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Johann Jakob Reiske

Johann Jakob Reiske (Neo-Latin: Johannes Jacobus Reiskius; 25 December 1716 – 14 August 1774) was a German scholar and physician. He was a pioneer in the fields of Arabic and Byzantine philology as well as Islamic numismatics.

Biography
Reiske was born at Zörbig, in the Electorate of Saxony.

From the orphanage in Halle he passed in 1733 to the University of Leipzig, and there spent five years. He tried to find his own way in middle Greek literature, to which German schools then gave little attention; but, as he had not mastered the grammar, he soon found this a sore task and took up Arabic. He was poor, having almost nothing beyond his allowance, which for the five years was only two hundred thalers. But everything of which he could cheat his appetite was spent on Arabic books, and when he had read all that was then printed he thirsted for manuscripts, and in March 1738 started on foot for Hamburg, joyous though totally unprovided, on his way to Leiden and the treasures of the Warnerianum.

At Hamburg, he got some money and letters of recommendation from the Hebraist Johann Christoph Wolf, and took ship to Amsterdam. There d'Orville, to whom he had an introduction, proposed to retain him as his amanuensis at a salary of six hundred guilders. Reiske refused, though he thought the offer very generous; he did not want money, he wanted manuscripts. When he reached Leiden (6 June 1738), he found that the lectures were over for the term and that the manuscripts were not open to him.

But d'Orville and Albert Schultens helped him to private teaching and reading for the press, by which he was able to live. He heard the lectures of A. Schultens, and practised himself in Arabic with his son J.J. Schultens. Through Schultens too he got at Arabic manuscripts, and was even allowed sub rosa to take them home with him. Ultimately he seems to have got free access to the collection, which he catalogued—the work of almost a whole summer, for which the curators rewarded him with nine guilders.

Reiske's first years in Leiden were not unhappy, until he got into serious trouble by introducing emendations of his own into the second edition of Burmann's Petronius, which he had to see through the press. His patrons withdrew from him, and his chance of perhaps becoming professor was gone; d'Orville indeed soon came round, for he could not do without Reiske, who did work of which his patron, after dressing it up in his own style, took the credit. But A. Schultens was never the same as before to him; Reiske indeed was too independent, and hurt him by his open criticisms of his master's way of making Arabic mainly a handmaid of Hebrew. Reiske himself, however, admitted that Schultens always behaved honourably to him. In 1742, by Schultens' advice Reiske took up medicine as a study by which he might hope to live if he could not do so by philology. In 1746, he graduated as M.D., the fees being remitted at Schultens' intercession. It was Schultens too who conquered the difficulties opposed to his graduation at the last moment by the faculty of theology on the ground that some of his theses had a materialistic ring.

On 10 June 1746 he left the Netherlands and settled in Leipzig, where he hoped to get medical practice. But his shy, proud nature was not fitted to gain patients, and the Leipzig doctors would not recommend one who was not a Leipzig graduate. In 1747, an Arabic dedication to the electoral prince of Saxony got him the title of professor, but neither the faculty of arts nor that of medicine was willing to admit him among them, and he never delivered a course of lectures. He had still to go on doing literary task-work, but his labour was much worse paid in Leipzig than in Leiden. Still he could have lived and sent his old mother, as his custom was, a yearly present of a piece of leather to be sold in retail if he had been a better manager. But, careless for the morrow, he was always printing at his own cost great books which found no buyers. In his autobiography "Lebensbeschreibung" he depicted his academical colleagues as hostile; and suspected Ernesti, under a show of friendship, secretly hindered his promotion. On the other hand, his unsparing reviews made bad blood with the pillars of the university.

In 1755 to 1756 he turned his attention to Oriental coins. The custodian at the Royal Coin Cabinet in Dresden, Richter, invited him to study the coins with Arabic inscriptions. Richter asked him to explain the texts on the coins. His resulting "letters on Arabic coinage (Briefe über das arabische Münzwesen)" were posthumously published by Johann Gottfried Eichhorn. He did it very eagerly with the hope to find a suitable bread job in Dresden. However, the Seven Years' War ended all hopes to find anything in Oriental studies. His "letters on Arabic coinage" were the first serious attempt to compare the historical information gathered from the Islamic coins - bearing up to 150 words – with the information from chronicles, to achieve new insights in medieval Islamic history. Among the Orientalists at his time he was now known as someone knowledgeable on Islamic coins. He was later approached by Carsten Niebuhr to identify the coins which he brought with him from his travels. But Reiske never came back seriously to this topic.

At length in 1758 the magistrates of Leipzig rescued him from his misery by giving him the rectorate of St. Nicolai, and, though he still made no way with the leading men of the university and suffered from the hostility of men like Ruhnken and J.D. Michaelis, he was compensated for this by the esteem of Frederick the Great, of Lessing, Niebuhr, and many foreign scholars.

The last decade of his life was made cheerful by his marriage with Ernestine Müller, who shared all his interests and learned Greek to help him with collations. In proof of his gratitude, her portrait stands beside his in the first volume of the Oratores Graeci. Reiske died in Leipzig on 14 August 1774, and his manuscript remains passed, through Lessing's mediation, to the Danish historian P.F. Suhm, and are now in the Royal Library, Copenhagen.

Achievements
Reiske excelled as a scholar of Arabic literature. Interested in the history and the realia of the literature, he cared less for the verse of the poets than for the historical notices to be found in their scholia - the much praised poetry of Hariri seemed to him a grammatical pedant. The scholia on Jarir provided information on the prevalence of Buddhist doctrine and asceticism in Iraq under the Omayyads. In the Adnotationes historicae to his Abulfeda (Abulf. Annales Moslemici, 5 volumes, Copenhagen, 1789–91), he collected a veritable treasure of sound and original research; he knew the Byzantine writers as thoroughly as the Arabic authors, and was alike at home in modern works of travel in all languages and in ancient and medieval authorities. He was interested too in numismatics.

To comprehensive knowledge and very wide reading he added a sound historical judgment. He was not, like Schultens, deceived by the pretended antiquity of the Yemenite Qasidas. Errors no doubt he made, as in the attempt to ascertain the date of the breach of the dam of Ma'rib.

Although Abulfeda as a late epitomator afforded no starting point for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his version and notes laid the foundation for research into Arab history, and a historical criticism of Oriental numismatics with his letters on Arabic coinage (in J. G. Eichhorn's Repertorium, vols. ix.-xi.). The foundation of Arabic philology, however, was laid not by him but by Silvestre de Sacy. Reiske's linguistic knowledge was great, but he used it only to understand his authors; he had no feeling for form, for language as language, or for metre.

In Leipzig Reiske worked mainly at Greek, while he continued to draw on his Arabic stores accumulated in Leiden. His merit as an Arabist was sooner recognized than the value of his Greek work. Reiske the Greek scholar has been rightly valued only in recent years, and it is now recognized that he was the first German since Sylburg who had a living knowledge of the Greek tongue. His reputation does not rest on his numerous editions, often hasty or even made to booksellers' orders, but in his remarks, especially his conjectures. He himself designates the Animadversiones in scriptores Graecos as flos ingenii sui, and in truth these thin booklets outweigh his big editions.

Closely following the author's thought he removes obstacles whenever he meets them, but he is so steeped in the language and thinks so truly like a Greek that the difficulties he feels often seem to us to lie in mere points of style. His criticism is empirical and unmethodical, based on immense and careful reading, and applied only when he feels a difficulty; and he is most successful when he has a large mass of tolerably homogeneous literature to lean on, while on isolated points he is often at a loss. His corrections are often hasty and false, but a surprisingly large proportion of them have since received confirmation from manuscripts, and, though his merits as a Grecian lie mainly in his conjectures, his realism is felt in this sphere also; his German translations especially show more freedom and practical insight, more feeling for actual life, than is common with the scholars of that age.

Arabic philology

 * Abulfedae annales Moslemici. Latinos ex arabicis fecit Io. Iacobus Reiske. (Leipzig, 1754).

Islamic numismatics

 * Briefe über das arabische Münzwesen von Johann Jacob Reiske mit Anmerkungen und Zusätzen von Johann Gottfried Eichhorn. In: Repertorium für Biblische und Morgenländische Litteratur 9 (1781), pp. 199–268; 10 (1782), pp. 165–240; 11 (1782), pp. 1–44.

Greek philology

 * Constantini Porphyrogeniti libri II. de ceremoniis aulae Byzant. volume iii. (Bonn, 1829)
 * Animadv. ad Graecos auctores (5 volumes, Leipzig, 1751–66) (the rest lies unprinted at Copenhagen)
 * Oratorum Graec. quae supersunt (8 volumes, Leipzig, 1770–73)
 * Apparatus Criticus et Exegeticus ad Demosthenem (5 volumes, Leipzig, 1774–75)
 * Maximus Tyr. (Leipzig, 1774)
 * Plutarchus (Leipzig, 1774–79)
 * Dionys. Halic. (6 volumes, Leipzig, 1774–77)
 * Libanius (4 volumes, Altenburg, 1784–97).
 * Dionys. Halic. (6 volumes, Leipzig, 1774–77)
 * Libanius (4 volumes, Altenburg, 1784–97).

Autobiography

 * Von ihm selbst aufgesetzte Lebensbeschreibung. (Leipzig, 1783).

title: Johann Jakob Reiske


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Hypothetical syllogism

In classical logic, a hypothetical syllogism is a valid argument form, a deductive syllogism with a conditional statement for one or both of its premises. Ancient references point to the works of Theophrastus and Eudemus for the first investigation of this kind of syllogisms.

Types
Hypothetical syllogisms come in two types: mixed and pure. A mixed hypothetical syllogism has two premises: one conditional statement and one statement that either affirms or denies the antecedent or consequent of that conditional statement. For example,

 * If P, then Q.
 * P.
 * ∴ Q.

In this example, the first premise is a conditional statement in which "P" is the antecedent and "Q" is the consequent. The second premise "affirms" the antecedent. The conclusion, that the consequent must be true, is deductively valid.

A mixed hypothetical syllogism has four possible forms, two of which are valid, while the other two are invalid. A valid mixed hypothetical syllogism either affirms the antecedent (modus ponens) or denies the consequent (modus tollens). An invalid hypothetical syllogism either affirms the consequent (fallacy of the converse) or denies the antecedent (fallacy of the inverse). A pure hypothetical syllogism is a syllogism in which both premises and the conclusion are all conditional statements. The antecedent of one premise must match the consequent of the other for the conditional to be valid. Consequently, conditionals contain remained antecedent as antecedent and remained consequent as consequent.
 * If P, then Q.
 * If Q, then R.
 * ∴ If P, then R.

An example in English:

 * If I do not wake up, then I cannot go to work.
 * If I cannot go to work, then I will not get paid.
 * Therefore, if I do not wake up, then I will not get paid.

Propositional logic
In propositional logic, hypothetical syllogism is the name of a valid rule of inference (often abbreviated HS and sometimes also called the chain argument, chain rule, or the principle of transitivity of implication). The rule may be stated:

 * $$\frac{P \to Q, Q \to R}{\therefore P \to R}$$

In other words, whenever instances of "$$P \to Q$$", and "$$Q \to R$$" appear on lines of a proof, "$$P \to R$$" can be placed on a subsequent line.

Applicability
The rule of hypothetical syllogism holds in classical logic, intuitionistic logic, most systems of relevance logic, and many other systems of logic. However, it does not hold in all logics, including, for example, non-monotonic logic, probabilistic logic and default logic. The reason for this is that these logics describe defeasible reasoning, and conditionals that appear in real-world contexts typically allow for exceptions, default assumptions, ceteris paribus conditions, or just simple uncertainty.

An example, derived from Ernest W. Adams,
 * 1) If Jones wins the election, Smith will retire after the election.
 * 2) If Smith dies before the election, Jones will win the election.
 * 3) If Smith dies before the election, Smith will retire after the election.

Clearly, (3) does not follow from (1) and (2). (1) is true by default, but fails to hold in the exceptional circumstances of Smith dying. In practice, real-world conditionals always tend to involve default assumptions or contexts, and it may be infeasible or even impossible to specify all the exceptional circumstances in which they might fail to be true. For similar reasons, the rule of hypothetical syllogism does not hold for counterfactual conditionals.

Formal notation
The hypothetical syllogism inference rule may be written in sequent notation, which amounts to a specialization of the cut rule:

 * $$\frac{P \vdash Q\quad Q \vdash R}{P \vdash R}$$

where $$\vdash$$ is a metalogical symbol and $$A \vdash B$$ meaning that $$B$$ is a syntactic consequence of $$A$$ in some logical system;

and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:

 * $$((P \to Q) \land (Q \to R)) \to (P \to R)$$

where $$P$$, $$Q$$, and $$R$$ are propositions expressed in some formal system.

Alternative forms
An alternative form of hypothetical syllogism, more useful for classical propositional calculus systems with implication and negation (i.e. without the conjunction symbol), is the following:

 * (HS1) $$(Q \to R) \to ((P \to Q) \to (P \to R))$$

Yet another form is:

 * (HS2) $$(P \to Q) \to ((Q \to R) \to (P \to R))$$

Proof
An example of the proofs of these theorems in such systems is given below. We use two of the three axioms used in one of the popular systems described by Jan Łukasiewicz. The proofs relies on two out of the three axioms of this system:
 * (A1) $$\phi \to \left( \psi \to \phi \right) $$
 * (A2) $$\left( \phi \to \left( \psi \rightarrow \xi \right) \right) \to \left( \left( \phi \to \psi \right) \to \left( \phi \to \xi \right) \right)$$

The proof of the (HS1) is as follows:
 * (1) $$((p\to(q \to r)) \to ((p \to q) \to (p \to r))) \to ((q \to r) \to ((p\to(q \to r)) \to ((p \to q) \to (p \to r))))$$      (instance of (A1))
 * (2) $$(p\to(q \to r)) \to ((p \to q) \to (p \to r))$$      (instance of (A2))
 * (3) $$(q \to r) \to ((p\to(q \to r)) \to ((p \to q) \to (p \to r)))$$      (from (1) and (2) by modus ponens)
 * (4) $$((q \to r) \to ((p\to(q \to r)) \to ((p \to q) \to (p \to r))))\to (((q \to r) \to (p\to(q \to r))) \to ((q \to r)\to((p \to q) \to(p \to r))))$$      (instance of (A2))
 * (5) $$((q \to r) \to (p\to(q \to r))) \to ((q \to r)\to((p \to q) \to(p \to r)))$$      (from (3) and (4) by modus ponens)
 * (6) $$(q \to r) \to (p\to(q \to r))$$      (instance of (A1))
 * (7) $$(q \to r)\to((p \to q) \to(p \to r))$$ (from (5) and (6) by modus ponens)

The proof of the (HS2) is given here.

As a metatheorem
Whenever we have two theorems of the form $$T_1 = (Q \to R)$$ and $$T_2 = (P \to Q)$$, we can prove $$(P \to R)$$ by the following steps:
 * (1) $$ (Q \to R) \to ((P \to Q) \to (P \to R))) $$       (instance of the theorem proved above)
 * (2) $$ Q \to R$$       (instance of (T1))
 * (3) $$ (P \to Q) \to (P \to R) $$       (from (1) and (2) by modus ponens)
 * (4) $$ P \to Q $$       (instance of (T2))
 * (5) $$ P \to R $$       (from (3) and (4) by modus ponens)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hypothetical syllogism


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Friedrich Sylburg

Friedrich Sylburg (1536 – 17 February 1596) was a German classical scholar.

The son of a farmer, he was born at Wetter near Marburg. He studied at Marburg, Jena, Geneva, and, lastly, Paris, where his teacher was Henry Estienne (Stephanus), to whose great Greek Thesaurus Sylburg afterwards made important contributions.

Returning to Germany, he held educational posts at Neuhausen near Worms and at Lich near Gießen, where he edited a useful edition of the Institutiones in graecam linguam (1580) of Nicolaus Clenardus (Cleynaerts). In 1583 he resigned his post at Lich and moved to Frankfurt to act as corrector and editor of Greek texts for the enterprising publisher Johann Wechel. To his Frankfurt period belong the editions of Pausanias, Herodotus, Dionysius Halicarnassensis (one of his best pieces of work, highly praised by Carsten Niebuhr), Paeanius, Aristotle, the Greek and Latin sources for the history of the Roman emperors and the Peri syntaxeos of Apollonius Dyscolus.

In 1591 he moved to Heidelberg, where he became librarian to the elector palatine. The Wechel series was continued by Hieronymus Commelinus (Jerome Commelin) of Heidelberg, for whom Sylburg edited Clement of Alexandria, Justin Martyr, the Etymologicum magnum, the Scriptores de re rustica, the Greek gnomic poets, Xenophon, Nonnus and other works. All Sylburg's editions show great critical power and indefatigable industry; the latter may well have caused his death.

Works

 * F. Sylburg (Ed.), Dionisii Halicarnassei scripta quae exstant, omnia, et historica, et rhetorica (Frankfurt: heirs of Andreas Wechel 1586) (parallel Greek and Latin), available at Google Books
 * Notes of Sylburg in a critical edition of Aristotle, De Poetica Liber (parallel Greek and Latin), available at Google Books
 * Ἐτυμολογικὸν τὸ Μέγα or Etymologicon Magnum (Leipzig, 1816) (in Greek), available at Google Books
 * Various Works of Sylburg held and digitized in original editions, freely available at Münchener DigitalisierungsZentrum Digitale Bibliothek
 * List of Works in WorldCat

Literature and additional sources

 * J. G. Jungius, Vita Frid. Sylburgii (Berleburgi & Frankfurt, 1745).
 * Fr. Creuzer, 'De Frid. Sylburgii vita et scriptis oratio', in Nova Acta soc. Lat. Jenensis (ed. Eichstädt), vol. I (Lips. 1806), p. 79–102.
 * Fr. Creuzer, Frid. Sylburgi epistolae quinque ad Paulum Melissum (Five letters of Friedrich Sylburg to Paul Melissum) (Frankfurt 1827). Also in Creuzer's Selected Works (Lips. 1854), p. 195–213.
 * K. W. Justi, 'Friedrich Sylburg', in Strieder's Hessischer Gelehrten-Geschichte, Vol. 18 (Marburg 1819), p. 481–494. Also as a separate printing, Marburg 1818. This work cites references to earlier writing about Sylburg.
 * Schoell, Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, vol. 18 (Paris 1826), p. 301 ff.
 * L. Kayser, 'Heidelberger Philologen im 16. Jahrhundert,' printed in the Festschrift zur Begrüßung der 24. Philologenversammlung (Leipzig 1865), p. 142–147.
 * Sylburg's writings are listed by Joachim Jungius cited above, p. 35–38; in Christian Gottlieb Jöcher’s Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon (1750–51), Vol. IV, Sp. 956 f.; in Johann Heinrich Zedler’s Universal-Lexikon, Vol. 41, Sp. 555–57; and most fully by Karl Wilhelm Justi cited above, p. 490–92.

title: Friedrich Sylburg


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Talk:Amartya Sen

Amartya Sen's children
Amartya Sen has four children, Nandana, Antara, Kabir, and Indrani, but only two are named. Would it be possible to add all four names to the article? It seems like it might be rather hurtful to leave two off. PhoebeHarvardEcon (talk) 20:35, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Hi if the other children are not notable in their own right then Wikipedia does not generally add the names. In this case, two of the children have their own articles and two don't. I hope this helps, Knitsey (talk) 20:48, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 October 2023
If unable to provide references, please remove "Nationality" in the right info block and change Citizenship: United States to Citizenship: India (or Republic of India).

As of this writing Prof Sen is is listed in the information block as:

Nationality:	Indian Citizenship:	United States

It would be news if he changed his citizenship in his 80's from Indian to US. India does not permit dual citizenship. The most recent reference I could find is a 2013 CV at Harvard, which says he's Indian.

https://scholar.harvard.edu/sites/scholar.harvard.edu/files/sen/files/cv_sen_amartya_jan2013_0.pdf

It's also peculiar, even if common in the US and maybe elsewhere, to strike a difference between "nationality" and "citizenship" at all. 73.165.59.32 (talk) 15:58, 24 October 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ since both are unsourced. Anyone can re-add the appropriate citizenship along with a WP:RS. RegentsPark (comment) 16:26, 24 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amartya Sen


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Talk:Idiom

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): LBrieuc.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:15, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Which one is idiom
The idiom “To make clean breast of ” is used to A. gain prominence B. praise oneself C. Confess without any reserve. D. destroy before it blooms Choose the correct answer. Jayanth2642000 (talk) 01:31, 10 July 2019 (UTC)

Articles
Can someone please meantion the relation between idiomaticity and the use of articles? --Backinstadiums (talk) 09:06, 2 September 2019 (UTC)
 * The editor seems to mean definite and indefinite articles like "the" and "a". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.130.57.15 (talk) 11:55, 23 October 2019 (UTC)
 * ijh higy u j jjhcjukh ui9j jh hj hihj vsdfgniosakarau jn 2601:283:4E80:CAC0:3751:404B:686F:BF1A (talk) 00:04, 24 February 2024 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:54, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * English-English dictionaries and thesaurus books.JPG

POV issue with catenas
The section on dealing with non-compositionality writes about the "catena". This section was written by User:Tjo3ya. This user is the researcher who has proposed the "catena" concept. This lead to an issue of possible WP:COI / WP:ADVOCACY on the Catena (linguistics) page. The same issue appears here, and probably in many other places. Kaĉjo (talk) 08:41, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

व्हाट इज Contracted forms
यह मेरा प्रश्न है मुझे समझ नहीं आ रहा है 2409:4053:799:7774:0:0:72E:38B0 (talk) 10:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Ask at hi.wikipedia.org for Hindi. In English a contraction is a combination of two words while omitting some letters.PrisonerB (talk) 10:28, 26 July 2022 (UTC)

Rescuing "Parlance" section
The following section was deleted on 2 December 2008 due to vandalism. Maybe it should be inserted again?

Parlance
"Idiom" can also refer to the characteristic manner of speaking in a language, also called its parlance. An utterance consistent with a language's parlance is described as idiomatic. For example, "I have hunger" is idiomatic in several European languages if translated literally (e.g. Dutch ik heb honger, German ich habe Hunger; French j'ai faim; Spanish tengo hambre; Italian ho fame, Portuguese tenho fome), but the usual English idiom is "I am hungry".

This sense is also carried over to programming languages, where the former sense does not apply, as an expression or statement in contenging a programming language can generally have only one meaning. For example, in Haskell, it is possible to apply a function to all members of a list using recursion, but it is more idiomatic to use the higher-order function map. — Anton Maienfeldt (talk) 10:35, 26 December 2022 (UTC)

Mathematics
Bass 41.114.255.59 (talk) 11:03, 20 January 2023 (UTC)

Distinctions - things not idiomatic
Could we have a section that enumerates things that could be confused with idioms, but really are not?

 * proverbs (they're a whole sentence)
 * jargon, slang (does an idiom need to be more than one word?)
 * metaphors and similes
 * There's a link to "figures of speech" somewhere, but that term is so vague that I don't know that it's very helpful.

Lehasa (talk) 01:06, 8 May 2023 (UTC)

"The beans were spilled on our project"
I do not think that most English speakers would immediately recognise that as an idiom... a better sentence or phrase to illustrate the point might be in order, but I'm not sure what that would be or whether it is even actually necessary. AriTheHorsetalk to me! 03:54, 21 January 2024 (UTC)

 * "spill the beans" could as well mean the same as "kick the bucket"
 * "Semantically composite idioms have a syntactic similarity between their surface and semantic forms." doesn't make much, if any, sense (see "Compositionality" below), especially when the project might have kicked the bucket or spilled its beans (i. e. blah blah, blah). There's nothing to prevent one from putting beans into buckets.  Putting beans into buckets, is that an idiom?  At least it feels like one, or maybe I just created it.  So much to mobility ...
 * So yeah, I'm not a native speaker but I guess both examples aren't too great here. 185.140.253.154 (talk) 19:04, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

Compositionality
"In linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality."

This section is rather unclear because obviously, dealing with an idiom involves different rules to compose a meaning from the idiomatic statement (than a reader of the statement would apply), which even may dictate to take the idiom as a lexial item (like it being a figure of speach). I might go as far as to argue that this section basically contradicts the first sentence it starts with; and a better explanation is in order. (I won't dare any attempt to give one since the "principle of compositionality" appears to me like just an idea and as a method amongst many other methods which may be resonably applied or not, depending on the particular case. It is not guaranteed and not evident that applying the principle of compositionality to a statement will always necessarily arrive at what could be considered "truth", though it might arrive right there --- or not.  And keep in mind that truth may lie in the eye of the beholder, and not anywhere else.)

Simply put, idioms and figures of speach do not contradict the principle of compositionality because the principle does not dictate what the rules are; it only requires rules.

185.140.253.154 (talk) 18:20, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

Mobility
"The types of movement allowed for certain idioms [...]"

Which types are those, and which ones aren't allowed? Like is moving 'kicking the bucket' and 'spilling the beans' to 'putting beans into buckets' (see above) allowed or not? After all, it's a semantically meta-compositional(!) idiom you can easily understand compositionally when you know how it has been brought about and more semantically when you don't know (though you may end up with contradictory meanings): This article has put (spilled?) its beans into buckets, and I better stop reading it now ... 185.140.253.154 (talk) 19:37, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

Dealing with non-compositionality
To make this section more understandable, someone please explain what the relation between catenae and idioms is. For example:

"Rapidly shoving the heavy closet over the carpet is pulling its leg."

Apparently that somehow would constitute an idiom since the words are there. 185.140.253.154 (talk) 20:06, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Idiom


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Carsten Niebuhr

Carsten Niebuhr, or Karsten Niebuhr (17 March 1733 Lüdingworth – 26 April 1815 Meldorf, Dithmarschen), was a German mathematician, cartographer, and explorer in the service of Denmark. He is renowned for his participation in the Danish Arabia expedition (1761-1767). He was the father of the Danish-German statesman and historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr, who published an account of his father's life in 1817.

Early life and education

Niebuhr was born in Lüdingworth (now a part of Cuxhaven, Lower Saxony) in what was then Bremen-Verden. His father Barthold Niebuhr (1704-1749) was a successful farmer and owned his own property. Carsten and his sister were educated at home by a local school teacher, then he attended the Latin School in Otterndorf, near Cuxhaven.

Originally Niebuhr had intended to become a surveyor, but in 1757 he went to the Georgia Augusta University of Göttingen, at this time Germany's most progressive institution of higher education. Niebuhr was probably a bright student because in 1760 Johann David Michaelis (1717-1791) recommended him as a participant in the Danish Arabia expedition (1761-1767), mounted by Frederick V of Denmark (1722–1766). For a year and a half before the expedition Niebuhr studied mathematics, cartography and navigational astronomy under Tobias Mayer (1723–1762), one of the premier astronomers of the 18th century, and the author of the Lunar Distance Method for determining longitude. Niebuhr's observations during the Arabia Expedition proved the accuracy and the practicality of this method for use by mariners at sea.

Expeditions
The expedition sailed in January 1761 via Marseilles and Malta to Istanbul and Alexandria. Then the members of the expedition visited Cairo and Sinai, before traversing the Red Sea via Jiddah to Yemen, which was their main destination.

In Mocha, on 25 May 1763, the expedition's philologist, Frederik Christian von Haven, died, and on 11 July 1763, on the way to Sanaʽa, the capital of Yemen, its naturalist Peter Forsskål also died.

In Sanaʽa the remaining members of the expedition had an audience with the Imam of Yemen al-Mahdi Abbas (1719–1775), but suffered from the climate and returned to Mocha. Niebuhr seems to have preserved his own life and restored his health by adopting native dress and eating native food.

From Mocha the expedition continued to Bombay, the expedition's artist Georg Wilhelm Baurenfeind died on the 29th of August and the expedition's servant Lars Berggren on the following day; both were buried at sea. The surgeon Christian C. Kramer (1732–1763) also died, soon after landing in Bombay. Niebuhr was the only surviving member. He stayed in Bombay for fourteen months and then returned home by way of Muscat, Bushire, Shiraz, and Persepolis. His copies of the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis proved to be a key turning-point in the decipherment of cuneiform, and the birth of Assyriology.

His transcriptions were especially useful to Georg Friedrich Grotefend, who made the first correct decipherments of Old Persian cuneiform:

He also visited the ruins of Babylon (making many important sketches), Baghdad, Mosul, and Aleppo. He seems also to have visited the Behistun Inscription in around 1764. After a visit to Cyprus, he made a tour through Palestine, crossed the Taurus Mountains to Bursa, reached Constantinople in February 1767 and finally arrived in Copenhagen in the following November.

Niebuhr's production during the expedition is indeed impressive. It includes small-scale maps and charts of Yemen, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and Oman, and other larger scale maps covering the Nile Delta, the Gulf of Suez and the regions surrounding various port cities he visited, including Mocha and Surat. He completed 28 town plans of significant historical value because of their uniqueness for that period.

In summary, Niebuhr's maps, charts and plans constitute the greatest single addition to the cartography of the region that was produced through field research and published in the 18th century.

Family and later career
In 1773, Niebuhr married Christiane Sophia Blumenberg, the daughter of the crown physician, and for some years he held a post in the Danish military service, which enabled him to remain in Copenhagen. In 1776 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1778 he accepted a position in the civil service of Danish Holstein, and went to reside at Meldorf (Ditmarschen). In 1806 he was promoted to Etatsrat, and in 1809 was made a Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog, one of Denmark–Norway's most valued honours for service.

Writing and research
Niebuhr's first book, Beschreibung von Arabien, was published in Copenhagen in 1772, the Danish government providing subsidies for the engraving and printing of its numerous illustrations. This was followed in 1774 and 1778 by the first two volumes of Niebuhr's Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegender Ländern. These works (particularly the one published in 1778), and most specifically the accurate copies of the cuneiform inscriptions found at Persepolis, were to prove to be extremely important to the decipherment of cuneiform writing. Before Niebuhr's publication, cuneiform inscriptions were often thought to be merely decorations and embellishments, and no accurate decipherments or translations had been made up to that point. Niebuhr demonstrated that the three trilingual inscriptions found at Persepolis were in fact three distinct forms of cuneiform writing (which he termed Class I, Class II, and Class III) to be read from left to right. His accurate copies of the trilingual inscriptions gave Orientalists the key to finally crack the cuneiform code, leading to the discovery of Old Persian, Akkadian, and Sumerian.

The third volume of the Reisebeschreibung, also based on materials from the expedition, was not published till 1837, long after Niebuhr's death, under the editorship of his daughter and his assistant, Johan Nicolaus Gloyer. Niebuhr also contributed papers on the interior of Africa, the political and military condition of the Ottoman Empire, and other subjects to a German periodical, the Deutsches Museum. In addition, he edited and published the work of his friend Peter Forsskål, the naturalist on the Arabian expedition, under the titles Descriptiones animalium, Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica and Icones rerum naturalium (Copenhagen, 1775 and 1776).

French and Dutch translations of Niebuhr's narratives were published during his lifetime, and a condensed English translation of his own three volumes, prepared by Robert Heron, was published in Edinburgh in 1792, under the title "Travels through Arabia". A facsimile edition of this translation, as by "M. Niebuhr", was published in two volumes by the Libraire du Liban, Beirut (undated).

The government funds covered only a fraction of the printing costs for Niebuhr's first book, and probably a similar or smaller proportion of the costs for the other two volumes. To ensure that the volumes were published, Niebuhr had to pay over 80% of the costs himself. In all, Niebuhr devoted ten years of his life, the years 1768–1778, to the publication of six volumes of findings from the expedition. He had virtually no help from the academics who had conceived and shaped the expedition in Göttingen and Copenhagen. It was only Niebuhr's determination to publish the findings of the expedition that ensured that the Danish Arabia expedition would produce results that would benefit the world of scholarship.

Death and legacy
Niebuhr died in Meldorf in 1815.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) highly prized Niebuhr's works. In 1811 he wrote to Niebuhr's son, Barthold Georg Niebuhr, that "You carry a name which I have learned to honour since my youth."

Carsten Niebuhrs Gade, a street in the port area of Copenhagen, is named for him.

In 2011, Copenhagen's National Library and National Museum held exhibitions of Carsten Niebuhr's life and work, celebrating the 250th anniversary of the Danish Arabia Expedition's commencement. Commemorative Carsten Niebuhr postal stamps were issued. And in the same year the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs had planned a series of cultural events based on the Expedition and Niebuhr's work that would take place in Ankara, Cairo, Damascus, Beirut, Tehran, and Yemen. It has been suggested that these efforts were intended in part to repair the reputational damage in the Islamic world caused by the Danish cartoon controversy. Ultimately, the planned events were prevented by the Arab Spring.

Works

 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Beschreibung von Arabien. Aus eigenen Beobachtungen und im Lande selbst gesammleten Nachrichten. Copenhagen, 1772.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegender Ländern. 2 vols. Copenhagen, 1774–1778.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. "Über Längen-Beobachtungen im Orient u.s.w. Aus einem Schreiben des königl. Dänischen geheimer Justiz-Raths Carsten Niebuhr". Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde 4 (1801), pp. 240–253.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Biographische Nachrichten aus Tobias Mayer's Jugendjahren aus einem Schreiben des Königlich Dänischen Justiz-Raths C. Niebuhr, Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd-und Himmels-Kunde 8 (1803), pp. 45–56, and 9 (1804), pp. 487–491.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Reisebescheibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. Vol. 3. Carsten Niebuhr Reisen durch Syrien und Palästina, nach Cypern, und durch Kleinasien und die Türkei nach Deutschland und Dännemark, edited by J. N.Gloyer and J. Olshausen. Hamburg, 1837.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Rejsebeskrivele fra Arabien og andre omkringliggende Lande, translated by Hans Christian Fink, with an introduction by Michhael Harbsmeier. 2 vols., Copenhagen, 2003.
 * Niebuhr, Carsten. Beskrivelse af Arabien ud fra egne iagttagelser og i landet selv samlede efterretinger, translated by Hans Christian Fink, with an introduction by Niels Peter Lemche. Copenhagen, 2009.

title: Carsten Niebuhr


text:
European Theater of Operations, United States Army

The European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA) was a theater of Operations responsible for directing United States Army operations throughout the European theatre of World War II, from 1942 to 1945. It commanded Army Ground Forces (AGF), United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), and Army Service Forces (ASF) operations north of Italy and the Mediterranean coast. It was bordered to the south by the North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), which later became the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, United States Army (MTOUSA).

The term theater of operations was defined in the US Army field manuals as the land and sea areas to be invaded or defended, including areas necessary for administrative activities incident to the military operations. In accordance with the experience of World War I, it was usually conceived of as a large land mass over which continuous operations would take place and was divided into two chief areas-the combat zone, or the area of active fighting, and the Communications Zone, or area required for administration of the theater. As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control.

History
British–American military staffs agreed during their meetings in Washington in January–March 1941 (the ABC-1 Conversations) to exchange military missions to facilitate planning for the eventuality of American entry in the war. Major General James E. Chaney, an Army Air Corps officer, arrived in the United Kingdom on 18 May 1941, and on the following day, Headquarters, Special Observer Group (SPOBS), was established in London. SPOBS also had the role of studying British use of Lend Lease supplies. His formal title was the Special Army Observer in the United Kingdom and head of SPOBS. After the United States entered the war, SPOBS was succeeded by United States Army Forces in the British Isles (USAFBI), actually SPOBS under a new name. At the time of the ARCADIA Conference, December 1941 – January 1942, the decision was made to place the MAGNET forces (U.S. Forces for Northern Ireland) under the command of Maj. Gen. E.L. Daley, and make him in turn responsible to General Chaney, designated as CG, USAFBI. On 5 May 1942, Maj. Gen. John C. H. Lee became Commanding General, Services of Supply, U.S. Army Forces British Isles, and later deputy theater commander, ETOUSA. On 8 June 1942, the United States Department of War officially established ETOUSA in its place. Its mission was to conduct planning for the eventual retaking of Europe and to exercise administrative and operational control over U.S. forces.

The 133rd Infantry Regiment of the 34th Infantry Division was the first United States Army unit sent to Europe in World War II. The first battalion arrived in Belfast in late January 1942, followed by the rest of the regiment in February. These units were designated as U.S. Army Northern Ireland Forces, later incorporated within the European Theater of Operations. The 133rd and 168th Infantry Regiments trained in the peat bogs, and performed border guard patrols between British Northern Ireland and neutral Ireland. The remaining unit of the division, the 135th Infantry Regiment, arrived in May 1942.

From February 1944 the operational command was the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) which as an Allied command also had operational control of British and all other allied land forces and tactical airforces in the European theatre. Until SHAEF was operational ETOUSA liaised closely with the British in the planning and organising of Operation Overlord.

U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower had multiple command appointments; he replaced Chaney in late June 1942, but in November he also commanded the Allied forces in Operation Torch through AFHQ. Operation Torch—the invasion of French North Africa—involving the 9th, 3rd Infantry and the 2nd Armored Divisions, initiated on 8 November 1942, was the first ground combat operations for the United States in the European theater of World War II.

Eisenhower then relinquished command of ETOUSA to Lt. Gen. Frank Maxwell Andrews in February 1943, who was killed in an air crash in May. He was replaced by Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, former Chief of the Armored Force. In December 1943 it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944 he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces. (Note that Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) was the headquarters of the Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces, whereas the AFHQ was the headquarters of only the Allied forces.) He served in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. From February 1944, SHAEF was the operational command and ETOUSA administrative command.

Some units were transferred between operational commands and administrative commands at different times. For example, the American 6th Army Group, which was set up under the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, commanded by Devers, to oversee Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France between Toulon and Cannes, was passed to SHAEF (and into ETO) a month after the invasion which took place on 15 August 1944.

By the end of 1944, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded three powerful Allied army groups. In the north British 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery ("Monty"), in the middle the American 12th Army Group commanded by General Omar N. Bradley, and in the South the American 6th Army Group commanded by Devers. The British 21st Army Group and French elements of the 6th Army Group were not part of ETOUSA, but by that stage of the war most of the operational forces under the command of SHAEF were American.

The ETOUSA planning staff in London was usually referred to by its Army Post Office number, "APO 887". After the war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945, ETOUSA became briefly U.S. Armed Forces Europe, then U.S. Forces, European Theater (USFET), and then, eventually, United States Army Europe.

Albert Coady Wedemeyer was chief author of the Victory Program, published three months before the U.S. entered the war in 1941, which advocated the defeat of the German armies on the European continent. When the U.S. entered the war after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and the U.S. was at war with both Japan and Germany, a "Europe first" a modified version of his plan was adopted by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Under the German first policy, the plan was expanded to include the blueprint for the Normandy landings.

Successor organizations
ETOUSA became United States Forces European Theater (USFET) from 1 July 1945 to 15 March 1947; and then European Command (EUCOM) 15 March 1947 to 1 August 1952.

Official U.S. Army lineage details for the European Theater of Operations are:
 * Organized 8 January 1942 in England as Headquarters, United States Army Forces in the British Isles
 * Redesignated 8 June 1942 as Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, United States Army
 * Redesignated 1 July 1945 as Headquarters, United States Forces, European Theater
 * Redesignated 15 March 1947 as Headquarters, European Command
 * Redesignated 1 August 1952 as Headquarters, United States Army Europe

Also, on August 1, 1952 the United States European Command (USEUCOM) was established with General Matthew Ridgway in command. Ridgway served concurrently as the NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR). USEUCOM absorbed all functions and elements of EUCOM and additionally assumed control of all US Air Force and US Navy forces in Europe.

Campaigns
The 16 officially recognized US military campaigns in the European Theater of Operations are:

 * North Africa campaigns:
 * Egypt-Libya: 11 June 1942 – 12 February 1943, American participation in the Western Desert campaign
 * Algeria-French Morocco: 8–11 November 1942, the allied landings in North Africa
 * Tunisia: 17 November 1942 – 13 May 1943, the Tunisian campaign
 * Italy campaigns:
 * Sicily: 9 July - 17 August 1943, the allied invasion and liberation of Sicily
 * Naples-Foggia:
 * Air: 18 August 1943 – 21 January 1944
 * Ground: 9 September 1943 – 21 January 1944, from the Allied invasion of Italy to the Winter Line battles
 * Anzio: 22 January - 24 May 1944, the landing and battle at Anzio
 * Rome-Arno: 22 January - 9 September 1944, from the landing at Anzio to the arrival at the Gothic Line
 * Northern Apennines: 10 September 1944 – 4 April 1945, the Gothic Line battles
 * Po Valley: 5 April - 8 May 1945, the allied spring offensive 1945
 * Western Europe campaigns:
 * Air Offensive Europe: 4 July 1942 – 5 June 1944, from the first American bombing mission over enemy-occupied territory in Europe to the night before D-day
 * Normandy: 6 June - 24 July 1944, the allied landings in Normandy
 * Northern France: 25 July - 14 September 1944, from Operation Cobra to the beginning of Operation Market Garden
 * Southern France: 15 August - 14 September 1944, the allied landings in Southern France
 * Rhineland: 15 September 1944 – 21 March 1945, from Operation Market Garden to the start of the allied invasion of Germany
 * Ardennes-Alsace: 16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945, the Battle of the Bulge
 * Central Europe: 22 March - 11 May 1945, the allied invasion of Germany

Commanders

 * LTG Dwight D. Eisenhower 24 June 1942 to 4 February 1943
 * LTG Frank M. Andrews 5 February 1943 to 3 May 1943
 * LTG Jacob L. Devers 9 May 1943 to 15 February 1944
 * GA Dwight D. Eisenhower 16 February 1944 to 30 June 1945


text:
Federal district

The term federal district refers to specific administrative divisions in various federations. These districts may be under the direct jurisdiction of a federation's national government, as in the case of federal territory (e.g., India, Malaysia), or they may function as ordinary federated units (e.g., Brazil, Russia). Federal districts often include capital districts.

Brazil
The Federal District (Distrito Federal) contains the Brazilian capital Brasília.

India
In India, the term "Union Territory" is used for the eight territories governed directly by the Union government (also called central government), administered by a Lieutenant Governor or an Administrator: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. Of these, Delhi and Puducherry possess partial statehood with their own elected Chief Ministers.

Malaysia
In Malaysia, the term Federal Territory (Wilayah Persekutuan) is used for the three territories governed directly by the federal government: Kuala Lumpur (national capital), Putrajaya (federal government administrative centre) and Labuan (international offshore financial centre).

Nigeria
The Federal Capital Territory is a federal territory in central Nigeria. Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria, is located in this territory. The Federal Capital Territory was formed in 1976 from parts of the states of Nasarawa, Niger and Kogi. It is within the Middle Belt region of the country. It is administered by the Federal Capital Territory Administration, headed by a minister appointed by the President.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the term Federal Territory is used for the five zones and 12 union councils of Islamabad governed directly by the state government as Islamabad Capital Territory.

Russia
Russia has three cities of federal importance, established by the Constitution — Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Sevastopol (internationally recognised as part of Ukraine, administered by Russia). Each city is treated as a separate federal subject and has its own legislative body. Russia has federal districts, but these form an additional administrative layer between the federation government and the federal subjects rather than being a distinct type of jurisdiction.

United States
The seat of the U.S. federal government in Washington is located in a federal district called the District of Columbia. Other federally administered areas that are within one of the 50 states, but not under its jurisdiction, are called federal enclaves.

Additionally, the U.S. federal court system divides each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico into one or more federal judicial districts. A United States district court and a bankruptcy court are located in each. There are also regional federal judicial circuits, each consisting of a group of states (except for the District of Columbia Circuit, which consists of the federal district, and the Federal Circuit, whose jurisdiction is based on specific subject matter instead of geography); Puerto Rico and the United States territorial courts are also assigned to circuits. Each circuit has a United States court of appeals.

Venezuela
Capital District (Venezuela), where the Venezuelan capital Caracas is located.

Argentina
Federal District (Argentina) was converted into the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires in 1994.

Australia
The Jervis Bay Territory is an internal territory of the Commonwealth of Australia, surrendered by the state of New South Wales in 1915 to the Commonwealth Government so that the landlocked Australian Capital Territory would have maritime access. Due to the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act, the laws of the ACT apply to the Jervis Bay Territory, and it was administered by the Department of the Interior (and later by the Department of the Capital Territory) as if it were part of the Australian Capital Territory, although it has always been a separate Commonwealth territory. In 1989, when the ACT achieved self-government, the Department of the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and Territories took over responsibility for the JBT's administration, and it has since been administered by various Commonwealth departments responsible to the Minister for Territories.

Mexico
Former Federal District (Mexico), was converted into Mexico City in January 2016.

title: Federal district


text:
Ernie Wise

Ernest Wiseman, (27 November 1925 – 21 March 1999), known by his stage name Ernie Wise, was an English comedian, best known as one half of the comedy duo Morecambe and Wise, who became a national institution on British television, especially for their Christmas specials.

Early life and education
Ernest Wiseman, born in Leeds to Harry and Connie (née Wright) Wiseman, who married in St Thomas, Stanningley, was the eldest of five children, and changed his surname (as did his future partner) to go into show business. He attended Thorpe Infant and Junior School, and then East Ardsley Boys' School, but entered the entertainment industry in 1933, appearing as an actor and singer in music hall. His father, Harry, a railway lamp man, was also a semi-professional singer, and they appeared together under the name "Bert Carson and his Little Wonder". An early clipping shows Bert Carson and the Little Wonder (then aged seven) taking part in an audition concert at the Harewood Working Men’s Club in January 1933.

Wise (aged 10) appeared as a clown in the Nignog Revue at the Alhambra in Bradford in March 1936 and received a very good review. “His tap dancing and personality songs are in the best music hall style, and he astonished the house with his amazing boldness.” He started making solo appearances—singing, dancing, and telling jokes—in 1936, and in the autumn of 1938 he came to the attention of Bryan Michie, a leading juvenile talent spotter, who recommended him to the impresario Jack Hylton. Working with Hylton, Wise made his London debut in January 1939 at the Princes' Theatre in the "Band Waggon" stage show and received a very good review. He toured with Jack Hylton's stage show and made his television debut on the BBC London television Jack Hylton show on 15 March 1939.

Performing career
In August 1940, Wise met Eric Morecambe, then known as Eric Bartholomew, when they were both in the touring Jack Hylton show "Youth takes a Bow".

Gradually, the duo formed a close friendship, and, in 1941, they began their comedy double act, which was to last until Morecambe's death in 1984. They made their debut together as "Bartholomew and Wise" on Thursday 28 August 1941, at the Liverpool Empire. A change of name followed in the autumn: after agreeing that the combination of their respective places of birth—Morecambe and Leeds—would make the act sound too much like a cheap day return, they settled on "Morecambe and Wise".

Both continued to work in theatre comedy during the Second World War until late 1943, when Morecambe went down a coal mine at Accrington (as a Bevin Boy) and Wise served in the Merchant Navy.

They reunited after the war and made their name in radio, transferring to television in April 1954—although their first TV series, Running Wild, was unsuccessful. In 1961, they gained their own series on ATV, which was a success and raised their profile. They transferred to the BBC in 1968. Over a period of more than twenty years, Morecambe and Wise had regular series with both ITV and BBC. In 1976, they were both appointed OBEs.

Wise was commonly regarded as the straight man of the partnership, although his role gradually and subtly changed over the years. When Eddie Braben took over as their chief writer, he enriched Wise's persona by making him pompous and naive. Wise's character changed from being a conventional straight man into a pretentious and self-satisfied buffoon. Braben also made Wise a would-be writer; their BBC shows in the 1970s would regularly climax with an extended sketch, introduced by Wise as "a play what I wrote." It was in such a 'play' that Glenda Jackson, at the height of her career, was made to speak the line "All men are fools, and what makes them so is having beauty like what I have got."

Later years
On 1 January 1985, he made what was publicised as the first public mobile phone call in the UK, from St Katharine Docks, East London, to Vodafone's Headquarters in Newbury, Berkshire. In 2015, it was reported that the actual first call was made a few hours earlier by Michael Harrison to his father, Sir Ernest Harrison, chairman of Vodafone.

Also in 1985, Wise appeared in an acting role in an episode of the American TV situation comedy Too Close for Comfort, playing an old friend of the main character Henry, played by Ted Knight. It was Wise's only appearance in an American sitcom, and his last acting role on TV although he would continue to make TV appearances for the next decade, they were all on UK-based documentary, panel, or chat shows.

Wise appeared regularly as a panellist on the ITV revival of the popular panel show What's My Line? He was a guest several times on Countdown, had a gardening column in the News of the World newspaper and also appeared in several West End plays, including The Mystery Of Edwin Drood in 1987. He gave talks on cruises about his life and career. In 1989, he made a guest appearance in Rainbow Series 17, Episode 1276. He wrote his autobiography, Still on My Way to Hollywood, in 1990. He also was the subject on This Is Your Life, which was transmitted on Boxing Day that year. His 1992 Christmas single was a recommended retail release in Music Week. Wise was also an active and long-time participant in the Keep Britain Tidy campaign.

On 14 May 1994, the BBC aired the first of three episodes of a mini-series called Bring Me Sunshine, as a tribute to Eric Morecambe. It was hosted by Ben Elton, who is a huge fan of Morecambe and Wise, and who cites the duo as a big influence on his career. Those interviewed were John Thaw, Roy Castle (who was to die later that year), Diana Rigg, Hale and Pace, and Fry and Laurie. Wise was not asked to participate, the BBC saying that they did not want "too many talking heads". He was, however, recovering from a minor stroke which he had suffered in December 1993 which forced him to spend Christmas and New Year in hospital.

Wise suffered a second minor stroke in August 1995, and as a result, announced his retirement from show business on 27 November 1995, his 70th birthday. In August 1998, Wise was asked by the BBC to take part in Bring Me Sunshine: The Heart and Soul of Eric Morecambe, which was shown on 23 December that year. He had agreed to do so, but then his health had begun to deteriorate further. Earlier that month, Wise suffered two heart attacks within a week while on holiday, and had to undergo a triple heart bypass in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, on 22 January 1999. In March 1999, he was flown back to RAF Northolt, in London, by air ambulance and taken directly to the Nuffield Hospital at Wexham, Buckinghamshire.

Death
Wise died from heart failure and a chest infection at the Nuffield Hospital, Wexham, near Slough, on the morning of 21 March 1999. He was 73 years old. His funeral was on 30 March at Slough Crematorium.

Marriage
Wise married to dancer Doreen Blythe (14 May 1930 – 14 April 2018) on 18 January 1953. They remained married until his death.

Legacy and statue
In March 2010, Wise's widow Doreen unveiled a statue of him in his home town of Morley, West Yorkshire, where he won a talent contest in 1936. The statue was commissioned by the Morley Murals Committee and funded by Doreen.

title: Ernie Wise


text:
Personality

Personality is any person's collection of interrelated behavioral, cognitive and emotional patterns that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but can change over long time periods.

Although there is no consensus definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment. Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell, define personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable.

The study of the psychology of personality, called personality psychology, attempts to explain the tendencies that underlie differences in behavior. Psychologists have taken many different approaches to the study of personality, including biological, cognitive, learning, and trait-based theories, as well as psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches. The various approaches used to study personality today reflect the influence of the first theorists in the field, a group that includes Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers.

Measuring
Personality can be determined through a variety of tests. Due to the fact that personality is a complex idea, the dimensions of personality and scales of such tests vary and often are poorly defined. Two main tools to measure personality are objective tests and projective measures. Examples of such tests are the: Big Five Inventory (BFI), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Rorschach Inkblot test, Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006, or Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R). All of these tests are beneficial because they have both reliability and validity, two factors that make a test accurate. "Each item should be influenced to a degree by the underlying trait construct, giving rise to a pattern of positive intercorrelations so long as all items are oriented (worded) in the same direction." A recent, but not well-known, measuring tool that psychologists use is the 16PF. It measures personality based on Cattell's 16-factor theory of personality. Psychologists also use it as a clinical measuring tool to diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy planning.

Personality is frequently broken into factors or dimensions, statistically extracted from large questionnaires through factor analysis. When brought back to two dimensions, often the dimensions of introvert-extrovert and neuroticism (emotionally unstable-stable) are used as first proposed by Eysenck in the 1960s.

Five-factor inventory
Many factor analyses found what is called the Big Five, which are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (or emotional stability), known as "OCEAN". These components are generally stable over time, and about half of the variance appears to be attributable to a person's genetics rather than the effects of one's environment. These five factors are made up of two aspects each as well as many facets (e.g., openness splits into experiencing and intellect, which each further split into facets like fantasy and ideas). These five factors also show correlations with each other that suggest higher order meta-traits (e.g., factor beta, which combines openness and extraversion to form a meta-trait associated with mental and physical exploration). There are several personality frameworks that recognize the Big Five factors and there are thousands of measures of personality that can be used to measure specific facets as well as general traits.

Some research has investigated whether the relationship between happiness and extraversion seen in adults also can be seen in children. The implications of these findings can help identify children who are more likely to experience episodes of depression and develop types of treatment that such children are likely to respond to. In both children and adults, research shows that genetics, as opposed to environmental factors, exert a greater influence on happiness levels. Personality is not stable over the course of a lifetime, but it changes much more quickly during childhood, so personality constructs in children are referred to as temperament. Temperament is regarded as the precursor to personality.

Another interesting finding has been the link found between acting extraverted and positive affect. Extraverted behaviors include acting talkative, assertive, adventurous, and outgoing. For the purposes of this study, positive affect is defined as experiences of happy and enjoyable emotions. This study investigated the effects of acting in a way that is counter to a person's dispositional nature. In other words, the study focused on the benefits and drawbacks of introverts (people who are shy, socially inhibited, and non-aggressive) acting extraverted, and of extraverts acting introverted. After acting extraverted, introverts' experience of positive affect increased whereas extraverts seemed to experience lower levels of positive affect and suffered from the phenomenon of ego depletion. Ego depletion, or cognitive fatigue, is the use of one's energy to overtly act in a way that is contrary to one's inner disposition. When people act in a contrary fashion, they divert most, if not all, (cognitive) energy toward regulating this foreign style of behavior and attitudes. Because all available energy is being used to maintain this contrary behavior, the result is an inability to use any energy to make important or difficult decisions, plan for the future, control or regulate emotions, or perform effectively on other cognitive tasks.

One question that has been posed is why extraverts tend to be happier than introverts. The two types of explanations that attempt to account for this difference are instrumental theories and temperamental theories. The instrumental theory suggests that extraverts end up making choices that place them in more positive situations and they also react more strongly than introverts to positive situations. The temperamental theory suggests that extroverts have a disposition that generally leads them to experience a higher degree of positive affect. In their study of extraversion, Lucas and Baird found no statistically significant support for the instrumental theory but did, however, find that extraverts generally experience a higher level of positive affect.

Research has been done to uncover some of the mediators that are responsible for the correlation between extraversion and happiness. Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two such mediators.

Self-efficacy is one's belief about abilities to perform up to personal standards, the ability to produce desired results, and the feeling of having some ability to make important life decisions. Self-efficacy has been found to be related to the personality traits of extraversion and subjective well-being.

Self-efficacy, however, only partially mediates the relationship between extraversion (and neuroticism) and subjective happiness. This implies that there are most likely other factors that mediate the relationship between subjective happiness and personality traits. Self-esteem maybe another similar factor. Individuals with a greater degree of confidence about themselves and their abilities seem to have both higher degrees of subjective well-being and higher levels of extraversion.

Other research has examined the phenomenon of mood maintenance as another possible mediator. Mood maintenance is the ability to maintain one's average level of happiness in the face of an ambiguous situation – meaning a situation that has the potential to engender either positive or negative emotions in different individuals. It has been found to be a stronger force in extroverts. This means that the happiness levels of extraverted individuals are less susceptible to the influence of external events. This finding implies that extraverts' positive moods last longer than those of introverts.

Developmental biological model
Modern conceptions of personality, such as the Temperament and Character Inventory have suggested four basic temperaments that are thought to reflect basic and automatic responses to danger and reward that rely on associative learning. The four temperaments, harm avoidance, reward dependence, novelty-seeking and persistence, are somewhat analogous to ancient conceptions of melancholic, sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic personality types, although the temperaments reflect dimensions rather than distance categories.

The harm avoidance trait has been associated with increased reactivity in insular and amygdala salience networks, as well as reduced 5-HT2 receptor binding peripherally, and reduced GABA concentrations. Novelty seeking has been associated with reduced activity in insular salience networks increased striatal connectivity. Novelty seeking correlates with dopamine synthesis capacity in the striatum and reduced auto receptor availability in the midbrain. Reward dependence has been linked with the oxytocin system, with increased concentration of plasma oxytocin being observed, as well as increased volume in oxytocin-related regions of the hypothalamus. Persistence has been associated with increased striatal-mPFC connectivity, increased activation of ventral striatal-orbitofrontal-anterior cingulate circuits, as well as increased salivary amylase levels indicative of increased noradrenergic tone.

Environmental influences
It has been shown that personality traits are more malleable by environmental influences than researchers originally believed. Personality differences predict the occurrence of life experiences.

One study has shown how the home environment, specifically the types of parents a person has, can affect and shape their personality. Mary Ainsworth's strange situation experiment showcased how babies reacted to having their mother leave them alone in a room with a stranger. The different styles of attachment, labeled by Ainsworth, were Secure, Ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized. Children who were securely attached tend to be more trusting, sociable, and are confident in their day-to-day life. Children who were disorganized were reported to have higher levels of anxiety, anger, and risk-taking behavior.

Judith Rich Harris's group socialization theory postulates that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic relationships such as parent-child relationships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of children's personality characteristics. Thus, this theory points at the peer group representing the environmental influence on a child's personality rather than the parental style or home environment.

Tessuya Kawamoto's Personality Change from Life Experiences: Moderation Effect of Attachment Security talked about some significant laboratory tests. The study mainly focused on the effects of life experiences on change in personality and life experiences. The assessments suggested that "the accumulation of small daily experiences may work for the personality development of university students and that environmental influences may vary by individual susceptibility to experiences, like attachment security".

Some studies suggest that a shared family environment between siblings has less influence on personality than individual experiences of each child. Identical twins have similar personalities largely because they share the same genetic makeup rather than their shared environment.

Cross-cultural studies
There has been some recent debate over the subject of studying personality in a different culture. Some people think that personality comes entirely from culture and therefore there can be no meaningful study in cross-culture study. On the other hand, many believe that some elements are shared by all cultures and an effort is being made to demonstrate the cross-cultural applicability of "the Big Five".

Cross-cultural assessment depends on the universality of personality traits, which is whether there are common traits among humans regardless of culture or other factors. If there is a common foundation of personality, then it can be studied on the basis of human traits rather than within certain cultures. This can be measured by comparing whether assessment tools are measuring similar constructs across countries or cultures. Two approaches to researching personality are looking at emic and etic traits. Emic traits are constructs unique to each culture, which are determined by local customs, thoughts, beliefs, and characteristics. Etic traits are considered universal constructs, which establish traits that are evident across cultures that represent a biological basis of human personality. If personality traits are unique to the individual culture, then different traits should be apparent in different cultures. However, the idea that personality traits are universal across cultures is supported by establishing the Five-Factor Model of personality across multiple translations of the NEO-PI-R, which is one of the most widely used personality measures. When administering the NEO-PI-R to 7,134 people across six languages, the results show a similar pattern of the same five underlying constructs that are found in the American factor structure.

Similar results were found using the Big Five Inventory (BFI), as it was administered in 56 nations across 28 languages. The five factors continued to be supported both conceptually and statistically across major regions of the world, suggesting that these underlying factors are common across cultures. There are some differences across culture, but they may be a consequence of using a lexical approach to study personality structures, as language has limitations in translation and different cultures have unique words to describe emotion or situations. Differences across cultures could be due to real cultural differences, but they could also be consequences of poor translations, biased sampling, or differences in response styles across cultures. Examining personality questionnaires developed within a culture can also be useful evidence for the universality of traits across cultures, as the same underlying factors can still be found. Results from several European and Asian studies have found overlapping dimensions with the Five-Factor Model as well as additional culture-unique dimensions. Finding similar factors across cultures provides support for the universality of personality trait structure, but more research is necessary to gain stronger support.

Culture is an important factor in shaping the personality of individuals. Psychologists have found that cultural norms, beliefs, and practices shape the way people interact and behave with others, which can impact personality development (Cheung et al., 2011).

Studies have identified cultural differences in personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, indicating that culture influences personality development (Allik & McCrae, 2004). For example, Western cultures value individualism, independence, and assertiveness, which are reflected in personality traits such as extraversion. In contrast, Eastern cultures value collectivism, cooperation, and social harmony, which are reflected in personality traits such as agreeableness (Cheung et al., 2011).

Historical development of concept
The modern sense of individual personality is a result of the shifts in culture originating in the Renaissance, an essential element in modernity. In contrast, the Medieval European's sense of self was linked to a network of social roles: "the household, the Kinship network, the guild, the corporation – these were the building blocks of personhood". Stephen Greenblatt observes, in recounting the recovery (1417) and career of Lucretius' poem De rerum natura: "at the core of the poem lay key principles of a modern understanding of the world." "Dependent on the family, the individual alone was nothing," Jacques Gélis observes. "The characteristic mark of the modern man has two parts: one internal, the other external; one dealing with his environment, the other with his attitudes, values, and feelings." Rather than being linked to a network of social roles, the modern man is largely influenced by the environmental factors such as: "urbanization, education, mass communication, industrialization, and politicization." In 2006, for example, scientists reported a relationship between personality and political views as follows: "Preschool children who 20 years later were relatively liberal were characterized as: developing close relationships, self-reliant, energetic, somewhat dominating, relatively under-controlled, and resilient. Preschool children subsequently relatively conservative at age 23 were described as: feeling easily victimized, easily offended, indecisive, fearful, rigid, inhibited, and relatively over-controlled and vulnerable."

Temperament and philosophy
William James (1842–1910) argued that temperament explains a great deal of the controversies in the history of philosophy by arguing that it is a very influential premise in the arguments of philosophers. Despite seeking only impersonal reasons for their conclusions, James argued, the temperament of philosophers influenced their philosophy. Temperament thus conceived is tantamount to a bias. Such bias, James explained, was a consequence of the trust philosophers place in their own temperament. James thought the significance of his observation lay on the premise that in philosophy an objective measure of success is whether philosophy is peculiar to its philosopher or not, and whether a philosopher is dissatisfied with any other way of seeing things or not.

Mental make-up
James argued that temperament may be the basis of several divisions in academia, but focused on philosophy in his 1907 lectures on Pragmatism. In fact, James' lecture of 1907 fashioned a sort of trait theory of the empiricist and rationalist camps of philosophy. As in most modern trait theories, the traits of each camp are described by James as distinct and opposite, and maybe possessed in different proportions on a continuum, and thus characterize the personality of philosophers of each camp. The "mental make-up" (i.e. personality) of rationalist philosophers is described as "tender-minded" and "going by "principles", and that of empiricist philosophers is described as "tough-minded" and "going by "facts." James distinguishes each not only in terms of the philosophical claims they made in 1907, but by arguing that such claims are made primarily on the basis of temperament. Furthermore, such categorization was only incidental to James' purpose of explaining his pragmatist philosophy and is not exhaustive.

Empiricists and rationalists
According to James, the temperament of rationalist philosophers differed fundamentally from the temperament of empiricist philosophers of his day. The tendency of rationalist philosophers toward refinement and superficiality never satisfied an empiricist temper of mind. Rationalism leads to the creation of closed systems, and such optimism is considered shallow by the fact-loving mind, for whom perfection is far off. Rationalism is regarded as pretension, and a temperament most inclined to abstraction.

Empiricists, on the other hand, stick with the external senses rather than logic. British empiricist John Locke's (1632–1704) explanation of personal identity provides an example of what James referred to. Locke explains the identity of a person, i.e. personality, on the basis of a precise definition of identity, by which the meaning of identity differs according to what it is being applied to. The identity of a person is quite distinct from the identity of a man, woman, or substance according to Locke. Locke concludes that consciousness is personality because it "always accompanies thinking, it is that which makes everyone to be what he calls self," and remains constant in different places at different times. Rationalists conceived of the identity of persons differently than empiricists such as Locke who distinguished identity of substance, person, and life. According to Locke, René Descartes (1596–1650) agreed only insofar as he did not argue that one immaterial spirit is the basis of the person "for fear of making brutes thinking things too." According to James, Locke tolerated arguments that a soul was behind the consciousness of any person. However, Locke's successor David Hume (1711–1776), and empirical psychologists after him denied the soul except for being a term to describe the cohesion of inner lives. However, some research suggests Hume excluded personal identity from his opus An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding because he thought his argument was sufficient but not compelling. Descartes himself distinguished active and passive faculties of mind, each contributing to thinking and consciousness in different ways. The passive faculty, Descartes argued, simply receives, whereas the active faculty produces and forms ideas, but does not presuppose thought, and thus cannot be within the thinking thing. The active faculty mustn't be within self because ideas are produced without any awareness of them, and are sometimes produced against one's will.

Rationalist philosopher Benedictus Spinoza (1632–1677) argued that ideas are the first element constituting the human mind, but existed only for actually existing things. In other words, ideas of non-existent things are without meaning for Spinoza, because an idea of a non-existent thing cannot exist. Further, Spinoza's rationalism argued that the mind does not know itself, except insofar as it perceives the "ideas of the modifications of body", in describing its external perceptions, or perceptions from without. On the contrary, from within, Spinoza argued, perceptions connect various ideas clearly and distinctly. The mind is not the free cause of its actions for Spinoza. Spinoza equates the will with the understanding and explains the common distinction of these things as being two different things as an error which results from the individual's misunderstanding of the nature of thinking.

Biology
The biological basis of personality is the theory that anatomical structures located in the brain contribute to personality traits. This stems from neuropsychology, which studies how the structure of the brain relates to various psychological processes and behaviors. For instance, in human beings, the frontal lobes are responsible for foresight and anticipation, and the occipital lobes are responsible for processing visual information. In addition, certain physiological functions such as hormone secretion also affect personality. For example, the hormone testosterone is important for sociability, affectivity, aggressiveness, and sexuality. Additionally, studies show that the expression of a personality trait depends on the volume of the brain cortex it is associated with.

Personology
Personology confers a multidimensional, complex, and comprehensive approach to personality. According to Henry A. Murray, personology is: "The branch of psychology which concerns itself with the study of human lives and the factors that influence their course which investigates individual differences and types of personality ... the science of men, taken as gross units ... encompassing "psychoanalysis" (Freud), "analytical psychology" (Jung), "individual psychology" (Adler) and other terms that stand for methods of inquiry or doctrines rather than realms of knowledge."

From a holistic perspective, personology studies personality as a whole, as a system, but at the same time through all its components, levels, and spheres.

title: Personality


text:
Asiatic-Pacific theater

The Asiatic-Pacific Theater was the theater of operations of U.S. forces during World War II in the Pacific War during 1941–1945. From mid-1942 until the end of the war in 1945, two U.S. operational commands were in the Pacific. The Pacific Ocean Areas (POA), divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area and the South Pacific Area, were commanded by Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief Pacific Ocean Areas. The South West Pacific Area (SWPA) was commanded by General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. During 1945, the United States added the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, commanded by General Carl A. Spaatz.

Because of the complementary roles of the United States Army and the United States Navy in conducting war, the Pacific Theater had no single Allied or U.S. commander (comparable to General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower in the European Theater of Operations). No actual command existed; rather, the Asiatic-Pacific Theater was divided into SWPA, POA, and other forces and theaters, such as the China Burma India Theater.

North Pacific Area

 * Aleutian Islands Campaign, 1942–43
 * Battle of the Komandorski Islands, March 1943

Central Pacific Area

 * Attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941
 * Battle of Guam, 8–10 December 1941
 * Battle of Wake Island, 8–23 December 1941
 * Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands, 9 December 1941 - August 1945
 * Marshalls–Gilberts raids, 1 February 1942
 * Doolittle Raid, 18 April 1942
 * Japanese occupation of Nauru, 26 August 1942 - September 1945
 * Battle of Midway, 4–7 June 1942
 * Makin Island raid, 17–18 August 1942
 * Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, November 1943 – February 1944
 * Battle of Tarawa, 20–23 November 1943
 * Battle of Makin, 20–23 November 1943
 * Battle of Kwajalein, 31 January – 3 February 1944
 * Raid on Truk, 17–18 February 1944
 * Battle of Eniwetok, 17–23 February 1944
 * Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, 1944
 * Battle of Saipan, June 1944
 * Battle of the Philippine Sea, June 1944
 * Battle of Guam, July – August 1944
 * Battle of Tinian, July – August 1944
 * Battle of Peleliu, September – November 1944
 * Battle of Angaur, September – October 1944
 * Battle of Leyte Gulf, October 1944
 * Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, October 1944
 * Battle off Cape Engaño, October 1944
 * Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign, 1945
 * Battle of Iwo Jima, February 1945
 * Battle of Okinawa, April 1945

South Pacific Area

 * Guadalcanal Campaign, August 1942 – February 1943
 * Battle of Savo Island, 9 August 1942
 * Battle of the Eastern Solomons, 24–25 August 1942
 * Battle of Cape Esperance, 11–12 October 1942
 * Battle for Henderson Field, 23-26 October 1942
 * Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, 26 October 1942
 * Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 12–15 November 1942
 * Battle of Tassafaronga, 30 November 1942
 * Solomon Islands Campaign, January 1942 – November 1943
 * New Georgia Campaign, June–August 1943
 * Battle of Kula Gulf, 6 July 1943
 * Battle of Kolombangara, 12–13 July 1943
 * Battle of Vella Gulf, 6–7 August 1943
 * Battle of Vella Lavella, August–October 1943
 * Naval Battle of Vella Lavella: 6/7 October 1943
 * Land Battle of Vella Lavella: 15 August – 9 October 1943
 * Bougainville campaign, November 1943 – August 1945
 * Landings at Cape Torokina (Operation Cherryblossom), 1–3 November 1943
 * Battle of Empress Augusta Bay, 1–2 November 1943
 * Bombing of Rabaul (1943), 2–11 November 1943
 * Battle of Koromokina Lagoon, 7–8 November 1943
 * Battle for Piva Trail, 8–9 November 1943
 * Battle of the Coconut Grove, 13–14 November 1943
 * Battle of Piva Forks, 18–25 November 1943
 * Battle of Cape St. George, 25 November 1943
 * Raid on Koiari, 28–29 November 1943
 * Battle of Hellzapoppin Ridge and Hill 600A, 12–24 December 1943
 * Pacification of Rabaul, 17 December 1943 – 8 August 1945
 * Battle of the Green Islands, 15–20 February 1944
 * Second Battle of Torokina, 8–25 March 1944
 * Battle of Pearl Ridge, 30–31 December 1944
 * Battle of Tsimba Ridge, 17 January – 9 February 1945
 * Battle of Slater's Knoll, 28 March – 6 April 1945
 * Battle of the Hongorai River, 17 April – 22 May 1945
 * Battle of Porton Plantation, 8–10 June 1945
 * Battle of Ratsua, June–August 1945

South West Pacific Area

 * Philippines campaign, 1942
 * Battle of Bataan, 7 January – 9 April 1942
 * Battle of Corregidor, 5-6 May 1942
 * Dutch East Indies campaign, 1941–42
 * Battle of Borneo (1941–42), 16 December 1941 – March 1942
 * Battle of Manado, 11–13 January 1942
 * Battle of Tarakan (1942), January 11–12, 1942
 * Battle of Balikpapan (1942), 23–24 January 1942
 * Battle of Ambon, 30 January – 3 February 1942
 * Battle of Palembang, 13–15 February 1942
 * Battle of Makassar Strait, 4 February 1942
 * Battle of Badung Strait, 19–20 February 1942
 * Battle of the Java Sea, 27 February 1942
 * Battle of Sunda Strait, 28 February – 1 March 1942
 * Second Battle of the Java Sea, 1 March 1942
 * Battle of Java (1942), 28 February – 12 March 1942
 * Battle of Timor, 19 February 1942 – 10 February 1943
 * New Guinea campaign, 1942–45
 * Battle of Rabaul (1942), 23 January – 9 February 1942
 * Bombing of Rabaul (1942), February and March 1942
 * Invasion of Salamaua–Lae, 8-13 March 1942
 * Battle of the Coral Sea, 4-8 May 1942
 * Kokoda Track campaign, 21 July – 16 November 1942
 * Invasion of Buna-Gona, 21-27 July 1942
 * Battle of Kokoda, 28–29 July 1942 and 8–10 August 1942
 * Battle of Isurava, 26–31 August 1942
 * First Battle of Eora Creek, 31 August 1942 – 5 September 1942
 * Battle of Efogi, 6–9 September 1942
 * Battle of Ioribaiwa, 14–16 September 1942
 * Second Battle of Eora Creek, 11–28 October 1942
 * Battle of Oivi–Gorari, 4–11 November 1942
 * Battle of Milne Bay, 25 August – 7 September 1942
 * Battle of Goodenough Island, 22-27 October 1942
 * Battle of Buna–Gona, 16 November 1942 – 22 January 1943
 * Battle of Wau, 29 January - 4 February 1943
 * Battle of the Bismarck Sea, 2-4 March 1943
 * Landings at Woodlark and Kiriwina (Operation Chronicle), 30 June 1943
 * Salamaua–Lae campaign, April–September 1943
 * Battle of Bobdubi, 22 April 1943 – 19 August 1943
 * Battle of Mubo, 22 April 1943 – 14 July 1943
 * Battle of Lababia Ridge, 20–23 June 1943
 * Landing at Nassau Bay, 30 June - 6 July 1943
 * Battle of Mount Tambu, 16 July 1943 – 18 August 1943
 * Landing at Lae (Operation Postern), 4–16 September 1943
 * Landing at Nadzab (Operation Postern), 5 September 1943
 * Huon Peninsula campaign, September 1943 – March 1944
 * Landing at Scarlet Beach (Operation Diminish), 22 September – 2 October 1943
 * Battle of Finschhafen, 22 September – 24 October 1943
 * Battle of Sattelberg, 17–25 November 1943
 * Battle of Wareo, 27 November – 8 December 1943
 * Battle of Sio, 5 December 1943 – 1 March 1944
 * Landing on Long Island, 26 December 1943
 * Landing at Saidor (Operation Michaelmas), 2 January 1944 – 10 February 1944
 * Finisterre Range campaign, September 1943 – April 1944
 * Battle of Kaiapit, 19–20 September 1943
 * Battle of Dumpu, 22 September – 4 October 1943
 * Battle of The Pimple, 27–28 December 1943
 * Battle of Shaggy Ridge, 19–31 January 1944
 * Battle of Madang, February – April 1944
 * Bougainville campaign, November 1943 – August 1945 (referred to as part of both the New Guinea and the Solomon Islands campaigns)
 * New Britain campaign, December 1943 – August 1945
 * Battle of Arawe, 15 December 1943 – 24 February 1944
 * Battle of Cape Gloucester, 26 December 1943 – 16 January 1944
 * Battle of Talasea, 6 – 9 March 1944
 * Landing at Jacquinot Bay, 4 November 1944
 * Battle of Wide Bay–Open Bay, December 1944 – April 1945
 * Admiralty Islands campaign, 29 February – 18 May 1944
 * Landing on Emirau, 20 - 27 March 1944
 * Western New Guinea campaign, April 1944 – August 1945
 * Invasion of Hollandia and Aitape, 22 April 1944
 * Battle of Lone Tree Hill, 17 May – 2 September 1944
 * Battle of Wakde, 18–21 May 1944
 * Battle of Biak, 27 May 1944
 * Battle of Noemfoor, 2 July - August 31 1944
 * Battle of Driniumor River, 10 July – 25 August 1944
 * Battle of Sansapor, 30 July – 31 August 1944
 * Battle of Morotai 15 September 1944
 * Aitape–Wewak campaign, November 1944 – August 1945
 * Philippines campaign, 1944-45
 * Battle of Leyte, October–December 1944
 * Battle of Leyte Gulf, October 1944
 * Battle of Palawan Passage, October 1944
 * Battle of Surigao Strait, October 1944
 * Battle off Samar, October 1944
 * Battle of Mindoro, December 1944
 * Battle of Lingayen Gulf, January 1945
 * Battle of Luzon, January–August 1945
 * Battle of Manila, February–March 1945
 * Battle of Corregidor, February 1945
 * Invasion of Palawan, February–April 1945
 * Battle of the Visayas, March–July 1945
 * Battle of Mindanao, March–August 1945
 * Battle of Maguindanao, January–September 1945
 * Borneo campaign, 1945
 * Battle of Tarakan, May–June 1945
 * Battle of North Borneo, June–August 1945
 * Battle of Balikpapan, July 1945

China-Burma-India Theater

 * Burma, December 1942 – May 1942
 * India-Burma, April 1942 – January 1945
 * China Defensive, July 1942 – May 1945
 * Central Burma, January 1945 – July 1945
 * China Offensive, May 1945 – September 1945

title: Asiatic-Pacific theater