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Economy (religion)

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Catholic Church, and in the teachings of the Church Fathers which undergirds the theology of those communions, economy or oeconomy (, oikonomia) has several meanings. The basic meaning of the word is "handling" or "disposition" or "management" of a thing, or more literally "housekeeping", usually assuming or implying good or prudent handling (as opposed to poor handling) of the matter at hand. In short, economia is a discretionary deviation from the letter of the law in order to adhere to the spirit of the law and charity. This is in contrast to legalism, or akribia, which is strict adherence to the letter of the law of the church.

Divine economy
The divine economy, in Eastern Orthodoxy, not only refers to God's actions to bring about the world's salvation and redemption, but to all of God's dealings with, and interactions with, the world, including the Creation.

According to Lossky, theology (literally, "words about God" or "teaching about God") was concerned with all that pertains to God alone, in himself, i.e. the teaching on the Trinity, the divine attributes, and so on; but it was not concerned with anything pertaining to the creation or the redemption. Lossky writes: "The distinction between οικονομια [economy] and θεολογια [theology] [...] remains common to most of the Greek Fathers and to all of the Byzantine tradition. θεολογια [...] means, in the fourth century, everything which can be said of God considered in Himself, outside of His creative and redemptive economy. To reach this 'theology' properly so-called, one therefore must go beyond [...] God as Creator of the universe, in order to be able to extricate the notion of the Trinity from the cosmological implications proper to the 'economy.' "

Ecclesiastical economy
The Ecumenical Patriarchate considers that through "extreme oikonomia [economy]", those who are baptized in the Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Old Catholic, Moravian, Anglican, Methodist, Reformed, Presbyterian, Church of the Brethren, Assemblies of God, or Baptist traditions can be received into the Eastern Orthodox Church through the sacrament of Chrismation and not through re-baptism.

Canon law
In the canon law of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the notions of akriveia and economia (economy) also exist. Akriveia, which is harshness, "is the strict application (sometimes even extension) of the penance given to an unrepentant and habitual offender." Economia, which is sweetness, "is a judicious relaxation of the penance when the sinner shows remorse and repentance."

Catholicism
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "The Fathers of the Church distinguish between theology (theologia) and economy (oikonomia). "Theology" refers to the mystery of God's inmost life within the Blessed Trinity and "economy" to all the works by which God reveals himself and communicates his life. Through the oikonomia the theologia is revealed to us; but conversely, the theologia illuminates the whole oikonomia. God's works reveal who he is in himself; the mystery of his inmost being enlightens our understanding of all his works. So it is, analogously, among human persons. A person discloses himself in his actions, and the better we know a person, the better we understand his actions."

title: Economy (religion)


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User talk:Andrewa

''G'day! This is Andrew Alder's user talk page, you knew that. Welcome!''

If you're tempted to go below the top three levels, you might like to read User:Andrewa/How not to rant first

DYK for Banner in the Sky
♠PMC♠ (talk) 00:03, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the heads-up! It is encouraging to know how well the team has worked. Andrewa (talk) 03:14, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Andrewa


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Yi Cha-ch'un

Yi Cha-ch'un (20 January 1315 – 3 June 1361) or known by his Mongolian name Ulus Bukha, was a minor military officer of the Yuan Empire who later transferred his allegiance to Goryeo and became the father of Yi Sŏng-gye, founder of the Joseon Dynasty.

Biography
Yi Cha-ch'un was a chiliarch of a Yuan Dynasty mingghan in Ssangseong Prefecture (present-day Kŭmya County, South Hamgyŏng Province, North Korea - former Goryeo territory annexed by Mongol Empire). After Ssangseong was reconquered by Goryeo under King Gongmin, he migrated to Hamju and got promoted to manho (the equivalent of the Mongolian myriarch of a tümen, lit. ten thousand or chief of ten thousand). He married a Goryeo-Korean lady from Anbyeon, who became Queen Uihye, the mother of Yi Sŏng-gye. He died in Hamgyong in 1361.

Since he was glamorized by his descendants, descriptions of Yi Cha-ch'un's life tend to be contradictory to each other. For example, he is said to have risen to the rank of scholar-official. However, when he died, the king at the time expressed condolences for Cha-ch'un as if for scholar-officials, implying that Yi Cha-ch'un was not a scholar-official.

Family

 * Father: Yi Ch'un
 * Grandfather: Yi Haeng-ni
 * Grandmother: Queen Jeongsuk of the Yeongheung Ch'oe clan
 * Mother: Queen Gyeongsun of the Munju Pak clan
 * Grandfather: Pak Kwang
 * Wives and their Children:
 * 1) Lady Yi of the Hansan Yi clan (부인 한산이씨; d. 1333)
 * 2) Yi Wŏn-gye, Grand Prince Wanpung (1330–1388)
 * 3) Yi Ch'ŏn-gye, Grand Prince Yeongseong (1333–1376)
 * 4) Lady Yi – married Kang U
 * 5) Queen Uihye of the Yeongheung Ch'oe clan
 * 6) Yi Sŏng-gye, King Taejo of Joseon (1335–1408)
 * 7) Princess Jeonghwa
 * 8) Lady Kim Koŭmga (d. 1404)
 * 9) Yi Hwa, Grand Prince Uian (1348–1408)
 * 10) Unknown woman
 * 11) Yi Yŏng (이영; d. 1394)

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Jeon Byung-ok in the 2005–2006 MBC TV series Shin Don.
 * Portrayed by Jung Dong-gyu in the 2012 SBS TV series Faith.
 * Portrayed by Lee Soon-jae in the 2015–2016 SBS TV series Six Flying Dragons.

title: Yi Cha-ch'un


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Talk:Women's association football

Archived thread
Please start a new thread instead of adding to this one

Do we need this article?????? It's only links to external sites ATM. I wouldn't think 'female' football was sufficiently different to male football to deserve an entry. Not this stub anyway... KJ

If we had an article, yes I think we would need it. It is useful to know how and when women's involvement in the sport appeared. By the way, it some countries, it still goes under the name of Ladies football JtdIrL 01:50 Mar 4, 2003 (UTC)

The page needs some serious innput or else a trip to the dletion log. But I will try to work on it...(if I remember)

Antonio Shake Your Bon Bon Martin

I really think it should be Women's Football. -- Zoe

 * Women's Football sounds rightest to me. Google says 19,000 for Womens, 13,900 for Ladies, and 1,950 for Female, for what it's worth. -Nommo

i don't think anybody really cares about womens football.
 * The 20,000+ people who attended the England games during the recent European Championships would disagree with you. And please put a name to your comments, thank you. Jess Cully 9 July 2005 01:22 (UTC)
 * Should we even have to have this argument?

 * I'm editing this page just to close this current thread as such (without any comment deletion). It's just that this page has had significant work done on it since some of these comments have been made. Some of the comments aren't dated so it might be a bit confusing to newcomers - Master Of Ninja 9 July 2005 07:59 (UTC)

Merge?
This is a fairly empty article - is it not better to merge it with the main Women's football (soccer) page and just expand that? - Master Of Ninja 13:25, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

Hi MON. That's an idea. Though the Women's football (soccer) page would need some re-working to keep it organized. I imagine it will get quite large, since the WWC is coming up next year and more people are beginning to use it. Got any ideas for smart growth management? Deebki 20:33, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm thinking of putting the merge title on it as there's not enough info on this page to justify having a separate article. On top of that empty sections just look bad, especially when created and left. I'm not even sure the sections are relevant as they will get unmanageable. The main Women's football (soccer) should be quite easy to fix up as there are separate pages for international competitions, plus for Women's football around the world. All the info on this page can be added there, with the small section on professionalism moved to the main page. That's my idea anyway. I've put a merge section on this just to see what other people think - Master Of Ninja 19:44, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

I support this merger. The information covered on this page is very similar to the information covered on 'Women's football (soccer)', only that page contains more details. There seems little reason for professional women's football to have its own page, distinct from amateur women's football, when both can be covered on the same page. It's worth noting that there's no equivalent page for men's professional football (soccer) - that's covered on the main football (soccer) page, and the same should be the case here. Terraxos 01:42, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm not voting for or against until there's a plan in place. But, if we merger them, perhaps we should consider splitting out some sections, like we had to with the history section of the men's article as it grew far too long.  Deebki 10:46, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

I support the merger as well. The Women's football (soccer) article could very well grow to be too large to manage, but when that point comes then already written sections of the main article will be split off into the subcatagories. As it stands now, the info in this page simply restates some of the info on the Women's football (soccer) page. -- DSGruss 18:54, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

Expand
This subject is distinct from the generic "women's football." Like the Football (soccer) article, Women's football (soccer) will out-grow the constraints of a single page, necessitating the creation of topic articles anyway. I'd like to give this article time to mature. Since there are not as many Wikipedians supporting articles related to women's football as men's, perhaps we need to solicit support in the Wikipedia/media communities. I've tagged the article with an expansion request. Below are sections that need development attention:

 * ===Full-time Professional Teams===
 * ===Part-time Professional Teams===
 * ===Full-time Paid Professional Players===
 * ===Full-time Coaches and Staff===
 * ===Prize Money===
 * ===Endorsements===

Deebki 22:13, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

Globalize This Article
Please continue to globalize this article. If someone wants to create it, we could use a "To-do list" list here. Most immediately needed content: teams, leagues, players, coaches, competitions and history of women's football from countries beyond just the USA. Thanks to Wikipedians like User:Paulfurst who added Directory of Women's and Girl's football teams in England. -Deebki 01:39, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

New thread
Ordered disambiguation list in terms of popularity. Women's football soccer is on top because of its wider distribution, women's American football comes next because of the country it's associated with, and last comes Australia. I have no idea if we should include rugby as well, anyone? Surge79uwf 02:37, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

Women´s footbal portall
I suggest create a Women´s footbal portal and include information in this article about Women's football pools. --HybridBoy 06:48, 12 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree, there really should be a Women's Football (soccer) portal.

lede
I just voted to keep this article in the specious AfD, but would like to point out a couple of deficiencies in the introductory section.

First, "Women's association football has been played for a long time" is vague and uninformative. The first sentence of the article should tell you what "Women's association football" is. This assumes you already know what "association football" is, and that this is just the women's version of it. I know nuttin' about sports, and after reading this introduction I still don't know what this is. The first sentence of association football, however, tells you what "association football" is. Keep in mind that people may come to this article because they see the phrase "women's association football" and want to know what that is; they may not read association football first, though if the sport per se is the same, you can summarize more briefly and cross-reference to the other article.

Second, although I don't question the following three assertions, you should not be surprised if you're asked to provide a source for each: "Before the 1970s, association football was mostly seen as a men's game. Association football is the most prominent team sport for women in a few countries, and one of the few women's team sports with professional leagues." Cynwolfe (talk) 17:37, 20 February 2011 (UTC)

Hooliganism section...
Is unreferenced, uses weasel words, is poorly written and lumps South African fans in as one. There doesn't seem to be an obvious reference, the CAF website confirms it was abandoned (here), but nothing more, and the first results on google are all copied verbatim from the wiki article. On top of this the event doesn't seem to be of any significance with regards to womens football in general, and as such I'm going to remove it.. if anybody wants it back in please discuss it here first! BulbaThor (talk) 16:23, 13 March 2011 (UTC)

Game
Why there is not a video game with woman soccer? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 201.79.180.107 (talk) 13:05, 30 September 2011 (UTC)

"Women's footballers"
I notice there are many subcategories of Category:Women's association football players which use the phrase "women's footballers". This seems to me to be a grammatically confusing term: it could be interpreted as meaning "footballers who are owned by at least two women". (The first time I saw this, I thought it was a misprint for "women footballers", and it took me a long time to realise there was a grammatically correct way to interpret the phrase with its intended meaning, i.e. "players of women's football".) Does anyone else agree, and is there better terminology to use? --  Dr Greg   talk  21:35, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

Comparing skill levels to men's football
Does anyone have good sources for objective comparisons of the level of mens and womens football?

A mountain of rubbish has been written on this topic, but I waded through some of it to find some mostly-objective nuggets:

 * In 2013, the Swedish women's national team (which came 3rd in the 2011 World Cup) played a under-17 male regional team with only 10 players and lost 0-3
 * "First scientific comparison of men's and women's football finds differences" - not many details. Says the women miss more passes and do 30% less high-intensity running, but cover almost the same distance in total
 * Women spend less time on the ground claiming to have been fouled
 * This author says most of the English women's national team "only train twice a week", and she says this is the same as "men playing in the 8th tier of the national game" (but I think she's exaggerating)

Anyone got other bits of objective info? Gronky (talk) 01:07, 4 November 2014 (UTC)

Source
A lengthy and solid reference piece from the BBC WW1: Why was women's football banned in 1921?. Onanoff (talk) 17:32, 12 December 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Androcentrism
Hello fellow, It'd be fair to create a separate Man's association football, well separated from football, in the same way that the women's one exists. And yes, we should do it for every sport. Asuming that just "football" is the norm, and putting inside only machos is an androcentric and antifeminist way of thinking that none of us want to wikipedia. Thank you. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Slastic (talk • contribs) 15:49, 19 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Women's association football


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Talk:Signal-to-noise ratio

SNR for various modulation systems
What is meaning of A_c W N_0 etc in formula? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 210.94.41.89 (talk) 07:25, 10 August 2012 (UTC)

Initial comment
Information theory has been around since 1948; telecommunications much longer, and usenet only since the '80s. So "signal-to-noise ratio" cannot have originated in usenet. 131.183.81.100 01:58 Mar 4, 2003 (UTC)

What does this mean?
In the article, this was placed without context:

 * In Audio Coding there are terms like
 * NMT
 * TMN
 * SMR

These links don't really go anywhere or appear to be much use, so I removed them. --Twinxor 04:07, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

What's better?
What's better? A high or a low SNR? Maybe someoine can give the formula for calculating SNR? Thanks, --Abdull 10:01, 21 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Generally, a high SNR is desirable since the signal is defined to be something of interest. I'm hard pressed to think of an example when one would desire a very low SNR (no signal, only noise).

- This is just the case I am working on. In smoothing algorithms "signal" is a second derivative jump due to data, it could be transferred to "noise" component. The trade-off between "noise" and "signal" in that case requies understanding of "what is level of non-recongnizable signal" (193.167.195.60 11:06, 14 March 2007 (UTC)).

The best I can do is if you interpret the channel as an encrypted one where the signal is the unencrypted data....then you would want the "viewer" to see as much "noise" as possible so they can't "see" the unencrypted data. But, generally, the higher the SNR the better.

 * As for the formula, it can vary slightly. Generally:

 * $$SNR = \frac{P_{signal}}{P_{noise}}$$

 * which is the ratio of powers of the signal and the noise. Cburnett 20:42, May 24, 2005 (UTC)

Associated Page may crash your PC
Modern PC, plenty of memory using Internet Explorer 6.0. PC crashed about where the second formula is.

Can edit the page OK - but don't know enough to work out why I got a blue screen of death. This occurred on a colleagues PC, so is repeatable (older PC but same vsn of IE).

Help?

Digital SNR derivation
As far as I know, 6*n dB is an approximation. Also, the formula listed contradicts itself:

$$\mathrm{SNR} = 10(2n-1) \cdot \log_{10}(2)+10 \cdot 3 = 6.02 \cdot n + 26.989$$

not $$6.02 \cdot n + 1.763$$

This PDF has a different derivation:

 * $$\mathrm{SNR} = 2^n ( {\sqrt {3} / \sqrt{2}} ) $$
 * $$\mathrm{SNR_{dB}} = 20 \log_{10} \left ( 2^n ( {\sqrt {3} / \sqrt{2}} ) \right ) $$
 * $$\mathrm{SNR_{dB}} = 20 \log_{10} ( 2) \cdot n + 20 \log_{10} ( \sqrt {3} / \sqrt{2}) $$
 * $$\mathrm{SNR_{dB}} = 6.021 n + 1.763 $$ — Omegatron 15:13, August 30, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for fixing the formula, User:212.119.9.186!
 * With more precision is 6.020599 n + 1.760913, if it matters. — Omegatron 15:49, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Also, $$ 10(2n-1) \cdot \log_{10}(2)+10\log_{10}(3) = 20 \log_{10} ( 2) \cdot n + 20 \log_{10} ( \sqrt {3} / \sqrt{2})$$ — Omegatron 01:20, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Ok, the 6.02n formula corresponds to a noise level caused by a uniform fluctuation between two quantization levels. I think another way of saying this is that the sampled value is assumed to be uniformly distributed across the possible range of values.

The 6.02n+1.761 formula maybe only applies to the ratio of a full-scale sine wave to the error signal, as hinted at in the article? So the signal is assumed to be a sine wave instead of being unknown but uniformly distributed. I will try to do the math later.

Is there another for a Gaussian distribution? — Omegatron 17:32, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

 * As I've explained in the article, the noise is signal-dependent, so SNR for a system requires that you come up with a model of what that signal is going to look like first. — Omegatron 20:25, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

 * RMS signal = $$A \over \sqrt{2}$$ or $$FSR/2 \over \sqrt{2}$$ where FSR is the full-scale range of the converter
 * RMS noise = $$q \over \sqrt{12}$$ where q is the LSB

A million different equivalent equations

 * $$10(2n-1) \cdot \log_{10}(2)+10\log_{10}(3)$$
 * $$20 \log_{10}(2^{n-1} \sqrt{6})$$
 * $$20 \log_{10} \left ( {2^n \sqrt{12} \over 2 \sqrt{2}} \right )$$
 * $$20 \log_{10} ( 2) \cdot n + 20 \log_{10} ( \sqrt {3} / \sqrt{2})$$
 * $$2n\cdot10\log_{10}(2)+10\log_{10}(3/2)$$ Totally forgot we have a derivation over at Talk:Quantization_noise — Omegatron 02:35, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

SNR = 8 sigma ... what does the sigma mean?
Nasa describes the performance of a CCD in a space-based optical telescope as having SNR = 8 Sigma

at this page: http://kepler.nasa.gov/sci/basis/character.html

I'm sure someone can explain to me if this just means SNR is 10^8? Or what does it mean?

-Kevin

 * I'm not exactly sure, but sigma often refers to standard deviation, so my guess would be that this means that the SNR is equivalent to (1/) 8 standard deviations in a gaussian distribution or 6x10^-16 or 150dB. This is of course unfounded conjecture, use at your own risk (this corresponds to 25bits, which seems dubious)

SNR
How can I calculate the SNR for video quality? sorry about my spelling

Different meanings of SNR
The current article focusses on the SNR of sound. However, there are alternative meanings and definitions for the SNR, such as for analytical instruments. For instruments, the SNR (signal intensity / standard deviation of background) is a measure for the quality of the signal: if the SNR for a signal is less dan 3, it is not detected, whereas if it is higher than 10, the signal can be quantified. See also the SNR on the Dutch wikipedia. Therefore, I suggest to adapt the article or write a new completely new one. Annabelleke 13:56, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Nonsense; there is only one definition of SNR (except that in video and image the definition gets perverted somewhat by common usage), and it has nothing specific to sound; the dB scale is commonly used for all sorts of sound and non-sound signals, but is completely optional. And detection thresholds are not so simple as you say. Dicklyon 23:34, 15 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Yeah, OK. There's is indeed only one definition (cfr. introduction of the article), but it is expressed in different ways for different disciplines. Therefore, there should be at least a paragraph or notion on the different expressions of definition. In many disciplines, in fact in most disciplines, people don't speak of the power of power ratio. This term comes from fourier transform analysis of a signal.
 * In addition, in the case of analytical chemistry, e.g. for spectroscopic measurements, detection limit is defined, by making use of the SNR.
 * Annabelleke 08:02, 16 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Please do add info about that. Actually, I'm no longer sure of the definition in terms of power ratio, since the SNR is often quantified as an amplitude ratio; either way, one article should cover it all.  Need to review some books... Dicklyon 08:18, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

SNR in image processing
The article says "In image processing, the SNR of an image is usually defined as the ratio of the mean pixel value to the standard deviation of the pixel values" but that sounds confusing to me. I guess it involves time series (thus every pixel in a static image is acquired several times, and its standard deviation can be assigned to noise) or a constant (homogeneous) image; but the way it's written suggests that the standard deviation is calculated over all the pixels in a single frame image, whatever it is. The latter is of course false: the variability of different pixels in an image can be due to the object being imaged, and not all of it is just noise. Default007 13:40, 14 August 2007 (UTC)

"unreferenced driveby edit"
I, too, usually just revert small uncommented changes to new or anonymous editors. But in this case, the removal of the square from the amplitude ratio was correct. It's taken care of by the 20 instead of 10 multiplying the log of the ratio. Editors, please use edit summaries to tell us what your edit is about, so it can be distinguished from drive-by vandalism. Dicklyon 14:50, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

NPR
At NPR (disambiguation), someone had added an entry for Noise Power Ratio, though we don't seem to have such a page. It seems to me that this should probably redirect (if at all) to here, Signal-to-noise ratio. Do other editors agree? Or is a separate page needed? References are here: Thanks, Elonka 04:02, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

 * In books, it does seem to be a genuine term and acronym. Better read some of those books and see what it means. Dicklyon (talk) 05:31, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

Good level
What's good; anything over 100. Is 105 dB good? Daniel Christensen (talk) 15:29, 29 April 2009 (UTC)

 * A 100 dB SNR would be exceptionally high, and very unusual; hard to imagine even, in any kind of sound or image system. Speech is easily intelligible at 0 dB SNR, and perfectly intelligible at 20 dB, and sounds very clean at 40 dB.  So what do you mean by good?  For what?  Dicklyon (talk) 19:56, 29 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Damaging your hearing, maybe. Atypicaloracle (talk) 14:06, 10 June 2010 (UTC)
 * It's common in audio analysis to treat 60 dB as roughly-as-good-as-silent, e.g. when analysing how long reverb lasts. --mcld (talk) 11:07, 3 January 2013 (UTC)

Merge from SINAD
SINAD is a variant on Signal-to-noise ratio with total signal (as opposed to wanted signal) in the numerator. The concept is the same. The math is slightly different. I think it would be more efficient to cover both in the same article. -—Kvng 14:00, 21 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Merge as proposed. Binksternet (talk) 14:24, 21 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Oppose: the SNR article is already long enough, the SINAD article has plenty of content, and it appears that SINAD is a concept referred to enough by certain engineers that it's not a trivial variant. --mcld (talk) 11:05, 3 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose: SINAD is a slightly different concept, and the current SINAD article has enough content. GyroMagician (talk) 14:36, 10 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Unless the resulting merged article would be too long, I don't think the length of the existing articles is pertinent to a merge decision. I don't think it makes sense to have a separate article on a topic which is "slightly different". -—Kvng 18:15, 13 February 2013 (UTC)

 * Maybe I should phrase my comment slightly differently then. Look at the ratios section in the noise box at the bottom of the article. Should all of these ratios be merged into the SNR article? I don't think so. Most users of SNR have never heard of SINAD (I certainly hadn't until I found it on WP). It's a very specific, well-defined term, used by a relatively small group. I do think length is important - if the SINAD page was a single line, I'd agree to merge it here, but I think the article stands in its own right, which is why I oppose the merge. I don't see a persuasive argument to merge. GyroMagician (talk) 16:42, 15 February 2013 (UTC)
 * I've looked in both articles and I can't find the noise box of which you speak. -—Kvng 15:07, 17 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I should have been clearer. I mean the box with all the links to noise-related articles, found at the bottom of the page. You can also see it here: Template:Noise GyroMagician (talk) 09:21, 18 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the context. Doesn't look like a merge is a good idea. I have taken down the banners. -—Kvng 17:17, 20 February 2013 (UTC)

This article presents formula parameter symbols for channel and output S/N for AM and FM modulation that are not defined.

Biochemical Signalling between cells
I came to this page for information on what SNR meant in the context of intercellar signalling. It's mentioned in the opening paragraph but not expanded upon later on in the article. The link provided in the first paragraph doesn't refer to SCN either. Might it be useful to include info on how SCN is manifest in biochemical signalling?

SNR in dB
I have just undone the changes made by Comfr to the SNR in dB section under the definition. While made in good faith, I think this edit was more confusing than helpful. That the signal and noise are expressed in mW, or any other (power) unit, does not make any difference to the ratio SNR, so made the section unnecessarily restricted. Also, discussion about how to manipulate results in dB doesn't really belong on the SNR page - it should be on the (linked) dB page. Comfr - I hope you understand my reasoning, and I'm happy to discuss further. GyroMagician (talk) 10:39, 2 April 2015 (UTC)

 * Thank you GyroMagician for reviewing my "improvements" to the article, which I also feel concerned about for much the same reasons. I modified the article, because of its jumps in reasoning.  The first equation under Decibels is partly based upon how a decibel is defined, and partly derived from the quotient rule for logarithms. The article also failed to explain why taking the difference between two measures of power results in a pure number expressed in decibels. I will continue working on the article while taking your concerns into account.  Please continue making helpful comments.  Comfr (talk) 16:43, 2 April 2015 (UTC)

 * I added a derivation to the article, which does not restrict applicability or introduce new notation. I looked for, but could not find, anything in the decibel article on manipulation of ratios.  Thanks again for taking the time to review my changes, revert, and explain your concerns.  Please let me know, if you still have concerns.  Comfr (talk) 02:22, 3 April 2015 (UTC)

SNR of Multiple Sources
I'd like to request the addition a section on the SNR of multiple elements, because I can't find anything in my library on this topic. An example of this would be: Given an SNR of a single (e.g. transducer) element of X dB, what would be the SNR of M identical elements in an array? My Other Head (talk) 02:06, 8 May 2015 (UTC)

Antennas??
I understand why SNR would be linked from the series on antennas, but it doesn't seem appropriate to have this box on the SNR page. While SNR is important to antennas, it is only one small application out of a great many... Should this box maybe be removed? Jazzlw (talk) 20:32, 6 May 2016 (UTC)
 * I agree. Removing it. Dicklyon (talk) 13:46, 16 June 2018 (UTC)

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Team-B-Vital Improvement Drive
Hello all!

This article has been chosen as this fortnight's effort for WP:Discord's #team-b-vital channel, a collaborative effort to bring Vital articles up to a B class if possible, similar to WP:Articles for Improvement. This effort will run for up to a fortnight, ending early if the article is felt to be at B-class or impossible to further improve. Articles are chosen by a quick vote among interested chatters, with the goal of working together on interesting Vital articles that need improving.

Thank you!  Rema goxer  (talk) 05:45, 7 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Signal-to-noise ratio


text:
Machine tool

A machine tool is a machine for handling or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformations. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus, the relative movement between the workpiece and the cutting tool (which is called the toolpath) is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent, rather than being entirely "offhand" or "freehand". It is a power-driven metal cutting machine which assists in managing the needed relative motion between cutting tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job material.

The precise definition of the term machine tool varies among users, as discussed below. While all machine tools are "machines that help people to make things", not all factory machines are machine tools.

Today machine tools are typically powered other than by the human muscle (e.g., electrically, hydraulically, or via line shaft), used to make manufactured parts (components) in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation.

With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the economical production of interchangeable parts.

Nomenclature and key concepts, interrelated
Many historians of technology consider that true machine tools were born when the toolpath first became guided by the machine itself in some way, at least to some extent, so that direct, freehand human guidance of the toolpath (with hands, feet, or mouth) was no longer the only guidance used in the cutting or forming process. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools, simply provided a label for "tools that were machines instead of hand tools". Early lathes, those prior to the late medieval period, and modern woodworking lathes and potter's wheels may or may not fall under this definition, depending on how one views the headstock spindle itself; but the earliest historical records of a lathe with direct mechanical control of the cutting tool's path are of a screw-cutting lathe dating to about 1483. This lathe "produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest".

The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various root concepts:
 * First is the spindle concept itself, which constrains workpiece or tool movement to rotation around a fixed axis. This ancient concept predates machine tools per se; the earliest lathes and potter's wheels incorporated it for the workpiece, but the movement of the tool itself on these machines was entirely freehand.
 * The machine slide (tool way), which has many forms, such as dovetail ways, box ways, or cylindrical column ways. Machine slides constrain tool or workpiece movement linearly. If a stop is added, the length of the line can also be accurately controlled. (Machine slides are essentially a subset of linear bearings, although the language used to classify these various machine elements may be defined differently by some users in some contexts, and some elements may be distinguished by contrasting with others)
 * Tracing, which involves following the contours of a model or template and transferring the resulting motion to the toolpath.
 * cam operation, which is related in principle to tracing but can be a step or two removed from the traced element's matching the reproduced element's final shape. For example, several cams, no one of which directly matches the desired output shape, can actuate a complex toolpath by creating component vectors that add up to a net toolpath.
 * Van Der Waals Force between like materials is high; freehand manufacture of square plates, produces only square, flat, machine tool building reference components, accurate to millionths of an inch, but of nearly no variety. The process of feature replication allows the flatness and squareness of a milling machine cross slide assembly, or the roundness, lack of taper, and squareness of the two axes of a lathe machine to be transferred to a machined work piece with accuracy and precision better than a thousandth of an inch, not as fine as millionths of an inch. As the fit between sliding parts of a made product, machine, or machine tool approaches this critical thousandth of an inch measurement, lubrication and capillary action combine to prevent Van Der Waals force from welding like metals together, extending the lubricated life of sliding parts by a factor of thousands to millions; the disaster of oil depletion in the conventional automotive engine is an accessible demonstration of the need, and in aerospace design, like-to-unlike design is used along with solid lubricants to prevent Van Der Waals welding from destroying mating surfaces. Given the modulus of elasticity of metals, the range of fit tolerances near one thousandth of an inch correlates to the relevant range of constraint between at one extreme, permanent assembly of two mating parts and at the other, a free sliding fit of those same two parts.

Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams and Jacquard looms. The convergence of programmable mechanical control with machine tool toolpath control was delayed many decades, in part because the programmable control methods of musical boxes and looms lacked the rigidity for machine tool toolpaths. Later, electromechanical solutions (such as servos) and soon electronic solutions (including computers) were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control.

When considering the difference between freehand toolpaths and machine-constrained toolpaths, the concepts of accuracy and precision, efficiency, and productivity become important in understanding why the machine-constrained option adds value.

Matter-Additive, Matter-Preserving, and Matter-Subtractive "Manufacturing" can proceed in sixteen ways: Firstly, the work may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; secondly, the tool may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; thirdly, the energy can come from either the hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some external source, including for examples a foot treadle by the same worker, or a motor, without limitation; and finally, the control can come from either the hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some other source, including computer numerical control. With two choices for each of four parameters, the types are enumerated to sixteen types of Manufacturing, where Matter-Additive might mean painting on canvas as readily as it might mean 3D printing under computer control, Matter-Preserving might mean forging at the coal fire as readily as stamping license plates, and Matter-Subtracting might mean casually whittling a pencil point as readily as it might mean precision grinding the final form of a laser deposited turbine blade.

A precise description of what a machine tool is and does in an instant moment is given by a 12 component vector relating the linear and rotational degrees of freedom of the single work piece and the single tool contacting that work piece in any machine arbitrarily and in order to visualize this vector it makes sense to arrange it in four rows of three columns with labels x y and z on the columns and labels spin and move on the rows, with those two labels repeated one more time to make a total of four rows so that the first row might be labeled spin work, the second row might be labeled move work, the third row might be labeled spin tool, and the fourth row might be labeled move tool although the position of the labels is arbitrary which is to say there is no agreement in the literature of mechanical engineering on what order these labels should be but there are 12 degrees of freedom in a machine tool. That said it is important to remember that this is in an instant moment and that instant moment may be a preparatory moment before a tool makes contact with a work piece, or maybe an engaged moment during which contact with work and tool requires an input of rather large amounts of power to get work done which is why machine tools are large and heavy and stiff. Since what these vectors describe our instant moments of degrees of freedom the vector structure is capable of expressing the changing mode of a machine tool as well as expressing its fundamental structure in the following way: imagine a lathe spending a cylinder on a horizontal axis with a tool ready to cut a face on that cylinder in some preparatory moment. What the operator of such a lathe would do is lock the x-axis on the carriage of the lathe establishing a new vector condition with a zero in the x slide position for the tool. Then the operator would unlock the y-axis on the cross slide of the lathe, assuming that our examples were equipped with that, and then the operator would apply some method of traversing the facing tool across the face of the cylinder being cut and a depth combined with the rotational speed selected which engages cutting ability within the power of range of the motor powering the lathe. So the answer to what a machine tool is, is a very simple answer but it is highly technical and is unrelated to the history of machine tools.

Preceding, there is an answer for what machine tools are. We may consider what they do also. Machine tools produce finished surfaces. They may produce any finish from an arbitrary degree of very rough work to a specular optical grade finish the improvement of which is moot. Machine tools produce the surfaces comprising the features of machine parts by removing chips. These chips may be very rough or even as fine as dust. Every machine tools supports its removal process with a stiff, redundant and so vibration resisting structure because each chip is removed in a semi a synchronous way, creating multiple opportunities for vibration to interfere with precision.

Humans are generally quite talented in their freehand movements; the drawings, paintings, and sculptures of artists such as Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci, and of countless other talented people, show that human freehand toolpath has great potential. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity (constraining the toolpath despite thousands of newtons (pounds) of force fighting against the constraint), accuracy and precision, efficiency, and productivity. With a machine tool, toolpaths that no human muscle could constrain can be constrained; and toolpaths that are technically possible with freehand methods, but would require tremendous time and skill to execute, can instead be executed quickly and easily, even by people with little freehand talent (because the machine takes care of it). The latter aspect of machine tools is often referred to by historians of bytechnology as "building the skill into the tool", in contrast to the toolpath-constraining skill being in the person who wields the tool. As an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is economically practical to make them only with machine tools.

In the 1930s, the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) referenced the definition of a machine tool as "any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal".

The narrowest colloquial sense of the term reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words, the many kinds of [conventional] machining and grinding. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf. However, economists use a slightly broader sense that also includes metal deformation of other types that squeeze the metal into shape without cutting off swarf, such as rolling, stamping with dies, shearing, swaging, riveting, and others. Thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools. For example, this is the breadth of definition used by Max Holland in his history of Burgmaster and Houdaille, which is also a history of the machine tool industry in general from the 1940s through the 1980s; he was reflecting the sense of the term used by Houdaille itself and other firms in the industry. Many reports on machine tool export and import and similar economic topics use this broader definition.

The colloquial sense implying [conventional] metal cutting is also growing obsolete because of changing technology over the decades. The many more recently developed processes labeled "machining", such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, or even plasma cutting and water jet cutting, are often performed by machines that could most logically be called machine tools. In addition, some of the newly developed additive manufacturing processes, which are not about cutting away material but rather about adding it, are done by machines that are likely to end up labeled, in some cases, as machine tools. In fact, machine tool builders are already developing machines that include both subtractive and additive manufacturing in one work envelope, and retrofits of existing machines are underway.

The natural language use of the terms varies, with subtle connotative boundaries. Many speakers resist using the term "machine tool" to refer to woodworking machinery (joiners, table saws, routing stations, and so on), but it is difficult to maintain any true logical dividing line, and therefore many speakers accept a broad definition. It is common to hear machinists refer to their machine tools simply as "machines". Usually the mass noun "machinery" encompasses them, but sometimes it is used to imply only those machines that are being excluded from the definition of "machine tool". This is why the machines in a food-processing plant, such as conveyors, mixers, vessels, dividers, and so on, may be labeled "machinery", while the machines in the factory's tool and die department are instead called "machine tools" in contradistinction.

Regarding the 1930s NBER definition quoted above, one could argue that its specificity to metal is obsolete, as it is quite common today for particular lathes, milling machines, and machining centers (definitely machine tools) to work exclusively on plastic cutting jobs throughout their whole working lifespan. Thus the NBER definition above could be expanded to say "which employs a tool to work on metal or other materials of high hardness". And its specificity to "operating by other than hand power" is also problematic, as machine tools can be powered by people if appropriately set up, such as with a treadle (for a lathe) or a hand lever (for a shaper). Hand-powered shapers are clearly "the 'same thing' as shapers with electric motors except smaller", and it is trivial to power a micro lathe with a hand-cranked belt pulley instead of an electric motor. Thus one can question whether power source is truly a key distinguishing concept; but for economics purposes, the NBER's definition made sense, because most of the commercial value of the existence of machine tools comes about via those that are powered by electricity, hydraulics, and so on. Such are the vagaries of natural language and controlled vocabulary, both of which have their places in the business world.

History
Forerunners of machine tools included bow drills and potter's wheels, which had existed in ancient Egypt prior to 2500 BC, and lathes, known to have existed in multiple regions of Europe since at least 1000 to 500 BC. But it was not until the later Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment that the modern concept of a machine tool—a class of machines used as tools in the making of metal parts, and incorporating machine-guided toolpath—began to evolve. Clockmakers of the Middle Ages and renaissance men such as Leonardo da Vinci helped expand humans' technological milieu toward the preconditions for industrial machine tools. During the 18th and 19th centuries, and even in many cases in the 20th, the builders of machine tools tended to be the same people who would then use them to produce the end products (manufactured goods). However, from these roots also evolved an industry of machine tool builders as we define them today, meaning people who specialize in building machine tools for sale to others.

Historians of machine tools often focus on a handful of major industries that most spurred machine tool development. In order of historical emergence, they have been firearms (small arms and artillery); clocks; textile machinery; steam engines (stationary, marine, rail, and otherwise) (the story of how Watt's need for an accurate cylinder spurred Boulton's boring machine is discussed by Roe ); sewing machines; bicycles; automobiles; and aircraft. Others could be included in this list as well, but they tend to be connected with the root causes already listed. For example, rolling-element bearings are an industry of themselves, but this industry's main drivers of development were the vehicles already listed—trains, bicycles, automobiles, and aircraft; and other industries, such as tractors, farm implements, and tanks, borrowed heavily from those same parent industries.

Machine tools filled a need created by textile machinery during the Industrial Revolution in England in the middle to late 1700s. Until that time, machinery was made mostly from wood, often including gearing and shafts. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron. Cast iron could be cast in molds for larger parts, such as engine cylinders and gears, but was difficult to work with a file and could not be hammered. Red hot wrought iron could be hammered into shapes. Room temperature wrought iron was worked with a file and chisel and could be made into gears and other complex parts; however, hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process.

James Watt was unable to have an accurately bored cylinder for his first steam engine, trying for several years until John Wilkinson invented a suitable boring machine in 1774, boring Boulton & Watt's first commercial engine in 1776.

The advance in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth. That Maudslay had established the manufacture and use of master plane gages in his shop (Maudslay & Field) located on Westminster Road south of the Thames River in London about 1809, was attested to by James Nasmyth who was employed by Maudslay in 1829 and Nasmyth documented their use in his autobiography.

The process by which the master plane gages were produced dates back to antiquity but was refined to an unprecedented degree in the Maudslay shop. The process begins with three square plates each given an identification (ex., 1,2 and 3). The first step is to rub plates 1 and 2 together with a marking medium (called bluing today) revealing the high spots which would be removed by hand scraping with a steel scraper, until no irregularities were visible. This would not produce true plane surfaces but a "ball and socket" concave-concave and convex-convex fit, as this mechanical fit, like two perfect planes, can slide over each other and reveal no high spots. The rubbing and marking are repeated after rotating 2 relative to 1 by 90 degrees to eliminate concave-convex "potato-chip" curvature. Next, plate number 3 is compared and scraped to conform to plate number 1 in the same two trials. In this manner plates number 2 and 3 would be identical. Next plates number 2 and 3 would be checked against each other to determine what condition existed, either both plates were "balls" or "sockets" or "chips" or a combination. These would then be scraped until no high spots existed and then compared to plate number 1. Repeating this process of comparing and scraping the three plates could produce plane surfaces accurate to within millionths of an inch (the thickness of the marking medium).

The traditional method of producing the surface gages used an abrasive powder rubbed between the plates to remove the high spots, but it was Whitworth who contributed the refinement of replacing the grinding with hand scraping. Sometime after 1825, Whitworth went to work for Maudslay and it was there that Whitworth perfected the hand scraping of master surface plane gages. In his paper presented to the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Glasgow in 1840, Whitworth pointed out the inherent inaccuracy of grinding due to no control and thus unequal distribution of the abrasive material between the plates which would produce uneven removal of material from the plates.

With the creation of master plane gages of such high accuracy, all critical components of machine tools (i.e., guiding surfaces such as machine ways) could then be compared against them and scraped to the desired accuracy. The first machine tools offered for sale (i.e., commercially available) were constructed by Matthew Murray in England around 1800. Others, such as Henry Maudslay, James Nasmyth, and Joseph Whitworth, soon followed the path of expanding their entrepreneurship from manufactured end products and millwright work into the realm of building machine tools for sale.

Important early machine tools included the slide rest lathe, screw-cutting lathe, turret lathe, milling machine, pattern tracing lathe, shaper, and metal planer, which were all in use before 1840. With these machine tools the decades-old objective of producing interchangeable parts was finally realized. An important early example of something now taken for granted was the standardization of screw fasteners such as nuts and bolts. Before about the beginning of the 19th century, these were used in pairs, and even screws of the same machine were generally not interchangeable. Methods were developed to cut screw thread to a greater precision than that of the feed screw in the lathe being used. This led to the bar length standards of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

American production of machine tools was a critical factor in the Allies' victory in World War II. Production of machine tools tripled in the United States in the war. No war was more industrialized than World War II, and it has been written that the war was won as much by machine shops as by machine guns.

The production of machine tools is concentrated in about 10 countries worldwide: China, Japan, Germany, Italy, South Korea, Taiwan, Switzerland, US, Austria, Spain and a few others. Machine tool innovation continues in several public and private research centers worldwide.

Drive power sources
"[A]ll the turning of the iron for the cotton machinery built by Mr. Slater was done with hand chisels or tools in lathes turned by cranks with hand power." Machine tools can be powered from a variety of sources. Human and animal power (via cranks, treadles, treadmills, or treadwheels) were used in the past, as was water power (via water wheel); however, following the development of high-pressure steam engines in the mid 19th century, factories increasingly used steam power. Factories also used hydraulic and pneumatic power. Many small workshops continued to use water, human and animal power until electrification after 1900.

Today most machine tools are powered by electricity; hydraulic and pneumatic power are sometimes used, but this is uncommon.

Automatic control
Machine tools can be operated manually, or under automatic control. Early machines used flywheels to stabilize their motion and had complex systems of gears and levers to control the machine and the piece being worked on. Soon after World War II, the numerical control (NC) machine was developed. NC machines used a series of numbers punched on paper tape or punched cards to control their motion. In the 1960s, computers were added to give even more flexibility to the process. Such machines became known as computerized numerical control (CNC) machines. NC and CNC machines could precisely repeat sequences over and over, and could produce much more complex pieces than even the most skilled tool operators.

Before long, the machines could automatically change the specific cutting and shaping tools that were being used. For example, a drill machine might contain a magazine with a variety of drill bits for producing holes of various sizes. Previously, either machine operators would usually have to manually change the bit or move the work piece to another station to perform these different operations. The next logical step was to combine several different machine tools together, all under computer control. These are known as machining centers, and have dramatically changed the way parts are made.

Examples
Examples of machine tools are:
 * Broaching machine
 * Drill press
 * Gear shaper
 * Hobbing machine
 * Hone
 * Lathe
 * Screw machines
 * Milling machine
 * Shear (sheet metal)
 * Shaper
 * BandsawTC625 2.jpg Saws
 * Planer
 * Stewart platform mills
 * Grinding machines
 * Multitasking machines (MTMs)—CNC machine tools with many axes that combine turning, milling, grinding, and material handling into one highly automated machine tool

When fabricating or shaping parts, several techniques are used to remove unwanted metal. Among these are:
 * Electrical discharge machining
 * Grinding (abrasive cutting)
 * Multiple edge cutting tools
 * Single edge cutting tools

Other techniques are used to add desired material. Devices that fabricate components by selective addition of material are called rapid prototyping machines.

Machine tool manufacturing industry
The worldwide market for machine tools was approximately $81 billion in production in 2014 according to a survey by market research firm Gardner Research. The largest producer of machine tools was China with $23.8 billion of production followed by Germany and Japan at neck and neck with $12.9 billion and $12.88 billion respectively. South Korea and Italy rounded out the top 5 producers with revenue of $5.6 billion and $5 billion respectively.

title: Machine tool


text:
Talk:National Security Advisor (United States)

Days?
Why switch this to days? Are we doing every other page in days and not dates? Really?? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.81.39.76 (talk) 03:02, 15 February 2017 (UTC)

Untitled
Why should you care what other people write? You shouldn't delete it because obviously it is something that person wanted to say. HmG

Independence
"The National Security Advisor is appointed by the President without confirmation by the United States Senate. As such, he or she is not connected to the bureaucratic politics of the Departments of State and Defense, and is therefore able to offer independent advice." Surely by removing the confirmatory step, independence is removed completely? Here is a contradiction in this article: The NSA is appointed without confirmation, and Condi Rice was confirmed by a vote of the Senate.

 * She was confirmed by the Senate as Sec of State, not the NSA post.HammerFilmFan (talk) 20:00, 10 March 2013 (UTC)

Spelling
I believe it's Adviser not Advisor, at least that's what C-Span was displaying when they were showing a conference with Zbigniew Brzezinski the former National Security Adviser under President Jimmy Carter. I would like to suggest that this be changed. Dog Face Charlie 20:37, 28 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I was going to second you on that since my in-browser spell checker flagged advisor as a misspelling. Adviser and Advisor are both correct spellings for 'counselor', but I do believe the spelling with the 'o' is correct for this office. In Google searches, it looks like advisor (84,000,000 results) is more common than adviser (34,500,000), but "national security adviser" (1,070,000) betters "national security advisor" (937,000).  Both spellings are available on official US government websites.  When searching only *.gov sites, "national security advisor" beats out the "adviser" version 56,400 to 13,300.  Whitehouse.gov http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/ has "national security advisor" in several places, so I think it's best to keep it like it is until someone can track do a more reliable source that states the official spelling of this office. Or maybe we should change it to the really official "Assistant to the President For National Security Affairs". LinguistAtLarge 00:57, 13 April 2007 (UTC)
 * While both spellings are correct, Associated Press style favors "adviser," for what it's worth. Whichever is chosen, I believe the article should be consistent in its spelling. Mikehillman (talk) 19:03, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

Fictional portrayals
Is this section really necessary? It's almost as long as the list of real National Security Advisors! The Wikipedia article on "President of the United States" does not list everyone who every portrayed an actual or fictional President so why should this article be loaded down with references to "24" and Tom Clancy novels/movies? Doesn't Wikipedia discourage trivia lists in its articles? Mtminchi08 (talk) 06:32, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

National security Assistant
It looks like the initial job title was National security assistant and per the footnote on page 568 it changed to National Security Adviser during the Kennedy administration.

Also, I noticed the author of that book used "National Security Adviser" rather than "National Security Advisor." The phrase appears only once in this book and in a footnote.

Google Books for 1950 to 1970 is split with 43 hits for "adviser" and 51 hits for "advisor". --Marc Kupper|talk 08:51, 24 December 2012 (UTC)

Donilon departure not until July
Donilon's departure is not effective until EARLY JULY. Why is this article saying Rice is in as of June 5th? Why is Donilon's picture already replaced by Rice's? The White House made the ANNOUNCEMENT today. The actual switch will take place in July. Thus I'm reverting to the old page before the Rice additions were made and am adding a sentence about Rice's appointment to the lede. Once the transition officially takes place, then this page can be modified include Rice's portrait and infobox with her information. ask123 (talk) 13:12, 5 June 2013 (UTC)

 * The present solution with Donilon in the infobox, but with Rice in the list as designate, is appropriate. RicJac (talk) 16:25, 8 June 2013 (UTC)

Brent Scowcroft aging

I suggest first Brent Scowcroft term to use this picture (or crop it) rather than the 2009 one. Barraki (talk) 08:56, 14 February 2017 (UTC)

List Party Color Designation
Should the color designation on the list correspond to the party of the President or the party of the NSA? Flynn is a registered Democrat, but served a Republican administration as NSA to Trump. I've set it as red at the moment. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.23.59.200 (talk) 21:25, 14 February 2017 (UTC)

Flynn first Democrat to advise a Republican
As the National Security Advisor, I think that is notable. 70.44.154.16 (talk) 22:02, 21 February 2017 (UTC)

Swearing in
Hasn't McMaster been sworn in as National Security Advisor, yet? GoodDay (talk) 03:39, 25 February 2017 (UTC)

Numbering Wrong
Robert Cutler is the 1st and 3rd NSA, not 1st and 4th (as his Wiki profile says). Hence, every NSA after him is numbered wrong - current NSA Jake Sullivan is listed as the 29th, when he is the 28th. CityPride (talk) 17:00, 29 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I've fixed the Cutler and Sullivan bio's. Feel free to correct the others. - wolf  18:43, 29 April 2021 (UTC)

What is a Senate reconfirmation of military rank?
It says in the lead that if a three- or four-starvgeneral is apointed to the role, this requires a reconfirmation of the military rank by the Senate. What does this mean? What do the Senate do when it reconfirms a rank and why would this be necessary for these ranks in particular? Bandy långe (talk) 21:19, 10 November 2022 (UTC)
 * It's right in the source linked to: "All generals of this rank are appointed to their posts by the president and Senate-confirmed, so a change in post -- in this instance from Director of the Army Capabilities Integration Center to national security adviser -- requires that the Senate reconfirm McMaster’s rank as a three-star general." The president can appoint a lower ranking general without confirmation, but generals at the 3 and 4 star levels require senate confirmation. As to why, I'm not sure, but that is the law as it stands.--User:Khajidha (talk) (contributions) 20:17, 20 November 2022 (UTC)
 * See also: Lieutenant_general_(United_States) and General_(United_States). --User:Khajidha (talk) (contributions) 20:27, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

Hiy 41.86.38.169 (talk) 14:33, 22 August 2023 (UTC)

Robert Cutler Photo
Robert Cutler was the first NSA, serving two terms in the 1950s. However the photo used is his official military portrait from WWI. Is there a more appropriate photo that depicts him around the age he was in office, rather than as a much younger man? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 185.114.123.241 (talk) 15:38, 18 June 2024 (UTC)


text:
USS North Dakota (BB-29)

USS North Dakota (BB-29) was a dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy, the second member of the Delaware-class battleship, her only sister ship being USS Delaware (BB-28). North Dakota was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard in December 1907, was launched in November 1908, and commissioned into the US Navy in April 1910. She was armed with a main battery of ten 12 in guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 kn. North Dakota was the first vessel of the US Navy to be named after the 39th state.

North Dakota had a peaceful career; she was present during the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914, but did not see action. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, North Dakota remained in the US, training crewmen for the rapidly expanding wartime Navy, and therefore did not see combat. She remained on active duty through the early 1920s, until she was decommissioned under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty in November 1923, and converted into a radio-controlled target ship. She served in that capacity until 1930, when she was replaced in that role by USS Utah (BB-31). In 1931, she was sold for scrapping and thereafter dismantled.

Design

The two Delaware-class battleships were ordered in response to the British battleship HMS Dreadnought (1906), the first all-big-gun battleship to enter service. The previous American dreadnoughts, the South Carolina-class battleship, had been designed before the particulars of HMS Dreadnought were known. The Navy decided that another pair of battleships should be built to counter the perceived superiority of Dreadnought over South Carolina, and so Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps prepared a design for a ship with an additional main battery gun turret to match Dreadnought's ten guns. But unlike Dreadnought, all ten of North Dakota's guns could fire on the broadside. At the time of her construction, North Dakota was the largest and most powerful battleship then being built in the world.

North Dakota was 518 ft long overall and had a beam of 85 ft and a draft of 27 ft. She displaced 20380 LT as designed and up to 22400 LT at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft Curtis steam turbines and fourteen coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of 21 knots. The ship had a cruising range of 6500 nmi at a speed of 12 kn. She had a crew of 933 officers and men. Her bow had an early example of bulbous forefoot.

The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12 in/45 Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 7 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one 5 in/50 Mark 6 guns mounted on Mark 9 and Mark 12 pedestal mounts in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21 in torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.

North Dakota's main armored belt was 11 in thick, while the armored deck was 2 in thick. The gun turrets had 12 in thick faces and the conning tower had 11.5 in thick sides.

Construction – 1917

The keel for North Dakota was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, on 16 December 1907. She was launched on 10 November 1908, and completed on 11 April 1910, thereafter being commissioned into the fleet. On 8 September 1910, the ship suffered an oil-tank explosion and fire while at sea. Six men—Chief Watertenders August Holtz and Patrick Reid, Chief Machinist's Mates Thomas Stanton and Karl Westa, Machinist's Mate First Class Charles C. Roberts, and Watertender Harry Lipscomb—each received the Medal of Honor "for extraordinary heroism in the line of his profession" during the fire.

After her commissioning, North Dakota was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet; she participated in the normal peacetime routine of training cruises, fleet maneuvers, and gunnery drills in the Atlantic and in the Caribbean Sea. On 2 November 1910, she crossed the Atlantic for the first time, on a good-will visit to Britain and France. Fleet maneuvers followed in the Caribbean the next spring. Midshipmen training cruises for cadets from the Naval Academy occupied North Dakota's time in the summers of 1912 and 1913. On 1 January 1913, she joined the honor escort for the British armored cruiser HMS Natal (1905), which was carrying the remains of Whitelaw Reid, the United States Ambassador to Great Britain.

The United States remained neutral when war in Europe broke out in August 1914; in the Americas, political disturbances in Mexico during that country's revolution kept the US Navy occupied that year. North Dakota steamed off Veracruz, where she arrived on 26 April 1914, five days after American sailors had occupied the city. She cruised the coast of Mexico to protect Americans in the country until October, when she returned to Norfolk, Virginia, arriving on 16 October. As war loomed, the Atlantic Fleet began intensive training to prepare for a possible American entrance into the conflict.

World War I

North Dakota was conducting gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917. Unlike her sister USS Delaware (BB-28), North Dakota remained in American waters for the duration of the war, and did not see action. She was based out of York River, Virginia and New York City, and was tasked with training gunners and engine room personnel for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet. Admiral Hugh Rodman requested that North Dakota remain behind because he did not trust the reliability of her engines. In 1917, her engines were replaced with new geared turbines, and new fire control equipment was installed.

On 13 November 1919, North Dakota left Norfolk, carrying the remains of the Italian Ambassador to the United States, Vincenzo Macchi di Cellere, who had died 20 October in Washington, D.C. The ship stopped in Athens, Constantinople, Valencia, and Gibraltar while cruising the Mediterranean Sea. She thereafter returned to the United States, and participated in fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean in the spring of 1920. In July 1921, she was present during the joint Army-Navy bombing tests, where the ex-German battleship SMS Ostfriesland and cruiser SMS Frankfurt were sunk in an air-power demonstration. North Dakota returned to the normal peacetime routine of training exercises, including two midshipmen cruises in the summers of 1922 and 1923; the latter cruise went to European waters, where she visited Spain, Scotland, and Scandinavia.

In the years immediately following the end of the war, the United States, Britain, and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs. All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill-advised, and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations, which produced the Washington Naval Treaty, signed in February 1922. Under the terms of Article II of the treaty, North Dakota and her sister Delaware were to be scrapped as soon as the new battleships USS Colorado (BB-45) and USS West Virginia (BB-48), then under construction, were ready to join the fleet. North Dakota was decommissioned on 22 November 1923 in Norfolk in accordance with the terms of the treaty. She was disarmed and reclassified as an "unclassified" ship on 29 May 1924, and thereafter converted into a radio-controlled gunnery target ship. Her turbines were removed for later use aboard the battleship USS Nevada (BB-36) when she was modernized in the 1930s. She served in that capacity until 1930, when she was replaced by the battleship USS Utah (BB-31). She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 7 January 1931 and sold to the Union Shipbuilding Company of Baltimore on 16 March 1931 for dismantling. She was towed from the Norfolk Navy Yard on 27 March 1931 by the company's steamer Columbine to the ship breaking yard in Baltimore.

title: USS North Dakota (BB-29)


text:
USS North Dakota

Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS North Dakota in honor of the 39th state.

 * USS North Dakota (BB-29) was a Delaware-class battleship that was commissioned in 11 April 1910, and participated in World War I.
 * USS North Dakota (SSN-784) is a Virginia-class submarine that was commissioned in October 2014.

title: USS North Dakota


text:
Talk:Coinage Act of 1849

Untitled
this is an actual historic document - somebody needs to write an article ABOUT the ringtones act rather than inserting it... KJ

 * Replaced by a stub. --mav 06:59 Mar 4, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coinage Act of 1849


text:
Sarah

Sarah (born Sarai) is a biblical matriarch, prophet, and major figure in Abrahamic religions. While different Abrahamic faiths portray her differently, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all depict her character similarly, as that of a pious woman, renowned for her hospitality and beauty, the wife and half-sister of Abraham, and the mother of Isaac. Sarah has her feast day on 1 September in the Catholic Church, 19 August in the Coptic Orthodox Church, 20 January in the LCMS, and 12 and 20 December in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Family
According to Book of Genesis 20:12, in conversation with the Philistine king Abimelech of Gerar, Abraham describes Sarah as both his wife and his half-sister ("my father's daughter, but not my mother's"). Such unions were later explicitly banned in the Book of Leviticus. However, some commentators identify her as Iscah (Genesis 11:29), a daughter of Abraham's brother Haran.

By her union with Abraham, Sarah had one child, Isaac. After her death, Abraham married Keturah, whose identity biblical scholars debate (that is, whether or not she was actually Hagar), and by her had at least six more children.

Narrative
In the biblical narrative, Sarah is the wife of Abraham. In two places in the narrative he says Sarah is his sister (Genesis 12:10 through 13:1, in the encounter with Pharaoh, and Genesis 20, in the encounter with Abimelech). Knowing Sarah to be a great beauty and fearing that the Pharaoh would kill Abraham to be with Sarah, Abraham asks Sarah to tell the Pharaoh that she is his sister (Genesis 17).

She was originally called Sarai. In the narrative of the covenant of the pieces in Genesis 17, during which Yahweh promises Abram that he and Sarai will have a son, Abram is renamed as Abraham and Sarai is renamed as Sarah. According to most modern scholars, both Sarah and Sarai come from the same root SRR, with both meaning "important woman". A minority of scholars derive Sarai from the root SRY, meaning "contend with" or "withstand", similar to the name Israel.

Departure from Ur
Terah, with Abram (as he was then called), Sarai and Lot, departed for Canaan, but stopped in a place named Haran, where Terah remained until he died at the age of 205. Yahweh had told Abram to leave his country and his father's house for a land that he would show him, promising to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless those who blessed him, and curse "him" that curses him. Following God's command, Abram took his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the wealth and slaves that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan. Abram was 75 at this time.

Pharaoh
There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so Abram and Lot and their households travelled south to Egypt. On the journey to Egypt, Abram instructed Sarai to identify herself only as his sister, fearing that the Egyptians would kill him in order to take his wife, saying, "I know what a beautiful woman you are. When the Egyptians see you, they will say, 'this is his wife.' Then they will kill me but will let you live. Say you are my sister, so that I will be treated well for your sake and my life will be spared because of you." When brought before Pharaoh, Sarai said that Abram was her brother, and the king thereupon took her into his palace and bestowed upon Abram many presents and marks of distinction. However, God afflicted Pharaoh's household with great plagues. Pharaoh then realized that Sarai was Abram's wife and demanded that they leave Egypt immediately.

Hagar and Ishmael
After having lived in Canaan for ten years and still childless, Sarai suggested that Abram have a child with her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar, to which he agreed. This resulted in tension between Sarai and Hagar, and Sarai complained to her husband that the handmaid no longer respected her. At one point, Hagar fled from her mistress but returned after angels consoled her. She gave birth to Abram's son Ishmael when Abram was eighty-six years old.

Isaac
In when Abram was ninety-nine years old, God declared his new name: "Abraham" – "a father of many nations", and gave him the covenant of circumcision. God gave Sarai the new name "Sarah", and blessed her. Abraham was given assurance that Sarah would have a son. Not long afterwards, Abraham and Sarah were visited by three men. One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said, and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at the idea of bearing a child, for her age was as nothing to God. Sarah soon became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, at the very time which had been spoken. The patriarch, then a hundred years old, named the child "Isaac" (Hebrew yitschaq, "laughter") and circumcised him when he was eight days old. For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God had made me to laugh, [so that] all that hear will laugh with me." Abraham held a great feast on the day when Isaac was to be weaned. It was during this banquet that Sarah happened upon the then teenaged Ishmael mocking Isaac and was so disturbed that she requested that both he and Hagar be banished. Abraham was initially distressed by this but relented when told by God to do as his wife had asked.

Abimelech
After being visited by the three men, Abraham and Sarah settled between Kadesh and Shur in the land of the Philistines. While he was living in Gerar, Abraham again claimed that Sarah was his sister. King Abimelech subsequently had her brought to him. Later, God came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a married woman. Abimelech, who had not laid hands on her, inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that was why he continued to exist. However, if he did not return Sarah to Abraham, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.

Early the next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham replied that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife." Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.

Death
Sarah dies at the age of 127, and Abraham buys a piece of land with a cave near Hebron from Ephron the Hittite in which to bury her, which is the first land owned by the Israelites in Canaan according to the biblical narrative. The place became known as the Cave of the Patriarchs.

Later Hebrew Bible references
Sarah is mentioned alongside Abraham in :
 * Look to Abraham your father, and to Sarah who bore you.

New Testament references
The First Epistle of Peter praises Sarah for obeying her husband. She is praised for her faith in the Hebrews "hall of faith" passage alongside a number of other Old Testament figures. Other New Testament references to Sarah are in Romans and Galatians. In Galatians 4, she and Hagar are used as an allegory of the old and new covenants:

"For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the slave woman and the other by the free woman. His son by the slave woman was born in the ordinary way; but his son by the free woman was born as the result of a promise. These things may be taken figuratively, for the women represent two covenants. One covenant is from Mount Sinai and bears children who are to be slaves: This is Hagar. Now Hagar stands for Mount Sinai and corresponds to the present city of Jerusalem, because she is in slavery with her children. But the Jerusalem that is above is free, and she is our mother...Now you, brothers, like Isaac, are children of promise...Therefore, brothers, we are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman."

Historicity
In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as William Foxwell Albright and biblical scholars such as Albrecht Alt believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "patriarchal age", the 2nd millennium BCE. But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974), and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition (1975). Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first-millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations. By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had given up hope of recovering any context that would make the patriarchs and matriarchs credible historical figures.

In Judaism
Sarah first appears in the Book of Genesis, while the Midrash and Aggadah provide some additional commentary on her life and role within Judaism and its ancestral form, Yahwism. She is born Sarai (Hebrew: שָׂרַי) in Ur Kaśdim, or Ur of the Chaldees, believed to have been in present-day Iraq, 1,958 Anno Mundi, according to the Hebrew calendar. She was the daughter of Haran and the granddaughter of Terah, an idolater who worshiped the Moon god Nanna and high-ranking servant of Nimrod, the king of Shinar, or Mesopotamia, but not of his wife, Amathlai. Her name is a feminine form of sar (שַׂר), meaning "chieftain" or "prince". Through Terah, she would have been a 10th-generation descendant of Noah, still alive, living in the Mountains of Ararat, and over nine centuries old at the time of her birth. No details are given as to her life or her religious beliefs before Abraham's return to Ur Kaśdim to thwart Nimrod's efforts to proclaim himself a god. It is known she wed Abraham, then called Abram, sometime between the ages of forty and five and following her husband's public humiliation of Nimrod, she, along with her father Terah, her orphaned nephew Lot, her manservant Eliezer, and some three hundred others left Ur Kaśdim for Canaan, the present-day Levant, to save Abraham from a plot by Nimrod to destroy him, commanded to do so by Yahweh.

En route to Canaan, the group stopped in Harran, in present-day Turkey, settling there for some twenty years, until Yahweh urged them to move on and so, they left Terah behind, to live out his days, and traveled through Shechem and Bethel, both cities in the present-day West Bank, and, when a famine strikes the region, to Mizraim, present-day Egypt. While in Mizraim, Sarah's beauty attracts the attention of Pharaoh and Abraham, fearing the Egyptians would kill him if they knew Sarah was married to him, introduces himself as her brother and so, Pharaoh bestows upon Abraham great wealth, in the form of livestock and slaves, including Hagar, so that he may take Sarah as his concubine, to live in his palace with him. For Pharaoh's unintentional transgression against Abraham, he and members of his household, save for Sarah, are stricken with plague. Pharaoh then realizes that Abraham is Sarah's husband, not only her brother. Despite Abraham's willful deceit of Pharaoh, Pharaoh does not punish Abraham nor does he require the return of the wealth Abram was given in exchange for Sarah. However, he orders them to leave Mizraim. After leaving Mizraim, Lot splits from their group amicably. He eventually settles in Sodom, over disputes related to the livestock.

They returned to Canaan, and a decade passed and still, she and Abraham had no children. Thus, Sarah offered Hagar, her slavewoman, as a concubine to her husband so that he may have a child. Hagar became pregnant with Ishmael. During Hagar's pregnancy, Sarah and Hagar's relationship deteriorated rapidly, with Sarah striking her and Hagar fleeing into the desert to avoid her, returning only at the urging of angels. Yahweh then told Abraham that Sarah would give him a son. Sarah, then ninety years old, laughed at this idea. But, as prophesied, she became pregnant with Isaac and she nursed him herself. She would ultimately demand that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away and so, Abraham banished them and sent them into the desert.

Sometime after the birth of Ishmael but before the birth of Isaac, Sarah and Abraham travel to Gerar, as described in Genesis 20, where events took place which mirrored those of Mizraim, in which a king, this time Abimelech, took an interest in Sarah for her beauty and, as he had done in Mizraim, Abraham presented himself as her brother instead of her husband and so, believing her unmarried Abimelech took her into her house as Pharaoh had though, this time, Yahweh intervened before he touched Sarah, through dreams and plague. Abimelech confronted Abraham, angry that his lie had caused him to provoke the wrath of a god, but, also like Pharaoh, he bestows great wealth upon Abraham. The two men part amicably, with Abraham saying he will pray for the king, who is childless and without an heir.

It is said that Sarah died at the age of one hundred and twenty seven years, caused in part by the events of the Binding of Isaac. She is buried in Kiryat Arba, in Hebron, in the Cave of Machpela.

In rabbinic literature
The Talmud identifies Sarai with Iscah, daughter of Abraham's deceased brother Haran, so that in this Sarah turns out to be the niece of Abraham and the sister of Lot and Milcah. While in Genesis 20:12 Abraham claims that Sarah "is indeed my sister, my father's daughter" rather than his niece, Rashi asserts that the term "daughter" can also be used regarding a granddaughter, and thus "sister" can be used regarding a niece.

The fifth-century rabbinic midrash Genesis Rabbah dedicates a large amount of attention to Sarah in particular. Not only are a relatively large number of drashot dedicated to the matriarch, but she is repeatedly depicted as a model of personal and religious excellence. This is marked break from the biblical and Second Temple literature in which she plays a far more ancillary role. In light of parallels between the rabbis' characterization of Sarah and early Christian themes connected to the Virgin Mary popular in this same period, it has been suggested that the rabbis used their portrayal of Sarah to establish her as a Jewish alternative to the Virgin Mary.

When brought before Pharaoh, Sarah said that Abram was her brother, and the king thereupon bestowed upon the latter many presents and marks of distinction. As a token of his love for Sarai the king deeded his entire property to her, and gave her the land of Goshen as her hereditary possession: for this reason the Israelites subsequently lived in that land. Sarai prayed to God to deliver her from the king, and He thereupon sent an angel, who struck Pharaoh whenever he attempted to touch her. Pharaoh was so astonished at these blows that he spoke kindly to Sarai, who confessed that she was Abraham's wife. The king then ceased to annoy her. According to another version, Pharaoh persisted in annoying her after she had told him that she was a married woman; thereupon the angel struck him so violently that he became ill, and was thereby prevented from continuing to trouble her. According to one tradition it was when Pharaoh saw these miracles wrought in Sarai's behalf that he gave her his daughter Hagar as slave, saying: "It is better that my daughter should be a slave in the house of such a woman than mistress in another house." Abimelech acted likewise. In Genesis 17:15, God changes her name to Sarah (princess) ("a woman of high rank") as part of the covenant with El Shaddai after Hagar bears Abram his first born son Ishmael.

Sarai treated Hagar well, and induced women who came to visit her to visit Hagar also. Hagar, when pregnant by Abraham, began to act superciliously toward Sarai, provoking the latter to treat her harshly, to impose heavy work upon her, and even to strike her. Some believe Sarai was originally destined to reach the age of 175 years, but forty-eight years of this span of life were taken away from her because she complained of Abraham, blaming him as though he was the cause that Hagar no longer respected her. Sarah was sterile; but a miracle was granted to her after her name was changed from "Sarai" to "Sarah". According to one myth, when her fertility had been restored and she had given birth to Isaac, the people would not believe in the miracle, saying that the patriarch and his wife had adopted a foundling and pretended that it was their own son. Abraham thereupon invited all the notabilities to a banquet on the day when Isaac was to be weaned. Sarah invited the women, also, who brought their infants with them; and on this occasion she gave milk from her breasts to all the strange children, thus convincing the guests of the miracle.

Legends connect Sarah's death with the attempted sacrifice of Isaac, however, there are two versions of the story. According to one, Samael came to her and said: "Your old husband seized the boy and sacrificed him. The boy wailed and wept; but he could not escape from his father." Sarah began to cry bitterly, and ultimately died of her grief. According to the other legend, Satan came to Sarah disguised as an old man, and told her that Isaac had been sacrificed. Believing it to be true, she cried bitterly, but soon comforted herself with the thought that the sacrifice had been offered at the command of God. She started from Beer-sheba to Hebron, asking everyone she met if he knew in which direction Abraham had gone. Then Satan came again in human shape and told her that it was not true that Isaac had been sacrificed, but that he was living and would soon return with his father. Sarah, on hearing this, died of joy at Hebron. Abraham and Isaac returned to their home at Beer-sheba, and, not finding Sarah there, went to Hebron, where they discovered her dead. According to the Genesis Rabbah, during Sarah's lifetime her house was always hospitably open, the dough was miraculously increased, a light burned from Friday evening to Saturday evening, and a pillar of cloud rested upon the entrance to her tent.

In Islam
The Islamic portrayal of Sarah, who is unnamed in the Quran, mimics that of her portrayal in Judaism and Christianity, in that she is a good woman, kin and wife to Abraham, who, after years of barrenness, has a son, the prophet Isaac (Isḥāq). However, notable differences exist in the portrayal of her relationships with Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael. She is not portrayed as Abraham's sister but his first cousin, said to be the daughter of Terah's brother, Haran, and Hagar is not portrayed as Abraham's mistress but a second wife, eliminating the hostility that Sarah feels for Hagar during her pregnancy and toward Ishmael. The Quran likewise repeats the biblical story that Sarah laughed when she received a divine message confirming her pregnancy, although in the Quran this message is heralded by angels and not by God himself: "11:69 And surely Our messenger-angels came to Abraham with good news ˹of a son˺. They greeted ˹him with˺, “Peace!” And he replied, “Peace ˹be upon you˺!” Then it was not long before he brought ˹them˺ a ˹fat,˺ roasted calf. 11:70 And when he saw that their hands did not reach for the food, he became suspicious and fearful of them. They reassured ˹him˺, “Do not be afraid! We are ˹angels˺ sent ˹only˺ against the people of Lot.” 11:71 And his wife was standing by, so she laughed, then We gave her good news of ˹the birth of˺ Isaac, and, after him, Jacob. 11:72 She wondered, “Oh, my! How can I have a child in this old age, and my husband here is an old man? This is truly an astonishing thing!”"

Tomb of Sarah
Sarah is believed to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs (known by Muslims as the Sanctuary of Abraham). The compound, located in the ancient city of Hebron, is the second holiest site for Jews (after the Temple Mount in Jerusalem), and is also venerated by Christians and Muslims, both of whom have traditions which maintain that the site is the burial place of three biblical couples; Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, and Jacob and Leah.

Relationship to Abraham
There are three stories in Genesis where a patriarch identifies his wife as his sister; scholars debate the relationship among these, with some saying that the account of the encounter of Abraham and Sarah with Pharaoh in Genesis 12-13 is the oldest, while the stories of Abraham and Sarah encounter King Abimelech in Genesis 20, and of Isaac and Rebecca's encounter with a different King Abimelech in Genesis 26, are interpretations of that one, generated to explain it or deal with other matters of concern. It is not clear which of the stories is actually older, or what the intent of the editors of the Bible may have been.

According to Emanuel Feldman (1965), basing his argument on Albright's interpretation of the archaeology of Nuzu, a wife could legally be awarded the title "sister", and that this was the most sacred form of marriage, and hence Abraham and Isaac referred to their wives as "sisters" for this reason. Most archaeologists however dispute that view, instead arguing the opposite - that sisters in the region were often awarded the title "wife" in order to give them much greater status in society. Savina Teubal's book Sarah the Priestess posits that while Sarah was indeed both Abram's wife and sister, there was no incest taboo because she was a half-sister by a different mother.

In popular culture
Sarah has been featured in several novels, and she is the central character in Sarah by Orson Scott Card in the Women of Genesis series, Sarai: A Novel by Jill Eileen Smith, and Sarah: A Novel by Marek Halter, and Song of Sarai by Zannah Martin. In the Christian fiction novel Redeeming Love by Francine Rivers, the protagonist, called "Angel" throughout the duration of the story, is barren. At the end of the book, she reveals that her birth name is "Sarah" to her husband, who takes the revelation as a promise from God that they will one day be able to have children. Sarah is also the focus of one of several stories collected in Sarah and After by Lynne Reid Banks. In the 1994 film Abraham, Sarah is portrayed by Barbara Hershey.

Sarah is also a subject discussed in nonfiction books. In Twelve Extraordinary Women by Pastor John F. MacArthur, her life and story is analyzed along with that of Eve, Rahab, Ruth, Hannah, the Virgin Mary, Anna the Prophetess, the Samaritan woman at the well, Mary of Bethany, Martha, Mary Magdalene, and Lydia of Thyatira. Sarah appears in Slightly Bad Girls of the Bible: Flawed Women Loved by a Flawless God by Liz Curtis Higgs alongside several other biblical women.

title: Sarah