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Han unification

Han unification is an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the Han characters of the so-called CJK languages into a single set of unified characters. Han characters are a feature shared in common by written Chinese (hanzi), Japanese (kanji), Korean (hanja) and Vietnamese (chữ Hán).

Modern Chinese, Japanese and Korean typefaces typically use regional or historical variants of a given Han character. In the formulation of Unicode, an attempt was made to unify these variants by considering them as allographs – different glyphs representing the same "grapheme" or orthographic unit – hence, "Han unification", with the resulting character repertoire sometimes contracted to Unihan.

Nevertheless, many characters have regional variants assigned to different code points, such as Traditional 個 (U+500B) versus Simplified 个 (U+4E2A).

Rationale and controversy
The Unicode Standard details the principles of Han unification. The Ideographic Research Group (IRG), made up of experts from the Chinese-speaking countries, North and South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other countries, is responsible for the process.

One rationale was the desire to limit the size of the full Unicode character set, where CJK characters as represented by discrete ideograms may approach or exceed 100,000 characters. Version 1 of Unicode was designed to fit into 16 bits and only 20,940 characters (32%) out of the possible 65,536 were reserved for these CJK Unified Ideographs. Unicode was later extended to 21 bits allowing many more CJK characters (97,680 are assigned, with room for more).

An article hosted by IBM attempts to illustrate part of the motivation for Han unification:

"The problem stems from the fact that Unicode encodes characters rather than 'glyphs,' which are the visual representations of the characters. There are four basic traditions for East Asian character shapes: traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. While the Han root character may be the same for CJK languages, the glyphs in common use for the same characters may not be.

For example, the traditional Chinese glyph for 'grass' uses four strokes for the 'grass' radical [], whereas the simplified Chinese, Japanese, and Korean glyphs [] use three. But there is only one Unicode point for the grass character (U+8349) [] regardless of writing system. Another example is the ideograph for 'one,' which is different in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Many people think that the three versions should be encoded differently."

In fact, the three ideographs for "one" (,, or ) are encoded separately in Unicode, as they are not considered national variants. The first is the common form in all three countries, while the second and third are used on financial instruments to prevent tampering (they may be considered variants).

However, Han unification has also caused considerable controversy, particularly among the Japanese public, who, with the nation's literati, have a history of protesting the culling of historically and culturally significant variants. (See . Today, the list of characters officially recognized for use in proper names continues to expand at a modest pace.)

In 1993, the Japan Electronic Industries Development Association (JEIDA) published a pamphlet titled "未来の文字コード体系に私達は不安をもっています" (We are feeling anxious for the future character encoding system ), summarizing major criticism against the Han Unification approach adopted by Unicode.

Graphemes versus glyphs
A grapheme is the smallest abstract unit of meaning in a writing system. Any grapheme has many possible glyph expressions, but all are recognized as the same grapheme by those with reading and writing knowledge of a particular writing system. Although Unicode typically assigns characters to code points to express the graphemes within a system of writing, the Unicode Standard (section 3.4 D7) cautions: "An abstract character does not necessarily correspond to what a user thinks of as a 'character' and should not be confused with a grapheme."

However, this quote refers to the fact that some graphemes are composed of several graphic elements or "characters". So, for example, the character combined with (generating the combination "å") might be understood by a user as a single grapheme while being composed of multiple Unicode abstract characters. In addition, Unicode also assigns some code points to a small number (other than for compatibility reasons) of formatting characters, whitespace characters, and other abstract characters that are not graphemes, but instead used to control the breaks between lines, words, graphemes and grapheme clusters. With the unified Han ideographs, the Unicode Standard makes a departure from prior practices in assigning abstract characters not as graphemes, but according to the underlying meaning of the grapheme: what linguists sometimes call sememes. This departure therefore is not simply explained by the oft quoted distinction between an abstract character and a glyph, but is more rooted in the difference between an abstract character assigned as a grapheme and an abstract character assigned as a sememe. In contrast, consider ASCII's unification of punctuation and diacritics, where graphemes with widely different meanings (for example, an apostrophe and a single quotation mark) are unified because the glyphs are the same. For Unihan the characters are not unified by their appearance, but by their definition or meaning.

For a grapheme to be represented by various glyphs means that the grapheme has glyph variations that are usually determined by selecting one font or another or using glyph substitution features where multiple glyphs are included in a single font. Such glyph variations are considered by Unicode a feature of rich text protocols and not properly handled by the plain text goals of Unicode. However, when the change from one glyph to another constitutes a change from one grapheme to another—where a glyph cannot possibly still, for example, mean the same grapheme understood as the small letter "a"—Unicode separates those into separate code points. For Unihan the same thing is done whenever the abstract meaning changes, however rather than speaking of the abstract meaning of a grapheme (the letter "a"), the unification of Han ideographs assigns a new code point for each different meaning—even if that meaning is expressed by distinct graphemes in different languages. Although a grapheme such as "ö" might mean something different in French (as used in the word Noël) than it does in German (as used in the word Österreich), it is still the same grapheme and can be easily unified so that English and German can share a common abstract Latin writing system (along with Latin itself). This example also points to another reason that "abstract character" and grapheme as an abstract unit in a written language do not necessarily map one-to-one. In English the combining diaeresis, "¨", and the "o" it modifies may be seen as two separate graphemes, whereas in languages such as Swedish, the letter "ö" may be seen as a single grapheme. Similarly in English the dot on an "i" is understood as a part of the "i" grapheme whereas in other languages, such as Turkish, the dot may be seen as a separate grapheme added to the dotless "ı".

To deal with the use of different graphemes for the same Unihan sememe, Unicode has relied on several mechanisms: especially as it relates to rendering text. One has been to treat it as simply a font issue so that different fonts might be used to render Chinese, Japanese or Korean. Also font formats such as OpenType allow for the mapping of alternate glyphs according to language so that a text rendering system can look to the user's environmental settings to determine which glyph to use. The problem with these approaches is that they fail to meet the goals of Unicode to define a consistent way of encoding multilingual text.

So rather than treat the issue as a rich text problem of glyph alternates, Unicode added the concept of variation selectors, first introduced in version 3.2 and supplemented in version 4.0. While variation selectors are treated as combining characters, they have no associated diacritic or mark. Instead, by combining with a base character, they signal the two character sequence selects a variation (typically in terms of grapheme, but also in terms of underlying meaning as in the case of a location name or other proper noun) of the base character. This then is not a selection of an alternate glyph, but the selection of a grapheme variation or a variation of the base abstract character. Such a two-character sequence however can be easily mapped to a separate single glyph in modern fonts. Since Unicode has assigned 256 separate variation selectors, it is capable of assigning 256 variations for any Han ideograph. Such variations can be specific to one language or another and enable the encoding of plain text that includes such grapheme variations.

Unihan "abstract characters"
Since the Unihan standard encodes "abstract characters", not "glyphs", the graphical artifacts produced by Unicode have been considered temporary technical hurdles, and at most, cosmetic. However, again, particularly in Japan, due in part to the way in which Chinese characters were incorporated into Japanese writing systems historically, the inability to specify a particular variant was considered a significant obstacle to the use of Unicode in scholarly work. For example, the unification of "grass" (explained above), means that a historical text cannot be encoded so as to preserve its peculiar orthography. Instead, for example, the scholar would be required to locate the desired glyph in a specific typeface in order to convey the text as written, defeating the purpose of a unified character set. Unicode has responded to these needs by assigning variation selectors so that authors can select grapheme variations of particular ideographs (or even other characters).

Small differences in graphical representation are also problematic when they affect legibility or belong to the wrong cultural tradition. Besides making some Unicode fonts unusable for texts involving multiple "Unihan languages", names or other orthographically sensitive terminology might be displayed incorrectly. (Proper names tend to be especially orthographically conservative—compare this to changing the spelling of one's name to suit a language reform in the US or UK.) While this may be considered primarily a graphical representation or rendering problem to be overcome by more artful fonts, the widespread use of Unicode would make it difficult to preserve such distinctions. The problem of one character representing semantically different concepts is also present in the Latin part of Unicode. The Unicode character for a curved apostrophe is the same as the character for a right single quote (’). On the other hand, the capital Latin letter A is not unified with the Greek letter Α or the Cyrillic letter А. This is, of course, desirable for reasons of compatibility, and deals with a much smaller alphabetic character set.

While the unification aspect of Unicode is controversial in some quarters for the reasons given above, Unicode itself does now encode a vast number of seldom-used characters of a more-or-less antiquarian nature.

Some of the controversy stems from the fact that the very decision of performing Han unification was made by the initial Unicode Consortium, which at the time was a consortium of North American companies and organizations (most of them in California), but included no East Asian government representatives. The initial design goal was to create a 16-bit standard, and Han unification was therefore a critical step for avoiding tens of thousands of character duplications. This 16-bit requirement was later abandoned, making the size of the character set less of an issue today.

The controversy later extended to the internationally representative ISO: the initial CJK Joint Research Group (CJK-JRG) favored a proposal (DIS 10646) for a non-unified character set, "which was thrown out in favor of unification with the Unicode Consortium's unified character set by the votes of American and European ISO members" (even though the Japanese position was unclear). Endorsing the Unicode Han unification was a necessary step for the heated ISO 10646/Unicode merger.

Much of the controversy surrounding Han unification is based on the distinction between glyphs, as defined in Unicode, and the related but distinct idea of graphemes. Unicode assigns abstract characters (graphemes), as opposed to glyphs, which are a particular visual representations of a character in a specific typeface. One character may be represented by many distinct glyphs, for example a "g" or an "a", both of which may have one loop or two. Yet for a reader of Latin script based languages the two variations of the "a" character are both recognized as the same grapheme. Graphemes present in national character code standards have been added to Unicode, as required by Unicode's Source Separation rule, even where they can be composed of characters already available. The national character code standards existing in CJK languages are considerably more involved, given the technological limitations under which they evolved, and so the official CJK participants in Han unification may well have been amenable to reform.

Unlike European versions, CJK Unicode fonts, due to Han unification, have large but irregular patterns of overlap, requiring language-specific fonts. Unfortunately, language-specific fonts also make it difficult to access a variant which, as with the "grass" example, happens to appear more typically in another language style. (That is to say, it would be difficult to access "grass" with the four-stroke radical more typical of Traditional Chinese in a Japanese environment, which fonts would typically depict the three-stroke radical.) Unihan proponents tend to favor markup languages for defining language strings, but this would not ensure the use of a specific variant in the case given, only the language-specific font more likely to depict a character as that variant. (At this point, merely stylistic differences do enter in, as a selection of Japanese and Chinese fonts are not likely to be visually compatible.)

Chinese users seem to have fewer objections to Han unification, largely because Unicode did not attempt to unify Simplified Chinese characters with Traditional Chinese characters. (Simplified Chinese characters are used among Chinese speakers in the People's Republic of China, Singapore, and Malaysia. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong and Taiwan (Big5) and they are, with some differences, more familiar to Korean and Japanese users.) Unicode is seen as neutral with regards to this politically charged issue, and has encoded Simplified and Traditional Chinese glyphs separately (e.g. the ideograph for "discard" is 丟 U+4E1F for Traditional Chinese Big5 #A5E1 and 丢 U+4E22 for Simplified Chinese GB #2210). It is also noted that Traditional and Simplified characters should be encoded separately according to Unicode Han Unification rules, because they are distinguished in pre-existing PRC character sets. Furthermore, as with other variants, Traditional to Simplified characters is not a one-to-one relationship.

Alternatives
There are several alternative character sets that are not encoding according to the principle of Han Unification, and thus free from its restrictions: These region-dependent character sets are also seen as not affected by Han Unification because of their region-specific nature: However, none of these alternative standards has been as widely adopted as Unicode, which is now the base character set for many new standards and protocols, internationally adopted, and is built into the architecture of operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and many Unix-like systems), programming languages (Perl, Python, C#, Java, Common Lisp, APL, C, C++), and libraries (IBM International Components for Unicode (ICU) along with the Pango, Graphite, Scribe, Uniscribe, and ATSUI rendering engines), font formats (TrueType and OpenType) and so on.
 * CNS character set
 * CCCII character set
 * TRON
 * Mojikyō
 * ISO/IEC 2022 (based on sequence codes to switch between Chinese, Japanese, Korean character sets – hence without unification)
 * Big5 extensions
 * GCCS and its successor HKSCS

In March 1989, a (B)TRON-based system was adopted by Japanese government organizations "Center for Educational Computing" as the system of choice for school education including compulsory education. However, in April, a report titled "1989 National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers" from Office of the United States Trade Representative have specifically listed the system as a trade barrier in Japan. The report claimed that the adoption of the TRON-based system by the Japanese government is advantageous to Japanese manufacturers, and thus excluding US operating systems from the huge new market; specifically the report lists MS-DOS, OS/2 and UNIX as examples. The Office of USTR was allegedly under Microsoft's influence as its former officer Tom Robertson was then offered a lucrative position by Microsoft. While the TRON system itself was subsequently removed from the list of sanction by Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 after protests by the organization in May 1989, the trade dispute caused the Ministry of International Trade and Industry to accept a request from Masayoshi Son to cancel the Center of Educational Computing's selection of the TRON-based system for the use of educational computers. The incident is regarded as a symbolic event for the loss of momentum and eventual demise of the BTRON system, which led to the widespread adoption of MS-DOS in Japan and the eventual adoption of Unicode with its successor Windows.

Merger of all equivalent characters
There has not been any push for full semantic unification of all semantically linked characters, though the idea would treat the respective users of East Asian languages the same, whether they write in Korean, Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, Kyūjitai Japanese, Shinjitai Japanese or Vietnamese. Instead of some variants getting distinct code points while other groups of variants have to share single code points, all variants could be reliably expressed only with metadata tags (e.g., CSS formatting in webpages). The burden would be on all those who use differing versions of 直, 別, 兩, 兔, whether that difference be due to simplification, international variance or intra-national variance. However, for some platforms (e.g., smartphones), a device may come with only one font pre-installed. The system font must make a decision for the default glyph for each code point and these glyphs can differ greatly, indicating different underlying graphemes.

Consequently, relying on language markup across the board as an approach is beset with two major issues. First, there are contexts where language markup is not available (code commits, plain text). Second, any solution would require every operating system to come pre-installed with many glyphs for semantically identical characters that have many variants. In addition to the standard character sets in Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Kyūjitai Japanese and Shinjitai Japanese, there also exist "ancient" forms of characters that are of interest to historians, linguists and philologists.

Unicode's Unihan database has already drawn connections between many characters. The Unicode database catalogs the connections between variant characters with distinct code points already. However, for characters with a shared code point, the reference glyph image is usually biased toward the Traditional Chinese version. Also, the decision of whether to classify pairs as semantic variants or z-variants is not always consistent or clear, despite rationalizations in the handbook.

So-called semantic variants of 丟 (U+4E1F) and 丢 (U+4E22) are examples that Unicode gives as differing in a significant way in their abstract shapes, while Unicode lists 佛 and 仏 as z-variants, differing only in font styling. Paradoxically, Unicode considers 兩 and 両 to be near identical z-variants while at the same time classifying them as significantly different semantic variants. There are also cases of some pairs of characters being simultaneously semantic variants and specialized semantic variants and simplified variants: 個 (U+500B) and 个 (U+4E2A). There are cases of non-mutual equivalence. For example, the Unihan database entry for 亀 (U+4E80) considers 龜 (U+9F9C) to be its z-variant, but the entry for 龜 does not list 亀 as a z-variant, even though 龜 was obviously already in the database at the time that the entry for 亀 was written.

Some clerical errors led to doubling of completely identical characters such as 﨣 (U+FA23) and 𧺯 (U+27EAF). If a font has glyphs encoded to both points so that one font is used for both, they should appear identical. These cases are listed as z-variants despite having no variance at all. Intentionally duplicated characters were added to facilitate bit-for-bit round-trip conversion. Because round-trip conversion was an early selling point of Unicode, this meant that if a national standard in use unnecessarily duplicated a character, Unicode had to do the same. Unicode calls these intentional duplications "compatibility variants" as with 漢 (U+FA9A) which calls 漢 (U+6F22) its compatibility variant. As long as an application uses the same font for both, they should appear identical. Sometimes, as in the case of 車 with U+8ECA and U+F902, the added compatibility character lists the already present version of 車 as both its compatibility variant and its z-variant. The compatibility variant field overrides the z-variant field, forcing normalization under all forms, including canonical equivalence. Despite the name, compatibility variants are actually canonically equivalent and are united in any Unicode normalization scheme and not only under compatibility normalization. This is similar to how is canonically equivalent to a pre-composed. Much software (such as the MediaWiki software that hosts Wikipedia) will replace all canonically equivalent characters that are discouraged (e.g. the angstrom symbol) with the recommended equivalent. Despite the name, CJK "compatibility variants" are canonically equivalent characters and not compatibility characters.

漢 (U+FA9A) was added to the database later than 漢 (U+6F22) was and its entry informs the user of the compatibility information. On the other hand, 漢 (U+6F22) does not have this equivalence listed in this entry. Unicode demands that all entries, once admitted, cannot change compatibility or equivalence so that normalization rules for already existing characters do not change.

Some pairs of Traditional and Simplified are also considered to be semantic variants. According to Unicode's definitions, it makes sense that all simplifications (that do not result in wholly different characters being merged for their homophony) will be a form of semantic variant. Unicode classifies 丟 and 丢 as each other's respective traditional and simplified variants and also as each other's semantic variants. However, while Unicode classifies 億 (U+5104) and 亿 (U+4EBF) as each other's respective traditional and simplified variants, Unicode does not consider 億 and 亿 to be semantic variants of each other.

Unicode claims that "Ideally, there would be no pairs of z-variants in the Unicode Standard." This would make it seem that the goal is to at least unify all minor variants, compatibility redundancies and accidental redundancies, leaving the differentiation to fonts and to language tags. This conflicts with the stated goal of Unicode to take away that overhead, and to allow any number of any of the world's scripts to be on the same document with one encoding system. Chapter One of the handbook states that "With Unicode, the information technology industry has replaced proliferating character sets with data stability, global interoperability and data interchange, simplified software, and reduced development costs. While taking the ASCII character set as its starting point, the Unicode Standard  goes far beyond ASCII's limited ability to encode only the upper- and lowercase letters A through Z. It provides the capacity to encode all characters used for the  written languages of the world – more than 1 million characters can be encoded. No escape sequence or control code is required to specify any character in any language. The Unicode character encoding treats alphabetic characters, ideographic characters, and symbols equivalently, which means they can be used in any mixture and with equal facility."

This leaves the option to settle on one unified reference grapheme for all z-variants, which is contentious since few outside of Japan would recognize 佛 and 仏 as equivalent. Even within Japan, the variants are on different sides of a major simplification called Shinjitai. Unicode would effectively make the PRC's simplification of 侣 (U+4FA3) and 侶 (U+4FB6) a monumental difference by comparison. Such a plan would also eliminate the very visually distinct variations for characters like 直 (U+76F4) and 雇 (U+96C7).

One would expect that all simplified characters would simultaneously also be z-variants or semantic variants with their traditional counterparts, but many are neither. It is easier to explain the strange case that semantic variants can be simultaneously both semantic variants and specialized variants when Unicode's definition is that specialized semantic variants have the same meaning only in certain contexts. Languages use them differently. A pair whose characters are 100% drop-in replacements for each other in Japanese may not be so flexible in Chinese. Thus, any comprehensive merger of recommended code points would have to maintain some variants that differ only slightly in appearance even if the meaning is 100% the same for all contexts in one language, because in another language the two characters may not be 100% drop-in replacements.

Examples of language-dependent glyphs
In each row of the following table, the same character is repeated in all six columns. However, each column is marked (by the  attribute) as being in a different language: Chinese (simplified and two types of traditional), Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese. The browser should select, for each character, a glyph (from a font) suitable to the specified language. (Besides actual character variation—look for differences in stroke order, number, or direction—the typefaces may also reflect different typographical styles, as with serif and non-serif alphabets.) This only works for fallback glyph selection if you have CJK fonts installed on your system and the font selected to display this article does not include glyphs for these characters.

No character variant that is exclusive to Korean or Vietnamese has received its own code point, whereas almost all Shinjitai Japanese variants or Simplified Chinese variants each have distinct code points and unambiguous reference glyphs in the Unicode standard.

In the twentieth century, East Asian countries made their own respective encoding standards. Within each standard, there coexisted variants with distinct code points, hence the distinct code points in Unicode for certain sets of variants. Taking Simplified Chinese as an example, the two character variants of 內 (U+5167) and 内 (U+5185) differ in exactly the same way as do the Korean and non-Korean variants of 全 (U+5168). Each respective variant of the first character has either 入 (U+5165) or 人 (U+4EBA). Each respective variant of the second character has either 入 (U+5165) or 人 (U+4EBA). Both variants of the first character got their own distinct code points. However, the two variants of the second character had to share the same code point.

The justification Unicode gives is that the national standards body in the PRC made distinct code points for the two variations of the first character 內/内, whereas Korea never made separate code points for the different variants of 全. There is a reason for this that has nothing to do with how the domestic bodies view the characters themselves. China went through a process in the twentieth century that changed (if not simplified) several characters. During this transition, there was a need to be able to encode both variants within the same document. Korean has always used the variant of 全 with the 入 (U+5165) radical on top. Therefore, it had no reason to encode both variants. Korean language documents made in the twentieth century had little reason to represent both versions in the same document.

Almost all of the variants that the PRC developed or standardized got distinct code points owing simply to the fortune of the Simplified Chinese transition carrying through into the computing age. This privilege however, seems to apply inconsistently, whereas most simplifications performed in Japan and mainland China with code points in national standards, including characters simplified differently in each country, did make it into Unicode as distinct code points.

Sixty-two Shinjitai "simplified" characters with distinct code points in Japan got merged with their Kyūjitai traditional equivalents, like 海. This can cause problems for the language tagging strategy. There is no universal tag for the traditional and "simplified" versions of Japanese as there are for Chinese. Thus, any Japanese writer wanting to display the Kyūjitai form of 海 may have to tag the character as "Traditional Chinese" or trust that the recipient's Japanese font uses only the Kyūjitai glyphs, but tags of Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese may be necessary to show the two forms side by side in a Japanese textbook. This would preclude one from using the same font for an entire document, however. There are two distinct code points for 海 in Unicode, but only for "compatibility reasons". Any Unicode-conformant font must display the Kyūjitai and Shinjitai versions' equivalent code points in Unicode as the same. Unofficially, a font may display 海 differently with 海 (U+6D77) as the Shinjitai version and 海 (U+FA45) as the Kyūjitai version (which is identical to the traditional version in written Chinese and Korean).

The radical 糸 (U+7CF8) is used in characters like 紅/红, with two variants, the second form being simply the cursive form. The radical components of 紅 (U+7D05) and 红 (U+7EA2) are semantically identical and the glyphs differ only in the latter using a cursive version of the 糸 component. However, in mainland China, the standards bodies wanted to standardize the cursive form when used in characters like 红. Because this change happened relatively recently, there was a transition period. Both 紅 (U+7D05) and 红 (U+7EA2) got separate code points in the PRC's text encoding standards bodies so Chinese-language documents could use both versions. The two variants received distinct code points in Unicode as well.

The case of the radical 艸 (U+8278) proves how arbitrary the state of affairs is. When used to compose characters like 草 (U+8349), the radical was placed at the top, but had two different forms. Traditional Chinese and Korean use a four-stroke version. At the top of 草 should be something that looks like two plus signs (⺿). Simplified Chinese, Kyūjitai Japanese and Shinjitai Japanese use a three-stroke version, like two plus signs sharing their horizontal strokes (⺾, i.e. 草). The PRC's text encoding bodies did not encode the two variants differently. The fact that almost every other change brought about by the PRC, no matter how minor, did warrant its own code point suggests that this exception may have been unintentional. Unicode copied the existing standards as is, preserving such irregularities.

The Unicode Consortium has recognized errors in other instances. The myriad Unicode blocks for CJK Han Ideographs have redundancies in original standards, redundancies brought about by flawed importation of the original standards, as well as accidental mergers that are later corrected, providing precedent for dis-unifying characters.

For native speakers, variants can be unintelligible or be unacceptable in educated contexts. English speakers may understand a handwritten note saying "4P5 kg" as "495 kg", but writing the nine backwards (so it looks like a "P") can be jarring and would be considered incorrect in any school. Likewise, to users of one CJK language reading a document with "foreign" glyphs: variants of 骨 can appear as mirror images, 者 can be missing a stroke/have an extraneous stroke, and 令 may be unreadable to Non-Japanese people. (In Japan, both variants are accepted).

Examples of some non-unified Han ideographs
In some cases, often where the changes are the most striking, Unicode has encoded variant characters, making it unnecessary to switch between fonts or  attributes. However, some variants with arguably minimal differences get distinct codepoints, and not every variant with arguably substantial changes gets a unique codepoint. As an example, take a character such as 入 (U+5165), for which the only way to display the variants is to change font (or  attribute) as described in the previous table. On the other hand, for 內 (U+5167), the variant of 内 (U+5185) gets a unique codepoint. For some characters, like 兌/兑 (U+514C/U+5151), either method can be used to display the different glyphs. In the following table, each row compares variants that have been assigned different code points. For brevity, note that shinjitai variants with different components will usually (and unsurprisingly) take unique codepoints (e.g., 氣/気). They will not appear here nor will the simplified Chinese characters that take consistently simplified radical components (e.g., 紅/红, 語/语). This list is not exhaustive.

Ideographic Variation Database (IVD)
In order to resolve issues brought by Han unification, a Unicode Technical Standard known as the Unicode Ideographic Variation Database have been created to resolve the problem of specifying specific glyph in plain text environment. By registering glyph collections into the Ideographic Variation Database (IVD), it is possible to use Ideographic Variation Selectors to form Ideographic Variation Sequence (IVS) to specify or restrict the appropriate glyph in text processing in a Unicode environment.

Unicode ranges
Ideographic characters assigned by Unicode appear in the following blocks:

 * CJK Unified Ideographs (4E00–9FFF) (Otherwise known as URO, abbreviation of Unified Repertoire and Ordering)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A (3400–4DBF)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B (20000–2A6DF)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C (2A700–2B73F)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension D (2B740–2B81F)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E (2B820–2CEAF)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F (2CEB0–2EBEF)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G (30000–3134F)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension H (31350–323AF)
 * CJK Unified Ideographs Extension I (2EBF0–2EE5F)
 * CJK Compatibility Ideographs (F900–FAFF) (the twelve characters at FA0E, FA0F, FA11, FA13, FA14, FA1F, FA21, FA23, FA24, FA27, FA28 and FA29 are actually "unified ideographs" not "compatibility ideographs")

Unicode includes support of CJKV radicals, strokes, punctuation, marks and symbols in the following blocks:
 * CJK Radicals Supplement (2E80–2EFF)
 * CJK Strokes (31C0–31EF)
 * CJK Symbols and Punctuation (3000–303F)
 * Ideographic Description Characters (2FF0–2FFF)

Additional compatibility (discouraged use) characters appear in these blocks: These compatibility characters (excluding the twelve unified ideographs in the CJK Compatibility Ideographs block) are included for compatibility with legacy text handling systems and other legacy character sets. They include forms of characters for vertical text layout and rich text characters that Unicode recommends handling through other means.
 * CJK Compatibility (3300–33FF)
 * CJK Compatibility Forms (FE30–FE4F)
 * CJK Compatibility Ideographs (F900–FAFF)
 * CJK Compatibility Ideographs Supplement (2F800–2FA1F)
 * Enclosed CJK Letters and Months (3200–32FF)
 * Enclosed Ideographic Supplement (1F200–1F2FF)
 * Kangxi Radicals (2F00–2FDF)

International Ideographs Core
The International Ideographs Core (IICore) is a subset of 9810 ideographs derived from the CJK Unified Ideographs tables, designed to be implemented in devices with limited memory, input/output capability, and/or applications where the use of the complete ISO 10646 ideograph repertoire is not feasible. There are 9810 characters in the current standard.

Unihan database files
The Unihan project has always made an effort to make available their build database.

The libUnihan project provides a normalized SQLite Unihan database and corresponding C library. All tables in this database are in fifth normal form. libUnihan is released under the LGPL, while its database, UnihanDb, is released under the MIT License.

title: Han unification


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São Paulo FC

São Paulo Futebol Clube is a professional football club in the Morumbi district of São Paulo, Brazil. It plays in Campeonato Paulista, São Paulo's premier state league and Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, the top tier of Brazilian football. Despite being primarily a football club, São Paulo competes in a wide variety of sports. Its home ground is the multipurpose 72,039-seater MorumBIS Stadium, the biggest private-owned field in Brazil. São Paulo is Brazil’s biggest worldwide champion and also one of the only two clubs that have never been relegated from the top division, the other being Flamengo.

Founded in 1930 as merge between Club Athletico Paulistano and  Associação Atlética das Palmeiras, the club has used its traditional home kit of a white shirt with two horizontal stripes (one red and one black), white shorts, and white socks since its inception, the collor choice was made in honour of its parent-clubs primary collors, and also to represent the collors of the state of São Paulo. Although its main affiliation is with the state and city where it was founded, São Paulo is a national team and the third best-supported club in Brazil, with over 22 million supporters, covering around 9.9% of its population. Their supporters are called São-paulinos and are often nicknamed Torcida que conduz (Supporters who lead), due to their importance in maintaining São Paulo’s long lasting relevance in South America’s football. São Paulo ranked fifth in Brazil with a market value of R$ 2.214 billion in 2023.

São Paulo is one of the most successful teams in Brazil with 56 official titles, that includes 24 state titles, 12 inter-state titles, 6 Campeonato Brasileiro titles, 1 Copa do Brasil title, 1 Supercopa do Brasil title, 3 Copa Libertadores titles, 1 Copa Sudamericana, 1 Supercopa Libertadores, 1 Copa CONMEBOL, 1 Copa Masters CONMEBOL, 2 Recopa Sudamericanas, 2 Intercontinental Cup and 1 FIFA Club World Cup. It is the only club in the country to have won all available titles, earning the nickname “Champions of Everything”, an honour achieved after winning the 2024 Supercopa do Brasil.

All five FIFA World Cups won by Brazil contained at least one São Paulo player, an honour shared with cross-city rivals Palmeiras.

1930–1934: Origins: "São Paulo da Floresta" ("São Paulo of the Forest")

The São Paulo Futebol Clube was founded on 25 January 1930 by 60 former officials, players, members, and friends of the football clubs Club Athletico Paulistano and Associação Atlética das Palmeiras of São Paulo. Club Athletico Paulistano, founded in 1900 and one of the oldest clubs in town and 11-time champions of São Paulo, abandoned football due to the professionalization of the sport. Associação Atlética das Palmeiras, founded in 1902 and three-time champions of São Paulo, intended after the end of the season 1929 to set up a professional team, but failed to do so.

The jerseys of the new club were derived from Associação Atlética das Palmeiras, which were white and sported a black ring across the chest. To the black-and-white of Associação Atlética das Palmeiras was added the red-and-white of Club Athletico Paulistano, and the ring became red, white, and black.

The Club Athletico Paulistano brought to the union star players Arthur Friedenreich and Araken Patusca. Associação Atlética das Palmeiras' contribution was the stadium Estádio da Floresta, generally known as Chácara da Floresta.

Internal arguments and turmoil led to financial problems. The club merged with Clube de Regatas Tietê, another sports club from the town, and the football department was disbanded on 14 May 1935.

1935–1939: The rebirth of São Paulo FC
Just after the merger with Tietê, the founders and re-founders created the Grêmio Tricolor, which formed Clube Atlético São Paulo on 4 June 1935, and, finally, São Paulo Futebol Clube on 16 December of the same year.

The new club's first game was against Portuguesa Santista on 25 January 1936. The match was almost cancelled, owing to the city's anniversary, but Porphyrio da Paz, the football director and composer of the club's anthem, obtained permission from the Board of Education Office for the game to continue.

Another merger occurred in 1938, this time with Clube Atlético Estudantes Paulista, from the neighborhood of Moóca, and the club finished as runners-up in the Campeonato Paulista.

1940–1950: "The Steam Roller"
In 1940, when the Estádio do Pacaembu was inaugurated, a new era began in São Paulo state football. São Paulo Futebol Clube finished as runners-up once again in the Campeonato Paulista in 1941, and a year later the club paid 200 and a year later the club paid 200 contos de réis (equivalent to approximately R$162,000 today) to acquire Leônidas from Flamengo. During this period, São Paulo also acquired the Argentinian António Sastre and Brazilians Noronha, José Carlos Bauer, Zezé Procópio, Luizinho, Rui and Teixeirinha. With these new additions, Tricolor became known as the Steam Roller, winning the Paulista championship five times, in 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948 and 1949. The club sold its Canindé training ground to Portuguesa to raise money for their new stadium, the Estádio do Morumbi, for which construction began in 1952.

1951–1957: The dry spell
The run of success of the 1940s, came to an end in the early 1950s, and the club only won two state championships in the new decade, in 1953 and 1957. The 1957 championship was won with the help of the 35-year-old Brazilian international Zizinho, and Hungarian manager Béla Guttmann, both of them becoming idols. Guttmann took charge of the team in 1957 and won the São Paulo State Championship that year. While in Brazil he helped popularise the 4–2–4 formation, which was subsequently used by Brazil as they won the 1958 FIFA World Cup.

In the years that followed, the club struggled to compete with the rise of Pelé and his club, Santos. With the construction of the Morumbi stadium still ongoing, São Paulo entered its longest period without a title in its history, which was to last 13 years.

1958–1969: Just the stadium
Since São Paulo's budget planning was focused on the Estádio do Morumbi construction rather than the signing of new players, few expensive players were bought during the 1960s, although the club did acquire Brazilian internationals Roberto Dias and Jurandir. In 1960, the Estádio do Morumbi was inaugurated, named after the late Cícero Pompeu de Toledo, the club's chairman during most of the stadium construction. One of the few happy moments for the fans during this period was the 1963 Paulista Championship 4–1 victory against Pelé's Santos.

1970–1979: Campeonato Brasileiro (Brazilian Championship)
In 1970, the Estádio do Morumbi was finally completed and the club purchased Gérson from Botafogo, Uruguayan midfielder Pedro Rocha from Peñarol and striker Toninho Guerreiro from Santos. The club was managed by Zezé Moreira, who was the manager of Brazil at the World Cup in 1954, and won the Paulista Championship after beating Guarani 2–1 in the Campinas a week before the end of the competition. In 1971, the club beat Palmeiras 1–0 with a goal from Toninho Guerreiro in the final to capture another state title. That year saw the inaugural Campeonato Brasileiro, with the club finishing as runners-up to Atlético Mineiro, managed by Telê Santana.

In the following years, São Paulo and Palmeiras gradually overtook Pelé's Santos and Corinthians as the dominant club sides in São Paulo state. In 1972, Palmeiras won the state championship title, only one point ahead of São Paulo, and the following year the clubs finished in the same positions in the Brazilian Championship. In 1974, São Paulo took part in the Copa Libertadores losing in the final to Independiente in a replay.

In 1975, former goalkeeper José Poy took over as manager, and São Paulo won the Paulista Championship after defeating Portuguesa in a penalty shoot-out.

Valdir Peres, Chicão, Serginho Chulapa and Zé Sérgio were the club's most influential players when São Paulo finally secured the Brazilian Championship for the first time in 1977 following a penalty shoot-out victory over Atlético Mineiro at the Mineirão. However, they failed to win another trophy until the reclaimed the Paulista Championship in 1980.

São Paulo FC Fregays Of The Sport Club Corinthians Paulista ...

The 1980s: Tricolor decade
In the 1980s, São Paulo won four Paulista and one Brazilian titles, helped by the impressive central defensive pair of Oscar and Dario Pereyra. 1980 and 1981, the club won the Paulista Championship in successive seasons for the first time since the 1940s.

In 1985, the head coach Cilinho introduced to the world the Menudos of Morumbi, a team that included Paulo Silas, Müller and Sidney, and the club once again won the Paulista Championship. The main striker was Careca, a centre-forward who also played for Brazil in the 1986 FIFA World Cup. The midfield featured Falcão, brought in from Italian club Roma and becoming a big part in winning the Campeonato Paulista in 1985. In 1986, manager Pepe led the club to its second Brazilian Championship title, defeating Guarani in a penalty shoot-out. In 1987, Dario Pereyra left the club, but in that year the Menudos team won its last title, another Paulista title. The so-called Tricolor Decade ended with the 1989 Paulista Championship title and a second-place finish in the Brazilian Championship, when São Paulo lost to Vasco da Gama in the final match.

1990–1995: The Telê Era: Libertadores and Intercontinental Cups
In 1990, after a poor start to the campaign in Championship Paulista, Telê Santana was hired as the club's coach, and São Paulo went on to finish runners-up in the Brazilian Championship. In 1991, Santana won his first title after winning the Paulista championship.

In 1991, São Paulo won the Brazilian championship after beating Carlos Alberto Parreira's Bragantino, and the club began a period of consistent achievement both nationally and internationally. The following year they reached the Copa Libertadores final, where they faced Newell's Old Boys of Argentina. São Paulo lost the first leg 1–0, but reversed the scoreline in the second leg in Brazil, and then won the competition in the penalty shoot-out to take the title for the first time.

In the same year, in Tokyo the club won its first Intercontinental Cup, beating Johan Cruyff's Barcelona 2–1. After returning to Brazil, the club beat Palmeiras 2–1 to win its 18th state championship title.

In 1993, São Paulo retained the Copa Libertadores, beating Universidad Católica of Chile in the finals 5–3 on aggregate, including a 5–1 first leg win. After the competition, influential midfielder Raí left the club. The Copa Libertadores win allowed the club to play the Recopa Sudamericana that year, beating 1992 Supercopa Libertadores winners and fellow Brazilian side Cruzeiro. The club also won the 1993 Supercopa Libertadores, beating Flamengo on penalties in the final. The Supercopa Libertadores title meant the club has completed an unprecedented CONMEBOL treble (Copa Libertadores, Recopa Sudamericana, Supercopa Libertadores).

São Paulo was able to defend its Intercontinental Cup title again, beating Fabio Capello's Milan 3–2. Müller scored the winning goal in the 86th minute of the match, from an assist by Toninho Cerezo. This meant the club had completed a quadruple.

In 1994, the club reached the Copa Libertadores finals for the third year in a row, and faced Argentina's Vélez Sársfield. On this occasion they lost on penalties to the Argentine side at the Morumbi stadium. But by the end of this year, São Paulo won the Copa CONMEBOL, defeating Peñarol of Uruguay in the final.

1996–2004: Post-Telê years

At the beginning of 1996, owing to health issues, Telê Santana left São Paulo, ending the club's golden era. Between 1995 and 2004, the club had fourteen managers. Among the most notable titles during those ten years were the 2000 Paulista Championship and the club's first Rio-São Paulo Tournament title in 2001. Rogério Ceni, Júlio Baptista, Luís Fabiano and Kaká were the club's stars. Raí briefly returned to the club between 1998 and 2000, and with him, the club won the Paulista Championship twice, in 1998 and 2000, after beating Corinthians and Santos, respectively. In 2004 São Paulo were back in the Copa Libertadores and reached the semi-finals before being eliminated by underdogs Once Caldas from Colombia. At the end of that year, Émerson Leão was hired as the club's coach.

In 2003, São Paulo made a deal with Spanish amateur side Santangelo Club Aficionado that resulted in the Spanish club changing its name to São Paulo Madrid.

2005–2009: Three Brazilian Championships, Libertadores and FIFA Club World Cup
In 2005, with Leão as the club's manager, São Paulo won the Paulista Championship. Leão, however, would soon leave the club with Paulo Autuori, former manager of the Peru national team, hired to replace him. São Paulo won the Libertadores Cup for the third time, beating another Brazilian side, Atlético Paranaense, in the final. Atlético switched the first leg of the final to Estádio Beira-Rio, Porto Alegre, their own ground not having sufficient capacity for a final, and the match ended in a 1–1 draw. In the second leg, at the Morumbi, São Paulo won 4–0 to become the first Brazilian club to win three Copa Libertadores titles.

In December 2005, São Paulo competed in the FIFA Club World Championship in Japan. After beating Saudi Arabia's Al-Ittihad 3–2, they faced European champions Liverpool in the final. A 1–0 victory over the English team gave São Paulo its third intercontinental title. The single goal was scored by Mineiro in the first half of the match. Other players in that year's squad included centre-back Diego Lugano, full-back Cicinho, forward Amoroso, and the record-breaking goalkeeper Rogério Ceni, who was selected Man of the Match at the FIFA Club World Championship title match, as well as the tournament's MVP.

After the success of the 2005 season, Paulo Autuori left the team to coach Kashima Antlers in the J. League. Muricy Ramalho was signed up as the new coach, having led Internacional to the runners-up position in the 2005 Brazilian Championship. In his first tournament as a manager, Ramalho reached second place in the Paulista Championship, losing to Santos by one point. São Paulo reached the final of the 2006 Copa Libertadores, but lost 4–3 on aggregate to Brazilian rivals Internacional. However, they went on to win their fourth Campeonato Brasileiro trophy, becoming the first team to become national champions in the new league system format.

After being eliminated from the Copa Libertadores round of 16 to Grêmio in 2007, São Paulo won the Brazilian title for the second year in a row, fifteen points ahead of second-placed Santos. They won the title for the third season running in 2008 season, overturning an 11-point deficit behind Grêmio in the second half, to win its sixth league title. Manager Muricy Ramalho was the first manager to win three league titles in a row with the same team.

Despite this feat, Muricy was sacked the following year after São Paulo was eliminated in the 2009 Copa Libertadores quarter-finals to Cruzeiro, its fourth consecutive elimination to a Brazilian side. Ricardo Gomes took over as manager. The club was very close to winning the league for the fourth time in a row, however, after struggling in the final 4 games, they ended up finishing in third.

2010–2020: Copa Sudamericana and a tough period
In 2010 São Paulo lost once again to Internacional in the 2010 Copa Libertadores, this time in the semifinals, ending Ricardo Gomes' spell as manager. The club finished ninth in the league, not qualifying for the international competition for the first time since 2003.

In 2011, the club signed Rivaldo and brought back Luís Fabiano for a club-record €7.6 million from Sevilla. Goalkeeper Rogério Ceni, meanwhile, scored his 100th career goal, against Corinthians in the Campeonato Paulista. Despite these events, it was another very disappointing season, finishing sixth in the league and failing to qualify for the Libertadores once again.

In research conducted by Brazilian sports website GloboEsporte.com, São Paulo, during the eight years between 2003 and 2011, were just the second Brazilian club to earn more money than losses in the transfer market – Tricolor paulista received R$287 million, behind only Internacional, which earned R$289 million.

In 2012, São Paulo won the Copa Sudamericana (its only title in the 2010 decade) and qualified for next season's Libertadores, finishing fourth in the league under Ney Franco. However, after that season, the club hit a second massive dry spell and struggled to regain its dominance in the Brazilian and South American stage.

For the 2013 season, after seven years wearing kits produced by Reebok, São Paulo signed with Brazilian brand Penalty. The contract was valid until 2015 and the club earned R$35 million per year. This contract was the second-most lucrative kit deal in Brazil, just exceeded by Flamengo and Adidas' deal of R$38 million. In May 2015 São Paulo presented its new kits, made by Under Armour. In 2018 the team became sponsored by Adidas.

In 2014, 2018 and 2020 the club was one of the contenders for the national league title, but did not win it; São Paulo finished runners-up in 2014, fifth in 2018, and fourth in 2020, the last two being marked by massives drops of form in the second half. In contrast to this, they struggled hard in 2013 and 2017, fighting (and eventually saving themselves) against relegation to the second tier.

Continentally, in 2016 the club reached the semi-finals of the Copa Libertadores, losing to Atlético Nacional.

During the 2010s, São Paulo did not win a single Campeonato Paulista title, the first time since the 1960s.

2021–present: Champions of Everything
In 2021, São Paulo finally ended its second biggest dry spell in its history (8 years); under new manager Hernán Crespo, the club defeated Palmeiras at the Campeonato Paulista finals, winning the competition for the first time since 2005. However, after a continuing sequence of poor results, which included quarter-final exits in the Copa Libertadores and in the Copa do Brasil to Palmeiras and Fortaleza, respectively, Crespo was sacked in October, with the club being involved in another relegation battle at the Campeonato Brasileiro, eventually finishing 13th, after Crespo was replaced by club legend Rogério Ceni in his second managerial spell.

In 2022, under Ceni, the club reached once again the Campeonato Paulista finals, reaching their third state finals in four years; a progress, since São Paulo didn't reach the state finals between 2007 (when the knock-out second phase was re-established) and 2018. São Paulo ended the competition as runners-up to Palmeiras; despite winning the first leg 3–1 at the Morumbi, they suffered a heavy 4–0 comeback defeat at Allianz Parque. Also in 2022, the club reached the semifinals of the 2022 Copa do Brasil, being eliminated by eventual winners Flamengo, and suffered another final defeat, this time in the Copa Sudamericana, losing to Ecuadorian side Independiente del Valle in Córdoba, Argentina; It was the first time since 2005 the club reached two finals in the same year. In the Campeonato Brasileiro, however, São Paulo finished in 9th place, one position outside Copa Libertadores qualification.

In 2023, just like six years before, Rogério Ceni was sacked and replaced by Dorival Júnior after getting eliminated in the quarter-final of the Campeonato Paulista to underdogs and eventual runners-up Água Santa. Under the guidance of Dorival, São Paulo won its first Copa do Brasil title in a memorable run, defeating along the way Ituano, Sport Recife and, most notably, city rivals Palmeiras and Corinthians and defending champions Flamengo in the finals, winning the first leg 1–0 in the Maracanã and drawing 1–1 at the second leg in the Morumbi. The club finished 11th in the Campeonato Brasileiro and reached the quarter-finals of the Copa Sudamericana, being eliminated by eventual champions L.D.U. Quito.

After a successful year, Dorival Júnior left São Paulo in January 2024 to manage the Brazil national team; it was the third time the club lost their manager to a national team in more than eight years (the others being Juan Carlos Osorio to Mexico in 2015 and in the following year, Edgardo Bauza to Argentina). Juventude manager Thiago Carpini was appointed as Dorival's replacement, guiding the club to the 2024 Supercopa Rei defeating Palmeiras on penalties at the Mineirão in Belo Horizonte.

Colors and badge

When the Club Athletico Paulistano and the Associação Atlética das Palmeiras merged, their colours (red and white for CA Paulistano and black and white for AA das Palmeiras) were inherited by São Paulo. The colours match those of São Paulo's state flag, and also represents the three main races that lived in Brazil during that period: the Native Brazilians (represented by the red), the White Brazilians (represented by the white) and the Afro-Brazilians (represented by the black).

The club's home kit is a white shirt, with two horizontal stripes at chest level, the upper one red and the lower one black, and the badge in the centre of the chest; the shorts and socks are white. The away kit consists of a shirt with red, white and black vertical stripes, black shorts and black socks.

The badge, representing a heart with five points, consists of a shield with a black rectangle in the upper section bearing the initials SPFC in white; below the rectangle there's a red, white and black triangle. It was designed by the german graphic designer Walter Ostrich and one of the founders, Firmiano de Morais Pinto Filho. The badge also has five stars, two gold and three red ones: the gold ones denote Adhemar Ferreira da Silva's World and Olympic records at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki and at the 1955 Pan American Games in Mexico City; the red ones represent each of the two Intercontinental Cups and the FIFA Club World Cup won by the club.

Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
Although São Paulo's kit has been supplied by several different manufacturers, the club's traditional home and away kit suffered very few changes and variations throughout the years, making it one the most recognizable kits in Brazil.

Stadium

São Paulo's iconic 72,039 seater stadium is officially named Estádio Cícero Pompeu de Toledo (Cicero Pompeu de Toledo Stadium) and commonly known by the nickname Estádio do Morumbi (Morumbi Stadium). It was designed by architect Vilanova Artigas and it’s considered a monument in Brazilian modernism. Due to its significant cultural and architectural importance, São Paulo‘s administration chose to include the stadium in its cultural preservation list, effectively eliminating any chance of modification and modernization in the stadium.

MorumBIS has been on the list since 2018, but after the signature of a multi-million refurbishment deal with WTorre, São Paulo’s prefecture agreed to withdraw the stadium’s name for the list, paving the way for a R$800 million modernization to be complete by 2030.

In late 2023, Mondelez bought the Naming rights to the stadium for a record R$25 million a year, on a 5-year contract, temporarily changing the stadium’s name to  MorumBIS . Also in 2023, Live Nation Entertainment signed a R$ 60 million 5-year deal with the club for concerts and events in the Stadium, the deal being the most expensive of its kind.

The first game played at the stadium was on 2 October 1960, when São Paulo win 1–0 in a friendly match against Sporting Club from Portugal. It was inaugurated in with a maximum sitting capacity of 120,000 people, but now its maximum capacity is 72,039 seats.

The club also owns two training grounds, one named Centro de Treinamento Frederico Antônio Germano Menzen (Frederico Antônio Germano Menzen Training Center), nicknamed Centro de Treinamento (CT) da Barra Funda (Barra Funda's Training Center), which is used mostly by the professional team. The other is the Centro de Formação de Atletas Presidente Laudo Natel (President Laudo Natel Athletes Formation Center), nicknamed Centro de Treinamento (CT) de Cotia (Cotia's Training Center), which is used by the youth teams.

Retired numbers

 * 01 – 🇧🇷 Rogério Ceni, Goalkeeper (1990–2015)

Notable players
The most famous and beloved players that have played for the club since its foundation in 1930.

• Adílson

• 🇦🇷 Gustavo Albella

• Alex Silva

• Alfredo Ramos

• Aloísio Chulapa

• Márcio Amoroso

• Antônio Carlos Zago

• Araken Patusca

• Arlindo

• Barthô

• Bauer

• Juliano Belletti

• Hilderaldo Bellini

• Bernardo

• Humberlito Borges

• Breno

• Cafu

• Canhoteiro

• Careca

• Chicão

• Cicinho

• Dagoberto

• Danilo

• Darío Pereyra

• Nílton de Sordi

• Denílson

• Diego Lugano

• Dinho

• Dino Sani

• Elivélton

• Fabão

• Paulo Roberto Falcão

• Pablo Forlán

• França

• Friaça

• Arthur Friedenreich

• Gérson

• Getúlio

• Gilberto Sorriso

• Gilmar Rinaldi

• Gino Orlando

• Hernanes

• Hugo

• Jorge Wagner

• Josué

• Juninho

• Júnior

• Jurandir

• Kaká

• King

• Leonardo Araújo

• Leônidas da Silva

• Lucas Moura

• Luís Fabiano

• Luisinho

• Macedo

• Mário Sérgio

• Maurinho

• Mauro Ramos

• Mineiro

• Miranda

• Mirandinha

• Müller

• Nelsinho

• Noronha

• Oscar Bernardi

• Palhinha

• Paraná

• Pedro Rocha

• Pintado

• Pita

• 🇦🇷 José Poy

• Raí

• Remo Januzzi

• Renato

• 🇦🇷 Armando Renganeschi

• Riberto

• Ricardo Rocha

• Richarlyson

• Roberto Dias

• Rogério Ceni

• Ronaldão

• Ronaldo Luiz

• Rui Campos

• 🇦🇷 Antonio Sastre

• Serginho

• Serginho Chulapa

• Paulo Silas

• Williamis Souza

• Teodoro

• Teixeirinha

• Terto

• Toninho Cerezo

• Toninho Guerreiro

• Válber

• Waldemar de Brito

• Waldir Peres

• Alberto Zarzur

• Zé Sérgio

• Zé Teodoro

• Zetti

• Zizinho

São Paulo vs. Corinthians
The game between these clubs is also known as "Majestoso", a name coined by Thomas Mazzoni. The first "Majestoso" occurred on 25 May 1930. The fixture has seen 110 wins for São Paulo, 131 wins for Corinthians and 114 draws.

São Paulo vs. Palmeiras

This fixture is nicknamed the "Choque Rei", and has seen 114 wins by São Paulo, 113 wins by Palmeiras and 110 draws.

São Paulo vs. Santos

Also known as "San-São", this fixture was first played in 1936. Since then, São Paulo have won it 137 times, Santos 106, and there have been 75 draws.

Honours
São Paulo FC is one of the most successful clubs in Brazil, having won a total of 36 domestic honours, in addition to their 12 international successes. It is the Brazilian club with the most international titles. By winning the 2024 Supercopa do Brasil, São Paulo became the first Brazilian club to win all available trophies.

Major competitions Undefeated title

Other competitions

 * Taça dos Campeões Estaduais Rio–São Paulo: (11) 1931, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1954, 1958, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1987
 * Torneio Início Paulista (3): 1932, 1940, 1945
 * Torneio dos Cinco Clubes (1): 1934
 * Taça Cidade de São Paulo (1): 1944
 * Torneio Prefeito Lineu Prestes (1): 1950
 * Taça Armando Arruda Pereira (1): 1952
 * Small Club World Cup (2): 1955, 1963
 * Torneio Roberto Gomes Pedrosa (1): 1956
 * Taça Charles Miller (1): 1956
 * Taça Piratininga (4): 1967, 1969, 1970, 1971
 * Trofeo Colombino (1): 1969
 * Torneio Nunes Freire (1): 1976
 * Ciutat de Barcelona Trophy (2): 1991, 1992
 * Ramón de Carranza Trophy (1): 1992
 * Teresa Herrera Trophy (1): 1992
 * Trofeo Bortolotti (1): 1995
 * Torneio Rei Dadá (1): 1995
 * Copa dos Campeões Mundiais (2): 1995, 1996
 * Copa Euro-América (1): 1999
 * Torneio Constantino Cury (1): 2000
 * Eusébio Cup (1): 2013
 * Florida Cup (1): 2017
 * Campeonato Paulista de Aspirantes (18): 1933 (APEA), 1938, 1940, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1958 (Extra), 1960, 1962, 1976, 1993, 1995

Runners-up

 * Copa Libertadores (3): 1974, 1994, 2006
 * Supercopa Libertadores (1): 1997
 * Copa Sudamericana (1): 2022
 * Recopa Sudamericana (2): 2006, 2013
 * Copa de Oro (2): 1995, 1996
 * Suruga Bank Cup (1): 2013
 * Campeonato Brasileiro (6): 1971, 1973, 1981, 1989, 1990, 2014
 * Copa do Brasil (1): 2000
 * Copa dos Campeões da Copa Brasil (1): 1978
 * Copa dos Campeões (1): 2001
 * Torneio Rio – São Paulo (5): 1933, 1962, 1966, 1998, 2002
 * Campeonato Paulista de Futebol (25): 1930, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1938, 1941, 1944, 1950, 1952, 1956, 1958, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2006, 2019, 2022

Campeonato Brasileiro Série A record

 * Torneio Roberto Gomes Pedrosa

 * Campeonato Brasileiro

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: São Paulo FC