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Zengakuren

Zengakuren is a league of university student associations founded in 1948 in Japan. The word Zengakuren (全学連) is an abridgement of Zen Nihon Gakusei Jichikai Sō Rengō (全日本学生自治会総連合) which literally means "All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Government Associations." Notable for organizing protests and marches, Zengakuren has been involved in Japan's anti-Red Purge movement, the anti-military base movement, the Anpo protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, the 1968–1969 Japanese university protests, and the struggle against the construction of Narita Airport.

History

Zengakuren emerged in the early postwar period as students at Japanese universities established self-governing associations (jichikai) in order to protest against perceived fascist remnants in the university system and to organize against proposed tuition hikes. All university students were automatically enrolled in these associations, and dues were automatically deducted from their tuition. In the wake of a failed general strike in 1947, the Japan Communist Party (JCP) stepped into organize the separate university associations into a single nationwide organization. As a result of this extensive organizing effort, the formation of Zengakuren was officially announced on September 18, 1948. Teruo Takei, a Tokyo University student and member of the Japanese Communist Party, was the organization's first chairman. Towards the end of 1948, Zengakuren comprised almost 60% of Japan's total student population.

Over the course of the 1950s, Zengakuren took part in a number of "struggles" (tōsō) and protest movements, including the "Bloody May Day" protests against the terms of the San Francisco Peace Treaty on May 1, 1952, the struggle against the Anti-Subversive Activities Law from 1952 to 1953, the movement against nuclear testing after the Lucky Dragon Incident of 1954, the "Sunagawa Struggle" against the expansion of the United States' Tachikawa Air Base in 1955–1957, the 1958 movement against the Police Duties Bill, and the massive Anpo protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty in 1959–1960.

In the late 1950s, an "anti-Stalinist" (i.e. anti-JCP) faction within Zengakuren nicknamed "The Bund" (Bunto in Japanese) managed to secure control of Zengakuren, in part by rigging elections. Their control of the organization was strenuously opposed by the "anti-mainstream" pro-JCP faction. This began the process of numerous internal schisms within Zengakuren that would continue throughout the 1960s. Nevertheless, for the time being Zengakuren held together in order mobilize its full power to try to stop the 1960 revision of the US-Japan Security Treaty. At the apex of its organizing power during the anti-Treaty protests in 1960, Zengakuren was able to count on around 250 jichikai at 110 schools, representing a total strength of around 290,000 students.

The first open splits within Zengakuren occurred in the immediate aftermath, as despondency at the failure of the anti-Treaty protests to stop the Treaty from being ratified led to numerous rounds of recriminations. Thereafter, the pro-JCP group split off from Zengakuren entirely to form a rival organization called "Zenjiren," and the remainder of Zengakuren split up into a large number of warring "sects" (sekuto), who would battle against each other at least as much as they battled against the police. Arming themselves with construction helmets painted in the colors of their various factions and large wooden staves they called "violence sticks" (gebabō, from the German Gewalt), the participated in a number of struggles throughout the 1960s and beyond, including the struggle against normalization of diplomatic relations with Korea in 1965, protests against the docking in Japan of US Navy nuclear-powered submarines and aircraft carriers, anti-Vietnam War protests, the university struggles of 1968–69, and the Sanrizuka Struggle against the construction of Narita Airport from 1968 into the mid-1980s.

Although dozens of rival sects emerged over the course of the 1960s, three major groupings occurred:
 * 1) Minseidō: student groups affiliated with the Japan Communist Party
 * 2) Sanpa Zengakuren: A "three-faction" (sanpa) alliance of groups critical of the JCP: the Second Bund, Kaihō-ha, and Chūkaku-ha
 * 3) Kakumaru-ha: The "Revolutionary Marxist Faction" of the Japan Revolutionary Communist League, it fought murderous battles with the Sanpa groups, even as it also opposed the JCP

By the end of the 1960s, there were several different factions claiming the mantle of the name "Zengakuren." Several different groups still claim this title today, and remain active, although their numbers have dwindled greatly since their heyday in the 1950s and 1960s.

Current status
As of 1999, there were said to be five Zengakuren factions:
 * Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)
 * Japanese Communist Party (Democratic Youth League of Japan)
 * Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee
 * Revolutionary Workers Association (Socialist Party Liberation Faction)
 * Revolutionary Workers Association (Liberation Faction)

In the late 2010s, Zengakuren (Japanese Communist Party faction) was inactive.

title: Zengakuren


text:
Benjamin Thompson

Colonel Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, FRS (March 26, 1753 – August 21, 1814) was an American-born British military officer, scientist, inventor and nobleman. Born in Woburn, Massachusetts, he supported the Loyalist cause during the American War of Independence, commanding the King's American Dragoons during the conflict. After the war ended in 1783, Thompson moved to London, where he was recognised for his administrative talents and received a knighthood from George III in 1784.

A prolific scientist and inventor, Thompson also created several new warship designs. He subsequently moved to the Electorate of Bavaria and entered into the employ of the Bavarian government, heavily reorganising the Bavarian Army. Thompson was rewarded for his efforts by being made an Imperial Count in 1792 before dying in Paris in 1814.

Early years
Thompson was born in rural Woburn, in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, on March 26, 1753; his birthplace is preserved as a museum. He was educated mainly at the village school, although he sometimes walked almost ten miles to Cambridge with the older Loammi Baldwin to attend lectures by Professor John Winthrop of Harvard College. At the age of 13 he was apprenticed to John Appleton, a merchant of nearby Salem. Thompson excelled at his trade, and coming in contact with refined and well educated people for the first time, adopted many of their characteristics including an interest in science. While recuperating in Woburn in 1769 from an injury, Thompson conducted experiments concerning the nature of heat and began to correspond with Loammi Baldwin and others about them. Later that year he worked for a few months for a Boston shopkeeper and then apprenticed himself briefly, and unsuccessfully, to a doctor in Woburn. Thompson's prospects were dim in 1772 but in that year they changed abruptly. He met, charmed and married a rich and well-connected widow, an heiress named Sarah Rolfe (née Walker). Her father was a minister, and her late husband left her property at Rumford, Province of New Hampshire, which is today in the modern city of Concord. They moved to Portsmouth, and through his wife's influence with the governor, he was appointed a major in the New Hampshire Militia. Their child (also named Sarah) was born in 1774.

American Revolutionary War
When the American Revolutionary War began Thompson was a man of property and standing in New England and was opposed to the uprising. He was active in recruiting loyalists to fight the rebels. This earned him the enmity of the popular party, and a mob attacked Thompson's house. He fled to the British lines, abandoning his wife, as it turned out, permanently. Thompson was welcomed by the British to whom he gave valuable information concerning American forces, and became an advisor to both General Thomas Gage and Lord George Germain.

In 1781 founded a loyalist military unit - The King's American Dragoons - which primarily served on Long Island in 1782 and early 1783, where they earned local notoriety for destroying a church and burial ground in order to erect Fort Golgotha in Huntington.

While working with the British armies in America he conducted experiments to measure the force of gunpowder, the results of which were widely acclaimed when published in 1781 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. On the strength of this he arrived in London at the end of the war with a reputation as a scientist.

Bavarian maturity

In 1785, he moved to Bavaria where he became an aide-de-camp to the Prince-elector Charles Theodore. He spent eleven years in Bavaria, reorganizing the army and establishing workhouses for the poor. He also invented Rumford's Soup, a soup for the poor, and established the cultivation of the potato in Bavaria. He studied methods of cooking, heating, and lighting, including the relative costs and efficiencies of wax candles, tallow candles, and oil lamps. On Prince Charles' behalf he created the Englischer Garten in Munich in 1789; it remains today and is known as one of the largest urban public parks in the world. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1789.

For his efforts, in 1791 Thompson was made an Imperial Count, becoming Reichsgraf von Rumford. He took the name "Rumford" after the town of Rumford, New Hampshire, which was an older name for Concord where he had been married.

Science and engineering
"Benjamin Thompson ... has many claims on the interest of the historian of science. ... He founded the Royal Institution ... His methods of conservation of heat and economy of fuel, his designs of stoves, fireplaces and cooking utensils were widely used during his lifetime. He was consulted on the laying out of kitchens in hospitals and institutions ... He taught his contemporaries to recognise the fire built on an open hearth, the only means of domestic heating and cooking with which they were acquainted, for the ineffective and wasteful contrivance it really was. He held the most enlightened views, ... far in advance of his time, on the waste of fuel and the evils of atmospheric pollution in cities. ... Rumford's constant preoccupation ... was the application of scientific principles to the improvement of the lot of the poor and the working classes, and it was in the subject of heat and its utilization that he found the greatest outlet for his endeavours."

Experiments on heat
His experiments on gunnery and explosives led to an interest in heat. He devised a method for measuring the specific heat of a solid substance but was disappointed when Johan Wilcke published his parallel discovery first.

Thompson next investigated the insulating properties of various materials, including fur, wool and feathers. He correctly appreciated that the insulating properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact, all gases, were perfect non-conductors of heat. He further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort.

In 1797, he extended his claim about non-conductivity to liquids. The idea raised considerable objections from the scientific establishment, John Dalton and John Leslie making particularly forthright attacks. Instrumentation far exceeding anything available in terms of accuracy and precision would have been needed to verify Thompson's claim. Again, he seems to have been influenced by his theological beliefs and it is likely that he wished to grant water a privileged and providential status in the regulation of human life.

He is considered the founder of the sous-vide food preparation method owing to his experiment with a mutton shoulder. He described this method in one of his essays.

Mechanical equivalent of heat
Rumford's most important scientific work took place in Munich, and centred on the nature of heat, which he contended in "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction" (1798) was not the caloric of then-current scientific thinking but a form of motion. Rumford had observed the frictional heat generated by boring cannon at the arsenal in Munich. Rumford immersed a cannon barrel in water and arranged for a specially blunted boring tool. He showed that the water could be boiled within roughly two and a half hours and that the supply of frictional heat was seemingly inexhaustible. Rumford confirmed that no physical change had taken place in the material of the cannon by comparing the specific heats of the material machined away and that remaining.

Rumford argued that the seemingly indefinite generation of heat was incompatible with the caloric theory. He contended that the only thing communicated to the barrel was motion.

Rumford made no attempt to further quantify the heat generated or to measure the mechanical equivalent of heat. Though this work met with a hostile reception, it was subsequently important in establishing the laws of conservation of energy later in the 19th century.

Calorific and frigorific radiation
He explained Pictet's experiment, which demonstrates the reflection of cold, by supposing that all bodies emit invisible rays, undulations in the ethereal fluid. He did experiments to support his theories of calorific and frigorific radiation and said the communication of heat was the net effect of calorific (hot) rays and frigorific (cold) rays and the rays emitted by the object. When an object absorbs radiation from a warmer object (calorific rays) its temperature rises, and when it absorbs radiation from a colder object (frigorific rays) its temperature falls. See note 8, "An enquiry concerning the nature of heat and the mode of its communication" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, starting at page 112.

Inventions and design improvements

Thompson was an active and prolific inventor, developing improvements for chimneys, fireplaces and industrial furnaces, as well as inventing the double boiler, a kitchen range, and a coffee percolator roughly between 1810 and 1814. He invented a percolating coffee pot following his pioneering work with the Bavarian Army, where he improved the diet of the soldiers as well as their clothes.

The Rumford fireplace created a sensation in London when he introduced the idea of restricting the chimney opening to increase the updraught, which was a much more efficient way to heat a room than earlier fireplaces. He and his workers modified fireplaces by inserting bricks into the hearth to make the side walls angled, and added a choke to the chimney to increase the speed of air going up the flue. The effect was to produce a streamlined air flow, so all the smoke would go up into the chimney rather than lingering and entering the room. It also had the effect of increasing the efficiency of the fire, and gave extra control of the rate of combustion of the fuel, whether wood or coal. Many fashionable London houses were modified to his instructions, and became smoke-free.

Thompson became a celebrity when news of his success spread. His work was also very profitable, and much imitated when he published his analysis of the way chimneys worked. In many ways, he was similar to Benjamin Franklin, who also invented a new kind of heating stove.

The retention of heat was a recurring theme in his work, as he is also credited with the invention of thermal underwear.

Industrial furnaces
Thompson also significantly improved the design of kilns used to produce quicklime, and Rumford furnaces were soon being constructed throughout Europe. The key innovation involved separating the burning fuel from the limestone, so that the lime produced by the heat of the furnace was not contaminated by ash from the fire.

Light and photometry
Rumford worked in photometry, the measurement of light. He made a photometer and introduced the standard candle, the predecessor of the candela, as a unit of luminous intensity. His standard candle was made from the oil of a sperm whale, to rigid specifications. He also published studies of "illusory" or subjective complementary colours, induced by the shadows created by two lights, one white and one coloured; these observations were cited and generalized by Michel-Eugène Chevreul as his "law of simultaneous colour contrast" in 1839.

Later life

After 1799, he divided his time between France and England. With Sir Joseph Banks, he established the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1799. The pair chose Sir Humphry Davy as the first lecturer. The institution flourished and became world-famous as a result of Davy's pioneering research. His assistant, Michael Faraday, established the Institution as a premier research laboratory, and also justly famous for its series of public lectures popularizing science. That tradition continues to the present, and the Royal Institution Christmas lectures attract large audiences through their TV broadcasts. Thompson endowed the Rumford medals of the Royal Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and endowed the Rumford Chair of Physics at Harvard University. In 1803, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

After several affairs and a close friendship with Mary Temple, Viscountess Palmerston, in 1804, he married Marie-Anne Lavoisier, the widow of the great French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. (His American wife, Sarah—whom he had abandoned at the outbreak of the American Revolution—had died in 1792.) Thompson separated from his second wife after three years, but he settled in Paris and continued his scientific work until his death on August 21, 1814. Thompson is buried in the small cemetery of Auteuil in Paris, just across from Adrien-Marie Legendre. Upon his death, his daughter from his first marriage, Sarah Thompson, inherited his title as Countess Rumford.

Honours

 * Colonel, King's American Dragoons.
 * Knighted, 1784.
 * Count of the Holy Roman Empire, 1791.
 * The crater Rumford on the Moon is named after him.
 * Rumford baking powder (patented 1859) is named after him, having been invented by a former Rumford professor at Harvard University, Eben Norton Horsford (1818–1893), cofounder of the Rumford Chemical Works of East Providence, RI.
 * Rumford Kitchen at the World's Fair in Chicago, 1893.
 * A street in the inner city of Munich is named after him.
 * Rumford Street (and the nearby Rumford Place) in Liverpool, England, are so named due to a soup kitchen established to Count Rumford's plan which formerly stood on land adjacent to Rumford Street.
 * undefined: Order of the White Eagle (1789).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Benjamin Thompson


text:
SQL Slammer

SQL Slammer is a 2003 computer worm that caused a denial of service on some Internet hosts and dramatically slowed general Internet traffic. It also crashed routers around the world, causing even more slowdowns. It spread rapidly, infecting most of its 75,000 victims within 10 minutes.

The program exploited a buffer overflow bug in Microsoft's SQL Server and Desktop Engine database products. Although the MS02-039 (CVE-2002-0649) patch had been released six months earlier, many organizations had not yet applied it.

The most infected regions were Europe, North America, and Asia (including East Asia and southern Asia (India)) etc.

Technical details
The worm was based on proof of concept code demonstrated at the Black Hat Briefings by David Litchfield, who had initially discovered the buffer overflow vulnerability that the worm exploited. It is a small piece of code that does little other than generate random IP addresses and send itself out to those addresses. If a selected address happens to belong to a host that is running an unpatched copy of Microsoft SQL Server Resolution Service listening on UDP port 1434, the host immediately becomes infected and begins spraying the Internet with more copies of the worm program.

Home PCs are generally not vulnerable to this worm unless they have MSDE installed. The worm is so small that it does not contain code to write itself to disk, so it only stays in memory, and it is easy to remove. For example, Symantec provides a free of charge removal utility, or it can even be removed by restarting SQL Server (although the machine would likely be reinfected immediately).

The worm was made possible by a software security vulnerability in SQL Server first reported by Microsoft on 24 July 2002. A patch had been available from Microsoft for six months prior to the worm's launch, but many installations had not been patched – including many at Microsoft.

The worm began to be noticed early on 25 January 2003 as it slowed systems worldwide. The slowdown was caused by the collapse of numerous routers under the burden of extremely high bombardment traffic from infected servers. Normally, when traffic is too high for routers to handle, the routers are supposed to delay or temporarily stop network traffic. Instead, some routers crashed (became unusable), and the "neighbour" routers would notice that these routers had stopped and should not be contacted (aka "removed from the routing table"). Routers started sending notices to this effect to other routers they knew about. The flood of routing table update notices caused some additional routers to fail, compounding the problem. Eventually the crashed routers' maintainers restarted them, causing them to announce their status, leading to another wave of routing table updates. Soon a significant portion of Internet bandwidth was consumed by routers communicating with each other to update their routing tables, and ordinary data traffic slowed or in some cases stopped altogether. Because the SQL Slammer worm was so small in size, sometimes it was able to get through when legitimate traffic was not.

Two key aspects contributed to SQL Slammer's rapid propagation. The worm infected new hosts over the sessionless UDP protocol, and the entire worm (only 376 bytes) fits inside a single packet. As a result, each infected host could simply "fire and forget" packets as rapidly as possible.

title: SQL Slammer


text:
Talk:Aerolíneas Argentinas

Unsignes comments
Which is the goal of these unsigned, "personal" comments made in spanish (and left untranslated), in an encyclopedia written in english? Can anyone please explain? Thanks, DPdH (talk) 12:17, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

Comet Picture
I like the picture, but its a BOAC comet, not an Aerolinas Argentinas one. Anyone else noticed this? --w2ch00

Fleet
I don't think that stating that the 747-400 being put in service are used but "modern". They are used and old. The 747-400 is an airplane that has almost 20 years since launched. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.217.226.71 (talk) 21:01, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Fleet/Destinations info all wrong
OK so someone is messing up with the fleet info. We don't fly or plan to fly to Asia, nor have any 773 on order. Check the news for the latest fleet announcements made by Marsans (so not AR). Also there are less 747s operational (3 -400 and 1 -200), the 340 fleet should be sub divided in 4 -200 and 1 -300 for making it clear, and we certainly don't have 35 737s working! This is not a simple rant, I edited the page but it came back like before, and I can't make any editing anymore, for whatever reason. Oh, Having 3 flights a week to Bogotá/Auckland hardly makes them FOCUS CITITES!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.114.249.226 (talk) 01:19, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

Hey, Whisper To Me, I don't know how to reply by PM. Fine, keep the cholera part if you think it's worth it. But either you or someone else is messing with the fleet info, and worst, adding wrong info about future destinations like ASIA. How come? do you people have any idea of what you're doing? now that I call vandalizing —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mal karma (talk • contribs) 06:01, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Well, the answer is to find a source (I.E. the Aerolineas Argentinas timetable), cite it (give a URL), and *revise* the destination list. For the fleet, find a source for the new fleet information. The Aerolineas Argentinas website is a Reliable source, so please use that for destinations. I do not know if the fleet info is also on the AA site. WhisperToMe 06:03, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

There is no timetable. The destinations can be found at the website. And while so is the fleet info, trust me, we don't have that many aircraft operational. Just give me a proof that we are going to fly to asia. Yeah, we, I freaking work there. Don't tell me to find a URL or a source when a lot of info is simply wrong and made up. I am not vandalizing, I'm correcting the wrong info. VERY WRONG INFO. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mal karma (talk • contribs) 06:09, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Here's the link, sorry but I don't know how to post properly.

http://www.airfleets.net/flottecie/Aerolineas%20Argentinas.htm

Remember, the MDs were transferred to AU in exchange of some 732s, so they do not appear, and any aircraft is ordered by Marsans, not AR, meaning that those planes may come in different numbers, if come at all. Mal karma 06:14, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Wrong information
"The firm incurred massive debt, and operating profits were not realized. Iberia bought from Aerolíneas Argentinas two 10-year old Boeing 707 aircraft for the price of US$1.57 each." Those were some cheap aircrafts. Is that information correct?
 * I don't recall real figures, but it was widely commented that Iberia transferred capital from Aerolineas. It would be nice to have a source for the fugures quoted. By the way, sometimes a "nominal" value is used in transactions of this type (need to find facts, eg when the USAF ceded Sabres F-86 to the FArArg). Regards, DPdH (talk) 12:12, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Aerolineasargentinaslogo.PNG
Image:Aerolineasargentinaslogo.PNG is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 15:58, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

"Neutrality" tag - Why?
Can anyone please explain why this article is tagged as "non neutral"? I've read it and could not find an "advertisement" style, nor any evicence of a "tendency" being supported. Maybe quoting/referencing is not adequate enough, but the content does not seem (IMHO) to support any aprticular point of view. Having said that, I couldn't find also in this discussion page any rationale supporting the current "tagging". Maybe it would be adequate to replace these tags with one related to "Cleanup Required". Regards, DPdH (talk) 12:26, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

Have you ever actually flown this airline? This is too positive about an airline that is largely perceived(by the majority of its passengers) to be poorly run and has very poor passenger service(cancellations, delays) and a very old fleet(one of the oldest in the world). John

Antonio Sexy Pervert Martin
 * Wikipedia is not a vehicle for people to give subjects positive nor negative views. If there is a link with a percentage of late flights for Aerolineas then you can put the percentage here and provide the link, but plainly saying it is one of the worst at anything, that is point of view. That said, those were the only lines where I saw the POV tag could be placed for, and I removed them, it would be more appropiate if you said "according to (source+internet link), only 5 percent of Aerolineas' flights go on time."

Here you go, dont really see the point though because somebody keeps editing this article by removing anything negative. http://www.expediacorporate.com/daily/edit/alerts/October/2007_November8_ARCancelsFlights.asp —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.240.146.75 (talk) 02:09, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

So? it's only one link saying some very old news. This page can easily become an AR bashing forum if things like that are allowed. Besides, I don't think most people editing here travel AR much. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mal karma (talk • contribs) 03:44, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Much being the appropriate word because one flight with AA is enough, I'll never go back, LAN's service is far superior and a heck of alot more reliable. Rgs Patsy —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.240.146.75 (talk) 02:27, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

This is about tag cleanup. As all of the tags are more than a year old, there is no current discussion relating to them, and there is a great deal of editing done since the tags were placed, they will be removed. This is not a judgement of content. If there is cause to re-tag, then that of course may be done, with the necessary posting of a discussion as to why, and what improvements could be made. This is only an effort to clean out old tags, and permit them to be updated with current issues if warranted.Jjdon (talk) 00:02, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Hi All, it seems to me that some people are using Wikipedia to vent frustrations experienced as passengers of this airline. This is not a forum for that, I'm afraid. To "John" and "Patsy": I've flown several times this airline, both international and domestic routes. I have my own opinion of its service (ups and downs), which cannot be supported with facts and verifiable sources as Wikipedia requires. And as I've also flown other domestic and foreign airlines, I can compare (my own) experiences. So I believe that Aerolineas is not much worse (or better) than most other airlines currently flying. Kind Regards, DPdH (talk) 02:25, 27 June 2008 (UTC)

2008 Renationalization
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7518674.stm —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.235.251.198 (talk) 07:15, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

Allegations of corruption and mismanagement
Some pretty serious sources should be cited to substantiate these accusations if they are to be mentioned on an encyclopedia. Codik (talk) 16:44, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

fake website
Although it's been reverted a long time ago, I'd like to point out that someone with the IP: 76.167.244.236 changed the URL of four different airlines to a fake website claiming to be the english webpage. These websites were actually of a travel agency that has domain names similar to those of the airlines. I'm guessing that this might happen again (given a commercial interest). I don't know if there's any use in blocking this IP now, but I leave this note so that if someone finds an odd link like I did (on the Santa Bárbara Airlines article) they can be sure that it's a fake and revert it. JunCTionS 00:53, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

History of Aerolineas
I've found difficult to find additional "verifiable" historical sources about this airline. A good (albeit brief) article I've found is in the argentinian aeronautical magazine "Aeroespacio"; I've included the link in the "External links" section of this article and I'm copying it below: Will keep looking for more historical info, to improve the corresponding section of this article. Regards, DPdH (talk) 16:06, 26 December 2008 (UTC)
 * (online) Article about 50th anniversary of "Aerolineas Argentinas" - Los 50 de Aerolíneas Argentinas, "Aeroespacio" Issue 538, Nov/Dec 2000. (in spanish)

 * I already edited the Privatisation sub-section including (I believe) reliable information included in a number of sources. Can anybody draw me some lines with an opinion? --Jetstreamer (talk) 20:51, 1 March 2011 (UTC)

embraer
why is no mention of embraer deal ? --Jor70 (talk) 22:41, 24 June 2009 (UTC)

 * There is no mention as this article contains fleet information for Aerolineas Argentinas fleet, as for the Embraer order is for Austral as subsidary for the airline. See Austral as it is stated under there. Zaps93 (talk) 23:02, 24 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Thks --Jor70 (talk) 00:33, 25 June 2009 (UTC)

Movies on flights?
I heard that they aren't showing movies on flights to Australia anymore. To save money. Is that true? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Aidanb (talk • contribs) 06:29, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

Spanish hub?
Whatever happened to Aerolineas Argentinas' Spain hub? I believe it was in Santiago de Compostela and they flew Boeing 737's to England. --Antonio el Che de Caguas Martin (dimelo!!!) 03:04, 17 August 2009 (UTC)
 * I am not sure. It may have been dismantled when AR decided to rely on European partners... WhisperToMe (talk) 23:35, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

Alternate URL
http://www.aerolineas.com.ar WhisperToMe (talk) 23:35, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

“Early years to privatisation” section
Please do not add information that is not verifiable by third-party sources. As per Wikipedia policies, all information not meeting with this criteria is subject to prompt delete. Thanks.--Jetstreamer (talk) 15:00, 4 May 2011 (UTC)

Gallery with round blue and shadow
I think the gallery should be made more akin to Wikipedia style, the blue border seems overpatriotic. Thanks --Camilo Sanchez (talk) 00:25, 27 April 2012 (UTC)
 * The gallery was removed.--Jetstreamer Talk 22:40, 27 April 2012 (UTC)

A340-300 in SkyTeam livery
So far, I have reverted three edits claiming the airline has incorporated an eighth Airbus A340-300, this particular one wearing the SkyTeam livery. Whether the claim is true or not, the sources provided do not mention that the aircraft in question is the eighth the airline has. A reliable source must be used to confirm this assertion. I've requested semi-protection of the page .--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 14:09, 19 October 2013 (UTC)

Boeing 737-800 order
Not a firm order yet, according to the source above. I've therefore. Please be more careful when adding content and please, read the sources you add.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 11:11, 22 October 2013 (UTC)
 * This is the second time in a week that I've reverted the edit made by . The very same source provided by them in the most recent edit (see above) clearly says that this was an agreement, and not a firm order: When the order is finalized, it will be posted as a firm order to the Boeing Orders and Deliveries website.
 * Please do not reinstate this until the aicraft manufacturer or the airline confirms the order.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 20:08, 28 October 2013 (UTC)
 * I've reinstated the latest edit made by the user, yet partly. There's no reason for not mentioning in the article that the agreement took place. However, I left the fleet table without modifications until the order is confirmed.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 20:48, 28 October 2013 (UTC)

More archived sources for the agreement
--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 12:43, 30 October 2013 (UTC)

Customer Service Heading
My edits on Aerolineas customer service have been removed. Citing insufficient sources. References have been provided - including to ratings of the airline by the site TripAdvisor.com. Since this is a site updated by many thousands of travellers, and relied on by millions more as a source of reviews, I would consider this at least as "reliable" a source as wikipedia. Coverage of the airline's customer service and popular perceptions is a valid topic within this wikipedia article. So long as the coverage cites references then it shouldn't be an issue. I understand that wikipedia is impartial but if there is valid information then it deserves to be published. The "sanitising" of articles by interested parties should be discouraged. — Preceding unsigned comment added by User:Bald white guy (talk • contribs) 11:43 14 January 2014

 * You need to assume good faith here Bald white guy, I dont have a problem with a properly referenced and balanced criticism section but your addition did not provide any reliable references. You cant really say Aerolíneas Argentinas has a reputation among travellers as one of the world's worst airlines for customer service. without providing a reliable source and TripAdvisor by its nature is not a reliable source. I am not sure who Pantanal Escapes is but appears to be an individuals opinion if there really was a "riot" then we should be able to find it mentioned in reliable sources like the riot in 2008 http://www.nbcnews.com/id/22630041/ns/world_news-americas/t/stranded-travelers-riot-argentine-airport/#.UtUnnLSOKik although the 2008 riot is related to industrial action and not customer service. That said as the additions have been challenged you should not add it again without gaining some consensus. MilborneOne (talk) 12:08, 14 January 2014 (UTC)

 * I believe the "reputation for poor customer service" is a defendable statement and balanced. Social media such as TripAdvisor are a valid source of opinions and perceptions about companies and their products (in fact, reflecting customer perceptions was the whole point of adding the heading). It shouldn't knocked just because it isn't "traditional" media. At the end of the day, wikipedia is itself social media. An event doesn't need to be reported on CNN for it to have happened or be referenced. Traditional media won't always be there to report on a scene. Even blog posts are a justifiable source or reference concerning current events (newspapers and TV now commonly reference them among their own sources). So long as the source is identified then readers have sufficient information to make their own call. Either way, I think the heading should stay because it adds meaningful and verifiable information about the subject matter. Bald white guy (talk) 13:01, 14 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Perhaps I can suggest you read up on what Wikipedia considers to be reliable sources, it doesnt include in nearly all cases uncontrolled commentary sites like TripAdvisor and most blog sites or self published sites like Pantanal Escapes. MilborneOne (talk) 13:27, 14 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Given that opinions are always biased, sites including traveller ones are clearly not reliable. Furthermore, Wikipedia is not a travel guide.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 14:10, 14 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Again, I take issue that you are sanitising articles and the removal is unwarranted. Customer perceptions are important when you're talking about an organisation. SkyTrax is the official rating relied on by the airlines. Some of the (e.g. Air New Zealand and Qantas) use this in their advising as a positive rating on their customer service. It is a rating which is trusted by the airlines. TripAdvisor mightn't be perfect but it is also a source relied upon by travellers worldwide, and customer ratings are a core part of their business. Their ratings for accommodation are referenced by many commercial booking sites particularly for accommodation so that potential customers have some idea about the service they're booking. The quality of service is an issue for this particular airline and it deserves mention because (again) it provides meaningful information about them. Rather than including the (sometimes inflammatory) remarks about this airline from travel forums, I've used surveys and travel-industry accepted surveys or ratings. The recent event in Buenos Aires also deserves mention IMHO. Maybe it hasn't been covered in the press but had reliable reports of the occurrence from passengers arriving in Sydney, some of whom took video of the event which is being uploaded onto social media also. Once again, although social media mightn't be wikipedia's traditional view of a source, reporting that it exists is nonetheless valid.

Yet again, although wikipedia isn't a travel guide, recording of customer perceptions as recorded in industry-accepted sources such as SkyTrax and TripAdvisor is a valid. The text that I've written is balanced, and other contributors have an opportunity to add alternative information and sources if they exist. My gut feel is that the content of this article is being controlled and sanitised by industry insiders with a vested interest in the airline industry and removing anything potentially negative. I can see why wikipedia is having issues attracting new contributors when content is being censored by self-appointed sanitisers. Maybe this is an issue for more official wikipedia moderators.Bald white guy (talk) 21:01, 14 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Please assume good faith Bald white guy all we are asking for is for you addition to be reliably referenced and balanced, like everything on wikipedia we have rules about attacking other editors motives. It has been explained that Trip Advisor is not reliable source or is much of social media, so find a balanced report on criticism and it can be added. Any body with a gripe can upload to Trip Advisor without any editorial control so is unlikely to produce a balanced view. I find it hard to believe that a riot in the last few days doesnt get any mention in the media and produces only results from 2008, and despite what you think social media is not a reliable source for wikpedia. Have a read of some of the guidelines on this stuff (WP:V and WP:RS for two) and try to understand the bigger view, thanks. MilborneOne (talk) 21:20, 14 January 2014 (UTC)

Go-around incident removed
The recent go-around incident at Barcelona-El Prat Airport (BCN) has been removed on the basis of WP:NOTNEWS and WP:NOTABLE. Furthermore, the edit unexplainedly removed sourced content. Please discuss here before attemtping to reinstate the BCN incident. Thanks.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 22:42, 8 July 2014 (UTC)

Old HQ

 * "World airline directory." Flight International. 26 July 1980. p. 261. (Direct PDF Link, (Archive)

This states: "Paseo Colon 185, Buenos Aires, Argentina" WhisperToMe (talk) 17:33, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

Archived references not used the article
Jetstreamer $Talk$ 02:46, 14 May 2022 (UTC)

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External links modified
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Inclusion of information for subsidiaries in infobox
Regarding this edit,  indicates that the field destinations should be populated with ″The number of airport destinations currently served by the airline (former or future destinations should not be included).″ Furthermore, fleet_size should include ″The number of aircraft currently in service.″ In both cases, it is not considered the inclusion of affiliates or subsidiaries, or otherwise they should be mentioned explicitly in the template documentation.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 21:06, 8 October 2017 (UTC)
 * I can see what it says on the infobox description, but nowhere does it say anything about not including separate numbers for subsidiaries or clarifying that the numbers do not include subsidiaries. It doesn't even say that in the parts you quoted, so it seems to be a misled interpretation or simply a personal preference for the article. Delta Air Lines, KLM, Lufthansa, Air Canada and Qantas include either combined or separate information about subsidiary fleets and routes in their infoboxes - clearly the authors of those pages do not have the same interpretation and see the value of not denying readers important information based on a pedantic and nonexistent technicality. SegataSanshiro1 (talk) 16:16, 9 October 2017 (UTC)
 * I've removed the information you mention from some of the articles above. I will remove the rest of them on exactly the same grounds. Maybe this is a matter to be raised at WT:AIRLINE.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 22:04, 9 October 2017 (UTC)
 * I've left my comments on the page. I'm not sure why you also removed the "see also" link to Austral's fleet in the fleet section of this article since that has nothing to do with the infobox in question and it's common practice on WP to point readers to information which might be of interest to them in relevant sections of the article, ie. wanting to know what the subsidiary fleet might be composed of after looking at the main fleet. SegataSanshiro1 (talk) 23:12, 9 October 2017 (UTC)

Austral Flight 2553 - part of Aerolineas Argentina
I looked to this article to see information regarding a plane that crashed killing all 74 passengers and crew on 10th October 1997. The history of accidents must be incorrect as it is not mentioned at all in this article. "The accident remains the deadliest in Uruguayan history". There is a Wikipedia page on the crash.PE Cambridge (talk) 15:49, 11 October 2017 (UTC)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austral_L%C3%ADneas_A%C3%A9reas_Flight_2553

As far as I know no one has ever received any compensation from this crash. Why is it not listed in the accidents?

11 October 2017 PE Cambridge
 * The crash is mentioned in tha article for Austral. This article deals with Aerolíneas Argentinas, not with its subsidiaries.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 17:18, 11 October 2017 (UTC)

 * They were separate airlines at the time and have been separate for most of their history. Austral only became a subsidiary of AA after renationalisation in 2008. At the time of the accident, I believe Austral was a subsidiary of Iberia. It would make as much sense to cover it on this page as it would on Iberia's page, though neither really make sense. On the Austral Líneas Aéreas page, the accident is listed among others. SegataSanshiro1 (talk) 17:22, 11 October 2017 (UTC)

English variety consistency
Explaining myself here after I reimplemented some edits which were previously undone by @Jetstreamer which made this article consistently (at least as far as I could tell) utilize American English. The relevant policies here as far as I know are MOS:RETAIN and WP:ARTCON, which require that articles retain the variety of English that they are written in unless they have a direct national connection to one or the other and that the article be consistent in one style. The article prior to my edit was inconsistent, admittedly slightly more British English, than American English. According to MOS:RETAIN: "When no English variety has been established and discussion does not resolve the issue, use the variety found in the first post-stub revision that introduced an identifiable variety." I reviewed the earliest versions of the article which is clearly in American English ("recognizing" not "recognising", "traveled" not "travelled", "airplane" not "aeroplane"). Given the existing inconsistency and this finding, I felt that standardizing things to American English was an improvement (especially since I'm not comfortable enough in British English to edit for consistency the other way confidently). Obviously, if there's a consensus that British English is preferred for some reason for this article, that's fine with me but I would ask that someone go through the entire article for consistency since the pre-edit version was inconsistent. Avgeekamfot (talk) 19:30, 24 December 2023 (UTC)
 * The article includes a "Use British English" category, which was present long before you started editing Wikipedia, so this is the language to be used.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 13:24, 25 December 2023 (UTC)
 * With all due respect, can you show me where in the policies cited that's a factor? I don't see mention of a category changing anything in MOS:RETAIN or WP:ARTCON. I'd argue that the need for article consistency and earliest version would trump a category.
 * In the meantime, I'm re-implementing my edit. If you feel that the article should be in British English, I really don't mind but please actually go through the entire article for consistency rather than reverting to an inconsistent version. I think that's the spirit of WP:ARTCON :)
 * Also, you're reverting my other edits which you haven't objected to in any way. If you have issues with the additions (sourced to what I think are reliable sources but if Clarin is somehow objectionable, I'd like to understand why :) And, not super important, but I couldn't find any reason to believe that Aerolineas still provides free transport between the two airports which you keep adding back. Do you have a recent citation for that?
 * Thanks! Avgeekamfot (talk) 16:04, 25 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Ok - I see you added the tag for British English. Was there any discussion anywhere that created a consensus that British English somehow has a "natural connection" to Argentina or was this simply under MOS:RETAIN? If it's under RETAIN, appears to me that my analysis of the policy above would trump the tag.
 * I'm not hung up on this as long as we can follow WP:ARTCON, though. The status quo was inconsistent which is not how articles should be. Per my analysis of policy, I think adjusting the parts of the article in British English to be consistent with the other half of the article and its original drafting to American English is appropriate. However, if you wanted to go through and change everything to British English so it's consistent, I don't object to that.
 * In the meantime, though, if you have a problem with my other edits, both sourced additions and removal of unsourced material, I'd appreciate an explanation rather than unexplained reverts -- I seem to learn new policies each time we have a discussion so if there's something I'm missing wrt those edits, would love to have it pointed out to me. Avgeekamfot (talk) 16:15, 25 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Aerolíneas Argentinas


text:
James Chadwick

Sir James Chadwick, (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was an English physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932. In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U.S. government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts. He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics.

Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics"). At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913. The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin. Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought. Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp.

After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921. He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant. Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass. He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer. Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics.

During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing. When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D.C. He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R. Groves, Jr. For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test. After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948. He retired in 1959.

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. He was named James after his paternal grandfather. In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents. He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid. Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there. He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy. At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them.

Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908. He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake. Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles to the university and back each day. At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics. The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources. The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 g of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie. Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method. The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912. He graduated with first class honours in 1911.

Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids. This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone. He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow. The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe. He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger. Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions. On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time." The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years.

Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste. With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine. He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners.

Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research. He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1.5 per cent. In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later. Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers. In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus. His degree was awarded in June 1921. In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College.

Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza. The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research. In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students. Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick. As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics. Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory.

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker. The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man. The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927.

In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus. In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies. At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons. This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin.

At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again. Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller. Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation. The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind. However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about $0.5 ug$) from Germany.

In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation. Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results. To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge. Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result. Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation. Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that. But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect. In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it.

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night. He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target. The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax. The displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope. In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron". He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May. His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus. Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons.

The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair. Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear. In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about $1.007 u$. Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of $1.008 u$, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about $2 MeV$, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable. Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4. By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one. Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2.6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):
 * {| border="0"

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process. Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked. They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1.05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation. Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1.0084 or 1.0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron. (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is $1.009 u$.) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair.
 * - style="height:2em;"
 * ||+ ||gamma ||→ || ||+ ||neutron
 * }

For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951. His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay. Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium. This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938.

Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914. Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved. Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron. Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron". In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe. Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim. Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor.

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science. At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one. He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron.

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science. When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment. While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed. This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment.

In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce. The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935. The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935. His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000.

Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool. He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house. He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society. To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California. A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils. The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber. The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939. The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the university and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his SEK159,917 (£8,243) Nobel Prize money.

At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely. Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool. Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer.

Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced. Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process. In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result. They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission. They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally. It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible. French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission. In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0.7 per cent of natural uranium.

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden. The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock. Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended. They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer. When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland. Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English.

In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb. Chadwick responded cautiously. He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved. Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat. In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum. Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kg of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite.

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further. It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon. While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235. By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kg or less. His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard.

In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U.S. government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb. When George B. Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will."

In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb. ... Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point." So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years. Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable. Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us. Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action". Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects.

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme. Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant. The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million. It would have to be built in America. At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to use Chadwick's talents.

The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level. In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada. Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project. The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project. The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission.

Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see. He became the only man, apart from Groves and his second in command, to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb. Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain. The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe. In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents. For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee.

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion. Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort. He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed. Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys. As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success.

Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site. Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946. "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal. Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much'." For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project.

By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D.C., and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945. He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated. Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before. William L. Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man."

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE). He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted. He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages.

At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into ... [and suffered] ... almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work'."

In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College. The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the college, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master. As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college. He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college. This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer. In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer. More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958. It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA.

By the 1970s Chadwick became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday. A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life. He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974.

Honours

 * Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927.
 * Medal for Merit from the United States,
 * Pour le Mérite from Germany.
 * Foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946
 * International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948.
 * Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony.

Legacy

 * Chadwick's papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public.
 * The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool.
 * Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, also at the University of Liverpool. Named in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth.
 * James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester, as well as the Industrial Hub for Sustainable Engineering.
 * Chadwick was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man."
 * Chadwick (crater), on the Moon

title: James Chadwick