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Epistemic community

An epistemic community is a network of professionals with recognized knowledge and skill in a particular issue-area. They share a set of beliefs, which provide a value-based foundation for the actions of members. Members of an epistemic community also share causal beliefs, which result from their analysis of practices that contribute to set of problems in their issue-area that then allow them to see the multiple links between policy and outcomes. Third, they share notions of validity, or internationally defined criteria for validating knowledge in their area of know-how. However, the members are from all different professions. Epistemic communities also have a common set of practices associated with a set of problems towards which their professional knowledge is directed, because of the belief that human welfare will benefit as a result. Communities evolve independently and without influence of authority or government. They do not have to be large; some are made up of only a few members. Even non-members can have an influence on epistemic communities. However, if the community loses consensus, then its authority decreases.

Definition
The definitive conceptual framework of an epistemic community is widely accepted as that of Peter M. Haas. He describes them as "...a network of professionals with recognised expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area."

As discussed Haas's definitive text, an epistemic community is made up of a diverse range of academic and professional experts, who are allied on the basis of four unifying characteristics:

 * 1) a shared set of normative and principled beliefs which provide a value-based rationale for the social action of community members;
 * 2) shared causal beliefs which are derived from their analysis of practices leading or contributing to a central set of problems in their domain and which then serve as the basis for elucidating the multiple linkages between possible policy actions and desired outcomes;
 * 3) shared notions of validity, i.e. intersubjective, internally defined criteria for weighing and validating knowledge in the domain of their expertise; and
 * 4) a common policy enterprise, or a set of common practices associated with a set of problems to which their professional competence is directed, presumably out of the conviction that human welfare will be enhanced as a consequence.

Thus, when viewed as an epistemic community, the overall enterprise of the expert members emerges as the product of a combination of shared beliefs and more subtle conformity pressures, rather than a direct drive for concurrence (Michael J. Mazarr). Epistemic communities also have a "normative component" meaning the end goal is always for the betterment of society, rather than self gain of the community itself (Peter M. Haas).

Most researchers carefully distinguish between epistemic forms of community and "real" or "bodily" community which consists of people sharing risk, especially bodily risk. It is also problematic to draw the line between modern ideas and more ancient ones, for example, Joseph Campbell's concept of myth from cultural anthropology, and Carl Jung's concept of archetype in psychology. Some consider forming an epistemic community a deep human need, and ultimately a mythical or even religious obligation. Among these very notably are E. O. Wilson, as well as Ellen Dissanayake, an American historian of aesthetics who famously argued that almost all of our broadly shared conceptual metaphors centre on one basic idea of safety: that of "home".

From this view, an epistemic community may be seen as a group of people who do not have any specific history together, but search for a common idea of home as if forming an intentional community. For example, an epistemic community can be found in a network of professionals from a wide variety of disciplines and backgrounds.

Although the members of an epistemic community may originate from a variety of academic or professional backgrounds, they are linked by a set of unifying characteristics for the promotion of collective amelioration and not collective gain. This is termed their "normative component". In the big picture, epistemic communities are socio-psychological entities that create and justify knowledge. Such communities can constitute of only two persons and yet gain an important role in building knowledge on any specific subject. Miika Vähämaa has recently suggested that epistemic communities consist of persons being able to understand, discuss and gain self-esteem concerning the matters being discussed.

Some theorists argue that an epistemic community may consist of those who accept one version of a story, or one version of validating a story. Michel Foucault referred more elaborately to mathesis as a rigorous episteme suitable for enabling cohesion of a discourse and thus uniting a community of its followers. In philosophy of science and systems science the process of forming a self-maintaining epistemic community is sometimes called a mindset. In politics, a tendency or faction is usually described in very similar terms.

Emergence
Epistemic communities came to be because of the rapid professionalization of government agencies. The Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee was created by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to coordinate the planning process. However, it did not actually participate in the planning process, but rather, was the venue that the Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation used to divide construction projects. The failure of the Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee to be part of the planning process shows that “committees imposed from the top may be less likely to promote coordination than to provide agency officials with a means to enhance their autonomy,” (Thomas 1997, 225). Another reason why epistemic communities came to be is that decision makers began turning to experts to help them understand issues because there were more issues and all were more complicated. This caused greater interest in planning, and future-oriented research, which caused the establishment of environmental and natural resource agencies in 118 countries from 1972 to 1982. Growing professionalization of bureaucracies caused more respect towards experts, especially scientists. The first achievement by epistemic communities was the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the United States and Russia.

Role in international relations
Epistemic communities influence policy by providing knowledge to policy makers. Uncertainty plays a large role in an epistemic community's influence, because they hold the knowledge that policy makers need to create the wanted outcomes in policy. According to Robert Keohane they fill the absence of “a research program” [that shows] in particular studies that it can illuminate important issues in world politics,” (Adler/Haas 1992, 367). They can influence the setting of standards and the development of regulations as well as help coordinate structure of IR. The communities influence through communicative action; diffusing ideas nationally, transnationally, and internationally. An epistemic community's scope of cooperation is directly linked to the comprehensiveness of their beliefs. The strength of cooperative agreements depends on the power that the epistemic community has gathered within agencies and governments. The duration of cooperation is determined by the epistemic community's continued power. The most important contributions of epistemic communities are; that they direct attention towards the conditions which will likely cause a coalition to form and the possibilities of expansion, they insists on the importance of awareness and knowledge in negotiation, and they deepen the knowledge of how various actors define their interests.

Role in international policy coordination
Epistemic communities usually aid in issues concerning a technical nature. Normally, they guide decision makers towards the appropriate norms and institutions by framing and institutionalizing the issue-area. Epistemic communities are also a source of policy innovation. Communities have indirect and direct roles in policy coordination by diffusing ideas and influencing the positions adopted. Policy evolution occurs in four steps: policy innovation, diffusion, selection, and persistence. Through framing the range of political controversy surrounding an issue, defining state interests, and setting standards epistemic communities can define the best solution to a problem. The definition of interest is specially important because there are many different definitions of what is a priority for a government. Intellectual innovations (produced by epistemic communities) are carried by domestic or international organizations (epistemic communities are a part of these organizations) then are selected by political process. Peter M. Haas argued “that epistemic communities help to explain the emergence and character of cooperation at the international level,” (Thomas 1997, 223). The shared interests they represent last more than the disagreements about a specific issue. Epistemic communities create a reality that is hindered by political factors and related considerations. If an epistemic community only acquires power in one country or international body, then its power is a direct effect of that country or body's power.

Impact
Epistemic communities became institutionalized in the short term because of change into the policy-making process and to persuade others that their approach is the right approach. Long-term effects occur through socialization. There are a myriad of examples of the impact that epistemic communities have had on public policy. Arms control ideas are reflected in the ABM Treaty and agreements following it during Cold War. Epistemic communities brought attention to chlorofluorocarbons and their polluting consequences. This realization led to the creation of environmental international agencies in a majority of the world's governments. This caused environmental decisions to go through the United Nations Environment Programme rather than through General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) who would normally dispute these issues. Such was the case when the 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.

An epistemic community helped identify issues and direct the parameters that provided outline for GATT and some free trade agreements. They have also helped in telecommunications agreements and economy issues around the world. In telecommunications, “without the influence of an epistemic community of engineers concerned about design and international coordination of telecommunications equipment and standards, the regime would not have moved in the direction of multilateral agreements,” (Adler/Haas 1992, 377).

Epistemic communities were directly involved in the creation of the Board of Plant Genetic Resources. As well as the creation of food aid and the way that food aid functions. Epistemic communities also have brought attention to the habitat fragmentation and decline of biodiversity on the planet. This has led to reform throughout the world creating conservation agencies and policies. In California, an ecological epistemic community succeeded in creating the Memorandum of Understanding Biological Diversity (MOU on Biodiversity). The agreement covered all habitats and species in California for protection. The MOU on Biodiversity was followed by the Endangered Species Act which applied to all of the United States. Epistemic communities have a direct effect on agenda setting in intergovernmental organizations and indirect effect on the behavior of small countries. The ideas and policies of an epistemic community can become orthodoxy through the work of that community and through socialization. However, their effect is limited because there is a need for a shock to cause policy makers to seek epistemic community.

Role in environmental governance
The global environmental agenda is increasing in complexity and interconnectedness. Often environmental policymakers do not understand the technical aspects of the issues they are regulating. This affects their ability to define state interests and develop suitable solutions within cross-boundary environmental regulation.

As a result, conditions of uncertainty are produced which stimulate a demand for new information. Environmental crises play a significant role in exacerbating conditions of uncertainty for decision-makers. Political elites seek expert knowledge and advice to reduce this technical uncertainty, on issues including:
 * the scale of environmental problems,
 * cause-and-effect interrelations of ecological processes, and
 * how (science-based) policy options will play out.

Therefore, epistemic communities can frame environmental problems as they see fit, and environmental decision-makers begin to make policy-shaping decisions based on these specific depictions.

The initial identification and bounding of environmental issues by epistemic community members is very influential. They can limit what would be preferable in terms of national interests, frame what issues are available for collective debate, and delimit the policy alternatives deemed possible. The political effects are not easily reversible. The epistemic community vision is institutionalised as a collective set of understandings reflected in any subsequent policy choices.

This is a key point of power. Policy actors are persuaded to conform to the community’s consensual, knowledge-driven ideas without the epistemic community requiring a more material form of power. Members of successful communities can become strong actors at the national and international level as decision-makers attach responsibility to their advice.

As a result, epistemic communities have a direct input on how international cooperation may develop in the long term. Transboundary environmental problems require a unified response rather than patchwork policy efforts, but this is problematic due to enduring differences of state interest and concerns over reciprocity. The transnational nature of epistemic communities means numerous states may absorb new patterns of logic and behaviour, leading to the adoption of concordant state policies. Therefore, the likelihood of convergent state behaviour and associated international coordination is increased.

International cooperation is further facilitated if powerful states are involved, as a quasi-structure is created containing the reasons, expectations and arguments for coordination. Also, if epistemic community members have developed authoritative bureaucratic reputations in various countries, they are likely to participate in the creation and running of national and international institutions that directly pursue international policy coordination, for example, a regulatory agency, think tank or governmental research body.

As a result, epistemic community members in a number of different countries can become connected through intergovernmental channels, as well as existing community channels, producing a transnational governance network, and facilitating the promotion of international policy coordination. An example of a scientific epistemic community in action is the 1975 collectively negotiated Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), a marine pollution control regime for the Mediterranean Sea developed by the United Nations Environment Programme.

Limitations
Some refutations have been formulated about epistemic communities, in the study of the circulation of international expertise. Firstly, one should be cautious about the risk of retrospective thinking when conceptualizing epistemic communities. Indeed, the solutions proposed by expert groups which are eventually adopted by policy makers are one but many that have been formulated by the scientific community. The epistemic community proposition is confirmed by the fact that the solution adopted are necessarily "tolerable" by policy makers, who choose between all those which have been proposed by the scientific community. Secondly, it is difficult to assess the limits of the term "experts". For instance, the G7 "experts" would in fact be civil servants from the member-states of the organization, who therefore cannot claim the scientific legitimacy of researchers. Finally, this hypothesis does not take into consideration the influence of national contexts in the agenda-setting of epistemic communities. The experts are restricted to the limit of the tolerable in their own national context, which is also crucial in the adoption of the solutions they propose at the local level.

title: Epistemic community


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Star Wars (radio series)

A radio dramatization of the original Star Wars film trilogy was produced in 1981, 1983, and 1996. The first two radio series, based on Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back, were produced and broadcast by National Public Radio (NPR) as part of NPR Playhouse. A dramatization of Return of the Jedi was produced by most of the same team and it was also broadcast on NPR.

The radio serials were made with the full cooperation of George Lucas, who, in exchange for a dollar each, sold the rights to KUSC-FM, the public radio affiliate at his alma mater, the University of Southern California (USC). Lucas also permitted the use of original sound effects and music from the films.

History
In the 1980s, radio drama was in decline in the United States. An associate dean of the University of California School of the Performing Arts, Richard Toscan, was keen to champion this art form. Toscan was supported by John Houseman, the producer responsible for Orson Welles's 1938 radio production of The War of the Worlds. He began with the dramatisation of short stories by Raymond Carver on KUSC-FM, a campus radio station affiliated to NPR. Following this production, Toscan collaborated with Houseman and NPR producer Frank Mankiewicz on a project to revive the fortunes of NPR Playhouse, the umbrella title for drama productions on NPR. At the suggestion of one of Toscan's students, Joel Rosenzweig, they developed an idea for adapting the 1977 epic space opera film Star Wars for radio. The popularity of Star Wars would certainly attract new, younger listeners, but they feared that the production costs would be prohibitively high. However, the production team's academic connections proved to be advantageous: USC is the alma mater of the writer and director of Star Wars, George Lucas, and Lucasfilm quickly granted the rights to KUSC, including the rights to the use of original Star Wars music and sound effects, for a token fee of one dollar.

Despite Lucasfilm's generous offer, NPR was still faced with the costs of writing scripts, hiring actors and renting studio space. With no funding available to cover the $200,000 budget, NPR entered into a co-production deal with the British broadcaster, the BBC, which had a long tradition of radio drama production. The BBC provided a production team, including director John Madden, and in exchange received broadcasting rights in the United Kingdom. From the outset, the NPR producers felt that the script would lend itself well to an episodic treatment, drawing on the format of the 1930s movie serials such as Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers that had originally inspired Lucas when he wrote Star Wars.

The American science fiction novelist Brian Daley was brought in to write the script. Daley had access to Lucas's early drafts of the Star Wars scripts, and expanded the narrative to include material which had been cut from the final edit of the film so that the 13-episode radio adaptation ran approximately four hours longer than the film version. Casting the audio serial was not as easy as had been hoped; while the producers were able to secure the actors Mark Hamill and Anthony Daniels from the original film, Harrison Ford was unavailable as he was filming Raiders of the Lost Ark at the time, and his place was taken by Perry King, an actor who once auditioned for the part of Han Solo in the 1977 film.

Led by Mankiewicz, NPR promoted the Star Wars serial with a successful publicity campaign, attracting coverage in Playboy, The New York Times and Time, who hailed the production with the headline, "Radio drama is making a resounding comeback". Star Wars was launched at a special NPR event at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, in which the drama was played under a starry light show. Broadcasts began in March 1981 to critical acclaim, and the drama instantly attracted 750,000 new listeners, representing a 40 percent increase in NPR audiences and a quadrupling of the network's youth audience. On the basis of this success, KUSC went on to produce popular adaptations of the sequel, The Empire Strikes Back. An adaptation of Return of the Jedi followed over a decade later, and it was produced by many of the same people who produced the KUSC/NPR productions.

Canonicity and continuity
The Star Wars radio dramas were authorized adaptations of Lucas's scripts, and they were originally considered canon. Commentators argued that while the radio dramas varied somewhat from the film scripts, they should be considered canon insofar as they did not directly contradict the films. However, in 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm and the rights to Star Wars. In 1994, Lucasfilm's continuity editor, Allan Kausch, stated that "'Gospel', or 'canon' as we refer to it, includes the screenplays, the films, the radio dramas and the novelizations." In 2014 Lucasfilm announced that previous works which were set in the Expanded Universe (including comics, novels and videogames) were to be re-branded as Star Wars Legends, and only the Skywalker saga and The Clone Wars film and television series were to be considered canon, in addition to new spin-off works.

The first radio drama relates the backstory which immediately precedes the narrative of the original 1977 film, and this backstory overlaps with the Legends novels Jedi Dawn, Rebel Dawn and the 2016 film Rogue One. Commentators have since noted that the canon story which is introduced in Rogue One conflicts with episode 2 of the radio drama, "Points of Origin". In the radio drama, the Death Star plans are obtained after a Rebel attack on an Imperial convoy; Rebel agents then transmit the Death Star plans from the planet Toprawa to the Tantive IV. In Rogue One, the plans are transmitted from Scarif, where they were archived, to Admiral Raddus' flagship, the Profundity. The plans are then taken on board the docked Tantive IV, which launches before Darth Vader can recapture them.

In 2015 another adaptation of A New Hope was published, The Princess, the Scoundrel, and the Farm Boy. The author, Alexandra Bracken, stated that she was reading the Expanded Universe to try to "sneak elements in" to the canon and adapted material from the radio drama.

Star Wars
Star Wars is a 13-part (5 hour, 56 minute) radio serial originally broadcast on National Public Radio on March 2, 1981. It was adapted by Brian Daley from the 1977 film, and directed by John Madden, with music by John Williams and sound design for Lucasfilm by Ben Burtt. The serial was recorded in 1981 at Westlake Recording Studios in West Hollywood, California.

Daley adapted the script partly using material from earlier drafts of Lucas's scripts, and restored several scenes cut from the final edit of the film, as well as adding original new scenes created specially for the audio version. The narrative of the first two episodes takes place entirely before the opening scene of the 1977 film, and expands the background to events leading up to the capture of the Tantive IV spacecraft above the planet Tatooine. Episode 1, largely based on cut scenes from the original, explores the life of Luke Skywalker on Tatooine. During the story, Luke's skyhopper (a vehicle seen in the background in Luke's garage during the film) is damaged during a desert race; Luke sees the distant Star Destroyer battle in the sky; and he is reunited with his childhood friend, Biggs Darklighter. Episode 2, made up of material written entirely by Daley, provides backstory to Princess Leia's acquisition of the Death Star plans from agents of the Rebel Alliance on the planet Toprawa. In scenes set on the planet Alderaan, Leia discusses the plans with her father, Prestor Organa, and determines to go in search of Obi-Wan Kenobi. Later episodes mostly follow the storyline of the film, but additional scenes expand the narrative. In one scene, Han Solo has a meeting with an agent of Jabba the Hutt called Heater; this dialogue is based on a scene in which Solo meets a humanoid Jabba in the docking bay, cut from the original film but later reinstated in the 1997 Special Edition in modified form. In another episode, Daley inserts a conversation in which Admiral Motti attempts to convince Grand Moff Tarkin to leverage the Death Star as a political tool.

When the series was re-issued on NPR several years later, it was retitled The New Hope (as opposed to the official alternate title, A New Hope), keeping in line with the subtitles of the episodes of the original trilogy films.

Episode titles:
 * 1) "A Wind to Shake the Stars"
 * 2) "Points of Origin"
 * 3) "Black Knight, White Princess, and Pawns"
 * 4) "While Giants Mark Time"
 * 5) "Jedi that Was, Jedi To Be"
 * 6) "The Millennium Falcon Deal"
 * 7) "The Han Solo Solution"
 * 8) "Death Star's Transit"
 * 9) "Rogues, Rebels and Robots"
 * 10) "The Luke Skywalker Initiative"
 * 11) "The Jedi Nexus"
 * 12) "The Case for Rebellion"
 * 13) "Force and Counter Force"

Cast
Several actors reprised their roles in the film. Mark Hamill and Anthony Daniels returned to reprise their roles as Luke Skywalker and C-3PO, respectively.

• Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker

• Ann Sachs as Princess Leia Organa

• Perry King as Han Solo

• Bernard Behrens as Obi-Wan Kenobi

• Brock Peters as Darth Vader

• Anthony Daniels as C-3PO

• Keene Curtis as Grand Moff Tarkin

• John Considine as Lord Tion

• Stephen Elliott as Prestor (Bail Organa)

• David Ackroyd as Captain Antilles

• Adam Arkin as Fixer

• Kale Browne as Biggs Darklighter

• David Clennon as Motti

• Anne Gerety as Aunt Beru

• Thomas Hill as Uncle Owen

• David Paymer as Deak

• Joel Brooks as Heater

• John Dukakis as Rebel

• Stephanie Steele as Camie

• Phillip Kellard as Customer No. 2

The supporting cast included James Blendick, Clyde Burton, Bruce French, David Alan Grier, Jerry Hardin, John Harkins, Scott Jacoby, Meshach Taylor, Marc Vahanian, John Welsh, and Kent Williams. Ken Hiller provides the narration.

The Empire Strikes Back
The success of the first series led to a 10-part (4 hour, 22 minute) series based on the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back, again written by Daley and directed by Madden. It was recorded in 1982 at A&R Studios, New York City. The series debuted on NPR on February 14, 1983.

Like the preceding series, The Empire Strikes Back expands on the movie's story and incorporates new scenes such an Imperial attack on a Rebel convoy taking place before the film's original opening scene and a tense conversation between Solo and Skywalker when the two are stranded in the Hoth wastelands.

National Public Radio's promoted the series in part by getting Craig Claiborne to create his version of Yoda's rootleaf stew recipe, which the Jedi Master serves Luke in the hut on Dagobah. The recipe ran in magazines and newspapers across the country.

Episode titles:
 * 1) "Freedom's Winter"
 * 2) "The Coming Storm"
 * 3) "A Question of Survival"
 * 4) "Fire and Ice"
 * 5) "The Millennium Falcon Pursuit"
 * 6) "Way of the Jedi"
 * 7) "New Allies, New Enemies"
 * 8) "Dark Lord's Fury"
 * 9) "Gambler's Choice"
 * 10) "The Clash of Lightsabers"

Cast
Billy Dee Williams reprised Lando Calrissian, and John Lithgow played Yoda at the same time Madden was directing Lithgow in the play Beyond Therapy. Hamill and Daniels returned to voice Luke and C-3PO.

• Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker

• Perry King as Han Solo

• Ann Sachs as Princess Leia Organa

• Billy Dee Williams as Lando Calrissian

• Bernard Behrens as Obi-Wan Kenobi

• Brock Peters as Darth Vader

• John Lithgow as Yoda

• Anthony Daniels as C-3PO

• James Eckhouse as Beta

• Peter Friedman as Dak

• Ron Frazier as Deck Officer

• Merwin Goldsmith as General Rieekan

• Peter Michael Goetz as Admiral Ozzel

• Gordon Gould as General Veers

• Paul Hecht as The Emperor

• Russell Horton as 2-1B

• James Hurdle as Controller

• Nicholas Kepros as Captain Needa

• David Rasche as Admiral Piett

• Alan Rosenberg as Boba Fett

• Jay O. Sanders as Imperial Pilot

• Don Scardino as Wedge Antilles The supporting cast again included David Alan Grier and also included Sam McMurray, Steven Markle, Stephen D. Newman, John Pielmeier, Geoffrey Pierson, Gary Tacon, and Jerry Zaks. Ken Hiller provides the narration.

Return of the Jedi
NPR's plans for a Return of the Jedi radio serial were put on hold when federal funding for NPR was dramatically reduced; however, NPR was never the producer of the radio series nor was it ever granted the rights to produce the radio adaptations nor did NPR fund any of the radio productions. Plans for a Jedi radio adaptation fell apart in the 1980s due to a disagreement (believed to be financial) between KUSC, Los Angeles (the producer of the two previous radio adaptations and to whom the rights were granted for the production) and Lucasfilm. NPR was granted limited rights to air the two previous radio series because KUSC, Los Angeles provided the radio adaptations to NPR as part of NPR's National Program Service that allows any NPR member station rights to air the series as part of the annual dues already paid (rather than the third party Extended Program Service where KUSC could have charged each station a fee for rights to air cutting out NPR). It was not until 1996 that a six-part adaptation of Return of the Jedi was made by Highbridge Audio, the company that had released the first two series on tape and CD. The production returned to the Westlake Recording Studios, where the original series had been recorded.

Like the preceding series, Return of the Jedi expanded its story by incorporating new scenes. One depicts Luke Skywalker constructing a new lightsaber on Tatooine, based on a deleted scene from the movie. A scripted scene between C-3PO and Boba Fett in Jabba the Hutt's palace was rejected by Anthony Daniels, who felt that the golden droid should not be on friendly terms with a bounty hunter. Fett was replaced by the dancer "Arica" (actually Mara Jade in disguise) from Timothy Zahn's Tales from Jabba's Palace short story.

The audio play's adapter Brian Daley died only hours after its recording was concluded; "additional material" was contributed by John Whitman, who introduced changes that were required so the series could have continuity with the newly developed plan for the prequels, as well as changes that were identified by its director and cast. The series was dedicated to the memory of Brian Daley.

The show's cast recorded a special get well message for Daley after the author left the studio, unaware that he would never hear it. The message is included as part of the collector's edition box set.

Episode titles:
 * 1) "Tatooine Haunts"
 * 2) "Fast Friends"
 * 3) "Prophecies and Destinies"
 * 4) "Pattern and Web"
 * 5) "So Turns a Galaxy, So Turns a Wheel"
 * 6) "Blood of a Jedi"

Cast
The adaptation used many of the original radio cast, though Joshua Fardon took over as Luke and Arye Gross replaced Billy Dee Williams as Lando. Ed Begley Jr. was the voice of Boba Fett and Edward Asner, speaking only in Huttese, voiced Jabba the Hutt. The only actor who starred in all the feature films as well as all three radio dramas was Anthony Daniels.

• Joshua Fardon as Luke Skywalker

• Perry King as Han Solo

• Ann Sachs as Princess Leia Organa

• Anthony Daniels as C-3PO

• Bernard Behrens as Obi-Wan Kenobi

• Arye Gross as Lando Calrissian

• Edward Asner as Jabba The Hutt

• Paul Hecht as The Emperor

• John Lithgow as Yoda

• Brock Peters as Darth Vader

• Ed Begley Jr. as Boba Fett

• Samantha Bennett as Arica

• David Birney as Anakin Skywalker

• Peter Dennis as Moff Jerjerrod

• David Dukes as Bib Fortuna

• Peter Michael Goetz as General Madine

• Ian Gomez as Salacious Crumb

• Martin Jarvis as Barada

• Jon Matthews as Wedge

• Natalia Nogulich as Mon Mothma

• Mark Adair Rios as Admiral Ackbar

• Yeardley Smith as 9D9

• Tom Virtue as Major Derlin The supporting cast included Rick Hall, Andrew Hawkes, Sherman Howard, Karl Johnson, John Kapelos, Ron Le Paz, Joe Liss, Paul Mercier, Steven Petrarca, Jonathan Penner, Gil Segel, Nia Vardalos and Ron West. Ken Hiller provides the narration.

Other broadcasts and releases
Existing radio promos, deleted scenes, and additional music tracks are available which originated on previous releases of this collection and in the NPR broadcast versions.
 * "Radio Promo No. 1 – Anthony Daniels"
 * "Radio Promo No. 2 – Ann Sachs"
 * "Radio Promo No. 3 – Mark Hamill"
 * "Additional Music"
 * "Star Wars Radio Drama – Alternate Take of 'Your Father's Lightsaber'"
 * "Star Wars Radio Drama – Alternate Take 'Bail and Leia'"
 * "Star Wars Radio Drama – Episode One Cut scene from the Original'" [Luke and Camie]
 * "''Star Wars Radio Drama - David C. Fein talking about Two Dialogue Scenes Cut"
 * "Return of the Jedi Radio Drama – Alternate Take 'Speederbike Chase'"
 * "The Making of The Radio Dramas"
 * "The Making of Star Wars for Radio: A Fable for the Mind's Eye"

Spin-off merchandise
In 2013, two special sets of Topps trading cards were released called Star Wars Illustrated, which featured illustrations of scenes from the first Star Wars radio drama. The Topps artwork was also used to illustrate two collectors' editions of the Original Radio Drama released at the same time by HighBridge Audiobooks.

International broadcasts and releases
In July 1981, the Star Wars radio adaptation was broadcast by BBC Radio 1.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Star Wars (radio series)


text:
Arturo Sandoval

Arturo Sandoval (born November 6, 1949) is a Cuban-American jazz trumpeter, pianist, timbalero, and composer. While living in his native Cuba, Sandoval was influenced by jazz musicians Charlie Parker, Clifford Brown, and Dizzy Gillespie. In 1977 he met Gillespie, who became his friend and mentor and helped him defect from Cuba while on tour with the United Nations Orchestra. Sandoval became an American naturalized citizen in 1998. His life was the subject of the film For Love or Country: The Arturo Sandoval Story (2000) starring Andy García.

Sandoval has won 10 Grammy Awards, Billboard Awards and one Emmy Award. He performed at the White House and at the Super Bowl (1995)

Life and career

Sandoval was born into a poor family in Artemisa, a small village in the province of Havana, Cuba. He started playing music at the age of thirteen in the village band, learning the basics of music theory and percussion. After playing many instruments, he finally settled on the trumpet, playing with street musicians. In 1964, Sandoval enrolled at the Cuban National School of Arts where he took classical trumpet lessons for three years, and earned a place in the country's all-star national band. He helped establish the Orquesta Cubana de Musica Moderna, which became the band Irakere in 1973. He toured worldwide with his own group in 1981. During the following year he toured with Dizzy Gillespie, who became his friend and mentor. From 1982 to 1984, he was voted Cuba's Best Instrumentalist and was a guest artist at the BBC and Leningrad Symphony Orchestras.

In 1989, Gillespie invited Sandoval to be part of the United Nations Orchestra. During a tour with this group, Sandoval visited the American Embassy in Athens, Greece, accompanied by Gillespie who helped him with his plan to defect from Cuba. He became an American citizen on December 7, 1998.

Sandoval has performed Latin jazz with Paquito D'Rivera, Tito Puente, and Chico O'Farrill, Cuban music in Miami, and classical music in England and Germany. In the 1990s, he was a member of the GRP All-Star Big Band.

In 2014, Sandoval performed at Eastman Theatre with Zane Musa, Dave Siegel, Teymur Phel, Johnny Friday, and Armando Arce.

He has taught at Florida International University and Whitworth University, where he is in charge of its jazz ensemble. He has performed with Los Angeles Philharmonic, Pittsburgh Symphony and National Symphony Orchestras. In 1996, Sandoval was commissioned by the Kennedy Center Ballet to score Pepito's Story, a ballet based on the book by Eugene Fern and choreographed by Debbie Allen. Sandoval also composed a classical trumpet concerto that he performed and recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra.

Awards and honors
Sandoval's score for a film about his life won an Emmy Award. His compositions and performances can be heard on The Mambo Kings, which was nominated for a Grammy Award in 1992 for Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television.

His song "A Mis Abuelos" (To My Grandparents) received Grammy Award nominations for Best Instrumental Composition and Best Arrangement. This composition appeared on his Grammy-winning album Danzon.

On November 20, 2013, President Barack Obama presented Sandoval with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Other work
In 2015, Arturo Sandoval joined the 14th annual Independent Music Awards judging panel to assist independent musicians' careers. He was also a judge for the 10th, 12th and 13th Independent Music Awards.

As leader

 * Turi (Areito, 1981)
 * Arturo Sandoval y Su Grupo (Areito, 1982)
 * To a Finland Station with Dizzy Gillespie (Pablo, 1982)
 * Breaking the Sound Barrier (Chicago Caribbean, 1983)
 * Tumbaito (Messidor, 1986)
 * No Problem (Jazz House, 1987)
 * Straight Ahead (Jazz House, 1988)
 * Plays for the Pandas (Cocoral, 1988)
 * Just Music (Jazz House, 1989)
 * Arturo Sandoval (Areito, 1991)
 * Flight to Freedom (GRP, 1991)
 * I Remember Clifford (GRP, 1992)
 * Dream Come True (GRP, 1993)
 * Danzón (GRP, 1994)
 * The Classical Album (RCA Victor, 1994)
 * Arturo Sandoval & the Latin Train (GRP, 1995)
 * Swingin'(GRP, 1996)
 * Hot House (N-Coded, 1998)
 * Americana (N-Coded, 1999)
 * Los Elefantes with Wynton Marsalis (In-akustik, 1999)
 * For Love or Country: The Arturo Sandoval Story (Atlantic, 2000)
 * Jam Miami (Concord, 2000)
 * Ronnie Scott's Jazz House (DCC, 2000)
 * L. A. Meetings (CuBop, 2001)
 * My Passion for the Piano (Columbia, 2002)
 * Trumpet Evolution (Columbia, 2003)
 * Live at the Blue Note (Half Note, 2005)
 * Rumba Palace (Telarc, 2007)
 * Mambo Nights (2009)
 * A Time for Love (Concord Jazz, 2010)
 * Dear Diz (Every Day I Think of You) (Concord Jazz, 2012)
 * At Middleton (Perseverance, 2014)
 * Live at Yoshi's (Alfi, 2015)
 * Ultimate Duets (Universal, 2018)
 * Christmas at Notre Dame (2018)
 * Rhythm & Soul (MetaJAX, 2022)

As sideman
With Willy Chirino
 * Oxigeno (Sony, 1991)
 * South Beach (Sony, 1993)
 * Cuba Libre (Sony, 1998)

With Ed Calle
 * DoubleTalk (Columbia, 1996)
 * Sunset Harbor (Concord 1999)
 * Twilight (Concord, 2001)
 * 360 (Mojito, 2016)

With the GRP All-Star Big Band
 * GRP All-Star Big Band (GRP, 1992)
 * Dave Grusin Presents GRP All-Star Big Band Live! (GRP, 1993)
 * All Blues (GRP, 1995)

With Dave Grusin
 * Havana (GRP, 1990)
 * The Orchestral Album (GRP, 1994)
 * Random Hearts (Sony, 1999)
 * An Evening with Dave Grusin (Heads Up, 2011)

With Irakere
 * 3 1/2 (BASF, 1976)
 * Chekere Cuba (Love 1977)
 * Irakere (Areito, 1978)
 * Chekere Son (JVC, 1979)
 * 2 (Columbia, 1979)
 * Cuba Libre (JVC, 1980)
 * Live in Sweden (A Disc, 1981)
 * El Coco (JVC, 1982)

With others
 * Albita, Dicen Que... (Epic, 1996)
 * David Amram, Havana/New York (Flying Fish, 1978)
 * Paul Anka, Amigos (Columbia, 1996)
 * Paul Anka, A Body of Work (Epic, 1998)
 * Ricardo Arjona, Galeria Caribe (Epic, 2000)
 * Luis Eduardo Aute, 20 Canciones De Amor y Un Poema Desesperado (Ariola, 1986)
 * Regina Belle, Passion (Columbia, 1992)
 * Eric Benet, Eric Benet (BMG, 2016)
 * Tony Bennett, Duets II (Columbia, 2011)
 * Canadian Brass, Noel (RCA Victor, 1994)
 * Vikki Carr, Memories, Memorias (Universal, 1999)
 * Dr. John, Ske-Dat-De-Dat (Concord, 2014)
 * Paquito D'Rivera, Reunion (L'Escalier 1991)
 * Candy Dulfer, What Does It Take (N-Coded, 1999)
 * Gloria Estefan, Into the Light (Epic, 1991)
 * Gloria Estefan, Mi Tierra (Epic, 1993)
 * Kurt Elling, Passion World (Concord Jazz, 2015)
 * Pete Escovedo, Live from Stern Grove (Concord Jazz, 2013)
 * Alejandro Fernandez, Confidencias (Universal, 2013)
 * Kenny G, At Last... the Duets Album (Arista, 2004)
 * David Garrett, Music (Decca, 2012)
 * Lucho Gatica, Historia De Un Amor (Universal, 2013)
 * Dizzy Gillespie, Gillespie en Vivo (Areito, 1985)
 * Dizzy Gillespie, Live at the Royal Festival Hall (Enja, 1990)
 * Josh Groban, All That Echoes (Reprise, 2013)
 * Ruben Gonzalez, Suena El Piano Ruben Grandes Solos (Egrem, 2009)
 * Gordon Goodwin, Swingin' for the Fences (Silverline, 2000)
 * George Gruntz, Sins'n Wins'n Funs (TCB, 1996)
 * Henri Guedon, Afro Temple (Le Chant Du Monde, 1984)
 * David Hickman, Trumpet Fiesta (Summit, 2011)
 * Alicia Keys, The Diary of Alicia Keys (J 2004)
 * Michel Legrand, Michel Plays Legrand (LaserLight, 1994)
 * Beenie Man, Art and Life (Virgin, 2000)
 * Junior Mance, ManceSolid, (Chiaroscuro, 2018)
 * Martika, Martika's Kitchen (Columbia, 1991)
 * Ricky Martin, Sound Loaded (Columbia, 2000)
 * Johnny Mathis, How Do You Keep the Music Playing? (Columbia, 1993)
 * Luis Miguel, Mis Romances (WEA, 2001)
 * T. S. Monk, Monk On Monk (N2K Encoded, 1997)
 * James Moody, Moody's Party (Telarc, 1995)
 * Azucar Moreno, Esclava de tu Piel (Epic, 1996)
 * Azucar Moreno, Ole (Epic, 1998)
 * Mouskouri, Nana Latina (Mercury, 1996)
 * Alphonse Mouzon, Angel Face (Tenacious, 2011)
 * Billie Myers, Growing Pains (Universal, 1997)
 * Chico O'Farrill, Heart of a Legend (Milestone, 1999)
 * Ole Ole, Al Descubierto (Hispavox, 1992)
 * Johnny Pacheco, Entre Amigos (Bronco, 2005)
 * Jorge Luis Prats, Toot Suite (Areito, 1986)
 * The Rippingtons, Black Diamond (Windham Hill/Peak, 1997)
 * Danny Rivera, Tiempo Al Tiempo (Columbia, 1992)
 * Lourdes Robles, Amaneciendo En Ti (Sony, 1993)
 * Alejandro Sanz, Sirope (Universal, 2015)
 * Alfredo Sadel, Alfredo Sadel En Cuba (BASF, 1978)
 * Poncho Sanchez, Psychedelic Blues (Concord, 2009)
 * Gilberto Santa Rosa, A Dos Tiempos De Un Tiempo (Sony, 1992)
 * Jimmy Scott, I Go Back Home (Eden River, 2016)
 * Jon Secada, Si Te Vas (SBK, 1994)
 * Jon Secada, Secada (SBK, 1997)
 * Alan Silvestri, Clean Slate (Perez Family Music Box 2013)
 * Frank Sinatra, Duets (Capitol, 2013)
 * Rod Stewart, As Time Goes By (J/BMG, 2003)
 * Rod Stewart, It Had to Be You (J/BMG, 2002)
 * Billy Taylor, Taylor Made at the Kennedy Center (Kennedy Center, 2005)
 * Diego Torres, Tal Cual Es (BMG, 1999)
 * Juan Pablo Torres, Pepper Trombone (RMM/TropiJazz, 1997)
 * Juan Pablo Torres, Together Again (Pimenta 2002)
 * Dave Valentin, Red Sun (GRP, 1993)
 * Chris Walden, Full-On! (Origin, 2014)
 * Ernie Watts, Reaching Up (JVC, 1994)
 * Randy Waldman, Wigged Out (Whirlybird, 1998)
 * Randy Waldman, Super Heroes (BFM, 2018)
 * Arturo Sandoval and Kiwzo Fumero, Baby Grand, (CD Baby, 2022)

Filmography

 * 1985: Vampiros en La Habana
 * 1987: A Night in Havana: Dizzy Gillespie in Cuba
 * 1990: Dizzy Gillespie and the United Nations Orchestra
 * 1993: GRP All-Star Big Band Live
 * 1995: Lava Lava!
 * 1996: Mr. Wrong
 * 1996: The Perez Family
 * 2000: For Love or Country: The Arturo Sandoval Story
 * 2000: Knockout
 * 2001: 61*
 * 2010: Sacred Waters
 * 2011: Oscar's Cuba
 * 2013: 1000 to 1
 * 2013: Antebellum
 * 2013: At Middleton
 * 2013: Christmas in Conway
 * 2013: The Resurrection of Malchus
 * 2013: Tightwire
 * 2015: Underdog Kids
 * 2018: The Mule
 * 2019: Richard Jewell

title: Arturo Sandoval