text:
1980 in sports

1980 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup:
 * Men's overall season champion: Andreas Wenzel, Liechtenstein
 * Women's overall season champion: Hanni Wenzel, Liechtenstein
 * January 12 – Canada's Ken Read, the leader of the "Crazy Canucks" ski team, wins the Hahnenkamm downhill in Kitzbühel, Austria, becoming the second North American to ever win the classic race.

American football

 * January 20 − Super Bowl XIV: the Pittsburgh Steelers (AFC) won 31–19 over the Los Angeles Rams (NFC)
 * Location: Rose Bowl
 * Attendance: 103,985
 * MVP: Terry Bradshaw, QB (Pittsburgh)
 * Sugar Bowl (1979 season):
 * The Alabama Crimson Tide won 24–9 over the Arkansas Razorbacks to claim the college football national championship
 * December 21: The New Orleans Saints became the NFL's first ever 1-15 team

Association football

 * European Championship – West Germany 2–1 Belgium
 * European Cup – Nottingham Forest 1–0 Hamburg
 * UEFA Cup – 2 legs, Borussia Mönchengladbach 3–2 Eintracht Frankfurt; Eintracht Frankfurt 1–0 Borussia Mönchengladbach, 3–3 on aggregate, Frankfurt win on away goals
 * Cup Winners' Cup – Valencia 0–0 Arsenal (AET), Valencia won 5–4 on penalties
 * England – FA Cup – West Ham United won 1–0 over Arsenal
 * Newport County AFC win Welsh Cup for first time.

Athletics

 * March 31 – death of Jesse Owens, American sprinter who won four gold medals at the Berlin Olympics in 1936
 * June 12 – Soviet Union's Nadiya Olizarenko sets the world record in the women's 800 metres, clocking 1:54.85 at Moscow
 * July 27 – Nadiya Olizarenko betters her own world record in the women's 800 metres at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, clocking 1:53.43.

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * Richmond wins the 84th VFL Premiership (Richmond 23.21 (159) d Collingwood 9.24 (78))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Kelvin Templeton (Footscray)

Baseball

 * September 18 – Outfielder Gary Ward become the sixth Minnesota Twins player to hit for the cycle. The Twins lose 9–8 to the Milwaukee Brewers, wasting Ward's effort. On May 26, 2004 his son, Daryle Ward, will repeat the feat guiding the Pirates' 11–8 victory over the Cardinals. Ward joined his father to become the first father-son combination in major league history to hit for the cycle.
 * Rollie Fingers breaks Hoyt Wilhelm's major league record of 250 saves
 * 1980 World Series – The Philadelphia Phillies of the National League end 97 years of frustration by defeating the American League champion Kansas City Royals four games to two, for the Phillies' first-ever World Championship.
 * Japan's Sadaharu Oh retires from the Yomiuri Giants as the all time professional baseball home run king.

Basketball
NBA Finals
 * Los Angeles Lakers win four games to two over the Philadelphia 76ers

National Basketball League (Australia) Finals
 * St. Kilda Saints defeated the West Adelaide Bearcats 113–88 in the final.

Boxing

 * March 14–22 members of the United States Olympic boxing team died in a plane crash near Warsaw, Poland
 * June 20- Roberto Durán defeats Sugar Ray Leonard by a 15-round decision to win boxing's WBC world Welterweight title.
 * August 2- Thomas Hearns defeats José "Pipino" Cuevas by a knockout in round 2 to win boxing's WBA world Welterweight title and Yasutsune Uehara knocks out Samuel Serrano in round six to win the WBA's world Jr. Lightweight title in Detroit
 * In Cincinnati, Aaron Pryor defeats Antonio Cervantes by a knockout in round four to win the WBA's world Jr. Welterweight title.
 * October 2- Larry Holmes defeats Muhammad Ali by a knockout in round eleven to retain boxing's WBC world Heavyweight title, in what would be Ali's last world title bout.
 * November 25- In The No Más Fight, in New Orleans, Louisiana, Sugar Ray Leonard recovers the WBC's world Welterweight championship with an eight-round technical knockout of Roberto Durán.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 48–10 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * Vanier Cup – Alberta Golden Bears win 40–21 over the Ottawa Gee-Gees

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia won by Bernard Hinault of France
 * Tour de France – Joop Zoetemelk of the Netherlands
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Bernard Hinault of France

Disc sports

 * Disc ultimate league play begins in Toronto with the formation of the Toronto Ultimate League

Dog sledding

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Joe May won with lead dogs: Wilbur & Cora Gray

Field hockey

 * Men's Champions Trophy held in Karachi and won by Pakistan
 * Olympic Games (Men's Competition) won by India
 * Olympic Games (Women's Competition) won by Zimbabwe

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: Jan Hoffmann, Germany
 * Ladies' champion: Anett Pötzsch, Germany
 * Pair skating champions: Marina Cherkasova & Sergei Shakhrai, Soviet Union
 * Ice dancing champions: Krisztina Regőczy & András Sallay, Hungary

Gaelic Athletic Association

 * Camogie
 * All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
 * National Camogie League: Kilkenny
 * Gaelic football
 * All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 1–9 died Roscommon 1–6
 * National Football League – Cork 0–11 died Kerry 0–10
 * Ladies' Gaelic football
 * All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Tipperary
 * National Football League: Kerry
 * Hurling
 * All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Galway 2–15 died Limerick 3–9
 * National Hurling League – Cork 2–10 4–15 beat Limerick 2–10 4–6

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * The Senior PGA Tour (now called Champions Tour) is founded.
 * Masters Tournament – Seve Ballesteros
 * U.S. Open – Jack Nicklaus
 * British Open – Tom Watson
 * PGA Championship – Jack Nicklaus
 * PGA Tour money leader – Tom Watson – $530,808
 * Senior PGA Tour – money leader – Don January – $44,100
 * British Amateur – Duncan Evans
 * U.S. Amateur – Hal Sutton
 * LPGA Championship – Sally Little
 * U.S. Women's Open – Amy Alcott
 * Classique Peter Jackson Classic – Pat Bradley
 * LPGA Tour money leader – Beth Daniel – $231,000

Harness racing

 * Superhorse, Niatross wins the United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace – Niatross
 * Little Brown Jug – Niatross
 * Messenger Stakes – Niatross
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian – Burgomeister
 * Yonkers Trot – Nevele Impulse
 * Kentucky Futurity – Final Score
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Koala King
 * Trotters: Hano Direct

Horse racing
Steeplechases Flat races
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Master Smudge
 * Grand National – Ben Nevis
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Beldale Ball
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by Driving Home
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Detroit
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Tyrnavos
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Known Fact
 * The Derby – Henbit
 * St. Leger Stakes – Light Cavalry
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Genuine Risk
 * Preakness Stakes – Codex
 * Belmont Stakes – Temperance Hill

Ice hockey

 * New York Islanders win Stanley Cup on Bobby Nystrom's overtime goal in Game 6 of the Finals over the Philadelphia Flyers.
 * The United States men's ice hockey team defeats the Soviet Union en route to the gold medal in what is known as the Miracle on Ice.

Olympic Games

 * 1980 Summer Olympics takes place in Moscow, USSR (July 19 - August 3)
 * USSR wins the most medals (195), and the most gold medals (80).
 * 1980 Winter Olympics takes place in Lake Placid, United States (February 13 - February 24)
 * GDR wins the most medals (23), and the USSR wins the most gold medals (10).

Radiosport

 * First Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championships held in Cetniewo, Poland.

Rugby league

 * 8 July – The inaugural 1980 State of Origin game is won by Queensland who defeat New South Wales 20–10 at Lang Park
 * 1980 European Rugby League Championship
 * 1980 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1979–80 Northern Rugby Football League season
 * 1980 NSWRFL season
 * 1980–81 Rugby Football League season
 * 1980 Tooth Cup

Rugby union

 * 86th Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – Cliff Thorburn beats Alex Higgins 18–16, becoming the first non-UK player to win the title
 * World rankings – Ray Reardon remains world number one for 1980/81

Speed skating

 * February 19 - Eric Heiden skates Olympics record 1000 meter in 1 15.18

Swimming

 * XXII Olympic Games, held in Moscow, Soviet Union (July 20 – July 27)
 * February 2 – USA's Chris Cavanaugh sets a world record in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a swimming meet in Amersfoort, Netherlands, shaving off 0.04 of the previous record (23.70) set by Germany's Klaus Steinbach nearly a year ago: 23.66.
 * April 10 – Chris Cavanaugh betters his own world record in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a swimming meet in Austin, Texas (USA): 23.12. At the same event (and on the same day), two other swimmers from the United States, Rowdy Gaines and Bruce Stahl, go under his time, clocking 22.96 and 22.83 respectively.
 * August 15 – USA's Joe Bottom betters the world record in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a meet in Honolulu, Hawaii, shaving off 0.12 of the previous record (22.83) set by Bruce Stahl four months earlier: 22.71.

Tennis

 * April 16 - Arthur Ashe retires from professional tennis
 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open – Brian Teacher
 * French Open – Björn Borg
 * Wimbledon championships – Björn Borg
 * U.S. Open – John McEnroe
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – Hana Mandlíková
 * French Open – Chris Evert
 * Wimbledon championships – Evonne Goolagong Cawley
 * U.S. Open – Chris Evert
 * Davis Cup World tennis – Czechoslovakia defeated Italy 4–1.

Water polo

 * Water polo at the 1980 Summer Olympics won by USSR

Yacht racing

 * The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Freedom defeats challenger Australia, of the Royal Perth Yacht Club, 4 races to 1

Awards

 * ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: U.S. Olympic Hockey Team
 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – U.S. Olympic hockey team, Amateur Ice Hockey
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Chris Evert, Tennis

title: 1980 in sports


text:
Keolis Nederland

Keolis Nederland is a public transport company operating bus and passenger train services in the Netherlands. Originally created as Syntus and owned by Connexxion, Keolis and Nederlandse Spoorwegen, since 2012 Keolis Nederland has been a 100% subsidiary of Keolis. Syntus is an acronym for Synergy between Train and Bus.

History
In 1991 Geldersche Streekvervoer Maatschappij (GSM) and the Dutch Railways started a transport integration project called Integratie Gelderland Oost. Integration between train and bus was the main goal. GSM later merged with Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf Arnhem to form Gelderse Vervoersmaatschappij.

In 1999 Syntus commenced rail operations, Connexxion, Keolis and Nederlandse Spoorwegen each owning one-third. In 2007 Connexxion's share was purchased by Keolis and Nederlandse Spoorwegen. In 2012 Keolis purchased Nederlandse Spoorwegen's 50% share.

In October 2017, Syntus was rebranded Keolis Nederland with a new visual identity.

Visgraatmodel
Syntus propagates synergy, which is based on a so-called 'visgraatmodel' (fish bone model). In this model train service represent the backbones. Bus services represent the spokes that feed train services. After a while other public transport companies like Arriva and Veolia Transport copied the model.

Operations
In 2005, Syntus briefly operated a cross border service into Germany from Arnhem to Emmerich.

From December 2006 until December 2013, Syntus operated the Almelo to Mariënberg rail concession under sub-contract to Connexxion.

In August 2010, Syntus commenced an eight-year contract to operate services in Overijssel. In December 2010, it commenced a 10-year contract to operate services in Gelderland. In December 2016, it commenced a seven-year contract to operate services in Utrecht.

In December 2017, Keolis Nederland has commenced a ten-year contract to operate bus services in Almere. In the same month, it has commenced a 15-year contract to operate rail services in the province of Overijssel from Zwolle to Enschede and Zwolle to Kampen. These will be operated by 16 Stadler Flirts.

Branding
Syntus' corporate identity consisted of the colors yellow, white and blue. Every region has its own identity incorporated in the corporate identity. The Syntus brand was retired in 2017 and replaced by the Keolis brand.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Keolis Nederland


text:
1979 in sports

1979 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season champion: Peter Lüscher, Switzerland
 * Women's overall season champion: Annemarie Moser-Pröll, Austria

American football

 * Super Bowl XIII – the Pittsburgh Steelers (AFC) won 35−31 over the Dallas Cowboys (NFC)
 * Location: Miami Orange Bowl
 * Attendance: 79,484
 * MVP: Terry Bradshaw, QB (Pittsburgh)
 * Sugar Bowl (1978 season):
 * The Alabama Crimson Tide won 14–7 over the Penn State Nittany Lions to claim AP Poll national championship
 * August 4 – Opening game of the American Football Bundesliga played between Frankfurter Löwen and Düsseldorf Panther, first-ever league game of American football in Germany.
 * November 10 – German Bowl I – Frankfurter Löwen defeated the Ansbach Grizzlies 14–8.

Artistic gymnastics

 * World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
 * Men's all-around champion: Alexander Dityatin, USSR
 * Women's all-around champion: Nellie Kim, USSR
 * Men's team competition champion: USSR
 * Women's team competition champion: Romania

Association football

 * May 12 – England – FA Cup – Arsenal win 3–2 over Manchester United
 * Sport Club Internacional win the Brazilian Championship undefeated

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * April 28: Collingwood beats a 70-year-old record for the greatest winning margin in VFL football when they beat St. Kilda by 178 points 31.21 (207) to 3.11 (29)
 * July 28: Fitzroy beats Collingwood's three-month-old record when they beat Melbourne 36.22 (238) to 6.12 (48) with Bob Beecroft kicking ten goals
 * Carlton win the 83rd VFL Premiership (Carlton 11.16 (82) d Collingwood 11.11 (77))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Peter Moore (Collingwood)

Baseball

 * January 23 – Willie Mays receives 409 of 432 votes in the BBWAA election to earn enshrinement in the Hall of Fame.
 * July 12 – Disco Demolition Night at Comiskey Park between the Chicago White Sox and Detroit Tigers
 * August 2 – death of Thurman Munson, New York Yankees catcher, in an air crash
 * World Series – Pittsburgh Pirates won 4 games to 3 over the Baltimore Orioles. The Series MVP was Willie Stargell, Pittsburgh. The Pirates become the only team in sports history to come back from a three games to one deficit in a championship series twice, having also achieved the comeback in the 1925 World Series.

Basketball

 * NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship –
 * Michigan St. wins 75–64 over Indiana St.
 * NBA Finals –
 * Seattle SuperSonics, coached by Lenny Wilkens, won 4 games to 1 over the Washington Bullets for the only finals win in Seattle SuperSonics history.
 * National Basketball League (Australia) –
 * The Australian NBL was founded. The St Kilda Saints became the first champions by defeating the Canberra Cannons 94–93 in the final.

Boxing

 * September 28 in Las Vegas, Larry Holmes retains his World Heavyweight title with an 11th-round TKO of Earnie Shavers.
 * November 30 in Las Vegas, dual world championship undercard: Vito Antuofermo retains his world Middleweight title with a 15-round draw (tie) against Marvin Hagler, and Sugar Ray Leonard wins his first world title, beating WBC world Welterweight champion Wilfred Benítez by knockout in round 15.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 17–9 over the Montreal Alouettes
 * Vanier Cup – Acadia Axemen win 34–12 over the Western Ontario Mustangs

Cricket

 * Cricket World Cup – West Indies beat England by 92 runs
 * World Series Cricket rival competition to official International Cricket Council matches is disbanded.

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia – won by Giuseppe Saronni of Italy
 * Tour de France – Bernard Hinault of France
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Jan Raas of Netherlands

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Rick Swenson won with lead dogs: Andy & O.B. (Old Buddy)

Field hockey

 * 1979 Pan American Games men's competition held in San Juan, Puerto Rico and won by Argentina
 * August – The 2nd Women's World Field Hockey Championships are held at Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada with the Netherlands as the champions.

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: Vladimir Kovalev, Soviet Union
 * Ladies' champion: Linda Fratianne, United States
 * Pair skating champions: Tai Babilonia & Randy Gardner, United States
 * Ice dancing champions: Natalia Linichuk & Gennadi Karponossov, Soviet Union

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament – Fuzzy Zoeller defeats Ed Sneed and Tom Watson in the second hole of a sudden-death playoff, the first time the Masters used a sudden-death format.
 * U.S. Open – Hale Irwin
 * British Open – Seve Ballesteros becomes the first golfer from Continental Europe to win a major since Arnaud Massy of France won this event in 1907.
 * PGA Championship – David Graham
 * PGA Tour money leader – Tom Watson – $462,636
 * Ryder Cup – United States won 17–11 over Europe in the first Ryder Cup to feature a side representing all of Europe.
 * British Amateur – Jay Sigel
 * U.S. Amateur – Mark O'Meara
 * LPGA Championship – Donna Caponi
 * U.S. Women's Open – Jerilyn Britz
 * Classique Peter Jackson Classic – Amy Alcott
 * LPGA Tour money leader – Nancy Lopez – $197,489

Harness racing

 * The Hambletonian is awarded to Meadowlands Racetrack, starting in 1981.
 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace – Happy Motoring
 * Little Brown Jug – Hot Hitter
 * Messenger Stakes – Hot Hitter
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian – Legend Hanover
 * Yonkers Trot – Mo Bandy
 * Kentucky Futurity – Filet of Sole
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Rondel
 * Trotters: No Response

Horse racing
Steeplechases Flat races
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Alverton
 * Grand National – Rubstic
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Hyperno
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by Steady Growth
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Three Troikas
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Troy
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Tap On Wood
 * The Derby – Troy
 * St. Leger Stakes – Son of Love
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Spectacular Bid
 * Preakness Stakes – Spectacular Bid
 * Belmont Stakes – Coastal

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bryan Trottier, New York Islanders
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bryan Trottier, New York Islanders
 * Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 1 over the New York Rangers
 * World Hockey Championship
 * Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia
 * Junior Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
 * Réal Cloutier of the Quebec Nordiques became the second NHL player to score a hat trick in his debut NHL game.
 * Avco World Trophy – Winnipeg Jets won 4 games to 2 over the Edmonton Oilers

Rugby league

 * 1979 Amco Cup
 * 1979 European Rugby League Championship
 * 1979 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1978–79 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1979–80 Northern Rugby Football League season
 * 1979 NSWRFL season

Rugby union

 * 85th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – outsider Terry Griffiths beats Dennis Taylor 24-16
 * World rankings – Ray Reardon remains world number one for 1979/80

Swimming

 * Pan American Games in San Juan, Puerto Rico
 * July 23 – West Germany's Klaus Steinbach sets a world record in the 50m freestyle at a swimming meet in Freiburg, shaving off 0.02 of the previous record (23.72) set by Ron Manganiello nearly a year ago: 23.70.

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open – Guillermo Vilas
 * French Open – Björn Borg
 * Wimbledon championships – July 7 – Björn Borg
 * U.S. Open – John McEnroe
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – Barbara Jordan
 * French Open – Chris Evert
 * Wimbledon championships – July 7 – Martina Navratilova
 * U.S. Open – Tracy Austin, youngest US Open Champion at the age of 16 years, 8 months and 28 days defeating 4-time defending champion Chris Evert 6–4, 6–3 in the final after defeating 2nd seeded Martina Navratilova in the semifinal making Evert lose for the first time in 32 matches.
 * Davis Cup – United States wins 5–0 over Italy in world tennis.

Volleyball

 * Asian Men's Volleyball Championship: won by China
 * Asian Women's Volleyball Championship: won by China
 * Men and Women's European Volleyball Championship held in France: both won by USSR
 * Volleyball at the 1979 Pan American Games in San Juan, Puerto Rico: men's and women's tournaments both won by Cuba

Water polo

 * 1979 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup held in Yugoslavia and won by Hungary
 * 1979 FINA Women's Water Polo World Cup held in Merced, California and won by USA

Multi-sport events

 * 8th Pan American Games held in San Juan, Puerto Rico
 * 8th Mediterranean Games held in Split, Yugoslavia
 * Tenth Summer Universiade held in Mexico City, Mexico
 * September 7 – The Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN) makes its debut.

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Willie Stargell, Major League Baseball
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Tracy Austin, Tennis
 * ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Willie Stargell, Major League Baseball

title: 1979 in sports


text:
1978 in sports

1978 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season champion: Ingemar Stenmark, Sweden
 * Women's overall season champion: Hanni Wenzel, Liechtenstein

American football

 * January 15 − Super Bowl XII: the Dallas Cowboys (NFC) won 27−10 over the Denver Broncos (AFC)
 * Location: Superdome
 * Attendance: 76,400
 * co–MVPs: Harvey Martin, DE and Randy White, DT (Dallas)
 * The Holy Roller Game – Oakland Raiders vs San Diego Chargers
 * Cotton Bowl (1977 season):
 * The Notre Dame Fighting Irish won 38–10 over the Texas Longhorns to win the college football national championship

Artistic gymnastics

 * World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
 * Men's all-around champion: Nikolai Andrianov, USSR
 * Women's all-around champion: Elena Mukhina, USSR
 * Men's team competition champion: Japan
 * Women's team competition champion: USSR

Association football

 * Football World Cup – Argentina wins 3-1 (after extra time) over the Netherlands
 * England - FA Cup – Ipswich Town win 1–0 over Arsenal
 * England - League – Nottingham Forest win the championship as well as the League Cup
 * La Liga won by Real Madrid
 * Primeira Liga won by FC Porto
 * Serie A won by Juventus
 * French Division 1 won by AS Monaco
 * European Cup won by 🇬🇧 Liverpool
 * Kirin Cup tournament is first held in Japan (international club competition phase).
 * Major Indoor Soccer League begins operations in the United States.

Athletics

 * August – 1978 Commonwealth Games held at Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
 * September – 1978 European Championships in Athletics held at Prague
 * December – 1978 Asian Games held at Bangkok, Thailand

Australian rules football
Victorian Football League South Australian National Football League Western Australian National Football League
 * 1 July: Footscray beat Carlton's nine year record for the highest VFL score when they kick 33.15 (213) to St. Kilda’s 16.10 (106). Kelvin Templeton and Ian Dunstan amass 22 goals between them, equalling the 1931 record of Doug Strang and Jack Titus (who died that year).
 * Hawthorn wins the 82nd VFL Premiership (Hawthorn 18.13 (121) d North Melbourne 15.13 (103))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Malcolm Blight (North Melbourne)
 * 30 September: Norwood 16.15 (111) pip Sturt 14.26 (110) to win their twenty-fourth league premiership after the Double Blues had lost only one match all season.
 * Magarey Medal awarded to Kym Hodgeman (Glenelg)
 * 23 September: East Perth 11.15 (81) defeat Perth 12.7 (79) to win their fourteenth WA(N)FL premiership
 * Sandover Medal won by Phil Kelly (East Perth)

Baseball

 * May 5, 1978 – Pete Rose of the Cincinnati Reds becomes the 13th player in Major League history to collect 3,000 career hits.
 * June 14-July 31 – Pete Rose hits safely in 44 consecutive games, tying Willie Keeler’s all-time National League hitting streak.
 * September 23 – Lyman Bostock (27) of the California Angels is shot and killed in error by a jealous husband.
 * World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 2 over the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Series MVP is Bucky Dent, New York

Basketball

 * Wilt Chamberlain is elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, along with coaches Sam Barry, Eddie Hickey, John McLendon, Ray Meyer and Pete Newell, and referee Jim Enright
 * NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship –
 * Kentucky wins 94-88 over Duke
 * NBA Finals –
 * Washington Bullets win 4 games to 3 over the Seattle SuperSonics
 * FIBA World Championship
 * Yugoslavia World Champion

Boxing

 * February 15 – Leon Spinks defeats Muhammad Ali by decision in 15 rounds to win the world heavyweight title.
 * Second World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia
 * September 15 – Muhammad Ali recovers the world’s heavyweight title, beating Leon Spinks by decision in their rematch. It is the first time a boxer wins the world heavyweight title for a third time.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 20–13 over the Montreal Alouettes
 * Vanier Cup – Queen's Golden Gaels win 16–3 over the UBC Thunderbirds

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia won by Johan de Muynck of Belgium
 * Tour de France won by Bernard Hinault of France
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Gerrie Knetemann of Netherlands

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Dick Mackey wins with lead dogs: Skipper & Shrew

Field hockey

 * Men's World Cup held in Buenos Aires and won by Pakistan
 * Men’s European Nations Cup held in Hannover and won by West Germany
 * Men’s Champions Trophy held in Lahore and won by Pakistan
 * Women’s World Cup held in Madrid and won by the Netherlands

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men’s champion: Charles Tickner, United States
 * Ladies’ champion: Anett Pötzsch, Germany
 * Pair skating champions: Irina Rodnina & Alexander Zaitsev, Soviet Union
 * Ice dancing champions: Natalia Linichuk & Gennadi Karponossov, Soviet Union

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament - Gary Player
 * U.S. Open - Andy North
 * British Open - Jack Nicklaus
 * PGA Championship - John Mahaffey
 * PGA Tour money leader - Tom Watson - $362,429
 * British Amateur - Peter McEvoy
 * U.S. Amateur - John Cook
 * LPGA Championship - Nancy Lopez
 * U.S. Women's Open - Hollis Stacy
 * LPGA Tour money leader - Nancy Lopez - $189,814

Harness racing

 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace - Armbro Tiger
 * Little Brown Jug - Happy Escort
 * Messenger Stakes - Abercrombie
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian - Speedy Somolli
 * Yonkers Trot - Speedy Somolli
 * Kentucky Futurity - Doublemint
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Markovina
 * Trotters: Derby Royale

Horse racing
Steeplechases Hurdle races Flat races
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Midnight Court
 * Grand National – Lucius
 * Champion Hurdle – Monksfield
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Arwon
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by Regal Embrace
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Alleged
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Shirley Heights
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Roland Gardens
 * The Derby – Shirley Heights
 * St. Leger Stakes – Julio Mariner
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Affirmed
 * Preakness Stakes – Affirmed
 * Belmont Stakes – Affirmed

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL’s leading scorer during the regular season: Guy Lafleur, Montreal Canadiens
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL’s Most Valuable Player: Guy Lafleur, Montreal Canadiens
 * Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 2 over the Boston Bruins
 * World Hockey Championship
 * Men’s champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia
 * Junior Men’s champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
 * Note: In the early years of the Junior tournament, Canada did not send a true National Junior team to the event. Instead, the Memorial Cup champions usually went to represent Canada. The exception was 1978 in Montreal, when an “all-star” team was put together.
 * Avco World Trophy - Winnipeg Jets won 4 games to 0 over the New England Whalers

Orienteering

 * 1978 World Orienteering Championships.

Rowing

 * March – The Cambridge boat sinks during the annual English University Boat Race, the first sinking in the race since 1951.

Rugby league

 * 1978 Amco Cup
 * 1978 European Rugby League Championship
 * 1978 Kangaroo tour
 * 1978 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1977–78 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1978–79 Northern Rugby Football League season
 * 1978 NSWRFL season
 * 28 May – In a horrific accident at Penrith Park, Panther prop John Farragher is left a quadriplegic after breaking his neck in a scrum – the worst accident in rugby league history.

Rugby union

 * 84th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales who complete the Grand Slam

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – Ray Reardon beats Perrie Mans 25-18
 * World rankings – Ray Reardon remains world number one for 1978/79.

Speed skating

 * First ISU Short Track Speed Skating Championships for men and ladies held in Solihull, UK

Swimming

 * The third FINA World Championships held in West-Berlin, West Germany
 * July 29 – USA's Ron Manganiello sets a world record in the 50m freestyle at a swimming meet in Miami, Florida (United States), shaving off 0.02 of the previous record (23.74) set by Joe Bottom a year ago: 23.72.

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open - Guillermo Vilas
 * French Open - Björn Borg
 * Wimbledon championships - Björn Borg
 * U.S. Open - Jimmy Connors
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open - Chris O'Neil
 * French Open - Virginia Ruzici
 * Wimbledon championships - Martina Navratilova
 * U.S. Open - Chris Evert
 * Davis Cup – United States win 4–1 over Great Britain in world tennis.
 * US Open moves to hard courts of the USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, New York.
 * Total prize money at US Open exceeds US$500,000.

Triathlon

 * First Ironman Triathlon held in Kona, Hawaii

Volleyball

 * 1978 FIVB Men's World Championship held in Rome and won by USSR

Water polo

 * 1978 World Aquatics Championships held in West Berlin and won by Italy.

General sporting events

 * Third All-Africa Games held in Algiers, Algeria
 * Eighth Asian Games held in Bangkok, Thailand
 * Central American and Caribbean Games held in Medellin, Colombia
 * The Commonwealth Games held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
 * Ninth Winter Universiade held in Špindleruv Mlýn, Czechoslovakia

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Ron Guidry, Major League Baseball
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Nancy Lopez, LPGA golf

title: 1978 in sports


text:
1977 in sports

1977 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season champion: Ingemar Stenmark, Sweden
 * Women's overall season champion: Lise-Marie Morerod, Switzerland

American football

 * January 9 − Super Bowl XI: the Oakland Raiders (AFC) won 32−14 over the Minnesota Vikings (NFC)
 * Location: Rose Bowl
 * Attendance: 103,438
 * MVP: Fred Biletnikoff, WR (Oakland)
 * October 9 - Eddie Brown sets NFL record for punt returns in a game (11).
 * November 20 – Playing despite a 101 °F fever as a result of the flu, Chicago Bears running back Walter Payton sets a new single-game NFL rushing record, gaining 275 yards in a 10–7 victory over the Minnesota Vikings.
 * December 11 – Tampa Bay Buccaneers in their second NFL season win their first ever game over the New Orleans Saints. The win ends their NFL record 26-game losing streak encompassing the entire 1976 season and the first 12 games in 1977.
 * Sugar Bowl (1976 season):
 * The Pittsburgh Panthers won 27–3 over the Georgia Bulldogs to win the college football national championship

Association football

 * Liverpool dominate English and European football, winning both the European Cup and the Football League Championship, but they miss out on a "treble" by losing in the FA Cup final.
 * January 18 – death of Luciano Re Cecconi (28), Lazio and Italy, who was shot during a hoax robbery
 * October 1 - Pelé played the final game of his storied career at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. He played the first half for his current club, the New York Cosmos, and the second half for his old Brazilian club Santos.

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * May 7: Hawthorn kick 25.41 (191) against St. Kilda. That score breaks by seven the record for the most behinds by a team in a match, and by six the most scoring shots. Neither record has been equalled.
 * North Melbourne wins the 81st VFL Premiership (North Melbourne 9.22 (76) drew Collingwood Football Club 10.16 (76), replay North Melbourne 21.25 (151) d Collingwood 19.10 (124))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Graham Teasdale (South Melbourne)

Baseball

 * January 19 – Ernie Banks is elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility. He won back-to-back MVP awards, but is best remembered for his famous line, "Let's play two".
 * Sparky Lyle breaks Ron Perranoski's major league record for left-handers of 179 career saves.
 * The Major League Baseball expansion Seattle Mariners and Toronto Blue Jays make their debuts (both are American League teams). It would be the last expansion in MLB until 1993.
 * World Series – The New York Yankees defeat the Los Angeles Dodgers. This is the Series in which Reggie Jackson becomes known as "Mr. October."

Basketball

 * NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship –
 * Marquette wins 67–59 over North Carolina
 * NBA Finals –Portland Trail Blazers won 4 games to 2 over the Philadelphia 76ers

Boxing

 * After 13 years and 82 contests, including 14 title defences, World Middleweight Champion Carlos Monzón retired undefeated.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Montreal Alouettes won 41–6 over the Edmonton Eskimos
 * Vanier Cup – Western Ontario Mustangs win 48–15 over the Acadia Axemen

Cricket

 * 12–17 March, Melbourne - Centenary Test played between Australia and England to commemorate 100th anniversary of first Test match. Australia won by 45 runs, exactly the same margin as in the first Test match in 1877.
 * World Series Cricket begins playing games in competition to official International Cricket Council sanctioned matches.

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia won by Michel Pollentier of Belgium
 * Tour de France - Bernard Thévenet of France
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Francesco Moser of Italy

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Rick Swenson won with lead dogs: Andy & O.B. (Old Buddy)

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: Vladimir Kovalev, Soviet Union
 * Ladies' champion: Linda Fratianne, United States
 * Pair skating champions: Irina Rodnina & Alexander Zaitsev, Soviet Union
 * Ice dancing champions: Irina Moiseyeva & Andrei Minenkov, Soviet Union

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament - Tom Watson
 * U.S. Open - Hubert Green
 * British Open - Tom Watson
 * PGA Championship - Lanny Wadkins
 * PGA Tour money leader - Tom Watson - $310,653
 * Ryder Cup - United States won 12½ -7½ over Britain & Ireland in team golf. This was the last Ryder Cup to feature a side exclusively from the British Isles; the U.S. opponents in the next Ryder Cup, held in 1979 at White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, would be drawn from all of Europe. The U.S.-Europe format has continued ever since.
 * British Amateur - Peter McEvoy
 * U.S. Amateur - John Fought
 * LPGA Championship - Chako Higuchi
 * U.S. Women's Open - Hollis Stacy
 * LPGA Tour money leader - Judy Rankin - $122,890

Harness racing

 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace - Jade Prince
 * Little Brown Jug - Governor Skipper
 * Messenger Stakes - Governor Skipper
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian - Green Speed
 * Yonkers Trot - Green Speed
 * Kentucky Futurity - Texas
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Stanley Rio

Horse racing
Steeplechases Flat races
 * Red Rum wins the Grand National a third time
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Davy Lad
 * Grand National – Red Rum
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Gold and Black
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by Sound Reason
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Alleged
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by The Minstrel
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Nebbiolo
 * The Derby – The Minstrel
 * St. Leger Stakes – Dunfermline
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Seattle Slew
 * Preakness Stakes – Seattle Slew
 * Belmont Stakes – Seattle Slew

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Guy Lafleur, Montreal Canadiens
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Guy Lafleur - Montreal Canadiens
 * Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens defeat the Boston Bruins 4 games to 0.
 * World Hockey Championship
 * Men's champion: Czechoslovakia defeated Sweden
 * Junior Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Canada
 * Avco World Trophy - Quebec Nordiques won 4 games to 3 over the Winnipeg Jets

Radiosport

 * Eighth Amateur Radio Direction Finding European Championship held in Skopje, Yugoslavia.
 * First IARU Radiosport Championship held in July.

Rugby league

 * 1977 Amco Cup
 * 1977 European Rugby League Championship
 * 1977 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1976–77 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1977–78 Northern Rugby Football League season
 * 1977 NSWRFL season - St George and Parramatta draw 9–9 in the Grand Final. St George takes the title by winning the replay 22–0.
 * 1977 Pacific Cup
 * 1977 Rugby League World Cup

Rugby union

 * 83rd Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam and do so by using the same 15 players in all four matches, the first time that an unchanged team has won the Grand Slam

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – John Spencer beats Cliff Thorburn 25-12
 * World rankings – Ray Reardon remains world number one for 1977/78.

Swimming

 * July 3 – USA's Joseph Bottom sets a world record in the 50m freestyle at a swimming meet in Etobicoke, Ontario (Canada), clocking 23.74.

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open - January: Roscoe Tanner - December: Vitas Gerulaitis
 * French Open - Guillermo Vilas
 * Wimbledon championships - Björn Borg
 * U.S. Open - Guillermo Vilas
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – January: Evonne Goolagong - December: Kerry Reid
 * French Open - Mima Jaušovec
 * Wimbledon championships - Virginia Wade
 * U.S. Open - Chris Evert
 * Davis Cup – Australia won 3–1 over Italy in world tennis.

Volleyball

 * Men and Women's European Volleyball Championship held in Finland: both men's and women's tournaments won by USSR

Yacht racing

 * The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as media mogul Ted Turner skippers Courageous to victory over challenger Australia, of the Sun City Yacht Club, 4 races to 0

General sporting events

 * Ninth Summer Universiade held in Sofia, Bulgaria

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Steve Cauthen, Horse racing
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Chris Evert, Tennis
 * ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Steve Cauthen, Horse Racing

title: 1977 in sports


text:
Stress (linguistics)

In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is the relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. That emphasis is typically caused by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in tone. The terms stress and accent are often used synonymously in that context but are sometimes distinguished. For example, when emphasis is produced through pitch alone, it is called pitch accent, and when produced through length alone, it is called quantitative accent. When caused by a combination of various intensified properties, it is called stress accent or dynamic accent; English uses what is called variable stress accent.

Since stress can be realised through a wide range of phonetic properties, such as loudness, vowel length, and pitch (which are also used for other linguistic functions), it is difficult to define stress solely phonetically.

The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress. Some languages have fixed stress, meaning that the stress on virtually any multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as the penultimate (e.g. Polish) or the first (e.g. Finnish). Other languages, like English and Russian, have lexical stress, where the position of stress in a word is not predictable in that way but lexically encoded. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such as primary stress and secondary stress, may be identified.

Stress is not necessarily a feature of all languages: some, such as French and Mandarin Chinese, are sometimes analyzed as lacking lexical stress entirely.

The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress. That is one of the three components of prosody, along with rhythm and intonation. It includes phrasal stress (the default emphasis of certain words within phrases or clauses), and contrastive stress (used to highlight an item, a word or part of a word, that is given particular focus).

Phonetic realization
There are various ways in which stress manifests itself in the speech stream, and they depend to some extent on which language is being spoken. Stressed syllables are often louder than non-stressed syllables, and they may have a higher or lower pitch. They may also sometimes be pronounced longer. There are sometimes differences in place or manner of articulation. In particular, vowels in unstressed syllables may have a more central (or "neutral") articulation, and those in stressed syllables have a more peripheral articulation. Stress may be realized to varying degrees on different words in a sentence; sometimes, the difference is minimal between the acoustic signals of stressed and those of unstressed syllables.

Those particular distinguishing features of stress, or types of prominence in which particular features are dominant, are sometimes referred to as particular types of accent: dynamic accent in the case of loudness, pitch accent in the case of pitch (although that term usually has more specialized meanings), quantitative accent in the case of length, and qualitative accent in the case of differences in articulation. They can be compared to the various types of accents in music theory. In some contexts, the term stress or stress accent specifically means dynamic accent (or as an antonym to pitch accent in its various meanings).

A prominent syllable or word is said to be accented or tonic; the latter term does not imply that it carries phonemic tone. Other syllables or words are said to be unaccented or atonic. Syllables are frequently said to be in pretonic or post-tonic position, and certain phonological rules apply specifically to such positions. For instance, in American English, /t/ and /d/ are flapped in post-tonic position.

In Mandarin Chinese, which is a tonal language, stressed syllables have been found to have tones that are realized with a relatively large swing in fundamental frequency, and unstressed syllables typically have smaller swings. (See also Stress in Standard Chinese.)

Stressed syllables are often perceived as being more forceful than non-stressed syllables.

Word stress
Word stress, or sometimes lexical stress, is the stress placed on a given syllable in a word. The position of word stress in a word may depend on certain general rules applicable in the language or dialect in question, but in other languages, it must be learned for each word, as it is largely unpredictable, for example in English. In some cases, classes of words in a language differ in their stress properties; for example, loanwords into a language with fixed stress may preserve stress placement from the source language, or the special pattern for Turkish placenames.

Non-phonemic stress
In some languages, the placement of stress can be determined by rules. It is thus not a phonemic property of the word, because it can always be predicted by applying the rules.

Languages in which the position of the stress can usually be predicted by a simple rule are said to have fixed stress. For example, in Czech, Finnish, Icelandic, Hungarian and Latvian, the stress almost always comes on the first syllable of a word. In Armenian the stress is on the last syllable of a word. In Quechua, Esperanto, and Polish, the stress is almost always on the penult (second-last syllable). In Macedonian, it is on the antepenult (third-last syllable).

Other languages have stress placed on different syllables but in a predictable way, as in Classical Arabic and Latin, where stress is conditioned by the weight of particular syllables. They are said to have a regular stress rule.

Statements about the position of stress are sometimes affected by the fact that when a word is spoken in isolation, prosodic factors (see below) come into play, which do not apply when the word is spoken normally within a sentence. French words are sometimes said to be stressed on the final syllable, but that can be attributed to the prosodic stress, which is placed on the last syllable (unless it is a schwa in which case the stress is placed on the second-last syllable) of any string of words in that language. Thus, it is on the last syllable of a word analyzed in isolation. The situation is similar in Mandarin Chinese. French, and Georgian (and, according to some authors, Mandarin Chinese) can be considered to have no real lexical stress.

Phonemic stress
With some exceptions above, languages such as Germanic languages, Romance languages, the East and South Slavic languages, Lithuanian, Greek, as well as others, in which the position of stress in a word is not fully predictable, are said to have phonemic stress. Stress in these languages is usually truly lexical and must be memorized as part of the pronunciation of an individual word. In some languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Lakota and, to some extent, Italian, stress is even represented in writing using diacritical marks, for example in the Spanish words célebre and celebré. Sometimes, stress is fixed for all forms of a particular word, or it can fall on different syllables in different inflections of the same word.

In such languages with phonemic stress, the position of stress can serve to distinguish otherwise identical words. For example, the English words insight and incite  are distinguished in pronunciation only by the fact that the stress falls on the first syllable in the former and on the second syllable in the latter. Examples from other languages include German Tenor ( gist of message vs. tenor voice); and Italian ancora ( anchor vs.  more, still, yet, again).

In many languages with lexical stress, it is connected with alternations in vowels and/or consonants, which means that vowel quality differs by whether vowels are stressed or unstressed. There may also be limitations on certain phonemes in the language in which stress determines whether they are allowed to occur in a particular syllable or not. That is the case with most examples in English and occurs systematically in Russian, such as за́мок (, castle) vs. замо́к (, lock); and in Portuguese, such as the triplet sábia (, wise woman), sabia (, knew), sabiá (, thrush).

Dialects of the same language may have different stress placement. For instance, the English word laboratory is stressed on the second syllable in British English (labóratory often pronounced "labóratry", the second o being silent), but the first syllable in American English, with a secondary stress on the "tor" syllable (láboratory often pronounced "lábratory"). The Spanish word video is stressed on the first syllable in Spain (vídeo) but on the second syllable in the Americas (video). The Portuguese words for Madagascar and the continent Oceania are stressed on the third syllable in European Portuguese (Madagáscar and Oceânia), but on the fourth syllable in Brazilian Portuguese (Madagascar and Oceania).

Compounds
With very few exceptions, English compound words are stressed on their first component. Even the exceptions, such as mankínd, are instead often stressed on the first component by some people or in some kinds of English. The same components as those of a compound word are sometimes used in a descriptive phrase with a different meaning and with stress on both words, but that descriptive phrase is then not usually considered a compound: bláck bírd (any bird that is black) and bláckbird (a specific bird species) and páper bág (a bag made of paper) and páper bag (very rarely used for a bag for carrying newspapers but is often also used for a bag made of paper).

Levels of stress
Some languages are described as having both primary stress and secondary stress. A syllable with secondary stress is stressed relative to unstressed syllables but not as strongly as a syllable with primary stress. As with primary stress, the position of secondary stress may be more or less predictable depending on language. In English, it is not fully predictable, but the different secondary stress of the words organization and accumulation (on the first and second syllable, respectively) is predictable due to the same stress of the verbs órganize and accúmulate. In some analyses, for example the one found in Chomsky and Halle's The Sound Pattern of English, English has been described as having four levels of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, but the treatments often disagree with one another.

Peter Ladefoged and other phoneticians have noted that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as prosody is recognized and unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction. They find that the multiple levels posited for English, whether primary–secondary or primary–secondary–tertiary, are not phonetic stress (let alone phonemic), and that the supposed secondary/tertiary stress is not characterized by the increase in respiratory activity associated with primary/secondary stress in English and other languages. (For further detail see Stress and vowel reduction in English.)

Prosodic stress
Prosodic stress, or sentence stress, refers to stress patterns that apply at a higher level than the individual word – namely within a prosodic unit. It may involve a certain natural stress pattern characteristic of a given language, but may also involve the placing of emphasis on particular words because of their relative importance (contrastive stress).

An example of a natural prosodic stress pattern is that described for French above; stress is placed on the final syllable of a string of words (or if that is a schwa, the next-to-final syllable). A similar pattern is found in English (see above): the traditional distinction between (lexical) primary and secondary stress is replaced partly by a prosodic rule stating that the final stressed syllable in a phrase is given additional stress. (A word spoken alone becomes such a phrase, hence such prosodic stress may appear to be lexical if the pronunciation of words is analyzed in a standalone context rather than within phrases.)

Another type of prosodic stress pattern is quantity sensitivity – in some languages additional stress tends to be placed on syllables that are longer (moraically heavy).

Prosodic stress is also often used pragmatically to emphasize (focus attention on) particular words or the ideas associated with them. Doing this can change or clarify the meaning of a sentence; for example:

As in the examples above, stress is normally transcribed as italics in printed text or underlining in handwriting.

In English, stress is most dramatically realized on focused or accented words. For instance, consider the dialogue

In it, the stress-related acoustic differences between the syllables of tomorrow would be small compared to the differences between the syllables of dinner, the emphasized word. In these emphasized words, stressed syllables such as din in dinner are louder and longer. They may also have a different fundamental frequency, or other properties.

The main stress within a sentence, often found on the last stressed word, is called the nuclear stress.

Stress and vowel reduction
In many languages, such as Russian and English, vowel reduction may occur when a vowel changes from a stressed to an unstressed position. In English, unstressed vowels may reduce to schwa-like vowels, though the details vary with dialect (see stress and vowel reduction in English). The effect may be dependent on lexical stress (for example, the unstressed first syllable of the word photographer contains a schwa, whereas the stressed first syllable of photograph does not ), or on prosodic stress (for example, the word of is pronounced with a schwa when it is unstressed within a sentence, but not when it is stressed).

Many other languages, such as Finnish and the mainstream dialects of Spanish, do not have unstressed vowel reduction; in these languages vowels in unstressed syllables have nearly the same quality as those in stressed syllables.

Stress and rhythm
Some languages, such as English, are said to be stress-timed languages; that is, stressed syllables appear at a roughly constant rate and non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate that, which contrasts with languages that have syllable timing (e.g. Spanish) or mora timing (e.g. Japanese), whose syllables or moras are spoken at a roughly constant rate regardless of stress. For details, see isochrony.

Historical effects
It is common for stressed and unstressed syllables to behave differently as a language evolves. For example, in the Romance languages, the original Latin short vowels and  have often become diphthongs when stressed. Since stress takes part in verb conjugation, that has produced verbs with vowel alternation in the Romance languages. For example, the Spanish verb volver (to return, come back) has the form volví in the past tense but vuelvo in the present tense (see Spanish irregular verbs). Italian shows the same phenomenon but with alternating with  instead. That behavior is not confined to verbs; note for example Spanish viento wind from Latin ventum, or Italian fuoco fire from Latin focum. There are also examples in French, though they are less systematic : viens from Latin venio where the first syllable was stressed, vs venir from Latin venire where the main stress was on the penultimate syllable.

Stress "deafness"
An operational definition of word stress may be provided by the stress "deafness" paradigm. The idea is that if listeners perform poorly on reproducing the presentation order of series of stimuli that minimally differ in the position of phonetic prominence (e.g. ), the language does not have word stress. The task involves a reproduction of the order of stimuli as a sequence of key strokes, whereby key "1" is associated with one stress location (e.g. ) and key "2" with the other (e.g. ). A trial may be from two to six stimuli in length. Thus, the order is to be reproduced as "1121". It was found that listeners whose native language was French performed significantly worse than Spanish listeners in reproducing the stress patterns by key strokes. The explanation is that Spanish has lexically contrastive stress, as evidenced by the minimal pairs like topo (mole) and topó ([he/she/it] met), while in French, stress does not convey lexical information and there is no equivalent of stress minimal pairs as in Spanish.

An important case of stress "deafness" relates to Persian. The language has generally been described as having contrastive word stress or accent as evidenced by numerous stem and stem-clitic minimal pairs such as  (fish) and   (some month). The authors argue that the reason why Persian listeners are stress "deaf" is that their accent locations arise postlexically. Persian thus lacks stress in the strict sense.

Stress "deafness" has been studied for a number of languages, such as Polish or French learners of Spanish.

Spelling and notation for stress
The orthographies of some languages include devices for indicating the position of lexical stress. Some examples are listed below:
 * In Modern Greek, all polysyllables are written with an acute accent over the vowel of the stressed syllable. (The acute accent is also used on some monosyllables in order to distinguish homographs, as in η ('the') and ή ('or'); here the stress of the two words is the same.)
 * In Spanish orthography, stress may be written explicitly with a single acute accent on a vowel. Stressed antepenultimate syllables are always written with that accent mark, as in árabe. If the last syllable is stressed, the accent mark is used if the word ends in the letters n, s, or a vowel, as in está. If the penultimate syllable is stressed, the accent is used if the word ends in any other letter, as in cárcel. That is, if a word is written without an accent mark, the stress is on the penult if the last letter is a vowel, n, or s, but on the final syllable if the word ends in any other letter. However, as in Greek, the acute accent is also used for some words to distinguish various syntactical uses (e.g. té 'tea' vs. te a form of the pronoun tú 'you'; dónde 'where' as a pronoun or wh-complement, donde 'where' as an adverb).
 * Catalan and Valencian orthographies use the acute and grave accents to mark both stress and vowel quality. An acute on $⟨é ó⟩$ indicates that the vowel is stressed and close-mid, while grave on $⟨è ò⟩$ indicates that the vowel is stressed and open-mid . Grave on $⟨à⟩$ and acute on $⟨í ú⟩$ simply indicate that the vowels are stressed. Thus, the acute is used on close or close-mid vowels, and the grave on open or open-mid vowels.
 * In Filipino orthography (which also applies to other Philippine languages), an acute accent is used to distinguish similar words with different meanings. The position of the stress may occur in first, middle or final syllable of a word. Stress that occurs in the first syllable serves as the default word and is usually left unwritten e.g. pito ('whistle') which distinguishes from pitó ('seven'). Diacritics in Modern Tagalog and other Philippine languages are rarely used in writing, cases of which the diacritical marks are used can only be seen in formal and academic setting. Vowels with an acute accent are not included in the Filipino alphabet, possible combinations include: á,é,í,ó and ú.
 * In Portuguese, stress is sometimes indicated explicitly with an acute accent (for i, u, and open a, e, o), or circumflex (for close a, e, o). The orthography has an extensive set of rules that describe the placement of diacritics, based on the position of the stressed syllable and the surrounding letters.
 * In Italian, the grave accent is needed in words ending with an accented vowel, e.g. città, 'city', and in some monosyllabic words that might otherwise be confused with other words, like là ('there') and la ('the'). It is optional for it to be written on any vowel if there is a possibility of misunderstanding, such as condomìni ('condominiums') and condòmini ('joint owners'). (In this particular case, a frequent one in which diacritics present themselves, the difference of accents is caused by the fall of the second "i" from Latin in Italian, typical of the genitive, in the first noun (con/domìnìi/, meaning of the owner); while the second was derived from the nominative (con/dòmini/, meaning simply owners)). The acute accent may be used on $⟨é⟩$ and $⟨ó⟩$ to represent close-mid vowels when they are stressed. Since final $⟨o⟩$ is hardly ever close-mid, $⟨ó⟩$ is very rarely encountered in written Italian (e.g.  'subway'). The two different accents may be used to differentiate minimal pairs within Italian (for example  'peach' vs.  'fishing'), but in practice this is limited to didactic texts.
 * Maltese orthography indicates stress with grave accent.

Though not part of normal orthography, a number of devices exist that are used by linguists and others to indicate the position of stress (and syllabification in some cases) when it is desirable to do so. Some of these are listed here.
 * Most commonly, the stress mark is placed before the beginning of the stressed syllable, where a syllable is definable. However, it is occasionally placed immediately before the vowel. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), primary stress is indicated by a high vertical line (primary stress mark: ) before the stressed element, secondary stress by a low vertical line (secondary stress mark:  ). For example,  or . Extra stress can be indicated by doubling the symbol:.
 * Linguists frequently mark primary stress with an acute accent over the vowel, and secondary stress by a grave accent. Example: or . That has the advantage of not requiring a decision about syllable boundaries.
 * In English dictionaries that show pronunciation by respelling, stress is typically marked with a prime mark placed after the stressed syllable: /si-lab′-ə-fi-kay′-shən/.
 * In ad hoc pronunciation guides, stress is often indicated using a combination of bold text and capital letters. For example, si-lab-if-i-KAY-shun or si-LAB-if-i-KAY-shun
 * In Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian dictionaries, stress is indicated with marks called znaki udareniya (знаки ударения, 'stress marks'). Primary stress is indicated with an acute accent (´) on a syllable's vowel (example: вимовля́ння). Secondary stress may be unmarked or marked with a grave accent: о̀колозе́мный. If the acute accent sign is unavailable for technical reasons, stress can be marked by making the vowel capitalized or italic. In general texts, stress marks are rare, typically used either when required for disambiguation of homographs (compare в больши́х количествах 'in great quantities', and в бо́льших количествах 'in great quantities'), or in rare words and names that are likely to be mispronounced. Materials for foreign learners may have stress marks throughout the text.
 * In Dutch, ad hoc indication of stress is usually marked by an acute accent on the vowel (or, in the case of a diphthong or double vowel, the first two vowels) of the stressed syllable. Compare achterúítgang ('deterioration') and áchteruitgang ('rear exit').
 * In Biblical Hebrew, a complex system of cantillation marks is used to mark stress, as well as verse syntax and the melody according to which the verse is chanted in ceremonial Bible reading. In Modern Hebrew, there is no standardized way to mark the stress. Most often, the cantillation mark oleh (part of oleh ve-yored), which looks like a left-pointing arrow above the consonant of the stressed syllable, for example ב֫וקר bóqer ('morning') as opposed to בוק֫ר boqér ('cowboy'). That mark is usually used in books by the Academy of the Hebrew Language and is available on the standard Hebrew keyboard at AltGr-6. In some books, other marks, such as meteg, are used.

title: Stress (linguistics)


text:
1976 in sports

1976 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season champion: Ingemar Stenmark, Sweden
 * Women's overall season champion: Rosi Mittermaier, West Germany

American football

 * January 18 – Super Bowl X: the Pittsburgh Steelers (AFC) won 21−17 over the Dallas Cowboys (NFC)
 * Location: Miami Orange Bowl
 * Attendance: 80,187
 * MVP: Lynn Swann, WR (Pittsburgh)
 * Lee Roy Selmon is selected as the first overall pick in the NFL Draft. (April 8)
 * Seattle Seahawks founded.
 * Tampa Bay Buccaneers founded.
 * Orange Bowl (1975 season):
 * The Oklahoma Sooners won 14–6 over the Michigan Wolverines to win the college football national championship
 * Tony Dorsett is awarded the Heisman Trophy (November 30).

Association football

 * England – FA Cup – Southampton won 1–0 over Manchester United
 * Stevenage F.C. were established
 * Italy – Torino win Serie A for the first time since the Superga air disaster wiped out the team 27 years before.
 * 1976 European Championship – Czechoslovakia beat West Germany 5–3 on penalties to win, after the game had ended 2-2 after extra time.

Athletics

 * July – Athletics at the 1976 Summer Olympics held at Montreal

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * Hawthorn wins the 80th VFL Premiership (Hawthorn 13.22 (100) d North Melbourne 10.10 (70))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Graham Moss (Essendon)

Baseball

 * April 17 – Mike Schmidt of the Philadelphia Phillies hits four consecutive home runs in a game against the Chicago Cubs.
 * April 25 – Chicago Cubs outfielder Rick Monday rescues an American flag just as two protesters are about to burn it in the outfield during a game at Dodger Stadium.
 * Sparky Lyle of the New York Yankees breaks Hoyt Wilhelm's American League record of 154 career saves.
 * World Series – The Cincinnati Reds (aka the "Big Red Machine") sweep the New York Yankees, 4 games to 0, to win their second straight championship.

Basketball

 * NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship –
 * Indiana wins 86–68 over Michigan
 * NBA Finals –
 * Boston Celtics win 4 games to 2 over the Phoenix Suns
 * 1976 ABA Playoffs –
 * New York Nets defeat Denver Nuggets 4 games to 2
 * American Basketball Association merges with the National Basketball Association. Of the seven remaining teams in the ABA, the Virginia Squires fold, Kentucky Colonels and Spirits of St. Louis are bought out, and the remaining four teams (San Antonio Spurs, Denver Nuggets, New York Nets, and Indiana Pacers) join the NBA

Boxing

 * May 22 – death of Oscar Bonavena (34), Argentinian heavyweight, who was shot in Reno, Nevada
 * September 28 in Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York Muhammad Ali won a controversial 15-round decision over Ken Norton to keep his World Heavyweight title.
 * October 8 in São Paulo, Brazil, former world featherweight champion Eder Jofre fought his last fight, outpointing Mexico's Octavio (Famoso) Gomez in ten rounds.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Ottawa Rough Riders won 23–20 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders
 * Vanier Cup – Western Ontario Mustangs won 29–13 over the Acadia Axemen

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia won by Felice Gimondi of Italy
 * Tour de France – Lucien Van Impe of Belgium
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Freddy Maertens of Belgium

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Gerald Riley won with lead dogs: Puppy & Sugar

Field hockey

 * Olympic Games (Men's Competition) in Montreal won by New Zealand
 * Women's World Cup in Berlin won by West Germany

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: John Curry, Britain
 * Ladies' champion: Dorothy Hamill, United States
 * Pair skating champions: Irina Rodnina & Alexander Zaitsev, Soviet Union
 * Ice dancing champions: Lyudmila Pakhomova & Alexandr Gorshkov, Soviet Union

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament – Raymond Floyd
 * U.S. Open – Jerry Pate
 * British Open – Johnny Miller
 * PGA Championship – Dave Stockton
 * PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $266,439
 * British Amateur – Dick Siderowf
 * U.S. Amateur – Bill Sander
 * LPGA Championship – Betty Burfeindt
 * U.S. Women's Open – JoAnne Carner
 * LPGA Tour money leader – Judy Rankin – $150,734, she is the first to ever earn more than $100,000 in a season.

Harness racing

 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace – Keystone Ore
 * Little Brown Jug – Keystone Ore
 * Messenger Stakes – Windshield Wiper
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian – Steve Lobell
 * Yonkers Trot – Steve Lobell
 * Kentucky Futurity – Quick Pay
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Carclew
 * Trotters: Bay Johnny

Horse racing
Steeplechases Flat races
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Royal Frolic
 * Grand National – Rag Trade
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Van der Hum
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by Norcliffe
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Ivanjica
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Malacate
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Wollow
 * The Derby – Empery
 * St. Leger Stakes – Crow
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Bold Forbes
 * Preakness Stakes – Elocutionist
 * Belmont Stakes – Bold Forbes

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Guy Lafleur, Montreal Canadiens
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bobby Clarke – Philadelphia Flyers
 * Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 0 over the Philadelphia Flyers
 * World Hockey Championship –
 * Men's champion: Czechoslovakia defeated the Soviet Union
 * Avco World Trophy – Winnipeg Jets win 4 games to 0 over the Houston Aeros
 * NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Golden Gophers defeat Michigan Technological University Huskies 6–4 in Denver, Colorado

Rugby league

 * 29 June – the World Club Challenge concept is trialled as English champions St. Helens travel to Sydney to play Australian champions Eastern Suburbs. Easts defeat St Helens 25–2 in the one-off match.
 * 18 August – the 1976 Amco Cup tournament culminates in Balmain's 21–7 win over North Sydney in the final
 * 18 September – the 1976 NSWRFL season culminates in Manly-Warringah's 13–10 win over Parramatta in the Grand Final

Rugby union

 * 82nd Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales who complete the Grand Slam

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – Ray Reardon beats Alex Higgins 27-16
 * World rankings are introduced. Ray Reardon becomes the first world number one, for 1976/77.

Swimming

 * July 18 to July 25 – XXI Olympic Games, held in Montreal
 * August 14 – United States's Jonty Skinner sets the first official world record in the 50m freestyle in Philadelphia, clocking 23.86

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open – Mark Edmondson
 * French Open – Adriano Panatta
 * Wimbledon championships – Björn Borg
 * U.S. Open – Jimmy Connors
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – Evonne Goolagong Cawley
 * French Open – Sue Barker
 * Wimbledon championships – Chris Evert
 * U.S. Open – Chris Evert
 * Davis Cup – Italy wins 4–1 over Chile in world tennis.

Water polo

 * Water polo at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal won by Hungary

General sporting events

 * 1976 Summer Olympics takes place in Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * USSR wins the most medals (125), and the most gold medals (49).
 * 1976 Winter Olympics takes place in Innsbruck, Austria
 * USSR wins the most medals (27), and the most gold medals (13).
 * Fifth Pan Arab Games held in Damascus, Syria

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Caitlyn Jenner (then Bruce), Track and field
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Nadia Comăneci, Gymnastics
 * ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Nadia Comăneci, Gymnastics

title: 1976 in sports


text:
1975 in sports

1975 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season champion: Gustav Thöni, Italy
 * Women's overall season champion: Annemarie Pröll, Austria

American football

 * January 12 − Super Bowl IX: the Pittsburgh Steelers (AFC) won 16−6 over the Minnesota Vikings (NFC)
 * Location: Tulane Stadium
 * Attendance: 80,997
 * MVP: Franco Harris, FB (Pittsburgh)
 * Birmingham Vulcans win the final season of WFL competition, had best overall record when league ceased after first twelve weeks of regular season.

Association football

 * Brazil – Internacional wins the Campeonato Brasileiro
 * England – the League Championship – Derby County took the title for the second time in four seasons, finishing two points clear of Liverpool and Ipswich Town.
 * England – FA Cup – West Ham United beat Fulham 2–0 at Wembley Stadium in front of 100,000 people. Alan Taylor was the scorer of both goals.
 * England – League Cup – Aston Villa beat Norwich City 1–0 at Wembley Stadium.
 * European Cup – Bayern Munich defeated Leeds United 2–0 in a controversial final at the Parc des Princes, Paris.
 * European Cup Winners' Cup – Dynamo Kyiv beat Ferencváros 3–0 in Basel, Switzerland.
 * UEFA Cup – Borussia Mönchengladbach beat FC Twente 5–1 on aggregate, with a leg played at each team's home stadium.
 * Ecuador – Ecuadorian Serie A Champions: Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito

Athletics

 * August 12 – New Zealand's John Walker set a new world record in Gothenburg, Sweden, becoming the first man to break 3:50 for the mile when he clocked 3:49.4.
 * October – Athletics at the 1975 Pan American Games held in Mexico City

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * North Melbourne wins the 79th VFL Premiership (North Melbourne 19.8 (122) d Hawthorn 9.13 (67))
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Gary Dempsey (Footscray)
 * South Australian National Football League:
 * August 23: Glenelg kick the all-time record score for a major Australian Rules competition, kicking 49.23 (317) to Central District's 11.13 (79). It beat the previous record by an amazing 91 points.

Baseball

 * January 23 – Slugger Ralph Kiner is inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.
 * September 16 – Pirates second baseman Rennie Stennett ties Wilbert Robinson's ML record, set June 10, 1892, by going 7-for-7 in a 9-inning game. He scored five of his club's runs in a 22–0 massacre of the Cubs, a major-league record for the biggest score in a shutout game in the 20th century.
 * World Series – Cincinnati Reds win 4 games to 3 over the Boston Red Sox. Often described as one of the most memorable of all World Series.

Basketball

 * April 9 – Asia's first professional basketball league, the Philippine Basketball Association played its first game at the Araneta Coliseum.
 * Darryl Dawkins becomes the first NBA player drafted out of high school.
 * NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship –
 * UCLA wins 92–85 over Kentucky in John Wooden's final game as Bruins coach.
 * NBA Finals –
 * Golden State Warriors win 4 games to 0 over the Washington Bullets
 * 1975 ABA Finals –
 * Kentucky Colonels defeat Indiana Pacers 4 games to 1

Boxing

 * October 1 in Manila, Philippines Muhammad Ali defeated Joe Frazier to maintain the Heavyweight Championship of the world. Known as the Thrilla In Manila, many regard it as the greatest fight in boxing history.

Canadian football

 * Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos won 9–8 over the Montreal Alouettes
 * Vanier Cup – Ottawa Gee-Gees won 14–9 over the Calgary Dinos

Cricket

 * 1975 Cricket World Cup, the first to be held. West Indies beat Australia by 17 runs.

Cycling

 * Giro d'Italia won by Fausto Bertoglio of Italy
 * Tour de France – Bernard Thévenet of France
 * UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Hennie Kuiper of Netherlands

Disc sports

 * The first disc ultimate games in Canada are played as exhibition games at the Canadian Open Frisbee Championships on Toronto Islands.
 * Ultimate is played as an exhibition of a new sport at the World Frisbee Championships (WFC) at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California.

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
 * Emmitt Peters won with lead dogs: Nugget & Digger

Field hockey

 * Men's World Cup held in Kuala Lumpur and won by India
 * 1975 Pan American Games men's competition held in Mexico City and won by Argentina

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: Sergey Nikolayevich Volkov, Soviet Union
 * Ladies' champion: Dianne de Leeuw, Netherlands
 * Pair skating champions: Irina Rodnina & Alexander Zaitsev, Soviet Union
 * Ice dancing champions: Irina Moiseyeva & Andrei Minenkov, Soviet Union

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament – Jack Nicklaus
 * U.S. Open – Lou Graham
 * British Open – Tom Watson
 * PGA Championship – Jack Nicklaus
 * PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $298,149
 * Ryder Cup – United States wins 21–11 over Britain & Ireland in team golf.
 * British Amateur – Vinny Giles
 * U.S. Amateur – Fred Ridley
 * LPGA Championship – Kathy Whitworth
 * U.S. Women's Open – Sandra Palmer
 * LPGA Tour money leader – Sandra Palmer – $76,374

Harness racing

 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace – Nero
 * Little Brown Jug – Seatrain
 * Messenger Stakes – Bret's Champ
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian – Bonefish
 * Yonkers Trot – Surefire Hanover
 * Kentucky Futurity – Noble Rogue
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Young Quinn

Horse racing
Steeplechases Flat races
 * footy July 6 – In what was billed as the "Battle of the Sexes", Kentucky Derby winner, Foolish Pleasure went head to head in a match race against the undefeated filly, Ruffian. In the lead, Ruffian broke a leg and, after an unsuccessful operation to save her, the horse widely believed to have been the greatest thoroughbred filly ever was humanely put down.
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Ten Up
 * Grand National – L'Escargot
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Think Big
 * Canada – Queen's Plate won by L'Enjoleur
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Star Appeal
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Grundy
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Bolkonski
 * The Derby – Grundy
 * St. Leger Stakes – Bruni
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Foolish Pleasure
 * Preakness Stakes – Master Derby
 * Belmont Stakes – Avatar

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bobby Orr, Boston Bruins.
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bobby Clarke, Philadelphia Flyers
 * Stanley Cup – Philadelphia Flyers defeat the Buffalo Sabres 4 games to 2
 * World Hockey Championship –
 * Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia
 * Avco World Trophy – Houston Aeros win 4 games to 0 over the Quebec Nordiques
 * SM-liiga, the Finnish professional ice hockey league, launched its first season 1975–1976
 * NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Michigan Technological University Huskies defeat University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Golden Gophers 6–1 in St. Louis, Missouri

Lacrosse

 * The National Lacrosse League of 1974 and 1975 play their 2nd and last season.
 * The Quebec Caribous defeat the Montreal Québécois 4 games to 2 to win the National Lacrosse League (1974–75) Championship.
 * The Vancouver Burrards win the Mann Cup.
 * The Windsor Warlocks win the Founders Cup.
 * The Peterborough Gray Munros win the Minto Cup.

Orienteering

 * First Ski Orienteering World Championships held in Hyvinkää, Finland.

Rugby league

 * 1975 Amco Cup
 * 1975 European Rugby League Championship
 * 1975 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1975 NSWRFL season
 * 1975 Pacific Cup
 * 1974–75 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1975–76 Northern Rugby Football League season
 * 1975 Rugby League World Cup

Rugby union

 * 81st Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – Ray Reardon beats Eddie Charlton 31–30

Swimming

 * The second FINA World Championships held in Cali, Colombia

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open – John Newcombe
 * French Open – Björn Borg
 * Wimbledon championships – Arthur Ashe
 * U.S. Open – Manuel Orantes
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – Evonne Goolagong
 * French Open – Chris Evert
 * Wimbledon championships – Billie Jean King
 * U.S. Open – Chris Evert
 * Davis Cup – Sweden wins 3–2 over Czechoslovakia in world tennis.
 * Eighteen-year-old Martina Navratilova of Czechoslovakia announces her defection to the United States

Volleyball

 * Asian Men's Volleyball Championship held in Melbourne: won by Japan
 * Asian Women's Volleyball Championship held in Melbourne: won by Japan
 * Men and Women's European Volleyball Championship held in Yugoslavia: men's and women's tournaments both won by USSR
 * Volleyball at the 1975 Pan American Games held in Mexico City: men's and women's tournaments both won by Cuba

Water polo

 * 1975 FINA Men's World Water Polo Championship held in Cali, Colombia, and won by USSR.

General sporting events

 * Seventh Pan American Games held in Mexico City, Mexico
 * Seventh Mediterranean Games held in Algiers, Algeria
 * Eighth Summer Universiade held in Rome, Italy
 * Eighth Winter Universiade held in Livigno, Italy

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Fred Lynn, Major League Baseball
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Chris Evert, Tennis

title: 1975 in sports


text:
Talk:History of South Africa

== Quality Improvement - This article needs YOU! South African Wars (1879–1915)'

The article in its current form has become a mess. The introduction section is particularly problematic containing numerous issues, including: typos, information irrelevant to a hat note section, long run on sentences with endless repetition of the same facts, subtle vandalism, and blatant bias. The rest of the article is a better but many of the same problems still occur. This is the result of many small edits through the years without much work on the article as a whole. I honestly think the quality of the article was better a few years ago than it is now.

I will begin cleaning up soon but I would like to ask other Wikipedians to help improve and actively maintain the quality of the article. This is one of the most important articles on South Africa, and probably the most important on South African history so it is vital that we keep it to the highest quality. Right now, I am afraid it does not come close to that standard. Let us look at this article globally and try to improve the article to a consistent quality that we can be proud of.

Francoisdjvr (talk) 14:29, 12 June 2019 (UTC)

 * what is the best way for the earth 196.39.241.98 (talk) 09:32, 12 November 2023 (UTC)
 * This submission needs to be completely deleted. Its very Euro-centric, making the ecounters with Europeans the most relevant markers. Its also racist in its post Apartheid highlights 2603:8081:9E01:5AA9:7988:50FC:756D:BB09 (talk) 20:55, 6 February 2024 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:23, 13 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Insigne Africae australis.svg

Geopolitics
Hi, The abbreviation of the New political party by Zuma does not mean MK of the ANC military launched 1961 is something else not the spear of the nation ,but the pronounced abbreviation is the same but not the same meaning description and definition. So by than the IEC knows and the government of the people that's rules by the people since 1994 that there must and shall be more opposition political parties those can participate in elections campains the ruling party does not have problems about that since the beginning of first-time opposition political parties of that time as itself allows and this is a lesson to many. So be proud to rule by The ANC because you can raise your voices and you can help them do your work and implement your Ideas. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 41.113.174.229 (talk) 21:52, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of South Africa


text:
XLISP

XLISP is a family of Lisp implementations written by David Betz and first released in 1983.

The first version was a Lisp with object-oriented extensions for computers with limited power. The second version (XLISP 2.0) moved toward Common Lisp, but was by no means a complete implementation. After a long period of inactivity, the author released a new version based on XSCHEME, his Scheme implementation. The most current version follows the Scheme R3RS standard.

Derivatives

 * AutoLISP, a programming and scripting language for AutoCAD, is based on a very old version of XLISP.
 * XLISP-PLUS is a derivative of XLISP 2.0 that continues to add Common Lisp features. Winterp is a derivative of XLISP-PLUS.
 * XLISP-STAT is an implementation of Lisp-Stat, an environment for dynamic graphics and statistics with objects.
 * Nyquist is an extension of XLISP for sound synthesis.
 * ANIMAL (AN IMage ALgebra) is an image manipulation environment created by Carla Maria Modena and Roberto Brunelli.
 * A 1989 entry to the IOCCC identifies itself as "XLISP 4.0".

title: XLISP


text:
Talk:XLISP

Untitled
Where is a good introduction to XLISP? How does it differ from Emacs Lisp programming language? --Hirzel

Rewrite
I downloaded the current version of XLISP and looked and the documentation and some related sources. I've tried to put together a more accurate picture of things. Correct me if I'm wrong on something.

This freaking language has more derivatives than Unix.

Is this still a stub? Quamaretto 20:28, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

1989 IOCC Entry
That is not an XLisp derivative in any sense. Identifying itself as XLisp 4.0 is just a joke!216.31.219.19 (talk) 00:14, 30 April 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:XLISP


text:
Alianza Federal de Mercedes

Alianza Federal de Mercedes, which in English translates to Federal Land Grant Alliance, was a group led by Reies Tijerina based in New Mexico in the 1960s that fought for the land rights of Hispano New Mexicans.

The Alianza had affiliates in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico and San Luis, Colorado.

Hispano residents had settled in the areas of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado centuries before. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States Congress ostensibly guaranteed that current residents would retain their land rights after the New Mexico Territory was transferred to U.S. ownership. However, by the 1960s, many traditional shepherds had lost their land to cattle ranchers and the U.S. Forest Service.

The Tierra Amarilla incident
On June 5, 1967, in Tierra Amarilla, a small band of Chicanos affiliated with Alianza Federal de Mercedes attempted to arrest the county's district attorney and put him on trial. There were shots fired and two men were wounded. The invaders held the courthouse for two hours, ransacking it, but the district attorney was out of town. The National Guard, equipped with armored tanks, was called in by Governor of New Mexico David Cargo. While the gunmen were in hiding, the National Guard held many of their family members captive. This incident received national publicity and brought the Alianza's cause to public attention.

Prior to the incident, quoted from The Chicanos: Mexican American Voices, edited by Ed Ludwig and James Santibanez. "In June, 1967, Tijerina attempted to hold a mass meeting of the Alianza. The District Attorney of Rio Arriba County, Alfonso Sanchez, issued a statement on a radio broadcast:

... I wish to give all notice to all Alianza members who plan to be present and participate in the meeting at Coyote tomorrow. That meeting is versus the law since it is planned to take over private property. Criminal charges of unlawful assembly will be filed against all persons who attend.

The District Attorney did not stop with the warning. The night before the meeting, cars of the State Police traced swift paths through the night, through the small, darkened towns of Rio Arriba County and to the homes of those members of the Alianza who, they thought, might attend the meeting arranged by Reies Tijernia. There was sudden pounding on wooden doors, house lights flicked on, startled faces appeared in the night. "You're under arrest," were the often repeated words. Nine Alianza members were jailed. Two days later the Alianza had procured a warrant for the arrest of District Attorney Alfonso Sanchez. Armed, their group entered the courthouse at Tierra Amarilla in an attempt to make a citizen's arrest.

title: Alianza Federal de Mercedes