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Ronin (film)

Ronin is a 1998 American action thriller film directed by John Frankenheimer and written by John David Zeik and David Mamet, under the pseudonym Richard Weisz. It stars an ensemble cast consisting of Robert De Niro, Jean Reno, Natascha McElhone, Stellan Skarsgård, Sean Bean, and Jonathan Pryce. The film is about a team of former special operatives hired to steal a mysterious, heavily guarded briefcase while navigating a maze of shifting loyalties. The film was praised for its realistic car chases in Nice and Paris.

Frankenheimer signed to direct Zeik's screenplay, which Mamet rewrote to expand De Niro's role and develop plot details, in 1997. The film was photographed by Robert Fraisse in his native France from November 3, 1997, to March 3, 1998. Professional racing car drivers coordinated and performed the vehicle stunts, and Elia Cmiral scored the film, his first for a major studio.

Ronin premiered at the 1998 Venice Film Festival before its general release on September 25. Critics were generally positive about the film's action, casting, and technical aspects, while the plot attracted criticism. The film underperformed at the box office, grossing $70.7 million on a $55 million budget. Ronin, Frankenheimer's last well-received feature film, was considered to be a return to form for the director. Film critic and historian Stephen Prince called the film Frankenheimer's "end-of-career masterpiece". The car chases, which were favorably compared with those in Bullitt and The French Connection, were included on several media outlets' lists as among the best depicted on film.

Plot
At a bistro in Montmartre, IRA operative Deirdre meets with two Americans, Sam and Larry, and a Frenchman, Vincent. She takes them to a warehouse where the Englishman Spence and the German Gregor are waiting. Conversations between the men show that they are all ex-government agents or ex-military-turned-mercenary. Deirdre briefs them on their mission: to attack a heavily armed convoy and steal a large, metallic briefcase. Its contents are never revealed. The team's first task before the main mission is to acquire weapons; this turns into a setup. Although the team survives and they get the weapons, Spence is exposed as a fraud by Sam. He is dismissed by Deirdre and the others continue the mission. As the team prepares, Deirdre meets with her handler, Seamus O'Rourke, who tells her that the Russian mafia is bidding for the case and that the team must intervene so that they don't get it. During a stakeout, Sam and Deirdre act on their mutual attraction.

Deirdre's team successfully ambushes the convoy at La Turbie and pursues the survivors to Nice. During the gunfight, Gregor steals the case and disappears. He negotiates selling it to the Russians, but his contact attempts to betray him. Gregor kills the contact, then has Mikhi — the Russian Mafioso in charge of the deal — agree to another meeting. The team tracks Gregor through one of Sam's old CIA contacts and corners him in the Arles Amphitheatre during his meeting with two of Mikhi's men. Sam chases Gregor; Gregor flees but is caught by Seamus. Deirdre and Vincent confront the two Russian hoods, causing a shootout. Sam arrives to help, killing one, but catches a ricochet from the other when Vincent knocks away the henchman's gun in order to kill him. Seamus kills Larry and escapes with a reluctant Deirdre and the captured Gregor. Vincent takes Sam to a villa owned by his friend, Jean-Pierre. After removing the bullet and letting Sam recuperate, Jean-Pierre compares Sam's situation to the tale of the 47 Ronin. Vincent asks Jean-Pierre to help them find Gregor and the Irish operatives.

In Paris, Gregor is persuaded through violent interrogation to give the case back to Seamus and Deirdre. After retrieving it from a post office, they are pursued by Sam and Vincent in a high-speed chase. Vincent shoots out their tire, sending their car off an unfinished overpass. Gregor escapes with the case while road workers rescue Deirdre and Seamus from the burning vehicle. Unsure where to go next, Sam and Vincent decide to track down the Russians; one of Jean-Pierre's contacts tells them they are involved with figure-skater (and Mikhi's girlfriend) Natacha Kirilova, who is appearing at Le Zénith.

During Natacha's performance, Mikhi meets with Gregor, who says a sniper in the arena will shoot Natacha if Mikhi betrays him. Mikhi surprises Gregor by letting Natacha be killed by the sniper before Mikhi kills Gregor and takes the case. Amid the ensuing chaos from Natacha's shooting, Sam and Vincent leave the arena just in time to see Seamus kill Mikhi and steal the case. Sam and Vincent split up; Vincent pursues Seamus, but is wounded in a gunfight. Sam finds Deirdre waiting in a getaway car; he convinces her to leave after explaining that he is after Seamus, not the case. As she drives away, Seamus is forced to return to the arena as Sam gives chase. Seamus ambushes Sam, but is shot dead by Vincent before Seamus can kill Sam.

Sam and Vincent have coffee in the bistro where they first met. A radio broadcast announces that a peace agreement between Sinn Féin and the British government has been reached, partially as a result of Seamus's death. Sam keeps glancing at the door as patrons enter, but Vincent convinces Sam that Deirdre will not be coming back. They shake hands and part ways; Sam drives off with his CIA contact as Vincent pays the bill and leaves.

Cast

In addition, Féodor Atkine plays Mikhi, the Russian who is buying the case, while East German Olympic and World Champion figure skater Katarina Witt has an extended cameo as Natacha Kirilova, a Russian Olympic and World Champion figure skater.

Production

In July 1997, Variety reported that Frankenheimer had signed to direct Ronin, making it his fifth picture for United Artists. Frankenheimer told the magazine he chose the project because it had a "very good script" and was "the kind of movie I'd love to go see ... What I like is, it's a character-driven action picture, and I have done those before, with Black Sunday and French Connection II. It's not one of these CGI pictures, it's a film about people. It's not bigger than life, which I don't relate to that much." He also saw it as an opportunity to apply his broad knowledge and understanding of France, especially Paris, in which he resided for many years. He added, "I would not have been able to do the film nearly as well anywhere else". His films The Train (1964), Grand Prix (1966), Impossible Object (1973), and French Connection II (1975) were shot in France.

Many of Ronin's principal crew members had worked with Frankenheimer on television films; editor Tony Gibbs on George Wallace, set designer Michael Z. Hanan on George Wallace and The Burning Season (1994), and costume designer May Routh on Andersonville (1996). Frankenheimer chose French cinematographer Robert Fraisse to help him achieve the look and style he wanted for the film. Fraisse impressed Frankenheimer with his work on the police thriller Citizen X (1995), which persuaded the director Fraisse could handle the more-than-2,000 setups he planned for Ronin. Frank Mancuso Jr. served as the film's producer.

According to Frankenheimer, French authorities helped him circumvent a strict Paris ordinance that prohibited film productions from firing guns in the city. This was enacted because many civilians had been complaining about the gunfire noise produced by film shoots. Additional factors influenced the decision; officials' desire for an American action film like Ronin, few of which had been filmed there since the law was passed, to be filmed in Paris and the desire to boost France's reputation as a filming location.

Screenplay
Writer John David Zeik, a newcomer to film, conceived the idea for Ronin after reading James Clavell's novel Shōgun at the age of 15. It gave him background information on rōnin (masterless samurai), which he incorporated into a screenplay years later. On choosing France as the story's key location, Zeik said: "Many years later in Nice, the location of one of the key set pieces of the story, I stared into the sun and saw the silhouettes of five heavily armed Gendarmes crossing the Promenade des Anglais. That image made me realize that I wanted to set the film in France."

Accounts differ as to the screenplay's authorship. According to Zeik's attorney, Playwright David Mamet was brought in shortly before production to expand De Niro's role and add a female love interest. Although Mamet rewrote several scenes, his contributions were minor according to Zeik's account. Frankenheimer said Mamet's contributions were more significant: "The credits should read: 'Story by J.D. Zeik, screenplay by David Mamet'. We didn't shoot a line of Zeik's script." Frankenheimer later retracted this in a September 1998 open letter published in Variety, writing that "J.D. Zeik is unequivocally entitled to the first position screenwriting credit as well as the sole story credit he was awarded by the WGA ... [He] deserves recognition for his significant contribution to this film, and I am proud to have worked with him". When he learned he would have to share credit with Zeik, Mamet insisted on being credited with the pseudonym Richard Weisz because he had earlier decided to attach his name only to projects for which he was the sole writer.

Filming and cinematography

Ronin was produced on a budget of $55 million. Principal photography lasted 78 days, beginning on November 3, 1997, in an abandoned workshop at Aubervilliers. Scenes at Porte des Lilas and the historic Arles Amphitheatre were filmed that November; the crew then filmed at the Hotel Majestic in Cannes, La Turbie, and Villefranche. Production was suspended for Christmas on December 19 and resumed on January 5, 1998, at Épinay, where the crew built two interior sets on sound stages; one for the bistro in Montmartre and another for the rural farmhouse, both of which also have exterior location shots. The climactic scene with a panicked crowd at Le Zénith required about 2,000 extras, who were supervised by French casting director Margot Capelier. Filming concluded at La Défense on March 3, 1998.

Because there were no second unit director and camera operator to film the action scenes, Frankenheimer and cinematographer Robert Fraisse supervised them for an additional 30 days after the main unit finished filming. The first major car-chase scene was shot in La Turbie and Nice; the rest were filmed in areas of Paris including La Défense and the Pont du Garigliano. Scenes set in a road tunnel were filmed at night because it was impossible to block tunnel traffic during the day. The freeway chase, in which the actors dodge oncoming vehicles, was filmed in four hours on a closed road.

Frankenheimer's affinity for deep depth of field led him to shoot the film entirely with wide-angle lenses ranging in focal length from 18 to 35 mm using the Super 35 format, both of which allow more of the scene to be included in each shot as well as the freedom to reframe the movie for Full Screen presentation. The director also avoided bright primary colors to preserve a first-generation-of-film quality. He advised the actors and extras not to wear bright colors and had the film processed with Deluxe's Color Contrast Enhancement (CCE), "a silver-retention method of processing film that deepens blacks, reduces color, and heightens the visible appearance of film grain". Fraisse said he used a variety of cameras, including Panaflexes for dialogue scenes and Arriflex 435s and 35-IIIs for the car chases, to facilitate Frankenheimer's demands. Steadicam, a camera stabilizer used for half of the shoot, was operated by the director's longtime collaborator David Crone. According to Frankenheimer, 2,200 shots were filmed.

Stunts

Frankenheimer avoided using special effects in the car-chase scenes, previsualizing them with storyboards and used the same camera mounts as those used on Grand Prix. The actors were placed inside the cars while being driven at up to 100 mph, by Formula One driver Jean-Pierre Jarier, and high-performance drivers Jean-Claude Lagniez and Michel Neugarten. The actors had enrolled at a high-performance driving school before production began. According to Lagniez, the car-stunt coordinator, it was a priority not to cheat the speed by adjusting the frame rate; he said, "When you do, it affects the lighting. It is different at 20 frames than at 24 frames." However, Fraisse said: "Sometimes, but not very often, we did shoot at 22 frames per second, or 21." Point-of-view shots from cameras mounted below the cars' front fender were used to deliver a heightened sense of speed.

For the final chase scene, which used 300 stunt drivers, the production team bought four BMW 535is and five Peugeot 406s; one of each was cut in half and towed by a Mercedes-Benz 500 E while the actors were inside them. Right-hand drive versions of the cars were also purchased; a dummy steering wheel was installed on the left side while the stunt drivers drove the speeding vehicles. The final chase had very little music because Frankenheimer thought music and sound effects do not blend well. Sound engineer Mike Le Mare recorded all of the film's cars on a racetrack, mixing them later in post-production.

Frankenheimer refused to film the gunfights in slow motion, believing onscreen violence should be depicted in real time. Mick Gould, the film's technical advisor and a former instructor in the advanced training wings of the Special Air Service, trained the cast in weapons-handling and guerilla military tactics. The physical stunts were coordinated by Joe Dunne.

Alternative endings
Frankenheimer filmed two additional versions of the film's ending. In the first, Deirdre (McElhone) waits on the stairs next to the bistro and considers joining Sam (De Niro) and Vincent (Reno). Deciding against it, she walks up the stairs. As she gets into her car, IRA men drag her into a van and call her a traitor; it is implied that she is later killed. Sam and Vincent, unaware of Deidre's abduction, finish their conversation and depart. Although Frankenheimer said the test audience "hated" the ending because they did not want to see Deirdre die, he thought it "really worked". In the second ending, Deirdre walks to her car after Sam and Vincent leave the bistro; this ending was also rejected because it verged on being "too Hollywood", hinting at a sequel. Frankenheimer yielded to the test audience's response with a compromise ending; he said, "with the tremendous investment MGM/UA had in this movie, you have to kind of listen to the audience".

Music
Jerry Goldsmith was originally commissioned to compose the score for Ronin but left the project. MGM executive vice-president for music Michael Sandoval assembled an A-list to replace Goldsmith. From Sandoval's three choices, Frankenheimer hired Czech composer Elia Cmíral, who said he "was far away from being even a 'B' composer at that time". Cmíral attended a private screening of the film's final version and considered its main theme, which at Frankenheimer's behest would incorporate qualities of "sadness, loneliness, and heroism". To achieve this, Cmíral performed with the duduk, an ancient, double-reed woodwind flute that originated in Armenia. Cmíral sent a demonstration to Frankenheimer, who "loved" it, and was signed as the film's composer. Cmíral's piece "Ronin Theme" was used for the opening scenes.

Cmíral's score for Ronin, his first for a major film studio, was recorded in seven weeks at CTS Studio in London. It was orchestrated and conducted by Nick Ingman, edited by Mike Flicker, and recorded and mixed by John Whynot. Varèse Sarabande released the soundtrack album on compact disc in September 1998. For AllMusic, Jason Ankeny rated the album 4.5 out of 5 and called it a "profoundly visceral listening experience, illustrating an expert grasp of pacing and atmosphere".

Box office
Ronin had its world premiere at the 1998 Venice Film Festival on September 12, before a wide release on September 25. Ronin fared moderately well at the box office; it was the second-highest-grossing film in the United States during its opening weekend, grossing $16.7 million behind the action-comedy Rush Hour's $26.7 million, at 2,643 locations. The film dropped to fifth place on its second weekend and to seventh on its third, grossing $7.2 million and $4.7 million, respectively, at 2,487 locations. It dropped further until its sixth weekend, when it grossed $1.1 million (13th place) at 1,341 locations. The film ended its theatrical run with a gross of $41.6 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $70.7 million worldwide. Ronin was 1998's 11th-highest-grossing R-rated film.

Critical response
Critical reception to Ronin was favorable; critics praised its ensemble cast, with many singling out Robert De Niro. Todd McCarthy in Variety credited De Niro with sustaining the film but a reviewer from the Chicago Reader disagreed. The film's action scenes, particularly the car chases, were generally praised; Janet Maslin in The New York Times called them "nothing short of sensational". These scenes were criticized by The Washington Post for their length and by McCarthy for their excessive jump cuts. Robert Fraisse's cinematography was routinely praised; Michael Wilmington in the Chicago Tribune called it superficially attractive and entertaining. Although the plot was criticized by the Chicago Reader as dull and The Washington Post as derivative, Wilmington called it a "familiar but taut tale". Some reviewers singled out the espionage scene in which De Niro and Natascha McElhone pose as tourists and photograph their targets at a Cannes hotel as one of the film's best.

Critics also evaluated Frankenheimer because the broad acclaim he received with the political thriller The Manchurian Candidate (1962) established him as a director. Many said he was influenced by the works of fellow filmmaker and close friend Jean-Pierre Melville, particularly Melville's neo-noir film Le Samouraï (1967), but McCarthy wrote that Ronin lacks Melville's "world-weary, existential ennui". The film was considered to be a return to form for Frankenheimer, whose Emmy Awards for the television films Against the Wall (1994), The Burning Season, Andersonville and George Wallace had resurrected his career, after it lost momentum during the 1970s and 1980s due to the director's alcohol addiction. Ronin was Frankenheimer's last well-received feature film; Wilmington called it the director's best theatrical film in decades despite lacking The Manchurian Candidate "blazing invention", and Stephen Prince called the film his "end-of-career masterpiece". Prince wrote:

"With Ronin, Frankenheimer vindicated his cinematic talents and aesthetic preferences. The film is stylistically bonded with the principles of his work as found in the earliest and best period of his career. Its aesthetic of realism places it with Grand Prix, The Train, and The Gypsy Moths, and its minimalist conception of character and narrative detail bonds it to those productions as well. Frankenheimer had not lost his touch as a filmmaker, far from it. Ronin is smart, sharp, and witty, and it shows a greater facility for visual storytelling than most films made today, by younger directors, can muster."

Home media
In February 1999, MGM Home Entertainment released Ronin as a double-sided DVD that contained versions in widescreen and full screen formats, and Dolby Digital 5.1 sound. The DVD also contains the alternative ending and an audio commentary by John Frankenheimer, who discusses the film's production history. MGM released a special edition DVD of the film in October 2004 and a two-disc collector's edition in May 2006, both of which have additional cast and crew interviews.

It was released on Blu-ray with its theatrical trailer in February 2009. In August 2017, Arrow Video released a special edition Blu-ray with a 4K resolution restoration from the original camera negative that was supervised and approved by cinematographer Robert Fraisse. Arrow's Blu-ray also includes archival bonus features that originally appeared on the MGM special edition DVD, together with Fraisse talking about his early cinematography career and his involvement with Ronin.

Cinematic analysis

The film's title was derived from the Japanese legend of rōnin, samurai whose leader was killed and left them with no one to serve, and roamed the countryside as mercenaries and bandits to regain a sense of purpose. In Frankenheimer's film, the rōnin are former intelligence operatives who are unemployed at the end of the Cold War; devoid of purpose, they become highly-paid mercenaries. Michael Lonsdale's character elaborates on the analogy in an anecdote about the forty-seven rōnin told with miniatures, comparing the film's characters to the 18th-century rōnin of Japan. In his essay, "Action and Abstraction in Ronin", Stephen Prince wrote that the rōnin metaphor explores themes of "service, honor, and obligation to complex ways by showing that service may entail betrayal and that honor may be measured according to disparate terms". According to Stephen B. Armstrong, "Arguably Frankenheimer uses this story to highlight and contrast the moral and social weakness that characterize the band of rōnin in his film".

The film features a MacGuffin plot device in the form of a briefcase, the contents of which are important but unknown. Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert wrote that its content is identical to that of the equally-mysterious case in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994), also a MacGuffin. Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune called Ronin an homage to The French Connection (1971), The Parallax View (1974), and Three Days of the Condor (1975); thriller films known for their lack of visual effects. Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide also compared the film to The Day of the Jackal (1973) and noted similarities between Ronin's opening scene and that of Tarantino's Reservoir Dogs (1992), in which a group of professional killers who have not met before assemble. According to Armstrong, the film's plot observes the conventions of heist films.

Frankenheimer employed a hyperrealistic aesthetic in his films "to make them look realer than real, because reality by itself can be very boring", and saw them as having a tinge of semi-documentary. He credited Gillo Pontecorvo's The Battle of Algiers (1966), a film he considered flawless and more influential than any other he had seen, with inspiring this style. According to Prince, "Frankenheimer's success at working in this realist style, avoiding special effects trickery, places the car chase in Ronin in the same rarefied class as the celebrated chase in Bullitt (1968)". The director credited the Russian film The Cranes Are Flying (1957) with inspiring invisible cuts in Ronin. On the film's DVD audio commentary, Frankenheimer notes a wipe during the opening scenes made by two extras walking across the frame, which becomes a tracking shot of Jean Reno entering the bistro. His intention for the cut was to conceal the fact that the bistro's interior was a set; its exterior was filmed on location.

Modern reception
In 2019, Rotten Tomatoes' Alex Vo ranked Ronin No. 101 on his list of the "140 Essential Action Movies To Watch Now".

Ronin car chases were included on several media outlets' lists of the best depicted on film, including CNN (No. 2), Time (No. 12), Fandango (No. 6), Complex (No. 25), The Daily Telegraph (No. 10), PopMatters (No. 9), IGN (No. 9), Screen Rant (No. 8), Business Insider (No. 3), Consequence of Sound (No. 6), and Collider. Some critics have said the chase scenes in Mission: Impossible – Fallout (2018) were influenced by those in Ronin. Screen Rant ranked Ronin No. 1 on its list of the "12 Best Action Movies You've Never Heard Of". In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors, and stunt actors about their top action films; Ronin was 72nd on the list. Paste magazine ranked the film at No. 10 on its list of the "25 Best Movies of 1998". Ronin was included in the film reference book 101 Action Movies You Must See Before You Die.

Video games
Ronin influenced the conception of the action video games Burnout and Alpha Protocol.

title: Ronin (film)


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The Ruling Class (film)

The Ruling Class is a 1972 British black comedy film. It is an adaptation of Peter Barnes' satirical 1968 stage play The Ruling Class, which tells the story of a paranoid schizophrenic British nobleman (played by Peter O'Toole) who inherits a peerage. The film co-stars Alastair Sim, William Mervyn, Coral Browne, Harry Andrews, Carolyn Seymour, James Villiers and Arthur Lowe. It was produced by Jules Buck and directed by Peter Medak.

The film has been described as a "commercial failure ... [that] has since become a cult classic"; Peter O'Toole described it as "a comedy with tragic relief".

Plot
Following the death from accidental asphyxiation of Ralph Gurney, 13th Earl of Gurney, Jack Gurney becomes the 14th Earl of Gurney. Jack, a paranoid schizophrenic, thinks he is Jesus Christ and shocks his family and friends with his talk of returning to the world to bring it love and charity, not to mention his penchant for breaking out into song and dance routines and sleeping upright on a cross. When faced with unpalatable facts (such as his identity as the 14th Earl), Jack puts them in his "galvanized pressure cooker" and they disappear. His unscrupulous uncle, Sir Charles, marries him to his mistress, Grace, in hopes of producing an heir and putting his nephew in an institution; the plan fails, however, when Grace falls in love with Jack. Jack gains another ally in Sir Charles' wife, Lady Claire, who hates her husband and befriends Jack just to spite him. She also begins sleeping with Jack's psychiatrist, Dr. Herder, to persuade him to cure Jack quickly.

Herder attempts to cure him through intensive psychotherapy, to no avail; Jack so thoroughly believes that he is the "God of Love" that he dismisses any suggestion to the contrary as insane. The night his wife goes into labour, Herder makes a last effort at curing Jack; he introduces Jack to McKyle, a patient who also believes himself to be Christ – or as the patient puts it, "The High Voltage Messiah" – who subjects an unwitting Jack to electroshock therapy. The plan works, and as Grace is delivered of a healthy baby boy, Jack proclaims "I'm Jack, I'm Jack". His family takes this to mean that he has returned to his senses, but in reality he now believes himself to be Jack the Ripper.

Sir Charles sends for a court-appointed psychiatrist to evaluate Jack, confident that his nephew will be sent to an asylum for life. He is once again thwarted when the psychiatrist discovers that Jack was a fellow Old Etonian, bonds with him and declares him sane.

Jack murders Lady Claire in a fit of rage when the aging woman tries to seduce him. He frames the Communist family butler, Tucker, for the murder. Sir Charles suffers a debilitating stroke shortly afterward, and Dr. Herder has a nervous breakdown upon realizing what Jack has done. Jack assumes his place in the House of Lords with a fiery speech in favour of capital and corporal punishment. His colleagues applaud wildly, completely unaware the speech is the ranting of a lunatic. When seen through his eyes, his colleagues – singing "Onward, Christian Soldiers" – appear to be rotting corpses. Their enthusiasm contrasts with the unfavourable reaction when Jack believed he was Christ. That night, he murders Grace for expressing her love for him. Her terrified scream is matched by the sound of a baby cooing "I'm Jack, I'm Jack", suggesting that their son – the heir presumptive – has inherited Jack's madness.

Cast

 * Peter O'Toole – Jack Gurney, 14th Earl of Gurney
 * Coral Browne – Lady Claire
 * William Mervyn – Sir Charles
 * James Villiers – Dinsdale, Sir Charles and Lady Claire's son
 * Arthur Lowe – Tucker
 * Alastair Sim – Bishop Lampton
 * Carolyn Seymour – Grace
 * Michael Bryant – Dr. Herder
 * Graham Crowden – Dr. Truscott
 * Harry Andrews – Ralph Gurney, 13th Earl of Gurney
 * Hugh Owens – The toastmaster
 * Hugh Burden – Matthew Peake
 * Henry Woolf, Griffith Davies, Oliver McGreevy – Inmates
 * Kay Walsh – Mrs. Piggott-Jones
 * Patsy Byrne – Mrs. Treadwell
 * Nigel Green – McKyle
 * Cyril Appleton, Leslie Schofield – McKyle's assistants
 * Joan Cooper – Nurse Brice
 * Declan Mulholland – A poacher
 * James Grout – Inspector Brockett
 * James Hazeldine – Fraser
 * Ronald Adam, Julian D'Albie, Llewellyn Rees – Lords
 * Kenneth Benda – Lord Chancellor

Production
O'Toole held the rights to Barnes's play; Peter Medak approached O'Toole repeatedly about exercising those rights. According to Medak, the project got started one night that he and O'Toole were returning from the theatre, which "meant stopping at every pub between Soho and Hampstead, and it didn't matter if it was after closing hour because he would knock on the door and just say 'Peter's here,' and every door opened for him". Later on, at O'Toole's apartment, the deeply inebriated actor phoned his manager and said, "I'm with the crazy Hungarian and I know I'm drunk but I give you 24 hours to set this movie up." The next day, Medak received a call from United Artists and a deal was put together to shoot The Ruling Class.

Peter Barnes adapted the screenplay from his 1968 original, with few major changes. Filmed at the sprawling estate of Harlaxton Manor, with the interiors reconstructed on sound stages, the production cost $1.4 million, with O'Toole working for free (he was instead paid a great deal for the big-budget Man of La Mancha, released by the same studio later the same year).

The Ruling Class was the official British entry at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival.

Reception
The film divided critics. The New York Times described it as "fantastic fun" and Variety called it "brilliantly caustic", but the Los Angeles Times called it "snail-slow, shrill and gesticulating" and Newsweek said it was a "sledgehammer satire". Jay Cocks called the screenplay a "snarling, overwrought and somewhat parochial satire on aristocracy and privileged morality"; he called the film "wretchedly photographed...as if it were shot under floodlights". In contrast Cocks praised the performances by Lowe, Mervyn, Browne, Alastair Sim and James Villiers, but reserved most of his praise for O'Toole, saying his performance is of "such intensity that it may trouble sleep as surely as it will haunt memory. All actors can play insanity; few play it well. O'Toole begins where other actors stop, with the unfocused gaze, the abrupt bursts of frenzied high spirits and precipitous depressions. Funny, disturbing, finally devastating, O'Toole finds his way into the workings of madness, revealing the anger and consuming anguish at the source." John Simon described The Ruling Class as a "delightful satire".

Despite mixed critical reaction to the film, O'Toole's performance was universally praised and garnered numerous prestigious awards and prizes, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. Reportedly, when United Artists, its North American distributor, told producer Jules Buck that it would be cutting the film extensively for US release, Buck punched the company's London representative and bought the film back. Avco Embassy then bought the distribution rights and cut the film's 154-minute running time by six minutes.

The film was banned by the South African Publications Control Board.

In a review nearly 30 years after The Ruling Class was first released, Ian Christie said the film is "unashamedly theatrical, and it emerges from a particularly interesting period in English culture when theatre and cinema together were mining a rich vein of flamboyant self-analysis. Many stage works of this period cry out for filmic extension—in fact, Medak had just filmed a very different play that mingled fantasy and reality by a writer often bracketed with Barnes, Peter Nichols’ A Day in the Death of Joe Egg. But what makes The Ruling Class exceptional (and difficult for some) are its outrageous mixing of genres and its sheer ambition. Not only are there allusions to Shakespeare and Marlowe, but also to Wilde and Whitehall farce; to the gentility of Ealing Studios, with a plot that distantly evokes that other great black comedy Kind Hearts and Coronets, and to Hammer's gore-fests."

Awards and nominations

 * 1972 National Board of Review of Motion Pictures - Won NBR Award (Best Actor) - Peter O'Toole
 * 1972 Cannes Film Festival - Nominated for the Palme d'Or
 * 1973 Academy Awards - Nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor - Peter O'Toole
 * 1973 Golden Globe Awards - Nominated for the Golden Globe for Best English Language Foreign Film

Subsequent history
In 1974, following an earlier-than-normal TV screening of the film on BBC Television that broke a gentlemen's agreement allowing a 'window' of theatrical distribution before any TV screening, the UK's Cinematograph Exhibitors' Association (the theatrical distributors' association) recommended its members blacklist all future movies produced by Jules Buck.

Embassy Pictures re-released the film in May 1983.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Ruling Class (film)


text:
User:TakuyaMurata

Me!

 * Ethnicity: Japanese
 * Degree: Ph.D. in mathematics
 * Belief: I believe in the existence of strongly inaccessible cardinals.
 * Hobby: Wikipedia, designing a programming language, Go
 * Gender: My gender is male (ever since my birth) and I prefer to be referred to as he/him.

Japanese references
The following are nice references, but only if you speak Japanese. So I have put them here (instead of placing them in relevant Wikipedia articles).
 * Buchsbaum-Rim multiplicities of a direct sum of cyclic modules
 * Operad と関連した概念
 * Semi-algebraic setやその一般化
 * ポアソン代数の変形量子化について

TODO

 * nilpotent Lie algebra - a structural change is needed. Also, beef up the lead.
 * User:TakuyaMurata/Frobenius formula

Non-math drafts
I didn't start the following drafts:
 * Draft:Confucianism in Japan - need copyediting
 * Draft:Toshiki Tateishi
 * Draft:List of terrorist incidents in the 1940s
 * Draft:Human Right in Lithuania
 * Draft:Taro Izumi - not sure if notable or not
 * Draft:Yoshio Ikezaki
 * Draft:Shigeo Nakamura - check the notability
 * Draft:Takato Yamamoto - add more refs
 * Draft:Keishi Tanaka - more refs
 * Draft:Kyushu dynasty theory

title: User:TakuyaMurata


text:
Talk:Nominalism

Comment
This entry is not helpful at all. I thought it might be a better idea to at least begin with the definition of the term in semi-official language, as the "definition" previously offered seems to me to already prefigure critiques of nominalism, and the realist position. I don't really think of nominalism as being "anti-realism," but I am not as well versed in the field as some others. I recognize that the intro is partly redundant now, and look forward to someone else helping to address the problem this article presents. Sorry. --May23rd2007 09:49, 6 August 2006 (UTC) I believe a good link would be to Prototype Theory, because I believe it may be the opposite of this theory. -summer9081 6/5/06

I think all the references to "realism" should be replaced with "Platonism". The opposition today is between realism and idealism. This article is talking about nominalism versus Platonism. Check the Wikipedia entry on "Realism", and you'll see that only one of the several varieties of realism described there, Platonic realism, is opposed to nominalism. Philgoetz (talk) 23:46, 22 October 2015 (UTC)

Errors
There are numerous grammatical errors on this page... 12 March 2006

 * And editorial errors. For example, this:

 * "Some modern Arabic philosophers have claimed in their studies about the History of Islamic philosophy that realist universals and the Metaphysics related to this Realism school of Philosophy has formed problem to be compatible with the Islamic worldview, and through trying to solve this problem they develop the concept of nominalist universal."

 * has formed problem Joaquin 6 May 6

Explanation
This article should give a more thorough explaination of nominalism as an actual system rather than as small pieces with immediate objections from realist thinkers. Objections should be set aside perhaps until the entire view complete with supporting reasons of its historical proponents has been established. As it is, the article has considerable bias against the nominalist position and makes a strawman out of it. (Would truth need such considerable defense if what wasn't true was expounded upon so clearly that it's contraditions were manifest?) Also, I think the use of technical language is taken too far here without adequate introduction to it. Instead of sounding academic, it has the opposite effect. --Antireconciler 22 January 2006

 * 1 query on the "Moderate Realist" position. Could anyone please inform me of examples of thinkers who have published on this? Is this view simply property realism (as opposed to substance realism)? Thanks. --TableUser 01:54, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Under Varieties of Nominalism: What is the meaning or intended meaning of the sentence... "However, the realist will object that what the predicate applies to." --ELApro 13 April 2005

Comment
I too am unhappy with this article. I would frame my unhappiness as being with the article's exclusive focus on nominalism as a debate within analytic metaphysics, rather than treating its long history going back to the Greeks. I think this article would be an excellent section of an article on nominalism, but at present totally misrepresents the term.--XmarkX 16:06, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Rewrite
To whom it may concern: I'm in the middle of a complete re-write of the problem of universals article. The new approach will be almost entirely historical, beginning with Heraclitus and moving forward to Roger Penrose's revival of platonism as to mathematical entity. I expect there won't be much of an overlap with the ahistorical analytical discussion here. A link to that discussion will be appreciated, but the "overlap" notice won't be necessary. Feel free to check it out and see if you like what I've been doing. Christofurio 12:36, Sep 1, 2004 (UTC)

Introduction
I think the intro just needs to make clear, as the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry does, that nominalism really comes in two forms: one denying the existence of universals, the other abstract objects. These are often conflated and should be flagged early on. After all, one can hold that numbers don't exist because they are abstract objects, but this doesn't say anything about universals. One could simply hold an Aristotelian view of universals according to which they exist in particulars in space and time. This would alleviate worries about abstract objects while maintaining universals. - Jaymay (talk) 18:55, 28 June 2008 (UTC)

Expansion
Needs to be greatly expanded upon. I don't even know where one would start.

One place to start would be to point out that nominalism usually refers to a position in Medieval Scholastic debates and is much less frequently used in contemporary philosophy (which refers to a similar position as 'anti-realism'). Reading this article - which is frankly in need of much work - one gets the impression that nominalism is mostly a position in contemporary philosophy. The person usually credited with starting the nominalist line of thought is Ockham in the late 14th century (dates to be verified) but Abelard in the 1200's had already presented many positions that could be fairly characterized as nominalist. The (more or less) contemporary philosopher who probably would have described himself as a nominalist is WVO Quine (he in any case characterized a theory of universals that he characterized as nominalist).

Opening with a dictionary definition
Aaaargh! Don't! Adambisset 14:02, 8 September 2006 (UTC) Bold text

In the section on resemblance nominalism, the article states: "This betrays the spirit of nominalism." This statement seems highly biased and should be justified or removed.

examples
Can someone include some examples? I think that would be helpful to illustrate the point.--Shadowdrak 10:31, 17 June 2007 (UTC)

Dennett query
Philosophers who delve deeply into the workings of the human brain, such as Daniel Dennett, reject the idea that there is some "greenness" in the real world, only circumstances that cause the brain to react with the judgment "green." IIRC Dennett's objection is specifcially to phenomenal properties or qualia. I don't think he doubts the mind-independent existence of massiveness or acidity. 1Z (talk) 23:14, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

According to Nominalists, Universals don't exist
They don't exist "as" particulars. They don't exist "dependently" upon particulars. They don't exist "as" names. For the Nominalist, they simply don't exist at all. (The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on "Universals" actually says, "Those who believe in universals are called Realists, those who DO NOT are called Nominalists" (my caps).) I've changed the lead sentence to reflect this, and supplied sources to back it up. Please don't add original research. Check my sources, and if you can find some authority who disagrees, then cite it. Isokrates (talk) 14:05, 27 June 2008 (UTC)

 * You'll find citations for what you're claiming and what I'm claiming. The fact is that some professional philosophers define "universal" in a neutral way such that the dispute between realists and nominalists is on the nature of universals. Other philosophers define "universal" to mean what realists believe exist and nominalists don't (as you say). Take, for example, H. H. Price. In the first chapter of his book Thinking and Experience (1953), called "Universals and Resemblances", which is a famous paper included in major metaphysics anthologies, he says: "these recurrent characteristics have been called by some philosohpers universals". So he defines universals (and takes philosophers to be defining them) as simply recurring characteristics or qualities. So, being female is a universal, and no sane person would deny that there is such a thing as being female. That's one reason why I put what I put. It's not original research. But whatev. - Jaymay (talk) 22:56, 28 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Of course it's no use denying that being female is a universal. But I suggest not only (i) that there is no evidence to support your claim that "no sane person would deny that there is such a thing as being female" (I doubt that anything that Price says implies this), but also (ii) that this is the very thing that nominalists generally do deny.  Nominalists will admit that many things are female, but will say that there is nothing besides females to which the linguistic expression "being female" corresponds.  They would say that we may be fooled by our language into thinking that it's appropriate to speak of such a thing.  You may call that an "insane" position.  But it's actually the very position advocated by most or all nominalists.  In fact, I would say that it's virtually the whole point of nominalism to reject the view that there really are such things as being female etc.  Your claim that some (or most or all) nominalists admit that there is such a thing as being female is indeed original research.  You have yet to cite a source that supports the claim.  Your quote from Price doesn't support it.  Maybe you can find another quote, but I have to say that I doubt it.  Isokrates (talk) 17:00, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Isokrates, you miss my point, and in what seems to be an effort to promote confrontation. My point is that there is a sense in which everyone ought to believe that there is such a thing as being female. I take it that you are thinking that the "there is" part of my statement makes some strong existential claim about an ontological category. But, if we think about what my statement means in ordinary English, I think it is clear that there is a sense in which it is obvious that it would be foolish to deny that there is such a thing as being female. In that sense, my Price quote supports that claim. But it's pointless to argue about these minor details. You should admit that there is a legitimate and ordinary way to cash out the debate between realists and nominalists according to which both agree that there is e.g. femalehood, but differ on the nature of that thing (realists think its a thing distinct from the particulars that instantiate it; nominalists think it's nothing over and above some set of particulars or something). However, I equally admit that there is a way to cash out the debate between realists and nominalists according to which nominalists deny that there is such a thing as being female. But you must understand how crazy that sounds in ordinary English. After all, who will deny that the sentence "There is such a thing as being female" expresses a truth? Prior to theorizing about philosophy, that is an obvious truth. What the nominalist tries to do is explain that while this is true, we shouldn't be mislead into thinking that being female is something over and above the particulars that instantiate it. I was only trying to make nominalism sound less crazy. But, in effect, I take your point. I think we both understand the debate between realists and nominalists. I was only trying to worry about how best to explain it in an encyclopedia entry. But ultimately I don't much care which way it's formulated. - Jaymay (talk) 17:29, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Understood. As to how intuitive or "pre-philosophical" is the belief that there's such a thing as being female:  We have of course no statistics to consult, but I don't know that you're right about its being an "obvious truth" in this sense.  It may well be obvious to students of philosophy (thanks ultimately to Plato); I know I think it is and I too have a hard time even understanding how anyone could not accept it.  But I wonder whether it's so obvious "pre-philosophically" to everybody.  Consider the "lovers of sights and sounds" that Plato discusses at Republic 475e-480a; evidently they didn't accept this "obvious truth".  We may well imagine that Plato is describing here a view that he actually encountered and felt obliged to answer.  Some evidence, anyway, for thinking there is no "pre-philosophically" obvious answer.  But our discussion has digressed....  Thanks for explaining the reasoning behind your edits. Isokrates (talk) 21:52, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

More Ockham!
Plato refered to a thinking related to nominalism as a counterexample of his realism, but William of Ockham actually developed a nominalism believing the idea to be non-absurd, so he could preferrably be referred to some little more than just a "see also". I think Ochkam is more central for the current Western nominalism. ... said: Rursus (bork²) 10:44, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Or maybe not... The article on conceptualism presents another view: that he is used as a symbol for modern nominalism, while what he actually proponed was conceptualism ... Confusing, but a general state of the art in modern philosophy. ... said: Rursus (bork²) 06:27, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

Confusing...
As a layman, I find the current version of this page somewhat confusing. For example, the dual definition of the topic in the first two paragraphs of the lead (i.e. Nominalism refers to either of two..." / Nominalism is...") seems to me confusing. There also seems to be something of a mismatch/overlap between the History / Criticisms sections (maybe some sort of a history of the term would be in order before moving on to the "criticisms"?). 86.169.210.196 (talk) 12:12, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

History
"Aristotle famously rejected certain aspects of Plato's Theory of Forms, but he clearly rejected Nominalism as well: ...'Man', and indeed every general predicate, signifies not an individual, but some quality, or quantity or relation, or something of that sort."

That is not a rejection of nominalism. Nominalism holds that words correspond to mental concepts, not to objects in the world.Philgoetz (talk) 16:54, 15 November 2017 (UTC)

Bentham on fictions
Should Bentham's theory of fictions be mentioned here? In C.K. Ogden, Bentham’s Theory of Fictions (1932; London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 2nd edn 1951);  the work had first appeared in 1843 as “A Fragment on Ontology” in Bentham, Works (ed. John Bowring), VIII.192-211.

What does the Humpty Dumpty quote have to do with this?
It doesn't resemble any of the nominalist views discussed elsewhere in the article. It seems to be about word-choice. 100.36.50.189 (talk) 00:59, 11 September 2018 (UTC)

Kermit The Frog
It seems to me that the article misses the real question regarding Kermit; not whether he is green, but whether he is a frog. Most observers would assert that Kermit is a frog and possibly consider him the world's most famous frog. But Kermit is also not a frog, being in fact a puppet. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.71.30.178 (talk) 21:08, 5 November 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nominalism


text:
Kate Greenaway

Catherine Greenaway (17 March 1846 – 6 November 1901) was an English Victorian artist and writer, known for her children's book illustrations. She received her education in graphic design and art between 1858 and 1871 from the Finsbury School of Art, the South Kensington School of Art, the Heatherley School of Art, and the Slade School of Fine Art. She began her career designing for the burgeoning greetings card market, producing Christmas and Valentine's cards. In 1879 wood-block engraver and printer Edmund Evans printed Under the Window, an instant best-seller, which established her reputation. Her collaboration with Evans continued throughout the 1880s and 1890s.

The depictions of children in imaginary 18th-century costumes in a Queen Anne style were extremely popular in England and internationally, sparking the Kate Greenaway style. Within a few years of the publication of Under the Window Greenaway's work was imitated in England, Germany, and the United States.

Childhood
Kate Greenaway was born in Hoxton, London, the second of four children, to a working-class family. Her mother, Elizabeth, was a dress maker and her father, John, an engraver who gave up steady employment with Ebenezer Landells' engraving firm to strike out on his own. When Greenaway was very young, he accepted a commission to provide the engraved illustrations to a new edition of Charles Dickens's The Pickwick Papers, sending his young family away to relatives in the countryside to give himself solitude while producing the engravings. Kate's earliest memories are of Rolleston, Nottinghamshire, which affected her deeply. It was a place she returned to frequently in her childhood. According to children's literature scholar Humphrey Carpenter, the period was to Greenaway "crucial ... she felt it to be her real home, a country of the mind that she could always reimagine". After returning to grimy London streets Rolleston became a place to visit in her mind and constantly embellish.

The publisher who commissioned John Greenaway's work went bankrupt, leaving the family without an income. When Elizabeth Greenaway returned from Rolleston with the children, the family moved to Islington, where she opened a children's dress shop that attracted well-to-do clients. The family lived in the flat above the shop, and young Kate, often left to her own devices to explore, spent many hours in the enclosed courtyard garden, later writing about it in her unfinished autobiography as a place filled with "richness of colour and depth of shade."

John Greenaway provided for his mother and two sisters as well as for his own family. He took piecemeal engraving jobs, usually for weekly publications, such as The Illustrated London News. He frequently worked on the wood carving throughout the night in front of the fire. Kate enjoyed watching him, and through his work was exposed to illustrations by John Leech, John Gilbert, and Kenny Meadows.

As a young child Greenaway's parents taught her at home; later she was sent to various dame schools; she was an avid reader of chapbook versions of fairy tales – her favourites were "Sleeping Beauty", "Cinderella", and "Beauty and the Beast" – as well as illustrated editions of Shakespeare, writing later that children "often don’t care a bit about the books people think they will and I think they often like grown-up books – at least I did." Her father's engravings exposed her to weekly news stories, some of which were quite grisly, such as the series of his illustrations for the Illustrated London News in 1856 about murderer William Palmer.

Education and early work
In 1857, at age 12, she began night classes at nearby Finsbury School, a local branch of South Kensington School of Art participating in National Course of Art Training in the decorative arts. Night courses, open only to women, were offered in drawing, porcelain painting, wood engraving, and lithography. She enrolled full-time a year later. The curriculum, devised by Henry Cole, was meant to train artisans in designing decorative wallpaper, tiles, and carpets. It emphasised strict adherence to copying geometric and botanical elements without creativity. There were four stages of courses, which she completed in 1864 before going to the Royal Female School of Art.

The headmaster at the Royal Female School of Art was Richard Burchett, whom Elizabeth Thompson described as a "bearded, velvet-skull-capped and cold-searching-eyed man." Greenaway was quite shy and thought of herself as plain and unattractive compared to the other students. Yet she became friends with the much more popular Thompson, with whom she shared a studio. The two young women worked diligently in their studio to perfect their skills. At this point she was allowed to draw human figures, at first from plaster casts and then from models dressed in historical or ornamental costumes, skills she applied during the summers in Rolleston. However, she was unable to fully master human anatomy; frustrated that nude models were not permitted in the women's classes, she enrolled in night classes at Heatherley School of Fine Art where she met Edward Burne-Jones, Edward Poynter, and Walter Crane.

In 1871 she enrolled in the Slade School of Fine Art, where Poynter was head master. Determined to break from Henry Cole's rigid curriculum, he exhorted students to become more expressive and creative, concepts alien to Greenaway whose long early years of training consisted solely of copying and work with geometric designs. She struggled at Heatherley and once again was frustrated that women were segregated from men in the life class.

While she was still in school, Greenaway received commissions for children's book illustrations. The first came in 1867 for a frontispiece for Infant Amusements, setting a path towards specialization in children's books. Her reputation was built on the awards she had won while completing the National Art Courses, and buttressed with early exhibitions. She exhibited a set of fairy watercolours in 1868, which she sold to W. J. Loftie, publisher of People's Magazine. He set them to verse and printed them in his magazine. A year later Frederick Warne & Co purchased six illustrations for a toy book edition of "Diamonds and Toads", printed by Joseph Martin Kronheim, which took a year to complete. In 1871 Gall & Inglis published an edition of Madame d'Aulnoy's fairy tales, which she illustrated. That year she continued with her classes and earned more than 70 pounds.

She was aware that the work she produced was overly gaudy, in part because she lacked technical knowledge of the Chromoxylography process. To gain a better understanding of the colour process, she made frequent visits to the National Gallery, where she studied masters such as Jan van Eyck, whose Arnolfini Portrait she especially liked. At that time, she gained access to the manuscript room at the British Museum, where she studied illuminated manuscripts.

Freelance years
The new, popular and lucrative card market coincided with the end of Greenaway's formal training. Greetings cards first appeared in the 1840s, and by the 1860s the market had exploded. Card maker Marcus Ward & Co hired Greenaway in 1871 on a freelance basis. With its reputation for high quality work, the Belfast firm was one of the pre-eminent card printers of the Victorian era. Her designs sold well and they said of her work that “her special talent was in the direction of costume figures and dainty colours.” Her cards sold well, and early Valentines sold 25,000 copies in weeks.

Under the Window
Her first book, Under the Window (1879), a collection of simple, perfectly idyllic verses about children, was a bestseller.

Later years and death

In the 1880s, the most popular designers of bookplates were Greenaway, along with Crane and Aubrey Beardsley. Their work exhibited intricate art nouveau elements with flowing vines and floral patterns.

Greenaway was elected to membership of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1889. She exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. She lived in an Arts and Crafts style house she commissioned from Richard Norman Shaw in Frognal, London, although she spent summers in Rolleston.

Greenaway died of breast cancer in 1901, at the age of 55. She is buried in Hampstead Cemetery, London.

Style
Greenaway's paintings were reproduced by chromoxylography, by which the colours were printed from hand-engraved wood blocks by the firm of Edmund Evans. Through the 1880s and 1890s, her only rivals in popularity in children's book illustration were Walter Crane and Randolph Caldecott.

"Kate Greenaway" children, all of them girls and boys too young to be put in trousers, were dressed in her own versions of late 18th century and Regency fashions: smock-frocks and skeleton suits for boys, high-waisted pinafores and dresses with mobcaps and straw bonnets for girls. The influence of children's clothes in portraits by British painter John Hoppner (1758–1810) may have provided her some inspiration. Liberty of London adapted Kate Greenaway's drawings as designs for actual children's clothes. A full generation of mothers in the liberal-minded "artistic" British circles who called themselves The Souls and embraced the Arts and Crafts movement dressed their daughters in Kate Greenaway pantaloons and bonnets in the 1880s and 1890s. The style was often used by painter Maude Goodman in her depictions of children.

Legacy
The Kate Greenaway Medal, established in her honour in 1955, is awarded annually by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals in the UK to an illustrator of children's books.

Books illustrated

 * Kingston, William, Infant Amusements, or How to Make a Nursery Happy, 1867.
 * Aulnoy, Marie, Madame D'Aulnoy's Fairy Tales, 9 v., Gall and Inglis, 1871.
 * Aunt Louisa's London Toy Books: Diamonds and Toads, Warne, 1871.
 * Jeune, Margaret S., My School Days in Paris, London, Griffith and Farran, 1871.
 * Knox, Kathleen, Fairy Gifts; or, A Wallet of Wonders, Griffith & Farran, 1874.
 * Aunt Cae, The Children of the Parsonage, Griffith & Farran, 1874.
 * Mulholland, Rosa, Puck and Blossom, Marcus Ward, 1874.
 * Hill, Miranda, The Fairy Spinner, Marcus Ward, 1874.
 * Jerrold, Alice, A Cruise in the Acorn, London, Marcus Ward, 1875.
 * Clark, Mary Senior, Turnaside Cottage, London, Marcus Ward, 1875.
 * Potter, Frederick Scarlett, Melcomb Manor: A Family Chronicle, London, Marcus Ward, 1875.
 * Children’s Songs, London, Marcus Ward, c. 1875.
 * Knox, Kathleen, Seven Birthdays; or, The Children of Fortune, Griffith & Farran, 1875.
 * Quiver of Love, a Collection of Valentines (with Walter Crane), Marcus Ward, 1876.
 * LaBlanche, Fanny, Starlight Stories Told to Bright Eyes and Listening Ears, Griffith & Farran, 1877.
 * Russell, Rutherford, Tom Seven Years Old, London, Marcus Ward, 1877.
 * Hunt, Mrs. Bonavia, Poor Nelly, London, Cassell, Petter, Gilpin, 1878.
 * Campbell, Lady Colin, Topo: A Tale About English Children in Italy, Marcus Ward, 1878.
 * Yonge, Charlotte Mary, Heartsease; or The Brother’s Wife, Macmillan, 1879.
 * Yonge, Charlotte Mary, The Heir of Redclyffe, Macmillan, 1879.
 * Pollock, Walter Herries, Amateur Theatricals, London, Macmillan, 1879.
 * Toyland, Trot’s Journey and Other Poems and Stories, New York, R. Worthington, c. 1879
 * Weatherly, George, The “Little Folks” Painting Book, Cassell, Petter, Gilpin, 1879.
 * Weatherly, George, The “Little Folks” Nature Painting Book, Cassell, Petter, Gilpin 1879.
 * A Favorite Album of Fun and Fancy, London, Cassell, Petter, Gilpin, c. 1879.
 * Haile, Ellen, Three Brown Boys and Other Happy Children, New York, Cassell & Co., c. 1879.
 * Haile, Ellen, The Two Gray Girls and Their Opposite Neighbours, New York, Cassell & Co., c. 1879.
 * Under the Window, London, George Routledge, 1879. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Barker, Mrs. Sale, Kate Greenaway's Birthday Book, London, George Routledge, 1880. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Freddie’s Letter: Stories For Little People, London, Routledge, 1880.
 * The Old Farm Gate, London, George Routledge, c. 1880.
 * Lang, Andrew, The Library, London, Macmillan and Company, 1881.
 * Locker, Frederick, London Lyrics, London, Macmillan and Company, 1881.
 * Mother Goose; or, The Old Nursery Rhymes, London, Routledge, 1881. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Foster, Myles Burkett, A Day in a Child’s Life, London, Routledge, 1882. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Ranking, Montgomerie and Tully, Thomas K., Flowers and Fancies; Valentines Ancient and Modern, Marcus Ward, 1882.
 * Weatherly, F. E., The Illustrated Children’s Birthday Book (with others), London, W. Mack, 1882.
 * Taylor, Ann and Jane, Little Ann and Other Poems, London, Routledge, 1883. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Zimmern, Helen, Tales from the Edda, London, Sonnenschein, 1883.
 * Language of Flowers, London, Routledge, 1884. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * A Painting Book By Kate Greenaway, London, George Routledge, 1884. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Ellice, Robert, compiler, Songs for the Nursery: A Collection of Children’s Poems, Old and New, W. Mack, 1884.
 * Kate Greenaway’s Christmas Carols, London: George Routledge, c. 1884.
 * Kate Greenaway's Alphabet, London, Routledge, 1885. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Kate Greenaway's Album, London, Routledge, c. 1885. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans. (only eight copies were printed)
 * Marigold Garden: Pictures and Rhymes, London, Routledge, 1885. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Mavor, William, English Spelling Book, London, Routledge, 1885. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Ruskin, John, editor, Dame Wiggins of Lee and Her Seven Wonderful Cats, London, George Allen, 1885.
 * A Apple Pie: An Old-Fashioned Alphabet Book, London, Routledge, 1886. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Harte, Bret, The Queen of the Pirate Isle, Chatto & Windus, 1886. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Baby's Birthday Book, London, Marcus Ward, 1886.
 * Allingham, William, Rhymes for the Young Folk, Cassell and Co., 1887. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Queen Victoria's Jubilee Garland, London, George Routledge, 1887. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Browning, Robert, The Pied Piper of Hamelin, London, Routledge, 1888. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Around the House, New York, Worthington, 1888.
 * Kate Greenaway's Book of Games, London, Routledge, 1889. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Cresswell, Beatrice F., The Royal Progress of King Pepito, London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1889. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.
 * Arnim, Mary Annette, The April Baby's Book of Tunes, London and New York, Macmillan, 1900. The first use of colour-lithography on any of Kate’s Books.
 * Spielmann, Mabel H., Littledom Castle and Other Tales (with others), London, George Routledge, 1903.
 * Dobson, Austin, De Libris Prose and Verse (with others), London, Macmillan, 1908, 1911.
 * Almanack, London, Routledge, 1883–1895. Engraved and colour printed by Edmund Evans.

title: Kate Greenaway


text:
Talk:Ignatius Loyola

The title should be "Ignatius of Loyola" or "Saint Ignatius of Loyola", with his baptismal name, Iñigo Lopez de Loyola, in the first line. "Ignatius Loyola" could be made a redirect page.

title: Talk:Ignatius Loyola


text:
Leon Spinks

Leon Spinks (July 11, 1953 – February 5, 2021) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1977 to 1995. In only his eighth professional fight, he won the undisputed heavyweight championship in 1978 after defeating Muhammad Ali in a split decision, in what is considered one of the biggest upsets in boxing history. Spinks was later stripped of the WBC title for facing Ali in an unapproved rematch seven months later, which he lost by a unanimous decision.

Besides being heavyweight champion and his characteristic gap-toothed grin (due to losing two and later all four of his front teeth), Spinks gained notoriety for the disaster which befell his career following his loss to Ali. However, he did challenge once more for the WBC heavyweight title in 1981 (losing to Larry Holmes by TKO in the third round), and the WBA cruiserweight title in 1986 (losing to Dwight Muhammad Qawi by TKO in the sixth round).

As an amateur, Spinks won numerous medals in the light heavyweight division. The first was bronze at the inaugural 1974 World Championships, followed by silver at the 1975 Pan American Games, and gold at the 1976 Summer Olympics; the latter alongside his brother Michael Spinks, who won middleweight gold. Leon served in the United States Marine Corps from 1973 to 1976, rising to the rank of corporal. He was stationed at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina and was on the Marine Corps Boxing Team.

Spinks also had a brief career as a professional wrestler from 1986, 1990 to 1993. He mainly worked for Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (FMW) and holding the FMW Brass Knuckles Heavyweight Championship in 1992.

Amateur career
Spinks won three consecutive national AAU light heavyweight championships from 1974 to 1976, the first of which came against future champion Michael Dokes. He was serving in the Marine Corps at the time.

Olympic results
Spinks won the light heavyweight gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. He defeated Abdel Latif Fatihi, Anatoliy Klimanov, Ottomar Sachse, and Janusz Gortat en route to the final, where he defeated Sixto Soria to win the gold.

Spinks finished his amateur career with a record of 178–7 with 133 knockouts.

Professional career
Spinks debuted professionally on January 15, 1977, in Las Vegas, Nevada, beating Bob Smith by knockout in five rounds. His next fight was in Liverpool, England, where he beat Peter Freeman by a first-round knockout. Later, he saw an improvement in opposition quality, when he fought Pedro Agosto of Puerto Rico and knocked him out in round one. He then fought Scott LeDoux to a draw and defeated Italian champion Alfio Righetti in a decision.

Spinks vs. Ali
At the time a lower-ranked contender, he made history on February 15, 1978, by decisively beating Muhammad Ali on a 15-round split decision, that was in actuality fairly one-sided, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Spinks won the world heavyweight title in his eighth professional fight, the shortest span in history. The aging Ali had expected an easy fight, but he was out-boxed by Spinks, who did not tire throughout the bout and had Ali ready to fall in the last seconds of the fight. It was one of the few occasions when Ali left the ring with a bruised and puffy face.

The victory over Ali was the peak of Spinks's career. He was the only man to take a title from Muhammad Ali in the ring, as Ali's other losses were non-title contests or bouts where Ali was the challenger. Spinks's gap-toothed grin was featured on the cover of the February 19, 1978 issue of Sports Illustrated.

However, Spinks was stripped of his world title by the WBC for refusing to defend it against Ken Norton, instead agreeing to a return bout against Ali to defend his WBA crown. The title, stripped from Spinks, was then awarded to Norton.

Rematch
His second match with Ali, at the Louisiana Superdome on September 15, 1978, went badly for Spinks. A now-in-shape Ali—with better, sharper tactics—rarely lost control, winning back his title by a unanimous fifteen-round decision. Ali regained the title, becoming the first three-time lineal heavyweight champion. Spinks was never given a rematch; Ali retired after the fight (although he came out of retirement a few years later to fight Larry Holmes and Trevor Berbick).

Career development

Spinks's next fight, his only one in 1979, was at Monte Carlo, where he was knocked out in the first round by future WBA world heavyweight champion Gerrie Coetzee. In the following fight, Spinks defeated former world title challenger and European title holder Alfredo Evangelista by a knockout in round 5. He then fought to a draw in with Eddie López, scored a knockout over Kevin Isaac in May, and, in October, beat the WBC's top-ranked challenger, Bernardo Mercado, by a knockout in round nine on the undercard of Muhammad Ali vs. Larry Holmes.

His strong performance against Mercado earned Spinks a title match against Larry Holmes. In Spinks's only fight in 1981, on June 12 and what would be his last opportunity to win the heavyweight title, he took multiple punches without responding in the third round and the referee stopped the fight.

Move to cruiserweight
It was Spinks's last heavyweight bout for years, as he began boxing in the cruiserweight division. He beat contender Ivy Brown by a decision in ten rounds, and gained a decision against former and future title challenger Jesse Burnett in twelve rounds.

Spinks was due to face the World Cruiserweight number one David Pearce, but the fight was called off on 24 hours notice after the fighters had both weighed in, due to the BBBoC stance on Pearce fighting abroad in the newly formed Cruiserweight division.

When his brother Michael Spinks defeated Larry Holmes in a controversial upset for the IBF heavyweight championship in 1985, they became the only brothers to have held world heavyweight championships. They kept the distinction until the Klitschko brothers became champions two decades later.

In the 1980s Leon Spinks competed in several boxer vs. wrestler matches in New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), including losing by submission to Antonio Inoki. In 1986 Spinks earned his last championship opportunity, fighting Dwight Muhammad Qawi for the WBA cruiserweight championship. Qawi had been defeated by Michael Spinks three years earlier for his WBC light heavyweight championship. However, Leon lost by TKO in the sixth round.

Spinks boxed for another eight years with mixed results. In 1994 he lost a bout by KO to John Carlo, the first time a former heavyweight champion had lost to a boxer making his pro debut (promoter Charles Farrell later admitted to falsifying Carlo's record in order to get the fight sanctioned by the District of Columbia). Spinks retired at age 42, after losing an 8-round decision to Fred Houpe in 1995, who was coming off a seventeen-year hiatus.

Professional wrestling career
On October 9, 1986, Spinks lost to Japanese legend Antonio Inoki in a mixed martial arts fight for New Japan Pro Wrestling. Spinks made an appearance for the United States Wrestling Association on June 25, 1990, where he lost to Jerry Lawler by disqualification.

In 1991, Spinks made his debut in Japan for Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (FMW) teaming with fellow boxer Rufus Blackborn. He later teamed with Dr. Luther in 1992. On March 25, 1992, he defeated Tarzan Goto for the FMW Brass Knuckles Heavyweight Championship. He would drop the title to Atsushi Onita on May 24, 1992. In 1993, he feuded with Terry Funk and retired from wrestling later that year.

Life after boxing
During the 1990s, Spinks worked for Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling, winning its world title in 1992, making him only the second man (after Primo Carnera) to hold titles in both boxing and wrestling. In the late 1990s, Spinks was a headliner on year-round, touring autograph shows.

In 2009, Spinks was featured as part of the 2009 documentary Facing Ali, in which notable former opponents of Ali speak about how fighting Ali changed their lives.

Spinks lived later in his life in Las Vegas, Nevada. He told a reporter his life was "comfortable", and that he kept a low profile.

In August 2017, Leon was inducted into the Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame along with his brother, Michael.

Personal life and health
Spinks was born and raised in St. Louis.

Leon's son, Cory Spinks, held the undisputed welterweight title, and was the IBF junior middleweight champion twice.

In 1990, Leon's other son, Leon Calvin, was shot to death in East St. Louis as he was driving home from his girlfriend's house. Calvin was an aspiring light heavyweight pro boxer with a record of 2–0, with the two pro bouts occurring only a month before he died. Leon's grandson and Calvin's son, Leon Spinks III, is an aspiring light heavyweight southpaw boxer with a pro record of 11–3–1 with seven knockouts, his last outing being a six-round draw with Robbie Cannon in October 2017.

Spinks perceptibly slurred his words after his active boxing days, and was diagnosed in 2012 with shrinkage in his brain, which doctors said was likely caused by the accumulated punches that he took during his career. In 2011, Spinks and his wife Brenda moved to Las Vegas. Spinks was hospitalized twice in 2014 in a Las Vegas hospital for surgery due to abdominal problems, from which he recovered.

In 2019, it was revealed that Spinks was diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer. He died at a hospital in Henderson, Nevada on February 5, 2021, at age 67.

title: Leon Spinks


text:
Paul Winfield

Paul Edward Winfield (May 22, 1939 – March 7, 2004) was an American actor. He was known for his portrayal of a Louisiana sharecropper who struggles to support his family during the Great Depression in the landmark film Sounder (1972), which earned him an Academy Award nomination. He portrayed Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1978 television miniseries King, for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award. Winfield was also known for his roles in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, The Terminator, L.A. Law, and 24 episodes of the sitcom 227. He received four Emmy nominations overall, winning in 1995 for his 1994 guest role in Picket Fences.

Early years
Winfield was the son of Lois Beatrice Edwards, a single mother who was a union organizer in the garment industry. Although published obituaries stated he was born May 22, 1941 in Los Angeles, some sources indicate he was born May 22, 1939 in Dallas, Texas. His stepfather from the age of eight was Clarence Winfield, a city trash collector and construction worker. Paul graduated from Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles. From there, he attended the University of Portland, 1957–59; Stanford University, 1959; Los Angeles City College, 1959–63; University of California, Los Angeles, 1962–64; University of Hawaii, 1965 and the University of California, Santa Barbara, 1970–71, but did not earn a degree from any of them.

Career
A lifetime member of The Actors Studio, Winfield carved out a diverse career in film, television, theater and voiceovers by taking groundbreaking roles at a time when black actors were rarely even cast. He first appeared in the 1965 Perry Mason episode "The Case of the Runaway Racer" as Mitch, a race car mechanic. His first major feature film role was in the 1969 film The Lost Man starring Sidney Poitier. Winfield became well known to TV audiences when he appeared in several seasons of the groundbreaking television series Julia opposite Diahann Carroll. The show, filmed during a high point of racial tension in the U.S., was unique in featuring a black female as the central character. Winfield also starred as Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1978 miniseries King.

In 1973, Winfield was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for the 1972 film Sounder, ; his co-star, Cicely Tyson, was nominated for Best Actress. Prior to their nominations and Diana Ross's for Lady Sings the Blues the same year, only three other black Americans – Dorothy Dandridge, Sidney Poitier and James Earl Jones – had ever been nominated for a leading role. Winfield also appeared in a different role in the 2003 Disney-produced TV remake of Sounder directed by Kevin Hooks, his co-star from the original. Winfield played "Jim the Slave" in Huckleberry Finn (1974), a musical based on the Mark Twain novel. Winfield would recall later in his career that as a young actor he had played one of the leads in a local repertory production of Of Mice and Men in whiteface - at the time, a black actor playing the role would have been unthinkable. Winfield also starred in several miniseries, including Scarlett, and two based on the works of novelist Alex Haley: Roots: The Next Generations and Queen: The Story of an American Family.

Winfield gained a new segment of fans for his brief but memorable roles in several science fiction television series and films. He portrayed Starfleet starship Captain Terrell, an unwilling minion of the villain Khan, in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, and Lieutenant Ed Traxler, a friendly but crusty cop partnered with Lance Henriksen in The Terminator. In 1996, he was in the 'name' ensemble cast in Tim Burton's comic homage to 1950s science fiction Mars Attacks!, playing the complacently self-satisfied Lt. General Casey. On the small screen, he appeared in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Darmok" as Dathon, an alien captain who communicates in allegories. He appeared in the second season Babylon 5 episode "Gropos" as General Richard Franklin, the father of regular character Dr. Stephen Franklin, and on the fairy tale sitcom The Charmings as The Evil Queen's wisecracking Magic Mirror. He also portrayed Julian Barlow in the last two seasons of the TV series 227.

Winfield also took on roles as homosexual characters in the films Mike's Murder in 1984 and the 1998 film Relax...It's Just Sex. He found success off-camera due to his unique voice. He provided voices for Spider-Man, The Magic School Bus, Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child, Gargoyles, Batman: The Animated Series, Batman Beyond, K10C, and The Simpsons, voicing the Don King parody Lucius Sweet. In his voiceover career, Winfield is perhaps best known as narrator of the A&E true crime series City Confidential from 1998 until his death in 2004.

Throughout his career, Winfield frequently managed to perform in the theater. Checkmates (1988), his only Broadway production, co-starred Ruby Dee and was also the Broadway debut of Denzel Washington. Winfield appeared in productions at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles and The Shakespeare Theatre in Washington, D.C. He was nominated for an Emmy Award for King and Roots: The Next Generations. In 1995, Winfield won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his appearance as Judge Harold Nance in the CBS drama Picket Fences.

Personal life and death
Winfield was gay, but remained discreet about it in the public eye. Prior to realizing his sexuality, he was in a relationship with his Sounder co-star Cicely Tyson. His partner of 30 years, architect Charles Gillan Jr., died of bone cancer on March 5, 2002.

Winfield long battled obesity and diabetes. On March 7, 2004, he died of a heart attack at Queen of Angels – Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center in Los Angeles. Winfield and Gillan are interred together at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Los Angeles.

title: Paul Winfield


text:
Julia (1977 film)

Julia is a 1977 American WWII drama film directed by Fred Zinnemann, from a screenplay by Alvin Sargent. It is based on a chapter from Lillian Hellman's 1973 book Pentimento about the author's relationship with a lifelong friend, Julia, who fought against the Nazis in the years prior to World War II. The film stars Jane Fonda, Vanessa Redgrave, Jason Robards, Hal Holbrook, Rosemary Murphy, Maximilian Schell, and Meryl Streep in her film debut.

Julia released theatrically on October 2, 1977 by 20th Century Fox. The film received positive reviews from critics and grossed $20.7 million against its $7 million budget.

Julia received a leading 11 nominations at the 50th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director (for Zinnemann) and Best Actress (for Fonda), and won 3 awards: Best Supporting Actor (for Robards), Best Supporting Actress (for Redgrave) and Best Adapted Screenplay. At the 35th Golden Globe Awards, the film received a leading 7 nominations, including for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director – Motion Picture (for Zinnemann) and Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture (for both Robards and Schell), with Fonda and Redgrave winning for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress respectively. It also received a leading 10 nominations at the 32nd British Academy Film Awards, including Best Direction (for Zinnemann) and Best Actor in a Supporting Role (for Robards), and won 4 awards, including Best Film and Best Actress (for Fonda).

Plot
The young Lillian Hellman and her friend Julia, daughter of a wealthy family being brought up by her grandparents in the United States, enjoy a childhood together and a very close friendship in late adolescence. Later, while medical student Julia attends the University of Oxford and the University of Vienna and studies with such luminaries as Sigmund Freud, Lillian, a struggling writer, suffers through revisions of her play with her mentor and lover, famed author Dashiell Hammett, at a beach house.

Julia's university in Vienna is overrun by Nazi thugs, and she is severely injured trying to protect others. Lillian receives word of Julia's condition and rushes to Vienna to be with her. Julia is taken away for "treatment", and Lillian is unable to find her again since the hospital denies any knowledge of her being treated there. She remains in Europe to try to find Julia but is unsuccessful.

Later, during the Nazi era, Lillian has become a celebrated playwright and is invited to a writers' conference in the USSR. Julia, having taken on the battle against Nazism, enlists Lillian en route to smuggle money into Germany to assist the anti-Nazi cause. It is a dangerous mission, especially for a Jewish intellectual on her way to Russia.

Lillian departs for the USSR via Berlin, and the movements of her person, and the placement of her possessions (a hat and a box of candy), are carefully guided by colleagues of Julia through border crossings and inspections. In Berlin, Lillian is told to go to a cafe, where she finds Julia. They speak only briefly. Julia divulges that the "treatment" she received in the hospital in Vienna was the amputation of her leg. Julia tells her that the money she has brought will save 500 to 1,000 people, many of them Jews. Lillian also learns that Julia has a daughter, Lily, who is living with a baker in Alsace. After Lilian leaves Julia in the cafe and boards the train to Moscow, a man tells her to avoid passing through Germany again after she leaves the USSR.

When Lillian reaches Moscow, the atmosphere is gloomy and oppressive. She receives word that Julia is dead. Returning to London, she is told that Julia has been killed in the Frankfurt apartment of a friend by Nazi agents, although the details of her death are shrouded in secrecy. Lillian unsuccessfully looks for Julia's daughter in Alsace. She returns to the United States and is reunited with Dashiell Hammett. She is haunted by Julia's memories and is distraught at not finding Julia's baby. She is shocked that Julia's family pretends not to remember Lillian as Julia's friend, clearly wanting to excise from their memory a granddaughter who refused to conform at a time when conformity caused the murder of many innocent people.

The film ends with an image of Lillian Hellman many years later seated in a boat alone, fishing. She reveals in voiceover that she continued to live with Hammett for another thirty years and outlived him.

Cast
The film marked the film debut of Meryl Streep and Lisa Pelikan.

Production
Julia was shot on location in England and France. Although Lillian Hellman claimed the story was based on true events that occurred early in her life, the filmmakers later came to believe that most of it was fictionalized. Director Fred Zinnemann would later comment, "Lillian Hellman in her own mind owned half the Spanish Civil War, while Hemingway owned the other half. She would portray herself in situations that were not true. An extremely talented, brilliant writer, but she was a phony character, I'm sorry to say. My relations with her were very guarded and ended in pure hatred."

The film was based on the "Julia" chapter of Hellman's memoir Pentimento. On June 30, 1976, as the film was going into production, Hellman wrote about the screenplay to its producer:

"This is not a work of fiction and certain laws have to be followed for that reason ... Your major difficulty to me is the treatment of Lillian as the leading character. The reason is simple: no matter what she does in this story–and I do not deny the danger I was in when I took the money into Germany–my role was passive. And nobody and nothing can change that unless you write a fictional and different story ... Isn't it necessary to know that I am a Jew? That, of course, is what mainly made the danger."

In a 1979 television interview with Dick Cavett, author Mary McCarthy, long Hellman's political adversary and the object of her negative literary judgment, said of Hellman that "every word she writes is a lie, including 'and' and 'the'." Hellman responded by filing a US$2,500,000 defamation suit against McCarthy, interviewer Dick Cavett, and PBS. McCarthy produced evidence she said proved that Hellman had lied in some accounts of her life. Cavett said he sympathized more with McCarthy than Hellman in the lawsuit, but "everybody lost" as a result of it. Norman Mailer attempted unsuccessfully to mediate the dispute through an open letter he published in the New York Times. At the time of her death in 1984, Hellman was still in litigation with McCarthy; her executors dropped the suit.

In 1983, New York psychiatrist Muriel Gardiner became involved in the libel suit between McCarthy and Hellman. She claimed to be the model for the character named Julia in Pentimento, and in the movie Julia based on a chapter of that book. Hellman, who never met Gardiner, said that "Julia" was somebody else.

Gardiner wrote that, while she never met Hellman, she had often heard about her from her friend Wolf Schwabacher, who was Hellman's lawyer. By Gardiner's account, Schwabacher had visited Gardiner in Vienna. After Muriel Gardiner and Joseph Buttinger moved into their house at Brookdale Farm in Pennington, New Jersey in 1940, they divided the house in two. They rented half of it to Wolf and Ethel Schwabacher for more than ten years.

Many people believe that Hellmann based her story on Gardiner's life. Gardiner's editor cited the unlikelihood that there were two millionaire American women who were medical students in Vienna in the late 1930s.

Reception
Julia received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics upon release, with praise for its period setting and performances of the cast, but criticism for the script and failure to adequately portray the friendship between the two leads.

The film holds a 73% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews. The consensus summarizes: "Julia is a handsomely crafted and stirringly performed meditation on friendship and political activism, although its tasteful formalism often undercuts the multifaceted passion of these historical figures." Variety gave it a positive review, praising Jane Fonda and Vanessa Redgrave as being "dynamite together on the screen", Richard Roth's production as "handsome and tasteful", as well as the period costumes and production design.

Roger Ebert called the film a "fascinating story", but felt the film suffered from being told by Lillian Hellman's point of view. "The film never really establishes a relationship between the two women," he wrote. "It's awkward, the way the film has to suspend itself between Julia – its ostensible subject – and Lillian Hellman, its real subject." He gave it two and a half out of four stars.

John Simon said of Julia "Very little of what happens in the film is intrinsically interesting."

TV Guide gave it three out of five stars and declared it "Beautifully crafted, nominated for 11 Academy Awards, a big hit at the box office--and a dramatic dud ... If you like red nail polish, faux-cynicism, painfully brave smiles and European train stations, Julia may be your kind of cocktail."

The film earned $7.5 million in North American rentals.

Awards and nominations
After Redgrave was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, the Jewish Defense League objected to her nomination because she had narrated and helped fund a documentary entitled The Palestinian, which supported a Palestinian state. They also picketed the Oscar ceremony.

title: Julia (1977 film)


text:
Julia (1968 TV series)

Julia is an American television sitcom and the first weekly series to star an African-American woman in a non-stereotypical role. Previous television series featured African-American lead characters, but the characters were usually servants. The show starred actress and singer Diahann Carroll, and ran for 86 episodes on NBC from September 17, 1968, to March 23, 1971. The series was produced by Savannah Productions, Inc., Hanncarr Productions, Inc., and 20th Century-Fox Television.

During pre-production, the proposed series title was Mama's Man. The series was among the few situation comedies in the late 1960s that did not use a laugh track; however, 20th Century-Fox Television added one when the series was reissued for syndication and cable rebroadcasts in the late 1980s.

Julia was among the first acquisitions made by ASPiRE for its inaugural season in 2012.

Synopsis
In Julia, Carroll played widowed single mother, Julia Baker (her husband, Army Capt. Baker, an O-1 Bird Dog artillery spotter pilot had been shot down in Vietnam), who was a nurse in a doctor's office at a large aerospace company. The doctor, Morton Chegley, was played by Lloyd Nolan, and Julia's romantic interests by Paul Winfield and Fred Williamson. Julia's son, Corey (Marc Copage) was approximately six to nine years old during the series run. He had barely known his father before he died. Corey's best friend was Earl J. Waggedorn, whom Corey almost always addressed and referred to precisely by his full name, though other characters (particularly his mother) would refer to him simply as Earl. The Waggedorns lived downstairs in the same apartment building, with father, police officer Leonard (Hank Brandt), stay-at-home mother Marie (Betty Beaird), and two sons, Earl and an infant whose first name is never revealed.

The first two seasons included nurse Hannah Yarby (Lurene Tuttle), who left to be married at the beginning of the third season, just as the clinic's manager, Brockmeyer, ordered downsizing — and removal of minorities from employment. (Chegley let Yarby go but kept Julia in defiance of the manager's edict. She was also kept after Chegley reminded Brockmeyer that such a move was a violation of the Civil Rights Act, which was just five years old at that point.) The second and third season included Richard (Richard Steele), a boy some one or two years older than Corey. Chegley's uncle, Dr. Norton Chegley (also played by Lloyd Nolan), made three appearances. The series' first episode was filmed in October 1967, a year before the pilot was picked up.

Cast

 * Diahann Carroll as Julia Baker
 * Marc Copage as Corey Baker
 * Betty Beaird as Marie Waggedorn
 * Ned Glass as Sol Cooper (17 episodes, 1968–1970)
 * Janear Hines as Roberta (1970–71)
 * Eugene Jackson as Uncle Lou (1968–69)
 * Michael Link as Earl J. Waggedorn
 * Don Marshall as Ted Neumann (1968–70)
 * Alison Susan Mills as Carol Deering
 * Lloyd Nolan as Dr. Morton Chegley
 * Mary Wickes as Melba Chegley (Dr. Chegley's wife)
 * Steve Pendleton as Mr. Bennett (6 episodes, 1968–1970)
 * Eddie Quillan as Eddie Edson (17 episodes, 1968–71)
 * Lurene Tuttle as Nurse Hannah Yarby (32 episodes, 1968–70)
 * Hank Brandt as Leonard Waggedorn (27 episodes, 1968–71)
 * Fred Williamson as Steve Bruce (1970–71)
 * Paul Winfield as Paul Cameron
 * Diana Sands as Cousin Sarah Porter (1970–1971)

Controversy
Although Julia is remembered today as groundbreaking, during its original run the series was derided by many critics for being apolitical and unrealistic. In 1968, Diahann Carroll remarked: "At the moment we're presenting the white Negro. And he has very little Negroness." The Saturday Review's Robert Lewis Shayon wrote that Julia's "plush, suburban setting" was "a far, far cry from the bitter realities of Negro life in the urban ghetto, the pit of America's explosion potential." Gil Scott-Heron's "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised" refers to Julia in the same breath as Bullwinkle, implying that the character was something of a cartoon. Ebony published a somewhat more supportive assessment of the program: "As a slice of Black America, Julia does not explode on the TV screen with the impact of a ghetto riot. It is not that kind of show. Since the networks have had a rash of shows dealing with the nation's racial problems, the light-hearted Julia provides welcome relief, if, indeed, relief is even acceptable in these troubled times." The series also came under criticism from African-American viewers for its depiction of a fatherless Black family due to the father's death in American military service. Excluding a Black male lead, it was argued, "rendered the series safer" and "less likely to grapple with issues that might upset white viewers."

Cancellation
Julia received good ratings the first two seasons but dropped out of the top 30 most-watched shows during season 3. In 1971, the series was canceled, reportedly because of Carroll's and series creator and executive producer Hal Kanter's desire to work on other projects. Kanter created and produced the short-lived The Jimmy Stewart Show for NBC the following season.

title: Julia (1968 TV series)