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Tralee

Tralee (, ; formerly Tráigh Lí, meaning 'strand of the River Lee') is the county town of County Kerry in the south-west of Ireland. The town is on the northern side of the neck of the Dingle Peninsula, and is the largest town in County Kerry. The town's population was 26,079 as of the 2022 census, making it the 15th largest urban settlement in Ireland. Tralee is known for the Rose of Tralee International Festival, which has been held annually in August since 1959.

History
Situated at the confluence of some small rivers and adjacent to marshy ground at the head of Tralee Bay, Tralee is located at the base of an ancient roadway that heads south over the Slieve Mish Mountains. On this old track is located a large boulder sometimes called Scotia's Grave, reputedly the burial place of an ancient queen.

Anglo-Normans founded the town in the 13th century, which became a stronghold of the Earls of Desmond, who built Tralee Castle. John Fitz-Thomas FitzGerald founded the monastery of the Dominican order and was buried there in 1260. The medieval town was burnt in 1580 in retribution for the Desmond Rebellions against Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth I in 1587 granted Tralee to Edward Denny and it was recognised in 1613 by Royal Charter. Sir Edward was the first of the Dennys to settle in Tralee; the Dennys did not occupy the castle of the Earls of Desmond until 1627 but lived instead at Carrignafeela Castle. Sir Edward's son was Arthur Denny, in whose lifetime the town's charter was granted by King James, containing the right to elect two members of parliament. The third English settler, another Sir Edward, married Ruth Roper, whose father Thomas Roper was the lease holder of the Herbert estate centred on Castleisland. This Sir Edward was a royalist. He fought for the King in the wars of 1641. He died in 1646, before the triumph of Oliver Cromwell over affairs in England and Ireland.

He granted "the circuit of the Abbey" to the corporation set up under the charter, in return for the fees of the town clerk. His son Arthur Denny married Ellen Barry, granddaughter of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. The latter held many land titles in West Kerry and also claimed property in Tralee. Sir Edward Denny, 4th Baronet was a notable landlord in his day: during the time of the Great Famine, he maintained rents to suit his tenants, when other landowners increased them. He was a notable Plymouth Brother.

The modern layout of Tralee was created in the 19th century. Denny Street, a wide Georgian street, was completed in 1826 on the site of the old castle. A monument commemorating the 1798 rebellion plus the rebellions of 1803, 1848 and 1867 – a statue of a Pikeman – stands in Denny Street. First unveiled in 1905, the original Pikeman stood until the Irish War of Independence. In 1921 the Black and Tans dragged it from its pedestal and destroyed it. In June 1939 a replacement Pikeman was installed, created by renowned Dublin sculptor Albert Power and unveiled by Maud Gonne.

Tralee Courthouse was designed by William Vitruvius Morrison and built in 1834. It has a monument of two cannons commemorating those Kerrymen who died in the Crimean War (1854–56) and the Indian Rebellion (1857). Ballymullen Barracks was the depot of the Royal Munster Fusiliers.

The Tralee Ship Canal was built to accommodate larger ships sailing into Tralee, as the existing quay in Blennerville was becoming blocked due to silting. The House of Commons authorised an Act of Parliament in June 1829 for the canal, with work beginning in 1832. Issues with funding meant that the canal was not completed until 1846 when it was opened. The canal was 2 miles long with a new canal basin built in Tralee, and lock gates and a wooden swing bridge constructed in Blennerville. However, not long after the canal opened, it too began to suffer from silting.

By the 1880s, Fenit Harbour was built as a deepwater harbour; it did not suffer from silting. A railway line was constructed between the harbour and Tralee to carry cargo and freight from ships moored there. The canal fell into disuse and neglect, and was finally closed by the mid-20th century. Following the restoration of Blennerville Windmill in the early 1990s, local authorities planned restoration of the canal for use as a tourist attraction. In 1999 the Office of Public Works (OPW) started a restoration project of the canal at a cost of IR£650,000. The basin area of the canal was subsequently redeveloped with apartments blocks built as part of a proposed marina. The towpath along the canal was upgraded and is now used by people as an enjoyable amenity as part of the Dingle Way.

The Dominican church of the Holy Cross was designed by the Irish Gothic Revival architect George Ashlin in 1866 and built by 1871.

War of Independence and Civil War
Tralee saw much violence during the Irish War of Independence and Irish Civil War in 1919–1923. In November 1920, the Black and Tans besieged Tralee in revenge for the Irish Republican Army (IRA) abduction and killing of two Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) men. The Tans closed all the businesses in the town and did not let any food in for a week. They burned several houses and all businesses connected with IRA activists. In the course of the week, they shot dead three local people. The events caused a major international outcry as the press reported that near-famine conditions were prevailing in Tralee by the end of the week.

In August 1922 during the Irish Civil War, Irish Free State troops landed at nearby Fenit and took Tralee from its Anti-Treaty garrison. Nine pro-Treaty and three anti-Treaty soldiers were killed in fighting in the town before the anti-Treaty forces withdrew. The Republicans continued a guerrilla campaign in the surrounding area. In March 1923 Free State troops took nine anti-treaty IRA prisoners from the prison in Tralee and blew them up with a land mine at nearby Ballyseedy. Only Stephen Fuller, a future Irish politician, survived the explosion.

The Ashe Memorial Hall was built in 1928 at the end of Denny Street; it is dedicated to the memory of Thomas Ashe, an Irish Volunteers officer in the Easter Rising of 1916. The building is built of local sandstone. It housed the headquarters of Kerry County Council and Tralee Urban District Council; both now have moved to other premises. Since 1992 it has housed the Kerry County Museum, which includes a reconstruction of Tralee as of 1450, prior to colonisation.

Climate
The climate of Tralee is, like the rest of Ireland, classified as a maritime temperate climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system. Met Éireann maintains a climatological weather station at Valentia Island, 50 km south-west of the town. It is mild and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. The hottest months of the year are July, August, and September with temperatures of around 17 – 18 degrees Celsius. Tralee gets rainfall all year round and the wettest months are October, November, December, and January.

Local government
Tralee had a town council with twelve members until the 2014 local elections were held on 23 May 2014. These elections were held following the changes effected by the Local Government Reform Act 2014. County Kerry is divided into six local electoral areas (LEA) for elections to Kerry County Council. The members elected for the Tralee LEA sit as the Tralee Municipal District.

Places of interest

Tralee is a tourism destination, and there are a number of visitor attractions in the area:
 * Kerry County Museum: incorporating the theme park 'Kerry: The Kingdom' and an exhibit that depicts life in medieval Geraldine Tralee.
 * Siamsa Tíre: Ireland's National Folk Theatre, offering traditional music and plays in Irish.
 * Blennerville Windmill: located about 2 km outside the town, Ireland's largest functioning windmill.
 * Tralee Aquadome: A large indoor water leisure facility with a mini-golf course.
 * Ballyseedy Wood: Is located 2 km outside Tralee off the N21. It consists of 32 ha of woodland dating back from the 16th century where Kerry County Council have developed public entrances at the north and south of the wood with car parks and 4 km of gravelled looped pathways. Ash, Oak and Beech trees are part of the wood as are a number of ruins and follies, dating back to the 17th century, with the River Lee (from which Tralee takes its name; not to be confused with the River Lee in County Cork) forming the woodlands northern boundary.
 * Tralee Town Park: Tralee has a town park located in the town centre (opposite the Kerry County Museum) with a rose garden comprising over 5,000 roses of different varieties. The park is the location for the annual Féile na mBláth / Tralee Garden Festival – a free midsummer weekend festival of gardening demonstrations, flower arranging, garden tours, musical and choral events. Tralee Ship Canal - geograph.org.uk - 268382.jpg
 * Tralee Bay Wetlands and Nature Reserve: Tralee Bay Nature Reserve covers approximately 2,500 ha and stretches from Tralee town westwards to Fenit Harbour and Cloghane, encompassing Tralee Bay, Brandon Bay and the Magharees Peninsula. It includes extensive mudflats at the eastern end, the beaches of Derrymore Island, the sand dunes and lagoons of the Magharees Peninsula. Both the River Lee and Brandon (Owenmore) estuaries feature wide expanses of sheltered intertidal flats, often fringed with saltmarsh vegetation. The Wetlands Centre which opened in 2012 is designed as a microcosm of the wild nature reserve where visitors are introduced to the fresh and saltwater habitats. Visitors can travel on a safari boat ride through the recreated reed and freshwater channels in the centre.
 * Tralee Ship Canal: Opened in 1846, this 2-mile-long canal connects Tralee to Tralee Bay where it passes by Blennerville Windmill. The Dingle Way runs along the towpath of the canal.
 * Dingle Way: (Irish: Slí Chorca Dhuibhne) A 162 km long National Waymarked Trail that begins and ends in Tralee and is typically completed in eight days.
 * Ratass Church: a tenth-century medieval church, with a sixth-century ogham stone. Located in the eastern suburbs of Tralee.

Rose of Tralee
The Rose of Tralee festival is an international competition that is celebrated among Irish communities all over the world. The festival, held annually in August since 1959, takes its inspiration from a nineteenth-century ballad of the same name about a woman called Mary, who because of her beauty was called The Rose of Tralee. The contest, broadcast over two nights by RTÉ, is one of the highest-viewed shows on Irish television with over a million people watching.

To commemorate the Rose of Tralee tradition, the Rose Garden in the Tralee Town Park is home to a life-size bronze statue depicting the original Rose of Tralee Mary O'Connor and the author of the Rose of Tralee ballad William Pembroke Mulchinock sculpted by an Irish sculptor Jeanne Rynhart (unveiled in 2009), as well as the Rose Wall of Honour – a series of glass panels that will contain the name of every Rose who has participated in the Festival since 1959 (unveiled in 2013 on the 55th anniversary of the Rose of Tralee International Festival). Both statues were commissioned by Tralee Town Council.

Archaeological sites
Archaeological sites around Tralee and throughout the County of Kerry, including a number of ring-forts, are listed for preservation in the Kerry County Development Plan 2009–15. These include Casement's Fort, an ancient ring fort where Roger Casement had been hiding before his arrest. There is also an Iron Age fort at Caherconree, overlooking Tralee Bay.

An example of a Sheela na gig is now located in the Christian Round Tower at Rattoo, Ballyduff, a few kilometres north of Tralee. There is also a monument to Saint Brendan the Navigator at Fenit, with reproductions of ancient Irish structures.

Media
The town has two local weekly newspapers, The Kerryman and Kerry's Eye while the Tralee Outlook and Tralee Advertiser are also published weekly.

The town has a commercial radio station, Radio Kerry, which commenced operations in 1990. Spin South West also had a studio on Castle Street, which opened in 2016 but is now vacant.

Road
Tralee is served by National Primary and Secondary roads as well as local routes. A 13.5 km bypass of Tralee consisting of dual and single carriageway sections was opened on 16 August 2013. The bypass connects four of the five national routes — the N21, N22, N69 and N70 — which terminate in Tralee. National primary routes: National secondary routes: Regional roads:
 * IRL N21.svg east/north-east to Limerick
 * IRL N22.svg south-east to Killarney and Cork
 * IRL N69.svg north to Listowel, Tarbert, Foynes and Limerick
 * IRL N70.svg south-west to Killorglin, Ring of Kerry on Iveragh Peninsula and Kenmare
 * IRL N86.svg west to Dingle
 * R551 Regional Route Shield Ireland.png north/north-west to Tarbert via Ardfert, Ballyheigue, Ballybunion and Ballylongford
 * R556 Regional Route Shield Ireland.png north to Abbeydorney (it links up with R551 to Ballybunion)
 * R558 Regional Route Shield Ireland.png west to Fenit Harbour

Bus
The bus station in Tralee is a regional hub for Bus Éireann, providing services to Dublin, Limerick, Galway, Cork, Killarney and Dingle. The current bus station opened on 26 February 2007.

Several local routes radiate from Tralee and a number of these have had their frequency increased in recent years. Local routes include: 13 (Limerick via Listowel), 40 (Cork via Killarney), 272 (Tarbert via Ballybunion), 274 Ballyheigue via Banna), 275 (Dingle), 279 (Killorglin) and 285 (Kerry Airport via Castleisland).

Rail
A train service to Killarney railway station, and via Mallow to Cork and Dublin is provided by the national railway operator Iarnród Éireann. From the Dublin-Cork line, there are connecting trains at Limerick Junction for Limerick, Clonmel and Waterford. Further links are available at Limerick to Ennis, Athenry, Oranmore, and Galway.

The current Tralee railway station, Casement station named after Roger Casement, was opened on 18 July 1859. There were also two other adjacent stations, now closed and demolished, in the North Circular Road area. One was the terminus of the "North Kerry" line which ran to Limerick via Listowel and Newcastle West, and the other was the terminus of the narrow gauge Tralee and Dingle Light Railway.

The Tralee and Dingle Light Railway was once one of Europe's most western railways. It opened on 31 March 1891, connecting Tralee and Dingle by rail along the Dingle Peninsula, and was closed in June 1953. In 1993 a 3 km section was reopened as a preserved line between the Aquadome in Tralee and Blennerville Windmill. Currently this railway is no longer in operation.

A standard gauge railway used to operate to Fenit Harbour from Tralee, diverging from the North Kerry line to the northwest of the town, before closing in June 1978. Currently a section of this railway has been restored as a walk/cycle way in the Tralee urban area and it is hoped in the future that this will be extended to Fenit, similar along the lines of the Great Southern Trail which has been created on the closed North Kerry line route in western County Limerick.

Air
Kerry Airport, located 20 km from Tralee in Farranfore, provides air services to Dublin, London Luton, London Stansted, Frankfurt-Hahn and seasonally, Alicante and Faro. Ryanair now operates seasonal services to Berlin International Airport. Connecting trains run from Farranfore railway station to Tralee and Killarney Railway Station in Killarney.

Sea
The local port for Tralee is Fenit, about 10 km west of the town on the north side of the estuary. Catering for ships of up to 17,000 tonnes, the port is a picturesque mixed-use harbour with fishing boats and a thriving marina (136 berths). The 2 mile long Tralee Ship Canal provides a navigable connection between Tralee itself and the sea.

Healthcare
University Hospital Kerry opened in 1984, and is the third-largest acute hospital in the Health Service Executive South Region. It serves as the main hospital for County Kerry and also serves the people in parts of North Cork and West Limerick.

The Bon Secours Hospital, founded in 1921, is a private hospital owned by the Roman Catholic Bon Secours Sisters and offers healthcare to privately insured patients. It forms part of the Bon Secours Health System, the largest private healthcare network in Ireland.

Education
In common with all parts of Ireland, most schools at all levels in Tralee are managed and owned by the churches. These include the Roman Catholic schools of CBS (Scoil na mBráithre), Gaelscoil Mhic Easmainn, Holy Family, Presentation Primary School (Sacred Heart), St Ita's and St Joseph's, St John's, and St Mary's. St John's on Ashe Street is a Church of Ireland school. Tralee Educate Together School is multidenominational, and is neither owned nor managed by any church.

At secondary level, most schools are explicitly Roman Catholic in ethos. These include Mercy Secondary School, Mounthawk; Presentation Secondary School; St Ita's and St Joseph's; St Mary's CBS (The Green). Coláiste Gleann Lí Post Primary School (formally Tralee Community College) and Gaelcholáiste Chiarraí are non-denominational.

At third level, the Munster Technological University (MTU) is the main third level institution in County Kerry. Originally opened as the Regional Technical College, Tralee in 1977 it became the Institute of Technology, Tralee (ITT or IT Tralee) in 1997 before merging into the MTU in 2020. It has an enrolment of about 3,500 students studying in areas such as business, computing, science, engineering and health. The university has two campuses: the North campus (opened in Dromtacker in 2001) and the South campus (opened in Clash in 1977) which are approximately 2.4 km apart. Kerry College of Further Education (KCFE) is a provider of further education programmes in Kerry. The college offers a range of Level 5 and Level 6 programmes on the NFQ.

Gaelic Athletic Association
Austin Stack Park is the main Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) stadium in Tralee. The ground is named after Austin Stack, an Irish revolutionary and captain of the All-Ireland-winning Kerry Gaelic football team of 1904. It is located in the centre of Tralee. It hosts many Kerry GAA home games, mostly football league games and both league and championship hurling. The County Championship football and hurling finals are normally held here.

Austin Stacks GAA club is based at the top of Rock Street and its former players include Mikey Sheehy, Ger Power, John O'Keeffe and Kieran Donaghy.

Other GAA clubs in the area include John Mitchels GAA club (based in the Boherbee and Camp area), Kerins O'Rahilly's GAA (Strand Road area of the town), Na Gaeil GAA club (Oakpark area), St. Patricks, Blennerville (about 1 km outside Tralee), Tralee Parnells (promoting hurling), Tralee IT GAA (at the Institute of Technology, Tralee). Tralee Mitchels and Tralee Celtic are former GAA clubs.

Fitzgerald-Jones Handball Club is based at the Sports Complex in Tralee.

Soccer
Tralee is the home of League of Ireland football in the county. Kerry F.C. were formed in 2023 and play at Mounthawk Park. The club compete in the League of Ireland First Division and the FAI Cup

The Kerry District League is based in Mounthawk Park, Tralee.

Tralee Dynamos is Tralee's most senior soccer club, playing in the Kerry District League. St. Brendan's Park F.C. also plays in the Kerry District League.

Racket sports
Tralee Tennis Club is based on Dan Spring Road. County Badminton Club meets in the Presentation Secondary School Gym.

Cricket
County Kerry Cricket Club play at the Oyster Oval based at the nearby village of Spa on the shores of Tralee Bay. The club is a member of the Munster Cricket Union.

Cycling
The Chain Gang Cycling Club is a Tralee-based cycling club founded in 2008. Other cycling clubs include Tralee Bicycle Club (founded 1992), Tralee Cycling Club (founded 1953), Kingdom Cycling Club, and Na Gaeil Cycling Cycling Club.

Basketball
Basketball clubs include St. Brendan's Basketball Club, Tralee Imperials Basketball Club, Tralee Tigers (defunct), and Tralee Warriors.

Golf and Pitch & Putt
Tralee Pitch and Putt Club is located at Collis Sandes House in Killeen.

Triathlon
Tralee Triathlon Club was founded in 2009 and is one of the largest clubs in Ireland with around 300 adult members. They run the annual Tri Kingdom Come Sprint distance triathlon in Fenit during the August Weekend.

Watersports
Kingdom Swimming Club is based at the Sports Complex in Tralee. Tralee Bay Sailing Club and Tralee Bay Swimming Club are both based in Fenit. Tralee Rowing Club was founded in 2004 and is located at the Basin.

Rugby
Tralee Rugby Football Club ground is in Ballyard.

Athletics
Tralee Harriers is a local athletics club.

Greyhound racing
Tralee Greyhound Racing has a stadium on Brewery Road.

Notable people
Notable Tralee people include:

 * Saint Brendan, monastic saint and navigator, born near Tralee
 * Danny Barnes, rugby player
 * Joe Barrett, footballer, born in Tralee
 * Denis Behan, soccer player
 * Daniel Bohan, footballer
 * Leonard Boyle, priest and scholar
 * Bryan Cooper, jockey
 * Robert Day, judge
 * Billy Dennehy, soccer player
 * Darren Dennehy, soccer player
 * Kieran Donaghy, footballer
 * Ultan Dillane, rugby player for Connacht and Ireland
 * Michael Dwyer, journalist
 * Anna Fahy, Irish republican
 * Mike Finn, former Gaelic and Australian Rules footballer
 * Robert D. FitzGerald, surveyor, botanist
 * Rea Garvey, singer of Reamonn
 * Ailbhe Ní Ghearbhuigh, poet
 * Shane Guthrie, footballer
 * Christie Hennessy, singer/songwriter
 * John Horgan, politician and academic
 * Richard Johnson, President of Irish High Court
 * Tracey K, musician
 * Úna-Minh Kavanagh, journalist and author
 * Barry John Keane, footballer
 * Eddie Kelliher, Olympic sailor and businessman
 * Richard Kelliher, recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * Victoria Kennefick, (Cork-native) poet
 * Joan Kennelly, photographer and founder of Kerry's Eye
 * Pádraig Kennelly, founder and editor of Kerry's Eye
 * Joe Keohane, footballer
 * William Kirby, footballer
 * John Joseph Lee, historian and former senator
 * Gareth Mannix, sound engineer/producer
 * Savannah McCarthy, footballer for the Republic of Ireland women's national football team
 * David Moran, footballer
 * Maurice Moynihan, Governor of Central Bank
 * Timothy V. Murphy, actor
 * David O'Callaghan, footballer
 * Sean O'Callaghan, Provisional IRA member
 * Graham O'Connell, footballer
 * Denis O'Donnell, businessman
 * Patrick Denis O'Donnell, military/historian
 * Dan O'Keeffe, footballer
 * John O'Keeffe, footballer
 * Arthur O'Leary, composer and pianist
 * Aisling O'Sullivan, actor
 * John O'Sullivan, rugby player
 * Ger Power, footballer
 * Declan Quill, footballer
 * Micheál Quirke, footballer
 * Boyle Roche, politician
 * Elise Sandes, humanitarian
 * Larry Sharpe, professional wrestler
 * Billy Sheehan, footballer
 * Mikey Sheehy, footballer
 * Dan Spring, politician, footballer, and rugby player
 * Dick Spring, politician, footballer, and rugby player
 * Austin Stack, revolutionary and footballer
 * Barry John Walsh, footballer
 * Tommy Walsh, footballer

Twinning
Tralee is twinned with Westlake, Ohio and Springfield, Massachusetts, both in the United States.

Tralee also has a twinning arrangement with Beit Sahur in Palestine.

title: Tralee


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RijnGouweLijn

The RijnGouweLijn (The Rhine-Gouwe Line), or RGL, was a proposed light rail project in South Holland, Netherlands, that used some new tracks and some existing tracks from the Gouda–Alphen aan den Rijn railway and the Woerden–Leiden railway. However, the new section might have used bus rapid transit (BRT) instead.

From 2003 to 2009 light rail vehicles operated on the Gouda–Alphen aan den Rijn railway, sharing these tracks with regular NS stock. As of 2013, only NS stock is used on the railway.

Original plan
The RGL would have been the first system in the Netherlands where light rail vehicles shared heavy rail tracks with heavy rail trains, similar to the tram-train systems around Karlsruhe and Saarbrücken, Germany. This shared track runs from Gouda through Alphen aan den Rijn to Leiden. The existing heavy rail track was to be adapted and seven additional stops added.

For Leiden, the plan was to have new track through the centre (Breestraat) at street level (alternatives that were proposed were around the centre on existing track, or in a tunnel through the centre). The province of South Holland was in favour of this, but based on a referendum in March 2007 among the Leiden population, the municipality was against it. The province threatened to force the municipality to accept a trajectory through Leiden. Following that, the municipality agreed to accept the RGL through the city. The province and municipality then agreed that the route would follow Hooigracht and Langegracht.

The proposed line passed through Leiden Centraal railway station and then used the new tracks to Katwijk with a branch to Noordwijk.

The light-rail vehicles used were of the Bombardier Flexity Swift model, produced in Vienna. The usage of the designation A32 is originally from SL in Stockholm, Sweden.

In the beginning they were used on the regular railway service between Gouda and Alphen aan den Rijn. The stations were adapted by adding new low-level platforms, either as extensions to existing high-level platforms or by building them on the opposite side of the track to the high-level platforms.

From 2003 to 2009 there was test traffic with light rail vehicles on the heavy rail track from Gouda to Alphen aan den Rijn. The RGL was divided into two sub-projects: RGL-East (Gouda-Leiden Transferium 't Schouw A44) and RGL-West (Leiden Transferium 't Schouw A44-Katwijk/Noordwijk), both of which were due for completion in late 2015. Completion depended on financial support from the national government, and in the autumn of 2009, State Secretary of Transport Tineke Huizinga indicated that the line to Katwijk would cost €45 million. The line to Noordwijk was to be served by buses in the meantime.

Background
Long before there was light rail, some of the tracks had tram traffic. In the 1960s, Leiden had the Blue and Yellow Tram lines.

In the 1960s, 70s and 80s plan were often put forward for the tram to return to the previous sections of the Blue and Yellow Tram. The first ideas for the RGL were presented in the early 90s by Boudewijn Leeuwenburgh, the former district chief of NZH. The tram system was initially intended to be a much larger light rail network, with branches to Leiderdorp, the district of Ridderveld in Alphen and Schiphol. There were also suggestions to link the RGL to Randstadrail, for example by establishing the trajectory of Leiden-Zoetermeer and/or Leiden-Leidschendam-Voorburg via Voorschoten. None of the ideas have been implemented.

People soon began to oppose the RGL. Tram traffic was seen as a hazard for cyclists and pedestrians. There was also criticism of the high construction cost of the project. In the 90s it was budgeted for 450 million guilders (€222 million), but by 2007 the amount had risen to €470 million. There were fears of cuts in city and regional bus networks. Furthermore, there was doubt about the effectiveness of the RGL. The critics were in favour of extending the rail line from Leiden to Utrecht, and investment in dedicated bus lanes on the route from Leiden to Katwijk and Noordwijk.

Ridership
In the 1990s it was projected that approximately 78,000 passengers a day would use the RGL (total number for the system Gouda-Katwijk/Noordwijk). Despite the negative impact on the bus network in favor of the RGL it was expected that the accessibility of central Leiden would be greatly improved. A track through the centre of Leiden would mean that the travel time for people who have a destination outside Leiden would be significantly longer, and this course had repercussions for the passenger forecast. These estimates were repeatedly reduced. The most recent forecasts a ridership of 50,000 passengers — 42,000 more than in the busiest tram line in Amsterdam (number 5). On the route Leiden-Katwijk/Noordwijk the number of passengers would only be slightly higher than on the current bus network.

Eastern section (Gouda - Alphen aan den Rijn - Leiden)
The section between Gouda and Leiden was originally scheduled to be inaugurated in 2005. This was later postponed to 2007 and later to 2015, simultaneously with western section. From 2003 to 2009 light rail vehicles were used on the existing railway between Gouda and Alphen aan den Rijn. The future RGL would then continue to Leiden Lammenschans railway station. In the period 2012-2014, the whole section would be upgraded to double track.

Through Leiden
The original plan was that the RGL should continue from Leiden Lammenschans railway station as a city tram to Leiden Central Station. This process was controversial, especially regarding safety, cost and impact on cyclists and the bus network. Especially controversial was a single track section through the Breestraat. Therefore, in addition to the original plan several alternative plans were developed. In one of those alternatives the RGL would follow the existing route of the railway line all the way to Leiden Centraal, or to a point near the station. The railway would be doubled, and perhaps be moved to a concrete overpass above the current track.

These alternative plans were shown to be three to four times more expensive than the originally proposed route through the city centre. On 7 March 2007 a referendum was held in Leiden, on the arrival of the RGL to Leiden (a specific route was not mentioned in the referendum question). 69% of the Leiden inhabitants voted 'no' to the proposal. Accordingly, the town rejected the RGL, but the province threatened to impose the tram line anyway. This led a majority of the politicians in Leiden to accept, in 2008, an alternative route of the RGL, through Hooigracht/Langegracht.

Whereas the tram in the initial proposal would go through Steenstraat/3e Binnenvestgracht Stationsweg to the station, it was to go through the Lammermarkt and Schuttersveld. According to the last urban vision, the tram would cross the railway in the Rijnsbruger Tunnel instead of the Joop Walenkamp tunnel, implying the removal of the bicycle lane and taxi stop. After Leiden Centraal station, the line would pass the Leiden University Medical Center and the Bio Science Park, reaching Transferium 't Schouw.

Western section (Leiden - Katwijk / Noordwijk)
From Transferium 't Schouw A44, the RGL would go as light rail to Katwijk aan den Rijn, then fork into branches to Katwijk aan Zee and Noordwijk respectively. In 2005, an agreement was signed between all municipalities except the municipality of Leiden to share the costs of the project, with the national government and province covering a large part of the construction cost, and the county bearing all risks for the operation of the line. The western branch of the RGL was also important for the opening of the new building located on the former Valkenburg Naval Air Base.

In Katwijk and Noordwijk there was much opposition to the tram plans, both among the general population and in the town councils. Neither community wanted tram traffic in the town centres. For Noordwijk it would end at the European Space Research and Technology Centre on the border with Katwijk. The municipalities presented an alternative alignment of the RGL. The RGL Noordwijk-Binnen would run to Voorhout station and the NS station at Sassenheim. In Katwijk there was opposition against the branch to Katwijk aan Zee. In both communities the tram line would have to be imposed by the provincial government, as had happened earlier in Leiden. In the autumn of 2009 the national government provided €45 million for the line to Katwijk, but not to Noordwijk. There is a gap of €55 million, for which a solution had to be found.

In June 2009, a preferred route was approved by the Provincial Council of South Holland. Both Katwijk and Noordwijk got a tram to the coast. However, the province addressed the concerns of Katwijk and routed the line not on the Boulevard but to finish in Badstraat.

Test traffic with light rail vehicles
In March 2003 test traffic was started between Gouda and Alphen aan den Rijn with light rail equipment on existing rail tracks, largely using RGL vehicles. These were Bombardier A32s, a model that is also used on the Tvärbanan light rail line in Stockholm. The grey and blue trams were fitted with yellow stickers to resemble NS "Sprinter" trains. On 13 December 2009, the trial ended and "Sprinter" trains took over the line. The A32 trams were sold to Stockholm.

Lower platforms
In North Waddinxveen the existing platform was extended with a low wooden platform. At Boskoop the island platform was considerably extended and this is the only concrete platform apart from the platform at Gouda. In Alphen aan den Rijn a new 4LR wooden platform was built along the old freight track. There is a fence between the two separate tracks, to improve driver safety as the cab door opens directly onto the track, not on the platform.

Because the trains are wider than the A32 trams, extra warning stripes were placed along the platforms to warn passengers of the height/width difference in alighting and boarding.

The operation suffered from frequent signal interference caused by malfunctioning axle counters and/or ATP-NG-train security. Soon the RGL got a bad reputation because of the cancellation of a large number of journeys. However the number of passengers per day, around 5,000, during the period 2003-2009 was stable, despite a large increase in many other rail routes in the Randstad. The six light rail vehicles purchased for the test eventually proved inadequate, also because of the large number of problems they faced.

End of test
In August 2009 it was announced that the proposed precursor of the RGL on the Gouda-Alphen route would disappear as of 13 December 2009, because using only Sprinter the train timetables could be improved. A more direct train service between Gouda and Leiden Centraal was introduced, decreasing the travel time by 8 minutes.

Future
With the route through the Hooigracht/Langegracht in Leiden decided (2008), and the decision of the provincial government on the western route, the future of the RGL was a little clearer, but that did not mean that all obstacles have been overcome. The municipality of Noordwijk refused to cooperate and several parties in the city council of Leiden remained fiercely opposed to the RGL (including D66 and SP, never strong supporters of the RGL).

End of the RGL
On Wednesday 30 January 2013, the provincial government chose to stop this version of the RGL project. Instead, there were to be more trains, stations and buses.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: RijnGouweLijn


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vandal

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User:Mian~enwiki

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User:Oklah

vandal

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User:Aco~enwiki

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Remscheid

Remscheid is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is, after Wuppertal and Solingen, the third-largest municipality in Bergisches Land, being located on the northern edge of the region, on the south side of the Ruhr area.

Remscheid had around 109,000 inhabitants in 2015. At the end of 2019 it had 113,703 inhabitants.

Geography
Remscheid comprises four boroughs, Alt-Remscheid, Remscheid-Süd, Lennep, and Lüttringhausen.

Its highest point is the Brodtberg (378 m).

History
Remscheid was founded in the 12th century, but remained a small village until the 19th century. Early spellings for the city included Remissgeid (1217), Rymscheyd (1351), Reymscheyd (1487) and Rembscheid (1639). The economic growth of the entire Rhine-Ruhr region led to an increase of the population of Remscheid. Mechanical engineering and toolmaking were the main industries practised within the town. This is carried on today with the Hazet tool company which has three factories in Remscheid. Remscheid was part of the Prussian Rhine Province from 1822 to 1945.

On 31 July 1943, during World War II, Remscheid was almost completely destroyed during a British bombing raid which caused a firestorm. This bombing raid was the final operation of RAF's Battle of the Ruhr involving 273 aircraft. During 14 and 15 April 1945, Remscheid was captured by the 78th Infantry Division (United States).

An A-10 Thunderbolt II crashed in the city on 8 December 1988. Six people died.

Demographics
As of 31 December 2019, the city's population was 113,703, of which 92,726 (81.6%) were German citizens and 20,977 (18.4%) were non-Germans (Ausländer); of the non-German population, the top 10 nationalities represented were as follows:

Mayor
The current Mayor of Remscheid is Burkhard Mast-Weisz of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 37,010 ! 98.5 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 548 ! 1.5 ! colspan=3| Total ! 37,558 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 85,783 ! 43.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Burkhard Mast-Weisz
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 22,431
 * 60.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Heidemarie Alexa Bell
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 9,710
 * 26.2
 * align=left| Peter Keck
 * align=left| Pro Remscheid
 * 1,908
 * 5.2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Fritz Beinersdorf
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,309
 * 3.5
 * align=left| Roland Kirchner
 * align=left| W.i.R. Remscheid
 * 877
 * 2.4
 * align=left| Bettina Stamm
 * align=left| Real Remscheid
 * 775
 * 2.1
 * align=left| W.i.R. Remscheid
 * 877
 * 2.4
 * align=left| Bettina Stamm
 * align=left| Real Remscheid
 * 775
 * 2.1
 * 775
 * 2.1
 * colspan=5| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Remscheid city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/− ! Seats ! +/− ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 36,916 ! 98.4 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 592 ! 1.6 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 37,508 ! 100.0 ! ! 58 ! 6 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 85,783 ! 43.7 ! 0.7 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 12,718
 * 34.5
 * 0.3
 * 20
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 11,036
 * 29.9
 * 7.3
 * 17
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 5,409
 * 14.7
 * 6.3
 * 9
 * 5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 1,945
 * 5.3
 * 0.6
 * 3
 * 1
 * align=left| Pro Remscheid (PRO)
 * 1,870
 * 5.1
 * 0.7
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 1,700
 * 4.6
 * 1.4
 * 3
 * ±0
 * align=left| W.i.R. Remscheid (WIR)
 * 1,092
 * 3.0
 * 1.5
 * 2
 * ±0
 * align=left| Real Remscheid (Echt)
 * 788
 * 2.1
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 358
 * 1.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 358
 * 1.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Main sights

 * The Müngstener Brücke is a railway bridge crossing a valley and connecting Remscheid with the neighbouring town of Solingen. It is 107 m above the ground, making it the highest railway bridge in Germany. It was constructed in 1897 and originally named the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Brücke after Wilhelm I (whose 100th birthday would have been in 1897).
 * The Eschbachtalsperre, the first dam built in Germany for the supply of drinking water is located here. It was built in 1891.
 * The old city of the borough Lennep consists of 116 houses from 1756.

Twin towns – sister cities
Remscheid is twinned with:

 * 🏴 Ashington, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇹🇷 Kırşehir, Turkey
 * 🏴 Newbiggin by the Sea, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇩🇪 Pirna, Germany
 * 🇸🇰 Prešov, Slovakia
 * 🇫🇷 Quimper, France

Remscheid also cooperates with Mrągowo County, Poland and Schmalkalden, Germany.

Notable people

 * Caspar Georg Carl Reinwardt (1773–1854), scientist
 * Gottfried Duden (1789–1856), writer
 * Oscar Schlitter (1838–1939), banker
 * Johannes Fastenrath (1839–1908), lawyer, writer and translator
 * August Gissler (1857–1935), adventurer and treasure hunter
 * Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923), discoverer of x-rays
 * Otto Jungtow (1892–1959), footballer
 * Otto Kuhler (1894–1977), American designer of locomotives
 * Hans Stammreich (1902–1969), German-Brasilian chemist
 * Teo Otto (1904–1968), stage designer
 * Wolfgang von der Nahmer (1906–1988), conductor
 * Gustav Adolf Theill (1924–1997), composer and musicologist
 * Karl Michael Vogler (1928–2009), actor
 * Wolfgang Seiler (born 1940), biogeochemist and climatologist
 * Peter Brötzmann (1941–2023), free jazz saxophonist
 * Christel Frese (born 1944), athlete
 * Michael Bacht (born 1947), artist
 * Frank Plasberg (born 1957), journalist
 * Wolfgang Tillmans (born 1968), photographer
 * Georg Wurth (born 1972), lobbyist and activist
 * Christiane Soeder (born 1975), German-Austrian cyclist
 * Robert A. Küfner (born 1988), entrepreneur, raised here
 * The Rotation (born 1996), professional wrestler

title: Remscheid


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User:Ivone

VANDAL who'd better seek professional councelling or go to bed.... or open a constructive dialog

title: User:Ivone


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Timothy Zahn

Timothy Zahn (born 1952 (age 65)) is an American writer of science fiction and fantasy. He is known best for his prolific collection of Star Wars books, chiefly the Thrawn trilogy, and has published several other series of sci-fi and fantasy novels of his own original creation, in addition to many works of short fiction.

Early life and education
Zahn grew up in Lombard, Illinois, and attended Glenbard East High School in Lombard. He has been a fan of sci-fi since he was a child.

He attended Michigan State University, before working towards a doctorate in physics at the University of Illinois.

Career
Zahn's novella Cascade Point won the 1984 Hugo Award. He is the author of the Blackcollar trilogy and the Cobra series (nine novels so far), fourteen Star Wars Expanded Universe novels, including thirteen novels featuring Grand Admiral Thrawn: the Thrawn trilogy, the Hand of Thrawn duology, Outbound Flight, Choices of One, Thrawn, Thrawn: Alliances, Thrawn: Treason, and the Thrawn Ascendancy trilogy.

Lucasfilm at times used some of the more detailed Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game supplements from West End Games as references, and West End sent boxes of their sourcebooks to Zahn when he started work on a new Star Wars novel trilogy. At the time, Zahn was writing Heir to the Empire (1991), the first book in what became known as the Thrawn trilogy, and West End in turn released sourcebooks from 1992–1994 based on Zahn's three novels.

The Thrawn trilogy marked a revival in the fortunes of the Star Wars franchise, bringing it widespread attention for the first time in years; all three Thrawn trilogy novels made The New York Times Best Seller list, and set the stage and tone for most of the franchise's expanded universe content. Zahn also wrote the young adult Dragonback series and the popular Conquerors' trilogy.

In 2014 Zahn collaborated with David Weber on the Manticore Ascendant series set within the Honorverse.

In 2023, Dave Filoni confirmed during the Star Wars Celebration Europe that Zahn served as a creative consultant for the upcoming Disney+ miniseries Ahsoka in order to assist the creative team in writing Thrawn correctly, as Filoni felt that only Zahn could advise them with the "right" way to adapt Thrawn as the character's creator.

title: Timothy Zahn


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Adam of Balsham

Adam of Balsham (Adam Balsamiensis or Adam Parvipontanus) (c. 1100/1102 – c. 1157/1169) was an Anglo-Norman scholastic and churchman.

Life
Adam was born in Balsham, near Cambridge, England. He studied with Peter Lombard at the University of Paris. He later taught at Paris; among his pupils were John of Salisbury and William of Tyre and might have been a contemporary there of Rainald of Dassel (c. 1120 – 14 August 1167). Gabriel Nuchelmans surmises that he may have been the first person to introduce the term enuntiabile, which came to be used in the same sense as dictum.

Many sources have assumed Adam of Balsham and Adam, Bishop of St Asaph (or Adam the Welshman) to be the same person, although Raymond Klibansky concludes that they were two different men.

The Petit-Pont attached to Adam's name and which crosses the Seine linking the west front of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris (and the site of a former bishop's palace) to the Left Bank St Michel area would have been the main centre of Adam's intellectual group (it was renamed in 2013 with the addition of the name of Cardinal Lustiger: 'Petit-Pont Cardinal Lustiger').

Works

 * Lorenzo Minio-Paluello (ed.), Twelfth Century Logic: Texts and Studies. Vol. I:Adam balsamiensis parvipontani. Ars disserendi (Dialectica Alexandri), Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1956.
 * De utensilibus, (or Fale tolum) on rare words.

title: Adam of Balsham


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Hong Kong Island

Hong Kong Island is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong. The island, known originally and on road signs simply as "Hong Kong", had a population of 1,289,500 and a population density of 16,390 /km2,. The island had a population of about 3,000 inhabitants scattered in a dozen fishing villages when it was occupied by the United Kingdom in the First Opium War (1839–1842). In 1842, the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the UK under the Treaty of Nanking and the City of Victoria was then established on the island by the British Force in honour of Queen Victoria. The Central area on the island is the historical, political and economic centre of Hong Kong. The northern coast of the island forms the southern shore of the Victoria Harbour, which is largely responsible for the development of Hong Kong due to its deep waters favoured by large trade ships.

The island is home to many famous sights, such as "The Peak", Ocean Park, many historical sites and various large shopping centres. The mountain ranges across the island are also famous for hiking. The northern part of Hong Kong Island, together with Kowloon and Tsuen Wan New Town, forms the core urban area of Hong Kong. Their combined area is approximately 88.3 km2 and their combined population (that of the northern part of the island and of Kowloon) is approximately 3,156,500, reflecting a population density of 35,700 /km2.

The island is often referred to locally as "Hong Kong side" or "Island side". The suffix "-side" applied to other locations (e.g. China-side and Kowloon Walled City-side), the sole remnant of which is "Kowloon side" when indicating the two sides of the harbour.

Suburbs and localities
Hong Kong Island comprises the following suburbs/localities of Hong Kong:

 * Aberdeen
 * Admiralty
 * Ap Lei Chau (A separate island which is included as part of Southern District)
 * Big Wave Bay
 * Braemar Hill
 * Causeway Bay
 * Central/Chung Wan
 * Chai Wan
 * Chung Hom Kok
 * Cyberport
 * Deep Water Bay
 * East Mid-Levels
 * Fortress Hill
 * Happy Valley
 * Jardine's Lookout
 * Kennedy Town
 * Lung Fu Shan
 * Mid-Levels
 * Mount Davis
 * North Point
 * Pok Fu Lam
 * Quarry Bay
 * Repulse Bay
 * Sai Wan Ho
 * Sai Wan
 * Sai Ying Pun
 * Sandy Bay
 * Shau Kei Wan
 * Shek O
 * Shek Tong Tsui
 * Sheung Wan
 * Siu Sai Wan
 * So Kon Po
 * Stanley
 * Tai Hang
 * Tai Tam
 * Tin Hau
 * Tin Wan
 * Victoria Park
 * Victoria Peak
 * Wan Chai
 * West Mid-Levels
 * Wong Chuk Hang

Administration
Hong Kong Island is not part of the Islands District. Four districts of Hong Kong are located on the island:
 * Central and Western District
 * Eastern District
 * Southern District (including the islands of Ap Lei Chau and Ap Lei Pai)
 * Wan Chai District

Hong Kong Island West and Hong Kong Island East are one of the Legislative Council geographical constituencies.

History
Human settlement of the area dates back millennia, as evidenced by Neolithic artifacts discovered in Stanley, Hong Kong Island. Qin Shi Huang's imperial government settled Baiyue, and later Hong Kong Island was under the jurisdiction of Panyu County (番禺縣) in Nanhai County (南海郡), to the Western Jin dynasty. After the sixth year of the Eastern Jin dynasty (AD 331), it belonged to Baoan County (寶安縣)). According to the book: "monuments and heritage Hong Kong Island East Region "(Chinese name: < 港島東區風物志》 ), the Hong Kong Yacht Club (formerly known as Lantern Island, also known as Kellett Island) (the entrance to the Hong Kong Island at the Cross-Harbour Tunnel today) has unearthed the copper coins from the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Song dynasty. It is estimated that at during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the island already had commercial activity. In the first year of the Wanli Period of the Ming dynasty (1573), it was the territory of Xin'an County, and remained so until it was ceded to the United Kingdom.

British colony
Following the First Opium War (1839–1842), Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanking and the territory became a Crown colony. At the time, the island was populated by only a few thousand people, and was thus described as being almost uninhabited.

Japanese invasion and occupation
The Second World War was a dark period for Hong Kong. In the 1930s, the British anticipated a Japanese attack on Hong Kong. As Wong Nai Chung Gap was a strategically important place of defence, large-scale defensive works were constructed there, including anti-aircraft batteries, howitzers and machine gun nests.

The Battle of Hong Kong began on 8 December 1941. British, Canadian and Indian armies and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces resisted the Japanese invasion commanded by Sakai Takashi, which began eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, the Japanese took control of the Hong Kong skies on the first day of attack and outnumbered the defenders, who retreated from the Gin Drinkers Line and consequently from Kowloon under heavy aerial bombardment and artillery barrage.

On 18 December, the Japanese had conquered North Point, reaching Wong Nai Chung Gap on the next day. English and Scottish forces and the Canadian Winnipeg Grenadiers vigorously defended the crucial point of Wong Nai Chung Gap, and for a while successfully secured the passage between Central and the secluded southern parts of the island. Japanese casualties were about 600. However, Allied forces there were ultimately defeated by the Japanese on 23 December, and Wong Nai Chung Reservoir was lost – the only one in Hong Kong at the time. As Wan Chai Gap had also fallen that same day, the British had no choice but to surrender.

Hong Kong was surrendered on 25 December 1941, thereafter often called "Black Christmas" by locals. The Governor of Hong Kong, Mark Young, surrendered in person at the temporary Japanese headquarters, on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel, thus beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. Hyper-inflation and food rationing followed; and the Japanese declared Hong Kong Dollars illegal. The Japanese enforced a repatriation policy throughout the period of occupation because of the scarcity of food and the possible counter-attack of the Allies. As a result, the unemployed were deported to the Mainland, and the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945.

Geography
Hong Kong Island is the second-largest island of the territory, the largest being Lantau Island. Its area is 78.59 km2, including 6.98 km2 of land reclaimed since 1887 and some smaller scale ones since 1851. It makes up approximately 7% of the total territory. It is separated from the mainland (Kowloon Peninsula and New Territories) by Victoria Harbour.

Most of the hills across the middle of the island are included within the country parks.

Demographics
The population is 1,270,876, which makes up approximately 19% of that of Hong Kong. Its population density is higher than for the whole of Hong Kong, c. 18,000 per km2. However, the population is heavily concentrated along the northern shore. The combined population of Central and Western, Wan Chai, and Eastern is 1,085,500, giving this urbanised part of the island a density of around 26,000 per km2, or 67,000 per mi2, in its approximately 41.3 km2.

The residents living in the Central and Western and Wanchai districts of Hong Kong island have the highest median household income of any area in Hong Kong. Affluent districts on Hong Kong Island are The Peak, Western Mid-Levels (Conduit Road/Robinson Road/Magazine Gap Road/Kotewall Road etc.), Eastern Mid-Levels (Happy Valley/Tai Hang/Jardine's Lookout), Tai Tam, Deep Water Bay and Repulse Bay.

As of 2021, 85% of Hong Kong Island's residents are of Chinese descent. The largest ethnic minority groups are Filipinos (5.5%), Indonesians (2.5%), and White people (2.5%).

80.2% of Hong Kong Island's residents use Cantonese as their usual language, while 8% use English and 1.9% use Mandarin.

Rail
Seven of the MTR rapid transit system's ten lines service Hong Kong Island. The Island line and South Island line run exclusively on Hong Kong Island, with the Island line serving the north shore at 17 stations, and the South Island line connecting four stations on Ap Lei Chau and in Wong Chuk Hang to the north shore at Admiralty station. Five MTR lines – the Tsuen Wan line, the Tseung Kwan O line, the Tung Chung line, the Airport Express – connect the north shore with Kowloon and provide onward service to the New Territories, and the East Rail line which provides another cross-harbour connection upon its extension from Hung Hom station to Admiralty station. In future, the planned North Island line infrastructure project would extend both the Tung Chung line and the Tseung Kwan O line to connect them to each other, forming a route parallel to the middle section of the Island line.

Two other rail systems, Hong Kong Tramways and the Peak Tram, also run exclusively on Hong Kong Island. The former runs mostly parallel to the Island line between Kennedy Town and Shau Kei Wan, with a loop linking Causeway Bay and Happy Valley; the latter is a funicular linking Central District to Victoria Peak.

Roads
Major roads on Hong Kong Island include Connaught Road, Des Voeux Road and Queen's Road.

Tunnels
Hong Kong Island is connected to the Kowloon Peninsula on the mainland by two road-only tunnels (the Cross-Harbour Tunnel and the Western Harbour Crossing), three MTR railway tunnels (East Rail line, Tsuen Wan line and Tung Chung line/Airport Express) and one combined road and MTR rail link tunnel (Eastern Harbour Crossing, containing the Tseung Kwan O line and road traffic in separate parallel conduits).

Bridges
There are no bridges between the island and Kowloon, although two bridges – the Ap Lei Chau Bridge, a road bridge, and Aberdeen Channel Bridge, part of the South Island line – connect the Hong Kong island to Ap Lei Chau.

title: Hong Kong Island


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User talk:IHATENAZIPIGS

vandal

Hey, be careful what you're calling him! That's an insult to real vandals. -- Modemac

 * Yes and I'm part Vandal on my mother's side.

ok.... you suggest a new name for him/her. olivier 13:38 Feb 8, 2003 (UTC)

I suggest "The MIT Vandal" -- the ip number is apparently at MIT. --Jimbo

 * excellent sujestion Jimbo. Who are you?

How 'bout "Baby-Pooh-Squeezer" Ducker

 * watch it or you will be banned.

Very good MIT admins will take the appropriate sanctions ! Ericd 13:42 Feb 8, 2003 (UTC)

Yes. MIghTers will stay away. Did anyone find out if he was Stallman on a tear.

Living in the Boston area can be useful. The phone number for the MIT computer lab is 617-253-5851. -- Modemac (I was going to call him "Wanna-be vandal," but Ducker's name is better!)

 * people who live in Boston can be useless. 411 is easier to dial than 1-617-555-1212 !

Why don't you, you, you people understand anything.

title: User talk:IHATENAZIPIGS


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Talk:Nation of Islam and antisemitism

Anti semitism in question?
Most of the anti-semitism claims come from references into speeches or things said by khalid muhammad, alot of which Minister Farrakhan has said he did not necessarily agree with on 60 minutes interview with barbara walters. In fact Khalid Muhammad was demoted for these speeches and eventually kicked out. This is not typical of racist or discriminatory institution to kick out members for racism. I mean how many skin heads are kicked out for making anti black statements? The claims of anti semitism I think are largely false. Louis Farrkahn the leader, is not a denier of the holocaust. I find this article pointless, basically it says that there are anti semites in the NOI but the leader louis farakhan rejects anti semitism in the barbara walters interview. There are racist in every organization and most of the presidents before Carter were open racist who dislike blacks. Matter a fact George Washington owned slaves and Thomas Jefferson was raping black women, why is it nowhere in these articles that these men are racist? The pope and the white church embraced slavery, embraced the holocaust and supproted mussolini and hitler, why is it not painted as anti semitic when they are far more responsible for helping in the murder of millions of jews, than the NOI who has zero involvement? As for jews financing the holocaust, well, jews did control most of the banks at the time because of the historical usury probalem for christians and the fact that jews were mostly merchants and thus had more liquid money as opposed to land. It would be a lie to say that jews who ran these banks were not dealing with nazi party members who eventually formed the majority of germany. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.238.18.213 (talk) 23:17, 31 July 2010 (UTC)
 * The article already contains a section named "Response to charges of antisemitism" which begins with the sentence "The Nation of Islam has repeatedly denied charges of anti-Semitism ...". If you want to elaborate on that point, go ahead and find some reliable sources and add material into that section. --Noleander (talk) 23:29, 31 July 2010 (UTC)

Yes but that is not addressing the issue. The issue here is why is it that one group who had 1 single man name khalid muhammad who was not even the leader of the group make anti-semitic statements has an article that suggest the whole group is racist. Whereas the other groups (church who supported racist) or banks who helped in the holocaust or people who were racist or made racist statements or owned black slaves and raped black women, have no mention of this in their articles. In my opnion this article should just be deleted because we are not going to change all the other articles. It is unfair and opens wikipedia to lawsuits to claim an entire organization racist or anti-semitic by the words of one single minister amongst hundreds of ministers named khalid muhammad. The articles should conform. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.238.18.213 (talk) 09:18, 5 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree that this article should - in general - not contain material about individuals that were not leaders of (or represent) the faith in an official capacity. If K. Muhammad was not a leader or spokesperson of Nation of Islam, then material related to him should be moved into the article Khalid Muhammad.  What was K. Muhammad's role in the Nation of Islam?  --Noleander (talk) 12:37, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

Farrakhan has a well-documented record of hate speech against Jews. You can see a montage of what he has said here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iC9mlc-aTIY&ab_channel=JosephCohen — Preceding unsigned comment added by Exiero (talk • contribs) 18:05, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

WP:OR
Adding editorial apologetic comments about the makeup of the board of governors, for example, is a violation of WP:OR, WP:SYNTH, etc. IF there is a verifiable and reliable source that makes those specific claims, that may be quoted; editors are not allowed to add their own opinions about statements in articles. -- Avi (talk) 13:55, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

Request
This article should separate between allegations made at the Original NOI and Farrakhans organisation. I'm not saying they are different, because I have no idea but the members booing at that white supremecist speaking suggest there was fractions within the NOI back then. 212.107.143.107 (talk) 19:41, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

I had to delete parts of the paragraph on Holocaust denying. Parts being uncited and the source given was an opinion piece by an author who didn't use his real name so I had trouble understanding the original content of the piece. There were also possible elements of original research as a web page on black history was quoted and the description given that it was run by NOI supports, however I could find nothing to substantiate this. If there are any reliable sourced materials it can be added back in. I'm cautious to include unsupported allegations, that alluded to an anonymous internet source, especially given this allegation. I'm not sure what's going on with this subject but after looking on the internet for a bit, I could not find a source that compares NOI to deniers that doesn't also state other fringe racist conspiracies such as the slave trade was over exaggerated and that black leaders today profit from the African slave business. For these reasons, I would caution to assert these statements unless a reputable source is found.

I also agree with the above statement that there is no distinction drawn between the various African Muslim organizations and the Nation of Islam. I think I'll direct a peer to this page and see if something can be done. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.133.55.160 (talk) 04:10, 24 March 2012 (UTC)

RfC
An RfC: Which descriptor, if any, can be added in front of Southern Poverty Law Center when referenced in other articles? has been posted at the Southern Poverty Law Center talk page. Your participation is welcomed. – MrX 17:03, 22 September 2012 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:3D Test of Antisemitism which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 10:30, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

John Conyers paragraph -- undue weight and off-topic
In the section of the article titled "General claims", the first paragraph is a single sentence listing five organizations that consider the Nation of Islam to be antisemitic. The second paragraph, which is three sentences long, is about U.S. Representative John Conyers criticizing a single speech by Louis Farrakhan. Seems like a case of undue weight to me.

Is Conyers' opinion of a speech really as important -- or more important -- than the views of multiple organizations? What qualifications does Conyers have? His criticism is directed toward the speech, not the Nation of Islam. Seems off-topic as well as undue weight. — MShabazz Talk/Stalk 12:02, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * I agree. There's no reason to have this paragraph here. That's a criticism of a speech made by Farrakhan, not a general claim about anything. Any objections to removing it? Flyte35 (talk) 14:54, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Attributed quote from a civil rights icon is appropriate. Jason from nyc (talk) 15:31, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * I don't think it is. The quote doesn't make any sense there. The section is about "general claims of antisemitism" and that quote doesn't have anything to do with criticizing the Nation of Islam generally for being anti-Semitic.Flyte35 (talk) 16:00, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * You don't think Farrakhan speaks for the NoI or even more, the embodiment of the NoI? Jason from nyc (talk) 16:04, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * I don't think it's a necessary or useful addition to this section because it's not a general claim of antisemitism against the Nation of Islam. Flyte35 (talk) 16:09, 17 February 2017 (UTC)

Jason from nyc, could you please address the issues I raised about undue weight. Is criticism of a single speech by Farrakhan by a single member of Congress really so much more significant than criticism of the beliefs and public pronouncements of the Nation of Islam by major civil rights organizations that it merits a three-sentence paragraph of its own while they are just listed by name in a single sentence? — MShabazz Talk/Stalk 18:41, 17 February 2017 (UTC)

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Neturei Karta
Neturei Karta is a fringe group akin to the Westboro Baptist Church that is rather tiny and has disproportionate publicity to their actual relevance. Why do we have a whole section about them? See also: tokenization. If there is no objections, I will be removing this. --Calthinus (talk) 06:43, 22 January 2019 (UTC)

 * I agree. Thank you for removing them. — Malik Shabazz Talk/Stalk 04:10, 23 January 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nation of Islam and antisemitism


text:
User:Sven11~enwiki

Our "vandal of the day" is back. I was almost afraid we had scared him/her away... MIT computer lab guys, please check this person out. olivier 13:51 Feb 8, 2003 (UTC)

title: User:Sven11~enwiki


text:
User:Steely

VANDAL

title: User:Steely


text:
Hwarang

Hwarang were an elite warrior group of male youth in Silla, an ancient kingdom of the Korean Peninsula that originated from the mid 6th century and lasted until the early 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture as well as religious teachings stemming mainly from Korean Buddhism. Chinese sources referred only to the physical beauty of the "Flower Youths". The history of the hwarang was not widely known until after the National Liberation Day of Korea in 1945, after which the hwarang became elevated to symbolic importance.

The Hwarang were also referred to as Hyangdo ("fragrant ones" or "fragrant disciples" – 향도; 香徒), the word hwarang and its colloquial derivatives being used for everything from playboy to shaman or husband of a female shaman. The word remained in common use until the 12th century but with more derogatory connotations.

Traditional sources for Hwarang
Information on the Hwarang is mainly found in the historiographical works Samguk Sagi (1145) and Samguk Yusa (c. 1285), and the partially extant Haedong Goseungjeon (1215), a compilation of biographies of famous monks of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

All three of these works cite primary sources no longer existent, including 1) a memorial stele to Nallang (presumably a Hwarang based upon the suffix nang) by the 9th–10th century Silla scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn; 2) an early Tang account of Silla titled the Xinluo guoji by the Tang official Ling Hucheng; and 3) Hwarang Segi, Chronicle of the Hwarang) by Kim Dae-mun, compiled in the early eighth century. In the late 1980s, an alleged Hwarang Segi manuscript was discovered in Gimhae, South Korea. Scholar Richard McBride regards it as a forgery.

Wonhwa
According to the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, two groups of women called Wonhwa preceded the Hwarang. The precise nature and activities of the Wonhwa are also unclear, with some scholars positing they may have actually been court beauties or courtesans. However, considering that they were trained in ethics, this may be a later patriarchal reading into the Wonhwa. Women played a much more prominent social role in pre-Joseon Korea, especially in Silla, which had three reigning queens in its history.

Both sources record that during the reign of Jinheung of Silla, groups of beautiful girls were chosen and taught filial and fraternal piety, loyalty, and sincerity (no firm date is given for this, and some scholars express doubt this even occurred during Jinheung's reign). However, the leaders of the two bands of Wonhwa, Nammo (南毛) and Junjeong (俊貞), grew jealous of one another. When Junjeong murdered her rival, the Wonhwa were disbanded. No doubt the details of this origin story are most likely based on myth and legend, despite the facts surrounding the foundation of the sect being true, as supported by various documented sources. First note that the term wonhwa is composed of won 源, "source", and undoubtedly refers to the founders of the sect, while hwa 花, "flower", is a euphemism for someone who has spent a great deal of time or money in the pursuit of something, i.e. a devotee. In the case of the Wonhwa, devotion to philosophy and the arts. Furthermore, while the names nammo and junjeong could have been appellations adopted by these two ladies for use in court, one cannot overlook the obvious descriptions they portray. Nammo hints at one who is careless yet lucky, or perhaps someone who is innately insightful and therefore lackadaisical about further erudition. Junjeung clearly indicates a person who is talented and virtuous, despite the fact that she was the one who succumbed to homicidal tendencies. It would be logical to assume that if someone had to work hard, maybe even struggle with attaining certain goals, that envy might consume them if their counterpart, especially if viewed more as a rival, seemed to reach the same objectives with substantially less effort.

Origins of the Hwarang
It is conjectured that the foundation of the Hwarang system originated from the mid 6th century during the King Jinheung of Silla era, but the exact date of establishment is ambiguous: Samguk sagi reports the year of 576 AD, Dongguk Tonggam reports the year of 540 AD, and Sadaham is already recorded as a Hwarang in 562 AD according to Samguk sagi yeoljeon. Although some historians believe that the Hwarang played a big part in the unification of the Three Kingdoms, some historians are unclear about the role that the Hwarang played in the unification; An excerpt about Sadaham in the Samguk Sagi. According to the Samguk Yusa, the Silla king, "concerned about the strengthening of the country ... again issued a decree and chose boys from good families who were of good morals and renamed them hwarang." The actual word used in this chronicle is hwanang (花娘), meaning "flower girls". This suggests that the Hwarang were not originally military in character, as the Wonhwa were not soldiers. The youths who were chosen by the Silla Kingdom became the knights and warriors for the Silla dynasty within the age of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A close relationship did exist between the Hwarang and Buddhism because Buddhism was accepted as a state religion by the royalty and aristocrats within the Silla Kingdom. The Buddhist monks were often mentors for the Hwarang in both physical and spiritual ways. The Hwarang would seek the teachings of these Buddhist monks because they knew that the martial arts practiced by these Buddhist monks were a source through which they could strengthen themselves for greater success in the future and for the benefit of the Silla Kingdom. The monks would train themselves in physical fitness exercises through self-defense techniques, countering the weakening effects of long-term meditation and enabling them to protect themselves from bandits and robbers who tried to steal the donations and charities that were collected by the monks on their pilgrimages. Both the Buddhist monks and the Hwarang would go on journeys to famous mountains to heighten their training and would seek encounters with supernatural beings for protection and the success/prosperous of the Silla Kingdom. Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) was a Buddhist monk who was asked by the Hwarang to teach them ways to develop aspirations, bravery, and honor, in order to protect the Silla Kingdom from the other kingdoms inhabiting the peninsula. Won Gwang trained these youths in three areas:

 * 1) Self-defense capabilities
 * 2) Self-confidence
 * 3) Self-control

Won Gwang taught the youths of the Hwarang to become warriors who could defend their beliefs with martial arts, to be confident in their actions, and to control themselves and their surroundings. Won Gwang gave to these Hwarang teachings in gwonbeop (martial methods or skills) that combined the secret Buddhist monk's physical and mental exercises. Won Gwang also proposed 5 principles or guidelines that were later called the Five Precepts for Secular Life (Se Sok O Gye; 세속오계; 世俗五戒) which became a list of ethics that the Hwarang could embrace (this is why he is commonly known as Beop Sa or "lawgiver"):

 * 1) Show allegiance to one's sovereign. (sa·gun·i·chung; 사군이충; 事君以忠)
 * 2) Treat one's parents with respect and devotion. (sa·chin·i·hyo; 사친이효; 事親以孝)
 * 3) Exhibit trust and sincerity amongst friends. (gyo·u·i·sin; 교우이신; 交友以信)
 * 4) Never retreat in battle. (im·jeon·mu·toe; 임전무퇴; 臨戰無退)
 * 5) Exercise discretion when taking a life. (sal·saeng·yu·taek; 살생유택; 殺生有擇)

These commandments and teachings of Won Gwang were followed by the Hwarang to protect the Silla Kingdom from rival kingdoms and helped unify the nation of Ancient Korea until the fall of the Silla Kingdom.

In 520, King Beopheung had instituted Sino-Korean style reforms and formalized the golpum (bone rank) system. In 527, Silla formally adopted Buddhism as a state religion. The establishment of Hwarang took place in the context of tightening central state control, a complement to the golpum system and a symbol of harmony and compromise between the king and the aristocracy.

Evolution
With the consolidation and expansion of Silla and intensification of military rivalries among the Three Kingdoms in the 6th century, the Silla court took a more active interest in the Hwarang. Hwarang groups were usually led by a youth of aristocratic standing, and the state appointed a high-ranking official to oversee the organization.

The Hwarang in the later 6th and 7th centuries trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship, archery, javelin and stone throwing, polo, and ladder-climbing. By the seventh century the organization had grown greatly in prestige and numbered several hundred bands.

The Samguk Sagi, compiled by the general and official Kim Bu-sik, emphasizes the military exploits of certain Hwarang, while the Samguk Yusa emphasizes the group's Buddhist activities. The biographies section of the Samguk Sagi describes young Hwarang who distinguished themselves in the struggles against the Gaya confederacy and later Baekje and Goguryeo. According to the Hwarang Segi, as cited in the Samguk Sagi and Haedong Goseungjeon, “...able ministers and loyal subjects are chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers are born therefrom.”

The Hwarang were greatly influenced by Buddhist, Confucian, and shamanistic ideals. A Chinese official recorded, "They [Silla] choose fair sons from noble families and deck them out with cosmetics and fine clothes and call them Hwarang. The people all revere and serve them."

Disbandment
After establishing a Unified Silla, the Silla-Tang War, and reestablishing relations with the Tang dynasty, the Hwarang lost much of their influence and prestige during peacetime. This group was reduced to a social club for Silla's elite through various names. They would eventually disappear after the fall of Silla, but they lasted through the Koryŏ dynasty until they officially disbanded at the beginning of the Joseon dynasty.

Hierarchy

 * 원화 – Wonhwa: Royal Female Patron (源花) (disbanded)
 * 풍월주 – Pungwolju: Head of the Hwarang (風月主)
 * 국선 – Gukseon: Chief Officer of a Hwarang group (國仙)
 * 원상화 – Wonsanghwa: First Officer in charge of martial arts training (原上花)
 * 상선- Sangseon: Training officers for the Hwarang (上仙)
 * 화랑– Hwarang: Members of the Hwarang groups and leaders of the Nangdo (花郞)
 * 낭도 – Nangdo: Followers of the Hwarang (郎徒)

Historians have problems figuring out the leadership hierarchy within the Hwarang as they piece together different historical materials. For instance, historians thought the Pungwolju was a government position administering the Hwarang groups, a Hwarang leader, or a previous system within the Hwarang. Historians also dispute the Gukseon as Hwarang leaders appointed by the king or the Hwarang groups elect their members to lead their groups. Some historians believed the Pungwolju and Gukseon ranks might be synonymous with each other, and they both served as Hwarang leaders.

Five commandments
Two youths, Gwisan (귀산,貴山) and Chwihang (취항, 取項), approached the Silla monk Won Gwang seeking spiritual guidance and teaching, saying, “We are ignorant and without knowledge. Please give us a maxim which will serve to instruct us for the rest of our lives.”

Won Gwang, who had gained fame for his period of study in Sui China, replied by composing the Sesok-ogye ("Five Commandments for Secular Life"; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒). These have since been attributed as a guiding ethos for the Hwarang:

 * 1) Loyalty to one's lord (sagun ichung; 사군이충; 事君以忠; 나라에 충성하고)
 * 2) Love and respect your parents (sachin ihyo; 사친이효; 事親以孝; 부모님께 효도하고)
 * 3) Trust among friends (gyo-u isin; 교우이신; 交友以信; 믿음으로 벗을 사귀고)
 * 4) Never retreat in battle (imjeon mutwae; 임전무퇴; 臨戰無退; 싸움에 나가서는 물러서지 않으며)
 * 5) Never take a life without a just cause (salsaeng yutaek; 살생유택; 殺生有擇; 살아있는 것을 함부로 죽이지 않는다)

The Samguk Yusa also records that Hwarang members learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and the Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正).

Famous Hwarang

 * Kim Yu-sin
 * Kim Alcheon
 * Kim Won-sul
 * Kim Gwanchang (김관창)

Other uses
Following the fall of Silla, the term hwarang survived and changed in meaning again. In Choe Sejin (최세진)'s 1527 book Hunmong jahoe (훈몽자회), the term hwarang is even referred to as a male prostitute. Today, Hwarang is often used in the names of various schools, organizations and companies.

 * The Taekwondo pattern Hwa-Rang as well as several traditional forms are named in honor of the Hwarang.
 * A South Korean cigarette brand issued to the armed forces was called "Hwarang".
 * Hwa Rang Do is a modern Korean martial art that is inspired by the ancient Hwarang warriors and their legacy.
 * In the fighting game series Tekken, a playable character named Hwoarang is present in the game, and fights with the Tae Kwon Do fighting style.
 * Grandmaster Ho Sik Pak named his martial arts federation the "Hwa Rang World Tang Soo Do Federation" in honor of the Hwarang.
 * Silla"新羅 花郎徒" 興武大王·將軍 金庾信 Kim Yu-sin 後孫 a scion of a royal stock kim chul 實戰戰鬪護身術 創始者"Hosinsool.

In popular culture

 * Hwarang: The Poet Warrior Youth (KBS2, 2016–2017)
 * Queen Seondeok (MBC, 2009)

title: Hwarang


text:
Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette

Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette (12 January 1780 – 16 June 1849) was a German theologian and biblical scholar.

Life and education
Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette was born 12 January 1780 in Ulla (now part of the municipality of Nohra), Thuringia, where his father was a pastor. As a boy, he was sent to the gymnasium at the nearby city of Weimar. Here he was much influenced by Johann Gottfried von Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799, de Wette entered the University of Jena to study theology, his principal teachers being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus. By the time he submitted his dissertation in September 1804, he was in regular contact at Jena with Jakob Friedrich Fries and Karl David Ilgen, who perhaps led him to his contact with Johann Severin Vater, a scholar whose work he both admired and, in some respects, duplicated independently. He became a Privatdozent at Jena after completing his doctorate degree.

In 1807, de Wette became a professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came under the influence of Jakob Friedrich Fries (1773–1843), whose hiring he helped arrange (as well as that of Paulus). In 1810, was transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, where he became friendly with Friedrich Schleiermacher. He was, however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer of August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving him of the chair, but also banishing him from the Prussian kingdom.

De Wette retired to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Martin Luther and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers (1822), in which he describes the education of an evangelical pastor. He began preaching, at which he proved to be very popular. In 1822, he accepted the chair of theology in the University of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before. Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party, De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen and became rector of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength, particularly in the theological faculty.

Marriages and family
De Wette married three times, first with Eberhardine Boye, then Henriette, née Frisch, widowed Beck, the mother of Charles Beck, and the third time in 1833 Sophie, née Streckeisen, widow of the Berne pastor Abraham Rudolf von May.

Studies
In his 1805 doctoral dissertation, de Wette proposed that the "book of law" discovered in the temple by the priest Hilkiah as described in 2 Kings 22 was the Book of Deuteronomy. The suggestion has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch" which prepared the way for the Supplementary hypothesis. But he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled Die Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says (Development of Theology), he "occupied as free a position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connection of the present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness. Accordingly, they possess value that is little affected by the progress of criticism.

Death
De Wette died in Basel on 16 June 1849.

Selected works
His most important works are:
 * Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Contributions to the Introduction of the Old Testament. 2 vols, 1806–1807).
 * Kommentar über die Psalmen (Commentary on the Psalms. 1811), which has passed through several editions.
 * Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen Archäologie (Textbook of Hebrew-Jewish Archaeology. 1814).
 * Über Religion und Theologie (On Religion and Theology. 1815); a work showing its author's general theological positions.
 * Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik (Textbook of Christian Dogmatics. 1813-1816).
 * Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel (Textbook of the Historical-Critical Introduction to the Bible. 1817).
 * Christliche Sittenlehre (Christian Moral Teaching. 1819–1821).
 * Einleitung in das Neue Testament (Introduction to the New Testament. 1826).
 * Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das Leben (Religion, its nature, its appearance, and its influence on life. 1827).
 * Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens (The Essence of the Christian Faith. 1846).
 * Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (Concise Exegetical Handbook on the New Testament. 1836–1848).

De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825–1828).

Selected works online

From Google Books:
 * Dr. Martin Luthers Briefe, Sendschreiben und Bedenken: vollständig aus den verschiedenen Ausgaben seiner Werke und Briefe, aus andern Büchern und noch unbenutzten Handschriften gesammelt, kritisch und historisch bearbeitet, 5 vols., Berlin: Georg reimer, vol. 6, ed. by Johann Karl Seidemann - German (Fraktur) and Latin. Reviewed here (July 1845), books.google.com
 * vol. 1, Erster Theil, 1825
 * vol. 2, Zwenter Theil, 1826
 * vol. 3, Dritter Theil, 1827
 * vol. 4, Vierter Theil, 1827
 * vol. 5, Fünfter Theil, 1828
 * vol. 6, Sechster Theil, 1856
 * Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel Alten und Neuen Testamentes, Erster Theil, Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1852
 * Commentar über die Psalmen nebst beigefügter Übersetzung, fünfte auflage, herausgegeben von Dr. Gustav Baur, Professor der Theologie an der Universität Giessen, Akademische Verlagshandlung, Heidelberg, 1811, 1856, which passed through several editions, and was long regarded as of high authority.
 * An Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Books of the New Testament, Frederick Frothingham, tr., Boston: Crosby, Nichols and Company, 1858
 * Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen Archäologie nebst einem Grundrisse der hebräisch-jüdischen Geschichte, 4th edition, Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1864
 * Christliche Sittenlehre, Berlin, 1819

title: Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette


text:
Thomas Kelly Cheyne

Thomas Kelly Cheyne, (18 September 1841 – 1915) was an English divine and biblical critic.

Biography
He was born in London and educated at Merchant Taylors' School, London, and Oxford University. Subsequently, he studied German theological methods at Göttingen. He was ordained in 1864 and held a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford, from 1868 to 1882. During the earlier part of this period he stood alone in the university as a teacher of the main conclusions of Old Testament criticism at that time. In 1881 he was presented to the rectory of Tendring, in Essex, and in 1884 he was made a member of the Old Testament revision company. He resigned the living of Tendring in 1885 on his appointment to be Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, which carried with it a canonry at Rochester. In 1889 he delivered the Bampton lectures at Oxford. In 1908 he resigned his professorship.

In June 1901, he received an honorary doctorate of Divinity from the University of Glasgow, and in March 1902 he was awarded the degree Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) from the University of Oxford.

In 1882 he married Frances Godfrey and she died in 1907. Cheyne wrote a glowing a review of the work published by Elizabeth Gibson in 1911. The review was in the progressive Christian Commonwealth. Gibson had published about twenty books of poetry or prose and she was an established writer''. '' Their common interest fueled a whirlwind romance that resulted in their marriage in the Cornish village of Mawnan in Cornwall on 28 August 1911. Afterwards She joined Cheyne at his home in Oxford.

He consistently urged in his writings the necessity of a broad and comprehensive study of the Scriptures in the light of literary, historical and scientific considerations. His publications include commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa, as well as lectures and addresses on theological subjects. He was a joint editor of the Encyclopaedia Biblica (London, 1899-1903), a work embodying the more advanced conclusions of English biblical criticism. In the introduction to his Origin of the Psalter (London, 1891) he gave an account of his development as a critical scholar. His publications include translations, commentaries, and supplemental research.

He became a member of the Baháʼí Faith by 1912. "If there has been any Prophet in recent times", he wrote in his 1914 work The Reconciliation of Races and Religions, "it is to Bahá'u'lláh that we must go. Character is the final judge. Bahá'u'lláh was a man of the highest class – that of Prophets."

His second wife's 1912 book The Voice of One Crying was "arranged in cycles by T. K. C. i.e. Thomas Kelly Cheyne".

Books
In his lifetime Cheyne published over a dozen volumes.
 * The Relations Between Civilized and Uncivilized Races: A Prize Essay Read in the Theatre, Oxford was perhaps his first publication in 1864.
 * Encyclopaedia Biblica, co-edited with J. Sutherland Black in 1903, revised 1907, is still widely cited.
 * The Reconciliation of Races and Religions may have been his last publication, August 1914, by A. and C. Black, and has been reprinted as late as 2004 (as ISBN 1-4142-1939-3,)
 * Founders of Old Testament Criticism: Biographical, Descriptive, and Critical Studies - Wipf and Stock 9781592443789
 * Job and Solomon: Or the Wisdom of the Old Testament - Wipf and Stock 9781597521512
 * The Mines of Isaiah Re-explored - Wipf and Stock 9781597521550
 * Introduction to the Book of Isaiah - Wipf and Stock 9781592449095
 * The Origin and Religious Contents of The Psalter: In the Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions - Wipf and Stock 9781606082577
 * Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism: Part I: The David Narrative, Part II: The Book of Psalms - Wipf and Stock 9781606085004
 * Traditions & Beliefs of Ancient Israel (1907) - Various reprints

Articles
Several articles in the Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition (1875–89) and 10th edition (1902-03), including on Circumcision, Deluge and Hittites.

title: Thomas Kelly Cheyne