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Programming paradigm

A programming paradigm is a relatively high-level way to structure and conceptualize the implementation of a computer program. A programming language can be classified as supporting one or more paradigms.

Paradigms are separated along and described by different dimensions of programming. Some paradigms are about implications of the execution model, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are about the way code is organized, such as grouping into units that include both state and behavior. Yet others are about syntax and grammar.

Some common programming paradigms include (shown in hierarchical relationship):
 * Imperative code directly controls execution flow and state change
 * procedural organized as procedures that call each other
 * object-oriented organized as objects that contain both data structure and associated behavior
 * Declarative code declares properties of the desired result, but not how to compute it
 * functional a desired result is declared as the value of a series of function evaluations
 * logic a desired result is declared as the answer to a question about a system of facts and rules
 * reactive a desired result is declared with data streams and the propagation of change

Overview

Programming paradigms come from computer science research into existing practices of software development. The findings allow for describing and comparing programming practices and the languages used to code programs. For perspective, other research studies software engineering processes and describes various methodologies to describe and compare them.

A programming language can be described in terms of paradigms. Some languages support only one paradigm. For example, Smalltalk supports object-oriented and Haskell supports functional. Most languages support multiple paradigms. For example, a program written in C++, Object Pascal, or PHP can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain aspects of both paradigms, or others.

When using a language that supports multiple paradigms, the developer chooses which paradigm elements to use. But, this choice may not involve considering paradigms per se. The developer often uses the features of a language as the language provides them and to the extent that the developer knows them. Categorizing the resulting code by paradigm is often an academic activity done in retrospect.

Languages categorized as imperative paradigm have two main features: they state the order in which operations occur, with constructs that explicitly control that order, and they allow side effects, in which state can be modified at one point in time, within one unit of code, and then later read at a different point in time inside a different unit of code. The communication between the units of code is not explicit.

In contrast, languages in the declarative paradigm do not state the order in which to execute operations. Instead, they supply a number of available operations in the system, along with the conditions under which each is allowed to execute. The implementation of the language's execution model tracks which operations are free to execute and chooses the order independently. More at Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages.

In object-oriented programming, code is organized into objects that contain state that is owned by and (usually) controlled by the code of the object. Most object-oriented languages are also imperative languages.

In object-oriented programming, programs are treated as a set of interacting objects. In functional programming, programs are treated as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, in process-oriented programming, programs are treated as sets of concurrent processes that act on a logical shared data structures.

Many programming paradigms are as well known for the techniques they forbid as for those they support. For instance, pure functional programming disallows side-effects, while structured programming disallows the goto construct. Partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to older ones. Yet, avoiding certain techniques can make it easier to understand program behavior, and to prove theorems about program correctness.

Programming paradigms can also be compared with programming models, which allows invoking an execution model by using only an API. Programming models can also be classified into paradigms based on features of the execution model.

For parallel computing, using a programming model instead of a language is common. The reason is that details of the parallel hardware leak into the abstractions used to program the hardware. This causes the programmer to have to map patterns in the algorithm onto patterns in the execution model (which have been inserted due to leakage of hardware into the abstraction). As a consequence, no one parallel programming language maps well to all computation problems. Thus, it is more convenient to use a base sequential language and insert API calls to parallel execution models via a programming model. Such parallel programming models can be classified according to abstractions that reflect the hardware, such as shared memory, distributed memory with message passing, notions of place visible in the code, and so forth. These can be considered flavors of programming paradigm that apply to only parallel languages and programming models.

Criticism
Some programming language researchers criticise the notion of paradigms as a classification of programming languages, e.g. Harper, and Krishnamurthi. They argue that many programming languages cannot be strictly classified into one paradigm, but rather include features from several paradigms. See Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages.

History
Different approaches to programming have developed over time. Classification of each approach was either described at the time the approach was first developed, but often not until some time later, retrospectively. An early approach consciously identified as such is structured programming, advocated since the mid 1960s. The concept of a programming paradigm as such dates at least to 1978, in the Turing Award lecture of Robert W. Floyd, entitled The Paradigms of Programming, which cites the notion of paradigm as used by Thomas Kuhn in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). Early programming languages did not have clearly defined programming paradigms and sometimes programs made extensive use of goto statements. Liberal use of which lead to spaghetti code which is difficult to understand and maintain. This led to the development of structured programming paradigms that disallowed the use of goto statements; only allowing the use of more structured programming constructs.

Machine code
Machine code is the lowest-level of computer programming as it is machine instructions that define behavior at the lowest level of abstract possible for a computer. As it is the most prescriptive way to code it is classified as imperative.

It is sometimes called the first-generation programming language.

Assembly
Assembly language introduced mnemonics for machine instructions and memory addresses. Assembly is classified as imperative and is sometimes called the second-generation programming language.

In the 1960s, assembly languages were developed to support library COPY and quite sophisticated conditional macro generation and preprocessing abilities, CALL to subroutine, external variables and common sections (globals), enabling significant code re-use and isolation from hardware specifics via the use of logical operators such as READ/WRITE/GET/PUT. Assembly was, and still is, used for time-critical systems and often in embedded systems as it gives the most control of what the machine does.

Procedural languages
Procedural languages, also called the third-generation programming languages are the first described as high-level languages. They support vocabulary related to the problem being solved. For example,
 * COmmon Business Oriented Language (COBOL) – uses terms like file, move and copy.
 * FORmula TRANslation (FORTRAN) – using mathematical language terminology, it was developed mainly for scientific and engineering problems.
 * ALGOrithmic Language (ALGOL) – focused on being an appropriate language to define algorithms, while using mathematical language terminology, targeting scientific and engineering problems, just like FORTRAN.
 * Programming Language One (PL/I) – a hybrid commercial-scientific general purpose language supporting pointers.
 * Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) – it was developed to enable more people to write programs.
 * C – a general-purpose programming language, initially developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at AT&T Bell Labs.

These languages are classified as procedural paradigm. They directly control the step by step process that a computer program follows. The efficacy and efficiency of such a program is therefore highly dependent on the programmer's skill.

Object-oriented programming
In attempt to improve on procedural languages, object-oriented programming (OOP) languages were created, such as Simula, Smalltalk, C++, Eiffel, Python, PHP, Java, and C#. In these languages, data and methods to manipulate the data are in the same code unit called an object. This encapsulation ensures that the only way that an object can access data is via methods of the object that contains the data. Thus, an object's inner workings may be changed without affecting code that uses the object.

There is controversy raised by Alexander Stepanov, Richard Stallman and other programmers, concerning the efficacy of the OOP paradigm versus the procedural paradigm. The need for every object to have associative methods leads some skeptics to associate OOP with software bloat; an attempt to resolve this dilemma came through polymorphism.

Although most OOP languages are third-generation, it is possible to create an object-oriented assembler language. High Level Assembly (HLA) is an example of this that fully supports advanced data types and object-oriented assembly language programming – despite its early origins. Thus, differing programming paradigms can be seen rather like motivational memes of their advocates, rather than necessarily representing progress from one level to the next. Precise comparisons of competing paradigms' efficacy are frequently made more difficult because of new and differing terminology applied to similar entities and processes together with numerous implementation distinctions across languages.

Declarative languages
A declarative programming program describes what the problem is, not how to solve it. The program is structured as a set of properties to find in the expected result, not as a procedure to follow. Given a database or a set of rules, the computer tries to find a solution matching all the desired properties. An archetype of a declarative language is the fourth generation language SQL, and the family of functional languages and logic programming.

Functional programming is a subset of declarative programming. Programs written using this paradigm use functions, blocks of code intended to behave like mathematical functions. Functional languages discourage changes in the value of variables through assignment, making a great deal of use of recursion instead.

The logic programming paradigm views computation as automated reasoning over a body of knowledge. Facts about the problem domain are expressed as logic formulas, and programs are executed by applying inference rules over them until an answer to the problem is found, or the set of formulas is proved inconsistent.

Other paradigms
Symbolic programming is a paradigm that describes programs able to manipulate formulas and program components as data. Programs can thus effectively modify themselves, and appear to "learn", making them suited for applications such as artificial intelligence, expert systems, natural-language processing and computer games. Languages that support this paradigm include Lisp and Prolog.

Differentiable programming structures programs so that they can be differentiated throughout, usually via automatic differentiation.

Literate programming, as a form of imperative programming, structures programs as a human-centered web, as in a hypertext essay: documentation is integral to the program, and the program is structured following the logic of prose exposition, rather than compiler convenience.

Symbolic techniques such as reflection, which allow the program to refer to itself, might also be considered as a programming paradigm. However, this is compatible with the major paradigms and thus is not a real paradigm in its own right.

title: Programming paradigm


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Agricola

Agricola, the Latin word for farmer, may also refer to:

Cognomen or given name

 * In chronological order

 * Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40–93), Roman governor of Britannia (AD 77–85)
 * Sextus Calpurnius Agricola, Roman governor of the mid–2nd century AD
 * Agricola (consul 421) (365–?), Western Roman statesman
 * Agricola (vir inlustris) (fl. 466–485), son of the Western Roman Emperor Avitus
 * Saints Vitalis and Agricola (died 304), martyrs
 * Agricola of Avignon (c. 630–c. 700), bishop of Avignon and saint
 * Saint Agricola of Nevers (died 594), bishop of Nevers
 * Agricola of Chalon-sur-Saône (died 580), bishop of Chalon-sur-Saône

Surname

 * In alphabetical order

 * Adam Christian Agricola (1593–1645), evangelical preacher
 * Alexander Agricola (1446–1506), Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance
 * Christian Agricola (1987– ), descendant of a noble family of German origin, prince of the Holy Roman Empire
 * Christoph Ludwig Agricola (1667–1719), German landscape painter
 * Georg Andreas Agricola (1672–1738), German physician and naturalist
 * Georg Ludwig Agricola (1643–1676), German composer
 * Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), German scholar and scientist, and the 'father of mineralogy'
 * Ignaz Agricola (1661–1729), German Jesuit
 * Ilka Agricola (born 1973), German mathematician
 * Johann Friedrich Agricola (1720–1774), German composer
 * Johannes Agricola (1494–1566), German scholar and theologian, an antinomian
 * Karl Agricola (1779–1852), German painter
 * Karol Ludwik Agricola (18th century), Polish engineer
 * Kurt Agricola (1889–1955), German World War II general
 * Martin Agricola (1486–1556), German composer and music theorist of the Renaissance
 * Mikael Agricola (1510–1557), Finnish theologian and reformer
 * Peter Agricola (1525–1585), German Renaissance humanist, educator, classical scholar, theologian and diplomat
 * Philipp Agricola (fl. 1571–1594), German poet and dramatist
 * Rodolphus Agricola (1443–1485), Dutch scholar and humanist
 * Stephan Agricola, also Kastenpaur (1491–1547), German scholar and theologian, formerly an Augustinian friar

Pen name

 * John Young (merchant) (1773–1837), merchant, author and political figure in Nova Scotia who wrote under the name Agricola

Places in the United States

 * Agricola, Florida, a former company town
 * Agricola, Georgia, an unincorporated community
 * Agricola, Kansas, an unincorporated community
 * Agricola, Mississippi, an unincorporated community

Other uses

 * Agricola (surname), Ancient very noble family with the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, Counts of the Austrian Empire, and Patricians of Udine and Lords of San Nicandro (San Nicandro Garganico) of Germanic origin of which a branch moved to Italy in the Friuli Region and a branch in the Puglia region in the city of Ischitella and San Severo
 * Agricola (book), a biography of Julius Agricola by Tacitus
 * AGRICOLA, a database of scientific papers
 * Agricola (vehicles), a Greek truck manufacturer
 * Agricola (bird), a genus of birds
 * Agricola (board game), a 2007 board game by Uwe Rosenberg
 * 3212 Agricola, an asteroid
 * Auster Agricola, an aircraft from the 1950s
 * Agricola (school), a secret NCO school operated by the Grey Ranks during World War II
 * Agricola Street, a prominent street in the neighbourhood of North End in Halifax, Nova Scotia
 * Agricola Park, an urban park in Warsaw, Poland
 * Agrykola Street, a street in Warsaw, Poland
 * A series of commemorative medals issued by the Food and Agriculture Organization.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Agricola


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Constraint programming

Constraint programming (CP) is a paradigm for solving combinatorial problems that draws on a wide range of techniques from artificial intelligence, computer science, and operations research. In constraint programming, users declaratively state the constraints on the feasible solutions for a set of decision variables. Constraints differ from the common primitives of imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties of a solution to be found. In addition to constraints, users also need to specify a method to solve these constraints. This typically draws upon standard methods like chronological backtracking and constraint propagation, but may use customized code like a problem-specific branching heuristic.

Constraint programming takes its root from and can be expressed in the form of constraint logic programming, which embeds constraints into a logic program. This variant of logic programming is due to Jaffar and Lassez, who extended in 1987 a specific class of constraints that were introduced in Prolog II. The first implementations of constraint logic programming were Prolog III, CLP(R), and CHIP.

Instead of logic programming, constraints can be mixed with functional programming, term rewriting, and imperative languages. Programming languages with built-in support for constraints include Oz (functional programming) and Kaleidoscope (imperative programming). Mostly, constraints are implemented in imperative languages via constraint solving toolkits, which are separate libraries for an existing imperative language.

Constraint logic programming
Constraint programming is an embedding of constraints in a host language. The first host languages used were logic programming languages, so the field was initially called constraint logic programming. The two paradigms share many important features, like logical variables and backtracking. Today most Prolog implementations include one or more libraries for constraint logic programming.

The difference between the two is largely in their styles and approaches to modeling the world. Some problems are more natural (and thus, simpler) to write as logic programs, while some are more natural to write as constraint programs.

The constraint programming approach is to search for a state of the world in which a large number of constraints are satisfied at the same time. A problem is typically stated as a state of the world containing a number of unknown variables. The constraint program searches for values for all the variables.

Temporal concurrent constraint programming (TCC) and non-deterministic temporal concurrent constraint programming (MJV) are variants of constraint programming that can deal with time.

Constraint satisfaction problem
A constraint is a relation between multiple variables that limits the values these variables can take simultaneously.

Three categories of constraints exist:
 * extensional constraints: constraints are defined by enumerating the set of values that would satisfy them;
 * arithmetic constraints: constraints are defined by an arithmetic expression, i.e., using $$<, >, \leq, \geq, =, \neq,...$$;
 * logical constraints: constraints are defined with an explicit semantics, i.e., AllDifferent, AtMost,...

Assignment is the association of a variable to a value from its domain. A partial assignment is when a subset of the variables of the problem has been assigned. A total assignment is when all the variables of the problem have been assigned.

During the search of the solutions of a CSP, a user can wish for:

 * finding a solution (satisfying all the constraints);
 * finding all the solutions of the problem;
 * proving the unsatisfiability of the problem.

Constraint optimization problem
A constraint optimization problem (COP) is a constraint satisfaction problem associated to an objective function.

An optimal solution to a minimization (maximization) COP is a solution that minimizes (maximizes) the value of the objective function.

During the search of the solutions of a COP, a user can wish for:

 * finding a solution (satisfying all the constraints);

 * finding the best solution with respect to the objective;
 * proving the optimality of the best found solution;
 * proving the unsatisfiability of the problem.

Perturbation vs refinement models
Languages for constraint-based programming follow one of two approaches: Constraint propagation in constraint satisfaction problems is a typical example of a refinement model, and formula evaluation in spreadsheets are a typical example of a perturbation model.
 * Refinement model: variables in the problem are initially unassigned, and each variable is assumed to be able to contain any value included in its range or domain. As computation progresses, values in the domain of a variable are pruned if they are shown to be incompatible with the possible values of other variables, until a single value is found for each variable.
 * Perturbation model: variables in the problem are assigned a single initial value. At different times one or more variables receive perturbations (changes to their old value), and the system propagates the change trying to assign new values to other variables that are consistent with the perturbation.

The refinement model is more general, as it does not restrict variables to have a single value, it can lead to several solutions to the same problem. However, the perturbation model is more intuitive for programmers using mixed imperative constraint object-oriented languages.

Domains
The constraints used in constraint programming are typically over some specific domains. Some popular domains for constraint programming are:

 * boolean domains, where only true/false constraints apply (SAT problem)
 * integer domains, rational domains
 * interval domains, in particular for scheduling problems
 * linear domains, where only linear functions are described and analyzed (although approaches to non-linear problems do exist)
 * finite domains, where constraints are defined over finite sets
 * mixed domains, involving two or more of the above

Finite domains is one of the most successful domains of constraint programming. In some areas (like operations research) constraint programming is often identified with constraint programming over finite domains.

Constraint propagation
Local consistency conditions are properties of constraint satisfaction problems related to the consistency of subsets of variables or constraints. They can be used to reduce the search space and make the problem easier to solve. Various kinds of local consistency conditions are leveraged, including node consistency, arc consistency, and path consistency.

Every local consistency condition can be enforced by a transformation that changes the problem without changing its solutions. Such a transformation is called constraint propagation. Constraint propagation works by reducing domains of variables, strengthening constraints, or creating new ones. This leads to a reduction of the search space, making the problem easier to solve by some algorithms. Constraint propagation can also be used as an unsatisfiability checker, incomplete in general but complete in some particular cases.

Constraint solving
There are three main algorithmic techniques for solving constraint satisfaction problems: backtracking search, local search, and dynamic programming.

Backtracking search
Backtracking search is a general algorithm for finding all (or some) solutions to some computational problems, notably constraint satisfaction problems, that incrementally builds candidates to the solutions, and abandons a candidate ("backtracks") as soon as it determines that the candidate cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution.

Local Search
Local search is an incomplete method for finding a solution to a problem. It is based on iteratively improving an assignment of the variables until all constraints are satisfied. In particular, local search algorithms typically modify the value of a variable in an assignment at each step. The new assignment is close to the previous one in the space of assignment, hence the name local search.

Dynamic programming
Dynamic programming is both a mathematical optimization method and a computer programming method. It refers to simplifying a complicated problem by breaking it down into simpler sub-problems in a recursive manner. While some decision problems cannot be taken apart this way, decisions that span several points in time do often break apart recursively. Likewise, in computer science, if a problem can be solved optimally by breaking it into sub-problems and then recursively finding the optimal solutions to the sub-problems, then it is said to have optimal substructure.

Example
The syntax for expressing constraints over finite domains depends on the host language. The following is a Prolog program that solves the classical alphametic puzzle SEND+MORE=MONEY in constraint logic programming:

The interpreter creates a variable for each letter in the puzzle. The operator  is used to specify the domains of these variables, so that they range over the set of values {0,1,2,3, ..., 9}. The constraints  and   means that these two variables cannot take the value zero. When the interpreter evaluates these constraints, it reduces the domains of these two variables by removing the value 0 from them. Then, the constraint  is considered; it does not reduce any domain, so it is simply stored. The last constraint specifies that the digits assigned to the letters must be such that "SEND+MORE=MONEY" holds when each letter is replaced by its corresponding digit. From this constraint, the solver infers that M=1. All stored constraints involving variable M are awakened: in this case, constraint propagation on the  constraint removes value 1 from the domain of all the remaining variables. Constraint propagation may solve the problem by reducing all domains to a single value, it may prove that the problem has no solution by reducing a domain to the empty set, but may also terminate without proving satisfiability or unsatisfiability. The label literals are used to actually perform search for a solution.

title: Constraint programming


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Hampstead, Quebec

Hampstead is an on-island suburb of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is an independent municipality bordering the municipality of Côte Saint-Luc and the Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce borough of Montreal.

History
The Town of Hampstead was founded in 1914. It was designed to be an exclusive garden city. There are no retail shops within municipal boundaries. Houses were assigned relatively large lots to allow space for trees and shrubbery. The town's roads were designed with curves in order to slow down traffic and to create an interesting and intimate landscape. Despite its rather flat topography—much of the territory was once a golf course—the town was named after another garden city, the London suburb of Hampstead Village. Like its namesake, Hampstead is the home of many affluent citizens, and competes with a few other suburbs for first place in the rankings of highest average household incomes in Canada.

Merger and demerger
On January 1, 2002, as part of the 2002–06 municipal reorganization of Montreal, it was merged with Côte-Saint-Luc and Montreal West and became the Côte-Saint-Luc–Hampstead–Montréal-Ouest borough of the City of Montreal. However, after a change of government and a 2004 referendum, all three were re-constituted as independent cities on January 1, 2006.

Demographics
According to the Office québécois de la langue française, Hampstead has been officially recognized as a bilingual municipality since 2005-11-02.

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Hampstead had a population of $7,037$ living in $2,493$ of its $2,622$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $6,973$. With a land area of 1.79 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

In terms of mother tongue, the 2006 census found that, including multiple responses, almost 63% of residents spoke English, and about 16% of residents spoke French. The next most commonly reported first languages learned were Hebrew, Yiddish, Polish and Romanian.

The town is noted for having the highest percentage of Jewish residents of any city in Canada, and the third highest worldwide outside Israel.

Local government
In the November 6, 2005 municipal elections, William (Bill) Steinberg was elected mayor of Hampstead. Steinberg was the first new mayor after 4 years of civic control by Gérald Tremblay, when Hampstead was part of Montreal. Mayor Steinberg defeated Irving Adessky who had been mayor for 27 years (1974-2001) and former councillor Gerald Kestner. In his honour, the community centre has been renamed after him. Steinberg was re-elected on November 1, 2009 defeating former town councillor David Sternthal with 61% of the vote. On November 3, 2013 Mayor Steinberg was re-elected for a third term defeating former town councillor Bonnie Feigenbaum with 61.21% of the vote (voter turnout was 44.5%). In the 2017 Municipal Elections, Steinberg, Warren Budning, Harvey Shaffer, Jack Edery, and Michael Goldwax were acclaimed. Bill Steinberg served as Mayor for 16 years (2005-2021).

Current Government:
 * Mayor: Jeremy Levi
 * Councillors:
 * Leon Elfassy
 * Jack Edery
 * Harvey Shaffer
 * Michael Goldwax
 * Warren Budning
 * Jason Farber

Former mayors
List of former mayors:
 * James Baillie (1914–1924)
 * James A. Baillie (1924–1928, 1930–1932)
 * William Schuyler Lighthall (1928–1930)
 * Archibald F. Byers (1932–1935)
 * Vincent E. Scully (1935–1936)
 * Hartland Glaspell Parsons (1936–1948)
 * Lyman Ira Playfair (1948–1964)
 * Stuart Milnet Finlayson (1964–1974)
 * Irving L. Adessky (1974–2001)
 * William Steinberg (2005–2021)
 * Jeremy Levi (2021–present)

Transportation
Two major thoroughfares exist in Hampstead. One is Queen Mary Road and the other is Fleet Road. While it is difficult to drive quickly down Queen Mary (because of all the stop signs), Fleet Road is geared for automobile traffic, with synchronized traffic lights.

Hampstead is accessible by the following STM bus lines: 51 Édouard-Montpetit (Queen-Mary), 66 The Boulevard (Côte-Saint-Luc), 161 Van Horne (Fleet), 166 Queen Mary (Macdonald).

There were various stages of development for Hampstead. The newer areas tend to be to the north and to the west. The city is almost completely composed of single family residences, except for the apartment buildings on Côte-Saint-Luc Road, and the duplexes and triplexes along MacDonald, Cleve, Dufferin, Heath, Holtham, Harrow and Aldred Roads. There are no commercial properties in the city. There is only one school in the city, the Hampstead Elementary School, which is public.

At the beginning of each summer is Hampstead Day, which features a small carnival and fireworks, curated by the staff of the Hampstead Pool and of the Hampstead Day Camp.

Twin towns — Sister cities
Hampstead is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇱 Kiryat Shmona, Israel (since 1978)

title: Hampstead, Quebec


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Print on demand

Print on demand (POD) is a printing technology and business process in which book copies (or other documents, packaging, or materials) are not printed until the company receives an order, allowing prints in single or small quantities. While other industries established the build-to-order business model, POD could only develop after the beginning of digital printing because it was not economical to print single copies using traditional printing technologies such as letterpress and offset printing.

Many traditional small presses have replaced their traditional printing equipment with POD equipment or contracted their printing to POD service providers. Many academic publishers, including university presses, use POD services to maintain large backlists (lists of older publications); some use POD for all of their publications. Larger publishers may use POD in special circumstances, such as reprinting older, out-of-print titles or for test marketing.

Predecessors
Before the introduction of digital printing technology, production of small numbers of publications had many limitations. Large print jobs were not a problem, but small numbers of printed pages were typically during the early 20th century produced using stencils and reproducing on a mimeograph or similar machine. These produced printed pages of inferior quality to a book, cheaply and reasonably fast. By about 1950, electrostatic copiers were available to make paper master plates for offset duplicating machines. From about 1960, copying onto plain paper became possible for photocopy machines to make multiple good-quality copies of a monochrome original.

In 1966, Frederik Pohl discussed in Galaxy Science Fiction "a proposal for high-speed facsimile machines which would produce a book to your order, anywhere in the world". As the magazine's editor, he said that "it, or something like it, is surely the shape of the publishing business some time in the future". As technology advanced, it became possible to store text in digital form – paper tape, punched cards readable by digital computer, magnetic mass storage, etc. –  and to print on a teletypewriter, line printer or other computer printer, but the software and hardware to produce original good-quality printed colour text and graphics and to print small jobs fast and cheaply was unavailable.

Book publishing
Print on demand with digital technology is a way to print items for a fixed cost per copy, regardless of the size of the order. While the unit price of each physical copy is greater than with offset printing, the average cost is lower for very small print jobs, because setup costs are much greater for offset printing.

POD has other business benefits besides lesser costs (for small jobs): These advantages reduce the risks associated with publishing books and prints and can result in increased choice for consumers. However, the reduced risks for the publisher can also mean that quality control is less rigorous than usual.
 * Technical set-up is usually quicker than for offset printing.
 * Large inventories of a book or print material do not need to be kept in stock, reducing storage, handling costs, and inventory accounting costs.
 * There is little or no waste from unsold products.
 * Many publishers use POD for other printing needs other than books such as galley proof, catalogs and review copies.

Other publishing
Digital technology is ideally suited to publish small print jobs of posters (often as a single copy) when they are needed. The introduction of ultraviolet-curable inks and media for large-format inkjet printers has allowed artists, photographers and owners of image collections to take advantage of print on demand.

For example, UK art retailer King and McGaw fulfills many of its art print orders by printing on-demand rather than pre-printing and storing them until they are sold, requiring less space and reducing overheads to the business. This was brought about after a fire destroyed £3 million worth of stock and damage to their warehouse.

Service providers
The introduction of POD technologies and business models has created a range of new book creation and publishing opportunities. There are three main categories of offerings.

Self-publishing authors
POD creates a new category of publishing (or printing) company that offers services, usually for a fee, directly to authors who wish to self-publish. These services generally include printing and shipping each individual book ordered, handling royalties, and getting listings in online bookstores. The initial investment required for POD services is less than for offset printing. Other services may also be available, including formatting, proofreading, and editing, but such companies typically do not spend money for marketing, unlike conventional publishers. Such companies are suitable for authors prepared to design and promote their work themselves, with minimal assistance and at minimal cost. POD publishing gives authors editorial independence, speed to market, ability to revise content, and greater financial return per copy than royalties paid by conventional publishers.

POD enablement
While amateur/professional writers are targeted as early adopters by some companies, there is an effort to make POD more mass-market. A class of companies have chosen to be "author-agnostic", attempting to serve a broad mass-market of ordinary citizens who may want to express, record and print keepsake copies of memories and personal writing (diaries, travelogues, wedding journals, baby books, family reunion reports etc.). Instead of tailoring themselves to the classic book format (at least 100 pages, mostly text, complex rules for copyright and royalties), these companies strive to make POD more mass-market by creating programs by which a range of different text and picture items can be produced as finished books. The management of copyrights and royalties is often less important for this market, as the books themselves have a small clientele (close family and friends, for instance).

The major photo storage services have included the ability to produce picture books and calendars. However, they emphasize digital photography. Some companies apply this method to a greater volume of creative work (primarily text, as typed in personal weblogs) and include the capability to embed photographs and other media Others assume the role of an infrastructure service provider, allowing any partner website to use its pre-designed payment and printing functions.

Publisher use
Print-on-demand services that offer printing and distributing services to publishing companies (instead of directly to self-publishing authors) are also growing in popularity within the industry. Many major publishers print on demand as a way to save money on inventory costs. Print on demand also allows texts to be revised and published more quickly.

Maintaining availability
Among traditional publishers, POD services can be used to make sure that books remain available when one print job has sold out, but another has not yet become available. This maintains the availability of older works, the estimated future sales of which may not be great enough to justify a further conventional print job. This can be useful for publishers with large backlists, such that sales for individual works may be few, but cumulative sales may be significant.

Managing uncertainty
Print on demand can be used to reduce risk when dealing with "surge" publications that are expected to have large sales but a brief sales life (such as biographies of minor celebrities, or event tie-ins): these publications represent good profitability but also great risk owing to the danger of inadvertently printing many more copies than are necessary, and the associated costs of maintaining excess inventory or pulping. POD allows a publisher to use cheaper conventional printing to produce enough copies to satisfy a pessimistic forecast of the publication sales, and then rely on POD to make up the difference.

Variable formats
Print on demand also allows books to be printed in a variety of formats. This process, known as accessible publishing, allows books to be printed in a variety of larger type sizes and special formats for those with vision impairment or reading disabilities, as well as personalised typefaces and formats that suit an individual reader's needs.

Economics
Profits from print-on-demand publishing are on a per-sale basis, and royalties vary depending on the method by which the item is sold. Greatest profits are usually generated from sales direct from a print-on-demand service's website or by the author buying copies from the service at a discount, as the publisher, and then selling them personally. Lesser royalties come from traditional bookshops and online retailers, both of which buy at high discount, although some POD companies allow the publisher or author to set their own discount level.

Because the per-unit cost is typically greater with POD than with a print job of thousands of copies, it is common for POD books to be more expensive than similar books made by conventional print jobs.

Book stores order books through a wholesaler or distributor, usually at a discount of as much as 70%. Wholesalers obtain their books in two ways: either as a special order such that the book is ordered direct from a publisher when a book store requests a copy, or as stocked, which they keep in their own warehouse as part of their inventory. Stocked books are usually also available through "sale or return", meaning that the book store can return unsold stock for full credit as much as one year after the initial sale.

POD books are rarely if ever available on such terms because for the publishing provider it is considered too much of a risk. However, wholesalers monitor what works are selling, and if authors promote their work successfully and achieve a reasonable number of orders from book stores or online retailers (who use the same wholesalers as the stores), then there is a reasonable chance of their work becoming available on such terms.

Author's Reversion Rights
In 1999, the Times Literary Supplement carried an article entitled "A Very Short Run", in which author Andrew Malcolm argued that under the rights-reversion clauses of older, pre-PoD contracts, copyrights would legally revert to their authors if their books were printed on demand rather than re-lithographed, and he envisaged a test case being successfully fought on this aspect. This claim was contradicted by an article entitled "Eternal Life?" in the Spring 2000 issue of The Author Magazine (the journal of the UK Society of Authors) by Cambridge University Press's Business Development Director Michael Holdsworth, who argued that printing on demand keeps books "permanently in print", thereby invalidating authors' reversion rights.

title: Print on demand


text:
Mount Royal, Quebec

Mount Royal (Mont-Royal, officially Town of Mount Royal, Ville de Mont-Royal, abbreviated TMR, VMR) is an affluent on-island suburban town located on the northwest side of the eponymous Mount Royal, northwest of Downtown Montreal, on the Island of Montreal in southwestern Quebec, Canada. It is completely surrounded by the city of Montreal. The population was 20,953 as of the 2021 Canadian census. In 2008, most of the Town of Mount Royal was designated a National Historic Site of Canada, as a "[remarkable] synthesis of urban renewal movements of the early 20th century, reflecting the influence of the City Beautiful, Garden City and Garden Suburb movements". The town celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2012.

History
Town of Mount Royal, or TMR, was founded in 1912. It was created at the initiative of the Canadian Northern Railway as a means of generating funds for the tunnel to be built under the mountain, which would connect the railway to downtown Montreal. The town was designed by Frederick Todd, a planner who was heavily influenced by the likes of Sir Ebenezer Howard and incorporated many aspects of the Garden City Movement as well some elements of the earlier City Beautiful movement into his design. The plan was to build a model city at the foot of Mount Royal. The company bought 4800 acre of farmland, and then built a rail tunnel under Mount Royal connecting their land to downtown Montreal. The profits from the venture helped finance the development of Canadian Northern's transcontinental railroad, which eventually became a significant constituent of the Canadian National Railway system. The town was designed by Canadian Northern's chief engineer, Henry Wicksteed, based loosely on Washington, D.C.

The garden city's coat of arms is composed of several significant elements:
 * The royal crown, of French origin, is enclosed in the top panel and blazoned with fleurons.
 * Two heraldic roses, of English origin, are stylized wild roses with two rows of five petals separated by pointed sepals.
 * The stylized mountain refers to the Town's geographic situation at the foot of Mount Royal.
 * The outline of the shield ending in a point recalls the shape of the shields of ancient Greece and Rome.
 * Inscribed on the scroll beneath the shield, the motto, Regium Donum, means “gift of the king.”
 * Town of Mount Royal's official signature includes the coat of arms as well as the Town's name in French and English. The coat of arms has evolved over the years; the current version dates from 1993.

One notable feature of the town is the naming of some of its streets, and also its occasionally idiosyncratic numbering system. Some streets which pass through the town may thus bear two names (in whichever language). For example, Jean Talon Street, a large east–west thoroughfare crossing Montreal for kilometres (miles), goes a few hundred metres (yards) through TMR under the name of Dresden Avenue, only to recover its Montreal name on the other side of the town. This situation has been recently addressed by putting the two names on the street signs. On these few hundred metres (yards), TMR uses a house civic numbering totally different from that of Montreal on either side. This sort of change in the numbering system also occurs on smaller streets shared by both Montreal and TMR (for example, Trenton, Lockhart and Brookfield avenues, where the TMR numbering system decreases from East to West, only to jump from 2 to 2400 on the few metres (yards) of the street that still belong to Montreal.

In the beginning, the Town was a small farming community, known for its melons. The Daoust family farm grew the celebrated Montreal melon, also called the Montreal nutmeg melon. Green-fleshed and uniquely flavourful, the melons weighed up to 9 or 11 kg (20 or 25 lb). So special was the Montreal melon that it was exported to New York, Chicago and Boston, where, in 1921, people paid as much as $1.50 a slice to taste it. Farming was abandoned over the years, with the gradual urbanization of the Town.

On January 1, 2002, as part of the 2002–2006 municipal reorganization of Montreal, it was merged into Montreal and became a borough. However, after a change of government and a 2004 referendum, it was re-constituted as an independent town on January 1, 2006.

Geography
Two main thoroughfares, Laird Boulevard and Graham Boulevard, cut across the borough diagonally and meet at Connaught Park, a green space located in the centre. Mount Royal Train Station, a commuter train station on the Exo Deux-Montagnes line is located to the east of this park. This line is now undergoing construction to upgrade it for the new REM network. Trains going through the Mount Royal Tunnel link the station to downtown Montreal in eight minutes. Both boulevards end at Jean Talon Street and close to the highway.

TMR is surrounded on three sides by a highway, a fence and a rail line.

The highway is Metropolitan Boulevard, a major constituent of Autoroute 40. It was built as an elevated highway throughout, except when it passes through TMR (between Sainte Croix Avenue and L'Acadie Boulevard), since the Town council requested that it be built on the ground, in order to separate the town from the industrial area to the north.

A fence runs along the eastern border with Park Extension at L'Acadie Boulevard, a six lane thoroughfare. The stated purpose of the fence is to prevent children and house pets from running into the busy thoroughfare but some have contended that it was built to keep residents of the working-class Park Extension neighbourhood out of the town.

The rail line is the last portion of Canadian Pacific's Adirondack subdivision. It originally ran through the northern part of the district of Côte-des-Neiges. However, when the town became part of Montreal on Jan 1, 2002, the part of Côte-des-Neiges north of rail line was incorporated into the Mount Royal borough. When the town demerged on Jan 1, 2006 this part, known as Glenmount, reverted to Côte-des-Neiges.

Demographics
According to the Office québécois de la langue française, Mont-Royal has been officially recognized as a bilingual municipality since 2005-11-02.

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Mont-Royal had a population of $20,953$ living in $7,732$ of its $8,192$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $20,276$. With a land area of 7.55 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Municipal council
Mayor Peter J. Malouf was elected 7 November 2021, defeating former municipal councillor Michelle Setlakwe, the first mayoral election in 16 years. Voter Participation was 48.7%. Despite the COVID pandemic, 6,779 residents voted by mail or in person.

In 2020, TMR was divided from six into eight electoral districts to reflect its growing population of 22,000 residents. The Town mayor sits on the Agglomeration Council of Montreal.

2021-25 Municipal Council (100% new slate of elected officials):
 * Mayor: Peter J. Malouf – 55.47% (3710 votes)
 * Councillors:
 * District No. 1: Antoine Tayar - 54.89% (578 votes)
 * District No. 2: Maryam Kamali Nezhad - 53.85% (385 votes)
 * District No. 3: Daniel Pilon - 57.42% (511 votes)
 * District No. 4: Maya Chammas - 53.48% (430 votes)
 * District No. 5: Julie Halde - 51.97% (408 votes)
 * District No. 6: Caroline Decaluwe - 51.60% (387 votes)
 * District No. 7: Sébastien Dreyfuss - 50.74% (448 votes)
 * District No. 8: Sophie Séguin - 66.43% (550 votes)

Former mayors
The first mayor of the Town of Mount-Royal was Thomas S. Darling, elected in 1913.
 * Thomas S. Darling (1913-1934)
 * Frederick (Fred) Johnson (1934–1935)
 * Samuel (Sam) H. Hanson (1935)
 * John Arthur Dakin (1935 – 1937)
 * Robert Smith (1937 – 1941)
 * Maynard Albert Metcalf (1941– 1945)
 * Richard Earle Schofield (1945–1951)
 * Reginald John Partridge Dawson (1951–1987
 * Vera Mystic Danyluk (1987–1994)
 * Harry Schwartz (1994–1999)
 * Pierre Brisebois (1999 interim)
 * Ricardo Hrtschan (1999 – 2001)
 * Suzanne Caron (2002 – 2005)
 * Vera Mystic Danyluk (2005 – 2010)
 * Philippe Roy (2010 –2021)
 * Peter J. Malouf (2021 – )

Federal and Provincial
The entire borough is located within the federal riding of Mount Royal, whose best-known MP for nearly 20 years was Pierre Trudeau, and within the smaller provincial electoral district of Mount Royal. The Mount Royal riding has been a Liberal stronghold since 1940.

The riding encompasses Côte St. Luc, Hampstead, Côte des Neiges and the Town of Mount Royal. Since 2015, Mr. Anthony Housefather has served as Member of The House of Commons - Mount Royal

Mount Royal shares its provincial territory with Outremont since 2018, making it the Mont-Royal–Outremont provincial electoral district. Since October 2022, the riding is represented by Liberal Michelle Setlakwe that replaced the long time MP Pierre Arcand.

Education
The Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys (CSMB) operates Francophone public schools.

Secondary schools:
 * École secondaire Mont-Royal
 * École secondaire Pierre-Laporte

Primary schools: The English Montreal School Board (EMSB) operates Anglophone public schools in the town.
 * École primaire Académie Saint-Clément
 * École primaire Saint-Clément Ouest
 * École primaire Saint-Clément Est
 * Carlyle Elementary School
 * Dunrae Gardens Elementary School

The Town has its own library, Reginald J. P. Dawson Library, which is independent from the Montreal Library Network.

title: Mount Royal, Quebec


text:
User:Chrislynch

Want to know more about Chris Lynch?

Try my website [Planet Of The Penguins]

title: User:Chrislynch


text:
Talk:Violinist

Untitled
So to be on the 20th C list you have to be dead, right?? I was a little confused by this, it's not that long ago ... :) Nevilley 11:09 Mar 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure it's a very useful distinction. I'm going to merge the two into one. --Camembert

Excellent composer-violinists
"Composer-violinists were common in the Baroque era - all played the violin excellently." Is it just me, or does this read a little OTT? Nevilley 10:58, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * No response to this. I am removing the phrase and hope that this is OK, or that someone will defend it or suggest a form of wording which works better. Nevilley 09:23, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Violin Hickey
"Sometimes violinists can be identified by a red fleck on the left side of their neck, commonly known as the violin hickey."

Is this really important enough to have in this article? As well, it sounds odd to say they can be "identifed" by these. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Acuzzort (talk • contribs)
 * Yes, I think it's important enough to have it in the article. Maybe not the identified part, but...oh well. (Wish I was on the list of violinists! ;)-- Violin  G  irl ♪ 18:06, 3 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Entirely notable. Carl Flesch wrote about it in his book iolThe Art of Vin Playing http://www.amazon.com/Art-Violin-Playing-Book-One/dp/0825828228. Hence my name :) Ṝ ed M ark V iolinist Drop me a line 17:44, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

Thanks! I just added that reference to the article on Playing the violin based on what you said. If you could add some data (publisher, year, most especially page number) to that reference, the world will be slightly more informed. Or, add the info here or at Talk:Playing the violin, and someone can do the formatting. __Just plain Bill (talk) 22:44, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

More Info
I was doing some coarse work on a violinist and on most other things this sight has been very good but i thought maybe it should have a bit more information on say the roles of a violinist or just more information in general.

Umm... shouldn't the example be someone better known than a random up-and-coming violinist? Can this please be changed to someone of the stature of Jascha Heiftz, Perlman, or Joshua Bell? ~Vivalatosca —Preceding unsigned comment added by Vivalatosca (talk • contribs) 23:54, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

Looking stubby-- redirect?
I believe this article ought to be redirected to List of violinists. Info about Baroque violinist-composers can go in History of the violin, and that regarding fiddle hickeys can go in Playing the violin. Comments? __Just plain Bill (talk) 03:31, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Did it, as well as adding some text regarding hickeys to Playing the violin __Just plain Bill (talk) 02:43, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Requested move
No move Parsecboy (talk) 00:38, 7 December 2008 (UTC)

It is proposed to move Violinist to Violinist (disambiguation) and then to change Violinist to a redirect to Violin. It seems clear to me that this is the primary topic. Although there are other meanings, the vast majority of people who search for "violinist" will be looking for information about people who play the violin. --Russ (talk) 14:50, 30 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Support. Eminently sensible proposal. older ≠ wiser 15:05, 30 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Discuss. Although I'm not sure what "the vast majority of people" will really be looking for here, the Principle of least astonishment might be upheld if the redirect went to List of violinists, since that is where to find "people who play the violin." Moving the present page to Violinist (disambiguation), with appropriate hatnote on the list, makes perfect sense. __Just plain Bill (talk) 15:25, 30 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose Comment . I am thinking many of the pages linking to Violinist should not wikify the word "violinist" at all.  Wikipedia is not a dictionary.  --Una Smith (talk) 00:01, 3 December 2008 (UTC)
 * The request seems based on the premise that readers following links to Violinist really want to read Violin. That does not make sense.  Nor does WP:PRIMARYTOPIC seem pertinent.  Maybe those readers want to read Playing the violin or List of violinists or First violinist?  Maybe they just want a dictionary definition of "violinist".  --Una Smith (talk) 03:40, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Strongest Possible Oppose-there is a major difference between someone who plays the violin, and the actual violin instrument. If there are any further questions, please contact me on my talk page. Ṝ ed M ark V iolinist Drop me a line 14:38, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

Comment
Certainly the incoming links to Violinist need disambiguation. But disambiguation is not served by moving the disambiguation page elsewhere. The majority of incoming links are from articles about people, in the context of "so-and-so is a violinist". Many of those links should be unlinked; others should be dispersed among the lists of notable violinists. An example of the former case is Jean Anouilh, in which article the link to Violinist is a passing reference to the subject's mother. Else, we might as well wikify every mention of every kind of work done by every person mentioned in Wikipedia. --Una Smith (talk) 03:54, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Violinist


text:
Australian Airlines

Australian Airlines was a full-service airline based in Australia, serving Australian and Asian destinations between 2002 and 2006. It was an all-economy, full-service international leisure carrier, and was a wholly owned subsidiary of Qantas (although run independently of the mainline carrier). Its main hub was at Cairns Airport, with a secondary hub at Sydney Airport.

The airline ceased operations under its own livery on 30 June 2006, but continued to operate flights for Qantas under a wet lease agreement. This means Australian Airlines operated flights for Qantas using its own crew/cost base, but under the Qantas brand. Qantas decided to discontinue the public use of the Australian Airlines brand in favour of having Jetstar as its leisure, now low-cost carrier. Qantas and Jetstar are operating services to replace Australian Airlines' routes, with Jetstar International introduced in late 2006 to help expand the Qantas Group's international presence.

History
The airline was established in 2001 and started operations on 27 October 2002, reusing the name Qantas gained when it acquired former Australian domestic carrier Australian Airlines in September 1992. Its initial network of flights concentrated on leisure tourism between Queensland and Japan. Subsequent expansion brought on other leisure destinations throughout Southeast Asia. On 12 April 2006 Geoff Dixon, CEO of the Qantas Group, announced that the group would be focusing on a two-brand strategy, the Qantas and Jetstar brands, and as such the Australian Airlines brand would cease to exist from July 2006.

The airline's aircraft were re-painted back into the Qantas livery and returned to Qantas short-haul for use on their domestic and trans-Tasman routes. Alternative Boeing 767-300 aircraft (in Qantas two-class configuration) were supplied to Australian Airlines by Qantas, for them to operate under a wet lease agreement in the interim. Australian Airlines continued to operate under this agreement, servicing several routes to Japan including twice-daily flights to Tokyo-Narita Airport, and also flights to Manila-NAIA Airport in the Philippines.

During April 2006, Qantas confirmed that, to focus on its two-brand strategy of Qantas and Jetstar, the Group had decided that it would abandon Australian Airlines. On 30 June 2006, Australian Airlines ceased to exist, with the airline's Boeing 767-300s and crew to still provide services from Cairns under the Qantas brand. The following day, the airline's fleet was absorbed into Qantas's mainline fleet. The parent company closed down the Australian Airlines operation completely at the end of August 2007.

Destinations
At the time before it ceased operations, Australian Airlines operated scheduled services to the following destinations:

Suspended prior to ceasing operations
 * Australia
 * Cairns – Cairns Airport (Main hub)
 * Darwin – Darwin International Airport
 * Gold Coast – Gold Coast Airport
 * Melbourne – Melbourne Airport
 * Perth – Perth Airport
 * Sydney – Sydney Airport (Secondary hub)
 * Hong Kong
 * Hong Kong International Airport
 * Indonesia
 * Denpasar, Bali – Ngurah Rai International Airport
 * Japan
 * Fukuoka – Fukuoka Airport
 * Nagoya – Chubu Centrair International Airport
 * Osaka – Kansai International Airport
 * Sapporo – New Chitose Airport
 * Malaysia
 * Kota Kinabalu – Kota Kinabalu International Airport
 * Singapore
 * Changi Airport
 * Taiwan
 * Taipei – Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport

Fleet
In August 2006, Australian Airlines operated five Boeing 767-300ER aircraft.

title: Australian Airlines


text:
Edward Bruce

Edward Bruce, Earl of Carrick (Norman French: Edward de Brus; Edubard a Briuis; Modern Scottish Gaelic: Eideard or Iomhair Bruis; c. 1280 – 14 October 1318), was a younger brother of Robert the Bruce, King of Scots. He supported his brother in the 1306–1314 struggle for the Scottish crown, then pursued his own claims in Ireland. Proclaimed High King of Ireland in 1315 and crowned in 1316, he was eventually defeated and killed by Anglo-Irish forces of the Lordship of Ireland at the Battle of Faughart in County Louth in 1318.

Early life
Edward was one of five sons of Robert de Brus and Marjorie, Countess of Carrick, but the order is uncertain. Robert the Bruce was the eldest; in the past there was some dispute over whether Edward was second, or third behind Nigel, but one recent account has him fourth behind Nigel and Alexander. His date of birth is unknown, but it was probably not very long after Robert was born in 1274; he was old enough to be fighting in 1307 and to be given an independent command not long after. The Irish medievalist Seán Duffy suggests that he was probably fostered in Ireland as a child, likely by the O'Neills of Ulster, while Archie Duncan suggests some period of time spent with the Bissetts of the Glens of Antrim. This was a common Scottish and Irish cultural practice, and would tie in with, and perhaps explain, parts of his later life.

Edward fought alongside Robert throughout his struggle for the Scottish throne, including his desperate period on the run and as a guerrilla. The three younger Bruce brothers Nigel, Thomas and Alexander were all captured and executed by the English during this period, but Edward survived. As Marjorie the only child of Robert had also been captured by English, Edward was apparently heir to Robert.

Campaigning against the Comyns
After his defeat at the Battle of Barra in May 1308, King Robert's men chased the forces of rival John Comyn, Earl of Buchan as far as Fyvie Castle. As this was a strong fortress, the pursuit ended there. Robert then commanded Edward to lay waste to the Earldom of Buchan, from end to end, including all the castles and strongholds, principally Slains Castle, Rattray Castle and Dundarg Castle as well as the castles that were in English hands such as Fyvie Castle and Aberdeen Castle. At some point after his defeat at Barra, John Comyn fled Scotland for England.

Edward de Bruce proceeded for several months to harry Buchan and kill those who resisted King Robert's rule, homesteads destroyed, livestock slaughtered, stores of grain destroyed, and reducing the castles. By destroying the Comyns' power base, King Robert prevented any possible chance of future violent hostility towards his rule. There is no trustworthy account of the Harrying of Buchan, but it was undoubtedly a prolonged and fiercely contested campaign.

Later campaigns in Scotland
Edward then played an important role in capturing and slighting English-held castles in southwest Scotland, including Rutherglen Castle which he successfully recaptured from the English in 1313. It was he who made a possibly ill-judged pact with the English governor of Stirling Castle, which led to the English sending a large army to relieve the castle. This led to the Battle of Bannockburn on 23–24 June 1314, where he commanded a Scottish schiltrom.

Some time between 1309 and 1313, Edward was created Earl of Carrick, a title previously held by his maternal grandfather Niall of Carrick, his mother and his elder brother.

Family life
In 1317 he was granted dispensation by the Pope to marry Isabella daughter of William, Earl of Ross, although it is doubtful that the marriage took place. He did have an illegitimate son, Alexander Bruce, who would later inherit his father's earldom. Alexander's mother was Isabella, daughter of John of Strathbogie, 9th Earl of Atholl.

Historical background
By the early 14th century, Ireland had not had a recognised High King since Ruaidrí mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), who had been deposed by his son in 1186. The country was divided between Irish dynasties and Anglo-Irish lords, each ruling separate parts of Ireland. (In 1258 some of the dynasties and clans had elected Brian Ua Neill to the position of High King; however, he was defeated and killed by the Normans at the Battle of Downpatrick in 1260.)

As a descendant of Aoife MacMurrough (died 1188), Edward could also claim extensive royal Gaelic Irish ancestry that included Brian Boru (High King from 1002 to 1014) and Dermot MacMurrough (King of Leinster from 1126 to 1171); and also the Hiberno-Norse king Olaf Cuaran (died 980). (The Bruce brothers also descended from the kings/lords of Galloway, who were themselves a branch of the same kings of Mann and the Isles which produced Somerled (died 1164), progenitor of Clan Donald, Clan Dougall and Clan Ruari.)

Edward's main mission in invading Ireland involved opening a second front in Scotland's ongoing war against England and depriving the English of much-needed men, materials and finance by causing havoc in Ireland. This became critical when English-backed Scots recaptured the Isle of Man from King Robert's control in January 1315, thereby threatening the south and south-west of Scotland and also reopening up a potential channel of aid to the English from the Anglo-Irish and native Irish.

In addition, Domhnall mac Briain Ó Néill, the king of Tír Eóghain in present-day Ulster, asked for assistance. Ó Néill had been troubled by Anglo-Irish incursions into Tír Eógain from the south-east (the de Verdons), the east (tenants of the earl of Ulster) and the west (also by the earl of Ulster). In order to retain his lands, he and some twelve of his vassals and allies jointly requested aid from Scotland. The Bruce brothers agreed, on condition of Irish support for Edward as King of Ireland—the brothers envisaged themselves as separate rulers of Scotland and Ireland, while Robert would regain Man and Edward would possibly make an attack, with Welsh support, on English-controlled Wales. The brothers thus envisaged "a grand Celtic alliance against the English", combining Scotland and Ireland—since both countries had a common Gaelic heritage.

Ó Néill approved of the conditions for himself and on behalf of his vassals, and preparations began. At about this point, Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, received news from Irish sources that an invasion was about to take place, and made his way to Ireland where he held land, mainly in and around the castle and town of Trim. (He had previously fought against the Bruces at Bannockburn where he was taken prisoner and freed to return King Edward II's royal seal, lost in the rout.)

On 26 April 1315 a Scottish parliament met at Ayr (just across the North Channel from Antrim). As King Robert did not yet have any legitimate male heir, Edward was proclaimed his legal heir and successor as King of Scotland and to all other titles in case of Robert's death. Edward's invasion fleet also mustered there, having received calls to assemble as early as the previous month.

Arrival and the Campaign of 1315
On 26 May 1315 Edward and his fleet (estimated at in excess of 6,000 men) landed on the Irish coast at points at and between Olderfleet Castle at Larne, and Glendrum. His brother had sailed from Tarbert for the Western Isles with his son-in-law, Walter Stewart, to subjugate them till "all the isles, great and small, were brought to his will." Edward meanwhile was swiftly faced by an army led by vassals of the Earl of Ulster such as the de Mandevilles, Savages, Logans and Bissets of the Glens, and their Irish allies, led by Sir Thomas de Mandeville. However, they were defeated in battle by the Scots under Thomas Randolph. Subsequently, the Scots managed to take the town, though not the castle, of Carrickfergus.

In early June, Ó Néill and some twelve fellow northern kings and lords met Edward at Carrickfergus and swore fealty to him as King of Ireland. The Irish annals state that de Brus "took the hostages and lordship of the whole province of Ulster without opposition and they consented to him being proclaimed King of Ireland and all the Gaels of Ireland agreed to grant him lordship and they called him King of Ireland." In fact, de Brus was never to receive anything more than purely nominal recognition from any of the more powerful Irish kings, and despite entreaties at various times over the next three years, was ignored by those whom he did not directly interest. He did, however, directly or indirectly rule much of eastern and mid-Ulster.

In late June, Edward proceeded with his army from Carrickfergus along Magh Line (Six Mile Water), burning Rathmore, near Antrim town, which was a holding of the Savages. He then went south by way of the Moiry Pass; called "Innermallan"/"Enderwillane"/Imberdiolan" in contemporary accounts, between Newry and Dundalk. This ancient routeway had been for centuries the passage south out of Ulster into the Kingdom of Mide, Leinster and Munster but because of its narrowness Ulster armies had frequently ambushed and been ambushed at the pass. Here he was met by Mac Duilechain of Clanbrassil and Mac Artain of Iveagh, both of whom had submitted to him at Carrickfergus. Their attempted ambush ended in their defeat and the army pressed on, destroying de Verdon's fortress of Castle Roche, and on 29 June attacked Dundalk. The town, another possession of the de Verdons, was almost totally destroyed with its population, both Anglo-Irish and Gaelic, massacred alike.

In July, two separate armies opposing Edward met and assembled at Sliabh Breagh, the high ground south of Ardee. One was led out of Connacht by Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster and his ally, the king of Connacht, Felim mac Aedh Ua Conchobair. The second consisted of forces raised in Munster and Leinster by Justiciar, Sir Edmund Butler of Ormonde (father of James Butler, 1st Earl of Ormond). The Scots-Irish army was located at Inniskeen, ten miles north. In between Sliabh Breagh and Inniskeen was the village of Louth. De Burgh moved his army north of Louth and set up camp while his cousin, William Liath de Burgh attempted to ambush Edward's forces. While some skirmishing did result in a number of Scots deaths, Edward refused to give battle and instead, with the Ó Néill, retreated northwards to Coleraine via Armagh. Edward and Domhnall Ó Néill sacked and burned Coleraine, threw down the bridge over the river Bann and faced off de Burgh's pursuing army on the opposite bank. While both sides now were experiencing shortages of food and supplies, de Brus and Ó Néill could at least draw support from local lords such as Ó Cathain and Ó Floinn. Mindful of this, de Burgh eventually withdrew back forty miles to Antrim, while Butler had to return to Ormond due to lack of supplies.

In addition to this, Edward sent separate messages both to King Felim and a rival dynast, Cathal Ua Conchobair, promising to support them if they withdrew. Cathal managed to return to Connacht and had himself proclaimed king, leaving Felim with no choice but to return to put down his rebellion. Worse was to follow: de Burgh found himself deprived of not two but three allies and their armies when his kinsman, Walter mac Walter Cattach Burke, deserted back to Connacht at the head of several hundred men, probably to guard his own estates from the upcoming conflict. Thus, when in August Edward and his men crossed the Bann in four ships supplied by Scots sea captain, Thomas Dun, de Burgh retreated still further to Connor, where on either the first or ninth of September a charge by the Scots-Irish led to his defeat. William Liath was captured and taken as hostage to Scotland by Moray who arrived there on 15 September 1315 to raise more troops, "his ships filled with booty". De Burgh retreated back to Connacht, while other Anglo-Irish took refuge in Carrickfergus Castle.

Finally apprised of the seriousness of the situation, Edward II had on 1 September ordered an assembly of the leading Anglo-Irish, which met at Parliament in Dublin in late October, but no decisive action was taken. On 13 November 1315, Edward marched further south via Dundalk where, incredibly, "some gave them the right hand" (a fight), occupied Nobber on 30 November, and advanced to Kells, where he was met by Mortimer. Mortimer had managed to raise a large force consisting both of his Anglo-Irish and Gaelic vassals, in addition to forces of other magnates. At the same time, Edward was reinforced by Moray who had returned from Scotland with around five hundred fresh troops and supplies.

The Battle of Kells followed, with Mortimer being decisively defeated by Edward. Mortimer was forced to retreat to Dublin while his lieutenant, Walter Cusack, held out at Trim. He almost immediately set sail for England to urge Edward II for reinforcements. At the same time, Governor of Ireland (and Bishop of Ely) John Hotham began to take drastic action to defend Dublin from de Brus, such as leveling entire tenements and churches.

After sacking and burning Kells, Edward proceeded to do the same to Granard, Finnea, the Cistercian monastery of Abbeyleix and raided Angaile (Annaly), the lordship of Gaelic lord O Hanely. De Brus spent Christmas at de Verdon's manor of Loughsewdy, consuming its supplies entirely and before leaving, razing it to the ground. The only manors left alone belonged to Irish lords intimidated to join him, or that of a junior branch of the de Lacy family who in an effort to gain lands voluntarily joined him.

Famine
At first the Irish/Scottish alliance seemed unstoppable as they won battle after battle. In less than a year they had most of Ireland in their control. However, by the beginning of 1317 famine had stricken most of the country making it difficult for Edward to provide food to most of his men. Shortly, King Robert returned to Scotland and management of his own kingdom, but promised more aid and more volunteers to help his brother. For almost a year the Anglo-Norman barons did little to retake any land since the famine made it difficult for either side to provide food to soldiers in the field.

Irish kings' Remonstrance of 1317
As rule over Ireland had been offered to the Plantagenets by the papal bull Laudabiliter in 1155, Edward's allies, led by Donall O'Neill, sent a remonstrance to Pope John XXII in 1317. This asked for Laudabiliter to be revoked and informed the Pope that they had chosen Edward as their king: "...we have unanimously established and set him up as our king and lord in our kingdom aforesaid, for in our judgment and the common judgment of men he is pious and prudent, humble and chaste, exceedingly temperate, in all things sedate and moderate, and possessing power (God on high be praised) to snatch us mightily from the house of bondage with the help of God and our own justice, and very willing to render to everyone what is due to him of right, and above all is ready to restore entirely to the Church in Ireland the possessions and liberties..."

The Papacy neither recognised Edward's claim, nor agreed with the Remonstrance, and his rule remained de facto over parts of Ireland and never de jure over the whole island.

Battle of Faughart
Then in the late summer of 1318, Sir John de Bermingham with his army began a march against Edward. On 14 October 1318, the Scots-Irish army was badly defeated at the Battle of Faughart by de Bermingham's forces. Edward was killed, his body being quartered and the parts sent to various towns in Ireland, and his head being delivered to King Edward II. In the Annals of Ulster (erroneously under the year 1315) the hostility towards Edward Bruce among both the Anglo-Irish and Irish alike is evident:"'Edward de Brus, the destroyer of Ireland in general, both Foreigners and Gaels, was killed by the Foreigners of Ireland by dint of fighting at Dun-Delgan. And there were killed in his company Mac Ruaidhri, king of Insi-Gall Hebrides and Mac Domhnaill, king of Argyll, together with slaughter of the Men of Scotland around him. And there was not done from the beginning of the world a deed that was better for the Men of Ireland than that deed. For there came death and loss of people during his time in all Ireland in general for the space of three years and a half and people undoubtedly used to eat each other throughout Ireland.'"

title: Edward Bruce


text:
Shock jock

A shock jock is a radio broadcaster or DJ who entertains listeners and attracts attention using humor and/or melodramatic exaggeration that may offend some portion of the listening audience. The term is used pejoratively to describe provocative or irreverent broadcasters whose mannerisms, statements and actions are typically offensive to much of society. It is a popular term within the radio industry. A shock jock is the radio equivalent of the tabloid newspaper in that both consider entertaining readers to be as important as, if not more important than, providing factual information. A radio station that relies primarily on shock jocks for programming has what is called a hot talk format.

The term is used in two broad, yet sometimes overlapping contexts:

 * 1) The radio announcer who deliberately makes outrageous, controversial, or shocking statements, or does boundary-pushing stunts to improve ratings.
 * 2) The political radio announcer has an emotional outburst in response to a controversial government policy decision.

Background
The idea of an entertainer who breaks taboos or who is deliberately offensive is not a new one. Blue comedians have existed throughout history; offensive performers (George Carlin, Petronius, Benny Bell, Le Pétomane, Redd Foxx and Lenny Bruce for example). Petey Greene, who started broadcasting in 1966, has been called the original radio shock jock by some, although the term was not used until 1986, two years after Greene's death. Greene was an influence on Howard Stern, whose radio shows in the 1980s led to the first widespread use of the term "shock jock".

Shock jocks also tend to push the envelope of decency in their market, and may appear to show a lack of regard for communications regulations (e.g., FCC rules in the U.S.) regarding content. However, nearly all American broadcasters have strict policies against content that is likely to draw indecency forfeitures, and air personalities are often contractually obligated to avoid broadcasting such content.

Many shock jocks have been fired as a result of such punishments as regulatory fines, loss of advertisers, or simply social and political outrage. On the other hand, it is also not uncommon for such broadcasters to be quickly rehired by another station or network. Shock jocks in the United States have been censored under additional pressure from the United States government since the introduction of the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005, which increased the fines on radio stations for violating decency guidelines by nearly 20 times.

North America

 * 1990: Liz Randolph, a personality at WBZZ in Pittsburgh, successfully sued the station and its two morning hosts, Jim Quinn and Banana Don Jefferson, for a running gag sexually harassing her. Quinn remained in his position but over the next several years would gradually transition to a politically oriented format for his show.
 * 1991: Rusty Humphries, then at KEGL, orchestrates a stunt attempting to sneak toy weapons onto a plane at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.
 * 1994: Mancow Muller of KYLD-FM orchestrates a stunt blocking off the westbound lanes of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge during rush hour while his on-air sidekick got a haircut, in response to (false) allegations then-President Bill Clinton would have caused delays at Los Angeles International Airport by getting his hair cut aboard Air Force One. Muller and the radio station both got sued.
 * 1995: Howard Stern responds to the death of singer Selena with a comment on how "Alvin and the Chipmunks have more soul" than Latin musicians and that "Spanish people have the worst taste in music." Stern survived the resultant outrage from the Hispanic community, which extended so far as an arrest warrant from Harlingen, Texas, that the local justice of the peace left open for a year but, because Stern never entered Harlingen, went unenforced.
 * 1998: Stern is banned from CHOM-FM in Montreal after remarking that "there's something about the (French) language that turns you into a pussy-assed jack-off." His only other Canadian affiliate, CILQ Toronto, sustained a barrage of complaints for three years afterward before dropping the show in 2001.
 * February 24, 1999: Doug Tracht aka The Greaseman was fired from WARW (now WIAD) after he played a song by Grammy Award-winning rapper Lauryn Hill and made a derogatory remark about the lynching and dragging death of James Byrd Jr. at the hands of three white men in Jasper, Texas, which was ruled a hate crime. A day earlier, the ringleader John William King was found guilty of Byrd's murder. King and his accomplice Lawrence Brewer have since been executed. The third man Shawn Berry is currently serving his life sentence at the Texas Department of Criminal Justice's Ramsey Unit. It wasn't the first time Tracht made insensitive remarks towards African Americans. On Martin Luther King Day in 1986 while working at DC101, Tracht made the following remark about Dr. King's assassination, "Kill four more and we can take a whole week off."
 * June 12, 2001: A rumor that Britney Spears was dead was scotched by her publicists after the story was spread by two US radio DJs and a hoax website using the BBC logo. Dallas shock jocks Kramer and Twitch told listeners to their KEGL-FM evening show that pop singer Spears and her then-boyfriend Justin Timberlake had been involved in a car accident in Los Angeles. The hoax sparked panic among fans, who called police and fire departments in the hundreds. The story was then turned into a spoof version of a BBC News Online web page, and the link was sent around the world by e-mail. The BBC lodged a strong protest, and the spoof page was removed.
 * August 16, 2002: Opie and Anthony sponsored a contest where the goal was to have sex in notable public places, called Sex For Sam. The contest went without a major outcry until Sex for Sam 3 after a couple had sex in a vestibule at St. Patrick's Cathedral. The resulting controversy, coupled with an earlier controversy stemming from a raunchy party in Buffalo, New York, led to Infinity Broadcasting cancelling the Opie and Anthony Show. Infinity was fined US$357,500 for the incident.
 * 2003: Tom Leykis outs the name of the accuser in the Kobe Bryant sexual assault case. The woman's name had been redacted from all other media reports about the case to date.
 * January 2004: Bubba the Love Sponge receives a $755,000 fine from the FCC for a series of sketches that implied cartoon characters were having sex.
 * April 8, 2004: Howard Stern's show was dropped by Clear Channel Communications after they were fined US$495,000 for a number of statements made during a Stern show. Stern later used his remaining market share to criticize Clear Channel and the Bush administration, and left the public airwaves to move to satellite radio, which is not subject to the same FCC decency regulations.
 * May 12, 2004: Portland Modern Rock station KNRK's morning show The Marconi Show played an audio clip from the beheading of Nick Berg on repeat, adding their snide commentary to it. After the station was flooded with angry phone calls and emails from listeners, KNRK General Manager Mark Hamilton apologised and fired both hosts of the show and their producer, asking listeners to call or write in with their suggestions on how to shape the station for the future. The result was the elimination of shock jocks and most of the hard rock music that made up the station's playlist at the time.
 * December 2004: The Federal Communications Commission proposed fines totaling $220,000 against Entercom Communications for alleged indecency violations during multiple broadcasts in April and May 2002 of the Johnny Dare Morning Show on KQRC-FM in Kansas City, Kansas. The FCC claimed that the material included repeated graphic and explicit sexual descriptions that were pandering, titillating or used to shock the audience. As justification for proposing the maximum fine, the Commission noted "the egregious nature of the violations and Entercom's history of prior indecent broadcasts."
 * 2006: J. R. Gach described, on-air, an employee at a restaurant he was patronizing who had suffered serious burns, which later escalated into a series of insults. The subject of Gach's discussion sued him over the comments, citing severe emotional distress and won a US$1,000,000 settlement in December 2007. The lawsuit effectively ended Gach's career; he never again hosted a radio show before his 2015 death.
 * April 2007: Don Imus is fired for referring to members of the Rutgers Scarlet Knights women's basketball team as "nappy-headed hos." Eight months later, another network hired Imus, who resumed the same format and would continue to host it until retiring in 2018; he died in 2019.
 * March 2, 2012: Rush Limbaugh, a politically conservative shock jock, was criticized and faced with an advertiser exodus after making comments toward activist Sandra Fluke. Limbaugh was not disciplined for the remarks and survived the controversy, with only two small stations (out of nearly 600) dropping the program in the immediate aftermath of the controversy. The controversy had a much longer impact on talk radio as a whole as advertisers became much more reluctant to have their advertising heard on politically charged programs that were subject to being targeted by pressure groups. Limbaugh died in February 2021, still hosting his program to the end.
 * December 2013: Canadian radio shock jock Dean Blundell was indefinitely suspended from CFNY-FM, following reports that he and cohost Derek Welsman had discussed on the air a jury trial in which Welsman was the foreman. The trial had concerned a sexual assault charge against a client of a gay bathhouse, and Blundell and Welsman's commentary about it was criticized both for homophobia and for potentially causing a mistrial by publicly discussing the jury deliberations. The program's cancellation was announced in January 2014.

Great Britain

 * June 2005: Radio DJ Tim Shaw propositioned glamour model Jodie Marsh live on-air on his Kerrang! FM show by announcing he would leave his family for her. This enraged Shaw's wife, who promptly sold his Lotus Esprit on eBay for 50p. Earlier that year he had been suspended for staging a mock burglary at the home of former programme director Andrew Jeffries, and in 2004, after being challenged by listeners, he phoned his sister-in-law live on-air to boast that he fantasized about her during sex with his wife.
 * October 18, 2008: (UK) BBC Radio 2 host Russell Brand resigned after calling actor Andrew Sachs and leaving four answering machine messages claiming that he had had sex with his granddaughter with fellow Radio 2 DJ Jonathan Ross.

Australia

 * July 29, 2009: On his morning breakfast radio show, Australian DJ Kyle Sandilands provoked outrage when his "Lie Detector" segment featured a 14-year-old girl who, when quizzed on her sexual history by her mother, broke down, revealing she had been raped at the age of 12. Kyle then said her mother meant any intercourse other than rape. The show was suspended for one week. Sandilands provoked further outrage three days after his suspension expired when he made a slur about Jenny Craig ambassador Magda Szubanski, saying she could have lost more weight in a concentration camp. Sandilands was suspended for ten days without pay, and after a review on September 18, had his suspension extended by three weeks. Sandilands returned to air on October 8, apologized for the incident, and was blessed by a priest at the start of the show.
 * December 4, 2012. Australian DJs Mel Greig and Mike Christian made a prank call to a hospital in London where the Duchess of Cambridge was treated for "acute morning sickness", recording and playing the call later on air. After the nurse involved committed suicide the incident received international media coverage.
 * June 13, 2013. A Perth radio host Howard Sattler was fired after he asked prime minister Julia Gillard if her partner Tim Mathieson was gay because he was a male hairdresser.

title: Shock jock


text:
Outremont, Quebec

Outremont is an affluent residential borough (arrondissement) of the city of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It consists entirely of the former city on the Island of Montreal in southwestern Quebec. The neighbourhood is inhabited largely by Francophones, and is also home to a Hasidic Jewish community. Since the 1950s, Outremont has been mostly residential, but some streets such as Van Horne, Bernard and Laurier have many commercial buildings.

The most important road in Outremont is Côte-Sainte-Catherine Road, where the borough hall is located. The neighborhood's major commercial streets are Laurier Avenue, Bernard Avenue, and Van Horne Avenue.

Geography
A separate city until the 2000 municipal mergers, Outremont is located north of downtown, on the north-western side of Mount Royal – its name means "beyond the mountain" although it encompasses Murray Hill (colline d'Outremont), one of the three peaks that make up Mount Royal. It was named for the house – Outre-Mont – built c. 1830 for Louis-Tancrède Bouthillier, a former Sheriff of Montreal.

The borough is bounded to the northwest by Mount Royal, to the northeast by Villeray–Saint-Michel–Parc-Extension and Rosemont–La Petite-Patrie, to the east by Le Plateau-Mont-Royal and the Mile End district, to the south by Ville-Marie, and to the west by Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce. The Mount Royal Cemetery is located in the south eastern tip of the borough.

Toponymy
The area was originally known as Côte Sainte-Catherine. The name Outremont came from how it was called at the time by travelers. Travelers who wished to travel north from downtown Montreal had to go "through" the mountain as in "Outre-Mont".

In 1833, Louis-Tancrède Bouthillier built a country residence that he named Outre-Mont; it still exists today on Rue McDougall. The term Outremont gradually becomes the term used to designate the region.

History
In 1875, Louis Beaubien, a federal representative, gets a federal sanction for the village. To achieve the minimum amount of residence needed, Louis Beaubien counts barns and other farm buildings as residences. The town changes its name from Cote-Sainte-Catherine to Outremont. The village is home to only 300 souls.

In 1927, Outremont became the first place in the world to use a snow blower to clear its streets in the winter. It was the first production model of Canadian inventor Arthur Sicard's Sicard Industries.

Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau was born and raised in Outremont.

Features
Outremont is served by the Outremont and Édouard-Montpetit stations on the Blue Line of the Montreal Metro. (Édouard-Montpetit station is actually located in Côte-des-Neiges, but right on the Outremont border).

Major thoroughfares include Avenue Van Horne and chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, with avenue Bernard and avenue Laurier as the principal shopping and dining areas. The area has a number of trendy restaurants, cafés and shops. Residents include a substantial percentage of expatriates from France. There is also a sizable Hassidic Jewish community, representing about 20% of Outremont's population, which resides mainly in the eastern and northern portions of the borough. Many Jewish synagogues, schools and businesses can be found on avenues Van Horne, Bernard and St-Viateur.

Among the attractions in the mainly residential community are the Mount Royal Cemetery, the Salle Claude-Champagne, the Théâtre Outremont, the Saint-Grégoire-l'Illuminateur Armenian Cathedral and part of the Université de Montréal campus.

Outremont also has a rail yard along its northern border. The rail yard has been purchased by the Université de Montréal and is to be developed to house its hospital complex, its research faculties and the faculty of Health Sciences (Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal).

Outremont was twinned as a sister city with Oakwood, Ohio and Le Vésinet, France.

Demographics
Home language (2016)

Mother Tongue (2016)

Federal and provincial elections
The borough is entirely contained within the federal riding of Outremont and the provincial riding of the Mont-Royal–Outremont.

Borough council
The borough is represented on Montreal City Council by its borough mayor alone. The borough is further divided into four districts, each of which elects one borough councillor. The current borough administration was elected in the November 2021 municipal elections.

Education
The Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys operates Francophone public schools.

Adult schools include:
 * Centre d’éducation des adultes Outremont

Specialized schools include:
 * Secondaire Adapté à ta Situation SAS

Secondary schools include:
 * École secondaire Paul-Gérin-Lajoie-d'Outremont
 * Pensionnat du Saint-Nom-de-Marie
 * ‘’Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf''

Primary schools include:
 * Guy-Drummond
 * Lajoie
 * Nouvelle-Querbes
 * Saint-Germain-d'Outremont
 * Buissonnière - Saint-Anne

Additionally, Collège Stanislas, a primary and secondary school is in Outremont.

The Lester B. Pearson School Board (LBPSB) and English Montreal School Board (EMSB) operate Anglophone public schools in the greater Montreal area.

Public libraries
The Montreal Public Libraries Network operates the Robert-Bourassa Branch in Outremont.

title: Outremont, Quebec