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Clavicle

The clavicle, collarbone, or keybone is a slender, S-shaped long bone approximately 6 inches (15 cm) long that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum (breastbone). There are two clavicles, one on the left and one on the right. The clavicle is the only long bone in the body that lies horizontally. Together with the shoulder blade, it makes up the shoulder girdle. It is a palpable bone and, in people who have less fat in this region, the location of the bone is clearly visible. It receives its name from Latin clavicula 'little key' because the bone rotates along its axis like a key when the shoulder is abducted. The clavicle is the most commonly fractured bone. It can easily be fractured by impacts to the shoulder from the force of falling on outstretched arms or by a direct hit.

Structure
The collarbone is a thin doubly curved long bone that connects the arm to the trunk of the body. Located directly above the first rib, it acts as a strut to keep the scapula in place so that the arm can hang freely. At its rounded medial end (sternal end), it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum (breastbone) at the sternoclavicular joint. At its flattened lateral end (acromial end), it articulates with the acromion, a process of the scapula (shoulder blade), at the acromioclavicular joint.

The rounded medial region (sternal region) of the shaft has a long curve laterally and anteriorly along two-thirds of the entire shaft. The flattened lateral region (acromial region) of the shaft has an even larger posterior curve to articulate with the acromion of the scapula. The medial region is the longest clavicular region as it takes up two-thirds of the entire shaft. The lateral region is both the widest clavicular region and thinnest clavicular region. The lateral end has a rough inferior surface that bears a ridge, the trapezoid line, and a slight rounded projection, the conoid tubercle (above the coracoid process). These surface features are attachment sites for muscles and ligaments of the shoulder.

It can be divided into three parts: medial end, lateral end, and shaft.

Medial end
The medial end is also known as the sternal end. It is quadrangular and articulates with the clavicular notch of the manubrium of the sternum to form the sternoclavicular joint. The articular surface extends to the inferior aspect for articulation with the first costal cartilage.

Lateral end
The lateral end is also known as the acromial end. It is flat from above downward. It bears a facet that articulates with the shoulder to form the acromioclavicular joint. The area surrounding the joint gives an attachment to the joint capsule. The anterior border is concave forward and the posterior border is convex backward.

Shaft
The shaft is divided into two main regions, the medial region, and the lateral region. The medial region is also known as the sternal region, it is the longest clavicular region as it takes up two-thirds of the entire shaft. The lateral region is also known as the acromial region, it is both the widest clavicular region and thinnest clavicular region.

Lateral region of the shaft
The lateral region of the shaft has two borders and two surfaces.
 * the anterior border is concave forward and gives origin to the deltoid muscle.
 * the posterior border is convex and gives attachment to the trapezius muscle.
 * the inferior surface has a ridge called the trapezoid line and a tubercle; the conoid tubercle for attachment with the trapezoid and the conoid ligament, part of the coracoclavicular ligament that serves to connect the collarbone with the coracoid process of the scapula.

Development
The collarbone is the first bone to begin the process of ossification (laying down of minerals onto a preformed matrix) during development of the embryo, during the fifth and sixth weeks of gestation. However, it is one of the last bones to finish ossification at about 21–25 years of age. Its lateral end is formed by intramembranous ossification while medially it is formed by endochondral ossification. It consists of a mass of cancellous bone surrounded by a compact bone shell. The cancellous bone forms via two ossification centres, one medial and one lateral, which fuse later on. The compact forms as the layer of fascia covering the bone stimulate the ossification of adjacent tissue. The resulting compact bone is known as a periosteal collar.

Even though it is classified as a long bone, the collarbone has no medullary cavity (marrow cavity) like other long bones. It is made up of spongy cancellous bone with a shell of compact bone. It is a dermal bone derived from elements originally attached to the skull.

Variation
The shape of the clavicle varies more than most other long bones. It is occasionally pierced by a branch of the supraclavicular nerve. In males the clavicle is usually longer and larger than in females. A study measuring 748 males and 252 females saw a difference in collarbone length between age groups 18–20 and 21–25 of about 6 and 5 mm for males and females respectively.

The left clavicle is usually longer and weaker than the right clavicle.

The collarbones are sometimes partly or completely absent in cleidocranial dysostosis.

The levator claviculae muscle, present in 2–3% of people, originates on the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae and is inserted in the lateral half of the clavicle.

Functions
The collarbone serves several functions:
 * It serves as a rigid support from which the scapula and free limb are suspended; an arrangement that keeps the upper limb away from the thorax so that the arm has maximum range of movement. Acting as a flexible, crane-like strut, it allows the scapula to move freely on the thoracic wall.
 * Brachial Plexus.pnging the cervicoaxillary canal, it protects the neurovascular bundle that supplies the upper limb.
 * Transmits physical impacts from the upper limb to the axial skeleton.

Muscle
Muscles and ligaments that attach to the collarbone include:

Clinical significance

 * Acromioclavicular dislocation ("AC Separation")
 * Degeneration of the clavicle
 * Osteolysis
 * Sternoclavicular dislocations

A vertical line drawn from the mid-clavicle called the mid-clavicular line is used as a reference in describing cardiac apex beat during medical examination. It is also useful for evaluating an enlarged liver, and for locating the gallbladder which is between the mid-clavicular line and the transpyloric plane.

Collarbone fracture
Clavicle fractures (colloquially, a broken collarbone) occur as a result of injury or trauma. The most common type of fractures occur when a person falls horizontally on the shoulder or with an outstretched hand. A direct hit to the collarbone will also cause a break. In most cases, the direct hit occurs from the lateral side towards the medial side of the bone. The most common site of fracture is the junction between the two curvatures of the bone, which is the weakest point. This results in the sternocleidomastoid muscle lifting the medial aspect superiorly, which can result in perforation of the overlying skin.

Other animals
The clavicle first appears as part of the skeleton in primitive bony fish, where it is associated with the pectoral fin; they also have a bone called the cleithrum. In such fish, the paired clavicles run behind and below the gills on each side, and are joined by a solid symphysis on the fish's underside. They are, however, absent in cartilaginous fish and in the vast majority of living bony fish, including all of the teleosts.

The earliest tetrapods retained this arrangement, with the addition of a diamond-shaped interclavicle between the base of the clavicles, although this is not found in living amphibians. The cleithrum disappeared early in the evolution of reptiles, and is not found in any living amniotes, but the interclavicle is present in most modern reptiles, and also in monotremes. In modern forms, however, there are a number of variations from the primitive pattern. For example, crocodilians and salamanders lack clavicles altogether (although crocodilians do retain the interclavicle), while in turtles, they form part of the armoured plastron.

The interclavicle is absent in marsupials and placental mammals. In many mammals, the clavicles are also reduced, or even absent, to allow the scapula greater freedom of motion, which may be useful in fast-running animals.

Though a number of fossil hominin (humans and chimpanzees) clavicles have been found, most of these are mere segments offering limited information on the form and function of the pectoral girdle. One exception is the clavicle of AL 333x6/9 attributed to Australopithecus afarensis which has a well-preserved sternal end. One interpretation of this specimen, based on the orientation of its lateral end and the position of the deltoid attachment area, suggests that this clavicle is distinct from those found in extant apes (including humans), and thus that the shape of the human shoulder dates back to less than. However, analyses of the clavicle in extant primates suggest that the low position of the scapula in humans is reflected mostly in the curvature of the medial portion of the clavicle rather than the lateral portion. This part of the bone is similar in A. afarensis and it is thus possible that this species had a high shoulder position similar to that in modern humans.

In dinosaurs
In dinosaurs the main bones of the pectoral girdle were the scapula (shoulder blade) and the coracoid, both of which directly articulated with the clavicle. The clavicle was present in saurischian dinosaurs but largely absent in ornithischian dinosaurs. The place on the scapula where it articulated with the humerus (upper bone of the forelimb) is the called the glenoid. The clavicles fused in some theropod dinosaurs to form a furcula, which is the equivalent to a wishbone.

In birds, the clavicles and interclavicle have fused to form a single Y-shaped bone, the furcula or "wishbone" which evolved from the clavicles found in coelurosaurian theropods.

title: Clavicle


text:
Talk:Red Nose Day

Comments
Perhaps for the benefit of our non-UK readers someone ought to explain what gungeing is! Arwel 01:52 Feb 26, 2003 (UTC)

 * I spent too long wondering whether it was spelt "gunging" or "gungeing". A whole lot of the thing needs expanding, so expect it to be explained later. Bagpuss —Preceding undated comment added 17:55, 26 February 2003

IIRC, the first couple of years the noses were that same, then they figured that cheapskates would dig them out of the cupboard each year and so hit upon the idea of changing them. There was definitely a furry one, I remember Lenny Henry wearing a furry suit the same year. Mintguy —Preceding undated comment added 18:39, 26 February 2003

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Red Nose Day


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Reflective equilibrium

Reflective equilibrium is a state of balance or coherence among a set of beliefs arrived at by a process of deliberative mutual adjustment among general principles and particular judgements. Although he did not use the term, philosopher Nelson Goodman introduced the method of reflective equilibrium as an approach to justifying the principles of inductive logic (this is now known as Goodman's method). The term reflective equilibrium was coined by John Rawls and popularized in his A Theory of Justice as a method for arriving at the content of the principles of justice.

Dietmar Hübner has pointed out that there are many interpretations of reflective equilibrium that deviate from Rawls' method in ways that reduce the cogency of the idea. Among these misinterpretations, according to Hübner, are definitions of reflective equilibrium as "(a) balancing theoretical accounts against intuitive convictions; (b) balancing general principles against particular judgements; (c) balancing opposite ethical conceptions or divergent moral statements".

Overview
Rawls argues that human beings have a "sense of justice" that is a source of both moral judgment and moral motivation. In Rawls's theory, we begin with "considered judgments" that arise from the sense of justice. These may be judgments about general moral principles (of any level of generality) or specific moral cases. If our judgments conflict in some way, we proceed by adjusting our various beliefs until they are in "equilibrium", which is to say that they are stable, not in conflict, and provide consistent practical guidance. Rawls argues that a set of moral beliefs in ideal reflective equilibrium describes or characterizes the underlying principles of the human sense of justice.

For example, suppose that Zachary believes in the general principle of always obeying the commands in the Bible. Suppose also that he thinks that it is not ethical to stone people to death merely for being Wiccan. These views may come into conflict (see Exodus 22:18 versus John 8:7). If they do, Zachary will then have several choices. He can discard his general principle in search of a better one, such as obeying only the Ten Commandments; or modify his general principle by choosing a different translation of the Bible, or letting Jesus' teaching from John 8:7 "If any of you is without sin, let him be the first to cast a stone", override the Old Testament command; or change his opinions about the point in question to conform with his theory, by deciding that witches really should be killed. Whatever the decision, he has moved toward reflective equilibrium.

Use in Rawls's political theory
Reflective equilibrium serves an important justificatory function within Rawls's political theory. The nature of this function, however, is disputed. The dominant view, best exemplified by the work of Norman Daniels and Thomas Scanlon, is that the method of reflective equilibrium is a kind of coherentist method for the epistemic justification of moral beliefs. However, in other writings, Rawls seems to argue that his theory bypasses traditional metaethical questions, including questions of moral epistemology, and is intended instead to serve a practical function. This provides some motivation for a different view of the justificatory role of reflective equilibrium. On this view, the method of reflective equilibrium serves its justificatory function by linking together the cognitive and motivational aspects of the human sense of justice in the appropriate way.

Rawls argues that candidate principles of justice cannot be justified unless they are shown to be stable. Principles of justice are stable if, among other things, the members of society regard them as authoritative and reliably comply with them. The method of reflective equilibrium determines a set of principles rooted in the human sense of justice, which is a capacity that both provides the material for the process of reflective equilibration and our motivation to adhere to principles we judge morally sound. The method of reflective equilibrium serves the aim of defining a realistic and stable social order by determining a practically coherent set of principles that are grounded in the right way in the source of our moral motivation, such that we will be disposed to comply with them. As Fred D'Agostino puts it, stable principles of justice will require considerable "up-take" by the members of society. The method of reflective equilibrium provides a way of settling on principles that will achieve the kind of "up-take" necessary for stability.

Reflective equilibrium is not static, though Rawls allows for provisional fixed points; it will change as the individual considers his opinions about individual issues or explores the consequences of his principles.

Rawls applied this technique to his conception of a hypothetical original position from which people would agree to a social contract. He arrived at the conclusion that the optimal theory of justice is the one to which people would agree from behind a veil of ignorance, not knowing their social positions.

Wide reflective equilibrium
Wide reflective equilibrium, first introduced by Rawls, has been described by Norman Daniels as "a method that attempts to produce coherence in ordered triple sets of beliefs held by a particular person, namely: (a) a set of considered moral judgments, (b) a set of moral principles, and (c) a set of relevant (scientific and philosophical) background theories".

Relation to constructivism
Kai Nielsen has asserted that "philosophers who are defenders of reflective equilibrium are also constructivists", in response to what he considered to be the misconception that reflective equilibrium works with some necessarily preexisting coherent system of moral beliefs and practices: "The pattern of consistent beliefs, including very centrally moral beliefs, is not a structure to be discovered or unearthed, as if it were analogous to the deep underlying "depth grammar" of language (if indeed there is any such a thing), but something to be forged—constructed—by a careful and resolute use of the method of reflective equilibrium. We start from our considered judgments (convictions), however culturally and historically skewed. This involves—indeed, inescapably involves—seeing things by our own lights. Where else could we start? We can hardly jump out of our cultural and historical skins."

Criticism
Paul Thagard has criticized the method of reflective equilibrium as "only like a smokescreen for a relatively sophisticated form of logical and methodological relativism" and "at best incidental to the process of developing normative principles". Among the "numerous problems" of reflective equilibrium, Thagard counted "undue reliance on intuition and the danger of arriving at stable but suboptimal sets of norms". In place of reflective equilibrium, Thagard recommended what he considered to be a more consequentialist method of justifying norms by identifying a domain of practices, identifying candidate norms for the practices, identifying the appropriate goals of the practices, evaluating the extent to which different practices accomplish these goals, and adopting as domain norms the practices that best accomplish these goals.

title: Reflective equilibrium


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Femur

The femur (: femurs or femora ), or thigh bone is the only bone in the thigh. The thigh is the region of the lower limb between the hip and the knee. In many four-legged animals the femur is the upper bone of the hindleg.

The top of the femur fits into a socket in the pelvis called the hip joint, and the bottom of the femur connects to the shinbone (tibia) and kneecap (patella) to form the knee. In humans the femur is the largest and thickest bone in the body.

Structure
The femur is the only bone in the upper leg. The two femurs converge medially toward the knees, where they articulate with the proximal ends of the tibiae. The angle of convergence of the femora is a major factor in determining the femoral-tibial angle. Human females have thicker pelvic bones, causing their femora to converge more than in males.

In the condition genu valgum (knock knee) the femurs converge so much that the knees touch one another. The opposite extreme is genu varum (bow-leggedness). In the general population of people without either genu valgum or genu varum, the femoral-tibial angle is about 175 degrees.

The femur is the largest and thickest bone in the human body. By some tested measures, it is also the strongest bone in the human body, whereas other strength tests show the temporal bone to be the strongest bone. The femur length on average is 26.74% of a person's height, a ratio found in both men and women and most ethnic groups with only restricted variation, and is useful in anthropology because it offers a basis for a reasonable estimate of a subject's height from an incomplete skeleton.

The femur is categorised as a long bone and comprises a diaphysis (shaft or body) and two epiphyses (extremities) that articulate with adjacent bones in the hip and knee.

Upper part
The upper or proximal extremity (close to the torso) contains the head, neck, the two trochanters and adjacent structures. The upper extremity is the shortest femoral extremity, the lower extremity is the thickest femoral extremity.

The head of the femur, which articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvic bone, comprises two-thirds of a sphere. It has a small groove, or fovea, connected through the round ligament to the sides of the acetabular notch. The head of the femur is connected to the shaft through the neck or collum. The neck is 4–5 cm. long and the diameter is smallest front to back and compressed at its middle. The collum forms an angle with the shaft in about 130 degrees. This angle is highly variant. In the infant it is about 150 degrees and in old age reduced to 120 degrees on average. An abnormal increase in the angle is known as coxa valga and an abnormal reduction is called coxa vara. Both the head and neck of the femur is vastly embedded in the hip musculature and can not be directly palpated. In skinny people with the thigh laterally rotated, the head of the femur can be felt deep as a resistance profound (deep) for the femoral artery.

The transition area between the head and neck is quite rough due to attachment of muscles and the hip joint capsule. Here the two trochanters, greater and lesser trochanter, are found. The greater trochanter is almost box-shaped and is the most lateral prominent of the femur. The highest point of the greater trochanter is located higher than the collum and reaches the midpoint of the hip joint. The greater trochanter can easily be felt. The trochanteric fossa is a deep depression bounded posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest on the medial surface of the greater trochanter. The lesser trochanter is a cone-shaped extension of the lowest part of the femur neck. The two trochanters are joined by the intertrochanteric crest on the back side and by the intertrochanteric line on the front.

A slight ridge is sometimes seen commencing about the middle of the intertrochanteric crest, and reaching vertically downward for about 5 cm. along the back part of the body: it is called the linea quadrata (or quadrate line).

About the junction of the upper one-third and lower two-thirds on the intertrochanteric crest is the quadrate tubercle located. The size of the tubercle varies and it is not always located on the intertrochanteric crest and that also adjacent areas can be part of the quadrate tubercle, such as the posterior surface of the greater trochanter or the neck of the femur. In a small anatomical study it was shown that the epiphyseal line passes directly through the quadrate tubercle.

Body
The body of the femur (or shaft) is large, thick and almost cylindrical in form. It is a little broader above than in the center, broadest and somewhat flattened from before backward below. It is slightly arched, so as to be convex in front, and concave behind, where it is strengthened by a prominent longitudinal ridge, the linea aspera which diverges proximally and distal as the medial and lateral ridge. Proximally the lateral ridge of the linea aspera becomes the gluteal tuberosity while the medial ridge continues as the pectineal line. Besides the linea aspera the shaft has two other bordes; a lateral and medial border. These three bordes separates the shaft into three surfaces: One anterior, one medial and one lateral. Due to the vast musculature of the thigh the shaft can not be palpated.

The third trochanter is a bony projection occasionally present on the proximal femur near the superior border of the gluteal tuberosity. When present, it is oblong, rounded, or conical in shape and sometimes continuous with the gluteal ridge. A structure of minor importance in humans, the incidence of the third trochanter varies from 17–72% between ethnic groups and it is frequently reported as more common in females than in males.

Lower part
The lower extremity of the femur (or distal extremity) is the thickest femoral extremity, the upper extremity is the shortest femoral extremity. It is somewhat cuboid in form, but its transverse diameter is greater than its antero-posterior (front to back). It consists of two oblong eminences known as the condyles.

Anteriorly, the condyles are slightly prominent and are separated by a smooth shallow articular depression called the patellar surface. Posteriorly, they project considerably and a deep notch, the Intercondylar fossa of femur, is present between them. The lateral condyle is the more prominent and is the broader both in its antero-posterior and transverse diameters. The medial condyle is the longer and, when the femur is held with its body perpendicular, projects to a lower level. When, however, the femur is in its natural oblique position the lower surfaces of the two condyles lie practically in the same horizontal plane. The condyles are not quite parallel with one another; the long axis of the lateral is almost directly antero-posterior, but that of the medial runs backward and medialward. Their opposed surfaces are small, rough, and concave, and form the walls of the intercondyloid fossa. This fossa is limited above by a ridge, the intercondyloid line, and below by the central part of the posterior margin of the patellar surface. The posterior cruciate ligament of the knee joint is attached to the lower and front part of the medial wall of the fossa and the anterior cruciate ligament to an impression on the upper and back part of its lateral wall.

The articular surface of the lower end of the femur occupies the anterior, inferior, and posterior surfaces of the condyles. Its front part is named the patellar surface and articulates with the patella; it presents a median groove which extends downward to the intercondyloid fossa and two convexities, the lateral of which is broader, more prominent, and extends farther upward than the medial.

Each condyle is surmounted by an elevation, the epicondyle. The medial epicondyle is a large convex eminence to which the tibial collateral ligament of the knee-joint is attached. At its upper part is the adductor tubercle and behind it is a rough impression which gives origin to the medial head of the gastrocnemius. The lateral epicondyle which is smaller and less prominent than the medial, gives attachment to the fibular collateral ligament of the knee-joint.

Development
The femur develops from the limb buds as a result of interactions between the ectoderm and the underlying mesoderm; formation occurs roughly around the fourth week of development.

By the sixth week of development, the first hyaline cartilage model of the femur is formed by chondrocytes. Endochondral ossification begins by the end of the embryonic period and primary ossification centers are present in all long bones of the limbs, including the femur, by the 12th week of development. The hindlimb development lags behind forelimb development by 1–2 days.

Function
As the femur is the only bone in the thigh, it serves as an attachment point for all the muscles that exert their force over the hip and knee joints. Some biarticular muscles – which cross two joints, like the gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles – also originate from the femur. In all, 23 individual muscles either originate from or insert onto the femur.

In cross-section, the thigh is divided up into three separate fascial compartments divided by fascia, each containing muscles. These compartments use the femur as an axis, and are separated by tough connective tissue membranes (or septa). Each of these compartments has its own blood and nerve supply, and contains a different group of muscles. These compartments are named the anterior, medial and posterior fascial compartments.

Fractures
A femoral fracture that involves the femoral head, femoral neck or the shaft of the femur immediately below the lesser trochanter may be classified as a hip fracture, especially when associated with osteoporosis. Femur fractures can be managed in a pre-hospital setting with the use of a traction splint.

Diversity among animals
In primitive tetrapods, the main points of muscle attachment along the femur are the internal trochanter and third trochanter, and a ridge along the ventral surface of the femoral shaft referred to as the adductor crest. The neck of the femur is generally minimal or absent in the most primitive forms, reflecting a simple attachment to the acetabulum. The greater trochanter was present in the extinct archosaurs, as well as in modern birds and mammals, being associated with the loss of the primitive sprawling gait. The lesser trochanter is a unique development of mammals, which lack both the internal and fourth trochanters. The adductor crest is also often absent in mammals or alternatively reduced to a series of creases along the surface of the bone. Structures analogous to the third trochanter are present in mammals, including some primates.

Some species of whales, snakes, and other non-walking vertebrates have vestigial femurs. In some snakes the protruding end of a pelvic spur, a vestigial pelvis and femur remnant which is not connected to the rest of the skeleton, plays a role in mating. This role in mating is hypothesized to have possibly occurred in Basilosauridae, an extinct family of whales with well-defined femurs, lower legs and feet. Occasionally, the genes that code for longer extremities cause a modern whale to develop miniature legs (atavism).

One of the earliest known vertebrates to have a femur is the Eusthenopteron, a prehistoric lobe-finned fish from the Late Devonian period.

Viral metagenomics
A recent study revealed that bone is a much richer source of persistent DNA viruses than earlier perceived. Besides Parvovirus 19 and hepatitis B virus, ten additional ones were discovered, namely several members of the herpes- and polyomavirus families, as well as human papillomavirus 31 and torque teno virus.

Invertebrates
In invertebrate zoology the name femur appears in arthropodology. The usage is not homologous with that of vertebrate anatomy; the term "femur" simply has been adopted by analogy and refers, where applicable, to the most proximal of (usually) the two longest jointed segments of the legs of the arthropoda. The two basal segments preceding the femur are the coxa and trochanter. This convention is not followed in carcinology but it applies in arachnology and entomology. In myriapodology another segment, the prefemur, connects the trochanter and femur.

title: Femur


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Acetabulum

The acetabulum (: acetabula), also called the cotyloid cavity, is a concave surface of the pelvis. The head of the femur meets with the pelvis at the acetabulum, forming the hip joint.

Structure
There are three bones of the os coxae (hip bone) that come together to form the acetabulum. Contributing a little more than two-fifths of the structure is the ischium, which provides lower and side boundaries to the acetabulum. The ilium forms the upper boundary, providing a little less than two-fifths of the structure of the acetabulum. The rest is formed by the pubis, near the midline.

It is bounded by a prominent uneven rim, thick and strong on top, which serves as the point of attachment for the acetabular labrum. The acetabular labrum reduces the size of the opening of the acetabulum and deepens the surface of the hip joint. At the lower part of the acetabulum is the acetabular notch, which is continuous with a circular depression, the acetabular fossa, at the bottom of the cavity of the acetabulum. The rest of the acetabulum is formed by a curved, crescent-moon shaped surface, the lunate surface, where the joint is made with the head of the femur. Its counterpart in the pectoral girdle is the glenoid fossa.

The acetabulum is also home to the acetabular fossa, an attachment site for the ligamentum teres, a triangular, somewhat flattened band implanted by its apex into the antero-superior part of the fovea capitis femoris. The notch is converted into a foramen by the transverse acetabular ligament; through the foramen nutrient vessels and nerves enter the joint. This is what holds the head of the femur securely in the acetabulum.

The well-fitting surfaces of the femoral head and acetabulum, which face each other, are lined with a layer of slippery tissue called articular cartilage, which is lubricated by a thin film of synovial fluid. Friction inside a normal hip is less than one-tenth that of ice gliding on ice.

Blood supply
The acetabular branch of the obturator artery supplies the acetabulum through the acetabular notch. The pubic branches supply the pelvic surface of the acetabulum. Deep branches of the superior gluteal artery supply the superior region and the inferior gluteal artery supplies the postero-inferior region.

Reptiles and birds
In reptiles and birds, the acetabula are deep sockets. Organisms in the dinosauria clade are defined by a perforate acetabulum, which can be thought of as a "hip-socket". The perforate acetabulum is a cup-shaped opening on each side of the pelvic girdle formed where the ischium, ilium, and pubis all meet, and into which the head of the femur inserts. The orientation and position of the acetabulum is one of the main morphological traits that caused dinosaurs to walk in an upright posture with their legs directly underneath their bodies. In a relatively small number of dinosaurs, particularly ankylosaurians (e.g. Texasetes pleurohalio), an imperforate acetabulum is present, which is not an opening, but instead resembles a shallow concave depression on each side of the pelvic girdle.

Development
In infants and children, a Y-shaped epiphyseal plate called the triradiate cartilage joins the ilium, ischium, and pubis. This cartilage ossifies as the child grows.

History
The word acetabulum literally means "little vinegar cup". It was the Latin word for a small vessel for serving vinegar. The word was later also used as a unit of volume.

title: Acetabulum


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Hip (disambiguation)

The hip is an anatomical region and a joint.

Hip or HIP may also refer to:

Science and technology

 * Hip bone, in adults one of the bones of the pelvis
 * HIP, a prefix for a star in the Hipparcos Catalogue
 * High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) or high-impact plastic
 * Hot isostatic pressing, a heat and pressure treatment applied to metals and alloys
 * Huntingtin Interacting Protein
 * Hip-1, Huntingtin Interacting Protein 1
 * HIP2, Huntingtin Interacting Protein 2
 * HIP1R
 * Head in pillow (metallurgy), a solder joint defect on BGAs

Computing

 * Host-based intrusion-prevention system (HIPS), a computer security system
 * Human interaction proof, a CAPTCHA
 * Host Identity Protocol (HIP), a computer protocol
 * Heterogeneous(-compute) Interface for Portability, a parallel (GPU) computing platform by AMD and an alternative to CUDA by Nvidia

Organizations

 * Health Insurance Plan, see Health care finance in the United States
 * Health Insurance Plan of New Jersey, a defunct Health Maintenance Organization
 * Health Insurance Plan of New York, a Health Maintenance Organization
 * Healthy Indiana Plan, a health plan in Indiana that was established by Governor Mitch Daniels
 * Hillsborough Independent Panel; see Hillsborough disaster
 * Helsinki Institute of Physics, Finland

Places

 * Highams Park railway station (National Rail station code), England
 * Harlem Irving Plaza, an enclosed mall in Norridge, Illinois, commonly referred to as "The HIP"

Music

 * Hip (album), by the Danish band Steppeulvene
 * Hip Records, a record label
 * The Tragically Hip, a Canadian rock band also referred to as The Hip
 * Historically informed performance, a practice of performing European classical music on period instruments
 * "Hip", a single by South Korean girl group Mamamoo

Other uses

 * Hip Linkchain (1936-1989), American guitarist
 * Hypertension in Pregnancy, a medical journal
 * Home Improvement Programme, in Singapore
 * Home Information Pack, a set of documents about a United Kingdom residential property
 * Hip (slang), a slang term meaning fashionably current
 * Mil Mi-8 "Hip", a Russian helicopter
 * Human Instrumentality Project, fictional term from the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion

title: Hip (disambiguation)


text:
Brighton, Monroe County, New York

Brighton is a town in Monroe County, New York, United States. The population was 37,137 at the 2020 census.

History
The Town of Brighton, located on the southeastern border of the city of Rochester, is located on the traditional homelands of the Onöndowa'ga:' (Seneca), part of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee-ga (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy, the People of the Long House, called Iroquois by the French. The first Europeans in the area were French trappers in the seventeenth century, who visited frequently but did not settle there. English colonists built permanent structures in approximately 1790, and formally established the town in 1814—earning it recognition as one of the oldest towns in Monroe County. Named for Brighton, England, it remained a farming and brick-making community until the 20th century, when the town began its evolution into an upscale suburban residential area, occupying some 15 sqmi. In 1999, the town purchased 64 acres (259,000 m2) with the intention of developing a central park.

The Alcoa Care-free Home and Stone-Tolan House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

During the Civil War the men of Brighton helped form Company D of the 140th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment in September, 1862, which was formed in Rochester. The total population of Brighton at the time was approximately 3,100 people. The 140th New York Regiment served in the XII Corps and then the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac. They saw battle during the Battle of Gettysburg, The Battle of the Wilderness, the Battle of Spotsylvania and Appomatox Courthouse Campaigns during the war. The 140th New York was disbanded from service on June 3, 1865.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 15.6 square miles (40.5 km2), of which 15.5 square miles (40.0 km2) is land and 0.17 square mile (0.4 km2)  (1.1%) is water.

In terms of latitude and longitude, Brighton is located at 43.12333°N, -77.56806°W.

Brighton has lacked a central village since the city of Rochester annexed the area around East Avenue and Winton Road, formerly the village of Brighton, in 1905. The central entertainment and commercial hub is the Twelve Corners, so named because three intersecting roads, Winton Road, Monroe Avenue and Elmwood Avenue, define 12 distinct corners. Residents tend to gravitate to nearby Pittsford Plaza for shopping, as well as Eastview Mall and Commons, in bordering Pittsford and nearby Victor. Also, both the High School (Brighton High School) and the Middle School (Twelve Corners Middle School) are located at Twelve Corners. Brighton is bordered by the city of Rochester and the town of Irondequoit northwest, the town of Henrietta to the south, the Genesee River and Chili the west, and the towns of Pittsford and Penfield to the east. Brighton is located some 60 mi from Buffalo, and 90 mi from Syracuse. The Erie Canal courses through Brighton, accompanied by the acclaimed Erie Canal Heritage Trail, one of the longest continuous stretches of maintained off-road trail in the United States.

The Pinnacle Hill Range, a range of glacially-formed hills of unique habitat including old-growth oak woodland, is largely leveled or otherwise destroyed, but does have degraded remnants on Pinnacle Hill and the east side of Cobbs Hill. The latter is dedicated as Washington Grove and very popularly used; the former is the highest (though eroded) peak in Rochester and mainly used for unregulated mountain biking with an extensive and wide network of trails on its steep, sandy slopes. The largest wetland in Brighton is a former clay-mining operation filled with lesser cattails along the Brickyard Trail, recently made a park in 2017. A fairly large area of west Brighton is undeveloped and wooded, including Lynch Woods Nature Park, from which one can access the Lehigh Valley Trail, which extends to Victor in the east and Rush to the west, and connects to the Genesee Valley Greenway, Auburn Trail, and Erie Canal trails. Most of Brighton however is completely developed, consisting of asphalt and lawn geography.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 35,588 people, 15,854 households, and 8,687 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,302.5 PD/sqmi. There were 16,705 housing units at an average density of 417.2 persons/km2 (1,080.8 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the town was 86.09% White, 8.13% Asian, 3.70% African American, 1.33% from two or more races, 0.10% Native American, 0.03% Pacific Islander and 0.63% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.34% of the population.

There were 15,854 households, out of which 24.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.9% were married couples living together, 6.8% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 45.2% were non-families. 36.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.14 and the average family size was 2.86.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 20.0% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 19.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $91,345 and the median income for a family was $112,125. Males had a median income of $75,670 versus $49,299 for females. The per capita income for the town was $40,500. 6.1% of the population and 3.0% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 4.9% are under the age of 18 and 5.2% are 65 or older.

Education
Much of the Town of Brighton is served by the Brighton Central School District, which frequently earns high positions in Newsweek national rankings (5th in 1998). Very recently, the ratings have gone down, possibly because some of the school teachers in Brighton have retired or because of increased emphasis on APs in other schools. In 2007, Brighton placed higher (87th) than its cross-town rival, Pittsford Mendon High School (94th) for the first time in several years.

Brighton was recently ranked #56 out of over 18,000 in the inaugural U.S. News & World Report ranking of U.S. high schools (2007), which is generally regarded as having more breadth of analysis than the Newsweek rankings. (The former rankings are formed based upon numerous quantifiable factors, whereas the Newsweek rankings solely examine the raw number of students enrolled in AP classes per capita.) No other school in Monroe County placed in the top 1,000, including, most notably, cross-town rival Pittsford Mendon High School. In 2019, Brighton High School was ranked #786 nationally by U.S. News & World Report.

In 2006, Twelve Corners Middle School received the "Schools to Watch" award, and again was recertified in 2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018. It is one of only ten Middle Schools in New York to receive the "Schools to Watch" award.

Other portions of the Town of Brighton are served by other school districts:

 * Most of the northeastern part of the town is served by the Penfield Central School District.
 * Some of the northeastern and eastern part of the town is served by the Pittsford Central School District.
 * Most of the western part of the town is served by the Rush–Henrietta Central School District.
 * The extreme western part of the town is served by the Wheatland–Chili Central School District.

Private schools located in Brighton include the Harley School, McQuaid Jesuit High School, Our Lady of Mercy School for Young Women, St. Thomas More School, and Seton Catholic School. Former schools include the Allen Creek School (annexed by Pittsford Central School District in 1958), Brighton Common School No. 4 (annexed by Rush–Henrietta Central School District in 1954 and later renamed Austin Crittenden School),   Indian Landing School (annexed by Penfield Central School District in 1954), and St. Agnes High School (1954–1982).

Brighton is also home to the main campus of Monroe Community College and auxiliary campuses of Empire State College, Medaille College, and the University of Rochester.

Library
The Brighton Memorial Library, located on 2300 Elmwood Avenue in the town hall campus, serves Brighton, New York.

Government
Brighton is governed by an elected town board, consisting of a supervisor and four town board members. The supervisor is elected to a two-year term and serves as the CEO of the municipality and chairperson of the town board. The board members serve four-year terms. Voters also elect two town justices and a town clerk. Town justices serve a four-year term, and the clerk is elected to a two-year term.

Notable people

 * Charles August, founder of Monro Muffler Brake
 * Al Cervi, Basketball Hall of Famer
 * Ernie Clement, Baseball player
 * David Diamond, composer of classical music
 * Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), social reformer, orator, writer, statesman, leader in the Underground Railroad
 * Winston Duke, actor (Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War)
 * Dana Fox, screenwriter (The Wedding Date)
 * Walter Hagen (1892–1969), "Golf's Greatest Showman", World Golf Hall-of-Famer, won 11 Majors.
 * Caroline Breese Hall, pediatric virologist
 * Howard Hanson, composer
 * Shirley Jackson (1916–1965), author of The Lottery
 * David Cay Johnston, Pulitzer Prize winning The New York Times reporter
 * David T. Kearns, former Xerox CEO, former Deputy Secretary of Education
 * Robert L. King, former assemblyman, former Monroe County executive, former chancellor of the State University of New York
 * Heidi "Hudson" Leick, Xena: Warrior Princess actress, played "Callisto"
 * Jenna Marbles, YouTube personality, entertainer
 * Linda Sue Park, Newbery award-winning author
 * Arthur Schneider, four-time Emmy Award winning television editor
 * Kristen Wiig, actress (Saturday Night Live and Bridesmaids)

title: Brighton, Monroe County, New York


text:
Knee

In humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint). It is the largest joint in the human body. The knee is a modified hinge joint, which permits flexion and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of osteoarthritis.

It is often termed a compound joint having tibiofemoral and patellofemoral components. (The fibular collateral ligament is often considered with tibiofemoral components.)

Structure

The knee is a modified hinge joint, a type of synovial joint, which is composed of three functional compartments: the patellofemoral articulation, consisting of the patella, or "kneecap", and the patellar groove on the front of the femur through which it slides; and the medial and lateral tibiofemoral articulations linking the femur, or thigh bone, with the tibia, the main bone of the lower leg. The joint is bathed in synovial fluid which is contained inside the synovial membrane called the joint capsule. The posterolateral corner of the knee is an area that has recently been the subject of renewed scrutiny and research.

The knee is the largest joint and one of the most important joints in the body. It plays an essential role in movement related to carrying the body weight in horizontal (running and walking) and vertical (jumping) directions.

At birth, the kneecap is just formed from cartilage, and this will ossify (change to bone) between the ages of three and five years. Because it is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body, the ossification process takes significantly longer.

Articular bodies
The main articular bodies of the femur are its lateral and medial condyles. These diverge slightly distally and posteriorly, with the lateral condyle being wider in front than at the back while the medial condyle is of more constant width. The radius of the condyles' curvature in the sagittal plane becomes smaller toward the back. This diminishing radius produces a series of involute midpoints (i.e. located on a spiral). The resulting series of transverse axes permit the sliding and rolling motion in the flexing knee while ensuring the collateral ligaments are sufficiently lax to permit the rotation associated with the curvature of the medial condyle about a vertical axis.

The pair of tibial condyles are separated by the intercondylar eminence composed of a lateral and a medial tubercle.

The patella also serves an articular body, and its posterior surface is referred to as the trochlea of the knee. It is inserted into the thin anterior wall of the joint capsule. On its posterior surface is a lateral and a medial articular surface, both of which communicate with the patellar surface which unites the two femoral condyles on the anterior side of the bone's distal end.

Articular capsule
The articular capsule has a synovial and a fibrous membrane separated by fatty deposits. Anteriorly, the synovial membrane is attached on the margin of the cartilage both on the femur and the tibia, but on the femur, it communicates with the suprapatellar bursa or recess and extends the joint space proximally. The suprapatellar bursa is prevented from being pinched during extension by the articularis genus muscle. Behind, the synovial membrane is attached to the margins of the two femoral condyles which produces two extensions (semimembranosus bursa under medial head of the gastrocnemius and popliteal bursa under lateral head of the gastrocnemius) similar to the suprapatellar bursa. Between these two extensions, the synovial membrane passes in front of the two cruciate ligaments at the center of the joint, thus forming a pocket direct inward.

Synovium lining the capsule and its bursae. The synovium also lines infrapatellar fat pad, the fat pad that lies below the ligamentum patellae. Synovium projecting into the fat pad as two foldings.

Bursae
Numerous bursae surround the knee joint. The largest communicative bursa is the suprapatellar bursa described above. Four considerably smaller bursae are located on the back of the knee. Two non-communicative bursae are located in front of the patella and below the patellar tendon, and others are sometimes present.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a thin, elastic tissue that protects the bone and makes certain that the joint surfaces can slide easily over each other. Cartilage ensures supple knee movement. There are two types of joint cartilage in the knees: fibrous cartilage (the meniscus) and hyaline cartilage. Fibrous cartilage has tensile strength and can resist pressure. Hyaline cartilage covers the surface along which the joints move. Collagen fibres within the articular cartilage have been described by Benninghoff as arising from the subchondral bone in a radial manner, building so called Gothic arches. On the surface of the cartilage, these fibres appear in a tangential orientation and increase the abrasion resistance. There are no blood vessels inside of the hyaline cartilage, the alimentation is performed per diffusion. Synovial fluid and the subchondral bone marrow serve both as nutrition sources for the hyaline cartilage. Lack of at least one source induces a degeneration. Cartilage will wear over the years. Cartilage has a very limited capacity for self-restoration. The newly formed tissue will generally consist of a large part of fibrous cartilage of lesser quality than the original hyaline cartilage. As a result, new cracks and tears will form in the cartilage over time.

Menisci
The articular disks of the knee-joint are called menisci because they only partly divide the joint space. These two disks, the medial meniscus and the lateral meniscus, consist of connective tissue with extensive collagen fibers containing cartilage-like cells. Strong fibers run along the menisci from one attachment to the other, while weaker radial fibers are interlaced with the former. The menisci are flattened at the center of the knee joint, fused with the synovial membrane laterally, and can move over the tibial surface. The upper and lower surfaces of the menisci are free. Each meniscus have anterior and posterior horns that meet in the intercondylar area of the tibia.

Medial meniscus is bigger, less curved, and thinner. Its posterior horn is thicker (14mm) than the anterior horn (6mm).

The lateral meniscus is smaller, more curved (nearly circular), and has more uniform thickness than medial meniscus (10mm). The lateral meniscus is less attached to the joint capsule, because its posterolateral surface is grooved by the popliteus tendon, separating the meniscus from the capsule. The popliteus tendon is not attached to the lateral meniscus.

Ligaments
The ligaments surrounding the knee joint offer stability by limiting movements and, together with the menisci and several bursae, protect the articular capsule.

Intracapsular
The knee is stabilized by a pair of cruciate ligaments. These ligaments are both extrasynovial, intracapsular ligaments. The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) stretches from the lateral condyle of femur to the anterior intercondylar area. The ACL is critically important because it prevents the tibia from being pushed too far anterior relative to the femur. It is often torn during twisting or bending of the knee. The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) stretches from medial condyle of femur to the posterior intercondylar area. This ligament prevents posterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur. Injury to this ligament is uncommon but can occur as a direct result of forced trauma to the ligament.

The transverse ligament stretches from the lateral meniscus to the medial meniscus. It passes in front of the menisci. It is divided into several strips in 10% of cases. The two menisci are attached to each other anteriorly by the ligament. The posterior (of Wrisberg) and anterior meniscofemoral ligaments (of Humphrey) stretch from the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the medial femoral condyle. They pass anterior and posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament respectively. The meniscotibial ligaments (or "coronary") stretches from inferior edges of the menisci to the periphery of the tibial plateaus.

Extracapsular
The patellar ligament connects the patella to the tuberosity of the tibia. It is also occasionally called the patellar tendon because there is no definite separation between the quadriceps tendon (which surrounds the patella) and the area connecting the patella to the tibia. This very strong ligament helps give the patella its mechanical leverage and also functions as a cap for the condyles of the femur. Laterally and medially to the patellar ligament, the lateral and medial retinacula connect fibers from the vasti lateralis and medialis muscles to the tibia. Some fibers from the iliotibial tract radiate into the lateral retinaculum and the medial retinaculum receives some transverse fibers arising on the medial femoral epicondyle.

The medial collateral ligament (MCL a.k.a. "tibial") stretches from the medial epicondyle of the femur to the medial tibial condyle. It is composed of three groups of fibers, one stretching between the two bones, and two fused with the medial meniscus. The MCL is partly covered by the pes anserinus and the tendon of the semimembranosus passes under it. It protects the medial side of the knee from being bent open by a stress applied to the lateral side of the knee (a valgus force).

The lateral collateral ligament (LCL a.k.a. "fibular") stretches from the lateral epicondyle of the femur to the head of fibula. It is separate from both the joint capsule and the lateral meniscus. It protects the lateral side from an inside bending force (a varus force). The anterolateral ligament (ALL) is situated in front of the LCL.

Lastly, there are two ligaments on the dorsal side of the knee. The oblique popliteal ligament is a radiation of the tendon of the semimembranosus on the medial side, from where it is direct laterally and proximally. The arcuate popliteal ligament originates on the apex of the head of the fibula to stretch proximally, crosses the tendon of the popliteus muscle, and passes into the capsule.

Muscles
The most muscles responsible for the movement of the knee joint belong to either the anterior, medial or posterior compartment of the thigh. The extensors generally belong to the anterior compartment and the flexors to the posterior. The two exceptions to this is gracilis, a flexor, which belongs to the medial compartment and sartorius, a flexor, in the anterior compartment. Additionally, some muscles in the lower leg provide weak knee flexion, namely the gastrocnemius, in addition to their primary function of moving the foot.

Flexors
Posterior compartment

Medial compartment:

Blood supply
The femoral artery and the popliteal artery help form the arterial network or plexus, surrounding the knee joint. There are six main branches: two superior genicular arteries, two inferior genicular arteries, the descending genicular artery and the recurrent branch of anterior tibial artery.

The medial genicular arteries penetrate the knee joint.

Function
The knee permits flexion and extension about a virtual transverse axis, as well as a slight medial and lateral rotation about the axis of the lower leg in the flexed position. The knee joint is called "mobile" because the femur and lateral meniscus move over the tibia during rotation, while the femur rolls and glides over both menisci during extension-flexion.

The center of the transverse axis of the extension/flexion movements is located where both collateral ligaments and both cruciate ligaments intersect. This center moves upward and backward during flexion, while the distance between the center and the articular surfaces of the femur changes dynamically with the decreasing curvature of the femoral condyles. The total range of motion is dependent on several parameters such as soft-tissue restraints, active insufficiency, and hamstring tightness.

Extended position
With the knee extended, both the lateral and medial collateral ligaments, as well as the anterior part of the anterior cruciate ligament, are taut. During extension, the femoral condyles glide and roll into a position which causes the complete unfolding of the tibial collateral ligament. During the last 10° of extension, an obligatory terminal rotation is triggered in which the knee is rotated medially 5°. The final rotation is produced by a lateral rotation of the tibia in the non-weight-bearing leg, and by a medial rotation of the femur in the weight-bearing leg. This terminal rotation is made possible by the shape of the medial femoral condyle, assisted by contraction of the popliteus muscle and the iliotibial tract and is caused by the stretching of the anterior cruciate ligament. Both cruciate ligaments are slightly unwound and both lateral ligaments become taut.

Flexed position
In the flexed position, the collateral ligaments are relaxed while the cruciate ligaments are taut. Rotation is controlled by the twisted cruciate ligaments; the two ligaments get twisted around each other during medial rotation of the tibia—which reduces the amount of rotation possible—while they become unwound during lateral rotation of the tibia. Because of the oblique position of the cruciate ligaments, at least a part of one of them is always tense and these ligaments control the joint as the collateral ligaments are relaxed. Furthermore, the dorsal fibers of the tibial collateral ligament become tensed during extreme medial rotation and the ligament also reduces the lateral rotation to 45–60°.

Clinical significance
Knee pain is caused by trauma, misalignment, degeneration, and conditions producing arthritis. The most common knee disorder is generally known as patellofemoral syndrome. The majority of minor cases of knee pain can be treated at home with rest and ice, but more serious injuries do require surgical care.

One form of patellofemoral syndrome involves a tissue-related problem that creates pressure and irritation in the knee between the patella and the trochlea (patellar compression syndrome), which causes pain. The second major class of knee disorder involves a tear, slippage, or dislocation that impairs the structural ability of the knee to balance the leg (patellofemoral instability syndrome). Patellofemoral instability syndrome may cause either pain, a sense of poor balance, or both.

Prepatellar bursitis also known as housemaid's knee is painful inflammation of the prepatellar bursa (a frontal knee bursa) often brought about by occupational activity such as roofing.

Age also contributes to disorders of the knee. Particularly in older people, knee pain frequently arises due to osteoarthritis. In addition, weakening of tissues around the knee may contribute to the problem. Patellofemoral instability may relate to hip abnormalities or to tightness of surrounding ligaments.

Cartilage lesions can be caused by:
 * Accidents (fractures)
 * Injuries
 * The removal of a meniscus
 * Anterior cruciate ligament injury
 * Posterior cruciate ligament injury
 * Posterolateral corner injury
 * Medial knee injuries
 * Considerable strain on the knee.

Any kind of work during which the knees undergo heavy stress may also be detrimental to cartilage. This is especially the case in professions in which people frequently have to walk, lift, or squat. Other causes of pain may be excessive on, and wear off, the knees, in combination with such things as muscle weakness and overweight.

Common complaints:
 * A painful, blocked, locked or swollen knee.
 * Sufferers sometimes feel as if their knees are about to give way, or may feel uncertain about their movement.

Overall fitness and knee injury
Physical fitness is related integrally to the development of knee problems. The same activity such as climbing stairs may cause pain from patellofemoral compression for someone who is physically unfit, but not for someone else (or even for that person at a different time). Obesity is another major contributor to knee pain. For instance, a 30-year-old woman who weighed 120 lb at age 18 years, before her three pregnancies, and now weighs 285 lb, had added 660 lb of force across her patellofemoral joint with each step.

Common injuries due to physical activity
In sports that place great pressure on the knees, especially with twisting forces, it is common to tear one or more ligaments or cartilages. Some of the most common knee injuries are those to the medial side: medial knee injuries.

Anterior cruciate ligament injury
The anterior cruciate ligament is the most commonly injured ligament of the knee. The injury is common during sports. Twisting of the knee is a common cause of over-stretching or tearing the ACL. When the ACL is injured a popping sound may be heard, and the leg may suddenly give out. Besides swelling and pain, walking may be painful and the knee will feel unstable. Minor tears of the anterior cruciate ligament may heal over time, but a torn ACL requires surgery. After surgery, recovery is prolonged and low impact exercises are recommended to strengthen the joint.

Torn meniscus injury
The menisci act as shock absorbers and separate the two ends of bone in the knee joint. There are two menisci in the knee, the medial (inner) and the lateral (outer). When there is torn cartilage, it means that the meniscus has been injured. Meniscus tears occur during sports often when the knee is twisted. Menisci injury may be innocuous and one may be able to walk after a tear, but soon swelling and pain set in. Sometimes the knee will lock while bending. Pain often occurs when one squats. Small meniscus tears are treated conservatively but most large tears require surgery.

Fractures
Knee fractures are rare but do occur, especially as a result of a road accident. Knee fractures include a patella fracture, and a type of avulsion fracture called a Segond fracture. There is usually immediate pain and swelling, and a difficulty or inability to stand on the leg. The muscles go into spasm and even the slightest movements are painful. X-rays can easily confirm the injury and surgery will depend on the degree of displacement and type of fracture.

Ruptured tendon
Tendons usually attach muscle to bone. In the knee the quadriceps and patellar tendon can sometimes tear. The injuries to these tendons occur when there is forceful contraction of the knee. If the tendon is completely torn, bending or extending the leg is impossible. A completely torn tendon requires surgery but a partially torn tendon can be treated with leg immobilization followed by physical therapy.

Overuse
Overuse injuries of the knee include tendonitis, bursitis, muscle strains, and iliotibial band syndrome. These injuries often develop slowly over weeks or months. Activities that induce pain usually delay healing. Rest, ice and compression do help in most cases. Once the swelling has diminished, heat packs can increase blood supply and promote healing. Most overuse injuries subside with time but can flare up if the activities are quickly resumed. Individuals may reduce the chances of overuse injuries by warming up prior to exercise, by limiting high impact activities and keep their weight under control.

Varus or valgus deformity
There are two disorders relating to an abnormal angle in the coronal plane at the level of the knee: The degree of varus or valgus deformity can be quantified by the hip-knee-ankle angle, which is an angle between the femoral mechanical axis and the center of the ankle joint. It is normally between 1.0° and 1.5° of varus in adults. Normal ranges are different in children.
 * Genu valgum is a valgus deformity in which the tibia is turned outward in relation to the femur, resulting in a knock-kneed appearance.
 * Genu varum is a varus deformity in which the tibia is turned inward in relation to the femur, resulting in a bowlegged deformity.

Surgical interventions
Before the advent of arthroscopy and arthroscopic surgery, patients having surgery for a torn ACL required at least nine months of rehabilitation, having initially spent several weeks in a full-length plaster cast. With current techniques, such patients may be walking without crutches in two weeks, and playing some sports in a few months.

In addition to developing new surgical procedures, ongoing research is looking into underlying problems which may increase the likelihood of an athlete suffering a severe knee injury. These findings may lead to effective preventive measures, especially in female athletes, who have been shown to be especially vulnerable to ACL tears from relatively minor trauma.

Articular cartilage repair treatment:
 * Arthroscopic debridement of the knee (arthroscopic lavage)
 * Mosaïc-plasty
 * Microfracture (Ice-picking)
 * Autologous chondrocyte implantation
 * Osteochondral Autograft and Allografts
 * PLC Reconstruction

MRI
Both anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and posterior cruciate ligaments (PCL) are hypointense on both T1 and T2 weighted images of MRI. However, some high signal striations are often seen at the distal part of the ACL, making ACL higher intensity than PCL on MRI scans.

Other animals
In humans, the term "knee" refers to the joints between the femur, tibia, and patella, in the leg.

In quadrupeds such as dogs, horses, and mice, the homologous joints between the femur, tibia, and patella, in the hind leg, are known as the stifle joint. Also in quadrupeds, particularly horses, ungulates, and elephants, the layman's term "knee" also commonly refers to the forward-facing joint in the foreleg, the carpus, which is homologous to the human wrist.

In birds, the "knee" is the joint between the femur and tibiotarsus, and also the patella (when present). The layman's term "knee" may also refer to the (lower and often more visible due to not being covered by feathers) joint between the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus, which is homologous to the human ankle.

In insects and other animals, the term knee widely refers to any hinge joint.

title: Knee


text:
Talk:Secondary education

School students image
Image:Moanaluastudents.jpg is used in many articles about schools, it would be best to find a replacement before it is deleted for lack of source and copyright. If we all look together we should find one in no time. Please post your responses at Image talk:Moanaluastudents.jpg. Thanks! Foofy 21:06, 19 November 2005 (UTC)

Merging secondary school to this entry
782 articles link to the stub "secondary school." How about a simple merge? - MPD 09:42, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Because it can be a disambig for "high school" OR "secondary education". WhisperToMe 03:04, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

 * True, but because one concept includes the other, the most rational approach would be to link to the larger topic and include a dab link at the top for the smaller one, no? - MPD 00:08, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

I agree with a merge.TrogdorPolitiks 19:54, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

I Think having such a ridiculously short article is just a waste of an article, and could just as easily fit in with the other article. --SA@calcnet 06:02, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

Just read "Secondary Schools", definately merge these two! --BakugekiNZ 21:38, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Secondary education expands beyond high school, in that middle school is also a form of secondary education. Secondary education should be the primary entry with high school and middle school being distinct in showing the differences in 5-8, 9-12 settings and other various such settings in which secondary education is completed. --Jon Cates 00:14, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm assuming you're talking about the American system. Did you consider my proposal below? At some point, Secondary education in the United States could spawn American high school and American middle school. I hope this article already helps somewhat in that it establishes an international context, and mentions middle school and high school as names used on this level. Would you have comments on this? As Americans are a major user group of the English language Wikipedia, perhaps Middle school, for example, should be a disambiguation page:

''Middle school may refer to:
 * American middle school
 * a distinct stage of formal education between primary and secondary education
 * several types of schools in early secondary education
 * several types of schools in late primary education
 * (based on looking at the current mess at Middle school) --TuukkaH 11:45, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

I disagree entirely, as the German school system is too complex to be thrown in the wash with our own.Alexnye 06:55, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

 * The English language Wikipedia and the concept of secondary education are international, so we don't have "our own system" but instead we have to give an overview of the different systems. Whatever your own system, there is or can be a separate article for it. Rather than just "disagree entirely", could you perhaps propose something better to clean up this mess of articles, based on your expertise in secondary education? --TuukkaH 09:07, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

Strong Disagree: The problem is not that the topics are similar, the problem is that the high school article is written like secondary education article. This article has to be rewritten as a more specialized section not a general article. But to claim they are all the same and throw them into one big mess called secondary education is outrageous for any "English" speaking foreign educated people.Steroid Expert 05:41, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

Strong Disagree Why would we merge Gym with Secondary School? Just because a gym is in a secondary school, doesn't mean it shouldn't have its own article. That's stupid!

I cannot even find an article on secondary school. Secondary school gets diverted to high school which is a complete nonsense. It would make more sense to redirect secondary school to this page. A high school is a type of secondary school and the terminology is only used in certain countries (eg America). High schools and secondary schools are not one and the same thing and the terms are not interchangeable. There is I think a need for a separate article on high schools but much of the existing article on high schools seems to cover secondary education worldwide even in those countries which don't use the words high school. It would make much more sense to move say the UK content from the high school page to this page and also do the same for other countries which don't use the words high school. Dahliarose 09:47, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

I've now removed the redirect from secondary school to high school and just included a simple listing of types of secondary school which can presumably be expanded. Secondary school does I think need to have a separate definition as does high school but the two terms cannot be used synonymously. Dahliarose 10:10, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

I disagree with merging gymnasium with secondary school. I am teaching at a gymnasium (gümnaasium) in Estonia. What I have found to be unique about the Estonian gymnasium (compared to the American high school) is that it includes grades 1 through 12. In fact, on September 1, the traditional first day of school, there is a ceremony in which the 12th grade students formally welcome the 1st grade students. This short ceremony has a lot of symbolism with first/last, youngest/oldest, and of the journey through childhood and adolescence as well as through school grades. While there are separate head teachers for the primary grades and the secondary grades, there is one director, and all of the teachers attend the same teachers' meetings. School discos include students from grades 5 to 12 up until 22:00 and then only from grades 9 to 12 to 23:00. So I believe gymnasium is something special, especially in my American eyes, and something that encompasses much, much more than secondary education. A gymnasium is a community of youth from 5 or 6 years of age to 18. RobKevHog 18:32, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

Gymnasium and secondary school articles should not be merged. I think this problem is even more complex. The thing is that educational systems around the world are organised in various ways, and it is virtually impossible to compare them, and in result it's difficult to explain all this in an international encyclopaedia. Something called gymnasium in one country refers to something very different in another country. In some countries term secondary school refers to the school that precedes university, whereas gymnasium precedes secondary school. In others however it does not act as the 'middle school' as mentioned above (Estonia). Term high school, in many countries for example in Poland can refer to university type education. As I have said merging gymnasium article with middle school article would not fit to the situation in Estonia, and probably some other countries. To sum up, the best solution IMO, would be to rewrite Gymnasium article so that it refers ONLY to the schools that are CALLED gymnasium, and explains its role in each country in which it exists. As it makes no sense to refer to the CONCEPT (MEANING) of gymnasium (as there is no homogenous meaning), we cannot talk about 'gymnasium-type' education for instance in Britain - as in current version of gymnasium article. Boyau 20:47, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

Comparison Table
What is that comparison table supposed to be showing? There is no description or explanation for it and it makes no sense. What is the February/September thing about? Is that supposed to be the month and age at which that grade/year begins? Because the England/Wales school year begins in September, not February. Abc30 23:50, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree totally, someone in for example year 7 in the England and Wales could be 11yrs and a week or 12yrs and a couple of days. New intake year 7s for this year need to have been born between 1st September 1994 - 31st August 1995. As long as the hit the age of 12 this academic year, they qualify as intake 2006. If it's confusing there's no easy way to explain it, sorry!. It gets even more confusing when it comes to Sixth Form DannyM 11:21, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I'e deleted the table. I think probably the only person who understood what it was trying to show was its creator. Abc30 13:38, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Merging lyceum to this entry
Strongly Disagree Why would we merge Lyceum with secondary education? Lyceums have little to nothing to do with secondary education, if anything they deal with post-secondary education but they were certainly a prominant enough movement to even be seperate from that. I think someone was haveing too much fun trying to merge things. It is entirely inappropriate to merge lyceums with this article. -BenFranske 02:41, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

Strong Disagree Lyceum as a word itself would require an article if we talk of ancient greek. Lyceum should not be merged because the word deserves an article. Arctic-Editor 11:59, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

Strong Disagree, as many others above: The article "secondary school" really should be an overview of all school types after "elementary school" in all countries; Lyceum as known is a place in antient Greece as well as some specific schol types of some countries - that's not at all the same. ThomasPusch 11:13, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Clarification - I'm talking about the American Lyceum movement of the 19th century, not the other information. It should be noted that the American Lyceum movement was actually quite different than the Chautauqa movement, I should probably fix that... -BenFranske 02:43, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

Merging high school to this entry
Some aspects of the existing high school article should I think be merged with this entry. High school is only used in certain countries but the existing high school article seems to have gone off at a complete tangent and included paragraphs about secondary education in countries (eg, the UK and the Republic of Ireland) which don't use the words high school at all. It would make much more sense to include those paragraphs in here instead. It makes sense to have a separate article on high schools but it should be confined only to those countries which use the terminology. Is high school perhaps synonymous with secondary education in America? Is that perhaps where the confusion has crept in? Dahliarose 09:39, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

It should be noted that in the United States, many students who choose to enter into university and college are forced to repeat their "secondary education" in a way at university. The first, and sometimes second, year of a student's college career focuses on rehashing and needlessly reminding students of things they've learned in their secondary education. It's an old tradition that meant to make students more well-rounded but has not held up well with education advancement over time. Many other industrialized and advanced nations have streamlined university by doing away with these archaic courses however the US still sees use in them mainly for profit reasons. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2605:E000:1313:C277:3471:CCC3:9C64:4A0D (talk) 01:34, 4 October 2017 (UTC)

Actually there are a few secondary schools in the Repuplic of Ireland called highschools so the word is used. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.16.152.152 (talk) 22:42, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

Grades
I think the entries for the countries where grades are used need to be explained properly. We need to know what ages are covered by each grade. It might be obvious if you live in the country concerned but not to someone who lives elsewhere. Presumably different grades will cover different ages in different countries. Dahliarose 10:13, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

Compleation proportion
I hard some where that over half the worlds population that recently finished education compleated secoundary education. Is this true?--J intela (talk) 22:56, 17 July 2009 (UTC)

Cleanup needed
Sorry for the lazy edit with the cleanup template, but the India section needs to either be shortened and cleaned (and I have not the time nor the knowledge to do so), or reverted to a previous state, it looks like some copy/paste edit. I'll come back later to fix the Argentina section that seems almost empty, and somehow biased (I live in Argentina, and I know CNBA it's ONE of the best highschools available; from that to be THE best in Argentina, I dunno -maybe someone has a verified source?-). El Oso (talk) 05:18, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

Does the current image, "A girl with the typical Chilean school uniform in 1994" have any encyclopedic benefit or representative character with respect to the entry "secondary education"? My answer is "No." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.120.139.253 (talk) 22:24, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

sigdren?
I am no native speaker, but what does "sigdren" mean? It appears inside the part about "Hauptschule" in Germany. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.20.28.176 (talk) 08:25, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

What about Turkey?
There are many countries, but what about Turkey? 137.138.140.236 (talk) 10:48, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

Weird choice of image
There is an image of Krabbesholm Højskole close to the entry on Denmark's secondary education. This makes no sense seeing that they don't offer any kind of secondary education. The Danish word højskole translates litterally into high school but actually means a folk high school, which is probably why it has been chosen. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.225.98.206 (talk) 12:18, 27 February 2014 (UTC)

Improvement by focussing on the title
There are two articles- equally badly written Secondary school and secondary education both are high profile. Secondary education is about the history and theory sociology and implementation of school systems. A secondary school is a mere element of secondary education. Its scope is restricted to the individual institutions and is far more difficult to define. Please tell me what it actually is. Two things are obvious, complete pages on the secondary education system of a particular country is over prominence. In my opinion, the country specific information belongs in a separate article which is then referred to with a main. The synopsis following should just give enough information to satisfy the general reader, for example a worker that is being deported and needs to know what adjustments his children will have to make!

This raises the interesting possibility that a country specific article School system in XXXXistan could be the landing page for main in both Secondary school and secondary education. Many of these articles exist. Can anyone suggest whyu it may be inappropriate to create a stub for countries where they are missing?

If no-one has specific objections I will start to clear out - cull- zap text from here or move it where possible to country specific article or neawly crated stub. We then need to address the problem of what non-country specific information do we need to include.

These paragraphs are also posted at Talk:Secondary school ClemRutter (talk) 09:16, 1 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Attributions-

Then a section was copied back ! ClemRutter (talk) 15:17, 28 March 2017 (UTC)

UNESCO position paper
Section not integrated into article- placed here for further use in related articles or deletion

Improving the sections on individual countries
After having looked at quite a few- the one on Sweden is a good model. It state when education is compulsory and when it is free- it is focused on the education system not individual schools. It covers both ISCED 2 and 3, with passing reference to other stages. IMHO lists of subjects belong in the main article not here unless they are unusual. It seems a trend to have three or more strands at ISCED 3 (academic, vocational, artistic) and this should be mentioned. Comments? --ClemRutter (talk) 11:52, 31 March 2017 (UTC)

 * We now have a navbox template linkng the sec ed /sec school sections for each country. In this will be a link to a new list page where we can stable all the descriptions of individual countries- title not settled yet but on the lines of List of secondary education systems by country. ClemRutter (talk) 19:12, 16 April 2017 (UTC)

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History: just England
At the moment, the "History" section is entirely about England. I think info here belongs in History of education in England instead. Alianoraree (talk) 21:23, 2 March 2019 (UTC)

Awful article.
I doubt if many people reading this article would disagree that it is very bad. For instance in the lead, the claim is made that "every country aims to provide basic education". First of all, it simply isn't true. If the editors want to make the claim that "every country" has enacted laws making education compulsory AND if the article points out that in some (many? IDK) countries, those laws are not enforced or their public education is unable to accommodate their entire student-aged population or that the education provided in some countries is widely considered to be inadequate then it would make sense to include it. Otherwise it's just propaganda. The lead goes on to state that "Secondary education ... is followed by higher education, vocational education or employment." Uh, another obviously false statement. Under the usual definition of employment, what follows primary ed may be employment, unemployment, marriage, work for their family/relatives (i.e. on the farm), and probably several that don't occur to me.

The article quotes UNESCO's claim that the teenage years are the most rapid phase of mental growth. I doubt that. At birth the brain has reached about a quarter of its maximum (adult size), but by age one it has reached a whopping 70%! And by 10 years, 98% - clearly claiming that mental growth is most rapid after 10 requires suspension of disbelief although claiming that ACADEMIC abilities (growth) increase most rapidly in secondary school may be true. Later on in the article is states:"Each country has developed the form of education most appropriate for them." Seriously? If I were to say each individual has a quality of life most appropriate for them, would that go unchallenged?? There is ABSOLUTELY NO REASON to believe that each country has perfected its educational system to that degree. For instance, the US State of Ohio has been funding its public schools with property taxes for decades despite their Supreme Court finding such a system unconstitutional. Appropriate is exactly what it is not. I could go on.

I applaud the use of relevant global terminology, but the pollyanna-ish tone reads like propaganda, no strike that, IS propaganda and not a serious article about the world's secondary educational systems.

The article is also confusing: it switches back and forth between basic education and primary education (the former includes lower secondary education) without rhyme or reason. If this article is about secondary education, and secondary education can be (and generally is) divided between lower and upper secondary, then the structure of this article should mirror that.

Obviously. The article is out-dated. It makes claims about what should happen by 2015, for example. Way too long ago to be relevant to anything (except as a historical note, perhaps). Finally, the term is used to mean DIFFERENT things. It is typically (I think) used in different countries (or its translation) to have some meaning for their local educational system. That's important enough, imho, to be included in the lead's first paragraph.40.142.191.32 (talk) 08:20, 9 November 2019 (UTC)
 * I think the first stage is for the ip-user to register a user name so he can get fully involved in contributing, and in particular have a watchlist and a talkpage. There are four pages i would like to see him watching straight away! I have taken the liberty of putting double line feeds in the ip-user text to make it more readable. The content of the coment is valid criticism and needs to be examined- I suspect by someone who has immediate access to a university or teacher training college library.ClemRutter (talk) 09:52, 9 November 2019 (UTC)

 * I agree in part, it was a pleasure reading his good writing. The lede is jam packed with techno-jargon and lazy links (bad writing) violating several mainstream Wiki guidelines. (For example this gibberish: "Level 2 or lower secondary education (less common junior secondary education) is considered the second and final phase of basic education, and level 3 (upper) secondary education is the stage before tertiary education." ...in the very first paragraph does NOT belong in the intro section - the reader (like me) is prolly here cuz he doesn't even know what "secondary education" is...duh!. I too thought; this thoughtful, informed, clean-writing guy needs to be an author!  (But "the use of relevant global terminology?" For which audience is THAT targeted!? Professionals, Not general audiences.)  And I too saw that his authorship would be a heartbreak or futile without his registering.

 * However I disagree with your suggestion of "the ip-user to register a user name." (Several have suggested that I do that.)  That goes against the founding "Everyman" principles of Wikipedia, as do those privileges you list. That mess needs serious reform and, gulp, time and effort to correct.  From my experience, registration means crypto-police powers (including robo-cops and badge-like "awards" to entice authoritarians) commonly used to bully and punish inferior non-clubbers, —how dare those low-lifes, those, those... Others! So? Who would want to be a part of that?  (Therefore I too refuse that battle of attempting to edit,  —club-required, —therefore now I only make suggestions.)  My suggestion for this problem is; too much police power goes to newbie clubbers.  And the cops need more supervision.      some — are more equal than others  --2602:306:CFCE:1EE0:55DF:D8:B913:2FFB (talk) 21:47, 23 December 2019 (UTC)Just Saying

Numerous Circular References
There are a lot of citations in this article that reference the article itself, which (I assume) is clearly not acceptable. I tagged one when I first noticed it, but there are a bunch more that I don’t have the time to sort through. It seems based on the other discussions that this page is a mess in general so if anyone has the time and inclination I think it needs a complete overhaul. Andyharbor (talk) 16:48, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
 * the ref you tagged here is not a circular reference, it is a reference to a Unesco document, "OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF BASIC EDUCATION" (PDF). UNESCO. UNESCO. 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2017, listed in "Bibliography" at the bottom of the page. Unfortunately yhe link there is broken, but that does not make it a circular ref. DuncanHill (talk) 17:01, 9 February 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:55, 11 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Indian schoolgirls.jpg

History - Revisions Needed
Clem Rutter's writings on the history of education have been edited somewhat (With more glaring comments and claims, such as that 'all traces of civilisation were erased' from England following the receding of the Roman Empire, or more explicitly single-minded versions of claims about the origins and doctrine of the Protestant Reformation, and perhaps some others), but if they're kept here, they ought to be more substantially revised, in tone, in claims about the limits of Medieval education (I.e. that it was limited to mere 'repetition' of Latin text), in sources of claims (The Catholic Church was explicitly reluctant to service scientific pursuit, navigational expertise, etc. in Medieval education?), and in the post-and-mid-Reformation and earlier Medieval (Notably the former) development of Western European education, if this is necessary for an article on secondary education; As well as some minor stylistic oddities. 2601:806:4301:B5F0:2DF9:3CED:1100:C97C (talk) 04:06, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

Secondary education
Googal 103.155.213.237 (talk) 07:16, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

Populations
all 202.51.69.17 (talk) 12:55, 15 January 2023 (UTC)

Chemistry
Balancing  equition  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 105.161.141.12 (talk) 15:45, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Secondary education