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Cunter

Cunter (Romansh, in German: Conters im Oberhalbstein) is a village and former municipality in the Sursés in the district of Albula in the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland. On 1 January 2016 the former municipalities of Bivio, Cunter, Marmorera, Mulegns, Riom-Parsonz, Salouf, Savognin, Sur and Tinizong-Rona merged to form the new municipality of Surses.

History
Cunter is first mentioned in 1370 as Contra.

Geography
Cunter had an area,, of 7.1 km2. Of this area, 32.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 49.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 2.5% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (15.2%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

The former municipality is located in the Surses sub-district of the Albula district. It lies on the road to the Julier Pass, between Tiefencastel and Savognin. It consists of the village of Cunter and the hamlets of Burvagn, Promastgel and Muntschect. Until 1943 Cunter was known as Conters im Oberhalbstein.

Demographics
Cunter had a population (as of 2014) of 256. , 19.7% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last ten years the population has grown at a rate of 11.5%. Most of the population speaks Romansh (51.0%), with German being second most common (36.4%) and Italian being third (5.6%).

, the gender distribution of the population was 50.2% male and 49.8% female. The age distribution,, in Cunter is eighteen people or 9.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old. Seven people or 3.5% are 10 to 14, and sixteen people or 8.1% are 15 to 19. Of the adult population, twenty-nine people or 14.6% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. Twenty-eight people or 14.1% are 30 to 39, thirty-six people or 18.2% are 40 to 49, and thirty-one people or 15.7% are 50 to 59. The senior population distribution is thirteen people or 6.6% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, fifteen people or 7.6% are 70 to 79, and there are four people or 2.0% who are 80 to 89. There is one person or 0.5% who is 90 to 99.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 62.6% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (19.6%), the FDP (10%) and the SPS (6.7%).

The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Cunter about 61.5% of the population aged 25 to 64 have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule).

Cunter has an unemployment rate of 2.44%. , there were ten people employed in the primary economic sector and about five businesses involved in this sector. Nine people are employed in the secondary sector and there are three businesses in this sector. Eleven people are employed in the tertiary sector, with six businesses in this sector.

The historical population is given in the following table:

title: Cunter


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Talk:Emilia Hazelip

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Obituary From Jamie

There are never the right words for moments such as these so I shall just express my profound shock and sadness at the sudden death of Emilia Hazelip (1938-2003), who passed away in her sleep at Centre Hospitalier, Carcassonne, France last night.

Although Emilia had been in hospital since January 23rd undergoing tests for breathlessness and fatigue, there had been no indication of the gravity of the situation. Indeed, we visited Emilia last Thursday and, although, true to her feisty nature she was not enjoying the experience, there were signs of some improvement. On the phone to her on Friday there was even cause for celebration that the days tests had not turned up the feared terminal illness.

She leaves two daughters, two granddaughters and a third grandchild expected in a few days - the thought of joining her youngest daughter for the birth of her first baby helped Emilia cope with the ongoing tests.

However, Emilia also leaves the many, many people she has taught and helped toward a more sustainable form of farming. She taught the first Permaculture course here in France in 1985 and then took the Permaculture concept and introduced it to her native Spain, Portugal and Italy and it is in Italy where she has been spending much time in recent years enjoying the enthusiasm she has found there. She also gave a series of seminars on her 'Synergistic Farming' in North America in 1995 based upon her extensive knowledge of the agricultural systems of the Mayas of Mexico, the Berbers of North Africa, and the natural farming methods Masanobu Fukuoka. She has written several articles for the British based Permaculture UK and for the US Permaculture Activist Magazines, as well as producing the excellent "Synergistic Gardening" video. She was also involved in writing her first book, long awaited by the many people who followed her inspired agricultural methods.

I hope the last paragraph will not seem superfluous as I hope it shows the dedication, experience and invaluable knowledge this list and the wider world has lost with Emilia's passing. Her answers shone out on this list, composed of mainly enthusiastic beginners, for their clarity bred from years of experience.

And we, Anne, the two children and I have lost a recently found friend and a generous guide in our pursuit of a more sustainable life.

Jamie Souscayrous

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Emilia Hazelip


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Green Monster

The Green Monster is a popular nickname for the 37 ft left field wall at Fenway Park, home to the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball. The wall is 310 ft from home plate and is a popular target for right-handed hitters.

Overview

The wall was part of the original ballpark construction of 1912, along Fenway's north side facing Lansdowne Street. It is made of wood and was covered in tin and concrete in 1934. It was then covered with hard plastic in 1976. A manual scoreboard is set into the wall, which has been there, in one form or another, at least as far back as 1914 (see photo at right). Despite the name, the Green Monster was not painted green until 1947; before that, it was covered with advertisements. The Monster designation is relatively new. For most of its history it was simply called "The Wall".

The Green Monster is the highest among the walls in current Major League Baseball fields; it is the second highest among all professional baseball fields (including minor leagues), as in 2007 it was surpassed by the left field wall of WellSpan Park in York, Pennsylvania, which is approximately 6 in taller.

Ballparks occupied by professional baseball teams have often featured high fences to hide the field from external viewers, particularly behind open areas of the outfield where bleacher seating is low-lying or non-existent. The wall might also reduce the number of "cheap" home runs due to the barrier's relatively tall height above the playing surface. Fenway's wall serves both purposes. Past ballparks of Fenway's era or even later which featured high fences in-play included Baker Bowl, Washington Park, Ebbets Field, League Park, Griffith Stadium, Shibe Park, and more recently, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Fenway is the last of the exceptionally high-walled major league ballparks. Relatively high walls in modern ballparks have been constructed for their novelty rather than by necessity, as Fenway's wall had been.

The Green Monster is famous for preventing home runs on many line drives that would clear the walls of other ballparks. A side effect of this is to increase the prevalence of doubles, since this is the most common result when the ball is hit off the wall (often referred to as a "wallball double"). Some left fielders, predominantly those with vast Fenway experience, have become adept at fielding caroms off the wall to throw runners out at second base or hold the batter to a single. Compared with other current major league parks, the wall's placement creates a comparatively shallow left field; the wall falls approximately 304 - 310 ft from the plate along the left-field foul line. With this short distance, many deep fly balls that could be caught by the fielder in a deeper park rebound off the wall for base hits. And while the wall turns many would-be line-drive homers into doubles it also allows some high yet shallow fly balls to clear the field of play for a home run.

During 2001 and 2002, the Green Monster's height record was temporarily beaten by the center field wall at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the construction of Great American Ball Park, located right next to Riverfront Stadium, a large section of seats was removed from the center field area to make room and a 40 ft black wall was erected as a temporary batter's eye. The entire wall was in play. This new wall was often called "The Black Monster". When Riverfront Stadium was demolished in 2002, the Green Monster reclaimed the record. In honor of the famed wall, the Red Sox mascot is a furry green monster named Wally the Green Monster, joined in 2016 by his younger sister Tessie.

Duffy's Cliff
From 1912 to 1933, a 10 ft mound formed an incline in front of the Green Monster, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center field flag pole. This earthwork formed a "terrace", a common feature of ballparks of the day (where a dirt-surfaced warning track would normally be today), whose purpose was to make up the difference in grade between street level and field level, as with Cincinnati's Crosley Field. It also served to double as a seating area to handle overflow crowds, another common practice of that era.

As a result of the terrace, when overflow crowds were not seated atop it, a left fielder in Fenway Park had to play the territory running uphill. Boston's first star left fielder, Duffy Lewis, mastered the skill so well that the area became known as "Duffy's Cliff". In contrast, rotund outfielder Bob Fothergill, known by the indelicate nicknames of "Fats" or "Fatty", reportedly once chased a ball up the terrace, slipped and fell, and rolled downhill.

In 1934, Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey arranged to flatten the ground in left field so that Duffy's Cliff no longer existed, and it became part of the lore of Fenway Park.

Scoreboard
Long after the much-higher location manual scoreboard from c.1914 existed (as seen in the 1914 photo), the placement of the modern "ground-level" manual scoreboard occurred in 1934. It forms the lower half of the Green Monster and is still updated by hand from behind the wall throughout the game. The American League scores are also updated from behind the wall. The National League scores need to be updated from the front of the wall between innings. There is also a board which shows the current American League East standings. There are 127 slots in the wall and a team of three score keepers move around 2 lb, 13 by plates to represent the score. Yellow numbers are used to represent in-inning scores and white numbers are used to represent final inning tallies. The numbers of the current pitchers weigh 3 lb and measure 16 by.

Carlton Fisk's "body English" when he hit his game-winning home run in Game 6 of the 1975 World Series, "waving" the ball fair, was captured on a TV camera stationed in the scoreboard.

Morse Code
The Morse Code that appears from top to bottom in the white lines of the American League scoreboard are the initials of former owners Thomas A. Yawkey and Jean R. Yawkey.

Right field
Fenway's left-field distortion is offset by the odd shape and generous size of right field, which is 302 ft (although its actual distance has been disputed over the years) along the foul line (almost the same as in left), but 380 ft at its deepest. The bullpen was added along the right field wall in 1940 to shorten the distance for left-handed slugger Ted Williams' home runs to clear the fence. For years afterward, the bullpens were known as "Williamsburg".

Green Monster seating
In 1936, the Red Sox installed a 23 ft net above the Monster in order to protect the storefronts on adjoining Lansdowne Street from home run balls. The net remained until the 2002–03 offseason, when the team's new ownership constructed a new seating section atop the wall to accommodate 274 fans. Wildly popular, these "Monster seats" were part of a larger expansion plan for Fenway Park seating. The Red Sox later added a smaller seating section in 2005, dubbed the "Nation's Nest," located between the main seating section and the center field scoreboard.

The ladder
Comprising yet another quirk, a ladder is attached to the Green Monster, extending from near the upper-left portion of the scoreboard, 13 ft above ground, to the top of the wall. Previously, members of the grounds crew would use the ladder to retrieve home run balls from the netting hung above the wall. After the net was removed for the addition of the Monster seats, the ladder ceased to have any real function, yet it remains in place as a historic relic.

The placement of the ladder is noteworthy given the fact that it is in fair territory; it is the only such ladder in the major leagues. On many occasions, a batted ball has struck the ladder during game play, at least twice leading to an inside-the-park home run. During a 1950s game, Red Sox outfielders Ted Williams and Jimmy Piersall both tracked a fly ball in left center, but the ball struck the ladder and caromed into center field, giving batter Jim Lemon enough time to round the bases. Later, in 1963, the slow-footed Dick Stuart hit a high fly that ricocheted first off the ladder, and then the head of outfielder Vic Davalillo, before rolling far enough away to allow Stuart to score.

One common myth perpetuated is that if a ball strikes the ladder and then bounces over the wall or out of play, the batter will be awarded a ground-rule triple. There is no such rule in the ground rules at Fenway, nor in any major league ballpark, however, it is not impossible to occur. For a ground-rule triple to happen, both managers as well as umpire crew have to agree upon special ground rules prior to the game, in order to address rare or unforeseen circumstances that are not already accounted for in the rulebook. For example, in the 1903 World Series, while playing at Exposition Park III in Pittsburgh, a ground-rule triple was awarded to batters who hit a ball into overflow spectator areas, which were situated on the field of play in the outfield grass; it happened 17 times during that series.

Advertisements
After the wall was painted green in 1947, advertisements did not appear on the wall until 1999, when the All-Star Game at Fenway was being promoted. Various ads have appeared above the scoreboard since then, such as the Jimmy Fund, W.B. Mason, and Granite City Electric. The Coke Bottles on the left light tower were a target for power-hitters when they were placed in 1997. These 3D advertisements were taken down before the 2008 season, when an LED sign was built above the new left-field upper deck seats. As a lead up to his 500th career home run, Manny Ramirez's home run count was tallied on the bottom of the light tower. Ads beside the manual scoreboard were added when the scoreboard was expanded. Above the manual scoreboard, where a Jimmy Fund advertisement had remained for many years, the logo for Foxwoods Resort Casino is now a prominent aspect of Fenway Park. Outside of Fenway in Kenmore Square, but able to be seen in the view above the left-field wall, is the Boston Citgo sign.

Similar and related places

 * The Red Sox current spring training home, JetBlue Park at Fenway South in Fort Myers, Florida, features a replica of the Green Monster. JetBlue's Green Monster even has Fenway Park's 1934-vintage, manually operated scoreboard installed in it.
 * Fluor Field at the West End, home of the Greenville Drive of the High-Single A Carolina League, has a "Greenville Monster" as well; much as jetBlue Park in Florida does, Fluor Field's dimensions replicate exactly those of Fenway Park. The Drive is the High-A affiliate of the Red Sox, having been elevated from Single-A in the 2021 reorganization of Minor League Baseball.
 * Hadlock Field, home of the Portland Sea Dogs, the AA affiliates of the Boston Red Sox. This stadium boasts a replica of the Green Monster, nicknamed the "Maine Monster".
 * Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C., the longtime home of the Washington Senators, had its own version of the Green Monster---in right field.
 * Hawkins Field, home of the Vanderbilt University Commodores baseball program features their own, 35 ft, version of the Green Monster with a scoreboard on top.
 * The former (demolished 2014) Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome was the previous home of the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball program and the Minnesota Twins. A 23 ft advertising-covered tarp hung over the fold-away football seating in right field and was derisively referred to as the "Hefty Bag" or "Baggie" for its black garbage bag-like appearance. As hitting the exposed folded seats above it was considered a home run and the tarp provided a trampoline-like bounce to assure a double, it was an attractive target for left-handed power hitters.
 * Minute Maid Park, home of the Houston Astros, has a wall inspired by the Green Monster in left field, atop which is mounted a train reminiscent of the operating days of the adjacent Union Station. The wall is 25 ft deeper and 1 ft higher than the Green Monster, but in front of it is a section of stands called the Crawford Boxes, which are only 19 ft high and are 5 ft deeper.
 * Pro Player Stadium, the former home of the Florida Marlins, featured a smaller 'Teal Monster' in left field from the team's original 1992 season until 2009, when the display was replaced by ad hoardings for the remaining 2010 and 2011 seasons before their move to Marlins Park. The board started out as manual but eventually was converted to a digital eggcrate display with remote control.
 * WellSpan Park, home of the York Revolution, has "The Arch Nemesis" that is 6 inches (152 mm) taller than the Green Monster.
 * RE/MAX Field, home of the Edmonton Riverhawks, has a 34 ft green monster 420 ft from home plate.
 * Fukuoka Dome, home of the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, has a 5.84 m "Green Monster" in the outfield.
 * The Kingdome in Seattle, Washington had a high right field wall that was dubbed "The Walla-Walla" after Walla Walla, Washington.
 * Durham Bulls Athletic Park, home of the Durham Bulls, AAA affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays, has a 32 ft wall in left field named the "Blue Monster".
 * Ogren Park at Allegiance Field, home of the Missoula PaddleHeads of the Pioneer League, has a 27 ft in right field, located 287 ft from home plate as measured along the foul line. The park has a similar wall that is 309 ft from home plate, but not as tall.
 * PNC Park, home of the Pittsburgh Pirates, has a 21 ft right field wall, paying homage to the Pirates' Hall of Fame right fielder Roberto Clemente, who wore #21.
 * McCormick Field, home of the Asheville Tourists, has a 36 ft right field wall.
 * Page Stadium, the field for the Loyola Marymount University baseball team, also boasts a replica of the Green Monster in left field.
 * John F. Fitzgerald Expressway, a part of Interstate 93 through downtown Boston, now underground as a result of the construction project known as the "Big Dig", was for many years an elevated expressway, held up with green girders, and was derided as "Boston's other Green Monster".
 * Oracle Park, home of the San Francisco Giants, has a 24 ft right field wall in honor of Willie Mays; the height in feet matches his retired uniform number.
 * Progressive Field, home of the Cleveland Guardians, has a 19 ft left field wall, nicknamed the "little green monster".
 * Bush Field, home of the Class AA New Haven Ravens from 1994 to 2003, and now only used by Yale University's team, features a 35 ft green metal wall in center field, which not only features a manual scoreboard, but also displays balls, strikes and outs with colored lights, just like Fenway's Green Monster.

title: Green Monster


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Ælla of Deira

Ælla or Ælle is the first known king of the Anglian kingdom of Deira, which he ruled from around 560 until his death in 588.

Biography
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Ælla became king in 560. Anachronistically, the name of his kingdom is given as Northumbria, but the region was actually split between Deira and Bernicia at the time. Ælla's kingdom is identified by Bede as Deira - the use of Northumbria could be based on a tradition whereby the most powerful Anglian king in the region would claim that title. Ælla was almost certainly a pagan - when Pope Gregory the Great encountered two pale-skinned English boys (Deirans) at a slave market in Rome he is said to have remarked that they were "not Angles, but angels, if they were Christian". (Non Angli, sed angeli, si forent Christiani.) and upon learning that the king of Deira was Ælla he said "Alleluia should be sung in that land".

There is some confusion regarding the time and manner of Ælla's death. The Chronicle reports that he "passed away" in 588, although a later source expands and says that he was killed by Æthelfrith, son of Æthelric, the former king of Bernicia. This account is contradicted by Bede, who says that Ælla was still king in 597 when Augustine of Canterbury came to Britain. In either case, after Ælla's death his family were forced to flee as the rulers of Bernicia seized control of the kingdom.

Family
The Chronicle gives Ælla's father as Yffe, and gives a genealogy going back to Woden. Two children of Ælla are identifiable from historical records - Edwin and Acha. Edwin went into exile upon his father's death but eventually became king of both Deira and Bernicia. Acha similarly went into exile, and she eventually married Æthelfrith of Bernicia. Ælla had at least one brother, Ælfric, and his successor as king, Æthelric, is variously identified as another brother or a son.

title: Ælla of Deira


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Clayton Alderfer

Clayton Paul Alderfer (September 1, 1940 - October 30, 2015) was an American psychologist and consultant known for developing Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs into a framework of three essential categories: existence, relatedness, and growth.

Biography
Born in Sellersville, Pennsylvania, Alderfer obtained his BA in psychology in 1962 at Yale University, where he also obtained his PhD in psychology 1966. In 1977 he also obtained certification from the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP).

After graduation, Alderfer started his academic career at Cornell University in 1966. In 1968 he returned to Yale University, where he was researcher, lecturer and program director in the Department of Administrative Sciences until 1992. In 1992 he moved to Rutgers University, where he acted as the program director for the Organizational Psychology department at the Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology for 12 years. In the new millennium he started his own consultancy firm.

Work
Alderfer developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs into a framework consisting of three essential categories: existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG theory).

Selected publications

 * Alderfer, Clayton P., An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs; Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, volume 4, issue 2, pp. 142–175, May 1969
 * Alderfer, C. P., Existence, Relatedness, and Growth; Human Needs in Organizational Settings, New York: Free Press, 1972
 * Alderfer, C. P., "A critique of Salancik and Pfeffer's examination of need-satisfaction theories, Administrative Science Quarterly, 22 (1977), 658-669
 * Alderfer, C. P., The Methodology of Organizational Diagnosis, Professional Psychology, 1980, 11, 459–468.
 * Alderfer, C. P., An Intergroup Perspective on Group Dynamics. In J. W. Lorsch (editor), Handbook of Organizational Behavior, 1987, 190–222.
 * Alderfer, C. P., Consulting to Underbounded Systems, C. P. Alderfer and C. L. Cooper (editors), Advances in Experiential Social Processes, 1980, 2, 267–295.
 * Alderfer, C. P., Improving organizational communication through long-term intergroup intervention, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1977, 13, 193–210.
 * Alderfer, C. P. and Brown, L. D., Learning from changing, 47–56,129-141.
 * Alderfer, C.P. (2005), The Five Laws of Group and Intergroup Dynamics.

title: Clayton Alderfer


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Signy Island

Signy Island is a small subantarctic island in the South Orkney Islands of Antarctica. It was named by the Norwegian whaler Petter Sørlle (1884–1933) after his wife, Signy Therese.

The island is about 6.5 km long and 5 km wide and rises to 288 m above sea level. Much of it is permanently covered with ice. The average temperature range is 0 °C to about -10 °C in winter (i.e. in July). The extremes extend to 12 and -44 °C. The island is separated from Coronation Island to the north by Normanna Strait, and from Moe Island to the southwest by Fyr Channel.

On Signy Island, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) maintains the Signy Research Station, a scientific station for research in biology. The base was opened on 18 March 1947, on the site of an earlier whaling station that had existed there in the 1920s. The station was staffed year-round until 1996; since that year it has been occupied only from November to April. It houses 10 people.

Geography
A number of locations on the island have been charted and individually named by various Antarctic expeditions. The first survey was conducted in 1912 by Norwegian whaling captain Petter Sørlle. It was subsequently visited and charted by Discovery Investigations (DI) personnel in 1927 and 1933. Finally, in 1947, the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS) charted the island. The charts produced by these surveys account for many of the names of the island's features. Others were provided later by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee (UK-APC).

West coast
The northernmost point of Signy Island is descriptively named North Point, first charted in 1933 by DI personnel. To the southwest, 0.75 nmi off the coast, are the ice-free Spindrift Rocks, approximately 15 m high. They were surveyed and named in 1947 by FIDS. The name is descriptive of the spindrift, or sea spray, which forms over these rocks during westerly gales. South of North Point is Williams Haven, a cove with a large sea cave in the cliff on the north side of the cove. UK-APC named the cove after David D. Wynn-Williams, BAS microbiologist. The south entrance of Williams Haven is marked by Richard Point, named for Kenneth J. Richard, BAS technician.

Deschampsia Point is a point on the northwest side of Signy Island, 0.3 nautical miles (0.6 km) northeast of the Spindrift Rocks. It was descriptively named by UK-APC in 1991 after the Antarctic hair grass Deschampsia antarctica, which grows on the slopes near the point.

To the south, Lovegrove Point, named by UK-APC for Ian W. Lovegrove, marks the north entrance of Express Cove, a small cove approximately midway down the west coast of the island. Express Cove has a very indented shoreline with numerous offshore islands and rocks. It was roughly charted in 1933 by DI personnel and named for the American schooner Express, which visited the South Orkney Islands in 1880. Foca Point marks the south side of the entrance to Express Cove. It was named for the whale catcher Foca, belonging to the Compañía Argentina de Pesca. Both were surveyed in 1947 by FIDS and named by UK-APC. Foca Point also marks the north side of Foca Cove, named in association with the point.

The next significant feature is Thulla Point, an ice-free point lying 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) northeast of Jebsen Point. It was charted in 1933 by DI personnel, roughly surveyed in 1947 by FIDS, and named by UK-APC in 1954 for the Norwegian steamship Thulla. Thulla Cove, named in association with the point, is located to the south of it.

Inland to the southeast of the point and cove are several lakes, all named by UK-APC. Amos Lake, named for Stephen C. Amos, British Antarctic Survey limnologist, is closest to the shore. Northeast of Amos Lake is Spirogyra Lake, named for the algal genus Spirogyra, which grows abundantly in the lake in summer. To the east is Light Lake, named after BAS limnologist Jeremy J. Light. Tranquil Lake, a cirque lake fed by meltwater, named by UK-APC for its sheltered position, lies further inland between Amos Lake and the Snow Hills.

Port Jebsen indents the coast towards the south end of the island immediately north of Jebsen Point. It was charted in 1912 by Petter Sorlle, a Norwegian whaling captain, who named Jebsen Point, for which the cove is named. Also associated are the Jebsen Rocks, a chain of rocks which extend 0.5 nmi in an east–west direction, lying 0.5 nautical miles north of Jebsen Point.

South of Jebsen Point is Cummings Cove, surveyed by DI personnel in 1933 and FIDS personnel in 1947. It was named by UK-APC for FIDS radio operator E. T. Cummings. BAS maintains a scientific hut at Cummings Cove, visited regularly by BAS personnel from Signy Station. It has accommodations for 2 people, with food and fuel for 2 person-months. Bothy Lake, a small lake at the cove's head, was named by UK-APC for this hut, or "bothy". Twisted Lake, 0.1 nmi northeast of Cummings Cove, was named by UK-APC for its irregular shoreline. Porteous Point, charted in 1933 by DI personnel, marks the south entrance point of Cummings Cove.

South of Cummings Cove is Hydrurga Cove, named by UK-APC after the leopard seals, Hydrurga leptonyx, that commonly frequent the cove.

East coast
The first prominent feature on the east coast is Stygian Cove, named by FIDS because it is so overshadowed by the cliffs of Robin Peak that a sense of stygian gloom is felt. Immediately to the east is Berry Head, named by DI personnel, which divides Stygian Cove from Tern Cove. The entrance of Tern Cove is blocked by submerged rocks. The cove contains three small islands, and an area near the head dries at low water. It was named by FIDS for the colony of Antarctic terns on the southernmost island in the cove. 0.3 nmi inland to the south of Berry Head is The Wallows, a low-lying area sheltered by low ridges with a small freshwater pond in the center. It was named by FIDS because moulting elephant seals wallow here in the summer.

To the south of that is Rootes Point, named by UK-APC after David M. Rootes of the BAS, which marks the north entrance of Starfish Cove. Starfish Cove was roughly surveyed in 1933 by DI personnel and named by FIDS because of the large number of starfish in the cove. About 0.3 nmi off the mouth of the cove is a small submerged rock called Powell Rock, first charted by Captain Sorlle and named after his whale catcher Powell.

South of Starfish Cove is Borge Bay, a large, irregularly-shaped bay that dominates the east side of Signy Island, delineated by Balin Point to the north and Berntsen Point to the south.

0.5 nmi south of Borge Bay is Paal Harbour. The name first appears on a map by captain Sorlle. The harbor and its constituent features were first surveyed in 1933 by DI personnel and resurveyed in 1947 by FIDS. Observation Bluff, 110 m high, forms the north side of Paal Harbor. It was named by FIDS because they made daily observations from it. The bluff comes to a point called Polynesia Point, named by UK-APC after the factory ship Polynesia. Pinder Gully, named by UK-APC for meteorologist Ronald Pinder, runs into the sea from the bluff. On the west side of the harbor is Rusty Bluff, a prominent cliff rising 225 m to a rounded summit, named for its color and a rusted iron post found on the summit by FIDS. Ice-free Rethval Point, named by UK-APC after the Rethval Whaling Company of Oslo, the first company to start whaling in the South Orkney Islands, forms the south side of the entrance to Paal Harbour.

To the south sits Caloplaca Cove, named by UK-APC after the abundant orange lichens of the genus Caloplaca, which encrust the sea cliffs around the cove. The south entrance of the cove is marked by Pantomime Point, on Gourlay Peninsula.

Gourlay Peninsula is an irregularly-shaped ice-free peninsula, which is 0.1 nmi wide at its base and widens to 0.4 nmi, forming the southeastern extremity of Signy Island. The seaward end of the peninsula divides into three arms. It was surveyed in 1933 by DI personnel, and resurveyed in 1947 by FIDS. Pantomime Point is the northernmost of the three points, and Pageant Point is the central and highest of the three points. Both were named by FIDS for behavior observed in the penguin rookeries on the peninsula. The cove between Pantomime and Pageant Points is named Filer Haven, named by UK-APC for John Filer, a British Antarctic Survey biologist who fell to his death from the cliffs here in 1961. The third point is Gourlay Point, named by DI personnel after engineer Ronald George Gourlay; the peninsula as a whole was named by UK-APC for the point.

South coast
Moyes Point is a point on the southwest part of Signy Island, forming the east side of the southeast entrance to Fyr Channel. First charted in 1933 by DI personnel, it was surveyed by FIDS in 1956-58. In 1959 it was named by UK-APC after William Moyes, British government representative at Signy Island in 1912–13.

To the east, the southernmost point of the island is Pandemonium Point, named by FIDS because of the ceaseless noise from the penguin rookeries on the west side of the ridge close north of the point. Clowes Bay is a bay 1 nmi wide, entered between the Oliphant Islands and Confusion Point on Confusion Island, along the south side of Signy Island. It was charted in 1933 by DI personnel who named it for Archibald J. Clowes, English oceanographer. East of Clowes Bay is Lenton Point, named in 1954 by UK-APC for radio operator Ralph A. Lenton of FIDS. Lenton Point marks the west side of Fur Seal Cove, which sits next to Gourlay Peninsula. The cove was named by the UK-APC for the large number of fur seals which frequent the cove and adjacent shore. Inland to the north of Lenton Point is the Hillier Moss, a wet, level, low-lying area, which has several small pools and extensive moss carpets. It was named by UK-APC for Edward R. Hillier, a BAS medical officer.

Other inland features

 * Andreaea Plateau
 * Cryptogam Ridge
 * Everson Ridge
 * Garnet Hill
 * Gneiss Hills
 * Jane Col
 * Jane Peak
 * Jensen Ridge
 * Limestone Valley
 * McLeod Glacier
 * Moraine Valley
 * Moss Braes
 * Orwell Glacier
 * Paternoster Valley
 * Robin Peak
 * Skua Terrace
 * Snow Hills
 * Spindrift Col
 * Strombus Ridge
 * Three Lakes Valley
 * Tilbrook Hill
 * Tioga Hill
 * Tioga Lake
 * Usnea Ridge
 * Whalers Bluff

Important Bird Area
The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports substantial and varied seabird breeding colonies. Birds for which the site is of conservation significance are southern giant petrels (2,300 pairs), Wilson's storm petrels (200,000 pairs), imperial shags (800 pairs) and brown skuas (100 pairs). Other birds nesting on the island include chinstrap penguins (19,500 pairs), Adélie penguin (16,900 pairs), gentoo penguins (750 pairs), Antarctic prions (50,000 pairs), south polar skuas, snow petrels, Cape petrels, black-bellied storm petrels, snowy sheathbills, kelp gulls and Antarctic terns. Antarctic fur seals haul out in large numbers varying up to over 20,000. Weddell seals breed in winter on the sea ice around the island.

title: Signy Island


text:
Douglas McGregor

Douglas Murray McGregor (September 6, 1906 – October 1, 1964) was an American management professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch College from 1948 to 1954. He also taught at the Indian Institute of Management Calcutta. His 1960 book The Human Side of Enterprise had a profound influence on education practices.

McGregor was a student of Abraham Maslow. He has contributed much to the development of the management and motivational theory, and is best known for his Theory X and Theory Y as presented in his book 'The Human Side of Enterprise' (1960), which proposed that manager's individual assumptions about human nature and behavior determined how individual manages their employees.

Early life and education
McGregor was born in Detroit, Michigan on September 6, 1906, to Murray James and Jessie Adelia McGregor. When he was young he volunteered in homeless shelters, played piano, and sang. When McGregor was in high school, he worked for his family business, the McGregor Institute. The McGregor Institute, first known as the Mission for Homeless Men, served the Detroit homeless population with spiritual and career services. McGregor's uncle, his father Murray's brother, is Detroit philanthropist Tracy W. McGregor.

He earned a B.E. (Mechanical) from Rangoon Institute of Technology, a BA from Wayne State University in 1932, then earned an MA and PhD in psychology from Harvard University in 1933 and 1935 respectively. McGregor originally dropped out of Wayne State to work as a gas station attendant in Buffalo, New York, and was a regional manager by 1930, though he later returned to school. When the McGregor Institute was given a grant by the Detroit Department of Public Works, McGregor returned to Wayne State to finish his degree in 1932.

Career
After teaching at Harvard University and then MIT, where he was one of the first professors in the Sloan School of Management, he served as president of Antioch College Ohio, now known as Antioch University Midwest, from 1948 to 1954. In 1954, McGregor returned to teaching at MIT, where he taught until his death in 1964.

He later served as a member of the Antioch College Ohio Board of Trustees.

The Human Side of Enterprise
In the book The Human Side of Enterprise, McGregor identified an approach of creating an environment within which employees are motivated via authoritative direction and control or integration and self-control, which he called theory X and theory Y, respectively. Having an attitude that workers generally lack motivation, enjoyment, and responsibility in their work is a manager that subscribes to Theory X. Having an attitude that workers are content, motivated, and long for responsibility is manager that subscribes to Theory Y. He is responsible for breaking down previous management styles with The X and Y Theory which created a new role for managers to assume. Theory Y is the practical application of Dr. Abraham Maslow's Humanistic School of Psychology, or Third Force psychology, applied to scientific management. He is commonly thought of as being a proponent of Theory Y, but, as Edgar Schein tells in his introduction to McGregor's subsequent, posthumous (1967), book The Professional Manager: "In my own contacts with Doug, I often found him to be discouraged by the degree to which theory Y had become as monolithic a set of principles as those of Theory X, the over-generalization which Doug was fighting....Yet few readers were willing to acknowledge that the content of Doug's book made such a neutral point or that Doug's own presentation of his point of view was that coldly scientific".

Graham Cleverley in Managers & Magic (Longman's, 1971) comments: "...he coined the two terms Theory X and theory Y and used them to label two sets of beliefs a manager might hold about the origins of human behaviour. He pointed out that the manager's own behaviour would be largely determined by the particular beliefs that he subscribed to....McGregor hoped that his book would lead managers to investigate the two sets of beliefs, invent others, test out the assumptions underlying them, and develop managerial strategies that made sense in terms of those tested views of reality. "But that isn't what happened. Instead McGregor was interpreted as advocating Theory Y as a new and superior ethic – a set of moral values that ought to replace the values managers usually accept."

The Human Side of Enterprise was voted the fourth most influential management book of the 20th century in a poll of the Fellows of the Academy of Management.

Research interests
McGregor's research focused on managerial leadership and the ways in which employees are affected by the management styles of their superiors. His 1960 book The Human Side of Enterprise focused on theory X and theory Y approaches to leadership. His 1967 book The Professional Manager built upon the ideas presented in his first book, along with providing behavioral, social, and psychological aspects implications of the previous ideas.

Personal life
He got married at age 19. McGregor was very close to Abraham Maslow. In class, he had a very relaxed teaching style which led his students to enjoy his classes. He would often put his feet up on the desk and lecture at the same time. In 1964, McGregor died at the age of 58 in Massachusetts.

Legacy
Since the mid-1950s, Procter & Gamble used Theory X and Theory Y to set up plants in Augusta, Georgia, even hiring McGregor to help. Warren Bennis, leadership expert, researcher, author, and educator, said of McGregor, "Just as every economist, knowingly or not, pays his dues to Keynes, we are all, one way or another, disciples of McGregor."

In 1964, the School of Adult and Experiential Learning at Antioch College was renamed the "McGregor School" in his honor. It was later renamed "Antioch University McGregor" and then "Antioch University Midwest." The Douglas McGregor Memorial Award was founded in 1966 in McGregor's honor to recognize a leading paper published in The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science.

title: Douglas McGregor


text:
Talk:Green Monster

Section heading
One or two articles ? Ericd 21:47 Feb 8, 2003 (UTC)

I'm not a die hard baseball fan, so I don't know enough about the Boston Green Monster to expand it into its own article. I suggest leaving it as one article for the time being. -- Modemac 21:53 Feb 8, 2003 (UTC)

Aren't the Red Sox planning on putting seats on top of the Green Monster? -- Zoe

can someone go to fenway and take a nice picture of the green monster so we can have it on this article? Kingturtle 23:44 Apr 21, 2003 (UTC)

A google search for "green monster" retrieves hundreds of references to the wall at Fenway Park and very few references to the dragsters. I think the baseball wall should be listed first. Kingturtle 01:12, 24 Sep 2003 (UTC)

 * To be honest, I reverted more out of annoyance that you'd put the ballpark wall first but not bothered fixing the wording.

 * It's a conflict between one thing that's moderately known worldwide (the land speed record holding Green Monster more than the dragsters) and another that's intensely well-known in one particular geographical area (Boston) and moderately well-known across America among baseball fans. Two rather different types of well-known.

 * IMO, the best solution would be to expand both until they're big enough to fill an article on their own, and turn this page into a disambiguation. Until that point, I don't really care which goes first, but the one that goes first shouldn't have '... is also ...' at the start ...  --Morven 05:46, 24 Sep 2003 (UTC)

original height
Wall was originally 25 feet high, changed to 37' 2" during reconstruction after Yawkey bought team.

Names and nicknames
I've deleted the part of the lead paragraph that said "often known simply as The Monster" because, having lived in Boston for almost 40 years, I don't think I've ever heard it called just "the monster" out of context. Also de-capitalized "the wall" and replaced the feet-to-meters conversion template with written measurements. - Fenwayguy (talk) 02:37, 14 September 2008 (UTC)

36 Feet?
Since when has the monster been 36 feet high? Every other source, including Fenway's article, lists it as 37 feet. Should this be corrected? Delaywaves  talk  03:01, 8 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Good catch. Vandalism several months ago. Now fixed. ←Baseball Bugs What's up, Doc? carrots→ 03:49, 8 October 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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Requirements to "Autograph" the Green monster?
In a recent article, Laura Purser-Rose, it was pointed out that she was the first female to autograph it. Congrads, but is there any requirement or whatever to get said honor?

title: Talk:Green Monster


text:
Henschel Hs 129

The Henschel Hs 129 was a World War II ground-attack aircraft fielded by the German Luftwaffe. The aircraft saw combat in Tunisia and on the Eastern Front.

A key requirement of the original specification was that the aircraft be powered by engines that were not in demand for other designs. Prototypes with low-power German Argus As 410 engines of 465 PS failed acceptance test, a more powerful replacement was found with the French Gnome-Rhône 14M engine of 700 PS.

The design was relatively effective when it was first introduced, and saw service on the Eastern Front in a variety of front-line roles. As the war continued and anti-tank support became the main goal, the aircraft was continually up-gunned, eventually mounting a 75 mm anti-tank gun. Only a small number of these B-3 models were produced, late in the war. Production ceased in September 1944.

Design and development
By the mid-1930s, the German military, as well as its counterparts in other countries, had come to see the main role of ground-attack aircraft as the interdiction of logistics and materiel, a task in which targets were often poorly protected and less likely to have strong, well-coordinated defences. For high-value, well-protected tactical targets, the dive bomber was becoming the conventional solution.

The experience of the German Kondor Legion during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) refuted this idea. Even though it was equipped with types unsuited to the role, such as the Henschel Hs 123 and cannon-armed versions of the Heinkel He 112, the Kondor Legion proved that ground-attack aircraft were a very effective weapon. This led to support within the Luftwaffe for the creation of an aircraft dedicated to this role, and the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM; "Reich Aviation Ministry") through its Technisches Amt (Technical office) issued its specifications for a Schlachtflugzeug (ground-attack aircraft, specifically intended for the direct support of ground forces.

It was anticipated that the main source of damage to such an aircraft would be small arms fire from the ground, meaning that the plane had to be well-armored around its cockpit and engines. Similar protection was also needed in the canopy, in the form of 75 mm (2.95 in) thick armored glass. The aircraft was expected to be attacking in low-level, head-on strafing runs, so the cockpit had to be located as close as possible to the nose, in order to maximize the visibility of its targets. Another, non-operational, requirement severely hampered the designs: the RLM insisted that the new design be powered by engines that were not being used in existing aircraft, so that the type would not interfere with the production of established types deemed essential to the war effort.

The specification was issued to four companies in the Spring of 1937. These were Hamburger Flugzeugbau GmbH (later renamed Blohm und Voss), Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH, Gothaer Waggonfabrik AG and the Henschel Flugzeug-Werke AG. Gotha did not respond and the Hamburger Flugzeugbau offered their P-40 project. This was a development of their two seat Ha 141, but the ground attack version was considered too unconventional and was eliminated. This aircraft would later be known as the BV 141.Two submissions were considered worthy of consideration: one derived from an existing Focke-Wulf reconnaissance type, the Fw 189, the other was Henschel's. It was designated the P 46, but was later given the official designation of Hs 129 from the RLM in April 1938.

Prototypes
The Hs 129 was designed by Henschel's chief designer, Dipl.-Ing. Friedrich Nicolaus, around a single large "bathtub" of steel sheeting that made up the entire nose area of the plane, completely enclosing the pilot up to head level. Even the canopy was steel, with only tiny windows on the side to see out of and two angled blocks of glass for the windscreen. To improve the armor's ability to deflect bullets, the fuselage sides were angled in, forming a triangular shape, resulting in almost no room to move at shoulder level. There was so little room in the cockpit that the instrument panel ended up under the nose below the windscreen, where it was almost invisible; some of the engine instruments were moved outside onto the engine nacelles' inboard-facing surfaces and the gunsight was mounted outside on the nose.

Henschel's plane came in 12 percent overweight with the engines 8 percent underpowered; understandably, it flew poorly. The controls proved to be almost inoperable as speed increased and in testing, the V2 prototype flew into the ground from a short dive on 5 January 1940 because the stick forces were too high for the pilot to pull out. The Focke-Wulf design proved to be no better. Both planes were underpowered with their air-cooled, inverted-V12 Argus As 410 engines and very difficult to fly.

The RLM nevertheless felt they should continue with the concept. The only real deciding factor between the two designs was that the Henschel was smaller and cheaper. The Focke-Wulf was put on low priority as a backup and testing continued with the Hs 129 A-0. Improvements resulted in the Hs 129 A-1 series, armed with two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons and two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns, along with the ability to carry four 50 kg (110 lb) bombs along the fuselage centreline.

Hs 129 B-1
Even before the A-1s were delivered, the plane was redesigned with Gnome-Rhône 14M radial engines, which were captured in some number when France fell and continued to be produced under German occupation. This engine supplied 700 PS for takeoff, compared with the Argus at 465 PS. The Gnome-Rhone radials were also made in versions with opposite rotation for the propeller, and were installed on the Hs 129 with the port engine rotating clockwise and the starboard rotating counterclockwise, as seen from nose-on, thus eliminating engine torque problems.

The A-1 planes were converted into Hs 129 B-0s for testing (although it has been claimed that some As were sold to Romania) and the pilots were reportedly much happier with the results. Their main complaint was the view from the canopy, so a single larger windscreen and a new canopy with much better vision were added, resulting in the production model Hs 129 B-1.

B-1 production began in December 1941 but deliveries were slow. In preparation for the new plane, I./SchlG 1 had been formed in January with Bf 109 E/Bs (fighter-bomber version of Bf 109 E) and Hs 123s and they delivered B-0s and every B-1 that was completed. It was not until April that 12 B-1s were delivered and the 4th Staffel (squadron) became ready for action. They moved to the Eastern Front (to Crimea) in the middle of May 1942 and in June they received a new weapon, the 30 mm (1.2 in) MK 101 cannon with armor-piercing ammunition in a centerline pod. This would be the B1/R2 Rüstsätze kit, the B1/R3 had the MK 101 replaced with a ventral tray of four 7.92mm MG 17 machine guns. The B1/R4 had a larger bomb load and the B1/R5 reconnaissance version had a camera.

Hs 129 B-2
Deliveries of the new Hs 129 B-2 model began in May 1942, side by side with the B-1 (of which just 50 planes had been delivered at that point). The only difference between the two were changes to the fuel system – a host of other minor changes could be found almost at random on either model. These changes accumulated in the B-2 production line until they could eventually be told apart at a glance; the main differences being the removal of the mast for the radio antenna, the addition of a direction-finding radio antenna loop, and shorter exhaust stacks on the engines.

In the field, the differences seemed to be more pronounced. The Rüstsatz field refit kits were renumbered and some were dropped, and in general, the Hs 129B-2/R2 planes in service with 4./Schlachtgeschwader 1 received the upgraded cannon pack using a 30 mm MK 103 cannon instead of the earlier MK 101. These guns both fired the same ammunition, but the 103 did so at almost twice the rate.

By late 1942 reports were coming in about the ineffectiveness of the MK 101 against newer versions of the Soviet T-34 tanks. One obvious solution would be to use the larger 3.7 cm BK 3,7 (Bordkanone 3,7), recently adapted from the ground-based 3.7 cm Flak 18. These guns had already been converted into underwing pod-mounted weapons for the Junkers Ju 87G and found to be an effective weapon, despite the fact that only 12 shells per pod could be accommodated. When mounted on the Hs 129, the empty area behind the cockpit could be used for ammunition storage, greatly increasing the supply compared to the Ju. The B-2/R3 package introduced the BK 3.7 cm automatic cannon, but relatively few aircraft were converted in favour of the B-2/R4 and B-3, mounting the BK 7.5.

Hs 129 B-3

It was decided that the 7.5 cm semi-automatic Rheinmetall PaK 40 anti-tank gun, which had already been adapted for use in the Junkers Ju 88 P-1, would be further modified for use in the Hs 129. This resulted in the BK 7,5 (Bordkanone 7,5), which, even though it weighed 1200 kg, was lighter than the PaK 40. Fully automatic, it featured a new, hydraulic recoil-dampening system and a new, more aerodynamic muzzle brake. An autoloader system, with 12 rounds in a rotary magazine, was fitted in the empty space behind the cockpit, within the rear half of the wing root area. The gun and its recoil mechanism occupied a substantial gun pod under the fuselage, and a circular port at the rear of the pod allowed rearwards ejection of spent cartridges immediately after firing. While this new variant, the Hs 129 B-3, was theoretically capable of destroying any tank in the world, the added weight worsened the aircraft's general performance and it was inferior to previous variants.

The Bordkanone 7,5 was the heaviest and most powerful forward-firing weapon fitted to a production military aircraft during World War II. The only other ground-attack aircraft to be factory-equipped with similar-calibre guns were the 1,420 examples of the North American B-25G and B-25H Mitchell, which mounted either a 75 mm M4 cannon, or lightweight T13E1 or M5 versions of the same gun, both of which required a crew member to manually reload after each shot. The Japanese Mitsubishi Ki-109 Army Heavy Fighter Interceptor also carried a 75mm gun, but only 24 were produced.

In May 1944, a Hs 129B-2, Werknummer 141258, was fitted with a mock-up of the BK 7.5 and underwent aerodynamic testing at Travemünde. The gun fired a 12 kg shell and in an emergency the entire installation could be jettisoned. From June 1944, only 25 examples of the Hs 129 B-3 arrived at frontline units before the production line was shut down in September (a small number were reportedly also created by converting B-2 aircraft). In the field the B-3 proved effective, but its small numbers had little effect on the war effort.

Hs 129 C
To address the poor performance of the aircraft, plans had been under way for some time to fit the plane with newer versions of the Italian Isotta-Fraschini Delta air-cooled inverted V12 inline engine that delivered 850 hp-metric and weighed some 510 kg apiece, providing more power than the Argus As 411 engine of similar configuration and lighter (385 kg) weight. The engine installation ran into a number of delays and was still not ready for production when the plant was overrun by the Allies in 1945.

Hs 129 D
Planned version of the Hs 129. Powered by either two 809 kW Junkers Jumo 211 or two 1,148 kW BMW 801 to improve its performance. No prototypes were made.

Operators

 * Nazi Germany
 * Luftwaffe
 * undefined
 * Royal Hungarian Air Force
 * Kingdom of Romania
 * Royal Romanian Air Force

title: Henschel Hs 129


text:
Ulf Merbold

Ulf Dietrich Merbold (born 20 June 1941) is a German physicist and astronaut who flew to space three times, becoming the first West German citizen in space and the first non-American to fly on a NASA spacecraft. Merbold flew on two Space Shuttle missions and on a Russian mission to the space station Mir, spending a total of 49 days in space.

Merbold's father was imprisoned in NKVD special camp Nr. 2 by the Red Army in 1945 and died there in 1948, and Merbold was brought up in the town of Greiz in East Germany by his mother and grandparents. As he was not allowed to attend university in East Germany, he left for West Berlin in 1960, planning to study physics there. After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, he moved to Stuttgart, West Germany. In 1968, he graduated from the University of Stuttgart with a diploma in physics, and in 1976 he gained a doctorate with a dissertation about the effect of radiation on iron. He then joined the staff at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research.

In 1977, Merbold successfully applied to the European Space Agency (ESA) to become one of their first astronauts. He started astronaut training with NASA in 1978. In 1983, Merbold flew to space for the first time as a payload specialist or science astronaut on the first Spacelab mission, STS-9, aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia. He performed experiments in materials science and on the effects of microgravity on humans. In 1989, Merbold was selected as payload specialist for the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) Spacelab mission STS-42, which launched in January 1992 on the Space Shuttle Discovery. Again, he mainly performed experiments in life sciences and materials science in microgravity. After ESA decided to cooperate with Russia, Merbold was chosen as one of the astronauts for the joint ESA–Russian Euromir missions and received training at the Russian Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. He flew to space for the third and last time in October 1994, spending a month working on experiments on the Mir space station.

Between his space flights, Merbold provided ground-based support for other ESA missions. For the German Spacelab mission Spacelab D-1, he served as backup astronaut and as crew interface coordinator. For the second German Spacelab mission D-2 in 1993, Merbold served as science coordinator. Merbold's responsibilities for ESA included work at the European Space Research and Technology Centre on the Columbus program and service as head of the German Aerospace Center's astronaut office. He continued working for ESA until his retirement in 2004.

Early life and education
Ulf Merbold was born in Greiz, in the Vogtland area of Thuringia, on 20 June 1941. He was the only child of two teachers who lived in the school building of Wellsdorf, a small village. During World War II, Ulf's father Herbert Merbold was a soldier who was imprisoned and then released from an American prisoner of war camp in 1945. Soon after, he was imprisoned by the Red Army in NKVD special camp Nr. 2, where he died on 23 February 1948. Merbold's mother Hildegard was dismissed from her school by the Soviet zone authorities in 1945. She and her son moved to a house in Kurtschau, a suburb of Greiz, where Merbold grew up close to his maternal grandparents and his paternal grandfather.

After graduating in 1960 from Theodor-Neubauer-Oberschule high school—now Ulf-Merbold-Gymnasium Greiz—in Greiz, Merbold wanted to study physics at the University of Jena. Because he had not joined the Free German Youth, the youth organization of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, he was not allowed to study in East Germany so he decided to go to Berlin, and crossed into West Berlin by bicycle. He obtained a West German high school diploma (Abitur) in 1961, as West German universities did not accept the East German one, and intended to start studying in Berlin so he could occasionally see his mother.

When the Berlin Wall was built on 13 August 1961, it became impossible for Ulf's mother to visit him. Merbold then moved to Stuttgart, where he had an aunt, and started studying physics at the University of Stuttgart, graduating with a Diplom in 1968. He lived in a dormitory in a wing of Solitude Palace. Thanks to an amnesty for people who had left East Germany, Merbold could again see his mother from late December 1964. In 1976, Merbold obtained a doctorate in natural sciences, also from the University of Stuttgart, with a dissertation titled Untersuchung der Strahlenschädigung von stickstoffdotierten Eisen nach Neutronenbestrahlung bei 140 Grad Celsius mit Hilfe von Restwiderstandsmessungen on the effects of neutron radiation on nitrogen-doped iron. After completing his doctorate, Merbold became a staff member at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart, where he had held a scholarship from 1968. At the institute, he worked on solid-state and low-temperature physics, with a special focus on experiments regarding lattice defects in body-centered cubic (bcc) materials.

Astronaut training
In 1973, NASA and the European Space Research Organisation, a precursor organization of the European Space Agency (ESA), agreed to build a scientific laboratory that would be carried on the Space Shuttle, then under development. The memorandum of understanding contained the suggestion the first flight of Spacelab should have a European crew member on board. The West German contribution to Spacelab was 53.3% of the cost; 52.6% of the work contracts were carried out by West German companies, including the main contractor ERNO.

In March 1977, ESA issued an Announcement of Opportunity for future astronauts, and several thousand people applied. Fifty-three of these underwent an interview and assessment process that started in September 1977, and considered their skills in science and engineering as well as their physical health. Four of the applicants were chosen as ESA astronauts; these were Merbold, Italian Franco Malerba, Swiss Claude Nicollier and Dutch Wubbo Ockels. The French candidate Jean-Loup Chrétien was not selected, angering the President of France. Chrétien participated in the Soviet-French Soyuz T-6 mission in June 1982, becoming the first West European in space. In 1978, Merbold, Nicollier and Ockels went to Houston for NASA training at Johnson Space Center while Malerba stayed in Europe.

NASA first discussed the concept of having payload specialists aboard spaceflights in 1972, and payload specialists were first used on Spacelab's initial flight. Payload specialists did not have to meet the strict NASA requirements for mission specialists. The first Spacelab mission had been planned for 1980 or 1981 but was postponed until 1983; Nicollier and Ockels took advantage of this delay to complete mission specialist training. Merbold did not meet NASA's medical requirements due to a ureter stone he had in 1959, and he remained a payload specialist. Rather than training with NASA, Merbold started flight training for instrument rating at a flight school at Cologne Bonn Airport and worked with several organizations to prepare experiments for Spacelab.

In 1982, the crew for the first Spacelab flight was finalized, with Merbold as primary ESA payload specialist and Ockels as his backup. NASA chose Byron K. Lichtenberg and his backup Michael Lampton. The payload specialists started their training at Marshall Space Flight Center in August 1978, and then traveled to laboratories in several countries, where they learned the background of the planned experiments and how to operate the experimental equipment. The mission specialists were Owen Garriott and Robert A. Parker, and the flight crew John Young and Brewster Shaw. In January 1982, the mission and payload specialists started training at Marshall Space Flight Center on a Spacelab simulator. Some of the training took place at the German Aerospace Center in Cologne and at Kennedy Space Center. While Merbold was made very welcome at Marshall, many of the staff at Johnson Space Center were opposed to payload specialists, and Merbold felt like an intruder there. Although payload specialists were not supposed to train on the Northrop T-38 Talon jet, Young took Merbold on a flight and allowed him to fly the plane.

STS-9 Space Shuttle mission

Merbold first flew to space on the STS-9 mission, which was also called Spacelab-1, aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The mission's launch was planned for 30 September 1983, but this was postponed because of issues with a communications satellite. A second launch date was set for 29 October 1983, but was again postponed after problems with the exhaust nozzle on the right solid rocket booster. After repairs, the shuttle returned to the launch pad on 8 November 1983, and was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 11:00a.m. EST on 28 November 1983. Merbold became the first non-US citizen to fly on a NASA space mission and also the first West German citizen in space. The mission was the first six-person spaceflight.

During the mission, the shuttle crew worked in groups of three in 12-hour shifts, with a "red team" consisting of Young, Parker and Merbold, and a "blue team" with the other three astronauts. The "red team" worked from 9:00p.m. to 9:00a.m. EST. Young usually worked on the flight deck, and Merbold and Parker in the Spacelab. Merbold and Young became good friends. On the mission's first day, approximately three hours after takeoff and after the orbiter's payload bay doors had been opened, the crew attempted to open the hatch leading to Spacelab. At first, Garriott and Merbold could not open the jammed hatch; the entire crew took turns trying to open it without applying significant force, which might damage the door. They opened the hatch after 15 minutes.

The Spacelab mission included about 70 experiments, many of which involved fluids and materials in a microgravity environment. The astronauts were subjects of a study on the effects of the environment in orbit on humans; these included experiments aiming to understand space adaptation syndrome, of which three of the four scientific crew members displayed some symptoms. Following NASA policy, it was not made public which astronaut had developed space sickness. Merbold later commented he had vomited twice but felt much better afterwards. Merbold repaired a faulty mirror heating facility, allowing some materials science experiments to continue. The mission's success in gathering results, and the crew's low consumption of energy and cryogenic fuel, led to a one-day mission extension from nine days to ten.

On one of the last days in orbit, Young, Lichtenberg and Merbold took part in an international, televised press conference that included US president Ronald Reagan in Washington, DC, and the Chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl, who was at a European economic summit meeting in Athens, Greece. During the telecast, which Reagan described as "one heck of a conference call", Merbold gave a tour of Spacelab and showed Europe from space while mentioning die Schönheit der Erde (the beauty of the Earth). Merbold spoke to Kohl in German, and showed the shuttle's experiments to Kohl and Reagan, pointing out the possible importance of the materials-science experiments from Germany.

When the crew prepared for the return to Earth, around five hours before the planned landing, two of the five onboard computers and one of three inertial measurement units malfunctioned, and the return was delayed by several orbits. Columbia landed at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) at 6:47p.m. EST on 8 December 1983. Just before the landing, a leak of hydrazine fuel caused a fire in the aft section. After the return to Earth, Merbold compared the experience of standing up and walking again to walking on a ship rolling in a storm. The four scientific crew members spent the week after landing doing extensive physiological experiments, many of them comparing their post-flight responses to those in microgravity. After landing, Merbold was enthusiastic about the mission and the post-flight experiments.

Ground-based astronaut work
In 1984, Ulf Merbold became the backup payload specialist for the Spacelab D-1 mission, which West Germany funded. The mission, which was numbered STS-61-A, was carried out on the Space Shuttle Challenger from 30 October to 6 November 1985. In ESA parlance, Merbold and the three other payload specialists—Germans Reinhard Furrer and Ernst Messerschmid and the Dutch Wubbo Ockels—were called "science astronauts" to distinguish them from "passengers" like Saudi prince Sultan bin Salman Al Saud and Utah senator Jake Garn, both of whom had also flown as payload specialists on the Space Shuttle. During the Spacelab mission, Merbold acted as crew interface coordinator, working from the German Space Operations Center in Oberpfaffenhofen to support the astronauts on board while working with the scientists on the ground.

From 1986, Merbold worked for ESA at the European Space Research and Technology Centre in Noordwijk, Netherlands, contributing to plans for what would become the Columbus module of the International Space Station (ISS). In 1987, he became head of the German Aerospace Center's astronaut office, and in April–May 1993 he served as science coordinator for the second German Spacelab mission D-2 on STS-55.

STS-42 Space Shuttle mission

In June 1989, Ulf Merbold was chosen to train as payload specialist for the International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-1) Spacelab mission. STS-42 was intended to launch in December 1990 on Columbia but was delayed several times. After first being reassigned to launch with Atlantis in December 1991, it finally launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery on 22 January 1992, with a final one-hour delay to 9:52 a.m. EST caused by bad weather and issues with a hydrogen pump. The change from Columbia to Discovery meant the mission had to be shortened, as Columbia had been capable of carrying extra hydrogen and oxygen tanks that could power the fuel cells. Merbold was the first astronaut to represent reunified Germany. The other payload specialist on board was astronaut Roberta Bondar, the first Canadian woman in space. Originally, Sonny Carter was assigned as one of three mission specialists, he died in a plane crash on 5 April 1991, and was replaced by David C. Hilmers.

The mission specialized in experiments in life sciences and materials science in microgravity. IML-1 included ESA's Biorack module, a biological research facility in which cells and small organisms could be exposed to weightlessness and cosmic radiation. It was used for microgravity experiments on various biological samples including frog eggs, fruit flies, and Physarum polycephalum slime molds. Bacteria, fungi and shrimp eggs were exposed to cosmic rays. Other experiments focused on the human response to weightlessness or crystal growth. There were also ten Getaway Special canisters with experiments on board. Like STS-9, the mission operated in two teams who worked 12-hour shifts: a "blue team" consisting of mission commander Ronald J. Grabe together with Stephen S. Oswald, payload commander Norman Thagard, and Bondar; and a "red team" of William F. Readdy, Hilmers, and Merbold. Because the crew did not use as many consumables as planned, the mission was extended from seven days to eight, landing at Edwards AFB on 30 January 1992, at 8:07a.m. PST.

Euromir 94 mission

In November 1992, ESA decided to start cooperating with Russia on human spaceflight. The aim of this collaboration was to gain experience in long-duration spaceflights, which were not possible with NASA at the time, and to prepare for the construction of the Columbus module of the ISS. On 7 May 1993, Merbold and the Spanish astronaut Pedro Duque were chosen as candidates to serve as the ESA astronaut on the first Euromir mission, Euromir 94.

Along with other potential Euromir 95 astronauts, German Thomas Reiter and Swedish Christer Fuglesang, in August 1993 Merbold and Duque began training at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, after completing preliminary training at the European Astronaut Centre, Cologne. On 30 May 1994, it was announced Merbold would be the primary astronaut and Duque would serve as his backup. Equipment with a mass of 140 kg for the mission was sent to Mir on the Progress M-24 transporter, which failed to dock and collided with Mir on 30 August 1994, successfully docking only under manual control from Mir on 2 September.

Merbold launched with commander Aleksandr Viktorenko and flight engineer Yelena Kondakova on Soyuz TM-20 on 4 October 1994, 1:42 a.m. Moscow time. Merbold became the second person to launch on both American and Russian spacecraft after cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev, who had flown on Space Shuttle mission STS-60 in February 1994 after several Soviet and Russian spaceflights. During docking, the computer on board Soyuz TM-20 malfunctioned but Viktorenko managed to dock manually. The cosmonauts then joined the existing Mir crew of Yuri Malenchenko, Talgat Musabayev and Valeri Polyakov, expanding the crew to six people for 30 days.

On board Mir, Merbold performed 23 life sciences experiments, 4 materials science experiments, and other experiments. For one experiment designed to study the vestibular system, Merbold wore a helmet that recorded his motion and his eye movements. On 11 October, a power loss disrupted some of these experiments but power was restored after the station was reoriented to point the solar array toward the Sun. The ground team rescheduled Merbold's experiments but a malfunction of a Czech-built materials processing furnace caused five of them to be postponed until after Merbold's return to Earth. None of the experiments were damaged by the power outage.

Merbold's return flight with Malenchenko and Musabayev on Soyuz TM-19 was delayed by one day to experiment with the automated docking system that had failed on the Progress transporter. The test was successful and on 4 November, Soyuz TM-19 de-orbited, carrying the three cosmonauts and 16 kg of Merbold's samples from the biological experiments, with the remainder to return later on the Space Shuttle. The STS-71 mission was also supposed to return a bag containing science videotapes created by Merbold but this bag was lost. The landing of Soyuz TM-19 was rough; the cabin was blown off-course by 9 km and bounced after hitting the ground. None of the crew were hurt during landing.

During his three spaceflights—the most of any German national—Merbold has spent 49 days in space.

Later career
In January 1995, shortly after the Euromir mission, Merbold became head of the astronaut department of the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne. From 1999 to 2004, Merbold worked in the Microgravity Promotion Division of the ESA Directorate of Manned Spaceflight and Microgravity in Noordwijk, where his task was to spread awareness of the opportunities provided by the ISS among European research and industry organizations. He retired on 30 July 2004, but has continued to do consulting work for ESA and give lectures.

Personal life
Since 1969, Ulf Merbold has been married to Birgit, Riester and the couple have two children, a daughter born in 1975 and a son born in 1979. They live in Stuttgart.

In 1984, Merbold met the East German cosmonaut Sigmund Jähn, who had become the first German in space after launching on Soyuz 31 on 26 August 1978. They both were born in the Vogtland (Jähn was born in Morgenröthe-Rautenkranz) and grew up in East Germany. Jähn and Merbold became founding members of the Association of Space Explorers in 1985. Jähn helped Merbold's mother, who had moved to Stuttgart, to obtain a permit for a vacation in East Germany. After German reunification, Merbold helped Jähn become a freelance consultant for the German Aerospace Center. At the time of the Fall of the Berlin Wall, they were at an astronaut conference in Saudi Arabia together.

In his spare time Merbold enjoys playing the piano and skiing. He also flies planes including gliders. Holding a commercial pilot license, he has over 3,000 hours of flight experience as a pilot. On his 79th birthday, he inaugurated the new runway at the Flugplatz Greiz-Obergrochlitz airfield, landing with his wife in a Piper Seneca II.

Awards and honors
In 1983, Merbold received the American Astronautical Society's Flight Achievement Award, together with the rest of the STS-9 crew. He was also awarded the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg in December 1983. In 1984, he was awarded the Haley Astronautics Award by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (first class). In 1988, he was awarded the Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia. Merbold received the Russian Order of Friendship in November 1994, the Kazakh Order of Parasat in January 1995 and the Russian Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" in April 2011. In 1995, he received an honorary doctorate in engineering from RWTH Aachen University.

In 2008, the asteroid 10972 Merbold was named after him.

title: Ulf Merbold


text:
Bruno de Finetti

Bruno de Finetti (13 June 1906 – 20 July 1985) was an Italian probabilist statistician and actuary, noted for the "operational subjective" conception of probability. The classic exposition of his distinctive theory is the 1937 "La prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives", which discussed probability founded on the coherence of betting odds and the consequences of exchangeability.

Life
De Finetti was born in Innsbruck, Austria, and studied mathematics at Politecnico di Milano. He graduated in 1927, writing his thesis under the supervision of Giulio Vivanti. After graduation, he worked as an actuary and a statistician at Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (National Institute of Statistics) in Rome and, from 1931, the Trieste insurance company Assicurazioni Generali. In 1936 he won a competition for Chair of Financial Mathematics and Statistics, but was not nominated due to a fascist law barring access to unmarried candidates; he was appointed as ordinary professor at the University of Trieste only in 1950.

He published extensively (17 papers in 1930 alone, according to Lindley) and acquired an international reputation in the small world of probability mathematicians. He taught mathematical analysis in Padua and then won a chair in Financial Mathematics at Trieste University (1939). In 1954 he moved to the Sapienza University of Rome, first to another chair in Financial Mathematics and then, from 1961 to 1976, one in the Calculus of Probabilities. De Finetti developed his ideas on subjective probability in the 1920s independently of Frank P. Ramsey. Still, according to the preface of his "Theory of Probability", he drew on ideas of Harold Jeffreys, I. J. Good and B. O. Koopman. He also reasoned about the connection of economics and probability, and thought that guiding principles to be Paretian optimum further inspired by "fairness" criteria. De Finetti held different social and political beliefs through his life: following fascism during his youth, then moving to Christian socialism and finally adhering to the Radical Party.

De Finetti only became known in the Anglo-American statistical world in the 1950s when L. J. Savage, who had independently adopted subjectivism, drew him into it; another great champion was Dennis Lindley. De Finetti died in Rome in 1985.

Work and impact
De Finetti emphasized a predictive inference approach to statistics; he proposed a thought experiment along the following lines (described in greater detail at coherence): You must set the price of a promise to pay $1 if there was life on Mars 1 billion years ago, and $0 if there was not, and tomorrow the answer will be revealed. You know that your opponent will be able to choose either to buy such a promise from you at the price you have set, or require you to buy such a promise from your opponent, still at the same price. In other words: you set the odds, but your opponent decides which side of the bet will be yours. The price you set is the "operational subjective probability" that you assign to the proposition on which you are betting. This price has to obey the probability axioms if you are not to face certain loss, as you would if you set a price above $1 (or a negative price). By considering bets on more than one event, de Finetti could justify additivity. Prices, or equivalently odds, that do not expose you to certain loss through a Dutch book are called coherent.

De Finetti is also noted for de Finetti's theorem on exchangeable sequences of random variables. De Finetti was not the first to study exchangeability, but he brought the subject to greater visibility. He started publishing on exchangeability in the late 1920s, but his 1937 article "La Prévision" (see bibliography) is his most famous treatment.

In 1929, de Finetti introduced the concept of infinitely divisible probability distributions.

He also introduced de Finetti diagrams for graphing genotype frequencies.

The 1974 English translation of his book is credited with reviving interest in predictive inference in the Anglophone world and bringing the idea of exchangeability to its attention.

In 1961 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. The de Finetti Award, presented annually by the European Association for Decision Making, is named after him. The Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Economics of the University of Trieste is named after him too.

In the 21st century quantum extensions of de Finetti's representation theorem have been found to be useful in quantum information,  in topics like quantum key distribution and entanglement detection.

de Finetti in English
(The following are translations of works originally published in Italian or French.)
 * "Probabilism: A Critical Essay on the Theory of Probability and on the Value of Science," (translation of 1931 article) in Erkenntnis, volume 31, issue 2–3, September 1989, pp. 169–223. The entire double issue is devoted to de Finetti's philosophy of probability.
 * 1937, "La Prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives," Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré,
 * - "Foresight: its Logical Laws, Its Subjective Sources," (translation of the 1937 article in French) in H. E. Kyburg and H. E. Smokler (eds), Studies in Subjective Probability, New York: Wiley, 1964.

 * Theory of Probability, (translation by A Machi and AFM Smith of 1970 book) 2 volumes, New York: Wiley, 1974–1975.

Discussions
The following books have a chapter on de Finetti and references to further literature.
 * D. V. Lindley, "Bruno de Finetti, 1906-1985 (Obituary)" Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 149, p. 252 (1986).
 * Jan von Plato, Creating Modern Probability: Its Mathematics, Physics, and Philosophy in Historical Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994
 * Donald Gillies, Philosophical Theories of Probability, London: Routledge, 2000.

title: Bruno de Finetti