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Ermine Street

Ermine Street is a major Roman road in England that ran from London (Londinium) to Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) and York (Eboracum). The Old English name was Earninga Strǣt (1012), named after a tribe called the Earningas, who inhabited a district later known as Armingford Hundred, around Arrington, Cambridgeshire, and Royston, Hertfordshire. "Armingford", and "Arrington" share the same Old English origin. The original Celtic and Roman names for the route remain unknown. It is also known as the Old North Road from London to where it joins the A1 Great North Road near Godmanchester.

Course
Ermine Street begins at Bishopsgate, where one of the seven gates in the wall surrounding Roman London was located. From here it runs north up Norton Folgate, Shoreditch High Street and Kingsland Road through Stoke Newington (forming Stoke Newington Road and Stoke Newington High Street), Tottenham, Edmonton and eastern Enfield (Ponders End, Enfield Highway, Enfield Wash and Freezywater) to Royston. This section of Ermine Street from London to Royston is now largely part of the A10. At this point it crosses the Icknield Way. From Royston, it was formerly the A14 to the A1 but now it is the A1198 to Godmanchester (Durovigutum). Ignoring bypasses and modern diversions, the road through Huntingdon to the Alconbury junction on the A1 gives the line. The section from Alconbury to Water Newton, ignoring modern bypasses such as that at Stilton, follows the A1. Ermine street used to pass through Durobrivae, the slight remains of which can be seen to the east, alongside the A1 at Peterborough. The modern road returns to Ermine Street north-west of Stamford, near Great Casterton, through which Ermine Street ran.

The post-Roman road wandered off for 2+1/2 mi through Colsterworth, but Ermine Street continues as the B6403, through Ancaster to the A17. It then continues as a public right of way, easily walked, until Waddington airfield blocks it at. The route from Colsterworth, through Ancaster, to Bracebridge Heath is known as High Dike. It runs roughly parallel with and to the east of the A607 between Carlton Scroop and Harmston. High Dike takes to the level, open, dry country of the Lincolnshire Heath while the A607 wanders through the villages on the spring line below. From the Antonine Itinerary there is known to have been a Roman Settlement on the road in South Lincolnshire, called Causennae which has been variously identified with Ancaster Roman Town or Saltersford, south of Grantham.

Another long section remains, now the A15, running north out of Lincoln, past RAF Scampton and Caenby Corner, past Kirton in Lindsey at grid reference, and continuing almost to the Humber at Winteringham. Before the diversion was made round the extended runway at Scampton, with a very slight diversion at Broughton, it was possible to travel about 33 mi, from the Newport Arch, the Roman north gate at Lincoln, to the Parish of Winteringham along a road so slightly curved as to be regarded as straight.

Roman Winteringham was the terminal for the ferry to Petuaria (Brough) on the north shore of the Humber. From there, the road curved westwards to York.

This landing place on the south shore of the Humber is significant because Winteringham translates as "the homestead of Winta's people". Apart from Woden, the god, the first leader on Lindsey's list of kings is Winta. Clearly, the end of the Jurassic limestone ridge at the Humber was significant in the English settlement of Lincolnshire. Winterton is a little further inland. Ermine Street and the River Trent together were evidently an important early route of entry into early post-Roman Britain.

Alternative courses
The author Thomas Codrington proposed a more westerly route for "Erming" Street north of London, going via what is now Theobalds Park. This route is marked on many maps.

The Roman Map of Britain above shows a sector of Ermine Street for which there was an alternative route. As Ermine Street extended north out of Lincoln and past Scampton an alternative course of Ermine Street curved left and formed a semicircle on a wide heading west of the Humber Estuary. The straight northerly route, traced in red on the map, between Lincoln and York was the shorter, but was not passable over the Humber Estuary during adverse weather conditions. Thus an alternative route was established (see also Roman roads in Britain). This 'alternative' route is detailed in the Antonine Itinerary and linked York (Eboracum), Castleford (Lagecium), Doncaster (Danum), Littleborough (Agelocum) and Lincoln (Lindum). Beginning at the modern Lincolnshire Showground the portion of this route in Lincolnshire is known as Till Bridge Lane, the modern A1500. The route in the Doncaster area, and again north of Castleford, is known as the Roman Ridge or Roman Rigg.

A large section of this road formed for many later centuries the Great North Road between Nottinghamshire and West Yorkshire.

title: Ermine Street


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User talk:Starfarmer

Welcome. Botanical contributions should be a very usefull contribution. -- Infrogmation

WP:WLA
(♠ Taifar  ious1  ♠) 02:49, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Welcome to WikiProject Plants!
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Here are some easy ways you can contribute:
 * Images: There are articles that need images. You can search Wikimedia Commons for images. When you find one, add it to the Wikipedia article in the taxobox and remove the "needs-photo=yes" parameter from the project banner on the talk page of the article. You could also help identify plant photos on Commons.
 * Taxobox: We also have articles that need taxoboxes. See the taxobox usage guide for information on how to add a taxobox. When complete, don't forget to remove the "needs-taxobox=yes" parameter from the talk page banner.
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If you have any questions, please don't hesitate to ask me on my talk page or the project at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Plants. Again, welcome! We look forward to seeing you around!

File source and copyright licensing problem with File:Trebor Healy face (2007).jpg
Thanks for uploading File:Trebor Healy face (2007).jpg. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, their copyright should also be acknowledged.

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Genepi
Thanks for the major rewrite of génépi. A user had contributed a lot of content, but it needed better organization and copyediting. I had started on it this spring, but never got around to finishing it. You did a great job and I just wanted to show my appreciation. -Krasnoludek (talk) 02:54, 3 August 2011 (UTC)

Rampin' it up
Hey man, I see you've been getting more active in Wikipedia and I think that's a good think, because you do good things here!! DeistCosmos (talk) 07:11, 30 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Hey thanks for the tea! DeistCosmos (talk) 00:50, 3 December 2011 (UTC)

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SIA project!
Hey Starfarmer! So happy that you came by the Smithsonian Institution Archives project and signed up to participate! We've got a great list of subjects that need to be improved upon or written about. I do hope you'll visit the to-do list and dive in - do let me know if you need anything. And of course, your contributions can earn you the official oh so fancy SIA barnstar :) Thanks again! So happy to have you on board! SarahStierch (talk) 23:54, 19 April 2012 (UTC)

Wikipedia Takes Ann Arbor
Hello, Starfarmer. I see you have recommended Ann Arbor as a place to hold a Wikipedia Takes America event. However, no event page has yet been created. Let me know on my talk page if you need any assistance with organizing an event. Thank you, Harej (talk) 15:12, 31 August 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Starfarmer


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User:Daniel MacKay

 * My home page http://bonmot.ca/~daniel/
 * Brief queer bio: http://gay.hfxns.org/DanielMacKay

One of the main caretakers and promoters for the Gay Halifax, Nova Scotia (small W) wikipedia, http://gay.hfxns.org/
 * December 6th, 2001: system brought up running slightly hacked up Ward Cunningham's antique HyperPerl code.
 * As of April 2004: one thousand pages of history, information, irrelevance and sillyness.
 * As of April 2005: twelve hundred or so pages - much sillyness replaced with useful, informative content.
 * February 2006: Moved to Oddmuse
 * Fairly clever collaborative Events listing

title: User:Daniel MacKay


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Bernard of Chartres

Bernard of Chartres (Bernardus Carnotensis; died after 1124) was a twelfth-century French Neo-Platonist philosopher, scholar, and administrator.

Life
The date and place of his birth are unknown. He was believed to have been the elder brother of Thierry of Chartres and to be of Breton origin, but research has shown that this is unlikely. He is recorded at the cathedral school of Chartres by 1115 and was chancellor until 1124. There is no proof that he was still alive after 1124.

Contemporary accounts
Gilbert de la Porrée and William of Conches were students of his, and some information about his work comes through their writings, as well as the writings of John of Salisbury. According to John of Salisbury, Bernard composed a prose treatise De expositione Porphyrii, a metrical treatise on the same subject, a moral poem on education, and probably a fourth work in which he sought to reconcile Plato with Aristotle. Fragments of these treatises are to be found in John's Metalogicon (IV, 35) and Policraticus (VII, 3). Hauréau confounds Bernard of Chartres with Bernardus Silvestris, and assigns to the former works which are to be ascribed to the latter.

The earliest attribution of the phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is to Bernard (by John of Salisbury): "Bernard of Chartres used to say that we [the Moderns] are like dwarves perched on the shoulders of giants [the Ancients], and thus we are able to see more and farther than the latter. And this is not at all because of the acuteness of our sight or the stature of our body, but because we are carried aloft and elevated by the magnitude of the giants."

Doctrines
Bernard, in common with others of his school, devoted more attention to the study of the Timaeus and the works of the Neo-Platonists than to the study of the dialectical treatises of Aristotle and the commentaries of Boethius. Consequently, he not only discussed the problem of universals (distinguishing between the abstract, the process, and the concrete—exemplified, for instance, by the Latin words albedo, albet, and album) but also occupied himself with problems of metaphysics and cosmology.

Metaphysics
According to Bernard, there are three categories of reality: God, matter, and idea. God is supreme reality. Matter was brought out of nothingness by God's creative act and is the element which, in union with Ideas, constitutes the world of sensible things. Ideas are the prototypes by means of which the world was from all eternity present to the Divine Mind; they constitute the world of Providence ("in qua omnia semel et simul fecit Deus"), and are eternal but not coeternal with God. According to John of Salisbury, Bernard also taught that there exist native forms—copies of the Ideas created with matter—which are alone united with matter. It is difficult, however, to determine what was Bernard's doctrine on this point. It is sufficient to note that he reproduced in his metaphysical doctrines many of the characteristic traits of Platonism and Neo-Platonism: the intellect as the habitat of Ideas, the world-soul, eternal matter, matter as the source of imperfection, etc.

Cosmology
Bernard argued that matter, although caused by God, existed from all eternity. In the beginning, before its union with the Ideas, it was in a chaotic condition. It was by means of the native forms, which penetrate matter, that distinction, order, regularity, and number were introduced into the universe.

Glosses on Plato's Timaeus
Paul Edward Dutton has shown that a set of anonymous glosses on Plato's Timaeus must be attributed to Bernard. These glosses edited by Dutton are Bernard's only extant work.

Editions

 * The Glosae super Platonem of Bernard of Chartres, edited with an introduction by Paul Edward Dutton, Toronto 1991. ISBN 0-88844-107-X

title: Bernard of Chartres


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New Orleans Rhythm Kings

The New Orleans Rhythm Kings (NORK) were one of the most influential jazz bands of the early to mid-1920s. The band included New Orleans and Chicago musicians who helped shape Chicago jazz and influenced many younger jazz musicians.

They composed and recorded several jazz standards such as "Bugle Call Rag", "Milenburg Joys", "Farewell Blues", and "Tin Roof Blues". The 1954 pop song "Make Love to Me" was based on their music for "Tin Roof Blues".

History
The New Orleans Rhythm Kings in its earliest stages was the creation of the drummer Mike "Ragbaby" Stevens, solely in that he sent the first telegram to Albert Brunies about going to Chicago to form a band and find better gigs than New Orleans had to offer. Albert "Abbie" Brunies and his younger brother, the trombonist George Brunies, were initially hesitant but suggested the idea to a friend, the trumpet player Paul Mares, who immediately took the opportunity.

"So I says Paul, I says, Abbie don't want to go to Chicago and I'm kind of leery, I'm afraid", George recalled. "Paul says, 'man, give me that wire. I'll go.' So Paul went up [to Chicago] and introduced himself to Ragbaby Stevens and Ragbaby liked him… and Paul got the railroad fare from his father and sent me $60".

George Brunies packed his trombone and set off to join Mares in Chicago, playing gigs and going to after-hours clubs with Mares. At one such club the pair met some of their future bandmates, the drummer Frank Snyder, the pianist Elmer Schoebel, and the saxophonist Jack Pettis.

The name "New Orleans Rhythm Kings" did not initially refer to this group but rather was the name of a group under the direction of Bee Palmer, a vaudeville performer. Palmer's group did not last, but within several months of the breakup of the band, a member of the group, the clarinetist Leon Roppolo, was playing on riverboats in Chicago with Elmer Schoebel, Jack Pettis, Frank Snyder, George Brunies, the banjoist Louis Black and (possibly) Paul Mares. Mares, ready to move on from riverboat life, found the group an engagement at the Friar's Inn, a club owned by Mike Fritzel. The bassist Arnold Loyocano joined forces with the growing band, and thus began the group's engagement at the Friar's Inn, which lasted 17 months beginning in 1921. During this time the group performed as the Friar's Society Orchestra.

While at the Friar's Inn, the group attracted the interest not only of fans but of other musicians. The cornetist Bix Beiderbecke, who had been sent to school in Chicago by his parents in the hopes of removing him from jazz influences, regularly attended their shows and was often allowed to perform with the band.

The group recorded a series of records for Gennett Records in 1922 and 1923. On July 17 and 18 1923, they were joined by the pianist and composer Jelly Roll Morton. These sessions with Morton have sometimes been incorrectly called the first mixed-race recording session; while they are noteworthy, early examples, there were earlier instances such as the 1919 Gennett and Okeh recording of Creole clarinetists Achille Bauquet in Jimmy Durante's New Orleans Jazz Band.

After their engagement at the Friar's Inn ended, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings were largely scattered and disorganized. They re-formed periodically to make recordings, with significant member turnover (Roppolo and Mares were more or less the leaders and constants of the group), but the group never played all together again. They went their separate ways: Paul Mares continued to play music, releasing a record in 1935 and ran the P&M New Orleans Barbeque with his wife in the late 1930s. Leon Roppolo was (and always had been) mentally unstable and spent the last years of his life in and out of institutions until his early death in 1943, though he managed to keep playing music as best he could. Most of the other members of the NORK also kept successful musical careers after the group dissolved.

Recordings
In 1922 the group released the first of several records for Gennett Records, located in Richmond, Indiana. Gennett's studio was next to a railroad track, which was cursed by many frustrated musicians whose recording sessions were disturbed by the rattling trains. In the first session at Gennett, the Friars Society Orchestra (the name under which the recording was released) recorded eight songs: "Panama", "Tiger Rag", and "Livery Stable Blues", representing the New Orleans jazz standbys; the original compositions " Oriental", "Discontented Blues", and "Farewell Blues"; and a never-released Original Dixieland Jazz Band song, "Eccentric".

Paul Mares scheduled another two-day recording session at Gennett later, but the band had recently dissolved somewhat, moving in different directions following their stint at the Friar's Inn. For the session Mares got Brunies, Roppolo, Stitzel, and Pollack together to release a record as the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, the first time the name had been used since it had referred to Bee Palmer's travelling vaudeville act.

The group's recordings demonstrate a more serious, crafted style than that of the then-famous Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB). While the ODJB advertised their music as a novelty act, the NORK sought to distance themselves from the popular image of jazz as a novelty and instead marketed it as a genuine musical genre.

The third recording session occurred after Mares and Roppolo had spent some time playing in a small band in New York City. They returned to Chicago and scheduled another session with Gennett Records as the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. This session is notable because of the participation of famed jazz pianist and arranger Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton. Morton was a Creole from New Orleans, and though he identified strongly with the white "French" side of being Creole, he was generally viewed by society as black (though he was fairly light-skinned and could sometimes "pass" as Latin-American) and therefore was subjected to many of the same social pressures as other blacks of the day. In 1923 the country was still largely racially segregated, as were jazz bands. White bands were beginning to spring up attempting to imitate the "hot" jazz style that the black musicians played, but rarely did any racial mixing occur in a professional setting (In a non-professional setting, however it was becoming more and more common). Jelly Roll Morton's participation in recording with the all white New Orleans Rhythm Kings was history in the making: it is an early example of mixed race recordings. Mares and Roppolo went on to conduct two more recording sessions in New Orleans as the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in 1925 before the group dissolved altogether and its members went their separate ways.

Record reissues
A significant period of time after NORK disbanded, several record labels began reissuing the band's material. The first revival was by Riverside Records, which reissued NORK's Gennett recordings. The second reissue was from Milestone Records. Both of these reissues were important in keeping NORK's music commercially available and boosting their visibility to critics and historians. In the 1990s Milestone released the band's Gennett sides on compact disc. Six of the first eight recordings for Gennett under the Friars Society Orchestra name are on disk A of the four-CD Gennett Jazz set issued by JSP Records (JSP926). In 2019 Rivermont Records released a two-CD set featuring new transfers by Doug Benson. Using newly developed restoration technology, Benson stabilized the intermittent speed fluctuations that affected records from the band's 1922 session as Friar's Society Orchestra.

Compositions and arrangements by the New Orleans Rhythm Kings continue to be played by "traditional jazz" or Dixieland bands all over the world today. Some of their famous compositions and contributions to the jazz repertory include "Bugle Call Rag", "Milenburg Joys", "Farewell Blues", "Angry", "Baby", "Discontented Blues", "She's Crying for Me", "Oriental", "I Never Knew What a Girl Could Do", "Everybody Loves Somebody Blues", and "Tin Roof Blues".

"Make Love to Me", a 1954 pop song by Jo Stafford, using the New Orleans Rhythm King's music from the 1923 jazz standard "Tin Roof Blues", became a number 1 hit. Anne Murray and B. B. King also recorded "Make Love to Me". Jo Stafford's recording of "Make Love to Me" was number 1 for three weeks on the Billboard chart and number 2 on the Cashbox chart.

NORK sound
The ODJB and the NORK were the two leading white bands of the day, but their musical styles were very different. As opposed to the short, choppy style of the ODJB, NORK played more legato pieces. Leon Roppolo's famous clarinet sound gave the band its characteristic, bluesy feel. Richard M. Sudhalter, in his book Lost Chords: White Musicians and Their Contributions to Jazz, wrote that "Three takes of 'Tin Roof Blues' exist, three opportunities to listen to Roppolo's mind at work, arranging and rearranging the pieces of his elegiac little statement. He begins all three on his high G (concert F), ends all three on the same two-bar resolution. But the differences in between, matters of tone, dynamics, and shading as much as specific notes, are spellbinding.

"This solo, in each of its three variants, contains many 'bent' notes, the exact pitches of which resist attempts at formal notation. In certain cases…. a sustained note will have both a 'sharp' sign and a 'flat' sign above it, indicating a progression from one pitch variation to the other, in the order given." Earlier in the same chapter, Sudhalter described the full band's sound in their first Gennett recordings:

"The notion of tunefulness implies particular attention to the aesthetics of sound. The tutti passages on 'Farewell Blues', with their echoes of railroad whistles, the carefully arranged interludes and fadeout ending on Schoebel's unusual 'Discontented Blues', bespeak rehearsal and behind-the-scenes work aimed at achieving a polished and varied band sound. Nothing on any record by a black band of the early '20s is anywhere near as aesthetically venturesome.

Race and cultural context
At its roots, New Orleans jazz (which influenced Chicago jazz) represented an assimilation of Southern black traditions carried over from their African heritage mixed with white European traditions. The instrumentation was European (trumpets, trombones, etc.), while the melodic ideas and unconventional (at least, in the context of classical music) rhythms and musical forms were born from the ring shouts and country blues styles of black slaves. The very first jazz bands were mostly black and played for black audiences, though the genre progressively got picked up by white audiences too. Many of the musicians were unable to read music but instead relied heavily on head arrangements (learning the arrangement by ear and then committing it to memory) and an ability to improvise. In many other cases the musicians could read music, but white audiences were so captivated by the improvisational ability that they were convinced was inherent in black musicians that the musicians would memorize the arrangement beforehand and appear to improvise to cater to the expectations of white audiences. The New Orleans Rhythm Kings represents a contingent of white jazz bands that emerged from 1915 to the early 1920s. These bands, perhaps the best-known of which was the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, attempted to imitate the fast virtuosic style of their black counterparts. "The relatively small inner circles of acute jazz listeners in the 1920s recognized that black musicians played better, more mature, and more confident jazz". Despite a significant bias that only black musicians could play "real" jazz, white bands such as the New Orleans Rhythm Kings and the Original Dixieland Jazz Band emerged and were successful, especially in their recordings. "Livery Stable Blues" recorded by the ODJB in 1917 personified the vaudevillian style that white audiences sought in jazz: choppy, comedic, almost poking fun at itself with its animal sounds. The New Orleans Rhythm Kings, however, brought a new flavor to recorded jazz. NORK and ODJB were not the first white jazz bands (there were many others that played around Chicago and New Orleans), but they were some of the first to make recordings, and the New Orleans Rhythm Kings was one of the first white jazz bands to make mixed-race recordings (with Jelly Roll Morton, a creole).

The New Orleans contingent

 * "Chink" Martin Abraham, string bass, tuba
 * Leo Adde, drums
 * Lester Bouchon, saxophone
 * Steve Brown, string bass
 * George Brunies, trombone
 * Charlie Cordilla, clarinet, saxophone
 * Bill Eastwood, banjo
 * Emmett Hardy, cornet
 * Arthur "Monk" Hazel, drums
 * Glyn Lea "Red" Long, piano
 * Arnold "Deacon" Loyacano (Loiacono), string bass, piano
 * Oscar Marcour, violin
 * Paul Mares, trumpet, leader
 * Santo Pecora, trombone
 * Leon Roppolo, clarinet

The Chicago contingent

 * Louis 'Lou' Black, banjo
 * Voltaire de Faut, clarinet, saxophone
 * Bob Gillette, banjo
 * Husk O'Hare, promoter
 * Don Murray, clarinet, saxophone
 * Bee Palmer, vocalist
 * Jack Pettis, saxophone
 * Kyle Pierce, piano
 * Ben Pollack, drums
 * Elmer Schoebel, piano, arranger
 * Glen Scoville, saxophone
 * Frank Snyder, drums
 * Mel Stizel, piano

title: New Orleans Rhythm Kings


text:
Paul Mares

Paul Mares (June 15, 1900 – August 18, 1949), was an American early dixieland jazz cornet and trumpet player, and leader of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings.

Mares established himself as a respected bandleader over a group of wild and strong-willed musicians, as The New Orleans Rhythm Kings (N.O.R.K.) became one of the best-regarded bands in Chicago in the early 1920s.

In January 1935 Mares played trumpet on, and fronted, a recording session with a band called "Paul Mares and his Friars Society Orchestra" - a name that referred to the Friar's Inn club where the N.O.R.K. had first played in Chicago. The 1935 band included the white New Orleanian and N.O.R.K. veteran Santo Pecora on trombone, the black New Orleanian Omar Simeon on clarinet, and the Chicagoan altoist Boyce Brown, as well as George Wettling on drums, Jess Stacy on piano, Pat Pattison on bass, and Marvin Saxbe on guitar.

title: Paul Mares


text:
Leon Roppolo

Leon Joseph Roppolo (March 16, 1902 – October 5, 1943) was an American early jazz clarinetist, best known for his playing with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. He also played saxophone and guitar.

Life and career
Leon Roppolo (nicknamed "Rap" and sometimes misspelled as "Rappolo") was born in Lutcher, Louisiana, United States, up-river from New Orleans. His family, of Sicilian origin, moved to the Uptown neighborhood of New Orleans about 1912. His first instrument was the violin. He was a fan of the marching bands he heard in the streets of New Orleans, and wanted to play clarinet. An older relative with the same name played that instrument in Papa Jack Laine's Reliance Brass Band.

Roppolo soon excelled at the clarinet, and played youthful jobs with his friends Paul Mares and George Brunies for parades, parties, and at Milneburg on the shores of Lake Pontchartrain. At the age of 15 he decided to leave home to travel with the band of Bee Palmer, which soon became the nucleus for the New Orleans Rhythm Kings.

The Rhythm Kings became (along with King Oliver's band) one of the best regarded hot jazz bands in Chicago in the early 1920s. Roppolo's style influenced many younger Chicago musicians, most notably Benny Goodman. Some critics have called Roppolo's work on the Rhythm Kings Gennett Records the first recorded jazz solos.

After the breakup of the Rhythm Kings in Chicago, Roppolo and Paul Mares headed east to try their luck on the New York City jazz scene. Contemporary musicians recalled Roppolo making some recordings with Original Memphis Five and California Ramblers musicians in New York in 1924. These sides were presumably unissued, or if issued unidentified.

Roppolo and Mares then returned home to New Orleans where they briefly reformed the Rhythm Kings and made some more recordings. After this, Roppolo worked with other New Orleans bands such as the Halfway House Orchestra, with which he recorded on saxophone. Roppolo exhibited ever more eccentric behavior and violent temper. This was finally too much for his family to take, and Leon was committed to the state mental hospital in 1925. Some writers have speculated that he was suffering from tertiary syphilis.

Death
Leon Roppolo died in New Orleans at the age of 41, and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery, within sight of the old Halfway House building where he played for years.

Compositions
Roppolo's compositions include the jazz standards "Farewell Blues" and "Milenberg Joys", "Gold Leaf Strut" or "Golden Leaf Strut", "Tin Roof Blues" (1923), and "Make Love to Me", which was a pop song using Leon Roppolo's music (from "Tin Roof Blues"), recorded by Jo Stafford (in 1954), and later by Anne Murray and B. B. King.

Personal life
Roppolo married Mabel Alice Branchard on 17 May 1920 in New Orleans. They had one child, Epifanio Leon Roppolo.

title: Leon Roppolo


text:
Simon of Trent

Simon of Trent (Simon von Trient, also known as Simon Unverdorben (meaning Simon Immaculate in German); Simonino di Trento), also known as Simeon (1472–1475), was a young boy from the city of Trent (now Trento in northern Italy), in the Prince-Bishopric of Trent, whose disappearance and death was blamed on the leaders of the city's Jewish community, based on the confessions of Jews obtained under judicial torture.

Events
At the time of the events, Prince-Bishop Johannes Hinderbach reigned in Trent under the ultimate jurisdiction of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. In March 1475, an itinerant Franciscan preacher, Bernardine of Feltre, delivered a series of sermons in Trent that vilified the local Jews, essentially three households headed by Samuel (who arrived in 1461), Tobias, and Engel. They formed a distinct community marked by their professions and by their apparent wealth in comparison with the artisans and sharecroppers of the city: Samuel was a moneylender and Tobias a physician. The Prince-Bishop had renewed the Jewish community's permission to reside and practice their professions in Trent a few years previously, in 1469. This dependence on the protection of the authorities later inclined the Jews, upon finding Simon's body, to report the discovery.

The events themselves have been reconstructed from a careful study of the trial records by American historian Ronnie Hsia. Simon, almost two and a half years old, went missing about 5 p.m. on the evening of Thursday, 23 March 1475. The following day, Good Friday, Simon's father approached the prince-bishop to ask for help in finding his missing child. The podestà, Giovanni de Salis, had his men spread a description of Simon through the city. Over the following couple of days, searches were carried out by Simon's family and neighbours, by the servants of the podestà, and also by the Jewish community, who had been alerted to a rumour that they had taken the child and were concerned about the possibility of being framed. On Saturday, 25 March, Simon's father appealed to the podestà specifically to search the Jews' houses, saying he had been advised they might have taken his child. Despite these searches, no sign of the child was found. Samuel's property was extensive, including a hall that functioned as a synagogue, and a water cellar that was also used for ritual bathing and was supplied with water from a channel that ran beneath the property. According to the trial record, on Easter Sunday, 26 March, a cook named Seligman went to Samuel's cellar to fetch water to prepare the evening meal and found Simon's body in the water. Samuel himself, accompanied by two other Jews, went to the podestà to report the discovery. Later that evening, the podestà and some of his men retrieved the body, with his servant Ulrich being ordered to carry it to the hospital. The narrative summary based on the trial documents, drafted in 1478–1479, omitted the fact that the Jews had themselves reported finding the body, stating only that Ulrich had found Simon's body in a ditch next to Samuel's house.

Following the report of the body's discovery, the entire Jewish community (both men and women) were arrested and forced under torture to confess to having murdered Simon to use his blood for ritual purposes (a classic example of the blood libel that Jews used Christian blood in their rituals). An examination of the corpse by city doctors determined that Simon had not died of natural causes but had been exsanguinated. In Hsia's view, "the narrative imperative, the official story of ritual murder, the trial record of 1475–76, represents nothing less than a Christian ethnography of Jewish rites".

Fifteen of the Jews, including Samuel, the head of the community, were sentenced to death and burnt at the stake. The Jewish women were accused as accomplices but argued their gender did not allow them to participate in the rituals restricted to men. They were freed from prison in 1478 due to papal intervention. One Jew, Israel, was allowed to convert to Christianity for a short while, but he was arrested again after other Jews confessed he was part of the Passover Seder. After a long period of torture he was also sentenced to death on 19 January. The Trent trial's notoriety inspired a rise in Christian violence towards Jews in the surrounding areas of Veneto, Lombardy, and Tyrol, along with accusations of ritual murder, culminating in Vicenza with the prohibition of Jewish moneylending in 1479 and the expulsion of all Jews in 1486.

Papal investigation
On 3 August 1475, Pope Sixtus IV commanded Bishop Hinderbach to suspend judicial proceedings until the arrival of the papal representative, Battista dei Giudici, Bishop of Ventimiglia, who would conduct a joint investigation with the Bishop of Trent. Giudici arrived in Trent in September. The local authorities worked against his investigation, preventing him from visiting Jews in prison and impeding his access to trial records.

In the face of persistent hostility, he relocated to Rovereto, which was then under Venetian control, and summoned Hinderbach and the podestà to answer for their conduct. Instead of appearing, Hinderbach had an account of the proceedings drawn up to vindicate his own actions, circulating it widely and so giving general credence to the notion that Simon of Trent had in fact been murdered by Jews.

The case was reviewed in Rome, where Hinderbach had powerful friends, including the papal librarian Bartolomeo Sacchi, who accused Giudici of being in the pay of the Jews. Giudici wrote two treatises on the affair, an Apologia Iudaeorum defending the Jews, and an Invectiva contra Platinam (aimed at Sacchi) defending himself. A committee of cardinals, chaired by Giovan Francesco Pavini, former professor of canon law at the University of Padua and an old friend of the bishop of Trent, exonerated Hinderbach and censured Giudici. A papal bull was issued on 20 June 1478, accepting that the inquiries in Trent had been carried out in legal fashion but avoiding a finding of fact with regard to Simon's death, while also reasserting papal protection for the Jews and the unlawfulness of ritual murder trials, in line with a decree of Pope Innocent IV from 1243.

Veneration
Simon became the focus of attention for the local Catholic Church. The local bishop, Hinderbach of Trent, tried to have Simon canonized, producing a large body of documentation of the event and its aftermath. Over one hundred miracles were directly attributed to Simon within a year of his disappearance, and his cult spread across Italy, Austria and Germany. However, there was also skepticism from the beginning, as Giudici's investigation showed.

Maximilian I, a future Holy Roman Emperor, was a strong proponent of Simon's veneration and commissioned a silver monument of the child. He also had Simon's relics carried in procession when he was made emperor in 1508.

The veneration received wider liturgical impetus in the 16th century. Joannes Molanus included a footnote on Simon of Trent in his 1568 edition of Usuard's martyrology, and this was then incorporated into the new official edition of the Martyrologium Romanum in 1583, with 24 March having the additional text: Tridenti passio sancti Simeonis pueri, a Judaeis saevissime trucidati, qui multis postea miraculis coruscavit. ("At Trent, the suffering of the holy boy Simeon, barbarously murdered by the Jews, who was afterwards glorified by many miracles.") In 1584 the use of this martyrology became obligatory in the Roman Rite. Furthermore, in 1588 Pope Sixtus V gave recognition to the local veneration of Simon as an established devotion, functionally equivalent to a decree of beatification.

In 1758, Cardinal Ganganelli (later Pope Clement XIV, 1769–1774) prepared a legal memorandum which, to the exclusion of all other allegations of ritual murders of infants which records were thoroughly made available to him, expressly admitted as proven only two: that of Simon of Trent and that of Andreas Oxner. At the same time, he extols the glories and accomplishments of the Jewish people across history, writing that the murder of Simon of Trent does not suffice to injure the reputation of the entire Jewish people.

Simon's cultus was permitted by the Popes for local public liturgical observance (effectively beatification) within the Diocese of Trent. In a letter to Benedetto Veterani, Promoter of Faith, Pope Benedict XIV recognised that this was the case, but was careful to distinguish such authorization from canonization.

As was stated in one publication, "It is simply untrue to say that the Church has canonized little Simon of Trent. A decree of beatification was issued by Sixtus V, which took the form simply of a confirmation of cultus and which allowed a Mass to be said locally in honour of the boy martyr. Everyone knows that beatification differs from canonization in this, that in the former case the infallibility of the Holy See is not involved, in the latter it is."

Following studies on the case, on 28 October 1965 (the same day as the publication of Nostra aetate by Pope Paul VI) archbishop of Trent Alessandro Maria Gottardi abolished the cult of Simon, and the yearly procession with his relics was suppressed. Simon of Trent is not in the new Roman Martyrology of 2000, nor on any modern Catholic calendar. His relics, removed from their resting place in Saints Peter and Paul church in Trent upon the cult's suppression, were returned there in 2021, together with an exhibit about him curated by the Museo diocesano tridentino.

Controversies
In the 21st century, historian Ariel Toaff, writing about the case of Simon of Trent, hypothesized that the notion that some Jews killed children to use their blood for ritual purposes may have been tenuously based on an actual "ritual of blood" that did not involve infanticide. In the same work, Passovers of Blood, Toaff theorises that some blood libel cases may be based on actual instances of infanticide where a Jewish perpetrator acted in retaliation for persecutions against the community. After criticism, the book was withdrawn from circulation and redacted by its author.

In 2020, the Italian artist Giovanni Gasparro painted a depiction of Simon's death. He was later accused of antisemitism for this painting which sold to a private collector.

In February 2022, a sculpture of Simon of Trent depicting the blood libel was used by QAnon conspiracy theorists to promote the conspiracy theory that Hollywood elites are harvesting adrenochrome from children through Satanic ritual abuse in order to become immortal.

title: Simon of Trent


text: Talk:Poetry slam

title: Talk:Poetry slam


text:
Don Murray (clarinetist)

Don Murray (June 7, 1904 – June 2, 1929) was an American jazz clarinet and saxophone player.

Early life
Murray was born in Joliet, Illinois, and attended high school in Chicago. In his teens, he made a name for himself as one of the best young jazz clarinetists and saxophonists in the city.

Career
In 1923, Murray recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings; according to Rhythm Kings leader Paul Mares, Murray was not a regular member of the band, but was a friend who sometimes sat in with them. Murray also made early recordings with Muggsy Spanier. He then joined the Detroit, Michigan based band of Jean Goldkette, with whom he remained until 1927. It was here that he mentored the young Jimmy Dorsey. He also played baritone saxophone on some recordings with Joe Venuti and Eddie Lang, under the band name “Joe Venuti’s Blue Four” playing the baritone saxophone very much like Adrian Rollini’s bass saxophone style.

After a brief stint with Adrian Rollini's band, during which he contributed to several highly regarded recordings by Bix Beiderbecke, Murray was hired by Ted Lewis. Ted Lewis said that Murray was the greatest clarinetist he ever had in his band. Murray can be heard on the soundtrack of the Ted Lewis film Is Everybody Happy? (1929), which is considered a "lost film."

In 2021, the Bix Beiderbecke Museum and World Archives in Davenport, Iowa, announced that it would raise $12,000 to renovate its permanent exhibit, including Murray's saxophone.

Death
Murray died in 1929 at a Los Angeles hospital after injuries sustained in an automobile accident. Apparently, he was standing on the running board of a moving roadster and fell; he struck the back of his head on the pavement and was then hospitalized with serious head injury. Murray is buried at the Memorial Park Cemetery in Skokie, Illinois.

title: Don Murray (clarinetist)


text:
Talk:Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers

Untitled

 * Jive Bunny arguably marks the point at which number one hits for new artists became commonplace, rather than a rarity.

I removed this because it isn't true without a more specific definition of "new artists". The vast majority of performers never have a #1 hit at all. If someone can clarify what was meant and add it back, that would be great. Tokerboy

Really samples??
I remember to hear the first three singles and to enjoy the way the real versions are mixed together. But at the time i downloaded the albums the real samples are there no more! And the versions are like you said before, only a new Stars at 45. Anybody have any information of this?? Thanks FerBeat

 * I would guess copyright reasons - this was before the notable UK copyright cases over sampling in the early 1990s - Beats International were involved in one in the early 1990s for the amount of samples in "Dub Be Good To Me" - although, going by my Number Ones collection here, the last Jive Bunny #1 was only 5 #1's before Dub Be Good To Me. Still - licence fees could have been too high. --Kiand 23:47, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * You're right - they don't have the rights to most of the original samples any more, and so the tracks are now just rather poor re-recordings. "Let's Party" was played on Radio 2's Pick Of The Pops over Christmas, when they counted down the Top 20 from Xmas 1989, and I almost had a heart attack because the original contained a Gary Glitter sample, and I couldn't believe they'd allow that (!)... but in fact in the version they played it was someone else's voice in each of the main samples.
 * Anyway, I'm going to delete the references to the songs from Swing The Mood from here, because there is a full list at the page for the track itself, which is the right place for it. Also the track titles are not all linked to their respective pages, so I will sort that as well, plus a bit of general clean-up.Tobycek (talk) 00:33, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

Real Singers
I know this discussion is probably dead and no one will see this, but I'm going to try anyway. On their debut album Jive Bunny: The Album, all the songs were done by the original artists, with the exception of Elvis' songs, they couldn't get the rights to it. This is the U.S. released version I'm talking about. Should we mention it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Meet Me Outside (talk • contribs) 11:16, 16 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I'd say it's probably worth adding only to a page for the album itself, which doesn't (as yet) exist. You could create one, and then discuss the different versions that existed around the world, and the copyright reasons that led to the differences... if you can find some info about it on the web somewhere.Tobycek (talk) 00:47, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers


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Emmett Hardy

Emmett Louis Hardy (June 12, 1903 – June 16, 1925) was an American jazz cornet player during the early 1900s.

Early life
Hardy was born in the New Orleans suburb of Gretna, Louisiana, United States, and lived much of his life in the Algiers neighborhood, on the west bank of New Orleans. Hardy was a child prodigy, described as already playing marvelously in his early teens. Some New Orleans musicians remembered as a musical highlight of their lives, a 1919 cutting contest where, after long and intense struggle, Hardy succeeded in outplaying Louis Armstrong. (It is likely that Armstrong, although two years older than Hardy, had not yet hit his full stride at that time.)

Career
In Hardy's early teens, he was a member of Papa Jack Laine's band, then worked in the Carlisle Evans Band and Norman Brownlee's Orchestra of New Orleans. He belonged to a small band that supported singer Bee Palmer. After moving to Chicago, he became a member of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. For a time during its Friar's Inn residency/ the NORK used a two-cornet format – Paul Mares, leader and first cornet, and Emmett Hardy as second. As with other New Orleans jazz bands of that time (such as King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band and The Original Tuxedo Orchestra), the more creative player played the second part, with the first cornet staying closer to the lead line. Hardy did not appear on any of the Rhythm Kings recording sessions, never making any commercial recordings before his early death.

After returning to New Orleans in the early 1920s, he led his own band and played in the band of Norman Brownlee.

Technique
Hardy's playing is described as being more lyrical than many of his New Orleans contemporaries, but with a driving rhythm. His tone was much admired.

"'Emmet... always preferred playing in some screwy, plenty tough keys like B-natural, F-sharp, C-sharp, D-flat, and E-natural, using all those keys on one tune and making his own modulations into and out of choruses. His tone was pure and wonderful and it sorta rolled forth, except with a drive like I've never heard anyone else get.' —Monk Hazel, Down Beat magazine, May 15, 1940" Hardy was an important influence on Bix Beiderbecke, and Monk Hazel pointed out that Beiderbecke on the Wolverines records sounded very much like Hardy.

 * "It’s no wonder that later, after the Wolverine era when Bix was forging ahead with Goldkette and Whiteman, Beiderbecke modestly paid tribute to Hardy as his greatest inspiration, and that he even wrote Emmet’s mother late in 1925 saying 'Emmet was the greatest musician I have ever heard. If ever I can come near your son’s greatness I'll die happy.'"—Dave Dexter Jr., Down Beat, June 1, 1940

Personality
Hardy also did metal work, made his own mouthpieces for his horn, and modified his cornet to add an additional spit-valve. A relative remembered Hardy as being somewhat shy and unassuming, with a good dry sense of humor; that he was easily frightened by sudden loud noises, and superstitious about passing by graveyards.

Illness and death
When advancing tuberculosis started to make breathing difficult, Hardy taught himself banjo so he could continue playing music.

Hardy and some of his musician friends made some home recordings on wax phonograph cylinders for their own amusement. As Hardy's tuberculosis worsened and his death seemed inevitable, the friends decided to preserve the cylinders as a memento of Hardy's playing. At least one cylinder survived to the start of the 1950s; the relative who heard it then said Hardy's playing reminded him of Sharkey Bonano. When Tulane University's Jazz Archive was established in the late 1950s, however, a diligent search failed to turn up any of these recordings, which are presumed lost forever.

Hardy died of tuberculosis in New Orleans, just four days after his 22nd birthday, and was buried in Gretna, Louisiana.

title: Emmett Hardy


text:
Wikipedia:Articles using American English titles

This is an incomplete listing of articles that are titled with American English, spelling or phrases, that may be unfamiliar to British English speakers. Compare with Articles using British English titles

See American and British English differences for more information.

 * artifact - artefact
 * carbon fiber - carbon fibre
 * carburetor - carburettor
 * color - colour
 * diaper - nappy
 * diarrhea - diarrhoea
 * dietary fiber - dietary fibre
 * doubly clad fiber - doubly clad fibre
 * elevator - lift
 * fiber distributed data interface - fibre distributed data interface
 * fiber - fibre
 * feces - faeces
 * french fries - chips
 * gelatin - gelatine
 * graded-index fiber - graded-index fibre
 * harbor - harbour
 * hemoglobin - hæmoglobin
 * infant formula - baby milk
 * movie theater - cinema
 * moving walkway - travelator
 * optical fiber - optical fibre
 * estrogen - oestrogen
 * pacifier - dummy
 * Pantyhose - tights
 * pedophilia - paedophilia
 * polarization-maintaining optical fiber - polarization-maintaining optical fibre
 * potato chips - crisps
 * program - programme
 * Pythagorean theorem - Pythagoras' theorem
 * quadruply clad fiber - quadruply clad fibre
 * rutabaga - swede
 * sidewalk - pavement
 * single-mode optical fiber - single-mode optical fibre
 * station wagon - estate car
 * sulfur - sulphur
 * sulfur dioxide - sulphur dioxide
 * tic-tac-toe - noughts and crosses
 * tire - tyre


text:
Yad Vashem

Yad Vashem (יָד וַשֵׁם; lit. 'a memorial and a name') is Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. It is dedicated to preserving the memory of the Jews who were murdered; echoing the stories of the survivors; honoring Jews who fought against their Nazi oppressors and gentiles who selflessly aided Jews in need; and researching the phenomenon of the Holocaust in particular and genocide in general, with the aim of avoiding such events in the future. Yad Vashem's vision, as stated on its website, is: "To lead the documentation, research, education and commemoration of the Holocaust, and to convey the chronicles of this singular Jewish and human event to every person in Israel, to the Jewish people, and to every significant and relevant audience worldwide."

Established in 1953, Yad Vashem is located on the Mount of Remembrance, on the western slope of Mount Herzl, a height in western Jerusalem, 804 m above sea level and adjacent to the Jerusalem Forest. The memorial consists of a 180 dunam complex containing two types of facilities: some dedicated to the scientific study of the Holocaust, and memorials and museums catering to the needs of the larger public. Among the former there are an International Research Institute for Holocaust Research, an archives, a library, a publishing house and the International School for Holocaust Studies; the latter include the Holocaust History Museum, memorial sites such as the Children's Memorial and the Hall of Remembrance, the Museum of Holocaust Art, sculptures, outdoor commemorative sites such as the Valley of the Communities, as well as a synagogue.

A core goal of Yad Vashem's founders was to recognize non-Jews who, at personal risk and without financial or evangelistic motives, chose to save Jews from the ongoing genocide during the Holocaust. Those recognized by Israel as Righteous Among the Nations are honored in a section of Yad Vashem known as the Garden of the Righteous Among the Nations.

Yad Vashem is the second-most-visited Israeli tourist site, after the Western Wall, with approximately one million visitors each year. It charges no admission fee.

Etymology
The name "Yad Vashem" is taken from a verse in the Book of Isaiah (56:5): "[To] them will I give in my house and within my walls a [memorial] and a [name], better than sons and daughters; I will give them an everlasting [name], that shall not be cut off [from memory]." וְנָתַתִּי לָהֶם בְּבֵיתִי וּבְחוֹמֹתַי יָד וָשֵׁם, טוֹב מִבָּנִים וּמִבָּנוֹת; שֵׁם עוֹלָם אֶתֶּן לוֹ, אֲשֶׁר לֹא יִכָּרֵת.). Naming the Holocaust memorial "yad vashem" (יָד וָשֵׁם, yād wā-šêm, literally "a memorial and a name") conveys the idea of establishing a national depository for the names of Jewish victims who have no one to carry their name after death. The original verse referred to eunuchs who, although they could not have children, could still live for eternity with the Lord.

History

The desire to establish a memorial in the historical Jewish homeland for Jewish victims of the Nazi Holocaust originated during World War II, in response to emerging accounts of the mass murder of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries. Yad Vashem was first proposed in September 1942, at a board meeting of the Jewish National Fund, by Mordecai Shenhavi, a member of Kibbutz Mishmar Ha'emek. In August 1945, the plan was discussed in greater detail at a Zionist meeting in London. A provisional board of Zionist leaders was established that included David Remez as chairman, Shlomo Zalman Shragai, Baruch Zuckerman, and Shenhavi. In February 1946, Yad Vashem opened an office in Jerusalem and a branch office in Tel Aviv, and in June that year convened its first plenary session. In July 1947, the First Conference on Holocaust Research was held at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. However, the outbreak of the 1947–1949 Palestine war brought operations to a standstill for two years.

On 19 August 1953, the Knesset, Israel's Parliament, unanimously passed the Yad Vashem Law, establishing the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, the aim of which was "the commemoration in the Homeland of all those members of the Jewish people who gave their lives, or rose up and fought the Nazi enemy and its collaborators," and to set up "a memorial to them, and to the communities, organizations and institutions that were destroyed because they belonged to the Jewish people."

On 29 July 1954, the cornerstone for the Yad Vashem building was laid on a hill in western Jerusalem, to be known as the Mount of Remembrance (Har HaZikaron); the organization had already begun projects to collect the names of individuals killed in the Holocaust; acquire Holocaust documentation and personal testimonies of survivors for the Archives and Library; and develop research and publications. The memorial and museum opened to the public in 1957.

The location of Yad Vashem on the western side of Mount Herzl – an area devoid of weighty historical associations, distinct from the Chamber of the Holocaust, founded in 1948 on Mount Zion – was chosen because it was far from the Jerusalem city center, and the founders of the memorial site did not want to erect a grim, sorrowful memorial, amidst population concentration. The conceptual connection of "From Holocaust to Rebirth" was made only with hindsight: Only in 2003 the Connecting Path between Yad Vashem and the National Cemetery in Mount Herzl was created and paved. The "Valley of the Communities" monument at Yad Vashem commemorates over 5,000 Jewish communities destroyed or damaged during the Holocaust, the names of which are engraved on its towering walls. The position of Yad Vashem is that the Holocaust is incomparable to any other calamity previously inflicted on the Jewish people, and therefore the Holocaust cannot be regarded as a continuation of the death and destruction that plagued Jewish communities over the centuries, but rather as a unique phase in history, an unprecedented endeavor to totally annihilate the Jewish people.

In 1982, Yad Vashem sponsored the International Conference on Holocaust and Genocide, which included six presentations on the Armenian genocide. It later withdrew from the conference after threats by the Turkish government that Jewish lives would be put in danger if the conference went ahead.

On 15 March 2005, a new Museum complex four times larger than the old one opened at Yad Vashem. It included the Holocaust History Museum with a new Hall of Names, a Museum of Holocaust Art, an Exhibitions Pavilion, a Learning Center and a Visual Center. The new Yad Vashem museum was designed by Israeli-Canadian architect Moshe Safdie, replacing the previous 30-year-old exhibition. It was the culmination of a $100 million decade-long expansion project.

Administration
In November 2008, Rabbi Yisrael Meir Lau was appointed chairman of Yad Vashem's council, replacing Tommy Lapid. The vice chairman of the council is Moshe Kantor. Yitzhak Arad was vice chairman until his death on May 6, 2021. Elie Wiesel was vice chairman of the council until his death on 2 July 2016.

Yitzhak Arad served as the chairman of the directorate from 1972 to 1993. He was succeeded by Avner Shalev, who served as chairman until February 2021. Shalev was succeeded as chairman by Dani Dayan in August 2021.

The members of the Yad Vashem directorate are Yossi Ahimeir, Daniel Atar, Michal Cohen, Avraham Duvdevani, Boleslaw (Bolek) Goldman, Vera H. Golovensky, Shlomit Kasirer, Yossi Katribas, Yehiel Leket, Dalit Stauber, Zehava Tanne, Shoshana Weinshall, and Dudi Zilbershlag. Former deceased members were Matityahu Drobles, Moshe Ha-Elion and Baruch Shub.

The CEO is Tzvika Fayirizen. The Director of the International Institute for Holocaust Research is Iael Nidam-Orvieto. The chair for Holocaust studies is Dan Michman. Prof. Yehuda Bauer and Prof. Dina Porat are Senior Academic Advisors. Prof. Porat also served as Chief Historian between the years 2011-2022.

Objectives

The aims of Yad Vashem are education, research and documentation, and commemoration. Yad Vashem organizes professional development courses for educators both in Israel and throughout the world; develops age-appropriate study programs, curricula, and educational materials for Israeli and foreign schools in order to teach students of all ages about the Holocaust; holds exhibitions about the Holocaust; collects the names of Holocaust victims; collects photos, documents, and personal artifacts; and collects Pages of Testimony memorializing victims of the Holocaust. Yad Vashem seeks to preserve the memory and names of the six million Jews murdered during the Holocaust, and the numerous Jewish communities destroyed during that time. It holds ceremonies of remembrance and commemoration; supports Holocaust research projects; develops and coordinates symposia, workshops, and international conferences; and publishes research, memoirs, documents, albums, and diaries related to the Holocaust. Yad Vashem also honors non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.

The International Institute for Holocaust Studies at Yad Vashem, founded in 1993, offers guides and seminars for students, teachers, and educators, and develops pedagogic tools for use in the classroom. Yad Vashem trains thousands domestic and foreign teachers every year.

Yad Vashem operates a web site in several languages, including English, German, Hebrew, Persian, French, Russian, Spanish and Arabic. In 2013 Yad Vashem launched an online campaign in Arabic, promoting Yad Vashem's website. The campaign reached over 2.4 million Arabic speakers from around the globe, and the traffic to Yad Vashem's website was tripled.

The institution's policy is that the Holocaust "cannot be compared to any other event". In 2009 Yad Vashem fired a docent for comparing the trauma Jews suffered in the Holocaust to the trauma Palestinians suffered during 1947–1949 Palestine war, including the Deir Yassin massacre.

Yad Vashem Studies
Yad Vashem Studies is a peer-reviewed semi-annual scholarly journal on the Holocaust. Published since 1957, it appears in both English and Hebrew editions.

Museum

Yad Vashem building on the Mount of Remembrance was inaugurated in 1957. Its first exhibits, opened on 1958, focused on documentation of the Holocaust. The second exhibition, opened in 1959, presented paintings from the Holocaust Ghettos and camps.

In 1993, planning began for a larger, more technologically advanced museum to replace the old one. The new building, designed by Canadian-Israeli architect Moshe Safdie, consists of a long corridor connected to 10 exhibition halls, each dedicated to a different chapter of the Holocaust. The museum combines the personal stories of 90 Holocaust victims and survivors and presents approximately 2,500 personal items including artwork and letters donated by survivors and others. The old historical displays revolving around anti-Semitism and the rise of Nazism have been replaced by exhibits that focus on the personal stories of Jews killed in the Holocaust. According to Avner Shalev, the museum's curator and chairman, a visit to the new museum revolves around "looking into the eyes of the individuals. There weren't six million victims, there were six million individual murders."

The new museum was dedicated on 15 March 2005 in the presence of leaders from 40 states and then Secretary General of the UN Kofi Annan. President of Israel Moshe Katzav said that Yad Vashem serves as "an important signpost to all of humankind, a signpost that warns how short the distance is between hatred and murder, between racism and genocide".

In April 2019, Yad Vashem started a new collection center to house and conserve millions of artifacts from the Holocaust.

Architecture
The first architect involved in the design of Yad Vashem was Munio Weinraub, who worked on the project from 1943 till the 1960s, together with his architectural partner Al Mansfield. He was approached for this purpose by Mordechai Shenhavi, the initiator and first director of the institution. Weinraub's plans were not realised as a whole, but some of his ideas are visible in Yad Vashem today.

The new Holocaust History Museum, designed by Moshe Safdie, is shaped like a triangular concrete prism that cuts through the landscape, illuminated by a 200 m skylight. Visitors follow a preset route that takes them through underground galleries that branch off from the main hall. Safdie is also the architect behind the Children's Memorial and the Deportees (cattle-car) Memorial.

The gates are the work of the sculptor David Palombo (1920–1966).

Hall of Names

The Hall of Names is a memorial to the six million Jews who were murdered in the Holocaust. The main hall is composed of two cones: one ten meters high, with a reciprocal well-like cone excavated into the underground rock, its base filled with water. On the upper cone is a display featuring 600 photographs of Holocaust victims and fragments of Pages of Testimony. These are reflected in the water at the bottom of the lower cone, commemorating those victims whose names remain unknown. Surrounding the platform is the circular repository, housing the approximately 2.7 million Pages of Testimony collected to date, with empty spaces for those yet to be submitted.

Since the 1950s, Yad Vashem has collected approximately 110,000 audio, video, and written testimonies by Holocaust survivors. As the survivors age, the program has expanded to visiting survivors in their homes, to tape interviews. Adjoining the hall is a study area with a computerized data bank where visitors can do online searches for the names of Holocaust victims.

Archives
The Archive is the oldest department of Yad Vashem. Before presenting an exhibition, Yad Vashem collects items. The best known of these are the historical photographs, as well as the Pages of Testimonies collected from survivors. The latter is a database of personal information about those who survived and those who were murdered in the Holocaust. Yad Vashem has also acquired access to the database of the International Tracing Service of Bad Arolsen of the International Committee of the Red Cross, and these two databases complement each other for research purposes.

Righteous Among the Nations

One of Yad Vashem's tasks is to honor non-Jews who risked their lives, liberty, or positions to save Jews during the Holocaust. To this end, a special independent commission, headed by a retired Supreme Court justice, was established. The commission members, including historians, public figures, lawyers, and Holocaust survivors, examine and evaluate each case according to a well-defined set of criteria and regulations. The Righteous receive a certificate of honor and a medal, and their names are commemorated in the Garden of the Righteous Among the Nations, on the Mount of Remembrance, Yad Vashem. This is an ongoing project that will continue for as long as there are valid requests, substantiated by testimonies or documentation. Five hundred and fifty-five individuals were recognized during 2011, and, more than 27,921 individuals have been recognized as Righteous Among the Nations.

Yad Vashem's declared policy is not to provide meaningful recognition, even in a possible new category, to Jews who rescued Jews, regardless of the number of people their activism saved. The stated reason is that Jews had an obligation to save fellow Jews and do not deserve recognition.

Ładoś Group
In April 2019 the Yad Vashem granted the title of Righteous Among the Nations to Konstanty Rokicki and offered "appreciation" to Aleksander Ładoś and Stefan Ryniewicz arguing that Rokicki headed the Ładoś Group. The document erroneously called Ładoś and Ryniewicz "consuls". The decision sparked outrage and frustration among the family members of the two other late Polish diplomats, and among survivors. Thirty one of them signed an open letter to Yad Vashem. Rokicki's cousin refused to accept the medal until two other Polish diplomats, Rokicki's superior are recognized as Righteous Among The Nations, too. Polish Ambassador to Switzerland Jakub Kumoch who contributed to the discovery of Rokicki also refuted the Yad Vashem's interpretation stating that Rokicki worked under Ładoś and Ryniewicz. Eldad Beck of Israel Hayom suggested that this decision was politically inspired and related to the worsening of Israel-Poland relations due to the controversy over the Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance.

Political interference and leadership
In summer 2023, a number of scholars, politicians and media figures have criticized Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Education Minister Yoav Kisch for an attempt to remove Yad Vashem Chairman Dani Dayan from his position, noting that this reduces the independence and hence, credibility, of the institution.

Criticism of Yad Vashem leadership in the context of political appointments and alleged politicization of the institution have taken place before. In 2020 plans to appoint Effi Eitam to head the institutions have been criticized, due to alleged racist remarks made by the appointee.

Art gallery
Yad Vashem houses the world's largest collection of artwork produced by Jews and other victims of Nazi occupation in 1933–1945. The Yad Vashem Art Department supervises a 10,000-piece collection, adding 300 pieces a year, most of them donated by survivors' families or discovered in attics. Included in the collection are works by Alexander Bogen, Alice Lok Cahana, Samuel Bak, and Felix Nussbaum.

Monuments

 * The monument to the heroes of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising by Nathan Rapoport, a version of the 1948 Monument to the Ghetto Heroes from Warsaw.
 * Janusz Korczak and the Children, memorial to the educator and the children he refused to leave
 * Memorial to the Jewish children murdered in the Holocaust
 * The Memorial to the Deportees, aka "train monument", in memory of the Jews taken to the extermination camps by cattle cars
 * Valley of the (Destroyed) Communities, in memory of the Jewish communities of Europe which ceased to exist after the Holocaust

Prizes awarded by Yad Vashem
Yad Vashem awards the following book prizes:
 * Yad Vashem Prize for Children's Holocaust Literature
 * Yad Vashem International Book Prize for Holocaust Research, established in 2011 in memory of Abraham Meir Schwartzbaum, Holocaust survivor, and his family who was murdered in the Holocaust. Since 2018 the prize is awarded in memory of Benny and Tilly Joffe z"l, Holocaust survivors, and their family who was murdered in the Holocaust. It is awarded annually in recognition of high scholarly research and writing on the Holocaust.
 * Sussman Prize for Paintings of the Shoah. Recipients include:
 * 1996: Aharon Gluska and Moshe Kupferman
 * The annual Buchman Foundation Memorial Prize, for writers and scholars for Holocaust-related works. Recipients include:
 * 2007: Hanoch Bartov, for Beyond the Horizon, Across the Street
 * 2007: Shlomo Aronson, for Hitler, the Allies and the Jews
 * Earlier: Aharon Appelfeld, Alona Frankel (2005), Ida Fink, Dina Porat, Lizzie Doron, Amir Gutfreund, and Itamar Levin.

Awards bestowed upon Yad Vashem

 * In 1973, the Pinkas HaKehillot (Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities) project of Yad Vashem was awarded the Israel Prize, for its special contribution to society and the State.
 * In 2003, Yad Vashem was awarded the Israel Prize, for lifetime achievement and its special contribution to society and the State.
 * In September 2007, Yad Vashem received the Prince of Asturias Award for Concord. The Prince of Asturias Awards are presented in eight categories. The Award for Concord is bestowed upon a person, persons, or institution whose work has made an exemplary and outstanding contribution to mutual understanding and peaceful coexistence among men, to the struggle against injustice or ignorance, to the defense of freedom, or whose work has widened the horizons of knowledge or has been outstanding in protecting and preserving mankind's heritage.
 * On 25 October 2007, Yad Vashem Chairman Avner Shalev was awarded the Légion d'honneur for his "extraordinary work on behalf of Holocaust remembrance worldwide." French President Nicolas Sarkozy presented Shalev with the award in a special ceremony at the Élysée Palace.
 * In 2011, Shalev received the City of Jerusalem's Patron of Jerusalem Award in recognition of his work in the city.

title: Yad Vashem


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles using American English titles

What is the policy regarding the use of American English as opposed to standard British english (if that's what you call it!) and Hiberno-English? In writing articles, I have generally followed the policy of leaving articles in whichever form of english they are written in; eg, the article on abortion refers to a fetus, which outside America is usually written as foetus. When I added info to the article, I used fetus with a footnote at the end pointing out the alternative spelling (just to reassure friends of mine I hadn't mis-spelt the word: many view American spelling as just bad spelling!!!) but was accepting the article standard. But where I write an article myself I use Hiberno-English. I have noticed some Americans have attempted to 'americanise' other versions of english, a rather sore point with some europeans; I have noticed a few have reverted to the english-english version and left some rather sharp notes to the effect of 'keep your bad spelling to yourself!' JTD 19:00 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC) Interesting. I've come across a few Brits, probably still sore about that tea party thing a couple hundred years ago, INSISTING we use "British English" even though it sounds grammatically ignorant. The phrase "Coca-Cola are working on a new formula." just sounds illiterate. "Coca-Cola are NOT working on anything." Coca-Cola IS a company and thus the singular verb should be used for a SINGULAR company. FU 20:16 May 18, 2019

 * The policy has always been that Wikipedia has no preference among the major national varieties of English, but that it is good form to keep usage consistent within a given article. That said, remember that Americans tend to be less familiar with non-American usage than vice-versa (the net flow of media being in the outwards direction), and sometimes American contributors will unknowingly replace what they think is a spelling error (eg, "artefact"). When this happens, please point it out in the talk page, and make sure that the remainder of the article is consistent one way or the other. --Brion 19:04 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

Yeah, that is what I presumed and have been acting on. Is this policy formally written somewhere? (I glanced around and could not see it.) It is simply that it would be help in case a dispute arose to be able to point to it so as to end a row, rather than having people disputing whether there is such a policy and then have to get someone to confirm to the people in the row (often newbies) that there is such a rule. I know I have been trying to clarify and catalogue other rules to diffuse disputes before they blow up, eg the issue of royal nomenclatures, for which I have done a lot of work. JTD 19:20 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * I was fairrly sure it was written down somewhere... it might be in terms of general spelling, and thus be taken to spill over into naming of articles. Do we really need this page anyway? Whenever there are alternative names for something, we usually create redirects, and the article itself should give alternative names, so there's no problem finding it. -- Tarquin 19:28 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

This is a de facto standard and although not inscribed in stone is considered good Wikipedia etiquette. We could theoretically cast it in stone, but it is in my view far more sensible and indicative of the spirit of international bonhomie that common sense is allowed to prevail. For example, the spelling of Anglicization is manifestly a nonsense in that the US spelling runs entirely antithetical to the semantics. As a contrary example, in an article on the States, the spelling of center (anathema though it may be to me!) should be allowed to prevail, and generally the consistency stipulation should determine the orthographic standard in any given article. user:sjc

fair point. But just occasionally common sense breaks down. Those of us who are around a while know these rules or pick them up but it is all too easy for someone who is new to come along, see 'foetus', 'centre', theatre' etc, decide they are wrong, and waste their time 'correcting' them, in the process annoying those who wrote the articles with those spellings. (I had one experience of this myself, someone insisting 'theater' is the correct spelling, and use as their justification this is after all America!!! (I resisted the temptation to point out that I was in Dublin and the three other people who worked on that article were in Britain.) It would have been useful to have been able to say - because there are spelling variations between different english-speakers, we agreed on how to approach this problem. Look up the 'Spelling Variations' page or whatever. (Recently a new guy wrote a very good article on royalty but used a surname in the article title. I congratulated him on the article but pointed out that, because of the complexity of royal names, we had agreed a structure to follow. He checked it out, came back to say 'oh I see what you mean. I can see the sense of that'. He then redid his excellent piece to follow the style and said he now knew the style to follow in the future. There was no disagreement, no row, no edit war. It couldn't have been easier or more straight-forward, unlike the other person who threw a tantrum saying 'what rule? I don't see any rule' and went off changing articles all over the place to 'americanise' them, annoying a host of non-american users who reverted his or her changes, leading him or her to re-americanise them, creating bad feeling all around. JTD 20:13 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

This goes with the wiki territory. The obverse side of the coin is that there are many more sensible users than fanatics. In my experience the preponderance of the American users in my view (despite their notorious tendency to cultural ethnocentricity :-) ) are pretty fair-minded and respect the nuances of Wikipedia etiquette and understand that it cuts both ways. user:sjc

I couldn't agree more, sjc. There are a hell of a lot of good people here, and quite a few bloody brilliant ones. The point I was making was simply that where you come to a stand-off with someone (who often is simply misguided), it is handy to diffuse any problem by saying 'yeah. We had this issue and reached a consensus on how to solve it' and say 'look at page 'x' than try to get into a long long debate, followed by contacting Cam or Mav or Deb or whomever for independent confirmation. We only disagree slightly about the methodology of how to let people know of the rule but 9 times out of 10 we don't need to get that far, particularly when as I am finding with the names convention changes I proposed, a lot of people check for the guidelines before doing any work, meaning that no problem even arises. (Indeed I am quite chuffed at how well that new consensus rule on royal names is now working. Quite a few new pages on royals have been put on, all following the one standard and style, with everyone so far finding it has made the task of contributors, writers, editors, etc dead easy and with no disputes whatsoever. JTD 20:42 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

I have attempted to codify the unofficial policy and make it official on Manual of Style. Daniel Quinlan 23:37, Oct 29, 2003 (UTC)


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Wikipedia:Articles using British English titles

This is an incomplete listing of articles that are titled with British English spelling or phrases, that may be unfamiliar to American English speakers. Compare with Articles using American English titles

See American and British English differences for more information.

 * abseiling - rappelling
 * aluminium - aluminum
 * aluminium oxide - aluminum oxide
 * aluminium gallium arsenide - aluminum gallium arsenide
 * beryllium aluminium meta-silicate - beryllium aluminum meta-silicate
 * centimetre - centimeter
 * charity shop - thrift store
 * cheque - check
 * closed-circuit television - video surveillance
 * coriander - cilantro
 * colours, standards and guidons - colors, standards and guidons
 * defence diplomacy - defense diplomacy
 * defence minister - defense minister
 * draughts - checkers
 * favourite - favorite
 * fertilisation - fertilization
 * financial centre - financial center
 * grey - gray
 * haemophilia - hemophilia
 * humour - humor
 * industrialisation - industrialization
 * kilometre - kilometer
 * metre - meter
 * micrometre - micrometer
 * millimetre - millimeter
 * ministry of defence - ministry of defense
 * nanometre - nanometer
 * neighbourhood - neighborhood
 * Pan-African colours - Pan-African colors
 * swiss roll - jelly roll


text:
Jack Teagarden

Weldon Leo "Jack" Teagarden (August 20, 1905 – January 15, 1964) was an American jazz trombonist and singer. According to critic Scott Yanow of Allmusic, Teagarden was the preeminent American jazz trombone player before the bebop era of the 1940s and "one of the best jazz singers too". Teagarden's early career was as a sideman with the likes of Paul Whiteman and lifelong friend Louis Armstrong.

Early life
Teagarden was born in Vernon, Texas, United States. His brothers Charlie and Clois "Cub" and his sister Norma also became professional musicians. His father was an amateur brass band trumpeter and started him on baritone horn; by age seven he had switched to trombone. His first public performances were in movie theaters, where he accompanied his mother, a pianist.

Music career
Teagarden's trombone style was largely self-taught, and he developed many unusual alternative positions and novel special effects on the instrument. He is usually considered the most innovative jazz trombone stylist of the pre-bebop era – Pee Wee Russell once called him "the best trombone player in the world".

By 1920, Teagarden was playing professionally in San Antonio, including with the band of pianist Peck Kelley. In the mid-1920s he started traveling widely around the United States in a quick succession of different bands. In 1927, he went to New York City where he worked with several bands. By 1928 he played for the Ben Pollack band.

In the late 1920s, he recorded with such bandleaders and sidemen as Armstrong, Benny Goodman, Bix Beiderbecke, Red Nichols, Jimmy McPartland, Mezz Mezzrow, Glenn Miller, Eddie Condon, and Fats Waller. In 1931, Teagarden’s early orchestra recorded the tune “Chances Are” with Fats Waller playing piano and Jack singing and playing trombone. Miller and Teagarden collaborated to provide lyrics and a verse to Spencer Williams' "Basin Street Blues", which in that amended form became one of the numbers that Teagarden played until the end of his days.

Teagarden sought financial security during the Great Depression and signed an exclusive contract to play for the Paul Whiteman Orchestra from 1933 through 1938. In 1946, Teagarden joined Louis Armstrong's All Stars. In late 1951, Teagarden left to again lead his own band.

He died of pneumonia in New Orleans at the age of 58.

Discography

 * Big Jazz with Rex Stewart (Atlantic, 1953)
 * Holiday in Trombone (EmArcy, 1954)
 * Jack Teagarden Plays and Sings (Urania, 1954)
 * Meet the New Jack Teagarden Volume I (Urania, 1954)
 * Jazz Great (Bethlehem, 1955)
 * Accent On Trombone (Urania, 1955)
 * Big T's Jazz (Decca, 1956)
 * This Is Teagarden! (Capitol, 1956)
 * Swing Low, Sweet Spiritual (Capitol, 1957)
 * Jazz Ultimate with Bobby Hackett (Capitol, 1958)
 * Jack Teagarden at the Roundtable (Roulette, 1959)
 * Shades of Night (Capitol, 1959)
 * Mis'ry and the Blues (Verve, 1961)
 * Think Well of Me (Verve, 1962)
 * The Dixie Sound of Jack Teagarden (Roulette, 1962)
 * Jack Teagarden (Verve, 1962)
 * The Blues and Dixie (Rondo-lette, 1963)
 * A Portrait of Mr. T (Roulette, 1963)
 * Swinging Down in Dixie (Golden Tone, 1963)
 * King of the Blues Trombone (Epic, 1963)
 * Big T's Dixieland Band (Capitol, 1977)
 * Big T & the Condon Gang (Pumpkin, 1978)
 * Original Dixieland (Everest Archive, 1978)
 * Big Band Jazz (Everest Archive, 1979)
 * Mighty Like a Rose (Koala, 1979)
 * The Swingin' Gate (Jasmine, 1981)
 * The Big Band Sound of Bunny Berigan & Jack Teagarden (Folkways, 1982)
 * Tribute to Teagarden (Pausa, 1983)
 * Birth of a Band (Giants of Jazz, 1985)
 * 100 Years from Today (Grudge, 1990)
 * The Complete Capitol Fifties Jack Teagarden Sessions (Mosaic, 1996)
 * It's Time for T (Naxos, 2006)
 * Father of Jazz Trombone (Avid Entertainment, 2004)

As guest

 * Red Allen, Red Allen, Kid Ory & Jack Teagarden at Newport (Verve, 1957)
 * Ben Pollack, Dixieland (Savoy, 1956)

title: Jack Teagarden


text:
Talk:Australia/Archive 1

Misc
((diff) Australia/Geography 12:58 am [deleting US-centricism] . . . . . Simon J Kissane

"US-centricism"? You are deleting information that may be useful to a lot of readers of this article. Why? If you don't like making comparisons to the US, add a comparison to another country. But why delete?

 * That's an absurd idea - which other country do you intend to use? We would have to include comparisons for almost every country in the world. I completely support SJK on this one.

-- (Thanks to whoever wrote the above reply while I was writing this.) Well, why not then add a comparison to every country in the world? There are only around 189 of them. That should clog up the article with a few pages of comparisons. We can't compare to everyone, so to be fair compare to none. The CIA world factbook can do that because the primary intended market for their product is Americans; Wikipedia aims to be more global than that.

Besides, the only readers that sort of information is likely to be useful to is Americans. While the comparison in this particular article isn't that bad, comparing it to the size of the U.S., other CIA world factbook entries compare states to the size of Connecticut or Delaware; frankly I wouldn't have the slightest clue how big those U.S. states are, and most of the people in the world wouldn't either. -- SJK]

- Why is there so much history on this page? Why don't we just put in an ultra-brief summary and a link to history of Australia, like what is done on United States? -- Tim

 * The WikiProject Countries will eventually also changeover the Australia article - you can do it if you want to, or wait. Jeronimo

I made this change to the template, but much of the removed text is not present in the currenty history article - I'll paste it here:

Australia has been populated for over 40,000 years. Its earliest human inhabitants, the Australian Aborigines, the indigenous people of Australia crossed the Torres Strait from the lands that currently make up Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. At that time the Torres and Bass Straits were land bridges.

The first European to sight Australia was probably a Portuguese, Manuel Godhino de Eredia, in 1601. It may also have been sighted by a Spaniard, Luis Vaez de Torres, around 1605-6. Australia was later visited by the Dutch (based in Java, who named it New Holland, and Abel Tasman landed on the island of Tasmania in 1642. In 1688 the Englishman William Dampier landed at King Sound on the northwest coast.

In 1770 Captain James Cook discovered the northern two-thirds of the east coast. He named it New South Wales (the reasons for this particular name are unknown) and claimed it for Great Britain. In his report he recommended Botany Bay as an ideal site for a future colony. Cook's report was ignored at first, but in the 1780's the interest of the British government increased. The most important factor was Britain's need to provide strategic raw materials to its naval and commercial fleet and to relieve its overcrowded prisons. Several violent incidents at overcrowded prisons convinced the British government of the need to separate unruly elements from the rest of the prison populace. The loss of the North American territories during the War of Independence deprived Britain of a source of hemp (canvas & rope). A decision was made to found an apiary at Botany Bay.

As a result, Captain Arthur Phillip, commanding eleven ships full of convicts, left Britain for Australia on May 13, 1787. He successfully landed a full fleet at Botany Bay on January 18, 1788. However, they left the bay eight days later because of its openness, short supply of fresh water and poor soil, and settled instead at Port Jackson, a few kilometres north. The ships landed 1,373 people, including 732 convicts, and the settlement became Sydney Town (later Sydney). The early years of the colony were somewhat disastrous; Phillip ordered the crops to be planted in March (failing to factor in the reversal of seasons) and they promptly withered during the winter, leading to a number of famines.

In 1803, another prison colony was established in Van Diemen's Land, later renamed Tasmania to remove the convict connotation. Other colonies were not established to take convicts (although some did), and eventually support for shipping convicts from England declined, and Australia ceased to take them.

Australia became a commonwealth of the British Empire in 1901. She was able to take advantage of her natural resources to rapidly develop her agricultural and manufacturing industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in World Wars I and II. Australia's war dead are remembered on ANZAC Day and Remembrance Day.

Original policies of Australia were designed to encourage the British nature of the country, and policies such as the White Australia policy were set up to specifically exclude those not from Britain from coming into the country. This policy was eventually undone after World War II when mass immigration was encouraged, and racist views began to decline.

A referendum to change Australia's nation status, from a commonwealth headed by the British monarch to an independent republic, was defeated in 1999. Some people attribute this partly to the terms of the referendum, suggesting that it created the perception that the change would have granted parliament a 'blank cheque' to change the constitution without any further public consultation (or some similar undesirable side-effect), and partly to many Australians' sentimental fondness for Britain, the Queen and/or the Commonwealth. It is speculated that the referendum may have failed because Republicans do not agree on what system could or should replace the monarchy, and the electorate merely rejected the particular model proposed for sound reasons rather than from any mistaken perceptions; however many other factors may well have played a part, and this begs the question of whether some such workable system can be designed and implemented. As well as all this, most referenda in Australia to change the Constitution have failed, so it could also be argued that this was just another example of Australians rejecting change with the argument of 'if it's not broken, don't fix it'. Australia remains a member of The Commonwealth, an organisation containing Britain and most of its former colonies, but this increasingly irrelevant organisation is mainly concerned with promoting human rights, democracy, and open government in some of its less developed members rather than discussing shared economic interests as existed in the past.

When the constitution for the Commonwealth of Australia was being negotiated between the colonies, Melbourne and Sydney each demanded that they become the capital. As a compromise, it was agreed that the capital would initially be Melbourne, until a new capital city could be built. This new capital city would be located in territory taken from New South Wales, and be 200 statute miles or more from Sydney. The present site was chosen and named Canberra in 1906; the federal government moved there from Melbourne in the 1920s, Parliament making the shift in 1927. Canberra's name comes from the Aboriginal word Kamberra, meaning 'meeting place'

I took out the links to two patriotic songs that had been on this page for three months, because I had never heard of them. I used the history to find out who put them on there in the first place - it was an anonymous iPrimus user. The author of the songs is a marketing executive from SA with the email address peterbarnes@iprimus.com.au. Hmmmm... A classic example of the need for weeding. -- Tim

The present para on famous Australians sticks out like dogs unmentionables. There is nothing actually wrong with it, but I think it needs to (a) expanded, and (b) moved to a subsiduary page. I moved it to here for now. Perhaps someone who is good at this stuff could add it to the List of famous Australians and make an article out of it. (Not me. I have trouble remembering which one is Kylie and which one is Rolf.)

 * Due to the language, Australians have been able to easily merge with the American movie, television and music industries, resulting in many Australians being world famous, such as actors Heath Ledger and Errol Flynn, and singers Kylie Minogue and Rolf Harris. See the List of famous Australians.

Also, in a minute or two, I'll try addressing something that bugs me a little: the way that the links to the really interesting info on Australia (which in my entirely biased view is the flora and flora) are relegated to a couple of minor dot points. This may or may not be something that meets with general approval: I'll just do it and promise not to throw my toys out of the pram if someone reverses it. Tannin 04:55 Dec 21, 2002 (UTC)

Looking much better with the public holidays split off. Well done, Tim. Tannin 06:50 Jan 9, 2003 (UTC)

Who wrote this dribble about 53,000 years and ancestors of the current Australian Aborigines? As far as I know the first inhabiants came over one hundred thousand years ago, a second wave came around thirty plus thousand years ago displacing the first. And todays Australian Aborigines are decendant from these people - who I imagine are the same ancestors of the various Papuan peoples.

Can an anthropologist please review update the article? ... Daeron

 * Time you updated your sources, then, Daeron. This is the common & accepted view - 53,000 years, but with a very wide margin for error. Most authorities that I have consulted put it at between 60,000 and 45,000. Actual human remains (as opposed to indirect evidence of human presence) are sadly lacking in the archeological record. The 100,000 year figure, if my memory is to be trusted, comes from one single site in the far north for which the dating is not generally accepted. (Further, more conclusive, evidence may yet turn up of very ancient human presence in Australia, of course.) DNA and linguistic studies indicate that there has been little mixing between Australians and the people to the immediate north, so if Australians and New Guineans do indeed share a common ancestory (as seems reasonable on first sight), it is not a recent one. Tannin 06:30 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

There seems to be some confusion in one person's mind ( Daeron) regarding whether Australia is a republic or a monarchy, hence his constant doctoring of the Australia page to call it a republic. (He seems to be the only one on the planet with such confusion).

 * No, and you are refusing to accept both the dictionary and common definitions of "republic" and "Commonwealth".

So a little lesson in political science:
 * A state with a monarch is a monarchy; either absolute or constitutional.

 * What does that have to do with the definition of a Republic or a Commonwealth?

 * A state with a president is normally a republic - though there have been exceptions (eg, Ireland from 1937 to 1949 had a president but only began calling itself a republic in 1949).

 * Dictatorships also normally have a self-declared "president" - but you mis-use the English & Australian languages by trying to re-define Republic.

I can only suppose that his confusion is due to mis-understanding the word 'Commonwealth'. In the seventeeth century the word was applied to the English Republic that existed under Cromwell. That was the one and only occasion that it was taken to imply that. It has regularly been used in other contexts since then, but never interpreted to automatically mean republic. It doesn't, as any political scientist, historian or lawyer can confirm.

 * No, as you live in Ireland perhaps you use a different language? But the Australian dictionaries all define:

-commonwealth n. republic; federation of self-governing states; official designation of Australia.

 * Now I know that members of the Republican movement have to pretend Australia isn't a republic, but it is.

republic n. state in which supremacy of people or their representives is formally acknowledged.

Finally, I was highly amused to be accused to pushing an agenda in calling the Commonwealth of Australia a constitutional monarchy. The last time I wrote about Australia in the page on the Republic Advisory Committee (which incidentially was concerned with creating a republic, ie, there was not one!!!) I was accused to being a republican. Now apparently I am a monarchist. Actually I'm neither. I'm a historian and political scientist who followed the debate on whether or not Australia should become a republic. It decided in that instance not to, a fact the Rip Van Winkle who keeps vandalising the page here seems not to have noticed. JTD 06:42 Feb 11, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Australia/Archive 1