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Astute-class submarine

The Astute class is the latest class of nuclear-powered fleet submarines (SSNs) in service with the Royal Navy. The boats are being constructed by BAE Systems Submarines at Barrow-in-Furness. Seven boats will be constructed: the first of class, HMS Astute (S119), was launched by Queen Camilla, in 2007, commissioned in 2010, and declared fully operational in May 2014. The Astute class is the replacement for the Trafalgar-class submarine fleet submarines in Royal Navy service.

Batch 2 Trafalgar class
The Astute-class programme began in February 1986 when the Ministry of Defence (MOD) launched a number of studies intended to determine the capabilities and requirements for the replacement of its Swiftsure and Trafalgar-class fleet submarines. These studies, called project SSN20, were conducted during the Cold War, when the Royal Navy maintained a strong emphasis on anti-submarine warfare to counter increasingly capable Soviet submarines. To match this growing threat, the studies concluded that project SSN20 should be a revolutionary design, with significantly enhanced nuclear propulsion and firepower, and a more sophisticated "integrated sonar suite" and combat systems. Similarly, the United States Navy, which was facing the same threats, went on to design and build the Seawolf-class submarine. The estimated costs of project SSN20, although great, were not considered a "constraint".

However, by 1990 the Berlin Wall had fallen and the Cold War came to an end. Project SSN20 was promptly cancelled and a new set of design studies were started, this time, with "cost control" as a key objective. The Trafalgar class had been an evolved derivative of the preceding Swiftsure class, and in order to reduce cost and technical risk it was concluded that this new class of fleet submarine should "build upon" the Trafalgar design. This became known as the Batch 2 Trafalgar class (B2TC), with approval for the studies phase given in June 1991. While the philosophy behind B2TC was that of a modern and improved Trafalgar, early design concepts of B2TC were also heavily influenced by the then under construction Vanguard-class submarine, in particular its nuclear steam raising plant (NSRP).

Astute programme
Following two years of a studies phase on B2TC, the MOD issued a draft invitation to tender in October 1993 and a final invitation to tender in July 1994. The final invitation to tender involved a formal competition between GEC-Marconi/BMT Limited and VSEL/Rolls-Royce, with bids to be submitted in June 1995. GEC-Marconi and BMT had little experience with British submarine designs, whereas VSEL and Rolls-Royce were heavily involved in both British nuclear submarine design and construction.

During the assessment phase of the bids put forward by both teams, the MOD favoured the GEC-Marconi/BMT design on both cost and capability grounds. The bid put forward by VSEL/Rolls-Royce was less attractive and considered "an expensive and dull design." In June 1995, VSEL was subject to a takeover by GEC-Marconi, and with it, the Barrow shipyard. In December of the same year, the MOD announced that GEC-Marconi was the preferred bidder. The bid put forward by GEC-Marconi included the innovative use of 3D CAD software and modular construction techniques. Although the MOD had awarded the contract to GEC-Marconi, partly due to its competitive cost, it was still considered too high for the MOD to sign off on. The MOD and GEC-Marconi negotiated on a new price for the contract, amounting to £2.4 billion for the first three Astute submarines, plus in service support. The contract was signed on 14 March 1997, for what was now called the Astute programme, with a fixed maximum price, and any cost overruns being assumed by GEC-Marconi, the contractor.

Although B2TC was intended to be a modest improvement over the Trafalgar class, it was not to be the case for Astute. With the signing of the contract in March 1997, GEC-Marconi started work on developing a complete and comprehensive design for the Astute programme. Initial realisation was that the size of the Rolls-Royce PWR2 required a much larger boat (beam and length) and significantly improved acoustic quieting. A new understanding was reached between the MOD and GEC-Marconi that this would be an entirely new class, and far more complex than originally envisioned.

Construction, cost overruns and delays
In November 1999, British Aerospace purchased GEC-Marconi and created BAE Systems. At the time of the takeover, it had been approximately 20 years since the Vanguard class were designed, and the last of the boats had already been launched. The workforce at the Barrow shipyard had fallen from around 13,000, to 3,000. Key skills in design and engineering had been lost, predominantly through retirement or movement into other careers. This created significant delays and challenges in getting the Astute programme from design phase and into construction phase. Further delays and cost increases were also caused by the 3D CAD software, despite originally being touted as an innovative cost saving measure, by greatly reducing man-hours. However, one of the reasons for this was a lack of experienced designers able to use the software and its expanded tools. Despite numerous difficulties, including incomplete design drawings, the first boat, Astute, was laid down on 31 January 2001. As planned, modular construction methods were used, with the boat being built in several ring-like modules, each up to several metres in length. These were welded together using specially designed high-strength steel, and then fitted out. From boat 2 onward however, vertical outfitting has been used, whereby the ring-like sections are "stood up on their ends." This has better enabled the fitting of large and heavy equipment, and has also proved to be more efficient, with reportedly "thousands of man-hours saved". The class is the first nuclear submarine to be designed entirely using 3D computer software.

By 2002 both BAE and the MOD recognised they had underestimated the technical challenges and costs of the programme. In August 2002 the programme was estimated to be over three years late and hundreds of millions of pounds over budget. BAE Systems issued a profit warning on 11 December 2002 as a result of the cost overruns and delays. BAE Systems and the MOD subsequently renegotiated the contract, with an understanding that the MOD had to share some of the financial risks. In December 2003 the contract modifications were signed, with the MOD agreeing to add another £430 million to the programme and BAE Systems assuming £250 million of the cost overruns. The MOD also enlisted the advice and expertise of General Dynamics Electric Boat through a U.S. Navy contract. Eventually, a General Dynamics Electric Boat employee became the Astute Project Director at Barrow.

Input from General Dynamics helped resolve many of the software issues associated with 3D CAD; General Dynamics was also responsible for the introduction of vertical outfitting and other construction techniques. Consequently, much rework was needed on Astute now that detailed designs were complete. On 8 June 2007 Astute was launched and boats 2 and 3 (Ambush and Artful) were at various stages of construction. A month previously, procurement for boat 4 (Audacious) had been agreed. Boats 5 and 6 (Anson and Agamemnon) were approved in March 2010. In June 2012 the order was placed for the manufacture of the nuclear reactor for boat 7 (Agincourt), as well as production of the first nuclear reactor for the Dreadnought-class submarine. A £1.4 billion order to construct Agamemnon was issued by the MOD to BAE Systems on 19 April 2017

In November 2009, a House of Commons Defence Select Committee found that delays due to technical and programme issues brought the Astute class to a position of being 57 months late and 53 per cent (or £1.35 billion) over-budget, with a forecast cost of £3.9 billion for the first three boats. Boat 4 or HMS Audacious' handover was delayed from 2019 to 2021 due to "emergent technical issues". In February 2020, James Heappey, parliamentary under secretary of state for defence, confirmed that the in-service date for the final SSN, HMS Agincourt, had slipped to 2026.

In 2023, as part of the joint planning within the AUKUS defence group, it was indicated that, from 2027, one Astute-class submarine would forward operate on rotation from HMAS Stirling in Western Australia.

Replacement
In September 2021, the Ministry of Defence announced a £170 million investment into design work for the successor to the Astute-class. This funding included two £85 million contracts which were awarded to BAE Systems and Rolls-Royce. In March 2023, it was announced that the submarine would be a joint project between the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States and would start to replace the Astute-class in the Royal Navy in the late 2030s.

Weapons and systems
The Astute class has stowage for 38 weapons and would typically carry a mix of Spearfish heavy torpedoes and Tomahawk Block IV cruise missiles, the latter costing £870,000 each. The Tomahawk missiles are capable of hitting a target to within a few metres, to a range of 1000 mi. In May 2022, the MOD announced that it would be upgrading these missiles to Block V standard from 2024, which boasts an extended range and modernised in-flight communication and target selection. The Astute Combat Management System is a new version of the Submarine Command System used on other classes of British submarine. The system receives data from the boat's sensors and displays the results on command consoles. The submarines also have Atlas Hydrographic DESO 25 high-precision echosounders, two CM010 non-hull-penetrating optronic masts—in place of conventional periscopes—which carry thermal imaging and low-light TV and colour CCD TV sensors. The class also mounts a Successor IFF system.

For detecting enemy ships and submarines, the Astute class is equipped with the sophisticated Sonar 2076, an integrated passive/active search and attack sonar suite with bow, intercept, flank and towed arrays. BAE claims that the 2076 is the world's best sonar system. All of the Astute-class submarines will be fitted with the advanced Common Combat System.

Propulsion and general specifications
The boats of the Astute class are powered by a Rolls-Royce PWR2 (Core H) (a pressurised water reactor) and fitted with a pump-jet propulsor. The PWR2 reactor was developed for the Vanguard-class ballistic missile submarines and has a 25-year lifespan without the need for refuelling. As a result, the new submarines are about 30 per cent larger than previous British fleet submarines, which were powered by smaller-diameter reactors. Like all Royal Navy submarines, the bridge fin of the Astute-class boats is specially reinforced to allow surfacing through ice caps. These submarines can also be fitted with a dry deck shelter, which allows special forces (e.g. SBS) to deploy whilst the submarine is submerged. More than 39,000 acoustic tiles mask the vessel's sonar signature, part of acoustic qualities that give the Astute class over any other submarine previously operated by the Royal Navy.

A 2009 safety assessment by the Defence Nuclear Safety Regulator concluded that PWR2 reactor safety was significantly short of good practice in two important areas: loss-of-coolant accident and control of submarine depth following emergency reactor shutdown. The regulator concluded that PWR2 was "potentially vulnerable to a structural failure of the primary circuit", which is a failure mode with significant safety hazards to crew and the public. Operational procedures have been amended to minimise these risks.

Astute is the second Royal Navy submarine class, after the Vanguard class, to have a bunk for each member of the ship's company, ending the practice of 'hot bunking', whereby two sailors on opposite watches shared the same bunk at different times. However, they have less mess-deck space than the Valiant-class submarine built 45 years earlier and a Defence Board audit recognised mistakes had been made on accommodation standards and quality of life issues. Since it is nuclear powered, the boat has theoretically unlimited endurance, though in practice it is limited to 90 days at sea based on food carried (including 18,000 sausages and 4,200 Weetabix) and crew endurance.

In 2012, during the joint exercise Fellowship, Astute performed simulated battles with the latest United States Navy Virginia-class submarine, USS New Mexico (SSN-779). Royal Navy Commander Iain Breckenridge was quoted, "Our sonar is fantastic and I have never before experienced holding a submarine at the range we were holding USS New Mexico. The Americans were utterly taken aback, blown away with what they were seeing".

The Astute class are designed to achieve a top speed of 29 - 30 kn, but it was reported in 2012 that this speed could not be reached in trials due to a mismatch between the reactor and the turbine. However, in January 2015, the National Audit Office confirmed that demonstration of the top speed requirement (or Key Performance Measure (KPM)) for the Astute class was successful.

Incidents

 * On 22 October 2010, the Ministry of Defence confirmed that Astute had "run into difficulties" off the Isle of Skye while on trials, after eyewitnesses reported the submarine had run aground a few miles from the Skye Bridge. There were no reports of injuries.
 * On 20 July 2016, Ambush sustained damage to the top of her conning tower during a collision with a merchant ship while surfacing on an exercise in Gibraltarian waters. It was reported that no crew members were injured during the collision and that the submarine's nuclear reactor section remained undamaged.

Boats in the class

The names Astute, Ambush and Artful were last given to Amphion-class submarine submarines that entered service towards the end of World War II. Audacious, Anson, Agamemnon and Agincourt were all names used by battleships that served in the First or Second World Wars.

title: Astute-class submarine


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A-class submarine

A-class submarine may refer to one of these classes of submarine:

 * A-class submarine, a class of 13 submarines of the Royal Navy that served in World War I
 * Havmanden-class submarine, a class of six built for the Royal Danish Navy, 1911–1914
 * Norwegian A-class submarine, a class built for the Royal Norwegian Navy in 1913
 * American Holland-class submarine, also later known as Soviet A-class submarine, submarines launched in 1916
 * Spanish A-class submarine, a class of three Spanish submarines launched in 1917
 * Plunger-class submarine, a class of seven United States Navy submarines built before World War I; also known as the "A class"
 * Amphion-class submarine (also called the Archeron class), a class of sixteen submarines of the Royal Navy that served in World War II; also known as the "A class"
 * The Japanese Type A submarine, three classes submarines:
 * I-9-class submarine (Type A1 submarine)
 * I-12-class submarine (Type A2 submarine)
 * I-13-class submarine (Type AM submarine)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: A-class submarine


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The Catcher in the Rye

The Catcher in the Rye is a novel by American author J. D. Salinger that was partially published in serial form in 1945–46 before being novelized in 1951. Originally intended for adults, it is often read by adolescents for its themes of angst and alienation, and as a critique of superficiality in society. The novel also deals with themes of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, connection, sex, and depression. The main character, Holden Caulfield, has become an icon for teenage rebellion. Caulfield, nearly of age, gives his opinion on a wide variety of topics as he narrates his recent life events.

The Catcher in the Rye has been translated widely. About one million copies are sold each year, with total sales of more than 65 million books. The novel was included on Time's 2005 list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923, and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, it was listed at number 15 on the BBC's survey "The Big Read".

Plot
Holden Caulfield recalls the events of a long weekend, shortly before the previous year's Christmas. The story begins at Pencey Preparatory Academy, a boarding school in Pennsylvania, where he has been expelled after failing all his classes, except English.

Later, Holden agrees to write an English composition for his roommate, Ward Stradlater, who is heading out on a date. He is distressed when he learns that Stradlater's date is Jane Gallagher, with whom Holden has been infatuated. When Stradlater returns, hours later, he fails to appreciate the deeply personal composition Holden has written for him about the baseball glove of Holden's late brother, Allie, who died from leukemia years earlier, and refuses to say whether he had sex with Jane. Enraged, Holden punches and insults him, but Stradlater easily wins the fight. Fed up with the "phonies" at Pencey Prep, Holden decides to catch a train to New York, planning to stay away from his home until Wednesday, when his parents will have received notification of his expulsion.

Holden checks into the Edmont Hotel, where he spends an evening dancing with three tourists at the lounge until he tires of them. Following a disappointing visit to a nightclub, an angst-ridden Holden agrees to have Sunny, a prostitute, visit his room. When she enters and disrobes, Holden, a virgin, experiences a change of heart, saying he only wants to talk. Annoyed, she leaves, only to return with her pimp, Maurice, who demands more money (though Holden maintains he paid the right amount). Holden insults Maurice, Sunny takes money from Holden's wallet, and Maurice punches him in the stomach. Afterward, Holden, imagining himself shot by Maurice, pictures murdering him with a pistol.

The next morning, Holden—increasingly depressed and desperate for personal connection—calls Sally Hayes, a familiar date (despite his characterization of her as "queen of all phonies"). They agree to meet that afternoon to attend a play at the Biltmore Theater. Meanwhile, Holden shops for a special record, "Little Shirley Beans," for his 10-year-old sister, Phoebe. After the play, Holden and Sally ice skate at Rockefeller Center, where Holden rants against society and frightens Sally. He invites her to run away with him that night to live in the New England wilderness, but she declines. The conversation sours, and the two part angrily.

He then meets his old classmate Carl Luce for drinks at the Wicker Bar. Holden annoys Carl, whom he suspects of being gay, by unrelentingly questioning him about his sex life. Luce says Holden should see a psychiatrist to understand himself better. Afterwards, Holden gets drunk, awkwardly flirts with several adults, calls an icy Sally, accidentally breaks Phoebe's record, and finds himself broke.

Nostalgic to see Phoebe, Holden sneaks into his parents' apartment while they are out and wakes her. Though happy to see him, Phoebe quickly guesses he has been expelled and chastises him for his general aimlessness and disdain. When she asks if he cares about anything, Holden shares a fantasy (based on a mishearing of Robert Burns's Comin' Through the Rye), in which he imagines himself saving children running through a field of rye by catching them before they fall off a nearby cliff. Phoebe points out that the actual poem says, "when a body meet a body, comin' through the rye." Holden breaks down in tears, and his sister tries to console him.

As his parents return home, he slips out and visits his former English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who expresses concern that Holden is headed for "a terrible fall." Mr. Antolini advises him to begin applying himself and provides him with a place to sleep. Holden is upset when he awakens to find Mr. Antolini patting his head, which he interprets as a sexual advance. He leaves and spends the rest of the night in a train-waiting room at Grand Central Terminal, sinking deeper into despair.

In the morning, having lost hope of ever finding meaningful connection in the city, he decides to head out West to live as a deaf-mute gas station attendant in a log cabin. He arranges to see Phoebe at lunchtime to explain his plan and say goodbye. When they meet up at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, she arrives with a suitcase and asks to go with him. Holden refuses, which upsets Phoebe. He tries to cheer her by allowing her to skip school at the Central Park Zoo, but she remains angry. They eventually reach the carousel, where they reconcile after he buys her a ticket. The sight of her riding the carousel fills him with happiness.

He alludes to encountering his parents that night and "getting sick," mentioning that he will be attending another academy in September. The novel ends with Holden stating that he is reluctant to say more because talk of school has made him miss his former classmates.

History
Various older stories by Salinger contain characters similar to those in The Catcher in the Rye. While at Columbia University, Salinger wrote a short story called "The Young Folks" in Whit Burnett's class; one character from this story has been described as a "thinly penciled prototype of Sally Hayes". In November 1941 he sold the story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", which featured Holden Caulfield, to The New Yorker, but it was not published until December 21, 1946, due to World War II. The story "I'm Crazy", which was published in the December 22, 1945 issue of Collier's, contained material that was later used in The Catcher in the Rye. In 1946, The New Yorker accepted a 90-page manuscript about Holden Caulfield for publication, but Salinger later withdrew it. The school Holden attends is Pencey Preparatory Academy, a boarding school in Pennsylvania that Salinger may have based on the Valley Forge Military Academy and College.

Writing style
The Catcher in the Rye is narrated in a subjective style from the point of view of Holden Caulfield, following his exact thought processes. There is flow in the seemingly disjointed ideas and episodes; for example, as Holden sits in a chair in his dorm, minor events, such as picking up a book or looking at a table, unfold into discussions about experiences.

Critical reviews affirm that the novel accurately reflected the teenage colloquial speech of the time. Words and phrases that appear frequently include:

 * "Flitty" – homosexual
 * "Give her the time" – sexual intercourse
 * "Necking" – kissing, hugging, and caressing passionately
 * "Phony" – people who are dishonest or fake about who they really are
 * "Prince" – a fine, generous, helpful fellow (often used in sarcastic fashion)
 * "Rubbernecks" – people who turn their heads to gaze in curiosity
 * "Snowing" – deceiving, misleading, or winning over by glib talk, flattery, etc.

Interpretations
Bruce Brooks held that Holden's attitude remains unchanged at story's end, implying no maturation, thus differentiating the novel from young adult fiction. In contrast, Louis Menand thought that teachers assign the novel because of the optimistic ending, to teach adolescent readers that "alienation is just a phase." While Brooks maintained that Holden acts his age, Menand claimed that Holden thinks as an adult, given his ability to accurately perceive people and their motives. Others highlight the dilemma of Holden's state, in between adolescence and adulthood. Holden is quick to become emotional. "I felt sorry as hell for..." is a phrase he often uses. It is often said that Holden changes at the end, when he watches Phoebe on the carousel, and he talks about the golden ring and how it's good for kids to try to grab it.

Peter Beidler in his A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" identified the movie that the prostitute "Sunny" refers to. In chapter 13 she says that in the movie a boy who looked like Holden fell off a boat, and from this detail, Beidler deduced that the movie was Captains Courageous (1937), with the boy played by child-actor Freddie Bartholomew.

Each Caulfield child has literary talent. D.B. writes screenplays in Hollywood; Holden also reveres D.B. for his writing skill (Holden's own best subject), but he also despises Hollywood industry-based movies, considering them the ultimate in "phony" as the writer has no space for his own imagination and describes D.B.'s move to Hollywood to write for films as "prostituting himself"; Allie wrote poetry on his baseball glove; and Phoebe is a diarist. This "catcher in the rye" is an analogy for Holden, who admires in children attributes that he often struggles to find in adults, like innocence, kindness, spontaneity, and generosity. Falling off the cliff could be a progression into the adult world that surrounds him and that he strongly criticizes. Later, Phoebe and Holden exchange roles as the "catcher" and the "fallen"; he gives her his hunting hat, the catcher's symbol, and becomes the fallen as Phoebe becomes the catcher.

In their biography of Salinger, David Shields and Shane Salerno argue that: "The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel." Salinger witnessed the horrors of World War II, but rather than writing a combat novel, Salinger, according to Shields and Salerno, "took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming-of-age novel."

Reception
The Catcher in the Rye has been consistently listed as one of the best novels of the twentieth century. Shortly after its publication, in an article for The New York Times, Nash K. Burger called it "an unusually brilliant novel," while James Stern wrote an admiring review of the book in a voice imitating Holden's. George H. W. Bush called it a "marvelous book," listing it among the books that inspired him. In June 2009, the BBC's Finlo Rohrer wrote that, 58 years since publication, the book is still regarded "as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager." Adam Gopnik considers it one of the "three perfect books" in American literature, along with Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, and believes that "no book has ever captured a city better than Catcher in the Rye captured New York in the fifties." In an appraisal of The Catcher in the Rye written after the death of J. D. Salinger, Jeff Pruchnic says the novel has retained its appeal for many generations. Pruchnic describes Holden as a "teenage protagonist frozen midcentury but destined to be discovered by those of a similar age in every generation to come." Bill Gates said that The Catcher in the Rye is one of his favorite books, as has Aaron Sorkin.

Not all reception has been positive. The book has had its share of naysayers, including the longtime Washington Post book critic Jonathan Yardley, who, in 2004, wrote that the experience of rereading the novel after several decades proved to be "a painful experience: The combination of Salinger's execrable prose and Caulfield's jejune narcissism produced effects comparable to mainlining castor oil." Yardley described the novel as among the worst popular books in the annals of American literature. "Why," Yardley asked, "do English teachers, whose responsibility is to teach good writing, repeatedly and reflexively require students to read a book as badly written as this one?" According to Rohrer, many contemporary readers, as Yardley found, "just cannot understand what the fuss is about.... many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in. J. D. Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique. That is to say, he has done nothing." Rohrer assessed the reasons behind both the popularity and criticism of the book, saying that it "captures existential teenage angst" and has a "complex central character" and "accessible conversational style"; while at the same time some readers may dislike the "use of 1940s New York vernacular" and the excessive "whining" of the "self-obsessed character".

Censorship in the United States
In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was fired for assigning the novel in class. She was later reinstated. Between 1961 and 1982, The Catcher in the Rye was the most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States. The book was briefly banned in the Issaquah, Washington, high schools in 1978 when three members of the School Board alleged the book was part of an "overall communist plot". This ban did not last long, and the offended board members were immediately recalled and removed in a special election. In 1981, it was both the most censored book and the second most taught book in public schools in the United States. According to the American Library Association, The Catcher in the Rye was the 10th most frequently challenged book from 1990 to 1999. It was one of the ten most challenged books of 2005, and although it had been off the list for three years, it reappeared in the list of most challenged books of 2009.

The challenges generally begin with Holden's frequent use of vulgar language; other reasons include sexual references, blasphemy, undermining of family values and moral codes, encouragement of rebellion, and promotion of drinking, smoking, lying, promiscuity, and sexual abuse. The book was written for an adult audience, which often forms the foundation of many challengers' arguments against it. Often the challengers have been unfamiliar with the plot itself. Shelley Keller-Gage, a high school teacher who faced objections after assigning the novel in her class, noted that "the challengers are being just like Holden... They are trying to be catchers in the rye." Censorship of the book often causes a Streisand effect, as such incidents cause many to put themselves on the waiting list to borrow the novel, where there was no waiting list before.

Violent reactions
Several shootings have been associated with Salinger's novel, including Robert John Bardo's murder of Rebecca Schaeffer and John Hinckley Jr.'s assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan. Additionally, after fatally shooting John Lennon, Mark David Chapman was arrested with a copy of the book that he had purchased that same day, inside of which he had written: "To Holden Caulfield, From Holden Caulfield, This is my statement".

Commenting on the fascination of Hinckley and Chapman, Harvey Solomon-Brady wrote:

 * Compared to books lauded by other killers – George Orwell's 1984 by John F. Kennedy's assassin Lee Harvey Oswald, C.S. Lewis's meditations on Christianity by Gianni Versace's murderer Andrew Cunanan and Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent by Unabomber Ted Kaczynski – The "Catcher in the Rye" stands out in its devastating ability to influence without explicit instruction.

In film
Early in his career, Salinger expressed a willingness to have his work adapted for the screen. In 1949, a critically panned film version of his short story "Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut" was released; renamed My Foolish Heart, the film took great liberties with Salinger's plot and is widely considered to be among the reasons that Salinger refused to allow any subsequent film adaptations of his work. The enduring success of The Catcher in the Rye, however, has resulted in repeated attempts to secure the novel's screen rights.

When The Catcher in the Rye was first released, many offers were made to adapt it for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn, producer of My Foolish Heart. In a letter written in the early 1950s, Salinger spoke of mounting a play in which he would play the role of Holden Caulfield opposite Margaret O'Brien, and, if he couldn't play the part himself, to "forget about it." Almost 50 years later, the writer Joyce Maynard definitively concluded, "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."

Salinger told Maynard in the 1970s that Jerry Lewis "tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden," the protagonist in the novel which Lewis had not read until he was in his thirties. Film industry figures including Marlon Brando, Jack Nicholson, Ralph Bakshi, Tobey Maguire and Leonardo DiCaprio have tried to make a film adaptation. In an interview with Premiere, John Cusack commented that his one regret about turning 21 was that he had become too old to play Holden Caulfield. Writer-director Billy Wilder recounted his abortive attempts to snare the novel's rights:

Of course I read The Catcher in the Rye... Wonderful book. I loved it. I pursued it. I wanted to make a picture out of it. And then one day a young man came to the office of Leland Hayward, my agent, in New York, and said, "Please tell Mr. Leland Hayward to lay off. He's very, very insensitive." And he walked out. That was the entire speech. I never saw him. That was J. D. Salinger and that was Catcher in the Rye.

In 1961, Salinger denied Elia Kazan permission to direct a stage adaptation of Catcher for Broadway. Later, Salinger's agents received bids for the Catcher film rights from Harvey Weinstein and Steven Spielberg, neither of which was even passed on to Salinger for consideration.

In 2003, the BBC television program The Big Read featured The Catcher in the Rye, interspersing discussions of the novel with "a series of short films that featured an actor playing J. D. Salinger's adolescent antihero, Holden Caulfield." The show defended its unlicensed adaptation of the novel by claiming to be a "literary review", and no major charges were filed.

In 2008, the rights of Salinger's works were placed in the JD Salinger Literary Trust where Salinger was the sole trustee. Phyllis Westberg, who was Salinger's agent at Harold Ober Associates in New York, declined to say who the trustees are now that the author is dead. After Salinger died in 2010, Westberg stated that nothing had changed in terms of licensing film, television, or stage rights of his works. A letter written by Salinger in 1957 revealed that he was open to an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye released after his death. He wrote: "Firstly, it is possible that one day the rights will be sold. Since there's an ever-looming possibility that I won't die rich, I toy very seriously with the idea of leaving the unsold rights to my wife and daughter as a kind of insurance policy. It pleasures me no end, though, I might quickly add, to know that I won't have to see the results of the transaction." Salinger also wrote that he believed his novel was not suitable for film treatment, and that translating Holden Caulfield's first-person narrative into voice-over and dialogue would be contrived.

In 2020, Don Hahn revealed that The Walt Disney Company had almost made an animated film titled Dufus which would have been an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye "with German shepherds", most likely akin to Oliver & Company. The idea came from then CEO Michael Eisner who loved the book and wanted to do an adaptation. After being told that J. D. Salinger would not agree to sell the film rights, Eisner stated, "Well, let's just do that kind of story, that kind of growing up, coming of age story."

Banned fan sequel
In 2009, the year before he died, Salinger successfully sued to stop the U.S. publication of a novel that presents Holden Caulfield as an old man. The novel's author, Fredrik Colting, commented: "call me an ignorant Swede, but the last thing I thought possible in the U.S. was that you banned books". The issue is complicated by the nature of Colting's book, 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, which has been compared to fan fiction. Although commonly not authorized by writers, no legal action is usually taken against fan fiction, since it is rarely published commercially and thus involves no profit.

title: The Catcher in the Rye


text:
Dinitrogen tetroxide

Dinitrogen tetroxide, commonly referred to as nitrogen tetroxide (NTO), and occasionally (usually among ex-USSR/Russian rocket engineers) as amyl, is the chemical compound N2O4. It is a useful reagent in chemical synthesis. It forms an equilibrium mixture with nitrogen dioxide. Its molar mass is 92.011 g/mol.

Dinitrogen tetroxide is a powerful oxidizer that is hypergolic (spontaneously reacts) upon contact with various forms of hydrazine, which has made the pair a common bipropellant for rockets.

Structure and properties
Dinitrogen tetroxide could be regarded as two nitro groups (-NO2) bonded together. It forms an equilibrium mixture with nitrogen dioxide. The molecule is planar with an N-N bond distance of 1.78Å and N-O distances of 1.19Å. The N-N distance corresponds to a weak bond, since it is significantly longer than the average N-N single bond length of 1.45Å. This exceptionally weak σ bond (amounting to overlapping of the sp2 hybrid orbitals of the two NO2 units ) results from the simultaneous delocalization of the bonding electron pair across the whole N2O4 molecule, and the considerable electrostatic repulsion of the doubly occupied molecular orbitals of each NO2 unit.

Unlike NO2, N2O4 is diamagnetic since it has no unpaired electrons. The liquid is also colorless but can appear as a brownish yellow liquid due to the presence of NO2 according to the following equilibrium:
 * N2O4 ⇌ 2 NO2($$)

Higher temperatures push the equilibrium towards nitrogen dioxide. Inevitably, some dinitrogen tetroxide is a component of smog containing nitrogen dioxide.

Solid N2O4 is white, and melts at −11.2 °C.

Production
Nitrogen tetroxide is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia (the Ostwald process): steam is used as a diluent to reduce the combustion temperature. In the first step, the ammonia is oxidized into nitric oxide:
 * 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

Most of the water is condensed out, and the gases are further cooled; the nitric oxide that was produced is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide, which is then dimerized into nitrogen tetroxide:
 * 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
 * 2 NO2 ⇌ N2O4

and the remainder of the water is removed as nitric acid. The gas is essentially pure nitrogen dioxide, which is condensed into dinitrogen tetroxide in a brine-cooled liquefier.

Dinitrogen tetroxide can also be made through the reaction of concentrated nitric acid and metallic copper. This synthesis is practical in a laboratory setting. Dinitrogen tetroxide can also be produced by heating metal nitrates. The oxidation of copper by nitric acid is a complex reaction forming various nitrogen oxides of varying stability which depends on the concentration of the nitric acid, presence of oxygen, and other factors. The unstable species further react to form nitrogen dioxide which is then purified and condensed to form dinitrogen tetroxide.

Use as a rocket propellant
Nitrogen tetroxide is used as an oxidizing agent in one of the most important rocket propellant systems because it can be stored as a liquid at room temperature. Pedro Paulet, a Peruvian polymath, reported in 1927 that he had experimented in the 1890s with a rocket engine that used spring-loaded nozzles that periodically introduced vaporized nitrogen tetroxide and a petroleum benzine to a spark plug for ignition, with the engine putting out 300 pulsating explosions per minute. Paulet would go on to visit the German rocket association Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR) and on March 15, 1928, Valier applauded Paulet's liquid-propelled rocket design in the VfR publication Die Rakete, saying the engine had "amazing power". Paulet would soon be approached by Nazi Germany to help develop rocket technology, though he refused to assist and never shared the formula for his propellant.

In early 1944, research on the usability of dinitrogen tetroxide as an oxidizing agent for rocket fuel was conducted by German scientists, although the Germans only used it to a very limited extent as an additive for S-Stoff (fuming nitric acid). It became the storable oxidizer of choice for many rockets in both the United States and USSR by the late 1950s. It is a hypergolic propellant in combination with a hydrazine-based rocket fuel. One of the earliest uses of this combination was on the Titan family of rockets used originally as ICBMs and then as launch vehicles for many spacecraft. Used on the U.S. Gemini and Apollo spacecraft and also on the Space Shuttle, it continues to be used as station-keeping propellant on most geo-stationary satellites, and many deep-space probes. It is also the primary oxidizer for Russia's Proton rocket.

When used as a propellant, dinitrogen tetroxide is usually referred to simply as nitrogen tetroxide and the abbreviation NTO is extensively used. Additionally, NTO is often used with the addition of a small percentage of nitric oxide, which inhibits stress-corrosion cracking of titanium alloys, and in this form, propellant-grade NTO is referred to as mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON). Most spacecraft now use MON instead of NTO; for example, the Space Shuttle reaction control system used MON3 (NTO containing 3% NO by weight).

The Apollo-Soyuz mishap
On 24 July 1975, NTO poisoning affected three U.S. astronauts on the final descent to Earth after the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight. This was due to a switch accidentally left in the wrong position, which allowed the attitude control thrusters to fire after the cabin fresh air intake was opened, allowing NTO fumes to enter the cabin. One crew member lost consciousness during descent. Upon landing, the crew was hospitalized for five days for chemical-induced pneumonia and edema.

Power generation using N2O4
The tendency of N2O4 to reversibly break into NO2 has led to research into its use in advanced power generation systems as a so-called dissociating gas. "Cool" dinitrogen tetroxide is compressed and heated, causing it to dissociate into nitrogen dioxide at half the molecular weight. This hot nitrogen dioxide is expanded through a turbine, cooling it and lowering the pressure, and then cooled further in a heat sink, causing it to recombine into nitrogen tetroxide at the original molecular weight. It is then much easier to compress to start the entire cycle again. Such dissociative gas Brayton cycles have the potential to considerably increase efficiencies of power conversion equipment.

The high molecular weight and smaller volumetric expansion ratio of nitrogen dioxide compared to steam allows the turbines to be more compact.

N2O4 was the main component of the "nitrin" working fluid in the decommissioned Pamir-630D portable nuclear reactor which operated from 1985 to 1987.

Intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid
Nitric acid is manufactured on a large scale via N2O4. This species reacts with water to give both nitrous acid and nitric acid:
 * N2O4 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3

The coproduct HNO2 upon heating disproportionates to NO and more nitric acid. When exposed to oxygen, NO is converted back into nitrogen dioxide:
 * 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2

The resulting NO2 and N2O4 can be returned to the cycle to give the mixture of nitrous and nitric acids again.

Synthesis of metal nitrates
N2O4 undergoes molecular autoionization to give [NO+] [NO3−], with the former nitrosonium ion being a strong oxidant. Various anhydrous transition metal nitrate complexes can be prepared from N2O4 and base metal.

 * 2 N2O4 + M → 2 NO + M(NO3)2

where M = Cu, Zn, or Sn.

If metal nitrates are prepared from N2O4 in completely anhydrous conditions, a range of covalent metal nitrates can be formed with many transition metals. This is because there is a thermodynamic preference for the nitrate ion to bond covalently with such metals rather than form an ionic structure. Such compounds must be prepared in anhydrous conditions, since the nitrate ion is a much weaker ligand than water, and if water is present the simple nitrate of the hydrated metal ion will form. The anhydrous nitrates concerned are themselves covalent, and many, e.g. anhydrous copper nitrate, are volatile at room temperature. Anhydrous titanium nitrate sublimes in vacuum at only 40 °C. Many of the anhydrous transition metal nitrates have striking colours. This branch of chemistry was developed by Cliff Addison and Norman Logan at the University of Nottingham in the UK during the 1960s and 1970s when highly efficient desiccants and dry boxes started to become available.

title: Dinitrogen tetroxide


text:
Omarion

Omari Ishmael Grandberry (born November 12, 1984), better known by his stage name Omarion, is an American R&B singer and actor. He rose to prominence as the lead singer of the boy band B2K. The group achieved success in the early 2000s with their singles "Gots ta Be", "Uh Huh", "Girlfriend", and the number-one hit "Bump, Bump, Bump" (featuring P. Diddy).

After the group disbanded in 2004, Omarion embarked on a solo career with the release of his debut studio album O (2005), which debuted atop the Billboard 200. The album was supported by its title track and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Contemporary R&B Album. That same year, he guest featured on Bow Wow's single "Let Me Hold You", which peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. His second solo album, 21 (2006) also peaked the Billboard 200 and was supported by the single "Ice Box", which peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and remains his highest-charting song. He then released his collaborative album with Bow Wow, Face Off (2007), and his third studio album, Ollusion (2010) to moderate commercial response.

He signed with Rick Ross' record label Maybach Music Group prior to the release of his fourth album, Sex Playlist (2014). It was preceded by the lead single "Post to Be" (featuring Chris Brown and Jhené Aiko), which peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 and received sextuple platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). He then signed with Warner Records to release his fifth album The Kinection (2020), which failed to chart.

Omarion has also ventured into acting, with appearances in films such as You Got Served, Fat Albert, Somebody Help Me and The Proud Family Movie. As a solo artist, he has received a BET Award, a Billboard Music Award, and a Soul Train Music Award.

1984–1998: Early life and career beginnings
Omarion was born Omari Ishmael Grandberry on November 12, 1984, in Inglewood, California to Leslie Burrell and Trent Grandberry. His younger brother, O'Ryan, is also a singer. He appeared in commercials for both Kellogg's Corn Pops and McDonald's. He started his dancing career as a background dancer for the R&B girl group Before Dark and appeared in their music videos. Omarion soon began pursuing a career in music, and would go on to become the lead singer of the boy band B2K.

1999–2004: B2K
Omari joined the group B2K in 1999 and took the stage name Omarion. The group named themselves B2K, an acronym for "Boys of The New Millennium". They began touring with Lil Bow Wow and eventually released their debut single, "Uh Huh", in 2001. They soon after released their debut album, the self-titled B2K, on March 12, 2002. The album peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 and No. 1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart. They followed the album up in December with their second album, Pandemonium!, supported by their most successful single, "Bump, Bump, Bump" featuring P. Diddy. The single peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. This would prove to be the group's last album, as they would disband in early 2004.

2004–2008: O, 21, and Face Off
In early 2004, Omarion appeared in several films, most notably You Got Served, in which he starred alongside Marques Houston, as well as his former B2K bandmates. The movie centered on a group of friends in a hip hop dance crew who take part in underground dance competitions. That same year, he played the role of the school bully "Reggie" in the comedy Fat Albert, based on the animated series Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids. On February 22, 2005, Omarion released his debut solo album, O. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. The first single from the album was "O". The single peaked at No. 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The second single, "Touch", peaked at No. 94 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album received a third and final release with "I'm Tryna". O has sold over 758,000 copies in the United States since its release. Omarion received a Grammy nomination for the album at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary R&B Album. On December 26, 2006, Omarion released his second album, 21. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. The first single from the album was "Entourage". The second single, "Ice Box", produced by Timbaland, peaked at No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and is Omarion's most successful solo single to date, reaching gold certification by the RIAA. 21 has sold over 390,000 copies in the United States since its release.

Towards the end of 2007, he displayed his acting skills in the thriller Somebody Help Me. This movie was released exclusively on DVD and aired on BET in celebration of Halloween. Omarion has also made several appearances in a number of TV shows, including One on One. Omarion also played the voice of Fifteen Cent in The Proud Family Movie. His portrayal of a rapper who gets involved with thugs in the movie Feel the Noise, which he co-produced, received mixed reviews from critics. In late 2007, Omarion and Bow Wow recorded a collaboration album titled Face Off. The album sold over 100,000 copies in its first week and went on to sell over 500,000 copies, reaching gold certification by the RIAA. The first single from the album was "Girlfriend", followed up by "Hey Baby" as the second single.

2009–2010: EMI and Ollusion
On March 30, 2009, Lil Wayne confirmed that Omarion was affiliated (though not officially signed) with Young Money Entertainment. Four months later, he parted ways with the label; both Lil Wayne and Omarion confirmed that his departure had been for business reasons. Omarion then signed with EMI and created his own label, StarrWorld Entertainment. He later re-released the single "I Get It In" with Lil Wayne replaced by Gucci Mane. In January 2010, Omarion released his second single, "Speedin'". That same month, he released his third studio album, Ollusion, which sold 19,400 copies in its first week. Omarion also became a judge on the fifth season of America's Best Dance Crew, replacing former judge Shane Sparks. He left after Season 5 to focus on his music career.

2011–2017: Sex Playlist
In early 2011, Omarion worked on his first mixtape presented by DJ Drama, titled The Awakening. Originally set to be released on April 27, 2011, the mixtape was instead released on May 11, 2011. In November 2011, Omarion was seen on set with Japanese star Koda Kumi. On December 6, 2011, it was revealed that he collaborated with the star on the song "Slow" for her 2012 album Japonesque and appeared in the music video. On May 2, 2012, Omarion signed with Rick Ross label Maybach Music Group and Warner Bros. Records. He then appeared on Self Made Vol. 2, which made the Top 10 on the Billboard 200. Also in 2012, Omarion signed to Jay-Z's Roc Nation Management. On November 29, 2012, he released his debut EP, Care Package. September 2013 saw the release of Self Made Vol. 3 featuring Omarion, which also reached the Top 10 on Billboard 200 at number 4. Care Package 2, his second EP, was released on November 5, 2013.

On February 14, 2014, he released "You Like It", the first single in promotion of his fourth studio album, Sex Playlist. On August 18, Omarion was cast to be a part of Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood along with his mother, and girlfriend Apryl Jones while awaiting the arrival of their first child. In November 2014, he released a second single, "Post to Be", featuring Chris Brown and Jhené Aiko. Sex Playlist was released on December 2, 2014. "Post to Be" gained substantial commercial success, reaching No. 13 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song peaked in the top ten on the Urban Radio chart, the Rhythmic chart, and the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, reaching gold status by the RIAA in May 2015. The song also won him a Soul Train Music Award for Best Collaboration.

In June 2015, Omarion stated in an interview that he wanted to open his own dance studio by the end of the year. He released his third EP, Care Package 3 on November 12, 2015. November 2017 was met with the release of the fourth EP, Care Package 4. Omarion released the song "Distance" in 2017, for which he filmed a music video in South Africa.

2018–2023: The Millennium Tour and The Kinection

In 2018, he was featured on the track "Tell Me" from Anatii's album Artiifact. That same year, he also appeared in the "Get It Now" remix music video by Tiwa Savage as a featured artist.

In 2019, B2K briefly reformed to go on The Millennium Tour; joined by supporting acts Mario, Ying Yang Twins, Chingy, Pretty Ricky, Bobby V and Lloyd. The tour kicked off on March 8 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and wrapped up on April 28 in Louisville, Kentucky. It was later announced that Omarion would be continuing The Millennium Tour without his bandmates and with Bow Wow and other acts added to the lineup for 2020 dates. The group was nominated for Top R&B Tour at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards.

In 2020, Omarion released the single "Can You Hear Me?" featuring a guest verse from T-Pain. The single was announced as the lead song from Omarion's fifth album, The Kinection. On October 29, Omarion presents Thriller Night premiered on YouTube in celebration of the album release. The event included Prince Jackson live from Michael Jackson's Hayvenhurst Estate. Omarion released The Kinection on October 30, 2020.

In 2021, Omarion competed in season five of The Masked Singer as the wild card contestant "Yeti". Certain performances have the Yeti's feet swapped out with different footwear. He finished in fourth place.

On May 31, 2021, "We Will Never Forget" with Omarion, Lalah Hathaway, and Kierra Sheard was released by being featured in the documentary film, Dreamland: The Burning of Black Wall Street which was executive produced by LeBron James, with all proceeds going to Color of Change.

Omarion headlined The Millennium Tour in the fall of 2021 and concurrently released a single with Soulja Boy and Bow Wow titled "EX" from his forthcoming album Sex Playlist 2, which he announced through Songtrust. He was nominated for Top R&B Tour and Top Rap Tour at the 2022 Billboard Music Awards, winning the latter award alongside Bow Wow. On June 23, 2022, he did a Verzuz on season 2 with Mario. He soon after announced his new book, Unbothered: The Power Of Choosing Joy, his second book after 2005's O, which was published by MTV. He also announced a new 5-part docuseries called, Omega: The Gift and the Curse, set for pay-per-view release on July 21, 2022 via the website Omarion Worldwide. In March 2023, the documentary was aired in a five part event on both We TV and Allblk after 2020's partnership with Zeus Network to premiere the film fell through due to the company allegedly withholding unaired footage.

2023–present: Full Circle Book 1 & 2
On October 20, 2023, Omarion released the video for his song "Serious" from his album Full Circle: Sonic Book 1. He dedicated the video to men who had been wrongfully incarcerated. The song gained popularity on social media, reaching the number one spot on iTunes’ R&B/Soul Singles and Amazon’s R&B Best Sellers charts.

Omarion announced his Vbz on Vbz Tour set to kick of April 5.

Omarion’s single, “Taking Off”, featuring BJRNCK, charted on Billboard’s Adult R&B Airplay chart on dated March 30.

“Taking Off”, is Omarion’s second song in four months to debut on the Adult R&B Airplay chart. His 2023 single “Serious” debuted during the week of Nov. 11, 2023, and peaked at No. 18 in January.

Personal life
Omarion has two children, a son born in 2014 and a daughter born in 2016, with ex-girlfriend Apryl Jones,  whom he dated from 2013 to 2016. Their relationship was chronicled on Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood.

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * O (2005)
 * 21 (2006)
 * Ollusion (2010)
 * Sex Playlist (2014)
 * The Kinection (2020)
 * SexSonics (2024)

 * Collaboration albums
 * B2K (with B2K) (2002)
 * Pandemonium! (with B2K) (2002)
 * Face Off (with Bow Wow) (2007)

Filmography

 * Films

 * Television

Tours

 * Scream Tour I (2001)
 * Scream Tour II (2002)
 * Scream Tour III (2003)
 * Scream Tour IV (2005-2006)
 * Scream Tour V (2006)
 * The Millennium Tour (2019-2021)
 * Omarion Presents: VBZ on VBZ Tour (2024)

Awards and nominations

 * African Muzik Magazine Awards

 * [African Muzik Magazine Awards|2018
 * Diamond Platnumz Feat Omarion - "African Beauty"
 * Best Collaboration
 * Won
 * }
 * African Entertainment Awards
 * African Entertainment Awards

 * [African Entertainment Awards|2018
 * Diamond Platnumz Feat Omarion - "African Beauty"
 * Best Collaboration
 * Won
 * }
 * American Music Awards
 * American Music Awards

 * 2005
 * Himself
 * Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist
 * Nominated
 * }
 * BET Awards
 * BET Awards

 * rowspan=2|2005
 * Himself
 * Best New Artist
 * Nominated
 * "O"
 * Viewer's Choice
 * Won
 * }
 * Billboard Music Awards
 * }
 * Billboard Music Awards

 * 2016
 * "Post to Be" (Featuring Chris Brown & Jhene Aiko)
 * Top R&B Song
 * Nominated
 * 2020
 * The Millennium Tour (with B2K)
 * Top R&B Tour
 * rowspan=2|2022
 * rowspan=2|The Millennium Tour (alongside Bow Wow)
 * Top Rap Tour
 * Won
 * Top R&B Tour
 * Nominated
 * }
 * Urban Music Awards
 * Top R&B Tour
 * Nominated
 * }
 * Urban Music Awards
 * Urban Music Awards

 * 2007
 * Himself
 * Most Inspiring Act
 * Won
 * }
 * NAACP Image Awards
 * NAACP Image Awards

 * 2006
 * Himself
 * Outstanding New Artist
 * Nominated
 * 2008
 * Omarion with Bow Wow
 * Outstanding Duo or Group
 * Nominated
 * }
 * Grammy Awards
 * }
 * Grammy Awards

 * 2006
 * O
 * Best Contemporary R&B Album
 * Nominated
 * }
 * iHeartRadio Music Awards
 * iHeartRadio Music Awards

 * 2016
 * "Post to Be" (featuring Chris Brown & Jhene Aiko)
 * R&B Song of the Year
 * Nominated
 * }
 * MTV Movie Awards
 * MTV Movie Awards

 * rowspan=2|2004
 * rowspan=2|You Got Served
 * Best Male Breakthrough Performance
 * Nominated
 * Best Dance Sequence with Marques Houston
 * Nominated
 * }
 * Soul Train Music Awards
 * }
 * Soul Train Music Awards

 * 2015
 * "Post to Be" (Featuring Chris Brown & Jhene Aiko)
 * Best Collaboration
 * Won
 * }
 * Teen Choice Awards
 * Teen Choice Awards

 * 2004
 * You Got Served
 * Choice Breakout Movie Star – Male
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=3|2005
 * "O"
 * Choice Music: Make-Out Song
 * Nominated
 * Himself
 * Choice Music: R&B Artist
 * Nominated
 * "Touch"
 * Choice Music: R&B Track
 * Nominated
 * 2008
 * "Hey Baby (Jump Off)" w/ Bow Wow
 * Choice Music: R&B Track
 * Nominated
 * }
 * 2008
 * "Hey Baby (Jump Off)" w/ Bow Wow
 * Choice Music: R&B Track
 * Nominated
 * }

title: Omarion


text:
Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction

A Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, or BZ reaction, is one of a class of reactions that serve as a classical example of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, resulting in the establishment of a nonlinear chemical oscillator. The only common element in these oscillators is the inclusion of bromine and an acid. The reactions are important to theoretical chemistry in that they show that chemical reactions do not have to be dominated by equilibrium thermodynamic behavior. These reactions are far from equilibrium and remain so for a significant length of time and evolve chaotically. In this sense, they provide an interesting chemical model of nonequilibrium biological phenomena; as such, mathematical models and simulations of the BZ reactions themselves are of theoretical interest, showing phenomenon as noise-induced order.

An essential aspect of the BZ reaction is its so called "excitability"; under the influence of stimuli, patterns develop in what would otherwise be a perfectly quiescent medium. Some clock reactions such as Briggs–Rauscher and BZ using tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II) chloride as catalyst can be excited into self-organising activity through the influence of light.

History
The discovery of the phenomenon is credited to Boris Belousov. In 1951, while trying to find the non-organic analog to the Krebs cycle, he noted that in a mix of potassium bromate, cerium(IV) sulfate, malonic acid, and citric acid in dilute sulfuric acid, the ratio of concentration of the cerium(IV) and cerium(III) ions oscillated, causing the colour of the solution to oscillate between a yellow solution and a colorless solution. This is due to the cerium(IV) ions being reduced by malonic acid to cerium(III) ions, which are then oxidized back to cerium(IV) ions by bromate(V) ions.

Belousov made two attempts to publish his finding, but was rejected on the grounds that he could not explain his results to the satisfaction of the editors of the journals to which he submitted his results. Soviet biochemist Simon El'evich Shnoll encouraged Belousov to continue his efforts to publish his results. In 1959 his work was finally published in a less respectable, nonreviewed journal.

After Belousov's publication, Shnoll gave the project in 1961 to a graduate student, Anatol Zhabotinsky, who investigated the reaction sequence in detail; however, the results of these men's work were still not widely disseminated, and were not known in the West until a conference in Prague in 1968.

A number of BZ cocktails are available in the chemical literature and on the web. Ferroin, a complex of phenanthroline and iron, is a common indicator. These reactions, if carried out in petri dishes, result in the formation first of colored spots. These spots grow into a series of expanding concentric rings or perhaps expanding spirals similar to the patterns generated by a cyclic cellular automaton. The colors disappear if the dishes are shaken, and then reappear. The waves continue until the reagents are consumed. The reaction can also be performed in a beaker using a magnetic stirrer.

Andrew Adamatzky, a computer scientist in the University of the West of England, reported on liquid logic gates using the BZ reaction. The BZ reaction has also been used by Juan Pérez-Mercader and his group at Harvard University to create an entirely chemical Turing machine, capable of recognizing a Chomsky type-1 language.

Strikingly similar oscillatory spiral patterns appear elsewhere in nature, at very different spatial and temporal scales, for example the growth pattern of Dictyostelium discoideum, a soil-dwelling amoeba colony. In the BZ reaction, the size of the interacting elements is molecular and the time scale of the reaction is minutes. In the case of the soil amoeba, the size of the elements is typical of single-celled organisms and the times involved are on the order of days to years.

Investigators are also exploring the creation of a "wet computer", using self-creating "cells" and other techniques to mimic certain properties of neurons.

Chemical mechanism
The mechanism for this reaction is very complex and is thought to involve around 18 different steps which have been the subject of a number of research papers.

In a way similar to the Briggs–Rauscher reaction, two key processes (both of which are auto-catalytic) occur; process A generates molecular bromine, giving the red colour, and process B consumes the bromine to give bromide ions. Theoretically, the reaction resembles the ideal Turing pattern, a system that emerges qualitatively from solving the reaction diffusion equations for a reaction that generates both a reaction inhibitor and a reaction promoter, of which the two diffuse across the medium at different rates.

One of the most common variations on this reaction uses malonic acid (CH2(CO2H)2) as the acid and potassium bromate (KBrO3) as the source of bromine. The overall equation is:
 * 3 CH2(CO2H)2 + 4 → 4 Br− + 9 CO2 + 6 H2O

Variants
Many variants of the reaction exist. The only key chemical is the bromate oxidizer. The catalyst ion is most often cerium, but it can be also manganese, or complexes of iron, ruthenium, cobalt, copper, chromium, silver, nickel and osmium. Many different reductants can be used. (Zhabotinsky, 1964b; Field and Burger, 1985)

Many different patterns can be observed when the reaction is run in a microemulsion.

title: Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction


text:
Malcolm Morley

Malcolm A. Morley (June 7, 1931 – June 1, 2018) was a British-American visual artist and painter. He was known as an artist who pioneered in various styles, working as a photorealist and an expressionist, among many other genres. In 1984, he won the inaugural Turner Prize.

Life
Morley was born in north London. He had a troubled childhood—after his home was partially blown up by a bomb during World War II, his family was homeless for a time. He recalled that he had constructed a balsawood model of HMS Nelson and placed it on his windowsill when the German bomb destroyed the house along with the model. "The shock was so violent," writes one Morley expert, "that Morley repressed this memory until it resurfaced 30 years later during a psychoanalytic session."

As a teenager, Morley was sentenced to three years at Wormwood Scrubs prison for housebreaking and petty theft. While there, he read Irving Stone's 1934 novel Lust for Life, based on the life of Vincent van Gogh, and enrolled in an art correspondence course. He would later look back on these rough beginnings with some humor: "I [feel] very sorry for artists that haven't had much happen in their early life," he once said. Released after two years for good behavior, he joined an artists' colony in St. Ives, Cornwall, then studied art first at the Camberwell School of Arts, described by one art historian as being, at the time, "one of the more progressive and exciting art schools in London," and then at the Royal College of Art (1955–1957), where his fellow students included Peter Blake and Frank Auerbach. In 1956, he saw the exhibition "Modern Art in the United States: A Selection from the Collections at the Museum of Modern Art" at the Tate Gallery, and began to produce paintings in an abstract expressionist style. All the same, he would later say that "I would have liked to be Pollock, but I wouldn't want to be after Pollock. My ambition was too big."

Morley visited New York City, which was at the time a major center of the Western art world, in 1957. He moved there the following year, after which he met artists including Barnett Newman, Cy Twombly, Roy Lichtenstein, and Andy Warhol. His first solo exhibition was at Kornblee Gallery in 1964, partly at the urging of the art dealer Ivan Karp, who had a reputation as a talent spotter and had worked with the legendary dealer Leo Castelli.

In the mid-1960s, Morley briefly taught at Ohio State University, and then moved back to New York City, where he taught at the School of Visual Arts (1967–1969) and Stony Brook University (1970–1974). Morley had early solo gallery exhibitions at venues including the Clocktower Gallery, Institute for Art and Urban Resources, New York (1976); Nancy Hoffman Gallery, New York (1979); and Stefanotty Gallery, New York (1979). He participated in the major international exhibition Documenta, in Kassel, in 1972 and 1977, and in the Carnegie International, in 1985.

The Whitechapel Gallery, in London, organized a major retrospective exhibition in 1983, resulting in his winning the inaugural Turner Prize, awarded by the Tate, in 1984. The artist remembered the moment he learned he had won the prize: "When the call came to say he had won, he was sitting in his loft studio in the Bowery, 'watching a bum shitting on the street. It felt unreal: here I was watching this act; the next minute I'm told I've won the Turner. I was floored.'"

The following year, he bought a Methodist church in Bellport, Long Island, New York State, where he would reside for the remainder of his life. In the early 1980s he was married to the Brazilian artist Marcia Grostein. Morley was granted American citizenship in 1990. He was the subject of museum exhibitions at venues including Tate Liverpool (1991); the Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris (1993); Fundación La Caixa, Madrid (1995); the Hayward Gallery, London (2001); and the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (2013–14).

At the time of his death Morley resided in Bellport, New York, where he shared a home with Lida Morley, his loving and caring wife since 1986. He died on June 1, 2018, at the age of 86, six days shy of his 87th birthday.

Work
Morley's earliest work upon leaving art school, while remaining in England, adopted traditional, naturalist styles of painting. His work was "a compromise between old-school observation-based naturalism and art that was modern mostly because its subjects were recognizably of the present."

After his arrival in New York, he began in the early 1960s to work abstractly, creating several paintings made up of only horizontal bands with vague suggestions of nautical themes, whether in imagery or in the works' titles.

He also met Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and, influenced in part by them, made the drastic change to a photorealist style (Morley preferred the phrase Superrealist). Inspired by seeing Richard Artschwager using this technique, he began to use a grid to transfer photographic images (often of ships) to canvas, and became one of the first and most noted photorealists, along with Gerhard Richter, Richard Artschwager, and Vija Celmins.

After seeing one of Morley's paintings of an ocean liner, Artschwager suggested that Morley visit Pier 57 and paint some ships from life. "I went down to Pier 57, took a canvas and tried to make a painting outside," Morley said. "But it was impossible to comprehend it in one glance, one end is over there, the other end is over there, a 360-degree impossibility. I was in disgust—I took a postcard of this cruise ship called the Queen of Bermuda." He would adopt this as his style for a few years, transposing images from a variety of sources (travel brochures, calendars, old paintings) to canvas. One factor that distinguished Morley from his photorealist peers was that rather than painting from the photograph itself, he was painting from printed reproductions such as postcards, sometimes even including the white border around a postcard image or the corporate logo from a calendar page. His choice of these bland materials was partly driven by a desire to find pop-culture imagery that other artists, such as Warhol and Lichtenstein, were not already using: “What I wanted was to find an iconography that was untarnished by art." Morley achieved "instant success" with such work.

In the 1970s, Morley's work began to be more expressionist, with looser brushwork, and he began to incorporate collage and performance into his work, for example in 1972, when he was invited to paint a version of Raphael's The School of Athens at the State University of New York at Potsdam, in front of an audience. He painted in costume as Pythagoras, who appears in the painting. When Morley realized that he failed to align one of the rows, he let the mistake stand in the finished work. His doing so serves as an example for one curator that the gridded reproduction technique is less concerned with faithful reproductions of the old masters and more with "untested possibilities of contemporary painting and pictorial construction."

His work often drew upon various sources in a process of cross-fertilization. For example, his painting The Day of the Locust (1977) draws its title from the 1939 novel The Day of the Locust, by Nathanael West. One scene in the painting is drawn from the opening scene of the novel, and other scenes are drawn from the 1954 film Suddenly and the 1925 Sergei Eisenstein film Battleship Potemkin. In the painting, the cover of a Los Angeles phone book is superimposed with a welter of imagery, some of it based on his earlier work (cruise ships, airplanes), and some on painted models, which became a mainstay of his subject matter for the remainder of his career. "I don't like to call them toys," the artist said, "I like to call them models. The thing about so-called 'toys' is that there is an unconsciousness in society that comes out in its toys. Toys represent an archetype of the human figure."

The artist turned to new subjects, including mythology and the Classical world, in his work of the 1980s, giving his paintings titles like Aegean Crime (1987), Cradle of Civilization with American Woman (1982), Farewell to Crete, and Black Rainbow Over Oedipus at Thebes (1988) and depicting Minoan figures; travel to the United States also resulted in prominent use of Native American kachina dolls and other motifs from those cultures. His commercial success offered him the opportunity to travel to these places and many more, resulting in diverse new influences and inspirations. He frequently adopted very loose paint handling, featuring drips and splashes. Similar expressionist brushwork and subject matter by artists such as Julian Schnabel, Eric Fischl, Georg Baselitz, and Anselm Kiefer resulted in curators identifying a "neo-Expressionist" movement, in which they included him, although he disliked the label.

The 1990s saw the artist return to his very early subject matter of large seagoing vessels, often with the addition of fighter planes that he built out of paper, painted with watercolor, and then attached to the surface of the canvas (resulting in, as he told an interviewer, the pun of a "three-dimensional plane" ). In one example, Icarus's Flight (1997), the plane is some fifty-two inches deep. The artist also branched out into full-on free-standing sculpture, with one piece, Port Clyde (1990), showing a boat on a window frame, as if referring back to the artist's lost childhood model of HMS Nelson.

Contemporary photojournalism was the subject of the artist's paintings of the following decade, with motorcycle and car racing, football, skiing, swimming, and horse racing coming in for attention. The artist also returned to the "catastrophes" that were among his early subjects, depicting car crashes (including one showing the crash that resulted in the death of auto racing star Dale Earnhardt), the aftermath of the War in Afghanistan, and the collapse of a building in Brooklyn, among other subjects. In the last decade of his life, Morley continued to depict early- and mid-twentieth-century fighter planes, as well as the pilots who flew them during World Wars I and II, including the legendary flying ace Manfred von Richthofen, the "Red Baron." He also focused on 18th-century English history, creating works that incorporated military figures such as Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington and Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson. "I fell in love with the period," he once said, "which was a great one for the British."

Selected works in public and private collections

 * Cristoforo Colombo, 1966, Hall Foundation
 * Family Portrait, 1968, Detroit Institute of Arts
 * Coronation and Beach Scene, 1968, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
 * Vermeer, Portrait of the Artist in His Studio, 1968, The Broad
 * Age of Catastrophe, 1976, The Broad
 * Day of the Locust, 1977, Museum of Modern Art
 * Cradle of Civilization with American Woman, 1982, Centre Pompidou
 * French Legionnaires Being Eaten by a Lion, 1984, Museum of Modern Art
 * Kristen and Erin, 1985, The Broad
 * Black Rainbow Over Oedipus at Thebes, 1988, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
 * Man Overboard, 1994, Hall Foundation
 * Mariner, 1998, Tate
 * Painter's Floor, 1999, Albright Knox Art Gallery
 * Theory of Catastrophe, 2004, Hall Foundation
 * Thor, 2008, Gary Tatintsian Gallery
 * Medieval Divided Self, 2016, Hall Foundation

Recognition
Selected Honors/Awards:

 * 1984 Turner Prize, Tate Gallery, London, England
 * 1992 Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture, Painting Award
 * 2009 Inductee, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Class IV: Humanities and Arts, Section 5: Visual and Performing Arts—Criticism and Practice
 * 2011 Elected as Member, American Academy of Arts and Letters
 * 2015 Francis J. Greenburger Award, Omi International Arts Center, Ghent, New York

== Selected institutional exhibitions and retrospectives ==

 * 2022 - Malcolm Morley: Shipwreck, Nova Southern University Art Museum, Fort Lauderdale, Florida
 * 2019 - Malcolm Morely, Hall Art Foundation, Reading, VT
 * 2017 - Malcolm Morley: Works from the Hall Collection, Hall Art Foundation, Schloss Derneburg Museum, Derneburg, Germany
 * 2013 - Malcolm Morley at the Ashmolean : Paintings and Drawings from the Hall Collection, curated by Sir Norman Rosenthal, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
 * 2012 - Malcolm Morley: Painting, Paper, Process, Parrish Art Museum, Water Mill, New York, NY
 * 2006 - Malcolm Morley: The Art of Painting, Museum of Contemporary Art, North Miami, FL
 * 1993 - Malcolm Morley, Musée national d’art moderne Centre de création industrielle, Paris, France, travelled to Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France; Centre Régional d’Art Contemporain Midi-Pyrénées, Labège-Toulouse, France
 * 1991 - Malcolm Morley: Watercolours, Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht, The Netherlands, travelled to Kunsthalle Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Tate Gallery Liverpool, Liverpool, UK; The Parrish Art Museum, Southampton, NY, USA
 * 1983 - Malcolm Morley: Paintings, 1965 - 82, Kunsthalle, Basel, Switzerland, travelled Museum Boijmans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; The Whitechapel Art Gallery, London, UK; Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, USA; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, IL; The Brooklyn Museum, NY, USA

Art market
The artist's most expensive works sold at auction:

 * $1,886,723 – SS Amsterdam in Front of Rotterdam, 1966. Christie's, Jun 30, 2015.
 * 1) $997,455 – Cristoforo Colomb, 1965. Sotheby's, Feb 27, 2008.
 * 2) $601,375 – Safety is Your Business, 1971. Christie's, Jun 27, 2012.

Collections
Morley's work is included in public collections including:

 * Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York
 * Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK
 * Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art, Oslo, Norway
 * Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, Holland
 * Broad Foundation, Los Angeles, California
 * Centre Pompidou, Paris
 * Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 * Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan
 * Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, New York
 * Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
 * Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.
 * Kröller-Müller Museum, Netherlands
 * Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek, Denmark
 * Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst, Aachen, Germany
 * Ludwig Museum, Budapest, Hungary
 * Masterworks Museum of Bermuda Art Paget, Bermuda
 * Museum Ludwig, Cologne, Germany
 * Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 * Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
 * Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Spain
 * Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Illinois
 * Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, California
 * Museum of Modern Art, New York
 * Museum van Hedendaagse Kunst, Utrecht, Netherlands
 * National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 * Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri
 * National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
 * Orlando Museum of Art, Orlando, Florida
 * Parrish Art Museum, Southampton, New York
 * Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island
 * Sammlung Frieder Burda, Baden-Baden, Germany
 * Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington
 * Tate, London
 * Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia
 * Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut
 * Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
 * Whitney Museum of American Art, New York

title: Malcolm Morley