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1st Armored Division (United States)

The 1st Armored Division, nicknamed "Old Ironsides", is a combined arms division of the United States Army. The division is part of III Armored Corps and operates out of Fort Bliss in El Paso, Texas. It was the first armored division of the United States' Army to see battle in World War II. Since World War II, the division has been involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis, Persian Gulf War, Iraq, Afghanistan, and several other operations. The division has also received numerous awards and recognition.

Insignia
The division was nicknamed "Old Ironsides" by its first commander, Major General Bruce Magruder, after he saw a picture of the frigate USS Constitution, also nicknamed "Old Ironsides". The large "1" at the top represents the numerical designation of the division and the insignia is used as a basis for most of the other sub-unit insignias.

In January 1918, the Tank Corps of the United States Army was established under Colonel Samuel Rockenbach. At his direction, First Lieutenant J. P. Wharton designed the original coat of arms: a triangle on a shield surrounded by a wreath and a silver dragon. The triangle itself is an old heraldic element of armorial design known as a pile, representing the head of a spear. There was no shoulder patch in 1918.

The 7th Cavalry Brigade (mechanized) contributed the other part of the present-day Armor shoulder patch. The brigade formed out of the 1st Cavalry Regiment in Marfa Texas, on 16 January 1933 under General Daniel Van Voorhis, then Colonel of the Cavalry. The 7th Cavalry Brigade included the 13th Cavalry and had been organized specifically to develop the new armored force concept while training in the emerging modern war-fighting tactics.

Colonel George F. Linthwaite (then a newly enlisted Private) joined the 13th Cavalry regiment in 1933. Major General Robert W. Grow (then a Major and brigade adjutant) was instructed to develop a shoulder patch for the new armored force. Grow announced to the brigade that a contest would be held to design the new Armored force patch. A three-day weekend pass was awarded to the designer of the winning entry.

Linthwaite won the contest: he designed a circular patch, four inches in diameters, with a solid yellow-gold background to symbolize the Cavalry heritage. On the face of the patch, he drew a stylized black tank track with a drive and idler sprockets to symbolize mobility. In the center of the track at a slight diagonal, he placed a single cannon barrel, also in black, to symbolize firepower. Finally, to symbolize the striking power of the new armored force, he added a diagonal lightning bolt in red, extending across the total design and full diameter of the patch.

In 1940, Major General Adna R. Chaffee Jr. was promoted to lead the newly created Armor Forces which had evolved from the old 7th Cavalry Brigade and were preparing for the looming war in Europe. Chaffee wanted a patch for this new Armored Force. He chose to combine the 7th Brigade patch with the triangle from the World War I crest. The tri-colors, with blue for infantry, red for artillery, and yellow for cavalry – represented the three basic components of the mechanized armed force. In 1940 the War Department officially designated the now-familiar patch worn by soldiers of all United States Army Armored Divisions.

World War II
On 15 July 1940, the 1st Armored Division, largely an expanded and reorganized version of the 7th Cavalry Brigade, was activated at Fort Knox under the command of Major General Bruce Magruder. The 1st Cavalry Regiment was re-designated as the 1st Armored Regiment and the 13th Cavalry Regiment was re-designated as the 13th Armored Regiment under the 1st Armored Brigade, 1st Armored Division. For more than two years after its activation, the 1st Armored Division trained at Fort Knox and the division pioneered and developed tank gunnery and strategic armored offensives while increasing from 66 medium-sized tanks to over 600 medium and light armored vehicles.

Training
On 15 July 1940 the division was established at Fort Knox, Kentucky. The U.S. Army had never had an armored division before and the troops necessary for this kind of force were drawn from a variety of army posts.

When the organization was completed, the division had tanks, artillery, and infantry as combat forces. In direct support were tank destroyer, maintenance, medical, supply and engineer battalions, but bringing the division up to its full quota of equipment and vehicles was difficult. Although new equipment was received almost daily, the division had only nine outdated medium tanks primarily armed with guns until March 1941. Most of the division attended the Armored Force School at Knox to train in using their newly acquired tanks, half-tracks, and guns.

At Fort Knox, the division participated in the Technicolor short movie The Tanks Are Coming (as the "First Armored Force"). It deployed to participate in the VII Corps Maneuvers on 18 August 1941. Once the maneuvers concluded, the 1st Armored Division then moved on 28 August 1941 and arrived at Camp Polk for the Second Army Louisiana Maneuvers on 1 September 1941. They then moved to Fort Jackson on 30 October 1941 to participate in the First Army Carolina Maneuvers.

The division returned to Fort Knox on 7 December 1941 but started to prepare for deployment overseas instead of returning to garrison. Training took on a new intensity. The division was reorganized, and all tanks, both medium and light were put into two armored regiments, the 1st and 13th. A third armored field artillery battalion, the 91st, was formed, and the 701st Tank Destroyer Battalion was organized and attached to the division.

The 1st Armored Division was ordered to Fort Dix on 11 April 1942 to await their deployment overseas. The division's port call required them to board the RMS Queen Mary at the New York Port of Embarkation at the Brooklyn Army Terminal on 11 May 1942. They arrived in Northern Ireland on 16 May 1942 and trained on the moors until they moved on to England on 29 October 1942. The division was now commanded by Major General Orlando Ward.

Combat operations

A volunteer troop of three M3 Lee crews from the 1st Armored Division commanded by Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. fought in the Battle of Gazala under British command in June 1942, becoming the first Americans to engage the Germans on land in the war.

Alerted for the invasion were the 1st Battalion of the 1st Armored Regiment, the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 13th Armored Regiment, nearly all the 6th Armored Infantry Regiment, the 27th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, "B" and "C" Companies of the 701st Tank Destroyer Battalion, and detachments of the 16th Armored Engineer Battalion, the Supply Battalion, the Maintenance Battalion, 47th Armored Medical Battalion, and the 141st Signal Company.

The unit's proper first contact with an enemy was as part of the Allied invasion of Northwest Africa, Operation Torch, on 8 November 1942. Elements of the division became part of the Northern Task Force and became the first American armored division to see combat in World War II. Combat Command B (CCB) of the division landed east and west of Oran under the command of Brigadier General Lunsford E. Oliver and entered the city on 10 November 1942. On 24 November 1942, CCB moved from Tafraoui, Algeria to Bedja, Tunisia, and raided the Djedeida airfield the next day and conquered the city on 28 November 1942. CCB moved southwest of Tebourba on 1 December 1942, engaged with German forces on El Guessa Heights on 3 December 1942, but its lines were pierced on 6 December 1942. CCB withdrew to Bedja with heavy equipment losses between 10 and 11 December 1942 and was placed in reserve. CCB next attacked in the Ousseltia Valley on 21 January 1943, and cleared that area until 29 January 1943 when sent to Bou Chebka, and arrived at Maktar on 14 February 1943.

Combat Command A (CCA) fought at Faïd Pass commencing on 30 January 1943, and advanced to Sidi Bou Zid, where it was pushed back with heavy tank losses on 14 February 1943, and had elements isolated on Djebel Lessouda, Djebel Kasaira, and Garet Hadid. Combat Command C (CCC), which was formed on 23 January 1943 to raid Sened Station on 24 January, advanced towards Sbeita and counterattacked to support CCA in the Sidi Bou Zid area on 15 February 1943, but was forced to retreat with heavy losses. The division withdrew from Sbeita on 16 February 1943, but by 21 February 1943 CCB contained the German attack toward Tébessa. The German withdrawal allowed the division to recover Kasserine Pass on 26 February 1943 and assemble in reserve. The division moved northeast of Gafsa on 13 March 1943 and attacked in heavy rains on 17 March 1943 as CCA took Zannouch, but became immobilized by rain the next day. The division drove on Maknassy on 20 March 1943, and fought the Battle of Djebel Naemia on 22–25 March 1943, and then fought to break through positions barring the road to Gabès between 29 March and 1 April 1943. It followed up on the withdrawing German forces on 6 April 1943 and attacked towards Mateur with CCA on 27 April 1943, which fell after fighting on Hill 315 and Hill 299 on 3 May 1943. The division, now commanded by Major General Ernest N. Harmon, fought the Battle for Djebel Achtel between 5 and 11 May 1943 and entered Ferryville on 7 May 1943. With the British forces taking Tunis and Americans in Bizerte, the Axis forces in Tunisia surrendered between 9 and 13 May 1943. The division was reorganized in French Morocco and began arriving in Naples, Italy on 28 October 1943.

After the Allied invasion of Sicily, the 1st Armored Division, which was part of the American Fifth Army, invaded mainland Italy. It participated in the attack on the Winter Line in November 1943, flanked the Axis armies in the landings at Anzio, and passed through the city of Rome and pursued the retreating enemy northward until mid-July 1944. At that point, Harmon was replaced by Major General Vernon Prichard, who led the 1st AD for the rest of the war. Three days after Prichard took command, the division was reorganized based on experiences in the North Africa Campaign. The change was drastic: it eliminated the armored and infantry regiments in favor of three separate tank and infantry battalions, disbanded the Supply Battalion, and cut the strength of the division from 14,000 to 10,000. The result of the reorganization was a more flexible and balanced division, with roughly equivalent infantry and tank battalions. These forces could be combined or custom-tailored by the command to meet any situation. The additional infantry strength would prove particularly useful in future campaigns in the largely mountainous combat of the Italian campaign. The division continued in combat to the Po Valley until the German forces in Italy surrendered on 2 May 1945. In June, the division moved to Germany as part of the occupation forces.

Casualties

 * Total battle casualties: 7,096
 * Killed in action: 1,194
 * Wounded in action: 5,168
 * Missing in action: 216
 * Prisoner of war: 518

During the war, the Old Ironsides division captured 41 towns and cities and 108,740 prisoners. 722 division soldiers were awarded the Silver Star and another 908 received the Bronze Star. The division received 5,478 Purple Hearts. Two division soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during World War II: Private Nicholas Minue and Second Lieutenant Thomas Weldon Fowler.

The 1st Armored Division flag returned to the New York Port of Embarkation on 24 April 1946 and was deactivated at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey on 25 April 1946. The component headquarters and units which remained in Germany were retasked and renamed as a component of the United States Constabulary.

After World War II
As part of the Korean War buildup of American forces, the 1st Armored Division was reactivated at Fort Hood, Texas on 7 March 1951. The division became one of the first divisions in the Army to integrate black soldiers throughout the ranks, and was also the only combat-ready armored division in the continental United States and the first to receive the M48 Patton tank. Training for nuclear war became a major theme in the mid-1950s. The 1st Armored Division participated in tests of the "Atomic Field Army" at Fort Hood and in Operation Sagebrush, the largest joint maneuver conducted since World War II. The 1st Armored Division moved to its new base of operations at Fork Polk, Louisiana after completing the exercise in February 1956.

Cuba
At the end of the 1950s, the Army's focus on a nuclear battlefield waned and it experienced years of reduced budgets. The 1st Armored Division reverted into a training cadre for new inductees after being reduced in size and moved back to Fort Hood.

In 1962, the 1st Armored Division was brought back to full strength and reorganized. Brigades replaced combat commands and the division's aviation assets doubled. Intense training followed the reorganization. In October 1962 the 1st Armored Division was declared combat-ready just before the Cuban Missile Crisis. The division deployed from Fort Hood, Texas to Fort Stewart in response to the Soviet stationing of missiles in Cuba. The entire operation took 18 days.

In the following six weeks, the 1st Armored Division conducted live-fire training and amphibious exercises on the Georgia and Florida coasts. One highlight was a visit from President John F. Kennedy on 26 November 1962. Shortly thereafter, tensions eased and the division returned to Ft. Hood.

Vietnam
Although the 1st Armored Division did not participate as a division in the Vietnam War, there were two units, Company A, 501st Aviation and 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry, that served in Vietnam. Both earned Presidential Unit Citations, and 1-1 Cavalry received two Valorous Unit Awards and three Vietnamese Crosses of Gallantry. Neither unit was officially detached from the 1st Armored Division thus veterans of both units may wear the division's patch as a combat patch. In 1967 the 198th Infantry Brigade was formed from three of the division's infantry battalions and deployed from Fort Hood to Vietnam. After the war, two of the three battalions, 1-6 Infantry and 1-52 Infantry, returned to the 1st Armored Division.

In early April 1968, when rioting broke out in many American cities following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the 3rd Brigade was deployed on 6 April to assist in restoring order during rioting in Chicago.

West Germany

In the early 1970s, American forces withdrew from Vietnam and the Army was heavily restructured: the 1st Armored Division was rumored to be on the list of units to be deactivated. Veterans of the division organized a letter-writing campaign to "save" the 1st Armored Division.

As part of the Army's post-Vietnam reorganization, the 1st Armored Division was moved to West Germany in 1971 and replaced the 4th Armored Division in the Bavarian city of Ansbach. The Division headquarters remained in Ansbach, with brigade units in the neighboring towns of Bamberg, Illesheim, Fürth (Nuremberg), Schwabach, Katterbach, Crailsheim, Erlangen and Zirndorf for the next twenty years, as part of VII Corps, itself part of NATO's Central Army Group.

1st Battalion, 51st Infantry (Mech), at Crailsheim, part of the 1st Brigade, was deactivated on 16 June 1984 as a result of the division's conversion to the Division 86 force structure. Under the Division 86 structure, each heavy division decreased by one infantry battalion, while remaining infantry battalions gained one additional rifle company.

On 16 April 1986, the Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division, was activated in Germany.

In April 1987, 6th Battalion, 43rd Air Defense Artillery (Patriot) moved to a newly built Urlas Kaserne (located near Bismarck & Katterbach Kaserne) assigned to the 1st Armored Division.

On 16 November 1987, the 501st Combat Aviation Battalion was deactivated and re-flagged as 2nd Battalion, 1st Aviation Regiment at Katterbach Kaserne, Federal Republic of Germany, under the 1st Armored Division.

Persian Gulf War
In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. On 8 November 1990, the 1st Armored Division was alerted for deployment to the Middle East to provide an offensive option should Saddam refuse to withdraw from Kuwait. This alert changed the division's focus, from "building down" in Europe to "building up" in Southwest Asia.

Division leaders and soldiers began focusing on planning, training and unit deployment. Planning focused on the challenge of logistics, as the division had to be shipped to Saudi Arabia in a logical order to support the buildup for combat operations.

Commanders and their staff rapidly integrated new equipment into their units to be deployed to the Persian Gulf region. The division also prepared to receive new units: 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division replaced 1st Brigade, 1st Armored Division. Round-out units such as the 312th Support Center (RAOC) composed of reservists from throughout Germany, also joined the division. Other units, such as the 54th and 19th Engineer battalions, the 218th Military Police Company, and the 7th Support Group, joined the 1st Armored Division in Kuwait.

Units concentrated on preparing vehicles for overseas movement while undergoing individual and unit training, including gunnery, in the few weeks available before deployment. The division qualified 355 tanks and 300 Bradley crews on Tables VII and VIII, conducted division artillery howitzer section gunnery, fired modified Vulcan Table VIII and qualified Stinger and Chaparral crews. Battle drill rehearsals and wargaming seminars were also part of the rigorous training agenda.

The division transported equipment by rail, wheeled convoy, and rotary-wing self-deployment. These movements unavoidably occurred on short notice or in bad weather, and posed challenges to coordination and logistics. The first trains departed for port the last week of November 1990 and continued to so until the second week of December 1990. Within two months 17,400 soldiers and 7,050 pieces of equipment were moved to Saudi Arabia for Operation Desert Shield/Storm.

Battle damage assessment

 * 25 Feb: 2 tanks, 25 APC, 9 artillery, 14 ADA, 48 trucks, 314 EPW
 * 26 Feb: 112 tanks, 82 APC, 2 artillery, 2 ADA, 94 trucks, 545 EPW
 * 27 Feb: 186 tanks, 127 APC, 66 artillery, 5 ADA, 118 trucks, 839 EPW
 * 28 Feb: 41 tanks, 60 APC, 15 artillery, 11 ADA, 244 trucks, 281 EPW
 * 1–12 Mar: 99 tanks, 191 APC, 98 artillery, 105 ADA, 879 trucks, 4,707 EPW
 * Total: 440 tanks, 485 APC, 190 artillery, 137 ADA, 1,383 trucks, 6,686 EPW

Four division soldiers were killed in action and 52 wounded in action during the Gulf War

The Balkans
On 18 December 1995, under the command of Major General William L. Nash, the division deployed to northeastern Bosnia as the command and major troop contributing element of Task Force Eagle, a peace enforcement, multinational unit. The 1st Armored Division returned in late 1996 to Germany.

In 1999, the unit deployed to Kosovo for Operation Allied Force and Operation Joint Guardian. The unit trained heavily afterwards in the Hohenfels and Grafenwöhr Training Areas in Germany, with realistic OPFOR (Opposition Forces) exercises.

In 2000, the 1st Armored Division's 1st Brigade Combat Team trained at the Grafenwoehr Training Area (GTA). In February 2000, 1st Armored Division Headquarters announced the closure of military facilities in Bad Kreuznach and its subsequent move to Wiesbaden scheduled for June 2001. The 1st Armored Division trained at HTA and GTA in three separate exercises in March 2001. Ready First participated in Mountain Guardian III at Hohenfels as a mission rehearsal exercise for Kosovo.

The 1st Armored Division's command and control elements conducted a warfighter exercise in the GTA between 21 March and 17 April 2001. The 1st Armored Division took command of Task Force Falcon in Kosovo as Brigadier General Randal Tieszen accepted the colors from 1st Infantry Division's Brigadier General Ricardo Sanchez. The 1st Armored Division celebrated its 60th birthday at home and abroad in Kosovo on 15 July 2001. Major General George W. Casey, Jr. traveled to Boston Harbor in August 2001, where he connected with Commander Bill Foster of the historic warship USS Constitution.

Iraq
In the months building up to the March 2003 invasion of Iraq, two battalions of the 1st Armored Division's 3rd Brigade were deployed to support Operation Iraqi Freedom. The 2–70 Armor and 1–41 Infantry battalion task forces augmented the 82nd Airborne Division, the 3rd Infantry Division, and the 101st Airborne Division throughout the campaign to oust Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. These units spearheaded the U.S. assaults in As Samawah and Karbala and later occupied the southern area of Baghdad. The 1st Battalion, 13th Armor followed shortly behind towards the end of March 2003.

In May 2003, the division deployed to Iraq and assumed responsibility for Baghdad, under command of Major General Ricardo Sanchez, relieving the 3d Infantry Division. The 1st Brigade, under Colonel Michael Tucker and after July 2003 under Colonel Peter Mansoor, assumed responsibility for the Rusafa and Adhamiya districts of central Baghdad. The division was scheduled to return to Germany in April 2004 but was extended in country an additional 3 months in order to oppose an uprising of Shia militia led by Moqtada Al Sadr. During the extension Task Force 1–37 Armor ("Bandits") fought Sadr's forces in Karbala while Task Force 2–37 AR ("Dukes") along with elements of 2–3 FA ("Gunners") fought in Diwaniya, Sadr City, Al-Kut, and Najaf. Task Force 1–36 IN ("Spartans") became the Combined Joint Task Force 7 Operational Reserve and conducted operations along Route Irish from Baghdad International Airport to the Green Zone in support of the 1st Cavalry Division. Forces from the 2d Brigade fought in Kut. During its 15-month deployment, the division lost 133 soldiers.

Ready First
The division's 1st Brigade deployed again to Iraq in January 2006 under the command of Colonel Sean B. MacFarland after months of intensive training in Grafenwöhr and Hohenfels, Germany. Many of the soldiers who fought with units like 1–36 Infantry ("Spartans"), 2–37 Armor ("Iron Dukes"), and 1–37 ("Bandits") during the invasion of Iraq returned for a second tour. Most of the 1st BCT was initially deployed to Northern Iraq in Nineveh province concentrating on the city of Tal' Afar. In May 2006, the main force of the 1st Brigade received orders to move south to the city of Ramadi in volatile Al Anbar Province.

Since 2003, Al Anbar served as a base of operations for the Sunni insurgency and al Qaeda. Ramadi, its capital, had neither a government nor a police force when the brigade arrived. Most military strategists inside and outside of the Bush administration believed that the war in Anbar had already concluded unsuccessfully. Al Qaeda in Iraq publicly announced Ramadi as the capital of their new caliphate and the city alone averaged more than twenty attacks per day; the province was statistically the most dangerous location in the country, and the insurgency enjoyed free rein throughout much of the province.

Ramadi
When the 1st Brigade arrived in Ramadi in June 2006 with more than 70 M1 Abrams tanks and 84 Bradley fighting vehicles, many locals believed the brigade was preparing for a Fallujah-style block-by-block clearing assault on the city and many insurgents fled the city. Following Colonel H.R. McMaster's "Clear, Hold, Build" strategy, the brigade developed a plan to isolate the insurgents, deny them sanctuary, and build Iraqi security forces.

The 1st Brigade moved into some of Ramadi's dangerous neighborhoods and built four of what would eventually become eighteen combat outposts starting in July 2006. The soldiers brought the territory under control and inflicted many casualties on the insurgents. On 24 July, the Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) launched a counterattack, initiating 24 assaults, each with about 100 fighters, on American positions. The insurgents failed in all of their attacks and lost about 30 men.

Independence Day
Simultaneous with combat operations, the brigade worked on the "hold" portion of clear, hold, build. Lieutenant Colonel Tony Deane, commander of Task Force 1-35 Armor, approached Sheik Abdul Sattar Bezia al-Rishawi of the Abu Risha tribe in an attempt to recruit his tribesmen to the police force.

In his book A Chance in Hell that focuses on the operation in Al Anbar, Jim Michaels wrote that the US had a flawed view on civil government which ignored the tribal history of Iraq. "The tribal system embraced elements of democracy. The sheik may not be elected," wrote Michaels," but nor is he born into his job. Sheiks are generally selected by a group of elders[...] Throughout history, ignoring the tribes [in Iraq] has never been a smart move.  Sheiks have wielded power for thousands of years and survived countless efforts to blunt their influence in the name of modernity."

To facilitate Sheik Sittar, Colonel MacFarland's deputy, Lieutenant Colonel Jim Lechner, and his police implementation officer, Marine Major Teddy Gates, changed the location for Iraqi Police recruiting. They wanted a more secure location close to Sattar's house, as this would enable them to build a police station north of the Euphrates River in an area where many potential recruits lived. Having already had his father and three brothers killed by AQI, Sattar appreciated the idea. The residents' response was overwhelming by standing in line to serve as IP's at the next recruiting drive.

In August, the new Jazeera police station north of the river, manned mostly by Abu Ali Jassim tribe members, was attacked and the sheikh of the tribe was killed. AQI hid the sheikh's body so it was not found for several days, a violation of Islam's strict burial rules that call for interment within 24 hours.

The attack on the station killed several Iraqi police and created many burn casualties. MacFarland offered to evacuate the police to Camp Blue Diamond, an American Army camp outside of Ramadi, while they repaired the station. But the Iraqis refused to abandon their post and instead put their flag back up and resumed patrolling that same day.

Awakening
With the locals outraged by AQI's disregard of Islamic funeral laws, the charismatic Sattar stepped forward to continue the push toward working with the Americans. On 9 September 2006, he organized a tribal council, attended by more than 50 sheiks as well as MacFarland, where he officially declared an "Anbar Awakening". It would convene an Awakening Council dedicated to driving the AQI out of Ramadi and establish rule of law and local governance. The Anbar Awakening was realized with Sittar as its leader. McFarland, speaking later about the meeting, said, "I told them that I now knew what it was like to be in Independence Hall on 4 July 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was signed." While attacks remained high through October 2006, the Awakening and Sittar's influence began to spread. The AQI, realized it was losing its influence over the citizens and launched a counterattack on the Sufia tribal area on 25 November. The attack was intended to terrorize and insult the Sufia tribe, though with the 1st BCT's M1A1 tanks reinforcing tribal defenders, the AQI was repelled and the relationship between the Sufia tribe and the 1st Armored Division improved.

By early 2007, the combination of tribal engagement and combat outposts was defeating AQI's in Ramadi and throughout the province. President George W. Bush, in his 23 January 2007 State of the Union speech referred to Al Anbar as a place "where al Qaeda terrorists have gathered and local forces have begun showing a willingness to fight them."

"The Gettysburg of this war"
By February 2007, contact with insurgents dropped almost 70 percent in number since June 2006 as well as decreasing in complexity and effect. By the summer of 2007, fighting in Al Anbar was mostly over. Frederick Kagan, resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, called Al Anbar "the Gettysburg of this war, to the extent that counterinsurgencies can have such turning points," writing "Progress in Anbar and throughout the Sunni community has depended heavily on a skillful balance between military force and political efforts at the local level."

The tactics, techniques, and procedures used by 1st BCT were groundbreaking at the time but came to serve as the philosophical basis for the surge in Iraq. In nine months, 85 soldiers, sailors, and Marines were killed, and over 500 were wounded.

Division Headquarters redeploys
In September 2007, amid a national debate about troop levels in Iraq and, more broadly, about the US strategy in Iraq, the 1st Armored Division Headquarters was re-deployed to Iraq. General David Petraeus' surge strategy was in effect, with major counterinsurgency operations across the country. "This is a pivotal and historic time for the 1st AD, for the forces in Iraq and for the nation," said Brig. Gen. James C. Boozer, a deputy commanding general for 1st AD at the time of the division's deployment. The division began its deployment the same day Petraeus delivered his Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq, concluding that "the military objectives of the surge are, in large measure, being met."

The division, commanded by then-Major General Mark Hertling, conducted a relief in place with the 25th Infantry Division and assumed command of Multi-National Division North, headquartered in Tikrit, Iraq, on 28 October 2007, just as MacFarland's Anbar Awakening was pushing AQI out of Anbar. At the time in northern Iraq, enemy attacks averaged 1,800 a month, the Iraqis had little trust in their central government, and the unemployment rate was high.

Hertling assumed responsibility for all Coalition forces in Northern Iraq. Multi-National Division North was composed of five maneuver brigade combat teams, a combat aviation brigade, a fires brigade, and an engineer brigade. The division had responsibility includes the Iraqi provinces of Ninawa, Kirkuk (formerly at Tamin), Salah ad Din, and Diyala along with Dahuk, and As Sulaymaniyah. The area included the critical cities of Tal Afar, Mosul, Bayji, Tikrit, Kirkuk, Samarra, Balad, Baqubah, Dahuk, and Sulaymaniah. Arbil province remained aligned as a separate Multi-National Division, North-East. The division area of operations included ethnic fault lines between Arabs and Kurds, religious fault lines between Sunni and Shia Muslims, numerous tribal regions, and the complexities involving significant former regime elements.

The 1st Armored Division immediately applied a mix of lethal and non-lethal counterinsurgency tactics, as maneuver battalions partnered with State Department officials and provincial reconstruction teams. Commanders applied a focused lethality, protecting the Iraqi population while killing insurgents in large volumes.

The division transferred responsibility to Headquarters 25th Infantry Division on 8 December 2008 and returned to Wiesbaden Army Airfield (later renamed Lucius D. Clay Kaserne) in Germany.

On 17 April 2013, US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel announced the deployment of elements of the 1st Armored Division headquarters to Jordan in response to the crisis in Syria. The elements from the 1st Armored Division joined forces in Jordan and provided command and control in cooperation with Jordan forces, which was used to establish a joint task force headquarters that provided command and control for chemical weapons response, humanitarian assistance efforts, and stability operations. The 1st Armored Division planners in Jordan are facilitating the exchange of information with the Jordanian Armed Forces.

Move to Fort Bliss
In 2005, the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) commission decided to move the 1st Armored Division to Fort Bliss, Texas no later than 2012. As part of the current Army-wide transformation, several division units were deactivated or converted to other units. The 1st Armored Division officially uncased its colors at Fort Bliss on 13 May 2011.

 * 1st Brigade: The 1st Brigade, 1st Armored Division cased its colors at Friedberg, Germany on 20 April 2007, ending 62 years of military presence in Germany. 1st Brigade reactivated and uncased its colors on 27 October 2008. and began reconfiguring as a Stryker brigade combat team (SBCT) after redeployment from Iraq in November 2010. Denoted 1-1AD "Ready First", the 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division deployed to Afghanistan in December 2012. The first female engagement team to deploy from Fort Bliss was trained in 2012 before Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta's order rescinding restrictions on women in combat roles. "Ready First" Brigade converted from a Stryker BCT to an ABCT 20 June 2019.
 * 2nd Brigade: 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division in Baumholder, Germany, remained assigned to USAREUR until 15 July 2009, when it was reflagged as the separate 170th Infantry Brigade. As part of the Grow the Army Plan announced on 19 December 2007, the 170th was one of two infantry brigades to be activated and retained in Germany until 2012 and 2013. (The other brigade is the 172nd Infantry Brigade in Schweinfurt, Germany, which reflagged from 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division on 16 March 2008. ) In 2010, the U.S. Army attached the 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division to the Brigade Modernization Command, assigning it the evaluation mission previously held by the 5th Brigade, 1st Armored Division, AETF. In 2016, 2nd Brigade moved to the Ready pool for deployment.
 * 3rd Brigade: On 28 March 2008, the 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division (HBCT) deactivated at Fort Riley and reflagged as 2d (Dagger) Brigade, 1st Infantry Division (HBCT). The 3rd Brigade was reactivated as an infantry brigade combat team on 2 July 2009 at Fort Bliss.
 * 4th Brigade: On 4 March 2008, 4th Brigade, 1st Armored Division activated at Fort Bliss as a HBCT and reflagged from the 4th Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division.
 * 5th Brigade: In 2007, a new unit, 5th Brigade, 1st Armored Division, activated at Fort Bliss as an Army evaluation task force. 5th BCT tested the Future Force Warrior system. It evaluated multiple types of spin out equipment and prepared them for fielding to the rest of the Army. 5th Brigade was deactivated in 2010.
 * Aviation Brigade: The Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division deactivated on 7 June 2006 at Fliegerhorst Kaserne, Hanau, Germany and moved to Fort Riley, Kansas to reflag as the modular Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division. The Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th ID was reflagged to CAB, 1st Armored Division. 4–501st Aviation (4th Battalion "Pistoleros", 501st Regiment, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division) deployed to Kuwait in November 2012.
 * Engineer Brigade: The Engineer Brigade, 1st Armored Division, the last of its kind in the Army, cased its colors and inactivated at Giessen, Germany on 26 April 2007.
 * Division Artillery: Division Artillery, 1st Armored Division cased its colors and was deactivated at Baumholder, Germany on 1 May 2007. The 1st AD DIVARTY was the last standing division artillery unit in the Army. The DIVARTY reactivated in 2014 at Fort Bliss.

The division's colors were officially moved from Germany to Fort Bliss on 13 May 2011. On 25 June 2013, Army force restructuring plans were announced. As part of the plan, the division deactivated its 3rd Brigade Combat Team following its 2014 deployment to Afghanistan. The 4th BCT was reflagged as the 3rd Brigade Combat team in April 2015.

The 1st Armored Division's Sustainment Brigade deployed 200 of its soldiers to Afghanistan on 11 May 2015.

Operation Freedom's Sentinel
In late December 2016, about 1,500 soldiers from the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team deployed to Afghanistan as part of Operation Freedom's Sentinel. In March 2017, 200 soldiers from the 1st Sustainment Brigade deployed throughout Afghanistan to lead logistical operations in support of the US counter-terrorism mission and Afghan-led operations against the Taliban.

Operation Inherent Resolve
400 soldiers from the division's headquarters element deployed to Iraq in summer 2017, where it led the coalition's ground efforts as part of Operation Inherent Resolve.

Organization

The division consists of a division headquarters battalion, three armored brigade combat teams, a division artillery, a combat aviation brigade, and a sustainment brigade.

 * United States Army 1st Armored Division CSIB.svg 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
 * United States Army 1st Armored Division CSIB.svg Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion "Gladiator"
 * Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * Operations Company
 * Intelligence and Sustainment Company
 * Division Signal Company
 * 1st Armored Division Band
 * 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team "Ready First"
 * Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * 1CavRegtDUI.jpg 6th Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment
 * DUI_US_37th_AR_Regiment.png 2nd Battalion, 37th Armor Regiment
 * 70 Arm Rgt DUI.png 4th Battalion, 70th Armor Regiment
 * 36_Inf_Rgt_DUI.svg 1st Battalion, 36th Infantry Regiment
 * 16_Eng_Bn_DUI.png 16th Brigade Engineer Battalion
 * US Army 501st Support Battalion DUI.png 501st Brigade Support Battalion
 * 2nd Armored Brigade Combat Team "Iron Brigade"
 * Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * 1CavRegtDUI.jpg 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment
 * 1-35 Armor.png 1st Battalion, 35th Armor Regiment
 * DUI_US_37th_AR_Regiment.png 1st Battalion, 37th Armor Regiment
 * 6 Infantry Regiment DUI.png 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment
 * 40 Eng Bn DUI.jpg 40th Brigade Engineer Battalion
 * US Army 47th Support Battalion DUI.png 47th Brigade Support Battalion
 * 3rd Armored Brigade Combat Team "Bulldog Brigade"
 * Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * 13CavalryRegtDUI.jpg 2nd Squadron, 13th Cavalry Regiment
 * 67 Armor Rgt DUI.jpg 1st Battalion, 67th Armor Regiment
 * 1-77 AR DUI (Transparent).svg 1st Battalion, 77th Armor Regiment
 * 6 Infantry Regiment DUI.png 4th Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment
 * 2 Eng Bn DUI.jpg 2nd Brigade Engineer Battalion
 * 123rd BSB.png 123rd Brigade Support Battalion
 * 1st Armored Division Artillery "Iron Steel"
 * Headquarters and Headquarters Battery
 * 1_Field_Artillery_Regiment_DUI.png 4th Battalion, 1st Field Artillery Regiment
 * 3_FA_Rgt_DUI.png 2nd Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment
 * 27_FA_Rgt_DUI.jpg 4th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery Regiment
 * 60th Coast Artillery Regiment COA.png 4th Battalion, 60th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
 * 24th Theater Public Affairs Support Element
 * Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division "Iron Eagle"
 * 501st Avn Bn crest.jpg Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * 6CavRegtDUI.jpg 3rd Squadron (Attack/Reconnaissance), 6th Cavalry Regiment "Heavy Cavalry" (AH-64E Apache)
 * 501st Avn Bn crest.jpg 1st Battalion (Attack), 501st Aviation Regiment "Iron Dragons" (AH-64E Apache)
 * 501st Avn Bn crest.jpg 2nd Battalion (General Support), 501st Aviation Regiment "Desert Knights" (CH-47 Chinook and UH-60 Black Hawk)
 * 501st Avn Bn crest.jpg 3rd Battalion (Assault), 501st Aviation Regiment "Apocalypse" (UH-60M Black Hawk)
 * 501st Avn Bn crest.jpg Company E, 501st Aviation Regiment (MQ-1C Gray Eagle)
 * 127th ASB.jpg 127th Aviation Support Battalion "Work Horse"
 * 1st Armored Division Sustainment Brigade "Muleskinner"
 * 15SustainBdeDUI.jpg Headquarters and Headquarters Company
 * 15SustainBdeDUI.jpg Special Troops Battalion "Iron Legion"
 * 142nd_SandS_Bn_crest.jpg 142nd Division Sustainment Support Battalion "Atlas"

Division organization history
The division's 3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team was deactivated after leaving Afghanistan in spring 2015, and its maneuver battalions were reassigned to the remaining three brigade combat teams; subsequently the division's 4th Armored Brigade Combat Team was re-flagged as 3rd Armored Brigade Combat Team.

Commanders

 * MG Bruce Magruder (July 1940 – March 1942)
 * MG Orlando Ward (March 1942 – April 1943)
 * MG Ernest N. Harmon (April 1943 – July 1944)
 * MG Vernon Prichard (July 1944 – September 1945)
 * MG Roderick R. Allen (September 1945 – January 1946)
 * MG Hobart R. Gay (February to April 1946)
 * Division inactivated 1946-1951
 * MG Bruce C. Clarke (March 1951 – April 1953)
 * MG Leander L. Doan (April to July 1953)
 * BG Edward G. Farrand (acting) (July to October 1953)
 * MG William S. Biddle (October 1953 – July 1955)
 * MG Robert Lee Howze Jr. (July 1955 – February 1957)
 * MG Edward G. Farrand (March to December 1957)
 * BG Delk M. Oden	(December 1957 – May 1959)
 * BG Franklin F. Wing (May 1959 – August 1960)
 * BG Roland H. Del Mar (August 1960 – May 1961)
 * BG Roy Lassetter Jr. (May 1961 – February 1962)
 * MG Ralph E. Haines Jr. (February 1962 – May 1963)
 * MG Harvey J. Jablonsky (May 1963 – May 1965)
 * MG George Ruhlen (June 1965 – July 1967)
 * MG Richard G. Stilwell (August 1967 – April 1968)
 * MG John K. Boles (April 1968 – February 1970)
 * MG William R. Desobry (February 1970 – March 1971)
 * MG James C. Smith (March to May 1971)
 * MG James V. Galloway (May 1971 – August 1972)
 * MG Adrian St. John Jr. (August 1972 – March 1974)
 * MG Rolland V. Heiser (March 1974 – August 1975)
 * MG William L. Webb Jr. (August 1975 – January 1978)
 * MG Glenn K. Otis (January 1978 – August 1979)
 * MG John C. Faith (September 1979 – November 1981)
 * MG Thomas F. Healy (November 1981 – October 1983)
 * MG Crosbie E. Saint (October 1983 – June 1985)
 * MG Dave R. Palmer (June 1985 – July 1986)
 * MG Edwin S. Leland Jr. (July 1986 – July 1988)
 * MG Frederick M. Franks Jr. (July 1988 – August 1989)
 * MG Ronald H. Griffith (August 1989 – May 1991)
 * MG William M. Boice (May 1991 – July 1993)
 * MG William G. Carter II (July 1993 – January 1995)
 * MG William L. Nash (January 1995 – May 1997)
 * MG Larry R. Ellis (May 1997 – July 1999)
 * MG George W. Casey Jr. (July 1999 – July 2001)
 * MG Ricardo S. Sánchez (July 2001 – July 2003)
 * MG Martin E. Dempsey (July 2003 – July 2005)
 * MG Fred D. Robinson Jr. (July 2005 – May 2007)
 * MG Mark Hertling (May 2007 – May 2009)
 * MG Terry A. Wolff (May 2009 – May 2011)
 * MG Dana J.H. Pittard (May 2011 – May 2013)
 * MG Sean MacFarland (May 2013 – August 2014)
 * MG Stephen Twitty (August 2014	– June 2016)
 * MG Robert P. White (June 2016 – July 2018)
 * MG Patrick E. Matlock (July 2018 – July 2020)
 * BG Matthew L. Eichburg (acting) (July to September 2020)
 * MG Sean C. Bernabe (September 2020 – July 2022)
 * MG James P. Isenhower III (July 2022 – July 2024)
 * MG Curtis D. Taylor (July 2024 – present)

Current
The division command group consists of:
 * Commanding General: Major General Curtis D. Taylor
 * Deputy Commanding Officer (Operations): Brigadier General Alric L. Francis
 * Deputy Commanding General (Maneuver): Brigadier Andrew Ridland (United Kingdom)
 * Deputy Commanding Officer (Support): Colonel Paul Krattinger
 * Chief of Staff: Colonel David A. Norris
 * Command Sergeant Major: Command Sergeant Major James L. Light

1940
The first order of battle for the 1st Armored Division was: HHC, 1st Armored Division
 * HHC, 1st Armored Brigade
 * 1st Armored Regiment (Light)
 * 13th Armored Regiment (Light)
 * 69th Armored Regiment (Medium)
 * 81st Armored Reconnaissance Squadron
 * 6th Armored Infantry Regiment
 * 68th Armored Field Artillery Regiment
 * 27th Field Artillery Battalion (Armored)
 * 16th Engineer Battalion (Armored)
 * 13th Quartermaster Battalion (Armored)
 * 19th Ordnance Battalion (Armored)
 * 47th Medical Battalion (Armored)
 * 141st Signal Company (Armored)

On 15 April 1941 the division sent a cadre to form the 4th Armored Division at Pine Camp, New York.

1944
In July 1944, the division was reorganized as a "light" armored division. All other armored divisions, with exception of 2nd Armored and 3rd Armored, had been reorganized on 15 September 1943; at that time, 1st Armored was actively engaged in fighting in the Italian Campaign. Its new composition was:

 * Headquarters Company
 * Combat Command A
 * Combat Command B
 * Reserve Command
 * 1st Tank Battalion
 * 4th Tank Battalion
 * 13th Tank Battalion
 * 6th Armored Infantry Battalion
 * 11th Armored Infantry Battalion
 * 14th Armored Infantry Battalion
 * 81st Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron (Mechanized)
 * 16th Armored Engineer Battalion
 * 141st Armored Signal Company
 * 1st Armored Division Artillery
 * 27th Armored Field Artillery Battalion
 * 68th Armored Field Artillery Battalion
 * 91st Armored Field Artillery Battalion
 * 1st Armored Division Trains
 * 123rd Armored Ordnance Maintenance Battalion
 * 47th Armored Medical Battalion
 * Military Police Platoon
 * Band

HHC, 1st Armored Division

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II
 * Gulf War
 * Global War on Terrorism
 * Iraq War
 * Decorations
 * 1) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA
 * 2) Army Superior Unit Award for TF Eagle from 10 April 1994 to 7 November 1996
 * 3) Valorous Unit Award For Operation Iraqi Freedom I
 * 4) Presidential Unit Citation For Operation Iraqi Freedom I
 * 5) Joint Meritorious Unit Award For Operation Iraqi Freedom I
 * 6) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for Operation IRAQI FREEDOM 07–09
 * 7) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for Operation IRAQI FREEDOM 10–11/ Operation NEW DAWN

HHC, 1st Brigade, 1st Armored Division

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II:
 * Algeria-French Morocco (with arrowhead)
 * Tunisia
 * Naples-Foggia
 * Anzio
 * Rome-Arno
 * North Apennines
 * Po Valley
 * Decorations
 * 1) Army Superior Unit Award for TF Eagle from 10 April 1994 to 7 November 1996
 * 2) Presidential Unit Citation for Operation Iraqi Freedom
 * 3) Joint Meritorious Unit Award for Operation Iraqi Freedom
 * 4) Valorous Unit Citation for Operation Iraqi Freedom
 * 5) Navy Unit Commendation for Operation Iraqi Freedom

HHC, 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II:
 * 1) Algeria-French Morocco (with arrowhead);
 * 2) Tunisia;
 * 3) Naples-Foggia;
 * 4) Anzio;
 * 5) Rome-Arno;
 * 6) North Apennines;
 * 7) Po Valley
 * Southwest Asia:
 * 1) Defense of Saudi Arabia;
 * 2) Liberation and Defense of Kuwait;
 * 3) Cease-Fire

 * Decorations
 * 1) Presidential Unit Citation for OIF 1 (2003–2004)
 * 2) Valorous Unit Award, IRAQ 1991
 * 3) Meritorious Unit Commendation, SOUTHWEST ASIA 2005–2006
 * 4) Meritorious Unit Commendation, IRAQ 2008–2009
 * 5) Army Superior Unit Award for 1995–1996

HHC, 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II:
 * 1) Rome-Arno;
 * 2) North Apennines;
 * 3) Po Valley
 * Southwest Asia:
 * 1) Defense of Saudi Arabia;
 * 2) Liberation and Defense of Kuwait;
 * 3) Cease-Fire

 * Decorations
 * 1) Valorous Unit Award for IRAQ-KUWAIT
 * 2) Valorous Unit Award for Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF 1)

HHB, 1st Armored Division Artillery

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II:
 * 1) Tunisia;
 * 2) Naples-Foggia;
 * 3) Rome-Arno;
 * 4) Anzio;
 * 5) North Apennines;
 * 6) Po Valley
 * Southwest Asia:
 * 1) Defense of Saudi Arabia;
 * 2) Liberation and Defense of Kuwait
 * Decorations
 * 1) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA

HHC, 1st Armored Division Support Command

 * Campaign participation credit
 * World War II:
 * 1) Tunisia;
 * 2) Naples-Foggia;
 * 3) Rome-Arno;
 * 4) North Apennines;
 * 5) Po Valley
 * Southwest Asia:
 * 1) Defense of Saudi Arabia;
 * 2) Liberation and Defense of Kuwait;
 * 3) Cease-Fire
 * Decorations
 * 1) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA

HHC, Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division

 * Campaign participation credit;
 * Southwest Asia:
 * 1) Defense of Saudi Arabia;
 * 2) Liberation and Defense of Kuwait;
 * 3) Cease-Fire
 * Decorations;
 * 1) Valorous Unit Award for IRAQ-KUWAIT
 * 2) Army Superior Unit Award for 1995–1996

Additional reading

 * Covers its first (World War II era) incarnation.
 * Covers its first (World War II era) incarnation.

title: 1st Armored Division (United States)


text:
Ice hockey in Slovakia

In 1908, the International Ice Hockey Federation, an international organization that still runs most of the international hockey tournaments today, was established. In Slovakia (as a part of former Czechoslovakia), Canadian-styled ice hockey was popularized during the European Championships in High Tatras in 1925.

In 1929 the first official tournament took place in Slovakia. The Tatra Cup is the second-oldest ice hockey tournament in Europe, after the Spengler Cup in Switzerland. The first organization of Slovak ice hockey was established under the name of Slovenská župa kanadského ľadového hokeja as a part of the Slovak Ice Hockey Federation in what was then Czechoslovakia.

The first organized competition was held in 1930.

Throughout the course of ice hockey history in Czechoslovakia, many Slovak players became eligible to play for the Czechoslovak national team. Among those who were able to achieve this was Ladislav Troják; A native of Košice who left for Prague in 1934 to play for the LTC Praha, which was at those times considered to be the best ice hockey team in the country. From there, he was only a step away from playing for the national team.

Czechoslovakia and its successor states are rated as being among the leading nations on the international scene, thanks to their triumphs in the Winter Olympic Games and the World Championships.

However, the Slovak national team had to face a difficult challenge in 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. According to the IIHF regulations, it had to compete with countries with little or no ice hockey tradition at all to prove being worthy to compete at the highest level. Within only a few years of independent existence as a young nation, it would mark its biggest triumph ever by winning the world championships in Sweden in 2002.

As of July 2017, a total of 76 outfield players and four goaltenders with Slovak citizenship have played at least one game in the National Hockey League. The players in the following list have the most scorer points in the NHL.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ice hockey in Slovakia


text:
Avocado

The avocado, alligator pear or avocado pear (Persea americana) is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated in Mesoamerica more than 5,000 years ago. It was prized for its large and unusually oily fruit. The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico and Guatemala. Avocado trees have a native growth range from Mexico to Costa Rica. Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as an alligator pear or avocado pear, is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed. Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped by polyploidy events and that commercial varieties have an hybrid origin. Avocado trees are partly self-pollinating, and are often propagated through grafting to maintain consistent fruit output. Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical and Mediterranean climates of many countries. Mexico is the world's leading producer of avocados as of 2020, supplying nearly 30% of the global harvest in that year.

The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on the cultivar, avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and extremely high fat content of avocado flesh are useful to a variety of cuisines and are often eaten to enrich vegetarian diets.

In major production regions like Chile, Mexico and California the water demands of avocado farms place strain on local resources. Avocado production is also implicated in other externalities, including deforestation and human rights concerns associated with the partial control of their production in Mexico by organized crime. Global warming is expected to result in significant changes to the suitable growing zones for avocados, and place additional pressures on the locales in which they are produced due to heat waves and drought.

Description
Persea americana is a tree that grows to 9 - 20 m with a trunk diameter between 0.3 - 0.6 m. The leaves are 8 - 25 cm long and alternately arranged.

Flower
Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous 5 - 10 mm wide. They have no petals but instead 2 whorls of 3 pale-green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.

Fruit
The avocado fruit is a climacteric, single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed, rather than a drupe. The pear-shaped fruit is usually 7 - 20 cm long, weighs between 100 and 1000 g, and has a large central seed, 5 - 6.4 cm long.

The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp because of selective breeding by humans.

Taxonomy
Persea americana is regarded as an evolutionary anachronism, having likely coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna in South America, notably giant ground sloths and the gomphothere genus of the elephant lineage. Following extinction of these original seed dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species.

In 1982, evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen concluded that the avocado is an example of an "evolutionary anachronism", a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground sloths or gomphotheres). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved with Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.

The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso (c. 1470 – 1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo. The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias in 1526. The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term, in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants.

Etymology
The word avocado comes from the Spanish aguacate, which derives from the Nahuatl (Mexican) word āhuacatl, which goes back to the proto-Aztecan *pa:wa. In Molina's Nahuatl dictionary "auacatl" is given also as the translation for compañón "testicle", and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".

The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as avogato pear, later avocado pear (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to alligator pear.

Regional names
In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain it is known by the Mexican Spanish name aguacate, while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use a Quechua-derived word, palta. In Portuguese, it is abacate. The Nahuatl āhuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives.

In the United Kingdom the term avocado pear, applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.

Originating as a diminutive in Australian English, a clipped form, avo, has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom.

It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India and Hong Kong.

History
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the Tehuacan Valley in the state of Puebla, Mexico. There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl) landraces. The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru, achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans. The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex.

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions. The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado. There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago. The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC. A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan.

The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908. In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.

The name avocado has been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such as avogato attested even earlier. The avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear until 1915, when the California Avocado Association popularized the term avocado.

Requirements

As a subtropical species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the 'Hass' cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C. Several cold-hardy varieties are planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as -6.5 C with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to -1.6 C

According to information published by the Water Footprint Network, it takes an average of approximately 70 L of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado (283 L/kg). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about 320 L of applied water are needed to grow one avocado (1,280 L/kg).

Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause water shortages in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of Michoacán. Avocados may also cause environmental and socioeconomic impacts in major production areas, illegal deforestation, and water disputes. Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.

Harvest and postharvest
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare. Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.

Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 C until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening. The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase. In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.

Breeding

The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
 * A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
 * B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'

Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees. Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.

Propagation and rootstocks

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing. The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.

Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.

As a houseplant

The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.

Pests and diseases

Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration. The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida, and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.

Cultivation in Mexico
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer. In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 188,723 ha, and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017. The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit. It is such a problem that the phrase blood guacamole has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.

Cultivation in California
Avocados were introduced to California from Nicaragua in the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from the Central American country were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel. The avocado has since become a successful cash crop. About 59000 acre – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California.

Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California. Fallbrook, California, claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico ), and both it and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.

The California Avocado Commission and the California Avocado Society are the two major grower organizations and Calavo Growers is a major distributor.

Cultivation in Peru
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru. Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States. The country's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.

'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Cultivation in Chile
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. New York magazine reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's groundwater and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves." 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.

A cultivars

 * 'Choquette': Avocado cv Choquette.jpg A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.
 * 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100 - 200 g), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to -1 °C.
 * 'Hass': Hass avocado -white background.jpg The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world. All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California. Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September 2002.
 * 'Lula': A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
 * 'Maluma': A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
 * 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to -1 °C and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.
 * 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to -1 °C. Tree size is about 5 by.

B cultivars

 * 'Fuerte': Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from Atlixco, Mexico in 1911, Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.
 * 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in Tamborine Mountain, Queensland, Australia in the 1950s, a portmanteau of Sharpe and Wilson. Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe was later awarded a CMG in 1972 for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.

Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.

Stoneless avocado
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop. Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees. Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.

Production
In 2020, world production of avocados was 8.1 million tonnes, led by Mexico with 30% (2.4 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, and Indonesia, together producing 35% of the world total. Despite market effects of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, volume production of avocados in Mexico increased by 40% over 2019 levels.

In 2018, the US Department of Agriculture estimated that 231028 ha in total were under cultivation for avocado production in Mexico, a 6% increase over the previous year, and that 2 million tonnes would be exported. The Mexican state of Michoacán is the world leader in avocado production, accounting for 80% of all Mexican output. Most Mexican growers produce the Hass variety due to its longer shelf life for shipping and high demand among consumers.

Market
Seventy-six percent of Mexico's avocado exports go to the United States, with the free trade agreement between the US, Canada and Mexico in July 2020 facilitating avocado shipments within the North American free trade zone. The Mexican domestic market was expanding during 2020. Mexican avocado exports are challenged by growth of production by Peru and the Dominican Republic to supply the US and European markets.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexican avocado farmers restricted harvesting as the overall demand and supply chain slowed due to labor and shipping restrictions. Later in 2020, demand in the United States and within Mexico increased at a time when American retail prices continued to rise. During 2020 in the United States, month-to-month volume sales of avocados were similar to those of tomatoes at about 250 million pounds (110 million kg) per month. A report issued in mid-2020 forecast that the worldwide market, which was US$13.7 billion in 2018, would recover after the end of the pandemic and rise to US$21.6 billion by 2026.

Allergies
Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome, is related to latex allergy and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.

Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits, rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.

Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death. The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.

The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.

Nutrition
Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9% carbohydrates, and 2% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, avocado supplies 670 kJ, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins (such as 28% DV in pantothenic acid) and vitamin K (20% DV), with moderate contents (10–19% DV) of vitamin C, vitamin E, and potassium. Avocados also contain phytosterols and carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin.

Fat composition
Avocados have diverse fats. For a typical one:

 * About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (table).
 * Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid.
 * The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.
 * Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1% ω-3, 14% ω-6, 71% ω-9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% saturated fat (palmitic acid).

Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.

Research
In 2022, a prospective cohort study following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by 16–22%. The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.

Culinary
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high smoke point, avocado oil is expensive compared to common salad and cooking oils, and is mostly used for salads or dips.

A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning, quickly turning brown after exposure to air. To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.

The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture. It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.

Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.

It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as guacamole, as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient in avocado soup. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers and tortas and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi).

International
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to pozole. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado.

Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.

In the Philippines (where avocados were introduced from Mexico since before the 1700s), Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts. In Brazil, the Philippines Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and flavored with a touch of orange flower water.

In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Ghana, they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and kitul treacle (a liquid jaggery made from the sap of the inflorescence of jaggery palms), is a common dessert. In Haiti, they are often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.

In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'. Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995. In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.

Leaves
In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americana var. drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of anise. They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.

title: Avocado