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Carnegie Hall

Carnegie Hall  is a concert venue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It is at 881 Seventh Avenue, occupying the east side of Seventh Avenue between 56th and 57th Streets. Designed by architect William Burnet Tuthill and built by industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, it is one of the most prestigious venues in the world for both classical music and popular music. Carnegie Hall has its own artistic programming, development, and marketing departments and presents about 250 performances each season. It is also rented out to performing groups.

Carnegie Hall has 3,671 seats, divided among three auditoriums. The largest one is the Stern Auditorium, a five-story auditorium with 2,804 seats. Also part of the complex are the 599-seat Zankel Hall on Seventh Avenue, as well as the 268-seat Joan and Sanford I. Weill Recital Hall on 57th Street. Besides the auditoriums, Carnegie Hall contains offices on its top stories.

Carnegie Hall, originally the Music Hall, was constructed between 1889 and 1891 as a venue shared by the Oratorio Society of New York and the New York Symphony Society. The hall was owned by the Carnegie family until 1925, after which Robert E. Simon and then his son, Robert E. Simon Jr., became owner. Carnegie Hall was proposed for demolition in the 1950s in advance of the New York Philharmonic relocating to Lincoln Center in 1962. Though Carnegie Hall is designated a National Historic Landmark and protected by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, it has not had a resident company since the New York Philharmonic moved out. Carnegie Hall was renovated multiple times throughout its history, including in the 1940s and 1980s.

Site
Carnegie Hall is on the east side of Seventh Avenue between 56th Street and 57th Street, two blocks south of Central Park, in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The site covers 27,618 ft2. Its lot is 200 ft wide, covering the entire width of the block between 56th Street to the south and 57th Street to the north, and extends 150 ft eastward from Seventh Avenue.

Carnegie Hall shares the city block with the Carnegie Hall Tower, Russian Tea Room, and Metropolitan Tower to the east. It is cater-corner from the Osborne apartment building. It also faces the Rodin Studios and 888 Seventh Avenue to the west; Alwyn Court, The Briarcliffe, the Louis H. Chalif Normal School of Dancing, and One57 to the north; the Park Central Hotel to the southwest; and CitySpire and New York City Center to the southeast. Right outside the hall is an entrance to the New York City Subway's 57th Street–Seventh Avenue station, served by the.

Carnegie Hall is part of a former artistic hub around a two-block section of West 57th Street between Sixth Avenue and Broadway. The hub had been developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its opening in 1891 directly contributed to the development of the hub. The area contains several buildings constructed as residences for artists and musicians, such as 130 and 140 West 57th Street, the Osborne, and the Rodin Studios. In addition, the area contained the headquarters of organizations such as the American Fine Arts Society, the Lotos Club, and the American Society of Civil Engineers. By the 21st century, the artistic hub had largely been replaced with Billionaires' Row, a series of luxury skyscrapers around the southern end of Central Park.

Architecture and venues
Carnegie Hall was designed by William Tuthill along with Richard Morris Hunt and Adler & Sullivan. While the 34-year-old Tuthill was relatively unknown as an architect, he was an amateur cellist and a singer, which may have led to him getting the commission. Dankmar Adler of Adler & Sullivan, on the other hand, was an experienced designer of music halls and theaters; he served as the acoustical consultant. Carnegie Hall was constructed with heavy masonry bearing walls, as lighter structural steel framework was not widely used when the building was completed. The building was designed in a modified Italian Renaissance style.

Carnegie Hall is composed of three structures arranged in an "L" shape; each structure contains one of the hall's performance spaces. The original building, which houses the Isaac Stern Auditorium, is an eight-story rectangular building at the corner of Seventh Avenue and 57th Street, measuring 150 ft along the street and 175 ft along the avenue. The 16-story eastern wing contains the Weill Recital Hall and is located along 57th Street. The 13-story southern wing, at Seventh Avenue and 56th Street, contains Zankel Hall. Except at the eighth floor, all three structures have floor levels at different heights.

Facade
Carnegie Hall was designed from the outset with a facade of Roman brick. The facade was decorated with a large amount of Renaissance details. Most of the exterior walls are covered in reddish brown brick, though decorative elements such as band courses, pilasters, and arches are made of architectural terracotta originally by the New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company. As originally designed, the terracotta and brick were both brown, and the pitched roof was made of corrugated black tile, but this was later replaced with the eighth floor. The original section of the building is divided into three horizontal sections. The lowest section of the building comprises the first floor and the first-floor mezzanine, above which is a heavy cornice with modillions. The main entrance of Carnegie Hall is placed in what was originally the center of the primary facade on 57th Street. It consists of an arcade with five large arches, originally separated by granite pilasters. An entablature, with the words "Music Hall Founded by Andrew Carnegie", runs across the loggia at the springing of the arches. The center three arches lead directly to the Stern Auditorium's lobby, while the two outer arches lead to staircases to upper floors. On either side of the main entrance are smaller doorways (one on the west and two on the east), topped by blank panels at the mezzanine. There are five similar doorways on Seventh Avenue. The original backstage entrance is on 161 West 56th Street.

On the third and fourth floors, above the main entrance, is a two-and-a-half story arcade on 57th Street with five round-headed arches. A balcony with a balustrade is carried on console brackets in front of this arcade. Each arch has a horizontal terracotta transom bar above the third floor; two third-floor windows separated by a Corinthian column; and two fourth-floor windows separated by a pilaster. A broad terracotta frieze runs above the fourth floor, at the springing of the arches. To either side of the arcade, there are two tall round-arched windows on the second floor; those on the east flank a blind arch. There are pairs of pilasters on the fourth-floor mezzanine, above which is a string course. The Seventh Avenue facade is similar in design, but instead of window openings, there are blind openings filled with brick. Additionally, the arcade at the center of the Seventh Avenue facade has four arches instead of five.

The sixth floor, at the center of the 57th Street facade, contains five square openings, each with a pair of round-arched windows. On either side of these five openings, there are round-arched windows, arranged as in a shallow loggia. There are four arched windows on the eastern portion of the sixth floor, as well as two arches on the west portion, which flank a blind arch. A frieze and cornice run above this floor. The seventh floor was originally a mansard roof. As part of an 1890s alteration, the mansard was replaced with a vertical wall resembling a continuous arcade. The seventh floor is topped by balustrades with decorated columns. The flat roof was converted into a roof garden with kitchen and service rooms. Carnegie Hall was also extended to the corner of Seventh Avenue and 56th Street, where a 13-story addition was designed in a similar style as the original building. The top of this addition contains a main dome, as well as smaller domes at its four corners.

Main Hall (Stern Auditorium/Perelman Stage)
The Stern Auditorium is six stories high with 2,804 seats on five levels. Originally known as the main auditorium, it was renamed after violinist Isaac Stern in 1997 to recognize his efforts to save the hall from demolition in the 1960s. The main auditorium was originally planned to fit 3,300 guests, including two tiers of boxes, two balconies, and a parquet seating 1,200. The main hall accommodated the performances of the New York Philharmonic from 1892 to 1962, when the Philharmonic moved to Lincoln Center.

Its entrance is through the Box Office Lobby on 57th Street near Seventh Avenue. When planned in 1889, this entrance was designed with a marble and mosaic vestibule measuring 25 ft high and 70 ft long. The entrance lobby is three stories high and had an organ loft at the top, which was converted into a lounge area by the mid-20th century. The lobby ceiling was designed as a barrel vault, containing soffits with heavy coffers and cross-arches, and was painted white with gold decorations. At either end of the barrel vault were lunettes. The walls were painted salmon and had pairs of gray-marble pilasters supporting an entablature. The cross-arches had decorated cream-colored tympana. The lobby was originally several feet above street level, but it was lowered to street level in the 1980s. The rebuilt lobby contains geometric decorations evocative by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, as well as Corinthian-style capitals with lighting fixtures. The design also includes ticket windows on the south wall of the lobby. Past that, stairs on either side lead to the auditorium's parquet level; previously, stairs continued straight from the lobby to the parquet level.

All but the top level can be reached by elevator; the top balcony is 137 steps above parquet level. The lowest level is the parquet level, which has twenty-five full rows of thirty-eight seats and four partial rows at stage level, for a total of 1,021 seats. The parquet was designed with eleven exits to a corridor that entirely surrounded it; the corridor, in turn, led to the main entrance vestibule on 57th Street. The first and second tiers consist of sixty-five boxes; the first tier has 264 seats, eight per box, and the second tier has 238 seats, six to eight per box. As designed, the first tier of boxes was entirely open, while the second tier was partially enclosed, with open boxes on either end. The third tier above the parquet is the Dress Circle, seating 444 in six rows; the first two rows form an almost-complete semicircle. The fourth and the highest tier, the balcony, seats 837. Although seats with obstructed views exist throughout the auditorium, only the Dress Circle level has structural columns. An elliptic arch rises from the Dress Circle level; along with a corresponding arch at the rear of the auditorium, it supports the ceiling.

The Ronald O. Perelman Stage is 42 ft deep. It was originally designed with six tiers that could be raised and lowered hydraulically. The walls around the stage contain pilasters. The ceiling above the stage was designed as an ellipse, and the soffits of the ceiling were originally outfitted with lights. Originally, there were no stage wings; the backstage entrance from 56th Street led directly to a small landing just below the stage, while the dressing room was above the stage. During a 1980s renovation, a stage wing, orchestra room, and dressing rooms were added and the access to the stage was reconfigured.

Zankel Hall
Zankel Hall, on the Seventh Avenue side of the building, is named after Judy and Arthur Zankel, who funded a renovation of the venue. Originally called simply Recital Hall, this was the first auditorium to open to the public in April 1891. It had a balcony, elevated side galleries, a beamed ceiling, and removable seats. The space was an oratorio hall capable of accommodating over 1,000 people, and it could double as a banquet hall. There was a full kitchen service, as well as a dais on either side. The space was originally designed with dimensions of 90 by. Following renovations made in 1896, it was renamed Carnegie Lyceum. It was leased to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in 1896, then converted into the Carnegie Hall Cinema in May 1961. The venue became a performance space in 1997.

The completely reconstructed Zankel Hall opened in September 2003. It is accessed from Seventh Avenue, where there is a marquee. Two escalators lead to the balcony and orchestra levels. The venue could be arranged with either a center stage, an end stage, or no stage. This is accomplished through the division of the floor into nine sections, each 45 ft wide with a separate lift underneath. There are 599 seats in Zankel Hall, spread across two levels. The parterre level seats a total of 463 and the mezzanine level seats 136. Each level has several boxes perpendicular to the stage; there are 54 seats in six boxes on the parterre level and 48 seats in four boxes on the mezzanine level. The boxes on the parterre level are raised above the level of the stage. Zankel Hall is wheelchair-accessible. Its stage is 44 ft wide and 25 ft deep.

Due to the limited space available on the land lot, the construction of Zankel Hall required excavating 8,000 ft3 of additional basement space, at some points only 10 ft under the Stern Auditorium's parquet level. The excavations descended up to 22 ft below the original space's floor and came as close as 9 ft to the adjacent subway tunnel. This also required the removal of twelve cast-iron columns holding up the Main Hall. In its place, a temporary framework of steel pipe columns, supporting I-beam girders and thick Neoprene insulation pads, was installed. JaffeHolden Acoustics installed the soundproofing, which filters out noise from both the street and the subway. An elliptical concrete wall, measuring 12 in wide, surrounds Zankel Hall and supports the Stern Auditorium. The elliptical enclosure measures 114 ft long and 76 ft wide. The walls are sloped at a 7-degree angle and contain sycamore paneling. The lighting and sound equipment is mounted from twenty-one trusses.

Weill Recital Hall
The Joan and Sanford I. Weill Recital Hall is named after Sanford I. Weill, a former chairman of Carnegie Hall's board, as well as his wife Joan. This auditorium, in use since the hall opened in 1891, was originally called Chamber Music Hall and was placed in the "lateral building" east of the main hall. The space later became the Carnegie Chamber Music Hall, and the name was changed to Carnegie Recital Hall in the late 1940s. The venue was renamed after Joan and Sanford I. Weill in 1986, reopening in January 1987.

The recital hall is served by its own lobby, which contains a pale color palette with red geometric metalwork. Prior to a 1980s renovation, it shared a lobby with the main auditorium. The Weill Recital Hall is the smallest of the three performance spaces, with a total of 268 seats. The orchestra level contains 196 seats in fourteen rows, while the balcony level contains 72 seats in five rows. The modern-day recital hall contains off-white walls and blue seats. In the mid-20th century, the recital hall was decorated with red and gold, which was replaced in the 1980s with Palladian arches similar to those in the hall's original design. A proscenium arch made of plywood, as well as a paneled wall behind the stage, were installed after the recital hall's completion but were removed in the 1980s to improve acoustics. The room has three chandeliers, which also amplify the room's acoustics.

Other facilities
A boiler room was placed under the sidewalk on Seventh Avenue. A small electric generation plant for 5,300 lamps was also planned. At the ground level of the main hall was a lobby with gray marble pilasters and salmon-colored walls. Stores were added to the lobby in the 1940s. The storefronts, as well as a restaurant at the corner of 57th Street and Seventh Avenue, were removed in a 1980s renovation. Originally, there was a 150-seat dining room on the ground level below the Chamber Music Hall. Above the dining room, but below the venue itself, were parlors, cloak rooms, and restrooms.

Above the Chamber Music Hall was a large chapter-room, a meeting room, a gymnasium, and twelve short-term "lodge rooms" in the roof. The 56th Street side of Carnegie Hall was designed with rooms for the choruses, soloists, and conductors, as well as offices and lodge rooms. On the roof of the 56th Street section were janitors' apartments. Three elevators, two on the 57th Street side and one on the 56th Street side, originally served the building. The addition at the corner of 56th Street and Seventh Avenue was arranged with offices, studios, and private music rooms.

The eighth floor of the main hall, which contained studios, was installed after the complex was completed. There were a total of 133 or 150 studios, many of which doubled as living quarters. Over the years, personalities such as Leonard Bernstein, Isadora Duncan, Martha Graham, and Norman Mailer lived in the studios. The spaces were designed for artistic work, with very high ceilings, skylights and large windows for natural light. Documents showed that Andrew Carnegie had always considered the spaces as a source of income to support the hall and its activities. After 1999, the space was re-purposed for music education and corporate offices. In 2007, the Carnegie Hall Corporation announced plans to evict the 33 remaining studio residents, including celebrity portrait photographer Editta Sherman and fashion photographer Bill Cunningham. The last resident, poet Elizabeth Sargent, moved out during 2010.

The building also contains the Carnegie Hall Archives, established in 1986, and the Rose Museum, which opened in 1991. The Rose Museum is east of the first balcony of the Stern Auditorium and has dark makore and light anigre paneling with brass edges, as well as columns with brass capitals, supporting a coffered ceiling. The Rose Museum space is separated from two adjacent rooms by sliding panels.

History
The idea for what is now Carnegie Hall came from Leopold Damrosch, the conductor of Oratorio Society of New York and the New York Symphony Society. The Oratorio Society had been looking for a permanent performance venue ever since it was founded in 1873. Though Leopold died in 1885, his son Walter Johannes Damrosch pursued his father's vision for a new music hall. While studying music in Germany in 1887, the younger Damrosch was introduced to the businessman Andrew Carnegie, who served on the board of not only the Oratorio Society but also the New York Symphony. Carnegie was originally uninterested in funding a music hall in Manhattan, but he agreed to give $2 million after discussions with Damrosch. According to architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern, the Music Hall was "unique in that it was free of commercial sponsorship and exclusively dedicated to musical performance". At the time, New York City's performance halls were mainly clustered around 14th Street, as well as around Union Square and Herald Square. The area around 57th Street was still mostly residential.

Development and opening
In early March 1889, Morris Reno, director of the Oratorio and New York Symphony societies acquired nine lots on and around the southeast corner of Seventh Avenue and 57th Street. William Tuthill had been hired to design a "great music hall" on the site. The Music Hall, as it was called, would be a five-story brick and limestone building, containing a 3,000-seat main hall with and several smaller rooms for rehearsals, lectures, concerts, and art exhibitions. The New York Times said "The location for the music hall is perhaps rather far uptown, but it is easily accessible from the 'living' part of the city." The Music Hall Company was incorporated on March 27, 1889, with Carnegie, Damrosch, Reno, Tuthill, and Stephen M. Kneval as trustees. Originally, the Music Hall Company intended to limit its capital stock to $300,000, but this was increased before the end of 1889 to $600,000, of which Carnegie held five-sixths. The cost of the building was then projected to be $1.1 million, including the land.

By July 1889, Carnegie's company had acquired additional land, with frontage of 175 ft on 57th Street. The architectural drawings were nearly completed and excavations for the music hall had been completed. The Henry Elias Brewery owned the corner of Seventh Avenue and 56th Street and originally would not sell the land, as its proprietor believed the site had a good water source. Plans for the Music Hall were filed in November 1889. Carnegie's wife Louise laid the cornerstone for the Music Hall on May 13, 1890. Andrew Carnegie said at the time that the venue was to not only be "a shrine of the goddess of music" but also a gathering hall. Isaac A. Hopper and Company was the contractor in charge of building the Music Hall. The Real Estate Record and Guide praised the building's design as "harmonious, animated without restlessness, and quiet without dullness." In February 1891, Damrosch announced that he had created a subscription fund for a "permanent orchestra" that would perform mainly in the new Music Hall.

The Recital Hall opened in March 1891 for recitals of the New York Oratorio Society. It was around this time that tickets for the official opening of the Music Hall were being sold. The oratorio hall in the basement opened on April 1, 1891, with a performance by Franz Rummel. The Music Hall officially opened on May 5, 1891, with a rendition of the Old 100th hymn, a speech by Episcopal bishop Henry C. Potter, and a concert conducted by Walter Damrosch and Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. During the performance, Tuthill looked at the crowds on the auditorium's top tiers and reportedly left the hall to consult his drawings. He was uncertain that the supporting columns would withstand the weight of the crowd in attendance, but the dimensions turned out to be sufficient to support the weight of the crowd. Tchaikovsky considered the auditorium "unusually impressive and grand" when "illuminated and filled with an audience". The New York Herald praised the auditorium's acoustical qualities, saying "each note was heard". The Music Hall had cost $1.25 million to construct and was the second major performance hall in New York City, after the Metropolitan Opera House.

1890s to 1910s
Almost from the outset, scalpers resold tickets to the Music Hall's shows at greatly inflated prices, and ushers began selling off tickets to unoccupied seats at the start of each concert. For an inflated fee, the ushers allowed latecomers to sit down during the middle of a show, to the consternation of existing ticket holders. In May 1892, the stockholders of the Music Hall Company of New York discussed expanding the Music Hall into the site of a brewery at Seventh Avenue and 56th Street, which they had purchased about three months previously. The Music Hall Company also discussed enlarging the main auditorium's stage so it could accommodate operas.

By September 1892, the Music Hall's stockholders planned to enlarge the hall to accommodate operatic performances, following a fire that severely damaged the Metropolitan Opera House. At the time, Morris Reno said the stage could not be modified until at least early 1893. The Music Hall Company filed plans for alterations in December 1892. The plans called a tower of about 240 ft at the corner of Seventh Avenue and 56th Street. In addition, the original building's mansard roof would become a flat roof, and the seventh story would be converted into a full story. The Philharmonic Society moved into the Music Hall in November 1892, drawing further crowds. The studios atop the building were constructed shortly afterward, from 1894 to 1896.

The American Academy of Dramatic Arts moved into the basement recital hall in 1896, leasing the basement recital hall for the next fifty-four years. Also during the mid-1890s, the Music Hall was renamed Carnegie Hall for its main benefactor. According to Carnegie Hall archivist Gino Francesconi, the renaming occurred "so that it shouldn't be confused by European artists with a vulgar music hall". During the early 20th century, Carnegie Hall accommodated many recitals and concerts because of its acoustic qualities.

1920s to 1940s
Carnegie Hall officials renovated the building in 1920, replacing its porte-cochère, overhauling the Philharmonic Society's office, and removing staircases for about $70,000. By late 1924, the Carnegie Foundation was considering selling the hall to a private developer because of increasing financial deficits, which amounted to $15,000 a year. At the time, the site was valued at $2.5 million, and another performance venue in midtown, Aeolian Hall, had been sold for redevelopment. In February 1925, Carnegie's widow sold the hall to a real estate developer, Robert E. Simon. The sale agreement included a clause requiring that either Carnegie Hall would continue to operate as a performance venue for at least the next five years, or another performance venue would be erected on the site. Simon said the hall would continue to operate for as long as it was profitable, and he wished to restore the basement recital hall as well.

Under Simon's ownership, a new organ was installed in Carnegie Hall and dedicated in December 1929. Robert Simon died in 1935. Murray Weisman succeeded Simon as president of Carnegie Hall's board of directors, while the late owner's son Robert E. Simon Jr. became the vice president. A bust of the senior Simon was installed in the lobby in 1936.

The main hall was modified around 1946 during filming for the movie Carnegie Hall. A hole was made in the stage's ceiling to allow the installation of ventilation and lights for the film. Canvas panels and curtains were placed over the hole, but the acoustics in the front rows became noticeably different. In 1947, Robert E. Simon Jr. renovated the hall to designs by Kahn and Jacobs.

Preservation
By the 1950s, changes in the music business prompted Simon to sell the hall. In April 1955, Simon negotiated with the New York Philharmonic, which booked a majority of the hall's concerts each year. The orchestra intended to move to Lincoln Center once it had been built (at the time, plans to build it were still at an early stage). Simon notified the Philharmonic that he would terminate the lease by 1959 if it did not purchase Carnegie Hall. In mid-1955, longtime employee John Totten organized a fundraising drive to prevent the demolition of Carnegie Hall. Meanwhile, the Academy of Dramatic Arts had moved out of the basement recital hall in 1954. The Academy's former space was rented for the time being to other tenants.

Simon sold the entire stock of Carnegie Hall, Inc., the venue's legal owner, to a commercial developer, the Glickman Corporation, in July 1956 for $5 million. With the Philharmonic ready to move to Lincoln Center, the building was slated to be replaced by a 44-story skyscraper designed by Pomerance and Breines. The replacement tower would have had a red facade and would have been constructed on stilts, with art exhibits and other cultural facilities at the base. However, Glickman was unable to come up with the $22 million that the construction budget for the skyscraper called for. This, combined with delays in Lincoln Center's construction, prompted Glickman to decline an option to buy the building itself in July 1958.

Meanwhile, soon after the sale, Simon started planning how to preserve the hall, and approached some of its resident artists-in-residence for help. Violinist Isaac Stern enlisted his friends Jacob M. and Alice Kaplan, as well as J. M. Kaplan Fund administrator Raymond S. Rubinow, for assistance in saving the hall. In 1959, two hundred residents of Carnegie Hall's studios were asked if they wanted to buy the building. Stern, the Kaplans, and Rubinow ultimately decided that the best move would be for the city government to become involved. The move gained support from mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr., who created a taskforce to save Carnegie Hall in early 1960, but Simon and his co-owners still filed eviction notices against some studio tenants. The same year, special legislation was passed allowing the city government to buy the site from Simon for $5 million, and Simon used the money to establish Reston, Virginia.

The city leased the hall to the Carnegie Hall Corporation, a nonprofit organization formed to run the venue. For 15 years, the Carnegie Hall Corporation paid the New York City government $183,600 in cash, Afterward, the corporation started paying the city through benefit concerts and outreach programs. Carnegie Hall was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962. The landmark status was certified in 1964, and a National Historic Landmark plaque was placed on the building. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission also designated Carnegie Hall as a city landmark in September 1967.

1960s and 1970s
A minor renovation of Carnegie Hall's interior, as well as a steam-cleaning of the facade, took place in mid-1960. The basement recital hall became a movie theater called the Carnegie Playhouse. A screen was installed at the front of the former stage, while the balconies and side galleries were sealed. The Carnegie Hall Cinema opened in May 1961 with a showing of the film White Nights by Luchino Visconti. Carnegie Hall received a concert organ from the Netherlands in 1965, although the stage had to be renovated before the organ could be installed. The installation of the organ was delayed several times, as opponents feared that the changes would damage the hall's acoustics. Meanwhile, Carnegie Hall was profitable by the late 1960s, having consistently hosted about 350 shows a year during that decade.

Carnegie Hall became a more popular destination in the 1960s and 1970s, in part because of complaints over acoustics in the new Philharmonic Hall. The deficiencies with Carnegie Hall's facilities became more prominent after the latter's renovation. Carnegie Hall began to deteriorate due to neglect, and the corporation faced fiscal deficits. By the mid-1970s, the venue suffered from burst pipes and falling sections of the ceiling, and there were large holes in the balconies that patrons could put their feet through. At the same time, operating costs had increased from $3.5 million in 1977 to $10.3 million in 1984, and the deficits had also risen accordingly. Carnegie Hall's equipment included a rundown air-conditioning system that did not work in the summer.

In 1977, the Carnegie Hall Corporation decided to stop allowing new residents for its upper-story studios; existing residents were allowed to continue living there. The studios were instead offered mainly to commercial tenants, who could afford to pay higher rents. This prompted protests from the existing tenants. In 1979, the board of Carnegie Hall Corporation hired James Stewart Polshek and his firm, Polshek Partnership, to create a master plan for Carnegie Hall's renovation and expansion. Polshek found that Carnegie Hall's electrical systems, exits, fire alarms, and other systems were not up to modern building codes. The next year, the Carnegie Hall Corporation and the New York City government signed a memorandum of understanding, which would permit the development of the adjacent site to the east, a parking lot. In 1981, the federal government gave Carnegie Hall $1.8 million for the renovation; the city and Astor Foundation had previously given $450,000.

1980s
The first renovations started in February 1982 with the restoration and reconstruction of the recital hall and studio entrance. The lobby was lowered to street level, the box office was relocated behind the main auditorium, and two archways were added to the 57th Street facade. A new lobby and dedicated elevator for the recital hall was also created. The Carnegie Hall Corporation was also looking to develop a vacant lot immediately east of Carnegie Hall. The renovation was complicated by the fact that some parts of the original plans had been lost. A controversy also emerged when the Carnegie Hall Corporation started evicting longtime tenants of the upper-story studios, particularly those who refused to pay steeply increased rents. The first phase of the renovation was completed in September 1983 for $20 million. A second phase included upgrades to mechanical systems, such as air-conditioning and elevators.

As part of the third phase of renovations, a recording studio called the Alice and Jacob M. Kaplan Space was built within the old chapter room on the fifth floor, directly above the main hall. The Kaplan Space opened in March 1985. The corporation announced in May 1985 that the main hall and recital hall would be closed for several months. The corporation also started a fundraising drive to raise the $50 million needed to fund the renovation; more than half of the funding had already been raised at the time. A new structure designed by César Pelli, later to become the Carnegie Hall Tower, was planned for the lot immediately east of Carnegie Hall. Further upgrades, which required the main and recital halls' closure, included upgrades to both halls, the lobby, the facade, backstage areas, and offices. The lobby was lowered to street level and doubled in size.

The Landmarks Preservation Commission approved the proposed renovation in July 1985. Renovation work began afterward. The project was complicated by the need to schedule construction around performances, the lack of a freight elevator, and the requirement that materials be replaced with close or exact replacements. In April 1986, Carnegie officials announced their intent to sublease the vacant lot to Rockrose Development for the construction of Carnegie Hall Tower. The following month, the hall closed completely for a seven-month renovation. The hall's plaster decorations were restored, although the carpeting and seats were replaced. That November, Carnegie Hall announced it would rename the recital hall after Joan and Sanford I. Weill, who not only were major donors to the renovation but also enlisted other donors to fund the project. The Weill family had donated $2.5 million, more than any other donor in the hall's history.

The main hall (including the Stern Auditorium) was reopened on December 15, 1986, with a gala featuring Zubin Mehta, Frank Sinatra, Vladimir Horowitz, and the New York Philharmonic. The Kaplan Rehearsal Space was also created in 1986, and the Weill Recital Hall opened in January 1987. A month after the main hall reopened, New York Times music critic Bernard Holland criticized its acoustics, saying: "The acoustics of this magnificent space are not the same." The Weill Recital Hall also received complaints about its acoustics, prompting Carnegie Hall officials to test out noise-absorbing panels in that space. Several noise-absorbing panels were installed in the main hall in 1988, but complaints continued for several years. Critics alleged there was concrete underneath the stage, but Carnegie Hall officials denied the allegations. Isaac Stern offered to disassemble the stage on the condition that the critics pay for the repairs if no concrete was found. Polshek Partners won the American Institute of Architects' Honor Award in 1988 for its renovation of the hall.

1990s and early 2000s
During the late 1980s, Carnegie Hall had begun collecting items for the opening of a museum in the under-construction Carnegie Hall Tower. The Rose Museum was founded in April 1991, with its own entrance at 154 West 57th Street. The East Room and Club Room (later renamed Rohatyn Room and Shorin Club Room, respectively ) were created the same year. Though the East and Club rooms were in Carnegie Hall Tower, they were connected to the original Carnegie Hall. This represented the first new space added to Carnegie Hall since the studios were added in the late 1890s. At the parquet level, Cafe Carnegie was also renovated.

The stage of the main hall had begun to warp by the early 1990s, and officials disassembled the stage in 1995, where they discovered a slab of concrete. John L. Tishman, president of Tishman Realty & Construction, which had renovated the stage in 1986, alleged that the concrete was there before the renovation. The concrete was removed in mid-1995 while Carnegie Hall was closed for the summer; soon afterward, critics described a noticeable change in the acoustics.

In the basement, the Carnegie Hall Cinema operated separately from the rest of Carnegie Hall until 1997, when the hall's management closed the cinema, along with two shops on Seventh Avenue. In late 1998, Carnegie Hall announced that it would turn the basement recital hall into another performance venue, designed by Polshek Associates. The project was to cost $50 million; the high cost was attributed to the fact that the work would require excavations under the basement while concerts and other events were ongoing. In recognition of a $10 million grant from Arthur and Judy Zankel, the new space was renamed after the Zankels in January 1999; the auditorium proper was named after Judith Arron, who donated $5 million. Construction took place without disrupting performances or the nearby subway tunnel. Zankel Hall had been planned to open in early 2003, but the opening date was postponed due to the city's economic difficulties after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The excavations also raised the budget to $69 million.

2000s to present
In June 2003, tentative plans were made for the Philharmonic to return to Carnegie Hall beginning in 2006, and for the orchestra to merge its business operations with those of the venue. However, the two groups abandoned these plans later that year. Zankel Hall opened in September 2003. Music critic Anthony Tommasini praised Zankel Hall's flexibility, though he said "the builders did not quite succeed in insulating the auditorium from the sounds of passing trains". Architecturally, the space was described by critic Herbert Muschamp as "a luxury version of a black-box theater, the hall has the feel of a broadcasting studio, which it partly is". Though Zankel Hall's large capacity was highly publicized, it was only reconfigured once in its first two and a half years of operation. The Stern Auditorium's stage was renamed in March 2006 after Ronald Perelman, who had donated $20 million to Carnegie Hall.

At the end of 2005, Carnegie Hall formed a partnership with the neighboring City Center. The agreement would have allowed the venues to host each other's dance, music, and theater programs; however, the partnership was canceled in early 2007. Carnegie Hall Corporation announced later in 2007 that it would evict all the remaining tenants of its upper-story studios so the corporation could convert the space into offices. By 2010, the last tenant had moved out. In 2014, Carnegie Hall opened its Judith and Burton Resnick Education Wing. The new wing houses 24 music rooms, one of which is large enough to hold an orchestra or a chorus. The $230 million project was funded with gifts from Joan and Sanford I. Weill and the Weill Family Fund, Judith and Burton Resnick, Lily Safra and other donors, as well as $52.2 million from the city, $11 million from the state, and $56.5 million from bonds issued through the Trust for Cultural Resources of the City of New York. The American Institute of Architects gave an architectural award to the project in 2017.

Carnegie Hall closed temporarily in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. The hall reopened on October 6, 2021, with a performance by the Philadelphia Orchestra. Carnegie Hall returned to hosting a full schedule of programming during the 2022–2023 season. A new cafe at Carnegie Hall, the Weill Cafe, opened in January 2024.

Orchestral performances
Symphony No. 9, opus 95, "From the New World" by Antonín Dvořák, performed on December 16, 1893, was the first world premiere at Carnegie Hall. By the 1900s, conductors such as Richard Strauss, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Camille Saint-Saëns, Alexander Scriabin, Edward Elgar, and Sergei Rachmaninoff were staging or performing their own music at Carnegie Hall. In its early years, Carnegie Hall hosted the New York Philharmonic and Symphony, as well as the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Philadelphia Symphonic Orchestra, and other visiting orchestra companies. In particular, the Boston Symphony Orchestra regularly performed at Carnegie Hall after its first concert in 1893, and Leopold Stokowski of the Philadelphia Symphonic Orchestra regularly performed at the hall for six decades.

The hall also hosted recitals by solo performers such as pianists Arthur Rubinstein and Mieczysław Horszowski, who both debuted at Carnegie Hall in 1906 and continued performing there until 1976 and 1989, respectively.

The NBC Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Arturo Toscanini, frequently recorded in the Main Hall for RCA Victor. On November 14, 1943, the 25-year-old Leonard Bernstein had his major conducting debut when he had to substitute for a suddenly ill Bruno Walter in a concert that was broadcast by CBS. In late 1950, the NBC Symphony Orchestra's weekly broadcast concerts were moved there, remaining until the orchestra disbanded following Toscanini's retirement in April 1954.

Other concerts and recitals
Carnegie Hall was desegregated from its opening, in contrast to other music venues like the National Theatre, which remained segregated well into the 20th century. Sissieretta Jones became the first African-American to sing at Carnegie Hall on June 15, 1892, less than a year after the hall opened.

The hall was used for popular music as early as 1912, when James Reese Europe's Clef Club Orchestra performed a "proto-jazz" concert there. Many jazz performers have also given performances at Carnegie Hall, including Benny Goodman, Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Norman Granz, Louis Armstrong, Dizzy Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald, Charlie Parker, Billie Holiday, Miles Davis, Gil Evans, Nina Simone. Mary Lou Williams, Cecil Taylor, Paquito D'Rivera, Arturo Sandoval, and Chucho Valdés. The Benny Goodman Orchestra gave a sold-out swing and jazz concert on January 16, 1938, with guest performers such as Count Basie and members of Duke Ellington's orchestra.

Rock and roll music first came to Carnegie Hall when Bill Haley & His Comets appeared in a variety benefit concert on May 6, 1955. Rock acts were not regularly booked at the Hall however, until February 12, 1964, when The Beatles performed two shows during their first trip to the United States. Promoter Sid Bernstein convinced Carnegie officials that allowing a Beatles concert at the venue "would further international understanding" between the United States and Great Britain. Two concerts by Led Zeppelin were performed on October 17, 1969. Since then numerous rock, blues, jazz and country performers have appeared at the hall every season. Some performers and bands had contracts that specified decibel limits for performances, an attempt to discourage rock performances at Carnegie Hall. Jethro Tull performed a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in November 1970, which was recorded and subsequently issued in several parts. Ike & Tina Turner performed a concert April 1, 1971, which resulted in their album What You Hear is What You Get. Chicago recorded its 4-LP box set Chicago at Carnegie Hall in 1971.

European folk dance music first came to Carnegie Hall when Tanec performed a concert on January 27, 1956, becoming the first dance company from Yugoslavia to perform in America.

Other events
To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the hall, during the 2015–2016 season, Carnegie Hall officials commissioned 125 new works, with "Fifty for the Future" coming from Kronos (25 by female composers and 25 by male composers).

The hall has also been the site of lectures, including the Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture by Booker T. Washington, and the last public lecture by Mark Twain, both in 1906. The hall was also used for commencement ceremonies, including those of the City College of New York, the New York Law School, as well as the Juilliard School.

Management and operations
, the Executive and Artistic Director of Carnegie Hall is Sir Clive Gillinson, formerly managing director of the London Symphony Orchestra. Gillinson started serving in that position in 2005. Robert F. Smith has been the chairman of Carnegie Hall's board since 2016. As of the fiscal year ending June 30, 2021, the Carnegie Hall Corporation had $718,141,781 in assets, which includes about $185 million in liabilities, $112 million in net assets without donor restrictions, and $421 million in net assets with donor restrictions. During that year, the Carnegie Hall Corporation's total operating revenue was about $74 million, while total expenses and losses were about $62 million.

Carnegie Hall Archives
It emerged in 1986 that Carnegie Hall had never consistently maintained an archive. Without a central repository, a significant portion of Carnegie Hall's documented history had been dispersed. In preparation for the celebration of Carnegie Hall's centennial in 1991, the management established the Carnegie Hall Archives that year. The historical archival collections were renamed the Carnegie Hall Susan W. Rose Archives in 2021, after a longtime trustee and donor to the Archives and Rose Museum.

Famous joke
"Rumor is that a pedestrian on Fifty-seventh Street, Manhattan, stopped Jascha Heifetz and inquired, 'Could you tell me how to get to Carnegie Hall?' 'Yes,' said Heifetz. 'Practice!'"

This joke has become part of the folklore of the hall, but its origins remain a mystery. Although described in 1961 as an "ancient wheeze", its earliest known appearances in print date from 1955. Attributions to Jack Benny are mistaken; it is uncertain if he ever used the joke. Alternatives to violinist Jascha Heifetz as the second party include an unnamed beatnik, bopper, or "absent-minded maestro", as well as pianist Arthur Rubinstein and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie. Carnegie Hall archivist Gino Francesconi favors a version told by the wife of violinist Mischa Elman, in which her husband makes the quip when approached by tourists while leaving the hall's backstage entrance after an unsatisfactory rehearsal. The joke is often reduced to a riddle with no framing story. According to The Washington Post, the joke "shows how firmly the building [...] has lodged itself in American folklore".

Other lore
Other stories have been attributed to the folklore of Carnegie Hall. One such story concerns a performance on the unusually hot day of October 27, 1917, when Heifetz made his American debut in Carnegie Hall. After Heifetz had been playing for a while, fellow violinist Mischa Elman mopped his head and asked if it was hot in there. Pianist Leopold Godowsky, in the next seat, replied, "Not for pianists."

While the Elman/Godowsky anecdote was confirmed to be true, other accounts about Carnegie Hall may have been apocryphal in nature. One such story involved violinist Fritz Kreisler and pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff, who were supposedly performing a Beethoven sonata when Kreisler lost track of what he was playing. After a few minutes of improvisation, Kreisler allegedly asked "For God's sake, Sergei, where am I?", to which Rachmaninoff was said to have responded, "In Carnegie Hall."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carnegie Hall


text:
ANDOS

ANDOS is a Russian operating system for Electronika BK series computers: BK-0010, BK-0011, and BK-0011M. They were based on the PDP-11 architecture by Digital Equipment Corporation. ANDOS was created in 1990 and released first in 1992. Initially it was developed by Alexey Nadezhin (by whose name the system is named) and later also by Sergey Kamnev, who joined the project. It was the only widespread system on BK series computers that used MS-DOS-compatible file system format. ANDOS used the FAT12 file system on 800 Kb floppy disks. For Electronika BK-0011M and BK-0011, ANDOS could emulate a BK-0010 by loading a BK-0010 read-only memory (ROM) image into BK-0011(M) random-access memory (RAM). In minimal configuration, the system could occupy less than 4 Kb of RAM.

The system was able to support up to 64 disk drives (or hard disk drive partitions), and RAM disks in the computer's memory and tape recording. It could also have read-only access to MicroDOS file system format disks, although in the last version, this function was transferred from system core to the file manager and became optional.

title: ANDOS


text:
Logical equivalence

In logic and mathematics, statements $$p$$ and $$q$$ are said to be logically equivalent if they have the same truth value in every model. The logical equivalence of $$p$$ and $$q$$ is sometimes expressed as $$p \equiv q$$, $$p :: q$$, $$\textsf{E}pq$$, or $$p \iff q$$, depending on the notation being used. However, these symbols are also used for material equivalence, so proper interpretation would depend on the context. Logical equivalence is different from material equivalence, although the two concepts are intrinsically related.

Logical equivalences
In logic, many common logical equivalences exist and are often listed as laws or properties. The following tables illustrate some of these.

Logical equivalences involving conditional statements

 * $$p \implies q \equiv \neg p \vee q$$
 * $$p \implies q \equiv \neg q \implies \neg p$$
 * $$p \vee q \equiv \neg p \implies q$$
 * $$p \wedge q \equiv \neg (p \implies \neg q)$$
 * $$\neg (p \implies q) \equiv p \wedge \neg q$$
 * $$(p \implies q) \wedge (p \implies r) \equiv p \implies (q \wedge r)$$
 * $$(p \implies q) \vee (p \implies r) \equiv p \implies (q \vee r)$$
 * $$(p \implies r) \wedge (q \implies r) \equiv (p \vee q) \implies r$$
 * $$(p \implies r) \vee (q \implies r) \equiv (p \wedge q) \implies r$$

Logical equivalences involving biconditionals

 * $$p \iff q \equiv (p \implies q) \wedge (q \implies p)$$
 * $$p \iff q \equiv \neg p \iff \neg q$$
 * $$p \iff q \equiv (p \wedge q) \vee (\neg p \wedge \neg q)$$
 * $$\neg (p \iff q) \equiv p \iff \neg q \equiv p \oplus q$$

Where $$\oplus$$ represents XOR.

In logic
The following statements are logically equivalent:

 * 1) If Lisa is in Denmark, then she is in Europe (a statement of the form $$d \implies e$$).
 * 2) If Lisa is not in Europe, then she is not in Denmark (a statement of the form $$\neg e \implies \neg d$$).

Syntactically, (1) and (2) are derivable from each other via the rules of contraposition and double negation. Semantically, (1) and (2) are true in exactly the same models (interpretations, valuations); namely, those in which either Lisa is in Denmark is false or Lisa is in Europe is true.

(Note that in this example, classical logic is assumed. Some non-classical logics do not deem (1) and (2) to be logically equivalent.)

Relation to material equivalence
Logical equivalence is different from material equivalence. Formulas $$p$$ and $$q$$ are logically equivalent if and only if the statement of their material equivalence ($$p \leftrightarrow q$$) is a tautology.

The material equivalence of $$p$$ and $$q$$ (often written as $$p \leftrightarrow q$$) is itself another statement in the same object language as $$p$$ and $$q$$. This statement expresses the idea "'$$p$$ if and only if $$q$$'". In particular, the truth value of $$p \leftrightarrow q$$ can change from one model to another.

On the other hand, the claim that two formulas are logically equivalent is a statement in metalanguage, which expresses a relationship between two statements $$p$$ and $$q$$. The statements are logically equivalent if, in every model, they have the same truth value.

title: Logical equivalence


text:
Cheech & Chong

Cheech & Chong are a comedy duo founded in Vancouver and consisting of American Cheech Marin and Canadian Tommy Chong. The duo found commercial and cultural success in the 1970s and 1980s with their stand-up routines, studio recordings, and feature films, which were based on the hippie and free love era, and especially the drug and counterculture movements, most notably their love for cannabis.

Early years
The duo met in Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1968. Chong was a Canadian citizen, and Cheech had moved there from Southern California to avoid the draft at the height of the Vietnam War. Chong had formed an improv group called "City Works" after seeing Second City Improv while touring as a musician. City Works performed as part of a "hippie burlesque" at Shanghai Junk, a strip club owned by Chong's family. Marin briefly joined City Works as a replacement for the original straight man.

According to Chong's book The Unauthorized Autobiographyæ, the two came out one night to warm up the crowd for a new musical group of Chong's, but never relinquished the stage due to the audience's strong laughter. As the improv group had not been a financial success at the strip club—they drew a large but low-spending crowd—the two decided to form a comedy duo and play different venues. Successful as a duo, they eventually moved to Los Angeles.

Mainstream success
The pair performed stand-up shows, released many successful comedy record albums, and starred in a series of low-budget films. Some of their best-known comedy routines and songs include "Earache My Eye", "Basketball Jones", "Santa Claus and His Old Lady", and "Sister Mary Elephant". Perhaps their most famous line is "Dave's not here", from their self-titled debut album.

Their early success culminated with the release of their first feature-length movie, Up in Smoke, in 1978. It became something of a cult classic, and was also successful enough at the box office (grossing over $44 million despite a low budget) to warrant two sequels: Cheech and Chong's Next Movie in 1980, and Nice Dreams in 1981. These were followed by the less successful Things Are Tough All Over (1982) and Still Smokin (1983). The pair attempted a departure from their stoner comedy with 1984's Cheech & Chong's The Corsican Brothers. Their most recent starring vehicle as a duo was 2014's Cheech & Chong's Animated Movie.

Chong directed four of their films while co-writing and starring in all seven with Marin.

They also appeared in smaller supporting roles in Graham Chapman's Yellowbeard and Martin Scorsese's After Hours, as well as a Joni Mitchell song ("Twisted" on the album Court and Spark).

In 1985 the duo released their album Get Out of My Room, which included the novelty hit song "Born in East L.A." (based on Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A."). This song later served as the basis for 1987 film of the same title, in which Marin played the starring role. Immediately following the release of the album, Marin separated himself from the pair's drug-inspired act by working on a solo career.

Reunion
After their contentious parting in the 1980s, the duo spent years without working together. In 1992 the two worked together for the first time in several years, voicing characters in the animated film FernGully: The Last Rainforest. In 1997, Chong made an appearance on Marin's TV series Nash Bridges, in an episode titled "Wild Card," which contained a reference to their iconic "Dave" skit from their 1972 debut album. In 2000 both performers voiced characters in the animated television series South Park for the episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons", but their voices were recorded separately. Both Marin and Chong indicated in a 2003 episode of Biography that they were willing to reunite.

The duo had plans to reunite for another film when Chong's California-based company, Chong's Glass, was raided by federal officials in February 2003, as part of a federal crackdown on "drug-related paraphernalia". In a plea bargain which allowed his son and wife to remain out of jail, Chong pleaded guilty to charges of conspiring to distribute drug paraphernalia in May, and in September 2003 was sentenced to nine months in federal prison, fined $20,000, and forced to forfeit $120,000 in assets. He was released in July 2004. His cellmate was Jordan Belfort.

With Chong released, the duo planned to resume production on a reunion film. A variety of titles were rumored, including Grumpy Old Stoners. But they announced in September 2005 that the reunion film had been canceled. Beginning in September 2008, Cheech and Chong reunited for the Light Up America comedy tour which opened in Ottawa, making a radio program appearance on The Bob & Tom Show. In March 2009, they recorded two shows at the Majestic Theatre in San Antonio for a DVD release of the reunion tour.

In 2011, both performers were guests stars on the animated sitcom The Simpsons, on the episode "A Midsummer's Nice Dream". The episode focuses on a fictitious separation of the duo, with Homer taking Chong's place.

In August 2012, Cheech & Chong appeared at the 13th annual Gathering of the Juggalos in Cave-in-Rock, IL.

In February 2014, Cheech and Chong appeared on an episode of Tom Green Live.

In March 2014, they announced they were working on a new movie, with writer/director Jay Chandrasekhar.

Additional notable media appearances
In 1974, Cheech & Chong contributed background voices on the song "Twisted", on Joni Mitchell's album Court and Spark.

In 1975, Cheech & Chong featured on the Hoyt Axton track "No No Song," on Axton's album Southbound. They are credited with "attempted temptation" in the liner notes.

In 1979, Cheech & Chong were given the Comedy Medal from Mira Costa College.

In 2007, Brett Harvey's marijuana advocacy documentary The Union: The Business Behind Getting High starred Tommy Chong as a commentator about marijuana related issues and his drug paraphernalia charge in 2003. The film had many other notable names such as former Vancouver mayor Larry Campbell, Canadian marijuana seed retailer Marc Emery, Canadian baking marijuana icon "Watermelon Girl", and other marijuana advocates like Author & Former 'Pot TV' Manager ChrBennett and former High Times editor Steve Bloom.

On November 5, 2008, Cheech and Chong reunited for a Funny or Die video titled "Cheech and Chong Get Out the Vote!" The video, which encouraged people to get out and vote, was released the day after the United States general election.

On November 30, 2008, Cheech & Chong were honored during the roast special Cheech & Chong: Roasted on TBS hosted by Brad Garrett which included other guests, among them Chong's wife. The event was filmed at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas during The Comedy Festival.

On April 17, 2009, while on the Sydney leg of their "Cheech and Chong Light Up Australia" Tour, they had to delay the start of their show as it became the target of a drug operation by the New South Wales Police. About 25 police and four drug dogs were involved, searching around 50 people, with six people caught in possession of small amounts of cannabis.

On January 25, 2010, Cheech & Chong appeared on Lopez Tonight. During a singing segment they started to perform their song "Mexican Americans", but it turned into "Get It Legal", in reference to their current U.S. tour. On March 1, 2010, Cheech & Chong were the guest hosts of WWE Raw in Oklahoma City. On April 20, 2010 (4/20) Cheech and Chong's Hey, Watch This, the DVD filmed in San Antonio on March 14, 2009, was released.

In September 2011, Cheech & Chong appeared in a viral video posted on YouTube which at first appeared to be a trailer for a (non-existent) upcoming movie titled Cheech & Chong's Magic Brownie Adventure, but which at the end revealed itself to be a commercial for Fiber One 100-calorie snack brownies.

In 2012, Chong revealed to CNN's Don Lemon that he was battling prostate cancer. It was unknown how this would affect any future projects.

On September 28, 2014, they were guests of Doug Benson on his podcast Getting Doug with High.

The pair appeared together on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on April 23, 2018, in response to recent news that John Boehner had joined the board of a marijuana company. The pair expressed displeasure that marijuana was no longer rebellious, Cheech remarking that he could now buy weed "from a store in a strip mall" when before he could only buy it from "behind a store in a strip mall". They then joked that they would no longer be doing stoner comedy and would do comedy about things that were still illegal, such as unpasteurized dairy products, importing exotic reptiles, taping and distributing football games without the consent of the NFL, and burning leaves without a permit.

Cheech & Chong were selected by the Red Hot Chili Peppers to present to them the Global Icon Award at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards on August 28, 2022.

On April 17, 2024, Cheech & Chong were added to Call of Duty: Warzone & Modern Warfare III as a part of a purchasable bundle worth 3,000 CoD Points (equivalent to 30 USD). In this bundle, the player receives both Cheech & Chong as playable characters, as well as three weapon blueprints with special "Pain Puff Tracers" and the "Doobie Dismemberment" effect upon killing an enemy, a unique execution, loading screen, weapon charms, and decals.

Discography

 * Cheech and Chong (1971)
 * Big Bambu (1972)
 * Los Cochinos (1973)
 * Cheech & Chong's Wedding Album (1974)
 * Sleeping Beauty (1976)
 * Let's Make a New Dope Deal (1980)
 * Get Out of My Room (1985)

Primary films

 * Up in Smoke (1978)
 * Cheech and Chong's Next Movie (1980)
 * Nice Dreams (1981)
 * Things Are Tough All Over (1982)
 * Still Smokin (1983)
 * Cheech & Chong's The Corsican Brothers (1984)
 * Get Out of My Room (1985)
 * Hey, Watch This! (concert film) (2010)
 * Cheech & Chong's Animated Movie! (2013)

Secondary films

 * Cheech & Chong Perform / Cheech & Chong Perform Again?! (concert films, 1978)
 * A pre-Up in Smoke live performance, split over two separate VHS releases.
 * It Came from Hollywood (compilation, 1982)
 * Yellowbeard (1983)
 * Born in East L.A. (1987)
 * A spin-off from Get Out of My Room. Often considered a Cheech & Chong film (and has been packaged on DVD as part of the series both in America and overseas), though Tommy Chong does not appear in the film (other than as a depiction of Jesus).
 * Far Out Man (1990)
 * a/k/a Tommy Chong (documentary, 2006)
 * Cheech & Chong: Roasted (2008)

Notable side projects

 * After Hours (1985)
 * Both Cheech and Chong appear.
 * Rude Awakening (1989)
 * Cheech only
 * The Shrimp on the Barbie (1990)
 * Cheech only, though marketed in Germany as a Cheech & Chong-related film under the title Cheech ohne Chong - Jetzt rauchts in Neuseeland (loosely translated as 'Cheech without Chong - Smoking in New Zealand').
 * FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992)
 * Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices.
 * The Cisco Kid (1994)
 * Cheech only, though marketed in Germany as a Cheech & Chong-related film under the title Cheech ohne Chong - Jetzt rauchts in Wilden Westen (loosely translated as 'Cheech without Chong - Smoking in The Wild West').
 * A Million to Juan (1994)
 * Only a small role by Cheech, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set.
 * McHale's Navy (1997)
 * Two small roles by Tommy Chong, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set.
 * Evil Bong (2006)
 * Tommy Chong only, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set, among others.
 * Scarface: The World is Yours (2006)
 * Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices.
 * Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil (2011)
 * Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices.
 * Paradoria (2015)
 * Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices of Vinnie & Winnie.

Unproduced films
In 1980, there were plans to make a film called Riding High with Cheech & Chong.

Ivan Reitman conceived Stripes as a Cheech and Chong vehicle. Cheech and Chong's manager thought the script was very funny; however, the comedy duo wanted complete creative control, so Reitman told the screenwriters to rewrite it for Bill Murray and Harold Ramis.

Screenwriter Tom McLoughlin also pitched a sequel to the slasher film Friday the 13th in which Cheech and Chong, playing camp counselors, faced off against killer Jason Voorhees, as a comedy horror movie in the vein of Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein.

The hyenas Banzai and Shenzi in the 1994 animated film The Lion King were storyboarded as being characters modeled after Cheech and Chong. Due to the duo not getting along with each other at the time, and Whoopi Goldberg taking interest in the role of Shenzi, Chong was not cast, but Cheech played the part of Banzai.

Mobile applications

 * Cheech and Chong's The Fatty (2011)
 * Cheech and Chong's Bud Farm (2020)

title: Cheech & Chong


text:
Electronika BK

The Electronika BK is a series of 16-bit PDP-11-compatible home computers developed under the Electronika brand by NPO Scientific Center, then the leading microcomputer design team in the Soviet Union. It is also the predecessor of the more powerful UKNC and DVK micros.

Overview
First released in 1985 (developed in 1983), they are based on the К1801ВМ1 (Soviet LSI-11-compatible CPU) and were the only official (government approved and accounted for in economic planning) Soviet home computer design in mass production.

They sold for about 600–650 roubles. This was costly, as the average Soviet monthly wage then was about 150 roubles. Despite their cost, they became one of the most popular home computer models in the Soviet Union. Later, in the 1990s, their powerful central processing unit (CPU) and straightforward, easy-to-program design made them popular as demoscene machines. BK (БК) is a Russian abbreviation for "бытовой компьютер" (bytovoy kompyuter) – domestic (or home) computer. The machines were also used for a short time as cash registers, for example, in the GUM department store.

Software

The BK series is a bare-bones machine, with no peripherals or programming tools. The only software available at the launch, except read-only memory (ROM) firmware, is an included magnetic tape with several programming examples (for the languages BASIC and FOCAL), and several tests. The ROM firmware includes a simple program to enter machine codes, BASIC and FOCAL interpreters.

While the BK is somewhat compatible with larger and more expensive DVK professional model microcomputers and industrial minicomputers like the SM EVM series, its 32 KiB memory, of which only 16 KiB is generally available to programmers (an extended memory mode supports 28 KiB, but limits video output to a quarter of the screen), generally precludes direct use of software for the more powerful machines. The DVK became a popular development platform for BK software, and most DVK software can be used directly with memory capacity extended to 128 KiB.

Hobbyist developers quickly filled this niche, porting several programming tools from DVK and UKNC. This led to an explosion of homebrew software, from text editors and databases to operating systems and video games. Most BK owners expanded the built-in RAM to at least 64 KiB, which allows easier software porting, and as these upgrades often include floppy drive controllers, individuals creating disk operating systems became something of a competitive sport in the BK scene. Games and demoscene communities also flourished, as its poor graphics are offset by a powerful CPU.

One of the operating systems was ANDOS, although officially the computer shipped with OS BK-11, a modification of RT-11.

Hardware
The machine is based on a 16-bit single-chip K1801VM1 CPU, clocked generally at 3 MHz. It is compatible with Digital Equipment Corporation's LSI-11 line, though it lacks Extended Instruction Set (EIS) and further instruction set extensions. The manufacturer also closely copied the PDP-11's internal architecture. Each model has one free card slot which is electrically, but not mechanically, compatible with Q-Bus. The first version features 32 KiB onboard DRAM, half of which is video memory. That is extended to 128 KiB in later models, with video memory extended to two 16 KiB pages.

Video output on all models is provided by the K1801VP1-037 VDC, a rather spartan chip. It is a standard 600 gate array, or uncommitted logic array (ULA), with a VDC program that allows for two graphic video modes, high-resolution (512×256, monochrome) and low-resolution (256×256, 4 colors), and supports hardware vertical scrolling. Later models have 16 hardwired 4-color sets selectable from 64 color palette. It does not support text modes, but simulates two via BIOS routines: 32×25 and 64×25. Some operating systems such as ANDOS have managed to output text in 80×25 mode when displaying documents imported from IBM PC, by placing characters more densely. Output is through two separate 5-pin DIN connectors for a monochrome TV or color TV/monitor. Sound on all models is initially through a simple programmable counter connected to an onboard piezo speaker. The General Instrument AY-3-8910 is a popular aftermarket addition.

All models also have a 16-bit universal parallel port with separate input and output buses for connecting peripherals such as printers (Eastern Bloc printers used the incompatible IFSP (ИРПР) interface instead of the IEEE 1284 (Centronics) port, so Centronics printers need an adapter), mouse or Covox digital-to-analog converters (DACs) for sound output, and tape recorder port for data storage. Later models include a manufacturer-supplied floppy drive controller (that can be plugged into a Q-Bus slot) by default. It is available for earlier models as an aftermarket part, but homebrew ones (that also often extends 16 KiB memory of original BK) are more popular.

BK-0010
Электроника БК-0010 is the first model (originally released in 1983, the serial production since 1985). It has a pseudo-membrane keyboard (an array of mechanical microswitches without keycaps, covered by flexible overlay), 32 KiB RAM, 8 KiB ROM with BIOS (chip K1801RE2-017), 8 KiB ROM with FOCAL interpreter (K1801RE2-018), 8 KiB ROM with debugger (K1801RE2-019) and one free ROM slot, and its CPU is clocked at 3 MHz. A tape recorder is used for data storage in the factory configuration.

This model was criticized for its uncomfortable keyboard – while mechanical in nature, lack of keycaps lead to the same unsatisfactory tactile response, that was seen as unacceptable when the machine was used in home or educational settings, although such keyboard could be easily sealed fully, so this version found wide use as an industrial controller. Other points of criticism included the archaic FOCAL programming language supplied by default and the lack of peripherals and software. While all hardware was well-documented and easy to work with, the machine was delivered with no programming tools.

BK-0010.01
The follow-up version, БК-0010.01 (sometimes referred to as -0010-01), is essentially the same machine, but with a conventional full-travel keyboard and a Vilnius BASIC p-code compiler in the ROM, correcting the weakest points of its predecessor. While the BASIC dialect used is powerful and well-optimized (it is a scaled-down clone of MSX BASIC), the keyboard still has shortcomings. While it is much more comfortable to work with, the keys were prone to sticking, significant bounce and wore quickly, though a model with a further improved keyboard became available later. The FOCAL interpreter was not dropped but instead shipped on an external ROM cartridge that can be inserted into the Q-Bus slot.

BK-0010Sh
Электроника БК-0010Ш is a model intended for school use. It can be either the −0010 or −0010.01 model but includes a special current loop network adapter rated at 19200 bits per second (bit/s), which can be inserted into the Q-Bus slot. Based on ULA chip K1801VP1-035 (and later on K1801VP1-065), the adapter is compatible with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) DL-11 and KL-11 serial interfaces, but without modem control bits. It also includes a monitor, usually a modified Yunost' compact TV for school settings.

BK-0011
BK-0011 was released in 1989. It has 128 KiB of RAM divided into 16 KiB pages; its CPU is clocked at 4 MHz by default. It includes a newer version of BASIC in ROM and 16 selectable video palettes, which were almost universally criticized by users for their odd color combinations. It has a floppy controller, with the drive available as an add-on.

BK-0011M
Some changes in the BK-0011, while minor, made it incompatible with earlier -0010 models. It cannot load 0010 programs from a cassette tape. Even if it could have loaded them, crucial subsystems, such as sound, are still incompatible. The manufacturer redesigned the machine, restoring compatibility with earlier models. The resulting model, the BK-0011M, quickly went into production, and most BK-0011 series computers are actually BK-0011Ms. Since the modifications were minor, most of the handful of -0011 models that made it to market have been upgraded to -0011M models by enthusiasts.

Mods
It is not uncommon among owners to install one or two mechanical switches that made using the computer more convenient. Some of the common mods were:

 * Reset push-button. Programs often hang. Also, some games do not have a properly implemented Exit function. Without this button, the computer has to be reset by power cycling, which eventually leads to a worn out power switch on the external power supply. The reset interrupt can be caught by the operating system, so under such systems (for example, ANDOS, MK-DOS), the reset button exits to the OS's file manager.
 * Pause switch. This switch activates hardware suspension of instruction execution in the processor. The pause switch is useful for pausing games, most of which do not have a pause key. A few games, however, do not behave gracefully after being returned from suspension, because the programmable hardware timer built into the processor chip is still running while the instruction execution was suspended. The BK also has a software key combination for pause.
 * Clock speed switch (turbo switch). This changes the processor clock speed from the standard 3 MHz (BK-0010* series) to 4 or 6 MHz, or from the standard 4 MHz (BK-0011* series) to 3 or 6 MHz. Not all processor samples work reliably at 6 MHz; the possibility of such overclocking has to be determined experimentally for each sample. Switching the clock speed changes the pace of dynamic games. The turbo switch usually has to be installed together with the pause switch, because the simplest circuit for switching the clock speed produces bad waveform shapes in the clock signal due to contact bounce in the mechanical switch, running the risk of hanging the software execution unless the processor is in the suspended state.
 * Sound on/off switch, or sound volume knob, which adjusts the volume level of the internal piezoelectric speaker using a potentiometer. At this same time as adding this, the modder can replace the speaker with a louder one.

Enthusiasts also manage to connect more advanced devices to BK series computers: they developed a hard disk drive (HDD) controller, and 2.5" HDDs have been successfully used with BK computers. Other popular enhancements are AY-3-8912 sound chips and Covox Speech Thing.

Emulators
There are various software emulators of BK for modern IBM PC compatible computers. An emulator is able to run at a much higher speed than the original BK.

There are also fairly complete re-implementations of the BK for field-programmable gate array (FPGA) based systems, such as the MiST.

title: Electronika BK


text:
Capital of Wales

The current capital of Wales is Cardiff. Historically, Wales did not have a definite capital. In 1955, the Minister for Welsh Affairs informally proclaimed Cardiff to be the capital of Wales. Since 1964, Cardiff has been home to government offices for Wales, and since 1999 it has been the seat of the Senedd.

History
Between the end of Roman rule and the conquest by Edward I in the late 13th century, Wales was usually divided between four kingdoms. There were only brief periods where the land was dominated by a single ruler, most notably by Gruffydd ap Llywelyn in the 11th century. Rather than being based in a fixed location, Welsh kings would maintain an itinerant court, as was the norm in medieval Europe.

In the past, multiple places have served as a seat of the government of Wales, including: The ecclesiastical capital of Wales is St Davids, the resting place of the country's patron saint, Saint David.
 * Abergwyngregyn the seat of the Kingdom of Gwynedd
 * Strata Florida Abbey, the Cistercian abbey where Llywelyn the Great held council in 1238.
 * Machynlleth, where Owain Glyndŵr held a parliament in 1404.
 * Ludlow (Welsh Llwydlo, in Shropshire, England), seat of the Council of Wales and the Marches from 1473 to 1689.

In the 19th century, Cardiff grew to become the largest settlement in Wales, due to its role as a port for exporting coal from the South Wales Valleys. By 1881, it had overtaken both Swansea and Merthyr Tydfil to become the country's most populous urban area, and in 1905, it received city status. In subsequent years, an increasing number of Welsh national institutions were founded in the city, including the National Museum of Wales (chartered in 1907), Welsh National War Memorial (unveiled 1928), and the Registry Building (1903) of the University of Wales. However, the National Library of Wales (chartered 1907) is located in Aberystwyth. This was partly because the library's founder, Sir John Williams, did not think that Cardiff was a Welsh city in character. The investiture of the Prince of Wales, a ceremony revived in 1911, takes place within the shell of Caernarfon Castle in northwest Wales. Since 1920, the election of the Archbishop of Wales has taken place in Llandrindod Wells, chosen for its central location.

In the 20th century, Welsh local authorities debated where a new capital of Wales should be, with 76 out of 161 opting for Cardiff in a 1924 poll, organised by the South Wales Daily News. The authorities were mostly split between Cardiff and Caernarfon, with a smaller faction supporting Aberystwyth. The discussions stalled and progress was not made until 1950.

Recognition of Cardiff
The government of the Labour Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, had not named a capital of Wales during his government. Attlee noted that a number of cities made claims to the status, and that the Council for Wales and Monmouthshire did not raise what he considered to be a "domestic issue" with the Government. In his inaugural speech as Lord Mayor of Cardiff, George Williams argued that Cardiff should be considered the capital of Wales. David Llewellyn was elected MP for Cardiff North in 1950 and also campaigned for recognising Cardiff. Campaigning for Cardiff stepped up and the city took steps to promote its 'Welshness'. The stalemate over which city should be the new capital was broken when Cardiganshire County Council decided to support Cardiff and, in a 1955 poll of local authorities, 134 out of 161 voted for the city.

On 20 December 1955, Gwilym Lloyd-George, then Minister for Welsh Affairs and Home Secretary, proclaimed that Cardiff was the capital of Wales, in a reply to a Parliamentary question from David Llewellyn. Lloyd-George said that "no formal measures are necessary to give effect to this decision" The Encyclopedia of Wales says that the decision to recognise the city as the capital of Wales "had more to do with the fact that it contained marginal Conservative constituencies than any reasoned view of what functions a Welsh capital should have".

Government institutions
Cardiff only became a centre of national administration with the establishment of the Welsh Office in 1964, which later prompted the creation of various other public bodies such as the Arts Council of Wales and the Welsh Development Agency, most of which were based in Cardiff.

In a 1997 referendum, Wales narrowly voted in favour of establishing the National Assembly for Wales (now known as the Senedd), although only 44% supported the proposal in Cardiff. Due to the relative lack of support for the Assembly locally, and disagreements between the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council over where it should sit, there was a brief period of speculation that the Assembly would be established elsewhere. However, the Assembly eventually located at Tŷ Hywel in Cardiff Bay in 1999. It has been based there ever since, moving to its present building in 2006.

title: Capital of Wales


text:
List of capitals of France

This is a chronological list of capitals of France. The capital of France has been Paris since its liberation in 1944.

Chronology

 * Tournai (before 486), current-day Belgium
 * Soissons (486–936)
 * Laon (936–987)
 * Paris (987–1419), the residence of the Kings of France, although they were consecrated at Reims.
 * Orléans (1108), one of the few consecrations of a French monarch to occur outside of Reims occurred at Orléans, when Louis VI the Fat was consecrated in Orléans Cathedral by Daimbert, Archbishop of Sens; from 13 December 1560 to 31 January 1561, the French States-General also met in the city.
 * Troyes (1419–1422), for a short time during the Hundred Years' War, the city was the seat of the royal government.
 * Bourges (1422–1444), Charles VII was forced to flee from Paris.
 * Tours (1444–1527), Louis XI made the Château de Plessis-lez-Tours his residence.
 * Paris (1528–1589), Francis I had established his court in Paris.
 * Tours (1589–1594), faction of parliamentarians, faithful to King Henry IV sat at Tours.
 * Paris (1594–1682)
 * Versailles (1682–1789), from 1682 to 1715, Louis XIV made Versailles his residence and the seat of the French court.
 * Paris (1789–1871), on 5 and 6 October 1789, a throng from Paris invaded the castle and forced the royal family to move back to Paris. The National Constituent Assembly followed the King to Paris soon afterward; Versailles lost its role of capital city.

Provisional seats of the government:
 * Versailles (1871), the French Third Republic established Versailles as its provisional seat of government in March 1871 after the Paris Commune took control of Paris.
 * Bordeaux (September 1914), the government was relocated from Paris to Bordeaux very briefly during World War I, when it was feared that Paris would soon fall into German hands. These fears were alleviated after the German Army was pushed back at the First Battle of the Marne.
 * Tours (10–13 June 1940), the city served as the temporary capital of France during World War II after the government fled Paris due to the German advance.
 * Bordeaux (June 1940), the government was relocated from Paris to Tours then Bordeaux very briefly during World War II, when it became apparent that Paris would soon fall into German hands.
 * Clermont-Ferrand (29 June 1940), the government was relocated from Bordeaux to Clermont-Ferrand, during a single day, before going to Vichy, which had a larger hotel capacity.
 * Vichy (1940–1944), the Third Republic was abolished in Vichy and replaced it with the French State.
 * Brazzaville (1940–1943), with metropolitan France under Axis powers rule, Brazzaville was announced as the seat of the Free France government.
 * Algiers (1943–1944), the city was made the seat of Free France, to be closer to the war in Europe.

 * Paris (1945-present day).

title: List of capitals of France


text:
TOS

TOS may refer to:

General

 * Terms of service
 * The original series of a particular media, in contrast to a spin-off

Chemistry

 * Tosyl, a chemical group
 * Gy's sampling theory (abbreviation)

Entertainment

 * Star Trek: The Original Series, a science fiction TV series originally known as Star Trek
 * Tree of Savior, a multiplayer online role playing game published by IMC Games in 2016
 * Town of Salem, a social deduction game published by BlankMediaGames in 2014
 * Temple of Shadows, 2004 album by Angra
 * T·O·S (Terminate on Sight), 2008 album by G-Unit

Medicine

 * Thoracic outlet syndrome, a medical condition
 * Toxic oil syndrome, caused by consuming non-food grade oil

Organizations

 * The Oceanography Society
 * Theosophical Order of Service, an international organization
 * Temple of Set, an occult society
 * Tennessee Ornithological Society
 * Trucial Oman Scouts, UK force raised in Oman in 1951
 * TV Oita, a Japanese TV station

Other uses

 * TOS-1, a Soviet thermobaric weapon
 * Tam o' Shanter (cap)
 * Atari TOS (The Operating System, also unofficially known as Tramiel Operating System), computer operating system
 * TOS/360, Tape Operating System/360
 * Tromsø Airport, Norway, IATA code
 * Type of service, a field in the header of IPv4 packets
 * Terminal Operating System, controlling cargo movement
 * Testament of Solomon, a pseudepigraphical composite text ascribed to King Solomon
 * Thinkorswim, an electronic trading platform by TD Ameritrade used to trade financial assets
 * Town of Salem, a game under the social deduction genre

title: TOS


text:
Capital of Germany

The capital of Germany is the City Land of Berlin. It is the seat of the Federal President of Germany, whose official residence is Bellevue Castle. The Federal Council is the representation of the Lands of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian House of Lords. Though most of the ministries are seated in Berlin, some of them, as well as some minor departments, are seated in Bonn, the former capital of Germany (western). Although Berlin is officially the capital of Germany, 8,000 out of the 18,000 total officials employed at the federal bureaucracy still work in Bonn, about 600 km away from Berlin.

Pre-1871
Prior to 1871, Germany was not a unified nation-state, and had no capital city. The medieval German Holy Roman Empire used to have Aachen as its preferred seat of government during Charlemagne's reign, and until 1531 it was the place where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned Kings of the Germans. The coronation later moved to Frankfurt. However, after Charlemagne, none of the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors moved to Aachen or Frankfurt, instead retaining their own original constituent kingdom or principality as base or moving into temporary Royal palaces dotted around the confederate realm known as Kaiserpfalz. The last imperial ruling house (the Habsburgs) had Vienna as its permanent seat of government.

After the Congress of Vienna created the formal German Confederation in 1815, a Federal Assembly convened at the Free City of Frankfurt, representing not the people of the individual German Lands but their sovereigns. Subsequently, Frankfurt briefly became the official German capital during the short-lived Revolutions of 1848 in the German states.

1871–1945
It was only during the 1871 unification of Germany that the newly unified German Reich was first assigned an official capital. Since Berlin was the capital of Prussia, the leading state of the new Reich, it became the capital of Germany as well. Berlin had been the capital of Prussia and its predecessor, Brandenburg (an der Havel), since 1518. Berlin remained the capital of the German Reich until 1945. However, for a period of a few months following the First World War, the national assembly met in Weimar because civil war was ravaging Berlin. After the capture of Berlin in 1945, Flensburg briefly served as capital. Germany was then occupied by the Allies as the outcome of World War II, and Berlin ceased to be the capital of a sovereign German state.

1945–1990

In 1949, with sovereignty regained the country split up into Germany (western) and East Germany. Berlin was also divided, into West Berlin and East Berlin. Originally, Frankfurt was to be the provisional capital of western Germany. However, the authorities of state intended to make Berlin the capital if Germany were ever reunified. They feared that since Frankfurt was a major city in its own right, it would ultimately be accepted as a permanent capital and weaken western German support for reunification. For this reason, the capital was located in the smaller university city of Bonn as a more obviously provisional solution. Another factor was that Bonn is close to Cologne, the hometown of Germany's first Federal Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer.

East Germany claimed all of Berlin as its capital, although the city as a whole was still legally occupied territory and would remain so for 41 years. In reality, the Soviet occupation sector of Berlin, East Berlin served as the East German capital.

1990–present
In 1990, with the reunification of Germany, Berlin was also reunified and became the capital of the enlarged Germany. There was some debate, however, on whether the seat of government should move to Berlin. Many believed that Bonn should remain the seat of government – a situation analogous to that of the Netherlands, where Amsterdam is the capital but The Hague is the seat of government. In 1991, after an emotional debate, the Bundestag voted to move the seat of government to Berlin by 1999. However, six ministries remained in Bonn, each with a second office in Berlin.

title: Capital of Germany


text:
Implication

Implication may refer to:

Logic

 * Logical consequence (also entailment or logical implication), the relationship between statements that holds true when one logically "follows from" one or more others
 * Material conditional (also material implication), a logical connective and binary truth function typically interpreted as "If p, then q"
 * Material implication (rule of inference), a logical rule of replacement
 * Implicational propositional calculus, a version of classical propositional calculus that uses only the material conditional connective
 * Strict conditional or strict implication, a connective of modal logic that expresses necessity
 * modus ponens, or implication elimination, a simple argument form and rule of inference summarized as "p implies q; p is asserted to be true, so therefore q must be true"

Linguistics

 * Implicature, what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied
 * Implicational universal or linguistic universal, a pattern that occurs systematically across natural languages
 * Implicational hierarchy, a chain of implicational universals; if a language has one property then it also has other properties in the chain
 * Entailment (pragmatics) or strict implication, the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other

Other uses

 * Implication table, a tool used to facilitate the minimization of states in a state machine
 * Implication graph, a skew-symmetric directed graph used for analyzing complex Boolean expressions
 * Implication (information science)

title: Implication


text:
User:Reboot

I'm a software developer and history buff. I contribute in spurts. Usually, I contribute because I'm researching something out of interest but have nothing to publish on the subject in terms of articles or research papers so I add it to Wikipedia instead. I do not have an incredible amount of patience for some of the bots and characters so I am likely to just go away for a year rather than participate in a passionate discussion.

I am learning Chinese.

Note that my selection of handle had nothing to do with ReBoot the animated series (which I've never seen).

title: User:Reboot