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Chandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta Maurya (350–295 BCE) was the Emperor of Magadha from 322 BC to 297 BC and founder of the Maurya dynasty which ruled over a geographically-extensive empire based in Magadha. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Magadha kingdom expanded to become an empire that reached its peak under the reign of his grandson, Ashoka the Great, from 268 BCE to 231 BCE. The nature of the political formation that existed in Chandragupta's time is not certain. The Mauryan empire was a loose-knit one with large autonomous regions within its limits.

Prior to his consolidation of power, Alexander the Great had invaded the North-West Indian subcontinent before abandoning his campaign in 324 BCE due to a mutiny caused by the prospect of facing another large empire, presumably the Nanda Empire. Chandragupta defeated and conquered both the Nanda Empire centered in Pataliputra, Magadha and the Greek satraps that were appointed or formed from Alexander's Empire in South Asia. Afterwards, Chandragupta expanded and secured his western border, where he was confronted by Seleucus I Nicator in the Seleucid–Mauryan war. After two years of war, Chandragupta was considered to have gained the upper hand in the conflict and annexed satrapies up to the Hindu Kush. Instead of prolonging the war, both parties settled on a marriage treaty.

Chandragupta's empire extended throughout most of South Asia, spanning from modern day Bengal to Afghanistan across North India as well as making inroads into Central and South India. In contrast to the Jain legends which developed 900 years later, contemporary Greek evidence states that Chandragupta did not give up performing the rites of sacrificing animals associated with Vedic Brahminism; he delighted in hunting and otherwise leading a life remote from the Jain practice of Ahimsa or nonviolence towards living beings. Chandragupta's reign, and the Maurya Empire, set an era of economic prosperity, reforms, infrastructure expansions, and tolerance. Many religions thrived within his realms and his descendants' empire. Buddhism, Jainism and Ājīvika gained prominence alongside Vedic and Brahmanistic traditions, and minority religions such as Zoroastrianism and the Greek pantheon were respected. A memorial for Chandragupta Maurya exists on the Chandragiri hill along with a seventh-century hagiographic inscription.

Historical sources
Chandragupta's life and accomplishments are described in ancient and historical Greek, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts, but they significantly vary in detail. Chandragupta was born about 340 BC and died at about 295 BC. His main biographical sources in chronological order are:
 * Greek and Roman sources, which are the oldest surviving records that mention Chandragupta is megasthanes and circumstances related to him; these include works written by Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus of Cassandreia, Strabo (63 BC – c. 24 AD), Megasthenes, Diodorus (1st century BC), Arrian c.( 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD), Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – AD 79), Plutarch (c. AD 46 – after AD 119) and Justin(2nd century).
 * In greek source Only megasthanes is the one who has direct connection with chandaragupt
 * Hindu texts such as the Puranas and Arthashastra; later composed Hindu sources include legends in Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa, Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara and Kshemendra's Brihatkathamanjari.
 * Buddhist sources are those dated in fourth-century or after, including the Sri Lankan Pali texts Dipavamsa (Rajavamsa section), Mahavamsa, Mahavamsa tika and Mahabodhivamsa.
 * 7th to 10th century Jain inscriptions at Shravanabelgola; these are disputed by scholars as well as the Svetambara Jain tradition. The second Digambara text interpreted to be mentioning the Maurya emperor is dated to about the 10th-century such as in the Brhatkathakosa of Harisena (Jain monk), while the complete Jain legend about Chandragupta is found in the 12th-century Parisishtaparvan by Hemachandra.

The Greek and Roman texts do not mention Chandragupta directly, except for a second-century text written by the Roman historian Justin. They predominantly mention the last Nanda emperor, who usurped the throne of the king before him. Justin states that Chandragupta was of humble origin, and includes stories of miraculous legends associated with him, such as a wild elephant appearing and submitting itself to him as a ride to him before a battle. Justin's text notes that Chandragupta and Chanakya defeated and removed Nanda from his throne. Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which, if true, would mean his rule started before 321 BCE. He is described as a great king, but not as great in power and influence as Porus in northwestern India or Agrammes (Dhana Nanda) in eastern India. As Alexander did not cross the Beas river, Chandragupta's territory probably included the Punjab region.

The pre-4th century Hindu Puranic texts mostly mirror the Greek sources. These texts do not discuss the details of Chandragupta's ancestry, but rather cover the ancestry of the last Nanda king. The Nanda king is described to be cruel, against dharma and shastras, and born out of an illicit relationship followed by a coup. The Chanakya's Arthasastra refers to the Nanda rule as against the spiritual, cultural, and military interests of the country, a period where intrigue and vice multiplied. Chanakya states that Chandragupta returned dharma, nurtured diversity of views, and ruled virtuously that kindled love among the subjects for his rule.

Buddhist texts such as Mahavamsa describe Chandragupta to be of Kshatriya origin. These sources, written about seven centuries after his dynasty ended, state that both Chandragupta and his grandson Ashoka – a patron of Buddhism – were from a branch of the Shakya noble family, from which Gautama Buddha descended. These Buddhist sources attempt to link the dynasty of their patron Ashoka directly to the Buddha. The sources claim that the family branched off to escape persecution from a King of Kosala and Chandragupta's ancestors moved into a secluded Himalayan kingdom known for its peacocks. The Buddhist sources explain the epithet maurya comes from these peacocks, or Mora in Pali (Sanskrit: Mayura). The Buddhist texts are inconsistent; some offer other legends to explain his epithet. For example, they mention a city named "Moriya-nagara" where all buildings were made of bricks colored like the peacock's neck. The Maha-bodhi-vasa states he hailed from Moriya-nagara, while the Digha-Nikaya states he came from the maurya clan of Pipphalivana. The Buddhist sources also mention that "Brahmin Chanakya" was his counselor and with whose support Chandragupta became the king at Patliputra. He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (which has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae on the account of same life events.

The 12th-century Digambara text Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra is the main and earliest Jain source of the complete legend of Chandragupta. It was written nearly 1,400 years after Chandragupta's death. Canto 8, verses 170 to 469, describes the legend of Chandragupta and Chanakya's influence on him. Other Digambara Jain sources state he moved to Karnataka after renouncing his kingdom and performed Sallekhana – the Jain religious ritual of peacefully welcoming death by fasting. The earliest mention of Chandragupta's ritual death is found in Harisena's Brhatkathakosa, a Sanskrit text of stories about Digambara Jains. The Brhatkathakosa describes the legend of Bhadrabahu and mentions Chandragupta in its 131st story. However, the story makes no mention of the Maurya empire, and mentions that his disciple Chandragupta lived in and migrated from Ujjain – a kingdom (northwest Madhya Pradesh) about a thousand kilometers west of the Magadha and Patliputra (central Bihar). This has led to the proposal that Harisena's Chandragupta may be a later era, different person.

Date
None of the ancient texts mention when Chandragupta was born. Plutarch claims that he was a young man when he met Alexander III during the latter's invasion of India (c. 326-325 BCE). Assuming the Plutarch account is true, Raychaudhuri proposed in 1923 that Chandragupta may have been born after 350 BCE. According to other Greco-Roman texts, Chandragupta attacked the Greek-Indian governors after Alexander's death (c. 323 BCE) with Seleucus I Nicator entering into a treaty with Chandragupta years later. Seleucus Nicator, under this treaty, gave up Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Makran), and Paropamisadae (Paropamisadae, Kabul) to Chandragupta, in exchange for 500 war elephants.

The texts do not include the start or end year of Chandragupta's reign. According to some Hindu and Buddhist texts, Chandragupta ruled for 24 years. The Buddhist sources state Chandragupta Maurya ruled 162 years after the death of the Buddha. However, the Buddha's birth and death vary by source and all these lead to a chronology that is significantly different from the Greco-Roman records. Similarly, Jain sources composed give different gaps between Mahavira's death and his accession. As with the Buddha's death, the date of Mahavira's death itself is also a matter of debate, and the inconsistencies and lack of unanimity among the Jain authors cast doubt on Jain sources. This Digambara Jain chronology, also, is not reconcilable with the chronology implied in other Indian and non-Indian sources.

Historians such as Irfan Habib and Vivekanand Jha assign Chandragupta's reign to c. 322-298 BCE. Upinder Singh dates his rule from 324 or 321 BCE to 297 BCE. Kristi Wiley states he reigned between 320 and 293 BCE.

Early life
One medieval commentator states Chandragupta to be the son of one of the Nanda's wives with the name Mura. Other sources describe Mura as a concubine of the king. Another Sanskrit dramatic text Mudrarakshasa uses the terms Vrishala and Kula-Hina (meaning - "not descending from a recognized clan or family") to describe Chandragupta. The word Vrishala has two meanings: one is the son of a shudra; the other means the best of kings. A later commentator used the former interpretation to posit that Chandragupta had a Shudra background. However, historian Radha Kumud Mukherjee opposed this theory, and stated that the word should be interpreted as "the best of kings". The same drama also refers to Chandragupta as someone of humble origin, like Justin. According to the 11th-century texts of the Kashmiri Hindu tradition – Kathasaritsagara and Brihat-Katha-Manjari – the Nanda lineage was very short. Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda, the older Nanda based in Ayodhya. The common theme in the Hindu sources is that Chandragupta came from a humble background and with Chanakya, he emerged as a dharmic king loved by his subjects.

According to the Digambara legend by Hemachandra, Chanakya was a Jain layperson and a Brahmin. When Chanakya was born, Jain monks prophesied that Chanakya will one day grow up to help make someone an emperor and will be the power behind the throne. Chanakya believed in the prophecy and fulfilled it by agreeing to help the daughter of a peacock-breeding community chief deliver a baby boy. In exchange, he asked the mother to give up the boy and let him adopt him at a later date. The Jain Brahmin then went about making money through magic, and returned later to claim young Chandragupta, whom he taught and trained. Together, they recruited soldiers and attacked the Nanda Empire. Eventually, they won and proclaimed Patliputra as their capital.

Influence of Chanakya

The Buddhist and Hindu legends present different versions of how Chandragupta met Chanakya. Broadly, they mention young Chandragupta creating a mock game of a royal court that he and his shepherd friends played near Vinjha forest. Chanakya saw him give orders to the others, bought him from the hunter, and adopted Chandragupta. Chanakya taught and admitted him in Taxila to study the Vedas, military arts, law, and other shastras.

After Taxila, Chandragupta and Chanakya moved to Pataliputra, the capital and a historic learning center in the eastern Magadha Kingdom of India. They met Nanda there according to Hindu sources, and Dhana Nanda according to Pali-language Buddhist sources. Chandragupta became a commander of the Nanda Army, but according to Justin, Chandragupta offended the Nanda king ("Nandrum" or "Nandrus") who ordered his execution. An alternative version states that it was the Nanda king who was publicly insulted by Chanakya. Chandragupta and Chanakya escaped and became rebels who planned to remove the Nanda king from power. The Mudrarakshasa also states that Chanakya swore to destroy the Nanda dynasty after he felt insulted by the king.

The Roman text by Justin mentions a couple of miraculous incidents that involved Sandracottus (Chandragupta) and presents these legends as omens and portents of his fate. In the first incident, when Chandragupta was asleep after having escaped from Nandrum, a big lion came up to him, licked him, and then left. In the second incident, when Chandragupta was readying for war with Alexander's generals, a huge wild elephant approached him and offered itself to be his steed.

Building an army
According to the Buddhist text Mahavamsa Tika, Chandragupta and Chanakya raised an army by recruiting soldiers from many places after the former completed his education at Taxila. Chanakya made Chandragupta the leader of the army. The Digambara Jain text Parishishtaparvan states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka. According to Justin, Chandragupta organized an army. Early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri, the original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber.

Overthrow of the Nanda dynasty
Greco-Roman writer Plutarch stated, in his Life of Alexander, that the Nanda king was so unpopular that had Alexander tried, he could have easily conquered India. After Alexander ended his campaign and left, Chandragupta's army conquered the Nanda capital Pataliputra around 322 BCE with Chanakya's counsel.

Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign into Pataliputra are unavailable and the legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist texts such as Milindapanha claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which, with Chanakya's counsel, Chandragupta conquered to restore dhamma. The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories before invading Pataliputra. In contrast to the easy victory of Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.

The conquest was fictionalised in Mudrarakshasa, in which Chandragupta is said to have first acquired Punjab and allied with a local king named Parvatka under the Chanakya's advice before advancing on the Nanda Empire. Chandragupta laid siege to Kusumapura (now Patna), the capital of Magadha, by deploying guerrilla warfare methods with the help of mercenaries from conquered areas. Historian P. K. Bhattacharyya states that the empire was built by a gradual conquest of provinces after the initial consolidation of Magadha.

According to the Digambara Jain version by Hemachandra, the success of Chandragupta and his strategist Chanakya was stopped by a Nanda town that refused to surrender. Chanakya disguised himself as a mendicant and found seven mother goddesses (saptamatrikas) inside. He concluded these goddesses were protecting the town people. The townspeople sought the disguised mendicant's advice on how to end the blockade of the army surrounding their town. Hemacandra wrote Chanakya swindled them into removing the mother goddesses. The townspeople removed the protective goddesses and an easy victory over the town followed. Thereafter, the alliance of Chandragupta and Parvataka overran the Nanda empire and attacked Pataliputra with an "immeasurable army". With a depleted treasury, exhausted merit, and insufficient intelligence, the Nanda emperor lost.

These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, but allowed to leave Pataliputra alive with a chariot full of items his family needed. The Jain sources attest that his daughter fell in love at first sight with Chandragupta and married him. With the defeat of Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in ancient India.

Conquest of north-west regions

The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great ended before Chandragupta came into power. Alexander had left India in 325 BCE and assigned the northwestern Indian subcontinent territories to Greek governors. The nature of early relationship between these governors and Chandragupta is unknown. Justin mentions Chandragupta as a rival of the Alexander's successors in north-western India. He states that after Alexander's death, Chandragupta freed Indian territories from the Greeks and executed some of the governors. According to Boesche, this war with the northwestern territories was in part fought by mercenaries hired by Chandragupta and Chanakya, and these wars may have been the cause of the demise of two of Alexander's governors, Nicanor and Philip. Megasthenes served as a Greek ambassador in his court for four years.

War and marriage alliance with Seleucus
According to Appian, Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's Macedonian generals who in 312 BCE established the Seleucid Empire with its capital at Babylon, brought Persia and Bactria under his own authority, putting his eastern front facing the empire of Chandragupta. Seleucus and Chandragupta waged war until they came to an understanding with each other. Seleucus married off his daughter, Berenice, to Chandragupta to forge an alliance.

R. C. Majumdar and D. D. Kosambi note that Seleucus appeared to have fared poorly after ceding large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. The Maurya Empire added Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Paropamisadae (Gandhara). According to Strabo, Seleucus Nicator gave these regions to Chandragupta along with a marriage treaty, and in return received five hundred elephants. The details of the engagement treaty are not known. However, since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that the marital alliance went the other way, with Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying a Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus.

Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants to Seleucus, which played a key role in Seleucus' victory at the Battle of Ipsus. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched Megasthenes as an ambassador to Chandragupta's court, and later Antiochos sent Deimakos to his son Bindusara at the Maurya court at Patna.

Conquests in Southern India
After annexing Seleucus' provinces west of the Indus river, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern Indian sub-continent from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta began expanding his empire southwards beyond the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau. By the time his conquests were complete, Chandragupta's empire extended over most of the subcontinent.

Two poetic anthologies from the Tamil Sangam literature corpus – Akananuru and Purananuru – allude to the Nanda rule and Maurya empire. For example, poems 69, 281 and 375 mention the army and chariots of the Mauryas, while poems 251 and 265 may be alluding to the Nandas. However, the poems dated between first-century BCE to fifth-century CE do not mention Chandragupta Maurya by name, and some of them could be referring to a different Moriya dynasty in the Deccan region in the fifth century CE. According to Upinder Singh, these poems may be mentioning Mokur and Koshar kingdoms of Vadugars (northerners) in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, with one interpretation being that the Maurya Empire had an alliance with these at some point of time.

Names and titles
Greek writer Phylarchus (c. third century BCE), who is quoted by Athenaeus, calls Chandragupta "Sandrokoptos". The later Greco-Roman writers Strabo, Arrian, and Justin (c. second century) call him "Sandrocottus". In Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrakottos (Σανδράκοττος) and Androcottus (Ανδροκόττος).

The king's epithets mentioned in the Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa include "Chanda-siri" (Chandra-shri), "Piadamsana" (Priya-darshana), and Vrishala. Piadamsana is similar to Priyadasi, an epithet of his grandson Ashoka. The word "Vrishala" is used in Indian epics and law books to refer to non-orthodox people. According to one theory, it may be derived from the Greek royal title Basileus, but there is no concrete evidence of this: the Indian sources apply it to several non-royals, especially wandering teachers and ascetics.

Empire
There are no records of Chandragupta's military conquests and the reach of his empire. It is based on inferences from Greek and Roman historians and the religious Indian texts written centuries after his death. Based on these, the North-West reach of his empire included parts of present-day Afghanistan that Seleucus I Nicator ceded to him including Kabul, Kandahar, Taxila and Gandhara. These are the areas where his grandson Ashoka left the major Kandahar rock edict and other edicts in the Greek and Aramaic languages. In the west, Chandragupta's rule over present-day Gujarat is attested to by Ashoka's inscription in Junagadh. On the same rock, about 400 years later, Rudradaman inscribed a longer text sometime about the mid second–century. Rudradaman's inscription states that the Sudarshana lake in the area was commissioned during the rule of Chandragupta through his governor Vaishya Pushyagupta and conduits were added during Ashoka's rule through Tushaspha. The Mauryan control of the region is further corroborated by the inscription on the rock, which suggests that Chandragupta controlled the Malwa region in Central India, located between Gujarat and Pataliputra.

There is uncertainty about the other conquests that Chandragupta may have achieved, especially in the Deccan region of southern India. At the time of his grandson Ashoka's ascension in c. 268 BCE, the empire extended up to present-day Karnataka in the south, so the southern conquests may be attributed to either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara. If the Jain tradition about Chandragupta ending his life as a renunciate in Karnakata is considered correct, it appears that Chandragupta initiated the southern conquest.

Maurya with his counsellor Chanakya together built one of the largest empires ever on the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta's empire extended from Bengal to central Afghanistan encompassing most of the Indian subcontinent except for parts that are now Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Odisha.

Reign
After unifying much of India, Chandragupta and Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. Chandragupta established a strong central administration from Pataliputra (now Patna). Chandragupta applied the statecraft and economic policies described in Chanakya's text Arthashastra. There are varying accounts in the historic, legendary, and hagiographic literature of various Indian religions about Chandragupta's rule, but Allchin and Erdosy' are suspect; they state, "one cannot but be struck by the many close correspondences between the (Hindu) Arthashastra and the two other major sources the (Buddhist) Asokan inscriptions and (Greek) Megasthenes text".

The Maurya rule was a structured administration; Chandragupta had a council of ministers (amatya), with Chanakya was his chief minister. The empire was organised into territories (janapada), centres of regional power were protected with forts (durga), and state operations were funded with treasury (kosa). Strabo, in his Geographica composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, describes aspects of his rule in his chapter XV.46–69. He had councillors for matters of justice and assessors to collect taxes on commercial activity and trade goods. He routinely performed Vedic sacrifices, Brahmanical rituals, and hosted major festivals marked by procession of elephants and horses. His officers inspected situations requiring law and order in the cities; the crime rate was low.

According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta's rule was marked by three parallel administrative structures. One managed the affairs of villages, ensuring irrigation, recording land ownership, monitoring tools supply, enforcing hunting, wood products and forest-related laws, and settling disputes. Another administrative structure managed city affairs, including all matters related to trade, merchant activity, visit of foreigners, harbors, roads, temples, markets, and industries. They also collected taxes and ensured standardized weights and measures. The third administrative body overlooked the military, its training, its weapons supply, and the needs of the soldiers.

Chanakya was concerned about Chandragupta's safety and developed elaborate techniques to prevent assassination attempts. Various sources report Chandragupta frequently changed bedrooms to confuse conspirators. He left his palace only for certain tasks: to go on military expeditions, to visit his court for dispensing justice, to offer sacrifices, for celebrations, and for hunting. During celebrations, he was well-guarded, and on hunts, he was surrounded by female guards who were presumed to be less likely to participate in a coup conspiracy. These strategies may have resulted from the historical context of the Nanda emperor who had come to power by assassinating the previous emperor.

During Chandragupta's reign and that of his dynasty, many religions thrived in India, with Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika gaining prominence along with other folk traditions.

Infrastructure projects
The empire built a strong economy from a solid infrastructure such as irrigation, temples, mines, and roads. Ancient epigraphical evidence suggests Chandragupta, under counsel from Chanakya, started and completed many irrigation reservoirs and networks across the Indian subcontinent to ensure food supplies for the civilian population and the army, a practice continued by his dynastic successors. Regional prosperity in agriculture was one of the required duties of his state officials.

The strongest evidence of infrastructure development is found in the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman in Gujarat, dated to about 150 CE. It states, among other things, that Rudradaman repaired and enlarged the reservoir and irrigation conduit infrastructure built by Chandragupta and enhanced by Asoka. Chandragupta's empire also built mines, manufacturing centres, and networks for trading goods. His rule developed land routes to transport goods across the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta expanded "roads suitable for carts" as he preferred those over narrow tracks suitable for only pack animals.

According to Kaushik Roy, the Maurya dynasty rulers were "great road builders". The Greek ambassador Megasthenes credited this tradition to Chandragupta after the completion of a thousand-mile-long highway connecting Chandragupta's capital Pataliputra in Bihar to Taxila in the north-west where he studied. The other major strategic road infrastructure credited to this tradition spread from Pataliputra in various directions, connecting it with Nepal, Kapilavastu, Dehradun, Mirzapur, Odisha, Andhra, and Karnataka. Roy stated this network boosted trade and commerce, and helped move armies rapidly and efficiently.

Chandragupta and Chanakya seeded weapon manufacturing centres, and kept them as a state monopoly of the state. The state, however, encouraged competing private parties to operate mines and supply these centres. They considered economic prosperity essential to the pursuit of dharma (virtuous life) and adopted a policy of avoiding war with diplomacy yet continuously preparing the army for war to defend its interests and other ideas in the Arthashastra.

Arts and architecture
The evidence of arts and architecture during Chandragupta's time is mostly limited to texts such as those by Megasthenese and Kautilya. The edict inscriptions and carvings on monumental pillars are attributed to his grandson Ashoka. The texts imply the existence of cities, public works, and prosperous architecture but the historicity of these is in question.

Archeological discoveries in the modern age, such as those Didarganj Yakshi discovered in 1917 buried beneath the banks of the Ganges suggest exceptional artisanal accomplishment. The site was dated to third century BCE by many scholars but later dates such as the Kushan era (1st-4th century CE) have also been proposed. The competing theories state that the art linked to Chandragupta Maurya's dynasty was learnt from the Greeks and West Asia in the years Alexander the Great waged war; or that these artifacts belong to an older indigenous Indian tradition. Frederick Asher of the University of Minnesota says "we cannot pretend to have definitive answers; and perhaps, as with most art, we must recognize that there is no single answer or explanation".

Succession, renunciation, and death (Sallekhana)

The circumstances and year of Chandragupta's death are unclear and disputed. According to Digambara Jain accounts, Bhadrabahu forecast a 12-year famine because of all the killing and violence during the conquests by Chandragupta Maurya. He led a group of Jain monks to south India, where Chandragupta Maurya joined him as a monk after abdicating his kingdom to his son Bindusara. Together, states a Digambara legend, Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu moved to Shravanabelagola, in present-day south Karnataka. These Jain accounts appeared in texts such as Brihakathā kośa (931 CE) of Harishena, Bhadrabāhu charita (1450 CE) of Ratnanandi, Munivaṃsa bhyudaya (1680 CE) and Rajavali kathe. Chandragupta lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death as per the practice of sallekhana, according to the Digambara legend.

In accordance with the Digambara tradition, the hill on which Chandragupta is stated to have performed asceticism is now known as Chandragiri hill, and Digambaras believe that Chandragupta Maurya erected an ancient temple that now survives as the Chandragupta basadi. According to Roy, Chandragupta's abdication of throne may be dated to c. 298 BCE, and his death between 297 BCE and 293 BCE. His grandson was Emperor Ashoka who is famed for his historic pillars and his role in helping spread Buddhism outside of ancient India.

Regarding the inscriptions describing the relation of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, Radha Kumud Mookerji writes,"The oldest inscription of about 600 AD associated 'the pair (yugma), Bhadrabahu along with Chandragupta Muni.' Two inscriptions of about 900 AD on the Kaveri near Seringapatam describe the summit of a hill called Chandragiri as marked by the footprints of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta munipati. A Shravanabelagola inscription of 1129 mentions Bhadrabahu 'Shrutakevali', and Chandragupta who acquired such merit that he was worshipped by the forest deities. Another inscription of 1163 similarly couples and describes them. A third inscription of the year 1432 speaks of Yatindra Bhadrabahu, and his disciple Chandragupta, the fame of whose penance spread into other words."Along with texts, several Digambara Jain inscriptions dating from the 7th–15th century refer to Bhadrabahu and a Prabhacandra. Later Digambara tradition identified the Prabhacandra as Chandragupta, and some modern era scholars have accepted this Digambara tradition while others have not, Several of the late Digambara inscriptions and texts in Karnataka state the journey started from Ujjain and not Patliputra (as stated in some Digambara texts).

Jeffery D. Long – a scholar of Jain and Hindu studies – says in one Digambara version, it was Samprati Chandragupta who renounced, migrated and performed sallekhana in Shravanabelagola. Long states scholars attribute the disintegration of the Maurya empire to the times and actions of Samprati Chandragupta – the grandson of Ashoka and great-great-grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. The two Chandraguptas have been confused to be the same in some Digambara legends.

Scholar of Jain studies and Sanskrit Paul Dundas says the Svetambara tradition of Jainism disputes the ancient Digambara legends. According to a fifth-century text of the Svetambara Jains, the Digambara sect of Jainism was founded 609 years after Mahavira's death, or in first-century CE. Digambaras wrote their own versions and legends after the fifth-century, with their first expanded Digambara version of sectarian split within Jainism appearing in the tenth-century. The Svetambaras texts describe Bhadrabahu was based near Nepalese foothills of the Himalayas in third-century BCE, who neither moved nor travelled with Chandragupta Maurya to the south; rather, he died near Patliputra, according to the Svetambara Jains.

The 12th-century Svetambara Jain legend by Hemachandra presents a different picture. The Hemachandra version includes stories about Jain monks who could become invisible to steal food from imperial storage and the Jain Brahmin Chanakya using violence and cunning tactics to expand Chandragupta's empire and increase imperial revenues. It states in verses 8.415 to 8.435, that for 15 years as emperor, Chandragupta was a follower of non-Jain "ascetics with the wrong view of religion" and "lusted for women". Chanakya, who was a Jain convert himself, persuaded Chandragupta to convert to Jainism by showing that Jain ascetics avoided women and focused on their religion. The legend mentions Chanakya aiding the premature birth of Bindusara, It states in verse 8.444 that "Chandragupta died in meditation (can possibly be sallekhana.) and went to heaven". According to Hemachandra's legend, Chanakya also performed sallekhana. According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – an Indologist and historian, several of the Digambara legends mention Prabhacandra, who had been misidentified as Chandragupta Maurya particularly after the original publication on Shravanabelagola epigraphy by B. Lewis Rice. The earliest and most important inscriptions mention Prabhacandra, which Rice presumed may have been the "clerical name assumed by Chadragupta Maurya" after he renounced and moved with Bhadrabahu from Patliputra. Dikshitar stated there is no evidence to support this and Prabhacandra was an important Jain monk scholar who migrated centuries after Chandragupta Maurya's death. Other scholars have taken Rice's deduction of Chandragupta Maurya retiring and dying in Shravanabelagola as the working hypothesis, since no alternative historical information or evidence is available about Chandragupta's final years and death.

According to historian Sushma Jansari, "A closer look at the evidence for Chandragupta's conversion to Jainism and his and Bhadrabāhu's association with Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa reveals that it is both late and problematic. In addition, except for Jain sources, there is no evidence to support the view of Chandragupta's conversion and migration." Jansari concludes, "Overall, therefore, the evidence as it currently stands suggests that the story of Chandragupta's conversion to Jainism and abdication (if, indeed, he did abdicate), his migration southwards and his association (or otherwise) with Bhadrabāhu and the site of Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa developed after c.600 AD."

Legacy
A memorial to Chandragupta Maurya exists on Chandragiri hill in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. The Indian Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honouring Chandragupta Maurya in 2001.

In popular culture

 * Mudrarakshasa is a political drama in Sanskrit by Vishakhadatta composed 600 years after the conquest of Chandragupta – probably between 300 CE and 700 CE.
 * D. L. Roy wrote a Bengali drama named Chandragupta based on the life of Chandragupta. The story of the play is loosely borrowed from the Puranas and the Greek history.
 * Chanakya's role in the formation of the Maurya Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel The Courtesan and the Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash.
 * Chandragupta is a 1920 Indian silent film about the Mauryan king.
 * Chandragupta is a 1934 Indian film directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar.
 * Chandraguptha Chanakya is an Indian Tamil-language historical drama film directed by C. K. Sachi, starring Bhavani K. Sambamurthy as Chandragupta.
 * Samrat Chandragupta is a 1945 Indian historical film by Jayant Desai.
 * Samrat Chandragupt is a 1958 Indian historical fiction film by Babubhai Mistry, a remake of the 1945 film. It stars Bharat Bhushan in the titular role of the emperor.
 * The story of Chanakya and Chandragupta was made into a film in Telugu in 1977 titled Chanakya Chandragupta.
 * The television series Chanakya is an account of the life and times of Chanakya, based on the play "Mudra Rakshasa" (The Signet Ring of "Rakshasa").
 * In 2011, a television series called Chandragupta Maurya was telecast on Imagine TV.
 * In 2016, the television series Chandra Nandini was a fictionalized romance saga.
 * In the 2016 video game Civilization VI, Chandragupta is a playable leader for the Indian civilization.
 * In 2018, a television series called Chandragupta Maurya portrays the life of Chandragupta Maurya.
 * Nobunaga the Fool, a Japanese stage play and anime, features a character named Chandragupta based on the emperor.
 * In the 2001 film Aśoka, directed by Santosh Sivan, Bollywood director and producer Umesh Mehra played the role of Chandragupta Maurya.

title: Chandragupta Maurya


text:
List of armored fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union

Below is a list of tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles of the Russian empire, Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine.

Armored tractors

 * Gulkevich's armored tractor
 * F. Blinov armored tractor
 * Walter armored vehicle

Tanks

 * Vezdekhod
 * Vezdekhod No.2
 * Tsar tank
 * Mendeleev Tank (project)
 * Rybinsk tank
 * Ground Battleship (Земной броненосец) - project

Self-propelled guns

 * Drizhenko self-propelled gun
 * Turtle (Navrotsky Self-propelled gun)

Armored cars

 * FAI
 * FAI-2
 * Broneavtomobil-series armored cars:
 * BA-I
 * BA-3
 * BA-5
 * BA-6
 * BA-6S - half-tracked version of BA-6
 * BA-9
 * BA-10
 * BA-11
 * BA-20
 * BA-21
 * BA-23
 * BA-27
 * BA-30
 * BAD-1
 * BAD-2
 * BDT
 * BKhM-1000/800
 * D-8 Armored Car
 * D-9
 * D-12
 * D-13
 * D-18/37
 * DSh
 * DTR
 * FVV
 * GAZ-TK
 * KS-18
 * PB-4
 * PB-7
 * Matval

Tankettes

 * T-17 - 3 built
 * T-23 - 5 built
 * T-27 based on the Carden Loyd tankette
 * D-7
 * D-44
 * Shchitonoska
 * Fordzon

Amphibious light tanks

 * T-37
 * T-38
 * T-40
 * T-41
 * T-33
 * T-43-2
 * PT-1

Light tanks

 * "Freedom Fighter Lenin" - locally built copy of the Renault FT
 * T-18 (MS-1)
 * T-19
 * T-25 (STZ-25)
 * T-26
 * T-26-5
 * T-46
 * BT-2
 * BT-5
 * RBT-5 - BT-5 variant with torpedo rockets
 * BT-6
 * BT-7
 * BT-7A - BT-7 armed with 76mm KT-28 gun
 * BT-7M, or BT-8
 * BT-203
 * BT-SV, or BT-SW-2
 * BT-Tsyganova - a "very fast" version of the BT-7 by N. F. Tsyganova
 * Teletank (TT)
 * A-20
 * STZ-35
 * D-38
 * TM tank
 * 0-10
 * Teplokhod AN
 * D-10
 * D-11
 * TMM
 * LTTB

Medium tanks

 * T-12
 * T-24
 * Tank Grotte (TG-1) (experimental)
 * T-28
 * T-29 (experimental)
 * A-32 (T-34 prototype)
 * T-34
 * T-43
 * GUBP
 * TA-1
 * TA-2
 * D-4
 * D-5
 * IT-3
 * Object 112
 * Object 115

Heavy tanks

 * T-35
 * T-39
 * SMK (Experimental)
 * T-100 tank (Experimental)
 * KV-0 (Prototype for KV-1)
 * T-30
 * TP-1
 * TA-3
 * Sirkena tank project
 * Danchenko tank project
 * Object 0-50
 * Object 103
 * T-100-Z
 * VL (project)
 * TG-V
 * TG-VI

Tank destroyers and SPGs

 * 4M
 * 29K
 * AT-1
 * SU-1
 * SU-2
 * SU-3
 * SU-4
 * SU-5
 * SU-6
 * SU-7
 * SU-8
 * SU-12
 * SU-14
 * SU-14-1
 * SU-14-2
 * SU-18
 * SU-26
 * SU-37
 * SU-45
 * T-26-4

Flame-throwing tanks

 * KhT-26
 * OT-27/KhT-27
 * MKhT-1
 * OT-37/KhT-37
 * KhT-130
 * KhT-133
 * KhT-134
 * OT-132
 * OT-7
 * D-15
 * OU-T-26
 * Object 218

Other vehicles

 * Antonov A-40 - (Krylya Tanka) single prototype "flying tank"
 * Hovercraft tank
 * STZ-5

World War II (1941-1945)
The list does not include all vehicles, as there were many more experimental, or otherwise rare vehicles.

Armored cars

 * BA-64
 * LB-23
 * LB-62
 * LB-NATI

Tankettes

 * PPG tankette
 * NI tank (Odessa tank)

Light tanks

 * T-40
 * T-50
 * T-60
 * T-70
 * T-80 (prototype light tank)
 * T-111
 * T-116
 * T-126 (SP) - up-armored version of T-50
 * T-127
 * LTP
 * MT-25 (proposal tank)
 * LTTB (1 prototype)

Medium tanks

 * T-28
 * T-34
 * T-34-57
 * T-34-76
 * T-34-85
 * T-34-100
 * T-34M (also known as the A-43) (not serially produced)
 * T-43 tank (not serially produced)
 * T-44
 * KV-13 - a KV "universal" tank
 * A-44

Heavy tanks

 * T-150
 * Kliment Voroshilov tanks:
 * KV-1
 * KV-2
 * KV-1S
 * KV-85 (stopgap) - 135 produced
 * KV-220 (Experimental)
 * KV-8 (Flamethrower)
 * KV-8S (Flamethrower)
 * KV-122 (Prototype)
 * KV-3 (proposed heavy tank)
 * KV-4
 * KV-5 (proposed heavy tank)
 * IS tank family tanks:
 * IS-1
 * IS-2
 * IS-3

Tank destroyers and assault guns

 * AT-1 - "Artillery tank" variant of T-26, prototypes only
 * SU-26
 * SG-122
 * SU-57B
 * SU-76
 * SU-85
 * SU-85A
 * SU-100
 * SU-100Y - prototype self-propelled gun
 * SU-100S
 * SU-100M1
 * SU-100M2
 * Uralmash-1 (SU-101) - prototypes only
 * SU-122
 * SU-122P
 * SU-122-44 - unbuilt project
 * SU-152
 * ISU-122
 * ISU-122S
 * ISU-130
 * ISU-152
 * Object 704
 * KV-7 - Experimental self-propelled gun
 * U-18
 * U-34
 * U-35
 * ZiK-20

Self-propelled guns

 * ZiS-30
 * SU-100Y
 * Object 212A
 * S-51

Self-propelled anti-air

 * T-90 (Experimental)
 * ZUT-37 (Experimental)
 * ZSU-37

Lend-Lease tanks

 * Tetrarch
 * Valentine Tank
 * Churchill Tank
 * Matilda II
 * M3 Stuart
 * M3 Lee
 * M4 Sherman
 * M10 Wolverine

Captured tanks
This includes modified captured tanks.

 * T-III (T-3) - captured Panzer III
 * T-V (T-5) - captured Panther tank
 * SU-76i - captured Panzer III modified to mount an 76mm S-1 gun on a tank destroyer configuration.
 * SU-85i - captured Panzer III modified to mount an 85mm D-5S-85A gun on a tank destroyer configuration.

Armored fighting vehicles

 * BMP-1
 * BMP-2
 * BMP-3
 * BMD-1
 * BMD-2
 * BMD-3
 * BMO-1
 * BTR-series AFVs:
 * BTR-D
 * BTR-40
 * BTR-50
 * BTR-60
 * BTR-70
 * BTR-80
 * BTR-112 (Object 112)
 * BTR-152
 * BTR-E152V
 * BRDM-1
 * BRDM-2
 * Object 19
 * Object 659
 * Object 680
 * Object 681
 * Object 688
 * Object 768
 * Object 769
 * Object 911
 * Object 914
 * Object 955
 * Object 1015
 * Object 1200
 * GAZ-50
 * K-75
 * K-78
 * GT-L
 * GT-LB
 * GT-MU
 * MT-LB
 * MT-LBu

Light tanks

 * T-100 light tank
 * PT-76
 * Object 685
 * Object 788
 * Object 906
 * Object 911B
 * Object 934
 * R-39 (Object 101)

Medium and main battle tanks

 * T-54/T-55
 * T-62
 * T-64
 * T-72
 * T-74
 * T-80
 * Object 140
 * Object 142
 * Object 167
 * Object 172
 * Object 172-2M "Buyvol"
 * Object 187
 * Object 292
 * Object 430
 * Object 432
 * Object 435
 * Object 476
 * Object 477 "Molot"
 * Object 478
 * Object 490
 * Object 490A
 * Object 785
 * Object 907
 * Object 920

Heavy tanks

 * IS-4
 * IS-6 (Experimental)
 * IS-7 (Experimental)
 * T-10 (IS-8)
 * T-10M (1957–1994)
 * Object 266
 * Object 267
 * Object 269
 * Object 277
 * Object 278
 * Object 279 (Experimental)
 * Object 705
 * Object 706
 * Object 726
 * Object 770

Tank destroyers and assault guns

 * Object 263 (Cancelled in design phase)
 * Object 268 (Experimental)
 * SU-100P
 * SU-152P
 * SU-152G
 * Object 120 SU-152 "Taran" (Experimental)
 * SU-122-54
 * K-73
 * ASU-57
 * ASU-76
 * ASU-85
 * BSU-11-57F
 * 2S14 Zhalo-S
 * 2S15 Norov
 * Germes
 * Object 574

Self-propelled guns

 * Object 261
 * Object 327
 * 2A3 Kondensator 2P
 * 2S1 Gvozdika
 * 2S2 Fialka
 * 2S3 Akatsiya
 * 2S4 Tyulpan
 * 2S5 Giatsint-S
 * 2S7 Pion
 * 2S8 Astra
 * 2S9 Nona
 * 2S11 Giatsint-SK
 * 2S17-2 Nona-SV
 * 2S18 Pat-S
 * 2S19 Msta
 * 2S21 Msta-K
 * 2S22 Kolba-Z
 * 2S23 Nona-SVK
 * 2S24 Deva
 * 2S27 Rif
 * 2S30 Iset
 * 2S31 Vena
 * 2B1 Oka
 * Otsek
 * Obzhimka

Self-propelled anti-air

 * ZSU-57-2
 * ZSU-23-4 (Shilka)
 * ZSU-37-2 Yenisei
 * 9K35 Strela-10
 * 9K31 Strela-1
 * 9K33 Osa
 * 9K330 Tor
 * 2K12 Kub
 * 2K11 Krug
 * 2K22 (Tunguska)
 * Object 130
 * Object 530
 * ZTPU-2
 * ZPRK Roman
 * S-125 Neva

Tanks and AFVs with ATGMs

 * IT-1
 * Object 170
 * Object 282
 * Object 286
 * Object 431
 * Object 287
 * Object 747
 * Object 757
 * Object 772
 * Object 775
 * Object 778
 * Object 780
 * Object 906B
 * Object 920
 * 2P27 Shmel'
 * 2P32 Falanga
 * 9P19 Glaz
 * 9P110 Obod
 * 9P122
 * 9P124
 * 9P133
 * 9P137 Fleyta
 * 9P148 Konkurs
 * 9P149 Shturm-S

Rocket launchers

 * TOS-1
 * BM-24T
 * Object 280

Flame-throwing tanks

 * OT-54
 * TO-55
 * Object 483

Laser tanks

 * 1K11 Stilet
 * 1K17 Szhatie
 * SLK Sangvin

Other vehicles and AFVs

 * SPU-117 (Object 117)
 * Object 288
 * Progvev-T

Armored fighting vehicles

 * T-15 IFV (Russia)
 * BMD-4 (Russia)
 * BTR-90 (Russia)
 * BMPT Terminator (Russia)
 * Kamaz Typhoon (Russia)
 * GAZ Tigr (Russia)

Light tanks

 * 2S25 Sprut-SD (Russia)

Medium and main battle tanks

 * T-84 (Ukraine)
 * T-90 (Russia)
 * Black Eagle (Russia)
 * T-95 (Russia)
 * T-14 Armata (Russia)
 * BM Oplot (Ukraine)

Self-propelled guns

 * 2S19 Msta-S (Russia)
 * 2S35 Koalitsiya-SV (Russia)
 * 2S42 Lotus (Russia)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Christopher of Sweden

Christopher of Sweden - Swedish: Kristoffer and Kristofer - may refer to:

 * Christopher III of Denmark, also King of Sweden 1440
 * Christopher Vasa, Swedish prince 1598, son of King Sigmund, his mother the Queen and he both died at his birth

title: Christopher of Sweden


text:
Talk:James Murray

Untitled
this needs to become a disambiguation page, tough not shor what page to move this James Murray too.

youtube musician
who of all of them is the guy from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5bzNYdVt5A&feature=sub ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lightbearer (talk • contribs) 22:59, 13 February 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:James Murray


text:
Talk:Kin selection

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 30 March 2020 and 5 June 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Decasg.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 01:47, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

aside darwin, why not move fisher/haldane/hamilton to a "history" section?
darwin needs to be in the introduction...

but why not moving fisher/haldane/hamilton to a "history" section immediately following the introduction? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.117.2.51 (talk) 16:43, 10 March 2013 (UTC)

 * Well, the situation is slightly different from that. The lead (introduction, overview) is supposed to be max 4 paragraphs, and only to summarize what is written in the rest of the article, so it does not need (aka should not have) references and should not therefore say anything doubtful.

 * From this, it's clear that this article does not exactly have a lead section at all - it is more of a historical introduction. I'd be happy with renaming it "Introduction" or "Overview" (not sure if it's exactly a "History" - that might mean turning it into 2 new sections ? - and then (someone) writing a new lead section to precis the article. If you feel like working on that, go right ahead. Chiswick Chap (talk)

 * I agree that the lead is too inaccessible and this is partly due to the involvement of overly-specialised editors who tend to remove any elementary expressions that provide a historical overview. It should certainly incorporate the historic refinements to evolutionary theory that go from Darwinian ideas of competition and survival of the fittest which produces the apparent paradox of altruism to the reconciliation that kin selection provides by incorporating the concept of genes (or smaller units) being the specific replicating units being selected for. Shyamal (talk) 05:55, 11 March 2013 (UTC)

 * Yes, absolutely. All right, I'll be bold and draft a new lead, renaming the existing one to "Historic overview" (to combine the idea of history and current affairs, more or less, agree it's a bit klunky but anyone can improve it). Please improve my efforts. Chiswick Chap (talk) 08:04, 11 March 2013 (UTC)

Criticism section
This section badly needs to be rewritten as it hardly can be seen as NPOV (no matter if the factual information is right or wrong).

 * OK, I've copy-edited it for neutrality. It seems to report fairly plainly what happened. Chiswick Chap (talk) 06:57, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

Curtd59 (talk) 07:55, 18 August 2014 (UTC) In the context of intellectual history, this section reflects a postmodern cum marxist, cum cosmopolitan advocacy of pseudoscience as part of the postmodern attempt to displace the study of Darwin (See Macdonald, See Hicks). All creatures in all cases, demonstrate kin selection, meaning limits to transfers, and decreasing cooperation with genetic distance. All human societies no matter how mixed demonstrate this behavior except on the margins where mating across groups produces status benefits, or provides access to superior out-group mates (white males and asian females for example). And applies equally within group to social classes. Cross mating increases with the adoption of the nuclear family structure (fragmentation) and declines with the retention of the traditional family. Furthermore, there is no conflict between kin selection and multi-level selection, since both occur for different reasons. The fact that we must constantly defend the knowledge economy against mysticism is one thing. The fact that we must defend it against politically motivated advocacy of pseudoscience is somehow worse.

 * All that is interesting and as may be, but this is not a forum for discussing the science or other matters. Our only interest here (as on all article talk pages) is to establish what the article should cover, using reliable sources. If you are familiar with the work of Macdonald and Hicks then why not edit the section and cite them as needed? Chiswick Chap (talk) 14:08, 18 August 2014 (UTC)

How related are we?
Article says "If you save a grandchild or a nephew, the advantage is only two and a half to one. If you only save a first cousin, the effect is very slight."

Yet even cats share 90% of our genes, which are rather more distant relatives than a cousin. How does the math of "shared genes" really work? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.167.63.27 (talk) 04:09, 11 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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What is kin selection?
The first sentence states that kin selection is an evolutionary strategy. I think this is incorrect - Kin selection is a mechanism of evolution in the same way as natural selection. Kin selection operates when interacting individuals are related, and the phenotype of one individual affects the direct fitness of other individuals.

In all realistic populations interacting individuals are positively related because dispersal is limited, and individuals in the same area should have some recent common ancestor. All cooperative and competitive phenotypes will be shaped by kin selection, which makes kin selection the most general mechanism of evolution! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tomahawk Tasmania (talk • contribs) 17:38, 7 April 2020 (UTC)

Human materials
I've grouped the 'Human' materials in the article under 3 subsection headings. However, too much of it consists of uninterpreted primary research reports, i.e. A studied X, B studied Y, C studied Z: all basically close to useless and unencyclopedic. What we need is 'Hypothesis H is supported by A's study of X', etc. The article already has a substantial 'theory' section but it's only weakly connected to the many post-Hamilton studies, so the article's structure as a connected argument is, well, weak and rambling. We need the evidence to support (or refute) the theory, not go on about who worked on what. Chiswick Chap (talk) 13:12, 28 August 2021 (UTC)

derivation
Please define all variables. What is p? What do the subscripts mean? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 180.222.11.194 (talk) 01:53, 29 August 2021 (UTC)

 * Mm, you're talking about the unintroduced and uncited "Derivation" section. You are correct, those variables aren't defined or explained. Actually, at least 10 derivations have been made in the literature, see Nowak et al, 2017 (its refs 1 to 10 each offer their own distinct derivation). The uncited example of a derivation is WP:OR at worst, random editorial selection from the field at best. If editors feel that a section on derivations is justified, then it must tour the field, cite the major papers, and cite secondary (review) articles that compare and contrast the different derivations. Nowak et al, by the way, is not neutral as it seeks to reject Hamilton's rule altogether, a 1% minority view among biologists. I've removed the derivation as hopelessly unbalanced and uncited, without prejudice to the creation of a suitable section as outlined. Chiswick Chap (talk) 08:22, 29 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kin selection


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject German districts

Title

 * WikiProject German districts

Scope

 * This WikiProject aims primarily to standardize district entries of Germany. The pages to be generated serve as a link between the Bundesländer and the cities and towns.

 * Status page

Parentage

 * The Bundesland articles are parentage articles, although there is no WikiProject for them yet.

Descendant Wikiprojects

 * No descendant WikiProjects have been defined.

Similar Wikiprojects

 * Similar Wikiprojects include WikiProject French departements.

Members
Anyone who is interested to improve German districts-related articles can join this project. Then consider to put your name in here.

Members should also feel free to add to their userpages to identify themselves as members of this group.

How to title the page
As the districts have no English names, we should use their German names. The district Nordfriesland is placed under Nordfriesland and not under Northern Frisia. Exception: If the district bears at least partially the same name as a town, then use the English name of that town. Example: The district Hameln-Pyrmont is placed under Hamelin-Pyrmont.

Where to find information
Most districts have their own websites. The amount of information greatly differs though. An easy way to find the website of a district is the Kreisnavigator, even though in most cases the URL can be guessed easily.

If you have more hints, tell us here:
 * Thüringen Official Website Here are comprehensive descriptions of the districts, often better than the information you get on the districts' webpages.

Structure
The article should start with a good introduction, giving the name of the district, its location in the state, and the names of neighbouring districts resp. states.

The factsheet includes:

 * the state and the administrative region, where the district belongs to; if there is no administrative region, that line should be dropped
 * the capital
 * area, population and population density; if possible, state the year, when the population was valid
 * car identification (a one to three letter code)
 * the official website of the district
 * a map of the state with the district highlighted; map templates can be found here: WikiProject German districts/Maptemplates.

The rest of the article consists of the following paragraphs:

History: Historical events related to the district, even if they occurred before the establishment of the district; some districts are succession units to historical states (e.g. Steinfurt, Schaumburg) and need a more comprehensive history section than those districts, that were artificially created.

Geography: Describe the geographical features within the district (mountains, rivers, lakes etc.)

Coat of arms: About the portions of the coat of arms and their origins, if known.

Towns and municipalities: Give a full list of cities and municipalities with their status (city or municipality).

In some states there are administrative units like Ämter, Verbundgemeinden, Samtgemeinden etc. List them as well, and link to the Amt article (example: Altenburger Land).

In any case: Sort the places by their status and then alphabetically. Take care, that you disambiguate the towns and municipalities. The preferred type of disambiguation is to add the name of the state: Halle, Saxony-Anhalt and Halle, North Rhine-Westphalia. Anyhow, if there is a lot of towns and municipalities of the same name, we should use other additions: Neustadt (Holstein), Neustadt (Weinstrasse) and Neustadt (Waldnaab). Avoid article titles like "Neustadt an der Weinstrasse".

When applying the template below, you should change the table according to the situation in this district. For example it might make sense to have one column for the towns and two columns for the municipalities.

Miscellaneous: Anything, that does not fit in the above categories; normally this section should be dropped.

External links: Any website related to the district (not only the official website, which is already listed in the factsheet). If there is an English (or other non-German) language version, it should be mentioned here. (For this purpose it might be useful to repeat the official website's URL here.)

Template
When applying this template to a district stub or article, it should be common practice to create a temporary page to work on, with the following notice:

 * This temporary page is being used to expand and convert the article  over to the new format proposed at WikiProject German districts. Please feel free to add or edit anything on this page to help in the conversion process.

Don't forget to replace the "_" with the name of the article being converted.

To notify readers/writers that a new page is being created, place the following text on the district article itself:
 * A new page based on the new template is being worked on at /Temp, please make any changes you want to make on that page.

_ is a district... (In the Munich (town) article, the picture of the Bavaria statue goes before the map and coat of arms table)

History
...

Geography
...

Miscellaneous
...

Status
List the articles, which are completed, on the Status page

title: Wikipedia:WikiProject German districts


text:
Hoverfly

Hoverflies, also called flower flies or syrphids, make up the insect family Syrphidae. As their common name suggests, they are often seen hovering or nectaring at flowers; the adults of many species feed mainly on nectar and pollen, while the larvae (maggots) eat a wide range of foods. In some species, the larvae are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant and animal matter in the soil or in ponds and streams. In other species, the larvae are insectivores, preying on aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects.

Insects such as aphids are considered crop pests, and therefore the aphid-eating larvae of some hoverflies are economically and ecologically important. The larvae are potential agents for use in biological control; while the adults are pollinators.

About 6,000 species in 200 genera have been described. Hoverflies are common throughout the world and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. Hoverflies are harmless to most mammals, though many species are mimics of stinging wasps and bees, a mimicry which may serve to ward off predators.

Hoverfly hovering behavior is unlike that of hummingbirds since they do not feed in midair. Hovering in general may be a means of finding a food source; male hovering is often a territorial display seeking females, while female hovering serves to inspect ovipositing sites.

Description
The size of hoverflies varies depending on the species. For example Paragus tibialis  is 3-5 mm long while Criorhina nigriventris is 13.6-20.6 mm long. Some, such as members of the genus Baccha, are small, elongated, and slender, while others, such as members of Criorhina, are large, hairy, and yellow and black. As members of the Diptera, all hoverflies have a single functional pair of wings, with the hind wings reduced to balancing organs. Many species are brightly colored, with spots, stripes, and bands of yellow or brown covering their bodies. Due to this coloration, they are often mistaken both by insect-eating birds and by humans for wasps or bees; they exhibit Batesian mimicry. Despite this, hoverflies are harmless to humans. Drone flies, Eristalis tenax, are an example of a species of hoverfly who exhibit Batesian mimicry.

With a few exceptions, Hoverflies are distinguished from other flies by having a spurious vein, located parallel to their fourth longitudinal wing vein. Adults feed mainly on nectar and pollen. Many species also hover around flowers, lending to their common name.

Bee flies of the family Bombyliidae often mimic Hymenoptera and hover around flowers, as well, rendering some bombyliid species hard to tell apart from Syrphidae at first glance. Hoverflies can, nevertheless, be distinguished in the field by anatomical features such as:

 * The legs and mouthparts of hoverflies are usually not particularly long and thin (some bombyliids have a long and needle-like proboscis, many have legs that are noticeably longer and thinner than in similar-sized syrphids)
 * Their facial cuticle often has prominent bulges and/or beak- to knob-like projections (most bee flies have an evenly curved or sloping face).
 * The wings are often clear or have smooth gradients of tinting, and their veins merge posteriorly into a "false edge" that runs parallel to the wing's true rear edge and extends along half or more of the wing length (bombyliid wings lack a "false rear edge" and often have large dark areas with sharp boundaries, or complex patterns of spots).
 * Their abdomens and thoraces often have glossy cuticular body surfaces, abdominal colors are usually mainly due to cuticular pigments (bee flies are usually very hairy, their abdominal colors are almost always due to pigmentation of hairs and not the underlying cuticle).

Reproduction and life cycle

Unlike adults, the maggots of hoverflies feed on a variety of foods; some are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant or animal matter, while others are insectivores, eating aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects. Predatory species are beneficial to farmers and gardeners, as aphids destroy crops, and hoverfly maggots are often used in biological control. This includes one of the most common widespread hoverfly species, Episyrphus balteatus, whose larvae feed on aphids. Certain species, such as Merodon equestris or Eumerus tuberculatus, are responsible for pollination.

An example of a well-known hoverfly maggot is the rat-tailed maggot, of the drone fly, Eristalis tenax. It has a breathing siphon at its rear end, giving it its name. The species lives in stagnant water, such as sewage and lagoons. The maggots also have a commercial use, and are sometimes sold for ice fishing.

Very rarely, hoverfly larvae have caused accidental myiasis in humans. This occurs when the larvae are accidentally ingested from contaminated food.

Evolution
The oldest known fossils of crown group Syrphidae are from the Eocene aged Florissant Formation, Green River Formation and Baltic amber. However, the genus Prosyrphus from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) aged Burmese amber appears to represent a stem group to the family.

Distribution and habitat
Hoverflies are a cosmopolitan family found in most biomes, except extreme deserts, tundra at extremely high latitudes, and Antarctica. Certain species are more common in certain areas than others; for example, the American hoverfly, Eupeodes americanus, is common in the Nearctic realm, and the common hoverfly, Melangyna viridiceps, is common in the Australasian realm. About 6,000 species and 200 genera are in the family.

While some hoverfly larvae are aquatic and are often found in stagnant water, those of species that prey upon aphids and other plant parasites are usually terrestrial, residing on leaves. Adults are often found near flowers, their principal food source being nectar and pollen. Some species are inquilines; for instance, members of the genus Volucella can be found in bumblebee nests, while members of Microdon are myrmecophiles, found in ant or termite nests. Others can be found in decomposing vegetation.

Pollination

Hoverflies are important pollinators of flowering plants in many ecosystems worldwide. Syrphid flies are frequent flower visitors to a wide range of wild plants, as well as agricultural crops, and are often considered the second-most important group of pollinators after wild bees. However, relatively little research into fly pollinators has been conducted compared with bee species. Bees are thought to be able to carry a greater volume of pollen on their bodies, but flies may be able to compensate for this by making a greater number of flower visits.

Like many pollinator groups, syrphid flies range from species that take a generalist approach to foraging by visiting a wide range of plant species through those that specialize in a narrow range of plants. Although hoverflies are often considered mainly nonselective pollinators, some hoverflies species are highly selective and carry pollen from one plant species. Cheilosia albitarsis is thought to only visit Ranunculus repens.

Specific flower preferences differ among species, but syrphid fly species have repeatedly been shown to prefer white- and yellow-coloured flowers. Nonvisual flower cues such as olfactory cues also help these flies to find flowers, especially those that are not yellow. Many syrphid fly species have short, unspecialized mouth parts and tend to feed on flowers that are more open as the nectar and pollen can be easily accessed.

Also, a number of interactions occur between orchids and hoverflies. The orchid species Epipactis veratrifolia mimics alarm pheromones of aphids which attracts pollinating hoverflies. Another plant, the slipper orchid in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the innate yellow color preference of syrphids.

Relationship with humans

Adult syrphid flies are pollinators.

Larvae of many hoverfly species prey upon pest insects, including aphids and leafhoppers, which spread some diseases such as curly top, so they are seen in biocontrol as a natural means of reducing levels of pests. Gardeners, therefore, sometimes use companion plants to attract hoverflies. Those reputed to do so include Alyssum spp., Iberis umbellata, statice, buckwheat, chamomile, parsley, and yarrow. Larvae in the subfamily Eristalinae live in semi-aquatic and aquatic environments, including manure and compost, and can filter and purify water.

book The Fly Trap concerns his enthusiasm for hoverflies on the island of Runmarö in the Baltic Sea. The island is a hotspot for hoverflies and other insects; Sjöberg has collected 58 species of butterflies there, and (in seven years of hunting) 202 species of hoverflies, including 180 in his garden.

Identification guides

 * Skevington, J.H., et al., 2019. Field Guide to the Flower Flies of Northeastern North America. Princeton University Press ISBN 9780691189406. This book "covers all 413 known syrphid species that occur in or north of Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, west to include Iowa, Minnesota, Ontario, and Nunavut, and east to the Atlantic Ocean, including Greenland."
 * Stubbs, A.E. and Falk, S.J. (2002) British Hoverflies An Illustrated Identification Guide. Pub. 1983 with 469 pages, 12 col plates, b/w illus. British Entomological and Natural History Society ISBN 1-899935-05-3. 276 species are described with extensive keys to aid identification. It displays 190 species on colour plates. 2nd edition, pub. 2002, includes new British species and name changes. It includes European species likely to appear in Britain. Additional black and white plates illustrate the male genitalia of the difficult genera Cheilosia and Sphaerophoria.
 * van Veen, M.P. (2004) Hoverflies of Northwest Europe: Identification Keys to the Syrphidae. KNNV Publishing, Utrecht ISBN 9050111998.
 * Miranda G.F.G., Young A.D., Locke M.M., Marshall S.A., Skevington J.H., Thompson F.C. (2013) Key to the Genera of Nearctic Syrphidae.
 * Bot, S. and Van de Meutter, F. (2023) Hoverflies of Britain and North-west Europe: A photographic guide (Bloomsbury Naturalist). ISBN 978-1-3994-0245-3.

Regional lists

 * List of hoverfly species of Great Britain
 * List of the Syrphidae of Ireland
 * List of flower flies of New Zealand
 * List of the flower flies of North America
 * Syrphidae of New York State

Species lists

 * Nearctic at nearctica.com
 * West Palaearctic including Russia at faunaeur.org
 * Australasian/Oceanian at bishopmuseum.org
 * List of the flower flies of North America
 * List of hoverfly species of Great Britain
 * Syrphidae of New York State
 * List of flower flies of New Zealand

title: Hoverfly


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User:Brettz9

SUBPAGES

 * /videoscript
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INTERESTS
Bahá'í Faith

World government

International auxiliary language

Discussion of Interests
Also interested in seeing information management improve, though my contributions are only conceptual rather than my having any deep knowledge of programming.

MORE IMMEDIATE WISHLIST FOR WIKIPEDIA
It'd be nice to have the option to save notes here to yourself as well for private viewing only (e.g., pages one frequently wishes to visit (but not necessarily those one is watching), etc.) This could be useful not only for privacy but just for hiding away things probably not of interest to one's visitors.

It'd also be cool to have such preferred items show up as bookmarks in the margin or somewhere.

It'd be nice to have check-in-check-out as in Dreamweaver, to at least know if someone has already checked an article out to edit it (if not be prevented from saving it).

title: User:Brettz9


text:
Collaborative writing

Collaborative writing is a procedure in which two or more persons work together on a text of some kind (e.g., academic papers, reports, creative writing, projects, and business proposals). Success in collaborative writing involves a division of labor that apportions particular tasks to those with particular strengths: drafting, providing feedback, editing, sourcing, (reorganizing), optimizing for tone or house style, etc. Collaborative writing is characteristic of professional as well as educational settings, utilizing the expertise of those involved in the collaboration process.

Definition
Collaborative writing engages two or more persons in the process of producing a written work as a group, where everyone involved is contributing content or decisions on the work being produced.(Vanderbilt University)
 * Interaction between participants throughout the entire writing process. Whether it be brainstorming, writing a draft of the project, or reviewing.
 * Shared power among participants. Everyone included in the project has the power to make decisions and no group member is in charge of all the text produced.
 * The collaborative production of one single and specific text.

Collaborative writing is often the norm, rather than the exception, in many academic and workplace settings. Some theories of collaborative writing suggest that in the writing process, all participants are to have equal responsibilities. In this view, all sections of the text should be split up to ensure the workload is evenly displaced, all participants work together and interact throughout the writing process, everyone contributes to planning, generating ideas, making structure of text, editing, and the revision process. Other theories of collaborative writing propose a more flexible understanding of the workflow that accounts for varying contribution levels depending on the expertise, interest, and role of participants.

History
In rhetoric, composition, and writing studies, scholars have demonstrated how collaborative learning in U.S. contexts has been informed by John Dewey's progressivism in the early twentieth century. Collaboration and collaborative writing gained traction in these fields in the 1980s especially, as researchers reacted to poststructuralist theories related to social constructionism and began theorizing more social views of writing.

Types
Collaborative writing processes are extremely context-dependent. In scholarship, on both academic and business writing, multiple terminologies have been identified for collaborative writing processes, including:

The process of collaborative writing involves a couple of different levels. The process of collaborative writing begins with planning and goal setting. The group of two or more individuals meet and begin laying out the goals and steps they are going to take to complete the work. Next, members of the group will begin researching and finding information on the topic they are working on. After that, the group will begin outlining and structuring the research into a rough draft. Next, the group will collaborate to create a draft that they will then revise and edit. Finally, the group will begin proof-reading prior to publishing their work. With the draft, edited, proofread, and revised, the group will then publish the work they collaborated to create (UNC Writing Center, 2017; Bremner, 2010).
 * Single-author writing or collegial: one person is leading, they compile the group ideas and do the writing.
 * Sequential writing: each person adds their task work then passes it on for the next person to edit freely.
 * Horizontal-division or parallel writing: each person does one part of the whole project and then one member compiles it.
 * Stratified-division writing: each person plays a role in the composition process of a project due to talents.
 * Reactive or reciprocal writing: group all works on and writes the project at the same time, adjusting and commenting on everyone's work.

Uses
Collaborative writing may be used in instances where a workload would be overwhelming for one person to produce. Therefore, ownership of the text is from the group that produced it and not just one person.

In 2012, Bill Tomlinson and colleagues provided the first extensive discussion of the experiential aspects of large-scale collaborative research by documenting the collaborative development process of an academic paper written by a collective of thirty authors; their work identifies key tools and techniques that would be necessary or useful to the writing process, and to discover, negotiate, and document issues in massively authored scholarship.

In 2016, Researchers Joy Robinson, Lisa Dusenberry, and Lawrence M. Halcyon conducted a case study investigating the productivity of a team of writers who utilized the practice of interlaced collaborative writing and found that the team was able to produce a published article, a two-year grant proposal, a digital and physical poster, a midterm research report, and conference presentation over the course of three years. The writers used virtual tools such as Google Hangouts' voice feature for group check-ins, to hold group discussions, and to write as a group. They used Google Docs to allow each team member to edit and add writing to a shared document throughout the writing process.

Another motive for using collaborative writing is to increase the quality of the completed project by combining the expertise of multiple individuals and for allowing feedback from diverse perspectives. Collaborative writing has been proven to be an effective method of improving an individual's writing skills, regardless of their proficiency level, by allowing them to collaborate and learn from one or more partners and participate in the co-ownership of a written piece. Instructors may utilize this technique to create more student-centered and collaborative learning environments, or they may use it themselves to cross-collaborate with other academics to produce publishable works.

Scholarly views
Linguist Neomy Storch, in a 2005 Australian study, discovered that reflections pertaining to collaborative writing in regards to second language learners in the classroom were overwhelmingly positive. The study compared the nature of collaborative writing of individual work versus that of group work, and Storch found that although paired groups wrote shorter texts, their work was more complex and accurate compared to individual works. The study consisted of 23 total participants: 5 doing individual work and 18 working in pairs. The pairs consisted of two male pairs, four female pairs and three male/female pairs. Post-assignment interviews revealed that the majority of students (16) yielded positive opinions about group work, but two students felt that group work is best reserved for oral activities and discussions rather than writing assignments. The majority of interviewees gave positive reviews, but one argued that group work was difficult when it came to criticizing another's work and another argued that there is a power imbalance when writing is based on ability. The two students who were stark opponents of collaborative writing revealed that it was hard to concentrate on their work and they were embarrassed by their supposedly poor English skills.

Jason Palmeri found that when it came to inter-professional collaboration, most of the issues stemmed from miscommunication. In differing disciplines, one person may have a level of expertise and understanding that is foreign to another. Palmeri's study provided the example of a nurse and an attorney having different areas of expertise, so therefore they had differing understanding of concepts and even the meaning of the same words. While many of the issues resulted from miscommunication, the study found that some nurse consultants resisted change in terms of altering their writing style to fit the understanding or standards of the attorneys.

Obstacles to collaborative work include a writers' inability to find time to meet with the rest of the group, personal preferences for organization and writing process, and a fear of being criticized.

As an educational tool
Collaborative writing is an approach to writing that many educators use every day, it helps to improve writing skills by making students team up with one another to handle an assignment. Collaborative writing can make a big difference in students' writing because when working with others they will be forced to share ideas and writing styles with each other. The other thing about collaborative writing is the fact that it can be used in online schooling and in-person schooling, it is better in person though because it's easier to communicate with each other and peer review one another. Collaborative writing can also improve confidence when talking to each other. Studies show that students also feel a sense of motivation when working with their fellow peers. (Veramuthu 2020).

Research conducted by scholars about collaborative writing in education began in the early 1900s. Research discovered that language exchangers between peers to create these writings were beneficial and they called them language-related episodes. This is due to learners being able to socialize their language of choice and they were learning while discussing ideas, which allowed students to learn from each other. Worksheets tend to focus on language structures, while collaborative writings focuses more on the speech part of language. Collaborative writing also helps students to learn new writing styles such as analyzing writing. According to Vanderbilt University, "Collaboration gives students practice in analyzing writing. It is easier to see where a classmate's writing is going awry than it is to find flaws in one's own prose" (Vanderbilt University).

Grouping seems to be very important when it comes to collaborative writing, as larger groups tend to share more ideas whereas smaller groups share fewer ideas and tend to focus on grammar. Another way to have a strong collaborative writing process is to have good communication and division of roles. According to Campbell, "it is helpful to ensure everyone knows their role. Sometimes, a project can get going, but many people do not know exactly who is responsible for what" (Campbell 2023). Students also perform better face-to-face since there is more discussion. It is also discovered that students who are silent still benefit from collaborative writing by observing their peer's writings.

Some students still may favor individual writing since the process is easier and less time-consuming. Students' opinions on collaborative writing may also be swayed by their experience, such as if team members delete or add text without discussion with their group, or some instructors are even concerned that group presentations allow weaker students to depend on stronger ones for success (Dartmouth). It is also stated that generally, students with more communication and discussions will have a positive view of collaborative writing.

In the workplace
A study conducted by Stephen Bremner, an English professor at the City University of Hong Kong, investigated eight business communication textbooks to test the depth in which they provided students with a knowledge of collaborative writing in the workplace and how to execute those processes. The study found that, generally, textbooks highlighted the role of collaborative writing in the workplace. Textbooks listed the pros of collaborative writing such as saving time, more superior documents due to each individual's strengths and specialized knowledge, a well-crafted message due to team work, balanced abilities, and an interest in accomplishing a common goal.

The textbooks examined gave students a basic knowledge of collaboration in the workplace, but they also lacked the information that showed students the realities of collaborative writing in the workplace with few activities presented in the textbooks that mirror collaborative activities in the workplace. Much of the activities that featured group work seemed more idealistic rather than based in reality, where the writing process occurred in only controlled and orderly environments. Bremner also found that group work in the classroom also did not properly simulate the power hierarchies present in the workplace.

Jason Palmeri found that when it came to inter-professional collaboration, most of the issues stemmed from miscommunication. In differing disciplines, one person may have a level of expertise and understanding that is foreign to another. The article gave the example of a nurse and an attorney having different areas of expertise, so therefore they had differing understanding of concepts and even the meaning of the same words. While much of the issues resulted from miscommunication, the article claimed that some nurse consultants resisted change in terms of altering their writing style to fit the understanding or standards of the attorneys.

Benefits
The practice of collaborative writing offers numerous benefits that are accessible to individuals from all types of backgrounds. One of these advantages of collaboration in writing is that it frequently leads to a deeper and more comprehensive examination of the topic or subject matter under consideration due to these diverse perspectives. Collaboration enables individuals to combine their diverse perspectives, experiences, and areas of expertise. Collaborative writing brings together a diverse array of unique ideas and backgrounds, enriching the creative process. Also, through collaborative writing, tasks of an assignment can be assigned based on individual strengths, skills, and interests, thereby enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the writing process. For example, an individual proficient in research may be assigned to gather information, while another member of the team, skilled in editing, could concentrate on refining the draft. Through task assignment in this manner, every team member can contribute to the project in a manner that optimizes their abilities and interests, resulting in a writing process that is more efficient and effective.

While utilizing collaboration in writing practices can yield numerous advantages, the presence of additional factors, such as the learning environment, also influences the potential for a successful collaborative writing experience. A structured learning environment plays a crucial role in fostering critical thinking through writing, although it is equally important to equip students with the skills necessary for facilitating productive peer discussions, thereby promoting collaborative learning through writing. Students cannot be expected to achieve a satisfactory outcome in a collaborative writing project without a strong foundational understanding of the subject matter. A strong foundation might involve defining the writing's purpose, identifying the intended audience, conducting thorough research on the topic, and structuring and organizing thoughts and concepts. Given adequate resources and education, the objective is for students to proficiently engage in writing tasks and feel at ease with collaborative efforts.

Tools

 * Atlas is a wiki-like git-managed authoring platform from O'Reilly Media that is based on the open-source web-based Git repository manager (version control system) "GitLab".
 * For collaborative code-writing, mostly revision control systems like Team Foundation Version Control (used in Team Foundation Server) and Git (used in GitHub, Bitbucket, GitLab and CodePlex) are used in parallel writing.
 * Collaborative real-time editors like Etherpad, Hackpad, Google Docs, Microsoft Office, and Authorea.
 * Online platforms mainly focused on collaborative fiction that allow other users to continue a story's narrative such as Protagonize and Ficly.
 * Wikis like Wikipedia and Wikia.

Authorship
An author acquires copyright if their work meets certain criteria. In the case of works created by one person, typically, the first owner of a copyright in that work is the person who created the work, i.e. the author. But, when more than one person creates the work in collaboration with one another, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met.

title: Collaborative writing


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Amt

Amt is a type of administrative division governing a group of municipalities, today only in Germany, but formerly also common in other countries of Northern Europe. Its size and functions differ by country and the term is roughly equivalent to a British or U.S. county.

Prevalence
The Amt (plural: Ämter) is unique to the German Bundesländer (federal states) of Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Brandenburg.

Other German states had this division in the past. Some states have similar administrative units called Samtgemeinde (Lower Saxony), Verbandsgemeinde (Rhineland-Palatinate) or Verwaltungsgemeinschaft (Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia).

Definition
An Amt, as well as the other above-mentioned units, is subordinate to a Kreis (district) and is a collection of municipalities. The amt is lower than district-level government but higher than municipal government, and may be described as a supra-municipality or "municipal confederation". Normally, it consists of very small municipalities (Gemeinden, plural of Gemeinde).

Larger municipalities do not belong to an Amt and are called amtsfreie Gemeinden (independent municipalities); some of these municipalities might also not be governed by or linked with a Kreis (district) and are called kreisfreie Gemeinden, and when they do also not belong to any other Land they are also called Stadtstaaten (plural of Stadtstaat), i.e. city-states (Berlin and Hamburg).

These large municipalities (cities, in German Städte, plural of Stadt) may be further divided into local offices named Ortsämter (plural of Ortsamt), each of them possibly grouping several suburbs (or small townships in rural areas) of the municipality named Ortsteile (plural of Ortsteil), named from small villages or hamlets or localities. The Ortsteil (suburb or township) may have been a former parish, but today it is meant only for civil purpose and essentially used for planning within the municipality; the Ortsamt (sometimes just named informally but confusingly as an Amt, or informally translated as an "urban district") is used to offer decentralized services of the municipality within local administrative offices for the residents in neighbouring suburbs. The Ortsteil itself may also be confusingly translated as a "municipality", but it is incorrect because it belongs to a city which is the only effective municipality (Gemeinde).

Denmark

The amt (plural, amter; translated as "county") was an administrative unit of Denmark (and, historically, of Denmark-Norway). The counties were established by royal decree in 1662 as replacements for the former fiefs (Len). The amter were originally composed of market towns (købstæder) and parishes, and held only small areas of responsibility. There were some changes to the borders of these counties over time, most notably when Roskilde County (da) was merged into Roskilde County (da) in 1808, and when Skanderborg County (da) was periodically merged into Århus County Skanderborg County (da). After Southern Jutland was returned to Denmark after the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, four new counties were created in the area.

During the 20th century, the powers of the counties were expanded, when they were granted responsibility for the hospital service. The købstæder, which by this time had been separated from the counties and were overseen by the Interior Ministry, assumed the same responsibility. As the population became increasingly urbanized, and many rural communities came to rely on the hospital services of the købstader without paying taxes for them, it became evident that reform was necessary. In 1958, interior minister Søren Olesen set in motion administrative reforms that would culminate in 1970.

The municipal reform of 1 April 1970 reduced the number of counties to fourteen and eliminated the administrative distinction between (rural) parish and town. From then on, the amter were composed of a number of municipalities (kommuner). The reform granted the counties wider areas of responsibility, most notably running the national health service and the gymnasium secondary schools.

The municipal reform of 1 January 2007 abolished the amter and replaced them with five administrative regions, now mainly charged with running the national health service. In contrast to the amter, the regions hold no authority to levy taxes. The reform re-delegated all other areas of responsibility to either the municipalities or the state. At the same time, smaller municipalities were merged into larger units, cutting the number of municipalities from 270 to 98.

Germany
In Germany an Amt was a medieval administrative district covering a manorial estate or the land owned by a castle or village. It was headed by an Amtmann, usually a lesser nobleman or cleric, appointed by a territorial lord to administer and dispense justice within the Amt.

Iceland
While Iceland was a territory of the Danish-Norwegian realm, amts (singular: amt; plural: ömt) were established in the country on top of the existing counties. From 1684 to 1770, Iceland as whole was a single amt in the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway but was then split into two amts: North and East Amt (Norður- og Austuramt) and South and West Amt (Suður- og Vesturamt). The latter was in 1787 split into a West Amt (Vesturamt) and South Amt (Suðuramt). Iceland was thus divided into three amts until 1872, when the South and West amts were again merged. Amts were abolished in 1904, when Iceland gained home rule from Denmark.

Amts are not used to denote a geographical region in Iceland but the name lives on in the names of two public libraries in Iceland that were established during the amt era. The Amts libraries in Akureyri and Stykkishólmur which were established as the designated archives for the North and East Amt and the West Amt respectively.

Netherlands and Flanders
Ambacht can be seen as the Dutch equivalent to amt. Ambachten existed in Holland, Zeeland and Flanders up to about 1800.

Norway
From 1662 to 1919, the counties of Norway were called amter. They are now referred to as fylker, a term revived from the Middle Ages.

title: Amt


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List of soccer clubs in the United States

This is a list of soccer clubs in the United States. For clarity, teams based outside the United States that play in USSF-recognized leagues are also listed below with their home country noted.

Five professional leagues of men's soccer teams are sanctioned by the Professional Division of the United States Soccer Federation (USSF or U.S. Soccer). The top-level men's league is Major League Soccer (MLS) and the second level men's league is the USL Championship. The third level men's leagues are USL League One, the National Independent Soccer Association, and MLS Next Pro. At the semi-professional level, the USL League Two and the National Premier Soccer League have teams.

One professional league of women's soccer teams is sanctioned by U.S. Soccer, which is the top-level National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). Another top-level professional league, the USL Super League, is set to begin play in the 2024–2025 season. While the NWSL and all professional men's leagues (as of 2023) in the United States play in the summer, the USL Super League will play in the winter, matching the international calendar. At the semi-professional level, the USL W League has teams.

National Women's Soccer League
As of the 2024 National Women's Soccer League season: