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William F. Friedman

William Frederick Friedman (September 24, 1891 – November 12, 1969) was a US Army cryptographer who ran the research division of the Army's Signal Intelligence Service (SIS) in the 1930s, and parts of its follow-on services into the 1950s. In 1940, subordinates of his led by Frank Rowlett broke Japan's PURPLE cipher, thus disclosing Japanese diplomatic secrets before America's entrance into World War II.

Early life
Friedman was born Wolf Friedman (װאָלף פֿרידמאַן, Вольф Ф. Фридман), in Chişinău, Bessarabia, the son of Frederick Friedman, a Jew from Bucharest who worked as a translator and linguist for the Russian Postal Service, and the daughter of a well-to-do wine merchant. Friedman's family left Chişinău in 1892 on account of anti-Semitic persecution, ending up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Three years later, his first name was changed to William.

As a child, Friedman was introduced to cryptography in the short story "The Gold-Bug" by Edgar Allan Poe. He studied at the Michigan Agricultural College (known today as Michigan State University) in East Lansing and received a scholarship to work on genetics at Cornell University. Meanwhile, George Fabyan, who ran a private research laboratory to study any personally interesting project, decided to set up his own genetics project and was referred to Friedman. Friedman joined Fabyan's Riverbank Laboratories outside Chicago in September 1915. As head of the Department of Genetics, one of the projects he ran studied the effects of moonlight on crop growth, and so he experimented with the planting of wheat during various phases of the moon.

Initial work in cryptology
Another of Fabyan's pet projects was research into secret messages which Sir Francis Bacon had allegedly hidden in various texts during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. The research was carried out by Elizabeth Wells Gallup. She believed that she had discovered many such messages in the works of William Shakespeare, and convinced herself that Bacon had written many, if not all, of Shakespeare's works. Friedman had become something of an expert photographer while working on his other projects, and was asked to travel to England on several occasions to help Gallup photograph historical manuscripts during her research. He became fascinated with the work as he courted Elizebeth Smith, Gallup's assistant and an accomplished cryptographer. They married, and he soon became director of Riverbank's Department of Codes and Ciphers as well as its Department of Genetics. During this time, Friedman wrote a series of eight papers on cryptography, collectively known as the "Riverbank Publications", including the first description of the index of coincidence, an important mathematical tool in cryptanalysis.

With the entry of the United States into World War I, Fabyan offered the services of his Department of Codes and Ciphers to the government. No Federal department existed for this kind of work (although both the Army and Navy had had embryonic departments at various times), and soon Riverbank became the unofficial cryptographic center for the US Government. During this period, the Friedmans broke a code used by German-funded Indian radicals in the US who planned to ship arms to India to gain independence from Britain. Analyzing the format of the messages, Riverbank realized that the code was based on a dictionary of some sort, a cryptographic technique common at the time. The Friedmans soon managed to decrypt most of the messages, but only long after the case had come to trial did the book itself come to light: a German-English dictionary published in 1880.

Signals Intelligence Service
The United States government decided to set up its own cryptological service, and sent Army officers to Riverbank to train under Friedman. To support the program, Friedman wrote a series of technical monographs, completing seven by early 1918. He then enlisted in the Army and went to France to serve as the personal cryptographer for General John J. Pershing. He returned to the US in 1920 and published an eighth monograph, "The Index of Coincidence and its Applications in Cryptography", considered by some to be the most important publication in modern cryptography to that time. His texts for Army cryptographic training were well thought of and remained classified for several decades.

In 1921 he became chief cryptanalyst for the War Department and later led the Signals Intelligence Service (SIS)—a position he kept for a quarter century. In 1929, after the American Black Chamber in New York City was disbanded, its files were entrusted to SIS, and the cryptographic and intelligence services was reorganized to suit its new position at the War Department.

Friedman coined several terms, including "cryptanalysis", and wrote many monographs on cryptography. One of these (written mostly in his spare time) was the first draft of his Elements of cryptanalysis, which later was expanded to four volumes and became the U.S. Army's cryptographic main textbook and reference. Realizing that mathematical and language skills were essential to SIS's work, Friedman managed to get authority to hire three men with both mathematical training and language knowledge. They were Solomon Kullback, Frank Rowlett and Abraham Sinkov, each of whom went on to distinguished service for decades. In addition he also was finally able to hire a man fluent in Japanese, John Hurt.

During this period Elizebeth Friedman continued her own work in cryptology, and became famous in a number of trials involving rum-runners and the Coast Guard and FBI during Prohibition.

Solution of cipher machines

During the 1920s, several new cipher machines were developed generally based on using typewriter mechanics and basic electrical circuitry. An early example was the Hebern Rotor Machine, designed in the US in 1915 by Edward Hebern. This system offered such security and simplicity of use that Hebern heavily promoted it to investors.

Friedman realized that the new rotor machines would be important, and devoted some time to analyzing Hebern's design. Over a period of years, he developed principles of analysis and discovered several problems common to most rotor-machine designs. Examples of some dangerous features which allowed cracking of the generated code included having rotors step one position with each keypress, and putting the fastest rotor (the one that turns with every keypress) at either end of the rotor series. In this case, by collecting enough ciphertext and applying a standard statistical method known as the kappa test, he showed that he could, albeit with great difficulty, crack any cipher generated by such a machine.

Friedman used his understanding of rotor machines to develop several that were immune to his own attacks. The best of the lot was the SIGABA—which was destined to become the US's highest-security cipher machine in World War II after improvements by Frank Rowlett and Laurance Safford. Just over 10,000 were built. A patent on SIGABA was filed at the end of 1944, but kept secret until 2001, long after Friedman had died, when it was finally issued as.

In 1939, the Japanese introduced a new cipher machine for their most sensitive diplomatic traffic, replacing an earlier system that SIS referred to as "RED." The new cipher, which SIS called "PURPLE", was different and much more difficult. The Navy's cryptological unit (OP-20-G) and the SIS thought it might be related to earlier Japanese cipher machines, and agreed that SIS would handle the attack on the system. After several months trying to discover underlying patterns in PURPLE ciphertexts, an SIS team led by Friedman and Rowlett, in an extraordinary achievement, figured it out. PURPLE, unlike the German Enigma or the Hebern design, did not use rotors but stepper switches like those in automated telephone exchanges. Leo Rosen of SIS built a machine using — as was later discovered — the identical model of switch that the Japanese designer had chosen.

Thus, by the end of 1940, SIS had constructed an exact analog of the PURPLE machine without ever having seen one. With the duplicate machines and an understanding of PURPLE, SIS could decrypt increasing amounts of Japanese traffic. One such intercept was the message to the Japanese Embassy in Washington, D.C., ordering an end (on December 7, 1941) to negotiations with the US. The message gave a clear indication of impending war, and was to have been delivered to the US State Department only hours prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. The controversy over whether the US had foreknowledge of the Pearl Harbor attack has roiled well into the 21st century.

In 1941, Friedman was hospitalized with a "nervous breakdown", widely attributed to the mental strain of his work on PURPLE. While he remained in hospital, a four-man team — Abraham Sinkov and Leo Rosen from SIS, and Lt. Prescott Currier and Lt. Robert Weeks from the U.S. Navy's OP-20-G — visited the British establishment at the "Government Code and Cypher School" at Bletchley Park. They gave the British a PURPLE machine, in exchange for details on the design of the Enigma machine and on how the British decrypted the Enigma cipher. However Friedman visited Bletchley Park in April 1943 and played a key role in drawing up the 1943 BRUSA Agreement.

National Security Agency

Following World War II, Friedman remained in government signals intelligence. In 1949 he became head of the cryptographic division of the newly formed Armed Forces Security Agency (AFSA) and in 1952 became chief cryptologist for the National Security Agency (NSA) when it was formed to take over from AFSA. Friedman produced a classic series of textbooks, "Military Cryptanalysis", which was used to train NSA students. (These were revised and extended, under the title "Military Cryptanalytics", by Friedman's assistant and successor Lambros D. Callimahos, and used to train many additional cryptanalysts.) During his early years at NSA, he encouraged it to develop what were probably the first super-computers, although he was never convinced a machine could have the "insight" of a human mind.

Friedman spent much of his free time trying to decipher the famous Voynich Manuscript, said to be written sometime between 1403–1437. However, after four decades of study he finally had to admit defeat, contributing no more than an educated guess as to its origins and meaning.

In 1955, Friedman initiated, on behalf of the NSA, a secret agreement with Crypto AG, a Swiss manufacturer of encryption machines. The agreement resulted in many of the company's machines being compromised, so that the messages produced by them became crackable by the NSA.

Friedman retired in 1956 and, with his wife, turned his attention to the problem that had originally brought them together: examining Bacon's supposed codes. Together they wrote a book entitled The Cryptologist Looks at Shakespeare, which won a prize from the Folger Library and was published under the title The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined. The book demonstrated flaws in Gallup's work and in that of others who sought hidden ciphers in Shakespeare's work.

At NSA's request Friedman prepared Six Lectures Concerning Cryptography and Cryptanalysis, which he delivered at NSA. But later the Agency, concerned about security, confiscated the reference materials from Friedman's home.

Death and legacy

Friedman's health began to fail in the late 1960s, and he died in 1969. Friedman and his wife Elizebeth are buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

Friedman and his wife donated their archives to the library of the George C. Marshall Foundation, which also has had material reclassified and removed by the NSA.

Friedman has been inducted into the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame and there is a building named after William and Elizebeth at the NSA complex at Fort Meade in Maryland. He was also presented the Medal for Merit by President Harry Truman, and the National Security Medal by Dwight Eisenhower.

Friedman has the distinction of having one of the longest known suppressed patent applications, for, a patent for a "cryptographic system". It was filed on July 25, 1933, issued on August 1, 2000.

Friedman Hall, located on Fort Huachuca, Arizona, is named in his honor.

Children
Friedman had two children with his wife, Elizebeth: Barbara Friedman (later Atchison), and John Ramsay Friedman.

In popular culture
Commander Schoen, a character appearing in Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon, is to a large extent inspired by Friedman. Schoen shares a significant background and personality traits with Friedman, including being one of the top cryptanalysts of the U.S. Army, breaking Japanese codes prior to Japan's involvement in World War II, and the psychological problems that he suffered from as a result. In his acknowledgements, Stephenson writes "Among all these great wartime hackers, some kind of special recognition must go to William Friedman, who sacrificed his health to break the Japanese machine cipher called Purple before the war even began."

Awards and honors

 * 1944: Commendation for Exceptional Civilian Service
 * 1946: Medal for Merit
 * 1955: National Security Medal.

Publications

 * "The index of coincidence and its applications in cryptography" (1922). Department of Ciphers. Publ 22. Geneva, Illinois, USA: Riverbank Laboratories..
 * 2nd ed. (1935). Washington, D.C.: Signals Office, War Department.
 * "Preliminary Historical Report on the Solution of the 'B' Machine" (Oct. 14, 1960).

title: William F. Friedman


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Jan Masaryk

Jan Garrigue Masaryk (14 September 1886 – 10 March 1948) was a Czech diplomat and politician who served as the Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia from 1940 to 1948. American journalist John Gunther described Masaryk as "a brave, honest, turbulent, and impulsive man".

Early life
Born in Prague, he was the son of professor and politician Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (who became the first president of Czechoslovakia in 1918) and Charlotte Garrigue, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk's American wife. Masaryk was educated in Prague and also in the United States, where he lived for a time as a drifter and for a time as a steelworker. Because of his youth in the United States, Masaryk always spoke both Czech and English with a strong American accent. He returned home in 1913 and served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War. Masaryk served in Galicia and learned Polish during his wartime career. The fact that his father was in exile, working for Czech independence from the Austrian empire, made him the subject of bullying and hazing during his military service as the son of a "traitor". His unhappy military service made him unwilling to speak very much of his time as a soldier after the war as it held too many painful memories.

He then joined the diplomatic service and became chargé d'affaires to the US in 1919 and then as counselor to the legation in London. In 1922, he became secretary to the Czechoslovak foreign minister Edvard Beneš. In 1925, he was made minister-plenipotentiary to Britain. The British scholar Robert Powell described Masaryk as "the most unconventional of diplomats. None was less tied to protocol. Witty, shrewd, with an abundance of common sense, he often triumphed over circumstances, which baffled others more intellectually cleverer, but lacking his psychological insight... He could be disconcertingly direct in his conversation and he considerably embarrassed certain types of English people. His manner was American rather than English, his racy language often shocking to people who had not the wit or patience to look beyond the actual expressions used." By contrast, the Czech historian Zbyněk Zeman and the German historian Rainer Karlsch described Masaryk as a weak man who drifted during his time in the United States, was psychologically unstable, and needed someone to guide him through life. His father resigned as president in 1935 and died two years later. He was succeeded by Edvard Beneš. Masaryk had been dominated by his father, and afterward by Beneš, who played the role of a surrogate father.

Minister-plenipotentiary in London
Right from his arrival in London, Masaryk in his reports to Prague warned that many officials in Great Britain's Foreign Office were in the grip of nostalgia for the Austrian empire, haunted by what he called the "ghost of the Habsburg empire". Masaryk expressed concern that many in the Foreign Office were openly hostile towards Czechoslovakia and considered the nation a mistake that should never have been allowed to happen.

On 21 June 1927, under the influence of his Hungarian mistress, Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe, the British press baron Lord Rothermere published a leader (editorial) in The Daily Mail newspaper calling for Hungary to regain lands lost under the Treaty of Trianon. Rothermere deemed it unjust that Hungary—a nation dominated by what he admiringly called a "chivalrous and warlike aristocracy"—should have its borders truncated and that Magyars should be placed under the rule of the peoples of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, whom Rothermere described as "cruder and more barbaric races". Through primarily concerned about what he called "justice for Hungary", Rothermere also argued that the Sudetenland should go to Germany. Rothermere's leader caused much worry in Prague and Beneš rushed to London to inquire if Rothermere was acting on behalf of the British government.

To counter the pro-Hungarian articles in The Daily Mail, the hostility of the Foreign Office, and the indifference of the British people to Czechoslovakia, Masaryk had money given to British journalists who wrote pro-Czechoslovak articles to make these articles widely available in a bid to influence British public opinion. The two most important British intellectuals whom Masaryk supported were the journalist Wickham Steed and the historian Robert Seton-Watson, both of whom were staunch supporters of Czechoslovakia and longtime friends of his father, President Masaryk. Masaryk provided the funds to make the writings of Steed and Seton-Watson available to the widest possible audience. The faculty and students at the School of East European and Slavonic Studies at King's College London tended to be very sympathetic towards Czechoslovakia, which was seen as a model democracy, and Masaryk often provided the funds to publicise their work. In 1930, when Steed's journal The Review of Reviews went bankrupt, Masaryk granted him enough money to keep his journal afloat. As part of his cultural diplomacy, Masaryk sometimes worked with Yugoslav diplomats to provide the money for journalists willing to challenge the pro-Hungarian slant of The Daily Mail, which was just as alarming to Belgrade as it was to Prague.

When Joachim von Ribbentrop arrived in London in October 1936 as the new German ambassador to the Court of St. James, he sent out invitations to the other ambassadors to attend a ball to introduce himself as was the normal practice at the time. Instead of using French (the language of diplomacy) in his invitations, which was the standard protocol, Ribbentrop insisted on using German as way to show the superiority of Germany. Masaryk responded to this gross violation of diplomatic protocol by giving his reply to Ribbentrop's letter in Czech, instead of German as Ribbentrop had expected. The other ambassadors did likewise with the Japanese ambassador responding in Japanese and the Turkish ambassador responding in Turkish, which caused chaos at the German embassy as nobody was certain who was attending the ball, as the German embassy lacked people able to translate the various replies. During the Abdication crisis, Masaryk was hostile to the new king Edward VIII, whom he described as a Nazi sympathizer, writing in a dispatch to Prague that king "felt closer to fascism and Nazism than democracy, which he found slow and boring." Masaryk was equally hostile towards the king's mistress, Mrs. Wallis Simpson, whom he reported has stated she felt at home in Vienna and Budapest while loathing Prague. When Edward abdicated to marry Mrs. Simpson, Masaryk was relieved, writing that Ribbentrop had "lost in Mrs. Simpson a dangerous ally".

Unlike Beneš, Masaryk understood that the pro-Hungarian slant of The Daily Mail was caused by influence on Lord Rothermere of Princess von Hohenlohe, whom Masaryk also knew was the mistress of Fritz Wiedemann, the adjunct to Adolf Hitler. Masaryk described Rothermere as dominated by Hohenlohe, writing that he would do anything to please her. In a dispatch to Prague, Masaryk wrote: "Is there any decency left in the world? A great scandal will erupt one day when the role upon which Steffi von Hohenlohe, née Richter, played during the visit of Wiedemann is revealed. This world-famous secret agent, spy, and swindler, who is a full Jewess, constitutes today the centre of Hitler's propaganda in London. Wiedemann stayed at her place. She keeps Hitler's photograph on her desk, inscribed "To my dear Princess Hohenlohe-Adolf Hitler", and next to it a photograph of Horthy, dedicated to the 'great stateswoman'."

Starting in 1935, the Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein had visited London four times between 1935-1938 to give speeches criticising Czechoslovakia. Masaryk realized belatedly that Czechoslovakia was losing the propaganda war as the British media became enamoured of Henlein. In late December 1936 Masaryk gave an address to a group of British MPs to make the case for Czechoslovakia. Much of the address concerned defending the decision on part of Beneš to sign an alliance with the Soviet Union in 1935, which was unpopular in Britain. Masaryk argued that the alliance was necessary as it brought the Soviet Union around to defending the international order created by the Treaty of Versailles instead of trying to undermine it as had previously been the case. Masaryk concluded: "If we treat Russia as a pariah, it cannot be excluded that Russia and Germany could again get together." After his speech, Masaryk had an informal question and answer session with the assembled MPs. The two MPs that Masaryk spoke to the most were Sir Austen Chamberlain and Winston Churchill. Churchill warned Masaryk that British public opinion was turning against Czechoslovakia because of the Sudetenland issue, which the German government "would be able to use against us".

In May 1937, the Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden, introduced Masaryk to the newly crowned king, George VI. Eden told the king that "the political and economic situation in Czechoslovakia, Sir, is good and firm." At the same audience, Ribbentrop greeted the king by giving him the Nazi salute, to which the king responded to with a bemused smile. The interaction between Ribbentrop and George left Masaryk uncertain to regard this as either silly or sinister. Masaryk reported to Prague that it would be unwise to place too much trust in Britain, which regarded Czechoslovakia as a problem in Europe. By 1938, Masaryk was reporting: "The English dislike us intensely. We are a deadweight for them and they curse the day on which we were founded."

During the Sudetenland crisis in the summer and fall of 1938, Masaryk traveled between London and Prague to meet with Beneš. To resolve the Sudetenland crisis, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain visited Germany to meet Adolf Hitler in his vacation home near Berchtesgaden on 15 September 1938. At the Berchtesgaden summit, it was agreed that the Sudetenland would "go home to the Reich" as Hitler had been demanding ever since the Nazi Party Congress at Nuremberg (Reichsparteitag) on 12 September 1938. In an attempt to sway British public opinion against the policy of the Chamberlain government, Masaryk, together with the Soviet ambassador Ivan Maisky, was in contact with Clement Attlee, the leader of the Labour Party, which was the Official Opposition to the Conservative-dominated National Government. Maisky and Masaryk encouraged Attlee to challenge the government's policy in the House of Commons. Masaryk was also in contact with Charles Corbin, the French ambassador in London. As a further step, Beneš had a large sum of money transferred to the Czechoslovak legation for Masaryk to spend on winning over British public opinion. Masaryk donated much of the money to Churchill's group "The Focus". Unknown to Masaryk, the Forschungsamt ("Research Office") had broken the Czechoslovak diplomatic codes. Hermann Göring who was a close friend of Sir Nevile Henderson, the British ambassador to Germany, informed him that Masaryk was donating money to Churchill, information which Henderson in turn passed on to Chamberlain. The British historian Victor Rothwell noted that the revelation that Masaryk was subsidising Chamberlain's domestic critics such as Churchill made an extremely bad impression upon Chamberlain, and that much of the hostility that Chamberlain displayed towards Masaryk was due to this revelation.

Under very strong Anglo-French pressure, President Beneš agreed to the terms of the Berchtesgaden summit on 19 September 1938. However, at the Bad Godesberg summit on 24 September 1938, Hitler rejected the Anglo-French plan for ceding the Sudetenland to Germany, telling Chamberlain that the Sudetenland needed to be annexed to Germany before 1 October 1938 rather than after October 1 as the Anglo-French plan called for. The Bad Godesberg summit pushed Europe to the brink of war. On 25 September 1938, Masaryk arrived at 10 Downing Street to tell Chamberlain that through Beneš had accepted the results of the Berchtesgaden summit, he rejected the German timetable for handing over the Sudetenland put forward at the Bad Godesberg summit. Much to Masaryk's annoyance, both Chamberlain and the Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax, seemed more angry at Beneš for not withdrawing Czechoslovak troops from the border forts in the Sudetenland rather than at Hitler, leading Masaryk in a dispatch to Beneš recounting the meeting to call both Chamberlain and Halifax "stupid". To resolve the crisis on 28 September 1938, it was announced that an emergency summit would be held in Munich the next day to be attended by Hitler, Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini, and Édouard Daladier. To Masaryk's fury, the Munich conference was a return to the congress diplomacy of the 19th century where the leaders of the great powers would meet to decide the fate of Europe with no involvement from the small powers. Halifax told Masaryk that Vojtěch Mastný, the Czechoslovak minister-plenipotentiary in Berlin, would be allowed to attend the Munich conference only as an "observer" for "information only" with no power to be actually involved in the conference.

The resulting Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938 put an end to the crisis. Though the Munich Agreement was actually a compromise as Hitler dropped the demand to have the Sudetenland before 1 October 1938, it was agreed that the Sudetenland would go to Germany in stages over the course of October 1938. Without the natural defensive barrier posed by the mountains of the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia was defenseless against Germany, and as such the new Czechoslovak president Emil Hácha promptly performed a volte-face in foreign policy. A sign of the new foreign policy came with the order that the staff of the legation in London should remove all the portraits of President Beneš and President Masaryk from the walls. After the Munich conference, Masaryk met with Chamberlain and Halifax at 10 Downing Street where he stated: "If you have sacrificed my nation for the sake of peace, I will be the first to applaud you. But if not gentlemen, then God help your souls." On 1 October 1938, Churchill telephoned Masaryk to tell him that Beneš should delay handing over the border forts in the Sudetenland for the next 48 hours, as he was convinced that "a great reaction against the betrayal committed on us" would occur within the 48 hours that would topple the Chamberlain government and presumably install Churchill as prime minister. Masaryk did not believe this, and advised Beneš to disregard Churchill's advice, warning that Churchill was reckless and that however he much he hoped that Chamberlain's government might fall because of the Munich Agreement, he did not believe that this was very likely. Unknown to both Churchill and Masaryk, their phones had been tapped by MI5, and the conversation recording Churchill's attempt to sabotage the Munich Agreement was passed on to Chamberlain, who was not impressed.

In October 1938, the Sudetenland was occupied by Germany and Masaryk resigned as ambassador in protest, although he remained in London. Other government members including Beneš also resigned. In his last dispatch to Prague on 5 December 1938, Masaryk reported that the British now regarded Czecho-Slovakia (as the country had been renamed) as a German satellite state. In the letter announcing his resignation as minister on 30 December 1938, Masaryk wrote of the "prophylactic measures towards establishing permanent peace in Europe" where "my country was subjected to surgical appeasement with unprecedented vigor and not the slightest trace of anesthetic." Masaryk then left Britain to visit the United States, where he gave speeches criticizing appeasement. In a speech in January 1939, he argued that the Munich Agreement would have been justified if it brought about "permanent peace" in Europe, but he argued that it was very unlikely to do so.

On 15 March 1939, Germany occupied the remaining parts of the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, and a puppet Slovak state was established in Slovakia. The next day, 16 March 1939, Masaryk went on a radio station in New York, where in a radio address to the American people given in English, he stated: "Can I hope that this last blow to my homeland should dispel all doubts as to the future policy of the masters of central Europe? The rape of Bohemia in all its vulgarity is more than I can describe. Forgive me-". At that point, Masaryk broke down in tears. Upon regaining his composure, Masaryk stated: "I do not envy those who are perpetuating this horrible drama, either by vandal force or by turning their faces to the wall. They have committed sins against God." In July 1939, Masaryk returned to London, where he rented a flat in Westminster.

Wartime
During the war he regularly made broadcasts over the BBC to occupied Czechoslovakia starting in September 1939 and ending in April 1945. Masaryk's speeches on the BBC's Czech language station made him into a national hero. It was illegal to listen to the BBC in the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, but that did not stop people from tuning in to the BBC every Wednesday night to hear him speak on a radio program entitled Volá Londýn (London Calling). On 8 September 1939, Masaryk gave his first radio broadcast on the Volá Londýn show, where he called for "a free Czechoslovakia in a free Europe". During the war, the Volá Londýn radio show was the most popular radio program in Czechoslovakia and Masaryk was the most popular speaker on the show.

In an article published in Central European Observer on 1 February 1940, Masaryk declared his war aims as: "My conviction is that our little country is not going to be saved by any of these grand 'isms'-neither Fascism nor Bolshevism, Pan-Germanism or Pan-Slavism...I am definitely a Slav, but I hope an European first. I am convinced that the fate of our people cannot be separated from that of other Central European and Danubian peoples, whether they are Slavs or not...Narrow nationalism should disappear...An equal partnership in the cause of an European Risorgimento, a breakaway from isms of every kind. A Free Germany in a Free Europe; and besides her the Czechoslovakia of St. Wenceslas, Hus, Comenius, Palacký, Smetana, Masaryk and Čapek...A Free Czechoslovakia in a Free Europe".

When a Czechoslovak government-in-exile was established in Britain in July 1940, Masaryk was appointed Foreign Minister. He had a flat at Westminster Gardens, Marsham Street in London but often stayed at the Czechoslovak Chancellery residence at Wingrave or with President Beneš at Aston Abbotts, both near Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire. With the launch of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, Beneš had an unlimited faith in the potential of the Soviet Union, believing that Germany would be defeated by the spring of 1942 at the latest. Masaryk told the other cabinet members: "he [Beneš] now only has Russia on his mind. We must hold him, so that he won’t fly off to the sky". In 1942 Masaryk received an LL.D. from Bates College. Beneš had lived in France for much of his life, and was described as someone who "knew France" well, but in contrast, he found the British to be something of a "mystery". Masaryk who lived in London for so long often made suggestions to appeal to a British audience. Powell wrote: "An understanding of human psychology was not one of the President's outstanding achievements, nor was his knowledge of languages. Masaryk made up for these deficiencies".

Beneš's main interest as president of a government-in-exile to have the British agree to abrogate the Munich Agreement and accept that after the war the Sudetenland was to become part of Czechoslovakia again, a war aim that the British were initially opposed to as the British position until August 1942 was that the Munich Agreement was still in effect. In a letter to Eden, who was again serving as Foreign Secretary, on 25 August 1941, Masaryk expressed much concern that the Atlantic Charter would mean that the Sudetenland would remain a part of Germany. Masaryk argued to Eden that Czechoslovakia and the other neighbors of Germany needed a situation after the war that "would enable them to defend peace for themselves and for the world against any future attempts by aggression by Germany", which in turn required a defensible frontier (i.e. returning the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia). Masaryk as foreign minister was regarded by the Foreign Office as the more reasonable than Beneš who was viewed as obstinate on the Sudetenland issue.

In a 1943 speech on the Volá Londýn radio show to celebrate the Jewish new year, Masaryk urged people in the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia to assist the Jewish community, saying it was incumbent to extent a helping hand to the "most wretched of the wretched" as he called the Jews of the protectorate, saying that he wanted ordinary Czechs to be able say after the war that "we remained decent people". A supporter of Zionism, Masaryk was a friend of Dr. Chaim Weizmann.

In June 1943, Masaryk spoke with Philip Nichols of the Foreign Office and expressed much doubt about a proposed treaty to create a military alliance between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union that was being energetically championed by Zdeněk Fierlinger, the Czechoslovak ambassador in Moscow. Through Masaryk did not oppose the proposed treaty outright, he hinted to Nichols that he preferred that after the war that Czechoslovakia move closer to Poland rather than the Soviet Union. Between 17 October 1943 – 10 February 1944, Masaryk went on a lengthy speaking tour of the United States, which removed him from the meetings of the Czechoslovak cabinet. In December 1943, Beneš went to Moscow to sign a treaty creating a 25-year military alliance between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union. Upon his return to London, Masaryk was forced to accept the fait accompli. In a radio speech on 16 February 1944, Masaryk stated that the Soviet-Czechoslovak alliance "was approved of in America", though "there were a few reactionaries who hide their own selfish interests behind the pretense of the fear of Bolshevism". Masaryk added that "that we should get used to calling it the Soviet empire. Because it will be the Soviet empire which will play the most important role on the continent".

In an unauthorised act, Fierlinger in July 1944 sent out a public telegram to Edward Osóbka-Morawski, celebrating the entry of the Polish People's Army onto Polish soil, which led Beneš to rebuke Fierlinger for an act that implied support for the Soviet puppet Lublin government. Masaryk wanted to fire Fierlinger for that letter, complaining he was no longer representing Czechoslovakia in Moscow in any meaningful sense of the term. On 28 July 1944, the entire Czechoslovak cabinet recommended to Beneš that he sack Fierlinger as ambassador in Moscow and appoint a new ambassador who would represent the interests of the government-in-exile instead of the Soviet Union, advice that Beneš refused to accept.

In April 1945, Beneš and Masaryk travelled to Moscow to meet Stalin, where it was agreed that the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia would be aligned with the Soviet Union, but that Czechoslovakia would retain its independence and democracy.

After the war
Masaryk remained Foreign Minister following the liberation of Czechoslovakia as part of the multi-party, communist-dominated National Front government. The Communists under Klement Gottwald saw their position strengthened after the 1946 elections but Masaryk stayed on as Foreign Minister. He was concerned with retaining the friendship of the Soviet Union, but was dismayed by the veto they put on Czechoslovak participation in the Marshall Plan.

Czechoslovakia sold arms to Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The deliveries from Czechoslovakia proved important for the establishment of Israel. Masaryk personally signed the first contract on 14 January 1948. Because Masaryk was viewed as the most sympathetic to the Jews of members of the postwar government, he was given the task of "appeasing Jewish organisations in the west" in terms of the government's plans to expel the country's German population, including German-speaking Jews. In February 1948 the majority of the non-communist cabinet members resigned, hoping to force new elections, but instead a communist government under Gottwald was formed in what became known as the Czech coup ("Victorious February" in the Eastern Bloc). Masaryk met the visiting Soviet deputy foreign minister, Zorin, who told him that he hoped that he would become a member of the "new government", which confused Masaryk as the current government had not fallen. Zorin told him that "Gottwald is our only guarantee. The government must be cleaned up. We are determined to build a new one, which is more friendly to us and we shall support Gottwald". Masaryk remained Foreign Minister, and was the only prominent minister in the new government who was neither a Communist nor a fellow traveller.

Masaryk served as the President of the World Federation of United Nations Associations. A memorial to his memory and his presidency of the Organisation is located in Geneva, Switzerland.

Death
On 10 March 1948 Masaryk was found dead, dressed only in his pajamas, in the courtyard of the Foreign Ministry (the Černín Palace in Prague) below his bathroom window.

Jan Masaryk's remains were buried next to his parents in a plot at Lány cemetery, where in 1994 also the ashes of his sister Alice Masaryková were laid to rest.

The Ministry of the Interior claimed that he had committed suicide by jumping out of the window, but at the time, it was widely assumed that he was murdered at the behest of the nascent Communist government. On the other hand, many of his close associates (e.g. his secretary Antonín Sum, his press assistant Josef Josten, his sister Olga or Viktor Fischl) have always defended the suicide story.

In a second investigation taken in 1968 during the Prague Spring, Masaryk's death was ruled an accident, not excluding a murder and a third investigation in the early 1990s after the Velvet Revolution concluded that it had been a murder.

In his 1981 autobiography History and Memory, US Ambassador Charles W. Yost, a friend of Masaryk who worked with him in Prague in 1947, and also a friend of Masaryk's fiancée Marcia Davenport, wrote, "The Communists used him and, when his usefulness was past, flung him out of a window to his death."

Discussions about the mysterious circumstances of his death continued for some time. Those who believe that Masaryk was murdered called it the Third (or Fourth) Defenestration of Prague, and point to the presence of nail marks on the window sill from which Masaryk fell, as well as smearings of feces and Masaryk's stated intention to leave Prague the next day for London. Members of Masaryk's family—including his former wife, Frances Crane Leatherbee, a former in-law named Sylvia E. Crane, and his sister Alice Masaryková — stated their belief that he had indeed killed himself, according to a letter written by Sylvia E. Crane to The New York Times, and considered the possibility of murder a "cold war cliché". However, a Prague police report in 2004 concluded after forensic research that Masaryk had indeed been thrown out of the window to his death. This report was seemingly corroborated in 2006 when a Russian journalist claimed that his mother knew the Russian intelligence officer who threw Masaryk out of the window of the west bathroom of Masaryk's flat.

The highest-ranking Soviet Bloc intelligence defector, Lt. Gen. Ion Mihai Pacepa, claimed he had a conversation with Nicolae Ceauşescu, who told him about "ten international leaders the Kremlin killed or tried to kill". Jan Masaryk was one of them.

Czech historian Václava Jandečková has tentatively suggested in her 2015 monograph "Kauza Jan Masaryk: Nový pohled" (The Jan Masaryk Case: A New Perspective) that Masaryk might have been murdered by Jan Bydžovský and František Fryč, who believed they were working for the British intelligence service SIS, but most probably fell victim to NKVD agents. Bydžovský confessed to murdering Masaryk when interrogated in prison by the Czech secret police StB in the 1950s (in an unrelated case); but later denied it. Jandečková argues that this confession cannot be so easily dismissed as has been believed, especially since Bydžovský certainly was not hallucinating or drugged, and the interrogators seem to have been surprised by his confession (at his trial, the Masaryk murder was not "used" or even mentioned, although a separate re-investigation by the StB continued for more than a year).

A new investigation that opened in 2019 included a new expert opinion regarding the mechanics of the fall, and an old tape by the policeman who was among the first at the crime scene, testifying the body had been already moved when he arrived. The investigation closed in 2021, with murder, accident or suicide all possible.

Private life
From 1924 until their divorce in 1931, Masaryk was married to Frances Crane Leatherbee (1887-1954). An heiress to the Crane piping, valves and elevator fortune, and the former wife of Robert Leatherbee, she was a daughter of Charles R. Crane, a U.S. minister to China; and a sister of Richard Teller Crane II, a U.S. ambassador to Czechoslovakia. By that marriage, Masaryk had three stepchildren: Charles Leatherbee, Robert Leatherbee Jr., and Richard Crane Leatherbee. Stepson Charles Leatherbee (Harvard 1929) co-founded the University Players, a summer stock company in Falmouth, Massachusetts, in 1928 with Bretaigne Windust. He married Mary Lee Logan (1910-1972), younger sister of Joshua Logan, who became one of the co-directors of the University Players in 1931.

In 1945 the exile Masaryk became close to the American writer Marcia Davenport, whom he felt had a strong affinity to Czechs and to the city of Prague, depicted in several of her books. Davenport had in 1944 divorced her husband Russell Davenport and is known to have followed Masaryk to post-war Prague and lived with him there from 1945 to 1948. Following the Communist coup she returned to London, where she and Masaryk planned to be married as soon as he could join her, but only a few days later he was found dead.

Masaryk was a skilled amateur pianist. In that capacity, he accompanied Jarmila Novotná in a recital of Czech folk songs issued on 78 RPM records to commemorate the victims of the Nazi eradication of Lidice.

He is reputed to have had an exquisite sense of humour. It is reported that when he was a young Czechoslovak Ambassador to the US, he attended many parties and once the hostess invited him to play the violin. Accepting graciously, he played a Czech nursery song to enthusiastic applause from the audience. Leaving the party with a friend, he was asked why had he been asked to play the violin, to which he replied: "Oh, it's all very simple-- don't you see? They have mixed me up with my father; they mixed him up with Paderewski. And they mixed the piano up with the violin." Jan Masaryk was active in many societies, among those he was active freemason.

Jan Masaryk Medal
The Honorary Silver Medal of Jan Masaryk (Czech: Stříbrná medaile Jana Masaryka) is awarded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic and is one of the highest awards that can be received by foreign nationals.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jan Masaryk


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Tire iron

A tire iron (also tire lever or tire spoon) is a specialized metal or plastic tool used in working with tires. Tire irons have not been in common use for automobile tires since the shift to the use of tubeless tires in the late 1950s.

Bicycle tire irons are still in use for those tires which have a separate inner tube, and can have a hooked C-shape cut into one end of the iron so that it may be hooked on a bicycle spoke to hold it in place.

Description and use
Tire irons, which usually come in pairs or threes, are used to pry the edge of a tire away from the rim of the wheel it has been mounted on. After one iron has pried a portion of the tire from its wheel, it is held in position while a second iron is applied further along the tire to pry more of the tire away from the wheel. This allows enough of the tire to be separated so that the first iron can be removed, and used again on the far side of the other iron. Alternating in this way, a person can work all the way around the tire to fully remove it from the wheel, in order to reach the tube that sits inside.

In the first half of the 20th century, they became a colloquial term of strength, as in "I couldn't get rid of him with a pair of tire irons," and frequently appeared in cartoons in similar situations. The usage is now considered passé.

Bicycle tire irons
Tire irons for bicycles are usually referred to as "tire levers", as they are often made of plastic, not metal.

Tire levers for bicycle tires have one end that is tapered and slightly curved. The other end is usually hooked so that it can be hooked around a spoke to keep the tire bead free of the rim at one point, allowing a second lever to be manipulated forward, progressively loosening a larger segment of the tire bead from the rim.

A common feature of tire levers is the lack of sharp edges. The slightest pinch of an inner tube by a lever can weaken or puncture the tube. It is good practice to examine a set of tire levers for any sharp edges and to file them smooth and round. Another problem, though less critical, is that a steel lever would scratch aluminum rims.

Classically, tire levers were made of metal. However plastic ones are now manufactured which are even less sharp and less likely to puncture the tube. There are also some single-lever varieties, which can be inserted under the bead at one point then quickly pushed around the rim to pop the bead off.

Tire levers are not necessary or desirable in all cases. In some cases, the tire can be reinserted on the rim, and sometimes removed from the rim, without the use of tire levers. This reduces the chance of puncture caused by pinching the tube between the rim and the tire bead. Sometimes they are used to fit the tire back on, but this can be done without the levers.

title: Tire iron


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As, Belgium

As is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On January 1, 2006, As had a total population of 7,497. The total area is 22.07 km2 which gives a population density of 340 inhabitants per km2.

History
In 1971 the municipality was formed by the merger of two villages - As and Niel-bij-As, which both lie on the Bosbeek brook on the Campine plateau between the rivers Demer and Meuse.

The location of the settlements close to a water course in this dry region gave rise to the villages' names: "As" is a prehistoric name for water ("Aska") which first referred to the Bosbeek brook and later the village itself.

Archaeological finds indicate an early prehistoric settlement, including objects made of flint dating from the earliest Stone Age. The area was inhabited from 500 BC as shown by a cemetery in the field between Genk and As. The Romans built the road from Tongeren to Venlo via Munsterbilzen and As. The current road next to the brook and the roads to Niel and Dorne follow the course of the Roman road. However, the Romans did not establish any settlements in the area as the sandy soil was not fertile enough. After the fall of Rome, the Francs invaded the area and established themselves in As. The Merovingian cemetery indicates that As was an important village from 500 - 700. The region started to be Christianised from the eighth century, and the first church was built on the site of the current Saint Aldegonde's Church. The church is first mentioned in a letter dated 1108 in which Otbert, Prince-Bishop of Luik reported to the abbey of Rolduc about "income from the churches of Riemst, Genk, As and Gellik".

Niel was first mentioned in a charter of 1253 in which Arnold, Earl of Borgloon, was granted the Villa of Dilsen with Niel and the castle of Stokkem. In 1299 the Earl of Borgloon was recorded appointing Arnold van Gellik as pastor of As. In 1303 the Abbey was granted a perpetual lease on the village of As. The people of Niel, however, still relied on Dilsen for religious obligations, until 1721 when Pastor Bex from Dilsen created Niel as an independent parish. Bex's cousin Adam Dellecomminne became the first pastor of Niel.

Since the early Middle Ages, the original oak and birch forests were cleared more and more for agriculture and heathland fields. The present hamlets, of which Oeleinde is the oldest, developed into a farming village. In 1901 the first coal was discovered in As, which led to the industrialisation of the region. Now, As is mainly a residential municipality set along large heathland fields and woodland areas.

Mayors

 * 1873 - 1908 : Jan Matthijs Theunissen
 * 1909 - 1927 : Jacobus Janssen
 * 1927 - 1933 : Joseph Weytjens
 * 1933 - 1935 : Désiré Colemont
 * 1935 - 1941 : Louis Huveners
 * 1941 - 1944 : Jan Lambert Dexters
 * 1944 - 1947 : Koen Lagaert
 * 1947 - 1953 : Hubert Hoogmartens
 * 1953 - 1959 : Gisbert Marting
 * 1959 - 1971 : Albert Jorissen
 * 1971 - 1977 : Pierre Tilmans
 * 1977 - 1983 : Albert Jorissen
 * 1983 - 2006 : Jos Truyen
 * 2007 - 2016: Miel Craeghs
 * 2017 - : Tom Seurs

Sights

 * The restored church of St Aldegonde
 * The church of St Theresa, dating from 1930 to 1932
 * The Kolenspoor (Coal Track), an association of volunteers who present guided tours of the historic route of the former railway line from Waterschei to Eisden via As
 * The former railway station, the oldest in Limburg, now restored as a pub (the Kolenspoor) and the entrance to the Campine National Park
 * The André Dumont Monument, erected on the very spot where the first coal was struck in 1901
 * Two historic water mills

title: As, Belgium


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Beringen, Belgium

Beringen (Béringue, ; Berringe) is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. The Beringen municipality includes the town of Beringen proper and the old communes of Beverlo, Koersel, and Paal.

Origins
Beringen was already inhabited in Celtic times, as proven by the 1995 archeological finds of gold coins and artifacts on its territory. These date from around 90 BC and are the most northerly late-Iron-Age gold objects found in Europe. Other finds, including of Roman coins, indicate a very early establishment. The first mention of Beringen dates to 1120 when it was known as 'Beringe', a word derived from the Germanic Beringum, which meant 'with the people of Bero'. During Carolingian times, the land of Beringen had been donated to the abbey of Corbie in France.

For most of the medieval period, it was part of the County of Loon, from which it received its city charter in 1239. The city was then protected by impressive moats and gated walls. The county of Loon as a whole was annexed to the Prince-Bishopric of Liège in 1366. Beringen became one of the bishopric's 23 bonnes villes (principal cities) and shared its history until its dissolution in 1795.

Mining past
Under André Dumont’s guidance, the first coal-bearing drill cores were obtained in Campine in 1901, leading to several coalmines being established in the region. The first production in Koersel dates from 1919. The golden age of coal production started right after World War II and lasted until the late 1950s, when cheaper energy sources were made available elsewhere. The last coal mine in Beringen closed its doors on October 28, 1989. The remaining slag heaps and mining buildings are still very obvious around the city.

Sights

 * The Beringen Mine Museum and spoil tip is one of Beringen’s main attractions and retraces the industrial history of the region. It is a former Anchor Point of ERIH, the European Route of Industrial Heritage.
 * The St. Peter in Chains Church, with its elegant spire and rich Baroque interior.
 * With its good network of biking trails, Beringen is also one of the best places in Campine for bikers.

Events

 * Yearly Kermesses take place both in Beringen Paal and in Koersel.
 * At the beginning of August, Paal also organizes a whole-day musical event: "Paal op Stelten"
 * The two-day-long "Koersel Terrast" takes place in late spring: music, dance, and fireworks are enjoyed by adults and children alike.
 * A round of the Ethias Cross cyclocross race series has been held on a course on part of the site of the former coal mine since the 2019—2020 season
 * The 1st round of the 2024 Exact Cross, Cyclocross Trophy was held here on 8 Oct. First place was taken by Fem Van Empel.

Famous past and present residents

 * Lodewijk Heyligen (1304, Beringen - 1361, Avignon), Benedictine monk and music theorist
 * Henricus Calenus (1583, Beringen - 1653, Brussels), clergyman who played a role in the history of Jansenism.
 * Jo Vandeurzen, politician (b. 1958)
 * Ingrid Berghmans, judoka (b. 1961)
 * Mauro Pawlowski, musician (b. 1971)

title: Beringen, Belgium


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Diepenbeek

Diepenbeek (Diepenbik) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg near Hasselt. On January 1, 2012, Diepenbeek had a total population of 18,337. Its total area is 41.19 km2 which gives a population density of 430 /km2.

The municipality includes the communities and hamlets of Bijenberg, het Crijt, Dorpheide, Keizel, Lutselus, Pampert, Piannesberg, Reitje, Rooierheide, Rozendaal, and Zwartveld.

It is home to Hasselt University, slowly expanding towards Hasselt itself. The Limburg Science Park is located on the university campus.

title: Diepenbeek


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Genk

Genk is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg near Hasselt. The municipality only comprises the town of Genk itself. It is one of the most important industrial towns in Flanders, located on the Albert Canal, between Antwerp and Liège.

Celtic and medieval origins
Genk probably originated as a Celtic village, and was converted to Christianity in the 10th century. The remains of a little wooden church dating from that period were found in the area. The first mention of Genk as Geneche can be found in a document dating from 1108, ceding the territory to the Abbey of Rolduc. Politically, Genk belonged to the County of Loon until it was annexed by the Prince-Bishopric of Liège in 1365.

19th century
During a century of on-going industrialisation further south in Belgium, Limburg modernised only slowly: Genk remained unimportant and small, growing slowly to a population of 2,000 around 1900. The peaceful village was the home of landscape painters and writers such as Neel Doff.

20th-century development
In 1901, André Dumont found a large quantity of coal in the nearby village of As. Soon after, the "Black Gold" was also found in Genk. After World War I, the village started to attract a large quantity of both Belgian and foreign immigrants, and quickly became the biggest town in Limburg after Hasselt, peaking to a population of 70,000. However, in 1966 the coal mine of Zwartberg closed down, and Genk had to develop new industries, mainly along the Albert Canal and highways. By the end of the 1980s, the two remaining coal mines at Winterslag and Waterschei were also closed.

In 2000, Genk officially became a city.

Economy

Genk is the industrial centre of the province of Limburg and offers over 45,000 jobs, making it economically the third most significant city in Flanders.

In 1900, Genk was a quiet village with around 2,000 residents. At that time, Genk was known for its natural environment, popular among artists and painters who used Genk as a setting for their pieces. In 1901, coal was discovered in Genk and three mining sites were developed: Zwartberg, Waterschei and Winterslag (C-mine today). As a result, the population grew exponentially: today Genk has about 65,000 inhabitants with 107 different ethnic backgrounds. The mines had some good years, but in 1966 the Zwartberg mine closed, followed by Winterslag (C-mine today) in 1986 and Waterschei in 1987.

The Genk Body & Assembly factory of Ford Motor Company was the largest and most important employer in Genk until recently, employing some 5,000 people and building the Mondeo sedan and hatchback, the Galaxy (second generation, from 2006 and onwards) MPV/minivan, and the S-MAX sub-MPV. The factory closed in 2014.

C-Mine
The city went looking for new opportunities for the enormous mine sites on its territory, including the Winterslag site. In 2000, the idea began to grow to accommodate a creative hub in the buildings of the old coal mine of Winterslag. In 2001, the city of Genk bought the site from LRM (Limburgse Reconversie Maatschappij) and the name "C-mine" was born in 2005. As regards content, the creative hub works on four cornerstones: education, creative economy, creative recreation and artistic creation and presentation. With a university college specialised in various artistic graduation subjects, an incubator for young entrepreneurs, a cultural centre, a design centre, a cinema, C-mine expedition, etc. the C-mine mission has succeeded. It has created 330 jobs in 42 companies and organisations, including around 200 jobs in the creative sector in 33 creative companies.

Each day, C-mine produces: games, apps, websites, sets for television, drones, light shows, design items, stage productions, etc. C-mine is a site of creative makers in each of the four segments.

 * Companies in C-Mine:
 * E-nventors Lab / C-mine crib: E-nventors Lab is the research & development department of E-nvention that examines the latest technologies.

Sights

 * The biggest tourist attraction of Genk is Bokrijk, an open-air museum consisting of authentic relocated buildings (mainly dating from 17th till 19th century) from all over Flanders. In the summer season, historical Flanders comes alive in Bokrijk through numerous actors and re-enactment events.
 * Genk was established as one of the entrance "gateways" of the Hoge Kempen National Park, the first National Park in Flanders, at its opening in 2006.
 * Also noteworthy are the old coalmines of Zwartberg, Waterschei and Winterslag, surrounded by slag heaps, huge black mountains of dug up soil and coal remnants. Some of the mine buildings and housing can be visited.
 * Despite its industrial past and present, Genk is nicknamed 'De Groene Stad' (The Green City). It sports a nature reserve called "De Maten", the large recreational area Kattevennen (with the Europlaneterium), Bokrijk, and several other green areas. In sunny weather, you may also want to pay a visit to the Sundial Park (Zonnewijzerpark). The history of the landscape painters who visited Genk between 1840 and 1940 can be discovered in the Museum Emile Van Doren.
 * The Europlanetarium Genk has a planetarium and observatory.

Events

 * Genk was home of Motives Festival, an annual event taking place in November and celebrating "new sounds of jazz." Recent performers have included the fiery piano jazz of Esbjörn Svensson Trio, funky saxman Joshua Redman, and futuristic electronics wizard Leafcutter John.  Another musical event, Genk on Stage, takes place during three days in the summer. This festival is celebrated no more.
 * Genk is also rich in tradition, with a colourful carnival taking place around Ash Wednesday, the May celebrations featuring the May Queen, a flowers parade and a huge fireworks finale, and finally the Saint Martin procession, in honour of Saint Martin of Tours, one of the most popular saints in Flanders.
 * In 2012 Genk was host to Manifesta, The roving European Biennial of Contemporary Art, together with events such as the biennial of Venice and the Documenta in Kassel, Manifesta is one of the foremost art events of Europe.

Transportation
Besides the Albert Canal, Genk has rail service to Hasselt and a small airport (EBZW) 6 km northeast of the town center. De Lijn is the sole bus transport service provider within Genk.

Sports
Genk's major football club, KRC Genk, promoted from the second division in 1996 and quickly became one of Belgium's top clubs. They finished first in the highest football league in 1999, 2002, 2011 and 2019 and won the Belgian Cup in 1998, 2000, 2009, 2013 and 2021. Because of this success, the Luminus Arena (formerly known as Fenix Stadium and Cristal Arena) of KRC Genk (place for 25 500 supporters) has become an important centre of both sport and non-sport activities in recent years. In the 2016–2017 season Genk reached the quarter-finals of the UEFA Europa League by defeating fellow Belgian side K.A.A. Gent over two legs, one of which was a 5–2 win.

Karting Genk is a kart racing CIK FIA track. In 2011 it hosted the Karting World Championship.

Demography
24% of the inhabitants are of foreign origin from about 85 different nationalities, mostly Italians, Turks, and Greeks. It is believed that Genk has the largest Turkish community in Belgium relative to its population.

Notable people

 * Neel Doff, writer (1858–1942)
 * Jacques Germeaux, former politician and former senator (b. 1956)
 * Peter Vanhoutte, former politician and former Belgian MP (b. 1956)
 * Martin Margiela, fashion designer (b. 1957)
 * Jo Vandeurzen, politician and Minister of Health in the Flemish region (b. 1958)
 * Dirk Medved, football defender (b. 1968)
 * Ronny Gaspercic, football goalkeeper (b. 1969)
 * Karel Geraerts, footballer (b. 1982)
 * Benjamin De Ceulaer, footballer (b. 1983)
 * Siglo XX, 1980's Coldwave band
 * Claudio Desolati, italian footballer (b. 1955)

Twin cities

 * Francistown, Botswana (since 2004)
 * 🇵🇱 Cieszyn, Poland
 * 🇹🇷 Isparta, Turkey
 * 🇮🇹 San Giovanni in Fiore, Italy

title: Genk


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Gingelom

Gingelom is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On 1 January 2006 Gingelom had a total population of 7,847. The total area is 56.49 km2 which gives a population density of 139 /km2.

The municipality includes the old municipalities of Borlo, Buvingen, Jeuk, Montenaken, Niel-bij-Sint-Truiden, Mielen boven Aalst, Muizen, Boekhout, Vorsen and Kortijs.

Notable people

 * Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier

title: Gingelom


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Halen

Halen, formerly Haelen (Hôle), is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg, to the west of Hasselt. On January 1, 2018, Halen had a total population of 9,461. The total area is 36.29 km2 which gives a population density of 261 inhabitants per km2.

The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities: Halen proper, Loksbergen, and Zelem.

During the First World War, on August 12, 1914, the Battle of Halen took place here near the river crossing of the Gete.

title: Halen


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Ham, Belgium

Ham is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On January 1, 2006, Ham had a total population of 9,705. The total area is 32.69 km² which gives a population density of 297 inhabitants per km2 (746/sq mi).

Demographics
In August, 2008 the population of Ham exceeded 10,000 inhabitants.

Fusion
The municipality of Ham was created January 1977 by the fusion of the municipalities of Oostham and Kwaadmechelen.

title: Ham, Belgium


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Herk-de-Stad

Herk-de-Stad (Herck-la-Ville, ) is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On 1 January 2018, Herk-de-Stad had a total population of 12,661. The total area is 42.83 km2 which gives a population density of 296 inhabitants per km2.

Besides the village of Herk-de-Stad itself, the municipality contains the communities of Berbroek, Schulen and Donk. Donk contains two country houses, both of the eighteenth-century, Kasteel Hamont and Kasteel Landwijk, which stands on the site of a castle established in the 12th century.

Rock Herk
There is an annual rock festival in the village, Rock Herk. There is a balanced mix of techno, drum 'n bass, electronica, alternative rock, post-rock, punk-rock, hardcore punk, metal, stoner, rock 'n roll, and related genres. Bands that played in the past include Stretch Arm Strong, Isis, Explosions in the Sky, New Wet Kojak, Karate, Add N to (X), Thin White Rope, Swervedriver, Spiritualized, Cosmic Psychos, Slapshot, Southern Culture on the Skids, Barkmarket, and Godflesh.

Notable people

 * Virginie Claes, Miss Belgium 2006
 * Annemie Coenen, the singer of former Ian Van Dahl now known as AnnaGrace
 * Godefroy Wendelin, astronomer

title: Herk-de-Stad


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Heusden-Zolder

Heusden-Zolder (Heuze-Zolder ) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg near Hasselt. On 1 January 2006 Heusden-Zolder had a total population of 30,769. The total area is 53.23 km² which gives a population density of 578 inhabitants per km².

Heusden-Zolder was the result of the merger on 1 January 1977 of the two former municipalities of Heusden and Zolder, and currently consists of the former Heusden parishes of Heusden centre, Berkenbos and Eversel, and the former Zolder parishes of Zolder centre, Boekt, Viversel, Bolderberg and Lindeman.

Heusden-Zolder is home to almost 2,000 immigrants from all over the world. This is due to the (now closed) coal mine of Zolder. During the 1960s Belgian coal mines faced an enormous shortage of employees. To address this problem, foreigner labourers were encouraged to immigrate and work near the mines. After their closure (the mine in Zolder was the last one in Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg to close in 1992) most of the immigrants chose to stay, which makes Heusden-Zolder a relatively multicultural place.

Local infrastructure
The town hall, a large glass construction, is located in Zolder centre since the merger. As a compromise, the former town hall of Heusden is now used instead by the local social security department (OCMW).

Heusden-Zolder has one hospital, the Sint-Franciscusziekenhuis. Also, it has one secondary school, the Sint-Franciscuscollege, which is spread over two campusses: one in Heusden centre and one in Berkenbos. Heusden-Zolder also has a railway station, called "Zolder station". The town is easily accessible via the Albert Canal and the highway E314 and has therefore several industrial zones, such as 'Zolder-Lummen'.

Places of interest

 * Meylandt Castle, a castle donated to Heusden-Zolder by the De Theux de Meylandt family. It is currently used as an art school.

Famous activities

 * De Revue, comical theatre play in the Heusden dialect.
 * The Grand Prix Erik De Vlaeminck Heusden-Zolder is a UCI Cyclo-cross World Cup competition traditionally held on Boxing Day.

Sport

 * De Veen, an athletics stadium that yearly hosts the KBC Night of Athletics, the second most important athletics meeting in Belgium after the world famous Memorial Van Damme in Brussels.

 * The Circuit Terlaemen, was the former Formula One home to the Belgian Grand Prix and host of the 2007 Belgian Champ Car Grand Prix.

 * The 1969 and 2002 UCI Road World Championships, the 2002 and 2016 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships and the 2003 Motocross des Nations were held at the Circuit Terlaemen.

 * The Speedway Club Helzold hold motorcycle speedway events at the stadium located at the intersection of Stadionlaan and Helzoldlaan. The stadium has hosted important events, including Netherlands and Belgian qualifying rounds of the Speedway World Championship (starting in 1987).

Climate
Heusden-Zolder has an oceanic climate due to Gulf Stream influence, in spite of its inland position. The municipality is in the region with the warmest summers in the Benelux region with 23.9 C July average highs.

Famous inhabitants

 * Evil Superstars, indie rock band
 * Luc Nilis, football player
 * Regi Penxten, Milk Inc. and DJ
 * Dries Vanthoor, racing driver.
 * Hans Vanwijn (born 1995), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League

title: Heusden-Zolder


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Leopoldsburg

Leopoldsburg (Bourg-Léopold, ; Leopolsbörch) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On January 1, 2006, Leopoldsburg had a total population of 14,403. The total area is 22.49 km2 which gives a population density of 640 /km2. It is situated near the important military base at Beverloo Camp. The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities: Leopoldsburg proper and Heppen.

title: Leopoldsburg


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Lummen

Lummen (Leume or Lumme ) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg near Hasselt. On January 1, 2006, Lummen had a total population of 13,691. The total area is 53.38 km2 which gives a population density of 256 inhabitants per km2.

The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities: Lummen proper, Meldert en Linkhout. In addition, it includes the following hamlets: Geneiken, Genenbos, Gestel, Goeslaar, Groenlaren, Laren, Mellaer, Molem, Oostereinde, Rekhoven, Schalbroek, and Thiewinkel.

Kasteel Lagendal is situated in this municipality.

The historic coat of arms features the crests of the Houses of Arenberg, La Marck and Arrazola de Oñate. In 2008 however, the municipality chose to use a new logo on its official documents instead.

Originally this was an estate ("villa") of the Prince Bishop of Liège. The core of this (Lummen-Koersel) was one parish until 1180. From the 10th to the 12th centuries, the County of Loon expanded in a northerly direction and seized the villa and the Counts founded an allodium, but in 1203 this area was again transferred to the Prince Bishop and taken on loan. It was given to Lodewijk van Walcourt afterwards. In 1350 Lummen came into possession of the Huis van der Mark-Arenberg. This family remained in possession of the glory until the French period (1794). However, the Dukes of Brabant also claimed to be entitled to a part of Lummen, while the (Loon) lords of Lummen sometimes attempted to found a free state in the area, whereby the Dukes of Brabant tried to sell their rights to these Loon lords several times. . The Heren van Lummen also owned the patronage rights of the parishes in their area, which also included Linkhout and Koersel, and from 1260 also Schulen.

On August 17, 1943, a German fighter plane downed an American B17 bomber of the 94th bomber group over Lummen. The debris of the aircraft ended up in the area of the current Kanadastraat. Six crew members died, two were taken to Germany as prisoners of war and two escaped. A memorial was unveiled on 17 August 2013 in the parking lot of the Oosterhof, near the crash. On February 21, 1945, an Avro Lancaster bomber of the Royal Australian Air Force crashed in the Goeren in Linkhout after being shot by a German night fighter. There was only 1 survivor of the 7 crew members, namely Alex Jenkins, the pilot. There is now a memorial at the site of the crash.

Etymology
The first mention of Lummen dates back to 1200, as Lumm. This originates from the Germanic word lom, which means moist.

Geography
Lummen is situated at the intersection of various regions: geographically, Lummen exhibits characteristics of the Hageland, Haspengouw, and primarily the Kempen. Throughout the municipality of Lummen, flow the rivers Demer, Mangelbeek, and Zwarte Beek.

title: Lummen


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Nieuwerkerken

Nieuwerkerken (Noërekirke) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg near Hasselt. On January 1, 2006, Nieuwerkerken had a total population of 6,606. The total area is 22.46 km2 which gives a population density of 294 inhabitants per km2. It consists of 4 villages: Binderveld, Wijer, Kozen and Nieuwerkerken. The current mayor is Dries Deferm (CD&V - Christian Democrats).

The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities: Binderveld, Kozen, Nieuwerkerken proper, and Wijer.

The village of Wijer was the location for the first series of the television show De Werf (VTM).

Attractions
Main monuments:
 * St Peter's Church (1910)
 * Castle (farm) of Nieuwerkerken (1648)
 * Castle Schelfstad Heath (18th century)
 * Heath Schelfstad Mining (18th century)

title: Nieuwerkerken


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Opglabbeek

Opglabbeek (Glabbek) is a village, former municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. In 2018, Opglabbeek had a total population of 10,332. The total area is 24.98 km2.

The municipality consisted of the following communities: Opglabbeek proper, Nieuwe Kempen, and Louwel.

Effective 1 January 2019, Opglabbeek and Meeuwen-Gruitrode were merged into the new municipality of Oudsbergen.

title: Opglabbeek


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Sint-Truiden

Sint-Truiden (Saint-Trond ; Sintruin ) is a city and municipality located in the province of Limburg, Flemish Region, Belgium, and has over 41,500 inhabitants, which makes it one of the largest cities in Limburg. The municipality includes the former communes (now deelgemeenten) of Aalst, Brustem, Duras, Engelmanshoven, Gelinden, Gorsem, Groot-Gelmen, Halmaal, Kerkom-bij-Sint-Truiden, Melveren, Metsteren, Ordingen, Runkelen, Velm, Wilderen, and Zepperen.

The city is in the centre of Belgium's fruit-producing region, Haspengouw (Hesbaye), and is renowned for its pears, apples (Jonagold), and sweet cherries.

Origins and Golden Age
The municipality formed around an abbey founded by St. Trudo, a Frankish nobleman, in the 7th century. Legend has it that as a boy, Trudo was playing while building a small church with some rocks. When a woman scornfully kicked over the rocks she was struck by sudden blindness. Trudo cured her from this blindness after she asked for his forgiveness. He also allegedly was able to spring water and cure other illnesses. After Trudo's death, the abbey (the later Sint-Truiden Abbey) became the centre of a pilgrimage, which brought wealth to the neighbouring town. The 11th century was particularly prosperous and witnessed an important growth in population. This was the time when abbot Adelardus, reporting to the prince-bishop of Metz, built the abbey's main church and two additional churches in town: Our Lady (Lievenvrouwenkerk) and Sint-Gangulfus. Under his direction, Sint-Truiden also received an earth wall surmounted by a wooden fence and fortified gates. A proper stone wall, gates and towers, were built in 1129. The economy of this new oppidum city was based on the linen industry and commerce with foreign lands such as England, Champagne, and Germany.

In the 13th century, the fortified town became one of the 23 bonnes villes (main cities) belonging to the Bishopric of Liège. A market hall was built at the site where the current city hall stands, the social life of the city was organized by the various guilds, and a perron was erected on the central square, symbolizing the local government's authority in political affairs.

15th century until now
Charles the Bold captured the town in 1467, marking the beginning of a slow decline that lasted until the 19th century. The city's fortifications were dismantled in 1675, and many of the religious congregations were disbanded under the French regime at the end of the 18th century. After 1830, these empty buildings were turned into educational and medical facilities. The city was also the centre of a prosperous agricultural region, which from the end of the 19th century became well known for its fruit production.

It occupied an important strategical position with regard to the N.E. frontier of Belgium, and General Henri Alexis Brialmont recommended its fortification. On 9 August 1914, at the outset of Germany's invasion of Belgium, 20 civilians were executed and a number of houses destroyed. The reconstruction and building of brand new neighbourhoods accelerated well into the 20th century.

During World War II, its airfield was the base of one of the most famous Luftwaffe Night Fighter squadron, NJG1, with units II/NJG1 and IV/NJG1 operating Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 219 aircraft from here in 1944. The highest scoring German night fighter pilot, Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer (121 air victories, most of them at night) was referred to as "The spook of St. Trond" by British Bomber crews that flew over Germany on night raids. The airport EBST is still in use.

Air
The airport of Sint-Truiden, Limburg Regional Airport – EBST is PPR. It is a former Belgian Air Force Air Base and retains the long hard 06 – 24 runway, though only 1199 metres (3933 ft) is used.

Fuel (Jet A-1 and Avgas) are available. All is located in hangar 41 (turn right at the end of the runway when taxiing heading 06). Opening hours from 09:00 LT until sunset 7/7. There is also a flight school (airplane and helicopter) Fly One.

There are no scheduled flights.

Rail
The town is served by Sint-Truiden railway station.

Sports
The professional football club Sint-Truidense V.V. is based in Sint-Truiden. STVV plays in the highest division of Belgian football, the Pro League.

Places of interest

 * Sint-Truiden's historical centre includes the town hall (Stadhuis), with a 17th-century belfry added by UNESCO to the World Heritage Site of Belfries of Belgium and France. The oldest parts of the building date from the 13th century.
 * The 15th-century Church of Our Lady (Lievenvrouwenkerk) stands just beside the town hall.
 * The béguinage of Sint-Agnes, with its 13th-century church, was also classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site of Flemish Beguinages.
 * An 11th-century Romanesque tower and crypt are all that remain of the old abbey of St Trudo. Several other Romanesque buildings can also be visited in town: Sint-Pieterskerk, Sint-Gangulfuskerk, and the Guvelingen chapel.
 * On the abbey square stands the statue of St Trudo which, together with a meridian line traced on the ground, also functions as a sundial.
 * Sint-Truiden offers several good examples of Baroque architecture, including the gable of the town hall and the Minderbroederkerk.
 * The military school KSOO Saffraanberg, the grounds of which include Rochemdaal Castly.

Notable inhabitants

 * Christina the Astonishing (1150–1224)
 * Denis the Carthusian, theologian and mystic (1402–1471)
 * Henri-Guillaume Hamal (1685–1752), musician and composer, maître de musique at Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk (Sint-Truiden) c. 1708–1712
 * Barthélémy de Theux de Meylandt (born 26 February 1794), politician and former Belgian Prime Minister
 * Aldous Huxley, English author (1894–1963), married Maria Nys from Sint-Truiden and briefly resided on the town's central square
 * Désiré Collen (born 21 June 1943), physician and chemist
 * Frank De Winne, astronaut, born in Ghent in 1961, but residing in Sint-Truiden since 1986
 * Koen Vanmechelen (born 26 August 1965), artist
 * Danny Boffin, football player (1965–)
 * Ruud Boffin, football player
 * Tina Bride (born 23 December 1977), musician and dancer
 * Kristof Delorge (1986–2021), football player
 * Simon Mignolet (born 6 August 1988), football player
 * Tim Wellens (born 10 May 1991), cyclist
 * Yorick Antheunis (born 26 June 1991), professional football player
 * Nina Derwael (born 26 March 2000), gymnast
 * Dimitri Van den Bergh (born 8 July 1994), professional darts player

Sister cities
Sint-Truiden is twinned with the following cities:

 * 🇫🇷 Duras, France
 * Weert, Netherlands
 * 🇳🇮 Nueva Guinea, Nicaragua

title: Sint-Truiden


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Tessenderlo

Tessenderlo (Loei) is a municipality in the Belgian province of Limburg. It is where the three Belgian provinces of Limburg, Flemish Brabant and Antwerp meet at the front gate of the Averbode Abbey. The municipality Tessenderlo encompasses the villages of Tessenderlo proper, Schoot, Engsbergen, Hulst and Berg. On January 1, 2006, Tessenderlo had a total population of 16,811. The total area is 51.35 km2 which gives a population density of 327 inhabitants per km2. The name Tessenderlo means "(the open place in) the forest of the Taxandrians".

It is along the Albert Canal and the European route E313, the highway between Antwerp and Liège, one of the reasons it was the place for the first Belgian "Industrial Zone of National Importance" in the 1960s.

Tessenderlo was the scene of an infamous industrial disaster during World War II, when a stock of 150 tonnes of ammonium nitrate at the chemical plant of Produits Chimiques de Tessenderloo (now Tessenderlo Group) - located near the centre of town - exploded on April 29, 1942, killing 189 people at the plant and in the town.

Tessenderlo is part of a small western zone of Limburg where the local dialect is not the Limburgian dialect, but Brabantic.

Notable people

 * Kate Ryan, Belgian singer
 * Chantal Calin, Belgian singer
 * Tia Hellebaut, Olympic Champion 2008 Highjump
 * Minus van Looi, writer

title: Tessenderlo


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Zonhoven

Zonhoven (Zoneve) is a municipality located in the middle of the Belgian province of Limburg located north of Hasselt and also borders Houthalen-Helechteren, Genk and Heusden-Zolder. It’s an urbanized municipality, in the edge area of Hasselt. The municipality belongs to the On January 1, 2019, Zonhoven had a total population of 21,237. The total area is 39.34 km2 which gives a population density of 506 inhabitants per km2.

Archaeological findings from the period 11,000 BCE to 5,000 BCE, including the only fixed prehistoric polishing stone in Flanders, indicate early inhabitation of the territory. From the Middle Ages to the early modern period, Zonhoven and its neighboring villages belonged to the Land of Vogelsanck. Since the arrival of industry in the 19th and 20th centuries, the municipality has experienced a significant population increase: between 1930 and 1980, the population tripled. Iron ore mining, in particular, played a prominent role in the economy of Zonhoven.

The municipality includes the hamlets Halveweg, Termolen, and Terdonk.

Toponymy
The place name 'Zonhoven' means 'water-rich, low-lying (marsh) land close to or along the watercourse the Son' The current name came about partly through folk etymology. At a certain point in history, language users were no longer aware of the original meaning of the old name Sonuwe. They then freely interpreted the name based on its word form (son- sounds like zon- and -uwe sounds somewhat like -hoven), resulting in Zonhoven. To understand the place name, one must listen to the local pronunciation /sōnəvə/ rather than looking at the written form Zonhoven.

The word element 'zon-' refers to the Son. This is an old name for the Zonderikbeek, a stream that flows through Zonhoven and partially shapes the landscape of the municipality, but which is known to Zonhoven residents as the Roosterbeek. Contrary to common belief, the first part of the place name Zonhoven does not refer to the sun as a star. As a result of this misunderstanding, several businesses, schools, and sports clubs have incorporated the prefixes 'zon-' or 'sun-' into their names and depicted the sun or a sundial in their logos. Examples include the primary school De Zonnewijzer, the beer Zonderik, café 't Zonnehof, and the baseball club Sunville Tigers. The sun is also incorporated into the coat of arms and flag of Zonhoven. The element '-hoven' traces back to '-ouwe', which means 'alluvial land'. It refers to the valley of the Zonderikbeek. In the past, it was suspected that '-hoven' referred to 'hof', meaning 'estate' or 'farm'. Consequently, 'the farm of the Zon family' was a possible explanation for the name Zonhoven, but this explanation has since been rejected

History
Zonhoven is a municipality located in the province of Limburg, Belgium. Its history can be traced back to ancient times, with evidence of human activity in the area dating back to the Roman period. The region was likely inhabited by the Tungri, a Germanic tribe that settled in the area during Roman rule. During the Middle Ages, Zonhoven was part of the County of Loon, a feudal state within the Holy Roman Empire. The village gradually developed around a central church and became a predominantly agricultural community. In the 14th century, Zonhoven fell under the control of the Duchy of Brabant. The region experienced its share of historical events, including the turbulence of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), which had a significant impact on the Low Countries. Like many other Belgian towns, Zonhoven witnessed conflicts and changes in rulership during this period. On November 18, 1833, the Treaty of Zonhoven was signed in the house named De Franse Kroon between representatives of the Netherlands and Belgium to establish special regulations over the use of the river Meuse by the signatories. The 19th century brought industrialization to Zonhoven, transforming its predominantly agrarian economy. The village expanded, and its population grew as industries such as coal mining and textile production took root in the area. The advent of the railway in the late 19th century further facilitated economic development and connectivity.In the 20th century, Zonhoven, like many European towns, faced the challenges posed by both World Wars. The aftermath of these conflicts saw periods of reconstruction and economic recovery. Today, Zonhoven stands as a modern municipality with a mix of historical charm and contemporary amenities. Its rich history is evident in its architecture, with some buildings dating back centuries, coexisting with more recent developments. The town continues to evolve, embracing its heritage while adapting to the demands of the present day.

Demography
As of January 1, 2019, Zonhoven had a population of 21,237 residents. This makes Zonhoven the thirteenth municipality in the province of Limburg and the 140th municipality in Belgium. The municipality has fewer inhabitants than its neighboring municipalities. Among the four hamlets comprising Zonhoven, the center has the highest population, followed by Termolen.

Sport
The municipality has four amateur football clubs, all playing in provincial divisions: Flandria Termolen, FC Melosport Zonhoven, KFC Halveweg Zonhoven, and Zonhoven VV. The latter played three seasons in the Third Division in the 1970s. In addition to these four clubs affiliated with the KBVB, other amateur teams also play in Zonhoven, including Tuinwijk VV, Weerstand Zonhoven, and FC Wanhoop. Zonhoven is particularly known in the football world for its women's football teams. DV Zonhoven played at the national level for a long time in the Second Division until they merged with DV Lanaken in 2012 to form DVL Zonhoven.

In Zonhoven, various sports facilities can be found. The largest is the open-air sports center Basvelden, which houses football club Zonhoven VV, equestrian club Zonnehoef, Zonhoven Athletics Club, tennis club TC Basveld, and baseball and softball club Sunville Tigers. The latter club is active at the highest level in Belgium. Basvelden comprises seven football fields, eight tennis courts with a tennis hall, several beach volleyball courts, two baseball fields, a stable with a covered riding arena, a skate and BMX park, two basketball courts, an athletics track, a petanque court, and a 2,700-meter-long Finnish track. In Halveweg, there is also an open-air sports center with football and tennis fields available for sports clubs. The largest indoor sports facility in Zonhoven is the events hall Den Dijk in the village center. Volleyball clubs Topsport Davozon (women) and VC Helios (men) play their home games there. The latter team played in Liga B for a long time. In addition to this events hall, there are also a sports hall in Terdonk and a sports hall at Windekind primary school in the center. Gymnastics club Olympia is active in all sports halls in the municipality.

Education
The municipality has six primary schools. Each of the four parishes is equipped with kindergarten and primary education: 'De Horizon' in Terdonk, 'De Lettermolen' in Termolen, 'De St@rtbaan' in Halveweg, and 'De Zonnewijzer' in the center. In addition, primary school 'Kosmos' and Freinet school 'De Toverfluit' represent community education with each having a kindergarten and primary school. They are also located in the center. Also located in the center of Zonhoven is the kindergarten 'De Kleurdoos.' In Zonhoven, secondary education is available at two schools: the Vrije Middenschool (first grade) and the Sint-Jan Berchmansinstituut (second and third grade). The schools work closely together as sister schools. They are located in the center within walking distance of each other and belong to the Scholengemeenschap Sint-Quintinus. Approximately 1,000 students are educated there.

Notable persons born/raised in Zonhoven

 * (1954–2001), author and illustrator of children's books
 * (1985), Multiple Sclerosis researcher/scientist
 * (b. Maasmechelen, 1980), VJ and radio personality
 * (1977), frontman of Zornik
 * (b. Hasselt, 1972), athlete
 * (b. Hasselt, 1965) aka Pat Krimson, ex-Leopold 3, frontman of 2 Fabiola, DJ and producer
 * Luc Indestege, (1901–1974) writer
 * , former boyband
 * Ingrid Lieten (b. Hasselt 1964), Flemish minister
 * Luc Nilis (1967), former soccer player
 * Roel Paulissen (b. Hasselt 1976), mountain biking
 * Marleen Renders (b. Diest 1968), marathon runner
 * (1988), actress
 * (1954), actress, sister of Leah Thys
 * (1945), actress, sister of Chris Thys
 * Jos Vandeloo (1925–2015), writer
 * (1941), former MOP, former mayor of Zonhoven
 * (b. Hasselt, 1967), writer
 * Tim Vanhamel (1977), frontman of Millionaire and ex-Evil Superstars
 * Francesca Vanthielen (b. Eeklo, 1972), actress, host
 * Wout Wijsmans (b. Hasselt, 1977), volleyball player

Products of Zonhoven

 * Belgian beer

title: Zonhoven


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Zutendaal

Zutendaal (Zietendaol; in English sometimes also referred to as "Sweet Valley") is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On 1 January 2017 Zutendaal had a total population of 7,269. The total area is 32.07 km2, giving a population density of 227 inhabitants per km2.

In addition to Zutendaal itself, the municipality includes the following population centres: Gewaai, Papendaal, Besmer, Broek, Stalken, Roelen, Daal, and Wiemesmeer.

Etymology
The first written mention of Zutendaal was in 1292 under the name of Suerbroeck, indicating that the land around the village was acidic and swampy. From 1345 the name changed to Zuetendael which literally translates to "Sweet Valley". Indicating there were a lot of freshwater sources around the village.

History
While the oldest settlements such as Papendaal, Zutendaal, Broek, Stalken and Roelen arose at the respective creek springs, Wiemesmeer, Gewaai and Besmer were founded much later, on the Kempen plateau. The Borough of Besmer was transferred from Lanaken to Zutendaal in the 19th century.

The first church is said to have been founded as early as the 7th century from the Abbey of Munsterbilzen. In 1304, the patronage right was transferred by Count Arnold V of Loon to the Abbey of Averbode. South of the church, around the town square the Vijverplein, some remnants of the former village center remain.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, there were many problems with itinerant army bands. In 1598, the church of Zutendaal was set on fire and also later the population had to resort to entrenchments to get to safety from these army bands. In 1790, a battle took place on the hill the Hesselsberg between the Liège revolutionaries and the troops of the Elector of Pfaltz, who supported the Prince-Bishop of Liège.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the heath was afforested for the production of mining wood. In 1938, on the local road Heiwijkerweg, the FN explosives factory was established. In 1944 the Americans built the Zutendaal Air Base. On January 1, 1945 Operation Bodenplatte raged here, which was lost by the Germans. From 1953 a NATO reserve base established itself at the air base.

Economy and tourism
Today Zutendaal is one of the most densely forested municipalities of Flanders, with tourism being a source of income. The community is famous for its barefoot path at the Lieteberg, one of the gateways to the Hoge Kempen National Park which nearly completely surrounds the municipality. Further economic activity can be found in some sand and gravel quarries.

Zutendaal is part of the Albert Canal Economic Network together with 24 other municipalities through which the canal runs.

Demographic evolution

 * Bronnen:NIS, Opm:1806 tot en met 1981=volkstellingen; 1990 en later= inwonertal op 1 januari

title: Zutendaal