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Leviathan (Hobbes book)

Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, commonly referred to as Leviathan, is a book written by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and published in 1651 (revised Latin edition 1668). Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan. The work concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. Written during the English Civil War (1642–1651), it argues for a social contract and rule by an absolute sovereign. Hobbes wrote that civil war and the brute situation of a state of nature ("the war of all against all") could be avoided only by a strong, undivided government.

Title
The title of Hobbes's treatise alludes to the Leviathan mentioned in the Book of Job. In contrast to the simply informative titles usually given to works of early modern political philosophy, such as John Locke's Two Treatises of Government or Hobbes's own earlier work, The Elements of Law, Hobbes selected a poetic name for this more provocative treatise. Lexicographers in the early modern period supposed that the term "leviathan" was associated with the Hebrew words lavah, meaning "to couple, connect, or join", and thannin, believed to mean "a serpent or dragon". In the Westminster Assembly's annotations on the Bible, the interpreters thought that the creature was named using these root words "because by his bignesse he seemes not one single creature, but a coupling of divers together; or because his scales are closed, or straitly compacted together." Samuel Mintz suggests that these connotations lend themselves to Hobbes's understanding of political force since both "Leviathan and Hobbes's sovereign are unities compacted out of separate individuals; they are omnipotent; they cannot be destroyed or divided; they inspire fear in men; they do not make pacts with men; theirs is the dominion of power" on pain of death.

Frontispiece
After lengthy discussion with Thomas Hobbes, the Parisian Abraham Bosse created the etching for the book's famous frontispiece in the géometrique style which Bosse himself had refined. It is similar in organisation to the frontispiece of Hobbes' De Cive (1642), created by Jean Matheus. The frontispiece has two main elements.

In it, a giant crowned figure is seen emerging from the landscape, clutching a sword and a crosier, beneath a quote from the Book of Job—"Non est potestas Super Terram quae Comparetur ei. Iob. 41 . 24" ("There is no power on earth to be compared to him. Job 41 . 24")—further linking the figure to the monster of the book. (Due to disagreements over the precise location of the chapters and verses when they were divided in the Late Middle Ages, the verse Hobbes quotes is usually given as Job 41:33 in modern Christian translations into English, Job 41:25 in the Masoretic text, Septuagint, and the Luther Bible; it is Job 41:24 in the Vulgate.) The torso and arms of the figure are composed of over three hundred persons, in the style of Giuseppe Arcimboldo; all are facing away from the viewer, with just the giant's head having visible facial features. (A manuscript of Leviathan created for Charles II in 1651 has notable differences – a different main head but significantly the body is also composed of many faces, all looking outwards from the body and with a range of expressions.)

The lower portion is a triptych, framed in a wooden border. The centre form contains the title on an ornate curtain. The two sides reflect the sword and crosier of the main figure – earthly power on the left and the powers of the church on the right. Each side element reflects the equivalent power – castle to church, crown to mitre, cannon to excommunication, weapons to logic, and the battlefield to the religious courts. The giant holds the symbols of both sides, reflecting the union of secular, and spiritual in the sovereign, but the construction of the torso also makes the figure the state.

Part I: Of Man
Hobbes begins his treatise on politics with an account of human nature. He presents an image of man as matter in motion, attempting to show through example how everything about humanity can be explained materialistically, that is, without recourse to an incorporeal, immaterial soul or a faculty for understanding ideas that are external to the human mind.

"Life is but a motion of limbs. For what is the heart, but a spring; and the nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but so many wheels, giving motion to the whole body, such as was intended by the Artificer?"

Hobbes proceeds by defining terms clearly and unsentimentally. Good and evil are nothing more than terms used to denote an individual's appetites and desires, while these appetites and desires are nothing more than the tendency to move toward or away from an object. Hope is nothing more than an appetite for a thing combined with an opinion that it can be had. He suggests that the dominant political theology of the time, Scholasticism, thrives on confused definitions of everyday words, such as incorporeal substance, which for Hobbes is a contradiction in terms.

Hobbes describes human psychology without any reference to the summum bonum, or greatest good, as previous thought had done. According to Hobbes, not only is the concept of a summum bonum superfluous, but given the variability of human desires, there could be no such thing. Consequently, any political community that sought to provide the greatest good to its members would find itself driven by competing conceptions of that good with no way to decide among them. The result would be civil war.

However, Hobbes states that there is a summum malum, or greatest evil. This is the fear of violent death. A political community can be oriented around this fear.

Since there is no summum bonum, the natural state of man is not to be found in a political community that pursues the greatest good. But to be outside of a political community is to be in an anarchic condition. Given human nature, the variability of human desires, and need for scarce resources to fulfill those desires, the state of nature, as Hobbes calls this anarchic condition, must be a war of all against all. Even when two men are not fighting, there is no guarantee that the other will not try to kill him for his property or just out of an aggrieved sense of honour, and so they must constantly be on guard against one another. It is even reasonable to preemptively attack one's neighbour.

"In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and consequently no culture of the earth, no navigation nor the use of commodities that may be imported by sea, no commodious building, no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force, no knowledge of the face of the earth, no account of time, no arts, no letters, no society, and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

The desire to avoid the state of nature, as the place where the summum malum of violent death is most likely to occur, forms the polestar of political reasoning. It suggests a number of laws of nature, although Hobbes is quick to point out that they cannot properly speaking be called "laws", since there is no one to enforce them. The first thing that reason suggests is to seek peace, but that where peace cannot be had, to use all of the advantages of war. Hobbes is explicit that in the state of nature nothing can be considered just or unjust, and every man must be considered to have a right to all things. The second law of nature is that one ought to be willing to renounce one's right to all things where others are willing to do the same, to quit the state of nature, and to erect a commonwealth with the authority to command them in all things. Hobbes concludes Part One by articulating an additional seventeen laws of nature that make the performance of the first two possible and by explaining what it would mean for a sovereign to represent the people even when they disagree with the sovereign.

Part II: Of Commonwealth
The purpose of a commonwealth is given at the start of Part II: "THE final cause, end, or design of men (who naturally love liberty, and dominion over others) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, in which we see them live in Commonwealths, is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby; that is to say, of getting themselves out from that miserable condition of war which is necessarily consequent, as hath been shown, to the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their covenants..."

The commonwealth is instituted when all agree in the following manner: I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou give up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner.

The sovereign has twelve principal rights:

 * 1) Because a successive covenant cannot override a prior one, the subjects cannot (lawfully) change the form of government.
 * 2) Because the covenant forming the commonwealth results from subjects giving to the sovereign the right to act for them, the sovereign cannot possibly breach the covenant; and therefore the subjects can never argue to be freed from the covenant because of the actions of the sovereign.
 * 3) The sovereign exists because the majority has consented to his rule; the minority have agreed to abide by this arrangement and must then assent to the sovereign's actions.
 * 4) Every subject is author of the acts of the sovereign: hence the sovereign cannot injure any of his subjects and cannot be accused of injustice.
 * 5) Following this, the sovereign cannot justly be put to death by the subjects.
 * 6) The purpose of the commonwealth is peace, and the sovereign has the right to do whatever he thinks necessary for the preserving of peace and security and prevention of discord. Therefore, the sovereign may judge what opinions and doctrines are averse, who shall be allowed to speak to multitudes, and who shall examine the doctrines of all books before they are published.
 * 7) To prescribe the rules of civil law and property.
 * 8) To be judge in all cases.
 * 9) To make war and peace as he sees fit and to command the army.
 * 10) To choose counsellors, ministers, magistrates and officers.
 * 11) To reward with riches and honour or to punish with corporal or pecuniary punishment or ignominy.
 * 12) To establish laws about honour and a scale of worth.

Hobbes explicitly rejects the idea of separation of powers. In item 6 Hobbes is explicitly in favour of censorship of the press and restrictions on the rights of free speech should they be considered desirable by the sovereign to promote order.

Types
There are three (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy):

"The difference of Commonwealths consisted in the difference of the sovereign, or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude. And because the sovereignty is either in one man, or in an assembly of more than one; and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter, or not every one, but certain men distinguished from the rest; it is manifest there can be but three kinds of Commonwealth. For the representative must needs be one man, or more; and if more, then it is the assembly of all, or but of a part. When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy, or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy."

And only three; since unlike Aristotle he does not sub-divide them into "good" and "deviant":

"Other kind of Commonwealth there can be none: for either one, or more, or all, must have the sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) entire. There be other names of government in the histories and books of policy; as tyranny and oligarchy; but they are not the names of other forms of government, but of the same forms misliked. For they that are discontented under monarchy call it tyranny; and they that are displeased with aristocracy call it oligarchy: so also, they which find themselves grieved under a democracy call it anarchy, which signifies want of government; and yet I think no man believes that want of government is any new kind of government: nor by the same reason ought they to believe that the government is of one kind when they like it, and another when they mislike it or are oppressed by the governors."

And monarchy is the best, on practical grounds:

"The difference between these three kinds of Commonwealth consisteth not in the difference of power, but in the difference of convenience or aptitude to produce the peace and security of the people; for which end they were instituted. And to compare monarchy with the other two, we may observe: first, that whosoever beareth the person of the people, or is one of that assembly that bears it, beareth also his own natural person. And though he be careful in his politic person to procure the common interest, yet he is more, or no less, careful to procure the private good of himself, his family, kindred and friends; and for the most part, if the public interest chance to cross the private, he prefers the private: for the passions of men are commonly more potent than their reason. From whence it follows that where the public and private interest are most closely united, there is the public most advanced. Now in monarchy the private interest is the same with the public. The riches, power, and honour of a monarch arise only from the riches, strength, and reputation of his subjects. For no king can be rich, nor glorious, nor secure, whose subjects are either poor, or contemptible, or too weak through want, or dissension, to maintain a war against their enemies; whereas in a democracy, or aristocracy, the public prosperity confers not so much to the private fortune of one that is corrupt, or ambitious, as doth many times a perfidious advice, a treacherous action, or a civil war."

Succession
The right of succession always lies with the sovereign. Democracies and aristocracies have easy succession; monarchy is harder:

"The greatest difficulty about the right of succession is in monarchy: and the difficulty ariseth from this, that at first sight, it is not manifest who is to appoint the successor; nor many times who it is whom he hath appointed. For in both these cases, there is required a more exact ratiocination than every man is accustomed to use."

Because in general people haven't thought carefully. However, the succession is definitely in the gift of the monarch:

"As to the question who shall appoint the successor of a monarch that hath the sovereign authority... we are to consider that either he that is in possession has right to dispose of the succession, or else that right is again in the dissolved multitude. ... Therefore it is manifest that by the institution of monarchy, the disposing of the successor is always left to the judgement and will of the present possessor."

But, it is not always obvious who the monarch has appointed:

"And for the question which may arise sometimes, who it is that the monarch in possession hath designed to the succession and inheritance of his power"

However, the answer is:

"it is determined by his express words and testament; or by other tacit signs sufficient."

And this means:

"By express words, or testament, when it is declared by him in his lifetime, viva voce, or by writing; as the first emperors of Rome declared who should be their heirs."

Note that (perhaps rather radically) this does not have to be any blood relative:

"For the word heir does not of itself imply the children or nearest kindred of a man; but whomsoever a man shall any way declare he would have to succeed him in his estate. If therefore a monarch declare expressly that such a man shall be his heir, either by word or writing, then is that man immediately after the decease of his predecessor invested in the right of being monarch."

However, practically this means:

"But where testament and express words are wanting, other natural signs of the will are to be followed: whereof the one is custom. And therefore where the custom is that the next of kindred absolutely succeedeth, there also the next of kindred hath right to the succession; for that, if the will of him that was in possession had been otherwise, he might easily have declared the same in his lifetime..."

Religion
In Leviathan, Hobbes explicitly states that the sovereign has authority to assert power over matters of faith and doctrine and that if he does not do so, he invites discord. Hobbes presents his own religious theory but states that he would defer to the will of the sovereign (when that was re-established: again, Leviathan was written during the Civil War) as to whether his theory was acceptable. Hobbes' materialistic presuppositions also led him to hold a view which was considered highly controversial at the time. Hobbes rejected the idea of incorporeal substances and subsequently argued that even God himself was a corporeal substance. Although Hobbes never explicitly stated he was an atheist, many allude to the possibility that he was.

Taxation
Hobbes also touched upon the sovereign's ability to tax in Leviathan, although he is not as widely cited for his economic theories as he is for his political theories. Hobbes believed that equal justice includes the equal imposition of taxes. The equality of taxes doesn't depend on equality of wealth, but on the equality of the debt that every man owes to the commonwealth for his defence and the maintenance of the rule of law. Hobbes also championed public support for those unable to maintain themselves by labour, which would presumably be funded by taxation. He advocated public encouragement of works of Navigation etc. to usefully employ the poor who could work.

Part III: Of a Christian Commonwealth
In Part III Hobbes seeks to investigate the nature of a Christian commonwealth. This immediately raises the question of which scriptures we should trust, and why. If any person may claim supernatural revelation superior to the civil law, then there would be chaos, and Hobbes' fervent desire is to avoid this. Hobbes thus begins by establishing that we cannot infallibly know another's personal word to be divine revelation:

"When God speaketh to man, it must be either immediately or by mediation of another man, to whom He had formerly spoken by Himself immediately. How God speaketh to a man immediately may be understood by those well enough to whom He hath so spoken; but how the same should be understood by another is hard, if not impossible, to know. For if a man pretend to me that God hath spoken to him supernaturally, and immediately, and I make doubt of it, I cannot easily perceive what argument he can produce to oblige me to believe it."

This is good, but if applied too fervently would lead to all the Bible being rejected. So, Hobbes says, we need a test: and the true test is established by examining the books of scripture, and is:

"So that it is manifest that the teaching of the religion which God hath established, and the showing of a present miracle, joined together, were the only marks whereby the Scripture would have a true prophet, that is to say, immediate revelation, to be acknowledged; of them being singly sufficient to oblige any other man to regard what he saith."

"Seeing therefore miracles now cease, we have no sign left whereby to acknowledge the pretended revelations or inspirations of any private man; nor obligation to give ear to any doctrine, farther than it is conformable to the Holy Scriptures, which since the time of our Saviour supply the place and sufficiently recompense the want of all other prophecy"

"Seeing therefore miracles now cease" means that only the books of the Bible can be trusted. Hobbes then discusses the various books which are accepted by various sects, and the "question much disputed between the diverse sects of Christian religion, from whence the Scriptures derive their authority". To Hobbes, "it is manifest that none can know they are God's word (though all true Christians believe it) but those to whom God Himself hath revealed it supernaturally". And therefore "The question truly stated is: by what authority they are made law?"

Unsurprisingly, Hobbes concludes that ultimately there is no way to determine this other than the civil power:

"He therefore to whom God hath not supernaturally revealed that they are His, nor that those that published them were sent by Him, is not obliged to obey them by any authority but his whose commands have already the force of laws; that is to say, by any other authority than that of the Commonwealth, residing in the sovereign, who only has the legislative power."

He discusses the Ten Commandments, and asks "who it was that gave to these written tables the obligatory force of laws. There is no doubt but they were made laws by God Himself: but because a law obliges not, nor is law to any but to them that acknowledge it to be the act of the sovereign, how could the people of Israel, that were forbidden to approach the mountain to hear what God said to Moses, be obliged to obedience to all those laws which Moses propounded to them?" and concludes, as before, that "making of the Scripture law, belonged to the civil sovereign."

Finally: "We are to consider now what office in the Church those persons have who, being civil sovereigns, have embraced also the Christian faith?" to which the answer is: "Christian kings are still the supreme pastors of their people, and have power to ordain what pastors they please, to teach the Church, that is, to teach the people committed to their charge."

There is an enormous amount of biblical scholarship in this third part. However, once Hobbes' initial argument is accepted (that no-one can know for sure anyone else's divine revelation) his conclusion (the religious power is subordinate to the civil) follows from his logic. The very extensive discussions of the chapter were probably necessary for its time. The need (as Hobbes saw it) for the civil sovereign to be supreme arose partly from the many sects that arose around the civil war, and to quash the Pope of Rome's challenge, to which Hobbes devotes an extensive section.

Part IV: Of the Kingdom of Darkness
Hobbes named Part IV of his book "Kingdom of Darkness". By this Hobbes does not mean Hell (he did not believe in Hell or Purgatory), but the darkness of ignorance as opposed to the light of true knowledge. Hobbes' interpretation is largely unorthodox and so sees much darkness in what he sees as the misinterpretation of Scripture.

 * This considered, the kingdom of darkness... is nothing else but a confederacy of deceivers that, to obtain dominion over men in this present world, endeavour, by dark and erroneous doctrines, to extinguish in them the light...

Hobbes enumerates four causes of this darkness.

The first is by extinguishing the light of scripture through misinterpretation. Hobbes sees the main abuse as teaching that the kingdom of God can be found in the church, thus undermining the authority of the civil sovereign. Another general abuse of scripture, in his view, is the turning of consecration into conjuration, or silly ritual.

The second cause is the demonology of the heathen poets: in Hobbes's opinion, demons are nothing more than constructs of the brain. Hobbes then goes on to criticize what he sees as many of the practices of Catholicism: "Now for the worship of saints, and images, and relics, and other things at this day practiced in the Church of Rome, I say they are not allowed by the word of God".

The third is by mixing with the Scripture diverse relics of the religion, and much of the vain and erroneous philosophy of the Greeks, especially of Aristotle. Hobbes has little time for the various disputing sects of philosophers and objects to what people have taken "From Aristotle's civil philosophy, they have learned to call all manner of Commonwealths but the popular (such as was at that time the state of Athens), tyranny". At the end of this comes an interesting section (darkness is suppressing true knowledge as well as introducing falsehoods), which would appear to bear on the discoveries of Galileo Galilei. "Our own navigations make manifest, and all men learned in human sciences now acknowledge, there are antipodes" (i.e., the Earth is round) "...Nevertheless, men... have been punished for it by authority ecclesiastical. But what reason is there for it? Is it because such opinions are contrary to true religion? That cannot be, if they be true." However, Hobbes is quite happy for the truth to be suppressed if necessary: if "they tend to disorder in government, as countenancing rebellion or sedition? Then let them be silenced, and the teachers punished" – but only by the civil authority.

The fourth is by mingling with both these, false or uncertain traditions, and feigned or uncertain history.

Hobbes finishes by inquiring who benefits from the errors he diagnoses:

 * Cicero maketh honourable mention of one of the Cassii, a severe judge amongst the Romans, for a custom he had in criminal causes, when the testimony of the witnesses was not sufficient, to ask the accusers, cui bono; that is to say, what profit, honour, or other contentment the accused obtained or expected by the fact. For amongst presumptions, there is none that so evidently declareth the author as doth the benefit of the action.

Hobbes concludes that the beneficiaries are the churches and churchmen.

Reception
The traditional understanding of the reception of Hobbes' work was that it was almost universally rejected, immediately discredited, not seriously read, and resulted in Hobbes being outed as an atheist. However, this was an image created by Hobbes' main intellectual opponents. It is likely that it merited such furious reaction in some circles precisely because it was being read by many and that it was provoking serious debate on a range of the range of contentious issues that it addressed in its day. One early comment on the text came from Brian Duppa, who wrote that "as in the man, so there are strange mixtures in the book; many things said so well that I could embrace him for it, and many things so wildly and unchristianly, that I could scarce have so much charity for him, as to think he was ever Christian". Another came from Alexander Ross, who wrote "I finde him a man of excellent parts, and in this book much gold, and withal much dross; he hath mingled his wine with too much water, and imbittered his pottage with too much Coloquintida".

Critical analysis
Anthony Gottlieb pointed out that Hobbes' political philosophy was likely affected by the times of sectarian conflict, with the European wars of religion and the English Civil war. These violent events moved him to consider peace and security the ultimate goals of government, to be achieved at all costs. British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper summed up the book as follows: "The axiom, fear; the method, logic; the conclusion, despotism."

Editions of Leviathan

 * Leviathan. Revised Edition, eds. A.P. Martinich and Brian Battiste. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1-55481-003-1.
 * Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill, ed. by Ian Shapiro (Yale University Press; 2010).
 * Leviathan, Critical edition by Noel Malcolm in three volumes: 1. Editorial Introduction; 2 and 3. The English and Latin Texts, Oxford University Press, 2012 (Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes).

Critical studies

 * Bagby, Laurie M. Hobbes's Leviathan : Reader's Guide, New York: Continuum, 2007.
 * Baumrin, Bernard Herbert (ed.) Hobbes's Leviathan – interpretation and criticism Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1969.
 * Cranston, Maurice. "The Leviathan" History Today (Oct 1951) 1#10 pp. 17–21
 * Harrison, Ross. Hobbes, Locke, and Confusion's Masterpiece: an Examination of Seventeenth-Century Political Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
 * Hood, Francis Campbell. The divine politics of Thomas Hobbes – an interpretation of Leviathan, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964.
 * Johnston, David. The rhetoric of Leviathan – Thomas Hobbes and the politics of cultural transformation, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.
 * Newey, Glen. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Hobbes and Leviathan, New York: Routledge, 2008.
 * Rogers, Graham Alan John. Leviathan – contemporary responses to the political theory of Thomas Hobbes Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995.
 * Schmitt, Carl. The Leviathan in the state theory of Thomas Hobbes – meaning and failure of a political symbol, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2008 (earlier: Greenwood Press, 1996).
 * Springborg, Patricia. The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
 * Windolph, Francis Lyman. Leviathan and natural law, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951.
 * Zagorin, Perez. Hobbes and the Law of Nature, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.

title: Leviathan (Hobbes book)


text:
Talk:Enronomics

Untitled
Following text was reverted by User:The Anome for the reason that it came from a controversial troll 142.177.x.x (now banned). When is this, alone, good enough to justify reversion?

 * It's not yet as popular a phrase as Enrongate, in use, though it has appeared in several papers. The terms Republenron and Denroncrat are sometimes used to describe Republicans and Democrats, respectively, who took money from Enron that was presumably raised by means of enronomics. It's not yet as popular yet as Enrongate in its use, though it has appeared in several papers.

 * One innovation of enronomics is the financial metric "hypothetical future value" - a variant of the expected value metric used in some forms of standard accounting. One innovation of enronomics is the financial metric "hypothetical future value".

 * See also: creative accounting, accounting reform

If we don't revert edits they make after they are banned then that only encourages them to continue subverting the ban. --mav

 * I disagree with this policy when the particular edits in-question show some improvement over the behaviour that got the user banned in the first place. Please read the text you are about to revert.  The text should be judged on its own merit.  Note, this is not necessarily an endorsement of the actual text, but a complaint about the reason for reversion.

 * You can disagree or not but Jimmy Wales has stated that we needn't consider every edit made by a blocked user. Doing so only encourages them to continue subverting the block. --mav

 * Is this censorship likely to be extended to me if I were bold enough to restore the deleted text (simply because I disagree)? I am not picking a fight here, just interested in the rules of engagement on edit wars.

 * If you think the text is NPOV and has valid info then go ahead and re-incorporate it. In short, if you feel up to going through the considerable effort of checking 142's facts and NPOV then go ahead and reincorporate 142's edits. But don't expect others to give 142 the same consideration. If you like you can be the 142 filter. --mav

Renaming the article?
In my opinion, this article should be renamed to "Accounting of Enron", or something else a bit more professional. I'm not convinced that "Enronomics" is a pervasive term. The google test yields only 961 results. --Bletch 21:05, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Redirect created
As per result of consensus at this Article for Deletion. Ifnord 17:11, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Enronomics


text:
1998 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1998.

Events

 * March 5 – Tennessee Williams' 1938 play Not About Nightingales receives its stage première in London, in a collaboration between the Royal National Theatre of Great Britain and Corin and Vanessa Redgrave's Moving Theatre.
 * October
 * The death of the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Ted Hughes leaves a gap of several months before a successor, Andrew Motion, is designated the following spring.
 * Kinoko Nasu (奈須きのこ) launches the Kara no Kyōkai series, with five chapters released online.
 * November 18 – Alice McDermott wins the National Book Award with her novel Charming Billy.
 * December – The Strand Magazine title is revived in the United States.

Fiction

 * Turki al-Hamad – Adama (first volume in Atyaf al-Aziqah al-Mahjurah (Phantoms of the Deserted Alley) trilogy)
 * Tariq Ali – The Book of Saladin
 * Aaron Allston
 * Iron Fist
 * Wraith Squadron
 * Hanan al-Shaykh – I Sweep the Sun off Rooftops (أكنس الشمس عن السطوح)
 * Martin Amis – Heavy Water and Other Stories (most stories previously published)
 * Beryl Bainbridge – Master Georgie
 * Iain M. Banks – Inversions
 * Alessandro Barbero – Romanzo russo. Fiutando i futuri supplizi (translated 2010 as The Anonymous Novel. Sensing the Future Torments)
 * Julian Barnes – England, England
 * Greg Bear
 * Dinosaur Summer
 * Foundation and Chaos
 * Raymond Benson – The Facts of Death
 * Alfred Bester and Roger Zelazny – Psychoshop
 * Robert Bloch – Flowers from the Moon and Other Lunacies
 * Roberto Bolaño – The Savage Detectives (Los Detectives Salvajes)
 * Xurxo Borrazás – Contos malvados
 * William Boyd – Armadillo
 * Giannina Braschi – Yo-Yo Boing!
 * Anne Carson – Autobiography of Red (verse novel)
 * Driss Chraïbi – Muhammad
 * Mary Higgins Clark – All Through the Night
 * Tom Clancy – Rainbow Six
 * Paulo Coelho – Veronika Decides to Die
 * Michael Connelly – Blood Work
 * Bernard Cornwell – Sharpe's Triumph
 * Patricia Cornwell – Point of Origin
 * Douglas Coupland – Girlfriend in a Coma
 * Ann C. Crispin – Rebel Dawn
 * Michael Cunningham – The Hours
 * Nelson DeMille – Plum Island
 * August Derleth
 * The Final Adventures of Solar Pons
 * In Lovecraft's Shadow
 * Peter Dickinson – The Kin
 * Allan W. Eckert – Return to Hawk's Hill
 * Bret Easton Ellis – Glamorama
 * Giles Foden – The Last King of Scotland
 * Diana Gabaldon – Hellfire
 * Neil Gaiman – Smoke and Mirrors (mainly reprints)
 * Andrew Greeley – A Midwinter's Tale
 * John Grisham – The Street Lawyer
 * Wolf Haas – Komm, süßer Tod (Come, Sweet Death)
 * Margaret Peterson Haddix - Among the Hidden
 * Ha Jin (哈金) – Waiting
 * Tomson Highway – Kiss of the Fur Queen
 * Nick Hornby – About a Boy
 * Michel Houellebecq – Atomised (Les Particules élémentaires)
 * Marek S. Huberath – Gniazdo światów (Nest of Worlds)
 * John Irving – A Widow for One Year
 * K. W. Jeter
 * The Mandalorian Armor
 * Slave Ship
 * Wayne Johnston – The Colony of Unrequited Dreams
 * Stephen King – Bag of Bones
 * Barbara Kingsolver – The Poisonwood Bible
 * Dean R. Koontz – Seize the Night
 * Joe R. Lansdale
 * Rumble Tumble
 * The Boar
 * Alain Mabanckou – Bleu-Blanc-Rouge
 * Patrick McCabe – Breakfast on Pluto
 * Ian McEwan – Amsterdam
 * Roy MacLaren – African Exploits
 * Steve Martin – Pure Drivel
 * Carol Matas – Greater Than Angels
 * China Miéville – King Rat
 * Alice Munro – The Love of a Good Woman
 * Haruki Murakami (村上 春樹) – The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (ねじまき鳥クロニクル, Nejimakidori Kuronikuru)
 * Cees Nooteboom – All Souls' Day (Allerzielen)
 * Sigrid Nunez – Mitz: The Marmoset of Bloomsbury
 * Tim O'Brien – Tomcat in Love
 * Orhan Pamuk – My Name Is Red (Benim Adım Kırmızı)
 * Tom Perrotta – Election
 * Terry Pratchett
 * Carpe Jugulum
 * The Last Continent
 * Fahmida Riaz – Godavari
 * David Adams Richards – The Bay of Love and Sorrows
 * José Luis Rodríguez Pittí – Crónica de invisibles
 * Philip Roth – I Married a Communist
 * Margit Sandemo – Ensam i världen (Alone in the World)
 * Michael Slade – Shrink (also Primal Scream)
 * Alexander McCall Smith – The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency
 * Michael Stackpole – I, Jedi
 * Danielle Steel
 * The Klone and I
 * The Long Road Home
 * Mirror Image
 * Thomas Sullivan – The Martyring
 * Andrew Vachss – Safe House
 * Connie Willis – To Say Nothing of the Dog
 * A. N. Wilson – Dream Children
 * Tom Wolfe – A Man in Full
 * Timothy Zahn – Vision of the Future

Children and young people

 * David Almond – Skellig
 * Melvin Burgess – Junk
 * Denise Fleming – Mama Cat Has Three Kittens
 * Gayle Greeno (with Michael Gilbert) – Sunderlies Seeking
 * Tanya Huff – Summon the Keeper
 * Diana Wynne Jones – Dark Lord of Derkholm
 * Dick King-Smith – The Crowstarver
 * Julius Lester – Black Cowboy, Wild Horses: A True Story
 * J. Patrick Lewis (with Gary Kelley) – BoshBlobberBosh: Runcible Poems for Edward Lear
 * J. K. Rowling – Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
 * Louis Sachar – Holes
 * Robert Swindells – Abomination
 * Judy Waite – Mouse, Look Out!
 * Douglas Wood – Rabbit and the Moon

Drama

 * Edward Albee – The Play About the Baby
 * Parv Bancil – Made in England (full-length version)
 * Marina Carr – By the Bog of Cats
 * Michael Frayn – Copenhagen
 * David Hare – The Blue Room
 * Ted Hughes (translator) – Phèdre
 * Elfriede Jelinek – Ein Sportstück (A Sports Piece)
 * Terrence McNally – Corpus Christi
 * Sol B River
 * The White Witch of Rose Hall
 * River Plays 1 (published)
 * Shelagh Stephenson – An Experiment with an Air Pump
 * Marius von Mayenburg – Fireface (Feuergesicht)
 * Tennessee Williams (died 1983) – Not About Nightingales (first performance; written 1938)

Poetry

 * Seamus Heaney
 * Beowulf (translation)
 * Opened Ground: Poems 1966–1996
 * Ted Hughes – Birthday Letters
 * Dejan Stojanović – Krugovanje: 1978–1987 (Circling; 2nd edition)

Non-fiction

 * Charlotte Allen – The Human Christ: The Search For The Historical Jesus
 * Andrea Ashworth – Once in a House on Fire
 * Antony Beevor – Stalingrad
 * Harold Bloom – Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human
 * Bill Bryson – Notes from a Big Country
 * Peter Cannon (editor) – Lovecraft Remembered
 * Beth Chatto and Christopher Lloyd – Dear Friend and Gardener
 * Corinne Debaine-Francfort – La redécouverte de la Chine ancienne
 * Amanda Foreman – Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire
 * John Fowles – Wormholes – Essays and Occasional Writings
 * Jonathan Freedland – Bring Home the Revolution
 * Sita Ram Goel – Vindicated by Time
 * Simon Heffer – Like the Roman: The Life of Enoch Powell
 * Adam Hochschild – King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa
 * A. P. J. Abdul Kalam – India 2020
 * Ryszard Kapuściński – Heban (Ebony, translated as The Shadow of the Sun)
 * B. B. Lal – India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization
 * Martin Lee and Marcia Miller – The Mega-fun Multiplication Facts Activity Book
 * Eric Liu – The Accidental Asian
 * Alan I. Marcus – Building Western Civilization: From the Advent of Writing to the Age of Steam
 * Thylias Moss – Tale of a Sky-Blue Dress
 * Inga Muscio – Cunt: A Declaration of Independence
 * V. S. Naipaul – Beyond Belief: Islamic Excursions among the Converted Peoples
 * Gilles Perrault (ed.) – Le Livre noir du capitalisme (The Black Book of Capitalism)
 * John Pilger – Hidden Agendas
 * Michael Poole – Romancing Mary Jane
 * Arun Shourie – Eminent Historians: Their Technology, Their Line, Their Fraud
 * Marilee Strong – A Bright Red Scream
 * University of Arizona – Hopi Dictionary: Hopìikwa Lavàytutuveni
 * Adam Zagajewski – Another Beauty

Births

 * March 7 – Amanda Gorman, American poet and activist
 * May 15 – Mohammed El-Kurd, Palestinian writer and poet
 * December 16 – Chloe Gong, Chinese-born New Zealand author
 * unknown dates
 * K-Ming Chang – Taiwanese-American novelist and poet
 * Moses MacKenzie – British novelist

Deaths

 * January 2 – Frank Muir, English comedy writer and broadcaster (born 1920)
 * January 11 – John Wells, English satirist (born 1936)
 * January 18 – Monica Edwards, English children's novelist (born 1912)
 * January 23 – John Forbes, Australian poet (heart attack, born 1950)
 * January 27 – Geoffrey Trease, English children's historical novelist (born 1909)
 * February 7 – Lawrence Sanders, American novelist and short story writer (born 1920)
 * February 15 – Martha Gellhorn, American journalist (suicide, born 1908)
 * February 17 – Ernst Jünger, German novelist and war memoirist (born 1895)
 * March 15 – Dr. Benjamin Spock, American pediatrician and writer on child care (born 1903)
 * April 11 – Francis Durbridge, English playwright (born 1912)
 * April 19 – Octavio Paz, Mexican poet and Nobel Prize laureate (born 1914)
 * April 27
 * Anne Desclos (Pauline Réage), French journalist and novelist (born 1907)
 * Carlos Castaneda, Mexican-born American anthropologist and author (born 1925)
 * May 9 – Nat Perrin, American comedy writer (born 1905)
 * May 11 — Willy Corsari, Dutch author of detective fiction (born 1897)
 * June 10
 * Joan Adeney Easdale, English poet (born 1913)
 * Hammond Innes, English novelist (born 1913)
 * June 11 – Dame Catherine Cookson, English novelist (born 1906)
 * July 1 – Martin Seymour-Smith, English biographer (born 1928)
 * July 5 – Johnny Speight, English comedy writer (born 1920)
 * July 9 – Ian Wallace (John Wallace Pritchard), American science fiction author (born 1912)
 * July 14 – Miroslav Holub, Czech poet (born 1923)
 * July 23
 * John Hopkins, English film and television writer (born 1931)
 * Manuel Mejía Vallejo, Colombian novelist (born 1923)
 * August 16 – Dorothy West, American novelist and short story writer (born 1907)
 * August 22 – Grace Paley, American writer (born 1922)
 * September 28 – Eric Malling, Canadian journalist (born 1946)
 * October 15 – Iain Crichton Smith, Scottish writer (born 1928)
 * October 22 – Eric Ambler, English spy novelist (born 1909)
 * October 28 – Ted Hughes, English poet and Poet Laureate (born 1930)
 * November 3 – Bob Kane (Robert Kahn), American comics artist and writer (born 1915)
 * November 8 – Rumer Godden, English novelist (born 1907)
 * November 17 – Alexandru Talex, Romanian journalist, critic and biographer (born 1909)
 * December 16 – William Gaddis, American novelist (born 1922)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: José Saramago
 * Europe Theatre Prize: Luca Ronconi
 * Camões Prize: Antonio Candido

Australia

 * The Australian/Vogel Literary Award: Jennifer Kremmer, Pegasus in the Suburbs
 * C. J. Dennis Prize for Poetry: Coral Hull, Broken Land
 * Kenneth Slessor Prize for Poetry: No awards this year
 * Mary Gilmore Prize: Emma Lew, The Wild Reply
 * Miles Franklin Award: Peter Carey, Jack Maggs

Canada

 * Bronwen Wallace Memorial Award: Talya Rubin
 * See 1998 Governor General's Awards for a complete list of winners and finalists.
 * Giller Prize for Canadian Fiction: Alice Munro: The Love of a Good Woman
 * Edna Staebler Award for Creative Non-Fiction: Charlotte Gray: Mrs. King

France

 * Prix Décembre: Michel Houellebecq, Les Particules élémentaires
 * Prix Goncourt: Paule Constant, Confidence pour confidence
 * Prix Médicis French: Le Loup mongol
 * Prix Médicis International: The House of Sleep – Jonathan Coe

United Kingdom

 * Booker Prize: Ian McEwan, Amsterdam
 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: David Almond, Skellig
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Beryl Bainbridge, Master Georgie
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: Peter Ackroyd, The Life of Thomas More
 * Cholmondeley Award: Roger McGough, Robert Minhinnick, Anne Ridler, Ken Smith
 * Eric Gregory Award: Mark Goodwin, Joanne Limburg, Patrick McGuinness, Kona Macphee, Esther Morgan, Christiania Whitehead, Frances Williams
 * Orange Prize for Fiction: Carol Shields, Larry's Party
 * Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry: Les Murray
 * Whitbread Best Book Award: Ted Hughes, Birthday Letters

United States

 * Agnes Lynch Starrett Poetry Prize: Shara McCallum, The Water Between Us
 * Aiken Taylor Award for Modern American Poetry: X.J. Kennedy
 * American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal for Drama: Horton Foote
 * American Book Award Before Columbus Foundation: Angela Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday, and (separately) Allison Hedge Coke, Dog Road Woman
 * Bernard F. Connors Prize for Poetry: Sherod Santos, "Elegy for My Sister", and (separately) Neil Azevedo, "Caspar Hauser Songs"
 * Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry: Frank Bidart, Desire
 * Compton Crook Award: Katie Waitman, The Merro Tree
 * Hugo Award for Best Novel: Joe Haldeman, Forever Peace
 * Frost Medal: Stanley Kunitz
 * Nebula Award: Joe Haldeman, Forever Peace
 * Newbery Medal for children's literature: Karen Hesse, Out of the Dust
 * PEN American Center's PEN Open Book Award: Giannina Braschi, Yo-Yo Boing!
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: Paula Vogel, How I Learned to Drive
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: Philip Roth, American Pastoral
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Charles Wright, Black Zodiac
 * Wallace Stevens Award: A. R. Ammons
 * Whiting Awards:
 * Fiction: Michael Byers, Ralph Lombreglia (fiction/nonfiction)
 * Non-fiction: D. J. Waldie, Anthony Walton
 * Plays: W. David Hancock
 * Poetry: Nancy Eimers, Daniel Hall, James Kimbrell, Charles Harper Webb, Greg Williamson

Elsewhere

 * International Dublin Literary Award: Herta Muller, The Land of Green Plums
 * Premio Nadal: Lucía Etxebarria, Beatriz y los cuerpos celestes

title: 1998 in literature


text:
1997 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1997.

Events

 * February 20 – Allen Ginsberg makes a final public appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam. He continues to write through his final illness, his last poem being "Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)" written on March 30.
 * May 27 – Shakespeare's Globe in London, a reconstruction of the Elizabethan Globe Theatre, opens with a production of Shakespeare's Henry V.
 * June 3 – The supposed climax of Max Beerbohm's 1916 short story Enoch Soames occurs at the old British Museum Reading Room in London.
 * June 26 – J. K. Rowling's first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, is published in London by Bloomsbury Publishing, in an edition of 500 copies.
 * July 13 – The release occurs in Ireland of the film of Patrick McCabe's 1992 novel The Butcher Boy. The author plays Jimmy The Skite, the town drunk.
 * September 1 – The Adventures of Captain Underpants, the first in Dav Pilkey's series of children's novels, is published by Scholastic.
 * October – The online literary magazine Jacket is founded.
 * November 24 – The new British Library building in London designed by Colin St John Wilson opens to readers.
 * December 30 – The memoir I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou is removed from the ninth-grade English curriculum in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, for portraying "white people as being horrible, nasty, stupid people".

Uncertain dates
 * Tom Clancy signs a deal with Pearson Custom Publishing and Penguin Putnam Inc. giving him US $50 million for the world English rights to two new books. A second agreement pays another $25 million for a four-year book/multimedia deal, and a third, with Berkley Books for 24 paperbacks to tie in with an ABC television miniseries for $22 million.
 * Janet Dailey admits to plagiarism of the novels of the fellow American bestselling romance writer Nora Roberts.

Fiction

 * Ben Aaronovitch and Kate Orman – So Vile a Sin
 * Mitch Albom – Tuesdays With Morrie
 * Martin Amis – Night Train
 * Iain Banks – A Song of Stone
 * John Banville – The Untouchable
 * Hazel Barnes – The Story I Tell Myself
 * Marie Bashkirtseff (died 1884) – I Am the Most Interesting Book of All (translation)
 * Raymond Benson
 * Tomorrow Never Dies
 * Zero Minus Ten
 * Jonathan Blum and Kate Orman – Vampire Science
 * Roberto Bolaño – Last Evenings on Earth (Llamadas Telefonicas)
 * Pascal Bruckner – Les Voleurs de beauté
 * Simon Bucher-Jones – Ghost Devices
 * Christopher Bulis – A Device of Death
 * Tim Burton – The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories
 * Candace Bushnell – Sex and the City
 * Peter Carey – Jack Maggs
 * Caleb Carr – The Angel of Darkness
 * Agatha Christie (died 1976) – collected short stories
 * The Harlequin Tea Set
 * While the Light Lasts and Other Stories
 * Daniel Clowes – Ghost World (graphic novel)
 * Warwick Collins – Gents
 * Bernard Cornwell
 * Sharpe's Tiger
 * Excalibur: A Novel of Arthur
 * Patricia Cornwell
 * Hornet's Nest
 * Unnatural Exposure
 * Paul Cornell – Oh No It Isn't!
 * Jim Crace – Quarantine
 * Robert Crais – Indigo Slam
 * Ann C. Crispin
 * The Hutt Gambit
 * The Paradise Snare
 * 'Misha Defonseca' – Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust Years (published as non-fiction)
 * Don DeLillo – Underworld
 * Anita Diamant – The Red Tent
 * Terrance Dicks
 * The Eight Doctors
 * Mean Streets
 * Fernanda Eberstadt – When the Sons of Heaven Meet the Daughters of the Earth
 * Bernardine Evaristo – Lara
 * Charles Frazier – Cold Mountain
 * Anthony Frewin – London Blues
 * Anastasia Gosteva – Дочь самурая (The Samurai's Daughter)
 * John Grisham – The Partner
 * Barbara Hambly – Planet of Twilight
 * Allison Hedge Coke – Dog Road Woman
 * Matt Jones – Beyond the Sun
 * Sebastian Junger – The Perfect Storm
 * Winona LaDuke – Last Standing Woman
 * Joe R. Lansdale – Bad Chili
 * Paul Leonard – Genocide
 * Melissa Lucashenko – Steam Pigs
 * Ann-Marie MacDonald – Fall on Your Knees
 * Bernard MacLaverty – Grace Notes
 * Ian R. MacLeod – Voyages by Starlight
 * Norman Mailer – The Gospel According to the Son
 * Ian McEwan – Enduring Love
 * David A. McIntee – The Dark Path
 * Lawrence Miles
 * Down
 * Mark Morris – The Bodysnatchers
 * Toni Morrison – Paradise
 * Jim Mortimore – Eternity Weeps
 * Herta Müller – The Appointment
 * Ryū Murakami (村上 龍) – In the Miso Soup (イン ザ・ミソスープ, English translation 2005)
 * Courttia Newland – The Scholar
 * Kate Orman – The Room with No Doors
 * Hanne Ørstavik – Kjærlighet (Love)
 * Lance Parkin – The Dying Days
 * James Patterson – Cat and Mouse
 * Cyril Pearl – Morisson of Peking
 * John Peel – War of the Daleks
 * Pepetela – A Gloriosa Família
 * Marc Platt – Lungbarrow
 * Terry Pratchett – Jingo
 * Annie Proulx – "Brokeback Mountain" (short story)
 * Thomas Pynchon – Mason & Dixon
 * Kathy Reichs – Déjà Dead
 * Nina Revoyr – The Necessary Hunger
 * Justin Richards – Dragons' Wrath
 * Mordecai Richler – Barney's Version
 * Gareth Roberts – The Well-Mannered War
 * Philip Roth – American Pastoral
 * Arundhati Roy – The God of Small Things
 * Don Miguel Ruiz – The Four Agreements
 * Gary Russell
 * Deadfall
 * Instruments of Darkness
 * Will Self – Great Apes
 * Carol Shields – Larry's Party
 * Sidney Sheldon – The Best Laid Plans
 * Michael Stackpole – The Bacta War
 * Danielle Steel
 * The Ghost
 * The Ranch
 * Special Delivery
 * Dave Stone
 * Burning Heart
 * Ship of Fools
 * William Sutcliffe – Are You Experienced?
 * Antonio Tabucchi – The Missing Head of Damasceno Monteiro (La testa perduta di Damasceno Monteiro)
 * Kaoru Takamura – Lady Joker (レディ・ジョーカー) (book publication completed)
 * Eckhart Tolle – The Power of Now
 * Zlatko Topčić – Nightmare
 * Kurt Vonnegut – Timequake
 * Lulu Wang – Het Lelietheater (The Lily Theatre)
 * Niall Williams – Four Letters of Love
 * Connie Willis – To Say Nothing of the Dog
 * Timothy Zahn – Specter of the Past
 * Roger Zelazny and Jane Lindskold – Donnerjack

Children and young people

 * Lloyd Alexander – The Iron Ring
 * Lynne Reid Banks – Harry the Poisonous Centipede: A Story to Make You Squirm (first in the Harry the Poisonous Centipede trilogy)
 * 'Asta Bowen – Wolf: A Journey Home
 * Nancy Butts - The Door in the Lake
 * Cao Wenxuan (曹文軒) – The Grass House (草房子)
 * Sarah Ferguson – Budgie the Little Helicopter (first in an eponymous series of 5 books)
 * Mem Fox – Whoever You Are
 * Cornelia Funke – Dragon Rider
 * Virginia Hamilton (with Barry Moser) – A Ring of Tricksters: Animal Tales from America, the West Indies, and Africa
 * Mark Helprin (with Chris Van Allsburg) – The Veil of Snows
 * William Mayne – Lady Muck (illustrated by Jonathan Heale)
 * Eloise Jarvis McGraw – The Moorchild
 * Junko Morimoto – The Two Bullies
 * Barbara Nichol (with Barry Moser) – Dippers
 * Mary Pope Osborne (with Ned Bittinger) – Rocking Horse Christmas
 * Dav Pilkey – The Adventures of Captain Underpants (first in the Captain Underpants series of 12 books)
 * Philip Pullman – The Subtle Knife
 * Rick Riordan – Big Red Tequila
 * J. K. Rowling – Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (first book in the Harry Potter series)
 * Ron Roy – The Absent Author (first in the A to Z Mysteries series of 26 books)
 * Simms Taback – There was an Old Lady who Swallowed a Fly
 * Vivian Walsh – Olive, the Other Reindeer
 * Jacqueline Wilson – Girls in Love

Drama

 * Jon Fosse – Nightsongs
 * Lee Hall – Spoonface Steinberg (radio monologue)
 * Moisés Kaufman – Gross Indecency: The Three Trials of Oscar Wilde
 * Thomas Kilroy – The Secret Fall of Constance Wilde
 * Conor McPherson – The Weir
 * Patrick Marber – Closer
 * Richard Nelson – Goodnight Children Everywhere
 * Peter Whelan – The Herbal Bed

Poetry

 * Ted Hughes – Tales from Ovid

Non-fiction

 * Dave Barry – Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs
 * Jean-Dominique Bauby – The Diving Bell and the Butterfly (Le Scaphandre et le papillon)
 * Cari Beauchamp – Without Lying Down: Frances Marion and the Powerful Women of Early Hollywood
 * Jan Bondeson – A Cabinet of Medical Curiosities
 * Bill Bryson – A Walk in the Woods
 * D. K. Chakrabarti – Colonial Indology : sociopolitics of the ancient Indian past
 * Iris Chang – The Rape of Nanking
 * Jared Diamond – Guns, Germs and Steel
 * Jenny Diski – Skating to Antarctica
 * Michael Drosnin – The Bible Code
 * Gerina Dunwich – A Wiccan's Guide to Prophecy and Divination
 * Geoff Dyer – Out of Sheer Rage: In the Shadow of D. H. Lawrence
 * Timothy Ferris – The Whole Shebang: A State-of-the-Universe(s) Report
 * Benjamin Fondane (died 1944) – Le Voyageur n'a pas fini de voyager
 * Stephen Fry – Moab Is My Washpot (autobiography)
 * Charlotte Gray – Mrs. King
 * Alan Guth – The Inflationary Universe
 * Robert Hughes – American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America
 * Jesse Lee Kercheval – Building Fiction
 * Betty Kobayashi Issenman – Sinews of Survival
 * Geneviève Lacambre – Gustave Moreau : Maître sorcier
 * B. B. Lal – The Earliest civilization of South Asia: rise, maturity, and decline
 * Peter Maas – Underboss
 * Deborah Madison – Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone
 * James McBride – The Color of Water
 * Adele Morales – The Last Party: Scenes From My Life with Norman Mailer
 * Penguin Random House – Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
 * E. Wayne Ross – The Social Studies Curriculum
 * Ian Smith – The Great Betrayal
 * Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont – Fashionable Nonsense
 * Maria Todorova – Imagining the Balkans
 * Larry Trask – The Penguin Guide to Punctuation
 * Kevin Warwick – March of the Machines
 * Thierry Zéphir – Khmer: The Lost Empire of Cambodia

Births

 * February 12 – Alexander Nikolov, Bulgarian poet
 * June 22 – Aqiil Gopee, Mauritian writer and poet
 * November 28 – Franz Mherryon Robles, Filipino novelist and aphorist

Deaths

 * January 19 – James Dickey, American poet and novelist (born 1923)
 * February 3 – Bohumil Hrabal, Czech novelist (born 1914)
 * February 18 – Emily Hahn, American journalist and author (born 1905)
 * March 21 - Wilbert Awdry, British Anglican reverend and author (born 1911)
 * April 5 – Allen Ginsberg, American poet (liver cancer, born 1926)
 * May 9 – Rina Lasnier, Canadian poet (born 1915)
 * May 23 – Alison Adburgham, English social historian and journalist (born 1912)
 * June 8 – George Turner, Australian novelist and critic (born 1916)
 * June 11 – Susanna Roth, Swiss bohemist and literary translator (born 1950)
 * July 26 – Joseph Henry Reason, American librarian (born 1905)
 * August 2 – William S. Burroughs, American novelist (born 1914
 * August 16 – Gerard McLarnon, Irish actor and playwright (born 1915)
 * August 27 – Johannes Edfelt, Swedish poet, translator and critic (born 1904)
 * October 14 – Harold Robbins, American novelist (born 1916)
 * October 16 – James A. Michener, American novelist and historian (born 1907)
 * November 6 – Leon Forrest, African American novelist and essayist (cancer, born 1937)
 * November 30 – Kathy Acker, American novelist and poet (breast cancer, born 1947)
 * December 14 – Owen Barfield, British philosopher, author and poet (born 1898)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Dario Fo
 * Europe Theatre Prize: Robert Wilson
 * Camões Prize: Pepetela

Australia

 * The Australian/Vogel Literary Award: Eva Sallis, Hiam
 * C. J. Dennis Prize for Poetry: Les Murray, Subhuman Redneck Poems
 * Kenneth Slessor Prize for Poetry: Anthony Lawrence, The Viewfinder
 * Mary Gilmore Prize: Morgan Yasbincek, Night Reversing
 * Miles Franklin Award: David Foster, The Glade Within the Grove

Canada

 * Bronwen Wallace Memorial Award: Rachel Rose
 * Giller Prize for Canadian Fiction: Mordecai Richler, Barney's Version
 * See 1997 Governor General's Awards for a complete list of winners and finalists for those awards.
 * Edna Staebler Award for Creative Non-Fiction: Anne Mullens, Timely Death

France

 * Prix Goncourt: Patrick Rambaud, La Bataille
 * Prix Décembre: Lydie Salvayre, La Compagnie des spectres
 * Prix Médicis International: T. Coraghessan Boyle, America
 * Prix Médicis French: Les Sept Noms du peintre – Philippe Le Guillou

Spain

 * Premio Miguel de Cervantes: Guillermo Cabrera Infante

United Kingdom

 * Booker Prize: Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things
 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: Tim Bowler, River Boy
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Andrew Miller, Ingenious Pain
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: R. F. Foster, William Butler Yeats: A Life, Volume 1 – The Apprentice Mage 1965-1914
 * Cholmondeley Award: Alison Brackenbury, Gillian Clarke, Tony Curtis, Anne Stevenson
 * Eric Gregory Award: Matthew Clegg, Sarah Corbett, Polly Clark, Tim Kendall, Graham Nelson, Matthew Welton
 * Orange Prize for Fiction: Anne Michaels, Fugitive Pieces
 * Whitbread Best Book Award: Ted Hughes, Tales from Ovid

United States

 * Agnes Lynch Starrett Poetry Prize: Richard Blanco, City of a Hundred Fires
 * Aiken Taylor Award for Modern American Poetry: Fred Chappell
 * American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal in Poetry, John Ashbery
 * Compton Crook Award: Richard Garfinkle, Celestial Matters
 * Hugo Award: Kim Stanley Robinson, Blue Mars
 * Nebula Award: Vonda McIntyre, The Moon and the Sun
 * Newbery Medal for children's literature: E. L. Konigsburg, The View from Saturday
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: no award given
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: Steven Millhauser – Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Lisel Mueller: Alive Together: New and Selected Poems
 * Wallace Stevens Award: Anthony Hecht
 * Whiting Awards:
 * Fiction: Josip Novakovich (fiction/nonfiction), Melanie Rae Thon
 * Nonfiction: Jo Ann Beard, Suketu Mehta (fiction/nonfiction), Ellen Meloy
 * Plays: Erik Ehn
 * Poetry: Connie Deanovich, Forrest Gander, Jody Gladding, Mark Turpin

Elsewhere

 * International Dublin Literary Award: Javier Marías, A Heart So White
 * Premio Nadal: Carlos Cañeque, Quién

title: 1997 in literature


text:
Marc Boerigter

Marc Robert Boerigter (born May 4, 1978) is an American former professional football player. Boerigter had stints in both the CFL and the NFL. He is one of 13 players to have caught a 99-yard reception in the NFL.

Early life and college football career
Born in Hastings, Nebraska, Boerigter attended Hastings High School. He played college football for hometown Hastings College, an NAIA school. As a wide receiver for the Broncos, Boerigter caught 93 passes for 1,902 yards during his collegiate career, setting team records with a 20.5 yard average and 30 touchdowns. Boerigter was named a two-time All-Nebraska-Iowa Athletic Conference selection.

Boerigter graduated from Hastings with a bachelor's degree in Human Resources.

His father is Bob Boerigter, who served as the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association commissioner from 2010 to 2017.

Professional football career
Boerigter began his professional career in the Canadian Football League in 2000 with the Calgary Stampeders.

Boerigter joined the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League in 2002, where he enjoyed a successful NFL rookie season, catching 20 passes for 420 yards (a 21.0 average that led the NFL among those with 15 or more catches) with eight touchdowns. He also holds the record, along with twelve other receivers, for the longest pass caught in the NFL, 99 yards, from Kansas City quarterback Trent Green, in a December 22, 2002 game against the San Diego Chargers.

Boerigter was signed by the Green Bay Packers in the 2006 offseason, but was released prior to the start of the season. He immediately signed a free agent contract with the Indianapolis Colts but was once again released prior to the start of the 2006 NFL season.

Following his release from the Colts, Boerigter signed a contract and returned to his former CFL team, the Calgary Stampeders on November 20, 2006.

Boerigter began the Stampeders 2007 season as a back-up slotback and wide receiver, before eventually making the Stamps' starting lineup. Boerigter was released by the Calgary Stampeders on August 26, 2007.

Following his release by the Stampeders, Boerigter was quickly signed by the Toronto Argonauts, who outbid the competing BC Lions for Boerigter's services. Toronto released him following the 2007 season and he was not signed as a free agent in 2008.

Boerigter was inducted into the Hastings College Athletic Hall of Fame in 2008.

Post-football career
In September 2015, Boerigter accepted a job offer from the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletic Association, an NCAA Division II conference, to do color commentary.

title: Marc Boerigter


text:
1996 in literature

This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1996.

Events

 * July 8 – Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn and 30 other books are struck from an English reading list in Lindale, Texas, as they "conflict with the values of the community."
 * July 11 – As requested by Nelson Mandela, Benjamin Zephaniah hosts the President's Two Nations Concert at London's Royal Albert Hall.
 * October 3 – The first performance is held in New York of Eve Ensler's episodic feminist play The Vagina Monologues.
 * unknown dates
 * In the UK, the first Orange Prize for Fiction for female novelists goes to Helen Dunmore for A Spell of Winter.
 * Peter O'Donnell publishes Cobra Trap, a final volume featuring Modesty Blaise. The first appeared in 1965.
 * Margaret Mitchell's lost first novella, Lost Laysen, is published, 80 years after it was written.
 * Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's Romance Writings, including her novel Princess Docile, are first published 234 years after her death.

Fiction

 * Anonymous (Joe Klein) – Primary Colors: a novel of politics
 * Jeffrey Archer – The Fourth Estate
 * Margaret Atwood – Alias Grace
 * Beryl Bainbridge – Every Man for Himself
 * David Baldacci – Absolute Power
 * Iain M. Banks – Excession
 * David Bergen – A Year of Lesser
 * Xurxo Borrazás – Eu é
 * Dionne Brand – In Another Place, Not Here
 * Larry Brown – Father and Son
 * Brett Butler – Knee Deep in Paradise
 * Tom Clancy – Executive Orders
 * Joseph Connolly – This Is It
 * Bernard Cornwell – The Bloody Ground and Enemy of God
 * Douglas Coupland – Polaroids from the Dead
 * Amanda Craig – A Vicious Circle
 * Robert Crais – Sunset Express
 * John Darnton – Neanderthal
 * Donald Davidson – The Big Ballad Jamboree
 * Seamus Deane – Reading in the Dark
 * Stephen R. Donaldson – The Gap into Ruin: This Day All Gods Die
 * Ben Elton – Popcorn
 * Steve Erickson – Amnesiascope
 * Helen Fielding – Bridget Jones's Diary
 * Jon Fosse – Melancholy II (Melancholia II)
 * Neil Gaiman
 * The Sandman: The Kindly Ones (graphic novel; ninth in The Sandman series)
 * The Sandman: The Wake (graphic novel; tenth in The Sandman series)
 * John Gardner – Cold
 * Richard Garfinkle – Celestial Matters
 * Alex Garland – The Beach
 * William Golding – The Double Tongue
 * John Grisham – The Runaway Jury and Hackers (short stories)
 * James L. Halperin – The Truth Machine
 * Colin Harrison – Manhattan Nocturne
 * Elisabeth Harvor – Let Me Be the One (short stories)
 * Nancy Huston – The Goldberg Variations
 * Tama Janowitz – By the Shores of Gitchee Gumee
 * Matt Jones – Bad Therapy
 * Stephen King
 * Desperation
 * The Green Mile
 * The Regulators
 * Dean R. Koontz – Intensity
 * Michael P. Kube-McDowell – Before the Storm
 * Shield of Lies
 * Tyrant's Test
 * Caroline Lamarche – Le Jour du chien (The Day of the Dog)
 * Hugh Laurie – The Gun Seller
 * John le Carré – The Tailor of Panama
 * Paul Leonard – Speed of Flight
 * Steve Lyons – Killing Ground
 * George R. R. Martin – A Game of Thrones
 * David A. McIntee – The Shadow of Weng-Chiang
 * Terry McMillan – How Stella Got Her Groove Back
 * Javier Marías – When I Was Mortal (Cuando fui mortal, short stories)
 * Vladimir Megre – Anastasiya
 * Lawrence Miles – Christmas on a Rational Planet
 * Rohinton Mistry – A Fine Balance
 * Shani Mootoo – Cereus Blooms at Night
 * Joyce Carol Oates – We Were the Mulvaneys
 * Daniel O'Mahony – The Man in the Velvet Mask
 * Kate Orman – Return of the Living Dad and Sleepy
 * Chuck Palahniuk – Fight Club
 * Lance Parkin – Cold Fusion and Just War
 * Marc Platt – Downtime
 * Terry Pratchett – Feet of Clay and Hogfather
 * Qiu Miaojin (posthumous) – Last Words from Montmartre
 * James Redfield – The Tenth Insight
 * Justin Richards – The Sands of Time
 * Gareth Roberts
 * The English Way of Death
 * The Plotters
 * Mary Rosenblum – Synthesis & Other Virtual Realities
 * Kristine Kathryn Rusch – The New Rebellion
 * Gary Russell – The Scales of Injustice
 * Jeff Shaara – Gods and Generals
 * Michael Slade – Zombie and Evil Eye
 * Michael Stackpole
 * The Krytos Trap
 * Rogue Squadron
 * Wedge's Gamble
 * Dave Stone – Death and Diplomacy
 * Graham Swift – Last Orders
 * Guy Vanderhaeghe – The Englishman's Boy
 * David Foster Wallace – Infinite Jest
 * Monika Maron – Animal Triste

Children and young people

 * K.A. Applegate – Animorphs series
 * Marion Zimmer Bradley (with Rosemary Edghill) – Witchlight
 * Eve Bunting (with Ned Bittinger) – The Blue and the Gray
 * James C. Christensen (with Renwick St. James and Alan Dean Foster) – Voyage of the Basset
 * Anne Fine – The Tulip Touch
 * Elaine Forrestal – Someone Like Me
 * Mem Fox – Boo to a Goose
 * Mark Helprin (with Chris Van Allsburg) – A City in Winter
 * E. T. A. Hoffmann (with Roberto Innocenti) – The Nutcracker
 * Lyll Becerra de Jenkins – So Loud a Silence
 * Julius Lester – Sam and the Tigers: A New Telling of Little Black Sambo
 * Anne McCaffrey – No One Noticed the Cat
 * Michael Morpurgo – The Butterfly Lion
 * Jim Murphy – A Young Patriot: The American Revolution as Experienced by One Boy
 * Andre Norton (with Martin H. Greenberg and Mark Hess) – Catfantastic IV
 * Joyce Carol Oates (with Barry Moser) – First Love: A Gothic Tale
 * Iona Opie – My Very First Mother Goose
 * Philip Pullman – The Subtle Knife (second in His Dark Materials trilogy)
 * Alan Schroeder – Minty: A Story of Young Harriet Tubman
 * Diane Stanley – Leonardo da Vinci
 * Jean Ure – Skinny Melon and Me

Drama

 * Jeff Baron – Visiting Mr. Green
 * Nick Enright – Blackrock
 * Eve Ensler – The Vagina Monologues
 * Jon Fosse
 * Barnet (The Child)
 * Nokon kjem til å komme (Someone is going to come) (completed 1993)
 * Pam Gems – Stanley
 * Jenny Kemp – The Black Sequin Dress
 * Ayub Khan-Din – East is East
 * Martin McDonagh – The Beauty Queen of Leenane
 * Mark Ravenhill – Shopping and Fucking
 * Wallace Shawn – The Designated Mourner
 * Joshua Sobol – Alma
 * Shelagh Stephenson – The Memory of Water
 * Botho Strauß – Ithaka
 * Enda Walsh – Disco Pigs
 * Peter Whelan – The Herbal Bed
 * Roy Williams – The No Boys Cricket Club

Non-fiction

 * Nelson Algren (posthumous) – Nonconformity (essay, written 1953)
 * Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza, Carlos Alberto Montaner and Álvaro Vargas Llosa – Guide to the Perfect Latin American Idiot (essay)
 * Stephen Ambrose – Undaunted Courage
 * Bruce Bawer (editor) – Beyond Queer
 * John Berendt – Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil
 * David Chalmers – The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory
 * Norman Davies – Europe: A History
 * Richard Dawkins – Climbing Mount Improbable
 * David Denby – Great Books
 * Antonia Fraser – The Gunpowder Plot: Terror and Faith in 1605
 * Daniel Goleman – Emotional Intelligence
 * Denis Guedj – Numbers: The Universal Language
 * Jennifer Hanson – The Real Freshman Handbook
 * Samuel P. Huntington – The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order
 * Richard Mabey – Flora Britannica
 * Howard Marks – Mr Nice
 * Dylan Morgan – The Principles of Hypnotherapy
 * Anne Mullens – Timely Death
 * Denise Schmandt-Besserat – How Writing Came About
 * Arun Shourie – Missionaries in India
 * Alexander Skutch – The Minds of Birds
 * Alessandro Vezzosi – Leonardo da Vinci: The Mind of the Renaissance

Births

 * May 29 - R. F. Kuang, American fantasy and contemporary fiction writer
 * August 13 - Emrecan Doğan, Turkish fantasy, horror, science fiction and speculative fiction writer
 * November 13 - Zeki Majed, Kurdish filmmaker and poet
 * December 25 - Elvira Natali, Indonesian author and actress

Deaths

 * January 5 – Lincoln Kirstein, American writer and impresario (born 1907)
 * January 8 – Howard Taubman, American author and critic (born 1907)
 * January 11 – Harold Walter Bailey, English linguistics scholar (born 1899)
 * January 16 – Kaye Webb, English publisher and journalist (born 1914)
 * January 21 – Efua Sutherland, Ghanaian dramatist, poet and children's author (born 1924)
 * January 27 – Barbara Skelton, English fiction writer, memoirist and literary figure (born 1916)
 * January 28
 * Jerry Siegel, American cartoonist (born 1914)
 * Joseph Brodsky, Russian-born poet and essayist, Nobel Prize laureate (myocardial infarction, born 1940)
 * February 11
 * Bob Shaw, Northern Irish science fiction writer (born 1931)
 * Amelia Rosselli, Italian poet (born 1930)
 * February 12 – Ryōtarō Shiba, Japanese novelist (born 1923)
 * February 18 – Cathal Ó Sándair, Irish-language novelist (born 1922)
 * March 3
 * Marguerite Duras, French dramatist and film director (born 1914)
 * Léo Malet, French crime novelist and surrealist (born 1909)
 * March 15 – Wolfgang Koeppen, German novelist (born 1906)
 * March 18
 * Jacquetta Hawkes (née Hopkins), English writer and archeologist (born 1910)
 * Odysseas Elytis, Greek writer and Nobel Prize laureate (born 1911)
 * March 22
 * Claude Mauriac, French novelist and journalist (born 1914)
 * Ian Stephens, Canadian poet (year of birth not known)
 * March 29 – Frank Daniel, Czech-born screenwriter, director, and teacher (born 1926)
 * March 31 – Dario Bellezza, Italian poet and dramatist (HIV, born 1944)
 * April 16 – Leila Mackinlay, British romantic novelist (born 1910)
 * April 18 – Kalim Siddiqui, Pakistani-born English writer and Islamic activist (born 1931)
 * April 20 – Christopher Robin Milne, English writer and bookseller (born 1920)
 * April 22 – Erma Bombeck, American humorist and writer (born 1927)
 * April 23 – P. L. Travers, Australian-born children's writer (born 1899)
 * May 2 – Emile Habibi, Palestinian Israeli writer and politician (born 1922)
 * May 8 – Larry Levis, American poet, author, and critic (born 1946)
 * May 24 – Joseph Mitchell, American journalist (born 1908)
 * May 26
 * Ovidiu Papadima, Romanian critic and essayist (born 1909)
 * Margaret Douglas-Home, English writer and musician (born 1906)
 * May 31 – Timothy Leary, American psychologist and writer (born 1920)
 * June 2 – Leon Garfield, English children's author (born 1921)
 * June 14 – Gesualdo Bufalino, Italian novelist (born 1920)
 * June 15 – Fitzroy Maclean, Scottish political writer, autobiographer and diplomat (born 1911)
 * July 10 – Eno Raud, Estonian children's author (born 1928)
 * July 22 – Jessica Mitford, English author, journalist and campaigner (born 1917)
 * September 21 – Henri Nouwen, Dutch priest, theologian and author (born 1932)
 * September 29 – Shusaku Endo (遠藤周作), Japanese novelist (born 1923)
 * October 16 – Eric Malpass, English novelist (born 1910)
 * October 24 – Sorley Maclean, Gaelic poet (born 1911)
 * November 27 – Lili Berger, Yiddish writer, antifascist militant and literary critic (born 1916)
 * December 7 – José Donoso, Chilean writer (born 1924)
 * December 9 – Diana Morgan, Welsh playwright and screenwriter (born 1908)
 * December 12 – Vance Packard, American journalist and social critic (born 1914)
 * December 16 – Quentin Bell, English biographer and art historian (born 1910)
 * December 20 – Carl Sagan, American astronomer, astrophysicist and writer (born 1934)
 * December 21 – Margret Rey, American author and illustrator (born 1906)

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Wislawa Szymborska
 * Camões Prize: Eduardo Lourenço

Australia

 * The Australian/Vogel Literary Award: Bernard Cohen, The Blindman's Hat
 * C. J. Dennis Prize for Poetry: Peter Bakowski, In the Human Night
 * Kenneth Slessor Prize for Poetry: Eric Beach, Weeping for Lost Babylon
 * Mary Gilmore Prize: Jordie Albiston, Nervous Arcs
 * Miles Franklin Award: Christopher Koch, Highways to a War

Canada

 * Bronwen Wallace Memorial Award
 * Giller Prize for Canadian Fiction: Margaret Atwood: – Alias Grace
 * See 1996 Governor General's Awards for a complete list of winners and finalists for those awards.
 * Edna Staebler Award for Creative Non-Fiction: George G. Blackburn, The Guns of Normandy

United Kingdom

 * Booker Prize: Graham Swift, Last Orders
 * Carnegie Medal for children's literature: Melvin Burgess, Junk
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction: Graham Swift, Last Orders, and Alice Thompson, Justine
 * James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography: Diarmaid MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer: A Life
 * Cholmondeley Award: Elizabeth Bartlett, Dorothy Nimmo, Peter Scupham, Iain Crichton Smith
 * Eric Gregory Award: Sue Butler, Cathy Cullis, Jane Griffiths, Jane Holland, Chris Jones, Sinéad Morrissey, Kate Thomas
 * Orange Prize for Fiction: Helen Dunmore, A Spell of Winter
 * Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry: Peter Redgrove
 * Whitbread Best Book Award: Seamus Heaney, The Spirit Level

United States

 * Agnes Lynch Starrett Poetry Prize: Helen Conkling, Red Peony Night
 * Bernard F. Connors Prize for Poetry: John Voiklis, "The Princeling's Apology", and (separately) Sarah Arvio, "Visits from the Seventh"
 * Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry: Kenneth Koch, One Train
 * Compton Crook Award: Daniel Graham Jr., The Gatekeepers
 * Hugo Award: Neal Stephenson, The Diamond Age, or A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer
 * National Book Award: Andrea Barrett, Ship Fever and Other Stories
 * National Book Critics Circle Award: for Fiction Gina Berriault, Women in Their Beds
 * National Book Critics Circle Award: for Poetry William Matthews, Time and Money
 * National Book Critics Circle Award: for General nonfiction Jonathan Harr, A Civil Action
 * National Book Critics Circle Award: for Biography Robert Polito, Savage Art: A Biography of Jim Thompson
 * Nebula Award: Nicola Griffith, Slow River
 * Newbery Medal for children's literature: Karen Cushman, The Midwife's Apprentice
 * PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction: Richard Ford, Independence Day
 * Pulitzer Prize for Drama: Jonathan Larson, Rent
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction: Richard Ford – Independence Day
 * Pulitzer Prize for Poetry: Jorie Graham: The Dream of the Unified Field
 * Wallace Stevens Award: Adrienne Rich
 * Whiting Awards: Fiction: Anderson Ferrell, Cristina García, Molly Gloss, Brian Kiteley, Chris Offutt (fiction/nonfiction), Judy Troy, A.J. Verdelle. Nonfiction: Patricia Storace (nonfiction/poetry). Poetry: Brigit Pegeen Kelly, Elizabeth Spires

Elsewhere

 * International Dublin Literary Award: David Malouf, Remembering Babylon
 * Premio Nadal: Pedro Maestre, Matando dinosaurios con tirachinas

title: 1996 in literature


text:
Warren Moon

Harold Warren Moon (born November 18, 1956) is an American former football quarterback who played professionally for 23 seasons. He spent the majority of his career with the Houston Oilers of the National Football League (NFL) and the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Moon also played for the NFL's Minnesota Vikings, the Seattle Seahawks, and the Kansas City Chiefs. He is considered one of the greatest undrafted players in NFL history.

Moon began his professional career with the Eskimos in 1978 after not generating interest from NFL teams. His success during his six CFL seasons, five of which ended in Grey Cup victories, resulted in Moon being signed by the Oilers in 1984. During his 17 NFL seasons, Moon was named Offensive Player of the Year in 1990 after leading the league in passing yards and passing touchdowns. He led the NFL in passing yards twice, while also receiving nine Pro Bowl selections. Moon spent 10 seasons with the Oilers, whom he led to seven playoff appearances, and made an eighth postseason run with the Vikings before retiring in 2000.

At the time of his retirement, Moon held several all-time professional gridiron football passing records. Although relatively unsuccessful in the NFL postseason, his five consecutive Grey Cups from 1978 to 1982 remain a CFL record and Moon was named Grey Cup MVP twice. He was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2006, becoming the first African-American quarterback and the first undrafted quarterback to receive the honor. Moon is also the only player inducted to both the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.

Early life
Born in Los Angeles, California, Moon was the middle child amongst six sisters. His father, Harold, was a laborer and died of liver disease when Moon was seven years old. His mother, Pat, was a nurse, and Warren learned to cook, sew, iron and housekeep to help take care of the family. Moon decided early on that he could play only one sport in high school because he had to work the rest of the year to help the family. Moon chose to play football as a quarterback since he discovered that he could throw a football longer, harder, and straighter than anyone he knew.

Moon enrolled at Alexander Hamilton High School, using the address of one of his mother's friends to gain the advantages of a better academic and athletic reputation than his neighborhood high school could offer. Moon had little playing time until his junior year, when he took over as varsity starting quarterback. In Moon's senior season in 1973, the football team reached the city playoffs and Moon was named to the all-city team.

College career
Moon attended two-year West Los Angeles College and was a record-setting quarterback as a freshman in 1974, but only a handful of four-year colleges showed interest in signing him. However, Offensive coordinator Dick Scesniak of the University of Washington in Seattle, was eager to sign the rifle-armed Moon. Adamant to play quarterback, Moon considered himself to be perhaps a slightly above-average athlete who lacked either the size, speed, or strength to play other positions.

Under new head coach Don James, Washington was 11–11 in Moon's first two seasons as a starter, but as a senior in 1977, he led the Huskies to the Pac-8 title and a 27–20 upset win in the Rose Bowl over Michigan. Moon was named the game's Most Valuable Player on the strength of two short touchdown runs and a third-quarter 28-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Robert "Spider" Gaines.

Professional career
Despite his collegiate success, Moon was led to believe he would only be a late-round NFL pick and was fearful that would lead to a limited opportunity to make it in the NFL.

Edmonton Eskimos
Six weeks before the NFL draft, Moon signed with the Edmonton Eskimos. He and Tom Wilkinson shared signal-calling duties from 1978 to 1981, winning four consecutive Grey Cups during this span.

Moon became Edmonton's No. 1 quarterback midway through the 1980 season. That year, the team won their third consecutive Grey Cup, and Moon won his first Grey Cup Offensive MVP award as Edmonton defeated Hamilton 48–10.

In 1981, Moon started his first year as Edmonton's No. 1 quarterback with Wilkinson, who would retire after the season, as the team's No. 2 quarterback. Moon was moved to the reserve list for Edmonton's game against Ottawa on October 12. During the Grey Cup, Moon was struggling and Edmonton was trailing Ottawa 20–0 in the second quarter. At this time, Moon was replaced by Wilkinson. Moon returned in the second half and directed drives for three touchdowns and the game winning field goal with three seconds remaining in the game. Edmonton defeated Ottawa 26–23 to win a CFL record fourth consecutive Grey Cup.

In 1982, Moon became the first professional quarterback to pass for 5,000 yards in a season by reaching exactly 5,000 yards. Edmonton would recover from a 3–5 start to finish the regular season 11–5, and first place in the West Division for the sixth consecutive season. The team qualified for the Grey Cup for the sixth consecutive season, and won the Grey Cup for the fifth consecutive year. Moon was named the Grey Cup Offensive MVP for the second time in his career.

In his final CFL season, 1983, Moon threw for a league-record 5,648 yards and won the CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award. However, the season was not as successful for the Eskimos as they finished with an 8–8 record. Having barely made the playoffs (which they would have missed altogether if not for a loss by the Calgary Stampeders to the last place Saskatchewan Roughriders in the last week of the regular season), Moon's Eskimos were throttled in Winnipeg by the Blue Bombers in the West semi-final.

In his six years in the CFL, Moon amassed 1,369 completions on 2,382 attempts (57.4 completion percentage) for 21,228 yards, 144 touchdowns, and 77 interceptions to go along with 340 carries for 1,706 yards and 14 touchdowns. He also led his team to victory in nine of 10 postseason games. Moon was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 2001 and the Eskimos' Wall of Honour. In 2006, he was ranked fifth on a list of the greatest 50 CFL players presented by Canadian sports network TSN.

Houston Oilers
Moon's decision to enter the NFL touched off a bidding war for his services, won by the Houston Oilers, led by Hugh Campbell, his head coach for his first five seasons in Edmonton. Gifford Nielsen—the starting quarterback in 1983—retired after Moon joined the team, stating that Moon becoming the starter was inevitable. Moon had a difficult adjustment period, but threw for a franchise-record 3,338 yards in his first season in 1984, but Campbell was just .260 at the helm and did not finish the 1985 season. When new head coach Jerry Glanville found ways to best use Moon's strong arm in 1986, the team began having success. In the strike-marred 1987 season, the Oilers posted a 9–6 record, their first winning season since 1980. In his first postseason game in the NFL, Moon passed for 237 yards and a touchdown in the Oilers' 23–20 overtime victory over the Seattle Seahawks in the wildcard round of the playoffs.

Prior to the 1989 season, Moon signed a five-year, $10-million contract extension, which made him the highest-paid player in the NFL at that time. In 1990, Moon led the league with 4,689 passing yards. He also led the league in attempts (584), completions (362), and touchdowns (33), and tied Dan Marino's record with nine 300-yard games in a season. That included throwing for 527 yards against Kansas City on December 16, 1990, the second-most passing yards ever in a single game. The following year, Moon again led the league in passing yards, with 4,690. At the same time, he joined Marino and Dan Fouts as the only quarterbacks to post back-to-back 4,000-yard seasons. Moon also established new NFL records that season with 655 attempts and 404 completions.

In 1992, Moon played only 11 games due to injuries, but the Oilers still managed to achieve a 10–6 record, including a victory over the Buffalo Bills, in the final game of the season. Two weeks later, the Oilers faced the Bills again in the first round of the AFC playoffs. Aided by Moon's 222 passing yards and four touchdowns in the first half, Houston built up a 28–3 halftime lead and increased it to 35–3 when Buffalo quarterback Frank Reich's first pass of the third quarter was intercepted and returned for a touchdown. The Bills stormed back with five unanswered second-half touchdowns to take a 38–35 lead with time running out in the final period. Moon managed to lead the Oilers on a last-second field goal drive to tie the game at 38 and force overtime, but threw an interception in the extra period that set up Buffalo kicker Steve Christie's game-winning field goal. The Bills' rally from a 32-point deficit at that time was the largest comeback victory in NFL history and became known in NFL lore simply as the Comeback. Moon finished the game with 36 completions for 371 yards, four touchdowns, and two interceptions. His 36 completions was an NFL postseason record.

The 1993 season was the Oilers' best with Moon, but was his last with the team. Despite a drama-filled 1–4 start and early struggles from Moon, Houston went 12–4 and won the AFC Central division crown, but lost to Joe Montana and the Kansas City Chiefs 28–20 in the divisional round of the playoffs.

Moon set a franchise record with Houston for wins with 70, which stood until Steve McNair broke it in 2004, long after the team had become the Tennessee Titans. Moon also left the Oilers as the franchise leader in passing touchdowns, passing yards, pass attempts, and pass completions, all of which still stand today.

Minnesota Vikings
Moon was traded to the Minnesota Vikings after the season, where he passed for over 4,200 yards in each of his first two seasons, but missed half of the 1996 season with a broken collarbone. The Vikings' starting quarterback job was given to Brad Johnson and Moon was released after he refused to take a $3.8-million pay cut to serve as Johnson's backup.

Seattle Seahawks
Moon signed with the Seattle Seahawks as a free agent in 1997, made the Pro Bowl, and was named Pro Bowl MVP. He played for them for two seasons.

Kansas City Chiefs
Moon signed as a free agent with the Kansas City Chiefs as a backup in 1999. He played in only three games in two years with the Chiefs and announced his retirement at age 44 in January 2001. His 291st and final touchdown pass was an eight-yard pass to Troy Drayton against the St. Louis Rams on October 22, 2000, a game in which the Chiefs defeated the defending champs, 54–34.

Legacy
Combining his NFL and CFL stats, Moon's numbers are nearly unmatched in professional football annals: 5,357 completions in 9,205 attempts for 70,553 yards and 435 touchdowns. Even if his Canadian Football League statistics are discounted, Moon's NFL career numbers are still exceptional: 3,988 completions for 49,325 yards, 291 touchdown passes, 1,736 yards rushing, and 22 rushing touchdowns. Moon also held individual NFL lifetime records for most fumbles recovered (56) and most fumbles made (162), but this was surpassed by Brett Favre in 2010. Moon was in the top five all-time when he retired for passing yards, passing touchdowns, pass attempts, and pass completions.

Moon was named to nine Pro Bowls (1988–1995, 1997). He worked as a broadcaster for the Seattle Seahawks on both TV and radio until 2017. Moon was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2006, becoming both the first Canadian Football Hall of Fame player, first undrafted quarterback, and first African-American quarterback honored; he was elected in his first year of eligibility. The Tennessee Titans retired Moon's number at halftime on October 1, 2006, in a game against the Dallas Cowboys. Moon won his first Super Bowl ring in 2014 as a broadcaster for the Seahawks.

Post-NFL career
Moon has mentored Cam Newton, the first overall pick of the 2011 NFL draft, alluding to their common experiences as prominent African-American quarterbacks. He was suspended indefinitely from his sportscaster position after he was sued in December 2017 for sexual harassment.

Franchise records
Moon remains statistically one of the best players ever for the Oilers/Titans franchise. 's NFL off-season, Moon still held at least 37 Titans franchise records, including:
 * Most Completions (career): 2,632
 * Most Completions (season): 404 (1991)
 * Most Completions (game): 41 (1991-11-10 DAL)
 * Most Completions (playoff career): 230
 * Most Completions (playoff game): 36 (1993-01-03 @BUF)
 * Most Completions (rookie season): 259 (1984)
 * Most Pass Attempts (career): 4,546
 * Most Pass Attempts (season): 655 (1991)
 * Most Pass Attempts (playoff career): 351
 * Most Pass Attempts (playoff game): 50 (1993-01-03 @BUF)
 * Most Pass Attempts (rookie season): 450 (1984)
 * Most Passing Yards (career): 33,685
 * Most Passing Yards (season): 4,690 (1991)
 * Most Passing Yards (game): 527 (1990-12-16 @KAN)
 * Most Passing Yards (playoff career): 2,578
 * Most Passing Yards (playoff game): 371 (1993-01-03 @BUF)
 * Most Passing Yards (rookie season): 3,338 (1984)
 * Most Passing TDs (career): 196
 * Most Passing TDs (playoff career): 15
 * Most Passing TDs (playoff season): 5 (1991)
 * Most Passing TDs (playoff game): 4 (1993-01-03 @BUF)
 * Most Pass Yds/Game (career): 238.9
 * Most Pass Yds/Game (season): 312.6 (1990)
 * Most Pass Yds/Game (playoff career): 286.4
 * Most Pass Yds/Game (playoff season): 371 (1992)
 * Most 300+ yard passing games (career): 42
 * Most 300+ yard passing games (season): 9 (1990)
 * Most 300+ yard passing games (playoffs): 4
 * Most 300+ yard passing games (rookie season): 4
 * Most 4,000+ passing yard seasons: 2
 * Most Intercepted (playoff career): 12
 * Most Sacked (career): 315
 * Most Sacked (season): 47 (1984)
 * Most Sacked (game): 12 (1985-09-29 DAL)
 * Most Sacked (playoff career): 22
 * Most Sacked (playoff game): 9 (1994-01-16 KAN)
 * Most Sacked (rookie season): 47 (1984)

Awards

 * 9× Pro Bowl selection (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997)
 * All-Pro selection (1990)
 * 5× Grey Cup champion (66th, 67th, 68th, 69th, 70th)
 * 2001 Enshrined on Eskimos' Wall of Fame
 * 1990 NEA NFL MVP
 * 1990 NFL Offensive Player of the Year
 * 1990 UPI AFL-AFC Player of the Year
 * 1989 Man of the Year
 * 1997 Pro Bowl MVP
 * 1982 Grey Cup MVP
 * 1980 Grey Cup MVP
 * 1983 CFL Most Outstanding Player
 * 1983 Jeff Nicklin Memorial Trophy
 * 1978 Rose Bowl MVP
 * 1977 Pac-8 Player of the Year
 * Oilers/Titans Career Passing Yards Leader with 32,685
 * Tennessee Titans #1 Retired
 * Pro Football Hall of Fame (inducted in 2006)
 * Canadian Football Hall of Fame (inducted in 2001)
 * University of Washington Ring of Honor (Inaugural Member in 2013)

Personal life
In 1981, Moon married Felicia Hendricks, whom he had known since they were in high school. They had three children together and divorced in 2001.

Moon married his second wife, Mandy Ritter, in 2005. They had one child and are currently separated.

Moon currently lives in Redmond, Washington. In 1989, he launched the Crescent Moon Foundation, which provides college scholarships for economically disadvantaged students. Moon also supports various charitable organizations including the United Negro College Fund, Ronald McDonald House, Muscular Dystrophy Association, Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, American Heart Association, and Cerebral Palsy Foundation.

title: Warren Moon