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To Each His Own (1946 film)

To Each His Own is a 1946 American romantic drama film directed by Mitchell Leisen and starring Olivia de Havilland, Mary Anderson, Roland Culver and John Lund. It was produced and distributed by Paramount Pictures. The screenplay was written by Charles Brackett and Jacques Théry. A young woman bears a child out of wedlock and has to give him up.

De Havilland won the Academy Award for Best Actress. Brackett was nominated for Best Writing, Original Story. The title song became a hit.

Plot
In World War II London, fire wardens Josephine "Jody" Norris and Lord Desham keep vigil and bond over being lonely, middle-aged people. While Desham is arranging dinner plans, a man from Jody’s hometown turns up and tells her that someone from their town is arriving at the train station. Overjoyed, she rushes to the station and runs into a young woman who is waiting for her pilot beau, which sends Jody into a flashback.

Jody is the belle of her small American hometown of Piersen Falls. Both Alec Piersen and traveling salesman Mac Tilton propose to her, but she turns them down. Alec marries Corinne, his second choice. When handsome US Army Air Service fighter pilot Captain Bart Cosgrove flies in to promote a World War I bond drive, he and Jody fall in love, though they have only one night together.

Later, a pregnant Jody is secretly visiting a doctor in New York and is advised that her life is in danger and she needs an operation. She agrees, though she would lose her unborn child. When she learns that Bart has been killed in action, she changes her mind and secretly gives birth to their son in 1919. She tries to arrange it so that she can "adopt" the boy without scandal, but the scheme backfires. Corinne loses her own newborn that same day but is consoled by Jody's. Jody loves her son, named Gregory or "Griggsy," from afar.

Jody's father dies, forcing her to sell the family drugstore. When Jody asks to become Griggsy's live-in nurse, Corinne turns her down. Agitated, Jody reveals that she is Griggsy's mother. Knowing that her husband never loved her, Corinne is determined to keep the one person who does.

Jody moves to New York City to work for Mac and discovers that he is a bootlegger, using a cosmetics business as a front. The same day, the place is raided by the police, leaving Mac with nothing but the cosmetics equipment. Jody persuades him to make cold cream; with her drive and determination, she builds a thriving business, and they become rich.

In 1924, she forces Corinne to give her Griggsy by threatening to block a bank loan for Alec's failing business. After two months, however, Jody has not revealed her identity to Griggsy, and the boy is miserably homesick. When she attempts to tell him that she is his mother, Griggsy begins crying at the mention of his adoption, which Corinne has already discussed with him. Jody gives up and sends him back to Corinne and Alec.

Heartbroken, Jody leaves the US to immerse herself in work, running the English branch of her Lady Vyvyan Cosmetics Company. During World War II, her son becomes a pilot in the 8th Air Force. When he gets a leave in London, Jody meets his train and fusses over him, arranging for him and his WREN fiancée, Liz, the young woman she bumped into, to stay at her apartment and go out on the town. Griggsy tells Jody that he and Liz have been struggling to get married all day, as England requires a 15-day delay. Because they cannot be married, he will end his leave early.

Lord Desham, who is attracted to Jody, arrives at her apartment and finds her despondent over the fact that Griggsy will not be staying the week in London. She also lets out that she is his mother. Using his influence, Desham arranges for the young man to marry his fiancée without the customary delay. After some broad hints from Desham and musing from his new wife, Lieutenant Piersen realizes why Jody has been so helpful and asks his mother, by that title, for a dance.

Adaptation
The film inspired the Indian writer Sachin Bhowmick to work on a script thematically similar to  To Each His Own   later on it was filmed as Aradhana (1969) and went to become one of the most successful films in Hindi cinema, The film is considered as milestone in Rajesh Khanna's career. The film was remade in Turkish as Kadın Asla Unutmaz also, directed by Orhan Aksoy which released in same year.

Aradhana was remade in Telugu as Kannavari Kalalu and in Tamil as Sivagamiyin Selvan.

Critical reception
Alt Film Guide said "To Each His Own is surprisingly direct in its handling of an unwed mother, paralleling Jody's increasing coldness with the detached—but honest—flashbacks that comprise the bulk of the film." One reviewer at Cinescene said "In To Each His Own, the sufferer is able to learn something from her mistakes and misfortunes, growing past her grief and distress into a kind of wisdom. The picture has style, but also a sincerity of sentiment that gives it distinction." Another wrote, "Forthrightly feminist avant la lettre, the film is conscious of constraints, but committed to its movement forward: less resentful than resourceful, and more stalwart than strident, yet angry and determined nonetheless."

ClassicFilmGuide deemed it "A marvelous sentimental (and now dated) story ". JigsawLounge wrote "Brackett's screenplay is a wonder of intricate construction, with pretty much every minor detail of character and plot introduced for a reason which 'pays off' much later in the script. On sober reflection, it is a rather tall tale—and more than the usual degree of disbelief-suspension may be required here and there. But this should prove a very simple task for all but the most hard-headed of audiences: To Each His Own's combination of emotional resonance and a lively wit is potent, and enduring." San.beck said, "This maudlin drama explores the loneliness of a woman who is successful in business but has only one relative she rarely sees. The world wars made for some quick marriages and many widows." NicksFlickPicks gave the film a rating of 3 stars out of 5. TV Guide said, "What might have been a trite soap opera is elevated to the status of superior emotional drama by a wise script, sensitive direction, and an Oscar-winning performance by de Havilland."

title: To Each His Own (1946 film)


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Deception Island

Deception Island is in the South Shetland Islands close to the Antarctic Peninsula with a large and usually "safe" natural harbor, which is occasionally affected by the underlying active volcano. This island is the caldera of an active volcano, which seriously damaged local scientific stations in 1967 and 1969. The island previously held a whaling station. It is now a tourist destination with over 15,000 visitors per year. Two research stations are operated by Argentina and Spain during the summer season. While various countries have asserted sovereignty, it is still administered under the Antarctic Treaty System.

Geography
Located within the Bransfield Strait, the island is roughly circular and horseshoe-shaped, with a maximum diameter around 15 km. The highest peak, Mount Pond on the east side of the island, has an elevation of 539 m, while Mount Kirkwood on the west has an elevation of 452 m. Over half (57%) of the island is covered by glaciers up to 10 m thick, ice-cored moraines, or ice-covered pyroclasts. The centre of the island has been flooded by the sea to form a large bay, now called Port Foster, about 10 km long and 7 km wide. The bay has a narrow entrance, just 500 m wide, called Neptune's Bellows. The port is a basin with a flat floor up to 170 m deep with several small submarine cones and domes. The port is rimmed by a shallow coastal shelf with sandy-gravelly beaches. The outer coast of the island is characterized by 30-70 m cliffs of rock or ice.

Raven's Rock, a navigation hazard, lies 2.5 m below the water in the middle of the channel. Just inside Neptune's Bellows lies the cove Whalers Bay, which is bordered by a large black sand beach. Several maars line the inside rim of the caldera, with some containing crater lakes (including one named Crater Lake). Others form bays within the harbour, such as the 1 km wide Whalers Bay. Other features of the island include Mount Kirkwood, Fumarole Bay, Sewing-Machine Needles, Telefon Bay, and Telefon Ridge.

The linear Costa Recta spanning most of the east coast is hypothesised to be a scarp of a retreated submarine fault.

A 2016 study on Ardley Island, 120 km to the northeast, examined lake guano sediments and studied penguin population dynamics over 7,000 years. Three of five population growth phases were terminated by a sudden crash, due to volcanic eruptions from the active volcano of Deception Island. The history of volcanic eruptions is still under investigation, but several larger eruptions happened in the last 10,000 years.

Geology
Deception Island is the exposed portion of an active shield volcano 30 km in diameter. The island is associated with Bransfield Basin seafloor spreading that includes a volcanic ridge and seamounts dating back to the Pleistocene. Deception Island volcanic ash layers have been found on other South Shetland Islands, the Bransfield Strait, the Scotia Sea and in South Pole ice cores. Volcanic tremors are common, originating from depths less than 10 km. Historical eruptions occurred in 1839–1842, 1967, 1969, and 1970. Stratigraphy of the island is characterized by the pre-caldera Port Foster Group and the post-caldera Mount Pond Group, both within the Deception Island Volcanic Complex. The Port Foster Group's principal outcrops are located at South Point, Cathedral Crags near Entrance Point and north of Punta de la Descubierta forming spectacular coastal cliffs along the western portion of the island. The group is composed of the Fumarole Bay Formation consisting of hydrovolcanic tephra, the Basaltic Shield Formation consisting of lavas and Strombolian scoria, and the Outer Coast Tuff Formation consisting of lapilli-tuffs. The Mount Pond Group dominates the surface geology and consists of the pyroclastic Baily Head and Pendulum Cove formations, both formed during hydrovolcanic eruptions, and the Stonethrow Ridge Formation consisting of tuff cone and maar deposits. The caldera collapsed as either a hydrovolcanic eruption of the Outer Coast Tuff Formation, releasing about 30 cubic kilometers of magma, or passively due to regional tectonics, since the island is at the intersection of the Bransfield Strait rift and the orthogonal Hero Fracture Zone.

History

The first authenticated sighting of Deception Island was by the British sealers William Smith and Edward Bransfield from the brig Williams in January 1820. It was first visited and explored by the American sealer Nathaniel Palmer on the sloop Hero the following summer, on 15 November 1820. He remained for two days, exploring the central bay. Palmer named it "Deception Island" on account of its outward deceptive appearance as a normal island, when the narrow entrance of Neptune's Bellows revealed it rather to be a ring around a flooded caldera.

Palmer was part of an American sealing fleet from Stonington, Connecticut, under the command of Benjamin Pendleton, consisting of 6 ships. Port Fisher was used as their operational base from 1820 to 1821. Palmer met Bellingshausen close to the island in Jan. 1821, during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition.

A lighthouse named Surgidero Iquique was built on the island to guide vessels into Deception Station.

Whaling and sealing

Over the next few years, Deception became a focal point of the short-lived fur-sealing industry in the South Shetlands. The industry began with a handful of ships in the 1819–1820 summer season, rising to nearly a hundred in 1821–1822. While the island did not have a large seal population, it was a perfect natural harbour, mostly free from ice and winds, and a convenient rendezvous point. Some men likely lived ashore in tents or shacks for short periods during the summer, though no archaeological or documentary evidence survives to confirm this. Massive overhunting meant that the fur seals neared extinction in the South Shetlands within a few years, and the sealing industry collapsed as quickly as it had begun. Deception was abandoned again in approximately 1825.

Sealing captain Robert Fildes charted Port Foster in 1820–1821, which in 1829 became the first published Antarctica nautical chart.

In 1829, the British Naval Expedition to the South Atlantic under the command of Captain Henry Foster in HMS Chanticleer (1808) stopped at Deception. The expedition conducted a topographic survey and scientific experiments, particularly pendulum and magnetic observations. A watercolour made by Lieutenant Kendall of the Chanticleer during the visit may be the first image made of the island. A subsequent visit by the American elephant-sealer Ohio in 1842 reported the first recorded volcanic activity, with the southern shore "in flames".

The second phase of human activity at Deception began in the early 20th century. In 1904, an active whaling industry was established at South Georgia, taking advantage of new technology and an almost untouched population of whales to make rapid profits. It spread south into the South Shetland Islands, where the lack of shore-based infrastructure meant that the whales had to be towed to moored factory ships for processing; these needed a sheltered anchorage and a plentiful supply of fresh water, both of which could be found at Deception. In 1906, the Norwegian-Chilean whaling company Sociedad Ballenera de Magallanes started using Whalers Bay as a base for a single ship, the Gobernador Bories.

Other whalers followed, with several hundred men resident at Deception during the Antarctic summers and as many as 13 ships operating in peak years. In 1908, the British government formally declared the island to be part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies, thus under British control, establishing postal services and appointing a magistrate and customs officer for the island. The magistrate was to ensure that whaling companies were paying appropriate licence fees to the Falklands government and ensuring adherence to catch quotas. A cemetery was built in 1908, a radio station in 1912, a hand-operated railway also in 1912, and a small permanent magistrate's house in 1914. The cemetery, by far the largest in Antarctica, held graves for 35 men along with a memorial to 10 more presumed drowned.

These were not the only constructions; as the factory ships of the period were only able to strip the blubber from whales and could not use the carcasses, a permanent on-shore station was established by the Norwegian company Hvalfangerselskabet Hektor A/S in 1912 – up to an estimated 40% of the available oil was being wasted by the ship-based system. This was the only successful shore-based industry ever to operate in Antarctica, reaping high profits in its first years. A number of exploring expeditions visited Deception during these years, including the Wilkins-Hearst expedition of 1928, when a Lockheed Vega was flown from a beach airstrip on the first successful flights in Antarctica.

The development of pelagic whaling in the 1920s, where factory ships fitted with a slipway could tow aboard entire whales for processing, meant that whaling companies were no longer tied to sheltered anchorages. A boom in pelagic Antarctic whaling followed, with companies now free to ignore quotas and escape the costs of licences. This rapidly led to overproduction of oil and a collapse in the market, and the less profitable and more heavily regulated shore-based companies had trouble competing. In early 1931, the Hektor factory finally ceased operation, ending commercial whaling at the island entirely.

Scientific research
On 16 November 1928, Hubert Wilkins made the first Antarctic flight from a Whalers Bay ash runway.

Deception remained uninhabited for a decade, but was revisited in 1941 by the British auxiliary warship HMS Queen of Bermuda, which destroyed the oil tanks and some remaining supplies to ensure it could not be used as a German supply base. In 1942, an Argentine party aboard the Primero de Mayo visited and left signs and painted flags declaring the site Argentine territory; the following year, a British party with HMS Carnarvon Castle returned to remove the signs.

In 1944, a British expedition under Lieutenant James Marr established a short-lived base on Deception Island as part of Operation Tabarin, which was carried out during the Second World War to deny safe anchorages to enemy raiding vessels and to gather meteorological data for allied shipping in the South Atlantic. It also had the effect of strengthening British claims to the Falkland Island Dependencies that had begun being challenged by Argentina and Chile. Operation Tabarin would deny use of the area to the Kriegsmarine, which was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points, and address a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands. Following the end of the war, the research begun by Operation Tabarin continued in subsequent years, ultimately becoming the British Antarctic Survey.

In February 1953, as part of a post-war British effort to exert sovereignty over its claimed Antarctic territories, HMS Snipe (U20) landed a party of Royal Marines on Deception Island to destroy an Argentinian and a Chilean military base; an action known as the Deception Island incident.

In 1961, Argentina's president Arturo Frondizi visited the island to show his country's interest. Regular visits were made by other countries operating in the Antarctic, including the 1964 visit of the US Coast Guard icebreaker USCGC Eastwind, which ran aground inside the harbour.

However, the volcano returned to activity in 1967 and 1969, destroying the existing scientific stations. Both British and Chilean stations were demolished, and the island was again abandoned for several years. The final major volcanic eruption was reported by the Russian Bellingshausen station on King George Island and the Chilean station Arturo Prat on Greenwich Island; both stations experienced major falls of ash on 13 August 1970.

In 2000, there were two summer-only scientific stations, the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla Base and the Argentine Decepción Station.

Remains of previous structures at Whalers Bay include rusting boilers and tanks, an aircraft hangar, and the British scientific station house (Biscoe House), with the middle torn out by the 1969 mudflows. A bright orange derelict airplane fuselage, which is that of a de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter that belonged to the Royal Air Force, was recovered in 2004. Plans to restore the airplane and return it to the island have been made.

The Russian cruise ship MV Lyubov Orlova ran aground at Deception Island on 27 November 2006. She was towed off by the Spanish Navy icebreaker Las Palmas and made her own way to Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego. She later became a ghost ship in the North Atlantic after the towing line parted during an operation to scrap the vessel in the Dominican Republic.

Tourism
The first commercial cruise ship arrived in January 1966. By 1999, over 10,000 tourists had visited the island.

Aguirre Cerda
President Pedro Aguirre Cerda Station was a Chilean Antarctic base, located at Pendulum Cove on Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands, inaugurated in 1955. It was evacuated in December 1967 when volcanic eruptions forced the evacuation of the base.

Deception
Deception Station is an Argentine base located at Deception Island. The station was founded on 25 January 1948 and was a year-round station until December 1967, when volcanic eruptions forced the evacuation of the base. Since then, it has been inhabited only during the summer.

Gabriel de Castilla
Gabriel de Castilla Base is a Spanish research station located on Deception Island. The station was constructed in 1990.

Gutiérrez Vargas Refuge
The Gutiérrez Vargas Refuge, named after an aviation captain who died on 30 December 1955, was located at 1 km from Aguirre Cerda Station and was inaugurated on 12 February 1956. Its purpose was to serve as a refuge for the members of the station in case of fire. On 4 December 1967 the refuge was definitively abandoned, as was the Aguirre Cerda Station, due to a violent volcanic eruption. The remains of the refuge structure can still be seen on the beach where it was located.

Station B
In early 1944, a party of men from Operation Tabarin, a British expedition, established a permanent scientific base named Station B. This was occupied until 5 December 1967, when an eruption forced a temporary withdrawal. It was used again between 4 December 1968 and 23 February 1969, when further volcanic activity caused it to be abandoned.

Environment
Deception Island has become a popular tourist stop in Antarctica because of its several colonies of chinstrap penguins, as well as the possibility of making a warm bath by digging into the sands of the beach. Mount Flora on the Antarctic Peninsula, about 175 km from the island, is the site in Antarctica where fossilized plants were first discovered.

After the Norwegian Coastal Cruise Liner MS Nordkapp ran aground off the coast of Deception Island on 30 January 2007, fuel from the ship washed into a bay. Ecological damage has not yet been determined. On 4 February 2007, the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla research station on Deception Island reported that water and sand tests were clean, and that they had not found signs of the oil, estimated as 500 to 750 L).

Deception Island exhibits some wildly varying microclimates. Near volcanic areas, the air can be as hot as 40 C, and water temperature can reach 70 C.

Antarctic specially protected areas
Eleven terrestrial sites have been collectively designated as an Antarctic specially protected area (ASPA 140), primarily for their botanic and ecological values, because the island has the greatest number of rare plant species of any place in the Antarctic. This is largely due to frequent volcanic activity creating new substrates for plant colonisation:
 * Collins Point (site A) contains good examples of long-established vegetation, with high species diversity and several rarities.
 * Crater Lake (site B) has a scoria-covered lava tongue with a diverse cryptogamic flora, and exceptional development of turf-forming mosses.
 * An unnamed hill at the southern end of Fumarole Bay (site C) has several rare species of mosses that have colonised the heated soil crust close to a line of volcanic vents.
 * Fumarole Bay (site D) is geologically complex with the most diverse flora on the island.
 * West Stonethrow Ridge (site E) supports several rare mosses, liverworts, and lichens.
 * Telefon Bay (site F) has all its surfaces dating from 1967, thus allowing accurate monitoring of colonisation by plants and animals.
 * Pendulum Cove (site G) is another known-age site being colonised by mosses and lichens.
 * Mount Pond (site H) contains exceptional moss, liverwort, and lichen communities.
 * Perchue Cone (site J) is an ash and cinder cone with rare mosses.
 * Ronald Hill to Kroner Lake (site K) is another known-age site being colonised by numerous cryptogam species, and with a unique algal community on the lake shore.
 * South East Point (site L) supports the most extensive population of Antarctic pearlwort known in the Antarctic region.

In addition, two marine sites in Port Foster have collectively been designated ASPA 145, to protect their benthic communities.

Important bird area
Baily Head, a prominent headland forming the easternmost extremity of the island, has been identified as an important bird area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a very large breeding colony of chinstrap penguins (100,000 pairs). The 78 ha IBA comprises the ice-free headland and about 800 m of beach on either side of it. Other birds known to nest at the site include brown skuas, Cape petrels, and snowy sheathbills.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Deception Island


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Sister Kenny

Sister Kenny is a 1946 American biographical film about Sister Elizabeth Kenny, an Australian bush nurse, who fought to help people who suffered from polio, despite opposition from the medical establishment. The film stars Rosalind Russell, Alexander Knox, and Philip Merivale.

The film was adapted by Alexander Knox, Mary McCarthy, Milton Gunzburg (uncredited), and Dudley Nichols from the book And They Shall Walk, by Elizabeth Kenny and Martha Ostenso, and directed by Dudley Nichols.

Plot
In 1911, Elizabeth Kenny returns from nursing school in Brisbane, Australia, to her home in the bush of Queensland. Her mentor, Dr. McDonnell, is chief at the nearest hospital, 50 miles away. He wants her to work with him, but she wants to be a bush nurse. He says she will not last six months. Three years later, Elizabeth visits a ranch to treat a young girl, Dorrie, who is contorted in agony. She describes the symptoms in a telegram to McDonnell. His reply: infantile paralysis, no known treatment, "do the best you can with the symptoms...” Elizabeth treats “spasming” muscles with heat, wrapping Dorrie in steaming flannel. After the contractions subside, Dorrie cannot move her legs or sit up. Through close observation, Elizabeth realizes that she is not paralyzed. Her muscles have become “alienated”. After her muscles are “re-educated”, Dorrie makes a complete recovery, as do five other cases of polio that Elizabeth treats.

Elizabeth takes Dorrie to see McDonnell. She assumes that she has done the usual thing in treating polio and is horrified to learn that infantile paralysis is a deadly, crippling disease and that the standard treatment is agonizing immobilization. McDonnell believes that Elizabeth has discovered an entirely new way of treating polio. He takes her to Dr. Brack, the most senior expert. Brack scoffs at her theory and refuses to consider the possibility that the science of the past 50 years may be wrong. When Dorrie does cartwheels, Brack contends that she never had polio.

McDonnell suggests that Elizabeth treat the patients that doctors have given up on. At that time, Australian nurses had to be single; she is about to marry Captain Kevin Connors. Elizabeth's clinic shuts down. She took 12 “paralyzed” patients, and seven walked out. Doctors argue that they never had polio. Kevin leaves to fight in World War I. Elizabeth joins the Army and finds him in a hospital at the front.

She returns to Australia with the rank of Sister to wait for Kevin. Then she reads about an outbreak in Townsville, and goes there. Kevin appears. She has written to him, ending their engagement. She does not think she will ever be done with polio. Kevin watches as she talks to a new patient and leaves without another word.

In the 1920s, Sister Kenny heads to Brisbane. Some time later, the Elizabeth Kenny Clinic is being closed. She confronts Dr. Brack while he is lecturing on polio to a group of orthopedists. Brack invites her to speak and then belittles her and her treatment. One of the doctors is from the Queensland Health Department. He invites her to his office. Another interested orthopedist arrives, followed by McDonnell. They have been working on getting a Royal Commission to investigate the Kenny treatment. She has an invitation from England. She feels hopeless, but a crowd outside cheers for her.

She travels around Europe, becoming famous. Kevin meets her at Croydon airport. He is glad it turned out this way. He hands her a paper with news of the Munich Agreement.

The Royal Commission condemns her. Reviews of her book are scathing. However, all the younger men are using the Kenny Treatment, whether they call it that or not. In America, she is “given the runaround”. Out of money, she plans to go home. A reporter reads her a press release from the University of Minnesota, stating that the Kenny method will form the basis of all future treatment. She is wanted in Minneapolis, where there is a polio epidemic. After three years' work in Minneapolis, Sister Kenny dictates a letter to Dr. McDonnell. A national committee is about to report on her work in the U.S. She is about to lecture to orthopedic surgeons. The new book is out. She receives three honorary degrees. A cable arrives: Dr. McDonnell has died.

The lecture hall is full. The medical director of the institute introduces her. The news broadcast of the committee report is piped in. It is devastating. Furious, the director points to the real results. The lecture continues. At the end, a crowd of children gather outside the Institute, singing “Happy Birthday” to Sister Kenny.

Reception
The film recorded a loss of $660,000 for RKO.

Box office returns were disappointing even in Australia. It flopped in Brisbane, Kenny's hometown.

title: Sister Kenny


text:
User:Branden

Branden is Branden Robinson. Among other things, he has been a developer for the Debian Project.

Branden lives in Durham, North Carolina.

title: User:Branden


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Tommy James

Tommy James (born Thomas Gregory Jackson; April 29, 1947) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer, widely known as frontman of the 1960s rock band Tommy James and the Shondells, who were known for their hits including "Mony Mony", "Crimson and Clover" and "I Think We're Alone Now".

Early life and career
Born in Dayton, Ohio, James and his family later moved to Niles, Michigan. He was a child model at the age of four. In 1959, at the age of twelve, he formed the band "The Echoes", which eventually became "Tom and the Tornadoes". In 1964 the band changed its name to The Shondells. That same year, Jack Douglas, a local DJ at WNIL radio station in Niles, formed his own record label, Snap Records. The Shondells were one of the local bands he recorded at WNIL Studios. One of the songs was the Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich ditty "Hanky Panky", which the pair had recorded under the name The Raindrops. The song was a hit locally, but the label had no resources for national promotion, and it was soon forgotten.

In 1965, a local dance promoter, Bob Mack, found a copy of "Hanky Panky" in a used record bin and started playing it at his Pittsburgh dance clubs. Soon after, a Pittsburgh area bootlegger made a copy of the song and began pressing copies of it, speeding it up slightly in the process. Sales of the bootleg were estimated at 80,000 in ten days. It became a number one on Pittsburgh radio stations in early 1966. Douglas heard about the record's sudden popularity in Pittsburgh because his name and contact information appeared on Snap Records labels. Numerous calls from Pittsburgh convinced James to go to Pennsylvania, where he met Mack and Chuck Rubin, who handled the talent bookings for Mack's dance clubs. Before long, all three major music trade papers, Billboard, Cashbox and Record World, were listing "Hanky Panky" as a regional breakout hit. Rubin, who had music industry connections, said it was a good time for the trio to travel to New York City in search of a record deal.

The band made the rounds of the major recording labels, getting initial potential offers from most companies they visited. One label, Roulette Records, gave no initial response because its head, Morris Levy, was out of town until that evening; Roulette was one of the last stops on their visit. By the next morning, Mack, Rubin, and James were now receiving polite refusals from the major record companies after the enthusiasm for the record the day before. James said, "We didn't know what in the world was going on, and finally Jerry Wexler over at Atlantic leveled with us and said, 'Look, Morris Levy and Roulette called up all the other record companies and said, "This is my freakin' record." (laughs) and scared 'em all away – even the big corporate labels.'" Their only option would be to sign with Roulette.

Since the band had broken up two years before, James was the only Shondell left. Mack made his dance club bands available to James, but nothing seemed to fit until one of the bands' guitarists took James to the Thunderbird Lounge in Greensburg, Pennsylvania. James sang with the house band, the Raconteurs. The Raconteurs became the new Shondells, and Jackson acquired the professional name of Tommy James. By the third week of June 1966, "Hanky Panky" had become the top single at WLS. By the third week of July 1966, "Hanky Panky" had become the top single in the United States.

Tommy James and the Shondells
After a few comings and goings of members, the classic lineup of James, Eddie Gray (guitar), Mike Vale (bass), Ron Rosman (keyboards) and Pete Lucia (drums) was formed. The group recorded a follow-up song to "Hanky Panky". When Bob Mack's attempt at finding some Shondells worked out in an inadvertent way, he told James about another record he found in the same used record bin "Hanky Panky" came from: "Say I Am" by Jimmy Gilmer and the Fireballs. The only thing James and his new Shondells were aware of when they entered the recording studio for the first time is that whatever they recorded should sound similar to "Hanky Panky", although the two songs sound nothing alike. Mack played The Fireballs record for the group, and they decided to record their version of the song. Mack was credited as the producer for the group's first album, Hanky Panky.

Songwriter Richie Cordell wrote (or co-wrote) and produced many of the group's hits, among them "I Think We're Alone Now", "Mirage", and "Mony Mony". The creation of "Mony Mony" was a group effort involving Cordell, James, Shondells band member Peter Lucia, producer Bo Gentry, and Bobby Bloom. James and Cordell set out to create a party rock single, working out everything except the song's title, which eluded them even after much effort. When they took a break from their creative endeavors on James' apartment terrace, they looked up at the Mutual of New York Insurance Company's large neon sign bearing the abbreviation for the company: M-O-N-Y, which provided the song's name.

Tommy James and the Shondells also produced a "Mony Mony" video when the song was a hit. Even though a number of musical groups had already produced videos by that time, there was no market at all for that film in the US. Television stations would not air it, and it was originally shown between double features in movie theaters in Europe. The film was not seen in the US until the creation of MTV.

James was contacted by Beatle George Harrison, who was working with a group called Grapefruit at the time. Harrison and the group had written some songs they wanted James to consider recording. Since the group had made a decision to change their musical style (and would do so with "Crimson and Clover": see below) and the material Harrison and Grapefruit provided was in the style of "Mony Mony", James turned down their offer.

The music business changed after the success of "Mony Mony". Top 40 program formatting, based on 45 RPM single records, drove popular music on the radio. Few stations played cuts from record albums, so radio was, in effect, "selling" single records for the record companies. In August 1968, James and the Shondells went on the campaign trail for three months with presidential candidate Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Meanwhile, popular music had become album-driven, displacing many performers whose singles had been top sellers. James realized he and the Shondells needed to become an album-oriented group if they were to survive in the business, necessitating a change in their style.

After working out a marketing strategy for their new sound, James visited WLS when the group was in Chicago to play a concert, bringing along a rough cut of "Crimson and Clover" to the station. WLS secretly recorded the music when James played his tape for them. By the time James was out of the building and in the car, its radio was playing the station's dub of the not-yet-finished song. "Crimson and Clover" had to be pressed the way it was heard on the radio station, and the marketing plan was now wasted time and effort.

"Crimson and Clover" was a huge success, and the group would have two follow-up hits that also reached the Hot 100's top 10, "Sweet Cherry Wine" and "Crystal Blue Persuasion". James, who co-wrote all three of those songs, and his band did well enough with the transition to be invited to perform at Woodstock. James describes Artie Kornfeld's invitation like this: "Artie was up and asked if you could play at this pig farm up in upstate New York." I said, "What?!?" "Well, they say it's gonna be a lot of people there, and it's gonna be a really important show." At the time James was in Hawaii and was incredulous about being asked to travel 6,000 miles to play a show on an upstate New York pig farm, telling the Roulette Records secretary, "If I'm not there, start without us, will you please?"

In March 1970, after four more hits, drugs almost killed James when, at a concert, he collapsed, and was pronounced dead. However, he survived, decided to take a break from the recording studio, and moved up into the country to recuperate. The Shondells, without James, recorded two albums under the new group name Hog Heaven (one "self titled" on Roulette Records in 1970 and the second in 1971 but unreleased until 2008), but disbanded soon afterwards.

Tommy James and The Shondells were voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends online Hall of Fame in 2006. Four of the band's biggest hits have been voted Legendary Michigan Songs: "Crimson & Clover" in 2010, and "Hanky Panky", "I Think We're Alone Now", and "Mony Mony" in 2011.

Solo
James recorded the Tony Romeo composition, "Indian Lake" which found its way onto a PPX release. It was backed with another Adrissi composition, "Time for Livin'". Having gone solo in 1970, he released his first two solo albums on Roulette, Tommy James (September 1970) and Christian of the World (August 1971). He had two further Billboard Hot 100 top 20 chart hits with "Draggin' the Line" (co-written by Bob King) (#4 in 1971) and "Three Times in Love" (#19 in 1980), plus eleven much smaller Hot 100 chartings. "Hanky Panky" has been James' one RIAA certified gold single. He also wrote and produced the million-selling 1970 hit "Tighter, Tighter" for the group Alive 'N Kickin' (co-written by Bob King). In 1971 James spent time in Nashville at the recommendation of friends when a "mob war" erupted among organized crime families in New York, and threats against James were intimated due to his connection to Morris Levy. He recorded an album there with top Nashville musicians, My Head, My Bed and My Red Guitar (January 1972), which received critical acclaim but sold poorly. He left Roulette Records in 1974 and two more albums, In Touch (July 1976) and Midnight Rider (January 1978), followed on Fantasy Records, with yet another, Three Times in Love, appearing on Millennium Records in late 1979. The independent label Aegis Records put out his Hi-Fi album in the summer of 1990.

To date, over 300 musicians have recorded versions of James' music. Covers of three of James' songs went top ten on the Hot 100 (the last two as consecutive No. 1s) in the 1980s: Joan Jett with "Crimson and Clover", Tiffany with "I Think We're Alone Now", and Billy Idol with "Mony Mony".

In October 2008 James and the three surviving members of the original Shondells (Pete Lucia died in 1987) reunited in a New Jersey studio to record again after 37 years. The group recorded an album, I Love Christmas.

Music and the mob
In February 2010, an autobiography Me, The Mob, and The Music was published. James announced that deals were in hand to turn the story into both a film and a Broadway play. Barbara De Fina was said to be producing the film.

It was evident when James first met Morris Levy, the head of Roulette Records, that Levy was willing to strong-arm others when necessary. Those signed to Roulette were there to produce money for the company, having their needs met only when it pleased Levy. Asking to be paid meant intimidation; to survive, those under contract to Roulette needed to find a means of generating income that did not involve the record company, such as personally booked tours. While a Roulette artist had great creative control when recording for the company, the lack of payment for those efforts was difficult to take.

James estimates the company owed him $30 to $40 million in royalties. Roulette was used as a front for organized crime, also functioning as a money laundering operation, as Levy was closely allied with the Genovese crime family. In the early 1970s, the Genovese outfit found itself in a bloody gang war with the Gambino family, which saw victims not only among mobsters (such as Levy's close friend and business partner Thomas Eboli), but increasingly among non-mob figures on the periphery of the organizations. Levy had taken a somewhat fatherly shine to James, and worried that he might be a target for those who wanted to get at the Genovese family through Levy, so he warned James to flee New York for an extended period until the war was over. James settled in Nashville, Tennessee, where the Mafia had little presence or influence. While there he began jamming with local country music session players, and was inspired to record a country-rock record in 1971.

James did not feel comfortable writing his book until all those deeply involved with the record company had died. It was only after Roulette Records and Levy's Big Seven Music publishing company were sold (the record company to an EMI and Rhino Records partnership, the music publishing company to Windswept Pacific Music which was later sold to EMI) that James began to receive large royalty checks from sales of his records.

Current career
In February 2018, James became host of weekly radio program 'Gettin Together with Tommy James' on Sirius XM Radio channel 73, 60s Gold.

James can also be seen on late-night informercials selling collections of music from the Woodstock era for Time Life.

Personal life
James moved to Clifton, New Jersey in the mid 1970s and circa 2000 to nearby Cedar Grove. He has been married three times and has one child. On February 23, 2022, his wife Lynda died after a prolonged illness.

title: Tommy James


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Duty

A duty (from "due" meaning "that which is owing"; deu, did, past participle of devoir; debere, debitum, whence "debt") is a commitment or expectation to perform some action in general or if certain circumstances arise. A duty may arise from a system of ethics or morality, especially in an honor culture. Many duties are created by law, sometimes including a codified punishment or liability for non-performance. Performing one's duty may require some sacrifice of self-interest.

A sense-of-duty is also a virtue or personality trait that characterizes someone who is diligent about fulfilling individual duties or who confidently knows their calling. A sense-of-duty can also come from a need to fulfill familial pressures and desires. This is typically seen in a militaristic/patriotic way.

Cicero, an early Roman philosopher who discusses duty in his work “On Duties", suggests that duties can come from four different sources:
 * 1) as a result of being a human
 * 2) as a result of one's particular place in life (one's family, one's country, one's job)
 * 3) as a result of one's character
 * 4) as a result of one's own moral expectations for oneself

The specific duties imposed by law or culture vary considerably, depending on jurisdiction, religion, and social normalities.

Civic duty
Duty is also often perceived as something owed to one's country (patriotism), or to one's homeland or community. Civic duties could include:
 * Obey the law
 * Pay taxes
 * Provide for a common defense, should the need arise
 * Enroll to vote, and vote at all elections and referendums (unless there is a reasonable excuse such as a religious objection, being overseas, or illness on polling day)
 * Serve on a jury, if called upon
 * Go to the aid of victims of accidents and street crime and testifying as a witness later in court
 * Report contagious illnesses or pestilence to public-health authorities
 * Volunteer for public services (e.g. life-saving drills)
 * Donate blood periodically or when needed
 * Give time to voice advice on a relevant field of expertise, benefits, workplace improvements and on how it is conducted or run
 * Revolt against an unjust government

Duties of employment
Specific obligations arise in the services performed by a minister of a church, by a soldier, or by any employee or servant.

Examples:
 * Dereliction of duty is an offense in U.S. military law
 * Duty to protect, in medicine
 * In loco parentis, for schools
 * Professional responsibility for lawyers

Legal duties
Examples of legal duties include:
 * Duty of care
 * Duty of candour
 * Duty to defend and duty to settle, in insurance
 * Duty to rescue
 * Duty to retreat
 * Duty to report a felony
 * Duty to vote (in countries with mandatory voting)
 * Duty to warn
 * Fiduciary duties
 * Duty to care for children as legal guardian (opposite of child neglect)
 * Special duties created by a contract
 * In loco parentis (duty like a parent to child towards nonhuman entities, such as animals, river, environment, etc. e.g. by treating them as legal person.

Filial duty
In most cultures, children are expected to take on duties in relation to their families. This may take the form of behaving in such a way that upholds the family's honor in the eyes of the community, entering into arranged marriages that benefit the family's status, or caring for ailing relatives.

This family-oriented sense of duty is a particularly central aspect to the teachings of Confucius, and is known as, or filial piety. As such, the duties of filial piety have played an enormous role in the lives of people in eastern Asia for centuries. For example, the painting Lady Feng and the Bear, from ancient China, depicts the heroic act of a consort of the emperor placing herself between her husband and a rampaging bear. This is meant to be taken as an example of admirable filial behavior.

Filial piety is considered so important that in some cases, it outweighs other cardinal virtues: In a modern example, "concerns with filial piety of the same general sort that motivate women to engage in factory work in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and elsewhere in Asia are commonly cited by Thai prostitutes as one of their primary rationales for working in the skin trade". The importance of filial piety can be expressed in this quote from the Analects of Confucius: "Yu Tzu said, 'It is rare for a man whose character is such that he is good as a son and obedient as a young man to have the inclination to transgress against his superiors; it is unheard of for one who has no such inclination to be inclined to start a rebellion. The gentleman devotes his efforts to the roots, for once the roots are established, the Way will grow there from. Being good as a son and obedient as a young man is, perhaps, the root of a man's character'".

In various cultures
Duty varies between different cultures and continents. Duty in Asia and Latin America is commonly more heavily weighted than in Western culture. According to a study done on attitudes toward family obligation: "Asian and Latin American adolescents possessed stronger values and greater expectations regarding their duty to assist, respect, and support their families than their peers with European backgrounds."

The deeply rooted tradition of duty among both Asian and Latin American cultures contributes to much of the strong sense of duty that exists in comparison to western cultures. Michael Peletz discusses the concept of duty in his book Gender, Sexuality, and Body Politics in Modern Asia: "Notions of filial duty … are commonly invoked to mobilize the loyalties, labor power, and other resources children in the ostensible interests of the household and, in some cases, those of the lineage clan as a whole. Doctrines of filial piety … attuned to them may thus be a source of great comfort and solace to the elders but they can also be experienced as stressful, repressive, or both by those who are enjoined to honor their parents’ (and grandparents’) wishes and unspoken expectations."

An arranged marriage is an example of an expected duty in Asia and the Middle East. In an arranged marriage relating to duty, it is expected that the wife will move in with the husband's family and household to raise their children. Patrilocal residence is usual; rarely does the man move in with the woman, or is the married couple allowed to start their own household and life somewhere else. They need to provide for the entire family in labor and care for the farms and family. Older generations rely on help from their children's and grandchildren's families. This form of duty is keeping the lineage of a family intact and obliging to the needs of elders.

Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche is among the fiercest critics of the concept of duty. "What destroys a man more quickly", he asks, "than to work, think, and feel without inner necessity, without any deep personal desire, without pleasure—as a mere automaton of 'duty'?"

Nietzsche claims that the task of all higher education is "to turn men into machines". The way to turn men into machines is to teach them to tolerate boredom. This is accomplished, Nietzsche says, by means of the concept of duty.

The writings of Arthur Schopenhauer, including On the Basis of Morality, greatly influenced Nietzsche. These influences led Nietzsche to undertake a series of inversions, challenging the idea that morality stemmed from "compassion or sympathy." Instead, Nietzsche asserted that morality was rooted in life's self-overcoming through the will to power. As part of these inversions, Nietzsche explored concepts like "duty" and "pity", previously discussed by Immanuel Kant and Schopenhauer respectively.

Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand, a youthful admirer of Nietzsche, anchored her morality against Kant's notion of duty. "In a deontological theory, all personal desires are banished from the realm of morality; a personal desire has no moral significance, be it a desire to create or a desire to kill. For example, if a man is not supporting his life from duty, such a morality makes no distinction between supporting it by honest labor or by robbery. If a man wants to be honest, he deserves no moral credit; as Kant would put it, such honesty is 'praiseworthy,' but without 'moral import.'"

title: Duty


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Primality test

A primality test is an algorithm for determining whether an input number is prime. Among other fields of mathematics, it is used for cryptography. Unlike integer factorization, primality tests do not generally give prime factors, only stating whether the input number is prime or not. Factorization is thought to be a computationally difficult problem, whereas primality testing is comparatively easy (its running time is polynomial in the size of the input). Some primality tests prove that a number is prime, while others like Miller–Rabin prove that a number is composite. Therefore, the latter might more accurately be called compositeness tests instead of primality tests.

Simple methods
The simplest primality test is trial division: given an input number, $$n$$, check whether it is divisible by any prime number between 2 and $$\sqrt n$$ (i.e., whether the division leaves no remainder). If so, then $$n$$ is composite. Otherwise, it is prime. For any divisor $$p \geq \sqrt n$$, there must be another divisor $$n/p \leq \sqrt n$$, and a prime divisor $$q$$ of $$n/p$$, and therefore looking for prime divisors at most $$\sqrt n$$ is sufficient.

For example, consider the number 100, whose divisors are these numbers:

 * 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100.

When all possible divisors up to $$n$$ are tested, some divisors will be discovered twice. To observe this, consider the list of divisor pairs of 100:

 * $$1 \times 100, \; 2 \times 50, \; 4 \times 25, \; 5 \times 20, \; 10 \times 10, \; 20 \times 5, \; 25 \times 4, \; 50 \times 2, \; 100 \times 1$$.

Products past $$10 \times 10$$ are the reverse of products that appeared earlier. For example, $$5 \times 20$$ and $$20 \times 5$$ are the reverse of each other. Further, that of the two divisors, $$5 \leq \sqrt{100} = 10$$ and $$20 \geq \sqrt{100} = 10$$. This observation generalizes to all $$n$$: all divisor pairs of $$n$$ contain a divisor less than or equal to $$\sqrt{n}$$, so the algorithm need only search for divisors less than or equal to $$\sqrt{n}$$ to guarantee detection of all divisor pairs.

Also, 2 is a prime dividing 100, which immediately proves that 100 is not prime. Every positive integer except 1 is divisible by at least one prime number by the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Therefore the algorithm need only search for prime divisors less than or equal to $$\sqrt{n}$$.

For another example, consider how this algorithm determines the primality of 17. One has $$4 < \sqrt{17} < 5$$, and the only primes $$\leq \sqrt{17}$$ are 2 and 3. Neither divides 17, proving that 17 is prime. For a last example, consider 221. One has $$14 < \sqrt{221} < 15$$, and the primes $$\leq \sqrt{221}$$ are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13. Upon checking each, one discovers that $$221 / 13 = 17$$, proving that 221 is not prime.

In cases where it is not feasible to compute the list of primes $$\leq \sqrt{n}$$, it is also possible to simply (and slowly) check all numbers between $$2$$ and $$\sqrt{n}$$ for divisors. A rather simple optimization is to test divisibility by 2 and by just the odd numbers between 3 and $$\sqrt{n}$$, since divisibility by an even number implies divisibility by 2.

This method can be improved further. Observe that all primes greater than 3 are of the form $$6k + i$$ for a nonnegative integer $$k$$ and $$i \in \{1, 5\}$$. Indeed, every integer is of the form $$6k + i$$ for a positive integer $$k$$ and $$i \in \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$$. Since 2 divides $$6k, 6k + 2$$, and $$6k + 4$$, and 3 divides $$6k$$ and $$6k + 3$$, the only possible remainders mod 6 for a prime greater than 3 are 1 and 5. So, a more efficient primality test for $$n$$ is to test whether $$n$$ is divisible by 2 or 3, then to check through all numbers of the form $$6k + 1$$ and $$6k + 5$$ which are $$\leq \sqrt{n}$$. This is almost three times as fast as testing all numbers up to $$\sqrt{n}$$.

Generalizing further, all primes greater than $$c\#$$ (c primorial) are of the form $$c\# \cdot k + i$$ for $$i, k$$ positive integers, $$0 \leq i < c\#$$, and $$i$$ coprime to $$c\#$$. For example, consider $$6\# = 2 \cdot 3 \cdot 5 = 30$$. All integers are of the form $$30k + i$$ for $$i, k$$ integers with $$0 \leq i < 30$$. Now, 2 divides $$0, 2, 4, \dots, 28$$, 3 divides $$0, 3, 6, \dots, 27$$, and 5 divides $$0, 5, 10, \dots, 25$$. Thus all prime numbers greater than 30 are of the form $$30k + i$$ for $$i \in \{1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29\}$$. Of course, not all numbers of the form $$c\# \cdot k + i$$ with $$i$$ coprime to $$c\#$$ are prime. For example, $$19 \cdot 23 = 437 = 210 \cdot 2 + 17 = 2 \cdot 7\# + 17$$ is not prime, even though 17 is coprime to $$7\# = 2 \cdot 3 \cdot 5 \cdot 7$$.

As $$c$$ grows, the fraction of coprime remainders to remainders decreases, and so the time to test $$n$$ decreases (though it still necessary to check for divisibility by all primes that are less than $$c$$). Observations analogous to the preceding can be applied recursively, giving the Sieve of Eratosthenes.

One way to speed up these methods (and all the others mentioned below) is to pre-compute and store a list of all primes up to a certain bound, such as all primes up to 200. (Such a list can be computed with the Sieve of Eratosthenes or by an algorithm that tests each incremental $$m$$ against all known primes $$\leq \sqrt m$$). Then, before testing $$n$$ for primality with a large-scale method, $$n$$ can first be checked for divisibility by any prime from the list. If it is divisible by any of those numbers then it is composite, and any further tests can be skipped.

A simple but very inefficient primality test uses Wilson's theorem, which states that $$p$$ is prime if and only if:

 * $$(p - 1)! \equiv -1 \pmod{p}$$

Although this method requires about $$p$$ modular multiplications, rendering it impractical, theorems about primes and modular residues form the basis of many more practical methods.

Heuristic tests
These are tests that seem to work well in practice, but are unproven and therefore are not, technically speaking, algorithms at all. The Fermat test and the Fibonacci test are simple examples, and they are very effective when combined. John Selfridge has conjectured that if p is an odd number, and p ≡ ±2 (mod 5), then p will be prime if both of the following hold: where fk is the k-th Fibonacci number. The first condition is the Fermat primality test using base 2.
 * 2p−1 ≡ 1 (mod p),
 * fp+1 ≡ 0 (mod p),

In general, if p ≡ a (mod x2+4), where a is a quadratic non-residue (mod x2+4) then p should be prime if the following conditions hold:

 * 2p−1 ≡ 1 (mod p),
 * f(1)p+1 ≡ 0 (mod p),

f(x)k is the k-th Fibonacci polynomial at x.

Selfridge, Carl Pomerance, and Samuel Wagstaff together offer $620 for a counterexample.

Probabilistic tests
Probabilistic tests are more rigorous than heuristics in that they provide provable bounds on the probability of being fooled by a composite number. Many popular primality tests are probabilistic tests. These tests use, apart from the tested number n, some other numbers a which are chosen at random from some sample space; the usual randomized primality tests never report a prime number as composite, but it is possible for a composite number to be reported as prime. The probability of error can be reduced by repeating the test with several independently chosen values of a; for two commonly used tests, for any composite n at least half the as detect ns compositeness, so k repetitions reduce the error probability to at most 2−k, which can be made arbitrarily small by increasing k.

The basic structure of randomized primality tests is as follows:

 * 1) Randomly pick a number a.
 * 2) Check equality (corresponding to the chosen test) involving a and the given number n. If the equality fails to hold true, then n is a composite number and a is a witness for the compositeness, and the test stops.
 * 3) Get back to the step one until the required accuracy is reached.

After one or more iterations, if n is not found to be a composite number, then it can be declared probably prime.

Fermat primality test
The simplest probabilistic primality test is the Fermat primality test (actually a compositeness test). It works as follows:

 * Given an integer n, choose some integer a coprime to n and calculate an− 1 modulo n. If the result is different from 1, then n is composite. If it is 1, then n may be prime.

If an−1 (modulo n) is 1 but n is not prime, then n is called a pseudoprime to base a. In practice, if an−1 (modulo n) is 1, then n is usually prime. But here is a counterexample: if n = 341 and a = 2, then
 * $$2^{340} \equiv 1\pmod{341}$$

even though 341 = 11·31 is composite. In fact, 341 is the smallest pseudoprime base 2 (see Figure 1 of ).

There are only 21853 pseudoprimes base 2 that are less than 2.5 (see page 1005 of ). This means that, for n up to 2.5, if 2n−1 (modulo n) equals 1, then n is prime, unless n is one of these 21853 pseudoprimes.

Some composite numbers (Carmichael numbers) have the property that an− 1 is 1 (modulo n) for every a that is coprime to n. The smallest example is n = 561 = 3·11·17, for which a560 is 1 (modulo 561) for all a coprime to 561. Nevertheless, the Fermat test is often used if a rapid screening of numbers is needed, for instance in the key generation phase of the RSA public key cryptographic algorithm.

Miller–Rabin and Solovay–Strassen primality test
The Miller–Rabin primality test and Solovay–Strassen primality test are more sophisticated variants, which detect all composites (once again, this means: for every composite number n, at least 3/4 (Miller–Rabin) or 1/2 (Solovay–Strassen) of numbers a are witnesses of compositeness of n). These are also compositeness tests.

The Miller–Rabin primality test works as follows: Given an integer n, choose some positive integer a < n. Let 2sd = n − 1, where d is odd. If

a^{d} \not\equiv \pm 1\pmod{n} $$ and

a^{2^rd} \not\equiv -1\pmod{n}$$ for all $$0 \le r \le s - 1, $$

then n is composite and a is a witness for the compositeness. Otherwise, n may or may not be prime. The Miller–Rabin test is a strong probable prime test (see PSW page 1004).

The Solovay–Strassen primality test uses another equality: Given an odd number n, choose some integer a < n, if

 * $$ a^{(n-1)/2} \not\equiv \left(\frac{a}{n}\right) \pmod n$$, where $$\left(\frac{a}{n}\right)$$ is the Jacobi symbol,

then n is composite and a is a witness for the compositeness. Otherwise, n may or may not be prime. The Solovay–Strassen test is an Euler probable prime test (see PSW page 1003).

For each individual value of a, the Solovay–Strassen test is weaker than the Miller–Rabin test. For example, if n = 1905 and a = 2, then the Miller-Rabin test shows that n is composite, but the Solovay–Strassen test does not. This is because 1905 is an Euler pseudoprime base 2 but not a strong pseudoprime base 2 (this is illustrated in Figure 1 of PSW ).

Frobenius primality test
The Miller–Rabin and the Solovay–Strassen primality tests are simple and are much faster than other general primality tests. One method of improving efficiency further in some cases is the Frobenius pseudoprimality test; a round of this test takes about three times as long as a round of Miller–Rabin, but achieves a probability bound comparable to seven rounds of Miller–Rabin.

The Frobenius test is a generalization of the Lucas probable prime test.

Baillie–PSW primality test
The Baillie–PSW primality test is a probabilistic primality test that combines a Fermat or Miller–Rabin test with a Lucas probable prime test to get a primality test that has no known counterexamples. That is, there are no known composite n for which this test reports that n is probably prime. It has been shown that there are no counterexamples for n $$ < 2^{64}$$.

Other tests
Leonard Adleman and Ming-Deh Huang presented an errorless (but expected polynomial-time) variant of the elliptic curve primality test. Unlike the other probabilistic tests, this algorithm produces a primality certificate, and thus can be used to prove that a number is prime. The algorithm is prohibitively slow in practice.

If quantum computers were available, primality could be tested asymptotically faster than by using classical computers. A combination of Shor's algorithm, an integer factorization method, with the Pocklington primality test could solve the problem in $$O((\log n)^3 (\log\log n)^2 \log\log\log n)$$.

Fast deterministic tests
Near the beginning of the 20th century, it was shown that a corollary of Fermat's little theorem could be used to test for primality. This resulted in the Pocklington primality test. However, as this test requires a partial factorization of n − 1 the running time was still quite slow in the worst case. The first deterministic primality test significantly faster than the naive methods was the cyclotomy test; its runtime can be proven to be O((log n)c log log log n), where n is the number to test for primality and c is a constant independent of n. Many further improvements were made, but none could be proven to have polynomial running time. (Running time is measured in terms of the size of the input, which in this case is ~ log n, that being the number of bits needed to represent the number n.) The elliptic curve primality test can be proven to run in O((log n)6), if some conjectures on analytic number theory are true. Similarly, under the generalized Riemann hypothesis, the deterministic Miller's test, which forms the basis of the probabilistic Miller–Rabin test, can be proved to run in Õ((log n)4). In practice, this algorithm is slower than the other two for sizes of numbers that can be dealt with at all. Because the implementation of these two methods is rather difficult and creates a risk of programming errors, slower but simpler tests are often preferred.

In 2002, the first provably unconditional deterministic polynomial time test for primality was invented by Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena. The AKS primality test runs in Õ((log n)12) (improved to Õ((log n)7.5) in the published revision of their paper), which can be further reduced to Õ((log n)6) if the Sophie Germain conjecture is true. Subsequently, Lenstra and Pomerance presented a version of the test which runs in time Õ((log n)6) unconditionally.

Agrawal, Kayal and Saxena suggest a variant of their algorithm which would run in Õ((log n)3)  if Agrawal's conjecture is true; however, a heuristic argument by Hendrik Lenstra and Carl Pomerance suggests that it is probably false. A modified version of the Agrawal's conjecture, the Agrawal–Popovych conjecture, may still be true.

Complexity
In computational complexity theory, the formal language corresponding to the prime numbers is denoted as PRIMES. It is easy to show that PRIMES is in Co-NP: its complement COMPOSITES is in NP because one can decide compositeness by nondeterministically guessing a factor.

In 1975, Vaughan Pratt showed that there existed a certificate for primality that was checkable in polynomial time, and thus that PRIMES was in NP, and therefore in $\mathsf{NP \cap coNP}$. See primality certificate for details.

The subsequent discovery of the Solovay–Strassen and Miller–Rabin algorithms put PRIMES in coRP. In 1992, the Adleman–Huang algorithm reduced the complexity to $\mathsf{ {\color{Blue} ZPP} = RP \cap coRP}$, which superseded Pratt's result.

The Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test from 1983 put PRIMES in QP (quasi-polynomial time), which is not known to be comparable with the classes mentioned above.

Because of its tractability in practice, polynomial-time algorithms assuming the Riemann hypothesis, and other similar evidence, it was long suspected but not proven that primality could be solved in polynomial time. The existence of the AKS primality test finally settled this long-standing question and placed PRIMES in P. However, PRIMES is not known to be P-complete, and it is not known whether it lies in classes lying inside P such as NC or L. It is known that PRIMES is not in AC0.

Number-theoretic methods
Certain number-theoretic methods exist for testing whether a number is prime, such as the Lucas test and Proth's test. These tests typically require factorization of n + 1, n − 1, or a similar quantity, which means that they are not useful for general-purpose primality testing, but they are often quite powerful when the tested number n is known to have a special form.

The Lucas test relies on the fact that the multiplicative order of a number a modulo n is n − 1 for a prime n when a is a primitive root modulo n. If we can show a is primitive for n, we can show n is prime.

title: Primality test


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Talk:Papal States

Capitalization
I just changed "Papal states" to "Papal States", which now disagrees with the article title, unfortunately, so maybe I shouldn't have done that... Okay, I don't know much about the history of the region in question, but I'd thought it was sort of like a country, so that its name would be capitalised, like "England" and so on. Am I wrong? -- Oliver P. 02:36 Feb 16, 2003 (UTC)

The Papal States were a country, so the capital S is correct. -- Zoe

Correct Zoe. Maybe you, I and Oliver should set up a sub-group called PNHC - Proper Nouns Have Capitals and wage a crusade on Wiki!!!! :) JtdIrL 03:51 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * Hey! Wait up! I want to join too! Tannin

 * heh heh! but no, actually i'm a member of a secret society which plans to destroy all capital letters, and all this is just a front... ;) -- oliver

Or even call ourselves the Capital Letters Liberation Front - or even Capital Letters On Proper nouns. Here comes CLOP to the rescue. JtdIrL 04:19 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * Okay, I've renounced my membership of the Secret Society for the Destruction of Capital Letters, because its acronym is unpronounceable. "CLOP" sounds so much nicer. :) -- Oliver P. 05:02 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC) (Sorry, I'm talking complete rubbish... I need sleep...)

Papal Army
If someone knows something about the Papal army I'd love to know anything. Exept abot the Vatican guard(I already know about them,but hey if you know something I don't, DO share), Im mean like the Papal navy and Roman militia/army. Thanks.--Philippe Auguste 06:18, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

 * See Pope Pius IX and Zouave for some relevant content. Papal army now redirects to Papal States, but probably merits its own article.  --Una Smith (talk) 19:21, 12 December 2008 (UTC)

 * To help with literature searches, its name in Italian: Armata Pontificia. --Una Smith (talk) 19:26, 12 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Merci beaucoup. There's heaps of stuff on the Net, in Italian. Mio Italiano is a bit rusty, but I'll have a go.--Gazzster (talk) 00:18, 13 December 2008 (UTC)
 * You're welcome. See also Frédéric-François-Xavier Ghislain de Mérode and links in that article to some other key players.  --Una Smith (talk) 00:52, 13 December 2008 (UTC)

Beginning date
The first paragraph of this article implies that "the Papal States" effectively ended in 1870, but it says nothing about when they started. The article itself seems a bit vague on this seemingly important point. Would that beginning be:

 * 321 C.E., when the Church was first "allowed to hold and transfer property";
 * sometime "after the 600s", as "large gifts became less common";
 * 754 C.E., when "Church control became more explicit";
 * 781 C.E., when "Charlemagne codified the regions over which the Pope would be temporal sovereign";

… or some other year or range of years? — Jeff Q 18:34, 8 Jun 2004 (UTC)

It's not at all clear. To go backwards, the Papal States in their modern configuration did not really emerge until the early 16th century, when the popes finally turned their theoretical sovereignty over the area into real sovereignty. Before the 13th century or so, the Pope's temporal domain was considered to be part of the Holy Roman Empire - even later, this idea vaguely survived. I would say sometime in the 8th century. Before that, the areas that would become the Papal States were pretty clearly the "Exarchate of Ravenna" and the "Duchy of Rome", which were part of the Byzantine Empire. But for a long time after that, it's very, very unclear. I wouldn't want to actually state a beginning date, because it would be misleading. But you're right that we need to be more explicit about it. john '''k 02:06, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Merge suggestion
I think Prisoner in the Vatican should be merged into the appropriate section of this article. — OwenBlacker 00:30, Jun 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * Why do you think so? CheeseInTea (talk) 15:20, 27 April 2022 (UTC)CheeseInTea

Pepin vs. Pippin?
I so know that I shouldn't open this entirely pointless can of worms, but: why the changes from Pippin to Pepin? (Which didn't even result in a consistent spelling in the article, I note.) When I rewrote the article, I changed spellings to Pippin because the title of the main Wikipedia page for the individual in question is spelled that way (Pippin III). Aaaaannnd a quick glance at the talk page there seems to indicate that this is part of a pointless argument about French and German history. Sigh.

So, John Kenney, why the change? And if Pippin must become Pepin, why must he be Pepin the Short instead of Pepin III? My naggling copy editor sense wants it consistent with the article it's linking to, and, failing that, to be at least consistent within the article. So I'd like to put the Pippins back, but if that's going to result in some kind of painfully lame edit war about an issue that is not in the least worth it, just let me know in advance and I'll make the remaining Pippins Pepins instead. --Jfruh 17:47, 26 May 2005 (UTC)

 * So nobody's responded to this, so I guess I'm going to re-Pippin the Pepins. --Jfruh 02:37, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Well, he should be Pepin the Short because that's what he's actually called by historians. He's not called Pepin III by any appreciable number of people. And the trend is certainly for Pippins to become Pepins, rather than vice versa. Why that should be, I can't say, but it is certainly the case. - Nunh-huh 02:43, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Pepin the Short is, indeed, the more common name. If I left it inconsistent within this article, that was unintentional. But I literally cannot think of any books that I have read which call him "Pippin" rather than "Pepin." Even the Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, which is rather old, calls him Pepin. And more recent books certainly do. john k 02:56, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I'm trying to delete Pepin the Short so I can move Pippin III there, but I keep getting error messages. john k 02:57, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Like I said, I don't care; I just want it consistent in the article. It was in the Donation of Pipwhoever link that the inconsistency lay; I fixed.

 * I would love it to be consistent within Wikipedia too, but I suppose that's too much to ask. --Jfruh 03:33, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I already moved Donation of Pippin to Donation of Pepin and changed that article - sorry for missing the change on that, I was busy trying to delete Pepin the Short so I could move Pippin III there. Still no luck, weirdly. But I'll get to it soon enough. That Frankish son of a bastard will feel my wrath. john k 03:34, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Out of curiosity, how would Pepin (or, since he was almost certainly illiterate, his more educated contemporaries) have spelled his name? Is it Pepinus in Latin?  Is there any attestation as to his "real" Frankish name? --Jfruh 12:36, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Pippin is the Germanic form - presumably this is what he called himself. I would assume "Pepinus" is the Latin, although I'm not sure. Written documents from the time would have used the Latin form. john k 13:19, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Actually, Pippinus is the typical Latin form. Later on Pipinus becomes common and finally Pepinus is seen, but it is rare from what I can tell. Srnec 17:45, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

And, just what is the meaning of "Pepin or Pippin, etc.? Perhaps it merely meant "Small" or "short of statue?", etc., thus what is the real difference between this current subject and :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepin_the_Hunchback  ?  But perhaps Weston has it correct?  thus; "'Peregrin', short 'Pippin'" 96.19.147.40 (talk) 02:19, 1 February 2013 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

Pentapolis
The inclusion of the "Pentapolis" in the list included in the "Donation of Pepin" section is ambiguous (See Pentapolis article). Terry Thorgaard (talk) 16:45, 23 May 2014 (UTC)

Map?
I'm just recovering from a major system crash, so I'm not able myself at the moment (but might be able sometime soon), but does anyone fancy creating one or more maps of the Papal States, with any map showing either all of modern Italy or all of the Holy Roman Empire? — OwenBlacker 22:47, 16 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I'd like an anachronistic map of all the territories ever in the Papal States, including Avignon. --84.20.17.84 09:07, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

Donatio Constantini?
I don't know for sure, but should it be mentioned in the main article- it does give a 'mythological' raison d'être for the papal states. Reynaert-ad 20:04, 9 July 2006 (UTC) But, just how much reality can anyone give this preposterous claim? It is surely a claim that is best considered as "fraud" or worse! Plenty of sources denounce it!96.19.147.40 (talk) 02:47, 1 February 2013 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

Flag
Is the flag authentic? Its presence in the disinfobox tells nothing of where and when it was used. --Wetman 10:04, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

Map
It'd be nice to have a map that shows Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin. john k (talk) 01:25, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

Rome - founded 1929 ?!?
"for the modern State of Vatican City, an enclave within Italy's national capital, Rome, which was founded in 1929, again allowing the Holy See the practical benefits of territorial sovereignty."

I was under the impression that Rome was founded somewhat earlier than 1929, or have I significantly missed the context in which it is being stated here? JonEastham (talk) 00:33, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The sentence is a little gnarly.  Vatican City (in its current form) was founded in 1929.  I'll try to reword. --Jfruh (talk) 01:44, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

Duchy of Rome
Now exist a retirect from Duchy of Rome to Papal States. Duchy of Rome needs a own page, so i suggest a translation from it.wiki ducato romano. Thanks and bye --Wento (talk) 16:03, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Donatio Constantini
The article on the Donatio Constantini, whereby the Popes became owners of large parts of Italy by using forged documents, should be merged with this article. Poldebol (talk) 18:01, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I don't think that's necessary. The Donation of Constantine was used to justify the temporal rule of the popes, but the foundation of the temporality predates the forgery.--Gazzster (talk) 02:21, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The Donation of Constantine is a single forged document. Perhaps it deserves fuller mention in this article. --Wetman (talk) 04:22, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * By all means make a link to Donation of Constantine if it isn't there already.--Gazzster (talk) 04:59, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

Dates in infobox
To state that the Papal States existed continuously from 752 to 1870, as the infobox currently does, is factually wrong. They did not exist from 1808 to 1814. The box really should state "752-1808, 1814-1870" or something similar. 68.62.0.178 (talk) 01:33, 20 November 2008 (UTC)
 * That's strictly true. I do think though that 752-1870 can be stated as generally true. In a similar way we state that the Kingdom of the Netherlands or the Kingdom of Belgium continued to exist in a moral sense during the Nazi occupation. I'm not, of course, comparing Napoleon to Hitler.--Gazzster (talk) 07:23, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

odd redirect
United Italian provinces redirects here, but I found no mention of them in the article 130.251.167.41 (talk) 14:35, 17 February 2009 (UTC)

The New Map - PapalStates1700.png
The new map is wrong, if fails to display the Comtat Venaissin and the papal communes in the Kingdom of Naples. Therefore, I'm going to revert the edit. Regards (Jack1755 (talk) 12:58, 29 June 2009 (UTC))
 * Just for the record, the map has now been updated to include its enclaves. -GabaG (talk) 20:29, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

wrong flag
This flag is not of the Papal States! It is the flag of the Comtat Venaissin. --Oren neu dag (talk) 17:16, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

Buying islands in the Pacific
The article should maybe try to reflect on whether buying islands in the Pacific might procure a greater legal security to the Holy See. Such islands would presumably be listed along with other properties of the Holy See, which already include churches in Italy. The existence of small native populations in these islands might serve as a practical socio-political replacement to the Pontifical States, who were also known as the States of the Holy See. ADM (talk) 13:44, 16 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Has the papacy or anyone associated with the Papal States ever actually proposed doing this? If not, it shouldn't go into the article. --Jfruh (talk) 13:09, 17 September 2009 (UTC)
 * And in any case, any property owned by the Church of Rome outside of the Vatican (excluding a few in Italy with extraterritorial status, like Castel Gandolfo) would fall under the jurisdiction of the nation in which they exist,and would not form part of the Pope's sovereign territory.--Gazzster (talk) 07:24, 11 May 2010 (UTC)

Theocracy?
The infobox describes the Papal States as a theocracy. This seems inaccurate, both since, according to the article: "In practice, the Popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over the extensive and mountainous territories of the Papal States, and the region preserved its old Lombard system of government, with many small countships and marquisates, each centered upon a fortified rocca." So, for most of its history "feudalism" would be more accurate than "theocracy".

And, even in theory, it wasn't really a theocracy - the Pope was both monarch of the Papal States and head of the Church, but, IIRC, they were separate legal entities. Even now, the Holy See is a separate legal entity from Vatican City, and part of the reason why is because it had always been separate from the realms ruled by the pope's temporal power. (In the same way that Elizabeth II is Queen of both Britain and Canada, but that doesn't make Canada part of Britain.) The Papal States' government was not actually theocratic... Vultur (talk) 01:12, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

"Papal States" or "Papal State"
The article says that "Papal States" is the preferred English term for the Stato Pontificio, but "Papal State" is clearly the correct translation. If it were "Papal States", the Italian name would have been "Stati Pontifici", which was much less frequently used. So why is the plural version considered the preferred English name? 75.76.213.106 (talk) 04:42, 19 January 2011 (UTC)

 * "Preferred" here means not "the correct translation" but rather what the entity is actually called in English. If you look at both historical and contemporary English-language sources, the political unit under discussion is invariably referred to as the "Papal States."  This might be an incorrect translation, but it's not the job of Wikipedia to make things more rational or correct. --Jfruh (talk) 14:57, 19 January 2011 (UTC)

I would suggest some additional material should be added to the "Renaissance" section;
Thus this is the last sentence as it stands now;

"By 1300, the Papal States, along with the rest of the Italian principalities, were effectively independent. During the Renaissance the Spanish Emperors fought wars over the Papal States, often against the Pope." Wow, it seems a lot of time is ignored here! How about the Sack of Rome by Charles V, etc.?

If you are telling a story, you do not ignore so many important events! This is, of course, only my humble opinion.96.19.147.40 (talk) 23:02, 31 January 2013 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

The "Origins" section needs cleaned up!
Thus we read there;

"With the Christian emperorship of Constantine I, the Church's private property grew quickly through the donations of the pious and the wealthy; the Lateran Palace was the first significant donation, a gift of Constantine himself." As historians, you must know that the reported "conversion" of Constantine is the subject of much debate, especially charges of "forged documents", etc.! But your site, gives this event if indeed it ever occured, a "fait accomli!"

Perhaps it merely should be alleged?96.19.147.40 (talk) 23:19, 31 January 2013 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

 * I don't think any serious historians doubt that Constantine converted to Christianity. Also, Constantine's donation of the Lateran Palace to the church (which actually happened) is entirely different from his donation of all of central Italy (which never happened). --Jfruh (talk) 20:21, 1 February 2013 (UTC)

Origins! Just suppose?
Found in the "Origins" section is this;

"It would, however, be wrong to suppose that all papal claims of secular jurisdiction, taxation and service, etc. were exactly defined, or that they applied with equal force all over a large region of central Italy, or that local warlords or others readily conceded obedience to Rome. This was no modern state yet, no equivalent to the contemporary strong monarchies of France or England. Force of tradition and forceful possession counted more than written deeds of donation. –D.S. Chambers[2]

And history be damned, there does exist the real facts that until the 19th century CE, there seems to be no "real" evidence of a prior unified Italy!96.19.147.40 (talk) 01:58, 1 February 2013 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

List
Should there be a list of the actual 'states or provinces'? Jackiespeel (talk) 11:16, 1 February 2015 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 02:14, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

Catholic Church?
The origins section starts with "For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized, unable to hold or transfer property". Only a Catholic could write this, and in the interest of neutrality we should say that that Christians were persecuted for 300 years in this sentence, leading to the existing content about Constantine creating the Roman Catholic Church.47.137.185.72 (talk) 17:56, 24 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Any comments? The WP guidelines say to be bold, but in articles I have recently boldly edited, my edits were reverted. My question here is simple: when did the Catholic Church become the Catholic Church? The article as it stands infers it happened in the early 1st Century C.E., shortly after the death of Jesus Christ(resurrection as well, but that is beside the point). I say (and can provide reliable sources as support) that it occurred in 312 C.E. when Constantine became Roman emperor and converted to Christianity. As an encyclopedia, we should be concerned with facts, not promoting a POV. If the pre-Constantine church did not hold any power, then it bears little resemblance to the post-Constantine Roman Catholic Church, or even the RCC of today which while limited in relative temporal power, still has great influence. I'd argue that 312 C.E. has to be the birth year of the Catholic Church. I am soliciting arguments for and against. If I receive none in a reasonable time frame, I will assume consensus for my date of institution. Please don't slam me if I put that into the article - because I gave fair warning and an opportunity for objection. Thank you. 47.137.185.72 (talk) 05:23, 26 December 2019 (UTC)
 * As a banned user, your edits to articles are subject to revert by any editor in good standing at any time without further explanation. - Sum mer PhD v2.0 20:32, 26 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I agree. I have nominated this article to be checked for its neutrality by a more seasoned or knowledgeable editor than I for the same reason as listed above. User talk:maximumwikipedian 10:19, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Wasn't the Catholic church the original Christian church under St Peter, the fist pope? The others separated over matters of doctrine.  The sentence above 'Only a Catholic could write this' is not one written in the interests of a constructive debate.  Red Jay (talk) 12:08, 14 May 2020 (UTC)
 * There was no distinction between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church prior to the East–West Schism (1054). Dimadick (talk) 15:07, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

 * I am perhaps a bit uninvolved in this article but just from reading that and being a Student of history that utterly ridiculous, *Christanity* was persucted for 300 years of its existence. The Papal States wasn't even formed until after the persecution of Christians. It should definitely be re-worded in fact I will do that. The first church was the Syriac Church not the Catholic Church the two are very different. That should have no place on Wikipedia. Vallee01 (talk) 21:37, 30 August 2020 (UTC)

Unable to discern the neutrality question
Just saying. Leaving flag up for now. Elinruby (talk) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Vatican city now
While the papal "STATES" have not existed since 1870 the Church still has a state the Vatican city a papal "STATE" singular soo that is a problem thingy 2A04:241E:202:6900:D16C:544F:39F3:C117 (talk) 19:23, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Catholic Church and politics
Greetings fellow Wikipedians! Information from this article is likely relevant to the article Catholic Church and politics. I'm flagging this here in case anyone with time and knowledge or interest in this topic wishes to add some of this information to Catholic Church and politics, which would be greatly appreciated and help round out that article some more. Tomorrow and tomorrow (talk) 00:06, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

Italian Unification
In the intro section, it states: "By 1860, much of the Papal States' territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy."

In the "Italian Unification" section, it states: In 1860, with much of the region already in rebellion against Papal rule, Piedmont-Sardinia invaded and conquered the eastern two-thirds of the Papal States, cementing its hold on the south.

The later section gives a more nuanced explanation of who the papal states were at war with, but the complexity of what the alliance around the Kingdom of Sardinia actually is is not captured well.

I would propose making a decision about what this alliance should be named and linked to, and carrying it forward to the intro section. The sentence "Kingdom of Italy, in 1860" is a bit absurd, since the first line of the KoI article is "...was a state that existed from 17 March 1861...".

It doesn't seem appropriate to me to link to the result of this pre-unification alliance. 136.226.76.189 (talk) 16:15, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Papal States