultra-futuristic technology with fantasy elements.

Background
The Universe was once ruled by the god Thoth, who administered the different forces in the Universe to keep things in balance. In time, he delegated this administration to his "Angels" (other god-like beings), who were each in charge of different "stations", or forces in the Universe. Such stations include the House of the Dead, the House of Life, and the House of Fire.

At some point, Thoth had awakened a dormant, malevolent force on a distant planet. This dark force, called The Thing That Cries In The Night, is so powerful and malevolent that it nearly obliterated Thoth's wife and threatens to consume the galaxy. Thoth works to contain and destroy the creature, and in so doing, neglects his duties in maintaining the Universe. The Angels become rebellious and use the power vacuum to fight amongst themselves for dominance.

Thoth's son Set, who through an anomaly in Time is also his father, fights the creature across a devastated planet. Just as Set is about to destroy the creature, he is attacked by the Angel Osiris, who unleashes the Hammer That Smashes Suns, a powerful weapon that nearly kills Set and the creature. Thoth's brother, Typhon, who was helping Set in the battle, vanishes without a trace and is presumed dead. (Typhon appears as a black horse-shadow, without a horse to cast it. He contains within himself something called Skagganauk Abyss, which resembles a black hole, not a term in common use at the time.)

The Thing That Cries In The Night survived the blast, and so Thoth, who has meanwhile been utterly overthrown by his Angels, has no choice but to contain the dark force until he can find a way to destroy it. He also revives the personality of his wife and keeps her safe on a special world known only to him, where the seas are above the atmosphere, not below them. He also scatters Set's weapons and armor across the Universe for safe-keeping in the event that Set can ever be found. Having been overthrown, he is now dubbed The Prince Who Was A Thousand by all in the Universe.

Some of the surviving Angels hide among the peoples of the Universe as mysterious "immortals", but others—Osiris and Anubis—take over the House of Life and the House of Death, respectively. Other stations are abandoned, and Osiris and Anubis are the only two powers in the Universe now. Osiris cultivates life where he can, while Anubis works to destroy it. Plenty and famine, proliferation and plague, overpopulation and annihilation, alternate in the Worlds of Life between the two Stations, much to the detriment of those who inhabit them.

Places
The geography of this universe contains several curious places:
 * The House of Life, ruled by Osiris, contains a room in which Osiris has reduced various people in his past into furnishings. These furnishings can speak (or scream) via wall-mounted speakers.
 * A skull (with brain) for a paperweight.
 * An enemy whose nervous system is woven into a rug. Osiris enjoys jumping on the rug.
 * In the House of the Dead, numerous dead people of the Six Intelligent Races lie on invisible catafalques until Anubis requires them to go through the motions of pleasure—eating, drinking, dancing, making love—without any real enjoyment. Anubis likes to watch. He also stages fights between champions from the Six Races: sometimes the victor gets a job—and a name.
 * The planet Blis is filled to bursting with people who are inexhaustibly fertile and do not know death: the whole planet is covered with 14 interlocking cities. Indeed, one man agrees to commit suicide in front of an audience, for money to be given to his family, because most people on Blis have never seen a death. He does so by self-immolation, after receiving the Possibly Proper Death Litany (also called the Agnostic's Prayer).
 * On fog-shrouded D'donori, warlords raid each other solely to capture prisoners, who will be vivisected by the town scryer, or augur. By examining their entrails, he predicts the future and answers questions.
 * On an unnamed planet, the sea is above the atmosphere. Here, the Prince Who Was a Thousand keeps Nephytha, his wife, who was disembodied and cannot survive on a normal planet.
 * In a cave, a dog worries a glove that has seen better centuries. The three-headed canine is apparently Cerberus.
 * On another planet, drug-maddened spearmen protect and castrated priests worship a pair of old shoes.

The Agnostic's Prayer
Insofar as I may be heard by anything, which may or may not care what I say,                          I ask, if it matters, that you be forgiven for anything you may have done or failed to do which requires forgiveness.

''Conversely, if not forgiveness but something else may be required to ensure any possible benefit for which you may be eligible after the destruction of your body,                                       I ask that this, whatever it may be, be granted or withheld, as the case may be, in such a manner as to insure your receiving said benefit. I ask this in my capacity as your elected intermediary between yourself and that which may not be yourself, but which may have an interest in the matter of your receiving as much as it is possible for you to receive of this thing, and which may in some way be influenced by this ceremony.''

Amen.

This prayer, also called the Possibly Proper Death Litany, is uttered by one of the main characters, Madrak, to shrive a man about to commit suicide for money (given to his family).

The Agnostic's Prayer is cited by Larry Niven in his short story "What Can You Say About Chocolate-Covered Manhole Covers", where it is used as the sacrament in a formal divorce ceremony.

Reception
Algis Budrys gave Creatures of Light and Darkness an uneasily positive review, praising its "rich, satisfactory detail and really moving human interplay," but warning that its unusual narrative technique "will probably baffle and infuriate" many readers. James Blish, however, found the novel "a flat failure," even though "Some parts are evocative in the authentic and unique Zelazny manner." He particularly faulted Zelazny's decision to end Creatures as a scene from a play, but "a scene which absolutely demands straightforward, standard narrative and for which the playscript is the worst possible choice."

Publisher's error
At the time the novel was published, Doubleday did not remainder its unsold science fiction when its sales cycle was complete; instead, it simply destroyed the unsold copies. After Creatures of Life and Darkness was issued in paperback, Doubleday mishandled its inventory, causing most of the print run of Zelazny's next novel, the just-published Nine Princes in Amber, to be destroyed in error.

title: Creatures of Light and Darkness