text:
Sedimentary basin

Sedimentary basins are region-scale depressions of the Earth's crust where subsidence has occurred and a thick sequence of sediments have accumulated to form a large three-dimensional body of sedimentary rock. They form when long-term subsidence creates a regional depression that provides accommodation space for accumulation of sediments. Over millions or tens or hundreds of millions of years the deposition of sediment, primarily gravity-driven transportation of water-borne eroded material, acts to fill the depression. As the sediments are buried, they are subject to increasing pressure and begin the processes of compaction and lithification that transform them into sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary basins are created by deformation of Earth's lithosphere in diverse geological settings, usually as a result of plate tectonic activity. Mechanisms of crustal deformation that lead to subsidence and sedimentary basin formation include the thinning of underlying crust; depression of the crust by sedimentary, tectonic or volcanic loading; or changes in the thickness or density of underlying or adjacent lithosphere. Once the process of basin formation has begun, the weight of the sediments being deposited in the basin adds a further load on the underlying crust that accentuates subsidence and thus amplifies basin development as a result of isostasy.

The long-term preserved geologic record of a sedimentary basin is a large scale contiguous three-dimensional package of sedimentary rocks created during a particular period of geologic time, a 'stratigraphic succession', that geologists continue to refer to as a sedimentary basin even if it is no longer a bathymetric or topographic depression. The Williston Basin, Molasse basin and Magallanes Basin are examples of sedimentary basins that are no longer depressions. Basins formed in different tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. Intracratonic basins, which form on highly-stable continental interiors, have a high probability of preservation. In contrast, sedimentary basins formed on oceanic crust are likely to be destroyed by subduction. Continental margins formed when new ocean basins like the Atlantic are created as continents rift apart are likely to have lifespans of hundreds of millions of years, but may be only partially preserved when those ocean basins close as continents collide.

Sedimentary basins are of great economic importance. Almost all the world's natural gas and petroleum and all of its coal are found in sedimentary rock. Many metal ores are found in sedimentary rocks formed in particular sedimentary environments. Sedimentary basins are also important from a purely scientific perspective because their sedimentary fill provides a record of Earth's history during the time in which the basin was actively receiving sediment.

More than six hundred sedimentary basins have been identified worldwide. They range in areal size from tens of square kilometers to well over a million, and their sedimentary fills range from one to almost twenty kilometers in thickness.

Classification
A dozen or so common types of sedimentary basins are widely recognized and several classification schemes are proposed, however no single classification scheme is recognized as the standard.

Most sedimentary basin classification schemes are based on one or more of these interrelated criteria:
 * Plate tectonic setting - the proximity to a divergent, convergent or transform plate tectonic boundary and the type and origin of the tectonically-induced forces that cause a basin to form, specifically those active at the time of active sedimentation in the basin.
 * Nature of underlying crust - basins formed on continental crust are quite different from those formed on oceanic crust as the two types of lithosphere have very different mechanical characteristics (rheology) and different densities, which means they respond differently to isostasy.
 * Geodynamics of basin formation - the mechanical and thermal forces that cause lithosphere to subside to form a basin.
 * Petroleum/economic potential - basin characteristics that influence the likelihood for the basin to have an accumulations of petroleum or the manner in which it formed.

Widely-recognized types
Although no one basin classification scheme has been widely adopted, several common types of sedimentary basins are widely accepted and well understood as distinct types. Over its complete lifespan a single sedimentary basin can go through multiple phases and evolve from one of these types to another, such as a rift process going to completion to form a passive margin. In this case the sedimentary rocks of the rift basin phase are overlain by those rocks deposited during the passive margin phase. Hybrid basins where a single regional basin results from the processes that are characteristic of multiple of these types are also possible.

Mechanics of formation
Sedimentary basins form as a result of regional subsidence of the lithosphere, mostly as a result of a few geodynamic processes.

Lithospheric stretching
If the lithosphere is caused to stretch horizontally, by mechanisms such as rifting (which is associated with divergent plate boundaries) or ridge-push or trench-pull (associated with convergent boundaries), the effect is believed to be twofold. The lower, hotter part of the lithosphere will "flow" slowly away from the main area being stretched, whilst the upper, cooler and more brittle crust will tend to fault (crack) and fracture. The combined effect of these two mechanisms is for Earth's surface in the area of extension to subside, creating a geographical depression which is then often infilled with water and/or sediments. (An analogy is a piece of rubber, which thins in the middle when stretched.)

An example of a basin caused by lithospheric stretching is the North Sea – also an important location for significant hydrocarbon reserves. Another such feature is the Basin and Range Province which covers most of Nevada, forming a series of horst and graben structures.

Tectonic extension at divergent boundaries where continental rifting is occurring can create a nascent ocean basin leading to either an ocean or the failure of the rift zone. Another expression of lithospheric stretching results in the formation of ocean basins with central ridges. The Red Sea is in fact an incipient ocean, in a plate tectonic context. The mouth of the Red Sea is also a tectonic triple junction where the Indian Ocean Ridge, Red Sea Rift and East African Rift meet. This is the only place on the planet where such a triple junction in oceanic crust is exposed subaerially. This is due to a high thermal buoyancy (thermal subsidence) of the junction, and also to a local crumpled zone of seafloor crust acting as a dam against the Red Sea.

Lithospheric flexure
Lithospheric flexure is another geodynamic mechanism that can cause regional subsidence resulting in the creation of a sedimentary basin. If a load is placed on the lithosphere, it will tend to flex in the manner of an elastic plate. The magnitude of the lithospheric flexure is a function of the imposed load and the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere, and the wavelength of flexure is a function of flexural rigidity of the lithospheric plate. Flexural rigidity is in itself, a function of the lithospheric mineral composition, thermal regime, and effective elastic thickness of the lithosphere.

Plate tectonic processes that can create sufficient loads on the lithosphere to induce basin-forming processes include:
 * formation of new mountain belts through orogeny create massive regional topographic highs that impose loads on the lithosphere and can result in foreland basins.
 * growth of a volcanic arc as the result of subduction or even the formation of a hotspot volcanic chain.
 * growth of an accretionary wedge and thrusting of it onto the overriding tectonic plate can contribute to the formation of forearc basins.

After any kind of sedimentary basin has begun to form, the load created by the water and sediments filling the basin creates additional load, thus causing additional lithospheric flexure and amplifying the original subsidence that created the basin, regardless of the original cause of basin inception.

Thermal subsidence
Cooling of a lithospheric plate, particularly young oceanic crust or recently stretched continental crust, causes thermal subsidence. As the plate cools it shrinks and becomes denser through thermal contraction. Analogous to a solid floating in a liquid, as the lithospheric plate gets denser it sinks because it displaces more of the underlying mantle through an equilibrium process known as isostasy.

Thermal subsidence is particularly measurable and observable with oceanic crust, as there is a well-established correlation between the age of the underlying crust and depth of the ocean. As newly-formed oceanic crust cools over a period of tens of millions of years. This is an important contribution to subsidence in rift basins, backarc basins and passive margins where they are underlain by newly-formed oceanic crust.

Strike-slip deformation
In strike-slip tectonic settings, deformation of the lithosphere occurs primarily in the plane of Earth as a result of near horizontal maximum and minimum principal stresses. Faults associated with these plate boundaries are primarily vertical. Wherever these vertical fault planes encounter bends, movement along the fault can create local areas of compression or tension.

When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension occurs and sometimes is large enough and long-lived enough to create a sedimentary basin often called a pull-apart basin or strike-slip basin. These basins are often roughly rhombohedral in shape and may be called a rhombochasm. A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has created a strike slip basin.

The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault. An example is the San Bernardino Mountains north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve in the San Andreas fault system. The Northridge earthquake was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults "bunching up" against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment.

Study of sedimentary basins
The study of sedimentary basins as entities unto themselves is often referred to as sedimentary basin analysis. Study involving quantitative modeling of the dynamic geologic processes by which they evolved is called basin modelling.

The sedimentary rocks comprising the fill of sedimentary basins hold the most complete historical record of the evolution of the earth's surface over time. Regional study of these rocks can be used as the primary record for different kinds of scientific investigation aimed at understanding and reconstructing the earth's past plate tectonics (paleotectonics), geography (paleogeography, climate (paleoclimatology), oceans (paleoceanography), habitats (paleoecology and paleobiogeography). Sedimentary basin analysis is thus an important area of study for purely scientific and academic reasons. There are however important economic incentives as well for understanding the processes of sedimentary basin formation and evolution because almost all of the world's fossil fuel reserves were formed in sedimentary basins.

All of these perspectives on the history of a particular region are based on the study of a large three-dimensional body of sedimentary rocks that resulted from the fill of one or more sedimentary basins over time. The scientific studies of stratigraphy and in recent decades sequence stratigraphy are focused on understanding the three-dimensional architecture, packaging and layering of this body of sedimentary rocks as a record resulting from sedimentary processes acting over time, influenced by global sea level change and regional plate tectonics.

Surface geologic study
Where the sedimentary rocks comprising a sedimentary basin's fill are exposed at the earth's surface, traditional field geology and aerial photography techniques as well as satellite imagery can be used in the study of sedimentary basins.

Subsurface geologic study
Much of a sedimentary basin's fill often remains buried below the surface, often submerged in the ocean, and thus cannot be studied directly. Acoustic imaging using seismic reflection acquired through seismic data acquisition and studied through the specific sub-discipline of seismic stratigraphy is the primary means of understanding the three-dimensional architecture of the basin's fill through remote sensing.

Direct sampling of the rocks themselves is accomplished via the drilling of boreholes and the retrieval of rock samples in the form of both core samples and drill cuttings. These allow geologists to study small samples of the rocks directly and also very importantly allow paleontologists to study the microfossils they contain (micropaleontology).

At the time they are being drilled, boreholes are also surveyed by pulling electronic instruments along the length of the borehole in a process known as well logging. Well logging, which is sometimes appropriately called borehole geophysics, uses electromagnetic and radioactive properties of the rocks surrounding the borehole, as well as their interaction with the fluids used in the process of drilling the borehole, to create a continuous record of the rocks along the length of the borehole, displayed as of a family of curves. Comparison of well log curves between multiple boreholes can be used to understand the stratigraphy of a sedimentary basin, particularly if used in conjunction with seismic stratigraphy.

title: Sedimentary basin


text:
Magnetohydrodynamic drive

A magnetohydrodynamic drive or MHD accelerator is a method for propelling vehicles using only electric and magnetic fields with no moving parts, accelerating an electrically conductive propellant (liquid or gas) with magnetohydrodynamics. The fluid is directed to the rear and as a reaction, the vehicle accelerates forward.

Studies examining MHD in the field of marine propulsion began in the late 1950s.

Few large-scale marine prototypes have been built, limited by the low electrical conductivity of seawater. Increasing current density is limited by Joule heating and water electrolysis in the vicinity of electrodes, and increasing the magnetic field strength is limited by the cost, size and weight (as well as technological limitations) of electromagnets and the power available to feed them. In 2023 DARPA launched the PUMP program to build a marine engine using superconducting magnets expected to reach a field strength of 20 Tesla.

Stronger technical limitations apply to air-breathing MHD propulsion (where ambient air is ionized) that is still limited to theoretical concepts and early experiments.

Plasma propulsion engines using magnetohydrodynamics for space exploration have also been actively studied as such electromagnetic propulsion offers high thrust and high specific impulse at the same time, and the propellant would last much longer than in chemical rockets.

Principle

The working principle involves the acceleration of an electrically conductive fluid (which can be a liquid or an ionized gas called a plasma) by the Lorentz force, resulting from the cross product of an electric current (motion of charge carriers accelerated by an electric field applied between two electrodes) with a perpendicular magnetic field. The Lorentz force accelerates all charged particles, positive and negative species (in opposite directions). If either positive or negative species dominate the vehicle is put in motion in the opposite direction from the net charge.

This is the same working principle as an electric motor (more exactly a linear motor) except that in an MHD drive, the solid moving rotor is replaced by the fluid acting directly as the propellant. As with all electromagnetic devices, an MHD accelerator is reversible: if the ambient working fluid is moving relatively to the magnetic field, charge separation induces an electric potential difference that can be harnessed with electrodes: the device then acts as a power source with no moving parts, transforming the kinetic energy of the incoming fluid into electricity, called an MHD generator.

As the Lorentz force in an MHD converter does not act on a single isolated charged particle nor on electrons in a solid electrical wire, but on a continuous charge distribution in motion, it is a "volumetric" (body) force, a force per unit volume:

 * $$\mathbf{f} = \rho \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B}\,\!$$

where f is the force density (force per unit volume), ρ the charge density (charge per unit volume), E the electric field, J the current density (current per unit area) and B the magnetic field.

Typology
MHD thrusters are classified in two categories according to the way the electromagnetic fields operate:
 * Conduction devices when a direct current flows in the fluid due to an applied voltage between pairs of electrodes, the magnetic field being steady.
 * Induction devices when alternating currents are induced by a rapidly varying magnetic field, as eddy currents. No electrodes are required in this case.

As induction MHD accelerators are electrodeless, they do not exhibit the common issues related to conduction systems (especially Joule heating, bubbles and redox from electrolysis) but need much more intense peak magnetic fields to operate. Since one of the biggest issues with such thrusters is the limited energy available on-board, induction MHD drives have not been developed out of the laboratory.

Both systems can put the working fluid in motion according to two main designs:
 * Internal flow when the fluid is accelerated within and propelled back out of a nozzle of tubular or ring-shaped cross-section, the MHD interaction being concentrated within the pipe (similarly to rocket or jet engines).
 * External flow when the fluid is accelerated around the whole wetted area of the vehicle, the electromagnetic fields extending around the body of the vehicle. The propulsion force results from the pressure distribution on the shell (as lift on a wing, or how ciliate microorganisms such as Paramecium move water around them).

Internal flow systems concentrate the MHD interaction in a limited volume, preserving stealth characteristics. External field systems on the contrary have the ability to act on a very large expanse of surrounding water volume with higher efficiency and the ability to decrease drag, increasing the efficiency even further.

Marine propulsion
MHD has no moving parts, which means that a good design might be silent, reliable, and efficient. Additionally, the MHD design eliminates many of the wear and friction pieces of the drivetrain with a directly driven propeller by an engine. Problems with current technologies include expense and slow speed compared to a propeller driven by an engine. The extra expense is from the large generator that must be driven by an engine. Such a large generator is not required when an engine directly drives a propeller.

The first prototype, a 3-meter (10-feet) long submarine called EMS-1, was designed and tested in 1966 by Stewart Way, a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Way, on leave from his job at Westinghouse Electric, assigned his senior year undergraduate students to build the operational unit. This MHD submarine operated on batteries delivering power to electrodes and electromagnets, which produced a magnetic field of 0.015 tesla. The cruise speed was about 0.4 meter per second (15 inches per second) during the test in the bay of Santa Barbara, California, in accordance with theoretical predictions.

Later, a Japanese prototype, the 3.6-meter long "ST-500", achieved speeds of up to 0.6 m/s in 1979.

In 1991, the world's first full-size prototype Yamato 1 was completed in Japan after 6 years of research and development (R&D) by the Ship & Ocean Foundation (later known as the Ocean Policy Research Foundation). The ship successfully carried a crew of ten plus passengers at speeds of up to 15 km/h in Kobe Harbour in June 1992.

Small-scale ship models were later built and studied extensively in the laboratory, leading to successful comparisons between the measurements and the theoretical prediction of ship terminal speeds.

Military research about underwater MHD propulsion included high-speed torpedoes, remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), up to larger ones such as submarines.

Passive flow control
First studies of the interaction of plasmas with hypersonic flows around vehicles date back to the late 1950s, with the concept of a new kind of thermal protection system for space capsules during high-speed reentry. As low-pressure air is naturally ionized at such very high velocities and altitude, it was thought to use the effect of a magnetic field produced by an electromagnet to replace thermal ablative shields by a "magnetic shield". Hypersonic ionized flow interacts with the magnetic field, inducing eddy currents in the plasma. The current combines with the magnetic field to give Lorentz forces that oppose the flow and detach the bow shock wave further ahead of the vehicle, lowering the heat flux which is due to the brutal recompression of air behind the stagnation point. Such passive flow control studies are still ongoing, but a large-scale demonstrator has yet to be built.

Active flow control
Active flow control by MHD force fields on the contrary involves a direct and imperious action of forces to locally accelerate or slow down the airflow, modifying its velocity, direction, pressure, friction, heat flux parameters, in order to preserve materials and engines from stress, allowing hypersonic flight. It is a field of magnetohydrodynamics also called magnetogasdynamics, magnetoaerodynamics or magnetoplasma aerodynamics, as the working fluid is the air (a gas instead of a liquid) ionized to become electrically conductive (a plasma).

Air ionization is achieved at high altitude (electrical conductivity of air increases as atmospheric pressure reduces according to Paschen's law) using various techniques: high voltage electric arc discharge, RF (microwaves) electromagnetic glow discharge, laser, e-beam or betatron, radioactive source… with or without seeding of low ionization potential alkali substances (like caesium) into the flow.

MHD studies applied to aeronautics try to extend the domain of hypersonic planes to higher Mach regimes:
 * Action on the boundary layer to prevent laminar flow from becoming turbulent.
 * Shock wave mitigation for thermal control and reduction of the wave drag and form drag. Some theoretical studies suggest the flow velocity could be controlled everywhere on the wetted area of an aircraft, so shock waves could be totally cancelled when using enough power.
 * Inlet flow control.
 * Airflow velocity reduction upstream to feed a scramjet by the use of an MHD generator section combined with an MHD accelerator downstream at the exhaust nozzle, powered by the generator through an MHD bypass system.

The Russian project Ayaks (Ajax) is an example of MHD-controlled hypersonic aircraft concept. A US program also exists to design a hypersonic MHD bypass system, the Hypersonic Vehicle Electric Power System (HVEPS). A working prototype was completed in 2017 under development by General Atomics and the University of Tennessee Space Institute, sponsored by the US Air Force Research Laboratory. These projects aim to develop MHD generators feeding MHD accelerators for a new generation of high-speed vehicles. Such MHD bypass systems are often designed around a scramjet engine, but easier to design turbojets are also considered,  as well as subsonic ramjets.

Such studies covers a field of resistive MHD with magnetic Reynolds number ≪ 1 using nonthermal weakly ionized gases, making the development of demonstrators much more difficult to realize than for MHD in liquids. "Cold plasmas" with magnetic fields are subject to the electrothermal instability occurring at a critical Hall parameter, which makes full-scale developments difficult.

Prospects
MHD propulsion has been considered as the main propulsion system for both marine and space ships since there is no need to produce lift to counter the gravity of Earth in water (due to buoyancy) nor in space (due to weightlessness), which is ruled out in the case of flight in the atmosphere.

Nonetheless, considering the current problem of the electric power source solved (for example with the availability of a still missing multi-megawatt compact fusion reactor), one could imagine future aircraft of a new kind silently powered by MHD accelerators, able to ionize and direct enough air downward to lift several tonnes. As external flow systems can control the flow over the whole wetted area, limiting thermal issues at high speeds, ambient air would be ionized and radially accelerated by Lorentz forces around an axisymmetric body (shaped as a cylinder, a cone, a sphere…), the entire airframe being the engine. Lift and thrust would arise as a consequence of a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces, induced by the Coandă effect. In order to maximize such pressure difference between the two opposite sides, and since the most efficient MHD converters (with a high Hall effect) are disk-shaped, such MHD aircraft would be preferably flattened to take the shape of a biconvex lens. Having no wings nor airbreathing jet engines, it would share no similarities with conventional aircraft, but it would behave like a helicopter whose rotor blades would have been replaced by a "purely electromagnetic rotor" with no moving part, sucking the air downward. Such concepts of flying MHD disks have been developed in the peer review literature from the mid 1970s mainly by physicists Leik Myrabo with the Lightcraft,    and Subrata Roy with the Wingless Electromagnetic Air Vehicle (WEAV).

These futuristic visions have been advertised in the media although they still remain beyond the reach of modern technology.

Spacecraft propulsion
A number of experimental methods of spacecraft propulsion are based on magnetohydrodynamics. As this kind of MHD propulsion involves compressible fluids in the form of plasmas (ionized gases) it is also referred to as magnetogasdynamics or magnetoplasmadynamics.

In such electromagnetic thrusters, the working fluid is most of the time ionized hydrazine, xenon or lithium. Depending on the propellant used, it can be seeded with alkali such as potassium or caesium to improve its electrical conductivity. All charged species within the plasma, from positive and negative ions to free electrons, as well as neutral atoms by the effect of collisions, are accelerated in the same direction by the Lorentz "body" force, which results from the combination of a magnetic field with an orthogonal electric field (hence the name of "cross-field accelerator"), these fields not being in the direction of the acceleration. This is a fundamental difference with ion thrusters which rely on electrostatics to accelerate only positive ions using the Coulomb force along a high voltage electric field.

First experimental studies involving cross-field plasma accelerators (square channels and rocket nozzles) date back to the late 1950s. Such systems provide greater thrust and higher specific impulse than conventional chemical rockets and even modern ion drives, at the cost of a higher required energy density.

Some devices also studied nowadays besides cross-field accelerators include the magnetoplasmadynamic thruster sometimes referred to as the Lorentz force accelerator (LFA), and the electrodeless pulsed inductive thruster (PIT).

Even today, these systems are not ready to be launched in space as they still lack a suitable compact power source offering enough energy density (such as hypothetical fusion reactors) to feed the power-greedy electromagnets, especially pulsed inductive ones. The rapid ablation of electrodes under the intense thermal flow is also a concern. For these reasons, studies remain largely theoretical and experiments are still conducted in the laboratory, although over 60 years have passed since the first research in this kind of thrusters.

Fiction
Oregon, a ship in the Oregon Files series of books by author Clive Cussler, has a magnetohydrodynamic drive. This allows the ship to turn very sharply and brake instantly, instead of gliding for a few miles. In Valhalla Rising, Clive Cussler writes the same drive into the powering of Captain Nemo's Nautilus.

The film adaptation of The Hunt for Red October popularized the magnetohydrodynamic drive as a "caterpillar drive" for submarines, a nearly undetectable "silent drive" intended to achieve stealth in submarine warfare. In reality, the current traveling through the water would create gases and noise, and the magnetic fields would induce a detectable magnetic signature. In the film, it was suggested that this sound could be confused with geological activity. In the novel from which the film was adapted, the caterpillar that Red October used was actually a pump-jet of the so-called "tunnel drive" type (the tunnels provided acoustic camouflage for the cavitation from the propellers).

In the Ben Bova novel The Precipice, the ship where some of the action took place, Starpower 1, built to prove that exploration and mining of the Asteroid Belt was feasible and potentially profitable, had a magnetohydrodynamic drive mated to a fusion power plant.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Magnetohydrodynamic drive


text:
Lithification

Lithification (from the Ancient Greek word lithos meaning 'rock' and the Latin-derived suffix -ific) is the process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock. Essentially, lithification is a process of porosity destruction through compaction and cementation. Lithification includes all the processes which convert unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks. Petrifaction, though often used as a synonym, is more specifically used to describe the replacement of organic material by silica in the formation of fossils.

title: Lithification


text:
To Sir, with Love

To Sir, with Love is a 1967 British drama film that deals with social and racial issues in an inner city school. It stars Sidney Poitier and features Christian Roberts, Judy Geeson, Suzy Kendall, Patricia Routledge and singer Lulu making her film debut. James Clavell directed from his own screenplay, which was based on E. R. Braithwaite's 1959 autobiographical novel of the same name.

The film's title song "To Sir with Love", sung by Lulu, peaked at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States for five weeks in the autumn of 1967 and ultimately was the best-selling single in the United States that year; meanwhile, Sidney Poitier was the first black actor to win a Golden Globe Award. The movie ranked number 27 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.

A made-for-television sequel, To Sir, with Love II, was released in 1996, with Poitier reprising his starring role.

Plot
Mark Thackeray, an immigrant to Britain from British Guiana, has been unable to obtain an engineering position despite an 18-month job search. He accepts a teaching post for Class 12 at North Quay Secondary School in the East End of London, as an interim position, despite having no teaching experience.

The pupils there have been rejected from other schools, and Thackeray is a replacement for a teacher who recently died. The pupils, led by Bert Denham and Pamela Dare, behave badly: their antics range from vandalism to distasteful pranks. Thackeray retains a calm demeanour but loses his temper after discovering something being burned in the classroom stove, which turns out to be a girl's sanitary towel. He orders the boys out of the classroom, then reprimands all the girls, either for being responsible or passively observing, for what he says is their "slutty behaviour". Thackeray is angry with himself for allowing his pupils to incense him. Changing his approach, he informs the class that they will no longer study from textbooks. Until the end of term, he will treat them as adults and expects them to behave as such. He declares that they will address him as "Sir" or "Mr. Thackeray"; the girls will be addressed as "Miss" and boys by their surnames. They are also allowed to discuss any issue they wish. He gradually wins over the class, except for Denham who continually baits him.

Thackeray arranges a class trip to the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Natural History Museum in South Kensington which goes well. He later loses some support after defusing a potentially violent situation between his student Potter and the gym teacher, Mr. Bell. He demands that Potter apologise to Bell, even if he believes the latter was wrong. The group later refuses to invite Thackeray to the class dance. When mixed-race student Seales' white English mother dies, the class takes a collection for a wreath but refuses to accept Thackeray's donation. The students decline to deliver the wreath in person to Seales' house, fearing neighbourhood gossip for visiting a "coloured" person's house.

The headmaster tells Thackeray that the "adult approach" has failed, and future outings are cancelled. Thackeray is to teach the boys' gym classes until the headmaster can find a new permanent gym teacher. Meanwhile, Thackeray receives an engineering job offer in the post.

Pamela's mother asks for Thackeray to talk to her daughter about her behaviour at home. However, this annoys Pamela, whom Thackeray believes is infatuated with him. During a gym class, Denham challenges Thackeray to a boxing match. Thackeray initially declines but then reluctantly agrees. Denham delivers harmless blows to Thackeray's face, but the bout comes to an abrupt end after Thackeray’s lone punch is to Denham's solar plexus, which doubles Denham over in pain. Thackery attends to Denham and then exits the gym unhurt, to the amazement of the class. Thackeray compliments Denham's ability and suggests he teach boxing to the younger pupils next year. Denham, impressed, expresses his admiration for Thackeray to his classmates. Thackeray regains their respect and is invited to the class dance. Later, while attending the funeral of Seales' mother, Thackeray is touched to find that his lectures on personal choice and responsibility have had an effect, and the entire class has attended.

At the dance, Pamela persuades Thackeray to be her partner for the "Ladies Choice" dance. Afterward, the class presents to Thackeray "a little present to remember us by." Too moved to speak, Thackeray retires to his classroom.

A rowdy couple enters the classroom. They mock Thackeray's gift, a silver tankard and card inscribed "To Sir, with Love" signed by the departing class, and goad Thackeray that they will be in his class next year. After they leave, Thackeray stands and rips up the engineering job offer, reconciled to the work he has ahead of him. He then takes a flower from the vase on his desk, places it in his lapel, and leaves.

Production
Initially, Columbia was reluctant to hire Sidney Poitier or James Clavell, despite the interest which both expressed toward doing the film. (Clavell, aptly enough, had published The Children's Story just a few years prior.) Poitier and Clavell agreed to make the movie for small fees, provided Poitier got 10% of the gross and Clavell got 30% of the profits. "When we were ready to shoot, Columbia wanted either a rape or a big fight put in," said Martin Baum, Poitier's agent. "We held out, saying this was a gentle story, and we won."

The film was shot in Wapping (including the railway station) and Shadwell in the East End of London, in the Victoria and Albert Museum and at Pinewood Studios. The headmaster of the school where author Braithwaite taught, St George-in-the-East Central School (now the Mulberry House apartments) adjacent to the north side of St George in the East church in Wapping, would not let the production film at that school. The spire of the church is visible in the film, when Sir walks up Reardon Street, en route to the funeral for the mother of his student.

Reception
Upon its U.S. release, Bosley Crowther began his review by contrasting the film with Poitier's role and performance in the 1955 film Blackboard Jungle; unlike that earlier film, Crowther says "a nice air of gentility suffuses this pretty color film, and Mr. Poitier gives a quaint example of being proper and turning the other cheek. Although he controls himself with difficulty in some of his confrontations with his class, and even flares up on one occasion, he never acts like a boor, the way one of his fellow teachers (played by Geoffrey Bayldon) does. Except for a few barbed comments by the latter, there is little intrusion of or discussion about the issue of race: It is as discreetly played down as are many other probable tensions in this school. To Sir, with Love comes off as a cozy, good-humored and unbelievable little tale."

Halliwell's Film and Video Guide describes it as "sentimental non-realism" and quotes a Monthly Film Bulletin review (possibly contemporary with its British release), which claims that "the sententious script sounds as if it has been written by a zealous Sunday school teacher after a particularly exhilarating boycott of South African oranges".

The Time Out Film Guide says that it "bears no resemblance to school life as we know it" and the "hoodlums' miraculous reformation a week before the end of term (thanks to teacher Poitier) is laughable". Although agreeing with the claims about the film's sentimentality, and giving it a mediocre rating, the Virgin Film Guide asserts: "What makes [this] such an enjoyable film is the mythic nature of Poitier's character. He manages to come across as a real person, while simultaneously embodying everything there is to know about morality, respect and integrity."

The film premiered and became a hit one month before another film about troubled schools, Up the Down Staircase, appeared.

The novel's author, E.R. Braithwaite, loathed the film, particularly because of its omission of the novel's interracial relationship, although it provided Braithwaite with some financial security from royalties.

To Sir, with Love holds an 89% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 28 reviews. The film grossed $42,432,803 at the box office in the United States, yielding $19,100,000 in rentals, on a $640,000 budget, making it the sixth highest grossing picture of 1967 in the US. Poitier especially benefited from the film's success, for he had agreed to a mere $30,000 fee in exchange for 10% of the gross box office receipts, thus arranging one of the most impressive payoffs in film history. In fact, although Columbia insisted on an annual cap to Poitier of $25,000 to fulfill the percentage term, the studio was forced to revise the deal with Poitier when they calculated that they would be committed to 80 years of payments to him.

Despite the character of Mark Thackeray being a leading role, the film has been criticised in modern times for Poitier's portrayal of the Magical Negro trope. Specific criticism of the portrayal was directed at the character's service as the sounding board and voice of reason for white antagonists.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack album features music by Lulu, The Mindbenders, and incidental music by Ron Grainer. The original album was released on Fontana Records. It was re-released onto CD in 1995. AllMusic rated it three stars out of five.

The title song was a Cash Box Top 100 number-one single for three weeks.

 * 1) "To Sir With Love" (lyrics: Don Black; music: Mark London) – Lulu
 * 2) School Break Dancing "Stealing My Love from Me" (lyrics & music: Mark London) – Lulu
 * 3) Thackeray meets Faculty, Then Alone
 * 4) Music from Lunch Break "Off and Running" (lyric: Toni Wine; music: Carole Bayer) – The Mindbenders
 * 5) Thackeray Loses Temper, Gets an Idea
 * 6) Museum Outings Montage "To Sir, with Love" - Lulu
 * 7) A Classical Lesson
 * 8) Perhaps I Could Tidy Your Desk
 * 9) Potter's loss of temper in gym
 * 10) Thackeray reads letter about job
 * 11) Thackeray and Denham box in gym
 * 12) The funeral
 * 13) End of Term Dance "It's Getting Harder all the Time" (lyrics: Ben Raleigh; music: Charles Abertine) – The Mindbenders
 * 14) To Sir With Love – Lulu

James Clavell and Lulu's manager Marion Massey were angered and disappointed when the title song was not included in the nominations for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 40th Academy Awards in 1968. Clavell and Massey raised a formal objection to the exclusion, but to no avail.

Other honours
The film is recognised by American Film Institute in these lists:
 * 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
 * "To Sir With Love" – Nominated

title: To Sir, with Love


text:
Stadium (disambiguation)

A stadium is a large venue for hosting and viewing sports, concerts, and other events.

Stadium may also refer to:

Art and entertainment

 * Stadium (album), a 2018 album by Eli Keszler
 * Stadium (film), a 1934 Italian film
 * Stadium (rock opera), a 1985 composition by Alexander Gradsky
 * "The Stadium" (Black Summer), a television episode
 * Stadium (sports network), a streaming and broadcast service

Mathematics and technology

 * Stadium (geometry), a geometric shape
 * Stadium (software), an engineering application for determining the service life of concrete

Places

 * The Stadium (cirque), on Elephant Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica
 * Stadium MRT station, Singapore
 * Stadium (UTA station), Salt Lake City, US
 * Stadium High School, Tacoma, Washington, US
 * Stadium Road or 107 Avenue, Edmonton, Canada

title: Stadium (disambiguation)


text:
John Shirley

John Shirley (born February 10, 1953) is an American writer, primarily of horror, fantasy, science fiction, dark street fiction, westerns, and songwriting. He has also written one historical novel, a western about Wyatt Earp, Wyatt in Wichita, and one non-fiction book, Gurdjieff: An Introduction to His Life and Ideas. Shirley has written novels, short stories, TV scripts and screenplays—including The Crow—and has published over 84 books including 10 short-story collections. As a musician, Shirley has fronted his own bands and written lyrics for Blue Öyster Cult and others. His newest novels are Stormland and Axle Bust Creek.

Biography
John Shirley was born in Houston, Texas and grew up largely in the vicinity of Portland, Oregon. His earliest novels were Transmaniacon and Dracula in Love for Zebra Books, and City Come A-Walkin, a proto-cyberpunk novel, for Delacorte. He also wrote the A Song Called Youth cyberpunk trilogy for Warner Books, re-released as an omnibus in 2012 by Prime Books. 2012 saw his noir-flavored novel of apocalypse, Everything Is Broken released by Prime Books. In 2013 PM Press released Shirley's New Taboos. In October 2013 HarperCollins/Witness released his novel about Conan Doyle in the afterlife,  Doyle After Death; Skyhorse Publications brought out his historical novel about Wyatt Earp, Wyatt in Wichita, in August 2014. Shirley's collaboration with rock musician Mark Tremonti, an adaptation of Tremonti's rock opera A DYING MACHINE, was completed in June 2018.

Besides having written numerous books Shirley was lead singer of the punk band Sado-Nation, in 1978-79; he was lead singer of the post-punk funk-rock band Obsession, on Celluloid Records, while living in New York City and Paris, France, in the 1980s, and was later in the band the Panther Moderns. He is currently performing with The Screaming Geezers. Shirley has also written 23 song lyrics recorded by Blue Öyster Cult.

Shirley's one nonfiction book is Gurdjieff: An Introduction to His Life and Ideas (Penguin/Tarcher). He currently lives in the Vancouver Washington area with his wife, Micky Shirley. Shirley has three adult sons, twins Byron and Perry and their younger brother Julian, who also goes by "Juji". Byron is a yacht captain and yacht broker; Perry is a teacher and artist. Julian is a Bay Area-based underground rapper and producer of hip-hop, trap, chiptune and various other electronic music genres, as well as a computer security professional under the alias "DonJuji".

Career
Shirley is known for his cyberpunk science fiction novels, such as the A Song Called Youth trilogy, City Come A-Walkin' and Black Glass, as well as his suspense (as in his novels Spider Moon and The Brigade), horror novels and stories (e.g., Demons and Crawlers and the story collection Black Butterflies) and horror film work. The A Song Called Youth cyberpunk trilogy, Eclipse, Eclipse Penumbra, and Eclipse Corona, has been slated for a new edition by Dover Books in 2017. His tie-in novels include the best-seller BioShock: Rapture. His best known script work is the film The Crow, for which he was the initial writer, before David Schow reworked the script. He also wrote scripts for Deep Space Nine and Poltergeist: The Legacy. He was nominated for an Emmy in the Prime Time Animation category for an episode of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.

Authors David Agranoff and Nancy Collins and editor/critic Paula Guran cite his intense, expressionistic early horror novels, such as Dracula in Love and Cellars as an influence on the splatterpunk movement in horror, and the subsequent "bizarro" movement. Appreciation of John Shirley as an author of dark fiction was amplified by a January 2008 The New York Times review, by critic Terrence Rafferty, of Shirley's story-collection Living Shadows which said in part: "It's a greatest-hits album spanning a few decades of astonishingly consistent and rigorously horrifying work. . . Shirley's great subject is the terrible ease with which we modern Americans have learned to look away from pain and suffering. The opening line of his novel 'Demons' states the theme succinctly: “It’s amazing what you can get used to.” . . .Maybe the best story in this superb collection is a rapt little piece called “Skeeter Junkie,” in which a young heroin addict first begins to enjoy the feeling of the mosquito feeding on his arm, then starts to identify with it and then, as the drugs ooze through his veins, somehow becomes it and finally uses the “exquisite” flying bloodsucker to transport him to the apartment of his comely but standoffish downstairs neighbor. It’s a horror story, I guess, but it’s also funny, weirdly erotic and, in a way that horror almost never is, tragic."

Shirley's cyberpunk novels are City Come A-Walkin, the A Song Called Youth trilogy and Stormland. Avant-slipstream critic Larry McCaffery called him "a postmodern Edgar Allan Poe." Bruce Sterling has cited Shirley's early story collection Heatseeker as being a seminal cyberpunk work in itself. Several stories in Heatseeker were particularly seminal, including Sleepwalkers, which, in just one example, probably provided the inspiration for William Gibson's "meat puppets" in Neuromancer. Gibson acknowledged Shirley's influence in an introduction to Shirley's City Come A-Walkin. Shirley's story collection, made up of increasingly bizarre stories, the whimsically titled Really, Really, Really, Really Weird Stories has developed a cult status.

William Gibson, the author of Neuromancer, collaborated with Shirley on short stories—as did fellow cyberpunks Bruce Sterling and Rudy Rucker. Shirley's lyricism, wealth of ideas and imagination, crossover pioneering, and street-level honesty have been praised by other writers including Clive Barker, Peter Straub, Roger Zelazny, Marc Laidlaw, and A. A. Attanasio. His more surreal work, as in A Splendid Chaos, showed how it was possible to describe the indescribable with a paradoxical believability and impeccable internal logic no matter how bizarre the subject matter. Shirley's personal experiences as a recovering drug addict and punk rocker brought verisimilitude to his darker, urban-tinctured writing.

In recent years Shirley has written a number of "tie-in novels" and novelizations, including Constantine, based on the Keanu Reaves movie, the best-seller BioShock: Rapture (Tor, 2011), a novel providing a prequel to the BioShock video game story, and Halo: Broken Circle. He also wrote the apocalyptic, politically charged novel, The Other End which, according to the author's website, takes the apocalypse away from the Christian Right and gives Judgment Day to Liberals to do with as they please. This reflects Shirley's tendency to create fantasy entertainment which is also political satire, or spiritual allegory. E.g., Demons, in which it is discovered that industry has deliberately caused deaths by cancer as part of a vast secret program of human sacrifice.

2007 saw the release of a new story collection, Living Shadows, from Prime Books. His novel of dark urban fantasy set in a slightly futuristic New York, Bleak History, was published by Simon & Schuster/Pocket Books in 2009. In August 2011 Underland Press published In Extremis: The Most Extreme Stories of John Shirley and in January 2012 Prime Books published his near future apocalyptic political allegory, the novel Everything Is Broken. His novel about Arthur Conan Doyle in the afterlife, Doyle After Death, was released by HarperCollins/Witness in October 2013. Shirley's apocalyptic and surreal novel High, based on his early novel Three-Ring Psychus, has been re-released by Start Books as an e-book; His newest story collection is Feverish Stars (March 2020). In June 2020 his fantasy novel Sorcerer of Atlantis will be released by Hippocampus.

Shirley's work ranges in tone from the surreal to the grittily naturalistic to the nightmarish. He is also a songwriter and singer, having fronted numerous punk bands, including the New York City band Obsession, who were recorded by Celluloid Records. He has written lyrics for Blue Öyster Cult, such as several songs on the album Heaven Forbid.

In 2013 Black October Records released a two-CD compilation of John Shirley's own recordings, Broken Mirror Glass: The John Shirley Anthology – 1978–2012 ...In 2020 Reprehensible Records released the rock albumThe Screaming Geezers; vocals and lyrics by John Shirley. Shirley performs regularly in the Portland, Oregon rock scene.

2014 saw the release of Shirley's first historical novel, Wyatt in Wichita, a novel of the young Wyatt Earp.

Other recent novels are Halo: Broken Circle, Doyle After Death and a novelization of Mark Tremonti's science-fiction rock opera, A Dying Machine.

Shirley is a member of the satirical "religion" Church of the SubGenius.

Awards
John Shirley received several nominations and won the following awards.

 * Bram Stoker Awards – for horror works, voted by Horror Writers Association professional membership (2 nominations; 1 win)
 * 1999: "What Would You Do For Love?" (Black Butterflies: A Flock on the Dark Side) – long fiction – nomination
 * 1999: Black Butterflies: A Flock on the Dark Side (Mark V. Ziesing) – collection – winner
 * Locus Awards – for science fiction, fantasy and horror works, polled by readers of Locus Magazine (5 nominations)
 * 1990: Heatseeker (Scream/Press) – collection – 10th place
 * 2000: Really, Really, Really, Weird Stories (Night Shade Books) – collection – 17th place
 * International Horror Guild Awards – for horror works, juried (6 nominations; 2 wins)
 * 1998: "Cram" (Wetbones #2) – short story – winner
 * 1999: Black Butterflies: A Flock on the Dark Side (Mark V. Ziesing) – collection —winner
 * 1999: "What Would You Do For Love?" (Black Butterflies: A Flock on the Dark Side) – long fiction – nomination
 * 2001: Demons (Cemetery Dance) – long story – nomination
 * 2002: "Her Hunger" (Night Visions 10) – long fiction – nomination
 * 2004: Crawlers (Del Rey) – novel – nomination
 * Interzone Readers Poll – for stories published in Interzone magazine, polled by readers (1 nomination)
 * 2014: "The Kindest Man in Stormland" (Interzone #249) – story – 8th place

Novels

 * Transmaniacon (1979)
 * Dracula in Love (1979)
 * City Come A-Walkin' (1980)
 * Three-Ring Psychus (1980)
 * The Brigade (1981)
 * Cellars (1982)
 * Several books in the Traveler series of post-apocalyptic men's adventure novels (as D. B. Drumm)
 * Several books in the Specialist series of mercenary/adventure men's adventure novels (as John Cutter)
 * A Song Called Youth Series (also known as Eclipse Trilogy):
 * Eclipse (1985)
 * Eclipse Penumbra (1988)
 * Eclipse Corona (1990)
 * In Darkness Waiting (1988)
 * Kamus of Kadizar: The Black Hole of Carcosa (1988)
 * A Splendid Chaos (1988)
 * Wetbones (1991). A supernatural serial killer novel featuring creatures called the Akishra who take over human minds and bodies.
 * Silicon Embrace (1996)
 * Demons (2000, novella)
 * "...And the Angel with Television Eyes" (2001, novella)
 * The View From Hell (2001, novella)
 * Her Hunger (2001, novella)
 * Spider Moon (2002)
 * Demons, a new version with sequel novel Undercurrents (2002)
 * Crawlers (2003)
 * Doom (2005, novelization of the film version of the Id Software computer game)
 * Constantine (2005, novelisation of the film featuring the DC/Vertigo comicbook character)
 * John Constantine, Hellblazer: War Lord (2006, based on the comic book character, not the movie version)
 * Predator: Forever Midnight (2006, Predator series tie-in)
 * Batman: Dead White (2006)
 * John Constantine, Hellblazer: Subterranean (2006)
 * The Other End (2007)
 * Alien: Steel Egg (2007)
 * Black Glass (2008)
 * Bleak History (2009)
 * BioShock: Rapture (2011)
 * Borderlands: The Fallen (2011)
 * Everything Is Broken (2011)
 * Borderlands: Unconquered (2012)
 * Resident Evil: Retribution (2012, novelisation of the film version of the Capcom video game)
 * Doyle After Death (2013)
 * Borderlands: Gunsight (2013)
 * Wyatt in Wichita  (2014)
 * Grimm: The Icy Touch (2013)
 * Watch Dogs //n/Dark Clouds (2013)
 * Halo: Broken Circle (2014)
 * A Dying Machine (2018, a collaboration with Mark Tremonti of the Tremonti, incorporating ideas found in album of the same name. The novel is co-written by Mark Tremonti)
 * Stormland (2021), a science fiction climate-change thriller.
 * A Sorcerer of Atlantis (2021), a heroic fantasy novel.

Short fiction

 * Collections
 * Heatseeker (1989)
 * New Noir (1993)
 * The Exploded Heart (1996)
 * Black Butterflies (1998)
 * Really, Really, Really, Really Weird Stories (1999)
 * Darkness Divided (2001)
 * Living Shadows (2007)
 * In Extremis: The Most Extreme Short Stories of John Shirley (2011)
 * The Feverish Stars (2021)

Nonfiction
———————
 * Gurdjieff – An Introduction to his Life and Ideas (2004) ISBN 1-58542-287-8
 * Bibliography notes

Television

 * Defenders of the Earth (1986)
 * The Real Ghostbusters (1987)
 * BraveStarr (1987-1988)
 * RoboCop (1988)
 * Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1995)
 * VR.5 (1995)
 * Poltergeist: The Legacy (1996)
 * The Adventures of Sinbad (1996)
 * Todd McFarlane’s Spawn (1998)
 * The Night of the Headless Horseman (1999)
 * Batman Beyond (2000)
 * Profit (2002)
 * Iron Man: Armored Adventures (2012)
 * Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014-2016)

Films

 * The Crow (1994)
 * Twists of Terror (1997)

Music
John Shirley wrote most of the lyrics for Blue Öyster Cult albums Heaven Forbid and Curse of the Hidden Mirror as well as the songs "Demon's Kiss" and "The Horsemen Arrive" from their soundtrack Bad Channels, and five songs from their 2020 album The Symbol Remains. Their 1972 song "Transmaniacon MC" was the inspiration for Shirley's first novel, Transmaniacon.

John Shirley's current band, which performs in and around Portland, Oregon, is called The Screaming Geezers.

title: John Shirley


text:
Ron Grainer

Ronald Erle Grainer (11 August 1922 – 21 February 1981) was an Australian composer who worked for most of his professional career in the United Kingdom. He is mostly remembered for his television and film score music, especially the theme music for Doctor Who, The Prisoner, Steptoe and Son and Tales of the Unexpected.

Early life
Ronald Grainer was born on 11 August 1922 in Atherton, Queensland, Australia, the first child of Margaret Clark, an amateur pianist, and Ronald Albert Grainer, a storekeeper and postmaster.

For the first eight years of Ron's life the Grainer family lived in Mount Mulligan, a small town built around the extraction of coal from three seams which lay beneath a 400-metre-high sandstone monolith, located 100 km west of Cairns. Apart from the industrial noise and dust, the family sometimes had to contend with the after effects of a high consumption of alcohol by the shift miners. On one such occasion a stray bullet flew through the roof of their home and almost hit the 11-week-old Ron as he lay on his bed.

Because of Mt Mulligan's physical isolation, encouraging a sense of community was vital. This was achieved by regularly holding dance and social functions. These public entertainments became very important for bolstering local morale, especially after a massive explosion on 19 September 1921 killed 75 resident mine workers – one third of Mt Mulligan's adult population.

Concerts in the years following the disaster included performances by a very young Ron Erle Grainer, taught piano-playing from the age of four by his mother and encouraged to learn the violin by an elderly Welsh miner. As Grainer's music skills developed, he started demonstrating an ability to reconstruct tunes he had heard at school or on gramophone records. Mary Wardle, a classical music singer, historian, and former resident of Mt Mulligan, remembers Grainer performing on keyboard instruments "when he could barely reach the pedals."

Education
The Grainer family left Mt Mulligan in 1930. By April 1932 they were living in Aloomba, a sugar-growing rural community on the Far North Queensland coast. Aloomba is situated on the eastern side of another rock monolith, the 922-metre-high Walsh's Pyramid. At the age of 9, as part of the Aloomba school team, Grainer won second prize for solo violin at the inaugural Cairns and District School Eisteddfod. This is the first newspaper mention of him giving a music performance in public. In early 1933, Grainer's family moved to Cairns where, apart from school work at Edge Hill State (1933–1934) and Cairns High (1935–1936), he commenced a serious study of music theory and interpretation. His family relocated south to Brisbane in 1937 where Grainer completed his secondary school education at St Joseph's College, Nudgee, matriculating in 1938. He enrolled at the University of Queensland in 1939 to study civil engineering and music, a course which included harmony, counterpoint, and composition as taught by classical musician Percy Brier, a traditionalist educator who encouraged his more talented students to think for themselves. Grainer gained his Associate of Trinity College London Diploma (ATCL) on piano.

RAAF
After the outbreak of World War II, Grainer joined the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in December 1940 and was sent to Amberley, Queensland, posted to 73 Signals, given a course at Point Cook and assigned to Radar Station No. 58, Townsville. While stationed there, and in subsequent similar postings, he contributed to barracks recreation activities by scoring and organising numerous servicemen shows. On March 22 1944 he was transferred to the RAAF entertainment unit. In the official report on his audition performance the only music piece mentioned by title was Ravel's Bolero, a seemingly simple instrumental riff which holds the listeners' attention in a similar manner to Grainer's later themes and signature tunes. Grainer had only a few months performing for his fellow airmen, for in July 1944, a 44-gallon drum fell on his leg while he was travelling in a truck; he sustained a severe injury and was admitted to the 3 RAAF Hospital, seriously ill. For a while, the air force medical team considered amputation, but Grainer eventually recovered. He was discharged from the RAAF as permanently medically unfit in September 1945. A rehabilitation course took him to the New South Wales State Conservatorium of Music, where he studied under Eugene Goossens.

Early musical education and career
Grainer received his teaching and performing diploma for pianoforte in December 1949. During 1950 and 1951 he began appearing in a series of solo artist radio shows for the Australian Broadcasting Commission. In August 1951 a presentation of Delius, Faure, and Milhaud compositions by Grainer on piano and Don Scott on violin was ridiculed in a newspaper review for the duo's "uncompromising disregard of mob appeal", "lack of practical concert sense", and "unrelievedly pastel colouring" set list that was "in need of a more impulsive and heartfelt spirit on the well tendered surface" having earlier said "by the time the programme ended the recital badly needed blood transfusion". By the mid-1950s Grainer had abandoned his classical repertoire and live concert work with such a determined change of attitude that he claimed in a 1964 magazine interview that he had "always loathed performing".

London
In 1952 Grainer left Australia for London with his wife Margot and 10-year-old stepdaughter Rel. He managed to find a three-month engagement playing piano in a nightclub along with other occasional jobs, the worst of which became a twelve-month stint with a touring Australian comedy act called "The Allen Brothers and June." This required the classically trained Grainer to be hit on the head nightly by a falling grand piano lid and then to topple over into the orchestra pit, an experience he later said was even harder to do than a day's fencing in the Australian outback.

At one stage, to pay the rent on their room, Grainer and his wife had to work as caretakers of a large block of London flats where he stoked two large boilers, morning and night, whilst Margot washed stairs and cleaned rooms.

To increase his public profile Grainer had two attempts at song contests: "England's Made of Us" (1956), an entry with lyricist David Dearlove for the First British Festival of Popular Song, which received the score of no points from the judges and, the following year, "Don't Cry Little Doll" (1957) (also written with David Dearlove), which reached fourth place in the British Eurovision entry decider heats.

Grainer's most dramatic pre-success music involvement was with Before The Sun Goes Down, a TV play which caused audience panic and questions to be raised in the British Parliament when it was shown on 20 February 1959. Taking inspiration from Orson Welles' 1938 radio drama of The War of the Worlds, the production used a similar format in which a regular programme broadcast was interrupted by a fake public service announcement. In this instance it was about a mysterious and "terrifying" satellite seen hovering over the city of London.

Maigret and after
In 1960 Grainer achieved public recognition with his theme and incidental music for the TV series Maigret. When Maigret was given the Ivor Novello "Outstanding Composition for Film, TV or Radio" award in 1961, commissions from a wide range of genres poured in: Goon Show silliness (It's a Square World, 1961), one-off pilots (Comedy Playhouse), documentaries (Terminus, 1961), kitchen sink drama (A Kind of Loving), quirky domestic sitcoms (Steptoe and Son 1962), classic serials (Oliver Twist 1962), teen films (Some People 1962), late night satire (That Was The Week That Was, 1962), outpost angst (Station Six Sahara, 1962), ballet (The King's Breakfast, 1963), science fiction (Doctor Who, 1963), psycho killers (Night Must Fall, 1964), children's adventure stories (The Moon Spinners, 1964), patriotic biography (The Finest Hours, 1964), big-budget musicals (Robert and Elizabeth, 1964), unusual love stories (Boy Meets Girl, 1967), acclaimed dramas To Sir, with Love (1967), allegorical social commentary (The Prisoner, 1967) and crime-caper movies (Only When I Larf, 1968).

Grainer also worked with the instrumental group The Eagles, who recorded a number of his themes.

Most of these projects required considerable research, group discussion, and creative team effort. They are only a small sample of work completed by Grainer from 1960 to 1968. He once indicated he felt a "trifle wistful" that so many people just associated him with the Doctor Who theme, the only tune in his extensive portfolio that had its sound dynamics realised by someone else – Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop.

The time-consuming work commitments eventually contributed to the breakdown of Grainer's relationship with his wife; he and Margot divorced in 1966. Later that year, he married Jennifer Dodd (1944–2024), a member of the cast of Robert and Elizabeth. Their son Damian was born shortly afterwards.

Portugal
In September 1968, tired of London traffic jams and worried about his intensifying eyesight problems, Grainer moved permanently to his former retreat property in southern Portugal. He and Jenny started a farm growing organic fruit and vegetables, undertaking the planting and maintaining of 1,000 peach trees.

From 1969 to 1975, Grainer composed themes and soundtracks for an average of around one TV series and one film each year.

Return
In April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal prompted Grainer and his family to leave the country and return to England until the political climate cleared. Damian went first to boarding and then to day school. Grainer was being offered work again so he set up house in Keymer of West Sussex. In 1976, he and Jenny went through an amicable divorce as she had gone back to Portugal while he'd decided to remain in London. Over the next five years, Grainer had a second round of creativity, scoring the Emmy- and BAFTA-winning miniseries Edward & Mrs Simpson as well as Tales of the Unexpected (1979) and Rebecca (1979).

Final year and death
Grainer had one notable incidental music score and two TV signature tunes debut the year of his sudden illness and death from cancer on 21 February 1981.

Sunday Night Thriller, with its funeral music theme and separation of bodies credits sequence, was broadcast on 18 January 1981.

On 17 May 1981, his "All Things Bright And Beautiful" influenced ambient music for "The Sound Machine" episode of Tales of the Unexpected, accompanied a central character obsessed with "Sounds I long to hear – Songs beyond the planets."

The last of Grainer's TV themes, It Takes A Worried Man, was broadcast on 21 October 1981, and featured a closing credits film clip of the series hero gradually losing pieces of his torso and face until all that is left are his eyes.

Grainer died from a spinal tumour on 21 February 1981.

Compilations
Only three compilations of Grainer's output have been released commercially. 1969's Themes Like — (RCA) was a collection of his better known 1960s compositions. This was followed by Exciting Television Music of Ron Grainer (RCA, 1980), which covered the 1970s. In 1994 a career-spanning thirty-track CD was released as part of the A to Z of British TV Themes project on the Play it Again record label.

Awards

 * Maigret, 1961 Ivor Novello Award Outstanding Composition for Film, TV or Radio
 * Steptoe and Son, 1962 Ivor Novello Award Outstanding Composition for Film, TV or Radio
 * The Home Made Car 1963 Silver Bear Award, Short Film, Berlin International Film Festival

Nominations

 * The Home Made Car (1963) Oscar, Best Short Subject, Academy Awards USA 1964
 * Flickers (1980), BAFTA Best Television Music Award 1981
 * Shelley (1979), BAFTA Best Television Music Award 1981
 * Tales of the Unexpected (1979), BAFTA Best Television Music Award 1981

Partial filmography

 * Terminus (1961)
 * A Kind of Loving (1962)
 * Some People (1962)
 * The Dock Brief (1962)
 * Station Six-Sahara (1962)
 * The King's Breakfast (1963)
 * The Mouse on the Moon (1963)
 * The Caretaker (1963)
 * Nothing But the Best (1964)
 * Night Must Fall (1964)
 * The Moon-Spinners (1964)
 * To Sir, with Love (1967)
 * Only When I Larf (1968)
 * Before Winter Comes (1969)
 * The Assassination Bureau (1969)
 * Lock Up Your Daughters (1969)
 * In Search of Gregory (1969)
 * Hoffman (1970)
 * The Omega Man (1971)
 * Mutiny on the Buses (1972)
 * Yellow Dog (1973)
 * Mousey (1974)
 * I Don't Want to Be Born (1975)
 * One Away (1976)
 * The Bawdy Adventures of Tom Jones (1976)
 * Never Never Land (1980)

Television [selection]

 * The Widow of Bath (1959)
 * Maigret (1960)
 * Comedy Playhouse (1961)
 * That Was the Week That Was (1962)
 * Steptoe and Son (1962)
 * Giants of Steam (1963)
 * The Home-Made Car (1963)
 * Doctor Who (1963)
 * Man in a Suitcase (1967)
 * The Prisoner (1967)
 * Paul Temple (1969)
 * For the Love of Ada (1970)
 * The Train Now Standing (1972)
 * South Riding (1974)
 * Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978)
 * Malice Aforethought (1979)
 * Tales of the Unexpected (1979)
 * Rebecca (1979 miniseries)
 * Shelley (1979)
 * Flickers (1980)
 * Saturday Night Thriller (1981)
 * It Takes A Worried Man (1981)

Musicals

 * 1963 – The King's Breakfast
 * 1964 – Robert and Elizabeth
 * 1966 – Take A Sapphire
 * 1966 – On the Level
 * 1970 – Sing A Rude Song
 * 1975 – Nickleby And Me

title: Ron Grainer


text:
Greater flamingo

The greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) is the most widespread and largest species of the flamingo family. Common in the Old World, they are found in Northern (coastal) and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian Subcontinent (south of the Himalayas), the Middle East, the Levant, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean countries of Southern Europe.

Taxonomy
The greater flamingo was described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1811. It was previously thought to be the same species as the American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), but because of coloring differences of its head, neck, body, and bill, the two flamingos are now most commonly considered separate species. The greater flamingo has no subspecies and is therefore monotypic.

Description
The greater flamingo is the largest living species of flamingo, averaging 110 – tall and weighing 2 –. The largest male flamingos have been recorded to be up to 187 cm tall and to weigh 4.5 kg.

Most of the plumage is pinkish-white, but the wing coverts are red and the primary and secondary flight feathers are black. The bill is pink with a restricted black tip, and the legs are entirely pink. The call is a goose-like honking.

Chicks are covered in gray fluffy down. Subadult flamingos are paler with dark legs. Adults feeding chicks also become paler, but retain the bright pink legs. The coloration comes from the carotenoid pigments in the organisms that live in their feeding grounds. Secretions of the uropygial gland also contain carotenoids. During the breeding season, greater flamingos increase the frequency of their spreading uropygial secretions over their feathers and thereby enhance their color. This cosmetic use of uropygial secretions has been described as applying "make-up".

Distribution
It is found in parts of Northern Africa (including coastal areas of northern Algeria, Egypt further inland along the Nile River, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia), portions of Sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda), Southern Asia (coastal Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka), the Middle East (Bahrain, Cyprus, Iraq, Iran, Oman, Israel, Kuwait, Lebanon, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates) and Southern Europe (including Albania, Bulgaria, Corsica, Croatia, France in the Camargue, Greece, Italy, Slovenia, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, and Turkey. The most northern breeding spot is the Zwillbrocker Venn in western Germany, close to the border with the Netherlands. They have been recorded breeding in the United Arab Emirates at three different locations in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. In Gujarat, a coastal state in the west of India, flamingos can be observed at the Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary, Flamingo City, and in the Thol Bird Sanctuary. They remain there during the entire winter season.

Ecology
The greater flamingo resides in mudflats and shallow coastal lagoons with salt water. Using its feet, the bird stirs up the mud, then sucks water through its bill and filters out small shrimp, brine shrimp, other crustaceans, seeds (such as rice), blue-green algae, microscopic organisms (such as diatoms), insect larvae (such as chironomids), and mollusks. The greater flamingo feeds with its head down, its upper jaw movable and not rigidly fixed to its skull.

Like all flamingos, this species lays a single chalky-white egg on a mud mound.

Lifespan
The typical lifespan in captivity, according to Basel Zoo, is over 60 years. In the wild, the average lifespan is 30 – 40 years.

Natural
Adult greater flamingos have few natural predators. Eggs and chicks may be eaten by raptors, crows, gulls, and the marabou stork (Leptoptilos crumenifer); an estimated half of the predation of greater flamingo eggs and chicks is from the yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis).

Human
The primary threats to flamingo populations are bacteria, toxins, and pollution in water supplies, which is usually run-off from manufacturing companies, and encroachment on their habitat.

In human captivity
The first recorded zoo hatch was in 1959 at Zoo Basel. In Zoo Basel's breeding program, over 400 birds have been hatched with between 20 and 27 per year since 2000. The oldest known greater flamingo was a bird at the Adelaide Zoo in Australia that died at the age of at least 83 years. The bird's exact age is not known; it was already a mature adult when it arrived in Adelaide in 1933. It was euthanized in January 2014 due to complications of old age.

title: Greater flamingo


text:
Johnson–Nyquist noise

Johnson–Nyquist noise (thermal noise, Johnson noise, or Nyquist noise) is the electronic noise generated by the thermal agitation of the charge carriers (usually the electrons) inside an electrical conductor at equilibrium, which happens regardless of any applied voltage. Thermal noise is present in all electrical circuits, and in sensitive electronic equipment (such as radio receivers) can drown out weak signals, and can be the limiting factor on sensitivity of electrical measuring instruments. Thermal noise is proportional to absolute temperature, so some sensitive electronic equipment such as radio telescope receivers are cooled to cryogenic temperatures to improve their signal-to-noise ratio. The generic, statistical physical derivation of this noise is called the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, where generalized impedance or generalized susceptibility is used to characterize the medium. Thermal noise in an ideal resistor is approximately white, meaning that its power spectral density is nearly constant throughout the frequency spectrum (Figure 2). When limited to a finite bandwidth and viewed in the time domain (as sketched in Figure 1), thermal noise has a nearly Gaussian amplitude distribution.

For the general case, this definition applies to charge carriers in any type of conducting medium (e.g. ions in an electrolyte), not just resistors. Thermal noise is distinct from shot noise, which consists of additional current fluctuations that occur when a voltage is applied and a macroscopic current starts to flow.

History of thermal noise
In 1905, in one of Albert Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers the theory of Brownian motion was first solved in terms of thermal fluctuations. The following year, in a second paper about Brownian motion, Einstein suggested that the same phenomena could be applied to derive thermally-agitated currents, but did not carry out the calculation as he considered it to be untestable.

Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, daughter of Hendrik Lorentz, in her doctoral thesis of 1912, expanded on Einstein stochastic theory and first applied it to the study of electrons, deriving a formula for the mean-squared value of the thermal current.

Walter H. Schottky studied the problem in 1918, while studying thermal noise using Einstein's theories, experimentally discovered another kind of noise, the shot noise.

Frits Zernike working in electrical metrology, found unusual aleatory deflections while working with high-sensitive galvanometers. He rejected the idea that the noise was mechanical, and concluded that it was of thermal nature. In 1927, he introduced the idea of autocorrelations to electrical measurements and calculated the time detection limit. His work coincided with de Haas-Lorentz' prediction.

The same year, working independently without any knowledge of Zernike's work, John B. Johnson working in Bell Labs found the same kind of noise in communication systems, but described it in terms of frequencies. He described his findings to Harry Nyquist, also at Bell Labs, who used principles of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics to explain the results, published in 1928.

Noise of ideal resistors for moderate frequencies
Johnson's experiment (Figure 1) found that the thermal noise from a resistance $$R$$ at kelvin temperature $$T$$ and bandlimited to a frequency band of bandwidth $$\Delta f $$ (Figure 3) has a mean square voltage of:

 * $$\overline {V_n^2} = 4 k_\text{B} T R \, \Delta f$$

where $$k_{\rm B}$$ is the Boltzmann constant ($1.381$ joules per kelvin). While this equation applies to ideal resistors (i.e. pure resistances without any frequency-dependence) at non-extreme frequency and temperatures, a more accurate general form accounts for complex impedances and quantum effects. Conventional electronics generally operate over a more limited bandwidth, so Johnson's equation is often satisfactory.

Power spectral density
The mean square voltage per hertz of bandwidth is $$4 k_\text{B} T R$$ and may be called the power spectral density (Figure 2). Its square root at room temperature (around 300 K) approximates to 0.13 $$\sqrt{R}$$ in units of $nanovolts⁄√hertz$. A 10 kΩ resistor, for example, would have approximately 13 $nanovolts⁄√hertz$ at room temperature.

RMS noise voltage
The square root of the mean square voltage yields the root mean square (RMS) voltage observed over the bandwidth $$\Delta f $$:

 * $$V_\text{rms} = \sqrt{\overline {V_n^2}} = \sqrt{ 4 k_\text{B} T R \, \Delta f } \, .$$

A resistor with thermal noise can be represented by its Thévenin equivalent circuit (Figure 4B) consisting of a noiseless resistor in series with a gaussian noise voltage source with the above RMS voltage.

Around room temperature, 3 kΩ provides almost one microvolt of RMS noise over 20 kHz (the human hearing range) and 60 Ω·Hz for $$R \, \Delta f$$ corresponds to almost one nanovolt of RMS noise.

RMS noise current
A resistor with thermal noise can also converted into its Norton equivalent circuit (Figure 4C) consisting of a noise-free resistor in parallel with a gaussian noise current source with the following RMS current:

 * $$I_\text{rms} = {V_\text{rms} \over R} = \sqrt {{4 k_\text{B} T \Delta f } \over R}.$$

Thermal noise on capacitors
Ideal capacitors, as lossless devices, do not have thermal noise. However, the combination of a resistor and a capacitor (an RC circuit, a common low-pass filter) has what is called kTC noise. The noise bandwidth of an RC circuit is $$\Delta f {=} \tfrac{1}{4RC}.$$ When this is substituted into the thermal noise equation, the result has an unusually simple form as the value of the resistance (R) drops out of the equation. This is because higher R decreases the bandwidth as much as it increases the noise.

The mean-square and RMS noise voltage generated in such a filter are:

\overline {V_n^2} = {4 k_\text{B} T R \over 4 R C} = {k_\text{B} T \over C} $$

V_\text{rms} = \sqrt{4 k_\text{B} T R \over 4 R C} = \sqrt{ k_\text{B} T \over C }. $$

The noise charge $$Q_n$$ is the capacitance times the voltage:
 * $$Q_n = C \, V_n = C \sqrt{ k_\text{B} T \over C } = \sqrt{ k_\text{B} T C }$$

\overline{Q_n^2} = C^2 \, \overline{V_n^2} = C^2 {k_\text{B} T \over C} = k_\text{B} T C $$ This charge noise is the origin of the term "kTC noise". Although independent of the resistor's value, 100% of the kTC noise arises in the resistor. Therefore, it would incorrect to double-count both a resistor's thermal noise and its associated kTC noise, and the temperature of the resistor alone should be used, even if the resistor and the capacitor are at different temperatures. Some values are tabulated below:

Reset noise
An extreme case is the zero bandwidth limit called the reset noise left on a capacitor by opening an ideal switch. Though an ideal switch's open resistance is infinite, the formula still applies. However, now the RMS voltage must be interpreted not as a time average, but as an average over many such reset events, since the voltage is constant when the bandwidth is zero. In this sense, the Johnson noise of an RC circuit can be seen to be inherent, an effect of the thermodynamic distribution of the number of electrons on the capacitor, even without the involvement of a resistor.

The noise is not caused by the capacitor itself, but by the thermodynamic fluctuations of the amount of charge on the capacitor. Once the capacitor is disconnected from a conducting circuit, the thermodynamic fluctuation is frozen at a random value with standard deviation as given above. The reset noise of capacitive sensors is often a limiting noise source, for example in image sensors.

Any system in thermal equilibrium has state variables with a mean energy of $kT⁄2$ per degree of freedom. Using the formula for energy on a capacitor (E = $1⁄2$CV2), mean noise energy on a capacitor can be seen to also be $1⁄2$C$kT⁄C$ = $kT⁄2$. Thermal noise on a capacitor can be derived from this relationship, without consideration of resistance.

Thermal noise on inductors
Inductors are the dual of capacitors. Analogous to kTC noise, a resistor with an inductor $$L$$ results in a noise current that is independent of resistance:

\overline {I_n^2} = {k_\text{B} T \over L} \,. $$

Maximum transfer of noise power
The noise generated at a resistor $$R_\text{S}$$ can transfer to the remaining circuit. The maximum power transfer happens when the Thévenin equivalent resistance $$R_{\rm L}$$ of the remaining circuit matches $$R_\text{S}$$. In this case, each of the two resistors dissipates noise in both itself and in the other resistor. Since only half of the source voltage drops across any one of these resistors, this maximum noise power transfer is:
 * $$P_\text{max} = k_\text{B} \,T \Delta f \, .$$

This maximum is independent of the resistance and is called the available noise power from a resistor.

Available noise power in decibel-milliwatts
Signal power is often measured in dBm (decibels relative to 1 milliwatt). Available noise power would thus be $$10\ \log_{10}(\tfrac{k_\text{B} T \Delta f}{\text{1 mW}})$$ in dBm. At room temperature (300 K), the available noise power can be easily approximated as $$10\ \log_{10}(\Delta f) - 173.8$$ in dBm for a bandwidth in hertz. Some example available noise power in dBm are tabulated below:

Nyquist's derivation of ideal resistor noise
Nyquist's 1928 paper "Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors" used concepts about potential energy and harmonic oscillators from the equipartition law of Boltzmann and Maxwell to explain Johnson's experimental result. Nyquist's thought experiment summed the energy contribution of each standing wave mode of oscillation on a long lossless transmission line between two equal resistors ($$R_1 {=} R_2$$). According to the conclusion of Figure 5, the total average power transferred over bandwidth $$\Delta f $$ from $$R_1$$ and absorbed by $$R_2$$ was determined to be:

 * $$\overline {P_1} = k_{\rm B} T \, \Delta f \, . $$

Simple application of Ohm's law says the current from $$V_1$$ (the thermal voltage noise of only $$R_1$$) through the combined resistance is $I_1 {=} \tfrac{V_1}{R_1 + R_2} {=} \tfrac{V_1}{2R_1}$, so the power transferred from $$R_1$$ to $$R_2$$ is the square of this current multiplied by $$R_2$$, which simplifies to:

 * $$P_\text{1} = I_1^2 R_2 = I_1^2 R_1 = (\tfrac{V_1}{2R_1})^2 R_1 = \tfrac{V_1^2}{4R_1} \, .$$

Setting this $P_\text{1}$ equal to the earlier average power expression $\overline {P_1}$  allows solving for the average of $V_1^2$  over that bandwidth:

 * $$\overline{V_1^2} = 4 k_\text{B} T {R_1} \, \Delta f \, .$$

Nyquist used similar reasoning to provide a generalized expression that applies to non-equal and complex impedances too. And while Nyquist above used $$k_{\rm B} T$$ according to classical theory, Nyquist concluded his paper by attempting to use a more involved expression that incorporated the Planck constant $$h$$ (from the new theory of quantum mechanics).

Generalized forms
The $$4 k_\text{B} T R$$ voltage noise described above is a special case for a purely resistive component for low to moderate frequencies. In general, the thermal electrical noise continues to be related to resistive response in many more generalized electrical cases, as a consequence of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. Below a variety of generalizations are noted. All of these generalizations share a common limitation, that they only apply in cases where the electrical component under consideration is purely passive and linear.

Complex impedances
Nyquist's original paper also provided the generalized noise for components having partly reactive response, e.g., sources that contain capacitors or inductors. Such a component can be described by a frequency-dependent complex electrical impedance $$Z(f)$$. The formula for the power spectral density of the series noise voltage is

S_{v_n v_n}(f) = 4 k_\text{B} T \eta(f) \operatorname{Re}[Z(f)]. $$ The function $$\eta(f)$$ is approximately 1, except at very high frequencies or near absolute zero (see below).

The real part of impedance, $$\operatorname{Re}[Z(f)]$$, is in general frequency dependent and so the Johnson–Nyquist noise is not white noise. The RMS noise voltage over a span of frequencies $$f_1$$ to $$f_2$$ can be found by taking the square root of integration of the power spectral density:
 * $$ V_\text{rms} = \sqrt{\int_{f_1}^{f_2} S_{v_n v_n}(f) df}$$.

Alternatively, a parallel noise current can be used to describe Johnson noise, its power spectral density being

S_{i_n i_n}(f) = 4 k_\text{B} T \eta(f) \operatorname{Re}[Y(f)]. $$ where $$Y(f) {=} \tfrac{1}{Z(f)}$$ is the electrical admittance; note that $$\operatorname{Re}[Y(f)] {=} \tfrac{\operatorname{Re}[Z(f)]}{|Z(f)|^2} \, .$$

Quantum effects at high frequencies or low temperatures
With proper consideration of quantum effects (which are relevant for very high frequencies or very low temperatures near absolute zero), the multiplying factor $$\eta(f)$$ mentioned earlier is in general given by:
 * $$\eta(f) = \frac{hf/k_\text{B} T}{e^{hf/k_\text{B} T} - 1}+\frac{1}{2}

\frac{h f}{k_\text{B} T} \, .$$ At very high frequencies ($$f \gtrsim \tfrac{k_\text{B} T}{h}$$), the function $$\eta(f)$$ starts to exponentially decrease to zero. At room temperature this transition occurs in the terahertz, far beyond the capabilities of conventional electronics, and so it is valid to set $$\eta(f)=1$$ for conventional electronics work.

Relation to Planck's law
Nyquist's formula is essentially the same as that derived by Planck in 1901 for electromagnetic radiation of a blackbody in one dimension—i.e., it is the one-dimensional version of Planck's law of blackbody radiation. In other words, a hot resistor will create electromagnetic waves on a transmission line just as a hot object will create electromagnetic waves in free space.

In 1946, Robert H. Dicke elaborated on the relationship, and further connected it to properties of antennas, particularly the fact that the average antenna aperture over all different directions cannot be larger than $$\tfrac{\lambda^2}{4\pi}$$, where λ is wavelength. This comes from the different frequency dependence of 3D versus 1D Planck's law.

Multiport electrical networks
Richard Q. Twiss extended Nyquist's formulas to multi-port passive electrical networks, including non-reciprocal devices such as circulators and isolators. Thermal noise appears at every port, and can be described as random series voltage sources in series with each port. The random voltages at different ports may be correlated, and their amplitudes and correlations are fully described by a set of cross-spectral density functions relating the different noise voltages,
 * $$S_{v_m v_n}(f) = 2 k_\text{B} T \eta(f) (Z_{mn}(f) + Z_{nm}(f)^*)$$

where the $$Z_{mn}$$ are the elements of the impedance matrix $$\mathbf{Z}$$. Again, an alternative description of the noise is instead in terms of parallel current sources applied at each port. Their cross-spectral density is given by
 * $$S_{i_m i_n}(f) = 2 k_\text{B} T \eta(f) (Y_{mn}(f) + Y_{nm}(f)^*)$$

where $$\mathbf{Y} = \mathbf{Z}^{-1}$$ is the admittance matrix.

title: Johnson–Nyquist noise


text:
Ernesto Nazareth

Ernesto Júlio de Nazareth (March 20, 1863 – February 1, 1934) was a Brazilian composer and pianist, especially noted for his creative maxixe and choro compositions. Influenced by a diverse set of dance rhythms including the polka, the habanera and the lundu, he combined these elements with his classical training to create compositions that he called “Brazilian tangos". These would be the precursors for what is known today as Choro. His piano repertoire is now part of the teaching programs of both classical and popular styles, as Nazareth once served at the boundary between these two worlds.

Biography
Nazareth was born in Rio de Janeiro, one of five children. His mother, Carolina da Cunha, gave him his first piano lessons. At the age of ten, after his mother's death, he continued his piano studies with Eduardo Madeira and Charles Lucien Lambert. Strongly influenced by Chopin, Nazareth published his first composition Você Bem Sabe (which means "You know it well") in 1877, at age 14. At that time, he had begun his professional career playing in cafes, balls, society parties and in the waiting rooms of movie theaters. In 1893, Casa Vieira Machado published his famous tango Brejeiro.

In 1879, he wrote his first tango, Cruz perigo. In 1880, at age 17, he made his first public appearance at the Mozart Club. The following year, he composed the tango Não caio n'outra, his first great success, with several reprints. In 1885, he performed in concerts in different clubs of the court. In 1893, Casa Vieira Machado launched a new catalogue of his compositions, including the tango Brejeiro, which achieved national and even international success; the Republican Guard band of Paris included it in their repertoire and recorded it.

His first concert as a pianist took place in 1898. The following year he prepared the first edition of the tango Turuna. In 1905, he had his first work, Brejeiro, recorded by singer Mario Pinheiro with the title O sertanejo enamorado with lyrics by Catulo da Paixão Cearense. Meanwhile, the "Casa Édison" marching band recorded his tango Brushed, which became quite successful. In 1907 Nazareth was appointed third book-keeper of the National Treasury, a position that he did not occupy for not mastering the English language. In 1908, he began working as a pianist at the Mozart Club.

The following year, he participated in a concert held at the National Institute of Music, playing his gavotte Corbeille de fleurs and tango Batuque. He began giving private piano lessons, and worked as a pianist for Casa Gomes in 1921, and the Odeon Cinema from 1920 until 1924. In São Paulo and Campinas he performed several shows in the Municipal Theater and the Conservatory. He was given a grand piano as a gift from his admirers. He was one of the first artists to play for the Society Radio of Rio de Janeiro. In 1932 he presented, for the first time, a recital in which he performed only his compositions.

In 1933, after a period of mental instability following the deaths of his wife and daughter, and diagnosed with syphilis and worsening hearing problems caused by a fall during childhood, Nazareth was hospitalized at the Juliano Moreira Asylum in Jacarepaguá. He fled the asylum February 1, 1934 and was found dead three days later in the adjacent forest near a waterfall, where he had drowned.

Catalog of works
Nazareth was noted for creatively combining diverse influences into his music, not only of Brazilian music but also from the music of Europe, Africa and ragtime. Many of his compositions remain part of the repertory today. He composed 88 tangos, 41 waltzes, 28 polkas and numerous sambas, galops, quadrilles, Schottisches, fox-trots, romances and other types of scores, totaling 211 complete compositions.

 * 1922
 * A bella Melusina
 * A flor de meus sonhos
 * A florista
 * A fonte do lambari
 * A fonte do suspiro
 * Adieu
 * Adorável
 * Ai rica prima
 * Albíngia
 * Alerta!
 * Ameno resedá
 * Andante expressivo
 * Apanhei-te cavaquinho
 * Arreliado
 * Arrojado
 * Arrufos
 * As gracinhas de Nhô-nhô
 * Até que enfim!
 * Atlântico
 * Atrevidinha
 * Atrevido
 * Bambino
 * Bambino – você não me dá! – words by Catulo da Paixão Cearense
 * Batuque
 * Beija-Flor
 * Beijinho de moça
 * Bom-Bom
 * Brejeira
 * Brejeiro
 * Bicyclette-club
 * Caçadora
 * Cacique
 * Capricho
 * Cardosina
 * Carioca
 * Catrapuz
 * Cavaquinho, por que choras?
 * Celestial
 * Chave de ouro
 * Chile-Brazil
 * Comigo é na madeira
 * Confidências
 * Coração que sente
 * Corbeille de Fleurs
 * Correcta
 * Crê e espera
 * Crises em penca
 * Cruz, perigo!!
 * Cruzeiro
 * Cubanos
 * Cuéra
 * Cutuba
 * Cuyubinha
 * De tarde
 * Delightfulness
 * Dengoso
 * Desengonçado
 * Digo
 * Dirce
 * Divina
 * Dor secreta
 * Dora
 * Duvidoso
 * Elegantíssima
 * Elegia para piano (left hand)
 * Elétrica
 * Elite-club
 * Encantada
 * Encantador
 * Ensimesmado
 * Eponina
 * Escorregando
 * Escovado
 * Espalhafatoso
 * Espanholita
 * Está chumbado
 * Eulina
 * Expansiva
 * Êxtase (voice, piano and violin)
 * Êxtase (piano)
 * Exuberante
 * Faceira
 * Famoso
 * Fantástica
 * Favorito
 * Feitiço
 * Ferramenta
 * Fetiço não mata
 * Fidalga
 * Floraux
 * Fon-fon
 * Fora dos eixos
 * Furinga
 * Garoto
 * Gaúcho
 * Gemendo, rindo e pulando
 * Genial
 * Gente, o imposto pegou?
 * Gentil
 * Gotas de ouro
 * Gracietta
 * Guerreiro
 * Helena
 * Henriette
 * Hino a Alaor Prata
 * Hino a Carneiro Leão
 * Hino a Pereira Passos
 * Hino da Escola Ester Pedreira de Mello
 * Hino da Escola Floriano Peixoto
 * Hino da Escola Pedro II
 * Ideal
 * If I Am Not Mistaken
 * Improviso (Concert Study)
 * Insuperável
 * Ipanema
 * Iris
 * Jacaré
 * Jangadeiro
 * Janota
 * Julieta ('quadrilha', popular Brazilian dance)
 * Julieta (valse)
 * Julita
 * Labirinto
 * Laço Azul
 * Lamentos
 * Magnífico
 * Mágoas
 * Maly
 * Mandinga
 * Marcha Fúnebre
 * Marcha Heróica aos Dezoito do Forte
 * Mariazinha sentada na pedra
 * Marietta
 * Matuto
 * Meigo
 * Menino de ouro
 * Mercedes
 * Mesquitinha
 * Myosótis
 * Não caio n'outra!
 * Não me fujas assim
 * Nazareth
 * Nenê
 * Nenê – words by Catulo da Paixão Cearense
 * No jardim
 * Noêmia
 * Noturno
 * Nove de Julho
 * Nove de Maio
 * O Alvorecer
 * O Futurista
 * O nome dela (polca)
 * O Nome dela (valse)
 * O que há
 * Os teus olhos cativam
 * Odeon
 * Onze de Maio
 * Orminda
 * Ouro sobre azul
 * Pairando
 * Paraíso
 * Pássaros em festa
 * Paulicéa como és formosa!
 * Perigoso
 * Pierrot
 * Pingüim
 * Pipoca
 * Pirilampo
 * Plangente
 * Plus Ultra
 * Podia ser pior
 * Polca para a mão esquerda (left hand)
 * Polonaise
 * Por que sofre?
 * Primorosa
 * Proeminente
 * Quebra-Cabeças
 * Quebradinha
 * Ramirinho
 * Ranzinza
 * Rayon d'Or
 * Reboliço
 * Recordações do passado
 * Remando
 * Resignação
 * Respingando
 * Ressaca
 * Retumbante
 * Rosa Maria
 * Sagaz
 * Salve, Salve, Nações Unidas
 * Sarambeque
 * Saudade
 * Saudade dos Pagos
 * Saudades e Saudades!
 * Segredo
 * Segredos da infância
 * Sentimentos d'Alma
 * Soberano
 * Suculento
 * Sustenta a ...nota...
 * Sutil
 * Tango Habenera
 * Talismã
 * Tenebroso
 * Thierry
 * Topázio líquido
 * Travesso
 * Tudo Sobe...
 * Tupinambá
 * Turbilhão de beijos
 * Turuna
 * Vem cá, Branquinha
 * Vésper
 * Victória
 * Vitorioso
 * Você bem sabe
 * Xangô
 * Yolanda
 * Zênite (authored by Maestro Gaó)
 * Zica
 * Zizinha

Media

'Escovado' is a common slang which means 'smart'. Ary Vasconcelos tells us in his book Panorama da Musica Popular Brasileira that Nazareth was a "devoted family man who often gave the songs he composed titles in honor of his son, sometimes his wife, or another relative". Travesso was dedicated to his son Ernesto, Marieta and Eulina to his two daughters, Dora to his wife Theodora, Brejeiro to his nephew Gilbert, etc.

Escovado was first published by Casa Vieira Machado & Co. and dedicated to Fernando Nazareth, the composer's younger brother. It became one of Nazareth's greatest success, having the main theme been later tapped by the French composer Darius Milhaud in his Le bœuf sur le toit (1919). In September 1930, accepting an invitation made by Eduardo Souto, then artistic director of Odeon-Parlophone, Nazareth recorded this piece.

Brejeiro is one of the ambient songs in the game Civilization VI, when playing with Brazil. The version used in the game was composed and directed by Geoff Knorr.

title: Ernesto Nazareth