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Lighting

Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants.

Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.

History
With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 years ago, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man. Prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, and had a fiber wick. Lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, dating to about 15,000 years ago. Oily animals (birds and fish) were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources. Candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented. Chandeliers were an early form of "light fixture".

A major reduction in the cost of lighting occurred with the discovery of whale oil. The use of whale oil declined after Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, first refined kerosene in the 1840s, allowing brighter light to be produced at substantially lower cost. In the 1850s, the price of whale oil dramatically increased (more than doubling from 1848 to 1856) due to shortages of available whales, hastening whale oil's decline. By 1860, there were 33 kerosene plants in the United States, and Americans spent more on gas and kerosene than on whale oil. The final death knell for whale oil was in 1859, when crude oil was discovered and the petroleum industry arose.

Gas lighting was economical enough to power street lights in major cities starting in the early 1800s, and was also used in some commercial buildings and in the homes of wealthy people. The gas mantle boosted the luminosity of utility lighting and of kerosene lanterns. The next major drop in price came about in the 1880s with the introduction of electric lighting in the form of arc lights for large space and street lighting, followed by incandescent light bulb-based utilities for indoor and outdoor lighting.

Over time, electric lighting became ubiquitous in developed countries. Segmented sleep patterns disappeared, improved nighttime lighting made more activities possible at night, and more street lights reduced urban crime.

Fixtures
Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes.

An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the "bulb" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixtures are, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability.

Color temperature for white light sources also affects their use for certain applications. The color temperature of a white light source is the temperature in kelvins of a theoretical black body emitter that most closely matches the spectral characteristics (spectral power distribution) of the lamp. An incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvins; daylight is around 6400 kelvins. Lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum, while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect.

Types

Lighting is classified by intended use as general, accent, or task lighting, depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.

 * Task lighting is mainly functional and is usually the most concentrated, for purposes such as reading or inspection of materials. For example, reading poor-quality reproductions may require task lighting levels up to 1500 lux (140 footcandles), and some inspection tasks or surgical procedures require even higher levels.
 * Accent lighting is mainly decorative, intended to highlight pictures, plants, or other elements of interior design or landscaping.
 * General lighting (sometimes referred to as ambient light) fills in between the two and is intended for general illumination of an area. Indoors, this would be a basic lamp on a table or floor, or a fixture on the ceiling. Outdoors, general lighting for a parking lot may be as low as 10-20 lux (1-2 footcandles) since pedestrians and motorists already used to the dark will need little light for crossing the area.

Methods

 * Downlighting is most common, with fixtures on or recessed in the ceiling casting light downward. This tends to be the most used method, used in both offices and homes. Although it is easy to design, it has dramatic problems with glare and excess energy consumption due to large number of fittings. The introduction of LED lighting has greatly improved this by approx. 90% when compared to a halogen downlight or spotlight. LED lamps or bulbs are now available to retro fit in place of high energy consumption lamps.
 * Uplighting is less common, often used to bounce indirect light off the ceiling and back down. It is commonly used in lighting applications that require minimal glare and uniform general illuminance levels. Uplighting (indirect) uses a diffuse surface to reflect light in a space and can minimize disabling glare on computer displays and other dark glossy surfaces. It gives a more uniform presentation of the light output in operation. However indirect lighting is completely reliant upon the reflectance value of the surface. While indirect lighting can create a diffused and shadow free light effect it can be regarded as an uneconomical lighting principle.
 * Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject look flat as its casts almost no visible shadows. Lighting from the side is the less common, as it tends to produce glare near eye level.
 * Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent. Backlighting is used to illuminate a background or backdrop. This adds depth to an image or scene. Others use it to achieve a more dramatic effect.

Indoor lighting
Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting (first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is a form of backlighting.

Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used to bring out texture (like stucco or plaster) on a wall, though this may also show its defects as well. The effect depends heavily on the exact type of lighting source used.

Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors. There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED.

Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension.

A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchère is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce. Further interior light fixtures include chandeliers, pendant lights, ceiling fans with lights, close-to-ceiling or flush lights, and various types of lamps

The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting.

The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting.

In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low-voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions.

Outdoor lighting
Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures.

Floodlights can be used to illuminate work zones or outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.

Beacon lights are positioned at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation.

Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights and be activated with PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in darkness.

Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration.

Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming pools and the like.

Neon signs are most often used to attract attention rather than to illuminate.

Vehicle use
Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlamps. Tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle's direction of travel to following drivers. White rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear, warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards, or about to do so. Flashing turn signals on the front, side, and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction. In the late 1950s, some automakers began to use electroluminescent technology to backlight their cars' speedometers and other gauges or to draw attention to logos or other decorative elements.

Lamps
Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture, which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have traditionally been rated and marketed primarily in terms of their power consumption, expressed in watts, proliferation of lighting technology beyond the incandescent light bulb has eliminated the correspondence of wattage to the amount of light produced. For example, a 60 W incandescent light bulb produces about the same amount of light as a 13 W compact fluorescent lamp. Each of these technologies has a different efficacy in converting electrical energy to visible light. Visible light output is typically measured in lumens. This unit only quantifies the visible radiation, and excludes invisible infrared and ultraviolet light. A wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens, a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens, and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens, but actual output varies by specific design. Rating and marketing emphasis is shifting away from wattage and towards lumen output, to give the purchaser a directly applicable basis upon which to select a lamp.

Lamp types include:
 * Ballast: A ballast is an auxiliary piece of equipment designed to start and properly control the flow of power to discharge light sources such as fluorescent and high intensity discharge (HID) lamps. Some lamps require the ballast to have thermal protection.
 * fluorescent light: A tube coated with phosphor containing low pressure mercury vapor that produces white light.
 * Halogen: Incandescent lamps containing halogen gases such as iodine or bromine, increasing the efficacy of the lamp versus a plain incandescent lamp.
 * Neon: A low pressure gas contained within a glass tube; the color emitted depends on the gas.
 * Light-emitting diodes: Light-emitting diodes (LED) are solid state devices that emit light by dint of the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material.
 * Compact fluorescent lamps: CFLs are designed to replace incandescent lamps in existing and new installations.

Architectural lighting design

Lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as 'architectural lighting design'. Lighting of structures considers aesthetic elements as well as practical considerations of quantity of light required, occupants of the structure, energy efficiency, and cost. Artificial lighting takes into account the amount of daylight received in a space by using daylight factor calculations. For simple installations, hand calculations based on tabular data are used to provide an acceptable lighting design. More critical or complex designs now routinely use computer software such as Radiance for mathematical modeling, which can allow an architect to quickly evaluate the benefit of a proposed design.

In some instances, the materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect. For example, dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. Other reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting design.

On stage and set

Lighting illuminates the performers and artists in a live theatre, dance, or musical performance, and is selected and arranged to create dramatic effects. Stage lighting uses general illumination technology in devices configured for easy adjustment of their output characteristics. The setup of stage lighting is tailored for each scene of each production. Dimmers, colored filters, reflectors, lenses, motorized or manually aimed lamps, and different kinds of flood and spot lights are among the tools used by a stage lighting designer to produce the desired effects. A set of lighting cues are prepared so that the lighting operator can control the lights in step with the performance; complex theatre lighting systems use computer control of lighting instruments.

Motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting. Especially in the early days of these industries, very high light levels were required and heat produced by lighting equipment presented substantial challenges. Modern cameras require less light, and modern light sources emit less heat.

Measurement
Measurement of light or photometry is generally concerned with the amount of useful light falling on a surface and the amount of light emerging from a lamp or other source, along with the colors that can be rendered by this light. The human eye responds differently to light from different parts of the visible spectrum, therefore photometric measurements must take the luminosity function into account when measuring the amount of useful light. The basic SI unit of measurement is the candela (cd), which describes the luminous intensity, all other photometric units are derived from the candela. Luminance for instance is a measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2. The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm).

The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre, but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human visual brightness perception. In English, "lux" is used in both singular and plural.

Visual comfort often entails the measurement of subjective evaluations. Several measurement methods have been developed to control glare resulting from indoor lighting design. The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the Visual Comfort Probability, and the Daylight Glare Index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement. In addition to these new methods, four main factors influence the degree of discomfort glare; the luminance of the glare source, the solid angle of the glare source, the background luminance, and the position of the glare source in the field of view must all be taken into account.

Color properties
To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent "warmth" or "coolness" of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source's ability to make objects appear natural.

However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light-emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market.

For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light sources which balance both CRI and GAI are generally preferred over ones that have only high CRI or only high GAI.

Light exposure
Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters.

In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed. This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock.

The small, head-mounted device measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis.

Energy consumption
Several strategies are available to minimize energy requirements for lighting a building:

 * Specification of illumination requirements for each given use area
 * Analysis of lighting quality to ensure that adverse components of lighting (for example, glare or incorrect color spectrum) are not biasing the design
 * Integration of space planning and interior architecture (including choice of interior surfaces and room geometries) to lighting design
 * Design of time of day use that does not expend unnecessary energy
 * Selection of fixtures and lamps that reflect best available technology for energy conservation
 * Training of building occupants to use lighting equipment in most efficient manner
 * Maintenance of lighting systems to minimize energy wastage
 * Use of natural light
 * Some big box stores were being built from 2006 on with numerous plastic bubble skylights, in many cases completely obviating the need for interior artificial lighting for many hours of the day.
 * In countries where indoor lighting of simple dwellings is a significant cost, "Moser lamps", plastic water-filled transparent drink bottles fitted through the roof, provide the equivalent of a 40- to 60-watt incandescent bulb each during daylight.
 * Load shedding can help reduce the power requested by individuals to the main power supply. Load shedding can be done on an individual level, at a building level, or even at a regional level.

Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway compared to that needed for a word processing work station. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 400 lux might be chosen for a work environment involving meeting rooms and conferences, whereas a level of 80 lux could be selected for building hallways. If the hallway standard simply emulates the conference room needs, then much more energy will be consumed than is needed.

Lighting control systems
Lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems typically incorporate the use of time schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e. daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems.

Many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards (such as Zigbee), which provides benefits including easier installation (no need to run control wires) and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems (e.g. security).

In response to daylighting technology, daylight harvesting systems have been developed to further reduce energy consumption. These technologies are helpful, but they do have their downfalls. Many times, rapid and frequent switching of the lights on and off can occur, particularly during unstable weather conditions or when daylight levels are changing around the switching illuminance. Not only does this disturb occupants, it can also reduce lamp life. A variation of this technology is the 'differential switching or dead-band' photoelectric control which has multiple illuminances it switches from so as not to disturb occupants as much.

Occupancy sensors to allow operation for whenever someone is within the area being scanned can control lighting. When motion can no longer be detected, the lights shut off. Passive infrared sensors react to changes in heat, such as the pattern created by a moving person. The control must have an unobstructed view of the building area being scanned. Doors, partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and reduce its effectiveness. The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors are open spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned. Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to return. A break in the pattern caused by any motion in the area triggers the control. Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best for areas with cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open areas requiring 360-degree coverage. Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and ultrasonic technology, but are usually more expensive. They can be used to control one lamp, one fixture or many fixtures.

Daylighting
Daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting. Daylighting is simply designing a space to use as much natural light as possible. This decreases energy consumption and costs, and requires less heating and cooling from the building. Daylighting has also been proven to have positive effects on patients in hospitals as well as work and school performance. Due to a lack of information that indicate the likely energy savings, daylighting schemes are not yet popular among most buildings. Unlike electric lighting, the distribution of daylight varies considerably throughout the entire year inside a building.

Solid-state lighting
In recent years light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming increasingly efficient leading to an extraordinary increase in the use of solid state lighting. In many situations, controlling the light emission of LEDs may be done most effectively by using the principles of nonimaging optics.

Health effects
It is valuable to provide the correct light intensity and color spectrum for each task or environment. Otherwise, energy not only could be wasted but over-illumination can lead to adverse health and psychological effects.

Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency.

Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasizes use of natural lighting, but also considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Not only will greater reliance on natural light reduce energy consumption, but will favorably impact human health and performance. New studies have shown that the performance of students is influenced by the time and duration of daylight in their regular schedules. Designing school facilities to incorporate the right types of light at the right time of day for the right duration may improve student performance and well-being. Similarly, designing lighting systems that maximize the right amount of light at the appropriate time of day for the elderly may help relieve symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. The human circadian system is entrained to a 24-hour light-dark pattern that mimics the earth's natural light/dark pattern. When those patterns are disrupted, they disrupt the natural circadian cycle. Circadian disruption may lead to numerous health problems including breast cancer, seasonal affective disorder, delayed sleep phase syndrome, and other ailments.

A study conducted in 1972 and 1981, documented by Robert Ulrich, surveyed 23 surgical patients assigned to rooms looking out on a natural scene. The study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing much natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses' notes, and took fewer potent analgesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a brick wall. This study suggests that due to the nature of the scenery and daylight exposure was indeed healthier for patients as opposed to those exposed to little light from the brick wall. In addition to increased work performance, proper usage of windows and daylighting crosses the boundaries between pure aesthetics and overall health.

Alison Jing Xu, assistant professor of management at the University of Toronto Scarborough and Aparna Labroo of Northwestern University conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion. The researchers asked participants to rate a number of things such as: the spiciness of chicken-wing sauce, the aggressiveness of a fictional character, how attractive someone was, their feelings about specific words, and the taste of two juices–all under different lighting conditions. In their study, they found that both positive and negative human emotions are felt more intensely in bright light. Professor Xu stated, "we found that on sunny days depression-prone people actually become more depressed." They also found that dim light makes people make more rational decisions and settle negotiations easier. In the dark, emotions are slightly suppressed. However, emotions are intensified in the bright light.

Compact fluorescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) use less power than an incandescent lamp to supply the same amount of light, however they contain mercury which is a disposal hazard. Due to the ability to reduce electricity consumption, many organizations encouraged the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electricity demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. Unlike incandescent lamps CFLs need a little time to warm up and reach full brightness. Not all CFLs are suitable for dimming. CFL's have largely been replaced with LED technologies.

LED lamps
LED lamps provide significant energy savings over incandescent and fluorescent lamps. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. The lifetime is also much longer — up to 50,000 hours. The downside when they were first popularized was the initial cost. By 2018, production costs dropped, performance increased, and energy consumption was reduced. While the initially cost of LEDs is still higher than incandescent lamps, the savings are so dramatic that there are very few instances that LEDs are not the most economical choice.

Scattered light from outdoor illumination may have effects on the environment and human health. For instance, one study conducted by the American Medical Association warned on the use of high blue content white LEDs in street lighting, due to their higher impact on human health and environment, compared to low blue content light sources (e.g. High Pressure Sodium, phosphor-coated or PC amber LEDs, and low CCT LEDs).

While that data may have been suspect even prior to publication, there's no question that the solid state technology that are LEDs, has evolved substantially since then and we no longer use the lamps that were available for study at that time.

Light pollution
Light pollution is a growing problem in reaction to excess light being given off by numerous signs, houses, and buildings. Polluting light is often wasted light involving unnecessary energy costs and carbon dioxide emissions. Light pollution is described as artificial light that is excessive or intrudes where it is not wanted. Well-designed lighting sends light only where it is needed without scattering it elsewhere. Poorly designed lighting can also compromise safety. For example, glare creates safety issues around buildings by causing very sharp shadows, temporarily blinding passersby making them vulnerable to would-be assailants. The negative ecological effects of artificial light have been increasingly well documented. The World Health Organization in 2007 issued a report that noted the effects of bright light on flora and fauna, sea turtle hatchlings, frogs during mating season and the migratory patterns of birds. The American Medical Association in 2012 issued a warning that extended exposure to light at night increases the risk of some cancers. Two studies in Israel from 2008 have yielded some additional findings about a possible correlation between artificial light at night and certain cancers.

Effects of artificial light at night on animals

Artificial light at night refers to any light source other than a natural light source. Sources of artificial light include LEDS and fluorescents. This particular light source has effect on the reproduction, immune function, metabolism, thermoregulation and body temperature of organisms that need light for their daily activity.

Firstly, most organisms metabolism largely depends on light. In some instances the presence of intense light starts up or increases enzyme activity inside the body of an animal. For diurnal organisms, high rate of metabolism takes place during the day and reduces or comes to a stop during the night thus, artificial light at night has a negative impact of the metabolism of diurnal organisms.

Moreover, the body temperature of diurnal animals fall during the night but the presence of artificial light at night, then causes an increase in body temperature which affects the melatonin levels of the animal.

Furthermore, for organisms such as aves, their sex organs are activated in relation to light intensity in certain periods during the summer at day time to aid reproduction. These sex organs are deactivated during the night but the presence of artificial light during the night sometimes disrupts their reproduction process.

International
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) is an international authority and standard defining organization on color and lighting. Publishing widely used standard metrics such as various CIE color spaces and the color rendering index.

The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), in conjunction with organizations like ANSI and ASHRAE, publishes guidelines, standards, and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments. Manufacturers of lighting equipment publish photometric data for their products, which defines the distribution of light released by a specific luminaire. This data is typically expressed in standardized form defined by the IESNA.

The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) is an organization which focuses on the advancement of lighting design education and the recognition of independent professional lighting designers. Those fully independent designers who meet the requirements for professional membership in the association typically append the abbreviation IALD to their name.

The Professional Lighting Designers Association (PLDA), formerly known as ELDA is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of Architectural Lighting Design. They publish a monthly newsletter and organise different events throughout the world.

The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions (NCQLP) offers the Lighting Certification Examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles. Individuals who pass this exam become "Lighting Certified" and may append the abbreviation LC to their name. This certification process is one of three national (U.S.) examinations (the others are CLEP and CLMC) in the lighting industry and is open not only to designers, but to lighting equipment manufacturers, electric utility employees, etc.

The Professional Lighting And Sound Association (PLASA) is a UK-based trade organisation representing the 500+ individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector. Its members include manufacturers and distributors of stage and entertainment lighting, sound, rigging and similar products and services, and affiliated professionals in the area. They lobby for and represent the interests of the industry at various levels, interacting with government and regulating bodies and presenting the case for the entertainment industry. Example subjects of this representation include the ongoing review of radio frequencies (which may or may not affect the radio bands in which wireless microphones and other devices use) and engaging with the issues surrounding the introduction of the RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive) regulations.

National

 * Association de Concepteurs Eclairage (ACE) in France
 * American Lighting Association (ALA) in the United States
 * Associazione Professionisti dell'Illuminazione (APIL) in Italy
 * Hellenic Illumination Committee (HIC) in Greece
 * Indian Society of Lighting Engineers (ISLE)
 * Institution of Lighting Engineers (ILE) in the United Kingdom
 * Schweizerische Licht Gesellschaft (SLG) in Switzerland
 * Society of Light and Lighting (SLL), part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers in the United Kingdom.
 * United Scenic Artists Local 829 (USA829), membership for lighting designers as a category, with scenic designers, projection designers, costume designers, and sound designers, in the United States

Inventors

 * Joseph Swan, carbonized-thread filament incandescent lamp
 * Alexander Nikolayevich Lodygin, carbon-rod filament incandescent lamp
 * Thomas Edison, long-lasting incandescent lamp with high-resistance filament
 * John Richardson Wigham, lighthouse engineer

Lists

 * List of environmental health hazards
 * List of light sources
 * Timeline of lighting technology

title: Lighting


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Rheinisch-Bergischer Kreis

The Rheinisch-Bergische Kreis is a Kreis (district) in the Cologne Bonn Region of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Neighboring districts are Kreis Mettman, Oberbergischer Kreis and Rhein-Sieg, and the district-free cities Cologne, Leverkusen, Solingen and Remscheid.

History
The area of the Bergisches Land belonged to the earldom of Berg for most of medieval times, which gives the district its name.

In 1816, after the whole Rhineland area was given to Prussia, the districts of Wipperfürth, Mülheim, Lennep, Opladen and Solingen were created in the area now covered by the district. In 1819, Opladen and Solingen were merged into the new Solingen district. In 1929, a new Rhein-Wupper district was created, and several municipalities were incorporated into the cities of Wuppertal, Remscheid and Solingen. In 1932, the districts Mülheim and Wipperfürth were merged to form the old Rheinisch-Bergische Kreis. Finally, in 1975, most of the area of the districts if Rhein-Wupper and Rheinisch-Bergisch was merged to form the current district.

Geography
The district form the western part of the Bergisches Land, where the hills of the Sauerland descend into the Rhine valley.

Coat of arms
The top part of the coat of arms show the geographical location of the district near the rhine valley - the silver band symbolized the Rhine river. This symbol comes from the coat of arms of the former prussian province Rhineland. In the left side the double bars are thought to symbolize a castle, they were used by the earls of Berg around 1100. When in 1225 the dukes of Limburg did take over they introduce their sign, the red lion with a blue tongue, into the coat of arms of the earldom.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rheinisch-Bergischer Kreis


text:
Jughead (comic book)

Jughead (also known as Archie's Pal Jughead) is an ongoing comic book series featuring the Archie Comics character of the same name. The character first appeared in Pep Comics #22 (cover dated December 1941). Jughead proved to be popular enough to warrant his own self-titled ongoing comic book series which began publication in January 1949.

Publication history
Jughead first appeared in Pep Comics #22 in 1941 (also Archie's first appearance) and later grew into his own title Archie's Pal Jughead Comics in 1949, which also guest-starred Archie and his friends. Common story themes included Jughead's insatiable appetite for hamburgers, avoiding Big Ethel who has a crush on him and outsmarting his nemesis Reggie Mantle.

The cover title was shortened to Jughead with #122 in July 1965, though the indicia continued to list Archie's Pal Jughead until also changing in November's #126. In #325, Cheryl Blossom made her second appearance after debuting in Archie's Girls Betty and Veronica that same month. The original Jughead series ended with #352 (June 1987).

Jughead returned with a relaunched #1 in August 1987. With #46 (June 1993), the series was renamed Archie's Pal Jughead Comics, echoing the previous volume. In the same issue Jughead finds out that his mother is expecting a baby, and in #50, the baby girl, nicknamed "Jellybean" is born. The second volume ended in 2012 with issue #214.

A third series, titled Jughead, was released in October 2015 as part of Archie Comics' New Riverdale. It is written by Chip Zdarsky with artwork by Erica Henderson. Derek Charm took over as regular artist starting with issue #7.

Collected Editions
Volume 1

Volume 3

title: Jughead (comic book)


text:
Mr. Weatherbee

Waldo Weatherbee is a fictional character in the Archie Comics universe. Mr. Weatherbee is the principal of Riverdale High School, where Archie Andrews is a student. To Riverdale students and (most) staff, he is commonly called Mr. Weatherbee, due to his authority position. Sometimes Archie and his friends playfully call him The Bee. Mr. Weatherbee is a heavyset, no-nonsense man who dresses in fairly old-fashioned clothes, including wearing pince-nez eyeglasses perched on the tip of a vermiform nose and a tiny wisp of a toupee that perpetually flies off whenever he is upset or startled. Principal Weatherbee is portrayed by Peter James Bryant in Riverdale.

Pre-New Riverdale
Mr. Weatherbee's first appearance may be in Pep Comics #25 (March 1942), as a passenger of a taxi driven by Archie. The man grumbles about the poor driving and remarks to himself how his headmastership of the high school will prevent "go-nowheres" like him. When he begins school, he suddenly again runs into Archie, realizing that he is also a student at his high school, and that chance ride has caused Archie to start off on the wrong foot. However, this character is not named, and he is not overweight. The first unambiguous appearance of Mr. Weatherbee is in Jackpot Comics #5 (Spring 1942), where he is named, and has his customary girth.

Mr. Weatherbee is sometimes stated as having once been in the United States military, and saw conflict in war. Due to retconning and the "floating timeline" principle, the specific war has changed over time. Weatherbee's stated specific branch of the military has also varied over the years. According to a story in one of the digest magazines, Weatherbee was a helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War; however, a previous story had placed him as a veteran of World War II's Battle of the Bulge. Another story states Mr. Weatherbee was a former member of the United States Marine Corps. In a later story Mr. Weatherbee jests that his claim towards being in the "Battle of the Bulge" refers to his own battle against weight gain, which he has lost.

Mr. Weatherbee is shown in Little Archie stories as having been the principal of Riverdale Elementary School during the gang's grade school years. He eventually transferred to Riverdale High School at about the same time Archie started high school, as shown in a 2008 storyline.

In one story, Coach Kleats, explaining to Archie and his friends the value of not underestimating Weatherbee's physical prowess, mentions that Weatherbee was a good athlete in high school, excelling in football and baseball.

In Archie at Riverdale High #6 (April 1973), Archie's father accidentally reveals that Weatherbee was known as "Wild Willie" in high school. All subsequent reprints replaced "William" with "Waldo" and "Wild Willie" with "Wild Wally". Wild Wally was a troublemaker, and, after the kids find out, contrary to what he expects, they learn to appreciate it. However, this conflicts with other stories suggesting Waldo was quite studious in his teen years. Many stories feature Archie and his friends discovering that Mr. Weatherbee in his younger days was thin with red hair and had many adventures similar to Archie's. These stories often result in Archie worrying that as an adult, he will become more like Mr. Weatherbee.

He is a semi-active explorer and discovered some Malooka Indian relics on Mr. Lodge's grounds.

Weatherbee is constantly annoyed by Archie, so he often tries to avoid him. However, he cannot escape from Archie even in the summer months, as seen in various stories. One such story featured Mr. Weatherbee as the head of the camp where the Riverdale teens serve as junior counselors. He constantly dreams of the day when (or if) Archie graduates from high school and keeps a special calendar that counts the day until that event, although there are numerous stories in which Archie and his friends save him from various crises. There are also times when Weatherbee takes an interest in teaching Archie valuable lessons about life, nature, or things he enjoys. At times he even tries to hang out with the gang to be, as he says, more "in". Although Archie often annoys Weatherbee, Weatherbee has admitted on several occasions that he is "really fond" of Archie and that he is one of his "favorite" students.

Mr. Weatherbee was particularly prominent in the comic series Archie and Me. Running from 1964 to 1987, the series featured stories specifically starring Mr. Weatherbee and Archie.

New Riverdale
Waldo Weatherbee first appears in Archie #1 (July 2015) while Archie is setting up for the school dance. In Jughead #1 (October 2015), he is forced into an early retirement due to the school board's decision to update to a modern curriculum meaning some of the teaching staff was replaced. But later, he is reinstated as principal. It is shown in Jughead #7 (vol.3) that he has a wife named Ramona.

Relationships
Despite Archie and Mr. Weatherbee's conflicts, Weatherbee is friends with Archie's father, Fred, even inviting him to lead the parents' association during one story. During that episode, Weatherbee also acknowledged that while Archie's school work has been careless at times, his grades were quite adequate.

While Weatherbee appears to be unpartnered, there has been speculation about the nature of his relationship with fellow Riverdale High veteran teacher Geraldine Grundy. A flashback in Veronica #200 (July 2010) showed the two having dated in their teen years.

In one Archie story where Dilton builds a time-machine, Mr. Weatherbee is shown to have been in love with a fellow student named Gwendolyn in his youth. After hearing his regrets about not getting together with her, Archie and Dilton go back in time to help him get the girl. Initially successful in introducing Weatherbee to Gwen, the plan ultimately fails when she finds out his ambition to become a teacher, which she says has no money in it. She then dumps Waldo. This was her only appearance in the series.

Despite the students' fear of Weatherbee, they still recognize his affection for the school and appreciate his efforts. In a story titled "Sheer Gratitude" in Archie's Double Digest #167 (March 2006), Weatherbee's age is said to be 65, the required age of retirement according to the rules of the Board of Education. Archie produces a petition from the entire school, however, and the Board agrees to let Weatherbee continue working at the high school.

Mr. Weatherbee used to have a wife in the golden age era. However, she was retconned out from the series. She is later reintroduced in the New Riverdale era as Ramona Weatherbee.

Relatives
In one story, Mr. Weatherbee's motorcycle-riding mother visits the school. During her visit, she refers to him as "Willy".

Mr. Weatherbee's niece Wendy Weatherbee first appeared in Tales From Riverdale Digest #10 (May 2006). She became a minor recurring character, noted for her quirky, eccentric interests, such as odd fashions and exotic pets. She is the daughter of Mr. Weatherbee's twin brother, Tony, as revealed in Tales From Riverdale Digest #28 (May 2008). The Weatherbee twins were very different as teenagers: Waldo focused on his career and education, while Tony focused more on girls and motorcycles (he opened his own motorcycle shop). Tony dated Miss Grundy when they were teenagers, but they parted. His friend Hiram Lodge apparently wanted to follow Tony's example, but instead settled down as a businessman and married Hermione.

Friends
The staff of Riverdale High School, Archie Andrews, Reggie Mantle, Betty Cooper, Veronica Lodge, Dilton Doiley, Moose Mason, Ethel Muggs, Chuck Clayton, Nancy Woods, Midge Klump, Kevin Keller, and other characters from Archie Comics.

Alternate versions
In the alternate futures shown in the series Life with Archie, Miss Grundy and Mr. Weatherbee realized they loved each other, and the couple finally married. However, in this series, the former Miss Grundy died from kidney disease soon afterwards, leaving the portly principal a broken-hearted widower.

In Afterlife with Archie, Mr. Weatherbee is chaperoning the school dance with Miss Grundy. While on break, he reminisces with her about the time they snuck into Cypress Cemetery on Halloween when they were younger and makes references to Night of the Living Dead. He tells her there's nothing to be afraid of but is then mauled by a zombified Jughead.

In other media
Mr. Weatherbee has appeared in most Archie media adaptions to date.

Animation

 * In the Filmation animated series, Mr. Weatherbee has certain fears about his mental health, owing to the "hallucinations" that he sometimes experiences. However, his fears are wholly unfounded and stem entirely from his accidental witnessing of Sabrina Spellman's (or sometimes her Aunt Hilda's) witchcraft. Typically, upon seeing such things as an elephant and a giraffe poking their heads out of the windows at Sabrina's house (as in the episode Hexter's Day Out) or Pop, the local malt shop proprietor flying by an aircraft window on a broom followed by Sabrina (as in Zelda's Racing Broom), he turns away and in a rather perturbed voice says "I didn't see that! I did not see that!" and often shouting "Nurse!"
 * Weatherbee appears in Archie's Weird Mysteries, voiced by Tony Wike.

Live action

 * In Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, David Doyle portrayed him.
 * In The CW TV series Riverdale, Mr. Weatherbee is portrayed by Peter James Bryant.

title: Mr. Weatherbee


text:
27th Annual Grammy Awards

The 27th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 26, 1985, at Shrine Auditorium, Los Angeles, and were broadcast live in the United States by CBS. They recognized accomplishments by musicians from the year 1984.

Award winners
Record of the Year
 * "What's Love Got To Do With It" – Tina Turner
 * Terry Britten, producer
 * "Hard Habit To Break" – Chicago
 * David Foster, producer
 * "Girls Just Want To Have Fun" – Cyndi Lauper
 * Rick Chertoff, producer
 * "The Heart Of Rock And Roll" – Huey Lewis and the News
 * Huey Lewis and the News, producers
 * "Dancing In The Dark" – Bruce Springsteen
 * Jon Landau, Chuck Plotkin, Little Steven & Bruce Springsteen, producers

Album of the Year
 * Can't Slow Down – Lionel Richie
 * James Anthony Carmichael & Lionel Richie, producers
 * She's So Unusual – Cyndi Lauper
 * Rick Chertoff, producer
 * Purple Rain – Prince & The Revolution
 * Prince & The Revolution, producers
 * Born in the U.S.A. – Bruce Springsteen
 * Jon Landau, Chuck Plotkin & Bruce Springsteen, producers
 * Private Dancer – Tina Turner
 * Terry Britten, Carter, Leon "Ndugu" Chancler, Wilton Felder, Rupert Hine, Joe Sample, Greg Walsh & Martyn Ware, producers

Song of the Year
 * "What's Love Got To Do With It"
 * Terry Britten and Graham Lyle, songwriters (Tina Turner)
 * "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)"
 * Phil Collins, songwriter (Phil Collins)
 * "Hello"
 * Lionel Richie, songwriter (Lionel Richie)
 * "I Just Called to Say I Love You"
 * Stevie Wonder, songwriter (Stevie Wonder)
 * "Time After Time"
 * Cyndi Lauper and Rob Hyman, songwriters (Cyndi Lauper)

Best New Artist
 * Cyndi Lauper
 * Sheila E.
 * Frankie Goes to Hollywood
 * Corey Hart
 * The Judds

Blues

 * Best Traditional Blues Recording
 * Sugar Blue, John P. Hammond, J.B. Hutto & the New Hawks, Luther 'Guitar Junior' Johnson, Koko Taylor & the Blues Machine & Stevie Ray Vaughan & Double Trouble for Blues Explosion

Children's

 * Best Recording for Children
 * Ron Haffkine (producer) & Shel Silverstein for Where the Sidewalk Ends

Classical

 * Best Classical Orchestral Recording
 * Jay David Saks (producer), Leonard Slatkin (conductor) & the St. Louis Symphony for Prokofiev: Symphony No. 5 in B Flat
 * Best Classical Vocal Performance
 * Pierre Boulez (conductor), Heather Harper, Jessye Norman & José van Dam, the BBC Symphony Orchestra & the Ensemble InterContemporain for Ravel: Songs of Maurice Ravel
 * Best Opera Recording
 * Michel Glotz (producer), Lorin Maazel (conductor), Julia Migenes-Johnson, Plácido Domingo, Ruggero Raimondi, Faith Esham, the Choeur de Radio France and Maîtrise de Radio France & the Orchestre National de France for Bizet: Carmen (Original Soundtrack)
 * Best Choral Performance (other than opera)
 * James Levine (conductor), Margaret Hillis (choir director) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus for Brahms: A German Requiem
 * Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with orchestra)
 * Raymond Leppard (conductor), Wynton Marsalis & the English Chamber Orchestra for Wynton Marsalis, Edita Gruberova: Handel, Purcell, Torelli, Fasch, Molter
 * Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (without orchestra)
 * Yo-Yo Ma for Bach: The Unaccompanied Cello Suites
 * Best Chamber Music Performance
 * The Juilliard String Quartet for Beethoven: The Late String Quartets
 * Best New Classical Composition
 * Samuel Barber (composer) & Christian Badea (conductor) for Antony and Cleopatra
 * Best Classical Album
 * John Strauss (producer), Neville Marriner (conductor), the Ambrosian Opera Chorus, Choristers of Westminster Abbey & the Academy of St Martin in the Fields for Amadeus (Original Soundtrack)

Comedy

 * Best Comedy Recording
 * "Weird Al" Yankovic for "Eat It"

Composing and arranging

 * Best Instrumental Composition (tie)
 * Randy Newman (composer) for "The Natural"
 * John Williams (composer) for "Olympic Fanfare and Theme" the official music of the XXIII Olympiad
 * Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or A Television Special
 * Lisa Coleman, John L. Nelson, Prince (musician) & Wendy Melvoin (composers) for Purple Rain performed by Prince
 * Best Arrangement on an Instrumental
 * Quincy Jones & Jeremy Lobbock (arrangers) for "Grace (Gymnastics Theme)" performed by Quincy Jones
 * Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s)
 * David Foster & Jeremy Lubbock (arrangers) for "Hard Habit To Break" performed by Chicago (band)
 * Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices
 * Anita Pointer, June Pointer & Ruth Pointer (arrangers) for "Automatic" performed by The Pointer Sisters

Country

 * Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
 * Emmylou Harris for "In My Dreams"
 * Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
 * Merle Haggard for "That's the Way Love Goes"
 * Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
 * The Judds for "Mama He's Crazy"
 * Best Country Instrumental Performance
 * Ricky Skaggs for "Wheel Hoss"
 * Best Country Song
 * Steve Goodman (songwriter) for "City of New Orleans" performed by Willie Nelson

Folk

 * Best Ethnic or Traditional Folk Recording
 * Elizabeth Cotten for Elizabeth Cotten Live!

Gospel

 * Best Gospel Performance, Female
 * Amy Grant for "Angels"
 * Best Gospel Performance, Male
 * Michael W. Smith for Michael W. Smith 2
 * Best Gospel Performance by a Duo or Group
 * Debby Boone & Phil Driscoll for "Keep The Flame Burning"
 * Best Soul Gospel Performance, Female
 * Shirley Caesar for Sailin'
 * Best Soul Gospel Performance, Male
 * Andrae Crouch for "Always Remember"
 * Best Soul Gospel Performance by a Duo or Group
 * Shirley Caesar & Al Green for "Sailin' on the Sea of Your Love"
 * Best Inspirational Performance
 * Donna Summer for "Forgive Me"

Historical

 * Best Historical Album
 * J.R. Taylor (producer) for Big Band Jazz performed by Count Basie, Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Chick Webb, Paul Whiteman & others

Jazz

 * Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist
 * Wynton Marsalis for "Hot House Flowers"
 * Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Group
 * Art Blakey for New York Scene performed by Art Blakey & the Jazz Messengers
 * Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band
 * Count Basie for 88 Basie Street
 * Best Jazz Fusion Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
 * Pat Metheny Group for First Circle
 * Best Jazz Vocal Performance
 * Joe Williams for Nothin' but the Blues

Latin

 * Best Latin Pop Performance
 * Plácido Domingo for Siempre en Mi Corazón—Always in My Heart
 * Best Tropical Latin Performance
 * Eddie Palmieri for Palo Pa Rumba
 * Best Mexican-American Performance
 * Sheena Easton & Luis Miguel for "Me Gustas Tal Como Eres"

Musical show

 * Best Cast Show Album
 * Stephen Sondheim (composer & lyricist), Thomas Z. Shepard (producer) & the original cast for Sunday in the Park with George

Music video

 * Best Video, Short Form
 * David Bowie for Jazzin' for Blue Jean
 * Best Video Album
 * Michael Jackson for Making Michael Jackson's Thriller

Packaging and notes

 * Best Album Package
 * Janet Perr (art director) for She's So Unusual performed by Cyndi Lauper
 * Best Album Notes
 * Gunther Schuller & Martin Williams (notes writers) for Big Band Jazz performed by Paul Whiteman, Fletcher Henderson, Chick Webb, Tommy Dorsey, Count Basie, Benny Goodman & others

Pop

 * Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female
 * Tina Turner for "What's Love Got to Do with It"
 * Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male
 * Phil Collins for "Against All Odds (Take A Look At Me Now)"
 * Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
 * The Pointer Sisters for "Jump (For My Love)"
 * Best Pop Instrumental Performance
 * Ray Parker Jr. for "Ghostbusters (Instrumental)"

Production and engineering

 * Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
 * Humberto Gatica (engineer) for Chicago 17 performed by Chicago
 * Best Engineered Recording, Classical
 * Paul Goodman (engineer), Leonard Slatkin (conductor) & the Saint Louis Symphony for Prokofiev: Symphony No. 5 in B Flat, Op. 100
 * Producer of the Year, Non-Classical (Tie)
 * James Anthony Carmichael & Lionel Richie
 * David Foster
 * Producer of the Year, Classical
 * Steven Epstein

R&B

 * Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female
 * Chaka Khan for "I Feel for You"
 * Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
 * Billy Ocean for "Caribbean Queen"
 * Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
 * James Ingram & Michael McDonald for "Yah Mo B There"
 * Best R&B Instrumental Performance
 * Herbie Hancock for "Sound System"
 * Best Rhythm & Blues Song
 * Prince, songwriter for "I Feel for You" performed by Chaka Khan

Reggae

 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Black Uhuru for Anthem

Rock

 * Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female
 * Tina Turner for "Better Be Good to Me"
 * Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male
 * Bruce Springsteen for "Dancing in the Dark"
 * Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
 * Prince and The Revolution for Purple Rain
 * Best Rock Instrumental Performance
 * Yes for "Cinema"

Spoken

 * Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Recording
 * Ben Kingsley for The Words of Gandhi

title: 27th Annual Grammy Awards


text:
Sovereign (disambiguation)

A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority within a particular jurisdiction.

Sovereign may also refer to:

Buildings

 * Sovereign (building), a building in Burnaby, Canada
 * The Sovereign (a.k.a. Sovereign Apartments), residential skyscraper on the Upper East Side in Manhattan, New York City, USA.

Literature

 * Sovereign (Sansom novel), a 2006 novel by C. J. Sansom
 * Sovereign (Dekker and Lee novel), a 2013 novel by Ted Dekker and Tosca Lee

Music

 * Sovereign (EP), a 2000 EP and song by Neurosis
 * Sovereign (album), a 2014 album by Michael W. Smith
 * Sovereign, a 2007 album by Arashk
 * Sovereign, a 2009 album by Tenet

Money

 * Sovereign (English coin), minted from 1489 to 1604
 * Sovereign (British coin), minted from 1817 to the present

Places

 * Sovereign, Saskatchewan, a community in Canada
 * Sovereign, West Virginia, a community in the United States

Ships

 * Sovereign (1789 ship)
 * Sovereign (1793 ship)
 * Sovereign (1800 ship)
 * Sovereign (yacht), the unsuccessful challenger of the 1964 America's Cup
 * C.S. Sovereign, a DP2-type cable ship launched in 1991
 * HMS Sovereign, a list of English warships or British Royal Navy ships
 * MS Sovereign, a cruise ship of the Royal Caribbean line
 * USS Sovereign, a list of United States Navy ships
 * Sovereign-class cruise ship, a cruise ship class of Royal Caribbean
 * List of ships named Sovereign

Fictional

 * Sovereign Star Destroyer, a class of starship in Star Wars
 * Sovereign, the class of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-E)

Film and television

 * "Sovereign" (Sons of Anarchy), an episode of Sons of Anarchy
 * The Sovereign, Hercules's evil alter-ego in Hercules: The Legendary Journeys
 * Sovereign, a character on The Venture Bros.
 * Sovereign (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a golden-skinned humanoid race
 * Sovereign (film), an upcoming film starring Dennis Quaid

Video games

 * Sovereign (video game), a cancelled Sony Online Entertainment game
 * Sovereign, a sentient starship in the Mass Effect series
 * The Sovereign, a character in Rise of Incarnates

Other uses

 * Sovereign (horse) (born 2016), Irish racehorse
 * Cessna Citation Sovereign, a super mid-size business jet
 * Sovereign Bank, a banking institution in the United States
 * Sovereign Limited, an insurance company of New Zealand
 * Sovereign Pontiff, a title for the Pope
 * Sovereign wealth fund, a type of investment funds

title: Sovereign (disambiguation)


text:
Mourning

Mourning is the expression of an experience that is the consequence of an event in life involving loss, causing grief. It typically occurs as a result of someone's death, often (but not always) someone who was loved, although loss from death is not exclusively the cause of all experience of grief.

The word is used to describe a complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate, the expression of which varies by culture. Wearing black clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of mourning, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may follow religious traditions for such occasions. Mourning may apply to the death of, or anniversary of the death of, an important individual such as a local leader, monarch, religious figure, or member of family. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years, some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.

Stages of grief
Mourning is a personal and collective response which can vary depending on feelings and contexts. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's theory of grief describes five separate periods of experience in the psychological and emotional processing of death. These stages do not necessarily follow each other, and each period is not inevitable. The theory was originally posited to describe the experiences of those confronted with their imminent deaths, but has since been adopted to understand the experiences of bereaved loved ones.

 * : This short phase of mourning occurs when a person first discovers the loss, and refuses to believe it. This is a more or less intense period where emotions seem virtually absent. The affected person can faint and may even vomit without being conscious. After this short stage of mourning, the reality of loss sets in.
 * : This phase is characterized by a sense of outrage due to the loss, accompanied by guilt in some cases.
 * : This phase sees a person engage in internal bargaining and negotiation.
 * : The depression phase can be the longest phase of the mourning process, characterized by great sadness, questioning, and distress. Mourners in this phase sometimes feel that they will never complete their mourning. They have experienced a wide range of emotions and their sorrow is great.
 * : The last stage of mourning, where the bereaved gets better. The reality of the loss is much more understood and accepted. The bereaved can still feel sadness, but has regained full functioning and has also reorganized life adjusting to the loss.

Grief can be defined as the period following the death of someone close. This is both psychological and social:

 * : When someone close to a person dies, the person enters a period of sorrow and questioning, or even nervous breakdown. There are three stages in the grieving process, encompassing the denial, depression and acceptance phases of Kübler-Ross' five step model.
 * : The feelings and mental state of the mourner affect their ability to maintain or enter into relationships with others, including professional, personal and sexual relationships. After the customs of burying or cremating the deceased, many cultures follow a number of socially-prescribed traditions that may affect the clothing a person wears and how long before or even if the mourner can remarry. These traditions are generally determined by the degree of kinship to and the social importance of the deceased.

Death can be a release for the mourner, in the case of the death of an abusive or tyrannical person, or when death terminates the long, painful illness of a loved one. However, this release may add remorse and guilt for the mourner.

Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, an Edir (variants eddir and idir in the Oromo language) is a traditional community organization whose members assist each other during the mourning process. Members make monthly financial contributions forming the Edir's fund. They are entitled to receive a certain sum of money from this fund to help cover funeral and other expenses associated with deaths. Additionally, Edir members comfort the mourners: female members take turns doing housework, such as preparing food for the mourning family, while male members usually take the responsibility to arrange the funeral and erect a temporary tent to shelter guests who come to visit the mourning family. Edir members will stay with the mourning family and comfort them for a week or more, during which time the family is never alone.

East Asia
White is the traditional color of mourning in Chinese culture, with white clothes and hats formerly having been associated with death. In imperial China, Confucian mourning obligations required even the emperor to retire from public affairs upon the death of a parent. The traditional period of mourning was nominally 3 years, but usually 25–27 lunar months in practice, and even shorter in the case of necessary officers; the emperor, for example, typically remained in seclusion for just 27 days.

The Japanese term for mourning dress is mofuku (喪服), referring to either primarily black Western-style formal wear or to black kimono and traditional clothing worn at funerals and Buddhist memorial services. Other colors, particularly reds and bright shades, are considered inappropriate for mourning dress. If wearing Western clothes, women may wear a single strand of white pearls. Japanese-style mourning dress for women consists of a five-crested plain black silk kimono, a black and black accessories worn over white undergarments, black  and white. Men's mourning dress consists of clothing worn on extremely formal occasions: a plain black silk five-crested kimono and black and white, or gray and white, striped trousers over white undergarments, a black crested  jacket with a white closure, white or black  and white. It is customary for Japanese-style mourning dress to be worn only by the immediate family and very close friends of the deceased; other attendees wear Western-style mourning dress or subdued Western or Japanese formal clothes.

Southeast Asia
In Thailand, people wear black when attending a funeral. Black is considered the mourning color, although historically it was white. Widows may wear purple when mourning the death of their spouse.

Filipino practices for mourning bear influence from Chinese, Japanese, and folk Catholic beliefs. The immediate family traditionally wear black, with white as a popular alternative. Other mourners may wear subdued colours when paying respects, with the color red universally considered taboo within 9–40 days of a death. It is believed that those who wear red, which is reserved for happier occasions, will die or suffer illness. Those who wear uniforms are allowed to wear a black armband, as are male mourners in barong tagalog. The bereaved, should they wear other clothes, wear a small scrap of black ribbon or a black plastic pin on the left breast, which is disposed of after mourning. The consumption of chicken during the wake and funeral is believed to bring death to the bereaved, who are forbidden from seeing mourners off. Counting nine days from moment of death, a novena of Masses or other prayers, a ritual known as the (from the word for "nine"), is performed; the actual funeral and burial may take place within this period or after, depending on circumstance. The spirit of the dead is believed to roam the earth until the 40th day after death, when it is said to cross into the afterlife, echoing the 40 days between Christ's Resurrection and Ascension into Heaven. The immediate family on this day hold a Mass and small feast, and again on the first anniversary of the death, known as the, which is the commonly accepted endpoint of official mourning.

West Asia
In the Assyrian tradition, just after a person passes away, the mourning family host guests in an open house style. Only bitter coffee and tea are served, showcasing the sorrowful state of the family. On the funeral day, a memorial mass is held in the church. At the graveyard, the people gather and burn incense around the grave as clergy chant hymns in the Syriac language. The closest female relatives traditionally bewail or lament in a public display of grief as the casket descends. A few others may sing a dirge or a sentimental threnody. During all these occasions, everyone is expected to dress completely in black. Following the burial, everyone returns to the church hall for afternoon lunch and eulogy. At the hall, the closest relatives sit on a long table facing the guests as many people walk by and offer their condolences. On the third day, mourners customarily visit the grave site with a pastor to burn incense, symbolising Jesus' triumph over death on the third day. This is also done 40 days after the funeral (representing Jesus ascending to heaven), and one year later to conclude the mourning period. Mourners wear only black until the 40 day mark and typically do not dance or celebrate any major events for one year.

Continental Europe

The custom of wearing unadorned black clothing for mourning dates back at least to the Roman Empire, when the toga pulla, made of dark-colored wool, was worn during mourning.

Through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, distinctive mourning was worn for general as well as personal loss; after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of Huguenots in France, Elizabeth I of England and her court are said to have dressed in full mourning to receive the French Ambassador.

Widows and other women in mourning wore distinctive black caps and veils, generally in a conservative version of any current fashion.

In areas of Russia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Greece, Albania, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain, widows wear black for the rest of their lives. The immediate family members of the deceased wear black for an extended time. Since the 1870s, mourning practices for some cultures, even those who have emigrated to the United States, are to wear black for at least two years, though lifelong black for widows remains in some parts of Europe.

In Belgium, the Court went in public mourning after publication in the Moniteur Belge. In 1924, the court went in mourning after the death of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, for 10 days, the duke of Montpensier for five days, and a full month for the death of Princess Louise of Belgium.

White mourning
The color of deepest mourning among medieval European queens was white. In 1393, Parisians were treated to the unusual spectacle of a royal funeral carried out in white, for Leo V, King of Armenia, who died in exile. This royal tradition survived in Spain until the end of the 15th century. In 1934, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands reintroduced white mourning after the death of her husband Prince Henry. It has since remained a tradition in the Dutch royal family.

In 2004, the four daughters of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands all wore white to their mother's funeral. In 1993, the Spanish-born Queen Fabiola introduced it in Belgium for the funeral of her husband, King Baudouin. The custom for the queens of France to wear deuil blanc ("white mourning") was the origin of the white wardrobe created in 1938 by Norman Hartnell for Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother). She was required to make a state visit to France while in mourning for her mother.

United Kingdom
In the present, no special dress or behaviour is obligatory for those in mourning in the general population of the United Kingdom, although ethnic groups and religious faiths have specific rituals, and black is typically worn at funerals. Traditionally, however, strict social rules were observed.

Georgian and Victorian eras
By the 19th century, mourning behaviour in England had developed into a complex set of rules, particularly among the upper classes. For women, the customs involved wearing heavy, concealing black clothing, and the use of heavy veils of black crêpe. The entire ensemble was colloquially known as "widow's weeds" (from the Old English wǣd, meaning "garment"), and would comprise either newly-created clothing, or overdyed clothing which the mourner already owned. Up until the later 18th century, the clothes of the deceased, unless they were considerably poor, were still listed in the inventories of the dead, as clothing constituted a relatively high expense. Mourning attire could feature "s"—conventional markers of grief such as white cuffs or cuff adornments, black hat-bands, or long black crêpe veils.

Special caps and bonnets, usually in black or other dark colours, went with these ensembles; mourning jewellery, often made of jet, was also worn, and became highly popular in the Victorian era. Jewellery was also occasionally using the hair of the deceased. The wealthy would wear cameos or lockets designed to hold a lock of the deceased's hair or some similar relic.

Social norms could prescribe that widows wore special clothes to indicate that they were in mourning for up to four years after the death, although a widow could choose to wear such attire for a longer period of time, even for the rest of her life. To change one's clothing too early was considered disrespectful to the deceased, and, if the widow was still young and attractive, suggestive of potential sexual promiscuity. Those subject to the rules were slowly allowed to re-introduce conventional clothing at specific times; such stages were known by such terms as "full mourning", "half mourning", and similar descriptions. For half mourning, muted colours such as lilac, grey and lavender could be introduced.

Friends, acquaintances, and employees wore mourning to a greater or lesser degree depending on their relationship to the deceased. Mourning was worn for six months after the death of a sibling. Parents would wear mourning for a child for "as long as they [felt] so disposed". A widow was supposed to wear mourning for two years, and was not supposed to "enter society" for 12 months. No lady or gentleman in mourning was supposed to attend social events while in deep mourning. In general, servants wore black armbands following a death in the household. However, amongst polite company, the wearing of a simple black armband was seen as appropriate only for military men, or for others compelled to wear uniform in the course of their duties—a black armband instead of proper mourning clothes was seen as a degradation of proper etiquette, and to be avoided. In general, men were expected to wear mourning suits (not to be confused with morning suits) of black frock coats with matching trousers and waistcoats. In the later interbellum period (between World War I and World War II), as the frock coat became increasingly rare, the mourning suit consisted of a black morning coat with black trousers and waistcoat, essentially a black version of the morning suit worn to weddings and other occasions, which would normally include coloured waistcoats and striped or checked trousers.

Formal mourning customs culminated during the reign of Queen Victoria ((r. 1837 – 1901)), whose long and conspicuous grief over the 1861 death of her husband, Prince Albert, heavily influenced society. Although clothing fashions began to be more functional and less restrictive in the succeeding Edwardian era (1901-1910), appropriate dress for men and women—including that for the period of mourning—was still strictly prescribed and rigidly adhered to. In 2014, The Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art mounted an exhibition of women's mourning attire from the 19th century, entitled Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire.

The customs were not universally supported, with Charles Voysey writing in 1873 "that it adds needlessly to the gloom and dejection of really afflicted relatives must be apparent to all who have ever taken part in these miserable rites".

The rules gradually relaxed over time, and it became acceptable practice for both sexes to dress in dark colours for up to a year after a death in the family. By the late 20th century, this no longer applied, and women in cities had widely adopted black as a fashionable colour.

United States
Mourning generally followed English forms into the 20th century. Black dress is still considered proper etiquette for attendance at funerals, but extended periods of wearing black dress are no longer expected. However, attendance at social functions such as weddings when a family is in deep mourning is frowned upon. Men who share their father's given name and use a suffix such as "Junior" retain the suffix at least until the father's funeral is complete.

In the antebellum South, with social mores that imitated those of England, mourning was just as strictly observed by the upper classes.

In the 19th century, mourning could be quite expensive, as it required a whole new set of clothes and accessories or, at the very least, overdyeing existing garments and taking them out of daily use. For a poorer family, this was a strain on resources.

At the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy explains to Glinda that she must return home because her aunt and uncle cannot afford to go into mourning for her because it was too expensive.

A late 20th and early 21st century North American mourning phenomenon is the rear window memorial decal. This is a large vinyl window-cling decal memorializing a deceased loved one, prominently displayed in the rear windows of cars and trucks belonging to close family members and sometimes friends. It often contains birth and death dates, although some contain sentimental phrases or designs as well.

Tonga
In Tonga, family members of deceased persons wear black for an extended time, with large plain Taʻovala. Often, black bunting is hung from homes and buildings. In the case of the death of royalty, the entire country adopts mourning dress and black and purple bunting is displayed from most buildings.

State and official mourning

States usually declare a period of "official mourning" after the death of a head of state. in the case of a monarchy, court mourning refers to mourning during a set period following the death of a public figure or member of a royal family. The protocols for mourning vary, but typically include the lowering or posting half-mast of flags on public buildings. In contrast, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom is not flown at half-mast upon the death of a head of state, as there is always a monarch on the throne.

The degree and duration of public mourning is generally decreed by a protocol officer. It was not unusual for the British court to declare that all citizens should wear full mourning for a specified period after the death of the monarch or that the members of the court should wear full- or half-mourning for an extended time. On the death of Queen Victoria (22 January 1901), the Canada Gazette published an "extra" edition announcing that court mourning would continue until 24 January 1902. It directed the public to wear deep mourning until 6 March 1901 and half-mourning until 17 April 1901. As they had done in earlier years for Queen Victoria, her son King Edward VII, his wife Queen Alexandra and the Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, the royal family went into mourning on the death of Prince Philip in April 2021. The black-and-white costumes designed by Cecil Beaton for the Royal Ascot sequence in My Fair Lady were inspired by the "Black Ascot" of 1910, when the court was in mourning for Edward VII.

The principle of continuity of the State, however, is also respected in mourning, and is reflected in the French saying "Le Roi est mort, vive le Roi!" ("The king is dead, long live the king!"). Regardless of the formalities of mourning, the power of state is handed on, typically immediately if the succession is uncontested. A short interruption of work in the civil service, however, may result from one or more days of closing the offices, especially on the day of the state funeral.

In January 2006, on the death of Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the emir of Kuwait, a mourning period of 40 days was declared. In Tonga, the official mourning lasts for a year; the heir is crowned after this period has passed.

Confucianism
There are five grades of mourning obligations in the Confucian Code. A person is expected to honor most of those descended from their great-great-grandfather, and most of their wives. The death of a person's father and mother would merit 27 months of mourning; the death of a person's grandfather on the male side, as well as their grandfather's wife, would be grade two, or necessitate 12 months of mourning. A paternal uncle is grade three, at nine months, with grade four is reserved for one's father's first cousin, maternal grandparents, siblings and sister's children (five months). First cousins once removed, second cousins and the parents of a man's wife's are considered grade five (three months).

Eastern Christianity
Orthodox Christians usually hold the funeral either the day after death or on the third day, and always during the daytime. In traditional Orthodox communities, the body of the departed would be washed and prepared for burial by family or friends, and then placed in the coffin in the home. A house in mourning would be recognizable by the lid of the coffin, with a cross on it, and often adorned with flowers, set on the porch by the front door.

Special prayers are held on the third, seventh or ninth (number varies in different national churches), and 40th days after death; the third, sixth and ninth or twelfth month; and annually thereafter in a memorial service, for up to three generations. Kolyva is ceremoniously used to honor the dead.

Sometimes men in mourning will not shave for the 40 days. In Greece and other Orthodox countries, it is not uncommon for widows to remain in mourning dress for the rest of their lives.

When an Orthodox bishop dies, a successor is not elected until after the 40 days of mourning are completed, during which period his diocese is said to be "widowed".

The 40th day has great significance in Orthodox religion, considered the period during which soul of deceased wanders on earth. On the 40th day, the ascension of the deceased's soul occurs, and is the most important day in mourning period, when special prayers are held on the grave site of deceased.

As in the Roman Catholic rites, there can be symbolic mourning. During Holy Week, some temples in the Church of Cyprus draw black curtains across the icons. The services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday morning are patterned in part on the Orthodox Christian burial service, and funeral lamentations.

Western Christianity
The European social forms are, in general, forms of Christian religious expression transferred to the greater community.

In the Roman Catholic Church, the Mass of Paul VI, adopted in 1969, allows several options for the liturgical color used in Masses for the Dead. Before the liturgical reform, black was the ordinary color for funeral Masses; in the revised use, several options are available, though black is the norm. According to the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (§346d-e), black vestments is to be worn at Offices and Masses for the dead; an indult was given for several countries to use violet or white vestments, and in some of those nations those colours have largely supplanted the use of black vestments.

Christian churches often go into mourning symbolically during the period of Lent to commemorate the sacrifice and death of Jesus. Customs vary among the denominations and include the covering or removal of statuary, icons and paintings, and use of special liturgical colors, such as violet/purple, during Lent and Holy Week.

In more formal congregations, parishioners also dress according to specific forms during Holy Week, particularly on Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, when it is common to wear black or sombre dress or the liturgical color purple.

Special prayers are held on the third, seventh, and 30th days after death;

Prayers are held on the third day, because Jesus rose again after three days in the sepulchre (1 Corinthians 15:4).

Prayers are held on the seventh day, because Joseph mourned his father Jacob seven days (Genesis 50:10) and in Book of Sirach is written that "seven days the dead are mourned" (Ecclesiasticus 22:13).

Prayers are held on the thirtieth day, because Aaron (Numbers 20:30) and Moses (Deuteronomy 34:8) were mourned thirty days.

Hinduism
Death is not seen as the final "end" in Hinduism, but is seen as a turning point in the seemingly endless journey of the indestructible "atman", or soul, through innumerable bodies of animals and people. Hence, Hinduism prohibits excessive mourning or lamentation upon death, as this can hinder the passage of the departed soul towards its journey ahead: "As mourners will not help the dead in this world, therefore (the relatives) should not weep, but perform the obsequies to the best of their power."

Hindu mourning is described in dharma shastras. It begins immediately after the cremation of the body and ends on the morning of the thirteenth day. Traditionally, the body is cremated within 24 hours after death; however, cremations are not held after sunset or before sunrise. Immediately after the death, an oil lamp is lit near the deceased, and this lamp is kept burning for three days.

Hinduism associates death with ritual impurity for the immediate blood family of the deceased, hence during these mourning days, the immediate family must not perform any religious ceremonies (except funerals), must not visit temples or other sacred places, must not serve the sages (holy men), must not give alms, must not read or recite from the sacred scriptures, nor can they attend social functions such as marriages and parties. The family of the deceased is not expected to serve any visiting guests food or drink. It is customary that the visiting guests do not eat or drink in the house where the death has occurred. The family in mourning are required to bathe twice a day, eat a single simple vegetarian meal, and try to cope with their loss.

On the day on which the death has occurred, the family do not cook; hence usually close family and friends will provide food for the mourning family. White clothing (the color of purity) is the color of mourning, and many will wear white during the mourning period.

The male members of the family do not cut their hair or shave, and the female members of the family do not wash their hair until the 10th day after the death. If the deceased was young and unmarried, the "Narayan Bali" is performed by the Pandits. The Mantras of "Bhairon Paath" are recited. This ritual is performed through the person who has given the Mukhagni (Ritual of giving fire to the dead body).

On the morning of the 13th day, a Śrāddha ceremony is performed. The main ceremony involves a fire sacrifice, in which offerings are given to the ancestors and to gods, to ensure the deceased has a peaceful afterlife. Pind Sammelan is performed to ensure the involvement of the departed soul with that of God. Typically after the ceremony, the family cleans and washes all the idols in the family shrine; and flowers, fruits, water and purified food are offered to the gods. Then, the family is ready to break the period of mourning and return to daily life.

Islam
In Shi'a Islam, examples of mourning practices are held annually in the month of Muharram, the first month of Islamic Lunar calendar. This mourning is held in the commemoration of Imam Al Husayn ibn Ali, who was martyred along with his 72 companions by Yazid bin Muawiyah. Shi'a Muslims wear black clothes and take out processions on road to mourn on the tragedy of Karbala. Shi'a Muslims also mourn the death of Fatima (the only daughter of Muhammad) and the Shi'a Imams.

Mourning is observed in Islam by increased devotion, receiving visitors and condolences, and avoiding decorative clothing and jewelry. Loved ones and relatives are to observe a three-day mourning period. Widows observe an extended mourning period (Iddah), four months and ten days long, in accordance with the Qur'an 2:234. During this time, she is not to remarry, move from her home, or wear decorative clothing or jewelry.

Grief at the death of a beloved person is normal, and weeping for the dead is allowed in Islam. What is prohibited is to express grief by wailing ("bewailing" refers to mourning in a loud voice), shrieking, tearing hair or clothes, breaking things, scratching faces, or uttering phrases that make a Muslim lose faith.

Directives for widows
The Qur'an prohibits widows from engaging themselves for four lunar months and ten days after the death of their husbands. According to Qur'an:

Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between mourning a husband's death and protection of the widow from censure that she became interested in remarrying too soon after her husband's death. This is also to ascertain whether or not she is pregnant.

Judaism
Judaism looks upon mourning as a process by which the stricken can re-enter into society, and so provides a series of customs that make this process gradual. The first stage, observed as all the stages are by immediate relatives (parents, spouse, siblings and children) is the Shiva (literally meaning "seven"), which consists of the first seven days after the funeral. The second stage is the Shloshim (thirty), referring to the thirty days following the death. The period of mourning after the death of a parent lasts one year. Each stage places lighter demands and restrictions than the previous one in order to reintegrate the bereaved into normal life.

The most known and central stage is Shiva, which is a Jewish mourning practice in which people adjust their behaviour as an expression of their bereavement for the week immediately after the burial. In the West, typically, mirrors are covered and a small tear is made in an item of clothing to indicate a lack of interest in personal vanity. The bereaved dress simply and sit on the floor, short stools or boxes rather than chairs when receiving the condolences of visitors. In some cases relatives or friends take care of the bereaved's house chores, as cooking and cleaning. English speakers use the expression "to sit shiva".

During the Shloshim, the mourners are no longer expected to sit on the floor or be taken care of (cooking/cleaning). However, some customs still apply. There is a prohibition on getting married or attending any sort of celebrations and men refrain from shaving or cutting their hair.

Restrictions during the year of mourning include not wearing new clothes, not listening to music and not attending celebrations. In addition, the sons of the deceased recite the Kaddish prayer for the first eleven months of the year during prayer services where there is a quorum of 10 men. The Kaddish prayer is then recited annually on the date of death, usually called the yahrzeit. The date is according to the Hebrew calendar. In addition to saying the Kaddish in the synagogue, a 24-hour memorial candle is lit in the home of the person saying the Kaddish.

title: Mourning