text:
USS Nevada (BB-36)

USS Nevada (BB-36), the third United States Navy ship to be named after the 36th state, was the lead ship of the two Nevada-class battleships. Launched in 1914, Nevada was a leap forward in dreadnought technology; four of her new features would be included on almost every subsequent US battleship: triple gun turrets, oil in place of coal for fuel, geared steam turbines for greater range, and the "all or nothing" armor principle. These features made Nevada, alongside her sister ship USS Oklahoma (BB-37), the first US Navy "standard-type" battleships.

Nevada served in both World Wars. During the last few months of World War I, Nevada was based in Bantry Bay, Ireland, to protect supply convoys that were sailing to and from Great Britain. In World War II, she was one of the battleships trapped when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Nevada was the only battleship to get underway during the attack, making the ship "the only bright spot in an otherwise dismal and depressing morning" for the United States. Still, the ship was hit by one torpedo and at least six bombs while steaming away from Battleship Row, forcing the crew to beach the stricken ship on a coral ledge. The ship continued to flood and eventually slid off the ledge and sank to the harbor floor. Nevada was subsequently salvaged and modernized at Puget Sound Navy Yard, allowing her to serve as a convoy escort in the Atlantic and as a fire-support ship in five amphibious assaults (the invasions of Attu, Normandy, Southern France, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa).

At the end of World War II, the Navy decided that, due to age, Nevada would not be retained as part of the active fleet and she was instead assigned as a target ship for the atomic experiments at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 (Operation Crossroads). The ship was hit by the blast from atomic bomb Able, and was left heavily damaged and radioactive. Unfit for further service, Nevada was decommissioned on August 29, 1946 and sunk for naval gunfire practice on July 31, 1948.

Design

As the first second-generation battleship in the US Navy, Nevada has been described as "revolutionary" and "as radical as HMS Dreadnought (1906) was in her day" by present-day historians. At the time of the ship's completion in 1916, The New York Times remarked that the new warship was "the greatest [battleship] afloat" because she was so much larger than other contemporary American battleships: her displacement was nearly three times that of the obsolete 1890 pre-dreadnought USS Oregon (BB-3), almost twice that of the 1904 battleship USS Connecticut (BB-18), and almost 8000 LT greater than that of one of the first American dreadnoughts, USS Delaware (BB-28)—built just seven years prior to Nevada.

Nevada was the first battleship in the US Navy to have triple gun turrets, a single funnel, and an oil-fired steam power plant. In particular, the use of the more-efficient oil gave the ship an advantage over earlier coal-fired plants. Nevada was also the first US battleship with geared turbines, which also helped increase fuel economy and thus range compared to earlier direct drive turbines. The ability to steam great distances without refueling was a major concern of the General Board at that time. In 1903, the Board felt all American battleships should have a minimum steaming radius of 6000 nmi so that the US could enforce the Monroe Doctrine. One of the main purposes of the Great White Fleet, which sailed around the world in 1907–1908, was to prove to Japan that the US Navy could "carry any naval conflict into Japanese home waters". Possibly as a result of this, battleships after 1908 were mainly designed to "steam 8,000 miles at cruising speeds"; given the distance between San Pedro, where the fleet would be based, and Manila, where the Fleet was expected to have to fight under War Plan Orange, was 6550 nmi, endurance was obviously a major concern for the U.S. Navy. Also, oil allowed for the boiler-room crew to be reduced—the engineer on Delaware estimated that 100 firemen (stokers) and 112 coal passers could be adequately replaced by just 24 men, which would allow some crew's quarters to be eliminated; this would save weight and also reduce the amount of fresh water and provisions that the ship would have to carry.

In addition to all of this, Nevada had maximum armor over critical areas, such as the magazines and engines, and none over less important places, even though previous battleships had armor of varying thickness depending on the importance of the area it was protecting. This radical change became known as the "all or nothing" principle, which most major navies later adopted for their own battleships. With this new armor scheme, the armor on the battleship was increased to 41.1% of the displacement.

As a result of all of these design modifications from previous battleships, Nevada was the first of the US Navy's "Standard" type battleships. "Standards" were characterized by the use of oil fuel, the "all or nothing" armor scheme, and the arrangement of the main armament in four triple or twin turrets without any turrets located in the middle of the ship. The Navy was to create a fleet of modern battleships similar in long-range gunnery, speed, turning radius, and protection. Nevada was followed by 11 other battleships of this type, although significant improvements were made in subsequent designs as naval technology rapidly progressed. An additional seven standard type battleships (USS Washington (BB-47) and the six of the South Dakota-class battleship) were never completed due to the Washington Naval Treaty.

The two battleships of the Nevada class were virtually identical except in their propulsion. Nevada and her sister were fitted with different engines to compare the two, putting them 'head-to-head': Oklahoma received older vertical triple expansion engines, which had proven more fuel-efficient and reliable than the direct drive turbines of some earlier battleships, while Nevada received geared Curtis steam turbines.

Construction and trials
Nevada's construction was authorized by an Act of Congress on March 4, 1911. The contract went to Fore River Shipbuilding Company on January 22, 1912 for a total of $5,895,000 (not including the armor and armament), and the time of construction was originally to be 36 months. A secondary contract was signed on July 31, 1912 for $50,000 to cover the additional cost of a geared cruising unit on each propeller shaft; this also extended the planned construction time by five months. Her keel was laid down on November 4, 1912, and by August 12, 1914, the ship was 72.4% complete. Nevada was launched on July 11, 1914; she was sponsored by Miss Eleanor Anne Seibert, niece of Governor Tasker Oddie of Nevada and a descendant of the first Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert. The launch was attended by several prominent members of the government, including Governor Oddie, Governor David I. Walsh of Massachusetts, Senator Key Pittman of Nevada, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt, who would later become the 32nd President of the United States.

Nevada then had to undergo many different tests and trials prior to her commissioning to ensure that she met the terms of the original contract. These began on November 4, 1915, when the ship conducted a twelve-hour endurance run "up and down the New England coast", reaching a top speed of 21.4 kn. Though her "acceptance trials" were interrupted on November 5, because of a gale and rough seas, they were continued on the 6th with a test of her fuel economy; this consisted of a 24-hour run where Nevada steamed at 10 kn. The test results were positive: the oil consumption of the battlewagon was 6 lb per knot lower than the contract had demanded. Another test was conducted for 12 hours at 15 kn, with an even better result of 10 lb per knot lower than the contract specifications. After completing all of these tests and running trials off Rockland, Maine, Nevada sailed to the Boston and New York Navy Yards for equipment, torpedo tubes, and ammunition hoists. When all of the preliminaries were completed, Nevada was commissioned on March 11, 1916 at the Charlestown Navy Yard, and William S. Sims was the first captain of the new ship, followed by Joseph Strauss on December 30, 1916.

World War I

After fitting out in the Boston and New York Navy Yards, Nevada joined the Atlantic Fleet in Newport, Rhode Island on May 26, 1916. Prior to the United States' entry into World War I, she conducted many training cruises and underwent many exercises out of her base in Norfolk, Virginia, sailing as far south as the Caribbean on these cruises. The US entered the war in April 1917, but Nevada was not sent to the other side of the Atlantic because of a shortage of fuel oil in Britain. Instead, four coal-fired battleships of Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9) (USS Delaware (BB-28), USS Florida (BB-30), USS Wyoming (BB-32), and USS New York (BB-34)) departed the US to join the British Grand Fleet on November 25, 1917. They arrived on December 7 and were designated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. USS Texas (BB-35) joined them after damage from a grounding on Block Island was repaired; she departed on January 30, and arrived in Scotland on February 11. It was not until August 13, 1918 that Nevada, then under command of Andrew T. Long (February 14, 1918 – October 14, 1918), left the US for Britain, becoming the last American ship to join the Fleet overseas.

After a 10-day voyage, she arrived in Berehaven, Ireland, on August 23. Along with USS Utah (BB-31) and her sister USS Oklahoma (BB-37), the three were nicknamed the "Bantry Bay Squadron"; officially, they were Battleship Division Six (BatDiv 6) under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas S. Rodgers, who chose Utah as his flagship. For the rest of the war, the three ships operated from the bay, escorting the large and valuable convoys bound for the British Isles to ensure no German heavy surface ships could slip past the British Grand Fleet and annihilate the merchant ships and their weak escorts of older cruisers. This never came to pass, and the war ended on November 11, with Nevada, then under command of William Carey Cole (October 14, 1918 – May 7, 1919), not getting a chance to engage an enemy during the war.

On December 13, 10 battleships, including Nevada, and 28 destroyers escorted the ocean liner SS George Washington, with president Woodrow Wilson embarked, into Brest, France, during the last day of Wilson's journey to the country so he could attend the Paris Peace Conference. The flotilla met George Washington and her escorts (Pennsylvania and four destroyers) just off Brest and escorted them into the port. The 10 battleships sailed for home at 14:00 on the next day, December 14. They took less than two weeks to cross the Atlantic, and arrived in New York on December 26 to parades and celebrations.

Interwar period
Between the two World Wars, Nevada, under the successive commands of Thomas P. Magruder (May 8, 1919 – October 23, 1919), followed by William Dugald MacDougall (October 23, 1919 – May 4, 1920), served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets. Though she had originally been equipped with 21 five-inch (127 mm)/51 cal guns to defend against enemy destroyers, this number was reduced to 12 in 1918, due to the overly wet bow and stern positions of the other nine.

Nevada, then under command of Luke McNamee (May 4, 1920 – September 19, 1921), and with the battleship USS Arizona (BB-39), represented the United States at the Peruvian Centennial Exposition in July 1921. A year later, with Douglas E. Dismukes (October 11, 1921 – December 30, 1922) in command, and in company with USS Maryland (BB-46) this time, Nevada returned to South America as an escort to the steamer Pan America with Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes embarked; they all attended the Centennial of Brazilian Independence in Rio de Janeiro, celebrated from 5 to September 11, 1922. The New York Times later credited the crew of Nevada for bringing baseball and that sport's unique terminology to Brazil, allowing the country to "make the Yankee game an institution of their own". At the end of 1922, John M. Luby (December 30, 1922 – September 7, 1924) assumed command. Three years later, then under command of David W. Todd (September 7, 1924 – June 11, 1926), Nevada took part in the US Fleet's "goodwill cruise" to Australia and New Zealand, from July–September 1925. During this cruise, the ships had only limited replenishment opportunities, but they still made it to Australia and back without undue difficulty. This demonstrated to those allies and Japan that the US Navy had the ability to conduct transpacific operations and meet the Imperial Japanese Navy in their home waters, where both Japanese and American war plans expected the "decisive battle" to be fought, if it should come.

After the cruise, Nevada, with Clarence S. Kempff (June 11, 1926 – September 20, 1927) commanding, put into Norfolk Navy Yard to be modernized between August 1927 and January 1930. Hilary H. Royall (January 14, 1928 – July 12, 1930) took over command during this period. Work on the ship included exchange of her "basket" masts for tripod masts and her steam turbines for those from the recently stricken battleship USS North Dakota (BB-29). These were geared turbines that had been retrofitted to North Dakota in 1917, replacing her original direct drive turbines to increase her range. Additionally, many different adaptations and additions were made: her main guns' elevation was increased to 30° (which upped the range of the guns from 23000 yd to 34000 yd), anti-torpedo bulges were added, her 12 original Yarrow boilers were replaced with 6 more efficient Bureau Express boilers in a new arrangement to accommodate those bulges, two catapults were added for three Vought O2U-3 Corsair biplane spotter aircraft, eight 5 in/25 cal AA guns were added, a new superstructure was installed, and her 5-inch (127 mm) 51 cal secondary battery was relocated above the hull in an arrangement similar to that of the New Mexico-class battleship. Nevada then served in the Pacific Fleet for the next eleven years. During this time, she was commanded by John J. Hyland (July 12, 1930 – April 30, 1932), William S. Pye (April 30, 1932 – December 4, 1933), Adolphus Staton (December 4, 1933 – June 25, 1935), Robert L. Ghormley (June 25, 1935 – June 23, 1936), Claude B. Mayo (June 23, 1936 – October 2, 1937), Robert Alfred Theobald (October 2, 1937 – May 10, 1939) and Francis W. Rockwell.(May 10, 1939 – June 4, 1941)

Attack on Pearl Harbor
On December 6, 1941, a Saturday, all of the Pacific Fleet's battleships were in port for the weekend for the first time since July 4. Normally, they took turns spending time in port: six would be out with Vice Admiral William S. Pye's battleship Task Force One one weekend, while the next weekend would find three ranging with Vice Admiral William Halsey, Jr.'s aircraft carrier task force. However, because Halsey could not afford to take the slow battleships with his fast carriers on his dash to reinforce Wake Island's Marine detachment with fighters and because it was Pye's turn to rest in port and the harbor was where it was considered safe, none of the battleships were sailing on that morning. When the sun rose over Nevada on the 7th, the ship's band was playing "Morning Colors"; but planes then appeared on the horizon and the attack on Pearl Harbor began.

Aft of Arizona during the attack, Nevada was not moored alongside another battleship off Ford Island, and therefore was able to maneuver, unlike the other seven battleships present. Commanding officer Francis W. Scanland (June 4, 1941 – December 15, 1941), was ashore when the attack began. The Officer of the Deck, Ensign Joe Taussig (son of the admiral of the same name), had earlier that morning ordered a second boiler lit off, planning to switch the power load from one boiler to the other around 0800. As Nevada's gunners opened fire and her engineers started to raise steam, a single 18 in Type 91 Mod 2 torpedo exploded against Frame 41 about 14 ft above the keel at 0810. Seconds later, the same Kate torpedo bomber that dropped the torpedo was shot down by Nevada's gunners. The torpedo bulkhead held, but leaking through joints caused flooding of port side compartments below the first platform deck between frames 30 and 43 and a list of 4–5°. Her damage control crew corrected the list by counter-flooding and Nevada got underway at 0840, her gunners already having shot down four planes. Ensign Taussig's efficiency paid off, likely saving his ship, but he lost a leg in the attack.

Nevada became a prime target for Japanese Val dive bombers during the second wave. Japanese pilots intended to sink her in the channel, ostensibly to block the harbor. This was poor target selection on the part of the pilots; she could not be sunk by 14–18 dive bombers attacking with 250 kg bombs and the channel's width of 1200 feet made bottling up the harbor impossible. As she steamed past Ten-Ten Dock at about 09:50, Nevada was struck by five bombs. One exploded over the crew's galley at Frame 80. Another struck the port director platform and exploded at the base of the stack on the upper deck. Yet another hit near No. 1 turret inboard from the port waterway and blew large holes in the upper and main decks. Two struck the forecastle near Frame 15; one passed out through the side of the second deck before exploding, but the other exploded within the ship near the gasoline tank; leakage and vapors from this tank caused intense fires around the ship.

The gasoline fires that flared up around Turret 1 might have caused more critical damage if the main magazines had not been empty. For several days prior to the attack, all of the 14-inch-gun (356 mm) battleships had been replacing their standard-weight main battery projectiles with a new heavier projectile that offered greater penetration and a larger explosive charge in exchange for a slight decrease in range. All of the older projectiles and powder charges had been removed from the magazines of Nevada, and the crew had taken a break after loading the new projectiles in anticipation of loading the new powder charges on Sunday.

As bomb damage became evident, Nevada was ordered to proceed to the west side of Ford Island to prevent her from sinking in deeper water. Instead, she was grounded off Hospital Point at 10:30, with the help of Hoga and USS Avocet (AVP-4), though she managed to force down three more planes before she struck the shore. Gasoline fires prevented damage control parties from containing flooding forward of the main torpedo defense system. Flooding the main magazine and counterflooding to keep the ship stable lowered the bow allowing water to enter the ship at the second deck level. Lack of watertight subdivision between the second and main decks from frame 30 to frame 115 allowed water entering through bomb holes in the forecastle to flow aft through the ship's ventilation system to flood the dynamo and boiler rooms.

Over the course of the morning, Nevada suffered a total of 60 killed and 109 wounded. Two more men died aboard during salvage operations on February 7, 1942 when they were overcome by hydrogen sulfide gas from decomposing paper and meat. The ship suffered a minimum of six bomb hits and one torpedo hit, but "it is possible that as many as ten bomb hits may have been received, [...] as certain damaged areas [were] of sufficient size to indicate that they were struck by more than one bomb."

Attu
On February 12, 1942, now with Captain Harry L. Thompson (December 15, 1941 – August 25, 1942) commanding, Nevada was refloated and underwent temporary repairs at Pearl Harbor so she could get to Puget Sound Navy Yard for major repairs and modernization. Then under command of Captain Howard F. Kingman (August 25, 1942 – January 25, 1943), the overhaul was completed in October 1942, and it changed the old battleship's appearance so she slightly resembled a South Dakota from a distance.

Her 5"/51s and 5"/25s were replaced with sixteen 5"/38 caliber guns in new twin mounts. Nevada, with Captain Willard A. Kitts (January 25, 1943 – July 21, 1943) commanding, then sailed for Alaska, where she provided fire support from May 11 to 18, 1943 for the capture of Attu. Nevada then departed for Norfolk Navy Yard in June for further modernization.

D-Day

After completion, in mid-1943 Nevada went on Atlantic convoy duty. Old battleships such as Nevada were attached to many convoys across the Atlantic to guard against the chance that a German capital ship might head out to sea on a raiding mission.

After completing more convoy runs, Nevada set sail for the United Kingdom to prepare for the Normandy Invasion, arriving in April 1944, with Captain Powell M. Rhea (July 21, 1943 – October 4, 1944) in command. Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS-7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee-on-Solent (HMS Daedalus).

She was chosen as Rear Admiral Morton Deyo's flagship for the operation. During the invasion, Nevada supported forces ashore from June 6–17, and again on June 25; during this time, she employed her guns against shore defenses on the Cherbourg Peninsula, "[seeming] to lean back as [she] hurled salvo after salvo at the shore batteries." Shells from her guns ranged as far as 17 nmi inland in attempts to break up German concentrations and counterattacks, even though she was straddled by counterbattery fire 27 times (though never hit).

Nevada was later praised for her "incredibly accurate" fire in support of beleaguered troops, as some of the targets she hit were just 600 yd from the front line. Nevada was the only battleship present at both Pearl Harbor and the Normandy landings.

Southern France

After D-Day, the Allies headed to Toulon for another amphibious assault, codenamed Operation Dragoon. To support this, many ships were sent from the beaches of Normandy to the Mediterranean, including five battleships (the United States' Nevada, USS Texas (BB-35), USS Arkansas (BB-33), the British HMS Ramillies (07), and the Free French FRENCH BATTLESHIP Lorraine), three US heavy cruisers (USS Augusta (CA-31), USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37) and USS Quincy (CA-71)), and many destroyers and landing craft were transferred south.

Nevada supported this operation from August 15 to September 25, 1944, "dueling" with "Big Willie": a heavily reinforced fortress with four 340 mm (13.4 in) guns in two twin turrets. These guns had been salvaged from the French battleship Provence after the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon; the guns had a range of nearly 19 nautical miles (35 km) and they commanded every approach to the port of Toulon. In addition, they were fortified with heavy armor plate embedded into the rocky sides of the island of Saint Mandrier. Due to these dangers, the fire-support ships assigned to the operation were ordered to level the fortress. Beginning on August 19, and continuing on subsequent days, one or more heavy warships bombarded it in conjunction with low-level bomber strikes. On the 23rd, a bombardment force headed by Nevada struck the "most damaging" blow to the fort during a 6½ hour battle, which saw 354 salvos fired by Nevada. Toulon fell on the 25th, but the fort, though it was "coming apart at the seams", held out for three more days.

Nevada then headed to New York to have her gun barrels relined. In addition, the three 14"/45 caliber guns (356 mm) of Turret 1 were replaced with Mark 8 guns formerly on USS Arizona (BB-39) and in the relining process at the time of Pearl Harbor; these new guns were relined to Mark 12 specifications.

Iwo Jima, Okinawa and Japan
After re-fitting, and with Captain Homer L. Grosskopf (October 4, 1944 – October 28, 1945) commanding, she sailed for the Pacific, arriving off Iwo Jima on February 16, 1945 to "[prepare] the island for invasion with heavy bombardment"; which she did through March 7. During the invasion, she moved to be within 600 yd from shore to provide maximum firepower for the troops that were advancing.

On March 24, 1945, Nevada joined Task Force 54 (TF 54), the "Fire Support Force", off Okinawa as bombardment began prior to the invasion of Okinawa. The ships of TF 54 then moved into position on the night of the 23rd, beginning their bombardment missions at dawn on the 24th. Along with the rest of the force, Nevada shelled Japanese airfields, shore defenses, supply dumps, and troop concentrations. However, after the fire support ships retired for the night, dawn "came up like thunder" when seven kamikazes attacked the force while it was without air cover. One plane, though hit repeatedly by antiaircraft fire from the force, crashed onto the main deck of Nevada, next to turret No. 3. It killed 11 and wounded 49; it also knocked out both 14 in guns in that turret and three 20 mm anti-aircraft weapons. Another two men were lost to fire from a shore battery on April 5. Until June 30, she was stationed off Okinawa; she then departed to join the 3rd Fleet from July 10 to August 7, which allowed Nevada to come within range of the Japanese home islands during the closing days of the war, though she did not bombard them.

Post-war

Nevada, then with her final commanding officer, Captain Cecil C. Adell (October 28, 1945 – July 1, 1946), returned to Pearl Harbor after a brief stint of occupation duty in Tokyo Bay. Nevada was surveyed and, at 32⅓ years old, was deemed too old to be kept in the post-war fleet. As a result, she was assigned to be a target ship in the first Bikini atomic experiments (Operation Crossroads) of July 1946. The experiment consisted of detonating two atomic bombs to test their effectiveness against ships. Nevada was the bombardier's target for the first test, codenamed 'Able', which used an air-dropped weapon. To help distinguish the target from surrounding vessels, Nevada was painted a reddish-orange. However, even with the high-visibility color scheme, the bomb fell about 1700 yd off-target, exploding above the attack transport USS Gilliam (APA-57) instead. Due in part to the miss, Nevada survived. The ship also remained afloat after the second test—'Baker', a detonation some 90 ft below the surface of the water—but was damaged and extremely radioactive from the spray. Nevada was later towed to Pearl Harbor and decommissioned on August 29, 1946.

After she was thoroughly examined, USS Iowa (BB-61) and two other vessels used Nevada as a practice gunnery target 65 miles southwest of Pearl Harbor on July 31, 1948. The ships did not sink Nevada, so she was given a coup de grâce with an aerial torpedo hit amidships.

Wreck
On May 11, 2020, it was announced that a joint expedition by Ocean Infinity, with its ship the Pacific Constructor, and the operations center of SEARCH Inc., headed by Dr. James Delgado had discovered Nevada's wreck. Nevada is located at a depth of 15400 feet off the coast of Hawaii and about 65 nautical miles southwest of Pearl Harbor. The wreck lies upside down, with the main hull carrying the scars of shell fire and torpedo hits. Nearby is a large debris field with the turrets, which fell off the ship as she capsized, and the bow and stern, both of which were torn free. Archaeologists also documented the two tripod masts, portions of the bridge, sections of deck and superstructure, and one of four tanks, an M26 Pershing, placed on the deck for the atomic bomb tests. The hull was still painted and the number "36" was visible on the stern.

One of the former Arizona guns mounted on Nevada is paired with a gun formerly on Missouri at the Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza just east of the Arizona State Capitol complex in downtown Phoenix, Arizona. It is part of a memorial representing the start and end of the Pacific War for the United States.

A large model of the ship built for the 1970 film, Tora! Tora! Tora!, survives today in Los Angeles and often appears at local parades.

title: USS Nevada (BB-36)


text:
Fisk University

Fisk University is a private historically black liberal arts college in Nashville, Tennessee. It was founded in 1866 and its 40 acre campus is a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

In 1930, Fisk became the first historically black institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Fisk is the oldest institution for higher education in Nashville.

History

Founding
Fisk Free Colored School opened on January 9, 1866, during the Reconstruction era shortly after the end of the Civil War. It was founded by John Ogden, Erastus Milo Cravath, and Edward Parmelee Smith of the American Missionary Association for the education of freedmen in Nashville. Fisk was one of several schools and colleges that the Association helped found across the South to educate freed slaves. The school is named for Clinton B. Fisk, a Union general and assistant commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau of Tennessee. Fisk secured a site to house the school in a former military barracks near Union Station and provided $30,000 of government funds for its endowment.

The American Missionary Association's work was supported by the Congregationalist church, which retains an affiliation with Fisk. Fisk is the oldest higher education institution in Nashville.

19th century
Enrollment rose to 900 in the first several months following the school's opening, indicating the strong desire for education among local freedmen. Student ages ranged from seven to 70.

During the nation's Reconstruction era, the Tennessee General Assembly passed legislation to enable free public education, which caused a need to increase teacher training. In 1867 the Fisk Free Colored School was reorganized and incorporated as Fisk University to focus on higher education. James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson were the first students to enroll at the institution. In 1875, the two Burruses and Walker graduated from Fisk and became the first African-American students to graduate from a liberal arts college south of the Mason–Dixon line.

The Tennessee Constitution of 1870 was ratified with a provision, Article XI § 12, that prohibited public schools from enrolling both Black and White students. In 1869, the University of Tennessee (then Eastern Tennessee University) had been designated a federal land-grant university, which meant that it was required to enroll all qualified citizens of the state, regardless of race or color. To get around the requirement of integration, ETU paid tuition for Black students with State Scholarships to enroll at Fisk University in 1881–83. The contract was changed to Knoxville College in 1884.

In 1870, Adam K. Spence became the school's principal. Spence developed plans to expand and move the school to a larger campus in north Nashville on a site that had been Fort Gillem, a Union army base. To raise money for the school's initiatives, his wife Catherine Mackie Spence traveled throughout the United States to set up mission Sunday schools in support of Fisk students, organizing endowments through the American Missionary Association. With a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the founding of a student choir; they were the start of the Fisk Jubilee Singers.

With the school facing financial distress, the choir went on tour to raise funds in 1871, led by professor and university treasurer George L. White. They toured the U.S. and Europe and became a sensation, singing before Ulysses S. Grant, Mark Twain, Queen Victoria; popularizing spirituals written by Wallace Willis such as "Swing Low Sweet Chariot"; and changing racial stereotypes. Their tour raised nearly $50,000 (~$ in ) and funded construction of Jubilee Hall. (In W.E.B. Du Bois' book entitled "The Souls of Black Folk", this number is quoted at $150,000). It was the first building built for the education of freedmen in the South and is now a National Historic Landmark.

Fisk co-founder Cravath returned in 1875 and became the institution's first president. He oversaw an active construction program and expansion of the school's curriculum offerings to include liberal arts, theology, and teacher training. By the turn of the 20th century, it had strengthened its reputation, built several campus buildings, added African-American teachers and staff, and enrolled a second generation of students.

20th century
James Griswold Merrill served as acting president of Fisk from 1899 to 1901, then continued as the institution's president from 1901 to 1908. Fisk University's dedication to liberal arts education at the turn of the century distinguished it from many other black colleges and universities that emphasized vocational training. The school established a department of social science in 1910, founded and directed by George E. Haynes. It was the first social work training center for African-American graduate students and a model for those established at other institutions. The school was criticized by some at the time for fostering an elitist reputation.

From 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was president of Fisk. McKenzie's tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history. In spite of many challenges, McKenzie developed Fisk as the premier all-Black college or university in the United States, secured Fisk's academic recognition as a standard college by the Carnegie Foundation, Columbia University and the University of Chicago, raised a $1 million endowment fund to ensure quality faculty, and laid a foundation for Fisk's accreditation and future success. McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities, and other aspects of student life led to student protests in 1924 and 1925.

Thomas Elsa Jones became the institution's fourth president in 1925. He sought to diversify Fisk's faculty and further build the school's reputation. In 1930, Fisk became the first historically black college to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It was also the first such institution approved by the Association of American Universities in 1933. Accreditations for specialized programs soon followed.

In 1946, Charles S. Johnson became Fisk's sixth president and first African-American president. Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had also been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. Johnson expanded the school's Institute of Race Relations, which was established in 1942. The institute conducted research and fostered discussion about racial disparity in the U.S. and would later help develop strategies for desegregation in schools, employment, and the military. In 1949, Fisk received the Stieglitz Collection of modern art from photographer and arts patron Alfred Stieglitz.

In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter. Organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4, 1953. Established in 1776, Phi Beta Kappa is the oldest and most prestigious academic honor society in the U.S.

In 1960, Fisk students joined other black leaders in the Nashville sit-ins, nonviolent protests against segregation at lunch counters in the city during the civil rights movement. Martin Luther King Jr., spoke at the institution in May 1960 in response to civil rights movement in the city. Fisk students John Lewis and Diane Nash were leaders during the protests, which led to Nashville becoming the first major city in the South to desegregate lunch counters. The two became early leaders of the national Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

On April 8, 1967, a riot occurred near the Fisk and Tennessee State University campuses after Stokely Carmichael spoke at Vanderbilt University. Although it was viewed as a "race riot", it had classist characteristics. Protestors marched from Fisk to the Nashville courthouse to protest police brutality during the riots.

In 1978 Fisk's campus was recognized as a National Historic Landmark. The campus underwent significant restoration in the 1990s through assistance from a U.S. Congressional Grant.

21st century
From 2004 to 2013, Fisk was directed by its 14th president, Hazel O'Leary, former Secretary of Energy under President Bill Clinton. She was the second woman to serve as president of Fisk. On June 25, 2008, Fisk announced that it had successfully raised $4 million (~$ in ) during the fiscal year ending June 30. It ended nine years of budget deficits and qualified for a Mellon Foundation challenge grant. However, Fisk still faced significant financial hardship, and said that it may need to close its doors unless its finances improved.

H. James Williams served as president from February 2013 to September 2015. Williams had been dean of the Seidman College of Business at Grand Valley State University in Michigan, and previously an accounting professor at Georgetown University, Florida A&M, and Texas Southern University. Williams was succeeded by interim president Frank Sims. In March 2017 the Fisk board of trustees announced that Kevin Rome would be Fisk university's seventeenth president.

In June 2017, a service in memory of 1892 lynching victim Ephraim Grizzard was held in the Fisk Memorial Chapel. A plaque memorializing Grizzard and two other lynching victims—his brother Henry and Samuel Smith—was installed at St. Anselm's Episcopal church in Nashville.

In 2018 the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools placed the institution on probation. The accreditor cited failings related to financial responsibility, control of research funds, and federal and state responsibility. Fisk announced a fundraising record and increased enrollment the following year. In 2020, Fisk was taken off probation and maintained its accreditation.

Campus
Fisk's 40-acre campus was dedicated in 1876. It sits on a small hill approximately two miles northwest of downtown that was previously Fort Gillem, a Union fort during the Civil War. The campus lies on Jefferson Street, a historic center of Nashville's African-American community.

The Fisk University Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. Notable campus buildings that contribute to the historic district include:

 * The Carl Van Vechten Gallery was built in 1888. It served as the school's gymnasium before becoming an art gallery. The building houses Fisk's renowned Stieglitz Collection of modern art. It is named for photographer Carl Van Vechten.
 * Carnegie Hall was originally built as a library in 1908. It is the first major building by Moses McKissack III, co-founder of the first African-American owned architecture firm in the United States.
 * Cravath Hall, named for the institution's first president Erastus Milo Cravath and completed in 1930, is an eight-story building originally used as a library. It was designed by Henry Hibbs. The building features a series of murals by painter Aaron Douglas, which he described as a "panorama of the development of Black people in this hemisphere, in the new world." The murals have been described as the most ambitious works of his career. The building now houses administrative offices.
 * Fisk Memorial Chapel was built in 1892 in the Victorian style. At the time it was the largest building for African Americans to gather in the country. The chapel hosts campus functions and public events such as concerts, lectures, and graduations. The building was restored and rededicated in 1992.
 * Jubilee Hall, completed in 1876, is the oldest permanent building for the higher education of African Americans in the United States. It is named for the Fisk Jubilee Singers who toured the country to raise funds for its construction. The six-story, L-shaped building is noted for its Victorian Gothic architecture.
 * Talley Brady Hall, built in 1931, is the first modern chemistry building at a historically black college or university. It is named for Thomas E. Talley and St. Elmo Brady, two notable African American chemists and faculty members.

Additional campus buildings listed on the register include Little Theater, Harris Music Building, numerous residential structures, and a limestone wall built around 1873.

In the 1930s, Fisk hired the Olmsted Brothers firm to lead a master design of its campus at this time, resulting in the Beaux-Arts landscape.

Library collections
Fisk is the home of a music literature collection founded by the noted Harlem Renaissance figure Carl Van Vechten, for whom the campus museum is named. It also holds a substantial collection of materials associated with Charles W. Chestnutt.

Aaron Douglas murals
Harlem Renaissance painter Aaron Douglas was commissioned to paint murals for the new campus library, Cravath Hall, in 1930. Douglas described them a "panorama of the development of Black people in this hemisphere, in the new world." Douglas returned to Fisk in 1939 to teach and later served as chair of the art department. The murals were restored in 2003.

Alfred Stieglitz collection
In 1949, Georgia O'Keeffe, wife and executrix of her late husband's estate, in accordance with the terms of his will, donated to Fisk a number of paintings that had belonged to her husband, the photographer and art patron Alfred Stieglitz. The collection consists of 101 works by important artists, including European modernists Paul Cézanne, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Pablo Picasso and Diego Rivera, as well as American artists Marsden Hartley, Arthur Dove and Charles Demuth and works by O'Keeffe.

In 2005, mounting financial difficulties and deteriorating conditions in the gallery led the trustees to vote to sell two of the paintings, O'Keeffe's "Radiator Building" and Hartley's "Painting No. 3," together estimated to be worth up to $45 million U.S. The sale was challenged by the Georgia O'Keeffe Museum, the legal guardians of her estate. This challenge failed. A joint agreement was established between Fisk University and the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art. The two museums now share the works' presentation and display rights of the Stieglitz collection; ownership remains with Fisk University, in accord with the terms of Stieglitz's estate. Presentation and display rights rotate between Fisk University and Crystal Bridges Museum every two years. In 2016, as part of the institution's sesquicentennial celebration, the collection was displayed at the newly renovated Carl Van Vechten Gallery.

Science programs
Fisk University has a strong record of academic excellence: it has graduated more African Americans who go on to earn PhDs in the natural sciences than any other institution.

Fisk-Vanderbilt Bridge Program
Started in 2004, the Fisk-Vanderbilt bridge program helps underrepresented groups gain access to PhD programs in STEM fields. The partnership between a small, historically black college and a major research university aims to diversify doctoral study. The program, which has received money from NASA, the National Science Foundation, and the Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship, provides a scholarship for a master's degree at Fisk University and close mentorship for students who go on to a PhD Since 2004, 21 students in the program have completed a PhD, with another 56 currently pursuing graduate study. The program has a success rate far higher than the national average for completion of PhD programs, which is about 50%.

Rankings

 * For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Fisk University tenth among 79 historically black colleges and universities in the U.S., tied for 29th for "Most Innovative Schools", tied for 126th for "Top Performers on Social Mobility" and 171–221 overall among national liberal arts colleges.
 * For 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Fisk 199th among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
 * Forbes ranks Fisk 642nd on its 2019 "America's Top Colleges" list of 650 colleges, universities, and service academies.

Athletics
The Fisk athletic teams are called the Bulldogs. The institution is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Gulf Coast Athletic Conference (GCAC) since the 2021–22 academic year; which they were a member on a previous stint from 2010–11 to 2013–14. The Bulldogs previously competed as an NAIA Independent within the Association of Independent Institutions (AII) from 2014–15 to 2020–21 (which they were a member on a previous stint from 2008–09 to 2009–10); in the defunct Great South Athletic Conference (GSAC) of the NCAA Division III ranks from 1999–2000 to 2005–06; in the D-III Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC) from 1983–84 to 1993–94; and in the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC) from 1913–14 to 1982–83, which is currently a NCAA Division II athletic conference.

Fisk competes in 14 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and track and field (indoor and outdoor); while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, tennis, track and field (indoor and outdoor) and volleyball. Fisk is the first HBCU to add a competitive women's gymnastics team. Club sports include cheerleading and dance.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fisk University


text:
Air guitar

Air guitar is a form of dance and movement in which the performer pretends to play an imaginary rock or heavy metal-style electric guitar, including riffs and solos. Playing an air guitar usually consists of exaggerated strumming and picking motions, and is often coupled with loud singing or lip-synching. Air guitar is generally used in the imaginary simulation of loud electric or acoustic guitar music.

History
Before the existence of air guitar, the popularity of the phonograph in the 1930s led to the phenomenon of "shadow conducting", in which listeners would pretend to conduct an orchestra.

Air guitar had a seminal moment at the Woodstock music festival in 1969, when singer Joe Cocker mimicked the playing of the keyboard and guitar during his performance of "With a Little Help From My Friends". Cocker's elaborate signature moves helped introduce the concept of air guitar to the public.

Neal Kay, founder of the Soundhouse heavy metal club in Kingsbury, London, recalls one night in 1976 a club regular named Rob "Loonhouse" Yeatman arrived at the club carrying a piece of hardboard cut into the shape of a Flying V guitar, with no frets or strings. "Suddenly Rob appears in front of everyone and he starts playing it along with the solo and he's absolutely perfect."

One of the first air guitar contests was held at Florida State University in 1978. The term "air guitar" subsequently gained popularity in the 1980s as more contests were held in Sweden and the United States. Since 1996, the annual Air Guitar World Championships have been organized in Oulu, Finland. The first competitions were arranged as part of Oulu Music Video Festival. Since 2011 it has been produced by Airnest Productions Ltd, which also administers the official Air Guitar World Championships Network of licensed national championships. The idea of the contest was originated a joke that was intended to be a side attraction for the music video festival but has since become a major draw in its own right.

Contests

Air guitar contests have much in common with the figure skating scoring system, especially using 6.0 score system. The most common set of rules are as following:

 * Each participant has to play air guitar on stage in two rounds, each lasting for one minute.
 * Round 1: participant plays a selection of his or her choice. Typically the song has been edited (or a medley has been created) to fit the 60-second format.
 * Round 2: participant plays a section of the song chosen by an organizer or competitor; usually the song is not announced beforehand and kept secret until the round begins so the participant has to improvise.
 * Participant plays alone; backing bands, either with real or air instruments are not allowed; roadies and groupies are allowed to make up some image but they must leave the stage before performance.
 * Participant has to play air guitar (i.e. air drums, piano and other instruments are not allowed). Air guitar can be acoustic, electric or both.
 * Generally, there is no dress code and participant is encouraged to use any clothing and props that would add character and make the performance more interesting. Any real musical equipment or crew (instruments, amplifiers, effect pedals, and backing band members) are strictly forbidden. Some events make an exception for a real guitar pick.
 * Jury consists of independent judges, usually B-list musicians, music critics, comedians, or other members of the media.
 * Judges use the same 6.0 score system as in the traditional figure skating system: there are several varying criteria, and each judge must give the contestant a score from 4.0 to 6.0 on each of the following:
 * Technical merit—how much the performance looks like the real playing, including accurate reproduction of all fretwork, chords, solos and technical moves.
 * Mimesmanship—how convincingly the performers can mime their performance, and create the illusion of an invisible guitar, apart from the technical accuracy of the fretwork
 * Stage presence—a charisma of rock star, the ability to rock, lack of stage fright and power to drive thousands of listeners; involves guitar showmanship and other emotional demonstrations.
 * Airness—the most subjective criterion, as "presentation" in figure skating—how much the performance was an object of art by itself, not only a simulation of playing guitar.

World
Annual Air Guitar World Championships were first held in 1996 as part of the Oulu Music Video Festival in Oulu, Finland, and now held there each August. According to the competition ideology, "wars will end, climate change will stop and all bad things will vanish when all the people in the world play the air guitar".

Participants from all over the world compete in skills of playing air guitar. The judges represent professionals of performing arts and culture, the guitarist Juha Torvinen among others. The winner gets a custom-made guitar, 'Flying Finn', by Matti and Saara Nevalainen. One year, Brian May, the lead guitarist of Queen, donated a VOX BM Special amplifier for the winner.

Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, the Air Guitar World Championships were not held in 2020 and 2021.

List of World Championships
List of World Championships

United States
In 2003, Cedric Devitt and Kriston Rucker founded US Air Guitar, the official governing body of air guitar in the US.

The 2004 US Air Guitar Championships featured regional competitions in five cities. MiRi "Sonyk-Rok" Park, winner of the New York City regional, took the national crown by defeating Fatima "The Rockness Monster" Hoang from Los Angeles. She went to Finland, where she tied for first place, becoming the 2004 World Air Guitar Co-Champion.

By 2008, US Air Guitar had expanded to include regional competitions in 24 cities. The 2006 US Air Guitar Champion, Craig "Hot Lixx Hulahan" Billmeier, went on to defeat 2005 Champion Fatima "The Rockness Monster" Hoang and 2007 Champion Andrew "William Ocean" Litz en route to his second national title. In Finland, Hulahan won, securing the United States' third world title and becoming the 2008 World Air Guitar Champion.

William Ocean won his second national title in 2009, earning him a spot in Finland at the 2009 World Air Guitar Championships. Ocean and defending World Air Guitar Champion Hulahan tied for second place, behind Sylvain "Gunther Love" Quimene of France.

In 2020 and 2021, US Air Guitar moved to online competitions, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 US Air Guitar season ended with a live, in-person finals in Chicago, IL.

List of United States Championships
List of United States Championships

United Kingdom
The Air Guitar UK Championship was created in 2006 by twice air guitar world champion Zac 'the Magnet' Monroe (the first non-Finn to win the competition ) and is affiliated with the Air Guitar World Championships in Oulu, Finland, forming part of the World Air Guitar Network.

In September 2011, Air Guitar UK launched Air Guitar Wales and Air Guitar Northern Ireland to join Air Guitar Scotland (first launched by AGUK in 2009 ) as part of the Air Guitar UK Network.

Air Guitar UK events are held in support of the Teenage Cancer Trust.

UKAG
UK Air Guitar (UKAG) works regularly with charities including RAFA, The 1800 Club and Action Medical Research.

Innovations
Multiple technological innovations allow air guitar to be played as a real instrument, producing sounds that depend on the air guitarist's actions. In 2005, students from the Helsinki University of Technology developed a system that translates hand movements into electric guitar sounds, resulting in a functional air guitar. The system, consisting of a pair of brightly coloured gloves and an infrared camera, is one of the most popular exhibits at the Helsinki Science Center. The camera recognizes the distance between the two gloves and the strumming movements made by the wearer to synthesize an electric guitar tune, working using only six notes.

In November 2006, researchers at the Australian government's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) announced they had developed a tee-shirt that senses human movement to "showcase its expertise in designing and manufacturing electronic and intelligent textiles with which people effortlessly control computers", publicising it as an air guitar shirt.

In 2007, toy company Silverlit introduced V-Beat Air Guitar, a device that consists of a motion-sensing guitar pick, a neck part with four buttons and a guitar body. By changing the distance between body and neck, and pressing a combination of the four buttons on the neck part, up to 48 tones and chords can be played. The V-Beat Air Guitar was won 'Best Music Gadget' on the television program The Gadget Show.

In 2007, a Japanese toy company Takara Tomy introduced Air Guitar Pro (Guitar Rockstar), a functional guitar simulator. Fitting in one hand, the device uses heat and motion sensors to detect the other hand motions and produce guitar sounds.

In March 2008, Jada Toys of California introduced the Air Guitar Rocker toy that included patented technology in a belt buckle. When the user strums a magnetic pick in front of the belt buckle, guitar music plays through a portable amplifier attached to the users pants or belt. The Air Guitar Rocker is marketed with the popular Guitar Hero license and was created by toy inventor David Führer and his team.

title: Air guitar


text:
Thomas Kidd (classical scholar)

Thomas Kidd (1770 – 27 August 1850) was an English classical scholar and schoolmaster.

He was born in Yorkshire, and educated at Giggleswick School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was the father of John Tyrwhitt Davy Kidd who served in India for many years and Richard Bentley Porson Kidd, who was rector of Potter Heigham church among other duties in Norwich, Norfolk. The last of these had a son, Richard Hayward Kidd, who was Colonial Chaplain of Hong Kong until his death in 1879.

Kidd held numerous scholastic and clerical appointments. In 1818 he was appointed headmaster of King's Lynn School; he next became master of Wymondham School, and then of Norwich School. His last appointment was as rector of Croxton, near Cambridge, where he died. Kidd was an intimate friend of Richard Porson and Charles Burney the younger. He contributed largely to periodicals, chiefly on classical subjects, but his reputation mainly rests upon his editions of the works of other scholars:

 * Opuscula Ruhnkeniana (1807), the minor works of the great Dutch scholar David Ruhnken
 * Tracts and Miscellaneous Criticisms of Richard Porson (1815).
 * Miscellanea Critica of Richard Dawes (2nd ed., 1827)

He also published an edition of the works of Horace (1817) based upon Richard Bentley's recension.

title: Thomas Kidd (classical scholar)


text:
Duivendrecht

Duivendrecht is a village in the Dutch province of North Holland. It is a part of the municipality of Ouder-Amstel, and lies about 6 km southeast of Amsterdam’s city centre. It is a suburb of Amsterdam.

History
The village was first mentioned in 1308 as Doevendrecht, and means "ferry of Doeve (person)." Duivendrecht started to developed in the 19th century and has become encircled by Amsterdam, Diemen and the Bijlmermeer.

The Catholic St Urbanus Church is a single aisled cruciform church with a double tower. It was built between 1877 and 1878 as a replacement of the 1840 church.

The local Duivendrecht railway station is a major interchange point on the Dutch railway network. It opened in 1993 and is on the Amsterdam to Arnhem railway line, the Weesp to Leiden line as well as the Amsterdam Metro.

Radio Stations (local)
The local radio station for Duivendrecht is Jamm fm 104.9 Smooth & Funky.

Born in Duivendrecht

 * Wim Eijk, Roman Catholic archbishop (22 June 1953)

title: Duivendrecht


text:
Force carrier

In quantum field theory, a force carrier (also known as a messenger particle, intermediate particle, or exchange particle) is a type of particle that gives rise to forces between other particles. These particles serve as the quanta of a particular kind of physical field.

Particle and field viewpoints
Quantum field theories describe nature in terms of fields. Each field has a complementary description as the set of particles of a particular type. A force between two particles can be described either as the action of a force field generated by one particle on the other, or in terms of the exchange of virtual force carrier particles between them.

The energy of a wave in a field (for example, electromagnetic waves in the electromagnetic field) is quantized, and the quantum excitations of the field can be interpreted as particles. The Standard Model contains the following particles, each of which is an excitation of a particular field: In addition, composite particles such as mesons, as well as quasiparticles, can be described as excitations of an effective field.
 * Gluons, excitations of the strong gauge field.
 * Photons, W bosons, and Z bosons, excitations of the electroweak gauge fields.
 * Higgs bosons, excitations of one component of the Higgs field, which gives mass to fundamental particles.

Gravity is not a part of the Standard Model, but it is thought that there may be particles called gravitons which are the excitations of gravitational waves. The status of this particle is still tentative, because the theory is incomplete and because the interactions of single gravitons may be too weak to be detected.

Forces from the particle viewpoint
When one particle scatters off another, altering its trajectory, there are two ways to think about the process. In the field picture, we imagine that the field generated by one particle caused a force on the other. Alternatively, we can imagine one particle emitting a virtual particle which is absorbed by the other. The virtual particle transfers momentum from one particle to the other. This particle viewpoint is especially helpful when there are a large number of complicated quantum corrections to the calculation since these corrections can be visualized as Feynman diagrams containing additional virtual particles.

Another example involving virtual particles is beta decay where a virtual W boson is emitted by a nucleon and then decays to e± and (anti)neutrino.

The description of forces in terms of virtual particles is limited by the applicability of the perturbation theory from which it is derived. In certain situations, such as low-energy QCD and the description of bound states, perturbation theory breaks down.

History
The concept of messenger particles dates back to the 18th century when the French physicist Charles Coulomb showed that the electrostatic force between electrically charged objects follows a law similar to Newton's Law of Gravitation. In time, this relationship became known as Coulomb's law. By 1862, Hermann von Helmholtz had described a ray of light as the "quickest of all the messengers". In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed the existence of a light-particle in answer to the question: "what are light quanta?"

In 1923, at the Washington University in St. Louis, Arthur Holly Compton demonstrated an effect now known as Compton scattering. This effect is only explainable if light can behave as a stream of particles and it convinced the physics community of the existence of Einstein's light-particle. Lastly, in 1926, one year before the theory of quantum mechanics was published, Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the term "photon", which soon became the name for Einstein's light particle. From there, the concept of messenger particles developed further, notably to massive force carriers (e.g. for the Yukawa potential).

title: Force carrier


text:
Municipalities of Puerto Rico

The municipalities of Puerto Rico (Spanish: municipios de Puerto Rico) are the second-level administrative divisions in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. There are 78 such administrative divisions covering all 78 incorporated towns and cities. Each municipality is led by a mayor and divided into barrios, third-level administrative divisions, though the latter are not vested with any political authority. Every municipality is governed as stated by the Autonomous Municipalities Act of 1991, which establishes that every municipality must have an elected strong mayor with a municipal legislature as the form of government. Each legislature must be unicameral, with the number of members related to adequate representation of the total population of the municipality. In contrast to other jurisdictions, both the mayors and the municipal legislators are elected on the same date and for the same term of four years in office.

From a political and ekistic perspective, several differences and similarities exist between municipalities of differing population sizes. For instance, municipalities with 50,000 inhabitants or more are considered incorporated cities, while those with fewer than 50,000 are considered incorporated towns. Size affects the autonomy exercised by the jurisdiction: cities provide and manage their own services, while towns typically depend on nearby cities for certain services. Demographically, municipalities in Puerto Rico are equivalent to counties in the United States, and Puerto Rican municipalities are registered as county subdivisions in the United States census. Statistically, the municipality with the largest number of inhabitants is San Juan, with 342,259, while Culebra is the smallest, with around 1,792. Arecibo is the largest in terms of geography, with around 125 mi2, and Cataño the smallest, with around 4.8 mi2.

All municipalities have a barrio called pueblo proper, officially called barrio-pueblo (literally "district-town"), which typically is the site of the historic Spanish colonial settlement, administrative center and urban core of the municipality. However, municipalities with large populations may have an urban core that consist of several barrios.

Overview
In Recent Civic Architecture in Porto Rico by Adrian C. Finlayson, architect for the Insular Department of the Interior Architecture, writing for the publication Architectural Record in 1920, the Puerto Rican municipality is accurately described  as:

Having been a Spanish possession until 1898, the system of local government in Puerto Rico bears more resemblance to that of the Hispanophone nations of the Americas than to local government in the United States. Thus, there are no literal first-order administrative divisions akin to counties, as defined by the U.S. Federal Government. Instead, Puerto Rico has 78 municipalities as the secondary unit of administration. For U.S. Census purposes, the municipalities are considered county equivalents. The municipalities are grouped into eight electoral districts, but these do not possess administrative functions. In 1991, the Autonomous Municipalities Act was passed, which slightly modified the rights and responsibilities of Puerto Rican municipalities with the aim of decentralizing control and improving government services.

Every municipality is composed of barrios, except for Florida, which has only one barrio. The municipality of Ponce has the largest number of barrios, 31.

Every municipality, except San Juan, also has an urban area made up of one or more barrios. When the urban area is made up of only one barrio, it is called "Barrio Pueblo". Some urban areas are made up of multiple barrios: Ponce's urban area, for example, is made up of 12 barrios. All of San Juan's barrios are urban barrios, and the municipality of San Juan is composed of urban barrios only - thus, the entire municipality of San Juan consists of one large urban zone.

Municipalities
For a list of municipal demonyms

Puerto Rico is administratively divided into the following 78 municipalities (alphabetically ordered):

Racial composition
The following is an alphabetical list of the municipalities and their population together with a breakdown of their racial composition.

Politics
The municipalities elect a mayor and a municipal legislature in the general elections every four years.

Finances
In 2012, 36 of the 78 municipalities (46%) were experiencing a budget deficit. In total, the combined debt carried by the municipalities stands at about US$590 million.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: auto" ! Municipality ! Mayor's party ! style="text-align: right" | Population ! style="text-align: right" | Surplus or deficit ! style="text-align: right" | Surplus or deficit per capita ! style="text-align: right" | Public debt ! style="text-align: right" | Public debt per capita
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Adjuntas
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 19,483
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="525858" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0026.99" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Aguada
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 41,959
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2209807" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0052.67" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Aguadilla
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 60,949
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="10220728" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0167.69" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Aguas Buenas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 28,659
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1638355" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0057.17" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Aibonito
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 25,900
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="681875" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0026.33" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * data-sort-value="Anasco" | Añasco
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 29,261
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2074042" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0070.88" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Arecibo
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 96,440
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-17784327" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0184.41" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Arroyo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 19,575
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-390219" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0019.93" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Barceloneta
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 24,816
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-8833426" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0355.96" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Barranquitas
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 30,318
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="6673615" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0220.12" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Bayamón
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 208,116
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="4179967" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0020.08" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Cabo Rojo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 50,917
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-60841" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0001.19" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Caguas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 142,893
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="16938668" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0118.54" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Camuy
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 35,159
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1810542" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0051.50" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Canóvanas
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 47,648
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="203324" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0004.27" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Carolina
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 176,762
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="32757250" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0185.32" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Cataño
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 28,140
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-11320761" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0402.30" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Cayey
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 48,119
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="7544584" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0156.79" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Ceiba
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 13,631
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1833525" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0134.51" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Ciales
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 18,782
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-5465145" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0290.98" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Cidra
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 43,480
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1053391" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0024.23" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Coamo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 40,512
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1672291" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0041.28" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Comerío
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 20,778
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="188417" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0009.07" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Corozal
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 37,142
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="854163" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0023.00" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Culebra
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 1,818
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="802707" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0441.53" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Dorado
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 38,165
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2620615" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0068.67" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Fajardo
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 36,993
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="17821689" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0481.76" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Florida
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 12,680
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1619740" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0127.74" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="043.81" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Guánica
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 19,427
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-5319384" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0273.81" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Guayama
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 45,362
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1987097" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0043.81" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Guayanilla
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 21,581
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2706166" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0125.40" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Guaynabo
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 97,924
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="8216448" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0083.91" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Gurabo
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 45,369
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-5797927" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0127.79" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Hatillo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 41,953
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1024986" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0024.43" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Hormigueros
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 17,250
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1288509" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0074.70" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Humacao
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 58,466
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="11360216" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0194.30" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Isabela
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 45,631
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="24738813" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0542.15" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Jayuya
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 16,642
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="629946" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0037.85" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Juana Díaz
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 79,897
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="12,786,400" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2.78" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Juncos
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 40,290
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2994898" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0074.33" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Lajas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 25,753
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1988168" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0077.20" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Lares
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 30,753
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3361629" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0109.31" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Las Marías
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 9,881
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="660746" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0066.87" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Las Piedras
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 38,675
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="362063" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0009.36" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Loíza
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 30,060
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3171401" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0105.50" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Luquillo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 20,068
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1646739" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0082.06" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Manatí
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 44,113
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-12622526" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-286.14" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Maricao
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 6,276
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1812106" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-288.74" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Maunabo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 12,225
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2678351" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0219.09" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Mayagüez
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 89,080
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="10816117" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0121.42" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Moca
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 40,109
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="632570" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0015.77" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Morovis
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 32,610
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3742360" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0114.76" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Naguabo
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 26,720
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3737140" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0139.86" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Naranjito
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 30,402
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1581161" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0052.01" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Orocovis
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 23,423
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="367461" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0015.69" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Patillas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 19,277
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-6001248" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-311.32" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Peñuelas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 24,282
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="4106788" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0169.13" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Ponce
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 166,327
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-18480789" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-111.11" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Quebradillas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 25,919
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2327410" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0089.80" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Rincón
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 15,200
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="1992326" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0131.07" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Río Grande
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 54,304
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-4147852" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0076.38" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Sabana Grande
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 25,265
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2835535" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0112.23" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Salinas
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 31,078
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-8546853" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-275.01" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * San Germán
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 35,527
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="760077" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0021.39" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * San Juan
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 395,326
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-45455571" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-114.98" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * San Lorenzo
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 41,058
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2998994" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0073.04" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * San Sebastián
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 42,430
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="2296524" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="0054.13" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Santa Isabel
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 23,274
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3900907" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0167.61" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Toa Alta
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 74,066
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3387399" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0045.73" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Toa Baja
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 89,609
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-10543311" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-117.66" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Trujillo Alto
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 74,842
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1736394" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0023.20" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Utuado
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 33,149
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-3007984" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0090.74" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #90EE90"
 * Vega Alta
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 39,951
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="3408501" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="85.32" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |

 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Vega Baja
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 59,662
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-1849612" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0031.00" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Vieques
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 9,301
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-6672774" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0717.43" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Villalba
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 26,073
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2228520" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0085.47" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Yabucoa
 * PPD
 * style="text-align: right" | 37,941
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-2216509" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0058.42" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * - style="background-color: #FFE8E8"
 * Yauco
 * PNP
 * style="text-align: right" | 42,043
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-5049263" |
 * style="text-align: right" data-sort-value="-0120.10" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * style="text-align: right" |
 * }

Proposed amalgamation
Multiple times, politicians have discussed and proposed consolidating Puerto Rico's municipalities but so far no proposals has been adopted. In 1902 the Puerto Rico legislature, under pressure from the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, passed a law consolidating the then-76 municipalities of Puerto Rico into 46. The law was repealed three years later. In October 2009, a Puerto Rican legislator proposed a bill that would reduce the current 78 municipalities of Puerto Rico down to 20. The bill called for a referendum to take place on June 13, 2010, which would let the people decide on the matter. However, the bill never made into law. With the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis that emerged in the first half of 2010s, a new plan to consolidate municipalities was again circulated in the legislature in 2017 as a way to alleviate the government debt crisis. In March 2019, then Governor Ricardo Rosselló created an initiative that would preserve the existing municipalities but create regional consolidation by sharing service overhead in the form of counties but he resigned prior to anything coming of his proposal.

title: Municipalities of Puerto Rico


text:
Tatu (disambiguation)

Tatu, or t.A.T.u., was a Russian pop music girl duo.

Tatu may also refer to:

People

 * Tatú (footballer, 1898-1932), full name Altino Marcondes, Brazilian footballer
 * Tatu (soccer) (Antonio Carlos Pecorari, born 1962), a Brazilian footballer
 * Tatu Baby (born 1987), American tattoo artist
 * Tatu Chionga (born 1944), a Malawian boxer
 * Tatu Kolehmainen (1885–1967), a Finnish long-distance runner
 * Tatu Mäkelä (born 1988), a Finnish footballer
 * Tatu Malmivaara (1908–1987), a Finnish clergyman and politician
 * Tatu Miettunen (born 1995), a Finnish footballer
 * Tatu Nissinen (1883–1966), a Finnish agronomist and politician
 * Tatu Sinisalo (born 1992), Finnish actor
 * Tatu Vanhanen (1929–2015), a Finnish political scientist and author
 * Tatu Varmanen (born 1998), a Finnish footballer
 * Cornel Tatu (born 1983), a Romanian rugby player
 * Leandro Tatu (Leandro Ângelo Martins, born 1982), a Brazilian footballer
 * Utpal S. Tatu (born 1964), an Indian biologist

Places

 * Ţaţu, Cornereva, Romania
 * Tatu River, or Dadu River, in Taiwan
 * Khanbaliq, or Tatu or Dadu, capital of the Yuan dynasty in present day Beijing, China

Other uses

 * Tatu (film), a 2017 Nigerian adventure film
 * Tatu (instrument), or Charango, a small Andean stringed instrument of the lute family
 * Tatu, the name of a chimpanzee at the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute

title: Tatu (disambiguation)