text:
Talk:Ford GT40

American or British
I changed British-American to British American (Mk I, MkII, Mk III) or American (Mk IV) to accurately reflect the fact that these are two different designs with two different developmental and production histories. So long as both the earlier Mk I/Mk II based cars and the later Mk IV based models are covered by the same article, and this aspect of the cars design and construction is cited in the article, this is the only correct way to reference this. Syr74 (talk) 07:16, 11 October 2012 (UTC)

In my opinion Ford GT40 is American car. Engines of this car were always built in the United States. Chassis MkI - MkIII were built in England, but it does not matter where chassis is physically built, this is the same story as e.g. Red Bull or Mercedes competing in current Formula One. When Red Bull or Mercedes won Grand Prix race, there always played Austrian or German national anthem respectively on the podium for winning constructor. Never British anthem, although cars are built entirely in England. Despite the British-built cars, credit for victory went to Austria or Germany respectively. Lucullus19 (talk) 21:38, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

Builder
In fact the car was never produced by Ford but by John Wyer in England. I don't rember the name of his company.

 * But he was essentially a contractor for Ford. He didn't design the cars, but prepared the cars in a Ford workshop in Slough. Check out http://www.gt40.co.uk/gt40st15.html Hotlorp

 * In fact John Wyer was CEO of created FAV (Ford Advanced Vehicles) wich built the first prototypes and a was a subsidiary of Ford. Racing car development was thereafter given to Caroll Shelby. And then Wyer buyed FAV wich was renamed John Wyer automotive Ltd (I'm not 100% sure). The deal give Wyer the right to produce and sell Ford GT40 and most of the right on the GT40. I don't know if Wyer licensed the GT40 to Safir or other replicas maker or not. Some Ford GT40 where also built by Hollman & Moody in the USA and Alan Mann in UK.
 * Ericd

 * Have a look http://www.holmanmoody.com/gt40/gt40home.htm this seems to be the most authentic GT40 produced tpday
 * Ericd

I believe the good title is "Ford GT-40" instead of "Ford GT40". I'm I wrong ? Ericd 20:33 Apr 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * I've seen both forms, more or less in equal amounts. Perhaps Ford used both? A brochure facsimilie saying GT40 is here, so I'm pretty sure GT40 without a dash is not wrong. -- Egil 22:04 Apr 14, 2003 (UTC)

Even Ford was fuzzy I'm quite sure the logo on the car is GT-40. Ericd 09:58 Apr 16, 2003 (UTC)

If someone could find a basic GT-40 pic this would be cool ! Ericd 01:22, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

There's something wrong in the table IMO. Speed doesnt match with distance ! Ericd 20:36, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * I see what you mean. It's possible that they covered more distance at a slower pace with less stops, but not too logical.  We'll have to check on the accuracy of the numbers. --SFoskett 21:23, Jan 11, 2005 (UTC)

[[

Image:GT40.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]

I've removed this (very good) pic because this is a Wyer Mirage M1 not a Ford GT-40. The Miarge M1 is a Gt-40 derivative but has a different cockpit with different air intakes and a 5,7 L engine. Ericd 15:51, 17 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * The badge on the back of the original Mk I says GT40 i.e., without the hyphen. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 18:48, 28 October 2013 (UTC)

Copyvio
Part of the text on this page seems to have been taken from other websites. Specifically: "Just as with many classic sportscars, several companies made replicas of the GT40 - of varying quality. One of the best such companies was Safir Engineering, which bought the rights to the name "GT40" in 1985, and built cars until 1999 with chassis numbers continuing the sequence where the original Ford cars stopped. http://www.motorbase.com/vehicle/by-id/1508332899/" Just wanted to bring this up.

 * Thanks for pointing this out. I will look into this ASAP and will try to remove the copyvio text.  --SFoskett 12:37, May 30, 2005 (UTC)

Serious doubt about accuracy
"The Lotus Europa was the design put forth by Lotus, who went on to win the Indianapolis 500 with the 4.2 L Fairline engine behind a Lotus 38 monocoque, the first mid-engined car to ever win at Indy. But that was in the future, and the Lola proposal was chosen by American race veterans Carroll Smith and Carroll Shelby, who prefered Eric Broadley's design for their intended V8 drivetrain." - Chapman may have proposed a design that eventually matured in the Europa but IMO that wasn't the Europa. - Shelby wasn't involved in the project at that time. Ericd 13:06, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

No answer ? Ericd (talk)

Shelby was sent by Ford in early 1963 with a fact-finding group to interview English racing manufacturers. Chapman (Lotus) was one of the people visited but Ford had doubts he would be able to work with the Ford group and Shelby and the rest of the groups settled on Eric Broadley. Ford Advanced vehicles (FAV) was the company set up in Slough to manufacture and race the cars. Shelby indeed did take over some of the rtacing responsibility at the end of 1964 for the upcoming 1965 season. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.210.176.114 (talk) 15:03, 2 February 2013 (UTC)

Grand Tourisme/Gran Turismo
FIA regulations are written in French since the FIA exists. Ericd 13:11, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Photo
The GT-40 replica is a replica ;-). But worse the car doesn't match any historic accuracy. It has the Wyer/FAV stock front body that none of the authentic cars with this livery had used. Ericd 13:20, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

The picture credits write something else, however even if its a real 1965 car this one very far from its 1965 configuration. Ericd 13:25, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Racing car template
I've had a stab at a template for racing cars (see template:Racing car) to summarise the usual data. I've used the F1 templates as a starting point and applied it to the Brabham BT46 article. If anyone's got an interest in this, please have a look at the template and modify or suggest changes as appropriate. After a few people have had a go at it and we have something we're happy with we could start to use it more widely. Note that it's not meant to be specific to F1, by the way. Cheers. 4u1e 10:35, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Internal inconsistency
The caption for the first photo says it is the 1966 Le Mans winner, driven by Ruby and Miles. But the text (and results table) indicate the race was won by Amon and McLaren. DH85868993 03:22, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

Could someone add text listing the class the GT40 ran in?
Today, Le Mans has 4 classes. Was there only one in the 1960's? Will (Talk - contribs) 08:18, 1 June 2008 (UTC)

They were several classes I think that the stock (sometime seriously tuned) GT-40 was run in the Sport car class (Group 5), the MK II and MK IV were group 6. Ericd (talk)

Possible Contradiction?
The opening sentence states "The Ford GT40 was a high performance sports car and winner of the 24 hours of Le Mans four times in a row, from 1966 to 1969. It was built to win long-distance sports car races against Ferrari (who won at Le Mans six times in a row from 1965 to 1969)."

If Ford won from 66-69, how did Ferrari win from 65-69?

and this time period - assuming that le mans is run once per year - does not even cover 6 years, so how is this possible? I am completely ignorant on the subject so I wont edit this - but to me this sounds highly dubious. Anyone know the correct dates or explanation for the figures - or even a source? Gumbacious (talk) 15:47, 19 June 2008 (UTC)
 * The winners are listed at French wiki 24 hr entry table of results (which doesn't need knowledge of French language to be comprehensible).  (I have not checked this to sources outside wiki, tho in general terms it agrees roughly with what I remember.   Roughly.)   Please feel free to tidy up the para in a way that works for you.   Your self declared 'complete ignorance' - even if exaggerated - gives you a much better chance of coming up with something that makes sense to the intelligent generalist than anything a nerdy enthusiast such as myself could manage.   Besides, I'd end up wanting to rewrite the whole thing and annoying everyone especially me.   Happy day.   Charles01 (talk) 16:05, 19 June 2008 (UTC)
 * So I changed my mind... Charles01 (talk) 16:11, 19 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Ah I see that Micjagger has gone ahead and | changed this so it makes sense. Gumbacious (talk) 06:17, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

All together Ferrari an Ford won Le Mans (an annual event) ten times between 1965 and 1969 ? Serious competition isn'it ? One more reason to love this era for me ;-D. Ericd (talk) 01:04, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

Ferrari won the race from 1960-1965; six races inclusive. It's a typographical error. Ford won from 1966 (McLaren/Amon), 1967 (Gurney/Foyt), 1968 (Bianchi/Rodriguez) to 1969 (Ickx/Oliver). The same chassis (No. 1075) won in both 1968 and 1969 -- the only time that's happened. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.102.164.133 (talk) 00:26, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

Potential Ferrai acquisition
"In the spring of 1963, Ford reportedly received word through a European intermediary that Enzo Ferrari was interested in selling to Ford Motor Company. Ford reportedly spent several million dollars in an audit of Ferrari factory assets and in legal negotiations, only to have Ferrari unilaterally cut off talks at a late stage. Ferrari, who wanted to remain the sole operator of his companies motor sports division, was angered when he was told that he would not be allowed to race at the Indianapolis 500 if the deal went through. Enzo cut the deal off out of spite and Henry Ford II, enraged, directed his racing division to find a company that could build a Ferrari-beater on the world endurance-racing circuit."

You are free to understand it as you want but Enzo Ferrari received help from Fiat soon after. As an half-Italian, I am still crying for Ford lost dollars. :-D Ericd (talk)

Car´s nationality
Is this car considered to be the british car or the american one ? The car was built in the UK, but Ford is american company. Is it true to claim that in 1966 the first american car won 24 Hours of Le Mans ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.41.90.31 (talk) 10:02, 4 July 2010 (UTC) The GT40s, though British designed and built, were credited as American cars because they were commissioned and bankrolled by an American corporation. One could argue that a car built in the UK and driven by a pair of New Zealanders was not an American victory -- but they would not have been there without Ford (American) money. The 1967 winner, on the other hand, was truly the only all-American victory in the history of the race -- a car designed in the United States, prepared and run by a U.S.-based racing team (Shelby American) with two American drivers. The other races are a matter of debate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.96.137.66 (talk) 21:00, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

 * There's the text from the original 1966 Ford Press Release for the GT40 here:

 * ... oh, BTW - all the original 1960s Ford GT40s were right hand drive (RHD).

 * ... and there's a clip from the cockpit of one at Le Mans in 1969 here: —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.112.77.70 (talk) 20:11, 23 February 2011 (UTC)

 * There's a 1962 Flight advertisement for Abbey Panels, Coventry, the company that built the GT40 chassis, here;  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 17:11, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * A film made by Ferodo featuring John Wyer's 1968 GT40 Le Mans entry here;  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 17:02, 16 February 2013 (UTC)

 * 1963 Lola Mk6 GT - Jay Leno's Garage;  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.150.10.148 (talk) 17:48, 22 November 2017 (UTC)

Not Entirely British
There is a comment in the text which mentions that the MkI, MkII, and MkIII cars were 'entirely British'. While undoubtedly owing a lot of their development to Ford Advanced Vehicles in Britain it is no secret that the cars were rather heavily massaged at Carol Shelby's facility during their development. To be blunt, that makes them somewhat less than 'entirely British'. Even more, neither the Windsor V-8 which powered the MkI and MkIII models, or the FE big block which powered the MkIV models, was ever produced in Britain. The engine for every GT40 ever produced was sourced from the United States. Again, that makes these vehicles somewhat less than 'entirely British'. This needs to be corrected for the sake of accuracy if nothing else. Syr74 (talk) 05:53, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

J car photos?
It would be nice if the J car section had photos of the J car. The J was one of the standard cars included with Aurora XLerators slotless electric race tracks. The other one was a Chaparral 2F. Bizzybody (talk) 07:57, 27 March 2012 (UTC)

GT/101 and Lola Mk.6 displacement
The history section says Chassis 101 and Lola Mk.6 had a 4.2L Fairlane engine. But Lola Mk.6 had a 4.6L displacement when it raced at LeMans in 1963. Unless someone comes up with clarification/correction, I will be making a change to reflect the 4.6L displacement. Help would be appreciated. Yiba (talk | contribs) 04:48, 15 May 2014 (UTC)

There are several instances of 4.9L being equated to the Windsor-built 302ci V8 engine. But in 70s/80s/90s Ford lingo, the 4.9L is the 300ci straight 6; the 302ci V8 is called the ("smallblock", sometimes "Boss") 5.0L. Does this article reflect actual designations for the engines in the early 60s? Or are these designations being used by the author of this article? Steve8394 (talk) 06:02, 5 November 2019 (UTC)

Incomplete content
"For 1967, the Mk.II's were upgraded to "B" spec; they had re-designed bodywork and twin carburettors for an additional 15 hp. A batch of wrongly heat treated input shafts in the transaxles sidelined virtually every Ford in the race, however, and Ferrari won 1-2-3." - which race exactly is this passage referring to? Monoblocks (talk) 18:14, 22 October 2014 (UTC)

Restored content
Someone had blanked the article and I didn't see anything on the talk page suggested that needed to be done so I restored it.82.19.93.148 (talk) 20:46, 19 August 2015 (UTC)

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Mk IV Clarification
I altered a sentence in the lede for the sake of clarification. The sentence made it sound as though the GT40 Mk IV was based upon the Lola design that spawned some of the earlier cars and this isn't accurate with the Mk IV and J Cars being a completely independent design. I added some detail to the sentence to avoid confusion here. Syr74 (talk) 22:02, 29 April 2018 (UTC)

Photos of pre-GT40 "Ford GT"?
Does anyone have a photo of the original "Ford GT" (prior to the GT40)? They were all white with a dark blue front hood (bonnet), and their distinguishing feature was a very thin slit for a radiator intake. (Although aerodynamically designed, in a high-pressure area, it proved to be inadequate for cooling.) BMJ-pdx (talk) 14:33, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

Who wanted Ford to buy Ferrari?
The "History" section gives the impression that Enzo Ferrari approached Ford regarding a possible Ford purchase of Ferrari. That's not what I remember from contemporary reports, which were that Ford's easiest path to a Le Mans win would simply be to purchase Ferrari. BMJ-pdx (talk) 14:42, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

40 inch max height?
Isnt 40 inches the minimum allowable height, not maximum? Why would you want to make your car's frontal area as big as possible? The 40 was supposed to be bragging about what a LOW car they achieved, whivh is why they could only fit short drivers into it. A 40 inch max would be nonsensical, most of the cars would be sigificantly LESS than 40 inches high, and the GT40 is already ridiculously low.

64.222.110.91 (talk) 05:49, 13 March 2021 (UTC)

Lola 1963
"It was one of the most advanced racing cars of the time and made a noted performance in Le Mans 1963, even though the car did not finish, due to low gearing and slow revving out on the Mulsanne Straight. " Why would it be "slow revving" if it had "low gearing"? S C Cheese (talk) 09:11, 5 November 2022 (UTC)

 * It wasn’t, but it’s not likely to be corrected. For example the GT40 wasn’t actually based upon the Lola Mk6 and there has never been any real evidence to suggest that it was. Rather, the Lola Mk6 was a precursor designed to secure the contract with Ford who then almost immediately bought out that contract and built the GT40 upon the design concept laid out by the Mk6. Think of the relationship between the VW Beetle and a 50’s Porsche and you’ll be in the right ballpark. This isn’t even argued within the serious enthusiast community on any side of the pond, But, this also won’t get corrected because Wikipedia is rife with people pushing agendas rather than reality. 2600:1004:B16E:1C58:6479:C0D0:9706:64D8 (talk) 02:18, 14 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ford GT40


text:
Indirection

In computer programming, an indirection (also called a reference) is a way of referring to something using a name, reference, or container instead of the value itself. The most common form of indirection is the act of manipulating a value through its memory address. For example, accessing a variable through the use of a pointer. A stored pointer that exists to provide a reference to an object by double indirection is called an indirection node. In some older computer architectures, indirect words supported a variety of more-or-less complicated addressing modes.

Another important example is the domain name system which enables names such as  to be used in place of network addresses such as. The indirection from human-readable names to network addresses means that the references to a web page become more memorable, and links do not need to change when a web site is relocated to a different server.

Overview
A famous aphorism of Butler Lampson that is attributed to David Wheeler goes: "All problems in computer science can be solved by another level of indirection" (the "fundamental theorem of software engineering"). This is often deliberately mis-quoted with "abstraction layer" substituted for "level of indirection". A corollary to this aphorism, and the original conclusion from Wheeler, is "...except for the problem of too many layers of indirection."

A humorous Internet memorandum,, insists that: "(6) It is easier to move a problem around (for example, by moving the problem to a different part of the overall network architecture) than it is to solve it.
 * (6a) (corollary). It is always possible to add another level of indirection."

Object-oriented programming makes use of indirection extensively, a simple example being dynamic dispatch. Higher-level examples of indirection are the design patterns of the proxy and the proxy server. Delegation is another classic example of an indirection pattern. In strongly typed interpreted languages with dynamic data types, most variable references require a level of indirection: first the type of the variable is checked for safety, and then the pointer to the actual value is dereferenced and acted on.

Recursive data types are usually implemented using indirection, because otherwise if a value of a data type can contain the entirety of another value of the same data type, there is no limit to the size a value of this data type could need.

When doing symbolic programming from a formal mathematical specification the use of indirection can be quite helpful. To start with a simple example the variables x, y and z in an equation such as $z = \sqrt{ x^2 + y^2}$ can refer to any number. One could imagine objects for various numbers and then x, y and z could point to the specific numbers being used for a particular problem. The simple example has its limitation as there are infinitely many real numbers. In various other parts of symbolic programming there are only so many symbols. So to move on to a more significant example, in logic the formula α can refer to any formula, so it could be β, γ, δ, ... or η→π, ς ∨ σ, ... When set-builder notation is employed the statement Δ={α} means the set of all formulae — so although the reference is to α there are two levels of indirection here, the first to the set of all α and then the second to a specific formula for each occurrence of α in the set Δ.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Indirection


text:
Splanchnic nerves

The splanchnic nerves are paired visceral nerves (nerves that contribute to the innervation of the internal organs), carrying fibers of the autonomic nervous system (visceral efferent fibers) as well as sensory fibers from the organs (visceral afferent fibers). All carry sympathetic fibers except for the pelvic splanchnic nerves, which carry parasympathetic fibers.

Types
The term splanchnic nerves can refer to:
 * Cardiopulmonary nerves
 * Thoracic splanchnic nerves (greater, lesser, and least)
 * Lumbar splanchnic nerves
 * Sacral splanchnic nerves
 * Pelvic splanchnic nerves

title: Splanchnic nerves


text:
Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages and has grown over the past century to encompass most aspects of language structure and use.

Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.

Historical development
Linguistic anthropology emerged from the development of three distinct paradigms that have set the standard for approaching linguistic anthropology. The first, now known as "anthropological linguistics," focuses on the documentation of languages. The second, known as "linguistic anthropology," engages in theoretical studies of language use. The third, developed over the past two or three decades, studies issues from other subfields of anthropology with linguistic considerations. Though they developed sequentially, all three paradigms are still practiced today.

First paradigm: anthropological linguistics
The first paradigm, anthropological linguistics, is devoted to themes unique to the sub-discipline. This area includes documentation of languages that have been seen as at-risk for extinction, with a particular focus on indigenous languages of native North American tribes. It is also the paradigm most focused on linguistics. Linguistic themes include the following:

 * Grammatical description,
 * Typological classification and
 * Linguistic relativity

Second paradigm: linguistic anthropology
The second paradigm can be marked by reversing the words. Going from anthropological linguistics to linguistic anthropology, signals a more anthropological focus on the study. This term was preferred by Dell Hymes, who was also responsible, with John Gumperz, for the idea of ethnography of communication. The term linguistic anthropology reflected Hymes' vision of a future where language would be studied in the context of the situation and relative to the community speaking it. This new era would involve many new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.

This paradigm developed in critical dialogue with the fields of folklore on the one hand and linguistics on the other. Hymes criticized folklorists' fixation on oral texts rather than the verbal artistry of performance. At the same time, he criticized the cognitivist shift in linguistics heralded by the pioneering work of Noam Chomsky, arguing for an ethnographic focus on language in use.

Hymes had many revolutionary contributions to linguistic anthropology, the first of which was a new unit of analysis. Unlike the first paradigm, which focused on linguistic tools like measuring of phonemes and morphemes, the second paradigm's unit of analysis was the "speech event". A speech event is defined as one with speech presented for a significant duration throughout its occurrence (ex., a lecture or debate). This is different from a speech situation, where speech could possibly occur (ex., dinner). Hymes also pioneered a linguistic anthropological approach to ethnopoetics. Hymes had hoped that this paradigm would link linguistic anthropology more to anthropology. However, Hymes' ambition backfired as the second paradigm marked a distancing of the sub-discipline from the rest of anthropology.

Third paradigm: anthropological issues studied via linguistic methods and data
The third paradigm, which began in the late 1980s, redirected the primary focus on anthropology by providing a linguistic approach to anthropological issues. Rather than prioritizing the technical components of language, third paradigm anthropologists focus on studying culture through the use of linguistic tools. Themes include:

 * investigations of personal and social identities
 * shared ideologies
 * construction of narrative interactions among individuals

Furthermore, similar to how the second paradigm used new technology in its studies, the third paradigm heavily includes use of video documentation to support research.

Areas of interest
Contemporary linguistic anthropology continues research in all three paradigms described above:

 * 1) Documentation of languages
 * 2) Study of language through context
 * 3) The study of identity through linguistic means

The third paradigm, the study of anthropological issues through linguistic means, is an affluent area of study for current linguistic anthropologists.

Identity and intersubjectivity
A great deal of work in linguistic anthropology investigates questions of sociocultural identity linguistically and discursively. Linguistic anthropologist Don Kulick has done so in relation to identity, for example, in a series of settings, first in a village called Gapun in northern Papua New Guinea. He explored how the use of two languages with and around children in Gapun village: the traditional language (Taiap), not spoken anywhere but in their own village and thus primordially "indexical" of Gapuner identity, and Tok Pisin, the widely circulating official language of New Guinea. ("indexical" points to meanings beyond the immediate context.) To speak the Taiap language is associated with one identity: not only local but "Backward" and also an identity based on the display of hed (personal autonomy). To speak Tok Pisin is to index a modern, Catholic identity, based not on hed but on save, an identity linked with the will and the skill to cooperate. In later work, Kulick demonstrates that certain loud speech performances in Brazil called um escândalo, Brazilian travesti (roughly, 'transvestite') sex workers shame clients. The travesti community, the argument goes, ends up at least making a powerful attempt to transcend the shame the larger Brazilian public might try to foist off on them, again by loud public discourse and other modes of performance.

In addition, scholars such as Émile Benveniste, Mary Bucholtz and Kira Hall Benjamin Lee, Paul Kockelman, and Stanton Wortham (among many others) have contributed to understandings of identity as "intersubjectivity" by examining the ways it is discursively constructed.

Socialization
In a series of studies, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin addressed the anthropological topic of socialization (the process by which infants, children, and foreigners become members of a community, learning to participate in its culture), using linguistic and other ethnographic methods. They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that baby talk is not universal, that the direction of adaptation (whether the child is made to adapt to the ongoing situation of speech around it or vice versa) was a variable that correlated, for example, with the direction it was held vis-à-vis a caregiver's body. In many societies caregivers hold a child facing outward so as to orient it to a network of kin whom it must learn to recognize early in life.

Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language. Ochs and Schieffelin uncovered how, through naturally occurring stories told during dinners in white middle class households in Southern California, both mothers and fathers participated in replicating male dominance (the "father knows best" syndrome) by the distribution of participant roles such as protagonist (often a child but sometimes mother and almost never the father) and "problematizer" (often the father, who raised uncomfortable questions or challenged the competence of the protagonist). When mothers collaborated with children to get their stories told, they unwittingly set themselves up to be subject to this process.

Schieffelin's more recent research has uncovered the socializing role of pastors and other fairly new Bosavi converts in the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea community she studies. Pastors have introduced new ways of conveying knowledge, new linguistic epistemic markers —and new ways of speaking about time. And they have struggled with and largely resisted those parts of the Bible that speak of being able to know the inner states of others (e.g. the gospel of Mark, chapter 2, verses 6–8).

Ideologies
In a third example of the current (third) paradigm, since Roman Jakobson's student Michael Silverstein opened the way, there has been an increase in the work done by linguistic anthropologists on the major anthropological theme of ideologies, —in this case "language ideologies", sometimes defined as "shared bodies of commonsense notions about the nature of language in the world." Silverstein has demonstrated that these ideologies are not mere false consciousness but actually influence the evolution of linguistic structures, including the dropping of "thee" and "thou" from everyday English usage. Woolard, in her overview of "code switching", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology. It is the ideology that people should "really" be monoglot and efficiently targeted toward referential clarity rather than diverting themselves with the messiness of multiple varieties in play at a single time.

Much research on linguistic ideologies probes subtler influences on language, such as the pull exerted on Tewa, a Kiowa-Tanoan language spoken in certain New Mexican pueblos and on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona, by "kiva speech", discussed in the next section.

Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of language contact, language endangerment, and 'English as a global language'. For instance, Indian linguist Braj Kachru investigated local varieties of English in South Asia, the ways in which English functions as a lingua franca among multicultural groups in India. British linguist David Crystal has contributed to investigations of language death attention to the effects of cultural assimilation resulting in the spread of one dominant language in situations of colonialism.

Heritage language ideologies
More recently, a new line of ideology work is beginning to enter the field of linguistics in relation to heritage languages. Specifically, applied linguist Martin Guardado has posited that heritage language ideologies are "somewhat fluid sets of understandings, justifications, beliefs, and judgments that linguistic minorities hold about their languages." Guardado goes on to argue that ideologies of heritage languages also contain the expectations and desires of linguistic minority families "regarding the relevance of these languages in their children’s lives as well as when, where, how, and to what ends these languages should be used." Although this is arguably a fledgling line of language ideology research, this work is poised to contribute to the understanding of how ideologies of language operate in a variety of settings.

Social space
In a final example of this third paradigm, a group of linguistic anthropologists have done very creative work on the idea of social space. Duranti published a groundbreaking article on Samoan greetings and their use and transformation of social space. Before that, Indonesianist Joseph Errington, making use of earlier work by Indonesianists not necessarily concerned with language issues per se, brought linguistic anthropological methods (and semiotic theory) to bear on the notion of the exemplary center, the center of political and ritual power from which emanated exemplary behavior. Errington demonstrated how the Javanese priyayi, whose ancestors served at the Javanese royal courts, became emissaries, so to speak, long after those courts had ceased to exist, representing throughout Java the highest example of "refined speech." The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia. And, even though it pertains to Tewa Indians in Arizona rather than Indonesians, Paul Kroskrity's argument that speech forms originating in the Tewa kiva (or underground ceremonial space) forms the dominant model for all Tewa speech can be seen as a direct parallel.

Silverstein tries to find the maximum theoretical significance and applicability in this idea of exemplary centers. He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings. He generalizes the notion thus, arguing "there are wider-scale institutional 'orders of interactionality,' historically contingent yet structured. Within such large-scale, macrosocial orders, in-effect ritual centers of semiosis come to exert a structuring, value-conferring influence on any particular event of discursive interaction with respect to the meanings and significance of the verbal and other semiotic forms used in it." Current approaches to such classic anthropological topics as ritual by linguistic anthropologists emphasize not static linguistic structures but the unfolding in realtime of a hypertrophic' set of parallel orders of iconicity and indexicality that seem to cause the ritual to create its own sacred space through what appears, often, to be the magic of textual and nontextual metricalizations, synchronized."

Race, class, and gender
Addressing the broad central concerns of the subfield and drawing from its core theories, many scholars focus on the intersections of language and the particularly salient social constructs of race (and ethnicity), class, and gender (and sexuality). These works generally consider the roles of social structures (e.g., ideologies and institutions) related to race, class, and gender (e.g., marriage, labor, pop culture, education) in terms of their constructions and in terms of individuals' lived experiences. A short list of linguistic anthropological texts that address these topics follows:

Race and ethnicity

 * Alim, H. Samy, John R. Rickford, and Arnetha F. Ball. 2016. Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas about Race. Oxford University Press.
 * Bucholtz, Mary. 2001. "The Whiteness of Nerds: Superstandard English and Racial Markedness." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 11 (1): 84–100..
 * Bucholtz, Mary. 2010. White Kids: Language, Race, and Styles of Youth Identity. Cambridge University Press.
 * Davis, Jenny L. 2018. Talking Indian: Identity and Language Revitalization in the Chickasaw Renaissance. University of Arizona Press.
 * Dick, H. 2011. "Making Immigrants Illegal in Small-Town USA." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 21(S1):E35-E55.
 * Hill, Jane H. 1998. "Language, Race, and White Public Space." American Anthropologist 100 (3): 680–89..
 * Hill, Jane H. 2008. The Everyday Language of White Racism. Wiley-Blackwell.
 * García-Sánchez, Inmaculada M. 2014. Language and Muslim Immigrant Childhoods: The Politics of Belonging. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Ibrahim, Awad. 2014. The Rhizome of Blackness: A Critical Ethnography of Hip-Hop Culture, Language, Identity, and the Politics of Becoming. 1 edition. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
 * Rosa, Jonathan. 2019. Looking like a Language, Sounding like a Race: Raciolinguistic Ideologies and the Learning of Latinidad. Oxford University Press.
 * Smalls, Krystal. 2018. "Fighting Words: Antiblackness and Discursive Violence in an American High School." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 23(3):356-383.
 * Spears, Arthur Kean. 1999. Race and Ideology: Language, Symbolism, and Popular Culture. Wayne State University Press.
 * Urciuoli, Bonnie. 2013. Exposing Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences of Language, Race, and Class. Waveland Press.
 * Wirtz, Kristina. 2011. "Cuban Performances of Blackness as the Timeless Past Still Among Us." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 21(S1):E11-E34.

Class

 * Fox, Aaron A. 2004. Real Country: Music and Language in Working-Class Culture. Duke University Press.
 * Shankar, Shalini. 2008. Desi Land: Teen Culture, Class, and Success in Silicon Valley. Duke University Press.
 * Nakassis, Constantine V. 2016. Doing Style: Youth and Mass Mediation in South India. University of Chicago Press.

Gender and sexuality

 * Bucholtz, Mary. 1999. Why be normal?': Language and Identity Practices in a Community of Nerd Girls". Language in Society. 28 (2): 207–210.
 * Fader, Ayala. 2009. Mitzvah Girls: Bringing Up the Next Generation of Hasidic Jews in Brooklyn. Princeton University Press.
 * Gaudio, Rudolf Pell. 2011. Allah Made Us: Sexual Outlaws in an Islamic African City. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Hall, Kira, and Mary Bucholtz. 1995. Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self. New York: Routledge.
 * Jacobs-Huey, Lanita. 2006. From the Kitchen to the Parlor: Language and Becoming in African American Women's Hair Care. Oxford University Press.
 * Kulick, Don. 2000. "Gay and Lesbian Language." Annual Review of Anthropology 29 (1): 243–85..
 * Kulick, Don. 2008. "Gender Politics." Men and Masculinities 11 (2): 186–92..
 * Kulick, Don. 1997. "The Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes." American Anthropologist 99 (3): 574–85.
 * Livia, Anna, and Kira Hall. 1997. Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender, and Sexuality. Oxford University Press.
 * Manalansan, Martin F. IV. Performing' the Filipino Gay Experiences in America: Linguistic Strategies in a Transnational Context." Beyond the Lavender Lexicon: Authenticity, Imagination and Appropriation in Lesbian and Gay Language. Ed. William L Leap. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1997. 249–266
 * Mendoza-Denton, Norma. 2014. Homegirls: Language and Cultural Practice Among Latina Youth Gangs. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Rampton, Ben. 1995. Crossing: Language and Ethnicity Among Adolescents. Longman.
 * Zimman, Lal, Jenny L. Davis, and Joshua Raclaw. 2014. Queer Excursions: Retheorizing Binaries in Language, Gender, and Sexuality. Oxford University Press.

Ethnopoetics
Ethnopoetics is a method of recording text versions of oral poetry or narrative performances (i.e. verbal lore) that uses poetic lines, verses, and stanzas (instead of prose paragraphs) to capture the formal, poetic performance elements which would otherwise be lost in the written texts. The goal of any ethnopoetic text is to show how the techniques of unique oral performers enhance the aesthetic value of their performances within their specific cultural contexts. Major contributors to ethnopoetic theory include Jerome Rothenberg, Dennis Tedlock, and Dell Hymes. Ethnopoetics is considered a subfield of ethnology, anthropology, folkloristics, stylistics, linguistics, and literature and translation studies.

Endangered languages: language documentation and revitalization
Endangered languages are languages that are not being passed down to children as their mother tongue or that have declining numbers of speakers for a variety of reasons. Therefore, after a couple generations these languages may no longer be spoken. Anthropologists have been involved with endangered language communities through their involvement in language documentation and revitalization projects.

In a language documentation project, researchers work to develop records of the language - these records could be field notes and audio or video recordings. To follow best practices of documentation, these records should be clearly annotated and kept safe within an archive of some kind. Franz Boas was one of the first anthropologists involved in language documentation within North America and he supported the development of three key materials: 1) grammars, 2) texts, and 3) dictionaries. This is now known as the Boasian Trilogy.

Language revitalization is the practice of bringing a language back into common use. The revitalization efforts can take the form of teaching the language to new speakers or encouraging the continued use within the community. One example of a language revitalization project is the Lenape language course taught at Swathmore College, Pennsylvania. The course aims to educate indigenous and non-indigenous students about the Lenape language and culture.

Language reclamation, as a subset of revitalization, implies that a language has been taken away from a community and addresses their concern in taking back the agency to revitalize their language on their own terms. Language reclamation addresses the power dynamics associated with language loss. Encouraging those who already know the language to use it, increasing the domains of usage, and increasing the overall prestige of the language are all components of reclamation. One example of this is the Miami language being brought back from 'extinct' status through extensive archives.

While the field of linguistics has also been focused on the study of the linguistic structures of endangered languages, anthropologists also contribute to this field through their emphasize on ethnographic understandings of the socio-historical context of language endangerment, but also of language revitalization and reclamation projects.

title: Linguistic anthropology


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Virginie Ledoyen

Virginie Fernández (born 15 November 1976), known by her stage name Virginie Ledoyen, is a French actress. She has appeared in French, English and American films.

Life and career
Ledoyen was born in Paris and raised in Aubervilliers, the daughter of Olga, a restaurateur, and Bernard Fernández, a merchant who sold cleaning products and knives. Her paternal grandfather was Spanish. She was a print model from the age of two and later took on the stage name "Ledoyen" after the maiden name of her maternal grandmother, who was a stage actress.

Ledoyen's film breakthrough came with A Single Girl (1995) (stylized la fille seule), for which she was nominated for a César Award for Most Promising Actress. She also received two César Award nominations for Les marmottes (1993) and L'eau froide (1994). Outside France, her best-known role is in The Beach (2000). In the fall of 2000, she signed a contract as a spokesmodel with the cosmetics company L'Oréal. She was featured alongside two models, Laetitia Casta and Noémie Lenoir. She portrayed the character Cosette in the 2000 French television miniseries of Les Misérables.

On 29 September 2001, Ledoyen gave birth to her first child, a girl named Lila, with production designer Louis Soubrier, whom she met on the set of La fille seule in 1995. She was in a short-lived marriage with Iain Rogers, a film director, from 2006 to 2007. From 2007 to 2015, she was in a relationship with actor Arie Elmaleh, whose brother was her co-star in The Valet. Ledoyen and Elmaleh have a son, Isaac, born in July 2010, and a daughter, Amalia, born in April 2014.

In 2013 Ledoyen was named as a member of the jury at the 70th Venice International Film Festival.

Other awards

 * 1998: Prix Suzanne Bianchetti

title: Virginie Ledoyen


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User talk:Startobe

Graft, why don't you just look up the meaning of the splanchnic nerves in a dictionary - why not in wikipedia! And all the other words you don't know can be found in dictionaries as well. Besides, as a biology student you are supposed to know at least some of them.

title: User talk:Startobe


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Human condition

The human condition can be defined as the characteristics and key events of human life, including birth, learning, emotion, aspiration, reason, morality, conflict, and death. This is a very broad topic that has been and continues to be pondered and analyzed from many perspectives, including those of art, biology, literature, philosophy, psychology, and religion.

As a literary term, "human condition" is typically used in the context of ambiguous subjects, such as the meaning of life or moral concerns.

Some perspectives
Each major religion has definitive beliefs regarding the human condition. For example, Buddhism teaches that existence is a perpetual cycle of suffering, death, and rebirth from which humans can be liberated via the Noble Eightfold Path. Meanwhile, many Christians believe that humans are born in a sinful condition and are doomed in the afterlife unless they receive salvation through Jesus Christ.

Philosophers have provided many perspectives. An influential ancient view was that of the Republic in which Plato explored the question "what is justice?" and postulated that it is not primarily a matter among individuals but of society as a whole, prompting him to devise a utopia. Two thousand years later René Descartes declared "I think, therefore I am" because he believed the human mind, particularly its faculty of reason, to be the primary determiner of truth; for this he is often credited as the father of modern philosophy. One such modern school, existentialism, attempts to reconcile an individual's sense of disorientation and confusion in a universe believed to be absurd.

Many works of literature provide a perspective on the human condition. One famous example is Shakespeare's monologue "All the world's a stage" which pensively summarizes seven phases of human life.

Psychology has many theories, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the notions of identity crisis and terror management. It also has various methods, e.g. the logotherapy developed by Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl to discover and affirm a sense of meaning. Another method, cognitive behavioral therapy, has become a widespread treatment for clinical depression.

Charles Darwin established the biological theory of evolution, which posits that the human species is related to all others, living and extinct, and that natural selection is the primary survival factor. This led to subsequent beliefs, such as social Darwinism, which eventually lost its connection to natural selection, and theistic evolution of a creator deity acting through laws of nature, including evolution.

title: Human condition


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University of Tokyo

The University of Tokyo (東京大学, abbreviated as Tōdai (東大) in Japanese and UTokyo in English ) is a public research university in Bunkyō, Tokyo, Japan. Founded in 1877 as the nation's first modern university by the merger of several pre-westernisation era institutions, its direct precursors include the Tenmongata, founded in 1684, and the Shoheizaka Institute.

Although established under its current name, the university was renamed Imperial University (帝國大學) in 1886 and was further retitled Tokyo Imperial University (東京帝國大學) to distinguish it from other imperial universities established later. It served under this name until the official dissolution of the Empire of Japan in 1947, when it reverted to its original name. Since its founding, the university has maintained its status as the country's premier higher educational institution, with its educational and research standards consistently recognised as the best in the country across almost all fields it covers.

Today, the university consists of 10 faculties, 15 graduate schools, and 11 affiliated research institutes. As of 2023, it has a total of 13,974 undergraduate students and 14,258 graduate students. The majority of the university's educational and research facilities are concentrated within its three main Tokyo campuses: Hongo, Komaba, and Kashiwa. Additionally, UTokyo operates several smaller campuses in the Greater Tokyo Area and over 60 facilities across Japan and globally. UTokyo's total land holdings amount to 326 square kilometres (approximately 80,586 acres or 32,600 hectares), placing it amongst the largest landowners in the country.

As of 2024, UTokyo's alumni and past and present faculty include 17 prime ministers of Japan out of 64, 18 Nobel Prize laureates, five astronauts, and a Fields Medalist. Additionally, UTokyo alumni have founded some of Japan's largest companies, such as Toyota and Hitachi. UTokyo alumni have also consistently held chief executive positions in approximately a quarter of the Nikkei 225 companies (47 in 2014), a fifth of the total seats in the National Diet (139 out of 713 in 2023),  more than half of the prefectual governorships (27 out of 47 in 2023), and about two thirds of the justiceships at the Supreme Court of Japan (11 out of 15 in 2024).

Origins
The University of Tokyo traces its roots to three independent institutes founded during the Edo period (1603–1868). The oldest, a Shogun-funded Confucian school called Senseiden (先聖殿), was founded in 1630 by Razan Hayashi in Ueno. This school was renamed the Shoheizaka Institute (昌平坂学問所) and came to be operated directly by the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1791 as part of the Kansei Reforms. The Tenmongata, established in 1684, was the astronomical research and education arm of the Shogunate. It evolved into the Kaisei School (開成学校), a school for Western learnings, after the Meiji Restoration. The Kanda Otamagaike Vaccination Centre, established in 1858, evolved into a school of Western medicine called Tokyo Medical School (東京医学校). Although plans to establish the country's first university had been in place just after the Meiji Restoration, it was not until around 1875 that it was decided to form the university by merging these schools.

Founding
The University of Tokyo was chartered on 12 April 1877 by the Meiji government. Corresponding to the fields covered by the predecessor schools, it started with four faculties: Law, Science, Letters, and Medicine. The Imperial College of Engineering later merged into the university and became the Faculty of Engineering. In 1886, the university was renamed Imperial University, and it adopted the name Tokyo Imperial University in 1897 after the founding of the next imperial university, what is now Kyoto University. By 1888, all faculties had completed their relocation to the former site of the Tokyo house of the Maeda family in Hongo, where they continue to operate today. Among the few extant structures built before this relocation is a gate called Akamon, which has become a widely recognised symbol of the university.

During its initial two decades as a modern institution, UTokyo greatly benefited from the contributions of European and American scholars. In 1871, the Meiji Government made a decision about the direction of academic disciplines: engineering was to be learnt from the United Kingdom, mathematics, physics, and international law from France, while politics, economics, and medicine were to be guided by German expertise. Additionally, agriculture and commercial law knowledge was to be sourced from the United States. Following this policy, UTokyo and its predecessor institutions sent their graduates to universities in these respective countries and also invited lecturers from them. However, by the 1880s, the Japanese government grew concerned over the spread of French republican and British constitutional monarchist ideals among the faculty and students, so Minister of Education Takato Oki instructed the university to reduce the use of English as a language of instruction, and instead to switch to Japanese. This shift coincided with the return of UTokyo alumni who had completed their education in Europe, and these returnees began filling roles that had been predominantly held by foreign scholars.

Great Kanto Earthquake
On 1 September 1923, the Great Kanto Earthquake struck the Kanto Plain, inflicting immense damage upon the university. This damage included the complete destruction of almost all main buildings, including the library, as well as the loss of precious scientific and historical samples and data stored in them. This led to a university-wide debate as to whether it should relocate to a larger site, such as Yoyogi, but ultimately, such plans were rejected. Instead, the university purchased additional land in its vicinity, which was still owned by the Maeda family, and expanded there.

The reconstruction of the university and its library was brought up in the fourth general assembly of the League of Nations in September 1923, where it was unanimously decided to provide support. The League is said to have been sympathetic especially because the memory of the destruction of KU Leuven in Belgium during the First World War was still fresh. The American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. personally donated $2 million (approximately $36 million in 2023). The United Kingdom formed a committee led by former Prime Minister Earl Arthur Balfour, and made substantial financial and cultural contributions. A large portion of the buildings on Hongo Campus today were built during this reconstruction period, and their unique Collegiate Gothic style is known as Uchida Gothic (内田ゴシック) after Yoshikazu Uchida, the architect who designed them.

Another notable change the earthquake brought about at the university was the expansion of its seismology studies. Long having been the only university in the seismically active country, the university was already known for its seismology research, most notably the contributions made by its alumnus and professor, Fusakichi Omori, in quantitatively evaluating the aftershocks of earthquakes (Omori's law) and developing a new type of seismometer capable of recording primary waves. The university set up an independent seismology department in November 1923 to delve deeply into the causes and effects of earthquakes and to better prepare for future seismic events. In 1925, with a government grant, the Earthquake Research Institute was established within the university, and it has been in continuous operation up to today.

World War II
In 1941, the Empire of Japan attacked the American bases at Pearl Harbor and joined the World War II as an Axis power alongside Germany. By late 1943, as Japan faced significant defeats in the Pacific theatre, a decision was made to enlist university students studying humanities, sending them to battlefields. During the war, 1,652 students and alumni of UTokyo were killed, including those from varied civilian professions such as doctors, engineers, and diplomats, as well as those killed in action. They are commemorated in a memorial erected near the front gate of the Hongo Campus. Most students from faculties of engineering and science remained at university or worked as apprentice engineers, as the expertise of science and technology was deemed indispensable for the war effort. Leo Esaki, who was a student at the department of physics during the war, shared his memory of his university life in 2007: 'The day after the Tokyo Air Raid of 9 March 1945, during which more than 100 thousand citizens were killed, professor Tanaka conducted class as usual, without mentioning the war at all'. The buildings and facilities of UTokyo were largely immune from air raids, allowing education and research activities to continue.

The increased demand brought about by the war for engineers, especially in the fields of aeronautics, machinery, electronics, and shipbuilding, led to the establishment of the second faculty of engineering (第二工学部) at UTokyo in 1942. In the newly built Chiba Campus, around 800 students were enrolled at one time, and pivotal military engineering research activities were conducted. It was closed in 1951, and as a successor organisation, the Institute of Industrial Science was established on the site of the former headquarters of the Third Infantry Regiment in Roppongi. During the war, the Imperial Army attempted to use the university's facilities several times, including plans to relocate the university to Sendai and use the Hongo Campus as a fortress for the anticipated Allied landing, Operation Downfall, to protect the Imperial Palace. President Yoshikazu Uchida consistently denied these requests by persuading them of the importance of culture, education and research for the country's long-term development. In September 1945, efforts by Uchida and Shigeru Nambara, Dean of the Faculty of Law, prevented the campus from becoming the Allied Headquarters. Instead, the Dai-Ichi Seimei Building was chosen. Nambara succeeded Uchida as president in December 1945.

Post-war period
During the American occupation era following Japan's defeat in World War II, the university dropped the word 'imperial' from its name and reverted to its original name "University of Tokyo". During this period, Japan's education system was reformed to align more with the American system. As a result, UTokyo under merged with two Higher Schools, which were university preparatory boy's boarding schools and thus became a four-year university as it is today in 1949. One of the higher schools that merged with UTokyo, the First Higher School, became the College of Arts and Sciences. This new college, operating on the same campus of Komaba as the higher school, took on the responsibility of educating all undergraduates for the first year and a half of their degrees. It was also during this period that UTokyo first opened its doors to female students. The first nineteen female students were matriculated in April 1946.

University of Tokyo Conflict
The 1960s saw an intensification of student protests across the world, including the Anti-Vietnam War protests and the May 68 events in France. This zeitgeist of the era was prominently felt in Japan as well, symbolised by the 1960 Anpo protests, in which the death of a UTokyo student, Michiko Kamba, caused public outrage. In 1968, the University of Tokyo Conflict (東大紛争) began with medical students demanding improvements in internship conditions, in which medical students were forced to work long hours without being paid before being licensed as a doctor.

The conflict intensified with the indefinite strike decision by the students in January 1968 and escalated further following a clash between the students and faculty. Tensions peaked when radical students, most of whom were members of the Zenkyōtō (the All-Campus Joint Struggle Committees), occupied Yasuda Auditorium, leading the university to eventually call in riot police in June— a move seen as abandoning university autonomy. Efforts to resolve the situation began with the resignation of university executives and the appointment of Ichiro Kato as interim president, who started negotiations. The conflict largely ended in January 1969 after a full-scale police operation to remove the occupying students. This operation involved more than 8,500 riot police officers confronting students who fought back with Molotov cocktails and marble stones taken from the auditorium's interior. Prime Minister Eisaku Sato, who was an alumnus of UTokyo himself, visited the site the day after the protesters in the auditorium were forcibly removed, and decided to cancel that year's admission process. This led top highschool students to apply reluctantly to other universities such as Kyoto University and Hitotsubashi University, resulting in many applicants who would have been admitted to those universities under normal circumstances failing to gain admission, since applicants are not allowed to apply to multiple prestigious national universities in Japan. The aftermath saw 633 prosecutions, and varied sentences, marking a turbulent chapter in the university's history.

Women's education
The university first admitted female students in 1946. While the student body has remained predominantly male, various attempts have been made to achieve a more equal gender ratio. In 2023, women made up 23 per cent of first-year undergraduates, the highest percentage in the university's history. A quarter of graduate students were female in 2022.

Reforms in the 21st century
When the British magazine Times Higher Education first published its world university rankings in partnership with QS in 2004, the University of Tokyo was ranked 12th in the world. In the latest 2024 edition of the rankings, it is ranked 29th. QS, now has its own rankings, placed the UTokyo at 28th. As these numbers suggest, there is a widely shared concern that the university is falling behind its counterparts in the world, and in the future it may struggle to provide a suitable environment for quality education and world-class research.

UTokyo faces a challenging reality. Japan's long-lasting economic downturn since the 1990s has led to Japanese companies less willing to invest in research and development than before. Additionally, the government's Management Expense Grant (運営費交付金) has been reduced by one per cent annually since 2004. This policy, ostensibly aimed at decreasing the university's reliance on the grant and fostering greater independence, has been blamed as one of the main reasons for the decline in the university's competitiveness.

To address these challenges, UTokyo has implemented various reforms. In 2004, the University of Tokyo Edge Capital Partners (UTEC) was established. This venture capital firm, affiliated with the university, supports entrepreneurship arising from UTokyo's research and development, aiming to drive innovation across society. In 2006, the first phase of development was completed at Kashiwa Campus. Situated in the suburb of Kashiwa, this research-focused campus spans 405,313 square metres (100 acres) and has been at the forefront of advanced scientific research since its inception. In 2010, in an attempt to further internationalise and diversify its student body, the university increased its autumn enrollment opportunities for international students. UTokyo plans to increase the proportion of female faculty members to above a quarter by newly creating positions for 300 female lecturers by 2027. In 2021, the newly elected President Teruo Fujii announced the UTokyo Compass, a guiding framework for the university during his tenure, focusing on diversity, dialogue, and creating a better future. It emphasises the university's autonomy and creativity in a new era, advocating multifaceted perspectives on knowledge, people, and places. The Compass encourages dialogue throughout the university and society as a pivotal tool for understanding and questioning, fostering inclusivity, and tackling global challenges. In his announcement, he pledged to make UTokyo 'a university that anyone in the world would like to join'.

Admissions
The University of Tokyo's entrance exam (東大入試, todai nyushi) is regarded as the most selective in Japan and is almost synonymous with something that is difficult to achieve. To apply, candidates must achieve high scores in the Common Test for University Admissions, a standardised multiple-choice examination. UTokyo applicants are required to take at least seven subjects in this exam. Applicants for natural sciences take two mathematics tests, Japanese (which includes modern language, classics, and Chinese classics), a foreign language, sciences (two from physics, chemistry, biology, and geology), and one social study subject chosen from geography, Japanese history, or world history. Humanities candidates take two social studies subjects and one science subject instead.

Based on the scores from the Common Test, approximately three times the number of the final admission slots are invited to take the main examination in late February. Based on the idea that regardless of the field of specialisation, all students should have a solid understanding of mathematics and a good command of languages, mathematics, Japanese and one foreign language are compulsory for all applicants. For this exam, science candidates are tested in Advanced Mathematics, English, Japanese, and two science subjects. Humanities candidates take Mathematics, a foreign language, Advanced Japanese, and two social studies subjects (options are geography, Japanese history and world history). UTokyo is also known to be the only university that requires all applicants, including those who wish to study natural sciences, to take a non-mulltiple-choice Japanese and Chinese classics exam. Some applicants are called upon to take an interview.

Successful candidates are notified in March of the same year and are matriculated in April. The official acceptance rates for undergraduate degrees are relatively high, at around 30 per cent, which is due to the policy of restricting the number of students who can sit for the exam based on the scores from the Common Test. Additionally, Japan's university admission policy does not allow applicants to apply to multiple prestigious national universities, hence non-prospective students tend to switch to other national universities where they are more likely to secure admission.

Junior division
The matriculation ceremony takes place on 12 April, the foundation day of the university. All first-year students are matriculated at the College of Arts and Sciences at Komaba, which is a remnant of the time when the Komaba Campus served as the separate boarding school known as the First Higher School until 1949. There, they spend the first one and a half years of their degrees. Students are required to study a foreign language they have never learnt for at least a year, with classes formed based on their choices. Popular languages include Chinese, French, German, Korean, Spanish, and Russian. These classes are meant to be places where students can interact with peers from different backgrounds and forge long-lasting friendships, especially because they spend a considerable amount of time together. There is a tradition where the previous year's class (上クラ, uekura) invites the juniors to overnight orientation camps (オリ合宿, ori gasshuku) in early April.

Intense academic competition is common among students in the junior division, as they face matriculation to the senior division (進学選択, shingaku sentaku, or colloquially shinfuri, 進振り) in September of their second year, where they are assigned to departments based on their grades for the first one and a half years at Komaba. The Department of Information Science, the Faculty of Medicine, and the Department of Sociology are amongst the most selective departments in the Shingaku Sentaku.

Student housing
Despite its roots as a boarding school, most undergraduates at the university either live with their families at home or in non-university accommodation. Since the closure of the Komaba dormitory (駒場寮, Komaba-ryo) in August 2001, there has been no on-campus accommodation for domestic students at the university. There are four university dormitories available for undergraduate students: Mitaka, Toshima, Oiwake and Mejirodai. In 2021, approximately five per cent of the undergraduate students lived in one of the university dormitories. The university offers more options for international students, with on-campus dormitories available for them at Komaba and Kashiwa.

Student newspapers and magazines
The Todai Shimbun (東大新聞) is the oldest university newspaper still in operation, with its first issue in 1920. The editing committee of the newspaper has produced multiple central figures in the country's publishing industry. Recruit, a human resources company with the 13th largest market capitalisation in the whole of the country as of March 2024, spun off from the Todai Shimbun 's advertisement branch in 1961. There are several other newer campus newspapers and magazines, the most notable of which is the Kokasha (恒河沙). The Kokasha 's start-of-term issues include evaluations of lecturers by students from the previous year, and are widely read by students in the junior division to decide which modules to take at the beginning of terms. Additionally, there are several other relatively new student magazines, such as the biscUiT, the Todai Shimpo and the Komaba Times. Apart from those, student web media such as the UT-base and the UmeeT are widely read by students.

Senior division
After completing the Shingaku Sentaku, second-year students matriculate into senior division departments to specialise in their chosen fields. With the exception of the senior division of the College of Arts and Sciences and the Department of Mathematics, which are located in Komaba, all other senior departments are situated in Hongo. Consequently, approximately 85 per cent of the students start a new chapter of their university life there.

The Hongo Campus is located closer to the centre of Tokyo, providing access to more restaurants, cafes, and large museums in the vicinity. In addition to these, the campus itself has fifteen refectories and restaurants, nine cafes, nine convenience stores and kiosks, one bookshop, two barbershops, and an underground gym with two 25-metre pools.

Graduation ceremonies take place towards the end of March. Approximately one-third of the graduates enter the workforce upon graduation, while the remainder continue their studies at graduate schools within the university or at universities abroad. Popular places of employment for UTokyo graduates include the university itself, government ministries, global conglomerates such as Sony and Hitachi, consulting firms such as McKinsey & Company and PwC Consulting, trading companies such as Mitsubishi Corp and Mitsui Corp, and investment banks.

International education
As of 1 November 2023, the University of Tokyo hosts 5,106 international students, who represent 17.7 percent of the total student body. Of these, 4,874 are postgraduate students and 460 are undergraduates. Exchange students and postdoctoral researchers are not included in these numbers.

At the undergraduate level, there are mainly three routes for those who have not received their secondary education in Japanese to apply to the University of Tokyo. First, individuals with high Japanese proficiency can apply through the special admissions process for students educated overseas (外国学校卒業学生特別選考). Students admitted via this route study alongside their peers who received secondary education in Japanese. International students who apply via this route sometimes spend a year studying the language at preparatory schools before matriculation. Second, there are undergraduate programmes called PEAK (Programs in English at Komaba), which accept applications based on international qualifications such as the A-level, SAT, and International Baccalaureate. All modules in these programmes are taught in English. However, learning Japanese is mandatory, and those confident in their Japanese ability can take modules taught in Japanese in other departments. Third, the university offers exchange programmes with universities worldwide. There are University-wide Student Exchange Programmes (USTEP) with universities such as Tsinghua University, Princeton University, National University of Singapore and Yale University. The College of Arts and Sciences has its own exchange programmes called KOMSTEP with universities such as University of Paris. The Faculty of Engineering also has its own exchange programmes, whose partner institutions include Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, University of Cambridge, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Starting in Autumn 2027, UTokyo plans to offer a five-year programme called the College of Design. The programme aims to 'redefine design as a broad concept (...) based on interdisciplinary knowledge that integrates the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, engineering and other fields'. Approximately 100 students will be matriculated annually, with half of them coming from overseas.

A wider variety of postgraduate programmes are offered in English, making the international student ratio significantly higher for postgraduate studies (31.32 per cent in November 2023).

Organisation
The University of Tokyo operates under a central administration system, with policies often determined by the administrative council led by the president. However, due to the university's history as an amalgamation of various institutions, each of the university's constituent colleges, faculties and institutes has its own administrative board. Today, the University of Tokyo is organised into 10 faculties and 15 graduate schools.

The leader of the University of Tokyo is known as the president (総長) and it is not a ceremonial role. They are elected every six years by the university's board council from among the faculty members. The current president is Teruo Fujii, a scholar in applied microfluidics, who assumed the role in April 2021 and is expected to serve until March 2027.

Faculties and graduate schools
At the centre of the University of Tokyo's research and education efforts are 10 faculties and their affiliated graduate schools. This organisational structure, introduced as a result of reforms in the 1990s, aims to maximise the outcomes of education and research by integrating them across undergraduate and graduate levels, rather than maintaining separate focuses for each. In addition to the graduate schools affiliated with specific faculties, the University of Tokyo also includes two independent graduate institutions: the Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies and the Graduate School of Public Policy (GraSPP).

Research institutes
Apart from the faculties and graduate schools, the University of Tokyo hosts eleven affiliated research institutes (附置研究所). These institutes serve as research hubs in their respective fields, aiming to widely disseminate their findings for societal benefit. Simultaneously, they function as educational institutions for the graduate schools.

UTokyo Institutes For Advanced Study (UTIAS)
UTokyo Institutes For Advanced Study (UTIAS) started in January 2011. Its primary objective is to improve academic excellence and foster an internationalised research environment. There are four UTIAS institutes as of November 2023:

University of Tokyo library system
The University of Tokyo Library System consists of three comprehensive libraries located on the main campuses—Hongo, Komaba, and Kashiwa—along with 27 other field-specific libraries operated by various faculties and research institutes. As of 2023, the University of Tokyo library has a collection of over 9.9 million books and numerous materials of historical importance. This extensive collection ranks it as the second-largest library in Japan, surpassed only by the National Diet Library, which holds a collection of approximately 46.8 million books. It also subscribes to about 170,000 journals, contributing to research activities throughout the university.

The headquarters of the library is situated in the General Library at Hongo, which underwent thorough renovation in the late 2010s. It now features a 46-metre-deep automated underground storage capable of housing approximately 3 million books.

University of Tokyo Hospital
The University of Tokyo Hospital is an academic health science centre operated by the Faculty of Medicine. The hospital finds its roots in the Kanda Otamagaike Vaccination Centre, established in 1858. It has 37 clinical examination rooms for a wide range of specialisations including Cardiovascular Medicine and Orthopaedic Surgery, among others. With a capacity of 1,210 beds, the hospital facilitated medical services for 389,830 inpatients and 794,454 outpatients in the fiscal year 2010. Newsweek's World's Best Hospitals 2023 ranks it 17th in the world, 2nd in Asia, and 1st in Japan. It serves as the primary hospital for the Imperial Family of Japan, with both the current emperor and the emperor emeritus having undergone major operations there.

Museums
The University of Tokyo operates eight museums, three of which fall under the purview of the University Museum (UMUT). Apart from the aforementioned museums, the University of Tokyo operates several other public facilities, the most notable of which are two botanical gardens managed by the Faculty of Science: Koishikawa and Nikko.

Finances
In 2021-2022, the university had an income of 264.1 billion yen. Of this, 93.4 billion yen (35.1%) was funded by the government, primarily through the Expense Management Grant (運営費交付金). Despite being a national university, this grant from the government has been consistently reduced, dropping from 95.5 billion yen in 2005 to 79.9 billion yen in 2022. A total of 81.2 billion yen (30.5%) was self-earned, through sources such as the university hospitals (54.7 billion yen) and academic fees (16.6 billion yen). The remainder, 91.7 billion yen (34.4%), came from external funding, such as research grants and endowments. Although research grants are primarily earned by research groups and not by the university, the university can typically claim up to 30% of them for university operations, which is included in this number.

The total assets of the university are valued at 1.47 trillion yen as of 31 March 2024. Land holdings make up the largest percentage of this figure, valued at 878 billion yen. UTokyo's endowment fund is relatively small, at 44 billion yen as of March 2023. This is because national universities in Japan, including UTokyo, were not allowed to invest in high-risk assets until 2018, so endowments were spent rather than invested until that point. The UTokyo Foundation is the primary fundraising arm of the university, and it accepts both endowments for the university as a whole and purpose-specific donations.

UTokyo's tuition fees have been fixed at 535,000 yen annually for undergraduates and master's students since 2005, regardless of their status (whether domestic or international). This makes up approximately 5% of the university's income. However, the decline in government funding and the university's international standing have brought about discussions on whether to raise these fees.

Notable research
Since its foundation in 1877 as a modern university, the University of Tokyo has conducted numerous research projects across various fields, achieving notable outcomes. Below are some widely recognised research endeavours conducted by individuals and teams affiliated with the University of Tokyo at the time of their research.

 * ItoIntegralWienerProcess.svg 1904, Hantaro Nagaoka, an alumnus and professor in the Department of Physics, devised the Saturnian model of the atom. Contrasting with J. J. Thomson's then-popular plum pudding model, Nagaoka's model proposed an atomic structure with a heavy nucleus at the centre and electrons revolving around it. Although this model assumed a far larger nucleus than in reality, it inspired Ernest Rutherford's Rutherford model.
 * Teiji Takagi, an alumnus and professor of the Department of Mathematics, proved the Takagi existence theorem in the 1910s. Alongside significant contributions to algebraic number theory, he also introduced the Blancmange curve, a well-known example of a self-affine curve.
 * In 1951, Kiyoshi Ito, as a doctoral student in the Department of Mathematics, pioneered the theory of stochastic integration and stochastic differential equations, now known as Itô calculus. This theory is best known for its application in mathematical finance, namely in the Black–Scholes equation for option values.
 * Ohsumi.jpg 11 February 1970, a team at the Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science of the University of Tokyo succeeded in launching the country's first satellite, [[Ohsumi (satellite)|Ohsumi]], making the country the fourth nation in the world to have the capability to send objects into orbit with their own launch vehicles. The satellite was carried on a Lambda 4S rocket, a joint project by the Institute of Industrial Science at the university and Nissan. The second satellite of the country, Tansei, was named after the school colour of the university (light blue). The institute left the purview of the university as part of a government-led project in the 1980s and eventually formed JAXA, but it still operates in close liaison with the university.
 * Yoshinori Ohsumi made a breakthrough in the study of autophagy, a process for cellular waste management and recycling, when he was a professor at the College of Arts and Sciences at the university. Using yeast for his experiments, Ohsumi identified key genes involved in autophagy, shedding light on how cells respond to stress such as malnutrition and infections, and linking the process to various diseases including cancer. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2016 'for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy'.

 * On 23 February 1987, the Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment observatory, part of the Department of Physics, detected cosmic neutrinos for the first time in human history. This discovery significantly contributed to proving that the sun's energy is generated from hydrogen atoms combining into helium(proton-proton reaction chain). Masatoshi Koshiba, leader of this research group, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002. In 1998, an expanded version of this neutrino observatory (Super-Kamiokande) detected neutrino oscillation, demonstrating that the 'lepton flavour' of neutrinos changes. This discovery, proving that neutrinos have mass, led to Takaaki Kajita receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2015. As the successor to Super-Kamiokande, Hyper-Kamiokande is currently under construction, with the operation's start planned for 2027.

Academic rankings and reputation
Due to its age and its academic and social status, the University of Tokyo is considered to be the most prestigious university in Japan, and reflecting this, its admission process for undergraduate degrees is regarded as the most selective in the country.

 * The QS World University Rankings ranked UTokyo 28th in the world in 2023 (1st in Japan). Its subject rankings ranked UTokyo 1st in Japan for all academic disciplines the university covers except for Classics and Ancient History, for which KyotoU was recognised as the best. The university was ranked 11th in the world for Natural Sciences, 18th for Engineering and Technology, 35th for Social Sciences & Management, and 32nd for Arts and Humanities.

 * The Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked UTokyo 29th in the world in 2023 (1st in Japan). Its subject rankings ranked UTokyo 1st in the country for all subjects it covers. The Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings 2023 ranked UTokyo 10th in the world (1st in Japan, 2nd in Asia). In 2017, its Alma Mater Index, which measures universities around the world by the number of CEOs of Fortune Global 500 companies among their alumni, ranked UTokyo 16th in the world.
 * UTokyo has consistently been the largest recipient of the KAKENHI Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (Japan's largest national research grant) in the country. In FY2022, it alone received approximately 10 percent of the total grants awarded to 1,370 institutions across Japan.
 * In 2023, Newsweek recognised the University of Tokyo Hospital as the 17th best hospital in the world (2nd in Asia after Singapore General Hospital, 1st in Japan).

Sites
Apart from the three main campuses, the University of Tokyo operates a large number of other campuses and facilities globally. Each campus was established at a different stage in the university's history, and they each serve distinct roles in education and research. The university's land holdings in Japan amount to 326 square kilometres. As of 31 March 2023, the university's real estate holdings are valued at 1.14 trillion yen.

Hongo campus
The Hongo campus has been the university's centre since 1884, when the university's administration office relocated to the site. The campus faces Shinobazu Pond in Ueno Park to the east and has in its vicinity the electric district Akihabara, the city's bookshop hub, Jimbōchō, and the city's largest indoor stadium, Tokyo Dome. The campus is served by three Tokyo Metro stations: Hongo-sanchome, Todai-mae, and Nezu. It occupies the former estate of the Maeda family, Edo period feudal lords of Kaga Province. One of the university's best known landmarks, Akamon (the Red Gate), is a relic of this era. The symbol of the university is the ginkgo leaf, from the trees found throughout the area. The Hongo campus also hosts the University of Tokyo's annual May Festival.

Komaba Campus
The Komaba Campus, serving as the educational hub for the first two years of undergraduate studies, provides general education to around 6,000 first and second year students. The campus, also home to the Graduate Schools of Arts, Sciences, and Mathematical Sciences, has advanced research facilities. It also provides specialised education for about 450 senior division undergraduate students in the College of Arts and Sciences and 1,400 graduate students across various disciplines. It is served by Komaba-Todaimae Station on the Keio Inokashira line, which is directly connected to the main gate of the campus.

Kashiwa Campus
The Kashiwa Campus specialises in postgraduate education and research. It houses the Graduate School of Frontier Sciences along with advanced research institutes such as the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, the Institute for Solid State Physics, the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, and the Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, equipped with extensive facilities and services.

Shirokanedai Campus
The relatively small Shirokanedai Campus hosts the Institute of Medical Science of the University of Tokyo, which is entirely dedicated to postgraduate studies. The campus is focused on genome research, including among its facilities the Human Genome Center, which have at its disposal the largest supercomputer in the field.

Notable alumni
Throughout its history as a modern university since 1877, a considerable number of UTokyo alumni have become notable in various fields, both academic and otherwise. A total of twelve Nobel laureates have earned degrees from UTokyo, with prizes won in five of the six categories. This is the largest number among all universities in Asia. However, when including other affiliates such as researchers, the total number is surpassed by Kyoto University.

Law and Politics
The University of Tokyo has educated eighteen prime ministers of Japan: Hara Takashi (dropped out), Katō Takaaki (Law, 1881), Wakatsuki Reijirō (Law, 1892), Osachi Hamaguchi (Law, 1895), Kōki Hirota (Law, 1905), Fumimaro Konoe (Letters, dropped out), Hiranuma Kiichirō (Law, 1888), Kijūrō Shidehara (Law, 1895), Shigeru Yoshida (Law, 1906), Tetsu Katayama (Law, 1912), Hitoshi Ashida (Law, 1912), Ichirō Hatoyama (Law, 1907), Nobusuke Kishi (Law, 1920), Eisaku Satō (Law, 1924), Takeo Fukuda (Law, 1929), Yasuhiro Nakasone (Law, 1941), Kiichi Miyazawa (Law, 1941), Yukio Hatoyama (Engineering, 1969). Eisaku Satō received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, for his comminment to halting the spread of nuclear arms.

UTokyo has produced numerous other influential politicians since its establishment. As of December 2023, UTokyo alumni hold 139 seats in the National Diet (the national legislature of Japan), accounting for about a fifth of the total seats. Six members of the cabinet are UTokyo alumni, including the Chief Cabinet Secretary: Yoshimasa Hayashi; Internal Affairs: Takeaki Matsumoto; Justice: Ryuji Koizumi; Foreign Affairs: Yoko Kamikawa; Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: Masahito Moriyama; and Economy, Trade and Industry: Ken Saito. As of April 2023, 27 out of the 47 incumbent governors of Japanese prefectures have received their undergraduate education at UTokyo.

UTokyo has produced a large number of distinguished jurists, judges and lawyers. As of February 2024, eleven out of the fifteen incumbent justices of the Supreme Court are UTokyo alumni. The university is also the Alma Mater of all four Japanese judges of the International Court of Justice: Kōtarō Tanaka, Shigeru Oda, Hisashi Owada and Yuji Iwasawa. Tomoko Akane has served as the president of the International Criminal Court (ICC) since March 2024.

Sciences, engineering and mathematics
Nine Nobel-awarded scientists have earned degrees from UTokyo: six in physics (Leo Esaki, Masatoshi Koshiba, Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Yoichiro Nambu, Takaaki Kajita and Syukuro Manabe), one in chemistry (Ei-ichi Negishi) and two in Physiology or Medicine (Yoshinori Ohsumi and Satoshi Ōmura). Additionally, Kunihiko Kodaira won a Fields Medal, often called the 'Nobel Prize for mathematics'.

Four architects educated at the Faculty of Engineering have received the Pritzker Architecture Prize: Kenzo Tange, Arata Isozaki, Toyo Ito and Fumihiko Maki.

Other notable UTokyo-educated scientists, engineers, and mathematicians include Kiyoshi Ito, known for his work in probability theory; Hantaro Nagaoka, a pioneer in atomic theory; Yoshio Nishina, who made significant contributions to particle physics; and Teiji Takagi, known for his work in number theory. Yoji Totsuka was an influential figure in neutrino physics. Kikunae Ikeda is credited with discovering umami. Kitasato Shibasaburō discovered the infectious agent of bubonic plague, and Kazuhiko Nishijima contributed to the discovery of the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula. Hirotugu Akaike developed the Akaike Information Criterion, and Hideo Shima was the chief engineer behind the development of the Shinkansen bullet train. Yuzuru Hiraga was the chief engineer at the Imperial Japanese Navy, then the third-strongest in the world, and Takamine Jōkichi was the first to isolate adrenaline. Akira Fujishima discovered the photocatalytic properties of titanium dioxide, and Tosio Kato made notable contributions to functional analysis. Shun'ichi Amari invented and formulated the recurrent neural network (RNN) for learning.

Business, economics and finance
Kiichiro Toyoda, an alumnus of the Faculty of Engineering, founded Toyota Motor, the largest car manufacturer in the world and the largest company in Japan by both market capitalisation and revenue. Namihei Odaira, also an alumnus of the Faculty of Engineering, founded Hitachi, one of the largest electronics conglomerates in the world. Another UTokyo-educated engineer, Yoshisuke Ayukawa, founded the Nissan Group (zaibatsu), from which some of Japan's largest companies, such as Nissan, Isuzu, NEC, and SOMPO Holdings, spun off. Baron Koyata Iwasaki, a member of the founding Iwasaki family of Mitsubishi, was the longest-serving and last head of the group before it was split up by order of the Allied Occupational Forces after the Second World War. Under his leadership, the group's business evolved significantly, and he founded companies such as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Nikon. Hiromasa Ezoe, as an educational psychology student at UTokyo in 1961, established Recruit Holdings, the largest human resources company in Japan, which also runs worldwide businesses including Indeed and Glassdoor. UTokyo alumni have held chief executive positions at numerous influential Japanese companies, including Sony (Kenichiro Yoshida), MUFG (Hironori Kamezawa [ ja]) and Mitsubishi Corp (Katsuya Nakanishi [ ja]), as of April 2024. More than half of the governors of the Bank of Japan, the central bank of Japan, have been UTokyo alumni, including the incumbent governor Kazuo Ueda, who previously taught at UTokyo.

title: University of Tokyo


text: Talk:Linguistic anthropology

title: Talk:Linguistic anthropology


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Escalation

Escalation is the process of increasing or rising, derived from the concept of an escalator. Specific uses of the term include:

 * Cost escalation, an increase in the price of goods
 * Conflict escalation, an increase in the intensity of a conflict
 * Escalation hypothesis, a theory in evolutionary biology
 * Escalation of commitment, an aspect of game theory
 * Privilege escalation, a computer security process
 * Technological escalation, a technological version of an arms race

Entertainment

 * Escalation (1968 Italian film), a 1968 Italian film
 * Escalation (1968 animated film), a 1968 anti-Vietnam War animated cartoon, directed by Ward Kimball
 * Escalation Studios, an American video game developer

title: Escalation